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 ((ild.'IIK
 
 FAEEOWS 
 
 llLITAEY ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 A DICTIONAIIV OF MILITARY KNOWLEDGE 
 
 WITH MAPS AND ABOUT THREE THOUSAND WOOD ENGRAVINGS 
 
 BY 
 
 EDWARD S. FARROW, U. S. Army, 
 
 LATE ASSISTANT INSTRUCTOR OF TACTICS AT THE UNITED STATES MILITARY ACADEMY, 
 
 ■m:ST POINT. NEW YORK 
 
 "■^Vhat Is obvious Is not always known, and what Is known Is not alwaj's present."— JOHSSOX. 
 
 COMPLETE IN THREE VOLUMES. VOLUME II. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR, 
 
 240 BROADWAY. 
 
 1885.
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, In the year 1884, 
 
 Bt EDWARD S. FARKOW, 
 
 Assistant IssTRrcTOB op Tactics at West Point, 
 
 In the oflSce of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
 
 
 DEDICATED 
 
 TO THE 
 
 NATIONAL GUARDS OF AMERICA 
 
 %\\ Appreciation of tl)civ (gutcvprisc nnb llnlor 
 
 AND AS A TRIBUTE OF HOMAGE 
 
 TO 
 
 GALLANT SOLDIERS.
 
 PREFATOliY NOTICE. 
 
 TiiK tlosigu of this work is tliat of a LimtART of Military Kxowxkdge for the 
 People — not a mere collection of elaborate treatises in alplKilntical (n-iicr, Imt a work to 
 he readily consulted as a Dictionary on every military subject on which jicople generally 
 require some distinct information — no article being longer than is absolutely necessary. 
 The several topics are not handled with a view to the technical instruction of those who 
 have to make a special study of particular branches of military knowledge or art. The 
 information given may bo characterized in many instances as non-professional, embracing 
 those points of the several subjects which every intelligent man or woman may have occa- 
 sion to speak or think about. At the same time every effort is made that the statements, 
 so far as they go, shall be precise and scientifically accurate. 
 
 Although about 30,000 subjects have been compiled from the various publications and 
 records of the War Department, Foreign War Offices, and Military Works of reference, 
 more than 5000 original articles have been prepared ])y specialists in America and abroad. 
 While the Tactics, Ordnance, Gun Machinery, Implements, and Equipments of all ages 
 and of all military powers have been fully described and illustrated under appropriate head- 
 ings, a complete system of cross-references enables the military student to quickly locate 
 several hundred articles pertaining to the general subject under investigation. Thus, 
 under the article Magazine Gun will be found the following references: Boch, Buffi,ngton, 
 Bullard, Burf/css, Burton, Chafee-liee,ee, Clemmons, Colt, Dean, Elliott, Franklin, Hunt, 
 Lee, Letcis-liiee, Miller, Reminx/ton, Russell, Spencer-Lee, Sprinejfidd-Jones, Tiesing, 
 Trabue, Whitney, and Winchester Magazine Guns. Under each of these articles are refer- 
 ences to articles describing and illustrating all other arms of the respective classes. The 
 Compiler has made special effort to set forth in detail the numerous decisions, rendered by 
 the War Department and Tactical Department at West Point, on the tactical points raised 
 and submitted from time to time by- the Officers of the Army and National Guard. The 
 descriptions and illustrations of more than 500 varieties of Gun Machinery, Steam Hammers, 
 Cranes, etc., constitute a novel feature of the work to be appreciated by those wishing to 
 investigate the subjects of construction, testing, etc. 
 
 The origin.al plan has been strictly adhered to throughout; and if, as the work pro- 
 ceeded, there has been any change in the method or quality of the execution, it may at 
 least be affirmed that the change has not been for the worse. After some experience, it
 
 C PREFATORY NOTICE. 
 
 became easier to find the person specially qualified to write a particular kind of article, and 
 thus the circle of contributors became widened, and the distribution of the work moi-e special 
 ized. It was also seen to be desirable, in regard to certain classes of subjects, to admit a 
 rather amjjler selection of heads. This has been effected without increasing the scale of 
 the work, not so much by less full treatment of the subjects, as by increased care in con- 
 densing the statements and .omitting everything superfluous. A great quantity of matter 
 l^ertaining to Foreign Armies has been introduced in this work, so as to enable the military 
 student to compare the organization, arms, etc., of all armies with those of his own service. 
 The Encyclopedia contains also descriptions of ancient armor, and of arms, lately in use, 
 which have become obsolete, as it may be of some interest to follow the changes which 
 have taken place in the mode and means of fighting from the earliest period down to the 
 present time. The insertion of veterinary terms and of remedies for the common com- 
 plaints of horses will be found useful under conditions where a Veterinary Surgeon is not 
 available, as is often the case in detached parties of Cavalry. A description of all tools 
 and machines found commonly in workshops may prove acceptable to Departmental Officers 
 on their first joining Government Manufacturing Establishments. 
 
 Of the Sciences, the least adapted to encyclopedic treatment is Mathematics. All 
 terms of common occurrence in Gunnery, Reconnoissance, etc., however, have been intro- 
 duced, and a brief exposition of the subjects given, as far as could be done in an elemen. 
 tary way. Natural Philosophy has received ample attention, and all the leading doctrines 
 and facts of general interest will be found under their a])propriate heads, treated in a 
 popular way, and divested as far as possible of the technicalities of mathematics. Chem- 
 istry, some knowledge of which is becoming daily more indispensable in all departments of 
 military life, receives a comparatively large space. Prominence has been given to those 
 points of the subject that have either a direct practical militarj' bearing or a special scien- 
 tific interest. During the progress of the work, several changes in th-5 nomenclature and 
 notation of the Science have come into general use; these have been duly noted under the 
 appropriate headings. The new and far-reaching doctrines of the Correlation of Forces 
 and the Conservation of Energy have produced vast changes in the nomenclature and 
 classification of the various sections of Military Physics; while the more complete investi- 
 gations into the phenomena and laws of light, heat, motion, and electricity have created 
 virtually new sections, which must find a place in any adequ.ate survey of scientific prog- 
 ress. Mechanical invention has, indeed, so kept pace with the progress of Military Science 
 and the Art of War, that in almost every department of Physics improved machines and 
 processes have to be described, as well as new discoveries and altered points of view. The 
 manufacture of gunpowder and high explosives is a signal instance of the extent to which 
 in our day scientific discovery is indebted to appropriate machinery and instruments of 
 observation and analysis. These' extensive changes in Physics involve corresponding 
 changes in tlie method of their exposition. The scientific department of the work is 
 consequently treated in .-ill its branches in the most effulgent manner, and over 1000 very- 
 fine engravings are used for the purpose of illustration. 
 
 True to its projected pl;in as a T^ihkart of Military Knowledge for the People, 
 this Encyclopedia will be found to be especially rich in notices of miscellaneous military 
 matters. Some of the subjects introduced might jierhaps be considered beneath the
 
 PUEFATOIIY NOTICE. 
 
 dignity of a book aH])iriiig to a more Bevcrcly scientific eliaraeter; Init all of tliem are, if 
 not instructive, at least curiouo or entertaining, and likely to occur in the course of reading 
 or conversation. During the progress of the work, the Compiler has received numerous 
 assurances from parents as to how higlily it was prized, even though only partly issued, l)y 
 their sons at Military Schools, as a repertory of the kind of things they are constantly in 
 search of and often puzzling tlieir elders about. This use of the Encyclopedia has been 
 steadily kept in view; and it is gratifying to learn that it is found efficiently to serve the 
 purpose intended. 
 
 In conclusion, the Compiler asks the indulgence of Military Critics wherever errors or 
 discrepancies have crept into tliis work, ;inil begs to acknowledge the valuable heli) ob- 
 tained from the works of many authors, both military and scientific, through the courtesy 
 of Messrs. John Wiley & Sons and Mr. D. Van Nostrand, publishers, and the assistance he 
 has received from various friends. To General Stephen V. Benet, Chief of Ordnance, 
 United States Army, he is especially indebted for courteous assistance 'in the preparation 
 of the work. To economize in space and to avoid crowding up the text, the name of the 
 author from whom information has been derived has not been inserted after each quotation; 
 but a list of all works which have been consultedj" and from which extractions have been 
 made, will be found at tlie commencement of each volume. 
 
 It is intended, with the view of meeting the changes which are constantly taking place 
 in the materiel of armies, new processes, military inventions, etc., to issue a Supplement at 
 cuitable intervals, containing all alterations and additions. 
 
 United States MrLiTARY Academy, 
 West Point, Neic York, 1865
 
 LIST OF WOEKS CONSULTED OR EXTRACTED FROxU 
 
 Aide-Mijmoire de I'Offlcier d'fitat-Major. M. de Eouvre. 
 Aide-Memoire to the Military Sciences. 
 Almanach de Gotha, 1876. 
 American Universal Cyclopedia. 
 
 Ammunition, Treatise on, 1874. Published by Enghsh au- 
 thority. 
 Analytical Digest of the Military Laws of the U. S. Scott. 
 Aperjus em quelques Details de la Guerre. Bugeaud. 
 Ai'chives, German Military. 
 Armies of Asia and Europe. Upton. 
 Arms and Anuoiu". Boutell. 
 
 Army and Navy Pension Laws. Mayo and Moulton. 
 Army Cu-culars. Published by the Enghsh War OfiSce. 
 Art and Science of War. Wheeler. 
 Artillerist 's Handbook of Reference. Well and Dalton. 
 Artillerist's Manual. Gibbon. 
 Artillerist's Jlanual, 11th eiUtion. Griffiths. 
 Artillery and Infantry. Kingsbury. 
 Artillery, Dictionary of. Cotty. 
 
 Artillery Exercises, Field, Changes in. in 1873. PMUpotts. 
 ArtiUery Institution Papers. 
 Artillery, Lectures on. Owen and Dames. 
 Artillery, Modem. Owen. 
 Artillery, Treatise on. Boxer. 
 Art of War. Graham. 
 
 Art of War. Joniini. 
 
 Astronomical Atlas. Mihier. 
 
 A Treatise on the Law of Evidence. Greenleat. 
 
 Baker's Elements of Mechanism. 
 
 Balfour's Encyclopedia of India. 
 
 Battles of the Revolution, Carrington. 
 
 Blue Books (Parliamentary). 
 
 Bourne on the Steam Engine. 
 
 Brande and Cox's Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art, 
 1875. 
 
 Campaign in Germany, 1866. Prussian Staff. 
 
 Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac. Swinton. 
 
 Cape's Mathematics. 
 
 Cavalry Manual. Ainslie. 
 
 Chambers's Encyclopedia. 
 
 Change of Materiel. Pubhshed by the English War Office. 
 
 Chemistry as applied to the Arts and Manufactures. Mus- 
 pratt. 
 
 Chemistry, Handbook of. Abel and Bloxam. 
 
 Chemistry, Manual of. O'Shaughiiessy. 
 
 Classical Dictionary. Smith. 
 
 Commentaries, with Notes. Blackstone. 
 
 Conferences du Ministre de la Guerre (France). 
 
 Conferences Mihtaires Beiges. 
 
 Construction of Dwelling-houses. 
 
 Consulate and the Empire. Thiers. 
 
 Courts-Martial. De Hart. 
 
 Courts-Martial. Macomb. 
 
 Cross' and Hetzel's Military Laws of the United States. 
 
 Cummer Steam Engine. 
 
 Customs of Service for Non-commissioned Officers and Sol- 
 diers of the Army. Kautz. 
 
 Customs of Service lor Officers of the Army. Kautz. 
 
 Defense of Military Outposts. Jebb. 
 
 De la Tactique des Trois Armes; Infanterie, Cavalerie, Artil- 
 lerie. Decker. 
 
 Dictionary, Handy, of Military Terms. Knollys. 
 
 Dictionary, Milit.iiry and Naval. Bum. 
 
 Dictionary, Military and Naval. .lames. 
 
 Dictionary of Art.s and Sciences. Francis. 
 
 Dictionary of Arts, Manuf.icturcs, and Mines. Ure. 
 
 Dictionary of Every Days Difficulties. Shilton. 
 Dicionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Smith. 
 Dictionary of Military Science. Campbell. 
 Dictionary of Science, Literatiu-e, and Art. Brande. 
 Dictionary of the Enghsh Language. Johnson. 
 Dictionary of the English Language. Nuttall. 
 Dictionaiy of the English Language. Smart. 
 Dictionary of the United States Army. Gardner. 
 Dictionary, Philosophical. Button, 
 Dictioimaire Mihtaire Portatif. Le Grand. 
 Dictionnaire Portatif et Kaisonne. Couturier. 
 Die Lehre Vom Neueren Festtmgskrieg. Riistow. 
 Dienst-Vorschrif ten der Konighch Preussischen Armee. "Von 
 
 Helldorff. 
 Digest of Decisions of Federal Comts. Peters. 
 Digest of Laws of the United States. Dunlop. 
 Digest of Laws of the United States. Gordon. 
 Digest of Military Laws. Mordecai. 
 
 Digest of Opmions of the Judge- Advocate General. Winthorp. 
 Electro-BaUistic Machines. Ben^'t. 
 Elementary Lectures on Military Law. Tulloch. 
 Elementary Principles of Fortification. Hyde. 
 Elements of International Law. Wbeaton. 
 Elements of Mihtary Arts and Sciences. Halleck. 
 Encyclopedia Britaimica 1 1875). 
 Encyclopedic Militaire et Maritime. 
 Field-book of the Revolution. Lossing. 
 Field Exercise and Evolutions of the Army. 
 Field Exercise (Enghsh), 1870. 
 
 Field Fortification: a Manual of Mihtary Sketching and Re- 
 connaissance. Pubhshed by English/ authority. 
 Field Fortification. Macaulay. 
 Field Fortifications. Mahan. 
 Field Fortifications. 'Wheeler. 
 Fortification and other Military Subjects as carried on at the 
 
 Royal Mihtary Academy, Woolwich. 
 Fortification. Ametti. 
 Frederick the Great. Carlyle. 
 French Revolution. Thiers. 
 Friend of All. Green. 
 Frontal Attack of Infantry. Laymann. 
 Geographic Phisique. Historique et Mihtaire. Lava, 
 Grand Mihtary Operations. Jomini. 
 Great Campaigns. King. 
 Grundzuge der Taktik der Drei Waffen, Infanterie, Kavallerie, 
 
 und Artillerie. Brandt. 
 Gunnery. Hyde. 
 Gunpowder. Badeley, Anderson, Goodenough, Smith, and 
 
 Morgan. 
 Gurley on Mathematical and Surveying Instruments. 
 Handbook for Field Service. Lefroy. 
 Handbook for Mihtary Artificers. 1875. Armstrong. 
 Handbook of Artillery. Roberts. 
 Handbook of Natural Philosopliy. Lardner. 
 Handbook of the Mechanical Arts. Bm-ns. 
 Heather on Mathematical Instruments. 
 Heavy ArtiUei*y Tactics. Tidball. 
 Heerwesemmd Infantericdienst der Koniglich Preussischen 
 
 Armee. Wity.l<.^ben. 
 Histoire et Tactique des Trois Armes, et plus Particulidrement 
 
 de TArtillarie de Campagne. Fav^'. 
 History of tlie Dress of the British Soldier. Luard. 
 History of the Peninsula War. Napier. 
 History of the Rebellion. Tenney. 
 Histxiry of the War in the Penmsula and in the South of 
 
 France. Nopicr.
 
 I,isr OK WORKS CONSULTKl) Olt EXTOACTED FROM. 
 
 9 
 
 Holtzapfters TurninK and Mechanical Manipulation. 
 
 How we any to (Jovcrn OiirKclvtJs. Fonljlunquu. 
 
 Imiiiin and llunuun Titiiber.s. Skinnier. 
 
 Inl'aiitry, Cavalry, and Arlillcry TacticB, United Statea Army. 
 
 lustructions for Arniit-s. IJhIkjt. 
 
 luKtructionH for Field Artillery. 
 
 luHtructious in Military Engineering. Publislied by Engllflh 
 authority. 
 
 Infitructions in the Duties of Cavalry reconuoftring an Enemy, 
 for tlie use ot Auxiliary Cavalry. 
 
 Instruments, Mathematical, Meteoroloplcal. etc. Queen. 
 
 Joniini's Treatise on (Jrainl Military opi.'rations, or a Critical 
 and Military History of the Wars of Fredericlt the Great. 
 Holahird. 
 
 Journals of the Royal United Service Institution, 
 
 Judge- Advocate and Recorder's Guide. Regan. 
 
 Knight's Mechanical Dictionary. 
 
 Kriegsfeuf^rwerkerei Zmn Gebraucli fiir die Konigljcb Preus- 
 sische Artillerie. Batii. 
 
 Kriegswiirterbuch. Loehr. 
 
 Law Dictionary. Bouvier. 
 
 Law of Nations. Vattel. 
 
 LC'gislation et Administration Militfiires. Ouillot. 
 
 Lessons of War from the (Jreat Masters. Soody. 
 
 Life of Napoleon. Jomini. 
 
 Life of the Duke of Marlborough. Coxe. 
 
 Manual for Engineer Troops. Duaue. 
 
 Manual for Rifle Practice. Wingate. 
 
 Manual of English Artillery Exercises, 1875. 
 
 Manual of Instructions for Testing the Defective Vision of 
 Soldiers. Longmore. 
 
 Manual of Mihtary Law. Pipon and Collier. 
 
 Manuel complet il I'Usage des Candidats au Grade d'Offlcier 
 d'lufanterie. Turhn. 
 
 Manuel d'Admiuistration et de Complabilite il I'usage des 
 Offlciers des Compagnies ou Escadron des Corps d'lufan- 
 terie et de Cavalerie. Ruffin. 
 
 Maunder's Treasury of Knowledge. 
 
 Maxims of War. Najioleon. 
 
 Mayhew on the Horsp. 
 
 Mechanic's Magazine. 
 
 M6moire sur divers Perfectionnements Militaires. Cavalli. 
 
 Memoirs. Sherman. 
 
 Method of Horsemanship. Baucher. 
 
 Mihtair Conversations- Lexikon. Von der LUhe. 
 
 Militaiy Bridges. CuUum. 
 
 Military Bridges. Haupt. 
 
 MiUtary Carriages. Close. 
 
 Military Carriages. Treatise on. Kemmis. 
 
 Military Catechism and Handbook. Walshe. 
 
 Military Commission in Europe. McClellan. 
 
 Military Dictionary. Duane. 
 
 Military Dictionary. Scott. 
 
 Military Engineering. Mahan. 
 
 Mihtary Gymnastics. Farrow. 
 
 Military Law and Court-Martial. Ben^t. 
 
 Military Law Authorities. Hough. 
 
 Military Law. Clode. 
 
 MUitai-y Miscellany. Marshall. 
 
 Mihtary Schools and Courses of Instruction in the Science 
 and Art of War. Barnard. 
 
 Military Sketching and Reconnaissance. Hutchison and Mac- 
 Gregor. 
 
 Military Telegraph during the Civil War in the U. S. Plum. 
 
 Motion of Projectiles. Owen. 
 
 Mountain Scouting. Farrow. 
 
 Mutiny Act and Articles of "War. 
 
 Naval and !\Iilit;iry Technical Dictionary of the French Lan- 
 guage. Biu-ns. 
 
 Naval Gininery. Douglas. 
 
 Naval Ordnance and Gunnery. Cook. 
 
 New Bayonet KxerclHe. Kelton. 
 
 ( (peratious of War, yd and Sd editioDB. Hamley. 
 
 OnUTH and (.'orresjiondence of General Wlnfleld 8cott, Con- 
 gressional DfMMUiients, etc. 
 
 Ordnance and Arm(.»r. Holiey. 
 
 Ordnance and Gunnery. Benton. 
 
 Ordnance and Naval Gunoery. Bimpflon. 
 
 Outpost. Malian. 
 
 Outposts. Ilandey. 
 
 Pictorial Field-book of the War of 181^. I/)fi8iDg. 
 
 Practical Treutiwe on Attack and Defense. Jebb, 
 
 Precis of .Mtxiem Tactics. Home. 
 
 Principles of Guimery. Sladen. 
 
 Queen's Regulations, 187y. 
 
 Regulations and Instructions for Encampmentfl (EngliBb). 
 
 Report on the Transport of Sick and Wounded by Pack Ani- 
 mals. Otis. 
 
 Reports of the Cliief of Ordnance, U. S. Army, 1872-1884. 
 
 lievue d'Ailillerie. 
 
 Revue MiUtaire de Kfitranger (Paris). 
 
 Rifle Exercises and Musketry Instructions. 
 
 Rifle Firing. Laidley. 
 
 Rifles and Rifle Practice. Wilcox. 
 
 Royal Artillery, Hi.story of. Duncan. 
 
 Rassian Campaigns in Turkey, 1877-78. Greene. 
 
 Sandhurst Papers. 
 
 Science, La. des Personnes de Cour, d'fipf-e et de Robe. 
 
 Shifts and Exi>edients of Camp-Life. Lord and Baines. 
 
 Short Notes on Field Batteries. Browne. 
 
 Simmons on Courts-Martial. 
 
 Small's Veterinary Taldet. 
 
 Some Weapons of War. Bartlett, 
 
 Spectateur Jlihtaire (Paris). 
 
 Steam Engine. Burns. 
 
 Strategy and Tactics. Dufom*. 
 
 Studies in Tactics of Infantry. Von Scherff. 
 
 Sur la Formation des Troupes pour le Combat. Jomini. 
 
 Tableau Analytique. Jomini. 
 
 Tactical Deductions from the War of 1H70-71. Boguslawski. 
 
 Tactics and Strategy. Twemlow. 
 
 Text-book for School of Musketry at Hythe. 
 
 Text-book of Gunnery. Mackinlay. 
 
 Text-book of the Construction and Manufacture of the Rifled 
 Ordnance in the British Service. Stoney and Jones, 
 
 The Administration and Organization of the British Army, with 
 especial Reference to Supply and Finance. Fonbianque. 
 
 The Armies of Europe. SIcClellan. 
 
 The Art of Travel. Galton. 
 
 The Duties of the General Staff. Von Scbellendorf. 
 
 The Elements of Military Art and History. Duparcq. 
 
 The Elements of Modem Tactics. Shaw. 
 
 The Law relating to Officers in the Army. Prendergast. 
 
 The Military Laws of the United States. CaUan. 
 
 Theory of War. Macdougall. 
 
 The Soldier's Pocket-book for Field Service. Wolseley. 
 
 Tomlinson's Cyclopedia of the Useful Arts and Manufac- 
 tures. 
 
 Treatise on Cranes. Towne. 
 
 Treatise on Fortification. Lendy. 
 
 United States Army Regulations. 
 
 United States Bridge Equipage. 
 
 United States Revised Statutes. 
 
 Voyle's Military Dictionary. 
 
 Weale's Series. 
 
 Weapons of War. Demmin. 
 
 Webster's Dictionary. 
 
 West Point; or. Information for those about to Enter the 
 Academy. Farrow. 
 
 Wilhelm's MiUtary Dictionary and Gazetteer. 
 
 Worcester's Dictionary. 
 
 Youatt on the Horse. Skinner.
 
 ABBREVIATIONS OF MODEEX TERMS, PHRASES AND TITLES EM- 
 PLOYED IN FARROW'S MILITARY ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 A.A.S. {Academice Americance Socius.) 
 Member of the American Academy. 
 
 A.B. (Artium Baccalaurvus.) Bachelor 
 of Arts. 
 
 A.B.C.F.M. American Board of Com- 
 missioners for Foreign Missions. 
 
 Abp. Archbishop. 
 
 A.C. {Ante Christum.) Before Christ. 
 
 A. D. {Anno Domini.) In the year of 
 our Lord. 
 
 ^t. i^tatis.) Of age; aged. 
 
 Al. Alabama. 
 
 A.^f. {Artium Magister.) Master of 
 
 Arts; {Ante Meridiem) Before noon; 
 
 (^71710 Mundi) In the year of the 
 
 world. 
 An. (Anno.) In the year. 
 Apr. April. 
 A.R. {A7ino Regni.) In the year of the 
 
 reign. 
 Ai'k. Arkansas. 
 A.U.C. {Anno Urbis Conditce.) In the 
 
 year from the foundation of the city. 
 Aug. August. 
 Avoir. Avoirdupois. 
 
 B. Book: (6.) Born. 
 B.A. Bachelor of Arts. 
 Bal. Balance. 
 
 Bart. Baronet. 
 
 Bbl. Barrel. 
 
 B.C. Before Christ. 
 
 B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law. 
 
 B.D. Bachelor of Divinity. 
 
 Bd. Bound. 
 
 Bds. Bound in boards. 
 
 Benj. Benjamin. 
 
 Bk. Book. 
 
 B.L. Bachelor of Laws; Breech-load- 
 ing. 
 
 B.L.R. Breech-loading rifled. 
 
 Bp. Bishop. 
 
 Brig. Gen. Brigadier-General. 
 
 C.y or Cap. (Caput) Chapter. 
 
 Cal. California. 
 
 Cam., or Camb. Cambridge. 
 
 Caps. Capitals. 
 
 Capt. Captain. 
 
 C.B. Companion of the Bath 
 
 C.C.F. Court of Common Pleas. 
 
 C.E. Civil Engineer. 
 
 Ce7it. (Centum.) A hundred. 
 
 C.J. Chief Justice. 
 
 CO. Commanding officer. 
 
 Co. Company. 
 
 Col. Colonel; Colorado. 
 
 Com. Commodore. 
 
 Conn., or Ct. Connecticut. 
 
 Cor. Corinthian. 
 
 Cor. Sec. Corresponding Secretai*y. 
 
 Crim. Con. Criminal Conversation; 
 Adulterj'. 
 
 Ct. Cent. 
 
 Cts. Cents. 
 
 Civt. Hundredweight. 
 
 J)., or d. Penny, or pence. 
 
 Dan. Daniel. 
 
 D.A.Q M.G. Deputy Assistant Quarter- 
 master-General. 
 
 D C. District of Columbia. 
 
 D. C. L. Doctor of Civil Law. 
 
 D J). (Divinitatis Doctor.) Doctor of 
 Divinity. 
 
 Dea. Deacon. 
 
 Dec. December. 
 
 Del. Delaware. 
 
 Dep. Deputy. 
 
 Dept. Department. 
 
 Deut. Deuteronomy. 
 
 Deft.., or d/t. Defendant. 
 
 Dint. District. 
 
 Dist. Atiy. District Attorney. 
 
 ditto, or do. The same. 
 
 D.M. Doctor of Music. 
 
 Dols. f$) Dollars. 
 
 Doz. Dozen. 
 
 Dr. Doctor: Debtor; Dram. 
 
 D. V, {.Deo Volvntc.) God willing. 
 
 Dwf. Penn}' weight. 
 
 E. East. 
 
 Ed. Edition; Editor. 
 
 Edw. Edward. 
 
 E.g., or e.g. (exempli graiia.) For ex- 
 ample. 
 
 Eliz. Elizabeth. 
 
 E.N.E. East-North-East. 
 
 Eph. Ephesians. 
 
 Esq. Esquire. 
 
 et. ul. (et alii.) And others. 
 
 etc., or <^c. {et ccetera.) And so forth. 
 
 et seq. iet seqneixtia.) And what follows. 
 
 E.rod. Exodus. 
 
 Expl. Explanation. 
 
 Ez. Ezra. 
 
 Ezek. Ezekiel. 
 
 F<thr. Fahrenheit. 
 
 Feb. February. 
 
 E.G. Fine grain; Field-gnn. 
 
 Fl., or Fl or. Florida. 
 
 Fred. Frederic. 
 
 F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 
 F.a. Field- se IT ice. 
 
 Ft. Foot, or feet. 
 
 Fur. Furlong. 
 
 Ga. Georgia. 
 
 G.B. Great Britain. 
 
 G.C. Gocd couduct. 
 
 G.C.B. Grand Cross of the Bath. 
 
 Gen. Giineral; Genesis. 
 
 Geo. George; Georgia. 
 
 Gov. Governor. 
 
 Gov.-Gen. Governor-General. 
 
 G.S. General service. 
 
 G.S. W. General service wagon. 
 
 H., or h. Hour. 
 
 Hab. Habakkuk. 
 
 H.B.M. His, or Her, Britannic Majesty. 
 
 H. C. House of Commons. 
 
 Heb. Hebrews. 
 
 Hfid. Hogshead. 
 
 H.L. House of Lords. 
 
 H..U. His, or Her, Majesty. 
 
 H.M.S. His, or Her, Majesty's Ship, or 
 Service. 
 
 Ho7i. Honorable. 
 
 Hos. Hosea. 
 
 H.R. House of Representatives. 
 
 H.R.H. His, or Her, Royal Highness. 
 
 Hund. Hundred. 
 
 I., or Isl. Island. 
 
 lb.. Ibid. (Ibidem.) In the same place. 
 
 Id. (Idem.) The same. 
 
 i.e. (id e.'it.) That is. 
 
 I.H.S. (lesus Hominum Salvaior.) Jesus 
 the Saviour of men. 
 
 III. lUinois. 
 
 In. Inches. 
 
 Incog. (Incognito.) Unknown. 
 
 Ind. Indiana. 
 
 I.N. R.I. ilesiis Nozarpnns, Rex ludm- 
 orum.) Jesus of Nazareth, Kingof the 
 Jews. 
 
 Inst. Instant (the current month). 
 
 lo. Iowa. 
 
 i.q. {idem quod.) The same as. 
 
 Is. Isaiah. 
 
 It. Itahcs, 
 
 J. Justice: Judge. 
 
 Jan. January. 
 
 Jas. James. 
 
 Jer. Jeremiah. 
 
 Jno. John. 
 
 Jona. Jonathan. 
 
 Jos. Josepli. 
 
 Jtish. Joshua. 
 
 J.I*. Justice of the Peace. 
 
 Jr., or Jun. Junior. 
 
 Judg. Judges. 
 
 Jul. July. 
 
 Kan. Kaiwas. 
 
 KB. Knight of the Bath: King's Bench. 
 
 K.C.B. Knight Commander of the Bath. 
 
 Ken., or A'//. Kentuekv. 
 
 KG. Knight of tlie (Jart'T 
 
 K.G.V. Knight of tlie Grand Cross. 
 
 Ki. Kings. 
 
 Knt., or Kt. Knight. 
 
 L.. or lb. Pound (weight). 
 
 L., I., or £. Pound sterling. 
 
 La. Louisiana. 
 
 Lat. Latitude. 
 
 L.G. Large grain. 
 
 L. I. Long Island. 
 
 Lieut. Lieutenant. 
 
 LL.B. Bachelor of Laws. 
 
 LL.D. Doctor of Laws, 
 
 L.L.R. Line of least resistance. 
 
 L.S. Land service. 
 
 M., or »i. Masculine. 
 
 M.A. Master of Arts; Military Academy. 
 
 MaJ. Major. 
 
 Mar. March. 
 
 Mass. Massachusetts. 
 
 Matt. Matthew. 
 
 MC. Member of Congress. 
 
 M.D. Doctor of Medicine. 
 
 Md. Maryland. 
 
 Mdlle., or MUe. Mademoiselle. 
 
 M.E. Mechanical Engineer. 
 
 Me. Maine. 
 
 Mem. Memorandum. 
 
 Messrs. Gentlemen. 
 
 Meth. Methodist. 
 
 Mich. Michigan. 
 
 Min., or inin. Minute, or minutes. 
 
 Minn. Minnesota. 
 
 Miss. IMississippi. 
 
 M.L. Muzzle-loading. 
 
 M.L.R. Muzzle-loading rifled. 
 
 MM. Messieurs. 
 
 Mme. Madame. 
 
 Mo. Missouri; Month. 
 
 Mons. Monsieur. 
 
 Mos., or mos. Months. 
 
 M.P. Member of Parliament. 
 
 M.P.P. Member of Provincial Parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 Mr. Master, or blister. 
 
 Mrs. Mistie.ss, or Missis. 
 
 M.S. Sacred to the Memory. 
 
 MSS. Manuscripts. 
 
 Mt. Mount, or Mountain. 
 
 M.T. Mountain train. 
 
 Mus D. Doctor of Music. 
 
 iV^., or Ji- North; Noun; Neuter. 
 
 N.A. North America. 
 
 Natli. Nathaniel 
 
 N.B. New Brunswick; (Xota bene) Note 
 well, or take notice. 
 
 N.C. North Carolina; Non-commis- 
 sioned. 
 
 N.C.O. Non-commissioned Officer. 
 
 N.E. North-East ; New England. 
 
 Neb. Nebraska 
 
 N.F. Newfoundland. 
 
 N.H. New Hampshire. 
 
 N.J. New Jersey. 
 
 N.L. North Latitude. 
 
 N.N.E. North North-East. 
 
 N.N.W. North-North- West. 
 
 No. ( Nuuiero.) Number. 
 
 Non seq. (Non sequitur.) It does not 
 follow. 
 
 Nos. Numbers. 
 
 Nov. November. 
 
 N.P. Notary Public; New pattern. 
 
 N.S. Nova Scotia; The New Style (since 
 
 17531. 
 
 N.T. New Testament. 
 
 N.W. Nortli-West. 
 
 N.Y. New York. 
 
 O. Ohio. 
 
 Ob. (Ohiit) Died. 
 
 06., or Obdt. Obedient. 
 
 Oct. October. 
 
 O.F. Old I*attern. 
 
 Or. Oregon. 
 
 OS. Old Stvle. 
 
 O.T. Old Testament. 
 
 Ox/., or 0x071. (Oxonia.) Oxford. 
 
 Oz. Ounce, or ounces. 
 
 P., or p. Page; Kebble.
 
 FOUKIGN WOllUS AND PUKASES. 
 
 11 
 
 Pa., or Penn. Pennsylvania. 
 
 Rev. Revelation; Reverend. 
 
 Sun., OT Sund. Sunday. 
 
 Purl. Piirliainent. 
 
 R.F.a. Rule line i;raln. 
 
 Supt. Superintendent 
 
 Pd. Paid. 
 
 R.li.F. Royal nim factory. 
 
 S.tv. South- West. 
 
 P.IC.I. rriiu.'n Kilwanl iRlaiid. 
 
 A'./. Rhode Island. 
 
 Ten., or Tenn. 'i'enncsMee. 
 
 Percent. {Per cfiitum.) liy the hun- 
 
 R L. Royal Labfn-atory. 
 
 Tex. Texas. 
 
 dred. 
 
 R.L (J. Rllle larKe grain. 
 
 Th., or Tlium. Thursday. 
 
 Ph. II. (fhilomplUoi Doctor.) Doctor of 
 
 R M..L Royal Military Academy. 
 
 Then. Theodore. 
 
 I'hilosopliv. 
 
 RX. Royal Navy. 
 
 Tr. Translation ; Trancpoiio; Treasurer; 
 
 Phil. i'li]|i|i|iian8. 
 
 Rom. (toman; Komans. 
 
 Trustee. 
 
 Phila. I'liiiadeipllla. 
 
 Rom. Cath. Romjin Catholic. 
 
 Tu., or Tufs. Tuesday. 
 
 Pinx., or Pxt. U^ini-it.) Plaood after 
 
 R.R. Railroad. 
 
 Ull. i Ultimo.) Ijist, or Pertaining to 
 
 the painter'8 name on pictures: as, 
 
 Rl. Hon. Right Honorable. 
 
 the last month. 
 
 "Turnel* pxt.'' 
 
 Rt. Rev. Right l^•verend. 
 
 U.S. United States. 
 
 Pk. Peck. 
 
 S. South; Signor; Shilling. 
 
 U.S.A. United States of America; Uni- 
 
 PI. Pluial. 
 
 .S'.^. .South America; Small arms. 
 
 ted States Army. 
 
 Plff. PlaintllT. 
 
 iJ.A.A. Small-ur-m ammunition. 
 
 V.S.M. United Slates Mail; United 
 
 P..M. Postmaster; Past Master; (Post 
 
 .S. .l/r. South Africa. 
 
 States Marine. 
 
 Meridiem) Atteniooii. 
 
 Sal. Saturday. 
 
 U.S. MA. United States Military Aca- 
 
 P.M.il. Postmaster- (jcneral. 
 
 S.Jt. Smooth-bore. 
 
 demy, 
 
 P.O. Post-oaice. 
 
 H.C. South Cnrolhui; Scrap-carriage. 
 
 U.S.y. United States Navy. 
 
 pii. Pages. 
 
 Sc, or Seulp. (.Srnlpsit.) Placed after 
 
 U.S. V. United States Volunteers. 
 
 P.P.C. {Pour Prendre Concj/.) Totalic 
 
 the engravei-'» ?iame on a picture. 
 
 U.T. Utah Territory. 
 
 leave. 
 
 Sell., or Schr. Schooner. 
 
 V'a. Virginia. 
 
 Pr., or P. l,Per.) By the. 
 
 Sci7,orSc. (Scilicet.) To wit; namely. 
 
 V.C Victoria Cross. 
 
 Prett. President. 
 
 Scrijit. Scripture. 
 SK. South-East. 
 
 Vice-PreH. Vice-Pi'esident. 
 
 Prof. Professor. 
 
 Vid. (Vide.) See. 
 
 Pro tern. (Pro tempore.) For the time 
 
 Sec. Secretary; Section. 
 
 Vifi., or I'itic. Vi.scount. 
 
 beinpf. 
 
 Sen. Senate; Senator; Senior. 
 
 I'lj. 1 Videlicet.) Namely; to vit. 
 
 Pi-oe. Proverbs; l>rovilice. 
 
 Sep.. or Sept. September. 
 
 r.n. Verb neuter. 
 
 Prox. (Proximo.) Next (the next month). 
 
 Sery. .Sergeant. 
 
 loc. Vocative. 
 
 P.i>. (PoKt iicriplum ) Postcript. 
 Ps. Psalm, or P.sttlms. 
 
 Sere., or .Servt. Servant. 
 
 I'ol. Volume. 
 
 S.J. Society of Jesus. 
 
 V.P. Vice-President. 
 
 I't. Pint. 
 
 S.J.C. Supreme Judicial Court. 
 
 V.R. (I'ictoria Regina.) Queej Vic- 
 
 Pub Doe. Public Documents. 
 
 S. Lat. South Latitude. 
 
 toria. 
 
 Pu't. Penriy\veij;ht. 
 
 Sid. Sailed. 
 
 Vs. ( Verms ) Against. 
 
 (J., or Oh. buery; Question; Queen. 
 y./>. Queen s Bencli. 
 
 Sm. Samuel. 
 
 IV. Vermont. 
 
 S.M.I. (Sa Majeste Imperiale.) Bis, or 
 
 H' Week; West. 
 
 y.C. Queen's Council. 
 
 Her, Imperial Majesty. 
 
 Wasli. Washington. 
 
 (J.ED. (Qnotl Knit Demonstrandum.) 
 
 .SO. Staff Officer. 
 
 Wed. Wednesday. 
 
 Which was to be demonstrated. 
 
 S'oc. Society. 
 
 W.I. West India; West Indies. 
 
 f/Jl/. Quartei-master. 
 
 Sq. Stjuare. 
 
 W. Lon. West Longitude. 
 
 i^.M.a. Quartermaster-General. 
 
 Sq. ft. Square feet. 
 
 Wm. William. 
 
 Qr. Quarter (28 pounds) ; Farthing; 
 
 Sq. in. Square inches. 
 
 W.M. Worshipful Master. 
 
 Quire. 
 
 Sq. rn. Square miles. 
 
 W.N.W. West-North- West. 
 
 Qt. Quart; Quantity. 
 
 Sr. Kir, or Senior. 
 
 W.S. W. West-South- West. 
 
 Qv. {Quod vide.) Which see. 
 
 SS., or. IS. (Seilieet.) Namely. 
 
 Wt. Weight. 
 
 R. (Kex) K'wg; (Regina) Qui-en. 
 
 5..S'. Sea-service; Sunday school. 
 
 Xmas. Christmas. 
 
 B.A. Royal Academy, or Academician; 
 
 S.S.E. SoiUh-Sontb-East. 
 
 Y. Year. 
 
 Rear- Admiral ; Right Ascension; 
 
 S.S. ir. South-South- West. 
 
 Yd. Yard. 
 
 Royal Artillery. 
 
 St. Saint; Street. 
 
 Yr. Your. 
 
 R.C.I). Royal Carriace Department. 
 
 Stilt. Statute. 
 
 Ztich. Zachary. 
 
 R.E. Royal Engineers. 
 
 S.T.n. (Social Theologia: Doctor.) Doc- 
 
 Zeeh. Zecliariah. 
 
 Rec. Sec. EecorUmg Secretary. 
 
 tor of Divinity. 
 
 Zeph. Zephaniah. 
 
 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES EMPLOYED IN FARROW'S MILITARY 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 Ah ante. (L.) Before; previously. 
 
 A has. (Fr.) Down. 
 
 Ah extra. (L.) From the outside 
 
 Ab initio. (L ) From the beginning. 
 
 Aborigine. (L.) From the origin. 
 
 Ab ovo usque ad mala, (h.) From the 
 egg to the apples; from first to last. 
 Roman banquets began with eggs, and 
 ended witli apples. 
 
 Abnrbecondita. (L.) From the founda- 
 tion of the city. 
 
 .4 coi»p(c. (Fr.) On account. 
 
 Adinjinitum. (L.) To infinity. 
 
 Ad interim, (h.) In the menu while. 
 
 Adlihiluin. (L.l At one's pleasure 
 
 Ad nauseiim. (L.) To disgust; till dis- 
 , gust is excited. 
 
 Adpatres. (L.) To hisf.itbers: ic.dead. 
 
 Ad refeiendum. (h.) Till further con- 
 sideration. 
 
 Ad valorem. (L.) According to; upon 
 the value. 
 
 Affaire d'amour. (Fr.) An intrigue; 
 a love-affair 
 
 Affaire d'honnenr. (Fr.') An affair of 
 honor; i.e.. a duel 
 
 A fortiori. (L i With stronger reason. 
 
 A gu.ito. (Ital.) To o.ie's heart's con- 
 tent. 
 
 Alabonne heiire. (Fr.) In happy time; 
 at a good horn*. 
 
 A la Fran^aise. (Fr.) In the French 
 manner. 
 
 A la mode. (Fr.l In fashion : fashioniible. 
 
 A PAnglaise. (Fr.) In the English man- 
 ner. 
 
 .4'/-,-^.>:co. ata'-'> In the open air. 
 
 Alia.i (L.l Otherwise; e.!;..Jones,ahas 
 the Count Johannes. 
 
 4libi 1 1 1 Elsewhere. A legal defense 
 
 " by which the defendant attempts to 
 show that he WIS absent at the time 
 and from the place of the commission 
 of the crime. 
 
 AUons. (Fr.) Come on : let us go. 
 
 Almamater. (Ij.) A nourishing mother. 
 A name frequentlv applied by stu- 
 dents to their college. 
 
 A Vovlronep. (Fr.) To the uttermost; 
 the last extremity. 
 
 Alter eqo. ll..) A second self, 
 
 Ahimniis. 11,.) A foster-child; a pupil. 
 The graduates of .\niericau colleges 
 are often calleil ahimni. 
 
 Amende honorable. (Fr.) To make the 
 amende honorable is to make a suit- 
 able apology for and confession of 
 one's offense. 
 
 Amor pntricE. (L.) Love of country; 
 patriotism. 
 
 Amnnr propre. (Fr."! Self-esteem. 
 
 ^nri'eii ri'qime. (Fr.) The olil govern- 
 ment; the French monarchy before 
 the Revolution. 
 
 .-linio Domini. (L.) In the year of our 
 Lord. 
 
 Anno niundi. (L.) In the year of the 
 world. 
 
 Annus mirabillis. (L.) The wonderful 
 year. 
 
 Ante bellum. (L.) Before the war. 
 
 Ante meridiem. (L.) Before noon. 
 
 A posteriori. (L.) From the latter; the 
 cause from the effect. 
 
 A priori. (L.) From the former; the 
 effect from the cause. 
 
 A propo.i. (Fr.) Appositely; season- 
 ably; in regard to. 
 
 Arguiiientum ad hominem. (L.) An ar- 
 gument to the man; i.e.. personal. 
 
 Aiidi alteram partem. (L ) Hear the 
 other part; both sides. 
 
 An fait. (Fr.) Skilled; accomplished; 
 competent. 
 
 Au fond. (Fr.) To the bottom; thor- 
 oughly. 
 
 Ah reroir. (Fr.) Good-by, till we meet 
 again. . , . ^ . 
 
 Anto da fe. (Si>.) An act of faith; i.e., 
 burning' heretics. 
 
 Aux nrnie.«. (Fr.l To arms. 
 
 A voire sante. (Fr.) To your health. 
 
 Bas bleu. (Ft.) A bluestockmg; a ht- 
 erary woman 
 
 Benu 'ideal. (Fr.) Ideal beouty. The 
 absolute beauty which exists only m 
 the mind. 
 
 Bean monde. (Fr.) The gay world; the 
 wo'ld of fashion.
 
 12 
 
 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 
 
 Bel esprit. (Fr.) A fine mind; wit. 
 
 Ben trnvata. (Ital.j Well found; "a 
 happy thought." 
 
 Bete noir. (Fr.) A scarecrow; a bug- 
 bear. 
 
 Billet-doux. (Fr.) A love-letter; a 
 '■ sweet'' note. 
 
 Bizarre. (Fr.) Strange; eccentric; fan- 
 ciful. 
 
 Blase. (Fr.) One wlio has seen and 
 enjoyed everj'thing. and upon whohi 
 pleasure palls, is called Ithtsi'. 
 
 BonA fide. vL.) In good faith; genuine; 
 actual. 
 
 Bon-grt\ mal-gre. (Fr.) With a good or 
 ill grace; willy-nilly. 
 
 Bonhomie. (Fr.) Simple, unaffected 
 good -nature. 
 
 Bon-jour. (Fr.) Good-day; good-morn- 
 ing. 
 
 Bon-mot. Fr.) A good word, i.e., a 
 witty saying. 
 
 CcBteris paribus. (L.) Other things 
 being equal. 
 
 Canaille. (Fr.) The rabble; the com- 
 mon multitude, 
 
 Carte blanche. (Fr.) Blank sheet of 
 paper. To give a person carte blanche 
 is to give him an unconditional dis- 
 cretion. 
 
 Casus belli. (L.) A case of war; an act 
 which justifies war. 
 
 Cedant arma togce. (L.) Let arms 
 yield to the gown; i.e., military to 
 civil power. 
 
 Cela va san s dire. (Fr. ) That goes with- 
 out saying: follows as a matter of 
 course and neces.sarily. 
 
 Cha Clin a son gout. (Fr.) Everyman to 
 his taste. 
 
 Chateaux en Espagne. (Fr.) Castles in 
 Spain: air castles. 
 
 Chef d'ceurre. (Fr.) A masterpiece ; an 
 unequaled work. 
 
 Che .sara, sard. (Ital.) What is to be, 
 will be. 
 
 Chevalier d'industrie. (Fr.) An adven- 
 turer; one who lives by his wits. 
 
 Chronique .scandaleiise. iFr.) A record 
 of scandals. 
 
 Cicerone. (Ital.) A person who acts as 
 guide to sightseers. 
 
 Comme il faut. (Fr.) Neatly; properly; 
 rightly; in "good form." 
 
 Compai/non de voyage. (Fr.) Compan- 
 ion of one's travels. 
 
 Compos mentis. (L ) Sane; of sound 
 mind. 
 
 Con amore. (Ital.) Earnestly; zeal- 
 ously. 
 
 Con spirito. (Ital.) In a spirited man- 
 ner. 
 
 Corps Diplomatique. (Fr.) The foreign 
 ambassadors. 
 
 Corpua delicti. (L.) The body of the 
 offense. 
 
 Coup d'etat. (Fr.) A bold stroke in 
 pontics. 
 
 Coup de grdce. (Fr.) A stroke of mercy; 
 a finalblow. 
 
 Coup de maiti. (Fr.) A bold, swift un- 
 derstanding. 
 
 Coup d'ceil. (Fr.) A swift glance of the 
 eye. 
 
 CoAte (lu'il coilte. (Fr.) Let it cost 
 what it may. 
 
 Cut bono. (L.) To what (for whose) good. 
 
 Cum (p-ano sails. (L.) With a grain of 
 salt; not unqualifiedly. 
 
 Currente calanio. (L.) Kapidly and flu- 
 ently. 
 Da capo. (Ital.) From the beginning. 
 De bonne grdce. (Fr.) Readily; with 
 
 good will. 
 Debut. (Fr.) One's first appearance in 
 
 society, or on the stage. 
 De facto. (L.) Actual; in fact. 
 De gustibus 7ion est disjtutandum. (L.) 
 
 There Is no disputing about tastes. 
 De jure. (L.) Rightfully ; lawfully; law- 
 ful. 
 Di: mortuis nil nisi honum. (L.) Say no- 
 thing but good of the dead. 
 Denouement. (Fr.) The catastrophe of a 
 
 plot. 
 Dc.novo. (L.) Anew; over again; afresh. 
 Df'O volentc. (L.) If it please God. 
 Dernier ressort. (Fr.) The last resource. 
 De trop. (Fr.) In the way; too much. 
 Dieu et nion droit. (Fr.) God and my 
 
 rlglit. 
 Diitingue. (Fr.) Distinguished in man- 
 ner. 
 Distrait. (Fr.) I'reoccupied; absent- 
 minded. 
 
 Divide et impera. (L.) Divide and gov- 
 ern. 
 Dolce far niente. (Ital.i Sweetdo-noth- 
 
 ing; luxurious idleness. 
 Double entente. (Fr.) Double meaning; 
 obscenity in disguise. (Often errone- 
 ously written double entendre.) 
 Douceur (Fr.) Sweetness; compensa- 
 tion; a gratuity. , 
 Dramatis personm. (L.) The characters 
 
 of a drama. 
 Dulce domum. (L.) Sweet home. 
 Duni vivimus, vivamus. (L.) While we 
 
 Jive, let us live; enjoy life to the full. 
 Eclat. (Fr.) Splendor;'distiuction; bril- 
 .liancy. 
 Elan. (Fr.) A spring; fire; dash; im- 
 petuosity. 
 Embarras de richesses. (Fr.) Embarrass- 
 ment of riches; excess of anything. 
 Embonpoint. (Fr.) Phimpness of figure. 
 Empressenient. (Fr.) Enthusiasm ; eager- 
 ness. 
 En famille. (Fr.) In family; by them- 
 selves. 
 Enfant qdte. (Fr.) A spoiled child. 
 Enfant 'terrible. (Fr.) A terrible child; 
 
 making ill-timed remarks. 
 En grande toilette. (Fr.) In full dress; 
 
 toilet. 
 En masse. (Fr.) In a body. 
 En rapport. (Fr.) In communication. 
 En regli\ (Fr.) As itshould be; in rule. 
 En revanche. (Fr. ) To make up for it. 
 Ell route. (Fr.) On one's way. 
 En suite. (Fr.) In company together. 
 Entente cordiale. (Fr.) A cordial under- 
 standing. 
 Entourage. (Fr.) Surroundings; ad- 
 juncts. 
 Entre nous. (Fr.) Between ourselves. 
 E pluribus unu7n. (L.) One of many. 
 
 Motto of the United States. 
 Ergo. (L.) Tlierefore. 
 Esprit de corps. (Fr.) The spirit of the 
 l)ody ; a feeling for the honor and inter- 
 est of an organization. 
 Esprit fort. (.Fr.) A skeptic; a free- 
 thinker. 
 Et ccetera. (L.) And the rest; etc. 
 E.C cathedra. (L.) From thechair; with 
 
 authorit}-. 
 E.rcelsior. (L.) Higher. 
 Exeunt onines. (L.) They all go out. 
 Ex nihilo nihil fit. (L.) From nothing, 
 
 nothing comes. 
 Ex officio. (L.) By virtue of his ofifice. 
 Ex parte. (L.) From a part; one-sided. 
 Ex post facto. (L) After the deed is 
 
 done. 
 Ex tempore. (L.) Off-hand. 
 Facile princeps. (L.) Easily the chief. 
 Facilis est descensus Averni. vL.) The 
 
 descent into hell is easy. 
 Fait accomj}li. (Fr.) An accomplished 
 
 fact. 
 Faux pas. (Fr.) A false step; a mistake. 
 Fecit. (L.) He, oj-she, made. This word 
 is put after an artist's name on a pic- 
 ture. 
 Felo de se. (L.) A felon of himself; a sui- 
 cide. 
 Femme de chambre. (Fr.) A chamber- 
 maid. 
 Femmesole. (Fr.) An unmarried woman. 
 Festiiia lente. (L.) Make haste slowly. 
 Fete chawjK'tre. (Fr. ) A rural party ; a 
 
 party in the open air. 
 FeuiUeton. (Fr.) AsmalUeaf. The bot- 
 toms of the pages in French news- 
 papers are so called, being given up to 
 light literature. 
 Fiat justitia, runt co'liim. (L.^ Let jus- 
 tice be done, though the lieavens fall. 
 Finis coronal ojjus. (L.) The end crowns 
 
 tlie work. 
 Flagrante delicto. (1j.) In the act. 
 Fugit hora. (L.) The bom- Mies. 
 Oamin. (Fr.) A street-urchin. 
 (jargon. (Fr.) A waiter. 
 (iarde du corps. (Fr.) A body-guard. 
 Garde mobile. (Fr.) Troops liable for 
 
 general service. 
 Gasconnade. (Fr.) Boasting; bragging. 
 Oaucherie. (Fr.) Awkwardness; clumsi- 
 ness. 
 Gendarme. (Fr.) An armed policeman. 
 Geniusloci. (L.I The genius of the place. 
 Gentithomme. (Fr.) A gentleman; noble- 
 man. 
 Grans homo. (L.I The himian race. 
 Gloria in excelsis. (L) Glory to God in 
 
 the highest. 
 Gloria Patri. (L.) Glory to the Father. 
 Grand siicle. (Fr.) A great ceutm'y. 
 
 Grossikrei^. (Fr.) Grossness; rudeness. 
 
 Habeas corpus. (L.) You may have the 
 
 body. 
 Hauteur. (Fr.) Haughtiness: loftiness. 
 Hicet ubique.ih.) Here and every Where. 
 Hicjacit. (L.) Here lies. 
 Hoinnie d'etat. (Fr.) A statesman. 
 Honi soil qui mat II pense. (Fr.) Shame 
 
 to liini who evil thinks. 
 Horribile dictu. (L.) Horrible to say. 
 Hors de combat. (Fr.) Out of condition 
 
 to fight. 
 Hotel de ville. (Fr.) A town-ball. 
 Ibidem. (L.) In the same place. 
 Ich dien. (Ger.) I serve. (3Iotto of the 
 
 Prince of Wales.) 
 Ici on parte Fran^ais. (Fr.) French 
 
 spoken here. 
 Idetn sonans. (L.) Sounding the same. 
 Ide.'it. (L) That is; i.e. 
 Ignis fatuus. (L.) A foolish fire; a delu- 
 sion. 
 Iqnobile vulgus. (L.) The ignoble crowd. 
 Ig)iotum perignotius. (L.) The unknown 
 
 by something more unknown. 
 Imprimis. (L.) In the first place. 
 In articulo mortis. (L.) At the point of 
 
 death. 
 Inde.v e.rimrgatorius. (L ) A purging in- 
 dex: a list of works prohibited to be 
 read. 
 7/1 embryo. (L.) In the rudiments. 
 In esse. (L.) Actual: in existence. 
 In extremis. (L.) At the point of death. 
 In flagrante delicto. (L.) In the very 
 
 act. 
 Infra dignitatem. (L.) Beneath one's 
 
 dignity. 
 Infufuro. (L.) In the future. 
 In hoc .^igno vinces. (L.) In this sign 
 
 thou shalt conquer. 
 In loco (L.) In place; on the spot. 
 In medias res. (L.) In the middle of a 
 
 subject. 
 In pace. (L.) In peace. 
 1)1 perjjetuum. (L. t Forever. 
 In projjrid jjersond. (L.) In one's own 
 
 person. 
 In re. (L.) In the thing: in the matter of. 
 Inrem. (L.) Against the thing. 
 In scEcnld saculorunij (L.) For ages of 
 
 ages. 
 Instanter. (L.) Instantly. 
 In statu quo. (L.) In the state in wliich 
 
 it was. 
 Inter alia. (L.) Among other things. 
 Inter nos. (L.) Between ourselves. 
 Inter se. (L.) Among themselves. 
 In toto. (L.) Entirely; wholly. 
 In transitu. (L.) In the passage; on the 
 
 way. 
 In vino Veritas. (L.) In wine there is 
 
 truth. 
 Ipse dixit. (L.) He said it himself. 
 Ipso facto. (L ) By the fact itself. 
 Je ne sais quoi. (Fr.) I know not what. 
 Jeu de mofs. (Fr.) A play upon words. 
 Jour de fete. (Fr.) A saint's day; a fes- 
 tival. 
 Jubilante Deo. (L.) Be joyful to God. 
 Jupiter tonans. (L.) Jupiter the thun- 
 
 (lerer. 
 Jure divino. (L.) By divine law. 
 Jure huniano. (L.) By human law. 
 Jus civile. (L) The civil law. 
 Jus gentium. iL.) Tlie law of nations. 
 Juste milieu. (Fr.) The golden mean. 
 Labor omnia vincit. (L.) Labor con- 
 quers all things. 
 Laissezfaire. (Fr.) Let things alone. 
 Lapsus lingucp. (L.) A slip of the tongue. 
 Lares et penates. (L.) The household 
 
 gods. 
 La us Deo. (L.) Praise be to God. 
 L'avrnir. (Fr.) The future. 
 Lf beau monde. (Fr.) The world of fash- 
 ion. 
 L^se majeste. (Fr.) High treason. 
 Lex loci. (L.) The law of the place. 
 Lex scripta. (L.) The written law. 
 Lex tahonis. (L.) The law of retalia- 
 tion. 
 Literatim. (L ) Letter for letter. 
 Litterateur. (Fr.) A literary man. 
 Locus si gi Hi. (L.) The place of the seal. 
 Ma chere. (Fr ) My dear. 
 Mafoi. (Fr.) My faith; upon my faith. 
 Maqnum bonum. (L.) A great good. 
 Ma'ison de ville. (Fr.) The town lunise. 
 Mai tred hotel. (Fr.) A h.ms.' suward. 
 Major domo. (Hal.) A cliit-f stuwaid. 
 Maladiedn pays. (Fr.) llnnie sickness. 
 Materiel. (F.) Opposed to personnel. 
 Mater ftimitias. (L.) The mother of a 
 family.
 
 FOUKION WOllUS ANIJ rilUASKS. 
 
 13 
 
 Mauvaise haute. (Fr.) HasIifuInePH. 
 
 Maximum. (L.) Tlio ^'■''"■•••f^t puHslblu. 
 
 Mi-Jndice. (L.) In my Jtalj^nient, 
 
 Mt'iiicnti) m<iri (L.) Keiiieinber death. 
 
 Mriiinnihilia. (L.) Thiugs dcaerviug to 
 \ni ifiiifinhered. 
 
 Aff*(.s .smut iiL corpore snno. (L.) A sound 
 mind in n sound body. 
 
 Mfxua tt tiinnt. (L.) Mine and thine. 
 
 Miiabiie divtu. (L.) Wonderful to leil. 
 
 Jdise en scene. (Fr.) Putting ou the 
 stage. 
 
 Modus operandi. (L.) The method of 
 operating 
 
 3fo/i ami. (Fr.) Mv friend. 
 
 Mot d'ordre. (Fr.) The password; coun- 
 tersign. 
 
 Multtim inparvo. CL.) Much in little. 
 
 ^tmine atntradicenie. (L.J No ouu cou- 
 trttdictlng. 
 
 JVc pluH ultra. (L.) Nothing more be- 
 yond; tlie utmost. 
 
 Nil admirari. {L.) To wonder at no- 
 thing. 
 
 iV// dvsperandum. (L.) We must not de- 
 spai r. 
 
 I^il'imnil'avtrc. (Fr.) Neither the one 
 nor tlie other. 
 
 N^iinporte. (Fr.) Tt does not matter. 
 
 Nisi jtfius. (L.) Unless before. 
 
 Nohicsse nhlige. (P'r.) Nobility obliges; 
 noble must act noblv. 
 
 Nolens volrn.9. (L) Willy-nilly. 
 
 Null me tangere. (L.) Don't touch me; 
 hands off. 
 
 Nolle prosequi. (L.) To abandon prose- 
 cution. 
 
 Nom de guerre. (Fr.) A war-name. 
 
 Norn deplume. (Fr.) Pen-name; name 
 assumed by an author. 
 
 Non compos mentis. (L.) Not In one's 
 right mind. 
 
 Non est inventus. (L.) He has not been 
 found. 
 
 Non multn. .tt-d multuin. (L.) Not many 
 things, but much. 
 
 Nota bene. (L.) Mark well. 
 
 Nous ai'o?w chanae tout cela. (Fr.) We 
 have changed all that. 
 
 Nousverrons. (Fr.) We shall see. 
 
 Odium theologicum. (L.J Theological 
 hatred. 
 
 OIlii poilridit. (Pp ) A mixture. 
 
 Omnid ri licit amor. (L.) Love conquers 
 alt things. 
 
 On dit. (Fr.) They say; people say. 
 
 Onus probandi. (L.) The burden of 
 proof. 
 
 Oro pro nobis. (L.) Pray for us. 
 
 O iempova! O mores,' (L.) Oh, the 
 times! Oh, the manners! 
 
 Otium cum dignitate. (L.) Ease with 
 dignity. 
 
 Outre. (Fr.) Extravagant; extreme. 
 
 Par excellence. (Fr.) By way of emi- 
 nence; in the highest degpee. 
 
 Par hasard- (Fr. ) By chance. 
 
 Parijiossu. (L.) With equal step. 
 
 Parvenu. ^Fr.) An upstart; a rich 
 snob. 
 
 Pater familias. (L.) The father of a 
 family. 
 
 Pater patrice. (L.) The father of his 
 country. 
 
 Pax vobiscum. (L.) Peace be with you. 
 
 Peccavi. (Ij ) I have sinned. 
 
 Peiidente lite. (L.) Wliile the suit is 
 pending. 
 
 Per aji7ium. (L.) By the year. 
 
 Per capita. (L.) By the head; on each 
 person. 
 
 Per contra. (L.) On the other hand. 
 
 Per diem.. (L.) By the day; every day. 
 
 Perse. (L,) By itself . 
 
 Personnel. (Fr.) The staff; persons in 
 any service. 
 
 Petitio principii. (L.) Begging the ques- 
 tion. 
 
 Petite. (Fr.) Small; little. 
 
 Pifce dcrdsiBtanre. (Fr.) A joint of meat, 
 I'iirxit. (L,) He. or Mhe, painted It. 
 I'is allrr. (Fv.) A hwl expedient. 
 I'lrbs. (L ) The common neople, 
 I'orta iiasritur.nonjit. (L.) 
 
 A poet is 
 Point of support. 
 
 Ixjrn, not made 
 
 J'oint dUippui. (Fr.) 
 
 Posh'- com italuH. (L.) The power of the 
 country; the force that may be sum- 
 moned by the Sheriff. 
 
 J'oHtr restantc. (Fr.j To be left till called 
 for. 
 
 I'ftst meridiem. (L.» Afternoon. 
 
 I'oHt mortem. (L.j After deKth. 
 
 Ptist ubitum. ih.) After death. 
 
 I'imrparler. (Fr.) A conKulttttion. 
 
 Pnur prendre conge. (Fr.) To take 
 leave. 
 
 Pri'cieuse. (Fr.) A bluestocking; a con- 
 ceited woman. 
 
 Preux chevalier. (Fr.) A gallant gentle- 
 man. 
 
 I'rinin donna. (ItJil.) The first lady; the 
 printfipal female singer in an itaUau 
 opei'u. 
 
 Primd facie. (L.) On the first face; at 
 first sight. 
 
 Primus inter jmres. (L.) First among 
 his peers. 
 
 Fro bono publico. (L.) For the public 
 good . 
 
 I^oci'svrrbal. (Fr.) Verbal process; the 
 taking of testimony in wriiing. 
 
 f^ro et cou. (L.) For and against. 
 
 Proformd. (L.) For the sake of form. 
 
 Pro patrid. (L.) For one's country. 
 
 JVo tempore. (L.) For the time. 
 
 Puuica fides. (L.) Ptmic faith; i.e., 
 treachery. 
 
 Quantum sujficit. (L.) As much as is 
 sufficient. 
 
 Quelque choee. (Fr.) As if. 
 
 buid nunc? (L.) What now? A gossip. 
 
 Quid pro quo. (L.) An equivalent. 
 
 Qui vice. (Fr.) Who goes there f 
 
 Quod eraf demou.'itrandum. (L.) Which 
 was to be demonstrated. 
 
 Quondam. (L ) At one lime; once. 
 
 Kara avis. (L) A rare bird. 
 
 Rechauffe. (Fr.) Warmed over: stale. 
 
 Recherche. (Fr.) Choice; elegant. 
 
 Kedncteur. (Fr.) An editor. 
 
 Redivivus. (L.) Restored to life. 
 
 Reductio ad ab.^urdum. (L.) Reduction 
 to an absurdity. 
 
 Rentes. (Fr.J Public funds; national se- 
 curities. 
 
 Rcquiescat in pace. (L.) May he, or she. 
 rest in peace. 
 
 Resgesta'. (L.) Things done. 
 
 liesurgam. (L.) I shall rise again. 
 
 Rcvenous a nos m<ntfo}is. (Fr.i Let us 
 return to our sheep; come back to the 
 subject. 
 
 Robe de chambre. (Fr.) A dressing-gown. 
 
 Roue. (Fr.t A rake. 
 
 Rouge et noir. (Fr.) Red and black (a 
 game). 
 
 Sanctum sanctorum. (L.) The holy of 
 holies. 
 
 Sangfroid. (Fr.) Cold blood; self-pos- 
 session. 
 
 Sans culottes. (Fr.) Without breeches ; 
 red repiiblicans. 
 
 Sartor resartus (L.) The tailor patched. 
 
 Saure qui peut. (Fr.) Save himself who 
 can. 
 
 Savoir-faire. (Fr.) Knowing how to do 
 things. 
 
 Savoir-vivre. (Fr.) Knowledge of the 
 world. 
 
 Semper idem. {L.> Always the same. 
 
 Semper paratus. (L.) Always prepared. 
 
 Seqnitur. iL.i It follows. 
 
 Seriatim. (L ) In order. 
 
 Sic itur ad astra. (L.) Tlius men go to 
 the stars. 
 
 Sic semper tirrannis. (L.) Thus always 
 with tyrants. The motto of Virginia. 
 
 8ic trnntHt gUtrta mundl. (L.) 80 pawieR 
 
 the glory of the world. 
 Similia HimitihuH curantur. (L.) Like 
 
 in cured by like. 
 Sine die. )L. i Without a day. 
 Sine qua non. (L.) Without which, not; 
 
 an indispeMKuble condition. 
 ,S'ol diHiinl. (Fr.) Kelf-slyled, 
 Spirituel. (Kr. 1 Witty. 
 Status quo. (L.) The btate In which; 
 
 the former state. 
 Strt. (L.) I>et it stand. 
 Suaiutcr in modo. fortiter in re. (L.) 
 
 Oently in manner, bravely In action. 
 Suh rosd. (L ) Under the row; secretly. 
 Sui generis. iL.) Of its own kind. 
 Summnm bonum. (L.) The supreme 
 
 good. 
 Talileau rirnnt. (Fr.) A living picture. 
 T(d>lff d'hote. iVv. I A public ordinary; 
 
 dinner at a fixed price. 
 Tabula rasa. (L.j A smooth tablet; a 
 
 blank. 
 Tant mieux. (Fr.) So much the better. 
 Tant pis. ( Fr.) So much the worse. 
 Te l>eum laudamus. (L.j Thee, God, we 
 
 praise. 
 Tempora mutautur. et noa mutamur in 
 
 itlia. (L.) Times change, and we 
 
 change with them. 
 Tempusfugit. (L.J Time flies. 
 Terra Jinn a. (L.) Solid earth. 
 Terra incognita. (L.) An unknown 
 
 country. 
 Tete-d-tete. (Fr.) Head to head; in pri- 
 vate conversation. 
 Tiers etat. (Fr.) The third estate; i.e., 
 
 the commons. 
 Totidem verbis. (L.) In just so many 
 
 words. 
 Tour deforce. (Fr.) A turn of strength. 
 Tout ensemble. (Fr.) The whole taken 
 
 together. 
 Tout le monde. (Fr.) Everybody. 
 Trottoir. (Fr.) The pavement. 
 Tu quaque. Brute! (L.) Thou, too. 
 
 Urutus. 
 Vtii Itiiertas. ibi patria. (L.) WTiere lib- 
 erty is. there is my country. 
 Vbi .supra (L. ) As mentioned above. 
 Ultima Thule. (L.) Uttermost Thule; 
 
 tlie end of the earth. 
 U.sque ad nauseaju. IL ) Till it was, or 
 
 is. absolutely sickening. 
 Utile dulci. (L.) The useful with the 
 
 sweet. 
 Ut infra. (L ) As below. 
 Ut supra. IL. ) As above. 
 I'ade mecum. (L.) Go with me; a com- 
 panion. 
 Vce victis. (L,) Woe to the vanquished. 
 Vale. (L.) Farewell. 
 Valet de chambre. (Fr.) A servant. 
 Vent, vide, vici. (L.) I came, I saw, I 
 
 conquered. 
 Verbatim et literatim. (L.) Word for 
 
 word; letter for letter. 
 Verbum sat sapjenti. (L.) A word to 
 
 the wise is sufficient. 
 Vid. (L ) By way of. 
 Vide. (L.) See. 
 Videlicet. (L) Namely. 
 Vincidum matrimonii. (L.) The bond 
 
 of matrimony. 
 Vis a vis. (Fr.) Face to face. 
 Vis inertia". (L.) The force of inactivity. 
 Vis viva. (L.) Living force. 
 Vivd voce. (L.l By the living voice. 
 Vive la bagatelle. (Fr.) Success to 
 
 trifles. 
 Vive la Reine. (Fr.) Long live the Queen. 
 Vive VEmpereur. (Fr.) Long live the 
 
 Emperor. 
 Vive le Roi. (Yr.) Long live the King. 
 Voild. (Fr.i See there: behold. 
 Vox. et proeterea nihil. (L.) A voice, 
 
 and nothing more. 
 Voxpopuli. vox Dei. (L) The voice of 
 
 the people is the voice of God.
 
 INDEX OF MATTERS NOT HAVING SPECIAL ARTICLES. 
 
 At the close of Volume III. -will be found an Index of Subjects not having Special 
 Articles. It has not been thought necessary to repeat in this Index the titles of the 
 many thousand articles composing the body of the work. A person consulting the 
 Encyclopedia is supposed, in the first instance, to look for the subject he is in quest of in 
 its proper alphabetical place. If it is not to be found there, or by a cross-reference, by 
 turning to the Index he is likely to get a reference to it under another name, or as coming 
 in for notice in connection with some other subject. It frequently happens that subjects, 
 having articles of their own, are further noticed under other heads; and where it seemed 
 of importance, a reference is given in the Index to this additional information. The title 
 of the article referred to is printed in italics; and when the article is of considerable 
 length, the page is given in which the information is to be found. 
 
 CONTINUED REVISION. 
 
 The process of revising Farrow's Military Encyclopedia is constantly carried on, 
 thus keeping up the information to the latest possible date. These revisions and additions 
 will be supplied every few years in the shape of Supplements. A few blank pages are 
 inserted at the close of each volume for the purpose of noting the reference to- the various 
 articles in the Supplements, which would naturally find alphabetical arrangement in the 
 respective volumes.
 
 LIST OF MAPS AND FULL PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME 11. 
 
 PACK 
 
 India, 90 
 
 Indians — Amebican, .......... 91 
 
 Indians — Mandans and Ceebokees. ......... 92 
 
 Lreland, ............ 126 
 
 LiATHE, ............. 178 
 
 Magnetism, ........... 249 
 
 MiNiNO, ............ 363 
 
 New Zealand, ........... 412 
 
 Palestine, ............ 472 
 
 Physics, . . . . . . . . ... . . 517 
 
 Prussia, ............ 600 
 
 Pullet, ............ 604 
 
 Queensland, ............ 621 
 
 Roman Empiee, ........... 7.54 
 
 Russia, ............ 803
 
 HABEAS CORPUS. -A writ of Itdhens Corpus is an 
 oriU'r ill wriliiii;. signed by the .ludu'c who urnnts the 
 same, sealed with the seal of the Court of which he 
 is Judge, and issued in the name of a (Sovereign j 
 Power where it is granted, liy sueli a Court or a i 
 Judge thereof liaving lawful authority to issue the' 
 same, direeled to any one having a jierson in his cus- 
 tody or under his restraint, couunaiiding liim to pro- 
 duce sueli person at a certain lime and jihu'c. .'Uid to 
 state the reason why he is held in custody or under 
 restraint. A State Judge has no jurisiliction to issue 
 a writ of Hubeas Corpim, or to continue proceedings 
 under the writ when issued, for the discharge of a 
 person held under the authority, or claim and color 
 of the authority, of the United States, by an otlieer of 
 that (tovernment. If upon the application for the 
 writ it ajipears tliat tlie party alleged to be illegally 
 restrained of liberty is held under the authority, or 
 claim and color of the authority, of the United 
 States, by an officer of that Government, the writ 
 should be refused. If this fact do not thus appear \ 
 the State Judge lias a right to intinire into the cause 
 of imprisonment, and ascert,-dn by what authority the 
 person is held within tlie limits of tlie State : and it is 
 the duty of the JIarshal, or other officer having the 
 custodj' of the prisoner, to give, by a proper return, 
 information in this respect. But after he is fully ap- 
 prised by the return that the (larty is held by an officer 
 of the United States, under tlie authority, or claim , 
 and color of the authority, of the Uuiteil States, he j 
 can proceed no further. These principles applied to 
 a case where a Hnhraa Cm-pus was issued by a Court . 
 Commissioner of one of the Counties of Wisconsin 
 to a recruiting officer of the United States, to bring 
 before him a person who had enlisted as a soldier in 
 the Army of the United States, and whose discharge i 
 was sought on the alleged ground that he w^as a | 
 minor imder the age of eighteen _years at the time of 
 his enlistment, and that he enlisted without the con- 
 sent of his father. The petition for the writ alleging 
 that the prisoner had enlisted as a soldier and been 
 mustered into military service of the Xational Gov- 
 ernment, and was detained by the officer as such sol- i 
 (lier — this Court held that the Court Commissioner 
 bad no jurisdiction to issue the writ for the discharge 
 of the prisoner, as it thus appeared that upon tlie 
 petition that the prisoner was detained under claim 
 and color of authority of the United States by an 
 otTicer of that Government : and that if he was il- 
 legally detained, it was for the courts or judicial offi- 
 cers alone, to grant him release. Should a writ of 
 Hahens Corpus be served upon an Army Officer by a 
 Civil Magistrate or Court of any State, commanding 
 him to produce an enlisted man, or show cause for 
 his detention, the officer makes respectful return 
 that the man is a duly enlisted soldier of the United 
 
 States, and that the Supreme Court of the United 
 States has decided in such case, that a Magistrate of 
 a Court of a Slate has not jurisdiction. 
 
 HABERGEON.— A short coat of mail, consisting of 
 a jacket without .sleeves. In early times, the haber- 
 geon was composed of chain mail : but in the four- 
 teenth century, a baberijeon of ])late-arinor was worn 
 over llie h:iulierk. See lliinhirh. 
 
 HABILIMENTS OF WAR.— In ancient statutes, ar- 
 mor, harness, utensils, et<'.. without widcli it was sup- 
 posed lliere could be no abilitv to maintain a war. 
 
 HACHE DARME.— A battle-axe with a narrow 
 handle armed with a sharp blade in the form of a 
 crescent, very much curved, terminating in two 
 points approaching the handle on one side : the other 
 side terminating in a point or hammer; when both 
 sides were armed with a lilade it was called liimigne. 
 
 HACHEE. — The ignominious punishment of carrj'- 
 ing a saddle or dog, to which soldiers were formerly 
 subjected in France. 
 
 HACKAMORE.— A halter used by packers. It con- 
 sists of a long leather or rope slraji and head-stall. It 
 is used when leading the pack-animal, also to make 
 the animal fast, usually to the ajiarejo, while prepar- 
 ing to pack. On the march, the strap is wrapped 
 around the animal's neck and made fast to the head- 
 .stall. 
 
 HACK BUSH-HAOK-BUSS.— A heavy hand can- 
 non, with butt and serpentine lock. It behmgs to the 
 second half of the fifteenth century. The match is 
 no longer loose, but fi.xed to the serpentine, which 
 springs liack by means of a trigger. This sort of 
 canniui is about 40 inches in length, and it is usually 
 provided with a hook, so that when it is placed on a 
 wall, it cannot slip back. Without the hook it is 
 sometimes called Arquebuse with Matchlock. See 
 Hak, . 
 
 HACQUETON.— A stuffed coat or cloak, generally 
 of leather, mounted with metal, formerly worn in 
 France by certain Knights of the King's Guards call- 
 ed Gardes lie la Manclw. It came into use during the 
 reign of Charles V., and was discarded during the 
 Revolution of 17S9. 
 
 HACQUET-WAGON.— A four-wheeled wagon used 
 in the Prussian service to carry pontons. The under- 
 frame of this carriage is built like that of a chariot, 
 by which means it can turn without diffieultv. 
 
 " HADDAN RIFLING.— This plan of centering'airainst 
 the bore consists of 3 large and shallow elliptical 
 grooves, which in the earlier forms were about 1-0 in. 
 deep and took away nearly two-thirds of the surface 
 of the bore. The projectile is rotated by 8 wings 
 formed on the front of the shot, straight with its axis. 
 In the earlier projectiles, the rear tapereil, anil had a. 
 shoulder for a ring-wad to stop the windage. The 
 later projectiles have merely a wooden sabot. As the
 
 HADLEY FIRING PIN. 
 
 HAKK 
 
 wings are on the front part of the projectile, the rifiina; 
 is carried only to within one calilier of the powder- 
 chamber, and hence is not a source of weakness at 
 that point. 
 
 HADLEY FIKING-PIN.— A simple device for using 
 rim-tire cartridges in rifles adapted for central-flre 
 ammunition. It was invented for and specially ap- 
 plied to the JlaTOard rifle. This rifle is conflned to 
 central-flre amni\inition in each and all of the calibers, 
 excepting the 22 : but by this device rim-flre cart- 
 ridges from 22 to 38 calilier may be used. The draw- 
 ingshows the nature and simplicity of the invention. 
 It consists of a cap attached to the breech-piece by 
 
 Boszonneny. The total population is about 03,000, 
 all Magyars, and f(jr the most part belonging to the 
 Reformed Church. In 1870 this district was incor 
 porated with portions of two adjoining districts into a 
 new administrative division (called Ilaidvkfncimiitiit) 
 with Debreczin for its capital. In course of the pre- 
 sent century', the name Haiducks has Iiegim to lie ap- 
 plied to the Macers of Hungarian Courts and the Hal 
 berdiers of the -Hungarian Magnates: also to the 
 Lackeys and other Attendants in German Courts. 
 Also written Jl'/jduka, Ilnidnkn. and Hayduks. 
 
 HAIL. — A term in military parlance, meaning to 
 challenge, accost, or salute. A sentinel hails any one 
 
 Hadley Firing-pin. 
 
 two small screws, in which is a disk with a flring-pin 
 projecting through the cap at such a point from the 
 center as to strike the rim of the cartridge. This disk 
 plays freely in the cap, and is driven forward by the 
 tiring pin in the breech-piece. To use the central-flre 
 cartridges it is only necessary to remove the cap, 
 change firing-pins, and insert the latter. 
 
 HAGBUT. — An arquebusc, of which the butt was 
 bent or hooked, in order that it might be held more 
 readily. Also written Ilagg and Haguebut. See 
 JTark-hiixIi. 
 
 HAGNER MAGAZINE.— General Hagner proposed 
 that a projection lie formed on the under side of the 
 stock, between the lower band and the guard, in 
 which three cartridges might lie placed, with their 
 heads to the rear. This magazine differs from the 
 BenUm fixed Mngnzhie, merely in its location, and 
 hcildini; tliree cartridges instead of five. 
 
 HAIDUCKS.— Originally a designation of cattle- 
 lierds in Hungary. Afterwards, the word came to 
 signify a class of mercenary foot-soldiers ready to 
 accept pay from any one who would employ their 
 services, but displaying great gallantry on the field 
 of battle. Tlic remarkable constancy wiih wliicli they 
 stood by Bocskai throughout the War of the Ilevolu- 
 tion. was rewarded by that Prince with a grant of a 
 district as their own possession, and at the same time 
 witli the privileges of nobility. This grant was made 
 by a public decree of Dec. 13. ItSlt.'i, anil coiitirnicd by 
 the Diet in KiKi. E.\ce]il tlie privilege of e.xeiniilion 
 from ta.xes, which Charles III. took away, the llai- 
 <!ucks enjoy all the rights of Nobles to the present day. 
 Their residence, the Haiduck district, remains inde- 
 pendent of the country authorities, and is luider the 
 direct aiiiiiiiiistration of the National Goveriunent. 
 The Haiduck district lies within tjii' country of North 
 liiliar. Iietween tlie Theiss and Transylvania, has an 
 area of about 51)4 .square miles and si.x principal Hai- 
 duck towns. The capital of the district used to be 
 
 approaching his post between taps and reveille with, 
 " Who goes (or comes) there 'i " 
 
 HAIR. — A spring or other contrivance in a rifle or 
 pistol-lock, which, being unlocked by a slight pres- 
 sure on the trigger, strikes the tmnbler-catch, and 
 unlocks the tumbler. 
 
 HAIR-CLOTH.— A species of cloth made of horse- 
 hair, laid upon the floors of magazines and labora- 
 tories to prevent accidents. It is usually made up in 
 pieces 14 feet long and 11 feet wide, each weighing 
 36 pounds. 
 
 HAIR TRIGGER.— A trigger so constructed as to 
 discharge a flre-arm by a very slight pressure, as by 
 the touch of a hair. It is connected with the tumbler- 
 catch by a device called the Jfnir. One of the latest 
 improvements in sporting-arms is the addition of a 
 set, or liair-trigger. This differs from the ordinary 
 hair-trigger, in that it can be used precisely as if this 
 trigger was not on the gun. if, as in hunting, it is not 
 wanted. For fine shooting, as in target practice, it is 
 made available thus : After setting the hammer at 
 full-cock, the trigger shotdd be pressed forward 
 slightly, and it is thus set. If it is found too delicate, 
 or not delicate enough, it can be adjusted to suit the 
 wislies, liy turning a set screw in or out. This screw 
 will be found by the side of the trigger. 
 I HAKE. — An old term for a hand-gun, used in 
 I ancient times, and usually fired on a rest by the 
 manual ap|iIiciition of a match. When the weight of 
 these instruineiUs was reduced, and a lock appended, 
 so llial that they miglil be fired without a rest, they 
 were called (•(ilhem. Hand-guns of this description 
 are mentioned as having been first ti.sed at tlie Siege 
 o* Arras, in 1414. An inquisiti<in taken at Hunter- 
 ' combe, in Yorkshire, in laT."), the record being in the 
 Chapter-house. Westminster, mentions the attack on 
 Alaiior-liouse of lluntercombe by 40 men armed, 
 among other W'Capons. with " gonnes " — sujiposed to 
 be hand-gum,.
 
 HALBEBD. 
 
 HALF HOOK. 
 
 HALBEKD— HALBERT. — A wciipnii borne, up to the 
 <-l(mc lit' III!' ri;;htc(iilli ciTitiiry. l)y nil sfri,'i';iiils of 
 fool, urIilliTy, iiiiil II liiri Ill's, luiil by roin|iiuiii's of biil- 
 brnlirrs ill Ibr viirious ri'niiiiriils. II ruiisislril of a 
 Htn.il;^ wooili'ii sluifl jiboiit (1 fi-i-1 ill Irn;^lli, siir- 
 nioimli'il by an inslniiiirnt miifli rcsriiiblini; a bill- 
 book, (•onslniclcd alike for culliii;; anil llinisliiiij, 
 Willi a eross-pieee of Hleel, less sliarp, for the jmrpose 
 of piisliinj; ; one end of this oross-pieee was liirneil 
 down as a liook. for use in (eariiii; down works 
 aj;ainst wliii-b an allack is made. 'I'lie lionor of in- 
 ventin}^ tlie halberd is contesled by Ibe Swiss and 
 Danes, but probably eacli prodiieed sonielliini; re- 
 si'inblini; it. Its iinine appears to be derived from 
 the Teulonie hilil. batlli', and hnrd. axe. The iinlberd 
 appears tirst in Eni;land about the time of I [enry VII., 
 and maintained its position for upwards of two cen- 
 turies. Now it is rarely seen except on certain cere- 
 monial oeeasions. 
 
 Old llalberil is a familiar term formerly used in the 
 British Army, to sitjnify a jierson who liad gone 
 tbrouiih the dilTerent j^railatioiis, and risen to the 
 rank of a eomiuissioned oHieer. 
 
 HALBERDE. -A term frei(uently ^iven to the tjuis- 
 arw-, or to one of its moditieations, in the middle 
 nLres. 
 
 HALE WAR ROCKETS. —The L'eneral construc- 
 lioii of the 1^ and )34-|ioiinders are the same, 
 dilVerini; only in i;eneral dimensions and the num- 
 ber of vents and curved shields or walls, the 12- 
 poiindcr having 3 and the 2-1-pouniler 5. The 
 rocket consists of four pieces. A head, conoi- 
 dal in sliajie, of cast-iron, hollow for bursting, 
 having a cylindrical hole in the base about ]i;incli 
 diameter, wilh screw-threud for fuse; there is also 
 a small hole in front, used for tilling slii'll with com- ; 
 biistible material, closed Iiy a screw, liut into which 
 can, if desirable, be fitted a nijiple and cap for igni- 
 tion by percussion ; the head is turned down at the 
 rear f inch .so as to enter the body of the case about 
 Y^ inch, and to which it is secured by six pins or 
 
 swivel ; to the chain is attached the life-line. Tliis 
 rocket is tired from an ordinary V'-sliapeil trough, 
 which may lie given any desired elevation. As the 
 chain is hardly long enough to prevent llie l)uriiing 
 oir of the rope by the gas escaping from the vcnlB, 
 it is safest to wet about two fathoms of the rope 
 next to the chain. See liackHn. 
 
 HALF BASTION. A demi-bastion. In fortllication 
 thai half ipf a basiion cut olT by the cai)ital, cou-sisting 
 of one liasc and one front. 
 
 HALF BATTA.- An extra allowance which was 
 graiileil to Hie whole of the officers belonging to the 
 Hrilish Ivist Indian Army, except liengal. when out 
 of tin- Conipany's district in Province of Oiide. In 
 the ui)i)er I'rovinces (hmhlfhiiWi was allowed. All 
 above full was paid by the native Princes, as the 
 troops stationed in that quarter are considered as 
 Auxiliaries. See Jinttn. 
 
 HALF-BLOCKS. — These areof the same dimensions 
 as bbn'kn. except that the cross-section is usually 
 4 X K inches, in place of H inches square. They are 
 used for the same ]iiirposes as wliole blocks ; but, 
 when the distance through which the iiiece is to be 
 rai.sed is only half of wliat it is when the whole block 
 is used. 
 
 HALF-CAPONNIERE. -In fortitication.acommimi- 
 catioii ill a dry ditch wilh one side prepared for de- 
 fense, liaviii'.' bill one panqiet and i;lacis. 
 
 HALF CHESS.— A sliorl i7/<.y.i or platform board of 
 a mililarv bridge. See I'ontiin. 
 
 HALF COCK —T)ie jiosition of the cock of a gun 
 when retaiiiid bv the tirst notch. See finck. 
 
 HALF DISTANCE.— Half the regular interval or 
 space betwiin troops drawn up in the ranks or 
 standiiiic i-nliiiiin. 
 
 HALF DOUBLE SAP.— This is an ordinary line of 
 sa]) pushed forward in a position where it is neces- 
 sary to give temporary cover on the reverse of the 
 trench, from a slant tire by gabions tilled with sand- 
 bags. The distance between the two rows of gabions 
 in this case, is only 5 feet 6 inches, the single sajj- 
 
 Hale W'rtr-rocket. 
 
 screws. A cylindrical hudy of sheet-iron about ^ 
 inch thick, with edges lapped, riveted, and brazed 
 at the longitudinal joints. A thick iron disk or an- 
 nular ring titled in and fixed by screws or pins 
 closes the liase. A tail-piece of cast-iron containing 
 the vents and shields or walls is screwed into the 
 disk which closes the base. The vents themselves 
 are conical, the apex pressing against the curved 
 shields, each placed in the same relative position 
 to one of the vents, keeps the rocket point foremost 
 in its tiight, and gives the rotary motion on the 
 turbine principle. The composition which is sei)a- 
 rated from contact with the iron by pasteboard to 
 prevent oxidation, consists of saltpeter, sulphur, 
 and charcoal, in tlie propurlions of TO, 16, and 33, 
 and is introduced into the case in successive pellets 
 and pressed by hydraulic power; it is afterward 
 bored out in a cone for about two-thirds of its 
 length. The war-rockets are tired from a trough 
 mounted on a stand, either singly or in groups of 
 seven, by means of an ordinary friction-tube and 
 lanyard. 
 
 The Hale Life-Saving Kocket differs from the 
 above only in that the head, instead of being of cast- 
 iron, is of wood, and in the addition of a piece of 
 chain about 3 feet long which is connected to 
 the center of the bottom of the tail-piece by a double 
 
 roller covering in front this interval from enfilading 
 tire. See Sap. and Wing Traversm. 
 
 HALF-FACE.— A movement, in the School of the 
 Soldier, in order to take half the usual distance be- 
 tween the right or left face and front, to give an 
 oblique direction to the line, or to fill up a gap at 
 the corner of a square. 
 
 HALF-FILE LEADER.— The foremost of a rank 
 entire. The Cliefde Demi file in France. 
 
 HALF- FILES.— Half the given number of any body 
 of men drawn up two deep. They are so called in 
 cavalry, when the men rank off singly. i 
 
 HALF-FULL SAP. — In siege operations, when the 
 sappers have only a flank fire (coming in a direction 
 nearly perpendicular to that of the sap) to fear, the 
 sap-roller may be dispensed with. The first sapper 
 then covers himself with the last-tilled gabion wjiilsl 
 placing and filling the new one. This species of sap 
 is called the half-full sap. 
 
 HALF HITCH.— A form of hitch much used in 
 mechanical maneuvers. It is made by passing 
 the end of a rojie round its standing part, and bring- 
 ing it up through the bight. See C'ardage and Kn^its. 
 
 HALF-MERLON. — That solifl portion of a parapet 
 which is at the right or left extremity of a battery. 
 
 HALF MOON.— In fortification, aii outwork that 
 has tw(i faces which form a salient angle, the gorge
 
 HALF-PAY. 
 
 haloxtl™. 
 
 of whicli resembles a crescent. It owes its original 
 invention to the Duteli, who used it to cover the 
 points of their bastions. This kind of fortitication 
 is, however, defective, because it is weak on its 
 flanks. Half-moons are now called ravelins, which 
 species of work is constructed in front of the curtain. 
 HALF-PAY. — An allowance given in the British 
 Army and Navy to Commissioned Officers not act- 
 ively employed in the rank to which half-pay has 
 reference. It corresponds to the French denu'-solde, 
 or pay of non-acUvite. It lias Ions been a disputed 
 point whether lialf-pay is given to otHeers as a re- 
 taining fee, to keep tliem at hand for the time 
 when their services may be again required, or an 
 award on account of services already rendered : but 
 whatever the terms of the original grant, tliere can 
 be little doubt that, under the present regulations, 
 half-pay, except when distinctly named retired half- 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Yearly Pay of Officers in Active 
 Service. 
 
 Major-general 
 
 Brigadier-general 
 
 Colonel 
 
 Lientenant-colonel 
 
 Major 
 
 Captain (mounted)... 
 
 " (not mounted) 
 1st Lieut, (mounted).. 
 
 " (not mounted). 
 2d Lieut, (mounted).. 
 
 *■ mot mounted). 
 Chaplain 
 
 1st 
 5 yrs. 
 
 $7,500 
 5,500 
 3..W0 
 3,000 
 2,500 
 2,000 
 1,8«) 
 1,600 
 1,500 
 1,500 
 1,4m 
 1,.500 
 
 After 
 5 yrs. 
 
 $3,830 
 3,300 
 2,750 
 2,200 
 l,9rtO 
 1.7150 
 1,650 
 1,6.50 
 1,.M0 
 l,6,iO 
 
 After 
 10 yrs. 
 
 $1,200 
 3.600 
 3,000 
 2,400 
 2,160 
 1,920 
 1,800 
 1,800 
 1,680 
 1,800 
 
 After 
 15 yrs. 
 
 3,900 
 3.2,50 
 2,600 
 2,340 
 2,080 
 1,950 
 1,950 
 1,820 
 1,950 
 
 After 
 20 vrs. 
 
 $1,500 
 4,000 
 3..50O 
 2,800 
 2,520 
 2,240 
 2,100 
 2,100 
 1,960 
 2,100 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Pay of Retired Officers 
 
 
 1st 
 5 yrs. 
 
 After 
 5 yrs. 
 
 After 
 10 yrs. 
 
 After 
 15 yrs. 
 
 After 
 20 yrs. 
 
 
 $5,625 
 4,125 
 2,625 
 
 2,2.50 
 1,875 
 1,500 
 1,.3.50 
 1.200 
 1.125 
 1.125 
 1.050 
 1.350 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brigadier-general 
 
 Co'onel 
 
 Lieutenant colonel 
 
 
 
 $2,887 
 2,475 
 2.062 
 1,6.50 
 1.485 
 1..320 
 1.237 
 1,237 
 1,155 
 1,485 
 
 $3.V5b' 
 2,700 
 2,250 
 1,800 
 1,620 
 1,440 
 1,350 
 1,250 
 1,260 
 1,620 
 
 '$3,375 
 2,925 
 2,4;W 
 1,950 
 1,755 
 1,560 
 1,462 
 1,462 
 1,365 
 1,755 
 
 '$3.'3'75 
 3,000 
 2,625 
 
 Captain (mounted) 
 
 '■ (not mounted) 
 
 let Lieut (mounted) 
 
 " (not mounted) 
 
 2d Lieut. (n|ounted) 
 
 " (not mounted) 
 
 Chaplain 
 
 2,100 
 1,890 
 1,680 
 1,575 
 1,575 
 1,470 
 1,890 
 
 pay, is in the nature of a retaining fee. This allow- 
 ance is on quite a ditterent footing in the Navy and 
 Army. In the Royal Navy of Great Britain, olHcers 
 are merely appointed to serve during the period a 
 certain ship is in commission; when this expires, 
 their employment ceases and they revert to a state 
 of non-activity. As there are always many more 
 Naval Officers than appointments for them to till, a 
 considerable numlier arc at all times on the non- 
 effective list. These are placed on half-pay until 
 again called upon to serve ; the amount of such 
 half-pay being usually about tiO ])er cent, of the full 
 pay of each grade. Half-pay is thus in the Navy a 
 recognized condition for all officers not immediately 
 wanted afloat. In the British .Vrmy, the case is dif- 
 ferent: there, an officer on johiing, is posted to a 
 particular regiment, with whicli, in theory, he is 
 supposed to serve until removed from it on attaining 
 the rank of (ieueral. Consequently, no fund like 
 the naval half-pay list is in any degree admitted. 
 Army half-pay is of two natures — temporary am\ (so. 
 cnWcd) permmunt half-pay. The former is limited 
 to officers incapacitated by ciisual sickness, to those 
 who are without occupaliim, in consequence of any 
 redui'lion of the corps in which Ihey were serving, 
 and to those serving in certain staff appoint nu'uts. 
 Permanent half-jiay can be demanded by any nffieer 
 who has served 30 years ; it is also given to Majors 
 
 and Lieutenant-colonels who, after serving for 5 
 years with a regiment in those ranks, are not re-em- 
 ployed. Since the abolition of purchase and sale of 
 commissions, this last class may be expected, for 
 the .sake of promotion in the lower ranks, to increase 
 considerably. The cost of half-pay is already very 
 great ; in 1877-78. it was £31.5,500 for the Army. 
 Till lately, a large proportion of the recipients were 
 officers placed on the list at the great reduction after 
 the peace of 1815. There is a sfightlv different sys- 
 tem or practice in the United States. There ia 
 sometimes a distinction between officers on active 
 duty and those awaiting orders. Officers on leave, 
 beyond the time allowed by law. are put on half- 
 pay ; and officers retired from active service receive 
 three-fourths of their full pay. Th<' salaries, at 
 present, from Major-general downwards are graded 
 as in the above tables. See Pay. 
 
 HALF- PIKE. — A short pike, formerly carried by 
 infantry officers. See Spontoon. 
 
 HALF-KOLLER.— This roller has the same dimen- 
 sions as the long roller, but is round only on one 
 side, square on the opposite side, and lias no groove. 
 It is used resting on the square .side, when, instead 
 of rolling the gun, the object is to have a firm sup- 
 port on which the gun can have its ends alternately 
 raised, as in mounting a gun on its carriage by 
 means of blocks. 
 
 HALF-SUNKEN BATTERY.— A battery having its 
 interior space or terre-pleiu sunk some inclies below 
 the natural surface, and its parapet composed of the 
 earth thus obtained and that taken from a narrow- 
 ditch in front. This description of battery admits 
 of being more quickl}' constructed than any other, 
 as the diggers can work both in front and rear at 
 the same time. 
 
 HALF-SWORD.— A figure within half the length of 
 a sword : a close fiirht. 
 
 HALF-WROUGHT MATERIALS.— In artillery, the 
 several parts of gun-carriages in the rough, or partly 
 shaped to the form required. Supplies of these 
 materials are kept in every Arsenal, and are issued to 
 batteries on indent. Each battery in the field in 
 England, is allowed the following lialf-wroughts ; — 
 
 Beam 1 
 
 Cheeks 2 
 
 Perch wagon 1 
 
 Splinter-bar 2 
 
 Shafts, spare 2, complete. 
 
 Felloes 12 
 
 Spokes 24 
 
 But as a spare carriage is allowed, there is no ne- 
 cessity to carry such ponderous articles as lieams, 
 etc. ; the officer commanding a troop or battery will, 
 therefore, use his discretion, according to the nature 
 of the service on which lie may be going, as to half- 
 wrought materials he will carry, any in excess of the 
 number allowed being provided at his own expense. 
 On leaving a station where there maj' be an Arsenal, 
 he can. if lie thinks fit, return into store such half- 
 wroughts as he may not wish to carry on the march, 
 receiving from the Ordnance Officer a receipt, which 
 will be his voucher for obtaining others free of 
 charge at the next Arsenal. The above instructions 
 have reference to the artillery in India, wherever tlie 
 carriages are of the old pattern, viz., of wood. The 
 new field-carriages lieing made of iron, the supply of 
 lialf-wroughts as shown in the above list is not re- 
 quired, except 'for the wheels and other woodea 
 parts of Die carriage. 
 
 HALLECRET.— Liglit armor iiiucli used in the six- 
 leentli century liy the Swiss. It consisted of lireast- 
 ])lale iind gussets, often reaching to the middle of the 
 Ihi'jii. ini(i somelimes below the knees. 
 
 HALOXYLIN. -The name of a new kind of ex]ilo- 
 sive material <ir blasting-powder which has been in- 
 vented in Styria bylwc) brothers, and is described 
 as incapable of spontaneous ignition, and as quite 
 free from smoke and noxious gases. It is composed 
 of non-resinous sawilusl, charcoal, niter, and ferro-
 
 HALT. 
 
 HAMMER CLOTH. 
 
 cvnniilc of potnssiiim. iinil is twice the liulk of tjiin- 
 povvilcr, hill Diif-imlf iiiorc powerful. For lilustiiii; 
 jiriil riiijiirii; |iiir|)Oses it is cousidercil un preferable 
 
 to n;inipoWller. 
 
 HALT.— Mlerally, lo stop ; ii term well known to 
 soldiers. It is the word of eoiniiiiind uiveii to ii 
 body of men, or to a reixiinenl or an army, on the 
 move, to diseoiiliniie its march. In the march of a 
 body of soldiers halls an' very necessary for the com- 
 fort of the men, lo enable them to rest themselves. 
 On the usual daily march of a rejjiment in India, 
 halts are made half-way. and colTcc is served out to 
 the men. This is a very desirable arraiiL'^cmeiil. see- 
 iuLT how earl)' a regiment commences its march in 
 thai country. 
 
 HALTER. — A litad-stall and strap by which an 
 animal is hitched to a stan<'liion or maniter. The 
 halter was anciently used, .-md is ohown in tlie sculp- 
 tures of Nimroud. The army is represented in the 
 act of crossing a riviT, and Ibe horses ar<' hallered 
 behind the sterns of Ibi' boats, swinuning iu the 
 wake. 
 
 HALTING DAYS.- Till' days in the week usually 
 allotted for repose, when troops are upon the inarch, 
 and there is not any particular necessity for exertion 
 or dispatch. 
 
 HALYARDS. — The ropes used in hoisting and low- 
 ering Hags. Signal halyards arc running cords of the 
 best wliilc lieni]), (lassing through a pulley at the lop 
 of the llag-slalT ; the Hags wbcMi attached lo them are 
 rolled up. and then hoisted and expanded to the 
 wind by a jerk when the ])roper moment arrives. 
 
 HAMATA. — A tle.xible cuiras composed of metal 
 cliains, .Mnd first worn by cavalry soldiers in the time 
 of I'lilybius. See Oiiinmnnd Mtiil. 
 
 HAMES. — Two pieces of iron encircling a horse's 
 collar, cdimected at the bottom by an iron loop, and 
 at Ihe top by a strap ami buckle. .\lla<-hed to the 
 liamcs are iron luiis lo wliich the traces are linked. 
 HAMMER.— 1. That part of a gun-lock which 
 strikes tlie percussion-cap or tiring-pin. It works 
 on a spring called the liiimmer-spring. i. The 
 term is also applied to instruments in very general 
 use for driving and drawing nails, beating out 
 metals, etc. For many puri)oses, hammers are re- 
 (juired of greater weight than man could wielil : 
 and a great variety of power-hammers are used. 
 These, for the most part, are masses of iron raised 
 by steam or other power, and then allowed to 
 fall by their own gravity upon the work. The 
 helve or shingling luimme>\ tised for compressing 
 the mass of iron drawn from lite puddling fur- 
 nace, and the tilt-hammer, used iu the manufactur- 
 ing of shear-steel, are important examples of 
 such hammers. The first is a heavy l)ar of cast- 
 iron about 10 feet long, weighing 3 or 4 tons and 
 upwards, to which is attached a head of wrought- 
 iron faced with steel, weighing nearly half a ton 
 more. It works upon an a.xis at the end of the 
 l)ar furthest from the head, and is raised by cams 
 attached to a heavy wlieel set in motion by steam 
 or water-power; these cams strike or "lick" a 
 projection extending beyond the head, and thus 
 raise it about 18 or 20 inches at the rale of TO 
 to 100 times per minute. The tilt-hammer is 
 similar, but much lighter, and is adapted for 
 striking above 300 blows per minute. In order 
 to obtain this velocity a short "tail" extends 
 ■■A'ilh a downward inclination beyond the axis, and 
 the cams strike tliis downwards, and thus lift the 
 longer arm of the lever to which the head is at- 
 tiuiied. These, when worked by steam, as they 
 usually are in this country, are, of course, steam- 
 hammers ; but when the term steam-hammer is used 
 without qualification, it applies to another and more 
 elaborate machine of very different construction, 
 invented by ]\Ir. James Xasmyth in 1842. and sub- 
 sequently modified and improved in some of its 
 minor details. In this, the hammer is attached to 
 the bottom of a heavv mass of iron, the "hammer- 
 
 block," rapahle of rising and falling between upright 
 bars or " guides "; this, again, is lixed lo the rod of 
 a piston, which works in a cylinder ]>laced per- 
 pendicularly over the hammer-block, hammer, and 
 anvil. As Ihe [)islon rises in the cylinder, it lifts the 
 attached mass, which is then allowed to fall from 
 varying lieights, according to an adjustment whicli 
 can be made by an attendant simply toinhing u 
 handle. The adjustments are so perfect that il may 
 be nuide to crush u mass of iron, anri at the next 
 blow to crack a nut held in the fingers without 
 damaging eilher kernel or fingers, or to crack tlie 
 top of an <'gg in an egg-cup. as might be rlone with 
 the bowl of a n|)oou. The mechanism by which 
 this is effected is loo elaborate lo be described hero 
 in detail. (Jne novel contrivance, vi/., the " latch," 
 which reverses the action of the .steam valves at the 
 precise moment required, is of remarkable ingenu- 
 ity. See StiinnJiinnvier. 
 
 "hammer cloth.— When the aparejo is placed 
 on the back of a i)ack-iinimal, it is covered with a 
 piece of canvas or matting, made to lit it. called tin- 
 lIiDniiier-i-bith. Two pieces of hard wood, about 1 
 inch thick. 2 inches wide, 20 inches long, round on 
 the outside and beveled to an edge at Ihe ends, are 
 placed about (i inches from the end of the cloth. 
 Leather caps are stitched over the ends rif the wood. 
 To secure the hammer-cUith, aparejo anil Ihe blan- 
 kets beneath it lo the animal, a wide girth. <alle(l a 
 cincha or cinch, is used. It is made of hide or 
 strong canvas, about feet long (a lillle too short 
 to go around the nude's body over the aparejo), from 
 1,5 to 20 inches wide, and so folded as to bring tin; 
 edges and stitching in the center. A .semi-circular 
 piece of leather, provided with holes or a ring, is 
 stitched on one end, and two loops of strong leather 
 and a slider of hard wood on the other. The cinch 
 is tightened by drawing the two ends together, by 
 
 means of what is known as the latigo.strap — made 
 of strong bridle-leather about feet long, an inch 
 and one-half wide at one end and tapering to one- 
 half inch at the other. When the strap is suflicienlly 
 drawn, a loop is formed in the free end and the bow 
 is pulled under the front and back lashings of the 
 strap. To relax the cinch and set all free, it is only 
 necessary to pull on the free end of the strap. For 
 very small animals a short cinch fone end furnished 
 with a ring and the other with a stick, bent into the 
 shape of a hook), attached to a rope at the ring may 
 be used. See Aparejo and Packing.
 
 HAMMEE-NAIL. 
 
 6 
 
 HAND-ABMS. 
 
 HAMMER-NAIL.— The pin securing the cock to 
 
 the jilate of the irun-lock. It is freqvie'ntly called the 
 hx'k-nic'l. 
 
 HAMMER -PIKE.— A long-shafted weapon, like 
 the icar-fuimm^r. It was carried by the subalterns 
 in charge of the flag under the First Empire (1804- 
 1814). 
 
 HAMMER-SPRING.— The spring of a hammer in a 
 gun-lork. Its parts are the play-side, the i<Uid-side. 
 the turn, the flitwer. tlie xtnd, and the eye ; through 
 the latter passes the rod of the spriug-pin. 
 
 HAMMOCK. — A kind of bed suspended on land, 
 between trees or posts ; on board ship, between hooks. 
 Each soldier proceeding to sea on board a troop or 
 transport-ship is entitled to have a hammock told off 
 to him as a resting-place of a night. The hanmiock 
 suspended forms a sort of bag capable of containing 
 the soldier's mattress, his blankets, and himself, as 
 soon as he has acquired the far from easy knack of 
 climbing into it. The lunumocks are taken below 
 at sunset, and hung in rows about 3 feet apart, in 
 the men's portion ()f the ship. When done with in 
 the morning, the bedding is carefully tied up within 
 each, and the whole stowed in the hammock-netting, 
 which is generally in the bulwarks of the waist. If 
 the weather be not sufficiently dry, however, to 
 allow of this, the hammocks are left lielow. Stowed 
 thus in the netting, the hammocks form a strong 
 barrier against small shot. 
 
 HANAPIER. — The front part of a cuirass, or iron 
 breast-plate worn by light-armed soldiers. Also 
 written Hanepier. 
 
 HAND. — 1. The small of a gun-stock. 2. A mea- 
 sure four inches in length. The height of a liorse is 
 comp\ited by so many bauds and inches. 
 
 HAND -ARBALEST .—A portable balista used in 
 ancient Greece, very much like the cross-bow of the 
 Middle Ages. 
 
 HAND-ARMS. —Hand-arms arc usually divided 
 into three classes, depending on their mode of opera- 
 tion. 1st. Thfustlng-i\Tms, which act by the point. 
 2d. Ontting-nTma, which act by the edge. 3d. 
 Thrusting and Cutting-arms, which act cither way. 
 The object of all hand-weapons is to penetrate, 
 directly, the person of an enemy. They may be di- 
 vided into three distinct parts, viz. : 1st. The point, 
 or edge, which attains the object ; 2d. The body, or 
 blade, which constitutes the mass of the weapon, 
 and transmits the force of the hand to the object; 
 and, 3d. The handle, or point of application of the 
 motive force. The meclianical principles to which 
 they may be referred, are lever and wedge. With 
 a given force of the hand, acting against a given 
 object, the penetration of a thrusting-weapon de- 
 pends upon the power of the H-edge formed at its 
 point. The effect will be modified, however, by the 
 position of the axis of the wedge, for if it do not co- 
 incide with the direction of the impelling force, 
 tliere will be a component force which acts to turn 
 the point to one side. The blade of a thrusting- 
 weapon should, therefore, be straight, and should 
 taper to a point. To guide it easily, the center .of 
 gravity should be found in or near the handle ; this 
 may be accomplished by grooving the blade, by 
 making the handle heavy, or by adding a counter- 
 poise to it. 
 
 The principal thrusting-wcapons are the straiglit 
 KWird, hinn, and li'iyinat. The straight swords as 
 well as other swords, are composed of the Idude, thi' 
 ' hilt, and the guard. The blade is divided into the 
 point, the middle, the reinforce, the shovldfr, the 
 tnng, or portion which is inserted into the handle, 
 and the grunves, the number of which is equal to the 
 number of faces, or, from two to four. The length 
 of blade varies from 30 to 33 inches, the widlli is 
 from I to ■; of an inch, an<l the weight I to \l ll)s. 
 The hill is (lividi-d into the 1,-n'ih, and the gri)ie ; the 
 gripe is generally ma<leof wood, covered with leather 
 or sheel-brass, and wrapped with wire to give it 
 roughness, and prevent it from slipping in the hand. 
 
 The guard is composed of the rjirvid branch and cross- 
 piece, and the plate, all joined in one piece. The 
 object of the guard is to protect the hand, tlie plate 
 to ward fiff the point, and the brancli, the edge of 
 the enemy's sword. The irounds made by thrusting- 
 swords, particularly those with three or four concave 
 sides, are very dangerous, as they close up externally 
 and suppurate internally. In experienced hands the 
 straight sword is well adapted to encounter one of 
 its kind, but it is too weak to parry the blows of a 
 saber. It is now but little used in this country, ex- 
 cept for ornamental purposes : the saber being pre- 
 ferred as a service weapon, even for infantry officers. 
 The lance, or pike, is composed of a sharp steel 
 blade, fixed to the end of a long and slender handle 
 of wood. The bleide is generalh- from 8 to 10 inches 
 
 j long, and, in order that it may combine stiffness 
 with lightness, is grooved after the manner of the 
 common bayonet, leaving three orfoiir ridges. The 
 
 , base of the blade has a socket, and two iron straps, 
 
 ■ for securing it to the handle. Three small .staples 
 are sometimes fastened to the handle, below the 
 blade, for the purpose of attaching a, pennon, which 
 serves as an ornament, and to frighten the enemy's 
 horses. The handle is made of strong, light, well- 
 seasoned wood. The lower end is protected with a 
 tip of iron, and a leather loop is attached opposite the 
 center of gravity, to enable the arm to carry and 
 guide the lance. The total length of a lance varies 
 from 8j to 11 feet, and the weight is about 4i lbs. 
 On horseback, and when not in use, the lance may 
 be carried in two ways : 1st. Bj' placing the lower 
 end in a leather boot attached to the stirrup, and 
 passing the right arm through the leather loop. 2d. 
 By placing the lower end in the boot and strapping 
 the handle to the pommel of the saddle. The first 
 mode enables the horseman to take his lance with 
 him when he dismounts, and is well sinted to liglit 
 lances. The second mode is necessary to heavy 
 lances. In the first shock of a cavalry charge, and 
 in the pursuit of a flying enemy, the lance is a 
 superior weapon to the saber, as it has a greater 
 penetration, and attains its object at a greater dis- 
 tance : but in the hand-to-hand conflict following 
 a charge, the latter is superior to the former. Hence, 
 it has been customary in certain services to arm a 
 portion of both light and heavy cavalry with the 
 lance. In the Russian service, the front rank of the 
 cuirassiers, a species of heavy cavalry, is armed with 
 the lance, and the rear rank with thehmg two-edged 
 saber : and in nearly every Etiropean service, the 
 lancers constitute an inqiortant part of the cavalry 
 organizatiim. It is also a favorite weapon with the 
 mounted Indians of this country. 
 
 The bayonet is a pointed blade, attached to the 
 end of the fire-arm, to ccmvcrt it into a pike. The 
 mode of attachment should be such that the bayonet 
 will not interfere with the loading, aiming, and 
 firing of the piece : and it shotdd be so secure as 
 not to be disengaged in conflict. The inusk(t-hayo. 
 net is c<Hiii)osed of a blade, a socket, and a ela.tp. The 
 blade of this bayonet is made of steel. 18 inches long, 
 and, to give it lightness and stiffness, its three faces, 
 are grooved in the direction of the length. The 
 grooves arc technically called flutes. The blade is 
 
 i joined to the socket by Die «(rt, which should be 
 si rung, and free from all defects of workmanship. 
 Tile s'ickit is made of \vroughl-iron, carefully bored 
 oul to fit the barrel of the jiirce easily, and at the 
 same time closely. It is secured by a stud (brazed 
 on the barrel), wlu<'h fits into a crooked channel, or 
 groore. cut in the socket, and by a movable ring 
 called the cla-tp. Short artns such as carbines and 
 musketoons are sometimes furnished with bayonets 
 <if sullicieni length to enable lliese arms lo resist a 
 charge of infantry or cavalry. .Sucli bay<inels are 
 generally made in the form of a sword. The back 
 of the handle has a groove which fits upon a stud on 
 
 i the liarrel, and the eros.s-piecc of the handle is per- 
 forated so as to encircle the muzzle-end of the
 
 HAND ARMS. 
 
 / 
 
 HAND ABM8. 
 
 barrel 'Plu' biiyimct is prcvciilcd from slippint; ofV fixcil, niiiy be uscil «h a poiKnanl, for the personal 
 bv a spriin' iiiK'li. The handle is made of a solid 'defense of I licr soldier. The bayoncd <-ontribiile» 
 nie<c .)f l.n.ss, wilh a liole runninir Ihrou;;!. il for , very much lo the elllcieney of a military (ire-arm, 
 the lanir of Ihe l)lade, which is secured by riveiin}; 1 particularly as il enables infantry to resist cavalry, 
 down the poinl. The l)»ck of the blade "is turned i Too much attention cannot be paid in t.'a.hing 
 toward the barrel, and the body is bent outward, I troops the use of this arm, and inspiring them with 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 that neither may interfere with Ihe hand in loadins. 
 Its length is about 28 inches, and its breadth 1^ 
 inches.' The sirdrd-hnyontt is too heavy to be car- 
 ried habitually fixed to the barrel: ordinarily it is 
 carried as a side-arm. for which purpose it is well 
 adapted, as it has a curved eulliuLl-edire, as well as 
 
 confidence in it. for it verj' often decides the fate 
 of a battle. 
 
 That edge of a cutting-arm will have the greatest 
 penetration which opposes the fewest points to its 
 object : a lilade with a convex edge, will, therefore. • 
 have sreater penetration than a straight one. The 
 
 a sharp point. The regulatiuu bayonet, when not effect of a cutting-blade will be moditied by the
 
 HANS ABMS. 
 
 8 
 
 HAND-ABKLS. 
 
 manner it is applied to the surface of the object ; an 
 oblique stroke, for iuslauce. will make a deeper cut 
 than a direct one. If the edge of the sharpest blade 
 be submitted to a microscope, it will present to the 
 eye numerous asperities, which give it the appear- 
 ance of the cutting-edge of a saw ; it is evident, 
 therefore, that the motive force should act obliquely 
 to the cutting-edge of the blade, as that enables it to 
 rupture the layers of flesh upon which it acts, in de- 
 
 glirtn of the Arabs, the shape of which is that of an 
 elongated letter S. The facility of handling a saber, 
 and the eileet of its blow, depend upon the relative 
 positions of the lidiiiUe. the center of gnirity. the 
 point iif contact, and the cmter of percussion. The 
 nearer the center of gravity is to the point of contact, 
 the more powerful will l)e the blow ; but the dif- 
 liculty of handling increases with the distance of the 
 center of gravity from the handle. As the force of 
 
 tail, and without expending its force U]ion the elas- 
 ticity of several layers at oiiec. which \vo\dil lie the 
 case were it to act directly upon tlie objccl. When 
 the curvature of a blade is convex on tlie cutting- 
 side, the iiart near the point makes a deeper cut 
 wh(ii it is pushed from the hand that moves it, as 
 will l)e the case with the l)lows delivered in a charge 
 of cavalry. On the contrary, a conrnrr cutting-edge, 
 like th.-it of a sickle, acts most favorably when it is 
 drawn toward the person using it ; such is the yatn- 
 
 the blow is the iinportant consideration in a saber, 
 anil the facility of hiindling in a tlirusling-sword, it is 
 cusloiiiary to r.iake (he point of the lilaile heavier, 
 and tlie handle lighlcr, in llie former than in the 
 latter. In cerl'iin light cavalry sabers, the center of 
 gravity is placed about three or four inches from the 
 handle. In order that no part of the force be lost, 
 the point of contact should coincide with the center 
 of percussion; the position of the latter point, how- 
 ever, depends upon the weight of the soldier's arm.
 
 HAND BABBOW. 
 
 HAND OBENADE. 
 
 if motion lakes i)la(i- iiimiMil llic shoulder, and it 
 therefore varies in piirlieiilar cases. 'I'he |)riiiei|)al 
 {•ultiiiL^- weapon is Ihe sah<T. The eutt.iiijj:-e(li;<- is 
 ftenerally convex ; anil Ihe deijree of its cnrvatnre is 
 the charaeleristie fi-alnre of th<' weapon. The 
 nonienclatnre of Ihe salier is nearly Ihe same as for 
 tlie sword, the principal dilTereni'c bc'in;.; in Ihe 
 strueliire of the uuard, which is maile liLdiler or 
 lieavier, as llie salier approximales Ihe character of a 
 <Miltinv: or llirustinL!:-weapon. There are two kinds 
 of sabers used in the Iniled Stales service, viz.: 
 ihv riirii/n/ «ii/>i r. and the l'i/lil-iifl!ili'n/ mlii'r. The 
 cniui/n/ sii/iir lieiii',' nscd, to a certain extent, for 
 pointinj; as well as eutlini;. has only a moderate de- 
 gree of curvature, a lon^ blade (Hti inches;, and a 
 "basket-hilt" to protect the hand from the point of 
 the eiH'iny's sword, and to carry Ihe center of j;rav- 
 ity toward the handle. The irnard is coniposi'il of 
 the front, iiiithllr. and Inich bninches. The icrijie is 
 covered with calfskin, and bnnnd with wire. The 
 liglit-iirtilli I'll H'llfr beinir used more particularly ff)r 
 hand-to-hand contlicls. has a shorter CM inches') and 
 more curved blade, and a lighter handle than the 
 cavalry saber. The ;;nard is composed of a sins;le 
 piece of brass, terminatin!; in a scroll. The blades 
 of all sabres arc grooved, to sjive them lightness. In 
 cerlain services it is customary to arm the heaviest 
 cavalry, or cuirassiers, with swords which are capa- 
 ble of coping with the liayonet or lance. The blades 
 are long (from ;jti to 40 inehcsj, liglit, and straight, 
 and they have a sharj) [loint, and a single cutting- 
 edge. The hilt is heavy, and of the basket form. 
 The only weapon of the thrusting and cutting class 
 used in the United States service is the foot-artillery 
 ,swi>rd, which resembles Ihe short Homan sword in 
 its character. The blade has two I'ulting-edges, is 
 liglitened toward Ihc' handle, and is 19 inches long. 
 Tlie guard is a simple cross-piece, formed of the 
 same piece as the handle, which is made of brass. 
 Fiirures 1 and 'I represent a variety of hand-arms, as 
 manufactured in Ihi' I'nited States. See Small-dnnn. 
 
 HAND BARROW.— A wooden frame which is car- 
 ried around liy Iwo men, instead of being rolled for- 
 ward, like a wheel-barrow. Those empioyed in Ihe 
 <>rilnani-e Department are very useful in the erec- 
 tion of forlitications, as well as carrying shells and 
 shot along the trenches. Tiie ends of the side-rails 
 are rounded and form the handles. Hope netting 
 pas.ses thnnigh lioles in the side-rails and joins them. 
 The weight of this barrow is about 20 pounds. 
 
 HAND BOARD. A board used in the laboratory 
 in rolling pn'rt-tire cases and similar work. 
 
 HAND CANNON. -.\ rudely made weapon of the 
 fourteenth century. It was made-of wrought. iron, 
 iin 1 fastened to a piece of rough wood, so that it 
 could not be t)rought to Ihe shoulder. At first, the 
 touch-hole was on top of the cannon, and had a 
 covering plate on hing<'s to preserve it from damp. 
 A little later the touch-hole was placed to the right 
 of the cannon. See Ilnrl,h}iKli. 
 
 HAND CART.— .\ light hand-truck used for the 
 transpcirlalion of light stores from one part of a work 
 to another. That for carrying powder, fuses, and 
 such like articles has an arched lid-cover to keep ofl 
 rain and prevent accidents from tire. The form 
 mostly used in the United States service consists of 
 a light body with shafts, nuiunted on two wheels. 
 The shafts are joined together at the ends, and sup- 
 ported immediately in front of the body by iron legs. 
 It weighs ISO jiomids, and is very handy for the 
 transportation of light stores in siege and garrison 
 service. The drawing shows a very convenient cart, 
 having two main fixed wheels and two heavy cast- 
 ors. This form is much used in transporting the 
 heavier stores about the Armorv and Arsenal. 
 
 HANDCUFF.— A fetter to secure the hands togeth- 
 er. IlanileulTs are maih' of iron, ring-shaped, with 
 a lock attached, ami just large enough to keep on 
 the wrists without hurting them. Men who have 
 deserted the service are usually manacled in this 
 
 iminner wiien being removed from one place to uii- 
 olher. 
 
 HAND CULVERIN. A small well-made cannon of 
 Ihe llfleirilli reiilury. The nialch was fasteni'il to the 
 weapiiM il;>eir, and was held by the Sfrjitntiii, a sort 
 of small lin-liick. 
 
 HAND FEED MILLING-MACHINE. -A machine 
 much used in the Armory for the rapid manipulation 
 of small work, in tlu' fabrication of fire-arms. etc. 
 The machine is llie same as the automatic machine, 
 
 <■(! Milliiii: maclinie. 
 
 with the exception of the automatic-feed being re- 
 ])laeed by the hand-feed, which is operated by a lever 
 fastened to the pinion-shaff, giving a very direct mo- 
 tion and (|nick return. Adjustable stops are placed 
 on the table for regulating the motion. The machine 
 
 Hand-cart. 
 
 is usually funiished with a vise and a dividing-head, 
 and is arranged for cutting gears anil jiinions either 
 on centers or in a spring-chuck. The counter-shaft 
 hangers are generally adjustable and self-oiling. See 
 Milling. 
 
 HANDFUL. — A term used figuratively, in a military 
 sense, til denote a comparatively small mmiber ; as, 
 ".\ handful of men." 
 
 HAND GALLOP. — A very slow and easy Gallop, in 
 which the haml ])resses the bridle to hinder increase 
 of s[>eeil. 
 
 HAND GRENADE.-.Hand-grenades consist of small 
 cvliudrical-shaped shells, with conical ends, fitted 
 with a plunger at the striking-end, and a directing- 
 feather at the other. The plunger tits loosely info 
 the cavity in the forward part of the shell, and is 
 made to project two or three inches beyond its face, 
 being retained in place by a light spring : it has at- 
 tached to its outer end a circular piece of sheet-iron 
 several inches in diameter. .Vt the bottom of tlie 
 cavitv in which the ])Umger is placed a nipple is
 
 HAND LATHE. 
 
 10 
 
 HAHD-IEVEL. 
 
 fixed, conimunicatmg with the bursting-charge, on 
 Avliich is placed an ordinary pereussion-cap, whicli 
 is exploded when the plunger is driven in violently, 
 thereby igniting the charge. There are three sizes 
 of grenades, 1, 3. and 5 pounds, and are intended 
 to be thrown by the hand, and may be very effect- 
 
 of the 13-inch engine-lathe. Hand-latlies swinging 13 
 inches, are of similar construction, with the excep- 
 tion that the boxes are of the same material and st3'le 
 as those of the 8-incli. The holes through the centers 
 of the spindles are for 12-inch lathes, ,"j-inch dia- 
 
 Countershafts should 
 
 ivelv used in repelling attacks by boats or by persons 
 well sheltered against others completel.y exposed. 
 
 Ketchiun's liand-grenadc, which has lately been 
 intr(jduced into the American service, is a small, 
 oblong percussion shell, which explodes on striking 
 a slightly resisting object. To prevent accidents, 
 the "plunger," or piece of metal which communi- 
 cates the shock to tlie percussion cap, is not inserted 
 in its place imtil the moment before the grenade is 
 to be thrown. See Grenade, Projectiles, and Ra/m- 
 part-grennde. 
 
 HAND LATHE.— A small lathe mounted on a bench 
 or till lie and lurned by a hand-crank or by a bow. 
 It is usually portable, and may be secured by a clamp 
 to the bench. It is extensively used in the Armory 
 in making the sm.all parts of small-arms. The draw- 
 ing shows the Pratt and Whitney 8-inch hand-lathe, 
 as employed in most gun-factories in the United 
 States. The cone has fovir grades, for li-inch belt ; 
 the spindle has extra large bearings, in gun-metal 
 boxes, and has a hole through its center i|-inch in 
 diameter. The boxes are seated in tapering recesses, 
 and are s]ilit, so that any possible wear may be taken 
 up by means of cap-nuts. The caii-nuts contain felt 
 linings, to prevent the introduction of dust, or <if 
 emery, when the lathe is used for polishing. A hand 
 lever for actuating the foot-stock spindle is furnished, 
 in addition to the hand-wheel and screw, or without 
 hand-wheel iind screw. The lathe with 3()-inch bed, 
 receives 12 inches between centers, and weighs, with 
 the countcrsliafi, 340 lbs. Speeil of countershaft. 
 with 7 by 2.1-inch tight and loose pulleys, 320 revolu- 
 tions per minute. Larger lathes of this pattern are 
 also used on the larger parts of small-arms. A 15- 
 inch hanil-lathe has a cone carrying a 2|-inch belt. 
 The head-spindle has large bearings, in cast-iron 
 boxes lined with Babbit-metal of the best quality. 
 The face-plate and centers interchange with those 
 
 have speed as follows • For 12-incTi lathe, tight and 
 loose pulleys 6 or 8 by %k inches, 200 to 250'revolu- 
 tions per minute ; for LVinch lathe, tight and loose 
 pulleys 8 or 13 by three inches, ITf) to 2.50 revolu- 
 tions per minute. See Lathe. 
 
 HAND-LEVEL.— A small and portable instrument 
 for indicating a horizontal line, or determining the 
 positicm as to borizontality of an object or surface to 
 whicli it is applied. The drav%ing represents Locke's 
 Iiand-Ievel. a very accurate and suitable' instrument 
 for general reconnaissance-work. It consists of a 
 brass tube about six inches long, having a small 
 level on top and near the object end. there being also 
 an opening in the tube beneath, through which the 
 bubble can lie seen, as reflected by a glass jirisiii, 
 immediatelv under the level. Both ends of the tul e 
 
 HnncM.'vel 
 
 are closed by plain glass settings to exclude the dust, 
 and there is in the inner end of the sliding or eye- 
 tube a semicircular convex lens, which serves to 
 magnify the level-liubble, and cross-wire uiiderneath, 
 wliile it allows the object to be clearly seen through 
 11ieo]ien lialf of the tulie. 'I'lie cross-wire is fastened 
 to a little frame moving under the level-tube and ad- 
 justed to its place by the small .screw, shown on the 
 edge of the level case. The level of any object in 
 line with the eye of the oliscrver is determined by 
 sighting upon it through the tidie and bringing the 
 air-liublile of the level into a position where it is bi- 
 sected by the cross-wire. A short telescope is some
 
 HAND MALLET. 
 
 11 
 
 HAMS TBAV2UN0 CKANE. 
 
 tiriii-H:i|i|ilic(l in place of the phi in iiliisHcnilH, thus cna- 
 bliiiLC l<'vcls U> he laki'ii ill ij;ri-iilcr disliiiicc iiml with 
 incrrMscd arcurac\'. See ('l/fi"iftitrr. and )' Lit'ii. 
 
 HAND MALLET. -A vvorjilcii haMiincr with a han- 
 dle. Id ilrivi' I'lises, (ir picki^lH, etc., in iiiakiii^ fas- 
 cines III' naliion lialleries. 
 
 HAND RUBBING. - 'Ph(^ inani|)iiliili(in which a 
 horse'rt Icsih uiiderL;c) on th<! inarcii ami el.Mcwlicrc, 
 chielly at f<'ediiii; time, and which shmild \n: con- 
 tinued fur alii>ul Ull niinutcH at eai-li meal. 
 
 HAND SLING CART. - A two-wheeled c,irriaK<' 
 , made entirely of iron, except the pole, which is of 
 Louk. The axlu-lrce ia arched to make it stronger, 
 
 llftiul SliilK-cart. 
 
 and connected with the pole by strong wrouiiht-iron 
 straps and linices. In tlie rear of the axle a jirojec- 
 tion is welded to receive the end of a stronir hook. 
 The end of the iiole terminates in a ferrule and an 
 eye. The eye serves the ])urpose of attaeliin;; to thi' 
 carl, when neee<-;:ir\ , a liniheror a horse. 'I'lie liiaiii- 
 
 raisinj; heavy weijrhts and in movinj; (funs into 
 position for loading; and lirin;^. The <r«/niandspike 
 for Held carriai;es is .IIJ inches in len;;lli ; the rnaii- 
 KiiKiriiKj handspike for garrison and sea-coast ear- 
 riaffcs ami for ]f^\\\* is f!() inches; for siejfir and other 
 heavy work it is made 84 inches lonj; and 12 llis. 
 weight; the kIukI liandspike is particularly useful in 
 the service of mortars and casemate anil harhette 
 carriages; tlie tnifk handspike for casemate car- 
 riages, of wrought-iron ; the mllr handspike, for 
 casemate carriages. It is made of iron, 1 imh 
 round, the point conical, whole length IM inchi'S. 
 
 HANDSPIKE RINGS. The tliiiiil.les (,n llie trail 
 transoms nf ;;uii-. for the handspike, by which they 
 are inaneu\ered. 
 
 HAND TRAVELING CRANE.— The most satisfac- 
 tory const ruction of this crane, us exhibited in the 
 engraving, has the mechanism attached to one end 
 of the bridge so that the operator is somewhat re- 
 moved from the load, thus adapting it es]iecially to 
 foundry use. The bridge is arranged to travel 
 lengthwise upon the longitudinal tracks, and the 
 trolley to move transversely upon the bridge, so that 
 the entire rec'tangiilar space between the tracks is 
 covered by the i-rane. Cranes of this design are 
 liuilt of any desired capacity up to 10 tons, and of 
 any span. The crab containing the operating me- 
 chanism is permanently secured to the under side of 
 tlie bridge at one end, and is located entirely below 
 il, ...j lli:it llii- liriil'M' 1:111 111' |il:irrd clu-r to the 
 
 n.infl Trav 
 
 eter of the wheel is six feet. The hand sling-cart 
 is designed for moving light weights and siege-pieces 
 in the trenches by hand. The weight is raised by 
 first attaching to it a sling, and then applying to the 
 sl'ug the hook upon the rear of the a.xle, by raising 
 the pole of the cart. The pole is used as a lever, 
 the axle and wheels being the fulcrum. It may be 
 nsed for any weights not exceeding 6.000 pounds. 
 See (Inrrisnn Slhi(]-''<trt and Sling-cnrt. 
 
 HANDSPIKE.— A wooden or iron lever, flattened 
 at one end and tapering towards the other, used in 
 
 plinir-criino. 
 
 underside of roof or ceiling. The trolley travels upon 
 tracks on top of the bridge, and its sides extend 
 downward close to the bridge, with the chain 
 sheaves contained between them, thus giving the 
 maximum amount of hoist. The Weston tixed- 
 cable system is employed to effect the squaring of 
 the bridge and its lougiludinal motion upon the 
 
 i overhead tracks. The travel of the trolley upon the 
 bridge is effected by an independent mechanism, 
 ojierated by an endless hand-chain from the floor 
 
 I below, in a manner similar to that employed in the
 
 HANDLE. 
 
 12 
 
 UARBOE DEFENSES. 
 
 jili cranes. Motion of the bridffc is also effected by 
 an endless liand-chiiin or rope passinsr over another 
 rope-wheel. Pnllin;:; one side of this chain causes 
 the bridge to move in one direction, and pulling the 
 other causes it to move in the opposite direction. 
 At each end of the crab, or housing containing the 
 operatmg mechanism, are similar rope-wheels, o- 
 ver cach^of which passes an endless rope or chain. 
 Pulling either of these in one direction causes hoist- 
 in", and in the other, lowering. One is larger than 
 the other, thus giving two speeds ; while, by pulling 
 both simultaneously, an additional speed is obtained. 
 The several motions of hoisting or lowering, and of 
 moving the bridge or trolley, may each be effected 
 independently or simultaneously. 
 
 The hoistiiig-gear consists of cut steel worms en- 
 gaging with cul worm-wheels, with provision for 
 thorough lubrication. The main hoisting-chain is 
 endles.s" and passes over pocketed chain-wheels, by 
 wliich it is driven, the arrangment of parts being 
 such as to distribute the wear equally throughout 
 the entire length of this chain. A safety device, con- 
 sisting of automatic friction-ratchets in combination 
 with flie worm-shafts, is employed, so that the load 
 is always self-sustained in any position and cannot 
 ruji down. Lowering is effected by reversing the 
 motion of the hoisting-chains. The location of the 
 mechanism at one end of the bridge removes the 
 operator from proximity to the load, which is, of 
 course, desirable in handling ladles of hot metal, and 
 in lifting large flasks, etc. While particularly de- 
 signed for foundry use, this type of crane is equally 
 siutable for use in forges and for many <3f the same 
 purposes as other cranes. See Cranes, Power Tror- 
 veUng-'-rnni', and Travel! ng-crnrif. 
 
 HANDLE. —The portion of a tool, or implement, by 
 which it is grasped. As—Mveoi a hammer or axe: 
 the haft of a knife ; the hilt of a sword : the stock 
 of a drill, bit, or gun: the nhaft of a spear, lance, or 
 hiirpoon : the rniii/c of a winch or crab : the pommel of 
 a saddle; the trigger of a gun-lock : and the dolphin 
 of a gun. In bronze guns of the old construction 
 hanifles were usually cast over the center of gravity 
 of the piece, for convenience of handling and sling- 
 ing. These were made in the shape of a fish, and 
 hence were called dolphins. 
 
 HANDLE ARMS.— In the earlier tactics, a word of 
 comiuiind (when the men were at ordered arms), by 
 whir'h tile soldier was directed to bring his right 
 luiiid brisklv to the muzzle of his lire-lock. 
 
 hanged! drawn, and QUAfiTEEED.— The de- 
 scription of the capital sentence on a traitor, which 
 consisted of drawing him on a hurdle to the place of | 
 execution, and after hanging him dividing the body ; 
 into quarters. This punishment was substituted, 
 for the ancient more barbarous sentence of disem- 
 boweling alive, but the Crown has power to reduce 
 the sentence to simple lieheading. 
 
 HANGER. — .V term applieil to a short broadsword, 
 inrurvaled towards the ]ioint. The hanger^ was a 
 Tiirkisli sword formerly worn by the Janissaries. 
 
 HANG FIRE.—Tlie term is applied when a gun is 
 slow in discharging itself, from the flame being 
 checked in its passage to the charge, either from the 
 vent lieing fouled or the charge being damp. The 
 former c:in scarcely happen now, :is the friction tube 
 <-oiivi-ys llic flame "to tlie cliarge with great certainty. 
 
 HANTE. — The Frcixli name for an ornamental 
 pikr, having a lianniT iittached. 
 
 HAQUETON. -A padded or quilted tunic worn by 
 arriiiil warriors in the Middle Ages. It was worn 
 bi'iii;ith the mail and was slightly longer than the 
 h'i>ih:'rk. 
 
 HAR.— A syllable used in composition usually as 
 a prilix, and signifying '//•/«//:- -occurring in various 
 form-, as liore. Ii 
 
 Tl 
 
 ;in arrn\. 
 
 HARANES 
 gariaii Militia. 
 
 HARASS. In th 
 
 and here; as liarisvalt, leader of 
 French designation of the Ilun- 
 militarv. Iln' a'i of :nniovingand 
 
 incessantly pursuing or lianging on to the rear and 
 flanks of a retreating force, so as, if possible, to 
 prevent its attaining its object, and perhaps over- 
 coming the enemy altogether. Kotwithstandingtlic 
 disadvantage which a retreating army has under 
 these circumstances, history affords us examplea 
 that if the retreat be conducted by an able Com- 
 mander, he has it in his power, by his ingenuity and 
 other military qualities, to avoid the enemy. 1)y get- 
 ting into inaccessible places, or by so disposing of 
 Ills troops as to make it hazardous for a pursuing 
 army to follow him up. or any 'onger to endeavor 
 to harass liini. 
 
 HARBOR DEFENSES.- The entrance to a harbor 
 may be considered, and is in fact, a defile, the de- 
 fense of which follows the rules applicable to defiles 
 generally. The means usually emjiloyed to prevent 
 the passage of hostile ships ;ire diviiled into three 
 classes, viz.: 1st. Forts and land-liatteries ; 2d. Sub- 
 marine mines : 3d. Floating defenses. Whenever 
 practicable, batteries sliould be well strung out in 
 groups, the strength of which should increase as they 
 are approached from the outside. This arrangement 
 has a peculiarly discouraging effect on an enemy. 
 The first batteries will at least damage him and 
 cause confusion, thus weakening his attack on the 
 stronger, and when his discomfiture finally takes 
 place, the batteries already passed will prevent his 
 return and insure his total destruction. The islands, 
 headlands, and narrows usnall_y found at the en- 
 trances of harbors will generally, to a greater or less 
 degree, enable this arrangement to be carried out. 
 Experience teaches that where the channel is unob- 
 structed steam-vessels can run past shore batteries, 
 however well the latter may lie served. But, on the 
 other hand, where obstructions to their rapid transit 
 exist, thej' have not the endurance and aggressive 
 power to effect much damage to land defenses. In 
 the smoke of battle and tideway of the channel they 
 become immanageable, get agroimd, or collide with 
 each other. 
 
 It is a well-settled fact that a hostile fleet, by con- 
 centrating its fire on an open work, may temporarily 
 silence its guns. For this reason the accunnilation 
 of guns in works exposed to such concentration 
 should be avoided by distributing them in batteries, 
 each containing but few pieces, due regard being had 
 to their security from assault and capture by any 
 force that may be landed for that purpose. The best 
 arrangement is to place them in detached batteries 
 of, say. 2, 4, or 6 pieces each, well secured 
 from the enemy's fire by earthen ei^aulments and 
 traverses. This arrangemert makes it' difficult for 
 the enemy to discover the exact position of the guns, 
 and every peculiarity of ground should be taken ad- 
 vantage of to increase this difficulty. Whatever 
 tends to make batteries ditlicult to see, and conse- 
 quently to hit. is as much a protection as that which 
 makes them capable of resisting a hit when made. 
 G\uis thus dispersed have greater freedom of lateral 
 range of fire, and do not interfere so much with each 
 other l)_y reason of their smoke as wdien concen- 
 trated—a matter of no little importance with heavy 
 artillery, which emits such volumes as, in certain 
 conditions of the atmos]ihere, to irrcatly interfere 
 with accuracy of :iim. When batteries are extended, 
 a larger ;ire:i will hv swept by their converging fire 
 tliiui when the guns are assembled eii iiiOKxe. An ad- 
 dition;U advantage conferred by distrilmting the gims 
 is. that while obtaining concentrated fire on an im- 
 portant or decisive )ioint. a similar fire cannot be 
 directed in return. Tliis arrangement woidd. fur- 
 thermore, tend to neutralize the power which a fleet 
 nughl have of fornung or. a wide arc of a circle, and 
 moving slowly under steam, so as to render the task 
 of hitting the individual shijjs more dillicult, throw 
 a converging fire upon the works on shore. 
 
 In the design of such works, it is of primary im- 
 portance that conjoint action of the various parts 
 should be maintained; and to jirevent the individual
 
 HARBORING AN ENEMY. 
 
 13 
 
 HARD LABOR. 
 
 Imltcrii'S from hciriir fnplurcd by cuvp ilr mam, Hniall 
 inclosed carlli-works, liciivily Htockadcd to ri'Mist 
 t'scaliidc, and riicli ariiicd vvilli lirld, nlrv^f, and iiia- 
 cliinc LTiiiiH, and --iiiic niorlars, slioiddjic con-^triiclcd 
 HO as to have ((iniplcMc I'ojriniand over all land ap- 
 pniaclics. Tlwsc farlli-worku should contain the 
 infantry supports. In this manner most of the exist- 
 iuu; sea-coast forts may lie utilized, niakiiiLj of tliem 
 protectin/j; works for exterior earliien batteries. The 
 defenses of a liarbor should, in every instance, be 
 capable of repiilsini; all attacks that the enemy is 
 likely to make on lliem. The power and persistency 
 of these attacks will depend upon the importaiu-e to 
 him of the object to be ijained. f.ar^re and opulent 
 cities, naval establishments, and ship-yards are 
 anion!!; the lirst prizes sought for. The ajrfrressive 
 power of modern navies is such us to make it quite 
 impracticable to elVectually fiuard every harbor on 
 an extended coast. It is.tlicrefore, belter toentirely 
 abandon those that are unimportant to the enemy, 
 for whatever use he may make of them, than by 
 feebly jiuardini; tliem to invite his attacks and thus 
 ali'ord luin thi' moral ellect and consolation of cheap 
 victories, and to the coimtry the mortitication and 
 disadvanta;;*' of defeat and loss of prestige. 
 
 The number of troo]is ri'(|uired fortlie maiminffof 
 a work erected for liarbor defense d<'i)ends chiefly 
 npon the nature and amount of armament contained 
 therein. Works of this nature are armed princi]ially 
 ■with |iicces of the heaviest caliber, but. for reasons 
 hereafter given, all kinds should generally lind place. 
 The amount of armament <lepends upon the extent 
 of the work and the part it is to phiy in the scheme 
 of defense. Three full detachments are necessary 
 for each piece. Knowing the number of jiieces in 
 the work and the niimlicr of men rci|uired for the 
 service of each, the entire strength required is ob- 
 tained. Three relief detachments are necessary, for 
 the reasons that the labor of manipulating and serv- 
 ing heavy artillery is very great, and when a rapid 
 and continuous Hrc is to lie maintained, strong fatigue 
 parties are reiiuircd in carrying ammunition from 
 the service magazines to the pieces : damages done i 
 to the worlvs during tlie (lay havi^ to be rejiaired at i 
 night, and casualties occurring, whether from the 
 lire of the enemy or from accidents, must be pro- j 
 videtl against, so tliat at any moment an eflieient de- 
 tachment may be at every piece. xVs a general rule, 
 liattcries shoulil not he encumbered by an attempt to 
 include musketry defense within their limits. The 
 place for this arm is on the Hanks of the batteries, 
 and in strength sufficient to prevent an enterprising 
 enemy from landing and assaulting the work, and 
 from apjiroaching to keep down the fire of the guns 
 while his vessels run liy it. However well it ma}- 
 have answered with the old style of artillery to have 
 the troops serving batteries charged, in addition, 
 with musketry duty, it certainly is not advisable 
 with the artillery of the present. Steam-propelled 
 iron-clads, carrying guns of enormous power, range, 
 and accuracy, demand the undivided attention in 
 action of those using the only weapons eflfective 
 against such adversaries. The labor of handUng 
 and caring for the kind of artillery, ammunition, 
 material, and machines now used, altogether with 
 tlie construction, preservation, and repair of batter- 
 ies, will require all the time and the whole attention 
 of the troops serving guns in war. The care of in- 
 fantry arms and equipments, together with the drills 
 and parades incident thereto, have ,i tendency to 
 draw awav the attention of officers and men and 
 prevent them from keeping in an efficient state of 
 readiness, the only safeguard that stands between 
 an enemy and the oliject for which he may desire to 
 enter a harbor. When a work containing batteries 1 
 for harlior defense is inclosed, the amount of mus- 
 ketry necessary for it is determined by allowing two 
 muskets for each lineal yard of parapet not occupied 
 by the batteries. Artillery being the main feature 
 in such works, the command should be vested in an | 
 
 Artillery Ollicer. Wliire there are several forts and 
 batteries guarding the entrance to a harbor or con- 
 stituting a line of works, they should, for the pur- 
 pose of adminstration and command, be united in 
 groups, each group Ix-iiig under an .\rtillery Odicer 
 of appropriate rank, and the whole combined and 
 commanded by theSeniorOHicer of Artillery present. 
 My this means tliorough co-operution is seeured 
 throughout the entire system. In onler to avoid 
 the weakening effect of divided responsiliility, sub- 
 marine mines, when employed in conjunction with 
 a fort for the defense of a channel, should be under 
 the (control of the Commanilanl of the fort, who 
 should select from his command the proper number 
 of officers and men to be instructed in the method 
 of working this branch of defense. No more troops 
 than are necessary to carry out the foregoing rules 
 should be crowderi into a work: otherwise, un- 
 necessary casualties from the lire of the enemy will 
 be added, stores consumed, and unhealthiness en- 
 gendered; and, besides, in lime of war. when 
 troops are not required in any one place, their ser- 
 vices are generally needed elsewhere. The high 
 standard of practical gunnery reiiuired of artillery 
 demands a projiortional degree of intelligence and 
 capacity for instruction in the individual soldier. 
 Artillerymen should be selected with a special view 
 to this, artisans and mechanics forming a large pro- 
 portion. Steam-power and tlie apl>lication of labor 
 and lime-saving niacliinery should, wherever prac- 
 ticable, be introduced to assist in making the de- 
 fensive abilily of fortified places more perfect. In 
 conducting the defense of a work, too much im- 
 portance should not be attached to the battering of 
 it by an enemy ; for experience leaches that a place 
 is formidalile, if resolutely defended, long after it 
 has lost all semblance of the form and symmetry 
 possessed by it when it came from tlie hands of the 
 constructing engineer. See Jlifuixe. 
 
 HARBORING AN ENEMY.— A crime prohibited in 
 military law and severely punished under all circum- 
 stances. The Articles of War provide that whoso- 
 ever relieves the enemy with money, victuals, or 
 ammunition, or knowingly harbors or protects an 
 enemy, shall suffer death, or such other puuishment 
 as a Court-Martial may direct. 
 
 HARCARRAH. — In India, a messenger employed 
 to carry letters, and otherwise intrusted with mat- 
 ters of consequence that require secrecy and punctu- 
 ality. They are very often Brahmins, who are well 
 acquainted with the neighboring countries: they are 
 sent to gain intelligence, and are used as guides in 
 the field. 
 
 HARD BREAD. — A component of the army ration, 
 generally issued, instead of Hour, to troops while 
 campaigning. When hard-bread is put in bo.xes, 
 (the best packages for Jield transportation), they 
 should be made of fully seasoned wood, of a kind to 
 impart no taste or odor to the bread, and as far as 
 practicable of single pieces. "When two pieces are 
 used in making the same surface, they should be 
 tongued and grooved together. A Ixix, 2()XlTx 
 11 inches, exterior measure, is an average bo.x for 
 hard-bread, under the usual circunislanccs of land 
 transportation. The ends of a bo.x of this size should 
 be made of inch, and the remainder of five-eighths 
 slutT. the package well strapped with green hickory 
 or oljier suitable wood. Hard-bread, after t/icroi/g/i 
 cooling and drying, should be pressed closely in its 
 packages, each package containing a uniform weight 
 iifbrerid. for the convenience of calculation. It can 
 be re-dried in boxes without removal therefrom, by 
 being exposed for about forty hours to a temperature 
 of l-iO degrees Fahrenheit. Ilard-tnfk. Pib't-brend, 
 and Sea-bread are common names of the article. See 
 Rntiim . 
 
 HARD LABOR.— A military punishment frequently 
 awarded by C'ourls-JIartial. This punishment is 
 now firmly established in the Unitid Kingdom; and 
 by express statute, the power of adding bard-labor
 
 HARDNESS. 
 
 14 
 
 HARNESS. 
 
 to tlie punishment of imprisonment, has been given 
 in most oasen. l)Oth as to indictable otfenses and tlie 
 more disscraeeful offenses whieli are punishable sum- 
 marily. The kind of labor is prescribed by the rules 
 of the jail or prison, where provision must l)e made 
 of the proper materials for the purpose. Picking 
 oakum, working the tread-mill, etc., form part of 
 this labor ; and m general, the number of hours for 
 such labor, unless in case of sickness, is ten hours 
 dailv. 
 
 HARDNESS.— Tlie hardness of a body is measured 
 by its power of scratching other substances. Varia- 
 tions in the degree of hardness presented by different 
 crystalized bodies often furnish a valuable physical 
 sign by which one mineral may be readily distin- 
 guished from others closely resembling it. Mohs 
 selected ten well-known minerals, each succeeding 
 one being harder than the preceding one, and tluis 
 formed the scale (if/iardne.iti. which has been generally 
 adopted by subsequent Mineralogists. Each mineral 
 in the following table is scratched by the one that 
 follows it. and "consequently by all the subsequent 
 ones, and tlie hardness of any mineral may be de- 
 termined by reference to the types just selected, 
 TliiLs, if a body neither scratches nor is scratched by 
 feld.spiir, its hardness is said to be 6: if it sliould 
 scratch felds^iar but not quartz, its hardness is be- 
 tween 6 and 7— the degrees of hardness being 
 numbered from 1 to 10. "The figures on the right 
 indicate the number of known minerals of the same 
 or nearly the same degree of hardness as the sub- 
 stance opposite to which they stand : 
 
 8CALE OP HARDNESS OF MINERALS. 
 
 1. Tulc 2.3 6. Feldspar (cleavable) 26 
 
 2. Comp't gypsum, or r'k-salt 90 7. Limpid quartz 26 
 
 3. Cnlcspaficlenvable variety)'! 8. Topaz .5 
 
 4. Fluor-spar 5.3 9. Sapphire, or corundum.. 1 
 
 ri Apatite 43 10. Diamond 1 
 
 The cause of the varieties of hardness observed in 
 different bodies is not known. The same substance 
 — as. for example, a piece of steel — inaj-. under the 
 influence of different circumstances, be so soft as to 
 take impressions from a die, or may be nearly as 
 hard as a diamond. Without a certain degree of 
 hardness, the shape of the bore will be rapidly altered 
 by the compressive force of the powder and jiro- 
 jectile. and the accKracy and safety of the piece will 
 be destroyed. In rifle cannon liardness is particularly 
 necessary, to enable the spiral grooves to resist this 
 action; at least, the surface of t!ie bore should be 
 relatively harder than the projectile. Steel is gene- 
 rally hardened by heating it until the scales of o.xide 
 are loosened (heat to about a cherry-red), and plung- 
 ing it into a liquid or placing it in contact with some 
 cooling substance which suddenly chills the metal, 
 rendering it liard and brittle. The degree of hard- 
 ness will depend upon the heat and the rapidity of 
 coolim;. 
 
 HARE CARTRIDGE-BLOCK,— A block recessed for 
 any cnnvcnieiil number of cartridges in one row. 
 On one side is fixed a leather strap, between which 
 and the Iilock, the left hand is to be passed, the back 
 of the liand being next to the block and holding it in 
 a convenient position for loading. For convenience 
 the block is curved, and the surface next to the liand 
 <'ovcreil with sheepskin. The cartridge-holes are 
 bushed as in the Benton-block. This block is jier- 
 jnanenl in its nature, and intended to form a part of 
 the soldier's equipment. 
 
 HARMOSTES.— .V City Governor or a Prefect ap- 
 ])oinl(ii Ijy tile Spartans in the cities subjugated by 
 tlieill. 
 
 HARNESS. — t. The iron covering or dre.ss which a 
 .soldier formerly wore, and wliicli was fastened to 
 the body by strajjs and Imckles: the whole accou- 
 terments, offensive and defensive. 3. The e(]uip- 
 meiits of a draught-horse. The liest method of 
 attaching liorses to a r'arriage is that which enables 
 each one to perform a given amount of work with 
 the leant fatit/ue ; or, in other words, no horse should 
 
 be restrained by the efforts of another, and the di- 
 rection of the traces should be most favorable for 
 draught. Besides these conditions, artillerv-harne.ss 
 should lie so constructed that it can be put on and 
 taken olf promptly, by night as well as liy day, in 
 all states of the weather, and in cases of danger, 
 when the drivers would be liable to lose their pres- 
 ence of mind. The fall of one horse should not in- 
 terfere with another; a dead or a wounded horse 
 should be easily replaced, whatever may be his posi- 
 tion in the team. The absence of some of the 
 horses, the unhitcliing or cutting of some of the 
 traces should not arrest the movement of the car- 
 riage. Finally, the drivers, who are mounted for 
 tilt better command of their horses, should not be 
 incommoded by the pole of the carriage. 
 
 There are three general modes of attaching horses 
 to artillery-carriages, and upon the employment of 
 any one of which depends the construction of the 
 harness. In the first method the wheel-horse is 
 placed between two shafts, by which he guides and 
 regulates the motion of the carriage. The horses 
 may be arranged in single or doulile file. The former 
 arrangement was much in vogue in artillery before 
 the days of tirilieauval. but at present is only em- 
 ployed iu the mountain service. This method has 
 the merit of being well suited for drawing heavy 
 loads over smooth roads, liut is not adapted to rajjid 
 movements over ordinary roads, as much of the 
 tractile force is lost b}' the continued change in the 
 line of traction incident to long columns. The force 
 thus lost is expended in a great measure on tlie 
 shaft-horse, which bj' constant fatigue, is soon ren- 
 dered unserviceable. In the English light artillery 
 the horses are arranged in double file, tlie cj^' wheel- 
 horse being placed in shafts. 
 
 In the second method the horses are arranged in 
 double file — a wheel-horse being placed on each side 
 of the pole, which is attached to the first axle-tree. 
 The pole is supported and kept steady by the pres- 
 sure of the body of the carriage on the mreep-hnr, 
 which projects in rear of the front axle-tree. The 
 leading horses are attached to the ximng-tree which is 
 fastened to the pole, and the 'wheel-iiorses are at- 
 tached to a mmable splintfr-ltai; the center of whicli 
 is in the axis of the pole. The object of making a 
 splinter-bar movable is to equalize the drauglrt be- 
 tween two horses, one of which works more freHy 
 than the other. This system of attachment is used 
 in most carriages of commerce, and so far as Uie 
 draught alone is concerned, is superior lo all others. 
 It is also used in all siege-carriages and baggage- 
 wagons of the military service, except that iu tlie 
 former the splinter-bar is fixed. 
 
 In field-carriages of late jiattern the stceep-bar is 
 omitted, to facilitate attaching and detaching the 
 rear carriage in time of action ; aiul the pole is stip- 
 ported by two yokes attached to the collars of tlie 
 horses. The wheel-horses are attached to a fixed 
 splinter-bar, which is strong and simple in its 
 construction ; and the traces of the leading horses 
 are attached directly to those in the rear, giving a 
 continuous line of traction, communicating directly 
 with the carriage. This method of attaching artil- 
 lery-horses in line is extremely simple, and at the 
 same lime it fulfils nearly all the conditions reipiisite 
 for artillery harness. Its iirincijial defect, however, 
 is that, from the want of a sweeii-bar the weight of 
 the carriage-pole is borne on the necks of the wheel- 
 horses, wiiicii is a serious inconvenience wheu ma- 
 king long marches. 
 
 Artillery luirness is composed of the Jund-ifiar. to 
 guide and hold the horse; the sadille. for the trans- 
 portation of the driver and his valise; the ilraiiglit- 
 liarxcns. which enables the horse to move the <'ar- 
 riage forward ; and the hrifrhiiig. which enables him 
 lo hold it back, stoj) it, or move it to llie re;ir. The 
 collar prevents the liorse's shoulders from bi-ing hurt 
 by the two curved pieces of ircm called the liamen: 
 to each hauie is fastened a short leather tug ending
 
 HARNESS. 
 
 15 
 
 HABNESS. 
 
 iu ail iron rinc;, to wliioli the front trarc-fliaiii Im at- 
 tadicd. Tlic loail is piillcil by slroiiL"; li'atliiT straps 
 callcil trarrx, to tlir mil of wliicli cliaiiis ari' faslciicil ; 
 till' front tracc-fliaiii pliys l>ack ami forth in the liii;. 
 riiiLj, and makes the wheel-horse imlepeiideiil of the 
 horses in front: tlie rear Iraee-ehaui lan lie len^rlli- 
 eneil or shortened at will so as to adapt the harness 
 to dilTereiit horses. The pole-yiikf is supported liy a 
 chain allaehed to the hanie-clasp and to a rim; which 
 slides aloni; the yoke; the branches of the pole-yoke 
 are jointed to acollar near the end of the pole in snch 
 a way th.-it they vm\ only play in a plane passinj; 
 throniih the axis of the jinle: this device einiblesthc 
 horse to kee|) the pole steady without constraiuiug 
 Ids motion. j 
 
 The hni'ching forms a part of the whet'l-liarnes.s 
 only ; it coni])letely encirel<'S the horse, and is held j 
 up in the rear by a strap passinir over the hijis. The ! 
 traces of the wheel-horses are iisnally hitched to the j 
 splinter-bar; the traces of the lead and swinir-hor.ses j 
 are hitched to those of the horses in the rear, uivinsr 
 a ciinlinuiius line of traction from horses tocarriau;e. 
 Will n wheel-horses are hitched to a splinter-l)ar 
 trace, there is always an equal beariuLr on both sides 
 of the collar; this .saves their necks from a i^reat 
 deal of chatim;, particularly hi changiug_direction. | 
 
 for pole-straps. Off mddle (31), including hunk for 
 reins, and i-ii liiir.Hti'fip Ci'i). \'iiliKe C<ty). duupUnij. 
 riiii. Wliip, including uluck and /«*//. l^g-guurU, 
 including l>"tly, uiutir-Htrap, Ug-ttrnps, and pl/ile. 
 
 NuHf.-llllfJ. 
 
 A storehouse for harness should be well ventilated 
 - not too dry, liut free from ilanipness. The differ- 
 ent arlicles should be arranged in bundles, according 
 to kind and class, without touching the wall or each 
 other. Harness should be examined four times a 
 year, at least. The leather parts are brushed and 
 greased with neatsfoot oil as often as condition re- 
 ijiiircs : if they have a reddish hue. add a little 
 lamp-black in the oil. The hair side of the leather 
 should be wet with a sponge dipped in warm water, 
 and the oil applied before the surface is drj'. Tlie 
 iron parts which are not japanned should be covered 
 with tallow. 
 
 To Harness. — Each wheel-driver places on and 
 buckles the collar of his off horse, smoothing the 
 mane under the cnlhir and adjusting the collar to tlie 
 shoulders ; folds and jiuts on the saddle-bliinket, and 
 then resumes his post in front of his harness. (2) 
 He seizes the saddle by the girth-straps, his hands 
 close to the saddle; raises it from the peg; holds it 
 over his head, arms half extended; approaclics the 
 
 As the limber has no sweep-bar, the weight of the 
 pole comes on the uecks of the whecl-horscs ; this 
 defect is somewhat lessened when the limber-chest \ 
 is loaded, its position over the axle being such as to [ 
 decrease the weight at the end of the pole. , 
 
 The following is the nomenclature of the harness, 
 reference being made to Figs. 1 and 2 : Hnlter, 
 composed of liead-stall and hitchi.ng-strap (1); the j 
 head-stall includes, crown-piece (2), cheek-strap (3), ! 
 hrnir-haml (4), nose-band (T>). ch/n-strap(6), throat- \ 
 strap (7), and t'troat-lash (or throat-hand) (8). liridle, 
 composed of hi ad-stall, curb-bit, and reins; the head- 
 stall includes, '■;vjir;(-;»>(!c. cheek-strap, brmc-hand, and 
 throat-lash; the cnib-bit is of iron and brass-plated; 
 it includes mouth-piece, branches, cross-bar. curb-chain 
 (or curb-strap), and curb-chain hook. Near saddle 
 (9', including saddle-tree, .neat, saddle-.tkirts. stirrups, 
 >\ni\ girth (\0): the saddle-tree consists of pommel, 
 cantle, ;ind side-bars; the girth consists of two straps 
 of uucipial length. Collar (11), including rim. Iielli/. 
 pal, collar-straps, billets. Ilames (12), including 
 branches, double-joint loops for trace-tugs, links for 
 breast-straps, hame-rings, hame-climp, chain and 
 toggle (13), safes (14), trace-tugs (l.")), tru.<isi ng-strnps 
 (16), home-strap (17), and collar-strap (18). Traces 
 (19) : front-trace chains (20) ; rear-trace chains (21) ; 
 trace-loops; trare-togglei (22) ; belly-band; loin-strap 
 (23). Crupper, including back-strap (24), bod.i/ (2,5), 
 and dock (36). Breeching including breech-strap (2'). 
 hip-strap (28), breast-strap (29), and sliding-loops (30) 
 
 horse on the near side, and places the saddle in its 
 proper position, taking care not to rumple or dis- 
 place the blanket, and keeping the right arm extended 
 over the horse's back to adjust the "girth and traces. 
 (3) He goes to the front of the horse : passes the 
 breast-strap cai'efully over the horse's head : adjusts 
 the haraes to the collar: clasps them together at the 
 b'^ttom, and tightens the hame-strap. (4) He 
 goes to the near side of the horse ; lifts the breeching 
 over the cantle : steps to the rear, and pulls it over 
 the horse's croup: arranges the loin-strap : and ad- 
 justs and buckles the crupper, taking care that no 
 hairs remain lietween the crupper "and tail. (.5) 
 He sees that the harness is properly arranged, 
 buckles and tightens the girth, and then" buckles the 
 belly-baud. (6) He bridles the horse and ties the 
 coupling-rein to the manger. Lead and swing-drivers 
 harness and unharness in the same manner as wheel- 
 drivers, with such omissions as are required bv the 
 difference in the harness. If there be uo stalile the 
 liorses are taken at the picket-line, and the harness 
 from the rack near the carriage to which it belongs. 
 Each driver standi to horse as soon as he has liar- 
 nessed. 
 
 To iTuhar/ifss. — Each wheel-driver ties the coup- 
 ling-rein fast to the manger: takes off the leg- 
 guard, and hangs it up : unbridles his near horse, 
 and hangs up the bridle. (2) He unbuckles and 
 frees the crupper: raises the breeching from the 
 croup, and lays it over the cantle. resting its middle
 
 HAHNESS-DRESSING. 
 
 16 
 
 HASKELL MULTI CHABGE CANNOH. 
 
 on tlie seat, (3) He goes to the front of tlie 
 horse, draws the breast-s^rap well forward through 
 the links, loosens the hame-strap, unclasps the hani'es 
 at the bottom; passes the breast-strap up over the 
 horse's head, and laj'S it and the hamcs over the 
 pommel. (4) He unbuckles the belly-band, and 
 then the girth, takes off the saddle, places it properly 
 on its peg or rack, and covers it with the blanket. 
 (3) He then removes and puts up the collar and 
 secures the horse hv the halter. 
 
 HARNESS- DEESS'lNG.— A preparation for the care 
 and protection of harness, and the leather parts of 
 the accouterments. A variet}' of dressings are in 
 common use, but the following (ingredients for two 
 gallons of the compound) is mostly used in the ser- 
 vice : 1 gallon of neat's-foot oil, 2 pounds of bay- 
 Ijerry tallow, 2 pounds of beeswax, and 2 pounds of 
 beef tallow. Put the above in a pan overamoile- 
 rate tire and let them remain one hour until thorough- 
 ly dissolved ; then add 2 quarts of castor oil and 
 stir well until the mass comes to a boil so that the 
 ingredients may become thoroughly mixed : after 
 which add — 1 ounce of lamp-black and stir well for 
 ten minutes ; then strain the liquid while hot 
 through a cotton cloth to remove sediment of bees- 
 wax, tallow, and lamp-black, and put aside to cool. 
 Apply this mixture to saddles anil harness with a 
 woolen cloth and leave until next day, when they 
 shoidd be wiped off with a woolen cloth to remove 
 the surpertiuous lamp-black. For "russet" or fair 
 leather, use the same mixture without the lamp- 
 black, 
 
 HARNESS-PEGS.— In artillery staliles, harness- 
 pegs for each pair of horses are arranged in the walls 
 of the harness-room, also in the heel-posts of the 
 stalls. The peg for the off harness is above the peg 
 for the near harness; a small peg for the bridles is 
 placed beneath the near harness-peg. The following 
 arrangement is observed : Pommels of the saddles 
 against the wall or heel-posts ; breeching hanging 
 over the cantles ; breast-straps and hames over the 
 pommels : traces, which are trussed, over the seat ; 
 whip ou the hook of the off saddle ; collars lying 
 horizontally ou the saddles, collar-straps against the 
 heel-posts ; bridles and leg-guard hanging on their 
 peg : the whole covered bylhe harness-sack properly 
 secured. Tlie blankets are kept by the drivers in 
 their quarters, but may be put away in the harness- 
 room, or other safe place. A trace is trussed by 
 passing the rear trace-chain through the trussing- 
 strap, from rear to front, and securing the trace by 
 drawing down the sliding-loop. 
 
 HAROL, — An ludian term signifying the oflScer 
 who commands the van of an army. It sometimes 
 means the van-guard itself. 
 
 HARFE. — A species of drawbridge used among 
 the ancients, and deriving its name from the musi 
 cal instrument. This bridge, which consisted of a 
 wooden frame, and hung in perpendicular direction ! 
 against the turrets that were used in those times to 
 carrj' on the siege of a place, had a variety of ropes 
 attached to it, and was let down upon tlie wall of 
 a town by means of pulleys. The instant it fell, the 
 soldiers left the turret, and rushed across the tempo- 
 rary platform upon the rampart. 
 
 HARPOON GUN. — Agun used for shooting whales. 
 Il is frcqiK iitly eiiiplciyed to great advantage when 
 necessary to throw lines across rivers and the like. 
 It is very similar to the small swivel-guns, weighing 
 with stock comiilete 75 lbs., 3 feet long in (lie iiarrel 
 and of li inch bore. The charge is very siiiall, barely 
 sufficient to project the arrow and line from the 
 gun. 
 
 HARPY, — A fabulous creature in Greek mytliology, 
 considered as a minister of the vengeance of the gods. 
 Various accounts are given of the numbers, and 
 parentage of the harpies. Homer mentions but one, 
 ilesioil enumerates two— Aello and Okypele, daugh- 
 ters of Thaumas by the Oceanid Electra, fair-haired 
 and winged maidens, very swift of llight. Three are 
 
 sometimes recognized by later writers, who call them 
 variously daughters of Poseidon or of Typhon, and 
 describe them as hideous monsters with wings, of 
 fierce and loathsome aspect, tlieir faces pale with 
 hunger, living in an atmosphere of filth and stench, 
 and contaminating everything that they approached. 
 The most celebrated tradition regarding the harpies 
 is connected with the blind Phiueus, whose meals 
 they carried off as soon as they were spread for him; 
 a plague from which he was" delivered by the Ar- 
 gonauts, «u his engaging to join in their quest. The 
 Boreads Zetes and Calais attacked the harpies, but 
 spared their lives on their promising to cease from 
 molesting Phineus. A harpy in Heraldry is repre- 
 sented as a vulture, having the head and breast of a 
 woman. 
 
 HARQUEBTJSE. — An old fire-arm resemliling a mus- 
 ket, whicli was supported on a rest by a hook of iron 
 fastened to the barrel. Many of theYeomen of the 
 Guard were armed with this weapon, on the first 
 formation of that Corps in 148.5. The harquebuse 
 being frequently fired from the chest, with the butt 
 in a right line with the barrel, it was diflicult to 
 bring the eye down low enough to take good aim ; 
 but the Germans soon introduced an improvement 
 by giving a hooked form to the Vnitt, which elevated 
 the barrel. Soldiers armed with this weapon were 
 desitrnatcd Haquebutters, and were common in the 
 time" of Henry VIH. 
 
 HARROW. — An obstacle, in fortification, formed 
 by turning an ordinary harrow upside down with the 
 teeth upward, and the frame buried. This imple- 
 ment consists of a frame of a scjuare or rhombic form 
 in which are fixed rows of teeth, or tine.-<. projecting 
 downwards. The harrow is very ancient, having 
 been in use beyond the dawn of history ; but as in 
 earh' times only the lighter soils were cultivated, it 
 often consisted of bushes, or branches of trees, which 
 merely scratched the ground. Subsequently, we find 
 .a wooden frame and wooden tines in use ; next, the 
 wooden frame with iron tines, a form of the instru- 
 ment very much used at the present day, and espe- 
 cially in favor for light soil,-'. For heavy soils, the 
 harrow constructed wholly of iron is most used, as 
 it is heavier and does more execution ; and of this 
 sort the zigzag form mac^e by Mr. Howard, of Bed- 
 ford, is preferred. 
 
 HARSEGAYE. — A kind of demi-lance, introduced a- 
 bout 1114. It is now obsolete. 
 
 HASKELL MDLTI CHARGE CANNON.— The Lyman 
 accelerating-gun, patented in 1!S5T, is worked on the 
 principle of giving to the projectile a gradually in- 
 creasing velocity while in the bore of the gun. Bom- 
 ford's method of measuring powder-pressures at 
 different points in the chamber of a cannon dis- 
 closed the fact that the great pressure on that part of 
 the chamber occupied by the powder-charge rapidly 
 diminished as the shot approached the muzzle, and 
 that lateral pressures were not dangerously great on 
 the gun after the shot was under way, unless some- 
 thing happened to wedge the projectile. 
 
 Lyman reasoned that if he could continue to in- 
 crease the ]iowder-pressure he might make the muz- 
 zle end of a gun as strong as the breech, and utilize 
 the added strengtli to increase the velocity of a pro- 
 jectile in regular ratio up to the very instant of its 
 leaving the muzzle. He accomplished something in 
 this direction with his earlier gun, which was a 
 cast-iron piece with tubes branching from the bore 
 at a point between the breech and the trunnions. 
 
 The Lyman gun, as iuqiroved liy ■]. K. Haskell, 
 is a cast-iron, ste<'I-liiied rille, having a miniber of 
 pockets, each formed in a block <if steel, which is 
 screwed into an enlargeiiu'iil of tlie easl-nielal body 
 of the gun. Over each pocket there is a priming 
 hole extending out through the upper portion of the 
 gun. This hole is stopped by a bronze metal plug, 
 which screws into place to close the hole entirely, 
 making a smooth surface with the steel bore-tube 
 when ilie plugs are screwed home. The steel pock-
 
 HAST ATI 
 
 17 
 
 HASTT INTRENCUUENTS. 
 
 etH, :vs a f^ciicrrul tiling, liavfi clenning pings at thf npfn country, iirt- the rifle pits iiml tiiii< lies. Ilusly 
 
 lintldiii. iiilrciii'ljMii'nts were niiicli usimI by bolli of Ihi- (;oii. 
 
 Tlic piece is loadorl by |)lacing a projectile and linilin;; arniie« in tlii' littc war in' lli<t United iSlateM. 
 
 cartridi,'e of slow-biirnin;; powder in the brcecli, and TJK'y were nsed so friMjnenlly, and found so elti- 
 
 a charge of (juiek-biiniin^ powder in each of the cacioiis. that the men acquired the hal)it of inlrench- 
 
 poc]<ets. The projectile tits the bore tightly, so that ing Iheir line ininii-dialcly upon halting after a day's 
 no gas can leak past. When the breech-clmrgc- is ; march, if tlie enemy was near. No compulsion, no 
 
 Haaki-ll Millti 
 
 tired it starts the projectile at a moderate velocity, 
 which is rapidly increased after the shot passes the 
 ])ockels by tlie explosion of the |iowilcr in the pock- 
 els, ignition being elleeteil from Ibe i)rimary charge. 
 
 The gun in course of construction at the Scott 
 Fomulry. Heading, Pa., now nearly completed, was 
 made under Mr. Haskell's superintendence. The 
 gun is (i inches bore, 2.'j feet long, and weighs '3.5 
 tons. The lining tube is 2i in<'lies thick to a ])oint 
 forward of the front pocket; from there to the muz- 
 zle it is 3 inches. There are four pockets in the 
 gun, each intended for a eliarge of 28 pounds of 
 ipiick powder. The breech charge will be about 18 
 pounds hexagonal powder. A projectile three cali- 
 bers in length will weigh 101) lbs. — one of four (cali- 
 bers. l.W lbs. 
 
 ^Mr. Haskell expects to get an initial velocity of 
 3,(100 feet per second with pressure nowhere exceed- 
 ing 80,000 i)ounds jier inch, and to obtain a penetra- 
 tion eqtial to 24 inches of iron. In view of the result 
 of past experiments there is little doubt that very 
 good penetration wili be obtained, and if such veloc- 
 ities can l)e had from the moderate pressures pro- 
 posed by J[r. Haskell, any armor now in existence 
 can be ]iierced by guns nuich lighter than tlie 11-ton 
 monsters used in tlie Italian or liritish Navy. 
 
 HASTATI.— Up to the lime of Marius, by whom 
 the germ of the decadence of tlie military art among 
 the Romans was sown, a Consular Army consisted of 
 two Ltfgiims; and of two Wiiigx composed of social 
 trpops. The legion was composed of infantry of the 
 line, light infantry, and cavalry. The infantry of 
 the line was divided into three classes. 1. The 
 Hiixtnti. 2. Priiiripes. .S. Triiirii. These classes 
 wore a very comjilete defensive armor ; they were all 
 armed with the short straight Spanish sword; the 
 J'iliim. a kind of javelin, about seven feet in length, 
 used equally to hurl at a dist;in<e ;ind in hanif-to- 
 hand engagements, was added to it for the twolirst ; 
 and the Triarii carried the ]iike. 
 
 HASTY INTRENCHMENTS.— Extemiiorized shel- 
 ters which are quickly constructed from materials 
 found upon the spot where the slielter is needed. In 
 consequence of the efTectiveness of modern tire- 
 arms a body of troops can not ret;iin a close forma- 
 tion for a singhc ho\ir even, if in the presence and ex- 
 p:ised to the tire of an enemy in force. The men 
 ;ire forced to seek shelter, by lying down on the 
 ground, or by crouching behind any slight inequality 
 which niiiy exist in the surface, or behind some kind 
 of screen which they may be ;ible to construct. The 
 screen may be two or three logs rolled together: a 
 he;ip offence rails, a slight mound of earth, or any- 
 thing whatever its nature which will hide the soldier 
 from the enemy's view. 
 
 The simplest forms of /nuti/ intrenchmenU, in an 
 
 ■elmrcc Cannon. 
 
 ' orders, even, were necessary for the men to begin 
 
 this work; the main dilficiilty was to make them 
 delay enough to allow !i proper trace to be marked, 
 ; by which they might be guided in the construction 
 of their line. Instances are known, where the men, 
 not having intrenching-tools, executed the trench 
 with the bayonet or Hie tin cup. These shelter 
 trenches, thus rudely constructed, were deepened 
 and strengthened unlil they were able to resist field 
 artillery, if the |)osition was to lie occupied for any 
 I length of time. Slight as these defenses were during 
 I the early stages of tlieir construction, thev formed, 
 when defended by good troojis. an obstacle difficult 
 to overcome; and they were captured only by ex- 
 traordinary effort, accompanied by a great loss of 
 life on the part of the attacking forces. " 
 
 It will frequently happen that cover can be sjieed- 
 ily obtained, and positions rendered defensible in a 
 very short time, by taking advantage of the hedges, 
 ditches ;ind walls, 
 ■which niiiy be met 
 with, or of the ob- 
 stacles which may 
 be presented by 
 natural features of ■ 
 the ground. No 
 fixed rules for pro- 
 ceeding under all 
 
 the numerous cir- Fu;. i 
 
 cumstances which may occur can be given, but the 
 drawings will show what may be effected in certain 
 cases, and indicate the character of the o])erat!ous 
 u.sually required. Fig. 1. represents the ccmimon 
 hedge and ditch turned into a breastwork to be de- 
 fended from the hedge-side. If the hedge be thick 
 and planted on a bank, as is generally the case, and 
 especially if the ditch be tolerably deep and contain 
 water, the breastwork will be rendered strong at the 
 expense of little labor. A shallow trench should be 
 excavated behind the hedge, iind the earth thrown 
 up to raise the bank sutliciently to form a rough 
 breastwork some 18 inches thickat the lop. Should 
 the hedge be more 
 than (i feet high, it 
 should be cut to that 
 height, having the 
 branches interwoven 
 with the lower part 
 to strengthen it. A 
 hedge to be defended 
 from the ditch-side 
 Fig. ".i, is ;i ready- f""' 
 
 made trench and breastwork, and 
 convenient work by a little scraping 
 widening and levelling of the bottom of the ditch, 
 and by the addition oif a banquette. See WalU. 
 
 will become a 
 if the sides and
 
 HATCHET 
 
 18 
 
 HAUBERK. 
 
 HATCHET. — A small, light .sort of a.xe, with bevel 
 edge on the left side, and a short handle. It is used 
 by" soldiers for cutting wood to make fascines, ga- 
 bions, pickets, etc. A brass slide and snap com- 
 bined is slipped upon the belt, and has a snap on the 
 outer side, from which the hatchet can be hung. 
 There is also a safetj' attachment through which the 
 handle is passed, making a convenient and secure 
 way of carrying the implement. To take up the 
 haUhet among the Indians is to declare war and com- 
 mence hostilities. 7'(( A); ;-_y <//*■/»/<(!/;«'<, is to make peace. 
 HATCHMENT.— 1. An ornament formerly much 
 worn on tlie hilt of a sword. 2. The funeral escutch- 
 eon placed in front of the house of the deceased, or 
 in some other suitable place, setting forth his rank 
 with otlier circumstances. It is in the shape of a 
 lozenge, and in its cen- ^ 
 
 ter are the arms of the 
 deceased, single or quar- 
 tered, as the case may 
 be. The achievement of 
 ji liai^hehr represents his 
 arms in a shield com- 
 plete, accompanied with 
 helmet, crest, mantling, 
 motto. and various other 
 le.xternal ornaments tt> 
 which he may be enti- 
 tled, on n black ground. 
 In the achievement of 
 
 an unmarried lady, her HatdunEnt of Husband. 
 arms are |)laced in a lozenge on a black groimd, but 
 without external heraldic ornaments, except in the 
 case of a peeress, when her supporters, robe of es- 
 tate, and coronet are added. 
 
 Tlie achievement of a husband whose wife sur- 
 vives, impales his arms with his wife's in a shield 
 with the external ornaments to which he is entitled, 
 the ground of the hatchment being, under his side 
 of tiie shield, black, and under his wife's, white. If 
 the wife lie an heiress, her arms are not impaled, 
 but carried in an escutcheon of pretense. The ex- 
 ternal ornaments are appended, except the insignia 
 of any order of knighthood having a circle or collar, 
 with whicli heralds do not consider it proper for a 
 knight to encircle his wife's arms. On this account 
 the'achieveraent of a knight has two shields placed 
 side by side, one containing the husband's arms only, 
 encircled by the collar, ribbon, etc., of the order, 
 the other containing those of hu.sband and wife; 
 the ground is divided perpendicularly in the middle 
 of the second shield, and painted black and white. 
 When the wife is a peeress in her own right, there are 
 also two shields — the dexter containing the arms of 
 the husband, with the lady's arms on an escutcheon 
 of pretense ensigned with lier coronet ; the sinister 
 lozense-sliaped with the lady's alone, and each ac- 
 companied with its i)roper external decorations. 
 The ground is divided black and white in the middle 
 of tlie dexter escutcheon. The arms of a wife 
 whose husband survives are impaled witli her hus- 
 ))and's arms in a shield, or, in the case of an heiress, 
 borne on an escutcheon of ]iretense. There is no 
 helmet, crest, or m<-intliug, b\it a ])c-ercss is entitled 
 to her robe of estate. The groimd under tlie dexter 
 side of the shield is white, and under tlie sinister, 
 black. The achievement of a widower ditTers prin- 
 ci|ially from that of a husband, in the ground being 
 entirely black. The achievement of a widow dif- 
 fer- frnm that of a wife, both in having the ground 
 entirely black, and in the form of the eseulcheon, 
 which ("except in the one case of an escutcheon 
 of pretense), is lo/cuge-shaped. The anus are en- 
 circled bj- a silver cordon or cordi'lii're. the symbol 
 of widowhood. On the decease of tlie last of a 
 family, a death's head surmounts the shield in place 
 of a crest. The achievement of a reigning King or 
 Queen, whether married or not, represents the royal 
 arms complete on a ground entirely black. That of 
 an Ari'hiiishop or Bishop has the insignia of his Sec 
 
 impaled with his paternal arms, and the whole sur- 
 mounted by a miter, and the ground is per pale ar. 
 and sa. The Dean of a Cathedral or Collegiate Church 
 and a King at Arms, also impale the arms of office 
 with their family arras. In the achievement of the 
 wife of a Prelate, there are two shields — the first 
 containing the impaled arms of the See and the 
 Bishop, surmounted by a miter ; and the second, the 
 family arms of the Bishop with those of his wife. 
 The ground is all white, except that part which is 
 under the arms of the wife. The funeral escutcheon 
 of Scotland, France, and Germany differs consider- 
 ably from that in use in England ; it indicates not 
 merelj- the deceased's right to a coat-of-arms, but 
 his gentility of descent. The liatchment is much 
 larger, consisting of a lozenge above 6 feet square ; 
 and the arms of the deceased, which occupy the 
 center, are surrounded by those of the 8 or IG families 
 from whom he derived his descent, the paternal 
 quarterings on the right side, and the maternal on 
 the left. The deceased is not entitled to an achieve- 
 mcait unless all these families had a right to bear 
 arms. On the four corners are death's heads and 
 the initials and title of the deceased, the black inter- 
 stices are powdered with tears. See Hernldry. 
 
 HAUBEKGIEK.— An individual who held a tenure 
 by Kniglit's service, and was suliject to the feudal 
 system which formerly existed in France, and by 
 whicli he was obliged to accompany the Lord of the 
 itsmor in that capacity whenever the latter went to 
 war. lie was called Fief de Hniibert, and had the 
 privilege of carrying a halbert. All vassals in ancient 
 times served their Lords-paramont as Squires, Hau- 
 bergiers, Lancemen, Bow-men, etc. 
 
 HAUBEKE. — A long blouse-like garment, having 
 short sleeves descending to the middle of the upper 
 arm, which sometimes was formed of interwoven 
 rings, or chain work, but more generallj- was con- 
 structed of a stout woven fabric, upon which were 
 fixed rows of iron rings or plates of metal, in their 
 form either square, triangular, or circular. This 
 mail-shirt was fitted tightly to the pers(m ; and at 
 the bottom it was divided, so that the wearer when 
 mounted might wrap one division of it round each 
 thigh, or when on foot might have his limbs covered 
 by the cleft extremities of liis hauberk without any 
 impediment to his free movements. The hauberk 
 i was used by the Saxons, as early as the eighth cen- 
 tury, as defensive body armor, and called liy them 
 the tunic of rings, but by the Normans the hiiuberk. 
 Besides the hauberk of rings, there are some marked 
 with transverse lines, so as to give the idea of being 
 quilted, or stiched in chequers, or covered with 
 small lozenge-shaped pieces of steel instead of rings, 
 ; known about this period, .\.d. 1066-1087, by the 
 name of mascled armor, from its resemblance to the 
 , meshes of a net. Other descriptions of armor were 
 in use, and in some instances hauberks appear to 
 be composed of rings and mascles mixed : in others, 
 the body is diamonded, and the cowl and arms cov- 
 ered with rings. On referring to a work entitled 
 I " The Conqueror and his Companions," by Jlr. J. K. 
 Planche. Somerset herald, the hauberk as worn by 
 William the Con(|ueroris thus spoken of : " In the 
 Bayeux tapestry we behold him armed in his hau- 
 berk, wliich was not the coat of chain-mail of the 
 thirteenth century, liut the gerhighrd hi/rnk of the 
 eleventh and twelfth, consisting of iron rings, not 
 linked together and forming a garment of themselves, 
 but sewn iir strongly fastened Hat upon a tunic of 
 leather or i|uilted linen. Iiiickram. canvas, or some 
 strong material desceiuliiig to the mid-leg, and which, 
 being open in the skirts both liefnrc and behind for 
 convenience in riding, gave it the ajipearance of a 
 jacket with short breeches attached to it, if, indeed, 
 such was not actually the case in some instances. 
 The sleeves were loose, and reached only just below 
 the elliow." The habergeon of plate-armor was 
 generally worn over the hauberk. i^vt: Hiiturgrun 
 and Plntf-nrtnor.
 
 BAUBIANI. 
 
 19 
 
 HAY. 
 
 HAURIANT. — A term in licnuiiry appiicil to a fish 
 placi'il ii|iriir|it !is if ti> refri'sli itself 
 ]}\ MicUiiit; !iir. Gules, tlin-e lueies 
 ^tlie iiiicieiit imiiie (if pikesj liiiiiiiiiMt 
 in fess ari;eiil, the urms (if ii family 
 iif tlie name of Lucy in Hertfordshire. 
 pee Ifi riildry. 
 
 HAUSSE.— A LTaduated piece at- 
 taelied lip the barrel neartlie lireeeh, 
 vhicli has a slidiiiir jiiece retained in 
 its place by a thunili-screw, nr by the sprinj; of the 
 (<li(h'r itself. 'Phis sliihT (uiirht to have an openinir 
 Ihriiiiirh wliich the L,nin can l)c eoMvcniently ainie(l : 
 lind is raised to such a heiiibt as we Ibiiik will i;ive 
 tlie necessary elevation for the distance. The term 
 coarse siiiht means a larf;e portion of the front sijfht, 
 fts seen above the liotloni of the rear-siijht notch; 
 find a tine sii;ht is when but a small portion i.< seen. 
 The f.ft'ect of a coarse .si};ht is to increase the ranm- 
 of the projectile. The hreirh-ni(/lit. the tiingint-ni-dlf. 
 And the pendidnin-lnuinKe arc merely dilTerent forms 
 of this device, the latter bavins; a liulb at the bottom 
 which keeps it in a vertical position when the two 
 wheels of the carriage are not on tlie same level. 
 Tlie taiii;ent-scale has steps, correspondiivu in height 
 to the graduati(ms on tlie breech-sight for guns of 
 tlie same caliber and pattern ; and is only applied to 
 the gun at the moment of sigliting. 
 
 HAUSSE COL.— An ornamental phite similar to the 
 goriret. It was formerly worn bv infantrv otticers. 
 
 HAUTES-PAYES.— Soldiers formerly selected by 
 Ihe Captains of companies to attend them personally, 
 for which service they received something more 
 than the common pay. Unute.pny became after- 
 wards a term to signify the subsistence which any 
 body of men superior io, or distinguished from the 
 private soldier were allowed to receive. 
 
 HAUT LE PIED.— A term used to distinguish such 
 persons as were formerly employed in tlie French 
 armies without having any permanent appointment. 
 Ciitam!»H<irin{ hduU-li-pied were known in the artil- 
 lery during the Monarcliy of France. They were 
 usuallv under the (Quartermaster-general. 
 
 HAVELOCK.— A light cloth covering for the head 
 and neck, used bj- soldiers as a protection from sun- 
 stroke. This covering derived its name from Huve- 
 lock, a distinguished English General. 
 
 HAVERSACK. — A bag of strong coarse linen, in 
 which, on the march, each soldier carries his own 
 bread and provisions. It is borne on the left side by 
 ft strap passing over the right shoulder, and is only 
 used in the tield and in cantonments. The haversack 
 of the Roman soldier was an osier basket with a long 
 neck; sometimes, as on the column of Trajau. a 
 wallet carried on the spear. Its contents were salt 
 meat, cheese, onions, and olives. It held sufficient 
 for three days. The term haversack is also applied 
 to the leather bag used in artillery to carry cartridges 
 from the ammunition-chest to the piece in loading. 
 
 HAVILDAR.— The highest rank of Non-commis- 
 sioned Officer among native troops in India and Cey- 
 lon. In the Hong-Kng Gun Lascars (a corps now 
 disbanded), the Havildar received Is. 3d. per diem; 
 but in India his pay is somewhat less. The Hnvil- 
 d(ir-rii(ijiir is the Sergeant-major of each native regi- 
 ment of infantry. 
 
 HAVOCK. — A cry originally used in hunting, but 
 afterward in war as the signal for indiscriminate 
 slaughter. The term hamc is used in the sense of 
 wide and general destruction, devastation, or waste, 
 hence the orisin of hamrk-. 
 
 HAWK.— the Hawk fre- 
 quently occurs as a charge 
 in Heraldry, and may be 
 hilUd, jesxtd, and rnvcdtd. 
 The hitirk\'< Ml, itself used 
 as a separate charge, is at- 
 tached to the leg of the bird BeU. Lure. 
 by /('.v.if .1 or thongs of leather. Vnrreh are riuirs at- 
 tached to the end of the jesses. The hairk'ir lure. 
 
 also a heraldic charge, consists of two wings joined 
 with the line, to the end of which is attached u ring. 
 The line is sometimes /("(Or/ or knotted. 
 
 HAWSER. A rope made of three strands : it is 
 c(jiled u|i righl-handed, or what is termed '• with tlie 
 sun." It is one (jf the ropes used in lifting ordiiunce. 
 See Cordar/i ;ind llopi , 
 
 HAXO BASTION SYSTEM.- The siege of this svslcrii 
 of forlilicilioii i- calculated to last fifty davs and 
 there are five distinct periods of breaching tiat"teries • 
 1" Against the reduit of the salient place of arms 
 and the Kavelin. 2^ Against the reduit of the re- 
 entering place of arms, the cou|iures and the reduit 
 of ravelin. S" Against the bastionet and the counter- 
 guard. 4^ Against the retrenchment. .5" Against 
 Ihe bastion. Tlie front is H(iO vards long. The per- 
 pendicular is only 40 yards, and the faces 72 yards. 
 The Hanks are perpendicular to the lines of defense. 
 The bastions contain interior retrenchments entirely 
 .separated from the rear by a ditch. A chemin-dtH- 
 nrndn surmounts the scarp of the enciente. The 
 tenaille is not revetted, and it has flanks that can 
 mount three guns. The main ditch is twentv yards 
 wide. The ravelin is made verv salient; with a"case- 
 mated traverse in capital, and C()upures cut across it-S 
 faces. In rear is a reduit of the ordinarv outline, 
 and behind is a casemated caponiere or bastionet, 
 the roof of which carries ten guns. The counter- 
 scarp of the main ditch is produced to within ten 
 yards of this bastionet, and in front of it slants a 
 glacis, which closes the ditch of the ravelin and tliat 
 of the reduit. The bastionet sweeps the interior 
 glacis and co-operates with the Hanks of the inner 
 works to impede the construction of the counter- 
 batteries. 
 
 HAXO CASEMATE.— A work built inside the para- 
 pet, arched and covered with ciirtli. opeuimr in the 
 rear to the terreplein. The iruns are ])rotected from 
 the enemy's tire, and can be entirelv hidden by mask- 
 ing the embrasures. 
 
 HAY.— A very important article of forage in most 
 armies. The management of the natural^srasses of 
 which most hay C(msists is somewhat different, and 
 the process is seen to perfection in Middlesex' and 
 various Counties about London. The sreat matter- 
 too generally overlooked in Scotland-^is to preserve 
 the color and Havor of the arass ; and this can only 
 be done by keeping it constantlv turned, and havin(r 
 It rapidly dried, if possible, without the deteriora'^ 
 ting washing of repeated rains. ArtiHcial drvinc 
 best attains this end. but is of course impracticable 
 on a large scale. In the best style of Ensrlish hay- 
 making, the grass, after being cut with a "scythe (ir 
 machine, and as soon as the dew is off, is shaken and 
 spread out liy means of forks or of-a teW/«j?-machine 
 drawn by a horse. It is not allowed to lie lonn- ex- 
 posed to the sun, hut before evenins, is drawn to- 
 getlier by rakes into vind-nnr^, which, if there is 
 any prospect of rain, are made up into small heaps 
 or cocks. It is again spread out ne.\t mornin^'-, or 
 on return of favorable weather; and when" the 
 operations are e.vpedited by wind or sun, the bay 
 will be ready for the rick by the second or third day. 
 There is, however, much" difference in the time 
 during which the hay requires to lie out; the bulk 
 of the crop and the quality of the land must be es- 
 liecially considered. 'When the srrasses are cut, as 
 they should be when in blooni, and before their 
 seeds ripen and their stems sret rough and hard 
 they contain the greatest amount of moisture, and re- 
 quire careful making, but produce a very nutritive 
 and ]ialatable h;iy. As soon as thorou'dily dry it 
 should lie put at once into the stack or rick."!i'iid 
 well trodden down. A certain amount of heating 
 improves the flavor, and renders the hay more pala" 
 table to every sort of stock. When, as "is sometimes 
 the case, it is imperfectly made, or picked up too soon, 
 it gets over-heated, and becomes dark brown or 
 black, its nutritive properties are diminished ; it is, 
 moreover, apt to disagree with both horses and
 
 HAZAREE 
 
 20 
 
 HEADING-LATHE. 
 
 cattle, and can only be profitalily used when mixed | 
 witli straw and cut into cluitf . Hay put togetlier 
 when damp from rain or dew dcjes not heat, as 
 when it contains an undue amount of natural 
 moisture, but speedily molds. When hay has been 
 injured and weathereii by repeated rains, it may be 
 rendered more palatable by scattering a little com- 
 mon salt over the rick whilst it is being built. { 
 Throughout Scotlaml eight or ten pounds of salt to 
 the ton is very generally used alike for clover and 
 grass hay. In the midland and southern districts of 
 England" the best hay is generally got up in June; 
 but^in Scotland, little is carried until the middle of ' 
 July. When the crop is good, and everything done 
 well, the cost of hand and horse labor expended upon 
 the hay before it is safely ricked will approach 30s. 
 per ton. The cro]5 averages from one to two tons 
 per acre. Hay that has stood for seed is tougher 
 and less nutritive than that cut earlier, for the sugar, 
 gum. and glutten of the matured seed. have beeu ab- 
 stracted from the stems, which are tlien apt to be 
 little better than straw. 
 
 HAZAREE. — An Indian term signifying the Com- 
 mander of gun-men. It is derived from Jiraar, 
 whieli. in its literal interpretation, signifies a thou- 
 sand. 
 
 HEAD. — In gunnery, the fore part of the cheeks of 
 a gun or howitzer-carriage. The term htdd is em- 
 ployed with other words, in varioits militaiy phrases 
 as, the head nf a imrk. in fortification, or the front 
 next to the enemy, and farthest from the place ; head 
 iif an unity, or the front, whether drawn up in lines 
 or on a march, in column, etc.; head nf a camp, or 
 tlie ground before which an army is drawn up. The 
 hradoi a double tenaille is the salient angle in the 
 center and the two other sides which form the re- 
 entering angles. 
 
 HEADER. In a revetment, a brick, stone, or sod 
 laid witli its eud outward. See Sad Revetment. 
 
 HEADING. — 1 . The device of the sign.al-rocket ; 
 such ;is a .■<tar-heading. or a huinice-headiiig. 2. In 
 mining, tlie end of a drift or gallery; the line of an 
 intended tunnel, especially one of relatively small 
 size, which forms a gullet in which the workmen 
 labor ; also a horizontal passage between the shifts 
 or turns of the working parties. 
 
 HEADING-LATHE.— A lathe used for turning down 
 gun castiusxs, and for prepariui: them for the boring- 
 machine. The cascabel-beariug. base of breech, and 
 a section of the chase are all turned down to finished 
 
 muzzle is introdticed and projects several inches 
 l)eyond the face of the muzzle-ring, in which po.sitioD 
 it is approximately centered, and held firmly in jjlace 
 l)y adjustable screws in the chuck and muzzle-ring. 
 The bretch is adjusted by placing a sharp pointed 
 instrument in the rest, and bringmg it in c(mtacl 
 with the surface of the casting liear the base-line, 
 and while turning the gun — which is done by ma- 
 chinery — the screws in the chuck are moved until 
 coincidence of the line around the gun is obtained. 
 At the muzzle a bar of iron is laid upon blocks, so 
 tliat it shall be just inside the bore, and nearly in 
 contact with its interior surface. As the gun turns, 
 the distance between this point and the metal of the 
 bore is observed, and equalized approximately, by 
 the screws in the muzzle-ring bearing. A wooden 
 disk turned to fit the bore accurately, bearing a string 
 attached to its center, is then pushed to the bottom 
 o,f the bore, and made to assume a position in a plane 
 perpendicular to its axis. The string from the center 
 of the disk is long enough to reach some distance 
 outside the muzzle ; the outer end being made fast 
 to an upright the same height as the inner end or 
 center of disk ; the string is now hauled perfectly 
 taut, and the gun again turned, a square lieing placed 
 upon blocks about one foot in front of the muzzle, 
 close to the string ; and as the gun revolves, the 
 distance, if any, which the string deviates from the 
 square, is o])served and corrected by again moving 
 the screws in the muzzle-bearing. When properly 
 centered, the string will remain in the same position 
 in the square and be the same distance from the in- 
 terior surface of the gun, throughout an entire revo- 
 lution, showing that the axis of the gun and lathe 
 coincide. With the hollow-cast gun it is necessary 
 that it should be centered from the bore, as it some- 
 times happens that its axis does not coincide with 
 the axis of the casting, which is one reason for cast- 
 ing them above the true size, to admit of being 
 finished by the interior, or so that the axis of the 
 cast bore shall coincide with that of the gun when 
 turned. The gun being centered, the turning com- 
 mences at the muzzle ; this is done by placing a tool 
 in the rest, which is brought in contact with the 
 surface at tlie desirad point, the metal being turned 
 off as tlie gun revolves. The re»t. or support which 
 holds the tool, is arranged to move in two directions, 
 one towards the gun, or at right angles to the axis 
 of the lathe, by which means the depth of cut is regu- 
 lated, and the other in line parallel with the a.xis, 
 
 Ilt'juliii 
 
 dimensions wliile in this lathe, as the chase and 
 inunded pari of the cascalic'l-knob form the bearings 
 for the boring-lathe. The cut at th,' muzzle, or place 
 where tlie ninkiiig-head is to be broken off. is also 
 made in this lathe. Tli.; bearing in which this muz- 
 zle-ring revolves is a heavy casting, the bottom of 
 which fits into grooves in the rack, and can be moved 
 to or from the chuck, being adajjtable to long or 
 short gtins. To maki^ the ailjustnient in the lathe, 
 the sun is lowered into place, the scpiare knob in 
 rear of the cascabel fitting into tlie chuck, while the 
 
 that is from muzzle to breech. The last movement 
 is elTeeted by means of a/"/, the motion being given 
 by a fork attached to cine of the trunnions, ami at 
 every revolution of the gun the rest is made to ad- 
 vance. The first cut is usually an inch deep, com- 
 mencing at the muzzle where the sinking-head is to 
 be cut "off and extending 30 inches towards the 
 trunnions. The second and third cuts are com- 
 menced at the same jioint as the firsi, and are about 
 one and one-eighth iiie'ies deep; increasing as the 
 tool advances in the cun. other cuts are made until
 
 HEADLESS SHELL EXTB&CTOB. 
 
 21 
 
 HEAUME. 
 
 Tii'B. 
 
 tin' inctal is rcdiicfd to llic flnisliiiiL' (Ii;iiiictir. Tlir 
 cut 111 the imi/.y.lc, or llic |il;ici- where Hie "siiiUiiiL'- 
 liciid" it tci lie lirokcii oil', is next iiiuile; its deplli 
 is usually ididut seven inches, or to within tlirc'e or 
 four inches of the ciist bore. The nun is nrtw taken 
 from the liithe, and the '• sinkini^-heiid " hroken or 
 wedijed oil', at wliicli time the appearance of the 
 mclal at the fracture should licexaiuined as t<i color, 
 form, and size of crystals, texture, and whether sharp 
 to the touch : it is also necessary to ascertain its de- 
 gree of hardness and how the metal works under the 
 tools, ill the ditlereiit stages of its fabrication; all 
 of which should lie duly noted and form ]iart of the 
 record of the nun. See Fininliinri and Liithi'. 
 
 HEADLESS SHELL EXTRACTOR. -'Phis implement, 
 devised liy l.iiulcniint-cojonel A. U. liiitHnnt"'!. 
 United States Army, for the SprinL'ticId rille and 
 carbine, consists of two parts of teinpereil steel, the 
 extractor proper, Fij;. 2, and small cyliiiilrical drift, 
 Fi.n- •'• f'"' setting out the prfinns, carried screwed 
 Into end. A, of extractor. Fiir. I shows them to- 
 gether as they should be habitually kept and used for 
 (ill extract ions from the linn of the rille. Tlie extractor 
 proper is a hollow cylinder, ritled on the exterior to 
 correspond with the ritlinir of the ritlc barrel, with 
 four transverse grooves to the ik'pth of the ritlinir. 
 Inside it is shaiied at the 
 pronji-cnd to receive tlie 
 point, (', of drift and permit 
 a limited expansion; at the 
 Other end it is tiipped for the 
 Bcrew-lhread,l).of the drift. 
 Three cuts longitudinally di- 
 vide one end into 'A prongs, 
 F. around which is ;i screw- 
 tliread, 15, for takiiii: hold 
 of the shell irh( ii in thi rhiiii,. 
 her. The drift is ;i cylindri- 
 CkI piece of three diameters : 
 the head, E, thread D, am 
 point, C. The head is suf 
 hclently small to allow it 
 
 to pass throiurli tbe bore; the cavity, G, in it pre- 
 vents injury to tirinn-pin. The thread secures it to 
 extractor. Tlie point, when driven lietween the 
 prongs of extnictor as far as possible, sets them out 
 enfflciently to remove a shell, but not far enough to 
 touch the walls when passed into the empty chamber. 
 
 The i)arts shoulil lie kept screwed toirether and 
 never se|)arated for use, in niiy rime, until after ])ass- 
 ins it iis a whole — solid (drift) end foremost throuirh 
 the liore from the muzzle — and failing to remove the 
 shell. Passin;: it thus — iisinn larsjer end of hammer 
 to do so — will remfive any shell or part of shell in 
 the bore, or sliirlitly protruding into it from the 
 chaml)er. Failing to do so, nnscrew the drift ; in- 
 pert the extractor, pronn end foremost, into the 
 chamber; close the breech; pass the drift, ])oint 
 foremost, into the bore at the muzzle ; follow it vvitli 
 the hirner end of ranuner; drive it iiently " home " 
 lietween tlie pronns of extractor; open the breech 
 and drive out the shell. After the shell is out. the 
 two ]«irts either separate or can lie separated by the 
 finiters, and tlie shell removed from the extractor. 
 The prouiTs beinsr in the mouth of the chaml)er. the 
 point of drift invariably enters between them if the 
 drift be passed thnuiLTh the bore as directed. In 
 case of aecumuhited or liardened fouling or dirt in 
 the bore, the extractor as a whole, as directed, may 
 lie piissed through it with advautaire either as a pre- 
 liminary to cleiuiinu or wiping, or to remove the 
 cauw of swelled and burst barrels. In the latter 
 case it should be used just before each shot when 
 at the target, or :is often as convenient when himt- 
 tns or in battle. See Sprinf/field Hifie. 
 
 HEAD -QUARTERS.— A term senerally imderstood 
 to me;in the residence of the t'omm;aider-in-('liief. 
 whetluT in camp or elsewhere. It is also applicable 
 to the place where the officer, commandinsrany in- 
 dependent position or body of troops, resides ; hence. 
 
 till' center of authority tir order. The headquarters of 
 the whole British Army isat the Horse (Jiiiirds. where 
 the Coinmaniler-iii-Chief has his permanent offlces. 
 
 HEADSTALL. —Tliat part of the briille which en- 
 comp;isse> ilie head; the bridle minus the bit anil 
 rein ; the halter minus the hitchinfr-Htrap. 
 
 HEAD STOCK.— Tiiat i.orlion of a lathe which con- 
 tains the mandrel or l/ri- spindle on which the work 
 is clunked or to which it is downed, in contradis- 
 tinction to the <«//-stock which contains the (lend 
 spindle. The livr-hciul as distinguished from the 
 (/«;'/-head. 
 
 HEARSAY EVIDENCE.— Evidence (.'iveii at second- 
 hand, where Ihi witness states not what he himself 
 saw or heard, but what somebody else said. TliiB 
 evidence is, as a freneral rule, inadmissible. becaiiHe 
 the axiom is, that the best evidence that can be had 
 iiuist be produced, and therefore Ciich witness must 
 be confined to stating what he knows of his own 
 personal knowledge, or what he has Iciirncil by the 
 aid of his own senses ; and as he is sworn to the 
 truth, his truthfulness is tlius secured, as far as hu- 
 man testimony can be so. If evidence were once 
 admitted at second-hand, there would be no limit to 
 its uncertainty, and there would be thus introduced 
 vairue statements of absent persons, who. not bein;; 
 
 15^3 
 
 CT-1 1 
 
 Headless Hhell-extructor. 
 sworn when they made them, are therefore incapa- 
 1)le of beinn punished if they speak falsely, and can 
 not be cross-examined. Thouirh such is the sren- 
 eral rule, yet there are a few exceptions which are 
 unavoidable, owing to the nature of tlie thing. Thus, 
 in proving pedigrees, the hearsay evidence of per- 
 sons connected with the family, and those onlv, is 
 admitted in Enghind ; Imt in Seoflanil it is admitted 
 though tlie persons were not connected with the 
 family. A remarkat)le exception also exists in the 
 ease of dying declarations, i. e.. statements made Iiy 
 persons mortally wounded and in the prospect of 
 death ; but in England such evidence is only ad- 
 mitted in criminal cases, on a charge of manslaughter 
 or murder. In Scotland .such declarations are ad- 
 mitted in all cases of violence, and though the party 
 at the time did not lielieve he was dying. There is 
 another exception to the non-admissiiiility of lie;irsay 
 evidence allowed in Scotland, but not in EnLdami, 
 viz., where the person wlio made the statement is 
 dead, and therefore cannot be produced as a witness. 
 In England there is no help for such a state of thing.s, 
 and the statements of the dead person cannot be ad- 
 mitted : but in Scotland, if there was no reason to 
 suppose the contrary, it is presumed the dead wit- 
 ness spoke the truth, and what he said may be sriven 
 in evidence for what it is worth, both inclvil and 
 crimin;d cases. 
 
 HEAUUE. — A word derived from the German, 
 which formerly signified ningtif, or helmet. The 
 heaume has lieen sometimes called anions tlie 
 French .vilnde. armet. and celntr from the Latin word 
 which means engraved, on account of the different 
 figures which were represented upon it. The heaume 
 covered the whole of the face, except the eyes, 
 which were protected by small iron liars laid cross- 
 wise. It served as an armament or helmet in coats 
 of arms and armorial bearings; it is still preserved
 
 HEAVE. 
 
 22 
 
 HELIOGEAPHY. 
 
 iu Hcralilry, ami is a distinguishiujr mark of nobility. 
 
 HEAVE. — A command given wlieu lifting heavj- 
 weiglits or moving guns into position. Tlie hand- 
 spikes being in position and manned, at the com- 
 mand. henFe. all bear down or up on the handspike 
 simultaneously. 
 
 HEAVIES.— The common expression for European 
 heavy cavalry. They receive tlieir name in contra- 
 distinction to the light cavalry, from their equip- 
 ment and weight being greater tlian the latter. In 
 the British service there are 7 regiments of Hmi'iat. 
 viz., the dragoon guards. The weight the horse of 
 HenvUs has to carry is over 19 stone. See Heavy 
 Troops. 
 
 HEDGES. — A thin-set hedge cannot be placed in a 
 good state of defense, and should tlierefore be de- 
 stroj-ed, to prevent its interfering in any manner 
 with the defense. At the best this defense will only 
 serve as a screen, the hedge holding tlie earth up. 
 A thick-set hedge, if over six and a lialf feet liigli, 
 should be cut down to this height, and the cuttings 
 be set into the hedge to back the earth better ; a 
 small ditch is dug in front of the hedge, the earth 
 from which serves to form a banquette and a slight 
 parapet, which are thrown up against the hedge. If 
 the liedge is less than six and a half feet high it is 
 cut down to the height of four and a quarter feet ; 
 a ditch or trench, about three feet wide at bottom. 
 
 Section of Parapet behind a Hedge and a Ditch in front of it 
 
 HEAVT-AEMED INFANTRY.— Among the early 
 soldiery, sucli of the infantry as wore complete 
 armor, and engage<l with broad shields and long 
 spears. They were the flower and strength of the 
 Grecian armies, and had the highest rank of military 
 honor. See Infuntn). 
 
 HEAVY MASCHING ORDER —An expression ap- 
 plied to troops equipped for permanent field service 
 with arms, accouterments, knapsacks, canteens, and 
 haversacks. 
 
 HEAVY METAL. — Large guns carrying balls of a 
 lar^e size ; also, large balls for such gims. 
 
 HEAVY ORDNANCE.— Ordnance of great weight 
 and caliber. In the United States the term is re- 
 stricted in the land service to sea-coast ordnance. 
 See fJrflndiire. 
 
 HEAVY TROOPS. — The troops which compose the 
 three prhtcipiil (inns are generally subdivided into 
 two classes, hffiry and light; partly arising from the 
 nature of their weapons, and partly from their 
 destination on the field of battle. This subdivision 
 is less marked in the infantry than in that of the 
 other arms ; for although in most foreign armies, a 
 portion of the infantry carries a salier with the mus- 
 ket, still this additional weapon is of rather question- 
 able utility ; for the musket is the one which, under 
 all circumstances of attack and defense, will be re- 
 sorted to. All infantry now receive the same in- 
 struction ; but whether a portion of it ought not to 
 be reserved especially for the duties consigned to 
 light troops, is still a disputed point. As the 
 functions of heavy cavalry are to bear down all op- 
 position, and present an impassable wall to the 
 enemj''s efforts, its duties are confined to the battle- 
 field ; there, placed in the reserve, it is held in hand 
 \mtil the decisive moment arrives, when it is 
 launched forth to deal a blow from which the enemy 
 hopelessly struggles to recover, either to achieve 
 victory, or to fend off utter defeat. To light cavalry 
 are intrusted the imiiortanl duties of securing from 
 surprise the flanks of the heavy ; to watch over the 
 safety of liorse artillery, and to ])erform the services 
 re(iuired of tliem by infantry divisions, and those of 
 detachment service in general. The arlillery, which 
 had for a long jieriod, and even still, preserves the 
 cliaracter of eminent respectability, has of late years 
 begun to infuse a <lash of dare-ilevil spirit of the 
 cavalier into its ranks. If it has not yet taken to 
 charging literally, it has. on some recent occasions 
 in our service, shown a well-considered recklessness 
 of obstacles and dangers, fully borne out by JMstly 
 deserved sticcess. The distinction between liglit 
 anil heavy in this arm arises, not only from the dif- 
 ference of calilier in tlie jiieces, but also in a differ- 
 ence of their tactical application. 
 
 Section of a Hedge Defense with Trench in rear. 
 
 and two feet deep, is dng behind the hedge, and the 
 earth is thrown up against it. as in the last case. A 
 width of two or three feet should be left between the 
 trench and the earth thrown against the hedge to 
 serve as a banquette. A simple ditch behind a hedge 
 will often serve as a good cover for light troops 
 without any other preparation. See Walls. 
 
 HEEL. — That part of a thing corresponding in 
 position to the human heel ; the lower back part, or 
 part on which a thing rests. In a small-arm it is the 
 corner of the butt which is upwards in the firing 
 position. The heel of a sword is the uppermost part 
 of the blade, next to the hilt. It is generally larger 
 and more massive than the rest of the blade. 
 
 HEEL-PIECE.— The armor for the heels ; also, the 
 plate on the butt-end of a gun-stock. This is some- 
 times called the heel-plate. 
 
 HEGEMONY. — Leadership: preponderant influence 
 or authority ; usually applied to the relations of a 
 Govermment or State to its neighbors or confeder- 
 ates. 
 
 HEIRESS. — In Heraldry, a lady is accounted as an 
 heiress if she has no lirothers who leave issue. The 
 husband of an heiress is entitled to bear her arms 
 in an escutcheon of pretense, 1. e., a small escutch- 
 eon in the center of his paternal shield, and the 
 children of an heiress may quarter her arms with 
 their paternal coat. Neither practice is of very 
 early introduction in Heraldry. See Marshaling of 
 Arms. 
 
 HELEFOLIS. — In the ancient art of war, a machine 
 for battering down the walls of a] place besieged. 
 Its invention is ascribed to Demetrius Poliorcetes. 
 Diodorus Siculus says that each side of the helepolis 
 was 4.50 cubits broad, and 90 in height ; that it had 
 nine stages, or floors, and was carried on four striing 
 solid wlieels, 8 cubits in diameter ; that it was armea 
 with huge battering-rams, and had two roofs capable 
 of supporting them; that in the lower stages there 
 were different sorts of engines for casting stones, and 
 in the middle they had large catapults for launching 
 arrows. 
 
 HELIOGRAPHY.— The name applied to the method 
 of communicating between distant points in which 
 visual signals are ol)tained by reflecting the rays of 
 the Sim from a mirror or combination of mirrors in 
 the reipiired direction. This method can be only 
 employed to advantage in places where the sky is 
 free from clouds and the almosplicrc dear for con- 
 siderable )ieriods of lime, and the fact that an atiiios- 
 ])heric change may in<lertiiitely delay the Iransmissioll 
 of a message is an insu]ieralile objection to the es- 
 tablishment of ])crmaiien1 lieliographic stations in 
 most climates. In suitable localities, however, heli- 
 ography possesses important advantages for military
 
 HELIOGHAPHY. 
 
 28 
 
 HELIOGHAPHY. 
 
 siiiiialliiii; over cither mcdiodr*, llic principnl licinu 
 the ]ii)rliiliility of llic iiiiimriiliio, llur f;rcal distimc-c 
 t.i) which MicssiiK<'X ''lui hi; sent, wilhoiil rclriinsiiiis- 
 sicin, and the fact, that, th(' sifjiialw arc visihh' t<i those 
 only who are on tlie <lirect line of siL'nallini;. An 
 intere-itini; and instrmtive ])aper entitled "The 
 Elc'iiieuts of the lleli(jgrapli," hy Lieutcuaiit Fred- 
 
 erick K. Ward, United States Army, has lieen pul)- 
 lished in Signal Service- Notes, No. XI; and to this 
 paper we are indebted for the substance of the fol- 
 iowinr; discussion. 
 
 A complete instrument consists essentially of 'two 
 plane mirrors and a sightinji-rod, and, when a ' 'stand- 
 
 Fig. ■!. 
 
 ing flash " is used, a screen. Tlie mirrors are firmly 
 supported, usually on a tripod, and are fitted with 
 vertical and horizontal tangent-screws. By means 
 of the tangent screws the mirrors can be turned on 
 .their supports so as to face in any desired direction 
 toward the sky. When a movable flash is used, one 
 
 \ 
 
 / 
 
 ,/ 
 
 Fig. .3. 
 of the mirrors is so mounted that a motion of three 
 or four degrees about its horizontal axis can be given 
 it indeiiendently of the tangent-screw, so that the 
 flash can be thrown on and otl' the receiving-station 
 at will, and quickly. The screen, when used, is on 
 a separate support, in order, when working, to avoid 
 
 I 
 
 any shaking of the mirrors. Both mirrors are used 
 wlii'U tlur signalman facing the receiving-station lias 
 the sun in his riar. When the sun is in his front, or 
 ni'arly at his right or left, only oik; mirror is used 
 Tlu' sight in L'-r<jd, as its name implies, is an auxiliary 
 used with the tangent-screws, to put and keep the 
 mirrors in such a position that the Hash can be 
 thrown with certainty on the receiving-station. 
 
 Till' principles involved in the heliogra|ih arc few 
 anrl simpler: l.,et .S, Fig. 1. represent the sun, and 
 .1 /i a ])lain mirror. C'imsider first the light from the 
 sun incident on A /I at a single point, r. Only two 
 outside rays are shown in tjie ligure. Since angles 
 of inciilcnce and retlcction are always equal , the angle 
 «' is eipial to tin' angle «, and it is apparent, without 
 further explanation, that the converging cone of 
 light from S, incident lan, becomes, after reflection, 
 a diverging cone of precisely the same dimensions. 
 \ sixctator anywhere within this diverging cone 
 will see th(^ reflected light on looking toward c. The 
 incident r'onc is aright cone with a circular liase; 
 therefore a right secti<in of the rellected cone will lie 
 a circle whatever may bt- the angle of incidence. 
 The radius of the circle will be equal to the natural 
 tangent of in, or the natural tangent of the sun's, 
 semi-diameter to a radius eijual to the distance from 
 (■ to the plane of the section. This will be apparent 
 from Fig. 2. 
 
 Now, suppose Ali to be a sipiare mirror, and con- 
 sider next the four cones of light reflected from the 
 four corners. The angle at the sun subtended l)y 
 the diameter of the mirror would be inappreciable, 
 therefore the axes of these four cones are sensibly 
 parallel. The cones themselves evi<lently define the 
 figure of illumination. Pass a plane perpendicular 
 to the axes and they will pierce it in four points, de- 
 fining a parallelogram, the sides of which will not 
 exceed those of the mirror in length. The axes pro- 
 ceed obliquely from the mirror, therefore the par- 
 allelogram will be oblifjiie. This parallelogram is 
 represented in full in Fig. 3. The cutting-plane 
 makes a right .section ot the cone surrounding each 
 axis, and we have already seen that this section is a 
 circle having a radius equal to the natural tangent 
 of the sun's semi-diameter to a radius equal to the 
 distance from the cutting-plane to the apex of the 
 cone on the mirror. With these radii describe cir- 
 cles about the comer points, and join these circles 
 by tangents. The resulting enclosed figure is a 
 right sectiim of the solid of illumination. Now, 
 since the axes of the four cones are parallel, the di- 
 mensions of the parallelogram will be constant for 
 all positions of the cutting-plane. The radii of 
 the four circles increase with the distance from the 
 mirror. The mean value of the semi-diameter of 
 the sun is about 16 minutes, the natural tan- 
 gent of-which to a radius of one mile is 24^ 
 feet, very nearly. The mirrors used in helio- 
 graphs are usually from 4 to G inches in di- 
 ameter. Therefore at a distance of one mile, 
 the circles will overlap and the figure of il- 
 lumination will be sensibly a circle 49 feet in 
 diameter. At a distance of 10 miles from the 
 mirror to the cutting-plane, or from the send- 
 ing to the receiving-station, the circle of il- 
 lumination is 490 feet in diameter. And, gen- 
 erally, the diameter of the flash at the receiv- 
 ing-station, in feet, is equal to 49 multiplied 
 by the distance lietween the stations in miles. 
 As the diameter of the flash increases directly 
 with the diflference lietween the stations, the 
 adjustment of the instrument is no more diffi- 
 cult for a very distant station than for one 
 comparatively near, jirovided, of course, that 
 there is some distinguishalile landmark to adjiisl by. 
 In all patterns of the heliograph yet made the mir- 
 ror is kept in adjustment bv means of what is called 
 the "dark spot." To explain this, let AB. Fig. 4. 
 rejircsent a glass mirror, fnmi which the silvering 
 i has been removed from a small circle representee!
 
 HEUOGRAPHY. 
 
 24 
 
 H£LIOG£APHY. 
 
 by cd. about the center of motion of the mirror. 
 The center of the motion must lie in the plane of the 
 silvered surface, and it is usually at the center of 
 the mirror. Let/c/ aud prfjr, represent the cones 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 of light reflected from r and d, respectivelj'. Be- 
 tween '■ and (' very little light is reflected, and a 
 dark cone represented b}'''<rf is formed, the angle 
 red beiui; equal to the diameter of the sun. To 
 deduce a general expression for the length of the 
 dark cone, let c e d. Pig. 5. represent the cone, and 
 m € its axis, the length of which represent bj- L. 
 From m draw m ii perpendicular to the reflecting 
 surface. The angle i is equal to the mean angle of 
 reflection or incidence. Let d represent the dia- 
 meter of the unsilvered spot cd. and » the angle 
 rfd, which is equal to the diameter of the sun. 
 Then, 
 
 j-_id, cos (i — h) 
 ~ sin y 
 TJeturniug to Fig. 4, it is evident that the axis of the 
 dark cone is parallel to the axis of the cone of re- 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 fleeted light, therefore the direction of the reflected 
 lisht is indicated by the dark cone. The sighting- 
 rod has a small white disc at its ujjper end. Place 
 the rod so that the center of the white disc shall be 
 between e and c d on the axis of the dark cone as 
 represented in Fig. 6. A dark spot will then be 
 seen on the white disc. Leave the sighting-rod in 
 this position. In about one minute the dark spot 
 
 Fig. (;. 
 ■will have moved to one side of the disc, because of 
 the apparent motion of tlie sim. It can be returned 
 to the center of tlie unsilvered spot througli the 
 center of the white disc. SutHcient exactness in this 
 iidjustmeni is not diflicull to attain, for, as already 
 sliown, the circle of illumination at the receiving- 
 station is quite large, and the flash is visible from 
 liny point within. 
 
 To open communication with a (<istiint station, the 
 mirror being on its support, tlie sightiug-rod must l)e 
 
 so placed that the centers of the unsilvered spot of 
 the white disc, and of the receiving-station, shall be 
 on the same straight line. This may be done by 
 looking through the unsilvered spot at the station 
 y, and placing the white disc to cover it. In prac- 
 '-' tice, however, it is found easier to set the sight- 
 ing-rod by looking into the mirror, so placing the 
 y eye that the unsilvered spot exactly covers the 
 , reflectioji of the distant station, and then, with- 
 ^^ out moving the eye or the mirror, bringing the 
 , sighting-rod into view by reflection, and so ad- 
 '^ justing it that the reflection of its disc is also cov- 
 ered by the unsilvered spot. Then, if the mirror 
 is turned by its tangent-screws so as to throw the 
 reflected sunlight past the sighting-rod in such a 
 direction as to show the dark spot on the disc, 
 the flash will be visible from the distant station. 
 If the instrument gives a standing flash, the screen 
 must now be placed st) as to hide or cut off the flash 
 except when it is given to view by the operator 
 working the screen. If the instrument gives a mov- 
 able flasli, the mirror must be so turned that the 
 dark spot will appear on the white disc when the 
 key provided to work the mirror is pressed down. 
 When the key is not pressed down, the dark spot 
 will be on the sighting rod a little below the disc, 
 and the flash will not then be visible. No particular 
 value of the angle of incidence has yet been con- 
 sidered. It is necessary to consider what would be 
 the effect if the light from the sun should fall very 
 obliquely upon the mirror. It has already been 
 shown that the dimensions of the flash are sensibly 
 independent of the angle of incidence. But the case 
 is different as regards the strength of the flash, 
 and on this the range of the instrument depends. 
 As the obliquity increases, the mirror intercepts less 
 and less light, the reflected flash becomes corre- 
 sjiondingly weaker, and the maximum distance from 
 which it can be seen distinctly, that is, the range of 
 the instrument, is decreased : and further, the ex- 
 pression for the length of the dark cone shows 
 that the length decreases as the angle of incidence 
 increases, becoming practically zero when the angle 
 of incidence is nearly ninety degrees. The dark 
 cone would then fail to reach the sighting-disc and 
 tliere would be no longer any means for keeping the 
 flash on the receiving-station. These difficulties are 
 avoided by the use of a second mirror. Fig. 7 ilhis- 
 trates how the two mirrors are made to serve the 
 purpose. The figure needs no explanation. The 
 mirror which faces the receiving-station is usually 
 called the second mirror. The preliminary adjust- 
 ment with two mirrors is very similar to that with 
 one. In the explanation for the single mirror, men- ■ 
 tion was made of cones of diverging reflected rays 
 only. That there are also converging reflected raya 
 will be evident by supposing the eye placed in front 
 of the mirror and looking into it. There would then 
 be visible an image of the sun (see Fig. 8). This 
 imaginary sun takes the place of a real sim situated 
 back of tlie first mirror on the straight line through 
 the centers of the two mirrors. The first mirror 
 gives the light to the second from a fixed direction ; 
 therefore, after the ])reliminary adjustment of liotli 
 mirrors is completed, the second should not be 
 touched. The flash is kept on the distant station liy 
 the tanirent-screws of tlie first mirror. 
 
 With the sun at the zenith the angle of incidence 
 would be about 4.1^. Should the angle of incidence 
 willi a singli- mirror approach 60^, the second mirror 
 would be broiiglit into use to decrease it. (iO" then 
 may be assumed as the maxiniuin angle of incidence. 
 Th(' maximum of tlie sun's semi-diameter is 1(>' and 
 18". The diameter of the unsilvered spot is 
 usually about f,, of an inch. These values in the 
 exjiression for //, give 10 and {■;, inches as the length 
 ! of the dark cone. It follows that when the un- 
 silvered spot is |Y, of an inch in diatiieter, llie ilistance 
 from the center of the mirror to the sighting disc, or 
 from the center of the first mirror to the center of
 
 HELIOSTAT. 
 
 25 
 
 HELIOSTAT. 
 
 tlic sccdricl, must not exceed nine inches, in order 
 Dial llierc simll idwiiys be ii dislinci <liirl< spot 
 
 It u\:i\ lie of iMl( rest to dclcriiiini- llu- tiL'ure and 
 size of jilimi- mirror re(|insilc to iiivi- the muxinium 
 stnii'.'th of fliisli. liet A /I. Fij:. ». represent a plane 
 mirror situated a sliort distance from tlie eye nt f 
 
 Zfffntfvcrr'. 
 
 loolviug at tile imailinary iuuiL^e of tlie sun. formed 
 by retiectiou. Tlie imai^e will seem to cover a part 
 of the surface of A I! represented by mn. With a 
 very small anirle of incidence mn will be sensibly 
 a circle from every point of which light is reflected to 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Kig. S. 
 the eye. That portion of the mirror e.vterior to mn 
 reHectsuoli;:lit to the eye. and therefore adds nothing 
 to the slreiigtli of the Hash. The diameter of mn evi- 
 dently deijcuds upon tlie diameter of the sun and 
 tlie distance from the mirror to the eye. The angle 
 of incidence always has a sensible value, and there- 
 fore 11(11 would be an ellipse, of whicli the shorter 
 
 than the tiajj. The extreme range of the Hag with- 
 out glasses IS not over two miles, and with a lele- 
 scojie having a power of W diameters it cannot lie 
 read more than twenty 'iiiles. At the latter distance 
 it is only when the atmosphere is exceptionally clear 
 that till- flag can be seen at all. The average speed 
 ill the transmission of messages by Hag is about 
 Ihrcc words per ininuti-, and the labor of swing- 
 ing is by no means lii;ht. A man well jiraetieed 
 in the use of the lieliograjih call send eight words 
 per minute, and no manual labor is involved. It 
 is more tiresome to receive from the heliograiih 
 than from a Hag, because the concentration of 
 attention required and the strain upon the eyes 
 are greater. The latter trouble may be niucli 
 lessened by the use of colori-d glasses, or better 
 still, of a screen which will cut otV the glare of 
 the sky and ground without obstructing anv of 
 the ligiil from the distant instrument. The flash 
 from a Held instrunient can be seen with the naked 
 eye from 85 to TiO miles, and that from a larger in- 
 strument having H or !) inch mirrors, could be seen 
 80 miles or more without glasses. Permanent sta- 
 tions should be sujiplicd with both sizes. The dust 
 of a command can lie distinguished 
 .■it gri'at distances with glasses. The 
 Hash being then thrown on the ad- 
 vance, the command wOuld be almost 
 sure to see it before having moved 
 across and out of it. for at a distance 
 of 80 miles it is nearly one-third of a 
 mile wide. It would most certainly 
 be seen by some one if the whole com- 
 mand was instructed to be generally 
 on the watch for such signals. With 
 each command there should be. of 
 course, a heliograph. By halting a 
 short time the t'ommauding Officer 
 might obtain information of the great- 
 est value, and at the same time give 
 for transmission to other commands 
 or to lieadi|uarters such information 
 as he niiglit possess. In a section 
 where the natural features are favor- 
 able, it is easy to see how a few per- 
 manent stations could cover a large extent of terri- 
 tory and keep several commands in communication 
 with each other, enablin;: them to operate in cimcert 
 and to accomplish wliat would otherwise have lieeii 
 iinpossilile. See Iltliimtiit and Lmkiug-gUtxa Hlg- 
 niiliiifi. 
 HELIOSTAT. — Heliostat and heliotrope are names 
 
 axis would be double the natural tangent of the sun's | applied to instruments used by surveyors for render- 
 semi-diameter to a radius equal to the distance from 
 the receiving to the sendiug-station. The longer 
 axis would increase with tlie angle of incidence. 
 From this it appears that, at a distance of. say, 10 
 mile-, a mirror 400 feet in diameter would be re- 
 quired for the niaximum strength of Hash. But that 
 would be impracticalile. and indeed it would never 
 be desirable, for the Hasli from a 4-inch mirror has 
 been seen with the naked eye at a distance of over 
 3.5 miles, and that from a 1.5-incli mirror has been 
 seen with the aid of a small telescope at a distance 
 accurately determined to lie 102 miles. 
 
 The mirrors of a heliograph should he of glass. 
 Metallic mirrors would be lianl to keep liright in 
 service, and they are open to a still more serious 
 objection. It is necessary that mirrors should be 
 as nearly i^lane as possible. If of metal they would 
 lie liable to liecome bent or indented. The injury 
 might be so .slight as not to be ajiparent and still be ing the distant stations distinctly visible. This is 
 sufficient to make it impossible to give a good Hash managed by placing a mirror at the distant station, 
 to the receiving-station. (iliiss mirrors are free and adjusting it so that at a particular hour of the 
 from these objections, and experience has shown that day (arranged beforehand), the light of the sun shall 
 those of the small size needed are not likely to be be reflected from the mirror directly to the survey- 
 broken. .\nd. too, in the field it would be easier or's station. The surveyor must make his obser- 
 fo replace a glass mirror than one of metal. The vation at tlie instant he sees the glancing of the mir- 
 heliograpli. by the reason of its greater range, is a ror, as the constant change of the sun's position in 
 much more valuable iustruintp.t for Held signaling the heavens produces a corresponding change in the
 
 HELM. 
 
 26 
 
 HELM. 
 
 direction of tlie rays reflected by tlie mirror. Gauss 
 invented sucli an instrument about 1831, which is 
 mucli used in America, for Geodetic Surveys, and 
 is said to possess sucli power, tliat a mirror 1 incli 
 square is visible eiglit miles off, in average sunny 
 weather, and appears as a brilliant star at a distance 
 of two miles ; while some heliotropes have been 
 used so powerful as to be visible nearly 80 miles off. 
 The term heliostat, applied by Captain Drummoud 
 to an instrument invented by him for the same pur- 
 pose, more properly belongs to an instrument invent- 
 ed by S'Gravesande, consisting of an equatorial re- 
 volving on its polar axis, so that the sim, when 
 once accurately in the focus of the telescope, con- 
 tinues steadily fixed there. Drunimond's heliostat 
 is chiefly used" iu Britain. The drawing shows the 
 instrument as made by Fauth & Co., United States, 
 for the Coast and Geodetic Survey. The telescope 
 body is an iron tube ; a wood screw with a joint is 
 attached at the middle, so that the instrument can 
 be screwed to anv tree or post. See Heliography . 
 
 HELM. HELMET.— 1. In Heraldry, the represen- 
 tation of a helmet over shields or coats of arms. 
 From the early simple form known as the Norman, 
 the helmet, at a later period, came to vary in shape 
 
 use in Continental Heraldry. A Helmet is never 
 placed over the arms of any woman except the Sov- 
 ereign. 
 
 3. A covering of metal or leather to protect the 
 head in warfare. The earlier Greek and Roman 
 helmets, as shown in many extant sculptures, were 
 surmounted by plumes, but unlike their modem suc- 
 cessors, did not protect the face. During the Middle 
 
 lU'lmct of the Middle Ai^ee. 
 
 according to the degree of the person who wore it, 
 and helmets were set over coats of arms to bear the 
 crest, and indicate by their form the rank of the 
 bearer. The part of the helmet which opens to 
 show the face is called the vimr or beaver (to allow 
 
 Fieltl Officers' Helmet with Plume. 
 
 Ages, helmets were made of the finest steel, often in- 
 laid with gold, and provided with liars and tiaps, to 
 cover the face in action, and to allow of being 
 opened at other times. As the employment of flre- 
 arms became more general, helmets naturally lost 
 their utility, especialTy as regarded the face. Those 
 still remaining are in military matters limited for the 
 most part to heavy cavalry, afford no protection to 
 the face, and must be considered as rather for orna- 
 ment than use. Firemen wear a heavy head-piece 
 of leather and brass, to protect them as far as pos- 
 sible from falling ruins at conflagrations. In India 
 
 Line Officers' Ilelmet, U. S. Army. 
 
 Privntes' Felt Helmet, U. S. Army. 
 
 .Siniiiu.jr Ileliiiet, with spike. 
 
 of drinking). Tlie followinir forms of helnu't are 
 in use in Knglish Heraldry : 1. The helmet assigned 
 to the King and Princes of the blood-royal, which is 
 full-faced. com|)osed of gold lined with crimson, 
 and has the vizor divided by six projecting bars. 
 2. The helmet of the nobility, of steel, with five 
 bars of L'old. When placed on the 'shield, it is ex- 
 liibitcd in profile. ;!. Kiiiglils and Baronets have 
 the full-faced steel hcliiict with the vi/.or thrown 
 Ijack and witliout bars. 4. The luliiiet of Ksi|iiircs, 
 always represented in profile, of steel willi the vizor 
 closed. These distinctions are of comparatively re- 
 cent date. A much greater variety of helmets is in 
 
 and other hot climates, helmets of white felt, with 
 the additional screen of rolls of linen, are constantly 
 worn by military men, to protect them from the rays 
 of tlie sun. 
 
 In the United States army, light helmets of the 
 following descriptions are worn as a part of the full 
 dress : 
 
 IlelmeU for Field Officers— The body : of cork or 
 otlicr suitable material, covered with black cloth, 
 or of black felt, at the oiition of the wearer. Trim- 
 mings : cord and tassels, top-iiiece and plume-socket, 
 chain chin-strap and hooks, eagle wtth motto, 
 crossed cannon, rifles, or sabers, all gilt, with the
 
 HELM GUN. 
 
 27 
 
 HEMP. 
 
 nuiiibrr cif the regiment on the Bliic-ld in wliite: 
 pluiiic of Iji'iHiilo-lmir, wliite for infantry, ycDiiw 
 for ciivalry, and red for artillery. UiimiU fur uthcr 
 Miiiiiitfd OJi'irn tind OJfi'-d'n of thr Sii/ndl <!itrpn— 
 Same as aliovc e.vcept that the color of plume i.** 
 oranije for Sii;;iial Corps. IhlmiU fur oljiir Offl'rri 
 iif h^ii'it Troiipt — Same lis aliovc, exeept that the 
 trimiiiiiiijs are as follows :--'rop.pieee spike, chain 
 chin-strap with hooks and side Imltons. eaijle with 
 motto, crossed ritles or cannon, all irill, with the 
 iiiiiuber of the reiriment on tin; shield in ivliili'. 
 Offi-irs' Siniuiifr HiIiiiiIh — IJ(jdy: of cork, covered 
 with white facini; elolli : top-piece spike, chain chin- 
 strap, and hooks all i^ilt. The helmet cords are 
 attacheil to the left side of the helmet an<l come 
 down to the left shoulder, where they are held 
 loL;ellier by a slide; one cord then passes to the 
 front and the other to the rear of the neck, crossini; 
 upon the rii^hl shoulder and passinii; separately 
 around to the front and rear of the rii^ht arm, where 
 they arc ai^ain united and held toi^etlier by a slide 
 under the arm ; the united cords then cross the 
 l)re isl and are looped up to the upper button ou the 
 left side of the coat. 
 
 IltiiDfUfir (ill M'liiiited Tnx'ps — Body: of I)lack 
 felt, with ieatlier chin-strap, hirije crossed cannons 
 or sabers, letter of company and number of rei;i- 
 meut, plain side buttons, top-piece and i>lume- 
 socket, all brass ; horse-liair pbimes and cords, and 
 ban 1 with rinss of the color of the arm of service. 
 Helmetn fir nil Foot Trmipn — Of same pattern and 
 material as for mounted troops, with leather chin- 
 strap ; and plain side buttons, top-|iiece and spike, of 
 })rass. Triiixinhujx — Commissary Serireants. a cres- 
 cent of white metal ; Hospital Stewards, a wreath of 
 brass, with letters U. S. in white metal ; Engineers. 
 a castle, with letter of company ; Onlnance, a shell 
 and Hame; Artillery, crossed cannons; Infantry, 
 crossed ritles, and letter of company and ninnlier of 
 regiment, all in brass. Cork helmets are supplied 
 only to troops servinu; in extremely hot climates, 
 in the first and third years of their enlistment, 
 and these only in lien of the campaign hat. The 
 necessity for such issue must in all cases be certified 
 to by tiie Department Commander. See (HHipmu 
 HniK. 
 
 HELM -GUN. — A breech-loading small-arm, h;iving 
 a fixed chamber closed by a movable barrel, whicli 
 rotates about an axis p;ir;dlel to the axis of the 
 barrel. The peculiar feature of this arm is the con- 
 nection of the tuml)ler with a movable butt-phite. 
 so arranged that by pressing the piece against the 
 shoulder, in aiming, the hammer may be simul- 
 taneously cocked. The cylinder also can be con- 
 veniently removed from the side, and replaced by a 
 loaded one, if desired. 
 
 HELOTS. — The population of ancient Sparta was 
 divided into four classes, the lowest of whicli was 
 formed of serfs or slaves, called Helots (probably 
 meaning i-nptieeii. from helein, to capture). These 
 Helots are generally siipposed to have formed the 
 original population of the country, and to have been 
 reduced to bondage by their Dorian conquerors, the 
 muubers, however, being swelled fr<im time to tinu- 
 by the conquest of enemies. They tielonged to the 
 State, which liad the power to set them at li!)erty ; 
 Imt they toiled for individual proprietors, and were 
 IiiiiiikI to the xoH. i.e.. they could not be sold away 
 from the place of their labor. They were the tillers 
 of the land (for which they paid a rent to their mas- 
 ters), they served at the public meals, and were oc- 
 cupied on the public works. In war tliey served as 
 light troops, each free-born Spartan who bore heavy 
 armor Iieing accompanieil to battle by a number of 
 them, sometimes as many as seven. On rare occa- 
 sipus they were used as heavy-armed soldiers. It is 
 a matter of do\ibt whether after emancipation they 
 could ever enjoy all the privileges of Spartan citi- 
 zens. They were treated with much severity by 
 their masters, and were subjected to degradation 
 
 anil indignities. They wen; whippcil every year to 
 kei'p them in mind of their si'rvile state; they were 
 obliged to wear a distinctive dress fdolhesof sheep- 
 skin, and a cap of dog's skin), anil to into.\icatn 
 themselves, as a warning to the Spartan youth; and 
 when multiplied to an alarming extent, lliey were 
 often massacred with the most barbarous cruelty. 
 On one occasion, 2000 of tlniu, who iuid behavi-d 
 bravely in war, were encouraired to rome forward 
 for emancipation, and were then most treacherously 
 put to death. The Spartans organized, as fiften a.s 
 necessity required it, Seerit Servlcf. <'umpiiuuit of 
 young men, who went itbroad over the coimtry 
 armed with daggers, and both by niL'ht and day 
 assassinated the unfortunate Helots, selectini; as 
 their special victims the strongest and most vigo- 
 rous of the oj>presseil race. 
 
 HELVE. — 1. A tilt-hammer, used for shingling 
 the balls as they come from the ])uddling-funiace. 
 2. The wooden handle of entrenching tools, such 
 as axes (felling and pick.) hatchets, kodalies, 
 shovels, spades; also the handle of certain artificers' 
 tools, axes, and slediri-hanuners. 
 
 HELVETU.- .V Celtic people inhabiting, accord- 
 ing to Ca'sar, the region between the mountains of 
 .lura on the west, the Khone on the south, and the 
 Hhine on the east and north, the region correspond- 
 ing pretty closely with modern Switzerland. They 
 had 12 towns and 400 villages. The great and fa- 
 tal event in their history is their attempted irrup- 
 tion into and conquest of Southern (Jaul. in which 
 they were repulsed liyCiesar with frightful slaugh- 
 ter. The story of this expedition is circumstantially 
 narrated by the Roman Commander. They col- 
 lected 3 months' provisions, burned their 12 cities, 
 400 villages, and all isolated dwellings, and made a 
 general rendozvous by Lake_Leman in the spring of 
 .58 B. c. Caesar hastened to Geneva, destroyed the 
 bridge, raised two legions in Cisalpine (Jaul. and wlien 
 the Helvetians sent delei;ates to demand a passage, 
 delayed them until he had built a \v:dl along ijie 
 Khone, 16 feet high and about lit Koman miles in 
 length, flanked with redoubts. Having vainly at- 
 tempted to pass this barrier, the Helvetii took an- 
 other route, but were followed and defeated with a 
 terriljle slaughter at Bibracte (modern Autun, in 
 Burgundy), and the remnant obliged to return to 
 their own country, where tliev became subject to 
 the Romans. Of 308,000 who left their homes, in- 
 cluding 92,000 fighting-men, only 110,000 returned. 
 In the commotions which followed the death of 
 Nero, the Helvetians met with another terrible ca- 
 tastrophe. Remaining faithful to Oalba. they were 
 fallen upon by Cacina. a General of Vitellius. who 
 gave them to the rapacity of his legions. They 
 were massacred by thousands, multitudes were 
 sold into slavery, and their towns pillaged and 
 burned, their Capital destroyed, and their Governor 
 executed. From this time they scarcely appear as 
 a distinct peo|)le. 
 
 HEMERODEOMI.— In Grecian antiipiity, runners 
 or couriers, who could hold out to run all day. In 
 a coiuitry like Greece, where the roads were few 
 and bad, the Hemerodromi were indispensable for 
 the rapid diffusion of important news. Every Greek 
 State made a point of training a number of these 
 men who could travel great distances in an incredi- 
 bly short space of time, and at every dangerous 
 crisis they were stationed ou commanding points to 
 observe and report at head-quarters what it was ne- 
 cessary for the authorities to know. In the service of 
 the Persian Kings, these men were called Angori, 
 and the service Angerdoii. Among the Romans they 
 were known as Crir.virtK. 
 
 HEMP. — The fiber of certain plants grown both in 
 Europe and India, known as the ( 'n imtifn's mtir/i and 
 iiidloi. which have been pronounced identical plants. 
 In various notices of Indian libers, we frequently 
 meet with the word nuiiii as indicating a particular 
 kind of hemp. Sometimes we find it called Indian
 
 HENCHMEN. 
 
 28 
 
 HEPTARCHY. 
 
 hemp, aud we ma}' often .see hemp enumerated as 
 one of the exports from India, at other times we may 
 see either the same or another tilier mentioned by 
 the name of brown hemp. Tliese various names are 
 sometimes applied to tlic fiber of one or two diflferent 
 plants, or are employed to distingidsh the tlber of 
 three distinct plants, all of which are grown for their- 
 fibers, and have been and mioht be exported from 
 India; though onh' two of them are now usually to 
 be foiinil among the exports from that couutr)-. 
 Hence, to avoid ambiguity, it is necessary to notice 
 the plants to which these several names are correctlj' 
 applicable. The true hemp ( C'anmibix fuitien). gtinja 
 of the natives, is everywhere ctdtivated in the plains 
 of India, not on account of its libers, but for its in- 
 toxicating leaves and their secretions. In the Hima- 
 layas, however, the tiber is separated for economic 
 purposes, aud was exported from India to England 
 during the last war, and this has been the ease for 
 many years. Tlie tiber of the xiinn or tmig {dotal, 
 (ifiii jilncen) is often called Indian hemp, but incor- 
 rectly. It is the kind most generally cultivated all 
 over India on account of its fiber, and is that usually 
 mentioned in the exports from Calcutta under the 
 name of hemp, l)ut also as mnn. The plant nia_y be 
 distinguished by its flowers being of a bright )-ellow 
 color, aud of the form of the pe^i and of "the labur- 
 num, while the leaves are entire and lanceolate. The 
 tiber alluded to is very valuable for cordage, canvas, 
 twine, etc. Madras aud Bombay both export large 
 ([uautifies of hem]i. "" 
 
 HENCHMEN.— The name given to the soldiers who 
 guarded the King's jterson in the time of Henry 
 VIII. The word, sigulfyiug a page or servant, is 
 now obsolete or rare." 
 
 HENKY KIFLE. — This magazine-gun is now gen- 
 erally known as the Winchester. iT may be used as 
 a single-loader or a repeater. As a repeater, the 
 motion of the lever withdraws the spent shell of 
 the previous charge, raises the hammer, recharges 
 the gun, aud reloc'ks the l)reech mechanism. WUh 
 single loading, the cartridge is placed in the carrier- 
 block, anil a single motion puts it in order for firing. 
 See Wincluxtr)- liiflr. 
 
 HEPBURN REMINGTON RIFLE.— This rifle is de- 
 signed especially ftir long-range target shooting, and 
 for general n.se as a sportsman's aud hunter's rifle, 
 being constructed with a special reference to the 
 use of a reloading-shell. It has a solid breech-block 
 
 are all made with pistol-grip stocks : which hereto- 
 fore have been furnished only with the higher priced 
 rifles, and are chambered for the straight 38 and 40 
 cal. aud 4?) eal. shells, using either a patched or 
 cannelured liullet. The sectional drawing .shows the 
 arm with the lireech closed. 
 
 To take the gun apart ; Remove the iippfr-xrrew 
 in the left-hand side, and the hreech-hlai-k may Ije 
 taken out. To take out tlie /mtiimer. remove the 
 next upper screw aud sli|) the hnmmer forward into 
 the breech-block hole. To fake out the extractor, 
 remove the forward .screw on left-hand side. The 
 lever which operates the breech-lilock passes through 
 the ri'Cker-nleew with a sqiuire stud, and is held in 
 place by a set screw directly under the fure-ntdrk, 
 whicli must be removed if it is ever desired to take 
 off the lever. If necessary to remove the guard, it 
 can be done by taking off the hutt-^tork, and taking 
 out the i:ide-screir.s in" the usual way. The barrel 
 should not be unscrewed from the frame, except by 
 experienced liands and with proper appliances. 
 When uecessarj' to unscrew ihe frame, the extractor 
 should be taken out, and the breech-block and guard 
 put back in place, l)efore putting on the wrench. 
 If at any time the primer should be driven Ijack into 
 tlie firing-pin hole, so as to make the breech open 
 stiffly, it can be relieved by snapping the hammer 
 against the firing-pin. The military long-range rifle 
 has been adopted by the National Rifle Association, 
 who recommend it to competitors for the American 
 Team. It has a heavy barrel, with new sj'sfein of 
 rifling, chambered for 3yV inch, 44 caliber, straight 
 shell, using from 8.5 to 100 grains of powder aud wa- 
 ter-proof patched bullet .530 and 550 grains of lead. 
 See Re)iiingt(in Rifle. 
 
 HEPPAH. — A New Zealand fort, or space sur- 
 rounded with stout palisades. Also written Hippa. 
 
 HEPTARCHY. — The name given to seven kmg- 
 doms said to have been established by the Saxons in 
 England. The common idea is, that these seven 
 kingdoms were contemporaneous : but all that can 
 be safely asserted is, that England, iu the time of 
 the Saxous, was peopled by various tribes, of which 
 the leading occupation was war ; and tliat some- 
 times one was conquered, sometimes another. At no 
 time was there a counterpoise of power among seven 
 of them, so that they could be said to have a sepa- 
 rate, much less an independent existence. Still, 
 seven names do survive (some authorities adding an 
 
 with direct rear support, side-lever action, and re- [ eighth). The king of the one that had the fortune 
 bounding liauuner. so that the arm always stands [ to' be most powerful for the finu' lieing, was styled 
 with the trigger iu the safety notch, thus rendering Bretwalda or Ruler of Uritaiu, but in most instances 
 premature discliarge impossible, anil is believed to the power of this sujiposed Huler beyond the limits 
 be the best in use for the iiurpose described. They ' of his own Tcrritorv must have been verv snudl.
 
 HERALD 
 
 L'i) 
 
 HEKALDRY. 
 
 IJiiiliT Ei|;l)t'rt, Wcssex rose to ]n: »iii)n;iiif, ami 
 virlimlly swiillowrd up tlu; otliors. 
 
 HERALD. - An olMccr whose iluty consists in the 
 reniiliiliiin of iirnioriiil hi'iiriiiirs, tlii> niarslmlliiii^ of 
 professions, anil llie siiperinleiulence of piiblie cere- 
 inoni<>s. In llic Miilillc A'^^es, lleralils were liiiilily 
 lioniired, anil enjoyeil important privile)j;i)M ; their 
 fiinelions also incluileil the liearini; of niessai^es. 
 wliether of eourtesy or lU'tianee, lietween royal or 
 knii;lilly persouai^es; tlie superinteiiilini; anil reijis- 
 terin^■ of trials l)y battle tonrnanienls. jousts, anil all 
 <!hivalrie e.vereises; the eonipulatioii of tlie slain 
 after battle; anil the reciirilin'j; nf ihe valiant acts 
 of the fallini; or survivini; innilialanls. The olliee 
 of lleralil is prolialily as olil as the origin of eoat- 
 iinnor. The prineipal heralilie ollieers are ilesii;nateil 
 Kini;s-of-Arnis nr Kinijs-at-Arins. anil the novitiates 
 or learners are slyled Pursuivants. lleralils were 
 originally ereateil with niueh eeremony ; tliey are 
 iiiiw api)ointeil by the Earl Marshal in Eni;lanil, 
 anil by the Lyon Kinii; of-Arins in Senilaiul. There 
 are now in Eniilaml tiiree Kinu,s-iif-Arins. nanieil by ! 
 their otliees (iarter, Clareneieu.x. anil Xorroy : si.x | 
 Heralds— Somerset, Chester, Windsor. Riehmonil. j 
 Lancaster, and York : and four I'ursuivanis, Roujie 
 Drai^an, Portcullis, Blue Mantle, and Houije ('roi.x. 
 There have been at ilitTerent periods ollu-r Heralds, 
 whose titles are now laid aside ; Heralds extraordi- 
 nary have also sometimes been created, as Edmonson, 
 by the title of Mowbray, in 1704. In Scotland, the 
 princijial heraldic ntticer is Lyon Kinir-of-Arms ; and 
 there were till lately six Heralds — Snowdoun, Alban\' 
 Ross, Rothesay, "Marchmont, and Hay; and six 
 Pursuivants — Unicorn, C'arrick, Kinlyre, Orniond, 
 Dingwall, and Bute. Recently the jierinanent num- 
 ber of Heralds ;ind Pursuivants in Scotland has been 
 reduced to three of each. Ireland has one Kins;-of- 
 Arms. Ulster; two Heralds. Cork and r)ul>lin ; and 
 two Pursuivants, of whom the senior bears the title 
 of Athlone, and the other is called the Pursuivant of 
 St. Patrick. The official costume of a Herald t'on- i 
 sists of an embroidered satin tal)ard or surcoat of | 
 the royal arms, and a collar of SS. See Oollcge-nf- 1 
 -Ir/z/i. /v'nf/-i/t-A r/n.\ liud Pi/rsn/rtfttt. 
 
 HERALDRY. — Heriddry is properly the knowledge ! 
 .if the whole multifarious duties devolving on a 
 Herald ; in the more restricted sense, in which we 
 shall here consider it. it is the science of armorial 
 bearini'S. After occupying for ages the attention 
 of the learned, and forming an important branch of 
 a princely education, the study of Heraldry fell, in 
 latter limes, into neglect and disrepute, and was 
 al)andoned to coach-painters and undertakers, a 
 degradation owing in part to tlic endless tissue of 
 follies and niystiticatious that hud been interwoven 
 with it. -Modern criticism has rescued Heraldry 
 from the pedantrii's and follies of the Heralds, and 
 imparted to it a new interest, as a valuable aid to 
 historical investigations. Though we have instances 
 in remote times of nations and individuals dis- 
 tinguishing themselves by particular emblems or 
 ensigns, nothing that c;ui properly be called armo- 
 rial bearings existed before the middle of tlie I'Jtli 
 century. The shields of the French knights in the 
 First Crusade presented a plain face of polished 
 metal, nor is there any evidence of heraldic devices I 
 having been in use in the Second Crusade in 1147. 
 But the Anglo-Xornum poet Wace, who tiourisheil 
 in the latter part of the twelfth century, mentions de- 
 vices or cognizances as being in use among the 
 Normans, " that no Nornum ndght perish by the 
 hand of another, nor one Frenchman kill anolher"; 
 and Wace is curiously corroliorated b\- the Hayeux 
 tapestry of the twelfth century, where there are fig- 
 ures of animals on the shields of the invaders, while 
 the Saxon shields have only borders or crosses. The 
 rude devices on these shields have nothing approach- 
 ing to an armorial form or disposition, yet it is 
 probable that systematic Heraldry sprang out of 
 them, but it is ditiicult to sav when thev assumed 
 
 that hereditary character which is essential to the 
 idea of armorial bearings. Some sort of armorial 
 insignia were depicted on the shields used in the 
 Third Crusade, which took place in llH'.t; and in the 
 same half-ci.-ntury originated the fleurs-de-lis of 
 France and the lions of England. The Iransnnssion 
 of arms from father to son seems to have been fully 
 Recognized in the thirteenth century, and in the prac- 
 tice then introduced of embroidering the family insig- 
 nia on the sunroat worn over the hauberk or coat of 
 mail, originated the expression mat 'if iirmx. Arms 
 were similarly embroidered on the jupon, cyclas, 
 and tabard, which succeeded the surcoat, ajjractice 
 which survived till the time |of Henry VHI., when 
 the tabard came to be entirely disused except by 
 Heralds, who still continue to wear on their tabards 
 the Royal Arms. It was by slow degrees that the 
 usage of arms grew up into the sj-stematized form 
 which it .-issinnes in Ihe w'orks of the established 
 writers on I^Taldry. The principal existing data 
 for tracin;; its |irogress are English rolls of arms yet 
 extant of Ihe limes of Henry HI.. Edward I., and 
 Edward HI. The earliest formal treatises dale no 
 further back tli;in the end of Ihe fourteenth century, 
 before which time the whole historical part of the 
 subject had been obscured by a tissue of gratuitous 
 fictions, which has misled most subsequent writers 
 up to a very recent jieriod. The Professors of the 
 science represent the Heraldry of the tenlh and four- 
 teenth centuries as equally sharply defined with that 
 of the fifteenth and sixteenth. The arms of William 
 t he Conqueror ;ind his sons are desiTibed with .-ill their 
 dilTerences; arms are ascribed to Ihe Saxon Kings of 
 England, to Charlemagne, and even to half-mythical 
 persons and heroes of classical times. It is" rather 
 surprising to find this fictitious Heraldry understood 
 and systematized early in the fourteenth century. 
 The arms traditionally considered lo be those of Ed- 
 ward the Confessor were sculptured in Westminster 
 Abbey in the reign of Edward II. 
 
 In the infancy of Heraldry, every knight assumed 
 what arms he pleased, not consulting the Sovereign 
 or King-at-Arms. Animals, plants, imaginary mon- 
 sters, tinugs artificial, and objects familiar to Pil- 
 grims, were all fixed on ; and whenever it was possi- 
 ble, the object chosen was one whose name bore suf- 
 ficient resemblance in sound to suggest the name or 
 title of the bearer of it. There is reason to believe 
 that early arms were generally iiiinex parkintex, 
 though the allusion has in many cases ceased to be 
 intelligible from the old name of the object iK-inii for- 
 gotten. The charge fixed on was used with great 
 latitude, singly or repeated, or in any way which the 
 bearer cho.se. or the form of his shield suggested. 
 But as coats of arms became more mimerous, con- 
 fusion often arose from different knights adopting 
 the same symbol : and thus confusion was increased 
 by a practice which ere))! in of sovereigns or feudal 
 chiefs allowing their arms, or part of them, to be 
 l)orne as a mark of honor In'theirfollowers in battle. 
 Hence ditt'erent coats of arms came in many instan- 
 ces so closely to resemble each other that it was im- 
 perative, for distinction's .sake, that the fancy of Ihe 
 bearer shoidd be restrained, and regulations laid 
 down regarding the numtier and position of the 
 charges, and the attitudes of the animals represented. 
 This necessity led in the course of time, to the sys- 
 tematizing of Heraldry, a process which the rolls 
 alluded to show us was going on gradually throngh- 
 out the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. By The 
 time that Heraldry was consolidated into a science, its 
 true origin had been lost sight of, and the credulity 
 and fertility of imagination of the Heralds led them to 
 i.ivest the most common charges with mystical mean- 
 ings, and to trace their original adoption to Ihe de- 
 sire of commemorating the adventures or achieve- 
 ments of the founders of the families who bore them. 
 The legends ascribing an origin of this sort to the 
 early armorial bearings have, in nearly all instances 
 wherein it has been iiossitile to investigate them.
 
 HERALDRY. 
 
 30 
 
 HERALDRY. 
 
 turned out to be fabrications. It was oclj- when 
 Heraldry began to assume the dignitj' of a science 
 that augmentations of a commemorative character 
 were granted, one of the earliest known instances 
 beina the heart added tothe coat of Douglas, in com- 
 menroratiou of the good Sir James's pilgrimage with 
 the heart of King Robert. After the science became 
 thoroughlj' systematized, augmentations and new 
 coats were often granted with the reference to the 
 supposed sjTiibolical meanings of the charges. In 
 England, the assumption of arms bj' private persons 
 was first restrained by a proclamation of Henry V., 
 which prohibited every one who had not l)ornearms 
 at Agiucourt to assume them, except in virtue of in- 
 heritance or a grant from the Crown. To enforce the 
 observance of this rule. Heralds' visitations or pro- 
 cessions through the countries were instituted, and 
 continued from time to time till the reign of William 
 and Mar}'. Jurisdiction in questions of arms is ex- 
 ccnted by the Heralds' College iuEngland, the Lyou 
 Court in Scotland, and the CoTlege-of-Arms in Ireland. 
 No one within the United Kingdom is entitled to 
 bear arms without a hereditary claim by descent, or 
 a grant from the competent authorit}-; and the 
 wrongful assumption of arms is an act for which the 
 assumer may be subjected to penalties. The use of 
 arms, whether rightfuUj' or wrtmgfuUy, subjects the 
 bearer of them to an annual tax. It is illegal to use 
 without authority not only a coat of arms, l_iut even 
 a crest. Any figure or device placed on a heraldic 
 wreath, is considered a crest in questions with the 
 Heralds' College or Lyou Court, as well as in ques- 
 tions with the Commissioners of Inland Revenue. It 
 shows how deeply the passion for outward distinc- 
 tion is implanted in human nature, when we find 
 people in countries such as the Uuited States, where 
 all differences of rank are theoretically repudiated, 
 assuming heraldic devices, each man at his own hand. 
 Besides individuals. Communities and States are en- 
 titled to the use of arms, and Heralds have classified 
 arms, in respect of the right to bear them, under the 
 following ten heads: 1. Armsof dominion ; thearms 
 borne by Sovereigns as annexed to their territories. 
 2. Arms of pretension, which Sovereigns havebome. 
 who, though not in possession, claim a right to the 
 territories ^o which the arms belong. Thus, Eng- 
 lan 1 bore the arms of France from the time of 
 Edward III. till 1801. 3. Arms of community; the 
 arms of Bishops' Sees, Abbeys, Universities, Towns, 
 and Corporations. 4. Arms of assumption; arms 
 which one has a right to assume with the approba- 
 tion of the Sovereign. Thus, it is said, the arras of 
 a prisoner at war may be borne by his captor, and 
 transmitted by him to his heirs. .5. Arms of patron- 
 age ; added bj' Governors of Provinces, Lords of the 
 Manor, Patrons of Benefices, etc., to their family 
 arms, as a token of superiority, right, or jurisdiction. 
 
 6. Arms of succession, borne quartered with the 
 family arms by those who inherit fiefs or manors, 
 either by will, entail, or donation. Thus, the Dukes 
 of Athole, as having been Lords of tlie Isle of Man. 
 quarter the arms of that Island, and the Duke of 
 Argyle quarters the arms of the Lordship of Lome. 
 
 7. Arms of alliance, taken up by the issue of heir- 
 esses, to show their maternal descent. IS. Arms of 
 adoption, borne by a stranger in blood, to fulfil the 
 will of a testator. The last of a family may adupt a 
 stranger to l)ear his name and arms ami possess his 
 estate. Arms of ado|)lion can only be borne with 
 permission of Sovereign or King-at-Arms. i). Arms 
 of concession: augmentatiims granted by a Sove- 
 
 • reign of part of his royal arms, as a mark of distinc- 
 tion, a usage which, we have already observed, ob- 
 tained in tlie earliest days of Heraldry; and hence 
 the prevalence among armorial bearings of th<' lion, 
 the tleur-de-jis, an'l the eagle, the bearings of the 
 Soverci'.:ns of England anil Scollanil.of l''rane<'. and 
 of Germany. 10. Paternal or hereilitary arms, trans- 
 mitted by "the first possessor to his descendants. A 
 coat of arms is composed of charges ilejiicted on an 
 
 escutcheon representing the old knightly shield- 
 The word escutcheon is derived froui the French 
 ecunson, which signified a shield with armorial bear- 
 ings, in contradistinction from ecu, a shield geuerallj'. 
 The shields in use in England and France in the 11th 
 and 13th centuries were "In shape not unlike a boy's 
 kite, a form which seems to have been borrowed 
 from tiie Sicilians ; but when tliej- 
 became the recipients of armorial 
 bearings, they were gradually flat- 
 tened and shortenecl. From the 
 time of Henry III., the escutcheon 
 has Vieen most frequently repre- 
 sented on seals as of something 
 approaching to a triangular form, 
 with the point downwards, the ex- 
 ceptions being that the shield of a Fig. l. 
 lady is lozenge-shaped, and a knight-banneret square. 
 To facilitate description, the surface or field of the 
 escutcheon has been divided into nine points, as in 
 (Fig. 1), technically distinguished bv the following 
 nanies: A, the dex'ter chief point ;" B, the middle 
 chief; C. the sinister chief; D, the honor or collar 
 point; E, thefess point; F, the nombril or naval 
 point; G, the dexter base point ; H, the middle 
 base; and I, the sinister base point. It will be ob- 
 served that the dexter and sinister sides of the 
 shield are so called from their position in relation 
 not to the eye of the spectator, but of the suppo- 
 sed bearer of the shield. 
 
 Coats of arms are distinguished from one another, 
 not only by the charges or objects borne on them, 
 but by the color of these charges, and also of the 
 field on which they are placed. The field may be 
 of one color, or m"ore than one, divided by a "par- 
 tion-line or lines varying in form. The first thing, 
 then, to be mentioned in blazoning a shield — that is, 
 describing it in technical languaire — is the color, or, 
 as it is heraldically called, fhe «m(-«»/-f of the field. 
 
 VCRF 'fURCURi; ERMINE VAIR' POItNl C f. 
 
 Fig. i. 
 
 Tinctures are either of metal, color strictly so called, 
 or fur. The metals used in Heraldry are two — gold, 
 termed w, and silver, urgent — represented iu paint-, 
 ing by yellow and white. The colors are five — red, 
 blue, black, green, and purple, known as gules, 
 azure, mhle, vert, and purpure. Metals and colors 
 are indicated in uncolored heraldic engravings by- 
 points and hatched lines, an invention ascribed to 
 Father Silvestro di Petrasaucta, an Italian Herald of 
 the seventeenth century. 0;',(Fi!i. 2) is represented by 
 points; for urgent, the field is ^eft plain. Gule.'< is 
 denoted by perpendicidar, and nzure, by horizontal 
 lines ; sable, by lines perpendicular and horizontal 
 crossing each other ; rtrt. by liiagonal lines from 
 dexter chief to sinister l)ase ; purpure. by diagonal 
 lines from sinister chief to dexter base. The fur» 
 were originally but two, erminei\ni\ mh-. The former 
 is represented by black spots reseml)ling those of the 
 fur of the animal called the ermine, on a white 
 gro\ind. Vn'r. said to have ))een taken from the 
 fur of a squirrel, bluish-gray on the back and white 
 on the belly, is exjiressed by bliU' and wliite sliiclds, 
 or bells in horizontal rows, the bases of the white 
 resting on the bases of tlu' blue. If the vair is of 
 any other colors than whiti- and blue, they must be 
 specified. Various modifications of these furs were 
 afterwards introduced, among others ermines, or
 
 HERALDRY. 
 
 31 
 
 HERALDRY. 
 
 cTiiiiiU' with the ficlil sable iiml the spots iir;;cnt : 
 enninitt'Jt, with a red hair on each si(k- of tin- l)la(;k 
 spot; ptrii,, witli tlie titlil «al)li!, anil the spots or; 
 ciiaiUer-vdir, or vair with tlie hells of one tincture 
 I)laee(l l)asi- to base; and ]>"tiiit nji/Hti'r-p"tj'iU, vair 
 with enit<'h-shaped fiirures inslc'ad of hells. It is 
 an estahlislied rule of Heraldry lliat metal should 
 not tie placed on metal, nor color on color; u rule 
 more ri;;i<lly adhered to in EuLdish than in foreign 
 Heraldry. We have one remarkal)le transgression 
 of this in the arms of the kingdom of Jerusalem 
 founded by the Crusaders, which are argent, a cro.ss 
 potent between four crosses or. A recognized ex- 
 ception exists wherever a charge lies over a Held 
 p:irtly of metal and partly of color, or wliere an ani- 
 mal is (see Infrii) iittired, armed, uiigule<l, crowned, 
 or cliained with a tincture dilTcrcnt from that of his 
 body, Marks of cadency, chiefs, cantons, and bor- 
 (hires are also occasional!}' exempted from the gen- 
 eral rule, being, according to some Heralds, not laid 
 on the shield, but coiisti, or sewed to it. 
 
 Everything contained in the tield of an escutcheon 
 is called ii c/uirf/e. Charges !ire divided by Heralds 
 into the three classes of honoridile ordinaries, subor- 
 dinaries, and common charges. Under the name of 
 ordinaries or honorable ordinaries are included cer- 
 
 tive is the liar, containing the fifth part of the liehl; 
 and there are also the di/uft, one-half of the l)ar, und 
 the harrukt, one-half of the closet, the latter seldom 
 borne singly. 0. The r/uvron (Fig. H), composed of 
 two strips clescending from the center of the shield 
 in diiigonal dirc'cliims like the rafli-rs of a roof. Its 
 diminutives (ire the /■/iirrnni I of half, and the rouplr. 
 i:loiu\ one-fourth its width, the latter borne, as ilx 
 name implies, in pairs, and generally accompanj^ing 
 the chevron— ou ettcli side of it. 7. The crota ( 
 
 
 •4*4' #■ ! 
 
 ^ 
 
 tain old and very frequent bearings, whose true pe- 
 culiarity seems to be that, instead of being taken 
 from extraneous objects, they are representations of 
 the wooden or metal strengthenings of the ancient 
 shields. Thej- are ten in number, viz : 1, The chief 
 (Fig. 3). the upper part of the shield separated frrtm 
 the rest by a horizontal line, and comprising, accord- 
 ing to the requirements of Heralds, one-third of it, 
 though this proportion is seldom rigidly adhered to. 
 Its diminutive is the tillet, supposed to take u]) one- 
 fourth the space of a chief, in whose lowest part it 
 stands. 2. The ptle (Fig. 4). a band or stripe from 
 top to bottom, said, like the chief, to occupy one- 
 third of the shield. It has two diminutives, the 
 pullet, one-half in breadth of the pale, and the indttrse, 
 one -half of the p;dlet. S. The /'iiifl (Fig. •')), !i simi- 
 lar band crossing the shield diagonally from dexter 
 chief to sinister V)ase. Its diminutives are the hendlet 
 or giirti'r, one-half of its breadth ; the CMt or roti.ie, 
 one-half of the bendlct : and the ribuinl. one-half of 
 the cotise. The bend is sometimes borne between 
 two cotises, in which case it is said to be mtiMd. a 
 term sometimes applied with doubtful propriety to 
 the other onliuaries when accompanied with their 
 diminutives. 4. The Acrtrf ,«'««£(';■, a diagonal band 
 from sinister chief to dexter base. Its diminutives 
 are the acarpe. oue-half of the bend sinister ; and the 
 hdti'n (Fig. 6). one-half of the scarpe. The baton 
 stops short of the extremity of the tield at both ends, 
 and has been considered a mark of illegitimacy. .5. 
 The/..v.v (Fig. 7). a horizontal bjuul in the middle of 
 the shield, said, like the ordinaries :dreaily enumer- 
 ated, to occupy one third of it. Its principal diminu- 
 
 Fig- 
 
 Fit's. l.V- ?-'. 
 
 9), uniting the pale and fess, an ordinary which was 
 originally like the rest, composed of the clamps ne- 
 cessary to the strength of the shield, but had also the 
 deeper meaning of the symbol of the Christian faith. 
 Besides its plain form, the cross was varied in nu- 
 merous ways, most of these varieties being, how- 
 ever, rather common charges than ordinaries. Of 
 the 39 lesser crosses mentioned by (Juillim, and 109 
 by Edmonson, a few of the most frequently ocoir- 
 ring are the following : The r/v«,i moliiie (Fig. 10), 
 with the ends turned round both ways; the cronx 
 fieury (Fig. 11), of which each limb terminates in a 
 Heur-de-lis ; the croxx patonee (Fig. 12), each limb of 
 which has three points; the ervsn potent (Fig. 13), 
 crutch-shaped at the ends; \\\c croaH pattee {¥\a:. 14), 
 small in the center, but widening toward the ends; 
 and the cmaK cromlet (Fig. l.'j). crossed at the ends. 
 The latter is the most frequent of all. and borne 
 oftener in numbers than singly. Any of these crosses 
 is said to be titchee when the lower limb terminates 
 in a sharp point, as in Fig. IG. There is also the 
 crw.is Maltese, whose limbs have each two points, and 
 converge to a point in the center of the cross : thoui;U 
 not frequent as a heraldic charge, it derives an im- 
 portance from being the badge of the Knights of 
 Malta and of many other orders. M. The Mittit-t, or 
 St. Andrew's Cross (Fig. 17). formed by a junction 
 of the bend dexter and bend sinister. 9. The pile 
 (Fig. 18). a wedge with point downwards. A single 
 uncharged pile should, at its upjier part, occupy one- 
 third the breadth of the shield, but if charged, it 
 may be doul)le that width. 10. The f/uurter'. con- 
 sisting of the upper right-hanil fourtli jiart of the 
 shield cut otY liy a horizontal and a jierpeudicular 
 line. Its diminutive is the (•«/(<</« (Fig. 19). Armo- 
 rial figures may be depicted on any of these ordina- 
 ries, but not on their diminutives, with the exception 
 of the canton. 
 
 We observed that the tield of an escutcheon may 
 be of two different tinctures, divided by a partition- 
 line, which line may vary in direction. When di- 
 vided by a partition-line in the direction of one of 
 the ordinaries, the shield is said to \k party jnr that 
 ordinary ; thus we may have (Figs. 20) a shield 
 party per pale. bend, fess, chevron, or saltire. An 
 escutcheon divided as by a cross is said to be 
 quartered. A shield divided into anj- number of 
 parts by lines in the direction af a pale. bend, or 
 biir, is said to be paly, hendy. harry, the number of 
 pieces being specified, as in the example Fig. 21,
 
 HERALDRY. 
 
 32 
 
 HERALDRY. 
 
 barrv of six, argent auc] gules. When the field is of 
 metal and color separated by any of the lines of 
 partition, and the charge 
 placed on. it is said to 
 be ritiintfr-rhnngeii: this 
 means that the part of 
 
 'ENGRAILED 
 iNVECTED 
 
 '- VJkVY 
 
 ■Ln_n_n_n_ embattled 
 
 /VWWNAA. INDENTED 
 /\A/\/ DAHCETTf 
 
 the charge which is on 
 the metal is of the color, 
 and vice Ter.ia. as in Fig. 
 22. the arms borne by 
 Chancer the poet, per 
 pale argent and 'gules, 
 a bend counter-changed. 
 The partition-line, or the 
 boundary-line of an or- Fis •i:i. 
 
 dinary, is not always even. Fig. 23 shows the com- 
 monest forms of irregular partition-lines in use, viz., 
 the (ngrntled, iiietcUd. iravy, ne/nile, einliattled, in- 
 deiiUd. and djuireUe. An ordinary engrailed has the 
 points of the engrailed line turned outwards, and an 
 ordinary invected, inwards. Dancette differs from 
 indented by the partition-line being marked with 
 only three indentations. The ^tihurdiimriex, or sub- 
 ordinate ordinaries, are generally enumerated as the 
 following, though there is no very broad line of de- 
 markation between them and the common charges. 
 1. The gy run. When a shield is at Duce quartered 
 and party per saltire, as in Fig. 24. the ' division 
 is called gi/n>iiiiy "f light (from gyrnx a circle), and 
 one of the triangles, or at least that triangle in 
 
 dexter chief is a gyron. Gyronny of si.\, ten, or 
 twelve also occasionally occur, so called according 
 to the number of the triangles. 3. The fret 
 (Fig. 2.5) is a cognizance derive.', from the banding 
 or ornamenting of the shield, and a shield covered 
 with this lattice-work decoration (Fig. 26) is said 
 t(i }Kfritty. 3. The hurdiire. or border(Fig. 27) is a 
 .stripe encircling the shield. It is much used to dis- 
 tinguish different branches of a family, and is often 
 charged with small devices, on which account it 
 has sometimes been reckoned an lionorable ordinary. 
 4. The iirle (Fig. 28) differs from a bordure in not 
 touching the extremity of the shield, .'i. The i/r.i- 
 sii.re. regarded as a dimimitive of the (irle, is generally 
 borne (jouble, and fliiry couulerflory. as in the arms 
 of Scotland, or a lion rampant witliin a tn'ssure 
 fiory countertlory gules (Fig. 2!)). (3. The pall 
 (Fig. 30), the archiepiscopal ornament of that name, 
 sent from Uome to metropolitans, and resembling 
 in form the letter Y. 7. The Jt/iiir./,e.i (Fig. 31), 
 the de.xter anil sinister sides of the shield cut off by 
 a curved line. Flanches are always Ixirni^ in pairs, 
 .•ilid sometiincs chargeil. H. The hisnigi . a tigure 
 of four eijua! sides, with the upper and lower angles 
 acute and the others obtuse. !l. The fiiKil (Fig. 
 33), longer and more ac-ute than the lozenge. 10. 
 The ruKtre (Fig. 33), a lozenge pierced nnnid in the 
 center. U. The miutrle (Fig. 34), a lozenge per- 
 forated, and showing a narrow border. Mascles 
 were probably originally links of chain-armor. A 
 
 field is said to be hyzengy (Fig. 3.'5), pisilly or mait- 
 ciiUy when divided by diagonal lines in the direction 
 of these subordiuaries. A field divided by horizon- 
 tal and perpendicular lines into squares of different 
 tinctures is said to be i-iifcky ; in the case of apsn 
 chei-ky there are three such rows of the squares. 
 Among the subordiuaries are sometimes reckoned 
 certain circular charges called nmndtU or niiindleti. 
 distinguished in English Heraldry by very different 
 names according to their tinctures. When of or, 
 they are called hezfintu ; of argent, plntex ; of gules, 
 torteaux : of azure, hurts; of purpure, gnlpen ; and 
 of sable, ogre-sseit, or pelletn. 
 
 We now come to the third class of figures occur- 
 ring in armorial bearings. We have seen that the 
 ordinaries and subordiuaries are for the most part 
 purely heraldic figures, connected in their origin 
 with the shield itself; the romiiniii rh/irgex, on the 
 other hand, are representations more or less con- 
 ventional of familiar objects, which have no neces- 
 sary relation to the shield ; but are in some way 
 emblematic as concerns family or individual history 
 and character. The knights, in the early days of 
 Heraldry, ransacked the animal, tlie vegetable, and 
 tlie mineral kingdom, as well as tlie range of things 
 natural and artificial, for cognizances which would 
 be distinctive, and at the same time suggestive, of 
 the name or title of the bearer of them. We can 
 only enumerate a few of the charges of most fre- 
 quent occurrence. Of the beasts, the liifii requires 
 special mention. The king of beasts is one of the 
 most frequent of heraldic devices, and is made to 
 assume a great variety of attitudes, for which see 
 Lion. Lions and other beasts of prey are said to 
 be iirmed or langued of any tincture when their 
 teeth and claws, or their tongue, is of that tincture. 
 With some change of color or position, the royal 
 lieast came to be used by all who coidd claim 
 kindred, however remote, with royalty, and lions 
 were further multiplied by augmentations granted 
 by the Sovereign to favorite followers. The heraldic 
 leopard, which has been the subject of much con- 
 troversy, was originally but another designation for 
 the lion passant-gardant. Bears, boars, bulls, stags, 
 are favorite heraldic beasts. A stag walking is saiil 
 to be trippiint ; he is at gaze when a lion would be 
 statant-gardant : he is attired of any tincture when 
 his horns are of that tincture. The animals that 
 possess horns and hoofs are said to he armed and 
 '//((/«7frf in respect of them. The heads and limbs 
 of animals are often borne as charges, and they may 
 be either cnuped, cut oft' in a straight line, or i rased, 
 cut oft' with jagged edge. Of birds, we have first 
 the eagle. The sovereign of birds, and sj'mbol of 
 imperial Jove, was, next after the lion, the most 
 favorite cognizance of royal personages, and was 
 adopted by the German Emperors, who claimed to 
 be successors of theCa'sars of Rome. The imperial 
 eagle had at first but one head ; the monstrosity of 
 a second head seems to have arisen from a dimidia- 
 tion of two eagles, to represent the Eastern and 
 Western Empire. The eagle of Heraldry is most 
 generally displayed, i.e., its wings are expanded ; 
 sometimes it is preying, or standing devouring its 
 prey. The alrrivn. the cognizance of the Duchy of 
 Loraine and tlie family of Jlontmiirency. was orig- 
 inally l)Ut a synonym for the eagle assumed as an 
 anagram for the word Loraine, but modern Herahls 
 have degraded it into a nondescript creature without 
 beak or claws. The martlet was originally a mar- 
 tin, a species of the swallow, wliicli has also in 
 course of time been deprived liy heralils of its legs 
 and beak. The ]ielican, the swan, tlie cock, the 
 fak'oii, the raven, the parrot or popinjay, and the 
 peacock, are all of tolerably frequent occurrence. 
 The pelican, has generally her wings indarsed. or 
 placed back to back, and is depicted pecking her 
 lireast. When in her nest feeding her y.oung, she 
 is called a i)elican in her piety. A peacock borne 
 aflronte with his tail expanded is safd to be in hi.i
 
 HEBALDBT. 
 
 33 
 
 HEBALDB' COIXEGK 
 
 pride. Birds of prey are armed of tVie Bame color of 
 whicli tlicir liciik and talons are rcpri'scntc<l. Siidi uh 
 liuve no tiiloHH are heuktd and iiirmhcrid. The curk is 
 said to he armed, created. a.m\ jellojied , tlie latter term 
 referring to his com!) and nills. Birds liaving the 
 power of flight are, in respect to tlicir attitude, clone, 
 rialiuj, or tulant. Fishes anil reptiles occur as 
 charges: tlie former are said to In- miiant, if drawn 
 in a horizontal, and hniiriunt, if drawn in a |)crpcn- 
 diculur position ; and tlie dolphin, in reality straight, 
 is conventionally txirne em,h<med or bent. The en- 
 enllup nhdl is of frecpient occurrence, and is said to 
 be the hadge of a pilgrim. Soinetinies the con- 
 ventional heraldic form of an animal differs from 
 its true form, as in the case of tlie antelope of 
 Heraldry, which has the head of tlie stag, a uni- 
 corn's tail, a tusk issuing from tlie liji of the nose, 
 a row of tufts down tlie liack of the neck, and sim- 
 ilar tufts on the tail, the chest, and thighs. Of 
 " animals phantasticall " we have among others the 
 griffin, wyvern, dragon, unicorn, basilisk, harpy. 
 We have the human l)ody in whole or part, a naked 
 man, a savage, or wild man of the woods, also arms, 
 legs, hearts, Moor.s' heads, Saracens' heads, and 
 that strange heraldic freak, the three legs conjoined, 
 carried in the escutcheon of the Isle of Man. 
 
 Of plants, we have TOSffl, trefoils, cinqxiefitiU, leawn, 
 giirbx (sheaves of corn), trees, often erndirat^'d or 
 friKtiKited of some other color, and, above all, the 
 celebrated yfc'«'-rff-W.v, used as a badge by Louis VII. 
 of France, before Heraldry had an existence. When 
 a plant, or an animal, or otlier charge is bla/.one 
 propi r, what is meant is that it is of its natural color. 
 The heavenly bodies, the sun, moon, and stars, are 
 also pressed into the service of Heraldry, as are things 
 inanimate and artificial without number, particularly 
 such as were familiar to the warriors and pilgrims 
 of the 13th and 13th centuries. Helmets, Iiuekles, 
 shields, hatchets, horseshoes, swords, arrows, batter- 
 ing-rams, pilgrims' staves, mullets (for spur-rowels), 
 and water-bougets, or bags, in which in crusading 
 times water was carried a long distance across the 
 desert, also the clarion or war-trump, generally or 
 erroneously called a rest. Even the letters of the 
 alphabet have been used as charges. Charges may 
 be placed either simply on the field or on one of the 
 ordinaries ; in some instances, one of the ordinaries 
 is placed over a charge, in which case the charge is 
 said to be dehruisedhy the ordinary. Three charges 
 of one kind are placed two above and one below, 
 unless blazoned /ft /<"■•<■•< or /« 7ot/<-. In the 14th and 
 IStli centuries, the simplicity of early Heraldry 
 began to be departed from by accumulating a variety 
 of charges on one shield, and in later times we have 
 sometimes a charge receiving another charge like an 
 ordinary. The'growing complexity of shields arose 
 from the augmentations granted to distinguish the 
 younger branches of a family, or charges assumed 
 from the maternal coat by the descendants of an 
 heiress. In the end of the last and beginning of the 
 present century, a practice prevailed for a time of 
 introducing . into armorial bearings matter-of-fact 
 landscapes, representations of sea-fights, and of 
 medals and decorations worn by the bearer, setting 
 all heraldic conventionalities at defiance, and deal- 
 ing in details not discernible on the minutest inspec- 
 tion. Such charges are frequent in the arms of the 
 heroes of the old wars; as, for an example, in the 
 augmentation granted to Sir Alexander Campbell, 
 bart., in addition to his paternal arms — viz., "A 
 chief argent charged with a rock proper, subscrilied 
 G/iraWnr, between two medals: and on the dexter 
 representing the silver medal presented to Sir X. 
 Campbell by the Supr^ie Government of India, for 
 his services at the storming of Seringapalam, in 
 1799; that on the sinister representing the gold medal 
 presented to him for his services in the battle of 
 Talavera." The grants proceeding from the present 
 Kinss-of-Arms are made conformable to the usages 
 of Heraldry, and do not stand in need of such 
 
 lengthened explanations to make them intelligible. 
 
 The arms of the dilTerent members of a family have 
 been distinguislied from one another, somelimes by 
 the use of a bordure or othir ililferi'nce ; and some- 
 times, especially by Knglish Heralds, by the use of 
 certain figures ralleil marks (}f cadency, the label, ereH. 
 cent, mullet, inartlit, an n,iilet, jUar-de.-lis, to designate 
 the clilest, second, third, fourth, fifth, or sixth son 
 and his ilescenilants an invention originating about 
 th(^ timi^ of Henry V'H., but which cannot consi.s- 
 tently be carried througli all the ramifications of a 
 family for a succession of generations. lileiionry 
 is an e.ssential part of the science of arms. To blazon 
 a coat is to so describe it that any one with an ordinary 
 knowledge of Heraldry will be able to ilepict it cor- 
 rectly. In the language of blazonry, all tautology 
 must be avoided. The tincture of the Held is first 
 mentioned; the ordinary, if any, follows, unless it 
 be a chief; then the charges between which the 
 ordinary is placed. The charges on the ordinary 
 follow, and, lastly, we have a canton or chief, and 
 marks of cadency. Besides tlie heraldic devices 
 depicted on the shield, there are the following borne 
 external to it— the helmet, the mantle, the wreath, 
 the crest, the motto and scroll, the supporters, and 
 the coronet. The helmet, originally a i)iece of de- 
 fensive armor,, became in the course of time one of 
 the usual accompaniments of the shield ; and, placed 
 over the arms, it came by its form to mark the rank 
 of the wearer. For these distinctions, which are of 
 comparatively recent date, and ap|)licable only to 
 British Heraldry, see Helmkt. The muntling is an 
 embellishment of scroll-work flowing down on both 
 sides of the shield, and originating in the cuintoise, 
 or scarf, wrapped round tjie body in the days of 
 coat-armor. From the center of the helmet, within 
 a tcrenth of two pieces of silk of the first two colors 
 of the armorial bearings, issues the crest, originally 
 a special mark of honor worn only by heroes of 
 great valor, or advanced to a high military- command ; 
 now an inseparable adjvmct of the co.at of arms in 
 English, though not in Continental Heraldry, and 
 often assumed and changed arbitrarily without the 
 proper authority. The scroll, placed over the crest 
 or below the shield, contains a motto bearing in many 
 cases an illusion to the family name or arms. Sup- 
 porters are figures or animals standing on each side 
 of the escutcheon, and seeming to support it. They 
 were in their origin strictly ornamental devices, 
 which only gradually acquired a heralilie character. 
 In England, the right to use supporters is confined 
 to the Royal Family, Peers, Peeresses, and Peers by 
 courtesy. Knights of the Garter, Knights Grand 
 Cross of the Bath, and a very few families whose an- 
 cestors bore supporters before their general use was 
 restricted. In Scotland, supporters are also used by 
 the Baronets of Nova Scotia and the chiefs of various 
 families. The crown of the Sovereign, the miter of 
 the Bishop, and the coronet of the Mobility are ad- 
 juncts appended to the shield of those whose ditrnity 
 and office entitle them to that distinction. The sub- 
 ject of marshaling arms, or arranging various coats 
 in one escutcheon, is explained iifa separate article. 
 Here it may suffice to lay down a few general rules. 
 A husband is entitled to impale the arrns of his wife, 
 i.e., to place them on the same shield side by side 
 with his own. When the wife is an heiress, the 
 husband bears her arms in an esctitrheon "f pretense, 
 or small escutcheon in the center of his own shield, 
 and the descendants of the heirese may quarter her 
 arms with their paternal coat. A Sovereisrn also 
 quarters the arms of his several States, and feudal 
 arms are quartered by subjects. An elective King 
 may place his herditary arms on an escutcheon of 
 pretense over the insignia of his dominions. 
 
 HEBALDS' COLLEGE.— A collegiate l)ody, founded 
 by Richard III. in 1493, consisting of the heraldic 
 officers of England, who were assigned a habitation 
 in the Parish~of Allhallows-the-Less, in the city of 
 London. See College of Arms.
 
 HERBORT SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. 
 
 34 
 
 HEROES. 
 
 HERBORT SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— In this 
 system. the auiili's iif the polyirdii ;ire covered by case- 
 mated reduits, surri)uuded by barracks loop-hnled 
 for musketry and artillery. These are flanked by two 
 redoubts, covered by a glacis, before which stands 
 a counter-guard. The extremities of these course- 
 faces forma low flank before the redoubts. Defen- 
 sive barracks connected by an earthen parapet form 
 a general retrenchment. An envelope of counter- 
 guards flanked by lunettes, which have also their 
 glacis, casemates, extra flanks, etc., surrounds the 
 whole. The system is ingenious ; but, the outlay is 
 enormous. The uurevetted parapets and the flanks 
 rising in tiers would expose it to an attack of vive 
 force, and it would also suffer much from ricochet. 
 
 HERCOTECTONIQUE. — A term in fortification sig- 
 nifying that branch of military architecture which 
 specifically points out the best means of defense 
 and the surest method of providing stores. The 
 wf)rd is derived from the Greek. 
 
 HERCULES POWDER.— A mixture of carbonate of 
 magnesia with carbonizing and oxidizing materials, 
 cornbined with nitro-gh'cerine in varying propor- 
 tions, to produce different grades of explosivcness. 
 Although Sobrero well established the fact that 
 Ditro-glycerine was a powerful explosive — and about 
 18.53 fhe French Academy made several practical 
 tests showing it was an agent of great importance, 
 and scientificinen occasionally wrote upon the sub- 
 ject — the article of glycerine had not yet been pro- 
 duced in large quantities, mostly on account of the 
 expense attending its manufacture, which was still 
 in its infancy ; and hence the manufacture of nitro- 
 glycerine had remained wholly impractical, for 
 x-ommon mining and engineering purposes, until 
 about the year 1863. The Hercules Powder Com- 
 pany, well knowing that nitro glycerine had been 
 used as mixed with gunpowder many years before, 
 commenced the manufacture of a high explosive, in 
 1868, compounded in that mannel'. But it was 
 found that all these mixtures of the nitro-glycerine 
 compounds were faulty in two particulars, viz: — 
 1st. A tendency to decomposition when exposed 
 to much summer heat, or long storage or use in 
 very hot mines, etc., in consequence of some small 
 particles of nitric acid remaining in the nitro-glycer- 
 ine, rendering it more or less dangerous from de- 
 composition. 2nd. The noxious fumes arising 
 from this decomposition, both in storehouses and in 
 the mines, causing nausea and headache and in some 
 cases weakening the quality of the powder. As a 
 remedy for the first, the carbonate of magnesia en- 
 tirely neutralizes any free acid that may chance to 
 remain in the nitro-glycerine, and converts it into 
 nitrate of magnesia, which is explosive, and renders 
 it so perfectly free from anj' liability to spontaneous 
 combustion that it may be safely stored, for manj' 
 months, in the hottest weather, or be transported 
 through the longest voyages in the tropics, without 
 undergoing any chemical change. The remainder 
 of theinixture is compounded upon strict chemical 
 principles to neutralize noxious fiunes that would 
 otherwise be generated. See High Exploniven. 
 
 HEREFARE. — An old term from the Saxon, signi- 
 fying thi- same as warfare. 
 
 " HEREGELD.— A term derived from t)ie Saxon, sig- 
 nifying a lax which was formerly levied for main- 
 tainiuic an army. 
 
 HERESILIA. — A term derived from the Saxon, 
 signifying a soldier who abandons his colors, or de- 
 serts the service. Also written Ilerisl/tn. 
 
 HERETOCH. -The leader or the comnumder of an 
 army. The term frequently means a C<instable or 
 Marshal, ajid is sometimes written Ilrrit";/. 
 
 HERETUM. -A court in which the guards or mili- 
 tary retiime that usually attended the old British 
 Noliilily and Hislioiis were accustomed to draw up. 
 
 KERGATE. A term derived from the Saxon sig- 
 nifying a tribute which was paid in ancient times 
 to the Lord of the Soil, to enable him to carry on war. 
 
 HERISSON.— A formidable hedge or chev;iux-de- 
 
 frise. It is made of one stout beam fenced by a 
 number of iron spikes, and which, being fixed upon 
 a pivot, revolves in every direction upon its being 
 touched, alwavs presenting a front of spikes. 
 
 HERLIN SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— This sys- 
 tem proposes an enciente uf detached bastions and 
 javelins, and divides the town into quarters lij' 
 double cavaliers erected behind the gorge of the bas- 
 tions. The ramparts are casemated with a double 
 parapet and a fausse-braye. 
 
 HERMANDAD. — An Association of the principal 
 cities of Castile and Aragon, bound together by a 
 solemn league and covenant for the defense of their 
 liberties in seasons of trouble. These Confederacies 
 were sanctioned by the Sovereigns, as agents for sup- 
 pressing the increasing powers of the Nobles, and 
 for maintaining public security through the land 
 with no cost to the Government. In Aragon, the 
 first Hermandad was established in the middle of 
 the 13th century, and in Castile about 30 years later ; 
 while in 1295, 35 cities of Castile and Leon formed 
 a joint Confederacy, and entered into a compact, by 
 which the}' pledged themselves to take summary 
 vengeance on every Noble who had either robbed or 
 injured a member of their Association and refused 
 to make such atonement for the wrong ; or uponanj' 
 one who should attempt, even by the order of the 
 King, to levj' an unjust tax. During the long period 
 of Anarchy in which the Christian Rulers of Spain 
 were impotent to maintain order in their own Do- 
 minions, the Santn Hermandad, or Holy Brother- 
 hood, had presented the only check against the un- 
 bounded license of the Nobles ; and Isabella of Cas- 
 tile, seeing the beneficial effects which an extension 
 of the Insfitution was capable of producing, obtained 
 the sanction of the Cortes for its thorough reorgani- 
 zation and extension over the whole Kingdom in 
 1496. The crimes reserved for its jurisdiction were 
 all acts of violence and theft committed on the high- 
 roads or in the open country, and the penalties at- 
 tached to each misdemeanor were specified with the 
 greatest precision in the codes of laws which were 
 enacted at different times in the 3'early assemblies 
 of the deputies of the Confederate cities. An annual 
 contrilmtion was, moreover, assessed on every hun- 
 dred householders or vecinoa for the equipment and 
 maintenance of the horsemen and the gnndriUeros or 
 officials of the Brotherhood, whose duty it was to 
 arrest offenders and enforce the sentence of the law. 
 Although the Hermandad was regarded with much 
 disfavor by the aristocracy, it continued for many 
 years to exercise its functions, until the country was 
 cleared of the banditti and the Ministers of Justice 
 enabled to discharge their duties without hinderance 
 from lawless disturbers of the peace. In 1498, the 
 objects of the Hermandad having been obtained and 
 public order established on a firm basis, the Brother- 
 hood was disorganized, and reduced to an ordinary 
 police, such as it has existed, with various modifica- 
 tions of form, until the present century. The laws 
 enacted at different times in the Juntas or Assem- 
 blies of the Hermandad were compiled, in 1485, into 
 a code, known as the Qtuuhrnn de Ian Leyes niievas 
 de la Hermaiuhul, which was first printed at Burgos 
 in 1.527. 
 
 HEROES.— In the Homeric period. Kings, Princes, 
 Generals, Leaders, all brave Warriors, and men wlio 
 excelled in strength, courage, wisdom, and experi- 
 ence. Many of these had, im account of such 
 qualities, a fabled origin, half human, half divine, 
 and" were honored, after death, with a kind of ado- 
 ration or inferior worship. These heroes and denti- 
 gods were recognized as the special patrons or |)ro- 
 tectors of |iarticular countries or cities, and to them 
 were raised temples and altars. These examples of 
 heroic character, beldupconstantly to the admiration 
 and imitation of peoples, tended to strengthen their 
 pecidiar character, and to impress them with the 
 greatness and glory of courage, contempt of danger,
 
 HERRISON. 
 
 35 
 
 HEXAGONAL POWDER. 
 
 and nubility of purpose. Poetry cxalti'il tlic heroie 
 Btiiliineat tJi suliliiiiity ; mid poems wliicli celeljriitecl 
 tlie deeds of heroes lire themselves termed lieroir. 
 The inmiriimry time when heroes iiiiil other semi- 
 divine lieini;s lived on eiirtli wus commonly culled 
 the lleroie Aire. 
 
 HERRI80N. — In Heraldry, the hedijehof:, ii clmrKe 
 allusively home liyfiimilies of the iiiinie of Iliirris. 
 
 HERSE.— Ill fortitieiition, ii kind of giite or |)ort- 
 cuUis, with iron bars like a harrow, set in with iron 
 pikes, placed above gates and lowered, to impede 
 the advance of an enemy. It is usually hung liy a 
 rope and is fastened to' a moulinet, which is cut in 
 case of a surprise, or when the first L'ate is forced by 
 a petard, so that it may fall like a portcullis and 
 stop the passage of agate or any other entrance of a 
 fortress. 
 
 HERSILLON. — A strong beam, whose sides are 
 stuck full of spikes, wliicli is thrown across the 
 breach made by an enemy to render it impassable. 
 See Ifirxf. 
 
 HERULI.— A nomadic and warlike German tribe, 
 who iiiliabited the north shores of the Black Sea, 
 Imt afterwards divided into sections and wandered 
 into dilferent parts of Europe. They first appear in 
 history in tlie third century as taking part with the 
 Goths" in their excursions against the eastern prov- 
 inces of the Komau Empire. In the fourth century 
 they acknowledged the supremacy of the Gothic 
 King Ermanric, but when Attila, King of the Huns, 
 made his descent upon (Jaul. they joined his stan- 
 dard. After the overthrow of the lluns, in which 
 tliey suffered considerably, they establislied an or- 
 ganized and distinct Confederacy on the banks of the 
 Danulie, and under the leadership of Odoacer, assist- 
 ed in 47() in the overthrow of the Western Empire. 
 Under their King Rudolph they, in the beginning of 
 tlie sixth century, attempted the subjugatiun of the 
 Longobardi, but were defeated and 
 dispersed, some of them proceeiiing 
 to Scandinavia, and others lieing al- 
 lowed bj' the Emperor Anastasius to 
 settle on the south bank of tlie Dan- 
 ube. In the time of Justinian some 
 of them embraced Christianity. A 
 large portion of tliem afterwards 
 joined the Gepidte in their wars a- 
 gainst the Eastern Empire; but oth- 
 ers fought with Justinian against the 
 Vandals and East Goths. Towards 
 the end of tlie sixth century they 
 were merged into other nations, and 
 disappeared from historical records. 
 Tlie Heruli were bold, hardy, and 
 extremely pugnacious. For a con- 
 siderable period they retained their 
 strong individuality, and presented 
 a firm resistance to the influences of 
 civilization. Thej' are said to have 
 offered human sacrifices. Also writ- 
 ten ^■Ertili, and Eruli. 
 
 HESSIANS.— Troops belonging to Hesse-Cassel, 
 Prussia. They have been frequently liired in Great 
 Britain, particularly in the war of American Inde- 
 pendence, when they were sold at t'40 sterling a 
 head,*!) of which was to be repaid if returned alive. 
 
 HETMAN.— The title of the Head or General of tfie 
 Cossacks, now retained only among the Cossacks of 
 the Don. From the earliest times the Iletmau was 
 elected by the voice of the assembled people ; the 
 mode of election being by throwing their fur-caps at 
 the candidate they preferred, and the one who had 
 the largest number of caps was declared duly elected. 
 The ]iower of the Hetman was very great, and ex- 
 tended over life and death. When the Cossacks 
 in 1644. submitted to the Russians, the Hetman was 
 permitted to retain his rights as formerly. The Em- 
 press Catherine entirely abolished the dignity of 
 Hetman of the Ukraine, and substituted a Govern- 
 ment consisting of eight members. The Don Cos- 
 
 sacks liave, indeed, retained their Hetman, and even 
 he possesses but the shadow of his former power. 
 The latest elective Hetman was Count I'lalotf. who 
 played a prominent pari in tluf wars with France 
 (1h"i2"14j. After his death the Hetman was ap- 
 pointed by the Czar, and ulliiiiately the title was 
 made hereditary in the Grand Duke, the heir to the 
 llimiii-. Also written At'iyimn. 
 
 HEURTEftUIN8.~Two pieces of iron resembling 
 a knocker, which are placed over tlie trunnions, or 
 axis of a cannon. 
 
 HEUSE. — An iron shoe, sometimes called ptdieux, 
 attached to the greaves of ancient armor. Iiaving an 
 iron sole, and tlie upper fomposed of mail. 
 
 HEXAGONAL POWDER. -Kxperimeuts were made 
 at Fori Monroe in 1S72 and \x~'i with what is known 
 as hexagonal-grained powder, inanufactured by tlie 
 Messrs. Duponl & Co , of Wilmington, Del., which 
 demonstrated its superiority for heavy ordnance, 
 giving low maximum pressures, with good velocities 
 and great uiiiforniity of action. One of the samples 
 was selected for proof of the converted 8 and 0- 
 inch rifled guns in 1874. Hexagonal jiowder has 
 been employed since that date in trial and proof of 
 all 8.incli converted guns. The uniform size of 
 grain, and their j)olyhedral shape, insure great uni- 
 formity in position and size of the interstices in the 
 make-up of the cartridge : this insures with a uni- 
 form densit}- of grain a high degree of uniformity 
 in pressures and velocities from given charges of 
 powder and weights of projectiles. The drawing 
 shows the shape and dimensions of this powder, the 
 specific gravity being 1.7.')11. 
 
 The proportions of the ingredients of hexagonal 
 powder conform to the United States standard, and 
 up to the completion of the incorporation in the 
 wheel-mill, its manufacture is like that of ordinary 
 powder. Mealing — Tlie wheel mill-cake is revolved 
 
 in a cylinder of wire-wove cloth, with wooden-lialls, 
 until it is mealed. Pressing — The mealed jiowder 
 
 1 is then carefull)' pressed between horizontal metallic 
 plates or dies. The powder comes out in a sheet or 
 cake of polyhedral granules united along their ver- 
 tical edges, the diesbeing nearly perfect dodecahe- 
 drons. " Graining — The press-cake is passed be- 
 tween rollers armed with brass cutting teeth at an 
 
 ! angle of from 60" and 120" to the axis, which cut 
 the cake into granules, tlieir cross-section being 
 almost heiagimal. whence the powder derives its 
 name. Glazing — The powder is then sent to the 
 glazing-mill and glazed. Brus/iing — The powder 
 is next passed repeatedly through the brushing-raa- 
 chine. This consists of a frame with brushes re- 
 volving near an inclined plane along which the 
 powder passes liy the motion of the lirushes. Dry- 
 ing — The brushing ended, the powder goes to the 
 dry-house where It is dried. The powder is now
 
 HIBEKNIAN ROYAL SCHOOL. 
 
 HIGH TREASON, 
 
 iiiiuutely examined, its specific gravity is taken, and 
 a count made of the granulation"; a variation of two 
 granules to the pound being enough to condemn 
 the powder. Re-br'ishing and re-drying — If satis- 
 factory, the powder is again passed through the 
 brushing-machine, re-dried, and then receives a 
 third brushing. Packing — The i^owder is finally 
 packed in barrels and is ready for inspection. See 
 Gunpowder. 
 
 HIBERNIAN ROYAL SCHOOL.— A School establish- 
 ed in Great Britain for tlie maintenance of 350 
 children of military officers who are supported and 
 educated at the School, at an expense of £7,000 per 
 annum to the country. 
 
 HIDE-BOUND.— A term which, when applied to a 
 horse, signifies that his skin cannot be pulled up or 
 raised from his ril)s and back ; caused from bad 
 keep, poverty, internal disease.- The remedy con- 
 sists in good grooming and diet, with gentle medi- 
 cine and keeping the animal warm. 
 
 HIDES.— The "skins of buflfaloes, cows, bullocks, 
 and other animals. Buffalo-hides are used in India 
 for the manufacture of buflf accouterments, belting 
 of machinery, etc.; bullock or cow-hides for mend" 
 ing cartouches aud priming-pouches, and a variety 
 of other leather-work. Buffalo-hides which have 
 urtdergone the process of tanning are used for cover- 
 ing the floors of powder-houses and charge maga- 
 zines. 
 
 HIERARCHY.— The essential element for the gov- 
 ernment and service of an Army is a military hier- 
 archy or the creation of different grades of rank, to 
 which different functions and powers are assigned, 
 the lower in regular subordination to the next higher 
 in the ascending scale. It should be founded oil the 
 principle tliat every one acts in an Army under the 
 orders of a Superior, who exercises his authority only 
 within limits established by law. This authority of 
 the Superior should be greater or less according to 
 rank and position, and be proportioned to liis^ re- 
 sponsibilities. Orders should be executed without 
 hesitation ; but responsibilities should be confined 
 to him who gives orders in virtue of the superior 
 authority with which he is invested ; to him who 
 takes the initiative in an order ; to him who does not 
 execute an order that he has receive<l ; and to him 
 who usurps a command or continues illegally to 
 exercise its functions. The military hierarchy is 
 determined and consecrated within its sphere of 
 acticm by : — 1. Grades of rank created by military 
 laws ; 3. By other laws regulating the exercise of 
 rank ; 3. By military insignia ; 4. By military hon- 
 ors : and •'). Bv the military oath. 
 
 HIGH-ANGLE FIRE.— Tlie fire from gtms. howitz- 
 ers and mortars at all angles of elevation exceeding 
 l-"".^. See Fir,. 
 
 HIGH EXPLOSIVES.— The name given to the vari- 
 ous nitro-glycerine compounds. The value of these 
 
 plosives in the United States, and the percentage of 
 nitro-glycerine contained in the powder they rop- 
 resent. See Exph'site AgenU. 
 
 HIGHLAND REGIMENTS,— The origin of the fust 
 of these regiments, the 't2d, has been given under 
 the head IJlack AVatch. The valuable services of 
 this regiment encouraged the Government to aug- 
 ment the force ; and accordingly seven other High- 
 land Regiments have been raised from time to time 
 —viz., the 71st, in 1777; the72d, or Duke of Albany's 
 Own, in the same year ; the 74th, in 1787; the 78th, 
 or Ross-shire Buffs, in 1793; the 79th, or Cameron 
 Highlanders, in 1805; the 92d, or Gordon Highland- 
 ers, in 1796: and the 93d, or Sutherland Highland- 
 ers, in 1800. The uniform of each of these corps is 
 the Highland dress, including a distinctive tartan. 
 The soldier wears a coatee of "scarlet, a kilt (in most, 
 but not all, of the regiments), a plaid across the 
 shoulders, a plume, and the other attribtites of the 
 Gaelic costume. In an array where officers are ap- 
 pointed by general competition, nationalitj' is neces- 
 sarily disregarded : but these Corps are those in 
 which Scotch gentlemen most frequently seek ap- 
 pointments, and a large proportion of the officers 
 are Scotch. Of the men, at least 79 per cent, are 
 Scotch, 11 per cent. English, and 10 per cent. Irish. 
 The regiments are recruited at Stirling, Aberdeen, 
 Perth, Fort George, and Lanark. 
 
 HIGH SEAS.— the open sea, including the whole 
 extent of sea so far as it is not the exclusive proper- 
 ty of any particular country. The rule of interna- 
 tional law is that every country bordering on the sea 
 has the exclusive sovereignty over such sea to the ex- 
 tent of three miles from its shore ;but all beyond, and 
 which is not within three miles of some otlier coun- 
 try, is open or common to all countries. The part 
 of sea within three miles' distance is generally called 
 the territorial sea of the particular country, or mare 
 clausum. The distinction has little effect on tlie 
 right of navigation, but as regards fishing it is other- 
 wise. Thus, for example, foreign fishermen have 
 no right to fish within three miles of the British 
 coast without a license from the Crown, or unless 
 some special treaty — as for example, the French and 
 English treaty — has laid down other arrangements. 
 
 HIGH STEEL.— For the construction oif cannon, 
 steel may be divided into high and h(P steel, the 
 difference being that the former contains more car- 
 bon that the latter. High is very hard aud lias a 
 great ultimate tenacity. It has but little extensibili- 
 ty either within or without its elastic limit; it is 
 therefore too brittle for use in cannon, unless used 
 in such large masses that the elastic limit will not 
 be exceeded by the explosive force of the powder. 
 It melts at a lower temperature than wrought-iron, 
 and is difficult to weld as its w-elding temperature is 
 but little less than that at which it usually melts. 
 See Steel. 
 
 ATLAS. 
 (Standard). 
 
 HERCULES. 
 
 (IIANT. 
 
 -ETNA. 
 
 HECLA. 
 
 JUDSON. 
 
 BRAND. 
 
 Per Cent 
 N. a. 
 
 BRAND. 
 
 Per Ceut 
 
 N. G. 
 
 BRAND. 
 
 Pnr Ceut 
 N. 0. 
 
 BRAND. 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 N. G. 
 
 BRAND. 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 N. G. 
 
 BRAND. 
 
 Per Cent 
 N. 0. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 R. E. P. . 
 
 F 
 
 5& under 
 10 
 15 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F+ 
 
 B, 
 
 E-h 
 
 15 
 20 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. 5 
 
 ■ 16- 
 
 
 
 FP 
 
 FFF 
 
 No. 4 
 
 No. 4S,-. 
 
 20 
 25 
 
 M 
 
 20 
 
 No. 3 
 
 No. 3X.. 
 
 26 
 25 
 
 N0.4X... 
 
 25 
 
 XXX 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 D,.- 
 
 30 
 
 No. 3,.... 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 No. 2,.... 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 N0.2C,.. 
 
 No.' 2', '.'.!.' 
 
 No2 Extra 
 New No.l 
 
 33 
 
 "'46" 
 45 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 D+ 
 
 c 
 
 .35 
 40 
 45 
 50 
 (to 
 
 No. 3S,.. 
 
 No. 2 
 
 N0.2S,.. 
 No. 2 8S. 
 No. 2 SSS 
 No. 1,.... 
 No 1 X X 
 
 35 
 40 
 45 
 50 
 55 
 
 ns 
 
 75 
 
 No. 8X... 
 No. 2,.... 
 
 35 
 40 
 
 No. 2X.. 
 No.l 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 C+ 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 No. 2x X 
 
 50 
 
 No.lx... 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 B+ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No.l,.... 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 
 
 A m 
 
 No.l 
 
 75 
 
 No. IX X 
 
 7.5 
 
 
 
 compounds depends in a very great measure upon 1 
 the quantity of nitro-glycerine contained in them. 
 The table herewith ltivcs tlie distinguishing marks 
 adopted by liie leadimi manufacturers of high ex- 1 
 
 HIGH TREASON.— Treason against the State or 
 the security c)f the Sovereign, whether by imagina- 
 tion, word, or deed. In the United States, treason 
 is confined to the actual levying of war against the
 
 HILT. 
 
 37 
 
 HITCHCOCK FOBOIRO. 
 
 Unittil States, or any adlieriii!; to their enemies, 
 givinir tliein aid aiul comfort. See 'J'rm'ini. 
 
 HILT.— TIk' Imiidle of u cuttin;; instruineiit, es- 
 iK'iiiilly of a tciiifc or sword. Ililtid i.s a term used 
 in Heraldry, In indicate the tincture of the luiudlc of 
 a sword. 
 
 HINNY.— Tiie liyhrid produced hclwcen a horse 
 ami u female ass. It is smallcrlhiinamidi-, butthe 
 body is more bulky in iiroportion to tlic leirs. and 
 Its s'trenirlh is inferior. Il is less valuable than the 
 mule, alihoui;h it is nniredocih'. The hiiuiy is rare. 
 It was described l)y some of tlie earlier naturalists 
 »9, a hybrid between the o.\ and the ass, and even 
 BulTdii sccins to have entertained this notion. 
 
 HIPPODROME.— The (ireek name for the place set 
 apart for licjrsc and chariot races. Its dimensions 
 were, accoriiini; to the conuuon opinion, half a mile 
 iu lenirth and one-eii:lilh of a mile in breadtli. In 
 construction and all impnrlant [loints of arrange- 
 ment, it was the counterpart of the Roman circus, 
 with the exception of the arranirement of the 
 chariots at the starting-place. In the hi|>podrome, 
 the chariots were arranged so as to form two sides 
 of an isosceles triangle, with the apex towards the 
 goal and a little to the right side. But as this 
 would have given the chariots on the left side a 
 longer course than those on the right, the hippo- 
 drome was constructed with the right side longer 
 than the other. The start was efTected by setting 
 free the chariots on the extreme right an<lleft. when 
 they came opposite the next two, by setting them 
 free also, and so on till all were in motion. The 
 hippodrome was also much wider than the Roman 
 circus, to allow rooni for the greater number of 
 chariots, for though we have no iirecise information 
 as to the nund)er that usually started in one race, 
 we know that Alcibiades on one occasion sent seven : 
 Sophocles mentions ten chariots, as competing at 
 the Pythian games; and the number at the Olympic 
 games must have been considerably greater. There 
 IS a beautiful description of a chariot-race in Homer 
 (Iliiid, xxiii. 2(i'3-().'50). The golden age of the hi]i|io- 
 drome was during the lower Greek Empire. The 
 blue and green factions in the hijipodrome carried 
 their animosity into all departments of the public 
 service, and laid the fcmndation of that perpetual 
 disunion which rendered the Byzantine Empire a 
 prey to every aggressor. 
 
 HIRCARRAH. — An Indian term for a messenger, 
 guide, footman, or a spy. Sometimes written ffir- 
 carriK 
 
 HIRING OF DUTY.— Hiring of duty is forbidden 
 in all Armies. In the United States, the Articles of 
 War provide that no soldier, Ijelongiug to any regi- 
 ment, troop, battery, or company, shall hire another 
 to do his duty for him. or be excused from duty, ex- 
 cept in cases of sickness, disability, or leave of ab- 
 Bence. Every such soldier found guilty of hiring 
 his duty, and the person so hired to do another's 
 duty, shall be pimished as a Court-JNlartial directs. 
 Every Non-commissioi ed Officer who connives at 
 such hiring of duty shall be red\ieed. Every Officer 
 who knows and allows such practices shall be pun- 
 ished as a Court-Martial mav direct. 
 
 HIR?INI.— A people of Italy who inhabited the 
 south portion of Samnium. They have been con- 
 sidered by some autliorities as merely a Samnite 
 tribe, while by others they are looked upon as an 
 independent nation. The country they inhabited 
 was the wild and mountainous district traversed by 
 the Sabatus, Calor, and Tamarus. trilmtaries of the 
 Vulturnus. and on the east side of llie Apennine 
 ridge, the upper course of the Autidus. In the 
 early history of Rome the Hirpini are found. identi- 
 fying themselves with their Samnite neightiors 
 against their common foes. They seem to have 
 been snbdued in the early part of the third century 
 B. c, as iu 268 b. c, Heneventum, the ke.y of all 
 their military postions. was colonized by Roman 
 settlers. They appear iu history for the "first time 
 
 as an independent people after the second Piinin 
 War. Revolting from their old Comiuerors. they 
 joined the Carthaginian Invaders, and though tliey 
 were unable to retake the stronghold of IJeneven- 
 tiun. they kept faithful to Hannibal till defeat at 
 the Melaurus restored the Empire of Italv to his op- 
 ponents. In the year of that event the Hirpini made 
 peace with their old masters by br'traying into their 
 hands the garrisons of their Allies. f'roin this 
 time till the outbreak of the Social War, the Hirpi- 
 ni seemed to have continued steailfasl in their al- 
 legiance. On that occasion, however, they set tlie 
 example of revolt to the Allies, and might have be- 
 come fortnidable enemies, had not the rapiil suc- 
 cesses of Sulla induced them to repair their error by 
 a comiilele submission. At the closeof this war the 
 Hirpini obtained the franchise, and do not again ap- 
 pear in history as an independent people. Their 
 towns were Beneventum. Aeculanum. Equus, Tuti- 
 cus, Trivicum. Murirantia. and Aquilonia. 
 
 HISTORY.— Military history may be defined as a 
 narrative or description of the several military trans- 
 actions, as campaigns, battles, sieges, marches, etc.. 
 of armies. A thorough knowledge of this liranch of 
 history is necessary to make the military man apt in 
 his profession, self-reliant, and capable of (command. 
 It is indeed the secret of many a Commander's suc- 
 cess in the varied positions he is placed in his 
 career, as in the study of military history he finds a 
 precedent for every strategic emergency, and a so- 
 lution of the man)' ditticult problems in the art of 
 war, wliich great Generals have overcome. The 
 stiiily of military history further tends to createlugh 
 aspirations after military glory, from the peru.sal of 
 deeds of valor performed by men who have devoted 
 and virtually sacriticed their lives for the good of 
 their country. 
 
 HITCH. — I'lie name given to certain knots, such 
 as the timber-hitch, cliree.hitch. and others. Tliese 
 knots are verj' valuable for artillery and engineer 
 purposes, the advantage being that, as long as the 
 strain is kept ujion them, tliey never give way. 
 Hitches may be described as overlaying a part of a 
 rope with itself in such a manner that a loop or 
 loops are formed to jam on each other. See Kimtx. 
 
 HITCHCOCK FORGING.— This system of forging is 
 designed to insure sound welding in the fabrication 
 of large cannon. The iron is heated in a reverbera- 
 tory furnace, to avoid its contact with sulphur and 
 other impurities of coal. The gun is forged of rings 
 of wrought-iron, or low-steel made witlur.it welds, 
 i»nd upset or butted]together, as by Ames's process. 
 The rings are so formed as to be united first in the 
 center, that the superfluous cinder may be squeezed 
 out. An anvil is seated on the piston of a liydro- 
 static press, so as to be lowered as the successive 
 rings are added. A furnace is situated l>etween the 
 anvil and a steam-hammer, and so arranged that the 
 rings project into it from below, and the liammer 
 drops into it from above. The ring to form the 
 muzzle of the gun is laid upon the movable anvil 
 and projected sufflciently into the furnace to allow 
 the flame to raise it to the welding heat. Mean- 
 while, in another part of the furnace, the rings are 
 heated to welding in the same time, by proportion- 
 ing the heat, by means of dampers to the relative 
 bulks of the two parts. 'Without removing the 
 parts from an atmosphere in which there is verv lit- 
 tle i^ any o.xygeu. they are laid together ami instant- 
 ly welded by a few strokes of the steam-hammer. 
 The anvil is then lowered by the thickness of an- 
 other ring, and the same process is repeated. 
 
 Although the gint may be of any size, the jiarts 
 actually united at one operation, may be made so 
 light by reducing their thickness, that the pressure 
 of a hammer of moderate weight will be- adequate. 
 And when the whole operation of upsetting is con- 
 fined to one joint, exactly the requisite pressure for 
 that joint can be applied: and there is no fear of 
 injuring other parts by setting it up soundly, because
 
 HOBBLE 
 
 38 
 
 HOISTING APPAEATU8. 
 
 the mass of the gun below it is cold, and forms a 
 rigid pillar — practically a continuation of the anvil. 
 It" would appear that all the conditions of sound 
 welding may tlius Ije attained, if tlie process can 
 be practically carried out. This process was in- 
 tended especially for fabricating guns of low-steel, 
 the rinss to be made witliout wetds, by bein^ ori- 
 srinally cast in the form of small thick rings, and then 
 rolled", in a modification of tlie tire-rolling machine, 
 to a larger diameter and a smaller section. Tliis 
 treatment would develop an endless grain in the 
 riuirs, in tlie direction of the circumference. 
 
 HOBBLE— HOPPLE. — A fetter for horses, or other 
 animals, when tiirned out to graze— chiefly used in 
 the plural. Wlien in the vicmity of tlie enemy or 
 horse-thieves, the stock may be iiermitted to graze, 
 
 and at tlie same time be secured by means of the 
 hopplcH or side-lines. They are likewise of inesti- 
 mable value for use on animals prone to stray far 
 away from the camp or herds. The drawing shows 
 the usual fiirm of their construction, the fetlock 
 straps being made of a tliick leather, the inside 
 smooth and soft, and tlie sewn edges uppermost 
 wlien on the animal's legs. For military purposes, 
 it is decidedly better to have the leglets made of 
 steel, with a lislit connecting lock and chain of the 
 same material. Leather hopples deteriorate in 
 strength upon exposure to moisture and the weather, 
 and may be readily cut and removed by the enemy 
 or robbers. Steel hopples have the advantages of 
 beino- less cumbersome, mucli more secure, lighter 
 in weight, and can be placed on or taken off the ani- 
 mal wfth greater facility, by those having the means 
 of unlockfna: them. In the absence of this very im- 
 portant eqfupment, tlie soldier may successfully 
 liiipple his horse with a stirrup-leatlier, by putting 
 its middle round one fetlock, then twisting it half-a- 
 dozen times, and finally buckling it round the other 
 fetlock. 
 
 HOBILERS. — An inferior variety of cavalry used or 
 raised ill the reign of Edward II. Tliey were sta- 
 tioned at Portsmouth and at otlier maritime places, 
 and bound to keep a little flag for the purpose of 
 "■iviuLr notice of invasion. They wore an aketon or 
 armor of plates, a baseinet. iron irauntlets, a sword, 
 knife, and a lance. Also written Ihiheliers. 
 
 HOBITS.- Small mortars of (i or 8 inclies bore. 
 iiiouiiled on gun-carriages ; they were in use before 
 tlie howitziT. 
 
 HOCHE BOS.— Certain soldiers among the ancient s. 
 wlio were so called from tlieir brandisliing the pike. 
 Tliis term lias likewise been applied to the pike it- 
 self. 
 
 HODOMETER.— An instrument for measuring the 
 distance traveled over by any conveyance, and con- 
 sisting of an arrangement of toothed wheels, like 
 clock-work, fixed on one side nf a machine, and 
 connected with the axle, from which motion is com- 
 iiiunicated to it. An index and dial show the ex- 
 act distance the vehicle has traveled. See Odomthr. 
 
 HOG-GUM, — The name given in the West Indies 
 to a resinous substance, which is there extensively 
 used as a substitute for pitch to tar boats and ropes, 
 also for strengthening plasters, etc., and internally 
 as a diuretic, laxative, and stimulant medicine. It 
 is still disputed what tree produces the true hog- 
 gum ; some ascribing it to morunohtd coccinea, of 
 the natural order g iittiferir ; some to rhtismetupium. a 
 species of sumach of the order anacardinfecB ; and 
 others to Uelirigia bnUnmifeni, of the order nmyri- 
 dfiteee. The probability seems to be that all these — 
 and perhaps other — trees yield resinous substances 
 of very similar quality, and commonly designated 
 by the same name. 
 
 HOIST.— 1. The perpendicular height of a flag, as 
 opposed to the. //^, or breadth from the staff to the 
 outer edge. 2. A machine for hoisting ores, metals, 
 castings, workmen, etc., in mines and foundries. A 
 very primitive hoisting-machine. wliicli resembles the 
 modem capstan, is used in the Convent of St. Cath- 
 arine, at the foot of Mount Sinai, to raise travelers 
 to a door in the second story. This is a somewhat 
 inconvenient and tedious operation, but is used in a 
 land where robbers go on horseback. It is also 
 worthy of remark, that the people of the land have 
 no idea of the value of time, and so set six men to 
 help another in at the door. The obelisks in ancient 
 Egypt may have been raised Viy gradually lifting the 
 apex and scotching up by introducing earth beneath 
 them. The Stonehenge blocks were very probably 
 raised in the same way. When Chersiphon built 
 the Temple of Ephesus. in the time of Amasis of 
 Egypt, lie raised the architrave by surrounding the 
 columns with liags of earth, which served as an in- 
 clined plane. 
 
 HOISTING APPARATUS.— In designing and build- 
 ing machinery for hoisting ami transferring light 
 loads, many of the same problems are presented 
 
 Fin. 1. 
 which occur in the construction of heavy cranes, 
 and the exiierieuce gained in one is available in the 
 other. Too much has heretofore been left to " rule 
 of tnunib " jiracticein the designing cf light hoisting 
 niacliinery, and frecpient accidents to life and limb 
 still needlessly occur from continued j.'dherence to-
 
 HOISTING APPARATUS. 
 
 39 
 
 HOISTING APPARATUS. 
 
 old types iif niiicliiiics in wliirli wifely, bolli of per- 
 son and load, (lei)ends upon I lie care mid iiilelli^eiH'e 
 of the operator. It is possilile to so coiistriiel liaiid- 
 lioisting inacliinery that aeeideiils arisiiii; from nirc- 
 lessness in its use are praeti<-idly iuipossilile. Sueli 
 construction involves no saeritiee of simplicity or 
 I'fflciency. and no material increase in civst. To ad- 
 here to the old. therefore, is loassumeneeilless risks 
 to property and unjustitialih' risks to human life. 
 The risks referred to ari.se chielly from two causes ; 
 Jir^t, a deficiency of material in ])arts subject to 
 strain : and. sinmi!, the iise of ratchet-wheels to hold 
 the load suspended, and of non-automatic brakes to 
 efl'ect lowerini;. The tirst defect, a want of jiroper 
 kind or amount of material, arises from unskilful 
 desinnini; luid from the etVort after cheapness. The 
 second is adherent in the elements of mechanism 
 employed, and can only be avoided by the use of 
 new and better devices, so constructed as to be 
 automatic in all functions where carelessness is po- 
 tent to produce harm. 
 
 The active openition of /iw'.st/ni/ is usually free 
 from danifer in any machine of sufficient strength. 
 It is the (Ir.ir.eni of the load, whether by intent or I)y 
 accident, that involves danirer. During the act of 
 hoisting the o|)erator slowly expends power, wddch 
 is stored up as latent energy in the mass he has 
 raised, and which, if expended or given back sud- 
 denly, as in falling, is cap.'iblc of working serious 
 mischief. The mechanism should, therefore, he 
 so constructed that the load, when lifted, shall be 
 sustained independently of the operator, so that 
 should he cease his efforts, or even suddently let go 
 the rope or handles, the load will simply cease to 
 move and will remain suspended. Under no cir- 
 cumstances should the loa<l be permitted to descend 
 by gravity unaided by the controlling hand of the 
 operator. This principle of construction, namely, 
 the control of the load, at all times and under all 
 conditions, by reliable automatic devices, is em- 
 bodied in all of the hoisting appliances described in 
 this work, designed and built by the Yale and Towne 
 Manufacturing Company. 
 
 Winding-drums or barrels shoidd have a diameter 
 and length such as will enable them to receive the 
 whole length of rope or chain to be hauled in by 
 winding it upon their surface in one coil, without 
 overlapping. In large cranes the load is usually 
 carried upon four, six, or even eight parts of rope 
 or chain, so that the length to be wound up anioimts 
 to four, si.\, or eight times the effective hoist, and 
 the dimensions of the barrel thus bec(jme very large. 
 Moreover, this barrel must either be caused to travel 
 longitudinally on its shaft, so that the rope or chain 
 as it leads off shall be alwa_ys in the center of the 
 crane and hoisting mechanism (which methixl of 
 construction involves a serious complication and 
 greatl)' widens the space occupied by the gearing), 
 or the rope or chain, as it vmcoils, be permitted to 
 vary in position from one end to the other of the 
 barrel, in which ca.se it is nearly o>it of center, thus 
 Inducing objectionable lateral strains and causing 
 greater friction and wear. Fig. 1 shows a simple 
 arrangement of gears and crank, winding the lifting 
 rope on drum or cylinder. It may be easily fasteneil 
 on any post, or part of a building, or used in con- 
 nection with a crane as shown. 
 
 t'haiu-wheels require a width only slightly greater 
 than a single part of the ch.ain. and a diameter 
 merely snthcient to give the proper engagement with 
 it, so that both dimensions become much smaller 
 than in a winding-barrel, and the total sjiace occu- 
 pied is l)ut a small fraction of that required for the 
 latter device. The chain-irhifl is fixed in direct line 
 witii the chain, and all lateral strains are avoided, 
 while the flat bearings afforded for the chain by the 
 pockets preserve the shape of the links and protect 
 them from bending strains. The slack chain, after 
 passing over the wheel, falls into a proper receptacle 
 below. From this anahsis of the facts is deduced 
 
 the proposition that chains, if well maile, constitute 
 the iiest form of flexible <(ird for sustairdng the load 
 in a crane, anil that a well construcli'd rlitiin-irhnl 
 Ois contradistiuLniislic-cl from a winiling-barrelj is the- 
 best form of device for hauling in and paying out the 
 chain ; and, theri'fore. that thi-best method of crane 
 construction involves the use of these two elements. 
 
 When using the chain-wheel system, great effort 
 must be nuide to secure chains of perfectly uniform 
 pitch. Chain-making is one of the few remaining 
 manual trades in which modern machinery has not 
 to[a greater or less extent displaced tin- skill of the 
 individual workman. .Many atteinpts have been 
 made to jjroduci; chains by machinery, and allhoitgh 
 simie success has been attained, no nuichine-made 
 chain has yet been produced having sufficient relia- 
 bility and tmiforuuty of quality to adapt it to use in 
 cranes. The all-important opc^ration in chain-mii- 
 king is the process of w<0<ling the links, and in this 
 the personal element seems indispensable to a per- 
 fect result, no machine, however perfect, taking the 
 place of the skill and intelligence of the workman. 
 
 As used in the Weston cranes, the pitch-chains of 
 the smaller sizes are made entirely of Norway iron, 
 while for the larger sizes either the Xorway iron 
 or American iron of high elasticity and rluctility, is 
 used. Each link is forged and welded with great 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 care, and much more time and labor is expended on 
 this part of the work than is the case with common 
 chain. All of this pitch-chain is made under a 
 j patented process, which consists in forging the 
 chain slightly under pitch, after which it is tirst 
 cleaned and brightened by " rattling," and then 
 stretched in a special machine to the final gauge or 
 pitch. The lirst process causes the several links to 
 come into more perfect contact or bearing by remov- 
 ing the scale and other slight asperities from th-dr 
 surfaces. The second process assists in bringing 
 their adjacent surfaces into closer contact, tends to 
 strengthen the sides of the links, and gives the iron 
 a sliglit initial set by straining it to a degree some- 
 what greater than that which will be caused by the 
 load which it is intended to ciirry. The final step 
 in the process is a carefid and rigid inspection of 
 each link of the chain and the removal of any which 
 are at all imperfect. As a result of this treatment, 
 a chain is obtained which is accurately uniform in
 
 HOISTING APPARATUS. 
 
 40 
 
 HOISTING APPARATUS. 
 
 pitch, and which, when used within tlie intended 
 limit of load, will not stretch or alter its pitch. It is 
 l)elieved that the chain thus produced is more perfect 
 and reliable than any made heretofore. 
 
 In determining tlie diameter of iron for the several 
 sizes of chain, those sizes ha%'e been adopted which 
 will limit the stress upon the liuks of the chain to a 
 ma.ximum of from 9,000 to 10,000 lbs. per square 
 inch of cross-section when carrying the full load. 
 As the pitch-chain was designed primarilyforu.se in 
 the Weston Differential Pullej'-blocks, in which the 
 lc«id is always carried upon two parts of chain, the 
 nominal capacity of the several sizes indicates in 
 each case the maximum load intended to be carried 
 upon two jmrts of the chain. A single part is, of 
 course, capable of carryiug a load of one-half the 
 amount given in the "table. The following table 
 gives the dimensions of the several sizes of the pitch- 
 chain above described. 
 
 Nom'al cap'y,Tons* 
 
 * 
 
 A 
 
 J. 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 \^ 2 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 e 
 
 8 
 
 H 
 
 10 
 
 Diam. iron, inch's... 
 
 ♦The upper line indicfites tlie load which can be safely carried 
 on two parts of the chain, i.e., as used in a one-sheave taciile- 
 block. Each part of the chain thus carries one-half ot the total 
 load. If the load is to be carried by a single chain, select a 
 chain of a nominal capacity of twice the intended load. 
 
 Fig. 2 gives a sectional view of a double-chain 
 screw hoisting-machine. 
 
 JIauy advantages accrue from the use of worm- 
 
 of automatic brakes where necessary. In well pro- 
 portioned worm-gearing with cut teeth, friction can- 
 not be relied upon to hold a suspended load from 
 running down, but a very moderate lirake resistance 
 applied to the worm-shaft will accomplish this re- 
 sult. If a load suspended through a train of spur- 
 gearing be allowed to rim down, it will do so at an 
 accelerating velocity approximating to that of a fall- 
 ing body. With the worm-gearing, however, very 
 little acceleration takes place after certain speed has 
 been attained, and gearing of this kind thus be- 
 comes a safet}' device which prevents undue accel- 
 eration of the load even when running free, and is 
 a most valuable means of preventing accidents, both 
 to the mechanism and to those operating it. 
 
 The ordinary ratchet-wheel is a disc with teeth or 
 indentations on its periphery, and in practice it is 
 employed in combination with a pawl or a dog ar- 
 ranged to engage with its teeth in such a manner 
 that the ratchet-wheel, being attached to a rotating 
 shaft, is entirelj' free to revolve in one direction, 
 but, by the action of the pawl, is prevented from 
 rotation in the contrar}' direction. Thus arranged 
 it is generally attached to the primary shaft of a 
 winch, or other hoisting-gear, so that, while it op- 
 poses no resistance to rotation of the shaft in the 
 direction necessary for hoisting, it effectively pre- 
 vents motion in the contrary direction. When it is 
 desired to lower the load the pawl Jis thrown out of 
 engagement with the ratchet-wheel, and the load 
 then lowered b}- turning the cranks backward, or by 
 letting go of the cranks and controlling the descent 
 of the load by a brake applied to the shaft . 
 
 Both of these arrangements are dangerous, and 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 gearing in the construction of lioi.sting machinery. I are productive of serious accidents. Where lower- 
 Among these may be mentioned its compactness as | ing is elfected by turning the cranks backward with 
 compared with spur-gearing, the ability to operate i the pressure due to the load upon them, it freiiueutly 
 shafts at right angles to each other without resort j hai)pens that a heavy load overcomes the operator, 
 to bevel gears, and great facility in the ai)plication ! in which case the cranks begin to revolve with great
 
 HOLD. 
 
 41 
 
 HOLDFASTS. 
 
 violiiicc, unci often strike the opi/rator liefore he ciin 
 esciipi; from their readi. WiifTO a luakc is used, 
 there is less (l!ini.'er, hut even the safe descent of the 
 Iniiil is eontinirent upon the skill with wliich the 
 lirake is used, and any lack cjf skill or watchfulness 
 will result in a rapid descent of the load. In tlii.s 
 ease, it the motion is not checked the load may de- 
 scend so rapidly as to cause dauiaire. wliile if its 
 motion l)e suddenly arrested hy the brake, the Hhock 
 and strain thereby induced are apt to diininge tlie 
 crane. 
 
 A friction ratchet is one in which the action of 
 friction is sulislituted for the teeth and jiawl of the 
 coinnion ratchet, so that the retaininir action of the 
 ratchet will lake place instantly and in all |)iisitions. 
 A safety ratchet may be delined as one in which 
 loweriivi: of the loud is ell'ecled liy reversini.' the 
 motion of the shaft to which the rat<'het is attached 
 without any disentcajrement of the pawl or ilssul»<ti- 
 tule, the construction beini; such that so loni; as this 
 backward motion is continued the load will descend, 
 but that when it is discontinued the load will auto- 
 matically come to rest, from which it follows that 
 with a safety ratchet the craidis or handles of a 
 hoistiniT-machine may be "let iro " .Mt any time, 
 eitJier in hoistini: or in lowerintc, the ratcliet there- 
 upon aulomatieally holdini; tlie load suspendeil and 
 jireventin;; " riuuiina: down" or descent of the load. 
 Tlie jjreat desirability of so important a result luiB 
 lomc been conceded, but most of the devices liere- 
 tofore invented for its accomplishment have been so 
 <omplicate(l, or so uucertaui in action, as to find lit- 
 Ui- favor. 
 
 In cranes operated by power one or more clutches 
 are essential to the convenient oiK-ration of the 
 nieclianism. Experience has demoiLstrated that the 
 
 and wear upon keys and feathers, which i» a serious 
 defect in most hoistinK-cn^^ines, cuusiug Ilie shafts 
 to split at key-way. This engine is wHl suited for 
 all liard duty, such as pile-driving, haiding logs, 
 bridge-building, and iriany other kinds of' work 
 where engines are liable to be broken by suiiden 
 strains. The clutch can be set so as to do'thework 
 Uie ropes are safe at. and then will slip, and save 
 Uie engine and gearing from breaking. The motion 
 to operate the clutch is ea.sy and natural, and with 
 a powerful straji-brake we can hold or lower care- 
 fully any load we can hoist. See Crunen, Differen- 
 tiiil Pi(Ufy.liliirk, and Menhnnicnl M/meuvem. 
 
 HOLD.— A plaeeof security ; a fortified place, fort, 
 or castle. Often called a stronghold. The expres- 
 sion tn hiild. isfretpieutly employed to mean the fact 
 of being in military possession of anyplace: while 
 tnlidld nut means to maintain any place, ground, etc., 
 against an enemy. 
 
 HOLDALL.— A iiortable ease for holding small ar- 
 ticles recjuired by soldiers. Leather bags or cases 
 are generally used for carrying implements for the 
 equipment of guns, and are known as " of!" and 
 " near." Each has links at the back for Iiangini; it 
 on the saddle. 
 
 HOLDFASTS,— The most essential subjects to be 
 considi nd before any heavy weight is moved or sus- 
 pended, are the nature and"eondition of the securing 
 points, together with the strain that will be Ijrouglil 
 on them. Natural holdfasts— such as the piers of 
 casemates, pintles for guns of position, trees, etc.— 
 mjiy freciuently be found, around which straps may 
 be placed. In such eases all corners should l)e jiro- 
 tected by wood, or the rojie itself ptnxuhtl to ])revenl 
 chafmg. In places where holdfasts can lie driven or 
 sunk, the oriliiiary picket-post can be made use of, 
 
 Fi;:. 1. 
 
 Fig. a. 
 
 Fig. .3. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 best and most reliable clutch for this jxirpose is that 
 invented and patented by Jlr. TlionKis A. Westou, 
 M. E.. and lirst fully descriljed in a paper read by 
 him before the British Institution of Mechanical 
 Engineers. The essential basis of the Westou clutch 
 or coupling consists of two series of friction discs 
 arranged alternately with eacli other upon a common 
 axis, one series being carried by one shaft, and the 
 other series connected to the other shaft or wheel 
 which is required to be coupled with the first shaft. 
 The great advantage arising from this alternate ar- 
 rangement of the discs is that the frictional effect of 
 anypressure applied to coiqile them is repeated as 
 many times as there are discs in the two series, that 
 is. the number of all the discs is a cimstant multi- 
 plier for the friction produced between a single pair 
 of the rubbing surfaces by any given pressure. 
 
 A most perfect and an effective hoistiug-cngiuc, 
 made by Messrs. Frisbie &, Co., of Philadelphia, is 
 represented in Fig. 3. A distinctive feature of this 
 engine is the manner of eonnectinir the spur-gearing to 
 fri>ti'rii,-d?->im!i by bolting directly to the rim of the 
 drum. This does away with all torsion of the shaft 
 
 F)L'. .5. 
 
 I but only when light weights have to be dealt with. 
 In scouring to a iioldfast from which it may become 
 
 ! necessary to ease off, at least one complete turn 
 must be taken before making fast ; otherwise, when 
 the strain is on it, it is difficult to cast off. Precise 
 rides cannot be laid down as to the description of 
 holdfast best suited for particular operations, but it 
 sliould be liorne in mind that it will .save much 
 time and trouble to make it iu the first instance con- 
 siderably more secure than seems to be absolutely 
 
 ' necessary, as when a holdfast once liegins to sive, 
 it is difficult to strengthen it. Whatever holSfast 
 niay be used, the strain should be taken by the eu- 
 
 i tire structure at once : otherwise it might srive way 
 in detail when it would not do so as aVhole. The 
 drawings represent some of the methods of custom- 
 ary holdfasts, using pickets, anchors, heavy cannon, 
 etc. When the strain to be sustained is very sjreat. 
 tlie holdfast shown in Fig. 2, may be used to ad- 
 
 I vantage : a h c d h ti trench from ten to fifteen feet 
 long and two to four feet in width and depth. It is 
 dug in a direction perpendicular to the strain. 
 Several heavy stakes are driven into the trench far
 
 HOLLOW BALLS. 
 
 42 
 
 HOLY SEPULCHEK. 
 
 eaouffh from the side to luimit plauks lieiug placed 
 between them and the earth. A heavy beam, with 
 the bight of a chain around it, is then laid on at the 
 bottom of the irench against the stakes, the ends of 
 the cliain being brought up between tlie planks along 
 a trench, rising gradually to the surface so that there 
 will be no tendency to lift the beam up when the 
 strain is on it. The whole trench is then tilled in 
 and rammed. 
 
 HOLLOW-BALLS.— In military pjTotechny, many 
 varieties of balls are made, diffe-iug in purpose from 
 bomb-shells, but, like them, tilled with ignitible 
 composition. They are used either to give light, 
 to produce very dense smoke, or to diffuse a suf- 
 focating odor. Some of them, althougli designated 
 bails, are not globular in shape. IJght-hnUn consist 
 of canvas stretched over a skeletou-frame, and 
 painted ; the frame is filled with a composition of 
 saltpeter, sulphur, resin, and linseed-oil, rammed 
 down hard ; and is provided with a fuse, the length 
 of which determines the time that will elapse before 
 the composition ignites. These light-balls weigh 
 from 5 lbs. to 70 lbs. each, according to their size. 
 Tliey are intended to give out a brilliant light, which 
 may reveal the operations of the enemy, during 
 night, at a siege or iu the field. Smoke-bulls are 
 made of several thicknesses of paper, shaped by 
 means of a globular core or a mould. They are fill- 
 ed with gunpowder, saltpeter, powdered sea-coal, 
 Swedish-pitch, and tallow; and are calculated, 
 after being fired oflf, to send out a dense smoke for 
 nearly half an hour, in order to blind or incommode 
 the enemv. Stiiik-hdlh are filled with a composi- 
 tion which, when ignited, diffuses an odor almost 
 intolerable. Some of the contrivances of Captain 
 Norton and other inventors at the present day, are 
 extensions of the same principle as these inflam- 
 mable balls. It may here be added, that most of 
 these projectiles, esp"ecially light-balls, and smoke- 
 balls, are fired from mortars rather than from guns. 
 See Pyrotecliny. 
 
 HOLLOW OF THE AKM.— An expression for the 
 slight inclination of the a.xle-tree-arms downwards 
 (when the wheels have dish), so that the lowest 
 spoke of each wlieel may be vertical. 
 
 HOLLOW PROJECTILES.— Under the head of Hol- 
 low Projectiles are included shells for guns, howit- 
 zers, and mortars. Tliese are usually made of cast- 
 iron, and are classified according to the diameter of 
 the l)ore of the piece.or their weight. 
 
 A shell is a hollow' projectile filled with gunpow- 
 der, which is ignited by a fuse at the reiiuired mo- 
 ment, the bursting of the shell causing destruction 
 by its explosive force and by the fragments and, if 
 the object be combustible, by setting it on fire. The 
 thickness of metal must be such that the shell may 
 contain as large a bursting charge as possible, but 
 that it be strong enough to withstand the shock of 
 the discharge within the bore of the gun. The 
 thickness of metal in a spherical shell is about one- 
 sixth of the diameter, and the weight of the shell is 
 about tliree-fourths that of the solid shot of the same 
 calilier. The shell of a rifle-gun being elongated, is, 
 by giving it a greater length than the shot, brought 
 up to the same length as the latter. 
 
 ^Mortar-shells are fired from mortars at high angles, 
 being intended to fall upon and set fire to buildings, 
 vessels, or other (•om1)Ustible constructions; to de- 
 stroy earthworks, or by their great penetration be- 
 fore bursting, to explode magazines protected from 
 other projectiles. Tliey are fitted with two liniH. 
 placed one on each side of the fuze-hole, which 
 serve for attaching a pair of ditll-honkti. The fuze- 
 holes of mortar-shells are larger in diameter than 
 those of other common shells, and I hey arc not 
 counter-Slink or boucbed with composition. See 
 l'i-ij>i-tJlix and .S//,,'/.v. 
 
 HOLLOW REVETMENT.— AVhen arches are con- 
 structed from one counterfort to the ne.\t, tlie name 
 /ujlloin or wiinter-atvlied revetment is given to the 
 
 disposition, which is both excellent and economical 
 for hi^li scarps. 
 
 HOLLOW SQUARE.— The form in which a body of 
 foot is drawn u]) with an empty space in tiie middle 
 for the colors, drums, baggage, etc. A body of 
 troops formed into a squad to resist the charge of 
 cavalry on critical occasions. 
 
 HOLLOW TOWER.— A rounding made of the re- 
 mainder of two brisures, to join the curtain to che 
 orillou, where the small shot are placed, that they 
 may not be so much exposed to the view of the 
 enemy. 
 
 HOLSTER.— The leather case which holds the pis- 
 tol. Holsters are either worn on the belts, or are 
 affixed to the pommels of the saddles. In the latter 
 instance, they are frequently covered with wool or 
 fur, to prevent injury to the riders in the event of 
 being thrown forward upon them. The drawing 
 
 shows the form and construction of the regulation 
 holster. In the English service. Lancers and Kon- 
 commissioned Officers of cavalry have two bolsters 
 attached to the front part of their saddles. Wallets 
 have been introduced iu lieu of holsters for the Stalf 
 and certain rciriments of the service. 
 
 HOLY ALLIANCE.- A league formed after the fall 
 of Napoleon by the Sovereigns of Russia, Austria, 
 and Prussia, nominally to regulate the relations of 
 the States of Christendom by the principles of 
 Christian Charity, but really to preserve the power 
 and influence of the existing Dynasties. .Alost of 
 the other European Rulers acceded to it, and the 
 treaty was formerly made public in the Frnnkford 
 Journnl, February 2, 181(3. It was in virtue of this 
 league that Austria, in 1831, crushed tlie Revolutions 
 in Naples and Piedmont, and that France, in 1823, 
 restored Absolutism in Spain. Subsequently, both 
 France and England seceded, after which it became 
 a mere nominU umbra. A special article of the 
 treaty excluded forever the memliers of the Bona- 
 parte Family from anv European throne. 
 
 HOLY LEAGUES.— The name ajiplied to certain 
 l^olitical alliances iu Eurojje ; the jirincipid are as 
 follows: 1. In l.ill, between the Pope, Spain, and 
 Venice, the object being to expel the French from 
 Italy. 3. In 1538, lietween Charles V. and the 
 Roman Catholic Princes of Germany in opposition 
 to the league of Schmalkend. 3. In 1.571, the Pope, 
 Spain, and Venice against the Turks. 4. Of the 
 Guise family, tlie Pope, Spain, and tlie French Par- 
 liament against the Huguenots. 5. In lliO!), lietween 
 the Pojie and the Roman Catholic States of Swabia 
 and Bavaria, (i. In 1()84, of Poland, Germany, and 
 Venice airaiiist the Turks. 
 
 HOLY SEPULCHER.— The Knights of the Holy 
 Sepulcbcr ((iiislituled an Order oif Knighthood insti- 
 tuted, jirobably, by Pojie Alexander VI., for the 
 guardianship of the Holy Scpnlcher, and the relief 
 and iirolcction of iiilgrims. Tlie Pope was origi- 
 nally tlie (Jraiid-inasler, but '.le suliseqiiently ceded 
 his riiilits to the Guardian Father of the Holy Scp- 
 nlcher. The Kniglits must, by the rules of the 
 Order, be all of noble descent; they were bound to
 
 HOLY WATER SPRINKtEE. 
 
 43 
 
 HOUINO PIGEON 
 
 liwir muss iliiily, to li^lit, to live, nnil to dir for the 
 Clirisliaii faith, etc. In return for these (hilies, Ihi' 
 Kni'j;hls hiiil the most imiisiml and extraordinary 
 privih'iies conferred upon them: tiiey were e.\em]il 
 from taxation, eonid inarrv, and yet possess ehnreli 
 prnpiTty, lenilimize liaslards, an<l ent down and 
 liiuy the liodies of eriminuls who had lieen lniiit;ed. 
 On the recapture of .(erusalem l)y tlie Tnrl<s, tlie 
 Kni^dils retired into Italy, and settled at Perugia. 
 After a temporary union with the Hospitalers, the 
 Order was reconstructed in 1S14 both in France and 
 in Poland, and is still in existence within a vi'ry 
 small circle of Ivninhls electeil by the (Juardian Fa- 
 ther from the most respectable pilgrims who come 
 to .liTUsaleni. 
 
 HOLY WATER SPRINKLER —A name applied to 
 thi- Jliiil, l)oth from its sha])e anil from the drops of 
 blood which started from those u])on whom it was 
 usc'd. 
 
 HOMAGE. — The service or a show of respect due 
 from .a kniglil or vassal tohis Lord in feudal times. 
 The word is derive<l from the form of expression used 
 in doin^ the service, whicli was — ji" ili riiijue eoKtn 
 /iimw — f become your man. Since the abolition of 
 tenures, the word has no siil)stantial legal meaning 
 in the law of England, except in a limited sense as 
 to copyhokLs, to denote the kind of acknowledgment 
 made by a tenant to the Lord of the Manor. The Ho- 
 mage ,Iury consisted of the tenants who did Inmiage, 
 and their presence was necessary to attest some acts. 
 IliiiiKijiiiiiii ri'ddcre was the expression, now obsolete, 
 signifying a solem renunciation of homage or fealty 
 to the Lord, and a detiauce of him. The word ho- 
 mage is not used in Scotch law. though the feudal 
 system is not obsolete in Scotland in many otlier re- 
 pects. 
 
 HOME. — In artillery, tlie term used to express the 
 ]iosition of a sliot when the gun is loaded. Thus, 
 " Is the shot well lumie?" is a common expression 
 amongst artillerymen. 
 
 HOMICIDE. — The killing of one human being by 
 another either innocently or feloniously. To say that 
 there has been a iKjmicide does not necessarily imply 
 tliat a crime has been committed : for though every 
 murder is a homicide, every homicide is not 
 a miinler. The law permits a man to kill an- 
 other in self-defense when his own life is as- 
 sailed or threatened ; but the danger must be 
 real, or in good faith and for sound reasons 
 deemed so by the person threatened. A man 
 may lawfully kill another, after due warning, 
 in defense of his property, or to prevent the 
 escape of one wlio has committed felony. An 
 Officer of Justice charged with tlie duty of 
 arresting a criminal or with tlie performance 
 of any other lawful act, may kill a person who 
 resists or attempts to thwart him liy force. 
 A person charged with felony, seeking to es- 
 cape after arrest or any one Heeing to avoid cap- 
 ture, may be lawfully killed by an officer if he can- 
 not otherwise be taken, A person engaged in com- 
 mitting a felony may be lawfully killed by an eye- 
 witness if there be no other way of preventing ihe 
 crime. The keeper of a prison may, if necessary, 
 prevent the escape of a prisoner by taking his life. 
 In all such cases, however, it must appear that the 
 killing was resorted to as a last alternative. Justi- 
 fiable homicide is the term applied by law iu all such 
 cases. Where one kills another by accident, without 
 any intention to do him injury, and while exercising 
 a proper degree of caution, the law deems it an ex- 
 cusable homicide ; as, for example, when a man 
 driving in the highway in the darkness runs over 
 and kills another without knowing it, or, discover- 
 ing the danger, has yet no time of power to avert 
 the calamity. The line between justifiable and ex- 
 ou.salile homicide is vague and, in a legal sense, not 
 important, since neither the one or the otherexposes 
 a man to punishment. In some of the States of the 
 Union no distinction is made between them. 
 
 HOMING PIGEON.— The result of tlie investigation 
 into till; i)raclicability of using pigeons to curry mes- 
 sages in time of war is not so encouraging as was 
 hoped. Althoutrh there are instgnces wdien they 
 have been usi-d to great advantagi', and when they 
 have been the only means of communication, there 
 seem to he obstacles to their certain and systematic 
 u.se in the time of actual hostilities. It is a fact 
 that, despite tlie greatest care in training, tlie iiigcon 
 sometimes fails at the critical moment. When il 
 succeeds, however, the stake is generally very great. 
 To attain one success it may be worth while to suf- 
 fer many failures. For ,this reason. perhai)s, those 
 Nations who devote most time and money to the 
 perfecting of their military systems, still .system- 
 atically train lari^e numbers of pigeons for use in 
 war. When Paris was about to be besieged in 1870, 
 the pigeon-fanciers in that city suggested to the 
 military authorities that the pigeons within the city 
 limits be sent out, and that others from the pro- 
 vinces be sent into the city. The latter proposition 
 was acted upon, but the former was not, until bal- 
 loons were used, when there was an opportunity to 
 send out pigeons in the balloons, it being intended 
 that the birds sliould return with mes.sages. Pigeons 
 had been declared contraliand of war early in the 
 Franco-Prussian war of 1870. There was taken out 
 of Paris, in l)alloons. 303 pigeons. Of this numlier, 
 fifty-seven only returneil. 'f hese bore letters, photo- 
 graphed in finest characters upon scraps of paper 
 so minute that 300 of them weighed only one-eii:litli 
 of a grain. Newspapers, reduced Ijy piiotography 
 to micro.scopical characters, were carried by these 
 pigeons. The magic-lantern was made use of to en- 
 large the letters, wdiich, thrown ui)ou a prepared 
 surface, were read by the public. These .'57 birds 
 were not the only ones sent into Paris during the 
 siege. A pigeon post service was established at 
 Tours, for the purpo.se of conveying messages into the 
 Capitol. The regular rates for this service made it 
 possible for one bird to carry §.500 worth of de- 
 spatches, but. during the latter days of the siege, the 
 Ciermans introduced trained hawks that were used 
 to destroy the pigeons. These instances show suf- 
 
 ficiently, that while the pigeon has been used for 
 carrying messages, many causes — some understood 
 and others not understood — unite to make them un- 
 certain and untrustworthy means of communication. 
 The reason why the pigeon seeks its home, the 
 fact that makes possible its use a carrier, has never 
 been satisfactorily given, and its discussion involves 
 the most interesting incjuiry concerning the bird. 
 Some have believed the action of the bird due to in- 
 stinct, others to training, while one of the most ex- 
 perienced and practical French fanciers has recently 
 advanced the theory that the pigeon is guided iu its 
 flight I.iy currents of electricity in the air. or by other 
 atmospheric influences ; others, again, differing from 
 all these, believe that instinct, intelligence, and care- 
 ful training, combined, account for the action of the 
 birds. What is instinct ? To this there may be 
 many answers. l)ut when considered in connection 
 with the flight of liirds. instinct is illustrated by the 
 stork, which, traveling only at night, flies North in 
 the spring and returns in the fall. Swallows and 
 wild geese, and many other birds, move North and
 
 HOMME D'ABMES. 
 
 44 
 
 HOMME D'ABMES. 
 
 South at the same seasons. They do not. however, 
 confine all their movements to tlie night-time. All 
 these move by what we term instinct. Whatever 
 that may be, it is all-powerful in its influence on the 
 birds. "But it is not so with the homins pigeon. 
 Experience shows that the flight of that bird is not 
 certain unless it has been trained, and unless atmos- 
 pheric conditions are favorable to its flight. Not- 
 withstanding this, however, there are sometimes cir- 
 cumstances that give color to the theory that the 
 bird flies b_v instinct alone. 
 
 The message should be adjusted to the middle 
 feather of the'tail, tirst shaving both sides to within 
 an inch of the end ; then lasli the message, with 
 waxed silk, lirmly, so that the bird cannot pick it off. 
 One person must" hold the bird to prevent it from 
 fluttering while another attaches the message. Mes- 
 sages should be written with lead pencil (ink runs if 
 wet) on a very flne tissue or manifold paper, and 
 folded very tight. Messages should be sent off on 
 several birds, and if of very great importance, on ten 
 or fifteen, so that some will be sure to reach the fort. 
 The message on the miildle feather of the tail will 
 not annoy the bird, for when he is at rest it folds on 
 top. It will not do to tie the message on the legs, 
 as it is necessary for the bird, in flving, to hide the 
 feet in the breast feathers so as not to offer a resist- 
 ance to the air. Fig. 1 shows the best manner of 
 holding the pigeon, when attaching the message, or 
 when handling the bird for other purposes. 
 
 There are numerous varieties of homing pigeons 
 remarkable for their powers of flight and^ their at- 
 tachment to the home in which they have been 
 reared and first flown. Prominent amongst these 
 
 are the Dragon, the well-known Hying Tumbler, and 
 the Skimmer, or a mongrel race between these two 
 breeds. Among the pure breeds that can be flown 
 
 good distances may be mentifmed that called the 
 iwl pigeon. But the varieties in which this homing 
 facultyis developed to the highest degree is unques^ 
 tionably the different races of Belgian birds, which 
 are termed in England l)_v the general name of Ant- 
 werps, and in Belgium are known as Smerles, Cumu- 
 Itts. Demi Bees, etc. Of these varieties the Smerles 
 are the most important. They are rather small birds, 
 and kiok very much as if they liad been originallv 
 lired from a rather coarse lilue Owl ]iigeon, crossell 
 with a Blue Hock. The head is arched and tlie skvdl 
 capacious, indicating a full development of brain, 
 and offering a striking contrast to tlie flat narrow 
 skull of the English fancy Carrier. The most strik- 
 ing characteristic of these birds is the firmness and 
 great breadth of the flight feathers of the wings. 
 These overlap eacli other to a great extent, ami afford 
 a strong firm wing wilh which the flight is urged. 
 The keel of the lireast-bone is deeji and well covered 
 with strong muscles ; and tliere is altogether an ab- 
 sence of any ofl'al or large develo])ment of any part 
 not used in flight. 
 
 Of all the pigeon-tribe the Pouter, shown in Fig. 
 2, in appearance perhaps the most strange, is the 
 furtherest removed from the ancient dove or common 
 typical pigeon of the universe. Tliis remarkalile 
 variety of our domesticated pigeon seems to be the 
 extreme, the very utmost point, the greatest stretch 
 of latitude to which the fertile imagination of man 
 can be carried, or, indeed, to which the almost in- 
 exhaustible resources of nature might be expected 
 to sport, or culture lie extended. Here we have a 
 pigeon which is a pigeon, but does not look like a 
 pigeon — an estimable variety whose merits have 
 been extolled b.y its admirers — a kind whose peculi- 
 arities are the cause of frequent surprise, doubt, and 
 even ridicide. There are nine recognized kinds, or 
 rather sub-varieties of the Pouter, viz.: black, red, 
 yellow, blue, silver, mealy, creamy, blue-checkered, 
 and white. 
 
 The Jacobin shown in Fig. 3, is a most popular 
 variety, and its fanciers number some of the most 
 earnest and painstaking breeders. It, as a bird, has 
 proved to be a great lioue of contention, and the va- 
 rious contestants have held so firmlj- to their opin- 
 
 Fifi. 3. 
 
 ions and objections that for a long time there existed 
 several types. These differences the National Peris- 
 terouic Societj- finally arranged. Twenty years ago 
 the name was not known : it is an innovation and an 
 eyesore to those who have seen the inire-bred bird. 
 
 The home of the pigeon should be as cons])icii- 
 ous as possible. Notwithstanding the fact that the 
 flag at posts will geuerallv make the home of the 
 birds in the military service noticeable at a long dis- 
 tance, it is suggested that when it is possible the^flag- 
 staff be surmounted bj- a large spherical reflector, or 
 a large white ball. That their arrival from a voyage 
 may lie quickly known, they should announce them- 
 selves. This could be arranged by connecting, liy 
 means of a light wire, the door of their house or loft 
 through which the}' enter with a bell in a room that 
 is to lie habitually occupied. The wire need only be 
 attached when messengers are expected. It there- 
 fore appears the Medical Department at posts should 
 have charge of the pigeons in the military service, 
 and that tlieir loft be near the hospital. Not only 
 will they then be most likely to receive constant care, 
 but judicious attention: and in return maybe ex- 
 pected to interest and to lie a direct lienefit to tl e 
 Iiatients in hospital. Although it is important to 
 send the same message by several birds, they sliould 
 not lie sent off togetlier, but tossed up at intervals 
 of five or ten minutes. When thrown off together, 
 especially if in good condition, they sometimes play 
 and loilcr. Sci' ('nrritr-piginn. 
 
 HOMME D'ARMES.— A military phrase among the 
 French, signifying' ;i gi'iillemen or cavalier who be- 
 longed to one of the old companies., who was arm- 
 ed Cap-a-pie. and always fought on horseback. In 
 ancient times, every man of this description was ac- 
 companied by two horsemen indepeudeully of his
 
 HOMOGENEOUS, 
 
 45 
 
 H0N0B8 PAIS BY X£0OF8. 
 
 scrvimts. One of lliu nionntfil attcinliiiits wiiH iirined 
 Willi tlic; criisM-ljow, mid the dilicr willi n coniiiinii 
 l)(i\v nr 11 lHitU(.--a.\c ; so llml, 100 Jloiniiim d'Ariiu-K 
 coiiip iscd a body of 800 liorsc. Il was a spccicH 
 (if cavalry wliicli fxislcd from the rt-if^n of Louis 
 XI.. iiiiiii till' rci^ii of IIiMiry II. 
 
 HOMOGENEOUS.— A term applied to various sub- 
 Hliuiecs to denote that they eoiisisl of similar parts, 
 or of parts of the same nature and kind ; thus, the 
 suhstaiiec of a solid shot may lie said to be homo- 
 geneous when the metal is of the same density and 
 te.\ture throughout. In any perfectly homogeneous 
 shit, the center of ligure and the center of gravity 
 of the mass are coincident. 
 
 HONES. — A particular class of stones used for the 
 |)ur|iiise of sharpening all edge-tools and weapons, 
 riiey are usually cut into pieces about a foot in 
 length, and from an inch to two inches thick, 
 and either left sijuare or rounded, according to their 
 inteniled uses. The tinest kind of hones are those 
 called oil-stones: these are hard, compact, and so 
 very silicious that they readily wear down the hard- 
 est steel ; they are varieties of slate, ilerived from 
 the argilhu-eous schists of the paleoz<iic period. The 
 best are those brought from Turkey : Hohemia is 
 also celebrated for its hones ; and very e.vcellcnt ones 
 are discovered in Persia, in the Ilartz Jlountains, in 
 Syria, in America, Spain, Peru, and in Siberia. In 
 Great Britain several localities yield hone-stones of 
 e.xcellenl quality, and none better than the cele- 
 brat<'d Water-of-Ayr stone, whicli is much used for 
 polishing copper-plates, as well as for liones. The 
 Welsh oil-st(me or Idwall stone, and llu' cutler's 
 greenstone, are olitained from Snowilon in Wales: 
 and in the neighborhood of Tavistock the Devon- 
 shire oil-stones are procured. Tlie hones used for 
 sharpening scytlies, etc., are usually made of coarse- 
 grsiined sandstone. 
 
 HONEYCOMBS.— Flaws or defects in guns resem- 
 bling the cells made by bees, worked in the metal 
 Uirousjh the action of exploded gun powder. They 
 sprea 1 rapidly, and with continuous tiring, so(m eat 
 into the metal to such an extent as to render the 
 fiirllier usi' of the gun dangerous. 
 
 HONORABLE ARTILLERY COMPANY.— The oldest 
 existing volunteer corps in lirilain. Four military 
 bo. lies — the Artillery Cuinpuni/. the SergeiiiiUat- 
 Arnix, the Veomen of the (fiturd, and the Gentle- 
 men, PeiixiiHiern. were established as far back as 
 tlie time of the Tudors; all these organizations still 
 exist, but under greatly altered circumstances. In 
 l.')37. Henry VIII. granted a patent to three jicrsons, 
 appointing them " Overseers of the Scienc<' of Artil- 
 lery," for long-bows, cross-bows, and hand-guns. 
 They were to constitute a guilil or a fraternity for 
 this puriiose, with power to appoint assistants and 
 successors, to purchase lands, and to use a common 
 seal; and their formal otHcial name became "The 
 JIasters. Ilulers, and Commonalty of the Fraternity 
 or Guild of Artillery of Long-bows, Cross-bows, and 
 Hand-guns." The freemen of the guild or company 
 were empowered to keep arms, and exerci.se them- 
 selves in shooting. In 1(50.1 a patent was granted 
 l)y James L, intended chietly to effect the preserva- 
 tion of the shooting and praci icing grounds around 
 London for the Artillery Company. In l(i$5 a Com- 
 mission was appointed by Clmrles L, still further to 
 insure this oliject. In 1(!38 the Corporation of the 
 City of Loudon presented to the company the plot of 
 ground ever since called tlie .\rtillery Ground, near 
 Moortields, as a Held for military exercise. Royal 
 Princes frequently enrolled themselves as members 
 of the Company, usually as '■ Captain General." In 
 171!), George I. issued an order that all commission 
 and stall officers of the City Train-bands (a metro- 
 politan niilitia) shoidd become members of the 
 Artillery Company, and exercise with the other 
 members at all convenient times. The word " artil- 
 lery " hail heretofore been considereci as apiilyiug 
 to bows and arrows as well as to tireanns : but the 
 
 members of the Company, like other marksmen, had 
 also abandoned arcliery, without, however, making 
 any change in their designation. In a summons to 
 the Company to meet for exercise on a particular 
 day in IDHS, it is said : ■"Those genlleinen that on 
 that day hanille muskets are desired to take care 
 that their arms are clean and well lixed, and that they 
 bring with them line dry powili'r, and even matcli." 
 The Company, like many other city guilds, has 
 nearly outliveil its original purpose. In 1780, when 
 the "Lord George (iordoii riols " atllicted the me- 
 tropolis, the members of tiie Artillery Comjiany ef- 
 fectually protected the Hank of Kngland : in 1848, 
 wlieu Cliartist riots were apprehended, the Company 
 was (m the alert to render good service if neerled ; 
 and in the spring of 18;')!), when an uneasy feeling 
 l)revailed in Kngland concerning the designs of 
 France, the members polished their arms and lookeil 
 forward to eventualities ; l)ut the Company has 
 never been engaged in an actual warfare with an 
 enemy. The Artillery Company consists of members 
 elected by ballot, who pay one guinea annual sub- 
 scription, and sujiply themselves with dress, amis, 
 and accouterment.s. These payments, together with 
 the rental received from a small amount of real 
 property, constitute the fund out of which the ex- 
 penses are defrayed. The members leani ritle- 
 shooting as well as artillery practice; there are cer- 
 tain days of meeting at Moortields ; and every sum- 
 mer there are certain days of drill and jjractice at 
 Seaford. The Corps comprises six infantry com- 
 panies, a grenadier company, a light-infantry com- 
 pany, a ritie company, and an artillery company. 
 Until 1.84!), the members elected their own officers; 
 but since that year the Crown has apijointed them 
 on the nomination of the Lieutenancy of the City 
 of London. The Lieutenant-colonel appoints the 
 Non-coinmissioiied Otticers. See Artillery f'i/rp«. 
 
 HONORS OF WAR.— The term employed to express 
 the privileges allowed to a garrison surrendering, 
 cither in consideration of a brave defense, or from 
 some other cause. Many degrees of honor may bs 
 paid to a vanquished enemy, according to the gen- 
 erosity or judgment of the victorious Commander- 
 in-Chief. In some cases, the gan'ison is allowed to 
 inarcli out with all its arms, drums beating, colors 
 flying, etc. : at another time, the conquered force 
 will only be permitted to advance silently to the 
 front of their works, there to ground or pile arms, 
 and then, facing about, to return to their lines as 
 prisoners of war. Occasionally, the capitulation 
 will provide that the garrison shall deposit their 
 arms and warlike stores at some specified spot, and 
 then march on to their own territory on [jarole of 
 not serving during the existing war against the vic- 
 tors or their allies. 
 
 HONORS PAID BY TROOPS.— The following officers 
 are received with standards and colors dropping, 
 the officers and troops saluting, and the bands, trum- 
 pets, or lield-music jilaying, as is indicated in each 
 case: \. The President. Slusic : " The President's 
 March." 2. The General Commanding-in-Chief. 
 Music: "The General's March." 3. The Lieuten- 
 ant-general. Trumpets sounding the flourishes, or 
 drums beating the ruffles. 4. A Major-general. 
 Two flourishes, or two ruffles. .5. A Brigadier- 
 general. One flourish, or one ruffle. Officers of 
 \ the Navy are received with the honors due their 
 assimilated rank, which is as follows : Admiral, 
 General ; Vice admiral, Lieutenant-General ; Rear 
 admiral, Jlajor-general ; Commodore. Brigadier- 
 general ; Captain. Colonel ; Commander, Lieuten- 
 ant-colonel ; Lieutenant-commander, Major ; Lieu- 
 tenant. Captain: Master. First Lieutenant. : Ensign, 
 Second Lieutenant. Officers of Marines, and Officers 
 of Volunteers and Militia in the service of the 
 L'nited States, receive the honors due to their rela- 
 tive rank. To the Vice President, the members of 
 the Cabinet, the Chief Justice, the President of the 
 Senate, the Speaker of the House of Representatives
 
 HOOD. 
 
 4G 
 
 HOOKS. 
 
 of the Unitcil States, aud to Governors, within their 
 respective States aud Territories, the same )ionor.s 
 are paid as to a General Commauding-in-Chief . Amer- 
 ican aud Foreign Euvo.ys or i\Iiuisters are received 
 witli tlie compliments due to a Lieutenant-general. 
 Officers of a foreign service are complimented with 
 the honors due to'their rank. The national or regi- 
 mental colors passing a guard or other armed body 
 are saluted, the trumpets sounding, and the drums 
 beating a march. No honors are paid when troops 
 are tn route, on marches, or in trenches ; aud no 
 salute is rendered when marching in double time, at 
 trot or gallop. The Commanding Officer is saluted 
 by all dommissioned Officers in command of troops 
 or detachments. Courtesy among military men is 
 indispeusal.ile to discipline ; respect to superiors is 
 not confined to obedience on duty, but extended on 
 all occasions. 
 
 All officers salute each other on meeting, and in 
 making or receiving official reports. When under 
 arms, fhe salute is made with the sword or saber, if 
 drawn ; otherwise with the hand. A mounted officer 
 dismounts Ijefore addressing a superior not mounted. 
 In all cases the junior first'salutes. On official oc- 
 casions officers when under arms indoors, do not im- 
 cover, but they salute with the sword or hand, ac- 
 cording as the sword is drawn or in the scabbard -, 
 when indoors and not vmder arms they uncover and 
 stand at attention, but do not salute. A Non-com- 
 missioned Officer or private in command of a detach- 
 ment without arms salutes all officers with the hand. 
 If the detachment be on foot, and armed with the 
 rifle or carbine, he brings the pieces to a carry, and 
 salutes as prescribed for'a Sergeant. The Command- 
 ing Officer is saluted Ijy all Commissioned Officers in 
 command of troops or detachments. The Sergeant'K 
 Salute is also used liy privates out of ranks armed 
 with the musket, and by sentinels in saluting all of- 
 ficers not entitled to a present. Whenever a Non- 
 commissioned Officer or soldier without arms passes 
 an officer, he salutes him, using the hand farthest 
 from the officer. A Non-conunissioned Officer or 
 soldier being seated, and without particular occupa- 
 tion, rises on the approach of an officer, faces toward 
 him and salutes ; if standing, he faces toward the 
 officer for the same purpose. If the parties remain 
 in the same place or on the same ground, such com- 
 pliments are not repeated. If actuallj- at work, 
 soldiers do not cease it to salute an officer unless ad- 
 dressed by liim. A Nou-commissoned C)fflcer, or 
 soldier, with musket or drawn sword, makes the pre- 
 scribed salute witli the musket or sword before ad- 
 dressing an officer ; he also makes the same salute 
 after receiving the reply. A Non-commissioned Of- 
 £Ecer, or soldier, with sword or bayonet in the scab- 
 bard, and when unarmed, salutes witli the hand. In- 
 doors, a Non-commissioned Officer or snldier, when 
 imarmed, uncovers aud stands at attention, but does 
 not salute ; in all other cases, he salutes as just pre- 
 scribed, without uncovering. A mounted soldier 
 dismounts before addressing an officer not mounted. 
 An officer moimted dismounts Ijefore addressing a 
 superior officer not^nounted. When an officer enters 
 a room wliere there are soldiers, the word ■' dtten- 
 thin " is giveu by some one wlio perceives him, 
 when all rise, remain standing in the position of the 
 soldier, and |)reserve silence until the officer leaves 
 the room ; if at meals, thej' do not rise. Soldiers at 
 all times, and in all situations, \i\\y the same compli- 
 ments to officers of the Army, Navy, and JIarines, 
 and to all officers of tha Volunteers and jMilitia in 
 the service of the United States, as to officers of their 
 own partic\dar regiments and corps. Officers in 
 citizens' dress are saluted in the same manner as 
 when in uniform. Officers will at all times acknowl- 
 edge the courtesies of enlisted men. When return- 
 ing tlie .salute of the enlisted men, officers salute as 
 prescribed in the tactics. When several officers in 
 comiiany are salutetl, all who are entitled In the sa- 
 lute return it. 
 
 Officers arriving at Head-quarters of a Military 
 Geographical Divisiim, or Deiiartmeut, or of any or- 
 ganized ]\Iilitar_y Command, or at a Milifarj- Post, as 
 soon thereafter as maj- be practicable, call upon the 
 Commander thereof, and, if there be time, register 
 their names in the office of the Assistant Adjutant- 
 general or Adjutant of the command. If the visit- 
 ing officer be senior to the Commander the former 
 may send a card, when it will become the duty of 
 the Commander to make the first call. 
 
 HOOD, — A term applied to the leather cover for 
 tlie stirrup of a saddle. It is the same as the Span- 
 ish Tiipiidera. 
 
 HOOF PAD. — A device attached to the hoof of a 
 horse to keep the foot, or the shoe of the foot to 
 which it is attached, from cutting the fellow foot or 
 the fetlock. A device to prevent interfering. 
 
 HOOFS. — The healthy soundness of the horse's foot 
 is mainly preserved b}' permitting it to grow un- 
 injured by the rasp and knife (see Hokse-shoeing), 
 whilst its toughness is secured, and undue drjTiess 
 and evaporation is prevented, b}' smearing daily the 
 crust, sole, aud frog -with a little glycerine, or a 
 mi.\ture made by melting together a quarter of a 
 pound each of tar, honey, beeswa.x, and glycerine, 
 with a pound of lard. Softness and 1>rittleness of 
 the hoof, which are fruitful sources of cracks aud 
 corns, may be remedied by the regular use of such 
 dressings, by placing the feet for several hours 
 daily in thick woolen swabs, kept cool and moist l.iy 
 frequent applications of cold water, and by en- 
 couraging a more healthy growth of horn by occa- 
 sional mild blisters round the corouarj- band. Cracks, 
 or sand-cracks, as the)' are termed, mostly occur 
 amongst horses much upon the road, cause lameness 
 and constitute unsoundness. When serious and re- 
 cent, poulticing, thinning away of the crust about 
 the crack, and perfect rest are essential. After the 
 earlier heat aud tenderness are removed, a hot iron 
 should be drawn at right angles to the crack, lioth 
 above and fjelow, so as to separate the diseased fnim 
 the sound horn. Waxed thread or fine wire should 
 be wound round the hoof, and a sound growth of 
 horn stimulated Ijy a blister round the coronet. 
 
 HOOKS. — A small liut important element of the 
 suspending apparatus of a crane or hoisting-machine 
 is the hook which terminates it, and by which the 
 hoisting mechanism is attached to or is connected 
 with the load to be lifted. Investigation has shown 
 that the strains developed in hooks are of an ex- 
 ceedinglj- complex character, and the determiuatioQ 
 of the correct proportions of the several parts was 
 only reached, after much study and discussion, by 
 means of mathematical calculations of much in- 
 tricac}' aud liased upou the results of numerous ex- 
 periments. Without undertaking here to disclose 
 the intermediate steps of the investigation, we will 
 simply give the final results in the form of the work- 
 ing formula;. The drawing represents, to a scale of 
 one-sixth natural size, a .5-ton hook of the dimensions 
 and shape determined by the following formuhc, 
 which give the dimensions of the several parts of 
 hooks of capacities from 3.50 lbs. (or oMe-eiiihth of a 
 ton) up to 20,000 lbs. (or 10 tons). For liooks of 
 larger sizes the fonnuUe become slightly difTerent, 
 the general proportions, however, remaining the 
 same. For economy of manufacture each size of 
 hook is made from some regular commercial size of 
 round-iron. The basis, or initial point, in each case 
 is, therefore, the size of iron of which the hook is 
 to lie made, which is indicated liy the dimeusion. A, 
 in the diagram. The diineusion. D, is arl)itrarily as- 
 sumed. The other dimensions, as given by the 
 formula', are those wliich, while preserving a pro- 
 per bearing-face on the interior of the liook for the 
 ropes or chains which may be passed through it, 
 give the greatest resistance to spreading aud to 
 ultimate rupture, which the amount of inaterial in 
 the original bar admits of. The symbol .i is used 
 in the forniulie to indicate the nominal ciipiicity of
 
 HOOK SWIVEL. 
 
 47 
 
 HOOFES LIFE SAVING EOCKET. 
 
 the iKiok ill Idiis of 2,000 pounds. The formiiln- 
 wliicli ili'liTiniiic the lines of the other parts of tlie 
 lioolis of the dilVereiil sizes are iis followH, the 
 ineiisurements lieiiiL' all expressed in inches: 
 
 D=.r> A -)- i.2r,. E=.(i4 A -|_ i.(i(), K=.:j3 a _|_ .^.i, 
 H=1.0MA, 1=1. 33A. .] = ).20A,K=l.lHA.<i=.7r. I), 
 ()=..8(i8 ^+ .(1(1, (2=.(i4-i -}- l.(iO, L=l.()r>A, AI= 
 .50A, N=.8r,I5— .10. lT=.t<(i((A. 
 
 The dimensions. A, are ixTcssarily based upon the 
 ordinary merchant sizes of round-iron. The sizes 
 which it has been found liest to .select are the fol- 
 hiwiug ; Capacity of Hook, j), j, \, 1, U, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
 
 6, 8, 10 tons ; Dimension A, §, {i, J, l^V, U, ^, IJ, 
 2, i\, 2+, 2J, 3j inches. The formulfe which jrive 
 the sections of the liook at the several points are all 
 expressed in terms of A and can therefore be readily 
 ascertained by reference to the foregoius scale. 
 
 E.xperiiuent has sliown that hooks made according 
 to the above formula' will i;ive way first by o]H'ning 
 of the jaw, which, 
 however, would not 
 occur excejit with a 
 loud much in excess 
 of the nominal ca- 
 pacity of the hook. 
 This yielding of the 
 hook when loaded 
 to excess becomes a 
 source of safety, as 
 it constitutes a sig- 
 nal of danger which 
 cannot very readily 
 be over-lookefl, and 
 winch must proceed 
 to some considerable 
 distance before rup- 
 ture will occur and 
 the load be droji- 
 ped. A comparison 
 of these hooks with 
 most of those in or- 
 dinary use will show 
 that the latter are, 
 as a rule, badly pro- 
 portioned, and frequently dangerously weak. Hooks 
 proportioned by the above fornudx- are used in all 
 the Weston cranes. See C'rnntfx. 
 
 HOOK-SWIVEL.— A device intended for dispensing 
 with the necessity of the triangular bayonet in stackl 
 ing arms. It is of great value in connection with 
 the trowel-bayonet, the use of which in digging, 
 would dejirive the muskets of the mesuis of stacking 
 them when necessarily set aside for this purpose. 
 The swivels are so attached to the upjier bands, that 
 it is easy to insert each hook into the swivels of the 
 two remaining gvms necessary to complete the stack. 
 
 The process of stacking is very simple. The men 
 
 being at irrder ii/rniH, bayonets unfixed, the Instructor 
 commands : 
 
 1. St>x'k, 2. Arms. 
 
 At the command itiick, each even number of the 
 front rank turns his piece, barrel to the front Ohe 
 barrel turning to the left), and inclines his piece 
 slightly forward, grasping it with the left hanil at 
 the upper hand, (he thumb and forefinger raising the 
 hook-swivel ; each even mimber of the rear-rank 
 then passes his piece to his tile-leader who grasps it 
 between the bands with his right hand and throws 
 it, barrel to the rear, two feet in front of his own 
 piece, the right hand slipping to the up])erband. the 
 thumb and foretinger raising the hook-swivel, which 
 he engages with that of his own piece, and inclines 
 both to the right. Each odd number of the front 
 rank grasps his piece with the right hand between 
 the bands, the left hand guiding the hook-swivel, 
 which he holds near the hook-swivels of the other 
 ]iiec('S. 
 
 At the command uriiix. each odd number of the 
 front rank engages the hook of his piece with the 
 free hook of tlie piece of the even number of the rear 
 rank. He then turns the barrel downward and to 
 the right l)etween the other two — so that it shall rest 
 upon (heir intersection — and rests the butt about 
 fifteen inches in front of his right foot. 
 
 If in single rank, number two of each four makes 
 the stack, using (he piece of nuniljer three as ex- 
 plained for the even numbered rear-rank man; 
 number one using his own piece as explained for the 
 odd numbered front-rank man. and the loose pieces 
 are passed and laid on as before. In breaking the 
 stack the loose ])ieces are passed as before, and the 
 stack is broken as when in two ranks, numtjer two 
 taking his own jnece in ins right hand and that of 
 nimiber three in his left, which he passes to him on 
 breaking the stack. Number one grasps his own 
 piece with his right hand. 
 
 HOOKUM. — An Indian word, signifj'ing order or 
 command. Honkmnmnnmeh signifies a letter of in- 
 structions, or the paper that contains orders. 
 
 HOOPER LIFE SAVING ROCKET.— This rocket is 
 
 a moditiealion of the Hale rocket. The body is 
 cylindrical in form, and is of sheet-metal 0".l(i.5 
 tluck. The point of the rocket or head is ogival in 
 form, made of wood, and has a cylindrical tenon 
 I'M in length, which is inserted into the front end 
 of the body. The head is held in position by seve- 
 ral screws passing tlirough the rocket-case into the 
 tenon. The rear end of the case is closed by a me- 
 tallic base carrying a double-swivel and perforated 
 with five vents or gas escapes, each one-half an inch 
 in diameter. On one side of these vents are fiuted 
 projections extending 2". 3 towards the rear, so
 
 HOPLITAL. 
 
 48 
 
 UOEN WOEK. 
 
 curved as to leave the opposite sides open for the 
 unimpeded escape of the gases evolved by combus- 
 tion. The object of this arrangement is to produce 
 a motion of rotation about the longer axis of the 
 rocket, and thus secure greater steadiness of flight. 
 This cast-iron base is held in position by pins pass- 
 ing through the case. To the swivel is attached a 
 chain a little over 3 feet long, to which the line is 
 made fast. The rocket is fired bj' lireaking the 
 paper covering of one or more of the vents, and in- 
 serting a piece of slow match and igniting the outer 
 end. 
 
 The following are the principal dimensions and 
 weights of the rocket : 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Length of body 
 
 Diameter o, body... {^Si;;^---;:::;: 
 
 r Total length 
 Length of ogival part. 
 Head -; Diameter 
 
 [Tenon :{{^re''ter;;:: 
 
 Length of base outside of case 
 
 Total length of rocket 
 
 Length filled with composition 
 
 Diameter of vents 
 
 Number of vents 
 
 Length of chain and swivel 
 
 Average weight of rocket and chain. 
 
 The following directions should be observed when 
 using this rocket and its stand. 1. The elevation 
 required for the stand to be ascertained by means 
 of a small quadrant : 35'^ will carrj- the line 300 
 yards with ease. 2. It is suggested, in order to 
 save time, that every rocket-line should be spliced 
 to a spring-swivel that it might at once be attached 
 to the end of the rocket-chain. 3. In all cases three 
 fathoms of the rocket-line to be wetted before being 
 attached to the chain. 4. Place the rocket in the 
 trough or stand with its shoulder against the small 
 iron projection at its base, and have the chain haug- 
 in^ down through the slot. 5. To fire the rocket : 
 With a pointed stick break the oil-paper covering 
 each of the flange-holes, insert into one of them a 
 slow match, light and retire to an angle of 45° to the 
 rear of the stand. See Life-xating Rockets. 
 
 HOPLITAL. — Foot-soldiers among the Greeks, 
 who bore heavy armor, and engaged with broad 
 shields and long spears. These took precedence of 
 all other foot-soldiers, and never went into action 
 except in their own proper positions in the phalanx. 
 
 HOPPEK. — A device, employed in machine-guns, 
 very nearly of the form of a cartridge, and tapered 
 downward. Its sides serve to guide the cartridges 
 into the carrier singly, so that they can be removed 
 one by one. The front end of the aperture is pro- 
 jected downward nearly into the carrier next the 
 barrels, and thus serves to cut off the entrance to 
 that particular l)arrel which is in front of it while in 
 this position, and the cartridge which lies upon the 
 one already in the groove from sliding forward and 
 prematurely entering the opposite barrel. See Gnt- 
 ling a tin. 
 
 HOPPEfi-PLATE.— A component part of most ma- 
 
 hopper, K, through which the cartridges descend to 
 their places in the grooves of the carrier-block ; 
 whereupon they are instantly taken possession of by 
 the locks, forced into the barrels, and fired. A 
 short distance in front of the hopper is an upright 
 pin, /', on which the feed-drum rests and revolves. 
 The upper side of the plate is flat and circular. See 
 GatUng Gun. 
 
 HOBDE. — A wandering troop or gang ; especially 
 a clan or tribe of a nomadic people possessing no 
 fixed hal)itations but migrating from place to place 
 for the sake of pasturage, plumler, or like cause. 
 
 HORDEABIUM.— The money which the Romans 
 gave their cavalrj' for the sustenance of their horses. 
 
 HORION. — A term which formerly signified a hel- 
 met, and which in the vulgar acceptation of it at the 
 present time among the French, means a blow upon 
 the head. 
 
 HORIZON. — The circular line formed by the ap- 
 parent meeting of the earth and sky : this, in astro- 
 nomical phrase, is called the sensible horizon. The 
 rational horizon is the circle formed by the plane 
 passing through the center of the earth, parallel to 
 the sensible horizon, and produced so as to meet the 
 heavens. 
 
 HORIZONTAL FIEE.— In gunner)-, the fire of guns 
 and howitzers imder low angles of elevation. See 
 Fire. 
 
 HORIZONTAL RANGE— In gtinnery, the distance 
 
 to which a piece of ordnance will project a ball on 
 
 a horizontal plane. Supposing no resistance from 
 
 . the atmosphere, the greatest range would be when 
 
 I the piece is elevate3 at an angle of 45°, and in 
 
 I all other positions the horizontal range would be 
 
 as the sine of twice the angle of elevation. In a re- 
 
 I sisting medium the maximum horizontal range re- 
 
 ( quires the elevation to be less than 45°. It is 
 
 found by experience that, with ordinary velocity, 
 
 a cannon-shot ranges farthest when the elevation of 
 
 the piece is about S0°. 
 
 HORIZONTAL VELOCITY.— A projectile's velocity 
 at any point resolved in the horizontal direction. 
 Thus, if V be the velocity of a projectile moving 
 at an angle E to the horizon. 
 
 Horizontal Velocity =V cose. 
 
 HORN-WORK.— That work, in fortification, having 
 one front only, thrown out beyond the glacis of a 
 
 Qom'woflc; eornifis a'Batiai), 
 
 fortress; with a view, 1. To strengthen any weak 
 chine-guns. It is a brass-curved plate, /, hinged to salient in the general outline : 2. To occupy a 
 the frame-work of the gun on the right side, and plateau in advance of the place, or to protect build- 
 covering the carrierMock. It is provided with a ings, the including of which in the original enceinte
 
 HOBS D£ COMBAT. 
 
 49 
 
 H0B82. 
 
 would have oxtondod it to an inronvpniont dofrroo ; 
 3. To occupy a toutruc of luiid proti-ctcd dii its 
 sides; 4. To Imr h (Ictilc; T). To (-over the liciid 
 of at)rid(;e; 6. To oicupy risiiij; j;round, I lie pos- 
 session of which would rcndi-rlhc enemy more than 
 necessarily dangerous. The front rif a horn-work 
 consists of two demi-liastions connected by a cur- 
 tain, and usually defended in front, as in the fortress 
 itself, by a tenaille. ravelin, and covert-way. The 
 flanks, protected by ditches, run struitrhl upon the 
 ravelin, bastion, or curlain of the main defenses, so 
 that tlie <litch mav be swept by the tire of the latter. 
 The flanks shoidtf not be too Ion;; for easy musketry 
 range. In most of the earlier works of this nature, 
 the ditch of the horn-work was united with the 
 ditch of the main works by beini; cut throiiirh the 
 glacis and covert-way. but in modern works the 
 hom-woik is constructed entirely beyond the ulacis. 
 
 inR to diflferent ooiintries. are questions also un- 
 certain; and the last of them is verv sinnlar to that 
 which is so much afritated respeelint; the dog, al- 
 though it must be admitted that the iliversities arc 
 not so great as in that case. The lijis and teeth of a 
 horse adapt it for crop|)ing the short hi-rbage of dry 
 plains or hills, so that it tinds abundance w'here the 
 o.\ would be very insufHcienlly supplierj. The feet 
 arc also adapted to dry rather than to soft orswampy 
 ground. On soft ground, not only is the foot apt l<> 
 sink, not being very broad, but the homy foot is 
 softened, and a diseaseil state of the feet is the re- 
 sult, as in th<- c;ise of a great many dray-hor.ses in 
 London, reared in the alluvial distrirts of" the east of 
 Kngland. The horse, however, reijuires a liberal 
 supi)lv of water ; and during the dry season, in the 
 hot plains of Soiuh America, great troops of wild 
 horses often rush furiously to the rivers, and as they 
 
 Occasiiuially, horn- works are very useful ; but all I approach the drinking-place, trample one another 
 
 • Love " to a company 
 
 modern Engineers generally prefer constructing de 
 tached and advanced works. See Cn/wit-iritrk. 
 
 HOBS DE COMBAT. -The French term, literally 
 meaning "beyond the battle," used tosignify a com- 
 batant, or body of combatants, so completely beaten 
 either Ijy physical force or strategy, as to be incapa- 
 ble of further action in the struggle which is act- 
 ually under consideration. 
 
 HOBSE. — 1. A military term foraliody of Cavalrj-. 
 2. We can go back 35 centuries, to Job the afflicted 
 Inhabitant of Uz, for the most wonderfully ()i>etical 
 description of the true horse. Solomon, later, does 
 not hesitate to compare his 
 of horses in Pharaoh's cha- 
 riots. Homer portrays the 
 horse as a sensitive being, 
 and relates that the steeds of 
 Achilles wept at the death of 
 that hero. Virgil tells us 
 that the charger of FalUis 
 followed the remains of his 
 master to his burial, his eyes 
 filled with tears. Pliny, the 
 naturalist, positively asserts 
 that horses often bewail the 
 loss of their masters. Buf- 
 fon, a hundred years ago, 
 said : '• The noblest con- 
 quest achieved by man is 
 that of this proud and met- 
 tlesome animal, which shares 
 with him alike the hard- 
 ships of war and the glory 
 of a conflict. He likewise 
 shares his pleasures in the 
 chase, in tournay, in the 
 race ; he glows with brilli- 
 ancy and ardor." The na- 
 tive country of the horse is 
 uncertain. Some contend 
 for Asia, and some for Af- 
 rica ; some suppose that the 
 horse was first domesticated 
 in Egypt, and quote Scrip- 
 ture in support of their opin- 
 ion, but to no better purpose j 
 than to show that at a very j' 
 early period it was in use as 3. Throat 
 
 a domesticated and valued i- fj^^^,'.- 
 
 , .. . . 5. shoulder, 
 
 animal among the ancient 
 
 Egyptians: whilst others adduce arguments not more \ has 
 conclusive to show that it was originally domestica- 
 ted in the north-east of Asia ; some thiiik it not im- 
 probable that Europe also, and even Britain, had in- 
 digenous horses. Whether certain wild races of Cen- 
 tral Asia and the north of Africa are indigenous to 
 
 under foot, vast numbers of skeletons remaining to 
 bleach in the sun. 
 
 Wild horses are found on the plains of Central 
 Asia. Some also inhabit mountainous or hilly dis- 
 tricts both there and in the north of Africa. They 
 abound still more in the gra.ssy plains of North and 
 South America, although they were first introduced 
 into America by Europeans ; and certain tribes of 
 Indians, both in North and .South America, have 
 become at least as equestrian in their habits as any 
 of the Tartars of the East. Wild horses are also 
 found in the Falkland Islands, into which they 
 were introduced by Europeans, and a peculiar breed 
 
 Forehead. 
 Jaw. 
 
 & Arm. 
 
 7. Larje Pastern. 
 8 Small Pastern. 
 9. Withers. 
 10. Baclc. 
 
 X05IE!JCI,ATURE. 
 
 11. Loin. 
 
 12. Hip. 
 
 13. Stifle. 
 
 14. Thieh. 
 
 15. Hamstring. 
 
 16. Point of the Hock- 
 
 17. Hock. 
 
 18. Croup or Rump. 
 
 19. Doclc. 
 
 30, Cannon-lwnes. 
 
 been found in a wild state in the Island of 
 Celebes. The races or varieties of the horse have an 
 evident relation to the climate of the countries in 
 which they occur. Those of cold and stomij' 
 regions are comparatively small and rough-haired ; 
 those of more favored climates, lar^e and sleek. 
 
 the regions in which they are found, or the offspring There are differences, more evidentlv to be ascribed 
 of animals which have escaped from domestication, , to domestication, according to which certain breeds 
 like those of Aiiierica, and whether the origin of the \ of horses are particularlv suited to certain kinds of 
 domestic horse is to be referred to one original form, work some excellins in fleetness. some in endurance, 
 or to several forms somewhat different, and belong- , some in mere strength for burden or draught. The
 
 HOKSE-ARTILLEKY. 
 
 50 
 
 H0BSE-GUAHD3. 
 
 slender form of the race-horse or hunter contrasts 
 almost as strongly with the pomlcrous solidity of 
 the dray-horse, as the great size of the latter does 
 with the dirainutiveness of the Shetland pony. Wild 
 horses generally congregate in troops, sometimes 
 small in number, but sometimes of many hundreds. 
 Tlie males have fierce contests for tlie supremacy, 
 and males that have contended unsuccessfully are 
 often driven off to a solitary life. On the appear- 
 ance of danger, the chief stallion of a small troop 
 seems to direct the movements of all, and even the 
 largest troops seem instinctively to move in a Ivind 
 of concert, so that when they arc assailed, the 
 stronger animals oppose the enemy, and protect the 
 younger and weaker. Wolves, even wlien in packs, 
 attack witli success only weakened stragglers, and 
 even the jaguar is repelled. In fighting, horses 
 either raise tliemselves on tlieir hind-feet, and bring 
 down the fore-feet with great force on the enemy, or 
 wheeling about, kick violently with the hind-feet. 
 
 The tarpaii of Tartary is one of those races of 
 Tvild horses whicli are sometimes regarded as o- 
 riginal, and not as descended from domesticated 
 -animals. It is of a reddish color, with a very black 
 stripe along the back, and black mane and tail. The 
 eye is small and vicious. Tarpans are sometimes 
 caught liy the Tartars, but are with great difficulty 
 reduced to subjection. In some of tlie steppes of 
 Central Asia, are wild horses of a white or dappled- 
 gray color. The wild horse of South America is 
 there called the rnuMang. It exhibits considerable 
 'diversity of color, but bay-brown is the most prev- 
 alent. It .is strong and active, and is often taken 
 with the lasso, and employed in the service of man. 
 A curious metliod is practiced by some Indian 
 trilies of promptly subduing its wild nature, and 
 Tendering it tractable, by blowing strong!}' with the 
 mouth into its nostrils. . By other tribes, it is suli- 
 dued more rudely. It is thrown on the ground, and 
 ere it can recover, a man gets upon its back, whom, 
 when it rises, it cannot shake off, and who retains 
 his seat until it is quite submissive. Tlie koomrah 
 of North Africa is regarded by Col. Hamilton Smith 
 as a distinct species. It has no forelock, but woollj" 
 hair on the forehead, is of reddisli-liay color, with- 
 out stripe on the back or any white about the limbs, 
 has limbs of somewhat ass-like shape, and the tail 
 covered with' a short hair for several inches at the 
 root. It is an inhal>itant of mountainous regions. 
 
 When full mouthed, the horse will have forty 
 teeth, twenty in each jaw. Tlie mare possesses 
 only thirty-six. The age of the horse may be deter- 
 mined by observing the teeth, the times at which 
 they appear, are shed and replaced, and the altera- 
 tions in their form and markings; — 3 years, all 
 milch teeth, which are easily distinguished from the 
 permanent by being smaller, whiter, and In' having 
 necks; — 3 years, two permanent teeth, central in- 
 cisors ; — 4 j'cars, four permanent teetli, central and 
 lateral incisors ; — 5 years, all are permanent teeth. 
 From this time on, the age of the horse is decided 
 by the marks on the teeth ; — 6 years, the marks on 
 tlie central incisors are worn out, and the points of 
 the tushes are Iilunted ; — 7 years, the marl<s on the 
 <-ontral and lateral incisors are worn out, tho.se on 
 tlu' corner incisors still showing; — 8 j-ears, all the 
 <:avilics are filled up. Beyond this age the criteria 
 are uncertain. For the military service the horse 
 should possess the general features shown in the 
 aliove drawing, and should not b(^ less than 14 nor 
 more than 1(5 hands liigh ; weigh not less than T.'iO, 
 nor more tluin 1.100 lbs.; age not less than . 5 or more 
 than H years ; head and ears small ; forehead broad ; 
 eyes large and prominent ; the shoulders long and 
 sloping well back; fore-legs straiglit and standing 
 well under; chest broad and dee]); barrel large. 
 and increasing from girdle to Hank; withers ele- 
 vated ; ba(^k sliort and straight: loins anil haunches 
 broad and muscular: hocks well bcnl and undertlie 
 lior.sc ; pasterns sianting ; and'feet small and sound. ] 
 
 In the matter of the treatment and qualities of the 
 horse, we can not do better than remember a few 
 axioms and aphorisms current among a people with 
 whom tlie raising and training of horses are matters 
 of religion, and to whom the Prophet has said, 
 "Whoever raiseth and traineth a horse for the 
 Lord is counted in the number of those who give 
 alms night and day." " Make your horses work, 
 and make them work again. Inaction and fat 
 are the great peril of a horse, and the main cause 
 of allhisvicesanddisea.se." " As you would shun 
 the plague so shun a horse with shrunken breast and 
 straight shoulders. But one whose croup is as long 
 as his back and loins together take with closed 
 eyes." "If you would know at a glance the value 
 of a horse, measure him from the last joint of the 
 tail to the middle of the withers, and from the mid- 
 dle of the withers to the tip of the upper lip, on a 
 line between the ears. If the hind measure is the 
 longer, the horse is of little worth ; but if the fore- 
 part is longer, rest assured the animal has distin- 
 guished qualities, and the greater the difference the 
 greater will be his value." " Never run your horse 
 up or down hill if j-ou can avoid it." " To prepare 
 a too fleshy horse for fatigues make him thin by 
 exercise ; never by withholding his food." ' • Do not 
 beat your horses, nor speak to them in a loud tone 
 of voice ; do not be angry with them, but kindly 
 reprove their faults ; they will do better thereafter, 
 for they understand the language of man and its 
 meaning. If by chance you meet with a horse in- 
 sensible to kindness, hesitate not to employ the 
 power of your spurs, but in such wise that he never 
 forgets the punishment." " The man who gives not 
 a steady walk to his liorse excites pity. The walk 
 is the gallop of always." See Cavalry-hirrses, Ar- 
 tillery-jSoraes, Pack-animals, and Draught-anhnals. 
 
 HORSE-AETILLEKY.— A portion of the artillery 
 which generall}' serves with cavalry. One of the 
 mounted branches of the British service is Horse- 
 artillerj'. The formation of this branch dates back 
 to the year 1793, when two troops were raised at 
 Woolwich. Each troop consi-sted of 4 guns, but in 
 November of the same year 2 more troops were 
 added, and each troop had 6 guns. Subsequently it 
 was raised to 12 troops. This branch of the service 
 has been further augmented to the extent, at the 
 present day, of ti brigades, of 5 batteries each, each 
 batter}' having 6 guns. The present equipment of 
 the Horse-artillery is made up.of 9-pdr. M.L.R. guns. 
 The gun is made of a steel tube with a wrought-iron 
 jacket: caliber. 3 indies : weight, (i cwt. ; length of 
 rifling, 62'3 inches; rifling, three grooves, with a uni- 
 form pitch of 1 lo 30 calibers; charge, 1.75 lb The 
 carriages for these guns are of wrought-iron. 
 
 The Horse-artillery is held in hand for all deci- 
 sive moments. When launched forth, its arrival 
 and execution should be unexpected and instanta- 
 neous. Ready to repair all disasters and partial re- 
 verses, it, at one moment, temporarily replaces a 
 battery of foot, and at the next is on another point 
 of the field, to force back an enemy's column. In 
 preparing the attacks of cavalry, tliis arm is often 
 indispensable and aways invaluable ; brought with 
 rapidity in front of a line, or opposite to squares of 
 infantry, witliin tlie range of canister, its well-di- 
 rected fire, in a few discliiirges. opens a gap, or so 
 shakes the entire mass, that the cavalier finds but a 
 feeble obstacle, where, without this aid, he would 
 in vain have exhausteil ;dl his jiowers. 
 
 HORSE GRENADIERS. -The Flying Grenadiers, 
 who fighl both on foot and on horseback. They were 
 first established in France by Louis XIV., in 107G. 
 formed in scjuHdrons, and called (In iiiiilii i-k Vnlaim, 
 
 HORSE GUARDS. 1. '["he name aiiplied to a liirge 
 public oflice in \\'hitehall, appropri:ited to the de- 
 parlinents under the General Coninianding-in-Chief. 
 Th(^ word Horse-gU!irds is used conventionally to 
 signify the Military Anlhorities at the lieacl of 
 Army Alfairs, in contradislinction to the Civil Chief,
 
 HORSEMANSHIP. 
 
 51 
 
 HORSEMANSHIP. 
 
 or the Socrctiiry of Stiitr for War. 2. Tlic I{ojiil 
 HorHt'-^uiirds, or Oxford lilucs, is the lliinl heavy 
 cavalry rct^iinent of the llouHcliold IJrijiadc. Tin; 
 regimi'iil was riiiscd in Kitil from tin' rciiiiiaiitM of 
 the disbanded Army of the lute Commonweiillh. It 
 has ever proved a loyal (•i)r])H, althou<;h it ri'adily 
 transferred its alleirianee from .lames II. (r> William 
 III. U look part in .MarlbdnniLrh's caniiiaifins ; 
 gerv<Ml under the Duke of Welliii^rton in tlie I'en- 
 insida and at Waterloo, and has always been con- 
 (tiilered one of the finest heavy cavalry eorps in the 
 world. The Onards of State for the Sovereij,'n are 
 taken either from its ranks or from those of the 
 Life-i;uards. Tlie jiresent nniforn\ consists of a 
 Hteel helmet, with iiliiiiie, a steel cuirass over a blue 
 coatee, leather breeches, and knee-boots ; the horse.s 
 are black. The establishment of the rej;imenl con- 
 sists of 1,302 of all ranks, with 825 horses, exclusive 
 of ollii'crs' (■liiir^:ers. See Cavalry and Dnir/nim. 
 
 HORSEMANSHIP.— Throughout history the art of 
 msumnin.!; the horse and ridiiif; on his back has rank- 
 ed hi.nh amon^ useful and (graceful accomplishments. 
 Aceordinj; to Ca-sar and Livy, the Niimidians and 
 Mauritanians rode their horses wilhonl either bit or 
 Middle, and guided them solely by using a small 
 switch, which was applied to either side of the neck, 
 iiccordino; as they wished to turn. The Persians 
 trained their horses to kneel to receive their riders, 
 and were the first to introduce saddles. Stirrups 
 ■were used in the .Tth century, but were not common 
 even in the 12th. The two essentials for riding are 
 a firm seat and a light hand, as without a combina- 
 tion of the two no one can become a good horseman. 
 In every description of riding, the light or delicate 
 " hand," just feeling the mouth of tlie horse, and 
 playing the bit in accordance with his movement, 
 will insure success ; and it is to this delicacy of wrist 
 that we must attribute the ease and skill with which 
 ladies so often ride the most high-spirited anima)K, 
 which, in rougher hands woidd be umuanageable. 
 The first lesson in horsemanship is to learn to mount 
 safely and easily ; and the ordinary and on the whole 
 least objectionable way is as follows : Stand at the 
 shoulder of the horse, looking towards his tail, aixi 
 taking the reins in the right hand, divide them by 
 tlie middle finger of the left till you feel the horse's 
 
 well down in his sadille, with his body erect, the 
 seat being preservi'd more by balance than by a tight 
 hold by the leg or thigh. In rapiil movi^ments or 
 when charging over irregular tielils, a very firm seat 
 is necessary ; tlw slirrup-lealhers are then about two 
 holes shorter, and the feel pressed "home" in the 
 stirrups, which otherwise would be apt to be lust in 
 jumping: the li'g from lliigh to thi' knee well for- 
 ward, and nearly at right angles to the u])pfr jiarl of 
 the body inclined forward ; the legs |>erpendicular, 
 the heel well down, and the toe pointing nearly 
 straightforward. This seat the trooper has in com- 
 mon with all eipiestrian nations, as the Arabs, Tar- 
 tars, Persians, Kgyptians, Cossacks, Magyars, anrl 
 Circassians, the last mentioned nation carrying it to 
 such an extreme that thi'leg assinnes the form of the 
 letter V, having the knee for the apex. In rid- 
 ing at the bars or hurdle "collect" the horse into 
 the pace at which he goes with most ease to himself ; 
 i keep him straight at the fence till he rises : " ease" 
 his mouth by leaning forward ; take especial care 
 not to confine it when he is making his elTort, or 
 you will |)idl him into the fence as he descends : lean 
 well back in the saddle, and gently take hold of his 
 mouth to support him when landing. Do nf)t gallop 
 with a loose rein (except down hill, when the horse 
 requires his head free), for the horse will go with 
 a straggling pace, which is very undesirable. For 
 rapid iiiovements, the essentials are a good and 
 powerful seat, good " hands," a great knowledge of 
 pace, 'and quickness to take advantage of any chances 
 of sticcess. 
 
 As the strongest part of a horse, and also the center 
 of action, is situated at" a point just behind his 
 shoulder-blades, the nearer we can ride to this the 
 better, and riding rather forward in the saddle is a 
 relief to the horse, while leaning back, as it bears 
 tipon his loins — his weakest part — is a cause of fatigue. 
 The grip in riding should be maintained by the knees, 
 1 the thighs, and the calves slightly. The thigh is the 
 I most essential part of a good and strong seat. Few 
 I riders who.se thighs are short and roimd. have a good 
 j seat ; while, on the other hand, jockeys and tall thin 
 men, whose thighs are long, and more or less hol- 
 lowed on the under side, are generally very firm. 
 1 No one pretends to horsemanship without a knowl- 
 
 niouth ; then take hold with the left hand of a lock of 
 the mane, lift the left foot into the stirrup, and using 
 the mane as a slight hold, spring into the air, taking 
 hold of the back of the saddle to assist in getting the 
 right leg easily over the horse, steadying the fall of 
 the body by the right hauil on the ponunel, and then 
 arranging the stirrups. In dismounting exactly the 
 reverse of this process is followed, or both feet may 
 be disengaged from the stirrups at once, and the 
 rider may vaidt from tlie saddle to the ground with 
 great rapidity, and less risk of falling if the horse 
 chance to move on. 
 
 There are four different styles of riding practiced 
 among modern civilized nations — viz., the military, 
 road, hunting, and racing styles. The military style 
 differs in many particulars from the others, as, owing 
 to the long stirrups used, the soldier is obliged to sit 
 
 edge of the proper action for emergencies. If a horse 
 runs away, do not exhaust yourself by vain pulling, 
 but guide him out of danger, and let "him run till he 
 is tired. A Bucephalus noseband is a great security 
 against bolting. If a horse rears, loosen the reins, 
 and lean forward; in hunting, the " art of falling" 
 consists in getting clear of your horse. In case of a 
 horse kicking, keep his head up as much as possible, 
 and sit firm in the saddle. The art of riding teaches 
 and shows the position to be taken on horseback, so 
 as to be there with the greatest security and ease. 
 It at the same time affords the means of leading and 
 directing the horse with the utmost of facility, and 
 of obtaining from him by the simplest method and 
 with the least fatigue the most exact and perfect 
 obedience in everything which his strength and con- 
 formation allow. He is the good horseman, there-
 
 HORSE MEDICINES. 
 
 52 
 
 HOBSE-SHOE. 
 
 fore wlio firm and easy in his seat, has acquired ■ timates of most celelirated Engineers differ widely 
 botli the knowlediie of what he may asli of his horse from each other ; Boulton and Watt, basinfj their 
 andthepracticeof the best means of enforcing obedi- I calculations upon the work of London dray-horses 
 ence And that is the well-trained horse which j (working eight hours a day), estimated it at 33,000 
 understands the intentions of his rider from the foot-pounds per minute. D'Aubuisson, taking the 
 sli-rhtest of his movements, according to sriven priu- ! work done by horses in whims at Freiberg, estiraa- 
 ciples and executes them with promptne^ss, agility, ted the work at 16,440 foot-pounds, working dght 
 
 and vii;i .. . 
 
 HORSE MEDICINES.— In a military pomt of view, 
 the medicines issued to an army or command for 
 the treatment of diseased or disabled animals. A 
 Siippli/ Table is usually authorized for an army, the 
 
 hours a day ; under all similar circumstances, Desa- 
 guliers's estimate was 44,000; Smeaton's 22,000; 
 and Tredgold's 37,500 foot-pounds ; 17,400 is thought 
 to be near the truth. It matters little, however, what 
 number is assumed, provided the same be always 
 
 medicines are all procured on requisition, and the j used: and accordingly the original estimate of Watt 
 Veterinary Surgeons dispense them. The following j is still counted a horse-power. In calculatmg the 
 
 Name of Drug. 
 
 Aloes. 
 Alnm. 
 AnUe Seed. 
 Aqua Ammonia. 
 Ar-'t^nic. 
 Ast -iio^tida. 
 Bicarbonate of ( 
 Potash. 1' 
 
 Bismnth. 
 Blacl. vntimony. 
 Blue Vitriol. 
 Calomel. 
 Camphor. 
 Cantharides. 
 Carbolic .\cid. 
 Castor Oil. 
 Cayenne, 
 
 Chlorate of Potash 
 Copperas. 
 Croton-oil. 
 DigitaliP leaf. 
 Epsom .Salts. 
 Ether. 
 
 Fowler's Solution. 
 Gentian Root. 
 Ginger. 
 Glauber Salts. 
 Iodide of Potassium 
 
 Linseed-oil, raw. 
 Magnesia. 
 Mercurial Ointment 
 
 Nux Vomica. 
 Opium. 
 
 Action aud Use. 
 
 Dose. 
 
 Antidote. 
 
 Laxative and Tome. 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 Aromatic and Stomachic. 
 
 Stimulant and Antacid. 
 
 .\lterative and tonic, used for Paralysis, Mange, etc. 
 
 .\nti-8pa8modic. Coughs, etc. 
 
 Diuretic and Antacid. Good for Rheumatism. 
 
 For Chronic Diarrhcea. etc. 
 
 Promotes the Secretiona. 
 
 Astringent aud Tonic. 
 
 Cathartic. 
 
 .\nti-spasmodic. 
 
 Diuretic and Stimulant. 
 
 Externally and Disinfectant. 
 
 Cathartic. 
 
 Stimulant and Carminative. 
 
 biur<tic. Given for bloating, etc 
 
 Tonic and Astringent. 
 
 Powerful purgative. 
 
 Sedative ana Diuretic. 
 
 Cathartic and febrifuge. 
 
 .\nti-spasmodic. 
 
 L'sed for skin diseases. See Arsenic. 
 
 Tonie. 
 (Tonic, Stimulant, and Stomachic. Used for flat-1 
 ( ulent colic, dyspepsia, etc. / 
 
 Cathartic. 
 (Diuretic and .\lterative. Employed for Rheuma-) 
 \ tism. Dropsy, Enlarged Glands, etc. j 
 
 Cathartic and Nutritive. 
 
 For colts as an antacid and laxative. 
 
 Used for Mange, itch, lice, and other parasites. 
 
 Nervous stimulant— used for Paralysis. 
 
 (Anodyne and .\nti-spasmodic. Given in Colie.l 
 ( Inflammation of Bowels, Diarrhoea, etc. / 
 
 Prepared Chalk. Antacid. 
 
 Quinine. Tonic, given during convalescence. 
 
 Saltpetre. Diuretic and Febrifuge. 
 
 Soda Bicarh. Simil..r to Bicarb. Potash. 
 
 Soda Sulphite. .\ntiseptic and Alterative, used for blood diseases. 
 
 Soluiion of Lime. !.\ntacid. used as an antidote to poisoning by acids. 
 Spirits of Chloro- /. ^„ndyne and Anti-spasmodic. 
 form. I , r, , . 
 
 Tonic and Stimulant. Used for Paralysis. 
 ( Alterative and Laxative. Used for Skin disea- 1 
 '( ses and Rheumatism. ) 
 
 )^ to 1 oz. 
 
 2 to 3 drs. 
 X to 2 cze. 
 1 to 4 drs. 
 
 1 to 5 gre. 
 1 to 3 dre. 
 
 3 to 5 drs. 
 
 >^ to 1 oz. 
 "^ to xr dr. 
 >i to 1 dr. 
 10 to 40 gre. 
 X to 1 dr. 
 3 to 6 grs. 
 
 ><; to 1 pt 
 5 to S5 gre. 
 
 1 to a drs. 
 >i to IX drs. 
 10 to 15 drops I Opium. 
 to to 20 grs. Stimulate. 
 
 2 to H ozs. 
 
 Vinegar. 
 Magnesia and oil. 
 
 Vinegar and raw Linseed-oil. 
 
 Infusion of oak bark. Give also Lins'd-oll 
 Eggs. Milk, etc. 
 Eggs and Milk. 
 
 Eggs; soap; gruel. 
 
 Strychnia. 
 Sulphur. 
 
 Sweet Spirits of) 
 Niter. / 
 
 Tannic Acid. 
 
 Tartar Emetic. 
 
 Tincture of Aco-> 
 nite Root. (" 
 
 Tincture of Can-i 
 tharides. / 
 
 Tincture Ergot. 
 
 Tincture Iodine. 
 
 Tincture Iron. 
 
 Tr. Nux Vomici. 
 
 Tincture Opium. 
 
 White Vitriol. 
 
 Diuretic and Diaphoretic. 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 Sedative and Alterative. 
 
 Sedative. Used for lung fever, etc. 
 Stimulant and Tonic. 
 
 X to 2 ozs. 
 1 to 4 drs. 
 
 1 to 2 drs. 
 
 2 to 5 drs. 
 
 6 to 12 ozs. 
 
 )4 to iX drs. 
 
 1 to 2 pts. 
 ,V to 1 oz. 
 
 15 to 25 grs. 
 
 a to 1 dr. 
 
 Mto 1 oz. 
 IB to so gre 
 
 1 to 3 drs. 
 
 3to8dre. 
 |< to I oz. 
 4 to 6 oz. 
 
 1 to 2 oz. 
 
 X to 1 gr. 
 
 >^ t3 2 ozs. 
 
 X to JXoze. 
 
 20 to 40 grs. 
 'a to >.. dr. 
 
 15 to 35 drops 
 
 1 to 2 ozs. 
 1 to 2 ozs. 
 
 ■i? to 1 oz. 
 2 to 4 drs. 
 1 to 2 ozs. 
 
 5 to 15 grs. 
 
 Hydrated peroxide of iron. 
 
 (Give very freely starch or flour, with wa- 
 ( ter largely. 
 
 Whites of eggs with milk given freely. 
 
 \ Saleratus.followed quickly by copperae, 
 ) both dissolved in water. 
 
 (Belladonna, strong coffee, brandy and 
 < ammonia. Dash very cold water on 
 
 ( and keep the horse moving. 
 
 Linseed-oil largely. Raw. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Tannic Acid. 
 (Give small doses of Nux Vomica, use 
 \ stimulants largely, and keep moving. 
 
 See Nux Vomica 
 See Opium. 
 
 Milk, eggs, and flour. 
 
 Parturient. 
 
 Used externally. 
 
 Tonic and Astringent. I'sed for Typhoid diseases. 
 
 Tonic. Stimulant ill Paralysis and Dyspepsia. 
 
 Anodyne and Anti-spasmodic. 
 
 /Astringent. Us- d for cuts, wounds, aud sores,! 
 
 ( in solution. j 
 
 For a colt one month old. give one twenty-fourth of the full dose for an adult horse as given above; three months old, one 
 twelfth : six months old. one-si xth : one year old, one- third ; two years old, one-half ; three years old, three-fourths. ^ 
 
 power of a steam-engine in terms of this unit, the 
 general rule is to multiply together the pressure in 
 pounds on a square inch of the jiislon, the area of 
 the piston in inches, the Icngtli of the stroke in feet, 
 and the number of strokes per minute ; the result 
 obtained by this operation, divided by 33,000. will 
 give the horsc-pciwer. It is generally necessary to 
 deduct about one-tenth of the whole, as an allow- 
 ance for friction. 
 
 HORSE SHOE.— In fortification, a very small round 
 or oval work, with a parapet; generally made in a 
 ditch, or marsh. 
 
 doses for the horse, prescribed by the eminent Vet- 
 erinarian, Dr. Kendall, are found on all Army Sup- 
 ply Tables, and may be administered by any intelli- 
 gent soldier, in tlic absence of the Veterinary Sur- 
 geon. See V(t( riiiary Art. 
 
 HORSE POWER. — .\ term used in expressing the 
 force of II iiiolive power. It is liiised upiiu the as- 
 suiiiplioti thai horses ill general perform a certain 
 constant amount of work in a specilicd lime : an as- 
 Bumiilion whicli is evidently erroneous. The funda- 
 menlal unit of work is the foot-pound; but in 
 measuring the work of a horse by this unit, the es-
 
 HOKSE SHOEING. 
 
 53 
 
 H0B8E SHOE NAUS. 
 
 HORSE SHOEING.— Till' ordinary sysicni of liorsc- 
 sIkk'Iiii^ is null' ami irrationiil, ami is the main cause 
 of iiiDsl, lamciicHses and of llic iiiajorily of falls in 
 ridiiii; and drivinij;. Chief anion^ist its faults are the 
 nttelupts to tit the foot to the shoe, instead of the 
 shoe to the foot, and the wholesale euttini; and rasp- 
 in;.;, and eonsequent injury of the seviTal parts of 
 till- foot. After the eaulious removal of the old 
 shoe, the erust, on vvliieh it rested i;enerally reipiires 
 to he ])ared down with a dniwiim-knife, and its 
 ed.se afterwanls rounded with the rasp. Any nii;- 
 ged ))ortions of the fro^ may also be taken o(T, and 
 tliis inelinh'S the whole of the allowahle parini; or 
 dressing of the horse's foot. The horny sole in- 
 tended as a coverini; and jirotection of (hc> sensitive 
 parts lieneatli : the tough elastic frog, an insensible 
 pad which obviates concussion, luid |)reserves the 
 foot wide and free from contraction : the bars, an 
 Involution of the crust, which help it to support 
 weight, and give it lateral sujiport.are idl too valu- 
 able to be ruthlessly cut away, and in all ordinary 
 cases must be scrupulously preserved from both 
 knife and ras]i. For sound healthy feet treated as 
 ddvised, a plain shoe is preferalile forsadilk' or har- 
 ness horses ; the web need not exceed three-fourths 
 of an inch, must tit the crust closely and accurately 
 nil the way round to tlie heels, where its inner edge 
 ■will rest upon the strong luicut bars. Nowhbre 
 must there be any overlapping, which only renders 
 the shoe more apt to cut the opjiosile limb, and be 
 torn olT in heavy ground. To lessen the chances of 
 tripping, and make the shoe wear e(pially. it should 
 for the fore-feet lie turned nj) very slightly, and its 
 ground surface hollowed out a little at the toe, so as 
 
 powers without so much risk of sli|)pin);. Instead 
 of the tive nails used for the lighter liorscH, seven or 
 eight are reipiisite. 
 
 Figure 1 shows an excellent form of front shoe 
 and the proper positions of nail-holes; «,</, are the 
 heels, of th<- same thickness as the rest of the slioe ; 
 '/,'', are the points at whicli Ihi' heels of the hoof 
 terminate: c.c, sIkjw the seating; and '/.<'. the posi- 
 tions of nail-heels. Figure 2 represents tlie ground 
 surface of the hoof |)repareil for I lie shoe; «, « 1, a3, 
 show the front, inner, and outer toe ; hi, 1/2, the in- 
 
 '; ner and outer (juarter; c 1, cS, the inner and outer 
 heel; (l.(/,f/, the sole; I'.f, tlie crust or wall of the 
 hoof; fj", the bars; f/.f/. the commissures ; fi.kj, the 
 frog (■// being directly luider the navicular joint); 
 and /,'. the liulbs of the heels. 
 
 Horses with weak, tender, or bruised soles may 
 for a time recpiire leatli<-r or water-proof pads, liut 
 as the sole grows, these should be discontinued, and 
 
 ] are never refjuired in healthy feet, where the sole, 
 which is the best and most natural protection, is al- 
 lowed to grow luidislurbed by the knife. Horses 
 with corns should luive their shoes made with a wide 
 inside wel>, which rests upon the bjirs, or h;ive for a 
 time a bar-shoe. The last nail on the inside should ai.so 
 be dispensed with, and the seal of the corn or bruise 
 carefully pared out, but without injtiring frog or 
 bars. If, from constant cutting, the bars are unfit 
 to aid the crust in carrying tlie shoe, it will often be 
 advisalile to shoe for a time; with tips or half-shoes, 
 keeping the horse as much as is possible on soft 
 ground, and waiting the healthy growth f)f the foot. 
 In troublesome cases of thr\isli. such tips ari' also 
 most serviceable, allowing the frog the natural and 
 
 Fi:;. !. 
 
 to present the appearance of an ordinarv- shoe which 
 has been worn for a fortnight or three weeks ; and 
 which, as every one knows, is therefore rendered 
 more safe and comfortable. By turiug up at the toe, i 
 these advantages are secured at once. For saddle 
 and light harness work three nails on the out — and 
 two on the inside will lirmly secure any well-made, 
 well-titting shoe. The nail-lioles should be counter- 
 sunk, be nearly in the center of the web. and pass 
 straight throtigh it, thus giving the nails a tinner 
 hold of the stout luirasped crust. The points of tlie 
 nails when ilriven home should be broken over and 
 laid down with the hammer, but not touched with 
 the ras)). The rasping of the crust which smiths 
 fondly reganl as their tinishingand polishing stroke. 
 is very injurious, removes the vmetuous iiroti'cting 
 portion of the crust, and renders it weak, brittle. 
 and liat)Ie to crack. Shoes should be replaced every 
 three weeks or a month at furthest. In shoeing the 
 hind-feet the outside web is generally turned slightly 
 down behind, whilst to give an equal bearing the 
 inside heel is thickened. For hi-avy driiught. both 
 hind and fore shoes slniuld h;ive moderate tips and 
 heels, which enable the horse to exert his entire 
 
 ca . 
 
 Fis;. a. 
 
 healthy pressure for which it is intended, and with 
 astringents and cleanliness greatly expediting a cure. 
 Groggy horses should have the toe shortened, and 
 turned up, as already advised ; the frog and sole 
 must be untouched, and the shoes made light and 
 nicely fitted. Over-reach, or cutting of the heel of 
 the fore-foot with the shoe of the hind, is remedied 
 Iiy tiling round the posterior edge of the offending 
 toe, and keeping that shoe as far back as possible on 
 the foot. For speedy cut, which is commou in 
 horses with in-turned knees, the shoe should be care- 
 fully titled and no projecting portions be left: the 
 clinches must also be well hammered down. See 
 Chiirlier System uf JIorse-Hhneiiig. Seymour Shoe, and 
 Siimr-shin . 
 
 HORSE SHOE NAILS.— The nail for a horse's foot 
 differs materially from every other kind of nail, not 
 only in shape, but also in the quality of iron from 
 which it is made, as well as the process of nnuiufac- 
 ture. The slightest deviation from shape and (pnil- 
 ity of the iron renders the horse-shoe nail compara- 
 tively useless. From the days of Tubal Cain to the 
 present time tire has been the only element with 
 which iron could be properly wrought. Everj- other
 
 EOBSE-TAIL. 
 
 54 . 
 
 HOSE-TBOnOH.- 
 
 methoci has resulted in producina: articles of great 
 inferiority where strength and durability are re- 
 quired, and in no place are these two requisites 
 more necessary than in the horse's shoe-nail. The 
 Ancients used only charcoal in the working of iron, 
 thus avoiding all sulphurous gases, hence the supe- 
 
 removed. It the sheer is so fortunate as to draw it 
 out without hrenking, the lameness will disappear, 
 but not until the horse has been laid up for a con- 
 siderable time. Should the nail break, the result is 
 far more serious. 
 
 It requires but little observation and reflection to 
 arrive at the conclusion as to the kind of nails to be 
 used in the horse's foot, whether a mangled piece of 
 
 riority of their weapons. The old Damascus blades 
 owe their superiority in part to the use of asphalt 
 when being forged, thus avoiding the presence of 
 sidphur. which is so ruinous to all kinds of iron and 
 
 
 Bteel. Profiting by this knowledge, the manufac- 
 turers of the Putnam nail avoid tlie use of coal and ] 
 coke in forging, use only pure carbon gas made from 
 petroleum, "and thereby obtain a much higher tem- 
 
 perature in the working of the iron. This hot-forg- 
 ed nail, when made of pure iron, has no equal in the 
 known world. 
 
 The first drawing shows a cross-section of iron 
 from which the cold-punched and sheard-nails are ' 
 
 (^ 
 
 made by forcing blanks therefrom by means of a 
 punch. These blanks are put through a series of 
 rollers and drawn into the form of A, with an in- 
 dentation on the thin end for the scarfed points, 
 which conduct the nail out of the h(5of. B repre- 
 sents the piece which is removed by shearing the 
 blade of A. so as to leave the nail, C, complete. 
 
 The rolling of iron ri>ld produces lamination, caus- 
 ing the iron to separate in layers, as shown in D. 
 But as the compression of shearing holds the edges 
 together, it does not show itself until driven into the 
 hoof, when the horny fibers cause them to separate 
 while being driven, and one portion is forced into 
 the foot and the other oi/t through the wall of the 
 lir)of, thus causing lameness, lock-jaw, and dealli, 
 as the records of State courts, tin well as the testi- 
 mony of horse owners, abundantly show. 
 
 One of these nails made hy the ndd-cut process, 
 and slivered when being driven in by the shoer, is 
 shown at E. The pain caused by a slight sliver of 
 wood under the fing<T-nail will give one a slight 
 idea as to liow ]iainful such a nail must be in the 
 foot of the horse, there to remain until the shoe is 
 
 iron, rendered dangerous by the fvld-ndling and rnt\ 
 ting process, or one made from the rod at a welding 
 heat, where all the fibers remain intact, and a per- 
 fect cnenem maintained, making it utterly impossible 
 to sliver; likewise a greater amount of tenacity an<t 
 ductility is obtained, by which the shoes are retained 
 on the feet for a much longer time. 
 
 Having selected the best nails, the shoer .should 
 drive as small and few nails as will hold the shoe 
 firmly and securely to its place. He should see that 
 the nails fill the holes and the heads the crease, leav- 
 ing little, if any, to project beyond the ground sur- 
 face when finished, thus preventing the clinch from 
 rising when brought in contact witli stones, and sav- 
 ing the injuring of the ankle. See Putnam Nail. 
 
 HOKSE-TAIL,— Turkish Standard Commanders are 
 distinguished by the number of horse-tails carried 
 before them, or planted in front of their tents. Thus, 
 the Sultan has seven, the Grand Vizier five, and the 
 Pashas three, two, or one. 
 
 HOESFALL-GTJN. — This gun is a solid forging of 
 wrought-iron, bored out. The trunnions are forged 
 upon a separate ring, which is held in place by a key- 
 The dimensions of the gun are as follows: — Length, 
 15 ft. 10 in. : the diameter over the chamber, 3 ft. 7 
 in.; length of bore, 13 ft. 4 in.; diameter of bore, 13.014 
 in. The weight is 53,846 lbs. The usual windage is 
 J of an inch, and the gun is not rifled. The unequal 
 shrinkage of the solid breech of this gun, during its 
 fabrication, caused a crack, which was afterwards 
 covered with a breech-plug, or false bottom in the 
 chamber, to prevent the lodgment of any burning 
 material. This gun is noted for its remarkable en- 
 durance, and terrible effect, at short range, in target 
 practice at Shoeburyness. 
 
 HORSLEY POWDER.— An explosive agent, com- 
 posed of chlorate ofpotassa and gall-nuts, in propor- 
 ti»n by weight of three to one, used principally in 
 charging torpedoes. Its disruptive action in relation 
 to the best gunpowder, volume for volume, is about 
 15t(>l. 
 
 HORTON LATHE CHUCK.— A chuck of theimiver- 
 sal type variously emjiloyed in the Arsenal. The 
 drawings present a view of the device together and 
 in its parts. The jaws are moved to and from the 
 center simultaneously by means of the geared screws 
 and the circular rack, which is enclosed in the deep 
 groove or recess in the bilck-plate, the center faces 
 of the front and baek-plates making a perfectly tight 
 casing for the gearing, so that no <lirt, chips, etc., 
 can possibly get into them to clog and injure the- 
 chuck. When the rack is taken out, especiidlv from 
 the fore-jaw, it makes a sujierior independent jaw- 
 chuck, niakinir two chucks in one. See Cliiirk. 
 
 HOSE TROUGH. The hnsc-trough is a small wood- 
 en channel, in wliirh is placed a linen b.-ig termed 
 the jKiirdt r./iiiKr , tilled with ]iowd(T, to lire the charge. 
 The bag should be of <-lose texture, and well sewed- 
 The.s" troughs are made li in. square in the clear. 
 The four pieces of which they are composed, the sill, 
 sides, and top, or cover, are from | to ^ in, each in 
 thickness. A trough shoidd penetrate the powder- 
 case about 4 in., and sb.oidd exactly fit the opening 
 left for it. It is fastened to the floor of the branch
 
 HOSPITAL. 
 
 55 
 
 KOSPITAI. 
 
 tiy niiils, tliroiif;Ii the si 
 driven ti) riceivc lliciii. 
 
 troiii;li lire cfiiiliiicd by pirUcis In prcvrnl it. I)cin;; 
 (lisliirhcil. 'I'lic liilVcTciil li'ii;r||is of llic Irouuli 
 sliDiilcl he cut lo til t-xaclly. Kacli pcirliiiii nf the 
 Irou^rli sliuuld liiivc i(s cdvi-r well lilti-d iind scciiri-d 
 Willi one |)cir only, in order tliiil il nmy rciidily he rc- 
 iiiovimI lo iiilrodiice tlio powdcr-liosc" The Irougli 
 is sai<l to tiiiil<e nil eltiow wlicii it clmi-ges its direc- 
 tion. Tlie ))ic(i-s foniiiiin "n elbow slioiild be solid- 
 ly yet Biiiiply coiuieclcd. Wlieii severiil mines are 
 to be fired at llie s;mie uiiiiiu-iii, it is necesMary so to 
 
 proportion llie trains to explode them, that, startinir , 
 from the same point, the distances in time from that 
 point to the charges may be all equal. Tlie follow- 
 ing cases show the manner of obtaining this result 
 
 whicii enter small pickets try), and perfectly tight, in rcgaid to the walls, 
 .Somelimes the sides of the tiiere are dilferences of ()|)inion, but it is proba- 
 ble that a plastering of mortar over juths, white- 
 washed with milk of lime, is the best, on account of 
 ils absorbing power, noxious gases lieing undoubt- 
 edly disposi-il of ill Ibis way by oxidation williin the 
 porous spaces. A plan of iiosi,;tal was nol unusual 
 la the armies during the late War of the Kehellion 
 in America, in which Ihe w.irds or pavilions were 
 disposed in a radiating form around a circular court, 
 from 10(1 lo !.')(» feet in diameier. according to the 
 size of tlie bospilal. A plan of Kicks Hospital near 
 Baltimore. .Md., issonie- 
 liiiies given as a model. 
 This has a mess dining- 
 room in one of the radi- 
 ating buildings, ralher 
 larger than tlie others, 
 and oflices and other ad- 
 iiiiiiistralive buildings- 
 in the court. A better 
 plan was carried out in 
 the hospital at Point 
 Lookout. .Md.. in which 
 the Administration A- 
 partments, Dispensary, 
 JIcss- rooms, and Sur- 
 geons' Quarters were 
 placed in a large build- 
 ing occupying a site a- 
 mong the other radia- 
 lingliuildings. The ad- 
 vantage is apparent in 
 the open court that is 
 unobstructed in res^ard 
 to currents of air. and in 
 the great cheerfulness 
 of such arrangement, 
 whicli admits of a free 
 view from one ward to 
 all the others, allowingthe convalescent patients who 
 may be sitting in tlieir respective porticoes to greet 
 
 tlorton Lfltlie-rhuck. 
 
 each other; for wounded and sick soldiers, wlien 
 they are able to be so, are a very social fraternity. 
 
 For two charges place a trough on the shortest line The central court can then be laid out in plats of gras.s 
 from the one to the other, mark the center of it, and | and flower-beds, in the care of which the pat'lents 
 let the principal trough join it at that point. For take great pleasure during their often Ioul' contine- 
 three charges connect, as above, the two which are nient and absence from faniily. The plan lif the Lin- 
 nearest. Let a trough lead from the middle point i coin Hospital at Washington was the arrangement 
 of this to the third charge ; bisect the whole length of the wards in the form of an isosceles triangfe, they 
 of trough lietween this third charge and either of the 1 being placed en e^/ielon, \vith the base of the triangle 
 others ; then let the principal trough be joined to I being left open. The triangular space between t1ie 
 this last point. For four charges first connect them i wards was occupied by the" various Administration 
 two and two, then join the central points and pro- Buildings. 
 
 ceed as above. The elbows of a trough impede the In England there are several grades of hospitals, 
 communication of the lire, for whiciran allowance The smallest is the Regimental Hospital, under the 
 must be made when proportioning the trains, each Medical Officers of the Regiment : next, there is the 
 elbow being valued at 3 in. Square elbows impede Divisional Hospital, presided over by Staff Medical 
 somewhat more than oblique ones. Officers, for the benefit of all the Corps in the Divi- 
 
 HOSPITAL.— The principles of hospital construe- sion : and, lastly, there is the General Hospital, ap- 
 tionwere pointed out by a Commission of the French I plicable to the whole force. In these hospitals the 
 Academy of Sciences in 1778. and improved in sev- i -Medical Officers are responsible directly to the Sec- 
 eral details by Miss Nightingale. Galton. and others, retary of State for War for all purely medical func- 
 and in the late American and Franco-German wars. ! tions". With regard to discipline, inspections, and 
 The general principles maybe gathered from the , other military dtnies, the principal ;>Iedical Officer is 
 following directions. The most important part of a , responsible to the Commandant of the Regiment or 
 hospital is the ward ; that is, the special apartment. I Division, who in his turn is answerable tothe Gen- 
 
 or system of apartments, for the reception and care 
 of the patients. It sliould, if large, be arranged in 
 separate pavilions of one, or at most not more than 
 two stories. These buildings should be about 2o 
 feet wide, 14 feet high, and of a length allowing not 
 less than 100 square-feet per bed. In warm climates 
 the height should be greater, and also the floor- 
 
 eral-in-Chief for the state of the hospitals iu his 
 command. Soldiers while in hospital are subjected 
 to a stoppage of 7d. a day from their pay. unless in 
 hospital on accoimt of wounds received in actifm or 
 on service in the field : but their whole pay is stopjied 
 if detention in hospital be certified to have become 
 necessary from their own misconduct. There are 
 
 space, allowing at least 130 square-feet per bed. No I some large Military Hospitals at home, such as Net- 
 one ward should contain more than 33 beds. The ley. Fort" Pitt, for" lunatic soldiers. Woolwich, etc. 
 windows should be opposite, reaching from 3 feet i In the French Army the service of the Field Hos- 
 above the floor to one foot from the ceiling, and oc- pitals forms part of the intendance of the Army, the 
 cupy (Uie-lhird of the wall-space. The fioors should Medical Officers in charge being under the supreme 
 be of hard pine or oak (Georgia pine in this coun- , control of the Intendaut-generaT.
 
 HOSPITALEKS. 
 
 56 
 
 HOSFODAB. 
 
 HOSPITALERS.— Cliaritablf brntherlioods fouiulecl 
 at variiius times and in iliffcrcnl countries for the care 
 of the sick in hospitals. The vow to devote them- 
 selves to tliis work of mercy is, iu all these brotlier- 
 hoods, superadded to the ordinary vows of poverty, 
 chastity, and oliedience, which are common to all 
 the reliiiious orders in the Church of Rome. One of 
 the earliest recorded instances of a hospital served 
 hy such a brotherliood is that of Constance in the 
 13th century. The Knights of St. John, of Jeru.sa- 
 lem. as also the Teutonic Kniyhts were originally 
 Hospitalers. The Hospitalers of Our Lady of Chris- 
 tian Charity were founded near Chalons iu the end 
 of the 13th century by Guy de .Joinville ; a smaller 
 body at Paris in 1294": anil the Hospitalers of Our 
 Lady Delia Scala about the same time at Siena. The 
 historj- of the Brethren of Mercy, founded by St. 
 John of God, will lie found interesting. There are 
 manv other local institutes or congregations, all of 
 which, however, recognize the same general rules, 
 and follow the same general organization. 
 
 HOSPITAL FLAG,— A flag used ,to indicate the lo- 
 cation of a hospital or ambulance. These flags iu 
 the United States Army are as follows : For general 
 hospitals, yellow bunting 9 by 5 ft., with the letter 
 H, 24 in. long, of green bunting, in center. For post 
 and field hospitals, yellow bunting (5 l)y 4 ft., with 
 letter H, 24 in. long, of green bunting, in center. For 
 amliulance and guidons to mark the way to fleld lios- 
 pitals, yellow l)unting. 14 by 28 in., witli a border, 1 
 in. deep, of "jreen. 
 
 HOSPITAL FOR INSANE SOLDIERS.— The Insane 
 of the military service are sent by Department Com- 
 manders, under proper escort, to Wasliiugton, where 
 the patients are reported to the Adjutant General of 
 the Army to procure the order of the Secretary of 
 War, The application for admission to the Hospi- 
 tal should be forwarded in time to reach the Adjut- 
 ant General at least one day before the arrival of the 
 patient iu Washington. The application sets forth 
 a full description o^ the patient, and is accompanied 
 by a certificate from a jNIedical Officer as to duration 
 of insanity, whether developed before enlistment or 
 employment iu the military service, and. if possible, 
 a diagnosis of the case. If the patient l)c a soldier, 
 his descriptive list and clothing account is also fur- 
 nished. On the departure of the patient from his 
 station, the Commanding Officer gives stich orders 
 to the person in charge as will provide for the trans- 
 portation of the necessary attendance to the Institu- 
 tion and back again to their posts, and for their sub- 
 sistence, either in kind or bj- commutation, during 
 their absence. To obtain the release of a patient 
 when cured, or his delivery to the care of friends, 
 application is made to the Adjutant General, accom- 
 panied by the recommendation of the Superintend- 
 ent of the Hospital. After si soldier has, in the usual 
 manner, been reported a fit subject for admission to 
 the Government Hospital for tjie Insane, and is or- 
 dered to l)e sent to Washington, his Company Com- 
 niandi-r forwards, with his " descriptive list," cer- 
 tificates of disability made out and signed in the 
 usual manner. The man is not discharged at the 
 post, nor is the order given for his discharge by the 
 Department Commander, but his discharge is order- 
 ed from tlie Adjutant General's Office, after his ar- 
 riv:d at llie Itosjiilal. 
 
 HOSPITAL FUND. The saving arising from an eco- 
 nomical use of the rations of the sick and attendants in 
 a hos])ital c<mstitute the Hospital F\md. The amount 
 ispaidovertothesenior>Ic<lical Officer at the]stat ion. 
 and is accounted for and expended by him exchis- 
 ively for the benefit of the men in the hospital, in 
 the purchase of such articles of diet, comfort, or con- 
 venience as may be required, according to instruc- 
 tions received from the Surgeon (ieneral. 
 
 HOSPITAL SHIPS. -Ships fitted out as hospitals in 
 all c\pcilil;oiis 'i.-yond the sea, for the care of the 
 sick and wounded : they have liccn found invaluable 
 iu many foreign expeditions. In China, in 18G0,four 
 
 were fitted out, and ships for this purpose formed 
 part of the expedition to the (jold Coast in 1874. 
 They serve either as stationary hospitals or, if sick 
 accumulate, can sail home to the nearest station, dis- 
 charse, and return to fill aiiain. 
 
 HOSPITAL STEWARD.— A Non-commissioned Otfl. 
 cerof tlie (ieneral StatT whose duty consists in making 
 tip prescriptions, administering medicines, and in a 
 general supervision of the sick, under the instruc- 
 tions of some Army Medical Officer, In the L'niled- 
 
 States Army, there is one Hospital Steward for each 
 millitary post, and the Secretary of War may appoint 
 from the enlisted men of the Army, or cause to lie 
 enlisted, as man}' Hospital Stewards, as the service 
 may require, Thej' are graded as 1st, 2ud, and Srd 
 class, are permanent!}' attached to the^Medical Corps, 
 under such regulations as the Secretary of War may 
 prescribe. The chevron worn by the Hospital Stew- 
 ards is shown iu the drawing. The senior Medi- 
 cal Officer of a hospital requiring a Steward may re- 
 commend a competent Xon-commissioned Officer or 
 soldier to be appointed, which recommendation the 
 Commanding Officer forwards to the Adjutant Gen- 
 eral of the Army, with|his remarks thereon, and with 
 the remarks of the Company Commander. Antl, as 
 the object of these more permanent apiioiirtnients is 
 to procure the services of a more competent body of 
 Hospital Stewards, no soldier nor citizen must be 
 recommended for appointment who is not /t'limrn to 
 be temperate, 'honest, and in every way reliable, as 
 well as sufficiently intelligent, and skilled in Pharm- 
 acy, for the proper discharge of the responsible duties 
 likely to be devolved upon him. 
 
 HOSPITAL TENT.— A large tent used for liospital 
 purposes. It is usuall}' made of heavj' cotton-duck. 
 In the United States service it is 14 feet long. 1.5 feet 
 wide, and I.') feet high (center); with a wall 4i feet 
 high, and aXv of appropriate size. The ridge-pole 
 is made into two sections, and measures 14 feet when 
 joined. This tent accommodates from 8 to 10 per- 
 sons conifiirtalily. 
 
 HOSPITAL WABON.— .V carriage on four wheels, 
 having four or six springs, used for carrying the 
 wotmded of an Army. The Prussian hospital wag- 
 ons are fitted up with coml)ination ca.ses, in which 
 are packed everything supposed to be ue('essary in 
 a hospital for woimded, including bandages, splints, 
 drugs and amesthetics, blankets, and an amputaling- 
 table, besides an assortment of tags, on one of which 
 the surgeon writes his orders as to what is to be 
 done in each case, attaches it to the patient, and 
 leaves him to the care of others. Five ambulances, 
 three sujiply-wagons (carrying food, bedding, and 
 tents), and two Surgeons' wagons constitute a lios- 
 pital-train for a division, and will accommodate 200 
 |)atients. rc(|uiring 13 Surgeons and 74 men for their 
 care. 
 
 HOSPODAR.— A Slavonic title once very commonly 
 given to the Governors of Moldavia and Walachia, 
 whereas the I'rincc of Kouniania is now known un- 
 der the native Homani<' title of Dnmiiii. Another 
 Slav<inic term. ll''7V)r<«/, was also given to the Hos- 
 podar, the term NVojcwod signifying the right and 
 dignity of leading flic Army (being thus identical 
 with IJukeJ, while tlieNospodar (Uospodar. Gospod,
 
 HOSTAGE. 
 
 57 
 
 HCTCHKISS MAGAZINE GUN. 
 
 Gospiidiii. ill I 111- various SliiVDiiic iliulrrts; inciiiis 
 simply, Master CDoiiiiinisj. KorniiTly, (hi- I/illiiiii- 
 niiiii I'rinces were likewise riillcd J/iin/iniliirM. iiwil llic 
 I'olisli Kiiiiis.dowii to the lime of Soliieski. lissiimed 
 this title ill their diploiiiiilic iie;ic)liiitions with Hiis- 
 niii. H'lKiidiir (Huler. Moiiareh) is even now the title 
 of the Kiiiperor of Kussiu, and in couvtrsutiou si;:- 
 
 Jlilics MiisliT. 
 
 HOSTAGE.— A person areepted as a jiU'iljie for the 
 lierfiiriiiaiiee of eouditions. When a town capilu- 
 lales, vii-lors and van(|iiished usually K've into the 
 custody, one of the other, several otheers, us |)ledf;es 
 that I'aeli party will duly earry out the terms sti])!!- 
 lated. Wlieii the terms are fultilled. the h(istai;es 
 are exrhanned : but if tlu' terms be evaded, the op- 
 ])osite side holds the risjlit to jiut to death, or other- 
 wise luiiiish, the hostages in its possession. It is 
 needless, however, to aihl that, in modern civilized 
 warfare, the circumstances would have to be very 
 remarkable indeed to be held to .justify so cruel a 
 lueasure as the execution of a lio.stage. 
 
 HOSTILITIES. A rupture between the natives of 
 dilVereul countries. The tirst hostile deed that is 
 coinmilled liy either party is considered the com- 
 ineiicemeut of liostilities. Between n.'itives. the rtrst 
 act of hostility pi'esup]ioscs a drcl.Mr.it inn of war. 
 
 HOTCHKISS BREECH LOADING MOUNTAIN RIFLE. 
 ■ — This guu, haviug been devis<-d especially with re- 
 ference to the niountain service, is made as light as 
 praclicalile. It weighs only IKi.d lbs., and one man 
 is alile to place it upon the back of a mule. The 
 weight of the carriage being but i'ii) lbs., the pack- 
 ing, unpacking, and mounting of the gun and its 
 carriage require only two men. For transportation 
 the material is distributed as follows: One mule car- 
 ries the piece and tw'o small chests <ontainiiig a(!ces- 
 sories ; another mule carries 
 the carriage and shaft, and 
 others carry the ammunition- 
 chests. The construction of 
 tlic Hotchkiss gun is based 
 u])on the use of a metallic 
 cartridge, by which the ob- 
 turation of the breech is ac- 
 complished. Tlie extraction 
 of t he cartridge-case is effect- 
 ed automatically by the open- 
 ing of the breech. The gun 
 is made of Wliitworth steel, compressed in tlie tluid 
 state. The mechanism of the lireech consists simply 
 of a prismatic liolt, with a cam, entering a cavity re- 
 cessed in the breech. It is operated by a lever with 
 hanrlles. by which the bolt is withdrawn, or the re- 
 verse. As "metallic cartridges are employed, a close tit 
 of the breech-block is unnecessary, and the bolt is 
 adiusted freely to its slot, which is an advantage over 
 other breech-loading systems, which recpiire great 
 liicety in the tit of the breecli-mcchanism in order to 
 insure a perfect obturation. The cartridge-extractor 
 is a simple prismatic piece of metal, bearing at its 
 forward extremity a hook; it is guided in a cavity 
 in the upper part of the breech, parallel to the axis of 
 the piece ; on its lower face is fitted a tenon, wliicli 
 slides in a groove cut in the upper face of the breech- 
 block. The groove is straight on the sides towards 
 the handle, but curved at the other extremity— to. | 
 wards the opening for charging — so that in withdraw- 
 ing the breech-block the tenon of the extractor slides 
 for a time in the straight part of the groove, but as I 
 soon as the lilock is so far withdrawn that the open- j 
 ing for charging comes against the face of the 
 chamlier the tenon becomes engaged in the inclined 
 portion of groove, and is suddenly drawn liackwards, 
 by which motion the empty case is thrown out of 
 the gun. The movement of the breech-block is ar- 
 rested by a stop-screw sliding in the recess upon the 
 upper fiice of the block. The ammunition is com- 
 posed of a inetallic case which contains the powder, 
 and is united to the projectile — an explosive shell — 
 by •'choking," in the same maimer as the cart- 
 
 ridges for modern small-arms. The cartridge is of 
 brass; the hiail being strengthened by cup-shiipirl 
 reinforces. It is not primed, l>ut is ignited by the 
 ordinary friction primer. In the base of the cart- 
 ridge is a valve formed liy the cup reinforces; the 
 gas from the primer opens the valve, whirli closes 
 automatically, after the ignition of the charge, by 
 the pressure of the gas inside, thereby preventing 
 the escape of gas through the vent. The cartridge 
 can be recharged, on an average about eight times. 
 The projectile is of a cylindro-ogival form, about 3^ 
 calibers in length; it licing fiirnisheil with a mid- 
 dle band of a soft brass, which takes the rilling, 
 rpon the cast-iron body of the prfijeclile are lunied 
 a number ot grooves, of little depth and width, be. 
 tween which are narrow and shar)> ridges. The 
 band covers this portion of the ))rojeetile. and at the 
 inoment of firing the pressure of the gas which siir- 
 soiinds the iirojectile in the chamber molds exactly 
 upon the brass the corresponding grooves and ridge.* 
 that are on the cast-iron. This method of banding 
 olTers the advantage of securing a jjcrfect iidlierence 
 between the brass band and the projectile, and also 
 liermits regiilatiiiir with great nicety the forcing 
 wlieieb}' the friction necessary to produce rotation 
 may be reduced to a minimum. The band of brass 
 obviaic? the fouling of the bore. The piece can be 
 tireii a great many times witlioul any necessity for 
 using the spoiige. , The shells are fitted with percu-s- 
 sionfuscs of the ilotchkiss pattern. Tlie following 
 are the principal w'cights and dimensions : 
 
 t'aliber l.Go inches. 
 
 Length of bore 24.72 calibers. 
 
 Weight of piece IKi.tiO pounds. 
 
 AVeight of carriage 220.00 pounds. 
 
 Weight of cartridge complete 2 pounds 10 oz. 
 
 ElTeclive range 4.200 yards. 
 
 Number of helicoidal grooves 10 
 
 Twist (to the riglit) 49.21 inches 
 
 Depth of ffrooves (uniform ) 0.12 inches 
 
 HOTCHKISS MAGAZINE GUN.— This gun. invent- 
 ed by Jlr. B. B. Ilotchkiss, an American, lately re- 
 siding in Paris, was tirst brought to this country by 
 him in the spring of 187G, and exhibited at the Cen- 
 tennial, at Philadelphia. It was found necessary to 
 make many changes in the arm originally introduced 
 by Mr. ilotchkiss, and for these improvements pat- 
 ents have since been granted. The gun thus im- 
 jiroved has been approved by two Boards of ( llticers, 
 apjiointed by the Chief of Ordnance of the -Vrmy, 
 for the purpose of examining small-arms. As now 
 offered, it was a second time recommended for trial 
 in the hands of the troops by the Ordnance Board of 
 1881-82. It embodies the experience of six years' 
 manufacturing. and the valuable suggestions of many 
 experienced officers who have used it in the tield. 
 It is a most simple and solid repeating-gun, capable 
 of doing good service under the most disadvauta- 
 geous circumstances. The drawing shows the work- 
 ing parts, with nomenclature, of the latest improved 
 model of 1883. 
 
 The operation of tlie gun is very simple. 1. To 
 open the breech-bolt : llold the slock lirmly with 
 the left hand a little in front of tiic receiver: and 
 with the right hand niise the handle, and draw baik 
 the bolt, making but one motion. 2. Close the bolt 
 by an inverse motion. This operation cocks the 
 piece. 3. To cock the piece without withdrawing 
 the bolt : Raise the handle as before, and immedi- 
 ately turn it down. 4. To load the magazine : Raise 
 the handle, and draw back the bolt. Take a cart- 
 ridge between the thumb and middle finger, placing 
 the point of the fore-hnger on the bullet ; insert the 
 head of the cartridge in the receiver, just in^ront of 
 the point at which it narrows down, and press it 
 back in the magazine until a distant click— the head 
 jiassing the cartridge-stop — is heard. Repeat the 
 operation until five cartridges have been inserted. 
 .\notlier may then be placed in the chamber. 
 
 The magazine may be unloaded in two wavs:-
 
 HOTCHKISS MAGAZINE Onn. 
 
 58 
 
 flOTCHKISS MAGAZINE GLN. 
 
 1. Raise the handle, and draw back the bolt: the 
 cartridge will be then thrown out. Holding the 
 muzzle of the arm well up, push forward the bolt 
 (d» not turn it down), the tluimb of the right hand 
 pusliing the knob of tlie cockiug-picce, and pull the 
 trigger. Draw back the bolt by the knob of the 
 cooking-piece : and the cartridge will be pushed for- 
 ward, and remain in the receiver. Remove the cart- 
 ridge, and proceed as before. 3. Rai.se the handle ; 
 place the wrist of the right hand against the handle 
 of the lock-tube, the thumb being extended across 
 
 NOMEMCL.\TURE. 
 
 1. Receiver. 
 
 2. Guard-plate. 
 
 3. Guard-plate Screw (rear). 
 
 4. Guard-plate Screw (froDl). 
 
 5. Side-screws (2). 
 0. Cockiug-piece. 
 T. Locking-tube. 
 R Bolt-head. 
 9. Firing-pin. 
 
 10. Firing-pin Screw. 
 
 11. Extractor. 
 
 12. Main-epring. 
 1.3. Bolt-lock. 
 
 14. Bolt-lock Spring. 
 
 15. Bolt-l'>ck Spring Screw. 
 
 16. Magazine Cut-off. 
 
 17. Magazine Cut-off Spring. 
 
 18. JIagazine Cut-off Spring Screw. 
 
 19. Magazine Tube. 
 
 20. Magazine Spring. 
 
 21. jSlagazine Nut. 
 
 22. Cartridge Follower. 
 •ii. Cartridge-stop. 
 
 24. Cartridge-stop Screw. 
 ■io. Cartridge-stop Roller. 
 
 25. Cartridge-stop Stop-pin. 
 
 27. Trigger. 
 
 28. Trigger-screw. 
 
 29. Upper Tang-screw. 
 
 30. Butt-plate. 
 
 31. Butt-plate Screws (2). 
 
 ; It Will 
 piv,.t. 
 
 the bolt in front (if the liaiidle, and the fore-tinger 
 resting upon the barrel. Draw back the bolt (kcep- 
 inL' the hand in the same position) by pressing the 
 back of tile tliiinib near the wrist against the front 
 of the handle: remove the cartridge with the lluimb 
 and lingers, whicli are thus at liberty to receive it. 
 Push forward the bolt (do not turn"it down), and ! and turning 
 
 pull the trigger. Withdraw the bolt with the back 
 of the thumb as before, and stop the cartridge com- 
 ing from the magazine with the fore or inde.x finger. 
 Remove the cartridge, and proceed as before until 
 the magazine is exhausted. 
 
 Tlie magazine cut-off is found on the right of the 
 piece, just in the rear of the bolt-handle. It serves 
 to lock the magazine so that the arm may be used as 
 a single loader while the contents of the magazine 
 are held in reserve. When the thimib-piece is pushed 
 forward, however, the arrangement of the meclianism 
 is such that no cartridges can 
 escape from tlie magazine to 
 the chamber, and tlie weapon 
 is practically a single loader. 
 The bolt-lock is placed on the 
 left side of the receiver, oppo- 
 site the magazine cut-off, and 
 serves at the same time to lock 
 the bolt and the trigger in such 
 a manner that the bolt cannot 
 be turned or drawn back, nor 
 the arm fired. To lock the bolt 
 and trigger push forward the 
 thumb-piece of the liolt-lock; 
 this can only be done when 
 the bolt is clo.sed and the gun 
 cocked. To unlock the bolt, 
 push back the thumb-piece of 
 the bolt-lock. 
 
 To dismount the gun : — 1. 
 Take out the bolt. To do this, 
 raise the handle, and draw back 
 the boit until the forward end 
 of the cocking-piece just clears 
 the rear end of the receiver; 
 then after letting go the han- 
 dle, take hold of the cocking- 
 piece, and turn it down to the 
 right until the projection on 
 the bolt-head leaves the groove 
 under the front end of the 
 locking-tube. The latter may 
 then be drawn out at the rear, 
 and the bolt-head removed at 
 the front of the receiver. To 
 return the bolt, the head must 
 be inserted from the front, and 
 the other part from the rear. 
 2. Take off the butt-plate, by 
 removing the two butt-plate 
 screws. 3. Take out the mag- 
 azine nut. 4. Take out the ma- 
 gazine spring and follower. .5, 
 Take out all the guard side- 
 screws. 6. Take out the guard- 
 screws and the upper tang- 
 crew. 7. Take off the butt- 
 ;|ock, by drawing it backward 
 from between the guard and 
 $ u])per tang, and off from the 
 S magazine tube. 8. Take out 
 ^ the guard. 9. Take out the 
 ^ liolt-lock anil magazine cut-ofT 
 springs. It will aid persons 
 unaciiuaintcd with the gun, 
 when endeavoring to replace 
 these parts, to remember that 
 the Hat sides of tlie springs lie 
 next the receiver, 1(1. Take 
 out the boll-lock and magazine 
 cut-olT. While these parts re- 
 semble cacli other exteriorly, 
 be observed that the bolt-lock has a short 
 and is assembled on the right of Ihe arm, 
 while the magazine ciit-olT has a much longer pivot, 
 and is assembled on the left. 11. Take out the 
 magazine tube. This is accomplished liy drawing 
 back the masrazine lube from its seat in the frame, 
 it slightly to the right, so that it may 
 
 
 a
 
 HOTCHKI88 PEKCUSSION FUSE 
 
 59 
 
 H0TCHKI88 EEVOLVIHO CANNON. 
 
 pass llic trifippr. 12. Take mil the \vipin}:-rod. 18. | 
 Take "f tlic Ijiimls. 14. Itcinovc the tip-stock. Tlii.s i 
 in licst (lone by sej)araliiii; tlic tip-stock, or for(-nriii, j 
 from the liarrcl ; first at tlic forward end of tlic tip- [ 
 stock, .sc|iiiraliiiLC tlimi uiilil tlic stud on the receiver 
 i.s willidrawii from the slot in tljc rear end of the ti]i- 
 Rlock. \r>. Take out the IriLC^'cr. by removiiii; tile 
 tiinner-screw. 1(!. Take oil' the barrel. This should 
 be altempted only by ])ersoiis |irovidcd with proper 
 tools, as the barrel and receiver are very lirmly as- 
 soiiiblcd tofjether. 17. The cartrid;xi-sto)i may be 
 dismounted from IIk^ nuard. by unscrewing the cart- 
 ridijc-slop screw, and driving out, from the left to 
 the riiiht, the slop-pin. 
 
 To dismount the brccch-bolt : — 1. Remove the 
 boll-head. To do this, hold the cockinir-piccc firmly 
 in the left hand, and willi the rifjlit turn down tlie 
 lianilles as in the act of lockiiis; tlic bolt. The head 
 will Ihenslip off. 2. Turn <iut the liring-pin .screw. 
 3. Slip the bolt-head partly on the I'.rojcc'tinj; end of 
 the tirini;-pin, and use it as awri'iich to unscrew the 
 jnii. The main-spriiiLC may then be removed. 4. 
 Keniove the extractor by tappinir gently on its pro- 
 jectini; end with a piece of wood. To assemble pro- 
 ceed in the inverse order of Ihe operations given 
 above. See Mnqasi m -qint . 
 
 HOTCHKISS PERCUSSION FUSE.— This fuse con- 
 sists of a metal body, A, clos<'d at the front end with 
 a screw cap, li. It has a conical hole in the rear, 
 which is closed with a lead plug, <'. (the safety-plugj, 
 pressed in very tightly, so that llie plug iirojects a 
 iiltle through the base of the body-case, toward tlie 
 inside. The plunger, I), is composed of lead cast 
 into a brass casing to strengthen it, and to prevent 
 the lead being upset by the shock of discharge. Two 
 brass wires, /''.cast into Hie lead on opposite sides of 
 tiie plunger, liolil it suspended in the case, the wires 
 going through the holes in the bottom of the case, 
 and being held securely in position by the safety- 
 plug. TIk' ])luni:er has a nijiple cast into the lead, 
 ami is primed with an ordinary percussion-cap ; in 
 its axis it has a powder-chamber. 
 " O, which contains the igniting- 
 
 charge. The operation of the fuse 
 is thus : The safety-iilug is dis- 
 lodged backward into the interior 
 of tlie projectile by the shock of 
 l-D discharge ; the wires then being 
 not held so tight in the hole, the ! 
 plunger is di.sengagedand rests on : 
 the bottom of the fuse-<:a8e, and j 
 is free to move in the 'ine of a.\is. 
 When the flight of the projectile 
 is suddenly retarded by its strik- 
 ing iui object, the ]ilunger. in con- 
 seciuence of its inertia, is driven 
 forward, and the primer strikes 
 against the screw-cap, thus igniting the powder in 
 tJie channel, and so tiring the bursting-charge of the 
 ]iroje(iile. See F'lsr. 
 
 HOTCHKISS PROJECTILES.— Projectiles of this sys- 
 tem, as shown in the drawing, are composed of three 
 parts. The Iwdy. 15. and the mii. ('. are of cast-iron, 
 iuid the n'liy. U, of lead. The ring is 
 locked into the body and the cup by 
 the grooves (b) and (c). all the parts be- 
 ing thus hehl securely together. The j 
 acVion of the charge is to drive the 
 cup forward, thereby expanding the 
 soft metal into the rilling of the gun, 
 and at the same time liinding the lead 
 so that it caniKit revolve ujion the pro- 
 jectile ; this last is assisted by a few 
 grooves on the cast-iron under the 
 lead. The amount of expansion is 
 controlled liy the distance tlie cup can 
 move before coining in contact with 
 the end of the body. All those projectiles with 
 which time fuses arc used have three "longituilinal 
 grooves on the outside, to insure the passage of the 
 
 flame to the fuse. The ring, being placed miidi 
 nearer the <entcr of gravity of Ihe projectile ilian if 
 at the ba.se, tends to steady the projectilr^ in the bore, 
 and iricnase the accuracy of tire. A ilotclikiss pro- 
 jectile, lately introduced for brr^ech-loailing guns. iH 
 of cast-iron, in one piici' ; a banri of soft brass, alioiit 
 one caliber long, is forced into a reciss in the pro- 
 jectile, situati'd well over the center of gravity : two 
 longitudinal grooves prevent the banil from turning. 
 Upon till! outside of the band is cut a niimbiT of 
 saw-toolhed grooves, to reduce the strain due to com- 
 pression of the brass as the projectile is forced into, 
 the bore. See Kj-jiii ntlinii I'riijertHis»,ni\ l'r'ijrrl,itin. 
 
 HOTCHKISS REVOLVING CANNON. The Holcli- 
 kiss revolving cannon caiinol be classed with mitrail- 
 leuses in Ihe ordinary sense t,f the latter tr-rm. as 
 explosive shells are fired with the forinir. and it has 
 a range equal to that of field-artillery. The .system of 
 this gun may be explained as follows ; Five" barrels, 
 grfiuped around a common axis, are revolved in 
 front of a solid breech-block, which has in one part 
 an opening to introduce the cartridges, and another 
 opi'iiing through which to extraci the empty shells, 
 while the cartridges are fired after being revolved 
 and while motionless in frfnil of the solid portion of 
 the breech. Fig. 1. The exterior aspect of this 
 revolving cannon resembles the Galling mitrailleuse, 
 it being, on the other hand, entirely different in its 
 interior mechanism. The system is composed of 
 two distiiu't jiarts, viz., the barrels with their disks 
 and shaft, and the frame and breech containing the 
 mechanism. The live barrels, made of the iinest 
 oil-lemiiered cast-steel, are mounted around a com- 
 mon axis, between two disks, on a central shaft. 
 The series of barrels are in this way placed in a rec- 
 tangular frame, which is attached to the breech, the 
 near end of the shaft penetrating the same to receive 
 the rotary motion from the driving-gear. Fig. 2. 
 The breech of the revolving cannon is composed of 
 a solid cast-iron breech-block, weighing about ;5Hfj 
 lbs. This absorbs the greater part of the recoil. It 
 has a door at the rear end, which can be easily 
 op<'iied, so that the nK'cIianism is freely accessible, 
 and can, if necessary, be dismounted and ]iut back 
 into its place in a few minutes, without tlie aid of 
 any special tools. A peculiar feature of this gun 
 consists in the barrels remaining «J(7/ during the dis- 
 charge, so that there is no movement of any kind to 
 impede the accuracy of the tire. This stop or lost 
 motion is obtained by tlie shaping of the driving- 
 worm, which is so constructed that the inclined 
 driving-thread only covers half its circunifcrence, 
 the other half of the thread being straight. The ef- 
 fect of this is that the barrels only revolve during 
 half a revolution of the worm, and stand still during 
 the other half revolution. The combination of the 
 mechanism is so arranged that the loading, tiring, 
 and extracting takes place during this pause. This 
 feature is of great importance for the accuracy of 
 tire and the durability of the system. The worm- 
 shaft projects through the breech on the right side, 
 and has a crank with which the whole system is 
 moved; on the left side of the worm-shaft a small 
 crank is attached, by which the loading and extrac- 
 tiiui of the cartridge-shells are effected in the follow- 
 ing manner: On the interior face of the left side of 
 the breech a cog-wheel is mounted, with two hori- 
 zontal racks, the one being placed above the other 
 under this cog-wheel, and parallel to tlie axis of Ihe 
 barrels, so that in moving either of these racks tlie 
 other is moved by the' cog-wheel in the opposite di- 
 rection. I'art of the lower rack forms a vertical 
 slot, in which the small crank on the left side of the 
 worm-shaft works. The rotation of the latter con- 
 seipiently gives an alternating and opposite move- 
 ment to the two racks, so that while the one is going 
 forward the other moves back, and reciprocally. 
 
 The under rack forms the extractor ; the upper 
 one moves a piston which drives the cartridge into 
 the barrels, the cartridge being placed before the
 
 HOTCHKISS BEVOLVING CANNON. 
 
 60 
 
 HOTCHKISS REVOLVING CANNON. 
 
 piston, in the trough in which it moves; and during ! ridges are piled one upon the otlier, the opening of 
 the time the barrels are motionless it is introduced the" introduction-trough is closed hy a little door, 
 into the one standing before the trougli. The cart- , which goes down by the weight of the cartridges, 
 ridge is not " driveifhome" entirely, but its head is ' the tirsT of which drop;* into the trough, and then 
 in view of au inclined plane, cut into the metal of i the piston in moving forward, raises the same door 
 
 Fig. 1. Side Elevation. 
 
 the breech, on which it slides when it is moved by and allows no more cartridges to enter until at the 
 the rotation of the barrels. This completes the iii- : proper time. All parts of the mechanism are very 
 troduction of the cartridsre into its chamber. The \ strong and durable, and hardly exceed in number 
 piston itself is a simple cylinder connected with the | those of an ordinary small-arm, there being, besides 
 rack, and running in a slot in the couducting-trough. | the group of barrels, thirteen parts, viz. :— 1, 2. The 
 When the racks are in their extreme positions tliey breech-block, with its door for closing the rear end. 
 
 3, 4, 5. The crank-shaft, with its worm for moving 
 the barrels, and small crank for working the loader 
 and extractor. 6. The crank. 7, 8. The firing-pin 
 and spiral spring. 9. The extractor. 10, 11. The 
 loading-piston and rack for moving it. 12. The 
 cog-wheel for transmitting the movement of the ex- 
 tractor to the loading-piston. 13. The door for reg- 
 ulating the feed of cartridges. 
 
 The operation of the mechanism may be described 
 as follows, supposing the crank to lie in continual 
 motion : A cartridge is placed in the introduction- 
 trough, the piston pushes it into the barrel, then the 
 barrels begin to revolve, and the cartridge is carried 
 on till it arrives before the tiring-pin, wliich pene- 
 trates the solid part of the breech, and which has in 
 the meantime been retracted by action of the cam. 
 
 Fig. 2. Vertical Section through AB. 
 
 remain still a moment. This, stop is obtained by ' Fig. 3. Then, as soon as the cartridge has arrived 
 giving the slot in its center part a circular shape con- j into this position, the barrels cease to revolve, and 
 
 ■ ' the primer of the cartridge is struck by the tiring- 
 
 centrically to the shaft of the crank. This is neces- 
 sary, because at the moment of the barrels arriv- 
 ing" at the end of their course the head of the 
 cartridge-case becomes engaged in the hooks of the 
 extractor, which would not be possible it it were in 
 motion at the time. The extractor is a large double 
 hook at the end of the bottom rack; it is very solid. 
 
 Fig. .S. Longitudinal Section Thron^'h the line of Axis. 
 
 and its proper working is certain under all circum- , crank ; 
 stances. jVfter the cartridge is extracted from the 
 barrel it strikes against an" ejector, which pushes it ! 
 out of the extractor, and it falls to the groimd 
 tlirongh an ojieiiing in the under part of the l)reecb. 
 Tlie firing-pin has an elongation. ]iointing downward, 
 
 wliich. i)V file operation of a s]iring, is pressed I maimer that without ilisiilacing the 
 against a "cam on the worm, and as the worm rotates, tain amount of laleral niolion as well 
 liic cam drives the liring-])in back and compresses , may be given to the gun. Thus the gun is made to 
 the spring. Tlie moment the tiring-pin becomes . sweep horizontally along a line, by adjuslment, lie- 
 liberated, it strikes the primer of the cartridge and i tween each single shot, or during rapid discharge, 
 the discharge lakes place. To obviate the difflcul- [ The ammunition for Ihe revolving caimon con- 
 lies which exist in other systems, when Ihe cart- 1 sists of a center-tire metallic cartridge of special con- 
 
 pin and discharged ; then the revolution of the bar- 
 rels begins again, and the fired cartridge-shell is car- 
 ried on until it comes to the extractor ; this, in the 
 meantime, has arrived up to the barrels and the 
 cartridge-head rolls into it. As soon as the head is 
 laid hold of by the extractor, the barrels again cease 
 to revolve, and'during this jieriod the 
 cartridge-shell is withdrawn and drop- 
 ped to the ground. As during every 
 stoppage of the barrels the gun is sup- 
 plied with a new cartridge, and the fir- 
 ing and extraction is also performed, 
 during this time a continvious but slow 
 fire is kept up. By supplying the gun 
 in this manner with single cartridges, 
 about thirty rounds per minute may be 
 fired. Should rapid firing be required, 
 the gun is then supplied, not with single 
 cartridges, but with "feed cases," con- 
 taining groups of ten cartridges each, 
 and in this manner from sixty to eighty 
 rounds per minute can be fired, with only 
 three men to work the guu: viz. — one 
 man to train the gun and revolve the 
 one man to place the " feed-cases " contain- 
 ing the cartridges into the "feed-trough"; and a 
 third man at the ammunition-chest to charge the 
 " feed-cases" and to hand them to the charger. At- 
 taciied to the frame is a lurii-table whichVoniiects the 
 camion to Ihe " trumiiou-saddle," arranged in such 
 
 carriage a (-er- 
 as of elevation
 
 HOTCHKISS REVOLVING CANNON. 
 
 61 
 
 H0XCHK188 KEVOLVINO CANNON. 
 
 Blniclidii, liolilinj; in (•.■tcli one the powder, the jiro. 
 jrclilr, 1111(1 the luhriciitiiift-wail, !irniii;;iMl like llir 
 Kiiiiilar iiMiiMiinilioii t'cncriilly iisril f(ir Hiimll-itriii.H. 
 Two (lilTiTcnl kiriils of |irojcclili-s iiri' iiscd, llic one 
 <«u explosive slicll und the oilier ii ease-shot. No- 
 tliiiii; iiec'd be saiil of the latter, as it does not dilTer 
 from the eoinmoii eas<' or eaiiister-shot used in ordi- 
 nary cannon. The shell is of a novel eonstrnelioii ; 
 il is of cast-iron, of a eylindro-o^rival sliape, slijjhtly 
 rounded at the rear end. The packing consists of a 
 hrass coat of alioiil oik' caliber in linirth. and placed 
 tqiiidistantly from the center of jrravity. This coat 
 is of soft brass iMbini,', contracted with irreat jirc'S- 
 mire lover the body of the projectile, it bein;; pro- 
 vided with longitudinal f;rooves, and two jirooves 
 encirclini; il at the top and bottom ends of the pack- 
 inj;. Tlie coatinj; is forced into these i^rooves, and 
 any disturbance of it ou the body at starting is thus 
 
 jectile, and the rilling' is impressed on tlie riljM only 
 covered by the tubiiiL'. Its dimensions and weifrlits 
 are as follows : l,eni;tli of body, li.tili inches ; entire 
 liiiL'lh with fuse, 4.27 inches; lenKlli '>f brasscoat- 
 int;, 1..') inches. 
 
 The carlrid^re-case is composed of a spirally-rolled 
 tube of sheet-brass, strengthened at the head with 
 an inside and outsirle cup. The head is punched 
 out of sheet-iron, and is fastened to the cups with 
 three rivets. The primer consists of a casi; holding 
 the anvil, and is closed at the bottom end by the cap 
 containing fwlminati- ; it is lilted into a hole which 
 penetrati-s tli<- hea<l and both cups, and it projects 
 through into the inside of tin- cartridge-case. This 
 cartridge, which can be manufactured with great 
 farility, on account of its simplicity, has jjroved 
 itself to be of a very durable (pialily. and it can be 
 used repeatedly, Iht construcliuu of the body of 
 
 Fifr. 4. Hotchkies Revolving Cunnon. with Shou 
 obviated. These grooves serve at the same time as 
 breaking-lines of the shell. After the coating is at- 
 t4iched to the projectile, some small saw-tooth-like 
 grooves are cut into it. to reduce the strain while 
 being forced through the rifling of the barrel. These 
 grooves can be filled with a lubricating substance, 
 an<l this is then carried perfectly between the pro- 
 jectile and the bore of tlie barrc'l. The coating of 
 the projectile is conical at its front part, correspond- 
 ing with the cone in the projectile-chamber, so that 
 it is exactly centered in the bore as sooii as the for- 
 ward movement commences. Its rear end is cylin- 
 drical to within about one-third of its length. The 
 shell is turned smooth all over, and is nearly 0". 016 
 in diam<-ter less than the bore of the barrel. This 
 projectile is made with great care and exactness, 
 witii only a very small deviation in dimension. 
 
 The fuse employed is that known as the Hotch- 
 kiss percussion-fuse, used in large quantities during 
 the last war in America, and described above. The 
 improved llotchkiss shell is with its fuse a little 
 less than three calibers in length, or about seven- 
 sixteenths inch shorter than the one just described, 
 fnmi which it differs, with the above exception, in 
 the following particulars only : The new shell has 
 four circumferential grooves separateil by ribs about 
 one-twentieth inch wide, and longitudinal cuts be- 
 tween ribs. The tubing, about one caliber in length 
 and one-sixteenth of an inch thick, instead of being 
 corrugated ou the exterior, as in the old shell, is 
 perfectly smooth, and is contracted into place by a 
 slight pressure only. The gas from the discharge 
 presses the jiackiug so tirnily into the grooves and 
 cuts that it cannot rotate independently of the pro- 
 
 Ider-picce. Pietol-grip Stock, and Firinp-trigecr. 
 the cartridge allows it to expand to the chamber of 
 the gun without the metal being stretched, so that 
 after the discharge it contracts itself again to its 
 previous diameter, thus leaving the tired case per- 
 fectly loose in the chamber for extraction. The lu- 
 bricator consists of a wad of felt about ".236 thick, 
 dipped in a solution of mixed tallow and beeswax. 
 A paper dislc is placed between the lubricating-wad 
 and the charge to prevent the powder getting dam- 
 aged by the greasy surface of the lubricator. The 
 projectile is "inerely pressed into the neck of the 
 cartridge and is not clenched, as there is enough 
 friction to hold it absolutely secure. Of course 
 the ammunition is, as in the case of all of the 
 modern small-arm ammunition, which it resembles, 
 rendered safe against influences of weather and 
 danger of explo.sion. The following are the prin- 
 cipal dimensions and weights, etc., of the gun. 
 
 Caliber t". '-■«" inclicf. 
 
 Total length of bore 4 feet 2.281; imhes. 
 
 Lencth of riHing 3 feet 8.S82 inches. 
 
 Rillfna. one turn in 4 feet 1.212 inclies. 
 
 (Twivt and depth of groove uniform.) 
 
 Number of grooves 12 
 
 Width of lands 0.098 inchss. 
 
 Depth of grooves 0.019 inches. 
 
 Number of barrels S 
 
 Diameter of barrel over powder-clamber. . . .3.4<i4 inches. 
 
 Diameter of barrel at the muzzle 2440 inches. 
 
 Weight of each barrel 77. liai (Kiunils. 
 
 Radiasof sights 2'3" W7 
 
 Vertical distance of the line of eight from 
 
 the common axis of the barrels 2.0866 inches. 
 
 Horizontal distance of the line of eight 
 
 from the common axis of the barrels 6.496 inches. 
 
 Weight of gun 1.047.i'i pounds. 
 
 Total weight of gun with traversing appar- 
 
 ntue ... l,l.%7.4,Si)Ound8. 
 
 For the revolving cannon a special carriage has
 
 HOTCHKISS SHELLS. 
 
 62 
 
 HOT-SHOT. 
 
 been roustriicted. This was found necessary, as 
 the ordinary lield-gun carriage is not provided with 
 tlie means for procuring an excellent and immovable 
 rest for this gnu. The trail of the carriage consists 
 of two brackets of steel-plate, connected by three 
 transoms and bolts, the rear end being connected 
 by the trail eye-piece. The brackets diverge against 
 the trunnions. The trunnion-bearings, and the hear- 
 ings for the axle-tree, are riveted to the outside of 
 the brackets and are fitted in tlie ordinarj- manner. 
 The axle-tree is of steel, the arms being slightly con- 
 ical. The wheels have metallic naves and ring-tires. 
 The nave consists of two parts, the inside flange, 
 with the pipe-box, and the outside tlange. The spokes 
 are cut in a conical form at their " hub" ends, so 
 that they fill the uave-tlanges, and the two parts of 
 the nave are bolted togetlier with the spokes with 
 six screws. These wheels are very strong, and 
 have been found practical and economical in ser- 
 vice, and they allow spokes to be easily substituted 
 for others when broken. 
 
 The elevating arrangement consists of a screw 
 working in a gun-metal nut, resting in the oscillating 
 bearing. This nut is revolved by conical gear-wheels 
 from the left side of the trail, the top-end of the 
 screw being attached to the trunnion saddle-plate. 
 The handspike is hinged to the trail so as to fold 
 back in traveling. A tool-box is placed between 
 the trail ; this at the same time makes a solid con- 
 nection of the trail-brackets. The carriage of the 
 revolving cannon is usually provided with a light 
 steel shield for the protection of the gunners from 
 small-arms fire. This shield is of three parts, made 
 to fold together, thus forming seats for two men. 
 It can immediately, when coming into action, be 
 luifolded. and only the muzzles of the barrels and 
 the wheels of the carriage are exposed to the enemy. 
 Tlie steel plates are about 0.236 inch in thickness. 
 Two boxes are attached to the axle-tree, each to 
 carry three feed-cases loaded with ten rounds of am- 
 munition. On the carriages not provided with a 
 shield, these ammunition-boxes are protected by 
 light steel plates in front, and have a lid of steel, 
 which, when raised, forms a small protecting-shield, 
 and when closed they form seats for two gunners, 
 so that with two or three gunners on the limber a 
 suflicient number of men to serve the piece would 
 be taken into action with the gun itself. 
 
 The gun shown in Fig. 4 is intended specially for 
 use against torpedo boats, and is mounted on the 
 rail of a ship, as shown in the drawing. The recoil 
 is taken up by the pivot, and the gun is so nicely 
 balanced as to be easily trained by the gunner, who 
 stands with his left shoulder against the "cross" or 
 breech extension, and with his right hand grasping 
 the pistol stock at theright of the gun has as complete 
 control of the weapon as if it were a fowling-piece, 
 or the gun may be held by the rack. See Machine- 
 ejiin. 
 
 HOTCHKISS SHELLS.— The" first variety has three 
 walls. ])anillel,oruearl/ so, with each 
 otlier, and vmited to a solid base. In 
 producing it. the middle wall, is first 
 cast liy the ordinary process. This 
 wall is then suspended ujjon a core- 
 [)iccc, whose dimensions are such as 
 // 'B \ *l "'" '''■^^'•' a spac<' between its exte- 
 
 ^ ' I J: riiiraud the interior surface of this 
 
 wall, r(jual to the thickness desired 
 for the inner wall. This core and 
 middle wall are then suspended in a 
 mold of Ihc common construction, 
 wliicli mold has an innercontourthe 
 ^hape of the exterior of the coniplele 
 shell. The metal jioured inlcj this 
 mold envelopes Ihi' middli' wall, and 
 forms the shell as shown in Figure 
 1. The object of this peculiar form 
 Fig. 1. of construction is to producer a shell 
 
 whicli will be broki-n into a larger number of pieces 
 
 than shells of the ordinary construction. Near the 
 forward and rear ends of the cylindrical portion of 
 the shell cannelures are turned to receive the pack- 
 ing or soft brass bands, which are pressed and crimp- 
 ed into place. Tlie base of the shell is slightly cham- 
 fered. 
 
 The Hotchkiss field-shells of ordinary pattern, as 
 shown in Figure 3, are one inch longer than those 
 described above, and have greater powder capacity. 
 Thej' are cast in the usual way for 
 casting shells, and have the same 
 general shape as the triple-wall 
 shells. The packing as original- 
 ly made consisted of a soft brass 
 tubing about 4 inches in length, 
 running for nearly two-thirds the 
 length of the cylindrical portion 
 of the shell ; it was pressed and 
 crimped into a recess turned on 
 the shell to receive it. Cannelures 
 were turned on the exterior of 
 the tubing to diminish the bear- 
 ing portion of the packing to be 
 cut through by the rifling of the 
 gun. Before these shells were 
 fired, aud to insure suitable rota- 
 tion, Mr. Hotchkiss had added a 
 smooth brass tubing about \\ in. 
 long, which was also pressed and 
 crimped into the recess turned for 
 it. In turning this recess two 
 annular rings were left. Ah ex- 
 amination of the results of a recent experimental 
 firing shows an average of 17.4 hits per shot for the 
 triple-wall against 10.4 for the common shells. The 
 liability to premature explosion or breaking u]i in tlie 
 gun seems to be about as great for one as for the 
 other. Experiment fully demonstrates the superior 
 destructive effects of the triple-wall over the com- 
 mon shell. See Shells. 
 
 HOTEL DES INVALIDES.— An Establishment in 
 Paris, maintained at the expen.se of the State, where 
 a number of old French soldiers are quartered. Its 
 chapel contains the tomb of the great Napoleon, 
 and is an object of much attraction to all visitors. 
 It was founded by Louis XIV. in 1671. and during 
 his reign and for a long time afterwards was a place 
 of retirement for|tlie aged servants of Court Favor- 
 ites as well as Invalided Soldiers ; but this abuse 
 was put an end to by St. Germain in Louis XV. 's 
 reign. In 1789 the Hotel had a revenue of £68.000, 
 but during the time of the Republic its property 
 was alienated and the Institution supported from 
 the public revenue. The Hotel can accommodate 
 5.000 men, and the actual number of inmates is not 
 much below this. See Soldlem' Homen. 
 
 HOT-SHOT.— Hot-shot may be fired for the pur- 
 pose of setting fire to vessels or buildings, though 
 the}- are rarely used. Shot of low gauge should be 
 clio.seu for this purpose and with reduced charges. 
 They can be made red-liot in from 1.5 to 30 minutes, 
 but care must be taken not to bring them beyond a 
 bright red, as they are then liable to fuse and be- 
 come misshapen. The part resting on the furnace- 
 bars heats more quickly than the <ipper part, so 
 they must frequently be turned. Shot expand ,,'5 of 
 their diameter when brought to a red-heal : there- 
 fore, to prevent any accidents, each shot should be 
 passed through a red-hot shot-gauge before being 
 taken from the fire-room. Should the shot jam in 
 the bore it must be cooled by ])ouring water in at 
 llie muzzle; but if that fails, the charge nmst be 
 drowned before attemjiting to blow out the shot. 
 
 .Tunk and grommct-wads which liavc been soaked 
 in water for two or three hours, having the water 
 pressed out of them, are lo be used in loading.' The 
 juuk-wads musi be small enough lo lit easily when 
 swelled by being soaked. The cartridge must be 
 perfectly tight, so that powder will not be scat- 
 tered along the bore. Sufficient elevation having
 
 HOT SHOT FORK. 
 
 63 
 
 HOWITZER. 
 
 been fiivc'ii to cimhlc the shot to roll homo, first 
 outer tiio oiirlriilj;o, a dry jiiiik-wiul, iiiiil Ihoii ii wot 
 jwiiU-Wiul, iuiil nun thoiii homo. Uriii;^ tho sliot in 
 11 l)onrcr anil enter it, uitli u wot i;roniniet-wiiil on 
 top; .■iineo it cools rii])i(lly, no time should he lost, 
 (^iiaiililies of snioUe will eonie np lhron;rh the vent, 
 hut a red-hol shot does not burn Tnore than the 
 outer yarns of a well-soaked junk-wud, oven if left 
 in tho i;un till it lieeonios cold. See Fhrirvrks and 
 /'r.'j.riilr.y. 
 
 HOT SHOT FORK. A fork niaile of iro)i, fastened 
 to a wooden handle, and is used I o pull the shot out 
 (if the furnace. It has two pronirs, which curve in- 
 wards and upwards, so as to retain llio shot between 
 tlu'iri whi'u once in position. 
 
 HOT-SHOT WADS.- Wads for firing hot-shot, and 
 (itluT like |iurposos, may bo nuule of hay wrapped 
 with rope yarn, and arc made in tho same way as 
 jimk-wa(ls|; or they may be made entirely of hay, 
 by twist ins; fnuu llic hay a rope of an inch or an 
 inch and a half in dianu'ter, and then eommencini; 
 at one end and donlilini; it up about one caliber in 
 lenj;tli, and twistins; it all the time, until it boconu-s 
 nearly large enounh, when the rope is to be wound 
 around the waduerpendicularto its a.xis, and fastened 
 with a hitch. 
 
 HOTTE.— A .sort of hand-basket, which is often 
 made use of in tho construction of batteries and 
 other works, and serves to earry earth from one 
 ph'ice to another. Hence the word /i"(l, a well- 
 known contrivance for carrying liricks. 
 
 HOUGINES. — Parts of ancient armor covorin;^ the 
 thighs, legs, and arms. 
 
 HOUNDS. — 1. Pieces of wood used in the con- 
 struction of lindjers for gun-carriages to connect 
 the splinter-bars with the axles. 2. The blood- 
 hounds employed for military purj o e-i The jius- 
 sians liave strengthened their army by the novel 
 addition to each company of a pack of powerfully 
 and carefully trained dogs. These watchful animals 
 are sent out with the sentinels on picket duty, 
 where their chary ear and still koouer scent 
 prove an impregnable barrier to the lurking 
 spies of the enemy. The dogs used are a 
 spoeies of blood-hound from the Ural .Moiui- 
 tains. The dog is selected because of its ha- 
 bitual silence. It growls but never barks — a 
 mill tor of the first importance to soldiers oear 
 an enemy's camp. The Ural honnd is gifted 
 with an exceedingly tine .sense of .smell, keen 
 ears, and is over alert. Most comforting of 
 all to the lonely picket the dog is said to be 
 ospeeiall}' courageous in defending its mas- 
 ter. It is curious that, with the examiilo of 
 the King Charles spaniels before us, no one 
 thought before of using these intelligent ani- 
 mals as sentinels. The value of the plan is 
 self-evident. The Jluscovites have gone fur- 
 ther, and are training swift hounds as well as 
 the.se same Ural dogs, to act as dispatch bearers, 
 n\uch as tho carrier pigeons were employed in 1871. 
 They certainly would be hard messengers to catch, 
 when stealing through the woods at night. See 
 JU<'o,i-/i'Jinifl. 
 
 HOURGLASS.— A glass ves.sel filled with sand, and 
 compressed and attenuated at its center into the 
 shape of tho figure 8, whereby the sand can only run 
 througlv tho connecting orifice in a given time. 
 This vessel is contained in a wooden stand. For- 
 nuTly each Englisli regiment was furnished with 
 this hourglass : and even at the present day native 
 regiments in India use it. A common mode of keep- 
 ing the time by native guards is by means of a metal 
 bowl having a small hole in the bottom of it. which 
 is allowed to swim on tho surface of tho water, and 
 to fill in the space of an hour. This rough and ready 
 mode of a.scertaining time, tluuigh not always cor- 
 rect, gives a near approximation to tho lapse of an 
 hour. This nature of time-clock was the first in- 
 strument to measure tlio lapse of time independently 
 
 of the sunshine. A simple time-keeper is also kept, 
 but the arrangomi-nf is inverted, the bowl beinj; 
 liHed with wafer, and the wafer allowed to escajie 
 into a rece])fa<le in the same s]iaco of time, fhrougji 
 a bole in the bottom of the bowl. 
 
 HOURS OF SITTING.- The hours during which a 
 ( 'oiirl-.VIarliiil is aulhori/ed to hold its sessions. 
 The law provides that the proceedings of trials shall 
 bo carried on only betwo'n the hours of oiglit in the 
 morning ami throe in the afternoon, excepting in 
 cases which, in the o|)inion of th(^ Ollicer apjiointing 
 the Court, ro(|uire inimeiliate example. In the latter 
 case, the order apiiointing the Courl-.Marlial must 
 clearly state that •The Court is authorized to sit 
 without regard to hours." 
 
 HOUSE. A term anciently api)lied to the blocks 
 of wood or frame structures, upon which tho early 
 bombards wore fixed. See Fttxt. 
 
 HOUSEHOLD TROOPS.— Those troops whose es- 
 pecial duly it is to attend tho Sovereign, and to 
 guard the .Metro]iolis. Those forces comprise three 
 regiments of cavalry — the 1st and 2d Life Guards, 
 and the Koyal ilorso Guards, and three regiments 
 of Foot Guards (which include seven battalions), 
 the Grenadier, Coldstream, and the Scots Fusilier 
 Guards. The cost of these corps, for pay and 
 allowances only, reaches the sum of £230,000 a year ; 
 and they number in all ranks 1 ,802 cavalry and 
 r>.'.)')(t infantry, who are justly hold to be the flower 
 of the British Army. 
 
 HOUSING. —The cover or <loth over or under a 
 horse's saddle, used for cleanliness or as an oma- 
 nuaital or military appendage. In the United States 
 Army, housing is prescribed as follows: Furden- 
 enil OffuMr« — To be worn over the saddle ; of dark 
 blue cloth, trimmed .with two rows of gold lace, the 
 outer row one inch and five-oigliths wide, the inner 
 row two inches and one-fourth : to be made full, so 
 as to cover the horse's liaunches and to bear on each 
 flank corner the following ornaments, distinctive of 
 
 rank, to wit : For tJie Oeiieml of the Army — A gold 
 enibroiderod spread eagle with two stars and "Arras 
 of the United States " between them : For Lieuten. 
 ant General — A gold embroidered spread eagle and 
 three stars ; For Major (letternli — A gold embroi- 
 dered spread eagle with two stars ; and For Briga- 
 dier Oemrah — A gold embroidered spread eagle 
 and one star. ^veSaddle-clotli. 
 
 HOWITZER.— From the earliest days of artillery 
 there existed short, chambered pieces, which pro- 
 jected stone balls under great angles of elevation. In 
 1478, an attempt was made to use in these pieces, 
 hollow projectiles filled with powder, to which was 
 attached a burning match to set the powder on fire : 
 but it is proliable that tho accidents which accom- 
 panied their use caused them to be abandoned for the 
 time. In l(i34, however, means were devised to 
 overcome this ditliculty : and, thus perfected, these 
 pieces were introduced into the French service as a 
 class of cannon now known as mortars. In the reign 
 of Louis XIV., a great variety of mortars were used ;
 
 HUB MOKTISING-MACHINE. 
 
 G4 
 
 HUE AND CEY. 
 
 and some of them, called Comminges. after their 
 inventor, threw bomt)P weighing .5.50 pounds. Early 
 attempts were also made to throw hollow projectiles 
 from perrieres and culverius, or guns ; but great 
 difficulties were experienced in loading them, and 
 the accidents to which they were liable, as in the 
 case of mortars, caused tiiem to be abandoned. 
 Subsequentlj'. however, the Dutch artillerists con- 
 ceived the idea of reducing their length, so that the 
 
 projectile c(mld be inserted in its place by hand; 
 and. thus inipnivcd, these ciinuoii r.ipidly ciinie into 
 use, under llie name of howitzers, from the German, 
 Jldiihitz. The howitzer coiubincs in some degree 
 tlie accuracy of a cannon with the caliber of a mor- 
 tar ; and, while e(|ually effective at short ranges, is 
 far more ))ortabIe than either. That the jviwder, on 
 its expansion, may act with full force on the shell, 
 it is <'ontined in a hemisplierical chamber of smaller 
 
 diameter than the rest of the here, the mouth of 
 which is completely closed by the shell when rammed 
 home. The Coehorn howitzer, much used in India 
 for mountain service, is a small gun, light enough to 
 be borne by a horse up hilly defiles, etc. See Hoiritz- 
 er, Ordnance, and TiNnty-fnur-pounder llmMztr. 
 
 HUB MORTISING MACHINE.— A machine in which 
 a wheel-hub is held upon a mandrel or stake, so dis- 
 posed that a reciprocating chisel may cut tlierein the 
 mortises for the spokes. The 
 hub is dogged or clamped so 
 as to prevent rotation while 
 the mortise is being cut, and is 
 then rotated at a determinate 
 number of degrees to present 
 the next spot. The drawing 
 shows a power hub mortising- 
 machine used in making the 
 wheels for gim-carriages and 
 Government wagons. Those 
 hubs to be mortised are held 
 fast in a screw-chuck, one end 
 turning in cups fitted to each 
 size. The chuck has a dial at- 
 tached to it, accurately spaced 
 for 10, 13, 14, 16, and 18 spokes, 
 thus obviating the necessity 
 for setting out the mortises. 
 The bed also has stops which 
 regulate the length, and is ar- 
 ranged with a lever and stops, 
 to give any required bevel or 
 dish to the mortise. It is sup- 
 ported by a standard, bolted to 
 the base of the machine, mak- 
 ing it firm and solid, and is 
 raised and moved for the mor- 
 tise by hand-wheels. The chis- 
 el is reversed by hand, and 
 brought down by the new dou- 
 ble lever or treadle, which is 
 ver3' easy for the operator. The 
 bit-shaft has the new arrange- 
 ment of lever and weight for 
 working it, and is driven di- 
 rect from the counter-shaft. 
 The machines are complete in 
 every respect, and are made in 
 the best possible manner. This 
 size works hubs 13 by 16 inches 
 and under. It can lie fitted with 
 a bed for common mortising, 
 if desired. The counter-shaft 
 has tight and loose pulleys, 13 
 inch diameter, 4 inch face, and 
 should make 3.50 revolutions. 
 The counter-shaft should be 
 placed on a level with the pul- 
 lej'in top of machine, and 8 or 
 lOfeetdistant. Weight of ma- 
 chine, 3,600 lbs. See Mortis, 
 ing-iniichine. 
 
 HUE AND CRY.— In Great 
 Britain, the Official Gazette, 
 which serves to advertise de- 
 serters from Her Majesty's ser- 
 vice. The phrase is derived 
 from the old process of pursuit 
 with horn and voice, used in 
 Englisli law to ih'scribe the 
 pursuit of felons. Whoeverar- 
 rested the person thus pursued was so far prot<'cted 
 tliat he rc(|uircd no warrant to justify the arrest; 
 and even if the party turned out to be no felon, no 
 action could lie brought if the arrest \\i\» honii fide. 
 But it was not only a ground of action, but an olTense 
 subject to tine and imprisoinnent, to maliciously and 
 wantonly raise the hue and cry against a iicrson. It 
 was the duly of all persons to join in a hue and cry, 
 and if u person who Lad been robbed, or knew of a
 
 HUI88IER D'ARMES. 
 
 G5 
 
 HUNT HAOAZINE-OUN. 
 
 rdbhcry, fiiilcil to niisc tlic line imd cry. he. was liii- 
 blc lo line or im[)risijniii(iil, or. iicconliM^ to souk; 
 luillidrs. (o iiKlii'tiiii'iil. line itiid cry is mow Biib- 
 stiiiiliallv iiliolisliccl. 
 
 HUIS8IER D'ARMES. -TipHlufr; nil officer so-piiU- 
 ed in France, wlio wasattiiclieil to the Uoyal Ilouse- 
 liold. They were at first disliiiifiiished liy the name 
 of S'n/i'Hn iVAnnrs, or Seri^eanls-at-AriMS. Some 
 were directe<i to bear the mace liefore the Kini;(Uir- 
 injs the day, and obtaine(l on that account the appcl- 
 hition of Ilii'.Hnien< d'Armm: in later limes Ihcy 
 were called the lluissiers. or TipstatTs of tlie Kind's 
 Chamber. Others kept watch in the K line's bed- 
 chamber dnrini; the nis;ht. and were sworn to expose 
 their lives for the safetj' of his person, whence they 
 obtained the name of Archern d" la Gnrdr. wliich 
 term was changed to (riirdrn dit (,'orpii, or the Body- 
 guards. 
 
 HULK. — A name given to any old ship unfit for 
 sea-service, which is used in harlmr as a depot of 
 some sort. In the great naval harbors, tliere are 
 coal-hulks, powder-luilks, convict-hulks, and liulks 
 to which tlie crew of vessels repairing are turned 
 over. 
 
 HUMETTY.— A term in Heraldry, apjilied to a 
 cross or other ordinary which is cut o(T, and nowhere 
 reaches the edge of the shield. See Ihrnldry. 
 
 HUNS. — The name of a considerable nation of an- 
 ti(|uity, which, from time to time, made incursions 
 upon tlie Roman Dominions, and which eventually, 
 under Attila, the most renowned of all its leaders, 
 brought the Empires of both the I^ast and the West 
 to the very verge of destruction. 
 
 The Iluns were of Asiatic origin, and, in all prob- 
 ability, of the Mongolian or Tartar stock ; tlierefore 
 akin to, and perhaps to be identified with the Scyth- 
 ians and Turks. According to De Guignes, whose 
 theory has been accepted by Gibbon, the Iluns who 
 invaded the Itoman Empire were lineally^ descended 
 from the Hiongnou, whose ancient seat was an ex- 
 tensive but barren tract of country immediately to 
 the North of the great Wall of China. About the year 
 800 B. c, these people overran the C'hincse Empire, 
 defeated the Cliinese armies in numerous engage- 
 ments, and even drove the Emperor Kao-ti himself 
 to an ignominious capitulation and treaty. During 
 the reign of Vou-ti (141-87 b. c), the power of the 
 Iluns was very much broken. Eventually they broke 
 into two distinct camps, one of which, amounting to 
 about 50,000 families, went Southwards, while the 
 other endeavored to maintain itself in its original 
 seat. This, however, was very difiicult for them to 
 do ; and eventual^- the most warlike and enterpris- 
 ing went West and North-west in search of new homes. 
 Of those that went North-west, a large number es. 
 tablished themselves for a while on the banks of the 
 Volga. Then crossing this river, they advanced into 
 the territories of the Alani, a pastoral ]ieople dwell- 
 ing between the Volga and the Don. At what period 
 this took place is uncertain, but probably early in 
 the 4th century. T!ie Alani, who had long dwelt in 
 these plains, resisted the incursions of the Huns 
 with much bravery and some effect, until at length 
 a bloody and decisive battle was fought on the banks 
 of the Don, in which the Alan King was slain, and 
 his army utterly routed : the vast majority of the 
 survivors joined the invaders. 
 
 HUNTING HORN,— The Hunting Horn or Bugle 
 Horn is a fre(iuent bearing in Heraldry. When 
 adorned witli rings, it is said to be (jurnixhed. If 
 the mouth and strings of the instrument are of ditTer- 
 eut tincture from the horn, 'his must be named in 
 blazon. See ILrdldri/. 
 
 HUNT LIFE SAVING PROJECTILE. -This appa- 
 ratus consists of a projectile and a tin can known 
 as the shore-can. It is intended for life-saving pur- 
 poses, to be used in connection with a gun or liiortar 
 of suitable dimensione. 
 
 The body of the shot or projectile is composed of 
 a tin lube closed at the front end bv a disk of iron. 
 
 Tlie head or |ioinl is made of lead lii-l upoti the 
 enl of the tin tube. The leail e.xlenils up tlie side« 
 of the lube, forming a thin ('oating for a distance 
 of :) ".2 from tlie plane of the head, 'i'lie diameter 
 of till' (hit head is 2.1) inches, but when lired ex- 
 liands to the full size of the bore. The tube is re- 
 inforced for (i inches of its length above the lead 
 with a galvanized sheet-iron tube. The object of 
 this reinforce is to slrengthi'n the tube and prevent 
 upsetting when fired. Near the rear end of the 
 lube four tr.ipeziform (liecesof tin, tr'rme(l "wings," 
 are soldered to the tube at riirht angles loeacli riilier 
 and eipiidisiant circumferenlially for the purpose of 
 guiding the projectile in its (light after the manner 
 of the barbs of an arrow. About g.'iO yards of small 
 line is coiled on a spindle in a lathe, after passing 
 through a saluraling solution of paraliiie. Tliis 
 coil is wrapped with a thicknessof laboratory paper, 
 and as soon as withdrawn from the lathe-spindle is 
 jilacecl in the tin lube. The exterior end of the line 
 is made fast lo a wire loop which projects from the 
 rear end of the tube. Tin; wire is soldered to the 
 tube. The rear end of the tube is then closed with 
 a wooden plug one inch in thickness and of the 
 same diameter as the inside of the cylinder. An 
 axial hole one inch in diameter serves for the line 
 to pass Ihrough in escaping fnjin the shot. A paper 
 disk is pasted over this end of the projectile, which 
 must lie removed before tiring in order to secure 
 and withdraw the end of the line. 
 
 The shore-can contains the shore-line and is made- 
 of tin. It is a short cylindrical tube, of greater 
 diameter than the body of the shot. The lower end 
 is closed by a bottom of the same material as the 
 cylindrical body. To the bottom a ring is at- 
 tached in which is tie i a line, or through which a 
 stake is driven, to prevent the can from being carried 
 off in firing. Holes are punched through the bottom 
 over each side of the ring-seat, through which ihe 
 end of the line belonging to the outer coil is passed 
 and tied to secure the line to the can. This shore- 
 can contains about 250 yards of small line, coiled in 
 a lathe and saturated with jiarattine in the same 
 manner as the line in the shot. After coiling, the 
 line is placed in the can and the tin cover put on. 
 The cover has a centra! hole 1".6 in diameter 
 through which the line is paid out. h. strip of 
 laboratorj- paper is pasted around the can so as to 
 overlap the junction of the cover and body of the 
 can and prevent the removal of the former. A 
 paper disk, which must be broken before firing, is 
 j pasted over the hole in the top. 
 j The method of using this apparatus is as follows: 
 Suppose the gun. projectiles, and shore-can placed 
 I on the firing-ground and the gun in position for 
 j firing. Insert the powder-charge, tear the paper 
 cap ifrom the rear end of the projectile, and draw 
 i out a couple of feet of the line : place the projectile 
 in the bore with the flat leaden head first. Then 
 tear the paper cap from the hole in the top of the 
 shore-can and pull out about 2 feet of line; tie the 
 ends of the line together and place the shore-can 
 near the gun on the windward side. The proper 
 elevation is then given to the piece, the priming- 
 wire inserted in the vent, a friction-primer put in, 
 and the gun fired. See L'ft-iian'iig liocketn. 
 
 hunt' MAGAZIKE -GUN." —This gun belongs to that 
 •system in which a fixed chamber is closed by a bolt, 
 by direct action. The receiver has a slot in its upper 
 surface for the purpose of loading the chamber direct 
 when the piece is used as a single-loader: it is also 
 bored through at the rear for the reception of the 
 breech-bolt. The latter is composed of two parts, 
 the body and the locking-tube, which are connected 
 by a left-hand screw-thread. The bolt is locked by 
 two lugs, turning in corresponding cuts in the re- 
 ceiver. These lugs are so shaped on their rear sur- 
 faces as to cam the bolt against the base of the cart- 
 ridge during the locking. A cam on Ihe inner surface 
 of the rear end of the locking-tube forces the bolt
 
 HUBSLE B£V£IM£NT. 
 
 6G 
 
 HUT. 
 
 slightly to the rear, starting the shell, during the 
 unlocking. The opening of the joint in the breech- 
 bolt fthe thread being left-handed) during the lock- 
 ing aids in the camming forward of the bolt, while 
 the closing, by drawing the forward portion to the 
 rear, aids "the starting of the shell. When the bolt 
 is withdrawn the extractor, which is of the spring- 
 hook pattern, pulls on the upper side of the head of 
 the shell while the under side abuts against a forked 
 post. By this means the shell is thrown clear of the 
 gun. In order to insure the ejection of the shell a 
 quick motion of the bolt is necessary. The forked 
 post acts also as a guide for the breech-bolt. A slot 
 in the rear of the bolt receives the nose of the ham- 
 mer, allowing it to strike the firing-pin onl}' when 
 the piece is locked. A slide prevents the hammer 
 being pulled back by catching of clothing, etc. It 
 must be moved back before the hammer can be 
 ■cocked. The magazine, which is in the tip-stock, 
 is loaded from the side of the receiver, or from imder- 
 neath, by first raising the carrier by the withdrawal 
 of the breech-bolt. The carrier has two grooves, 
 one on each side, on its inner surface. In these 
 ^grooves projections on the breech-bolt enter. As the 
 "bolt is withdrawn the projections travel in the upper 
 horizontal portion of the grooves until they reach in- 
 clined faces when, by the pressure against them, the 
 carrier is compelled to rise, bringing a cartridge op- 
 posite the chamber. When the bolt is returned, the 
 projections travel in the lower horizontal portion of 
 the grooves until they reach other inclined faces, 
 when the carrier descends opposite the mouth of the 
 magazine, so that cartridges cannot escape until it is 
 in position to receive them. No magazine cut-off 
 is provided. As a magazine-gun, 4 motions are ne- 
 cessary to operate it, viz. : cocked, opened, closed, 
 fired. As a single-loader, 5 motions are necessary, 
 viz. : cocked, opened, loaded, closed, fired. The 
 gun caliber 0".44. carries 13 cartridges in the maga- 
 zine, 1 in the carrier, and 1 in the chamber. See 
 
 HUBDLZ EEVETMENT.— This kind of revetment 
 is made by driving poles in the same direction as 
 Ihe interior slope, into the banquette, about eighteen 
 
 inches below the tread, and then forming a wicker- 
 work. l)y interlacing twigs between them in a similar 
 manner "to basket-work. The poles sliould be nine 
 inches apart, and their diameter about one-and-a-half 
 inches. They should be secured to the parapet by 
 lonn- withes. The drawing shows a hurdle revet- 
 ment and fraise. See lievetnunt. 
 
 HUBDLES. — Straight and fiat rectangles of strong 
 wicker-work, about" (i feet long, and 2 feet 9 inches 
 higli. Tliey are useful in many ways, both in mili- 
 tary and civil life, either as fencing, as barriers, or 
 in forliticatiim. in the construction oilivrdlr-lmtteriex. 
 These last were the invention of Sir William Con- 
 greve, who devised them as the speeiliest means of 
 throwing up earthworks; three hurdles are fastened 
 at their ends in tlie form of a triangle, and Ihe cen- 
 tral space is filled in a short time with earth. These 
 triangles can be constructed to any ground-plan, and 
 with their aid, a body of soldiers can intrench them- 
 selves in a few minutes. Tlie hurdle is composed of 
 wattles interwoven round stakes or pickets, the 
 laller iluring the man\ifacture being fixed upright 
 anil tirnily in tlie gmimd. 
 
 HUBRAH. — A shout of encouragement and ap- 
 plause, characteristically English. It serves also as 
 
 a war cry. As an engagement at sea commences, 
 the crews of the English vessels send up deafening 
 hurrahs ; in a charge on .shore, the English soldiers 
 hurrah when they rush upon the enemy. There is 
 sometliing strangely exciting in this simple sound, 
 and the combatants work themselves, as they shout, 
 into a frenzied forgetjulness of danger. 
 
 HUBST. — A charge in Heraldry employed to rep- 
 resent a small group of trees, generally borne upon 
 a mount in base. 
 
 HTJBTEB — HEUBTEE — HEURTOIB. A square 
 beam placed at the foot of a parapet where there is 
 an embrasure to prevent the wheels from injuring 
 the iuterior slope, when the gun is moved in battery. 
 A short fascine or fagot is sometimes used as a substi- 
 tute for the beam. A hurter is placed on the front 
 part of a siege platform, under the wheels. The 
 motion of gun-carriages is checked, front and rear, 
 by pieces of wood or iron, boiled to the top-rails, 
 called hurUrs and cimnUr-hurUr.t. 
 
 HUSSABS, — Light cavalry. The name is derived 
 from the Hungarian words hvia (twenty), and ar 
 (pay), because every twenty houses had to provide 
 one horse-soldier. In the British Army there are 13 
 1 regiments. The men are armed with a saber, car- 
 bine, and pistol. The weight the horse of a hussar 
 carries is about 18 stone. The dashing bold hussar, 
 that epitome of military impudence and reckless- 
 ness at the tavern, should present those qualities in 
 : a very sublimated form on the field. Regardless of 
 fatigue and danger, his imagination should never 
 present to itself an obstacle as insurmountable. On 
 the march, constantly at the enem^^'s heels ; in posi- 
 tion keeping him at all moments on the alert, 
 harassing him either with fatigue, or apprehension 
 for the security of his rear and communications ; on 
 the field careering with a falcon's speed and glance 
 upon his quarry, however it may seek to elude his 
 blow, such should be the hussar. 
 
 HUSSITES.— The followers of Huss. Honoring 
 him and Jerome of Prague as martyrs, thej' despised 
 the decrees and anathemas of the Council, and took 
 terrible revenge on the Priests and Monks. The 
 symbol of their Confederacy was the cup, the use of 
 which in the Lord's Supper they extended to 
 the Lait}-, as James de Misa had already done 
 with the approbation of Huss. In 1417 King 
 Wenceslaus was constrained to grant them the 
 use of many churches. After his death, Au- 
 gust 13, 1419, the majority of the States re- 
 fused to acknowledge his brother, the Em- 
 peror Sigismund, who had broken his safe 
 conduct to Huss. And the papal instructions 
 to the Cardinal Legate, John Dominico, re- 
 quiring him to employ violent measures for 
 I the conversion of the Hussites, an insurrection en- 
 sued, and the war began which is known in history 
 as the Hussite War. Convents and churches were 
 reduced to ashes, and Priests and Monks were slain. 
 The Hussites divided into two parties — the Calixtine 
 and the Taborlten. See Huss et la Ouerre desSussiten, 
 by Ernest Denis (1879). 
 
 HUT. — A structure more or less rough in its de- 
 tails, for the housing of troops. It is substituted 
 very often for the tent, when the sojourn in a camp 
 or cantonment is likely to be of consideration, as, 
 for instance, through a winter — a hut. however rude, 
 which is wind and water-tight, being as superior in 
 comfort to a tent as the latter is to the open air. 
 Huts may be made of almost any size, and are som?- 
 times for one officer ; at others for as many as one 
 hundred men. The principal hut encami)mrnts in 
 England are Aldershott, Shorncliffi', Colchester, and 
 the Curragh of Kililare ; in British North America, 
 hut-camps are situated at intervals of a day's march 
 on the route from New Brunswick to trochee, and Ihe 
 troops who made that winter-march in IHIil to 18C3 
 found their shelter truly welcome. The qiiarlers oc- 
 cupied by the Uniti'd i^lales troops on the American 
 frontiers, are very frequently huts made of tiuil)er
 
 HYDEB. 
 
 67 
 
 HYDRAULIC BUTTEH. 
 
 by the troops. A good liut iimy lie readily finu 
 stniftpil on Hiiitablc^rouiKlor liillsiili' by ex* iiviitinn 
 1111(1 ciivcrin;; witli u roof ; hiil if limber Im cnnvi'ii- 
 ifiil. it is Ixttcr to build u l"f/ liiit, coviTiiii; with 
 bark skins, bushes, reed mats, weii-wecds. or any 
 Hiutabbr material procurable. In buildini; the hut 
 four poles an; planted in the ground where the cor- 
 ners are to rest. The lof;s are then piled one abovi' 
 another ai;aiiint these poles, us shown in the drawing;, 
 beinn notclu'd where they cross so as to brim; their 
 Bides together. The .space lietweeu the logs is then 
 
 made water-tight and air-tiplit by a stufting of clay, 
 wattles, sallows, or small bundles of Iwii^s. Within, 
 the joints should be lined with laths, or the whole 
 be supported by a scantlint;, and may consist of 
 overlapping boards, or boards laid Hush and shingled, 
 or laths and shingles, or even birch-bark alone. 
 The door is usually ledgcd, and there are one or two 
 windows, with glazed sashes and shutters. A hut 
 thus formed makes a snug habitation, and will last 
 for many years; exclusive of the sashes, two men 
 can erect in about a week, a hut of rough logs which 
 shall be sufficiently large for their residence — that 
 is, with an interior area of aliout lO feet. When 
 circumstances permit the logs are occasionally 
 sqtiared, which enables them to be fitted more ac- 
 curately to each other, and adds, of course, to the 
 solidity and finish of the whole structure, as well as 
 to its durability. In this case the corner logs, in- 
 stead of crossing each other, are joined by a dove- 
 tail, or cutting the end of each to an angle of 4.')''. 
 ^he f famed hut has the advantage over the log luit 
 of allowing more exactness of finish, and from its 
 lightness and portability being easily transported to 
 any place where logs for hut-building may not be 
 forthcoming. It consists of a strong framework of 
 squared wood, properly fitted together, and covered 
 with overlapping planks or weather-boards. The 
 pieces should be sawn to the proper size, fitted to 
 each other, and numbered ; then packed together in 
 small compass for conve3-ance to the intended site, 
 where the structure can soon be erected. It is usu- 
 ally estimated that one of these huts, 30 feet long. 
 16 broad, and 10 high, makes a good barrack-room 
 for 30 soldiers. The camps at Aldershott and the 
 Curragh are mainly formed of framed huts. Where 
 extra warmth is desired, the spaces between the up- 
 rights are built tip roughly with bricks, Imrned or 
 unbumed. Pi«e huts, common in the south of 
 France, and very useful where wood is scarce, as 
 well as very comfortable, are walled with blocks 
 of clayey earth, and rammed with great pressure 
 into wooden molds until they assume the forms of 
 stones. These are laid one above the other much as 
 stones themselves vi'ould be by a mason, and the 
 wall so formed is both durable and sightly. The 
 most critical operation for the non-professional hut- 
 builder is roofing. This is usually thatch, shingles, 
 paper, or felt, if lightness Vie an object; and of stones, 
 liricks, or tiles, it the walls be calculated to bear 
 their pressure. A roof of split logs gouged out in 
 the center, like a long curved gutter, is good. A 
 layer is placed side by side, with the hollow side up, 
 and a second layer is put on them, with the hollow 
 side down. The roof should have a pitch of not less 
 than iT)'^ to keep out the rain. All cracks should 
 be carefully filled with grass, mud, clay. etc. Th 
 huts of Indians and all Savages are seuerallv rouml 
 
 or ajiproximati' to the circular form, [irobubly be- 
 cause of thir maximum house for a minimum cover. 
 In building huts, it might be well to remember tlwl 
 logs split better from the (Town or small end toward 
 the liull. 
 
 HYDER.— The Arabic term for lion. This title is 
 frei|u<-nllv given In iiii'n of rank ill India. 
 
 HYDRAULIC BUFFER. A recoil check, in con- 
 stru<-liiin very similar to Ihe air-cylinder, A liquid 
 is useil instead of air, but lh<' |)rinci|iles of operation 
 are similar. This bulTer is, at jiresent, furnished 
 only with the converted guns in the United Slates 
 service. In its usual form it consists of a cast-iron 
 cylinder 78 inches long, with an interior diameter of 
 8 inches, closed at eilher end by a cast-iron caj). 
 Near the rear end of the In]) of the cylinder is a bole 
 fnr the purpose nf filling it » itli water, or some n: n- 
 freezing lic|uid. A hole in the front end, closed with 
 a screw-plug, permits Ihe fiuid to be withdrawn. 
 Nine and one-half gallons (|)recisely) of fluid are re- 
 (|uired. A wrought-iron piston-rod passes through 
 the rear cap, and is secured to the rear of the top- 
 carriage by a wrought-iron cross-head. The piston- 
 head, of wrought-iron, l.T inches thick, is piened 
 near its circumference, on opiiosite sides of the rod, 
 with two holes seven-eighths of an inch in diameter. 
 These holes flare out both ways 25 inches, allowing 
 free passage to the fluid from the rear to the front of 
 the piston, permitting the top-carriage to run back 
 without strain. Upon the top of the rear end of 
 each rail of the chassis of No. 3, is bolted a wedge 
 or incline, having a rise of 2.5 inches in ()4 inches ; 
 near the rear end of this, is attached a brass angle- 
 plate, to which are secured three rubber counter- 
 hurters. A similar angle-plate with hurters is at- 
 tached to the front part of the chassis. Water or 
 any other free-flowing liquid answers for filling the 
 cylinder. In cold weather a non-freezing liciuid, as 
 a mixture of glycerine and water, metliyl and water, 
 or some of the non-freezing oils, must be used. The 
 greatest care must be observed to have in the cylin- 
 der the exact amount required. The difliculfy of 
 properly regulating all of these matters makes the 
 hydraulic buffer greatly inferior to theair-cvlinders. 
 
 The recoil of the guii is controlled in all I'russian 
 carriages for the land service by the Hydraulic 
 Buffer. As generally used, it consists of a wrought- 
 iron lap-welded cylinder, with cast-iron cover-cap 
 and flange, and wrought-iron piston-head and rod, 
 a packiiig-gland and emptying-cock of brass. The 
 cylinder is 77.375 inches long in the clear, and 8.07 
 inches in diameter, and holds 12 gallons 5 pints. 
 The cap closes the rear end, being screwed on. 
 The flange is screwed on the front end. and the 
 cover is bolted to the flange. Both the flange and 
 cover are flat on top. to allow the top-carriage to 
 pass over them without striking. To secure per- 
 fectly tight joints, a mineral composition is spread 
 over" the screw-threads of the cylinder liefore the 
 cap and flange are put on, and the same, mixed with 
 chopped hemp, is laid between the flange and cover 
 before they are bolted together. Tlie packing used 
 to make a tight joint around the piston-rod consists 
 of a piece of tow about 1.25 inches in circumference 
 and 3 feet 7 inches long, greased with tallow, and 
 wound round the rod and pushed into the recess in 
 the cover. It is held in place by the packing-gland, 
 which is made to squeeze the packing by being 
 screwed into the cover until the rod can be just moved 
 by the strength of one man. A zinc pan is suspended 
 from the front end of the cylinder to catch any oil 
 tliat may drip from the gland in firing. 
 
 A filling-hole is bored and tapped in the upper 
 surface of the cylinder near the rear end, and is 
 closed by a wrought-iron screw-plug, which is se- 
 cured to the chassis by a short chain. An emptying- 
 cock of brass is provided in the lower part of the 
 cover. The piston-head, 8.04 inches in diameter, 
 has four holes drilled in it . each 1 .25 inches diameter, 
 for the 7-inch gun : .9 inch for the 9, 11. and 12-inch,
 
 HYDRAULIC CRANES. 
 
 68 
 
 HYDRAULIC ENGINES. 
 
 and .8 for the 10-inch, and .7 for the IS-inch of 25 
 tons. The piston-rod screws into the head, and i.s 
 prevented from tnrniusr by a screw. Tlie collar-nut 
 screws on to the rod a few inches from the end, and 
 the connectins-nut on the extreme end. The cross- 
 liead is held between tlie two nuts, with r. play of 
 about one-tenth of an inch, and the hole in tlie cross- 
 head for the piston-rod is made oval, to allow of the 
 top-carriag-e beins thrown on its truck-wheels with- 
 out bending the piston-rod. The cylinder is secured 
 to the chassis by means of iron bands which pass 
 over the cylinder, and are bolted down to the rear 
 bottom-plate at the rear end, and at the front end to 
 a bearins-plate which is bolted to the diasonal 
 braces. Tlie rear bottom-plate and the lower flange 
 of the rear transom are hollowed out to form a bed 
 for the end of the cyK.ider. The top tlange of the 
 rear transom is cut away from tlie cap of the 
 cvlinder. The cylinder, before being bolted down 
 on the chassis, is brought to bear sqmirely against 
 the rear transom, with the flat edges of the flange 
 an.1 screwed into a piece to which the cover is held 
 by screws. There is a hole in the bottom piece for 
 tilli)n'j the cylinder: it is stopped with a screw and a 
 cock in the cover for emptying it. Thepislon-head, 
 Willi fiuir holes bored in it, flts the cylinder closely, 
 and to it the piston-rod of cast-steel is fastened, and 
 passes through the cylinder-head, the joint being 
 packed with hemp-packing and bronze packing-bo.\. 
 The end of the piston-rod is fastened to the cross- 
 head, which is bolted to the bottom transom of the 
 top-carriage. The Hydraulic Buffer operates in this 
 manner: "The cylinder is tilled almost full with 
 glycerine, which is preferable to water in that it does 
 not evaporate or freeze. A certain amount of air is 
 always left in the cylinder. In the recoil of the car- 
 riage the piston-head connected to it by the piston- 
 rod and cross-head cmipresses the glycerine in the 
 
 , ,(o) "» 
 
 rear end of the cylinder, and causes the liquid to 
 flow rapidly through the holes in the pist(m-head, 
 irradmiliy bringing the carriage to a state of rest. 
 The air in the cylinder acts as a cushion when the 
 gun is Hrcd. and lessens the shock which is then 
 communicated to the ditfereut p:irts. Tlie resistance 
 of the liipiid tn a slow motion of the piston-head 
 lieiiig verv small, no dithcully is experienced in run- 
 ning the gun slowly into battery. 
 
 The Hydraulic IJulfer should" be the object of es- 
 jiccial attention. :illliougli there is little to do to It 
 :ifter it has been secured in its place in the shops. 
 First, attention should be paid to the jireservation 
 of the glycerine in the cylinder at its pniper height, 
 which c;tn be discovered at tlic ti]liULr-li<ile. If the 
 glycerine f:dls licUiw the prescribed depth, it does 
 not maltler from what cause, it must be replenished. 
 For this purpose, take out the (illing-hole s<Tew and 
 insert the funnel in the liole. The purest glycerine 
 is always to be preferred, of a density of 1.111, which 
 neither evaporates ikpt freezes, even with the great- 
 
 est cold, and has no action on the metals. In case8 
 of emergencj' the defleiency may be made up with 
 pure water without altering its qualities sensibly, 
 but this addition of water should never exceed one- 
 i fourth of the whole. In filling the cylinder the pre- 
 I scribed quantity marked in figures on the end should 
 [ under no circumstances be exceeded. In some car- 
 riages the proper height of the glycerine is marked 
 1 by a screw. To prevent it from leaking, it is ab- 
 solutely necess!iry, in the first jjlace, to keep the 
 filling-liole screw always tight by wrapping it with 
 1 a hempen thread, with white lead or tallow when 
 I necessary : secondly, to tighten the hemp packing 
 : whenever the least leaking of the liquid is observed, 
 ' by screwing up the packing-gland : and, thirdly, to 
 keep the eniptying-cock always tight and well closed. 
 It is advisable to close it with a wooden plug. Be- 
 fore the firing, the carriage, and particularly the 
 ! hydraulic l)uffer, should, as far as possible, be 
 minutely inspected, the bolts, nuts, etc., which may 
 have got loose tightened up, and the working of 
 ' the ditferent parts tested. See Pneumatic Bufftr. 
 
 HYDRAULIC CRANES.— Wherever a large numlier 
 1 of cranes luivc to be worked near each other, water- 
 power is by far the most manageable, economical, 
 and convenient method of working them. Sir W. 
 ' Armstrong & Co., oi Newcastle, have taken the 
 lead in introducing this kind of machiner3'. They 
 j have fitted up a great many railway goods stations 
 j with complete sj^stems of hydraulic cranes. 
 
 The pressure usually employed in working the 
 liydraulic cranes is greatly in excess of the pressure 
 admissible in the case of steam. Six or seven 
 hundred pounds to the square inch is usually em- 
 \ ployed as the working pressure. It is got "up to 
 this great pressure by means of an arrangement 
 \ called an accumulator, which consists of a large 
 ; hydraulic ram of 16 or 18 inches in diameter, carry- 
 ing a wrought-iron cylinder. 
 This cylinder is filled up with 
 stones or gravel to the weight 
 of GO or 70 tons. A powerful 
 horizontal .steam-engine forces 
 water into a cjlinder and slow- 
 ly raises the ram with its enor- 
 mous load. Pipes lead away 
 from the cylinder to the cranes 
 in the diflferent parts of the sta- 
 tion, and are thus supplied with 
 water under the great pressure 
 caused by the load forcing the 
 ram into" the cylinder. "The 
 load is constantly rising and 
 hdling a little as these cranes 
 draw their supplies from the 
 cylinder. If the cranes were 
 supplied direct from the force- 
 pumps (if the ste:im-engiue, 
 without the intervention of this 
 accumulator, their action would be jerky and un- 
 steady. The accumulator acts as a reservoir of power, 
 and when it happens that a great number of cranes 
 are drawing off water at the same moment, and in 
 excess of what the engine force-pumps can supjily. 
 the ram descends, keejiing uji the while the full 71(0 
 lbs. pressure ; and then, when the cnmes are dem;uid- 
 ing less abundant supplies, the engine overtakes its 
 works, and .sends the ram up again. When it arrives 
 at the top it touches a lever conununicating with the 
 throttle-valve of the engine, and thus slows or stops 
 the engine when the accumuhitor Iwis mounted to its 
 maximum height. The miiment it begins to descend, 
 the lever is relieved, the throtlle-valve opens, and the 
 engine goes on again with such speed as the work de- 
 mands. Sec Crniiis. 
 
 HYDRAULIC ENGINES —These engines are fre- 
 quently used in fciuudries and arsenals, where water 
 <if a high pressure is i)bliiinal)le. They do nut dilTer 
 in any essential jiarticular frnm a steam-engine. As 
 the pressure under which they work Lh from five to
 
 BTDBAULIC FOKQINO. 
 
 09 
 
 HYDRAULIC GUN CARHIAOE 
 
 ten limes firciilcr limn tliiit nf ii stciiiii-i'nf;inc, tlicy 
 arc iniicli hmihUit. A ((uiimoti fi)rni is tliiil <■{ tlircr 
 Bmiill cvliiiilcrs in wliicli Mircc pjuiificrs work. 'I"li(^ 
 water is ailiiiitti'd iiito tlie evlinilers liy nieiins of 
 valves, anil forces tlie pliinirers iiiilwunls. These 
 pltMiijers are eonnecleil vvilji a lliree-lliniw crank, 
 and when Ihey have ((inipleleil llieir onlward travel, 
 or wiirkinn-stroke, the water is allowed to escape 
 from the cylinder, llie pliin;xcr then slides inwanis, 
 to lie anain forced outwards liy a fresh rush of water 
 admitted at, the proper instant into the cylinder hy 
 the action of the valve. 
 
 Hoots Holary llydraidic Engine, extensively used 
 in till' United States and abroad, is represented in 
 the ilrawint;. In order tn realize the fnll lienelils 
 that may be derived from this, or any other Hy- 
 draulic ]Cni;in(% it is of tlie utmost iin|.ortance that 
 the supply or feed-pipe be sulliciently iar<;e todeliv- 
 er the water to tlie engine when niiininLj, at the 
 Bame pressure as at the mains. .Anythini; less than 
 
 this crijipli'^ llie rnjiin-. ami c;ii:s(s it to use an un- 
 necessarily iMr^eamoiml of water. In a loni; service- 
 pipe of small .si/e the pressure is so reduced by the 
 friction of the water in passing throui;h the pipe, 
 that though it may supply a sufticient volume of 
 water, it would be at such a diminished pressure 
 that it would have but little power; for instance, if 
 an engine used fifty pillons of water per minute, 
 with forty pounds pressure per square inch at the 
 mains, and yet by the use of a small service-pipe, 
 reduced the pressure at the emrine when running to 
 ten pounds per square inch (which is often done), 
 it is evident that while the same quantity of water 
 is used, that only one-fourth of the useful effect 
 would be obtained from it, that would be if the 
 same pressure was maintained at the engines as at 
 the main. It is also plain that to do the work that 
 coidd be done witli the T)!) gallons at 40 pounds 
 pressure, that four times as much water would lie 
 required at 10 pounds jiressure.or 200 gallons; thus 
 plainly showing that with a given work to be done, 
 much less water will be required with a large pipe 
 than with a small one. hence the importance and econ- 
 omy of having the feed-pipe amply large. This engine 
 being a pressure-engine, the water is confined and 
 cannot escape until it has exerted its whole force in 
 turning the engine. AVhen the engine does not turn, 
 no water is discharged except from a slight leakage. 
 It can only receive and use a sutticient quantity of 
 water to fill the engine, each revolution. The en- 
 gine is a water-meter as well as a water-engine, 
 therefore the quantity of water useil is not deter- 
 mined by the size of the pipe, but by the number of 
 revolutions of the engine. If the jiipes were ten 
 times as large, the engine would not use any more 
 water per revohition than with a very small pipe, 
 but the amount of power resulting from a given 
 amount of water windd be in proportion to the dif- 
 ference in ]ircssure. as shown before. 
 
 The engine should be placed on a solid foundation 
 perfectly level from end to end, and be firmly se- 
 cured, so that it will not get out of position from the 
 strain of the lielt or other attachment. IJut care 
 • must be taken to have an equal bearing on the 
 foundation ; otherwise, when it is fastenci.1 down, it ) 
 
 will be on a strain and <ause it to work hard, fare 
 must also betaken in lilting on the fer'daiid discharge, 
 pipes, and making the connections, that they are not 
 on a strain, for this may also spring the machine ami 
 cause it to run hard. The disrliarge.pipe should 
 always have a syphon or trap bet ween theengineand 
 the sewer-pijie into which il discharges, for the pur- 
 pose of keeping the discliarge.pipe full of water, by 
 keeping out the air. The size of the pulley should be 
 such thai, when all the machinery is on that the en- 
 gine is to drive, and running at full speed, llie ri'gu- 
 lating-valve should be wide open. If the speed is 
 loo high, the driving-jiulley should be enlarged : if 
 too slow, it should be diminished. 
 
 HYDRAULIC FORGING. ForL'ing with Ihe hydraii- 
 lic-])ress instead of the hammer and anvil. The jiro- 
 cess is analogous to that of rolling. The advanlaires 
 claimed for the process are that it is, in manv opera- 
 tions, more expeditious than theordinary modes, and 
 also that it produces a better structurarcondition of 
 the jiarticles of the material, the force lieing less 
 suiierlieial than the sudden impact of a hammer, and 
 I moving Ihe jiarticles of m;itler near the center to a 
 greater e.xtent, thus rendering the forged b;ir more 
 homogeneous. Kvery forger and obsi-rvant person 
 ' has noticed that in tlie ordinary mode of forgimr a 
 j biir of iron there is, when the liar is thick enough, a 
 protrusion of material at the edges, leaving a groove 
 in the middle of the thickness, because of the super- 
 I ficial portions of the iron b;ir having received Ihe 
 greatest spread. Rolling or forging bv jiressure 
 I avoids this. Forging by hydraulic pressure is prac- 
 ticed in Europe. At Vienna there are several presses 
 in o|ieration, one with a piston 24 inches in diameter 
 transmit linL' a pressure of 2,400.000 lbs. 
 
 HYDRAULIC GUN CARRIAGE.— The renowned 35- 
 ton Hydraulic Carriage was cimstrucled at Wool- 
 wich, under the direction of theCommamlini: Officer 
 of the Carriage Department. A detailed description 
 of this carriage will suffice for all others. The 
 hydraulic ajijiaratus with which it is provided is 
 used to check the recoil in firing, run the gun into 
 battery or from battery, and also to traverse the car- 
 riage to the right or left. These different operations 
 are performed by means of two hydraulic cylinders, 
 O and D, and the double-action pump in the reser- 
 voir, E, which contains a mixture of alcohol and 
 water. The pump, worked by mejuis of the brake, 
 G, drives the liquid into the distributing-chest, H, 
 which sends it through the tubes, I K L, either to 
 the front end of the cylinder O, or to one or other 
 end of the cylinder D. The desired position of the 
 valve is given by means of the lever, M, attached to 
 the right side of the chassis. The cylinder, 1), has 
 a piston, the rod of which is fasteneil to the chain 
 c, c, which engages a wheel mounted on the .^^ame 
 axle as the pinion that drives the bevel wheels, in- 
 tended to give motion to the rear traverse-wheels. 
 The motion of the piston in either direction carries 
 the chain, c, with it, thus causing the pinion to tuni, 
 and by its means the traverse-wheels. To traverse 
 the carriage to the right or left it is sutticient to turn 
 the distributing-valve so as to send the liquid i n one 
 or the other face of the piston, and then to work the 
 pump by means of the brake, G. The chain moves 
 on the wheel with a velocity four times sreater than 
 that of the piston ; a slight motion, therefore, of the 
 latter is sufficient to traverse the chassis through a 
 considerable arc. A piston is also fitted to the cvl- 
 inder. D. which is used to check the recoil in firing, 
 and to run the gim into battery. The piston has a 
 leather packing on either face, and the front end of 
 the rod is fastened to the carriage. The front enil 
 of the cylinder is placed in communication with the 
 distributing-chest by a pipe, and the rear end by a 
 passage, K, with a second reservoir, Q. The passalre, 
 K, can be contracted more or less by a conical valve, 
 which is regulated by means of the regulator, I. To 
 use the apparatus as a hydraulic bulTer. close tlic 
 communication of the front part of the cvliuder, O,
 
 HYDKAULIC JACK. 
 
 70 
 
 HYDEAULIC JACK. 
 
 with the pump through the distributing-valve, H, 
 and reduce the section of the orifice for the stream 
 according as circumstances may require. When the 
 gun is fired, the carriage as it recoils forces the pis- 
 Foii in. and drives the liquid into the reservoir, Q, 
 through the opening around the conical valve : the 
 recoil is checked as in the ordinary hydraulic buflfcr, 
 by the resistance that the liquid meets with in pass- 
 ing through the narrow orifice. The entire dis- 
 tance throiigli which the valve may be moved is one 
 inch, and the part of the valve-stem that projects is 
 graduated into tenths of an inch. In firing with 
 maximum charges the valve-stem is turned in up to 
 the division of eight-tenths. 
 
 To run the gun from battery without firing, it is 
 sufficient to open the communication of the pipe, I, 
 with the pump, and to work the latter. Tlie pres- 
 sure of the liquid on the front face of the piston 
 forces it into tlie cylinder, O. and draws the carriage, 
 being attached to' the rod, P. back with it. The 
 liquid which is in rear of the piston escapes as be- 
 fore, l)ut without meeting any resistance in its pas- 
 siige around the conical valve on account of the slow- 
 ness of the motion. To run the gun into battery. 
 
 arc of 54° is two minutes, and tlie same for running 
 the gun from battery 6^ feet. The loading apparatus 
 is decidedly novel. It is composed essentially of a 
 chain with the links constructed like the joint of a 
 carpenter's rule, so that it can turn on!)- in one di- 
 rection, while it is as stiff as a solid rod in every 
 other. The links of this chain are made as follows : 
 The angles of the links on top are square, wlijle 
 those underneath are rounded : two adjoining links 
 thus abut against each otlier when an effort is made 
 to bend the chain outward, while it can be readily 
 bent in the opposite direction. It is guided in its 
 motion by a kind of tube inclosed between two sheet- 
 iron plates. A spur-wheel and pinion supply tlie 
 means of raising the tube out of its bed, and raising 
 the chain up to the bore of the gun. The tvibe is 
 held at a convenient height by a pawl. A rammer 
 or sponge is fitted to the front end of the chain ac- 
 cording as it is wished to loaa or sponge the piece, 
 and by working the crank-handles the cliain is forced 
 down the bore as if it were a rigid staff. The trials 
 with this arrangement have given satisfactory re- 
 sults. A still m'ore original mode of loading, based 
 on the use of a pneumatic apparatus, has been ap' 
 
 the front of the cylinder, O, and the tube, T, are 
 placed in communication with the discharge-pipe by 
 means of the distributing-valve, H. The carriage 
 then runs into battery of itself by reason of the in- 
 clination of the rails of the chassis. Its velocity is 
 checked by the resistance that the liquid meets with 
 in passing through the tube, T. If it be wished 
 that the gun .shalfrun into battery more quickly, a 
 special tube, c, is provided, of larger cross-section, 
 which allows the water to pass more quickly ; it 
 will be sufficient to open the valve, by means of the 
 handle, to reduce the time of running in to a few 
 seconds. By turning this handle the motion of the 
 carriage may be regulated at pleasure, and it may be 
 even stopped at any point on the chassis by closing 
 the valve altogether. The ordinary position of the 
 valves is that represented in the drawing, the appar- 
 atus being arranged for running the gun from bat- 
 tery. Tlie liquid wliich is forced by the pumps passes 
 into the tube, T, while K, and L, communicate with 
 the discharge-pipe. If the valve be moved farther to 
 the right, L, remains in connection with the dis- 
 cliar;;r-pipe, N. T is closed while one of the orifices 
 of admission comes opposite the outlet, K. If, on 
 the contrary, it is pushed to the left, I. and K, com- 
 municate with the discharge-pipe, and L, with the 
 otlier opening. These two extreme positions of the 
 valve correspond with the traversing of the chassis 
 in one or other direction, and the last also to running 
 the irun into battery automatically. A dircction- 
 plate'^is attached to"the chassis on the right side, 
 giving the positions of the lever, M, corn'sponding 
 to those of the valve for traversing the gim to the 
 left, from battery, gun to the right, and into battery. 
 One man at the valve-lever and two nu'u at the 
 pumps are sufficient to execute all (if the miincuvers, 
 though it is preferable to have four nwn at the pumps. 
 The 'time re(iuired to traverse the gun through an 
 
 plied to a 65-ton gun in the experimental casemate 
 battery at Woolwich. This arrangement has the ad- 
 vantage of requiring only very little room. See Sea- 
 eoaft nnd Gnrrison Carriages. 
 
 HYDKAULIC JACK.— A machine which often takes 
 the place of the jack-screw for raising heavy weights. 
 It is simply a form of hydraulic press, which may be 
 placed beneath heavy ordnance, or any great weight 
 which it is desired to raise, and generally consisting 
 of a stout frame furnished with upright grooves, in 
 which a follower may be forced upward by a hydrau- 
 lic cylinder. By proper appliances the power may 
 be rendered almost immeasurably great. The enor- 
 mous multiplying power given by this machine has 
 been employed for a great variety of useful purposes 
 such as compressing bales of cotton, paper, etc., ex- 
 pressing oils, bending of iron plates and bars, and 
 raising weights. This was the means employed for 
 launching tlie Great Eastern, at Jlillwall. and for 
 raising to their position the tubes of the Britannia 
 bridge. Thejac/c.i. as manufactured by Watson and 
 Stillman, New York, up to 30 tons capacity appear 
 to the eye. when dejiressed, a simple cylinder with a 
 head ; and when elevated, like one cj'linder sliding 
 within another. The cylinder is from two to six or 
 more inches in diameter, according to the power de- 
 sired. The head (which is .screwed on to the inner 
 cylinder, c.-dleil the ram) has a socket for the recep- 
 tion of the lever by which the force-pump is worked. 
 Tlie force-pump is contained inside of the ram, and 
 conse(pientlv is not seen in the following drawings. 
 The ram, with the head, contains only as much fluid 
 as is reiiuired to fill the vacancy in the cylinder, 
 caused by the raising of the mm in the act of lifting, 
 and when this is accomiilishcd, the tluid is returned 
 into its original reservoir by a valve operated by the 
 lever that works tlie ]iuuii). The lever is delatched, 
 and may be put on at pleasure. The claw attachment
 
 HYDRAULIC LOADING APPAEATU8. 
 
 71 
 
 HYDRAULIC LOADING APPARATUS. 
 
 is iiii iron tube, Bcrewed into tlic lower side of the 
 lit'iul, 1111(1 piiHsinfj down to the liolloni of the jack 
 outside of llie < yli'ider. on llie lower end (jf wiiieli 
 is a elaw timt supports the weij;lit l(; lie raised. 
 These jacks are HkIiI. portiilile, and of easy applica- 
 tion — a jack to raise 5 tons wei(;lis only 20 llis., anil 
 one to raise 100 tons not more than liTri lbs. They 
 are all worked liy the lahor of one man only, who is 
 rapalile of raisini^ 10 Ions through a space of one 
 foot in one and a half minules. or 100 Ions the same 
 distance in ten minutes. The horizontal jacks 
 havean<'nliirin-d resiTVoir, containing' lluid sutlicient 
 to run them out their entire leni;lh in a hcprizontal 
 position. To use the jack, place the head for if a 
 claw-jack the claw or head) \mder the weight to be 
 raised, place in the lever with the projection down- 
 
 its working. The cylinder and bottom, on which it 
 rests, are made from one piece of steel, thus ri liev- 
 ini; the ri-servoir-casin;,' of strain, aiul dispensing 
 wilh one very troiiblisome iiacking and making u 
 jack stronger and lighter than one having a wrought- 
 iron cylinder. There is nolhing dillicult of access, 
 or which an ordinary nu'chanic cannot keep in good 
 order. I''ig. 4 shows a double pump-jack, liaving 
 pumps with pistons J inch and Ij inch diameter, 
 the larger giving about one-third the pressure of the 
 smaller, and working three limes as fast. This 
 style of jack is used where there is a variety of 
 work, or where the jack has to work under varying 
 loads. Fig. ■') shows the hydraulic pidling-jaek, 
 used for hoisting or pulling heavy weights in engine 
 rooms, or in other circumscribed places, setting up 
 
 Fig. ). 
 
 Kig. S. 
 
 Kig. -J. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 •ward, then work it perpendicularly until the weight 
 is at the required height, or the number of inches 
 the jack runs out. To lower the weight, push the 
 lever to the bottom of the stroke, take it out, turn it 
 with the projection upward, and with a slight pres- 
 sure of the hiind. the weight may be lowered as slow- 
 as required, or stopped at any point. Sometimes it 
 liappeus that another stroke of the lever woidd raise 
 the weight too high ; then raise the lever a little, and 
 push itdowu slowly, by which the stroke will be 
 missed. Should the valve stick to its seat, and pre- 
 vent the jack working, by striking the lever a few 
 sliarp blows up anil down, the valve will be released. 
 Fi^. 1 shows the style used when the jack stands 
 iipoii the groimd or light board, and can be placed 
 under the work, or where steadiness is reqinred. 
 Fig. 2 .shows the style used when there is not suf- 
 ficient room to get the head of the jack under the 
 work, and is the pattern used for moving heavy 
 guns, boilers, machinery, etc. Fig. 3 shows a form 
 of lifting-jack used for dry docks, pressing flanges 
 on wagon wheel hubs, etc. The piston is entirely 
 enclosed, thus preventing all grit or foreign material 
 getting into the pump and cutting it or preventing 
 
 I rigring, pile-drawing, etc. This jack appears like 
 a plain cylinder with rings at each end. bv which to 
 attach the body to be moved. Thev are three or 
 more inches in diameter, and one and" a half or more 
 
 I feet long, according to the power required, or the 
 distance the weight is to be moved. It has a force- 
 jMimp on the outside, worked by a lever, which 
 forces the fluid contained in the cvlinder to the op- 
 posite side of a piston, to the rod of which one of 
 
 j the rings at the end is attached. Bv this operation 
 the jack is forced together, drawimr with it the 
 
 I body to be moved. It will work vertically, hori- 
 zontally, or at any angle. To use the jack, till it 
 through the screw in the side of the cylinder with 
 whiskey and a few drops of oil. To p>ill or lift anv- 
 
 j thing, make it fast to the jack by chains or ropes 
 through the rings at each end, havinn; first extended 
 it as far as it will go. This is done" by frivins: the 
 thumb-screw in the force-pimip two or three turns 
 inward, and pulling out the piston, then turn out 
 the thumb-screw imtil it stops. Put in the lever and 
 pump as nnich as required. See Joi-hscreir 
 
 HYDRAULIC LOADING APPARATUS. -A system 
 of apparatus used w hen maneuvering heavv liirret-
 
 HYDRAULIC POWES. 
 
 72 
 
 HYDRAULIC POWER. 
 
 guns. This apparatus was thoroughly tested, in 
 "worlving tlie lUO-ton guns, belonging to the Italian 
 Oovernmeut, in experiments at Spezzia, 1876. The 
 working of the gun, including all the operations of 
 loading and sponging, is effected by tlie mean.s of i 
 hydraulic pumps, which are all operated by one 
 small steam-engine. The gun is placed with its 
 trunnions resting on two heavy blocks of metal, 
 which, being retained by guides, slide on large 
 beams or girders built in the floor of the turret. In 
 front and rear of the blocks are pistons, working in 
 cylinders in the direction of the floor-beams. These 
 pistons, under the influence of water-pressure, move 
 the gun in and out of battery. The breech is raised 
 and "lowered by similar means. When the gun is to 
 be loaded, it is run forward and the muzzle de- 
 pressed till it is in front of an armored hood, which 
 shields an iron door in the main deck. The door 
 slides back, a sponge appears on the end of a staff, 
 wliich enters the bore and lengthens itself like a 
 telescope till the bottom is reached, when, in obedi- 
 ence to the touch of a valve, a Hood of water is 
 ejected from the sponge to extinguish fire and wash 
 the bore. The shot and cartridge next appear, 
 lifted from below on a small truck, which is runout 
 on a trap-door. The cartridge is lifted in front of 
 the muzzle, the sponge (now converted into a ram- 
 mer ) pushes it a short distance into the gun, is then 
 witlidrawn, and when the shot rises pushes Iioth to 
 the bottom of the bore. The sponge is withdrawn 
 below deck and the trap closes. Each of these 
 movements is effected entirely by water-pressure, 
 the course of the water and the corresponding 
 operation being determined by manipulating the 
 proper valve. The only defect in the principle was 
 developed by the bursting of the English 38-ton gun 
 on the Thunderer, in 1879. 
 
 If the slipping of a shot is to cause the bursting 
 of a gun. anything that tends to produce this slip- 
 ping is to be deprecated, and as the liydraulic load- 
 ing-gear requires the gun to be inclined downward 
 at a considerable angle, it would appear that the 
 machinery was open to objection. But a similar 
 difficulty presented itself years ago with broadside 
 guns. These were found to start their projectiles 
 freely, not so much by the rolling of tlie ship as by 
 the jerk of running the gun out. Wedge wads were 
 ■employed expressly to prevent this, and guns are 
 generally dependent on the efficiency of these wads 
 for the fixing of thi-ir projectiles. 
 
 HYDRAULIC POWER.— The use made of hydraul- 
 ic power is probably greater at Elswick than at any 
 otlier Establishment in the world. This might natu- 
 Tally be expected, when it is remembered that the 
 world is indebted to Sir William Armstrong for the 
 advance made in this direction. The system of hy- 
 draulics at Elswick extends to all parts of the grounds. 
 Teaching all the shops, wharves, and wafer-front. 
 Pumping-cngines are established at convenient in 
 tervals, only one working at a time, and the connec- 
 tion of pipes being continuous, the uniform working 
 of the system is established by five or six .accumulators 
 ■witli 18-inch rams. The working of the pumping- 
 ■I'ngiue is made automatic. The accumulator nearest 
 to it is slightly more heavily loaded than the others 
 to give a lead in rising to tlie distant one, and is con- 
 nected with a steam regulating valve to act as a gov-' 
 ■ernor for adjusting tlie speed of the engine to tlic 
 varying demand of the hydraulic machines. Tlie 
 pressure .sustained throughout the system is 7.')0 
 pounds to the square inch. The pipes are usually 
 5 inches in diameter, the largest being inelu^s. 
 Hydraulic power is used for the forge and foundry- 
 cranes, also for the movable cranes whicli operate 
 along the water-front. For the accommodalion <if 
 thi'se last, pipes are run, in junction with tlie pres- 
 ■sure main, with hydrants from IS to W! feit apart, 
 from which connection is made with thc^ cranes liy 
 means of telescopic tubes. Two or more cranes can 
 ■thus be brought into operation on any vessel at the 
 
 water-front. On the eastern end of the wharf are 
 erected large hydraulic shears, worked by a direct- 
 acting hydraulic cylinder, 40 feet stroke, "lifting 120 
 tons. The back leg moves so as to bring the lifting 
 cylinder aliout 30 feet out ; the foot is moved by a 
 screw .50 feet long, with hydraulic engine and gear. 
 The most notable hydraulic crane that has yet been 
 produced from these works is one erected in the 
 Italian naval ar.senal at Spezzia, which is capable of 
 lifting 160 tons through a range of 40 feet. It is car- 
 ried upon a ring of line rollers supported by a ped- 
 estal of masonry, and the slewing is effected bj- an 
 hydraulic engine applied to a pinion which gcan; 
 with a circular rack. The rake of the jib or projec- 
 tion from the center of rotation is 65 feet, and its 
 height from the quay-level is 10.5 feet. The crane is 
 counterbalanced on the side opposite to the load. 
 About the grounds at Elswick. particularh- at the 
 approaches to the shops, there are numerous small 
 capstans worked by hvdraulic engines, which are of 
 great service in hauling heavy loads into or out of 
 shops, and in transporting them from shop to shop. 
 It is almost unnecessary to add that it is at Elswick 
 that the applications for working heavy guns jiy 
 hydraidic power have been designed and manu- 
 factured. No foundry or gun factory can be con- 
 sidered etficiently equipped without being provided 
 with arrangements for the plentiful supply of hydrau- 
 lic power. 
 
 We can but briefly describe a system of hydraulic 
 supply within the limits of this work, although the 
 subject is a very important one, and is, at present, 
 receiving the attention of the United States authori- 
 ties in connection with the proposed establishment 
 of a Government foundry, for the manufacture of 
 heavy ordnance adapted to modern warfare. The 
 Holly System of Water Supply, an invention of Bird- 
 sill Holly, of Lockport, New York, and the most 
 perfected system of which we have knowledge, is 
 designed not only to supply water for ordinary pur- 
 poses, at any desired elevation, without the use of a 
 reservoir or stand-pipe, or any other contrivance for 
 calling into requisition the principle of tlie hydro- 
 static equilibrium, but also to furnish the means of 
 extinguishing fires at several points at the same 
 time, if necessary, and all this without the u.se of 
 any movable engine for that purpose. This result is 
 accomplished by placing a set of Holly pumping 
 machinery, which is of peculiar construction, within 
 a suitable building, located at a convenient point 
 where the supply of water is accessible, and from 
 whence by a proper system of mains and pipes the 
 water can be conducted wherever it is needed. The 
 pumping machinery, which may be propelled by 
 either steam or water-power, must be adequate to 
 the service required, having a reserve of power for 
 extraordinary occasions. To guard against contin- 
 gencies the machinery is duplicated, or so construct- 
 ed that the breaking of a part does not disable the 
 whole. In order to maintain steady pressure, the 
 operation of the machinery is continuous ; but as 
 the demand for water is subject to constant varia- 
 tion, means are provided for the automatic regula- 
 tion and government of the pumps, so that the 
 amount of water delivered is in exact accordance 
 with the requirements of the moment. The means 
 of regulation which thus forms such an important 
 feature in the Holly system is an exceedingly sinii)le 
 mcclmnical device de])ending for its operation upon 
 the degree of pressure in the mains. If this pres- 
 sure falls, owing to an unusual drain, the regulator 
 instantly acts so as to admit steam for a longer 
 period into the cylinders of the engines, and the 
 pumps are thus at once caused to operate more 
 rapidly .•mil powerfully. When the pressure in the 
 mains increases, owing to but small drafts being 
 made on them, the reverse takes ])lace and li'ss 
 water is pumped. The nornial jiressure is adjusted 
 by the engineer in accordance with average require- 
 ments. The Are protection aft'onled by the Holly
 
 HYDRAULIC POWER. 
 
 73 
 
 HTDEAtLIC FOWZB. 
 
 system is of tlip moHt <'fflci('nt 
 not miTi'ly distriliuli-cl In liyil 
 under pressure, so nil lli".l isrei 
 the liosc 1111(1 turn on Die siren 
 of the eiij;iiie to give a (|iii(k 
 pressure, ill response Ion suilde 
 work of iin instant. The mere 
 causes sutHeient diininulion of 
 to oiierate a valve, whieli in 
 with a whistle, the sounding o 
 for the engineer to turn on the 
 
 clinrantpr. Water is 
 ranis, liiil .sent there 
 |uired is toeiiiiple on 
 111. 'I'lie iidjuslnieiit 
 
 supply under heavy 
 n aliiriii of lire, is the 
 o|)ening of a hydrant 
 jiressure in the pipes 
 
 turn eonwnunieates 
 f which is the nlarin 
 tire pressure. 
 
 lie admitted to but one cylinder, and exliausted info 
 
 the other three, then passini: the condenser, forming 
 a eonipoiind-enginc' at pleasure. To change from 
 direct to coniponnd. it is only necessary to manipu- 
 late three stop-valves. one connecting the sleam-pipi- 
 of three cylinders with the hoilers, one connecting 
 the exhaust-pipe of the fourth cylinder willi the con- 
 denser, and the third connecting the exlmust-pipe 
 of one <ylin<ler with the steam-pipes of the three. 
 The valve gear of each steam-cylinder consists of a 
 slide valve moved by un eccentric in the usual nian- 
 
 Tlie Holly (lundruplex piimpiiig-engine is represent- 
 ed in sectional elevation in Kig. 1. It .has four steam- 
 cylinders inclined at an angre of forty-tive degrees, 
 and four pumps, one of whicli is in a direct line with 
 each cylinder. The steam-cylinders and their pmnps 
 are arranged in pairs on opposite sides of a heavy 
 iron fruiiH'. the two cylinders of each pair being con- 
 nected to a common crank-pin. and tlie crank for 
 one pair of cylinders being set 135 degrees in advance 
 of that on theojjposile sitle. The engines are of the 
 reciprocating piston form, with guides and connect- 
 ing rods. A connecting rod alli.\ed to the ijack 
 crank-pin actuates an air-pump b<>rtm. giving motion 
 to two single-acting air-pumps and two boiler feed- 
 pumps, one of which draws water from tlie liot well, 
 and the other from tbe steam-jacket.s which surround 
 the sides of all the steam-cylinders. The steam from 
 tlie jackets passes through a feed wafer-heater, so that 
 the temperature of the feed can be raised to any de- 
 sired point by increasing the amount of steam sup- 
 plied to the jackets. The connection of the pumps 
 with the steam-cylinders and the steam piston-rods 
 with the pumps, is by means of keys, so that any 
 engine or pump can readily lie thrown out of action. 
 The steam-piston is packed by cast-iron rings set out 
 by springs, the set-screw of which projects lieyond 
 the face of the piston, and ther<! are lionnets in the 
 lower cylinder-lieads, so that the piston rings can be 
 adjusted without Ojieningthe cylinder. The pumps 
 are of the piston variety, donlile-acting, the pump 
 barrel being secured in a chamber containins the 
 valve by a rib which forms a part it ion liet ween valves 
 on the opposite ends. The piimji valves arc tlat discs 
 of rublter. secured to iron discs having stems work- 
 ing in guides. These iron discs are of sufilcieiit 
 ■weight to bring the valves to their seats promptly. 
 and no springs are nsed. The valves seat on metal 
 gratings. The steam and exhaust-pipe of the several 
 steam-cylinders are so arranged that steam from the 
 lioilers can be admitted directly into all the cylinders 
 and exhausted into the condenser, or live steam can 
 
 ner and admit ting steam I hrouglifint the whole stroke. 
 A double puppet-valve in the steam-chest regulates 
 the point of cut-ofT, being actuated by a revolving 
 spiral cam which can be moved in an axial direction, 
 and thus vary the periods of admissions from zero to 
 full stroke. The manner in wliicli this cam is moved 
 so as to regulate the speed and ])ower exerted, is an 
 important peculiarity of the Holly pumping-engine. 
 The adjustment is effected liy means of a regulator 
 connected with the water-main in such a manner 
 that any change in water pressure is immediately 
 corrected by an adjustment of the cut-off, resulting 
 in a practically uniform water pressure under the 
 most varying conditions of supply. If the water 
 Iiressure tends to fall, owing to an unusual draft 
 upon the main, the cut-off is immediately lengthened 
 and the engines exert a sulticient power to maintain 
 the original pressure; if the consumption is sud- 
 denly lessened so that there is a tendency for the 
 water pressure to increase, the cut-off is at once 
 shortened, dimiuisliiiig tlie power of the engine sufti- 
 cieiitly to maintain the original pressure under the 
 reduced supply, and if all consumption of water 
 suddenly ceases the engine will immediately stop. 
 The regulator is represented in Fig. 2. 
 
 It is evident from the foregoing description that 
 the Holly regulator acts in an essentially different 
 manner from the ordinary governor, which would 
 increase the cut-off as the water pressure augment- 
 ed, and shorten the cut-off as the same diminished. 
 The details of the regidator are briefly as follows : 
 .V small water-cylinder, containing a solid piston, is 
 (•(mneeted directly with the main, and a weight is 
 attached to the piston so as to counter-lialance the 
 water pressure. This is effected by suspending the 
 weight from a strap which passes over a cam that 
 rotates as the pressure changes, thus altering the 
 lever arm of the counter-balance, and keeping it in 
 equilibrium with the water pressure, however much 
 the latter may vary. The cut-off cams of the steam- 
 cylinders are moved axially, either to shortea or to
 
 HYSBAULIC FOWXB. 
 
 74 
 
 HYDBADLIC FOWEK. 
 
 lengthen the cut-ofl •when the regulator throws a 
 friction-clutch into gear, which it does whenever the 
 water pressure varies from a given amount. A 
 weighted lever would maintain this friction-clutch in 
 
 fear, were it not for the action of the regulator, 
 he shaft on which the counter-bali>nce cam rotates 
 has an inde.\-wheel, and the index can be set at any 
 desired water pressure. So long as the water pres- 
 sure varies from the figure at which the index is set, 
 the friction-clutch is kept in gear by the weighted 
 
 Fit;. 3. 
 
 lever, and the cut-off is adjusted until the required 
 l)ressure is reached. At this point t)ie index engages 
 with the weighted lever, and throws tlie friction- 
 dutch out of gear. Whenever the water pressure 
 varies, the friction-clutch is thrown into gear again. 
 dianging the cut-otT so as to maintain the water 
 pressure constant. It will be seen tliat the cut-off 
 is regulated by positive gear driven by the engine, 
 and tlie f)nly work required of the regulator is to 
 connect or disconnect this gear. Should Ihe pres- 
 sure rise very suddenly, however, a jtiston in the 
 safety cylinder raises a lever to wliieh the cut-off gear 
 is connected, and throws the cut-off to zero instant- 
 ly, if this is requisite. 
 
 Following the cpiadruple engine, the Company 
 lias brought out a novel horizontal compound con- 
 ilensing-cngine, designed by Mr. Ilarvey F. Gas- 
 kill, Engineer and Superintendent of tlie Works. It 
 was the purpose of the Company in bringing out 
 
 this engine to provide one less costly than the quad- 
 ruplex. and better adapted for pumping larger quan- 
 tities of water : also to stand in the first rank as to 
 economy. Following is a description of the engine, 
 reference being made to Figures 3 and 4. On a pair 
 ] of iron bed-plates are mounted the two pumps, and 
 in direct line therewith the two low-pressure steam- 
 cylinders connected to the pump piston-rods. Be- 
 tween the pumps and steam-cylinders are placed 
 beam supports, which are firmly bolted to the bed- 
 plates, and also rigidly stayed bj- wrought-iron 
 struts to the pumps and steam-cylinders. These 
 beam supports carry the beam shafts and beams, 
 the lower end of the latter being connected to the 
 cross-heads of the low-pressure cjdinders by means 
 of links. On the top of the pumps are placed the 
 main shaft bearings, which support the shaft, fly- 
 wheel, and cranks, the latter being keyed to the 
 shaft at right angles to each other. On" top of the 
 low-pressure steam-cylinders are mounted the two 
 high-pressure steam-cylinders, with their centers in 
 the same horizontal plane as the center of the main 
 crank shafts. The cross-heads of the high-pressure 
 steam-cylinders are connected by means of connect- 
 ing rods to the crank-pins. From the high-pressure 
 steam-cylinders heavy cast-iron girders extend to 
 the pillow-blocks. On the inner end of each of the 
 beam centers an arm is keyed, from which the air- 
 pumps are driven. The valves of the steam-cylin- 
 ders are operated by means of eccentrics on a shaft, 
 which is driven from the main shaft through small 
 bevel gears. The admission-valves to the high- 
 pressure steam-cylinders are of the double-beat pup- 
 pet pattern, so arranged as to open at the proper 
 time and to close at any desired point of the stroke. 
 The exhaust-valves from the high-press\ire cylinder 
 are also the admission-valves to the low-pressure 
 steam-cylinders, and are ordinary slide-valves, re- 
 maining open somewhat less than the time required 
 to make one complete stroke. The exhaust-valves- 
 from the low-pressure cylinders are also plain slide 
 valves, operating the same as the high-pressure ex- 
 haust-valves. The pump.plungers are arranged to 
 work through glands in the center of the pumps, 
 and are accessible from the covers at the end of the 
 machine. The pump-valves are placed on horizon- 
 tal plates below and above the line of plunger travel. 
 The glands above-mentioned divide the valves of 
 one end of the pump from those of the other end at 
 the center of the valve plates. The operation of 
 the machine is as follows: Steam is admitted 
 through the automatic cut-off valves into the high 
 pressure steam-cylinders, urging the pistons forward 
 under full boiler pressure until the point of cut-off 
 is reached. The valve then closes and the remain- 
 ing portion of the stroke is accomplished by the 
 elastic force of the steam. When the piston has 
 nearly reached the end of its travel, the exhaust 
 valve between the high and low pressure cylinder 
 opens and the steam remaining in the high pressure 
 cylinder rushes into the low pressure cylinder and 
 against its piston, which at that time is at the end 
 of its travel and at tlie opposite of the high pressure 
 piston. The low pressure cylinder-piston is then 
 in turn urged forward b_v the incoming steam, which 
 is expanded to four times the volume it occupied in 
 the high pressure cylinder at the time of its release 
 therefrom. The releasee from the low pressure 
 cylinders is accomplished hv means of the cxhaust- 
 valv<'S in the return strokes. This operation is re- 
 peated on each side and at each end at priipcr times. 
 The close cimnection between the t\vo<yliuders re- 
 duces the clearance spaces to a minimum, which 
 with thorough jacketing insures the most economical 
 use of steam. 
 
 This engine is also built to operate as a ncm-cmn- 
 ])ound engine, in which case the upper or liigli |ins- 
 sure steani-cvlinders and <'oniicclions are nmitlc<l, 
 and the lower sleani-cylinders are provided wilh 
 automatic cut-off valves. Steam is admitted into
 
 HYDROMETER. 
 
 75 
 
 HYDROMETER. 
 
 these cylinders direet from the l)oil(r ami exlmusted HYDROMETER. An in.slniiiienl eini)loyed to dc- 
 into the <'ondenser. ThiK ninilc__(>f ((inslnictioii is ; teriMiiM- vjm < ilic griivilieH. The drawini; exhibila 
 udiipted to small places, and Id cities and villages I the form ot the inslrninent used in delermininfr the 
 where the eheaiiness of fuel renders the lirBt cost j siiecilic gravity of ujetals. ll is constructed oii the 
 
 Fi?. a. 
 
 of the machine a matter more to he considered than 
 the annual saving in the fuel. Although even when 
 constructed as a non-compound engine, a duty of 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 50,000,000 foot-pounds of work can be obtained from 
 100 pounds of coal. See St-eam-digf/u, Turbine, and 
 WaUr-wlut h. 
 
 principle of Nicholson's liydrometer : having a Imlb 
 IXt inches diameter and Sinches high, made of cop- 
 per, in one piece, without seam. The copper is .03 
 in. thick, and deposited on a mold, of 
 low fusible metal, by the electro.gal- 
 vanic process. A handh of brass wire, 
 with broad Manges at the en(t-, is in- 
 serted in the bt>ttom of the mokl, be- 
 fore the copper is deposited, the cop- 
 per covering and luiiting with bo<h. 
 The brass cone is bored through its 
 axis, and screw-threads arc cut in it. 
 After the bulb is formed, the fusil)lc 
 mold is melted, and withdrawn througl; 
 the aperture in the brass cone. The 
 aperture is then closed liy a small screw 
 and made air-tight by close fitting, and 
 by sealing-wax spreadoverit. Asolid 
 stem of brass is then screwed into the 
 bottom of the bulb. A vertical index- 
 stem, made of steel, is inserted in the 
 upper part of the handle. The U[)per 
 end of the stem receives the weight- 
 pan, which is supported in its place by 
 a coni.^al socket on its underside. The 
 height of the hydrometer, from the bot- 
 tom of the ball to the weight pan. is 
 21 inches. All of the exterior surface 
 is protected by electro-gilding. The 
 weight of the bulb, including the han- 
 dle and brass cone, is about l.o.S.'iO 
 grains : the lowerstem and ball weigh 
 about 20.320 grains, and the weigjit- 
 pan is 6(30 grains: making the total 
 Weight of the hydrometer about 36.830 
 grains. Its general form, and the dis- 
 tribution of the metal within it, place 
 till- centers of gravity and buoyancy 
 so far apart that it readily takes a ver- 
 tical position when immersed, and will 
 deviate very little from it. however ir- 
 regularly it may be loaded. The maxi- 
 ■ar^J mum buoyancy of the hydrometer is 
 14.600 grains, and. when loaded to ze- 
 ro, it displaces ,51,430 grains of water. The buoy, 
 ancy may be rediiced one-half by increments of 500 
 grains each, by placing one c>r more of the adjusting
 
 EYDSO-FNEUMATIC CABEIA6£. 
 
 76 
 
 HYDRO-PNEUMATIC CAEKIAGE. 
 
 weights over the ball, at the bottom of the stem. 
 Such a reduction of the buoyancy is found con- 
 venient in practice, when weighing: small samples, 
 as it prevents the necessity for placing and displac- 
 ing numerous weights on tlie pan. The index stem 
 is .071 inch diameter ; a length of 1 inch displaces 
 one grain of water. Four points of silver wire, 
 made thin and sloping at the ends, are attached near 
 the stem so as to form a scale of weights, in tenths 
 of a grain. The two nearest opposite points are one- 
 tenth of an inch apart. When the instrument rests 
 with one of these points above, and the other beneath 
 the surface of the water, it is at zero. Wlien either 
 of them touches or is even with tlie surface, the load 
 is one-tenth of a grain too heavy, or too light, and if 
 either passes through the surface, the error is then 
 two-tenths of a grain. If either of the two points 
 which are more distant from the zero touches the 
 surface of the water, the load is then deficient, or in 
 excess, three-tenths of a grain ; and if the heel of 
 either of these points passes the surface, the error is 
 then four-tenths of a grain. Careful observation of 
 the position of these points, when the h3'drometer is 
 immersed and at rest, will serve to indicate the true 
 balance, when the zero mark may be al)0ve or below 
 the surface of the water, within a given limit. By 
 this method, the inconvenience and delay of bringing 
 the zero to the surface of the water by" the decimal 
 parts of the grain weight is 
 thusavoided. Thewaterin 
 which the hydrometer is im- 
 mersed is contained in a cis- 
 tern of glass, 3.5 inches deep, 
 and not less than V2 inches 
 diameter. If the bottom of 
 the cistern is not level a flat 
 plate should be placed over 
 it and supported horizontal- 
 ly on three legs. The height 
 of the water in the cistern 
 should be such that wlien the 
 bottom of the hydrometer 
 descends to the plate the 
 weight-pan should be one- 
 quarter of an inch above the 
 surface of the water. This 
 will prevent an immersion 
 of the pan when overload- 
 ed. The weight-pan is at- 
 tached to the inde.v stem b}' 
 an open socket, on its under 
 side, in order that it may be 
 removed with its load from 
 the hydrometer and placed 
 on a table where the weights 
 may be safely and accurate- 
 lycotmted. Astheweights 
 often consist of man}' pieces, 
 errors may occur in count- 
 ing, or in the record of them; 
 it is a good precaution to verify them by a recount 
 after making the record. A tliermometer. with a 
 scale of about 5° to the inch, sub-divided in quarters 
 of a degree, is suspended in the water while weigh- 
 ing samples and the temperature sliould be noted 
 at each weighing. The weighings are made at tem- 
 peratures varying with the state of the weather at 
 the time, and as llie density of water varies with its 
 temperature, the latter is noted in order that the pro- 
 per corrections may be made. The unit adopted is 
 distilled water at the temperature of (!()" Fahr. 
 
 The hydrometer may be employc-d to determine 
 the relative density of distilled and any other kind of 
 ■water. The weiglit of the hydrometer, added to 
 its balance-weight in distilled water, at the tempera- 
 ture of fiO", gives llie weiglit of a quantity of pure 
 standard wat<T which is e(|ual in bulk to tlie im- 
 mersed part of the instrument. The weight of the 
 hydrometer, with its load, when immersed in like 
 manner in any other kind of water at the same tem- 
 
 perature, gives the weight of an equal bulk of the 
 latter: and this weight, divided by the former, giveg 
 the multiplier for correcting the density when as- 
 certained in any other than pure distilled water. 
 Rain or river water may be used instead of distilled 
 water, if its relative density be first accurately deter- 
 mined and the proper correction be made. At the 
 foundries, generall}', river water is found to be snffi- 
 cientl)- pure for use without needing any correction. 
 In using the hydrometer, first load the pan with the 
 grain weights until the instrument rests at zero, and 
 record the sum of these weights as the Balance nf the 
 Uydrometcr. Ne.\t, place in tlie pan the sample, to- 
 gether with as many weights as will again bring the 
 instrument to its zero, and record these weights as 
 the Sample Balance in Ah: The difference between 
 these balances is equal to the weight of the sample 
 in air. Then place the sample on the bulb of the 
 instrument and immerse both until the hydrometer 
 again rests at zero, and record the weights on the 
 panas the Sample Balance in Water. The tlifference 
 lietween this balance and that in air is equal to the 
 weight of the water displaced by the immersed sam- 
 ple. The temperature of the water at the time of 
 weighing is noted, and if it is not at 60° divide the 
 weight displajed liy the the sample by that number 
 in the following table which is opposite the noted 
 temperature, and the quotient will give the corrected 
 displacement for the temperature of 60"^. Then, the 
 weight of tlie sample in air, divided by the corrected 
 displacement, gives the densit}- of the sample. The 
 hydrometer may be employed in determining the 
 varying densitj- of the same water at different de- 
 grees of temperature. The weight of the water it dis- 
 places at any other temperature than 60°, divided by 
 its displacement in the same water at 60", will give 
 the proportionate weight of water displaced bythe 
 same instrument at other temperatures. See Are- 
 ometer and Specific Gravity. 
 
 HYDEO PNEUMATIC CAEEIAGE.— A hydro-pneu- 
 matic carriage has lately been proposed by Major 
 JloncrieJI for the use of siege-carriages, somewhat 
 en the system of his counterweight carriages for 
 heavy guns. The object obtained is lightness, the 
 facility of loading the gun when out of sight of the 
 enemy, and raising it en barbette without anj- diffi- 
 culty, thus obviating the necessity of cutting em- 
 brasures in the parapet. The carriage is designed 
 for siege purposes, and it seems not improbable that 
 the development of its principle may altogether rev- 
 olutionize that branch of military operations. Bat- 
 teries of attacks have hitherto lieen protected by 
 embankments hastily thrown up, while the guns 
 have been fired through embrasures. But the deadly 
 precision of improved artillery sends shot after shot 
 into the embrasures, while its penetrating power 
 makes ordinary earthworks but very indifferent pro- 
 tection. Major Moncrieff's idea is to adapt to the 
 attack the system he has been elaborating for coast 
 defenses. He digs a hole .and buries his gun in it. 
 The soil, when it is excavated, is carried to the 
 rear, and the enemy has no mark to guide his aim ; 
 after each discharge the gun sinks out of sight, and 
 the indication of its precise whereabouts vanishes 
 with the smoke. In the sieges in the late war. the 
 Germans found that they must withdraw their bat- 
 teries to immense distances, whence the tire was 
 vague and relatively ineffective. Major jMoncricIV 
 undertakes to place his guns within 500 yards of the 
 enemy's works. By his very well-known iilea of the 
 counterweight he had attaini'd his object of elevating 
 the gun out, and returning it to cover, and so en- 
 abling the gunners to work in comparative .safety by 
 storing the force of the recoil. Hut the objection to 
 ajiplying the system to siege operations was the un- 
 wieldy weiglit of carriages fitted willi the coimter- 
 weiglit, where liglitness and facility of movenunt 
 were primary considerations. The hydro-pneuma- 
 tic system dispenses with this ponderous counler- 
 weight, replacing it very ingeniously with a simple
 
 HTGROMETRR. 
 
 77 
 
 HYGEOMETEE. 
 
 cylinder only contaiiiini; iiir imd water, wliicli oscil- 
 lati'S between tlie clweks of llie triin-earrias;e. It is 
 a feature in the carriaiie that it can lie secured on an 
 improvised platform witlioiil any lii-avy and coKtly 
 apiiliances. It is fastened by a chain passed loosely 
 round som<^ balks of timber buried in the urounif. 
 and the fastenini; acts as a rude i>ivot, on which it 
 revolves. When in i)osition for lirin;;, the irun is 
 raised to a lieiirht of some 7 feet upon a jiair <if arms 
 or elevators which lay holil nf the Iruimions, and 
 llieiraetion is re<;ulaled by racks, which .are arranj^ed 
 to work in c nmcction with a radial conneclin^-rod. 
 Between these is the head of the |)istou which works 
 in the hydro.pneunuitic cyliiuler. With the dis- 
 charge of the i^un the head of tiio cylinder sways 
 liaekwards. the piston is forced down by the recoil, 
 an 1, as the piston slowly iroe.s down in this cylinder, 
 the nun descends with it to the normal jiosiliim for 
 loading. The internal adjustments of the cylinder 
 are, of course, the essence of the invention. 'I'lic 
 piston descends in a tube of water, communicating 
 at the bottom of the cylinder with a couple of side- 
 chambers which are tilli'd with air. As the water is 
 forced <lown in the central tube, it necessarily rushes 
 into the side ones, and the elasticity of the air it 
 violently compresses is the motive jiower that is to 
 be stored for use. There is just sulticient water to 
 fill the central cylinder and to cover all the valves 
 and joints, and there is nothing but strong and solid 
 metal in those parts of the side-chambers in whicli 
 the (compressed air is to be conlined. At tlie bottom 
 of the cylinder, between it and the air-valve, and 
 immediately in rear of the latter, is a " throttle-valve." 
 The throttle-valve c<msists of a snuill. circular, per- 
 forated cylinder, revolving within a larger one. and 
 its |)urpose is to neutralize, by the application of 
 water friction, any excess of energy in the recoil. 
 Indeed, ue.xt to employing air and water, as light 
 and convenient materials of enormous power to 
 work those heavy siege guns, the idea is to use 
 those elements so as to avoid friction and concussifin. 
 Instead of the very violent recoil which threatened to 
 shake the strongest carriage to pieces when it was 
 arrested sharply by the resistance of screws and iron, 
 according to this hydro-pneumatic system the recoil 
 is made to e.xliaust itself upon air-springs and water- 
 cushions. The first shock is broken upon tlie mass 
 of water in the mi Idle cylinder, and the throttle-valve 
 disposes, as it were, of any of the subsequent vibra- 
 tions. Theoretically, therefore, if we may use the 
 expression, the recoil shoidd be all self-c(mtained. 
 It was very nearl_v so in all practice ; the carriage 
 moved slightly to the lirst sliot, as the cliain tight- 
 ened that secured it to the balks : but the shot that 
 followed made no perceptible change in its position. 
 It must be remembered that under the old system, 
 and before Major Moncrieff had invented his counter- 
 poise, or thought of his hydro-pneumatic cylinder, 
 the gun would liave wrenched itself away from such 
 a rough-and-ready fastening. When the piece is 
 raisetl for firing, it is managed by a worm-wheel at 
 the side, which regulates the angle of elevation, and 
 which turns easily to the touch. To sum up the 
 merits of the invention, if it realizes the advantages 
 claimed for it — and as it confessed to be a mechanical 
 success, we can scarcely see how it can fail to do so 
 — it will enable sieae-liatteries to be established and 
 worked with comparative impunity at an extraordi- 
 nary short distance from the formidable guns which 
 are mounted on modern fortresses : siege-guns may 
 be secured in position anywhere with materials that 
 are always ready to hand ; and carriages on con- 
 stant service will be exposed to the very nu'/iimiim 
 of strain. Moreover, Major Moncrieff's new appara- 
 tus can be easily adapted to ordinary siege-carriages. 
 and a cart and a couple of horses will transport its 
 extra weight. If it proves successful with the heavy 
 40-pr. siege-guns, a fortiori it must succeed with the 
 46-pr. to be employed for coast batteries, as sugsres'ted 
 in Major Moncrieflfs pamphlet on defenses. | 
 
 HYGROMETEB.— An instrument for nieasuring the 
 quantity of moisture in the atmosphere. The earlier 
 forms of hygrometer depended ujion the proixTty 
 possessed by some substances of readily alisorbing 
 ' moisture from the air, and being thereby rhanged in 
 dimensions or in weight. Of this kin<l was the hair 
 hygrometer of Saussure. in which a hair, which ex- 
 pands and contracts in length according us the air 
 is more or less moist, was mad(r to move an index ; 
 a similar instrument was the whalebone inslrunxnt 
 of Ueluc : but as other causes as well as moisture 
 affect such instruments, they alTord no accurate in- 
 dications. The most perfect hygrometer, tlierireti- 
 cally, is that of J. F. Daniell. It consists of two bulbs 
 coimected by a very strong bent tube, and enclos- 
 ing a thermometer, together with some ether and the 
 vapor of ether, the air having been lirst expelled. 
 This hygrometer was employed at the Hoyal Ob- 
 servatory. (Jrcenwich. from 1M40— the C'ommencc- 
 j ment of meteorological observations- till 1847. when 
 it was superseded by the more convenient instrument, 
 I the Wet and Dry liulb Thermometer of usual form. 
 j This instrument consists of two ordinary thermom- 
 I eters— one has its bull) bare, and thus shows the 
 ' temperature of the air ; the other has its bulb covered 
 I with uuislin, which is kept wet by a cotton wick 
 I dipi)ing into water. The evaporation from the mus- 
 lin, and the conse(|uent cooling of the bulb, being in 
 proportion to tlie dryness of the air, the diflerence 
 between the readings of the two thermometers is 
 greatest when the air is dryest, anri zero when it is. 
 ' completely saturated. The readings of the tliermo- 
 ) meters then being taken, the elastic force of vapor 
 I at the dew-point is calculated bv the formula of Dr. 
 I Apjohn : 
 
 d h u, h 
 
 1 (1)P=/ .-; (2) F =/--.-; 
 
 I 88 30 96 30 
 
 i the first formula is to be used when the wet thermo- 
 I meter is above, and the second whenever it is below, 
 the freezing-point '32^'j- In these formuhe. F is the 
 elastic force of vapor at the dew-point, which has 
 been determined for different temperatures by Heg- 
 naull from carefully conducted experiments ;"/. the 
 elastic force at temperature of evaporation (or read- 
 ing of wet bulb J; d, the difference 
 between the dry and wet bulbs; 
 and h. the height of the barome- 
 ter. From this the quantity of 
 moisture in one cubic toot of air, 
 etc.. can be found as before. To 
 dispense with these troublesome 
 cahulations. thQ llygromHric Tn. 
 bli:^ of !Mr. Glasliier may be used. 
 Mason's hygrometer, represented 
 in Fig. 1. is a verj- convenient and 
 satisfactory instrument for prac- 
 tical use. It consists of two ther- 
 mometers, as nearly as possible 
 similar mounted parallel upon a 
 frame and marked respectively 
 '•wet "and •• dry." Thebulbof 
 the one marked tret is covered 
 with thin muslin or silk. and kept 
 moist from a fountain which is- 
 usually attached. The principle 
 of its action is. that unless the air 
 is saturated with moisture, evap- 
 oration is continually going on. 
 Ana as no evaporation" can take 
 place without an expenditure of 
 the heat, the temperature of the 
 fifc'. I. -^-i-i bulb thermometer, under the 
 
 evaporation from the moistened bulb, fails until a cer- 
 tain point is reached, intermediate between the dew- 
 point and the temperature of the air. as shown by the 
 thermometer. To tind the dew-point, the absolute 
 drvness. and the weight in grains of a culiic foot of 
 air, tables have been constructed empirically from ex- 
 periments at Greenwich, combined with Kegnault's
 
 HTGKOMETEK. 
 
 78 
 
 HYGEOMETEB. 
 
 Tables of Vapor Tension. Wlien using this instru- 
 ment, if the air be very dry, the difference between 
 the two thermometers will be great ; if moist, less 
 in proportion, and when fully saturated, both will 
 be alike. For different purposes, different degrees 
 of humidity are required, and even in household use, 
 that hygrometrical condition of the atmosphere most 
 beneficial to one person, may frequently be found al- 
 together unsuitable for ano'ther. "Dry" bulb 70*^ 
 and '• wet" bulb 62* to 64° indicate average health- 
 ful hygrometrical conditions ; any other relative con- 
 
 It consists of a thin and highly-polished tubular ves- 
 sel of silver, A, having one end somewhat longer than 
 the other. A rather delicate thermometer is intro- 
 duced into the tube at the smaller end, to which 
 end of the tubular vessel, also, a flexible rubber tube 
 with ivory mouth-piece is attached. A sufficient 
 quantity of ether to cover the bulb of the thermo- 
 meter, being poured into the silver vessel, the ether 
 is agitated by breathing through the flexible tube. 
 A rapid evaporation ensues until at the moment the 
 dew-point is reached, the moisture is seen to condense 
 
 DEW-POINT. 
 
 d 
 
 a 
 < 
 
 Difference between reading of Wet and Dry-ba . 
 
 a 
 
 < 
 
 + 30° 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 +30° 
 
 + 30° 
 
 + 27° 
 
 + 24° 
 
 + 21° +17° 
 
 +13° 
 
 + 7° 
 
 — 1° 
 
 —11° 
 
 ^^30° 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 22 18 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 + 2 
 
 — 7 
 
 —23 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 89 
 
 26 
 
 23 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 — 3 
 
 —17 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 3.3 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 37 
 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 — 1 
 
 —12 —32 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 + 2 
 
 -7 
 
 —23 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 + 35 
 
 + .35 
 
 + 32 
 
 + 29 
 
 + 26 
 
 + 24 
 
 + 20 
 
 + 16 
 
 + 11 
 
 + 5 
 
 -3 
 
 —17 
 
 
 
 
 +35 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 — 1 
 
 —12 
 
 -32 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 34 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 + 3 
 
 — 7 
 
 —23 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 — 3 
 
 —16 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 — U 
 
 —31 
 
 
 39 
 
 + 40 
 
 + 40 
 
 + 37 
 
 + 35 
 
 + 32 
 
 + 29 
 
 + 26 
 
 + 22 
 
 + 18 
 
 + 12 
 
 + 10 
 
 + 3 
 
 — 6 
 
 —22 
 
 
 + 40 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 — 2 
 
 —16 
 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 40 
 
 37 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 + 2 
 
 — 9 
 
 —29 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 43 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 — 3 
 
 — 5 
 
 —20 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 39 
 
 37 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 27 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 + 1 
 
 —12 
 
 —13 
 
 44 
 
 + 45 
 
 +45 
 
 +43 
 
 + 40 
 
 + 38 
 
 + 35 
 
 + 32 
 
 + 29 
 
 + 25 
 
 + 21 
 
 + 17 
 
 + 11 
 
 + 4 
 
 — 7 
 
 —27 
 
 + 45 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 44 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 — 2 
 
 -18 
 
 46 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 43 
 
 40 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 + 2 
 
 -11 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 46 
 
 44 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 — 6 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 42 
 
 40 
 
 3T 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 — 1 
 
 49 
 
 + .50 
 
 + 50 
 
 + 48 
 
 + 46 
 
 + 43 
 
 + 41 
 
 + 38 
 
 + 36 
 
 + 33 
 
 + 29 
 
 + 26 
 
 + 22 
 
 + 17 
 
 + 11 
 
 + 3 
 
 +.50 
 
 61 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 42 
 
 40 
 
 37 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 51 
 
 52 
 
 62 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 46 
 
 43 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 
 63 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 40 
 
 37 
 
 34 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 
 64 
 
 52 
 
 60 
 
 48 
 
 46 
 
 43 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 M 
 
 + 55 
 
 + 55 
 
 + 63 
 
 + 51 
 
 + 49 
 
 + 47 
 
 + 45 
 
 + 42 
 
 + 39 
 
 + 36 
 
 + 33 
 
 + 30 
 
 + 26 
 
 + 22 
 
 + 17 
 
 + 55 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 62 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 46 
 
 43 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 66 
 
 57 
 
 57 
 
 55 
 
 63 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 42 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 67 
 
 58 
 
 68 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 6J 
 
 60 
 
 48 
 
 46 
 
 43 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 53 
 
 59 
 
 59 
 
 57 
 
 55 
 
 63 
 
 61 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 42 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 59 
 
 + 60 
 
 + 60 
 
 + 58 
 
 + 66 
 
 + 54 
 
 + 52 
 
 + 60 
 
 + 48 
 
 + 46 
 
 + 43 
 
 + 41 
 
 +38 
 
 + 35 
 
 + 31 
 
 + 28 
 
 + 60 
 
 61 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 57 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 62 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 ii 
 
 42 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 a3 
 
 29 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 60 
 
 58 
 
 57 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 61 
 
 48 
 
 46 
 
 43 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 31 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 
 63 
 
 61 
 
 60 
 
 58 
 
 66 
 
 54 
 
 62 
 
 60 
 
 1^ 
 
 46 
 
 42 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 a3 
 
 63 
 
 64 
 
 64 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 69 
 
 57 
 
 66 
 
 63 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 46 
 
 44 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 64 
 
 + 65 
 
 + 65 
 
 + 63 
 
 + 62 
 
 + 60 
 
 + 68 
 
 + 66 
 
 + 54 
 
 + 52 
 
 + 60 
 
 +48 
 
 + 45 
 
 + 42 +39 
 
 + 36 
 
 + 65 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 
 64 
 
 63 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 57 
 
 65 
 
 63 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 46 
 
 44 
 
 41 
 
 38 
 
 66 
 
 67 
 
 67 
 
 65 
 
 64 
 
 62 
 
 60 
 
 68 
 
 66 
 
 54 
 
 52 
 
 .60 
 
 48 
 
 45 
 
 43 
 
 40 
 
 67 
 
 68 
 
 68 
 
 66 
 
 65 
 
 63 
 
 61 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 44 
 
 41 
 
 63 
 
 69 
 
 69 
 
 67 
 
 66 
 
 64 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 57 
 
 65 
 
 53 
 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 45 
 
 43 
 
 69 
 
 + 70 
 
 + 70 
 
 + 68 
 
 + 67 
 
 + 65 
 
 + 63 
 
 + 62 
 
 + 6» 
 
 + 58 
 
 + 56 
 
 + 54 
 
 + 62 
 
 + 49 
 
 + 47 
 
 + 44 
 
 + 70 
 
 71 
 
 71 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 66 
 
 65 
 
 63 
 
 61 
 
 69 
 
 57 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 51 
 
 48 
 
 46 
 
 71 
 
 72 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 69 
 
 67 
 
 66 
 
 64 
 
 62 
 
 60 
 
 ^ 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 .52 
 
 50 
 
 47 
 
 72 
 
 73 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 70 
 
 68 
 
 67 
 
 65 
 
 63 
 
 61 
 
 60 
 
 68 
 
 56 
 
 53 
 
 51 
 
 49 
 
 T3 
 
 74 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 71 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 66 
 
 64 
 
 63 
 
 61 
 
 69 
 
 57 
 
 55 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 74 
 
 + 75 
 
 + 75 
 
 + 74 
 
 + 72 
 
 + 70 
 
 + 69 
 
 + 67 
 
 + 65 
 
 + 64 
 
 + 62 
 
 + 60 
 
 + 58 
 
 + 56 
 
 + H 
 
 + 51 
 
 + 75 
 
 76 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 73 
 
 
 70 
 
 68 
 
 67 
 
 65 
 
 63 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 67 
 
 55 
 
 63 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 74 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 66 
 
 64 
 
 62 
 
 60 
 
 58 
 
 56 
 
 64 
 
 77 
 
 78 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 72 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 67 
 
 65 
 
 64 
 
 62 
 
 60 
 
 58 
 
 .55 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 79 
 
 78 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 73 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 68 
 
 66 
 
 65 
 
 63 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 67 
 
 79 
 
 + 80 
 
 + 80 
 
 + 79 
 
 + 77 
 
 + 76 
 
 + 74 
 
 + 73 
 
 + 71 
 
 +69 
 
 + 68 
 
 + 66 
 
 + 64 
 
 + 62 
 
 + 60 
 
 +58 
 
 + 80 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 
 dition required may easily be found by experiment, 
 and then, dispensing with calculations, or reference 
 tables, it is only necessary to see that the two ther- 
 mometers stand in the required relation to each other. 
 The hygrodyke, shown in Fig. 2, is on the principle 
 of IMason's hygrometer, but is arranged with a dial 
 and pointer so that the absolute and also (he relative 
 dryness and the dew-point may be read off without 
 calculation. I{ci;nauit's hygrometer, with aspirator. 
 Is represented in Fig. ;i. I$y means of this instru- 
 ment instunlaueous ob-servations may be readily made. 
 
 upon the exterior surface of the polished silver tube. 
 The reading of the thermometer at this precise mo- 
 ment gives the dew-point. 
 
 Lieutenant James Allen, United States Army, has 
 made an ingenious and novel application of tlie Iiy- 
 grometer, inforetflling frnKt by the determination of 
 the dew-point. Lieutenant Allen uses, in his investi- 
 gations, a dry and wet-lmlb hygrometer of a s|)ocial 
 construction, consisting of two mercurial thermom- 
 eters, which, being placcil siili- by side, will indi- 
 cate the same temperature. The iiry-bulb is but a
 
 HYGROMETER. 
 
 HYGROMETER. 
 
 common thermometer, inteiuled to show the tem- 
 pcriitiirc of the mr. Tlic wct-lmH) in al.si> a coiiiiiioii 
 thcniKJiMcliT. liiil liiiviiii; ils Ijulh I'dvcn-rl willi ii piece 
 of tliiii iinisliii, fi'diii wliieli pii.MseH a few llirciulH of 
 dariiiiif;-ciitt(]ii or imrrovv strip of niusliii into u siimll 
 vessel eoiitiiiiiiiii; raiii-waliT. Water rises liy capil- 
 lary iillriictioii from llic vessel and llius keeps th(' 
 musliu consluntly wet. When the air is dry, evap- 
 oration from llie miisliu 
 proceeds rai)idly. and on 
 necownl of tlie heal lost in 
 tills way, the wet-liidli in- 
 dicates a lower tempera- 
 ture than the dry-lndl) ; 
 when t he air is damp evap- 
 oration is sh)wer, and the 
 dilt'irence between tliese 
 two thermometers grows 
 less, and where the air is 
 completely saturated eva- 
 poration ceases, and the 
 two thermometers indi- 
 cate the same tempcra- 
 I turo. To keep this instru- 
 I ment in working order, 
 several things r<'(|uire spe- 
 cial attention. The ther- 
 mometers must lie alike, 
 for if one shoidd be tilled with mercury and the other 
 should contain spirit, or if they slioufd l)e tilled with 
 different quantities of the same fluid, the readings 
 will he vitiated. All starch or foreign matter should 
 be washed out of the thin muslin covering and the 
 cotton wicking. The water \ised should be pure ; 
 for if lime or other salts be dissolved in it, the nius- 
 
 Firj. a. 
 
 perature of the mercury in the bnlb. By means of 
 this contrivancif and the foregoing talile, the dew- 
 point can hi' delerinined with a sudieient degree of 
 nicely. To determine tlie ilew-poinl. at any time. 
 subslract the n-ading of the wel-biilb fromlhal of 
 the dry-bulb: lind the temperature of the dry-bulb 
 in the left hand column of the Table, opposite which 
 in the eolunui that is marked at th(' top with tlie 
 dilTerence between the dry and wet-bulb, is to be 
 fouiwl the dew-point souglit. 
 
 Having ascertained the dew-point with certainty, 
 the ap])roach of low tem])eralures or of frost may be 
 foreseen and provided against. Thus, suppose on 
 a tine clear day, towards evening, tliat the dry-l)ulb is 
 50" and the wet-bulb 40", the dew-point at the time 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 lin will soon be coated with a calcareous or other 
 incrustation. Rain or distilled water should be used. 
 The muslin ought to be changed when covered with 
 dust or otlier impurities, and care should be taken 
 not to touch the muslin with the fingers, otherwise 
 it will get slightly greased, and capillary attraction 
 will be thereby interfered with. The bulbs of the 
 thermometers should be made to project li or 2 
 inches below the scales. The thermometers should 
 also be a little apart from each other, and the vessel 
 containing the water ought to be placed as far 
 removed as possible from tlie dry-bulb. The ther- 
 mometers should be exposed to the air wliere the 
 circulation is unobstructed. They should face the 
 north and be always in the shade. They should be 
 removed at least a foot from the wall of any build- 
 ing, and should be about ten feet from the ground. 
 They should be protected against the heat reflected 
 by the neigliboring objects, such as buildings or a 
 sandy soil, and they should be sheltered from the 
 rain. If the dry-bulb should become moistened by 
 rain, the bulb should be carefuUj- dried about five 
 minutes before making the observation ; since drops 
 ■of water, by their evaporation, would lower tlie tem- 
 
 Fik'. 4. 
 
 (per Table) is 22" F. Frost on the ground may then 
 be predicted with certainty, and no lime ought to 
 be lost in protecting the tender plants of the garden. 
 If, on the other hand, with a sky quite as clear, the 
 dry-bulb is 50" and the wet-lnilli 47". the dew-point 
 is 43", and no frost need be feared. 
 
 Assuming the skj- to remain perfectly clear of all 
 haze or clouds, the raising or depressing of the dew- 
 point during the night, (usually witha change of 
 wind), arc the onl)- circumstances that can happen 
 to interfere with the predictions founded on the hy- 
 grometer. Frequently the presence of any haze at 
 high altitudes during the night prevents the radiation 
 of heat from the earth and thereby the frost which 
 otherwise would have occurred. Hoar-frost is form- 
 ed under the same circumstances as dew, with the 
 single exception of a lower temperature. When the 
 temperature of the surface of plants falls lielow 32" 
 the moisture of the air is condensed upon them in the 
 solid state and forms a layer of snow-crystals, like 
 spongy ice. Hoar-frost therefore is not frozen dew. 
 but the moisture of the air is deposited in the solid 
 form, without liaving passed through the liquid con- 
 dition. Hoar-frost, however, like dew. is deposited 
 chiefly upon those bodies which radiate best, such
 
 HYGKOSCOPE. 
 
 80 
 
 HTPSOMEXaiCAL IH££MOM£T£a. 
 
 as plants and the leaves of vegetables, and the de- 1 
 posit is made prmcipally on those parts which are 
 turned toward the sky. Since plants sometimes be- 
 come cooled by radiation from 12*^ to 15" below 
 the temperature of the surrounding air. a frost may 
 occur although a thermometer a few feet above the i 
 ground, in an instrument-shelter, may not sink to 
 32'^. During a clear and still night, when a ther- 
 mometer which is six feet above the ground sinks to 
 36° or less, a heavy frost may be expected ; and a 
 slight frost may occur wiien the same thermometer 
 sinks only to 47^. Whenever it is practicable, an 
 instrument-shelter should be built. The Stevenson 
 pattern, shown in Fig. 4. is a very suitable one. 
 The louvres are double, sloping in opposite direc- 
 tions, so that while there is access of the air to the 
 inside, the radiant heat and rain are effectually ex- 
 cluded. A single lattice, however, will answer the 
 purpose very well. This screen should be erected 
 on legs four feet high, and should stand over grass 
 on open ground. It should not be under the shadow 
 of trees nor within twenty feet of any wall. See 
 ThermtrineUr. 
 
 HYGEOSCOPE. — The form of hygrometer employed 
 to determine the ability of powder to resist moisture. 
 It is usually an air-tight box in which the powder is 
 subjected to a dampatmosphere at a uniform tem- 
 perature for 24 hours. It consists of a Ijox lined 
 with copper, with a space of two inches between 
 packed witli hair. The lid is double also, like the 
 sides, in construction; an India-rubber gasket covers 
 the edges of the top, which is screwed lirmly down 
 with thumb-screws. Inside the box is a moval)le 
 perforated traj' of copper resting on ledges 8.5 inches 
 by 8.5 inches. The intervening spaces have water- 
 tight trays on ledges filled witli a solution of niter. 
 
 The powder to be tested is placed in circular cups 
 of copper having fine wire-gauze bottoms, affording 
 free access of moisture to all the parts of the sample 
 under test. The percentage of gain is determined 
 by weighing the powder in carefully prepared bottles 
 
 on op ninglliehygroscope. A careful record is kept 
 of the barometer, the hygrometer, external and max- 
 imum ami miuimimi internal thermometers. See 
 </ u II /I'lirilfi- »ni[ /iixpicti'iii. iif (rMnpoirdi-r . 
 
 HYPEHMETROPIA. .\n anomaly in the refraction 
 of the eye whirli. by law, disciualihes a recruit for 
 enlistment in the Army. This defecl is dependent 
 on a condition of the eye exactly the reverse of my- 
 opia. It is the condition in which rays from distant 
 objects come to a focus hiliinil the retina. A irl.'uice 
 at the drawing will cxjilain this condition. IIy|>ir- 
 metro|)ia is due to a formation of the lye, wliicli is 
 present from birth. It is also hereditary, being 
 transmitted throuirh entire families, llypermi-lro- 
 pic eyes are usually flat and shallow in appearance. 
 
 Although present from birth, it is often, unless of 
 
 a high degree, not manifested until the duties of the 
 school-room begin, and. in the slighter grades, it 
 may not be noticed until adolescence or middle-life ; 
 neverthelesss the defect has existed all the while, 
 but it has been masked and overcome by the exer- 
 tions of the little ciliary muscle. Distinct vision is 
 one of the instincts of our senses, and our eyes un- 
 conscioush' adjust themselves so as best to secure it. 
 Any change of the convexity of the lens is effected 
 by the action of the ciliary Tnuscle : now. since the 
 focus'for the rays falls behind the retina, the convex- 
 
 ity of the lens of the eye must be increased in order 
 to bring the focal point on the retina, and hence the 
 little muscle is called upon to do the work ; but, 
 since this condition of the eye is permanent, so also 
 this muscular contraction is almost constant while 
 the eyes are employed. Besides this constant exer- 
 tion, the muscle must also act with vigor enough to 
 give tlie ordinary power of accommodation for near 
 objects. 
 
 In j'outh the ciliary is in its greatest vigor, and it 
 then overcomes this defect even when of considera- 
 ble degree, but as age advances, the power of the 
 muscles diminishes and then it is that the defect be- 
 gins to manifest itself. The great cause of all these 
 symptoms is the overstrain and eventual exhaustion 
 of the ciliary mnscle. So long as it is able to ac- 
 complish its excessive task, it overcomes, or rather 
 masks the defect, but as soon as its power gives out, 
 the accommodation fails and indistinctness of near 
 objects results, in addition to which we have the 
 long chain of distressing symptoms which arise from 
 the overstrain ; many an obstinate headache has its 
 sound in an tmreeognized hypermetropia. 
 
 Since in this state of the eye the focus falls behind 
 the retina, the remedy is found in a glass v.hich will 
 increase the refractive power of the eye. thus bring- 
 ing the focus of the rays of light on the retina : such 
 a result is obtained by the proper convex glass. As, 
 however, the ciliary muscle is able to mask a certain 
 iimount of the defect, even after it has become appa- 
 rent, the convex lens, which most improves distant 
 vision, will correct but the portion of hypermetro- 
 pia which is "manifest." and, indeed, frequently 
 the patient may reject all convex glasses as failing 
 to improve his distant vision, and yet be hyperme- 
 tropic to a considerable degree. 
 
 The glass which corrects the manifest defect will 
 often greatly conduce to the patient's comfort, yet 
 to select the glass which will correct the entire 
 defect, the accommodation of the eye must be tem- 
 porarily suspended by putting the ciliary muscle at 
 rest by means of a solution of atropia. when the 
 entire defect becomes apparent and may be carefidly 
 measured bv the oculist. See HicriiitK. 
 
 HYPSOMETRICAL THERMOMETER.— It is gener- 
 ally assumed llial water boils at 212" Fahrenheit, but 
 lliis is tnu' only at the sea-level, under a barometric 
 jiressure of 21t.il22. in latitude 45, at a temperature 
 of 32"^ Fahrenheit, and with clKMnirally jiure water. 
 The boiling-])oint, therefore, varies with the latitude, 
 the height above sea-level, the pressure of the atmos- 
 phere and the tempeniture. Thus, at Philadelphia, 
 under the mean baromelie pressure of that locality, 
 of 2'.>.!I23 at 32'-' Faliri'niieil, water boils at a tempera- 
 ture of 21 1 .!l!)4 Fahrenheil. .As there is an evident 
 relation between the lioiling-poiiit and the elevation 
 of a jilace, as shown by the decreased barometric pres- 
 sure as we ascend, it would seem a comparatively
 
 IBERIAN SWORD. 
 
 81 
 
 IC£RL 
 
 simple matter to mrasiiro thp Iiciirlit of a monnlfiiu 
 by the tem|>iTiaiirc at wliicli tin- (■liiillili<iii nf wiilcr 
 occurs. The ImrdnuMric prcHHiirc. hnwcvcr, fur 
 the fiame place, is contiinially varving. and with it, 
 the boiling temperature of lluiils. "Jt tollowH. there- 
 fore, tliat in order to deteriiiine elevations willi any 
 decree of accuracy, by means of a boilinir-point 
 thernionieler. it is necessary in the first placi'. that 
 the thermometer employed should be most accurate- 
 ly uradualed and coMipared 
 with the readini; of a sland- 
 ard barometer, reduci'd for 
 temperature and latitude. It 
 is necessary, also, that obser- 
 vations should be made, with 
 as little interval of lime be- 
 tween as possible, at thi' low- 
 er point from \vhi<'li llie ele- 
 vation of the lii;iher point is 
 to l)e determined, as well as 
 at thehiclier point itself, and 
 that these observations be re- 
 peatedly made. In relation to 
 the necessity of a thorouchly 
 acute thermometer, Admiral 
 Fitzroy says, in his " Notes 
 on Meteoroloccy:" "Each de- 
 gree of tiie boilinii-point ther- 
 mometer is equivalent to al- 
 most 550 ft. of ascent, or one- 
 tenth to 55 ft. ; therefore, the 
 smallest error in the gradu- 
 ation of the thermometer it- 
 self, will atTeet the heiixhl de- 
 duced materially." Having 
 prepared to make observa- 
 \i^fj^ tions with accuracy, it will 
 ' S> become necessary to ascer- 
 i** tain the means of deducing 
 the height from the observa- 
 tions made. The following 
 Table gives very nearly the 
 elevations in feet corn'spond- 
 ingto a fall of I'-', in the tem- 
 perature of boiling-water. 
 When the barometer falls, or 
 when a part of the pressure 
 is in any other way removed, 
 it boils t)efore coming to 212°, 
 and when the pressure is in- 
 cre.iscd the boiling-point rises. An elevation of 105 
 feet above the sea-level umkes a diminution of one 
 
 degree; at higher levels the difference of elevation 
 corresponding to a degree of temperature in the boil- 
 ing-point increases. At the f'ily of Mexico, 7,000 
 feel above the sea, water boils at 2(XJ^ ; at Quito, 
 0.000 fei-t above the sea, at 194": and on Donkia 
 Mounlain, in Ihe Himalayas, at the hi-ight of 18.000 
 f<cl. Dr. Hooker foimd itto boil at 180'^. The know- 
 ledge of the etTect of dinunished pressure is largely 
 turned to account in i)rocesses where the substances 
 are apt to be injured by a high temperature. 
 
 Elevation (n Feet 
 Kbutlition between for each dein-ee. 
 
 ai4uiid210 sao 
 
 210 ■• 800 .ViO 
 
 200 " 1(10 .'iVI 
 
 190 " 180 570 
 
 It is assumed that the hoiling-point will be dimin- 
 ished 1'-' for each .520 feet of ascent until the tenipir- 
 ature becomes 210'-', then 5;J0 feet of elevation will 
 lower it one degree until the water boils al 200", 
 and so on, the air being at 32" Fahrenheit. As. ac- 
 cording to Kegnault, tlie air expands .00203(5 of its 
 volume at 32" ff)r each degree increase in tempera- 
 ture, it is necessary to find the mean temperature of 
 the air between the two points, and applying the cor- 
 rection d>ie to the difference between that and 32", 
 Ihe formula will be as follows : Let //represent Ihe 
 vertical height iu feet belween the stations: //and 
 i the boiling-points of water at Ihe lower and iijiper 
 stations respectively ; and/, the factor found iu the 
 above tal)le. Then //=/ (B— b). Let ?ii be the 
 mean temperature of the stratvim of air between the 
 stations. Calling the correction due to Ihe mean 
 temperature of air O. its value will be found from 
 the equation, ('=// (m— 32) .00203G. Calling the 
 corrected height H', it will be found from the for- 
 mula 
 
 n'=n-{-n (m— ss) .002036, 
 
 that is n'=H [1-f-Cm— 32) .002036.] 
 When an accurately made and carefully compared 
 thermometer is employed in accordance with the fore- 
 going rules and instructions, very accurate and val- 
 uable results may be otjtained with the hypsometrical 
 apparatus. But it is manifest that with thermometers 
 as ordinarily made, whose freezing-points have been 
 fi.\ed without regard to the condition of a true zero. 
 and with observations which leave entirely out of 
 account many of the factors necessary to even ap- 
 proximate correctness, the results so obtained must 
 often be of little value. See Barometer and Tlur- 
 mometer. 
 
 I 
 
 IBERIAN SWORD.— A small sword somewhat re- 
 sembling a dagger and much worn by the Roman 
 foot-soli3iers, on the right side. 
 
 ICE. — In high latitudes, during the winter, rivers 
 are frequently covered with ice of sufficient thickness 
 to sustain the heaviest loads. This means of com- 
 munication should be used with great circumspection. 
 A change of temperature may not only suddenly 
 destroy this natural bridge, but render the river im- 
 passable by any method for a considerable time iu 
 consequence of the floating ice. When from three 
 to four inches thick, ice will sustain iufantry march- 
 ing in single file. With the thickness of 4.5 inches. , 
 cavalry and light guns can pass over it ; with six ! 
 inches, heavy field-pieces ; eight inches will support 
 siege-guns, but, for greater security the wheels 
 should be locked and secvired upon way-planks which 
 slide upon the ice. Ihe pieces being moved by band. 
 
 In very cold weather the thickness of the ice may 
 
 be increased by covering it with a layer of straw or 
 brush and throwing water over it, of two rows of 
 logs maybe laid at a distance apart equal to Ihe 
 width of the roadwsiy : a layer of earth is spread be- 
 tween them and water is thrown on and allowed to 
 freeze. This operation is repeated until a solid road- 
 way is formed. Troops working in concert can ac- 
 complish iu this manner a very strong crossing in a 
 short while. 
 
 Ice. when very thick, and therefore difficult to re- 
 move, may be broken up by charges of powder in 
 water-tight cans or bags, fixed underneath or placed 
 in holes bored in it. Charges of from live to ten 
 pounds of the powder placed in ice two feet thick 
 will break up an area twenty feet in diameter. Eiiht 
 ounces of dynamite will produce the like or even a 
 greater result. 
 
 ICENI. — A warlike tribe of ancient Britain, occu- 
 pying, as is supposed, that part of the country which
 
 ICH OIEN. 
 
 82 
 
 IMPACT OF PEOIECTILES. 
 
 corresponds nearly with the present eounties of Nor- 
 folk ami Suffoilc. Under tlieir (jucen Boadicea they 
 rebelled iiijainst the Romans. 
 
 ICH DIEN.— Tlie motto of the Prince of Wales. 
 According to one theory of its derivation, the phrase 
 was emploj'ed by Edward I. on presenting his new- 
 born son, Edward of Carnarvon, to the Welsh, using 
 the expression in its Welsh signification — Eich dyn, 
 " Behold the man." Another view attributes it to 
 the occasion of the killing of John, King of Bohemia, 
 by the Black Prince at Cressy, and asserts that the 
 latter found the motto under the plume worn by the 
 dead King, and assumed it to imply that " he served 
 under the Kiufr. his father." 
 
 ICHNOGRAPHY.— Tlie plan or representation of 
 the length or breadth of a fortification, the distinct 
 parts of whicli are marked out either on the ground 
 itself, or on paper. A plan upon the correct principles 
 of ichri'igraphy represents a work as it would appear 
 if it were leveled to its foundations, and shows only 
 the expanse of ground on which it had been erected. 
 The science does not represent either the elevation 
 or the different parts belonging to a fortification. 
 'This properly comes imder the title Profile, which 
 does not, however, include length. 
 
 ICICLES. — In Heraldry, charges of the same shape 
 as drops in the bearing called gutte, but reversed. 
 They have also been called clubs, locks of hair, and 
 guttes reversed. 
 
 " IGNITIBLE EXPLOSIVES.— Substances which on a 
 mateli, tulie, or (h'tonating composition being ap- 
 plied to them, ignite, such as gunpowder, gun-cot- 
 ton, nitro-glyeerine, dynamite, and glyacyline, all of 
 wliich can he used as explosive agents, for submarine 
 as well as land purposes. 
 
 IGNITION.— The act of setting fire to, or of taking 
 fire, as opposed to combustion or burning, which is 
 the consequence of ignition. Gunpowder may be 
 ignited by the electric spark, by contact with an 
 ignited body, or by a sudden heat of 5T2^ Fahrenheit. 
 A gradual heat decomposes powder witliout explo- 
 sion by subliming the sulphur. Flame will not ig- 
 Dite gunpowder unless it remains long enougli in 
 contact with the grains to heat them to redness. 
 Thus, tlie blaze from burning paper may be touched 
 to grains of powder without igniting them, owing 
 to the slight density of the flame, and the cooling 
 effect of the grains. It maj- Ije ignited by friction, 
 or a shock between two solid bodies, even when 
 these are not very liard. Experiments in France, 
 in 1835, show that powder may be ignited by the 
 shock of copper against copper, copper against iron, 
 lead against lead, and even lead against wood ; in 
 handling gunpowder, therefore, violent shocks be- 
 tween all solid bodies should be avoided. The time 
 necessary for the ignition of powder varies accord- 
 ing to circumstances. For instance, damp powder 
 requires a longer time for ignition than powder per- 
 fectly dry, owing to the loss of heat consequent on 
 the evaporation of the water : a powder the grain of 
 which has an angular shape and rough surface, will 
 be more easily ignited tlian one of rounded shape 
 and smooth surface ; a light powder, more easily 
 than a dense one ; and a powder made of a blabk 
 <:harc()al, more easilj' than one made of red, inas- 
 much as the latter is compelled to give up its vola- 
 tile ingredients before it is acted on by tlie niter. 
 Seo Kxpln^iiin and (Itnipmnder. 
 
 IGNORANCE OF THE LA.W.—rg7im-aiit/f/ Jiinx, or 
 ign<ir.'iiirc of llie law, is held to be no excuse for any 
 breach of contract or duty, nor for crime or otlwr 
 offense. It is absolutely necessary to slart with this 
 maxim, otherwise it would be quite impossible to 
 administer the law, for if once a contrary maxim 
 were allowed, it would not only Ik^ a premium to 
 ignorance, but would lead to endless and aliortive 
 iiKjuirics into the interior of a man's mind. Ig- 
 norance of a fact, however, is a (lifferent thing. 
 Another kindred maxim of the law is that every 
 man intends tlie consequences of his own acts. 
 
 Thus, if he shoot at or give poison to a person, it is 
 presumed that he intencled to kill such person. So, 
 if he leaves a trap-door open in a street or thorough- 
 fare, it is held that he intended people to fall into 
 it and be injured. There is, however, a doctrine 
 called bona fiden, which, in the case of petty offenses 
 punishable by Justices, often tempers the strict and 
 rigid application of the maxim ignornntia juris 
 ntminem exciimt ; and even in crimes a Court al- 
 ways takes into consideration, when passing judg- 
 ment, whether the prisoner was an ignorant or in- 
 telliuent person. 
 
 ILIYATES— EELIAUTS.— A nomadic tribe of Per- 
 sia and Turkistan, and mostly of Turkish, Arabic, or 
 Kurdish descent. They are Mohammedans of the 
 Sunni sect. They have no settled abode, but live 
 in tents, moving from place to place, according to 
 climate or season. They have large flocks and 
 herds, and some tribes live by plunder. Each tribe 
 pays tribute in cattle for the use of grazing ground, 
 money not being known among tliem. Also written 
 EelianU. 
 
 IMAGINARY QUANTITY.— In the working of gun- 
 nery problems, it often happens that the root of a 
 negative quantity must be extracted ; if the root is 
 odd, the operation can be performed, but if even, 
 the root can only be furmally extracted, and is in 
 consequence called an hnpnsm'ble or imaginary quan- 
 tit}'. For instance, the cube root of — C4 is not an 
 imaginary quantity, for — 4x — 4x — 4 = — 64, and 
 therefore x'^ — 04 = — 4 ; but the square root of 
 — 64 is an impossible quantity, for no possible quan- 
 tity (whether it be -)- or — ) multiplied by itself can 
 produce a negative quantity ; similarly and a fm-ti- 
 iiri. the fourth root — 64 is an impossible quantity, 
 and the same is true of all even roots. Imaginary 
 quantities are, however, generallj' reduced to one 
 denomination as multiples of v — l,in the following 
 manner ; y/ZTeJ = \/64x — 1 =V^64 X ■v/— 1 =8 
 \^ — 1 ; and again.v^ — 18«= = VOa^ x — 3a = ^9rt* 
 X v/3« X ^ — 1 =3a2 \/'2a v^^^l. These forms 
 very frequently occur in higher algebra. 
 
 IMBRUED. — An expression used in Heraldry to 
 signify bloody, or dropping with blood. Weapons 
 thus blazoned are drawn with drops of blood fall- 
 ing from them. Also written Embrxied. 
 
 IMMORTALS.— In antiquity, the name of a body 
 of 10,000 troops, constituting the guard of the King 
 of Persia : so called because they were alwaj's of 
 the same number; for as soon as any of them died, 
 the vacancy was immediately filled up. They were 
 distinguished from all the other troops by the rich- 
 ness of their armor, and still more by their bravery. 
 The same term was applied to the life-guards of the 
 Roman Emperors. 
 
 IMPACT OF PROJECTILES.— In order to arrive at 
 a clear understanding of what takes place when the 
 motion of a projectile is arrested by any resisting 
 medium, it is necessary to recall some of the ele- 
 mentary principles upon which these phenomena 
 depend. The manner in which a projectile acquires 
 its velocity, is a good illustration of the manner in 
 which its motion is destro\'ed. If the mean pressure, 
 P, of the gas be multiplied by the space, S, passed 
 over by the projectile while ac(|uiring its velocity, 
 the result' will be the measure of the work done by 
 the charge of powder ; and it will also be equal to 
 the work of stopping the same projectile, no matter 
 how or by what means it may be lirought to rest. 
 The same result is generally arrived at by measuring 
 the velocity imparted to tlic ]irojc(iile under the cir- 
 cumstances mentioned, and multiplying the square 
 of the velocity by one-half of the mass of the pro- 
 jectile ; or, since the mass is ccpial to the weight 
 divided by the force of gravity, the expression for 
 the work stored in the iirojeetile, and whicli must 
 
 W vo 
 
 be expended in bringing it forest, = .where 
 
 2/7
 
 iUPAIE. 
 
 83 
 
 DIFEBIAL CBOWH. 
 
 W = weight of the projectile' in poiindu, v = velocity 
 of the projectile in f<'el, and r/ the force of gravily 
 in feet, or the velocity which a. body will iic(|uire by 
 its own weij;;lit in on<' Heeoixl of lime. This ex- 
 pression involves indirectly tbe simie ((iianlilies lis 
 tlmt first mentioned ; namely, the ineiin pressunr of 
 the gas and the distance passed over by the projec- 
 tile : assuminfj; this measure for the work stored in 
 the projectile, it remains to consider how this work is 
 expended. 
 
 The following are the different effects i)roducc(l 
 by the impact of a projectile upon any solid body ; 
 some of the.Hc being so connected as to render their 
 relative importance extremely doubtful. 
 
 ComprennioH — The first effort of impact is to com- 
 press or drive back those iiortionsof both ])rojectiles 
 imd target first connng in contact upon tho.se im- 
 mediately iK'hind them ; the amount of this com- 
 pression depending upon the material and velocity 
 of impact, as well as upon the form of the projectile. 
 Elongation — The greater part of the work of tlie 
 projectile in penetrating wrought-iron anil similar 
 materials is expended in .overcoming the tenacity of 
 the material, or in elongating the fiber. This is evi- 
 dent when we consider that punching or shearing 
 consists not so much in cutting tlie fiber, as in bend- 
 ing it, and afterwards pulling it in two lengthwise, 
 .b'/fm/v'nj— This, as just stated, consists chiefly in 
 the two strains already mentioned. 
 
 Bending. — This also implies tension and compres- 
 sion ; the back of the target being elongated, and the 
 front compressed. 
 
 Pulverizing — a portion of the material. This takes 
 place only in case of liard materials, as a stone or 
 cast-iron, and it then absorbs a very great amount 
 of work. Like bending and shearing, it involves 
 compression and elongation, the material being com- 
 pressed until it yields laterally to a tensile strain. 
 
 Motion — While the work is Ijeing expended, a 
 certain amotint of time is allowed for the force of 
 the projectile to impart motion to the target, espe- 
 cially that portion immediately in front of the pro- 
 jectile. 
 
 Friction — The friction is very great, especially in 
 the case of the more pointed form of projectile, and 
 varies inversely with the velocity of the projectile. 
 Heat — This is due to friction, both external and 
 internal, that is, of the projectile and the fragments 
 against the target, and against each other during 
 the distortion of the material, from compression, 
 bending, etc. The suddenness with which this heat 
 is generated is almost unequalled by any known 
 source of heat. It is well known that the heat develop- 
 ed in the interior of loaded shells, on striking violent- 
 ly a thick iron plate, is sufficient to ignite the powder, 
 and this fact has been utilized in dispensing with 
 fuses for exploding armor-punching shells. 
 
 The effect of a projectile on striking a mass or 
 target of any form or material, may be divided into 
 two general portions, — one being entirely local, 
 ■while the other is distributed over more or less sur- 
 face according to circumstances. The former is the 
 penetration, and the latter may be called concussion. 
 ;6ee Penetration of Projectiles. 
 
 IMPALE. — In Heraldry, to arrange an)' two coats of 
 .arms side b^' side in one shield divided per pale. It 
 ^^^—^-—^ i** "sual thus to exhibit the con- 
 ^ H joined coats of husband and wife, 
 ^^r H H the husband's arms occupying the 
 ^r ^H H dexter side or place of honor, and 
 r ^flf H the wife's the sinister side of the 
 
 li(' may belong. Bishops. Deans, Heads of Colleges, 
 and Kings of Anns impale tlieirarms with their insig- 
 nia of ofjlcc, giving tlic dexter side lo the former, fn 
 early Heraldry, when two coats were represented in 
 one shield side by side, only lialf of each was ex- 
 hibited, an arrangement which has been called ilimi- 
 (liatiou. Sometimes the one coat only was dinudi- 
 ated. A reminiscence of dinndialion is preserved 
 in the practice of omitting tlie bordiires, cries, and 
 trcssures in impaled arms on the side bounded by 
 the line of irMpidemenl. ISce llirnhlry. 
 
 IMPEDIMENTA.- All the accom|)a'niments to an 
 army received from the Romans the name <if itnpfdi- 
 menta. They consist in a general sense of muni- 
 tions, equipments, provisions, hospital supplies, tents, 
 engineering tools, bridge eqiiii)age, boats, baggage, 
 cooking utensils, etc., necessary for the use of an 
 army moving against an enemy. This requires the 
 use of large numljers of wagons and draught ani- 
 mals, or shipping, and necessarily impedes the move- 
 ment of an army. 
 
 IMPENETRABILITY.— One of the essential proper- 
 ties of matter wliicb implies that no two bodies can 
 at the same lime occupy the same space. If a nail 
 be driven into a piece of wood it does not, properly 
 speaking, penetrate the wood, since the fibers are 
 driven aside before the nail can enter. If a vessel 
 be filled with fluid, and a solid body be then placed 
 in it, as much water will run over as is equal in bulk 
 to the solid body, in this w'ay making room for it. 
 The lightest gases are really as impenetrable as the 
 densest solid ; although, owing to their compressi- 
 bility, il is not readily made ai)parent. 
 
 IMPEEATOE.— An old Roman title signifying Com- 
 mander, which was applied to the Kulers of Prov- 
 inces, the Consuls, Pro-Consuls, etc., or to anybody 
 who had an Imperium assigned him. After "a vic- 
 tory the Roman soldiers frequently saluted their Com- 
 mander by this title. See Emperor. 
 
 IMPERIAL CROWN.— Properly the crown boniebv 
 the German Emperor; it is in form a circle of gokl, 
 adorned with precious stones and Jlei/r.i-dr-li.i, bor- 
 dered and seeded with pearls, and raised in the form 
 of a cap voided at the top like a crescent. From 
 the middle of the cap rises an arched fillet enriched 
 with pearls, and surmounted by a globe, on which 
 is a cross of pearls. The name Imperial Crown is, 
 however, in English Heraldry, applied to the crown 
 worn in times past by the Kings of England. From 
 the 12th century onwards, the Crown of the English 
 Sovereigns underwent repeated changes in form 
 and enrichment. That of Edward II. was formed of 
 four large and four small strawberry leaves, rising 
 Incurves from the jewelled circlet, and having eight 
 small flowers Alternating with 
 the leaves. In the crown of Hen- 
 ry IV. eight strawberrj' leaves, 
 and as many fleurn-dt'-li.i alter- 
 nated with sixteen small groups 
 of pearls, three in each. Under 
 Henry V. the enriched circlet 
 was for the first time arched over 
 with jewelled bands of gold, and 
 the apex of the arches were sur- 
 mounted with a mound and a 
 cross, while crosses patees were 
 substiHited for the strawberry leaves, and roses or 
 Jie II n-de-lis for the clusters of pearls. The arches, 
 at first numerous and elevated to a point, became in 
 later times, restricted to four, and depressed in the 
 The Imperial Crown of Heraldry, as now 
 
 ^^Bt^eAai Oram. 
 
 center, 
 escutcheon. When a man marries i understood, is, in point of fact, the form "of crown 
 a second wife, heralds .say that he I worn by the English Sovereigns from Charles II. to 
 Impale. ni'W divide the sinister half of the William IV., as represented in the subjoined wood- 
 
 shield per fess into two compart- ' cut. It has four crosses patees and four Jieurs-dt-li.t 
 ments, placing the family arms of his deceased wife set alternately on the circlet, while four pearl-stud- 
 in chief, and of his second wife in base. A bus- ded arches, rising from within the crosses, carry at 
 band impaling his wife's coat with his own, is not their intersection the mound and cross. The State 
 allowed to surround the former with the collar or Crown of Queen Victoria differs considerably from 
 ihe insignia of any order or knighthood to which this, having a far more enriched character! It is
 
 ntPEEIAL GUARDS. 
 
 84 
 
 IMPLKMENTS, 
 
 covered with diamonds and studded witli gems, and 
 the arches are wrought into wreaths of rose, thistle, 
 and sliamrock formed of brilliants. A cliarge, crest, 
 or supporter, crowned with a regal crown, is said to 
 be imperially cnmned. 
 
 IMPERIAL GUARDS.— The name of a body of select 
 troops, organized by the French Emperor, Napoleon 
 I., which greatly distinguished themselves at Auster- 
 litz. 
 
 IMPERIALISTS.— A designation chiefly applied to 
 the subjects of, or forces employed l)y the House of 
 Austria, when opposed to the troops of other Ger- 
 man Powers. 
 
 IMPETUS. — In gunnery, the altitude through which 
 a heavy body must fall to acquire a velocity equal to 
 that with which a ball is discharged from a piece. 
 
 IMPLEMENTS.— Artillery implements are em- 
 ployed in loading, pointing, and tiring cannon, and 
 in the maneuver of artillery-carriages. The imple- 
 ments for loading cannon are : — 1st. The rammer- 
 head is a short cylindrical piece of beech or other 
 
 siege and sea-coast cannon, as field and moimtaln 
 cannon can be unloaded by raising the trail of the 
 carriage, which permits the projectile to slip out by 
 its own weight. 4th. The irorm. Fig. 2 is a spe- 
 cies of double cork-.screw, attached to a staff, and is 
 used in field and siege cannon to withdraw a car- 
 tridge, ■'ith. The gunner'.i haversack is made of 
 leather, and suspended to the side of a cannonier by 
 a shoulder-strap. It is used to carry cartridges 
 from the ammunition-chest to the piece, in loading. 
 6th. The pnna-bi/x is a wooden l)ox closed with a lid, 
 and carried by a handle attached to one end. It 
 takes the place of the liaversack in siege and sea- 
 coast service, where the cartridge is large. 7th. 
 The tube-pouch is a small leather pouch attached to 
 the person of a cannonier by a waist-belt. It con- 
 tains the friction-tubes, lanyard, priming-wire, the 
 thumb-stall, etc. 8th. The budge-barrel is an oak 
 barrel bound with copper hoops. To the top is at- 
 tached a leather cover, which is gathered with a 
 string, after the manner of the mouth of a bag. It- 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fia. .'i. 
 
 tough wood, fi.xcd to the end of a long stick of ash, 
 called a utajf', and is employed to push the charge to 
 its place in the bore or chamber of a cannon. 3d. 
 The xpiingr is niriuiUen brush, Fig. 1. attached to the 
 ciiil iif a staff, for the ])urj)ose of cleaning the inte- 
 rior of caniicin, and e.\tinguishing any burning frag- 
 ments of tbc cartridge that may remain after tiring. 
 In the lield and mountain services, the ramnier-liead 
 and sponge are attached to the opposite ends of the 
 same staff; in the siege and sea-coast services they 
 are attached to separates staves. To protect the 
 sponge from the weather, it should, when not in use, 
 be enclosed in a rorer made of canvas and jiainted. 
 3d. The ladle is a co]iper scoo)) attached to the end 
 of a stafT for the purpose of withdrawing the jiro- 
 jectile of a loaded piece. Ladles are only used for 
 
 is employed to carry cartridges from the magazine 
 to the battery, in siege and sea-coast services. 9th. 
 The priming-wire is used to prick a hole in a cart- 
 ridge for the passage of the flame from the venf . It 
 is a piece of wire, pointed at one end. and tlie other 
 is formed into a ring which serves as a handle. 10th. 
 The thnmh-stall is a buckskin cushion, a'tachcd to 
 the finger to close the vent in spimging. 11th. The 
 ' fune-setter is a brass drift for driving a wooden ftise 
 into a shell. 12th. The fuse-mallei. Fig. 3 is made 
 of hard wood, and is used in connection with Iho 
 setter, liitli. 'Dicfuse-sair is a lO-inch tenon saw foi" 
 cutting wooden or paper fuses to a proper length. 
 14lh. 'Ti\cfiise-gimlet\>iti common gindet, which may 
 be employed in place of the saw to open a commu- 
 nication with the fuse composition. 15th. Thc/us«-
 
 IMPBEGNABLE. 
 
 85 
 
 IMPSES8I0R TAKER. 
 
 auger is an iiistruiiicnt for repiilaliii!; (he time' of 
 burnini; of a fuse, \<\ riMnovini; a <crliiiii porlion of 
 the roinposilioii fnnii the exterior. For lliix |)iir- 
 poHc il lias a iiiovalile i;railiiale(l sriile, wliicli ri'iru- 
 lutes the ileplli towliieU the aiii;er slioiild penetrate. 
 lOlli. The fiiM'-raxp is a coarse lile employed in fit- 
 ting a fuse-plnj; to a slicll. 17tli. Tlu; fuHt-pliig 
 refiinir is vised to enlarge' tlie eavily of a fiise-pliig, 
 after it has been driven into a i)rojeetile, to enable 
 It to reeeivea jiaperfiise. IHtli. 'Vht-nhill-pbt;/ m-reir 
 Is a wood serew with a handle ; it is useil to extraet 
 a phii: from a fnse-hole. ISJtli. The fune-fitrddDr is 
 worked by a serew, and is a more powerful instru- 
 ment than the preecdini; ; it is used for extraeting 
 wooden fuses from loade<l sliells. 20th. The mur- 
 tar-.vnrper is a slender piece of iron with a sjjoon at 
 one end, and a scraper at the other, for cleaning the 
 cliamlier of a mortar. 21st. The gunmr'n Kleeees are 
 jnade of tlannel or serge, and are intended to be 
 drawn over the coal-sleeves of the gunner, and |)re- 
 VCnt them from being soiled while loading a mortar. 
 23d. The funnel is made of copper, and is used in 
 pouring tlu^ bursting charge into a shell. 23d. The 
 poirdrr-uit'iimirm. Fig. 4, are made of cojiper, of a 
 cylindrical form, and of various sizes, for the pur- 
 pose of determining the charges of shells and can- 
 non, by measurement. 24th. The /"/i^ffcrf is a <n>ril, 
 one end of which has a small iron hook, and the 
 other a wooden handle. It is used to explode the 
 friction-tubes with which cannon for tlie land ser- 
 vice are now tired. 2.5th. The gnnnrr'-i pincers, gim- 
 let, and iient-piinrh are instruments carried in tlic 
 tube-pouch for removing ordinary obstructions from 
 the vent. 2()tli. Tlie HlieU-hookK is an instrument 
 constructed to fasten into the cars of a shell, for the 
 purpose of lifting it to the muzzle of the jnece. 
 
 The implements for pointing are : 1st. The gun. 
 ner'K level is an instrument for determining the high- 
 est points of tile breecli and muzzle of a cannon 
 when tlie carriage-wheels stand on even ground. It 
 Is made of a brdsa plate, the lower edge of which is 
 terminated by two steel points which rest upon the 
 surface of the piece. A spirit-ln-el is attached to 
 the plate with its a.xis parallel to the line joining the 
 points of contact. When the level is in position, 
 the vertical slideis pressed down with the linger to 
 mark the required point. 2d. The tangent-scale is 
 a brass plate, the lower edge of which is cut to the 
 curve of the base-ring of the piece, and the upper 
 edge is formed into onsets which correspond to dif- 
 ferences of elevation of a quarter of a degree. It is 
 used in pointing, by placing the curved edge on the 
 base-ring, with the radius of the offset corresponding 
 with the highest point of the ring, and sighting over 
 the center of the offset and the highest point of the 
 Bwell of the muzzle. 3d. The Ireech-sight, is a more 
 accurate form of the tangent-scale. It consists of 
 a vertical scale graduated to degrees and eighths of 
 degrees, and a curved Aa<e which rests upon the breech 
 of "the gun. A slide is attached to the vertical piece, 
 which has a small hole or notch cut on its upper 
 edge, through which the aim is taken. The slide 
 is fixed at any point by a thumbscrew. 4th. The 
 pendulum hausse is used to point tield-pieces, and at 
 the same time to obviate the error which will ari.se 
 when the wheels of the carriage stand on uneven 
 ground. It is composed of a scale arranged like a 
 peniluUim, a si/sjh nsion-pieee, and a sent which is 
 screwed to the breech of the gun. A slot is cut in 
 the suspension-piece into which the scale is inserted, 
 and fastened Viy a pivot, which allows it to vibrate 
 in a lateral direction. The scale also vibrates in a 
 longitudinal direction, as the journals of the sus- 
 pension-piece are free to turn in the grooves cut in 
 the seat to receive them, thus assuming a vertical 
 position independently of the surface of the ground 
 .on which the carriage stands. 5th. The gunner's 
 qitadrant is a wooden instrument for measuring the 
 :iingles of elevation and depression of cannon, and 
 particularly of mortals. The nature of the instru- 
 
 ment and its mode of apjilication are very simple. 
 The plumb-line and bob when not in use, are carried 
 in a hole formed in the end of the long branch, and 
 covered with a brass plate. 
 
 The principal maneuvering implements arc: 1st. 
 The trail-handspike, which is made of wood, and 
 attacli(!d to the trail of a fielil-carriage for the ])ur- 
 pose of giving directiim to the piece when aiming. 
 VVIien tlie carriage is limliered, the handspike is at- 
 tached to the chei-k by means of a ring and hook. 
 2(1. The maneurtriiig.liiinds]iil:i is likewise made of 
 wood, but it is longer and stouter than the preced- 
 ing ; it is used for siege and sea-coast carriages and 
 gins. 3d. The sliad-handspike is made of wood, 
 armed with an iron point, which is turned up in a 
 way to prevent slipping on the ]ilatforni. It is par- 
 ticularly useful in the servici- of mortars and sea- 
 coast carriages. 4th. The truck-hnudxpike is made 
 of inm, and is employed to work the maneuvering 
 wheels of sea-coast carriages, by inserting it in the 
 holes formed in the circumference of the wheels. 
 Sth. The eccentric-handspike is used to throw the 
 eccentric axis of the maneuvering wheels of the sea- 
 coast carriages into and out of gear, for this pur- 
 pose it has a head with a hexagonal hole which tits 
 upon the extremities of the eccentric axle-tree, 
 (ith. The mller-fiaudspike supplies the place of rear 
 maneuvering wheels in certain of the new sea-coast 
 gun-carriages. It is operated by inserting the point 
 of the handspike under the heel of the carriage-shoe, 
 and pressing down the long arm of the lever; in 
 this way the weight of the rear portion of the carriage 
 is thrown upon the roller, which moves upon the 
 rail of the chassis. 7th. The prd-inge is a stout 
 hemp rope, occasionally employed in field-service 
 to connect the liipette <if "the carriage and pintle-hook 
 of the limber when the piece is tired. It is termina- 
 ted at one end with a hook, at the other wit ha toggle, 
 and has two intermediate rings, into which the hook 
 and toggle are fastened whenever it is necessarv' to 
 shorten the distance between the carriages, 8th. 
 The spange-fiucket is made of sheet-iron, and is at- 
 tached to field-carriages ; it is used for washing the 
 bore of the piece. 9th. The tar-bucket is also made 
 of sheet-iron, and is used to carry the grease for the 
 wheels. 10th. The watering-bucket is made of sole- 
 leather, riveted at the seams, and is used to water 
 the horses. The gutta-percha watering-buckets are 
 sometimes used. 11th. The water-buckets iivemmXe 
 of wood, and bound with iron hoops. There are 
 two kinds, one for the traveling-forge, and the other 
 for the service of the garrison-batteries. 12th. The 
 drag-rope has a hook at one end. a loop at the other, 
 and si.x wooden handles placed about four feet apart. 
 It is used whenever it may be necessary to emploj- a 
 number of men in hauling loads, or extricatins a 
 carriage from a difficult part ef a road. 13th. Tlie 
 men's^arness is very similar to the drag-rope, except 
 that the rope is stouter, and the handles are replaced 
 by leather loops which pass over the shoulders of 
 the meU; to enable them to exert their strength to 
 advantage. 14th. The bill-hook, or hand-bill, is used 
 for cutting twigs. 15th. The screir-jack is a lifting- 
 machine, composed of a screw worked by a nwtnhle 
 nut supported on a east-iron, stand. It is useful in 
 greasing carriaje-wheels. 
 
 IMPKEGNABLE.— Xot to be stormed or taken by 
 assault: inc:ipable of being reduced by force; able 
 successfully to resist attack ; as an impregnable fort- 
 ress. 
 
 IMPRESSION TAKER,— A device employed for re- 
 cording impressions of vents and interiors of bores 
 in the inspection of cannon. In its usual form, it 
 consists of a wooden head, one-half of which is cyl- 
 indrical, and the other half is of the shape of the 
 chamber, both being rather smaller than the parts 
 of the bore for which they are intended. The staff, 
 flatened on its upper side and rounded on its under 
 side to fit the curve of th3 bore, is mortised into the 
 cylindrical portion of the head. A mortise is cut
 
 EVEPEISONMENT. 
 
 86 
 
 INCLOSED "WORKS^ 
 
 through the chamber part of the head, extending 
 several inches in the rear and the front of the posi- 
 tion of the vent. Into this mortise a loose piece is 
 fitted, capable of free motion upwards and down- 
 wards, the top of which is pierced with holes to 
 secure the wax or composition which is spread over 
 its surface. This movable piece rests on a wedge 
 attached to a flat rod running through a slot in tliis 
 rod about four inclies long, a pin passing through 
 it into the staff. 
 
 To use the instrument, withdraw the rod as far as 
 the slot will permit, which will allow the movable 
 piece upon which tlie composition has been spread 
 to drop below the surface of the head, and protect 
 it. Push the head to the bottom of the chamber and 
 arrange the position of the staff, so that the mov- 
 able piece will cover the vent, then press the end of 
 the rod home. This motion will throw out the com- 
 position, and a distinct impression of the vent and of 
 fire-erncks (shoidd there be any) will be left on the 
 surface ; draw the rod back as far as the slot will 
 allow, and withdriiw the instrument ; the impression, 
 being protected tliereb.y, will come out uninjured. 
 Impressions of injuries or cavities in the bore may 
 easily be taken by a similar contrivance. See trutta- 
 jtercha Impressions, Inspection of Ordnance, 3.nA.Vent 
 Impressions. 
 
 IMPRISONMENT. — Officers may be sentenced to 
 imprisiiument Ijy a general Court-Martial in any case 
 where the Court may have discretionary authority. 
 General. Garrison, or Regimental Courts-Martial may 
 sentence soldiers to imprisonment, solitary or other- 
 wise, with or without hard labor for various offenses 
 enumerated in the Articles of War. A Garrison or 
 Regimental Court-Martial, in awarding imprisonment, 
 is limited to a period not exceeding thirty daj-s. 
 When a Court awards solitary imprisonment as a 
 punishment, it is necessary the words " Solitary C^on- 
 finement " should be expresed in the sentence. The 
 legal imprisonment in the United States is confine- 
 ment, solitary confinement, and a confinement on 
 bread and water; the latter does not extend over 14 
 days at a time, witli intervals between the periods 
 of "such confinement not less than such periods, and 
 not exceeding 84 days in any one year. 
 
 IN BATTERY. — A command in heavy artillery ser- 
 vice for moving the gun forward into position, prior 
 to aiming and firing. For instance, at the siege- 
 battery, as soon as the piece is loaded. iNos. 1 and 3 
 uncho'ck the wheels (if they have been chocked), 
 and with Nos. .3, 4, .5, and 6, all facing towards the 
 epaulment, embar ; Nos. 1 and 3 through tlie front 
 spokes of the wheels, near the fellies, under and 
 perpendicidar to the cheeks ; Nos. 3 and 4 under the 
 rear of the wheels, and Nos. 5 and 6 under and per- 
 pendicular to the stock, near the trail. All being 
 ready, the gunner commands : He.we, and the piece 
 IS run into battery, Nos. 5 and 6 being careful to 
 guide the muzzle into the middle of the embrasure. 
 As soon as the wheels touch the hurter, he com- 
 mands : Halt. All unbar, and Nos. 1, 3, 3, and 4 re- 
 sume llii'ir posts. 
 
 INCAPABLE. — A term of disgrace, frequently an- 
 nexed to military sentences, when au officer has been 
 cashiered by the sentence of a General Court-Martial, 
 and rendered ineajiable of ever serving his country 
 in cilhi-r a civil or military capacity. 
 
 INCENDIARY MATCH.— A preparation in pyro- 
 teehny. made Ijy boiling slow-match in a saturated 
 solution of niter, drying it, cutting it into pieces, 
 and iilunging it into tuelted fire-stone. It is princi- 
 pally used in loaded shells. See Fireworks. 
 
 INCENDIARY SHELL. -A hollow projectile charg- 
 ed with iiH'iiidiary composition, and designed for 
 setting tire to buildings, ships, and other objects. 
 Hollow balls filled with fire, appear to be among the 
 earliest jjroji'etiles used in warfare after the introduc- 
 tion of the Greek-fire, though lliese were not fired 
 from cannon ; but descriptions are given of balls of 
 Are used by the Saracens in Spain, which seem to 
 
 correspond closely with modem incendiary-shells,^ 
 The use of incendiary compounds appears to have 
 gradually become obsolete, as we hear little or no- 
 thing of their employment until toward the close of 
 the 18th century, hot shot being used as a substitute. 
 About 1797, Chevallier, in France, invented an in- 
 cendiary compound, which .seems to have been tried 
 to a limited extent by the French Government, for 
 filling shells. Since then, many inventors have ex- 
 ercised their ingenuity upon this subject, the princi- 
 pal object being to obtain an inextinguishable com- 
 position for charging shells, to be ignited either by 
 time-fuse or by percussion. The only shells of the 
 incendiary kind generally recognizedin modem war- 
 fare are carcasses. 
 
 INCENSED.— The epithet applied in Heraldry to 
 panthers and other wild beasts borne with flames 
 issuing from their mouths and ears. The term, 
 Amme has the same signification. See Heraldry. 
 
 INCLINE. — To gain ground to the flank, as well as 
 to the front. Inclining is of great use in the march- 
 ing of the line in front, to correct any irregularities 
 that ma}' happen. It is equivalent to the quarter 
 facing and to the oblique marching of the infantry. 
 It enables us to gain the enemy's flank without ex- 
 posing our own, or without wheeling or altering the 
 parallel front of the company. 
 
 INCLINED PLANE.— The inclined plane is reck- 
 oned as one of the mechanical powers, because, by 
 rolling it up a plane, a man may raise a weight 
 which he could not lift. This principle is extensive- 
 ly made use of, chiefly in the raising of weights and 
 in road-making. It is here unnecessary to go into a 
 mathematical investigation of the theory of the in- 
 clined plane, as it may be seen in the common books 
 on mechanics, but the result is as follows: The force 
 required to lift a body (viz., its weight) bears to the 
 force required to keep it from rolling down an In- 
 
 V"W 
 
 clined plane, the same proportion that the length of 
 the inclined plane bears to its height : also the weight 
 of the body bears to the weight which tends to bend 
 or break the inclined plane, the same proportion 
 that the length of the plane bears to its base. Let 
 us suppose a plane, whose length, AB, is thirteen 
 feet; base, AC, twelve feet ; and height, BC, five 
 feet ; and let the weight be 780 poimcls. Then the 
 force, P, whicli can sustain 780 pounds on the in- 
 clined plane, is ^jths of 780, or 300 pounds (/. e., a 
 force which could just lift 300 pounds) : also the 
 force, R, which presses perpendicularly on the plane, 
 is -;-|ths of 780, or 720 pounds. When the weight 
 has not only to be sustained on the plane but drawn 
 up to it, the resistance of friction has to be added to 
 the power necessary to sustain the weight. In com- 
 mon roads. Engineers are agreed that the lieight ■ 
 of an incline should not exceed J^th of the length, 
 or, as they phrase it, the gradient should not, be 
 greater than one in twenty. It may here be men- 
 tioned that knives, chisels, axes, wedges, and screws, 
 are mere modifications of the inclined jjlane, but the 
 last two being generally classed as di.stinct mechan- 
 ical powers, will be treated each under its own head. 
 See Aftriu/niral Pinners. 
 
 INCLOSED WORKS. -Inclosed works are a.ssailable 
 on all sides, and must, for security, present an un- 
 broken line to the assault. They are usually divided 
 into three classes, viz. ; 1st. Polygonal works or re- 
 doubts ; 2d. Tenailled works or star forts; 3d. Bas- 
 lioned works. The redoul)ts maybe inclosed on all 
 sides of a square, polygonal, or circular figure. The
 
 INCOUUODER L'ENNEMI. 
 
 87 
 
 INCOEPOEATINO MILL. 
 
 lattpr form is rarrly iisrd, hoint; nnsiiitiililc f o proiind 
 in uriicriil, iiiid from llii' iiri|iciMMiliilil y nf li'ivin'^ nrjy 
 lliuikiiii; (icfcMSc U> IIk' (litcli. I{c(l<]iil)ls on Ufvcl 
 finmnd arc generally Hquarc or |icnl,ai;onal. On a 
 hill or risiiii; ;,'roiiiid tlicir outline will, in nioHt cuhch, 
 follow tlif conlour o( llio siinunit of tin; Idll. The 
 dimensions of all inelosed works should he propor- 
 tioned to the nuinher of men they are to contain. 
 One lile, that is, two men, are rc(|uired for the de- 
 fense of every lineal yard of parapet; Ihe numhi'r 
 of yards in the crest line (jf any redoulit should not, 
 therefore, exceed lialf Ihe nuudjer of meii to IxM'on- 
 taincd in it. Afiain, as ovcry man in an inclosed 
 work recpiircs 10 s({uarc feet of tlie interior space, 
 that space clear of the Ijancpiette nuist not contain 
 less than ten times as many square feel as the num- 
 ber of men to he contaiticd in it. From these con- 
 siderations il follows: Isl. To find Ihe least imiuher 
 of men sullicieut lo man tlu^ parajjet of an inclosed 
 work. nuiUiply the number of yards in the crest 
 line by two. 2d. To lind the greatest number of 
 men that an inclosed work can contain, find the 
 area, clear of the liamiuette, in scpiare feet, and di- 
 vide tliis number by U). When the work contains 
 guns, ;ii4 square feet must be allowed for each gun, 
 and this quantity, mulliplied by the number of guns, 
 nuisl be sublracled from tlie wliole interior space. 
 The remaining number of square feet, divided by | 
 10, will give the number of men which the redoubt 
 can hold. The side of a square redoulit should, 
 under no circumstances, be less than 50 feet. The 
 great objections to small inclosed works are : 1st, 
 the liabilily of their faces to be enfiladed from with- 
 out; 2i\, the dillieully of providing an elfective 
 flanking defense for their ditches ; 3d, the weakness 
 of their sidient angles, the ground in front of tliem 
 being imdefeuded by a direct fire. In tracing re- 
 doubts and all inclo.sed field works, care must be 
 taken to direct as much as possible their faces upon 
 inaccessible ground, so as to reduce to a minimum 
 the cfTeets of an enemy's enliliide. while a|i|)roach 
 on the salients must be rendered ditliculf by abalis, 
 trous-de-loup, and obstacles of all available descrip- 
 tions. , It will henceforward be very dittieulf lo 
 guard the interior of inclosed works from the effects 
 of distant musketry. Well-trained troops from a 
 distance of 900 yards could throw willi certainly 
 every shot into the interior of even a sm;dl redoubt : 
 while the angle at which they fall, some l.'j'^ to 20>^, 
 would enable them to sweep the whole interior and 
 make every part of the redoubt too hot. It seems 
 to be a question whether such a work can be pro- 
 tected by traverses from such a plunging fire. See 
 Bastinned F&rU, Field ForUftcaUon, Redoubt, and 
 Star Forti. 
 
 INCOMMODER L'ENNEMI.— To get possession of 
 a fort, eminence, etc., from which tlie enemy may be 
 harassed, or wliich fs ni'cessarv to his security. 
 
 INCORPORATING MILL.— The incorporation, or 
 grinding togetlier, of the three ingredients that form 
 gunpowder is by far the most important process in 
 the whole manufacture, for unless the minute par- 
 ticles of the three ingredients be thoroughly blended 
 and brought into the closest contact with each other, 
 all subsequent operations — however well performed 
 — will not compensate for the error. The incorpor- 
 ating mill, which is shown in the drawing, consists 
 of two large and heavy " hard chill" cast-iron edge 
 runners, revolving on a circular cast-iron bed ; the 
 peculiar action of these runners or rollers is well 
 adapted for thoroughly grinding and incorporating 
 the several ingredients ; their great weight is for 
 crushing the ingredients ; which are also ground 
 together by the twisting action produced liy the roll- 
 ers traveling round in so small a circle. Kacii roll- 
 er travels over the bed in a separate track, and is 
 assisted by the plough (hereafter described), which 
 mi.xes the material, so that it is subjected to crushing, 
 grinding, and mixing by the one operation. Incor- 
 porating mills in a gunpowder factory are usually 
 
 grouped together, and the motive power may oitlier 
 be waliTor sleam : in eilhercase Ihe power provided 
 sl]i>nlil be capable of driving four or more pairs of run- 
 ners. Each pair is so arranged tliat it can be disen- 
 gaged or put in gear at pleasure by means of a friclion- 
 clut(;h, without interfering with the steady working 
 of the engine or water-wheel. When the latter is 
 employeil, the speed is regulati'd by a governor in 
 <onnection w ith Ihe sluice ; by this means the flow of 
 water is caused to immediately increase or diminish 
 as a pair of runners is put into motion or slopped, 
 and Ihiis a regular speed is always mainlained. Tlie 
 runners travel round Ihe bed at the rate of 8 revolu- 
 tions per minute ; they are 0' 0" in diameter by 113" 
 broad on the face, and they each weigh four ton.s. 
 As already staled, tlie two travel on different paths, 
 the one being near to Ihe outside rim or curb of the 
 bed, while the other travels near to the inside curb 
 or " cheese." A horizontal shaft or spindle com- 
 mon to both runners passes through their centers, 
 and between them is a crosshead, fixed on a vertical 
 shaft driven by means of a bevel wheel and pinion, 
 the latter being secured on the main driving-shaft 
 that passes ini(lernealli the bed of each mill, and is 
 common to all. The vertical shaft jiasses through 
 
 the crosshead, and is provided with brass bushes, 
 which allow the runners to rise or fall a<'Cording to 
 the irregularity in the thickness of the material under 
 them. On each side of the crosshead and project- 
 ing outwards is an iron bracket, having a phiugh 
 (made of a wedge-shaped piece of wood shod with 
 felt and leather) "fitted to it, and so arranged as to 
 sweep the bed and to keep the composition under 
 the runners. The one plough sweeps against the 
 outside curb, immediately in front of the runner 
 that travels round the larger circle, and the other 
 against the cheese or inside curb, immediately in 
 front of the runner that travel*; round the smaller 
 circle. The in.side of the outer curb, as well as the 
 outsideof the cheese where the ploughs work and rub 
 against them, are covered with copper or gun-melal. 
 The composition attains a body in abourone hour 
 after the runners are set in motion, and the action 
 of the ploughs in moving the whole of the material 
 on and across the bed thoroughly mixes it. and sub- 
 jects every particle to the same amount of pres- 
 sure. Each pair of runners is provided with a tell- 
 tale dial, which shows the attendant the time that 
 the mill has to run. and enables him to judge the 
 condition of the cake from time to time. From 
 three to four hour:; is the period a charge should be 
 on the mill, providing the engine or water-wlieel is 
 maintained at its proper speed. This timing of a 
 charge is a very important point in the manufacture 
 where powder of an equal quality is required, and
 
 IKCEEA8ING T^W^ST. 
 
 88 
 
 IKCREASING rWIST. 
 
 the attendant has to watch for anj' change in the at- 
 mosphere, so that he may work the charge dry or 
 moist, as the humidity of the air leads him to de- 
 termine. The ingredients, or cliarge, as it comes 
 from the mixing-machine— 50 lbs. in weight — is 
 spread equally over the bed of the mill, and moist- 
 ened with from 4 to 8 pints of distilled water by 
 means of a rose-ended watering-pot, the quantity 
 heing regulated according to the state of the atmos- 
 phere, and as the experience of the attendant shows 
 him to be necessary. The cake should be of a black- 
 ish-gray color, and, when broken, of a uniform ap- 
 pearance, without any white or yellow specks in it ; 
 the presence of these would indicate insufficient in- 
 corporation or grinding. Further, it should not be 
 more tliau half"'an inch in thickness, in order to be 
 thnroughly incorporated, nor should it be less than 
 a quarter of an inch thick to insure safety, because 
 if the runners are allowed to come in contact with 
 the bed, the friction caused by their twisting action 
 is so great that an explosion would almost certainly 
 be the result-. At the expiration of tliree or four 
 liours under the before mentioned conditions, a charge 
 will have attained all tlie properties of gunpowder, 
 nor will the powder be improved by heavier runners 
 or an increase of speed. For fine sporting gun- 
 powder, however, the operation of incorporating is 
 continued in some cases for as long as 8 hours, and 
 whh heavier rollers, but it is doubtful whether the 
 powder is much, if at all, improved thereby ; the 
 purity of the ingredients is of more consequence, in- 
 asmuch tliat on tliis the quality of powder depends 
 mucli more than vipon a long or short period of in- 
 corporali(m, for if regularity be observed and the 
 runners are of one size and weight, and the charges 
 are worked for an equal length of time and under the 
 same conditions, a fairly uniform powder will be 
 the result. A method used by some for testing 
 whether the incorporation has been well performed, 
 is to take iuilt an ounce of the cake granulated by 
 hand and flash it off on a glass plate ; if a slight res- 
 idue only is left on the surface it is a sign that the 
 attendant has done his work thoroughly. It has al- 
 ready been stated that incorporating-mills are gen- 
 erally in groups : it becomes necessary, therefore, to 
 prevent explosions spreading amongst these mills. 
 This is very eflectually done by the use of a drench- 
 in'' apparatus, which consists of a large board act- 
 ing as a flapper, aud placed horizontal!}' over each 
 pair of runners. This flapper is attached to a shaft 
 running throughout the entire group of mills, and 
 in connexion with it, and immediately over each set 
 of runners, is a copper cistern holding about 40 gal- 
 lons of water, so arranged and poised that when the 
 flapper is raised by an explosion the catch is disen- 
 gaged, and the cistern overbalancing empties its 
 contents upon the mill. This, of course does not 
 prevent damage being done to the mill in which the 
 explosion first occurs, but as .the v.diole are con- 
 nected to each other by means of the shaft referred 
 to, all the cisterns of the group are emptied at the 
 same time, thereby drenching the charges in the 
 other mills, and thus confining the damage to that 
 mill wherein it originated. In addition to tliis, an 
 ar-angeinent is provided whereby the attendant can, 
 in case of an explosion in anj' part of the works or 
 in his iiinnediate neighborhood, upset the cisterns of 
 water from tlie outside, and thus prevent the ex- 
 plosion spreading. In a well-constructed incorpor- 
 ating mill all the movable parts, such as Iiolts, nuts, 
 etc., are litted willi th(! greatest care, and at each 
 end of tlie rumier-sbafl. and also ov<'r and under the 
 cross-head between the runners, large gun-metal 
 discs or drip-pans nrv litted: these not only prevent 
 any oil or greasy matter dropping into the charge, 
 but likewise any bolt, mit, or pin that may have be- 
 come loose in the vicinity of these parts, falling 
 down into the charge, and possilily i>roihicingan ex- 
 plosion, if till' mill is at work. Further, wliere steam 
 is employed as the motive-power in a gunpowder 
 
 works, care must be taken at all times to prevent 
 sparks being emitted from the boiler chimney ; this 
 may be effected in several ways, either by using an- 
 thracite coal, or coal and coke, for the boiler fur- 
 nace, or by having a spark-catcher or arrester fitted 
 inside the flue near the base of the chimney, or a 
 number of baffle-plates being placed in the chimney 
 itself in a zig-zag manner. If proper precautions are 
 taken, and the flues are regularly cleaned out, there 
 will be no risk whatever in using steam-power. See 
 Gunpmoder. 
 
 INCREASING TWIST. — For an increasing twist, 
 the edges of the angle-board must be curved accord- 
 ingly, and as it is the property of the parabola to in- 
 crease uniformly, it has been adopted as the curve 
 of the rifling for those guns having an increased 
 twist. When this system is adopted, the grooves 
 start in a direction parallel to the axis of the bore, 
 and the twist increases uniformly towards the muz- 
 zle. In the drawing, ABCO denotes the develop- 
 ment of the bore, and OM that of a groove. The 
 origin of the co-ordinate axes is taken at the com- 
 mencement of the groove at the bottom of the bore ; 
 the axis of Y is parallel to the axis of the bore. The 
 curve OM is tangent to OA at O, since the projectile 
 starts in the direction OA. Let P denote the vari- 
 able angle between OX and the direction of the 
 curve Oil. If the twist increases uniformly, tan P 
 win decrease unif ormly as the ordinate iiicreasen, and 
 
 we shall have tan P = — , m being an undetermined 
 
 y 
 
 constant. 
 
 dy m 
 But, tan P = — = — , or 
 
 dx y 
 
 ydy = mdx ; integrating, y- ='imx-\- K. (a) 
 
 The constant of integration (A') is zero, since the 
 curve passes through the origin. («) is the equa- 
 tion to the parabola referred to the vertex and prin- 
 cipal axes. In the figure, MT is the tangent at JI, 
 and MM' equals AB = itc, e being the caliber of the 
 gun. Also M'T is put equal to nc, n denoting the 
 number of calibers in which the projectile makes 
 one turn after leaving the muzzle. To determine m, 
 putting J", for the value which P has at M we have 
 
 TO 
 
 tan P' = — ; 
 I 
 also, nc n 
 
 tan P' = — = — ; 
 
 7tC Tt 
 
 In 
 m= — 
 It 
 Whence the equation to the curve is 
 ny-' 
 a-= - (J!) 
 
 Bj'meansof equation (/<)the curve is easily traced. 
 The advantages claimed for this method of rifling 
 are. that the ]irojcetile, not being forced to take tiie
 
 INDEMNIFICATION. 
 
 Hi) 
 
 INDENTING PISTONS. 
 
 1 
 
 sfcnnd tlip repistrar fnll« in its turn, deprpsscs tlie 
 
 fni' iiiil of tlir Ir'vcr. I, anil IImih nMi-asrs the iiiiiin- 
 sprim; ; tin- kiiifr jiils forward, Hirikcs the falliti)^ 
 chninoiiietcr, and indents tin; iijipi-r recorder. Ah 
 shown below, a very Hinii>le relation holds Ijelween 
 the dent thus obtained and the velocity of the pro- 
 jectile which caiisrd it. A nioinent's thoii;,dit will 
 show that the lower the velocity the higher up shall 
 the reconhT be iiidenteil. 
 
 The chronometer is used in leveling the clirono- 
 scope ; for this purpose attach it to its' magnet, hurimj 
 preriiiiixly rorkril tlie inileitter ; then, by means of 
 the tripod-screws, bring it to its norm.al jiosition. lii 
 
 •whole twiat of the rifling at once, moves more read- 
 ily from its seal, and llius the initial strain upon 
 the breech of tlic> gun is reiluccil, Ihiicby prolong- 
 ing its life; also that the bearings on the projectile 
 are not liable' to be lorn olf. Theoretically it would 
 seem that a system of rilling which permits tlu- pro- 
 jectile to move directly from its seat, at the moment 
 of iirnition of the charge, must be more favorabh' 
 to endurance than one which, by inijieding the lirst 
 niovcmenl of th<' projectile in tlie bore, narrows the 
 S]iacc for the expanding gas, and consec|uenlly brings 
 a greater pressiu'e on the breech of the gun. Hut 
 practically this method does not appear to be suc- 
 cessful in the enormous cannon of recent construc- 
 tion. The greatest objection to the increasing twist 
 is that it cannot l)e used with a long bearing of pro- 
 jectile. Indeed, the theoretical bearing, whether it 
 is a soft metal ring, a sirip, or a stud, is inlinitcly 
 short— a mere line— and practically, length of bear- 
 ing only olitaini'd by a constant molding of the pro- 
 jectil(! io the new angle of ritling, so that the portion 
 of the projectile intended to take the grooves, must 
 be short and also soft, for if it cannot obtain, by 
 changing its lignrc, more bearing on the grooves 
 than on a mere line, it will imdonbtedly cut llu' 
 Eroovi's, thus increasing friction, and soon ruining 
 "the bore. In the absence of further exjieriuu ;ils, it 
 wiadil hardly be Siife to conclude that long bearings 
 will not prove indispensable to the heavy projectiles 
 and high velocities that are now reciuired. A pro- 
 jectile, if balance<i on weakening studs in each 
 groove, is liable to break up througli the stud-holes, 
 thereby injuring the gun. To nqiidly rotate an iron 
 cylinder, say twelve inclu's in diameter ar.d three 
 calibers in length, weigliing nearly a third ' f a ton. 
 by a ring of such jioinls, is very likely to produce a 
 tciihhUng motion and unsteady movements 5u tlight, 
 with reduced range. Very rapid twist, although it 
 conduces to steadiness of motion, cannot be given 
 because small bearings will not endun^ the great 
 ettort neeessarv. See Grooves. Ri-fliiig, and Tiri'xt. 
 
 INDEMNIFICATION.— In the French and English 
 Armies, there is an indemnification established for 
 losses in the military service, and other allowances 
 are also made in the nature of iudemnilications ; as 
 for furniture ; fuel and light ; foroge ; txpensea of 
 divine won/lip ; commnnd money to General and Field 
 Officers; quarters; expense» upon. routes; provinions ; 
 grntuity at the beginning if a campaign ; field filloir. 
 ances ; mes!<; rarringe of baggage ; blood-money ; per- 
 manent pension!) ; temporary pensions, or gratuities 
 in lievi thereof; rewards for meritorious conduct; 
 and pensions to widows and children of otficers. 
 
 In the United States service, the law provides that 
 if a horse be lost in battle, an officer may receive not 
 exceeding two hundred dollars for his horse, and 
 allowances are made for quarters, fuel, forage, pro- 
 vision and transportation of baggage, and command 
 money in certain cases. 
 
 INDENT. — A word particularly made use of in 
 India for the dispatch of military business. It is of 
 the same import and meaning as to draw upon. It 
 likewise means an order for military .stores, arms, 
 etc., as an indent for new supplies, etc. 
 
 INDENTED.— In Heraldry, oneof thepartitionlines 
 of the shield, similarly notched to dancetle. Iiut with 
 the notches nuich smaller, and not limited in number. 
 See Ilrraldri/. 
 
 INDENTED LINE,— In fortitication, a serrated line, 
 forming several angles, so that the one side defends 
 another. The faces are longer than the tlanks. In- 
 dented lines are used on the banks of rivers, where 
 they enter a town. The parapet of the covered-way 
 is also often indented. 
 
 INDENTER. — This active element of the chrono- 
 scope, as shown in the drawing in section, consists 
 of the circular knife. G, fixed in the mainspring, II, 
 ■which can be cocked by means of the catch on the 
 lever. I. On the breaking of the first circuit, the 
 chronometer falls verticallj'; on the rupture of the 
 
 evelingfrom front to rear, let the beveled shoulder 
 of the bob, opposite the numbered face, rest lightly 
 against the projecting edge, '• <•, of the trianixulaV 
 base; in leveling laterally, align the right face with 
 the edge d d, of the salient angle of the above i)ro- 
 jection. In cocking the indenter, be careful not to 
 disturb the level of the instrument; the left hand 
 alone is therefore used: the fingers grasp the tube, 
 li, while the thumb pulls jiack the spring until it 
 catches in the lever, I. The screw. 51, which is 
 tapped through the lever anil rests on the fulcrum- 
 mortise will regulate tlnvhold of the catch, which 
 should be as light as possible. The knife is a cir- 
 cular rowel of tempered cast-steel fastened in a slot 
 of the mainspring by the a.xial screw, N, the loosen- 
 ing of which permits the presentation of a new edge, 
 should the old one be blunted. See Le Boulenge 
 Chronograph. 
 
 INDENTING FORCE.— The comparative softness or 
 hanlness of metal is determined by the bulk of the 
 cavities or indentations made by equal pressure; the 
 softness being as the bulk directly, and the hardness 
 as the bulk inversely. Of the different forms of 
 cavity made by indenting-tools that of the pyramid 
 is preferred, because of its simplicity and the ease 
 with which its vohune may be computed. The in- 
 deatiug part of the tool is in the form of a pyramid, 
 having a rhombus for its base, the diagonals of 
 which are, respectively, one inch and two-tenths of 
 an inch, the height of the pyramid one-tenth of an 
 inch. In late experiments the form of the pyrannd 
 has been changetl and imjiroved somewhat by c:ius- 
 ing it to make a longer line and mark minute dilTer- 
 enees more accuratelv. 'i>fc Rodman ('utter. 
 
 INDENTING-PISTONS.— The indenting-pistons that 
 are used in the service arcfoundto vary iutheirdiam- 
 eters. The pressure of the gas is e.xerted upon their 
 inner ends, and varies directly with the area pressed. 
 It is desirable to have a scries of pistons adopted 
 which shall have the same area of cross-section. In 
 practice, the area of these pistons has generally been 
 assumed to be one-tenth of one square inch. The fol- 
 lowing Table gives the diameters, areas, and pressures 
 upon those pistons of which the dimensions are 
 known, neglecting friction, and supposing the pres- 
 sure per square inch to lie 100,000 pounds. 
 
 Little is known in regard to the effect of friction 
 upon these short pistons. The friction of the gas- 
 check against the walls of the hole would render the 
 indicated, less than the actual pressures. A uni- 
 form system of pistons and cutters should be estab- 
 lished in order to render the results obtained com- 
 parable. The more nearly the conditions are assim- 
 ilated the greater will be the approximation of (he
 
 INDEPENDENT. 
 
 90 
 
 INDIAN A£iinr, 
 
 relative pressures to an agreement. At tlie present spindle, etc., has a perpendicular movement of two 
 time each piston necessitates a separate Table of , inches. The upward and downward movement of 
 Pressures and when the length of the cuts is re- 1 the main slide, to which the vertical is attached, i& 
 
 Pistons. 
 
 Ordnance Manual, 1861 
 
 Frankf ord Arsenal, (musket) 
 
 Rodman 
 
 Metcalfe 
 
 Theoretical 
 
 National Armory circular cutter 
 
 National Armory circular cutter No. 3 
 West Point internal pressure-gauge. . . 
 
 .S'S 
 Q 
 
 Inches. 
 .37 
 
 .357 
 
 .3568+ 
 
 .356 
 
 ..357 
 
 .355 
 
 Sq. in. 
 .107521 
 
 .106940 
 .106362 
 
 .100098 
 .100000 
 
 .ogg.iss 
 
 .190098 
 .0989798 
 
 Lbs. 
 10752.1 
 
 10694.0 
 10636.2 
 
 10009.8 
 10000.0 
 995.1.8 
 10009.8 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 0" .37 given here because this number has eometimeff 
 
 been used in calculating pressures. 
 Made for National Armory. 
 Vide ■' Experiments on Metals for Cannon," and 
 
 similar writings. 
 Made for use with "' spiral cutters." 
 True diameter— 0".356824743746. 
 Also for Adams's cutter. 
 Made at National Armory for Frankf ord Arsenal 
 
 quired to determine the pressures, a Table must be 
 constructed for each cutter. See Circular Cutter 
 aud Prexxiire-qrivfje. 
 
 INDEPENDENT.— In a strict military sense, a term 
 which distinguishes from the rest of the army those 
 companies which have been raised by individuals 
 for rank, and were afterwards drafted into corps 
 that were short of their complement of men. An 
 Independent Company or Troop, is one that is not 
 incorporated into any regiment. 
 
 INDEPENDENT SCARP.— A wall 3 feet thick erect- 
 ed at the foot of the exterior slope, and when it is 
 breached the parapet cannot fall. It is loop-holed 
 and provided with a banquette. Its height should 
 not be less than 20 feet. 
 
 INDEX MILLING-MACHINE.— A machine adapted 
 to a n-reat variety of work on metals, in the Armory. 
 The "Imall machines of this class, weighing about 
 600 pounds, mill lOi inches long and Ti inches high, 
 and will cut gears up to 8 inches in diameter. The 
 use of the inconvenient counter-shaft, with binder, 
 weight, etc., commonly used with this class of ma- 
 chines, is avoided in the Armory, an ordinary over- 
 head shaft being used, and the compensation for rise 
 and fall of mili-spiudle and carrier obtained by a 
 splined shaft passing through the lower gear. Wlien 
 not in use for cutting gears, the index-spindle is 
 solidly clamped, so that when using a vise, centers, 
 or spiral-cutter, no strain or injury can come upon 
 the index-plate or pointer. 
 
 The larger macliines, weighingabout l,400pounds. 
 are perfect gear cutters within certain limits of size, 
 cutting fast "and smoothly, and, in addition, having 
 provision for using a vise", centers, and spiral cutter 
 without injury to the delicate dividing mechanism, 
 thus practica'lly furnishing two machines. Tliey 
 mill 18 inches in lengtli and 11 inches in height ; cut 
 spur-gears up to 21 inches in diameter ; also worm 
 and bevel-gears. An adjustable rim-rest supports 
 the gear-blank while being cut, and prevents chat- 
 tering. The mill-arbor has an outside center sup- 
 port,"which can be removed if required. The cutter- 
 head may be worked by the screw in front, or hy an 
 adjustal)le lever, conne"cted with rack and pinion at 
 tlie back, and is balanced by a weight under the 
 machine. 
 
 The index-plate is 14 inches in diameter, has 3,800 
 holes, in S.") circles, and divides all numbers to .lO, 
 all even numbers to 100. and every fourtli number 
 to 200. 
 
 The drawing represents the machine most com- 
 monly used. It is adapted to cutting mills, spur or 
 bevel-gears, up to inches diameter. The index- 
 plate i's attached to the bottom of a hollow spindle 
 having a graduateil <lisc. The si)iiidle is pivoted 
 to a vertical slide, and with its attachments, as vise 
 or centers, may be moved and .secured at any angle 
 in a v<'rtical plane of 180", or 90° on either side of 
 an upright position. This slide, carrying the inilex- 
 
 6 inches, and its side traverse 12 inches. The centers 
 shown in the engraving as attached to the index- 
 spindle, will receive work Z\ inches in diameter and 
 Si inches in length. The spindle is of steel, and 
 slides in a cast-iron sheath or shell, which runs in 
 cast-iron boxes lined with Babbitt-metal. The hori- 
 zontal movement of the spindle and the vertical move- 
 
 ment of the slides are made by adjustable hand-levers, 
 and limited by check-nuts." The head has a longi- 
 tudinal adjustment by a screw to the extent of 3J 
 inclies. The machine weighs, with countershaft, 
 vise, ami centers, 650 pounds. Speed of counter- 
 shaft, having 8 and 5 by 3i inch tight and loose 
 puUevs, 100 revolutions per minute. See Milling. 
 
 INDIAN ARMY.— The Indian Army in the days of 
 Clive. whicli was composed of botii the liritisli and 
 native troops, was comparatively small, liarely suffi- 
 cient to hold its own ; but even in those days it did 
 great deeds of valor, as the battle of Assaye and 
 other battles testify. By degrees, as the East India 
 Company increased its territory, a larger Army was 
 found necessary, and both British and native troops
 
 Indians, American. 1. Menitari warrior, dressed for the dog-dance. 2. Dakota varrior. 3. Maudan cl 
 
 boin (jirl. 7. Buffalo dance among the Mandans. 8. Assiniboin spell-mound. 
 VII-856.
 
 Ded with his trophies. 4. The same iu garments of state. 5. Assiniboins. 6. Dakota squaw and Assini-
 
 INDIAN COUNTRY. 
 
 91 
 
 INDIANS. 
 
 wcro a.ifimcnted. Tii IS."}" Ilii' iiiiiliny of the nalivi' 
 Ariiiy liiok place, wliirli iiiTcssilalccI ■d.\\nujsy in tlic 
 orj^aiii/.alioii cif tlic Army iiivnlviii;; a lari;c increase 
 of the HritlHll force. From this date tiie .\rmv of 
 the Kast India C'ompaiiy hecaiiu^ a |)arl of her Mu- 
 jcsly's Army, paid out of the revenues of India. 
 
 The Army of India at present consists of Oa.S.'iO 
 British troops and 128,. "500 native trtiojjs. More than 
 lialf the former are stationed in the Heniial Presi- 
 dency, 3K,000 men lieini; in jjiirrison aloiii; the valley 
 of the (laiiires, Ouile, and in the I'ljiijiili. while thi' 
 8trenj:cth of the native Army fur tlie same I'residency 
 amoiinis to 4!), 001). ISens^al i)roper alone requires 
 abont 7,000 Kn;;lisli troops for its fruard, or nearly 
 one-ninth of the total number of the Urilish em- 
 ployed in India. The remainder are distributed 
 amongst the North-west Provinces and in the Presi- 
 dencies of JIadras and Bondjay. See /iast India 
 .'I ?'im/. 
 
 INDIAN COUNTRY.—" The Indian country," with- 
 in llic meaning' of the Trade and Intercourse Acts, 
 may be delined in general as: 
 
 1. Indian reservations occupied by Indian tribes. 
 
 2. Other districts so occupied to which thelndlan 
 title iias not been extinguished. 
 
 Furthermore, the operation of the said Acts may 
 be retained by treaty or extemled by Act of Congress 
 over districts not in other respects Indian country. 
 If any special case shall occur which, in the view of 
 the l)epartnienl Commander, may not appear to be 
 embraced within the delinition above stated, he re- 
 ports the case, with all its facts and circumstances, 
 to the Secretary of War, in order that the ([uestion 
 whether the locality is " Indian couutr}' " maybe re- 
 ferred to I he Secretary of the Interior. 
 
 Where lands are secured to the Indians, by treaty, 
 against occu]iation by the whites, the Military Com- 
 manders keep intruders oiT, by ndlitary force, if nec- 
 essary, until such time as Indian tith' is extinguished, 
 or the lands are opened by Congress for settlement. 
 There is no jurisdiction conferred upon State or 
 Territorial Courts 1 itrv an Indian charged with the 
 murder of another Indian. Section 2MlJ of the Re- 
 vised Statute's of the United States, as amended by 
 the Act of February 18. 1875, entitled " An Act to 
 correct errors and sujiply omissions in the Revised 
 Statutes of the United Siates," provides that sectioii 
 214o shall not be construed to extend to crimes com- 
 mitted t)y one Indian against the person or property 
 of another Indian, nor to any Indian committing an 
 offense ii. the Indian country who has been punished 
 by the local law of the tribe. 
 
 When questions arise as to the ownership of ani- 
 mals in possession of Indians, the Commanding OtH- 
 cer of the nearest military post is authorized and di- 
 rected to act in conjunction with the Indian Agent 
 in charge of the said Indians in tlie investigation and 
 determination of the ownership. 
 
 Whatever may be the rule in tlie time of war and 
 iu the presence of actual hostilities, military officers 
 can no more than civilians protect themselves for 
 "wrongs commited in time of peace tmder orders 
 emanating from a source which is in itself withovit 
 authority in the premises. Hence a milltar}' officer, 
 seizing liquors supposed to be in Indian country, 
 when they are not, is liable to action as trespasser. 
 The difference between the value of the goods so 
 seized, at the place where they were taken and the 
 place where they were returned to the owners, is 
 the proper measure of damages. 
 
 Supplies, stores, or propert\' of auv kind, procur- 
 ed out of Army appropriations, are not transferred, in 
 any way or luider any circumstances, for the use of 
 Indians, except under authority tirst obtained from 
 tlie Secretary of War. Any officer violating the 
 terms of this regulation is charged with the money 
 value of the supplies, stores, or property transfered. 
 and in addition is otherwise held accountable, ac- 
 cording to circumstances. Ko issues of arms, am- 
 munition, or any other Ordnance stores arc matlc 
 
 to Indians not in the employ of the War Dcoarlment 
 
 as scoulH. 
 
 To carry into effect ihr joint resolution adopted 
 by Congress, August .'). 1S7(!. the sale of (ixe<l am- 
 munition or metallie cartridges, by any trader or 
 other p<Tson, in any district of the Indian country/ 
 oceu|)ied by hostile Indians, or over which they roam,] 
 is prohibited: ami all such ammunition or cartridges 
 inlroduced into saiil country, Ity traders orother per- 
 sons, and that are liable in any way or manner diri'ct- 
 Iv or indirectly, to be receive<l by such hostile In-' 
 (lians, is always deemed contraband of war, and 
 seized by any military officer, and confiscated : and 
 the district of country to which this prohibition shall 
 apply, during the continuance of hostilities. Is des- 
 ignated as that which embraces all Indian country, 
 or country occu|iied by Indiiins or subject to tlie"ir 
 visits, lying within the Territories of Montana, Da- 
 kota, and VV'yomiug, and the States of ^Nebraska and 
 Colorado. 
 
 I5y virtue of authority conferred upon the Presi- 
 dent of the United States in .section 2132, Revised 
 Statutes, the introduction into thelndlan country or 
 district occupied by any tribe of hostile Indians," for 
 the purpose of .sale or exchange to them of arms or 
 ammunition of any description, and the sale or ex- 
 change tliereof to or with such Indiims. is prohibited. 
 All military commanders are charged with the duty 
 of assisting in the execution of this order, andofE.x- 
 ecutive Order of November 23. 1870, the provisions 
 of which are extended to include all Indian country 
 within the Territories of Idaho, Utah, and Washing- 
 ton, and the States of Nevada and Oregon. Sec In- 
 clian Tfrrit'Ti/. 
 
 INDIAN FILE.— Single file; the arrangement of 
 men in a row following one after another, as is cus- 
 tomary among Indians when traversing the woods 
 or mount:iins. 
 
 INDIAN FIRE.— A bright white signal-light, pro- 
 <luced by burning a mixture of 7 parts of sulphur, 
 2 of realirar, and 24 of niter. 
 
 INDIAN INK.— The cakes of this substance, which 
 is a mechanical mixture, and not, like the true inks, 
 a chemical compound, are composed of lampblack 
 and size or animal glue, with a little perfume. The 
 lampblack must be remarkably tine, and is said to 
 be made in China by collecting the smoke of the oil 
 of sesame. A little camphor (about 2 per cent.) is 
 also found in the ink made in China, and is thought 
 to improve it. This substance is used in that coun- 
 trv with a brush both for writing and for painting 
 upon paper of native manufacture, while in this 
 cfiimtry, it is extensively employed for designs in 
 black and white, and all intermediate shades of color. 
 Much curious information on this pigment may be 
 found in ^lerimee's treatise, De la Peinture. 
 
 INDIAN PONY.— The square-buUt. large-trunked, 
 and short-legged pony used by the North American 
 Indians and elsewhere. This pony, generally be- 
 lieved to be the result of a cross between the South- 
 ern mustang and a small t^'pe of the Canadian, is 
 never fed, stabled, combed, shod nor doctored ; and 
 when not under the saddle is left to shift for himself. 
 In the winter he is a mere animated skeleton. His 
 proportions vary according to the localities in which 
 he is found, but he seldom exceeds thirteen bands 
 in height. He is wonderfully sagacious and sure- 
 footed. He can climb a steep, rocky hill with as- 
 surance and activity, and rush down a precipitous 
 declivity with much indifference. He will get over 
 and through places, which appear utterly impracti- 
 cable, with ease and rapidity, while the American 
 horse would labor to travel at a walk. He particularly 
 excels in the passage of swamps, marshy places, and 
 sands perforated with gopher holes. 
 
 INDIANS. — The collective nai le now generally 
 given to the various nations and tribes inhabiting 
 North and South America, at the time of their dis- 
 covery by the Spaniards, and to such of their de- 
 scendants as survive at the present day. The name
 
 INSIAK8. 
 
 92 
 
 IHOIANS. 
 
 of Indians was first given to the natives of America 
 from the mistaken notion of tlie eariy voyagers. 
 Columbus himself ineluded, that the newly found 
 Continent was in reality a part of India. This was 
 soon shown to be an error ; but the name of Indians, 
 thus wrongly applied to the inhabitants, continued 
 to be usedin every narrative of voyage and discov- 
 er}-, and has descended even to our own times, only 
 that we now qualify it in some measure by speaking 
 of them as American Indians. In the classification 
 of Blumenbach the American Indians are treated as 
 a distinct variety of the human race ; but in the 
 threefold division of mankind laid down by Dr. 
 Latham, they are ranked among the Mongolidi:e. 
 Other Ethnologists also regard them as a branch of 
 the great Mongolian family, which, at a remote 
 period of the world's history, foimd its way from 
 Asia to the American Continent, and there remained 
 for tliousands of years se|)arate from the rest of man- 
 kind, passing meanwhile through various alterna- 
 tions of barbarism and civilization. Morton, Jiow- 
 cver, the distinguished American Ethnologist, and 
 his disciples Nott and Gliddon, claim for them a dis- 
 tinct origin, one as indegenous to the Continent it- 
 self as its favuia and flora. Pritehard, whose views 
 generally differ from those of Morton, acknowledges 
 Uiat •' On comparing the American tribes together, 
 we find reasons to believe that they must have sub- 
 sisted as a separate dejiartment of nations from the 
 earliest ages of the world. Hence, in attempting to 
 trace relaUons between them and the rest of man- 
 kind, we cannot expect to discover proofs of their 
 derivation from any jjarticular tribe or nation in the 
 Old Continent. The era of their existence as a dis- 
 tinct and insulated race must probably be dated as 
 far back as that time which separated into nations 
 the inhabitants of the Old World, and gave to each 
 branch of tlie human family its primitive language 
 and individuality." Dr. Robert Brown, in his "Races 
 of Mankind," the latest authority on the subject, at- 
 tributes to the American race an Asiatic origin. 
 He says : " Not onl_y are the Western Indians in ap- 
 pearance very like theirnearest neighbors, the North- 
 eastern Asiatics, but in language and tradition, it is 
 confidentially affirmed, there is a blending of the 
 people. The Eskimo, on the American, and the 
 Tchuktchis, on the Asiatic side, understand each 
 other perfectly." In fact, modern Anthropologists 
 incline to think that Japan, the Kuriles, and the 
 neighboring regions may be regarded as the original 
 home of the greater part of the American race. It 
 is also admitted by Anthropologists that between 
 these various tribes, from the Arctic Sea to Cape 
 Horn, there is greater uniformity of physical struc- 
 ture and personal characteristic than is seen in any 
 other quarter of the globe. The '• Rea Men," as they 
 are called, of the United States and Canada, differ 
 in many respects from the Guranis of Paraguay, 
 and both from the wild tribes of California, but all 
 exhibit the clearest evidence of belonging to the 
 .same great branch of the human family. Upon this 
 ])oint the testimony of a writer like Humboldt is 
 very important. " The Indians of New Spain," says 
 Humboldt, "bear a general resemblance to those 
 who inhabit Canada, Florida, Peru, and Brazil. We 
 think we can perceive them all to be descended from 
 the same stock, notwithstanding the prodigious di- 
 versity of their languages. In the ])()rtrait drawn 
 by Volney of the ('ana<iian Indians, we recognize 
 tlie tribe scattered over the Savaiuiahs of llie Apure 
 and the Carony. The same style of features exists 
 in both Americas." 'I'he Mongolian cast of features 
 is most marked in the tribes nearest to the .Mojigol 
 coast, ('. e., on the shores of the Pacific, and gets less 
 noticeable as we go Eastward. Their traditions, too, 
 indicate that the trilies on the eastern seaboard came 
 from the West, and the western tribes even came 
 from regions still further west. 
 
 Generally the i>liysical characteristics of the Amer- 
 ican Indians are as follows ; a square head, having a 
 
 low, but broad foreliead. the back of the head flat- 
 tened, full-face, and powerful jaws ; cheek-bones 
 prominent ; lips full ; eyes dark, and deeply set ; the 
 hair long, not absolutely straight, but wavy, some- 
 thing like a horse's mane, and like that, of a glossy 
 hue ; little or no beard — where it does appear, it is 
 
 \ carefully eradicated with tweezers : color of the skin 
 reddish or copper ; the height of the men about tlie 
 average, but looking taller from their erect posture 
 
 I and slender figure ; the women rather shorter, and 
 
 ! more inclined to obesity, Ijut many of them with 
 symmetrical figure and pleasing countenance ; hands 
 and feet of both men and women small. As before 
 said, however, there being some hundreds of tribes 
 among the American Indians, there are apny de- 
 
 I ))artures from these general cliaracteristics, not only 
 in individuals, but entire septs. " The Americans," 
 saj'S Pritehard, " are not all of the hue denominated 
 red, that is, of a copper color; some tribes are as 
 white as many European nations ; others brown or 
 j-ellow ; others are black, or, at least, they are des- 
 cribed by travelers as vcrj' much resembling in color 
 the negroes of Africa. Anatomists have distinguished 
 what they have termed the American form of the 
 human skull ; they were led into the mistake by re- 
 garding the strongly marked characteristics of some 
 particular tribes as universal. The American nations 
 are spread over a vast space, and live in different 
 climates, and the shape of their heads is different in 
 different parts. Nor will any epithets derived from 
 their habits of life apply to all the tribes of this de- 
 partment. The native Americans are not all hunters ; 
 there are many fishing tribes among them : some are 
 nomadic : others cultivate the earth, and live in set- 
 tled habitations; and of tliesc some part were agricul- 
 turists before the arrival of the Europeans ; others 
 have learned of their Conquerors to till the soil, and 
 have changed the ancient habits of theirrace, which. 
 as we ma_v hence infer, were not the necessary result 
 of organization or congenital and instinctive propen- 
 sity." Dr. Jlorton's views on this subject substan- 
 tially agree with those of Pritehard, and both concur 
 in adopting the test of language as a proof of one 
 common origin for the various native tribes of both 
 North and Sotith America. The linguistic conclu- 
 sion, now generally acquiesced in, is thus briefly sta- 
 ted by Mr. Albert Gallatin: "Amidst the great di- 
 versity of the American languages, considered only 
 in reference to their vocabularies, the similarity of 
 their structure and grammatical forms has been ob- 
 served and pointed out by the American Philologists. 
 The result appears to confirm the opinion already en- 
 tertained on that subject by Jlr. Du Ponceau. Mr. 
 Pickering, and others; and to prove that all the lan- 
 guages , not onlj' of our own Indians, but of the na- 
 tive inhabitants of America, from the Arctic Ocean to 
 Cape Horn, have, as far as they have been investi- 
 gated, a distinct character common to all, and ap- 
 parently differing from any of those of the other Con- 
 tinents with which we are most familiar." 
 
 The next question that comes under consideration 
 is : Whence does it arise that, with all this similarity 
 of physical conformation and language, there should 
 have "been only two nations amoug so many millions 
 — namely, the Mexicans and Peruvians — wboatliiined 
 to any high degree of civilization ? When the Spiuii- 
 ards entered Mexico they found in it a rich, power- 
 ful, and warlike nation, living in walled cities, in 
 which were palaces and other siunptous residences. 
 They were ruled over by an Emperor or King whose 
 sway extended over many other nations besides his 
 own'. They worshiiipi-d the sum. ;iiid liad an organ- 
 ized Hierarchy ; they luiil also fixed laws, were ac- 
 quainted with many of tlie arts and sciences, espe- 
 cially astronomy ; they practiced agriculture, worked 
 mines, and displayed considerable skill in manufac- 
 tures, both iuduslrial and oriiauienlal. The Nation 
 thus discovereil was that of the .\ztees, who jirofes- 
 sed to have ammig tlieiu evidi'iiccs of antic|uity dat- 
 ing as far back as the year UrA of our era. A few
 
 Mandanr and Crerokkks. 1. Lodge of a Maiulan chief. 2. Soalp of a man; featliera as mementoes ( 
 American jjortable cradle. G. Ciioroliee village. T. Air-burial, s. Mandan village and canoes. 9. M 
 IX-430.
 
 r deeds. 3. Plan of a North Atnerican Indian tepee (hut). 4. Chief's summer wigwam. 5. North 
 JO. North American canoes
 
 INDIANS. 
 
 93 
 
 INDIANS. 
 
 ypurs later, in I'crii, the Spiiniardw found anollipr 
 Nation, also cxcec(liiii;l_v rii-lj. niiiriiTijiis. and power- 
 ful with a civilization fnlly as nuicji cxtcndiMl as thai 
 of llic Azli'cs, yet, dilVcrinn from that in many (tsHcn- 
 lial particulars. This was tlic Nation of (^uidiuas, 
 frc(|Ucntly termed Incas (more correctly Ynrjiii). as- 
 BO<iated with whom were the Aymaras, whose country 
 had been snhjuf^ated by the Incas two or three 
 centuries liefore the arrival of I'i/arro, in I'eru. 
 Each of these Nations — till- .Mexicans and Peruvians 
 — is supposed to have slowly developed its own 
 civilization during a long process of ages. In every 
 other |)art of America European settlers and e.K- 
 plorers have found only complete or semi-barliarism. 
 Such was tlu^ case in Virginia; such in New Kng- 
 land. Canada, the Hudson's IhiyTiTritory. California, 
 and i'alagonia. Int'entral America, liowever, there 
 have been found extensive remains of architecture 
 and other traces of civilization, which would seem 
 to date back to even a more remote period than that 
 of the Mexican or Peruvian Empires. Immens(^ 
 artificial mounds also exist in the valley of the Mis- 
 sissippi an<l elsewhere throughout America, suppos- 
 ed to be the work of the ancestors of the present 
 wandering tribes. If so. there may be sonu' truth 
 in the theory of Dr. Martins, a distinguished German 
 Ethnologist, " That the nations of the new world are 
 not in a state of primitive barbarism or living in the 
 original simplicity of micultivated nature, but that 
 they are, on the contrary, the last remains of a peo- 
 ple once high in the scale of civilization and mental 
 improvement, now almost worn out and perishing, 
 and sunk into the lowest grade of decline and de- 
 grachition." Dr. Pritchard appears inclined to the 
 same view, adding : " Attentive observers have been 
 struck with manifestations of greater energy and 
 mental vigor, of more intense and deeper feeling, of 
 a more reflective mind, of greater fortitude, and more 
 consistent perseverance in enterprises and all pursuits 
 wdien they have compared the natives of the New 
 World with the sensual and volatile, and almost 
 animalized Savages who are still to be found in some 
 fjiarlers of the Old ('ontinent. They have been 
 ecjually impressed bj'the sullen and nnsocial charac- 
 ter, by the proud apathetic endurance, by the feeble 
 influence of social affections, by the intensity of ha- 
 tred and revenge, and the deep malice-concealing 
 dissimulation so remarkable amid the dark solitudes 
 of the American forests." 
 
 Dr. Robert Brown adopts a geographical classifi- 
 cation of the American tribes, which is, on the 
 whole, at least unsatisfactory. There are Arctic 
 tribes ; North-western tribes inhabiting the region 
 west of the Rocky Jlountains between California and 
 Alaska; Californian tribes; Indians of the Central 
 Plains; Prairie tribes ; North-eastern Indians; Cana- 
 dian Indians ; and Central American Indians. The 
 chief existing tribes are ; Eskimo, Cowichans, Tson- 
 
 feisths, Nanaimos, Quakwolths, Nuchultaws, Kos- 
 eemos, Sesliahts, Nittinahts in Vancouver Island ; 
 Hydahs (Queen Charlotte Islanders) ; Tsimpsheans, 
 Bellacoolas, Chilcoatins, Shuswaps in British Colum- 
 bia ; Cayuse, Snakes, Klamaths in Oregon ; the Dig- 
 ger or Californian Indians, the most degraded of all 
 the tribes ; theComanches, Apaches, Navajos, Hual- 
 pais, Yampas, in the C'entral Plains : the iloqui, 
 Pueblos, Pimas, Papagos in New Mexico ; Utahs, 
 Pahutas, Pahides, Soshones,Loo-coo-rekahs,Goships, 
 Cheyennes, Arrapahoes, Kwivas, Arickarees, Poncas, 
 Yanktons. Gros- Ventres, and Sioux or Dahcotahs, 
 Assiniboines. Blackfeet, Crows, Omahas, Ottoes, 
 Pawnees, etc., are all Prairie tribes; the Dela wares, 
 Mo-hee-conneughs (Mohicans), Oneidas, Tuskaroras, 
 Senecas, Shawnees, Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, 
 Seminoles, Osages, Kaskias. Weealis, Potowatomies, 
 Quapaws, Peorias, Kanzans, Sanks, Foxes, Puncas, 
 etc., in the North-eastern States; the Crees, Santeux 
 or Ojebways, Chippewayans, the Sacliss or Shewhap- 
 mucii in Canada ; Tehuantepecs, Mosquitos, Smoos, 
 Twakas, Toonglas, Payas, Ramas, and Cookras in 
 
 f 'entral America. Again, M. d'Orbigny has classifierl 
 all the Indians of .South America under three great 
 groups, viz., the Anilian group, the Mediterranean 
 group, and the liasilio-Guarani group; and these he 
 subdivides into thirty-nine distinct nations ; viz., '1. 
 C^uichua; 2. Aymara ; 3. Chango : 4. Atacama; 5. 
 ^uracares; f(. .Mocetenes; 7. Tacana ; 8. Muropa; 
 !). Apolista; 10. Araucananian ; II. Euegian ; 12. 
 Patagonian ; Hi. Puelche ; 14. Charrua; I.'). .Mbo- 
 cobi; l(i. .Vlataguayo ; 17. Abipones; W. Lengua ; 
 li). Samuco; 20. Chiquito; 21. Saraveca; 23. Otuke; 
 23. (Juruminaca ; 24. Covareca ; 2.'5. Curaves ; 28. 
 Tapiis; 27. Curucaneca; 28. Paiconeca ; 2!). Cora- 
 beca; 30. Moxo : 31. Chapacura; 32. Itonama; 
 33. Canichana ; 34. Movima; 3-'). Cayiivava ; 30. 
 I'acaguara; 37. Itenes; 38. Guarani ; |3!). Boto- 
 cudo.' Other classilications have been alteni]ited, 
 but all 'more or less arbitrary. .Morton is content 
 with two grand divisions, viz., the 'Tollecan Nations' 
 and the 'Barbarous Tribes,' the former embracing the 
 ancient Mexicans and Peruvians, and the latter all 
 the uncivilized or senu-civilized tribes from the ex- 
 treme North to the extreme South. The Toltecans 
 are said to be the builders of the remarkable scries 
 of mounds foiuid throughout North America. 
 
 The Indians are yearly decreasing in numbers. A 
 fair estimate would probably give Alaska 20,000; 
 British Cohmibia, 20,000 ; Vancouver's Island, U,000 : 
 Canada, 5,000 ; California, Oregon, and States north 
 of it, 10,000 ; Prairie-lands west of the Kocky Moun- 
 tains, 10.000; other portions of the United States, 
 2.000; In New Mexico and Central America, 2O,0tJO. 
 This would gives us a total of about 110.000 for the 
 whole of North America, exclusive of half-breeds, 
 &c. Some twenty tribes have become partially civil- 
 ized, and live by agriculture, imder the protection of 
 the American Government, on what are called 'Indian 
 Reservations.' There are in these Indian communi- 
 ties many men and women whom education has 
 developed into most valuable, intelligent, and even 
 polished members of a highly <ivilized conmiunity. 
 Two tribes (Choctaws and Cherokees; have become 
 wholly civilized, and have a settled form of govern- 
 ment modelled on that of the United States. The 
 Cherokees stand alone amongst modem nations in 
 having produced a second Cadmus, one Sequoyah, 
 or George Guess, wdio actually invented an alphabet. 
 It must be stated, however, that fully one-half of 
 these civilized tribes are, like Sequoyah, half-breeds. 
 Even the whites marrying Choctaw or Cherokee wo- 
 men are admitted, if they choose, into these tribes. 
 
 Both the early English and French settlers of North 
 America were often atwar with the Indians, either in 
 self-defence or instigated bj' a desire for their lands. 
 In Virginia the Indians who had combined to exter- 
 minate the Whites were subdued after a ten 3-ears' 
 war. In New England (1637) the Colonists of Con- 
 necticut and Massachusetts destroyed the warlike 
 Pequods, and in 1043 the Narragansetts. The war 
 of Phillip, king of the Wampanoags, ended. 1676, ia 
 the almost totaldestructionof that tribe. The Dutch 
 in New Amsterdam and the English in North and 
 South Carolina suffered greatly from the Indians. 
 In the Seven Years War between the English and 
 French the Indians were used by both sides and ter- 
 rible atrocities were committed. In 1763 a number 
 of tribes were united under Pontiac, the Chief of the 
 Ottawas, in a general conspiracy to exterminate their 
 Conquerors, but they were finally subdued. When 
 thp American Revolution began the Indians, who 
 were Allies of the English, ravaged on the frontiers. 
 The United States, by the Constitution of 1787, claim- 
 ing sovereignty over the whole territory, made trea- 
 ties with the Indians for the purpose of obtaining 
 their lands; but in 1700 the Miamis and other tribes 
 conspired and defeated the army under Gen. Harmar, 
 and the following year under General St. Clair, but 
 were stibdued by General Wajiie. In 181 1 they recom- 
 menced hostilities under Tecumseh, but were de- 
 feated at Tippecanoe by General Harrison, who also_
 
 INDIAN TEREITORT. 
 
 94 
 
 INDICATOR. 
 
 in 1812. defeated tlie combined forces of tlie Englisli 
 and Indians, and Viilled Tecumseli. In tlie Soutli 
 the C'reelvs were conquered bv Jaclvson in 1813, and 
 the Scmiuoles of Florida in 1817. In 1832 tlie Sacs 
 and Poxes, under tlieir Chief, Blaclc Hawk, liarassed 
 the frontier Settlements, and from time to time tlie 
 Sioux, the Comanchcs, and Apaches, often joined by 
 other tribes havcgiven the Governmentgreat trouble. 
 In 1838 the Cherokees and Creeks were removed from 
 Georgia to the Indian Territory, West of the Missis- 
 sippi, wliieh the Government had established to be 
 the permanent home for all the Indians. The Semi- 
 noles of Florida refusing to remove, a bloody war 
 ensued, which lasted 7 years and cost .fl. 5. 000, 000. 
 After the removal of the Choctaws, Creeks, and other 
 tribes to the Indian Teritory, other reservations were 
 formed in several States. In 1871 there were on re- 
 servations 237,478, which, added to 60,000 in Alaska, 
 and about .50,000 others not yet placed in reserva- 
 tions make the total number of Indians in the United 
 States, as estimated by the Indian Department, 350,- 
 000. The number in the British Colonies is estima- 
 ted at 1.50,000. 
 
 The five civilized tribes of the Indian Territory had 
 under cultivation (1879) 337,000 acres, on which they 
 raised over 3,000,000 bushels of cereals, and were en- 
 gaged largely in the raising of stock. The Indians 
 on other reservations had under cultivation 157,056 
 acres, and raised over 1,500,000 bushels, and all to- 
 gether about 225,000 tons of hay. The Indians are 
 scattered over a large extent of country, and the diffi- 
 culty of managing them is increased by the attempts 
 of bold and unscrupulous white men to invade their 
 reservations for trade, wliich often involves fraud, 
 and for the sake of the mineral deposits known to 
 be there. The Utes in Colorado and Apaches in New 
 Mexico, especially, have given the Government much 
 trouble. The Utes are tierce and warlike, and resist 
 all efforts to induce them to abandon their wander- 
 ing life and cultivate the soil. 
 
 Earnest attempts have been made at different per- 
 iods by individuals and Societies to Christianize and 
 civilize the Indians, some liave been remarkably suc- 
 cessful. The French and Spanish in connection with 
 their Colonies, had Missions among the Iroquois, Chip- 
 pewas. Creeks, and other tribes. In Florida, Texas, 
 New Mexico, and California, they had ])rosperous 
 Missions. In 1643 Thomas Mayhew labored with suc- 
 cess for three years at Martha's Vineyard, Mass., fol- 
 lowed in the same work by his father, and b)' others 
 of the family for live generations. In 1646 the Legis- 
 lature of Massachusetts passed an Act for the propa- 
 gation of the Gospel among the Indians, and in the 
 same year,Iohn Eliot began his labors at Nonantum, 
 churches were formed, and the Bible and other Chris- 
 tian books translated. The Brainards labored with 
 effect in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The Morav- 
 ians and Friends have been active in instructing the 
 Indians. The various Protestant Denominations, 
 through organized Societies have had for many years 
 Missions among the Cherokees, Choctaws, Ottawas, 
 Chickasaws, Creeks, Dacotahs, and some other tribes, 
 instructing them not onlj' in religion, but also in the 
 arts of civilized life. The Indian problem, always 
 troublesome to the U. S. Government is now seen to 
 involve grave, moral, and political issues not at first 
 recognized. The governmental policy has been one 
 of expediency rather tlian of justice. Treaties have 
 been made with the tribes as with sovereign nations, 
 but have been set aside on easy pretexts. In(lia;is 
 have not been considered as citizens under the law ; 
 their ownership of property, as recognized, has bi'cii 
 trilial and not imlividual. They have been allowed 
 to be the jiray of rapacious speculators in land, and 
 thievish traders. Of latit years the Government has 
 sought to apply abetter policj-, but the evil has been 
 foinid too vast and deep for easy reform ; and a wave 
 of p(ip\ilar feeling is now rising, bearing in upon the 
 (icivcTiirMcnl with strong demands in dilTerent direc- 
 tions. There are signs that the discussions will re- 
 
 .sult in better processes of dealing with the Indians, 
 and that the Government will find or make its way 
 to a system that shall be wise and just. See Iiid'an 
 Territory. 
 
 INDIAN TERRITORY.— The home of civilized or 
 partially civilized remnants of once powerful aborig- 
 inal tribes, removed liy the Government from linTe 
 to time from different parts of the Union, and which, 
 upon separate reservations and under forms of gov- 
 ernment established by themselves, are living at 
 peace with each other and with the United States. 
 In June, 1830, Congress passed an Act setting apart 
 "All that part of tlie United States west of the Miss- 
 issippi, and not within the States of Missouri and 
 Louisiana or the Territory of Arkansas." to be known 
 as the Indian Country. The region thus described 
 formed a part of the Louisiana purchase of 1803 from 
 France. Portions thereof have since been organized 
 into new States and Territories, and only a remnant 
 of the original Indian Country now remains. To it 
 has been added, however, a narrow adjoining strip 
 of land west of the 100th meridian which was ceded 
 to the United States by Texas. The Territory con- 
 tains 20 reservations, the names of which, with the 
 extent of each in square miles are as follows; — Arra- 
 pahoe and Cheyenne, 6,715; Cherokee, 7,861 ; Chick- 
 asaw. 7,267; Choctaw, 10,450; Creek, 5,024; Kan- 
 sas, 1.54.i ; Kiowa and Comanche, 4,369; Modoc, 6; 
 Osage, 2,291 ; Ottawa, 28i ; Pawnee, 442 ; Peoria, 
 78|-; Pottawatamie, 900; Quapaw, 88|; Sac and Fox, 
 7.50; Seminole, '6V2% Senaca, 81 ; Shawnee, 21; Wi- 
 chita, 1 ,162 ; Wyandotte, 38 J ; total area appropriated, 
 47.039 square miles; unassigned, about 22,000 square 
 miles. White speculators and adventurers have often 
 attempted to enter the Territory and appropriate the 
 lands not included in the reservations, but the Gov- 
 ernment of the United States, in fulfillnient of its 
 treaty stipulations to the Indians, has prevented them. 
 A late movement of this kind was made in 1879, when 
 the President issued his proclamation warning those 
 engaged therein to desist, and informing them that 
 if Uiey should enter the Territorj' they would be ex- 
 pelled, if necessary, by an armed force. A Bill was 
 lately introduced in Congress to erect the Indian 
 Country into a regular Territory of the United States, 
 thus, opening its unsettled lands to the whites and 
 subjecting the Indians to the very encroachments to 
 avoid which they consented to go upon the reserva- 
 tions. It has been proposed in some quarters to make 
 the Indians citizens, to place them under Territorial 
 Government, and finally to admit them as a State 
 to the Union. But to this plan there are some serious 
 obstacles, not the least of which is the unwillingness 
 of the Indians themselves to sacrifice the autonomy 
 of their respective tribes and the Governments of 
 their own already existing. Though this ma)- ulti- 
 mately be arrived at, it is not easy to see liow 
 the Government of the L^nited States could sudden- 
 ly force such a change upon them without viola- 
 ting the most solemn treaty obligations. The popu- 
 lation of the Territory, exclusive of white residents, 
 is reported to number 74,140. The number of whites 
 legally there is about 12.000, and besides them there 
 are 3,000 others who would be excluded if the law was 
 strictly enforced. Agents representing the United 
 States live among the various tribes, exercising a 
 paternal oversight of their affairs, and protecting them 
 from encroachments. They are appointed by the 
 President with the consent of the Senate, and, 
 under the existing regulations of the Indiiin Bureau, 
 are nominated by the Religious Denomiiiiil ions which 
 have Missions among the tribes. Each tribe has its 
 own inner government, but the United States Courts 
 have jurisdiction in civil actions where a white man 
 is a parly, in cases of crime against a white man, 
 and of violations of the laws regulating trade and in- 
 tcrciiursc with the Indians. See liidifin ('mi/itri/. 
 
 INDICATOR. - 1 . An invention of General (ieorgo 
 \V. Wiiigale, of the New York Militia, for instruct- 
 ing men in alining the musket. A steel rod, passing
 
 INDICATOa. 
 
 95 
 
 rNDICATOE. 
 
 thrniigh n brass tnmpion in the muzzle, is prnjeptefi 
 
 fdrwarcls by tlic liriim-jiiii. Tlic' ri>cl carrirs iisliarp 
 l)i>ilil in the )iii(: of the- siglils, wliicli |iiiiicliircH it 
 iniiiiaturc target a foot or so in front of llic muzzle. 
 2. In connection with tlie test inn-machine it has 
 l)ecn found ilesirahle to liave an instrument wliich 
 wouMi^ive a continuous curve representini; (lie elon- 
 {,Mtions and cnrres|iondin;j tensile strains for speci- 
 mens of various Uirids, in order lo arrive at the ex- 
 act dynamical value of the metal. An instrument 
 has been devised for this purpose, as represented in 
 Fig 1. It consists of a l)rass frame. AH. support- 
 ing a vertical cylinder, (!, revolved by the endless 
 screw, S; this screw being turneil by the tape, T, 
 which draws around the pulley, T, as the weight, 
 
 Fie. 1. 
 W, is wound along the scale-beam. Wlien the chain 
 was used as a weight, the cylinder revolved as the 
 chain was paid into the scale. This arrangement 
 causes the cylinder to revolve as the weight or strain 
 upon the specimen increases or diminishes, and if 
 the marker M, renuiins stationarj-, it will describe 
 u horizontal circle upon the paper witli which the 
 cylinder is covered. Starting from the zero-point of 
 tile scale, the length of any arc of the circle will 
 represent the strain upon the specimen at the instant 
 tlie marker has arrived at the end of the arc. If now 
 tlie elongation of a given portion of the specimen 
 carries the marker in a direction parallel to the axis 
 of the cylinder, it is clear that the curve. NO, de- 
 scribed upon the paper, will accurately and contin- 
 uously represent the relation between the elongation 
 of the specimen and the corresponding strain upon 
 it. In order to move the marker in this manner, it 
 is connected with one end of the specimen by the 
 clamp Q'. whieli tits into a center-pmich-mark on 
 the specimen, while the frame and cylinder are at- 
 tached to the other end, Q. of the specimen in a 
 similar manner. The portion of the specimen be- 
 tween the two center-punch-marks is evidently the 
 only portion whose elongation will move the marker 
 along the paper, and the space passed over by the 
 marker divided by tlie original length of this portion 
 will give the elongation per unit of length of the 
 specimen, or the per cent, of elongation ; and the 
 area bounded by the curve, NO, and the co-ordinates, 
 NR and RO, measures the mirk of breaking the 
 specimen. 
 
 3. A steam-engine indicator is an instrument used 
 to draw a diagram, showing, upon a reduced scale, 
 the motion of the piston and the pressure acting upon 
 it at each point of its stroke. It consists essentially 
 of a small steam cylinder and a small drum upon 
 whicii is rolled the paper for taking the diagram. 
 The cylinder is provided with a piston whose motion 
 is resisted by a spiral spring. Steam may be ad- 
 mitted beneath this piston and cause it to rise, or a 
 
 varinim created beneath it and cause it to fall, the 
 amount of movemeni being a measure of the pres- 
 sure, as in a spring-balance. Motion from the pis- 
 ton is conveyed by a series of levers to a pencil, which 
 is inaile to press against a slip of paper rolled upon 
 tli(^ drum. When the instrument is in use, its cylin- 
 der is connected to either end of the large cylinder 
 of the engine, anil tlie drum is made by suitable 
 means to revolve back and forth, having a motion 
 which corresponds to that of the engine piston, only 
 it is on a much reduced scale. Until steam is a(l- 
 mitted to the indicator there is no pressure upon its 
 piston, and if the pencil point is then pressed against 
 the ))aper on the drum, it will, as the latter moves 
 back and forth, trace a straight line, which is the 
 line of atmospheric pressure. When steam isallowed 
 to enter, the indicator piston rises against the re- 
 sistance of the spring to a height corresponding to 
 the steam pressure, and if this pressure remains un- 
 changed during a stroke, a straight line parallel to 
 the atmospheric line will be traced ; when release 
 takes place the piston instantly falls and the pencil 
 moves with it, and when a return stroke of the en- 
 gine occurs, the pencil will trace a line correspond- 
 ing to the back pressure against which the engine 
 piston is moving. This gives an idea of the process 
 of tracing a diagram when steam follows full .stroke ; 
 when a cut-olT is used, tlur pencil traces the same 
 line as before until the cut-off valve closes, when, 
 as the pressures fall, then' is traced a curve which 
 irives the pressure at each point of the forward mo- 
 tion according to the law for expansion of steam. 
 The length of a diagram drawn in this way repre- 
 sents on a smaller .scale the stroke of the engine, and 
 the line traced by the iimi il shows the pressures 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 acting upon the piston. These pressures are mea- 
 sured by the movement of the spring containeii in 
 the indicator, an inch of movement, or an inch of 
 height above the atmospheric line on the diagram, 
 representing so many pounds pressure, accordlmr to 
 the spring used; thus a 30 lb. spring would be com- 
 pressed, so as to give the pencil a movement of one
 
 nroiCATOK RING. 
 
 96 
 
 INDUCTION OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS. 
 
 incli for 30 lbs. steam pressure, and a 40 lb. spring, 
 one inch for 40 lbs. pressure, and so on. Having 
 then, a scale, in which one inch is divided into 30 or 
 40 parts, or any other numlter of parts such as or- 
 dinarily used, we can readily measure any pressure 
 drectly from the diagram when once we are permit- 
 ted to"know what scale or spring has been employed. 
 
 Fig. 3 shows a neat construction of 
 the theoretical expansion curve, which 
 should always be drawn upon the dia- 
 gram in order to compare it with the 
 actual line traced by the indicator. To 
 make the construction it is nece«ary 
 to know the clearance space so as to 
 draw the clearance line, B V, from 
 which expansion is reckoned, to draw 
 B C, the line of boiler pressure and 
 also V V, the line of perfect vacuum. 
 Then take any point such as O, on 
 the expansion line of the diagram ; 
 tlxis point must not be later than F, 
 the point of release, because here the 
 exhaust line begins ; from () draw 
 O P at right angles to B C, and O N 
 at right angles to B V, join V and P 
 and at N, where V P intersects O N, 
 draw N M parallel to B V. Then M 
 is the theoretical point of cut -off. 
 The space M P can be divided into 
 any number of parts which need not 
 be"equal,and lines drawn from V to points a, b, c,etc., 
 cut the line M N in points a', b', c', etc. From a and 
 a' are drawn lines parallel toM N and O N respectively 
 and where they intersect is one point of the curve. 
 The same operation for b and b', gives another 
 point and so on. When a little skill is acquired these 
 lines need not be entirely drawn in, but only so 
 much as to show the intersection which determines 
 a point of the curve, and it is thus a verj' easy and 
 expeditious method for drawing the true curve upon 
 an indicator diagram. Fiir. ^, is a sectional view of 
 
 M a h 
 
 the lower side, and parallel thereto, is fixed a gradu" 
 ated plate of brass. When the frame is lowered, the 
 graduated plate touches the platform; but when not 
 refpiired for use it is raised up and secured by hook- 
 ing it to some rings on the under side of the cheeks. 
 2d. of a plate similar in form and graduation to the 
 one already mentioned, which is attached to the butt 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 the Thompson Indicator, which is considered as the 
 standard of this t-ountry and Europe. See Plani- 
 meter and Thiimp«iiii Indicator. 
 
 INDICATOR RING. — A thin narrow ring of wrought 
 iron, tiltnl i>ii the breech-screw of a breech-loading 
 gun, with a raised line of brass on it, which shows 
 by its coincidence with a similar line on the top end 
 of the brccch-scrcw whether the vent is properly 
 scrcwi'd u]i. 
 
 INDIRECT POINTING APPARATUS.— Varius appa- 
 ratus for pointing guns indirectly have been ijmploy- 
 ed from time to time. That employed by the Prus- 
 Bians in the sieges of the war of 1H70-I87i and repre- 
 senteil in the drawing is favorably endorsed by all 
 Offlcers who have employed the m<'tliod. The appa- 
 ratus is composed, ist. of a trapezoidal frame of 
 ron attached to the axle by means of straps; under 
 
 end of the trail; when the latter is lowered, this plate 
 like tlie other, comes in contact with the platform. 
 The plate turns on a hinge. and may be raised up and 
 fastened to a spring-hook on the rear transom. In 
 using this apparatus it is operated as follows: The 
 fire being once suitably adjusted by means of direct 
 observations, the difference which exists between the 
 graduations of the two plates is noted, the readings 
 being made from the zero to the directrix, AB, 
 traced upon the platform. In all the tiring that fol- 
 lows it suffices, in order to point the piece, to read 
 the graduation of the first plate 
 that coincides with the direc- 
 trix, and then to shift the trail 
 to the right or left until the 
 difference between the gradua- 
 tions of the plates shall be equal 
 to that originally noted. The 
 graduation of the plate is arbi- 
 trary. In the Prussian artillery 
 the principal divisions are 40 
 m. m. apart, and these inter- 
 vals subdivided into 10 equal 
 parts. These graduated scales 
 permit of maintaining to a great 
 exactness and without renewed 
 pointing, a line of sight once es- 
 tabUshetl, which is of the great- 
 est importance in firing at an 
 object concealed from the view; 
 Jt they also permit of varying, la- 
 V-^— terally, the point of fall for dis- 
 tances, by displacing horizon- 
 tally the point of departure of the line of sight, an 
 operation required in breeching masonry, for making 
 the horizontal cut. This method of pointing was em- 
 ployed by the Prussians with great success at the 
 siege of Stra.sbourg, in batteries without embrasures, 
 for breeching walls of masonry by a phmging fire. 
 INDORSED.— A term applied" in' Heraldry to two 
 animals ]ilaced back to back. Two keys, two wings, 
 etc., may also be indorsed, and a pelican is always 
 drawn with his wings indorsed. The terms Addoned 
 and Tnihirsi-d liave the same application. 
 
 INDUCTION OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS.— The dis- 
 cov<TV of the power of eleclrie currents to induce 
 currents in neighboring conductini: circuils is due to 
 Faraday. His researches on the subjecl. named by 
 him riittd-rlcHrir. induction, were published in the 
 Philosophical Transactions (1831-32). Henry (1832)
 
 IHDUCTION OF ELECTRIC CUEEENT8. 
 
 97 
 
 INDUCTION OF ELECTEIC CUEEENTB. 
 
 observed tlial when coiitaet was l)roUen in n long 
 galvanic eireiiit u brifjlit uparlt oeciirreil, wliieli dicl 
 not oeeiir when tlie eireiiit was slicjrl. 'I'his was 
 ghowii liy p'araday (18:i4) to be due to the extra cur- 
 rent induced liy Hie viirinus parts of the eiriMiit in 
 each other. liueiilioll'Moraiid Sturgeon ( |H:jT;shovved 
 tlie superior nctioji, in induction apparatus, of abun- 
 dle of iron wires to tlial of a solid bar of iron. Jlen- 
 ry ( 1 841) studied the indicative action of induced cur- 
 rents of dilTerent orders. l)e la Kive desi);ned, in 
 1841^, an electro-clienueal condenser, consistinj; of a 
 prinuiry coil, which, by means of the extra current, 
 could enable a simile nalvaniecell todecomposit wa- 
 ter. The same decomposition, however, had bi'i'H 
 effected by Wright in 1840. RuhndvorlT construct- 
 ed (18r)0 or 1851) the tirst so-called Inihirlion c„il, the 
 excellence of which was chieliy attained l)y the pro- 
 per insulation of the secondary coil. Fizeau (18.")3) 
 incH'ased immensely the power of the coil, l)y pro- 
 vidin;; it with a condenser. Of late years coils of 
 great power have been constructed, rivaling, if not 
 excce(iins tlu^ most powerful electric uiachinea in 
 length and power of spark. 
 
 The Fundamental law of current induction may 
 be thus shown : Two long copper wires are tix<'d so 
 as to be parallel and close to each other. The ex- 
 tremities of the one are in connection with the poles 
 of a galvanic battery, and tho.se of the other, with 
 the binding-screws of a galvanometer, 'i'he instant 
 the circuit of the battery is completed, and the cur- 
 rent sent along one wire, a current in the opposite 
 direction is induced in the other wire, which is shown 
 by the dertection of the needle of the galvanometer. 
 This induced current is only momentary, for though 
 the current continues to circulate in the tirst wire, 
 the needle soon falls back to its original position of 
 rest, and the wire then gives free passage to other 
 currents, and appears to be in no way affected. If, 
 
 however, as the primary wire remains in any one 
 position, all evidence- of electricity in the secondary 
 wiri' disappears; but if in this position the slrengtli 
 of the primary current should be increased or dimin- 
 ished, momentary currents in thr- secondary wire 
 wotdd again mark the cliangis in the primary, tin; 
 increase causing an inverse, and the derrease u direct 
 current. Hence; we conclude, that a current irlilch 
 brginn, a current vhich apjiniichtii, or a current which 
 incria^cH in utrenr/th, indncex tin inverse mtmienlary 
 current in a neiglihi/ring conducting circuit, and that 
 a current irhic/i st"pn, a current which retires, or a 
 current irhirh (IccrenscH in strinijth, induccH a direct 
 momentary current in a neiglilnrrin'j circuit. Ffir in- 
 verse, the word mgntirc. and for direct, the word 
 pemitioe, are freipiently emi)loyed in reference to in- 
 duced currents. 
 
 I In experiments like the above, it is much more 
 
 I convenient to wind the jirimary and secondary wires 
 side by side round a bolibin, so as to forma coil. 
 
 ' The wires are insulated from each other by a cover- 
 ing of wool or silk. Not only does such "a disposi- 
 
 I tion admit of very long wires being used, but it also 
 disposes the wires emi)l(jyed to greater advantage, 
 
 j for each single turn of the primary wire acts not 
 only on the corres])onding turn of the secondary wire 
 but on all the turns near it. The inductive effect of 
 
 \ such a coil is much greater than that which would 
 
 i be obtained tiy the same extent of wires running side 
 by side in a straight or crooked line. It is not even 
 necessary that the two wires be wo\md round toireth- 
 er, each may be wound (m a separate bobbin, and 
 the one placed inside the other. The primary coil is 
 made of wire one-twelfth of an inch in diameter, 
 covered with wool : and the secondary coil of silk- 
 covered wire, one-eighteenth of an inch! much longer 
 than the primary wire. With two such coils, many 
 
 I principles of induction can be given. 
 
 now, when the needle is at rest, the battery circuit 
 be broken, and the current stopped, another momen- 
 tary current is indicated by the galvanometer needle 
 but in this case in the .same direction as the inducing 
 current. The inducing wire and current are called 
 primary, and so are distinguished from the induced 
 vpire and current, which are termed secondary. The 
 passive condition of the wire while thus under in- 
 duction has been described by Faraday as electro- 
 tonic. An electric throb, so to speak, makes the 
 setting in of this state, and another its vanishing ; 
 the former in the opposite direction to that of the in- 
 ducing current, and the latter in the same direction. 
 If the primary wire be movable, so that it can be 
 suddenly brought near to, and withdrawn from the 
 secondary, while the battery current passes steadily, 
 currents are induced as in the former case, the ap- 
 proach of the wire being marked by an inverse cur- 
 rent, and its withdrawal by a direct one. As long, 
 
 Let us place the primary coil within the secondary ; 
 let the primary, along with the self-acting rheotom, 
 be put in the circuit of a galvanic cell, and let the 
 secondary coil be connected with a galvanometer. 
 The interruption in the primary current being effect- 
 ed by the rheotom with great rapidity, the induced 
 inverse and direct currents are sent out with corre- 
 sponding rapidity through the coil of the galvan- 
 ometer. If this last be of a short and thick wire, so 
 as not to tax the tension of the current transmitted, 
 the induced currents will not deflect the needle : or 
 if they should happen, through the unsteady action 
 of the break, to do so, it only oscillates round its 
 Iiosition of rest. This proves that the quantity "f 
 electricity transmitted hy the induced inceru and direct 
 currents is the satne, for they each exert the same in- 
 fluence on the needles. But if the coil of the gal- 
 vanometer consist of a long fine wire, the needle is 
 kept deviated in a direction which argues the actioa
 
 IHDtJCTION OF ELECTEIC CUERENTS. 
 
 98 
 
 INDUCTION OF ELECTEIC CUEEENTS. 
 
 of the direct current. This leads us to conclude that 
 both currents, though equal in qnatitity, are vnegual 
 in tension, the direct current having the highest ten- 
 sion, for it has more power to force its way through 
 the fine wire of the galvanometer than the inverse, 
 Other proofs of the same principles may he easily 
 furnished. The difference of the tension of the two 
 induced currents, is accounted for In this way; when 
 a change takes place in the primary current, the 
 quantity of the electricity induced by it in the sec- 
 ondare wire is the same whether this change takes 
 place quickly or slowly ; the tension, however, is 
 very differcnL AVhen the change takes place slowly 
 the total quantity of electricity in circulation con- 
 tinues to pass as slowly, and there is little in motion 
 at one time ; but when the same occurs quickly, it 
 is sent with momentiun. so to speak, and the quan- 
 tity in circualtion at one time is as much greater, in 
 comparison with the former case, as the time is 
 shorter. It is this quick dispatch of electricity which 
 constitutes the tension of the current. Now, as it 
 takes some time before the primary current is fully 
 established, the inverse induced current is slow and 
 of low tension ; hut when the contact is broken, the 
 primary current ceases much more suddenly than it 
 began, and the direct induced current is quick and 
 of high tension. This view of the matter is borne 
 out bj' experiment, for it is found, that trhaterer 
 favors the suddenness of the changes of the primary 
 current, heightens the tension of the currents induced 
 by these changes. The break, from this circumstance, 
 forms an important element in the construction of 
 all induction apjiaratus. Tlie inductive power of 
 tlie primary coil is immensely increased by placing 
 a bundle of soft iron rods or wires in the center of 
 it. The magnetism which begins and ceases in these 
 at each passage of the current acts in conjunction 
 with the inducing force of the coil. The center of 
 the bobbin is hollow, to receive a bundle of this 
 kind. The greater part of the inductive action is 
 due to the iron core, and the induced currents got 
 with and without it are not to be compared in point 
 of eucrg}'. A solid bar of soft iron may also be used, 
 but with much less advantage, for the induced cur- 
 rents which linger in it after the stoppage of the 
 main current acting themselves inductively, impair 
 the suddenness with which the current disappears 
 from the primary wire and magnetism from the core. 
 The thin layer of oxide which forms on the rods in- 
 sulates them sutKciently from one another, and pre- 
 vents the formation of such currents. It is partly 
 for the same reason that metal tubes cannot be used 
 for bobbins for either primary or secondary coils. 
 If such were used, closed circuits would be formed in 
 them, the reaction of which, however, woidd pro- 
 long the changes of the primary inducers and con- 
 sequently impair the tension of the secondary cur- 
 rent. Metal bobbins would not be open to this ob- 
 jection If they had a longitudinal slit, which would 
 make the tranverse section a broken ring and cir- 
 cuit. The excitation of magnetism in the core is the 
 principal aim of the primary coil, and as a strong 
 current is essential to that object, it is made of thick 
 wire and of moderate length. In the secondary coil, 
 the tension of the induced current alone is aimed at, 
 and with tliis view it is made of as thin wire as can 
 be made, so as to admit of as many turns as posssible 
 being brought within the influence of the core and 
 primary coil. The electric conformation of the se- 
 condary coil is sometimes looked upon in the same 
 light of that of a galvanic battery. Thetotal electro- 
 motive force of tiie coil is I he sum of that of all tlu' 
 turns in it, in the same way thai the electro-motive 
 force of the battery is proportionate to the number 
 of cells. 
 
 Not only does a galvanic current induce electricity 
 in a neighboring (■irc\iit, hut it also acts inductively 
 on itself. When contact is broken in a l)atlery cir- 
 cuit, the galvanic spark is seen. When the wire is 
 short, the spark is feeble, but it increases in lirilliaiicy 
 
 with the length of the circuit, and this becomes par- 
 ticularly observable, when the wire is wound rovmd 
 in a coil. This certainly does not arise from the cur- 
 rent being strong with the long wire, and weak with 
 the short one, for (piite the reverse is the case, as 
 might be shown with the aid of a galvanometer. The 
 real cause of superior brilliancy of the galvanic spark 
 with the long circuit is to be found in the induction 
 j of tlie primary current on the various parts of itself, 
 ! exciting, as they are called, extra cwrents in the prim- 
 I ary wire. It has been fully attested by experiment, 
 I that at the instant a galvanic current begins and ends, 
 extrei currents are induced by the action of the several 
 parts of its circuit upon each other, that at the begin- 
 ning erf the current being inverse,' and that at the end 
 direct. As the extra current inverse acts opposite to 
 the main current, it does not appear as a separate 
 current but only retards the instantaneous passage 
 of the main current. The extra current direct suc- 
 ceeds the main current, and has consequently a sep- 
 arate existence. It is what is generally referred to 
 when the extra current is spoken of. This extra cur- 
 rent is of much higher tension than the original cur- 
 rent. The effect of the extra current on] the direct 
 induced current of the seeondarj' coil is to lessen 
 very decidedly its tension. If a way be made for the 
 extra current, the tension of the induced current 
 falls prodigiously. In a large coil-machine, which 
 gives freely sparks of 1 or 2 in. in length, when the 
 two portions of the break are joined by a thin wire, 
 so as to allow the extra current to pass, sparks will 
 not travel between the two poles, however near they 
 are brought. When no such communication exists, 
 a portion of the extra current leaps over between the 
 separating parts of the break, and in so far diminishes 
 the intensity of the secondary current. The con- 
 denser of the coil-machine, to be afterwards de- 
 scribed, has for its object the absorption or suppres- 
 sion of the extra current, but the manner in which 
 it effects this is not j'et properly explained. The 
 prejudicial effect of the extra current on the induced 
 current is easily understood, when we bear in mind 
 that it prolongs the cessation of the magnetism of 
 the core and of the current in the primary coil, and 
 thus imparingthe suddenness of this change, reduces 
 the tension of the induced current. 
 
 The essential parts of the induction coil have been 
 already described in detail. A primary coil with its 
 core of iron wire, and a secondary coil exterior to 
 and insulated from a primary coil, form the main 
 portion of the instrument. The primary coil is con- 
 nected with the poles of a galvanic batten.-, and in 
 the circuit a rheotom is introduced, to effect the in- 
 terruptions of the current essential to its inductive 
 action. The only parts not yet referred to are the 
 condenser and the commutator. The condenser con- 
 sists of several sheets of tinfoil and oiled silk, laid 
 alternately the one above the other. The first, third, 
 fifth, etc., sheets of tinfoil are connected by strips of 
 the same material ; so are the second, fourth, sixth, 
 etc.; the whole forming a condensing apparatus like 
 a Leyden jar, the odd sheets forming the one coat- 
 ing, and the even sheets the other. Each set of 
 sheets is connected with one of the wires of the pri- 
 mary coil. The condenser is generall}' placed in the 
 sole of tlie instrument, and does not meet the eye. 
 The commutator consists of an ivory cylinder cov- 
 ered with conducting plates on two sides, and is so 
 constructed that it can break contact, or transmit 
 the current through the coil in either direction. 
 
 The drawing represents Queen's dissected Huhm- 
 korff coil, wliich is mostly adopted for the opera- 
 tions of mines, torpedoes, etc. A, A', are binding 
 posts, to connect with the battery; C: is the Bertin 
 conuuutator'used in reversing the current; at V, the 
 battery current enters the primary coil; this latter 
 can be removed, as also can the core, r; at n.tlie bat- 
 tery current is autonuitically broken. The brass 
 jilales, p,p', connect the condenser wilh the primary 
 circuit : tlie condenser is contained in a sliding draw-
 
 INEBXIA, 
 
 99 
 
 INFANTRY COLOaS. 
 
 er, wliirli ran be very piisily removed. T$, TJ' arc tlie 
 teniiiiials of U\t: Beeondary coil. A copper (•ondiic- 
 tiu{? wire, wliieli is iiisulaled t)y one or I wo coals of 
 gntla-perchu, connects tlie cliarjj;es willi llje ;;alvanic 
 n]iparalns. The cliarn(^ is exploded liy passini; n 
 Bjiark tlironijli a very small portion rjf fulminate of 
 rnereury inserted between tlie ends of two cop|)er 
 wires, which are enclosed within a short tub(' of ;;ut- 
 ta-pcreha, coated within with sulphiiret of copper. 
 Tlie wires are bent near llie end of the tube anil 
 twisted aroniid each other. A little meal powder is 
 llirownaround the fnlminate am It he t idle, which, with 
 llietnl)e and the bent ]mn of tlie wire, is tiLrlilly 
 closed in a small .<;utta-pereha bai;, to Uec]) ont mois- 
 liM'c. To lire a sinirle mine, one end of the twist is 
 golilered to the condnctini; wire and the other inser- 
 ted into the earth to complete the circle. For sev- 
 eral nnnes to be exploded at the same time, conduc- 
 tiiis wires connect the mines, and the ends of the 
 twist are soldered one to each conductor, except 
 the end one, which has one of its ends inserted into 
 the earth. ]5y this condiinalion the scries will be 
 cxi)ioded without any sensible difference of time 
 between the nearest and furthest mine. See Galvan- 
 ism. 
 
 INERTIA. — A term expressive of tliat indifference 
 to a state of rest or motion which is a universal jirop- 
 crty of matter, and may be expres.sed by sayim; that 
 a body in inution will continue- in motiitn, and a body 
 at rest will remain (it rest, unless a'^ted npon hysonie ex- 
 ternal force. The latter part of this ]irinciple was 
 Known to the Ancients, and by them attributed to a 
 certain repui^uauce to motion, which was a charac- 
 teristic of all nuitter; but it was shown by Galileo 
 that the former part was equally true and general. 
 This property of matter has been called by Kepler 
 vis inertia.. 
 
 INESCUTCHEON.Tn Heraldry, a single shield borne 
 fls a charge. When there are "two or more, they are 
 simply called escutcheons, for an inescutcheon. it 
 is said,must always occupy the fess point of the shield. 
 An inescutcheon is to be distinguished from an es- 
 cutcheon of pretense, which is not a charge, but a 
 separate coat. See Heraldry. 
 
 INFAMED.— In Heraldry, an epithet applied to a 
 lion or other animal which has lost its tail, the loss 
 being supposed to disgrace or defame it. Defamed 
 looking ba'-k)rards occurs in ancient blazon for coun- 
 ter-rampant regardant, the lion being su|)poscd to be 
 ilving from anencmy . Often written Defamed. 
 
 'infamous BEHAViOE. — Disgrace -mTH infamt 
 AND INFAMOUS BEHAVIOR arc tcmis in use in the mili- 
 tary and naval codes to designate conduct (and pen- 
 alty) which is not only opposed to discipline, but also 
 disgraceful in a social sense. As infamous behavior, 
 bave been always classed in all countries desertion of 
 colors on the field of battle, failure to attempt to suc- 
 cor comrades in danger, cold-blooded cruelty, and 
 other crimes which are greatly subversive of moral- 
 ity. If a man is foimd guilty of any of these crimes 
 by a Court-JIartial. and not sentenced to death, the 
 sentence is ordinarily discharge — or dismissal — with 
 ignominy or infamy. So severe an enactment great- 
 ly adds to the force of the penaltj', and stigmatizes 
 the offender for life as a disgrace to his couiury and 
 bis cloth. 
 
 INFANTKT.— The term nifantry was originally ap- 
 plied to a body of men collected by the Infante of 
 Spain, for the purpose of rescinng his father from 
 the Moors. The attempt being successful, the term 
 was afterwards applied to foot-soldiers in general, as 
 opposed to cavalry. Among the ancient nations of 
 Europe the foot-soldiers constituted the chief strength 
 of the armies. In the best days of the Grecian and 
 Roman States, battles were won mainly by the force 
 flud discipline of the phalanges and legions, and the 
 number of the infantry in the field far exceeded that 
 of the cavalry. The cavalry were then, as at present 
 employed chiefly in protecting the wings of the army 
 find in completing a victory gained by the infantry. 
 
 I 
 
 The ancient Franks, when tliey left the forests of 
 (ierinany, were accustomed to march and light on 
 foot; and they iiersevered in this practice even after 
 tliey had obtained possession of tlir; country of thft 
 Gauls, which abounded with horses. J{ul soon after the 
 time of Charlemagne Institutionsof ChivaJry began to 
 l)e generally adopted in t hi- kingdoms of Kurope. These 
 led to frequent exhibitions of martial exercises on 
 horseback in presi-nce of the Sovereigns and assembled 
 Nobles : and the interest inspired by the achievements 
 of the Kniirhls on those occasions was naturally fol- 
 lowed by a lugh regard for that order of men. I5y 
 degrees the cavalry, which was com|)osed of j)ersons 
 possessing raidi and jiroperty, and completely armed, 
 acquired the re])utation of Ijeing the princi|ial arm; 
 while the foot-soldiers, badly armed and disciiilined, 
 were held in comparatively small estimation. This 
 continued 400 j'cars, and although war was the princi- 
 pal occupation of maid<ind, military science fell into 
 neglect. Hut Uulirs were forced by the power of 
 feudalism to make an alliance with the dcsi)ised class 
 of foot-soldiers, and in 1214 we linil that some of the 
 German iidantry was recognized to be " very good, 
 and trained to light im the level even against cavalry." 
 The cavalry of France was routed at C'o\irlrai Ijy the 
 infantry during the next century, and the Austrians 
 suffered defeat bv the elllcient work of the Swiss ])ike 
 at Jlorgartcn (l":)!.'")), Semiiach ri:i8(i), and Kafels 
 (1388). At C'ressy and Poicliers (l:MG-13.")G) the 
 Knights of England dismounted to fight beside the 
 successful infantry. The jirincipal weapons of the 
 infantry before the invention of gunpowder were long- 
 bows, halberds, cross-bows, spiked clubs, axes, pikes, 
 staight-swords, shields, corselets, mail-jackets, helm- 
 ets and partisans. In the Kith century, however, 
 these weapons were replaced by fire-arms, and in the 
 18th century, the musket was' in general use. It 
 became customary during the Thirty Years' War to 
 form battalions of infaiUry composed of .'iOO men, 
 which were massed into dense columns during battle 
 in spite of the deadly effect of the enemy's artillery 
 and fire-arms. The absurdity of this formation was 
 first exposed by GustavAdolph, who recognizing the 
 destructiveness of fire-arms, arranged his battalions 
 with a view to increasing the effectiveness of the fire of 
 his troops, while avoiding exi)osure to that from the 
 enemv. His tactics were so successful at Breiten- 
 feld a'nd Lutzen (1G31-32) tliat they were soon after- 
 wards universally adopted. The bayonet came into 
 use in 1070, and the socket-bayonet about 1G99. Fred- 
 rick the Great made many improvements till then 
 comparatively unknown. The rapidity with which 
 his infantry troops performed theirevolutions during 
 battle contributed largeh' toward his famous victories 
 in the Seven Years' War. In fact the Prussian in- 
 fantry have ever since his time served as models for 
 other European countries. The superiority of this 
 arm consists in the troops being able to act on ground 
 where cavalry camiot, and it is obvious that the lat- 
 ter must be nearly useless in the attack of fortified 
 towns. During the "War of the Rebellion inthiscoun- 
 trv skirmishing was in vogue in the northern and 
 southern armies. It had been in use during the Re- 
 volutionary War, and was well siuted to the Ameri- 
 can character. Skirmishing has since been adopted 
 in Prussia, and the skirmish line is recognized as the 
 proper formation in battle to avoid the destructive 
 effect of the breech-loaders. The co-operation, how- 
 ever, of cavalrj' andiufantry troops was neglected by 
 American Generals. Artillery fire usually opened the 
 battle, and was followed by the advance of the whole 
 line on the run in a final charge. The Infantrj- Tac- 
 tics in general use were those of Casey, founded on 
 those of Scott. Casey's Tactics, however, were ab- 
 andoned for those of Hardee, and in 1867 those of 
 Upton were finallv adopted. 
 
 INFANTRY COLORS.— In the United States, each 
 
 Regiment of Infantry has two silken Colors. The 
 
 first, or the Natiimal Color, of stars and stripes, as 
 
 1 described for the garrison flag ; the number and
 
 IIJFERIOR. 
 
 100 
 
 INFLAMMATION, 
 
 name of the regiment is embroidered with silver on 
 the center stripe. The second, or Regimental Color, is 
 blue, with the arms of the United St"iitcs embroidered 
 in silk on the center. The name of the regiment in 
 a scroll, underneath the eagle. The size of each 
 Color is six feet six inches fly, and six feet deep on 
 the pike. The length of the pike, including the spear 
 and ferrule is nineleet ten inches. The fringe, yel- 
 low ; cords and tassels, blue .and white silk inter- 
 mixed. See Colors. 
 
 INFEEIOK.— A term signifying, in a military sense, 
 junior in rank. Inferior officers are those of the 
 lower ranks or grades. 
 
 INFERNAL MACHINE.— xV term applied to various 
 deadly contrivances: foi- instance, to the battery -gun 
 with which the attempt to assassinate Louis Philippe 
 was made, and the devices used on similar historical 
 occasions. A noted infernal nufhine was the tire-ship 
 used by the English at St. Malo. This was a three- 
 decker charged with powder on the first deck ; shells, 
 carcasses, etc., on the second; and with barrels fil- 
 led with combustibles on the third ; the gun deck was 
 covered with old guns overloaded. It was intended 
 to destroy ships, iSridges, etc. 
 
 INFLAMMATION. — When grains of powder are uni- 
 ted to form a charge, and tire is communicated to 
 one of them, the heated and expansive gases evolv- 
 ed insinuate themselves into the interstices of the 
 charge, envelop the grains. and ignite them one after 
 another. This propagation of ignition is called in- 
 Jlammation, and its velocity, the velocity of infiam. 
 mntiiin. It is much greater than that of combustion, 
 and it should not be confounded with it. When pow- 
 der is burned in an open train, fine powder inflames 
 more rapidly than coarse; such, however, is not the 
 case in fire-arms, owing to the diminution of the in- 
 terstices. If a charge were composed of mealed pow- 
 der, the flame coufd no longer find its way through 
 the interstices, and the velocity of inflammation and 
 combustion would become the same. Now supposing 
 one grain or particle alone be ignited, it will first be 
 inflamed over its whole surfaced and the progressive 
 combustion will take place from the exterior to the 
 interior. Its rate of cmnhmtion will therefore depend 
 upon both its shape and size, leaving out entirely, 
 for the present, the question of density and hard- 
 ness. A particle of spherical or cubical form will ex- 
 pose less surface to ignition in proportion to its vol- 
 ume than one of an elongated or flat shape, and will 
 consequently require a longer period for the combus- 
 tion of its entire mass; the' larger the particle, also, 
 the longer will be the time required for its combus- 
 tion. Looking, then, at one grain of powder by it- 
 self, we may say that the larger it is. and the more 
 nearly its form approaches a'sphere, the longer will 
 its combustion take, and the slower will be the evo- 
 lution of the gas. When, however, we come to re- 
 gard the action of an aggregation of sucli particles, 
 as in the charge of a gun, the rate of ignition of the 
 whole charge is also affected by the size and shape 
 of the grain. The part of the charge first ignited is 
 that near the vent, and the remainder is inflamed by 
 contact with the heated gas generated by the com- 
 bustion of this portion, so that the rate of ignition of 
 the whole mass will be regulated by the greater or 
 lessfacility with whicli the gas can penetrate through- 
 out the charge, which is itself dependent upon the 
 shape and size of the interstices between the grains. 
 If the grains be splierical and regular in form, the 
 interstices will be comparatively large and uniform, 
 and the gas will penetrate the mass with facility; 
 again, the larger the grains, the larger the interstices 
 between them. If, oii the other hand, they be flat or 
 flaky and irregular in shajic, the passage of the gas 
 will be more dilhcult, ami the rate of inflanunatiou 
 of the charge hmIucmmI. W'e see, therefore, that the 
 considerations whicli affect the more or less rapid 
 combustion of an individual grain of gun])owder, al- 
 so affect the rate of ignition of a eliarge of such 
 grains, but in an opposite direction; so that a form 
 
 of grain which will, individually bum rapidly may 
 offer an increased resistance to the passage of the 
 heated gas through the charge, and thereby retard 
 its ignition, while a grain which will burn more slow- 
 ly may allow of the charge being more rapidly igni- 
 ted. By varying the size and shape of the grain alone, 
 a powder may therefore be obtained, a charge of 
 which shall be ignited rapidly throughout, but burn 
 comparatively slowly, or one which shall be ignited 
 more slowly, but when once inflamed burn very rap- 
 idly. It is necessary to draw a clear distinction be- 
 tween a rapidly igniting and a quickly burning pow- 
 der. The heat developed increases with the charge, 
 and as the velocity of the gases increases with their 
 temperature, it is therefore evident that a large charge 
 is consumed quicker than a small one ; it is also true 
 that the loss of heat absorbed by the surface of the 
 bore is much less sensible when the charge is great 
 than when it is small; that is, the quantity absorbed 
 is proportional to the surface or the square of the 
 caliber of the gun and the heat developed increases 
 as the cube of the caliber. With proper data we car 
 readily determine the density of the gaseous products 
 at any particular moment of combustion. For this 
 purpose, take the case in which the inflammation of 
 the whole charge is considered instantai»eous, and let 
 P be the weight of the charge ; d' the density of tin 
 composition of which thepowderismade; Fthespact 
 in which the gases expand ; t' the time of combus- 
 tion of a single grain ; t the time since the combus- 
 tion began ; d the density of the gases at a given in- 
 stant. 
 
 The weight of powder remaining after a time, t, 
 will be equal to PI 1 |, and the volume 
 
 will be equal to — | 1 | ; the weight of gase- 
 
 d' 
 
 ved wi 
 
 ous products evolved will be equal to 
 
 p| 1 — I 1 I I; and their density will be 
 
 equal to this quantity divided by the space, V, di- 
 minished by the space occupied by the powder un- 
 burnt at the end of the time, t. 
 
 Or, 
 
 d= 
 
 
 Let K, represent the ratio of the weight of powder 
 which would fill the space T, to the weight of the 
 charge P, and I), the gravimetric density, or weight 
 of a unit of volume of powder, we shall have the e(iua- 
 tion, 
 
 DV V K 
 
 =K, or — =— ; 
 
 P P D 
 
 and the formula for the density of the gaseous pro- 
 ducts becomes. 
 
 1 — 
 
 d = 
 

 
 INFOEMANT. 
 
 101 
 
 INITIAL TENSION. 
 
 If the charge fillw Uic cnlirc spaor K, K=\, and 
 1- 
 
 d= n 
 
 '■=(-01 
 
 n 
 
 "Wlien the grains arc sinned, t=t , and d= — ; 
 and if yr=l, rf=A K 
 
 Huviiii; dftcriiiincd the nicnn (U^nsitv "f tlie gas- 
 eous prDducts at any instant of tlic (■(indnistion, we 
 can determine tlic pressure exerted on I lie enclosing 
 8urfac(-s liy means of JSiimford's formula 
 
 /'=1.841 (905rf) 1 + 0.DO2. • 
 
 This value of I' supposes that the entire charge is 
 inflamed at tlu^ same time— a supposition that is not 
 Strictly correct, except for small and li;;litly-ramined 
 charges. When the charge is large, and well-rammed, 
 as in cannon, it is necessary to take into consideration 
 the time of inllammation. 
 
 In a majority of cases the preci'ding fortnulas will 
 give the relation between the density and expansive 
 lorceof gunpowder, without sensible' error; but wiien 
 the grains are small, and the cliarge is compressed 
 by ramming, the interstices 
 are dimiuislied in size, and 
 the inllammation is compar- 
 atively less rajiid ; besides, 
 the si/e and form of the 
 charge exert an intluence 
 wliicli increases with its 
 length. It is proposed to mo- 
 dify the formulas, and adapt 
 them to the most general case, liy considering tlie 
 Inflainmation progressive. Take a charge of powder, 
 of any form whatever, and consider it ignited at the 
 point. A, the inllanimation will reach the surface of 
 the concentric zone, />', the radius of which is tv, 
 In the time t, r being the velocity of intlamniation. 
 
 by substituting / — * for t, and supposing ^=1, 
 should the cliargi' comjiletely till the space in which 
 it is burned. Integrating between the determined lim- 
 its, we olitain the mean density of the gases developed. 
 The solution of this (pieslion, in a general sense, in 
 very di.'ticult, H!;d rei|uires tlie aid of the difTerenlial 
 calculus. There are particular cases, however, where 
 the solution is not dillicult ; for instance, where (he 
 charge is of cylindrical form and is |)laced at the bot- 
 tom if till' bore of a guu. See J'Jxjjlim/jn and Oun- 
 potrt/f-r. 
 
 INFORMANT. — In case a civil person is the com- 
 plainant, he becomes the principal witness before a 
 Court-Martial, and after giving his evidence may re- 
 main ill Court, in order that the Judge-Advocate "may- 
 refer III liiiii, 
 
 INF0RMEE8. — In the British service, soldiers who 
 gave iiifoniiiitioii of false musters, or of pay illegally 
 detained ; and were, for said. services, entitled to their 
 discharge. 
 
 INGAUNI. — A tribe dwelling on the mountains and 
 seacost of Genoa in the first and second centuries 
 B.C. They were very active in the wars between the 
 Romans and Ligurians, and were Allies of the Car- 
 thaginians in the second I'uiiie 'War. They were 
 regarded as a distinct tribe in the time of Pliny and 
 Strabo, but after the battle with Emilius Paulus, 
 181 1). c, in which they lost l.'j.ODO men, very little 
 was heard of them. The town Albenga, tlien called 
 AlViiuni Imjaurium, was their Capital. 
 
 INITIAL TENSION.— The .system of initial tension 
 consists ill making a gun of concentric tubes, by 
 putting on each successive layer, iirocecding out- 
 ward from the center, with an initial tension exceed- 
 ing that of those below it; in other words, so that 
 each hoop shall compress the one within it. Tlie 
 inner layer is thus in compression wliile the outer 
 layer is in the highest tension. Tlie inner layer i.s 
 able to sustain the first and greatest stretcli, aiid the 
 outer lajer, although stretched less b_v the explosion 
 
 There will be portions of the charge situated within j "^ "."-' po"'!;'"". '':i« already been stretched mto high 
 this zone which the flame will mit have reached; tension, and thus bus to do an ecpial amount of 
 Others in which the combustion is completed: and I j*^'"'''^- The intermediate layers bear the same rela- 
 Others, between these two, in which the inflammation 
 
 is completed, but the combustion is only partially com 
 pleted, as represented. 
 
 The extent of the inflamed zones being determined 
 by the form and dimensions of the charge, exerts a 
 great influence on the development of the ga.ses. and 
 consequently on their density. If the velocities of in- 
 flammation and combustion be known, the iiuantity 
 of gas formed from each zone can be calculated, and 
 the question becomes one of analysis. In this calcu- 
 lation, the integral limits which refer to the extent of 
 the zones are determined liy the surface of the charge; 
 
 and those which refer to the progress of the combus- 
 tion of the grains will be the point of ignition and the 
 surface of inflammation: or, if « be the time neces- 
 
 tion to the initial strain, and to the strain of the 
 powder, so that, in short, all the layers contribute 
 equally of their tensile strength to resist the strain 
 of the explosion. Each hoop, or tube, has this ele- 
 ment of weakness, that its inner circumference is 
 more stretched than its outer one. Absolute perfec- 
 tion would necessitate infinitelj' thin lioops, and, 
 practically, the thinner the layers the greater will 
 be the strength, provided the mechanical difliculties 
 in constrviction, and more especially in applying, a 
 great number of thin strata with the proper tension 
 do not outweigh the advantages. Tlie two piinci- 
 pal methods of.applying the system are I)y shrinking 
 on, or by forcing on, the hoops. If the hoops are 
 put on by shrinking, two embarrassments arise: 
 Firxt. The hoop must be accurately bored, and after 
 each layer has been put on, the gun must be put in 
 a lathe and the outside turned. Great accuracy of 
 abor is refmired — labor of the most expensive class. 
 Secondly. The process of shrinking on is not to be 
 depended upon ; nowhere is there a difficulty in in- 
 
 sary for the flame to reach the surface of the zone, the i suring the exact temperature required, but scarcely 
 
 radius of which is x, the time of i)artial combustion 
 of a grain of this zone will be t—t', and its complete 
 combustion is expressed by the relation <=<'-(-4. 
 
 For this zone the derksity of the gaseous products 
 at the instant of inflammation will be d=0, as when 
 completely consumed d=D. 
 
 The intermediate values maybe determined by form- 
 ula (1) 
 
 t 
 
 O(-O) 
 
 any two pieces of iron will shrink identically. The 
 fitting of hoops with nice adjustment would be diffl- 
 cult, theoretically : practically, it would not be done. 
 But the chief embarrassment is the uueuual effect of 
 heat. 
 
 In the first place, heating the layers over a fire to 
 expand them subjects one part to more heat than an- 
 other ; the temperature of the surf;ice and interior are 
 unequal, thus causing irregular strains. This may be 
 remedied by boiling the hoops in oil. which would 
 toughen as well as expand the hoops. In the .sec- 
 ond place, the hoops are often heated to redness, 
 when oxidation takes place. The internal diameter 
 of the hoop is increased, and scale is left between 
 some parts and not between others. In the third
 
 INITIAL VELOCITY. 
 
 102 
 
 INJURIES. 
 
 place, cast-iron aiitl steel sensibly and permanentlj' 
 enlarge in proportion to the amount of carbon they 
 contain when subjected to the heat. 
 
 Whitworth and Blakely advocate the method of 
 forcing the hoops on with liydrostatic pressure. The 
 forcing of a slightly conical ring over a correspond- 
 ingly conical tube obviates the necessity of great ac- 
 curacy in the diameter of either pieces. The truth 
 of the cone depends upon the corre'ctness of the lathe. 
 The truth of the surfaces is also a question of good 
 tools. The tension of the ring depends on the dis- 
 tance to whicli it is forced in tlie conical tube, and 
 this may be regulated by the safety-valve of the hy- 
 drostatic-press. With special tools, and when cor- 
 rectness depends upon the mechanical appliances, 
 which can be adjusted with the utmost nicety, an in- 
 expert workman could hardly fail to do well. See 
 Built-tip Guns, Cannon, Ordnance, and Varying Elas- 
 ticity. 
 
 INITIAL VELOCITY.— In gunnery, the speed with 
 which the ball leaves the muzzle of the gun. This 
 was formerly calculated from the momentum as 
 shown by the Ballistic Pendulum. A very great 
 improvement of late years is tlie Electro-ballistic 
 Pendulum, the invention of a Major Navez of the 
 Belgian service, which actually measures the interval 
 of time during wliich the shot traverses a short 
 space of ground. The apparatus consists of a steel 
 penduhnn falling at the side of a graduated sector of 
 a circle. Behind the segment is a piece of iron ca- 
 pable of being magnetised by a galvanic battery 
 adjoining. The wires for completing the circuit 
 between the battery and the magnet are so arranged 
 that they are in connection with two targets of pa- 
 per or other thin material in the line of the pro- 
 jectile's fire. So long as the circuit is complete, and 
 before the experiment, the magnet holds the pendu- 
 lum at its highest point. When the shot pierces 
 the first target, the circuit is broken, iron demag- 
 netised, and the pendulum released; these effects 
 being absolutely simultaneous. With equal simul- 
 taneity, the piercing the second target re-establishes 
 the circuit, magnetises the iron, and arrests tlie pen- 
 dulum in its descent. The distance between the 
 targets is known, and the accumulating resistance of 
 the atmosphere within that time ; the sector being 
 finely graduated, the distance traversed by the pen- 
 dulum shows exactl}^ the fraction of a second occu- 
 pied, and from these data the initial velocity is a 
 matter of simple computation. Of an orilinary 
 smooth-bore cannon, the initial velocity is near to 
 1600 feet per second. See Ballistic Penduhtm, 
 Chriinoscopp . Gvn-pendnhim. and Velocity. 
 
 INITAL VELOCITY OF ROTATION.— Let V be the 
 initial velocity of the projectile, or space which it 
 would pass over in one second, in the direction of 
 fliglit, moving with the velocity with which it leaves 
 the piece, and I the distance passed over by the pro- 
 jectile in making one revolution ; then — will be the 
 
 I 
 number of revolutions in one second, and 
 
 V 
 Zk — the angular velocity of tlie projectile at the muz- 
 zle. Tli(! velocity of rotation of a point on the sur- 
 face is given by the expres.sion, 
 
 rw=^7ir — , 
 I 
 in which r is its distance from the axis of motion, 
 and u> is the angular velocity. Sec Grooves, Rotation, 
 and Vehciti/ nf llnUitiiin. 
 
 INITIATIVE.— In offcnsivi' warfare, to take the in- 
 itiatite is llic power of compelling your adversary to 
 make iiis movements dependent on your own, tlie re- 
 sult of wlueli is to give tile invacier of a territory 
 great advantage. It is also explained as the success 
 obtained by the invader of a territory, suitable for 
 military moveinents, and defended only by an army, 
 
 not by fortifications ; not only is the advantage in 
 his first onset, but in subsequent engagements, thus- 
 disconcerting and to some extent crippling his ad- 
 versary so as to frustrate or deprive him of the pow- 
 er of carrying out offensive measures. 
 
 INJURIES. — In the e.xcrcise of professional duty by 
 militarj' officers, injuries may frequently be occa- 
 sioned to otlier officers, or to private individuals, 
 whose legal remedies are here considered. As be- 
 tween officers themselves, the language of the Ar- 
 ticles of War is sufficiently comprehensive to bring 
 most of such cases within the cognizance of a Court- 
 Martial; but a Court-Martial has no power to award 
 pecuniary damages for injurious conduct. Its juris- 
 dictiom is criminal, and its judgments are penal. It 
 may happen, too, that the common feeling of the ser- 
 vice, to which the otfending or the complaining party 
 belongs, would in many cases render an application 
 to such a tribunal utterly fruitless; as the general 
 sentiment of the members of a particular profession 
 or class of society, respecting a matter of profession- 
 al or corporate right or conduct, is often found to be 
 at variance with the public law of the land. Civil ac- 
 tions are therefore maintainable against commissi- 
 oned officers, for exceeding their powers, or for ex- 
 ercising them in an oppressive, injurious, and impro- 
 per manner, whether towards military persons oroth- 
 ers. Extreme difficulties, however, lie in the way of 
 plaintiffs in actions of this nature, for no such action 
 is maintainable for an injury, unless it be accompa- 
 nied by malice or injustice: and the knowledge of 
 this, while it can never check the conduct of good 
 men, may form a check on the bad. Where an officer 
 makes a slip in form, great latitude ought to be al- 
 lowed; but for a corrupt abuse of authority none can 
 be made. It will be convenient to consider the law 
 upon this subject; 1st, as it applies to wrongs com- 
 mitted by officers towards persons under military au- 
 thority; and, 8dly, as it applies to persons not subject 
 to such authority. Some of the decisions that will be 
 quoted were pronounced in cases where naval offi- 
 cers were concerned; but the principle of the deci- 
 sions applies equally to both services. I. Wrongs to- 
 wards Persons under Military Authority. — A notion 
 appears to have at one time extensively prevailed 
 that an officer could have no remedy against ill treat- 
 ment received from his superiors in the course of 
 professional duty, except by bringing the offending 
 party to a Court-Mflrtial, and subjecting him to the 
 penalties of the Articles of War. This opinion, how- 
 ever, was quite unfounded in point of law; and such 
 a state of things miglit often be productive of the 
 worst conseqnences. The point was distinctly rais- 
 ed in Grant c. Shand, where an action was brought 
 by an officer in the army against his superior officer 
 for oppressive, insulting, and violent conduct. The 
 plaintiff was directed to give a military order: and it 
 appeared that he sent two persons, who failed. The 
 defendant thereupon said to the plaintiff, "What a 
 stupid person you arc," and twice struck him; and 
 although the circumstances occurred at Gibraltar, 
 and in the actual execution of military .service, it was 
 held at the trial that the action was maintainable! 
 and a verdict was found for the plaintiff. An applica- 
 tion was afterwards made to the Court of King's 
 Bench to set aside the verdict; and Lord Mansfield, 
 the Chief-Justice, was very desirous to grant a new 
 trial; but the Court, after argument, refused to dis- 
 turb the verdict. So also an action will lie for unjust 
 treatment under tlie form of flisci])line. as inSwiuton 
 r. Jlolloy, wlierc the defendant, who was Captain of 
 the Tridint man-of-war, put the Purser into confine- 
 ment, kept liim impri.soned for three days without 
 inquiring into the case, and thin released him on 
 hearing his defence. The Purser brought liis action 
 against Captain Molloy, for all his unlawful deten- 
 tion ill custody; and, upon the evidence, Lord Mans- 
 field said, that such coiidiict on the jiart of the Cap- 
 tain did not appear to have been a discharge of his 
 duty, and therefore that his justification under the
 
 INJURIES. 
 
 103 
 
 INJURIES. 
 
 fliKfiplino of thonavy liiid fiiilcil liim. The jury gnvn 
 fl.OdO (laiiiaiTcH. In tlic fnrct'oiin; ciisc no want of 
 npriiihlncsH was all.ril)iitcil to ('aptain Molloy; and 
 the ilccision rested wliolly (jn tlie eirennistanee of 
 Iiisliavini; committed an injiistiee, altlioij^ii without 
 a corrupt intention. Cruelty or unneeeHHary severity, 
 when wilfully conimilleil in the exercise of superior 
 authority, are also jjjood causes of action. Thus in 
 Wall r. Macnamara, lh<- action was hroui;ht liy the 
 plainlilT, as Cajilain in thi' African Corps, a^rainsllhe 
 defendant. LieuleuanI (iovernor and Alilitary Com- 
 mandant of Sencfiandiia, for iniprisonim; the plain- 
 tilt for the space of nine months at (iauibia, in Afri- 
 ca. The defense was a justiliealion of the imprison- 
 ment under the Mutiny Act, for the disobedience of 
 orders. At th(^ trial it apiieared Ihat the imi)rison- 
 menl of Ciiiitain Wall, which was at lirst lei;al, name- 
 ly, for leaviuf; his ]iost wilhout leave from his Su- 
 perior OHicer, thoui;h in a had stale < if health, wasai;- 
 gravated witli many circumstances of cruelty, which 
 were nd"erted toby Lord Manslield, in the followinir 
 extract from his charge to the jury: " It is admitted 
 that the plaintilT was tn blame in leaving his post. 
 But there was no enemy, no mutiny, no danger. His 
 health was declining, and he trusted to the licnevol- 
 C'lice of the defendant to consider the circumstances 
 imder which he acted. ]?ut supiiosing it lohave been 
 the defendant's dulj- to call the i)lainliir to a milita- 
 ry accoimt for his misconduct, what apology is there 
 for (h'nying him the use of the conmi(>n air in a sul- 
 try climate, and shutting him up in a gloomy prison, 
 when there was no possibility of bringing him to a 
 trial for several mouths, there not lieing a sutlicient 
 number of ollicers to form a Court-.Martial ? These 
 circumstances, independent of the direct eviilence of 
 malice, as sworn to by one of the witnesses, are suf- 
 ficient for you to presume a bad, malignant motive 
 in the defendant, wduch would destroy his jiistitica- 
 tion, had it even been within the powers delegated 
 to the defendant by his commission. The jury there- 
 upon, after deliberation, found a verdict for ('apfain 
 Wall, with il.OOO damages. An undue assuinjition 
 of authority in matter not within the range of mili- 
 tary discipline, is also a good ground of action against 
 a Superior Officer. This appears from the case of 
 Warden v. Bailey, where the plaiutiir was a perma- 
 nent Sergeant in the Bedford regiment of local mil ilia, 
 of wdiicii the defendant was the Adjutant. In Ko- 
 vember, 1809, the Lieutenant-colonel issued a regi- 
 mental order for establishing an evening school at 
 Bedford, lie appointedthc Sergeant-major the blas- 
 ter and ordered all Sergeants and Corporals, includ- 
 ing the plaintiff, to attend and pa_y eight-pence a 
 week towards the expenses of the school. The plain- 
 tiff and some other of the scholars having afterwards 
 omitted to attend, several were tried by Court-Martial 
 and punished. The plaintiff, how-ever, was only rep- 
 rimanded, and he promised regular attendance in fu- 
 ture. Shortly afterwards he was ordered to attend a 
 drill on parade, when the defendant, who appears 
 to have been a shopkeeper, shook his fist at the Plain- 
 tiff, called him a rascal, and told him he deserved to 
 be shot. The defendant then directed a Sergeant to 
 draw his sword and hold it over the plaintiff's head, 
 and if he should stir to run him through : and, by the 
 defendant's direction, a Corporal took off the plain- 
 tiff's sash and sword. The plaintiff was then con- 
 ducted, by the defendant's order, to Bedford gaol, 
 witli directions that he should be locked up in soli- 
 tary confinement, and kept on bread and water. He 
 was thus imprisoned for three days. lie was then 
 ■brought up liefore the Colonel and the defendant, 
 and other officers of the regiment, and again remand- 
 ed to the gaol. The plaintiff's health having been 
 impaired by the contimninee of this treatment for | 
 several weeks, he was afterwards conducted to his 
 own house, and there kept a close prisoner until Janu- 
 ary 1810. when lie was escorted by a file of Corporals 
 from Bedford to Stilton, to be tried by Court-AIartial 
 for mutinous words spoken on parade at the time of 
 
 his arrest, and for tliercliy exciting otiier.s to disobe- 
 dience. He was trii-d ar:ccordingly, but liberated in 
 March, 1810. U|)on this he broughHii.s action against 
 the Adjutant for the wrongful imprisonment, when 
 an ol)jection was taken that the question of lliepro- 
 jiriety of the arrest was not within the jurisdiction of 
 the ("'ivil (,'ourts. The Courts of Common Pleas, 
 however, overruled this objc-ction. Sir.JanicK Maus- 
 lielil, C. .1.; "It nML'ht br- very convenient Ihat a mil- 
 ilary ofllcer might beenabledto make the man under 
 his command learn to read or write,- it might be verj' 
 useful, l>ut is not a part of nulitary discipline. Then, 
 there is a tax of Hd. a week for learning to read and 
 
 write The subject cannot be taxed, even in 
 
 the most indirect way, unless it originates in the Low- 
 er House of Parliament." Mr justice Lawrence: 
 " It is no part of mililarv duty lo attend a school, 
 and learn lo write ami read. If wriliiiL' is necessary 
 to Corporals and Sergeants, the Superior Officers 
 must .select men wlio cnn write and read ; and if 
 they do not continue to do it well, tliey may lie re- 
 duced to the ranks. Nor is it any part of niilitary 
 duty to pay for keeping a school liglit and warm : 
 this very far exceeds the power of any Colonel to 
 order." In a subsei/^ient stage of the. same case, when 
 it was altemi)ted to justify or defend the mutinous 
 expressions used by ^\■;l^len on parade as aliove sta- 
 ted, on the ground of llie illegality of the order wliich 
 gave rise to them, the Court held, tiiat altliough War- 
 den Inid I)een unlawftdly arrested for disoliedience 
 to that order, such a circumstance affonled no war- 
 rant for insul)ordinate language on Warden's part, 
 and therefore no exemption from ndlil.ary arrest and 
 punishment for the same. " Xor will lie (said Lord 
 Ellenliorougli, C. .J.) be less an object of military 
 punishment, because the order of the Lieulenant-col- 
 onel, to which this language referred, might not be 
 a valid one, and such as lie was strictly competent to 
 
 make There may be disorderly conduct to 
 
 the prejudice of good and military discipline, in the 
 manner and terms used and adopted l)y one soldier 
 in dissuading anothersoldier not to obey anordernot 
 strictly legal. If any erroneous order on the pari of 
 a Connnanding Officer woidd not only justify the in- 
 dividual disobedience of it by the soldier, biit would 
 j\islify him in making infiammatory and reproach- 
 iul pulilic comments upon .same to his fellow-sol- 
 diers, ecpially the objects of such order with himself, 
 is it posj'ble that miiMary order and discipline could 
 be maintained?" The conunon defence of officers, 
 against wdiom actions of this nature are brought, is a 
 justification of their conduct as agreeable to'the dis- 
 cipline of the service, and contriluitary lo tiie main- 
 tenance of that discipline. And there can be no doubt 
 that where the conduct brought into question is not 
 an oppressive, malicious, or unreasonable exercise of 
 power, and does not amount to an excess or abuse 
 of authority, an action is wholly unsustainable. The 
 principles tipon which the Courts of Law jiroceed in 
 actions arising out of the aliuse of military power, 
 will receive fiTrther illustration from the language of 
 Lord Mansfield, in summing up the evidence to the 
 jury in Wall v. JIacnamaraT His Lordship thus ex- 
 pressed himself: '• Intryingthe legality of acts done 
 by military officers in the exercise "of their duty, par- 
 ticularly beyond the seas, where cases may "occur 
 without the possibility of application for proper ad- 
 vice, greater latitude ought to be allowed : and they 
 ought not to sufferfor a .slipof form, if their intention 
 appears bj'the evidence to liave been uprisht. It is 
 the same as when complaints are brought against infe- 
 rior Civil Magistrates, as Justices of" the Peace, for 
 acts done by them in the exercise of their civil duly. 
 There the principal inquiry to be made by a Court 
 of Justice is, /wtr the heart itoml f and if there apjjcar 
 to be nothing wrong there, great latitude will be 
 allowed formisapprehcnsion or mistake. But. on the 
 other hand, if the lieart is wrong — if cruelly, malice, 
 and oppression appearto have occasioned of [isrcrrava- 
 ted the imprisonment, or other injury complained oiT
 
 INJUBIES. 
 
 104 
 
 INJUBI£8. 
 
 they shall not cover themselves with the thin veil of 
 legal forms, nor escape under cover of a justiticatiou 
 the most technically regular, from that pimishment, 
 which it is your province and your duty to iuHict on 
 so scandalous an abuse of public trust." It is no legal 
 objection to an action for the abuse of military au- 
 thority, that the defendant has not been tried and con- 
 victed by a Court-Martial, for that argument holds 
 in no case short of felonj'. The infliction of an unjust 
 or illegal sentence, pronounced bj' a Court-Martial, 
 is a good cause of action by the prisoner, against all 
 or any of the Members of the Court, and all persons 
 concerned in the execution of the sentence; such a 
 sentence. If it exceeds the authorized measure of pun- 
 ishment, being not merely invalid for the excess, but 
 absolutely void altogether. The most remarkable case 
 on record of this kind is that of Lieutenant Frye, of 
 the Marines, who, after on mmecessary previous im- 
 prisonment for fourteen months, was brought to trial 
 before a Naval Court-Martial at Port Royal in the 
 iVest Indies, and sentenced to be imprisoned for l.'j 
 years, for disobedience of orders, in refusing to assist 
 In the imprisonment of another oflJcer, without an 
 order in writing from the Captain of Her Majesty's 
 ship Oxford, on board of which Lieutenant Frye was 
 serving. At the trial the written depositions of seve- 
 ral illiterate Blacks were improperly received in evi- 
 dence against him, in lieu of their oral testimony, 
 which might have been obtained and sifted by cross- 
 examination ; and the sentence pronounced was it- 
 self illegal for its excessiveness, the Act 22, George 
 II., which contains the naval Articles of War, not 
 allowing any imi^risonment beyond the term of two 
 years. On the return to England of Admiral Sir 
 Chaloner Ogle, the president of the Court-Martial, 
 Lieutenant Frye brought an action against him in the 
 Court of Conimon Pteas for his illegal conduct at 
 the trial, when the jur^- under the direction of the 
 Lord Chief Justice ^ illis, gave a verdict for the 
 Plaintiff, with £1,000 damages. The Chief Justice 
 at the same time informed Lieutenant Frye that he 
 might have an action against all or an}' of the other 
 members of his Court-Martial ; and Lieutenant Frye 
 accordingly issued writs against Rear Admiral Mayne 
 and Captain Renton, upon whom the same were 
 served as they were coming ashore at the conclusion 
 of the proceedings of the day at another Court-Mar- 
 tial, of which they were acting members, for the trial 
 of Vice Admiral Lestock, for his conduct in a naval 
 engagement with the French fleet off Toulon, in the 
 early part of the same year. This was deemed a 
 great insult by the members of the sitting Court-Mar- 
 tial, who accordingly passed some resolutions or re- 
 monstrances in strong language, highly derogatory 
 to the Chief Justice, whicli they forwarded to the 
 Lords of the Admiralty, by whom the affair was re- 
 ported to the King. His Majesty, through the Duke 
 of Newcastle signified to the Admiralty "his great 
 displeasure at the insult offered to the Court-Martial, 
 by which the military discipline of the navy is so 
 much affected; and the King highly disapproved of 
 the behavior of Lieutenant Frye on the occasion." 
 The Lord Chief Justice, as soon as he heard of the 
 resolutions of the Court-Martial, ordered every mem- 
 ber of it to be taken into custody, and was proceed- 
 ing to uphold Hut dignity of his Court, in a very de- 
 cicled manner, when tlie wholeaffair was terminated 
 in Novenil)er, lT4(i, by tlie Members of the Court- 
 Martial signing and sending to his Lordship a very 
 am])le written apology for their conduct. On the 
 reception of this paper in the Court of Common Pleas 
 it was read aloud, and ordered to be registered among 
 the records as a "Memorial," said tlic Lord Chief 
 Justice, " to the present and future ages, that who- 
 ever set themselves up in ojiposiiion to the laws, or 
 think themselves above llie law, will in the end find 
 themselves mistaken. The proc<'edings and the apo- 
 logy were also published in the J^'jiid'in UnzetUi of 
 15lh November, 174G. It may be useful to mention 
 here, as a legal point giving rights of redress between 
 
 military men, that a Superior Officer cannot safely 
 deal for his own advantage, in money matters, with 
 a Junior Officer under his command. The influence 
 whicli a Senior Oflicer can exercise over Iiis Junior 
 is such as to destroy, or at least to control, in the 
 purview of a Conrt of Equity, that entire feeling 
 which is very proper and essential to the perfec- 
 tion of a bargain or contract ; and if a Regimental 
 Ottioer places himself in a position where such influ- 
 ence may operate to the prejudice of the Junior, the 
 transactions between them are liable to be set aside 
 for want of fairness or conscientiousness. This is 
 the rule applied to dealings between a guardian and 
 his ward, a physician and his patient, a landlord and 
 his steward, a clergyman and a penitent, and all other 
 cases where the existence of just and unavoidable in- 
 fluence may lead to abuse. 
 ■ II. Wrongs towards Persons not under Military 
 A uthoriUj. — jfnjuries may be occasioned to persons not 
 subject to military authority, by ofticers mistaking 
 or exceeding their powers, or exercising them with 
 malice, negligence, or unskilfulness ; but for acts of 
 this kind a remedy lies only in the Civil Courts ; the 
 military tribunals, as already observed, having no 
 power to grant pecuniary compensation by way of 
 damages, and non-military persons having no locus 
 standi as prosecutors before such Courts, wliich are 
 instituted solely for the maintenance of order and 
 discipline among the armed forces. 
 
 In cases of the kind now under consideration, it is 
 quite immaterial whether the cause of action has arisen 
 within the realm, or beyond the seas ; though this 
 proposition was not finally established until the year 
 1774, when the great ease of Fabrigas «. Mostyn was 
 determined in the Court of King's Bench, and put 
 an end to all further question or doubt upon the sub- 
 ject. The Plaintiff was a native of Minorca, of which 
 Island the defendant. General Mostyn, was Governor. 
 The General had by his own absolute authority im- 
 prisoned the plaintiff and banished him from the Is- 
 land without a trial. The defence was, that in the 
 peculiar district of Jlinorca, where the offence oc- 
 curred, no ordinary Court or JIagistrate could have 
 had jurisdiction. But the proof of this defence fail- 
 ed, and the jury gave the plaintiff £3,000 damages. 
 The objection, however, was taken that the action 
 did not lie, by reason of the foreign locality of the 
 cause of it, and the point was twice argued at great 
 length ; but judgment was eventually pronounced 
 anainst General Mostj'n, in accordance with the ver- 
 dict of the jury. It should be noticed also that as 
 General i\Iostyn, happened to be a Governor, his ap- 
 pointment gave him the character of a Viceroy, so 
 that lomlly andduring hisgocernment-aocivW or crim- 
 inal action lay against him. On principles of public 
 justice, therefore, it was necessary that a remedy 
 should be had in England. The undue assumption or 
 ml.tt<iken exercise of authority by officers towards 
 non-military persons, is a clear ground (jf action 
 against them in the Civil Courts, even though there 
 be no malice accompanying the transaction. 
 
 Captain Gambler, of the Navy, underthe orders of 
 Admiral Boscawen, pulled down the hotises of some 
 sutlers on the coast of Nova Scotia, wlio supplied the 
 the seamen of the fleet with spirituous licjuors. The 
 act was done with good intentinn on the part of the 
 Admiral ; for the liealth of the sailors bad been af- 
 fecfcd by fn'quenling lliese lunises. Captain Gam- 
 bier, on "his return lo England, incaiitiously brought 
 home in his ship one of the sutlers whose houses had 
 been thus demolished. Thenuin would never other- 
 wise have got to England ; l)ut on his arrival he was 
 advised to bring an action against Captain (ianibier. 
 He did so, and recovered £1,000 damages. Hut as 
 the Cajjtain liad acted by ilie orders of Admiral Bos- 
 cawen, the representatives of the Admiral defended 
 the action, and paid the damages and costs. This 
 was a favoraI)le, case, unaccompanied by any mali- 
 ciuus feelini; ; but the parties cimeernecl did not at- 
 tempt lo disturb the verdict. Admiral Sir Hugh
 
 INJUBIES. 
 
 lUo 
 
 INJURIES 
 
 Pallisrr wiia (Iffeudant in Hiiiiiliir iirtion fordfstroy- 
 iiitC tlHliini; hiils on tlic I-iilirinlur cdiist. After the 
 Ti'calv "f I'liris, Uic (Jiumdiaiis, early in llie seaHnii, 
 (•reel("(l lulls for (isliini^, anil liy sueli means olilaiiiiMl 
 an ailvaiitai;o over I lie tisliernien who eaini' from 
 Eni;lan(l. It was a nice iineslion upon the ri>;hts of 
 tlie Canadians. Hul the Admiral on the jjnmnds of 
 ])nl)lic policy, ordered the huts to l)e destroy<'d. 
 An action was brouj;lit ai;ainst him in Kni;lan(l liy 
 (jne of the injured ])arties, and thc^ case ended in ar- 
 liilration. Bui on the pari of the Admiral it was never 
 oontended that the action did not lie by reason of 
 Ihe suhjeet-malterof oceiirren<-e heyond'tlu! seas. 
 
 "I remendjer," said Lord Manslield, "early in my 
 time being counsel in an acti<in brought by a carjjen- 
 ter in the train of artillery against (Jovcrnor Sabine, 
 who was (iovernor of Gibraller, and who had barely 
 conlirmed the sentence of a Court-Marl ial. by which 
 the plaintilT had lieen tri<'dand senteneeil to be whip- 
 ])cd. The (iovernor was very ably defended, but no. 
 Iiodv ever thought the action wcnild not lie; and it 
 beiiig proved that the tradesmen who followed the 
 train were not liable to martial law. the Court wore 
 of that opinion, and the jury found the defendant 
 guilty of the trespass, as having had a share in Ihe 
 Renti-nce, and gave X'TOI) damages." The following 
 cas<', involving Ihe same prinri|ile, occurred in India, 
 and was there tried before the Supreme^ Court of .Mad- 
 ras. Mr. H. Smith was agent, at Secunilerabad, of 
 a mercantile house at Madras, from whom lie receiv- 
 ed a very handsome salary. lie l)ecanie indebted to 
 a soldier of II. M.'s 33d regiment for some work in- 
 trusted to him. and a disjaite having arisen between 
 them as to the amount, this led to a violent alterca- 
 tion between .Mr. Smith and the Superintendent of Ihe 
 Bazaar acting under Ihe local military regulations. 
 Lieutenanl-colone! (Jore thereupon sent a tile of men 
 to arrest the PlaintilT. who was accordingly seized 
 about six o'clock in the evening, and marched from 
 Ills house through the streets oif the cantonment to 
 the main guard at Secunderabad, where he was kept 
 till twelve o'clock the next day. In C(mse(|uenee of 
 these proceedings, lie brought an action against Colo- 
 nel Gore for false imprisonment. Seeumh-rabad was 
 an open cantonment for a part of the subsidiary force 
 serving in the Territories of the Nizam : the force 
 consisting partly of British and partly nativetroops. 
 It had barracks, and the men were hutted. It was 
 also upon a ticld establishment, ccmstantly ready for 
 immediate service. The Article of War then in force, 
 was thus intituled, " Of duties in quarters, in garri- 
 son, and in the lield ; " and it enacted, " that all sut- 
 lers and retainers to the camp, anil all persons what- 
 soever serving with forces in the field, though not en- 
 listed soldiers, are to be subject to orders, aceording 
 to rules and discipline of war." Sir Thomas Strange, 
 C. J.: " The question was, whether the troops, 'to hji 
 cantoned, were in the state to which the cited Arti- 
 cles of War applied. The Court thought they were 
 not. It nnght have been a field force, being iipon a 
 field establishment, so as to be ready to move at the 
 shortest notice. There might be great similarity in 
 the arraugenients adopted for an army, whether in 
 the field or cantoned. A respectable witness. Bri- 
 gade-major Lyne, intimated as much. Still, so far 
 as the Court could form a judgment upon a question 
 of this nature, there seemed to be a dill'erence be- 
 tween a camp and a cantonment, which appeared 
 
 material When in the field, not only the 
 
 army, but its appendages, must be under the imme- 
 diate control of the Officer Commanding it, accord- 
 ing to the rules and discipline of war. So situated, 
 the sutler, who chose to follow the camp, identified 
 himself in a manner with the soldier for every pur- 
 pose almost but that of fighting The plain- 
 tiff called upon the Court to say, whether Ihe force 
 in question, under the command of the defendant, 
 was at the time in the field. It seemed impossilile 
 to say that it was, without confounding ideas ajipar- 
 eutly very distinct The defendant appear- 
 
 ed to liavc acted under a mistake of his authority, 
 for which h<' was liable lo answer, as it had bi-en 
 productive of serious injury lo the plaintifT." Juilg-. 
 menl was then-fore given against Colonel (iore, with 
 fifty jiagodas damages. In the foregoing case refer- 
 ence was made to an a<:tioii brought by Mr. Hobert 
 Bailie, an up-coiinlry trader in llie province of Ben- 
 gal, against .Major fieneral Uobert Stewart, for an 
 assault and false imprisonment. Mr. Bailie had re- 
 sided within the canlonmenis of Cawnpore for many 
 years, and dealt in Kuropean articles, which he prin- 
 cipally disposed of lo Ihe mililary stationed there. 
 In October, 17'.)7, ii|)on a conqilaint made lo him by 
 one of thepeophr of his Zenanah, he tied up and very 
 severely Hogged one of his ('lii>irl,-yrliirK. For this 
 act Major-tieneral Stewart ordered Mr. Bailie to be 
 tried by Court-Martial ; and as he acknowledged to 
 have used no less than six switch whips in the Hogg- 
 ing, alleging as his reason, that as they were new 
 wliips he was afraid of breaking them and spoiling 
 their sale, the (Jourt-Martial sentencted him to five 
 days' imprisonment, and to make an apology to the 
 Commanding Officer. This sentence General Stew- 
 art, thought 111' did not approve of it, confirmed; and 
 issued orders for Mr. Bailie to depart the camp as soon 
 after his enlargemenl as ]iossible. The Supreme Court 
 of Calcutta held .Mr. Bailie to be a sutler within the 
 meaning of the .\rticlcs of War, so as to render him 
 amenable lo military law. But in the above men- 
 j tioned action of Smith r. Lieutenant-colonel Gore, 
 the Chief .Justice, Sir T. Strange, declined to he gov- 
 erned by the decision in (Jeneral Stewart's case, as 
 the note furnished to the Court did not clearly show 
 whether or not the army was in the field when the 
 transaction occurred. An nnrin,vniil>le or malieiirwt 
 exercise of power will, in like manner, render an 
 olficer liable to an action for damages. An instance 
 of this occurred in the year 1783. when an action was 
 brought against General Jlurray, (iovernor of 3Iin- 
 orca, for improperly suspending Ihe Judge of the 
 Vice-admiralty Court of that Island. The General 
 liiui professed himself ready lo restore the Judge on 
 his making a jiarticular apology : and on referi'nce 
 to the Home Authorities, the King approved of the 
 suspension, unless the Governor's terms were com- 
 plied with. There was no doubt as to General Mur- 
 ray's power to suspend the Judge for proper cause; 
 yet. on the proof of his having unreasonably and im- 
 properly exercised the authority, and notwithstand- 
 ing the King's approbation of his proceedings, dam- 
 ages to the amount of £.'5.000 were awarded against 
 idra by a jury; and. as Jlr. Baron K_\Te observed, it 
 never occurred to any lawyer that there was any pre- 
 tence for questioning the verdict. HfgligenceoT un- 
 .■ikilfulne.t.<« in the exercise of an officer's duty may al- 
 so be a cause of action for damages in respect of pri- 
 vate injuries thus occasioned ; and in such cases the 
 approval of an officer's conduct by the Government, 
 or by the superior military authorities, will neither 
 relieve him from liability lo an action, nor have any 
 intiuencc upon the decision of the Courts of West- 
 minster Hall. Thosetribnnals investigate such mat- 
 ters on independent evidence, according to their own 
 rules, and pay no regard to the previous conclusions 
 of official functionaries, however high their rank may 
 be. 
 
 It is a rule of English law. in unison with Ihe law 
 of nations, by which all civilized States are governed, 
 that no officer engaged in military operations in his 
 country's cause, by the order or with the sanction 
 of the constituted authorities, shall incur any indi- 
 vidual or private responsibility for acts done by vir- 
 tue of his commission or ofticial instructions. Such 
 transactions being of a public nature, redress or satis- 
 faction for injuries to which they give birth, is to be 
 sought by public means alone, from the sovereign 
 power of the belligerent or offending state, according 
 to the principles of international law, and the general 
 usages of civilization, which neversuffer such matters 
 to be litigated before ordiuarv tribunals. If, in time
 
 INJimiES TO CANNON. 
 
 106 
 
 IHNEE^ 
 
 of peace, the citizens of a friendlj' Foreign State sus- 
 tain a private injury at tlie hands of a naval or mili- 
 tary officer serving under the orders of the British 
 Government, but unauthorized by his commission or 
 instructions to do the act complained of, the ordinary 
 tribunals of England afford the same redress against 
 him as in the case of a British subject similarly ag- 
 grieved ; and this rule applies even in those cases 
 where the violated rights of the foreigner are such 
 as the law of England denies or prohiljits to its own 
 subjects. But if the British Government have ex- 
 pressly instructed the officer to commit the act which 
 constitutes or gives occasion to the grievance, the 
 matter becomes an affair of state which is not cog- 
 nizable by the Courts of Law, and must be adjusted 
 by diplomatic arrangement between the two Govcrn- 
 nients concerned. In such cases also it is quite suf- 
 ficient, if the officer's proceedings, though not orig- 
 inally directed or authorized by the terms of his in- 
 structions, are afterward sanctioned and adopted by 
 the Government ; for this renders them public acts, 
 over wliicli courts of law have no jurisdiction. 
 
 INJUKIES TO CANNON.— With the exception of 
 the bending of the trunnions of bronze cannon by 
 long firing, the principal injuries to which cannon 
 are subject, are internal, and arise from the separate 
 actions of the powder and the projectile. They in- 
 crease in extent with the caliber, whatever may be 
 the nature of the piece, but are modified by the ma- 
 terial of which it is made. 
 
 The injuries from the powder generally occur in the 
 rear of the projectile. They are, 1st. The enlarge- 
 ment of that portion of the bore which contains the 
 powder, arising from the compression of the metal. 
 This injury is more marked when a sabot or wad 
 is placed between the powder and the projectile, and 
 is greatest in a vertical direction. 2d. Cavities, pro- 
 duced by the melting awaj' of a portion of the metal 
 by the heat of combustion of the charge. 3d. Cracks, 
 arising from tearing asunder of the particles of the 
 metal at the surface of the bore. At first a crack of 
 this kind is scarcely perceptible, but it is increased 
 by the continued firing until it extends completely 
 through the side of the piece. It generally commen- 
 ces at the junction of the chamber with the bore, as 
 this portion is less supported than others. 4th. Fur- 
 rows, produced by the erosive action of the inflamed 
 gases. This injury is most apparent where the cur- 
 rent of the gas is most rapid, or at the inner orifice 
 of the vent, and on the surface of the bore, immedi- 
 ately over the seat of the projectile. The wear of the 
 vents of bronze cannon is obviated by inserting a cop- 
 per vent-piece. The effect of continuous firing on 
 the vents of iron cannon is to produce a uniform en- 
 largement of the inner orifice, and to seriously weak- 
 en the piece. The appearance of a vent thus enlarg- 
 ed, is irregular and angular, with its greatest diame- 
 ter in the direction of the axis of the bore. To obvi- 
 ate the serious consequences that result from this in- 
 jury Captain Dahlgren has placed in his naval guns 
 two vents, each a short distance from, and on oppo- 
 site sides of the vertical plane, passing through the 
 axis of the piece. One of them is filled with melted 
 zinc, the other is used until it becomes so much en- 
 larged as to endanger the safety of the piece ; it is 
 then fillecl with zinc, and the first one opened. 
 
 Tlie injuries arising from the action of the projec- 
 tile occur around the projectile, and in front of it. 
 They are, 1st. The Incitement. This is an indenta- 
 tion in the lower side of the bore, produced by the 
 pressure upon the ball by the escape of the gas 
 through the windage, before the ball has moved from 
 its seat. The elasiicity of the metal, and tlie burr, 
 i>r ermodlng tip, of the metal in front of the ])rojec- 
 tile, cause it to rebound, and being carried forward 
 by the force of the charge, to sfrike against the up- 
 per side of the bore, a sliort distance in front of tlie 
 trunnions. From this it is reflected agavnst tlie bot- 
 tom, and re-reflected against the top of the bore, 
 and so on until it leaves the piece. The first inden- 1 
 
 tation is called the lodgemrnt ; the other rnlargementa. 
 In pieces of ordinary length, there are generally 
 three enlargements, when this injury first makes its 
 appearance, but their number is increased as the 
 lodgement is deepened and the angle of incidence in- 
 creased. Bronze pieces are considered unservice- 
 able when the depth of the lodgement is .18 in., and 
 the depth of an enlargement is. 16 in. The effect of 
 this bounding motion, is to alternately raise and de- 
 press the piece in its trunnion-beds, and to diminish 
 the accuracy of fire, until finally, the piece becomes 
 unfit for service. It isprincipallyfrom this injury that 
 bronze guns become unserviceable. Mortars and 
 howitzers are not much affected by it. The prin- 
 cipal means used to obviate this injury, are to wrap 
 the projectile with cloth or paper (as the cylinder- 
 cap of the cartridge used with field-guns), and to 
 shift the seat of the projectile. The latter maj' be 
 done by a wad, or lengthened sabot, or by reducing 
 the diameter and increasing the length of the car- 
 tridge. The last of these methods is considered the 
 most practical as well as the most effective : and it 
 has an additional advantage of diminishing the strain 
 on the bore, by increasing the space in which the 
 charge expands before the ball can be moved. The 
 French bronze siege-guns, which formerly were ren- 
 dered unserviceable in 600 service-rounds, now en- 
 dure, by this method, 3,500 service-rounds. 2d- 
 Scratches, or furrows made upon the surface of the 
 bore by rough projectiles, or by case-shot. This is 
 not a serious injury. 3d. Cuts, made by the frag- 
 ments of projectiles which break in the bore. 4th. 
 Wearing airay of tlie lands of rifle-eamwn, especially 
 at the driving edges. 5tli. Enlargement of the muz- 
 ule, arising from the forcing outward of the metal by 
 the striking of the projectile against the side of the 
 bore, as it leaves the piece. By this action, the 
 shape of the muzzle is elongated in a vertical direc- 
 tion. 6th. Cracks on the exterior. These are formed 
 by the compression of the metal within, generally at 
 the chase, where the metal is thinnest. This por- 
 tion of a bronze-gun is the first to give way by long 
 firing, whereas, cast-iron cannon are burst in rear of 
 the trunnion, and the fracture passes through the 
 vent, if it be much enlarged. 
 
 The principal injuries to which cast-iron cannon 
 are liable are the wearing away of the metal of the 
 bore above and below the projectile, and at the in- 
 terior corners of the vent. In guns which have seen 
 much service the enlargements thus occasioned have- 
 been known to exceed one inch in both cases. It has 
 been seen that the strength of cast-iron cannon is di- 
 minished by repeated firing, and that there is a limit 
 beyond which they should not be used. For Amer- 
 ican cannon this limit has been fixed at one thousand 
 service-rounds. The number of times which an iron 
 piece has been firedmay be approximately determined 
 by the size of the bore, and vent if it be not bushed. 
 The first is taken with the "star gauge," andthesec- 
 ond by an impression in wax. Slight cracks in the 
 surfjice of the bore, particularly about the seat of the 
 charge, indicate the approaching fracture of a cast- 
 iron gun. The injuries to which wrought-iron can- 
 non are most subject, are the enlargement of the bore 
 by the extension or compression of the metal around 
 it, and the rapid enlargement of slight cracks and 
 cavities bv the fiame of the powder. See Cannon. 
 
 INLYING PICKET.— A body of infantry or cavalry 
 in camiiaign. detailed to march, if called upon, and 
 hell! ready for that purpose in camp or <iuarterg 
 
 INNER. — Tlie name given toa certain part ofatar- 
 gct. A shot striking in this space (a circular ring)' 
 on the Creedmoor target counts!). On fheregulation 
 target, the smallest circle, always i>ainled black, is 
 called the bull's-eye; the ring embraced between the 
 bull's-eye and the circumference of the next larger 
 circle is called t he ivv/iiv; I lie ring bet ween the. second 
 and third circles is called the inner; and the space 
 outside the larger circle is called the onte^r. In the 
 target represented on next page, the space between
 
 INNER FLANK. 
 
 1U7 
 
 INSPECTION. 
 
 tlio sorond firclr and tlic vcrlirnl lines is the inner, 
 iuhI I lie s|i:i(i' (iiilsiilc llic viTliciil linr'M is tlic iiiitir. 
 
 INNER FLANK. Tluit wliirli is iiciircr tlii' point, 
 on wliicli a line rests, or wliifli is farllicr frniii lliir 
 enemy. In drill, it is always tliat Hank which is 
 nearer Ihi; [Kiiiit fnuM whiih the line is dressed. 
 
 INNISKILLINERS.— Ill Ihe British service, officers 
 
 and soldiers of tlie Sixth Draj^oons and the Twenty- 
 seventh Foot ; so called from tlu'two i-et;iments hav- 
 insj; been ori};iually raised at Inniskillen, a town of 
 Ulster, where the iidiabilants distinijnished them- 
 selves in favor of Kinj; William against James II. 
 Often written EaniKkiilinern. 
 
 INROAD.— The entrance of an enemy into a conn- 
 try with purposes of hostility ; a s\idden or desultory 
 incursion or invasion; encroacliment, notwithstand- 
 ing elTorls to prevent it. 
 
 INSCONCED. — In the military art, when any part of 
 an army has fortified itself with a sconce, or small 
 work, ill order to defend some pass, etc., it is said to 
 be insconeed. Ensconce signifies in a general sense 
 to cover as with a fort. 
 
 INSPECTION. — Divisions and brigades are inspect- 
 ed between the fifteenth and twentieth of eacli month 
 by inspecting officers designated for the purpose. 
 Tlie Commanders of regiments and posts make an in- 
 spect ion of their commands on the last day of ('very 
 month. Captains inspect their companies every Sun- 
 day morning, and no soldier is excused from Sunday 
 inspection e.xeept the guard, the sick, and the neces- 
 sary attendants in the hospital. Medical oflicers hav- 
 ing" charge of hospitals make a thorough inspection 
 of tliem every Sunday morning. Troops are inspect- 
 ed when mustered for payment. liesid.es these in- 
 spections, frequent visits are made during the month 
 by the Commanding Officer, company and medical 
 officers, to the men's quarters, the hospital, guard- 
 house, etc. Except when otherwise specially pro- 
 vided for by the Secretary of War or the General of 
 the Army, every militarj-post, station, and command 
 in the Army is inspected at least once every year by Di- 
 vision or Department Inspectors, under the direction 
 of their respective Commanders. In addition to these 
 inspections, post, station, and other permanent Com- 
 manders, between the first and fifth days of Septem- 
 ber in each year, make thorough inspections of their 
 respective commands, and forward reports thereof, 
 through the proper military channels, to the Inspec- 
 tor General's Office, at the Headquarters of the Army, 
 so as to reach that office not later than October 1st. 
 These reports do not interfere or dispense with those 
 of the inspecting officers. 
 
 inspections are made under specific orders clearly 
 defining their object, which will be exhibited to the 
 officers whose troops or atTairs are to be examined. 
 Commanding Officers are to see that every facility is 
 afforded for such examination. Inspectors give or- 
 ders only when specially authorized to do so : and 
 then give them in the name of the officer authorizing 
 it. They must report with strict impartiality all ir- 
 regularities. They should refrain from informal con- 
 versation on the subjects of investigation, and from 
 all expression of approval or disapprobaticm. In- 
 spectors take care that no injustice be done to organ- 
 
 i'zations or individuals by reports not fully sustained 
 by tliorough personal exainiiiation. I'l-fore leaving 
 aeomniand, the Inspi-ctorpublii'ly informs the troops 
 that opportunity will be given any soldier to lay be- 
 fore him a well-groundeil complaint without any of 
 his oflicers being present. 
 
 The spheri' of inquiry of Inspectors gener- 
 ally includes every branch of military affairs, 
 and whr'tliir tlie military laws and regula- 
 tions are fully complied with. In specific 
 cases, it is defined and limited l)y Ihe onlers 
 they receive. Generally, ri |)ort is made as 
 to zeal and ability of C'ommanding Offlcerfl, 
 and whethertliey possess the requisite profes- 
 sional knowledge for Ihe proper exercise of 
 Iheir conunand ; whetlier they preserve liar- 
 mony and unanimity in the command, and 
 observe the .system of instruction anil treat- 
 ment of subordinates enjoined by Ihe ]{eiru- 
 lations; wlnMher the officers are properly in- 
 structed and efficient. Special reportis also 
 to be mad(^ in case of any officer of inlem 
 ]ierate or immoral habits, or who has proper asso- 
 soeiates. or who is addicted to gaming, or is unfit 
 for active service by infirmity or any other cause; 
 whether the number of men in ranks at inspection 
 Corresponds with the returns, and how absentees are 
 accounted for; whether the band exceeds the au- 
 thorized numl)er, and any nun not musicians are 
 mustered with it ; as to Ihe discipline, military ap- 
 pearance, and bearing of Ihe troops; their instruc- 
 tion in all military exercises and duties; the nature 
 and frequency of exercises and recitations in tactics; 
 the target practice; whether they are practiced in 
 marching with the full kit ; the slate of their batter- 
 ies, or arms, equipments, and siccouternients of all 
 kinds; Ihe sufficiency, uniformity, and fit of their 
 clothing ; when the troops were last paid, and, if 
 payment be deferred, the cause of delay. 
 
 In the inspection of a post, it shoukl be reported 
 when and by whom the post was last inspected ; 
 whether it lie sufficiently garrisoned, and the arm.a- 
 iiient and supplies of all kinds sufiicient in kind and 
 quantity; the strength of the garrison and its arma- 
 ment ; whether the Commanding Officer is familiar 
 with the design and capacity for defense of the work, 
 the ground in its vicinity, and Ihe principles of de- 
 fense of fortified places ; in case of frontier and sea- 
 coast forts, whether the Conini;uiders understand and 
 liroperly execute the laws relating loneutrality, quar- 
 antine, etc., and the regulations prescribing interna- 
 tional courtesy ; as to the cleanliness, stale of repair, 
 and sanitary condition of barracks and quarters ; as 
 to Ihe kitchens and messes, Ihe sufficiency, variety, 
 and preparation of food ; of the guard-house, prisons, 
 bake-house ; of the hospital, and whether the sick are 
 properly cared for ; of the stables, harness, means of 
 transportation and animals, the number unservicea- 
 ble ; in the case of Cavalry and Artillery horses, as 
 to their grooming, shoeing, veteriniiry treatment, and 
 general condition; as to the capacity of the officers 
 conducting the Administrative and Staff services. the 
 fidelity and economy of their disbursements, and 
 whether payments and issues are made strictly in ac- 
 cordance with law and the Kegulations. The regu- 
 larity of issues and pavmenis; whether supplies re- 
 ported on hand are verified ; whether the labor of Ihe 
 supply departments is performed by troops orljy civ- 
 ilians. If by civilians, their number, the cost", and 
 reasons in justification of their employaiient ; as to 
 the condition of all public property and stores, and 
 whether any is used for private purposes; whether 
 buildings and property are properly secured against 
 fire, theft, exposure, and damage ; whether forage, 
 wood, and Subsistence supplies are properly protect- 
 ed and under sentinels ; as to the neighboring Indian 
 tribes, their numVier, disposition, and other informa- 
 tion useful in a military view ; as to Ihe population, 
 resources, routes, and means of travel, etc., of the 
 surrounding countrj-.
 
 IK8PECTI0N ABMS. 
 
 lOH 
 
 INSPECTION OF OBDNANCE. 
 
 u 
 
 INSPECTION ARMS. — A command in tlic Manual 
 of Arms, directing that tlie piece be placed in a pre- 
 scribed position, preparatory to its inspection. The 
 movement is executed as follows : The recruits be- 
 ing at order arms, bayonets fixed, the Instructor com- 
 mands — 
 
 1. Inspection, 3. Arms. 
 
 Commencing on the right, the Instructor inspects 
 the pieces in succession. Each recruit, as the In- 
 structor approaches him, tosses his piece quickly 
 ■with the right hand opposite the left eye, 
 catching it with the left hand between the 
 rear-sight and the lower band, the thumb 
 extended along the stock, the barrel to 
 the right, and inclined slightly to the 
 front, the hand at the heiglit of the chin; 
 he then passes his right hand quickly to 
 the lock, placing the thumb on the ham- 
 mer, the elbow raised as high as the hand, 
 the fingers, closed together, extending in 
 front of loek. (Two.) The recruit press- 
 es tl'.e thumb on the hammer, lowering 
 the elbow at the same time, and brings 
 the hammer to the half-cock ; then drops 
 the right hand by the side ; the Instruct- 
 or takes the piece with the right hand at 
 the small of the stock(the recruit dropping 
 the left hand by the side), inspects, and 
 hands it back to the recruit, who receives 
 it with the left hand in the position pre- 
 scribed in the first motion, passes his right 
 hand, as before, to the hammer, and the fore-finger 
 to the trigger, which he pulls, at the same time press- 
 ing the hammer downward to free it from the half- 
 cock notch, thus bringing the hammer to the safety- 
 notch; the piece is then lowered with the left hand, 
 seized near the middle band with the right, and 
 brought to the position of ardn: As the Instructor 
 returns the piece, the recruit next on the left throws 
 up his piece to the position of inspectiim, and so 
 throughout the squad. Should the piece be inspect- 
 ed without handling, the recruit resumes the «;■(/<»• as 
 the Inspector passes to the next man, who immedi- 
 atelv tosses vip liis piece. 
 
 INSPECTION MARKS.— All cannon are required to 
 be weiglied. and to be marked as follows, viz.: the 
 number of the gun, the hiitialx of the Iiiitpecpy>-\': name, 
 on the face of the muzzle — the numbers in a separate 
 series, for each kind and caliber at each foundry ; 
 the initial letters of the name of t\\e founder and the 
 foundry, on the end of the right tnmnion; the i/ear 
 of fabrication, on the end of the left trunnion ; the 
 foundry number, on tlie end of the right rimbase, 
 above the trunnion; the ireig/it of the piece in poii nds. 
 on the base of the breech ; the letters U. S., on the 
 upper surface of the piece, near the end of the rein- 
 force. The natural line of sight, when the axis of the 
 trunnions is horizontal, should be marked on the base- 
 ring and on the swell of the muzzle, whilst the piece 
 is in tlie trunnion-lathe. Cannon rejected on inspec- 
 tion, are marked XC, on the face of the muzzle ; if 
 condemned for erroneous dimensions which cannot 
 be remedied, add XD ; if by powder-proof, XP ; if 
 by water-proof, XW. Converted guns are marked 
 as follows : The number of the gun J the weight if the 
 piece inpounds ; the initials (f the Inspector'' s name, and 
 that of Ww foundry whirethegunis convirted, and the 
 year of the concersion on the face of the tube, in ;i circle 
 concentric with the bore, in letters and figures at least 
 one inch long, Tlie initials of the foundn/ irhire the 
 tubeismrule, and the nuiiiliirof tlie tube, in small type, 
 on the face of the tube, under the initials of the" In- 
 spector. The results of all final measurements and 
 examinations arc noted on the inspection report of 
 the gun. See I iisperlion nf Ordnance. 
 
 INSPECTION OF ACCOUNTS. -The Inspections of 
 Disbursing < >tlicers' accounts, which arc nciuirrd liy 
 law. are ;iiade{iuarterly, or four times within the year, 
 with a reasonalile interval between any two e.\ami- 
 nations. Division and Department Commanders usu- 
 
 ally provide for the inspection of Disbursing Officers' 
 accounts through the Inspectors attached to their 
 headquarters, or by detail of suitable oflicers within 
 their commands for the purpose. The law provides, 
 in regard to Inspection of Accounts, " that no officer 
 so detailed shall be in any way connected with the 
 Department or Corps making the disbursement." 
 The Inspector makes a minute and thorough inspec- 
 tion of the accounts of Disbursing Officers, and com- 
 pares the result in each case with the officer's bal- 
 ance at his place of deposit ; and each Inspector is 
 held responsible for any defalcation or misapplication 
 of the public money or property which may occur 
 witliin the command to which he is assigned that an 
 active visilance on his part niicht have detected. 
 
 INSPECTION OF CONDEMNED PROPERTY.— In- 
 spectors are the only officers authorized to inspect 
 public property with a view to condemnation. The 
 final disposition of condemned property, except it be 
 worthless, can only be ordered by Commanding Gen- 
 erals of Departments. All surveys and reports hav- 
 ing in view the condemnation of public property, for 
 whatever cause, should be made by Inspector Gen- 
 erals, or Inspectors specially designated by the Com- 
 mander of a Department or an army in the field, or 
 by higher authority. Such surveys and reports hav- 
 ing a different object from those of Boards of Sur- 
 vey, are required independently of any preliminary 
 action of a Board on the same matter. 
 
 An officer commanding a Department, or an army 
 in the field, may give orders, on the report of autho- 
 rized Inspectors, to sell, destroy, or'make such other 
 disposition of any condemned property as the case 
 may require — ordnance and ordnance stores alone 
 excepted, for which the orders of the War Depart- 
 ment must always be taken. But if the propert}- be 
 of very considerable value, and there should be reason 
 to suppose that it could be advantageously applied 
 or disposed of elsewhere than within his command, 
 he should refer the matter to the Chief of the Staff 
 Department to which it belongs, for the orders of the 
 War Department. No other persons than those above 
 designated, or the General-in-Chief, can order the final 
 disposition of condemned property, saving only in the 
 case of horses, which should be killed at once to pre- 
 vent contagion, and of provisions or other storcs-which 
 are rapidly deteriorating, when the immediate Com- 
 mander may have to act perforce. Inventories of 
 condemned property are made in triplicate, one to be 
 retained by the person accountable, one to accompany 
 his accounts, and one to be forwarded through the 
 Department, or other superior headquarters, to the 
 (Jhief of the Staff Department to which the property 
 belongs. 
 
 Officers inspecting public property cause the de- 
 struction, in their presence, of all property found to 
 be worthless, and which is %vithout any money value 
 at the place of inspection. The action of an Inspect- 
 or, on property of this character, is final, and his in- 
 spect ion report on the same is a valid voiicher for the 
 officer responsible for the property. In the discharge 
 of the duty devolved upon Inspectors in this regula- 
 tion, they are regarded as answerable that their ac- 
 tion is proper and judicious according to the circum- 
 stances of the case. Unserviceable arms and stores 
 will be inspected and disposed of in like manner with 
 other jiroperty. Tlieir.w^f can he ordered by the Scc- 
 rcl:irv of War onlv. 
 
 INSPECTION OF ORDNANCE.— The objects of in- 
 sjiecting cannon are to verify their dimi'nsions, par- 
 ticularly those which alTect the accuracy of fire, and 
 the relation of the piece to its carriage, and to detect 
 any defects of metal and workmanship, that would 
 be likely to impair their strength and endurance. 
 Smooth-bore cannon ])resented for inspect ion and 
 ))roof are placed on skids for llic convenience of turn- 
 ing and nidviiig Iheiii easily. Tliey are first examined 
 carefully on tlie exterior to ascertain wlietlier there 
 be any flaws or cracks iu the metal, wlmther they be 
 finished as prescribed, and to judge, us well as prac-
 
 INSPECTION OF POWDEB. 
 
 101) 
 
 INSPECnON OF POWDEB. 
 
 tical)lc, of the (|uiility of llio metal. They must not 
 lie coviTcd witli piiinl. lacUiT, or any other eoinjiosi- 
 tion. If it l)e ascertained tliat an alternpt lias hi-en 
 niadi' to eoneeal any flaws oreavilies hy phiLCiriiifj; or 
 fillini; I hem with cemenl or any sulistanre, the i;iin is 
 rejeeled without further e.vandnation. After this ])rc- 
 liminary examination, the Insjiector proceeds to veri- 
 fy the dimensions of the piece. The interior of the 
 bore is first examined by rellectini; the sim's rays in- 
 to it from tlie mirror, or, if the sun heohscured, liya 
 liirhled ("indic ora lump jjlaced on the end of a rod and 
 inserted into tlu' hore. The cylinder-),;aui;e screw- 
 ed on the stair is then pushed i^eiitly to the bottom 
 of the cylindrical pari of the bore and withdrawn ; it 
 must go to the bottom or the bore is too snnill. The 
 bore of tlie piece is then measured with the star- 
 eautje, bcijinning at liotlom. Measurements should 
 be made at intervals of | inch to tlie front of seat of 
 shot, and at intervals of 1 inch from that point to the 
 niu/zlc. In rilled nuns the measuri'iucnts are taken 
 from land to land, and afterwards from f^roove to 
 groove, the head of the star-gauge being fitted with 
 the suitable "guide" to insure the proper position of 
 the measuring points. The position of the trunnions 
 with regard to the axis of the bore and to each other 
 is next ascertained. To verify the position of the axis 
 of the trunnions, set the lrunnion-S(|uare on the trun- 
 nions, and see that the lower edges of its branches 
 toueii them throughout their whole length; push the 
 slide down till it touches the surface of the piece, 
 and secure it in that position by the thumb-screw; 
 turn the gun over, and apply the trtmnion-square to 
 the opposite side, and if, when the |)oint of the slide 
 touches the surface of the piece, the lower edges of 
 the branches rest on the trunnions, the axis of the 
 trunnions is in the same plane with the axis of the 
 bore; if they do not touch the trunnions, their axis 
 is above the axis of the bore by half the space be- 
 tween; and if the edges touch the trunnions and the 
 point of the slide does not touch the surface of the 
 piece, their axis is below the axis of the bore. If the 
 alignment of the trunnions be accurate, the edges of 
 the trunnion-square will tit on them when applied 
 to different parts of their surface; their diameter and 
 cylindrical form and the diameter of the rimbases 
 are verified with the trunnion-gauge. To ascertain 
 the length of the bore, screw the guide-plate and 
 measuriug-poiut ou the cylinder-staff and push them 
 to the bottom of the bore; place a half-tompion in 
 the muzzle and rest the stafi in its groove; apply a 
 straight-edge to the face of the muzzle and read the 
 length of tlie liore on the staff. The exterior lengths 
 are measured by the rule or by a profile, the accuracy 
 of which is first verified; the exterior diameters are 
 measured with the calipers and graduated by a rule. 
 The position of the interior orifice of tlie vent is found 
 from the mark made on the rammer-head by the 
 vent-gauge inserted in the vent, while the rammer- 
 head is held against the bottom of the bore. Two 
 impressions are taken. The position of the e.xterior 
 orifice of the vent is also verified. The vent is exam- 
 ined with gauges, and the vent-searcher is to a.scer- 
 tain if there are any cavities in it. All smooth-bore 
 bronze ordnance should be bored under size from .04 
 to .05 inch, and, after proof, reamed out to the exact 
 caliber. Whitish spots show a separation of the tin 
 from the copper, and. if extensive, should condemn 
 the piece. A great variation from the true weight, 
 which the dimensions do not account for, shows a 
 defect in the alloy. In mortars, the dimensions of 
 the chambers and the form of the breech may be ver- 
 ified with patterns made of plate-iron. After the 
 powder proof the hore is washed and wiped clean, 
 and the bore and vent are again examined, and the 
 bore reraeasnred. The results of each of the meas- 
 nremeuts and examinations arc noted on the inspec- 
 tion report against the ntmiber of the gun. A proper 
 discretion must be e.xcrcised in the inspection of ord- 
 nance ; such slight imperfections as do not injure a 
 piece for service may be disregarded, whilst tlie in- 
 
 structions should Tie strictly enforced witli regard to 
 defi'cis which may impair its utility. 
 
 The duties of the inspection of converted gnnscom- 
 mciicit Willi the imc]itioM of the work, and themost 
 important are perforiiicil before the gun is complet- 
 ed. The breech-cup is verified by the steel templet 
 before it is screwed into |)lacc. 'f he different shoul- 
 ders and the shape and [litch of screw-threads are 
 similarly gaugeil before the [larts are united; diame- 
 ters of tubes are verified, and the base of the tube 
 and recess for the muzzle-collar before the insertion. 
 The dimensions of the casing are also proven. When 
 the gun is presented for final inspection it is placed 
 horizontally on the skids, and inspected as explained 
 above for smooth-liore cannon. 
 
 That the finished bore of a bronze piece may not be 
 injured liy the proof-charge, it is bored out under 
 size, from .04 to .Or> inch, and, after proof, reamed 
 out to the true size. When the powder-proof is fin- 
 ished, the bore should be cleaned and examined ; the 
 vent should be stopped up with a greased wooden 
 plug, the muzzle raised, -and the gun filled with water, 
 to which pressure should be applied to force it into 
 any cavities that exist; or the water should he allowed 
 to remain in the bore twenty-four hours. The bore 
 must then be sponged dry and clean, and viewed with 
 a mirror or candle, to discover if any water oozes 
 from cracks or cavities, and also, if any enlargement 
 has taken place. The (piantity that runs out of a 
 crack or honey-comb will indicate the extent of the 
 defect ; and if it exceed a few drops, the piece should 
 be rejected, although the measured depth of the cav- 
 ity may not exceed the allowance. After the bore has 
 been reamed out to its proper size, its dimensions are 
 again verified, and an examination of the bore and 
 vent is made, to detect any defects which may have 
 been caused or developed hv the proof. \Vhitish 
 spots show a separation of the tin from the copper, 
 and. if extensive, .should condemn the piece. A great 
 variation from the true weight which the dimensions 
 do not account for, .shows a defect in the alloy. 
 
 Bronze cannon should be rejected for the "follow- 
 ing sized cavities or honey-combs : Exterlitr. Any 
 hole or cavity 0.2.5 in. deep in front of the trunnions, 
 andO.3 in. deep ator behind the trunnions. InUrii/r. 
 From the muzzle to the reinforce, any cavity 0.1.5 
 in. deep. Any cavity from the reinforce to bottom 
 of the bore. In all other respects, the inspection of 
 cast-iron and bronze cannon are alike. See Calipers, 
 CMcabel-hhck, Chnmbir-gavge, Cylinder-gmige, Dhk, 
 Impression-taker, Measuring-staff, Mirror, Profile, 
 boards. Proof of Ordnance, Rammer-head, Searcher, 
 Star-gauge, Template, Trunnion-gauge, Trunnion, 
 rule. Trunnion-square, Vent-gauges, Vent-guide, and 
 Vent-searcher. 
 
 INSPECTION OF POWDER.— The Inspector of gun- 
 powder should satisfy himself before its reception as 
 to the purity of the" ingredients employed by the 
 manufacturer, and that their proper preparation and 
 careful manipulation through all the various stages of 
 manufacture have been rigidly observed. Before pow- 
 der for the military service is received from the man- 
 ufacturer, it is inspected and proved. For this pur- 
 pose at least 60 barrels are thoroughly mixed togeth- 
 er. One barrel of this is proved. Musket powder 
 should be fired three rounds with service charges. 
 Jlortar and cannon powder should be fired three 
 rounds with heaviest charges in a field and siege-gun 
 respectively. Mammoth, hexagonal, cubicah pris- 
 matic, or other special powders, three rounds with 
 battering charges from guns in which these powders 
 are to be used. The density and granulation of the 
 powder, as well as the velocity and pressure obtained 
 in its proof, should conform to the Ordnance Regu- 
 lation in these respects, for the particular service or 
 ])iecc for which the powder is required, within the 
 allowed limits of variation. 
 
 Gunpowder should be of an even-sized grain.angu- 
 lar and irregular in form, without sharp comers, and 
 very hard. When new. it should leave no trace of
 
 INSPECTION OF PROJECTILES. 
 
 110 
 
 INSPECTION OF PBOJECTILZS: 
 
 dJst when poured on the back of the hand, and when 
 flashed in quantities of 10 grains on copper plate it 
 shouhl k'ave no bead or foulness. Itsliould give tlie 
 required initial velocity to the ball, and not more 
 than the ma.ximuni jjressure on the gun, and should 
 absorb but little moisture from the air. 
 
 The size of the grain is tested by standard sieves 
 made of sheet brass pierced with round holes. Two 
 sieves are used for each kind of powder, Nos. 1 and 
 2 for musket, 3 and 4 for mortar, 5 and 6 for cannon 
 and 7 and 8 for mammoth powder. 
 
 A compact shape of grain approaching the cube or 
 sphere, is desirable. Elongated Hat scales are objec- 
 tionable. The number of grains in the several weigh- 
 ed samples should be counted. 
 
 Diam. of hoIe9formiisket-po\vdcr..No. 1, 0.0.3in. ; No.2,0.06in. 
 Diam. of holes for mortar-powder. ..No. 3, 0. 10 in. ; No. 4. 0.2.5 in. 
 Diam. of hole6forcannon-powder..No. 5,0.85in.; No. 6, 0.50 in. 
 Diam. of holes for mammoth-powderNo. 7, 0.75 in. ; No. 8, 0.90 in 
 
 Hexagonal,) Dimensions of these powders vary with the caliber 
 Cubical, }- of the gun in which they are ufed, and have not as 
 Prismatic, i yet been definitely determined upon in our service. 
 
 Gravimetric density is the weight of a given mea- 
 sured quantity. It is usually expressed by tlie weight 
 of a cubic foot in ounces. This cannot be relied upon 
 for the true density when accuracyisdesired, as the 
 shape of the grain may make the denser powder seem 
 the lighter. Its only value is a fair idea of the value 
 of air space in a given weight. The specific gravity 
 of gunpowder varies from' 1. 0.5 to 1.8. It is import- 
 anfthat it should be determined with accuracy. Al- 
 cohol and water saturated with saltpeter have been 
 used for this purpose ; but they do not furnish accu- 
 rate results. Mercury only is to be relied upon. Hard- 
 ness is tested by breaking tlie grains between the lin- 
 gers ; the hardness is judged of by experience. It 
 is very necessary that the density or specific gravity 
 of the powder should be most accurately deterinined. 
 For this delicate operation a very ingenious instru- 
 ment has been devised by Colonel Jlallet, of the 
 French Army, called a ]\Iercury Densimeter. 
 
 Initial velocity is determined by any of the elec- 
 tro-ballistic machines available ; the Boulenge chro- 
 nograph is one of the simplest and most generally 
 used for proof of powder. The strain upon the 
 gun is determined by the Kodman pressure-gauge, 
 or some suitable contrivance. The amount of mois- 
 ture in powder is determined by drying samples in 
 an oven with a water bottom. A vessel of tin, dou- 
 ble-walled, except the face containing the door, is 
 fitted at the top with an opening for the introduction 
 of water ; the door is double ; the inner skin-lining 
 has perforations at the top to allow the escape of 
 moisture given up by the powder. Ledges on the 
 Inside of the oven support the powder-trays. Before 
 use, the water space is filled with boiling water ; a 
 spirit lamp keeps up the heat ; the supply of water 
 is kept up to compensate for evaporation. The pow- 
 der is subjected to heat as long as it loses weight, the 
 loss indicating the percentage of moisture driven off. 
 On being removed from the oven it should be trans- 
 ferred at once to perfectly clean, dry, and air-tight 
 weigliing bottles. The ability to resist moisture is 
 determined by subjecting samples which have been 
 dried to exposure, first in open air. then in a hygro- 
 scope containing a solution of niter at 100*^ cooled to 
 80" Fahr. 
 
 On breaking the grains, a fine ashen-gray color 
 throuffliout slinuld appear; the grain texture should 
 be close, without white specks even when magnified. 
 " Flashing" on glass or porcelain plates, small cop- 
 per measures for fine-grain powders inverted on the 
 plates, keeps the heap nearly the same at each trial. 
 The powder should be in small conical lieaps; if the 
 incorporation is good, only smoke marks remain on 
 the i)lale after Hashing; if b;i(i, specks of undecompos- 
 ed niter and sidpliur will form a dirty residue. The 
 test re(|uires experirnce to insure good judgment. 
 The relative incorporation is determined by llie bal- 
 ance; the greater increase of weight on the plale, 
 the less satisfactory the powder in this respect. Moist 
 
 powder flashes badly. The report of inspection should 
 show the place and date of fabrication and of proof, 
 the kind of powder and its general qualities, as the 
 number of grains in 100 grains, its specific gravity; 
 whether hard or soft, round or angular, of uniform 
 or irregular size; whether free from dust or not; the 
 initial velocities and pressures per square inch obtain- 
 ed in each fire; the amount of moisture absorbed; and, 
 finally, the height of the barometer and hygrometer 
 at the time of proof. Each barrel is marked on both 
 heads, (in white oil-colors, the head painted black), 
 with the number of the barrel, the name of the manu- 
 facturer, year of fabrication, and the kind of powder, 
 cannon, mortar, or muxket, etc., the mean initial ve- 
 locity, the pressure per square inch on the pressure- 
 piston, and density. Each time the powder is prov- 
 ed, the initial velocity is marked below the former 
 proofs, and the date of the trial opposite to it. See 
 Analysis of Puicdir, Densimeter, Qwnpowder , anA. Hy- 
 groscope. 
 
 INSPECTION OF PROJECTILES. — The principal 
 points to be observed in inspecting shot and shells are 
 to see that they are of the properform and size ; that 
 they are made of suitable metal; and that they have 
 no defects, concealed or otherwise, which will en- 
 danger their use, or impair the accuracy of their fire. 
 As it is impracticable to make all projectiles of exact 
 dimensions, certain variations are allowed in faijric- 
 ation. They should be inspected whilst perfectly 
 clean, and before becoming rustj', so that flaws and 
 imperfections in the metal can be detected by the eye. 
 
 Sphfrical Projectiles. — The inspecting instruments 
 required for shot are one large and one svuill 
 gauge and one cylindrical-gauge for each caliber. The 
 C}'linder-gauge has the same diameter as the large 
 gauge; it is Constructed of cast-iron and is five calibers 
 long. The large and small gauges are made with a 
 diflerence in diameter of 0.02 inch for projectiles 
 turned in a lathe, and 0.04 inch for those not so turn- 
 ed. All these gauges should be verified from time to 
 time, and when they have become 0.01 inch larger 
 than their true diameter they should no longer be 
 used. One hammer having a flat face and a conical 
 point. One swrc/KT of steel wire. One. cold-chisel. Steel 
 punches. Figure-stai7ips. 
 
 The shot should be inspected before they become 
 rusty; after being well cleaned each shot should be 
 carefully examined to see that its surface is smooth, 
 that the metal is sound and free from seams, flaws, 
 and blisters. If cavities or small holes appear on 
 the surface, strike the point of the hammer or punch 
 into them and ascertain their depth with the searcher; 
 if the depth of the cavity exceeds 0.2 inch, the shot 
 should be rejected. The discovery of any attempt on 
 the part of those engaged in the fabrication of the 
 shot to conceal such defects by filling up the holes 
 should insure rejection. The shot must pass in every 
 direction through the large gauge and not at all 
 through the small one, and the mean of their diame- 
 ters should be nearer that of the former gauge than 
 of the latter. 
 
 After having been thus examined, the shot are 
 passed through the cylinder-gauge, which is placed 
 at an inclination of about two inches between the 
 two ends, and supported on blocks of wood in such 
 a manner as to be easily turned from time to time to 
 prevent its being worn into furrows. Shot which sisrfe 
 or stick in the cylinder sliould be rejected. The avJ 
 erage weight of shot of 10 inches and under is de- 
 duced from that of three parcels of 20 to ."iO each, 
 taken indiscriminately from the pile ; some of those 
 which appear to be the smallest shouldbe also weigh- 
 ed, and if they fall short of the prescribed weight of 
 their caliber by more than one thirty-second |>art, 
 they should be rejected. Shot of larger caliber than 
 10 inches should each one be weighed by itself and 
 its weight stamped upon it near one of the ears for 
 the shell-hooks. 
 
 The dimensi(ms of grape an<l canister shot are ver- 
 ified by means of a large and small gauge attached
 
 IKSPECTION OF PKOJECTILES. 
 
 Hi 
 
 INSPECTION OF PE0JECTILE8. 
 
 to the sumo IiiiikHc. Tlic surface of tlie shot sliould 
 be sinciiilli mill free from seams and cavities. For 
 tlie inspection of sIk'IIs and case-sliot, tlie followinj; 
 inspeclim; inslrumenls are recjiiircd in addition to 
 those used in iiispeclinii shot, viz: Ciilipi'm for meas- 
 uring Ihetldclcness of the iirojectiles at tlie side. Cal- 
 ijiera for nieasurini; the thickness at llio bottom. 
 Gijnf/r.i for the dimensions of the fuse-hole, and for 
 the thicUness of metal at the fuse-hole. A pitir of 
 ]iiiii(l.lu'll.irwK; iriHidi a pliii/H to fit (he fuse-liohr and 
 liored Ihrouirli to receive the niu/zlcr of the liellows. 
 The surface of the shell and its exterior dimen- 
 .sions are examined as in the case of shot, particular 
 atleiition being paid to the lieniisphere opposite the 
 
 I other inrlitationof the soundneHsof the metal, as the 
 parts ciintainirif; cavities will dry more slowly than 
 the other ])arts. Tin; mian weight of shells of 10 
 inches and under is ascertained in the same manner 
 as that of shot, and larger ones should be weighed 
 and stamped the same as with shot of like caliber. 
 All projectiles rejected in the inspection should be 
 marked with an X made with a cold-chisel; on shot 
 near the gale; or, whin turnr-il, near one ear, and on 
 hollow projectiles near the fuse-hole. 
 
 FAiniiidUd I'rojectUfK — The following Table will 
 show tlie [Kiints upon which the Inspecting Officer 
 must inform himself and report before accepting 
 shot, and the variations he is authorized to allow: 
 
 Suljject of measurement. 
 
 Projectile : 
 
 Leru^th of cylindrical portion of body 
 
 Lengt h of 1 1 ead 
 
 Length of base for sabot 
 
 Total length of projectile -: 
 
 Diameter of cylindrical portion 
 
 Diameter of base over threads 
 
 Pitch of threads 
 
 Radius of head 
 
 Thiickness of bottom 
 
 Length of interior cavity 
 
 Thickness of walls at — inches from — 
 Tliiekness of walls at — inches from — 
 Eccentricity of axis of interior cavity 
 
 at from base 
 
 Diameter of fuse (or screw-plug) hole. 
 Pitch of thread on fuse (or screw-plug 
 
 hole) 
 
 Length of thread on fuse (or screw 
 
 plug) hole 
 
 Diameter of hole for shell-hooks 
 
 Depth of hole for shell-hooks 
 
 Distance from base of i)rojectile 
 
 Weight of projectile, pounds 
 
 Sabot : 
 
 Height of sabot 
 
 Exterior diameter of sabot 
 
 Interior diameter of sabot 
 
 Jlaxinuim thickness of outer lip 
 
 Minimum tliiekness of outer lip 
 
 Depth of cannelure 
 
 Maximum width 
 
 Weight of sabot 
 
 Weight of sabot and projectile, poimds 
 
 Allowed 
 variations 
 
 ±0.4 
 
 J-0. 5 
 -t- 15 
 _ . 1 
 ±0.3 
 ± .01 
 
 
 ± .05 
 
 . 1 
 ± .1 
 
 0.1 
 ± .01 
 
 No. rejected for errone- 
 ous dimensions of head. 
 
 ± 
 ± 
 ± 
 ± 
 ± 
 
 ± 
 ± 
 ± 
 ± 
 ± 
 ± 
 ± 
 
 No. of 
 
 amined. 
 
 inch 
 
 No. rejected for erroneous 
 dimensions of cylindric 
 body or base 
 
 Weight of total number ac- 
 cepted 
 
 Mean weight of projectile. 
 
 No. of sabots examined... 
 
 No rejected for erroneous j^o. of sabots rejected for 
 dimensions of mterior erroneous dimensions- 
 cavity 
 
 No. rejected for eccentri- 
 city of interior cavity... 
 
 No. rejected for defects in 
 material or finish 
 
 , 1 
 ,01 
 , 05 
 02' Total number rejected..., 
 
 is 
 
 No. sabots rejected for de- 
 fects in material or finish 
 
 Total number of sabots re- 
 jected 
 
 , 02 
 ,03 
 
 .Oil 
 . 01 
 
 . oi! 
 
 .03' 
 .01 
 
 Total number accepted.. 
 
 No. of sabots accepted — 
 
 Weiglit of heaviest one ac- 
 cepted 
 
 ± .2 
 
 Weight of lightest one ac- 
 cepted 
 
 Weight of total number ac- 
 cepted 
 
 Mean weight of sabot.. 
 
 Weight of total number of 
 sliotaiid sabots accepted 
 
 fuse-hole. Cavities and imperfections in casting are 
 generally found about SC^ from the top of the shell 
 when in the position in which it was cast. Shells 
 should be rejected for rough casting, projecting 
 seams, sand-Haws, a collection of dross, cavities or 
 honey-combs of more than two-tenths of an inch in 
 depth, whatever their diameter, or a number of small 
 holes giving the projectiles a spongy appearance. 
 
 The shell is next struck with the hammer to judge 
 by the sound whether it be free from cracks ; the po- 
 sition and dimensions of the ears are vcritied. The 
 thickness of the metal is then measured at several 
 points on the great circle perpendicular to the axis 
 of the fuse-hole. The diameter of the fuse-hole, 
 which should be accurately reamed, is then verified, 
 and the soundness of the metal about the inside of 
 the hole is ascertained by inserting the finger. 
 
 The shell is now placed upon a trivet in a tub con- 
 taining water deep enough to cover it nearly to the 
 fuse-hole: the bellows and plug are inserted into the 
 fuse-hole, and the air forced well into the shell. If 
 there be any holes in the shell, the air will rise in 
 bubbles tlirough the water. Tliis test also gives an- 
 
 The following instruments are required and used 
 as indictated : 
 
 1. One large ring-gauge, witli handle : interior di- 
 ameter 0".03 less than the diameter of Ijore of gun. 
 
 2. One small ring-gauge, with handle ; interior 
 diameter O'.OT less than the diameter of bore of gun. 
 
 3. One cylinder-gauge made of cast-iron and five 
 calibers in length ; interior diameter same as large 
 ring. 
 
 4. Calipers for measuring the thickness of the walls 
 of the shot or shell and determining the eccentricity. 
 
 j This instrument consists of two parallel arms, foriii- 
 
 j ed by a continuous steel strap. One arm is terminated 
 by a curved point, and is graduated into inches and 
 
 ! quarters, from the end toward the center; the other 
 arm carries a socket, at right angles to its length, 
 through which slides a graduated measuring-rod. 
 Tlie zero of the scale corresponds to the position of 
 the rod when it is in contact with the curved point, 
 and a vernier-scale on the socket permits measure- 
 ments to 0".01. To use the instrument, the arm with 
 tlie curved point is inserted into the cavity through 
 
 I the screw-plug hole, and the clamp is screwed fast
 
 INSPETCION OF SMALL-ABMS. 
 
 112 
 
 INSPECTION OF SMALL ASMS. 
 
 at the required point. Two sliort cj'lindrical arms on 
 the clamp serve as bearers, and allow a motion of the 
 instrument only on its own plane. The eccentricity 
 of a spherical projectile is measured by the distance 
 of the center of gravity from the center of figure, 
 In oblong shot, however, it varies directly for each 
 cross-secdon from the seat of the core, which is near 
 the screw-plug hole, to the head of the cavity, and 
 is measured by the angle made by the a.xis of the 
 cavity with the axis of the projectile. To determine 
 the axis of the cavity, the greatest and least thick- 
 ness of the walls are measured at two or more depths. 
 Half the difference between the two will give the 
 distance between the axis of the cavity and that of the 
 projectile for that particular section. It is ordina- 
 rily considered sufficient, however, to determine the 
 eccentricity of but one cross-section near the center 
 of gravity and compare it with the known results of 
 previous experiments. 
 
 5. The first intimation of eccentricity is shown 
 upon the rolling-table, which consists of a heavy cast- 
 iron plate, beveled with great care, and two parallel 
 rails attached to it and separated from each other by 
 a distance slightly less than the length of the cylin- 
 drical part of the shot. When a shot is rolled upon 
 the rails, the heaviest side must come to rest beneath, 
 and a more or less readiness to assume a particular 
 point of rest indicates approximately the amount of 
 eccentricity. 
 
 6. ilensuring-rod for determining the length of cav- 
 ity ; made of steel and graduated into tenths of an 
 inch for a short distance on each side of the point 
 indicating the proper length. 
 
 7. Gauge, for length of screw-plug hole ; made and 
 graduated like the preceding. 
 
 8. Templet, for gauging the profile of the shot ; 
 made of steel ; graduated to indicate the length of 
 head, position of shell-hook holes, length of C3'lin- 
 drical part, and total length. 
 
 9. Oauge for the Butler sabot. This is made of 
 steel and in two parts ; the one screwed upon the 
 other when not in use. The lower part gauges the 
 sabot as regards pitch and length of thread, length 
 and thickness of ring ; tlie upper part gauges the 
 length and pitch of the thread upon the base of the 
 shot. A .tmall templet gauges the depth and width 
 of cannelure and thickness of outer lip. 
 
 10. One hammer, weigliing half-a-pound, having 
 a flat face and conical point. 
 
 11. One searcher of steel wire No. 20, with handle ; 
 steel punches and a eold-chisel. 
 
 The shot should be inspected before it becomes 
 rusty. It is first placed upon the rolling-table and 
 examined with the eye for defects in material, which 
 in shot cast with the head down, are apt to occur 
 as cavities in and about the base. These, when dis- 
 covered, are probed with the "searcher" or steel 
 punch ; if more than 0".3 deep, or of such character 
 as to suggest weak, imperfect metal, the shot is con- 
 demned. The head of the shot is struck with the 
 hammer at its junction with the cylindrical part, for 
 the purpose of detecting cracks liable to be produced 
 there in cooling chilled shot. A dull sound indicates 
 the existence of such a defect, which is further test- 
 ed by hammering with a sledge. It is then rolled, 
 and, should the amount of eccentricity be considered 
 doubtful as regards that allowed, is measured with 
 the calipers. The length of cavity and of screw-plug 
 hole are then verified, and the templet applied to the 
 profile. Kolling it from the table, it is stood on end 
 and the gauge screwed to the base. The sabot is 
 then screwed to its gauge, the dimensions of the 
 cannelure verified with "the small templet, and the 
 character of the metal examined. The sabot and 
 screw-plug are then fitted to the shot, and it is again 
 stood on its head and the ring-gauges are applied to 
 it. The smaller should not pass over the shot at all ; 
 the larger shouhl pass over its entire length. It is 
 then passed through the cylinder-jauge," which is 
 fastened, slightly inclined, to a block of wood ; the 
 
 weight is finally determined and stamped at once 
 upon the body of the shot near the sabot. Shot and 
 shell rejected during inspection are marked with an 
 X made with a cold-chisel. 
 
 With each lot of shot, and from the same metal. is cast 
 a cylindrical colunui about 2 feet high and 2^ inches 
 in diameter in a sand mold, and the head of a projec- 
 tile in the usual iron mold. As soon as cool and be- 
 fore the shot have been sent to the " finishing shop" 
 a test specimen is cut from the colunm, its specific 
 gravity determined, then broken in the testing-ma- 
 chine, and its fracture examined. Tlie chilled head 
 is split under a hammer to expose the depth of chill, 
 and the results so determined are compared with an 
 occasional shot cut open along its axis. Should the 
 tenacity, density, or chill be unsatisfactory the entire 
 lot is condemned. 
 
 Chilled shot are intended for the penetration of 
 wrought-iron plates, and were the result of experi- 
 ments to substitute for the steel projectiles first used 
 one of cheaper material of the requisite hardness. 
 
 A fracture of the head of a chilled shot presents 
 the following appearance : The exterior laj'er is 
 white, of crystalline structure, the crystals being dis- 
 posed normal to the exterior surface. The central 
 part is dark, granular, and less compact than the rest 
 of the mass, showing the presence of considerable 
 graphitic carbon, while the intermediate layers show 
 less graphite and grow harder and denser as thej' ap- 
 proach and finally blend with the exterior. 
 
 Different metallurgic processes, and among them 
 the repeated fusion of iron, qualify it for chilling. 
 The desired result has been obtained in England by 
 adding to a mixture of gray iron and shot scrap 
 four per cent, of ilmenite, an ore of iron in combina- 
 tion with titanic acid, and containing — 
 
 Iron oxide (equivalent to 45.3 metallic iron) 61.4 
 
 Titanic acid .33.2 
 
 Silica 4.2 
 
 Tin oxide ! 1.2 
 
 Manganese Trace. 
 
 In consequence of the chilling process, the head 
 is so hard as to resist even a file, while the cylindri- 
 cal body is soft mottled iron. The head" is not 
 touched after casting in order to preserve intact the 
 skin, which is the soundest and densest part. 
 
 The chilling power of the metal-mold, which de- 
 pends upon its heat-conducting power, varies with its 
 thickness and somewhat with its own temperature 
 and that of the melted metal when poured into it. 
 The specific gravity of chUled cast-iron is greater 
 than that of gray or mottled iron, and tliis fact is 
 used in discovering the depth of chill of a shot by 
 weighing the shot first in air and then in water, and 
 comparing the results with those obtained from a 
 standard projectile of the same weight in air. Tlie 
 shot which weighs the less in water will be chilled 
 to the less extent, since the discrepancy must be due 
 to the lower density of its chilled head. See Pro- 
 jectiles and Shell-gauge. 
 
 INSPECTION OF SMALL AKMS.— All the materials 
 used in the niimufacture of arms must be of the best 
 quality, and they should be tested by the Inspectors 
 according io tlie prescribed methods. The wood 
 for gunstocks should be seasoned at least three _years 
 and kept in a dry place two years before being 
 worked. It must be free from "knots and sap, and 
 no wood which is brash or light or worm-eaten, or 
 in any degree decayed, or which is cut across the 
 grain at the handle of the stock, or which is kiln- 
 dried, sliould be u.sed or received. The following 
 rules for inspection apply to all small-arms, whether 
 made at the national armories or by contract at |)ri- 
 vate estalilishments. The attention of theinsiiecting 
 officers should be directed as much as possible to 
 tlie operation of the workmen in the course of the 
 fabrication of arms% Each component jiart is first 
 iiisp<'cted by itself and afterward the arm in a fin- 
 ished state. The material and the forms and dinirn- 
 sionsof all the parts must Cdufiirm strictly In tlinsc 
 of established patterns, the workmanship and finish
 
 INSPECTION OF SMALL ARMS. 
 
 113 
 
 INSPECTION OF SMALL AHM8. 
 
 nuiHt ('([iiiil those of tli<' Mioilcl iiniiH, iiMil 111!' Hcvcnil 
 partH must lio browiicil, IiIikmI, cusc-liiirdcmrd, or 
 polished, as in the standard iiiodcl. The fortns and 
 dimensions of tlie partsare verilied liy means of stan- 
 dard fian^^es. 
 
 The liarrels are inspected in earh of the following; 
 stashes: Rolled, first stxaiirtitened. first bored, sceon(l 
 liori'il, tliird turned, third l)ore<l. seeorid milled, 
 j;round. proved, fourth hored. liftli liored, sec^ond 
 polished, rilled, seeond muzzle liled, sixth milled, 
 seventh milled, fourth lurneil. tifth lurne<i, cut. pro- 
 tiled, liled. and hrovvni'd. In these inspections the 
 Inspector will verify the liarrel with proper irauijcs 
 for each staij;e. He will see that the thread for llie 
 receiver on I he barrel is well cut and the bayonet- 
 stud well brazed on; that the exterior and inlerior 
 diuu'usions of the barrel are correct; that there are 
 no interior hanuner-marks. rinc^-bores, cinder-holes. 
 Haws, cracks, or other defects which will not dis- 
 apjiear in tinishinR. 
 
 The barrels rejected for defects that can be rem- 
 edied will be stamped on the upper side near the 
 breech with the nuirk of ciindenuiation, which is 
 always the letter ('. If the ilefecl be of such a 
 nature as not to prevent the use of the barrel for a 
 shorter arm when cut olT. the mark will b(; made on 
 the defective part. 
 
 The liarrels will be proved in the sirotm.l staije. 
 They will be fired twice with the followini; changes : 
 
 First Charge. 
 
 Powder. 
 
 Grains. 
 280 
 
 Ball. 
 
 W'ds. 
 
 No. 
 2 
 
 Secood Charge. 
 
 Size of Ball. 
 
 Powder. 
 
 Uraiiid. 
 
 2.W 
 
 No. 
 2 
 
 Weiglit. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 mo 
 
 Diame- 
 ter. 
 
 Inches 
 
 The wad is formed by rollinj; up a strip of ])aper 0'".01 thick, 1" 
 wide, and 12" lonfi. 
 
 One wad is placed on the powder and the other on 
 the ball, and the charjie is well rammed with a cop- 
 per rod. The wad occupies, when rammed, about 
 %" in the leni^th of the b:irrel. The barrels are closed 
 for proof witli provint^-plufis. liavini; vents in them. 
 During lh(^ loading the vents are closed by leather 
 thongs. The barrels are clamped down in a semi- 
 circular bed capable of holding about 40, with the i)ro- 
 ving-plugs abutting against set-screws working 
 through a rim around the bed. Tlie barrels are jire- 
 venteil from moving forward, under pressure of the 
 set screws, by collars screwed on the barrels at their 
 rear ends, which abut against a rim parallel to the 
 one mentioned. In order to prevent accidents, it is 
 prescribed that each barrel as soon as loaded shall be 
 carried to the proof-room and placed in the bed. 
 "When the bed is full the leather thongs are removed. 
 A powder-train is laid in a groove containing the 
 vents. The train is fired from the outside of the 
 room by means of a percussion lock and cap. 
 
 Musket powder will be used for proving the bar- 
 rels of rifles and carbines ; the powder nuist be of the 
 best quality as regards the initial velocilv and pres- 
 sure; it must be proved immediately before being 
 used, unless it shall have been proved within one year 
 and the Inspector has no reason to suppose that it has 
 become deteriorated. The measures for the proof, 
 charges should be of a conical form, with the mouth 
 as small as may be convenient, in order that there 
 may be less variation in the (pianlity of the jiowder. 
 Before commencing the proof of barrels, the Inspec- 
 tor will satisfy himself as to the quality an<l proof of 
 the powder, the size of the balls and' of the wads. 
 After each discharge he will pass the ramrod into 
 each barrel, and those which have missed fire will be 
 reprimed and discharge<l liefore i>roceeding to tlie i 
 proof of another lot. " After each pr<iof-cliars;e the' 
 Inspector will examine 'lie barrels which have burst i 
 and note the cause i f the defect, whether in the ma- 
 erialor workmanship. lie will examine those which i 
 
 have not burst, and will condemn any which are evi- 
 dentally defective, ile will stamp the letter 1' after 
 each roiinii on every barnO wliicli successfully en- 
 dures liie test. The Ir'ller is stamped on the under 
 side of Ihebairel ind near its lireech-end. To avoid 
 errors, the stamping is <lone in the proof-room. Af- 
 ter the second iiolishiiiL'. the barrel receives the final 
 slanip. viz: V. for viewed. I', for proved, and the 
 eagle's head under them, placed on ils upper left side 
 just ill front of the receiver, .\fler firing, the barrelg 
 should be washed clean in hot water. The examin- 
 aiion is then made. They should be inspected in the 
 inlerior and on the exterior. 
 
 The Inspector will reject such as are too large in 
 llie bore, and such as have holes, cross-craeks, scales, 
 seams, or ring-bores ; he w ill examine the brazing of 
 the liayonct-stud and see that the barrel is not notch- 
 ed too deeply or indenled inside. The barrels hav- 
 ing been n'duced to their ullimatc dimcnsirms, 
 siraighlened. and completely finished, are again care- 
 fully inspecled lo verify the" straighlness of the bore, 
 Ihc exierioraiiil inlerior diameters, and their weight, 
 which should not vary more than one ounce from the 
 slandard weighl. The slraiirhliiess of Ihc liarrel may 
 be ascertained by holding it up to the light and re- 
 llecling a straight edge on the dilTerent parts of the 
 bore, by which means an ex|)eriencc<l eye readily de- 
 tects any inaccuracy in the bore. The small or stand- 
 ard gauge should pass fr<-ely through the whole 
 length of the barrel, and the bore shiiuld not admit 
 the large or limit plug. The grooves should be care- 
 fully examined to see I hat they are formed according 
 to the pattern, and that they are even and uuiform 
 throughout. The lireech-screws and receivers will 
 be examined to sec tliiit they are of the proper dimen- 
 sions, are sound in every part, and have good threatfe. 
 They are case-hardened. The screw must be tried 
 in the receiver to see that it occupies all the threads 
 in the tap of tlie receiver. .l/rnXx— Barrels condem- 
 ned for defects detected after proof, or at any time 
 in the course of inspection, are marked with the let- 
 ter C, struck in deeply. The breech-blocks are 
 stamped " U. S. Model ;" also with theyearof adop- 
 ti<m of model, just in rear of the hinge. The num- 
 ber of the gun is stamped on the uiiper rear portion 
 of the receiver. The barrel, receiver, and breech- 
 block having been assembled, they are placed in a 
 skeleton frame. One roiin<l is fired with «0 grains 
 charge:"?" is then stamped on the barrel, inimedi- 
 ately below the eagle's head. The gun is then com- 
 pletely assembled, and fired t\vv rounds with service- 
 ammunition to see that all the jiarts are in perfect 
 working order. It all be found satisfactory, '■?" 
 is stamped on the under side of the stock, in rear of 
 the guard-plate. 
 
 The locks having been put together the Inspector 
 observes; 1st. That they are clean in the inside; 2d. 
 That the sear works freely when the sear-screw is 
 driven as far as it will go, and that the nose is suffi- 
 ciently strong and falls' properly into the notches of 
 the tumbler; 3d. That the bridle has no cracks or flaws 
 about the holes for the tumbler-pivot and screws; 
 4th. That the springs are well bent and of good pro- 
 portion, that the fixed branches fit close to the lock- 
 jilate. and that the movable branches swin^ clear of 
 it without having too much play ; .lib. That the slits 
 of the screw-heads are not defective ; 6th. That the 
 arbor and pivot of the tumbler fit accurately in their 
 holes; Tth. That the hook of the tumbler does not 
 f;ill below the edge of the lock-plate \vlien the cock 
 is drawn: 8th. That the notches of tlie tumbler are 
 sound and smooth, and that the tumbler fits and turns 
 well; Olh. Tliat the main-spring swivel is sound by 
 snapping the hammer several times on the bare cone ; 
 10th. That the hammer fits well on the square of the 
 tumbler, and that it does not rest on the loek-plate 
 when screwed up tight, and that it has the proper set 
 in ri'lation to the firing-pin: llth. That all the parts 
 work well together. The lock is adjusted so that wlien 
 cocked a scale attached midway of the finger-piece
 
 INSPECTION OF SMALL-ARUS. 
 
 114 
 
 INSPECTION OF SMALL AEMS. 
 
 of trigger will pull o£E at from five to seven pounds. 
 When mounted in stock the pnll on the trigger should 
 be not less than six nor more than eight poimds. 
 The place of fabrication is stamped on the lock-plate, 
 with the letters " U. S." overit. Aneagle is stamped 
 just in rear of the former stamps. The initials of the 
 Master Armorer or jjrincipal Inspector are stamped on 
 the stock opposite the rear end of tlie lock with italic 
 letters. 
 
 The soundness and freedom of the ramrod from 
 flaws and cross-cracks are ascertained bj- the sound 
 it gives when suspended by one end and gently struck 
 with a piece of metal, and b}' bending over a curved 
 piece of oak plank, 31i inches long and 5 inches high 
 at its middle point, one end of the rod being held by 
 a staple. The rod should be turned at the same time 
 so as to present the different portions of the surface 
 successively to inspection. The diameter and length 
 of rod are verified by proper gauges. The tiffing of 
 the groove is ascertained by drawing and returning 
 the rod smartly several times to see that it hf)lds well 
 and does not stick too tight : the ramrod must bear 
 on the rod-stop, and in that position its head should 
 not project beyond the end of the barrel ; it should 
 fill the groove well ; the open part of the groove should 
 be in the center of the stock, the covered part in the 
 middle of the thickness of the stock, between the 
 outside and the bottom of the barrel-groove, and the 
 rod should not interfere with the front side-screw. 
 
 The form and dimensions of the bayonet are veri- 
 fied with the proper gauges. The temper is tried by 
 springing the bayonet attached to a barrel, the point 
 resting on the floor. The bayonet is also tested in 
 the following manner : A curved piece of oak plank. 
 16| inches long, 3 inches high at each end, and four 
 inches at the middle is securely attached to the work- 
 bench. A staple is fastened at one end of the curve, 
 and a metal bridge i inch high at the other. The 
 point of the bayonet-blade is placed in the staple, and 
 the bayonet, fixed on a Ijarrel, is bent, face and hack 
 alternately, over the plank. In this situation the 
 blade is also examined for Haws and cniss-cracks. It 
 should not remain bent after this trial. The Inspect- 
 or then seizes the blade near the point, and strikes 
 the elbow on the workbench to ascertain that the wel- 
 ding is sound. If the proof shows no defects, he veri- 
 fies the dimensions and bore of the socket and the 
 accuracy of the channels. He examines the dimen- 
 sions of the clasp to see that it fits well to the shoulder: 
 that it turns evenly without liinding in any part; that 
 the stop is well placed and firmly set ; that the clasp- 
 screw and its thread in the stud of the clasp are well 
 «ut ; that the elbow has the proper form and dimen- 
 sions. Bayonets are marked on the face of the blade, 
 near the neck. Those rejected for detects that can- 
 not be remedied are marked with the stamp of con- 
 demnation. 
 
 The examination of the stock is directed — 1st, To 
 the quality of wood ; that it has good straight grain, 
 is well seasoned, ancj free from sap and worm-holes. 
 The degree of seasoning is indicated by the smell of 
 wood ; by the appearance of the lock and barrel, etc., 
 when removed from the stock ; they will be rusted 
 by unseasoned wood ; by rolling a fhin shaving be- 
 tween the fingers it will crumble if the wood be well 
 seasoned, otherwise it will be tough and will bend. 
 The n\edium weight of a well-seasoned ride-stock 
 is 1 poimd 14 ounces ; of a carbine-stocU, 1 poimd 
 11 ounces. Stocks made of good walnut will not 
 weigh more than thre(Miuncesless than these weights. 
 2d. "To the workmanship; that it is free from splits, 
 especially about flie barrel-groove and heading ; that 
 the grooves and beds are of tli« proper forms ami di- 
 mensions ; that file roundings for llie bands ari' 
 smooth and accurate ; that the stock has the pro])er 
 JhU or crook, and is of flic right length; that the 
 holes are well drilled, and that those for the wood 
 .screws have good threads. In examining the bed 
 of the lock, see — 1st. That all the edges arc sharp 
 iind smooth; 2d. That flie beds of the sear-screw and 
 
 sear-spring screw are not bored down to the trigger 
 or to the breech-screw ; 3d. That the beds of flie 
 main-spring and main-sjiring screw do not penetrate 
 to the barrel; 4th. That the holes for the tang of 
 the sear are as small as possible, so that the searsliall 
 not be wood-bound ; .?fh. That the wires fit well in 
 tlieir holes Mnrkii — The stocks inspected are mark- 
 ed on the left side with the stamp of approval (the 
 initial of the Inspector's name), or of condemnation, 
 as the case may be. 
 
 The front part of the trigger at half-cock should 
 be nearly perpendicular to the surface of the guard- 
 plate ; the slit of the trigger should be of the exact 
 width, so that the trigger shall have no lateral mo- 
 tion. It is important that the guard-plate should 
 bear firmly on the wood in every part, as otherwise 
 by driving the tang-screw too hard the trigger might 
 be brought too close to the sear, and the action of 
 the lock be thus interfered with. The butt-plate 
 should be well fitted in the center of the stock. The 
 bands should fit smoothly at the shoulders, and 
 closely to the stock and barrel, but not so tight as to 
 
 require a great effort to remove them. The band- 
 springs should not be too deeply set ; they should 
 spring liack freely when pressed down; the holes 
 for the wires should not interfere with the barrel or 
 ramrod grooves. All the mountings should fitsmooth- 
 ly to the stock. The stock should have fhe proper 
 fall or crook, which is ascertained by applying the 
 pattern, and by trying fhe piece in the position of 
 aiming. By sighting along the barrel if will be seen 
 whef her if is well slocked; whefher fhe ban<ls, the 
 front and rear sights, and the bayonet, are well set. 
 The Inspector is not restricted to the particular 
 examinations above menlioned; he will make any 
 other I'xamiiiations which he may deem necessary to 
 ascertain the (juality of any ]iarl of flie arms and 
 their conformity to the standard models ; if he dis- 
 cover or suspect any attempts on the part of the
 
 INSPECTION OF SMALL-ARMS. 
 
 115 
 
 INSPECTION OF SMALL ARMS. 
 
 workmen to cover or conceal serious defects, lie will 
 siiliject tlie arms to the most severe senitiiiy in or- 
 der to (leteel sueli defects. In llie iiisiM-elion of coii- 
 triiel, iirnis tlie Inspector will jndi^'c of the (|uidily of 
 materialM and workiniuisliip by thi' rules which (gov- 
 ern in like cases iit the national armories without ex- 
 acting in any case more ri?;id <'ondilions than are 
 enforced at those establishments. The ()rdnan<'e 
 f)fliccr cliarsied with the iiisjiection of arms, or the 
 Master Armorer at the national armory, will <'ause 
 at least one in twenty of each lot of arms passed by 
 a Sub-inspector to be taken to pieces in his presence, 
 and hi' will examine them strictly, ai-'reeably to the 
 forei^oini; directions, before' allixini; his stamj) of a])- 
 ])roval on the finished arms, all of which nnist be 
 e.xanuned by him. As a {general rule, every i)art 
 condenmed, on inspection, will be indelibly marked 
 with the letter C. and every iirinciij.al part ajiproved 
 will be marked with the initials of the Inspector's 
 name. Care must be taken that the marks of ap- 
 ])roval are not slamijcd so dee]) as to be injurious. 
 Finished arms approved in insjiection will be nnirked 
 on the left face of the stock with the initials of the 
 mune of the principal Inspector and the yi'ar of iii- 
 specticm. The drawing shows the markintc-macliine 
 used for stamping- the letters etc., on the finished 
 work. It is so constructed that roller dies may be 
 used on flat surfaces,, or flat dies on work of cylin- 
 drical form. The die is fastened to a sliding car- 
 riace, or rack, is made to traverse the work by a 
 hand-lever, and is brousht to bear on the work by 
 a foot-lever, the work bcins liehl on the tabh'S by a 
 suitable fixture. The machine has both horizontal 
 and vertical adjustments, and i.s mounted on a col- 
 umn of convenient height. 
 
 Tlu' inspection of revolvers should include the fol- 
 lowing: 1. Bluing — Examine the polishing and blu- 
 ing of the cylinder, barrel, and frame, and see that 
 all sharp edges and corners have been removed. 2. 
 Opening — Bring the hammer to half cock, and open 
 in usual manner. 3. Tenting in"' .ikdeton" rerolnr — 
 Remove the cylinder from the frame and place it in 
 a " skeleton " revolver carefull_y made for the pur- 
 pose, and test the cylinder and ratchet to see that 
 they will interchange. The cylinder is removed by 
 turning the cylinder-catch-cam screw l)ack one-half 
 turn, thus liberating the cylinder-catch. 4. Kitra-t- 
 or — Examine the extractor and extractor-spring; see 
 that the extractor is held to place in cavity in cylin- 
 der: that the spline and steady-pin do not allow the 
 extractor to project over the chambers of cylinder: 
 and that the extractor fits the cavity in the cylinder, 
 see that extractor-spring is properly wound and holds 
 extractor to place. Test extractor-stem, turning tlie 
 stem back one-eighth turn by placing pin in the hole 
 of head. Test the screw by bringing it back finnly to 
 place. ,5. Cylinder-caUh — Cylinder removed, revolver 
 at half cock. Test cylinder-catch-cam screw, turning 
 to place; see that cjdinder-catch cam brings the cyl- 
 inder-catch to place, firmly holding the same, and 
 that the mark on head of catch-cam screw corres- 
 ponds with the mark on the cylinder-catch. Test cyl- 
 inder-catch with frame and barrel-catch. Closing 
 the revolver, holding the barrel-catch back by thumb 
 of right hand, see that cylinder-catch passes over in- 
 cline of frame freely, yet rides over same, having a 
 bearing on rear surface; that tang of barrel strikes 
 on top of the post of frame, not allowing the cylin- 
 der-catch to rest on the frame except at incline. G. 
 Barrel-catch. See that barrel-catch opens snfticient- 
 ly, passes over cylinder-catch freely, and holds same 
 lirndyto place; that it is clear of the liarrel-tang at 
 all points except where it engages with hook on cy- 
 lincler-cateh. Test the barrel-catch spring and bar- 
 rel-catch screw. 7. Actionof'jnrrel luul ryli/uhr rntch- 
 en — Open the revolver, let the hammer down, and 
 endeavor to close the revolver; see that barrel-calih 
 prevents by being forced back on hammer; bring re- 
 volver to half-cock; close it: see that barrel-catch is 
 forced back bv imder side of cvlinder-catch hook. 
 
 properly engaging with same imder the influence of 
 barri'l-catch spring. H. Ifunntiir-nuM; i/r Jiriiig-pin — 
 IJring the hammir to full cock. Snap off. Examine 
 nose of hammer anil see that it i)rojects sufficiently. 
 See tliat the bearingfor the extractor-stud is correct. 
 9. Cylinder, etc. — Examine racliet and extractor-stud; 
 test stud with a socket-wrench: test extractor with 
 chandlers of cylinder with a phig-gange. 10. Lnch- 
 iriirli- Uring liammer to full cocli. Exandne tlie 
 hand and test hand-s|iring. Test the stop-spring. Ex- 
 amine base-iiin. II. Ailjiinttnent — Set tlie hammer to 
 
 ! half-cock; turn the cylinder-catch-cam screw back 
 one-half turn; open cylinder-catrh; replace the cyl- 
 
 ! inder and turn the catch-ciim screw back to place. 
 Close the revolver. See that the cylinder is free and 
 
 ! properly adjiisled with the cylindcr-cateh; that it re- 
 
 ' volves freely on the base-pin; thiit it rotates in either 
 direction: that the gas-ring is free from the barrel: 
 that the hand does not rest against the ratchet; tliat 
 the extractor-stud is properly adjusted to the recoil- 
 [ilate, holding the cvliiiiler on end of base-pin, allow- 
 ing no longitudiniif play, (iauge distance of cylin- 
 ders from barrel, limits" 0".00(; and 0".(l()8. Gauge 
 disiance of cylinder from recoil-plate, which should 
 be 0".OIi.'). 12! J'linl and limb lorlc — AVork the joint 
 of the barrel and frame, testing and adjusting it by 
 the joint-pivot screw. See that the friction-collar 
 moves freely on the joint pivot. By working the 
 joint of the barrel and frame, test the extractor, ex- 
 tractor-spring, lifter, friction-collar, pawl and pswl- 
 springs. See" that extractor works freely, projects to 
 the proper distance, and returns when released from 
 lifter bv the pawl; tlnit extractor-spring works free- 
 ly, is of proper strength, returns the extractor ipiick- 
 ly and holds it firmly in its place: see that the lifter 
 works freely on joint-pivot, engaging with pawl and 
 is held bv same under the influence of pawl-spring 
 until rele'ased. See that pawl works freely on pawl- 
 pin, in frame; that the ciitcli on the front end of the 
 pawd engages promptly with catch on the lifter, un- 
 der the influence of the pawl-spring at the rear end 
 of the pawl, and is released by front end of the pawl 
 passing up the incline infrout of joint ; that the pawl- 
 spring'is of proper strength. 13. Screic.i and pinn — 
 Examine and test the cylinder-catch, lianimer-stnd, 
 side-plate, guard and stock screws. Try each screw, 
 bringing it down to its bearing, if not down ; turn 
 back one-eighth of a turn, then liaek to place : see if 
 the parts come together. This verifies the counter- 
 sinking of the holes, thickness of head, and length 
 of screw. Examine and test pawl. stop, and trigser 
 pins. 14. Stock- — Examine material and workman- 
 ship. 15. Pull — Weigh the pulling off, which should 
 be 9 pounds, with limits, 8 pounds and 10 pounds. 
 See that it cannot be pulled off w hen at half-cock. 
 16. Alignment <if barrel and cylinder — This may be 
 tested by placing steel " thimbles" in the chambers, 
 bringing to full cock and inserting a caliber-gauge at 
 the muzzle. The lower end of this gauge has a ten- 
 on which fits the inside of the " thimble." If the 
 axis of the chamber does not coincide with that of 
 the barrel, the gauge will not go down. The "thim- 
 bles" are similar in form to the cartridge-shell 17. 
 Action of recotver— To test: Grasp the revolver with 
 left hand, near joint, barrel resting between thumb 
 and forefinger, the index-finger resting on barrel, the 
 second finger against cylinder-catch and on the cyl- 
 inder with the third finger; thereby allowing the ne- 
 cessary amount of friction to be applied to test the 
 lock-work. Slowdy cocking the revolver with the 
 right hand, test the working of the hand and ratchet, 
 hand-sjiring, stop and stop-spring, stop and stop 
 notch in cvlinder. See that stop leaves stop notch in 
 cylinder before the hand takes hold of ratchet: that 
 sear enters the half and full cock-notches of hammer 
 promptly, and does not "creep" when released by 
 pressure on trigger : that hammer works freely in 
 frame ; that the mainspring has proper action on ham- 
 mer and is correctiv adjusted by the strain-screw. 
 Kest butt of revolver firmly, cock rapidly, and see if
 
 INSPECTION OF TRANSPORTS. 
 
 no 
 
 INSPECTION OF TROOPS. 
 
 the stop notch in cylinder is thrown past the stop 
 bolt; try each notch. 18. See that the arms are prop- 
 erly stamped ami numbered, and that they have sus- 
 tained uo damaiie durint; assembling and inspection. 
 See Fa'in'iyilhiii i>f Firt-nriiis, and Small-aniis. 
 
 INSPECTION OF TRANSPORTS.— In inspecting wa- 
 ter transportation for troops, the Inspector must be 
 governed by circumstances and necessities. Military 
 emergency is not unfrequently a controlling consid- 
 eration, but should never cause undue risk to life. 
 In an ordinary condition of things, and especially in 
 voyages of any length. Inspectors are to see that the 
 vessels provided are such as promise reasonable com- 
 fort to passengers. If there be anything to indicate 
 necessity for a critical inspection, the services of an 
 expert are to be employed. 
 
 The Inspector should examine the contract and see 
 that its stipulations are complied with, and ascertain 
 how the vessel is rated at the underwriters : the age 
 of the hull and machinery, and their existing condi- 
 tions, so far as he can judge. He should inquire when 
 the vessel was last in dock, the condition of the boil- 
 ers, and when last put in. He should examine 
 whether the outfit of tackle, spare spars, etc., is suf- 
 ficient : whether there is an ample provision of boats, 
 life-buoys, and deck-room enough for quarters for 
 officers and enlisted men, and if the limit of the Act 
 of Congress detining the relation of tonnage to pas- 
 sengers is not exceeded. He should see that the ves- 
 sel's crew is large enough for her proper working, 
 and inquire into the competency of the officers ; that 
 there are the proper instruments of navigation, com- 
 passes, etc.; report if the chronometers have been 
 rated, and if there is a supply of charts. The water 
 tanks and butts are to be looked at to see if there is 
 water for passengers and crew. He should specially 
 inspect the cooking arrangements, see that the ves- 
 sel is clean, and that the portion occupied by troops 
 is dry and v.'ell ventilated. 
 
 In order that the paddles may be secure from the 
 action of the waves, in a side-wheel sea-going steam- 
 er, the projection on the sides under the guards, 
 called the sponsons, should be covered up to make 
 that portion as solid as any other part of the ship ; 
 the keel, stern-apron or inner stern, futtocks, floor- 
 timbers, dead-wood, stern-post, transom, inner post, 
 frame and filling timbers abreast of the engine, the 
 wales, the rudder and rudder fastenings, should be 
 increased in strength twenty-five per cent, over those 
 of river steamers. The weiglit of machinery should 
 be below the water-line. The vessel should be high 
 between decks and well ventilated by hatches, wind- 
 sails, and side-lights. There ought to be water-closet 
 and temporary bath arrangements. Provision for 
 sufficient masts and sails in the event of accident to 
 the motive power, should be made, and there ought 
 not to be less tlian a fore and aft sail to each mast 
 set upon a gaff, and a trysail to each mast to be set 
 in a storm. .Sec Tnnixp"rt«, 
 
 INSPECTION OF TROOPS.— A close examination of 
 troops is generiiUy made each Sunday morning and 
 previous to muster. In the United States Army, a bat- 
 talion is mspected as follows; Dismaunted Troops. 
 The battalion being in line, bayonets fixed, the Colo- 
 nel causes it to break into column of companies, right 
 in front, and commands : Hear open oreler.2. March. 
 At the first command, the right and left guides of 
 each company step three yards to the rear to mark 
 the alignment for the rear rank. Each Captain has- 
 tens to the right, verifies the position of the guides, 
 and tlien jjlaces Irmself facing the left, tliree j-ards 
 in front of tlie right file. The Adjutant places him- 
 self on the left of the color-guard, and commands: 
 1. Fcr'rnrd, 2. (Juide left. At the command tnare/i, 
 the ranks are opened in each company :the .\djutant 
 conducts the color-guard to the head of thecolmnn. 
 posts it twelve yards in front of the center of the lead- 
 ing c imjiany, and then brink's it to rear open order. 
 The r)rum-major conducts tlie liand. passing liv the 
 right flank of the battalion, to the rear of the column. 
 
 and posts it, facing to the front, twelve yards in rear 
 of the rear company. The Colonel next commands : 
 1. Field and utoff to the front, 3. Maech. The com- 
 missioned officers, thus designated, form in the order 
 of rank from right to left, fieldofficers on the right, 
 on a line equal to the front of the column, six yards 
 in front of the colors, the non-commissioned" staff 
 form in a similar manner, three yards in rear of the 
 field-officers. The Colonel, seeing the movement exe- 
 cuted, takes post on the right of the Lieutenant-colo- 
 nel, and awaits the approach of the inspecting officer. 
 Such field and staff officers as may be superior in 
 rank to tlie Inspector do not take post in front of the 
 column, but accompany the inspecting officer. After 
 inspecting the field and staff, the Colonel commands: 
 i.Ordir, 2. Akms, and the Inspector, accompanied by 
 these officers, passes down the open column, looking 
 at every rank, front and rear. The field and staff 
 return their swords as soon as inspected. The Colo- 
 nel now commands: 1 . In place. 2. Rest. When the 
 Inspector, commencing at the head of the column, 
 proceeds to make a minute inspection of the non- 
 cimimissioned staff,color-guard, and theseveral com- 
 panies in succession. The Adjutant gives the neces- 
 sary commands for the inspection of the color-guard. 
 The non-commissioned staff and color-guard may be 
 dismissed as soon as inspected. As the Inspector 
 successively approaches the companies, the Captains 
 command: 1. Vompany, 2. Attention, 3. Inspection, 
 4. Arms. The Captain, as soon as inspected, returns 
 his sword, and accompanies the inspecting officer ; 
 Lieutenants, when the Inspector begins the inspeo- 
 tion of the front rank, face about and stand in place 
 rest ; the arms, accoutermcnts, and dress of eacli sol- 
 dier having been minutely inspected, the Captain 
 commands: 1. Open, 2. Boxes: when the ammuni- 
 tion and boxes areexamined. The Captain then closes 
 ranks, stacks arms, opens ranks, and commands : 1. 
 Front rank, 2. About, 3. Face, 4. Unsling, 5. Knap- 
 sacks, 6. Ope?i, 7. Knapsacks. The men of the front 
 rank having faced about take a short step forward 
 so as to be free from the stacks. At the command 
 unsling.each man unfastens his knapsack. and, stand- 
 ing erect, holds it by the straps in front of the knees, 
 flap from him ; at the command knapsacks, he places 
 the knapsack on the ground, flap upward, the great- 
 coat si.x inches from the feet, and then stands at at- 
 tention; at the seventh command, he opens the knap- 
 sack, turning the flap toward the feet, the flap rest- 
 ing on the great-coat ; he then stands at attention. 
 The Inspector having inspected the knapsacks, the 
 Captain commands : 1. liepaek, 2. Knapsacks. At 
 the command knapsacks, each soldier repacks and 
 buckles up his knapsack, leaving it in the same posi- 
 tion as before opening it, and then stands at atten- 
 tion. The Captain then cimimands : 1. Sling, 2. 
 Knapsacks. At the command sling, each man grasps 
 the unbuckled strap of the knapsack with tlie right 
 hand, the buckled strap witli the left hand, the right 
 hand uppermost, and stands erect, the flap of the 
 knapsack from him ; at the second command, he re- 
 places the knapsack on his back. The Captain then 
 commands; 1. Front rank, 2. About, 8. Face. The 
 men of the fnmt rank having faced about, step for- 
 ward to the line of stacks ; the Captain then closes 
 the ranks, takes arms, and on intimation from the 
 Inspector, marches the company to its quarters and 
 dismisses it. In a long column, some of the rear- 
 most companies after the iiispectiim of dress anil 
 general appearance, may be permitted to stack arms 
 and break ranks until just before the Insi)ector ap- 
 proaches them, when they take arms, and resume 
 their position. Tlie band plays during tlie inspec- 
 tion of tlie companies, and is brought to rear open 
 order by the Drum-major on the ajiproach of the In- 
 spector. E:ich man as the Inspector approaches him 
 raises his instrument in front <if the b.Mly, reverses 
 it so as to show both sides, and then returns it to its 
 former positiim. In column of several comiianies, 
 the inspection of dress and general appearance may
 
 IN8PECII0K OF THOOPS, 
 
 117 
 
 INSPECTION OF TROOPS. 
 
 be (lispcnsi'il with, tliphiittalion liciiis tiroiii;lit to an 
 order, iirid in pliuc rest, as soon us the licld and slull 
 have been irisprcliil. A( inspeclion of (|iiart('rs, tin- 
 IiispiTlor is accoiiipanii-d l]y all the oflleers, or by 
 such of tlieiii as he may designate ; the men. witli 
 j.dov<'s and aeeoulerments, stand covered in froni of 
 their respective hunks ; in camp they stand in front 
 of their tents ; the senior non-commissioned otllcer 
 iiiion the approach of the Inspector, commands : 1, 
 Vompany (or Hqitwl), 2. Attention. 
 
 Moiintcil Trodpn. — 'rh(^ battalion beinR in line, 
 tlie Major causes it to break into column of compan- 
 ies, rii;ht in front, anil (commands : 1. Jl((ir npiinir- 
 der, 2. Mauch. At the lirst conunand, the Adjutant 
 places himself on tlu- li'ft of the f;nard of the stand- 
 ard, if the standard be with the battalion, and com- 
 mands: 1. Firrinird. 2. Gaide left. At the com- 
 mand march, the ranks are opened in each company; 
 tJK' .\djutant conducts the s^uard of the standard to 
 the head of the column, and [josts it si.\ yards in 
 front of the otlicers of the leadini; company, ojiiiosite 
 the center of the eom])any. The banil. if tliere lie 
 one, passes by the rijrht tlank of the battalion, to the 
 rear of the column, and takes post, facing to the 
 front, twelve yards in rear of the rear company. The 
 trumpeters of the battalion, if consolidated with the 
 band, return to their respective companies; the Ma- 
 jor's trumpeter places himself on the riijht of the 
 trumpeters of the leading com])any. The jAIajor 
 ne.xts conimanils : 1. Field and nt'ijf t<i thf frnnt, 2. 
 March. The commissioned officers, thus designated, 
 form in tlie order of rank from right to left, lield- 
 olficers on the right, on a line equal to the front of 
 the column, fifteen yards in front of the standard; 
 the non-commissioned staiT form in a similar man- 
 ner, six j'ards in rear of the tield-otiicers. The Ma- 
 jor, seeing the movement executed. takes post on the 
 right of the lield and staff, and awaits the apjiroach 
 of the inspecting otticcr. Sucli field and sliilT otli- 
 cers as may be superior in rank to the Inspector do 
 not take post in front of the column, l)ut accompany 
 the inspecting officer. After inspecting the field and 
 stafT, the Inspector, accompanied by these officers, 
 passes down the open column, looking at every rank, 
 front and rear. The field and staflE return their sabers 
 as soon as inspected. The Inspector, having re- 
 turned to the head of the column, proceeds to make 
 a minute inspection of the non-commissioned staff, 
 guard of the standard, and the several companies in 
 succession. The Adjutant gives the necessary com- 
 mands for the inspection of the guard of the stand- 
 ard. The non-commissioned staft and guard of the 
 standard may be dismissed as soon as inspected. As 
 the Inspector successively approaches the compan- 
 ies, the Captains command: 1. Iiupectlon, 2. Abms. 
 The Captain, as soon as inspected, returns his saber, 
 and accompanies the inspecting officer; the Lieuten- 
 ants, when the Inspector begins the inspection of the 
 rank, face about and remain at ease, unless cther- 
 wi.se instructed. 
 
 After inspection of dress and general appearance, 
 if the Inspector desires to inspect the companies dis- 
 mounted, instead of mounted, the Major dismounts 
 the battalion and forms rank. The horses of the offi- 
 cers are held by trumpeters. The inspection is con- 
 ducted in the same order as before. At the com- 
 mand : 1. Inspection, 2. Arms, the men take the 
 reins off the horses' necks, pass the right arm through 
 the reins, face to the front, and undingcarbine. The 
 arms are then inspected as prescribed in the School 
 of the Soldier Dismounted. The inspection being 
 completed, the Captain, on intimation from the In- 
 spector, causes carbines to be slung, then mounts 
 the company, and dismisses it. 
 
 Inspection of a Battery. — The battery being in line, 
 the Captain commands: 1. Prepare for inspee.tion, 
 2. Action, 3. Front. 4. Right, 5. Dress, 6. Front. 7. 
 Draw, 8. Saber. These commands are executed as 
 prescribed for revieviv, the trumpeters also drawini; 
 saber; if the inspection has been preceded by a re- 
 
 view, the Captain may omit the seventh am] eighth 
 commands, cautioning tin- trumpeters to draw saber. 
 The inspecting otIlciT inspects the Captain, and then 
 file chii fs of platoon, beginning on llie right; pass- 
 ini; around the li ft of the battery, he inspects the 
 cliief of laissons, then goes to tlie right and inspects 
 the trumpeters and guidon ; the Inspector next goes 
 to tlie right section of thi' right platoon and inspects 
 the section; beginning with the chief, who executes 
 iniqu'ction nahi-r, he passes in front of the piece, along 
 the right of the section, and in rear of the caisson, 
 returning by the left of the si'ctionto the front; he 
 then go<'S to the left section of the right platoon and 
 inspects it, as prescribed for the right section; he 
 then inspects the other sections in like manner. As 
 the Inspector approaches each limber, Xo. opens 
 the lid of the chest so as to show its contents; he 
 closes the lid as soon as the Inspector passes the lim- 
 ber on its left. The caisson corporal opens and 
 closes the lid of the caisson limber-chest, as ex- 
 plained for No. li ; he also, when so directed, opens 
 and closes the liils of the other chests. The trum- 
 ])eters, chiefs of section, tirst-sergeant, quarternuis- 
 ter-.sergeant. and the artificers when mounted, exe- 
 cute inspection sahir as ttie Inspector approaciies 
 them. The Captain, as soon as inspected, retunis 
 saber and accompanies the Inspector. Each chief 
 of [ilatoon accompanies the Inspector during the in- 
 S|)ection of his platoon; he then returns to his post, 
 faces to the rear, and remains at ease. As soon as 
 the forge and battery-wagon, after the commands 
 wlion. front, have taken their places in line with 
 the limbers and caissons, the senior blacksmith 
 opens the lid of the limber-chest of the forge, and 
 the wheelwright opens the battery-wagon: they 
 then resume their post.-s. If mounted, they dismount 
 and give the reins of their horses to the wheel-driv- 
 ers of the forge and battery-wagon, respectively, and 
 then conform to what has been just prescribed. The 
 forge and battery-wagon having been inspected, 
 each is closed b3' the proper artificers, who resume 
 their posts. If they have horses, after closing the 
 forge and battery -wagon tlie_v mount, return to their 
 
 i posts, and draw saber. The inspection of the bat- 
 tery-wagon being completed, the Captain returns to 
 the front and center of the battery, faces toward it. 
 ami commands : 1. //r/c^rs, 2. Prepare to dismoi-xt, 
 3. DisMotrxT, 4. Inspection knapsacks and valises. 
 At the command dismount, all the officers and 
 mounted men dismount ; the horses of the Captain, 
 
 I chiefs of platoon, and chief of caissons, are held by 
 the trumpeters, assisted by the guidon if necessary. 
 At the fourth command, each cannoneer takes his 
 knapsack from the carriage, returns to his post, 
 places his knapsack on the ground, flap upward, the 
 great-coat six inches from the feet, opens his knap- 
 sack, turning the flap toward the feet, the flap rest- 
 ing on the great-coat, and then stands at attention ; 
 each mounted man unstraps his valise from the sad- 
 dle, and places it at his feet in the position of stand 
 to horse, opens his valise, and then stands to horse. 
 The Inspector.accompanied by the Captain, then in- 
 spects the knapsacks and valises, passing through 
 
 j the battery as before prescribed, each chief of pla- 
 
 j toon accompanying him during inspection of his pla- 
 toon. The Captain then commands : Repack knap- 
 sacks AND vALLSEs. At tliis Command, the knap- 
 sacks and valises are clo.sed and strapped in their 
 proper places : the cannoneers then resume their 
 posts and the drivers stand to horse. The knapsack 
 of each cannoneer rests vertically on the foot-boards 
 of the chest on which he mounts, so as to be under 
 his legs, the flap from the chest: the knaps.acks are 
 secured to the chest by means of a strap which is 
 passed in front of the knapsacks, and is fastened to 
 the ends of the chest. The knapsacks of the first- 
 sergeant, quartermaster-sergeant, chiefs of section, 
 trumpeters, guidon, and the artificers when mount- 
 ed, are usually inspected in quarters : on the march 
 their knapsacks, unless otherwise prescribed by the
 
 INSPECTION BEF0BT8. 
 
 118 
 
 INTELLIGENCE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Captain,are carried on the foot-boards of the limber- 
 chests of the forge and battery-wagon, and in tlie 
 baggage-wagons. Tlie knapsacks and valises hav- 
 ing been inspected, the officers mount ; the Captain 
 then commands : 1. Driven, 2. Prepake to mount 
 3. Mount. At the third command, all the mounted 
 men mount. The inspection being completed, the 
 Captain, upon some intimation from the Inspector, 
 forms line, marches the battery to its park, and dis- 
 misses it. The battery is frequently inspected in full 
 marching order — the men in blouses, and equipped 
 with haversacks and canteens ; knapsacks and valises 
 packed : overcoats, when not worn, rolled and strap- 
 ped to the knapsacks or saddles ; horses equipped 
 with nose-bags and halters; caissons loaded with a 
 day's forage. 
 
 INSPECTION REPORTS.— Reports of the various 
 kinds of inspections, for the information of the In- 
 spector General. Inspecting officers, before trans- 
 mitting their reports to their Commanders, indorse 
 thereon the remedies that have been applied bj' the 
 local Commanders for the correction of irregularities 
 that may have been brought to their notice. All Su- 
 perior Commanders in forwarding the reports, in- 
 dorse them with their action, and such remarks as 
 may be of importance for the information of the 
 Commander of the Army. 
 
 Copies of all non-confidtntial Inspection Reports 
 are forwarded to the Inspector General, through the 
 ascending channels of communication. Command- 
 ing Officers only may forward copies of contidential 
 reports. 
 
 INSPECTOR GENERAL.— Inspector and Inspector 
 General are terms in military affairs, having a some- 
 what vague signification. Tliere are Inspectors Gen- 
 eral of Cavalry, Infantry, Artillery, Engineers, Mi- 
 litia, and Volunteers, whose duties are really those 
 which their names infer — viz., the periodical inspec- 
 tion of the several corps of their respective arms, and 
 the pointing out of deticiences, the corps being un- 
 der the command, however, of its own officers, and 
 not of the Inspector General. The Inspectors Gen- 
 eral of Musketry and Gunnery Instruction in the 
 English Army are charged with the direct superin- 
 tendence and ordering of such instruction through- 
 out the army. In the Medical Department, the In- 
 spectors General of Hospitals constitute the highest 
 grade of surgeons, under the Director General of 
 the whole department. Inspectors are employed in 
 many capacities. Inspectors of Volunteers are Staff 
 Officers charged with the administration and organ- 
 izing of the detached corps of Volunteers in their 
 several districts. Tlie post of Inspector General of 
 Au.xiliary Forces has lately been abolished, and his 
 duties transferred to the Department of the Adjutant 
 General, in order to bring the Militia and Volunteers 
 more immediateh- under the supervision of theCom- 
 mander-in-('hief. 
 
 INSPECTOR GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT.— In the 
 United States, the law at pre.sent provides for one 
 Inspector General, with the rank of Brigadier Gen- 
 eral ; two Inspectors General, with the rank of Lieu- 
 tenant-colonel ; and two with the rank of JIajor. 
 Also, that the Secretary of War may. in addition, de- 
 tail Officers of the Line, not to exceed four, to act as 
 Inspectors General. In the British service, the In- 
 spectors Generals are officers appointed by the Horse 
 Guards, with the exception of the Inspector General 
 of Fortifications, to carry out, in the most searching 
 manner, the duties of inspection in their respective 
 branches, and to Ijring to the notice of the Coin- 
 niand(T-in-('liief all itoints with which lie should be 
 iiiaile^ic(|uainlcd. They are assisted in their duties 
 liv I ii^jMi-tiTx. whci act under tlieir inslructi(jns. 
 
 INSUBORDINATION. — Disoliedience to lawful nu- 
 thority, under the following phases .viz. : 1. Striking 
 a Superior Officer; 2.1'sing or olfering violence against 
 a Superior Officer; 3. Offering violence in a military 
 prison; 4. Disobeying the command of a Superior 
 Officer; 0. Using threatening language to a Superior. 
 
 For either of the above offenses an officer or soldier 
 is to be tried by a General Court-Martial. 
 
 INSULT. -In a military sense, to attack boldly and 
 in open day, without going through the slow opera- 
 tions of trenches, working bj' mines and laps, or hav- 
 ing recour.se to those usual forms of war by advanc- 
 ing gradually towards the object in view. An ene- 
 my is said to insult a coast when he suddenly appears 
 upon it. and debarks troops with an immediate pur- 
 pose to attack. 
 
 INSURGENTS.— Soldiers or people generally in a 
 state of insurrection. The term, however, admits of 
 one exception. Hungarian \uiurgnnls (Tnxiirgenten 
 die Vngarixchen) mean the Hungarian Jlilitia, called 
 out or summoned by general proclamation, as under 
 the old feudal system, 
 
 INSURRECTION.— A rising of people in arms against 
 their Government, or a portion of it, or against one 
 or more of its laws, or against an officer or officers 
 of the Government. It may be confined to mere armed 
 resistance, or it may have greater ends in view. See 
 Cim'l War and Ribi-llion. 
 
 INTELLIGENCE DEPARTMENT— A branch of the 
 Quartermaster General's Department, presided over 
 bj' the Deputy Quartermaster General. It has for its 
 object the collecting, sifting, and arranging of all 
 information on subjects useful to the Government or 
 Army in peace or war. This Department in England 
 is comparatively of recent date. Its functionscom- 
 prise: — Topography; Strategical and Tactical Ques- 
 tions ; Concentrations; Collection of all data bearing 
 on the organization of foreign armies ; Home and 
 Colonial Defense, etc. The information to be ob- 
 tained on the above subjects is gathered in time of 
 peace, so that, when war breaks out, the General 
 commanding an expedition may have put into his 
 hands the most detailed information that maps can 
 contain of the countrj- in which operations are to be 
 carried on, and all such other information needful 
 for the vigorous prosecution of the war. Formerly, 
 whatever information the General received was 
 througli the Quartermaster General's Department, 
 then imperfectly organized for obtaining such intel- 
 ligence as is now afforded, and also by reconnoise 
 sances a daj' or two in advance of the Army. Now- 
 a-days, the General is made acquainted with the 
 country he has to traverse before he sets out, and is 
 thus often enabled to map out his future movements 
 before commencing operations. To the Intelligence 
 Department may be attributed, to a great extent the 
 success of the German arms during the war of 1870 — 
 71. Before starting on the campaign, maps of the 
 country the Arm}' was to invade were largely distri- 
 buted. "and also handbooks containing information 
 on many valuable points sucli as railways, local- 
 ities, power of districts to afford food, etc. — in short, 
 all information tending to the successful issue of the 
 war. The Intelligence Department of England is 
 modelled after that on the Continent, but only for 
 defensive purposes; It is composed of Staff Officers, 
 whose education and intelligence fit them well for 
 the duties they have to perform. The Department 
 may be said to be at present merely the nucleus of 
 what will be, it is to be hoped, a still larger one. 
 There is ample field for an increased number of Staff 
 Officers, and in comparison with the Continental De- 
 partment, the establishment is small. The following 
 extract from a lecture given at the United Service 
 Institution, in Feliruary 187.5, by Major Bracken- 
 bury. K. A. , D. A. Q. M. G. an officer of the Intel- 
 ligence DeiiartmenI, will p>it the ri'ader in ])ossession 
 of tlie inforniiilidii ti)b<' ac((uin'il. and the work to be 
 performed by the Staff Officers of such a Department, 
 as carried out in Prussia, Austria and France; — 
 
 "1. A thorough military acquaintance with the 
 topogra]ihy and resources of all latids belonging to 
 the nation and its neighborhood. 
 
 " 2. An intimate accpiaintance with the armies 
 anil military institutions of foreign powers, as well as 
 of the linnie armies and institutions.
 
 IirrSNDANCE. 
 
 Hi) 
 
 IMTENDANT. 
 
 "3. A scheme for ninvement of Iroopn hy rftilwiiy, 
 roail, or wilier, iiccoriliMi; In prohiililc evenhmlitics. 
 This is l)ase(l <m a stuily of lioiiie and foreign iiieaiis 
 of eoriiiiuiniralioii. 
 
 "4. Military liislory, whicli is always a mine of 
 iriforiiiatiori if honestly drawn up acconling to ofll- 
 cial kiiovvledge. 
 
 ".'). Seleelioiis from theabove items of kiiowle<lg(' 
 careful! >■ drawn upaiid pii1>lislied for the information 
 of the army. Tliis requires frequent use of tlic prinl- 
 inj;-i)ress. 
 
 "(i. In the three rountries tlieStalT isehiirged with 
 tlie issue of the re(|uisite maps in ease of war, and. 
 for this purpose, is in elose inlimaey with llie great 
 map-making estaljlislunents re))resented l>y tlie Ord- 
 nanee Survey, wliicli is a civil l)raneli. though con- 
 ducted Ijy oltieers of the Itoyal Engineers." 
 
 In timeof war, the dulicsof this department would 
 be similar to those perfcprmed l)y that section of the 
 Ctcueral Stall' in Conlincnlal armies, with this excep- 
 tion, that in conscc(uencc of the paucity of ollicers 
 enijiloyed in tliis branch of the service, it would 
 have to be supplenicnied by s|)ccial Stall' Ollicers, in 
 connection with the Quarteruuister (ieneral's Depart- 
 ment. Preparatory to the eonunenccmeni of hostili- 
 ties, all the information concerning the country in 
 whicli the operations are to be carried on collecled 
 and collated by the Intellgenee Dcpartmcnl in lime 
 of peace— will be furnished to the (ieueral in com- 
 mand, who will next have to obtain further informa- 
 tion through this Department as tollic enemy's posi- 
 tions, mural, etc., by means of outposts, reconnois- 
 sances, spies, and enii.s.saries. The names of the 
 enemy's Generals, the organization and the dress of 
 his troops can then be learnt, as the capture of a 
 single prisoner or jiatrol nuiy sliow. even by his imi- 
 form. buttons, or lace, the presence of a [larticular 
 corps. Newspapers may furnish informalinn of great 
 value. During the I'russo-Auslrian war of lH(i(>, llie 
 first antlientic information the Prussians received of 
 Benedeck's march from OlmiUz to Vienna was de- 
 rived from Brackenbury's letters. The information 
 obtained by the means of outposts is of very great 
 importance; and the first step taken by Ihe SlalT of 
 Couliaenlal armies, after the declaration of war, is to 
 draw a atrdoii of light cavalry; lo this force one or 
 two ollicers of the Intelligence Department are at- 
 tached. One sphere of action is U|) lo Ihe enemy's 
 outposts, whose movements must be watched, and all 
 information concerning them beoljlained through the 
 videttes, reconnoissances, etc., without driving them 
 in, to do which would need areconuoissance in force 
 a measure of doubtful value, as it often leads to a 
 general engagement. The Officer Conunanding an 
 outpost is responsible for the amount, as well as for 
 the correctness, of all the information he sends to 
 the Officer Commanding; he has, therefore, to exer- 
 cise his discretion as to what intelligence he sends 
 in, and this should be ratlu'r too much than too little. 
 In transmitting any knowledge he has acquired, he \ 
 must ;ulhere as much as possible lo the words of Ihe 
 informant; but if the information be of great value, 
 the person from whom it has been obtained, such as 
 a prisoner, deserter, or patrol leader, should be sent I 
 in to headquarters. The information obtained from | 
 prisoners, deserters, and persons from the enemy's j 
 side, is always valuable. The first two classes do i 
 not as a rule know much, but travelers, and parti- 
 cularly boys, are great sources of information, as 
 they are close observers, and are less likely lo be in- 
 fiuenced by patriotism, and a small briljewill suffice 
 as remuneration for the news supplied. 
 
 The real rank and file of an Intelligence Depart- ] 
 ment, before and after hostilities liave begun, are the 
 regular paid spies. Officers commanding outposts 
 can make use of local spies, but the main body of \ 
 these men remain attached to the head(|uarters, for 
 specific purposes, under an officer specially appointed | 
 for that duty, who should possess the following I 
 qualifications: — I 
 
 1. Thorough relicency. 
 
 2. Keen knowledgi' of human nature. 
 
 3. Distrust of all nnsup|)orii'il information. 
 Lack of information is not Ihi- dilliirilly in wartime, 
 for the shilling lendcncy of men's feixrs is to exag- 
 gerate dangers; the number of spies, therefore, may , 
 be safely reduced. Tliere are two classes of spies 
 as shown above: — 1. [,iiml S/iien. — Tliese are men 
 accidentally employed, and whose business may take 
 them into the enemy's liiu's. Tliey are to be trusted 
 
 I in gaining inlelligenci'; moreover, their powers of in- 
 fornialion are naliinilly confined lo a small area, and 
 as they are probably wi'll acquainted with that area, 
 and their being o:i busini'ss, they are not so lial)le 
 to suspicion. 2. I'did Hpifn. — These should alwavs 
 l)e kept apart and in ignorance of each other. Thev 
 should receive liberal jiay. acconling to Ihe residt of 
 work. In India, Ihe plan formerly ado])led in pay- 
 ing the native sjjies Wiis to |iut a bucketful of go', 
 mohurs before Ihe man, and lo allow him to take 
 away as many as his two hands could hold. Some 
 military writers lay down that all llie informalicjn 
 obtained by the Inlelligenec Deiiarlment should be 
 published to the army, as experience has shown that, 
 by acting thus, surprisesand panics have been guard- 
 ed against, great fatigue saved, and that the best 
 marclies have been made when t!ie men knew the 
 object of t!ie imdertaking. Having collecte<l the re- 
 ipiired information, the next point will be the trans- 
 mission of sueli intelligence. This is performed in 
 three ways: — 
 
 1. By the electric telegraph. 
 
 2. By visual signalling. 
 8. By mounted orderlies. 
 
 Sometimes the three are combined. The electric tel- 
 egraph is applicable for Icjug distances, between 
 stationary points anil along main lines; between 
 camps at some distance from one another, field tele- 
 graphs may be laid down. Visual signalling is useful 
 in broken ground, across obstacles, with ships at sea, 
 and also for moderate distances, where the points are 
 not stationary for any lime, such as Ihe outposts. It 
 was found particularly useful in the Loosliai expedi- 
 tion on the borders of As.sam. For short distances 
 mounted orderlies can be used, between points con- 
 stantly moving, as well as for transnussion of news 
 in wooded countries. The following have been found 
 good distances to transmit intelligence hy the modes 
 indicated: — 
 
 Electric telegraph, above 8 miles; 
 
 Visual signalling, li to 8 miles; 
 
 Orderlies, 1 to Hmile. 
 
 INTEND ANCE.— 'In Continental Armies, an estab- 
 lishment corresponding to the English branch of the 
 Cimtrol Department. 
 
 In the German army it is a small Department, and 
 the duties are more restricted and entirely civil. 
 Until 1866, Prussia had no combatant ofiicers attach- 
 ed to the Intendance. It has much less independent 
 responsibilit}-, and clashes less with the War Depart- 
 ment, because it only refers to matters beyond gener- 
 al control, and large funds are alwiiys placed at its 
 disposal bj' the military authorities; ne;irly two-thirds 
 of the army expenditure is paid by it, like the Cloth- 
 ing Department. In France, the Intendance possess- 
 es the direction and control of everything that con- 
 cerns pay, provisions (wu/n/'i/f'fts de Aot/cAc,) contracts 
 for the same. Clothing Department, etc. This De- 
 partment is officered exclusively by officers of the 
 army, of no lower rank than that of Captain, and 
 whose age docs not exceei! 3.5 years; they have to pass 
 an examination before a Board of Officers. Their 
 functions are purely administrative, and they have 
 no rehilive rank. 
 
 INTENDANT.— INTENDANT MILITALRE.— An offi- 
 cer in the French army charged with the organizji- 
 tion and direction of all Ihe civil services attending a 
 force in the field. The officers acting under his or- 
 ders are those in charge of all the finance services, the 
 provisions, stores, hospitals, artillery train, and trans-
 
 INTERCHANGEABLE. 
 
 120 
 
 INTEBN. 
 
 port departments, besides the interpreters, guides, 
 and sucli like temporary services. Tlie Intejidnnl- 
 en-Chief of an arm}- is the Representative of tlie Min- 
 ister of War ; and. sliort of supersedinc; the General's 
 orders, can exercise, in case of need, all the functions 
 of that high officer of state. The Intendanceis divi- 
 ded into Intendants, ranking with General Officers, 
 Sub-Intendants with Colonels, and Assistant-Intend- 
 ants with Majors; besides Cadets, who receive no pay, 
 and constitute a probationary grade. 
 
 Intendant was the name given in France before the 
 Revolution to the Overseer of a Province. Such per- 
 manent officers were first appointed by Henry II. 
 (l.'iSl). Under the complete system'of centralization 
 established by Richelieu, these Intendants, as they 
 were now called, became tlie mere organs of the Roj'al 
 Minister, to the exclusion of all provincial action. 
 To them belonged the proporlioning of assessments, 
 the levj-ing of soldiers, etc. The National Assembly 
 in 1789, established in each department an elective 
 administration. Kapoleon virtually restored the In- 
 tendants, but exchanged the hated name for that of 
 PreficU. 
 
 INTERCHANGEABLE.— The meaning of this word 
 is self-evident, viz.; that which m.ay be given and 
 taken mutuall)-. In military materiel, the term is 
 used to express that an article which suits or tits any 
 part of a machine, a lock of a gun, a wheel, etc.. 
 will fit corresponding parts of a like article ; and thus 
 all parts of iniitiriel are for the most part made inter- 
 chanieable. 
 
 INTERIOR ECONOMY— Applied to military affairs 
 relates to the whole management of a regiment, the 
 responsibility of which lies with the Commanding 
 Officer, as he is the mover and director of every- 
 thing pertaining to his command. It includes all 
 duties in which the officers and men are interested, 
 such in the former case, as their mess, band, funds, 
 etc., and in the latter, to the messes of the non 
 commissioned officers and soldiers, their amuse- 
 ments, libraries, in fact, everything tending to the 
 good order and welfare of the regiment. 
 
 INTERIOR FLANKING ANGLE.— In fortification, 
 the angle formed by the meeting of the line of de- 
 fense and the curtain. 
 
 INTERIOR FORM OF CANNON.— The aim in all gun 
 ecnstnution is to obtain the maximum amount of 
 work from a given charge and weight of piece, this 
 within the limits of safety to the piece itself. To at- 
 tain this, the relations between the interior dimen- 
 sions, the charge, and the projectile, have to be in 
 each case studied and regulated with the greatest 
 care. The dimen.sions of a piece are also governed 
 somewhat by the nature of its service, and circuin- 
 stances under which it is to be tired. The interior 
 of cannon may be divided into three distinct parts ; 
 1st, The vent, or channel which communicates lire to 
 the charge ; 2d, Tlie sent of the charge, or chamber, if 
 its diameter be different from the rest of the bore ; 
 3d, The cylinder, or that portion of the bore passed 
 over by the projectile. See these parts under proper 
 headings. 
 
 INTERIOR RETRENCHMENTS.— When a breach is 
 made in the enciente, altliough military usage and a 
 point of honor require of the garrison to sustain at 
 least one assault, the consequences of defeat are of 
 too serious a character to expect such an effort, un- 
 less a place of safety be provided, into which the 
 garrison may retreat after defending the breach and 
 obtain an honorable capitulation. On this account, 
 and also to lengthen tb(; defenc'c, interinr retrench- 
 ments are made in the liasticma. Tlu'se works may 
 be either of a temporary or permanent character, but 
 it is generally conceded that the latter class alone 
 offers a serious obstacle to the enemy. The former, 
 moreover, reqtiires that the retrenchment slioidd be 
 thrown uj) during the siege, an undertaking of great 
 dilliculty. both from the aimoyance of the enemy's 
 fire and the fatiguerj staleiif (he garrison, occasioned 
 by its ordinary duties. The works may be placed 
 
 within the bastion,s, which are the parts of the en- 
 ciente usually breached, or in rear of their gorges. 
 Those which are placed within the bastions extend 
 across them either between the faces or between the 
 flanks. When placed at the gorge they connect the 
 two adjacent curtains. They may be divided into 
 four classes, viz. : 1st, those that rest against the 
 faces of the bastions; 2d, those that rest against the 
 flanks; 3d, those that rest against the two adjacent 
 urtains; 4th, and those that comprehend several 
 bastions. The plan of these works varies with their 
 position, the size of the bastions, or the more or less 
 openness of their salient angles. In small bastions 
 with very acute salients, when the retrenchment rests 
 upon the faces, it usually receives the form of a tcnaille 
 or an inverted redan, the angle of the tenaille being 
 about 1008. When the bastions are large and the 
 salient angle quite open or obtuse, the retrenchment 
 may receive the form of a small bastion front resting 
 upon the faces. Kither of these forms may in like 
 manner be used when the retrenchment rests upon 
 the flanks of the bastion. But as this position en- 
 ables a retrenchment of the form of an ordinary 
 redan to have its ditches swept by the tire of the 
 flanks of the adjacent bastions, this form is in some 
 cases used in preference. When placed between two 
 curtains at the gorge of a bastion the plan of the 
 retrenchment is always a bastioned front. See In- 
 terii>r Wi'rks (im\ Pirmanent Fortifications. 
 
 INTERIOR SLOPE.— In fortification. the surface con- 
 necting the superior slope with the banquette tread. 
 It is well to make the interior slope vertical (and it 
 is oftentimes made so) for the reason that defenders in 
 that case can stand close to the parapet in delivering 
 their fire. A vertical slope would require a strong 
 construction of some kind, to retain the earth in posi- 
 tion, and to resist the horizontal thrust produced by 
 the prism of rupture. When the materials for mak- 
 ing this construction are abundant and convenient, 
 a vertical slope, or one nearly so, maj' be used. A 
 steep slope requires a strong revetment, otherwise it 
 is to be preferred. A gentler slope requires a slighter 
 protection, but has the disadvantage of placing the 
 soldier too far from the interior crest when he is in a 
 standing position; and it exposes him more to pro- 
 jectiles grazing the interior crest. The rarity of hand- 
 to-hand conflicts on the parapet, and the use of 
 breech-loading weapons, allow the use of gentler 
 slopes for the interior of the work than were formerly 
 regarded as admissible. Gentle slopes are accom- 
 panied, however, by the disadvantage of requiring 
 the soldier to occupy a recumbent position when fir- 
 ing his piece. See Pield-fortification. 
 
 INTERIOR WORKS.— Besides the works exterior to 
 the enceinte, the object of which is to retard the as- 
 sailant in his attempts to enter it by breaching. En- 
 gineers have placed within it other works, termed 
 interior works. They are placed on such points as 
 are exposed to be breached by the enemy's artillery, 
 and are intended to cut these off from that portion of 
 ■the enceinte not so exposed. By them the garrison 
 is enabled to make an effectual defense of the breach 
 when the asault upon it is made. When intended 
 for the defense of the breach alone, they are called 
 interior retrenchments. They are of various forms, 
 being adapted to the position they occupy and the 
 degree of resistance to be offered, and are usually 
 constructed with a revetted scarp and counterscarp 
 to secure them against an ojien assault. When a con- 
 siderable command is given to an interior work over 
 the one in which it is placed with the view of olilain- 
 ing a plunging fire on points which the enemy may 
 occupy on the exterior, it receives the name of a 
 cavalier. When an interior work is detached from 
 the enceinte and is organized to receive the garrison 
 and rely on its own resources after tlie main work 
 lias f:tllen, it is termed a citadel. See InU^ior lie- 
 trenchinents. 
 
 INTERN.— A term used in a military .sense to ex- 
 press the act of giving shelter to troops which have
 
 INTEBNAL FBESSURE OAUOE. 
 
 121 
 
 IKTEHNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 taken rofui^e on iicutriil Icrrilory. On pnssin;; tlic 
 fniiilicr IIk' men arc ilisanncii ajid mhI, id ilic ilif- 
 liTciil (luartcrs alliilti'il to IIli'Iii. i;<Mii-rally in the in- 
 terior of llic coiiiilry : llicy arc treated on tlie same 
 footinij; as tlie soldiers of tlie countrv, and tlie olli- 
 cers are allowed to keep tlieir arms, horses, anil l)ai;- 
 gai;e, but have to ji;ive their parole that lliry will 
 not attempt to eseape. Towards the end of tin.' war 
 of 1870 71, IJonrhaki's Army, sorely pressed by the 
 (termaris took icfiiu'c- in Swii/i-rland. to escape "being 
 taken prisoners and wiTe iiilerneil there. 
 
 INTERNAL PRESSURE GAUGE. Various forms of 
 the Inlenial I'ressnre-i^an^e have been propo.sed. 
 'J'hat liy Doctor \V. K. Womlliridjie is fonnd satis- 
 factory. It consists essentially of a i)istiin havini; a 
 coniciil cavity, pressed by the i)o\vder-;;ani;<' aj;ainsl 
 a disk of copper which enters the cavity in pro|)or- 
 tion as It is crushed. The surface of the cavity is 
 formed with a tine spiral thread, continnons fr )m 
 the face of the ])iston to the ape.x of the cone —: ho 
 tnrns of their tlircails bein^ divided into t<'nths ly 
 lines radiatini; from the apex. These are inipresi-cd 
 upon the copper accordins; to the extent that the 
 metal has Ix'cn forced into the cavity, and a readinj; 
 of the numlier of tnrns of the spiral atl'ords an indi- 
 cation of the pressure to which tlie piston has been 
 subjected. It may be considered to be a moditic.-i- 
 tion of a form of Internal t<aui;e projjosed by Captain 
 Henry .Metcalfe, Ordnance Department, the sjjiral 
 cutter of which is convex. The cut on the disk 
 is divided for facility of readin;^ the pressure. See 
 Pre tsurf- Gd nqe. 
 
 INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE. - The line at which 
 dates chaniie. Iiein^ made later by one clay by those 
 who cross ihe line from east to west, and earlier by 
 one day by those crossiuu; it from west to east. If a 
 person start at midday, that is, when the snn was 
 shining perpendicularly on the meridian that passes 
 through the place of starting, and travel westward, 
 keeping pace with tiie sun, thus keeping the sun direct- 
 ly over the meridian of the place at which he might 
 be, he would make a complete journey around the 
 globe in twenty-four hours; and return to his ])lace 
 of starting at noon the next day. Twenty-four hours 
 would have passed, but to the traveler the sun would 
 have been shining perpendicularly as at noon all the 
 time ; and the question arises, when or at what jioint 
 did tlie traveler change from noon of one day to noon 
 of the next? For instance, if he should start at 
 Mondity noon and keip the sun in the zenith, be would 
 arrive at the jilace of starting Tuesday noon— it would 
 be noon-day to him during the whole journey of 
 twenty-four hours — Monilay noon would change to 
 Tuesday noon without an intervening night : where 
 would the change occur ? It is to him apparently 
 still Monday noon, and to obtain the correct date he 
 must drop a day. The reason for dropijing a day 
 can be more fulh' shown as follows :— Kemembering 
 that the earth makes one complete revolution on its 
 axis in twenty-four hours, anil thus the sun in its ap- 
 parent diurnal revolution moves over 800 degrees of ! 
 space in twenty-four hours, it thus moves over l.'J de- 
 grees of space in one hour, from which it is evident 
 that the difference in longitude which causes the 
 difference in the relative time, may be estimated in 
 time, allowing 15 degrees to an hour, or one degree 
 to four minutes. Therefore, suppose a man starting 
 from any given point, travel one degree west, his 
 watch, instead of marking twelve o'clock at noon, 
 according to the correct time at that place, would 
 mark four minutes after twelve. Let him travel west 
 l.T degrees, and he will find that 1 o'clock by his 
 watch will be noon-day by the sun. Let him go on 
 to 120 degrees, and when the sun is in the zenitli his 
 watch will indicate eight o'clock p. m. Completing 
 liis journey around the glolie. he will have gained. 
 in tills manner, twenty-four hours. From tliis it will 
 he seen that in order to obtain the correct date twen- 
 ty-four hours must be subtracted from his time. On 
 the other hand, if a person could travel eastward at 
 
 the Hame speed with whieh the sun apparently trav- 
 els westward l\Uf same rate of spi-eil with wliich tin; 
 earth revolves on its a.xis;, if hi- should start on liis 
 journey at noon-day, he would meet the sun when 
 exactly on till' opposite side of the earth from the 
 place of starling, and continuing :lie jouniey would 
 again meet the huh at Ihe place of starling, thus see- 
 ing threi^ noon-days within the twenty-four hours, 
 I or apparently gaininga day. This we know to be im- 
 i possible, since only tweniy-four hours of time liave 
 I passed, while in reality tin extra period of light has 
 iieen gained, and thus to obtain Ihe rorrect local date 
 j a ilay must be arlded to your time. From Ihiswesee 
 i that, for every time a ))erson travels around theearth 
 ! in either direction, there is a difference in time of 
 one day, and the result is the same regardless of the 
 ! rale of speed. To avoid thi' confusion of dates 
 which mii-.t necessarily result from this constant 
 gain finone side and loss on the other, it has been pro- 
 posed to determine upi)n some line at which eastern 
 bound travelers shall add one day, and westward 
 bound travelers shall drop a day from their reckon- 
 ing, and thus ijrevent a disagreement in regard to 
 the day of the week. The line at which this addi- 
 tion or subtraction shall be made is what is meant 
 by the date-line. 
 
 " INTERNATIONAL LAW,- The body of rules, deriv- 
 ed from custom, or treaty, by which nations, either 
 tacitly or expressly, agree to be governed in their in- 
 tercourse with each other. Some of the rules have 
 existed from the beginning of history ; their nundier 
 has gradually increased, their scope widened, and 
 their quality improved. The Amphictyonic Council, 
 formed in very early times and limited to Grecian 
 tribes, required that after a battle an exchange of 
 prisoners should be made, and a truce declared in 
 order that the dead might he buried. They also 
 bound themselves not to destroy any city included in 
 the alliance, or to cut it otf from funning water in 
 war or peace. The Romans in their early days estab- 
 lished a College of Heralds for ileclaring war, and al- 
 lowed only sworn soldiers to take part in it. The in- 
 fluence of Christianity, declaring the universal broth- 
 erhood of man as one of its fundamental truths, has 
 been great and beneficent in the sphere of naticnal 
 character and intercourse. Many barbarities fell at 
 once before it, and many others have been gradually 
 mitigated and subdued. 
 
 International Law has two natural divisions — the 
 one containing rules for the intercourse of nations 
 during peace, and the other regulating the changes 
 made by war. 
 
 HlGHT.S AND DnTIES OF NATIONS DuEDJO PeACE. — 1. 
 
 Individuals cannot be parties to International Law; 
 but may. if strangers, claim liumcne treatment un- 
 der the law of nature broader than that of nations. 
 Onl)' independent, organized communities are na- 
 tions, and have the power of making treaties with 
 other nations. Protected or dependent States. Pro- 
 vinces and Colfinies, the members of Confederacies, 
 and separate Kingdoms made one by a permanent 
 compact, must conduct all their intercourse with oth- 
 er nations through that nation on which they are de- 
 pendent, or of which they are a part. No particular 
 form of government and noditTereiice of religious be- 
 lief necessarily excludes a nation from the obligations 
 and advantages of International Law-. Independent 
 States have equal duties and rights, without reference 
 to their size or other relative (lifferences, and are sov- 
 ereign in the sense of having no political superior. 
 The individual States of the .\mcrican Union may be 
 said to have a certain local and relative sovereignty; 
 but with respect to other nations the United States 
 only constitute a Sovereign State. International Law 
 deals only with State d'fiu-t-n. While a body, hither- 
 to dependent or forming a part of a nation, is striv- 
 ing to effect its independence, other nations cannot 
 help it. without creating a state of war with the par- 
 ent State. A State cannot evade its obligations by 
 change of Coristiiution. Denmark and Norway, when
 
 INTEENATIONAL LAW. 
 
 122 
 
 INTEENATIONAL LAW. 
 
 separating in 1814, cacli took its share of tlie ilebt of 
 the United Kingdom ; and tlie United States assumed 
 the debts of tlie preceding Confederation. Tlie in- 
 dependence of a State implies, first of all. freedom in 
 the conduct of its internal affairs. Generally there 
 can be no legal interference with them b_y anothre 
 State. Yet when a State, by external alliances, is in- 
 creasing its power in a degree that endangers the wel- 
 fare cr tranquility of its neighbors, the right of in- 
 terfering in order to preserve the balance of power is 
 claimed and has been exercised: as, for example, in 
 the war of the Spanish Succession, and after the 
 French Revolution and the fall of Napoleon. On the 
 other hand, when circumstances do not require or 
 warrant such an interference, there have been na- 
 tional declarations designed to forestall and prevent 
 it. An instance of this was furnished by what is 
 called the Monroe Doctrine — President Monroe's de- 
 claration made in order to prevent European inter- 
 ference in what had been Spanish America — that 
 "The United St:>tes would consider any attempt on 
 the part of the allied European Powers to extend 
 their system to any portion of our hemisphere as dan- 
 gerous to our peace and safety." Also, when any 
 great cruelty has been practiced by the strong against 
 the weak the right of interference by other nations is 
 claimed. A signal instance was furnished in 1827, 
 during the struggle for independence by the Greeks 
 against the Turks, when the allied fleets of Great 
 Britain, France, and Russia destroyed the Turkish 
 fleet. 
 
 2. A State has a sovereign right to its territories 
 and property. Its propertj' consists of public build- 
 ings, forts, ships, lands, mone_y, and siiiular posses- 
 sions. All private property, also, within its limits is 
 under its protection. Its territory includes all the 
 surface of land or water w'thin its limits ; of har- 
 bors, gulfs, and straits within certain headlands : and 
 of the sea within a league from the shore. Outside 
 of this limit the sea is free to all nations for com- 
 merce and fishing. But while foreigners are free to 
 catch fish in any part of the ocean contiguous to the 
 territory of a State — as on the banks of Newfound- 
 land — they cannot dry their nets or cure their fish on 
 the adjoining coasts unless the privilege has been 
 granted by treat}'. A ship owned by inhabitants of 
 a countr}' cannot be regarded as national territory, 
 but is simply private property under the protection 
 of the national flag. In a foreign port it may be at- 
 tached for debt, and its crew are accountable to the 
 laws of the port and of the country for any miscon- 
 duct which they may commit. Rivers between two 
 countries, unless a contrary provision is made by 
 treaty, are common to both, and the bunidary runs ', 
 through the principal channel. When a river rises 
 in one State and enters the sea in another, each por- 
 tion, strictly speaking, is subject to the State within 
 whose limits it is contained. The dwellers on the 
 upper shores have no right, except by concession, to 
 descend to the sea through the lower territory. Yet 
 there seems to be an equitable claim to the privilege 
 almost amounting to a right : and within the present 
 century almost all such navigable rivers in the Chris- 
 tian world have been opened by treaty to the use of 
 those who live on their upper wat.TS. Among these 
 may be mentioned the Rhine, Scheldt, Danube, La 
 Plata and its tributaries, Amazon, and St. Lawrence. 
 
 3. Duties which foreigners coming into a country 
 owe to its laws and government. Aliens, sojourning 
 in a country, must sul)niit to its laws tmless releas- 
 ed from their jurisdiction by special treaty or inter- 
 national custom. They are secure in the enjoyment of 
 their property, the use of the Courts, and llie trans- 
 action of lawful l)usiness. They can dispose of their 
 property by will to persons residing abroad, or can 
 transmit it to their own country. They have also 
 the i)rotection of Consuls and Ambassadors a])p<>int- 
 ed by their own comilry. Several cla.sscs of jiersons 
 are specially exempt, in a greater or less degree, from 
 the jurisdiction of local laws ; as, for example, Sov- 
 
 erigns traveling through a foreign country, Ambas- 
 sadors accredited to it, the officers and men of na- 
 tional ships in its ports, and foreign armies when pas- 
 sing through it by permission. In England former- 
 ly no one born a subject could lawfully expatriate 
 himself, nor could any foreigner be naturalized ex- 
 cept by Special Act of Parliament. But in 1884 jiro- 
 vision was made for granting foreigners all the riglits 
 of native-born subjects except membership of the 
 Privy Council or of Parliament. In the United States 
 a foreigner ma}- be legally naturalized after five years* 
 residence, and three years after he has formally de- 
 clared his intention to renounce his former national- 
 ity and become a citizen. Persons who have commit- 
 ted offense against the laws of their country often fice 
 for refuge into another. If the offense be political 
 only, the nations which are most free themselves 
 generally allow the fugitives to remain; but if they 
 have committed, or are charged with crime, they 
 may be delivered up for trial to their own country 
 when demanded according to the provisions of trea- 
 ties made for the purpose. An Ambassador in very 
 ancient times was considered a sacred person; and. as 
 national intercourse and comity have been enlarged, 
 there has been a proportionate increase in his rights 
 and privileges. His person, dwelling-place, proper- 
 ty, family, and attendants, are, in a great degree and 
 as a rule, exempt from the criminal and civil juris- 
 diction of the country to which he is sent. He has 
 libert}' of worship, according to the customs of his 
 country and to his own choice, for himself, his house- 
 hold, and by extension of courtesy, for other persons 
 belonging to his nation. In some countries this lib- 
 erty has been restricted to worship in his own house. 
 Consuls are agents who have no diplomatic charac- 
 ter, but are sent to reside in certain districts to pro- 
 tect the interests, chiefly commercial, of the country 
 wliich appoints them. Their duties are imposed by 
 their own Government, and are performed by per- 
 mission of the foreign power. They are honored and 
 protected by the flag of their country: but their priv- 
 ileges are, in general, much less than those of Am- 
 bassadors, except in Mohammedan countries, where, 
 having often been required to perform diplomatic 
 duties, they have acquired corresponding rights. 
 The modern office of Consul arose in the commercial 
 times of the Middle Ages, when companies of mer- 
 chants, going to reside in the eastern parts of the 
 Mediterranean, had officers, chosen at first bj' them- 
 selves and afterward by their governments, to settle 
 disputes that arose in conducting business affairs. 
 Treaties are compacts between nations for the regu- 
 lation of intercourse between both governments and 
 people. They comprise, in a great measure the his- 
 tory of International Law. The power to make them 
 is determined by the Constitution of individual States. 
 In the United States they are negotiated under the 
 direction of the President, and are ratified bj- a two- 
 thirds vote of the Senate. When they promise the 
 payment of money it must be apjiropriated for the 
 purpose by a vote of the House of Representatives. 
 ■ II. Internation.4L Relations as ^Modified by Wab. 
 1. War is a contention by force of arms between 
 two or more nations. In order to be just it must 
 be necessarily undertaken to repel an injury or to 
 obtain a righteous demanil. The power of deciding 
 for what |)urpose iind when it is to be waged must 
 be left to each nation, because there can be no other 
 judge. A iiiition that has been wronged, or thinks 
 it has, may take no notice of the wr(mg, or employ 
 only peju'cful me;isures to obtain redress, or accept 
 the offered mediation of a friendly power, or propose 
 arbitr;ition, or use armed force. In <;eiieral, other 
 nations have no right to interfere. Vet, in some 
 cases, war between two nations may become to other 
 nations a cause for war. Mediation offers a way for 
 escaping war which m;iy be e(|u:dly lionnnible and 
 a(lvant;igc(nis to both jiiirties. Vet it <'iiii only give 
 advice wliich niiiy be rejected by one or lioth of the 
 parties. Arbitration, in special cases, may be simple,
 
 INTERNATIONAL LAW. 
 
 INTEENATIONAL LAW 
 
 ensy, and pfTcctive. The pnrtiofl agree on the Arbi- 
 tnilors, llic |)f>ints to l)i' consulcnMl, tlw tiiiu; unil 
 pliuf, iiiid tlic law wliicli is to ^jovcrn the ruse; anil 
 they liiiiil tlicmsclvcM to aliidi- l)y the decision. Tin- 
 suf'ccHS wliicli lias, in niinirrous instanci'S within the 
 present eentnry, been altaineil lij' arliitralion, and 
 especially in tlie recent itiiporlant case lietween tlie 
 I'niliMl Slates and (Jreat Mrilain arisinu' out of the 
 war for the sniipression of thi' Sonlliern Helii'llioii, 
 warrants the hope that wiir may ofli-n, in a sitnihir 
 way, be avoided. After the happy settlement in the 
 instance hist mentioned, the Hrilish Ilfiuse of Com- 
 mons presented an address to the (^uecn, prayini; 
 that measures mifilit be taUen "W'ilba view to furth- 
 er irn|)rovemcnt in International i/iw and the estab- 
 lishment of a }:;enera! and jiermanent system of inter 
 national arbitration." 
 
 'i. War between two nations interriipts all recog- 
 nized intercourse between the indiviilual members 
 of each. The relations of commerce, the right given 
 by treaty to reside in either country, and all com- 
 nnniic-.ition by direct channels between them, come 
 to an end. Sometimes |)ermission is granted to re- 
 main slill in the country : and generally lime is grant- 
 <■'] lo reUKive uilh |iniperly and elTecls. The treaty 
 of IT'.)4 between the I'nited Stales and (ireal Britain 
 stipulates that "Neither the debts due from individ- 
 uals of the one natitm lo indivi<iuals of the other, nor 
 shares nor moneys which they may have in the pub- 
 lie funds or in the public or jirivale banks, shall 
 ever, in any event of war or national dilTerenc<'. be 
 se(iuestered or confiscated." According to Chancellor 
 Kent. " As a general rule, the obligations of treaties 
 are dissijiated by hostilities." It is said also bv an- 
 other writer that " Great Britain, in practice, admits 
 of no exception to the rule that all treaties, as such, 
 arc brought to an end by a snbsecpient war between 
 the parties." The peace of Westphalia and the 
 treaty of Utrecht have been renewed several times 
 when the nations concerned in them, after having 
 been at war, were making new treaties of peace. 
 
 3. The interests of humanity demand that, during 
 warlike operations on land, non-combatants should 
 l)e molested as little as possible in the prosecution of 
 their iieaeeful interests and in the enjoyment of their 
 homes. On the sea, ships and cargoes belonging to 
 enemies have, until recently, been accounted lawful 
 prey ; but in the enlarged commercial relations of 
 th'_' world much progress has been made towards 
 e.vemjiting innocent traffic on the seas from interrup- 
 tion during war. 
 
 4. The forces lawfully emploj-cd in war are, on 
 land, Regular Armies, Jlilitia, and Volunteers; and, 
 on the sea, national ships and private vessels com- 
 missioned by national authority. Bvit as privateer- 
 ing is necessarily attended with great evils, earnest 
 efforts have been made to restrict or abolish it. In 
 185G the parties to the Declaration of Paris adopted 
 four rules concerningmaritime warfare. one of which 
 declares that "Privateering is and remains abol- 
 ished." Other nations were asked to accept them 
 on condition that they would be bound by them all; 
 and almost all Christian States did agree to them. 
 The I'nited States withheld their assent because, as 
 it is their policy to maintain only a small navy, the 
 rightto resort to privateering in case of w;ir olTers the 
 only way by which they can cope with the large 
 navies of other nations. They agreed, however, to 
 adopt all the rules, provided the signers of the dec- 
 laration woidd consent to exempt from capture all 
 innocent traffic of enemies on the sea. In 18()1 the 
 offer was made to two of the principal European 
 powers, by the Secretary of State, on the part of the 
 United States, to come under the operation of the 
 four rules ; but as it was made for the whole Kepub- 
 lie — the rebellious as well as the loyal States — it was 
 declined. | 
 
 5 The rights and duties of neutral nations. In 
 recent times the commercial intercourse among peo- 
 ple of different nations has become so general and 
 
 eonstftnt, that they are practically united almost into 
 a confederacy so as to be entithd lo a voice in dr^- 
 ciding wlielherwar between individual nalionsshall, 
 in any [larlicular case, be pirmilled. Sonielinies, in 
 view of picidiariliesin its position, a territory is madi; 
 permanintly neutral so that armies cannot cross ilH 
 tiouiidaries nor can it engage in war. Switzerland 
 and pari of Savoy, since IHl."), and Belgium, since 
 1K:j(), have been in this condition. Sometimes several 
 Powers uidle in an armed neutrality in order to main- 
 tain <:ertain maritime rightsagainsf both belligerents. 
 But such a league is liabh; to result in war. A neu- 
 tral State must be impartial in its dealings with both 
 belligerents; must keej) itself, its territory and sub- 
 jects, as detaeheil as jiossible from the war; and be; 
 e(|uallyhumane to both parties when slorm,disasleror 
 hunger casts them on its shores or within its bounds. 
 By the treaty of Washington, in 1871, (ireat Britain 
 and the United States adopted three rules lo be ap- 
 plied in settling dillicullies then existing between 
 them, lo be observe d l)y them in the- future, and to be 
 urged on the acceijtanee of oilier nations. These 
 rulesare — thai "A neutral government is bound 7'''*^, 
 to use due diligiiice lo prevent the tilting out. arm- 
 ing or ei|uipping. within its jurisdiction, of any ves- 
 sel which it has n asonable ground to believe is in- 
 tended to cruise or to carry on war against a power 
 with which it is at peace; and also to use like dili- 
 gence to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction 
 of any vessel intended to cruise or carry on war as 
 above, such vessel having been specially adapted, 
 in whole or in part, within such jurisfliclion, to war- 
 like use; Kecmd, not lo permit or sulfer either belli- 
 gerent to make use of its ports or waters as the base 
 of naval operations against the other; or for the pur- 
 pose of the renewal oraugmentation of military sup- 
 jjlies or arms, or the recruitment of men ; t/u'rd. to 
 exercise due diligence in its own ports and waters, and 
 as to all persons within its jurisdiction, to prevent ;iny 
 violation of the foregoing obligations and duties." 
 
 0. The lialiililies and rights of neutral trade. By 
 the rules set forth in the Declaration of Paris, a "neu- 
 tral flag covers the enemy'sgoods with the exception 
 of contraband of war," and " neutral goods, with the 
 exception of contrabandof war, are not liable lo cap- 
 ture under an enemy'stlag." The term " contraband 
 of war " is used to denote articles which directly aid 
 warlike operations. According to a formula adopted 
 by the United States, the list includes all kinds of 
 guns, fire-arms, ammunition, weapons, armor, mili- 
 tary clothing, equipments for men and cavalry horses, 
 and all instruments, of any material, manufactured 
 and prepared for making war by sea or land. The 
 right of blockade in time of war is universally ad- 
 mitted, but in general is available only for harbors, 
 mouths of rivers, and limited districts of coast. \s 
 a blockade begins and ends at definite times, pre- 
 vious notification, of both its beginning and ending, 
 must be given to traders and neutral governments. 
 To be legal, it must be maintained bv armed force 
 sufficient to show that it is actual, and to prevent all 
 ordinary and open attempts to pass it. All merely 
 formal, or. as they have been called, paper block- 
 ades, like Xapoleou's Berlin and Milan Decrees, and 
 the two counter British Orders in Council in 1807, 
 are regarded by International Law as futile and void. 
 When a vessel is captured and found guilty of at- 
 tempting to enter or leave a blockaded port, the 
 penalty it incurs is the confiscation of itself and its 
 cargo. In carrying out the international rules adop- 
 ted concerning contraliand goods, enemies' goods on 
 enemies' ships, and lilockades, search is often neces- 
 sary to determine the nationality of the vessel and 
 the nature of its cargo. It must be submitted to by 
 the vessel, but it must not be so conducted as to give 
 unnecessary annoyance. The right of search is a 
 war right. apjilicable to merchant vessels only in time 
 of war, and to those suspected of piracy at any lime, 
 inasmuch as piracy involving attack on the peaceful 
 and unarmed, is held as warasrainst the human race.
 
 INTEKNATIONAL SALUTE. 
 
 124 
 
 IHTEENCHMENT. 
 
 INTERNATIONAL SALUTE.— A salute of 21 guns 
 to a national tlas;. This salute is the onlj' one which 
 is returned, and this is invarialily dune as soon as 
 possible. The time intervening must never exceed 
 twenty-four hours. The failure to return such salute 
 is regarded as a discourtesy or lack of friendship 
 justifying the other party in asking explanation. In 
 the presence of the President of the United States, 
 however, no salute, other than the nati"iinl mlute, 
 and that specified for him. is to be fired. It is the 
 custom for saluting vessels-of-war, upon anchoring in 
 presence of a fort, to hoist at tlie fore the flag of the 
 Country in whose waters they are, and to fire the 
 first salute. A failure to do so is a proper subject 
 for explanation. Notice of an intention to salute 
 tlie flag is usually given by the vessel direct to the 
 fort : but as giving notice involves delay, vessels fre- 
 quently salute without it. Vessels mounting less 
 than ten guns do not fire salutes requiring the guns 
 to be reloaded. Surveying vessels, store-ships, or 
 transports do not salute. If there be several forts 
 or batteries in siglit, or within six miles of each other, 
 one of them is designated in orders to return inter- 
 national salutes. Either of the others receiving no- 
 tice from a saluting vessel of intention fo salute the 
 flag, immediately notifies the one designated as the 
 saluting fort, and informs the vessel of the fact. If 
 a vessel salutes without giving notice, the fort desig- 
 nated as the saluting fort returns it. United States 
 vessels return salutes to the flag in United States 
 waters, only where there is no fort or battery to do 
 so. United States vessels do not salute United States 
 forts or posts. Salutes to the flag are in no sense to 
 be considered as personal. See Sfdutes. 
 
 INTERVAL. — In drill, the lateral space between 
 men or corps. The following are the usual intervals 
 in line between the different brandies of the service: 
 1. Between files when formed in squadron, 6 inches 
 from knee to knee. 2. Between the guns of a battery 
 in line, full intervals, 19 .yards. 3. Between squad- 
 rons in line, the breadth of a division, but never less 
 than 12 yards. 4. Between cavalry regiments in line, 
 or between cavalry and infantry in line, as for squa- 
 drons. 5. Between battalions in line. 30 paces. G. Be- 
 tween batteries in line, or between artillerj-and other 
 troops, 28j j'ards. 7. Between cavalr}- regiments in 
 contiguous columns, as for squadrons. 8. Between 
 battalions in contiguous columns, 12 or 30 paces, as 
 ordered. 
 
 INTO GEAR.— For most pieces, the motion of the 
 top-carriage to and from battery is regulated by a 
 pair of truck-wheels, one on each side; which work 
 on an eccentric axle placed underneath and a little 
 in front of the axis of the trunnions. The wheels 
 are thrown into gear hy means of handspikes insert- 
 ed into sockets upon the ends of the eccentric axle; 
 the wheels then rest upon the top of the chas.sis rails; 
 and only the rear part of the soles of the top-car- 
 riage rest on the chassis rails and have sliding friction. 
 The wlieels are thrown imt of gear in the same man- 
 ner; the entire soles then having sliding friction upon 
 the chassis rails, thus checking recoil. In the l.'i- 
 inch gun-carriage there are two pairs of truck-wlieels, 
 one pair being placed in front, as just described, and 
 the other pair near the rear end of the carriage; tlie 
 rear wlieels only are on eccentric axles, and wlien 
 these are out of gear the soles of the top-carriage rest 
 fairly on the chassis rails, and the motion is on slid- 
 ing friction. When the rear wlieels are in <jeiir the 
 front wheels also touch the cliassis rails, and the 
 top-carriage moves on rolling friction. To prevent 
 the rear wheels from working out of ijenr while the 
 gun is being run from llie b:itlery, or jumping iu gear 
 when the piece is tired, pawls are provideil for lack- 
 ing file rear axle. Wlientlie rcarwheels are in grar, [ 
 motion is communicated to tlie carriage by means 
 of a handspiki' on each end of the front axle. This | 
 liandspike carries a doulile pawl, which works in \ 
 ratchets or cogs on the truck-wheels. The hand- 
 spike is arranged with a counter])oise. consisting of 
 
 a heavy piece of iron placed on tlie short arm of the 
 lever. See Out of Gear. 
 
 INTRENCH. — To secure a position or body of men 
 against the attack of an enemy, by digging a ditch or 
 trench. An army may intrench itself either hy a con- 
 tinued or an interrupted line; in the former case, the 
 line may be composed of parts so connected as to 
 leave no uncovered space between them; in the lat- 
 ter, those parts maybe isolated from each other, and 
 uncovered intervals left between them. 
 
 INTRENCHED CAMPS.— Troops, when within strik- 
 ing distance of the enemy, should, to avoid the con- 
 sequences of a surprise, be encamped always in order 
 of battle. The modern practice of armies is to in- 
 trench, if encamped even for one night. Such in- 
 trenchments are usually of the slightest and most 
 hastily-constructed kind, merely sufficient to afford 
 shelter against a night attack. The artillery in this 
 case is only that usually accompanying troops on the 
 march, and for it gun-pits will siiftic'c. These are 
 made by simply throwing up the earth in front of 
 each piece so as to foriii for it a crescent-shaped 
 epaidinent. If rails or any similar material are con- 
 venient, a slight revetment may be constructed to 
 support the earth on the side towards the piece. In 
 dry weather the earth may be dug from the inside 
 and thrown up iu front, thus forming a depressed 
 position or hole for the piece to stand iu. The chest 
 of the limber will hold sufficient ammunition for im- 
 mediate use. To protect it. the limber is turned with 
 its po!e//v'»i the piece, and is covered with an epaul- 
 ment similar to that for the gun; or, removing the 
 horses, it may be backed up near to and on one side 
 of the piece, occupying with the latter a portion of 
 the gun-pit. The caissons, horses, and other mate- 
 rial of the battery ma}' be placed in some sheltered 
 position a little way to the rear. The positions oc- 
 cupied by artillery on such a line ought to be those 
 that would be selected for it on any well-arranged 
 line of battle. When, in consequence of attack by 
 the enemy, or of his threatening attitude, the Army 
 stands upon the defensive, the slight intrenchments 
 of a temporary camp are increased and strengthened 
 until they become a sXxons. intrenched line (f battle. 
 See Field-service. Ii^trenchment, Line (f C'ircuntval- 
 lation. and Line of ('oiintei-i'nlltition. 
 
 INTRENCHING-TOOL.— An implement used for in 
 trenching. The value of a hasty intrenchmeut was 
 well understood by the Roman legions, for they exe- 
 cuted works of tills kind, iu the presence of an en- 
 emj', with wonderful skill and rapidity. " It was 
 by movingearth that they conquered the world." Na- 
 polean said. " There are five things from which the 
 soldier must never be separated ; his ammunition, 
 his haversack, )iis rations for four days and an in- 
 trendiiny-tool." 
 
 Never has the utility of rapid field intrenchments 
 been so clearly demonstrated, as in our last war. and 
 never have they been used with greater success. The 
 skill shown in improvising serviceal)le intrenchments 
 was really very astonishing; frequently, for want of 
 spades they used knives, cans, b<iwls— in one word, 
 anytliing that came to hand. The art of utilizing 
 cover is of great importance, and the .soldier who 
 carries in compact form the means of erecting cover 
 at will is inileed fortunate. Whether the soldier 
 shall carry liis intrenching-tool, or have it carried for 
 him ; whetlier only a portion of the troops should 
 carry tools, or wliefher each soldier should carry his 
 own. are questions now under discu.ssion. See 
 Clitz Ititri ncliinfi-tool. Farrow Knife.-troirel and Tent- 
 peg, Tr'iirel H<ii/onet, and Zatinski Intrenching-tool. 
 
 INTRENCHMENT.— Ill a general sense an ii'itrench- 
 ment is any work, consisting of not less than a jiar- 
 apet and a ditch, which fortifies a jxist against the 
 attack of an enemy. As a means of prolonging the 
 <lefensc in a regular work of permanent fortification, 
 intrenchments arc made in various i)iirfs, to which 
 the defenders successively retire wlieii driven in from 
 forwani works. Bastions are ordinarily intrenched
 
 INTREPIDITT. 
 
 125 
 
 INV£IIIO£T OF £FF£CT8. 
 
 at the Rorttc by ii brcrtstwork nnil a rlilcli, forminij 
 citlRT u re-C'iiti-riiii; unfile <ir a kiiuiII fnnil of f(]r(ili- 
 cutioii. Such a work across the uorL'i- of the rcilan 
 at Scliastopol caused tlic repulse of Ihe liritisli attack 
 inScj)!.. IH.iri. A cavalier, with a ditch, is also an 
 intreiicluiieut. An army in the (ielil often strength- 
 ens its position Ijy intrenchinents, as hy a rmiV lined 
 line of parapet and ditch, l)roken into redans and 
 curtains, or liy a line irilh intrrralu, consisting of de- 
 tached works of more or less pretention llunking each 
 other, 
 
 INTREPIDITY.— An uncpialificd contempt of death 
 and inililTcrcnce to fortune, as far as regards person- 
 al safi'lv; a fearlessness of heart, and a darinj; enter- 
 prise of mind. Acconlini; to Kochefoucault, intre- 
 pidity, especially with reijard to military dariii};, im- 
 plies "_^'r«)/i,f'.s.'< of character, jireat dinfiilrnre of mind, 
 and extraordinary strenr/f/i of soul. Buoyed up and 
 supported by these (pialilies (which are sometinu'S 
 natural and sometimes ac(piired), men beconu^ super- 
 ior to every emotion of alarm, and are insensible to 
 those pcrlurliations of tlie heart which the prospect 
 of iinmiiienl danger almost alwaj's en{;en<lers. 
 
 INUNDATIONS.— This obstacle is formed by dam- 
 minu; back a shallow water-course, so as to make it 
 overflow its valley. To be effective, an inundation 
 should be six feet deep. When this depth cdunot be 
 procured, trous-de-loup, or else short ditches, placed 
 in a (|uincun.x order, are dui;, and the whole is cov- 
 ered with a sheet of water, which, at the ditches, 
 nuist be at least six feet in depth. The <liiiim used to 
 form an inundation arc made of good l)inding earth, 
 or of crib-work of logs tilled in with stone, gravel, 
 and earth, or of successive layers of fascines and 
 gravel. If the dams are to stand for some lime tliey 
 maybe faced on the upper side with boards. They 
 cannot, in general, be raised higherthanleii feet: they 
 need not be thicker than tive feet at toji, unless they 
 are exposed to a tire of artillery, in which case they 
 should be regulated in the same way as a parajx't. 
 The slope of the dam down-stream should be the 
 natural slope of the earth; but up-stream the slope 
 sliould Iiave a base twice that of the natural slope. 
 Stuicexare made in the dams, in a similar manner to 
 the sluices of a mill-dam, for the purpose of regulating 
 the level of the water in the pool above, in case of 
 lieavy rains, Wante-ireirx are also serviceable for the 
 same purpose, but unless carefully nuide they may 
 »'ndanger the safety of the dam. The distance of the 
 dams apart will depend on the slope of tlie stream. 
 The level of each pool should be at least eighteen 
 inches below the top of the dam, and thi; depth of 
 water below each dam should be at least six feet. 
 These data will suffice to determine the center line, 
 or oris, of each dam. 
 
 Artificial inundations seldom admit of being turn- 
 ed to an effective use, owing to the ditliculties in 
 forming them, and tlie ease with which they can be 
 drained by the enemy. But when it is practicable 
 to procure only a shallow sheet of water, it should 
 not be neglected, as it will cause some apjirehension 
 to the enemy. In some cases, by damming back a 
 brook, the water may be raised to a level sutlicient to 
 be conducted into the ditches of the work, and ren- 
 der some parts unassailable. The ditches in such 
 cases should be made very wide, and to hold about 
 a depth of six feet. During freezing weather the ice 
 should be liroken in the middle of tlie ditch, and a 
 cliannel of twelve feet at least be kept open, if prac- 
 ticable. The ice taken out should be piled uji irreg- 
 ularly on each side of the channel; and. as a f;irther 
 precaution against a surprise. water should be thrown 
 on tlie parapet to freeze. In a system of inundations 
 the dams should, as far as practicable, be built at 
 points the least exposed to the tire of the assailed. 
 The head of each dam on the side of the enemy 
 should be secured from surprise by a redan, stocc-ade, 
 or other defense, and the dam itself and its approach- 
 es should be swept by musketry and artillery. 
 
 Inundations must be made with great care and 
 
 forethntight. The nature of the soil aid the time 
 necessary to elTcct Ihe re(piir<cl inundation must be 
 particularly noticed. When the supply of water ig 
 small, evaporation and liltnition may become very 
 prejudicial. The (juantity of water (^ furnished per 
 second by u stream is found from the formulas, V= 
 
 wxrlxv; and V=— .OT-t-x/.tXW+I^ia JV^^ '° 
 
 which M represents the width of bed, (I the mean 
 depth, V the mean velocity per second, (' tlie fall. The 
 volume of water may also be calculated by measur- 
 ing the section of the bed, and multijilying it by the 
 iiu'an velocity. The mean velocity \ \\» found from 
 
 the formula V= ^+(^^'— 1)' , in which 7 repre- 
 
 2 
 sents, in inches, the velocity at the surface. In or- 
 dinary weather, the evaporation varies from •ff to A 
 of an inch ]ier day, and tiltration in common soil 
 maybe reckoned at one inch in 12 hours. It is quite 
 dangerous in winter time to till the ditches of field- 
 works with water; and when a garrison is compell- 
 ed to remain a long time in an inundated country, 
 fever does more damage tlian the enemy. See Ac- 
 cesHiiry Meimitdf Defense. 
 
 INVALIDES.- Wounded veterans of the French 
 Army. maiiit;iined at the expense of the State. Many 
 of these old soldiers are ipiartered at the Hotel des 
 Invalides, an Establishment in Paris. See JIutel des 
 IiiritlidiH. 
 
 INVALID ESTABLISHMENT.— An Establisment in 
 the Indian Army for the transfer of officers who may 
 be declared to be unlit for further service. It consists 
 of — 1. The Invalid Battalion: for officers who, al- 
 though disqualitied for further active service, are 
 still equal to the discharge of garrison duties. 2. The 
 Invalid Pension List: for officers disqualified for both 
 active and garrison duties, either from age, wounds, 
 or decline of health. The)- are transferred to this 
 list, as stated in the government order, " Provided 
 their conduct and habits are such as not to affect the 
 character of that Institution, which is designed as 
 an honorable retreat to the worn-out or di.sabled but 
 deserving officers," The several orders issued on the 
 subject of tliis Establishment will be found in the re- 
 gulations applicable to the European officers in In- 
 di;i. part III., by the late G. E. Cochrane, Assistant 
 ililitary Secretary, India Office, and in the orders 
 issued by the Government of India. 
 
 INVALIDING. — A term signifying the return home 
 or to a more healthy climaU', of soldiers or sailors 
 whom wounds or the severity of foreign service has 
 rendered incapable of active duty. The man invalided 
 returns to Iiis duty as soon as his restored liealth 
 justifies the step. 
 
 INVALIDS. — Worn out or maimed soldiers, or tliose 
 who from permanent sickness are unable to remain 
 in the Army, There are some invalids who from 
 change of climate recover their liealth ; these men 
 join the ranks again. In the British service, disabled 
 men are periodically invalided and sent home from 
 India and the Colonies. Besides Chelsea Hospital, 
 for the reception of worn out and disabled men. the 
 Corps of Commissionaires is open to pensioned sol- 
 diers : whilst so attached, they can add to their liveli- 
 hood by giving their services as messengers or watdi- 
 men. JIany invalids, known as Out-penjiionfrs, are 
 allowed to reside where they choose. See Soldiers' 
 Jl'tine^. 
 
 INVASION.— The hostile entrance or attack of an 
 enemy on the dominions of another: the passing of 
 the regular line of frontier of any country, in order 
 to take possession of the interior. 
 
 INVENTORY OF EFFECTS OF DECEASED OFFI- 
 CERS AND SOLDIERS. — In tlie United States Service, 
 in case of death of any officer, the Major of his regi- 
 ment, or the officer doing the JIajor's duty, or the 
 second officer in command at any post or garrison, 
 as the case maj- be, immediately secures all his 
 effects then in camp or quarters, and makes and
 
 IKVEESION. 
 
 126 
 
 IBON. 
 
 transmits to the office of the Department of War, an 
 inventory thereof. The Articles of War also pro- 
 vide that in case of the death of any soldier, the 
 Commanding Officer of his troop, battery, or com- 
 pany shall immediately secure all his effects then in 
 canip or quarters, and shall, in the presence of two 
 other olBcers, make an inventory thereof, which he 
 shall transmit to the office of the Department of 
 War. 
 
 INVERSION.— In tactics, the subdivisions of the 
 unit have their iiabitual position in the order of bat- 
 tle. This is necessary, in order that tlie mechanism 
 of the unit may have that simplicity and uniform- 
 ity in which there will be no difficulty in its being 
 comprehended and retained by ordinary minds, to 
 the end that every movement may be executed with 
 promptitude. Still cases may occur in which the 
 requisite rapidity to meet an attack, or to move in a 
 given direction," cannot be attained without chang- 
 ing the habitual order. Such cases are provided for 
 by what are termed tnvei'sions, in which the subdi- 
 visions temporarily change places and parts. 
 
 Inversions are very important in tlie field, and 
 they offer such great advantages, that Bonaparte 
 strongly advised their employment in many circum- 
 stances. Our tactics admit the employment of in- 
 versions in the formations to the right and left in 
 line of battle, and also in the successive formations, 
 except in that of faced to the rem- into line of battle. 
 
 INVESTMENT.— The main objects of this operation 
 are to cut oil all communication between the garrison 
 and the exterior; to prevent succors of every kind 
 from being thrown into the work; to sweep off every 
 thing in its vicinity that might, in any way, be ser- 
 viceable to the garrison ; and, finally, to cover a close 
 reconnoissance of the defenses by engineer and other 
 officers. For a successful attainment of these ends, the 
 investing force, which should be mainly if not solely 
 composed of cavalry, moves upon the work with celer- 
 ity and seciecy; and, after surrounding and secur- 
 ing all avenues to it, sends out detachments to scour 
 the environs up to the very gates of the work, if prac- 
 ticable, and bring off with them, or destroy, all per- 
 sons, cattle, provisions, etc., met with. A chain of 
 posts and sentinels is in the meantime established in 
 the best positions to prevent all access to the work, or 
 egress from it ; care being taken to select for the posts 
 points which are not exposed to the artillerj' of the 
 ■work, or are beyond its range. The posts occupied 
 by tlie troops during the day-time, and termed the 
 Daily Cordon, are shifted at dark, and points nearer 
 the work are taken up, to form the Nightly Cordon 
 and hem the work in more closely. The posts and 
 sentinels for this purpose should be pushed as far 
 forward as they can find shelters from the musketry 
 of the defenses; and under their protection the re- 
 conuoitering officers should spare no efforts to gain 
 an exact idea of all the ground exterior to the work, 
 and of the cliaracter of the defenses. The main body 
 of the besieging army, with the engineer and artillery 
 siege't rains, follows closely upon the investing corps, 
 to prevent the line taken up by the latter, which, 
 from its extent, is necessarily weak, from being 
 lorced cither by the garrison, or by strong detach- 
 ments from without. The positions for the camps of 
 the various c()r])S are designated by theC'ommand- 
 ing General, after a careful reconnoissance. These 
 are placed bc^yond the range of the heavy artillery of 
 the works, with their color fronts facing from tin- 
 ■works; and, as far as ])racticable, on points favora- 
 ble to the health and comfort of the troojis, and the 
 defense. Whenever natural obstacles, of marshes, 
 rivers, etc, occur between the camps they nuist be 
 crossed by good lines of communication, so that no 
 impediment may Ije offered to the speedy concentra- 
 tion of the troops upon any point tlireatened from 
 ■without. i^ocSier/r. 
 
 IRELAND.- The insignia of Irelau<l have been v.iri- 
 ously given by I'arly writers. In llie reign of Kil- 
 ward IV., a commission api)ointed to inquire what 
 
 were the Arms of Ireland found them to be three 
 crowns in pale. It lias been supposed that these 
 crowns were abandoned at the Reformation, from an 
 idea that they might denote the feudal sovereignty of 
 the Pope, whose Vassal the King of England was, as 
 Lord of Ireland. However, in a MS. in the Herald's 
 College of the time of Henry VII., the Arms of Ire- 
 land are blazoned azure, a harp or. stringed argent; 
 and when they ■were for the first time placed on the 
 royal shield on the accession of James I. they were 
 thvis delineated ; the crest is on a wreath or and azure, 
 a tower (sometimes triple-towered) or, from the port, 
 a hart springing argent. Another crest is a liarp or. 
 The national flag of Ireland exhibits the liarp in a 
 field vert. The Royal Badge of Ireland, as settled by 
 sign.nianual in 1801, is a harp or, stringed argent, 
 and a trefoil vert, both ensigned with the Imperial 
 Crown. 
 
 IRISH BRIGADE.— A body of men who followed 
 the fortunes of James II., and ■n-ere formed into re- 
 giments under the Monarchy of France. 
 
 IRON. — This most important metal in ordnance 
 constructions ■will be most conveniently considered 
 under the two following heads: 1. Chemistry of Iron. 
 Chemicall}- pure iron is of so little general interest 
 that we shall confine our remarks on the properties 
 of this metal to thos* which are exhibited by bar or 
 wrought iron. Its color is gray or bluish-white; it is 
 hard and lustrous, takes a high polish, is fibrous in 
 texture, and when broken across, exhibits a ragged 
 fracture. It requires a very intense heat for its fu- 
 sion, but before melting passes into a soft pasty con- 
 dition, in which state two pieces of iron may, bj- be- 
 ing hammered together, be united or welded so com- 
 pletely as to form, to all intents and purposes, a single 
 portion. At a red lieat. it ma)- be readily forged into 
 any shape; but at ordinary temperatures it possesses 
 verj' little malleability, as compared with gold and 
 silver. In ductility, it stands very high, being bare- 
 ly exceeded by gold, silver, and plafiuum ; and in 
 tenacity, it is'only exceeded by cobalt and nickel. Its 
 susceptibility to magnetism is one of its most remark- 
 able characteristics. At a higli temperature, it burns 
 readily, as may be seen at the forge, or (more strik- 
 ingly) when a glowing wire is iniroduced into a jar 
 of oxygen. In dry air, and at ordinary temperatures, 
 the lustrous surface of the metal remains unchanged; 
 but in a moist atmosphere the surface rapidly be- 
 comes oxidized and covered with rust, which con- 
 sists mainly of the hydrated oxide of iron. At a red 
 heat, iron decomposes water, and liberates hydro- 
 gen, the oxygen combining ■with the iron to form the 
 black or magnetic oxide (Fe^O*), which occurs in 
 minute crystals. This is one of the ordinary methods 
 of obtaining lij'drogen. The affinities of iron for 
 most of the non-metallic elements are very power- 
 ful. The chief of the iron compounds arc— " 
 
 a. Oxides of Iron — Iron forms four definite com- 
 pounds with oxygen — viz. (1), the protoxide (FcO), 
 which is the base of the green or ferro\is salts of iron ; 
 (2), the sesguioxide or peroxide (FCjO,), which is the 
 base of the red or ferric .tolls; (3), the black or inag- 
 netic oxide (Pe,,Oj), which is regarded by some clu'ui- 
 ists as a compound of the two preceding oxides ; and 
 (4), ferric acid (PeOj). The protiKcide cannot be ob- 
 tained in an isolated form, but it forms the base of 
 various ferrous salts, and combines w^itli water to 
 form a hydrate (FeO,HO), which, on the addition of 
 an alkali, falls in white Hakes. The most inqiortant 
 protosalts of iron, or ferrous salts, are Ihe carbonate, 
 the sulphate, the phosphate, and the silicate. Cor- 
 bonate of Jron (FeO,CO„) exists naturally in various 
 minerals, and may be obtained artilicially by precip- 
 itating a soluble protosalt of iron with carbonate of 
 potash or soda, when the carbonate falls in white 
 flakes. On exposure to the air. it absorbs oxygen, 
 and gives off carbonic acid, and is thus converted 
 into Uip hydrated peroxide. Sulphate of irioi (FcO, 
 SO., ■ 7IIO) is obtained by the solution of iron, or its 
 sulphide, in dilute sulphuric acid ; in the former case,
 
 a

 
 IKON. 
 
 127 
 
 IBOK. 
 
 then' is an cvolnlirin of liyflroijfn. and in thf latter, 
 iif sulpluirclcd liyilrii'^icM. On (■vii|i(initiiiii of tlic so- 
 lution, thu salt isolilaini'd in clear 1)1 iiisli-f^rccn rlioni- 
 ■boidal crystals, conlainini? seven atoms of water. 
 This salt is coniniercially Known as copperas or irreen 
 vitriol. P/ionp/iitfe i>f iriin is obtaineil l]y preeipilat- 
 ing a solution of a ])rotosalt of iron with jihosphate 
 of soda, wlien a wliitc- |irecipitat(; of phos|)liat<,' of 
 iron is thrown down. All these salts, especially the 
 carbonate and snlphalc, are extensively used in med- 
 icine. iSiliciifc and pliosphateof iron occur naturally 
 in several minerals. The peraxi'ih of iron, termed 
 also sesquioxide, red oxide, or ferric oxide, is ob- 
 tained in an anhydrous form by igniling the proto- 
 sulphate, and is known in tlie arts under the names 
 colcotlidr, criii'ii.i of Murn, or rouge, according to the 
 degree of levigalion lo which it has been submitted. 
 It is em|)loyed for polisliing glass, jew<dry, etc., and 
 is also used as a pignunl. It oe<'urs both in tlie an- 
 hydrous and in the hydrated form in various miner- 
 als. Tlic hyilrotid ]-ierii-xi(le CiVe.^ii^.ZWO) is obtain- 
 ed by pn^cipitating a solution of a persalt of iron, or 
 of a ferric salt, with an excess of potash, ammonia, 
 or alkaline carbonate. It falls as a yellowish-brown 
 tloeculent jireciiiitate, which when dried forms a 
 (U'lise brown mass. This hydrated peroxide of iron, 
 when freshly i>repared and suspended in water, is 
 regarded as an antidote in arsenical poisoning. Rust, 
 as has been already menlioned, is a hydrated per- 
 oxide, coinliined with a lillle ammonia. The most 
 important of the persalts of iron, or ferric salts, are 
 the neutral and the basic sulphate, whose fornudio 
 are I"e ()„, 380^ and FcoOj, 3S( ).,.nVoA^, respective- 
 ly, the nitrate (Fe.Oj.SNt)- ). the phosphate, and the 
 silicate. The nitrate which is obtained by the solu- 
 tion of iron in nitric acid, is a useful medicnial agent. 
 The blnrk or miiijnetic. oxiilc and ferric (h'iil,-v{\\\i:\\ has 
 not been obtained in a free state, and is only known 
 as a constituent of certain salts, must be passed over 
 without comment. 
 
 h. Haloid salU of iron — the chlorides, bromides, 
 and iodides — next reijuire notice. There are two 
 chlorides — viz., a protoeh'.oride (Pet'l) and a per- 
 chloride or sesquichloride (FeaC'l,,). The latter may 
 be obtained by dissolving peroxide of iron in hydro- 
 chloric acid. The tincture of the sesquichloride of 
 iron is perhaps more generally employed in medi- 
 cine Uian any other preparation of this metal. The 
 protiodide is an extremely valuable therapeutic agent. 
 
 <■. There are probably several sulphides or KiHphu- 
 retH of iron. The ordinary sulphide is a protosulphide 
 (PeS). It occurs in small quantity in meteoric iron. 
 It may be obtained artificially by the direct union of 
 the two elements at a high temperature, or by the 
 precipitation of a protosalt of iron by sulphide of am- 
 monium. It exists in glistening masses, varying in 
 color from a grayish yellow to a reddish brown. It 
 is insoluble in water, but in moist air becomes rap- 
 idly oxidized into protosulphate of iron. With acids, 
 it develops sulphureted hydrogen. The bisulphide 
 of iron(FeS2)isthe rrora p^/v'to of Mineralogists, and 
 the mu?idic of commerce. Under the latter name, it 
 it used extensively in the preparation of oil of vitriol. 
 There are also other sulphides of less importance. 
 
 3. Manufacture of iron — The increasing use of iron 
 is a prominent characteristic of the present age, and 
 every day sees some new application of it in the arts 
 of life. Althougli the most useful of the metals, it 
 was not the first known. The difilculty of reducing 
 it from its ores would naturally make it a later ac- 
 quisition than gold, silver, and copper. The reduc- 
 tion of the ore known as the black oxide of iron, 
 however, has been carried on in India from a very 
 early time. In Europe the rich specular and other 
 ores of Spain and Elba were much used during the [ 
 Roman period ; in Greece, also, iron was known, : 
 tliough, as among the Romans, its use was subse- 
 quent to that of bronze. We are informed, too, by 
 the Roman historians that this nu'tal was employed 
 by the ancient liritaius for tlie manufacture of .>pears [ 
 
 and lances. The Ifomans, during their oc(,ii|ialion 
 of liritaiii, mamifacliireil iroji in a considerable ex- 
 lent, as is ivi<lenceil liy the cindir-heaps in the forest 
 of Dean and other places. 'I'he rudir processes then 
 in use left so much iron in th(' cinilers that those of 
 Dean forest furnished the chief supply of ore to 20 
 furnaces for between 200 and IW) years. In those 
 early times, tb(- iron oris were reduced in a simple 
 contcal furnace, callid an air-bloomery, erected on 
 the top of a hill, in order to obtain the greatest blast 
 of wind. The furnaces were subsequently enlarged 
 and su]iplied wilh an artificial blast. C'lufTCoal was 
 the only fuel used in smelting till 1018, when Lord 
 Dudley introduced coal for this purpose; but the 
 iron-masters being unanimously opposed to the 
 change, Dudley's imiirovement died with himself. It 
 was not reiulrodui'ed till Abraham Derliy, in 1713, 
 ctnployed it in his furnace at Coalbrook ftale. 15ut 
 as this method was not pro|)erly understood, the pro- 
 duction of English iron declined with the change of 
 fuel, till, in 1740, it was only three-fonrlhsof wliat it 
 liad formerly been, Al)out 10 jears after this, how- 
 ever, the introduction of coke gave renewed vigor 
 to the iron-trade, and then followed in rapid succes- 
 sion those great improvements in the manufacture 
 which have given to the history of iron the interest 
 of a romaiue. The introduction of Watt's steam- 
 engine in 1770, the jirocesses of puddling and rolling 
 invented b_v Henry ('ort in 1784, and the employ- 
 ment of the hot-blast byNcilsonof Glasgow in 1830, 
 have each been of inestimable service. The great- 
 est improvement introduced into the iron manufac- 
 ture in recent times is the process of Mr. Bessemer 
 for the production of steel, patented in IS-IO. The 
 "Siemens Martin" method of making steel has also 
 of late come into extensive use. 
 
 Irini ores are abundantly distributed all over the 
 globe; the chief kinds being — 1. Magnetic iron ore ; 
 2. Red hematite, specular, or red iron ore : 3. Rrown 
 hematite, or brown iron ore ; 4. Carbonate of iron, 
 including spathic ore, clay ironstone, and blackband 
 ironstone. The ore richest in the metal is the rung, 
 netic, or Mack oxide of iron. When pure it contains 
 nothing but oxygen and iron, its chemical formula 
 being FejO,, which gives 73 per cent, of iron by 
 weight. It occurs in dark heavj' masses of black 
 crystals, and is found in the old primary rocks. 
 Sweden is famous for this ore, and for the iron pro- 
 duced from it, which is esteemed the best in Europe. 
 The celebrated mines of Dannemora, in that country, 
 have been constantly worked since the l.'ith century. 
 Russia, too, has great iron works in the I'ral Moun- 
 tains, which are supplied with this ore. So, also, 
 have Canada and several of the American States, as 
 Virginia, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, etc. The rock 
 formations in which magnetic iron ore occurs very 
 rarely contain coal, hence it is almost always smelted 
 with wood-charcoal, which, as it contains no sul- 
 phur, is one great cause of the superiority of the 
 iron produced from it. lied henuttiU differs from 
 the last only in containing proportionally a little more 
 oxygen, its formula being PeoOs, that is to say, 70 
 per cent, of iron by weigiit. There are several Vari- 
 eties of this ore, but only two need be referred to. 
 The first of these, ■specular iron, so called from its 
 bright metallic luster, occurs in large and beautiful 
 crystalline masses in the Island of Elba, where it has 
 been worked for more than 2.000 years, and is like- 
 wise found in many other parts of the world. It is 
 of a stecl-graj- color, assuming a red tint in tliin frag- 
 ments and when scratched. "^ The other variety Is 
 kidiuy ore, whose origin is still a curious problem, 
 as its deposits occur sometimes in veins and some- 
 times in apparently regular beds. Its characteristic 
 form is in large kidney-shaped nodules, with a fine 
 radiated .stnicture. This shape, however, is only 
 assumed in the cavities of massive deposits. Red 
 hematite is sometimes called blood-stone. It is used 
 for polishing metals, and yields a blood-red powder, 
 used as a pigment. This valuable iron ore is found
 
 I30H. 
 
 128 
 
 IRON 
 
 in many Countries, Ijui in few places in greater abim- 
 
 flance than at Whitehaven and Ulverstone, in Eng- 
 land, where splendid masses of it occur, 15, 30, and 
 even 60 feet in thickness. 
 
 Brmm hematite, or brown iron ore, is hydrated 
 peroxide of iron, and has the same composition as 
 red hematite, except that it contains about 14 per 
 cent, of water. It is generally found massive, more 
 rarely crystalline, and a variety occurring in small 
 rounded nodules is called pea iron ore. When mixed 
 with earth or clay, it forms the pigments yellow och- 
 er and brown umber. Brown hematite is now an im- 
 portant ore in Great Britain, about 3,000,000 tons 
 being annually raised. It occurs in different geolog- 
 ical formations, chiefly in Devonshire, the forest of 
 Dean, South Wales, and in Antrim, in Ireland ; also 
 in an earthy form in Northamptonshire. It is the ore 
 chiefly smelted in France and German}'. Bag iron 
 ore is a variety of brown hematite, usually contain- 
 ing phosphorus, which occurs in marshy districts of 
 recent formation. Carbonate, of iron, when found 
 in a comparatively pure crystallized state, is known 
 as spathic, spathoxe, or .ipari^y iron ore ; but when im- 
 pure and earthy, as clay iron.<<tiine &nd lilackfia?id iron- 
 utone. Spathic ore was little worked in England pre- 
 vious to 1851. soon after which it was discovered in 
 Somersetshire. It forms mountain masses in various 
 parts of Prussia and Austria, and is now much in de- 
 mand to yield the spiegeleisen required in the Besse- 
 mer process. In its purest form it contains 48 per 
 cent, of iron; and m color it varies from white to buff 
 or dark brown, some specimens of it taking a beau- 
 tiful polish and looking like marble. The clay and 
 blackband ironstones are essentially mixtures of car- 
 bonate of iron with clay, blackband having also a 
 considerable proportion of coaly or bituminous mat- 
 ter. These dull earthy-looking ores occur abun- 
 dantly in Great Britain, and form, after coal, the 
 greatest of her mineral treasures. Fully one-third of 
 all the ore mined in the country is obtained from the 
 coal-measures, where fortunately both the fuel and 
 the limestone, indispensable for the reduction of the 
 iron, are also found. The ore occurs as balls or no- 
 dules in the shales, or in continuous beds. Some of 
 these seams are full of fossil shells, and the ore is then 
 called " musselband " ironstone. 
 
 Iron ore is still reduced to some extent in Europe 
 liy the old and imperfect process of the Catalan forge, 
 not unlike a common smith's forge. In America, 
 however, as well as in all other Countries where iron 
 is largely smelted, the blast-furnace is now univer- 
 .sally employed, by means of which the metal is ob- 
 tained in the state of crude or cast iron. For the fin- 
 er kinds of iron, charcoal is the fuel employed, be- 
 cause, unlike coal or coke, it contains no sulphuret 
 of iron or other injurious ingredients. The Kussian 
 and Swedish furnaces smelt with charcoal, and on 
 this, as much as on their pure ores, depends the high 
 reputation of their iron. A solitary charcoal-furnace 
 at Ulverstone iu England, and another at Lorn in 
 Scotland, are still working — the only relics of times 
 past, when this was the only fuel employed. 
 
 As a preliminary process to the actual smelting in 
 the blast furnace, clay and blackband ironstones are 
 generally roasted. This is accomplished by breaking 
 the ore into small pieces, spreading it in open heaps 
 on the ground, and mingling it more or less with 
 small ciimI according to the nature of the ore. BlacI:. 
 band commonly contains enough of carbonaceous 
 matter to burn without the addition of coal. The 
 Iiile. which ma}' contaiu from one to several thousand 
 Ions of ore, is liglitcd at the windward end, and 
 burns gradually along, aided by occasional fires 
 in tlie sides, uiilil the whole heap has undergone 
 cah'iiiaUon, the time reijuircd for lliis purpose being 
 generally about a moi.th. Sometimes tlie ojieralion of 
 roasting is performed in close kilns instead of open 
 heaps, a mode by which the ore is considered to be 
 more uniformly roasted, and with cimsideralily less 
 fuel. Of late years, the kilns are often heated by the 
 waste gases of the blast-furnace. Hv calcination.
 
 IBON. 
 
 12'J 
 
 IBOM 
 
 <'lay ironstnno Iospr from Sil to 30, and Mackband 
 from 40 to 50 per cent, of its wci^lil, llir I<jss consist, 
 ini; cliictly of corljoiiic acid and water, t)iit sidpliiir 
 and other volatile siil)staiiccs arc also dissipatc(l in 
 the proccs.s. The roastini; also coriv<Tl.H the proto.^c- 
 ide and corbonate of iron into peroxide, whifdi pre- 
 vents the formation of any slans of Hilieate of iron, 
 such slags, owing to the dittkrulty of reducing them, 
 causing a loss of iron. In Kngland the rich ores like 
 the magnetic or red hematite are not subjected to 
 calcination, but they are so in Sweden. 'I'lie ohhT 
 type of blast-furnace consists of a massive tower of 
 Btone or brick-work strengthened with iron liinders; 
 the newer plan is to build it of comparatively thin 
 brick-work, and surround it entirely with strong ircjn 
 plates. In either case an inner linini; of refractory 
 fire-brick is given to it, which is separated from the 
 outer portion of the wall by a narrow space tilled 
 with sand. Internally they vary very nuu-li in 
 form, l)Ut jierhaps the liarrel sha]ie is the most ])rev- 
 alent. and most of them contract towards tht^ bottom 
 in the shape of an inverted cone. Recent ones have 
 been built from 80 to 100 feet in height, instead of 
 not more than (iO as formerly. The blast-pipe, with 
 its tuyere-branches, surrounds tin- heartli, and on 
 one side there is a recess and openings for running 
 off the metal and slag. Fig. 1. shows the construc- 
 tion of the Higelow furnace or cupola, and will serve ; 
 to illustrate the modern advancement in this line. i 
 
 The operation of smelting is thus jierformed: The ' 
 roasted ore, coal and lime (Hux) arc either hoisted, or, i 
 if the nature of the ground permits, moved along a ' 
 platform or gangway to the gallery near the top of i 
 the furnace, and fed into it at intervals through the ' 
 openings in the side, when the mouth is open, or by \ 
 lowering the cone, when the mouth is closed. We may ' 
 here state that the furnace is kept continually l)urn- i 
 ing except when under repair. The materials are of [ 
 cour.se raised to a very high heat, and gradually fuse 
 into a softened mass. The clay of the ironstone then 
 unites with the lime to form a coarse glass or slag, 
 the oxide of iron at the same lime gives up its oxygen 
 to the fuel, and allows the metal itself to collect 
 on the hearth at the bottom of the furnace, imited 
 with from 3 to ."ji per cent, of carbon, whicli it takes 
 from the fuel, forming the variety called cast-iron. 
 Every 13, and sometimes every 8 hours, the metal is 
 run olf from the furnace, by means of a tap-hole at 
 the bottom of the heartli, into rows of parallel molds, 
 called pigs, which are formed in the sand, hence the 
 name "pig-iron." The slag which floats on the melt- 
 ed iron is run otf by an opening at the top of the 
 hearth. If the furnace is working well, the slag 
 should be of a light-gray color: any dark-ljrown or 
 black color shows that too much iron is passing into it. 
 The quantity of materials necessary to yield a ton 
 of pig-iron may be taken roundly as follows: 2 tons 
 of calcined ironstone: 2i tons of coal, of whicli about 
 8 cwts. are taken for the blowing-engine and hot-air 
 pipes; and 12 to 16 cwts. of broken limestone. The 
 proportions, however, vary in different districts ac- 
 cording to the nature of the fuel and ore. The week- 
 ly produce of a single blast-furnace varies extremely 
 — from under 100 to more than 500 tons in some of 
 the larger furnaces. 
 
 Different districts classify their pig-irons in slight- 
 ly different ways, but, as a rule. No. 1 to No. 4 are 
 known as gray iron. No. lis largest and brigliest 
 in the grain, brings the highest price, and is best 
 adapted for fine castings. Nos. 2, ii, and 4 become 
 successively less in the grain, of a duller luster, and 
 lighter in color, but up to No. 3 are known as foun- 
 dry pigs. After No. 4 the metal ceases to be gray, 
 and though higher numbers are sometimes em- 
 ployed, the other qualities are more usually known 
 as forge, mottled, and white pig-iron. Gr;iy iron has 
 its carbon partly in the chemically combined, but 
 chierty in the uncombinedor graphitic state, and re- 
 quires a higher temperature to melt it than white 
 iron, though very fluid when melted. White iron 
 
 has its carbon wholly in llie combined state, and is 
 chielly available for conversion into malleable iron. 
 I lematite pig-iron suitable for making JSessemer steel 
 has an exceptionally high Viilue. The hot-blast pro- 
 cess whicli has be<'n described before was intro- 
 duced in 1830 by Mr. James H. Neilsrm, of Glasgow, 
 and has been productive of very remarkable effects 
 on the iron trade. The whole invention consists In 
 simply heating tlii> air blown into the furnace, and 
 yet the saving of fuel by this is about one half, and 
 the proiliiction of iron, since it came into use, has 
 enormously increased. The "cold-blast" is still, 
 however, to a limited extent employed, and produces 
 the strongest iron, though necessarily at a much 
 higher cost. The difference in quality appears to be 
 caused by the greater heat in the case of the hot 
 blast facilitating the passage of impurities into the 
 iron. Of late years much attention has been given 
 to plans for saving fuel in the lilast-furnace. Prev- 
 ious to the introduction of the hot-blast as much as 
 8 tons of coal, as coke, were consumed for every ton 
 of i)ig-iron made. Even when this is reduced to un- 
 der 3 tons of raw coal per ton of pig-iron, fully 
 three-fourths of all the heat produced is still wasted 
 in open-mouthed furnaces. The method of saving 
 the waste gases byclf)sing the mouth of the furnace, 
 now generally adopted when coke is used is attend- 
 ed with so much economy, that, in the Cleveland 
 district alone, over 600,000 tons of coal yearly are 
 saved by adopting it. There being a difficulty in 
 closing the mouth of the furnace when raw coal is 
 used. Mr. Ferric, of Monkland, a short time ago, 
 patented a self-coking blast-furnace, by which, a- 
 mong other advantages, the gases can be saved. It 
 has now been in use for some years in Scotland, 
 and produces a ton of pig-iron with 34 instead of 53 
 cwts, of coal previously required. Raising the tern- 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 perature of the blast from 900° to 1000° F. has 
 also been attended with a saving, and so likewise, in 
 some districts, has an addition to the height of 
 the furnace. 
 
 It will be readily understood that there is a cer- 
 tain degree of heat necessary to be maintained in a cu- 
 (lola to melt the largest amo"unt of iron in the shortest 
 time, with the least amount of fuel, as a ton of coal 
 might be consumed without melting a single pound 
 of Iron if the temperature is not sufficiently elevat- 
 ed. It will be equally apparent, that any depart- 
 ure from the proper temperature, will just to that 
 degree occasion loss in all these respects. To secure 
 the best results, the proportions between the amount 
 of iron to be melted, the fuel used, and the quantity 
 of air supplied in a given time, should be fixed and 
 unvarying. This can only be done by a machine 
 ffiving" a force blast, as with Blowing Cylinders, or 
 Hoot's Rotarj- Blower, which measures and forces
 
 IRON. 
 
 130 
 
 ntoB. 
 
 forward a definite quantity of air every revolution, 
 so tliiit wlien by experiment the maximum result is 
 obtained, it can always be maintained at tliat point 
 witl'.out any variation whatever. As a fan does not 
 give a force blast, the quantity of air delivered varies 
 with every chanffc of condition, with the manner of 
 charging the cupola, the kind of iron or fuel used, 
 and the amount of stock in tlie cupola — but, more 
 than by all other causes combined, the slag or cin- 
 
 justment whatever. This arrangement obviates the 
 necessity of taking the blower apart to renew tlie 
 journal-boxes, as was necessary with machines built 
 at an early date, thus saving much trouble and ex- 
 pense. It will be observed by an examination of the 
 internal parts of this Positive Blower, as shown in 
 Fig. 2, that it does not operate at all on the principle 
 of a fan. that is, by imparting momentum to tlie air 
 by running at a great velocity, but by a regular dis- 
 
 ders in the cupola. As it becomes foul, and the 
 tuyeres become obstructed, the blast constantly di- 
 minishes, until melting in many cases entirely ceases, 
 and it becomes necessary to drop the bottom. Thus 
 the conditions absolutely necessary to secure uni- 
 form results can never be obtained with a fan blast, 
 as no certain supply of air can ever be predicated 
 upon the operation of a fan. A force blast, on the 
 contrary, helps to keep the tuyeres open and free 
 from ollstruction : but in case of their being obstruct- 
 ed, the pressure is increased by the obstruction, and 
 the same amount of air still continues to be forced 
 through the diminished openings, and must con- 
 tinue to do so, or the machine must stop. With a 
 fan this is not the case. Only a limited pressure 
 can be obtained, and when this is reached, diminish- 
 ing the outlet does not iu the least degree increase 
 the pressvire, but rather the reverse. The Piston 
 Blower undoubtedly gives a force blast, and, when 
 properly arranged, is far superior to any species of 
 fan whatever, but not nearly so good as the Rotary 
 Blower for cupolas, for the following reasons, viz. : 
 The blast is irregular and comes in puffs with every 
 motion of the piston, and requires a large receiver to 
 equalize the blast ; this is both bulky and expensive. 
 In addition to this, the machinery and fixtures are 
 heavy and cumbrous, requiring a large amount of 
 power to operate them. Besides, their cost is so 
 great as to place them beyond the range of the large 
 majority of establishments. 
 
 The importance of a force blast will be more fully 
 realized when we consider the enormous amount of 
 air required in the combustion of coal in melting iron. 
 Accurate experiments have shown that about 33.000 
 cubic feet of airare consumed in melting a ton of iron. 
 which, if reduced to a solid, would weigh about 3,600 
 pounds, or 1,200 lbs. more than both the iron and 
 coal. The melting point of cast iron is about 3.800'-', 
 and a considerably higher temperature tlian this is 
 required to render the iron perfectly Huid. Root's 
 Rotary Blower is shown iu sectiimin Fig. 2. These 
 famous Blowers have the improved arrangement for 
 journal boxes, shown in Fig. 3. The box consists of 
 two parts — the thimble or bearing, and the box pro- 
 per. The bearings are made of phosphor or carbon- 
 bronze. The thimble or lining is bored out to fit the 
 journal with perfect accuracy, and is also turned otf 
 inn the outside so as to be precisely (■ou<-entric wilh 
 the shaft. The l)iix which holds the lining or bear- 
 ing IS also bored out to the exact size to receive tlie 
 bi'arimi, which is I'leld from turning by set-screws in 
 the cap. The advantages of this arrangement are 
 that, if from gross neglect or inattention the journal- 
 boxes have been allowed to cut or wear, and need re- 
 newal, it is only necessary to remove the caii and 
 push the lower half of the bearing out, inserting the 
 upper half or a new one in its place. Thislirings the 
 sliaft exactly iu its original position, without any ad- 
 
 placement of the air at each revolution, whether it 
 runs fast or slow. When the air enters the case at 
 the opening for induction, and is closed in by the 
 wings of the revolvers, it is absolutely confined, and 
 positively forced forward until brought to the educ- 
 tion pipe, where it must be discharged or the ma- 
 chine stop if perfectly tight, as there can be no back- 
 ward escapement of the air after it once enters the 
 case, the contact being kept up at all times in the 
 center of the blower between the pistons, or revol- 
 vers, thus preventing any escape of the air in that 
 direction. 
 
 We pass now to the consideration of malleable or 
 wrought iron. It differs from cast-iron in being al- 
 most I'ree of carbon. The great object iu the pro- 
 cesses adopted for the conversion of cast into malle- 
 able iron, accordingly, is to deprive the former of 
 its carbon. But it is also very desirable to get rid 
 of deleterious ingredients, such as silicon, sulphur, 
 and phosphorus, which latter are generally present 
 in minute quantities in the cast-iron The ordinary 
 processes for the manufacture of malleable iron are 
 refining, puddling, x/iingling or hammiriitg, and roll- 
 ing. The refinery consists of a flat hearth, covered 
 with sand or loam, and surrounded with metal 
 troughs, through which a stream of water is con- 
 stantly flowing, to keep the sides from melting. 
 The cast-iron is melted with coke on the hearth, and 
 a blast of air kept blowing over it, which causes its 
 carbon to unite with the o.xygen of the air. and pass 
 off as carbonic oxide gas. Oxygen also unites with 
 silicim to form silica, and with iron to form the ox- 
 ide. The silica of the sand uniting with oxide cf 
 iron, produces a slag of silicate of iron. The refined 
 metal is finally run out in cakes on a bed of cast-iron, 
 kept cool by a stream of water. Being only partial- 
 ly decarbonized by this process, it is next broken up 
 for the puddling furnace. About 10 per cent of iron 
 is lost in the refinery. 
 
 White pig-iron, or at least such kinds as contain car- 
 bon in the combined state only, are best suited tor 
 puddling, because they become pasty, and so more 
 easily worked than gray iron containing grn]ihitic 
 carbon, which does not soften into this condition pre- 
 vious to fusion. It is only in some districts that the 
 '■ refining" process is much used, iu others a portion 
 only of tlie puddling furnace charge is refined : and 
 iu making inferior kinds of malleable iron, the ])ig- 
 iron is not previously refined at all. Tlu're are two 
 ways of puddling now practical ; the firsi or older 
 way best aiiplicable to refined iron, is called dn/ /iiid- 
 dtinr/, and in it the decarburizalion is|)ro(hice(l cliief- 
 ly by a strong current of air passing through the fur- 
 nace: the second or newer process, is called irt't pud- 
 dling or hiiiling. iu which case the oxidizing of the 
 lartxm is effected chiefly by hematite, magnetic ore. 
 basic slags, and other easily reduci'd materials, but 
 to some extent also by the air. The operation of
 
 noN. 
 
 131 
 
 IBOV. 
 
 puddling, Ihdiiuli dilTrriii;; in ilctiiils iiccordini; In 
 ciri;umHliinc(!rt, in in ;i general wny condiiflcil uk fol- 
 lows : A cliarnc of from 4) to. I c wis. of rnctiil, iin-iud- 
 inj; some liiiiunicr slut; and iron scale, is |)la<'i'd on 
 tlio bed of tile fiirnare while still hot from previous 
 workinj;. In about half an hour, when the fur?uiee 
 is in workiiic; order, Ibeehari^e is niellcd, anil is then 
 stirred or "rabble<l" for a eonsider.'ible lime, when 
 it bef^iiis to "boil" by tint formalicjn and escape of 
 carbonic oxide, which forms jets of Idue llame all 
 over the surface, (iradually, us the carbon of the 
 pig-iron is more and more oxidi/.eil, pasty masses of 
 malleable iron separate, and these' an^ removed in 
 balls commonly wei^hini; about HO lbs,, but some- 
 times larijer. About an hour anil a half is recjuired 
 to work olf a chari;e,and it takes from '22to '30 cwls. 
 of i)ii;-iron lo jiroducea Ion of malleable iron. Sie- 
 men's rei^cneralive )j;as-funiaci', in which inferior 
 fuels can be utilized, is applied to puddlinu;as well us 
 toother metallurgical processes ; atul Hie more recent 
 revolving ])uddling furnace of Mr. Danks is the most 
 promising of any of the attempts yet made to ]iudille 
 iron by mechanical means. The process inunedialely 
 following the puddling or boiling is called " shing- 
 ling," and consists in hanunering tli<' puddled balls 
 with either the helve or sleam-hanniier, or in passing 
 them through a squeezer till they an; sulticienlly con- 
 solidated, and the greater part of the cinders forced 
 out. For a description of the steum-hununer, wliich 
 is nuicli used for heavy forgingsas well us forshing- 
 liug, see that liead. Puddled lialls which have under- 
 
 fniie the process of shingling are called .v/a/wor hhuimii. 
 'hese are next passed through heavy rollers termed 
 '• forge " or " puddle-bar rolls." and reduced to the 
 form of a flat bar. For all the better kinds of iron 
 the bars thus treated arc cut into short lengths, piled 
 together, reheated in a furnace, and again passed 
 through the forge rolls. Once more the iron is cut, 
 piled, and lieated, and is then passed through tlie 
 " mill-lruin," consisting of what are termed the "bolt- 
 ing" or " rough rolls," and finally through the " tin- 
 ishiiig rolls." Both tliese sets of rolls in the case of 
 plates and sheets are plain, but in the case of bars 
 are grooved, so as to form them into the required 
 sliape, sueli as flat, square, round, octagonal, or T- 
 shaped iron. 
 
 There is still another important variety of iron, 
 viz., uteel, the manufacture of which remains to be 
 described. Steel diflers from malleable iron in con- 
 taining a varying proportion of carbon, usually from 
 .5 to 1.8 per cent. When rich in carbon, it closelj' 
 resembles cast-iron in composition, except that it is 
 more free from impurities. Steel can be made by 
 adding carbon during the direct reduction of a pure 
 iron ore in a furnace or crucible, but the results of 
 this method are scarcely ever uniform. The liner 
 kinds of steel are still made by the old cementation 
 process — that is, by the roundabout plan of Hrst con- 
 verting cast into malleable iron, by depriving the 
 former of its carbon, and then adding carbon again 
 by heating the iron ■with charcoal. In making any 
 kind of steel, however, the getting rid of silicon, 
 phosphorus, and sulphur is as important, anil a mat- 
 ter of moreditliculty than the securing of any requir- 
 ed proportion of carbon. As blistered steel is full 
 of cavities, it is neces.sary to render it dense and uni- 
 form, especially for the finer purposes towdiich steel 
 is applied. By one method it is converted into what 
 is called "shear steel." This is done by breaking 
 the bars of blister steel into short lengths, heating 
 them in bundles, and partially welding with a forge- 
 hammer. The rod so formed is heated again, and 
 now brought under the action of the tilt-hammer. 
 Here, by a succession of blows, it is formed into 
 bars, which are much more compact and malleable 
 than blister steel, and consequently lietter fitted for 
 edge-tools and the like. If the single-shear steel is 
 doubled upon itself, and again welded and drawn 
 into bars, it is called double-shear steel. By another 
 method, viz., that of melting the blister steel in fire- 
 
 clay crucibles, and casting it into ingots, " cast-steel " 
 is made. This is the Itest kind of steel, being finely 
 granular, homogeneous, dense, and well adapted for 
 the finest culling instruments. 
 
 Hieel is now largely made dirielly from pig-iron by 
 ])udilling, much in the same way us that proci'ss is 
 applied to Ihe production of malleable iron. By an- 
 other plan (Tehulius's process;, pig-iron isgrainilat- 
 ed and heuleil in a crucible with the oxides of iron 
 and manganese, and fire-clay, the result being cast- 
 sleel This process has succeeded well in Sweden. 
 The Siemens-Marlin proc('Ss consists in melting pig- 
 iron along with malleulile iron and Bessemer steel 
 scruj), about 7 per cent of spiegeleisen being added 
 towards Ihe end of Ihe pror-ess. The operation is 
 condneted in Ihe Siemens regenerative furnace, and 
 the product in Ihiscase is also cast-steel. There are 
 also several moilesof munufacliiringsteel direct from 
 the ore, such as by the old way in the Catalan forge, 
 and by Chenot's jirocess, in which liydrocarbons are 
 used. It would appear from the results of recent 
 experiments made on the large scale ut Middlesbor- 
 ougli, that Alessrs. Thomas & (lilchrist have succeed- 
 eil, by a comparatively simple device, in practically 
 eliminating the phosphorus frem Cleveland pig-iron 
 during the conversion of the latter into steel in the 
 Bessemer converter. Tlie great importance of this 
 discovery will be at once understood when we state 
 that the Cleveland iron is the cheapest inUreat Brit- 
 ain, and that the Cleveland ore yields one-fourth of 
 all Ihe iron made in the Country. Hitherto it has 
 not been remunerative to make steel from this pig- 
 iron on account of the exceptionally high percentage 
 of phosphorus it contains, und the ditficulty there 
 has been of removing an ingredient so deleterious to 
 steel. Success, however, husat length been achieved 
 by obtaining, through the use of lime and oxide of 
 iron, a basic slag in the cimverter, and by lining this 
 ves.sel with bricks made chiefly of magnesian lime- 
 stone, fired at a very higli heal. A basic lining is 
 given to the converter instead of the ordinary silice- 
 ous one, which is acid, and so a base is furnished 
 with which the phosphoric acid can combine with- 
 out the certainity of the lining being eaten away by 
 the basic slag, as would be the case when thislining 
 is siliceous. It is only as respects the nature of the 
 slag in the converter, and the kind of lining used for 
 this vessel, that Thomas & Gilchrist's mode of mak- 
 ing steel, as far as it has yet been tried, dilTers from 
 Bessemer's ; except that for the latter a high-priced 
 pig-iron is required. Of course steel can be made by 
 the new process from other low-priced irons besides 
 Cleveland. 
 
 We will now take a glance at the properties of 
 each of the three principal kinds ofiron.and the pur- 
 poses to which it is chiefly aiijilied. Cnst-iron. as 
 the crudest, cheapest, and most fusible, is used, as a 
 general thing, for the heavy portions of all engineer- 
 ing and ordnance work, such as the bed-plates for 
 machines, cylinders, columns, cisterns, low-pressure 
 boilers, water and gas pipes, rollers, girders, and a 
 large variety of the like. A large quantity is also 
 consumed in the manufacture of " hollow-ware." 
 which includes pots, pans, and other cooking vessels. 
 For all kinds of ornamental objects, again, it is al- 
 most exclusively used, because liere its property of 
 being readily cast into molds gives it a great advan- 
 tage on the score of cheapness. Malleable iron dif- 
 fers considerably in its properties from cast iron. 
 The latter is practically incompressible, but it can be 
 comparatively easily torn asunder. JIallcable iri>n, 
 on the contrary, possesses great tenacity ; it is, more- 
 over, very malleable and ductile, especially at a high 
 temperature, so that it can be rolled into sheets as 
 thin as paper, or drawn into the finest wire. Fur- 
 ther, it possesses the valuable property of welding — 
 that is, two pieces can be completely united togeth- 
 er by hammering at a white heat. Malleable iron is 
 largelj- employed for the inmmierable variety of arti- 
 cle included under the general term "hardware,"
 
 lEON CLAD OATH. 
 
 132 
 
 IBOH CLAD TEAIHS. 
 
 such as locks, keys, hinges, bolts, nails, screws, wire- 
 work, and the so-called tin-plate, which is merely 
 sheet-iron dipped in melted tin. It is the mainstaj'of 
 the railways and the electric telegraph, and has almost 
 displaced timber as a material for steamships and 
 saiRng-vessels. It is also much used for roofs and 
 bridges of large size. Rolled armor-plates for war- 
 ships and fortifications are now made of malleable 
 iron from 5 to 23 inches thick. Steel possesses sev- 
 eral valuable properties which do not belong to either 
 cast or wrought iron. It is harder, denser, and 
 whiter in color. It is also more elastic, takes a higher 
 polish, and rusts less easily. Like malleable iron, it 
 IB also weldable. But its most characteristic proper- 
 ty consists in its admitting of being tempered at will 
 to any degree of hardness. If, for instance, a piece 
 of steel be heated to redness and plunged into water, 
 it is made hard and brittle ; but if it be again heated 
 and slowly cooled, its original softness is restored. 
 B}' gently reheating the steel it will acquire a grada- 
 tion of tints indicating various degrees of hardness, 
 beginning with pale straw color, and passing succes- 
 si\'ely to full yellow, brown, purple, and finally blue. 
 The straw color is the resL'it of a temperature of 
 440°, and the blue 570" F., the former being the hard- 
 est and the latter the softest tempering. The use of 
 steel is no longer confined to such small articles as 
 files, edge-tools, knives, etc. By means of improved 
 machinery and processes, steel is at present manu- 
 factured on a scale that was little dreamed of thirty 
 years ago, so that such objects as field-guns, heavy 
 shafting, tires, rails, armor-plates, and the like are 
 now being made of this material. The superior ten- 
 sile strength of steel, which is about double that of 
 malleable iron, gives it a great advantage where 
 lightness is required. Large numbers of steamships 
 are now building of steel. See Cannon-metals, Cast- 
 iroii. Metallurgy, Piling, Puddling, Rolling-mill, 
 Smelting, Steel, Welding, and Wrong fit-iron. 
 
 IRON-CLAD OATH.— An oatli of allegiance prescrib- 
 ed by Statute of the United States, for those taking of- 
 fice under the National or State Government, in ac- 
 cordance with the provisions of the 14th Amendment 
 to the Constitution. The oath as administered reads 
 as follows : 
 
 "I, , residing at , do 
 
 solemnly swear that I have never voluntarily borne 
 arms against the United States since I have been a 
 ctlzen thereof ; that I have voluntarily given no aid, 
 
 I take this obligation freely, without any mental res- 
 ervation or purpose of evasion; and that I will well 
 and faithfully discharge the duties of the.ofilce on 
 which I am about to enter. So help me God." 
 
 Sworn to before me, this day of , ) 
 
 188—. - 
 U. S. Commissioner. ) 
 
 This oath is still administered to officers under the 
 U. S. Government, but its application has been re- 
 stricted by special Acts of Congress, relieving, in 
 certain instances, classes and individuals from the 
 effect of its provisions. 
 
 IRON-CLAD TRAINS.— Trains were iitilized as a 
 means of reconnoitering during the American war of 
 Secession, and during the v.-ar of 1870-71 , in Europe, 
 but no heavier guns than those usually employed as 
 field artillery were mounted on them. Recently, 
 however, it has been demonstrated that guns as heavy 
 as a 40-pounder may be mounted and fought on trains 
 with satisfactory results, there being little or no 
 straining in either the trucks or rails. Experience 
 has shown the following to be the best way of mak- 
 ing up the train : 1st truck, empty, so as to guard 
 against the Line being mined. 2d truck, a machine- 
 gun in front, spare rails for repairing the line. 3d 
 truck, spare rails, bowls, chairs, etc., for repairing 
 the line. 4th truck, 40-pr. gun and crew. .5th truck, 
 ammunition wagon. This is protected all round by 
 thin iron, and the magazine is covered in front by a 
 pile of short railway iron a little higher than a pow- 
 der-case. On each side is a baulk of timber, and on 
 top a layer of rails, three or four of which are bolted 
 down. The powder is in half metal-lined cases. This 
 truck also contain fuses, tin cups, tools, four cases of 
 wet and one of dry gun-cotton, Bickford's fuse, de- 
 tonators, lantern and candles, slings for lifting the 
 guns and carriage, bearers for the gun, a collapsible 
 boat, stretchers, ana arm-racks for the covering party 
 of twenty-eight men. 6th truck, protected with thin 
 iron plates, carrjing two Catlings with their crews. 
 7th truck, two 9-prs. with their limbers, two 7-prs. 
 and their crews. 8th truck, steam-crane. 9th en- 
 gine, protected with railway iron laid horizontally 
 along the boiler, |-inch and f-inch iron plates round 
 the working parts, and sand-bags. lOth truck, pro- 
 tected by iron plates, carrying the covering party, 
 and with a Galling in rear. A reserve engine always 
 followed, usually on the other line, and if necessary 
 brought up another train with a battalion. 
 
 countenance, counsel, or encouragement to persons 
 engaged in armed hostility thereto; that I have 
 neithe; sought, nor accepted, norattempted to exer- 
 cise the functions of any office whatever under any 
 authority or pretended authority in hostility to the 
 United States ; that I have not yielded a voluntary 
 support to any pretended government, authority, 
 power, or constitution within the United States, ho.s- 
 tile or 'nimical thereto. And I do further swear that, 
 to the best of my knowle<lgc and ability. I will sup- 
 port and defend the Constitution of the United States 
 against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I 
 will bear true faith and allegiance to the same ■ that 
 
 During the recent Egyptian Campaign, the English 
 mounted a 9-inch Armstrong M. L. R. gun in tlie 
 manner described, and shown in the drawing. A 
 truck, which had been constructed some time back 
 to transport a 26-ton boiler from Alexandria to Suez, 
 was found in the store and appropriated. It was 
 longer than the ordinary trucks, and much stronger 
 b\iilt. running on eight wheels close together, and 
 with especially constructed springs. Three baulks 
 of timber were placed across the front part of the 
 truck, and bolted through the Moor. A J inch iron 
 plate, two feet wide, was bent over these, and bolted 
 to the bottom of the truck, and in the center f o this
 
 IBON CROSS. 
 
 133 
 
 IBEEOULAB SITES. 
 
 plalfonii till' pivoliiiK bolt rt WHS pliiccd. Asii niipimrl 
 a pifcc of |-iii<li iron, four inclics wide whhI'i.ximI to 
 the lop of the liolt, when the bars were in position, 
 and iiiso bolted under the earriaiir'. h. The slide, 
 which was of the lanil servic'e patlern with hii^h rol- 
 lers, hail toliernt <lown so as to brini; the weif,'lit as 
 low as |)ossible. 'I'Ik' rollers weri' tiiUen olT and the 
 axeltrees cut. An extempore rear-axle was made ont 
 of a bar of iron, and the rear rollers of a lO-inch nun 
 carriage were used as rear-slide rolh^rs, the fore part 
 of the slide workin;; without rollers, on an iron skid 
 plate. The rear rollers were so fur forward that the 
 slide was very liable to tip up when the i^un recoiled 
 — in fact, several j^uns were disabled in lijc forts dur- 
 ing the boinbanlnient in this miirnier. An arraniic- 
 nient was Iberefon^ tilted to tlu! fore part of the slicUt 
 which prevented this, anil, at thesanu^ time, allowed 
 lateral motion to the slide for training. In rear of 
 the rear-slide rollers a baulk of timber was ])laced, 
 projecting about two feet on either side, with bolts 
 for the training tackles, r.. When the gun was out 
 and the training on, a wedge was driven in between 
 this baulk and thi^ rear of the slide, so as to take 
 some of the weight of the gun on recoil olf the rear 
 axle, which was rather weak, and also to distribute 
 the weight more evenly over the truck. In order to 
 run the gim in, sonte sort of a purchase was neces- 
 sary, and nothing (-ould be found to answer the pur- 
 pose better than the crab of the Moncrieff gun at 
 Fort Uas-el-tin. The gun was then mounted by a 
 crane, and everything worked satisfactorily. About 
 58 of training was obtained on either side, which in 
 this case was suflicient to cover the principal works 
 at Kafr-Dowar, partic-ularly as there was a sharp 
 bend in the line, and a very much larger arc could be 
 covered by a judicious selection of points to lire 
 from. See Itailwdy OomiininicaticnU. 
 
 IRON CROSS.— A Prussian order of kuigbtliood, in- 
 stituted ou .Mar. 10, 1813, by Frederick William III., 
 and <'i)nferred for distinguished services in the war 
 which was then being carried on. The decoration is 
 an iron cross withsilvermounting. The grand cross, 
 a cross of double the size, was presented exclusively 
 for the gaining of a decisive battle, or the capture or 
 brave defense of a fortress. 
 
 IRON CROWN.— The crown of the ancient Longo- 
 bardian Kings, given according to an unauthenticat- 
 cd tradition, by Pope Gregory the Great to Queen 
 Theodolinda, and preserved till lately in the Cathe- 
 dral of Monza. Henry, in 1311, is the lirst German 
 Emperor \tho is known to have worn it. It was re- 
 moved by the Austrians to Vienna after 1859, but 
 ■was presented to the King of Italy in 1866. The out- 
 er part of the crown consists of a golden hoop, with 
 enameled flowers and precious stones, in form like an 
 ancient diadem, within which is a thin jilate or lillet 
 of iron, which is declared by a tradition long oppos- 
 ed by the Church at Milan, but adopted by "the Con- 
 gregation ■' deisarri riti" &i Home, to have been ham- 
 mered from one of the nails of the true cross. When 
 Napoleon I. was elected King of Italy in 1805, he 
 took this relic and crowned hfmself with it, disdain- 
 ing to receive it from the hands of a Bishop; and at 
 the same time he founded an order of knighthood, 
 taking its name from the Iron Crown. The order — 
 forgotten after the fall of Napoleon — was restored 
 and remodeled in 1816 by the Emperor Francis I., 
 who gave it the name of "the Austrian Order of the 
 Iron Crown. 
 
 IRON CYLINDER GAUGE.— An instrument adapted 
 
 for testing the body, studs, and pitch of rifling of 
 
 muzzle-loading projectiles, at one operation. When 
 
 Dianieti'r Diamettr IJinnieter 
 
 over l)ody. overstiid:*. low over etuds. 
 
 Inclifs. Inctiep. Indies. 
 
 ]6-l)r. 3-.58 3-81S 3T95 
 
 9l)r. 2-™ 2218 — 
 
 T-pr 2-SW 3-1K3 ,3-16,5 
 
 the present number of this nature of gauge is used 
 lip, iron ring gauges will be introduced for general is- 
 
 sue; the cylinder gauges being restricted to stations 
 of in8[iectiiin. The forigoing are the dimensions of 
 till' u'aiiL'is for rilled Held guns. 
 
 IRON FILINGS. Small portions or jiarticlcB of iron 
 rubbed olT by the act of filing- they are used in the 
 mamifactiire of fireworks and for other |iiirposcs. 
 
 IRONS. Shackles of iron into which the ankles of 
 a prisoner are fixed, and which slide on a long iron 
 bar. Kefractory soldiers, who evince violent behav- 
 ior, and become unmanageable, are commonly put 
 in irons, several being jilaced side by sifle aloiig the 
 same bar. In cases of extreme violence the wrists 
 may be sindlarly treated, but instances of this latter 
 punishment are rare. TIk! ptinishment of " putting 
 m irons" is more common in the Nav}' than in the 
 Army. Conunonly called Jlilhue.i. 
 
 IRONSIDES. A Cuirassier. The term is specially 
 applied to Cromwell's Cavalry. As Captain of a 
 troop of horse, Cromwell exhibited aslonishinir mili- 
 tary genius; and against the men trained by himself 
 — "CromweU's Ironsides"- the battle-sliock of the 
 fiery Rupert, which at the beginning of the parlia- 
 mentary struggle none else co\d(l withstand, spent 
 itself in vain. 
 
 IRREGULAR FORTIFICATION.— Those^in which, 
 from the nature of the ground or other causes, the 
 several works have not their du(; proportions accord- 
 ing to rule; irregularity, however, docs not neces- 
 sarily iniplv weakness. 
 
 IRREGULARITY.— A violation of the customs of 
 service — ii dili(|uency which is suliject to censure, 
 but not serious enough to be brought before a 
 Courl-.Marlial. 
 
 IREEGULAE SITES.— The problem presented for 
 solution to the engineer^in irregular sites is freijuent- 
 ly one of no ordinary complexity; demanding a 
 minute and laborious study of the natural featuresof 
 the position in their relations to the defense ; con- 
 nected with a tentative ])rocess of which the object 
 is so to modify the plan, rclief.and details ordinarily 
 adopted, as to adapt them in the best m:inner to the 
 given position. No rules but of a very general char- 
 acter can be laid down for the guidance of the en- 
 gineer in such cases. The more plunging the fire of 
 the work, the more efficacious will if prove to be. 
 The etijciency of this fire will depend upon two caus- 
 es ; 1. The conunand of the work over the point to 
 be attained. 2. The direction of the ground with re- 
 spect to the lines by which it is swept. 
 
 As to the command of the work over the exterior 
 ground, it hiis already been shown that motives of 
 economy restrict it, in most cases, within very nar- 
 row limits, where, to obtain it, artificial embank- 
 nunits have to be employed. 
 
 To augment, therefore, in the greatest degree this 
 element of the defense, advantage shoidd lie taken 
 of the natural features of the locality, by placing the 
 principal lines, from which the exterior ground" can 
 be seen, on the most commanding points" of the site. 
 If. with this position given to the principal lines, 
 the ground swept falls or'slopes towards them, a most 
 favorable combination for an efficacious plunging 
 fire will be obtained; for, with this direction of" the 
 ground, the enemy will meet with far greater diffi- 
 culty, to put himself under shelter by his works, 
 than where the ground falls or slopes from the line 
 by which it is swept; as the surface, in the latter case, 
 descending in the rear of the cover thrown \\\i by the 
 enemy, will be screened to a greater extent than in 
 the former, where it rises in rear of the cover. When 
 this, however, cannot be effected, the next best thing 
 to be done is so to place the principal lines with re- 
 spect to the surface to be swept that it shall be seen 
 by a part of these lines, thus bringing to bear upon 
 it a Hank fire from these parts. 
 
 The general rule, therefore, which the engineer is 
 to take as a guide, in order to satisfy the condition of 
 bringing the exterior ground under an efficacious 
 fire from the work, is: 
 
 1. To place the principal lines of his work on the
 
 IREEGULAR TROOPS. 
 
 134 
 
 I80L£. 
 
 most commanding points of the site, and in such di- 
 rections as to bring the exterior ground to be swept 
 in a position slopiiig towards tliese lines in such a 
 manner that they can bring tlieir entire fire to bear 
 upon it, or else" bring a portion of it to sweep it in 
 front. 
 
 This will generally behest effected by placing the 
 salient points of the work on the most commanding 
 and salient points of the site; as, in this position of 
 the .salients, the faces, wliich are usually the prin- 
 cipal lines bearing on the exterior ground, will oc- 
 cupy the salient and commanding portions of the 
 site, whilst the re-entcrings, being thrown on the re- 
 entering and lower portions of the site, will be in the 
 best position for sweeping the ground innnediately 
 in the advance of the faces by a Hank fire ; and at 
 the same time these re-enterings will be masked by 
 the faces from the enemy's view, and thus preserved 
 from serious injury up to the moment when their ac- 
 tion mav be rendered most effective ; that is when 
 tlie eneiTiy. despite the fire from the faces, lias suc- 
 ceeded in planting himself upon point on which 
 this fire cannot longer be brought to bear. To carry 
 these precepts iutopractice, a wide margin is left to 
 the engineer's judgment in which he will find it nec- 
 e.ssary"in some cases to extend the lines of his works 
 beyond what a strict regard to economy might pr^ 
 scribe, so as to include within his defenses ground' 
 from wliich he can best sweep what is exterior to it, 
 or wliich, being occupied by the assailant, might 
 make his own "position less tenable, in this way 
 necessarily forcing him to extend out his lines so as 
 to embrace all tlie crests within them that over- 
 look the valleys beyond them; and in very many ca- 
 ses to throw his own lines further back in order to 
 avoid enfilading or plunging viewsfroin points which 
 are too. far to" be brought within his defenses. 2. 
 The condition of leaving no dead spaces, that is. no 
 point of the defenses vuiguarded by their fire, will 
 depend in a great degree for its fulfilment on the same 
 rule as the preceding. But where both conditions 
 cannot be satisfied, the distant defense should be sac- 
 rificed to the near; as upon the latter tlie moreorless 
 of obstinacy of resistance depends: since the fire of 
 the work aiid the action of the garrison are the more 
 effective as the point to be guarded is the nearer to 
 the defenses. 3. The condition that the troops and 
 materiel within the defenses shall be sheltered from 
 the enemy's fire, from all coininanding points with- 
 out, will depend upon the relative positions of the 
 principal lines and the exterior commanding points; 
 and as far, therefore, as it can be done, without sacri- 
 ficing either of the preceding and more important 
 condTtions.thepIanof the work should be so arranged 
 that tlie principal lines shall present themselves in 
 tlie most favorable direction to the exterior ground 
 to avoid plunging, enfilading, or reverse views 
 upon their terre-pleins from any point of it. 
 To effect these objects, when the work is in the 
 vicinity of commanding heights within cannon 
 range, and the crests of these lieiglits. as seen from 
 the wcirk. present a nearly horizontal mitliue, the 
 principal lines of the work, fronting the heights, 
 should receive a direction as nearly parallel as prac- 
 ticable to that of the commanding crests. >Vhen 
 the outline of the crests jiresents a nearly continuous 
 line, but one which declines or .slopes lowanls the 
 site of the work, the principle lines towards the 
 height should receive a direction converging to- 
 ward the point when; flic line of the crests, as seen, 
 if prolonged, would join the site. The reasons for 
 the positions assigned to the principle lines in these 
 cases respectively, may not, at a first glance, be ob- 
 vious ; but by examining the relative positions of the 
 crests of the heights and of the principal lines, as 
 Jiere laid down, it will willmut dilfieulty be seen 
 that they can be brought in the same plane, and the 
 latter be so jilaced as to give a nearly uniform com- 
 mand to the parapets of the iirincipal lines over the 
 site; an<l that by keeping the terre-pleins of these 
 
 lines in planes parallel to the one in which thecresta 
 of the heights and those of the parapets are held, and 
 at suitable levels below it, the parapets will lie made 
 to cover the terre-pleins from the fire of the heights 
 in the simplest manner. The foregoing general 
 methods for determining the direction of the princi- 
 pal lines fronting commanding heights, so as to 
 cover from direct fire, in the easiest manner, by 
 their parapets, the space to the rear, occupied by 
 the troops and tnuteriel, present, at the same time, 
 the simplest cases of the adaptation of the plan of a 
 work to the features of the locality, to subserve the 
 object in view. In most cases, all that can be done 
 is to avoid giving such directions to any of the prin- 
 cipal lines, as shall be favorable to enfilading or re- 
 verse views of the enemy ; which may be effected by 
 so placing them that tlieir prolongations shall fall on 
 points where the enemy cannot establish his works; 
 or those which, if occupied by him, will afford dis- 
 advantageous positions for his batteries either for 
 enfilading or reverse fires. As the attack derives its 
 great advantage from its enveloping position, by 
 which enfilading views and a concentrated fire can 
 be brought to bear on the assailed point, so, in the 
 general disposition of his defenses, the engineer 
 should endeavcr ro reduce these salient and assaila- 
 ble points to the fewest number, and to accumulate 
 upon them such surplus strength that in spite of 
 their natural weakness they will cost their assailant 
 a great deal of time and a large sacrifice of means to 
 get possession. This consideration has led engineers 
 to propose for the general outline of their defensive 
 pol}'gon a triangle in which the princijial develop- 
 ment of their work being a number of fronts on a 
 right line, they can neither be enveloped nor their 
 principal lines be enfiladed bj' the assailant's trench- 
 es, thus 1 caving* only the three angular points as 
 assailable, and wdiich the)' propose to strengthen by 
 an accumulation of works upon them. See FortiJU 
 ratiiin. and Pe)-mnnfnt Fortifirativn. 
 
 IRREGULAR TROOPS. — Troops which, though in 
 the pay of a nation, do not belong to the regular 
 forces. In the British arm_v there are no .such 
 troops. In India there are two or three irregular 
 forces, comjiosed of cavalry and infantry, for the 
 protection of native states. The present native cav- 
 alry regiments in her Majesty's Indian army were 
 originally raised as irregular troops. They found 
 their own horses, arms, clothing, etc., for which 
 they received a certain monthly sum; but this has 
 been modified of late years, and they are no longer 
 stvled irregular cavalry. 
 "ISABELLA.— The Order of Isabella the Catholic 
 is a Spanish Order of Knighthood 
 founded by Ferdinand VII. in 1815. 
 as a reward of loyalty, and for the 
 defense of the possessions of Span- 
 ish America. It is now conferred 
 for all kinds of merit. The Sov- 
 ereign is the head of the Order, 
 which is divided in to the three 
 classes of GrandCrosses,Command- 
 ers, and Knights. 
 
 IHSOCHRONISM.— A pendulum is 
 isoclininiiiis when its vilirations are 
 performed in ecpial times, whether 
 these vibralicms be large or small ; 
 but it can only possess this pro- 
 perty by being constrained to move 
 in a cycloidal arc. This is man- 
 aged by causing the string to wrap 
 and unwrap itself round two ei|ual 
 cycloidal cheeks, the diameter of 
 whose generating circle is e(|iial to 
 halflenglh of ]icnduluiii. Isocliron- 
 ism is closely approximated in ]inictic(' liy causing 
 the pendulum to descrilie a very small <ircul;ir arc. 
 ISOLE. — A word used among the French, to ex- 
 press any thing which is detached from another. It is 
 variously applied in fortification: As, for instance, a 
 
 OtinT of Isaljella 
 the Cathalio.
 
 IS9MERISM. 
 
 135 
 
 ITINEaABY. 
 
 parapet is wiiil In lio wife when llicrc is an interval of 
 4 or 5 feet cxislini; between the rampart am! its wall, 
 wliicli interval serves as a patli fortlie nMniils. 
 
 ISOMERISM. Isomeric li Mlies may he eoiisidered 
 as naturally div ilcil into pliysi<'al i.somerNaiiil eliemi- 
 cal isomers. Tlie pliysieal are more strictly or per- 
 fectly isomeric than tlie clii'mical, and on accoiinl of 
 their similiar molecular or radical composition when 
 they are subjected to the action of dilTerent forces or 
 reaiient.s exhibit tlur same liehavior. Thus there are 
 several hydrocarl)ons known as tcrpenes, havini; the- 
 coin posit ion C!,,, II ,„, as the oils of lemon, lieri,'iimot. 
 and tiirpi'iiline, which show the same reactions under 
 the inllucnce of chemical ai;ents, except their dilfer- 
 encc of odor and action orpolari/ed lii;ht. Chenncal 
 isomers merely, do not carry their isomerism so far, 
 for allhi>ni;h they may have the same proportion of 
 elements, and also the same molecular weii;lit. they 
 do not <'Xliibil the same behiivinr undiT rcairculs. 
 Thus, till' molecular formula, < ', ll,,( )^, reiiresentstlircc 
 dilTerent bodies which decompose dilferently when 
 acted upon by caustic alkalies. ]iroprionic acid.C., 
 IIjO.IU), beinj; cimvcrtedat common tem|)eratnres 
 iutoproi)riouate of potassium. CjlIjO.KO. Acetate 
 of methyl, CjlIjO.CHjO. is not chanffed at ordinary 
 temperatures by caustic potasli.l ml wlien heated with 
 it, acetate of potassium and mcthylic idcohol are i)rn- 
 duced. As^ain, formate of ethyl, ('ll(),('„llr,(), when 
 heated witli caustic potash, is chanircd into for- 
 ate of potassium, t'iI(),K(). and ethyl alcohol, 
 CjHjHO. These chemical isomers are the metameres 
 mentioned in the preceding article, their behavior 
 dependini^ upon the manner in which orj^anic radi- 
 cals enter into their composition. Another class of 
 these bodies arc called jioh meres. 
 
 ISOMETRIC PROJECTIOM. A kind of drawing used 
 by engineers for purpo.ses of construction. It is an 
 orthographic projection in which one plane or pro- 
 jection is employed, and therefore the ineasurement 
 is without legard to the rules of perspective, the 
 plane of the drawing being supposed to be at an in- 
 tinite distance from the eye. It is used to delineate 
 structures whose principh' lines are parallel to three 
 rectangular axes, and the plane of projection makes 
 eqiuil angles with these axes, which are calleii co- 
 ordinate axes, and the planes, taken two and two, 
 arc called co-ordinate planes. The plane of projec- 
 tion passes through the point of intersection of the 
 three axes, and this point is the center of projection. 
 The projections of the co-ordinate axes are the di- 
 recting lines of the proj<'Ction. and form equal angles 
 of 1308 with each other. 
 
 ISSUE.— A term applied to the distribution of ra- 
 tions and supplies. In the British service, /.v.w^,i are 
 certain sums of money which are, at stated periods, 
 given to ])ublic accountants for public service; and 
 for the honest distribution of which, every individ- 
 ual so intrusted is responsible to Parliament. Hegi- 
 mental issues ure moneys jtaid by regimental agents, 
 acting i:ndcr the authority of their respective Col- 
 onels, for regimental purposes. 
 
 ITALIAN ARMY. Italy, like most of the Contin- 
 ental Nations, has adopted the compulsory .system in 
 raising her Army, similar to France and Germany. 
 The yearly contingent is put down at 100.000 men, 
 70.000 of which serve in the lirst category or active 
 array. In this, they remain for 3 years (in the cav- 
 alry 5 years); 5 in tlie reserve of the active Army, and 
 4 in the mobile miliria. The length of service there- 
 fore is altogether 13 years, and the age of joining the 
 colors is 18 years. The men who have not been 
 called to do duty in the active service form the 
 second category, in which they have to serve 5 years 
 in the reserve of the active armyand4in themilitia. 
 They are only as.scmbled for a few months everv 
 year. By the "law of the 30th September, 1S73. Italy- 
 is divided into 7 military commands or army corps. 
 five of which have 2 and two 3 military territorial di- 
 visions. Each military division consists of from I to 
 6 military districts, giving a total of 10 territorial | 
 
 ili visions and 02 military ilistricls. Further, the king- 
 dom is divided into (i commands of artillery, of 1 or 
 2 divisions eacii flotal 12) anci into r-ommands of 
 engineers of 2 or 3 divisions (total lti^ The laml ter- 
 ritorial forces comprise V\u; ]ii rmmu iit army a\\i\ the 
 imihili' militiii. The ptrmmieut army consists of the 
 slalT, the artillery, and engineers, the infantry, the 
 cavalry, a cor|)S of //emliii-mirie, him] the civil depart- 
 ments (commissariat, medic.'d administratives. etc.) 
 The ■mnhili' iniliziii. comprizes 232 battalions of infan- 
 try, 24 com|)anies of rilles, 15 ccmipanii-s of lnrHagli- 
 eri, and 40 companies of field and 20 batteries of 
 siege artillery, together with lOcompanies of engin- 
 eers. By this system, it is computed that Italy can 
 place uiider arms the following numbers : Active 
 army, Syr.,'.)")! ; Keserve. 148,004; Mo/iile militia, 21^.- 
 873; total, 823,827 men. These forces in wartime 
 are organized into 20 divisions, forming 10 Corpii 
 (I'Ariiiii . 
 
 ITALIAN SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— A system 
 of fortilication constructed on the interior polygon. 
 The front, from 350 to 300 yards, was divided into 
 six equid p;irts: the flanks perpen<lieuhir toil were 
 equal to ,',, and the curtain to ; of the whole length. 
 The Hanks were peri)enilicular to the curtain becau.se 
 fortresses were not unfrecpiently attacked on the cur- 
 lain before the inventii>n of the ravelin ; anil the faces 
 of the bastions were directed so as to receive flank 
 defense from the curliiin. The ditches werr deep 
 and wide, with counterscarp panUlel to the faces of 
 the bastions and marking part of the flank defense. 
 The revetments were high, from 40 to .50 feet, rather 
 massive iind much exposed, since the besiegers could 
 see from 15 to 17 feet of the masonry from a distance. 
 
 ITINERARY.— A rough sketch of the country 
 through which troops have to march; giving the 
 roads and villages; not ing the numlier of inhabitants 
 and houses, whether of stone, brick or wood; and 
 conveying as much information of thecountry as can 
 be gathered in a short space of time. 
 
 In the United States Army, the Commanding Offi- 
 cer of every body of troops ordered to march selects 
 a competent person — preferably a Commissioned 
 Officer — to whom is intrusted the special duty of mak- 
 ing the field-notes and sketches, and keeping the 
 journal necessary for the preparation of a map and 
 report of the route traversed. The person so selected 
 is, if possible relieved of a part of his routine duties 
 to enalile him to give due attention to this subject. 
 The Commanding Officer daily, or more frequently 
 if necessary, inspects and verifies the notes and jour- 
 nals. If there be no competent suljordiuate to per- 
 form the duty, the Commanding Officer himself 
 makes the notes and keeps the journal. When a 
 detachment leaves the main column, the point on the 
 '■route" is noted, and the reason given in the rt marks. 
 The Commander of the Detacliment sees that the 
 notes and journals are continued over his new line 
 of march, and after its completion transmits them to 
 the Commanding Officer of the main body. On the 
 completion of the march, the notes and journals are 
 sent, through the regular channels, to the Depart- 
 ment Headqu;irters, where their contents are em- 
 bodied upon the maps in course of preparation there. 
 The notes and journals are then forwarded to the 
 Chief of Engineers at Washington. Suitable instru- 
 ments and note-books for use in keeping itineraries 
 of march are obtained through the officer on Engin- 
 eer duty at the Heachpiarters of Geographical l)e- 
 partments. who from time to time renews his sup- 
 ply by requisition on the Chief of the Corps of En- 
 gineers. 
 
 The name Itinerary was given by the Romans to a 
 table of the stages between two places of importance, 
 with the distances from one to another. The itineraries 
 of the ancients contribute much toour acijuainlance 
 with ancient geography. Of these, the most import- 
 ant are the ft'neraria Antonini and the Itinerarium 
 Iliercisulym ita n u m . The Itiiuraria A n Omin i are two 
 in number, the Itinerarium Provinciarum and the
 
 JACABANDA WOOD. 
 
 136 
 
 JACOBINS. 
 
 lUnerarium Marinnm, the former containing tiie 
 routes tlirough the Komiin provinces in Europe, Asia 
 aid Africa ; and tlie latter the principal routes of 
 navigators, who then sailed onl}' along the coasts. 
 They take their name from Antoninus Caracalla.by 
 whom thev were published, as corrected up to his 
 
 time, but they seem to have been originally prepared 
 at an earlier date. The Itinerarium Jiierusolymitanum 
 was drawn up 333 a. d., for the use of pilgrims from 
 Burdigala (Bordeaux) to Jerusalem. Of these itine- 
 raries, various editions have been published. See 
 Journak ufMavoh, 
 
 J 
 
 JACAKANDA WOOD.— A very hard, heavy, brown 
 wood, also called rosewood, from its faint agreeable 
 smell of roses. It is brought from South America, 
 and is produced by several trees of the genus jam- 
 randa, of the natural order bignoiuMea. Several 
 species of this genus are called earoba in Brazil, and 
 are there accounted anti-syphilitic. Several species 
 of the nearly allied genus Ucoma also have an ex- 
 tremely hard wood, as .T. pentap?ii/Ua. a native of 
 the Caribbean Islands. The Brazilian Indians make 
 their bows of the wood of T. toxiph>/ra or pno (farw. 
 All varieties are very -desirable for gun-stocks, etc. 
 
 JACK.— A pompoint. or quilted tunic, made of 
 leather and well padded. It was worn by foot sol- 
 diers in the 14th century. ^Vlso written Jaqiie, and 
 the name of a form of liabergmn worn in the 16th 
 century. 
 
 JACK BOOTS.— Tall boots of tough, thick leather, 
 reaching above the knee, and formerly worn by 
 cavalry. In some instances, as an additional pro- 
 tection against sword-cuts, they were lined with 
 thin plates of iron. The only regiments in the Brit- 
 ish service which still retain these handsome but 
 cumbrous boots are the Life Guards and Royal 
 Horse-Guards. 
 
 JACKET.— 1. In the manufacture of ordnance, a 
 tube inclosing and reinforcing another tube. 2. A 
 short and close military coat, extending downward 
 to the hips. Commonly called Shell-jacket. 
 
 JACK IN THE BOX.— A handy engine, consisting 
 of a large wooden male screw turning in a iemale 
 screw, which forms the upper part of a strong wood- 
 en box, shaped like the frustum of a pyramid. It 
 is used, by means of levers passing throagh holes in 
 it. as a press in packing, and for other purposes in 
 the arsenal and laboratory. 
 
 JACK SCREW. — A machine for raising heavy 
 weio-hts, chiefly buildings of various kiuds,as houses 
 and^bips. It has various forms, the most powerful 
 being a differential screw. The most convenient 
 form" however, is a single screw and net, the inclined 
 plane of the screw being as near a horizontal as is con- 
 sistent with the thieknesB of the thread and diame- 
 ter of the screw. Other devices of the kind are em- 
 ployed, as the hydraulic jack. The drawing shows 
 what is known in the arsenal as th e " Ra pid Moving 
 Screw Jack," so called, because ' 
 
 the screw, when the load is off, 
 can be raised immediately to 
 any desired point, and when up 
 can be as quickly let down; thus 
 saving the tedious operation of 
 turning the screw up and down 
 as in all the other screw jacks. 
 To raise the screw to any de- 
 sired height for the work, it is 
 only necessary to lift the same 
 by 'taking hold of the lever; to 
 lower it.'take liold of one of the 
 handles with the left liaiid, and 
 inclining the jack to iin iuigle 
 of about 4.') degrees, wilh the 
 ether hand holding the lever, 
 let the screw down. Tlu^ two segmental nuts ar( 
 made of gun metal, and are supported on steel pint 
 
 moving in angular slots so as to allow them in and 
 out of the gear. The frame, lever, ratchet and cap 
 are made of malleable iron, and the pawl of cast steel. 
 The following sizes and weights are usually employ- 
 ed for artillery purposes : 
 
 No. 
 
 Height 
 
 22 
 
 Raif*e. 
 
 Bar. 
 
 Weiaht. 
 
 Caaclty . 
 
 24 
 
 11 
 
 2 in. 
 
 48 lbs. 
 
 H tons, 
 
 2.5 
 
 27 
 
 15 
 
 2H " 
 
 90 ■• 
 
 30 " 
 
 27 
 
 36 
 
 24 
 
 2K " 
 
 137 " 
 
 30 •' 
 
 26 
 
 29 
 
 14 
 
 3 " 
 
 210 " 
 
 50 " 
 
 No. 26 is provided with a detachable hook for ground 
 lifting and bridge-work. See Hydraulic Jatk. 
 
 JACK TREE.— A well-known tree in India. It 
 yields an excellent timber, first j-ellow, fading to 
 brown, hard and brittle, resembling satin ; warps if 
 not properly seasoned. A cubic foot of unseasoned 
 wood weighs 50 lbs. The timber is used in the 
 Bombay arsenals for packing-cases. The fruit of 
 this tree is very much esteemed by the natives in 
 the southern parts of India. 
 
 JACK WAMBASIUM.— A sort of coat armor, former- 
 ly worn by horsemen, not of solid iron, but of many 
 plates fastened together, which some persons by ten- 
 ure were bound to furnish upon any invasion. 
 
 JACOBINS. — The members of a political club which 
 exercised a very great influence during the French 
 Revolution. It was originally called the (Jlub Bre- 
 ion, and was formed at Versailles, when the States- 
 General assembled there in 1789. It then consisted ex- 
 clusively of members of the States-General, all more 
 ox less liberal or revolutionary, but of verj' different 
 shades of opinion. On the removal of the Court and 
 National Assembly to Paris, this club began to ac- 
 quire importance. It now met in a hall of the for- 
 mer Jacobin Convent in Paris, whence it received the 
 name of the Jacobin club, which was first given toil 
 by its enemies; the name which it adopted being that 
 of the Society af Friends of the Constitution. It now 
 also admitted members who were not members of 
 the National Assembly, and held regular, and public 
 sittings. It exercised a great influence over the agi- 
 tation, of which the chief seat and focus was in the 
 capital, and this influence was extended over the 
 whole country by afliliated societies. Its power in- 
 oreased until it became greater than that of the Na- 
 tional Assembly. It formed branch societies of clubs 
 throughout France, of which there were soon not less 
 thiui i200. When the National Assembly dissolved 
 itself in September, 1791, the election of the Legisla- 
 tive Assembly was mainly accomplished imder the 
 iniluence of the Jacobin Club. Almost all the great 
 events which followed in rajjiil succession were de- 
 termined by the voice of the Club, whose delibera- 
 tions were regarded with more interest than those of 
 the Legislativ<' Assembly. It reached the zenith of its 
 power when the National Convention met in Sept., 
 1792. The agitation for the death of the King, the 
 storm which destroyed the Girondists, the excite- 
 ment of the lowest classes against the bourgeoisie or 
 middle classes,and the reign of t<'rror over all France, 
 were the work of the Jacobins. But the overthrow 
 of U(ilics]iierre on the !tth Thermidor. 17!t4. gave also 
 the deathblow to the Jacobin Club. The magic of 
 its imm<' was dc^stroyed ; and the Jacobins sought in 
 vain to contend against a reaction which increased
 
 JACOBITES. 
 
 137 
 
 JAUES FEOJECTIUE. 
 
 daily l)olli in tlic r'unvi'iilinn himI iimonix llii' people. 
 A liiw of Oct. l(i forl)ii(lc llic iidlliiition of cIijIih, anil 
 on Nov. it, 17i)4. tli<! .lacoliin ( liili wasliiiallv elosed. 
 IIh plai'C of ineel.iim was soon afler <lciMoliHlieil. 
 The term .laeol)iiiH \h often enijiloycii to (le.sii^nale 
 persons of exireini' revolutionary Hentinitnts. 
 
 JACOBITES. - Tlie name };iveM to the adherents of 
 tlie male line of tile ilonse of Stnart in (Jreal lirituin 
 and Ireland after the Hevolulion of KiHH. Many of 
 the most <levoted royalists followed James II. intr^ 
 France; hot the {greater part of the Jacobites ri'niain. 
 in;; in their native land made a trreater or less show 
 of snhniission to the new f;overninent, while they 
 secretly supported the cau.se of tlie Pretender. Their 
 intrij^ues and conspiracies were incessant till the mid- 
 dle (if the IHth century. Their hostility to the House 
 of Hanover broke out in rebellions in ITLTand 174.'), 
 in consi|uei)ce of which not a few of them lost their 
 lives upon the scall'old, titles were attainted, and es- 
 tali's contiscateil. After 174.') their cause became so 
 obviously hopeless that their activity in a irreat meas- 
 ure ceased; and it was not lonirtill it ceased altogeth- 
 er, and those who still retained their alla<hn;ent to 
 the exiled family aciiuieseed in the order of thinffs 
 established by the Revolution. In Scotland, the liojies 
 and wishes of the .laeobite I'arty were expressed in 
 inany spirited souses, which form an intereslini; part 
 of the national literature. The Jacobites of England 
 were also '/'on'r.s. They were generally distiiiLCuishcd 
 by warm attachment to the Church of Kngland, as 
 opposed to all dissent, if they were not members of 
 the t'hurch of Home, and held very stronu:ly the doc- 
 trine of iioii-rexintiiiicf, or the duty of absolute sub- 
 mission to the King. The Jacobites of Scotland were 
 also generally Episcopalians and Roman Catholics. 
 Macaulay, however, points out that the Highland clans 
 which espoused the Jacobite cause did so on other 
 grounds than the English Jacobites, and were far 
 from having previously received the doctrine of non- 
 resistance. In Ireland, the Jacobite cause was that 
 also of lh(^ Cells, as opposed to the Saxons, or the 
 native race against the English ColoniiiU, and of the 
 Roman Catholics against the Protestants. These di- 
 versities prevented a complete union, and greatly 
 we.'ikened the .lacoliites. 
 
 JACOB'S LADDER.— 1. A term originally applied on 
 shipboard to a short rope-ladder with wooden steps, to 
 give easy access to the shrouds and tops, but latterly 
 applied to any short ladder of similar construction 
 used in fortification for passing from one level to 
 another, in the absence of ramps, etc. 3. An ap- 
 paratus for raising light weights a considerable 
 height. One form nuich used in arsenals and lab- 
 oratories is shown in the drawing and consists of an 
 endless chain of buckets, tilling themselves at the 
 bottom of the chain, and emptying at the top. 
 
 JACQUERIE. — The name given to the insurgent 
 peasants in France in the middle of the 14th cen- 
 tury, in the reign of John. The insurrection of the 
 Jacquerie broke out in the year ]3.')8, when the 
 French King was a prisoner in England, and France 
 in a state of the greatest disorder and anarchy. The 
 immediate occasion of it was the enormities perpe- 
 trated by Charles the Bad, King of Navarre, and his 
 adherents; but it was really caused by long-con- 
 tinued oppression on the part of the Nobles. Sud- 
 denly rising against their Lords, the pea.sauts laid 
 hundreds of castles in ruins, murdered the Nobles, 
 and violated their wives and daughters, practicing 
 every enormity, and acting, as fhey said, on the 
 principle of doing as had been done to them. The 
 insurrection broke out in the neighborhood of 
 Paris, but extended to the banks of the ^ilarne and 
 the Oise. For some weeks this part of France was 
 entirely at their mercy : but the magnitude of the 
 danger induced the (juarrelsomc Nobles to make 
 common cause against them, and on June 9 the 
 peasants were defeated with great slaughter near 
 Meaux l)y Captal de Buch and (iaston Phebus. 
 Count of Foix. This put an end to the insurrection. 
 
 JADE. — A name somewhat vaguidy applied to a 
 nuiid)c'r of ndnerals not vi-ry dissimilar nephrite, 
 axestone, 8er|ieiitine, I'tc. N'ephrile and axestone 
 appear to be the miner:ils of wliich j'tdf ornamentH 
 ari! generally made. But Yi', or Chinese jade, of 
 which very beautiful vases and other articles are 
 made in China, is supposed to be prehnite. Jade of 
 all kinds has a greenish color, and when i)olished, 
 has a rathiT dull and greasy aspect. Jade is much 
 used in Polanii and Turkey for the handles of swords 
 and sabers. 
 
 JAGHIRE. - An Indian term, signifying the assign- 
 ment of the reveinies of a district to a servant or de- 
 pendent of government, who \s vii\Ui\ Jin/liirdtir. Jag- 
 hires are frequently given in India to persons asa re- 
 ward and comjjeMsation for their mi/itary Bcrvice.s. 
 Jar/hi >■!• Ax/iii/it is a term signifying land granted for 
 the support of troops. 
 
 JALONS,- Long poles with wisps of straw at the 
 top. They are fixed atdiiTerent i)la<es and in dilfer- 
 ent roads, to serve as signals of observation to ad- 
 vancing colinnns, when the country is inclosed, etc. 
 They are likewise used as ('amp colors to mark out 
 the ground on days of exercise. 
 
 JAMBEAUX.— Armor for the leps, made of waxed 
 leather or metal, anil much woni intheMiddle Ages. 
 Commoid\' written ./'/////".''. Set; (irfavfH. 
 
 JAMES OF THE SWORD.— The Military Order of 
 Saint James of the Sword was tirst instituted in Spain, 
 in tlie reign of Ferdinand II. King of Leon and Galli- 
 cia. In the tirst instance it was organized with a view 
 to stopping the inroads of the Jloors, and its mem- 
 bers pledged themselves to secure 'the safet)' of the 
 roads. They entered into a league with the Brethren 
 of St. Eloy, and the Order was confirmed by the Pojie 
 in in.'j. The highest rank intheOrder istliat of (Jrand 
 Master, which is united to the Crown of Spain. The 
 Knights were obliged to prove their noble descent at 
 least four generations back, and to show that they 
 numbered among their ancestors no Jews, Saracens, 
 or Heretics, and had never been cited by the Inquisi- 
 tion. 
 
 JAMES PROJECTILE.— A cyliudro-conoidal mis- 
 sile of cast-iron, having a compound envelop of 
 canvas-sheet-tin, and lead, called packing, encir- 
 cling nearly the entire length of the body of the 
 cylinder. 'The canvass being the external portion 
 of the packing, is well saturated with a tallow lub- 
 ric, which renders the loading easy, and cleans the 
 gun at each discharge. The head of the projectile 
 may be solid, or, if it has a prepared cavity, the 
 missile then becomes a shell. The average weight 
 of the projectile for a 4'2-pounder gun is, if a solid, 
 81J lbs., if a shell, G4J lbs., of which in either case 
 (il lbs. is the weight of the packing. Its length is 13 
 inches, of which V>\ inches is the measurement of the 
 conical head, and GJ inches is the length of its 
 cylindrical body. The diameter of the cylinder is 
 designed to be Ci| inches, or \ of an inch less than the 
 bore of a 42-pounder gun. It retains its full di- 
 ameter with accuracy for i of an inch of its length 
 at each end ; then for the intermediate space, tlie 
 diameter is shortened half an inch, thereby forming 
 a recess round the body of the cylinder, between the 
 ends. Fig. 1. The shortening of the diameter, and 
 consequent loss of iron to the circumference of the 
 body of the cylinder, is replaced by the before-named 
 packing, when the projectile is prepared for use, 
 Fig. 2. The solidity of the conical head is contin- 
 ued into, and forms the solid end of the cylinder. 
 The base, or opposite end of projectile, has a central 
 orifice, of 3| inches in diameter, which extends 2i 
 inches into the cylinder; and from which ten rec- 
 tangular openings diverge (like the mortises for 
 spokes in tlie hub of a wlieclj, through the body, to 
 the periphery of the cylinder, in the recess of its cir- 
 cumference. The packing is formed by a plate of 
 sheet tin, of the length of the greatest circle of the 
 cylinder : and in wrdth, equal to the length of the 
 recess caused b3" the shortening of the diameter.
 
 JAM -NUT. 
 
 138 
 
 JANUAEIUS. 
 
 This plate of tin is laid on a piece of strong canvas, 
 which is two inches wider, but of the same length of 
 the plate ; and the canvas is folded over the side 
 edges of tlie plate, and tirmly secured Ijy cross sew- 
 ing. The tin plate, when so prepared, or half cov- 
 ered, is folded round the body of the missile in the 
 recess, and retained in position by an iron collar 
 clamp. The space between the inner surface of the 
 envelop and the body of the cylinder is filled with 
 melted lead, which, adhering to the tiu and iron, 
 forms a compact mass round the body of the projec- 
 tile. When the charge is fired, the power or gas gen- 
 erated by the burning of the powder, in its effort to 
 expel the projectile'and to escape from the gun, 
 is forced into the orifice in the base of the missile, 
 and tlirough the ten openings against the packing. 
 
 FIG. 2. AFTER THB APPLICA- 
 TION OF THE PACKING, AND 
 READY For USE. 
 
 a.b.c.d. Beltof canvas, tin, aiid 
 lead, called packing. 
 e. Orifice in base, leadint; 
 to recces. 
 
 PIG. 1. Bi^FOUE THE APPLICA 
 TIO.N OF THE PACKING. 
 
 a. Baud ?4 inch wide at 
 ends of cylinder. 
 b.c,d. Recess round body of 
 cylinder, 
 m. Rectangular openings 
 
 through to recess. 
 n. Orifice in base, leading 
 to the recess. 
 
 which is thereby pressed into the grooves, in the 
 gun's bore, and by its firm hold in them the rifle 
 motion is imparted to the projectile. 
 
 When the projectile is a shell, its fuse-orifice is in 
 its head and axis. The length of the orifice for a 
 4'3-pounder shell is 2| inches. For two inches of its 
 length, its diameter is 1 inch, and for the remainder 
 of the length, the diameter is reduced to J of an incli ; 
 forming a shoulder in the fuse-orifice, to prevent the 
 fuse-plug from being driven into the cavity of the 
 shell, when, by firing, the missile is expelled from 
 the gun. The threads of a female screw are cut in 
 the head of the fuse-orifice for the reception of tlie 
 body of the fuse-orifice cap. This cap is of brass. 
 Its diameter is an inch, its length half an inch ; its 
 head is convexed, and has a slot cut in it for the re- 
 ception of a screw-driver ; the base cud is deeply 
 cupped to admit the nipple of a musket cone, and 
 to give more play to the fuse-plug. The fu.se-plug 
 is of wrought iron, surmounted by a musket cone ; 
 and its action in the fuse-orifice is like the ordinary 
 working of a piston. Its lengtli is !{ inches, of 
 which the quarter is the leagth of its shoulder. The 
 diameter of its shoulder and body, is very nearly the 
 same as the two diameters of the fuze-orifice. Its 
 vent is in its axis, and in size to receive the male 
 screw of the musket cone. The threads of a female 
 screw are <'ut in tlu- head end of tlie vent of sufficient 
 length to receive the screw end of the said cone- 
 When the shell is loaded, care shoidd be taken not 
 to overfill its cavity, and thereby prevent the work- 
 ing of the fuse-plug. The powdershould be cleaned 
 from the fuse-orifice ; the plug should be oiled toen- 
 sure its free and sure action. Its cone should be 
 capped, but before the aiiplication the itercu.ssion 
 cap should lie carefully examined to see that it is 
 [lerfect, and of th(^ best (juality. The fuse-plug, when 
 so prepared, is then inserted into the fuse-orifice, and 
 it should enter freely, but not by its own weight un- 
 til the shoulders of the fuse-plug and orifice are in 
 
 contact. The cap for the fuse-orifice should be then 
 firmly screwed in, which completes the charging of 
 the shells. If after the shell is loaded the fuse-plug 
 should be disturbed tiy handling; that is. if the plug 
 has slidden forward, it will be forced back to its 
 proper position by the impulse given to the missile, 
 by the firing of tlie gun charge ; and it will so remain 
 during the flight, until the shell impinges against 
 any hard substance ; as ground, wood, etc., which, 
 by obstructing the progress of tlie missile, causes the 
 fuse-plug to slide forward with violence, and by the 
 collision of the cone's point against the bottom of the 
 fuse-orifice cap-plug, the percussion cap on the cone 
 will be exploded, and the bursting charge of the shell 
 fired. See Expanding Projectiles. 
 
 JAM-NUT. — A nut of frequent occurrence in the 
 construction of artillery carriages. the elevating gears, 
 etc. See Lork-niit. 
 
 JANGAK. — A kind of ponton constructed of two 
 boats with a platform laid across them, which is used 
 by the natives in the East Indies to convey horses, 
 supplies, etc., across rivers. 
 
 JANISSARIES— JANIZAEIES.— A Turkish military 
 force, originally formed by the Osmanli Sultan Ork- 
 lian, about 1330, of young Christian prisoners com- 
 pelled to embrace Mohammedanism ; and more per- 
 fectly organized by Sultan Amurath I. after 1362, 
 when the number was raised to about 10,000, and 
 especial privileges were conferred on them. They 
 were for some time recruited from Christian prison 
 ers. but their privileges soon induced many young 
 Turks to seek admission into their body. There were 
 two classes of Janizaries, one regularly organized, 
 dwelling in barracks in Constantinople and a few 
 other towns, and whose number at one time amount- 
 ed to 60,000, but was afterwards reduced to 35,000 ; 
 and the other composed of irregular troops, called 
 Jamaku, scattered throughout all the towns of the 
 Empire, and amounting in number to 300,000 or 400,- 
 000. At the head of the whole Janizary force was 
 the Aga of the Janizaries, whose power was limited 
 only by the danger of revolt, and extended to life and 
 death. The Janizaries were always ready to break 
 out into deeds of violence if their pay or perquisites 
 were withheld. In times of peace they acted as a po- 
 lice force. They served on foot; generally formed 
 the reserve of the Turkish Army, and were noted for 
 the wild impetuosity of their attack. The Sultan's 
 body-guard was formed of them. The Janizaries, 
 however, soon began to be very unruly ; and their 
 history abounds in conspiracies, assassinations of Sul- 
 tans, Viziers, Agas, etc., and atrocities of every kind; 
 so that, by degrees, they became more dangerous to 
 the Sultans than any foreign enemies. Theattempts 
 of the Sultans to reform or dissolve them were always 
 unsuccessful, till Sultan Mahmoud II., in 1826. being 
 opposed in some of his measures liy the Janizaries in 
 Constantinople, displayed the flag of the prophet, 
 and succeeded in arousing on liis own behalf the fan- 
 atical zeal of other portions of his troops. The Jani- 
 zaries, deserted by their Aga and other principal offi- 
 cers, who remained faithful to the Sultan, were de- 
 feated and their barracks burned, when 8,000 of them 
 perished in the flames. A proclamation of June 
 17, 1826, declared the Janizary force forever dissolv- 
 ed. All opposition was defeated with bloodshed. Not 
 fewer than I.'), 000 were executed, and more than 20,- 
 000 were banished. 
 
 JANUARIUS.— The order of Saint Januarius was 
 founded by Iviug Charles of Sicily (afterward Char- 
 les in. of Spain), on July 6, 1738. It was abolished 
 after the Kri'nrh Invasion of 180{i, and reintroduced 
 in 1.S14. The badge is a gold octagonal white and 
 red enameled cross, with gold lilies in tlie upper and 
 side angles. The obverse represents St. Januarius 
 in episcopal robes, with an open book. The round 
 middle of the reverse shows a golden open book, and 
 two ])liials partly filled with blood. The Knights 
 are either Ciirnlicri di Oinxtiziii. who must count 
 four noble generations, or Cavalieri di Urazia.
 
 JAPANNING. 
 
 139 
 
 JEWEL TABOET. 
 
 JAPANNINO — A lalioratnry prowss, civin^; acfiat- 
 infi iif viirnisli uiid dllicr iiwilcrials to (•crliuii mitnu- 
 factiircs, by wliicli a rrsciiil)liiiicc is |]riiiliii-ccl to the 
 bcaulifiil lac(|iR'r('(l wares of Japan and Cliina. Tho 
 tfnn in more ficncrally applicil in tliiscoMnlry to me- 
 tal works upon wliicli a (larli-coiored varniKli \n ap- 
 plied with lieat ; Imt the proress is quite as exten- 
 sively applied to papier-mache works. The japanninj; 
 material consists of aniuu' or copal varnish, alone, or 
 mixeil with ivory-lihu'k, to [jroduce a lilack ja])an; 
 or with aspljalt, to produce a dark or li;:hl brown, 
 accordinj; to the <pianlily used. Forliimeil wares, 
 a sinjrle coating is all that is usually given. After be- 
 ing varnished they an' put into a iu'aled oven for a 
 time, after which they are ready for use; but in the 
 case of more substantial artick'S several coats of var- 
 nish are applied, each lieing dried in the oven pre- 
 vious to the ap])licatioii of the next, so that a coating 
 of sulUcient substance to b<-ar polishing is thus oli- 
 tained. Hotten-stonc- and Tripoli jiowilcr are used 
 by the polisher, and a beautiful surface is ol)tained, 
 in no respect inferior to that of polished jet. The 
 polishing powders arc at first applied with leather, 
 but the linishing is d<me by women, wlio use the 
 palms of their hands only, with small quantities of 
 Tripoli. 
 
 JAT8 JAUTS.— The name of a people of Hindu- 
 stan, tirst mentioned in history at thebeginntng of 
 the ! 1th century. They opposed the invasion of Jfah- 
 moud the Gazne Vide, and arc said to have gathered 
 a fleet of as many as 8,000 boats in the Indus, where 
 they were attacked by the invader and completely 
 defeated. In the reign of Aurungzebe, the Jats ap- 
 peared as banditti in the mountains in the interior of 
 India. They increased in strength and daring, until 
 they tinall}' became formidable, and under their 
 Chief, Sooraje Mull, even dictated the policy of the 
 Mogul Court. The invasion of northern India by 
 Ahmed Shah, Sovereign of Cabul, put an end to the 
 prestige of Sooraje Mull, who, after allying himself 
 to the Mahrattas, deserted them before the battle of 
 Panniput, and joined Ahmed Shah. Ilis services on 
 the occasion of this battle were rewarded by the pos- 
 session of Agra and its district. At the time of the 
 establishment of British power in northern India, 
 the since celebrated Kunjeet Singh was Hajah of the 
 Jats, and by a treaty with Lord Lake, was permitted 
 to remain in control of his territories without paying 
 tribute. Disagreement between the English author- 
 ity and that of the Kajah brought about a conflict, 
 and early in 1826 the almost impregnable fortress of 
 Deeg, the stronghold of the Jats, was invested by a 
 large force of Britisli soldiers under Lord Comber- 
 mere. On Jan. 18 the fortress was stormed and cap- 
 tured, and the power of the Jats was at an end. 
 
 JAVELIN. — A short and light spear used for dart- 
 ing against an enemy. In the R(>man legion, the 
 first and second lines ("the hastati and the principes) 
 were both armed with two javelins to each man. 
 Each javelin was in all about Oj ft. in length: the 
 shaft 4i ft. long, of tougli wood, an inch in diame- 
 ter; and the remainder given to the barbed pyramidal 
 head. In action, the legionary hurled one javelin on 
 the enemy at the first onset ; the second h^ retained 
 as a defense against cavalry. The Goths and other 
 barbarians used a javelin. At present, javelins are 
 used in Europe in hunting the boar, and Ijy many 
 savage nations in ordinary hunting. Theassegai of 
 the Caffre is a javelin of native iron. 
 
 JAZESAN. — \ coat of scale armor, first worn in 
 the Middle Ages. This garment was sleeveless and 
 somewhat lighter than the hauberk. Commonly 
 ■written Jazerant. 
 
 JEFFREY POJECTILE.— In this projectile, the lead 
 is affixed to the rear of the projectile by dovetails, 
 into which it is cast: a hollow, resembling that of 
 the Minnie bullet, is 'eft at the bottom, for the pur- 
 pose of causing the lead to be driven into the riflins. 
 A wad or covering, consisting of tiannel coated with 
 soft soap, IS wrapped around the rear of the projec- 
 
 tile, to facilitate loading, decrease windage, and lu- 
 bricate the bore. 
 
 JELOUDAB. An East Indian term, signifying to 
 bi'loiiL' In Ibi- train or equipage. 
 
 JEUADAB. A native ofticer in the Indian Army, 
 whose position corresponds with tliat of a subaltern 
 in a company of Euroi)ean infantry. The name is 
 also given to the heail man of a nativi establishment 
 in a factory, and indeed to any man who exercises 
 authoritv over a number or gang of men. 
 
 JE MAINTIEDEAI. Tlic motto of the House of 
 Nassau. When William HI. came to the throne of 
 England, he continued this, but added the "liberties 
 of England and the I'rotestant religion, " at the same 
 time ordering that the old motto of the royal arms, 
 " Dieu et mon droit " should be retained on the great 
 seal. IfiHi). 
 
 JENIZEB EFFENDI.— An appointment among the 
 Turks, which in some degree resembles that of Pro- 
 vost-Marshal in European armies. The only func- 
 tions which this officer is permitted to exercise are 
 those of judge to the company. He sits on partic- 
 ular days for the purpose of hearing the complaints 
 of the soldiers, and of settling their difTerences. If 
 a case of peculiar difficulty should occur, he reports 
 the case to the Aga, whose opinion and determina- 
 tion are final. 
 
 JENNIFEE SADDLE.- A saddle very extensively 
 used in the Tnited States and other countries, prior 
 to the invention of the Wliitman Kiddle. While con- 
 sidered one of the best saddles in its time, it had the 
 serious defects of being too short in the scat, too 
 short in the bearing, and too much rounded on its 
 iinder side, inclining it too "rock" and sore the 
 back in the center; also sharp pommel and too 
 straight in cantle. 
 
 JERKIN. — A buff military coat, on which was worn 
 a light collar. The jerkin took the place of armor 
 towards the end of the 16th century. 
 
 JERBID.— A slender javellin used as a dart by 
 the soldiers of the East, in the Midde lAges. 
 
 JESSANT.— In Heraldry. springing forth. a term fre- 
 quently used as sj'nonymous with 'Iiixuant, rising, as 
 a demi-lion is often represented doing, from the bot- 
 tom line of a field, or upper line of an ordinary. Jes- 
 
 ^ sant is sometimes used improperly 
 
 N A r for «'(;Vw(H<, or risinc from the mid- 
 
 dle of an ordinary. The phrase,;eA- 
 sant-de-lis is used with respect to a 
 strange heraldic device depicting 
 a leopard's head affronte with fleur- 
 de-lis passing through it. The fam- 
 ily of Jloreley, Hants, bears sable, 
 a leopard's head argent jessant-de- 
 
 Jessaat-de-Iis. ]ig . and gules, three leopard's heads 
 jessant-de-lis or, are the arms of the family of Can- 
 telupe. See Heraldry. 
 
 JET.— 1. A term signifying the motion of any body 
 that is urged forward by main force : it likewise 
 means the space which is gone over by any propelled 
 body ; and sometimes the instrument from which 
 anything is thrown or shot ; as the cross-bow. etc. 
 Jet den bombes is a phrase used instead of tir. which 
 formerly expressed the course that a shell took when 
 it was thrown out of a mortar by the power of gun- 
 powder. 2. In pyrotechny, jfts are rocket-cases 
 filled with a burning composition ; they are attached 
 to the circumference of a wheel, or the end of a mov- 
 able arm to set it in motion. 
 
 JEWELS. —By an egregiously absurd and unneces- 
 sary complication of nomenclature, introduced by 
 way of adding dignity to the science of Heraldn.'.the 
 tinctures of the arms of peers have sometimes been 
 designated by the names of precious stones: argent 
 is pearl or crystal : or, topaz; gules, ruby: azure, sap- 
 phire; sable, diamond; vert, emerald; and purpure, 
 amethvst. 
 
 JEWEL TARGET. — A canvas target, having frame- 
 work and machinery made of iron. The niechanis!n 
 permits of the use o"f a target of any class bv taking
 
 JIB-CKANE. 
 
 140 
 
 JIB CHAJTB. 
 
 out the frame and legs of one target and substituting 
 therefor those of another. A frameworli supporting 
 the target works upon a center-pin or spindle (13 
 inches Ions) securelj' fastened to a heavy timber at 
 the back of the pit, and revolves the target to the 
 right or left such distance as may be required. Wlien 
 a shot strikes the target, tlie marker by suitable con- 
 trivances pulls the target over, and hangs ' disk, 
 denoting the value of the shot, in the shot-hole, 
 patches the last hole (if any), and swings the target 
 back into position ready for the next shot. The 
 marker for this target is provided with small disks 
 made of wood, tin, or iron, with hooks in the center 
 and each side of them, and painted to represent 
 certain values. 
 
 JIB-CBANE. — The mode of operating the hoisting 
 and traversing mechanism of the larger sizes of the 
 Weston jib-cranes is fully explained in the article 
 Trolleys. The details of the gearing whereby these 
 several motions are affected are as follows. Fig. 1 
 is a cross-section taken at the foot of the mast of a 
 large jib-crane. A is the mast, to each side of which 
 is bolted a housing containing the gearing for oper- 
 ating the two parts, X, and Y. of the main hoisting 
 chain. Eacli of these housings is provided with a 
 horizontal shaft, revolving upon which is the worm 
 wheel P, the hub of which covers the entire length 
 
 or left hand housing, and its contained gearing, is the 
 same as that just described. 
 
 Fig. 2, is a detail view of one of the chain wheels, 
 R, with the chain guide, S, and stripper, V, showing 
 
 
 Hg. I. 
 
 of the pin or shaft between its bearings. Over the 
 hub of this wheel, is tlie pocketed clmin-wheel U, 
 with tlu'cliain stripper V, and a chain guide. .S The 
 chain wheel is made separately from the worm wlicel 
 to admit of easy removal and renewal when worn 
 out. Heferring now to the right hand housing in the 
 drawing, () is the crank shaft extending through the 
 housing at riglit angles to the worm wheel shaft a- 
 bove. Q is the worm, fitted upon the shaft, (), at its 
 center, ami gearing into llie worm wheel, P. K. isa 
 spur ])iiiii)ii, tittcil to one end of the shaft, (), and cap- 
 able of sliding longitudinally tliereon. T isa small 
 guide sheave over which the slack of the chain falls 
 after passnig aniiind the lower semi-circumfcniice of 
 the chainwheel. K. The arrangement of the opposite 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 the manner in which the chain is guided during its 
 contact with the wheel, and the provision, by means 
 of the stripper, V, for compelling it to leave the 
 wheel, R, at the proper point in whichever direction 
 the wheel is being turned. The slack part of the chain, 
 after passing over the guide sheave, T, falls into a 
 receptacle between the housings at the foot of the 
 mast. The chain being endless, the two parts, X and 
 Y, come together in the receptacle just referred to, 
 and are there united, the amount of slack chain con- 
 tained in the box varying with the position of the 
 running block. 
 
 Fig. 3 is a horizontal cross-section taken through 
 both housings and the mast of the crane, the several 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 parts being designated by the same iftters in Fig. 1. 
 M is a shaft parallel to the crank shafts, O and N 
 extending through the mast and carr3'ing at one end 
 the large spur wheel, L. The pinions, J, and K, as 
 previously explained, are arranged to slip upon their 
 shafts so as to bring them into or out of coincidence 
 with the intermediate wheel, L, and the pinion, J, 
 is disengaged. If now the crank be applic<i to the 
 shaft, N, and turned in tlic projirr direction, the 
 chain, X, will be liaided in and the load raised. The 
 same effect will result from rotation of the shaft, O. 
 If both be turned simultaneously, hoisting will be 
 effected at double speed. By applying the crank to 
 the shaft, M, motion will be communicated through 
 th<? wheel- L, and pinion, K, to the shaft, (), and 
 hoisting will occur at a rapi<l spei'd iirojiortionate to 
 the relative diameters of the wheels. L and K. Three 
 speeds are thus olitained for hoisting, all of which 
 are equally aiiplicable to lowering by reversing the 
 motion of the cranks.
 
 JIB-CKANE. 
 
 141 
 
 JIB C£AM£. 
 
 To pffcct the prnppr travpl of the trollfy. both pin- 
 ions, J and K, lire nlippcil into fn);iif;i''n''nt vvilli Ilic 
 wlic(^l, L. My llicM lurMiiii? fitlicr (if tlic sliafis, Nor 
 (), in t.lii^ proper (iiri'i'lion, oiic, purl, of llic lioistiiif; 
 cliain, X, for cxanipli', will lie liaiili'il in. anil I lie op- 
 posite part, y, paid out atcipial speeds, the elf eel of 
 which is to cause the trolley to niovi' horizontally 
 upon tlie jil). I5y applyini; the crank to the shaft, 
 M, these motions are accelerated, and a rapid move- 
 ment of the trolley results. 
 
 Two cranks are furnished with each crane, and it 
 is to be noted that the construction ailtnitsof the em- 
 hloyment of both cranks upon any one of the shafts 
 M, N. or (), so that the entire eneri,'y of all the men 
 employed upon the crane is transmitted throuirh that 
 shaft, while, if more, rapid action is desired, one of 
 tile cranks may lie ])laced tipon the rii;lit hanil end of 
 tlie shaft. N, and the other upon theo|iposite or left 
 hand end of the shaft. (). In either case the two 
 shafts, bein.i; on opposite sides of the crane, do not 
 in any way interfere with one another, and are thus 
 
 L with its two pininno. The worm whepls and worms 
 are entirely contained within the two housinjrs, the 
 upper parts of which latter are arranf;ed to liftodto 
 li'ivi- access to the fx'''"'''if,'. Kacli of the worms runs 
 in an oil well, thus insuring perfect lubrication, anfl 
 each of thesis wells is provided with a ilriiina>re-lap 
 at the bottom to draw olT the lubricant when de- 
 sired. 
 
 Fig. 4 represents a jib-crane of medium size, 
 eacli member of the frame consistinn of two parts, 
 separated so as toiierndl the chain luid block to pass 
 between them, so that the load can be moved close 
 into the mast. The lioislini^ mi'chanism is attached 
 to tin; mast near its foot, and lh<- rutmin;; block 
 which carries the loud, is suspended from a trolley 
 travelling; on thi' jib and capable of movement in and 
 out by nu'ans of independent gearing attached to the 
 jib at its intersection with the mast Cranes of this 
 desiirn are built of any desired capacity from 1 ton 
 to .5 tons. The frame consists of wrought iron chan- 
 nel beams, each of the three members of the frame 
 
 Fi?. 4. 
 
 always available for the full number of men who can 
 effectively be employed uiion them. I 
 
 The compactness and simplicity of this mechanism 
 will be apparent from the forestoinir description. The , 
 entire operating mechanism oif the crane consists of j 
 two worm wheels and worms, and of the spur wheel ! 
 
 being composed of two such channel irons. The di- 
 mensions are such as to give the accepted factor of 
 safety, and the several parts are very securely con 
 nected together at their intersections by riveting. 
 Hoisting is effected through a train of spur gearing 
 operated by crank in the usual way, and provided
 
 JIGGEK. 
 
 142 
 
 JOHNSON L0ADIN6-APFAEATTTS 
 
 with an automatic safety ratcliet. Lowering is ef- 
 fected by a separate mechanism consisting of a turned 
 worm wlieel and worm, operated by a light hand 
 wheel, as shown in the cut, this mechanism being 
 also available for raising light loads. Thus arranged, 
 the machine is self-sustaining and can be left at any 
 time with the load in suspension without danger of 
 the load running down or the handles flying back. 
 The construction gives three changes of Speed, and 
 embodies the endless chain system, which insures 
 an even distribution of wear over the entire length 
 of chain. 
 
 Rotation is easily effected by pushing or pulling 
 the suspended load, the pintles in top and bottom 
 bearings being of steel and turning in bronze boxes. 
 Motion of the trolley on the jib, in either direction, 
 is effected by gearing operated from below by an 
 endless hand chain, as shown in the cut. The self- 
 sustaining construction of the hoisting gear holds the 
 load suspended at any height while the trolley is 
 moved in and out on the jib. 
 
 Cranes of this type are adapted for use in arsenals 
 for handling and liiounting heavy guns, in foundries, 
 forges, rolling mills, etc. See Cranes and Trolleys. 
 
 JlGrGEE. — fn mechanical maneuvers, an appara- 
 tus consisting of a strong rope with a block at one 
 end, and a sheave at the other, used in maintaining 
 the tension of--or, technically, in "holding on" to 
 
 the cable as it is thrown off from the capstan or 
 
 windlass, around which it only takes two or three 
 turns. 
 
 JIM CROW. — One of the tools used by railway 
 platelayers for bending rails, and forms one of a set 
 of platelayers' tools attached to the royal engineer 
 siege equipment. It is suitable for bending the 24 
 lb. rails of the trench railway. 
 
 JINGAL. — A small, portable piece of ordnance to 
 be fired from the ground or on a wall, resting on a 
 long, slender butt-end, and two legs. This piece 
 was commonly used in India. Sometimes written 
 Jii'gall. Sec 'Gingah. 
 
 JOAR. — An East Indian term, signifying a general 
 massacre of the women and children, which is some- 
 times performed by the Hindoos, when they find 
 they cannot prevent the enemy from taking the town. 
 When this dreadful and unnatiiral ceremony is to 
 take place, a spot is selected which is filled with 
 wood, straw, oil, etc. The victims are inclosed and 
 the whole is set on fire. 
 
 JOHN BULL.— A familiar synonym for the Eng- 
 lish people. Its origin is attributed to Dean Swift, 
 but Arbuthnot first gave it literary currency in his 
 Histi/ry fif John Bull (1712), a political allegory in- 
 tended to satirize the Duke of Marlborough, and 
 to increase feeling against the war with Prance. In 
 art John Bidl is well known as a burly country 
 squire, impetuous, honest, narrow-minded, dogmat- 
 ic, and easilv imposed upon. 
 
 JOHN OF JERUSALEM.— The Order of Knights of 
 Saint John of Jerusalem, otherwise called Knights 
 OF Rhodes, and after of Malta is the most celebrated 
 of all tlie military and religious orders of the Middle 
 Ages. 
 
 It originated in 1048 in an Hospital dedicated to 
 St. John the Baptist, which some merchants of 
 Amalfi were permitted by the Calif of Egypt to 
 biiild for the reception of the Pilgrims from Europe 
 who visited the Holy Sepulcher. The nurses were 
 at first known as the Hospitaler Brothers of St. John 
 the Baptist of Jerusalem. The Seljuk Turks, who 
 succeeded the Egyptian and jVrabian Saracens in 
 PaU'Stine, plundered tlu' Hospice, and on the Con- 
 quest of Jerusalem by the Crusaders under Geoffroy 
 (le Bouillon in 10i)i(, tlie tirst Superior, Gerard, was 
 found in prison. Released from durance, heresvmi- 
 ed his duties in the Hospice, gave material aid to the 
 sick and woun<led, and was joined Ijy several of the 
 ('rusaders, who devoted themselves to the service of 
 the poor Pilgrims. By advice of (Jerard, the breth- 
 ren took vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience 
 
 before the Patriarch of Jerusalem. Pope Pascal II. 
 gave his sanction to the Institution 1113. Ray- 
 mond du Puy, the successor of Gerard in the oflice 
 of Superior, drewup a body of Statutes for the Or- 
 der, which was confirmed by Pope Cali.xtus II. To 
 the former obligations was afterward added those 
 of fighting against the Infidels and defending the 
 Holy Sepulcher. Various Hospices, called Com- 
 maiideries, were established in different maritime 
 towns of Europe as resting places for Pilgrims, who 
 were there provided with the means of setting out 
 for Palestine. The Order having become military 
 as well as religious, was recruited by persons of high 
 rank and influence, and wealth flowed in on it from 
 all quarters. On the Conquest of Jerusalem by Sal- 
 adin in 1187, the Hospitalers retired to >Iargat in 
 Phenicia. whence the progress of infidel arms drove 
 them first in 128.5, to Acre, and afterwards, in 1291, 
 to Limisso, where Henry II., King of Cyprus, as- 
 signed them a residence. By the Statutes of Ray- 
 mond, the Brethren consisted of three classes. 
 Knights, Chaplains, and Serving Brothers ; these last 
 being fighting Squires, who followed the Knights in 
 their expeditions. The Order was subsequently di- 
 vided into eight languages — Provence, Anvergne, 
 France, Italy, Aragon, England, Germany, and tlas- 
 tile. Each nation possessed several Grand Priories, 
 under which were a number of Commanderies. 
 The chief establishment in England was the Priory 
 at Clerkenwell, whose l^ad had a seat in the Upper 
 House of Parliament, and was styled First Baron of 
 England. 
 
 In 1310, the Knights under their Grand-Master, 
 Foulkes de Villaret, in conjunction with a party of 
 Crusaders from Italy captured Rhodes and seven ad- 
 jacent islands from the Greek and Saracen Pirates 
 by whom it was then occupied, and carried on from 
 thence a successful war against the Saracens. In 
 1.523, they were compelled to surrender Rhodes to 
 Sultan Solyman, and retired first to Candia and after- 
 ward to Vitebo. In 1.530, Charles V. assigned them 
 the Island of Malta, with Tripoli and Gozo. The 
 Knights continued for some time to be a powerful 
 bulwark against the Turks ; but after the Reforma- 
 tion a moral degeneracy overspread the Order, and 
 it rapidly declined in political importance: and in 
 1798, through the treachery of some French Knights, 
 and the cowardice of the Grand Master, D'Hom- 
 spech, Malta was surrendered to the French. The 
 lands still remaining to the Order were also about 
 this time confiscated in almost all yie European 
 States ; but though extinct-as a Sovereign Body, the 
 j Order has continued during the present century to 
 drag on a lingering existence in some parts of Italy, 
 as well as inRussia and Spain. Since 1801 the office 
 of Grand-Master has not been filled up : a Deputy 
 Grand-Master has instead been appointed, who has 
 his residence in Spain. The Order at first wore a 
 long black habit with a pointed hood, adorned with 
 a cross of white silk of the form called Maltese on the 
 left breast, as also a golden cross in the middle of 
 the breast. In their niilitary capacity, they wore red 
 surcoats with the silver cross before and behind. The 
 badge worn by all the Knights is a Maltese cross, 
 enameled wliit'e, and edged with gold ; it is suspend- 
 ed by a black ribbon, and the embellishments at- 
 tached to it differ in the different countries where 
 the Order still exists. 
 
 JOHNSON LOADING-APPARATUS.— The aim of tne 
 inventor in planning this apparatus has been to pro- 
 duce a loading device which may be applied with- 
 out altering the present style of gun-carriages, and 
 which may be operated from a position considerably 
 below tlie nui/.zle of the gun. A staff-carriage is 
 supported by rods which may be raised or lowered 
 by racks and pinions. Tlie staff-carriage carries a 
 short shaft, ui)on which there is a pinion for driving 
 the sponge staff or rammer staff, also two drums for 
 receiving the rope by which it is rotated. The lirst 
 operation in cleaning the gun is to raise the staff-car-
 
 JOHUB DE RAJAH. 
 
 143 
 
 JOURNAL OF ATTACK. 
 
 riui;c ; till! springs stalT is thon Tnn thrriiicrh the cur- 
 riiii;c us fur us ciinvciiiciil ; tin' frrc end nl I lie sliilT 
 is llii'M niiscd l)y imi'Hiim of a rml lillcd williii fork for 
 tlir piirpdsc. A.s HODii us tlif tci'tli of !i rack with 
 wliii'li till' spoMHc stuir is provided, ciii^unc llic Icctli 
 of llii' pinion in llie ciirriane. llic pinion is turned liy 
 means of the ropes, forcin;; tin; sponge into the liore 
 of 111!' jjnn. The sponi;e start carries a driiin tiy 
 means of whicli it may hi' revolved when llie spmijie 
 rea<'hes the end of llie liore. The sponL,'e staff is 
 wilhdrawn by reversinij; the molion of the pinion in 
 the <-arriai.;e. A carlridiii' rest reeeives the earlridf^o 
 shell, or shot, anil carries it to the miizzleof Ihe K""' 
 The rammer stall is then inserted and operated in 
 imieh the same manner as the sponije slatf. After 
 loadini;. the start-earriaso and the cartriilire-rest are 
 lowered out of the way to permit of Ihe ready adjust- 
 ment of Ihe fjiin. This very iri;ienioiis apparatus is 
 the inveiilion of Lieutenant David i). Johnson, Uni- 
 ted .Stales Army. 
 
 JOHUR DE RAJAH. An Indian sword used early 
 iu the seventeenlli century. 
 
 JOIN. — A technical word used in the service, sig- 
 nifyins; to effect the junclion of one military body 
 with another. In a more limited sense, it means the 
 accession of an individual, volunlary or otherwise, 
 to a corps or army. If an oflicer, on beini; ordered 
 to .ioin. omits to do so wilfully, he is liable to trial 
 by a General C'ourt-Marlial, or to be peremptorily 
 suspended for bcin;; absent without leave. 
 
 JOINTEE JYNTEE.— A wood ivhose charcoal has 
 been mucli used in the (jovernmenl i)Owdcr works at 
 Ishapore, near Calcutta, in Ihe manufacture of i;un- 
 jiowder. The jointee grows from seed, and Mowers 
 afler the first year; it then increases in size till it be- 
 comes a small tree ; at tlirec or four years old. it makes 
 the best charcoal, the libera being then large and de- 
 fined, and well separated ; the charcoal is of a light- 
 ish color, and is not dense to the eye or touch. The 
 tree flourishes best on the banks of small nnllah.s or 
 water-courses. Jointee charcoal is not so soft as 
 that of Ihe urhur or dhall stalk, but it is more dry, 
 brillle, and hard. .\n averaged-sized tree of three 
 years' growth will occupy about r> sipiare yards, and 
 produce about Ihret; maunds of wood, which will 
 yield about :!() lbs. of charcoal, tlie quantity required 
 for I wo IDO-lb, barrels of gunpowder. Therefore 10.- 
 000 barrels would require about sixty beegahs of 
 land under constant cultivation, one-third to be cut 
 each year. The average specific gravity of jointee 
 wood is .707, and sp. gr. of the charcoal produced 
 from it .27.') ; and it yields 2.5 per cent, of charcoal. 
 Experience has shown that this wood is not so good 
 for gunpowder purposes as the dhall bush, and there- 
 fore should only be u.sed in case of a failure of that 
 crop. 
 
 JOINTS. — This ig a very important point in connec- 
 tion with a system of mines. In many instances it 
 will he found necessary to join either twolengths of 
 cable, or an insidated wire and a cable, together, in 
 both of which cases great care must be used in ma- 
 king Ihe joints, so hat the insulation and the conti- 
 nuity of the circuit may be perfect. 
 
 As oxides of metals can scarcely be considered con- 
 ductors, all joints in a wire, over which an electric 
 current is to pass, should, when formed, be perfect- 
 ly clean. In making a splice in a wire enough of the 
 two ends to form a joint should first lie brighlened. 
 and then each wire should be firmly wound around 
 the other, as shown iu the drawing, the different 
 
 evolutions touching one another, and passing, as 
 near as may be, at right angles with the wire which 
 they surround, A wire, in being spliced, must never 
 
 be bent hack and wound upon itself, forming a loose 
 loo[i. which, for telegrapii'c purposes, is ralher un- 
 reliable. In making a joint under water, a great ob- 
 ject is to totally exclude the ingress of water, or even 
 moisture, which would at once alTonl a j)atli for the 
 current and cause a loss or a leak in the cable. — See 
 Miniii. 
 
 JONES GABION. A useful gal)ion made of ten 
 bands of galvanised sheet-Iron, worked over twelve 
 wood pickets, the ends brought together and con- 
 nected by two buttons at one end. lilting into two 
 slots at the other. Kacli liand is 77 inches long, '.i\ 
 inches wide, of No. 20 gauge, or about OO.'i inch 
 thick : weight of ten, 2!) lbs. The buttons and but- 
 ton-holes are required to stand a weight of 073 
 lbs., Ihe band ilself will support about K.WO lbs. ; 
 
 ' each band has four holes to admit of combination to 
 form bridges, beds, stretchers, and for other in- 
 
 j cidenlal applications ; little or no instruction is re- 
 quired for making these gabions. 
 
 Two expert men can make a gabion in five min- 
 utes. 
 
 JOODAY PERRAPUT.— An East Indian term, signi- 
 f3'ing a slave lakin in war. 
 
 JOSLYN TOMES GUN. -A breech-loading rifle hav- 
 inga fixed chamber closed by a movatile breech-block 
 which slides in the line of the barrel by direct action. 
 It is opened by cocking the hammer. In so doing a 
 hook-shaped shoulder on its forward portion is dis- 
 engaged from a corresponding recess in the receiver; 
 ami the whole bolt containing the hammer and lock, 
 is free to move backward to its full extent. The fir- 
 ing-pin being linked to the hammer is also positive- 
 ly withdrawn from the face of Ihe bolt. The piece 
 is closed by reversing the molion of the bolt. It is 
 held closed by a spring-catch (friction-pin) on its 
 side. It is locked by the descent of the hooked por- 
 tion of the hammer into the recess of the receiver, 
 when Ihe piece may be fired by a back-action lock 
 concealed in Ihe bolt, the Irigger alone being detach- 
 ed. The firing-pin descends with the hammer along 
 an inclined groove in the face of the bolt leading to 
 the site of the fiilmintae in the center of the cart- 
 ridge-head. Extraction is accomplished by a spring- 
 hook recessed in the side of the bolt, and riding over 
 the rim of the cartridge when Ihe piece is closed. 
 Ejection is caused by the cartridge-shell being quick- 
 ly withdrawn on two longitudinal guides, one on 
 each side of the receiver, and ejected by the head 
 striking first a stop on one guide; and then almost 
 simultaneously a stop to the rear of the first, on the 
 other guide. 
 
 JOURNAL. — A public record or general orderly book 
 kept in the French service, and in which every trans- 
 action that occured during a siege is entered by the 
 Governor of the town, for the inspection of a Super- 
 ior Authority. The General Officer who carried on 
 the siege of a place likewise kept a document of the 
 same kind, and minuted down every thing that hap- 
 pened under his command. So thai the Journal 
 
 I which was kept in this manner was a circumslanlial 
 detail of what occurred, day after day, during the 
 attack and defense of a town. 
 
 j JOURNAL OF ATTACK.— In actual siege operations 
 a daily record is made by each Engineer Officer on 
 
 I duty in the trenches, of the amount of work done, 
 the time required, the means of execution, etc.. with 
 any observations that may seem of value. These 
 records are transmitted to the headquarters of the 
 Commaiiding Engineer, where they are filed aw.ay for 
 reference, and from Ihem the progress of Ihe trenches 
 is carefully laiddown uponthe original direclingplan 
 of the attack. From the data furnished by such rec- 
 ords, and from Ihe results obtained in Ihe Schools for 
 Iraiiung engineer troops, the average lime required 
 for executing Ihe various portions of the siege works, 
 under ordinary circum.stances, during IhcMiifferent 
 epochs into which they have been di\nded, has been 
 laid down by writers on this subject. This mode of 
 calculation has also been applied to test the relative
 
 JOURNAL OF DEFENSE. 
 
 144 
 
 JOUENALS OF MARCH, 
 
 valueof different systems of permanent fortifications, | completed on the sixth day. and the fire of the de 
 bv submitting them to a fictitious siege, and esti- j fcnses be brought under in twenty-four hours after 
 
 mating from the time, as shown in this way, requir- 
 ed for'their reduction, how much longer the one sys- 
 tem would hold out than the other. However in- 
 genious this method may at first appear, it affords 
 no real practical test of any importance ; the dura- 
 tion of sieges depending upon moral and physical 
 laws, as their whole history has shown, that no mode 
 of calculation can reach. The immediate successors 
 of Vauban, who made use of these calculations in 
 theoretical sieges, have usually allowed nine days, 
 from the opening of the trenches to the completion 
 of the 3d parallel ; estimating that all the batteries, 
 along the front of the 1st and 2d parallels, would be 
 
 the batteries were in full play. 
 
 JOURNAL OF DEFENSE.— In the American service, 
 during war, the Commander of a place and the Chiefs 
 of Engineers and of Artillery are required to keep 
 Journals of Defense, in which are entered in order of 
 date, without blank or interlineation, the orders given 
 or received, the manner in which they are executed, 
 their results, and every event and circumstance of 
 importance in the progress of the defense. These 
 Journals are sent after the siege to the War Depart- 
 ment. 
 
 JOURNALS OF MARCH.— Commanding officers of 
 troops marching through a country liltle known. 
 
 JonHNAL of the march of [^/lere insert the names of the regiments or companies composing the column'], com- 
 manded by . from ^here insert the point of departure] to [the stopping place], pursuant to [here 
 
 gvie the No. and daU of order for the march]. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Hour. 
 
 Weather. 
 
 Distance. 
 
 ■ REMAEKS. 
 
 1860. 
 
 ,5. A. M. 
 
 1. p. M. 
 10. 
 
 6.30. 
 6. 
 
 4.30. 
 
 4.30 A. M. 
 4.30 p. M. 
 
 3 p.m. 
 9. - 
 
 6.30 A. M. 
 
 Very pleasant; cloudy in the r. m. Rain. Cloudy, with wind. — Cold early in morning. — Cloudy. 
 
 Total, 19 
 
 Road rocky ; but little grass ; good water. Plenty 
 of timber on the summit of hills, extending 3 miles ; 
 road to right of hills. 
 
 July 8. 
 
 3 
 
 
 8 
 
 Good shelter for camp at foot of peak ; fuel plenty. 
 Springs of sweet water, with good grass near. Road 
 to this point rather more sandy. 
 
 
 3 
 
 Road runs through a canyon i mile long, to right 
 of a small stream : marsh on left of stream; water 
 sweet; grass excellent. Halted to graze two hours. 
 No Indian signs. 
 
 
 1 
 
 Companies F, G, and I, 3d , detached at Mt. 
 
 P , under command of , (see par. 3, 
 
 General Orders, No. ), to take road to 
 
 A small creek, easily forded. 
 
 
 4 
 
 Road turns short to right at top of hill after cross- 
 ing river ; crossing good, but a little boggy on right 
 bank. This bottom shows signs of recent overflow, 
 when it must have been impassable; banks low; 
 water sweet ; no wood near crossing ; road hard and 
 good up to river. 
 
 July 7. 
 
 "^^--- 
 
 
 Total, 47 
 
 ^~~~~~~-— , 
 
 July 9. 
 
 5 
 
 At the point where the roads fork, turn to the 
 right. The left-liand road leads to a deep ravine, 
 which cannot be crossed. 
 
 
 8 
 
 After the road strikes the ravine, it runs one mile 
 along its bank before coming to the crossmg-place. 
 The campins ground is at springs, half a mde be- 
 yond the ravine. Old Indian signs at the sprmgs. 
 
 
 in 
 
 Road less rocky ; last three miles rather sandy ; no 
 water. Passed at one point an Indian grave. 
 
 
 5 
 
 Road still rocky; good springs,where casks should 
 be filled. No more water for twenty mdes after leav- 
 ing springs. Occasional hills to left of road.; no wood 
 or grass. 
 
 July 8. 
 
 ~~^^^--~-^^ 
 
 
 19 

 
 jorrRNEE. 
 
 145 
 
 JUDGE ADVOCATE, 
 
 k<'('p jmirniils of tlu'ir niiirclics iiccoriiinfT to a form 
 liiiii ilowii in Army licL'iilalioiis. At llii' ciid nf the 
 inarcli a ccipy of llic jdnrnal i'~ rclaiiicd at llic Hiatinii 
 when' tlic lr(io|iH arrivr, ami tin- ririL'inal in forwaril- 
 I'd to llic Hca(li|iiart(TS (jf llic Dcparliiiciil or Corps 
 (I'Anncc. Tliciuc after a copy lias liccii taken, it 
 is transmitted, tlirouuli the IIca(l(|narlers of On: 
 Army, to tlu^ Adjutant General, for tlie information 
 of lli(( War I)<'parlmcnt. Tlic drawin;^ represents 
 Ketcliam's conlinnons protilc-book, which is mostly 
 used for roiile-skctcliini; ami n<'neral licld notes. 
 When this cannot lie ohtaincd, a liook made of 
 sheets of paper fiililcil to half the letter size will an- 
 swer. The record should run fromthe bottomlotlie 
 top of each pai;c. 
 
 Ucferriiijjf to llic form on paf;e 144. it is under- 
 stood that IIk' distance, in mile-., hi'twecn each 
 of the horizontal divisions, will be noted in the col- 
 umn headed " DiKldiin," which will be summed up 
 at llic'lop of each column, and the sum carried to 
 the boltom of llic iic.\t column. The notes within 
 each horizontal division are to show the general di- 
 rections of the march, and every object of interest 
 observed in passing over the distance represented 
 thereby ; and all remarkable features, .such as hills, 
 
 carries the felt, the other the wood-work. Tliere 
 ' are four separate parts in its structure : 1. The ilnnr. 
 \ irnij. a sfilid piece of ornamental carpenterinf;. that 
 tak<'S to pieces instantly. 2. The «V/'s which con- 
 sist of lengths of wood-work, that shut i > on the 
 priiKtiple of the tiizy-timgH. 'A. Tlie roof-riijH. The 
 lioltoni of each of these is tied to the sides of the 
 jourl, and ils top fits into a socket in — 4, the mtif- 
 riiirj, which is a hoop of wood strengthened by trans- 
 verse bars. Over this framework broad slieets of 
 felt arc thrown ; their own weight makes them lie 
 steadily, for they are (juitc an inch in thickness; 
 however, in very stormy weather, tiny are weighted 
 with stones. There is no metal in the structure. 
 
 JOUSTS. — E.xercises of arms and horseniansliip, 
 performed in the Middle Ages by Knights and Nobles. 
 In the joust the combatants engaged one another sing- 
 ly, each against his antagonist, and not in a troop, as 
 in the tournament. The number of courses to be 
 run and strokes to be given was generally three, but 
 sometimes a larger number. Tlie weapon most in 
 use in the joust was the lance, but sometimes the 
 liattle-a.\c and sword were employed. To direct the 
 lance anywhere but at the body of the antagonist was 
 reckoned foul play. In the joust of peace or juule 
 
 streams with their names, fords, springs, houses, 
 villages, forests, marches, etc.. and the places of en- 
 campment, will be sketched \:\ their relative positions. 
 The " Remarkx" correspo,: ling to each division, 
 will be upon the soil, pro luctions.quantity and qual- 
 ity of timber, grass, wat' and fords, nature of the 
 roads, etc., and importai '. incidents. They should 
 show where provisions, • irage, fuel, and water can 
 be obtained; whether the streams to be crossed are 
 fordable, miry, liave <]ui( ksands or steep banks, and 
 whether they overflow their banks in wet seasons; 
 also the quality of the water; and, in brief, every- 
 thing of practical importance. When a detachment 
 leaves the main column, the point on the "route" 
 will be noted, and the reason given in the Eetnarks. 
 The Commander of the detachment will be furnished 
 with a copy of the journal up to the point, and will 
 ctmtinuc it over his new line of inarch. 
 
 JOURNEE. — A term used among the French to e.v- 
 prcss any particular engagemcni or battle : as La 
 journee de Marengo. We frequently adopt the vrord 
 in the same sense ; thus, a hard-fought day signities 
 a hard-fought battle. 
 
 JOURS.— The tours of duty which are done in the 
 c nirse of a day and a night. Ktre de jour is to be 
 Othcer of the Day. or to command a body of troops 
 at a siege or otherwise in the capacity of a General 
 Olticcr, etc. 
 
 JOURT. — The Kirghis-jourt is a capacious, solid, 
 warm, and tire-proof structure, that admits of being 
 pitched or taken to pieces in an hour, and with- 
 stands the cold and violenl winds of the steppes of 
 Central Asia, in a way that no tent or combination 
 of tents could pretend to ctTcct. A jourt of from 20 
 to 2.5. or even 30 feet in diameter, forms two camel- 
 loads, or about half a ton in weight. One camel 
 
 de plnisance, a foot encounter preceded the mounted 
 combat. In the 1.5th century the usages of jousting 
 had come to differ in ditlerent countries to such an 
 extent that an elaborate treatise was written in ex- 
 planation of the various modes distinguishing the 
 characteristic differences. 
 
 JOUTE.— A close fight between \\\o individuals. 
 It likewise means an engagement at sea. 
 
 JOVES. — In fortification, the two sides in the epaul- 
 mciit of a tiattery which form the embrasure. 
 
 JOWHER. — A kind of watering in Oriental sw^ord- 
 liladcs and Damascus gun-barrels. 
 
 JOYEUSE.— The name given to the sword of Char- 
 lemagne. 
 
 JOZERAUNT. — Ancient armor ; a jacket strength- 
 ened with plate. Also written jourine. 
 
 JUDGE ADVOCATE.— The title of an official at- 
 tached to Jlilitary Commissions or Courts-Martial, 
 whose duties are analagous to those of Prosecutin"- 
 Attorneys in Civil Courts; but whose functions in 
 relation to military law. are also similar to those of 
 a District Attorney, or Corporation Counsel, in beinc 
 of an advisory character. Tlie appointment of Judgtv 
 Advocates for special Courts rests in the authority 
 which appoints the Court, whether that be the Presi- 
 dent, the Secretary of War. or theCommander of the 
 Army. But there is also in the United States Army 
 a ( 'orps of seven Judge Advocates with the rank of 
 Major, who are under the general direction of the 
 Judge Advocate General, and who can be detailed 
 on Courts-Martial or Military Commissions, but are 
 usually stationed at the Headquarters of the Military 
 Departments, where they act as legal advisers to the 
 Deiiarlment Commanders, and may be appointed by 
 them to Court-Martial duty. The olficial duties 
 I of a J udge Advocate during a trial by Court-JIartial
 
 JTJBGE ADVOCATE GENERAL. 
 
 146 
 
 JDDGE-MAETIAL. 
 
 or Military Commission, or examination by a Court 
 of Inquiry, are as follows : Preparation of the case 
 for the prosecution, procuring of witnesses, admin- 
 istering the oath, opening the" case for the prosecu- 
 tion with the necessary argument, questioning the 
 witnesses, and submitting the case to the Court. But 
 be.sides these duties the Judge Advocate has still an- 
 other — seemingly anomalous in this conuection— that 
 of protecting the witness from improper or leading 
 questions, and to that extent also acting as counsel 
 for the accused. In the English military service the 
 duties of the Judge Advocate have been so far modi- 
 fied that he does not act as Prosecutor, but solely in 
 his advisory capacity in connection with the Court, 
 and as the Recorder of its proceedings. 
 
 Tlie Articles of War are silent on the subject of the 
 Judge Advocate's assisting the Court with his coun- 
 sel and advice as to any matters of form or law ; it 
 nevertheless is his dutJ^ by custom, to explain any 
 doubts which may arise in the course of its deliber- 
 ations, and to prevent any irregularities or deviations 
 from the regular form of proceedings. The duty as- 
 signed the Judge Advocate is more especially incum- 
 bent on him incases where the prisoner has not the 
 aid of.professional coimscl to direct him. which gcn- 
 eralVy bappens in the trials of private soldiers, who 
 having had few advantages of education, or oppor- 
 tunities for mental improvement, stand greatly in 
 need of advice under circumst'ances often sufficient 
 to overwhelm the acutest intellect, and. embarrass or 
 suspend the powers of the most cultivated under- 
 standing. It is certainly not to be understood that, 
 in discharging this'office. which is prescribed solely by 
 humanity, -the Judge Advocate should, in the strictest 
 sense consider himself as bound to the duty of coun- 
 sel, by exertinghis ingenuity to defend the prisoner, 
 at all" hazards, against those charges which, in his 
 capacity of Prosecutor, he is. on the other hand, 
 bound to urge and sustain by proof ; for, understood 
 to this extent, the one duty is utterly inconsistent 
 with the other. All that is required is. that in the 
 same manner as in Civil Courts of Criminal Juris- 
 diction, the Judges are understood to be counsel for 
 the person accused, the Judge Advocate, in Court- 
 Martial, shall do justice to the cause of the prisoner, 
 by giving full weight to every circumstance or argu- 
 ment in his favor ; shall bring the same fairly and 
 completely into the view of tlie Court; shall sug- 
 gest the supplying of all omissions in exculpatory 
 evidence ; shall engross in the written proceedings 
 all matters which, either direct!}' or by presumption, 
 tend to the prisoners's defense ; and finally, shall not 
 avail himself of any advantage which superior know- 
 ledge, ability, or his influence with the Court may give 
 liim in. enforcing the conviction, rather than the ac- 
 quittal, of the person accused. 
 
 When a Court-Martial is summoned b_v the proper 
 authority, for the trial of any militarj' offender, the 
 Judge Advocate being required to attend to his duty, 
 and furnished with articles of charge or accusation, 
 on which he is fo prosecute, must, from tlie informa- 
 tion of the accuser, or other sources, instruct himself 
 in all the circumstances of the case, anl by what evi- 
 dence the whole particulars are to be proved against 
 the prisoner. Of these, it is proper that he should 
 prep.ire, in writing, a short analysis, or plan, for his 
 own regulation in the conduct of the trial, and ex- 
 amination of the witnesses. He ought then, if it 
 lias not been done by some other functiimary, fo 
 give information to the jirisoner of the time and 
 place appointed for his trial, and furnish him, at 
 the same time, with a co])y of the charges that 
 are to lie exhibited against him, and likewise a 
 correct detail of the Members of the Court. The 
 Judge Advocate ought then to hand in to the Adju- 
 tant (Jeneral. or Staff Oflicer charged with the de- 
 tails, a list of witnesses for the prosecution, in order 
 that they may be summoned to give (heirattendance 
 at the time and jilarc ap])ointed. It is proper, liUe- 
 wise, tliat he should desire the prisoner to make a 
 
 similar application, to insure the attendance of the 
 witnesses necessary for his defense. These measures 
 ought fo be taken as early as possible, that there may 
 be sufficient time for the arrival of witnesses who 
 may be at a distance. When the Court is met for 
 trial. and the members are regularly sworn, the Judge 
 Advocate, after opening the prosecution by a recital 
 of the charges, togethtr with such detail of circum- 
 stances as he may deem necessary, proceeds to ex- 
 amine his witnesses in support of the charges, while 
 at tlie same time he acts as the Recorder or Clerk of 
 the Court, in taking-down the evidence in writing at 
 full length, and as nearl}- as possible in the words of 
 tlie witnesses. At the close of the business of each 
 day. and in the interval before the next meeting of 
 the Court, it is the •duty. of the Judge Advocate to 
 make a fair copy of the proceedings ; which he con- 
 tinues thus regularly to engross till the conclusion of 
 the trial, when the whole is read over by him to the 
 Court, before the Members proceed to deliberate and 
 form their opinions. The sentence of the Court must 
 be fairly engrossed and subjoined to the record copy 
 of tlie proceedings ; and the whole must be authen- 
 ticated by the signature of the President of the Court 
 and that of the Judge Advocate. 
 
 It is required by the Articles of War, that " Every 
 Judge Advocate, or person o'fficiating as such, at any 
 General Court-Martial, shall transmit, with as much 
 expedition as the opportunity of time and distance of 
 place can admit, the original proceedings and sen- 
 tence of such Court-Martial, to the Secretary of War; 
 which said original proceedings and sentence shall 
 be carefully kept and preserved in the office of the 
 said Secretary, fo the end that the persons entitled 
 thereto, may be enabled, upon application to the said 
 office, to obtain copies thereof." The Judge Advo- 
 cate sends the proceedings to the Secretary of War 
 through the Adjutant General. See Court-Martial. 
 
 JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL.— In England, the 
 Supreme Judge, under the'Mutiny Act and Articles 
 of War, of the proceedings of Courf.s-Mariial. This 
 officer is also the adviser, in legal matters, of the 
 Commander-in-Chief and Secretary of State for War. 
 Before conflrmafion the sentences of all Courts-Mar- 
 iiai, with the evidence adduced, are submitted to 
 him; and it is for .him to represent to the Com- 
 mander-in-Chief any illegality of procedure, or other 
 circumstance rendering it undesirable that the 
 Queen should be .advised to confirm the Court's de- 
 cision. The Judge- Advocate-General receives a sal- 
 ary of £2,000. and is a member of the House of 
 Commons and of the ^Ministry — changing, of course, 
 with the latter. As it is essential that the Judge 
 Advocate General should have an intimate acquaint- 
 ance with the milifarj' law, as well as with the gen- 
 eral law of the land, he is provided with an as- 
 sistant or Deputy , whose office is permanent, and 
 who is selected from among barristers of eminence. 
 The Deputy Judge Advocate is an officer holding a 
 temporary commission as Public Prosecutor in every 
 Court-Martial. lie must be an officer of intelligence, 
 as it is part of his duty to examine and cross-ex- 
 amine witnesses, fo warn the members of the Court 
 of any illegalit}' in their proceedings, and generally 
 to fulfill, in the limited area of the Court, tlie func- 
 tions which belong fo flic Judge Advocate General. 
 
 In the United States, the Judge Advocate Gen- 
 eral is the Chief of the Bureau of l\Iilitary Justice 
 at Washington with tlie rank of Brigadier (Jeneral. 
 To him the proceeilings of all Courts-Martial. Courts 
 of Inquiry, and Alilitarv Commissions are forwarded 
 for revision and record. In England flie Judge Ad- 
 vocate General is the final legal autliorily for the 
 Army, and the adviser of flic Crown in cases where 
 any action of the Sovereign is required. His power 
 is supreme as to reviewing the proceedings of Courts- 
 Martial, etc. See Jiurcav of Military Juxticc. 
 
 JUDGE MARTIAL. -In former years the Supreme 
 .judge in Martial l.aw, as fo the jurisdiction and 
 powers of j\Iilitary Courts in the British system.
 
 JUDSON POWDER. 
 
 147 
 
 JUBISDICTIOir. 
 
 JUDSON POWDER. -A low !;rii(l<- liij^Ii-c.vplosivc 
 iiivc'iilcd by IO^IjitI, .ludson, iif Sun Friincisco, Ciili- 
 fdriiiii, iiiid palcnlcil in 1H7(). .muici' wliicli tiiiii; il, 1ms 
 lii'cii iii:iriiifiicluri'(l in lurii<- (|ii;iiililics iit licrklcy. 
 Ciilifoniia, anil lias urovvn ruplilly in favor with all 
 who have nscil it. taUini; the place of black pow- 
 der in heavy work. It is nol a hi;;h exi)losive and 
 cannot be used for such work as is inten(h'<l for 
 Giant. Atlas or Hercules powder, but wherever 
 black powder is in use Judson powder can be sub- 
 stituted to threat advantage As this powder con- 
 tains nitro-glyecrine it becomes hard in cold wea- 
 ther (at about 4.")" F). When in this stale it readily 
 breaks ui) into i;rains by a little pressure and can 
 then be jjoured like sand into the smallest crevice. 
 When usin;^ frozen powder, it is necessary to use a 
 primini; cartridge of Giant, and toalways have this 
 cartridge soft. For blasting or (pnirry work, Judson 
 powder is put up in watcr-i)r")f jiapcr-bags, con- 
 taining C>\, 12i anil 2.1 pounds each, and 8, 4 and 2 
 bags respectively are put in wooden boxes holding 
 50 pounds. It is also put up in water-proof cart- 
 ridges of any size desired for special purposes. See 
 Jlif//i Explosives. 
 
 JUMP. — A guu-barrel made of a ribbou of iron, or 
 laminated iron and steel, coih'il around a mandrel at 
 a red heat, then raised to a welding heat and placed 
 on a cylindrical rod, whicli is struck heavily and 
 vertically on the ground, is said to be jumpfd. The 
 clTect is to cause the edges of tli(^ ribbon to unite, a 
 junction which is compTetod by the hammer on an 
 anvil, the manilrel retaining its position. Such bar- 
 rels are said to be twisted. The twist is stul>, wire, 
 or Damascus, according to the mode of manufacture 
 of the ribbon. See Gun-barrel, and Twist. 
 
 JUMP OF A GUN.— The increased angle of depart- 
 ure at which a projectile leaves a gun, after the gtm 
 has been trulj- levelled at the target or object to be 
 struck. The method usually pursued to ascertain 
 the " jiunp" of a gun is to place a target at 130 feet 
 from the gim which has been truly levelled, so as to 
 be horizontal. On tiring the gun. the position of 
 the hits on the target determines the "jump" as, if 
 above the level on the target, it shows that the pro- 
 jectile has left the piece with a certain amount of 
 elevation : if it had not been so, gravity would have 
 brought the shot below the level on the target. This 
 "jump" is due to the tendency the gun and car- 
 riage have to rotate on the trail. Experiment has 
 shown that the "jump" which the system makes 
 before the projectile leaves the muzzle is much af- 
 fected by the nature of the ritling. A breech-load- 
 ing gun in which the shot is forced through the 
 bore, "jumps" more than a muzzle-loading gun of 
 the same weight and length. 
 
 JUNCTION-'BOX.— In s'ubmarine miuing, when it 
 is necessary to employ a multiple cable, a junction- 
 box is used to facilitate the connection of the sever- 
 al separate wires diverging from the extremities of 
 such a cable. In one angle of such a box the multi- 
 ple cable is introduced, while the cables make their 
 exit on the opposite sides and pass to different mines. 
 The ends of the cables are secured from pulliHg out 
 by hooked nippers. Each multiple cable is com- 
 posed of seven cores, and each of these is connected 
 "by means of joints with the mine cables within the 
 junction-box. The boxes are usually made of cast 
 metal and must, as an essential condition, be perfect- 
 ly water-tight. They are of various forms, depend- 
 ing upon the object for which each is to be used. 
 They should be supplied with the other apparatus 
 for laying mines. 
 
 A junction-box should be placed in .scch position 
 as to be easily attained, even in the presence of an 
 enemy, and its buoy should, if possible, not be seen. 
 It is also very essential that it should be in a safe 
 and guarded position, for any injury to the jimction- 
 box or multiple cable would be fatal to the group of 
 mines in connection. 
 
 JUNIOR. — Any one having a lower rank. When the 
 
 I 
 
 grade is the same, the junior has the more recent 
 commission or warrant. 
 
 JUNK. -1. Pieces of old cable or cordage, used for 
 making points, gaskets, etc. When picked to pieces, 
 it is much used in the arsinal instead of oakum. 2. 
 A fanuliar term in the Urilish Army and Navy for 
 the salt meat supplied for long trips— the nanu- being 
 jirobably derived from the fact that it becomes as 
 hard and lough as old rope, pieces of which are ofli- 
 cially styled junk. 
 
 JUNK WADS.— Wads used for proving cannon. 
 Wad-molds for each caliber, consisting of two cast- 
 iron cylinders of dilferent diameters .set in oak, or of 
 two strong pieces, strapped with iron, and joined by 
 a hinge, are emi>loyed in their manufacture. The 
 jimk. after having been i)icked. is compressed \,y 
 being beaten in tlie smaller mold with a maul anil 
 cyliiiilrinil rf;v/«— the latter nearly of the size of the 
 mold — until it assumes the requisite dimensions; it 
 is then taken out by raising the upper part of the 
 mold, and closely wrap|)eil with rope-yam jjassed 
 over it in the direction of the axis of the cvlinder. 
 and fastened by a few turns aroimil the nuddle of the 
 wad. It is then placed in the large mold, and again 
 beaten with the maul and drift until its diameter is 
 increased to that of the mold; wheii it is taken out 
 and its diameter verified by a wooden gauge corres- 
 ponding to the larue shot-L'auge of the caliber. 
 
 JUPON JUST AU CORPS. A surcoat. The name 
 jupon is chietly apiilicd to the short, tight form of 
 that military garment in use in the 14th century. It 
 was a sle(^veless ja(,'ket or overcoat, composed of 
 several thicknesses of material sewed through, and 
 faced with silk or velvet, upon which were embroid- 
 ered the arms of the wearer. It fitted closely to the 
 body, and, descending below the hips, terminated in 
 an enriched border of various patterns. 
 
 JURISDICTION.— All officers, conductors, gunners, 
 matrosses. drivers, or other persons whatsoever, re- 
 ceiving pay, or hire, in the service of the Artillery, or 
 Corps of Engineers of the United States, are subject 
 to be tried by Courts-JIartial, in like manner with 
 the officers and soldiers of the other troops in the 
 service of the United States. The officers and soldiers 
 of any troops, whether militia or others, lieing nnis- 
 tered and in pay of the United States, arc at all times 
 and in all places, when joined or acting in conjunc- 
 tion with the regular forces of the United States, gov- 
 erned by these Rules and Articles of War, and are 
 subject to be tried by Courts-Martial, in Hkemanner 
 with the officers and soldiers in the regular forces, 
 save only that such Courts-Martial are composed en- 
 tirely of militia officers. No person is liable to be 
 tried and punislu-d by a General Court-Marlial for 
 any otTense which shall appear to have been com- 
 mitted more than two years before the issuing of the 
 order for such trial, unless the person, by reason of 
 having absented himself, or some other manifest im- 
 pediment, shall not have been amenable to justice 
 within that period. 
 
 Can Courts-Martial and Civil Courts have concur- 
 rent jurisdiction over offenses committed bv soldiers? 
 Or, in other words, if a soldier is guilty of'an offense 
 which renders him amenable for trial before the 
 Civil Courts of the land, can he also be tried for that 
 offense (if its specification should establish a viola- 
 tion of the Rules and Articles of War) by a Court- 
 Martial? By the Constitution of the Unfted States 
 Congress is authorized " To make rules for the gov- 
 ernment and regulation of the land and naval forces:" 
 and Congress, pursuant to this authority, has estab- 
 lished Rules and Articles for the government of the 
 arinies of the United States. These Rules are an ad- 
 ditional code, to which every citizen who becomes a 
 soldier subjects himself for ihe preservation of good 
 order and military dicipline. The soldier, howev- 
 er, is still only a citizen of the United States. He 
 has not. by assuming the military character become. 
 as is the case in very many European countries, 
 a member of any fully privileged body who may
 
 JTJSTATJCORFS. 
 
 148 
 
 EAISEB. 
 
 claim trial for all ofEenses by Courts-Martial. He is 
 still amenable to the ordinary Common Law Courts 
 for auy offenses against the persons or property of 
 any citizen of an}' of the United States, such as is 
 punishable by the known laws of the land. An ex- 
 amination of the Rules and Articles of War will show 
 that the offenses therein described, and against which 
 punishment is denounced, are purely military. They 
 are crimes which impair the efficiency of the military 
 body, and even in cases in which they would be 
 recognized as offenses by the ordinary Common Law 
 Courts, they could not be considered the name of- 
 fenses. Take.forinstance,Article21,which inflicts the 
 punishment of death, or other punishment, according 
 to the nature of his offense, upon auy officer or sol- 
 dier who shall strike his Superior Officer. Here is 
 an offense punishable under the known laws of the 
 land as an assault and battery, and, as such, it could 
 be tried by the Common Law Courts. But such trial 
 woidd not prevent a Court-Martial from afterwards 
 taking cognizance of it under Article 21 ; for the of- 
 fense1)efo"re the Common Law Court would be strik- 
 ing anequal. while before the Militar_v Court it would 
 have essentially changed its character. Again, sup- 
 pose an officer had been guilty of stealing, he miglit 
 be prosecuted before the Common Law Court for the 
 felony, and afterwards charged with conduct un- 
 becoming an officer and a gentleman, and dismiss, 
 ed the service. It can hardly be contended that 
 the offenses in either of the cases cited would be the 
 Mime before the different Courts; and if not, the Ar- 
 ticle which forbids a trial a second time for the same 
 offense, could not be pleaded in bar of trial. Re- 
 cognizing, then, the principle that the soldier, as a 
 citizen, is subject to the Common Law Courts for 
 offenses committed against the well-being of the 
 State, it must also be recollected that he is subject 
 to trial by a Court-Martial for any violation of the 
 Rules and" Articles of War. In the case of " Eels, 
 plaintiff in error, r. the People of the State of Illi- 
 nois, " it was urged that the Act of the State of Illi- 
 nois under which Eels was tried was void, as it 
 would subject the delinquent to a double punishment 
 for the same offense, the crime with which he was 
 charged being actionable under a law of the United 
 States. The Supreme Court decided that, admitting 
 the plaintiff in error to be liable to an action under the 
 Act of Congress, it did not follow he would be twice 
 punished for the same offense, and gave the follow- 
 ing dettnition of that term : 
 
 An offense in its legal signification means the 
 transgression of a law. A man may be compelled to 
 make reparation in damages to the injured party and 
 be liable also to punishment for a breach of the pub- 
 lic peace in consequence of the same act, and maj' be 
 said, in common parlance, to be twice punished for 
 the same offense. Every citizen of the United States 
 is also a citizen of a State or Territory. He ma_v be 
 said to owe allegiance to two Sovereigns and may be 
 liable to punishment for an infraction of the laws of 
 either. Tlie same act may be an offense or trans- 
 gression of the laws of both. Thus an assault upon 
 tlie Marshal of the United States and hindering him 
 in the execution of legal process is a high offense 
 against the United States, for which the perpetrator 
 is liable to punishment ; and the same act may also 
 ))e a gross breach of the peace of the State, a riot, as- 
 sault, or a murder, and subject the same person to a 
 punishment under the State laws for a misdemeanor 
 or felony. That either or both may, if they see fit, 
 
 punish such an offender cannot be doubted. Yet it 
 
 cannot be truly averred that the offender has been 
 
 twice punished for the same offense, but only that by 
 
 one act he has committed two offenses, for each of 
 
 I which lie is justly punishable. He could not plead 
 
 j the punishment by one in bar to a conviction by the 
 
 ! other. 
 
 JUSTAUCOKPS.— An ancient tight-fitting coat, hav- 
 ing a military appearance and constructed of cords. 
 A sim|>k- primitive ])r(itotvpe of mail-armor. 
 
 JUSTIFIABLE HOMICIDE.— The killing of a human 
 creature without incurring legal guilt, as where a 
 man is duly sentenced to be hanged; where one, in 
 self-defense, necessarily kills another to nreserve his 
 own life, etc. 
 
 JUTE. — The jute of commerce is a fiber produced 
 from two species of tiliaceae, the mrchortis olitorius 
 and eorchoruscapxvlrn-is, two plants, alike in qualities, 
 though slightly different in appearance, and sown in- 
 discriminatel}'; the first having round seed-pods and 
 reddish stalk, the. latter long seed-pods and bright 
 green stalk. From the fiber, which is the cheajiest 
 known are produced gunnies, gunnj'-cloth and cord- 
 age, and from the finer qualities, carpets, shirting, 
 coat-linings, etc.. are made. It is extensively used 
 for mixing with silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics, and 
 also in paper-making, while the leaves are eaten in 
 many places as food. The first mention of the word 
 jute is in 1796, in the manuscript commercial index 
 of the Court of Directors of the East India Companj-. 
 It is the Bengali name used bv tlie natives of Cuttack 
 and Balasore, where the first European manufac- 
 tories were established in the middle of the last cen- 
 tury. In 1829 the total export from Calcutta was 
 20 tons, value £60. In 1833 it had increased sixteen 
 fold, and about 1864-6.5 the increased demand caused 
 jute cultivation to extend to other districts, the ex- 
 portation in 1872-73 reaching the enormous amount 
 of 300,000 tons, value £3,300,000. England, Bomliay, 
 and America originally divided the exports of jute, 
 and up to the time of the civil war North America 
 took the largest share of the gunnies. Jute and gunnies 
 are now exported from Bengal largely \fi France, 
 Australia, and other parts of the world. Jute grown 
 iu England is not remunerative. It has been success- 
 fully grown in small quantities in America, however. 
 Gunnies are classed as Xos. 1, 2, and 3. Ko. 1. thick 
 and close woven, is used for sugar, fine grains such 
 as linseed or rape-seed, and similar products; No. 2, 
 also close woven, but thinner, for rice and all the 
 larger grains: No. 3, very thick, coarse, and open, is 
 principally suited for the outer covering of double 
 bags. The manufacture of gunny with primitive 
 looms is a common form of convict labor in Bengal. 
 Near theHimalaj'as, in north-eastern Bengal, the na- 
 tives wear a fine cloth of their own manufacture, 
 made of jute, or of jute and cotton. Increased de- 
 mand has lately induced jute production in Burmah, 
 Italy, Queensland, and America, etc; and a Euro- 
 pean Company has been started to cultivate jute in 
 British Burmah on a large scale. The manufacture, 
 again, is largely carried on in Great Britain, and is 
 the chief industry of Dundee and Belfast. In Ben- 
 gal jute valued at about a million sterling is an- 
 nually manufactured, mostly for local consumption, 
 ' the bulk being turned out by the Euglish mills, of 
 t which there are several near Calcutta, employing 
 ' thousands of hands, the Gauripore and Barnagore 
 mills being the principal. 
 I JUZAIL, A very heavy rifle used by the Afglians. 
 
 K 
 
 KABBADE.— A military garment of the Modern i Itwas also frequently worn by both the Romans and 
 Greeks. It was generally made of wool, without Gauls. See Saffiim. 
 sleeves, and fastened by a girdle around the waist. KAISEE. — The German title of Emperor. It was
 
 KAJAWAH8. 
 
 149 
 
 E££H£ SEHIIIGTON MAGAZINE GUN. 
 
 dorivc'd fniiii tlmt of Ciesar, pcnniltcd by Dioflctiiiii 
 to 1)1^ used liy the (iiivemini; I'riiici- of Ditlnialia, 
 C'roiitia, and tlir lini' of the Daiiuhi', wlio was llcir 
 J'rcsiiinplivc lo llic Iniju'rial Tliroiir. 'I'lic Icrm was 
 cniployfil by I lie (liTiiiaii ICiiiiicrorM of tlic Miildlc 
 Ai^cs, and later liy the Kinprrors of Austria. In 1H71 
 it was assiinicd liy William I., of I'russia, on his be- 
 in;; rrowiied Kniperor of (lermany. 
 
 KAJAWAHS. Am Indian Icrni. I.ar'je )iantHers, 
 placetl aeross a camel's back, in wliicli camp kcllles, 
 pots, etc., are carried on the marcli. 'I'he panniers 
 are lari^e enoni::li lo carry disabled men with much 
 ease anil comfort. 
 
 KAKTOWDA. A term applied in the East Indies 
 to the tine mold used in malting butts for archery 
 practice. 
 
 KALAI. — A Turliish fortress. The term is rather 
 parliciilarly applied to sloccades or very similar 
 struclurcs. 
 
 KALMUCKS.— The ICalmuelts, or, as they call them- 
 selves, the Derben-Ueirat (the four relatives), and al- 
 so desii^nated by the name of Kleutes and Khalindk 
 (apostates), are the most numerous and celebrated of 
 the Alonijol Nations. They are divided into four 
 tribes, the first of which, the KlnMl-oti (warriors) num- 
 ber nearly (10,000 fandlies, and inhabit the country 
 round the Koko-nur, which they consider the native 
 country of the race. One portion of Ibis trilie nngral- 
 ed to the banks of the Irtiscli.and became sidisequent- 
 ly incorporated with the second tribe, the D/iingars; 
 another portion nugrated to the banks of the Vol^a, 
 in the 17th century, and is found at the i)resent day 
 in the goverment of Astrakhan. The second tribes 
 are the Dziingarn, who give the name to a large ter- 
 ritory (I)/.unu;aria) in the west of Chinese Tartary; at 
 the jiresent day they ninnber about 20,000 fiunilies. 
 Tlie third tribe are the Dirbeta or Trhoron. wdio desert- 
 ed Dziingaria, and finally, to the number of 15,000 
 fandlies, removed a few years ago to the plains of 
 the Hi and the Don, where they are being rajiidly in- 
 corporated with the Don Cossacks . The fourth great 
 tribe of the Kalmucks are the TorgoU, who, about 
 1660, separated from the Dzungars.and settled in the 
 plains of the Volga whence they were called the Kal- 
 vDirkii iif the Volf/ii; but finding the Russian rule too 
 severe, the majority returned toDzungaria. 
 
 No Jlongol or Turkish race presents such charac- 
 teristic traits as the Kahnueks; indeed they answer 
 exactly to the description given of them by Jor- 
 nandes 13 centuries ago, wdien, under the name of 
 Huns, the}' devastated scnilhern Europe. The Kal- 
 muck is short in stature, with broad shoulders anda 
 large head; has small, black eyes, always appearing 
 to be half shut, and slanting downwards towards the 
 nose, which is Hat, with wide nostrils; the hair is black, 
 coarse, and straight, and the complexion deeply swar- 
 thy. The Kalmuck is considered as the original type 
 of the Mongol and Manchu races, and his ugliness is 
 the inde.x of the purity of his descent. They are a 
 nomad, predatory, and warlike race, and pass the 
 greater part of their lives in the saddle. Their usual 
 food is barley-flour soaked with water, and their drink 
 is the " koumiss " (made from fermented mare's 
 milk). In 1829 Russia established a Kalmnck Insti- 
 tute for the training of interpreters and government 
 officials for the Kalmucks of Russia, a'.d she has 
 since been making great efforts to introduce civiliza- 
 tion among them. Most of the Kalmucks are Bud- 
 dhists, but a few hpve adopted Mohammedanism or 
 C'hristianitv. 
 
 KALSA CUTCHEEEY — The room of business, where 
 matters pertaining to the Indian Army are transact- 
 ed, and all matters of litigation on tliat brancli of ser- 
 vice are determined. 
 
 KAMPAK.— A kind of hatchet saber of the Middle 
 Ages, without a hilt or cross-guard. The handle is 
 made quite straight, and it forms with the blade a 
 Latin cross. 
 
 KAMPTULICON.— The name given to a kind of 
 floor-cloth, which is said to be made of india rubber 
 
 and cork ; much of it however, consists of oxidized 
 linseed-oi! and cork. The cork is reduced to a state 
 resenililing very line sawdust, and kneaded lip with 
 the real caoutchouc, or with the artificial kind made 
 of oxiilized lins('(^d.oil, the whole being kept very 
 soft by heat. 'I'he mass is then made into sheets by 
 passing through cylinder rollers heated witii steam. 
 The sheets, when cold, are ready for use, when no 
 ornamental surface is required; but very excellent 
 designs may bi^ painted upon it, the same us upon 
 ordinary tloor-cloth. Kanijitulit'on, notwithstanding 
 the case with which it is made, is more expensive; than 
 lloor-cloth made liy iiainting hempen or linen fabrics; 
 it has, however qualities which render it very valu- 
 able for special purposes; its elasticity to. the tread 
 not oidy makes it agreeable to walk on,but it is noise- 
 less, and is consequently well adapted for Jiospital 
 pas.sages and other positions in whi.h (puet is desir- 
 able ; it is also im])ervious to damp, and thereby well 
 suiled to damp stone floors. It is also very suitable 
 for lloor-clotlis in i)owder-houses, but is not so dur- 
 aiile as leather hides. 
 
 KANAUT. A term used in India to designate the 
 wall of a canvas tent. Sometimes written Kanut. 
 
 KANDGIAR. -A Turkish sword very much like the 
 yataghans and tlissas. It is generally , single-edged, 
 without guards. It is very often ornamented with 
 diamonds and other precious stones. Also written 
 J\ inifi'ii r. 
 
 KAPIGI-BACHI.— The officer in charge of the gates 
 of the Sultan's Palace. The name is also applied to 
 a Turkish warrior. The name Karauh is given to 
 IIh' Sultan's body-guards. 
 
 KAETTIKEYA.— The Hindu Mars, or god of war, 
 a being represented by the Puranic legends as sprung 
 from Siva, after a most miraculous fashion. The 
 germ of Karttikeya having fallen into the Ganses. it 
 w'as on the banks of this river, in a meadow of Sara 
 grass, that the offspring of Siva arose ; and as it hap- 
 pened that he was seen by six Nymphs, the Krittikds 
 (or Pleiades), the child assumed six faces, to receive 
 nurture from each. Grown up, he fulfilled his mis- 
 sion in killing Taraka, the demon king, whose power, 
 acipdred by penances and austerities, threatened the 
 very existence of the gods. He accomplished, be- 
 sides, other heroic deeds in his battles with the gi- 
 ants, and became the Commander-in-Chief of the 
 divine armies. Having been brought up by the Krit- 
 tikas, he is called Karttikeya, or Shanmdtura, the 
 son of six mothers ; and from the circumstances ad- 
 verted to, he bears also the names of Gdngeya, the 
 son of Ganga; Sarahhi'i, reared in Sara grass; S/ian- 
 iinikha, the god with the six faces, etc. One of his 
 common appellations is Kumnrd, youthful, since lie 
 is generally\represented as a fine youth; and as he is 
 riding on a peacock, he receives sometimes an epi- 
 thet like Sikhivdhdna, or " the god whose vehicle is 
 the peacock." 
 
 KATAITYX.— A Greek casque, of the 8th century, 
 B.C. It was made of leather and provided with a 
 chin-strap, but had no crest. 
 
 KATAN. — A Japanese sword. Commonly called 
 Cnttan. 
 
 KATZENKOPF.— The German name for the uheeU 
 lock and mortar pistol of the eleventh centurv. 
 
 KAVASS.— In Turkey, an armed Constable". The 
 term is also applied to a government servant or cour- 
 ier. 
 
 KECHEEKLECHI.— Giiards attached to the person 
 of the King of Persia : they are armed with a mus- 
 ket of an extraordinary size and caliber. The Kech- 
 erklechi were enlisted and formed into a regidar 
 Corps al)out the middle of the 18th century. 
 
 KEENE REMINGTON MAGAZINE-GUN.— This gun 
 is now made for the United States military cartridge, 
 forty-five caliber, sevent_v grains of powder, but can 
 be adapted to the use of other forms of military cart- 
 ridge, such as the Spanish and Russian. The maga- 
 zine is located under the barrel, thereby enabling it 
 to carry the greatest possible number of cartridges
 
 KEENE-BEMINGTON MAGAZINE-GUN. 
 
 150 
 
 KEENE-EEMINGTON MAGAZINE -GDR. 
 
 witliin a given weight and length of barrel. It is be- 
 lieved that this is, for many reasons, the best posi- 
 tion in which to carry the cartridges of a magazine- 
 gun. 
 
 All of the motions are direct and positive. The 
 cartridges are held securely in position while pass- 
 ing from the magazine over the carrier to the cham- 
 ber in the barrel, in which respect it has a decided 
 advantage over other magazine-arms. The cart- 
 ridge does not pass on to the carrier until the gun is 
 opened for the purpose of loading, so that there is no 
 danger of a cartridge being exploded in the carrier 
 in case a defective cartridge i s fired in the gun. 
 
 ing the finger from the trigger ; in this last respect 
 differing from other magazine-guns, which can only 
 be cocked by removing the hand from the trigger. 
 
 The parts are all large and strong, and can be 
 readily removed and replaced for the purpose of 
 cleaning or inspection. The magazine is so arranged 
 that it can be charged while the breech is closed, 
 thus avoiding the entrance of dirt into the working 
 parts of the gun. The gun may be held either bar- 
 rel up or reversed for this purpose. The drawing 
 exhibits the parts with the nomenclature. 
 
 To charge the magazine.— Hold the arm in the left 
 hand, the butt-stock"under the right arm. Grasp the 
 
 Receiver. 
 Guard. 
 
 Carrier Screw. 
 Carrier Screw. 
 Trigger. 
 Trigger Pin. 
 Carrier Lever. 
 Carrier Lever Spnngj 
 Carrier Lever pin. 
 Carrier Lever Screw. 
 Carrier Latch Spring 
 Carrier Latch . 
 Cul-off Spring. 
 Cut-ofl 
 
 Cut rff Lever- 
 Cut-off Spring Screw. 
 Breech Bolt. 
 Extractor. 
 Extractor Bolt. 
 Extractor Spring. 
 Locking Bolt. 
 Locking Bolt Spring. 
 Locking Bolt Screw. 
 Rear Cap. 
 Cocking Lever. 
 Cocking Lever Screw. 
 Cocking Lever Link. 
 Link Screw. 
 Link Pin. 
 Ham mer. 
 Rear Cap Screw. 
 Firing Pin. 
 Hammer Pin. 
 Elector. 
 Ejector Screw. 
 Main Spring. 
 Hammer Fly. 
 
 The arm is always left at lialf-cock, and the lirccth I carlriilgc between the thumb and the forefinger of 
 locked so that it ciiiinot be jarred open and the cart- [ right hand, and press it forward, liiillel first, into the 
 ridge lost out. From the half-cock it can be brought uiagazinc with the end of the Ihiiiiib, which mav be 
 to the fiill-cock readily and ((uickly while the arm hehl sideways for that purpose. The magazine may 
 i8 being carried to the shoulder, anil without remov- 1 be charged with the breech either open or closed, and
 
 KEEP. 
 
 IT)! 
 
 KEHT BUGLE. 
 
 with the piit-nfT lover in ittt forwanl or Imckwiinl 
 position ; but it in more convenient to do so with tlie 
 hreecli rlnmtt unci the eut-ofT lever liwh. 
 
 To loud from Ihe miiLCii/ine. First. If thearm liiis 
 been lired or Ihe hammer is down, nnloek and draw 
 bael< tlie bree<'h-l)olt (iidi-hlii and willi SNlll<'i( nt force 
 to brini; it eUnr hiirk, therel)y raising; and loekin;^ the 
 
 nnder the barrel, and is operated by a lever, the 
 liaekward and forwanl movement of which cocks the 
 liaininer, opens the l)ree<h. IhrowH out the empty 
 sliell, and lirin;^s a new carlridtfe into place, ready 
 for diseiiarjje. Tlie drawing shows the action. 
 
 The following may be noted as the advantages of 
 this arm : — It has all the ref)uircments requisite to u 
 
 carrier and bringint; up a cartridge. Shove the bi>ll lirst-class inagazine-gun. It is of simple construe- 
 forward and lock it ; the hammer will remain at half- tiou, and has fewer parts than any other magazine- 
 
 1, recelver;2, bottom tang; 3, levef ; 4, breech-block; ,5 top cover; (i, ejector; ' 
 H, main spring; 13, side-loadinf; spiinE cover, iia seen from the back; 14, tri"" 
 spring; 17, brcccli-block piu; IS, currier-block screw. 
 
 carrier-block; 8, bottom plate; 10, hammer; 
 ir; l.ij, carrier-block clamp; 16, carrier-block 
 
 cock. If it is desired to tire, the hammer may be \ ritle operated by a lever. It is strong. The parts 
 brought to full-cock while the arm is being lifted to ' arc of such si/.e'and form as not to be liable to break 
 the shoulder, the foretinger remaining on the trigger, or get out of order. It is made of the best material, 
 Second. If the arm has been closed and left at iialf- [ wrought iron or steel, as is most suitable for each 
 cock, lower the hammer and then proceed as before. \ part. It is very easily manipulated, and can readily 
 After the cartridge has been transferred from the | be understood'by any person who is at all familiar 
 magazine to the chamber, it sliould either be tired | with fire-arms. It is "safe, accidents from premature 
 or removeil from the gun before another cartridge is I di-scHarge being impossible. The resistance to the 
 passed through tln' carrier. j discharge is indirect line with the bore of the barrel. 
 
 To use the arm as a single loader, with the maga- [ The tiring pin cannot reach the head of the cartridge 
 zine in reserve, push the cut-otT lever forward. This iintil the'breech is fully closed— consequcutlv, the 
 cuts off the passage of the cartridge from the mag- , piece can only be fired when the breech is locked, 
 azine. The arm may then be used as a single loader. | The curtridge umd is the A5-calih(r cfnter-fire. United 
 This gun is so made as to be left at half-cock after States ODrernment .itandard. amtnining'iO grains of 
 loading; but if it is preferred to have it left at full- ixnrder and Ht) grniiiHof lead. When a lighter charge 
 cock, it is only necessary to remove the hammer is desired, the United States carbine cartridge— the 
 fly. No. 37. which is let into the tumbler to carry the same length as the above— but loaded with only 55 
 trigger over the full-cock notch. See .l/«^ff2/Hf-(/!/H. I grains of" powder, may be used. The magazine is 
 
 KEEP.— In media'val fortification, a keep was the | charged through the "side of the receiver when the 
 
 central and principal tower or buililing of a castle 
 and that to which the garrison retired, as a last re 
 sort, when the outer ramparts had fallen. A tine 
 specimc'-i of the ancient keep is still extant amid the 
 ruins of the Rochester castle. The keep was simi- 
 lar to what the classical ancients called the citadel, 
 inner fort. ^e& Castle, Fortification aniX Safety l{e- 
 douht. 
 
 KEIR METAX,— An alloy patented in England, 
 which ditTers from .iterm-metal mainly in having no 
 'till. This alloy consists of copper 100, zinc 75, 
 iron 10. 
 
 KELT. — K very early war-axe. It seems to have 
 lieen spiead in every direction, and to have belonged 
 to no country in particular. It was also called 'V/^ 
 
 KENNEDY RIFLE. -.V novel ritle developed and 
 
 breech is closed, and the rifle can be used as a single 
 loader, the charged magazine being held in reserve. 
 
 The arm is made in three styles: — The musket 
 weighs i) lbs. 4 oz. The barrel is "33 inch. It carries 
 when loaded, 11 cartridges. The carbine weisrhs 7 
 lbs. 8 oz. The barrel is 22 inch. It carries when 
 loaded, 7 cartridges. The spurting rifle weighs 9 to 
 10 lbs. The barrel is 38 inch. It carries when load- 
 ed, 9 cartridires. See I'huenix and Whitney liifle. 
 
 KENT BUGLE.— The key-bugle invented by Logier 
 early in this century, and named after the buke of 
 Kent, the fi^ther of Queen Victoria. Ithassi.x keys, 
 and is the predecessor of the great tribe of cornets. 
 It will traverse chromatically a compass of more 
 than two octaves, beginning from 13 Hat beneath the 
 stave up to the C above, "fhe bugle with pistons or 
 
 introduced by the Whiliuy .Vrms t'ompany. It is a | with cylinders has a lower compass than the pre- 
 repeating or magazine-ritle, with the magazine placed : ceding".
 
 KENTLEDGE. 
 
 152 
 
 EHEonrB. 
 
 KENTLEDGE.— Old cast-iron articles wliich have 
 become uuserviceable, such as condemned guns, shot 
 and shell, etc. 
 
 KERANA.— A long. trumpet, similar in shape and 
 size to the speaking-trumpet. The Persians use it 
 whenever they wish to make any extraordinary noise, 
 and they frequently blow it with hautboys, kettle- 
 drums, and other instruments, at retreat or sunset, 
 and two hours after mid-niglit. 
 
 KERN.— A name applied formerly to Irish and 
 Gaelic infantry soldiers. The men in those days 
 were armed with a sword and a dart or javelin, 
 which was tied to a small cord, so that after they had 
 thrown it at the enemy they could instantly recover 
 it. and use it in any way they thought proper. The 
 javelin was called '^kcne which is also the Irish for a 
 knife. 
 
 KET'S REBELLION. — An outbreak which took 
 place in Eunland, in l.')4i), \rader the leadership of 
 William Ket, a tanner, living in Wymondham, Nor- 
 folk. He is said to have had 20.000 followers ; but 
 the rising was suppressed by the Earl of Warwick, 
 after an^engagement in which more than 2,000 of 
 Insurgents were killed. The leader, Ket, with others, 
 suffered death on the gallows. 
 
 KETTLE-DRUM. — 1." A drum formed by stretching 
 vellum over thecirctilar edge of a hemispherical ves- 
 sel of brass or copper. This instrument, which gives 
 forth a sharp ringing sound, is used by regiments of 
 cavalry and horse-artillery in lieu of the ordinary 
 cylindrical drum, which would, from its shape, be 
 inconvenient on horseback 
 
 The small military dnun is frequently called by 
 this name. Tliey are still used in pairs, in the Eng- 
 lish and Prussian armies, and elsewhere, slung on 
 each side of the withers of a cavalry-horse. One 
 
 i^== 
 
 jiriim is tuned to the keynote, and the other to the 
 tifth of the key. The tuning is by a hoop and screws. 
 Kettle-drums are not usedln the United States mili- 
 tary service, but are much used in orchestras sup- 
 ported upon a tripod, as shown in the drawing. 2. 
 Kettle-drum, as applied to a social gathering, orig- 
 inated in the IJritish army in India. It sometimes 
 happened in the emergencies of camp life that in an 
 entertainment given by officers and their wives there 
 was a lack of "requisite furniture, and the heads of 
 kettle-drums were made to serve in place of tables 
 to hold the cups of tea. So by metonymy the article 
 used gave name to the occasion on which it -vas 
 useil. The name <'ame to mean an informal party, 
 and specilically an afternoon party, in which elabor- 
 ate dress and costly viands gave place to every-day 
 attire for ladies and business suits for gentlemen, 
 with very simple side-table refreshments. This kind 
 of visit \vas introduc<Ml into Kngland atatime of gen- 
 eral linancial depression by some who wished to 
 meet their frieiiiis socially, yet could not, as before, 
 dress expensively and entertain sumptuously. 
 
 KETTLE-DRUM CART.— A four-wheeled carriage 
 drawn by four horses, which was used exclusively 
 by the British Artillery as a pageant. The Ordnance 
 flag was painted on the fore part, and the drummer, 
 with two kettle-drums, was seated, as in a chair of 
 state, on the back part. This cart, which is finely 
 engraved and richly gilt, has not been in the field 
 since 1743, when the Kin^ was present. It is at pres- 
 ent kept in the Tower of London. 
 
 KETTLE-HAT.— A cap of iron worn by knights in 
 the Jliddle Ages. 
 
 KEY.— 1. A bolt used on artillery carriages to se- 
 cure cap-squares and for analogous purposes. A key- 
 chain, is attached to the key to prevent it from being 
 lost. 2. A common heraldic bearing in the insignia 
 of sees and religious houses — particularly such as 
 are under the patronage of St. Peter. Two keys in 
 saltire are frequent, and kej's are sometimes inter- 
 laced or linked together at the boirs — i.e. .rings. Keys 
 indorsed are placed side by side, the wards away from 
 each other. In secular Heraldry, keys sometimes 
 denote Office in the State. See Key-point. 
 
 KEY-POINT.— A point the possession of which 
 gives the control of that position or country. Great 
 care ntust be taken to always direct an assault upon 
 the key-point of the position in order that the main 
 attack, when successful, may produce a lasting bene- 
 fit. When about to commence the operations of a 
 siege, the General is called upon to decide the follow- 
 ing : 1, Which part of the position is easiest to carr}' ; 
 2. Which part,carried,tgives possession of the rest; or, 
 which part is the key-point; 3. Which side of the part 
 selected is the best on which to make his approaches ; 
 and, 4. Which part selected would be the best, tak- 
 ing into consideration the establishment of his de- 
 pots and lines of supply, and the probabilities of an 
 attempt to relieve the besieged. These questions are 
 partially answered before the posting of the besieging 
 army is completed, as it would be bad policy to have 
 the tr-jops encamped too far from the ground where 
 the main operations of the siege are to be conducted. 
 See I'liiiit of Attnck. 
 
 KEYSERLICKS. — A name commonlj' applied to the 
 Austrian troops. The term was indeed common 
 among the British soldiers, when they did duty with 
 the Aiistrians, and invaded France in 1794. See Ini- 
 peri(tlititti 
 
 KHALASSIE. — An Indian sailor. This race of men 
 come chiefly from the Chittagong district. Besides 
 a sea life, khalassies take service on shore, and form 
 a large portion of the native establishment attached 
 to arsenals in India, bordering on the seaside. Dur- 
 ing the march of a regiment in that country, they 
 are employed in looking after the camp equipage. 
 
 KHAN. — A title of Jlongolian or Tartar Sovereigns 
 and Ijords. A Khanate is a principality. Khetgan 
 means " Khau of Khans," but has seldom been ap- 
 plied. The word Khan is probably of the same ori- 
 gin as King. 
 
 KHEDIVE.— One of the titles of the Rviler of Egypt, 
 a triliutary prince of the Sublime Porte, who. since 
 1867, has exercised absolute power within his own 
 dominions. The first Khedive was Ismail, Sovereign 
 of Nubia, Soudan, Kordofan, and Darfour, son of 
 Ibrahim Pasha (eldest son of Mohammed Alt Pasha, 
 founder of the dynasty), was born in 1830, and suc- 
 ceeded his uncle. Said Pasha, in 1863, as the fourth 
 Viceroy of Egypt, He traveled through the Capitals 
 of Europe, informing himself concerning their man- 
 ners and customs, and these he introduced into his 
 own dominions on his return. lie fell under the dis- 
 pleasure of the Sultan, through the jealous fears of 
 the latter regarding Euro]n-an ascendency in Egypt, 
 but succeeded in obtaining from him important con- 
 cessions. By a firman dated May 21, 18(i(!. he gain- 
 ed the right of the succession in the direct masculine 
 line in his branch ; by that of ,Inne 8, 1867, the title 
 Khedive, or Sovereign, was granted him ; anil by the 
 firman of Sept. 211, 1872, he olilained the right to in- 
 crease his army and navy at his pleasure, and to bor-
 
 KHODADAUD SIRCAB. 
 
 15^ 
 
 KINO. 
 
 row money. Fiimlly, lio wns roiiocdod, in 1H7I?, Ilir 
 rif^lit to coik'IikIi: Irciilii'H of coiiimcrcc. willi llir full 
 iiiitonoriiyof I he ail mi nisi nil iiii] of I lie Comilry. Vcl 
 (Irspilc III! Iliis, tlir Siilliiri rclaiiicil in liis liariilHllic 
 ilispiisilioii of Die (JoviTiimcnl, in Kirypl, since, in 
 April, 1H7'.), lie proposeil to the WesliTn Powers to 
 , dispose Ismiiil in fnvor of liis nnele, Ilidim I'asliii, 
 the rii^'hlful heir. This proposition was not receiv- 
 cil fuvorahly, tlioiij;h repealed in .lime, and 1 hi' Sultan 
 was linally induced to issue a lirman ileposiiiL; Isniad 
 in favor of his son, I'rince .Moliammi'dTevlik. This 
 was on .lime 2li, and the lirman aliolished that of 
 1MT;{, and deprived the Khedive of the |io\ver tocon- 
 cluih^ treali<'s with Foreinii I'owers, and to maintain 
 a Nlandinnarmy. Ismad I'asha aceordiiiLrly quilliiiu; 
 the throne, his son was ])roelaiined Khedive, under 
 the title i.f Tcvlik I, 
 
 KHODADAUD SIRCAR.— The Covcrinnent or Kuler 
 blessed <ir liehiv<'d of (ioil ; it was a lillc assmned 
 by Tippoo Sahib, the Sovereii;n of the Kiiiijdom of 
 Mysort', who fell in (U'fense of his Capital, Serin;;- 
 apatam. when it was slormeil. May 4, IT!)'.), by the 
 Uritish forces under Ijieutenant (ieneral llaiarri. 
 
 KHOP. -All early Kiryptian iron weapon, about G 
 inches lotiu; and roughly formed, from stone, in the 
 shape nf a sceax. 
 
 KHOUTTAR. A llimloo weapon, liaving a birge 
 bl.iile liki' the Ilalian iini'lufe, li\cd on to a S(|iiare 
 liandle, into wdiich the hand is slipped, and thus jiro- 
 teetcd as far as the wrisl. Tliere are Kli'nittarn in 
 which the blade is divided into two ])oinls. but they 
 are not common. Such are called ser])ent-tonsue(l. 
 KHYBER PASS.— The most practicable of allopen- 
 ings, four in number, I lirough tlie Khyljcr Mountains, 
 and the only one by which caimoii are conveycil he- 
 tween the plain of P<'sliawur,on the riglit bank of the 
 upper Indus, and thejilain of .Jelalabad. in northern 
 Afghanistan. It is ;!0 miles in lenglli, liciiighere and 
 there merely a narrow ravine between almost per- 
 pendicular rocks of at lestliOO feet in height. It may 
 be said to have lieen the key of the adjacent regions 
 in either direction from the days of Alexander the 
 Great to the Afghan Wars ot l)S;i!)^3, (luring which 
 it was twice forced by a ISritish army, in spite of an 
 obstinate defense by the natives. Tiie Mrst lighting 
 in tlie Afghan War of 1878-79 was in forcing an en- 
 trance into this pass, over which, as was stipulated 
 -in the conditions of peace, the Anglo-Indian author- 
 ities are henceforth to have full control. 
 
 KIBEE. — A Haw produced in the bore of a gnnl)y 
 a .shot strikinir against it. 
 
 KICKING-STRAP.— Astrap used indranglitto con- 
 trol a violent horse. One or two should be attached 
 to each horse battery. It is fastened to the shafts. 
 and passes ovi'r the croup of the horse, thereby pre- 
 venting him from kicking. 
 
 KIDifAPPERS.— A name formerly applied to par- 
 ties who by improper means decoyed the unwary 
 into the army. 
 
 KILLA. — The Indian term for castle, fort, or fort- 
 ress. The Governor or t'ommaudaut of a Killa is 
 known as KiUadar. 
 
 KILLESE. — A name commonly given to the groove 
 in a cross. bow. 
 
 KILMAINHAM HOSPITAL.— An institution near 
 Dulilin for tlie reception of woimdeil and pensioned 
 soldiers. U was originally founded by King Charles 
 II., and is conducted on similar principles to the sis- 
 ter Iiislituticm. Chelsea Hos]iital. Kilmainham Hos- 
 pital is maintained liy annual Parliamentary grant, 
 and provides everything necessary for the comfort of 
 upw ards of S'lO veterans and otlieers. The General 
 Commanding the Forces in Ireland for the time be- 
 mg \six iiffifi'-i the Master of Kilmainham Hospital, 
 ami has his residence on the estate. 
 
 KILN. — A name applied to various kinds of fur- 
 naces, ovens, or other devices made of stone. l>rick, 
 or iron, or of the material itself to be operated upon. 
 Thev mav be divided into intermittent and continu- 
 ous, or perpetual ; or into f umace-Uilus, oven-kilns, 
 
 and what may be (ernii'd mound-kilns, such as are 
 used in making charcoal ; and also a kind whiih 
 ari' inlermecliate between oven and mound-kilns, as 
 certain kinds of brick-kilns, where the raw-brick is 
 a part of the kiln, and forms a Blrucliire which can- 
 not be strielly called an oven. 'V\\i: fn man -kiln . ii,r 
 burning limi-.stone, may be of an intermittent or of 
 a perpetual kind. An intermittent kiln is one in 
 whi( h the lire is let to go out after the charge is 
 burned ; a continuous kiln is one which Is so ar- 
 raiigeil that the charge may be removed and a fresh 
 one put in while the lire is kept burning, and the 
 furnace kept at its reiliicing heat. An intermittent 
 furnace-kiln may be niadi' of stone or Ijriekof an oval 
 form, like an egg standing on either end. That form 
 resemhrmg an egg standing on its larger enrl is per- 
 hajjs the most common, although some lime-kilns 
 are shaped more like deep bow Is, without much con- 
 traction at the to|). When^ wood is very l)lentiful 
 and cheap, and the lime is burned for agricultural 
 ])urposes. so that ashes is ;i desirable ingredient, a 
 common howl sliajie is jierhaps ])referable, lie<'aiise 
 it is readily charged with both limestone and wood, 
 and a mass of wood may be placed upon the top in 
 addition to w hat is used in the charge, by which 
 thorough burning will be secured. In a furnace-kiln, 
 a grating of iron is jilaced at the bottom, or an arch 
 of open brickwork, and then the charge is in!;<'nious- 
 ly ])laced. lirst with fuel, and then with the broken 
 masses of limestone in such a manner as to allow the 
 flame to pass through and thoroughly perform the 
 work of heating. Tliese kilns may he from 10 to 30 
 feet high, or even higher. Intermittent oval kilns are 
 used in burning Portland and other kindsof hydrau- 
 lic cement, and they are 40 to ."jO feet high, and em- 
 ploy coke or coal for fuel. The charge is usually 
 composed of one ))arl of coke or coal and two parts 
 of raw cement. Tliere arc. however, several kindsof 
 cement which do not reriuire so prolonged high heat 
 as Portland cement, and these might be burned in a 
 kind of kiln so constructed as not to require the fire 
 to go out when the burne<l contents are removed so 
 freiiuently. These kilns are cylindrical, except at 
 the bottom, where they have the shape of an inverted 
 cone, and a chamber below and a kind of spout lead- 
 ing into it from the bottom of the cine, so that the 
 charge when burned may be raked down from time 
 to time with a suitable apparatus, and removed, 
 while it may be renewed at the top. Cement-kilns 
 should be lined with tire-lirick. A preferable form 
 of continuous kiln is one in which the kiln-cylinder 
 is charged only with the material to be burned, and 
 a current of flame or heated gas is introduced at the 
 sid<' near the linttom. The lieat thus passing up 
 through the material reduces it to tl;e proper condi- 
 tion, without adding any por''on of the ashes of the 
 fuel to it. 
 
 KILT — A dress worn by men living in the High- 
 lands of Scotland, andby a few regiments in the Brit- 
 ish Army. It consists of a loose petticoat extending 
 from the waist to the knees. Tlie kilt was worn 1 y 
 British chiefs as early as the beginning of the 7th cen- 
 tury; it was made of skin, but striped kilts were 
 common, and it is said that, in all probability, the 
 Scottish kilt was known among the British earlier 
 than is generally supposed, from the inhabitants of 
 North firitain being on intimate terms with their 
 neighbors, and likely to have assumed the dress. 
 
 KING. — The person vested with supreme power in 
 a State. According to feudal usages the King was 
 the source from which all command, honor, and 
 authority flowed; and he delegated to his followers 
 the power by which they exercised subordinate rule 
 in certain districts. The Kingdom was divided into 
 separate Baronies, in each of wdiich a Baron ruled. 
 Lord both of the lands, which he held under the ob- 
 ligatiim of rendering military service to the King, and 
 in many cases also of the people, who were vassals 
 of the soil, and his liege subjects. In modem limes 
 the kingly power often represents only a limited
 
 KING-AT-ABMS. 
 
 154 
 
 KIT. 
 
 measure of sovereignty, various constitutional checks 
 being in operation in different countries to control 
 the royal prerocative. Tlie King may succeed to the 
 tlirone by descent or inheritance, or he may be elect- 
 ed by tlie suffrages of some body of persons selected 
 out of the nation, as was the case in Poland. Even 
 when the kingly power is hereditary, some form is 
 gone through on the accession ot a new King to sig- 
 nify a recognition by the people of his right, and a 
 claim that he should pledge himself to perform cer- 
 tain duties, accompanied by a religious ceremony, 
 in which anointing with oil and placing a crown on 
 his head are included as acts. By the anointing a 
 certain sacredness is supposed to be thrown round the 
 roj-al person, while the coronation symbolizes his 
 supremacy. There is now no very clearly marked 
 distinction between a King and an Emperor. A 
 Queen-regnant or Princess wlio has inherited the 
 sovereign power in countries where female succes- 
 sion to the throne is recogni'/.ed, possesses all the po- 
 litical rights of a King. 
 
 In England it is said that the King never dies, 
 which means that he succeeds to the throne immedi- 
 ately on the death of his predecessor, without the 
 necessity of previous recognition on the part of the 
 people. . He makes oath at his coronation to govern 
 according to law, to cause justice to be adminis- 
 tered, and to maintain the Protestant Church. He is 
 the soiirce from which all hereditary titles are de- 
 rived, and he nominates Judges and other Officers 
 of State. Officers of the Ami}' and Navy, Governors 
 of Colonies, Bisliops, and Deans. He must concur 
 in every legislative enactment, and sends Embassies, 
 makes treaties, and even enters into wars, without 
 consulting Parliament. The royal person is sacred, 
 and the King cannot be called to account tor any of 
 his acts ; but he can only act politically by his 
 Ministers, who are not protected by the same irre- 
 sponsibility. A furtlier control on the royal pre- 
 rogative is exercised by the continual necessity of 
 applying to Parliament for supplies of money, which 
 practically renders it necessarj' to obtain the sanc- 
 tion of that body to ever}' important measure. The 
 crown now in use as the emblem of sovereignty differs 
 considerably inform indifferent countries of modern 
 Europe ; but in all cases it is distinguished from the 
 coronets of the nobilitv in being closed above. 
 
 KING-AT-ARMS—KING-OF-AEMS.— The principal 
 Heraldic Officer of any country. There are four 
 Kings-at-Arms in England, named respectively Gar- 
 ter, Clarencieux, Norroy, and Bath, but the first three 
 only are members of the College of Arms. 
 
 Garter Principal King-of-Arms was instituted by ! 
 Henry V., 1417 a. d., for the service of the Order of 
 the Garter. His duties include the regulation of the 
 arms of peers and tlie Knights of the Bath. In the 
 capacity of King-of-Arms of the Order of the Gar- 
 ter, he has apartments witliin the Castle of Windsor, 
 and a mantle ot blue satin, with the arms of St. George 
 on the left shoulder, besides a badge and scepter. 
 His official costume as Principal King-of-Arms of 
 England is a surcoat of velvet, richly embroidered 
 with the arms of the Sovereign, a crown, and a col- 
 lar of SS. Tlie insignia of this office arc borne by Gar- 
 ter impak'd witli his paternal arms, the latter on the 
 dexter side of the shield. These are argent. St. 
 George's cross, on a chief gules a ducal coronet en- 
 cir<?led with a garter, between a lion of England on 
 the dexter side and a fleur-de-lis on tlie sinister, all 
 or. 
 
 Clarencieux and Norroy are Provincial Kings-of- 
 Anns, with jurisdiction to the South and North of 
 the Trent res|ieclively. They arrange a register, alone 
 or conjointly with (iarler, the arms of all lielow the 
 rank of llie peerage. The odicial arms of Clarencieux 
 are argent St. George's cro.ss, on a chief gules a lion 
 of England ducally crowned or. Those of Norroy 
 are argent St. George's cross on a chief per pale az- 
 ure and gules a lion of England ducally crowned 
 between a fleur-de-lis on I lie dexter side, and a key. 
 
 wards in chief, on the sinister, all or. Both Provincial 
 Kings have a crown collar and surcoat. The crown 
 
 is of silver gilt. 
 
 The crown of a King-of-Arms is of silver gilt, and 
 consists of a circle inscribed with Ihe v/OTds,Miiierire 
 mei Deusseciindum magmim mUericordlam tuam, sup- 
 porting 16 oak leaves, each alternate leaf higher than 
 the rest. Within the crown is a cap of crimson sat- 
 in turned up with ermine, and surmounted by a tas- 
 .sel wrought of gold silk. Kings-ofArms were for- 
 merly entitled to wear their crowns on all occasions 
 when the Sovereign woreliis; now they assume them 
 only when peers put on their coronets. The installa- 
 tion of Kings-at-Arms anciently took place with great 
 state, and always on a Sunday or Festival-day, the 
 ceremony being performed by the King, the Earl 
 Marshal, or some other person duly appointed by roy- 
 al warrant. 
 
 Bath King-of-Arms, though not a member of the 
 College, takes precedence next after Garter. His 
 office was created in 173.5 for the service of the Order 
 of the Bath. On Jan. 14, 1726, he Avas constituted 
 Gloucester King-of-Arms (an office originally created 
 by Richard III., in whose reign it also became ex- 
 tinct), and principal Herald of Wales. He was at the 
 same time empowered, either alone or jointly with 
 Garter, to grant arms to persons residing within the 
 principality. 
 
 The chief Heraldic Officer for Scotland is called 
 Lyon King-of-Arms, who since the union has ranked 
 next to Garter. His title is derived-from the lion 
 rampant in the Scottish royal insignia, and he holds 
 his office immediately from the Sovereign, and not 
 as the English King-at-Arms, from theEarl Marshal. 
 His official costume includes a crimson velvet robe 
 embroidered with the royal arms, a trii)le row of gold 
 chains round the neck with an oval gold medal, with 
 the royal arms on one side and St. Andrew's cross 
 on the other ; and a baton of gold enameled green, 
 powdered with the badges of the Kingdom. His 
 crown is of the same form with the imperial crown 
 of the Kingdom, but not set with stones. Before the 
 Hevolution he was crowned b}' the Sovereign, or his 
 Commissioner, on entry on office. 
 
 There is one King-of-Arms in Ireland, the Ulster. 
 In the 14th century there existed a King-of-Arms 
 called Ireland, but the office seems to hav-e become 
 extinct, and Edward VI. created Ulster to supply the 
 deficiency. His arms are argent, St. George's cross, 
 upon a chief gules a lion between a harp and a port- 
 cullis, all or. The royal ordinance relative to the Or- 
 der of St. Patrick, issued May 17. 1833, declares that 
 in all ceremonials and assemblies Ulster King-of-Arms 
 shall have place immediately c/to' the Lj'on. See 
 Herald. 
 
 KINK. — A twist in a rope or cord, caused by the 
 tightness of the coil, aud a relaxation of pressure in 
 the direetiim of its length. The best rope, however, 
 rarely kinks. In imcoiling a new coil of rope, pass 
 the end at the core to the opposite side and draw it 
 out; the turns of the rope will then run out witliout 
 kinking. 
 
 KIKK RIFLE. — A breech-ioading small-arm having 
 a fixed cliamlier closed by a movable breech-lilock, 
 which rotates aliout a horizontal axis at90° to the axis 
 of the barrel, lying Iielnw the axis of the barrel and 
 in front — being moved from below by a lever. 
 
 This piece is a modification of the well-known 
 Spencer repeating rifie, contaiuiug in an unwieldy 
 butt-stock, six magazine tubes instead of the single 
 one usually carried. These are connected on a cen- 
 tral spindle and revolved into place by hand. 
 
 KISSELBACHES. — A name commonly applied to the 
 soldiers of India. 
 
 KIT. — 1. A cement for stuffing canvas to place over 
 tlie vents of carcasses to keep out the damp. 2. In 
 military language, the equipment in necessaries, 
 such as shirts, boots, brushes, etc., of a soldier, but 
 not applicable to bis uniform, arms, or accouter- 
 ments. Formerly, a higli bounty was given, and
 
 KITCHEN CAKT. 
 
 155 
 
 KNIGHTS. 
 
 then severely cneroacherl upon, by nialfinc; the re 
 emit pay fur his l<it. Tlir fiilrcr iiriiicipli: is ritjvv 
 adoplcil of issulni; a free kil Id ciicli rccnjil, with a 
 BinalhT ))ounty. Tlic soldier has still to rcjilacc nc- 
 cessarics, worn out or lost, at his own expense, liut 
 
 performanre of certain ciiiiies, aniouL' others to at- 
 tend tlieir Soverei^'ii or Feudal Superior on Iiorst- 
 liaik in lime of war. The institution of knifrht- 
 hood, as eonfemil hy investiture, an<i with certain 
 oath and ceremonies, arose f,'rafliuilly throu;,'liout 
 
 he ohtains the articles at wholesale, and very low : Kurope as an adjunct of the feudal system The 
 prices. As these necessaries are so eli(-ai)ly procur- | character of the knight was at once military and 
 
 religious. The ilefense and recovery of the holy 
 sepulcher, and the prcjti'Ction of pilgrims, were the 
 
 ed, it is held a very heavy military offense to make 
 awav with llieni. 
 
 KITCHEN CART.— A traveling-kitchen to accom- 
 pany troops in the field. These carts are usuall_v 
 supplied at the rate of one to a liattalion for 1000 
 
 ohjeots to which, in the early times of the institu- 
 tion, he especially devoteil liimself. 'i'he system of 
 knight-service, introduced into Kngland hv'William 
 
 soups. They shoidd he provi<led with boilers a la , the Conqueror, empowered the King or even a Su- 
 Pnpin with an ulterior fire-place. These constitute ! perior Lord who was a subject, to compel every 
 the body of the cart, the superior jiart of wliicli is , holder of a ci-rtain extent of land, called a KninhVH 
 
 furnished with iilaiik to lie used as a table. At 
 the e.\tremity of the cart there are two foot-boards 
 upon which the cooks may rest while working dur- 
 ing the march. I'apin's digester is essential to cook 
 well and rapidly. The interior arrangement of the 
 fire-iilace which is suited to baking is very ecouom. 
 ical in fuel. 8ee TmivUii;/-kitrlieH. 
 
 KLICKET.— A small post<'rn or gate in a palisade 
 for the jiassage of a sallying parly. Also written 
 Kliiiht. 
 
 KNAPSACK.— A bag of canvas or skin, containing 
 the soldier's necessaries, and worn suspended by 
 straps between the shoulders. Those used in the 
 
 ';/I'Vh 
 
 tcf. to become a ni(-mber of the knightly order ; his 
 investiture being accounted proof that he possessed 
 tlie recpiisite knightly arms, and was sufliciently 
 trained in their use. 'The " Statute of Knights," of 
 the first year of Edward II., regulating the causes 
 that were to be held valid to excuse a man from 
 knightly service, sliows that in the 14th century the 
 knightly office was not always eagerly coveted; yet 
 its social dignity was very considerable, for even 
 Dukes, if not admitted into the order, were obliged 
 to yield precedence in any royal pageant or piililic 
 ceremony. In time of war, each knight was bound 
 to attend the king for 40 days, computed from the 
 day when the enemy arrived "in the country. After 
 the long war between France and England, it be- 
 came the practice for the Sovereign to receive 
 money compensations from subjects who were un- 
 willing to receive knighthood, a system out of which 
 gri'W a series of grievances, leading eventuallv to 
 the total abolition of knight-service' in the reign of 
 Charles II. 
 
 Knighthood, originally but a military distinction, 
 came, in the 16th century, to be occasionally con- 
 ferred on civilians as a reward for valuable services 
 rendered to the Crown or communitv. The first 
 civil knight in England was sir Williain Walworth, 
 Lord Mayor of Loudon, who won that distinction 
 by slaying the rebel ^\'n\ Tyler in jireseuee of the 
 King. Since the abolition of the knight-service, 
 kiiiglitliood has been conferred without'any regard 
 to ])roperty, as a mark of the Sovereign's es'teem. or 
 a reward for services of any kind, civil or military. 
 , In recent times it has been bestowed at least as often 
 _ _ " I on scholars, lawyers, artists, or citizens, as on 
 
 British army are ordinarily of black painted canvas ; [ soldiers, and in many cases for no weiirhtier service 
 but some other nations, as the Swiss, make them of ; than carr)-ing a congratulatory address to Court. 
 
 thick goat-skiu. dressed with the hair on. Thi 
 knapsack affords by far the easiest way of carrying 
 light personal luggage during a march or walking 
 tour. 
 
 KNEBELSPIESS. — A German lance used about the 
 beiriiiuiu;;- of the Dth centurv. 
 
 KNIGHT BACHELOR. 'V\w lowest grade of kniglit- 
 liooil, now only conferred in the I'liiled Kiiig<loiii. 
 Originally, like all kniglilliooil. a military distinc- 
 tion, knighthood of this description came to be often 
 bestowed on civilians, and in recent times it has 
 frequently been \ conferred for no weightier ser- 
 vice than carrying a congratulatory address to C'ourt. 
 It is generally couferred by tlie Sovereign by a ver- 
 bal declaration accompanic'd with the imi>ositiou of 
 the sword, and without any patent or i list rumen t. The 
 person who is to receive the honor kneels down b<'- 
 fore the Sovereign, who touches him on the shoulder 
 with a naked sword, saying, in French: " Soh ehev. 
 alier nu nom dr Dicii " (He a knight in God's name), 
 and then adds : " Rise. Sir A. I?." In exceptional 
 cases, persons have^beeu made Knights Bachelor by 
 patent. The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland oecasiou- 
 allv exercises a riLdit of conferring kniirlithood. 
 
 KNiaHT- ERRANT.— A wandering knight ; or any 
 knight who traveleil in search of adventures, for the 
 purpose of exliibitiiig military skill, prowess and gen- 
 erosity. See Knighlx. 
 
 The ceremonies practiced in co'nferring knigl*tliood 
 have varied at different periods. In general, fast- 
 ing and bathing were in early times necessary pre- 
 paratives. In the nth century, the creation of a 
 knight was preceded by solemn confession, and a 
 mklnight vigil in the church, and followed by the 
 reception of the Eucharist. The new knight offered 
 his sword on the altar, to signify his devotion to the 
 Church, and determination to lead a holy life. The 
 sword was redeemed in a sum of money", had a be- 
 nediction pronounced over it, and was girded on by 
 the highest ecclesiastic present. The title was con- 
 ferred by binding the sword and spurs on the can- 
 didate, after which a blow was dealt him on the 
 cheek or shoulder, as the last alTront which he was 
 to receive unrequited. He then took an oath to pro- 
 tect the distressed, maintain right against miirht, 
 and never by word or deed to stain his character as 
 a knight or" a Christian. A knight might be de- 
 graded for the infringement of any part of his oath 
 (an event of very rare occurence), in which case his 
 spurs were chopped off with a hatchet, his sword 
 broken, his escutcheon reversed, and some religious 
 observances were added, during which each piece of 
 armor was taken off in succession, and cast from the 
 recreant knight. 
 
 It has been said that knighthood could originally 
 he conferred by any person of knightly condition, 
 
 Im 1 t >f Cl\ t\\.\ Kl.rlit *n Ln.-.*^..- I* ...» » ^ 1.. •_;_* 3 
 
 KNIGHTS.— Originally Men-at-Arius bound to the , but if so, the right t"o bestow it was^early restricted
 
 KNIGHT SERVICE. 
 
 156 
 
 SNIGHTS-TEMPLAB. 
 
 to persons of rank, and afterwards to the Sovereign 
 or his representative, as the Commander of anArm}-. 
 In England the Sovereign now bestows knighthood 
 by a verbal declaration, accompanied with a simple 
 ceremony of imposition of the sword, and without 
 any patent or written instrument. In some few in- 
 stances, knighthood has been conferred by patent, 
 •when the persons knighted could not conveniently 
 come into the presence of royalty, as in the case of 
 Governors of Colonies, or other persons occupying 
 prominent situations abroad. The Lord Lieutenant 
 of Ireland also occasionally, but rarely, exercises a 
 •dfll'gated power of conferring knighthood. The 
 monosyllable " Sir " is prefixed to the Christian names 
 of knights and baronets, and their wives had the 
 lesjal designation of " Dame," wMiich in common in- 
 tercourse becomes "Lady." Persons wlio arc simply 
 knights without belonging to any order are called 
 in England, knights hnchelors. a name probably cor- 
 rupted from lias checalier. Knighthood of this kind 
 is now only conferred in Great Britain. A degree of 
 knighthood called banneret formerly existed in Eng- 
 land and France, which was given on the field of bat- 
 tle in reward for the performance of some heroic act. 
 For the mode in which that dignity was conferred, 
 see Banneeet. No knight-banneret has been created 
 m the field since the time of Charles I., when that 
 honor was bestowed on one Sir John Smith, for res- 
 cuing the royal standard from the hands of the reb- 
 els. George" III. twice conferred the title on occa- 
 sion of a review, but the proceeding was considered 
 irregular, and the rank of the knights not generally 
 recognized. The form of helmet which the require- 
 ments of the later Heraldry have appropriated to 
 knights, entitling them to place it over their arms, 
 is full-faced, of steel, decorated with bars, and with 
 the visor a little open. For the different orders of 
 knighthood, see separate articles, under their appro- 
 priate headings, in this work. 
 
 KNIGHT-SERVICE.— A tenure of lands held by 
 knights on condition of performing military service. 
 It was abolished in the time of Charles II. of Eng- 
 lanil. Sec KnighU. 
 
 KNIGHTS TEMPLAR. — A celebrated Religious and 
 Mditary Order, founded at Jerusalem in the begin- 
 
 ning of the 12tli century, by Hugues de Paganes 
 quired from the Ahbot and Canons of the Church 
 and Convent of tbe Temple, whence the Order ob- 
 tained the name of the "Poor soldiers of the Tem- 
 ple of Solomon," afterward abbreviated into Tem- 
 plars. The knights were bound by their rule to 
 hear the holy office every day, or if prevented Ijy 
 their military duties, to say a certain number of 
 paternosters instead : they were to abstain from 
 flesh four days in the week, and from eggs and milk 
 on Fridays. They might have three horses and an 
 esquire each, but were forbidden to hunt or fowl. 
 In the earlier period of their history, tl)e Templars 
 made a great show of poverty, contrasting much 
 with tlieir later condition. After the conquest of 
 Jerusalem l5y thf- Saracens, they spread over Eu- 
 rope ; their -valor became everywhere celebrated ; 
 immense donation!; in money and land were show- 
 ered on them; and members of the most distin- 
 guished families thought themselves honored by en- 
 rolment in the Order. In every country where they 
 existed, thev had their Governor, called the Master 
 of the Temple or of the Militia of the Temple. The 
 Templars had settlements in England from an early 
 period. The first was in London, on the site of 
 Southampton Buildings, Holborn ; but from 1185 
 their principal seat was in Fleet Street, still known 
 as the Temple. The Round Church which bears 
 their name was dedicated by Heraclius in 1185. 
 
 The Templars were at first all la3Tncn and of noble 
 birth. Pope Alexander III., however, in 1162, author- 
 ized the admission of spiritual persons not bound by 
 previous vows, as Chaplains to the Order, who were 
 not required to adopt the military vows. A third 
 class was afterward introduced, consisting of laymen 
 not of noble birth, who entered as serving brothers, 
 some of them being attendants on the knights, and 
 others exercising trades in the houses or lands of the 
 Order. Eventually, many persons became affiliated 
 members without taking the vows, for the sake of the 
 protection afforded them. As the power and pros- 
 perity of the Templars increased, so did their luxury, 
 arrogance, and other vices, which gave the French 
 Kings pretext for endeavoring to suppress them, 
 and lay hold of their possessions. Accusations, many 
 
 A * ^ 
 
 Reiiulnr .Jewels — Knights 'remjihir. 
 Gcoffroy de St. Omer, and seven other French I of which were absurd and incredible, were brought 
 knigiits for the protection of the Holy Sepulchcr, against them by two members of their own body, 
 and of Pilgrims resorting thither. Baldwin II., King I fliiir principal enemy was Philippe IV. of France, 
 of Jerusalem, bestowed on this order tbeir tirsl place j wlio induced Pope Clement V. to accede to a scheme 
 of residence; and an additional building was ac- 1 by which the whole members of the Order were seiz-
 
 KNOTS. 
 
 157 
 
 KNOTS. 
 
 od nnrt imprisonert, tlioir lands oonflsofttcd, andmnny 
 of Ihciii liicil. {■(iiiviclcci, 1111(1 cxcciilcil fcir caiiilal 
 (Tillies. 'I'lic Kiij^lisli 'rcMiplars wcri' arri-slcd liy coiii- 
 niaiiil iif Kdward II., ami a t'ouncil licld in lyondon 
 in lliO!) having coiiviclcd llicm (if various criTiics. 
 nio.sl of which were probably imaf;inary, the Kin;; 
 seized their poBscHsions. In i;!13 the whole Order 
 throiiujliout KuroiK' was Huppressed by the Coiinei! 
 ol Vieiiiie, and its properly bestowed ou the l\nit,dits 
 of SI. John, to wliieli latter Order their KiiKlish po.s- 
 sessioiis were formally transferred by a Statute of 
 Edward II. in Vi'Xi. The habil of the Templars was 
 white, with a red cross of eij,dit points of the Maltese 
 form worn on the left shoulder. Their war-cry was 
 " Beau S('anl-," and their banner, which bore the 
 game name, was jiartcd jier fess sable and ariient. 
 They also displayed above their lances a white banner 
 changed with the Cross of the Order. Tlicir badges 
 were the AgniiK Dii, and a representation of two 
 Kiiii^lils mounted on om^ horse — indicative of the 
 orifiiiinl poverty of the Order. 
 
 KNOTS. — 1. knots of dilferent kinds arc borne by 
 dilTereiil families as heraldic badges, and are occa- 
 sionally introduced as charges in sliields. Theforms 
 of some of them ajipear to be sueijested by the ini- 
 tial Idler of the name or title of the bearer. In the 
 Wake and Ormonde knot it is not ditticult to trace a 
 11' and two Os. The liourchicr knot, as seen on the 
 tomb of Archbishop Uoiirchicr.al Canterbury, bears 
 a resemblance to two 7/s, and the StatTord knot to 
 two <Sa. The Lacy knot contains wittiin it a rebus 
 on the four letters of the name Lacy. 
 
 2. A twist or loop in a rope or cord, so made that 
 the motion of one piece of the line over the other 
 shall be stopped. The knot owes its power of pass- 
 ive resistance to the friction of the rope. The uses 
 of knots are infinite; in the commonest occasions of 
 life one or two simple knots are indispensable ; in 
 building, mining, and moving ordnance, knots of 
 curious form are employed; wdiilc on .sUiplioard, 
 they may be nunihercd by the dozen, and each is 
 appropriated to a speeilic duty. The following are 
 the more important knots employed in mechanical '. 
 maneuvers : 
 
 Tirii half /titchex — Pass the end of a rope round 
 the standing part and bring it up thr«ugli the bight. 
 This is a iialf hitch. Take it round again in the 
 same manner for two half hitches. 
 
 A clfjre hitch — Pass the end of a rope round a spar, 
 over, and bringing it under and round behind its 
 standing part, over the spar again and up through its 
 own ])art. It may then, if necessary, be stopped or 
 hitched to its own part; the only difference between 
 two half hitches and a clove hitch being that one is 
 hitched roimd its own standing ]iart and the other 
 is hitched round a spar or another rope. 
 
 Rmtnd turn and ttco half hitches — Take a round 
 turn around the stakes or posts, and secure the end 
 by two half iiitchesaround the standing part. This is 
 useful in securing the guys of the gin to the stakes. 
 
 .1 hinclineknttt — Take the end of a rope in your right 
 hand and the standing part in your left: lay the end 
 over the standing part, and with the left hand make 
 a bight of the standing part over it ; take the end 
 under the lower standing part up over the cross, and 
 down through the bight. This is very useful in form- 
 ing a temporary eye at the end of a rope. 
 
 S(ji/<i)'e knot — Take an overhand knot round a spar; 
 take an end in each hand and cross them on the same 
 side of the standing part upon which they came up; 
 pa.ss one end round the other, and bring it up through 
 the bight. This is. sometimes called a rcc/Xvi"?. If 
 the ends are crsssed the wrong waj-, sailors call it a 
 granny knot. 
 
 A timhir hitch — Take the end of a rope rotmd the 
 spar, lead it under and over the standing part, and 
 pass two or more round turns around its own part; 
 pass the first turn oci r the end part instead of through 
 the bight, as in a half hitch. Used in securing the 
 ends of the trace-ropes to the maneuvering bolts. 
 
 A rnllinff hitch— Psifn the end of tlie rope round 
 a spar; lake il round the second time, nearer to the 
 standing jiart; then carry it across the standing part, 
 over ami round the spar and up through the bight. 
 A strap or a tail-block is fastened to a ropi^ by this 
 hitch. Used in shifting the fall from one end of the 
 windlass to the other. 
 
 A blackirnll hiU'h — Form the bight by putting the 
 end of a rope across and under the standing part; 
 put the hook of a tackle through it, the center of 
 the bight resting against the back of the hook, and 
 the end jammed in the bight of the hook by the 
 standing part of the rope. 
 
 A cntn-pair — Take a large bight in the rope, and 
 spread it open, putting one hanilat one part of the 
 bight and the other at the other, and letting tlio 
 standing part and end come together; turn the bight 
 over from you three times, and a small bite will be 
 formed in each hand; bring the two small bites to- 
 gether, and jiut the hook of a tackle through them 
 both. This is very useful in applying a purchase or 
 tackle to the fall of^another. 
 
 A tlifitt btnd, (weavers knot) — Pass the end of a 
 rope up through the bight of another, round both 
 parts of the other, and under its own part. 
 
 Ca/rrirk bend— Yorin a bight in the rope and lay 
 the end across the standing part; stick the bight of 
 another rope up through the loop thus' formed, and 
 carry the end over the end of the first rope under 
 the standing part, and through the loop formed by 
 its ownbigut; stop each end to its own standing- 
 part. 
 
 Fisherman's bend (anchor knot)— Take two turns 
 around the gun-sling or spar with the end of the 
 rope ; hitch the end around the standing part and 
 through both turns, and then pass the end over the 
 second and under the first tuni. 
 
 A sheep shank — Make two long bights in a rope 
 which shall overlay one another ; take a half hitch 
 over the end of each bight with the standing part 
 which is next to it. 
 
 A marlinspike hitch. — Lay the marlinspike upon 
 the seizing stuff, and bring the end over the stand- 
 ing part so as to form a bight; lay this bight back 
 over the standing part, putting the marlinspike down 
 through the bight, under the standing part, and up 
 through the bight again. Very useful in putting on 
 lashings etc. Stopping is fastening two parts of a rope 
 together, as for a round seizing, without a crossing 
 or riding. Nippering is fastening them by taking turns 
 crosswise between the parts to jam them, and some- 
 times with a round turn before eacli cross. They 
 are called racking tvrnn. Pass riders over these 
 and fasten the end. This is a convenient way to se- 
 cure a fall while it is being shifted on the windlass. 
 ^■1 screir is applied by weaving a liglit strap through 
 the different parts of a fall, bringing the two ends 
 together, and screwing the whole up tight by means 
 of a stick or bar passed through the bights. .1 
 strap, or sling, is formed by knotting or splicing 
 together the ends of a short strand or rope. It is used 
 for hooking tackles into. 
 
 Pointing- -Unlay the end of a rope and stop it ; 
 take out as man)- yams as are necessarj-, and split 
 each yarn in two, and take two parts of different 
 yams and twist them up taut into nettles; the rest 
 of the yams are combed down with a knife ; lay half 
 the nettles down on the scraped part, the rest back 
 upon the ropes, and pass three turns of twine taut 
 roimd the part where the nettles separate, and hitch 
 the twine, which is called the warp ; lay the nettles 
 backward and forward as before, passing the warp 
 each time. The ends may be whipped and snaked 
 with twine, or the nettleshitched over the warp and 
 hauled taut. The upper seizing must be snaked. If 
 the upper part is too weak for pointing, put in a 
 , piece of stick. This is an elaborate way of whip- 
 i ping ropes, and requires considerable practice. 
 
 Seiti/tg a rope is connecting the two parts with 
 1 smaller rope, or spun-yam. Take a piece of spun-
 
 KNOUT. 
 
 158 
 
 KBIS. 
 
 yarn and double it ; pass the bight under the two 
 parts of the rope to be seized; put both ends through 
 it and liaul taut, using a level applied with the mar- 
 linspike hitch ; separate the ends, pass them around 
 the rope in opposite directions until enough turns are 
 taken, hauling each turn taut, and seeing that they 
 lay close and smooth. Cross the seizing by passing 
 the ends in opposite directions between the ropes and 
 around the seizing, and linish with a square knot. 
 
 ^■1 lashing is applied on the same principles. After 
 Bufficient turns have been taken, the lashing is /rap- 
 ped by taking the ends around the turns, hauling 
 them close together, and making the lashing tighter, 
 of course. To pass a shear lashing. — Middle the lash- 
 ing and take a turn round both legs at the cross ; 
 pass one end up and the other down, aroimd and 
 over the cross, until half of the lashing is expended; 
 then ride both ends back again on their own parts 
 and knot them in the middle ; frap the first and rid- 
 ing turns together on each side with sennit. This will 
 be useful in rigging shears for hoisting guns, when 
 a gin is not available. Any two spars that will sup- 
 port the weight can be used. 
 
 The knots most frequently used and the manner 
 of forming them are described under the appropri- 
 ate headings. 
 
 KNOUT — KNUT. — A scourge composed of many 
 thongs of skin, plaited, and interwoven with wire, 
 which was formerly the favorite instrument of pun- 
 ishment in Russia for all classes and degrees of crim- 
 inals. The offender was tied to two stakes, stripped, 
 and received on the back the specified number of 
 lashes ; 100 or 120 were equivalent to sentence of 
 death, but in many cases the victim died under the 
 operation long before this number was completed. If 
 a culprit survived this punishment lie was banished 
 for life to Siberia. The whipping was inflicted by a 
 criminal, who preferred this office to exile to Sibe- 
 ria, and who was constantly kept in prison, except 
 when his services were required. The nobility were 
 legally exempt from the knout, but this privilege was 
 not always respected. In earlier times the nose was 
 slit, the ears were cut off, and the letter V for vor 
 (rogue) was branded on the forehead; but this ag- 
 gravation was abolished by Alexander I. The knout 
 was abolished by the Emperor Nicholas, who substi- 
 tuted the pUti, a kind of lash. 
 
 KODALLIE. — An Indian term. A tool used by the 
 natives of India in digging all kinds of earthwork. 
 The face of the tool is shaped like a hoe, and has a 
 short handle nearly parallel to the face. It is used 
 in a kneeling or sitting position. 
 
 KONKBI. — A sword of the Middle Ages, without 
 a hilt or crossguard. The handle is straight and 
 forms with the blade a Latin cross. 
 
 KOBAZIN. — A short hauberk or jacket of scales. 
 It is frequently called Jazeraii. The term is also ap- 
 plied to a large imbricated hauberk, covered with 
 overlapping plates, somewhat like the small hauberk 
 of the 8th century. 
 
 KOT DUFFADAR.— A non-commissioned officer in 
 the East Indian Native Cavalry, corresponding with 
 a troop Sergeant Major. See Duffadar Major. 
 
 KOUL. — A soldier belonging to a noble corps in 
 Persia. . The KouU constitute the third corps of the 
 King's Household Troops. They are men of note 
 and rank, and no person can arrive at any consider- 
 able post or situation in Persia who has not served 
 among tlic Kouls. . The Commander of the Kouls is 
 known as the Kouler-Agasi, and is usually Governor 
 of a considerable Province. 
 
 KRANKENTRAGER.— A special corps organized by 
 the (Jerman Ami}' ; its duty is to carry the sick and 
 wounded. The men are mostly taken from the Lnnd- 
 tnehr, but some are students from hospitals and uni- 
 versities. The former are in uniform, and the latter 
 in plain clothes ; but all wear the red cross on their 
 arm, and are under the protection of the Geneva 
 Convention. They are men of two year.s' service, 
 kitelligent.of good character, and have received some 
 
 theoretical instruction in surgery and medicine. The 
 instruction imparted to these men is directed by Sup- 
 erior Officers, assisted by Surgeons. They arc taught 
 to give the first care to the wounded ; to carry them 
 on stretchers and to form the stretchers, from any im- 
 provised material ; to transport the wounded to the 
 ambulance wagons ; to prepare the wagons for that 
 purpose ; and to perform all such duties as shall be 
 required of them during a battle. 
 
 KBEBS. — A complete suit of armor, comnosed of 
 imbricated plates. 
 
 KRIEGSSPIEL.— This German war game was con- 
 trived by a Prussian, Councillor Reiswitz, in order 
 to follow with greater facility the campaigns of Na- 
 poleon I. His sou, an artillery officer, found it, 
 by reproducing the campaigns on a map, an easy 
 method of stud3'ing the different movements of 
 troops, and caused the game to be adopted in about 
 1824 by Feldmarschall von Muffling. The Kriegs- 
 spiel eventually became familiar with the Army, and 
 was finally introduced in the military schools as the 
 best means of studying strategy and tactics. This 
 game was not only a study, but a favorite pastime, of 
 VonMoltke's,Blunientliars, Prince Frederick Charles, 
 and of other German officers, who took a prom- 
 inent part during the war of 1870-71. It is stated 
 that they carefully studied for years, by means of this 
 game, the ground on which they carried out their 
 operations in Prance. The Kriegsspiel was first 
 introduced in England after' the Franco-German 
 war (1870-71). and is now frequently played in all 
 the large garrison towns of this country. A club has 
 been formed at Aldershott for that purpose. The 
 necessary apparatus for pla3'ing the Kriegsspiel is 
 composed of maps carefully prepared on a scale of 6 
 or 8 inches to the mile ; of metal blocks, made to 
 scale, as nearly as possible, representing all the dif- 
 ferent branches of the service, from regiments to 
 skirmishers; and strings of beads, for cavalry recon- 
 noitering. The number of persons taking part in 
 the game consists of the officers commanding the two 
 armies, of a judge or chief umpire, supported gen- 
 erally by two or three umpires. The umpires alone 
 see the ground occupied by the two forces. Instruc- 
 tions are given as to their positions ; the time of the 
 j'ear, the length of the days, the state of the roads, 
 etc., are settled beforehand. The losses made on both 
 sides are calculated by means of tables carefully pre- 
 pared ; they form a large volume, and were publish- 
 ed, in 1870, by Colonel von Trotha. Other circum- 
 stances, such as troops sheltered by earthworks, ar- 
 tillery firing out of range, are taken into considera- 
 tion ; those that have not been laid down in the rules 
 are decided by a throw of the dice. Thus the action 
 gradually develops itself as each Arm_y advances on 
 the contested ground, till victory is declared for one 
 side or the other. The principal utility of the game 
 appears to be in the arrangements previous to and 
 during the early conduct of an action. When the 
 troops get to close quarters, the element of chance 
 enters so largely into the game that it destroys to 
 a very great extent, the dependence that may be 
 placed on the issue of the battle. The game, liow- 
 every, affords great practice in the drawing up of 
 the order of march of columns previous to an action, 
 and the development of the columns of march into 
 formation for attack. In the hands of men having 
 some military experience, this game becomes a cer- 
 tain means of acquiring and perfecting a Science 
 which in time of peace cannot be easily acquired. It 
 raises questions wliich are strategical problems of 
 great interest. See Strategos. 
 
 KBIS. — A dagger or poniard, the universal weapon 
 of the inhabitants of the Malayan Archipelago. It is 
 made of many differentforms, short or long, straight 
 or crooked. The liilt and scal)bard are often much 
 ornamented. Men of all ranks wear this weapon; 
 and those of high rank, when in full dress, some- 
 times carry three or four. In Java, women sometimes 
 wear it. Also written CVeeatand Kreea.
 
 K£NKA OUN. 
 
 159 
 
 KKUPP OUN. 
 
 EBITKA GUN. The .system of aUorod hrccch-load- 
 iiii; iii\isUcls of Ui(- Kii.ssiaii service is tile invention 
 of Sjlvester Krnka, a re;jinieiilal arMiorer of tlie 
 Austrian army. Its cliief features are siniplieity and 
 coin])actness. The drawin;; represents tlic Itreeeli 
 system with tlie breecli-bloeli reniov('d. Tlie follow- 
 ing arc the principal parts, viz : « <, is tliat portion of 
 
 the hrceeh-framc or receiver inlowliieh th(> liarn^l is 
 screwed; r, is the slot or well in wliieli the breecli- 
 block rests when the chamber is closed ; m is the 
 hole into which is screwed the point of the hinge-pin 
 aroiind which the breech-block revolves; In t, isthe 
 lug in rear of the breech-block through which the 
 hitige-piu passes; c, is the groove by which the cart- 
 ridge is inserted into the chamber; r .1 t. is the lug 
 which serves as a support for tlie breech-block and a 
 stop for the hammer. A ; i\ represents the extractor in 
 position; k, is a small catch-pin actuated by a spring 
 which presses into a small indent in the front face of 
 the breech-block and holds the block in place with 
 slight friction; d g, are broken lines, showing the 
 position of the thumb-piece of the breech-block 
 when closed but not locked down by the hammer. 
 
 The lower portion of the block is semicircular in 
 form, and has a groove, into which fits a raised band 
 or rib, r. The object of this arrangement is to in- 
 crease the strength of the parts to resist the force of 
 the ciiarge. The rear corn<'r of this rib is rounded 
 off tt5 prevent it from interfering with the insertion 
 of the cartridge ; the firing-pin is pushed back, when 
 the lilock is opened by the oblique surface of the notch , 
 and also in closing the block, bj' the chamfered cor- 
 ner of the receiver, s t. The extractor is a lever of 
 the first order, and is operated by opening the breech 
 smartly, in which case the shell is thrown out clear 
 from the receiver. The cartridge belongs to the cen- 
 ter-fire system of Berdan. The shell is made of brass; 
 the head is folded and strengthened with a re-en- 
 forcing-cap. The caliber of the Russian altered arms 
 is (iO, or 0".<). See SmaU-armH 
 
 KRUPP GUN. — The fabrication of cannon is the 
 matter of chief personal interest to Herr Krupp, who 
 watches with the closest interest what governments 
 in every part of the world are doing, and proposing 
 to do, in relation to their armaments. Xcarh' every 
 government, except England and the United States, 
 hasbeena purchaser of ICruppguns, and there seems 
 to be no cessation in the demand for them. At pre- 
 sent Italy and China arc his best customers, and the 
 12.5-ton guns for the Italian government which he 
 has now in hand are the most prodigious pieces of 
 ordnance which have ever been made. Krupp's pre- 
 eminence as a gun-maker is unquestionablj' due to 
 his ca:rly perception of the fact that steel must sup- 
 plant iitin in the fabrication of ordnance, and to his 
 posses'sion' of such unrivaled facilities for the manu- 
 facture of steel in his own works. New ideas in the 
 construction of ordnance Ilerr Krupp docs not claim 
 to have developed, but he was one of the first to per- 
 ceive that breech-loading cannon would completely 
 take the place of muzzle-loaders. It was this change 
 which definitely forced the abandonment of iron in 
 the construction of cannon in Europe. Krupp satis- 
 fied himself that the wedge system of breech-closing 
 was the best, and in spite of the conclusion of the 
 French and English authorities that the French in- 
 
 terlocking Bj'stcmis superior, Knipp goes ahead and 
 shows no sign of giving up the system with which 
 his name has come to be identified. The 12.')-ton 
 guns are :).') calibers in length— that is, over .W feet. 
 The inner tube is covere(l with steel rings to the 
 muzzle, and the outer jacket at the breech in which 
 the breech-closer is placed is an enormous iiieci; of 
 steel. Not a single, part of these extraordinary guns 
 could be produced by any establishment in the 
 I'nil<'il Stales, for we have no means in America of 
 hammering or working such enormous masses of 
 metal. The largest caliber is 40 centimeters, or 
 something over 10 inc-lies, and the boring of a tube 
 of this size is an important operation. The core, 
 when i\\y boring is completed, is still a ponderon.s 
 cylinder, which can itself be bored and used as a 
 tiibe of a smaller gun. The cutting of the rille 
 grooves in a large gun is a very simple operation and 
 not a protracted one, as these grooves are cut simul- 
 taneously, and the work is done by the machines 
 with mathematical accuracy. Every gun is tested 
 on the grounds near the shops by being fired lour 
 times, and the large guns are then sent to Jlepiien, 
 in north (iermaiiy, to lie tested by the agents of the 
 governments which jiurchase them--if such tests be 
 desired. Krupp often conducts experiments of liis 
 own at Meppen, and occasionally large numbers of 
 foreign olficers are invited to be present. The 
 drawback to such elaborate experiments is the enor- 
 mous expense which they entail. Considering that 
 the butts are wholly artificial structures of sand and 
 masonry, and that "the hirgest cannon are here fired 
 at closeranges, it will be seen that great strength and 
 security are required. The workman in charge is 
 pointed out as a person who has "fired more can- 
 non " than any other man in the world. The trials 
 at Meppen are all for the. purpose of testingthe range 
 of the gun. those at the Works to test the strength 
 of the gun. Near the firing-grounds at Essen is 
 the Ordnance Museum, where are retained speci- 
 mens of everything that Herr Krupp has accom- 
 plished in the development of artillery. 
 
 Tlur principal feature in the Jleppen programme of 
 1870 was the trial of Krupp's 40-ccntimcter (l.'J.T.'J 
 inch) breech-loading gun, weighing about 70 tons 17 
 cwt., known commonly as the 71-ton gun. The trial 
 was specially important for three reasons: 1st. It isthe 
 first breech-loader whose power approaches that of 
 the 100 and 80-ton guns made in England ; 2d. It is 
 a steel gun ; 3d. Its proportions are based on results 
 obtained during the last few years. 
 
 All these questions are interesting, and deserving 
 of so much attention that it would be difficult here to 
 deal fairly with all. For the purpose in hand, how- 
 ever, it is not necessary to discuss the question of 
 the respective metals of the guns, because it can eas- 
 ily be shown that there was nothing in these exper- 
 iments that bears upon this point beyond the nega- 
 tive fact that the steel guns in no respect exhibited 
 any fault. We may safely say that the Woolwich 
 guns would have done equally well, as far as the raa- 
 teriiil is concerned, for the pressures in Krupp's guns 
 were by no means excessive. The 71-ton gun, for exam- 
 ple, was not subjected to as high a pressure as the 
 English 80-ton gun has borne. A test which tries 
 neither gun obviously furnishes us with no means of 
 comparison, and hence the Meppen trials in no way 
 furnish data for the discussion of the relative merits 
 of wrought-iron and steel guns, but bear entirely on 
 the two" other questions, "namely, that of breech- 
 loading and proportions — the former, as concerns 
 ease in working, and the latter power, and good shoot- 
 ing. 
 
 The Ill-ton gun was mounted as for coast defense, 
 on a traversing platform, and a carriage nearly of 
 the P^nglish pattern in all respects. The brackets 
 were made of wrought-iron, the gun being elevated 
 by multiple gear, acting on elevating arcs, fixed on 
 the gun. Beneath the carriage were two hydraulic 
 buffers. A modified form of Cunningham's chain
 
 KRUPP GUW. 
 
 160 
 
 KBTTPP GUH. 
 
 gear, was used for traversing the platform, which 
 ran on trucks on three concentric racers, the pivot 
 being about six feet iu front of the carriage when run 
 up. A lifting crane was attached to the platform, 
 fixed on a sort of axle, with a counter-lever with 
 powerful spring, which required considerable force 
 to compress it by bending downthe crane, and which 
 decreased the work of lifting the projectiles by the 
 same amount, thus dividing the labor of lifting the 
 projectiles into two operations. 
 
 The gun was easily worked by a detachment of fif- 
 teen men. Ten rounds, with chilled projectiles were 
 first tired ; the time occupied by the last five rounds 
 was twent3--four minutes. The breech piece moved 
 easily. A good deal of oil was used on it. The breech- 
 loading certainly saved the men much labor, not only 
 in the actually ramming home but also in bringing up 
 the projectiles, since it was not necessary for them 
 to cross of the racers or the Cunningham chain. The 
 charge was made up in four cartridges, each contain- 
 ing 110 pounds of prismatic powder. The least sat- 
 is&ctory part of the service of the gun considering 
 everything, was the ditficulty experienced in the 
 ignition of the charge and in remedying miss-fires. 
 The vent was in the axis of the piece, and a disk of 
 calico was torn off the bottom of the cartridge last 
 entered, to expose the powder to the fiash of the tube. 
 The latter was of a bad pattern, short and weak. No 
 stress is to be laid on this, as the remedy is obvious. 
 A primer or a stronger tube would rectify this fault. 
 A more important question is the shooting of the 
 gun as regards power and accuracy. The chilled 
 projectiles had 0.078 in. windage, which is about the 
 same as that in Woolwich projectiles, namely, 0.08 
 inch over a copper rim. The common shell subse- 
 quently fired, however, had the unpractical windage 
 of about 0.01 inch over an iron body. The target dia- 
 grams show a remarkable degree of accuracy, chief- 
 ly iu the vertical direction, which argues well for the 
 regularity of the charge, which surely must be attri- 
 buted to the prismatic powder employed. It stands 
 to reason that a charge composed of a fixed number 
 of prisms of uniform size and density gives promise 
 of greater uniformity being attainable than when 
 pebbles are employed ; and Fhere seems no reason to 
 doubt that, whatever difficulties were at first experi- 
 enced, this has been achieved. Surely if two attempts 
 are made to obtain regularity in powder — one by 
 employing prisms each uniform in size and shape, 
 and if possible pressed uniformly, and another by 
 means of pebbles of an accidental shape from uni- 
 formlj- pressed powder-cakes — the former, though it 
 may be difficult, offers promise of ultimate success 
 in the higher degree. As to the windage, stress can 
 hardly be laid on the great reduction in the case of 
 the common shell; the two kinds of projectiles 
 made pretty nearly equally good practice. 
 
 Lastly, (IK to Vif proporliimsfif thebore andchamher. 
 The bore of the 71-ton gun is only 20 inches shorter 
 than that of the 100-ton gun and S.") inclies longer 
 than that of the 80-ton gun. The chamber in length 
 is GO. 6 inches, that of the 100-ton gun being 59.7 and 
 of the 80-ton gun 59.6. The caliber of the 71-tou gun 
 is 15.75, against IG iu the 80 and 17.72 in the 1004on 
 gun. Consequent!}', the bore of the 71-ton gim is 21.8 
 calibers long, against 18 in the 80 and 30.5 in the 100- 
 ton gun. The diameter of the chamber of the 71-ton 
 gun is 17.32 inches, that of the 80 and 100-ton guns 
 being 18.0 and 19.7 inches, respectively — that is to 
 say it is 1 .57 inches greater than that of bore, as com- 
 pared with 2.0 inches increase in the 80 and 1.98 
 inches in I he lOO-ton gun. Speaking generally, then, 
 the bore of Krupp's gun is relatively rather longer 
 and the cliamber less enlarged than in the IDO-ton 
 gun, while in the 80-ton gvm the bore is actually the 
 shortestand theenlargenu'nt of the chamber actually 
 the greatest of tlu^ three. On these proportions nuiin- 
 ly depends the power of the guns. To be able to 
 make a comi)arison between them, discrimination is 
 necessary. It would not be right to take e<pial or 
 
 proportionate charges as the basis of the comparison, 
 because the principle on which a long gun is advo- 
 cated is that any greater result can thus be got from 
 a gun with a given strain on it, but at the expense of 
 some waste of powder. It is clear, then, that look- 
 ing to the endurance of the gun rather than the 
 expenditure of powder, the basis of comparison 
 should be propiirtionate pressures. It would scarce- 
 ly be right to say equal pressures, because the thick- 
 er gun can fairly be expected to bear a greater strain 
 than the thinner one. Now, the best results obtain- 
 ed from these three guns are as follows : The 80-ton 
 gun at Woolwich, with a proof-charge of 445 pounds, 
 giving a pressure of 21.5 tons, discharged a projec- 
 tile weighing 1,728 pounds with a velocity of 1,657 
 feet per second — having 32,938 foot-tons stored up 
 work, or 6.58.37 foot-tons per inch circumference — 
 equivalent to a penetration of a 32. .34 inches plate of 
 wrought-iron. The 71-ton gun at Meppen is report- 
 ed on one occasion, with a charge of 485.1 pounds, 
 giving a pressure on the gun of 20.92 tons, to have 
 discharged a projectile weighing 1,715 pounds with 
 a velocitj' of 1,703 feet per second — having therefore 
 34.489 foot-tons stored-up work, or 697.02,foot-ton3 
 per inch circumference — equivalent to the penetra- 
 tion of a plate 33.5 inches thick. During the public 
 trials in August the 71-tou gun was not tested so 
 severely, and it is therefore right to class the above 
 in tlie same category as the Woolwich proof round 
 above metioned. In August the average weight of 
 the chilled projectiles was 1,712.6 pounds. The 
 firing charge was 452 pounds, the initial velocity was 
 1,648 feet, the stored-up work was 32,241 foot-tons, 
 the work per inch circumference 651.59 foot-tons, 
 equivalant to a penetratian of 32.12 inches. The 
 pressure on the bore was 19.85 tons. The highest 
 result hitherto obtained with the lOO-ton gun, of 
 17.72 inches caliber, has recently been furnished by 
 Captain Noble ; it is as follows : Charge, 573 pounds: 
 projectile, 2,000 pounds, about ; velocit}-, 1,725.5 
 feet; stored-up work, about, 41,300 foot-tons, or 743 
 foot-tons per inch circumference, which is equiva- 
 lent to a penetration of nearly 35 inches of armor. 
 The pressure on the bore was about ,18.0 tons. It 
 is quite clear, from the above, that the 71-ton gun is 
 a much better weapon than the 80-ton gun, inasmuch 
 as it beats it in every respect. It fires a heavier pro- 
 jectile with a higher velocity, which has therefore 
 more energy or stored-up work and an inch and a 
 half more penetration, and all this is done with less 
 pressure on the bore of the gun. The reason is that 
 it is a better proportioned gun,its main advantage be- 
 ing its greater length. The lOO-ton gun compares 
 much more favorably with Krupp's gun, but, never- 
 theless, would do so better if its length were greater. 
 The main difference in the guns depends on the dif- 
 erence in length ; and the question naturally arises 
 with those investigating, how is it that the English 
 Government is now completing and issuing 80- 
 ton guns so inferior in power to Krupp's 71-ton gun, 
 which has already achieved the results we speak of. 
 The answer is, that the guns were designed for the 
 " Inflexible," and that, being mtizzlc-loaders, the ves- 
 sel had to be made with portions of the deck corres- 
 ponding to the length of the gun, to make provision 
 for its loading. All this was determined years ago. 
 Since that time invent/gations have shown the desira- 
 bility of greatly increasing the length; but the gun 
 l)eing a muzzle-loader, it is impossible to do so. For 
 the ship iu question, a muzzle-loader is limited as to 
 its length by inflexible conditions; and all that can be 
 done is, by enlarging the chamber, to utilize to the 
 fullest extent the disproportionate thickness of metal. 
 Apart from the trying instance, however, it is clear 
 tliat every increase in length is in favor of the breech- 
 loader, because the labor Jind inconvenience of muz- 
 zle-loading increase in an increasing ratio ; and, in 
 the case of turret guns, and jirolialily in some guns 
 in casemates and cupolas, nmzzlc-loading becomes 
 eventually almost impossible.
 
 KRUPP OUN. 
 
 i(;i 
 
 KEDPP GUN. 
 
 Very rcnmrkabli' results were DbUiincd witli smiill- 
 pr guns. An cxcfllciit .ll-loii M-iiicli gun wiis tried, 
 the behavior of wliieh closely resembled llial of the 
 71-ton gun, ineludiiig the method of working, occa- 
 sional niiss-lires, and the like. An 11-ineh (2«-centi- 
 mcler) howitzer, a 4.i:i-in(h (\0S> centimeter) siege 
 gun, and a H.7y-ineb (!l.li eentinieter) were tired, 
 wliieli <lid well but need not behere nolieed indelail. 
 A long .'i.ll-ineh (l.'i-eentimeterj gun on a special .sea 
 service carriage with oil builer gave good residts; 
 also an 8.37-incli (21-cenlimeter; iiowit/.er, and a 5.9- 
 inch (IS centimeterj mortar, were tired at dummy 
 guns in a battery with good effect, notwillislanding 
 I hat some of the fuses failed to act. Two remarkably 
 characteristic guns, ;i.4-iiich (8.7-centimcter;, were 
 fired, tixcd on pivots, one with little, and the other 
 with absolutely no ])rovision for recoil. With these 
 is naturally connected another non-recoil arrange 
 nient of Krupp's, now well known, consisting of 0.1- 
 inch (l.") centimeter) ",im, muzzle pivoting, the muz- 
 zle being ball-shaped and working in a socket in an 
 armor-plate. These three guns possess peculiarities 
 deserving of attention. ' 
 
 One piece, ;i.4 incliis in caliber, was 14 feel 3:^ inch- 
 es long. Its chamber was enlarged to an extra- 
 ordinary extent, being .'5. 9 inches in diameter. The 
 cartridge was a long bag, very loose on the powder, 
 made so as to admit of being adjusted in the cham- 
 ber by hand. The charge was 7.7 pounds. Two 
 kinds of projectiles were tired — long ones. 12..') inch- 
 es inlengtli, weighing 22 pounds, and shorter ones 9.5 
 inches in length, weighing 15 pounds. The initial 
 velocities of these projectiles were 1,829 and 3,098 
 feet respectively. The maximum pressure was 11.0 
 tons. During this extraordinary performances the gun 
 was held rigidly, being lixed on a strong vertical steel 
 pivot, and so steady was it that small coins placed on 
 its barrel were not shaken off on ti ing except near 
 the muzzle. Eventually a Dutch ''.licer dis|)layed 
 sufTicient coutideuce to sit astride on the gun wliiU' 
 it was fired, with the projectile shooting between 
 his legs at the rate of about 2,000 feet per second. 
 The second 3.4 gim somewhat resend)led the above, 
 but had provision for slight recoil, the pivot moving 
 on its lower end as a center, the gun forcing the 
 upper end back against a piston or buffer. The muz- 
 zle pivoting 6.1 gun was worked easily, the armor 
 absorbing the shock of recoil, and suffering in no 
 way apparently beyond the structure appearing to 
 spring a little in the earth. A man laid it while 
 riding on a sa^Jdlc placed on the chase of the 
 piece; he employed sights directed through a small 
 hole at a convenient height above the gun. and he 
 tired the gun himself by pulling the lanyard while 
 stillsitting on the piece. This system has been tried 
 by one Goverment experiment, but has not hitherto 
 found favor. It certainly appears as ii a heavy gun 
 so fixed to a shield, and impressing its work on it 
 every round, must soon destroy the structure; l)ut 
 apparently it would take a very long time for a med- 
 ium gun to do so, and it is possible that a gun so 
 completely protected and able to fire with such great 
 rapidity might perform admirable service before it 
 failed in this way. so that, under .some conditions, 
 such a gin< might be very valuable. 
 
 The ball portion of the muzzle can be readily un- 
 screwed, and so can the disk containing the socket 
 into which it fits in the plate. This operation can 
 be safely performed, a shutter being riui up which 
 completely covers the opening from the enemy. It 
 still appears possible, liowever, that a blow from a 
 very heavy shot might distort and jam the screwed 
 portion of the plate. Against ordinary siege guns 
 such a gun working with all the speed due to non- 
 recoil, and with such an extraordinary measure of 
 security, might effect much. Two trials against ar- 
 mor took place, one to show the comparative effects 
 of firing against chilled and soft hammered iron 
 structures. As both were manufactured by Ilerr 
 Krupp, the trial cannot be regarded as a represent- 
 
 ative one of the system he opposes, and it would be 
 a mistake to discuss it here. The other was the fir- 
 ing of a 9.45-in<li ("24-centinieiiT) gun, with acharge 
 of"l05.3 pounds and a steel projectile weighing 348.3 
 pounds, at a target which consisted of a front 12-incli 
 wrouglit-iron [ilate, a wood layer of 2 inches, and a 
 liiick wrought-iron plate of 8 inchi-s. Tlu; plates 
 wens rolled at Dillingeii. The shot had a striking 
 velocity of 1,870 feet, which would give 8,492 fool- 
 tons energy or stored-up work, a penetrating figure 
 of 388.5 foot-tons ijer inch circumference, and a 
 penetration of 19.33 inches of iron. The projectile, 
 however of each of two rounds fired passed complete- 
 ly through the entire 20 inches of ir<m and grazed 
 a'bout 2.000 meters farther up the range. The plates 
 were indifferently rolled, and contained some phos- 
 phorus, it is said; but the jienetration of the sliot 
 was. after making all allowances, extraordinary. 
 They were scarcely deformed in ap])carance wlien 
 recovered. The steel was excellent. Tliey liadogival 
 points, the heads being struck with a radius of two 
 diameters. 
 
 To simi up, the features;which chiefly concern us in 
 thesis extraonlinarv trials are— 1st. The success of 
 the breeeh-loailing'syslem. 2d. The great results 
 obtained as to power and accuracy of tire. 3d. The 
 muzzle-pivoting and non-recoil systems. Although 
 these have been noticed in the short relation already 
 given, one or two words may be useful to lead a dis- 
 cussion. First, it must not be supposed that equally 
 good results have not been •btaiued as to power 
 when guns have been nuide in accordance with the 
 conditions arrived at by recent experiments, as may 
 be seen from the following examples: J'lro years 
 ago the new tyiie KIswiek 0-inch gun wjis fired with 
 a charse of 33 pounds and a projectile of 82 pounds, 
 the initial velocity being 1.902 feet, and thetotal en- 
 ergy 2.057 foot-tons : the same gun, with a charge of 
 37.5 pounds, discharired a projectile of 83 pounds 
 weight with a velocity of 2,0;)1 feet, having 2.:!03 
 foot-tons total energy. With this may naturally be 
 compared Krupp's 5.9-inch gun, fired at Meppcn, 
 with 33,1 uounds charge, and with projectiles weigh- 
 ing 88.2 and 112.5 pounds.giviiig velocities of 1,835.- 
 3 and 1,608.7 feet, and total energy of 2.000 and 2,1- 
 71 foot-tons respectively. On one occasion it is re- 
 corded in Krupp's printed tables as having fired a 
 shot of 09 pounds weicht withacharse of 37. 5 pounds 
 with a velocity of 2,135.8 feet, liaviiig 2,183 foot-tons 
 energy. In these comparisons the Elswick gun has 
 sliuliVly the advantage. It can scarcely fail to be ob- 
 served", however, that to rival the residts of Krupp, 
 Elswick achievements, and not of Government guns, 
 are instanced. In some measure this may be account- 
 ed for by the fact that private manufacturers are un- 
 trammeled by routine, and a master of tlie question 
 seizes lessons taught by experiments and works them 
 as he judges best. The Government does not encour- 
 age the manufacturing departments to aim at taking 
 the lead in experimental investigation. There are 
 however, one or two serious lessons that we might 
 learn from foreign trials. Take, for example, the 
 three cases of breech-loading guns,breecli-loading 
 small-arm rifles, and prismatic powder. .\ll these 
 have been taken up. tried, and discarded, while they 
 were steadily worked out to a successful issue by 
 Germany. About 1853 the needle-gun was tried and 
 rejected in England. Prussia.acting onherown judg- 
 ment, patiently worked at it, and in 1803 or 1864 the 
 entire superiority of breech-loading arms became in- 
 disputablv proved and they were universally adopted. 
 About 1860 the English tried prismatic or pellet pow- 
 der, and rejected ii : and after adopting breech-load- 
 ing guns about 1858, they gradually superseded them 
 about 1866 by muzzle-loading ordnance ; and now, 
 after Germany has steadily worked out these ques- 
 tions to a successful i.ssuethey are trying both one 
 and the other again, and those who have weighed 
 the results obtained by them, as compared with those 
 of their own guns and powder, can hardly doubt
 
 KEUPP GUN LIFT. 
 
 162 
 
 KKUPP SEA COAST CAEEIAGE8. 
 
 that both will be eventually adopted. Until recently, [ 
 the Italians and Englisli were the main supporters of 
 muzzle-loadina; guns. These gens were character- 
 ized also bj' being made of wrouglit-iron, whicli 
 complicates the comparison we now wish to make. 
 Still, the fact remained that England and Italy liad 
 muzzle-loading guns of 100 and 80 tons weight, and I 
 of a power that no breech-loading ordnance could 
 rival. The Meppen trials have exhibited a gun 
 which entirely surpasses the last-mentioned piece, 
 and, for its weight, compares well with the former. , 
 Instv'ad of dealing with a theoretical gun existing on- 
 ly on paper, then, we have one in thoroughly good 
 working order, loading and tiring by hand with a 
 rapidity, and shooting with a power and accuracy, 
 far beyond the achievements of the 80-ton gun up to 
 the present time. This result is not due to a want of 
 knowledge but to the impossibility of appl)'ing knowl- 
 edge to the case of the 80-ton gun. With muzzle- 
 loading guns on the present English system they have 
 greater labor in loading, and have to commit them- 
 selves to the length of their gun three or four years 
 before they bring it into service. To argue that breech- 
 loaders should be at once adopted would be to com- 
 mit the fault we have complained of above, but sure- 
 ly we have sufficient reason to give them a trial on 
 a. large scale. If breech-loaders have the advantages of 
 ease and rapidity in working, of the possiliility of 
 changing their length without revolutionizing the 
 surrounding structure of the ship, and of affording 
 greater cover, especially when nonrecoil carriages of 
 any kind are employed, they surely deserve afidl trial 
 even at the cost of having both breech and muzzle- 
 loading guns in the service. See Krvpp Sea-coast 
 Cnrringex, and Krnpp Steel Works. 
 
 KEUPP GUN-LIFT. —It consists of two quadran- 
 gular pyramidal pillars 23 feet high, made of angle- 
 iron riveted together and strongly braced, as shown 
 in engraving, resting each on a solid base of cast- 
 iron. The pillars are connected at the top by a cross- 
 
 beam 19J feet long, made of two principal trussed 
 beams strongly secured by cross-tics, and carrying at 
 the middle a double jjulley, and at about 4 feet dis- 
 tant, on either side, a single pulley. A long cliaiii is se- 
 cured at its ends to the windlasses, 17, passing over tlie 
 pulleys and around the triple block, which is pro- 
 vided with a double hook to receive the ends of the 
 sling-chains. The alpliabetical order of the letters 
 indicates the maimer in wliicli the wheels and pin- 
 ions actuate each other. The chain thus makes a 
 half turn on each single pulley, one turn on the 
 double i)ull(^y, and one and a half turns on the tri- 
 ple block, as shown in the drawing, the ends of 
 
 the chain being double between the pulley and block. 
 It is easy to see how a limited number of men, oper- 
 ating on the cranks of the windlasses on both sides, 
 are alile to raise as heavy a weight as a 12 or 14 inch 
 gun. See Oun-lift, and Prussinn Gun-lift. 
 
 KKUPP SEA-COAST CAKELAGES.— The top carri- 
 age is composed of two cheeks connected together 
 by a front, rear and liottom transom. The latter, of 
 boiler-plate, extends under the bottom of the cheeks 
 their entire length, and is shod on the under side 
 wliere it comes in contact with the rails with brass 
 shoes screwed fast to it. The cheeks for the G-inch 
 gun are made of a single plate 1 inch thick. For 
 the larger calibers the}' are made of two plates rivet- 
 ed together, with a wrought-iron frame between 
 them ; in the upper side of the frame the trunnion- 
 beds are formed toreceive the trunnions, which have 
 bronze friction-rings fitted on them. Cap-squares 
 are used for all carriages. Both cheeks are pro- 
 vided on their outer faces with an apparatus for giv- 
 ing the elevation. It is composed of a cog-wheel- 
 operating a circular rack fastened to the gun by a 
 bronze stud. The rack is held in place engaged with 
 the teeth of the cog-wheels by a small roller with its 
 a.\is in the cheek. 
 
 To elevate or depress the gun there is a wheel on 
 the left side, with holes in its periphery to take a 
 handspike ; and on the right side there is a wheel 
 with handles. In carriages for heavy guns this wheel 
 is not on the same axis as the cog-wheel, but works 
 in a pinion to gain power to raise the gun. The gun 
 is held in any desired position by turning a check- 
 screw which presses the wheel against the check. 
 In firing, the top carriage rests on the chassis rail 
 throughout the entire length of the shoe, in order to 
 distribute the pressure arising from the discharge 
 over a greater surface. To run the gun into liattery 
 the top carriage is provided with four truck-wheels. 
 The rear pair are on eccentric a.xles, and can be 
 thrown in gear by turning the .axles part way round; 
 this brings the front wheels in play, which 
 turn on fixed axles. In the 6-inch gun-carriage 
 each pair of wheels has a common axle, which 
 has its bearings in the two cheeks, and the 
 wheels are close up to them on the inside. 
 The bottom transom has two openings left in 
 it to allow the rear wheels to bear on the rails. 
 The lever of the rear wheels on the left end 
 of the axle is kept in position by a latch on the 
 cheek. In carriages for heavier gims, begin- 
 ning with the 0.7 inch gun, the truck-wheels 
 are placed between the two plates of the cheek, 
 in front or rear of the frame. Each wheel has 
 its own axle. 
 
 An automatic arrangement is made to nm 
 the gim into battery after firing, without any 
 action on the part of the gunner. This device 
 consists of two wedge-sliaped pieces of iron 
 screwed fast to the top of the rails in rear of the 
 top carriage. When the gun recoils, the rear 
 wheels run up these inclined planes, the rear 
 end of the carriage is raised till the front 
 wheels are brought to bear also, and after the 
 recoil the carriage runs down the inclined 
 planes into battery, ready for the next fire. 
 The eccentric axle is kept from turning by a 
 key in the check. To run the carriage from 
 battery this key is taken out, and the wheels 
 also be thrown" in gear by turning the axle 
 with a handspike in the handspike-socket. To pro- 
 vide for the possible wear of the front wlieels, and 
 preserve an iMpial and quick motion when running 
 into battery, the front wheels are also mounted on 
 axles with eccentric boxes, which are kept in posi- 
 tion by a small screw in each. To make this adjust- 
 ment, remove the screw and turn the box, which, on 
 accoi'int of its eccentricity, will lower tlie axle ; it is 
 held in the new position by the screw i)la<ed in a 
 second hole. Two angle-irons are fastened to the 
 bottom transom to guide the top carriage in its re- 
 
 the 
 
 may
 
 XBCFP SEA-COAST CABBIAOES. 
 
 1G3 
 
 KBUFP SEA COAST CABBIAGEB. 
 
 coil ; and two j^uido-liooks 
 flanur of tli(: mil pnjvt'iil thu 
 loling on it. India-rulihcr In 
 crs are proviilcd to liniiltlic 
 and rear. In the (>-in<'li carr 
 placed liy the curve of the 
 which join lh(^ licittoni transi 
 rini,'H are fastened to the rear 
 the holtom, to hook the rop( 
 •carriat;e from battery. 
 
 The hydraulic Ijultcr is use 
 
 which pass iindor the 
 top carriage from hul- 
 irters and connter-hiirt- 
 reidil both to the front 
 iage the liurters are re- 
 enil of the angle-irons 
 im to the cheeks. Two 
 end of the cheeks, near 
 .s to for pulling the top 
 
 d to regulate and check 
 
 chassis is transmitted directly to it. The rear wheels 
 have several holes bored radially into theni to receive 
 the i-nd of a hanils[)ik(r to traverse the carriage in 
 giving the proper diriction to the gun. liurters and 
 ciiunti'r-hurters are placed on thi- front and rear ends 
 of the rails, or the front and rear transoins, to stop 
 the carriage running into or from battery. These 
 hurt(-rs are made each of a steel piston, fitting in a 
 box, anil holding between the head and box a num- 
 ]){-r of India-rubber diaks, separated from each other 
 by sheet-iron rings. 
 
 the recoil of the gun. It consists of a forged cast- 
 steel cylinder bored out and turned. Its rear end is 
 closed by tlie bottom, screwed on anil fastened to the 
 rear transom of the chassis by screws. The front 
 end of the cylinder is also screwed into a piece to 
 which the cover is held by screws. There is a hole 
 in the bottom piece for tilling the C3'linder; it is stop- 
 ped with a screw and a cock in the cover for empty- 
 ing it. The piston-liead, with four holes bored in it, 
 fits the cylinder closely, and to it, the piston-rod of 
 cast steel is fastened, and passes through the cylin- 
 der head, the joint being packed with hemp-packing 
 and l)ronze packing-box. The end of the piston-rod 
 is fastened to the cross-bead, which is bolted to the 
 bottom transom of the top carriage. 
 
 Tlie chassis is composed of two rails, connected 
 together by transoms. The rails are wrought iron, 
 I-shapcd, rolled in a single piece for thcsmallerguns, 
 and built up for the ll-inch gun, and all of larger 
 caliber. The front transom is composed of two plates, 
 the upper and lower joined together in the middle by 
 cross-pieces of the same profile as the rails. The rear 
 transom is also composed of an upper and lower 
 plate, united by two cross-pieces riveted to the plates 
 with angle-irons. The rear end of the hydraulic cyl- 
 inder is bolted to the front one of these cross-pieces 
 through an intermediate piece. The middle tran- 
 som, composed of a plate, re-enforced with angle- 
 irons, supports the front end of the cylinder, which 
 is secured to it by its brace. The front and rear 
 transoms of the C-inch carriage are made of single 
 plates, placed vertically, and re-enforced at top and 
 bottom by angle-irons. The traverse-wheel forks are 
 made fast to a front and rear bolster, which are bolt- 
 ed to the chassis. Each bolster is composed of two 
 vertical side plates, one horizontal plate and one ver- 
 tical plate, with the necessary angle-irons to unite the 
 parts together. The rear bolster is made enough 
 liigher than the front one that the four wheels may be 
 all of the same size, notwithstanding the inclination 
 of the chassis, which is necessary to make the gun 
 run into battery after tiring. The traverse- wheel 
 forks, composed each of a front and rear l)ranch,are 
 bolted to the under side of the horizontal plate of 
 the bolsters. 
 
 The traverse-wheels are of cast steel, with a deep 
 semicircular groove cut in their periphery to fit over 
 the traverse-circle, which is nearly semicircular in 
 cross-section, so that a large part of the recoil of the 
 
 A hinged tongue, bolted to the front transom of 
 the chassis, connects it to the pintle in front. A wind- 
 lass, attached to the rear end of the chassis, is used 
 to run the gun from batterj-. It has a drum with 
 raised sides for the rope, and is operated by a crank 
 turning a wheel and pinion. For guns of very large 
 caliber a double set of wheels and pinions is added 
 between the crank and drum. All of tliese parts are 
 fastened to a stirrup, which is secured by means of a 
 tenon to the rear end of the rail. To run the gun 
 from battery, hook the ropes on each side to tlie 
 rings in the top carriage|take a turn around the drum, 
 tighten the ropes and work tlie cranks. In the car- 
 riage for the 6-inch gun the arrangement is replaced 
 by a simple block-and-tackle, which is hooked in tlie 
 rings in the rear end of the chassis. 
 
 In the other carriages these rings are fastened to 
 the windlass-frame, and are also used in traversing 
 the carriage. For this purpose, commencing with 
 the 8-inch sea-coast carriage, a windlass is used, fas- 
 tened to the rear end of the chassis by a boiler-plate 
 frame, strengthened by angle-irons, to which all of 
 the moveable parts are attached. The principal part 
 is tlie drum, around the circumference of which the 
 cliain works, fastened at its two ends to rings out- 
 side the platform, A pair of horizontal and vertical 
 leading wheels on each side prevent the chain from 
 leaving the drum. If the drum be turned by means 
 of the crank which communicates with it through 
 the wheel and pinion, the drum moves on the sta- 
 tionary chain, traversing the chassis with an eas}' but 
 rapid enough motion. In case the chain breaks, the 
 chassis may be traversed with handspikes. A crane 
 is provided for the heavj' carriages, commencing 
 with the 8-inch, for elevating the projfctile. It is 
 placed on the right side of the chassis, on a di- 
 rect line with the brcecli of the gun, when it is 
 in battery. It consists of a curved iron upright, 
 which is held in a vertical position by a pillow-block 
 and collar, and is rcadih' turned by the handle. The 
 drum is near the foot of the upright. By turning the 
 crank, motion is given to the rope, either directly or 
 by a wheel and pinion. One end of the rope is fas. 
 tened to the drum, and thence it passes over two fixed 
 pulleys on the upright. The other end has a hook 
 fastened to it. This hook is inserted in the upper 
 ring of the shot-cart, which, holding the projectile, 
 is hoisted up, the tongue being first taken out. The 
 [ crane is turned until the carriage touches the gun, to
 
 KHUPP RIFLING. 
 
 164 
 
 KRUPP STEEL WORKS. 
 
 which it is hooked. The shot being rammed home, 
 the crane is turned, and the empty cart is lowered. 
 Steps are attached to the chassis at several places for 
 the convenience of the gunners (angle-irons are fas- 
 tened to the rails, and oak planks, secured to them), 
 as the step for the gunner in pointing in rear and 
 across the chassis, on both sides of the chassis, and 
 between the rails, for the men serving the gun, in- 
 serting the projectile, the charge, etc. 
 
 The foundation of the platform is of brick mason- 
 rj-, from 3 to G feet thick, acconling to the caliber of 
 the gun. The stability of the foundation being the 
 essential condition of the continued good working of 
 the carriage, the masonrj- should first of all have a 
 solid bed. If the soil be not firm, as often happens 
 on the sea-coast, the foundation should be made by 
 driving piles, on which a good bed of concrete sliould 
 be laid, and may be made still more solid by pieces of 
 railroad iron. 
 
 The following implements are supplied for the car- 
 riages : Two wooden handspikes (ash), liaving ends 
 sliod with iron and made to fit in the holes of the ele- 
 vating-wheel, in the rear truck-wheels, and rear trav- 
 erse-wheels ; one wrench for tlie packing-box; a 
 wrench for the cock and the filling-hole screw in the 
 hydraulic cylinder; a screw-wrench, and asliot-cart. 
 The bod)' of the cart is a piece of curved sheet-iron, 
 on which the projectile lies. It is held in place by 
 an iron strap passing over it, tlirough whicli two 
 screws pass and press against the shot between two 
 bands. An e_ye-bolt and ring is provided on the top 
 of this strap, into which the hook of the crane-rope 
 is passed to hoist the shot. The front end of the cart 
 has a flange, with two liookstohang it to the breech 
 of the gun, where it rests and serves as a guide in 
 loading. Tlie a.xle and two bronze wheels are placed 
 a little in front the center of gravity, and a sheet-iron 
 prop at the rear end, and also the pole, which can 
 be taken off, but is held in place when in use by two 
 hooks below and two studs above. 
 
 To load tlie cart, the projectile is first placedon its 
 base and the cart over it; the screws for holding the 
 projectile are turned down ; the cart is then righted 
 and the pole put in place. For every battery ,"or in 
 large batteries for every three guns, there is added a 
 pair of windlasses like that already described and 
 used in running tlie top carriage back, and a funnel 
 with a graduated scale inside giving its contents in 
 gallons. Its bottom orifice is closed by a cock, and 
 is used in filling the cylinder with glycerine. An ex- 
 tra bl(/ck and tackle is added to those carriages which 
 have no windlasses. 
 
 The carriages having been all mounted and proved 
 in the Shops by firing and working them, it is only 
 required for mounting them in batfery that the cor- 
 responding parts should be secured to the platform, 
 which should be level and firm. The pintle-plate 
 sliould be laid down so that the pintle shall be exactly 
 vertical. The rear traverse-circles should be placed 
 on the arc of a circle described with tlie pintle as a 
 center, and a mean radius of l.T feet, for all sea- 
 coast carriages from G to 11 inch caliber. 
 
 The 12-incli carriage is similar in its genera, con- 
 .struction to those above descril)ed. It admits of an 
 elevation of, the gun of 17", and a depression of 7". 
 The axis of the trumiion-beds is !Ki.7 inclies above 
 the platform. Tlu^ elevating apparatus is provided 
 with a wheel on either side of the carriage, having 
 radiarl handles with which to (iperate it. Tliis wheel 
 carries a pinion, which is comiected l)y an iuterine- 
 diate wheel to tluit which works the circular rack, 
 thus gaining power to raise' the breech. The rails 
 have a dejitli of 17,7 inches, a width on to]) of 0.3!) 
 inches, and an inclination of 4'^. The piston-head of 
 the hydraulic, cylinder is jiiereed with 4 holes .7(i 
 inch in diameter ; I'.IJ gallons is the maxiniiiin (juan- 
 tily of glycerine that should be put in the (ylinder. 
 The weight of the top carriage is 12,4.')G pounds; 
 the chassis, 33,842 pounds. 
 The 14-inch carriage differs from the 12-inch only 
 
 in some minor details. The axis of tlie trunnion- 
 beds is 10.') inches above the platform. The carriage 
 admits of the gun being fired over a parapet of 78 
 inches in heiglit, with an elevation of 19" and a de- 
 pression of 6°. A dial-train is attached to the cir- 
 cular rack of the elevating apparatus, and sliows to 
 the gunner working the wheel the degree of eleva- 
 tion given to the gun. The hydraulic buffer has two 
 cylinders 9 inches interior diameter, in place of a 
 single one. They are placed close to the rail on each 
 side of the chassis. Three traverse-circles and three 
 sets of traverse-wheels are used instead of two. 
 
 A graduated arc of a circle is traced on the plat- 
 form in rear of the chassis, with a pointer fastened 
 to the end of the rail to give direction to the gun 
 when the objt ct fired at cannot be seen on account 
 of darkness, smoke, or fog. Weight of the top car- 
 riage and chassis, 74,961 pounds. See Hydraulic 
 Ihiffir, Krupp Gun, Pldtfnrmx, Sen-coast and Gar- 
 rix'in f'arriagen. and Siege Carriages. 
 
 KRUPP RIFLING.— In this system the grooves are 
 quite shallow, their sides being radial aSd forming 
 sharp angles with the bore, fhe rifling has a uni- 
 form twist of one turn in 4.5 calibers generallj-. The 
 grooves are wider at the bottom of the bore than at 
 the muzzle, so that the compression of the lead-coated 
 projectile is gradual, and less force is expended in 
 changing the shape of the projectile. Tliis change 
 of shape is effected b}' making the whole groove of 
 the same size as at the muzzle, and then cutting away 
 graduallyon the loading-edge of thegroove. Of course, 
 as the twist is uniform, the driving-side of the groove 
 cannot vary. The outer surface of the lead coating 
 of the projectile is in raised rings with grooves be- 
 tween, to allow space for its being drawn down in 
 passing tlirougli the bore. The advantages of this, 
 or the compressing system, are that the projectile is 
 centered during its passage tlirough the bore, which 
 prevents balloting ; the angles of departure and the 
 initial velocities are therefore more uniform, and the 
 stability of the axis of rotation on leaving the bore is 
 better assured ; from whicli result great regularity and 
 precision of fire. Tliere is little or no difficulty as to 
 erosion of the metal caused by the gas forcing its way 
 between the projectile and the bore. The lead jacket 
 of the forced projectile does not prevent the emplo)'- 
 ment of heavy charges. Forced projectiles do not 
 wedge in the bore. The regularity of the movement 
 of these projectiles does not wear or injure the bore. 
 Tlie soft metal coating prevents damage to the lands. 
 The bursting of a projectile covered with soft metal 
 has comparatively no baneful effect on the gun. 
 
 The objections to the system are the severe strains 
 on the gun by suddenly stopping windage, by foul- 
 ing, and bj- forcing the projectile into a bore of smaller 
 diameter. The compressed projectile must be fired 
 from a breech-loading gun, and the increasing-twist is 
 impracticable from the great length of the soft-metal 
 liearing. The soft coating of the projectile is liable 
 to injury in handling and in store ; also to be stripped 
 on firiuii. 
 
 KEUPP STEEL WORKS —The widespread reputa- 
 tion of the steel ])roduced in the great works of Ilerr 
 Krupj), at Essen, in Prussia, has induced us to give 
 it a brief notice. His manufactory, always a large 
 one, has been gradually increasing in size during the 
 last half century, imtill it now covers nearly 1000 
 acres, and gives employment to some 14,000 persons. 
 For large nu'tallurgical works, Essen is favorably 
 situated, being in the center of a coal-bearing area, 
 where coal of the purest kind can be comparatively 
 cheaply procured. There is also at hand the niangan- 
 iferous iron ores of Prussia, which have been found 
 so excellently adapted for the manufacture of steel; 
 but it is believed tliat the admirable organization of 
 every |)art of bis mauufactury has conduced, as much 
 as anything, to the great success of Krupp. Witii 
 laborers and lueclumics who have passed the regu- 
 lation-time in the Prussian army, overseers trained 
 in the German technical schools, and a small staff of
 
 K8HATRIYA. 
 
 165 
 
 KU KLUX. 
 
 ex|)criciif((l imalytifal clicinisits, he liiiH (ibvioiisly a 
 lljrcat ji(lvaiitai/;(' in rniifiiiclinj^ opiTjitifinM where or- 
 der, syMteiii, ami skill are of parunioiiiil iiM|i(irlariee. 
 IJiit even with these l)enelils, Kriipp's pruiliii-licinH 
 wiiiilcl iKil liave ^;ainecl their eelchrily, were it not for 
 the scrn|)uli)UH (;are with wliicli he j)erfornin every 
 manipulation. In llie article Ihon we have (lescribi'd 
 th(r inannfa<;turo of steel by the cemi lUation and Uri- 
 te.mer iirocesBcs, but there are several other methods 
 of inakini; it, and one of these is by the deearburiza- 
 tioii of east-iron in Ihe ]iuddlili<; furnare. This is the 
 process by which Krupp makes liis steel, in the first 
 inslance; and tiie material he most lar;;ely employs is 
 spiefieleim'n, or specular cast-iron, a hifjhly crystalline 
 variety, usually conlainini; about 4 per cent of man- 
 ganese. This iron is admirably suited for conversion 
 into steel. The )iuddlin;; process for steel is similar 
 to that employed for iron, except that Ihe former is 
 conducted al a lower teniiierature, and re(|uires nicer 
 management; but in the case of steel, llie cast-iron 
 to be operated ujjon is never previously relined. Cast- 
 iron til the extent of about 4 cwts. is melted in the 
 puddling furnace, mixed with a quantity of slai; or 
 cinder (chietly silicate of iron), and stirred -with a 
 rabble. Durins this operation, the carbon in the 
 cast-iron (\isually about .'5 per cent) is irradually oxi- 
 dized by tile oxviien present in the ciniler; ciirhonic 
 oxide is produced, and as it escapes, what is techni- 
 cally termed " boiling" takes place. When the ebid- 
 lition becomes active, the temperature is raised un- 
 til the appearance of incipient solidilication occurs: 
 the heat is then lowered, and the ordinary process 
 of balling proceeded with. Steel thus produced \isu- 
 ally contains from 0..'5 to 1 per cent of carbon; but 
 if the temperature is not skillfully regulated, the car- 
 bon becomes wliolly burned away, and malleable iron 
 instead of steel is produi'cd. 
 
 Puddled steel, although tiseful for most purposes 
 in the arts (except cutlery), nevertheless wants ho- { 
 mogeneity, on account of a certain intermixture [ 
 of cinder, which is ditlicult to get rid of without fu- j 
 sion — a defect which is ajit to prevent it from weld- j 
 ing perfectly. In Ivrui)p's Works the puddled steel i 
 is renielteJ into crucibles, in order to convert it into ' 
 cast-sleel ; and it is the wonderful uniformity of qual- 
 itj' with which he manufactures this in very large 
 masses, that constitutes the superiority of, and gives 
 so great an interest to, his productions. The cruci- 
 bles employed are made with extreme care, mainl}- 
 from lire-clay, to which a little plumbago is added; 
 their capacity varies from ."JO to 100 lbs., and it is re- 
 ported that as manj' as 100.000 are kept drying at 
 the same time. After being once used, the crucibles 
 are broken up, and mixed with other material, to 
 make new ones. In the casting-house, where the 
 large ingots are run. the furnaces, which contain 
 about 1,200 crucibles, are arranged along the sides of 
 the building ; and in the central portion the steel 
 molds, varying iu ciipacity from 100 lbs. to 50 tons, 
 are disposed in line between two pairs of rails, upon 
 which runs a movable crane. It is iu the casting of 
 such an enormous ingot as .50 tons of steel (the larg- 
 e.st yet produced) from crucibles of small capacity 
 that the perfect organization of Krupp's Establish- 
 ment becomes more strikingly apparent. At a given 
 signal, one gang of workmen remove the crucibles 
 from the furnaces, while another seize them with 
 tongs for the purpose, and pour their contents into 
 narrow canals of wrought-iron, lined with tire-clay, 
 which converge into the opening by which the mold 
 is tilled. This is the critical stage of the operation, 
 the diftieulty being to deposit in the mold a contin- 
 uous stream of melted steel of about the same de- 
 gree of beat, so as to cool uniformly, and to solidify 
 into a perfectly homogeneous nuiss. Of such uni- 
 form soundness are some of Krupp's large steel in- 
 gots, that one — shown in the London Kxhibition of. 
 18G3, 9 feet high, 44 inches in diameter, and weigh- 
 ing 21 tons — when broken across ilid not show the 
 slightest flaw, even when examined with a lens. In 
 
 order to manipulatt? these extraordinary masses of 
 Htei'l, there is a steel hainmer, weighing .50 tons — 
 the mechanical marvel of the Works at Essen -which 
 has a cyliniler nearly six feet in diameter. It has a 
 50-lon crane at racli of its four corners, and behind 
 each of these again there arc four heating furnaces. 
 A movable bench on low massive wheels serves to 
 j remove alarge ingot from any of the furnaces, which 
 is then, by means of the powerful cranes, and a sys- 
 I tern of pulleys and crabs, placed on the anvil, and 
 worked into any desired shape. The anvil-face weighs 
 1H5 Ions. 
 
 The (pianlity of steel manufactured by Ilerr Krupp 
 annually amounts to about 125,000 tons, represent- 
 ing a value of about tH.tJOO.OOO. It consists chief!)' 
 of rails, tires, crank-axles, shafts, mining pump-rods, 
 and guns I hi' proportion of ordnance being about 
 Iwo-liftlis of the whole. Guns have been made at 
 Essen for the J'russians, Austrians, Helgians. Dutch, 
 Ilaliiins. Turks. .Japanese, and also for the English, 
 although not directly ordered by the Government. 
 In 1874 the works included 1,100 smelting and other 
 furnaces, 275 coke-ovens, 204 forges, 300 steam boil- 
 ers, 71 steam-hammers, 281! steam-engines of 10,000- 
 hor.se power, 1,0.50 machine tools, 30 miles of railway, 
 HO telegraph slalions. a clwmical laboratory, and pho- 
 tographic, lilhogra])hic, printing, and bookbinding 
 eslablishmenls. Therit is a tire-brigade of 70 men, 
 besides l(i(S watchmen. In 1870 the consumption of 
 coal and coke logether amounted to 012.000 tons ; 
 that of gas, 7.:j00,000 cubic meters in 20.342 burners. 
 Krupp lias built good houses, hospitals, etc.. for his 
 men. Besides the works at Essen, the firm possess- 
 es several mines and .smelting works. In the Paris 
 Exhibition of 1807, Krupp showe<l a huge gun in- 
 tended for a coast battery to defend the attacks of 
 plated ships. It was made entirely of cast-steel, 
 weighed 50 tons, and could projiel a shot weighing 
 1,080 lbs. It took IG months, working day and night 
 without interruption, to manufacture. The price of 
 the gun alone was £15.750. and of its carriage and 
 turn-table, which weighed respectively 15 and 25 tons, 
 X'(),000 more. In the Vienna Exhibition of 1873. Krupp 
 showed, iu a pavilion by themselves, a number of 
 most interesting objects in steel. Among them were 
 a huge gun like that shown at Paris, about 4 feet 6 
 inches in its greatest diameter ; an octagonal ingot, 
 weighing fully 50 tons : and a marine-engine shaft. 15 
 inches in diameter. He also exhibited at Philadel- 
 phia in 187G. See Krupp gun. 
 
 KSHATBITA.— The second or militarj- caste in the 
 I!r;ilimanii-al social system. 
 
 KU-KLUX— KU-KLHX KLAN.— The title of a Se- 
 cret Association which existed in the Southern States 
 from 1866 to 1872, and which terrorized that section 
 of the countr}- diiring the period in question. It 
 was first made known as an active agency in Ten- 
 nessee, in 1867, when the Governor of that .State, 
 William G. Brownlow, called tipon the U, S. mili- 
 tary authorities, to suppress violence and public dis- 
 turbances in the State, which were traced to this 
 organization. The history of the Ku-klux shows 
 that at the close of the war various Societies of a 
 political character were formed in the States of Ala- 
 bama, Arkansas. Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, 
 North and South Carolina, Tennessee, and Texas, 
 under the names of the Knights of Ihe White Cam- 
 ellia, White Brotherhood. Constitutional Union 
 Guards, Pale Faces, Invisible Empires. Invisible Cir- 
 cle, etc., all of which were eventually lost in the 
 broader scope and more powerful and permanent in- 
 fluence of the Ku-klux Klan. From the evidence 
 afforded it would appear tliat the origin of these 
 Secret Societies, and more particularly of the one we 
 are specially considering, is to be found in the dislo- 
 cation of poltical and social interests in the Southern 
 .States consequent to the aggressive influence of a 
 long and devastating condition of warfare. In expla- 
 nation of their foundations. ex-Confederates claim 
 that they were preceded by organization of loyal
 
 KUL. 
 
 166 
 
 ETTBTCHI 
 
 leagues, which, as thev allege, were formed among 
 the Negroes in the South through the efforts of 
 "Carpet-baggers," so-called radical leaders intrigu- 
 ing in the interest of the perpetuation of the power 
 of the Republican Party in the Southern States. It 
 is also claimed in behalf of the Southern people that, 
 through the action of the 14th and loth Amendments 
 to the'Constitution of the United States, the South- 
 ern white population was greatly endangered both 
 in its homes and its social relations, the emancipated 
 Blacks being generally considered in the light of 
 a race angered by long and bitter servitude, now 
 armed and equipped by law and public sentiment, 
 and only waiting opportunity for an uprising and 
 to grasp the balance of power among the high- 
 spirited people to whom they had been slaves for 
 more than two centuries. This is the Southern ex- 
 planation of the rise of the Ku-klux. Whatever 
 may be the measure of truth contained in it, this 
 in no wise militates against the justness of public 
 condemnation of its acts. By Joint Resolution, 
 dated April 20, 1871, the two Houses of Congress 
 ordered an investigation into the condition of af- 
 fairs in the States recently in a condition of insur- 
 rection. For three years" the press had been filled 
 with detailed statements describing acts of atrocity 
 atiributed.to the secret and terrible Ku-klux Klan, 
 which rivaled the worst instances recorded against 
 the Spanish domination in the Netherlands, and the 
 bloody scenes of the French Revolution. In every 
 Southern State except Virginia. West Virginia, Del- 
 aware, Maryland, and Florida, assassination of Ne- 
 groes and white Republicans were of daily occur- 
 rence. The gift of suffrage to the colored man had 
 been nullified in its outcome as a political influence 
 throush the system of terrorizing which utterly pre- 
 cluded the free suffrage of the emancipated Blacks. 
 Besides instances of special massacres covering lar^e 
 numbers, and of which there occurred many m 
 South Carolina, Louisiana. Mississippi, Texas and 
 Tennessee, the daily and nightly assassinations, 
 whippings, burnings, and other outrages were innu- 
 merable. "and were never recorded. In reporting the 
 state of society in Texas, the evidence given is, to 
 the effect that the Negroes were murderedwith sucl; 
 frequency that there was no possibility of keeping 
 an accurate record of the details. On the basis of 
 reports of this nature, and stimulated, doubtless by 
 the intense public feeling in the North, created by 
 the gradually spreading conviction of the lamenta- 
 ble cleticiency in the power of the law as applied in 
 the South, Congress, through its Committee, pro- 
 ceeded to the inv'estigation ordered by the Joint Reso- 
 lution to which we have already referred. The re- 
 sult of this investigation appears in the 12 octavo 
 volumes reporting tl^e testimony taken and published 
 among the official documents (Senate) of the year 
 1872. ° An immense mass of evidence displays the 
 nattire and acts of the Ku-klux, and fully justifies 
 the title "Conspiracy," which Congress bestowed up- 
 on that organization. While the Ku-klux may have 
 originated for a minor purpose, it is difficult to be- 
 lieve that this tremendous association of men sworn 
 to fidelity; having its ramifications in every Southern 
 State, and the power of life and death in most of 
 them; with a ritual, oath, grips, pass-words, and 
 all the other secret and systematic machinery neces- 
 sary to llic carrying out of the most hidden and dan- 
 gero\is purposes— it is difficult to believe that the 
 real motive and intention of the Order were not the 
 subversion of the Government of the United States, 
 and the rehal]ililation of the leaders of the Reliel- 
 lion. To this end, the negation of the suffrage in 
 the South, and the efforts to defeat reconstruction, 
 may reasonably be supposed to have tended. And 
 whatever diverse opinions may be held regarding the 
 good sense, judgment, and patriotism displayeil in 
 the Reconstruction Acts and tlie metliods ado])teil to 
 carry them into effect, it is impossible to view with- 
 out the severest censure the nature of the opposition 
 
 to them, as conducted by a bloody and revengeful 
 association of exceedingly cruel and implacable men, 
 intensely crazed by the facility with which murder 
 and incendiarism could be made to do duty for what 
 its members chose to consider retributive justice. 
 Following is the oath of the Ku-klux Klan, as it 
 was offerea in evidence before the Investigating 
 Committee of Congress: "I (name), before the 
 great immaculate Judge of heaven and earth, and 
 upon the holy evangelists of Almighty God, do, of 
 my own free will and accord, subscribe to the follow- 
 ing sacred binding obligation. I. I am on the side 
 of justice and humanity and constitutional liberty, 
 as bequeathed to us by our forefathers. II. I re- 
 ject and oppose the principles of the radical party. 
 
 III. I pledge aid to a brother of the Ku-klux Klan 
 in sickness, distress, or pecuniary embarrassment. 
 Females, friends, widows, and their households shall 
 be the special object of my care and protection. 
 
 IV. Should I ever divulge, or cause to be divulged, 
 any of the secrets of this Order, or any of the fore- 
 going obligations, I must meet with the fearful pun- 
 ishment of death and traitor's doom, which is 
 death, death, death, at the hands of the brethren." 
 This sufficiently theatrical obligation becomes im- 
 pressive when one reflects that its various sections 
 were carried out with absolute rigor, and that dis- 
 obedience of the orders of the Chief of a klan was 
 actually visited with instant death. Thus were the 
 customs of the Carbonari paralleled among so pro- 
 saic and conventional a people as the Americans so 
 late as 1871. The members of the Order were ob- 
 liged to deny their membership, even when answer- 
 ing as witnesses in a Court of law, and were obli- 
 gated to clear each other by their testimony in such 
 cases or when acting as jurors. The Ku-klux grad- 
 ually died out as an active organization after the 
 investigation of 1871 ; and although certain of their 
 methods continued to obtain during the progress of 
 elections in the South, the return to sounder sense 
 and better feeling on the part of the people of that 
 section, and the improving condition of the relations 
 between the North and the South, gradually died 
 away with the passions in which the organization 
 originated. It is reported that there were at one 
 time 550,000 members of the Ku-klux Klan in the 
 South, of which number 40,000 are said to have been 
 in Tennessee. 
 
 KUL. — The Turkish word for slave to the Prince. 
 The Grand Vizier, the Bachas, the Beigler Beys, 
 and all persons who receive pay or subsistence from 
 situations dependent upon the Crown, are so called. 
 This title is in high estimation among the Turkish 
 military, as it authorizes all who are invested with 
 it to insult, strike, and otherwise illuse the com- 
 mon people, witliout being responsible for the most 
 flagrant breach of humanity. 
 
 KULLUM. (Nauclea parviikfra). — A wood used in 
 the Bombay Presidency for fuses. It is a very light, 
 soft, close, and even-grained wood, of a light brown 
 color, not verj' durable, and will rot when exposed 
 to wet. 
 
 KUNDA DE RAJAH.— An IndiaH sword of the 16th 
 century, 3j feet long, and entirely made of iron. 
 The blade is damascened, and the handle, guard and 
 hilt are beautifully engraved. 
 
 KURROL.— Tlic Indian term for the advanced- 
 guanl (if a main army. 
 
 KURTCHI.— The iVrsian name of a Militia. It 
 consists of one body of Cavalry, which is composed 
 of the first Nobility of the Kingdom, and of the lin- 
 eal (lecendants of the Turkish Conquerors, who 
 placed Ismael Soplii on the throne. They wear a red 
 turban of twelve folds, which is made of particular 
 stuff. This turl)an was originally given them by 
 Ismael, in consideration of their attachment to the 
 religion and family of All. In consequence of their 
 wearing this turban, the Persians arc always called 
 hv tlie Turks KitiHin.^rhi or Red-heads. The Kurt- 
 ciii compose a body of nearly 18,000 men. The Com-
 
 KTANIZINO. 
 
 Kw 
 
 LABOEATOBT. 
 
 mandinK Offlrcr nf the Kurfcl'.i is known an Knrtrhf- 
 
 hdjichi, wild fiiriiicrly liii'l I'-f iili'iilical aiillinrilv 
 timl was iirif;iiially |)osstss'_-J l)_v Uu; (.'(jnslublu of 
 Fraiii-c. 
 
 tlmbrT, ptf., from rlry rot or dcray. Th'iH moBt fffl- 
 lacioiiM iiii-lliod. wMirh cdnsiHlH of injiclin^' into the 
 |)or<ts <jf tin- wood aKoliilion of <orroKive Hublimate, 
 wiiH iiivuiilcd liy .John II. Kyan, wlio waH born in 
 
 KYANIZING.— A proceKfl for proHerving ordnance ! Dublin, Nov. 27, 1774, and died in IbOO. 
 
 L 
 
 LABAKl'M. — The fatrio'ia standard of the Uoman 
 Emperor ('onsl>antii>(', designed tocomnienioratc the 
 miraculous vision of the cross in the sky, which is 
 said to have appeared to him on his way to attack 
 Maxenlius, awdtoliave been the movinLC cause of his 
 conversion to Christianity. Jt was a loni; pipe or 
 lance, with a short transverse liar of wood attaelied 
 near its extremity, so as to form somethinn; like a 
 cross. On the point of the lance was a golden crown 
 sparkling with gems, and in its center tlie mysterious 
 monogram of tlie cross and the initial letters of the 
 name of Christ, with the occasional addition of the 
 Greek letters Alpha and Omigii. From the cross- 
 beam depended a ])urple banner, decorated with i)re- 
 cious stones, and fully surrounded by a rich border 
 of gold cnd)roidery. The cross was s\djstituted for 
 the eagle, formerly depicted on the Roman stand- 
 ards, and there were sonu'limes other emblems of 
 till' Saviour. Uetween the crown and the cross were 
 beads of tlie Emperor and his family, and sometimes 
 a figure of Christ woven in gold. See Staiidfinl. 
 
 LABEL LAMBEL.— In Iferaldry, the mark of ca- 
 dency which distinguishes tlie eldest son in liis fath- 
 er's lifetime, familiar tons from its entering into the 
 composition of the arms of the Prince of Wales and 
 other members of the royal family. It consists of a 
 horizontal stripe or lillet, with three points depend- 
 ing from it. When the mark of cadency itself is des- 
 ignated VLjiti\ its points are called InM.i. It is said 
 that the eldest son's eldest son should wear a label 
 of five points in liis grandfather's lifetime, and, simi- 
 larly, the great-grandson a label of seven points, two 
 points being added lor each generation. The label 
 extended originally ([iiite across the shield, and some- 
 times occupied the upper, though now it is always 
 placed in the lower part of the chief: the points, at 
 first rectangular, assumed in later times the form 
 called pattue, dove-tailed, or wedge-shaped, and more 
 recently, the label ceased to be connected with the 
 edges of the shield. Edward I., in his father's life- 
 time, bore the arms of England within a label not of 
 three, but of five points azure, joined to the head of 
 the shield, and interlaced with the tail of the upper- 
 most lion. Edward II., when Prince of Wales, used 
 indilTerently the label of three or five points, as also 
 did Edward III.;but from the time of the Black Prince 
 downwards, the eldest son of the King of England 
 has invariably differenced his arms with a label of 
 three points argent, and the practice has been for the 
 younger sons also to bear labels, which are some- 
 times of other colors and more points, and differenc- 
 ed by being charged with fleurs-de-lis, castles, tor- 
 teaux, hearts, crosses, etc., as directed by the Sov- 
 ereign by sign-manual registered in the C'ollege of 
 Arms. The practice of differencing by the label 
 which is thus in viridi observantui in our own and 
 other royal families, is less used by subjects. Like 
 other marks of cadency, laliels are sometimes borne 
 as permanent distinctions by a particular branch of 
 a family. See Hera'dry. 
 
 LABORATORY.— This term is generally applied to 
 establishments for conducting chemical or physical 
 investigations, or for chemical manufacture. Chem- 
 ical laboratories may be for purposes of instruction, 
 as are those which are attached to colleges or other 
 high schfiols. These institutions also sometimes 
 have special laboratories for research. All large 
 
 private manufacturinf; cstablishtnentfl where chem- 
 ical processes are employed, to a considerable extent 
 have laboratories attached to them in which invest- 
 igations are carried on; many of them in the nature 
 of preparatory trials of processes, .to facilitate the 
 process of manufacture. A government manufac- 
 tory is sometimes called a laboratory, and so are 
 many smaller private establishments, as metallurgi- 
 cal laboratories. telegra|ih laboratories, et<-. The 
 following fixtures and furniture should be provided 
 for a government lalioralory. 
 
 \. Cartridije.litVL . — .\ talile for making cartridges 
 for small arms, 12 feet long and 2\ feet wide, for 13 
 men or boys to work at. and the length in that pro- 
 portion for any greater number ; tables for cutting 
 paper anil fiannel. and for rolling cases on ; choker 
 for rocket-cases; press f<ir rocket and port-fire cases; 
 benches for cartridge-tables : stools. Closets should 
 lie partitioned off from these rooms and furnished 
 with cases, drawers, racks, and shelves for materials 
 and tools. 2. FiUing-linnnc. — A shelf. 3 feet wide, 
 for weighing on; other shelves with closets under 
 them; tallies with raised bonlers for filling, folding, 
 etc. ; budge-barrels, or jiowder-barrels, with copper 
 hoops and covers; stools for scats ; footstools; a step- 
 ladder; stands and gutters for emptying powder-bar- 
 rels. 3. Packing-hiiuse. — Tables, benches and stools. 
 4. Store-houne. — Shelf for weighing on the shelves, 
 drawers, and closets; tables, scales, stools, seats, step- 
 ladder. 5. Drit'ing-lKmsf. — Blocks set in the ground 
 or pavement ; benches and stools. In favorabkrweath- 
 er, a porch attached to the building, or a tent, may 
 be used for a driving-room. 6. Mixing-house. — Tables 
 with raised edges ; sieves, etc. 7. Furnacf -house. — 
 Furnaces ; work-benches'; platform-balance or large 
 scales; atinner's bench and tools, with a vise, an 
 anvil, and a chest for tools, a smith's forge, shovel 
 and poker, stools, etc. 8. C«r;)fnfcr-.'(//"/. — Turning- 
 lathe and tools ; carpenter's benches and tools. 9. 
 Miigazini. — Shelves and frames for boxes and barrels. 
 Two kinds of furnaces are used in the laboratorj- : 
 In the first, the flame circulates around both the 
 bottom and sides of the kettle : in the second, it 
 comes in contact only with the bottom ; the latter 
 are used for compositions of which gunpowder forms 
 a part. Furnaces are built of bricks. The kettle is 
 of cast-iron, about 3 feet in diameter at the top. h.av- 
 ing a rounded bottom and a flange about 4 inches 
 wide around the top, or else strong handles to set it 
 by. The bottom is .T.") inch thick, and the sides .5 
 inch. By setting it in an iron plate pierced with 
 holes, encircling the bottom, a furnace of the first 
 kind may be converted into one of the second kind 
 by stopping the holes. 
 
 Fiirnm-efnr reducing the tyxide i>f lead (rr dross. — This 
 furnace is built in the open air. on a stone or brick 
 foundation. It is composed of a cylinder of sheet- 
 iron, It) inches by 30 inches, lined with refractory- 
 clay from 3 to 3 inches thick. The interior has a 
 form of an inverted frustum of a cone, terminating 
 below in a basin, the bottom of which is inclined 
 toward a tap-hole. The fire is made in the furnace, 
 and the draught supplied by a bellows, the nozzle of 
 which enters at the top of the reservoir. The dross 
 and the charcoal intended for its reduction, are 
 thrown on the fire from the top of the furnace. The 
 metal, as it is reduced, flows into the basin and escapes
 
 LABOBATOSY. 
 
 168 
 
 LABORATORY MATERIALS. 
 
 through the tap-hole into an iron vessel and ia cast 
 into bars or pigs as desired. In the field, furnaces 
 may be built with sods, or sunli in the earth, if bricks 
 cannot be readily procured. 
 
 F'urnax built'inith fmrlx. — Let the kettle rest on a 
 trivet, the feet of which may stand on any piece of 
 flat iron, such as the bottom of a shot-canister, or 
 stand for grape, the bottom of the kettle about 1 
 foot from the ground ; build round it with sods. 
 The door of the furnace is 10 inches square : the 
 flue of the chimney, opposite to the door, G inches 
 square, and commencing about 6 inches from the 
 ground ; the first part of the flue inclined at an an- 
 gle of about 15", the rest vertical, and placed, if cir- 
 cumstances permit, against a wall ; the top of the 
 door and of the flue ruay be supported by small bars 
 of iron. 
 
 Furnace nun/i in the earVi. — The edge of the ket- 
 tle should be about 1 inch above ground, and the bot- 
 tom 13 to 15 inches above the hearth of the furnace; 
 the earth is dug down vertically 1 foot from the ket- 
 tle for the front of the furnace, and the door is cut 
 10 inches square. The earth is removed and sloped 
 out. so as to give access to the door: the flue is bored 
 out on the opposite side with a crowbar ; it com- 
 mences 6 inches above the hearth, and comes out of 
 the ground 18 inches from the furnace, whence it is 
 carried horizontallj' about 13 feet. 
 
 In furnaces of the second kind mentioned above, 
 the trivet maj' be omitted, and the kettle may rest on 
 the sod or earth for about 1 inch all round, and the 
 earth rammed in against the sides of the kettle. 
 
 It is important to observe the following precautions 
 against accidents : 
 
 Avoid as much as possible, the use of iron in the 
 construction of the buildings, fixtures, tables, bench- 
 es, boxes, etc., of the laboratory ; sink tlie heads of 
 iron nails, if used, and fill over them with putty, or 
 paste several thicknesses of paper over tlicm. Be- 
 fore the men go to work cover the floor with carpets 
 or paidins, which are taken up carefully, after the 
 men leave, and carried at least 50 yards from the 
 building, and there shaken thoroughly and swept. 
 During the work have the carpets frequently swept. 
 Place the stores in cloth bags in the windows ex- 
 posed to the sun. Prevent persons from entering 
 with sabers, swords, or canes, etc.. or with matches 
 about their persons. Direct all who work where 
 there is powder to wear moccasins or socks, and to 
 take them off when they leave. Direct the men not 
 to drag their feet in walking. Make the doors and 
 windows to open and close easily, without friction ; 
 keep tliem open whenever the weather permits. 
 Never keep in the laboratory more powder than is ne- 
 cessar\', and have the ammunition and other work 
 taken "to the magazine as fast as it isfinished. Let pow- 
 der-barrels be carried in hand-barrows made with 
 leather or witli slings of rope or canvas, and the 
 ammunition in boxes. Let everything that is to be 
 moved be lifted, and not dragged or rolled on the floor. 
 Never drive rockets, port-lTres. etc., or strap shot or 
 shells in a room where there is any powder or com- 
 position excej)! that used at the time. Loading and 
 unloading shells, driving rockets, pulverizing the 
 materials, the preparation of compositions requiring 
 the use of fire, and in which the components of gun- 
 powder enter, ought to be done, in all cases when 
 possible, in the open air or under a tent far from the 
 laI)oratory and magazine. Never enter the labora- 
 tory at night, unless it is indispensable, and then u.se 
 a close lantern, with a wax or oil light carefully trim- 
 med. Allow no smoking of tobacco near the lab- 
 oratory. In meling lead, be sure tliat it contains no 
 moisture; put the ])igs in carefull}-, and do not use 
 mure than will fill llu^ pot two-tliirds full. U.se tlie 
 same precaution in melting all fatty substances. See 
 Pirew'irku, Lnhnratnnj Multridh. and Hnyal Lahura- 
 tori/. 
 
 LABORATORY MATERIALS.- Laboratory materials 
 may be classified as follows: 1st. Those for produc- 
 
 ing light, heat, and explosion. 2il. Those for color- 
 ing flames and producing brilliant sparks. 3d. Those 
 used in preparing compositions. 4tli. Those used in 
 making tools, cases, cartridge-bags, and for miscel- 
 laneous purposes. 
 
 ^Iaterials for Light. Heat, and Explosion. — Po- 
 ta'<n!um nitrate (^niter), KNO^. — For use in the labor- 
 atory, niter should be freed from all foreign substan- 
 ces and be reduced to a fine powder or else to very 
 minute crystals. It is best pulverized by hand in the 
 rolling-barrels at the powder-mills; but it may be 
 pulverized by hand in the laboratory as follows: Put 
 into a roUing-hnrrel 50 pounds of dry, refined niter 
 and 100 pounds of bronze balls; turn the barrel for 
 two hours and a half at thirty revolutions a minute, 
 striking it cautiously at the same time with a mallet 
 to prevent the niter from adhering to the sides. 
 Separate the balls by means of a brass-wire screen, 
 and the foreign suljstanccs with a hair sieve. Niter 
 may also be pulverized by pounding it in a brass 
 mortar, or by solution as follows : Put 14 pounds of 
 refined niter with 5 pints of clear water, in a broad 
 and shallow copper pan, over a slow fire, and as the 
 uit(>r dissolves skim off the impurities ; stir the so- 
 lution with a wooden spatula until the water is all 
 evaporated, when the niter will be very white and 
 fine. Should it boil too much, th<i pan must be 
 lifted from the fire and set upon wet sand or earth, 
 and the niter should be stirred until it dries, to pre- 
 vent it from adhering to the pan. 
 
 Piitnxxiiim chlnriite, KCIO^. is a white salt; crystal- 
 lized in white scales : anhydrous; not altered bj' ex- 
 posure to the air; soluble in water, more in warm 
 than in cold; insoluble in alcohol; density, 1.989; 
 decrepitates and fuses at about 500°; at about 720" 
 it is decomposed into oxygen and potassium chloride. 
 This salt is one of the most energetic of oxidizing 
 bodies, because it parts with its o.xygen so readily, 
 of which it contains a very great quantity (.8915 
 of its weight). Thrown on burning coals, it melts 
 quickly. It explodes b.y simple contact with sulphuric 
 acid; mixed witli a combustible body, the mixture 
 may be exploded by friction or by a blow. It should 
 be purchased crj-stallized, and should not contain 
 more than oue-thousandtii of its weight of chloride 
 of sodium or potassium. Its purity is tested by means 
 of the nitrate of silver di.ssolved in distilled water. 
 731 grains in one-quarter of a pint. Dissolve 77 grains 
 of the chlorate in 300 grains of warm water, and let 
 the solution get cold; the chlorate will be precipitated 
 in crystals. Add to the liquid about tvvo drops of the 
 solution of the nitrate of silver. After filtering, the 
 liquid ought not to give a precipitate by the addition 
 of more nitrate of silver. 
 
 Mercury fulminate, CNC{NO^)Hg. is a gray salt, 
 crystallized in fine silky needles; soluble in water, 
 more so in warm than in cold water. It is an ex- 
 tremely dangerous substance to operate upon in a 
 drj- state, owing to the readiness and violence with 
 which it explodes. It detonates strongly when struck 
 by a hard body; but sometimes trifling friction may 
 serve to produce this effect, even when employed 
 Jn a moist state. Heated to 300° it explodes, evolv- 
 ing an exceedinglv bright flame. It is decom- 
 posed, with explosion, by the electric spark, and 
 contact with strong nitric and sulphuric acids. The 
 products of detonation are carbonic acid, nitrogen, 
 and vapor of mercury. It should always be mani- 
 pulated moistened with at least 30 per cent, of water. 
 To prepare fulminate nf mercury. — Dissolve in a 
 glass retort capable of holding about a half-gallon, 
 10 ounces of piu'e mercury in five poimds nitric acid 
 (aciua-fortis), of the specific gravity of 1.40. The so- 
 lution is made by placing the retort in a water or 
 sand bath of about 120°, or exposed to the sun's 
 rays on a warm day. The vapors which come over 
 arc very deleterious, and should not be inhaled. It 
 ri'(|uires about eiglit hours to thoroughly dissolve 
 th<' uiercury. When the solution is complete, pour 
 the licjuor into a witle-mouthed glass vessel capable
 
 LABORATORY MATERIALS. 
 
 ]{-,<) 
 
 LABORATORY MATERIALS. 
 
 of liolcliiii; H lo U) i;iillmis, iiiln vvliicli .T.OTr) pounils 
 of alcohol (i'lliyl)i iilioiit I!} piiilM, of tlic Hpccilic 
 gnivily of .8.1 liiivc been previously poured. Ciiri- 
 iiiusl, hr' liikeii (o /)'/)/;• l/if iiitriilr :>/' iiu rrnri/ mi Ihr 
 alfiiluil, lis lh(' reverse inoile of iiii.xiii!; Ilie conipoiinil 
 in very danserous. (Jreat lieat is evolved diirini; the 
 etTervesceuee which ensues from the mixture, and 
 the !;lass vessels used should be well annealed, and 
 of ii form lo hear a hii;h heal without l)reakinfj. 
 Carliovs of thin flinl-irliiss, without in<)uth-rini;s or 
 any ahrupt ehanire in thickness, are bi-st. The oper- 
 ation shcjidd be performed at a safe distance from the 
 lire', nsthe vajiors of ether diseni^aged are hii;hly in- 
 flanunable. When reddish fumes l)ei;in to appear, 
 tlioy must be reduced by nddini;alcf)hol in small ipian- 
 tities. The proportion of alcohol used in (he whole 
 operation varies accordinu; to the strength of (he acid 
 and ah'ohol, and also with the static of the \v<'atlier. 
 The proper (|\iantity is that which is just sullicient 
 to keep down the reddish fumes, and is determined 
 1)V trial with the materials used. When the elTerves- 
 cence has ceased, the fidminate of mcrciuy is found 
 at the bottom of the vessel as a brownish precipitate. 
 A small (luantity of water is potired in, and the con- 
 fer. Is transferred to the wasliing-tub.whereit is repeat- 
 edly washed ill soft water, until the vvati'r no lonjrer 
 reddens litmus-paper. The fulminate is in the form 
 of very small crystals, of a lii;ht i;ray<-olor and bri- 
 liant surface. If the operation be well and carefully 
 performed, no metallic mercury will be reprodin-ed. 
 The weight of the fulminate when well dried will be 
 about 14 per cent, greater than that of the mercury 
 used. If the proper proportions be not used (or if 
 the materials be not of good quality), the product 
 will be, instead of fulminate, an impaliiable yellow 
 powiler which is incombuslible. AVlieii this is ob- 
 serveil, the result may generally be corrected by 
 varying the proportion of alcohol in the mixture. 
 The fulminate of mercury is kept under water, in 
 Btone jars, which should be preserved from frost. 
 Riill hrhnxtone is used for melting, and flowers of 
 Bulphur may be used instead of roll sulphur |>ulver- 
 ized. The purity of the tiowers is more lo be de- 
 peniled upon than that of the roll sulphur. When 
 inixi'd wilh potassium chlorate, however, it should 
 be washed to remove sulphuric acid. 8uli)liur facili- 
 tates the ignition and combustion of compositions to 
 which it is added. 
 
 Ouup'>irdir--¥oT compositions, gunpowder is mriil- 
 ed. either by rolling it for two hours with once and a 
 half of its weight of balls, or by beating it an e(|iial ' 
 length of time in a leather bag. or by grinding it with 
 a niullcr on a mealiug-table. Mealed [lowder. and 
 pulvi'rized saltpeter, charcoal, and sulphur are gen- j 
 erally obtained from the powder-mills. 
 
 Antimony (regulus of antimony) is a gr.avish-whitc 
 metal, very brilUant, with a highly lamellated struct- 
 ure. Specific gravity, (i. 7 ; melting point. 80!^. It 
 is easily reduced to powder, and by its combustion 
 with sulphur produces a strong light and heat, with 
 a blue or white flame. Antimony is never found |)ure ; 
 in the shops; that which is sold uuih'r the name of 
 regulus of antimony always contains a little snlpln.ret 
 of antimony, arsenic, and sometimes the sulphurct of 
 iron. 
 
 Lnmpljlwk is the result of the incomplete combus- 
 tion of resinous substances. It is com]iosed of 80 
 parts of carbon and 20 of impurities. It is cnijiloyeu 
 to ((uicken the combustion of (-ertain substances ; 
 liut before it is used it should be washed with a hot 
 alkaline solution, to remove all traces of empyreum- 
 atic oil. 
 
 Coloring Materials. A flame is colored by intro- 
 ducing into the composition which produces it a 
 substance, the particles of which, being interspersed 
 through the flame and rendered incandescent, give it 
 the required color. Coloring substanci's do not gen- 
 erally take part in the combustion, and their presence 
 more orless retards it. It is for this reason that potas- 
 sium chlorate, a more powerful oxidizing agent than 
 
 niter, is used in lieu of it in compositions for colored 
 lires. There are a gnat variety of substances whicli 
 [rive color to flames, the princijial of which are stron- 
 iium nitrate and sulphate for red, barium nitrair' for 
 green, the bicarbonate of soda for yellow, copprT 
 sulphate for purple, copper carl)onate and acetate 
 for blue. Lampblack is employi'd to give u (rain 
 of rose-colored lire in the air. and powdered flint 
 glass for v\hite llanii-s. Sjiarks are produi-ed by in- 
 troducing intothe {omposition fliings or thin chips of 
 wroiiglit or last iron, zin'c, steel, copper, or fragmentH 
 of charcoal. 
 
 I run. Filings and very thin chips give most bril- 
 liant sparks and stars, the effects of which depend 
 almost entirely on the size of (he particles u.sed. The 
 tilings must be made when wanted, or be very care 
 fully i)reserved from rust. 
 
 ('(iHl-iriin, Pulverized, it gives very large and white 
 sparks, in tireworks ('Chinese flrej. Select the while 
 cast-iron, or take the jiieces of utensils with thin 
 sides. To pulverize it more easily, heal it to a red 
 heat and (brow it into cold water. 
 
 Steel. — In fireworks, filings and small pieces give 
 the most brilliant sparks. 
 
 Zine is a bhiish-wliite metal, usually brittle, and 
 its fracture shows a crystalline structure. Specific 
 gravity, (>•!); melts at (i8()": is volatilized at a red 
 heat, and lakes fire in the air, burning with a light 
 flame. At 400'' it is easily reduced to a powder iu p. 
 mortar. Granulated zinc is used lo produce a blu- 
 ish flame. An alloy of zinc and antimony pulverized 
 gives beautiful blue drops. The oxide of zinc (Jtinr. 
 er.iiif zinc) produces tlieap])earance called gold rain. 
 It ought to be purchased in scales, not in a powder, 
 as in this latter case it may be mixed with foreign 
 substances. 
 
 Ciipjier fiUngii are used to give reddish sparks and 
 a ^eenish blue flame. 
 
 Prepakino Compositions. — Turpentine, spirits of 
 turpentine, Venice turpentine, tar. pitch, and rosin, 
 arc chiefly employed in the jireparalion of composi- 
 tions for producing light. Alcohol, whisky, brandy, 
 or vinegar is used in mixing compositifins into which 
 niter enters, as it does not dissolve niter. It should 
 be strong. To prevent it being drunk, mix a little 
 asafetida with it. Beeswax and mutton tallow are 
 employed in mixing compositions intended to pro- 
 duce heat and light. 
 
 (fum (Yrrti/f should be transparent, yellowish- white, 
 brittle, insipid, inodorous, soluble in water and vine- 
 gar, insoluble in alcohol. It is used in solution to 
 give body and tenacity to compositions, or to make 
 ilicm burn more slowly. It should be prepared as 
 required, for when in solution it undergoes a decom- 
 position. 
 Miscellaneous Materials — Coppfr'}^ a red . brilliant 
 metal, possessing sreat tenacity, ductility, andmalle- 
 ability. Specific gravity, 8.0; "fusible at'about 1980". 
 Copper, being bill slightly acted on by saltpeter, is 
 employed for powder measures, utensils for refining 
 saltpeter, etc. Copper vessels should not be exposed to 
 a great heat, or used for heating compositions contain- 
 ing sulphur, as the copper would be rapidlyoxidized. 
 
 Bronze is used in the" laboratory for utensils and 
 implements which receive blows or act by percussion, 
 and replaces steel and iron wherever there is danger 
 of an explosion from a blow or from friction. 
 
 Branx is an alloy of about two parts of cojjper and 
 one of zinc. Brass wire is used for ligatures, for 
 screens and sieves. 
 
 Slieet-irun~%e\ec\. the softest and most pliable. 
 ] When it is substituted for tin. in strapping projec- 
 tiles, it should be first annealed by heating it to a 
 i dull red heat. and letting it cool very gradually under 
 warm ashes, not exposed to the air. 
 
 Lend is a lluish-white metal, bright, but tarnishes 
 quickly in ihe air. Specific gravity, when pure, 
 11.48;" melt? at GOO'^, and volatilizes at a red heat. 
 The puritv of lead is judged of by its specific gravi- 
 tv. To de'termine this, after having weighed the pig,
 
 lABORATOP.Y MATERIALS. 
 
 170 
 
 LABORATORY MATERIALS. 
 
 suspend it with a wire in a vessel of water, so tliat 
 it shall be completely immersed, without touching 
 the sides, and weigh it again. The weight in the 
 air, divided by the difference between the weight in 
 air and water, will give the specific gravity, which 
 ought to be 11.35 for lead of commerce. Lead melt- 
 ed in contact with air is soon covered by a coat of 
 gray oxide, which rapidly increases in thickness. 
 The formation of this oxide, or dross, is prevented 
 by covering the lead with powdered charcoal or ros- 
 in. 
 
 To reduce the oxide of lead. — Put in a kettle about 
 50 pounds of lead, with j\; of its weight of powdered 
 charcoal or grease ; cover the kettle, and raise to a 
 red heat ; stir the mass.and add gradually more eoa'., 
 as it assumes a 3-ellow color, using in all J of the 
 weight of oxide ; dip out the lead with an iron ladle. 
 and pour it into iron molds or pans. After having 
 obtained in this way two-thirds of the weight of 
 oxide, in lead, throw the dross into a tub of wa- 
 ter, and wash it, to separate the ashes and coal; dry 
 the remaining oxide and grains of lead, and put 
 them in a ladle with j'j of their weight of rosin ; 
 raise to a red heat, set fire to the rosin, shake the 
 ladle and pour off the lead. A further addition of 
 rosin will produce more lead ; -^-^ of the weight 
 of dross is generally used. Tallow may be used in 
 place of rosin. When the quantity of dross is con- 
 siderable, it may be reduced, in a similar manner, 
 in a small cupola-furnace. 
 
 Plinnber-f' sAder is an alloy of lead and tin, in the 
 proportion of two parts of the former to one of the 
 latter. 
 
 Paper. — Paper for cartridge-box wrappers should 
 be homogeneous, and without any trace of stalks ; 
 well sized, even, pliable, with a good body without 
 being too thick, free from folds or rents. The sheet 
 when moistened ought to present a uniform hue, 
 without spots or marblings. Taken out of tlie water 
 and suspended for a moment by the extremities 
 of the short sides, it ought not to tear from its 
 own weight. The sheet crumpled in the hand or 
 pinched with the nails, ought not to tear in the 
 folds, and when torn the rent should be fibrous. 
 A strip of paper 4 inches wide ought not to break 
 under a weight of 40 pounds, in the direction of its 
 least strength. In testing the strength of paper, the 
 two ends are held by two vises of hard wood. Each 
 vise is composed of two rectangular jaws, which 
 can be brought against each other and held firmly 
 by means of screws, or by tenons on one jaw pass- 
 ing through the other and keyed flrml}- to it. A 
 strip of paper 4 inches wide is cut and inserted in 
 the vises, so that the length between them shall be 
 exactly 12 inches. The jaws are closed tightlj-. and 
 one vise is suspended from a fixed point by means 
 of a cord or hook, and to the other is made fast the 
 
 Siie and weight of paper. 
 
 No. ], For muBket-cart- 
 ridgcB 
 
 No. -J. For mueket-cart 
 ridge wrapper 
 
 No. 3. Wrapper for Cart 
 ridge-box 
 
 No. 4. Rockets and Port- 
 
 lireH 
 
 No. 5. Fixed aramuution 
 No. 6. Cannon-cart^idKe^ 
 No. T. Fireworks 
 
 Inches. 
 
 13 Xl6>i 
 
 18 X20 
 riB Xl4 
 I 18 XIO 
 
 '120 xao 
 
 1.24 X20 
 
 19 X88 
 23;<<X24 
 19 'x2:) 
 13 Xl0>s 
 
 Weisht, 
 pounds. 
 
 21 
 27 
 3-X 
 45 
 
 65 
 60 
 70 
 20 
 
 Proof 
 
 weight, 
 
 pounds. 
 
 40 
 101 
 
 180 
 22.'^ 
 315 
 
 85 
 
 pan of a balance. It is loaded gradually, with care, 
 until the paper gives way. The strips should not 
 lie taken from tlie edges of the sheets only, but from 
 all purls, and from the length and breath sureess- 
 ivelv. for in these two directions the strength is 
 very different. Five sheets are generally taken 
 from each ream, in which only one sheet can have 
 
 less strength than that allowed. If this condition be 
 not fulfilled, the ream is rejected. 
 
 The other papers are tested in the same waj', and 
 shculd possess the same general characteristics. 
 
 Tow should be entirely of hemp or flax, clean.dry, 
 sound, free from stalks and foreign substances. 
 
 Merino or .lerge, for cartridge-bags, should be made 
 entirely of wool ; it should be strong, closely woven, 
 twilled, and not frayed; the width should be even in 
 the same piece ; that } yard wide is convenient and 
 the most common. The colors are to be preferred in 
 the following order ; green, gray, yellow, blue, red, 
 white ; reject black, which is almost always burnt 
 and weak. 
 
 tVwiDfw should be the strongest and closest woven; 
 it is used for the sacks for fire-balls. 
 
 Twine should be strong, smooth, and well twisted 
 .03 inch thick for sewing fire-balls, etc. ; from .06 
 inch to .08 inch for fixing ammunition, etc. 
 
 Rope should be even and well twisted, pliant with- 
 out being soft, made of hemp of good quality, water- 
 rotted, and entirely freed from stalk. Its size should 
 be uniform throughout its whole length. The rope 
 most commonly used in the laboratory is white- 
 hemp rope, froml inch to 1.5 inch in girth. 
 
 Thread — Saddler's thread, of flax, three strands ; 
 used with paper boxes for revolver cartridges. 
 
 Glue should be hard, dry, transparent, of a brown- 
 ish red color, and free from smell. 
 
 To Prepaee Pastes and Glue. — Flour paste — Sift 
 the flour and mix it with 8i times its weight of water ; 
 heat it gently, stir it, and let it boil for three-quarters 
 of an hour ; when it becomes ropy pour it into bowls 
 and pass it through a sieve before it is quite cold. 
 The flour yields 7 times its weight of paste. Time 
 required to make it, one hour and a half. It is best 
 made of rye flour. 
 
 Starch paste. — Mix wheat starch with twice its 
 weight of water, pour it gradually into 6J times its 
 weight of boiling water, and let it boil for ten minutes, 
 stij-ring it all the time ; then proceed as before. Starch 
 yields '8 times its weight of paste. Time required, 
 one hour. 
 
 Pantefor pasteboard. — Mi.x the flour or starch with 
 12 times its weight of water; this yields times the 
 weight of flour and 11 times the weight of starch. 
 
 Paste mixed with glue- — The addition of J5 of glue 
 makes the paste fit for parting sheets of parchment 
 together or for pasting paper on wood. Dissolve the 
 glue separately and pour it into the cold water with 
 which the flour or starch is mixed. 
 
 Clieese paste is made of fresh white cheese and also 
 quicklime. Pound the cheese in a mortar with boil- 
 ing water; let it stand and decant it; repeat this 
 operation three or four times. Pound together 3 
 parts of this cheese thus prepared and one part of 
 quicklime, moistening it with pure water till the 
 paste ropes like honey. Prepare only a little at a 
 time. It is used in pasting parchment and parch- 
 ment paper. These diSerent kinds of paste should 
 be used cold. A suppl}' for not more than two or 
 three days should be made at one time ; but it may 
 be preserved longer by adding alum in the propor- 
 tion of tV o^ "^*-' weight of flour. The depredations 
 of rats may be prevented bj' dissolving a like pro- 
 portion of colocynth in the water with which the 
 paste is made. 
 
 Hair iieven 
 for mixing 
 
 compositionH. 
 
 (50 meshes in 1 inch, or 2,500 in 
 No. 1. a square inch, a single hair in 
 
 ( one direction, 2 in the other. 
 
 ( 25 meshes in 1 inch or (125 in a 
 No. 2. square ineli, 2 hairs side by 
 
 ( side in eacli direction. 
 
 (12.5 meshes in 1 inch or 150 in 
 No 3.- one scpiare inch. 3 hairs side 
 
 ( by side in each direction. 
 
 (18() meshes in a square inch, 
 
 ( lirass wire. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 The mevex for the laboratory are made of brass 
 wire, hair, or silk, and may he square or round.
 
 lABOBEB. 
 
 I 
 
 LACE. 
 
 Brass sieves ought to be used only for dry mutcri- 
 nls. A silk si(rvc of 120 inrHlicH In ilic liiiciir iiidi is 
 used in preparing gliiHs duHl for priming coniixisi. 
 tions. 
 
 t/lue is dissolved in its own weigh! of boiling 
 water. A gliic-pot willi a walcr-biith hMouIiI be used 
 to avoid burning tlie glue. HcMnnvc llic pot from 
 tlie fire as soon as llic glue is found to lie entirely 
 dissolved. See Fir(ir<irl,-n. 
 
 L'ABOREB. In a military sense, any direet and 
 concentrated ('Ifort wliicli is made to destroy a forti- 
 fication. The term likewise applies to llu' working 
 of a bomb or shell, which excavates, plows up, and 
 scatters the earth about wherever it bursts. jMhirr- 
 er uii riimi>art, signifies to bring several pieces of 
 ordnance discharged from two oblicpie diri'ctions to 
 bear ujion one center. Sbc'lls an; generally used on 
 these occasions, and the chief design is to second 
 the operations of the nuiuT in some particular part 
 from which the explosion is to take place. 
 
 LAC- A substance obtained from incrustations 
 made by an insect (Cocoi.n Inrca) on the l)ranches and 
 twigs of many trees in India. The lac is formed by 
 the insect into cells, snmewdiat resembling a lioney- 
 coiub. in which the insect is generally found entire, 
 and owing to whose presence stick-lac yields by pro- 
 per treatment a red dye, nearly, if not c|uite, as bright 
 as that olitained from cochineal, and more permanent. 
 Lac is found encircling the branches of tliese trees 
 in the form of a tulie; the broken branches with in- 
 crustations at various distances are called in com- 
 merce .v^/cAu^c, which ought to be semi-transparent. 
 The coloring matter e.\hil)ite(l liy grinding stick-lac, 
 and then treating it with water, constitutes seed-la'; 
 which, when melted up into masses,is called lump-lac. 
 8hell-lac is obtained by f\irlher purifying the seed- 
 lac. Lac dyeconsistsof the coloring matter extracted 
 from the stick-lac. It is met with in small squares sim- 
 ilar to indigo, and is used as red dye instead of cochi- 
 neal. Lac dye is largely manufactured in India and ex- 
 ported to England. In IJengal, lac is cliietly produc- 
 ed in the forests of Sylhet and at Burdwan: it is al- 
 so procurable in the Deccan; but Siam and Pegu af- 
 ford the largest supplies. Shell-lac is used for the 
 numufacture of sealing-wa.x, also as varnish; in the 
 latter form it is applied for setting the fulminating 
 iharge in gun-caps, and in coating Boxer's fuses antl 
 friction tuIies. 
 
 LACAY. — A name formerly given to an old French 
 militia. The word is found among the public docu- 
 mculs which were kept by the Treasurers lielonging 
 to the Dukes of Britany in the b5th century. 
 
 LACE. — An ornamental fabric of linen, cotton, or 
 silk thread, made cither by the hands, somewhat 
 after the manner of embroidery, or with machinery. 
 The manufacture of lace by hand is an operation of 
 exceeding nicety, and requires both skill and patience 
 of no ordinary kind, and the best productions of this 
 fabric surpass all other applications of textile mater- 
 ials in costliness and beauty. 
 
 Whctlier the ancients really had any knowledge of 
 lace-making, excepting gold-lace, which will be men- 
 tioned at the end of this article, is not known, nor is 
 it known with any certainty when this art came into 
 practice in Europe ; but there is good reason to sup- 
 pose that poi rit-lafe , the oldest variety known, was 
 the work of Nuns during the latter half of the 14th 
 and the beginning of the 15th centuries. This point- 
 lace is very characteri.stic, and is truly an art pro- 
 duction. The artistic character of the patterns, and 
 the wonderful patience and labor shown in carrying 
 them out, places them, as female productions, on a 
 parallel with tlie decorative works in stone, wood, 
 and metal of the Monks. They indicate no tiresome 
 efforts to copy natural objects, but masterly con- 
 ceptions of graceful forms and tasteful combinations. 
 It will readily be supposed that an art depending 
 .so much on individual skill and taste, would be likely 
 to vary exceedingly ; nevertheless, all the varieties 
 esolve themselves into few well-marked groups, un- 
 
 der three distinct classes. The first class is the Gut. 
 jnire, which comprises all the true needle. worked 
 lace, whether ancient or modem; its varieties are: 
 Itdse-polnt, in which the figures are in higli relief, liav- 
 ing a rich endjossed appearance ; VenfMan-point, I'ur- 
 tiigurne-p'iiiit. .WiilltKe-point ; in all of these the pattern 
 is flatter than in the liimr-point, I'ointtrAlenmn, and 
 JlriiK.wlH-poiii/,. The last twoare still made, the niod- 
 <Tn I'oint d'Alencon (pjitc ripialing in beautj- and 
 value that made in the middle of tin; ITtli century, 
 when its manufacture was introduced by- the cele- 
 brated Colbert, Chief .Minister of Louis XIV. The 
 I'oint d'.Mencon has ver}- distinctive characteristics. 
 When the jiattern is once designed, each portion may 
 be worked by a separate perscm, ami the various fig. 
 ures are then connected by a grounilwork of threads, 
 which are so passed from one figure to anotlier as to 
 represent a web of wonderful delicacy and regulari- 
 
 ty ; small spots or other figiires are here iind there 
 skillfully worked in where the threads cross each 
 other; these are called i/md/n, and not only add much 
 to the strength of the fabric, but greatly increase its 
 richness of effect. In all these varieties, but two 
 kinds of stitches are employed, and these differ chief- 
 ly in the greater or less closeness of the threads em- 
 ploj'ed. First, a series of threads are laid down all 
 in one direction, so as to cover the pattern, and then 
 a certain number of these are taken up and covered 
 by loops of the cross-stitches, orare more lightly held 
 together. The second class is pilloir.lnre. sometimes 
 called cushion or bobbin lace, from the pillow or 
 cushion being used to work the pattern upon, and the 
 various threads of which the figures are made up, 
 each being wound upon a bobbin, usually of an or- 
 namental character.to distinguish one from the other. 
 The pattern, on parchment or paper, being attached 
 to the pillow or cushion, pins are stuck in at regular 
 intervals in the lines of the pattern, and the threads 
 of the bobbins are twisted or plaited round th'em so 
 as to form the net-work arrangement which is char- 
 acteristic of this class of lace, the patterns, or figur- 
 ed portions, being worked out by a crossing of 
 threads, which, although actually plaiting, gives the 
 effect of weaving. The varieties of this lace are : 
 Spanfsli, grixindfd Spanish. Saxony lirus.iels. Flemish 
 lirusseli.Mechliyi, Viihnrienne.H. Dutch. Lisle. Chantilly, 
 silk and cotton blonde. Limerick. Buckinghamshire and 
 noniton. The last has of late j-ears become the most 
 beautiful of all the varieties made in Great Britain. 
 The Irish or Limerick lace has also taken a high 
 position. The third class is machine-made lace, which, 
 by its wonderful improvement and rapid develop- 
 ment, has worked a complete revolution in the lace 
 trade, so that the prices formerly obtained for hand- 
 made lace can no longer be commanded, whilst ma- 
 chine lace, of great beauty, has become so cheap and 
 plentiful as to be worn by all classes. The lace-ma 
 chine, or frame, as it is technically called, is so com- 
 plicated that it would be hopeless to convey any re- 
 ally intelligil)le appreciation of it without a volumin- 
 ous description of all its parts. One or two points 
 of chief importance may. however, remove any diffi- 
 culty in understanding its general principles. First, 
 then, as in the loom, there is a series of warp-threads, 
 placed, however, perpendicularly instead of hori- 
 zontally, and not so close as in ordinary weaving, the 
 space between each being sufficiently wide to admit 
 of a shilling passing edgeways between them. Be- 
 hind these threads, and corresponding to the inter-
 
 LAC£RKE. 
 
 172 
 
 LACEEB8. 
 
 spaces, is a row of ingeniously constructed flat bob- 
 binj or reels resting in an arrangement called a comb- 
 tar or bolt-bar. These are so placed that, with the 
 first movement of the machine, each bobbin, which 
 carries its thread with it, passes through two of the 
 parallel and perpindicular threads of the warp, and 
 Is lodged in another and similar bolt-bar in front of 
 the warp. But this front bolt-bar, besides an ad- 
 vancing and receding motion, has another move- 
 ment called shogging — from right to left. When it 
 receives a bobbin by its forward motion, it draws 
 back, bringing the bobbin and thread through two of 
 the upright threads ; it then shogs or moves to one 
 side, and goes forward again, taking the thread 
 through the next two warp-threads, and lodging the 
 bobbin on the back bolt-bar again, one distance be- 
 yond its last space ; this it recovers by the ne.xt 
 movement, and it again passes through the tirst 
 space, to be again received by the front bolt-bar. 
 By these movements the bobbin-thread is twisted 
 quite round one upright thread of the warp ; an- 
 other movement then shifts the bobbin, so that it 
 will pass through the ne.\t pair of upright threads, 
 and so carry on its work, the warp-threads moving 
 at the same time, unwinding from the lower beam, 
 and being rolled on the upper one. There being 
 twice as many bobbins as there are threads in the 
 warp, each bolt-bar having a set which it exchanges 
 with the other, and all being regulated with great 
 nicety, a width of lace is made in far less time "than 
 has been required to write this short description. 
 The various additions to, and variations upon, these 
 operations, which only apply to bobbinnct, for the 
 production of patterns, are so numerous and com- 
 plicated — each pattern requiring new complications 
 — that it will be useless attempting to describe them; 
 suffice it to say, the_v all depend upon the variations 
 which can be given to the movements of the flat, 
 disk-like bobbins. The history of the lace-machine 
 is not very clear ; it is said to have been originally 
 invented by a frame-work knitter of Nottinghani, 
 from studying the lace on his wife's cap; butlt has 
 continually received improvements, among which 
 those of Heathcote, in 1809 — the first to work success- 
 fully — Morley,inl811 and 1824; those of Leaver and 
 Turton, and of Clark and Jlarl, all in 1811. The 
 manufacture of lace by machinery is chieflj' located 
 in Nottingham, whence it is sent to all parts of the 
 world; but we have no means of knowing to what 
 extent, for, with that strange perversity which dis- 
 tinguishes the statistical administration, only thread- 
 lace is mentioned in the lists of exports, whilst the 
 vast production of cotton-lace is mixed up with the 
 returns of calico and other fabrics of that material. 
 — Gold-late and Siher-la'-e, properly speaking, are 
 laces woven, either by the hand or by machmery; 
 from exceedingly fine threads of the metals, or from 
 linen, silk, or cotton threads which are coated with 
 still finer threads of gold and silver ; but in this 
 country it is too common to designate as gold or 
 silver lace, not only that which is rightly so-called, 
 but also fringe made of the materials, and also gold 
 and silver embroidery, such as is seen on trappings, 
 and upon some ecclesiastical dresses, etc. Gold-lace 
 is made in Loudon, but considerable quantities of 
 that used for decorating uniforms and other dresses, 
 etc., in this country, is olUained from Belghmi, where 
 it is an important branch of manufacture. France 
 supplies much of the gold and silver thread used, 
 and excels all other countries in its production, in 
 some of the ni'ire artistic varieties of gold and silver 
 lace and emijroiilcry. Italy has lately shown great 
 taste and skill. Tin- works of r^uigi M:irtiniof Milan 
 attained great celebrity, and were recently said to 
 produce aiiout ilO.UOO worth per annum. 
 
 LACEENE.— The sliort woolen military cloaK of 
 the Kiiiiians. 
 
 LACHETE.- An opprobrious term which is fre- 
 quently UM'd among the French, and ajiplied in all 
 instances of cowardice, want of spiril. etc. 
 
 LACHICHE SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— This 
 
 system has a fnmt similar to that of Cormontaigne, 
 except that the perpendicular equals \ of the front, 
 and tliat the salient places of arms have fleches for 
 reduits. In order to avoid the effects of ricochet 
 and vertical fires, the artillery is placed under case- 
 mates. The curtain, the reduits of re-entering place 
 of arms, and the faces of ravelin have casemates open 
 at the rear. The lower gallery serves for musketry, 
 and facilitates the ventilation of the upper case- 
 mates. The glacis has a sufficient command to mask 
 all the masonry. The fleches protect the covered- 
 way against enfilade. 
 
 LACKERS— LACQUERS.— Vamisiies prepared for 
 coating metal-work. The formula usually employed 
 is for gold color: alcohol, 2 gallons; powdered tur- 
 meric 1 pound ; macerate fora week, and then filter 
 with a covered filter, to prevent waste from evapor- 
 ation; to this add, of the lightest-colored shell-lac, 
 
 12 ounces ; gamboge, 4 ounces ; gum- sandarach, 3J 
 pounds. This is put in a warm place until tlie whole 
 is dissolved, when 1 quart of common turpentine 
 varnish is added. A red lacquer, prepared by sub- 
 stituting 3 pounds of anuotta for the turmeric, and 
 1 pound of dragon's blood for gamboge, is exten- 
 sively used. 
 
 The following .ackers are used for iron ordnance : 
 1. Black lead, pulverized, 12 parts; red lead, 12 
 parts; litharge, .5 parts; lampblack, 5 parts; and 
 linseed-oil, 66 parts. The mixture is boiled gently 
 about twenty minutes, during which time it is con- 
 stantly stirred. 2. Umber, ground, 3j parts; gum 
 shellac, pulverized, 3J parts; ivory-black, 3f parts; 
 litharge, 3J parts; linseed-oil, 78 parts; and spirits of 
 turpentine, 7j parts. The oil must be boiled half an 
 hour. The mixture is then boiled 24 hours, poured 
 off from sediment, and put in jugs, corked. 3. 
 Coal-tar (of good quality) 2 gallons ; and spirits 
 of turpentine. 1 pint. The turpentine to be added 
 in small quantities during the application of the lack- 
 er. In applying lacker, the surface of the iron must 
 be first cleaned with a scraper and a wire brush, if 
 necessary, and the lacker applied hot, in two thin 
 coats, with a paint-brush. It is best done in sum- 
 mer, when the metal is heated by the sun's rays, with 
 gloves made of sheep-skin, the wool turned out ward.s, 
 cut 0.4 inch long, the thumb alone being free. Old 
 lacker should be removed with a scraper, or by scour- 
 ing, and not by heating the guns or halls, by which 
 the metal is injured. About 5 gallons of lacker are 
 required for 100 field-guns and 1.000 shot ; about 1 
 quart for a sea-coast gun. 
 
 The lacker for small-arms is composed of beeswax, 
 
 13 pounds; spirits of turpentine. 13 gallons; and boil- 
 ed linseed-oil. 1 gallon. 
 
 All the ingredients should be pure and of the best 
 quality. Heat them together in a copper or earthen 
 vessel, over a gentle fire, in a water-bath, until they 
 are well mixed. For holsters, scabbards, etc , the 
 following is used: Prussian blue (in lumps), 4 parts; 
 sugar of lead, j'j parts; aqua-fortis, j',, parts; linseed 
 oil, boiled, 70 parts; and spirits of turpentine, 24.6 
 parts. This mixture is used for the first and second 
 coats. The ingredients, except the turpentine, are 
 boiled together in an iron kettle eight hours, when 
 the mixture will assume a brilliant black color. 
 When the varnish is nearly cool, stir in the turpen- 
 tine. The kettle in which the varnish is made shoidd 
 be of a capacity to hold double the quantity of var- 
 nish to be boiled. For the third or finishing coat, 
 the following is used: (ium copal (in clean lump), 
 2(U parts; boiled linseed-oil, 42i parts; iwid spirits of 
 turpentine, 31 piirts. To make this varnish, put the 
 copal in the vessel, set it on a cli;ircoal fire for one 
 hour, in wiiich time it will melt, and all llie watery 
 particles will evaporate. Add the oil while the copal 
 is warm, but not boiling hot. When nearly cool 
 add the turpentine. For.') pounds copal and the pro- 
 \)vT jiroportionsof oil and turpentine the vessel should 
 hold 6 gallons. See Pniutn.
 
 tACS D'AMOUK. 
 
 17a 
 
 LAMBREQUIN. 
 
 LACS D'AMOUR.— In HiTiildry, a cord (if ninnint,' 
 
 UnniH iisrd as III! (•xlfriiiddc'cdnilion to Hurrouiid tin- 
 jirriis (jf widows mill iiniiiarricd women; llic Cord- 
 ti'iT, wliicli dilTcrs hut sli;,dilly from it, Itciiig used 
 Ki:nilarly willi llie shields of miirried women. 
 
 LACUNETTE. ■ -An early term in fcjrliliciilion, mj;- 
 nilyiiii; a small fosse or ditch. The word (Uiiutti: 
 has since liccn ado|)lcd. 
 
 LADDERBRIDGE. A temporary hril;;e. formed hy 
 running; a cart or jjun limber into tiie stream und se- 
 ouriiii; it there, willi the shafts in u vertical position. 
 l>y ropes from holh sides of the river, one cud of a 
 ladder from each hank restini; upon it, and covering 
 the steps or runi^s with planks. 
 
 LADLE. -1. For carryiiii; the shot to the pieces, 
 there are two kinds of ladles. The first eon.sists of 
 u rinj^and stem of iron, fastened to a wooden handle 
 two feet lonir. The inner top edge of the ring is 
 grooved out to receive the shot. The other ladle, 
 for carrying the largest shot, consists of a similar 
 ring, to wluch stems are li.\ed for connecting one 
 single and one double handle, so that two men can 
 be employed to carry the shot, the double handle be- 
 ing to prevent the ladle from turning over. ■ 
 
 3. An implement for removing the powder or 
 projectiles from guns, when it is not ilesired to dis- 
 charge them. It consists of a ladlediead, made of 
 the same kind of wood and in the same way as a 
 ranuner-head, and the laille pmiier, which is of. 
 sheet-brass or copper, fastened to tlie head with cop- 
 per nails. 
 
 LADY OF MERCY, OUR.— The Spanish Order of 
 Knighthood, founded in 1218, by James I. of Ara- 
 gon. in fnlhllment of a vow made to the Virgin dur- 
 ing his captivity in France. The object for which 
 tlie Order was instituted was the redemption of 
 Christian captives from among the Moors, each 
 knighl at his inauguration vowing that, if necessarj' 
 for their ransom, he would renuun himself a captive 
 in their stead. Within the tirst six years of the ex- 
 istence of the Order, no fewer than 400 captives are 
 said to liave been ransomed hy its means. On the 
 expulsion of the Jloors from Spain, the labors of the 
 knights were transferred to Afrit-i. Their badge is 
 a shield party per fess gules and or, in chief a cross 
 pattee argent, in base four pallets gules for Aragon, 
 the shield crowned with a ducal coronet. The Order 
 was extended to ladies in 12(il. 1 
 
 LADY OF MONTESA, OUR.— Order of Knighthood, I 
 founded in liJlT, by King James II. of Aragon, who, 
 on the abrogation of the Order of the Templars, 
 urged Pope Clement V. to allow him t ,• employ all 
 their estates within his territory in founding a new 
 Knightly Order for the protection of the Christians 
 against the Moors. His request was accedesl to by 
 tiie following Pope, John XXII., who granted him 
 for this purpose all the estates of the Templars and 
 of the Knights of St. John situated in Valencia. 
 Out of these was founded the new Order, which 
 King James named after the town and castle of 
 Moutesa, which he assigned as its headquarters. 
 The Order is now conferred merely as a mark of 
 royal favor, though the provisions of its statutes are 
 Btill nominally observed on new creations. The , 
 badge is a red cross edged with gold, the costume a 
 long white woolen mantle, decorated with a cross 
 on the left breast, and tied with very long white 
 cords. 
 
 LAIDLEY PRACTICE-MUSKET.— In the construe- 
 tion of this gun the same form and motions of load- , 
 ing and tiring as in the service-ride have lieen retain- 
 ed as nearly "as possible, consistent witli a moderate 
 expenditure in its production. An old smooth-bore 
 musket is taken, reamed out for a length of eleven { 
 inches, for the reception of a coil ribbon-spring, on 
 one end of whicli a closely-fitting piston is placed, 
 having a stem of about five inches attaclied to its ' 
 center ; a hole is bored through the breech-screw and 
 a cut made on its under side to receive a spring ; a [ 
 circular disk with a flaring hole through its cent'er is j 
 
 secured in the barrel just in front of the end of the 
 l)reech-screw ; a short liver crosKi-s the end of the 
 liarrel just in front of this disk, and is held in posi- 
 lion by the sprijig already referred to ; the hole in the 
 cone is enlarged and receives a small spindle with a 
 collar at its middle, which prevents it from coining 
 out. About twelve inches from the breech a horizon- 
 tal cut is made tlirougli the top of tlie barrel, leaving 
 an opening of two inches in length: a cylinilricai 
 jilug. having a hole through its axle, is inserted in 
 the barrel at this place, an I a handle screwed in. An 
 inner barrel, having a liore of .22 inch and a length 
 of 17 inches, its upper end counter-bored, is inserted 
 in the barrel and seeurerl by a screw ; the length of 
 the block is such as to close the space between the 
 chambered recess and the end of the inner barrel. A 
 hole is bored through the side of the stock to com- 
 municate with the liole through the breech-screw. 
 To load the piece, bring the hammer to the half-cock 
 and compress the spring. This is most conveniently 
 done by fixing the ramrod in a cast-iron block at an 
 angle of about 45" with the horizon. Seize the mus- 
 ket as at charge bayonet, insert the end of the ram- 
 mer in the muzzle, and jiress the musket down until 
 the spring is caught; withdraw the musket, hold it 
 in the left hand near the lower band, the muzzle in- 
 clined downwards; seize the handle with the right 
 hand, turn it, and draw it back ; takea dart between 
 the thumb and fore-tinger, insert it in the bore, and 
 push it well home with the thumb. Be sure that 
 no part of it i)rojects; close the breech-block and se- 
 cure it b)- turning the handle. Cock the piece, and 
 it is ready for tiring. The men in tiring stand at u 
 distance of 1.'5 paces from the target. Two men use 
 the |same gun, tiring alternately. Each man after 
 tiring goes to the target, extracts the dart with a claw 
 tool, and records the value of his shot. The other 
 man loads and fires as soon as the preceding dart is 
 removed and the target is clear. In order to give the 
 soldier the benefit of practice-firing at ol)jectsat long 
 ranges, the difficulty increasing greatly with the 
 distance of the target, owing to the blur on the sight 
 when the eye is adjusted to the proper focus to see 
 distant objects, place a target at f500 or GOO yards dis- 
 tant, or as far off as convenient, so that it can be seen 
 through the open window ; place a target Vy paces 
 from the firing-stand, at such a height that the dis- 
 tant target may be seen 4 or 5 inches below the mid- 
 dle of its lower edge ; mark on the floor the position 
 for the feet of the man when firing, raise the longer 
 leaf ofjthe sight, aim at the distant bull's-eye, and fire; 
 the shots will strike the near target if correctlj' placed, 
 and the accuracy of aim will be shown hy the score 
 thus made. The height of the target may have to be 
 adjusted after the first few shots. 
 
 LAISCHF.S.— Thin metal plates which the ancient 
 Gauls placed upon the buS-coats of infantry. between 
 the buff and the lining. 
 
 LAMBEAUX. — In Heraldry, a cross formed in the 
 upper like a cross pattee, but with 
 the lower limb not widened, but ter- 
 minating in a label of three points, 
 I " having," according to Sylvanus 
 
 _J — . Morgan, "a srreat deal of mystery 
 
 ^^^^^^^ in relation to' the top, whereon the 
 ^""^ first-born Son of God did suffer, send- 
 
 LainhpauSi \^„ out three streams from his hands, 
 feet, and sides." 
 
 LAMBOYS. — In ancient armor, laminated .skirts of 
 small overlapping steel plates. These took the places 
 of bnth the <(/(■<?.« and tuilles of the somewhat earlier 
 times. 
 
 LAMBREQUIN.- 1. A -word used in Heraldry in 
 three senses: 1. The mantling attached to the hel- 
 met, and represented as depending over the shield. 
 2. A wreath; 3. The point of a label. See Label. 
 
 2. A leathern strap or flap hanging from a cuirass, 
 which is often highly ornamented and made to reach 
 as far as the thighs. Lambrequins frequently cover 
 the helmet to protect it from wet and heat. 
 
 m
 
 LAMPION DE PARAPET. 1 
 
 174 
 
 LANCEB8. 
 
 LAMPION DE PARAPET.— A lamp generally used 
 on a parapet or elsewhere in a besieged place. It Is a 
 small iron vessel filled with pitch and tar, which is 
 lighted b)' the troops as occasion may require. 
 
 LANCASTER GUN.— A species of rifled cannon, 
 which has been partially adopted in the British ser- 
 vice. When the great difficulty of rifling heavy ord- 
 nance to an extent to give a sufficient rotary motion 
 to the projectile became apparent, Mr. Lancaster 
 devised a plan by which grooves might be dispensed 
 ■with altogether. Instead of a strictly circular bore, 
 he gave his gun an elliptical bore, the elipse being of 
 very small eccentricit}'. The major axis was not in 
 one plane from end to end of the gun, but was made 
 to revolve in the length, until it had moved round 
 one-fourth the periphery of the elipse. The pro- 
 jectiles are, of course, elliptical also ; elongated, and 
 somewhat pointed in front "When tlie shell is pro- 
 jected, it must follow the twist in the bore, and the 
 rotary motion thus imparted is retained to the end of 
 the range. Several Lancaster guns were employed 
 at the siege of Sebastopol, and some of them burst. 
 But these were scarcely fair specimens, being service 
 8-inch guns (with circular bore) bored to Sir. Lan- 
 caster's elliptical standard, and therefore weakened. 
 The wrought-iron guus on his special model have 
 given, however, more certain results. The special 
 advantage claimed for the Lancaster gun is that it 
 fouls less than any of the other gtms in use. See 
 Ordnance. , 
 
 LANCASTER HERALD.— One of the six Heralds of 
 England, ranking second in point of seniority. His 
 office is said to have been instituted by Edward III., 
 in the 34th year of his reign, when he created his son, 
 John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. Henry IV. rais- 
 ed Lancaster to the dignity of a King-at-Arms. Ed- 
 ward IV., after reducing him back to the status of a 
 Herald, abolished his office, which was revived by 
 Henrv VII. 
 
 LANCASTER PROJECTILE.— The earlier projectiles 
 of this class, were made of wrought-iron, simply 
 oval, but without any rifle-twist upon them ; but 
 more recently the shot have been bent to the shape 
 of the bore ; some of these had a wrought-iron cas- 
 ing put over a cast-iron projectile, and this, project- 
 ing four inches to the rear, carried a lubricant which 
 the wooden wedges at the bottom sent out whileex- 
 panding the casing so as to flU the bore. The weight 
 of this projectile was 44 pounds, and its capacity for 
 bursting charge, 4J pounds. It was thick in the rear, 
 and thin in the front, tapering to a point. 
 
 LANCASTER RIFLE.— A small-arm having a slight- 
 ly oblate bore. The twist, as found by experience to 
 be most advantageous, is one turn in 52 inches. The 
 approved diameter of the bore is .498 inch. the length 
 of the barrel being 32 inches. An eccentricity of .01 
 inch in half an inch is found sufficient to make the 
 bullet spin on itsaxis to the extreme verge of its flight. 
 The length of the bullet found to answer best with 
 these rifles is 3| diameters in length with a windage 
 of .004 or .005 of an inch. 
 
 LANCASTER RIFLING,— This plan of centering the 
 shot was used with partial success by the Engl'^shin 
 the Crimea. The gun is rifled with two rounded 
 grooves, each about one-third the 
 circumference in width, so that the 
 cross section of the bore is oval. 
 ( )nly a trace of the original bore is 
 left at its minor axis. The major 
 axis in the 32-poundcr is 6.97 in., 
 and the minor axis 0.37 in., so that, 
 considered as a two-grooved rifle, 
 I.AMCAai£E. (|„, jjrooves are 3-inch deep at the 
 centers. The abseni'C of shoulders to the two grooves 
 converts the two places of contact of the projectile 
 with the rifling, into circular wedges tending to burst 
 the gun or to compress the projectile. 
 
 LANCE. — 1 . A weapon of war composed of a sharp 
 Bteel blade, from 8 to 10 inches long, grooved like a. 
 common bayonet wilh a socket at its base and two 
 
 iron straps for attaching it to the handle. The han- 
 dle is of strong, light wood, with a tip of iron at its 
 lower end and a leathern loop at its center of gravity 
 to support and guide the lance. It is usually from 
 8i to 11 feet long, and weighs about 4J lbs. This 
 weapon is not used in the United States service. The 
 Russians have their regular and irregular Cossacks 
 armed witli the lance. The Austrians, also, have 
 Lancers ; but the Polish cavalry use the lance better 
 than any other people. The lance, when not in use, 
 rests in a leather boot attached to the stirrup, the 
 right arm being passed through the leather loop of 
 the lance ; or by putting the Tower end in the boot 
 and strapping the handle to the pommel of the sad- 
 dle. Lancers are more formidable than other cavalry 
 because they are able to reachfurther. Skill in com- 
 bating a lancer consists in keeping to his left, in order 
 to shun his lance. Pressed too nearly, the Lancer 
 must have resource to his saber and let his lance rest 
 upon his arm. The moment in which he attempts 
 to seize his saber is dangerous to him. TheMexi- 
 can cavalry are generally Lancers. 2. An iron rod 
 which is fixed across the earthen mold of a shell, and 
 which keeps it suspended in the air when it is cast. 
 As soon as the shell is formed, this rod must be broken, 
 and carefully taken out with instruments made for 
 that purpose. Shells ought to be scrupulously ex- 
 amined with respect to this article, as they could not 
 be charged were the lance, or any part of it, to re- 
 main within. 3. An instrument which conveys the 
 charge of a piece of ordnance and forces it home to 
 the bore. 
 
 LANCE A FEU. — A species of artificial firework 
 which is made in the shape of a fuse, and is used for 
 various purposes. Its composition consists of 3 
 parts of best refined saltpeter, 2 parts of flour of sul- 
 phur, and 2 parts of antimony; the whole being 
 pounded and mixed together. The chief use of the 
 Lanm a feu is to throw occasional light across the 
 platform, whilst artificial fireworks are preparing. 
 They likewise serve to set fire to fuses, as they can 
 be taken hold of without danger. Lance de feu is a 
 species of squib, which is used by the garrison of a 
 besieged town against a scaling part}'. See Larues. 
 
 LANCE A FEU'PUANT.- A stink-fire lance prepar- 
 ed in the same manner as a stink-pot, and used by 
 miners. When a sapper or miner has so far penetra- 
 ted towards the enemy as to hear the voices of per- 
 sons in any places contiguous to his own excavation, 
 he first of all bores a hole with his probe, then dis- 
 charges several pistols through the aperture, and 
 lastly forces in a Lance a feu puant, taking care to 
 close up the hole on his side to prevent the smoke 
 from returning towards himself. The exhalation 
 and stinking hot vapor which issue from the lance, 
 and remain confined on the side of the enemy, infect 
 the air so much, that it is impossible to approach the 
 quarter for several days. Sometimes, indeed, they 
 have had so instantaneous an effect, that in order to 
 save their lives, miners, who would 'persevere, have 
 been dragged out by the legs in an apparent state of 
 suffocation. See Lances. 
 
 LANCE-CORPORAL.— The assistant to a Corporal ; 
 a private performing the duties of a Corporal. The 
 Lance-corporal ranks above a private in the line, 
 and usually performs the duties and possesses the 
 authority of a Corporal, but does not receive a Cor- 
 poral's pay. 
 
 LANCE "knight.— A German foot-soldier ; origin- 
 ally cine of the serfs who followed the camp in the 
 service of the common soldiers. See LmixqueiteU. 
 
 LJVNCE REST.— A projection like a bracket, on the 
 riglit side of a breast-plate in armor, to aid in bearing 
 a huicc. 
 
 LANCERS. — A description of cavalry soldiers who 
 are armed with lances. The type and perfection of 
 Lancers are the Russian Cossacks, whose long lances 
 enable them to combat with enemies at a distance 
 from .which they thcuisclvcs take little harm. The 
 Lancers were brought into European notice by Na-
 
 lANCES. 
 
 175 
 
 LAND SUHVEYISO. 
 
 pok'on, who t^ri'iitly relied iipnn Home Polish repi- 
 IiK'iits. After Hie peace of IHIT), Hie arm was mlopt- 
 (•(1 in the Kii^lisli serviee, liiil it is thiiii^;lit by many 
 thai the Hi'ilisli l,ane<T lias a weapon too short to en- 
 alile liim to char^jfe on an infantry sijiiare with any 
 chanee of success. 
 
 The Ijan<*r, like the I'oet," is horn not fashioned." 
 In the hands of the Pole, the lance, whether used to 
 charj;;e in lini' or in the dispersion of ]iiirsiiit, is a 
 truly fearful weapon; but to those to whom loni; 
 praclice in its use has not made it a second nature, 
 it is only emharrassini;, and more to lie avoided by a 
 comrade than by a foeman. Still the apprehension 
 of beini; run tliroutch has a powerful moral elTect 
 upon a man ; and there is no sounil more ajipalliug 
 to a tlyinu; enemy than " Here come the liancers." 
 
 LANCES Small paper cases, .3 to .4 inch diam- 
 eter. Idled with one or more compositions, each 
 huniini: with a tlanu- of a particular color. They 
 are iiseil to mark the outlines of tinures, and an' at- 
 tached to lin'hl frames of wood or sticks of bamboo. 
 To make the cases, cut the paper into rectangles of 
 a length equal to the reipiired length of the case and 
 of such widths as to make the case three thicknesses 
 of No. 7 paper. The length of the case is generally 
 about leu ^mes its e.xterior diameter, depending on 
 the composition with which it is to be tilled and the 
 tiini' it is required to burn. Pastil thi' rectangleand 
 roll it on an iron former with tlie hand. When the 
 cases are dry, ('ut them to their proper length. 
 
 Place the cases in holes bored in a block of hard 
 wood, the holes .02 inch larger than the case, and 
 their depth .25 inch less than the length of the case. 
 Drive in the bottom of each case a ladleful of clay. 
 Insert in the top of the ease a small funnel; jjass the 
 drift through the funnel into the c;ise; till the funnel 
 with composition; rais<r tlu' drift one inch above the 
 top of the case; press it to the bottom and give it 
 three light blows with a rocket-drift; continue in the 
 same way, raising the drift above the top of the case 
 between each volley until the case is tilled to .2.5 inch 
 of the top. Prime tlu^ lance with mealed powder, 
 moistened with gummed water, and dip the end 
 while moist in rifle-powder. When the case is to be 
 tilled with two different compositions, drive the case 
 with the first composition till it is about .2 inch above 
 the required height; remove the surplus to the exact 
 height with a gauge, and proceed witli the second 
 composition as with the first. 
 
 Bore holes .02 inch larger than the lances, and .5 
 inch deep, from 2 to 4 inches apart, according to the 
 size of lance. The holes should be bored so that 
 the lance shall be horizontal when the frame is in po- 
 sition. Dip the end of the lance in glue, and press it 
 (irmly in the hole, arranging the lances parallel to 
 each other. Or they may be fastened to the frame by 
 means of sharp nails or tacks, driven into the frame 
 and projecting about .4 inch. The end of the lance 
 is pierced with an awl, dipped in glue, and thrust on 
 the point of the nails, arranging them perpendicularly 
 to the friinu". See I-'inwifrks. 
 
 LANCE-SERGEANT.— An acting Sergeant. This 
 position is given to Corporals when additional Non- 
 commissioned officers are required to assist the ofti- 
 cers of troops and companies in the discharge of their 
 duty. If the Lance-sergeants prove themselves effi- 
 cient, they are usuallv promoted as vacancies occur, 
 
 LANCES LEVEES. -Uplifted lances, indicating that 
 the enemy was beaten, and that the Chevaliers or 
 Gendarmes should close the day by giving a final 
 blow to the disordered ranks. 
 
 LANCE SOCKET.— A leather socket which supports 
 the butt of tlie lance when carried on horseback; 
 called also hino -bucket. See Lance. 
 
 LANCE WOOD.— A wood valuable for its great 
 strength and elasticity. It is produced by the small 
 tree guatterin tirgiita (natural order unonetceee). An- 
 other species, G. Iniirifolin, yields the wood called 
 white lance-wood. The latter is not nuich used. 
 Lancc-wood is of great value in carriage construc- 
 
 tions, when it is used for shafts and carriage-polcH, 
 for which it is esjireially fitted. The part used is the 
 main trunk of tlu- tree, which is very straight, and 
 rarely more than !) inches in diameter, with the bark 
 on. It comes in small quantities from the West In- 
 dies, eliiilly. however, from Jamaica. 
 
 LANDGRAVE. — A (ierman nobleman of arankcor- 
 respoiidiMg to an English Karl. The wife of a Land- 
 grave is known as Landgravine. 
 
 LANDING. In fortiticalion, the portion of the floor 
 of the galli-ry, between the frames tlial lioiind the en- 
 trance to a return, is termed a luitiliiifi. The land- 
 ing is in all cases horizontal, as well as that [lortion 
 of an obliipie return between the oblique frame and 
 the one next succeeding, which last should not be 
 placed further than an ordinary interval from the 
 furthest point of the obli(|ue frame. See <lriUiry. 
 
 LANDS. — In ordnance, the sjiaces between the fur- 
 rows or grooves in the biirrel of a rilled t;un. Seir 
 liai'ril. 
 
 LAND8BERG SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. -This 
 system consists of three unrevetted eucientes : the 
 first of tenailles of GO" with small redans in the re- 
 entering angles; the second, of a fausse-braye, with 
 bonnets at salient ; the third of an envelope of 125 
 to 225 yards faces replacing the covered-way. In the 
 nuiin ditch there are casemated redoubts for mus- 
 ketry and artillery. The ramparts are much exposed 
 to enfilade ; and all the more so since there is no 
 traverse; the absence of a covered-way exposes the 
 place to an attack of vive force ; the relief being 
 small, escalade may be resorted to ; there is no pro- 
 vision made for sorties; and the space left for houses 
 is very limited. Landsberg calculates that the out- 
 lay will be much less than for Vauban's hexagon, and 
 that a vigorous defense may be expected from a gar- 
 rison of 20,000 men and 00 gims. 
 
 LANDSTURM.— The Third Reserve of the German 
 Army, 'I'he German soldier, after remaining Z years 
 in the Active Army, 4 in the Reserve, and 5 years in 
 the Landicehr, is draughted into the LniKht.iirm. 
 which owes its origin to the wars of the First Em- 
 pire, and was formerly a force raised for home de- 
 fense only. But, in 1874, a bill was passed by which 
 the Emperor can summon that force of his own au- 
 thority in case of urgency, and the men of the Third 
 Reserve can be draughted into the Landieehr if their 
 services are needed. It is computed tliat this new 
 organization will increase the strength of the Ger- 
 man Army up to nearly two millions of men. 
 
 LAND-SURVEYING.— The measurement of the area 
 of a portion, whether small or large, of the earth's 
 surface, is an important application of mathematics, 
 and involves a thorough acquaintance with geome- 
 try, trigonometry, and the theory and use of the in- 
 struments employed for the determination of angles. 
 Fields or portions of ground of small extent are nieas- 
 ured easily and with sufficient accuracy by a chain 
 (for distances), and a box-compass or cross-stafT (for 
 angles). For larger areas, the use of the surveyor's 
 table is requisite ; and for those of still greater ex- 
 tent, in which the greatest accuracy is requisite in the 
 determination of the angles, the astrolabe, theodo- 
 lite, sextant, circle, refiecfor, micrometer, etc.. are 
 used. The surface to be measured is divided into 
 triangles, which are separately measured and calcu- 
 lated ; but when a large extent is included in ths 
 measurement, it is not enough to proceed from one 
 triangle to another, in which way an error at the out- 
 set may be propagated with continual increase; hut 
 a t)ase line, as long as circumstances admit of, must, 
 in the first instance, be accurately measured, upon 
 which, by means of the measurement of angles, all 
 the subsequent calculations are made to depend. and 
 lines subsequently measured are only intended to be 
 corrective of the results obtained by calctdation. 
 When the extent of surface is still greater, as when 
 a whole country is to he measured, points here and 
 there are astronomically determined, their meridians 
 are accurately laid down, and a complicated system
 
 LAND TRANSPORT. 
 
 176 
 
 L iNTERN SLIDES. 
 
 of triangles is employed to insure accuracy. This is 
 called tr'anc/nlntiiin. 
 
 LAND TRANSPORT.— A branch of the Control De- 
 partment. It comprises men of the Transport Com- 
 panies, and cattle for the draught orotherwiseof the 
 stores and baggage of an arm}-. Carts or wagons of 
 the lightest nature should be used, and the horses 
 employed to draw them should be driven and not 
 ridden. Pack animals should only be used on emer- 
 gency, when a sufficient number of carts cannot be 
 obtained. In mountainous countries, resort must 
 be had to this kind of transport, as was the case in 
 Abyssinia. But, as a rule, pack animals are to be 
 avoided as being the worst and most difficult trans- 
 port to manage. In India, the transport consists of 
 bullock carts of the country, elephants, and camels. 
 See Military Train. 
 
 LANDWEHR.— A military force in several of the 
 Gorman States; somewhat corresponding to the 
 militia of Great Britain. It is not always retained 
 under arms. During peace, its members spend most 
 of their time in civil pursuits, and are called out for 
 military service only in times of war or of commotion 
 — care being taken, however, that they are suffi- 
 ciently exercised to make them ready for such ser- 
 vice when necessary. The name Landwehr was 
 first applied to the Tyrolese, who rose against tlie 
 French ; and in 1805 "a similar force was raised in 
 the other German Provinces of Austria, which, how- 
 ever, the Emperor has recently abolished. By far 
 the most elaborate and complete system of land- 
 defense was the Prussian, which was called into ex- 
 istence in 1813, when all Germany rose against Na- 
 poleon. As early, indeed, as 1806, or earlier, Mar- 
 slial Knesebeck, then a Major in the Prussian Army, 
 had proposed such a thing : but it was not till tlie 
 opening of the campaign of 1813 that the Prussian 
 Landwehr was organized according to Scharnhorst's 
 plan by a Royal Edict, dated Mar. 17. At first, it 
 was designed solely as a land-defense, properly so 
 called, and not, what is now the case, as an integral 
 part of the regular army. It was called out in two 
 separate levies, the first comprising all men from 26 
 to 33, and the second those from 33 to 39. The old 
 men up to 60 belonged to the Landxtiirin, which was 
 called out only for the defen.se of house and hearth. 
 After the second peace of Paris appeared the Land- 
 wehrm-dnung (Landwehr-regulation)of April 21, 1815, 
 according to which the country was divided into 104 
 districts, each of which had to furnish a battalion 
 of Landwehr. To every battalion of Landwehr was 
 attached one squadron of L'hlans ; three battalions 
 formed a regiment ; two regiments, a Landwehr 
 brigade, which, along with the brigades of cavalry 
 and infantry, was placed under a General of Division. 
 By tlie Constitution of April, 1871, the Prussian ob- 
 ligatioH to serve in the army was extended to the 
 whole German Empire. Every German capable of 
 bearing arms, after serving in the standing army for 
 seven years, has to enter the Landwehr, and remain 
 in it for anotlier five years. 
 
 LANE. — The term applied to a[body of soldiers in 
 two ranks standing face to face, forming, in fact, a 
 street, passage, or lane. The French call this form- 
 ation haie, or hedge. It is used when troops form a 
 guard of honor for persons of rank to pass through. 
 
 LANGREL. — A villainous case-shot made up of var- 
 ious fragments of iron of irregular shape and size, 
 so as to fit the bore of the cannon from wliich it is 
 to be discharged. It was formerly much used for 
 disabling sails and rigging of ships. Also written 
 Lanqracje. 
 
 LANGTJED. — 111 Heraldry, an animal whose tongue 
 is of a dilTererit color from its body, is said to be lan- 
 guid i>{ lliHl eiiliir. It is understood in England that 
 unless the blazon direct otherwise, all animals are 
 langued gules whose tincture is not gules, and an 
 animal gules is langued azure. This ruI(Mloes not 
 hold good in Scottish Heraldry, wliere " when tlie 
 tongue, teeth, and claws are of different tinctures 
 
 from their bodies, they are to be mentioned as arm- 
 ed and langued of such a tincture." — Nisbet. When 
 a beast or bird is represented without teeth or claws, 
 this is expressed in blazon •' sans langue and arms." 
 The term Lampasse is used in the same sense. 
 
 LANGUE DE BOEUF.— A sword of the 15th cen- 
 tury, with a tapering blade, about 25 inches long and 
 5 inches wide at the handle end. It was double edged, 
 and very much resembled the pnrdzonium.or&msXi 
 sword, of the ancient Greeksiand Romans, which they 
 carried on the left side. 
 
 LANGUET.— A small slip of metal on the hilt of a 
 sword, whicli overhangs the scabbard: the ear of a 
 sword. 
 
 LANSQUENETS.— German foot soldiers raised to- 
 wards the end of the 15th century. They enlisted 
 voluntarily, and hired themselves out as mercen- 
 aries to any power that was willing to pay them. 
 Charles VII. of France first added them to his infan- 
 try. After the 16th century the name fell into dis- 
 use. 
 
 LANSQUENETTE.— A short, wide, two-edged, and 
 pointed sword of the 16th century. The handle waa 
 like a truncated cone, and flattened at the end to form 
 the pommel. 
 
 LANTERN. — A contrivance for the purpose of giv- 
 ing light : it ismiade of glass'or any transparent mat- 
 ter. There are two kinds of 'lanterns, dark andMua- 
 rory, which are used at night ui batteries or on the 
 line of march. 
 
 LANTERNS. — 1. An implement made of copper, 
 resembling a round spoon ar ladle. It is fixed to a 
 long pole and serves to convey gunpowder into a piece 
 of ordnance. 2 A Swiss cannon rammer, on a long 
 shaft, the end of which contains a wadding screw. 
 It was first used in the 15th centur}-. 
 
 LANTERN SLIDES.— Contrivances used in trans- 
 cribing microscopic despatches sentbycarrier pigeons 
 in time of war. The 7iegatite should be very delicate 
 and full of details ; rather thin without being flat, 
 and clear in the shadows. Intensification should be 
 avoided, except in the case of line work. Especial 
 care should be taken in adjusting and focussing the 
 camera, as the subsequent enlargement greatlj' mag- 
 nifies all defects. The slide is simply a positive taken 
 from the negative, and may be of the same size, though 
 it is generally reduced. This operation is best per- 
 formed in a darkened room with a wooden shutter 
 in the window. An opening in the shutter, of the 
 proper size, is arranged to hold the negative, and the 
 camera is so adjusted that the positive will be of the 
 proper size for a slide. In this case, transmitted in- 
 stead of reflected light is the active agent, and the 
 length of exposure is very much reduced. The same 
 care as before is necessary in the adjustment and 
 focussing of the camera. The light passing directly 
 through "the negative should come from aclearskj'. 
 In case the horizon line is near the prolongation of 
 the axis of lens, the negative will be unequally illum- 
 inated, and the positive will not be of uniform den- 
 sitj-. llVi /i/oto are preferable for both negatives 
 and positives, as the most skillful and careful man- 
 ipulation will not insure clear glass for the highest 
 lights of the latter when sensitive drj- plates are 
 used. The Collodion should be of a shiny color and 
 the negative bath only faintly acid. Give free ex- 
 posure, and rather under-develop with an acid devel- 
 oper in order to obtain the requisite density. Use 45 
 minims of glacialacetic acid per ounce of Instantan- 
 eous Developer. After the plate is fixed, should the 
 lights be found veiled, the plate may be cleanedhj 
 flooding it with tlie following solution: 
 
 Potassium Cyanide ! 30 grains. 
 
 Water 1 ounce. 
 
 Saturated willi iodine until clear. Toning is best 
 (hme with a lO-grain solution of plalinii' chloride. 
 It will fre(|ueiiliy be necessary to use dry plates for 
 lantern slides in'tead of wet plates because of the 
 inconvenience attending the use of the latter. See 
 I'liolography.
 
 LANYAKD. 
 
 177 
 
 LA8UIHQ 
 
 LANYARD. -A strniif; cord, oiif cnil of wliifli liiiH 
 a siimll iniii liook, iinil tlu; other ii wooden Imiulle. 
 Itisuseilfor exploding tlie friction-primer wlien ii 
 piece is to lie tired. 
 
 A new form of lanyiird liiiHsi slidinff liiindle, wliicli 
 strikes a tixed liiitton on tlie cord, iind thus explodes 
 the primer. Tlii' further end of the liinviird is held 
 by the left liiuid at the lieight of the breast, while 
 the right hand slides the liandle until it strikes the 
 l)ulton, usually opposite tlie right side. 
 
 LAPEL. — The facings of a coat. Until the intro- 
 duction f)f epaulettes in IHli. the white lapel was sy- 
 nonymous with a l.ieutenant's eonunission in tlie 
 British service. Commonly written LiipclU. 
 
 LAPIXHAE. — A wild race inhabiting, in ancient 
 times, the mountains of Tliessaly. Tliey derived 
 their name from a mythical ancestor, LiipitlicK, a son 
 of Apollo, and the lirother of C'entaiiros. the equally 
 niytliical ancestor of the Centaurs. A bloody war is 
 said to have been waged lietween the kindred races 
 in prehistoric times, which ended in the defeat of 
 the ( 'ciitaurs, but thcLapithtc were in tlieirturn sub- 
 dued by Hercules. 
 
 LAPPING.- 1. The process a gun undergoes after 
 being rilled, also after " proof." for the purpose of 
 removing any little burrs which may be thrown up 
 
 / / / / 
 
 on the edge of the grooves by the proof rounds. The 
 lapping-machine, represented in the drawing is ex- 
 tensively used in government arsenals and armor- 
 ies for grinding thin, tlat pieces that cannot well be 
 clamped for milling witliout retaining their winding 
 Irregularities. With this machine an unskilled work- 
 
 man can grind a true surface at much less expense 
 tliuii mining would cost. Diameter of lap, 18 inch- 
 es ; weight of machine. flOO [lounds ; speed of lap, 
 l,r)()0 revolutions perminute: Hp<'ed of counter-shaft, 
 (1 by T) inch tight and loose pulleys, (12.') revolution.s 
 ]ier minute. 2. The wearing away the land-surface 
 in a rilled gun to ease the entrance of the projectile. 
 LAPSE. .\n expression formerly used in the Urit- 
 isli Army to signify the reversion of any ndlitary 
 property. Thus, upon the sale or purchase of on" 
 commission at the regulated difference, another 
 (where there are two) is said to lapse to government. 
 Commissions la|)se or fall into the patronage of gov- 
 ernment, when vacancies hajipen by death, by offi- 
 cers being superseded, or where oflicers apply to sell 
 who have only purchased a part of their commis- 
 sions, and have not served long enough to be entitled 
 to sell the whole ; in which case they are only per- 
 mitted to sell what they actually ])urchased, and the 
 rcHiaiiidir is the gift of the government. 
 
 LAP-WELD. — A weld in which the welding edges 
 are made thin, lapped one over the other, and weld- 
 ed. 
 
 LARGESSE. -^[onej' which, in early time, it was 
 the praclice to grant to Heralds on certain state occa- 
 sions, for proclaiming the style and title of the Sov- 
 ereign and his Nobles. The regular fees, 
 as recorded in one of the Ashmolean MSS., 
 were: "At the coronacion of the king of 
 England XlOOapparalled in scarlet. At the 
 displaying of the kinge's banner in any 
 campe, 100 markes. At the displaying of 
 a duke's banner, i.'20; at |a marquis', 20 
 markes; at an carle's, 10 markes. The king 
 marrying a wife, i'.IO, with the gifts of the 
 kinge's and queene's uppermost garments; 
 at the birth of the kinge's eldesl son. lOO 
 markes; at the birth of younger children, 
 £20. The king being at any syge with the 
 crown on his head, i'.")." 
 
 LARIAT. — A long cord or thong of leath- 
 er with a noose. The term is now com- 
 monly applied to a rope \\ inches in cir- 
 cumference and 30 feet long, made of Ital- 
 ian hemp, which is much used in the United 
 States Cavalry service to picket the hor.ses 
 while grazing. See Laxxi. 
 
 LASMES. — A term employed in Herald- 
 ry. When the field is bestrewed with an 
 indefinite number of drops of a blue color, 
 it is said to be gnttedt tariiie.1. a nomencla- 
 ture pectiliar to British Heraldry. 
 
 LASCAR.- IntheKast Indies, a term sig- 
 nifying properly a camp-follower, but gen- 
 erally applied to native sailors on board 
 of British ships. The Lascars make good 
 seamen, but being of an excessively irrita- 
 . ble and revengeful nature, are generally 
 keptin the minority in aship'screw. Such 
 men. under the name of Khalrvmien, are em- 
 ployed in some of the Indian arsenals. At 
 Hong Kong and in Ceylon there are com- 
 panies of Lascars in the pay of the British 
 Government. 
 
 LASHES.— Formerly General Court-Mar- 
 lials could sentence a soldier to receive a 
 ■ crtain number of lashes. At present this 
 mode of punishment is prohibited, and no 
 person in the military service is punished 
 by flogging, or by branding, marking, or 
 tattooing on the body. 
 '' LASHING. — The securing together any 
 bodies by means of ropes ; there are two 
 modes generally used, viz., square and rf(- 
 The nature of rope depends on the work to 
 In securing sheers, guns, and any articles 
 that require to be fixed, lashing is resorted to. There 
 are three kinds of rope u.scd forla.shing — l"g line, seiz- 
 ing line, urtiXHamhrii' line. Lashing used in mount- 
 ing and dismounting guns are of different dimensions. 
 
 agntutl. 
 be dime,
 
 I.ASHIirO-BINGS. 
 
 178 
 
 I.ATHE 
 
 LASHING RINGS.— Rings fixed on the sides of ar- 
 tillery traveling-carriages, to lash the tarpaulin, as 
 also to tie the sponge, rammer, and ladle. 
 
 LASH-EOFE. — A rope used in packing. The packs 
 or loads are made fast and retained on the animal's 
 back by means of a cinch and lash-rope. The cinch 
 is made of strong canvas, about eleven inches wide 
 and one yard long, doubled so that the edges are in 
 the middle. Strong pieces of leather are firmly 
 
 stitched on both ends and on both sides, with the 
 canvas cinch lietwecn, as shown in the drawing. A 
 three-inch iron ring is made fast at one end, and a 
 hook of hard wood at the other. Natural shapes are 
 usually selected for the hooks. The lash rope is of 1} 
 inch hemp rope or rawhide, about 35 feet long, with 
 one end spliced to the cinch-ring, the other end 
 served. See Packing. 
 
 LASSO. — A long stout cord or thong of skin, with 
 a leaden ball at each end, employed by the South 
 Americans in capturing wild horses, oxen, etc. It 
 is thrown in such a manner, that when it strikes the 
 neck or leg of the animal to be captured, the im- 
 petus of the ball causes the cord to coil round the 
 limb. The hunter's horse is furnished with a saddle 
 having a high pommel, so that the hunter may coil 
 his end of the lasso round it, or even fix it, if he 
 chooses, though this latter practice often leads to 
 dangerous consequences. The lasso was frequently 
 used against European soldiers during the contest of 
 the South American Republics for Independence; 
 and, though with very little success, by the barbar- 
 ians of the Russian Army against the French sentin- 
 els during the Crimean War. Similar in its name 
 and application is another implement consisting of a 
 stout thong of hide with a slip-noose, used in many 
 cotmtries; but chiefly among the South American and 
 Mexican hunters. It requires much greater address 
 to use it suceessfidly . In Mexico the lasso is called a 
 lariat. 
 
 LASSO HARNESS. — A harness consisting of a brown 
 leather surcingle and one trace. The surcingle is 
 rather wider than a common girth, and is composed 
 of two pieces (joined together by rings), one of which 
 is placed over the saddle, and the other round the 
 belly of the horse. There are also rings at the end 
 of the surcingle,"which is drawn very firmly iviund the 
 horse, and fastened tight by lapping a white leather 
 thong (fixed at one end of the surcingle) through 
 these rings. There are two descriptions of traces, 
 one being 8 and the other 12 feet long. They have 
 hooks at each end, and when the 'lasso harness is 
 made use of by cavalry, etc., to assist draught-horses 
 in moving very heavy carriages, or in dragging guns, 
 etc., up steep hills, one of these hooks is fastened to 
 a ring in the surcingle, and the oIIht to the carriage. 
 When two horses are in draught, the traces must be 
 inside, and each rider should keep his horse's croup 
 a, little outwards, 
 
 LATCH CROSS-BOW.— A form of crossbow, spec- 
 ially Mclapli'il for sieges and for shooting at a mark. 
 This was the weapon used by the Genoese at Agin- 
 «ourt in 1420. 
 
 LATERAL COMMUNICATIONS.— In warfare, eom- 
 IiuuiicalidMS wliich should he kept up between the 
 dillereul i)ortions of an army wlien moving from one 
 ■common base bydilTerent roads towards an enemy, 
 so that, in case of a concentration l)eing recjuired on 
 any particular point, instructions and orders can be 
 
 readily carried out, and the different portions of the 
 army brought together with rapridity. To prevent 
 1 any obstruction to comnumications being kept up, 
 e.<q5ecially when advancing towards the enemy, the 
 several roads on which the armj- marches should not, 
 if possible, be separated by rivers, morasses, or a 
 mountain ridge ; rivers would not be so objectiona- 
 ble, as they might be forded or crossed by bridges. 
 Several roads tending in the same direction, with 
 ea.sy means of concentration, is the most satisfactory 
 way of moving an army. 
 
 LATHE. — A machine in which the object revolves 
 while it is shaped by a cutting tool applied to it. The 
 art of turning is of great importance in gun-con- 
 struotion and is extensively applied in mechanics, the 
 most delicate articles of luxury and ornament, equal- 
 ly with most ponderous machineries being produc- 
 ed by it. As an art, it dates from a very earh- period, 
 and Theodorus of Samos (about 560 b. c.) is na- 
 med by Pliny as its inventor ; but long before this per- 
 iod, the potters w/teel, the earliest and the simplest 
 form of turning machine, was in general use, as is 
 evidenced by numerous references in Holy Writ. The 
 immense variety of work performed by lathes or 
 turning machines necessitates great variations in their 
 construction ; but their mode of operation is alwaj-s 
 the same, and consists in fixing the work in position 
 by two pivots or otherwise, causing it to revolve 
 freely round an axis of revolution, of which the two 
 pivots are the poles, ond holding a chisel or other 
 cutting tool so as to meet it during its revolution, 
 taking care that the cutting tool be held firmly and 
 steadily, and moved about to different parts of the 
 work till the reqiured shape be obtained. Lathes 
 are generallj- divided, with respect to the mode of 
 setting them in motion, into pole-lathes, /</o<-lathes, 
 liand-irheel lathes; and ;)(wer.lathes ; with respect 
 to the species of work they have to perform, into 
 cereif/'-lathes, which form the outside surface, and 
 spindle, mandrel or chuck lathes, which perform hol- 
 low or inside work, though this distinction is for the 
 most part useless, as all lathes of good construction 
 are now fitted for both kinds of work. iJcrf-lathes 
 are those used by turners in wood, and Jar-lathes for 
 the best sort of metal work ; and the small metal 
 center-lathe employed by watchmakers is known as 
 a turn-bench. The primitive and most simple form 
 of lathe for wood-cutting is the pole-lathe. It con- 
 sists of two planks or beams placed horizontally side 
 by side with a narrow space between them, which, 
 being firmly supported at a convenient height, con- 
 stitute the bed: of two uprights or puppets rising from 
 the bed, one of them stationery at the left end, and 
 the other sliding along over the slit between the 
 beams, and capable of being fastened at any requir- 
 ed point by a projecting tenon and wedge beneath ; 
 of a treadle below and parallel to the bed ; and 
 of an elastic pole or loth (whence some derive the 
 name lathe) fixed to the ceiling above. This form 
 of lathe is well adapted for turning long thin 
 cj'linders of wood, the piece to be turned being 
 held fast at each end Ijy the conical iron or steel 
 point projecting from the inner face of each puppet. 
 Motion is communicated to the work by a cord which 
 is fastened to the lathe overhead,wound twice or thrice 
 round the work, and then attached to the treadle be- 
 low. When the workman presses his foot on the 
 treadle, the work commences to revolve rapidly, un- 
 winding the cord towards the treadle, and winding 
 it up on the side next the pole, causing the latter to 
 bend considerably. During this peri<id, the workman 
 has been holding his cutting-instrument to the work ; 
 l)ut after the treadle has been quite (iressed down, 
 he removes his foot, and the reaction of the bent pole 
 causes the work to revolve in an opjiosile direction, 
 till the pole has straightened itself; and during this 
 latter revolution, no cutting is done. When the whole 
 |)iece is to be turned, the cord must be moved from 
 an unfinished to a finished part of the work. For the 
 pole, an clastic steel bow and string are substituted
 
 aEAiiiNO, IjATHEs. etc. 1. Focit-latliP. 2. Screw-i'UttiiiK Inthe. 3. Spindle-lathe. 4. Lathe with two drills 
 pivot-lathe. 1^'. Wood mid metal-turner's tools. 13. Copyinj; turning bench. 1 1. Turner's tools. 15 
 VI-494.
 
 /er-lalhe. 0. Small power-lathe 
 support. 
 
 7. Wheol-ladie. 8,0. Cross sujiport. 10. Spimlle-lathe. 11. Jeweler's
 
 m
 
 UlTHE. 
 
 179 
 
 LATHE. 
 
 wlicii the work is liglit or fine, the cord licinii; u(- 
 tiiclicd to the miilillo of the Htriiii;, anil tlic liow fiis- 
 tcni<i lo the ccilini; liy its <'ciitcr. 'I'lic iiiIviimIiil^c of 
 the polc-htllii' is timl it never iici|iiiri'S nu iMi|ieliis in 
 llie direction of tlic cutting motion, for wlieni'vertlic 
 pressure on tlie treiidlo is removed the reliction of th(t 
 pole tukcs <'lTect ; l)iit llie great waste of time dur- 
 ing tlic straiglitening of tlie pole and rising of the 
 treadle has caused the aljandonnient of tliis ma- 
 chine for the foot. lathe. The fool-latlic, the most I 
 common and generally useful form of lathe, ditrers i 
 from the former in liaving a liiiiid-nUick or faul- \ 
 luad iu ulacc of the left-hand stationary puppet. This ' 
 
 large, coarse, conical screw for holding lirmly any 
 large piece of wooden work; Wu: liolU^ufcUuck,u. strong, 
 circular cup with pirpiudicular sides, into which one 
 end of the wcjrk is lirmly fastcneij Ijy u mallet, or. if 
 too small. Iiy four screws working inward through 
 its sides; the rfr/7/-'7(«c^. of a cylindrical form similar 
 lo the last. but with a square cavity for holding drills, 
 tli(^ instrument, and not the work, being made lo ro- 
 tate in this instance; and the cmcenlric cimtk, a most 
 ingenious piece of m(;chanism — a fiat plate with two 
 slits almost to the center, and in line of a diameter, 
 within which slits works a spindle, with screw-ends 
 carrying two steel studs, whose heads project through 
 
 head-.stock, consists of two supports or puppets 
 firmly connected at their base, and fastened at right 
 angles to the bed by means of screws. The outer 
 puppet is pierced for a screw and the inner one is 
 supplied with a steel collar, within which the man- 
 drel carrying the speed-pulleys turns. The left end 
 of the mandrel is concave, so as to allow the steel 
 point of the screw to fit closely. A rest, which slides 
 along the slit between the two beams of the bed. and 
 ■which may be clamped at any point, and elevated or 
 depressed as is found necessary, is used by the work- 
 man for the purpose of leaning his cutting-tool up- 
 on, in order to afford it a greater steadiness. The 
 pulleys on the spindle and mandrel are of different 
 sizes, and so arranged that when the endless band is 
 
 the slits above the surface mi the right side: these 
 heads carry two curved pieces, which serve as clamps 
 to hold the work; and as the spindle-screws are of 
 the same fineness, and with right and left threads, 
 the revolution of the spindle either removes both 
 further from the center or brings both nearer to it; 
 hence, when the studs are once set at equal dis- 
 tances from the center, they alwa3'S remain so, and 
 the work may be removed and replaced without dan- 
 ger of destroying the adjustment. All these chucks 
 are of metal, and are mostly employed for heavy 
 work ; turners of wood or ivory preferring wood- 
 chucks, which can be altered as required, and secur- 
 ed by an iron ring round the outside, to prevent split- 
 ting. The cutting-tools employed are various ; goug- 
 
 placed on the left-haml pulleys, an extremely rapid 
 motion is communicated to the mamlrel, the motion 
 being reduced, more and more as the band is trans- 
 ferred more to the right, till, at the extreme right. 
 the rotatory motion is much slower than that of the 
 spindle. When the foot-lathe is required for center- 
 work, the inner end of the mandrel, is furnished with 
 a point; but when hollow or inside work is to be 
 done, it nuist be armed with a screw. In this latter 
 case, certain contrivances, known as cAf/c^s. for hold- 
 ing the work, are screwed on to the end of the man- 
 drel. Some of these most commonly used are the 
 screw-churk, which shows on its right side a fiat cir- 
 cular surface, from the center of "which projects a 
 
 es are used to rough out the work — if soft wood 
 — after which chisels with a straight oblique edge 
 are employed; the instruments for harder materials, 
 aiich as ivory or bone, are smaller than the former, 
 and have their sharp edges "better backed ;" for in- 
 side-work, drills are first employed to make an open- 
 ing, and then cutting-tools of various shapes are em- 
 ployed, according to the form which is wished to be 
 given to the interior surface. Fig. 2 represents a fuU 
 set of twelve tools for use with flie lathe. To avoid 
 the imperfections in the workmanship arising from 
 unsteadiness of hand in the workman, the slide-reft 
 is employed. This valuable addition is furnished 
 witli two motions, one toward the work, and the
 
 LATIGO STKAP. 
 
 180 
 
 LATTICED. 
 
 other along, parallel, or at an_v inclination to it, ac- 
 cording as cylindrical or conical tiguresare required; 
 there is a socket for tlie chisel, which is tirmly held 
 in its place by a screw ; and after the slide-rest has 
 been adjusted, the operator has only to move the 
 rest forwcrd or sideways, as may be required, the 
 motions being effected by two screws and winches. 
 The /laml-icheti lathe is similar to the former, but so 
 much larger as to reqnire two workmen, one of whom 
 is employed in setting the instrument in motion by 
 turning a wheel. Tlie poirer-lathe, represented in 
 Fig. l,"is similarly set in motion by horse, water, or 
 steam power, and is used for heavy metal-work, as pi.s- 
 ton-rods.iron columns of various kinds, wheels, artil- 
 lery, etc. This machine differs from the foot-lathe 
 chiefly in the substitution of rack-work, and wheels 
 and pinions, for the endless band, and for manual 
 labor, in the various adjustments of the machine, 
 such as in moving forward the tail-stock, etc.; and 
 In the mandrel being supported by both puppets of 
 the head-stock. Fig. 3. sliows an improved sliafting 
 attachment, and wiien ifted in connection willi tlie 
 lathe, makes a convenient arrangement for turning a 
 large amount of shafting. The latest patented device 
 in this line is the Pond shaft turning attachment with 
 a rotar}' force pump. It consists of a reservoir bolted 
 to the sliding rest, having strong housings to be bored 
 to receive plain split rings for size and steadying, or 
 fluted rings that will mill to size. Three cutting tools 
 precede and one water polishing tool follows above 
 rings, and are all on front side of shaft to be turned ; 
 on back of shaft opposite tlie cutting tools is an ad- 
 justable support. Tlie pump attached to reservoir 
 
 circular figures is by screwing on to the mandrel an 
 apparatus, by means of which the work can be 
 thrown out of the center of rotation at regular inter- 
 vals; but as each different class of form requires a 
 separate kind of apparatus, it is impossible here to 
 describe the operations in detail. One species, how- 
 ever, known as rune-engine turning, and employed for 
 producing involved curviliueal figures, such as ap- 
 pear on bank-notes and on ornamented gold, silver, 
 or gilt work, is so peculiar and ingenious as to call 
 for more special notice. In this species, the stand- 
 ards which siipport the mandrel are no longer fixed 
 at right angles to the lied, but are capable of oscillat- 
 ing iiackward or forward in a plane parallel to the 
 plane of rotation of the mandrel, and are so acted on 
 by a spring that when pushed to one side they are at 
 once restored to their former position on the pressure 
 being withdrawn. Suppose, then, a metal wheel with 
 its rim waved or indented, fastened concentrically 
 on the mandrel, and the mandrel, pushed aside by a 
 fi.xed steel point or roller, applied to the rim of the 
 wheel ; the reaction of the spring against the pres- 
 sure of the roller will keep the latter in close contact 
 with the waved rim throughout, and will produce a 
 definite oscillatory movement of the mandrel of the 
 chuck, and the work fastened on it, and consequent- 
 ly — the cutting or graving tool being firmly held by 
 the slide-rest — definite deviations from a circle in the 
 lines marked on the face of the work. The wave- 
 rimmed wlieel, called a roxelte, may be replaced by 
 another, and that by a third, and so on till a suffi- 
 cient uumberof different waved linesare obtained. A 
 number of rosettes are generally strung at once oa 
 
 driven from lathe-counter, forces water on to each 
 cutting tool. Pressure of each stream can be regu- 
 lated as desired. The reservoir is so constructed that 
 it catches the falling water which is pumped again 
 without waste. The reservoir may be readily re- 
 moveil, leaving regular lathe for general work. 
 
 In wood-turning, the wood is prepared by an axe 
 and rasp, must be lightly though firmly" pressed 
 against by the cutting-tool ; while metal-w-ork must 
 be cleaned from the. sand of the mold or scales of the 
 forge, and in turning, requires less care. Soft woods 
 must be made to revolve with great rapidity ; very 
 hard woods and brass require "much less velocity"; 
 wrought iron and copper, still less; steel, a further 
 dimiiiulion of speed ; and cast iron, tlie least velocity 
 of all. After the work has been duly shaped, it re"- 
 quires to be polished ; and this is effected while it is 
 still in the lathe and rotating, by applying shark's 
 skin to wood, pumice-stone and chalk to ivory and 
 horn, and emery, tripoli, or putty powder to iiietals. 
 Hitherto, we have suppcjsed that" the a5cis of revolu- 
 tion of the work is lived, and eonseijuenlly that all 
 work was turned to present a transverse circular sec- 
 tion; but other forms of section maybe easily ob- 
 tained. The general mode of obtaining these" non- 
 
 tlie mandrel, and the fixed guide is brought into 
 gearing by means of a steel band called a" rubber, 
 with one rosette after another. Similar concentric 
 curves of greater or less perimeter are obtained by 
 removing the slide-rest from, or bringing it nearer 
 to, the axis of revolution. See Axle-lathe, Engine- 
 lathe. Iland-hithe. Heading-lathe, Shafting-lathe,iipin- 
 7iing-liitlie. and Turning. 
 
 LATIGO STRAP.— A strong strap of leather used 
 with the aparejo-eincha to tighten the aparejo. It is 
 about G feet long, IMuches wide at one end and tap- 
 ering to J inch at the other. See Rammer-cloth and 
 Packing. 
 
 LATRINES. — Conveniences for soldiers in camps 
 and liarracks. !Much nitention has of late been de- 
 voted to their construction, a large percentage of the 
 army sickness having been traced to their defective 
 and inquire conditi(ui. 
 
 LATTE. — A straight saber used by the cuirassiers • 
 in France. 
 
 LATTICED.— Latticed, or Treille, in Heraldry is a 
 term apjilieil to a shield covered with a decoration 
 resembling frelty, but differing in this respect, that 
 the pieces do not cross over and under each oilier: 
 those directed from dexter chief to sinister base are
 
 LAUNCH. 
 
 181 
 
 LAY TOaPEDO. 
 
 pliKcd Mp])<T!iioflt and elonf, that is )iavo nails in- 
 scrli'il 111 llic joints. See Ileralilrij, 
 
 LAUNCH. 'I'd lamirli a f;iiii or iitliiT ol)ject for- 
 ward iir bacliward is In innvn it ill tlic direction of its 
 axis. If tile \vci(;lit is siK'li as to rciiuirc levers or 
 handspikes, they are jilaeed, usually, on opposite 
 sides, and the power applied liy l)eariiif:;ilowii, at tlu' 
 same time carryini; the free end .if the lever in a di- 
 reelion contrary to that in which the object is to be 
 moved. 
 
 LAUNDRESS. — A camp woman, usually the wife 
 of a soldier, employed to wash siildier'.i clothinu;. 
 
 LAUREL. — By the ancient Orceks, the laurel was 
 called d(ipluie\ it wa.s sacred to Apollo. iJcrry- 
 beariug twigs of it were wound roun(i the forehead 
 of victorious heroes and poets; and in later times, 
 the degree of Doctor was conferreilwith this ceremony 
 whence th(^ term Lnurention ; and. according to some 
 the term Hachclor. And to this day a laurel crown 
 is the emblem of honor to which poets, artists and 
 warriors aspire. 
 
 LAVURE. The grains, dust, or detached pieces 
 of metal which fall in casting cannon. 
 
 LAW. — Ulackstone says Law means the rules of 
 liuman action or conduct. This detinition is too 
 wide, for it is confined only to such rules as Courts, 
 supported by proper aulhority, will enforce. The 
 Law of Nature consists of those laws which are com- 
 inoii to all mankind, and are supposed to be. as 
 uearl)- as can be conj<'cturcd. independent of tlie ac- 
 cidents of time and place. The Civil or Municipal 
 Law of a nation is what is commonly understood by 
 the term Law, when applied to a particular country. 
 The "Civil Law" is also sometimes used /)«/• exctl. 
 lenee to denote the old Koman Law as embodied in 
 the Institutes of Justinian, the Code, and other parts 
 of wiiat is commonly called the Citrpii.i Juris Civilis, 
 Many of the leading doctrines of that Law have been 
 adopted by modern nations. England is the civiliz- 
 ed country which has adopted the least from the Code 
 of Law, while Scotland follows Continental nations 
 in adopting the Itoman or Civil Law to a large ex- 
 tent, and on many subjects in adopting it entirely. 
 The Law of Nations is subdivided into Pulilic Inter- 
 national Law, and I^rivate International Law, or the 
 comitas gentium. Law is often used in England as 
 contradistinguished from equity, but this is chieHy 
 due to the accidental circumstance that there is a 
 subdivision of Courts into Courts of Law and Equit}', 
 according to the nature of the remedy given. Law 
 is also often in popular parlance distinguished from 
 Justice, the latter being supposed to be perfect in its 
 nature, or as near the standard of perfection as can 
 be supposed ; whereas there are numberless cases of 
 injury, hardship, and oppression which, owing to 
 human infirmity, no system of human laws can 
 adequately redress ; and this is often adduced as 
 confirmation of the doctrine of future rewards and 
 punishments. Law is also sometimes subdivided 
 into Criminal Law, Constitutional Law, etc., accord- 1 
 ing to the particular subject matter. See Articles of 
 W(ir, Execution of Laws, International Law, Martial 
 Lair, and Military Law, 
 
 LAW OF ARMS.— Certain acknowledged rules, reg- 
 ulations, and precepts, which relate to war, and are 
 observed by all civilized nations. The Law of 
 Arms also shows how to proclaim war, to attack the 
 enemy, and to punish offenders in the camp, etc. ! 
 LAW OF NATIONS.— Such general rules as regard ! 
 the Embassies, reception and entertainment of stran- 
 gers, intercourse of merchants, e.Kchange of prison- 1 
 ers, suspension of arms. etc. See Internatirmal Laie. 
 LAWS OF WAR.— The recognized rules for the 
 conduct of civilized warfare. These rules relate to 
 the treatment of prisoners, non-combatants, spies, 
 traitors, etc. ; the disposition of private propert)', 
 the rights of capture, occupation and conquest, the 
 establishment of blockades, tlie rights and obliga- 
 tions of neutrals, etc. 
 
 LAYETTE.— A three-sided tray or box without a 
 
 cover, used to carry powder from one mortar to 
 anollier in powdcr-iiiills. 
 
 LAYING A GUN. In gunnery, pointing a gun so 
 timl till' projei-tile shall '•Irike the oliject aimed at. 
 This is circctcd by bringing th(^ top of the notch of 
 the hind sight, the ape.v of the foresight Cwbelhcr 
 muzzle or trunnion^, and the object in line. In la^'- 
 ing a rilled gun, Ww. scales for elevation and deflrc- 
 tion must be first adjusted. This being done. No. 1 
 of tJH^ gun's crew proceeds to lay the gun. He 
 places himself in rear of the gun, bringing Ids eye to 
 a level with the top of the hind sight, and about 
 inches in rear of it, and, when laying guns where it 
 is necessary to sloop, places his feet so that the body 
 is well balanced, steadying liimself by leaning on 
 the gun with his arm, and gives thenecessarj' orders 
 for elevating or traversing, until the gim is laid as 
 above; with field guns lie himself elevates or de- 
 presses. With guns tilted with a traversing liar, the 
 tinal adjustment is given by No. 1 liimself. In lay- 
 ing a gun. it is well to avoid putting the back of the 
 nail on IIk^ top of the sight, the hand to cover the 
 eye, holding the tangent scale, or other peculiarity. 
 In breech-loading and muzzle loading rifled guns, 
 provision is made in the sighting to meet wliat is 
 known as the co?istant i/ejlirtion of such guns caused 
 by rifling. To provide also against deflection liy wind 
 or other inaccuracies, such as one wdieel being higher 
 lliaii another, a delleclion scale is attached to each 
 gun. Formerly, guns which had no tangent scale 
 were elevated by means of the quarter siglits orquad- 
 rant. 
 
 LAY TORPEDO.— From the date of the destruction 
 of the rebel ram Albermnrle, in 18G4. by a spar tor- 
 pedo invented by W. W. Wood and John L. Lay, 
 ('ol. Lay has devoted his entire time to the inven- 
 tion and construction of submarine torpedoes. Sev- 
 eral forms of Lay spar torpedoes to be operated on 
 ship-board are in use in the Russian Navj-. The 
 torpedo or explosive charge, usually of dynamite, is 
 fixed to the end of a long spar, and is thrust out 
 from a swift torpedo boat, or armor-clad ship, under 
 the hull of a vessel sought to be destroyed, and there 
 exploded. The electrical self-propelled torpedo boat 
 of Lay's invention is in extensive use in Europe, 
 especially in Russia ; and two such boats are owned 
 by the United States Government. Some of the 
 Russian boats were built in the United States. The 
 boat is a spindle; in length, some twelve or fifteen 
 times its diameter. The boats are built from 600 
 pounds to 2^ tons in weight, and cost from #3.000 
 to •'115,000 each. Each boat carries a propelling en- 
 gine, the motive jiower being usually carbonic "acid 
 gas, retained in a chamber or reservoir, under a 
 pressure of 600 to 1,000 pounds per inch when the 
 reservoir is first charged. The throttle valve is 
 opened and closed by a magnet, or by a gas cylinder 
 actuated by a magnet. The boat carries a coil of 
 telegraph cable, of about the specific gravity of 
 water. As the boat advances, the cable is reeled 
 off. and passes out of the boat through a jiipe, which 
 conveys it back past the screw propeller. When 
 the cable reels out, sea-water is permitted to enter 
 the cable compartment, and so maintain the specific 
 gravity of the boat. The rudder can be set to port 
 or starboard, or held amidships, by means of an en- 
 gine controlled by a magnet in coimection with the 
 telegraphic cable. 
 
 The boat will usuallj- run just under the surface 
 of the water, but can be raised or lowered in the 
 water by the admission or ejection of water-ballast, 
 the water being forced out of the ballast chambers 
 by the pressure of gas from the gas reservoir when 
 a cock controlled through the wire is turned; or the 
 boat may have rudders to deflect it upward or down- 
 ward in the water, these rudders being controlled in 
 the same way as the steering rudder. The sight rods, 
 or target rods which project above the water have the 
 forward side painted of a color such as not to be 
 easily distinguished from the water; the side toward
 
 LAZASnS. 
 
 182 
 
 LAZT TONOS. 
 
 the operator is bright colored. These target rods 
 may be fixed on the boat, or may be made to turn 
 down or to telescope into the boat, the movement 
 being controlled in such case by a gas cylinder con- 
 trolled by a magnet. The firing-pin when thrust in, 
 by encountering an obstacle, cuts out a resistance 
 
 crease of speed is obtained is not yet divulged. The 
 Whitehead fish torpedo, of English invention, is 
 somewhat like the Lay torpedo in the fact that it is 
 of spindle shape, is driven by a screw from a gas en- 
 gine inside, and carries a bursting charge. Here the 
 resemblance ends, as the torpedo, when once pointed 
 
 Thk Lay Torpedo (Longitudinal Section 1, 
 
 A. Dynamite Chamber. D. Propelling Engine. 
 
 B. Gas Reservoir Compartment. E. Engine for Operating Diving Ruddere. 
 
 C. Caiile Compartment. F. Steering Engine. 
 
 Propellers. 
 Cable Tube, 
 Firing-pin. 
 
 coil and closes an electric circuit through the cable 
 to firt. the charge, which is in the front part of the 
 boat; or the operator on shore or ship-board who 
 directs the boat through the telegraphic cable may 
 fire the charge by a touch of the firing ke_v on the 
 key-board. The shore or operating end of the cable 
 is connected with an electric battery tlirough a switch- 
 board. Suitable keys on the switch-board control 
 the tlirottle-valve, steering-gear, and all other opera- 
 tive mechanisms on the boat, by a current through 
 a single electric wire. The ingenious electrical de- 
 vices by which so much is accomplished, are the 
 inventions of Mr. George Haight, Colonel Lay's idea 
 having been to have a separate wire in the cable 
 for each machine on the boat. The front end of 
 the boat, which carries the charge, is sometimes 
 made detachable, and is thrown off from the boat 
 before firing; generally, however, the boat is to be 
 sacrificed with the enemy which it seeks to destroy. 
 The operator, by watching the sight targets through 
 a telescope, is enabled to guide his boat to the enemy 
 with certainty, or, if the enemy is beyond his reach, 
 he can direct the boat back, and by cutting out the 
 tiring circuit on his switch-board the boat can be safe- 
 ly handled, as it carries no percussion firing mechan- 
 ism. The lay torpedo boat can be confrolfed at a dis- 
 tance of more than a mile and a half. As recently im- 
 proved, it will run for distances of nearly a mile at the 
 rate of about thirteen knots. The ditficulty in obtain- 
 ing higher speed has been the tendency of the com- 
 pressed gas to freeze by expansion. Dr. Kellogg, of 
 Hartford, Conn., and Sir. Haight have each devised 
 apparatus to utilize the heat of seawater to prevent 
 freezing, and with the sea at summer temperatures, 
 very good results have been obtained, in increasing 
 the speed of the boat. Mr. G. H. Reynolds, of the 
 Pelameler Works, New York, has also made valu- 
 able iniprovemculs. Messrs. Geo. Haight. W. IL 
 Wood, and William Winsor, of New York, have re- 
 cently invented im improveniciit by whirh the dan- 
 ger of freezing of the gas is siil)staiitially done awiiy 
 with, and a speed at the rate of sixteen knots is said 
 to have been attained, with a probability of still fiir- 
 ther increase. The mechanism bv wliicli I Ids in- 
 
 and started, is no longer under control, but must 
 go its course, wherever that may tend. As it has 
 less speed and is much more expensive than a rocket 
 of equal size, it would seem to be much less desir- 
 able. See Torpedw.<i. 
 
 LAZARUS. — A military Order formed at Jerusalem 
 b}' the Christians of the West when they were mas- 
 ters of the Holy Land. They received pilgrims un- 
 der their care, and guarded them on the roads from 
 the insults of the Mohammedans. This Order was 
 instituted in the year 1119, and was confirmed by a 
 Bull of Pope Alexander IV. in (1355), who gave it the 
 rule of St. Augustine. 
 
 LAZT TONGS. — Before the lazi/ tongs, or panto- 
 graph, as it is now known, was introduced much time 
 was spent in contriving some ingenious make-shift to 
 properlj' transmit the reduced motion from the cross- 
 head or trunnion of the engine. Fig. 1 shows how 
 the Bacon pantograph attachment is applied to one 
 of the adjusting nuts which steady the cross-head on 
 the brass ways, while the cross-head lies in a hori- 
 zontal plane, as in many of our old-fashioned hori- 
 zontal engines. One of these adjusting screws is lifted 
 a little, the two long links are shut under each side 
 of the screw underneath the head, and the head then 
 screwed down upon them, making it perfectly rigid, 
 but at the same time not altering any adjustment of 
 the engine. Here a little point must be borne in mind 
 by the party who is applying this device. It will be 
 seen, by reference to Fig. 1, that we have attached 
 the device to the back end of the cross-head on the 
 outside of the guide,and that we must allovs- the cross- 
 head to travel precisely as far one way as the other, 
 and must take the end of that side of the cross-head to 
 which we have made the attachment for our center 
 line, and not calculate from the center nut shown on 
 that siileof the cross-head. Now the post, the top of 
 which is shown in Fig. 2, which supports the other 
 end of the pantograph, must be exactly square with 
 the portion of the cross-head to which we have at- 
 tached the pantograph, when the cross-bead is in pre- 
 cisely the center of itstravcl. In other words, wemust 
 allow the difference between the ceulndnut and the 
 one on the end, as shown, from which to (iblaiii our
 
 LEAD. 
 
 I8;i 
 
 L£AD. 
 
 central line. TIip iirms of tho pantograph iito shown nnrl the brnsson or guitlcs. Thn head of the post is 
 shut up lis much as llicy ciiii hi- when iiltai licil prop- also shown in Fij;. 2. In Fij;. ;i, wr- have theCorliKM 
 f. The support of Ihat cml of the panloj^raph from ! j;ui(l(^ when; the links are put uniler the adjustini^ 
 
 erly. 
 
 the post, which is shown at its outer arms, anil the 
 corci-screw in thi^ short cross-har, must he precise- 
 ly in line when the paiiloLjrapli is in this position, 
 
 screw at the top. This may he done hy horinj^ a 
 hole into the cross-head and screwin); in a piece of 
 three-eif^hths round iron, the outer end of which is 
 (tatlenecl, and has an eye drilled throuf^h it, then 
 dro[i (he taperiiiL^ stud on the out end of the paiito- 
 LTiiph into the eye whenever it is desired to use the 
 paiilonraph. Fi<;. 4 shows the old-fashioned pen- 
 iliiluMj allachiMl to a vertical i;uide or way. In this 
 case, a little slot in the lower end of the pantograph 
 
 Fit'. •')■ 
 is necessary ; the links may not necessarily be used 
 in the positions shown, hut may be brought up at 
 right angles, leaving the slot to make allowance for 
 the circle described. This attachment avoids drill- 
 ing, tapping, taking out the screws that confine the 
 gibs, or defacing the engine anywhere. On slow- 
 moving or condensing engines these attachments can 
 be applied so that the i)antograph can at any time be 
 hooked on while running. and diagrams can be taken 
 from the high or low pressure cylinder, from the 
 pmnps, standpipc, or anywhere that is necessary. 
 It is a simple little convenience, and, as has been 
 
 Fif;. 1. 
 
 else the diagram is worthless. The end of the post 
 must be high enough. so that the pantograph lies per- 
 fectly easy and without any cross-friction ordraught. 
 Fig. 2. shows the application of the attachment to a 
 
 %- 
 
 perpendicular guide or cross-head, which is vertical. 
 In this particular case the two links are run un- 
 der the connection between the cross-head proper 
 
 Viz. 4. 
 
 so clearly and frcriuently shown, it saves a great 
 deal of vexation and delay, and ensures more accu- 
 racy in the work, if only a little pains are taken. 
 One point must also be observed in using the panto- 
 graph — that is, to allow a little leeway between the 
 carrying pulleys of the mdicator and the cord-peg. 
 This attachment is solely manufactured and for sale 
 by the American Steam Gauge Company, of Boston. 
 It costs very little, and it is certainly a labor-saving 
 and an annoyance-preventing device. See Panto- 
 graph. 
 
 LEAD. — l.The slight /OTvwrrf inclination of the axle- 
 tree-arm is called Uie lead; the hollow of the "rm and 
 lead together are termed the let of the arm. 2. A 
 bluish-white metal of considerable brilliancy, which 
 soon disappears on exposure to the air. owing to the 
 formation of a thin tilm of oxide. It is so soft that 
 it may be cut or beaten into thin sheets, but in duc- 
 tility and tenacity it is low in the scale of metals. It 
 is readily fusible at a temperature of about 62.5'', and 
 at a higiier temperature it absorbs oxygen rapidly 
 from the air, and the oxide thus formed" volatilizes in 
 the form of white fumes. The combined action of 
 air and water on lead is a subject of great practical 
 importance, in consequence of the metal being so 
 frequently employed in the construction of cisterns 
 and water-pipes. The lead becomes oxidized at the 
 surface, and the water dissolves the oxide ; this so- 
 lution absorbs the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, > 
 a film of hydrated oxycarbonate of lead (PbO.HO 
 +PbO,CO„) is deposited in silky scales, and a fresh. 
 portion of oxide of lead is formed and dissolved. and 
 in this way a rapid corrosion of the metal ensues. 
 This action is materially increased by the presence 
 of some salts and diminished by the presence of other 
 salts in the water.
 
 LEAD. 
 
 184 
 
 LEAS. 
 
 Pure lead is of very rare occurrence. Almost all 
 the lead of commerce is obtained from galena, the 
 native sulphite of lead, by a process to be presently 
 explained. The lead thus obtained is often nearly 
 pure, and to obtain it pfrfcctly pure it should be re- 
 duced with black flux from oxide left by igniting pure 
 nitrate or carbonate. The compounds of lead with 
 oxygen are four in number — viz., a suboxide PbjO, 
 which is a black powder of no importance ; a pro- 
 toxide, PbO, which is the base of the ordinary salts 
 of the metal: abinoxide, PbOo : and red lead, which 
 is a compound of the two last-named oxides, and is 
 usually represented by the formula 2PbO,Pb02. The 
 protoxide is commonly known as Litharge. Jt is ob- 
 taincd on a large scale by the oxidation of lead in a 
 current of air, when it forms a scaly mass of a yellow 
 or reddish tint. If the oxidation be effected at a 
 temperature below that required for the fusion of 
 oxide, a yellow powder, termed Massicot.\s obtained. 
 Litharge is much used by the assayer as a flux ; it 
 enters largely into the composition of the glaze of 
 common earthenware, and it is employed in phar- 
 macy in the preparation of plasters. A mixture of 
 1 part of Massicot with 10 of brickdust, made into a 
 paste with hnseed-oil, forms the compound known 
 as Dhil Mantie, which, from the hardness with wliich 
 it sets, is frequently employed to repair defects in 
 stone-facings. 
 
 The most important of tne salts of the protoxide 
 of lead are— 1. The Carbonate (PbO,CO„) which oc- 
 curs native as a beautiful mineral in transparent 
 needles or fibrous masses, and which is prepared 
 under the name of White Lead on a large scale as a 
 pigment by a process to be subsequent!}' described. 
 The carbonate is insoluble in water, unless it is 
 largely charged with carbonic acid. It is quickly 
 blackened by exposure to hydrosulphuric acid (sul- 
 phureted hydrogen), either in the form of gas or 
 in solution, and this is a serious drawback to the use 
 of the lead salts as pigments. 2. The Sulphate 
 (PbO.SOj), wliich occurs native in white prismatic 
 crystals, and is formed as a heavy white precipitate 
 on adding sulphuric acid or a soluble svdphate to a 
 soluble lead salt. 3. The J^itrate(FbO. "SO-), which 
 is formed by dissolving lead or its protoxide in dilute 
 nitric acid. 4. The f'hrnmrite^, of which the princi- 
 pal are the neutral chromate or Clirume Yellow 
 (PbO.CrOj), and the dichromate or Orange Chrome. 
 These are much used in pigments, and in calico-dye- 
 ing. .5. The Acetates. The ordinary- or neutral 
 acetate (PbO,C4H303-|-3aq.) is prepared on a large 
 scale by the solution of litharge in distilled vinegar, 
 and evaporation, when the salt is obtained in four- 
 sided prisms, or more commonly in a mass of con- 
 fused minute white crystals, which at 213* lose their 
 water of crystallization. From its appearance, and 
 from its sweetish taste, it derives its name of Sugar 
 of I^ead. It is much used both in medicine and in 
 the arts. Basic acetate of lead, regarded by some 
 chemists as adiacetate, and by others as a triacetate, 
 and commonly known as Goulard's Extract, is pre- 
 pared by boiling a solution of sugar of lead with li- 
 tharge, and adding alcohol, when the salt separates 
 in minute transparent needles. It is the active in- 
 gredient of Croulard Water, which is imitated by the 
 Liqn.or Plmithi Diaretatln Dilutvs, and of Goiilard's 
 Cerate, which is imitated by the Ctratitm Pliimhi 
 Compo.iitum of the London ])harmaco]Ki'ia. The best 
 tests for solutions of the salts of lead are the forma- 
 tion of a black sulphide with hydrosulphuric acid, or 
 hydrosulphate of ammonia, insoluble in an excess 
 of the reagent; of a white insnluljle sulpliatc with 
 , sulphuric acid, or a soluble sulpliate ; of a yellow 
 chromate with chromate of potash; and ii yellow io- 
 dide with iodide of ])otiissium. All the sidts (if lead, 
 insoluble in water, are soluble in a solution of ])ot- 
 ash. Hefore the blow-pipe on charcoiil, the salts of 
 lead yield a soft, white bead of the metal, surround- 
 ed by a yellow ring of oxide. 
 
 Lead was largely worked by the Romans in Great 
 
 Britain, and pigs with Latin inscriptions have been 
 frequently found near old smelting-works. The min- 
 ing of lead in England was formerly regulated by 
 curious laws ; some places, such as the King's Field, 
 in Derbyshire, having special and peculiar privileges. 
 It was the custom in this district not to allow the ore 
 under any circumstances to leave the mine till it 
 was measured in the presence of an official called a 
 bar-7naxter, who set aside a 2.5th part as the King's 
 cope or lot. L^p to a comparatively recent period, 
 persons were allowed to search for veins of the ore 
 without being liable for any damage done to the soil 
 or crops. Lead ore is pretty generally distributed, 
 but by far the largest supply of this metal is obtained 
 from Great Britain and Spain, the former country 
 yielding some 75,000 tons per annum, and the latter 
 probabh' an equal supply. Nearly a fourth of the 
 total British produce is procured from the Northum- 
 berland and Durham district, where there exists, at 
 AUenheads, one of the largest mining establishments 
 in the world. Scotland and Ireland furnish only a 
 very small quantity. AVith the exception of a little 
 from the carbonate of lead, all the supplies of this 
 metal are obtained from the sulphide of lead or galena. 
 The lead ore, when taken from the mine, is broken 
 up into small pieces, "botched," and washed, to 
 separate impurities. Sulphide of lead, when toler- 
 ably pure, is smelted with comparative ease. It is 
 first roasted in a reverberatory furnace. From 20 to 
 40 cwts. of galena are put into the furnace at a time, 
 either with or without lime. In about two hours the 
 charge becomes sufficiently roasted. During the 
 process, the larger portion of the ore (PbS) takes up 
 four equivalents of oxygen, and becomes sulphate of 
 lead (PbO,S03), a littie oxide of lead (PbO) is also 
 formed, while another portion remains unaltered as 
 sulphide of lead. After it is roasted the ore is thor- 
 oughh' mixed together, and the heat of the furnace 
 suddenly raised. This causes a reaction between the 
 unchanged and the oxidized portion of the ore, and 
 reduces much of the lead, sulphurous acid being at 
 the same time evolved. In the third stage, lime is 
 thrown in and mixed with slag and unreduced ore. 
 When this becomes acted on, the whole of the lead 
 is practically separated from the ore. and is then run 
 oft at a tap-hole. 
 
 In some districts, the roasted ore is smelted on a 
 separate ore-hearth called the Scotch furnace, where 
 the heat is urged liy bellows. Peat and coal are 
 used as the fuel. This is a slower mode of smelting 
 than the last, but yields a purer lead. During the 
 operation of smelting, a considerable quantity of lead 
 is volatilized, and carried off as/umg or smoke, which, 
 when allowed to escape into the atmosphere, not only 
 involves a loss of lead, but destroys all vegetation 
 for some distance around the works, and poisons 
 cattle and other animals feeding near them. Much 
 attention has of late been paid to the obviating of 
 these evils, and several plans are in use for the pur- 
 pose. Where it can be done no method is more effec- 
 tive than simply conducting the smoke from the fur- 
 naces through a long horizontal flue — saj' a mile in 
 length — to a vertical stack. The fume condenses 
 on the sides, certain openings being left for the pur- 
 pose of collecting it. About 33 per cent, of the fume 
 thus recovered consists of metallic lead. When lead 
 contains antimony and tin as impurities, they are 
 separated by fusing the metal in shallow pans, and 
 allowing it to oxidize at the surface. In this way 
 the antimony and tin form oxides, and as such are 
 skimmed off. 
 
 Lead is an important metid in the arts. Rolled out 
 into sheets, it is largely tised for roofing ho\ises, for 
 water-cisterns, and for wiiter-pijies. It is also of 
 great service in the construction of large chambers 
 for tlie niaiuifacture of suliihuric acid. Its value for 
 them;inuf;ictnreof shot is well known. Alloyed with 
 antimony, etc., it is largelvconsiimed for type-metal, 
 anil with tin, for solder. "Much lead is also reqinred 
 for the manufacture of pewter, Britannia Metal, etc.
 
 LEAD COATING PROCESS. 
 
 185 
 
 LEAGUE. 
 
 Of (lie (■()iii|Hiiin(ls of l<iiil, other than iillnyn, which 
 occur hirf^ciy in comuiktcc, the followini; arc the 
 principal: W/iiit' /,ead or ('(irlniniUi' nf /,«('/. a sub- 
 stance very extensively used as white paint, and also 
 ti> fiirni a liody for other colors in paintini;. As much 
 as Ki.OIH) tons of it are ainiually made in KuLdand. 
 While lead is still lari;(ly made by the olil J)utch 
 process w hicli consists in freatint; metallic lead, cast 
 in the form of stars or uratinjrs. in such a way as to 
 [greatly facilitate the absorption of carbonic acid. 
 I'hese stars of N'ad iilaced in earthenware vessels, 
 somewhat liki- llower-pols, and conlainins a little 
 weak acetic acid, are built uji in tiers in the form of a 
 stack, and surrounded with spent tan or horse-dun^;. 
 The hi'at civen out from the dun;; volatilizes the acid, 
 which, alont; with the air, o.xidizes the lead. 'I"he 
 acetic acid changes the o.xide into the acetate of lead, 
 and this is, in turn, converted into the carbonate by 
 the ('arbonic acid tjiven olT from th(^ hotbed. ]{y this 
 process, nielallic lead re(|uires from to 8 weeks for 
 its conversion into white lead. Several less tedious 
 processes for the manufacture of a while |)aiiit from 
 lead have been tried at various times, but the only 
 one now practiced is that for the production of an 
 oxychloride of lead, by acting on raw galena with 
 liydrocliloric acid. Minium, lied Lead, irr lied Oxide 
 of f^eiiif, is much consumed in the manufacture of 
 Hint-glass and porcelain, and to some extent as a pig- 
 ment. It requires to be made of very pure lead, as a 
 slight trace of copi)er wovdd impart a color to glass. 
 Minium is prepared by healing Mn.iKicut, or protoxide 
 of lead, to a temperature of tiOO" F. in iron trays, in 
 a reverberatory furnace, carefully avoiding fusion. 
 More oxygen is thus gradually absorbed ; and a com- 
 pound of the proto.xide and the peroxide of lead is 
 formed, having a bright red color, which is the red 
 lead of commvrcii'. — Lil/iiirge has been already no- 
 ticed. 
 
 LEAD-COATING PROCESS.— The process of lead- 
 coating projectiles, chemically, as adopted by Ord- 
 nance Otiicers, is as follows: 1. The projectiles 
 must be turned olT smoothly and brightly. 2. Keep 
 them in a pickle or solution of zinc and vitriol (pro- 
 portion tliree pounds of zinc to each pound of vi- 
 triol,) until they show a metallic appearance; about 
 20 pounds of vitriol to 100 shells of nine pounds, 
 and enough water to cover the surface to be coated; 
 the projectiles being set upright in a wooden box 
 lined with lead. The zinc prevents the acid from 
 acting too violently on the iron. 3. After the pickle, 
 immerse them in clear water, and then in a bath of 
 one pound of lime to 2f gallons of water. 4. Hub 
 the surface with rags and sand until a clear metallic 
 appearance shows itself; wipe dry with rags and 
 saw-dust ; brush off the saw-dust. 5. Heat the 
 projectiles to that degree that a drop of water thrown \ 
 on them will boil at once. 6. Dip them in a solu- ' 
 lion of one part of sal-ammoniac to four parts of 
 water (hot.) 7. Then cover them with a thick j 
 layer of powilered sal-ammoniac. 8. Being perfectly 
 dry, dip them into the molten zinc until they have 
 the same temperature as the zinc. 9. Wipe off the 
 dripping zinc with gloves previously saturated with 
 the solution of sal-ammoniac (6). The gloves must 
 have dried without being wrung. 10. Cover them 
 again with powdered sal-ammoniac. 11. Dip them 
 into molten pewter for about half a minute. (For j 
 projectiles of hardened iron the coating with zinc is i 
 dispensed with. ) 13. Wipe off the dripping pewter 
 with the sal-ammoniac gloves. VS. Cover them ' 
 again with the powdered sal-ammoniac. 14. Put I 
 them in the mold and pour the molten lead in. The I 
 process to the zinc coating (8) is the same or similar 
 to the galvanizing, only more caution is taken to 
 have very smooth surfaces. The process from the 
 tin coating to the ^casting must be done quickly. 
 The mold for the final casting is of cast iron, made 
 of two halves, working on a heavy hinge, and con- 
 nected to a heavy bottom plate, and opened and shut 
 by a pair of long handles. The inside must be pol- 1 
 
 Ished. Its interior diameter must be a little longer 
 than the diameter of the llnished coated projectile. 
 The molil, |)rior to casting, is warmed ho that 
 drops thrown on will boil at once, and receives a 
 coaling of grease, which should be allowed to dry 
 before casting. The casting is tested by making in- 
 cisions which will show whetlier it ailheres lirndy to 
 the iron or will peel <jff. The projectile is tinishcd 
 by turning olf in the lathe the lead coating to the 
 <lesired dimensions; prove them, and screw in the 
 bottom or bead-screws. See C'uated J'ri>jectiUH. 
 
 LEADERS. Long paper tubes of small diameters 
 inclosing a strand of (piick-malch. They are used 
 to communicate lire rajiidly from one point to an- 
 other. The velocity of combustion is from 1 to 2 
 yards per second, (fepending upon the size of the 
 tube, being niorc^ rapid as the tube is smaller. 
 
 Leaders are made by rolling a strl|) of thin paper, 
 2^> inches wide, as obli(iuely as possible, on a ram- 
 rod, or cut the paper into trapezoids 4 inches wide 
 at one base and 2} at the- other: jjaste the edges of 
 the strips O.'J.'i inch, and roll them on a ramrod so 
 that one end shall be enlarged, funnel-shape. When 
 dry, pass a strand of quick-match through, and let 
 it project about an inch at each end. 
 
 To unite them into a long line, insert the end of 
 one into another a distance of .7.') inch, and tie them 
 with a thread. If the line be long, first .stretch a 
 piece of twine, and attach the leader to it every few- 
 feet. See FireirnrkK. 
 
 LEADING. — The clogging of the grooves of a rifle 
 with lead from the bullet ; one of {he principal ob- 
 stacles against continuous accurate shooting. It is 
 obviated by covering the bullet with a paper patch 
 or bv using a lubricant in the cancllures. 
 
 LEADING COLUMN.— The first column that ad- 
 vances from the right, left, or center of any army or 
 batt;ilion. 
 
 LEADING FILE.— The first two men of a battal- 
 ion or company that marches from right, left, or 
 center, bv files. See Vile-leader. 
 
 LEADING FLANK.— When a line breaks into col- 
 umn in order to attack an enemy, the Leading 
 Flank is that which must always preserve the line of 
 appvi in all movements in front. The first battalion, 
 or company of every column which conducts, is 
 called the head or leading flank of that column. 
 
 LEADING QUESTION— In the proceedings of Mili- 
 tary Tribunals, a question to a witness which sug- 
 gests the desired answer. Such questions are objec- 
 tionable except under certain conditions. 
 
 LEAD OUT. — A command in the mounted service 
 to cause the horses to be taken from the stable or 
 picket line preparatory to mounting or harnessing. 
 
 LEAF SIGHT.— A form of elevating rear sights, 
 consisting of several hinged leaves of different 
 heights. It is usually attached to the tangent .sight, 
 and is often called a Sliding Lenf-head. See Sigld. 
 
 LEAGUE. — 1. A measure of length of greal anti- 
 quity. It was used by the Romans, who derived it 
 from the Gauls, and estimated it as equivalent to 
 1500 Roman paces, or 1.376 modem EnglieJi miles. 
 The League was introduced into England by the 
 Normans, probably before the battle of Hastings 
 (1066), and had been by this time lengthened to 2 
 English miles of that time, or 2^^ modern English 
 miles. At the present day, the League is a nautical 
 measure, and signifies the 20th part of a degree— i. 
 e., 3 geographical miles, or 3.456 statute miles. The 
 French and other nations use the same nautical 
 league, but the former nation had (until the intro- 
 duction of the metrical system) two land-measures 
 of the same name, the legal posting-league = 2.42 
 Eng. miles, and the league of 25 to the degree, which 
 is = 2.76 statute English miles. 
 
 2. The term generally employed in the IBtli and 
 17th centuries to designate a political alliance or co- 
 alition. The most famous Leagues were those of 
 Cambray, Schmalkald, Niimberg, etc. But the name 
 has a peculiar importance in the history of France,
 
 LEAGUE OF MASBACH. 
 
 186 
 
 LEATHEA 
 
 as applied to the opposition organized by the Duke 
 of Guise to the granting of tlie free exercise of their 
 religion and political rio;hts to the Huguenots. This 
 League, known as the Holy League, was formed at 
 Peronne, iu 1576, for the maintenance of the Roman 
 Catholic Religion in its predominance; but the object 
 of the Guises was rather to exclude the Protestant 
 Princes of the Blood from the succession to the 
 throne. For an account of the civil war that ensued, 
 see Hixtinre de la Ligue (H vols.. Par. 1829). 
 
 LEAGUE OF MAKBACH.— Under the rule of Count 
 Frederick of Hohenstaufen and his successors, Sua- 
 bia became the most rich, civilized, and powerful 
 country of Germany, and the Ducal Court was the 
 resort of the Minnesingers ; but the wars of the 
 Guelphs and Ghibellines, and the quarrel with the 
 French respecting Naples, put an end to the Dynas- 
 ty in 1268. The Ducal Vassals in Suabia rendered 
 themselves almost independent, and professed to 
 acknowledge no lord but the Emperor. During these 
 dissensions arose the Lordships of Wiirtemberg and 
 Baden, with numerous lesser States, holding direct 
 of the Crown, and opposed to them the Cities, which 
 strove also for an equal independence, and at last, in 
 reward of important service, obtained in 1347 great 
 additional privileges. A number of them united to 
 make common cause against the neighboring Feudal 
 Lords in 1376 (known as the First Suabian League) ; 
 an opposite league was formed between Wiirtem- 
 berg, Baden, and 17 towns in 1405, called the League 
 of JIarbach; and both took part in the war of Swiss 
 Independence, the former in support of the Swiss, 
 the latter of the Austrians. At last, the towns, which 
 had been rapidly increasing in wealth and power, de- 
 cided at Ulm, in 1449, to form a standing army, and 
 a permanent military commission, for the forcible 
 preservation, if necessary, of peace and order ; and 
 the Count of Wiirtemberg, the most powerful of the 
 opposite party, having joined them, was appointed 
 Military Chief of the League, which ultimately grew 
 up into the Great Suabian League, and exercised both 
 administrative and judicial authority over the whole 
 country, effectively repressing feud.al quarrels. In 
 1512, Suabia became one of the ten circles into which 
 Germany was now divided, received its complete or- 
 ganization in 1563. and retained it almost without 
 change till the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. But 
 during this period, the wars of the towns with Wiir- 
 temberg, the Peasants' War, of which Suabia was 
 one of the foci, the Thirty Years' War, and those be- 
 tween France and the Empire, destroyed the demo- 
 cratic constitution of the towns, and with it their en- 
 ergy, and then their prosperity disappeared, leaving 
 now no relic which could suggest th^ir former great 
 political importance. 
 
 LEAGUER. — 1 . The camp of a besieging army ; less 
 often a camp in general; a siege or beleaguering. 2. 
 A confederate, or one who unites in a league. 
 
 LEAST SQUARES.— The method of Least Squares, 
 in astronomy and problems of motion, is the best 
 mode hitherto discovered of obtaining the most cor- 
 rect result from the number of observations upon 
 any phenomenon. These observations are assumed 
 to differ slightly from each other, and to be all of 
 equal value, that is, taken under equally favorable 
 conditions, and with equal instruments. Theordi- 
 Tiary and long established mode of approximating to 
 the trulli in such cases, is by finding the arithmetic 
 mean, and accepting it as the correct result ; but in 
 all cases where the result required does not come di- 
 rectly from observation, but requires to be discover- 
 ed by calculation, this simple and usefid method is 
 inapplicable, and that of 'Least Squares, 'which gives 
 more prol)al)le corrections, is adopted. The nielhod 
 is fcjuudcd (in a tliciirem which was first propounded 
 by Legeudre in 1806, more for the sake of insuring 
 uniformity among calculators thati from any belief 
 in its intrinsic value; l)ut it wasafterwardslhorough- 
 ly discussed and proved by GnuwM and Lajilnce. that 
 "if the mean of a number of distinct observations be j 
 
 so tiken. that the sura of the squares of its differ- 
 ences from the actual observations (generally desig- 
 nated errors) shall be a minimum, tliis mean will be. 
 under the.se circumstances, the correctest obtainable 
 value." The process by which the mean thus obtain- 
 ed is shown to be the most trustworthy approxima- 
 tion is too long for insertion here ; but it may not be 
 undesirable to give an example of the most common 
 form of the method as occurring iu astronomy. Let 
 there be a series of equations- 
 
 X = X-- 
 
 X,= 3x- 
 
 X ^ 4x ■ 
 
 Xl=-x+ 3^-i- 3i 
 where the unknown quantities are x, y, and «, con- 
 nected by various (the more the better) equations 
 with X, X,, etc., quantities which must be deter- 
 mined by actual observation. Suppose the value of 
 the quantities thus found to be 3, 5, 21, and 14, then 
 since by hypothesis all these four observations are 
 erroneous, the errors are 3 — X, 5 — X,, 21 — Xj, 
 14;— Xa, or 
 
 8— X— y — 1t, 
 5 — 3k — 2y — 52, 
 
 21 — 4a; — y — 4z, 
 
 14+ x^Zy — Zz. 
 The squares of these four errors are now added to- 
 gether ; and, to find the values of x, y, and s, 
 which will render this sum (call it S) a minimum, 
 we must differentiate S with respect to x, y. and «in 
 turn, and putting each of these partial differential 
 coefficients equal to zero, we obtain the three equa- 
 tions, — 88 + 27x + 8^/ + 30« = ; — 76 + 8j -}- 
 15y + 25z = 0, and — 157 -f 30^; -|- 25y + 54j = ; 
 from which the most trustworthy values of x, y, and 
 z can be found by common algebra- 
 
 LEATHER.— The skins of animals chemically al- 
 tered by the vegetable principle called tannin, or- 
 tannic acid, so as to arrest that proneness to decom- 
 pose which is characteristic of soft animal substances. 
 Its invention reaches beyond the dawn of history and 
 was probably among the earliest germs of civiliza- 
 tion; for as the skins of animals would naturally be 
 among the first articles of clothing, any means of pre- 
 serving them more effectually than by drj'ing would 
 be highly prized. The discovery that bark had this 
 effect was doubtless the result of accident. The prin- 
 ciple of its action was unknown up to the present 
 century ; and the same unvarying method has been 
 employed from the earliest times until the last few 
 years, when the invention of new processes has 
 much faciliated the manufacture. 
 
 The skin of all animals used in the production of 
 leather consist chiefly of gelatine, a substance which 
 easily enters into chemical combination with the tan- 
 nic acid found in the bark of most kinds of trees, and 
 forms what may be termed an insoluble tanno.gela- 
 tin. This is tlie whole theory of tanning, or con- 
 verting the skins of animals into leather. Former- 
 ly, oak-bark was supposed to be the only tanning 
 material of any value ; but latelj- very numerous ad- 
 ditions have been made to this branch of economic 
 botany. 
 
 In addition to the process of tanning in making 
 leather, there are other modes, one of which is taw. 
 ing, another dren-v'ng in oil. The following are the 
 skins which form the staple of our leather manufac- 
 ture : ox, cow, calf and kip, buffalo, horse, sheep, 
 lamb, goat, kid, deer, dog, seal, and hog. These are 
 consumed, in a great degree, in the construction of 
 military equipments and appliances. The term pelt 
 is applied to a!) skius before they are converted into 
 leather. When simply made into leather in the state 
 we find in shoe-soles, it is called, " Rough Leather;" 
 but if, in addition, it is submitted to the process call- 
 ed currying, it is termed " Dressed Leather." Tlio 
 following trade-terms are in general use : hides or 
 crop-hides, butts and backs, bends, offal, and skins. 
 The comiilcte hide when rounded, wilh the cheeks, 
 shanks, and belly-pieces, etc., pared off, is called a
 
 LEATHEB. 
 
 187 
 
 LEATHEB. 
 
 butt; the pieces cut ofT constitute the nffal; iiml nkinn in Iiirfie qu.-intltieH from AuHlralia and the Cape of 
 are all the lii;liter forms of leather, such as sheep, | Oood Mope. The latter with the cape skin, are 
 coat deer, etc. I used for liook-liinding, jrhivcs, etc. Lauih-skinH 
 
 are imported also from Italy, Sicily, and Spain, and 
 tewed and dyed for making gloves, in imitation of 
 kid. A great portion of all sorts of lambs and sheep 
 lire tawed and used for aprons, sewing harness, 
 plaster-skins, tying up bottles, lining shoes, and other 
 Sheep and lamb skins are imported (in the wool) jobbing and inferior purposes. Deerskins are dress-
 
 LEATHEB CANNON. 
 
 188 
 
 LEATHEB CANNON. 
 
 ed by the oil process, and form a great portion of tlie 
 80-called s/(«m')^ leather, which derives it name from 
 the chamois of the Alps, from the skin of which it 
 was formerly made. Dog-s/cins are tanned or tawed 
 for gloves, and for thiu shoes and boots. Seal-xk/ns 
 are manufactured into the so-called "patent leather," 
 by varnishing their upper surface. The manufacture 
 of this kind of leather has of late become of great 
 importance to the London, Edinburgh, and New- 
 castle tanners. Iloff OT pig .ikin^ are imported from 
 Russia and other countries, and many are supplied 
 b3' Scotland ; their use is chiefly in the manufacture 
 of saddles, etc. Walrus a.nd Ilippopr/tamus hides are 
 tanned in considerable numbers for the use of cutlers 
 and other workers in steel goods, "buffliug-wheels" 
 being made of them often an inch thick, which are 
 of great importance in giving the polish to metal. 
 Lately, belts for driving machinery have successful- 
 ly been made from them. Knngarno-skins of various 
 species are tanned or tawed in Australia, and form 
 a kind of leather in great favor for dress-boots. 
 
 The first process in making tanned sole leather is to 
 soak the skins or hides in water for a greater or less 
 time, to wash and soften them; they are then laid in 
 heaps for a short time, and afterwards hung in heated 
 rooms, by which means a slight putrefactive decom- 
 position is started, and the hair becomes so loose as 
 to be easily detached. This process of " unhairing " 
 is mostly followed in America ; but in Great Britain 
 milk of lime is used for soaking the hide till the hair 
 loosens. Hides or skins intended for dressing pur- 
 poses, such as shoe, coach, harness, or book-binding, 
 after the hair is taken off by the lime, have to be 
 submitted to a process called " bating," for the pur- 
 pose of reducing the thickening or swelling occas- 
 ioned by the introduction of the lime, and for cleans- 
 ing the skin from grease and other impurities. This 
 is effected by working the skins in a decoctiou of 
 pigeons' or dogs' dung and warm water, and no 
 dressing-leather is ever submitted to bark or shumac 
 ■without undergoing this process. 
 
 The first attempts at improvement in tanning'were 
 the method invented by Mr. Spilsbury in 1823, and 
 the improvement on this method by Jlr. Drake, of 
 Bedminster, in 1831. The principle consisted in caus- 
 ing the ot/ie or tan-liguor to filter through the hides 
 under pressure. For this purpose, in Drake's process, 
 the edges of the hides were sewed up so as to form 
 a bag. The bags being suspended, were filled with 
 cold tan-liquor, which gradually filtered through the 
 pores of tiie hides, and impregnated them with the 
 tannin. The processes by infiltration, however.have 
 been entirely abandoned for heavy leather, as they 
 have the effect of rendering the leather porous and 
 deficient in firmness. 
 
 Various patents for improvements in tanning have 
 been in operation of late years. Hercpath and Cox, 
 of Bristol, tied hides to each other to form a long 
 belt, and pressed them between rollers, to squeeze out 
 the partially exhausted tan-liquor from the pores, so 
 that a stronger liquor might be absorbed. Messrs. J. 
 and G. Cox, of Gorgie Mills, near Edinburgh, made 
 an improvement on this mode bj' attaching the hides 
 to a revolving drum, so that the hides press on each 
 other on the top of the drum, but hang suspended in 
 the tan-liquor from the lower part: and thus, by the 
 hides being alternately in and out of the liquor,the 
 tanning is quickly effected. 
 
 Tniring consists in dressing the skins with anti- 
 se]itic materials, so as to preserve them from decay; 
 but by this operation no chemical change is effected 
 in the gelatine of the skins ; hence, tawed leather 
 can be used in the manufacture of glue. In tawing, 
 the first process is careful washing, next dressing 
 them with lime, then removing the liairor wool, and 
 lastly, steeping tlicm in some one or more of the 
 various mixtures wliich are used for converting skins 
 into leatlier by tliis method. 
 
 ]iesidea tanning and Uiin'ng. many kinds of leath- 
 er require the currier's art to bring them to the 
 
 state of completion required for military purposes. 
 The currier receives tlie newly tanned skins, 'and 
 finds them harsh to the feel, and rough on the flesh- 
 side. He removes all the roughness by carefully 
 shavingwith a peculiar knife. After soaking in clean 
 water, he then scrapes the skin with considerable 
 pressure upon a scraping-tool or slicker, and thus re- 
 moves any irregularities. The moisture is then 
 removed as much as possible, and oil, usually cod 
 oil and tallow, are rubbed over the leather, which 
 is laid aside to dry completely, and as the moisture 
 leaves it. the oil penetrates. When quite dried and 
 saturated with the oil, the skin is rubbed on a board 
 with rounded ridges, by which a peculiar grained 
 appearance is given, and the leather is rendered 
 very pliable. In currying, almost every variety of 
 leather requires some variation in the processes em- 
 ployed, but the currier's object is in all cases to 
 give a suppleness and fine finish to the skins. 
 
 Moroem Leather, formerly an article of import from 
 the Barbary coast, is now prepared in large quanti- 
 ties in this country from goat-skins ; sheep-skins are 
 also used for imitation. It is alwaj-s dyed on the 
 outer or grain side with some color, and the leather- 
 dresser in finishing gives a peculiar ribbed or a rough- 
 ly granulated surfaace to it, by means of engraved 
 boxwood balls which he works over the surface. 
 
 Russia Leather is much valued for its aromatic 
 odor, which it derives from the peculiar oil of the 
 birch-bark used in tanning it. The fact that this odor 
 repels moths and other insects, renders this leather 
 particularly valuable for binding documents ; a few 
 books in a library, bound in Russia Leather, being 
 effective safeguards against insect enemies. It is also 
 said to destroy or prevent the vegetable evil called 
 mildew, to which bo»ks are so very liable. 
 
 The drawing represents a side of leather, and is 
 made to the scale of one inch to the foot ; the marks 
 show the size and shape of the specimens tested, and 
 the figures give the strain in pounds at which each 
 piece broke, the permanent elongation in fractions 
 of an inch, and weight in ounces and drachms. The 
 pieces were each 11 J inches long by 2 inches wide, 
 and were taken out of the exact portion of the hide 
 on which they arc marked. 
 
 These test were made by Messrs. Riehle Brothers, 
 at the testing department of their works, for the 
 obvious reasons of determining by actual experi- 
 ment, the tensile strength of the different portions of 
 a side of leather. 
 
 These tests have been the means of awakening new 
 interest in important investigations, as to the com- 
 parative value of sides of leather for special military 
 purposes, and as to the best means of producing the 
 best results. Until comparatively lately the testing 
 of iron and other metals, excepting by the crudest 
 methods, was almost entirely neglected, but now 
 testing has become a necessity, and the value of 
 metals is determined between buyer and seller by 
 their endurance under certain tests that are brought 
 to bear upon them, and that correspond to the spec- 
 ial use that they may be required for. This, no doubt, 
 will also be the method of determining the value of 
 leather, especially that used for belting, etc.. and the 
 comparison of tests made with patented and rubber 
 belting is interesting and useful. See Testing Ma- 
 chine a. 
 
 LEATHER CANNON.— A variety of cannon intro- 
 duced by tiustavus Adolphus into the army on ac- 
 count of their mobility. Undeniable evidence, how- 
 ever, of tlieir earlier existence, though of a smaller 
 size, is found in the " Landesliuter Ilarnisch-Kam- 
 mer-Inventurium " of 15(>2, iu which mention «s made 
 of a " Lange lederne Buehse mit Kugel-Modell." 
 Although Gustavus Adolphus improved and per- 
 fected the leather <annon which he introduced into 
 his army in l(i2<>, and used iu the siege of Worm- 
 ditt, yet neilher he nor the German Freiherr Mol- 
 ehior von Wurmbrandt, nor the North British Baron 
 Robert Scot, can be regarded as the inventor. The
 
 LEAVE OF ABSENCE. 
 
 189 
 
 LEAVE OF ABSENCE. 
 
 invciilion iscviilcntly of niiiclirnrlier dale. A Iciillicr 
 inorliir for firiiif^ sliclls, on cxliiliilion in llic ArMcniil 
 at Venice, wiih, tlie Vcnctiiins iiHBcrt, iniide in i;j4l) ; 
 it is very liliely, liowovcr, tliiit ilH orij^in is Honu-- 
 wlial I'urliiT. One is liiTi; rcininilol of the niiiny siili- 
 slitutcs fornielal ordnance, cspri'ially of the wooden 
 cannon (entirely bound witli iron lioops;, wliicli arc 
 frequently menlioncd in the period from 152.') to 
 : 1530. 
 
 The leather cannon varied from a l-i)r. to a 4-pr. 
 The bore consisted of a copper cylinder, of the 
 [ thickucBS of thrce-fourtli.s of the diaineter of the 
 ball used. The lcnfj;lh of the cylinder was sixteen 
 calibers ; cascable and lirecch were screwed into the 
 cylinder. The vent, of copper, was screwed into 
 the breech. The entire length of the bore was 
 covered with iron hoops, over which a number of 
 ropes were woinid, which, in turn, were covered 
 with several layers of varnish. Over these layers 
 another round of ropes was wound, and over this 
 was spread a layer of cement. This process was 
 repeated until tlie coat was of the thickness of two 
 calibers; the last coalinj;eonsisted of tarred leather, 
 which ii'i^'*' t'"" eannon its name. The charge 
 amounted to one-fourth, rarel_v one-third, of tlie 
 weight of the ball ; the cannon was loaded only with 
 canister. Canister-shot, until that time only used in 
 sieges, was introduced by Gustavus Adolphus into the 
 field .service, and consisted mostly of musket liullets, 
 though old pieces of iron were very often used. The 
 shot were put into wooilen and tin boxes, linen bags, 
 and sometimes only in rude wicker baskets. The lea- 
 ther cannon, of i)0 lbs. weight, with its light carriage, 
 was easily drawn by two men. This cannon, however, 
 by no means met the high expectations entertained of 
 it. Already in 1031 the Swedes ceased using this na- 
 ture of gun, because at the battle of Breitenfeld it not 
 only became so overheated that the charges ignited 
 of themselves, but it also gave a very short and tm- 
 reliablc range. In 103!). a certain Lieutenant Wolf 
 Muller, of C'hemnit/,, circulated the report that he 
 wius in po.ssession of a secret for the construction of 
 lejither cannon which had many and decided advan- 
 tages over metal ordnance. The Elector of Saxony 
 orderoil t)olnnel von Schwalbach to investigate and 
 to report sis ti> its worth. The report of the Colonel 
 was found to be favorable, and expressed in these 
 words: — "Owing to their light weight, easy trans- 
 porUition, and saving of powder, as well as the ad- 
 vantages they offer in the field against the enemy, and 
 in nicnmtiiinous and swampy regions, in which latter 
 places heavy cannon can seldom be used at all, such 
 pieces cannot be too highly regarded," etc. The Elec- 
 tor ordered the construction of two leather cannon.for 
 which were given " fifty-seven florins three groschen 
 ready money ; seventeen florins three groschen for 
 sixty pounds pewter ; fifty-one florins three groschen 
 for two and one-fourth himdred-weiglit refined cop- 
 per. Of the copper, the coppersmitli received two 
 hundred-weight, with which lie made a tube four 
 and one-half ells long, weighing ninety pounds, and 
 used twelve pounds for muzzle and vent. The waste 
 in melting twice amounted to si.xteen pounds, the re- 
 mainder was left to the smith as paj- for his work." 
 The trial with these leather guns could not have 
 been very satisfactory, if we may judge from the 
 following item in a record of weights of the Ar- 
 mory at Dresden, June 14, 1030: '• Inventory of the 
 weights of copper and pewter of the bunt leather 
 pieces in the Elector's Armory at Dresden : — Copper, 
 one-half hundred-weight, twenty-six pounds ; pew- 
 ter, thirty-four pounds." Xo mention being made 
 of these guns at a later period, it is taken lor grant- 
 ed that this one failure was thought sufficient to cool 
 all enthusiasm for leather cannon. 
 
 LEAVE OF ABSENCE.— The permission which of 
 ficers and soldiers of an army obtain to absent them- 
 selves from duty. In the British service, in applying 
 for leave, theWar Office form is used. The General 
 Commanding has the power to grant leave within 
 
 monthly returns. For special duties, the olllcerwho 
 is to |ierform the work in the interim is to be named 
 in the application for leave. The apiilicalion of a 
 Medical OHlcergocs first to the principal .Medical Of- 
 ficer in I he division or garrison ; that of a IXV'naster 
 to tlie War Ollice, accom])anied bv a certificate from 
 a Hoard that his accounts are satisfactory, cash oal- 
 ance correct, acting Paymaster engaged, and de- 
 claration made that the real Paymaster is answerable 
 for substitute. The application of an oHIcer pro- 
 ceeding on nick leave must be accompanied liy a 
 mediciil certificate. If the officer is not \\\if\y to re- 
 join soon, it is usual for the Medical Board to ask the 
 General to assemble the Board, or to get him to apply 
 to the Horse Guards, should the regulations point 
 out this to be the course to be pursued. In the In- 
 dian military service, leave of absence includes three 
 kinds: — 1. Furlough in or out of India on sick or 
 general leave ; 2. Genera! leave on private Imsinesg, 
 or on sick certificate in India, or short leave to sea; 3. 
 Privilege leave. In the rules which govern an officer's 
 furlough in or out of India, there is no distinction be- 
 tween »/>/• and /jtneriil leave with respect to allow- 
 ances, hitherto drawn, both being included under the 
 general term, furlough; provision, however, is made 
 for the obtainment of leave under medical certificate 
 without all the restrictions applicable to furlough 
 when taken without it. In the rules under the head 
 of furlough, it is shown that an officer of the Indian 
 Army must serve six years after his return from Eng- 
 land or elsewhere, after taking furlough, before he 
 is entitled to any more leave counting as service : but 
 should the ofllcer in question have accumulated leave, 
 so that after two years' absence he has still one or two 
 years leave due him, hewill be permitted three years 
 after his return to proceed again on leave witliout 
 loss or appointment. ,Short Uare, not exceeding three 
 months, may be taken to sea on certain conditions; 
 but ab.sc'nce from India for any longer period is treat- 
 ed as furlough. Privilege UavefoT sixtj- orninety days 
 (depending upon the part of the country an officer is 
 cantoned in), in each year, is granted to all officers 
 in military emploj- without loss of allowances; should 
 this time be exceeded, it nu»t be converted into gen- 
 eral leave, unless sickness has been the cause of de- 
 tention. 
 
 In the United States service leaves of absence are 
 not granted so that a company will be left without 
 one of its commissioned officers, or a garrisoned post 
 without two commissioned officers and competent 
 medical attendance ; nor is such leave granted to an 
 officer during the season of active operations except 
 on urgent necessity. 
 
 No leave of absence exceeding seven days, except 
 on extraordinary occasions, when the circumstances 
 must be particularly stated, is granted to any officer 
 until he has joined his regiment or corps, and served 
 therewith at least two years. In giving permission 
 to apply for the extension of a leave of absence, the 
 tenn of the extension is stated. The term of the 
 extension approved by the Department Commander is 
 regulated by the season and the usual opportunities 
 for reaching the officer's station, so that he may not 
 be absent during the time for active operations. 
 Leaves of absence are granted for periods specified 
 as " one month," " one month and ten days," " two 
 months," etc., instead of so many days, and com- 
 mences on the day the officer departs from his 
 proper station. The expiration of his leave must 
 find him at his post. Leave for one month, begin- 
 ning on the first day of a calendar month, expires 
 with the last day of the month, -whatever may be 
 its number of days. Commencing on an intermedi- 
 ate day of a month, the leave will expire with the 
 day preceding the same day in the next month. 
 The day of departure, whatever the hour, is counted 
 as a day of aliscnce; the day of return, whatever its 
 hour, as a day of duty. The Commander of a post 
 way take leave of absence not to exceed seven days 
 at one time, or in the same month, reporting the fuct
 
 LE BOULENOE CHS0N06BAFH. 
 
 190 
 
 L£ BOULENOE CHBONOGBAPH. 
 
 to his next Superior Commander ; and in time of peace 
 the Commander of a post may grant leaves of absence 
 not to exceed seven days at one time, or in the same 
 month. A Department Commander may grant leaves 
 for one month, or extend to that period those granted 
 by Post Commanders : a Military Division Command- 
 er, for two months, or extend one month a leave 
 granted by a Department Commander under him ; 
 the General of the Army, four months, or extend to' 
 that period a leave already granted. Applications 
 for leaves of absence for more than four months, or to 
 officers of Engineers and Ordnance, or officers of the 
 General Staff or serving on it (Aides-de-Camp ex- 
 cepted), for more than one month, are referred to the 
 Adjutant General for the decision and orders of the 
 Secretary of War. Officers are not permitted to 
 leave the United States, to go beyond sea, without 
 a special permission from the War Department. Offi- 
 cers of the army traveling or stopping in foreign 
 countries, whether on duty or leave of absence, are 
 expected to avail themselves of all opportunities, 
 properly within their reach, for obtaining information 
 of value to the militarv service of the iTnited States, 
 especially that pertaining to their own arm or branch 
 of service. Verbal perniits for less than t%vent}--four 
 hours are not counted as leaves of absence. But 
 for every other absence of whatever duration, the 
 date of departure and return is noted on Post, Regi- 
 mental, Department, and Division Returns against 
 each officer borne thereon. Permission to hunt is not 
 considered as a leave of absence or charged as such 
 if the officer, on his return to his station, tiles with 
 his Commanding Officer a certificate that his absence 
 has been solely employed in hunting, and furnishes 
 as complete a description of the country passed over 
 as circumstances permit. Officers when absent on 
 account of sickness or wounds, or lawfully absent 
 from duty and waiting orders, receive full pay; wlien 
 absent with leave for other causes, full pay during 
 auch absence, ntit exceeding in the aggregate thirty 
 days in one year, and half-pay during such absence 
 exceeding thirty' days in one year. When absent 
 ■without leave, they forfeit all pay during such ab- 
 sence, unless the absence is excused as unavoidable. 
 
 By an Act of Congress approved in 187(i, an officer 
 may permit his leave to accumulate for a period not 
 exceeding four years. He may, moreover, enjoy 
 five months' continuous leave on full pay, if the fifth 
 month of such leave is whoU}- distinct from the four 
 year period. An officer on leave over this time re- 
 ceives half-pay only. When an officer is absent tm- 
 der certificate of disability duly accepted, on account 
 of sickness or wounds, he is entitled to tlie same pay 
 as if an order had been issued granting him a sick- 
 leave. Officers absent on certificate of disability 
 should so arrange that the certificates niaj' cover 
 entire calendar months, and not monthly periods 
 commencing with intermediate days. The pay-ac- 
 count of every officer on leave should, throughout 
 the period of his absence, exhibit the date of com- 
 mencement of leave, the authority for liis absence, 
 and in case the account is for tlie month in which 
 the absence terminates, the date of return to duty. 
 In all cases the day of departure or relief from duty 
 is counted as a day of absence, and the day of return 
 as a day of duty. In' determining the portion of a 
 leave of absence for which an officer is entitled to 
 full pay, no time is considered outside of a period of 
 four successive leave years, including the leave year 
 or years in which the absence is taken. The leave 
 year is reckoned from June 20th to the following 
 June 19th inclusive. lu estimating tlie period of 
 absence during any one leave year, each and every 
 day's absence is included. Every officer who is 
 dropped by the President from the rolls of tlu' Army 
 for absence from duty three months without leave, 
 forfeits all pay due or to become due. See Furlough 
 aJld Si(:k-lr<ire. 
 
 LE BOULENOE CHRONOGRAPH.— In this instru- 
 ment tlie time between two events is ascertained by 
 
 notiag the distance of the/rf« fall of a heavy body 
 during the interval, the beginning and end of this 
 distance being made to accord with the occurrence 
 of the events tjy means of the galvanic current. It 
 can be used not only as a micro-chronometer, but 
 directly as a velocimeter. The drawing shows the 
 instrument ready for use, for taking velocities, and 
 for measuring minute intervals of time To olitain 
 velocities at once, two electric circuits are establish- 
 ed, a fixed distance, saj' fifty meters, apart, in such 
 a manner as to be successively broken by the pro- 
 jectile in its flight. The first current circulates 
 through the electro-magnet A, whose armature is a 
 long cylindrical rod C, called the chrmiometer, furnish, 
 ed with two enveloping zinc tubes, D and E, called 
 rerordrrs. The second current passes by the electro- 
 magnet, B, whose armature, the shorter rod, F, is 
 called the registrar. The third active element of the 
 instrument is the indenter, consisting of a circular 
 knife, fixed in a mainspring, which can be cocked 
 by means of a catch on a lever. 
 
 On the breaking of the first circuit, the chrono- 
 meter falls vertically ; on the rupture of the second 
 the registrar falls in its turn, depresses the free end 
 of the lever, and thus releases the mainspring ; the 
 knife juts forward, strikes the falling chronometer, 
 and indents the upper recorder. As shown below, a 
 very simple relation holds between the dent thus ob- 
 tained and the velocity of the projectile which caused 
 it. Even with this brief description, a moment's 
 thought will show that the lower the velocity the 
 higher up shall the recorder be indented. 
 
 The above succint account of the action of the in- 
 strument is sufficient for a comprehension of its the- 
 ory. As an irn'gin of reference for the falls of the 
 chronometer, we take the dent imprinted on the low- 
 er recorder, when the knife is " let off," while 
 the chronometer is suspended. Let // lie the height 
 above the origin of the dent due to the shot; then, 
 as the chronometer followed the law of falling 
 bodies from the beginning of its movement up to the 
 
 time it was struck bv the knife, we have T 
 
 
 as the time corresponding to this fall. It would also 
 be the time of the trajectory between the targets (giv- 
 
 50 
 ing a velocity of — meters to the projectile;, orovid- 
 
 T' 
 ed the chronometer began its fall at the precise in- 
 stant the first, and the knife struck it at the precise 
 instant the second current was broken. But this is, 
 in reality, not so ; for, after the breaking of the first 
 current, a certain interval, <(>, elapses before the elec- 
 tro-magnate is sufficiently demagnetized to permit 
 the fall of the chronometer, which will accordingly 
 be retarded by this time, and the observed duration 
 of trajectory will be too small by the same quantity. 
 On the other hand, from the lireaking of the sec- 
 ond current up to the instant of the knife striking 
 the chronometer, the following intervals elapse : o' 
 for the sufficient demagnetization of the electro-mag- 
 net, B. t' for the fall of the registrar to the disk 
 of the indenter. t" for the release of the catch, t'" 
 for the knife to clear the horizontal distance to the 
 falling chronometer. The observed time T' is then 
 too great by the quantity (</+ t' -\- t" -j- 1'"), and too 
 small by *. For the true time of flight, T, we have, 
 therefore, T' — (</ + t' +t " + t'" — *) = T' —i. 
 For T = *, we have T' = t, whence to obtain the 
 value of t we have only to break both circuits sim- 
 nltaueonsly, and note the resulting time of fall ; 
 since after this common rupture, there passes the 
 time ■{. before the chronometer falls, and (o' -)-*' + 
 t" -j- t'") before it struck ; until it is dented there 
 elapses tlien tlie time ((>' -\- t' -\- t" -\- V" — *) or t. 
 As will be shown presently, the instrument can 
 be so adjusted as to give t a constant value, 
 say 0" .!■'). Whenever desirable, we can very readi- 
 ly ascertain whether the apparatus is thus adjusted
 
 LE BOULENOE CHBONOOHAPH. 
 
 191 
 
 LE BOULENOE CHBONOOBAJH. 
 
 or not, by usinj; tlio ilixjiinrtor, wliicli is in Itotli cir- 
 ciiilH. Iftlic ri'sull ins (lent ''' 1 10.29""" alidvc tin- 
 oriirin (lli(^ licif;lit corrcHiiondins; to O'M.'i at \Val<;r- 
 town Arsciiiil), llicii tlir instrnnK'nt is properly Hct. 
 Dcpi'ndcnl upon this coiKiilion.wo ran fix in ailvanci- 
 I lie iK'iiilil (Mirrcsponilini^ to any irivcn velocity of 
 proji'i-lile. For example, with iin inilial veliieily of 
 .'iOO Mielers, I lie projeelile will piisM over I lie 50 iiielers' 
 interval Iietweeii the circuits in U".l, and tlie instru- 
 iiient will record 0".15+0".l, or0".25, andthe lieight 
 will therefore be 
 
 H = 
 
 9.8037 X 0".2.5» 
 
 -=30G.36niin. 
 
 Rrci]>rocally, if tlio slintpivps a dent 300. 36""" above 
 the oriij;iii, we conclude thul the jirojectilc was mov- 
 inii; wiili a velocity of .')()() meters. Tiie lieirrlits cor- 
 resiioudiuij; to all velocities within the ordinary limits 
 of exijcnuicuts have liceu calculated aud iuscribed 
 
 also serves as a stand for mount in^ it. After unpack- 
 ing the liox screw on the sectional iron tripod, then 
 stand it independently of the lloor, so that it maybe 
 subject to as little viiiration as possible, and fasten 
 se(Mirely in its place the trianf;;ular plate that carries 
 the indeiiter and column. The electro-ina;;net» 
 are commonly attached by jiassini^ the threaded 
 stems throui^li the column, and llien ti^rhtenii^; 
 with the milled nuts. The ilisjiinctor shoiihl be 
 ])laced very near the instrument, within easy reacli of 
 the operator. Ordinarily one seven-inch chromic 
 potash cup will be found sutlicient for tlie registrar 
 circuit, and three cups for tin- chronometer. As so 
 little power is reipiired, we would recominenfl. if 
 easily attainalile, that Daniell's or Hill's batteries 
 be used as givinif most constant action. Two re- 
 corders are ]iiit ou the chronometer. These lubes 
 should be liLflitly tapped, before being slipped on, 
 to insure a snug tit. Care must be taken tliat the 
 lower recorder rests closely against the bob, 
 
 on a metal rule, furnished with a sliding index, Tchioh 
 thus aJords a simple means for directly measuring 
 the velocity of the projectile tired. The shot having 
 given the indent, we adjust the rule to the chronom- 
 fiter, slide the beak of the index into the notch, and 
 read ofl: the velocity. 
 
 As has already been stated, when it is desired to 
 measure velocities directly, two targets must be set 
 up 50 meters apart. The chronometer circuit passes 
 through the first, and the registrar through the sec- 
 ond, the disjunctor being in both. Should local diffi- 
 culties intervene to prevent the targets being set up 
 exactly 50 meters apart, multiply the velocity read , 
 
 from tue scale by the constant ratio — where D is the 
 
 50 
 actual space in meters. For transport, the diflferent 
 parts of the instrument are packed in a box, which 
 
 The currents befng properly established and suffi- 
 ciently strong to enable the magnets to maintain the 
 rod-armatures, the next step is the adjustment of 
 the apparatus, which comprises these three opera- 
 tions: 1. Leveling the instrument. 2. Regulating 
 the power of the electro-magnets. 8. Fixing the 
 height of the disjunctor-reading. The instrument is 
 set up for firing in the same manner as for taking a 
 disjunctor reading. To avoid confusion, numbered 
 ink-marks, about one-sixteenth of an inch apart, are 
 made around the bases of the two recorders, and 
 each mark is successively brought in line with the 
 cut on the ring as the firing progresses, by which 
 means the dems arc made on equidistant straight- 
 line elements. The zincs can thus receive about 
 twenty dents, and then be turned end for end and 
 receive twenty more. The shot having given a dent, 
 apply the rule to the chronometer in the manner
 
 LES. 
 
 192 
 
 LEE MAOAZINEGUN. 
 
 described for tracing the disjunction circle, bring 
 the veruier-l<nife against the edge of the notch, 
 clamp it, and read olT the velocity. The experiments 
 for the day being over, the date is inscribed on the 
 proper recorder, and, if deemed necessary, it may be 
 filed for future reference, If tlie foregoing directions 
 as to the setting-up and adjustment of the instru- 
 ment are carefully followed, not only will there be 
 no appreciable variation in the disjunctor-readings 
 before any shot, but they will, remain constant from 
 round to round. See Sreger Chrnnngraph, Chrono- 
 scope, Disjunctor, Iruienttr. and Micro-chronometer. 
 
 LEE. — A term employed in target practice to de- 
 note the quarter to which the wind is directed, as 
 distinguished from windward, or the part ichence the 
 wind comes. Also written Leeward. 
 
 LEEK.— The Welsh emblem, in consequence of a 
 command from Dewi, or David, afterwards Arch- 
 bishop of St. Davids', in 519. On the day that King 
 Arthur won a great victory over the Saxons, Dewi 
 is said to have ordered the soldiers to place leeks 
 in their caps. 
 
 LEE MAGAZINE-GUN.— This gun, patented in 1879 
 in Europe and America, is entirely novel in principle 
 and not only obviates all the objections found in 
 tubular magazine systems, but has numerous and 
 marked advantages peculiar to itself. Thearm is of 
 the bolt class, which years of use in the armies of 
 Russia, France, Italy, Prussia, and other great pow- 
 ers, has proved to possess all the essential qualities 
 of a military weapon. The drawing gives a^sectional 
 view of this gun with the magazine in place, and it 
 will be noticed that the parts are few in number. 
 The resistance in this gun is direct, and is taken on 
 both sides of the receiver; a lug being constructed 
 on the lower side of the bolt and opposite the shoul- 
 der on the bolt handle, which locks ilsi'lf firmly into 
 a recess made for that purpose in the receiver, there- 
 by affording an equal bearing on each side instead 
 of on one side only, as in most other bolt systems. 
 The extractor, also, is of new design, having direct 
 action and great power. 
 
 notch cut on the extractor-spring next the shoulder 
 of the bolt handle, the extractor-spring. Q, is pressed 
 forward, releasing the hook on its under side, from 
 the pin with which it engages when in place. This 
 releases the extractor-spring and the extractor, and 
 the bolt may then be drawn out of the receiver. By 
 pressing forward and downward on the lug of the 
 key-sleeve, F, it is released from the bolt, together 
 with the thumb-piece, E, the firing-pin, C, and the 
 mainspring, D. To assemble the bolt and its parts, 
 the pieces, E, C, and D, are placed in their proper 
 position, and the lug of the key -sleeve, F, is pressed 
 upward into its locking-notch "in the bolt. Return- 
 ing the assembled bolt into its place in the receiver, 
 lay the extractor in its notch on the bolt and place 
 the extractor-spring in position, giving the bolt a 
 sharp push forward, and the hook will engage itself 
 on the pin on the bolt-rib created for the purpose, 
 and the arm is ready for use. For simplicity, strength, 
 ease of manipulation, rapidity and certainty of fire, 
 this system is not excelled as a single fire breech- 
 loader by any other in use. 
 
 To change this single fire breech-loader to a maga- 
 zine arm, consists simply in introducing through a 
 slot or opening cut through the stock and receiver, 
 forward of the trigger guard, a magazine made to 
 contain five (more or less) cartridges, which inser- 
 tion or removal can be effected more quickly than a 
 single cartridge can be loaded into or ejected from any 
 ordinary single breech-loader. The magazine is held 
 in place by the magazine catch, K, which engages 
 into a notch or depression in the rear of the maga- 
 zine, as shown in the drawing, and can be released 
 in a moment by an upward pressure on the maga- 
 zine catch, K, at its lower end, where it projects 
 downward into the trigger guard. The magazine is 
 retained so firmly and secure in poeition that'll is im- 
 possible for it to become accidentally released, no 
 matter how roughly the arm is used or how severe a 
 shock it may receive. These magazines are pressed 
 into shape from one piece of metal, and are strength- 
 ened by a rib made on their rear and bottom interior, 
 which renders them, although weighing but about 
 three ounces, strong and rigid enough to endure 
 without injury any shock or blow itable to be re- 
 ceived in rough service. They may be adapted to 
 cartridges of any length. The cartridges are held 
 
 XOMKN'CLAIURE. 
 
 A. Receiver. 
 
 14. Bolt. 
 
 (_'. Firing-pin. 
 
 D. Main-spring. 
 
 E. 
 
 Thumb-Piece. 
 
 T. TrigRer. 
 
 !•'. 
 
 Ktv->l<-cve. 
 
 K. Magazine-catch. 
 
 G. 
 
 Kxtractor. 
 
 1,. Sere-nprinf;. 
 
 11. 
 
 Sere. 
 
 M. Magazine. 
 S. fJnard-Bcrew. 
 
 N. 'Mncnzine-spring. 
 O. Trii;i;i r-guard. 
 P. stock. 
 K. Tang-ecrew. 
 
 The arm can be carried while lo.adcd with perfect j in a nearly horizontal position, the flange or head 
 
 safety by withdrawing the thumb-])iecc, E, to the 
 half-cock notch, whicli operation fixes the bolt firm- 
 ly to its closed position, and locks the firing-pin barU- 
 waril clear from the carlridge until the thuml)-picc<r 
 is drawn back to full-cock, when the piece may be 
 fired. Tlic case and rapidity with which this arm 
 can be dismounted and assembled is noticeable. I$y 
 inserting the point of a knife or screw-driver into the 
 
 of each being in advance of the one below it, as 
 , shown, rendering it impossible for anything to im- 
 , pinge upon the primer of either cartridge, and thus 
 obviating every possible danger of premature dis- 
 ' charge in the magazine. The cartridges are fed up- 
 ward into the system by the magazine spring, N, as 
 re(iuired, and l)eing held strongly in position, no de- 
 formation of the bullet is possible. By actual ex-
 
 LEE MAGAZINE GUN. 
 
 VJ-6 
 
 LEE UAOAZINE GUN. 
 
 ix-riinciil, tin- liullcl i)f curlriilj^'i'H ho licld. iin<I r-x- 
 poHcil lo the recoil received fnmi (Uie liiinclred slwits 
 tired ill tlu' arm, showed no diiiiiiiiHion in leii).;tli. 
 
 'Pile siiiiplicily of llieiiiiiu'ii/.iiH' iiieeliaMisiii proper 
 of lliis iiriii is uiieiiualled and reniarUalile, eonsislin;,' 
 (inly of llire(t jjieeeH- Uie niaKa/.ine, M, llie inaj^a- 
 zine-sprin;;, N, anil llie nianazine-ealcli, K, and in- 
 i-liliiUdili/, a small siiring; which operates in a slot in 
 the side of the receiver, and i)roje('ls over the open- i 
 in}; throuj^h which the carlridi^es pass upward from 
 tlie inaj^azinc, formini; a bottom to the receiver, wdule 
 the arm is iH'infi; used as a sini;le loader. The c<]m- 
 ple.\ity of the maijazine ineclianism in most repeal- 
 in;; arms, with the conseiiuent lial)ilily lo lireakaf;e 
 or derangement, has been one of the objections of I 
 fered lo their adoption for military purposes. When 
 the magazine is i)Ut into place (accomiilished eitlxT 
 liy pressure or liya sharp tap of the hand;, Ihe head 
 of Ihe upper <artridi;e is relieved of its tension 
 af;ainsl tlie inclined tlanf;es on tlie rear and upper 
 part of the magazine, by its pressure ugaiust the uudur 
 
 openiiig Ihe breech flraws back the upper cartridpe, 
 
 relieviiiL' ils front en<i from tlie hemispherical de- 
 pression ill which it rested ; the spring. N, lifts the 
 biillel end of Ihecartridge upward, and free from tlu; 
 magazine, the bolt moving backward just far enough 
 to allow its front end to pass in rear of the head >l 
 the cartridge, which head, thus relieved, rises by the 
 iiresHure of the spring, N, snniciently to engage the 
 end of the bolt. The forward movement of the bolt 
 then carries this cartridge into the chamber •f the 
 barrel. On opening the system and withdrawing the 
 bolt the e.vtractor ejects with certainty the exploded 
 sheli, and the same operations apply until the maga- 
 zine is exhausted. . 
 
 It is intended that two or more miigazines shall be 
 furnished with ea<li arm, which are to be carried, 
 charged in the carlri<lge box or pocket of the sol- 
 dier The ma<'azines can be charged with cartridges 
 (live is the number recomniench'd that they shall 
 contain), each in less than live seconds. It is <iuite 
 practkable that i»U ammunition issued lo troops be 
 
 A B CD 
 
 side of the bolt, B (the upper edge of the rear wall | contained in these magazines, which may be made, 
 of the magazine being slightlv hollowed to the shaiie if required, very light, of skeleton form, and of such 
 of the bolt). The rearward" motion of the bolt in cheap construction as will admit in action of their
 
 LEFAUCHEUX GUN. 
 
 194 
 
 LEOIOR 
 
 being dropped and left on the field, as are the ex- 
 hausted shells of expended cartridges. The arm can 
 be used as a single loader until the need of rapid tir- 
 ing becomes apparent, when at the word of com- 
 mand, the charged magazines may be inserted and 
 used. The least intcliigent soldier can obey this order 
 without looking at the arm. While removing or in- 
 serting the magazine, the arm should be held firml;>' 
 at the grip by the soldier's kight hand, in a vertical 
 position. it is believed that the feature of de. 
 taclmhUity. as arranged in tlie Lee system, will par- 
 ticularlj- commend itself to the minds of military au- 
 thorities. The ease, rapidity, and certainty, with 
 which the charged magazines can be inserted into, 
 or removed from the arm, places it in the power of 
 the officers of disciplined troops to positively control 
 the expenditure of ammunition. The soldier may 
 use his arm as a single loader until the vhal moment 
 when a rapid fire is needed. At the order a loaded 
 ma'iazine can in an instant be inserted, and a volley 
 of five, to be immediateh' succeeded by five, ten, or 
 fifteen more shots (if as manv as four magazines be 
 supplied), rapidly delivered. It will require but little 
 drill to teach the ordinary soldier to deliver twenty- 
 one well directc;! sliots from this gun in fort}' sec- 
 onds. E :pcrts at the Armory fire that number easily 
 in thirty s 'conds. Using the d-tachnble magmineH, the 
 necessity of all njj.o/' appliances is obviated, and the 
 danger of the soldiers becoming so confused in the 
 heat and excitement of action as to err in the proper 
 adju t nent of the cut-off, need not be feared. 
 
 This arm possesses evident advantages over all 
 masaziuc-truns having lubidar magazines, placed 
 under or above the barrel, or in the l)utt-stock. In 
 such magazines the cartridges ride lengthwise, one 
 following another: the bullet of one coming directly 
 in contact with and resting on the primer of the .-ar- 
 tridire next it. All of the cartridges are forced to- 
 ward the breech mechanism by a spiral spring, which 
 must be of sutficient strength to support the weight 
 of the column of cartridges, and force them into the 
 receiver or breech of the arm as fast as required, and 
 of necessity it must have very con.siderable stiffness 
 or streugtii. A French army cartridge, which is 
 about the average weight of military cartridges in | 
 use. weighs more than 1,-'^ ounces. The weight of j 
 a column of five such cartridges would be seven | 
 oimces. fo\ir-fifths of which weight would in a tulni- ' 
 lar masazine, rest upon the point of tlie bullet of the 
 last cartridge, and which bullet comes directly in 
 contact with the primer of the cartridge in advance 
 of it. Add to this compressive force the possibility 
 of the cartridge having extra sensitive primers, and 
 the soldier or marksman may reasonably shrink 
 from t!ie possibility of an accident which would 
 proI)ablv kill, or maim for life. It is hardly neces- 
 sary to .■illude to the demoralizing effect a single in- 
 stance of premature explosion of a cartridge contained 
 in the t\ibular magazine of a military weapon would 
 have upon the soldiers of a command armed there- 
 with. Such an accident would probably at least 
 seriously wound the operator, and the knowledge 
 that such c'lsn.'dties are possible would cause the 
 men to shrink from bringing their arms to the slioul- 
 der, and if tired at all, tlu'ir guns would be held at 
 arm's length, as far as possible from the person, 
 without aim or probable effect. 
 
 Another serious disadvantage pertaining to all tii- 
 bular magazine systems, is the imavoidable defor- 
 mation of all cartridge bullets carried therein. In 
 till' drawin'.r. A, sliows perfect cartridges fwitli inside 
 primers), as in position while contained in a tubular 
 magazine-rifle, at " Order Arms": B, shows one of 
 the cartridges with its head depressed, the fulminate 
 of the inside primer compressed, and the bullet fiat- 
 tened , C, shows perfect cartridges (witli outside 
 primers) as in position wlnle contained in a tubular 
 mai;azine-rifle at " Order .\rms"; and 1). shows one 
 of "he cartridges with its bullet flattened and com- 
 pr<'9aed (t'o'j of an inch), and the primers deformed; 
 
 the deformity in each case being due to the recoil of 
 100 rounds. Even the ordinary jolting inciiient to 
 an infantry march, greatly aggravated in the case of 
 cavalry, will in a short time so batter and deface the 
 point of the lead bullet — thus increasing its diam- 
 eter — as to materialh' impair its accuracy in flight, 
 besides rendering it difticult to force it into place in 
 file chamber of the barrel, and with the possibility 
 of wedging the enlarged bullet so tightly into the 
 chamber — the carfridM being only part wav home — 
 that any attempt to withdraw the charge may separ- 
 ate the bullet from the cartridge case, leaving the 
 lead jammed into the chamber, removable only by 
 use of a rammer introduced through the nuizzle. 
 The soldier, baffled and confused by an}' failure of 
 his arm — which failure is liable to occur at the su- 
 preme moment which decides the fate of battle — will 
 lie less efficient than if armed with the obsolete muz- 
 zle-loader, which, although slow, is suppfiseil to be 
 tolerably sure. A final objection to all tubular mag- 
 azine s}'stems is that the balance of the arm is con- 
 stantly being changed. Each cartridge expended 
 from the magazine alters the relative weight which 
 one extremity of the arm bears to the other, and 
 must radically affect the accuracy of the soldier's 
 him. See Mngmine (,un. 
 
 LEFAUCHEUX GUN.— A breech-loading gun of pe- 
 culiar merit. The under-guard of the barrel formed 
 of two pieces of iron having a joint, is maintained in 
 a right line by a rigid plate which supports it. This 
 plate may be made to revolve on its axis with a hori- 
 zontal l)ackward and forward movement, by the ac- 
 tion of the hand, when it withdraws its silpport from 
 the under-guard, which forthwith jields and severs 
 the breech from the rest of the barrel. The chamber 
 which is to receive the cartridge thus is exposed and 
 the piece is loaded. The cartridge itself at its base 
 is provided with a large cap. from which projects a 
 pin or small nail; this fits an opening in the breech 
 of the gun. and the hammer strikes it and so fires 
 the piece. To breech-loading militar}' rifles con- 
 structed on the Lefaucheux system it would be im- 
 possible, or at least impracticable, to add the bay- 
 onet ; for the use of the bayonet in actual conflict 
 would be almost certain to lead to a complete sepa- 
 ration of Ihe two parts of the piece. 
 
 LEGATE— LEGATION.— As commonly used in mod- 
 ern times tlie word Legate is applied to the person 
 charged liy the Pope of Rome to represent him, or 
 the Konian Church, at the seat of Government of a 
 foreign country, or at the seat of a bishopric of the 
 C'luiFLh. But the word need have no such restricted 
 use. It was employed by the Romans under the Re- 
 public, before the Church controlled Rome, to in- 
 dicate .any person sent by the Government on a spe- 
 cial mission of importance to another Government, 
 or even to a Conquered Province; when a Legate 
 Ireiiuently became acting Governor b_v virtue of such 
 commission. Legntns among the Romans was a sy- 
 nonym of Ambassador. Envoy Extraordinary, Le- 
 gate, Ambassador, are three words signifj-ing near- 
 ly the same thing: the first two indicating a fresh or 
 special appointment for a specific object, and the 
 last a more permanent mission. The term Legation 
 includes all that appertains officially to the position 
 of a Legate, an Ambassador, or an Envoy Extraor- 
 dinary, viz., his Secretaries, Attaches, Family, and 
 Residence. We speak of the Residence of the Amer- 
 ican Legation, but by "A call at the Legiition" one 
 may mean a call on any officer or any of the fami- 
 lies of the officers of tlie Legation, meaning then by 
 Leiration the seat of re.-idence of its memlxTS. 
 
 LEGION. — A legion in the Roman military system, 
 corresi)onded in force and organization to what in 
 modern times we should call a corps (Turmi'i . It dif- 
 fered in constitution at different periods of Roman 
 history. In the time of the Rejiulilic, a legion com- 
 posed 4,.'"'00men. thus divided: 1 ,'21)0 /iiistut'. or inex- 
 perienced troops; \,200 priiici/u/i. or well-trained sol- 
 diers; 1.200 xeliies, or skirmishers; 600 triarii, or pila-
 
 LEOIONABII. 
 
 195 
 
 LELEGES. 
 
 n^vi;t(;riinsfi)rmingarpsrrvf'; ami '.WOe/jiiitfji, knitjlits 
 who actcil as cavalry, and l)cloni^'i'il to families of 
 rank. Uuring tliis jiiTiod llic Icf^ioiis were formed 
 forliic season, standiim armies lieiiii; of laler j;rowtli. 
 Tlii^ liastali, principes, anil Iriarii. formed lliree 
 separate lines, ea<'li (iiviiieil into II) iiiiiiil jdiH or com- 
 panies, 130 men each in the case of the two front 
 lines an I 00 men in the triarii. A maniple was coin- 
 man led by a Centurion or ('ai)lain, who had a Se. 
 cond Centurion, or Ijieutenant, and two Hiiti-olllcers, 
 or Heri;eants, under him: as non-commissioned otH- 
 cers. there was a /><'c<(//».i, or Corporal. to every s(|uad 
 or tent of ten men. 'I'lie senior Centurion of each [ 
 line commanded that line, anil had therefore functions 
 corresponding to a modern |jieuteiiant-coloni-l. The 
 jtrimipiinx, or senior Centurion <if the triarii, was the 
 most important rej^imental olllcer, and comnninded 
 the legion in the absence of the Tribunes. The 300 
 cavalry formed a rej;iment of ten tiinnat, or troops 
 of 30 horsemen, each under three JJfcnrioiis.oi whom 
 the senior had the comnuuid. The velites were light 
 troops, not formiuj; p:'rt of the line of battle; had 
 apparently uo olticcrs of their own; and wen' attach- 
 ed to the 30 maniples in eijual jiroportions. Tlu- Stalf 
 of the legion consisted of six Tribuiu'S,whonuina!;e<l 
 the paying, quartering, i)rovisioning, etc. of the troops, 
 and who commanded the legion in turns for a period 
 each of two months. Tliis command, although in- 
 couvcnient. lasted till the tinu-s of the civil wars, 
 when a L gatun^tir rjieutenant-general, was ap|)ointed 
 a permanent Comiuanilant of the legion. The of- 
 fensive weapons of the hastali and principes were 
 two barbed iron-headed javelins, one of which was 
 hurled at tlic enemy on the first onslaught, while 
 the other was retained as a defense against cavalry. 
 The triarii had long pikes. In addition to these 
 arms, every soldier bore a very short, strong, cut-and 
 thrust, two-edged sword. The legionaries' defen- 
 sive armor consisted of a plinned liemlet, breast- 
 plate, iron-bound boot for the right leg, and a semi- 
 cylindrical shield 4 feet long by 21 broad. The veli- 
 tes had uo defensive armor, were lightly armed, 
 and in action usually operated for ilanking pur- 
 poses. Each maniple bore an ensign aloft, and each 
 legion had its distinguishing eagle, l']) to the time 
 of Marius, service in a legion was sought as honor- 
 able occupation, and men of some means were alone 
 eligible ; but Marius enlisted slaves, and turned the 
 legions into corps of a purely mercenary army. At 
 the same' period, the manipular formation was 
 abolished, the three lines were assimilated, and the 
 legion was divided into 10 cohorts, each of three 
 maniples. Soon the cohorts were raised to 000 men, 
 making the^legion O.OIK) infantry, besides cavalry and 
 velites. It was ranged in 2 lines of .5 cohorts each ; 
 but Caesar altered tlie formation to 3 lines, of re- 
 spectively 4, 3, and Scoliorts. During the latter Em- 
 pire, the legion became complex and unmanageable ; 
 many sorts of arms being thrown together, and bal- 
 istiB, catapults, and onagers added by way of artil- 
 lery. Having so degenerated from its pristine sim- 
 plicity and completeness, the legionary formation 
 was soon overthrown amid the incursions of the 
 victorious barbarians. See Tltuixdering Legimi. 
 
 LEGION AKII.- The second of three classes of sol- 
 diers in t lie Roman Army ; the soldiers of the legions. 
 
 LEGION OF HONOR. --.\.n Order of merit instituted 
 under tlie French Republic in 1S02 by the First Consul, 
 as a recompense for military and civil services. It 
 was ostensibly founded for the protection of repub- 
 lican principles and the laws of equality, and for the 
 abolition of differences of rank in society, everj' so- 
 cial grade being equally eligible ; but its real" aim 
 doubtless was, by popularizing the idea of personal 
 distinction, to pave the way for establishment of the 
 Kmpire and of the more exclusive titles of nobility 
 that were to accompanj' it. The proposal for its in- 
 stitution was at first violently opposed by the legis- 
 lative body and the tribunate, ou democratic grounds, 
 and carried eventually by a very narrow majoritv. 
 
 The Order originally comprised three classes- Grand 
 Ollicers, Commanders, and Legionaries. The cm.ss of 
 (Irand Ollicers was.fm the coronation of Napoleon I., 
 divided into Kidghlsof the (jran<l Kagic fthe highest 
 classy, and (jrand Ollicers. On the restoration of the 
 Hoiirbons, the legion was retained, but remodeled so 
 as to iose much of its original character. The eagle 
 was called a cross, and tlie efligy of ilenry JV. re- 
 placed that of Napoleon. The Knights of the Grand 
 Kagle liecame Grand Oosse--, the Legionaries were 
 tran.sformed into knights, and the numerous educa- 
 tional institutions, founded by Napoleon forthcchil- 
 dren and relatives of the members of the Order, were 
 much reduced in scale. In 1837 a new military class 
 called Ollicers was admitted. Vnder the president- 
 ship of ],ouis Napoleon, part of the jiroperty of Louis 
 I'hillippe, which had been reston-d to the State, was 
 set apart as an endowment for the legion, and new 
 regulations were made regarding the jiensions of the 
 ditferent classes. The original form of decoration 
 was reintroduc<'il, which under the S<cond Kmjiire 
 was somewhat modilicd. As worn then, it consisted 
 of a cross of ten points of white enamel edged with 
 gold, the points connected with a wreath of laurel 
 proper, and in the center, with an azure circle charged 
 with the words "Napoleon III.. Kmpereurdes Fran- 
 cais," was a head of the Emperor. The cross is en- 
 signed by the inipirial crown of France, and worn 
 attached toared ribbon. Tlie (iraii 1 Ollicers also. as 
 a general thing, wore on the right breast a silver star 
 charged with the imperial eagle. The same star 
 was generally worn on the left breast by the Knights 
 Grand Cross, and their cross was attached to a broad 
 red ribbon which passes over the right shoulder. 
 The vast numbers of this Order, and the insignifi- 
 cance of many of the persons on whom it has been 
 conferred, have dctracttd much from its value. The 
 number of members in 1872 was 00,17!) ; but the law- 
 passed in that year, that only one new member should 
 be added for every two vacancies, reduced the mem- 
 bership in the next five years (1877) to ;")i),208. The 
 revenue of the College of the legion has been aug- 
 mented by the addftion of property belonging to 
 Louis Philippe. Out of this fund pensions are paid 
 to those members of the Order who have served in 
 the Army or Navy ; the civilian members receive no 
 pension. By the existing statutes, candidates in 
 times of peace must have served in some military or 
 civil capacity for 20 years; exploits iu the field or 
 severe wounds constitute a claim in time of war. 
 Two distributions take place in the year. The nomi- 
 nation of military persons takes place on parade, and 
 of civil in the Courts of Justice. No ignoble punish- 
 ment can be inflicted on a member of the Order so 
 long as he belongs to it. To rise to a superior rank, 
 it is indispensable, at least for natives of France, to 
 have passed through the inferior grades. 
 
 LEGS. — Human legs are not unfreqiiently borne as 
 charges in Heraldry, sometimes naked, sometimes 
 booted, and they may be coupled, /, e., cut evenly 
 off, or erased, cut with ajagged edge, and that either 
 at the thigh or below the knee. The knee when rep- 
 resented is always embowed. A remarkable device 
 of three legs in armor, conjoined at the thighs, and 
 flexed in triangle, forms the insignia of the ancient 
 Kingdom of ilan, with the appropriate motto, Quo. 
 cunque jecerin stabit. The classical symbol of the Isl- 
 and of Sicily (Trinacria) was formed of three naked 
 legs similarly conjoined, and the triple-mountained 
 Isle of Man might have awakene 1 in its Norman Sov- 
 ereigns some recollections of their Mediterranean 
 con(|uests. 
 
 LELEGES. — An ancient and warlike people which 
 peopled the Islands of ^-Egean, and is supposed to 
 have been of Pelasgic origin. Authorities differ as 
 to its exact identity, some having confused the Le- 
 leges with the Carians, with whom thej* are said to 
 have united in support of the Trojans. Homer rep- 
 resents .Vltes. King of the Leleges, as having been 
 the father-in-law of Priam. Pausanias considers Le-
 
 LENGTH OF BOEE. 
 
 196 
 
 LEH8. 
 
 lex, the founder of this race, to have been a foreign- 
 er from Eiivpt. and that he became King of Megara. 
 According "to this authority, the grandson of Lelex, 
 Pylus by name, founded the eity'of Pylus in Slesse- 
 nia witli a colon_y of Megarian Leleges. Tlie last 
 that is recorded of the Leleges is that"they joined the 
 Carians in colonizing the west coast of Asia Minor. 
 
 LENGTH OF BOEE.— The slmr rate of burning of 
 mealed powder, which was originally used in can- 
 non, led to the belief that the longest pieces gave the 
 greatest ranges. In spite of much experience to the 
 contrary, this belief was entertained, even after gun- 
 powder received its granular form ; and several 
 pieces were made of enormous length, with the ex- 
 pectation of realizing corresponding ranges. A 
 culverin was cast during the reign of Charles V. 
 which was 58 calibers long, and fired a ball weigh- 
 ing 36 lbs.: but on trial, "this piece was found to 
 have actuallylc.ss range than an ordinary 12-pdr. gun. 
 The experiment of reducing its length, by succes- 
 sively cutting it off to .'iO, 44, and 43 calibers, was 
 tried, and it was found that tlie range increased at 
 each reduction until it gained 3,000 paces. 
 
 That the length of the bore has an important 
 effect on the vcfocity of the projectile, will be read- 
 ily seen by a consideration of the forces which ac- 
 celerate and retard its movement in the piece. The 
 fi'-rderating force is due to the expansive effort of 
 the inflamed powder, which reaches its maximum 
 when tlie grains of the charge are completely con- 
 verted into vaiior and gas. This event depends on 
 the size of the charge, and the size and velocity of 
 combustion of the "grains. With the same or con- 
 stant accelerating force, the point at whicii a projec- 
 tile reaches its maximum velocity depends on its 
 density, or the time necessary to overcome its inertia. 
 The retarding forces in action, are— 1st. The fric- 
 tion of tlie projectile against the sides of the bore : 
 this is the same for all velocities, but is very differ- 
 ent for all the different metals ; 2d. The shocks 
 of the projectile striking again.st the sides of the 
 bore: these will vary with^the angle of incidence, 
 which depends on the windage, and the extent of 
 (he injury due to the lodgment and balloting of the 
 projectile: 3d. The resistance offered by the col- 
 umn of air in front of the projectile: this force will 
 increase in a certain ratio to the velocity of the pro- 
 jectile and length of the bore. As the accelerating 
 force of the charge increases up to a certain point, 
 after which it rapidly diminishes, as the space 
 in the rear of the projectile increases, and as the 
 retarding forces are constantly opposed to its motion 
 it follows, that there is a point where these forces 
 are equal, and the projectile moves with its greatest 
 velocity: it also follows that, after the projectile 
 passes"this point, its velocity decreases until it is 
 finally brought to a state of rest, which would be the 
 case in a gun of great length. The length of bore 
 which corresponds to a maximum velocity depends 
 upon the projectile, charge of powder, and material 
 of wliich the piece is made; and taking the caliber 
 as the unit of measure, it is found that Uiis length is 
 greater for small-arms which fire leaden projectiles 
 than for guns which fire solid iron shot, and greater 
 for guns than for howitzers and mortars, which fire 
 hollow projectiles. It may be l)roadly staled that 
 with suitable powders, the following relations should 
 exist between the charge and the length of bore, in 
 order that there may be a profitable use of the 
 charge: — 
 
 Charge. T>ength of hnre. 
 
 I the weight of shot About 20 calibers. 
 
 I " ..*-.." ... " 30 " 
 I " " " " . . . . " 85 
 In each case a greater length of bore would give 
 increased velocity, but it would be oblained at the 
 expense of aililitional weight, whicli Ciin be better 
 ulilizid I'iscwhcre in tin- gun. See ('(tnnnn. 
 
 LENGTH OF CANNON. In smoolb-bore guns, the 
 distance between the rear of tlu base ring and face 
 
 of tne muzzle, measured in a line parallel to the axis. 
 The length of B. L. R. guns is measured from be- 
 hind the breech to the face of the muzzle, the breech 
 screw not being included, and the length of M. L. 
 R. guns from the neck of the cascable to the face of 
 the muzzle. The length of a mortar is the whole 
 distance from face to breech, measured along the 
 axis. The length of guns is sometimes expressed by 
 their calibers; but this, except with smooth-bore 
 guns, is a very inaccurate method of comparing tlie 
 lengths of rifled guns. To say with smooth-bore 
 guns that they were so many calibers long, wassufti- 
 ciently accurate, because the weight of charge and 
 shot was always in proportion ; but with rifled guns, 
 which not only differ in this respect very greatly 
 from smooth-bore guns, but even among themselves, 
 to speak in this manner is very misleading. A 68-pr. 
 gun has about the same length of bore as the 8-inch 
 rifled gun, and is conse(iuently the same length in 
 caliber; but, as the charge of the latter is double 
 that of the former, the number of expansions with 
 an 8-inch gun is only h;ilf of what it is with a 68-pr. 
 The more scientific wa}-, is to designate the length 
 of bores bv the number of expansions ot the charge. 
 
 LENGTH OF FUSE.— This expression has reference 
 to the period a fuse is required to burn, the time being 
 determined by the range. Fuses (time), such as are 
 used with M.L.R. English guns, burn a certain num- 
 ber of seconds, viz., 5, 9, and 20 seconds respectively. 
 The use and object of these different fuses are as fol- 
 lows : The 5-second fuse is used with shrapnel shell 
 (G. S. gauge), up to the 80-pr. inclusive. This fuse 
 is very necessarj' for F. S. shrapnel shell, which 
 must be burst with great accuracy to develop its 
 power. The 9-second fuse is used with common 
 and shrapnel shell (G. S. gauge), up to 80-pr. in- 
 clusive, at long ranges. The 20-second fuse is used 
 for common shell (G. S. gauge, garrison service), 
 up to the 80-pr. inclusive, at long ranges. It is only 
 used in the F. S. for high-angle firing from the 7-pr. 
 gun. It is not available for shrapnel, as it has no 
 powder-channels. B. L. R guns use fuses of the 
 same lengths as above. The following will be found, 
 as a general rule, nearly correct for getting the 
 length of fuse with muzzle-loading rifled guns. Di- 
 vide the number of hundreds of j-ards in the range 
 by 2, and add 1 up to 1,000 yards, 2 up to 2,000 
 yards,- and so on, for length of fuse in tenths of 
 inches. 
 
 LENGTH OF PEOJECTILES.— This length necessa- 
 rily varies in the different descriptions of projectiles 
 for the same gun, inasmuch as it is to some extent 
 subordinate to the consideration of bringing them all 
 (with certain exceptions) to the same weight, but it- 
 has been decided that a length of two calibers at least 
 is necessary for very accurate shooting, and it is de- 
 sirable for good Ills riia. or destructive effect on im- 
 pact, at any but very short ranges, to have the weight 
 great in proportion to the caliber, or in fact to the 
 surface of resistance, and of course this is favored by 
 an increased length of projectile. 
 
 LENS. — A circular section of any transparent sub- 
 stance, having its surfaces either both spherical, or 
 
 1 one of them plane and the other spherical. A ray of 
 j light in passing through a lens is bent towards its 
 I thickest part : hence lenses are either convex (thick- 
 est in the middle) or concave (thickest at edges). The 
 former make the rays more convergent than before, 
 j the latter make them more divergent. The point to 
 which the r;iys converge, or from which they diverge, 
 ' is called a focus- principal focus when the rays are
 
 LEOPARD 
 
 197 
 
 LETEE, 
 
 parallel. Tlic focus for a ronvex lens is real, i.e., the 
 rays actually pass llirou(;li it. and form an inverted 
 ima^e .smaller iir larger than llie object aci'ordiiuraH 
 the ol)ject is at a distance i;reater or less than twice 
 the |>rinripal focal lcni;lli ; liiit the imaife is iTect and 
 maijnitied if thi^ olijcct be within the principal focal 
 leni^th, Kor a concave lens the focus is virtual— the 
 rays seem to conii' from it and form an erect iniuj;e 
 smaller than thi' object. 
 
 The lenses in the drawinfc, thoUi;h they may be of 
 the same focal length, have |)eculiar propiTties which 
 render them suitable for particular ojjtical instru- 
 ments; thus, the convexo.plane lens has only one- 
 fourth of the aberration of a plano-conve.v, or Iwo- 
 tliirds of an e(|ui-convex or crpii-concave of the same 
 focal liMiiith; but, in general, the e(pii-conve.x is the 
 most desiral>le form, .\berralion has been to opti- 
 cians what refrai'tion is to the astronomer, an unwel- 
 come intruder, which s])oils his linest theories, and 
 limits the accuracy of his results. This alierration 
 lias, indeed, liecii destroyed by combinini; lenses of 
 equal and opposite aberrations, as for instance, imit- 
 inj^. by means of C!anada balsam, a dind)l(! convex 
 with a double concave. A still belter method would 
 be the fornuition of lenses having one side si»herical, 
 and the iilher of an ellipsoidal or a hyjierboloidal 
 form ; but this has not yet l]een successfully accom- 
 plished. Convex lenses of giass, rock-salt, ice, etc., 
 may be used as " burning-slasses," since radiant heat 
 is refracted according to the same laws as light — the 
 hot focus being nearly coincident with the luminous 
 one. I'latiniuu, gold, etc.. liave been fused iu three I 
 or four seconds liv tins means. 
 
 LEOPAHD. — The leopard has been descrilx'd by ' 
 sonu' Heralds as the issue of the pan! and lioness; 
 and tlic circumstance that such liybrids are unjiro- : 
 ductive, is assigned as a reason for appropriating 
 that animal to the armorial ensigns of Abbots and f 
 Abbesses. However, the representations of leopanis, 
 at least in English Heraldry, are so exactly like those I 
 of the lion passant gardant, that it has been made a 
 question whether there is any ditference between 
 the two, and it has more especially been a keenly- 
 contested point whether the three animals in the 
 royal escutcheon of England were lions or leopards, i 
 In early tinu-s we find them blazoned in both ways, j 
 and the true solution of the qiiirstw vexiitii seems to 
 be, that at one period the heraldic leopard came to 
 be considered as a mere synonym for the lion passant 
 gardant, though the two animals were originally re- 
 garded as distinct. In the infancy of Heraldry, be- 
 fore distinctive aiipellations were invented for the 
 different attitudes of animals, it was customary to 
 draw a lion in the attitvide since called rampant, and 
 a leopard as passant gardant. This difference of posi- 
 tion sufficiently indicating which animal was meant, 
 they were otherwise similarly represented, and no 
 attempt was made toexhibit the spots of the leopard. 
 By and by, as coats of armor were multiplied, it 
 became necessary to difference them by varying the 
 position of the animals depicted ; and the blazoners 
 of those days, thinking more of attitude than of zo- 
 ology. had recourse to a compromise in their nomen- 
 clature. The lion was naturally supposed to be ram- 
 pant and in profile, the leopard passant gardant. 
 AVhen the conventional animal that might stand for 
 either was passant and in iirotile, he was designed a 
 lii>n-leapnrde ; and when rampant gardant he was a 
 leopard-lionne. The king of beasts was very early 
 assumed as his appropriate insignia by the Sovereign 
 of England, as well as by the Sovereigns of other 
 countries in western Europe. The lion was at first I 
 borne singly, and his natural attitude, like that of I 
 other lions, was considered ti> be rampant. But when \ 
 a second and third lion were added, it became less 
 convenient to draw them in therampant attitude, and 
 the lions became lions-leopardeor passant, as seen in 
 the seal of King.Iohn : a further change of position 
 to passant gardant made them heraldically leopards. 
 Edward III.. Edward the Black Prince, and Richard 
 
 leoi)ard. 
 
 Kerby was designaletl Leopard Herald in the 
 
 of Henry IV.: and it was not till the middle fjf tl 
 
 Nicholas 
 reign 
 
 II., speak rif their crest of the 
 
 Llth century that thi' lions of England regained their 
 original name. Though leopards, properly so called, 
 hardly occur in English Heralilry, liaving (lassed into 
 lions passant gardant. their beads or faces are occa- 
 sionally borne. If no part of the neck is shown, the 
 proper blazon is a leopard's faci' ; if a portion of the 
 neck is lira wn. it is a leopard's head. erased orcouped, 
 a<coriling as it is cut olf evenly or with a jagged edge. 
 
 LE8GHIANS. A body of liW.OOO people, inliabitin)^ 
 the mounliiins of western Dagheslan in the C'aucawiH 
 (Asiatic Kussia;, and speaking various languages. 
 For many years they maile a brave resistance to Hus- 
 sian aggression. Siiici- IH.')!) they have been peace, 
 alile Their religion, a niodilication of Islamism, ig 
 (loled Murailisni, and was founded about Wid by a 
 native I'rophet. 
 
 LE8SE. A machine covered with rawhides, used 
 as a mantelet by the ancient (ireeks for ilitfiTciit jiur- 
 jioses. 
 
 LETTER BOOK.- A book containing the entry of all 
 otlici.il letters written by the Commanding Ollicer. or 
 under his direction, to the jiublic departments, and 
 to individuals, on regimental business. It contains 
 ail alphabetical index, and a sejiarate index for the 
 public departments. It need not be preserved be- 
 yond three years, after it is completed, care being 
 taken to k<(p copies of such letters as may be likely 
 to be reipiired for reference. 
 
 LETTER OF MARQUE. The commission authoriz- 
 ing a Privateer to make war U|)on, or seize the prop- 
 erty of another nation. It must be granted by the 
 Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, or b_v the 
 Vice Admiral of a distant Province. Vessels sailing 
 under such commissions are commonly spoken of as 
 Lettmnf Maniue. Making war without Letters of 
 Marque by a private ves.^el. is piracy. Letters of 
 Marque were abolished among European nations at 
 the Treaty of Paris, in 185(5. 
 
 LETTRE DE PASSE.— A paper which was formerly 
 signed by the Kings of France, authorizing an offi- 
 cer to exchange from one regiment to another. 
 
 LETTEES DE CACHET.— The name given to the fa- 
 mous warrants of imprisonment issued by the King.s 
 of France before the Revolution. All Royal Letters 
 {Lettres Riiyatix) were either Lettrnt Pittenten or Let- 
 tren de Cachet. The former were open, signed by the 
 King, and countersigned bj' a Minister, and had the 
 great Seal of State appended. Of this kind were all 
 ordinances, grants of privilege, etc. All Letters Pat- 
 ent were registered. or enterinnUd by the Parliaments. 
 These checks on arbitrary power did not exist with re- 
 gard to Lettres de Cachet, also called Lettres Cloaen, 
 or sealed letters, which were folded up and sealed 
 with the King's little seal (cwliet), and by which the 
 Royal pleasure was made known to individuals or 
 to corporations, and the admistration of justice was 
 often interfered with. The use of Lettres de Cachet 
 became much more frequent after the accession of 
 Louis XIV. than it had been before, and it was very 
 common for jiersons to be arrested upon such a war- 
 rant, and confined in the Bastile, or some other 
 State Prison, where some of them remained for a very 
 long time, and some for life, either because it was 
 so intended, or. in other cases, becau.se they were for- 
 gotten. The Lieutenant General of the Police kept 
 forms of Lettres de Cachet ready, in which it was 
 only necessary to insert the name of the individual 
 to be arrested". Sometimes an arrestment on Lettres 
 de Cachet was a resource to shield criminals from 
 justice. 
 
 LEVEE. — This term originally meant visits of cer- 
 emony paid in the morning among persons of rank. 
 It is now vmderstood to mean an assembly at Court, 
 on state occasions, of those of Her JIajesty's subjects 
 whoare entitled to the privilege of presenting them- 
 selves before the Sovereign. The privilege of holding 
 levees is also accorded to Her Majesty's representa-
 
 LETEE EN MASSE. 
 
 198 
 
 LEVELING BAB. 
 
 I 
 
 lives at home and abroad, to the Field Marshal Com- 
 manding in Chief, and other hif;h Functionaries. 
 
 LEVEE EN MASSE.— A general rising of the people 
 of any country, either for the purpose of self-defense, 
 or to "answer the intention of its governing powers. 
 See L'vy. 
 
 LEVELERS. — A party which arose in the army of 
 the Long Parliament, "when it overawed that body, 
 and sentthe King to Hampton Court in 1047. They 
 determined to level all ranks, and establish an equal- 
 ity of titles and estates througout the Kingdom. Sev- 
 eral of the officers belonging to this party were cash- 
 iered in 1649, and on the departure of Cromwell for 
 Ireland, at the close of that year, they raised mviti- 
 nies in various quarters, and were put "down liy Fair- 
 fax with bloodshed. They were not only treated as 
 traitors by the King, but persecuted by Cromwell as 
 dangerous to the State. In politics their fundamental 
 principles included: 1. The impartial authority of 
 the If.w; 2. The legislative power of Parliament; 3. 
 Absolute equality before the law; 4. The arming of 
 the people for securing the enforcement of the laws, 
 and the protection of their liberties. 
 
 LEVELING. — Level is a terra applied to surfaces 
 that are parallel to that of still water, or perpendicu- 
 lar to the direction of the plum-line; it is also ap- 
 plied to the instrument employed in determining the 
 amount of variation from perfect levelness. The in- 
 strument ordinarily is a cylindrical glass tube very 
 slightly conve.x on one side, and so nearly filled with 
 water, or what is better, with alcohol, that only a 
 small bubble of air remains inside. The level is then 
 mounted on a three or four legged stand, with its 
 convex side upwards, and by means of a pivot and 
 elevating screws, is made capable of assuming anj' 
 required position. If the level be properly construct- 
 ed, the bubble should lie exactly in the middle of the 
 tube when the instrument is properly adjusted, and, 
 at the same time, the line of sight of the telescope at- 
 tached to the level should be accurately parallel to 
 the surface of still water. In ordinary levels, this 
 first condition is seldom seen, and, instead, two 
 notches are made on the glass to mark the position of 
 the two extremities of the bubble when the instru- 
 ment is level. The tube and bubble should be of con- 
 siderable length to insure accuracy. A very hand- 
 some level o^ precision, constructed by Fauth and 
 Company, United States, for the Coast and Geodetic 
 Survey, is employed for the most exact work. It 
 can also be used as a gradienter, the micrometer 
 screw for raising or depressing the telescope being 
 made with the utmost exactness, and being provid- 
 ed with a graduated head. The telescope has an 
 aperture of li inches, and 10 inches focus, with two 
 astronomical eye-pieces, magnifying 40 and 60 times 
 respectively. Tlie pivot-rings are of phosphor-bronze, 
 and rest on agate. The striding level is chambered, 
 and one division] equals 3 seconds of arc. The hor- 
 izontal circle, of five inches diameter, divided on 
 silver, reads to 30 seconds ; the center is of steel ; 
 clamp and spring tangent motion. 
 
 Custom has established the measurement of abso- 
 lute levels from the average surface of the ocean — 
 the mean between high and low water — as the zero 
 level ; when reckoned from any other zero level, 
 they are relative levels. Leveling, or finding the 
 difference l)etween tlie levels of two or more points. 
 is designated by the term hypsometry in geodesy. 
 ThiTc are three ))rinci])al and indepenileut melliods 
 of leveling. Tlie first depends upon the fact that 
 the surf;iees of lluids at rest are perpendiculiir to the 
 dircclion of the force of gravity ; upon this is l)ased 
 the common level. In th(^ second method, trigono- 
 metrical leveling, we must know, first, the zenith 
 distance, or the angle between the zenith of the sta- 
 tion and the object whose height we wish to find 
 (making a correction for the effect of refraction.) 
 and. second, we nuist know or accurately (lelermine 
 the horizontal distance from the sl.'itiou to the oli- 
 jccl determined usually by triaugulation. In accu- 
 
 rate work a careful adjustment of the theodolite, 
 the instrument used in this method, is necess;iry. 
 Local attraction sometimes causes a deflection of 
 the pluml)-line, thus affecting measurements of ze- 
 nith distance. Atmospheric refraction is a more 
 important element of uncertainty, for which reason 
 the horizontal distance should not exceed 12 or 15 
 miles. The coefficient of refraction is irregular, and 
 varies with the temperature and pressure of the at- 
 mosphere ; it is most steady and nearest its mini- 
 mum between 10 a. m. and 2 p.m. From the above 
 data, the difference in level is easily calculated. The 
 weight of the atmosphere bearing upon a unit of 
 surface diminishes in a geometrical progression as 
 the heights increase in an arithmetical progression ; 
 therefore, by the third method, heights are deter- 
 mined with the barometer. Physicists have con- 
 structed numerous formula; embodying tlie law of 
 Mariotte, and introducing corrections for tempera- 
 ture, expansion of air. and the effect of latitude and 
 height upon the action of gravity. It is believed 
 that considerable accuracy can be attained by this 
 method, particularly if the annual means of temper- 
 ature and pressure for the stations whose difference 
 in level it is desired to find are substituted in the 
 formulae. Aneroid barometers have Iieen graduated 
 to indicate heights up to 12.000 or 16,000 feet; they 
 give only approximate results. If a delicate appara- 
 tus for determining the boiling point of water be 
 used, the corresponding heights taken from a table 
 will give the reading of the barometer at that point, 
 so that the instrument itself can be dispensed with. 
 This depends upon the fact that the boiling-point of 
 water decreases as the pressure of the atmosphere 
 becomes less. Ses Theodulite and Y Level. 
 
 LEVELING BAR.— A square steel bar with par- 
 allel faces, somewhat longer than the distance be- 
 tween the sights on the largest gun. The rear end 
 is bevelled at an angle of 60°, the angle at which 
 the sight is placed. It has a central line marked on 
 it throughout its length, on the under side, and 
 
 s s 
 
 along the bevelled end. It has also marked on its 
 sides, near the forward end, the distance at which 
 the sights should be placed for each class of gun. 
 It is also fitted with screws for bringing it to a level. 
 The leveling-bar being laid on the front sight, and 
 its bevelled end taking against the rear sight-liar, 
 bring it to a level with the spirit-level and screws. 
 This will give the true guide for angle of rear sight- 
 bar, and the lafter's proper plane. As soon as rear 
 sight-box is fitted, bore hole for same through rear 
 sight-mass. The hole is bored with the rear sight- 
 box (in. and the latter is kept down in its place 
 by a sling around cascabel set up by a handspike. 
 The rear sight being fitted true as to the leveling- 
 bar, again level the arm of sighting-tompion, and 
 streteii the thread back over the gun, this time bring- 
 ing the thread to the exact middle of the rear sight- 
 notch. Now, in theory, the thread ought to come 
 directly over the inilal pointof the base-ring, and over 
 the mark already accurately laid off on the front 
 sighl-mass; but ))ractically this is never the case, as 
 it is aliiiiist imiKMsililf to fit a rear sight-box so true 
 as to bring the middle of the sight-notch in the ex- 
 act line of sight already laid off. It will lie found, 
 >ipon stretching the thread the second time, that it 
 will fall a trifle one side or other of the inilial point 
 on base-ring. So. virtually, it is necessary again to 
 lay ofT a line of sight . Willi a measure take the 
 distancethat the Ihrciid fulls to one side of the initial 
 |ioinl on base-ring. Take this same ilistiince thatthu 
 thread is out, and lay it off horizontally on the cross-
 
 LEVELING RODS. 
 
 I'.l'.l 
 
 LEVELING BODS. 
 
 li.ir iif the v<rii<iil sightinR-arm. Of course, when 
 llic thread is also mov('<l tliiH distunrc on tlio siglit- 
 ini; iinii, the thread will fall I he same dislunce to 
 one Hide on the front sitrlit-iiiiiss ; Iherefori' mark 
 this last point where the thread falls over the front 
 si;:lit-mass. and thus is estalilished the second and 
 final line of siLcht. Also mark the point where the 
 thread now crosses the base-rinj;, and this is the 
 final initial point to be marked for a full due on the 
 liase-rinir. Where the thread crcjsses the front sight- 
 mass, hold the front sight itself directly under the 
 thread. When the front sight mass was lined out. 
 at the same time with the rear sighl-nniss a regula- 
 tion distance was given from base-ring to center of 
 front sight -mass, and from this central iioint the 
 mass was marked cml and cut. See dniri'iii Sig/iti. 
 LEVELING RODS The various Icveling-rods used 
 by American engineers are made 'n two or more 
 part.s, which slide from each other as they are ex 
 tended iu use. 
 
 tliese depressed surfaocH arc painted white, divided 
 
 into feet, tenths and hundredths of a foot, and the leet 
 and tenths figured. The front piece reads from the 
 bottom 'ipward to seven feet, the foot figures being 
 red and an inch long, the tenth figures black, and 
 eight-tenths (if an inch long. When the roil is ex- 
 tended to full length the front surface of the rear 
 half rea<ls from seven to thirteen feet, and the whole 
 front of the rod is fiiri.red continuously and becomes 
 a self-reading rod thirteen feet long. The l)ack sur- 
 face of the' rear half is figured from seven to thirteen 
 feet, reading from the top down ; it lias a scale also 
 by which 'he rod is read to two-hundredths of afoot 
 as it is extended. The larL'et is round and made of 
 sheet-brass raised on the perimeter to increase its 
 strength, and is paint<-d in white and red quadrants ; 
 it has also a scale on its chamfered edge, reading to 
 two-hundredths of a foot. When a level of less tlian 
 seven feet is (h'sired the target is moved up or down 
 the front surfaee. the rod being closed together and 
 
 ^ 
 
 u 
 
 \<^ 
 
 The PJtilndelphia rod. plicwn in Fig. 1, is made of I 
 two strips of cherry, each about lliree-fourths of an 
 inch thick by one and a half inches wide and .seven 
 feet long, connected together by two metal sleeves, 
 the npiwr one of which lias a clamping-screw for fas- 
 tening the two parts together when the rod is raised 
 for a liieher reading than seven feet. Both sides of 
 the back strip and one side of the front one are plan- 
 ed out one-sixteenth of an inch below the edges ; 
 
 l^ 
 
 Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. 
 
 clamped ; but when a greater height is required the 
 target is fixed at seven feet and the rear half slid out. 
 the scale on the back giving the readings like those 
 of the target to twtvhundredths of a foot. 
 
 The Troy rod shown in Fig 2. is a self reading 
 rod up to six feet, or can be read by a vernier on 
 the rear piece to thousandths of a foot as usual. 
 It has two targets as shown, both fastened to the 
 front half of the rod, the lower one having its center
 
 LEVEB. 
 
 200 
 
 LEVEK. 
 
 line just three-tenths above the end, and the target 
 exactly six feet above the lower. There is a clamp- 
 ing piece with screw on the back of the rod below 
 the target, by which the two parts are clamped to- 
 gether when desired. The face of the front piece is 
 recessed like that of the Philadelphia Rod, painted 
 white, divided to feet and hundredths, and figured 
 as represented. The side of the front half is divided 
 to feet and hundredths, read by a vernier on the top 
 of the rear lialf to thousandtlis, and figured from the 
 top downwards, beginning with three-tenths, that 
 being the lieight of the center line of the lower 
 target. When a level of less than six feet is taken 
 on the rod the observation is made by the lower 
 target, and the reading is direct as given on the 
 side ; but when a greater height is taken the upper 
 target is sighted upon, and si.x feet added to the 
 reading on the side in every instance, and thus a 
 reading up to twelve feet readily obtained. 
 
 TheiV^cw) York ?'«(f is made of maple, in two pieces, 
 sliding one from the other, the same end being 
 always held on the ground, and the graduations start- 
 ing from that point. The graduations are made to 
 tenths and hundredths of a foot, the tenth figures be- 
 ing black, and the feet marked with a large red figure. 
 The front surface, on which the target moves, reads 
 to about six and a half feet ; when a greater height 
 is required, the horizontal line of the target is fixed 
 at the highest graduation, and the upper half of the 
 rod, carrying the target, is moved out of the lower, 
 the reading being now obtained by a vernier on the 
 graduated side, up to an elevation of twelve feet. 
 The mountings of this rod are differently made by 
 different manufacturers. We shall give those which 
 are mostly used. The target is round, made of 
 thick sheet brass, having, to strengthen it still more, 
 a raised rim, which also protects the paint from being 
 defaced. The target moves verj- easily on the rod, 
 being kept in any desired position by the friction of 
 the two flat plates of brass which are pressed firm- 
 ly against the two alternate side?, by small spiral 
 springs, working in little thimbles attached to the 
 baud which surrounds the rod. There is also a 
 clamp-screw on the back, by which it may be se- 
 curely fastened to any part of the rod. The face of 
 the target is divided into quadrants, by horizontal 
 and vertical diameters, which are also tlie boundaries 
 of the alternate colors with which it is painted. The 
 colors usually preferred are white and red ; some- 
 times white and black. The opening in the face of 
 the target is a little more than a tenth of a foot long, 
 so that in any position a tenth, or a foot figure, can 
 be seen on the surface of the rod. The riglit edge 
 of the opening is chamfered, and divided into ten e- 
 qual spaces, corresponding with nine-hundredths on 
 the rod ; the divisions start from the horizontal line 
 which separates the colors of the face. The vernier, 
 like tliat on the other side of the rod, reads to thou- 
 sandths of a foot. The clamp, which is screwed 
 fast to the lower end of the upper slidiug-piece, has 
 a movable part which can be brought by the clamp- 
 screw firmly against the front surface of the lower 
 half of the rod, and thus the two parts immovably 
 fastened to each other without marring the divided 
 face of the rod. 
 
 Fig. 3 represents another form of this favorite 
 rod, introduced by the Messrs. Gurley, United 
 States. In this rod, a third or fovirth piece is added 
 to the two of the old rod, giving thus a rod of 
 greater length, anil at the same time making it more 
 compact an<l portable. The divisions, the verniers, 
 readings, and target are the same as those of the 
 old rod. Tliere are two varieties of the three- 
 parted rod, one sliding to allow a reading of thir- 
 teen feet and the other extending to fourteen feet ; 
 the first when closed is only five feet long, the last 
 but a little over five and a half feet. The four-parted 
 rod is, when closed, but five feet in length, but can 
 be extenilcd to sixteen feet. 
 
 The ArckiUn'tif^ rod is a very light and simple 
 
 sliding rod made of maple, in two parts, each seven- 
 eights of an inch square, and wlien closed, about five 
 feet six inches long. As shown in Fig. 4, the front 
 half is divided on two sides to feet, tenths, and 
 hundredths, reading by verniers on the target and 
 side to thousandths of a foot. The target is smaller 
 than those of the rods already described, but of suffi- 
 cient size, and moves on the closed rod when levels 
 1 of less than five feet and four-tenths are to be taken. 
 When a greater height is needed the target is fixed 
 ! at the highest division, the front half carried above 
 1 the rear part and clamped at any point desired, by 
 the clamp-screw, as shown, the height being now 
 read off by the vernier on the lower half up to ten 
 feet. This rod is adapted for use with any level, 
 and is so light and efficient that we believe it will 
 come into general use ; when it is to be used by an 
 architect, the divisions are made in feet, inches and 
 sixteenths, and no verniers are then required. 
 
 The Bontonrod, shown in Fig. 5, is formed of two 
 pieces of light mahoganj' or baywood, each about 
 six feet long, and sliding easily by each other in 
 either direction. One side is furnished with a 
 clamping piece and screw, and a small vernier at 
 each end, the other or front piece carries the target 
 and has on each side a strip of satinwood inlaid 
 upon which divisions of feet, tenths and hundredths 
 are marked and figured. The target is a rectangle 
 of wood fastened on the front half, is painted black 
 and white, and has its middle line just three-tenths 
 above the end of the rod. Each tenth of the rod is 
 figured decimally in three figures or to hundredths 
 of a foot, and by the verniers is read to thousandths. 
 The target being fixed, when any hieght is taken 
 above six feet, the rod is changed end for end, and 
 the divisions read by the other verniers ; the height 
 to which the rod can be extended being a little over 
 eleven feet. This kind of rod is very convenient 
 from its great lightness, but the parts are made too 
 frail to endure the rough usage of this countr)-, and 
 therefore American engineers have generally given 
 the preference to others, made heavier and more 
 substantial. 
 
 In addition to the above, there is what is termed a 
 Telemeter rod, formed of two pieces of pine, each 
 three and a half inches in width, seven-eighths of an 
 inch thick, and six feet long. Both sides of the rods 
 are painted white, the inner surfaces Deing also re- 
 cessed to protect the divided surface, with divisions 
 in black of feet, tenths, and lumdredths, and figured, 
 the feet in red, the tenths in black. The two pieces 
 are connected by a strong iron hinge, and folded in 
 transportation; when in use, they are opened, laid 
 flat, and joined firmly in line by a wooden bar, about 
 eighteen inches long, held to each piece by two 
 strong brass screws, which enter into metal sockets 
 secured in each part of tlie rod. This is a self-read- 
 ing rod. and is often used in connection with tlie 
 micrometer wires to ascertain distances by a simple 
 observation in the same manner as the Philadelphia 
 rod. 
 
 A rod of English make Is sometimes used, in 
 which the two smaller upper parts slide out of a larg- 
 er and lower one which answers as a case ; when 
 closed the rod is five feet long, and extends to four- 
 teen feet. It is divided on a recessed face to feet, 
 tenths, and hundredths, the divisions being painted 
 and figured like those of the Philadelphia and Tele- 
 meter rods. This is also furnished with divisions 
 in meters, decimeters, and in centimeters ; length 
 when closed one and a half meters, and sliding out 
 to four meters. See T Level. 
 
 LEVER. — This, the most simple and common, 
 but, at the same time, most important of the seven 
 mechanical powers, consists of an inflexible rod — 
 straight or bent, as the case may be— supported at 
 some jioint of its length on a prop which is called 
 {\\v fulrrum, and having the ireight to be moved I'nd 
 power to move it applied at other two points. In the 
 accompanying illustrations, AB is the lever, F the
 
 lETEE HITCH. 
 
 201 
 
 LEVER SHEARING MACHINE. 
 
 fulcrum, A mid 15 llic pi)int« of iinplifntion of P and 
 W, the power (or |)rcsHurc; mid wci^lil rcHpiclivi'ly. 
 If l\u: iiniiH Al*' mid 15K lie c-(iiiiil. tin- powrr I' mid 
 the weight VV iiiu.Mt also lie e(|iml to produce e(|iii- 
 libriuiii ; if the ariii of the power, A F, be loiii<c-r 
 than the arm of the weii^ht, HF, thi'ii, to produee 
 cquilihriuiii, the power I' must he less than the 
 weifilit W. and I'/w vrmii ; if AF lie donhle the lenjjtli 
 of liF, then 1', to produce e(|uilil>rinni, must he 
 half of W ; and, i^eneriiUy, as is hIkjuii in the ele- 
 mentary treatises on mechanics, t/ii' jioirir and wright 
 <tre, in the inverm: ratio of tkcir dinlnnceK from tlie ful- 
 crum. This is equally true for straight or bent 
 levers; but the distanc(! of the power and weight 
 from the fulcrum is not, in all cases, the actual 
 length of the amis, hut the lengths of perpendiculars 
 from the fulcrum upon the directions of the jiower 
 and weight. The principle holds good, whatever 
 be the relative jiositions of the power, weight and 
 fulcrum ; and as there can be three dilTerent ar- 
 rangements of these, we thus obtain what are called 
 " the three kinds of levers." Tlie firxt *mrf(Fig. 1) is 
 •where the fulcrum is placed between the power and 
 the weight ; the balance, spade (wdien used for raising 
 earth), the see-saw, etc., are examples of this; and 
 scissors and pincers are examples of double levers 
 
 Levers of the third kind are used when velocity, or 
 a large e.xlent of motion, is required at the expeiwc 
 of power, and we conse(piiMitly lind this form nnicli 
 used in the structure of the lindis of aninuils. The 
 structure of the human arm fFig. 4;, is a very good 
 example of this; the fulcrum is the HOcket(^C>of llic 
 elbow-joint, th<^ power is tin: strong muscle ftlie bi. 
 
 I ce/m), which passes down the front of the /lur/i^nin, 
 and is attached at A to the rot/ii/M ("as shown;; the 
 weight is the weight of the ffjrearm, together with 
 anything hild in the hand, the two being supposed 
 to be conibini'd into one weight acting at Ji. IJy 
 this arrangement, a large extent of motion is gained, 
 by a slight contraction or extension of the mu.scle. 
 
 1 When a large mechanical advantage is required, 
 this may be obtained, without an inordinate length- 
 ening of the lever, b)' means of a very simjile com- 
 bination of them. Here the levers have their 
 arms in the ratio of 3 to 1, and a little consideration 
 will make it plain that a power (P) of 1 lb. will bal- 
 ance a weight of 27 lbs. ; but in this instance the 
 
 ' particular (lefect of the lever as a mechanical power 
 shows itself prominently ; for if the weight has to 
 be lifted 2 inches, the power re()uires to be depressed 
 (2x27 or) .'54 inches; and. as the extent of the power 
 
 i cannot be largely increased without inconvenience, 
 
 ^T 
 
 ITe 
 
 Fig. ; 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. .3. 
 
 of the same kind. Levers of the .tei-orui f^ind (F\tr. 2) 
 are those iu which the weight is between the power 
 and the fulcrum ; examples of this are the crowbar, 
 when used for pushing weights forward, the oar — 
 the water being the fulcrum, and the row-lock the 
 point of applicaticm of the weight — and the wheel- 
 barrow ; and of double-levers of this kind we have 
 the nut-crackers as an ordinary example. In lev- 
 ers of [t>ie third kind (Fig. 3). the power is always 
 between the weight and the fulcrum. Fishing-rods, 
 whips, umbrellas, and most of the instruments used 
 with the hand alone, are levers of the third kind: and 
 shears, tongs, etc.. are examples of double levers of 
 this class. It is evident that, to produce equilibrium 
 in levers of the first kind, the power may, according 
 to the ratio of the lengths of the arm, be either 
 greater or less than the weight ; in the second kind 
 it must always be less ; and in the third kind, always 
 greater. This is expressed in technical phrase b)' 
 saying that the first kind of lever gives a mechanical 
 aricnntfige or disndeantage, the second alwa)-s gives 
 a mechanical advantage, and the third always a me- 
 chanical disadvantage. Levers of the second kind, 
 ■ having the same mechanical advantage, are, when 
 
 Vvj.. I. 
 
 worked by man. twice as powerful as those of the 
 first kind, because in one case he uses his muscular 
 force as the power, in the other case only his weight. 
 
 the advantages of this machine are confined within 
 narrow limits. See Mechanicol Powers. 
 
 LEVEB HITCH.— A knot similar to the drag-rope 
 knot or woolding-stick hitch. It is used for tight- 
 ening ropes, but instead of turning the woolding- 
 stick round, it is applied on the principle of the lever. 
 
 LEVER JACK. — An adjustable fulcrum with a lever 
 fifteen feet long, used chiefly for greasing the axles 
 of traveling carriages. It consists of a wooden 
 stand, made of two uprights and framed into one bed. 
 Two lever-plates (cast brass) are fastened to the large 
 end of the lever by screws, and prevent the lever from 
 slipping on the fulcrum-pin. See Mechanical Ma- 
 neiivfr.1. 
 
 LEVEE-RING,— A wrought-iron ring, fitting on the 
 circular part of the breech-screw of the Armstrong 
 gun. It is kept in place by two split keep-pins which 
 work in a groove round the breech-screws. The ob- 
 ject of the lever and tappet arrangement is to give a 
 powerful momentum in tightening up and releasing 
 the vent-piece from its seat in the gun. 
 
 LEVER SHEARING-MACHINE.— It is evident that 
 in all punching or shearing-machines, driven by a 
 belt, there must be a conversion of the rotary motion 
 of the driving pulley into a reciprocating motion of 
 the punch or shear blade. To obtain the requisite 
 power, many revolutions of the driving pulley must 
 occur to one stroke of the punch. In crank machines, 
 the whole pressure of the cut comes directly on the 
 crank pin, which must perform a good portion of its 
 revolution under this heavy strain at whatever speed 
 the crank shaft mat' be running. This limits the 
 power of such machines to the practical pressure 
 sustainable on a given surface at a given velocity. 
 When the vertical slide which carries the punch "is 
 operated by a lever, the .sliding motion of the part 
 of the lever in contact with the vertical slide is al- 
 most inappreciable : the pressure extends over large 
 surface with little motion; so with the fulcrum pins 
 over which the lever works ; with very little and 
 very slow motion of these parts much pressure is 
 admissible, while the long end of the lever is operat-
 
 LEVER SHEERS. 
 
 202 
 
 LEWIS-EICE HAOAZHTE-OUN. 
 
 ed upon by the lifting cam acting under compara- 
 tively light pressure. Added to this economical use 
 of power, with the very greatly diminished friction- 
 al resistance, comes the possibility of so shaping j 
 the cam which is designed to lift the lever as to 
 cause the motion of the punch to be about uniform 
 through the whole length of the stroke, to return 
 quickly, and then to dwell during any required por- 
 tion of the revolu'.ion of the cam-shaft at the top of \ 
 its stroke. Therefore, in comparing machines using 
 the crank or eccentric with those employing the lev- 
 el and cam, if in both cases the same pulley, belt, 
 and gearing is used, running at the same rate of 
 speed, and making the same length of stroke at the 1 
 punch or shear blade, it will be found that there is a 
 capability of punching larger holes or of shearing 
 thicker plates when the cam and lever are used than ; 
 when the crank or eccentric is employea. On the ^ 
 lever punch and shears is arranged a four-toothed 
 clutch on the main shaft, to be used in stopping and 
 starting the plunger. This admits of quicker work 
 than w^ien the cam is shifted on the main shaft. The 
 tail end of the lever is made to drop on a block of 
 wood held in a box at the back of the machine, and 
 the adjustment of the length of block to limit the 
 fall of the lever enables the stroke to be controlled, 
 and in thin metal to carry the punch close to the 
 plate with less drop than when thicker iron is being 
 punched, so obtaining a longer dwell for setting the 
 plate. 
 
 In the Seller's machine, the heavy wrought iron 
 lever in the housing easily raises the blade by its 
 own gravity, and the cam which moves tlie lever 
 is so shaped as to cause the motion of the blade in 
 cutting to be at a uniform rate of speed. Returning 
 quickly it dwells for some time at the top of its 
 stroke. thus giving ample time to shift the plate for the 
 next cut. In the earlier machines, the lifting-cam ' 
 was moved sideways from under the lever when it 
 was desired to stop the machine. This could only 
 be done when the cam was free from pressure at 
 the end of the stroke, and in starting again the cam 
 could only be pushed in when in proper position in 
 regard to the lever. The cam is now kept in posi- 
 tion under the lever and is attached to or detached 
 from the shaft by means of a four-toothed clutch, 
 which, while it can only be withdrawn at the com- 
 pletion of the stroke, yet at the same time will 
 permit the starting again to be effected in any one 
 of four positions of the driving wheel in relation to 
 the cam, thus saving much time, and also pre- 
 venting the damage to the machine likely to arise 
 from working the cam only partly under the lever. 
 
 Tlie shear blades are placed so as to he right for 
 tiimming edges of plates, not for cutting bar iron. 
 Operated by a heavy wrought iron lever within the 
 housing. Independent stop motion by means of a 
 four-toothed clutch in the housing. Blades rest 
 open when clutch is out of gear, vertical motion 
 of blades li inches. Can be used to shear plates of 
 iron ^1 inch thick. Fast and loose pulleys on the 
 machine 36 inches diameter, 7 inches face, which 
 should make 114 revolutions per minute. See 
 Angle Shenring-inachine,Power Shears, and Shearing- 
 ma~hin.f. 
 
 LEVER SHEERS. — A contrivance consisting of a 
 long. heavy spar, with one end resting on the ground, 
 and the other supported on two short spars, crossed 
 an<l securely lashed together. The butt-end of the 
 spar is heavily weighted, and is usually sunk a little 
 in the ground, resting against a board or slab of 
 wood, to prevent the earth from yielding to the pres- 
 sure of the force acting in a direction parallel to the 
 spar, and tending to force the end of it into the 
 ground. A rear guy is also employed, to prevent 
 short cross spars, or sheers, from falling to the front. 
 The pressure of the spar or lever at the point where 
 the sliort spars cross prevents them from incliningto 
 the rear. 
 
 LEVET.— A blast of ft trumpet— probably that by 
 
 whicn soldiers are called in the morning. This term 
 
 is now obsolete. 
 
 LEVIGATION.— A process of the laboratory for con- 
 verting different substances to a smooth, uniform 
 powder by grinding them between two Hat surfaces. 
 The same process essentially is used in grinding 
 paints, printing inks, and drugs. 
 
 LEVY. — Thecompulsory raising of a lot of troops 
 from any specified class in the comnumity for pur- 
 poses of general defense or offense. When a country 
 is in danger of instant invasion, a levee en matue is 
 sometimes made — i. e., every man capable of bearing 
 arms is required to contribute in person towards the 
 common defense. On less urgent occasions, the levy 
 may be restricted to a class, as to men between 18 
 and 40 years of age. At other times, a levy of so 
 many thousand men of a certain age is decreed, and 
 the districts concerned draw them by lot from among 
 their eligible male population. In armies sustained 
 by volunteering, the levy, which is a remnant of bar- 
 barous times, is unnecessra}' ; but the system was 
 frequently resorted to in France before" the enact- 
 ment of the Conscription Laws: 1862 has shown great 
 levies in the United States of America ; and in 
 any country where great danger is apparent, and 
 volunteers are not suftioiently numerous, recour.se 
 must at all times,be had to a levy of the people. 
 
 LEWIS. — An ingenious mode of lifting heavy 
 weights. It consists of three pieces of iron, two of 
 them wedge-shaped, and the third straight, which, 
 when placed together with the straight piece in the 
 center, form a dove-tailed wedge. Tlie wedge is in- 
 serted in a hole of similar shape, cut either in stone 
 or in metal. To the end of each of the pieces 
 a rin^is attached, throughw hich a horse-shoe ring 
 is passed, and to this the rope or chain is securely 
 fastened. 
 
 LEWIS HOLES.— The holes, in which the shell- 
 hooks work in the 10-inch and 13-inch, mortar shells. 
 They take the place of the early liign, which are ob- 
 jectionable because of being knbced off in trans- 
 port or piling. 
 
 LEWIS-RICE MAGAZINE-GUN.— This gun belongs 
 to that system in which a fixed chamber is closed 
 by a moveable breech-block rotating about a horizon- 
 tal axis at right angles to and below the axis of the 
 barrel ; in front, the lock is conaled. The breech- 
 block is operated by a lever, and is locked by a 
 cam. The cam is held in position by a spring, 
 one branch of which serves as a trigger-spring. The 
 breech-block is simply a box containing the firing- 
 pin, a bell crank lever, one|arm of which controls the 
 motion of the firing-pin, the mainspring, trigger- 
 spring, etc. The box is closed by a cover, in a slot 
 in which is situated the extractor. In operating the 
 lever, so as to open the block, a point bears against 
 the surface of the cam, presses it forward, and un- 
 locks the piece. During the unlocking, the lower arm 
 of the firing-pin lever is so moved by the nose of the 
 cocking-lever as to cause the upper arm to retract 
 the firing-pin. When the lever has been rotated suffi- 
 ciently, the trigger-spring causes the nose of the trig- 
 ger to enter the full-cock notch ; at the same time 
 the shoulder of the cam rides over the point of 
 the trigger. The piece cannot then be fired until the 
 cam isin its seat. The extractor is a flat blade, 
 turning on the same axis as the lever, and operated 
 by the shoulders of the slot in the cover of the 
 breech-block in which it lies. The magazine is in 
 the butt-stock. It is lomied at the siile, near the 
 rear, by first withdrawing the magazine-tube nearly 
 its full length. When the breech-block is opened, 
 a cartridge is forced by the magazine spring against 
 the cartridge-stop As the block is closed, the stop 
 descends, due to its arm working in a slot on the in- 
 ner surface of the receiver, and the cartridge enters 
 the chamber. A fork on the upper surface of the 
 receiver prevents the cartriilge being thrown out 
 when tlie block is eloped, and also guides it into the 
 chamber. A cut-off is situated on the left side of
 
 LETDEN JAB. 
 
 203 
 
 LEYDEN JAB. 
 
 the receiver. It may be ho set us to [irevenl the 
 breecli-bloek openiiif!; fur enough to ill low (■iirl riders 
 to feed from the miin'"'n''- 1 ''e picc'e miiy tlii'ii he 
 iiHed us a sinj^le-loader. As a manuzine niiii. li mo. 
 tioiis are neeessary lo operate il, viz.: opened, elo.sed, 
 tired. Ah a siiip;le-loailiT, 4 motions are neeessary, 
 viz. : o]iened, loailed, clcjsed, tired. This t;un carries 
 .*) earljid^^cs in tin- miiLCaziDr and one in the eliamhrr. 
 If the breech-bloek be opened, liie six cartridges 
 mtiy be loaded directly in the muguzitie. See Maga- 
 tiiif-(/i/n. 
 
 LEYDEN JAR.- The ))rinclple of tlie Leyden jar 
 was discovered by Musciiciibroecli at licyden in 
 17-4.'), In'nce its name, (iralath. in (ierniany, 174(>, 
 fonliinied the clcctri(t lialtcrv liy combininfj; a series 
 of jars; and tinally I)rs. Watson ami Bevis, by 
 covering the ontside of tlie jar with tinfoil, lironght 
 it to the complete stale in whieli we now have it. 
 The mouth of the jar is generally closed by a 
 wooden stopper, through wliicli passes the stalk of 
 a brass knol> or ball, surmounting the whole. The 
 couneetion between the inside coating and the hall 
 is completed by a cliain e.vtending from the stalk to 
 the bottom of the jar. If this jar be jiut on au 
 insulating stool, so that sparks can pass from the 
 prime conductor of a machine to the knob, when 
 tlie jar is thus insulated, one or two sparks pass, an<l 
 then tlie charge seems complete, for no more sparks 
 will follow, though tlie action of the machine is 
 continued; or if they do, they are immediately 
 dissipated from the knob in a brush discharge. If 
 then, however, the knuckle of the experimenter lie 
 brought near the outer coating, sparks begin again 
 to pass freel}' ; and for every spark of + electricity 
 that passes between the machine and the knob, a 
 corresponding spark of the same name at once 
 passes between the knuckle and the outer coating. 
 This continues for some appreciable lime, and then 
 the jar apjiears to be again completely saturated. It 
 is now said to be fully charged. The outside of the 
 jar can. in this slate, be handled freely, and if it be 
 still on the insulating stool, So may also the knob, 
 although when the hand first approaches, it receives 
 a slight spark. But if, when the e.\|)erimenter lias 
 one hand on the outer coating, lie bring the other 
 hand lo the knob, before it can reach it, a siraighl. 
 highly brilliant spark passes between the knob and 
 his hand, and he experiences a shock of great vio. 
 lence. If he try the same Ihiug again, a feeble spark 
 and shock again ensue, and the jar is now thorough- 
 ly discharged. As it is hi.glily inconvenient, if not 
 dangerous, to discharge the jar through tlie body, 
 discharging totign are used for that purpose, which 
 consist of two brass arms ending in balls, and moved 
 on a hinge by glass handles. 
 
 A very instructive experiment may be made wlien 
 the coatings are fitted to the jar so as to be removed 
 at pleasure. After the jar is charged, it is put on an 
 insulating stand. The inside coating is lifted out by 
 the knob, and a slight spark is got by the hand in 
 doing so. The jar is now taken up by one hand, 
 and the outside coating is removed l)y tlie other, and, 
 as before, another feeble spark is got. The whole 
 is now built up in inverse order and discharg- 
 ed, when the spark is nearly as brilliant as when 
 it is discharged at once witliout such dissection. 
 From this it may be positively argued that the 
 charge of the jar lies in the glass and not in the coat- 
 ings, and that it is very likely that in all cases it is 
 in the dielectric the charge resides ; that the con- 
 ductors, whicli are usuallj- looked upon as the seat 
 of the charge, are merely tlie limiting surfaces or 
 exponents of it. A portion of the total charge may 
 reside in them, but no more than is found on two 
 similar contiguous dielectric surfaces. Taking this 
 for granted, it is easy to explain the action of the 
 Leyden jar. The electrifying power of the charging 
 machine is exerted on two dielectrics— the glass ol 
 the jar and the air — the external limit in both cases 
 being tlie surrounding objects which constitute the 
 
 ground. The action on the air through the inside 
 coaling or the knoli is ipiile similar to what we find 
 in the case of any body lo be charged. Tlie action 
 through the glass is peculiar, because we are shut 
 out from it. The limits of this action are the inside 
 KurfaccH of the inside and outside coatingH. The 
 air charge we participiale in as we move in it. \Ve 
 are, however, ipiite ixt<rnal lo the action on the 
 glass; but if we coulil move about in il between the 
 coatings, w(' should find things there exactly similar, 
 80 far, at least, as kind of action is c<jncerned, lo 
 what we find in charged air. Seeing thai the glass 
 of th(? jar is a thin and good dielectric, and the air 
 much thicker and more difhcull to polarity, the 
 chargitig power of the macliine is exi-rtcd for the 
 most ]iart in the glass, the [lolarilication in the air 
 being comiiaratively slight. A.ssuming electricity to 
 be a polarilication of molecules, the electricity of the 
 jar resides Ihus in glass, and to a much less extent 
 in the air. The potential at the inner coaling is the 
 same as that at the knob, for any connected system 
 of good conductors must be at the same potential. We 
 judge of potential bjjihe air charge, and thus we take 
 the potential at the knob as the ])oteiilial at the inner 
 coating. The spark got from the knob of the insulat- 
 ed jar is small compared with that of the charging 
 machine, and as sparking distance is, generally speak- 
 ing, proportional lo potential, the potentialof the jar is 
 much below that of the charging machine. Thus, 
 a Lei/dtn jar is a (•ontrivaniu- fur acfumnlating large, 
 quanlitieH of eUctriciti/ at a lor potential. The thin- 
 ner the glass, the greater will be llie accumulation 
 of electricity, but the feebler will he the potential 
 of the jar. When the electric field is limited, as in 
 the glass of the Leyden jar, it is s(mietimes said to 
 be bound, as distinguished from the fref charge of 
 an ordinary air field. When the knob of Iheinsu- 
 lated jar is touched, a spark is got. and if the finger 
 be then removed to the outer coating, another spark, 
 but of the ojiposite name, is obtained, and the knob 
 is again prepared to give a spark, and this alternat- 
 ing process may be continued till the jar is emptied. 
 Wien the inner coaling is touched, the outer coat- 
 ing becomes insulated, and Ihus the potential alwaj-s 
 shifts to the insulated coating with an opposite 
 name lo what it had before, tach spark olitained 
 by the finger in going from one to the other con- 
 sumes so much of the energy of the charge, and so 
 the potential is gradually lowered. Whcnlhe jar is 
 discharged liy the tongs, the charge of the dielectric 
 glass is thrown into the dielectric air. The particles 
 of the glass, though more easily electrified than 
 those of air. having a higher specific inductive ca- 
 pacity, offer a much greater resistance to discharge 
 than those of air. At the same stase of polarilica- 
 tion, the air gives way, while the ^lass still keeps 
 polaritied. I fence a jar with glass "only a fraction 
 of an inch in thickness can give rise lo an air-spark 
 of several inches; besides this, the charge in the 
 glass is somewhat uniformly distribuledT In the 
 air, with the tongs, the force of the charge is con- 
 centrated on a certain region of il, and the breakin<T 
 down of the conductive resistance of the air is more 
 easily effected. The feelile residual spark from the 
 jar, after the first main discharge, is due to what is 
 called electric absorption. Somehow, the electricity 
 given to a dielectric is not immediately available 
 when a circuit is offered, the dielectric taking some 
 lime to recover itself. This is observable in all solid 
 dielectrics, but no trace of such action is found in 
 air. The sparking or xtriking distance of the jar in- 
 dicates the potendal of the charge. The quantity 
 may be measured by the turns of the charging 
 machine. It is found that when the same quantity 
 is given ;io two jars, one double the other in point 
 of covered surface, the striking distance of the large 
 jar Js only half that of the small jar ; and that to 
 charge the large one so as lo obtain the same length 
 of spark, twice the quantity must be given. If two 
 jars be taken of the same size, and one of them be
 
 UBEETY, EQUALITT, FRATEENITT. 
 
 204 
 
 LIEUTENANT COLONEL. 
 
 charged, we finil that, on connecting their outside 
 coatings, a spark passes wlieu their l^nobs are 
 brought together, and that, wlien now the double 
 jar is discharged, the spark is onlj' half as long as 
 was got from the single jar discharged directly. 
 The quantity discharged finally in the double jar 
 was the same as in the single jar. but the potential 
 was half. The spark occurring at the participation 
 of the charge accounts for the loss of potential For 
 great power, large surfaces are necessary. This can 
 be obtained either by constructing a large jar, or by 
 uniting several small jars together so as to act as one. 
 The latter method is preferable, as we can vary the 
 surface according to the number of jars employed. 
 
 A combination of small jars united together as one 
 is called an electric battery. A very convenient form 
 of electric battery is shown in the drawing. The 
 knobs of each jar communicate with a large central 
 one b_y arms of brass moving on hinges, and the 
 outer coatings are put in a conducting connection, 
 by being placed on an insulated stool covered with 
 tinfoil. The interior coatings are conveniently 
 charged by a long projecting arm from the central 
 knob, and the exterior ones by connecting the stool 
 with the knob of the unit jar. or by a wire with the 
 ground. Any jar can be throvvn out of action by 
 throwing back its arm. See Elertririty. 
 
 LIBERTY, EQUALITT, FRATERNITT.— For nearly 
 a century, these three words have been accepted as 
 embodying the creed of those who maintain the 
 rightful supremacy of the numerical majority; and 
 they have been sounded as the watchword of that 
 formidable movement known on the Continent of 
 Europe as "Tlie Revolution." of which the object was 
 to assert this supremacy by overturning the existing 
 fabric of society. When contrasted with the demo- 
 cratic creed of antiquity, the only novelty which the 
 modern symbol exhibits consists in the proclamation 
 of " Equality ;" for " Liberty," in the widest sense — 
 meaning thereby the ultimate extension of political 
 power to the whole body of the citizens — has been 
 the object of the most enlightened politicians of all 
 ages; whilst the protest in favor of " Fraternity " is 
 a mere sentimental commonplace, about the specu- 
 lative soundness of which there never was any real 
 difTerence of opinions. 
 
 The first state document of importance in which 
 the doctrine of " Equality" is set forth is the Ameri- 
 can Declaration of Independence of July 4,17T(). This 
 celebrated document proceeds thus: "We hold 
 these truths to be self-evident : that all Men are mat- 
 ed Kpial; that they are endowed by their Creator 
 witli certain unalienable riglits; that among tliese are 
 life, liberty, and the |)ursuit of happiness," etc. 
 This, as we liave said, was in 177G. Hut as a specu- 
 lative opinion, the doctrine of "Equality" had been 
 proilaimed by Hobbes more than a century before, 
 and from his lime down to the period at which it 
 thus received practical recognition, it had never 
 been lost sight of by the class of speculiilors to 
 which Ilobbes belonged. Under different forms and 
 
 from various points of view, it had been reasserted 
 by Spinosa, Rousseau. Helvetius, and ultimately by 
 ^ the class of political declaimers whose works were 
 simultaneous with the American, and immediately 
 proceeded the French Revolution. 
 j LIBRARIES — Military Libraries are either garrison 
 I or regimental. The former comprise large collec 
 tions of books, with newspapers, games, lectures, etc., 
 j in commodious rooms, and are Intended to win sol- 
 diers from the gin-shops and vicious haunts which 
 I are ever prevalent in garrison towns. Attempts liave 
 been made to provide the soldiers with books, both 
 for instruction and amusement; but statistics prove 
 that the men patronize few liesides fiction and trav- 
 els, and religious books, not at all. Regimental 
 Libraries are smaller collections of books, which ac- 
 company regiments in their various movements. 
 The charge'for Military Libraries in the British 
 Army wasT for 1870-77. the sum of £4,085. 
 
 LICORNE — An improved howitzer introduced by 
 tlie Russians in 1777. Short, light cannon intented 
 to throw large projectiles with comparative small 
 charges were used by the Dutch in the early part of 
 the 17th century and came into almo.st general use 
 during that century, prior to the introduction of the 
 lii'itrne. See Ilmmtzer. 
 
 LICTORS.— Among the Romans, the official attend- 
 ants of Magistrates of the highest rank. They car- 
 ried the fnsce» before the Magistrates, clearing the 
 way, and enforcing the use of the appropriate niarks 
 of respect. It was their duty to execute the punish- 
 ments ordered by the Magistrates, such as scourging 
 with rods and beheading. They were originally free 
 men of the plebeian order, [and not till the time of 
 Tacitus could the office beheld by freedmen. Slaves 
 were never appointed Lictors. 
 
 LISE. — A warlike machine which was formerly 
 used to throw large stones against a fortified place, or 
 upon an enemy. 
 
 LIEUTENANT.— A term applied to a variety of offi- 
 ces of a representative kind. Thus, in military mat- 
 ters, a Lieutenant-general personates with each div- 
 ision of an army the Geueral-in-Chief. A Lieutenant- 
 ^ofonf? commands a battalion for a Colonel in the 
 latter's absence. But the title Lieutenant, without 
 qualification, denotes the second officer and deputy, 
 or locum-t^nen/i, of the Captain in each company of 
 cavalry or infantry. A Lieutenant in the British Foot- 
 Guards ranks as Captain inthe Army, and exchanges 
 with a Captain in another regiment. Captain-lieu- 
 tenant, an obsolete rank, was the .subaltern who com- 
 manded the " Colonel's Company " in each regiment. 
 — A Secand Lieutenant is the junior subaltern of a 
 company, and corresponds to what formerly was an 
 Ensign. In the United States Army and Marine Ser- 
 vice, the Lieutenant ranks next after the Captain and 
 there are two grades. First and Second Lieutenant, 
 the latter being the lowest commissioned officer. 
 These grades rank with those of Master and Ensign 
 in the United States Navy. 
 
 In the British Navy, Lieutenant is a misnomer in 
 the case of the officer bearing that title. His func- 
 tions in all respects correspond to those of a Captain 
 in the Army, with whom he ranks, and with whom 
 he also nearly matches in regard to pa)'. A Lieuten- 
 ant's full pay is 10s. a day ; and his half-pay ranges, 
 according to length of services, from 4s. to 7s. a day. 
 Six jears' service afloat are requisite to qualify an 
 officer for the rank of Lieutenant, and the candidate 
 has also to pass a satisfactory examination in sea- 
 manship and general professional knowledge. As 
 leaders in all minor enterprises, such as boat expedi- 
 tions, culling out. etc. Lieutenants in war time carry- 
 off most of tile laurels awarded to actions of singular 
 personal daring. 
 
 LIEUTENANT COLONEL.- The rank in the United 
 Stales Army next atiove Miijor anil next below 
 Colonel, anci answering lo lliat of Commander in 
 the Navy. In the British Army it is nominally the 
 second officer in a regiment ; but virfially a Lieu-
 
 LIEUTENANT DE LA COLONELLE. 
 
 205 
 
 LIFE SAVING ROCKETS. 
 
 temint-colonel commands every Itiitlalion of infan- 
 try and rcf^inir'nl of eavalry.llie |)0»l of Colonel liiMni; 
 merely iin liiinorable Hineeiire, with MMually t'l.OOO 
 a j'ear allaelied, awarded to some (ieneral Ollicer. 
 The Ijieulenant-coloiiel is responsil)le for Die dis- 
 cipline of his l)attali<in, tlie comfort of his men, and 
 ultimately for every detail comiccted with their 
 organization. He is assisted hy the Major and 
 Adjiitanl. In the artillery and eni^dneers, where the 
 rank of Colonel is a sidislanlive rank, with lanu'ilile 
 rei;imenlal duties, all the functions of Mculenanl- 
 Colonel are more limited, one having; eharire of 
 every two halt<'ries of artillery, or two companies of 
 en';rineers. The pay of a Mi'Ulcnanl-colonel varicK 
 i.'l. '.Is. 2(1. per diem in the Household Cavalry to 17s, 
 in the Infantry of the Line. Five years' rcfrimental 
 service as Lieutenant-colonel enlilles an ollicer to 
 hrevet rank as Colonel, wlii<h. while im]irovin); his 
 position in the Army, docs not. however, affect his 
 status in his re!;iment. 
 
 LIEUTENANT GENERAL.— In the United States 
 army the rank mxt heneath that of General; the latter 
 under the President, bcin>; Connnandcr-in-Chicf. 
 It was tirst authorized by Congress in ITIIH, and be- 
 stowed upon General Washinj^ton, in view of the 
 then anticipated war with France. After Washini;- 
 ton's death the rank remained in abeyance until 
 18.')i5,whcn it was revived (in brevet) by ^.!on(j:res8 for 
 General Winfield Scott, at whose deatli it again 
 lapsed. In 18C4 it was again revived by special Act, 
 and conferred on General U. S. Grant, on whose pro- 
 motion by the creation of the grade of General in 
 his behalf. Major General William T. Sherman be- 
 came Lieutenant General ; and, on his succession to 
 the rank of General, Major General I'hilip II. Sher- 
 idan was promoted to be Lieutenant General, and so 
 reuMuns until the present time, 1884. See General 
 Officer. 
 
 LIEUTENANT DE LA COLONELLE.— The Second 
 Otlicer. or what was formerly styled the Captain- 
 Uentiniint of the Colonel's C'ompany of every in- 
 fantry regiment in France. See Lienteniint. 
 
 LIEUTENANT DU ROI.— During the Monarchy of 
 France there was a Deputy Governor in every forti- 
 fied place, or strong town, who commandeil in the ab- 
 sence of the Governor, and wdio was a check vipon his 
 conduct when present. This same person was called 
 Lieutenant du Hoi. Lieutena/iti den Garden Fran- 
 ca'xe.i et Siii.tnes bore the rank of Lieutenant-colonel, 
 and took precedence of all Captains. Lieutenants 
 Proi-incifiux d" Artillerie were certain officers belong- 
 ing to the old Erench service, and immediately at- 
 tached to the artillery, who bore the title or name of 
 the particular Province in which they were stationed. 
 Several of these Lieutenants, who had military employ 
 ment under the Board of Ordnance received the 
 rank of Lieutenant-general in the Army from the 
 Kinir. and could rise to the most exalted stations. 
 
 LIFE GUARDS.— The mounted body-guard of the 
 Sovereign. In the British Army there are two corps 
 BO designated. They never leave the country except 
 in a verj" great emergency. These regiments were 
 engag<Hi in the Peninsula, and were present at the 
 liattle of Waterloo, where they greatly distinguished 
 themselves. The two regiments of Life Guards wear 
 a cuirass over a scarlet tunic. Their headpiece is a 
 steel helmet. Tlie remainder of their dress consists 
 of leather breeches, long gauntlets, and jack-boots. 
 Their weapons are the sword and the carbine. See 
 GuardK. 
 
 LIFE OF PIECE. — An expression denoting the 
 Icngtli or time or the number of rounds a piece of 
 ordnance will stand before it becimics unservice- 
 able. This is estimated in smooth-bore ordnance at 
 from 1.000 to 1.200 rounds with service charge and 
 one sliot. Experience, however, has shown that it 
 is not so much the number of rounds fired which 
 destroys a gun as tlie high elevation given to it to 
 obtain extensive range. Guns tired horizontally, or 
 at no greater elevation than .'i'^ or 6^. do not ex- 
 
 perience the great strain whicli a gun fir<-d at .'iO" 
 would, and the reason is obvious, as guns firi'd at 
 a low elevation recoil in proiiorlion to the relative 
 weight and friction of the projectile ; whereas, 
 when elevated to ^iO", the- gun cannot recoil, the 
 force, therefore, is exerted downwards, and the 
 L'un impinges on itsstipporl, whicli is comparatively 
 iiMiniivalile ; thus the force which displaced the gun 
 ill the tirst instance is now exerted on the sides of 
 the gun. The initial velocity is also increased with 
 the angle of jirojection, which (-auseH the shot to 
 press more upon the charge and thus to increase the 
 resistance of the exjiansion of the gases. This 
 increased resistance also adds to the strain upon the 
 gun. Suflicient experic-iice has not yet been had of 
 rilled guns to state what number of rounds the dilTer- 
 ent classes of such ordnance can bi-ar, but it may 
 be inferred that their endurance will be considerable. 
 LIFE ROCKET DEPARTMENT,- That branch of t he 
 Marine Department of the- liourd of Trade which has 
 thcnianagement of life-rockets, mortars, lines, buoys, 
 and belts, divides with the National Life-boat Insti- 
 tution the laborsconnected with the prevention of 
 shiiiwreck, and the rescue of shipwrecki-d persons. 
 This has been the arrangement since 18.').'). Until 
 that year the life-mortars in use were partly under 
 the control of the Admiralty, sometimes under the 
 Board of Customs, partly under the Institution just 
 named, and partly belonging to private individuals. 
 The Merchant Shipping Act, passed in 18.')4. and put 
 in force the following year, placed the whole under 
 a different organization. To work out properly the 
 rocket and life-saving system, a topographical or- 
 ganization is in the tirst instance adopted. The coasts 
 of the United Kingdom are classified into 59 coast- 
 guard divisions or wreck registrars' districts: and 
 the coast-guard Inspector of each division or district 
 has control over all the rockets, mortars, buoys, belts, 
 and lines kept at the various seaside stations in his 
 district. There were in 1874 about 300 such stations; 
 some supplied with mortars, some witli rockets as 
 well as mortars, but the greater number witli rock- 
 ets only. Most of the mortars are Boxer's improve- 
 ment on Manby's ; and most of the rockets are Box- 
 er's improvement on Dennett's. Boxer's rockets, 
 found more effective than mortars, are made at the 
 Royal Labratory, at Woolwich, and are supplied by 
 the War Department to the stations, on requisition 
 from the Board of Trade ; as are likewise mortar- 
 shot and shell, fuses, portfires, signal-lights, gun- 
 powder, etc. At each station is kept a cart, express- 
 ly made to contain all the requisites for the rocket 
 apparatus, read}' packed. Eighteen rockets are sup- 
 plied with each apparatus ; and a new supply is ob- 
 tained before these are exhausted. Between 1874 
 and 1880, the system has extended year by year in 
 the number of stations and of men; but while the 
 details of organization have changed, no new princi- 
 ple has been introduced. Simlper apparatus, con- 
 sisting of life-belts and life-lines, is kept at a much 
 greater number of stations. The system is worked 
 by the coast-guard, the men being paid for period- 
 ical drilling, and for regular service. Special ser- 
 vices are rewarded with uifts of money, medals, etc. 
 LIFE-SAVING ROCKETS.— When a life-boat is not 
 at hand, or a raging sea and a shoal coast renders its 
 use impracticable, a distressed ship may often re- 
 ceive help from shore, provided the distance be not 
 too great for the throwing of a rope. A small ropo 
 may draw a thicker, and that a hawser, and the 
 hawser may sustain a slinging apparatus for bringing 
 the crew on shore. For short distances. Captain 
 [ Ward's hearing-stick has been found useful : it is 
 I simply a piece of stout cane about 2 ft. long, loaded 
 at one end with 2 pounds of lead, and at the other 
 Send is securely attached to a thin line. It is whirled 
 round vertically some 2 or 3 times, and then let go ; 
 j but it cannot be relied on for more than .50 ^ards. 
 Kites of various kinds have been employed, but are 
 not found to be certain enough inaction. The tiring
 
 IITTING JACK. 
 
 20G 
 
 LIFTIHG JACK 
 
 by gunpowder of some kind of missile, with a line of 
 rope attached (o it, is the method which has been 
 attended with most success. In 17!)1 Sergeant Bell, 
 of tlie Royal Artillery devised a mode of tiring a shot 
 and line from a distressed ship to the shore. It was 
 afterwards found to be more practically useful to 
 fire from the shore to the ship. In 1807 Captain 
 Manby invented his lifi'-iiu.n-tar, an ordinary 5^ in. 
 24-pounder coehorn, fixed at a certain angle in a thick 
 block of wood. The missile discharged from it was 
 a shot with curved barl)S, something like the flukes 
 of an anchor, to -catch hold of the rigging or bul- 
 warks of a ship. How to fasten the sliot to the rope 
 was at first a difficulty : cha'.ns were not found to 
 answer : but at length strips of raw-hide were 
 found suitable. To assist in descr3-ing the exact po- 
 sition of a distressed ship on a dark night. in order to 
 aim the mortar-rope correctly. Manby used a chem- 
 ical composition as a firework, which would shine 
 out in lirilliant stars when it had risen to a certain 
 height. A third contrivance of his for replacing 
 the shot by a shell filled with combustibles, in order 
 to produce a bright light which would render the 
 rope visible to the crew, was not so successful. 
 
 Many variations have been made in the line- 
 throwing apparatus. Colonel Boxer has recently 
 substituted a hidt for the shot, with four holes at the 
 end ; fuses thrust into these holes shed a light which 
 marks the passage of the bolt through the air. Tren- 
 grove's rocket-apparatus, invented in 1821, consisted 
 of an ordinary 8-oz. sky-rocket. Certain practical 
 difliculties, liowever, affected it. and it did not come 
 much into use. In 1832 Dennett's apparatus was in- 
 vented. It nearly resembled the old sky-rocket, but 
 with an iron case instead of a paper one, and a pole 
 8ft. long instead of a mere stick ; it weighed 23 lbs., 
 was propelled liy 9 lbs. of composition, and had a 
 range of 350 yards. A ship's crew having been sav- 
 ed by the aid of this rocket at Bembridge, in the 
 Isle of Wight, the Board of Customs caused man}- of 
 the coast guard stations to be supplied with the ap- 
 paratus in 1834. Carte's apparatus, brought for- 
 ward in 1842, depended on the use of a Congrevc 
 rocket instead of an ordinary sky-rocket. It does 
 not appear that this apparatus was ever adopted b}- 
 the authorities. Mr. Dennett next sought toimprove 
 the power of his apparatus by placing two rockets 
 side by side, attached to the same stick ; and it cer- 
 tainly did increase the range to 400 yards ; but as the 
 simultaneous and equal action of the rockets could 
 not be always insured, the scheme was abandoned. 
 Colonel Delvigne, of the French army, invented a 
 life-arrnir, to be fired from an ordinary musket. It 
 is a stick of mahogany, shaped like a billiard-cue; 
 the thicker end presses on the powder; while the 
 thinner end. loade<l with lead, is fitted with loops of 
 string ; a line or thin rope is attached to the loops, 
 and the thin end of the stick projects beyond the 
 barrel. The jerk, when the arrow or stick is fired, 
 causes the loops to run down the stick to the thick 
 end; this action has an effect like that of a spring, 
 preventing the stick from dartinit forward so sud- 
 denly as to .snap the line. The apparatus will send 
 an arrow of 18 oz, to a distance of 80 yards, with a 
 mackerel line attached. Another French contriv- 
 ance, Trcmlilay's rocket with a barbed head, was 
 soon adopted for the Emperor's yacht ; but as it is 
 to be fired from the sliiji to the shore, it partakes of 
 the same defects as Sergeant Bell's original inven- 
 tion. The most effective apparatus yet invented is 
 Colonel Boxer's. Finding that Dennett's parallel 
 rockets on one stick do not work well, he succeeded 
 after many trials in a mode of placing two rockets 
 in one tube, one behind the other. The head is of 
 liard wood; there is a wrought-iron case, with a 
 partition l)etween the two rockets. When fired, the 
 foremost rocket carries the case and the attached 
 line to its maximum distance, and the rearmost 
 rocket then gives these a further impetus. The ef- 
 fect is found to be greater than if the two rockets 
 
 i wt re placed side by side, and also greater than if the 
 
 quantity of composition for the two rockets were 
 
 [ made up into one of larger size. The rocket is 
 
 1 fired from a triangular stand, and is lighted hy fuse, 
 port-fire, or percussion-tube ; tlie elevation is deter- 
 mined by a quadrant or some similar instrument. 
 
 Tlie lines used with these several projectiles have 
 varied greatly; but the best is found to be Italian 
 hemp, spun loosel}'. It is very elastic, and when 
 thick enough for the purpose, 500 yds. weigh 46 lbs. 
 In Boxer's rocket, the line passes through tlie tail of 
 the stick, then through the head, where it is tied in 
 a knot, with India-rubber washers or buffers to les- 
 sen the jerk. The line is carefully wound on a reel, 
 or coiled in a tub. or faked in a box provided with 
 pins ranged round the interior— to enable the line to 
 run out quickly without kinking or entangling. 
 Dennet's faking-box for this purpose is the one now 
 generally adopted. 
 
 Life-belts, jackets, and buoys of various kinds are 
 used, made of cork, inflated India-rubber, etc. ; but 
 one apparatus now employed in conjunctitm with 
 the life-rockets is know-n by the curious name of 
 petticoat-hreeclies. or more simply, xlhig life-bui>y. It 
 is not strictly either a belt or a buoy, but a garment 
 in which a man may be slung clear out of the water. 
 When a rocket has been fired, and a line has reached 
 the distressed ship, signals are exchanged between 
 the ship and the shore; a thicker rope is pulled over 
 the ship by means of the line, and a hawser by 
 means of the rope. When all is stretched taut by 
 fastening to the masts, etc., anv articles can be read- 
 ily slung and drawn to and fro. The petticoat-breech- 
 es, was originally invented by Lieutenant Kisbee, and 
 consists of a circular cork life-lnioy forming the top 
 ring of a pair of canvas breeches ; one of these is 
 hauled over from the shore to the ship; a man gets 
 into it, his legs protruding below the breeches, and 
 his armpits resting on the buoy; and he is hauled 
 ashore by block-tackle. The crew of a wrecked ship 
 can thus one by one be relieved. To prevent losing 
 the hawser and other apparatus, when the last man 
 has left the ship, an apparatus called a hawser-cutter 
 is used working in the ship, but worked from the 
 shore. 
 
 After the destruction of the Northfleet in 18T3, off 
 Dungeness, an exhibition was organized at the Lon- 
 don Tavern, to which the inventors of new life-sav- 
 ing appliances were invited to contribute. Among 
 the apparatus were Hurst's lifi-raft. consisting of a 
 double pontoon, bridged over, stowed outside a ship, 
 and lowered by simply cutting the lashings; Christie's 
 life-raft, a large, rectanguliir framework, rendered 
 buoyant by numerous air-tight spaces, some of wliich 
 are available for stowing water and provisions; and 
 Parrott's tuhulnr life-rnft, composed of c\'lindrical 
 air-bags made of painted canvas, supporting a floor- 
 ing of sail-cloth and netting, and rendered rigid by 
 poles fixed in various directions. JIany other novelties 
 were displayed at the London Tavern, and also at a 
 similar collection in tlie annuiil International Exhi- 
 bition, in the forms ot life-boats, rafts, garments, 
 belts, buoys, etc. See Aw-hirr-mcket, licxrlJfe- 
 suxing Rocket, Chandlfr Anrhiyr-ihot, Delvigne Life- 
 saving Oun, German. Life-saving Horket, Hooper 
 Life-saving Rocket. Hunt Life-saving Rockets. I^yle- 
 Kmery Grapple-s/iot. Manby Shot, Parrptt IJfe-sav. 
 ing Mortar. Rockets. Russian LJfe-saving Rocket. Shot- 
 lines. !ind Signal Rocket. 
 
 LIFTING JACK. — A geared screw, with a project- 
 ing fool or hook at its lower end, for lifting heavy 
 weights. This jack. as used at military posts. consists 
 of the following detailed parts; 1 beil: 1 handle; 2 ri- 
 ret-bolts No. 3 A, to strengthen the bed; 4 ira»bers; 
 
 2 mits; 2 eye-plates for the braces, let int<i tlie ends 
 of the bed, and fastened by 4 sereirs. 3 inch, and 1 
 .<,creir,\ inch. No. U!; 1 .itaml (cast-iron); isteadying- 
 points.ncTvvicd into the bottom of the stand; 3 bra- 
 ces, fastened to the stand at the upper end by 2 bolts 
 No. 2; 1 screw, eaine size and pitch as the elevating
 
 XIOHT. 
 
 207 
 
 LIQKZ 
 
 screw for caHfniatc carrmRps; Ifitot; 1 plnlt', fusten- 
 t'J to tlie foot by 3 srreir.i, U-incli, No. 14; I imt; 1 
 liiiiion for llic lioislinji-.Mcrew 
 (hi'iiHS), liki' IlioHc fur IIm' CHSe- 
 Iiiali' I'li'valiiii; screw; 1 hIih/I 
 for pillion, kejit in plaee l)y one 
 siTfii-./iin lei ill the staiiil ; 1 
 crank, lield to tlie shaft liy 1 
 /n/J No. 4; 1 wooden liandle, 
 fastened by 1 irai/iir ; 1 nut 
 No. 3; and I rrip.jilifti', let into 
 tlie liead of the stand one- 
 eii^bth of an iiieb and fasleiied 
 liy 4 hitU-m-ri'irii No. 1. This 
 jaelc is now <iiiile superseded 
 by the liydraiilio-jack. The 
 jack represenled in the draw- 
 ini; isiised forneiieral purposes, 
 , is simple, eoiiipaet and power- 
 ful. .\ nooil suhsliliite for a 
 jack are two handspikes placed 
 under the a.xle-lrce, when, with 
 the aid of Iw^o robust nunners, 
 the carriaij;e can be raised to 
 take off the wheel. The jack 
 known as Clerk'n is the coininou 
 screw-jack of the service, in a easl-iron conical bo.\, 
 with metal top and triangular b;ise. This jack is 
 of i;reat power, and used for heavy carriaj^cs in 
 lieu of the '■toolhand iiinion " and "screw-jack." 
 There are other jacks in the service, such as the rack 
 a«rf;)/H/"«, liftiini ;j tons ; llfdey's, which varies in 
 power from 2 lo 30 tons : and Taiiijye^s liydrniilii-, 
 cap;ilile of liflint; from 4 lo 30 tons. See Jack-screw, 
 anil Mirhiiniciil Maiwiirera. 
 
 LIGHT. Opiics ranks ne.\t to dynamics in the 
 cate^-ory of nearly rj'cc? sciences— that is, of sciences 
 whose fundamen'l:d principles are so well known. 
 Unit the resull of almost any new experimental com- 
 bin;ilion can be predicted niathemalicnilly. Given 
 the forces acting on a body, the laws of motion en- 
 ables us. by purely mathemalical processes, to de- 
 termine ,the conseipient motion. Though we have 
 not as yi't arrived ;it equal iierfection in optics, we 
 are ccrl;unly far on the way, and proliably have now 
 attained nearly all the jirogress (independent of ini- 
 proveinents in our malhematical methods) which 
 will be made until the next great step in molecular j 
 physics shall give us the clue to the nature of the 
 minute motions on which light, heat, electric j 
 currents, ami magnetism depend. The most extra- 
 ordinary and almost inciedilile pri'dictions of theory ! 
 have been verified by exiierimeiit. and at present i 
 the ditferenccs between theory and experiment may 
 be divided into two elas.ses. corresponding to the 
 above exceptions. The first are those depending on I 
 the imperfections of ni;ithematical iirocesses. where, 
 because, for example, as we are ye", unable to ob- 
 tain the exact solution of a certain differential equa- 
 tion, we have to content ourselves with an approxi- 
 mate one. Hut I'very improvement in our means of 
 approximation is found to introduce a closer agree- I 
 meut between theory and experiment. This difReul- | 
 ty may safely be left to mathematicians. It is other- [ 
 wise with the second ditticulty. This dcpemls on 
 our ignorance of the ultimate nature of matter, and | 
 our consequent inability to apply mathematical rea- I 
 soiling in a perfectly correct and siifiicieiitly com- 
 prehcus'.ve manner. Here, the experimenter's work 
 is still required, and it is in this direction that we 
 must in all probability now look for important ex- 
 tensions of our knowledge. Optics is divided into 
 tw.) parts pliysiciil and gcirmetn'cn' . Of these, the 
 latter contents itself willi assuming certain obvious 
 experimental truths, such as the f.act. that light in a 
 unirorni meilium moves in straight lines, the ordin- 
 ary l;iws of rellection ami refraetiou, etc., and mak- 
 ing these its b;isis, employs malliematics to develop 
 their further con.sequences. It is thus that theory 
 has shown how lo carry to their utmost perfection 
 
 Buch exquisite specimens of art as the best teiescopeg 
 and microscopes of the present day. Hut these in- 
 vestigations, and their practical appliialion, are 
 I wholly indepeiideni, of the nuliirr of light, and can- 
 not be alfi-eled by discoveries in that direction. It 
 is otherwise when wi' conii^ to physical ojitics. This 
 cominenceM with the question : " WIkiI in light .'" and 
 then endeavors to diMluce from the nature of light 
 the (rxperiinental laws which, as we have seen, are 
 assumed as the basis of geometrical opiics. IJy two 
 perfectly distinct classes of astronomical observa- 
 tions — aberration and the eclipses of Jupiter's satel- 
 lites -W(' know that light takes time to pass from 
 one body to another -the velocity being (enormous — 
 about 300,000 miles per second. Hence it follows, 
 that either mntter oreiiirgy must be transferred from 
 a body to the eye before we can see it. Here we 
 have "at once the rival physical theories of light, 
 which have alternately had the advantage of one an- 
 other in explaining observed phenomena. It is only 
 of late years that an <'l/)f?'''w(«<////( rrncin has finally 
 decided between them — by showing one of them to 
 be utterly incompatible with a result of ob.servation. 
 Newton adopteil tin; corpuscular theory, in which 
 light is supposed to consist of material particles— i. e., 
 he adopted the first of the two possible hypotheses; 
 and he gave the first instance of the solution of a 
 problem involving molecular forces, by deducing 
 from this theory the laws of rellection and single re- 
 fraction. We shall see immediately that this beauti- 
 ful investigation led to the destruction of the theory 
 from which it was diiduced. But. independent of 
 this, there are many grave and obvious objections to 
 the corpuscular theory: for it involves es.senlially 
 the siipposilion of material particles impinging on 
 the ej'e with the astounding velocity of 300.000 miles 
 per second. If such particles weighed but the mil- 
 lionth of a pound, each would have something like 
 ten times the momentum ('', c., the battering power), 
 and six miUiim times the vis viva or kinetic energy 
 (/. p., the penetrating power), of a rifle-bullet. Sup- 
 pose them a inillitm times smaller — yet as millions 
 of millions of them must ever be supposed to enter 
 the eye at once, coming from everv' point of the sur- 
 face of every visible olijed. it seems impossible to 
 reconcile such a hypothesis with the excessive deli- 
 cacy of the organs of vision. 
 
 It is not pretended by the advocates of the rival 
 hypothesis, undulatory theory of light, that they 
 understand exactly the nature of the transference of 
 energy on which they suppose light to depend; but 
 they take from the analogy of sound in air, and of 
 waves in water, the idea of the existence in all space 
 of a highly elastic fluid (or quasisolid). provisional- 
 ly named the ether, and they suppose light to con- 
 sist in the propagation of waves in this lluid. Huy- 
 geus has the credit of having propounded, and ably 
 developeil and illuslrated, this theory. As we have 
 seen above, no third hypothesis as "to the nature of 
 light is admissible. JIany strong arguments against 
 the truth of the corpuscular theory had been fur- 
 nished by experiment, especially in the early part of 
 the present century: and as they were always met by 
 further and more extraordinary properties which 
 had to be attributed to the luminous corpuscles, the 
 theory had become complicated in the most fearful 
 manner; and this of itself was an almost complete 
 disproof. Still.it held its ground, for Newton's old 
 objection to the rival theory, viz.. that on the un- 
 dulatory hypothesis there should be no shadows at 
 all (witness the analogy of sounds heard round a cor- 
 ner), was as yet unanswereil. This dilliculty was 
 overcome by Young, to whose sagacity we are in- 
 debted fortheidea of interference, which completely 
 explained the apparent discrepancy. But the ques- 
 tion between the rival llieories was finaliy settled by 
 Fi/eau and Foucault. who. by processesenlirely dif- 
 ferent, but agreeing in their results, determined the 
 velocity of light in air and in water. Now, Newton 
 had shown that refraction, such as that of lisht by
 
 tlOHT. 
 
 208 
 
 LIGHT. 
 
 water, if predicated of moving pnrtides. requires that 
 tliey should move faster in water than in air. Huy- 
 gens, again, had clearly shown, that if such refrac- 
 tion be predicated of trdreit. they must move much 
 slower in water than in air. Fizeau and Foucault | 
 found, by direct measurement, that light moves 
 slower in water than in air. Hence, it is certain 
 that light consists in the transference vf energy^ 7u>tof\ 
 
 k 
 
 \\\e front of a plane wave which is passing in the di- 
 rection CD; i. e., suppose all particles of the ether 
 in the plane AB (perpendicular to the plane of the 
 paper) to be similarly and equally displaced. Ac- 
 cording to Huygens, we must suppose every particle, 
 P, to be itself the source of a wave, which, from the 
 uniformity of the medium, will spread with the same 
 velocity in all directions. With center P, and radius 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 mutter and the undulatory theory is based upon 
 this fact. But. as to the manner in which energy is 
 thus transferred, we are entirely ignorant. The com- 
 mon assumption is. that waves of distortion are 
 propagated in the ether. The nature of this motion 
 will be described under Wave. But many other 
 modes have been suggested, one of the most notable 
 of which is that of Rankine. Here the particles of 
 ether are not supposed to be displaced, but each is 
 merely made to turn an axis as the wave of light 
 passes it ; the particles having polarity by virtue of 
 which they arrange themselves in similar positions 
 when no light is passing, and by which, also, any ro- 
 tation of one particle produces a consequent rotation 
 of those in its neighborhood. For the explanation of 
 most of the common phenomena of optics, it is quite 
 iudilTerent which of these assumptions we make, 
 and, indeed, theory has not yet been carried far 
 enough to enable us to devise experimental methods 
 of testing which is the more likely to be the case in 
 nature. It cannot be too strongly insisted on that all 
 we know at present is, that light certainly depends 
 on the transference of energy from one part of the 
 luminiferous medium to another ; what kind of en- 
 ergy is tran.sferrcd, vibratory or oscillatory motion, 
 or rotation, etc., is a problem which may possibly 
 forever remain unsolved. But vibrator)- wave- 
 motion being that with which we are most familiar, 
 as in earthquakes, .sound, waves in water, etc., we 
 naturally choose this as the mo.st easily intelligible 
 basis of explanation and illustration. And we shall 
 now briefly show how the laws of linear propagation, 
 reflection, single refraction, interference, diffraction, 
 dispersion, polarization, and double refraction may 
 be accounted for. 
 
 We assume, then, that light consists in a succes- 
 sion of waves, and for our earlier inquiries it does 
 not matter whether they be (like those of sound) 
 waves of condensation and rarefaction, in which the 
 vilirations take place in the direction of the ray. or 
 (like those in water) waves of distortion or displace- 
 ment wilhont condensation, in which case the lu- 
 minous vibrations must be assumed to take place in 
 some direction perprndioilar to the ray. The phe- 
 nomena of polarization and double rcfracti(m show 
 us that the former of these hypotheses is very unten- 
 al)le. 
 
 Propagatldn nf l.ioht in a Vnifurm Isotropic Medium 
 - (.\n iso1ro|)ic' m( ilium is such that if a cubical 
 porlion be taken, it possesses precisely the same 
 |)roperlies whatever be the directions (if its sides. 
 Glass and water are isotropic, rock-salt and i<'e are 
 „ot.)— Suppose AB (Fig. I) to represent ut any time 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 the space which light passes over in any assigned 
 interval, t, describe a sphere represented in section 
 by a circle in the figure Do the same for adjacent 
 points, Pj, Pj, etc. Let Pi be the intersection of 
 the circles whose centers are P and Pj, p« that of 
 the circles whose centers are P, and P^, and so on. 
 Then, asp, is equidistant fxova. V and P,, and (ap- 
 proximately) from all points of a small circular space 
 between P and P, on the wave-front AB, all the sep- 
 arate wave-disturbances coming from these points 
 to p-i will be in the same pha^e, and will therefore 
 combine so as to strengthen each other ; while in 
 other directions they will be in different phases and 
 combine to destroy each other. The locus of all 
 such points aspi, Pj, etc., will therefore, at the end 
 of the time t. contain all particles of the ether equally 
 and similarly disturbed, and will thus be the new 
 wave-front. But it is obviously a plane parallel to 
 AB. Also the disturbance at P has passed to p, ; 
 and, when the distance PP, is taken as verj' small, 
 Ppi is perpendicular to the wave-front AB. Hence, 
 in such a medium, it is readily seen that a plane 
 wave remains plane, and always moves with uni- 
 form velocity in a direction perpendicular to its 
 front. [There is a difficulty as to what becomes of 
 the disturbance, which, according to Huygen's as- 
 sumption, ought to travel tack into the dotted por- 
 tions of the spheres ; and it is not easy to account 
 for the absence of this on mechanical principles. 
 But we are content here to take for granted that no 
 
 Fig. a. 
 
 waves are propagated backward from the main 
 wave, as a fact clearly proved by experiment.] Since 
 a small portion of the surface of any curved wave 
 nuiy be considered as plane, we now see how any 
 such wave will be prnjiagaled in an isotropic medi- 
 um. Erecting perpendiculars at every point of the
 
 LIGHT. 
 
 2( »il 
 
 LIGHT. 
 
 siirfiu^o of the curved wave, and laying (ilV iilonj; 
 theBo lines the spiicc which lif;ht jmHseH over in a 
 ijivr'n interval, and the cxtreiiiilicH form a new ttiir- 
 faee, which in llie wavc-frdiil after the lapse nf that 
 interval. lifjlirlion at <i I'lnne Snrfwi'. Suppose 
 AB (Fii;. 2) to he a plane wavi'-front. innviiif; in tlie 
 (iireclioM of \Mi pcrpcnilicular to .Mi. I.ci A'' he 
 the rellcctinj; surtaee. and let the intersection of the 
 plane of the wave-front with the relleetini; surface 
 be a line through A perpendi<idar to the paper. 
 When H has arrived at I). A would have arrived at 
 //, and 1' at <j (where hll is parallel to H,\. anil I'f/ 
 and \li to Mil), hail it not been for the rellictinK 
 surfac(« Hence, when ]5 is at h, A has diverf,'e(l 
 into a sphere of radius All, V from /) into a sphere 
 of radius, ]>q; and so for each point of the wave- 
 
 FiK.4. 
 
 front. Now, the spheres so described about A and 
 p as eenteis obviously touch the plane hli: conse- 
 tpiently they touch the other plane hn, wliich makes 
 the angle AJ« equal to XbB. Now, lina is the front 
 of the reflected wave, and A« is the direction in 
 which it is proceeding. Hence, obviously, the ordi- 
 nary laws of reflection. 8ee fatiijitrirs. 
 
 Ilefraction at a Plane Surface hihi an hntnipir Med- 
 ium — Here we take account of the change of veloci- 
 ty which light suffers in passing from one medium 
 to another. In Fig. 3, A, P, H. i, ;). g, and H repre- 
 sent the same as before-but suppose Ak now to re- 
 present the space through which the wave travels in 
 the second medium, while it would travel from 1$ to 
 A in the first. With center A, and radivis A'f, describe 
 a sphere. Let ha touch this sphere in a. Then /la is 
 the front of the refracted wave. For, i( prr be drawn 
 perpendicular to i«, we have prr: Aa-.: hp; AA:: pq: A/i. 
 Hence, while A travels to <?. and B travels to A, P 
 travels to p, and thence to tt. And the sines of the 
 angles BA* and Aba, which are the angles of in- 
 cidence and refraction, are to each other as Bh to A'(, 
 /■. e., as the velocity in the tirst medium is to that in 
 the second. See Dinptrien. 
 
 It is quite obvious from the above figure that the 
 lenK the velocity in the second medium the more 
 nearly does the refracted ray enter it at right angles 
 to its surface. As a contrast we may introduce here 
 a sketch of Newton's admirable investigation of the 
 same problem on the corpuscular hypothesis. Let 
 U and V be the velocities in the two media, a and H 
 the angles of incidence and refraction. Then the 
 forces which act on the corpuscle being entirely per- 
 pendicular to the refracting surface, the velocity 
 paraUcl to that surface is not altered. This gives 
 
 U sin. a = V sin. Ji. 
 
 Also the kinetic energy is increased l)y the loss of 
 potential energy in passing from the one medium to 
 the other. Hence, the square of V exceeds that of 
 V by a quantity which depends only on the nature 
 of the two media and of the corpuscle. This shows 
 that V is the same whatever lie the direction of the 
 lay, and then the first relation proves that the sines 
 of' the angles of incidence and reflection are iiiiyr.-e'i/ j 
 as the velocities in the two media, (. c, the refract- 
 ing ray is more nearly perpendicular to the refract- ' 
 ing surface the greater is the velocity in the second ! 
 medium. It is very singidar that two theories j 
 so widely dissimilar "should each give the true /a'" | 
 of refraction : and in connection with what has just j 
 
 been said, it may be mentioned that i.n iIm corpuK- 
 cular theory a corpuscle passes from one point to 
 another with th(^ least wtiaii, while on the undula- 
 I tory theory it passes in the least time. Hamilton's 
 grand i)rincii)le of rarip'n;/ actinn includes both of 
 tlufse. I ntirference Fre^nel's moile of exhibiting 
 this phenomenon ('whose discovery, as before said, 
 is due to Young) is very simple and striking. An 
 isosceles prism of glass, with an angh; very nearly 
 180°, is placed CFig. 4) in front of a brilliant 
 point (the image of the sun formed by a lens of very 
 short focus, for instance;. '\'\u- effect of the prism 
 is that light which passes from () through the por- 
 tion (^K ai)pears to have come from some point such 
 as A (the image of () as seen through the upper half 
 of the prism). Similarly the light which has passed 
 through l'(2 appears to come from 
 some point B. The light which 
 has jiassed through tiie jjrism is 
 to lie received on a white screen 
 ST. At the point T, which is in 
 the jirolongation of the line OQ, 
 the distances T.V and T15 are 
 equal ; but for no other [joint, as 
 U in the line ST, are I'.V and VR 
 equal. Suppose U and V to he 
 such that L'.V and I'B difTer in 
 length by half a wave-length of 
 some particular color. VA and VB 
 by a whole wave-length of the same; then waves 
 ' arriving at T, as if from A and B, have of necessity 
 passed over equal spaces, and consequently their 
 crests must truly coincide, so that at T tlieyreen- 
 force each other. But at U a hollow from A is met 
 I by a crest from B, so that darkness is the result. At 
 V, again, crest and crest coincide. And]|so on. Hence, 
 if we are experimenting with one definite color of 
 light, the effect on the screen is to produce at T. V, 
 etc., bright bands of that color, all parallel to the 
 edges of the prism PQK. At points like U there are 
 dark bands. And the length of a wave can easily be 
 calculated from this experiment; for the lengths of 
 OQ and QT can be measured, and knowing the 
 angles of the prism and its refractive index for the 
 particular color employed, we can calculate the posi- 
 tions of A and B. We have then only to measure the 
 distance TV between the centers of the two adjoin- 
 inw Ijright bars, and then geometry enables us to cal- 
 culate the difference of the lengths of V.V and VB, 
 which, as we have seen. is the length of a wave. The 
 results of this experiment show how very minute are 
 these wave-lengths for visible rays. Thus for 
 
 Inch. 
 Kxtreme Red, the wave-length in air is ...0.00002(j6 
 
 •' Vlclet. •' " " O.OOOtJKJi 
 
 These are, roughly, the 7j,J,-,5 and the g,-J„- of an 
 inch. Seeing, then, "that light describes 200,000 m. 
 persecond, the number of waves which enter the eye 
 per second are : 
 
 Extreme Red 4(50 ndllions of millions. 
 
 Violet 730 
 
 These numbers, compared with those of sonorous 
 waves show the extraordinary difference in delicacy 
 between the optic and auditory nerves, liut where- 
 as the range of the ear is somewhere al out 12 oc- 
 taves, that of the eye is less than one. 
 
 Diiip<ri<ion. — \\'e have just seen that, b)' Fresnel's 
 interference experiment, waves of different length 
 are separated (for in the last figure the position cf 
 the bright line, V, depends on the length of the waves 
 which produce it). But the different colors are 
 also separated by common refraction, as in New- 
 ton's celebrated experiment. This shows, of course, 
 that in refracting media, waves of different colors 
 move with different velocities; and, as the violet arc 
 more refracted than the red, it appears that the 
 shorter waves move more slowly in glass or water 
 than the longer ones. In free space, waves of all 
 lengths travel with equal speed, else all stars ought 
 to appear drawn out into spectra, in consequence of
 
 LIGHT. 
 
 210 
 
 LIGHT 
 
 the earth's annual motion. Also, a star suddenly 
 breaking out. or suddenly vanishing (a phenomenon 
 several times observed), sliould flash out in the first 
 instance red, and gradually become wliite, or it 
 should grailually decay from wiiite to violet, which 
 is not, however, observed to be the case. These 
 facts are, ineeed, the most difficult to explain of any 
 to which the rmdulatory theorj- has as yet been 
 applied. Fresnel, indeed, appears to have been in 
 possession of a solution of the difficulty, but the 
 appendix to one of his papers, to which he more 
 than once refers as containing this explanation, was 
 not found among his MSS. C'auchy and others 
 have, however.by very delicate investigations, shown 
 that, if the furms exerted hy the moleriileti^iif a refracting 
 body on the ether are exerted thrnuglr distances com- 
 parable with the length of a irave, the velocity of light 
 will then depend on the wave-length. The velocity 
 is. in fact, shown to be represented by a formula 
 such as this; 
 
 B 
 A 
 
 where A and B are constant quantities for a 
 ^iven medium, and ^ is the length of a wave. The 
 larger ff is. the less will be "the second term of 
 the formula, and therefore the velocity will be the 
 greater. A very singular result follows from this 
 same formula— viz., that the velocity will become 
 
 disturbances which give rise to this ray are propa- 
 gated in spherical waves in the crystal. He showed 
 also that the other ray could be jaccounted for. if 
 the disturbances to which it is due were propagated 
 in the form of an oblate spheroid touching the sphere 
 with the extremities of its axis, that axis being 
 parallel to the crystallographic axis of the mineraT. 
 The following diagram (Fig. 5) when carefully ex- 
 amined will make this apparent: — P is the point 
 where the ether is disturbed. Two waves spread from 
 P in the form shown jn the cut. the line ABP being 
 the axis of rotation of the spheroid, and parallel to 
 the axis of the crystal. Thus, let rays a\. etc. 'Fig. 
 6J, of which ABis the wave-front, fall upon .the sur- 
 face A* of such a crystal; and let AC be the direc- 
 tion of its axis. t)raw. about A as a center, the 
 sphere and spheroid into which the disturbance at A 
 spreads in the crystal while light in air passes 
 from B to b. Then if planes be dlawn through the 
 line b (perpendicular to the paper) so as to touch the 
 sphere in /Jjand the spheroid in B^, these planes will 
 touch respectively all the intermediate spheres and 
 spheroids produced by disturbances at points be- 
 tween A and A. Thus, bB^ and bB^ are the new 
 wave-fronts and the ray »A, falling on the crystal, is 
 divided into the two A/?, and AB^. Of these Afi, is 
 the ordinary ray, and being produced by spherical 
 waves, has all the properties to be looked for in the 
 case of a ray ordinarily refracted. It obviously 
 
 B 
 
 Fig. .5. 
 
 more and more nearly equal to A as the wave length 
 is srreater. Hence, waves of low radiant heat, 
 which are merely waves of light which are incap- 
 able of producing vision, must be crowded together 
 toward a limit, not very far l)eyond the red end of 
 the spectrum. Polarization— \N<^ n(5W come to a 
 set of phenomena which give us some furtlier infor- 
 mation as to the nature of lunnniferous waves. 
 When two beams of light, such as those in Fresnel's 
 experiment, are polarized in planes perpendicular 
 to each other before they meet, they do not interfere. 
 This is in accordance with the assumption required 
 for the explanation of the existence of polarization 
 itself— viz., that the viljrations of the ether take 
 place transversely to the direction of the ray. 
 Double. Refraaion—Om assumptions, forced upon 
 Tis by experimental results, are now so far complete 
 that we may proceed, after Fresnel, to apply them 
 1o the explanation of double n-fraction. Tins ex- 
 planation is extremely l)ciuitifnl. and wlien pub- 
 lished, was justly hailed as tlie greatest step in 
 physical science which had been nfade since New- 
 ton deduced the facts of physical astronomy from 
 the law of gravitation. As we have seen above, in 
 treating of siiuple reflection and refractiim, that the 
 form and velocity in and with which a disturb- 
 ance spreads frr>,n any point of a wave is all 
 that is required for the dVlermination of the course 
 of a ray. we must endc'iivor to find the form in which 
 a disturbance spreads in a double-refraclingcryslal ; 
 and this should lead us to a construction for each of 
 the two rays. Huygens had .'ilreaily pointed out 
 that one of the two rays produced by Iceland spar 
 folows the ordinary law of refraction. Hence the 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 moves forw.ard perpendicularly to its front, as A 5, 
 is perpendicidar to B^b. But it is otherwise with 
 A/?j, which is, in general, not perpendiculav to its 
 front, B^b. Again, if AC. the axis of the crystal be 
 not in the plane of incidence, the ray Afl„ is not in 
 that plane ; so that here we have refraction out of 
 the plane of incidence. The exact accordance of this 
 construction with observation was proved by the 
 careful experiments of Wollaston. We have only 
 to add, that the two rays AH, and Ai?„ are, in 
 all cases, completely polarized in planes at right 
 angles to each other. The experiments of Brewster 
 showed that in b}' far the greater number of minerals 
 and artificial crystals, both rays art.' extraordinary — 
 i.e.. neither of tliem can be accounted for by dis- 
 turbances propagated spherically in the crystal. 
 But no tentative process could lead to the form if 
 the wave-surafce in this most general case. Here 
 Fresnel's genius supplied the necessary construction. 
 He assumes that the ether in a crystallized body is 
 possessed of different rigidity, or ditl'erent inertia, 
 in different directions ; a suiijiosifion in itself ex- 
 tremely |)robable, from the mechanical and other 
 properties of crystals. In the general case there 
 are shown to be three principal directions in a 
 crystal, in any one of which, if the ether be displaced, 
 the resulting ehistic force is in the direction of the 
 disiilacenient. Kach of these is. in all eases, jier- 
 pendiciilar to the others. Any given dis])lacement 
 of tlie I'ther corresponds to |iarlial ealeidalile dis- 
 placements parallel to each of these lin<'s, and thus 
 the elastic force consequent on any disiilacement 
 whatever is known if we know those for the three 
 rectangular directions. All the calculations are
 
 LIGHT AETILLEBY BATTERY. 
 
 211 
 
 LIGHT INFANTHY. 
 
 thus <ii'pcnd(mt on tlirrr mimbers only, for each sub- 
 stiince. It would uncliily limRtlicn lliis uriicle, and 
 bcHidc-H would lead um into diHfussinns fur loo re- 
 condite for a work Uk(' this, to cnli-r upon the ipics- 
 tion whether the vibrationa in polarized liiilit ar<f 
 perprndiriilnr to or in the plane of polari/alion, a 
 Bubjeet whifdi has recently lieen well invcHlijfated 
 by Stokes; or to consider ilie |irodnclion of ellipti- 
 cally polarized jii^lit by rellection at tlw surface of 
 metals, diamond, etc.; and various oilier most im- 
 portant |)ointsof the theory. We can oidy mention 
 that Green, Caucliy, Stokes, and olliers, who have 
 entered deeply into the nieclianical question of 
 luminiferous vibrations, have found themselves 
 obliged to take into account the mrrmnl wave, 
 which, as we have seen, Fresnel neglected. Fluo- 
 rescence, spectrum analysis, anil various othiT im- 
 portant recent ailditions to the theory, must lie 
 nicMcly mentioned; as also the very remarkabl<' 
 observation of JIaxwell, which appears to coiuiect 
 liiz^ht and electricity, and was derived from a theory 
 which assumes the ether to be the vehicle of elec- 
 tricity and mai;netism as well as of linht and heat, 
 and by which it appears that the velocity of light is 
 expressible in terms of the static and kinetic units 
 of electricitv. 
 
 LIGHT ARTILLERY BATTERY.— A mounted Bat- 
 tery of tield-guns. In Ihe I'nited Stales army, for 
 the purpose of dilTusing instruction, the Lieutenants 
 of the live artillery regiments are passed through the 
 School of Light Artillery in their respective regi- 
 ments, so that no Lieutenant will be in that School 
 more than two years at any one tour. From this 
 rule may be [excepted Lieutenants in command of 
 companies the Captains of which are indefinitely ab- 
 sent. Adjutants, Regimental Quartermasters, togeth- 
 er with such others as from accidental causes may 
 be unable to ride. If a vacancy happen in the grade 
 of Captain of a Battery designated as a Light Battery, 
 it will be tilled by the order of the Secretary of War, 
 on the recommendatitm of the Colone'., who usually 
 name* the Captain best qualified for the service. Ev- 
 ery Battery of Artillery actually armed and eqviipped 
 as a Battery of Ilorse-artillerv or a Light Battery, 
 and serving as such, is allowed, for annual practice, 
 as many blank cartridges and friction-primers for 
 instruction antl drill as may be deemed necessary by 
 the Battery Commander, and apjiroved by the Post 
 Commander. Such Batteries are also permitted to 
 expend in target practice, annually, twentj--five pro- 
 jectiles for each gun of the command. 
 
 LIGHT-BALLS. — Preparations in pyrofechny.made 
 in the same manner as fire-balls, except that iliere is \ 
 no shell in them, as they are u.sed for lighting up our 
 own works. 
 
 They continue alight from 9 to 16 minutes.accord- 
 ing to the caliber. Light-balls are of four different 
 natures, viz : 10-inch. 8-inch, 5i-inch. and 45-inch. I 
 Their form is oblong, and about 1^ caliber. The 
 skeleton frame is made of wrought iron, and is par- 
 tially covered with canvas, and filled with composi- | 
 tion which burns with a brilliant light. 
 
 The proportion of composition is as follows: — 
 
 lbs. oz drs. 
 
 Saltpeter. groTind fi 4 0, 
 
 Sulphur, ground 2 8 
 
 Rosin, pounded 1 14 
 
 Linseed oil, boiled 7 8 
 
 See Firi'-IiaUn and Firewm-fcn. 
 
 LIGHL-BARREL. — A common powder-barrel pierc- 
 ed with numerous holes, and filled with shavings that 
 have been soaked in a composition of pilch and ros- 
 in ; it serves to light up a breach, or a l)ottom of a 
 ditch. See Fireworks, 
 
 LIGHT BOBS.- In the British service, the familiar 
 term used for the light infantry. 
 
 LIGHT CAVALRY.— Regiments of mounted sol- 
 diers who, from their light equipment and active 
 horses, are especially adapted for making long 
 marches, performing outpost duties, skirmishing. 
 
 etc. The experience of the wars of 1806 and 1870-71 
 has shown, clearly and convincingly, that the splen- 
 did charges, which in the days of Frederick and 
 Napolc-on frequriitly ilc:cided the fate of battles, have 
 jiassed away, and tiiat, in Ihe future, it is before an 
 action that the main role of Ihe cavalry will be foimd 
 to lie. Since the introiluction of arms of precision, 
 the duties of this branch may well be considered 
 purely strategical, as cavalry can seldom be employ- 
 ed to take a decisive part in a battle. Upon this 
 branch now devolves the task of preparing the way 
 fi>r an engagement, hy recimnoiterinij the positions of 
 the enemy, and giving, as to his movements, as 
 much valuabh^ information as possible. Light caval- 
 ry can therefore be used as a screen to mask the 
 movements of the advancing orretreating army, and 
 like a swarm of spies, to search the country of the 
 enemy, gather information from all (piarters, facili- 
 tate and often render uiuiecessary an armed attack, 
 and, finally, bitwilder, by harassing the foe. Em 
 ployed as erliiiri-urs or feelers in every direction, they 
 make a ring of mystery arounil their own army. The 
 enemy does not know their whereabouts, while they 
 carryback valualile information to their chiefs. The 
 duties now thrown upon the light cavalry soldier 
 demand much increased intelligence, and a knowl- 
 edge of the o|)erations of war. The value of good 
 information is so im]iorlanl. and the evil of bad so 
 great, that it would never be safe to trust anybody 
 of ordinary trained men to fulfil these duties. Light 
 cavalry form an important branch of the Intelli- 
 gence Department, and it may be well said that 
 ' They are the eyes and ears of an army." The hus- 
 sar regiin<-nts form the light cavalry of the British 
 army: but thejlancers and the dragoons, although 
 classed as medium cavalry, are often employed in 
 the same duties. 
 
 LIGHT HORSE.— All mounted soldiers that are 
 lightly armed and accoutered for active and desul- 
 tory service : such as dragoons, hussars, mounted 
 riflemen, etc. See Lii/U Cavalry. 
 
 LIGHT-HOUSE BOARD.— A body organized in tlie 
 United States, in accordance with an Act of Congress 
 approved Aug. .31, 1853, and having the control and 
 management of all lights. buoys, beacons, etc., on the 
 coasts of the United States. It consists of eight per- 
 sons, viz., two officers of high rank in the Navj-.two 
 officers of the Corps of Engineers, two civilians of 
 high scientific attainments, an officer of the Navy, 
 and an officer of the Corps of Engineers — the two 
 latter serving as Secretaries. The Board as thus con- 
 stituted is attached to the office of the Secretary of 
 the Treasurj'.who is Ex-officio President of the same. 
 A chairman, elected by the members Irora their own 
 number, is chosen to preside in the absence of the 
 President Ex-officio. The Board is required to meet 
 four times a year, and the Secretary of the Treasury 
 is empowered to call it together whenever, in his 
 judgment, the exigencies of the service may require a 
 meeting. It actually meets almost every week in the 
 year. The coast and tlie waters of the country are di- 
 vided into districts, each of which is served by an offi- 
 cer of the Army or the Navy in the capacity of Light- 
 House Inspector, and other officers are emploved 
 from time to time, according to the exigencies of "the 
 service. The different subjects reqinring attention 
 are first referred to standing committees, who.se duty 
 it is to investigate and report to the Board what ac- 
 tion, if any, is required. The two Secretaries per- 
 form all routine and general administrative duties 
 under the orders and regulations of the Board. 
 
 LIGHT INFANTRY.— A body of armed men select- 
 ed and trained for rapid evolutions. The service of 
 Light Infantry often demands great individual ad- 
 dress, intelligence, and quite well developed phvsica! 
 powers ; a combination of qualities not ea-ilv found, 
 and seldom, indeed, without careful, habitual train- 
 ing. Whereas, in Infantry of the Line, the qualities 
 of the individual are of less importance. as results here 
 depend almost solely upon the action of the mass.
 
 LIGHT INFANTRY COMPANY. 
 
 212 
 
 LIGHTNING C0NDUCT0E8. 
 
 The habitual order of battle of Light Infantry is the 
 dispersed order ; and whether acting offensively or 
 defensively, it depends for its results upon the effect 
 of its fire, resorting to the close order, and using the 
 bayonet, only exceptionally. As each individual, 
 although immediately supported by his own file- 
 clo.ser, and those on his right and left, is still often 
 thrown upon his own resources, being obliged to take 
 cover where he can most conveniently tind it, he 
 must be a good marksman, cool, deliberate, and cir- 
 cumspect ; since it may become necessary to keep an 
 enemy occupied hours, and even days together, 
 pressing on him at one moment and yielding to him 
 the next, or holding with tenacity, and disputing 
 inch by inch some particular point, as it may suit 
 the views of the General in command. In Infantry 
 of the Line, as success depends upon th^ action of the 
 mass, ensemble, judgement, coolness, and, determina- 
 ion should alwavs characterize all its movements 
 whether it delivers its tire in line, forms in column 
 to attack with the bayonet, or throws itself into a 
 sriuare, to await the charge of the enemy's cavalry. 
 The duties of Light Infautry are to open an engage- 
 ment, and, after it is fairly under way, to keep it 
 going; turning it to advantage if successful, other- 
 wise breaking it off. In its_ relations to the Infantry 
 of the Line it should cover 'the flanks of the latter: 
 clear the way for its advance by rooting the enemy 
 out of all covers, and then holding them if requisite. 
 Upon it devolves all advanced-post, detachment, and 
 advanced and rear-guard service. 
 
 LIGHT INFANTRY COMPANY.— In the British ser- 
 vice, a company of active, strong men carefully se- 
 lected from the rest of the regiment. It always oc- 
 cupies its place on the left of the battalion until called 
 for. When the call sounds, the Light Company 
 orders arms and unfixes baj-onets without word of 
 command, and remains in readiness to move. 
 
 LIGHT MARCHING ORDER.— A term applied to 
 troops lightly accoutered for detached service — usu- 
 ally paraded with arms, ammunition, canteen, and 
 haversack. 
 
 LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.— The following points 
 and precautions should be carefully observed in the 
 construction of powder-magazines and factories, in 
 localities visited by lightning: experience shows that 
 metal in a building, whether disposed of in the form 
 of a conductor or otherwise, never attracU light- 
 ning. That, provided the surfaces of metals are not 
 Interrupted by bodies possessing a less conducting- 
 power, a building entirel)' of metal will be the safest 
 of all, and that such buildings require no further 
 lightning-conductors than connection with the earth 
 over the masonry foundations on which thej' are 
 often laid. That, with regard to a building of brick 
 or stone, the object must be to establish a sufficient 
 mimber of lines of electrical conductors, extending 
 from its most elevated and prominent points to the 
 ground; and, further, bring the building into a con- 
 dition similar to that of a metal bviilding by means of 
 other conductors generall}' attached to more promi- 
 nent lines of the building itself, such as the ridges, 
 angles, and caves. There is no advantage but the 
 ciintrary, in endeavoring to insulate the conductors 
 from llie building. 
 
 The Ix'st material for conductors is copper, either 
 in tubes U to 2 inches diameter and .IS.') inch to .2 
 inch thick, or a wire rope. All melnl surfaces, 
 whether lead, copper, or iron, on ridg<'S, roofs, gut- 
 ters, or coverings to doors or windows, to be con- 
 nected by plates of copper with the conducting .sys- 
 lem. Lead, on account tjf its low conducting power, 
 cannot be altogelher depended upon. One or more 
 s<ilid <-oppcr rods lo project freely into tlie iiir, about 
 T> feet above the liighest points of the liuilding to 
 wliich the main conductors are applied. The sum- 
 mit of the rod to be pointed; but gold, gilt or i)Iat- 
 inum tops are unnecessary. The termination of the 
 conductors below to be led into damp or porf>us soil, 
 when the Ijuilding liappens tii stand upon it ; but. 
 
 when the soil is dry, two or three trenches to be 
 cut, radiating from the foot of the conductor to a 
 depth of 18 inches or two feet, and 30 feet in length, 
 and either the conductor carried along the liottom 
 of the trenches or old iron chain laid in them, care- 
 fullj' connected with the foot of the conductor. The 
 trenches to be then filled up to one foot in depth 
 with coal-ashes or other carbonaceous substance, 
 and afterwards with earth or gravel. 
 
 If it be possilile, in regulating the surface drainage 
 to lead a flow of water, during the rain which gen- 
 
 erally accompanies thunder-storms, over the site of 
 the trenches, it will be an additional precaution. 
 Tanks are useless, except where the water flows 
 freely into them from the surrounding soil, and even 
 then they are superfluous as appendages to the con- 
 ductors. 
 
 The conductors for brick or stone magazines with 
 .slate roofs should' consist of a sheet-copper strip 4 
 inches wide. and .12.5 inches thick, covering the ridge, 
 and securely fixed to it by wrought-copper nails. 
 At each end of the ridge a solid copper rod .5 inch 
 in diameter is securely fixed to the conductor on the 
 ridge; and projects about 5 feet above the high- 
 est point of the buUding. Upper end of this rod 
 is carefully pointed Copper strips about 3 inches 
 wide, or copper tubes nearly one inch in diameter, 
 pass down the angles of the hip, and are firmly 
 secured to the copper eaves-gutter. The descending 
 water-pipes, made also of copper, and fastened to 
 the face of the building by copper holdfasts, are 
 connected at their lower end to the underground 
 conductor by a piece of copper, 3 inches wide, 
 wrappeii around the lower end of the water-pipes and 
 riveted to the imdergrotind conductor. The under- 
 ground conductor runs out from the building 4 feet, 
 and then branches into two parts, each 8 feet long, 
 2 inches wide, and .Vi^i inch thick. These conduc- 
 tors are about 2..'> feet from the surface of the 
 ground at the lower end, and arc covered with coal 
 ashes and earth. The copper sheathings on the 
 doors and windows are connected with the lower 
 end of the water-pipes bj- flat copper strips, 2 inches 
 wide, fixed to the water-table 1)V copper nails driven 
 into wooden plugs about 10 feci apart. When lubu-
 
 IIGHTNINO MAGAZINE GUN. 
 
 213 
 
 LIMBER. 
 
 lar coiKluclnrs cannot be had of suniciciil IcnKtIi in 
 one pic('<;, llicy arc <'onni'ctcil ]ty n union joint, anil 
 Ntrcngtiicncd l)y a small pipe or fcrrnlc, about 4 
 inches lont;, insiilcthc tube, anilrivi'ted to each end. 
 Buildiiif^s which liave the eavcs-^;ullers and down- 
 pipes niad(M>f tin or xinc should liavi^ a main <'on- 
 ductor communicatini; directly with the f^round ; it 
 shoidd also be connected with the eaves-flutters, and 
 the down-pipe should connect by a mi'tallic commu- 
 nication with thegronnd, ruiuiiii!; out some distance 
 from the buildinf^. Incase of liuildini;s sitiiale<l on 
 a dry or rocky soil, ('special pains must always b(^ 
 taken to lay down old chains or other condiiclors in 
 various directions, to at least a distance of 10 to 
 t.'i yards, anil from 1 foot to \.r> feet below the sur- 
 face of the i;round ; and, if i)Ossibli', lead a How of 
 rain over the surface of the cround about or near 
 the condnctor. Let the conductor terminate in a 
 large surface of moist earth whenever it can be ef- 
 fected. 
 
 If copper be not used for conductors, /.inc is the 
 next best material of which they can be made. If 
 iron be used, it shoidd be in the .ohape of galvanized 
 wrought-iron pipe, not less than 2 inches in diame- 
 ter, tirmly screwed together in joints of e.xtra thick- 
 ness. 
 
 Copper tube, of a thickness of from .12.') to .3 
 inch is always to be preferred : it has more than five 
 
 times the capacity for conducting electricity that 
 iron has, and more tlum three times that of zinc. 
 See Piiirdir DijuiU. 
 
 LIGHTNING MAGAZINE GUN.— The inventors of 
 this rilie, the (Jolt's Patent Kire-arnis Maniifacttiring 
 Co., have adopted the left-handed method of hand- 
 ling, which enables the breech-action to be nuieh 
 simplified and lightened without detracting from its 
 strength. The cartridge used is the same as that of 
 the 44 caliber C'olt revolver; it contains 40 grain 
 of powder, and the b\illet weighs 200 grains. The 
 drawing shows the arm and its parts in position 
 ready for tiring. 
 
 To load and tire, tiring the piece to the shoulder in 
 the usual wa}' ; grasp the handle of the slide -•l,with 
 
 over the cartridge-head hrfirre the inagazine-gute 
 will allow another cartridge to \»- fed to the carrier, 
 thus preventing blorking of the breech-action. The 
 liring-pin is held liack positively until the cartridge 
 has entind the chamber, when the bolt is locked so 
 that ]irciiialure explosion is impossible. The ham- 
 mer jis automatically locked and unlocked by the 
 hook on the rear end of the magazine-gate. By 
 this arrangement the rille may be loaded and dis- 
 charged by the reciprocating motion of the slide, 
 keejiing the trigger constantly pressed back during 
 the motion by I he forefinger of the right hand. The 
 magazine can only be charged when the slide is 
 drawn to the rear. 
 
 To take apart the rifle, take out the tang-screw. 
 Draw oir the butt-stock. Take out the magazine- 
 screw at the front end and remove the magazine. 
 Take out the two side screws, cock the piece, draw 
 the slide about half way to the rear, and withdraw 
 the trigge--plale. Slide the bolt dear back, insert a 
 punch in the small hole on the left hand side, and 
 push out the locking-brace pin. and slide out the 
 lock. The other parts can be removed without spec- 
 ial directions. To assemble the rifle, replace the 
 jiarts in the reverse order from that given for tak- 
 ing the rifle apart See Colt Mar/(tzine-rijle. 
 
 LIGHTS. —In pyrotechny, lights are made by press- 
 ing lance or similar composition in shallow vessels, 
 or in cases of large diameter. The burning surface 
 being large, the light attains a great intensity. 
 
 Shallow earthern, wooden, or metal vases or paper 
 cases are used. The vase or case is filled with dry 
 composition, slightly pressed in ; or composition, 
 moistened with gummed water maj' be used and 
 pressed in the case more compactly. It is primed 
 i)y powdering the surface first with a mixture of 
 eipial parts of the comitositiou and mealed powder, 
 and then with powder alone. Cover the top over 
 with paper, pasted on the sides of the case. Through 
 the center of the cover i)ass several strands of quick- 
 match, spreading them over the suface and uniting 
 them on the e.xterior in a single strand. 
 
 When the light is made with dry composition, the 
 
 the left hand and draw it to the rear. The first part 
 of this movement raises the locking brace, /?,from the 
 abutment. C, acts upon the tiring-pin-lever, /.'.with- 
 draws the firing-pin, E, and releases the magazine- 
 gate, F. causing it to hold back the cartridge in the 
 magazine. Continuing the movement, the bolt. O, 
 moves to the rear, ejects the cartridge-shell, cocks 
 the hammer,//, and raises the carrier, /,so that when 
 the movement is finished, the cartridge is in proper 
 position to enter the chamlier. The slide is then 
 drawn forward. This movement carries the bolt for- 
 ward, drives the cartridge into the chamber, throws 
 down the carrier into position to receive another car- 
 tridge, and the rifle is ready for firing. 
 
 A feature peculiar to this rifle is, the lock is 
 brought clear forward and the extractor is hooked 
 
 case must be placed in a vertical position. It may 
 be placed horizontally if moistened composition be 
 used and firmly packed. 
 
 Torch-ligliU for funeral ceremonies are made bj' 
 impregnating large strands of cotton with a thin al- 
 coholic pap, the whole arranged in vases like an oil- 
 lamp, the pap replacing the oil. See Fire>ri>rks. 
 
 LIMBEE. — To suit a gim-carriage to the easy and 
 rapid transportation of its load.it must be convert- 
 ed into a/"'/)--wheel carriage, which is done by at- 
 taching it to another iiry-wheel carriage, called a 
 Umber. The field-limber is composed of an -nxletree 
 (1), a/orA (2). two hound.t (.3 3), a splinter-bar (4), 
 ivt'O foot-boa fd.i (5 5), a pole (6), &piiitle-huok and key 
 (7), two pole-gokes (8), and a pole-pad (9). A side 
 view of the limber is shown in the article Caisson.
 
 UUBES-CHAIH. 
 
 214 
 
 LIMITS. 
 
 with the manner of attaching the rear carriage to the 
 pintle-hook. The limber a.\le-lree is made of iron, 
 imbedded in a body of wood, as in the case of the 
 gun-carriage. Ttie fork constitutes the middle por- 
 
 tion of the limber, and is the portion to which the 
 pole is attached. It is formed of a single piece of 
 wood one end of which is mortised into the axle- 
 body, and secured by the pintle-hook bolts, and the 
 other is cut into the shape of a fork, to receive the 
 tenon of the pole. The hounds are two wooden rails 
 which are bolted to the axle-body and splinter-bar. 
 They serve to support the ends of the limber-chest 
 andfoot-boards, and also for the purpose of trans- 
 mitting the draught of the horses to the axle-tree. 
 Tlie chest is firmly secured by a stay-plate which 
 is situated at the bottom of the cut in the fork, 
 and two stay-pins, which pass through holes near 
 the rear ends of the hounds. The spUnter-bar is a 
 piece of wood placed cross-wise with the pole, and 
 is firmly secured to the fork and hounds. It has 
 four hooks, to which the traces of the wheel horses 
 are attached. The pole, or tongue, is employed to 
 regulate the motion, and give direction to the car- 
 riage. The point of attachment of the rear carriage 
 being near the axle-tree, and there being no sweep- 
 bar, "the weight of the pole is mostlj- supported by 
 the collars of the rear horses : it should therefore 
 be made of strong, light wood — asli is generally 
 used for this purpose. As the pole is liable to be 
 broken in ordinarj' service, the method of attaching 
 it to the fork should alwa3's be such that all of the 
 fragments can be promptly removed, and a new 
 pole inserted. The foot-boards are secured to the fork 
 and hounds in a proper position for the feet of the 
 cannoneers to rest upon, while riding upon the lim- 
 ber-chest. The pintle-hook is a stout iron hook 
 firmly fastened to the rear of the axle-tree, for the 
 purpose of attaching the rear carriage. This mode 
 of attachment is simple, strong, and flexible— quaXi- 
 ties which are essential to rapid movements and 
 great endurance. The point of the hook is perforated 
 with a liole for the pintle-key, which prevents the 
 carriages from separating while in motion. In the 
 old system of field-carriages, the operation of lim- 
 bering and of imlimbering was so difficult, that a 
 rope, called a "prolouge," was used to connect the 
 gun-carriage and limber in action. This implement 
 is still retained, but the same necessity does not ex- 
 ist for using it. All field-carriages should admit of 
 being turned in the shortest possible space. This 
 depends upon the size of the front wheels, the dis- 
 tance between the front and rear a.xle-trees. the 
 position of the pintle, and the thickness of the stock 
 at the point where the front wheel strikes it. Not- 
 withstanding that the front wheels are made higher 
 in the present system of field-carriages tlian" the 
 (Jribeauval system, which preceded it, the carriages 
 of tli(' former have greater facilit}' of turninjf in 
 consequence of the diminished thickness of the 
 stock. See i) iin-i'arrimjes. 
 
 LIMBER CHAIN.— A keep-chain wliich goes round 
 ■ the iiinlli- ami confines the trail to tlie liml)er, pre- 
 venting its llyini; off the limber-hook. 
 
 LIMBER CHEST.— The ammunition or tool-chest 
 belonging to the limber of an artillery carriage of 
 any (h-scription. Those of the gun-carriage and 
 caisson are fitted up as ammunition-cliests, while 
 those of the forge and battery wagon contain re- 
 
 spectively tools and stores for blacksmiths, and for 
 carriaL'c-makers' and saddlers' use. 
 
 LIMBER HOOK.— The hook on the limber to which 
 the trail of the gun is attached. 
 
 LIMBERING-UP HOOP.— A stirrup-handle on the 
 trail of a gtm by which the piece is moved in lim- 
 bering and unlimbering. 
 
 LIMBER PITS.— Artificial cover provided in war- 
 fare for tlie limbers of guns. They are usually 12 
 feet long, Ti\ feet wide at bottom, 7 feet at top, 3 
 feet deep, and provided with ramps at each end. 
 A pit of this size can be executed in two liours by 
 eight men. Each pit should cover a limber and 
 two horses. 
 
 LIMENARftUE.— An office" of distinction, which ex- 
 isted in the Roman Empire. The persons invested 
 with it were directed to watch the frontiers of the 
 Empire, and they commanded the troops that were 
 employed upon tliat service. 
 
 LIMITARY.- The guard or superintendent placed 
 at tlie confines or boundaries of any Kingdom or 
 State. 
 
 LIMITATION OF TIME OF PROSECUTION.— In the 
 United States Army, no person is liable to be tried 
 and punished by a General Court-Martial for any of- 
 fense which appears to have been committed more 
 than two years before the issuing of the order for 
 such trial, unless, by reason of having absented him- 
 self, or of some other manifest impediment, he shall 
 not have been amenable to justice within that per- 
 iod. 
 
 LIMITES ROMANI. — The name of a continuous 
 series of fortifications, consisting of castles, walls, 
 earthen ramparts, and the like, which the Romans 
 erected along the Rhine and the Danube, to protect 
 their possessions from the numerous attacks of the 
 Germans. 
 
 LIMITS. — The importance of the notion of a limit 
 in gunnery cannot be over-estimated, since many 
 branches of mathematics, including the differential 
 calculus and its adjuncts consist of nothing else 
 than tracing the consequences which flow from this 
 notion. The following are simple illustraticms of 
 tlie idea : The sum of the series l-t-i + T+i + 
 etc., approaches nearer and nearer to 2 as the num- 
 ber of terms is increased ; thus, the several sums are 
 H, \,\ IJ, 1}!, etc., each sum always differing from 
 2"by a fraction equal to the last of the terms which 
 have been added ; and since each denominator is 
 doulile of the preceding one, the further the series 
 is extended, the less the difference between its sum 
 and 2 becomes ; also this difference may be made 
 smaller than any assignable qtiantitj- — say, -njo'oirtt 
 — by merely extending the series till the last denom- 
 inator becomes greater than 100,000 (for this, we 
 need onl}' take 18 terms ; 3 terms more will give a 
 difference less than -nnnrBlra '■> ^'^^ ^o on);again, the 
 sum of the series cannever be greater than 2, for the 
 difference, though steadily diminishing, still sub- 
 sists ; under these circumstances, 2 is said to be the 
 limit of the sum of the series. We see, then, that 
 the criteria of a limit are, that the series, when ex- 
 tended, shall approach nearer and nearer to it in value 
 and so that the difference can be made as small as we 
 please. Again, the area of a circle is greater than 
 that of an inscribed hexagon, and less than that of a 
 circumscribed hexagon ; but if these polygons be con- 
 verted into figures of 12 sides, the area of the inter- 
 ior one will be increased.and thatof the exterior one 
 diminishi'd, llie area of the circle always con- 
 tinuing intermediate in position and in value ; ami 
 as the number of sides is increased, each poly- 
 gon approaches nearer and nearer to the circle 
 m size; and since, wlien the sides are equal, this 
 difference can be made as small as we please, the 
 circle is said to be the limit of an equilateral polygon 
 the number of whose sides is increased indefinitely; 
 or, in another form of words commonly used. " The 
 polygon approaches the circle as its limit, when its 
 sides increase without limit," or again, " When the
 
 LiailTS OF FIRE. 
 
 215 
 
 LINE. 
 
 nimiber of sides is infinite, llie ijolyj-'oii liiciinies 
 H circle." When wi; use the terms ••iiitinite" ami 
 " zero " in inatheniitties, imthini; more is ineiint Ihiin 
 tlmttlie (|iiiintily In wliieh the term is applied is iii- 
 crt'tixlntj iritftniit liiiu't or tliminUitinij ittiUjiiiitt'ltl', and, 
 if this were kept in mind, tlieri' would he mucli less 
 confusion in the ideas eonneeled with thes(; terms; 
 from the same cause has arisen the discussion c(jn- 
 cernim; the p()ssil)ilily of what are called vanishing 
 fractions (/. e., fractions, whose numerator and de- 
 nominator become zero simultaneously; having real 
 !» — 1 
 
 values; thus = - when x= 1; but by divi- 
 
 a; — 1 
 sion we find that the fraction is equal to «+ 1. 
 which = 2, when a: =: 1. Now, this discussion 
 could never have arisen had the question lieen in- 
 
 J» — 1 ■ 
 
 terpreled rightly, as follows : approachesto 
 
 X — 1 
 2 lis its limit, when x continually apjiroaches 1 as its 
 limit, a proposition which can be proved true by sub- 
 stituting successively ;i, 2, H, 1|, 1,'j, Iti'io' e'c, 
 when the corresponding values of the fraction are 
 4. ;). 2J, 2|, 2|Jf,, 2,iif,, etc. The doctrine of limits is 
 employed in the dilTereutial calculus. The tiest and 
 most com])letc illustrations of it are found in New- 
 ton's I'riiiripid, and in the chapters on maxima and 
 minima, curves, summation of series, and integra- 
 tion generally, in the ordinary works on the calcu- 
 lus. 
 
 LIMITS OF FIRE. —'Within the limits of the zones 
 of (lavjger, ])ositions are found for front, for reverse, 
 an<l for enlilading tire. If the two faces, for exam- 
 ple, of a work be prolimged to intersect the extreme 
 limit of dangerous ground, the sector whic'i they 
 embrace is termed the limits of dirrct or fnmt fire; 
 since, from every position that can be taken up 
 within this sector, a direct fire alone can be brought 
 to bear upon the two faces. The two sectors which 
 lie adjacent to this are termed the limits of lateral, or 
 reverse fire, since they afTord positions from which a 
 reverse fire can be obtained against one of the faces, 
 and a front fire upon the other. It is also only within 
 these last limits that positions for enfilading the terre- 
 pleins of the faces can be obtained. Sec Defilement. 
 
 LINCH-FIN. — A pin through the end of an axle-arm 
 of an artillery carriage to keep the wlx'el on. A hook 
 attached to the head of the ])iii and embracing the 
 axle-arm prevents the pin from being jolted out. A 
 ring against which the linch-pin rubs is called the 
 Liwli-pin Wa-ilKr. 
 
 LINE. — 1. In fencing, an imaginary line opposite 
 to the fencer, wherein the shoulders, right arm, and 
 the sword should always be found, and wherein are 
 also to be placed the two feet at the distance of 18 
 inches apart. 2. In tactics, a body of men in either 
 one or two ranks; generally a body of troops drawn 
 up with an extended front. 3. An expression used 
 in the 15ritish Army to distinguish ordinary Cavalry 
 and Infantry from the Guards. Artillery, and Engi- 
 neers. It obviously takes its origin from the fact 
 that the troops in question constituted the usual 
 " Line of Battle." 4. The Line Officers of the Navy ; 
 and Army in the L'nitcd States are divided into eleven i 
 grades, and their comparative rank on the active or 
 retired list is as follows: 
 
 The Admiral of the Navy ranks with a General of 
 the Army. 
 
 The Vice Admiral of the Navy ranks with a Lieu- ! 
 tenant General of the Army. 
 
 10 Rear Admirals of the Navy rank with Major 
 Generals of the Army. \ 
 
 2.5 Commodores of the Navy rank with Brigadier : 
 Generals of the Army. 
 
 50 Captains of the Navy rank with Colonels of the 1 
 Army. 
 
 90 Commanders of the Navy rank uiih Lieutenant 
 Colonels of the Army. 1 
 
 80 Lieutenant Commanders of the Navy rank with 
 
 .Majors of I he .\rmy. 
 
 2H() I.iiMitenants of the Navy rank with Captains of 
 the Army. 
 
 100 .Masters of the Navy rank with First Lieuten- 
 ants of tiie Army. 
 
 100 Knsigns of the Navy rank witli Second Li(Mi- 
 anls of the Army. 
 
 .Midslilpmen of the Navy. 
 
 All SlalV Olliiirs are appointed by the President 
 with the sanclion of the Senate. He- also appoints 
 for vessels in actual service all Warrant Ollicers. such 
 as boatswains, gunners, sail-makers, and carpenters, 
 that may be reipiirefl. All ollicers not entitled to 
 hold warrants are called I'elly Ollicers. AH ctlicers 
 of the Army above the grade of Sergeant hold their 
 authority by commissions, and are therefore termed 
 Commissioned Officers, to distinguish them from 
 Non-commissioned (officers. 
 
 Presi<ient Fillmore in General Orders, No. ."jil, of 
 ISiOl, has given the following satisfactory exposition 
 of the use of the word IJiie in our Statute Book : 
 The 132(1 Article of War provides that "If. upon 
 marches, guards, or in (|Uarters, different corps of 
 the Army shall happen to join, or do duty together, 
 the officer highest in rank of tlie Line of the Army, 
 .Marine Corps or Jlililia, by commission there, on 
 duty, or in quarters, shall command the whole, and 
 give orders for wliat is needful to the service, unless 
 otherwise specially directed by the President of the 
 United Slates, according to the nature of the case." 
 The interpretatiim of this Act has long been a sub- 
 ject of controversy. The difficulty arises from the 
 vague and uncertain meaning of the words '"Line 
 of Uie Army," which, neither in the Knglish service, 
 (from which most of our military terms are bor- 
 rowed), nor in our own, have a well-defined and in- 
 variable meaning. By some they are understood to 
 designate the Regular Army as distinguisiied from 
 the Militia; by others, as meant to discriminate be- 
 tween officers by ordinary commissions and those by 
 brevet ; and, finally, by others, to designate all offi- 
 cers not belonging to the Staff. The question is 
 certainly not without very great difficulty, and it is 
 certainly surprising that Congress should not long 
 since have settled, by some explanatory law. a ques- 
 tion which has been so fruitful a source of contro- 
 ver.sy and embarassmcnt in the service. The Pres- 
 ident has maturely considered the question, and 
 finds himself compelled to dilTcr from some for 
 whose opinions he entertains a very high respect. 
 His opinion is, that, although these words may some- 
 times be used in a different sense, (to be determined 
 by the context and subject-matter,) in the 122d Article 
 of W'ar, they are used to designate those officers of 
 the ,\rmy who do 7iot belong to the Staff, in contra- 
 distinction to those who do, and that the article in- 
 tended, in the case contemplated by it, to confer the 
 command exclusively on the former. The reasons 
 which have brought him to this conclusion are briefly 
 these : 1st. It is a well-settled rule of interpreta- 
 tion that in the construction of stntntes, words of 
 doubtful or ambiguous meaning are to be understood 
 in their usual acceptation. Now it must be admit- 
 ted that, in common parlance, both in and out of the 
 Army, the words '•Line"and •StatF' are generally 
 used as correlative terms. 2d. Another rule of 
 constructiou is, that the same word ought not to be 
 understood, when it can be avoided, in two different 
 senses in different laws, on the same subject, and, 
 especially, in different parts of the same law. Now 
 in another article of this same law. the words '• Line 
 andi>taff of the Arm} " are clearly and beyond ques- 
 tion used as correlative and conlradistinctive terms. 
 The same remark applies equally well to almost 
 every case in which the words "• Line " and " Staff" 
 occur in the numerous Acts of Congress. On the 
 other hand, there is but one Act of Congress in 
 which the words " Line of the Array" have been pur- 
 posely employed to designate the Regular Army in
 
 LINEAX RANK. 
 
 216 
 
 LINE OF COnNTERMAECH. 
 
 contradistinction to the Militia, and none in ■which 
 they have been manifestly used as coutradistinctive 
 of brevet. 3d. If Congress had meant hy these words 
 to discriminate between officers of the Reg alar Army 
 and those of the Militia, or between officein by bre- 
 vet and by ordinary commission, it is to be presum- 
 ed that tiicj- would have employed those terms, re- 
 spectively, which are unequivocal, and arc usuallj' 
 emploj'ed to express those ideas. 4th. If we look 
 at the policy of the law, we can discover no reasons 
 of expedieucj- which compel us to depart from the 
 plain and ordinary import of the terms : on the con- 
 trarj% we may suppose strong reasons why it ma}' 
 have been deemed proper, in tlie case referred to by 
 the Article, to exclude officers of the Staff fromcom- 
 mand. In the first place, the command of troops 
 might frequently interfere with their ajipropriate 
 duties, and thereby occasion serious embarrassment 
 to the service. In the next place, the officers of some 
 of the Staff Corps are not qualified by their habits 
 and education for the command of troops, and al- 
 though others are so qualified, it arises from the fact 
 that (by laws passed long subsequently to the Ar- 
 ticle in question) the officers of tlie Corps to which 
 they belong, are required to be appointed from the 
 Line of the Army. Lastly, officers of the Staff 
 Corps seldom have troops of their own Corps serv- 
 ing under their command, and if the words "Offi- 
 cers of the Line" are understood to apply to them, 
 the effect would often be to give tliem command 
 over the officers and men of all the other Corps, when 
 not a man of their own was present — an anomaly al- 
 ways to be most scrupulously avoided where it is 
 is in any manner possible to do so. 5th. It is 
 worthy of observation that Article 25, of the first 
 " Rules and Articles." enacted by Congress for the 
 government of the Army, corresponds with Article 
 122 of the present Rules and Articles, except that the 
 words " of the Line of the Army " are not contained 
 in it. It is evident, therefore, that these words were 
 inserted intentionally with a view to a change in the 
 law, and it is probable that some inconvenience 
 had arisen from conferring command indiscrimin- 
 ately on officers of the Line or the Staff, and had sug- 
 gested the necessity of this change. It is contended, 
 liowever, that Sec. lO.oftheAct of 1795, enumerates 
 the 3Iajor General and Brigadier General as among 
 the Staff Officers, and that this construction of the 
 Article would exclude them from command, which 
 would be an absurdity. No such consequence would, 
 however, follow. The Article in question was obvious- 
 ly designed to meet the case (of not unfrequent occur- 
 rence) where officers of different Corps of the Army 
 meet together witli no officer among them who does 
 not belong exclusively to a Corps. In such a case, 
 there being no common Superior, iuthe absence of some 
 express provision conferring the power, no officer, 
 merely of a Corps, would have the right to command 
 any Corps but his own; to|obviate this difficulty, the 
 Article in effect provides that, in such an event, the 
 Officer of the Line, highest in rank, shall command 
 the rest. But if there be a Major General or Briga- 
 dier General present, the case contemplated by 
 the Article does not exist. No question can arise 
 as to the right of command, because the General Offi- 
 cer, not belonging to any particular Cc^rps, takes the 
 command by virtue of the general rule which assigns 
 the command to the officer highest in rank. See 
 Brerrt. Coniiiiand. and Rank. 
 
 LINEAX RANK. — The rank of a Line-officer in his 
 particular arm of tlie service. The Unenl promotion 
 of a Line-officer is his promotion according to sen- 
 iority in the arm of service, as opposed to promotion 
 in the reiriment. 
 
 LINE OF BATTLE.— The formation of an army for 
 battle. In all actions it is necessary to place troops 
 in such a formation previous to making the assault, 
 or in showing front to the adversary, as shall expose 
 them as little as possiljle, and yet place them in the 
 readiest mode to carry out the orders of the Com- 
 
 mander. It has been the custom from a verj' ancient 
 date, coming to us from the Romans, and an ac- 
 •x-pted principle by most nations, that an army, 
 when drawn up for battle, should be formed in three 
 distinct lines ; the fimt line, to commence the battle ; 
 the second, to support it. and to fill up the gaps; the 
 third which is in rear of all, as a reserve. 
 
 This triple formation, though modified, remains 
 much the same at the present day; but instead of 
 deployed lines or lines of heavy columns, the troops 
 are placed in lines of half-column formation. This 
 has been rendered necessary from the withering fire 
 and long rauge of the present arms of precision, 
 which necessitate the reduction of the front of bat- 
 talions. It has also become necessary, whether tak- 
 ing the offensive or standing on the defensive, that 
 shelter, either artificial (such as shelter-trenches) or 
 natural, should be taken advantage of to screen the 
 men as much as possible, and so not to expose them 
 (in the case of an attacking party) more than can be 
 helped before the moment of formation previous to 
 the final rush in upon the enemj^'s position. 
 
 LINE OF CIRCUMVALLAIION.— The front and the 
 rear of camps around a besieged place are secured 
 by lines of field works. The exterior line of works, 
 termed the Line of CircumtaUation, should form an 
 unbroken line of intrenchments composed of the 
 most simple clementarj' parts, as tenailles, redans, 
 etc., witli a slight profile; its chief object being to 
 prevent succors of small detachments from slipping 
 into the place. The interior line, termed the LJne 
 of CounterTalliition. is composed of detached works, 
 which, if the garrison is strong, should be in defens- 
 ive relations. The main points whicli sliould be 
 occupied by these works are the principal avenues 
 to the defenses, and the positions selected for the 
 parks of the siege-train; to secure these points from 
 the attempts of the garrison, and to render the 
 entrance of large convojs into the defenses imprac- 
 ticable. The lines are so placed as to leave a space 
 of about 200 yards between them and the front and 
 rear of the camps. 
 
 When the great extent of ground that must be 
 taken up ly a besieging force, in the investment of 
 anj- considerable posiflon, which requires to be 
 entirely surrounded to cut off all communication 
 between it and the exterior, is taken into considera- 
 tion, particularl}- now when rifled guns have ac- 
 quired such long ranges, it will be seen tliat com- 
 plete lines of circumvallation will be seldom 
 practicable, and in most cases must be of too weak 
 a character to serve as an intrenched defensive 
 position for the besieging force to receive battle 
 within them. Accordingly, in the later sieges in 
 Europe, continuous Hues of circumvallation have 
 been seldom resorted to ; the besiegers contenting 
 themselves with occupying oulj- the main points of 
 their position liy field works, and giving the inter- 
 vening space such protection as could be afforded 
 by strong patrols and posts This departure from 
 former practice arose, iu most cases, from the want 
 of strength of the besieging force, and was fre- 
 quently attended by the very events against which 
 lines are chiefly effectual in guarding. As a field 
 of battle against a succoring force of sufficient strength 
 to cope with the besieging army, a position taken 
 behind a line of circumvallation is but in rare excep- 
 tions eligible, a maxim tliat applies to all extended 
 and weak lines ; and iu :ilniost every case, where a 
 serious effort has been made against such positions 
 it has proved successful, and has entailed heavy 
 loss on the besiegers. But, it must be repeated, as 
 tills is not the object of these lines, they are not 
 open to this objection ; and, as they have been 
 found serviceable for the sole purpose' to which they 
 should be applied, they ouglit to be thrown \\\i in all 
 cases where the means of the besiegers will admit of 
 it. See I ntrt itrhtd <'oin]is. 
 
 LINE OF COUNTERMARCH.— A sort of a trench 
 whicli the besieged make, and push forward from
 
 LINE OF COUNTEKVALLATION. 
 
 217 
 
 LINE OF OFEBATIONB. 
 
 tlir cliicis, for llic purpose of coiintfractiiig tlic ene- 
 inv's works. 
 
 LINE OF OOUNTERVALLATION. The line of Held 
 works coiislnu-lrd In froiil of tlic ciiinps, anil oiillir 
 side next to till- licsi(i;i-(l i)osilion. to defend llie 
 (•iiinps. parks, and trains against any attacks whieU 
 iniulil be made by the besiei;('d. See Line, of (Ur 
 ftnin<l'l(ttiink. 
 
 LINE OF DEFENSE. A line rcprcsentiiiK the flight 
 of a rille-b;ill from the jilaee \vh<Te the soldiers stand, 
 to seour th<' fare of the li;islioM. The line of de- 
 fense should never exceed the ranije of Ihi' rille. It 
 is eilhi'r./(r7(«/t^, or /v(_y(f?i<. The iirst is when it is 
 drawn from tlie aii;;le ; the last, when ills drawn 
 from a point in a cnrtain, ranging the face of the 
 bastion in forliliealion. 
 
 LINE OF DIRECTION.— In gunnery, the line for- 
 merly m.irked upon guns by a short ])oint upon the 
 mu/./.le. and a cavity on the base-ring, todircct the 
 eye in ]ioinliug tlu^ gnn. 
 
 LINE OF FIRE. — 1. In gunnery, the production of 
 the axis of the gnn directed upon a point which is 
 ill a vertical distance above the object to be struck, 
 (■orres|)onding to the time of tlight re((uired for the 
 range, and at the end of which time the shot will be 
 brought to the object by the force of gravity. 
 
 2. In forliliealion, this term ailmits of two distinct 
 licccplalions ; fir.it, when it is found necessary to 
 give an idea of the manner in which a ramjiart or an 
 inlrenchment covers any space of groimd by the 
 (lis<-harge of ordnance or musketry, lines must be 
 drawn to represent the distances traversed by the 
 shot, etc. — these lines are called linen "f fire, being 
 representations of the actual ranges ; semnd, all that 
 extent of a rampart or intrenclmient from which the 
 projectili- of ordu.anee or uuisketrv are discharged. 
 
 LINE OF LEAST RESISTANCE.— The shortest dis- 
 tance from the center of the charge of a mine to the 
 open air. Assuming the crater to be of the form of 
 a truncated cone, as is usual, the radius o d, of the 
 lower circle, being also assumed at one-half the ra- 
 dius p n, of the upper circle, then the radius p B, 
 of the tipper circle, is termed the n-nter radius, and 
 tlie line o p, drawn from the center of the powder 
 
 A p a 
 
 perpendicular to the surface where the explosion 
 takes place, the line nf least r'sistnnce. The lineo b, 
 drawn from the same center to any point in the cir. 
 ctnnference of the upper circle, the radius af eiphis'im. 
 A mine with a line of least ri'sistance not greater than 
 nine feet, formed by sinking a shaft from the surface 
 of the ground and placingthe charge at the bottom of 
 it, is tenneil a fougasse. — See Crater. 
 
 LINE OF MARCH.— The arrangement of troops for 
 marching; also, the course or direction taken by an 
 army or smaller command. 
 
 LINE OF METAL.— The profile cut from the U])per 
 surface of tlie piece by a vertical plane passing 
 through the a.xis of the bore. When pointing a jiiece, 
 the li7ie /if metal is accurately determined, and the 
 piece is i»o maneuvered as to iiriug the line of metal 
 into the jilane of tire. 
 
 LINE OF METAL ELEVATION.— In gunnery, the 
 visual line connecting the front and back sight when 
 the latter is at its lowest point. /. c, connecting the 
 notch on the swell of the muzzle, or dispart sight, 
 when the trunnions are perfectly horizontal. 
 
 LINE OF OPERATIONS. — All lines of communica- 
 tion leading towards an enemy's base do not offer 
 eiiual advantages to an army acting on the offensive. 
 Some lead more directly and otter more security 
 than others in an advance on the enemy ; some 
 ma}' offer greater advanfages than others when our 
 superiority lies either in infantry or in cavalry ; some 
 
 ari' more- favorable nstoHiibsislIng an army, or alTord 
 ing it more convenient Iransportion, or in enabling 
 us to turn the enemy's position ; others again receive 
 better siipjiort from the Itase of operations, etc. The 
 taliiit of a (ommanding (jeneral is chiefly shown in 
 weighing the advantages and (h'fects of eacli of 
 these circumstances, and selecting from them the 
 best. A line of operations is said to hvnimple when 
 the army corjjH moving against the enemy are kept 
 tOL'etlier. or at least are not so far separated as to be 
 be3'ond mutual su|iporting distances. These Cfirps 
 conse(|ueiilly niusl all move on roads nearly parallel, 
 anil not too far apart, and without any impassable 
 ohslruclions between them. A line of operations is 
 said to be doulile when an army divided into two 
 parts follows two sensibly iiarallel roads which are so 
 far asunder that the two ])orlions cannot be reunited 
 upon the same day on the same t-eld of battle. 
 
 Unless we are superior to the enemy on each 
 line, both in niimbersand the moral qualities of our 
 troops, a double line of ojjeralions is purely disadvan- 
 tageous to us; and particularly so if the two lines 
 diverge as we advance; for the enemy, by throwing 
 himself between the two fractions of our army, may 
 beat each of them separately, and find himself in an 
 attitude to inlercei)! our communications. The more 
 rapidly the double lines diverge, the greater will be 
 danger and the certainty of success to the enemy. 
 
 Here we find a marked ilitTeieiice lietween what 
 may be termed a ^'trategieal and a tactical operation. 
 In the latter the greatest danger that an army can 
 run is to be surrounded on the field of battle ; where- 
 I as an army that throws itself, by a strategical move- 
 1 meni, between several fractions of an enemy's army 
 beyond supporting distance of each other, may, by 
 superior activity, defeat them all in succession. 
 
 The only case in which — the armies on the two 
 sides being sensibly of equal strength, and control- 
 ling reasons calling for it— a dimble line can be fol- 
 lowed, in the face of a General of respectable abili- 
 ties, is when the latter has also adopted double di- 
 vergent lines, or lines very far asunder. But in 
 this case our double line must be an interim- one, or 
 lie between those of the enemy, so that the two frac- 
 tions may, in case of need, support each other if 
 attacked ; or be suddenly concentrated so as to at- 
 tack one of the fractions on the enemj-'s exterior 
 line, the other in this case being beyondsupporting 
 distance of the one attacked. This principle of in- 
 terior lines, particularly when they converge as we 
 advance, as a matter of fact, is only a modification 
 of the one of a single line. It only amounts to 
 keeping the fractions of our army in such distances 
 from each other that they are nearer together than 
 those of the enemy, and can be concentrated on any 
 one of his before it can be reinforced by the others. 
 Still, it must be observed, that it is always safer to 
 maneuver on a single line than upon two, although 
 they may be interior. 
 
 It is important not to confound double, or multiple 
 lines, with the various lines of communication over 
 which fractious of an army are necessarily marched, 
 in order to concentrate oii a particular point. In this 
 case the movements of all concur to the same end ; 
 the army corps are momentarily separated only to 
 march with greater convenience and rapidity": to 
 reconnoiter the ground more thoroughly over which 
 they move: and to live more comfortably. This mo- 
 mentary separation of our forces, to be again united 
 at the moment of battle, when well executed, is the 
 very acme' of good generalship. It is one of the best 
 means of keeping the enemy for a long time uncer- 
 tain of our real intentions as to the point of attack. 
 To know when, in turn, to scatter our forces to em- 
 brace a greater e.xteut of country, when circum- 
 stances permit or call for it, and then to concentrate 
 them, in order to strike a decisive blow, is one of 
 the most marked features in the qualities of a irreat 
 Captain, No General of modern times has shown 
 this trait in as Ligh a degree as Napoleon.
 
 LINE OF SIGHT. 
 
 218 
 
 LINE OF WOEKS. 
 
 When, by the eventualities of a campaign, we find 
 ourselves "rather forced to abandon our primitive 
 line of operations and take up some new one, tlic lat- 
 ter generally receives the appellation of au aeeifle?it- 
 al line of operations. This term is not properly appli- 
 cable to a line voluntarily taken up, to march upon a 
 point which the enemy may have weakened by with- 
 drawing from it troops, under the apprehension that 
 he was threatened on some other. This change of 
 line, so far from being an accident, is the legitimate 
 fruit of profound combinations, and may be the 
 cause of important successes. The primitive line 
 was, to some extent, a feint; and the line apparently 
 but secondary the true one; it cannot therefore be 
 termed accidental; it will be thus simply the 7iewline 
 (if operations 
 
 In like manner in a retrogade movement an army 
 may abandon its natural line of retreat and take up 
 another,leadiug off laterally from it, for the purpose 
 of enticing the enemy into a district of country less 
 favorable to him, and at the same time to throw him 
 further off from his main object. The line of re- 
 treat in this special case will be sensiblv parallel 
 to our own frontier instead of being, as it is gener- 
 alh', perpendicular to it. This new line of retreat 
 also cannot be classed under the head of accidental 
 lines, since it is one voluntarily adopted, and pre- 
 sents advantages over the natural line of retreat. 
 It has received the name of the parallel retreat, a 
 term sufficiently expressive of the thing itself. To 
 be successfully executed the retreatiug army should 
 not be too inferior in force to the enemj', and should 
 run no risk in being cut off from its own frontier b}' 
 moving too far from it. The local features are par- 
 ticularly to be taken into consideration in such 
 operations. If they are of a broken character, 
 the movement will be the less periJous ; if, on the 
 contrary, the country is open, and without strong 
 natural points of defence, the safest plan will be to 
 regain our frontier by the shortest line. 
 
 When a choice between several lines of operation 
 is offered, it will be best to adopt the one where the 
 army can be most easily subsisted, and in which, 
 according to the kind of troops of which it is com- 
 posed, the army will be most secure from the ene- 
 my's enterprises If the army is superior to the ene- 
 mj- in cavalr_y, it will u;iturally prefer to move over 
 au open district and country: it, on the contrary, its 
 main strength lies in its infantry, it will prefer to 
 skirt along the foot of a mountainous range, or to 
 march through a broken country. A line oif opera- 
 tions parallel and near to a river presents the advan- 
 tage of having its wing nearest the water course per- 
 fectly secure from attack, whilst the river itself fur- 
 nishes an excellent communication for bringing for- 
 ward men and the supplies. The defensivepositioa 
 taken up by the enemy also has great weight in de- 
 termining the direction of the line of of operations. 
 If he occupies cantonments extending over a consid- 
 erable line, the most natural line will be the one by 
 which the army can throw itself into the center of 
 the enemy's isolated corps, and thus separate them 
 and beat them in detail. By attacking one wing of 
 a position of this kind we sho\ild, in all likeliliood, 
 force back one corps after another vipon the neiirh- 
 boringone, until in tlie end the whole would, in tliis 
 way, lie concentrated in their natural order of 
 retreat. If, on tlie contrary, the enemy's corps are 
 in proper supporting distance of each other, the 
 natural jiniiit of attack is certainly one of his wings, 
 l)r(ivi(led that, in making the said movement, the 
 line of operations of our own army is not left ex- 
 posed; for the first of all necessities" Isneverto place 
 eitlier our base or our line of operations in jeopardy. 
 The choice to be made will also depi'ud upon the 
 characters and military talents of the enemy's Gener- 
 als, the quality of the forces, their moral condition, 
 etc., etc.; these are points which carry such great 
 weight with al)le Commanders that they have of- 
 ten been known to have adopted plans the very re- 
 
 verse of what they would have done under contrary 
 circumstances, according to their being in front of 
 one or another General. Turenne, having for his op- 
 ponent Conde, did not allow himself to do things 
 which seemed to him as easy and a matter of course 
 before the Archduke. On one occasion, in 1654, he 
 lost some men while passing within the range of 
 grape in front of the Spanisli lines, wliich called 
 forth remarks from some of the officers accompany- 
 ing him. To these he replied: "The march we are 
 making would be very imprudent before Conde's po- 
 sition; but it is very"important that I should exam- 
 ine thoroughly this position ; and I am so well ac- 
 quainted with the Spanish service, that I feel assur- 
 ed that before the Archduke has been informed of 
 it, has'sent word to Conde, and called together his 
 council, I shall have completed it and returned to 
 camp." "See," .said that Captain who more than the 
 other was capable of pronouncing a judgment on 
 such points, "here is something that pertains to the 
 divine portion of the art," In truth, military genius 
 manifests itself in just such subtle distinctions and 
 delicate shades. See Base of Operations, and Ohjec- 
 tive Point. 
 
 LINE OF SIGHT.— In gunnery, the right line passing 
 through the notch of the tangent-scale and tip of the 
 trunnion-sight (at any elevation), and the object. 
 See Pointing. 
 
 LINE OF WORKS.— When it is necessary to hold 
 for a time a line of considerable extent by a force in- 
 ferior to that whicli may be brought against it, the line 
 should be fortitied by intrenchments, consisting of a 
 series of works laid out according to the approved 
 principles. The kind of work forany particular po- 
 sition on the line will depend upon the nature of the 
 locality it is to occupy and the manner in which it 
 will combine with those adjacent in securing mutual 
 support throughout. Such lines are frequently from 
 fifteen to twenty, or even thirty miles in length, ex- 
 tending over every variety of country, andm their 
 construction call for the highest skill in military en- 
 gineering. They are constrvicted, usually, either for 
 tlie protection of important towns, cities, and depots; 
 or to make secure the base of operations and lines of 
 communications of any amy maneuvering in the 
 field : or, by stretching across peninsular regions, to 
 restrict the theater of operations of the enemy; or 
 for surrounding and besieging a place ; or for the 
 purpose of holding the enemy in position with a part 
 of an army while the remainder makes a flank or 
 other strategic movement. The civil war of 1861-65 
 afforded numerous instances of each of these con- 
 ditions. 
 
 The same general principles apply to lines as to 
 other field-works ; but, from their gre;it extent, they 
 usually receive only a slight relief, and tlu' simplest 
 angular figures are adopted for their plan. In laj'- 
 ing them out, advantage should be taken of all tlie 
 natural features presented liy the position, so as to 
 diminish the labor of erecting artificial ones. The 
 flanks of a line or posit ion are generally weak points. 
 Wlien possible, one or lioth should rest on natural 
 l)oints of support. A flank not so supported must 
 lie secured by slronir works espeeiidly well garnished 
 with artillery. A iioiul that Ikis nnt":i clear field of 
 fire is a weak jioint, iind should be strongly intrench- 
 ed, so that the enemy may not have advantage of 
 hills, ravines, or oth"er shelters in approaching the 
 line. Care should be exercised in determining the 
 kind of artillery for such positions. The field of
 
 LINES. 
 
 I'll) 
 
 LINES 
 
 fire hc'inp; rontnirtpcl, lone ranijc \<i not of so much 
 iniporliiiu'r as iiliility In sciircl] hdiinil llii' <'iiciiiy'H 
 shelter, iir In lliriiw a greal mass of prnjeclili's in a 
 liiiiil<'(l liiiw. Mortars, howitzers, aiiiLiMaehitie-;;iins 
 will he fiiuiid servicealili'. In estalilishiiii; a line of 
 w<irk8, tile most important ohjeel should he to eov- 
 er every portion of the front within fair ranj;"' with 
 (lireet or cross lire. To aeecjmplish this, all promi- 
 lieiil l)oints alomj the line are fnrlilied, eaih with a 
 wiirk havini; a Iraee most suited lo Ihe ecjiifcirmalion 
 of liiat parlieular site. The most important of these 
 .shonld lie inclosed works npon the hastiiiii-front 
 ])rinciple, and of consiilerahh- size, capahle of endiir- 
 iiifi an independ<'iit attack. Smaller inclosed works, 
 such a.s redouhls and star forts, occnijy ""' Hi'<'ond- 
 ary points. Between the works thus Incaled extend 
 riJIi-trciu'hiH, capahle of shelterini; infanlry. The 
 line is therefdre conipiised of a series of works mutu- 
 ally supporting each other and covering ever}' avenue 
 of approach. 
 
 The arlillery, of which there should be an abun- 
 dance, will naturally he jilaced in the works occupy- 
 ing the most cimimanding and salient positions. 
 These works should never be so far apart as to be 
 out of mutual tlaidving range of Ihe arlillery with 
 which they arc armed. It is the dut}' of ollicers of 
 arlillery to co-operate with those of engineers in se- 
 lecting the positions of the works that are to he arm- 
 ed with artillery, and to determine the kind and 
 quantity to be placed in each. As infantry troops 
 constitute the chief garrison of works of this nature, 
 they will be recpiired to construct them, leaving to 
 the artillery the constructiiui of magazines, emliras- 
 ures, and the other a<-ccssories pertaining to their 
 special arm. Oeuerally these works ary thrown up 
 very hastily, and often when an immediate attack is 
 apprehended; this, lo a considerable e.\tent, decides 
 not only the nature of the works, but the parts of 
 them that rei|uire tlu^ first attention. Subsequently, 
 if time permits, they are strengthened, improved, 
 and worked into better shape. As far as jiractica- 
 ble, the line should be composed of inclosed works, 
 for the reason tliat should the enemy concentrate 
 and break through at any point, he will not be able 
 lo sweep the line to the right and left by taking it in 
 Hank and rear. To storm ami capture each work in 
 succession would be an operation too cosily for hiin 
 to undertake. 
 
 It is ailvisable in most instances to have in fro n 
 
 SfSOy. 
 
 forcing hig way through the main line, from obtain- 
 ing easy possession ofiheiu by the rear. Sites for 
 them should be selected with a view of olitaining 
 from them a searching 'ire of the front line in reverse. 
 This line of works, although apjiarenlly iiUTt in rear, 
 unist he ke|)t fully armed and manned, ready lo 
 driven the enemy from any part of the main line that 
 he may succeed in obtaining possession of. Promi- 
 nent salients in the main line are especially inviting- 
 to the enemy; hehinil these a second line should be 
 prepared, so placed, if (lossible, that should the ene- 
 my obtain the nniin lin(' he will be within musketry 
 range of the second, an<l hi- forced with wearied 
 troops lo undertake the capture of it. See FiiUl 
 Furtifimtiun,. 
 
 LINES.- The field-works known as lines are divi- 
 ded into several classes, according to thi^ object for 
 which they are constructed; or, according to som(t 
 peculiar arrangement of their parts, or some other 
 characteristic ipiality. They are most generally 
 classified us r<intinnfd Uiuh and lineji with iiitervatx. 
 There are no openings in a continued line, except 
 those made for the use of the defense. Continued 
 lines have been much used in past military opera- 
 tions, and will, in all probability, be used in the 
 operations of the future. They may be usefully 
 employed where a jiassive defense only is to be 
 made, and where the position to be defended is 
 limited in extent, and not exposed to flank attacks. 
 They are not fitted for an active defense, and they 
 have the serious disadvantage of being untenable, 
 when any part of the line has been taken by the 
 enemy. They require a large amount of labor lo 
 construct ; and it is a very doubtful <pieslion, 
 whether the advantages they give compensate for 
 the time and labor employed in their construction. 
 
 Lines with intervals differ from the continued 
 lines, by leaving intervals along the front of Ihe posi- 
 tion, which intervals present no obstructions to an 
 enemy moving through them, excepting so far as 
 they may be (lefendeil liy the fire of the works, or 
 may be obstructed by natural obstacles. or by artificial 
 ones,pliieed along the front. The works formingthc 
 line ma}' be placed so close to each other as to be in 
 defensive relations ; or they may be so far apart, as 
 lo admit only of their defending the intervals between 
 them. 
 
 If an obstinate defense is to be made, a second line 
 should be used. It should as a general rule be 
 
 ^soy 
 
 Pl.an of a Linn with IntRrvnIs of Lunettes, or 
 of the line, within easy musket ran;:e, a line of stnall 
 red;ins or bmettes ;il intervals of:ihoiU l.filHI y;irds. 
 Each of these shiniUl be capable of holding from one 
 lo two hundred infantry ami four to six tield-pieces. 
 This line of outworks would form, as it were, a 
 species of picket-line, keeping the enemy from close- 
 ly observing and harassing the main line, and would 
 Cfmstitute an advanced line of battle, ag;iinst which 
 the tirst shock of the enemy is partially thrown 
 aw:iy, and he dare not attempt to neglect them ; 
 for ;'in endeavor to penetrate through the intervals 
 woiUd expose his flanks to a close and deadly flank 
 and cross fire. The redans lieing ojien towards the 
 main line, could not be held if captured by the ene- 
 my, A somewhat similar line of works should be 
 established in rear of the main line. They shoidd, 
 however, have their gorges stockaded or otherwise 
 closed to prevent the enemy, should he succeed in 
 
 Square Redoubts flanked by Retired Redans. 
 
 I placed behind the first, and distant from it, abotii 
 one-fourth, and certainly not grciiter tlian one-half, 
 of llu' distance between the works in the first line. 
 When artillery is used in the second line, a good 
 position would be about six hundred yards distant 
 from the first. This places the second line just out 
 of range of aimed musketry fire, but in close range of 
 arlillery fire. .\ third line of field-works is some- 
 times liuilt. The general arrangement of the works 
 of this third linewith the works of the first and second, 
 conforms to the princijiles employed in arranging 
 the work in the second line. A third line might be 
 usefid. in case of an active defense, since the works 
 placed along this line can be utilized as screens for 
 the reserves and for bodies of cavalry. A fourth 
 line would evidently be of no practical service in 
 the defence of a position. A force. unable to retain 
 possession of outer lines, could not hold the fourth.
 
 LINESUEN. 
 
 220 
 
 LINKED SHELLS. 
 
 The number of Hues, whether a single one, or 
 two, or three in number: the kinds of worlis to be 
 used on each line; the distauee apart of the works 
 on each line; the distance apart of the lines; and 
 the details oif their construction, depend upon the 
 natural features of the ground, the numbers and 
 kinds of troops which are to occupj' them, the range 
 of the arm used in their defense, and the time dis- 
 posable in which to construct them. 
 
 Certain advantages are claimed for lines with in- 
 tervals. These advantages may be brietiy stated to 
 be as follows 1. The lines with intervals admit of 
 either passive or active defense. They are peculiar- 
 ly fitted for the latter. 3. Lines with intervals are 
 more easily adapted to the natural features of the 
 ground than continued lines. 3. For the same ex- 
 tent of front, they require fewer men to defend them, 
 and the works require less labor to construct, than 
 other kinds of lines. 4. They admit of a bct-ter use 
 being made of raw and inexperienced troops. 5. A 
 line with intervals may still be defended, even'after 
 a part of the line has lieen captured, or after the en- 
 emy jias broken through the line. 
 
 The main defect inherent in lines of this class, is 
 the sub-division of the defenders into several inde- 
 pendent commands, b}' wbich unit}- of action of the 
 whole command is impaired. This defect is reduced 
 somewhat by a proper disposition of the works. A 
 few capacious and strong works are better than a 
 large number of small ones. Experience has shown 
 that a bodj' of one thousand men, in a single, well- 
 constructed work will offer a more effective resist- 
 ance to the attacks of an enemy than the same num- 
 ber would, when scattered aniong three, four, or 
 more, smaller works. The difficulty which a Gen- 
 eral would meet, in obtaining experienced officers tit 
 for these independent commands, and in having 
 these officers to act in unison with each other, gives 
 sufficient grounds for such a result to be expected 
 under ordinary circumstances. See Bastioned Line, 
 CremaflUre Line, Multiple Lines, Redan Line, Mog- 
 niat Line, Ser/-ated Li?ie, and Tenyiaille LJne. 
 
 LINESMEN.— A term frequently applied "in the 
 British service to the infantrymen of the Regular 
 Arniv. 
 
 LINES OF COMMUNICATION.— A term applied to all 
 the practicable routes and roads connecting the dif- 
 ferent parts of an army occupying the theater of 
 war. Therefore, as the army moves from its base, 
 the lines of operatimis become lines of communiea- 
 Von, and since these lines of operations are generally 
 the longest and most important lines ofcommunieji- 
 tion, it is to them that the simple term communica- 
 tions generally refers. All the routes used b}' the 
 trains employed in provisioning an army, form a 
 part of the communications. The m6st important, 
 safest, and most convenient of these routes, all other 
 things being equal, will be the central one, or the 
 one leading from the center of the army back to its 
 base. This ])articular route is sometimes designated 
 as the li>n>tf mipplies. 
 
 LINES OF EETEEAT.— The roads passed over by 
 an army when advancing are ordinarily the roads 
 taken when the army retires or is driven back. In 
 the latter case they are known as Lines of Retreat, 
 and are Single, double diverging, etc, according to 
 their number and^jjosition. Sec Retreat. 
 
 LINES OF TORRES VEDRAS.— Famous lines of de- 
 fense within which Wellington took refuge in 1810, 
 when he found it impossible to defend the frontier 
 of I'ortugal against the French armies; and from 
 which, in the year following, he issueil on thiit car- 
 eer of slow iuid hard-won victory, which ended in Ihe 
 expulsion of llie Frencli from the Peninsula. The j 
 first, or outermost of these lines, extending from Al- 
 liandra. on the Tagus. to the mouth of llie Siz;indro, 
 on the sea-coast, ami following the windings of the 
 hills,, was 29 miles long ; \\\v\'<emnd (and bv far the 
 most formidable) from (I to 10 miles behind "the first, 
 stretching from t2uintella,nn the Tagus, to the mouth , 
 
 of tl'e St. Loreuza, a distance of 24 miles ; the third, 
 situated to the southwest of Lisbon, at the verj- 
 mouth of the Tagus, was verj' short, being intended 
 to cover a forced embarkation, if that had become 
 necessary. The entire groimd thus fortified was 
 c(]ual to FiOO scjuare miles. 
 
 LINES WITH INTERVALS.— When the front to 
 be defended is covered by a number of field-works, 
 scattered along this front, and placed near enough 
 together|to sweep the intervals with their fire, the 
 whole arrangement forms a disposition called a I^ine 
 with Intervals. Field-works placed so near to each 
 other, that each one can bring its fire to bear upon the 
 ground in front of those adjacent, are said to be in 
 defensive relations with each other. See Lints. 
 
 LINGERER.— One who pretends to be indisposed, 
 in order to avoid his tour of duty. Hence the ex- 
 pression malingerer, or a soldier who avoids duty in 
 a disreputable manner. 
 
 LINKED REGIMENTS.— In localizing the forces of 
 the British Army, it is laid down that in each of the 
 sub-districts of "the country two regiments shall be 
 permanentlj' selected (whether absent or present) to 
 be so localized, and the mode of selection is of regi- 
 ments having any connection with the countj-. 
 These regiments are termed li?iked, and in the case 
 of one of the regiments going or being on foreign 
 service requiring men to make up its numbers, sol- 
 diers are drafted from the regiment remaining at 
 home. 
 
 LINKED SHELLS.— Admiral the Hon. Arthur A. 
 Cochrane has recently devised a novel method of 
 marine attack and defense. Its verj- novelty may 
 tend to prejudice against it those who are saturated 
 with the conviction that nothing new which is also 
 good can be devised in warfare ; but the whole 
 scheme is at once so simple, so ingenious, and so 
 easil3' and cheapl}- tested, that it commends itself to 
 impartial minds. He proposes to strew the line of 
 approach of a hostile ironclad preparing to ram, or 
 the wake of a ship when retreating, or the course of 
 an enemy engaging on the broadside, with floating or 
 partly submerged torpedoes, through which thepur- 
 suer dare not attempt to pass. These torpedoes could 
 be thrown to some distance from the ship by n\eans 
 of mortars, which would fire very small charges of 
 powder. Thus the 13-inch service mortar, at an ele- 
 vation of 4.5 degrees, has a range of 850 yards with 
 3 pounds of powder, and with half a pound of pow- 
 der a range of 180 yards when projecting a shell of 
 aboit 180 pounds weight. The shells would have a 
 charge of high-class explosive, say, of 35 pounds 
 weight, surrounded by an envelope, whether of thin 
 metal or other material, of sufficient capacity to buoy 
 the bursting charge and of strength to resist the pro- 
 jectmg charge of, sa}', H povmds of powder. The 
 shells would be connected by a floating line 100 feet 
 or 200 feet in length, of small diameter, but of great 
 strength ; such coupled shells could be very readily 
 fired from two mortars simultaneously by electricity; 
 the}' could be placed quite close together ; or the 
 mortars, of which there would likely be .six or eight 
 on a large ship's deck, might be placed at a distance 
 apart of 50 or 80 feet on the line of keel or otherwise, 
 the rope still connecting the shells. The action of 
 the air on the connecting line when the shells were 
 fired would be to draw the shells together; but it is 
 not anticipated that this would be a practical diffi- 
 culty over the ranges expected, viz., from 200 to 
 1,200 yards as the mortars would be slightly deflect- 
 ed from each other. It is proposed to use such shells 
 against shi])s on their ne;ir approach liy firing them 
 across and just ahead <if the ship. It is clear thiit if 
 the hostile ship slill jiroceeded, she would, by foul- 
 ing the rope, dniw Ihe shells alongside and be blown 
 up, and as the shells would be concussive and fitted 
 with time-fuses, they would doubtless not fail to act. 
 Should the ship stop in time to avoid the shells, oth- 
 ers could be thrown astern of or over her, so as to 
 hamper her nu)venients. Under any circumstances,
 
 LINOLEUM. 
 
 221 
 
 LINOLEUM. 
 
 the liostile sliip could not ram her cnciny, iiml by 
 
 Htoppiiii; would olTcr a pood liirijcl for mortar hIicIIh 
 III lie llirnvvii on licr decks, iirid lor iirlillcrv liro. 
 
 |l is iiropoMcd to cuiiiloy HJiclls of HcvcTid clasMcs : 
 "A" shells chariced willi explosives, eupalile of tloat- 
 ins on water, eased ill metal or other material, and 
 united liy a lloatini; rope ; to he tired across the hows 
 of shii)s, or dropped across ships or ports in a tidi*- 
 way. "B" sliells, cluir;;ed with explosives, of slight- 
 ly i;reater specilic i^ravity than water; such to h(^ 
 rcLfulatcd as to \]\v. depth they shall sink in watiT hy 
 means of an India-ruhher luhe or other material ; 
 such tuhe to he seciirely attached to the shell when 
 it is fired, or hy a line to the shell when it is ncct.s- 
 sary, tilled with air and attached to the shell. lu 
 the case of land service, such a luhe could bo 
 easily tilled with explosive, and sucli tuhe could 
 h<' attached to a second shell, for clcarini; ])arapets, 
 treuclies, etc,, underspecial circumstances. "A" 
 shells would he useful to clear hostile ships out of 
 rivers, tideways, and to blow tip buttresses of liridges 
 floatini;-hridges, sucli as those lately used in the 
 Danube, preventiiiLi; ships entering; the Danlanelles, 
 etc. "B" shells, on beini; thrown near the ships and 
 buoyed by a |)ractically invisilile tul)e, at a deiith of 
 Bay, l.T feet, woidd be very fatal on explodini;. "B" 
 shells could be thrown on the line of advance of a 
 torpedo ; and when enterins; a hostile port, defend- 
 ed 1>3' submerged torpedoes, they could be thrown in 
 advance of ships entering, and rej;ulaled by means 
 of the buoy line, to exploile at any depth, or on the 
 bottom, tlius cleariiif; the channel. The shells could 
 be cased in metal and made in sections, or could be 
 made of paper suitably preivared. Shells from mor- 
 tars are now considered to be eltieient in proportion 
 to their fallins; weijrht. The shells suijgested would 
 be elHcient in pro|)ortion, not to their weight, but to 
 the charge of explosive carried. From the small 
 weight of the mortars, very small charge and small 
 recoil, they could be most readily fitted to any 
 ship almost without strengthening fitments, and 
 In the case of numerous river steamers would add 
 but little to the draught of water. It will be seen 
 that the success or failure of the whole scheme de- 
 pends on the possibility of firing linked shells, so that 
 iheir line of flight would be nearly (larallel, and on 
 the construction of the shells. Nothing but direct 
 experiment can decide the first point; but it might 
 be settled in a day for an outlay of a few jiounds. 
 The construction of the shells obviously presents 
 some difficulties. Admiral Cochrane has proposed 
 several designs for shells intended to overcome these 
 difficulties. It may be fairly assumed that fire from 
 mortars, whose shells would be, or might be, con- 
 nected by a slight line, would be very inaccurate, 
 particularly in high and cross winds. But if one is 
 driven to make comparison of efficiency. the accurac}- 
 of artillary fire in ships in high cross winds may be 
 seriously questioned, and the accuracy of action and 
 aim of torpedoes fired from or at ships in motion 
 may be very niucli more seriously questioned, par- 
 ticularly if fired at more than .500 yards distance. 
 The bows and the sterns of ships are, as a rule, 
 now the favored points for projecting the torpedoes, 
 and compressed air. steam, steam pistons, and gun- 
 powder, are being tried to endeavor to obtain a sat- 
 isfactory nu'ans of projecting them into the water, 
 after which they have to find some yet undiscovered 
 process of making them go straight to the object to 
 be struck, a result wliich, when there is any sea on, 
 or the boat or vessel is in motion, will never be ac- 
 complished in any degree to be relied on. A com- 
 parison may be made between the effect of, say. a 
 100-tou gun, 80 feet long, burning 400 or .500 pounds 
 of powder, and projecting a shot of three-quarters 
 of a ton, against a 2(5-iiicli armor plate, and that of 
 one of the shells proposed by Admiral Cochrane, 
 falling when charged with 20 pounds or 30 pounds 
 of gun cotton, on the deck or into the barbette bat- 
 tery of a 10,000 tons ironclad. Further, when the 
 
 cost of the 100-ton gun. the powder and shot fitments, 
 and complication of hydraulic gear recpiired to work 
 such a gun, are cimsidered.as against a iy-in<;li mor- 
 tar, weigliing perhaps 12 hundred. weight, and 
 requiring, so to say, no science to work it what- 
 ever, the advantage s<rems notal)ly in favor of mor- 
 tars as the principal arm. It may be observed that 
 a sea-service i:i-inch mortar weighs about .5 tons; 
 its shell, loaded, about 200 pounds, carrying a bursl- 
 ini; charge of some 10 pounds, and when tire.ialau 
 angle of 4.5 degrees, with y pounds of powder, ranges 
 H.50 yards ; but, as at jiresent, Adndral Cochrane 
 only suggests shells of a weight of, say, 1(X) pounds, 
 and that to be projected to a distance of, say, 1,200 
 yards, and that as the mortars should be made of 
 phosphor-bron/.e, 12 cwt. might, it is assumed, suf- 
 lice for the vvi'igiit of the mortar. The S. S. mor- 
 tars have to face the firing of 200-pound shells up to 
 a range of 4.000 or .5.000 yards. Mortar firing and sus- 
 tained efforts to improve mortars have been but littl3 
 considered. Hifled mortars are hardly known; and 
 the suspended mortars- Roberts' patent, on turn- 
 tables for f .•a service and used in the Baltic in 18.54 
 — have dropped out of sight, though they were stated 
 to offer many advantages in principle, while faulty 
 mel:il and construction were ipioted against them. 
 
 LINOLEUM. — A peculi;ir jireparaticjii of linseed-oil, 
 which is variously emiiloyed for military purposes. 
 In 1849 Nicies and Uochelder independently discov- 
 ered that chloride of sulphur will solidify oil, and 
 render il usable in many new ways. In 18.5!) JI. Per- 
 ra communicated to the Academic des Sciences the 
 details of a mode of effecting this by mixing and 
 melting the ingredieiits.and pouring the mixture out 
 in a thin layer. By varying the proportions the re- 
 sulting substance pssumes varying degrees of con- 
 sistency. Thus, 100 linseed oil -|-2;) chloride of sul- 
 phur jiroduces a hard and tough substance; 100 oil 
 -|-15 chloride a supple substance like India-rubber; 
 and 100 oil -|- 5 chloride, a thick pasty mass. This 
 third kind dissolves well in oil of turpentine. Jlr. 
 Walton afterwards found that, by the application of 
 heat, linseed oil will become hard without the addi- 
 tion of chloride of sulphur. He conceives that it is 
 not a mere drying, but a real oxidizing. Linseed-oil, 
 first boiled, is applied as a layer to a surface of 
 wood or glass, then dried; then another laj-er; and 
 so on till the required thickness is produced. The 
 sheet is then removed, and is found to be very much 
 like India-rubber in elasticitj^; in fact, the produc- 
 tiim of a layer by this means is analogous to the 
 smearing of clay-molds with caoutchouc juice to pro- 
 duce India-rubber, as practiced in South America. 
 The drying is a little expedited by adding a small 
 portion of oxide of lead. The solid oil is crushed, 
 and worked thoroughly between heated rollers; and 
 when treated either with shellac or with naphtha, it 
 becomes applicable in various manufacturing forms. 
 The term/ymwif^m properly applies to the hardened 
 or tRe oxidized oil itself, but is cheifly u.sed as 
 a designation for one of the substances made from 
 or with it, a kind of floor-cloth. When the oxidized 
 oil is rolled into sheets it becomes a substitute for 
 India-rubber or gutta-percha. When dissolved as a 
 varnish or mastic and applied to cloth it is useful for 
 water-proof textiles, felt-carpets, carriage-aprons, 
 wagon and cart-sheets, nursing-aprons, water-beds, 
 tank-linings, table-covers, etc., according to the mode 
 of treatment. When used as a paint, it is useful for 
 iron, for wood, and for ships' bottoms. When used 
 as cement.it possesses some of the useful properties 
 of marine glue. When vulcanized or rendered quite 
 hard by heat it may be filed, planed, turned, carved, 
 and polished like wood, and used for knife and fork 
 handles, moldings, etc. When brought by certain 
 treatment to the consistencj- of dough or putty.it may 
 be pressed into embossed molds for ornamental ar- 
 ticles. When used as a grinding-wheel, touched 
 with emery, it becomes a good cutter. Lastly when 
 mixed with ground cork, pressed <m canvas by roll-
 
 LINSTOCK. 
 
 222 
 
 LISSB£EO£S FUSES. 
 
 ers, tlie canvas coated at the back with a layer nf the 
 same oil in the state of paint, and the upper or prin- 
 cipal surface painted and printed, it becomes the 
 Lhwleum floor-cloth, for the production of which a 
 factory has been established at Staines. Dunn's pat- 
 ented fabric fur similar purposes has no oil in it; it 
 is a mixture of cork-shavings, cotton, or wool fibers, 
 and coutchouc, spread upon a cotton or canvas back, 
 and embossed with patterns ; it is a kind of kamp- 
 tidicnn. 
 
 LINSTOCK. — An iron-shod wooden-staff used in 
 gunnery, for holding the lighted linstock in readi- 
 ness tobe applied to the touch-hole of the cannon. 
 In old pictures, tlie linstock is seen planted in the 
 ground to the right rear of each piece, with a match 
 smoking at each" of the ends of the fork in which it 
 terminates. 
 
 LION.— The lion holds an important place among 
 the animals borne in coat-armor. As early as the 
 13th century, the king of beasts was assumed as an 
 appropriate" emblem by the Sovereigns of England, 
 Scotland. Norwav, Denmark, the native 
 Princes of Wales", the Counts of Flanders 
 and Holland, and various other European 
 potentates. Lions occur in different posi- 
 tions. 1. The earliest attitude of the 
 heraldic lion is rampant (a), erect on his 
 hind legs, and looking before him, the 
 head being shown in profile, as he ap- 
 pears in the Arms of Scotland, and origin- 
 ally did in those of England. This was 
 the normal position of a lion : but as the 
 royal animal came to be more generally 
 used by all who claimed to have any kindred with 
 royalty, and to ))e granted to favorite followers by 
 way of augmentation, some diversity of attitude was 
 adopted for distinction's sake. 3. Rampant gardant 
 
 celebrated winged lion of St. Mark, adopted by the 
 Uepublic of Venice. The Island Kepuljlicbore. azure, 
 a lion winged or sejant, holding between his fore- 
 paws a book open argent, in which are the words. 
 Pax tibi Marm Evanyflhta meu.i. Two or more lions 
 borne on one shield are sometimes (though never 
 when on a royal coat") blazoned Lwnceh. See Ilir- 
 aldry. 
 
 LIP-STKAP. — ri. small strap with a buckle passing 
 from one cheek of the bit through a ring in the cen- 
 ter of the curb chain to the other cheek, for the pur- 
 pose of preventing the horse from seizing the cheek 
 of the bit in his mouth. 
 
 LIS. — A warlike macliine used by the Ancients. 
 It consisted of apiece of wood or a stake, about the 
 size of the human body, which was made smaller at 
 the top than at the bottom, and resembled a lily not 
 yet blown. Several of these were tied together with 
 ozier or willow twigs, and were used for the security 
 of a camp. They were not unlike the palisades of 
 the present day. 
 
 (ti). erect on the hind legs, and affronte or full-faced, 
 3. Rampant regardant (c), erect on the hind legs, 
 and looking Ijackwards. 4. Pa.^sant (d). in a walk- 
 ing position, with the head seen in profile. H. Pas- 
 xant gardant (e), waJking. and with the head af- 
 fronte'. 6. Pamint regardant, walking, and with 
 head looking behind. 7. Statant, with all four legs 
 on the ground. 8. Sal/ant, in the act of springing 
 forward on his prey. 9. Sejant (J), rising to pre- 
 pare for action. 10. Sejant affronte, as seen in the 
 crest of Scotland. 11. Couchant, lying down, but 
 with his head held well erect, and his tail beneath 
 him. 13. IJarmant, asleep, with his head resting 
 on his fore-paws. 13. fhioard or Cone, with his tail 
 hanging between his legs. The lion passant gar- 
 dant is often blazoned as the linn of England; and 
 at a time wlien terms of blazonry were compara- 
 tively few, it was confounded with the leopard, 
 and "hence the lion passant and rampant gardant 
 came to be called respectively the lion-le<yparde, and 
 leopard-lionne. Two lions may be depicted rampant 
 riimhatant — i. e., face to face — or rampant addoxse. 
 placed back to back. Among leonine monsters, we 
 liave two-headed lions, bicorporate and (ricorporatc 
 lions, lion-dragons and lion-])oisscms. There is also 
 the IJohcmiun lion, with two tails, and the more 
 
 LISCHINE TENT.— A Russian hospital tent of pe- 
 culiar construction, and well endorsed b}- militar)' 
 men. The frame is of iron, and is covered with thin 
 pieces of board 10 feet long and 1 foot wide, over- 
 lapping each other like Venetian blinds. The ridge 
 is of canvas. The iron frames are four in number. 
 It has the advantage of being cheaper, more durable, 
 warmer, and capable of better ventilation than the 
 canvas tent. See Tents. 
 
 LISSBERGEB FUSES. — The [Lissbcrgcr percussion 
 fuse, shown in Fig. 1, consists of a copper tapering 
 body, A. with enlarged head, but closed at the rear 
 b_v a brass screw-plug, which is hollow nearly its 
 entire length. Fitting this screw-plug is a brass hol- 
 low cylinder tilled with a friction composition ; the 
 
 lower part of tlie cylinder is closed. A wire, whose 
 lower end is serrated and twisted, passes through 
 central holes in the screw-plug and the solid cylin- 
 drical plunger : it has its upper end loojied 1o form 
 a shoulder against the plunger, lietween the plun- 
 ger and the end of the scrcw-pIug is a disk of 
 h'athcr. 
 
 The lower end of the scrcw-plug is closed by a 
 small ((uantity of ride-powder, and a disk of leather 
 presseii in. The fuse -body has about the .same taper 
 rearward, and is inserted in tlie shell the sameasthe 
 ordinary paper lime-fuse; when inserted in a shell 
 whose Might is suddenly arrested, the serrated wire 
 is drawn forward by the phmger. igniling the fric- 
 tion composition, and setting fire to the charge.
 
 LIST. 
 
 223 
 
 UTTEB. 
 
 The time-fuse is an imliimry paper fuse. A, sliown 
 in KIlt. 2, which is iirnileil liy nieiins (if un inerlin 
 isniter. Tlie iirniter, H, (-(insists (if fourpiirts: A 
 lirass solid-headed sliell, siiirlilly taperinu: on the ex- 
 terior, liavintr holes in the liead and side-openings 
 fortheeseaiie of ijas; thniUL'h the head of Iheliody, 
 A. is introduced a hollow brass cyrnider. whose low- 
 er end is cut and closed; within this cylinder is a 
 lead plumper and a friction-pellet. At the instant of 
 discharge, the friction-pellet is forced back and 
 throui;h the routjh-closcd end of the cylinder by the 
 ]ilunij;er and the tiine-fnse is thus iirnited. Sec Fiim. 
 
 LIST. — 1. A line inclosini; or forniini;the extremi- 
 ty of a piece of trniund, or field of combat ; hencc^in 
 the |)lural, the i:r(iund or lield enclosed for a race or 
 condial. 'I\iinli r Die ///.v^i, is to acce])t a cliallcnirc, 
 or eni^age in a coi\test. 2, To cnjraire in the ])ublic 
 service by enrolling one's name, as soldiers ; to in- 
 close for combat. 3. A roll or a catalogue ; as the 
 Army h'ltt. the Pni/ TJut, etc. 
 
 LISTENING GALLERIES- The galleries of a forti- 
 lication, le;iiling outwards from the counter-scarp 
 gallery, See GdMi ry. 
 
 comparatively small amount and in bad proportions. 
 Neither does the presence of these substances add 
 liny thing to the safety of the mixture. They tend 
 to lower its tiring- pouit, and render it more easily 
 explodeil. Its cii.iracteristicH, as compared with dy- 
 namite, are: 1. (Jreater sensitiveness to temperature, 
 exjiloding at 120", while dynamite exi)lo(le» at lliO"; 
 2. (ireater sensitiveness to moisture from the presence 
 of the hygro.scopic nitrate of soda ; 'A. The gases from 
 the explosion always contain carlK nic oxide from 
 the carbon in the compound : 4. For ecpial volumes 
 it has the lesser explosive power. See Dynamite, 
 Kxphm'Te Agents, and Nitm-fjlycerine. 
 
 LITTEE— A sort of a stretcher or liurdlc-bed on 
 which the wounded are carried off the lield of battle. 
 It is especially used for the badly wounded, who can 
 only be carried lying down. In 1859 a Medical 
 Board was convened to examine the subject of hos- 
 l)ital transport. Besides various recommendations 
 regarding the kind of veliicles suitable for the con- 
 veyance of patients and of supplies, the Hoard ad- 
 vised that IwiUinrHe littrrx should be constructed and 
 issued to the frontier posts, This recommendation 
 
 LITHOFRACTEUE.— An explosive mixture having 
 the following composition : 
 
 Nitro-glvccriue .'52.10 per cent. 
 
 Kie.slguhr ;i0.00 
 
 Coal 12.00 
 
 Soda-saltpeter 4.00 
 
 Sulphur 3,00 
 
 100.00 '• 
 Sometimes, instead ^.f the sodium nitrate, the po- 
 tassium of barium salt is used, and variations made 
 in the (juantity of uilro-glycerine containvd iu it. 
 Like all the uilro-glycerine jireparations, it has no 
 necessarily definite composition, it being merely a 
 mixture made according to the caprice of the manu- 
 facturers. This preparation is made by Krebs Bros. 
 vt Co. in Cologne, and has been used to some extent 
 in Europe. It is claimed by the makers that the 
 other substances (coal, saltpeter, and sulphur) mixed 
 with the nitro-glycerine increase the quantity 
 of gas delivcreci, and, therefore, the explosive 
 force also. This isnot,howcver,correct."Nitro-glycer- 1 
 
 was approved, and the specifications for the con- 
 struction of such litters were incorporated in the 
 Hegulatious for the Army. The form of litter re- 
 commended appears to have been derived from ex- 
 periences ill Florida and Mexico. The drawimr shows 
 the manner of its construction and its (lifferent 
 parts. It weighs 8.S pounds : the poles are 32 inches 
 iu diameter and It) feet long; the sections are 44, 8 
 and 3^ feet respectively from front to rear. Xunier- 
 ous improvised litters, constructed on the same gen- 
 eral plan, have been extensively emi)lo3ed iu Indian 
 Campaigns and in travel over very rough counlrv. 
 During the late war in this country, a number of 
 persons, actuated by motives of patriotism, human- 
 ity, or interest, devised and brought to the notice of 
 the War Departmcut forms of couve^-ance for the 
 sick and wounded, in localities impracticable for 
 wheeled vehicles. Several of these were apparently 
 suggested by the descriptions of Delafield and Mc- 
 Cleilan of the horse-litters and cacolets they had ob- 
 served in the Crimea. A number of sets of these 
 litters and cacolets were purchased by the United 
 
 ine is so sudden in its explosion that nothing can I States Government, but were never used with suc- 
 be added to it from the slower burning of any of the cess. The drawing shows the British Crimean mule- 
 other combustible ingredients, which are present in ' litter, also the very easy p(wilion of the wounded sol-
 
 LITTEB. 
 
 224 
 
 LITTEB. 
 
 (iier when ready for transport, and the equipment. 
 In the litters and cacolets now issued in the French 
 Army there are improvements providing for making 
 
 the sections of the litter rigid, so that it can be used 
 temporarily as a stretcher, for reduction in weight, 
 and for greater compactness in packing. The mule- 
 chairs and litters now issued by the British Koj-al 
 Carriage Department are lighter and more conven- 
 
 Amode of transporting sick and wounded by lit- 
 ters that at one end rest on the ground, so that the 
 patient is drawn, but only partially sustained, by the 
 pack-animals, is mentioned by early travel- 
 ers among the North American Indians. 
 Parkman indicates that in the war with 
 Pontiac, in 1763, the Colonists carried 
 their wounded by this contrivance, and, 
 in a later work, refers to the ti-a-cee used by 
 the Oregon Indians ; and Lewis and Clark 
 resorted to it in 1805, to carry a wounded 
 hunter of their party. Latterly, this meth- 
 od of transport has received much atten- 
 tion from medical officers, as well adapted 
 to the exigencies of frontier service. As- 
 sistant Surgeon JIcGillycuddy, United 
 States Army"^ has made the accompanying 
 drawing of such an appliance attached to 
 a horse. A sacking bottom is lashed to 
 two poles that are separated by traverses, 
 and secured to the stirrup-leathers of a 
 cavalry horse equipped with the regula- 
 tion saddle. The soldier's pack makes a 
 pillow, and a blanket is thrown over him. 
 In this contrivance the utmost limit of 
 simplicity has been attained. This form 
 of litter is draicn, while the Uco-horfe lit- 
 ter is carried, it being substantially a stretcher, 
 either horses or mules being substituted for the men 
 who act as stretcher-bearers. In the latter, one ani- 
 mal is harnessed between the poles before, and the 
 second between the poles behind ; the patient being 
 
 lent than those used in the Crimea. The drawing 
 shows the British Army mule litter attached to its 
 pack-saddle. It weighs 84 pounds, without bedding 
 or pack-saddle. With the paillasses and pack-sad- 
 dle, the weight is 167 pounds. The weight of a pair 
 of English litters, used in the Crimea, was 138 
 pounds and 13 ounces, without the pack-saddle. So 
 far as experience has gone, every form of litter and 
 cacolet has been disapproved for one cause or an- 
 other by tlie United States War Depiirtment. Al- 
 though used in European services and in Algeria, 
 with satisfaction and under favorable circumstances 
 eilliiron plains or on open rolling country, in our 
 mounlaiiioiis coiuitry, they are only a troul)lesome 
 and liarl)arous encumbrance, cruel alike lollie wound- 
 ed and the jiack-aniinals. This aversion lo sick-tran- 
 sport by cacolets and double lillcrs is doubtless due 
 to defects in administration rather than to any de- 
 merits of the system, without efficient animals and 
 packers it is vain to anticipate useful results from the 
 best-contrived aiii)liances. Used with the greatest 
 adviintiiL'i- in Algeria, and in the Crimea, the French 
 caco.cts and lillers were adopted by the Brilish .\r 
 my .iledical Department with satisfactory results. 
 
 placed on a piece of canvas or other material, stretch- 
 ed between the poles in the intermediate space. Such 
 a litter was extemporized by Assistant Surgeon A. 
 Hartsuff, United States Arniy, as shown in the draw- 
 ing. 
 
 This litter possesses the disadvantage of accident 
 in case the two animals do not work well tog<'ther ; 
 also, if the animals keep step, the litter begins to vi- 
 brate, from the regularity of the motion, and in- 
 creases to such a degree as to almost throw the 
 patient out. Again, the litter cutting off the sight 
 of the ground from the rear animal, makes him par- 
 \ ticidariy liable to stumble. All things considered, 
 : it would appear that the one-horse litter is far su- 
 peri(jr to this form, and the exiiericncc of all having 
 had occasion to use both contrivances, contirms this 
 opinion. The aparejo is the favorite pack-saddle 
 for general ])urposes in America, and it is believed 
 that auibulance-chairs and litters can be adjusted 
 with facility to these saddles; what is essential is 
 that there should be trained animals and skilled 
 jiackers. Until these indispensable adjuncts nr'i 
 [irovided the contrivances found useful in European 
 armies cannot be advantageously employed in our
 
 LITTLE FORTIFICATION. 
 
 225 
 
 LOADING. 
 
 scrvifc, iind imdiial fifllcers will ]>(• i-Dnipcllcfi to re- 
 Horl. in ciiicrf^ciicicM Id Mic Inivcc or to llii- two-liorai; 
 litter, i'li-v A mini limce, (JiVJ/lrl, Strrlj^hi^r tind '/'raoV ; 
 also ('/tan/, JJiiarw., OreeiUmf, McMlihrry, und 'J'/un- 
 tlc J.itUrn. 
 
 find till thr Kpform Mill in 1832. they hii<l tin- ex- 
 cliiMivc privilc^^c of votiii}; for MeniherM of Purlia- 
 iiicril for till' I'ily. 
 LIVE SHELLS.— Shells loaded with their burHting 
 
 clrii "". !•■ ii.jy for Hcrvice. 
 
 LITTLE FORTIFICATION.- The name piven to the 
 first division of tlie lirst system of Vauban, when the 
 exterior .side of the fortiliealion does not exceed 'ihO 
 yards. It is used in the eonslnietion of citadels, small 
 forts, crown-worlis, and horn-works. See Fortifica- 
 tion. 
 
 LIVE- HEAD.— The hf<id-iiU>rk of a lathe, which con- 
 tains the lire-npindle ; in conlradistinclion to Ihv.dfnd- 
 head or t/til-nUick, which contains ihv dtod-xpi/itllt'. 
 
 LIVERY. — A word applied in its origin to the cus- 
 tom whicli prevailed under the Merovinijian and 
 Carlovingian Kinsrs. of delivering splendid liahits to 
 the members of their households on great festivals. 
 In the days of chivalry, the wearinij of liverj' was 
 not, aa now, conlined to domestic servants. The 
 Duke's son, aa page to the Prince, wore the Prince's 
 livery, the Earl's son liore the Dtike's colors and 
 badge, tlie son of the Esquire wore the livery of the 
 Knight, './rl tlie son of the gentleman that of the 
 Esquire- Cavaliers won^ the livery of their mistres- 
 ses. There was also a large class of armed retain- 
 ers in livery attached to many of the more powerfid 
 nobles, who were engaged expressly to use the 
 strong hand in their masfer'.s quarrels. By the col- 
 ors and badge of the retainer was known the master 
 under whom he served. The livery colors of a fam- 
 ily are taken from their armorial bearings, being 
 generally the tincture of the tield and that of the 
 principal charge, or the two tinctures of the field are 
 taken instead, where it has two. Tncy are taken 
 from the first quarter in case of a quartered shield. 
 These same colors are alternated in the wreath on 
 which the crest stands The royal family of Eng- 
 land have sometimes adopted colors varying (|uite 
 widelj' from the tinctures of the arms. The Plan- 
 tagnets, for instance, had scarlet and white colors . 
 the House of York, murrey and blue; wliite and 
 blue were adopted b_v the House of Lancaster; 
 white and green by the Tudors ; yellow and red by 
 tlie Stuarts, and lij' William HI.: and scarlet and 
 blue by the House of Hanover. An indispensable 
 part of the livery in former times was the badge. 
 The Church of Rome has its liveries for Apostles, 
 Confessors, Martyrs, Virgins, and Penitents. The 
 Freemen of the 91 guilds or corporations which 
 embrace the different trades of London, are called 
 Liverymen, because entitled to wear the livery of 
 their respective companies. In former times the 
 Wardens of the companies were in use yearly to 
 deliver to the Lord Jlaj-or certain sums, 20 shillings 
 of which was given to iudividvials who petitioned 
 for the money, to enable them to procure sufticient 
 cloth for a suit, and the companies prided themselves 
 on the splendid appearance which their livv>ries 
 made in tlie civic train. The Common Councilmcn, 
 Sheriffs, Aldermen, and some other superior officers 
 of the city are elected bv the Liver\nien of London ; 
 
 LIVING FORCE.— That force of a body in motion 
 which determines the work of which it is capable. 
 It is measured by tlie product of the mass and the 
 square of the velocity. See Forrt, and Work. 
 
 LIZIERE. — The berme or narrow i)ath round forti- 
 fications between the parapet and the ditch, to pre- 
 vent the earth from falling in. 
 
 LLAMA. This aninuil was in general use as a 
 beast of bunhii on the Peruvian Andes at the time 
 of tlie Spanish conquest, and was the only beast of 
 burden used by the natives of America before the 
 horse and ass were introduced by Europeans. It is 
 still much used in this capacity on the Andes, the 
 peculiar conformation of itsfeet enabling it to walk 
 securely on slopes too rough and steep for anj' other 
 animal. The working of many of the silver mines 
 of the Andes could scarcely be carried on but for the 
 assistance of llamas. The burden carri<(l by the 
 llama should not exceed 12.') pounds. When too 
 heavily loaded the animal lies down and refuses to 
 move, nor will either cq^xing or severity overcome 
 its resolution. It is generally very patient and do- 
 cile. Its rate of traveling is about 12 or l.") miles per 
 day. See Pack Animaln. 
 
 iiOAD. — 1. A word of command in the Manual of 
 Arms, executed as follows : The Instructor com- 
 mands — 1. Sgiiad, 2. Load. Execute the first motion 
 of about face , the left knee slightly bent : at the same 
 time drop the piece into the left hand at the lower 
 band, elbow against the body, the small of the stock 
 two inches below the right breast, the barrel sloping 
 downward at an angle of about twent}--five degrees, 
 the right hand at the small of the stock. (Two.) 
 Look toward the chamber, open it. remove tlie car- 
 tridge-case if nccessarj-. take a cartridge from the 
 cartridge-box, and hold it near the chamber, be- 
 tween the thumb and first two fingers. (Three.) 
 Place the cartridge in the bore, pressing it home 
 with the thumb, close the chamber, cast the eyes to 
 the front ; carry the right hand to the small of the 
 stock, and raise the muzzle to the height of the chin. 
 1 . Carry, 2. Arms. Kesume the carry with the right 
 hand, at the .same time face to the front. (Two-) 
 Drop the left hand by the side. With cartridges, 
 the commands for loading, previou- to the first are: 
 1. With ball (or blank) cartridge . 2. Load. 2. The term 
 "load" is also applied to to the charge of a fire-arm. 
 Sei' T.'iadinfi and Manual o/Arm.t. Fig. 14. 
 
 LOADER. — An instrument used with smooth-bore 
 siege howitzers to steady the shell in the passage 
 down the bore. The fixed iron band which crosses 
 the hollow hemisphere of the loader has a hole in it 
 which embraces the fuse, and which on reaching the 
 bottom of the bore can be easily disengaged. 
 
 LOADING. — In loading guns and howitzers, the 
 powder is carefullj' put up in a cartridge-bag of 
 woolen cloth, which is either attached to or carried
 
 LOADING BAR. 
 
 226 
 
 LOCK. 
 
 separate from tlic projectile, depending on the weight i 
 of tlie projectile. In ramming a charge, only a suf- j 
 ficient force should he used to send it home, as the i 
 space which the powder occupies affects the initial I 
 velocity. In loading mortars, the powder is poured : 
 from tlie cartridge-bag into tlie chamber, and level- 1 
 ed witli the hand ; the shell is then carefully lower- 1 
 ed upon it with the hooks. After a piece has been 
 discharged the bore should be well sponged, to ex- 
 tinguish any burning fragments of the cartridge that 
 may remain: and to prevent the current of air from 
 fannini; any burning fragments that may collect in 
 the vent, it should be kept tirmly clo.sed with a 
 thumb-stall in the operation of sponging. E.xperi- 
 ence shows that the use of a wet sponge is danger- 
 ous, as it contributes to form, from the fragments 
 of the cartridge-bag, a substance which retains fire. 
 It may be sometimes necessary to fire projectiles 
 that are either very much smaller or larger than the 
 bore. If it be desired to use a gun-shell, or solid 
 shot, which is very much smaller than the bore, 
 it should be very securely strapped to a stout 
 sabot which fits the bore ; if a mortar-shell, it is 
 placed in the center of the bore by means of wedges, 
 and the s\irrounding space is filled up with earth. 
 Jlortar-shells are fired from guns and howitzers, by 
 digging a hole in the groimd about 20 inches deep, 
 and placing in it two pieces of stout plank inclined at 
 an angle oil 45", for the support of the breech ; the 
 chase is supported on a moveable wedge, which rests 
 on skids firmly secured with platform stakes ; the 
 charge of powder is then inserted in the bore, and 
 the projectile is placed on the muzzle. and secured by 
 passing strings over it, and tj'ing their ends to a 
 rope, which encircles the neck of the chase. Pieces 
 fired in tliis wav shoidd be elevated 40" or 45"; thus 
 situated, tlie fuse of the 8-inch mortar-shell takes 
 fire from very small charges ; but the 10-inch fuse 
 shovdd be primed with strands of quick-match, 
 -which are allowed to hang over the sides of the 
 shell. 
 
 LOADING-BAR. — A more convenient implement 
 than the sliell-hooks fcir carrying and loading the i 
 shell. It is simply a bar of round iron about twofeet 
 long, fashioned into a ring if! one end for a handle, 
 and having a screw cut on the other end, which 
 screws into a shallow hole tapped in the shell at a 
 short distance from the fuse-hole. When the shell is 
 lowered into the bore an<l adjusted, the bar is un- 
 screwed and removed. 
 
 LOADING SIDE OF AGUN.— The side of the grooves 
 of a gun, by which a projectile passes down the bore 
 of a rilled gun from tlie muzzle. The studs of the 
 shot press against this side when being loaded, but 
 on being forced out by the explosion of the charge, 
 they press against the other side, termed the driv'ng 
 side. 
 
 LOADING-TONGS. — Tongs for placing in the charges 
 and sliclls of siege howitzers. They are formed of 
 two arms, so hinged together that the bent ends of 
 the short arms will enter the ears of the shell, and 
 the grooved and widened ends of tlie long ones 
 w^ill clasp between them the cartridge. The imple- 
 ment is made of such a length that the cartridge can 
 "be thrust into the chamber by reaching in one hand, 
 lioldiiiix the tongs with the cartridge in iiosilion. 
 
 LOCALIZATION.— The act of establishing troops, 
 depots, nia^.iziues, etc., in any appointed jilace, di- 
 viding lliem into a number of small centers indepen- 
 dent of each other In case of mobilization of an 
 army, each appointed town forms a place of rendez- 
 vous, where men on furlough and those behmgingto 
 the reserve meet to obtain their arms and ('(luipment, 
 and lo he ilrilled until they are draughted into tlie 
 re'jirnriils in Ihc field, or join the army of reserye. 
 LOCAL RANK. The rank given to an ollicer in 
 Her Majesty's service serving in a foreign land with 
 other troops, whi-rehy he is placed-in hispropei posi- 
 tion, as regards ec|uality of rank, with those ollicers 
 whose tirsl commissions are of the same date, but 
 
 wh>have been more fortunate in promotion. For 
 instance, a British officer located in India, with his 
 regiment and with troops belonging to the Indian 
 Army, may find himself junior in rank to an Indian 
 officer, tliough his first commission is of the same 
 date; to equalize their standing in the country, what 
 is termed local rank is conferred by the Commander 
 in-Chief in India. 
 
 LOCATI LITTER.— A single mule-litter designed by 
 II. Ijt>cati, of Turin, for the passage of the narrowest 
 defiles, avoiding as far as possible obstructions from 
 tree-branches overhead or impediments on either 
 side. It is looked upon with much favor in Europe, 
 
 The drawing shows a cross-section of this litter, with 
 its frame, braces, and cover, C. D. E. F., attached to 
 its saddle, A. See //« r. 
 
 LOCHABER AXE.— An axe with a curved handle 
 ;uid very liroad blade. It was the ancient weapon 
 of the Highlanders, and was carried by the Old City 
 Guard of Edinburgh. 
 
 LOCBAGE. — In Greek antiquity, the title of an offi- 
 cer who commanded a cohort. 
 
 LOCHOI.— The designation for a file in the elemen- 
 tary tactical formations of the Greeks. The com- 
 position of the grand phalanx was as follows: Te- 
 traphalangarchia = 4 I'lialnnxm = 16 Chilinrchicf = 
 G4 S^yntnijiiiata — 25fi Tet.rarchim = 1024 LocIki! or files 
 = 4 090 Enimvtia> of 4 men each. It is thus seen 
 that, in the various formations, one division of the 
 whole could be made by the powers of 2 or 4. 
 
 LOCK — 1. In fencing, to seize, as the sword-arm 
 of an antagonist, by turning the left arm around it, 
 in order to disarm him. 2. That part of a fire-arm 
 by which the powder is fired. Muskets, in their 
 earliest u.se, were fired by the hand applying a slow 
 match to the touch-hole. Towards the end of the 
 
 14th century, the first improveinent appeared in the 
 tiuit-hl/'i-k. This consisted of a crooked iron lever, 
 in the end of wliicli the iii;itch was fixed. 15y a pin- 
 gear of a simple n;iturc, jiressure on the trigger 
 iirouffht the match ;icciinite|y down on the powder 
 pan, of which the lid had previously been thrown 
 forward by the hand. This mode of firing involved 
 the carrying of several yards of slow match, usually 
 wound round the body :ind the pie<-e ; rain extin- 
 guished the match, .'lud wind dispersed the jiowder 
 in the pan, so ?liat the malch-lock, clumsy withal, 
 was bill an iinc<Tl;iin ;ippar:ilus. 
 
 Superior to the in:ilch-lock was the wheel-lock, in- 
 troduceil at Nuremberg in 1517, in which fire was 
 ))roduced by friction between a ])iece of flint or iron 
 pyrites and a toothed wlu'cl. The ni('<'haiiism which 
 generated the sparks simultaneously uncovered the
 
 LOCK CTLINDEB. 
 
 227 
 
 LOCKIWG CHAIR, 
 
 pan, so lliat tlio diini^ors from wind and rain were 
 averted; Iml before tirin(^,tli<' apparatiiM reimired to 
 lie wound up like a clock, anil therefore llie charf^es 
 could not be frefjuent. 
 
 The wheel-lock continued for a loni; jicriod to be 
 used in (ierMiany. ami parliaily in Kranee. In 
 the Spanish dominions, however, its place was sup- 
 plied by the simpler contrivance called the snan- 
 haunce, snapphalui, or lh(^ asnaphan lock, of nearly 
 contemporaneous invenlion, which, aetini; by means 
 of a sprini; outsiile of the lock-plate, produced lire 
 Ihroui^h tiie coiii'ussiou of a Hint aijainst lh<' ribbed 
 lop of the powder-pan. lis positions of half and 
 full-cock were obtained by th(t insertion of a pin to 
 stay tlu' operation of the mainsi)rinn. In the jniil- 
 dle of the 17lh century the /m^-iw^: was invented, 
 oond>inin'; the action of the wheel-lock and the snap- 
 liaunce, while it was incontcslably superior to either. 
 After combatinj; nuu'h prejudice, it was universally 
 adoi)ted i?i the armies of western Knrope by the com- 
 nu'iicement of the IHth <'eiUury. Muskets cnibrac- 
 im; it obtaineil the nanu' of "fusils," ,'i Krencli adap- 
 tation of the Italian word fun'lf, a Hint. With suc- 
 cessive improvenu'nts, the Hint-lock continued in 
 general use until the introduction of [hi; pi.TCwmi'm- 
 Tiick almost in our own day; and among eastern and 
 barbaric nations the tlint-lock is still extant. Its 
 great superiority over the snaphaimce consisted in 
 the '■ tumbler " (of which itresently) and also the 
 "scear," appliances still retained in the percussiou- 
 lock, which enabled the positions of half and full 
 cock to be taken up without the intervention of pins, 
 always uncertain in their action. 
 
 The principle of the percussion-lock is the produc- 
 tion of lire by thefallini; of a hanuner upon some 
 detonatini; pow<ler, the explosion of which pen- 
 etrates well into the charsre in the barrel of the 
 gun. The first practical ap|ilication of tliis principle 
 to lire-arms is due to the Hev. .Mr. Forsyth of Bel- 
 helvie, in Aberdeenshire. Various forms in which 
 to ignite the detonating ])0wder have been devised, 
 but that generally accepted until within the last few 
 years was the copper cap, fitting tisjhtly on the 
 nipple of the gun, charged with a detonatincc com- 
 pound, and exploded by the hanuner fallinu; upon 
 it. The mainsprinc; commimii'atcs through the 
 swivel with the tumbler, which conccutrically with 
 the hammer moves on the tumbler-nail. After the 
 liammcr has delivered its stroke, its further progvcas 
 in the direction required by the spring is buvred by 
 tlie nipple. On pulling back the hammer to the 
 position of half-cock the tumliler turns wi'.h it, and 
 the pointed end of the scear (which nuves tm the 
 scear-nail as center), inlluenced by the ;<f ear-spring 
 falls into a notch in the tumbler. On forcinir back 
 the liammer to full-cock, however, the scear will 
 move down to a shallower notch: and on the lever 
 end of the scear being raised by the trigger, it brings 
 down the liammer with a heavy blow on tlu' cap. 
 To keep the works firmly in their .several places, a 
 " bridle" is screwed over them which includes the 
 pin through the tmnbler in its widt'a. Since the 
 adoption of lireech-loadimr arms, tlie action of the 
 lock is so far varied that the hamnuT usually falls 
 on a movable pin, which is impelled against a de- 
 tonating charge |)laced in the body of the cartridge 
 itself. A spiral spring around the pin brini;s it back 
 to the position necessary for aiuither blow. The 
 advantasre of this arrangement is that one operation 
 of loading is substituted for the double" process of 
 loadins and capping. 
 
 The conditions to be fidtilled in the construction 
 of a military lock, are — 1st. The production of tire, 
 and its comnumication with the char<;e, should be 
 certain, and under the perfect control of the soldier. 
 2d. The cap shoidd be placed up<m the cone with 
 facility, and it should not be displaced in handling 
 tlie piece. 3d. Fragments of the cap should not 
 incommode persons near by. norsliould the sras gen- 
 erated by the explosion of the cap corroile or injure 
 
 the cone, barrel, or stock. 4th. There should be 
 no danj;cr of accidental explosions. The ordinary 
 percussion lock as commonly constructed is com- 
 po.sed (if \l\\v, lork-filate, to whidi the several parts 
 are altache<l, anil jiy which the lock is fastened to 
 tlie stock ; [\u- hanuner, whiith strikes ujjon the cap, 
 and ex))lodes the composition ; the mahinprinp, 
 which sets the hammer in motion; the t'liiMir, 
 
 j or axle, by which the power of the maiuspring Ib 
 
 ! connnunicated to th(^ hammer; tlic near, ax lever, 
 
 j the point of which fits into the notches of the 
 tumbler, and holilstlu^ hammer in therei|uired posi- 
 ti<in; the notches arr; desiijnated as the /i/W-c^cA 
 niitrli, and Mifrty-notcli ; the KKir-xjirinrj. whirrh pres- 
 ses the point (jf the sear well into the tiindiler notch, 
 
 \\\w hridlr^ which is pierced with two holes for the 
 inner pivots of the Hear and tumbler ; the nwitel, 
 which joins the mainspring and tumbler. The 
 foreijoing constitute '.he essential parts of an ordi- 
 nary pen'ussion-lock; in addition to these, the new 
 service lock is supplied with Maynard's self-priming 
 ajiparatus. TIk' ]irimer user! in this apparatus, is a 
 loni; strip of iia])er containimr about (iO charges of 
 percussion-powder, distributed at uniform interval.s. 
 The strip is wound up in the form of a coil, and in- 
 serted in a cavity cut into the exterior surface of the 
 lock-plate, called the nuigazine. One end of the coil 
 protrudes throuiich an opening in the inafjiizijie, so 
 that the center of the first charge of percussion. 
 ]>owder is directly over, but not in contact with, the 
 top of the cone. When the lock is sprung, the pri- 
 mer is accurately cut olf by a knife-edge located 
 on the lower side of the face of the hammer, 
 carried forward and promptly exploded on the 
 top of the cone. Xfefding-finr/'-r, connected with tho 
 tumbler, pushes out another primer, when the ham. 
 nier is brought to the po^-iticu of " full-cock." Othei 
 methods arc used for sclf-priming. in some of whiclj 
 
 i the primer is enclose,-i iu the cartridge itself; but few 
 are found, under all eireumstauces. to lie as reliable 
 as the comiuoa perouisionlock. In the back-action 
 lock, the m>iiii;4p:ing is placed in rear of the tum~ 
 
 1 bier, and thr, scar-spring, as a separate part, is dLs. 
 pen.sed witli. The nioitise, which forms a bed for 
 
 I this lock, seriously affects the strength of the stock 
 at tlie hp.ndle; and, for this reason, the front-action 
 li,(^k is generally preferred for military arms. The 
 drav.-ing shows the Parker lock at full-cock. See 
 ,Sprinfjji(M liijtf- 
 
 LOCK-CYLINDEE.— A component part of most ma- 
 chine-guns. Behind the carrier-Uvrk the shaft car- 
 ries another cyliuder.ealled the Ivck-cylhulfr.m whose 
 surface guide-grooves are formed, which are in line 
 with the barrels, and in which slide long breech-plugs 
 or locks, called Uick-tuhes or plnngcru, by which the 
 
 I cartridges are thrust into the barrels, and which close 
 the barrels and resist the reaction of the charges when 
 they are fired. This cylinder is called the lock-cylin- 
 der, because each plug or lock contains a spiral main- 
 spring acting on a firing-pin or hammer, by which 
 
 I the charge is fired, so that the plug performs all the 
 functions of a gun-lock, as well as of a breech-plug. 
 See Gatling (run. 
 
 LOCKET. — A name sometimes applied to the chape 
 of a sword-scabbard; the metallic part jiut on the end 
 to prevent the point of the sword from piercing 
 
 i thniugh it. 
 
 LOCKING ANGLE.— The turning angle of carriages, 
 or the angle formed between the gun-carriage and 
 
 I limber, when the wheel of the latter conies in con- 
 tact with the trail. 
 
 LOCKING-CHAIN.— The work of holding liack a 
 
 I carriage, on descending ground, devolves on the 
 pole-horses. When the descent is verj- steep and 
 the load large, they are relieved of a portion of this 
 work by attaching a chain to one of the rear wheels, 
 iu such a manner as to prevent it from turning, and 
 thereby changing the friction on the axle-arm to fric- 
 tion on the ground. In field-carriages, one end of 
 
 I the locking-chain is secured to the stock by an as-
 
 LOCKING-PLATE. 
 
 228 
 
 L06ABITHM8. 
 
 sembling-liolt, and the other is passed around the 
 felloe, and secured to itself by a key. In siege-car- 
 riages, wliere the load is much heavier, a shoe is at- 
 tached to the chain, upon which the wheel rides. 
 This prevents the tire from being worn and the 
 wheel from being strained ; at the same time, the op- j 
 eration of locking and unlocking cau be performed [ 
 without stopping the carriages. The lock-chains on 
 caissons are fastened to lock-chahi bridles under the 
 front ends of the side-rails, and are held up by lock- j 
 chahi hi'iks fastened to the outside of the side-rails. , 
 
 LOCKING-PLATE.— A plate of metal^tixed on each I 
 side of the trail of a wooden field carriage, at that 
 point where the wheel of the limber, when it is turn- 
 ed round, comes in contact with the trail, called the j 
 locking angle. The plate being thus placed, the trail 
 can receive no damage, as the plate acts as a fender. 
 
 LOCK-NAIL.— One of the pins by which the parts 
 of a gim-lock are secured to the lock-plate. In the 
 old form of lock, they are the tumbler.pin.ma'ni'pring- 
 screir. .wrir-pin, bridle-xcrew, hammer-nail, and ham. 
 r/ier-xpr/itf/ screfc, 
 
 LOCK-NUT. — A nut placed in contact with the main 
 nut, on the same shaft, to keep the main nut from 
 tiirning. It is of frequent occurrence in the construc- 
 tion of artillerj- carriages, the elevating gears, etc. 
 It is alsocalled"./rt"'-""i! or check-nut. 
 
 LOCK-PIECE.— A block of metal at the outer open- 
 ing of the vent for the attachment of the lock. As 
 friction-tubes are now used for firing cannon in the 
 land service, this part is omitted. 
 
 LOCK PLATE.— The plate in a small-arm which 
 covers the lock, and to which the mechanism is at- 
 tached. 
 
 LOCKSPIT. — In field fortification, the small cut or 
 trench made with a spade, about a foot wide, to mark 
 out the first lines of a work. 
 
 LOCK STEP.— A mode of marclung by a body of 
 men going one after another as closely as possible, 
 in which fheleg of each moves at the same time with, 
 and closely follows, the corresponding leg of the per- 
 son directly before him. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE CRANE. -Cranes of this type consist 
 of a rotary crane, usually of the pillar variety, mount- 
 ed upon a suitable ear or truck, and provided with 
 an independent boiler and engine, the power of which 
 is utilized for hoisting, lowering and rotating the load, 
 and also for propelling the car upon its tracks. Loco- 
 motive cranes are of a great convenience in large 
 works of all kinds where the buildings cover much 
 ground and are connected Ijymeans of railroad tracks, 
 By means of these tracks the crane can be transfer- 
 red from one place to another, to suit the require- 
 ments of the work, and can Ije utilized also for trans- 
 ferring heavy loads from one building to another. 
 They are useful also upon freight wharves, where, by 
 means of a track laid near the edge of the wharf .they 
 can be utilized for unloading vessels, and also for 
 transferring heavv loads from one vessel to another. 
 The construction of cranes of this type is varied ac- 
 cordini: to the requirements o* the work to be done. 
 See ('riniei. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE TORPEDOES.— During the war be- 
 tween Oreal liril.ciu and tlie United States in 1812- 
 14. this name was applied to certain mysterious boats 
 invented by Fulton and other Americans for the pur- 
 pose of navigating beneath the surface of the water, 
 and injuring the bottoms of hostile vessels. In those 
 days of hand-to-hand naval war, all these designs 
 (which, by the wa>', were failures) were looked upon 
 as little less llian diabolical. The progress of de- 
 structive weapons during half a century has removed 
 this aversion. The moilern torpedo is of two kinds 
 — first, the locomotive torpedo, which is in various 
 ways projected against the side of a hostile vessel; 
 secondly. Ilie liveil torpedo, a kind of stationarv 
 liomb-siiell inlemieil to explixle under the bottom of 
 the enemy's ship. To these fi.xed torpedos it is now 
 more usual to give the appropriate name of subma- 
 rine mines. 
 
 Of locomotive torpedoes there are three classes : 
 (1.) The Whitehead 'fish torpedo,' which has a fish- 
 shaped ease, and is propelled in a straight line under 
 water by means of a small screw-propeller driven by 
 compressed air. It is discharged from a carriage 
 on tlie deck of a man-of-war, and exjjlodes on im- 
 pact against the object aimed at. The secret of the 
 construction has been sold by the inventor to the 
 Austrian. Russian, and English Navies. (2.) The 
 Harvey ■ towing torpedo,' which is towed out at an 
 angle from the side of the attacking shij), and ma- 
 neuvered so as to come in contact with the bottom 
 of the ship attacked. It is exploded either mechan- 
 ically on contact, or by means of an electric fuse, the 
 wire being inserted in the towing line. (3.) Boom, 
 or outrigger torpedoes, which are carried on long 
 booms in the bows of boats or steam-launches, and 
 thus driven against the side of a hostile ship and ex- 
 ploded. Torpedo boats are becoming a special feat- 
 ure of European Navies : they are swift steamers 
 not more than 60 feet long, lying low in the water, 
 and steaming up to 19 knots an hour. The Polyi h'- 
 mus, added to the English Navy in 1881, is an ar- 
 mored ram, expressly an<l cunningly designed for 
 torpedo warfare (carrying Whitehead torpedoes) and 
 is a formidable vessel, 240 feet long. See Torjcdoen. 
 LODGE ARMS. — An old word of command, which 
 was used on guards and pickets for the men to place 
 their arms in front of the guard-house or quarter- 
 guard. 
 
 LODGED. — A term in Heraldry. A beast of chase, 
 as a stag, is said to be lodged when l}'ing down with 
 its head erect; a beast of prey in the same position 
 is said to be eouchant. 
 
 LODGING-MONEY.— An allowance in the British 
 Army, granted to officers and others, for whom suit- 
 able quarters cannot be provided in barracks. Mar- 
 ried Sergeants and private soldiers who are married 
 " with permission." are entitled to lodging-money at 
 various rates up to 8s. a week, when separate rooms 
 in barracks cannot be spared for the accommodation 
 of each couple. The total charge for lodging-money 
 in the Army Estimates amounts to about A'lOO.OOO. 
 
 LODGMENT.— 1 . In gunnery, the hollow or cavity in 
 the under part of the bore, where the. shot rests wlien 
 rammed home; it is formed in smooth-bore ord- 
 nance, after much firing, from the elastic force of the 
 powder acting upon the upper surface of the projec- 
 tile, and forcing it down, so as to occasion an ellipti- 
 cal indentation. 2. In fortification, an intrenchment 
 hastily thrown up on a captured breach or outwork, 
 in order to maintain the position against recapture. 
 See S;,;,e. 
 
 LOGARITHMS. — A series of numbers having a cer- 
 tain relalicin to the series of natural numbers, by 
 means of which many arithmetical operations are 
 made comparatively easy. The nature of the relation 
 will be understood by considering two simple series 
 such as the following, one proceeding from unity in 
 geometrical progression, the other from in arith- 
 metical progression: 
 Gctiiiulricnl pcrics— 1. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64. 128, 256, 512, etc 
 AritliniL-liciil scries— 11, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 7, 8, 9, elo. 
 
 Here the ratio of the geometrical series is 2, and any 
 term in the arilhmelical series expresses how often 
 2 has been nuilliplied into 1 to produce the corres- 
 pcuiding term of the geometrical series; thus, in 
 proeceiling from 1 to 32, there have been fi steps or 
 nudtipliealions by the ratio 2; in other words, the 
 ratio of 32 lo 1 is compounded five times of the ratio 
 of 2 to 1. It was this conceptiim of the relation 
 that led to giving the name of logarUhmt: to tlu! 
 arithmetical series, the word logarithm nwwmns. " the 
 ninnber of the ratios." As to the use that may be 
 made of such series, il will be observed tl'al the sum 
 of any two logarithms (as we shall now call the lower 
 series) is the logarithm of their product ; e.g., 9 
 (=3-t-(>J is the logarithm of .512 (=8 X 1)4). Simi- 
 larly, the difference of any two lo'arithms is the 
 logarithm of the quotmt of the numbers; a mult-
 
 LOGARITHMS. 
 
 229 
 
 LOOAHITHMS. 
 
 pic of any logarithm is the logarithm "f tin- rorrcH- 
 poiuliiiK number raised to tlw power of I'le multi- 
 ple; (■.■;..Hf^ 4 X 3)isthel(itrarillim of arw) ( Id''), 
 and a sulimultiple of a logarithm is the loi;ari1lim of 
 the eorrespondinu; root of itH mnnher. In this way; 
 with eomiilete tal)len of numl)ers ami their eorres- 
 p()n<lini; lof^arillnns, addition is maiie to talte the 
 place of midtiplieation, svihlraetion of division, miil- 
 tipli<-alion of involution, and division of evolutir)n. 
 In order to make the series above niven of ]iraetieal 
 nse. it would be iii'cessary to eomplete thi'Ui by iii- 
 terpolatini; a set of means between tlie several terms, 
 as will be explained below. We have chosen 2 us 
 the fundamental ratio or base, as beini; most con- 
 venient for illustration; but any other mnnber (m- 
 tei^ral or fractional) mifjlit be taken; and every dif- 
 ferent base or nifl-ij. fives a dilTerent system of lo^a- 
 rilhms. The system now in use has 10 for its base; 
 in otiier words, H) is the nundier whose li/i;arithm 
 is 1. The idea of niakinc; use of series in this way 
 would seem, upon inipiiry. to have been known to 
 Archimedes and Euclid, without, !iow<'ver, resnlt- 
 inj; in any practical scheme; but by the end of the 
 Kith century, triu^onometrical oiterations had become 
 so complicated that the wits of several m;ithemati- 
 cians were at work to di'vise means of shortenini; 
 them. The real invention of loi;arithms is now uni- 1 
 versally ascribed to John Napier, Haron of Merchis- 
 toun, who in l(il4 printed his Ciinoii Mirahiliii Li<<]-\ 
 arithmorum. His tables only ^iveloi;arithms of sines, j 
 cosines, and the other functions of anjiles; tiiey also 
 labor under the three defects of beim: sometimes + | 
 and sometimes — , of dccrcasiiiff as the corri'spond- i 
 iuit natural numbers increase, and of having for their 
 rm\iT (the immber of which the logarithm is 1) the ' 
 number which is the sum of 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 + 1-1 1 ■+, etc. These 
 
 1.3 1.2.3 
 
 defects were,however,sooii remedied: John Spcidell, 
 in 1019, amended the tables in such a manner that 
 the logarithms became all positive, and increased 
 along with their corresponding natural numbers. lie 
 also, inthc sixth edition of his AVork (1()24), construct- 
 ed a table of Napicr'.s logarithms for the integer num- 
 bers, 1, 2, 3, etc., up to and including lOllO. with 
 their differences and arithmetical complements, be- 
 sides the numerous other improvements. Speidell's 
 tables are now known as hyperholie- lognrithms. But 
 the greatest improvement was made in Kil'i by Pro- 
 fessor Henry Briggs. of London, who substituted 
 for Napier's inconvenient " radi.x " the number 10, 
 and succeeded before his death in calculating the 
 logarithms of 30,000 natural numbers to the neyv 
 radi.x. Brigg's exertions were doubly seconded ; 
 and before 1028 the logarithms of all the natural 
 ntunbers np to 100.000 had been computed. Com- 
 puters have since chiefly occupied themselves rather 
 in repeatedly revising the tables alreadj' calculated 
 than in extending them. 
 
 The following is the simplest method of construct- 
 ing a table of logarithms on Brigg's system. The 
 log of 10 = 1; the log. of 100 (which is twice com- 
 pounded of 10) = 2- ;"the log. of 1000 = 3-, etc.; and 
 the logarithms of all powers of 10 can be found in 
 the same manner. The intermediate logarithms are 
 found by contin\iaUy computing geometric means 
 between two numbers, one greater and the other 
 less than the number required. Thus, to tind the 
 log. of 5, take the geometric mean between 1 and 10, 
 or 3'102..., the corresponding arithmetic mean (the 
 log. of one being 0, and that of 10 lieing 1-) being '5; 
 the geometric mean between 3-lti2... and 10. or .')103 
 .. , corresponds to the arithmetic mean between '.5 
 and 1". or '75 ; in a similar maimer the geometric 
 mean between 3-ie2... and .5023.... or 4'210.... has 
 its logarithm=i (•T.5 •.5). or -025 : this operation is 
 continued till the result is obtained to the necessary 
 degree of accuracy. In this example, the twenty- 
 first result gives the geometric mean = .l-OOO.OOS, 
 
 and the corresponding arithmetic mean— ■0i)8, 970, 
 which is in ordinary calculations used as the loga- 
 rithm of .'). Sinc<^ division of immbcrH corresponds 
 to subtraction of logarithms, and since 2=V-', the 
 log. of 2= log. 10 log. r,=\- — -098970 =-301030. 
 Tlic logarithms of all prinx- numliers are found in 
 the sami' way as that of .T ; thosi; of composite num- 
 bers are obtained by the ad<lition of the logarithms 
 of their factors ; thus, the log. of 0^ log. 2 log. 3 
 
 .•301030 -477121 =-7781.'»l. " This method, though 
 simple in principle, involves an enormous amoiiul of 
 calculation; and the following method, which de- 
 pends on the modern algebraic analysis, is much to 
 be prefc-rred. According to this method, logarithms 
 are considered as indices or powers of the radix; 
 thus,10" = l, 10-»'"""^2, 10-'"'"=='=3, 10-=1(W, 
 etc. ; and the laws of logarithms then become the 
 same as those of indices. Let r represent the radix 
 // the natural number, a; its logarithm; theny=r'[, 
 or, iiutting l+afor r, y— (l-j-")" ; and it is show-n 
 by the binomial and exponential theorems (see the 
 ordinary works on algebra; that y =\-\-Ax-\- 
 A'x^' A^x^ 
 
 — I- • [-, etc.. where .4=r— 1— ^(r— 1 1= -t- i 
 
 1.3 1.2.3 
 (r — 1)* — . etc., the former eejuation expressing a 
 number as the sum of different multiples of its Ic-ga- 
 rithm and the radix. 
 
 1 
 
 1 A 
 
 If — be now substituted for x. then, y = r ^ 1 + 
 A 
 1 1 
 
 1-1 1 (-. Ptc. = 2-71828182.... which, as 
 
 1.2 1.2.3 
 before mentioned, is Napier's rad.x, and is generally 
 1 
 
 A 'a 
 
 called c; then r ^r, or r=ie .or A is the logarithm 
 of r to the base of radix e. Then, referring to the 
 above mentioned value of A, we have log. iV (i.e.. 
 log. of ;■ to the base of f ) = /■ — 1 — i {r — 1 )" -4" i 
 (;■ — 1)^ — . etc., or, as before, putting \-\-n for r. 
 a- u^ 
 
 log. e(l + '<) = « 1 • '■'''■• • <i series from 
 
 2 3 
 which log. >(1 -|- a) cannot be found, unless a be 
 fractional. However, if we put — '( for a, log. 
 
 e(l — «) = — a , etc.; and subtracting 
 
 2 3 
 
 this expression from the former, log. c(l +a) — log. 
 
 e(l 
 
 (1 j^ „X a' a^ 
 I = 2 (a -^ 1 h, 
 1 — a/ 3 .5 
 etc.). and. for the sake of convenience, putting 
 
 ii -f 1 1 + « 1 
 
 for . in which case a =: , we 
 
 w \-~ a 2« + 1 
 
 "+1 ( 1 1 
 
 finally obtain log. = 2 1 
 
 ^ Zu C2«+l 3(2« + l)» 
 
 1 ) 
 
 ■\ , + etc. ■ , or log. e(w + l)=log. e-u 
 
 5(3«+l)» ) 
 
 ^ ( ]_ 1_ _|_ ]_ 
 
 " { 2« + 1 32'/ + 1)' 5(2« + l)« 
 
 +, etc. If 1 be substituted for u in this for- 
 mula, the Napierian logarithm of 2. is at once verj- 
 readily obtained to any degree of accuracy requir- 
 cd; if 2 be put for «.the Napierian logarithm of 3 can 
 be calculated, etc. Now. as logarithms of any system 
 I have always the same ratio to one another as the cor- 
 . responding logarithms of any other system, no matter
 
 LOOEUDNT. 
 
 230 
 
 LOOKING GLASS SIGNALINO. 
 
 what its base, if a number can be found wiiicli.when 
 multiplied into the logaritlini of a certain number to 
 one base, gives the logarithm of tlie same number to 
 another base, this multiplier will, when nuiltiplied 
 into anjsr logarithm to the first base, produce the cor- 
 responding^logarithm to the other base. The multi- 
 plier is called the modulus, and, for the conversion 
 of Na]):erian into common or Brigg's logarithms, is 
 equal to •4342y44...; so that to find the coinrii'in loga- 
 rithm of any nnmber, fir^t find the Napierian logar- 
 ithm, and multiply it by ■4343944... As in Brigg's 
 system the logarithm of 10 is 1, and that of 100 is 3, 
 it follows thatall numbers between 10 and 100 have, 
 for their logarithms, unity + a proper fraction, in 
 other words, the integer portion of the logarithms 
 of all numbers of twotigures is unity; similarly, the 
 integer portion of the logarithms of all numbers be- 
 tween 100 and 1000 is 2. and, in general, the integer 
 portion of the logarithm of an}- number expresses a 
 number less by unit.y than the number of figures in 
 that number. This integer is called the characterintir, 
 tlie decimal portion being designated as the man- 
 tissa. 
 
 As the logarithm of 1 = 0. the logarithms of quan- 
 tities less than unity would naturally be negative ; 
 thus, the logarithm of h would be— "30103, but, for 
 convenience in working, the mantissa is kept always 
 positive, and the negative sign thus only applies to 
 the characteristic : the logarithm of i or ••5 would 
 thus be 1-69897, the characteristic in this and similar 
 cases expressing, when the fraction is reduced to a 
 decimal, the number of places the lirst figure is re- 
 moved from the decimal point ; thus, tiie logarthm 
 of ■000-5 is 4-09897. Logarithms are of frequent ap- 
 plication in the solution of problems of gunnery, etc. 
 
 LOGEMEKT.— Any place occupied by ruilitary men, 
 for the time being, whether they are quartered upon 
 the inhabitants of a town, or are distributed in bar- 
 racks. Wlien applied to soldiers that have taken the 
 field, it is comprehended under the several heads of 
 huts, tents, etc. 
 
 LOGISTICS. —Bardin considers the application of 
 this word bj' some writers as more ambitious than 
 accurate. It is derived from Latin Logista, the Ad- 
 ministrator or Intendant of the Roman armies. It is 
 properly that branch of the military art embracing all 
 details for moving and supplying armies. It includes 
 the operations of the ordnance, quartermaster's, sub- 
 sistence, medical, and pay departments. It also em- 
 braces the preparation and regulation of magazines, 
 for opening a campaign, and all orders of march and 
 other orders from the Gcncral-in-C'hief relative to 
 moving and supplying armies. Some writers have, 
 however, extended its signification to also embrace 
 Strategy. 
 
 LOG-LINE. — The cordage used for lashing to gun- 
 aprons, sponge and muzzle caps, etc. There is also 
 a log-line made in India which is used for choking 
 rockets; for handles for ca.se-shot, etc. 
 
 LOG PAPER. — A thin drawing paper used in the 
 manufacture of paper fuses, etc. 
 
 LOG REVETMENT.— A revetment made of tnmks 
 of small trees or saplings laid horizontally one on the 
 other. and siipported by posts sets into the lianiiuette. 
 At frecpu-nt intervals tie beams are dovetailed be- 
 Iween tlie logs, and, extending six or eight feet into 
 
 the parapet, are secured to horizontal anchoring logs. 
 For intrcnchments hastily thrown up. this is the most 
 usual form, rails or timber of any kind being used. 
 See I{ir,tnirnt. 
 
 LOMBARDS. — A German people of the Suevicfam- 
 ily, not very luimerous. but of distinguished valor. 
 who played an important part in the early history of 
 
 Europe. The name is derived from Longohardi , or 
 Langiibardi. a Latinized form in use since the 12th 
 century, and was formerly supposed to have been 
 given with refeu-nce to the long beards of this peo- 
 ple : but is now derived rather from a word yjarta, or 
 barte. which signifies a battle-axe. About the 4th 
 century they seem to have begun to leave their orig- 
 inal seats (on the Lower Elbe, where the Romans 
 seem to have come first in contact with them about 
 the beginning of the Christian eraj. and to have fought 
 their way southward and eastward, till they came 
 into close contact with the Eastern Roman Empire 
 on the Danube, adopted an Arian form of Christian- 
 ity, and having been for some time tributary to the 
 Heruli, raised themselves upon the ruins of their 
 power, and of that of the Gepida", shortly after the 
 middle of the 6th century, to the position of Masters 
 of Paunonia,and became one of the most wealthy and 
 powerful nations in that part of the world. Under 
 their King Alboin, they invaded and concpiered the 
 north and center of Italy (.508 — .569). The more com- 
 plete triumph of tlie Lombards was promoted by the 
 accession of strength which they received from other 
 tribes following Uiem over the Alps — Bulgarians, 
 Sarmatians, Pannonians, Norici, Alemanni, Suevi, 
 Gepidie, and Saxons — for the numbers of the Lom- 
 bards themselves were never very great. 3. Cannon 
 of peculiar form in former use, and originally em- 
 ployed by the Lomliartls. See Bombard. 
 
 LONG-BOW.— A bow of the height of the archer, 
 formerly used in England for war and sport. The 
 term is now sj-nouymous with buic, and used in con- 
 tradistinction to C'ruHs-hotr. See Bu^r. 
 
 LONGE. — The training ground for the instruction 
 of a young horse, to render him quiet, tractable, and 
 supple ; to give him free and proper use of his limbs, 
 to form his paces, and to prepare him in all respects 
 for the cavalry service. 
 
 LONGEVITY PAY.— An extra rate of pay for long 
 service. It has recently been decided by the Supreme 
 Court that service as Cadets must be taken into ac- 
 count in computing Longevity Pay. The service per- 
 formed as enlisted men of Regulars or Volunteers is 
 also to be counted. 
 
 Under secton 1284. Revised Statvites, a soldier who 
 completes a term of five years' continuous service, and 
 re-enlists within thirty days thereafter, is entitled to 
 an additional allowance of .#2 per month ; and for 
 each successive and continuous re-enlistment imder 
 the same conditions he is entitled to a further ad- 
 dition of $1 per month. See Pay. 
 
 LONG ROLL.— When the troops should form sud- 
 denly to meet the enemy, the signal " <« ff77n,«," is 
 sounded or the " long roll" is beaten. The troops 
 after assembling on their compan.y parades. form rap- 
 idly in front of their camps. In the cavalry, if the 
 troops are to form mounted, the signal "fo A<^.ic" is 
 sounded. 
 
 LONG- ROLLER. — A round piece of wood. 6 inches 
 in diameter, and 3i feet long, having a groove cut 
 round it in the middle, for the reception of the gun 
 when placed upon it. It is used to move a gun in 
 the direction of its axis, on skids, on a hard snujoth 
 surface, such as a platform, etc. Two of them are 
 used at once, and the gun moving upon them, gains 
 twice the distance passed over by the roller. 
 
 LOOKING-GLASS SIGNALING.— A nuthod of sig- 
 naling invented ami extensively used by theNorth 
 American Indians, both on the I'hiins and in the re- 
 gions west of the KoiUy .Mountains. The rellection 
 of the sun is flashed from a small piece of a mirror 
 held in the hand, and in this manner a Chief is fre- 
 quently enabled to direct the movements of his war- 
 riors with the greatest ease and certainly from a dis- 
 tant point overlooking the field. This method of 
 sigiudiiig. modified by the resources of science, has 
 been lately inlroiluced into the Knglish service, and 
 uscil lioth in India and Southern Africa. A great 
 advantage of this method over the ordinary signal 
 system is that the apparatus ism' re portable, bu^ it
 
 LOOPHOLED GALLERIES. 
 
 231 
 
 LORAEII. 
 
 can he siu'cchfiilly used (inly in rcfrions wliiTc llic 
 ulnios|)lirrc JH clciir of cloiiils tliri>iiuli conHidcriiblc 
 |icriii(ls (if lime. Anybody wlio liiiH iiny idea (if Ilic 
 iirdiiiury incllidd of lclcnrii|iliinL' liy clcclricily with 
 IIm- car alplialx't, will uiidcrsland how sjiaccs of 
 lime may lie cnipldycd to indicalc Ictlcrsnnd words 
 by means of tlic eye. Tlicrc arc two nictliods: the rc- 
 tlcclor nmy bi; obscnrcd cxccpl wlicti the screen is 
 temporarily removed to pnxhicc a llasli or letter; or 
 the rellcclor may be kept exposed except when it is 
 olisciired to prodnce a letter. The lirst method is 
 said to be the easier for the liej;imicr, bill the second 
 less fatiiiiiiiiti; lotliecye. Thedislance Ihroiifih which 
 this mode of comiiiunication may be curried on varies 
 with the size of the mirrors ami the clearness of the 
 atniosphere. From the llimalavas a .'i-inch mirror 
 Iins communicated distinct sij^nals (iO miles. The in- 
 Ktriiment could be used with ijood success on the 
 Andes. When the sijinalini; station forms an anj^le 
 ftrcaler than a rij;bt aiitrle between tlie sun and the 
 rcceivinix station, two mirrors are used to prevent too 
 prcal a loss of rays by obliiiue rellectioii. The mir- 
 rors arc mounted on tripods, and arc held by a socket, 
 or a universal joint. Uesides its use as a sifjiialing 
 instrinuent, the helio!;ra|)h has served to delinc dis- 
 tant jioints in a survey, and for this purpose was em- 
 ployed in the triaiiiiulation of India. It was also 
 used by tlie late Astronomer-Uoyal of Kn);hinilat the 
 Cape of (iood Hope in vcrifyin;; the arc of the meri- 
 dian. See }ff}it>(jrit)>}itj. 
 
 LOOPHOLED GALLERIES. Vaulted passages or 
 cascmales, usually iilaceil liehind the counterscarp 
 revetment, and behind the gorijesof detached works, 
 liavinn holes pierced throujih the walls, to enable the 
 defenders to briin;- a musketry fire from unseen posi- 
 tions, upon the assailants in tlie ditch. I;(Hiplioles, 
 however, are not contined to i;alleries. In modem 
 fori itical ions, the revetments, both scarp and count- 
 erscarp, are very generally pierccil for a musketry 
 fire. 
 
 LOOP HOLES.— In'fortification, loop-holes are small 
 apertures in tlip walls. tlirough which sharp-shooters 
 may tire. The loop-hole should widen towards the 
 outside, that the shooter may have a sweep witli his 
 ritle; and it is of importance, on that account, so to 
 fashion the sides tliat a bullet ma}' not iienelrale. un- 
 less tired straight into the center. For Ibis |)iirposc, 
 the stones arc generally laid stepwise, although oth- 
 er forms are frcciuently resorted to. Walls are read- 
 ily made available for purposes of defense by loop- 
 holing them, the mode of doing it varying with their 
 height and situation. It is a general rule that loop- 
 holes must be so i)laced that an enemy, if he suc- 
 ceeds in ru.shing up, shall not be able to make use of 
 them. To prevent this they should be 8 or 9 feet 
 above the ground on the outside; liut on the inside 
 the banquette from which the defenders are to fire 
 should not be more than about 4 feet (i inches below 
 them. A portion of the wall not less than 18 inches 
 high should be left above the loop-holes to screen the 
 men's heads when tiring. These points are attain- 
 alile in several ways ; if the walls are high, the loop- 
 holes may be made near the top, and :i lemporary 
 stage or earthen baniiuette might lie [ilaced inside ; 
 if the wall is not over 6 feethigli, the loop-holes may 
 be made at 4 feet inches above the inside level, and 
 a ditch made outside. The quickest way of making 
 a loop-hole is to break tlie wall down from the top 
 for about 3 feet, and then to till it up at the top with 
 a stone or sand bag. If the wall should be low. a 
 piece of timber supported on a couple of stones 
 would be a ready expedient. If expo.sed to the Hre 
 of artillery, a wall will not afford good cover, but 
 it may be intproved by sinking a trench in rear and 
 throwing the earth against the wall, or by digging a 
 ditch in front and throwing the earth over the wall. 
 
 LOOSEN. — To open ranks or tiles from close order. 
 To loosen is. in fact, to lose that firm continuity of 
 line or perpendicular adherence, which constitutes 
 the true basis of military operations. The lock-step 
 
 was introduced for the purpose of counteracting tlie 
 mlschievouH eirects of loose inarching, liiit It pro- 
 duced a greater liiconvenient'e. and has therefore 
 been laid aside. The equal pace and marked time 
 correct both. 
 
 LOOTEES. An Fast Indian term for a body of ir- 
 regular horsemen, who plunder and lay waste the 
 (■(Mintry, and harass the enemy in their march. The 
 word is derived from l/ml, plunder or iiillage, and is 
 fr('i|U(nllv wrillen Limtim and h/otj/ WiiU"irK. 
 
 LORAIN SIGHT. Owing to the great range ut 
 which rilled guns are used, and of the accuracy of 
 tire demanded of them, it is important that they 
 should be provided with aiming apparalus more jier- 
 fect than the coarse and clumsy siirhts heretofore sup- 
 posed to be siitlicieiil for arlillcry jiiirposes. The 
 Ijorain sight, of which th(r following is a brief de- 
 scription, combines the properties most desirable in 
 a sight for heavy rilled guns. Tliis instrument is es- 
 sentially alraiisit with a vertical and hori/ontal limb, 
 the former to give the re(|uired elevation or depres- 
 sion, and the latterto give proper allowance fordrifl. 
 The telescope (A) has a top, a front and rear open 
 sight («)• used to bring the object aimed at within 
 the field of view. The vertical limb (H) is graduated 
 to degrees. The least count of the vernier is six 
 minutes. The tangent screw (C) elevates or de- 
 l)resses the telescope. The horizontal limb d); has 
 a scale of 20" on each side of the zero, which is gradu- 
 ated to degrees. Thest;indards (K E'j are sujiported 
 !.y the horizontal limb. The tangent screw CFj moves 
 the horizontal limb to right or left. The base of the 
 
 instrument (G) has on it the vernier (g) of horizon- 
 tal limb, the least c(nnit of which is six minutes. 
 When in use, this instrument sits in a seat (ri)which 
 is screwed on to the right trunnion of the gun. This 
 seat is so placed that the plane of its top is parallel 
 to the horizontal plane through the axis of the bore. 
 When the vertical limb is at zero, the axis of the tele- 
 scope will be parallel to the axis of the bore, if the 
 zero of the horizontal limb coincides with the mark 
 (Oon the seat. The mark (/) is on a movable piece (A-) 
 and attached to the seat, and its position is easily lie- 
 lermined. The elevations given with this sight and 
 with a (piadrant do not agree, the latter being meas- 
 ured from the horizontal and the former from the 
 line from sight to object. In tiring from above an 
 object, the Felescopic sight re(iuires more elevation 
 than the quadrant. If from below an object, it re- 
 quires less elevation than the ([uadrant. When the 
 piece is to be fired, the instrument is lifted out of ils 
 seat. One instrument suffices for three or four guns, 
 it, being carried from piece to piece as they are pre- 
 pared for firing. For short range and rapid firing, 
 the pieces should, in addition, have the ordinary 
 sighting arrangements. The proper place for the 
 sight is on the left trunnion ; but as. with carriages 
 now constructed, it would be interfered with by the 
 crane, it is placed on the right trimnion. 
 
 LORASII.— Among the Homans, officers whose 
 business it was. with whips and scourges, to com- 
 pel the gladiators to eng;ige. The Lorarii also pun- 
 ished slaves who disobeysd their masters.
 
 LOBD. 
 
 232 
 
 LOSSES. 
 
 LORD. — A title ejiven in Great Britain to persons 
 Ddlile In- birtli or by creation. Peers of tlie Realm 
 are so styled, incluiiinsi such Arcbbisliops or Bishops 
 as are members of the House of Lords, who are Lords 
 Spiritual. By courtesy, the title Lord is given to the 
 eldest sons of Dukes, Marquises, and Earls, prefixed 
 to an inferior title of the Peerage, and to the young- 
 er sons of Dukes and Marquises, prefi.xed to their 
 Christain name and surname. The following per- 
 sons bear the title Lord in virtue of their employ- 
 ments: the Lord-Lieutenaut of Ireland and Lords- 
 Lieutenant of Counties, Lord Privy Seal, Lords of the 
 Treasury and of the Admiralty, the Lord High Ad- 
 miral, Lord Great Chamberlain, and Lord Ciiamber- 
 lain. Lord High Constable, Lord High Almoner, 
 Lord High Steward, Lord Steward of the Household, 
 Lords in Waiting, Lords of the Bedchamber, Lords 
 Justices, the Lord Chief Baron of Exchequer, the 
 Lord Chief Justice, the Lord Lyon, the Lord Mayor 
 of London, York, and Dublin, and the Lords Pro- 
 vost of Edinburgh and Glasgow. The Committee 
 of the Scottish Parliament by whom the laws to be 
 proposed were prepared, were called Lords of the 
 Articles. The favored beneficiaries, who, after tlie 
 Scottish Reformation, obtained in Temporal Lord- 
 ship the Ijenefices formerly held by Bishojis and Ab- 
 bots, were called Lords of Erection. Persons to 
 whom rights of regality were granted in Scotland, 
 were termed Lordsof Regality. The representative 
 of tlie Sovereign in the General Assembly of the 
 Church of Scotliuid is called the Lord High Commis- 
 sioner. Tlie Judges of the Courts of Session and 
 Justiciary in Scotland have the title "Lord " prefixed 
 to their surname, or .some territorial designation as- 
 sumed by them ; and throughout the three kingdoms 
 Judges are addressed "My Lord," when presiding in 
 Court. 
 
 LORD LIEUTENANT.— In Great Britain, the Lord 
 Lieutenant of a count}' is a permanent Provincial 
 Governor appointed by the vSovereigu by patent un- 
 der the Great Seal. The office, in England, arose 
 from the occasional Commissions of Array issued liy 
 the Crown in times of danger or disturbance, requir- 
 ing experienced persons to muster the inhabitants of 
 the counties to which the Commissioners were sent, 
 and set them in military order. The right of the 
 Crown to issue such Commissions was denied by the 
 Long Parliament, this question proving the immedi- 
 ate cause of the breach between Charles I. and his 
 subjects. Their legality was established at the re- 
 storation b_v a Declaratory Act. The Lord Lieuten- 
 ant is now the permanent local Representative of the 
 Crown, who, on the occasion of an invasion or rebel- 
 lion, has power to raise the militia, form regiments, 
 troops, and companies, and give Commissions to ofti- 
 cers. The bistor}' of the office seems to have been 
 somewhat similar in Scotland. The "Lieutenant" 
 is commanded to "raise the County" whenever it 
 may be necessary to bring the rebellious and unruly 
 possessors of castles and fortalices into subjection; 
 and though his powers were executive rather than 
 judicial, he seems sometimes to have had authority 
 to exercise the functions of the Sheriflf, or overrule 
 liis decisions. The Lord Lieutenant of a comity is 
 at the head of tiie Magistracy, the Militia, and the 
 Yeomanry; he nominates officers of militia and vol- 
 unteers, and is the Chief Executive Authority, form- 
 ing the settled channel of communication between 
 the Goveriunent and the Magistracy for tlie preser- 
 vation of public tranquility. Under him are perma- 
 nent Dejiutv-Lieutenants appointed bv him. 
 
 LORD LIEUTENANT OF IRELAND —the Viceroy or 
 Dipiilv iif llie Sovereign to whom the Government of 
 Ireland is coiiiniitted. Tlie olliee has existed from a 
 remote ])eriod, the appointment having been made 
 under different desigii;itions. His powers were in 
 (•arly times very exiensive, almost regal. For the 
 last half century following the Revohition the Lord 
 [lieutenant resided little in Ireland, visiting it only 
 once in two years to hold the session of Parliament. 
 
 ! Some Lords Lieutenant never went to Ireland at all, 
 and occasionally, instead of a Viceroy, Lords Justic- 
 es were appointed. The Lord-Lieulenant is ap- 
 pointed under the Great Seal of the United King- 
 dom, and bears the Sword of State as the symbol of 
 Ills vice-regal office. He lias the assistance of a Privy- 
 
 j Council of as members, appointed by the Sovereign, 
 and of OflJcers of State. He is commissioned to keep 
 the peace and the laws and customs of Ireland, and 
 to see that justice is impartiall)' administered. He 
 has the control of the police, and may issue orders 
 to the General commanding the troojis for the sup- 
 port of the Civil Authority, the protection of the 
 public, the defense of the Kingdom, and the sup- 
 pression of Insurrection. ^'He may confer knignt- 
 iiood, and, previous to its disestablishment, had the 
 disposal of church preferment, as well as all the oth- 
 er patronage of the country. The grant ing of money, 
 and lands, and pensions, of all titles of honor except 
 simple knighthood, the appointment of Privy-Ci.iin- 
 cilors. Judges, Law Officers, and Governors of Forts, 
 and the appointment to military commissions, as a 
 common thing, are reserved to the Sovereign, act- 
 ing, however,on the Lord Lieutenant's advice and re- 
 commendation. No complaint of injustice or oppres- 
 sion in Ireland is entertained by the Sovereign until 
 first made to the Lord Lieutenant, who is in no case 
 required to execute the royal instructions in a matter 
 of which he may disapprove until he can communi- 
 cate with the Sovereign and receive further orders. 
 Yet, notwithstanding the dignity and responsibility 
 of his office, the Lord Lieutenant acts in every mat- 
 ter of importance under the direct control of the C'ab- 
 inet of Great Britain. Tlie views and opinions of the 
 Cabinet on all the more important questions con- 
 nected with his government are communicated to 
 him by the Home Secretary, who is held responsible 
 for the Government of Ireland, and with wiiom it is 
 the duty of the Lord Lieutenant to be in close cor- 
 respondence ; on matters of revenue he must be in 
 constant communication with the Treasury. On his 
 occasional or temporary absence from Ireland, L'^rd- 
 Justices are appointed, who are usualh' the Lord- 
 Primate, the Lord Chancellor, and the Commander 
 of the Forces. His salary is £20,000, with a resi- 
 dence in Dublin Castle, as well as one in Phcenix 
 Park. His tenure of office depends on that of the 
 Ministry, of which he is a member. A Roman Cath- 
 olic is ineligible for the Lieutenancy of Ireland. 
 
 LCRICA — A curiass. or coat of mail worn bj- the 
 Roman soldiers, made of various materials. The 
 ordinary kind consisted of a skin, or a piece of strong 
 linen covered with small plates of iron, which re- 
 sembled, both in their shape and in their manner of 
 overlapping each other, the scales of a serpent or fish. 
 Sometimes cuirasses or hauberks, composed entirely 
 of iron rings linked together, were worn by the Ro- 
 man JIaxtnti. A less flexible but more impervious 
 defense was the cuirass made of hard leather or of 
 metal, and consisting of two parts (the one covering 
 the breast and abdomen, and the other the back^, 
 united by hinges and leather thongs. 
 
 LORIMER. — A maker of bits, spurs, stirrup irons, 
 all metal mountings for saddles and bridles, and 
 generally of all articles of horse-furniture. In Lon 
 don. the loriniers. who had previously formed part 
 of another guild, were incorporated by letters patent 
 in 1713; in the Scottish burghs they have been com- 
 prehended as a branch of the corporation of hammer- 
 men. Cutlers, locksmiths, and brass-foundcis have 
 been considered as in the exercise of branches of the 
 lorimer art. and therefore bound to enter with the 
 cor[ioration. The Court of Sessions in WM held 
 it to be a gross violation of the exclusive privi- 
 leges of the lorimer craft to manufacture bits, 
 slirrup-irons, and other metallic articles of horse- 
 furniture, with a view to silver-plating thcra before 
 selling. 
 
 LOSSES. — 1. Killed, wounded, and captured per- 
 .sons, or captured property. 2. In the British Army
 
 tOUP DES ANCIER8. 
 
 233 
 
 LOWELL BATTEEY GUH. 
 
 there is a regular provision made for indemnification 
 for louses by fire; by Hliipwreck; in action willi tbi^ 
 enemy by capture at sea; liy deslniction or capture 
 of a public store-house; bv the destnictionof articles 
 or horses, to prevent, their falling' into the hands of 
 the enemy, or to prevent the sprcailini? of an infec- 
 tious disorder. In thi' I'nitcd Slati'S it would seem 
 just that Conu'rcss shoulil cslalilish some general 
 rules re-'ulatiiu; such matters. The prini'iple of selt- 
 liii"- all such claims by special Uvu'islation cunnot but 
 hear hardly on a number of individuals, and also 
 probably in the end imposes greater burdens upon 
 the treasiirv. , 
 
 LOUP DES ANCIENS. An iron instrument, nuule 
 in llic sluipi- of a tiiiaillc, bv means of wlii(!li the 
 ancieiils .i;rap|)lcd the batteriiig-raius, and broke 
 tbemiu the midiUe. 
 
 mounted with four barrels arranged in a circle. 
 Aftir firing from one barrel until it may become 
 hiMited, it is moved aside by a simjilc movement, and 
 another brought into action, and so on. The tirsl 
 barrel becomes cooled before it is again brought into 
 use. so that a continuous tire can lie maintained for 
 any length of tiiiw. Th(^ barrels bi-ing hung ui)on 
 trunnions may be disconnectefl from the machine or 
 tilted upvvaril's, allowing them to be readily- inspect- 
 ed or cleaned, also facilitating tlie extraction of any 
 obstruction. 
 
 The working parts are exceedingly simple and 
 strong, requiring but a few seconds for their remov- 
 al or ri'placement, and ciin t)e mani|)ulatecl liy any 
 ni.in of orilinarv capacity. The tiring is from the 
 center of the machine, and therefore is not diverted 
 from its aim Ijy the recoil. The lock has two extract- 
 
 LOUIS.— The name of a Military 'Order in France, 
 instituted by I^ouis XIV.. in 1(593! Their collars were 
 of a llanie color, and passed from left to right. The 
 King was always (iraud Master. Commonly written 
 KitifihU of St. '[joiih. 
 
 lover's "WAR.— In French history a name given 
 to a civil war in the year l.WO. during the reign of 
 Ilenry IV. It was so called because it arose from 
 thi> jealousies and rivalries of the leaders, who were 
 invited to meet at the Palace of the (Jueen-Mother. 
 
 LOW BLAST FURNACE.— A metallurgic furnace 
 in wliich the air of the blast is delivered at moderate 
 iiressure. 
 
 LOWELL BATTERY GUN. This gun is of the Mi- 
 trailleur order. It may be mounted with one or any 
 number of barrels, but the firing is confined to one 
 at a time, and requires but one lock. It is generally 
 
 ors, which are not dependent upon springs, but op- 
 erating positivelv, in.sure the extraction of the empty 
 shells under all circumstances. The cartridges are 
 fed into a hopper from which they are fakeu by two 
 carrier-rolls and deposited one by one between the 
 jiliinger and opening in the barrel. The plunger 
 then'forces them into the chamber of the barrel, fires 
 them and extracts the empty shell, leaving it in the 
 position which it occupie<l before firing. The next 
 motion of the carrier-rolls throws out the shell and 
 lirings another loaded cartridge into position to be 
 forced into the barrel. It is impossible for the empty 
 shell to he carried around a second time, by which 
 the gun might be closrged. 
 
 The drawins sliows the gun mounted upon its 
 improved gun-carriage. The mechanism of this 
 carriage is'^so arranged that the gun can be level-
 
 U)WELL BATTEKY GUN. 
 
 234 
 
 LOWELL BATTEEY-GUH. 
 
 ed, adjusted or trained to be effective in any posi- 
 tion, either at elevation or depression. When op- 
 erating upon roiigli or uneven ground and when 
 frequent changes "of position are necessary, this 
 arrangement is of nuicli vahie, as it enables the 
 gunner to bring the gun into any desired position 
 iu a very shoriT time, Attaclied to tlie carriage are 
 two skeleton cages or crates, wliere four thousand 
 cartridges can be deposited and carried with the 
 gun, and at tlie same time be within easy reach 
 of the operator and fed directly to the magazine, 
 requiring no transfer of the ammunition after it is 
 packed "at the place of manufacture. Three men 
 can work the gun steadily and continuously when 
 the carriage is used. 
 
 The following points shoula be noticed in connec- 
 tion with this gun: The tiring being from the cen- 
 ter of the macliine, the barrel is not diverted from 
 its aim by the recoil, whereas in most machine-guns 
 the tiring"-barrel is located some distance from the 
 center of the machine, and the barrel is consequent- 
 ly soon diverted by the continued recoil. The tiring 
 being confined to one tiarrel at a time, other cool and 
 clean barrels are kept iu reserve, so that a continuous 
 fire may be maintained. It is well known that the 
 barrels of a rapid firing machine gun become over- 
 heated after a few hundred shots, and thereby be- 
 come practically inoperative until cooled. As the fir- 
 ing is confined to one barrel at a time the gun is 
 not rendered inoperative by the bursting of a cart- 
 ridge shell or other obstruction in the chamber, as 
 the^obstructed barrel may be instantly moved aside, 
 
 occupying but little space, and requiring but a few 
 seconds for ils removal and replacement, it can all 
 be taken from the gun and packed in a close bo.\ ; 
 by which it can be kept in condition for use at, all 
 times. In making long marches over dusty roads the 
 mechanism of some guns is liable to be clogged by 
 dust and found inoperative when called into action. 
 The Lowell Battery Gun requires no feed case or any 
 preparation or transfer of the ammunition whatever, 
 but the cartridges are fed directly from the packages 
 as they are prepared at the factory into a trough 
 which convej'S them one by one to the carrier rolls. 
 By this arrangement two men can keep up a contin- 
 uous fire for any length of time. It is well-known 
 that when feed cases are required for working ma- 
 chine-guns, a large force is required to fill and apply 
 them. Frequent jams also occur in transferring the 
 cartridges from the feed-cases ; to the hopper, and 
 the feed cases being necessarily of delicate construc- 
 tion they are liable to injury. 
 
 The plunger of this gun isprovidea with two strong 
 extractors, operating positively and not depending 
 on springs. These extractors are arranged to grasp 
 the cartridge shell at opposite sides and remain lock- 
 ed until the shell is fully withdrawn. Extractors op- 
 erated by springs are liable to slip over the flange of 
 the shell when U sticks in the chamber of the barrel, 
 preventing the further operation of the gun until re- 
 moved. The ejection of the empty shells does not 
 depend upon gravity, but is absolutely forced out by 
 the positive movement of the carrier rolls. This fea- 
 ture will be appreciated by those who have exper- 
 
 and another brought into position. Most machine 
 guns become more or less disabled when one barrel 
 IS obstructeil by the non-extraction of the empty 
 shell, and in some cases entirely so until the obstruc- 
 tion is removed. The barrel and working parts nuvy 
 be removed and replaced in a few seconds, allowing 
 them to be readily inspect;'d and cleaned or removed 
 for ])rotection or other purposes. 
 
 In nu>st machine guns, the barrels are made fast to 
 the frame work, rendering ins|)ection and cleaning 
 (juite diflicult. and, the working parts being encased, 
 considerable time, anil services of an expert are re- 
 quired to extract any obstruction. The mechanism 
 
 ienced the dilficidty attending the failure of the ejec- 
 tion of a shell. The barrels are firmly fixed in the 
 breech plate and retiuire no adjustment after the fir- 
 ing has begun. But few tools are required to dis.sect 
 the machinery, all of which and a spare plunger are 
 packed with tlu' gun. r(i|uiring no sjiare article or 
 tool box to be carried willi it. The lateral, oscillat- 
 ing or traverse motion is very simiilc,and can be op- 
 erated by the gunner while firing, and be made to 
 cover any desired space at any distance and returned 
 to a fixed jiosition without cessation of firing. This 
 j gun can lie worked and fired by two men steadily 
 I and continuously 4tl0 shots per nunute ; and, by the
 
 UOW STEEL. 
 
 235 
 
 LOBBICAnOH. 
 
 tssistiincf of u lliird niun to fffd. it ran lie wrirkcd at 
 U\r rule of (ilKI prr iiiiinili'.laUiiii; llii' carlridiri's from 
 the boxi'M HS till V ciiinc from llic factiiry. My llir ad- 
 dilion of a second ]>Iiiiii;(T the niiinliiT of hIioIs per 
 minut(" can l>c doulilcd. 'I'lic lock is conslniclcd up- 
 on a new principal, is very simple, ;tiiil not liable to 
 be iiijure(l or disabled by wear. 
 
 'I'lie drawiiin sbows the j;mi moiiiiled on a tri[>od 
 and ready for liriiif;, Russia, after llioroMi;li inves- 
 tigation fpy its naval olllcers, bought twenty Lowell 
 Battery (inns, Tlie I'niled States Navy lias adopted 
 it. California has imrchased three for its State pris- 
 ons. Ohio lias one, and other Stales are in negotia- 
 tion for them for use by militia eomi)anies stationed 
 in cities. 
 
 I tenacity, and a lower range of ductility depending 
 
 on its proportitin of carbon. It has lesfl extensibility 
 within the elastic limit than hifli steel, but greater 
 beyond it; or, in other words, greater dnctility. Iih 
 great advantagi- over wroiight-iron for general pur- 
 poses is that it can be melted at a practicable heal 
 , and run into large masseH, posgessing soundness and 
 tenacity. Its advantageH for cannon are greater 
 elasticity, tenacity, and hardness. Its tenacity when 
 suitabli- for cannon is about !»0,(KK) lbs., or three 
 times as much as cast gun-iron, and .'iO per cent, 
 more than the Ijest wroughl-iron. The dittlcidty in 
 the use of steel for large, homogeneous guns is the 
 great size of the hammers required to work the 
 blocks into which it is cast. See Steel. 
 LOYALIST.— A peraun who adheres to his Sover- 
 
 A comparison of this gun with rival guns detracts 
 nothing from the Lowell. While the Gatling gim 
 has ten locks and ten barrels, all revolving at each 
 shot, the Lowell Battery gun has but one lock and 
 uses but one barrel at a time. The disabling of one 
 lock or barrel of the Gatling renders it useless until 
 repaired by a skillful mechanic. A disarrangement 
 of the Lowell can be remedied by the renewal of a 
 lock or change of the barrel, which can be done in 
 live seconds by any person of ordinary capacity. 
 See Mitchinr dun and Buttery Guns. 
 
 LOW STEEL. — This variety of steel is often known 
 as "mild steel," ''soft steel." "homogeneous met- 
 al," and "homogeneous iron," and is made by fusing 
 wrought-iron with carbon in a crucible, after which 
 it is cist into an ingot and worked under a hammer. 
 As it contains less carbon than high steel, it has a 
 greater specitic gravity. It can be welded without 
 difficulty, although overheating injures it. It more 
 nearly resembles" wrought-iron in all its properties. 
 although it has much greater hardness and ultimate 
 
 [ eign, or to the constituted authority: especially one 
 who maintains his allesriance to his Prince or "(Jov- 
 ernment, and defends his cause in times of revolt. 
 
 LOZENGE. — In Heraldry, a charge generally enu- 
 merated among the sub-ordinaries,"in"the shape of a 
 rhombus placed with the acute angles at top and 
 bottom. The horizontal diameter must be at least 
 eipial to the sides, otherwise it is not a lozenge, but 
 a fusil. The term hti ngy is applied to a field divid- 
 1 ed by digaonal lines crossing one another at regular 
 j intervals so as to form a diamond pattern, the com- 
 I partments being of alternate tinctures. See JJeraldry. 
 j LUBRICATION. — The application of a substance to 
 a surfaceforthe purpose of making it smooth. This 
 substance, which is called a lubricant, may be either 
 a liquid, a semi-li{iuid, or a solid. Plu'mbago. or 
 black-lead, is in most common use as a solidlubri- 
 canl but powdered soap-stone, or talc, is \ised for 
 many purposes, as, for instance, bv shoemakers upon 
 the inside of the heels of boots a"nd shoes to facili- 
 tate the pulling on. When it is desired to have a
 
 LU6S. 
 
 236 
 
 LUTE. 
 
 rope or cord slip over a liearine, as a pin, or a pulley 
 ■which refuses to turn, it is usual to smear it with 
 lard. Grease is the common lubricant, hut for ma- 
 chinery, or thebearins; of axles generally, other sub- 
 stances may be added which will materially reduce 
 the friction. Mineral oils, particularly the thicker 
 portions of petroleum, have valuable lubricating pro- 
 perties, and may be used either alone or added to 
 lard, tallow, or animal oils, according to the size, 
 weight and velocity of the rev alving shaft. Oils are 
 used for high speed ; pasty lubricants for large and 
 heavy bearings. There are a great variety of lubri- 
 cants used for the a.xles of artillery carriages, maiij' 
 of them patented. Perhaps the most favorite lu- 
 bricant fo rlight. fine road carriages, which are fur- 
 nished with tight bo.\es, is castor oil. When the box 
 is not tight, a mixture of lard and rye flour is used to 
 advantage. 
 
 It has the property of lasting, when mixed in the 
 proportion of alxiut 4 parts of grease to one (if llmir. 
 Black-lead may be \iscd in combination witli lard 
 and flour, or it may alone be mixed with lard or oil. 
 Some vehicles are inade with wooden axles, and for 
 these common pine tar is an economical, lasting, 
 preservative, and etticient lubricant. Its application 
 may be alternated with lard, or a mixture of lard and 
 tallow, or lard, tallow and flour : but it is well to 
 have some tar always present. Wherever great deli- 
 cacy of motion is required, as in watches and other 
 time-pieces, the lubricant must be very fluid. The 
 lubrication may be performed by manual application, 
 or mechanical devices niaj'be employed. There are 
 many. kinds of lubricators. They are in the form of 
 reservoirs, which discharge their contents, the lub- 
 ricants, as fast as they are consupied by the revolv- 
 ing shaft or piece of moving machinery. A simple 
 and often a very efficient lubricator is an inverted 
 oil-can suspended over the bearing or place which 
 requires lubrication. When a pasty lubricant is used, 
 it may be applied on a sponge or brush, if the situ- 
 ation favor such application. The ingenuity of the 
 operator is often advantageously' exercised as well as 
 that of the inventor. 
 
 LUGS. — The ears of the ordinary bomb-shell, to 
 wliich the hooks are applied when lifting it. 
 
 LUNETTE.— 1. An iron ring at the end of the trail 
 of a fleld-piece, which is placed over the pintle-hook 
 of the limber in limbering up the gun. The term is 
 also applied to the hole through an iron plate on the 
 under side of the stock of a siege-piece, into which 
 the pintle of the limber passes when the piece 
 is limbered. 2. Arteld work consisting of two faces 
 forming a salient angle, or one projecting towards 
 the enem}-. and two flanks, parallel, or nearly so, to 
 the capital or imaginary line bisecting the salient 
 angle. In shape, it is like the gable end of a house. 
 It is intended for the defense of avenues, farm- 
 houses, bridges, and the curtains of field-works. 
 The term is specially applied to a .small work beyond 
 the ditch of the ravelin, to supply its deficiency of 
 salieucy, and formed at the re-entering angle made 
 by the ravelin and bastion. The lunette has one 
 face perpendicular to the ravelin, andthe other is 
 iK'arly perpendicular to the bastion. The term luni't- 
 t'lii.i is applied to a smaller sort of lunettes. !See Field 
 
 LUNETTES D'ARCON.— In order to bring the lu- 
 nettes further olf the jilaee anil diminish the defect 
 of their gorge, (ieneral D'Arcon has constructed 
 lunettes which bear his name, and which are sup 
 posed to be eapalile of defending themselves. This 
 work has the same dimensions as an ordinary 
 lunette, except that the salient angle may be made 
 as open as deemed necessary. The gor;;e is closed 
 by u liiiip-holcd wall 18 feet high, and a mund tower 
 l.T feet in diameter .separated from a terreplein by a 
 ditch I'J feet wide. 
 
 LUNGE.— An extended thrust in fencing and bay- 
 onet exercise. The lunges are used the sanu' as 
 the tiirusla, auddillcr frouithem only in advancing 
 
 tiie left foot, so that the left leg, from the foot to the 
 knee, shall be vertical. In both the thrust and the 
 Iiuige, the body must be covered on the side of the 
 adversary's piece. See Bayonet Excem'se and Thrust. 
 LUNT. — The match-cord formerly used for firing 
 cannnn. 
 
 LUSTRATION.— In antiquity, purification by sac- 
 rifices and various ceremonies. The Greeks and 
 Komans purified the people, cities, fields, armies, 
 etc.. defiled by crime or impurity. This was done 
 in several ways,, viz.: by fire, water, sulphur, and 
 air, tlie last by fanning or agitating the air around 
 the thing purified. When Servius Tullius had num- 
 bered the Roman people, he purified them as they 
 were assembled in the Campus Martins ; and after 
 wards a lustration of the whole people was per- 
 formed every fifth year before the Censors went out 
 of office. On that occasion the people assembled in 
 the Campus Martins, when the sacrifices termed 
 SHoeetaurlliii. consisting of a sow, sheep, and ox, 
 after being carried thrice around the people, were 
 offered up, and a great quantity of perfumes was 
 burned. This ceremony was called J.nstriim. It 
 was instituted by Servius Tillius, .566 b.c, and per- 
 formed for the last time in the reign of Vespasian. 
 The term Limtrnm was given also to the period of 
 five j-ears lietween the lustra. The army was puri- 
 fied before a battle by causing the soldiers to defile 
 before the two quivering halves of a victim, while 
 the Priest was engaged in offering certain prav'ers. 
 The establishment of a new Colony was preceded 
 by a lustration with sacrifices. Home itself, and 
 in fact all the towns within its dominion, al- 
 ways underwent a lustration after being visited by 
 some great calamity. The lustration of fields were 
 performed after sowing was finished, and before 
 reaping began. The lustrations of flocks, designed 
 to keep them from disease, was performed every 
 j'ear at the festival of the Palilia, when the shepherd 
 sprinkled them with pure water, thrice surrounding 
 the fold with savin, laurel, and brimstone set on fire, 
 and afterwards ottering incense and sacrifices to 
 Pales, the tutelary goddess of shepherds. Private 
 houses were purified with water, a fumigation of 
 laurel, juniper, olive-tree, and the like, a pig being 
 offered as a victim. Infants were purified, girls on 
 the third. Iioys on the ninth, day after birth, then 
 named and placed under the protection of the god 
 of the family. The lustration of a funeral pile was 
 by having the spectators march round it before a fire 
 was kindled. Whatever was used at a lustration 
 was cast into a river, or some other inaccessible 
 plrfce, as to treail upon it was considered ominous of 
 some great disaster. 
 
 LUTE. — A term employed in the laboratory to de- 
 note a substance used for effectually closing the 
 joint of apparatus, so as to prevent the escape of va- 
 por or gases, or for coating glass vessels so as to ren- 
 der them more capable of sustainging a high temper- 
 ature, or for repairing fractures. For ordinary pur- 
 poses, lutes made of common plastic clay or pipe- 
 cla)' with an admixture of linseed-meal or almond- 
 powder, or,for common stills,linseed-meal and water 
 made into a paste, are quite sufficient : for more deli- 
 cate experiments, /<(« lute, covered over with moist- 
 ened bladder, is used. Lutes for coating glass ves- 
 sels are generally composed of Stourbridge clay or 
 Windsor loam, mixed with water ; but the most 
 simple method is to brush the glass retort over with 
 a paste of jiipe-clay and water, dry it quickly and re- 
 peat the operation till a suflicient thickness of coat- 
 ing is obtained. Other lutes in frequent use are ]\'il- 
 li'ji'ii lute (!' paste conqioscd of a solutiim of borax in 
 boiling water with slaked lime), various mixtures 
 of biifax and clay, nf lime and white of egg, irnii 
 rriiieiit, moislcned bladder, paper prepared with wa.x 
 
 ! and turpentine, and caoutchouc. The use of the 
 last nauu'd lute has on accotnit of its llcxiliibilily 
 
 , and con.sequent non-liability to accident, been ra- 
 
 I pidly extending.
 
 LUZERNER. 
 
 287 
 
 LYON KINO OF ARMS. 
 
 m 
 
 LUZERNER.— A name u'lvpn to the pdlr.hiimmir 
 ill <iciiii;iiiy mill S\vilzcrliin<l, it lieiiif;; ii faviirilc iirm 
 <if llir pcnplc (if Lucerne. 
 
 LYCANIEN8.- ,\ leriii iipplied liy (lie I'Veneli pi 
 llie I liMiLriiriiiii liii;lil infiinlry. 
 
 LYING OUT OF QUARTERS. In the Inilcd StHlcH 
 army, any ulllcer nr .scililier ulm lie s (nil of liis i|iiiir- 
 tcrs, jrarrison, or ciinii), willioiit leave fniin his Sii- 
 jierior Otliccr, is iiiinisheil as a Cinirt-.Martial may 
 (lireel. 
 
 LYLE EMERY GRAPPLE SHOT. This iiroipctilo 
 wasdeviseil by MeiileiianI I). A. Lylc, I'nited States 
 Army, and Mr. C 10. ICniery, diaiinhlsiiian at the 
 National Arniorv. It is intended for use in eoiinec- 
 tioii with Die 2i-iiieli Lyle iruii fur life-saviiii; pur- 
 poses. It is an eliinjjaled, solid, east-iron, smooth- 
 bore projectile, with a wrought-iron base and shank. 
 In form the sliot is cyliiidro-ocival. The radius of 
 the ofrival head is eipial to the diameter of the pro- 
 jectile. An a.xial cavity, l.ao inclis (8.175 centimet- 
 ers) deep is horerl in the rear end of llic shot. u|)on 
 whose interior cylindrical surface is cut a female 
 screw-thread to eiif^aije the screw on the wroui;ht- 
 iron iiase. The base has a cylindrical 
 jj^K a.\ial cavity drilled through it, with a 
 <#^^\ rounded tiroove on one side to accoin- 
 niodale the stop and stop-sprinj;. Tlie 
 W^ ^ front end of this cavity is enlarged by 
 counter-boring, to a!low the necessary 
 longitudinal play of the shank-head in 
 opening and closing the llukes. The 
 screw on this end tils accurately that 
 in the body of the .shot. At the rear 
 end of the base are formed live sectoral 
 slots, e((iiidislant circuniferentially. 
 '«'> ' fl These slots receive the heads of the 
 1 ' vHm flukes, which are fastened to the base 
 at, these points by rivets. Circular 
 grooves are milled out between the slots 
 to allow the insertion of the rivets. 
 The shank is of forged wrtughl iron. 
 The front end of this bolt has a screw- 
 thread, upon which, after insertion in 
 the axial cavity of the base, a nut is 
 placed. This end of the bolt is riveted 
 after screwing on the nut. A rectangu- 
 lar groove on one side of Ihe shank re- 
 ceives the stop and spring. Five lugs, 
 placed cqiiidistantly around the shank 
 near the forward end, serve as points 
 jl'S of attachment for the links that extend 
 the llukes. The rear end of the shank 
 [JlillI /vSS contains an eyt'-hole for attaching the 
 line in tiring. Kach link is coni])osed of 
 two tlal pieces of Troy steel, with holes 
 at each end to receive the rivets that 
 connect them with the shank andthike. 
 The flukes, five in number, ;>re also 
 0./i il£5) made of Troy steel. Each fluke lias a 
 rounded notch near its uiipcr or for- 
 t ward end to accommodate the corres- 
 ponding lug on the shank when closed. 
 All edges or angles are carefully round- 
 ed. The details of form and coustruc- 
 l[ tion permit the use of the projectile in 
 the 2i-incli gun already in the service, 
 and prevent the entanglement of the 
 line as much as possible in tiring. The 
 \ai\i \r projectile is inserted in the gun point 
 I I^Bfh "■''*'■ ■^^illi the tlukes closed, as shown 
 nul ij WtS ™ ""' drawing, and the line tied in the 
 eye-hole of tiie shank. In this posi- 
 tion the base of the shot is toward the 
 muzzle of the gun; the llukes [lartially 
 enter the bore while the shank extends 
 beyimd the muzzle. In tiring, the pro- 
 jectile describes the tirst part of its 
 trajectory base foremost; the strain 
 upon the shank being toward the rear, the tlukes are 
 kept closed: but, as soon as the projectile reverses, 
 
 •111 
 
 m 
 
 the tension on the line draws tint the shank to llie 
 limit of its pint/ in the base, sjireading the (liikes to 
 their full extent. \Vh( n the head of the shank reach- 
 es the bottom of the counter-bore in Ihe base of lli<! 
 shot, Ihe slop is thrown out by Ihe action of the slop- 
 spring, and a s(piare shoulder (alches on llie base 
 and prevents the closing of Ihe llukes. The latter 
 may be ojiened anil closed readily by band. To close 
 the llukes [iress Ihe lliumb upon the .stop until the 
 shoulder is disengaged, and then push in the shank 
 genlly till its head strikes the front ind of the count- 
 erJiore. 
 
 When vessels arc stranded the crews sometimes 
 fasten a line or rope to a cask, spar, buoy, or raft, 
 and heave it overboard, hoping that the wind anrl 
 waves will throw it on the shoie lo be seized by ])er- 
 soiis there, llius establinhiiigcommunicalion between 
 the wreck and beach. It freipjently occurs, however, 
 that lliere is an inshore current that carries the float- 
 ing object along parallel to the coast, in which case 
 the object desired fails lo be attained. This jirojectile 
 was devised for the purpose of liring over the line thus 
 paid out from the stranded vessel, soastopassa- 
 l)ov(> that line at some desired ))oint between the cask 
 or buoy and the vessel, and then by hauling in the 
 attached shot-line, the flukes grapple the ship's line, 
 and enable the life-saving crew on shore to land the 
 buoy and secure the line from the vessel. There are 
 other uses to which it may be put that will readily 
 suggest themselves to llio.se familiar with the service. 
 
 The following are the principal dimensions of the 
 shot ; 
 
 Inchcp. Cent. 
 
 Total lenpth of hnrty anrl liuf(> ]a..')0..34.289 
 
 Length of ogival tiead S.17— 0.5118 
 
 Hadius of licad ii.50— 6.;«0 
 
 Lt-nutli of cylindrical liarl «.83r,24.Wj7 
 
 Diameter of cylindrical part 2.50— ti,8.W 
 
 A.xial cavity— Length 1.25— .3.17.5 
 
 Banc— Total length 2.75- 8.985 
 
 Shank— Total length 13.25^.^3.(1.54 
 
 Total Icntth of shotandKliank llukes closed aS.."*— 59.(W9 
 
 Tolal length of shot and hhank. tlukCB extended 84,W)-62-483 
 Diftance of center of gravity from bflpe 5.00= l'.;.7(Hl 
 
 The weight of the shot is 18.318 + lbs. = 8.2G4 
 kilos. See Anchtir-rtiiket, ChandUr A nchorsKut. and 
 
 Lifl-Hlirluf/ Rni-hi't-^. 
 
 LYON KING OF-AEMS.- The title borne since the 
 
 first half of the loth century by the chief heraldic 
 oflicer for Scotland, lie is the" Presiding Judge in 
 the Lyon Court, and appoints the Heralds. I'ursiii- 
 vanls. and Messengers-at-Arms. Unlike the Eng- 
 lish Kings-of-Arms, he has always exercised juris- 
 diction independently of the Constable and Marshal, 
 holding office directly from the Sovereign by C( ni- 
 missiou under the Great Seal. In Scotland he takes 
 precedence " of all Knights and Gentlemen not being 
 officers of state, or Senators of the College of Jus- 
 tice." In England he ranks after Garter, and before 
 the Provincial Kiug-of-Arms. Since the revival of 
 the Order of the Thistle, he has been King-of-Arms 
 of that Order. So sacred has his person been held 
 that, in 1515, Lord Drummond was declared guilty 
 of treason, attainted, and imprisoned in Blackness 
 Castle, for striking Lyon. Prior to the Revolution, 
 Lyon was solemnly crowned at Holyrood en i nter- 
 iug on oftice by the Sovereign or his Commissioner, 
 his crown being of the form of Ihe royal crown of 
 Scotland, but enameled instead of being set with 
 jewels. The crown is now only worn at corona- 
 tions ; and that actually supplied on occasion of the 
 last four appointments has been similar to the crowns 
 of the English Kiug-of-Arms. Lyon's badge or me- 
 dal, suspended by a triple row of gold chains, or on 
 common occasions by a broad green ribbon, exhib- 
 its the Arms of Scotland, and on the reverse. St. An- 
 drew on his cro.ss; and his baton is of gold enamel- 
 ed green, powdered with the badges of the Kingdom 
 and with gold ferrules at e;ich end. Besides the vel- 
 vet tabard of a King-of-Arms, he has an embroi- 
 dered crimson velvet robe; and as King-of-Arms of 
 the Thistle, a blue satin mantle, lined with white, 
 with at St. Andrew's cross on he left shoulder.
 
 LYMAN CAHTRIDGE. 
 
 238 
 
 LYUAN CAKTBIOOE. 
 
 LYMAN CAETRIDGE.— The object of Mr. Lyman 
 is to suppl_v a cartridge which shall liurn with a con- 
 stantly increasing tire-surface s(i tliat nearly uniform 
 pressure shall be exerted upcm the projectile until the 
 powder is about all consumed. When the cartridge 
 is suited to the length of the barrel, the strain will 
 be distributed equal!}- throughout the principal 
 part of the barrel, whatever may be its length. It con- 
 sists in forming powder into a solid cake within the 
 cartridge shell, which cake.if for small-arms, is pierced 
 by a central perforation from end to end, and is pro- 
 tected from the (ire by the shell on its outer surface 
 and rear end, so that only the small surface of the 
 perforation and the front end of the cake can be ex- 
 posed to the igniting flame. After this small surface 
 is ignited the burning proceeds in a radial direction 
 toward the surface of the cake, thereby continuous- 
 ly enlarging the burning surface in a constantly 
 increasing ratio and increasing the development and 
 heat of the gases, and exerting a nearly uniform pres- 
 sure upon the projectile throughout the principal 
 part of the length of the barrel. 
 
 The character of this powder cake is very impor- 
 tant ; it should be solid and compact, none of it gran- 
 ular ; it should have- a uniform density so that it will 
 l)e burned evenly on all sides. To make it, powder 
 meal which is reduced very fine may be moistened 
 until it becomes somewhat plastic or of a consistency 
 adapting it to to be molded and compressed into a 
 solid mass, and while in this soft or plastic condition 
 it is properly compressed in the cartridge shell. 
 When dried the rapidity with which the powder 
 burns depends upon the porosity of the cake, and this 
 depends upon the amount of water contained in it 
 •when being compressed as well as upon the pressure. 
 
 The drawings show a longitudinal .section of the 
 breech (if the gun containing a cartridge in position 
 for tiring, also cross sections of modified forms of 
 the cartridgi'. In tlie chamber of the tmn li is the 
 breech-lilock whicli holds the cartridge in iilace, (' 
 is a wedge for securing tlie bree<-h-block. wliich part 
 may be of any suitable construction, I) is ihe car- 
 tridge shell or case, and K is the powder cake packed I der-cakc. 
 
 In the shell which protects its outer cylindrical and 
 rear end surfaces from the action of the fire, G re- 
 presents holes running tlirough the powder cake and 
 through the head F of the cartridge, H is a firing 
 tube passing centrally through tlie powder cake, and 
 is designed to direct the igniting Hanie to tlie front 
 end of the cake. This tube projects rearwardly from 
 the cartridge head, and bears against the breech- 
 block, leaving a space I between them. The car- 
 tridge head is alsolocatedsomewhat within Ihe shell, 
 so that the shell may bear upon the breech-block, as 
 shown. To fire the cartridge a flame is forced 
 through the firing tube and ignites the front end of 
 the powder cake and flashes back down the perfora- 
 tions in the powder cake, igniting the surfaces of all 
 the holes at the same instant. 
 
 The particular object of the chamber I behind the 
 cartridge head is to permit the perforations through 
 the powder cake to communicate with one another 
 to insure their being instantly and simultaneously 
 ignited throughout tlieir whole extent. If these holes 
 were closed at their rear ends some of them might 
 possibly become more or le.ss filled with air and 
 gases upon the first of ignition which would prevent 
 their entire surfaces from being instantly ignited and 
 thereby prevent the intended uniformity of the ra- 
 dial burning and increase of the burning surface 
 along the whole length of the hole ; but when these 
 channels open into a common space as shown tliey 
 cannot become so filled or obstructed and their en- 
 tire surfaces are instantly ignited and the progress 
 of the radial burning is practically the same in all 
 parts of the powder cake. The distance of the per- 
 forations in the pow-der cake from each other de- 
 termines the time of the burning of the cartridge and 
 this distance should be proportionate to the length 
 of the gun. The holes should meet some time be- 
 fore the projectile reaches the end of the bore. When 
 the walls of the powder cake are burned through, 
 the burning and caving of their remaining fragments 
 may raise the pressure slightly ; but the space into 
 which the burning gases expand has now become so 
 large and the rapid onward movement of the shot 
 increases it so rapidly that such increase in pressure 
 is not material. 
 
 Trials of the cartridge in a | inch rifle .show initial 
 velocities of 3080.2247, and 2313, f. s., although these 
 experiments are the first, and naturally do not show 
 its capabilities when everything is perfect. The shot 
 thrown at these velocities was seef/i, calibers long, 
 and with a twist of 4A inches. The cartridge as 
 adapted for cannon has the following specifications: 
 1. A cartridge consisting of a sliell charged with a 
 solid cake of pow-der or other material having longi- 
 tudinal holes running through from end to end, and 
 protected by said shell from the action of the fire 
 upon its outer surface. 2. A cartridge consisting of 
 a shell charged with solid cakes of powder or other 
 explosive material packed in the shell and extending 
 from end to end of the shell, and each provided with 
 one or more holes piercing them longitudinally, and 
 being protected from the action of the fire upon their 
 outer surfaces. 3, A cartridge consisting of a shell 
 charged with a solid cake' of powder, which is pro- 
 tected from the action of the fire upon its outer sur- 
 face by said shell, and at its rear end by the head of 
 the shell, said cake and the head of the shell being 
 liierced by longitudinal holes. 4. A cartridge con- 
 sisting of a shell charged with a solid cake of pow- 
 der jiierced from end to cud by holes extending also 
 through the head of Ihe cartridge, the cartridge being 
 Iirovided with a iirojection extending rearwardly 
 and adapted to bear against the gun, and thereby 
 form an open space back of the head of the car- 
 tridge. 5. A cartridge consisting of a shell charged 
 with a solid cake of jiowder pierced from end (o end 
 with holes extending also through the carlridge 
 head, and provided wilh a firing tube arranged to 
 direcl the iguiting-flame to tlie front end of the pow-
 
 LYMAN HASKELL MULTl CHARGE CANNON. 
 
 239 
 
 UACCONNZLL CABTBISOZ BOX. 
 
 LYMAN HASKELL MULTI CHARGE CANNON.— 
 
 Tl.r Ihcdry i]f lliis ciiriiisilyiif iirdn.'iiici- is llic unidiial 
 arcuiiiuliilion iif vrlncity or povvcr liy ii succcHsion 
 (if cliiiriicM of powder c.vijloilcil licliiiid tlir projectile 
 as it. passes aloiii; tlu^ Ijore of llie niiii. 'I'lie inertia 
 of the sliol is lirsl overeoiiie liy a inodr-rale eliariie 
 of eoarse-;;raiiied. slow-lmriiiiii; powiler. and I lien 
 repealed cliarf^es of (iuiel<-l)urniMir powder are ap- 
 l)lied in sueees.sion until a greally iner<'ased velocity 
 is attained. <}eneral Newton, [niled Stales Army, 
 says the penetrative power of this i;iin is not inferior 
 to Ihal of the Arnislroni; Hl-I<in and lOO-ton j^uns. 
 lie lliinks Die lO-iiieh aeeeleralini; nun would he as 
 etlicienl as the Sl-ton nun. and nearly as nuieh so 
 as the l(l(»-tun n"". !'>"' "'''' ''"' I'-i-ineh aeeeleratin^ 
 gun would be more powerful than tli<' lOO-lon gun. 
 No doubts are entertained by e.vperts that the gas 
 clie<'k can be made jicrfectly ellicient, and it is be- 
 lieveil that early e.\perinients will show that these 
 guns, at eoinparatively moderate cost are at least as 
 cflieient as tlie best in Europe. See lliixkell Mutti- 
 c/iif/y/t ( 'tin /i"it . 
 
 LYMAN SIGHT. —The optical principle involved in 
 this most excellent sii;ht is entirely new in its appli- 
 cation. Wlien aimini; it has the appearance of a 
 rinn or hoop, which sliovvs tlu' frtmt sif;ht and the 
 object aimed at, without intercepting any part of the 
 view. The drawing shows the manner of its con- 
 struction. The aperture of t lie sinht. beinij v<'ry near 
 the eyes, is greatly mannitied as compared with the 
 notch in the conuMon ojien sinlil. This fealnre fr'ivvs 
 many the impression that an aperture which looks 
 so lar^e cannot allow of accurate aim ; whereas, the 
 larger this small ai)orture looks, the more accurate 
 the aim. Furthermore, the distance from the Lyman 
 sight to the front sight is nearly twice as much as 
 from the ordinary open siucht to the front sight 
 which, in itself, ihnUiles the accuracy. 
 
 The rim of tlie si^lit can be instantly changed to 
 give it a large aperture with a narrow rim, or a small 
 aperture with a wider rim. For all quick shooting 
 the large aperture should lie used. The sisht can- 
 not shut out the view of the front sight, nor the ob- 
 ject to be aimed at : while with any other rear sight 
 the chief dilliculty in aiming is to bring tlie sights 
 and objects (piickly into line without interfering 
 with the view of tlie front siu;ht or the object. It 
 possesses the following additional advantages, viz., 
 it allows an instantaneous aim to be taken — tlie ob- 
 ject being sighted as quickly as if only the front 
 sight were used: it readily permits one to shoot 
 
 movinR objects, with linth the eyes in use; it is also 
 verv accurate, simpli-. and strong. Any kjnd of front 
 sinht may be used with it. anil it may be put on any 
 rilli' in the same way that a peep si^lit is attaclii'd. 
 and adjusted for shooting any distance up to 1,(XX) 
 yards. 
 
 To apply the sight to any rifle, screw the base firm, 
 ly on the tang of the piece. See that the tpring notch 
 
 in the sisrht-joint is file<i so that the sight stands 
 perpendicular when in use. Remove the miildle 
 sight, /. e., the rear open sight from the gun. A blank 
 piece can be put in the slot on the liarrel, if desired. 
 It is recommended to use the Beach fn/nt s'g/it. in 
 conjunction with the sight, and for most shootinir, 
 use the larife aperture of the rear sight ; and for verj- 
 quick shooting, aim with both eyes open. 
 
 M 
 
 MACADAMIZED. — A term applied to roads covered ', 
 with lirokeii stone. The principles of the Macadam 
 system of road-iiiakingare as follows; For the foun- 
 dation of a road, it is not necessary to lay a substra- 
 tum of large stones, pavement, etc., as it is a matter i 
 of ludifTerence whether the substratum be hard or 
 soft ; and if any preference is due, it is to the latter. 
 The metal for roads must consist of hrokiii utorie-t 
 (granite. Hint, or wliinstone is by fartlie best): these [ 
 must in no case exceed (i oz. each in weight, and 
 stones of from 1 to 3 oz. are to be preferred. The i 
 large stones in the road are to be loosened, and re- 
 moved to the side, where they arc to be broken into 
 pieces of the regulation weight ; and the road is then j 
 to be smoothed with a rake, so tli:it the earth may 
 settle down into the holes from which thelarge stones 
 were removed. The broken metal is then to care- 
 fully spread over it; and as this operation is of great 
 import;ince to the future quality of the road, the 
 metal is not to be lif'd ou in shovelfuls to the requis- 
 
 ite deptlt, but to be scattered in shovelful after shovel- 
 ful, till a depth of from 6 to 10 inches, according to 
 the quality of the roiid, has been obtained. The road 
 is to have a fall from the middle to the sides of about 
 1 in GO, and ditches are to be dug on thetield side of 
 the fences to a depth of a few inches below the 
 level of the road. This system, which at one time 
 threatened to supercede every other, is calculated to 
 form a hard and impermeable crust on the surface, 
 thus protecting the soft earth below from the action 
 of water, and so preventing it from working up 
 through the metal in the form of mud. Strange to 
 say, it has succeeded admirably in cases where a 
 road had to be constructed over a bog or morass,but 
 in some other circumstances, it has been found de- 
 ficient. 
 
 MACANA.— The war-club of the South American 
 Indians. 
 
 MACCONNELL CARTRIDGE-BOX. This bo.x, in- 
 vented by (.'aptain C. C. .\[acConnell of the U.S. Army,
 
 MACDONALD'S HALE KOCKET. 
 
 240 
 
 UACHICOULTS GALLEKY. 
 
 is square-shaped, made of leather lined with tin. and 
 has compartments to hold 40 cartridses. There is 
 au openinc at the bottom, worliiug by means of a 
 spring, and by which onecartridj^e can be taken out 
 iit a time. The cartridges are placed in the bo.\ on 
 top by raising the flap. The box is worn on the 
 waist-lielt. 
 
 MACDONALD'S HALE ROCKET.- Tlie case of this 
 improved mcket is of steel of great strength, at 
 the end of which is soldered a collar, to the center of 
 which is screwed a wrought-iron tube : this tube 
 unites the head to the body of the rocket and allows 
 the gas to escape through the upper vents. The 
 head has a cavitj', communicating with the e.xterior 
 by five openings directed toward the rear. These 
 vents or openings, as in the Hale rocket, have semi- 
 cylindrical flanges ; tlie gas escaping acts against 
 
 to b:; hurled at an enemy when lie approaches near 
 the wall, as in scaling, undermining, etc. Such de- 
 fenses are very common in castellated architecture, 
 especially over gatcwaj's. towers, etc. For the pur- 
 pose of attaining, by musketry, the foot of a scarp 
 wall without flank defenses, resort must be had to a 
 machicoulated arrangement at the top of the scarp. 
 The usual mode adopted for this purpose, is to 
 form a parapet wall which rests upon a solid hori- 
 zontal band of stone, near the top of the scarp, which 
 is supported on corbels or projecting blocks, lirndy 
 built into the wall. The back of the pariipet wall 13 
 placed a few inches in advance of the scarp, leaving 
 room for the slanting loop-holes pierced in the hori- 
 zontal band through which the fire is to be delivered 
 on the foot of the scarp. The top of the parapet wall 
 is also arranged to admit of firing on more distant 
 
 the concave face of the flanges and imparts amotion 
 of rotation to the rocket. The lower end of the case 
 is closed by a disc, also pierced witli five vents cor- 
 responding to those in the head, and furnished with 
 similar flanges. This construction applies the mo- 
 tion of rotation to the head as well as to the rear 
 part of the rocket, and remedies the considerable de- 
 viation of the Hale rocket due to the motion of ro- 
 tation being applied to the base only ; as its center 
 of gravity is quite considerably in front, the head 
 describes very large and irregular spirals. The 
 rocket composition consists of TO parts of niter, 16 
 parts of sulphur, and 2.3 parts of charcoal. It is 
 pressed into the tulie with a pressure of 90 tons. As 
 it is bored throughout its whole length by the chan- 
 nel, the surface of inflammation is much more con- 
 siderable than in the Hale rocket, and its velocity 
 much greater. The head has at its front part, in 
 front of the cavity, a shell with a bursting charge, 
 which is ignited by means of a fuse, either percus- 
 sion or time. The rocket thus perfected has given 
 results very superior to those obtained by war-rockets 
 of other systems. Five 12-pounder rockets thrown 
 under an angle of 8" 1.5' had a mean range of 1.8T0 
 meters, with a lateral deviation of 2.74 meters only, 
 while Hale rockets of the same caliber, under the 
 same angle of elevation, had a range of only 1,200 
 meters with a lateral deviation of 34 meters. See 
 RockeU. 
 
 MACE. —A strong, short wooden staff, with a spiked 
 metal ball for a head. It was a favorite weapon 
 with knights, with the cavalry immediately succeed- 
 ing them, anil at all times with fighting priests, 
 wiiom a canon of the church forbade to wield the 
 sword. No armor could resist a well-delivered blow 
 from tlie mace. The mace is now borne before 
 magistrates as an ensign of authority. The variety 
 known us Margenfitern.av Morning-xtarMnA generally 
 a long handle, and its head bristled with wooden or 
 iron points or spikes. 
 
 MACEDONIAN PIKE.— A spear or lance of great 
 length used ill warfare by the Greeks. It is common- 
 ly ("illi il Siirissa. 
 
 MACHETE.— A large, heavy knife resembling a 
 l)roa(ls\vc>ril, often 2 or three feet in length, used by 
 the inhabitants of Spanish America as a hatchet, to 
 cut their way tljrough thickets, and for various other 
 purposes. 
 
 MACHICOLATION. The iicl of hurling missiles, or 
 liouriii'i variiius Imrniiig or melted substances upon 
 assiiiliiiits llirciiLdi Mdi'hifiilntinnx. 
 
 MACHICOLATIONS. The apertures between the 
 corbels supporting a projecting parajiet. The machi- 
 colations are for the purpose of allowing projectiles 
 
 points. Where, from the irregularity of the site, the 
 ordinary machicoulis cannot be made efficient, re- 
 sort may be had to small polygonal chambers of 
 stone, open at top, and having the sides and bottom 
 pierced with loop-holes and machicoulis. These con- 
 structions may be made just of sufficient size to hold 
 a single sentinel. They are placed at the angles of 
 the works where they will not be exposed to artillery, 
 and are supported on a corbel work urojecting from 
 the top of the scarp wall. 
 
 MACHICOULIS GALLERY.— To place a house in a 
 defensive attitude, the doors and windows of the 
 lowest story should be firmly barricaded, and loop- 
 holes be made as in the case of a wall. A tambour 
 should be placed before the doors, both for their 
 protection and to procure flanking arrangements if 
 required. The windows of the upper stories should 
 be partly barricaded, to cover the troops within, 
 and loop-holes should be arranged as in the lower 
 stories. The roof, if not fire-proof, should be torn 
 down, and the floor of the upper story be covered 
 
 with earth or dung, moist from the stable, to the 
 depth of about two feel. If it is intended to de- 
 fend the upper stories, should the enemy succeed 
 in forcing the lower, the stairs should be torn down, 
 and slight ladders be used in their stead; holes 
 should be made through the floor to fire on the en- 
 emy in the lower story, or to throw heavy articles, 
 or boiling water, etc., on him. If there are bal- 
 conies to the windows of the iqiper stories, or an 
 ujiper gallery, they cun readily be placed in a de- 
 fi'iisive st!ite"by pliuiiig thick boards as a shelter on 
 the outside, tiiid ciilling suitable holes through the 
 floor to defeiiil the doors and windows of the 
 lower story. If liiere should be no conveniences 
 of this nature, a temporary structure, termed a Ma-
 
 MACHINE GUN. 
 
 Z41 
 
 UACUINE GUN. 
 
 Trial No. 1. For Accuracy. Range 500 meters; 2 targets, 20 meters apart. 
 
 Name (if C)i) 
 
 1 Trial. 
 
 Ilotclikiss 
 
 Nonlcnfi-klt 
 
 Gardner 
 
 Pratt it Whitney 
 
 Oanlner 
 
 Norilenfelilt 
 
 Monligney 
 
 Gatlinic 
 
 Oatlins 
 
 M)2 
 
 1.00 
 M> 
 .45 
 
 .45 
 
 .433 
 .433 
 
 .45! 
 .42 
 
 
 
 o lis 
 
 ci2 
 
 c ^ 
 
 bl) 
 
 lOi 
 
 24 
 
 80 
 
 80' 
 
 (20 
 
 ■(801 
 
 lool 
 
 lOOl. 
 100; 
 100 
 
 REMAnES. 
 
 10 Gun sighted after each shot. 
 8!Firing fast. 
 
 17 (Jain at 20 shots. C'artridL'f nipped in feed-slide. 
 
 10 Firing fast. 
 
 901 " very .slow. 
 
 I •' fast. 
 
 141i " at rate of 800 jier ininnte. 
 
 61| •' fast. 
 
 * No. hits not known. 
 Trial No. 2. 100 shots. Range l.OOO meters ; 2 rows of targets, 20 meters apart. 
 
 Name of (inn on Triai. 
 
 Ilotclikiss 
 
 Nordenfeldt 
 
 Gardner 
 
 Pratt & Whitney 
 
 Gardner 
 
 Nordenfeldt 
 
 Montigney 
 
 Gatling 
 
 Galling 
 
 !« 
 
 
 !^ 
 
 
 
 1> 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 j3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 Vj 
 
 •a 
 
 C . 
 
 
 
 iil) 
 
 t 
 
 XI 2 
 
 
 1h 
 
 C3 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 J3 
 
 2 
 
 
 M « 
 
 O 
 
 6 
 
 fcl) 
 
 m 
 
 £ 
 
 5 
 
 1.45 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 1.00 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 .45 
 
 2 
 
 100 
 
 43 
 
 2 
 
 .45 
 
 8 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 2 
 
 .45 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 51 
 
 10 
 
 .4.33 
 
 30 
 
 100 
 
 59 
 
 30 
 
 .433 
 
 IG 
 
 100 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 
 .45 
 
 15 
 
 100 
 
 106 
 
 6 
 
 .42 
 
 15 
 
 100 
 
 48 
 
 Remabks. 
 
 Gun sighted after each shot. 
 
 volley (4 shots). 
 Firing at rate of 200 per minute 
 
 slow. 
 
 fast. 
 
 time 3i seconds. 
 
 fast. 
 
 Trial No. 3. For Accuracy. Range 1,800 meters : 100 shots; two rows of targets. 
 
 Name of Gun. 
 
 Gardner, . . . 
 Pratt & Whitney, 
 Gardner, 
 
 Nordenfeldt. 
 Galling, . . , 
 Gatlina;, . . . 
 
 o . 
 
 tr, . 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 ■= i. 
 
 
 fli 
 
 c ir. 
 
 
 Remabks. 
 
 s s 
 
 ■a^ 
 
 o 
 
 OS 
 
 .S2 
 
 
 
 Iz; 
 
 03 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 100 
 
 1 
 
 Firing 
 
 Slow. 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 •' 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 100 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 .1 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 100 
 
 18 
 
 
 time 3f seconds. 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 
 slow. 
 
 Trial No. 4, one mile. Time 30 seconds. Range, 800 meters; two rows of targets. 
 
 Name of Gun. 
 
 Hotchkiss. . . 
 Nordenfeldt. . 
 (lardner. . . 
 I'ratt it Wliitney, 
 Gardner. . . 
 Nordenfeldt, . 
 Gatling, . . . 
 Gatling. . . . 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■o 
 
 
 "S 
 
 s 
 
 
 to . 
 
 ^ 
 
 fc« 
 
 
 'H 2 
 
 o 
 
 
 P 
 
 02 
 
 02 
 
 ^21 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 
 485 
 
 888 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 52 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 84 
 
 44 
 
 1 30 
 
 4 
 
 170 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 160 
 
 120 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 251 
 
 121 
 
 30 
 
 13 
 
 413 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 195 
 
 82 
 
 Remakes. 
 
 Most of shots went over. It being late this 
 trial was made in a hurri-. It was the first 
 trial made with the Gatling. ,V large party 
 
 I were present, who wanted to see the gun, 
 
 l_or it would not have been fired. 
 
 Pratt and WHiitney gun fired 3.266 shots in 9| minuter, with four changes at the crank ; two barreled 
 Gardner, 1,446 in i\ minutes; 100 shots fired at 70" elevation in 'i\ seconds by the Gatling.
 
 UACHIN£-OnN. 
 
 242 
 
 II[a.CKENZI£ CUPOLA FUBNACE. 
 
 chicoiilis Gallery, may be formed by placing stout 
 pieces of scantling through holes made in the wall, 
 on a level with the Hoor; these pieces being confined 
 to the floor on the inside, either by nailing them to it 
 or by tying them with rope to the joists; the)' should 
 project from three to four feet beyond the wall on 
 the exterior, and vertical pieces of smaller scantling, 
 about four feet long, should be nailed to them, on 
 which boards are nailed to cover the troops from the 
 enemy's fire ; these boards should be at least three 
 inches thick. The tlooring of the gallery is laid on 
 the horizontal pieces, and holes are made through it 
 to fire on the enem}', or to throw grenades, stones, 
 etc., on him. Any similar arrangement which will 
 shelter a man, in the act of firing from a win- 
 dow on the foot of the wall, or in throwing over 
 stones, etc., will serve the same purpose as a Machi- 
 coulis gallery. A table might easily be arranged to 
 answer the end in view. The drawing shows a section 
 of a Macliicoulis. D is a flooring joist : A is a hori- 
 zoutal support ; B is a cross timber ; and C is an up- 
 right in frnnt. See Tamb(mr. 
 
 MACHINE-GUN. — A gun designed to deliver a- 
 gaiust animate objects a strong, rapid, continuous 
 and accurate fire of small projectiles at all ranges 
 suited to infantry; to be served by the fewest possible 
 number of men, .and also to give a fire that may, in 
 many cases, be as effective as the discharge of can- 
 ister from artillery. The conditions to be fulfilled 
 in the construction of such guns are: simplicity and 
 strength of mechanism ; lightness ; freedom from sen- 
 sible recoil ; endurance ; and interchangeability of 
 ammunition with that used by the troops generall_y. 
 A variety of machine guns, having merits, will be 
 found noticed under Battery Guns. Prominent a- 
 mong the American l)attery or machine guns are the 
 (rfMhig, the L'twell, the Oirdner, and the Uotchkias 
 J^rvoti'tng Cannon. 
 
 piiJll!!>::!>':!>;i!i:!|li<!iii'll#fe& 
 
 Fij. 1. 
 The Gardner machine-gun, shown in Fig. 1., is an 
 exceedingly simph- machine, with a capacity for 
 rapid fire |)rolialily lis great as is consistent with the 
 economical exiienditure of ammunition, and its ex- 
 treme lightness of construction niiikes it very easy 
 to handle. Several forms of cartridge-holders and 
 feed-cases to feed cartridges to the (i;irdner gun have 
 been devised by Air. P;irUliurst. In one of these the 
 cartridges are licld by the bullet end in ii block, leav- 
 ing the flanires exjiosed. The feed tube or guide of 
 the gun receives all the flanges in a block. The 
 block is then pulled off. The Ijowell machine-gun, 
 inanufa<;tured at Lowell, Mass., fires a shigle barrel. 
 
 bu* is provided with two, three, or more barrels 
 which can be rapidly turned into position for firing 
 as one or another becomes heated. Tlie cartridges 
 are held in feeding-tubes above the gun, and pass 
 down the tubes into the carrier-rolls. These are 
 two cogged wheels placed side by side behind the 
 barrel and on axes parallel with the barrel, the cogs 
 abutting instead of intcrmeshing, and the space be- 
 tween the cogs being just large enough to receive a 
 cartridge. A plunger carries the cartridge forward 
 from this receptacle while the wheels are at rest, fires, 
 and then withdraws the shell, when a further rotation 
 of the cog-wheels ejects the spent shell and brings 
 another into line with the barrel. The gun is made 
 with an automatic traversing mechanism which nuiy 
 be thrown into or out of gear, so that the direction 
 of fire n\ay change slowly or rapidly over a sector of 
 considerable extent in front of the gun, or the fire 
 may be confined to a single line of direction. The 
 rapidity of fire for the 45 caliber is about 300 shots 
 per minute. 
 
 The carriage, nsnall}- cmplo}-ed in the United States, 
 
 for the machine-gun is at wo-wheeled vehicle, drawn 
 
 by two horses placed abreast ; the oJT horse works in 
 
 shafts situated so as to occupy the proper position ; 
 
 the carriage is guided by this horse, and he supports 
 
 the portion of the weight that is not liorne by the 
 
 axletree. The near horse is ridden by the driver. 
 
 When firing, the horses being detached, the shafts 
 
 serve as a trail. The gun is mounted over the center 
 
 of the axletree on an iron bed formed of two plates, 
 
 one of which moves over the other about a vertical 
 
 axis, to give the desired horizontal training to the 
 
 gun. On each side of the gun is a box opening to 
 
 the rear ; the cuterior is divided into spaces, each of 
 
 which carries a feed-case. These boxes serve also 
 
 as seats for the gunners. Boxes of additional am- 
 
 munition and tools and spare parts are carried in a 
 
 compartment beneath the gun bed in rear of 
 
 the axletree. Fig. 2. on the opposite page, 
 
 shows the form of light gun-carriage used 
 
 with the Lowell Battery-gun when making 
 
 long marches over very rough country. It 
 
 is a suitable pattern for all machine-guns, 
 
 • and is, of very simple construction. 
 
 The trials of machine-guns at Turin, Italy, 
 commencing October 10, 1883, and tabulated 
 on page 241, will serve to show the wonder- 
 ful ]>nwers of these weapons . 
 
 MACKAY GUN.— A wrought iron gun dis- 
 tinguished from the Whitworth and Lancaster 
 guns by the following characteristics; The 
 Whitworth has a hexagonal bore in a tube of 
 homogeneous iron, sireugthened with hoops 
 forced on by hydraulic pressure ; the Lancas- 
 ter is without grooves, but the Ijore is oval ; 
 the Mackay has numerous grooves, but the 
 projectile does not, as in other guns, fit into 
 them, its rotation being imparted by the rush 
 of gases through the spiral grooves around it. 
 In every case the groove or oval takes one turn, 
 or portion of a tiirn. within the cun. 
 
 MACKAY PROJECTILE. — The distinguish- 
 ing feature of this ]irojectile c(msists in the 
 apiiliriition !ind use of several diagonal 
 grooves formed in tlie interior surface of the 
 gun at a great angle, which are to a<t as wind- 
 age grooves so that the powder and gas pass- 
 ing down such grooves, encircling the projectile, 
 shall have a longer distance to travel than the pro- 
 jectile, and also cause the projectile to revolve round 
 its longest axis at a high rotation as it passes down 
 the gun. The ]irojecliies are not allowed to enter 
 or fit these grooves ;is in rifles, but simply to pass 
 down the smooth surface in which the grooves arc 
 formed. 
 
 MACKENZIE CUPOLA FURNACE.— This pattern of 
 furnace is extensively \ised in working camion me- 
 tals, and in the fabrication of projectiles. The Iiody 
 of the cupola, which is oval in shape, consists of a
 
 MACKENZIE CUPOLA FnKNACE. 
 
 243 
 
 MACKENZIE CUPOLA FURNACE 
 
 lining <if lirc.I)ri(k iiiclowd in a wroiiKlit-iron cais- 
 son, conl rafted at IIk; lop to form the slack, and 
 rcstini^ on a cast-iron liotlotn plate, wlilcli is siip- 
 [xirlcd on iron ])illars. The pcciiiiaril y of lids cupola, 
 as conipar<'d willi ollicrs of llic many varieties in 
 use, exisis only in llie shape of llie tnyerc, or ii] llii' 
 nielhod employed fcjr inlrodueini; llie iilast, a <'onlin- 
 iio\is air-chand)er inclosed l)et\veeii the caisson and 
 a wrouf;ht-iron ajiron, wliicli jirojeels inward, and is 
 braced by a (asl-iron rini;, widcli can easily be re- 
 ))laced when worn ont. The tuyere itself is the slol 
 iaiiealh, tliroiii;h which Ihe air, aibnitted to the 
 chand)erfrom llielilasl-pipes, passes into the cnpola. 
 Tlie liolloni is a cast-iron droji-door made in Uvo 
 hin^^ed [larts, and supiiorled.wlien closeil.by a proi). 
 Tills bollom is covered wilh a layer of sand,arrani:e(" 
 with a ijenlle slope towards the spout; the laller, 
 throuith which the melted iron runs to the hidle. is 
 of iron coated wilh loam, and painted willi coke- 
 wash. The c?tar(/ing.(liinr is situated at tlie rear of 
 the furnace, and the stock is {generally lifted lo it 
 on an I'levalor. To chari;e the furnace most expc- 
 diliously shavings are placed in the boltom. then 
 liilht "wood, and oonl-wood sawed into lenplhs of 
 from ten to eiihteen inches, a part of it lieinir stood 
 on end around the sides to protect them, and the 
 whole bed beinir built up level. In this last respect 
 care is used lhroui;h all the subsequent .stajres of 
 the charirins. On Ihe top of the wood is placed tlie 
 'stcK'k," which, for a No. H furnace, consisis of about 
 2,100 pounds of (I,ehii;h)lump coal. The lire is llieii 
 liirhted, and when the llanies are seen lo lie working 
 Well through the mass about five tous of iron are 
 
 placed evenly on top : then about 000 pounds of egg 
 or grate coal, followed liy live tons of iron. This 
 '• building up " of the charge can be continued as 
 long as the malcrial can be handled through the 
 chargiug-door, the ordinary capacity of such a fur- 
 nace as described being about fifteen tons. In 
 charging the iron, it is usual to first put in pieces 
 of plate and light scrap iron to iirolect the lump 
 coal from being broken as the heavier portions of 
 the charge are added. As soon as the cupola is 
 
 "charged " the Wast ig put on. and in about twenty 
 minutes Ihe iron is •• down." and ready lo lie drawn 
 olf. Warned of this by the melted "metal ■• blow- 
 ing" through the " cap-hole." the melter closes it 
 securely with a"fo/rf" made of sand mi.xed willi 
 clay-wash ; he has prepared in advance also a num- 
 ber of other "bods." which he uses for the same 
 purpose whcnevr it may be necessary while draw- 
 ing Ihe metal. The "bod "is lightly attached to 
 the end of an iron or wooden rod, "and beinir shoved
 
 UACLED ABMOS. 
 
 244 
 
 MADIGAN AUSTDNITION-BOZ. 
 
 into the tapping-hole, sticks to it and closes it up. 
 To " tap" the cupola, the melter shoves into the 
 '■ hod" an iron bar with a square point, and enlarges 
 the hole by turning the bar aroiuid. The ladles in- 
 to which the metal is run are lined with a mi.xture 
 of molding sand and clay-wash, or with loam, and 
 thoroughly dried before iieing used. When all the 
 nietp.l is drawn off, the cupola is " dumped " liy re- 
 moving the prop and allowing the doors to fall. The 
 '• dump" is then extinguished, and the pieces of iron 
 and fuel picked and sifted out. After each day's 
 casting, the furnace has to be repaired by picking 
 
 out tlie slag which has formed within, and by daub- 
 ing with a nd.xturc of clay and (ire-sand the parts of 
 the lining where the fire-brick has been l)iirned out. 
 About once in si.\ months the entire tire-brick lining 
 has t.f) be replaced. Hee Cupola Furiiiife, Foundry. 
 and Jrun. 
 
 MACLED ABMOR.— Armor of the Middle Ages, 
 - composed of small lozenge-shaped plates of metal, 
 sewed on a foundation of doth orleatlier, and some- 
 I times overlapping each other half way. 
 
 MACOMBER GUN.— A gim, the pecufiarity of which 
 consists in its stated extraordinary strength. The 
 chamber for holding the powder and the breech of 
 the gun are formed of discs of wrought iron, com- 
 posed of three different qualities of tht'iron, the soft- 
 est forming the center and the hardest the outer 
 circumference of the disc, which are thoroughly 
 welded together, leaving a hole in the center. After 
 a sutficient numV)er of these are prei)ared to form 
 the gun, they are roughly engine-turned to bring 
 them to a uniform thickness. These discs are then 
 submitted to a process of " setting " by steel punches 
 (each disc separately), by powerful blows of a steam- 
 hammer, beginning lightly, and increasing gradu- 
 ally until the soft and hard metal have been forced 
 (in a cold state) from center to circumference to the 
 point of enlargement of the latter which rommence- 
 ment of the enlargement is proof that every portion 
 of the disc tuill bear its equal proportion of a future 
 strain or concussion which it may be sulijected to 
 and whicli, in the use of gunpowder, cannot exceed 
 the test thus supplied. After the discs are set, they 
 are welded one at a time upon a mandrel; by the 
 proce-s known to smiths as "jump welding." "Sub- 
 sequently, the mandrel upon which the discs were 
 forged will be entirely taken out by the process of 
 boring the gun. leaving only the metal which has 
 been subjected to the steam-hammer and punch. 
 The breech of the gun is surrounded with steel 
 rings, which are forced over it, in a cold state, by a 
 powerful hydraulic press. The gas-check is Mr. 
 Macomber's own invention. He uses Dyer and 
 Sons' friction-primers, and makes use of the strong- 
 est powder and of a tine grain ; but he states that he 
 would have no objection to use gun-cotton. The 
 weight of the gtui is Vi cwt., caliber IJ inch, weight 
 of shot 3 lbs., initial velocity about 2000 feet per 
 second. The inventor states tliat at an elevation of 
 38° the shot attains the very remarkable range of 9^ 
 miles. 
 
 MACROMETER.— An instrument by means of which 
 tlie ranges of distant objects can be determined with 
 rapidity and accuracy. It consists of two mir- 
 rors, disposed somewhat similarly to the mirrors 
 of a marine sextant, the observations being taken 
 nnich in the same way. One of the mirrors is mova- 
 ble, and is fixed to an arm on which the several 
 distances, from 20 to 2.000 yards, are marked. 
 The arm moves over a peculiar curve placed on a 
 part of the instrument called the " fan." and indi- 
 cating the distances answering to any given inclina- 
 tion of the mirror. The arm. moreover, is fitted 
 with a slide so as to be capable of being set to any 
 length of base, and this liase may either be measured 
 by a chain or may be paced, the slide being set to 
 the line marked "yards" or "paces," as the case 
 may be. The result is always given in yards. -When 
 it is required to make an observation, two men take 
 up a position so as to form a triangle with the ob- 
 ject, the distance of which it is desired to ascertain. 
 One of the two observers, by means of an optical 
 square, places himself so as to be at right angles 
 with the distant object and the second observer, by 
 whom the macrometer is used. From experiments 
 made with this instrument, the distance of moving 
 objects has i)een ascertained with very great 
 nc<uracy. and in the case of stationary objects the 
 (TFiir has been fo\Mid to lie less than 1 jier cent. The 
 notation of the instrument admits of the units being 
 taken to rei>resenl chains and links; thus 835 woulci 
 be 8 chains and ;!5 links. 
 
 MADIGAN AMMUNITION BOX.— These boxes, also 
 ad.'ipled for use as a nu'dicine or mess chests, are 
 jiackcd in pairs on cither an aparejo or ordinary 
 pack-saddle. They meet all the re(|uircmenls of ac- 
 tive service and by means of them, troops in line of
 
 MADRIEBS. 
 
 245 
 
 MAOAZINE. 
 
 battle or skirniisliiiii^ may br ijiiickly siipplu'd, and 
 arc not (ihlificd to lost; valiiahU; inotiirnts of tinii;, 
 while iinpaekini;, iinscrewin!; eovers, etc. The 
 drawiii); shows the boxes packed on an aparejo, aii'd 
 the manner of nsini; Iheni. Their eonstrnction is 
 sueli that all or iiiiy part of the eonlenis may be re- 
 moved, whenever desired for immi'diate use, wilh- 
 oul iiiiloadini;, slaekini; the lash-rope, or even halt- 
 in^C the animal earryini; them. These are eerlainly 
 important advantaiies in case of a surprise or sudden 
 attack upon tlu' pack-train, or the unexpected dis- 
 covery of the enemy; or, if used for medieal or sub- 
 sistenci; stores, and in case of sudden illness, or the 
 
 
 necessity of entinsc a meal under tlie various cir- 
 cumstances forbiildini: a halt. Many instances will 
 doubtless recur to every officer or soldier of exper- 
 ience in field service, where disasters have resulted 
 from not liavinj; l)een able to quickly replenisli the 
 supply of anuMiition. 
 
 Tlu' devices l)y which this box is made available 
 for sudden emerfjencies, are essentially three in num- 
 ber, viz: FiitsT, and most important : — The anille 
 castings or corner-bands in the center of each side 
 of the top of the box, each of whi('h has a diagonal 
 circular opening, or socket, for the lash rope. Sec- 
 ond: — The center partition. 1 J inches thick, on the 
 top of which is screwed a center strii), 'i\ inches in 
 width, with two lids hinged thereto, oi)ening from 
 the ends. Third: — The sul)-division of the inferior 
 of the box, b)' adjustable partitions, into compart- 
 ments, adapted in luimbcr and arrangement, to the 
 nature of tile contents, and shape and size of the 
 packages. These compartments prevent the shak- 
 ing or damaging of the packages by the motion of 
 the animal, which would occur with an ordinary 
 box after being partially emptied; and permit the 
 load to be kept practically balanced by faking out 
 of each box, alternately all or part of "the contents 
 of one or more compartments-thus obviating any ne- 
 
 No special fittings or attachments to the ordinary 
 aparejo or pack-saddle, an: retpiired; the boxes an; 
 complefr- in Ihiinselves and in case of emergency 
 nniy be packed with very little in the way of outlit 
 
 a few old sacks tilled with hay or straw, a couple 
 of cinches ;ind a pii-ce of rope will answer. The am- 
 munition hrixes in present use in the United States 
 are very unsuit;ihle for (lacking; two being too light 
 for a i)roper load, while three are awkward to handle, 
 very difficult to lash so as to be ke|)t in place on an 
 aparejo or pack-sa<ldle, and are liable to chafe and 
 strain the animal's back. 
 
 MADRIERS. Long plankg of broad wood, used for 
 supporting the earth in mining, carrying on a sap, 
 nnikuig coffers, caiioniers, galleries," and for var- 
 ious oilier jiiirposes at a siege ; also to cover the 
 mouth of petardsafter they are loaded, and are fixed 
 with the petards to thegatesor other places designed 
 to be forced o|ien. When the planks are not strong 
 enough they are doubled with iilafes of iron. 
 
 MADRINA. — The animal preceding a trooii of mules, 
 usu;illy ;iii old mare, in South America, to the neck 
 of whi<h a little bell is attach<<l. the sound of which 
 the mules follow with the greatest docility. 
 
 If several large troops are turned into one field to 
 graze, in the morning the muleteer has only to lead 
 the madrinas a little apart, and tinkle their bells, and 
 although there may be 200 or 300 mules together, 
 each immediately knows its own bell, and .separates 
 itself from the rest. The affection of these animals 
 fill their madrina saves infinite trouble. It is nearly 
 impossible to lose an old mule ; for. if detained sev- 
 eral hours by force, she will, by the [lowerof smell, 
 like a dog. track out her companions, or rather the 
 nia<irina ; for. according to the muleteer, she is the 
 chief object of affection. The feeling, liowever, is 
 not of an individu;d nature ; for any animal with a 
 licll will serve ;is a ni;idrina. 
 
 MAGAZINE. — In a literal sense, any place where 
 stores are kept; but as a military expression, a maga- 
 zine always means a jviinhr-mnyiizinr, although arms 
 may at times be kept in it. A magazine may be a 
 depot where vast quantities of gunpowder are held 
 in reserve, an entrejiot for the supply of several ad- 
 vanced works, a battery magazine for the wants of 
 a fortress during a siege, or merely an expense mag- 
 azine for the daily requirements of the special bat- 
 tery in which it may be situated The last is usually 
 temporary, and hollowed out in the back of the ram- 
 part ; but the other forms require most careful struc- 
 ture. They most be bomb-proof, and therefore ne- 
 cessitate very thick walls ; they must be quite free 
 from damp : and they should "admit sufficient day- 
 light to render the use of lanterns within generally 
 I unnecessary. The drawing shows cross sections of 
 I fascine, copper, and gabion magazines. Magazines 
 
 
 J- 8 
 
 cessity for unloading, or touching a rope during the 
 march other than the usual adjustment of the lash 
 rope. By filling only a portion of the compartments, 
 when tlie packages" are unusually heavy, or when 
 the iinimal is not in good condition, the weight of tlie 
 load may be adapted to the circumstances of the 
 case. without danger of rattling, shaking, or breaking 
 the packages; for hard bread or other stores of light 
 weight, the boxes may be made larger, if desired; or 
 if necci<S(iry. four boxes of the usual size oin be pack- 
 ed on one animal . 
 
 arc commonly built of brick, the solid masonry be- 
 ing arched over within, and a thickness of earth 
 sometimes added above the brick-work to insure im- 
 permeability to shells. The entrance is protected by 
 shot-proof traverses, lest an opening sli<iuld be forc- 
 ed by ricochet shots. AVithin. the magazine is di- 
 vided into bins or compartments, and one of these 
 should always be kept empty in order that the bar- 
 rels of powder may frequently be moved from one 
 place to another, a process necessary to keep it in 
 good condition. The liatterv magazine commonl
 
 UA0AZINE-6UN. 
 
 246 
 
 UAGAZINE-OUN. 
 
 contains 500 rounds for tlie guns dependent on it. 
 Depot magazines should, when possible, be limited 
 to 1000 barrels of powder. 
 
 In 1870-71, tbe German Army Corps had supply 
 trains generally attached to the divisions of each 
 corps; these distributed food to the troops— they 
 carried 4 days' rations for men. Then they had a 
 certain number of supply wagons, containing food 
 for men and horses for six days ; these kept in rear 
 of the corps, and could communicate with the mag- 
 azines. When traveling by rail, tbe troops were 
 fed at certain stations, or took in their food at 
 these stations. The whole management of supply 
 appears to have been admirably carried out, and, 
 when so performed, it considerably facilitates oper- 
 ations. The subject of the formation and position 
 of magazines is one of such vast importance that 
 military men will do well to study the history of past 
 campaigns, when tliej' will ob.serve — to take only 
 one example — how Napoleon, in the Wars of the Re- 
 public, was careful to accumulate vast magazines and 
 to keep his communications open, notwithstanding 
 that his troops helped themselves pretty freely off the 
 country they invaded ; nevertheless, no General ever 
 realized more than he did the necessity of having ac- 
 cumulated supplies ready to fall back upon, aiicl to 
 keep his communication to the rear carefully guard- 
 ed. See TJyhtning Oo?iducU>rs, Powder Depots, and 
 Pmrilir MafjazhieK. 
 
 MAGAZINE-GUN.— A breech-loading small-arm, 
 Ixaving a magazine capable of holding a number of 
 cartridges which may be fired in quick succession — 
 the empty shell being ejected and another cartridge 
 conveyeif to the chamber from the magazine by 
 working the mechanism of the piece. There are 
 several types. 1. Those in which the magazine is a 
 tube below the barrel, as in the Winchester, the 
 Ward-Burton, etc. 2. Those in which the magazine 
 is in the stock, as in the Spencer, Meigs, and others. 
 3. Those in which tbe magazine is a separate piece 
 attachable to the gun when required, as in the Lee, 
 Elliot, and Gatling gim. The following is a general 
 classification of magazine-arms,founded on the meth- 
 od by which cartridges are fed from the magazine : 
 
 rist 
 
 sity of providing troops with arms that will give 
 every possible superiority of fire in battle. Rapidity 
 of discharge is certainly an essential element under 
 all circumstances. Should equal detachments be 
 opposed, there can be no doubt but that the one 
 able to fire ten effective shots per minute, each man, 
 more than the other, would have a great advantage. 
 Rapidity of fire alone can compensate for an in- 
 feriority in number of men engaged. In magazine 
 or repeating arms, the cartridges are fed automati- 
 cally into the chamber of the barrel, by the manipu- 
 lation of the breech mechanism. It is only neces- 
 sary to close the breech when tlie arm is ready to 
 fire. This obviates the necessity of handling ami 
 charging each cartridge, besides preventing tlie con- 
 siderable loss of ammunition, occasioned by soldiere 
 dropping cartridges while transferring from the car- 
 tridge-box to the arm, which, in the excitement of 
 battle and rapid firing, are seldom recovered or 
 saved. Tbe principal objection offered to magazine 
 guns, is that their use causes a wasteful and unnec- 
 essary expenditure of ammunition. The same argu- 
 ment was largely used, when only a few years ago, 
 the merits of breech versus muzzle-loaders, were 
 being discussed, and is as treat noir as then. With 
 officers and non-commissioned officers thoroughly 
 impressed with the necessity of an economical and 
 judicious use of ammunition, the question becomes 
 one only of discipline and drill. 
 
 No valid reason can be given why, other essentials 
 being equal, the same men should not aim as well, 
 firing rapidly, as slowly sighting requires the same 
 time whatever may be the tmie used in loading; and 
 if increasing the time expended between the firing of 
 one shot and sighting for the next, increases the effect- 
 iveness of the man, it follows, that to shoot accur- 
 ately, a certain amount of time must be wasted in 
 operations other than aiming the weapon — a theory 
 that could hardl}' be sustained. 
 
 The drawings show the positions at "order arms," 
 of cartridges contained in tubular magazine-guns, 
 constructed with magazines under the barrel and in 
 the butt-stock. All the cartridges are forced toward 
 the breech mechanism by a spiral spring (as partly 
 
 , direct 
 
 i fist, by rotating barrel aboiifl 
 let, by a spring. -| 1 axie parallel to it into liue> . 
 I 3d, indirect. ..^ with magazine. j 
 I 2d, to position opposite re- 
 l_ 1^ ceiver 
 
 , butt .took. 2d b^ a ratcbet. P^^; -^^^0^'-, 
 ^^"'*^""'~ i by hand. » 
 
 3d, by a epiral 
 cam (screw- 
 motto u). 
 
 fist, sliding, at riaht angles to axis of boru. 
 
 \.rnw 1 berwithcjirt- ad, tip stock.. ^ by a spring- >ierwhicb-; 
 arms ^ ridgcB from • ( (is- 
 
 let, to position oblique to axis of bore. 
 
 2d, rotating— -' 
 
 u. 
 
 to position parallel witb axie. 
 
 3d. sliding and) 
 
 1^ rotating— / ' 
 
 {to position parallel to axis ] 
 nf bore and above re ^ and by gravity 
 ceiver — ) 
 
 3d, ningazinc"! 
 
 on tup of > by a spring 
 barrel ) 
 
 4th, magazine) by a spring (ver- (to position opposite center) 
 belowbolt / ticallyj— ( of chamber. / 
 
 5th. revolving) 
 chambers / 
 
 \ into Jine with axis of 
 I bore. 
 
 The quoRtirm of the comparative merits nf maira- ' shown in A), -which spring must ho of sufflcient 
 zint* ixuns ami Hiiiu;]** hn'cch-Ina(k'rs, for military j strcnirtli to support the weiLrht of the cnhimu of car- 
 purposes, lias Ikm-m so exiiauslively (iiscussed l>y tlie tridi^es. and fttrec thcni into the receiver of the arm 
 
 military autliorilies of the worhl, that there would 
 seem lo be uo longer any duubl regarding the neees- 
 
 as fast as re(piired.and (tf necessity it must have very 
 considerable stilluess or strength. The weiglit of a
 
 MAG\ZIHE GUN. 
 
 247 
 
 HAOAZIHE 0U2f. 
 
 cciluninof live ordinary service eiirlri<lKes waulil l]e 
 iiljimt seven ounces, al, least four-liftlis of wliicli 
 weight would in a lul>ular niafrazine, rest fairly 
 upon llie point of llie liiillet of the last carlridt'i! 
 and wliicli liullel cunes directly in conlaci vvilli 
 till' primer itself of llie earlriiii;c' in advane(- of 
 it. All ordnance otlieers and anuMiuiiliori manufac- 
 turers reali/.e tlic' ditticully experienced in prcparini,' 
 fulminate of mercury (used for primers), thai will, 
 in jiraclical use. alwiiys liav(^ a uniform decree of 
 sensitiveness. It can "be made so sensitive that the 
 
 into the receptacle below. It is readily seen, then, 
 that the use of «ucli a spiral spring makes premature 
 explosion not onlv/""«'''>''',l>ut riru prohahle. nmKWMtK 
 is no way to prevcMit it, except by discardinf; it, as 
 in the Lee or Cliairie-Keece guns. During the War 
 of the Keliellion, guns using the spiral spring liave 
 heen known to explode when the cuvulrv were on a 
 march. Of course suih arms were discarded; but the 
 same thing may happen to any arm of recent inven- 
 tion which is so constructed as to require a spiral 
 sprin" in feeding the cartridge into the chamber. 
 
 slightest scratch will ignite it. and many fulminate 
 mixers have lost their lives by a moment's inatten- 
 tion or relaxation of caution while compounding it. 
 While it is generally [lossible to produce fulminate 
 of nearly e(iual quality, still difF<'rent batclies do vary: 
 and whether it be from difference in this (|iiality, or 
 from tile ditTerent jiosition or placement of the ful- 
 minate in the primer as regards the cartridge-anvil, 
 or otherwise, still it is certainly true that cartridges 
 are to be found in use that will explode with one 
 half the concussion ordinarily required. It is a fact 
 that cartridges have exploded by dropping a few 
 inches from the machine in which thev are loaded 
 
 li 
 
 Where the cartridges are fed from the butt-stock 
 by a spiral sprins the bullet is liable to strike the 
 counter-bore of the barrel, making a notch in the 
 bullet and renderini it useless for accurate work. 
 When the cartridges are brought up by a carrier oa 
 an anirle the same thing will happen— the counter- 
 bore of the barrel either stops the bullet or cuts off 
 a piece sufficiently large to make it impossible that 
 its flight be accurate and make a good target, be- 
 cause of its irregular shape made by such contact. 
 It is well understood that a good shot, when using 
 anv of the ma^azin -luns in which the cartridges are 
 fei up by a spiral spring. use3 it as a single-loader ;
 
 MAGISTRAL GALLERY. 
 
 24« 
 
 UAGNESIUM. 
 
 and the reason is, that tlic bullet is generally so mu- 
 tilated by striking the counter-bore, that its tlight 
 is not to be depended \i)iou for accuraey. 
 
 MAGISTRAL GALLERY.- A name frequently ap- 
 plied to tlie gallery iiuiuediately behind the counter- 
 scarj) wall, in eoutradistinetiou to the Eni-floping 
 Gallfry, which is parallel to the counterscarp gallery, 
 and at some thirty or forty yards in advance of it. 
 See Gallfry. 
 
 MAGISTRAL LINE.— The trace or outline of a work 
 as the jilnn of its guiding or iifigixtral line. In tield 
 fortiticatious, this line is the interior crest line. In 
 permanent fortifications, it is usuallj- the line of the 
 top of the escarp of each work. 
 
 MAGNA CHARTA.— The great Charter which was 
 granted liy King John of England to the Barons, and 
 has been viewed by after-ages as the basis of English 
 liberties. The oppressions and exactions of a tjran- 
 nical and dastardl}' Sovereign called into existence a 
 Confederacy of the Barons or Tenants-in-Clnef of the 
 Crown, who took up arms for the redress of their 
 grievances. iTheir demand was for the restoration 
 of the laws of Henry I., laws which might probably 
 be cliaracterized as an engrafting of Norman Feud- 
 alism on the "ancient custom of England," or pre- 
 viously existing Saxon and Danish Free Institutions, 
 in which •' ancient custom " were comprehended the 
 laws of Edward the Confessor. A conference be- 
 tween the Sovereign and the Barons was held at 
 Kuunymede, near Windsor, a place where treaties 
 regarding the peace of the kingdom had often before 
 been made. King and Barons encamped opposite 
 each other ; and after several days of debate, John 
 signed and sealed the Charter with great solemuit}', 
 on June 15. 1215. 
 
 MAGNESIUM.— Although the discovery of the met- 
 al magnesium was made by Sir H. Davy in 1808. 
 it was looked upon as little more than a chemical 
 curiosity for about half acenturj-. In 1830 a French 
 chemist, Bussy, obtained globules of the metal by 
 fusing globules of potassium, in a glass tube, with 
 anhydrous chloride of magnesium. Bussy's labors 
 were followed by somewhat improved methods, 
 adopted by Bunsen, and subsequently by Jlatthies- 
 sen, who succeeded in pressing some grains of the 
 metal into wire. The first great advance was in 
 1856, when Deville and Caron effected the reduction 
 of the i)ure chloride of magnesium by mixing it 
 with fused chloride of sodium in clay crucibles, us- 
 ing fluoride of calcium as a tlux. and throwing in 
 fragments of sodium ; they thus obtained magne- 
 sium on a larger scale than any of their predecessors. 
 The most important part of their investigations 
 was the discovery of the volatility of the'metal. 
 All these were, however, mere laboratory experi- 
 ments. In 1859 Bunsen, of Heidelberg, and Ros- 
 coe (now of ^Manchester), published a memoir on 
 the great importance of magnesium for photographic 
 purposes, owing to the high refrangibility and the 
 great actinic power of the lignt emitted by burning 
 magnesium-wire. The study of this memoir led 3Ir. 
 Sonstadt to consider whetlier, the magnesian .salts 
 being so abundant, the metal might not be obtained, 
 on a comi)aratively large scale, at a moderate price. 
 After a |)roloi!ged scries of expensive experiments 
 lie succeeded, in 18(i2, in producing very satisfactory 
 specimens of the metal varying froin about the 
 size of a pin's head to that of a hen's egg. Al- 
 though it burned freely enough, it was stillwanting 
 in ductility ami u\alleability. ra consequence of the 
 presence of certain impurities: but by May, 18(53. 
 these diflicultii's were overcome by "a process of 
 puriti(^ation by distillation; and by the close of that 
 year In- considered it safe to liegin manufacturini;. 
 The .Magnesium .Metal Company was consc(|urntiy 
 organized, and soon operations conuncnced at ^laii- 
 chesler, where magnesivnn is now made on a 
 very considerable scale, as well as by an American 
 Magnesium Company at Boston. One ijreat ad- 
 vantage of Sonstadt's method is its simplicity ; it 
 
 cin be accomplished l)y the hands of ordinarj* work- 
 men ignorant of all chcndcal knowledge. The pro- 
 cess of manufacture may be thus described : 1. An 
 anhydrous chloride of magnesium is prepared by 
 saturating lumps of rock-magnesia (carbonate of 
 magnesia) with hydrochloric acid, and then evapor- 
 ating the solution to dryness. 2. One part of 
 metallic sodium cut in small pieces is placed in a 
 iron crucible, and covered with five parts of the 
 chloride. The crucible is covered, and heated to 
 redness, when the chlorine leaves the magnesium 
 and unites with the sodium, for which it has a 
 stronger affinity. When the crucible has cooled, 
 and its contents are removed oi masne, and broken, 
 the magnesium — in that state known as crude 
 magnesium — is seen in nuggets of various sizes, 
 varying from granules to masses as large as a hen's 
 egg. 3. The distillation of the crude metal is 
 effected in a crucible throvigh which a tulie ascends 
 to within an inch of the lid. The tube opens at the 
 bottom into an iron box, placed beneath the bars of 
 the furnace, wdiere, on the completion of the opera- 
 tion, magnesium is found in the form of a heap of 
 drippings, which may be melted and cast into ingots 
 or any desired form. The difticultj' of ol)tainiug a 
 metal with so little ductility in the form of wire — the 
 only form that was originally tised for yielding light 
 — had still to be overcome; and after various par- 
 tia'.l}' successful attempts to press small quantities 
 into wire by Matthiessen and some other chemists, 
 Mr. ]\Iather, of Salford, devised apiece of machinery 
 1)3' which the metal is pressed into wire of various 
 thickness. Jlr. ^Mather also was the first who ob- 
 tained the metal in ribbons, in which form, from the 
 larger exposed surface, combustion takes place more 
 completely. The apparatus for making the wire and 
 ribbon is very ingenious. The chief feature of it is 
 a small hollow cylinder, adapted to receive a ram at 
 one end, and covered at the other by an iron screen 
 perforated with two or more holes opposite the cham- 
 ber. This press, as the cylinder is called, is sub- 
 jected to the action of gas from a blow-pipe, and the 
 heat employed is only sufficient to soften the metal 
 in the press. The pieces of magnesium are thrust 
 into the chamber, the ram is placed in the mouth of 
 the press, and a pressure of between two and three 
 tons— obtained by hydraulic apparatus or by steam — 
 forces the ram against the softened metal, and the 
 latter oozes in continuous strings of wire through the 
 perforations already named. To make ribbon, the 
 wire thus obtained" is passed between two hollow 
 heated rollers, and is received in a flattened state up- 
 on a reel. To Mr. Mather is also due the credit of 
 having constructed the first nuignesium lamp, in 
 which the end of the wire or ribbon is presented to 
 the flame of a spirit-lamp. A concave reflector sent 
 the light forward, and protected the eyes of the op- 
 erator. 
 
 The first time that a photograph was taken by this 
 light was_at Manchester in the spring of l.st!4, liy Mr. 
 Brothers 'and Dr. Roscoe. That the nuignesium 
 light, in a more or less modified form, must prove of 
 extreme value to photography, cannot be called in 
 question. Besides overcoming the ol)stacle of un- 
 suita1)le weather for the I'mployment of sunlight, it 
 may be a]i])lied both for the cx])loratiou and the pho- 
 tography of various <lim structures, imdcrground 
 regi<'us,"etc.. such as the interior of the pyramids, of 
 catacond)s, natural caverns, etc., which could not 
 otherwise be examined or photogra))hcd. 
 
 Its! color appniaches very much neiirer daylight 
 than that of the light fr<im oils, candles, or coal-gas. 
 As conqiarcd with the sun, its luminous intensity is 
 ^l-,. but its cheiui<'al intensity is ,,',., and this high 
 aciiiuc power makes it specially valuable for photo- 
 graphic purposes. Although it does not lu'arly 
 eipial the electric light as an illuminating agent, like 
 it the nuignesium light gives off no luixious vapors. 
 Hut while it burns, white clouds of the vapor of 
 magnesium are formed which would I)e more or less
 
 CCC€CC€€COCC)M;C)€a;CCCC)Ce«)D 
 
 ©cc©c©€ej€c«cic)«)«:C)®©€CC'C'a:4j 
 
 ,1 b c d 
 
 The Compass, Magnetism, Polarity, etc. 1. Magnetic poles. 2. Magnetic rod (suspended). 3. Mag? 
 magnetic polarity. T. MuKnetizing iron. 8,9. Natural magnet, with annaturo. 10. Horse-shoe 
 tion. I.'i. Ai)paratus for iletfrmining the degree of declination. 16. Magnetism of the terrestrii 
 variation of inclination. ^J to !H. Magnetometer. 25. Magnetic variations or disturbances. 
 
 rv— SOS.
 
 ^ > 
 
 iflo iiu ut) 00 au CO <o 20 '-^u -m 60 " so. i' 
 
 160 no 120 100 80 fill 40 "0 
 
 ion leo 110 ICO i&f> 
 
 160 110 IJu 
 
 80 100 1^0 I lu 
 
 -W'J* 
 
 4. Magnetic needles with marked poles. Magnetic staff, broken at various points. 6. Illustration of 
 Magnet armature. 12. Action of a magnet at a distance. 13. Magnetization by friction. 14. Declina- 
 Map of declination. 18. Magnetic inclination, lit. Inclinatorlum. 20. Map of inclination. 21. Diurnal
 
 KAONETISU. 
 
 249 
 
 MAGNETISM. 
 
 troiiblcsomtr in private rormis. Tliis olijcclioii is 
 saiil to be to sdiiic cxtcnl. removed, witliout diiiiiii- 
 Isliiiii; the lirilliitney of ; the liirht. by alloying with 
 zini: ; iiml at any rate it woiihl xearcely at all inter- 
 fere witli its nse in hirjre jmlilie ImihliML's. Still less 
 w<iiil(l it do so when tlie li'^'ht i< burned in IIk' open 
 air. Tliere is, liowever, not niiiih hojje of the 
 niaunesiiini li,!;ht sueeessfnlly eonipelirii; witli the 
 electric Hfjlit for the illnininalion of larire linildinirs, 
 streets, or even of ocean steamers. liecent trials 
 with the electric lii;ht at the British Musenm and 
 other place's have now proved conclusively that 
 wUer<'ver a i;real deal of li;;lit is reipiired, "ras is 
 beaten out of the lield on the score of economy. As 
 respects the niinntenance of an e(|ual amount of 
 li;;ht, gas is twentv limes more costly, a dilference 
 which will speedily cover the original expense of 
 the necessary electrical apparatus. The niagnesinm 
 light, on the other hand, is nuich more costly tlian 
 gas ; and although the ores which could be used as 
 a source of magnesium are very abundant, yet any 
 probable cliea])eMing of the process of extrai-iing the 
 metal from these is not likely to make the light a 
 very economical one. Still, for any jiurpose where, 
 for a comparatively brief linu-, a very inli'nse light 
 is required, magnesium wire or ribbon has about it 
 almost the simplicity of a wax taper; nor are the 
 lamps at all complex l)v which tlie metal may be 
 burned for hours continuously. 
 
 Two kinds of magnesium lamps are made. In one 
 of these kinds, wire or tliin ribbon of the metal is 
 coiled al)Out a reel or bobbin. From this reel the 
 ribl)ou is drawn by means of two small rollers and 
 projected through a tube to the focus of a metallic 
 rellector, wdiere it passes througli the tiame of a 
 spirit-lamp to insure its continuous combustion. 
 Tlu'se rollers are kejit in motion either b\' an opera- 
 tor turning a small wlieel, or in the more expensive j 
 forms by clock-work. In the other kind of lam)) the i 
 magnesium is used in the form of dust, which is j 
 mixed with line drj- sand in the proporlicui of one of 
 the fornuT to two of the latter. Tills mixture is 
 placed in a funnel-shaped reservoir, and conducted, 
 by means of a narrow tube provided with a stop- 
 cock, to the llame of a spirit-lam|) which serves to 
 ignite and maintain tlu' llame of the jiowdered mag- 
 nesium. If nitrule of siroutia besubslituted for.sand, 
 a splendid red light is produced, and in Ibis way, by 
 using other chemicals, various colors can be obtain- 
 ed. It was about the year 1804 that magnesium was 
 first made on a commercial scale, and it is foimd 
 that the demand for it, although not decreasing, is 
 scarcely at all extending. It is almost wholly used 
 for burning in photographic lamps, for Hash lights, 
 and for fire-works. It has l)een attemjited to make 
 magnesium usefid for other purjioses. Various al- 
 loys have been made with it and other metals such 
 as lead, tin, zinc, cadmium, and silver; but they are 
 all brittle ami liable to change. It is very doui)tful, 
 therefore, if any of these alloys will beconu' iiseful 
 in the arts, and the metal itself is sc;ircely likely to 
 be available in the constrviction of objects of orna- 
 ment or utility, since, wlien exposed toilamji, it soon 
 becomes coated with a film of hydrateof magncsiuiu. 
 
 MAGNETISM.— The power whicli the magnet has 
 to attract iron. JIagnets are of two kinds, natural 
 and (iH'ficial. Natural magnets consist of the ore of 
 iron called magnetic, familiarly known as loadstone. 
 Artificial magnets are. for the most part, straight or 
 bent bars of leni]HTed steel. which have been magnet 
 ized liy the action of other magnets, or of thegalvau- 
 ic current. The power of the magnet to attract iron 
 is by no means eqiuil throughout its length. If a small 
 iron ball be suspended by a thread, and a magnet he 
 passed along in front of it from one enii to the other, 
 it is powerfully attracted at the ends, but not at all 
 in the middle, the magnetic force increasing with 
 the distance from the middle of the bar. The ends of 
 the magnet wherethe attractive power is greatest are 
 called its poles. By causing a magnetic needle mov- 
 
 ing horizontally to vibrate in front of the ilifTerent 
 parts of a magnet placed vertically, and counting the 
 nund)irof vibrations, t'aerateof incrcuHe of the mag- 
 netic intensity may be exactly found. 
 
 A nnignel has two poles or centers of magnetic 
 force, each having an eipial powi'r of attracting 
 iron. This is the only properly, however, whicli 
 they ])o.ssess in common, for when the- poll's of one 
 magnet are nnidi' to act on thosi'of another, a strik- 
 ing dissinnlarity is brought to light. It might be 
 thought that, by <lividing a 
 magnet at itsctntiT, the two 
 poles could be insulateil, the 
 one half containing all the 
 north jiolar maiini'lism. and 
 the other the south. When 
 this is done, however, both 
 lialves become separate mag- 
 nets, with two poles in each 
 — the original north and south 
 poles standing in the same 
 relation to the other two 
 F'J-'- I' poles called into existence by 
 
 the separation. We run therefwe certainly never 
 have line kind of magnetixin tvithfiit having it am'icia- 
 ted ill the name magnet with the name amount of the 
 opposite magiu'tlmn. It is this double manifestation 
 of force which ccjustitules the polarity of the mag- 
 net. The fact of a freely sus])endcd m:ignet taking 
 I up a fixed position h;is le<l to the theory that the 
 earth itself is a huge magnet, haviiu; its north and 
 south magnetic poles in the neighborhood of the 
 poles of tlie axis of rotation, and that the magnetic 
 needle or suspended magnet turns to them as it does 
 to those of a neighboring magnet. All the manifesta- 
 tions of terrestrial magnet ism give decided conlirma- 
 tion of this theory. It is on this view that the French 
 call the north jiole of the magnet the south pole (/>o/e 
 austral), and the soutli the north pole (pole liortal) ; 
 for if th'; earth be taken as the standard, its north 
 magnetic pole must attract the south pole of oth- 
 er magnets, and ricf nrsa. In England and (jermany 
 the north pole of a magnet is the one which, when 
 freely .sus|)eiided, points to the north, and no refer- 
 ence is made to its relation to the mjignetism of the 
 earth. All artificial magnets are either bar mag- 
 nets or else horse-shoe magnets. (See Fig. \.) When 
 powerful magnets are to be made, several thin bars 
 are placed side by side, with their poles lying in the 
 same way. They end in a piece of iron, to which 
 they arc bound by a brass screw or frame. Three or 
 four of these may be put into the bundle, and all 
 these again into bundles of three and four. Such a 
 collection of magnets is called a magniticinitynzine or 
 h<ittery. A magnet of this kind is more powerful than 
 a .solid one of the same weight and size, because thin 
 bars can be more strongly and regularly magnetized 
 thau thick ones. A good form of magnet is a paral- 
 lelopipcd of magnetic iron ore.with pieces of soft iron, 
 bound to its poles by a brass frame encircling the 
 whole. The lower ends of the §oft iron bars act as 
 the poles, and support the armature. The magnetic 
 needle is a small magnet nicely balanced on a fine 
 point. When a short bar of soft iron is suspended 
 from one end of a magnet it becomes for the time 
 powerfully magnetic. It assumes a north and south 
 pole, like a regular magnet, as may be seen by using 
 a small magnetic needle; and if its lower end be 
 dipped into iron filings, it attracts them as a magnet 
 would do. When it is taken away from the magnet 
 the filings fall off, and all trace of magnetism disap- 
 ])ears. It need not be in actual contacf to show mag- 
 netic properties ; when it is simply brought near, the 
 .same tiling is seen, though to a less extent. If the 
 inducing magnet be strong enough, the induced mag- 
 net, when in contact, can induce a bar like itself, 
 placed at its extremity, to become a strong magnet ; 
 and this second induced magnet may also irans- 
 luil the magnetism to a third, and so on. the action 
 being, however, weaker each time. If a steel bar
 
 MAGNETISM. 
 
 250 
 
 MAGNETISM. 
 
 be used for this experiment, a singular difference is 
 observed in its action; it is only after some time 
 that it begins to exhibit magnetic properties, and, 
 when exhibited, they are feebler than in the soft 
 iron bar. When the steel bar is removed, it does 
 not part instantly with its magnetism, as the soft 
 iron bar, but retains it permanently. Steel, there- 
 fore, has a force which, in the first instance, resists 
 the assumption of magnetism : and, when assumed, 
 resists its withdrawal. This is called the coercitire 
 force. The harder the temper of the steel, the more 
 is the coercitive force developed in it. It is this 
 force, also, in the loadstone, which enables it to re- 
 tain its magnetism. The inductive action of terres- 
 trial magnetism is a striking proof of the truth of 
 the theory already referred to, that the earth itself is 
 a very large magnet. When a steel rod is held in 
 a positioiT parallel to the dipping-needle, it»becomes 
 in the course of some time permanently magnet- 
 ic. The result is reached sooner when the bar is 
 rubbed with a piece of soft iron. A bar of soft iron 
 held in the same position is more powerfully but onlv 
 temporarily affected, and when reversed, the poles 
 are not reversed with the bar, but remain as before. 
 If when so held it receive at its end a few sharp 
 blows of a hammer, the magneti-sm is rendered 
 permanent, and now the poles are reversed when the 
 bar is reversed. The tor.sion caused by the blows of 
 the liammer appears to communicate to the bar a 
 coercitive force. We may understand from this how 
 the tools in work-shops are generally magnetic. 
 W^henever large masses of iron are stationary for any 
 length of time they are sure to give evidence of 
 magnetization, and it is to the inductive action of 
 theearth's poles acting through ages that the mag- 
 netism of tlie loadstone is to be attributed. Magnets, 
 when freshly magnetized, are sometimes more pow- 
 erful than they afterwards become. In that case 
 they gradually fall off in strength till they reach a j 
 point at whicii their strength remains constant. This 
 is called the puint of snturatiun. If the magxiet lias 
 not been raised to this point, it will lose nothing af- 
 ter magnetization. We may a.scertain whether a 
 magnet is at saturation by magnetizing it with a 
 more powerful magnet, and seeing whether it retains 
 more magnetism than before. The saturation point i 
 depends on the coercitive force of the magnet, and ] 
 not on the power of the magnet with which it is 1 
 rul.ibed. When a magnet is above saturation, it is ' 
 soon reduced to it by repeatedly drawing away the 
 armature from it. After reaching this point, mag- 
 nets will keep the same strengtli tor years together if I 
 not subjected to rough usage. It is favorable for 
 the preservation of magnets that they be provided ' 
 with an armature or keeper. The power of a horse- 
 shoe magnet is usually tested by the weight its arm- 
 ature can bear without breaking away from the mag- 1 
 net. Hacker gives the following formula for this I 
 weight : W=^i -^/m' ; W is the charge expressed in ' 
 pounds ; a, a constant to lie ascertained for a par- 
 ticular quality of steel ; and in is the weight in j 
 poiuids of the magnet. Small magnets, therefore, 
 are stronger for their size than the large ones. The 
 reason of tliis may be thus explained : Two magnets 
 of the same size and power, acting separately, sup- j 
 port twice the weight that one of tliem does; but if , 
 the two be joined, so as to form one magnet, they 
 do not sustain the double, for tlie two magnets [ 
 being in close proximity, act inductively on each 
 other, and so lessen the c(mjoint power. Similarly, 
 several magnets made U]i iiili) a battery have not a 
 force proportionate to tlieir number. Coidomli dis- 
 covered, by the oscillation of the magnetic needle in 
 the presence of magnets, that when magnet:) ore so i 
 pltired Vint two adjoining poles may aet on carh other 
 ■irithout the interfererire of the opposite polen, lliat is, 
 when the magnets are large compared with the dis- 
 tance between their centers, their nftnirtire or re- 
 pulsive force taries ini;ersely im the square if the dis- 
 tance. Gauss proved from this tlieoretically, and 
 
 exhibited experimentally, that when the distance 
 
 between the centers of two magnets is large com- 
 pared with the size of the magnets, that is, irlien 
 the action of both poles comes into play, their action on 
 earh olhtr taries inversely as the cnhe of the distance. 
 When a magnet is heated to redness it loses perma- 
 nentl}- every trace of magnetism; iron, also, at a 
 red lieat, ceases to be attracted by the magnet. At 
 temperatures below red heat the magnet parts with 
 some of its power, the loss increasing with the tem- 
 perature. The temperatures atwhich other substances 
 affected by the magnet lose their magnetism differ 
 from that of iron. Cobalt remains magnetic at the 
 liighest temperatures, and nickel loses this property 
 at'C63^ F. 
 
 Electru-mngnitism includes all phenomena in which 
 an electric current produces magnetism. The most 
 important result of this power of the current is the 
 electro-magnet. This consists (Fig. 1) generally of a 
 round bar of soft iron bent into the horse-shoe form, 
 with an insulated wire coiled round its extremities. 
 When a current passes througli the coil, the soft iron 
 bar Incomes instantly magnetic, and attracts the ar- 
 mature with a sharp click. When the current is 
 stopped, this power disapears as suddenly as it 
 came. Electro-magnets far outrival permanent mag- 
 nets in strength. Small electro-magnets have been 
 made by Joule whicli support 3,500 times their own 
 weight, a feat immeasurably superior to anything 
 performed by steel magnets. When the current is of 
 moderate strength, and the iron core more than a 
 third of an inch in diameter.yx" magmtism indvced is 
 in proportion to the strength of the current and of the 
 number of turns in the coil. When the bar is much 
 thinner than one-third of an inch, a maximum is 
 very soon reached beyond which anj- additional 
 turns of the wire give no additional magnetism; and 
 even when the core is thick, these turns must not be 
 heaped on each other, so as to place them beyond in- 
 fluencing the core. It follows from the above prin- 
 ciple, tliat. in the horse-shoe magnet, where the in- 
 ductive action in the armature must be taken into ac- 
 count, the weight which the magnet sustains is in pro- 
 portion to the sguai-es of the strengths of the currents 
 and to the squares of the number of turns of theirire. 
 This maximum is in different magnets proportional 
 to the area of section or to the square of the diameter 
 of the core. The electro-magnet, from the ease witli 
 which it is made to assume or lay aside its magnet- 
 ism, or to reverse its poles, is of the utmost value in 
 electrical and mechanical contrivances. The action 
 ! of the electro-magnet is quite in keeping with Am- 
 pere's theory, as the current of the coil, acting on 
 , the various currents of tlie individual molecules, 
 places them parallel to itself, in which condition the 
 soft iron liar acts powerfully as a magnet. The di- 
 rection of the current and the nature of the coil be- 
 ing known, the poles are easily determined by Am- 
 pere's rule. Builders of magnetic engines take ad- 
 vantage of the facility with which the poles of an 
 electro-magnet ma}' be reversed, b.y which attrac- 
 tions and repulsions may be so arranged with another 
 magnet as to produce a constant rotation. The forms 
 in which they occur are exceedingly various. Fig. 2, 
 shows a simple and common construction, whereby 
 a double-beam engine of much power is obtained. 
 Powerfid machines of this kind have been made 
 [ with a view to supplant the steam-engine ; but such 
 attempts, both in respect of economy and constancy, 
 have proved utter failures. 
 
 Mii(jntto.eUctririty includes all phenomena where 
 
 magnetism gives rise to electricity. I'nder Induc- 
 
 ■tiini if Electric CurnntsW. was stated that when a 
 
 I coil, in which a current circulates, is (piickly placed 
 
 within another coil unconnected with it. a contrary 
 
 induced current in the outer coil marks its entrnnce, 
 
 and when it is willidrawn. a direct induced current 
 
 attends its withdrawal. While the ])rimary coil re- 
 
 j mains stationary in the secondary coil, though the 
 
 I current continues to flow stcadilyin the primary, no
 
 MAHRATTA HELMET. 
 
 251 
 
 MAIL. 
 
 current is iiiduccd in Ihi' scrnndary roll. It is altio 
 shown, tluit if, wliile the priiimry Cdil is Btiitionary, 
 
 the Btrcnjitli of its cvirriMit be incrciiscd or (iiminisji- 
 ed, I'lU-li inereiiae and djmiinitinn induce opposite 
 currents iu the secondary coil. C'liange, in fact, 
 whether in the position or current strenjith of the 
 primary coil, induces currents in llie second.'iry coil, 
 and the intensity of the induced current is in pro- 
 portion to the iiinount and suddenness of the change. 
 In sinirular coulirmation of Anijiere's theory, a per- 
 manent har-inairnet may be substituted for the pri- 
 mary coil iu these experiments, and the same results 
 obtained with f;reater intensity. Wluii abar-mai^net 
 is introduced into the secondary coil, a current is in- 
 dicated, and wlien it is withdrawn, a current in a 
 coutrarj' direction is observed, and these currents 
 take place in the directions rccpured by Ampere's 
 theory. A change of position of the magnet is mark- 
 ed by a current, as in the former case. If we had the 
 means of increasing or lessening tlie magnetism of 
 the bar, currents would be induced the sameas those 
 obtained by strengthening or weakening the current 
 in the primary coil. It is this in<luclive power of 
 iron at the moment that a change takes place in its 
 magnetism, that forms the basis of niagnelo-electric 
 machines. Of late years qinte a new era has arisen 
 in the construction of magneto-electric machines. 
 The compactness, simplicity of construction, and 
 marvelous power which the new machines possess, 
 give them quite a novel importance in practical 
 elcctricitj'. The names chiefly associated with the 
 new improvements are Wilde of Manchester, Siemens 
 and Wlieatstone, and Gramme of Paris. Mr. II. 
 Wilde, in 1860, patented a magneto-electric machine, 
 foimded on the principle that a current or a magnet 
 indefinitely weak can be made to indurea current (/r a 
 megnet (if indefinite strength. A Wildi's machine H 
 ton in weight, measuring about 5 feet in length and 
 height, and 20 inches in width, driven by a steam- 
 engine, produces a most lirilliant electric light, and 
 exhibits the most astonishing of heating powers. 
 Wheats! one and Siemens gave a new interpretation 
 to Wilde's principle. 
 
 The great drawback of all the forms of the machine 
 is the enormous velocity at which they rotate some 
 2,000 or more revolutions in the minute. -Vt tliis 
 speed a machine soon wears itself out. Another dis- 
 advantage is the heating of the armatures in Wilde 
 and Ladd's machine. Ferguson's has never been tried 
 on a large scale. It is found necessary to keep the 
 armatures cool by a flow of cold water. This heat. 
 however removed, is manifestly a mere squandering 
 of the energy of motion, and a loss to the current 
 given otT. A third objection is the loss that always 
 takes place when the side-springs change from the 
 one ring to the other, sparks more or less bright ac- 
 companying the change. For the electric light. how- 
 ever, the alternate currents are used, and this source 
 of loss isnot experienced. These defects are removed 
 
 m the latest form oi thoelortro.mn!»nelic machine l)y 
 Gramme, of I'aris. in it, instead of a solid armature 
 of iron, a ring is employed on which a 
 great number of bojibins of wire arc 
 set. Astonishing as were the elTecta 
 produci'd by Wilde's machine, those ob- 
 tained from (iramme's seen quite to 
 eclipse Ihem. In (comparing two mag- 
 neto-electric machines, we must lake 
 into account the kind of wire used 
 for the revolving armature. For ten- 
 sion purposes, a thin and long wire gives 
 Ihcliest results: for ipiantily or healing 
 purposes, a short and thick wire does 
 best. To compare a tension with a 
 quantity armature, the sam ■ test even 
 in the same machine would give most 
 contradictory results. Hut comparing, 
 so far as [xisssible, machines intended 
 for the same purpose Grammi; seems 
 to have the advantage of all others. 
 In the first place, the speed of revolu- 
 tion seldom exceeds BOO revolutions 
 per minute : yOO is sufticient for most purjMises. A 
 Granune machine driven by the hand will melt 10 
 inches of an iron wire j's of an inch in diameter, a 
 feat not accomplished by any other arrangement. 
 The electric light got by a 3-liorse-power engine 
 working a machine a ton in weight is eipial to up- 
 wards of 8,000 sperm candles. A si":nal-light of this 
 kind has been constructed for the House of Lords, 
 under the superintendence of the endnent engineer 
 Conrad W. Cooke, who has rendered no small ser- 
 vice in perfecting the machine. The carbons con- 
 sumed last four hours, and when burned out are in- 
 stantaneously replaced. A Gramme machine adapt- 
 ed for electro-plating, and worked by a 1-horse- 
 ])ower engine, deposits nearly 27 oz. of silver per 
 lionr. an achievement far transcending the similar 
 performance of other machines. Among the heat- 
 ing wonders of the Granune machine we are told of 
 a tile half an inch in diameter being burned up in .5 
 minutes, of 1.5 feet of No. 18 |)Iatiuum wire being 
 broughl to a glowing heat, and of 8 feet of iron wire 
 .0.~)1. See /•'lectn'riti/ And (Idlcdiilmii. 
 
 MAHKATTA HELMET.— An Indian casipie, hav- 
 ing a long movable nfisc-iiiece of a singular shape; a 
 large mail hood which protects all the head, and a 
 neck-guard which descends to the loins. 
 
 MAIDEN. — A name given to a machine for behead- 
 ing criminals, which was in use in Scotland from 
 about the middle of the 10th century to nearly the 
 end of the 17th century. It is said to have been in- 
 troduced into Scotland by the Regent Jlorton, who 
 had seen it at Halifax, in Yorkshire, and was him- 
 self the first to suffer by it, whence the proverb. 
 "He that invented the maiden first handselled it." 
 Morton, for anything that is known to the contrary, 
 may have introduce<l the maiden; but he certainly 
 was not its first victim. Fifteen years before he was 
 put to death by it (l.")81 a. d.) it was employed to 
 behead Thomas Scott, of Cambusmichael. one of the 
 murderers of Rizzio (l-'JOO a. d). It would seem at 
 first to have been called indifferently "The Maiden" 
 and "The Widow" — both names, it may be conjec- 
 ttired, having their origin in some such pleasantry 
 I as was glanced at by one of the maiden's last vic- 
 tims, the Earl of Argyle (1681 a. d.), when he pro- 
 i tested that it was " The sweetest maiden he had ever 
 ! kissed." A frightful instrument of punishment used 
 'in Germany in the Middle Ages was called "The 
 ; Virgin." But it had no resemblance to the maiden, 
 which was exactly like the French guillotine, except 
 that it had no turning-plank on which to bind the 
 criminal. The maiden which was used in the Scot- 
 tish capital is now in the Museum of the Antiquaries 
 of Scotland at Edinburgh. The term nuiiden t also 
 applied to a fortress which has never been taken. 
 j MAIL. — A term signifying a metal net-work, and 
 I ordinarily applied to such when used as body defen-
 
 UAILLET. 
 
 252 
 
 UAJOB-OEMEBAL. 
 
 sive armor. Well-made mail formed an admirable 
 defense against all weapons except lire-arms, and its 
 pliability and comparative liglituoss gave it favor over 
 the more cumbrous plate-armor. 
 
 MAILLET.— A kind of mallet formerly tised by the 
 French in their engagements. The maillet was used 
 attlie famous battle ""Dcs Trente" in 13.51. Under 
 the reign of Charles VI. a Parisian mob forced the 
 arsenal, and took out a large quantity of mallets, 
 with which they armed themselves for the purpose 
 of murdering the custom-house officers. The per- 
 sons wlio assembled on this occasion were afterwards 
 called Maillotinx. In the days of Louis XII. the Eng- 
 lish archers carried mallets as offensive weapons.^ 
 
 MAILLOTIN. — An old French term which signified 
 an ancient weapon that was used to attack men who 
 wore helmets and cuirasses. A faction in France 
 was also distinguished by this appellation. See 
 Ma'llet. 
 
 MAIN. — A term signifying first in size, rank, or 
 importance. It has "many useful compounds at 
 tached to it, such as : Ma'in body of an Army, the 
 body of troops, other than those forming the ad- 
 vanced or rear guard. Main guard, a body of men 
 generally of the strength sufficient to guard a person 
 or place from injury or attack. It remains on duty 
 24 hours before being relieved. Large forts or 
 fortresses have a main guard chosen from the troops 
 garrisoning them, luider which guard all disturbers 
 of peace, drunkards, etc., are placed, as well as all 
 people who cannot il)y night give an account of them- 
 selves, or who do not know Uie parole. Main mag- 
 m'ni-, the principal magazine in a work or battery, 
 in which there is more than one magazine. Mw'/i 
 irnrk. in fortification, the principal work as distin- 
 guished from the outworks. 
 
 " MAINADE.— Tlie French term for a body of ma- 
 r.'iuilers commanded "by a chief. 
 
 MAIN-GATJCHE.— A dagger of Spanish origin es- 
 pecially used in duels in t'he 16th century. On one 
 side of" the hilt it has a guard .which is curved and 
 carried up to the pommel in the form of a half shell; 
 from the talon, or heel of the blade, on the opposite 
 side, is a hollow indent, intended to hold the thumb. 
 The weapon v.'as held in the left hand, with the 
 thumb al)Ove and the gviard below ; and it was used, 
 while making an attack, with the sword held in the 
 right hand to ward off the blows or thrusts that the 
 adversary might make with his sword. SeePeiinated 
 Dftqger. 
 
 MAIN PIN. — A strong cylindrical bar passing ver- 
 tically through a hole inlhe front bolster of theVag- 
 on bc'idy. and through one in a corresponding bolster 
 in the fore carriage? The pull of the traces is con- 
 veyed from the fore carriage to the body solely 
 through the ma'n-pin. This means of connection 
 between fore carriage and body allows the former 
 to turn horizontallyindependently of the latter. 
 
 MAIN-SPRING.— The spring in a gunlock which 
 drives thf hammer. See Ijock. 
 
 MAINTENANCE.— The Cap of Maintenance, some- 
 times callc<l Clip of Digii'ty. a cap of crimson velvet 
 lined with ermine, with two points ttirned to the 
 back, originally only worn by Dukes, but afterwards 
 assigned to various families of distinction. Those 
 families who are entitled to a cap (.f maintenance 
 place tlieir crests on it instead of on a wreath. Ac- 
 cording to Sir .loliTi Feariic, "the wearing of the cap 
 liiid a iH-ginning from tlie Duke or General of an 
 army, who, having gotten victory, cau.sed the chiefest 
 ofthesul)dued enemies whom he led to follow him in 
 his triumph, bearing his hat or cap after him, in token 
 of stibjection and C'aptivity." Most of the reigning 
 Dukes of Germany, and various families belonging 
 to the peerage both of Kni;land anil of Scotland, bear 
 their crests on a cap of mainli'Uunee. 
 
 MAISON DU ROI. The King's Household. Cer- 
 tain select bodies of troops were so called duringthe 
 Monarchj' of France, and consisted of the (rordei- 
 du-C(/rpa, the Uendarinoi, the C'/ievaux-legirs, the 
 
 Mim.w-nfta'ren. the (rendarinerie. the GrenndierK t\ 
 'V/^m^.the regiments belonging to the Fn-uchand the 
 Swiss Guards, and the Cmt Suisxes. The Maison- 
 du-Koi was not considered a separate establishment 
 from the rest of the Army until the reign of Louis 
 IV. This establishment was successively formed by 
 different kings out of militia companies, which they 
 took into their bodv-guard. 
 
 MAITHE D'ARMES.— A term in general use among 
 the French, signifying a Fencing Master. Every 
 regiment has a Maitre d'Armes attached to it. 
 
 MAJESTY.— A title of honor now usually bestow- 
 ed on Sovereigns. Among the Romans, Maje^titu was 
 used to signify the power and dignity of the people; 
 and the Senatorial, Consular, or Dictatorial Majesty 
 was spoken of, in consequence of these functionaries 
 deriving their power from the people. After the 
 overthrow of the Republic, Majestas, became exclu- 
 sively the attribute of the Emperors, Bignitnx being 
 thenceforth that of the Majestrates. The MajeMm of 
 the Emperors of Rome was supposed to descend to 
 those of Germany as their successors; but the adop- 
 tion of the attribute by other European Sovereigns 
 is of comparatively late date. Its use began in Eng- 
 land in the latter part of tne reign of Henry VIIL, 
 up to which time, "Your Grace" or "Your "High- 
 ness" had been the appropriate mode of addressing 
 the Sovereign. Henry II. was the first King of France 
 who was si^uilarly styled, and Louis XL and his suc- 
 cessors became entitled, in virtue of a papal Indl, to 
 call themselves by the title of "Most Christian Maj- 
 esty." Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain similarly 
 obtained for themselves and their successors the title 
 of "Most Catholic Majesty;" and Stephen, Duke of 
 Hungary, and Maria Theresa, of "Apostolic Majes- 
 t}-." The Emperor of Austria is now styled His Im- 
 perial Royal Majesty; in German. "K.K. (abbrevi- 
 ated for Kaiserliche"Konigliche)Majcstat " Emper- 
 ors, Kings, and Queens are now generallj" addressed 
 as"Y'our Majesty," not including the Sultan of 
 Turkey, whose proper style is "Your Highness." 
 The Sovereign of the I'nited Kingdom is personally 
 addressed as " Y'our Majesty," and letters are ad- 
 dressed to "The King's" or "Queen's" "Most Ex- 
 cellent Majesty." In Heraldry, an eagle crowned and 
 holding a scepter, is blazoned as an "Eagle in his 
 Majesty." 
 
 MAJOR. — 1. An officer next in rank above a Cap- 
 tain and below a Lieutenant-colonel. He is the 
 lowest Field UfHcer. Since the reorganization of 
 the English army, the Major is a selected man. and 
 his term of service in this rank is for five years, 
 after which, if not re-employed, he is put on half- 
 ' pay. This does not relate to Majors of the artillery 
 ! anil engineers. The duties of a Major depend upon 
 the nature of the service on which he is employed, 
 In the line, whilst with his regiment, he has to sec 
 to the drill and equipment of the men in conjunction 
 with the Adjutant. Being a Field Officer, he is 
 mounted on all parades and in action. In the artil- 
 lery and engineers, the rank of Major lias been re- 
 cently reintroduced, and single batteries of artillery 
 are now commanded by otlicers of this rank, instead 
 of by a Captain, as hitherto. It was in the year 
 18'27"that the rank of Major in the artillerj- was abol- 
 ished, its holders being made Lieutenant-colonels. 
 It ap|)ears that this class (jf Field OlHcer did not ex- 
 ist in the army imtil the seventeenth century. 3. 
 Used adjcctively, the word Major, in the arm}- sig- 
 nifies a superior class in a certain rank, as Sergeants- 
 Major, who are superior Sergeants ; except in the 
 case of (iencral Olticers. in which its signification 
 is arljilrarily limited to ^Major-general, the third of 
 the four classes of Generals. 
 
 MAJOR GENERAL.— The rank next below tlial of 
 Lieutenant-general, and above Brigadier-general. 
 He usually Commands a Division. A Major's com- 
 mand in peace time in England is that of a District ; 
 in India, a Division of the Army. A Brigade of the 
 army is properly a Major-general's conunaud, Thus,
 
 MALABAR GUNS. 
 
 253 
 
 HANBY BHOT. 
 
 on Hcrvirc with a larirr armv. a ncncral would com- 
 tnaiid II C'lr/iK il' A mil i\ ii l.iciMciiaiit-^^eiicral a Di- 
 visicin, mill a MMJor-i^cniTal a Hrifiadc. 
 
 MALABAR GUNS. Heavy pieces of oninaiK-e, 
 wliieli were iiuide in llie Maialiar emiiilry, and were 
 formed liy means of iron bars joiniil lofrellier with 
 hoops. They were very long and extremely un- 
 wieldy. 
 
 MALCHU8. — A short sword of Italian origin, used 
 in I lie lifleenlli oentury, and very much like the .'Ui«- 
 
 lll V . 
 
 MALINGERER. -A soldier who feigns him.self sick. 
 Any soldier convicted of malingering, feigning or 
 producing disease, or of intentionally ]ir(iiraciing his 
 cure or aggravating his disease, is liable to be tried 
 by a C'ourt-Martial for "Conduct prejudicial to good 
 order and military discipline," and to suffer the pun- 
 ishment attached to that offense. See Feigning of 
 
 Jtist'llAI'. 
 
 MALKIN ■ A sponge withajointedstaffforcaniions. 
 
 MALLEABILITY. The property which certain met- 
 als possess of being reducible tothinleaves, cither by 
 hammering (hence the corresponding German word 
 hiiinini rl)fir/,-eif)i>r by laniinaliim between rollers. jThe 
 order in which the nialleablemctalscxliibit this prop- 
 erly is as follows: gold, silver, copper, platinum, 
 palladium, iron, aluminium, tin, zinc, lead, cadmi- 
 um, nickel, cobalt, (iold far surpasses all other met- 
 als in malleability, being capable of reduction into 
 films not exceeding the 200,0t)0th of an inch in thick- 
 ness; and silver and coppcrmay be reduced to leaves 
 f f great tenuity. Although gold and silver also pre- 
 sent the pro])erty i<f (lit utility in tlu- highest degree, 
 there is no constant relation between the two prop- 
 erties ; for example, iron, although it may be reduc- 
 ed to extremely thin wire, is not nearly so malleable 
 as gold, silver, or copper. 
 
 MALLET.— A wooden hammer. it is used for a 
 varii'ly of purposes in the field, such as driving pic- 
 kets, tent-pins, etc. The head is made of elm, and 
 the helve of asli. JIallcts vary in size and shapcaiid 
 are made in India of babool or soomlry wood. Jlal- 
 letsare also very generally used by mechanics, such 
 as joiners and carpenters, coopers, tinmen, etc. 
 
 MALLET'S MORTAR.— A monster mortar manufac- 
 tured some years ago by .Mr. ^Mallett. It consisted 
 at the lower end of a solid cast-inin breech, abutting 
 on which were a series of wrought-irou hoops, fol- 
 lowing each other in succession up to the muzzle; 
 these were inserted into each other by rebates, and 
 ■were firmly secured by six iron .staves, at equal in- 
 tervals, abovit its surface, extending longitudinally 
 the whole length of the mortar. The total weight of 
 the mortar was 50 tons 13i cwt. ; the diameter of 
 the shell 3 feet, and its weight, when unfilled, 26^ 
 cwt. From the experiments made with this mortar, 
 it appears that there was a tendency to sepanition 
 between the trunnions and the cascable, and con- 
 sequently- there was reason to think that it never 
 could be employed on service. This piece of ord- 
 nance is not in the service, but a model of it may 
 be seen in the Royal United Service Institution, 
 AVhitehall. London. 
 
 MALTA.— The most ancient and celebrated of Mil- 
 itary Orders is that of Sriint John nfJerumlem. which 
 owes its origin to the Hospital of St. Jolin, foundcil in 
 Jerusalem in the year 1048. It became in 1118 a 
 Religious Order of Knighthood, and from 1309 the 
 Knights were called Knightu HosjiiUiUers of IVwde.t. 
 and from IUSO Knights of ifaltn. The representative 
 of this Order in England was the Prior of C'lerken- 
 well, who had a seat in Parliament, and was styled 
 the First Baron of England. This Order is now al- 
 most extinct, no Grand blaster having been elected 
 since 180,5. The badge worn bj- all the Knights is a 
 Maltese cross, enamelled white and edged with gold, 
 suspended to a black ribbon. Some members of this 
 Order did duty during the war of 1870-71 with the 
 sick and wounded, the order thus appropriately end- 
 ing, as it had begun, in hospitals. 
 
 MALTESE CART. .V (art which ran be used vpith 
 
 eithir BiiiL'li' or dmibli' draught. The two side pieccB 
 of the cart form the shafts, and are bolted across an 
 axle-tree bed, and connected also by a hind ear-bed, 
 splinter-liar, and axis slats. The tart is formed of 
 wood, and is adapted for man draught. Its weight 
 is und<r 7 iwt. 
 
 MALTESE CROSS. A cross of eight points, of the 
 form wiirn as a decoration b^' tin; Hospitallers and 
 other Orders of Knighthood. 
 
 MAHELIERE Armor for the breast, from which 
 depended two chains, one attached to the [lommel, 
 and llie other to tin- ^eaMiard cf the ^word. 
 
 MAMELUKES MAMLOUKS MEML00K8.— An Ar- 
 abic word signifying . »'"»''/(, the name given in Egypt 
 to tlu; slaves of the Heys, brought from the Cauca- 
 sus, and who formed their armed force. When 
 Genghis Kh;in desolated great jiart of Asia in the 
 13th Century, and carried away a multitude of the 
 inhabitants for slaves, the Sultan of Egypt bouglit 
 12,000 of them, partly Mingrelians and Tcherkesses, 
 but mostly Turks, and formed them into a body of 
 troops. i?ut they soon found their own power so 
 great that, in 12.')4. they made one of their own num- 
 ber Sultan of Egypt, founding the Dynasty of the 
 Baharites, which gave place to another Mameluke 
 Dynasty, that of the Borjites, in 1382. The Cauca- 
 sian element predominated in the first Dynasty, the 
 Tartar element in the second. In general, they form- 
 ed able anci energetic riders, and Egypt under their 
 sway arrived at a degree of prosperity and pfiwerto 
 which she hail been a stranger from the rlavs of Se- 
 sostris. Selim I., who overthrew tlur Afameluke 
 Kingdom in \r>n. was compelled to permit the con- 
 tinuance of the 24 Mameluke Beys as Governors of 
 the I'rovinces. This arrangement subsisted till the 
 middle of the IBtli Century, when the number and 
 wealth of the Mamelukes gave them such a iirejion- 
 derance of power in Egypt that the Paslia named 
 by file Porte was reduced to a merely nominal ruler. 
 The number of them scattered tlirout;lioiit all Egypt 
 was between lO.UOO and 12,000 men." Tlieir number 
 was kept up chiefly by slaves brought from the Cau- 
 casus, from among whom the Beys and other Offi- 
 cers of State were exclusively chosen. Their last 
 brilliant achievements were on the occasion of the 
 French Invasion of Egypt, and during the time im- 
 mediately followinjr the retirement of the French. 
 At this time Murad Bey stood at their head. But 
 in 1811 they were foully massacred by Mohammed 
 All. afterwards Viceroy of Egypt. 
 
 MAMMOTH POWDER.— A variety of powder form- 
 ed by breaking up mill cake. Exact uniformity of 
 size and shape of grains does not therefore exist. 
 The average granulation is 85 to the pound. The 
 diameters of the holes in the testing sieves are .75 
 inches and .110 inches. See Gunpowder. 
 
 MANACLES. — Handcuffs or nipperK for prisoners. 
 The two pieces of metal are hinged together, the 
 upper portion of which is curved so as to fit the 
 wrist, and the lower portion is straight except at a 
 point near its outer end, where it is slightly bent. 
 
 MANBY SHOT.— Without entering upon" a detailed 
 description of the difTercnt plans proposed, from 
 time to time, for establishing communication be- 
 tween a stranded vessel and the shore, it will, per- 
 haps, be well to mention that Mauby's apparatus is 
 not the only one which has been used for this pur- 
 pose. Kites have also been suggested as a simple 
 means of carrying a line from a wreck to the shore, 
 and are manufactured fortius pur|)ose by the •'Ship- 
 wrecked ^Mariners' Society, London Bridge." The 
 board of trade employed, to a great extent, until 
 1805, Dennett's rockets, in preference to Manby's 
 shot ; and there can be no question that the balance 
 of advantages inclines strongly to the side of the 
 rockets. 
 
 In 1865 a rocket proposed by Colonel Boxer,R. A., 
 was adopted by the board of trade to supersede Den- 
 nett's rocket, to which it is preferred because- — 1st.
 
 UANCH. 
 
 254 
 
 MANDARIN. 
 
 The range of Colonel Boxer's rocket is little, if at all, 
 inferior, and in every other respect it is much supe- 
 rior; 2d. The combination of Mr. Dennett's two rock- 
 ets is very objectionable, and from their velocity they 
 frequently carry away the line, and sometimes both 
 do not ignite. They are also double the expense. 
 These rockets are fast superseding Manby's shot at 
 all stations, and the latter may shortly be expected 
 to become entirelj' obsolete. 
 
 There are two natures of Manby's shot in the serv- 
 ice, the 24-pounder oblong or" cylindrical," shown 
 in the drawing, and the G-pounder spherical shot. 
 They are designated 24-pounder and 6-pounder, re- 
 
 spectively .from their calibers, not from their weights. 
 The 24-pouiuler oblong, or " cylindrical " Manby's 
 shot, is a cast-iron c\"lindro-couoidal projectile, with 
 a slightl}' rounded base, and about Ij calibers in 
 length. The shot is drilled down its longer axis for 
 the reception of a wrought-iron bolt, which passes 
 completely through the projectile from end to end, 
 and projects about five inches beyond the base, ter- 
 minating in an eye, to which is attached a plaited 
 hide thong 3 feet in length. Four holes, for the re- 
 ception of " fuses," are drilled into the shot at the 
 base, equidistant from one another and from the cen- 
 ter of the base, anil slightly inclining inwards. These 
 holes are conical in form, and are about the same 
 diameter as the fuse-holes of the 13 and 10 inch mor- 
 tar shells. They are about .Si inches in length and 
 are roughed in the interior to afford a better hold to 
 the fuses. The hi<le thong, or " strop," which is fast- 
 ened to tlip eye-bolt, is made of four strips of raw 
 horse-hiile.doublecl tbrougli the eye and tightly plait- 
 ed, the plait being further secured by being stitched 
 in several i)laces with hide. The end of the thong is 
 formed into a loo)) which is tightly woolded with fine 
 tarred spun-yarn. These projectiles weigh (with 
 thong; aliout 80^ pounds. 
 
 The (J-pounder spherical Manb3-'s shot is rarely de- 
 manilcil. and is scarcely to be considered as a service 
 projectile. It consists of a diajihragm sliell tilled 
 with lead, and having an iron loop llxed into it, to 
 which is attached a thong similar to that of the ob- 
 
 long j^rojectile. This shot is without fuse-holes. It 
 weighs about 8 poimds. 
 
 The action of a oblong .shot is as follows: The 
 end of the line is made fast to the loop-hole of the 
 thong, the rest of the line being carefully coiled either 
 in a basket or upon the ground or deck, and a fuse is 
 placed in each of the four holes made for the pur- 
 pose. The fuses being uncapped, the projectile is 
 carefully placed in the piece with its base toward 
 the muzzle, and upon the discharge of the piece 
 carries out the line, one end of which being 
 retained, agood communication is thus established 
 between the ves.sel and the shore. The use of the 
 hide thong is to remove the line from the immediate 
 flash of the discharge, and so prevent it from being 
 burned. The fuses serve, by the bright light which 
 they give forth, to indicate the path of the shot and 
 guide the tiring party in laying the piece. The 
 strength and direction of the wind must be consi- 
 dered in determining the direction to be given, the 
 trajectorj' being affected by them to a very great ex- 
 tent, owing to the influence which the wind has 
 upon the line. With deep-sea line, and with the or- 
 dinary charge of 12 ounces, the range varies from 
 400 yards downward, according to the strength and 
 direction of the wind. The 6-pounder is used in the 
 same way, with the exception that, having no fuses, 
 the operation of fixing and uncapping them is dis- 
 pensed with. These projectiles are maiidy used to 
 est-Ablish a communication between the shore and a 
 stranded vessel, but the principle is applicable to a 
 variety of other purposes, etc. 
 
 The maximum charge for the 24-pounder oblong 
 Manby's shot is only 12 ounces, giving, with 4.5'^ of 
 elevation, a range from 400 yards downward, ac- 
 cording to the strength and direction of the wind. 
 If a higher charge is used, the line is generally broken. 
 See Life-mring liockets. 
 
 MANCH MAUNCH.— A frequent charge in English 
 Heraldry, meant to represent a sleeve with long pen- 
 dant ends, of the form worn by ladies in the reign 
 of Henry I. Or, a manch gules, has been for a long 
 time the arms of the Hastings family, one of whoiii 
 was steward of the household to Henry I. 
 
 MANDARIN. — A term applied to Chinese officers 
 of every graile by foreigners. It is derived from 
 the Portuguese mandnr, to command ; the Chinese 
 equivalent is Kwan. There are nine ranks, each 
 distinguished by a different-colored ball or button 
 placed on the apex of the cap, by a peculiar em- 
 blazonrj' on the breast, and a different clasp of the 
 girdle. The balls are ruby, coral, sapphire, a blue 
 opaque stone, crystal, opaque white shell, worked 
 gold, plain gold, and silver. Theoretically, these 
 grades are indicative of relative merit, but as office 
 and titles are sold to a great extent, the competitive 
 examinations, which are the only legitimate road to 
 distinction, have lost much of their value. A Man- 
 darin is not allowed to hold office in his Native Prov- 
 ince; the intention being to prevent intrigue, and to 
 draw to Pekin the ambition and talent of the coun- 
 try, where temporary employment is given in sub- 
 ordinate offices, prior to appointments to the Prov- 
 inces. He is not allowed to marry in the jurisdic- 
 tion under his control, nor own land in it, nor have 
 ' a near relative , holding office vmder him ; and he is 
 i seldom contintied in office in the Station or Prov- 
 ince for more than three years — a system of espion- 
 age which serves further to strengthen the Imperial 
 Government. It is incumbent on every Provincial 
 Officer to report on the character and qualificationa 
 of all under him, which he periodically transmits to 
 1 the Board of Civil Service ; the points of character 
 are arranged under six different heads, viz., to those 
 who are not diligent, the incfticient, tlie superficial, 
 the \mtalented, sii[)erannuated, and diseased. Ac- 
 cording to the opinions given in this report, officers 
 are elevated or degraded so many step in the scale 
 of merit, like boys in a class. They are reqinred to 
 accuse themselves when remiss or guilty of crime.
 
 MANDILION. 
 
 255 
 
 MANGANESE. 
 
 MANDILION. — A soldicr'.s looHe coat— viHiiiiUy an 
 
 oilier .j;iriMiiil, witlioiit, slccvts. 
 
 MANDREL. An arlior or axis on wliicli work is 
 tcnipcinirily iilaccil lo lie liinicd. Tlic arlior wliii li 
 revolves ill the lieadstoek of a lallie and carries llie 
 upper pulley anil also the cliiick or faee.pliile, if one 
 be used. 'iVuversiiii; mandrels are used in eonnc'e- 
 lion willi 1, lilies, and are driven by ^eariiiL' from a 
 eoimlersliafl overhead. The term i> aNo eiii|)loyed in 
 fiirL'inir. to iU'i:ole a rod used to i)reserve the interior 
 form of hollow-work. 
 
 MANEGE. -Till- art of horsemanship or of training; 
 horses; also, a school for tcachiiii; horsemanship, 
 and for traiiiiiii^ lior.scs. See JIiirM'iiiiin.i/iij), and 
 
 MANEUVER.- A term from the French, commnn- 
 
 l}- wrillen iiiiiiii'iirri\ and sijinifyini; 'handy-work,' 
 is somewhat vajiuel}' used in Kniilish dimilitary and 
 naval lanj;uai,'c to denote collateral movements, not 
 openly apparent, of bodies of men or squadrons of t 
 ships, by which an enc>my is coerced, or by wddch , 
 it issouuhl lo compel him to take some course ad- 
 verse to his interests. I 
 
 MANEUVERING WHEELS.— The eccentric truck- j 
 wheels used on Sea-ioasI Carriafjes for reiinlalinj^ 
 the motion to and from battery. When it Ijccomes ^ 
 necessary to check the re<'oil of the i^un-carriage, the j 
 wheels are thrown out of near by means of a hand- | 
 spike inserted in the j<ocket attached to the end of 
 the axle-tree, and the carriaire moved on slidinii' fric- 
 tion. When the fjim is to be moved into baltery, the 
 wheels are thrown into ijear in a similar manner, 
 and the front ol the carriajie moves on rollinir fric- 
 tion. In the IS-inch carriage there are two pairs of | 
 maneuvcrini; w heels, one pair beinu; placed in front 
 and the other jiairnear thcrcarend of the carriasre. 
 iSee .Sr«-c"iM^ and ddrrixiri ('iirn'ii(/e«. '' 
 
 MANEUVER MARCHES. Man'jics made to ifain j 
 a posilion, the possession of whii'li compels the ene- 
 my to leave the position he is oceupyinir. When 
 such marches are under the oliservation of the ene- ■ 
 my, lliey ari' termed .}f<iii<iriirn'«. An example of 
 manoeuvre marches is seen inthi' movements of the i 
 dill'erent cor])S of the French Army in 180.5, from 
 Ihe time they crossed the Khine initil they crossed 
 the Danuljc, since bj' their execution, the Austrian I 
 position at Ulm was lurneil and was no longer ten- I 
 able by tlu' Austrian army. See ( 'onri ntratiun, Mor- 
 chin, S[iin-hiH and 'rurlicdl Mn n-lifn. 
 
 MANEUVER OF HEAVY GUNS. -The introduction 
 of iron-clad vessels of war, and of larger cannon us- 
 in;; jirojectiles of greati)' increased power, has ren- 
 dered it necessary that more complete protection for J 
 the gun and for the cannoniers should be provided 
 than that furnished in the batteries of the present 
 day. This want has lirought fortli a system of De- I 
 ])ressing Carriages, by wliicli Ihe gun, after being 
 tired, is drawn below the jiarapet and there loaded. 
 Of these carriages the " MoncrieiT" in Europe, and ' 
 those known as the " King" and "Bnffingtou," in- } 
 ven'ed 5n the United States, have met with the 
 most favor, but the general adaptaliility for service 
 of no one of them has yet been estal)lished. The 
 only pl.'in jiroposed, with Ihe view of olTering increas- 
 ed protectiini in maneuvering lieavy cannon on tlie 
 carriages now in our service, is that of the late Col- 
 onel Benton, of the Ortlnance Department. In this 
 system the movements are effected by two climns or 
 r<ipi», worked by a winillnKK placed within a casemate 
 in the |iarapet or in a traverse, between two guns. 
 
 The i)ower being sitiiaU'd to the right of the gun. 
 '• rope No. 1 " jiasscs from the windlass to a pulley 
 in the axis of Ihe platform, thence lo a iiullcy at the 
 left of the platform, back over a pulley attached to 
 the fork of the left rear traverse wdieel, up over a 
 pulley on the rear transom of the chassis, thence for- 
 ward under a pulley at the front transom of the top 
 carriage, and Ihe end of the rope is attached to a sta- 
 ple on the under side of the gun in front of the trun- 
 nions. " Kope No. 2 " goes from the windlass over 
 
 a pulley attarlied to the fork of the right rear trav- 
 erse wheel, thence up over a pulley on the; rear tran- 
 som of the chassis, then to a ])ulley at the rear tran- 
 som of the top earriagi- ; the end of this rope is fu»- 
 teneil to a ])in in the base of the; breech of the (jun. 
 'i'lie ropes passing loo.sely over the )>uneys, the ap- 
 pliialion of forc(' to " No. !" will depress the muz- 
 zle and to " No. 2" v,\\\ depress the breech. 'I'hegiiii 
 is drawn "from hdWrn" by force bing applied lobolli 
 rojx's at once, or to one rope alone, the traverse 
 wheels being choked A rope attached to a hand- 
 spike and jiassing over a pulley at the upper part of 
 the check enables a gunner protected by the |)arapel 
 to place the rear truck wlii'cls '• in gear" and allows 
 the gun to run "Into hiittiry" by the force of gravity, 
 the windlass being out of gear. 
 
 'Yii tnirfi-Ki' thegun, " rojie No. 1" mustbelocked 
 to Ihe pulley at the front of the top carriage. Move- 
 ment to the l(fl, will then be ac<om|)lished by "No. 
 1," the force being exerted at the jinlley at the left 
 fork, and to the right by " No. 2," which will exert 
 its force at the right fork. To hutil \\\f gun. the muz- 
 zle is depressed below the parapet: tlie Jirojectiles 
 are on a shelf along the face of the parajiet, and are con- 
 veniently transfiTred to the piece on a rarrinye, 
 wliich is worked by a rojte and put let/ running on a 
 movable incdined tramway. A secMonnl or ttdiumpin 
 sponge and rammer must be used, and the carriage 
 may be employed to force the projectile home. The 
 gunners, whilst loading, arc protected from shot and 
 shell by a piece of boiler plate set in the face of the 
 parapet. Tlu; sights are jilaei'd on the underside 
 of the gun as near as convenient to the cheek. The 
 elevation may be given by an arc, a pointer being 
 on the trunnion. The gun is mounted with the rriit 
 doirii, wliicli enables it to be tired with the least ex- 
 ])osure to the cannoniers. Each windlass is capable 
 of maneuvering two guns. See Mechanical Mtai. 
 I'liri'r.i. 
 
 MANEUVERS.— In all changes of position that de- 
 mand a disturbance of the fundamental order of 
 battle of the unit, it is broken into its sulidivisions, 
 which are placed in certain relative positions with 
 respect to each other, according to the object 
 in view. These conibinations are termed man- 
 eimers. and their chief object usually is to change 
 the direction of the front of tlip unit, according to 
 the particular exigency. ^Maneuvers, like all the 
 rest of the mechanism pertaining to the unil, should 
 be stamped with simplicity and uniformity. The 
 tactics of the present day present, in this respect, a 
 remarkable contrast to those of Ihe period anterior 
 to it ; wdiich is owing, in no small measure, to the 
 little scope left for individual fancy : every proposal 
 being submitted to the formal examination of an 
 enlightened board. Stage sjiectacles alone now 
 occasionally furnish some notions of those wiiimsics 
 of olden times ; so happily bit oti in the well-known 
 article of Salmagundi, where the street-pump figures 
 as an almost impassable obstacle to the show soldier 
 of that day. See EuolutioHx. 
 
 MANGAN. — An ancient war machine The term 
 Miiiiffriii wasgenerally adopted to signify any species 
 of warlike machine ; but it more particularly meant 
 the largest and most powerful machine that could 
 be used for warlike purposes — whether it was prac- 
 ticed to throw enormous stones against besieged 
 places, or to cast javelins, etc. This machine an- 
 swered the double purpose of defending or attacking 
 fortified places, and it was sometimes used at sea. 
 Also written Mangon, and Mongoncl. The JIangonel 
 jiroper was a very strong and powerful <";v«.v.A(7;-.from 
 1.5 to 20 feet long, used for throwing arrows, darts 
 or stones. The Trttiiicket. liiliaiitlequin, etc.. were 
 only a variety of the above. 
 
 MANGANESE. — A metal resemblingiron in its chem- 
 ical properties, ar.d seldom if ever alisent from cast- 
 iron. It is commonly found in iron ores, and the 
 same operatiim which reduces the iron in the blast- 
 furnace also reduces the manganese, and this metal
 
 IIAN6E. 
 
 256 
 
 ILANN GUH. 
 
 becomes alln^-ed or clnsel_y mixed with the melted 
 iron. Tlie influence exerted by the manganese upon 
 tlie character of the cast-iron is very (lecide<l, tend- 
 ing to the production of the white variety, tlie man- 
 ganese diminishing tlie tendency of the carbon to sep- 
 arate in the form of graphite. White cast-iron, there- 
 fore, is found to contain the largest proportion of 
 manganese. The spathic iron ores yield a cast-iron 
 containing a particularlj' large quantity of mangan- 
 ese, sometimes exceeding one-tenth of the weight of 
 the cast-iron. Such an iron is capable of containing 
 upwards of one twenty-tifth of its weight of carlion 
 in combination with it, and the compound thus form- 
 ed clirj-stallizes in large and shining plates, whence it 
 is named by the Germans Spiegekisen, or mirror-irun . 
 It is largely employed in the manufacture of Besse- 
 mer steel. The presence of manganese in iron in- 
 creases the fiuiditj- of the slag, and encourages the 
 passage of phosphorus, sulphur and silicon into the 
 slag, tlius reducing the proportion of tliose injurious 
 impurities in the metal. Its most important proper- 
 ty, however, consists in its affinity for oxygen, pre. 
 venting the formation of oxides of iron. See Vtmt-iron^ 
 MANGE. — An infectious disease which attacks 
 horses when neglected. It results from the attacks 
 of minute mites, or aeari. which burrow in the skin, 
 especially if it be dirty or scurfy, cause much irrita- 
 tion, heat, and itching, and the eruption of minute 
 pimples, with dryness, sciirfiness, baldness, and even 
 bieaching of the skin. The treatment consists in 
 destroying the wyiri and insuring the cleanliness and 
 health of the skin, both of which objects are eflFect- 
 ed by washing the parts thoroughly every second 
 day with soft soap and water, and dressing daily 
 
 ten persons, each termed a Manipulus. The velites 
 were attached to these by equal portions. The cavalry 
 were divided into ten troops, termed Turma. To 
 each mani]iulus there were assigned two centurions, 
 and two tile-closers ; and to each turma two decur- 
 ions. The velites, although forming a part of the 
 manipuli, had centurions assigned to them, to lead 
 tJiem in battle. The normal order of battle of the 
 liomans, prior to the time of Marius, was in three 
 lines; the hastati in the tirst ; the principes in the 
 second; the triarii in the third ; and the cavalry on 
 the wings. The manipulus. which was the unit of 
 force, was drawn up ui 12 tiles, with a deptli of 10 
 ranks, in the line of hastati and principes ; in the 
 line of triarii there were onl_y 6 tiles. The right and 
 left tiles of the manipulus were led by a centurion, 
 and closed by an officer file-closer. The manipuli 
 of the three lines were disposed in quincunx order; 
 the manipulus of one line opposite to the interval be- 
 tween the manipuli in the one in front, this being the 
 same as the manipulus front. The intervals between 
 the lines were the same as the depth of each line. 
 An interval of about 3 feet was left between the 
 ranks and the files of the manipulus. The same or- 
 der of battle was followed for the social troops on 
 the wings. The two legions occupied the center ; 
 but what interval was left between them, or between 
 the center and wings, or how far the cavalry was 
 posted from I he infantry, is not well ascertained. 
 
 UANN GUN.- The breech mechanism of this gun 
 belongs to that system in which the breech-block re- 
 maining stationary, the body of the gun is made to 
 revolve upon its trunnions the necessary degree (o 
 open and close the breech. It may be generally des- 
 
 with sulphur or mild mercurial ointments, or with a 
 solution containing four grains either of corrosive 
 sublimate or arsenic to the ounce of water. Castor- 
 oil seeds, bruised and steeped for twelve hours in 
 buttermilk, are very successfully used by the native 
 Indian farriers. Where the heat and itching are 
 great, a few drops of tincture of belladonna maybe 
 added to the usual dressing, or applied along with a 
 little glycerine. Where the general health is indif- 
 ferent, as in chronic cases, the patient should be lib- 
 erally fed, kept clean and comfortable, have an oc- 
 casional alterative dose of any simple saline medi- 
 cine, such as niter or common salt, and a course of 
 such tonics as iron or arsenic. Cleanliness and oc- 
 casional washing and brushing maintain the skin in 
 a healthy state, and thus prevent its becoming a 
 suitable nidus for the wuri. 
 
 MAMIFAIBE. — Armor covering the mane and neck 
 of a horse. 
 
 MANIFESTO.— A public declaration issfled by a 
 Soveriign I'rince, or by a (Government on some state 
 emergency, expressive of intentions, opinions, or of 
 motives. Immediately before entering on a war. a 
 Manifesto is issued containing a statement of the 
 reasons which liave been held to justify the Sover- 
 eign or Government in taking up arms. In case of 
 a revolt, a .Manifesto is sometimes issued to recall 
 sulijeets to their alleffiance. 
 
 MANIGLIONS.— The two handles on the back of 
 a pieri- iif (inhiiuice. 
 
 MANIPHLARIS.— The chief office in a ManipiihiK 
 of the Roman infantry. This office was likewise 
 ordinary. 
 
 MANIPULUS.- In the tactics of tiie Romans, each 
 class <jf the infantry of the line was subdivided into 
 
 cribed as consisting of a breech-lilock attached by 
 straps to the trunnions, with suitable devices for se- 
 curing, first, the requisite closeness of contact with 
 the breech of the gun to produce the necessary re- 
 volution about the trunnions. To describe more 
 particularlj' : In the drawing. A represents the cast- 
 iron body of the gun, rc-inforced about the breech 
 with forged-rings, B, of wrought iron, shrunk on. 
 The mass of metal C D, closing the bottom of the 
 bore, consists of two pieces. Tlie piece C, in front, 
 constituting the breech-block proper, is loosely' re- 
 cessed upon the piece D in rear, and has a slight 
 pla_y back and forth, so as to admit of being pushed 
 up in close contact with the breech when tlie gnu is 
 prepared for firing. Tlie means of producing this 
 movement in the block is furnished by tlie screw N, 
 which, passing centrally through the fixed breech- 
 piece D — the latter being bored and threaded to re- 
 ceive it — abuts against the rear face of the movable 
 blocjv. The outer extremity of the screw is fitted 
 with a weighted lever or handle, having "lost mo- 
 tion" checked by a lug, ^I, attached to the circum- 
 ference of the screw shoulder. A point of support 
 for the breech-apiiaratns is siqiplied by the elevating 
 device. This consists of two screws of the same 
 pitch, one on either side on the breech, connected bj- 
 a worm-gearing and operated by cranks which ex- 
 tend beyond tlie carriage. The rimbases are con- 
 centric with the trunnions, but jiroject sulficiently 
 beyond the surface of the gun to accomodate the 
 loops of the breecli-slra|)s. In order toopeii or close 
 the breech, the raising or lowering of the breech of 
 the gun is elTected by means of a crank and jiinion, 
 centered U])on the side of each breech-strap and 
 working in a large-toothed segment, E, the crank-
 
 UANOMETEB. 
 
 257 
 
 MANOMETEB. 
 
 shaped axle G nf wliich passis iinilcr flic pun ami 
 tlir()U(j;li a slutted lui;, F, and lliiis ediniininiiales 
 tile iiKilioii jiroduced hy tlii' crank lo the lireeeli of 
 (he nun. 'I'he fixed l)iceeh-plcee I) and the straps 
 are of wrought iron; the movabh,' lihiek (' is of cast- 
 iron. 
 
 The gun is rilled willi ileven lands ami grooves, 
 eaeli of ei|iial width, and of a uiiiforin pilch of one 
 turn in (iO feel. 
 
 Width of lands and grooves, 1".1H.'(24 
 
 Di'l)Ih of i;rooves, 0".ia.") 
 
 Tile <-hainl)er is eonoentrie willi I he liore, and of a 
 diameter slightly grealer than thai of the bore l)e- 
 tweeii grooves; its eapacily is sullicieni lo conlain a 
 charge of HO i)ounds of powder and a shot of 170 
 pounds, the laller being inserled in the bore as far as 
 its front band. The top of each land is <-onnecleil 
 with the cylindrical surface of the cliainber by a 
 • Huilal)le r.-uiip or bevel. The gun is center-lire 
 through a vent in the breech-block. This veni makes 
 a turn at nearly right angli-s, .so as lo make ils exit 
 on top of the gim. Its interior opening is through a 
 steel disc. The gas-check (designed by the invent- 
 or) used in this gun is cu])-shaped, and is pierced 
 with a hole to|admit the llame from the vent. It is 
 necessary to remove this check before ami rei)laee it 
 lifter loading. (Jas-checks of this |)allcrn, but of dif- 
 ferent alloj's of copper, I in, ziiir, and lead, were pre- 
 pared with the view of determining the most suitable 
 material. The projectile for this gun consists of a 
 cast-iron body, having a front and rear baud of soft 
 metal — lead and antimony — encircling it. The iron 
 body of the projectile allows the usual windage, but 
 the lead bands exceed slightly the diameler of the 
 bore, including grooves. The weight is from 150 lo 
 170 iiounds. 
 
 The gun is loaded as follows: The breech-screw 
 is loosened, and the crank-bandlcs turned until the 
 gtm, revolving on its trunnions, assumes a position 
 in which the chamber is sulliciently exposed above 
 the breech-block for the insertion of the charge. 
 The gas-elicck is then removed, and llie projectile 
 inserted by sliding it along the trough T in the top 
 of the breech-block, and pushing it forward until 
 the front liand stops against the rifling. The charge 
 llien follows, the gas-check isreplacecl, and lliecrank 
 reversed until the gun is restored in line with the 
 breech-block; finally, the breech-screw is tightened 
 by means of a two-handled lever. The gun is mount- 
 ed on a 10-incli carriage, widened to accommodale 
 the increased length of ilie rimbases, with suchother 
 alterations as are required by the nature of the ele- 
 vating-devices. The recoil. check is of the Parrotl 
 friction clamp-pattern. The following are the prin- 
 cipal dimensions : — 
 Exterior diameter of gun at muzzle, 1.5.00 inches. 
 
 Maximum diameter 28. .50 
 
 Diameter of trunnions, 10.00 
 
 Diameter of rimbases, .... 17.00 
 Diameter of breech-screw, including 
 
 threads ^ 8.50 
 
 Diameter of bore. 8.40 " 
 
 Diameter of chamber 8.60 " 
 
 Radius of breech, (trunnions to breech) .51.35 '" 
 Distance from trunnions to muzzle, 92.75 " 
 
 Total length of gun 144.00 " 
 
 Length of breech-screw, including 
 
 'nut, " 28.00 
 
 Thickness of breech-straps, . . . 4.50 •' 
 Dept!; of breech-straps at trunnions, 25.00 '" 
 Depth of breech-straps at breech- 
 block 16.00 
 
 Depth of breech-straps at middle 
 
 point 11.00 
 
 Length of chamber, including ramp, 24.00 " 
 Total length of bore. . . ^ . . 144.00 
 
 Number of grooves, 11 
 
 Depth of grooves, 0.125 inch. 
 
 Tolallengtb of pun over all, . . 178.50 inches. 
 Total weight of gun, 20,0(Xi pounds. 
 
 See (h'iht<iiire. 
 
 MANOMETER.— Properly an instrument for meas- 
 uring the rarity of th(^ air or (jf other gases ; but the 
 name is most fre(|iiently a|)plied to inslruincnts for 
 indicating the clastic force of gases which is always 
 inversely proportional lo their rarity. The several 
 kinds of barometers are really manometers, and so is 
 the sleam-gauge of a sleam-eiigine. 
 
 F 
 
 Fk'. 3. 
 
 Width of grooves and lands, 
 Pitch uniform ; one turn in, 
 
 1.18524inclies 
 60 feet. 
 
 The various forms of manometer maybe classified 
 under three heads : 1, the open-air manometer, on 
 the principal of the baromel<-r: 2, the conlined-air 
 manometer, on the principle of .Mariotte's instrument; 
 ami :>.lhe mclallic-spring manometer. A simple open- 
 air m;uiometer consists of a glass tube, open at both 
 ends, placed upright in a strong bottle of glass or iron 
 the bottom of which contains mercury. The tube 
 piisses through ;i tight packing box in the neck. In 
 the upper part of tiie bottle there is an orifice which 
 admits compressed air, acted upon by steam or va- 
 por, whos(? tension it is desired to measure. But this 
 form cannot be used for high jiressurcs. Th" mid- 
 ti])le-braneh manometer is a modilicatiou of the sim- 
 ple open instrument, and is constructed by bending 
 a long tube, open at both ends, in a series of V-shaped 
 flexures of from 20 to 40 inches in height, the num- 
 ber of flexures depending upon the pressure the in- 
 strument is liable to be subjected to. Columns of mer- 
 cury, of equal height, being jilaced in the lower 
 halves of the V-shaped legs, will indicate the pres- 
 sure excited at one end of the tube, by the sum of 
 the excess of height of the mercurial columns in al- 
 ternate legs, or by multiplying the excess of height 
 in one leg by the number of legs containing such ex- 
 cess. Tiie system is fastened to a board or metallic 
 plate, which at one side, near the last branch, is fur- 
 iMslied with a graduated scale. The compressed-air 
 manometer is simply a strong V-shaped tube closed 
 at one end, while at the other is attached the pipe 
 Cdinmuuicating with the gas or vapor whose tension 
 it is desired to measure or ascertain. A portion of 
 the flexure of the V contains mercury, and the space 
 between it and the closed end is tilled with common 
 air. Now, according to Boyle s or Mariotte's law, a. 
 pressure exerted on the colinnn of mercury suffi- 
 cient to force th<' air into li;df the space it occupies 
 at the normal atmospheric pressure, must become 
 doubled, or 15 lbs. to the square inch must beadded. 
 .Vgaiu, to compress the air into half the remaining 
 space, 30 lbs., or dovible the iiressure required for 
 the reduction to the lirst half, must be added, mak-
 
 MANOMETEE A POUDRE. 
 
 258 
 
 MANOMETRE A POUDRE. 
 
 ing in all a pressure of four atmospheres for the re- 
 duction to orie-fourth the original vohime. It is evi- 
 dent, therefore, that a graduated scale, to exhibit the 
 degrees of pressure, must have its spaces decrease 
 from below upwards. The graduation is accom- 
 plished b_y means of an open-air midtiple manome- 
 ter. The metallic-spring manometer consists of an 
 inde.x traversing a graduated arc, and having ajiplied 
 to a spriag connected with it — which may be in the 
 form of a spiral— a piston actuated by the force of 
 the gas or vapor in the boiler or steam-chamber. 
 Fig. 1 represents the common open manometer ; 
 Fig. 2 is a compoimd open manometer : and Fig. 3 
 the differential manometer. The latter is used to 
 register very small differences in pressure. It con- 
 sists of a bent glass tube, placed upright and having 
 a cylindrical bulb and a stop-cock on each arm. One 
 bulb and both tidies, as far as zero of the scale, are 
 filled with a mixture of alcohol and water. The 
 other bidb and the remaining part of the correspond- 
 ing tube are filled with a colored oil, of exactly the 
 same specific gravity as the former mixture. A verj- 
 slitjht difference in pressure is thusstrikinsrly shown. 
 MANOMETRE A POUDRE.— An apparatus", design- 
 ed by JI. X. Korslunioff, of Paris, and embodying 
 an application of the reversed hydraidic press to the 
 measurement of powder pressures in gimnery. For 
 the conversion of unwieldy weights and strains into 
 amounts conveniently measurable, the inversion of 
 the iDrineii^lo of the hj'draulic press possesses the 
 
 but a.graphic record of the pressures, during the 
 passage of the projectile through the bore, is traced 
 in a moving baud of paper. The syiparatus is suit- 
 able for resolving the following problems: 1. To 
 determine the force of ex])ansioii of powder, thus 
 permitting the comparision of powders dilferiuij; in 
 
 [ their chemical composition and form. 2. To de- 
 termine what is the best charge for a given caliber, 
 
 ) according to the natui;e and quality of the powder. 
 
 i 3. To determine the different pressures of the gases 
 in the bore during the departure of the projectile, 
 
 i and tluis to decide upon the best dimensions for a 
 
 i cannon according to its charge and the nature and 
 weight of its projectiles. 
 
 Referring to tiie drawing, we may make the fol- 
 lowing description of parfs ; a — A cj'Under carry- 
 ing a screw plug, which serves to attach the appara- 
 tus to the breech of the gun. * — Cover of the" eyl- 
 inder. c — Sheet of platinum forming thecylinderat 
 its upper portion, d — Nuts securing thecover of 
 the cylinder, e — Tubes for the escape of the gases 
 which may be above the fitting S. /—Very thin cap- 
 sule of platinum, inserted in a central aperture of 
 the cylinder, fitting into the annular cannelures 
 with which the wall of the aperture is furnished, 
 and clinched upon the lower face of the cover, g — 
 A small button resting on the capsule, actuating the 
 spring I, and having a fork for the support of the 
 lever /(. h — Steel lever hinged at the point t. and 
 carrying at its extremity y, a pin for raising another 
 
 same advantages of compactness and simplicity that 
 cliaracleri/.e that press in its normal ajiplications It 
 meets with elegant illustrations in some forms of 
 heavy weighing maciiines, in the Edward's instru- 
 men{ for registering " proof strains," etc., but cer- 
 tain practical dilliculties have heretofore precluded 
 its use in registering powder jiressures. In the 
 "manometre" under consideration, however, not 
 only is this object claimed to have been attained. 
 
 lever ^T. /(—Steel lever lunged at the point /', and 
 carrying at its farther end a style or pencil z, limited 
 in its movements by a curved guide;). /—Steel sjiring 
 fixed to the plate /•, perforated by a slot for the ad- 
 mission of tlie lever /(, and tiy a second slot synuuiil- 
 rical therewilh. 'I'his spring is traversed by Ihestitm 
 of the button ,'/, and presses vertically upon the head 
 of this same button. ;» -Brass rollers fixed in the 
 plate r. and guiding the baud of paper, n — Clock-
 
 MANIA. 
 
 259 
 
 MANTLET. 
 
 work k''^''"S iiiolioiilo Ihclarjifloollicil-wliccl wliicli 
 tnuiHiiiils it to ll.c nillcr o.aj^aiiisl wliicliiHarnmij^cd a 
 comi)rcssing cylinilor, which circcts the iinrdlliiij; of 
 the papor carnCMl by the reel o. />- Circular i^uide 
 for Htyie or pencil. ;■- lir.nss jilatc lixeil In the cover 
 of the C3'liii(ler. t- Screw closinix the orilici' which 
 serves to iiitroducc-thc mercury, oil, or al<!ohol into 
 the capHule/, as well as between the cover and the 
 sheet of iilatiinim c. 
 
 C'allin;; Pthe pressure upon n unit of surface exer- 
 cised by the gases of the i)ovvder ; .1 the surface of 
 the piston receiving direct, pressure of tlic gases; S 
 the surface transiuilling the pressure to tlie liijuid ; 
 p the resulting pressure upon a unit of surface of the 
 liquid, we shall have : 
 
 l'.v 
 
 ~ S 
 It is evident from this formula that the value of 7) 
 can lie reduced to any desirable amount by varying 
 the ratio of tlie su"faces ; that is tosay. by increasing 
 S or diminishing .v. 
 
 Jjct us assume x equal to a circle of Om.OO.'i dia- 
 meter = cm.l!)G3.'). S equal to a circle of 0"i.l()l) 
 diameter = 78" '^■"..'54. P equal to (iiJUO kilogrammes 
 to the square centimetre. 
 0500k X o.l<J(i:35 
 
 p^ -, or 10k. 35 per square ccnti- 
 
 78..54 
 metre. It becomes evident that the immense pres- 
 sure of the gases of the jiowder thus manifests itself 
 by a greatlj- reduced and perfectly measurable pres- 
 aiu'e ; moreover, the spa(U! traversed by the piston 
 is, in elTcct, almost nothing ; the volume of liquid 
 which penetrates into the capsule, supposing that 
 tlw ])oint in contact with the buttoi\ rises one milli- 
 nw-lrc, will be equivalent in volume to a cone having 
 for liase a circle of about 30""» diameter and 1'"™ in 
 lieight ; so that 
 
 m'D» h 3.1416 X 30» 1 
 
 X — = X — = 104 J mi".7,'i. 
 
 4 3 4 3 
 
 The surface S of the piston under the sheet of plat- 
 inum beiug 7854 n mm t!ie elevation of this piston 
 
 104.72 
 
 for the above displacement of volume will be 
 
 78.54 
 or 0. mm 013; that is to say, a trifle over onehundreth 
 of a millimetre. 
 
 The apparatus is fixed upon the breech of the can- i 
 uon, in a hole tapped for the purpose, communicat- 
 ing with the interior of the piece by an aperture of { 
 the same diameter as the piston .v. The pressure of 
 the powder gases acts iq)on the piston .v, and dis- j 
 Iriliutes itself by the siu'face S upon the sheet of 
 platinum, which transmits it to tlie liciuid contained 
 in th(> capsule /'. This pressure causes the upper 
 portion of the cajisnle to rise in a spherical form, [ 
 raises, by this movement, the button .9, which raises i 
 in its turn the lever //, thus making it describe an 
 are of ii circle aliout the point r. In order to verify 
 the pressures of the curve, it is necessary that, for 
 
 it IS necessary, at a previous experiment, to arrange 
 a recurved tube fixed bv one of its arms to tlie screw 
 plug of the cylinder. This tube, filled with liquid, 
 should terminate at its other extremity in a stufling 
 I box, traversed by a stem, upon which graduated 
 pressuri'S can be nuiintauied by means of a lever, 
 I which should be liing(^d by one end to some (ixed 
 point, should pn^ss upon I'lie stem, and should be 
 capable oi being loaded at its other end with succes- 
 sive weights corres|)onding to the pressures which 
 it is desired to exercise upon the piston. 
 
 Each pressure being maintained for an instant, the 
 pencil traces during that time a horizontal line indi- 
 cating thir height which corn'sponds to that pres- 
 sure. These different heights, when compared, with 
 the curve, indicate exactly the pressures existing 
 during the departure of the pro.jectile.lt is conleni- 
 pl.itcd that in all the above mentioned experiments 
 the cannon be mounted on some mechanical ilevice 
 which shall neutralize the effect of recoil; such, for 
 instance, as that of M. I'Admiral Labrouse. This ap- 
 paratus may, however, beemployerl for the following 
 uses; 1. To measure hydraulic pressures. 2. To meas- 
 ure the pressures required to liquefy gases. In these ap- 
 plications it will be desirable to increase the diam- 
 eter of the piston h, and to diminish that of the pis- 
 ton S. The sheet of platinum may be replaced by 
 a dia]iliraginof gutta-percha, thus "reducing the cost 
 of the machine, and, in fact, the clockwork. The 
 paper and the pencil may be omitted, their jilacclje- 
 ing supplied by an index moving upon a dial-plate, 
 as is represented in the drawing of the hydraulic 
 manom^tre. 
 
 MANTA. — A water-proof canvas, five feet square 
 use<l as a [lack-cover. It serves to protect the loads 
 in Inmsit, during damp and rainj- weather; and is 
 used for tlie shelter of the stores and the packers, 
 when in camp. 
 
 MANTEAH.— A term, literally signifying a cloak, 
 but freipiently used among the French "to e.xpressthe 
 covering thai. Hussars or Light Infantry carry for 
 the double purpose of shielding their bodies from the 
 inclemencies of the weather in outposts, etc., and for 
 spreading over their heads, by means of poles, when 
 tliey occasionally halt, and take a jiosition. The 
 iliintrnv. irArtHis was a round shield much used 
 during the tifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 
 
 MANTILLIS.- A kind of shielil, anciently fixed up- 
 on tJie tops of sliijis as a cover for archers. 
 
 MANTLE.— A long flowing robe, worn in the Mid- 
 dle Ages over the armor, and fastened by a fibula in 
 front, or at the right shoulder. The mantle is an im- 
 portant part of the oflicial insignia of the various or- 
 ders of knighthood. Ladies of rank wore similar 
 mantles, in many instances decorated with heraldic 
 charges, in which case the mantle bore either the im- 
 paled arms of the lady and her husband or her hus- 
 band's arms only. A number of examples may be 
 seen in monumental effigies. 
 
 MANTLET.— A shield placed over the mouth of an 
 emhrasurc to prevent musketry bullets" and frag- 
 nunls of shells from Uying throigh and injuring 
 
 J^«. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 FIs. i 
 
 reference, horizont.il lines be previously traced bv [ those serving the piece. A hole in the lower part 
 the pencil under .'•fTerent pressures, eaclunaintained allows the muzzle of the piece to pass through into 
 constant for a tletermmate lime. For this purpose \ the embrasure when it is to be fired. The size of
 
 MAHTLIKG. 
 
 260 
 
 MANnAL OF ASMS. 
 
 these openings will depend upon the dimensions of 
 the piece. Rope is the best material for constructing 
 mantlets. The usual size of a mantlet is 5 feet high, 
 4.5 feet across, and 4 inches thick. For siege guns 
 the opening is l.G feet high by 1.3 feet across. Three- 
 inch rope is a suitable size, it is laid in three or five 
 ' thicknesses, each of the two outer laj'ers being in one 
 piece bent vertically. 
 
 The inner layers" are bent and laid horizontally, 
 and the whole well tied together. The mantlet is 
 bu-ng on a horizontal pole supported by forked up- 
 rights set in the ground, on each side of the em- 
 brasure, at the foot of the interior slope, as shown in 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 The elasticity thvis afforded by the supports greatly 
 increases the resistance of the mantlet. A small 
 hole or slit is pierced in the mantlet to allow the 
 piece to be aimed. 
 
 Mantlets of this size weigh about 400 pounds. 
 
 A small ring mantlet of rope, shown in Fig. 2, 
 placed upon the chase of the gun is sometimes used. 
 
 When rope cannot be obtained, one of similar shape 
 mav be made of wood. 
 
 Mantlets may be made of wood or of iron, or of 
 wood and iron combined. Those of the latter kind 
 furnished for the siege of Yorktown were made of 
 two thicknesses of ^^^inch wrought-iron spiked to 3- 
 inch oak plank. On the head was a 2-ineh square 
 iron bar riveted to the edge of the iron plates, against 
 which the oak planks abutted. The ends of this bar 
 projected inches, and were rounded, serving as 
 supports to rest upon upright stakes or timbers 
 standing against the interior slope of the parapet. 
 See Gun-itheltrrs. 
 
 MANTLING. —A heraldic ornament depicted as , 
 hanging tlown from the helmet, and behind the 
 escutcheon. It is considered to represent either 
 the cointise, an ornamental scarf which jwssed 
 round the body, and over the shoulder ; or the 
 military mantle, or robe of estate. When intend- 
 ed for'the cointise, it is cut into irregular strips 
 and curls of the most capricious forms, whose 
 contortions are supposed to indicate that it has 
 been torn into that ragged condition in the field 
 
 of battle. When the mantling is treated as a robe 
 of estate, the bearings of the shield are sometimes 
 embroidered on it. A mantling adjusted so as to 
 form a background for the shield and its accesso- 
 ries, constitutes an Adiierement of Arms. It is not 
 till the latter end of \\\f 14th century that the 
 mantling appears as a heraldic ornament on seals. 
 In British Heraldry, the mantling of the Sovereign 
 is of gold lined with ermine : that of Peers, of crim- 
 son velvet lined with ermine. Knights and gen- 
 tlemen have generally crimson velvet lined with 
 white satin ; hut sometimes the livery colors are 
 adopted instead, as is generallj' the practice in Con- 
 tinental Heraldrv. See Lambrequin. 
 
 MANSLAUGHTER.— The unlawful killing of an- 
 other without malice, express or implied. Man- 
 slaughter is either voluntary, i. e., where there was 
 an intent to commit the injury ; or involuntary, 
 where there was no such intent. It differs from nmr- 
 der in its absence of malice, and, as it is supposed to 
 be committed in hot blood, no person can be an ac- 
 cessory before the fact. Among cases of homicide 
 which constitute a manslaughter maj' be mentioned 
 killing a person b}' gross negligence, though in the 
 discharge of a lawful act ; killing a person'who has 
 given great provocation ; .and killing an officer act- 
 ing without or beyond his authority, though this 
 may also be excusable homicide. The killing of an 
 officer acting within his legal authority is murder. 
 The provocation above-mentioned must be imme- 
 diate, not remote ; and though proof of provocation 
 sufficiently repels the presumption of malice which 
 the law attaches to everv case of homicide, it is not 
 sufficient to lower an offense from murder to man- 
 slaughter, if express malice be made out. In most 
 of the United States manslaughter is divided into 
 different degrees, punished with longer or shorter 
 terms of imprisonment. 
 
 MANUAL. — A prescribed exercise by means of 
 which soldiers are taught to handle and use their 
 weapons. The Mftnual of Arms, the Manual of the 
 Pieiv, the Manual of the Sword, etc., are explained 
 in detail in the Tactics and Regulations of an army. 
 
 MANUAL OF ARMS.— An exercise with the musket
 
 MANUAL or THE PIECE. 
 
 2G1 
 
 MANUAL OF THE PIECE. 
 
 orridr', llirnuiih wliirli rfoniits arf drilled, to pivt; 
 tliciM a free use cjf llicir liiiibH, iiiiil nf the weapon re- 
 giirilcd merely a« ii pike. It eompriscH the lir«t 
 coiiTMe of inslnielioii after the ritlc has been placed 
 in the learner's hands. 
 
 In the I'nited Slates service, the piece is in the 
 rifjht hand: the barrel nearly vertical, and restinf; in 
 the hoUuvv of the shoulder, the f^nard to the fnml; 
 the arm lianiiini.; nearly at its full len};th, near the 
 body, thethundj aiul forelini;ereiubraciiiL' the fruard, 
 the remainiui; Mni^'iTs closed (iii^ellier anil }rraspiu;r 
 tin stock just und<T the liamnuT, which rests on the 
 little linger. This is the \)ii^\\\on of carry anna, the 
 position is represented in Kii;. 1. 
 
 Ueeruits often have defects in the conformation of 
 the shovdders, breast, anil hips. On first bearint; 
 arms they are li.able lo deranije their ]iosilions, by 
 loweriii}; Ihe rinht shoulder and the riixlil hand, or 
 by sinkiim; the hip and sprcadin<r the ell)ows. The 
 Inslruelor endeavors Ici correct thes<' fanlls, so that 
 the i)osition of Ihe jiii'ces in the same line may be 
 uniform, without constraint to the men. 
 
 The Instructor .sees that the piece at a carry is 
 neilher too hi£;h nor too low; if.too hi!rh, the rij;ht 
 elbow will spread out, the soldier will occu|)y too 
 much space in his rank and tlie [(iece be uiisleady; 
 if loo low, Ihe tiles will be too much closed, (he sol- 
 dier will not have room cnouiih to handle his piece 
 with ease, Ihe rii;hl arm will become fatigued, and 
 ■will draw down the shoulder. 
 
 emits proifTfssively, after becoming familiar with 
 handling Ihe piece. As the motions relative to the 
 cartridge, the li.vingand unfixing of Ihe bayonet, can- 
 not be executed at Ihe rale prescribed, nor even willi 
 a uniform swiflness, they are not subjected to the ca- 
 dence. The Instructor, however, caiiHcs llieKC mo- 
 tions to be executed with promplnesH and with re- 
 gularily. As soon as the recruits thoroughly under- 
 stand the several motions, they execute them alter- 
 nately with and wilhfiut thi' nundiers, in oriler to 
 atlain Ihe proper cadeMce, and lo beconn' jierfect in 
 the mechanism. The piece is habitually carried at 
 lialf-cock. 
 
 To avoid repetition the following niles in tlic Man- 
 ual of Arms are r/nwml: 
 
 1. In resuming Ihe "carry" from any position in the 
 manual. Ihe nioiion next lo the last concludes witli 
 the l<-fl hand at Ihe height of the shoulder, (intrersex- 
 tendeil and joined, the thundi close to the forelinger, 
 back of the h;ind lo Ihe front, Ihe elbow close lo the 
 body, the right hand embracing the guard with the 
 thumb and jforelinger. 
 
 2. In all ])ositions of the left hand at the lower 
 band, except rhnryc hriyinut and rtrm>i;)'>ri, the thumb 
 is extended along the barrel, the end of it touching 
 the lower band. In rh/irf/r baynnit and nrmn pr/rt tlie 
 thumb clasps the piece immediately below the lower 
 band. 
 
 3. In all iiositions of Ihe piece in front of the cen 
 ter of the body, the barrel is to the rear, and vertical. 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 IT) 
 
 The Manual of Arms is taught to four men, placed 
 at lirst in one rank, elbow to elbow, and afterwards 
 in two ranks. To make the niechauism better 
 known, the execution of each command is divided 
 into motions. The rate or swiftness of each motion 
 in the manual of arms, with the escepti(ms herein in- 
 dicated, is fixed at the ninetieth part of a minute. 
 The same interval of time should separate the com- 
 mand of execution from the preparatory conuuand. 
 The Instructor at tirst looks more particularly to the 
 execution of the motions without requiring a nice ob- 
 servance of the cadence, to which lie brings the re- 
 
 The drawings show the various positions of the sol- 
 dier and piece in executing the Manual of .\rms, au- 
 thorized for the United States Army. See Aim.Anm 
 Port, Carry Amis, Charge Baynnet. Fix Bayonet^ 
 Load. Order Arnifi, Parade Rent. Present Arms. Jtest 
 on Arms, Jierer.ie Arms. Itight Shoulder Arms. Se- 
 cure Arms, Support Arms, Trail Arms, and Cnjix 
 BayiiDft. 
 
 MANUAL OF THE PIECE.— The term piece, as here 
 used, applies lo cannon, whether gun. howitzer, or 
 mortar. -\s a matter of convenience, it is also used 
 to designate both camion and carriase when the can-
 
 MANUAL OF THE PISTOL. 
 
 262 
 
 MANUAL OF THE PISTOL. 
 
 non is mounted. The men employed in the service 
 of artillery are called artillerymen. Those for a sin- 
 gle piece constitute a gun-detachment, and vary in 
 number with tlie size and kind of piece. The detach- 
 ment is composed of two nou-commissioned officers, 
 and from two to ten privates. The senior non-com- 
 missioned officer is called chief-uf-dHacJiineiit ; the 
 other gunner. The privates are called canncnfern. 
 The detachment is formed in double rank, and told 
 off from the right as follows : No. 1 is on the right 
 of tlie rear rank ; No. 2 in front of No. 1 ; No. Son 
 the left of No. 1; No. 4 on the left of No. 2; the oth- 
 er numbers follow in the same order, even numbers 
 in the front, odd iu tlie rear rank. When, by facing 
 about, the front becomes the rear rank, the numbers 
 of the cannoneers do not change. 
 
 The service of the piece consists of all the opera- 
 tions required iu loadiug, pointing, and discharging 
 it. 
 
 To avoid repetitions, the following general rules 
 are noted collectively : 
 
 1. The implements and equipments required for a 
 piece are taken to it by the detachment when going 
 to the exercises, or the}- may be placed there pre- 
 vious to that time. Thej' are removed, at the con- 
 elusion of the exercises, by the same means, and re- 
 turned to their proper places in the store-house. It is 
 the especial duty of the chief-of-detachment to see that 
 all that appertains to his piece is complete and in 
 good order. 
 
 2. AVheu the equipments are distributed, the gun- 
 ner buckles the strap of his pouch around his waist, 
 wearing the pouch iu such position as to interfere as 
 little as po.ssible with his movements. The cannoneer 
 who wears it. buckles on the primer-pouch in like 
 manner. The gunner removes the vent-cover, and 
 clears the vent with the priming-wire. Cartridge- 
 pouches are carried suspended from the left shoulder 
 to the right side. 
 
 3 In sponging or in ramming, the knee on the 
 side toward which the effort is made is always bent, 
 the other straightened. The weight of the body is 
 added, as nmch as possible, to the effort exerted by 
 the arms. When the sponge tits so tightly as to be 
 difficult to move in the bore, Nos. 1 and 2 may use 
 both hands in inserting and withdrawing it. Cart- 
 ridges are inserted into the bore, bottom foremost 
 and seams to the sides. All projectiles having fuses 
 are inserted into the bore so that the fuse .shall be 
 towards the muzzle. 
 
 4. A primer is prepared for insertion in the vent 
 by holding it between the thumb and forefinger of the 
 left hand; the lanyard, wound upon its handle, is 
 
 charges the piece turns his face from it, pulls the lan- 
 yard quickly, but steadily, and fires. Inmiediately 
 after the discharge he resumes the erect position, re- 
 winds the lanyard upon its handle, returns it to his 
 pouch, and resumes his post. The guuuer, after 
 pointing, goes where he can observe the effect of the 
 shot ; when he resumes his post. At the command, 
 cfone firing, pieces that are loaded remain so until 
 further orders ; those that are partly loaded— if with 
 the cartridge only— the cartridge is rammed home ; 
 if the projectile has been inserted, it likewise is 
 rammed home. In both cases the priming-wire is 
 left in the vent, as an indication that the piece is 
 loaded. If the piece is not loaded it is sponged out. 
 j\Jl the cannoneers resume their posts. 
 
 7. The habitual post of the chief-of-detachment is 
 facing the piece and two yards in rear of the platform 
 or rearmost part of the carriage. He has, under the 
 instructor, or officer immediately over him, general 
 supervision of all duties performed by his detachment. 
 During firings he looks after the supply of ammu- 
 nition, and sees that those engaged in preparing and 
 serving it to the piece perform their duties properly. 
 All ammunition must be prepared for firing at the 
 service magazine. Projectiles should be carefully 
 cleaned of all rust, dirt, or protuberances liable to 
 cause them to stick, or injure the bore. 
 
 8. In the service of a battery of several pieces, the 
 pieces are designated Nos. 1, 2, 3, etc., from right to 
 left : these numbers are independent of \\\e permanent 
 numbers assigned to pieces in a work. Iu directing 
 the pieces to be fired, they are always designated by 
 their lattery numbers ; as, 2fumb(rone — Fike ; Xinii- 
 ber two — Fike, etc. When the wind comes from the 
 right, the firing should commence on the left, and 
 reciprocally. Under the fire of the enemy, the men 
 are directed to cover themselves by the "parapet or 
 traverses as much as may be consistent with the ex- 
 ecution of their duties. 
 
 9. Previous to proceeding with any exercise with 
 the pieces, and frequently at other times during the 
 exercises, the instructor,assisted by the other officers, 
 will explain to the men the nomenclature of every- 
 thing appertaiuiug tliereto ; the application and use 
 of the various parts, machines and implements used; 
 the names and use of the diff'erent parts of the work 
 adjacent to the piece : the kinds of ammunition used; 
 charges of powder ; kinds of fire ; antl, generally, all 
 matters that assist iu making the men efficient artil- 
 lerists. 
 
 10. In aiming, first get a clear view of the object, 
 and see that the piece is approximately in the line of 
 fire before looking through the sights, and if the ob- 
 
 held in the right hand, the hook by the thumb and ' ject be not in tlie line, instantly give the command to 
 
 forefinger : the hook is attached by passing it ujnvard 
 through the eye of the primer; the hook and primer, 
 thus attached, are held by the thumb and forefinger 
 of the right hand ;the primer is pushed into the vent 
 by the thumb. After the primer has been inserted 
 in the vent, the cannoneer who fires the piece drops 
 the handle, allowing the lanyard to uncoil as he steps 
 back to the position from which he is to fire; holdsthe 
 handle, willi tlie cord slightly strctclied, passing be- 
 tween the middle fingers"of his right hand, back up, 
 and breaks to his left and rear a full pace with the 
 left foot, the left hand hanging nat\irally by his side. 
 
 5. In aiming guns and howitzers, the guiiner places 
 the breech sight hi its seat or socket, and aims through 
 it ; gives Hie proper direction by causing the trail to 
 be moved, commanding left or r/g/it, tapping, at the 
 same time, on the right side of the brci cli for tlie 
 trail to be moved to tlie left, and on the left side for 
 it to be moved to the right. The cannoneers at the 
 trail will closely observe the motions of the gunner. 
 With mortars, the gunner signals, with his hands, 
 the direction in whicli he wishes the carriage moved. 
 When the piece is pointed, the gunner raises both 
 hands as a signal ; the (vinnoneers moving the piece ,' 
 then unbar and resume their jiosts. 
 
 (). At the command fire, the cannoneer who dis- ! 
 
 move the trail tothe right or left. Always aimquick- 
 1}-, as the eye will not then become wearied. The 
 prop upon which the sponge and rammer are sup- 
 ported is a low trestle, or simply a block of wood 
 sufficiently high to prevent the sponge taking up 
 dirt from the ground. The rammer is always laid 
 on the side nearest the piece. To prevent the pro- 
 jectile from starting forward, guns should be given 
 at least five degrees elevation previous to being run 
 into battery, and running into battery should be done 
 so as to prevent sudden jar against the hurters. 
 
 11. In all exeueises for instruction, duties .should be 
 performed as nearly as possible as in actual service, 
 and not by pretense only. To do this, in the service 
 of the jiiece a dummy cartridge should be used, to- 
 gether with actual projectiles. Tlie cartridge may 
 be iiiailc of canvas or stout gumiy-sacking, filled to 
 the projier weight with coal broken to the size of 
 the powder used for the piece. A worm serves for 
 withdrawing the cartridge. A strong lanyard at- 
 tached lo the fuse-plug will serve to withdraw the 
 projectile. The free end of the lanyard remains out 
 of the muzzle as the projectile is pushed home. (See 
 Art'lhn/. 
 
 MANUAL OF THE PISTOL.— To draw the pistol the 
 Instructor (■(immands : 1. Dhaw ; 2. Pistol. At
 
 KANUAL OF XH£ SABER. 
 
 2(i; 
 
 MANUAL OF THE BWOED. 
 
 tlif commnnd (Iretw, iiiilmtldii llic Hap nf ilic liolster 
 wilh llic rijilil hand, iind gnis[) the slock, the hack 
 (if llic liaiiil li> the body. At tlic (•(iiiiiiiand ;i/«M, 
 draw and raisi' llic |)isli)l. tlic hand lioldiiif; llw stock 
 willi llic lliiiiiil) mill last three tiiiircrs, llic forcliiis^cr 
 over tlic uiiard. j^uiird to llic front, barrel vertical. 
 (■Ibow near llic body, tlii' wrist as liit;li as tlic rij^lit 
 slioulilcr and six inches in front of il. 
 To Ijoai) llic jiislol. lower inloiliclcft hand, the barrel 
 |)oinlin<:j to the left and front, and downward al an an- 
 gle of forty-live deforces, half-cock llif pistol (cock it if 
 necessary); j;ras]) the stock with the right hand. 
 (Two) Open the chanibcr.if necessiiry eject the 
 cartridge-cases, take a cartridge from the cartridge- 
 box wilh the right hand, and hold it near the cham- 
 ber between IIk' lliiimb and ''rst two fingers. 
 (TiiiiEE.) Place the cartridge in the chandler, jjress- 
 ing it home wilh the Ihiinil); conliniie to insert car- 
 l"idgcs until the chamlicrs are loaileil ; close the 
 chamber, carry the right liund to the stock, and re- 
 sume the position oi mine pintul. 
 
 Al llie command Uk.^dy, cock the pistol with 
 the thumb of the right hand. To Aim, lower the 
 pistol to the front, the arm about three-fourths 
 c.xlendcd. forclingcr iqion tlie trigger; close the 
 left eye an<l sight with the right. To Fire. 
 press the forelinger against the trigger, tire, and 
 take the position of rai.v pistol- To return pistol, 
 the instructor commands: 1. Hrturii, 2. Pistol. 
 Droi) the uui/./.le. insert the pistol in the holster. 
 b;ick of the lumd to the body, button the flap, and 
 drop the liiind by tlie side. 
 
 The squiid liciiig in the position of rai'ne pi'nUil, 
 the instructor comimmds : 1. Iit.iprftinn, 2. pistol, 
 jiasscs aUuig the rank, iind examines the pistols. To 
 inspect the pistol minutely, h.e takes it in his hands, 
 iind llien returns it to the recruit, who grasps it at 
 the slock anil takes tlie position o{ 7-iiise ]i/.it<'l. 
 
 MANUAL OF THE SABER. The manual of the 
 Sillier is buiglit in the following order, and by the 
 following ciiiumands ; 1. Drum, 2. Saber. At the 
 command dniw, unhook the siibcr with tlie thumb 
 and first two lingers of the left lumd, thumb on the 
 end of the hook, lingers lifting the upper ring ; pass 
 the right band through the saber-knot, and push the 
 sliding loop ujWo the wrist witli the left band ; grasp 
 the scabb;ird wilh the left hand al the upper l)and. 
 bring the hill a little forward, seize the gripe with 
 the right hand. ;iiid draw the lilade six inches cut of 
 the Si;d)liard, pressing the scabbard against the thigh 
 with the left li;iiid. Fig. 1. At the command f^ahcr, 
 draw the saber quickly, raising the arm to its full ex- 
 tent, at an angle of aliinit forty-live degrees, thesalier 
 in a straight line with the arm, and make a slight 
 
 Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Y\s. 3. 
 
 pause: hookup the scabbard with the thuml) and 
 first two lingers of the left hand, thumb through the 
 ui>per ring, lingers supporting it ; and drop the 
 left hand by the side; at the same tyne, bring the 
 back of tliclilade against the hollow of the shoulder, 
 
 tlip blaflo vprtiral, the arm nearly extendrd, thfi left 
 side of the gripe wilh the thumb against llie tliigli, 
 th(' little linger on tin; back of tlie grijic. 'J'/iU in the 
 poHition of citrrji Kahtr dimiuninted, and is represented 
 in Fig. 2. 1. I'riHint, 2. Haheb. Carry llie saber 
 
 vertically to the front, raising tb^ hand as liigh an 
 the neck, and si.x inches in front of it, edge lo tlie 
 left, the thumb extended on the back of the gripe, 
 little finger by the side of the others, Fi^. ;*. 1. In. 
 nppftiim, 2. Saheic. Take the position lApnxint xolrr. 
 (Two.) Turn the wrist outward to show Die other 
 side of the blade, the edge to the right; make a 
 slightpaiise, and then turn the wrist back. (Three.) 
 Uesume the carry. 1. Hi turn. 2. Saiiek. At the 
 command ritum. lake the jiosilion oi pre-ftit nalitr ; 
 at thesamelime unhook and lower the scabbard with 
 tint left band, and grasp it at the iijjper band. At, 
 the oommanil Milin-, carry the right hand opposite 
 and six inches from the left shoulder; lower the 
 blade and pass it across and along the left arm, the 
 point to the rear; turn the hand slightly to llie left, 
 tixing the eyes on the opening of tlie scabbard, and 
 insert the blade six inches in llie scabbard. (Two.) 
 Return the blade, and free the wrist from the .saber- 
 knot ; turn llie head to the front and drop the riilit 
 hand by the side; al the same time hook up the 
 saber with the left hand, turning the saber toward 
 the body, guard to the rear, and drop the left liand 
 by the side. 
 
 "manual OF THE SWORD.- The Manual of the 
 Sword in the I'nited Sbiles Army, is as follows: 1. 
 Draw, 2. Swoitus. Al the command ilriiir, unhook 
 llie sword with the thuml) and lirst twolinirers of the 
 left hand, thumb on the end of the book, finsers lift- 
 ing the upper ring ; grasp the scabbard withlhe left 
 hand at the upper band, bring the hilt a little for- 
 ward, seize the gripi- with the right hand, and draw 
 the blade six inches out of the scabbard, prcssin"- 
 the scabbard against the thigh with the left han<i! 
 At the conunand sirnrd, draw the sword f|uicklv, 
 raising the arm to its full extent, at an angle of aboiit 
 forty-live degrees, the sword in a straight line with 
 the arm, and make a slight pause ;"liook up the 
 scabbard quickly wilh the thumb and lirst two 
 fingers of the left hand, thumb through the upper 
 ring, fingcra supporting it. and drop the left hand by 
 the side; at the same time bring the back of the 
 blade against the shoulder, the bhide vertical, back 
 of the gripe to the re;ir, the arm nearly extended, the 
 I liumb and forelinger embracing the" gripe, the left 
 side of the gripe with the thumb against the thigh, 
 the other fingers extended and joined in rear of Fhe 
 gripe. Thixistheponitioiiofairry sw&rd. Oflicers 
 mounted unhook the sword before mounting, and, 
 in the first motion of draw-sw&rd, reach with the 
 right liand over the bridle-hand, and without the aid 
 of the bridle-hand draw the sword as before; the 
 right hand in the i-arry rests on the right thijh. 
 When the swoni-knot is worn, the right Wrist may 
 be placed in it in the first motion, before grasping 
 the gripe. 1. /";•(»«(=««. 2. Sword. At the command 
 piVM'/it, carry the sword vertically, and promptly 
 to the front, raising the band as high as the neck 
 and six inches in front of it, the thumb on the back 
 of the gripe, back of the gripe to the right, elbow 
 close to the bod}'. At the command s^rw-rf, drop the 
 point of the sword by extending the arm, so that 
 the right hand may be brought to the side of the 
 light thigh, the back of the hand down, the blade 
 inclining downward and to the front. 
 
 In rendering honors with troops, officers execute 
 the lirst motion of the salute at the command pre- 
 sntt. the second motion al the conunand <frm.i. The 
 sword is returned to the curri/ at the command. 1. 
 ('(irri/, 2. Arms. When arms are ordend, the offi- 
 cers and non-commissioned staff drop the point of 
 their swords, the back of the hand invariably up. 
 At pnra'fe rest, they clasp the hands directly 
 in front of the centre of the body, the left hand up- 
 permost, the point of the sword between the feet.
 
 MANUBALLISIE. 
 
 264 
 
 MAP. 
 
 In marching in double time, tlie sword is carried dia- 
 gonally across flie breast, edge to the front, the 
 jDoint in front of and at the height of tlie left slioul- 
 der ; the left hand steadies the scabbard. At funer- 
 al ceremonies, the sword is reversed under the right 
 arm, the left hand clasping the blade behind tlie 
 back. When the escort reds on arms, tlie otiicers 
 stand at parade rest, iuclining the head. OHicers on 
 all duties under arms, draw and return sword with- 
 out waiting for any command. All commands to 
 soldiers under arms are given with the sword drawn. 
 In route marches the sword is carried in the scab- 
 bard. The non-commissioned staff and sergeants 
 ■with swords drawn salute by the first motion of pre- 
 sent sirord, as explained for officers. This position 
 is taken at inspection, and the wrist turned out- 
 ward to show the flat of the sword toward the 
 face. 1. Return. 3- Sword. At the command 
 return, take the position of the first motion of pre- 
 sent sicord ; at the same time unhook and lower the 
 scabbard with the left hand, and grasp it at the 
 upper Iiaud. At the command sinrrd. carry the right 
 hand opposite and six inches from the left shoul- 
 der ; lower the blade and pass it across and along 
 the left arm. the point to the rear ; turn the liead 
 slightly to the left, fixing the cyts on the opening 
 of "the" scabbard, and insert the blade six inches in 
 the scabbard, (Two.) Return the blade, free the wrist 
 from the saber-knot (if inserted in it ,i,turn the head to 
 the front, and drop the right hand by the side: at the 
 same time hook up the sword with the left liand, 
 turning the sword toward the l)ody, the guard to 
 the rear, and drop the left hand hy the .side. Offi- 
 cers mounted return swords without using the left 
 hand : the sword is hooked Tip on dismounting 
 
 MANUBALLISTE. — A cross-bow. There were two 
 kinds used in the reign of Henry VIII- viz., the 
 latch which was used for quarrels and the prodd for ' 
 bullets. I 
 
 MAP. — A map is a delineation, on a plane, of some 
 portion of the surface of a sphere, celestial or terres- 
 trial, on which the objects intended to be shown are 
 traced, whether stars or towns, mountains, etc. Ter- 
 restrial maps are termed qeographkal. when they re- 
 fer to the land : and liydrograpldeal maps, or charts. 
 when tiiey delineate the shores of the sea. A per- 
 fect representation of a country, with all its parts in 
 true proportions and relative positions, may be made 
 on a globe ; but since the surface of the earth is 
 spherical, it is not possible so to delineate any large 
 portion of it on a plane as to retain these properties. 
 Hence geographers resort to different methods of 
 representation called projections, which are of two 
 kinds — either real perspectives from different points 
 of view, or approximate developments. The five 
 principal projections are — the orthographic, the 
 stereographic, tlie gloliular, the conical, and the cyl- 
 indrical, or Mcrcator's In the first of these, the flat 
 surface on which the map is drawn is supposed to 
 pass through the center of the earth, and according 
 to the distance of the eye, the projectiim is either of 
 the first, second, or third kind. In the lyrthoqraphic. 
 the ej'e is assumed to be at an infinite distance from the 
 center of the earth, so that all rays of light proceed- 
 ing from every point in its surface are parallel and 
 perpendicular. From the nature of tliis projection, 
 it is evident that while the cenlral parts of tlie hem- 
 isphere are almost accurately represented, towards 
 the circumference the countries are crowded togeth- 
 er and diminished in size. On this account it is of 
 little use for geographical, though of considerable 
 value for astronomical ])urposes. In tlic stereoyrapliic, 
 tlie eyeor point of projection is assumcdto be placed 
 on the surface of the sphere opposite the one lo be 
 delinejited. If the globe were traiisiiareut, the eye 
 would then see the opjiosite concave surface. Con- 
 trarj' to tlie orthogra|)hic, this metliod contracts the 
 center of the map, and enlarges it towards the cir- 
 cumference. Owing to the une(iual area of the di- 
 visions, and the dilliculty of finding the true latitude 
 
 and longitude of places, this projection is not much 
 employed. In oriler to rectify the opposite effects 
 of the two preceding, the globular projection, a 
 modification of the two, is generally adopted. If we 
 suppose the ej'e to be removed from the surface to a 
 distance equal to the sine of 4-5* of the circumscrib- 
 ing circle, the projection is called globular. In oth- 
 er words, if the diameter of the sphere be 200 parts, 
 it must be produced TO of these parts in order to 
 give the point of projection. All meridians and par- 
 allels in this projection are in reality elliptical curves, 
 but as they approach so nearly to being circular arcs 
 they are very rarel}' shown otherwise. 
 
 Fig. 1. — Globular, or Equidistant Projection of a Hemisphere. 
 
 The construction of the globular or equidistant 
 projection is as follows (Fig. 1). Describe a circle 
 NESW, to represent a meridian. a_.d draw two dia- 
 meters, NCS and WCE, perpendicular to each other, 
 the one for a central meridian, the other for the equa- 
 tor. Then K and S will represent the north and south 
 poles. Divide each of the quadrants into 9 equal 
 parts, and each of the radii CN, CE, and C also in 9 
 equal parts. Produce NS both ways, and find on it 
 the centers of circles which will pass through the 
 three points 80 x 80. 70 y 70, etc., and these arcs de- 
 scribed on both sides of the equator will 1)e the paral- 
 lels of latitude. In like manner, find on WE produced, 
 the centers of circles which must passtlirough a. h. c, 
 and the poles. Having selected the first meridian, 
 number the others successfully to the east and west 
 of it. A map in this way may be constructed on the 
 rational horizon of any place. The ini])ossibility of 
 getting a perfect representation of special parts of 
 the sphere by any of the previous methods, led to 
 the desire for others less defective. Of all solid bo- 
 dies whose surfaces can be accurately developed or 
 rolled out upon a plane witliout alteration, the cone 
 and cj'linder approach nearest to the character of the 
 sphere. A portion of the sphere between two paral- 
 lels not far distant from each other, corresponds very 
 exactly with a like conical zone; whence it is that 
 conical developments make tlie best projections for 
 special geographical maps, and even with some mod- 
 ification^ for large portions of the globe. 
 
 Since all meridians on the globe are great circles 
 passing through the poles, the north and south 
 points at any places correspond with tlie poles of the 
 earth. The east and west points, however, are 
 indicated by a line at right angles to the meridian, 
 and do not, except at the equator, correspond with 
 those of the earth. In all the projections hitherto 
 described, the direction eithcrof the north and south, 
 or of I he east and west jioints, is reiires.-nled by a 
 curved line, so Ihat on such a map the course of a 
 vessel would almost always be laid down in a curve, 
 which could only be described by continually laying 
 off from the meridian a lineal an angle ecjual to that 
 made with the meridian by the jioint of the compass 
 at which the shiji was sailing. If the vessel were to 
 steer iu a direct N. E. course by one of the previous
 
 MARAUDING. 
 
 265 
 
 MARCEL DEPBEZ REGISTEB. 
 
 projections she would, if land did not intervene, | ordnance survey of Great Britain is on the scale of 
 dcscribi' a spiral rrmml. and iilliiimtclv arrive at the ^,,,',,,5 of naturc.or 1 inch of paper to om- nuh- of siir- 
 — -.1 1.. . ti,..r..r,,r.. ti„. iiiMriiwT rciMiircM a oliart I face. A recent iinprovcnjiiit inlrodiiced into our 
 
 north pole- Ihcrcforc. the mariner rccpiircs a diart i face. A recent iinprovcnjiiit introdnced into our 
 wliii h wiiri-niihle him to steer his course liy com- best ma|)S is;that of print im.M lie waler-coursi-s^iii hhie 
 pass in Btraii;ht lincsonly- This valuahle instrument 
 
 is supplied hy Mcrcator's chart, in which all the 
 meridians an" striUL'lit lines jii rprmlii-iihir to the 
 eijuator, and all the uarallels straight ^hwn immllH 
 
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 »i ,i .. 11-.11J (1 £5 r.3 150 1 
 
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 ink, niakinir the oroi;raphy and skeleton of I'very 
 country sliinil out in clear relief, thus avoiding the 
 confusCri ri^ultinir from all the lines heing black. 
 
 MARAUDING. -This word common, under ortlio- 
 Rraphic variations, to most of the Eiiropi-an lan- 
 guapes, and, probably, of identical root with the 
 virb "to mar" means irre^rular jiliindcr or violence 
 olVercd to the inhabitants of a country by the indi- 
 viduals of an army. In all armies where discipline 
 is maintained. marau<ling is, at least professedly, 
 punished by ilcalh ; the Provost Marshal having 
 power to iiitlicl that penalty summarily on all of- 
 fenders taken in in the act. 
 
 MARCASITE.— Sulphurous pyrites, which super- 
 seded till- iiKif'-h. in ilischar^ini; lire-arms. The py- 
 rites when struck, iL'iiiled. ;i\v\ llri'd the charire. 
 
 MARCEL. DEPREZ REGISTER.- In order to replace 
 the induction-spark as means of rejristration, Mr. 
 Marccl-Dejircz had recourse to electro-magnets 
 whose armature, retracledby a counteracting spring, 
 was furnished with a pen which rested on the sur- 
 face of the cylinder of the chronograph, this pen be- 
 ing so arranged as to be disjjlaced in the dircctiim of 
 ageneratri.x duringtlie niovenient of the armature. As 
 a result of this arrangement, the pen traced on the 
 
 Fig. 2. — Mcrcntor's PrdjcctifHi. 
 
 to the equator. It is constructed as follows ("Fig. 2): 
 A line AB is drawn of tlu' reijuired length for the 
 equator. This line is divided into 3(), 24. or 18 
 equal parts, for meridians at 10", 1.5*^, or 30" apart, 
 anil the meridians are then successively drawn 
 through these points ])erpendicular to Ali. From a 
 talile of meridional parts (a table of the number of 
 minutes of a degree of longitude at the eipiator com- 
 prised lietweeu that and every jiarallel of latitude up 
 to Hi)"), take the distances of the parallels and of the 
 tropics and arctic circles from the equator.and mark 
 them olT to the nortli and south of it. .loin these 
 points, and the projection is made. This projection, 
 of course, does not aud is not intended to give a na- 
 tural representation of the earth, its effect l>eing to 
 exaggerate the polar regions immensely. Tlie dis- 
 tortion in the form of countries and relative direction 
 of places, is rectitied Ijy the degrees of latitude be- 
 ing made to increase proportionalily to those of 
 longitude. This is the only maj) which gives an un- 
 briiken view of the whole surface of the earth. The 
 term wf/'is specially ap])licd to reiireseiitalions of 
 land, or lauii and water together; while that of I'hirt 
 is limited to the coast and water surface only, show- 
 ing currents, rocks, anchorage, light-liouses, har- 
 bors, soundings, aud other objects of importance. 
 
 A geographical map proper is a general iiuip of 
 the world, or of a large extent of country. .*V topo- 
 graphical map dilTers from it in being limited in area, 
 and much more detailed. The ordnance survey of 
 Britain is a good example of a topographical map. 
 Besiiles purely geographical and topographical maps. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 cylinder in motion a given circumference so long as 
 the current jiassing in the eleetro-magnet of the reg- 
 ister kept the armature attracted : when the current 
 was broken, the pen. drawn laterally by the arma- 
 ture, traced a hook, and connected" with the prece- 
 ding circumference by a curve, the form of which 
 depended on the relative velocities of the cylinder and 
 the pen, and finally, the armature being arrested by a 
 catch which limit"s its course, the pen traced a new 
 circumference a little distant from the preceding. 
 Fig. 1. If the current was re-estal)lished at the end 
 of a certain time, the armature was attracted anew. 
 the pen traced a second hook, and was replaced on 
 the original circumference of which it continued the 
 others are constructed for special purposes, which j trace. 'The two hooks obtained indicate the instants 
 may be physical, political or civil, military, statistic- ! when the breaking and the closing were produced. 
 al, "historical, etc. In order to construct "a map, and The employment of electro-magnets as registers was 
 to determine accurately the positions of places on it, not new ; these devices had Ijeen applied since 1844 
 a knowledge of two elements is essential— viz.. lati- ' to the Wheatstone and Breguet chronographs, and 
 tude or disUince from the equator, aud longitude or Regnault employed them also with the chronograph 
 distance east or west of the meridian adopted. Every that he used in" his celebrated experiments on the 
 map, whatever its dimensions, is in some definite re- measure of the velocity of sound. If we were lim- 
 latiou to the actual size of the globe. This relation ited to the reproduction of the arrangements adopted 
 is indicated by a scale— a graduated line showing, by by these different experiments, it would be impossi- 
 its divisions, the number of miles corresponding to ble to obtain a precision susceptible of competing 
 any space measured on the map. The .scales of geo- with the employment of the iniluction-spark. The 
 graphical maps range from about 800 m. to an inch usual electro-magnets, similar to those used in tele- 
 "(for maps of quarters of the globe) to 10 miles to an graphy, have, in'fact.a functional retardation which 
 incli: those of topographical inaps range from 1 inch is far from unimportant. If we seek for these appara- 
 to 25 inches to a mile, the largest topographical maps tus, employing, for example, the lime that elaps^ 
 ■we have, admitting of the most minufe details. The between the moment when the current which ani-
 
 MABCEL-DEPEEZ REGISTER. 
 
 266 
 
 MAKCEL DEPEEZ EEGISTEE. 
 
 mates an electro-magnet is broken and that when its 
 armature is set in motion under the action of tlie 
 counteracting spring wliich retracts it, we find tliat 
 tliis time, which niay be called retardation of dis- 
 connection, attains aad often exceeds a luindredth 
 of a second. The time that elapses between the mo- 
 meat when the current is re-established, and the ar- 
 mature returned to its original place is greater still ; 
 it may be called retardation of connection. The sum 
 of these two retardations forms the time lost between 
 two successive signals, and limits the number of sig- 
 nals to be required in a second by a given electro- 
 magnetic register. Hence, we see that an ordinary 
 electro-magnet could scarcely give more than 40 sig- 
 nals in a second. 
 
 In order that we might count on the precision of 
 these signals, it wouUrbe necessary, besides, that the 
 functional retardations, or at least'the retardations of 
 discouuectiou, should be absolutely constant for the 
 same register. If this condition was fulfilled, we 
 could, in fact, notwithstanding their slow action, 
 obtain a great precision of measure in the vahuition 
 of a difference of durations ; we could also measure, 
 with equal precision, portions of time smaller tlian 
 the time lost by the apparatus, by using two electro- 
 magnets for registering the two signals whicli de- 
 termine the time to be measured, provided that we 
 had the means of determining exactly the supposed 
 constant retardation of each apparatus. Thisiueans 
 exists, as we shall see further on ; but the retarda- 
 tion of disconnection is unfortunately not constant in 
 the ordinary electro-magnets. This retardation, is 
 composed of two parts: a retardation in the cessation of 
 the magnetic attraction, which retardation is owing 
 to the phenomenon usuallj' designated by tlie name 
 of remaining magnetism, and a retardation owing to 
 the setting in operation the mechanical organs of 
 registration; this latter retardation can be made con- 
 stant, but it is not the same witli the retardation of 
 demagnetization, whicli depends on several various 
 circumstances, and especially on the intensity of the 
 current, which may varj' with the resistance of the 
 
 circuit or the activity of the battery; the retardation 
 depends also on tlie manner in which the current is 
 broken. The variations of tlie retardation or demag- 
 netization, although very trifling in themselves, 
 would, by using the usual electro-magnets, have at- 
 tained limits greater than the degree of precision 
 sought would allow: it was necessary, then, to find 
 the means of regulating the working of the devices. 
 The course to pursue naturally presented itself: it 
 was necessarj- first of all to seek to reduce, in abso- 
 lute value, the retardation of demagnetization, be- 
 cause thus the variations of this retardation must be 
 reduced in the s;une ))roportion. while at the same 
 time the apparatus could be made sulticiently rapid 
 in its operation to follow, in most eases, tlie succes- 
 sion of the ))heni)inena to be observed. The empliu'- 
 nient of these small registers, formed of diminutive 
 electro-magnets, like those which arc now used in 
 bomc special apparatus, such as the electric toys of 
 Mr. Trouve, must, after wliat is known of the work- 
 ing; of these toys, secure the first improvement. An- 
 
 other motive led to the employment of very small 
 apparatus, or at least of very small movable pieces ; 
 it was the necessity for accelerating as much as pos- 
 sible the movements of the tracing-pen. 
 
 In ordinary electro-magnets, where the counter- 
 acting force applied to the armature, as well as the 
 attractive force which is opposed to it, are com- 
 parable to the weight of this armature, the latter 
 moves with only a very feeble acceleration, at the 
 disconnection as well as the connection. The result 
 is that if the rotatory movement of the cylinder on 
 which the pen, guided by this armature, makes its 
 trace is a little fast, the traces obtained unite tangent- 
 iall)' by a lengthened curve with the circumferences 
 described by tlie pen in its two extreme positions, so 
 that it is very ditiicult to catch the line at the pre- 
 cise moment when the pen is set in motion. If, on 
 the contrary, the pen is animated by a rapid move- 
 ment, so that its velocity ;s promptly comparable to 
 that of the cylinder, the lines that it leaves are cleanly 
 detached from the extreme circumferences and give 
 signals easy to distinguish with precision. Kow, 
 this result can be obtained by emploj'ing very small 
 armatures, so constructed that the inertia of the 
 movable pieces develops only a very feeble resistance 
 to the movement, and so arranged that the energy 
 exerted on them by the counteracting spring that im- 
 pels them may be considerable in proportion to the 
 masses set in motion. These considerations induced 
 Mr. Marcel-Deprez to establish very small electro- 
 magnetic registers, furnished with still smaller arma- 
 tures, that the magnetic attraction might be rela- 
 tively great in proportion to the mass of these arma- 
 tures, and to employ long and light pens, placed, as 
 well as the movable masses, as near as possible, or 
 practicable, to the axis of rotation, in order to re- 
 duce to a very minimum the moment of inertia of 
 the system. Moreover, in order to diminish the re- 
 tardation of disconnection, Jlr. Marcel-Peprez pro- 
 vided his registers with a means of regulating the 
 counteracting force applied to the armature in such 
 a manner as to cause this force to form nearly an 
 equilibrium with the magnetic attraction, so that 
 disconnection takes place as soon as the attraction 
 becomes slighth' reduced and instantly after the 
 rupture of the electric current. The forms given to 
 the Marcel-Deprez registers, in departing from these 
 principles, were very variable, and we will content 
 ourselves with describing some especially ainilicable 
 to the chronograph and other ballistic apparatus. 
 
 Fig- 3. 
 
 Fig. l.represents one of the registers phiced against 
 (he cylinder of a modified Sclniltz clironogra])!!, and 
 Fig. '.i. represents the registers arrangeil side liy side 
 10 in numbi'r, on a horizontal form lixed in front of 
 the revolving <'ylinder : they are iiKumted each on a 
 little screw-slide on which ii eounleracting spring 
 acts, and which allows each pen to come into con- 
 tact with the cylinder or to withdraw from it at will. 
 A general lever movement of the form removes at 
 will all the pens at the same time, or, on thecontrarj^
 
 MARCEL DEPREZ REGISTER. 
 
 207 
 
 MARCEL DEPREZ REGISTER. 
 
 briii);8 them together in contact witli the cylinder. 
 
 KiK'h("lrctro-m!if;n<'t,Fif;.1,is('onipoiJ<'(lof two helices 
 
 ofnljiiul \'i 1 (().47i!4 inch) (liani<-(cr, |iliici-il vcrli- 
 
 cally in a |)lune nurnial to the cylinilcr, anil Inrnishcil 
 wilii pillar masses, rclalivcly stron;; ; between theni 
 is lixed a small armature (if prismatic form, which 
 vveii;ha only a few milli^ramnK'S, and which, heini; 
 thus itnnuTseil in tin' maiinetit- lield, is snlijected to 
 an atlraclivi^ forci^ which can b(^ raised In 10 1)00 anil 
 20,000 times its weii;ht. The siippnrtini;- jiiiwer iif 
 the electro-mairnetH may amiiimt tii 200 j;rammes 
 ((>.4;)0:! iiz. tniyj. This armalnre is secured to a very 
 liv,ht hiirizimtal axis iif steel, placed as near as ])os- 
 sihle, and which has at one extremity a small, very 
 slender steel pen, and at the other a small lever, di- 
 rected from the side oppiisite to the armature, and 
 whoso extremity, bent into a hook, hooks into the 
 rini; of a dnnhlc thread of extended caniitchiinc. The 
 lensiiin (if this caniitclmuc thread can lie rci^ulated 
 with precisiiiu tii any deiircc desired; the lower part 
 of the double thread passes throuirli a small clasp, 
 where it is held by a tensifm-serew ; by looseninj; 
 this screw a determined vveii;ht can be suspended at 
 the extremity of the thread; the tension is allowed to 
 be ])ro(luced, and when cipiilhrium is established the 
 clasp is tight.eued and the wcinlit (become useless) is 
 removed. Thus the thrc:iil is a repository of a ten- 
 sion rxiu-tly nu';isurcd by tlu' w<'i!iht, and which ac- 
 ciirdinji;ly can be reproduced at any instant. 
 
 In order to establish an equilibrium between the 
 tension thus produced and tlie iittractivc force of 
 the electro-magnet, a small additional piece of soft 
 iron is employed, i)laccd on the electro-magnet in 
 contact with the polar mass, in proximity to the ar- 
 nKiliire, ;iud on the side opposite to the axis of rota- 
 tion. Fin'. 1. This mass can be displaced gradually 
 by means of !m adjusting screw; by setting it nearer 
 to or farther from the arniiiture the attractive force 
 is diminished or augmented, and this force may thus 
 be sulliciently reduced to ciiuse the spontaneous dis- 
 coimectionof the cli'ctro-magnet; if the mass is then 
 removed a little farther oir by a very slight move- 
 ment of the screw, the atlniction is augmented in a 
 meiisure just sullicicnt to maintain the arm;iture, so 
 that tlie least reduction in intensity of the current 
 sullices to liberate it, and conse{iuently it is set in 
 motion as soon as the ciu'rent is liroken, or at lea.st 
 with a retardation exceedingly sm;dl and very con- 
 stant. The arrangement represented by Fig. 2, and 
 which shows the working of 10 registers placed side 
 by side ag;iinst the chronograph cylinder, is espe- 
 cially applied to the mc;isuring of the dur:itions of 
 lilicnomena following eacli other in toompid succes- 
 sion to pernnl the connccliim of ii register between 
 each signal. In this case, in fact, it is necessary to 
 employ as many registers and distinct circuits as 
 there are signals to observe, requiring for each reg- 
 istOT only one signal, for the necessity is thus dis- 
 pi'nsed with of m:iking th<' registers connectors, that 
 is to say, of regulating the course of the ;innatures 
 in such a manner tliat they might be recalled by the 
 magnetic attraction at the time of the re-establish- 
 nient of , tin.' current. This latitude facilitates in a 
 singular manner the employment of the apparatus, 
 because it allows of giving to the pens a course large 
 enough to nndic the traces easy to read, and of reg- 
 ulating the position of the additional mass so as to 
 renih'r the electro-magnets very sensitive, which 
 could not be done to the same degree if an excess of 
 force must lie left to the attractive force, in order 
 to restore the arnuiture from a distance. This is the 
 arrangement whicli it would be most proper to adopt 
 for the electro-magnet almost exclusively, if the fact 
 of employing ditl'erent electric circuits did not, on 
 the other h:uul. introduce c;u[ses of uncertainty and 
 dillicidties in their use often very great. 
 
 Tlie emiiloyeini'Ut of electro-magnets, also, simply 
 as discomiectcrs, has been reserved in practice for 
 the case where the intervids of the successive sig- 
 nals are so short that it is not possible to tind re- 
 
 gisters sufflcicntly rapid In their course to follow the 
 production of these signals. The limit is now very 
 much extended by the re<enl improv<'tnentH which 
 .Mr. .Marci-l-IJcprez has made in his registers, wlilcli 
 can execute as many as 2.000 movements per second. 
 I At the tiimr when his first investigations were exe- 
 futcd, in concert with the marine artillery service, 
 he had already jiroduced registers whose ri-lardation 
 iif disconnection w;is reduceil to less llian one Iwo- 
 thoiisandtli of asi'cond, and which, placed in the cir- 
 <uil of a fork sust;uncd by eh'ctricity and giving 1,. 
 000 simple vibrations per second ("."iOO periods;, <;ould 
 follow the movement of this fork, and thus ])roduce 
 •WO rupture signals and . 100 closing signals per s^c- 
 j ond, by leavingon the revolving cjOinder of a chrono- 
 graph traces which indicated that the register re- 
 I m.-iini'd still at rest for an a|>precial)le timet in the in- 
 terval between the two signals. 
 j Hut however rapid ?he registers might be, they 
 would not have given the 10 signals which it was the 
 1 objc(-t to obtain in case of need during the develop- 
 ment of the pressures in the bore of a gnn from the 
 moment of thcinllanunation of the charge to the mo- 
 ment of the mjiximum jiressure wliich, it is known, 
 can scarcely be two or three thousandths of a second 
 in dunition. so th;it the successive signals could only 
 betwoten thousandths of a second apart,and eventless. 
 It would also be necess;iry to adopt for these special 
 researches the employment of many independent reg- 
 isters, each giving Init a single signal, as Fig.2 shows. 
 
 For other researches, such as the studies of exter- 
 ior b;dli3tics, or even that of the law of the move- 
 ment of the projectile in the bore, reconnecting reg- 
 isters could tie employed. 
 
 Fig. 3 shows a register with large, wide helices 
 arranged w-ith regard to each other in such a man- 
 ner as to cause the oscillation of a small armature 
 mounted .synnnetrically on a horizontal axis, which 
 is terminated at one end by a small lever, to the ex- 
 tremities of which can be lixed the threads of ex- 
 tended caoutchouc, two in number. The armature 
 can only receive a very slight oscillatory movement, 
 which is regulated in case of need by displacing the 
 cori'S of the helices, and a great force of attraction is 
 thus olitained to induce the recomn-ction. The 
 movement of the armature is commiuiicated to the 
 pen whigh is on the extremity of a small parallel axis, 
 placed on the upper part, by means of a very light 
 lever, secured in a small fork, and which produces 
 a notable amplification. In another mode of con- 
 struction much useil, two registers nuiuuted side by 
 side so as to be sinudlaneimslv utilized, are arranged 
 
 Fi-. 1. 
 in such a manner as to produce two traces very near 
 each other, so as the Iietter to utilize the available 
 space on the cylinder. In each of these registers the 
 helices are placed end to enii. lengthwise to one an- 
 other, and tlieir poles placed in juxtajiosition are cut 
 so as to serve as a lodgment for a small prismatic 
 armature which is thus innnerscd in the magnetic 
 tield. The axes on which the two armanires are 
 fixed are placed between the electromagnets, one on 
 the left and the other on the right, in such a manner
 
 MARCEL-DEPEEZ KEGISTEK. 
 
 268 
 
 MAECEL-DEPBEZ SEGISTEE. 
 
 as to bring tlie pens near to each otlier ; these axes 
 have each a pen at one of the extremtiies and sup- 
 port, in tlieir middle, a small plate of spring-steel 
 placed verticall_v, against the extremity of wliicli 
 rests a horizontal screw, that can be worked with a 
 key, so as to produce a counteracting effort adjust- 
 able at will. A vertical supporting screw, whose po- 
 sition can be regulated with the same key, serves to 
 limit the course of the armature, so as to make the 
 connection possible, allowing at the same time a suf- 
 ficient course for the pens. In order to obtain the 
 connection in these registers, it is necessary always 
 to give to the magnetic attraction an excess of force 
 over the tension of the counteracting spring, which 
 does not permit the retardation of demagnetization 
 to be reduced to the minimum which it would be 
 possible to attain without this necessity ; but the ex- 
 cessive reduction of llie dimensions of the helices, 
 which in the last apjiaratus figured did not exceed 5 
 millimetres (0.19(58 inch) each in diameter and T mil- 
 limetres 0.2756 inch) in length, permits the reduction 
 of the retardation to a value extremely small and 
 makes the variations in it altogether insignificant. 
 We are assured, in fact, by the arrangement which 
 will be described farther on, that the retardation of 
 disconnection of these registers can be reduced to 
 cme three-tliousandths of a second, and that the va- 
 riations of this retardation, from one disconnection 
 to another do not attain to one fifty-thousandtii of a 
 second. 
 
 In the apparatus sketched, which was arranged 
 for mounting by means of a collar with a clamp 
 screw, on a cylindrical shaft placed before the cliro- 
 nograph cylinder, one of the registers was moimteil 
 stationarj' on the common support, the other was 
 sustained by a small movable slide wliieh a square- 
 headed screw permitted to move backwards or for- 
 wards, by means of the key already used for the otlier 
 adjusting screws ; this regulated the two pens so 
 that they might rest equally on the surface of the 
 cylinder of the chronograph. Fig. 4 represents an- 
 other type of register, frequently employed. It is 
 adapted to a number of mechanical arrangements, 
 especialh' when it is desiered to combine si>!e by side, 
 as we siiall see upon investigation, several inde- 
 dependent registers. The helices, which in this case 
 measure 7 millimetres (0.27.'5() inch) in diameter and 
 9 millimetres (0.3543 inch) in length, are placed ver- 
 ticall)' as in the apparatus, Fig. 1. The employment 
 of a prismatic armature lodged between two polar 
 masses is abandoned on account of the difficulties in 
 construction and adjusting which it involved, and a 
 flat armature is substituted which acts directly on 
 the poles and approximates the arrangement of the 
 ordinary electro-magnets ; this armature is hollowed 
 out, however, outside of the poles, in order, there- 
 by, to diminish the mass, and it is made movable 
 around an axis parallel to its length, and as near as 
 possible to diminish the movement of inertia. The 
 resistance due to the inertia of the lever on which 
 the counteracting spring in the register (Fig. 1.) is 
 applied is also avoided by applying directly on the 
 armature the effort which is here produced by a 
 small spiral spring. This .spring can be extended at 
 will by a mill-headed button, fitted very tightly, and 
 which acts upon a crank to the extremity of which 
 it is fastened. An adjusting screw, whose point 
 touches against the arniiiture, limits at will the course 
 of the pen which is soldered on a small pi])e fitted 
 on the extremity of the shaft. By loosening this 
 screw the course can l)e made so great that the re- 
 gister cannot naturally connect ; in this case, a ten- 
 sion maybegiven to the counteracting spring slight- 
 ly inferior 1o the attractive force so as lo reduce as 
 much as jiossible the retardation of disconncclion. 
 On the contrary, by revolving and tightening the 
 screw so as to diminish the course, and liy reducing 
 also the tension of the counteracting spring, a pre- 
 ponderance may be restored to the attractive force, 
 great enough to produce the connection of the aiipa- 
 
 ratrs which is then in a condition to give numerous 
 successive signals, but the retardation of disconnec- 
 tion is, in this case, slightly augmented, according to 
 the intensity of the current. 
 
 These registers are each secured to a ring-shaped 
 mounting with its under part open. By tliese rings 
 they are fitted side by side on a cylindrical shaft ; 
 they constitute so many clasps susceptible of being 
 each tightened on tliis shaft, in any position what- 
 ever, by means of a mill-headed screw. To each of 
 these registers may thus be given an indiviilual move- 
 ment of rotation around this shaft, by whicli move- 
 ment the pens are brought on the same line, and a 
 general rotary movement of the shaft afterwards re- 
 moves them altogether, or makes them bear equally 
 and at the same time on the surface designed to re- 
 ceive the registry. By what precedes, we see that 
 the property of connecting automatically can be giv- 
 en to a register only on the important condition 
 of limiting tlie course of the pen and in also 
 reducing the counteracting force which determines 
 the rapidity of its movement of disconnection ; the 
 magnetic attraction, exerted on the armature, dimin- 
 ishing according to the square of the distance, we 
 imagine that, in practice, in order to preserve a course 
 sufficiently rapid, we may be led to reduce, to a very 
 small quantity, the amplitude of the displacement of 
 the pen, which renders the readings difficult. A rem- 
 edy was sought for tliis defect by the employment 
 of organs for multiplying the movement like those 
 represented by Fig. 3. Mr. Napoli also constructed 
 registerssuch as that represented by Fig. 5. in which 
 the amplification of the movement was produced by 
 
 the medium of two cams resting one on tlie other, 
 with surfaces arranged in such a manner as to vary, 
 at each instant, according to a proper law, the rela- 
 tion of the arms of the lever and consequently the 
 action of the counteracting spring acting then direct- 
 ly on the shaft which contains the pen; this is the, 
 arrangement known by the name of "distributer of 
 Uobert Iloudin." Mr. Marcel-Deprez also sought 
 to overcome this difiiculty by using electro-magnets, 
 comliiued in i)airs and of dilTerent forces, working 
 successively liy the .same action of the disconnection; 
 the attraction of the armature, in ordinary circum- 
 stances, was produced by a very small ••ind very sen- 
 sitive electro-magnet, whose retardation of disconnec- 
 tion could be made small, and, at this lime of the dis- 
 coniieilion. the armature established contact which 
 introduced in the circuit a larger electro-magnet sus- 
 ceptible of acting with force on the armature in or- 
 der to return it lo its place. When the current was 
 reestalilislied, it was this second electro-magnet 
 which caused the connection, and wlien tlie armature
 
 HABCH. 
 
 2G9( 
 
 MA£CH£B. 
 
 was thus bronj;lit into contact all lljiiiiis were rc- 
 slorcil aiildinalically I" llicir place : llic current 
 was llicM sent a^'ain into llie . small elec-lnj-niiignct. 
 See S'/jirt iiiiil Murrii-Ih /ire! ('hrimnijriipji, 
 
 MARCH, — A terniapjilied to a piece of niusic com- 
 poHcil cliiedy for niilllary hands, to accompany the 
 marchini;' of troops, to help them to preserve time 
 and to act as a prevenlive ai;ainst fatijrnc. Marches 
 are pliiyed on wind inslrnnients or liv the (ifes and 
 drnms, and are generally some simple popniar air. 
 Each re'4irnenl in Ihe lirilish service has its special 
 march for marching past; the Fusiliers are allowed 
 to |ila\' cm that occasion the " British (Jrenadier." 
 
 MAJRCHANDS.- Petty sutlers who follow an army 
 on its inarch. As they trenerally deal in articles whicli 
 are re(|nired hy the ollicers and soldiers, it is thehusi- 
 ness of every (!eneral to see them ])ro|)erly treated, 
 to insure their safely, and to jicrinit them, under cer- 
 tain rcL^iilalions, to have access to the camp. 
 
 MARCHES. - 1. The l)ounilarics Ijclwcen Kngland 
 and Scot l.md, also between England and Wales. The 
 term siij;nitied primarily tin' murk of a country's 
 limits (the ?;(«.)■<•/() ; and hence was apjtiied as a desig- 
 nation of thel)ordcr countries ordislricis of the Ger- 
 man Kmpirc, com|uered from neighbouriuLr nations. 
 Thus, we read of the marlxni Austria, of Northern 
 Saxony or lirandenburi;, Lausalia. Jloravia, Steier- 
 mark, etc. Tlie Lcovernors intrusted with the charge 
 ofthe.se border districts, or mai-k.i, were called mark- 
 grnfn, corresponding to the English and Scottish 
 WiinlenK of Uie Morrhen. '2. The movements hy 
 which a body of troops is conducted from oti<' place 
 to another. They shoidd be well directed and should 
 be ordered so as to conduct the troojis to their des- 
 tination with the least amount of privation and fa- 
 tigue compatible with the object to be attained. The 
 art of directing properly i> march belongs to "Strat- 
 egy", while the art of arranging the details of its exe- 
 cution is a part of "Logistics." As the success of 
 many military operations depends almost entirely 
 upon their execution marches form a most im. 
 portant element in the Art of War. Marches when 
 made at a distance fnnn the enemy and where it is 
 not necessary to take precautions to guard against an 
 attack are known as rmiUt marches : those made in 
 the theater of operations and where the enemy may 
 at any moment make his sudden a|)pcarauce, are 
 called striitffjiatl marches; those maclc in the im- 
 mediate vicinity of the enemy and so near, tliat they 
 may be observed by him, are c;\\\i.-dtiii-ti'-iil marches. 
 Besides these three classes of marches which arc 
 based upon Iheposition of Ihe enemy, writers use var- 
 ious other classitications, based nijonthe objec^ to be 
 attained, or upon some other characteristic feature. 
 These are known as marchiH .ifajncsntration.umiieiiver 
 indirlies.retreatK, finnk-mnrches, etc. 
 
 Although the object of the movement and the na- 
 ture of the ground determine the order of march, 
 the kind of troops in e;ich column, and the number 
 of columns, tlie t'ommander must so act as to pre- 
 sent his men in rtghtmg order at any moment. With 
 this in view, it will be necessary to observe the fol- 
 lowing points : 1. All things to be arranged in the 
 same order in which they are likely to be required. 
 3. The cheerfulness and efficiency of the men to 
 be secured, carefully considering the proper indul- 
 gences, the weather, the physical features of the 
 country, and iiuporlant hygienic principles. 3. Tlie 
 animals to be herded, loaded, driven and guarded 
 with the greatest care. When distant from the ene- 
 my, or when in broken or dusty country, certain 
 considerations of the first order may very properly 
 give way to case and comfort, but. as a general rule, 
 tile transportation (kept well closed up) should fol- 
 low closely in the rear of the main command. 
 
 The simple movements of the troops, like that of 
 forming into line of battle from a colunmformaiiou, 
 or the converse, or a change of position in the actual 
 presence of the enemy, form apart of tactics: but the 
 following general rules arc applicable at most limes i 
 
 and places : IJatteries of artillery and tlieir caiHHOiw 
 move Willi the corps to which they are attached; 
 the licld train ami ambulances march at the rear of 
 the column, anil the baggage with the rear guard. 
 (,'avalry and infantry do not march together, unless 
 the ijroximity of the enemy makes it necessary. In 
 cavalry marches, when distant from the enemy, each 
 regiment, and, if possilile, ea<:h squadron, lorms a 
 separate cohinin, in order to keep up the same gait 
 from front to rear, and to trot, when desirable, on 
 I good ground. In such cases, the cavalry may leave 
 camj) later, and can give more rest to the horses, and 
 more attention to tlie shoeing and harness. Horses 
 are not bridled until the time to start. The ofTlcers 
 and non-commissioned oHicers of cavalry companies 
 attend ixrsonally to the packs and girths. When 
 necessary, the orders siiecify the rations the men are 
 to carry in their haversacks. The Field Ollicers and 
 Captains make freipienl inspeclions during the 
 march; at lialts they examine the knapsacks, valises, 
 and haversacks, and tlirow away all articles not 
 authorized. When it can be avoided, troops should 
 not be assembled on high-roads or other places 
 where they interrupt the communication. Generals 
 of divisions and Commanders of detached corps send 
 a Staff Officer to the rendezvous, in advance, to 
 receive the troops, who. upon arriving, take their 
 [ilace in the order of battle, and then form in close 
 column, unless otherwise ordered. Artillery, or 
 ; trains halted on the roads, form in file on oneside. 
 The execution of marching orders must not be de- 
 layed. If the Commander is not at tlie head of his 
 troops when they are to march, the next in rank puts 
 the column in motion. If possilile, each column i^ 
 preceded by a ditachment of pioneers to remove 
 obstacles to the march, aided, when necessary, by 
 infantry. The detachment is divided into two sec- 
 tions ; one stops to remove the tirst obstacle, the 
 other moves on to the next. 
 
 In night marches, and at bad places on the line pf 
 march, when iiracticable, and at cross-roads, if neces- 
 sary, intelligent non-commissioned officers will be 
 posted to show the way, and iire relieved by succes- 
 sive details from the regiments asthey comeup. The 
 Sergeant-major of each regiment remains at the rear 
 with a trumpeter or a drummer, to give notice when 
 darkness or dilficully stops the march. In cavalry, a 
 trumpeter is placed in rear of each squadron, and the 
 signal is repeated to tlie head of the regiment. The 
 General and Field Officers frequently stop. or send offi- 
 cers to the rear, to see that the troops march in the 
 prescribed order.and keep their distances. To (juick- 
 eu the niarcli, the General warns the Colonels, and 
 may order a signal to be sounded, which is repeated 
 in all the regiments. In approaching a defile, the 
 Colonels are warned; each regiment passes separate- 
 ly in column of fours in the order designated by the 
 Commanding Officer, two battalions, \vlien possible, 
 marching abreast; on emerging from the defile, the 
 battalions form line under the immediate direction 
 of the General, the flank battalions being so posted 
 as to prevent the enemy from passing between them 
 and Llie entrance to the defile. Halts to rest and re- 
 form the troops are frequent during the day, depend- 
 ing on the object and length of the march. They 
 are made in preference after the passage of defiles. 
 Led horses of officers, and the horses of dismounted 
 men, follow their regiments. The baggage wagons 
 never march in the column. When the General or- 
 ders the field train and amliulances to take place in 
 the column, he designates the position they shall 
 take. If two corps meet on the same road, they pass 
 to the right, and both continue their march, if the 
 road is wide enough; if it is not. the first in the order 
 of battle takes the road, the other halts. A corps in 
 niiirch must not be cut by another. If two corps 
 meet at cross-roads, that which arrives last halts if 
 the other is in motion. A corps in march passes a 
 corps at a halt. if it has precedence in the order of bat- 
 tle, orif the hailed corps is not ready to move atonce.
 
 MARCHES. 
 
 270 
 
 MABCHES. 
 
 A column that lialts to let another column pass re- 
 sumes the march in advance of tlie train of this col- 
 umn. If a column has to pass a train.the train must 
 halt, if necessary, till the column passes. The col- 
 umn which has "precedence must yield it if the Com- 
 mander, on seeing the orders of the other, finds it 
 for the interest oflhe service. 
 
 The rate of march ordinarily for different troops is 
 a< follows ;— Infantry, 2f miles an hour: tiekl-artil- 
 lery 3^ miles an hour : horse-artillery or cavalry, 4 ^ 
 to 5 miles an hour. These rates only apply to small 
 bodies marchins; independently. Practically, in- 
 fantry in larse bodies can only march at the rate of 
 2 miles an hour. Infantry, being the slowest march- 
 ers, necessarily rea;ulate the pace of mi.xed columns. 
 It is computed that a division of infantry of 12 bat- 
 tiilions. of 800 men, marching in fours, will occupy 
 about 7,()80 yards. Its artillery (two batteries), 
 without wagons, and marching by divisions, occu- 
 pies about 400 yards. A divisiouemnplete. including 
 the advanced and rear guard, will cover about 7 
 miles. To determine tlie time of march (T) of a 
 column; Let D = the distance (in feet) to be passed 
 over ; L = the length of the column in feet ; D' = 
 the distance (in feet) passed over in one minute by 
 the column.incUidins; halts; and T' =the time of de- 
 lay (in minutes) duelo the elongation of the column 
 in passing defiles, the physical cTondition of the com- 
 mand and all the irregularities of the route ; then, 
 L 
 = the time (in minutes) for the column to pass 
 
 D' 
 
 over a distance equal to its length, and T (in min- 
 utes) = „ 
 L D D- T- + L + D 
 
 T' + - + - = ;; 
 
 D' D' D' 
 
 Thus, for a column of troops 860 feet in depth, 
 moving at the rate of 100 yards per minute (includ- 
 ing halts) and delayed eleven minutes, to pass over 
 six miles, 
 
 300 X 11 + 860 + 31680 
 
 •J = = 119^ minutes. 
 
 300 
 
 haiist the troops immediately before engaging the 
 enemy. Whenever delay's occur in front, the brigades 
 may form in column of battalions, and stack arms. 
 It is the duty of all Commanders, within their com- 
 mands, to investigate, personallj' or by means of staiT- 
 olHcers, every cause of dcla_y,ai)d staif-ofiicers should 
 be frequently sent ahead for the purpose of gaining 
 any information that might shorten the march, and 
 lessen the fatigue of the troops. 
 
 AVhen cavalry and artillery form part of the col- 
 umn. Commanding Officers must bear in mind that 
 their efficiency depends almost entirely upon the 
 cunditiun. of the horaen, which alone make's them able 
 to get over long distances in short spaces of time. 
 The horses must, therefore, be nursed with great 
 care, in order that they may endure the utmost fa- 
 tigue when emergencies demand it. When near the 
 enemy, the artillery always marches with the bulk 
 of the troops, its place being near the center or rear 
 of the infantry or cavalry, never at the head of the 
 column. In campaign, if a battery does not march 
 with troops of the other arms, a sufficient escort 
 must alwaj-s be provided. 
 
 When an accident happens to a carriage, it is 
 pulled out of the column, if possible, so as not to 
 interrupt the march ; otherwise, the carriages in rear 
 pass it by the most convenient flank and close to 
 proper distance. The disabled carriage resumes its 
 place as soon as the damage is repaireil ; if the road 
 be narrow, it must fall into the lirst interval it finds, 
 and regain its proper place as soon as the ground 
 permit^. The caisson of a disabled piece remains 
 with it; a piece, however, does not remain with its 
 disabled caisson, the caisson corporal, and men to 
 assist him, if necessary, being left behind. 
 
 When a piece and its carriage are overturned, it is 
 better to disengage the piece by letting the breech 
 rest on the ground, or on a block of ^\■ood, and by 
 then raising the muzzle with a handspike, while the 
 cap-squares are taken off; the carriage is then right- 
 ed and the piece mounted. To right the carriage 
 without disengaging the piece, detach the limber, 
 secure the cap-squares, and lash the knob of the 
 cascabel to the stock ; place tlie middle of a rope 
 over the nave of one wheel, pass the ends of it down- 
 ward between the lower spokes of that wheel, then 
 under the carriage, through the corresponding spokes 
 of the other wheel, and then upward over the wheel 
 and across the top of the carriage to the side where 
 it was first attached ; the ends of the rope and the 
 wheel to be raised are then manned, and the carriage 
 
 The average march for infantry is from fifteen to 
 twenty miles per day. When troops move in large 
 bodies, and particularly in the vicinity of the enemy, 
 the march should be conducted in several columns, 
 in order to diminish the depth of the columns, and to 
 expedite the deployment into line of battle. The 
 order of march should state the time for each divis- 
 ion to commence its movement, so as not to interfere j pulled over, two men being required to steady the 
 with the march of the division preceding or follow- | trail. If necessary, the ends of the rope may be fas- 
 ing. and to prevent fatigue from keeping^'meu longer tened to the limber, and horses used to assist in right- 
 under arms than is necessary. In route marches, feg. '—- " '-'— * '"■ — ' ■*" ' = '-' 
 
 iments usually alternate in leading the brigade ; in 
 like manner brigades alternate in divisions, and div- 
 isions in corps.' In large commands, the roads, if 
 possiVile, are left to the artillery and trains. The ord- 
 er of march should state whether the troops or trains 
 should have the right of way. Each brigade is pro- 
 vided with a corps of ])ioneers under charge of a 
 commissioned officer. The pioneers precede the col- 
 umn for the purpose of removing obstacles and pre- 
 paring the way for the troops. AVhenever fences, 
 hedges, walls^ ditches, or small streams, arecncoun- 
 tere'd, a passage-way is made wide enough for four 
 men, or eiglit men if in double column of fours, 
 to march abreast without obstruction. This will 
 prevent the column from lengtliening out, and 
 also prevent the fatigue and delay of regaining 
 distances. On long marches, a halt of half or 
 three-quarters of an liour should be made for the 
 regular meals. The halt, if practicable, should be 
 made in the vicinity of wood and water. When long 
 distances have to be overcome rapidly, it is done l)y 
 changing tlie gaits; the double tiniiMs used for ten 
 or fiffeen minutes, and the quick time for live minu- 
 tes; the most favf)riible ground is selected for the 
 double time ; special care should be taken not to ex- 
 
 ing the carriage. A piece and its carriage may also 
 be righted without disengaging the pieccTas follows: 
 detach the limber; fasten two prolonges, or the 
 middle part of a picket-rope, to the trail; chock the 
 wheels; and dig an oblong hole under the muzzle 
 about two and a half feet ileep: pass one of the pro- 
 longes, or one end of the ])icket-rope, over the car- 
 riage to the front: man the ends of the prolonges, or 
 picket-rope; then raise the trail and pass it over the 
 axle to the opposite side. Other methods may be re- 
 sorted to, depending upon the circumstances" of the 
 case, and the appliances at hand. Light carriages 
 may be righted by hand without using a rope. 
 
 After pulling up a short, steep hill, the horses 
 should lie halted to recover their wind; when this 
 cannot lie done, they will move very slowly. In go- 
 ing up a difficult hill, ttie carriiiges may be haltedto 
 rest tlie horses, by bringing them across the declivi- 
 ty and locking the limbers or diocking the wheels; 
 for this purpose, it may be expedient to start the 
 sections, or platoons, from the bottom in succession, 
 leaving a distance of twenty or thirty yards between 
 the dilTerent portions of the cohiinu." 'if the draught 
 be so difficult that the teams are li;ible to sl:dl, some 
 of the carriiiges in the rear are halted and tlieir lead- 
 ers hitched to the teams in front ; on completing the
 
 UABCHING. 
 
 271 
 
 HABCHINO. 
 
 asopnt. thosp loaders arc sent hnrk to tlio oarriages 
 
 •wliii-li hnvr liiillcd, with us iiiiiiiy aililitiniiiil \y,tirn as 
 may br r(((uin'(l. As i! is very lianl to make llic> 
 liorscs pull li)i;cllii-'r, ikH more tiiaii live pairs can be 
 liilclicil wilb cfTcc^l to a single carria^re. The drivers 
 never disinniiiil. in goiiij; down hill ; the wheel-driver 
 holds his near horse well in band, and his oil" horse 
 very short; the other drivers barely streleh their 
 traces. If the hill be st(^"i).the wheels may be locked ; 
 if vi'ry sleep, the proloni^e may be used by the can- 
 noneers to lioKI back ; in this case the wheel-horses 
 only remain hitched to the carriage, the others being 
 leit in rear. In moimted batteries, the cannoneers 
 nsnally attend to the loeUing; in horse batteries, the 
 swinii-driver, or with a team of but two pairs, tlie 
 lead-driver, dismonnls for this jjurpose ; slioidd 
 there be a ditch or other ilaut;erons i)lace on the 
 rnail-siile, the wheel toward th.-it side is locked jn 
 preference to the other. If a carriage have to move 
 alonj; a declivity so steep that a sliijlit jolt nniy ovu- 
 turn it, a prolonire is fastened to the lower side ol 
 the carriage, and held by two or three cannoneers 
 who march on the upper side of the slope; the rope 
 passes over the carriage. When crossing a ditch, 
 if it be wide and dee]), the prolonge is H.xed and the 
 handspike taken out ; the team is halted on the <^dgc, 
 ;ind I he piece run by hand close to the limber, which 
 then moves slowly until the piece reaches the bot- 
 tom of the ditch, when it moves qvucklj- until the 
 piece is out. If the ditch be deep and narrow, it 
 may be necessary to cut down the edges, and hold 
 back with prolonges; shoidd the trail sink into the 
 ground in passing over, it is disengaged with a hand- 
 spike, or by fastening a i)rolonge to it. In passing 
 shallow ditches, drains, or deep furrows, the car- 
 riage must cross them obliquely. When moving 
 over marshy ground, each ciirriage moves at a dis- 
 tance of ten or twelve yards from the <me preceding 
 it, to avoid having to halt ; ollicers, or uon-commi.s- 
 sioned officers, are posted at the worst places to in- 
 struct the drivers how to conduct their teams. The 
 horses must pull freely and quicken the gait ; if the 
 ground be ver}' miry, it ma_v be neces.sary to assist 
 with prolonges, or even to use them alone, the teams 
 crossing separately. 
 
 When about to cross a ford. if it be not well known, 
 it must be examined, and the dangerous places 
 marked, before the c;irriages attempt to cross. If 
 the water be deep and the current strong, great care 
 is necessary. The men ;ire instructed to keep their 
 eyes fixed on some object on tlie opposite bank which 
 marks the place of exit ; they must not look at the 
 stream, and move rather against the current, so as to 
 better resist its power. If the ford have al)ad bottom, 
 and the banks be difficult, the teams arestcengthened 
 by adding pairs ; an officer or ncm-commissioned offl- 
 eei;, is posted at the entrance to regulate the distance 
 between carriages, and to instruct the drivers how to 
 proceed ; a second officer, or non-commissioned offi- 
 cer is posted at the exit to direct the drivers how to 
 leave the ford. The management of the teiim is the 
 same as in crossing marsh}- ground ; the horses must 
 not be allowed to halt, or trot, either in passing the 
 ford or in leaving it, imless the stream be neither 
 deep nor very rapid; in this case, the carriages may 
 be lialted to let tlie horses drink, or at least to give 
 them a mouthful of water. Upon reaching the op- 
 posite b;ud<, the leading carriages are halted after 
 they have moved far enough forward to leave room 
 for the carriages in rear. If the chests be not water- 
 tight, and are at the usual height of two feet ten in- 
 ches above tlie ground, a ford deeper than two feet 
 four inches cannot be crossed without danger of wet- 
 ting the ammunition. If the chests be w;iter-tight, 
 or means have been t;dcen to raise them higli enough, 
 a depth of three ;md one-third feet ni;iy be s;ifely at- 
 tempted. When the ford is deeper than this, the 
 cannoneers must carryover the cartridges, fuses, and 
 primers, in pouches which they hold above the water. 
 The chests are sometimes removed and taken over in 
 
 boats. In crossing rivers wliioh cannot bo forded, 
 when there are no bridges, the horses are swum,and 
 the carriages and harness crossed on rafts, etc., if 
 tl«; rivers be liroad and swift, it is loo hazardous for 
 horses to be ridden; in[t his ease a horse, known to 
 b(; a good swiinnier, is riilden without a saddle, as a 
 leader, the other horses following without riders; 
 the horses are led or driven to the bank, anri can gen- 
 erally be made to take the water wi'.hout much 
 
 I trouble. The bridle-reins must be secured tojirevenl 
 
 i the horses from getting their legs entangled. A horse 
 swims easily and safely with a man lloating and 
 holding lotlK^ mane or tail. In the pas.sagc of a 
 military bridge, when at the entrance of the bridge, 
 the lead and swing drivers disuKnint and lead their 
 pairs. A distance of twelve yards is taken between 
 the carriages, and the gait is free and decided ; the 
 drivers keep the carriages as near the middle of the 
 flooring as possible, and must not halt; if tlie bridge 
 crack under a carriage, it, must increase its gait and 
 get over as fast as possible. If the flooring be wet, 
 battens should be nailed across it to keep the horses 
 from falling. If the bridge begins to rock, the pass. 
 age of the column is suspended. In passing over a 
 Hying bridge, all the drivers dismount and hold their 
 hlirses ; it may be occasionally advisable to take the 
 horses out ; aiid in boisterous weather, or at night, 
 the wdieels may be locked. 
 
 The disposal of the troops for a march and the 
 manner of executing it and overcoming the difficulties 
 attending the same lielong, as we have already 
 observed, to the practical details of the profession, for 
 which speeilic rules are laid down in every service ; 
 and with which it is presumed that every man who 
 accepts the resposibility of a General's position has 
 made himself acquainted. All of this may be sum- 
 med up in a few words. First, the trains of every 
 description must be covered by the troops, for which 
 inirpose they must, in an advance movement, be 
 either in the rear, or on that flank where they will 
 be least exposed to the enemy. In a retreat they 
 nnisl be in advance . When an army moves in sev- 
 eral nearly parallel columns, the combination must be 
 such that' an imposing force can soon be concentrat- 
 ed on anv point thre:itened. The divisions of each 
 column must, in like manner, be in supporting dis- 
 tance of each other, but, for convenience, not crowd- 
 ed on the march. As to advanced guards, flankers, 
 and rear guards, both their strength and composi- 
 tion must depend on the General's judgment, found- 
 ed on the force, characterand position of the enemy, 
 and of the nature of the country through which the 
 march is made. Just in proportion as he has read, 
 has refiectcd, has had oiiportunities for action, will 
 his judgment lead him to take right measures; 
 whilst still more certainly, if he has wanted these 
 aids to forming an enliiihtened judgement, will he 
 take wrong one. See ('(inceiitvatwu Marches, Flank 
 Marches. Maneuver Marches. Route Marches, Strat- 
 egical Mnrchci. and Tactical Marches. 
 
 MAECHING.— One of the first necessities to dis- 
 tinguish ;i body of disciplined troops from a mere 
 crciwd of men. "is a regular cadenced stej). taken by 
 every individual at the same time and with the same 
 foot." The necessitv of this for harmonious action 
 is obvious. The a'ncient Roman legions had mili- 
 tary music to beat the time for their march. In the 
 feu'dal ages, when infantry fell into disrepute, ca- 
 denced marching Wiis unattended to, and seems only 
 
 I to have been thoroughlv revived by Marshal Saxe. 
 
 I The best music for a march is found to be some sim- 
 ple tune, such as can readilv be performed by drums 
 and fifes. The music, besides preserving the time, 
 acts as a preventative of fatigue. 
 
 In the British service there are the slow march of 
 Tf) paces, each of 30 inches, in a minute— only used 
 on parade: the quick imircli. of 110 paces, in winch 
 all evolutions are performed : anil the double-quick. 
 of 1/50 running paces, with the knees raised high. 
 This last cannot be sustained for any great ilistance.
 
 MAECHING MONET. 
 
 272 
 
 MABECHAl. 
 
 and is employed in a charge, or in suddenly occup_v- 
 ing a hill or some commanding position, and in a few 
 short iuterral movements of regiments. 
 
 In the United States service, the length of the 
 step in common and quick time is 28 inches, and the 
 cadence is at the rate of 90 steps per minute for com- 
 mon time and 110 for quick time; in double time, 
 the length of the step is 33 inches, and the cadence 
 at the fate of 165 steps per )minute, but it may be 
 increased to 180. When troops are to march a long 
 distance, the route step is employed, the men keep- 
 ing tlieir proper places in the ranks. See Mnrrhes. 
 
 MABCHING MONEY.— The adtlitional pay which 
 officers and si ■Idiers receive for the purpose of cover- 
 ing the expense necessarily incurred when marching 
 from one place to another. 
 
 MAECHING OKDEK.— A soldier is said to be in 
 marching <inli r wlien he is fully equipped with arms, 
 ammunition, and a portion of his kit. In the Eng- 
 lish service this equipment weighs from 30 to 35 
 pounds. In service marching order, hy the addition 
 of provisions and some campaigning necessaries, be 
 carrys nearly 50 pounds. The heavy marching o-rder, 
 whicli was yet heavier, is now happily abolished, 
 
 MARCHING ORDERS. — The orders issued prepara- 
 tory to troops marching. In these orders, the routes, 
 theorders of march. and detailed instructions for the 
 different arms of the service are clearlj' set forth ; 
 and in the British service the marching orders are 
 intended to cover at Itast si.\ days. 
 
 MARCHING REGIMENTS.—A "term given in Eng- 
 land to those regiments having no permanent quar- 
 ters, but liable to be sent to any part of Great Britain 
 or to any part of her possessions abroad. Although 
 the word ni'irching is insensibly confounded with 
 those of line and regulars, it was originally meant to 
 convey something more than a mere liability to be 
 ordered upon any service ; for by marching the reg- 
 ular troops from one town to another, the inhabi- 
 tants, who from time immemorial have been jealous 
 of a standing army, lost their antipathy to real sol- 
 diers, by the occasional absence of regidar troops. 
 At present the English guards, infantry, etc., may 
 be considered more or less as Mnrcliing liegimetits. 
 The marines and volunteers have stationary quar- 
 ters. J 
 
 MARCH PAST. — An expression made use of when 
 a regiment or any larger body of men pass in review 
 order before the Sovereign or Reviewing Officer. It 
 is usuall}' performed in column or quartei'-columu 
 at quick march or at the double, and with the moun- 
 ted branch, when so ordered, at a quick trot, canter, 
 or gallop. In England, the " march past" of large 
 bodies of troops is carried out after the completion 
 of the autumn maneuvers or summer drills. 
 
 MARCOMANNI. — .\n ancient German people who, 
 in the time of (';esar, lived along the banks of the 
 Uhine. but afterwards, as appears from Tacitus and 
 Strabo, settled in Bohemia, from Avhich the)' expell- 
 ed tlie Boil. Their King, ^laroljoiluus, entered into 
 an alliance with tlie tribes living around them to de- 
 fend Germany against the Romans. The combined 
 forces of tlie alliance numbered 70.000 men, and the 
 Emperor Tiljerius signed a treaty with them 6 a. d. ; 
 but tlie Marcomannic Alliance was bealen 11 years 
 later by the Clierusci and their allies, and in 19 the 
 Gotliic Catualda drove ilaroboduus from the throne, 
 and himself usurped the sovereignty. But he was 
 soon overtlirown, and the native dynasty establish- 
 ed, under wliose rule the ilarcomanni extended their 
 territory up to the Danulie, till their encroachments 
 alarmed the Romans, whoattacked Ihem in the tiTiie 
 of l)oinilian. This war. which subsided for a time 
 in till' reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. broke out again 
 under JIarcus Aurelius, anil was carried on with 
 bitterness from l(iU to 180. when it was ended by 
 the peace of ('ommodus. The iMarcomanni contin- 
 ued to make raids into the Provinces of Noricum 
 and Hhtctia, and in 270 invadeil Ilaly as far as An- 
 cona. From this time thty are little heard of ; and 
 
 their identitv finally disappears among the followers 
 of Attila. 
 
 MAEDI GEAS.— The French designation for what 
 is known as Shrove Tuesday in the calendar of the 
 English Church, the Festival held upon the Tuesday 
 preceding Ash Wednesday, the first day of Lent ; 
 with the exception of Mi-Careme or Mid-Lent Thurs- 
 day, the last of the prolonged festivities known as 
 the Carnival. It is most extensively celebrated in 
 Rome and Paris. In the latter it has been the cus- 
 tom for many centuries to lead in procession a fat or 
 prize ox (JJeeuf Crr<is whence Mardi Gras), followed 
 in a triumphal car by a child called the Butchers' 
 King. The entire day and night is spent in the 
 wildest revelry, sometimes degenerating into unre- 
 strained license. In the L'nited States the only cele- 
 bration of Mardi Gras worthy of note is that of New 
 Orleans, where the first display was given in 1857, 
 and since the end of the war the observance has 
 been carried out with great pomp and splendor. 
 For the preceding week tlie gayetj' has been univer- 
 sal, and on 3Iardi Gras the wliole city is turned over 
 to the rule of King Rex, v/ho enters "the gates on the 
 previous day. On Tuesda)' the mimic monarch, 
 passes through the streets, escorted by his body- 
 guard, the " Mystic Krewe of Comus," Knights of 
 Momus, and various military and visiting organiza- 
 tions. To him are confided the gates of the city ; 
 minor police regulations are suspended, and until 
 the dawn of Ash Wednesday the air is filled with 
 music ; in every street are dense throngs of merry- 
 makers, and the glare of illuminations. In the 
 evening occurs the great street pageant of the Mystic 
 Krewe of Comus, in which are displayed elaborate 
 tableaux, placed on moving platforms and brilliantly 
 illuminated. These represent noted scenes of history, 
 poetry .or fiction, and are constructed at great expense 
 and with artistic elegance. All the arrangements of 
 the parades and accompanying balls are under the 
 control of societies composed of the most noted 
 professional and business men of the city. The 
 observance is gaining ground also in Memphis. 
 
 MARECHAL.— A Major General. This word is 
 variousl}' compounded in forming military terms. 
 Marechal de Bataille is a military rank which once 
 existed in France, but was suppressed before the 
 Revolution, or rather confined to the Body-Guards. 
 An otficer belonging to that corps received it as an 
 honorary title. Its original functions, etc., with re- 
 spect togeneral service, sank in the appointment cf 
 Mar&'halde Camp unci Major General. It was first 
 created by Louis XIII. Marechal-deneral des Lagis 
 df la Cavalerie took place under Charles IX. in 1594. 
 He had the chief direction of everything which re- 
 lated to the French cavalry. Marechal des Logispmir 
 les Vivres was a person belonging to the Quarter- 
 master General's Department in the old PYench ser- 
 vice. The person invested with the rank of Marechal 
 de Camp was a General Officer and ranked next to a 
 Lieutenant General. It was his duty to see the army 
 properl}- disposed of in camp or quarters, to be 
 present at all the movements, to be the first.to mount 
 hischarger and the last to quit him. He commanded 
 the left in all attacks. The appointment under this 
 distinction was first created by Henry IV. in 1598. 
 Marechal-Ceni'ral des Camps et Armeis du Ri'i was a 
 post of high dignity and trust, which during the 
 French Monarchy was annexed to the rank of Mare- 
 chal de France. Military writers dilfer with respect 
 to the privileges, etc., which belonged to this ap- 
 pointment ; itis, however, generally acknowledged 
 that the General Gfflcer wiio held it was intrusted 
 with the whole management of a siege, being sub- 
 ordinale only to the Constable, or to any ci\]tcT Mare 
 chal tie France, who was his senior in ajipointment. 
 Mari'chal-Oeneral des l.ogis de I'Armec was an ap- 
 pointment which existed during the old French gov- 
 ernment, and has since been replaced by the Oh'fde 
 e Ktat-Majiir, which corresponds with that of Quar- 
 termastcr-Geueral in the British service.
 
 MARECHAUS8EES DE FRANCE. 
 
 273 
 
 MARIOTTE'8 LAW. 
 
 MARECHAUS8EE8 DE FRANCE.— A B|?ecics 
 itary poli'-t^ wIi'k'Ii furincrly c.vistcil in I'nincc. 
 ing thy Krciich Monarchy tlicrc were :JI (■(impiinics 
 of MarechivuHsi'es k (,'hi'v'al, ur iimiinlcil pnlic-cmi'H. 
 Thc'secompunies wcn^fm-riicilfor IhrlpiirpuM' ofprc- 
 BCrviiit; piililic IraiKiuility, and witc dislrilHilcd in 
 the iliii'iTrTil I'rnvinccs nf the Kinu'iloni. Th'iH ii^'cful 
 body ijf ni<-n wa-* tirst foriniil under I'hili])!. in 1000; 
 they wore aflcrvvards »upprc«xfd.and afjain rocstal)- 
 lishcd in 17:30, as const itulinir a part of Uic (Jcndarni- 
 erie of France. There were oilier eompanies of 
 
 of mil- no uliip can ever pSsBCBB any comparable resinting 
 Dur- i)()W(rr ; and, as they are armed with nuns the smallest 
 of which will iirohahlv !)'■ :iOO-poiiM<l<:rs. itis expect- 
 ed that they will be able to destroy any fleet that 
 could be sent afainsl them. At the present day the 
 value of sea-fort ilications is disputed, as iron-plated 
 vessels may pass them with impunity unless tliear- 
 tillerv in the fort be ho heavy as to destroy the ar- 
 mor iif till- shiiis. In the Ion;;; run, however, it is 
 appari'iil that th(^ fort can command the (greater 
 power, for its armor mav be of any thickness, while 
 
 from the :!1 above mentioned: such, lor iiislaiice, as 
 thai of till- Cniistablcs, called the ( iciidarmcrie. 
 
 MARGRAVE. A German Nobleman correspond- 
 in..; in rank to the English Marquis. Margravine is 
 the wife of a Afdrf/mrr. See MarqueHS. 
 MARINE FORTIFICATION. Marine fortification dif- 
 fers from l.-ind rorlilieati.pu in that till' approaches 
 of till' encmv wliicli are to be resisted lake place 
 on the level of the sea, so that he can coiiu^ near 
 wilhout havim; to overcome the danjjjerous slope of 
 the glacis. The combat is simply one between two 
 powerful batteries, and the iiuestion to be decided 
 is whether the ship or the fort will first be placed 
 A»;-.v de cumhat ; the ship bavins;; ordinarily the lari;- 
 esl number of guns, while the fort has more sf)lid 
 batllementa, and its fewer guns of gn-at calil)er can 
 be lircil with a steadiness unallainable on so shifting 
 a base as the ocean. Vnder I hese circumstances, the 
 less relief a sea-fortress has the heller, as by so much 
 the less is it likelv to be hit from the shipping. Its 
 walls arc usually "built perpendicular, or nearly so. 
 The magazines "and quarters for the men are bomb- 
 proof, as also are the casemates, from which the 
 guns are usually fired, although sometimes, as in llie 
 'martello-tower,"thc gun is worked on the top of the 
 siruelure. Sea-fortifieations may be of various im- 
 portance, the simplest being the" battery consisting 
 
 Marechau;;;^;;;; who wM-e panicuiany disiinguished that of ihe ship "'-' ';;:';;;!'i;;;i 'g!;:\!l";^:"%!;::'::i 
 
 ■ • .... »rs. and. on the oilier hand, the iimii lo tin. si/.e oi 
 
 arlillery must !)<• sooner reached in a ship than in a 
 solid and slationary fortress. 
 
 MARINES.— Troops who serve at naval statifms, 
 and on board ships of war. The men are drilled in 
 all respects as soldiersfli'.rlit infantryj. and therefore 
 on shore arc simply ordinary land-forces. On board 
 ship they are train'eil to seaman's dulics. but still pre- 
 serving "their mililary organization. Their ordinary 
 functions an; as sharpshooters in time of action and 
 at other times to furnish sentries for guarding the 
 stores, gauL'ways, etc. They are useful as exercis- 
 ing a good'eontrol over the "less rigidly disciplined 
 sariors\ and having always fire-arms and bayonet.* 
 ready, tliey have often been instrumental in sup- 
 pressing tlu' first outbn-aks of mutiny. The intro- 
 duefioir of -Marines into the American Army took 
 place by Act of Congress, passed Nov. 10. ITT.'i, by 
 which two battalions of this arm were directed to be 
 organized. Again, by Act of .July 11. 1798, "estab- 
 lishing and organizing a .Marine Corps," this body 
 became an established element in the naval force of 
 the L'nited States, liable to do duty either on board 
 vessels of war at sea, in fortsor otherwise upon shore 
 as might be directed by the President. The Coni- 
 mandant of the Corps has the rank and pay of Col- 
 onel. It has no regimental organization, however, 
 but may be formed into as many companies or de- 
 tachments as the President may direct. V,htn em- 
 ployed on naval service the .Marines are subject to the 
 law"s and regulations which govern the Navy; but if 
 eno-a"-ed on "shore duty, they are aiiunalile to the au- 
 thority of the Articles of W'ar. The United States 
 Marine Corps consisted in 1880 of 8(i ofhcers and 1,- 
 .500 enlisted men. Marines were first established in 
 En.'land, as a nursery from whence to obtain sea- 
 men to man the fleet, "by Order in Council of Oct. 16, 
 1604. Their utility becoming conspicuous, other 
 of a mere parapet formed in a cliff or on a hill, and regiments of Marine Forces were raised, so that by 
 mounted with u'uns to command the sea : these are 1741 there were 10,000 men, anil in 17.'59 as many as 
 generally builtln such conceaied situations that it 18,000. During the great French war the number 
 "is hoped" the hostile ships will not perceive them un- rose above 30,000, but a great reduction took place 
 til they actually open fire. They are numerous all after peace was concluded. By recent ^a^ .?' 
 around the Bri"tish coast. Next" greater in import- 1 mates, 14,000 Marines were provided, including -,- 
 anee is the martello-tower. More^iiowerful still are | 900 artillery,at a yearly cost of £940,417. Their goyem- 
 the beach-forts, such as those which cm either shore ment rests solely with the Admir;ilty. 1 he Koval 
 defend the entrance to Portsmouth harbor; these ! Marines are divided into three divisions of light m- 
 are constructed of the most solid masonry, faced | fantry and one of artillery. P>""m'.'",'''" g"*^^ ">! *_':'?3°^' 
 with massive iron plates, and armed with guns of 
 the heaviest caliber, sweeping the very surface of the 
 sea, so as to strike an approaching ship between 
 wind and water. The guns are usually in bomb- 
 proof casemates, and the fort is often defended on 
 the land side if the coast be level ; if, however, high- 
 er ground be behind, this would be useless, and then 
 the sea-front alone is defensible. Most terrible of 
 all sea-forts, however, are the 
 
 forts, with perpendicular faces and two or three tiers 
 of heavy guns. Such are the tremenilous batteries 
 which render Cronstadt almost inapproachable, and 
 by which Spithead and Plymouth Sound are now 
 fortified. These forts are generally liirge, with all 
 the requisites for a garrison to maintain itself ; 
 against them wooden ships stand no cliance, and in 
 tiie American Civil War fort Sumter, at Ch.arlestcm, 
 showed itself no mean antagonist for ironsides. In 
 such forts iron is employed as the facing, in plates 
 of such vast thickness and weight that it is supposed 
 
 ity throughout the artillery and infantry respective- 
 ly. In rank, ilarine Otiicers correspond with .\rmy 
 Officers of similar grades according to seniority: as a 
 corps the Marines "take place between the 49th and 
 .50th rciriments of Infantry of the Line. Every ship, 
 on iKMiig commissioned, has her complement of Ma- 
 rines drafted into her. The uniform is red, with 
 blue facinss and white belts. On their colors the 
 completely isolated I men proudly bear the word ■■ Gibraltar," in the fa- 
 nious defense of which fortress they bore an heroic 
 
 MARIOTTES LAW.— An empirical law deduced by 
 Bovle and Mariotte from two independent series of 
 experiments, thomrh. stransrely enough, reached by 
 both at about the same time. It is generally ex- 
 pressed as follows: T/ie Umperature remaining tlie 
 mine, the volume of a given ma.^.i of gaaigin inverse 
 ratio t^i the presKure which it xustei'nji. This law may 
 be held to besubstantially correct within a consider- 
 able rano-e of pressure, iut the labors of Regnault
 
 MAKK. 
 
 274 
 
 MAB.KSMANSHIP. 
 
 have made it evident that atmospheric air and most 
 other gases, especially under very high pressures. 
 are rcallvmore compressed tlian if theyfollowed Ihe 
 law. Tliis deviation is most marked in tlie case of 
 gases capable of being liquefied, as they approach 
 the point of liquefaction. 
 
 MARE 1. — A German geographical term, which 
 signified primarily the ninrk of a country's limits 
 {X\\e march)-, and hence was applied as a designa- 
 tion of the border countries or districts of the Ger- 
 man Empire, con(|uered from neighboring nations. 
 Thus, we read of the marks of Austria, of Northern 
 Sa.xony or Brandenburg, Lausatia, Moravia, Steier- 
 mark, etc. The Governors intrusted with thecliarge 
 of these border districts, or the maH's, were called 
 Mnrh-graf.i. corresponding to the English and Scot- 
 tish Wnr()fnx of tlw marches. See Marquess. 2. That 
 toward which a missile is sent ; the part of a target 
 aimed ;it. 
 
 MARKER.— 1. The soldier who forms the pivot of 
 a wheeling colunui. 3. A person, whose duty it is 
 to record the number of hits and misses made by 
 soldiers at target-practice. 3. In maneuvers, for the 
 purpose of indicating the direction of lines of battle, 
 tlie battalion is provided with four markers, who are 
 habitually posted in the line of file-closers, one near 
 each Hank of the right and left companies when in 
 line, and the leading and rear subdivisions when in 
 column. At parades and inspections, two markers 
 are required, who retire, after the line is formed, 
 behind the flanks of the color-company. At inspec- 
 tion they accompaii}' the color-guard to the front 
 and are inspected with it, taking post two yards from 
 the rear rank, in rear of the ni;ht and left'files. 
 
 MARKING MACHINE.— A tool for impressing text- 
 ual or emblematic designs into finished work at the 
 armory or foundry. The drawing shows a handy 
 machine of this class, which is much used. The de- 
 
 sign is formed on the face of a circular die, which 
 revolves witli an arljor that is held in a carriage slid- 
 ing in uprights, and is brought to its work by a foot- 
 lever (not shown in the drawing), tlie device being 
 impressed on the piece to be marked, as it is moved, 
 with the table to which it is secured, by hand-lever 
 under the die. Pieces of varying diameti'rs may be 
 marked in the same machine. Tlic machine is 
 mounted on legs of convenient heiglit. and weighs 
 about ;!()() pounds All caimcm are re(juired to be 
 marked with the weiglit in poimils. Ihe mnnber of 
 the ])iece, the initials of the Inspector's name tlie in- 
 itials or nuiuc of f'Mindrvand vcar of f.-iliricalioii. All 
 
 ' pieces manufactured in the United States, since 1861 
 have these marks on the face ; those of previous date 
 have them distributed on the ends of tlie trunnions, 
 the face, the breech, and the top. The numbers tor 
 each kind and caliber at each foundry are in separ- 
 ate series. Cannon that have been "inspected and 
 condemned are marked on the face X C. See In- 
 upectiiin of Ordnrince. 
 
 MAEKSMANSHIP.—To become skilled in marks- 
 mcnisliip, one must possess a thorough knowledge of 
 the rifie. the principles of its construction, its capa- 
 bilities, and the care required to preserve it always 
 in a condition of greatest eliiciency, ttie laws govern- 
 ing the flight of the bullet, and the causes which 
 tend to impress upon its motion certain irregulari- 
 ties ; an understanding of the best positions for fir- 
 ing ; a readiness for estimating distances ; and the 
 experience required to make allowance for the force 
 of the wind, or the motion of the object aimed at. 
 The acquirement of the requisite skill to Are accu- 
 rately is one of the most important duties of the 
 soldier: not only his own safety but that of his 
 companions may often depend upon his ability to 
 deliver his fire with elfect, and the greatest profici- 
 ency in the manual of arms cannot atone for a want 
 of dexterity in this particular. Any man having per- 
 fect vision can, through perseverance, become a fair 
 marksman. Long practice with cartridges is not 
 necessary; but a strict compliance with the rules for 
 pointing and aiming, and a careful study of the caus- 
 es modifying tlie accuracy of fire, will be sure to 
 lead to more than average skill in firing. 
 
 When firing in vacuo, the trajectory is easily trac- 
 ed and its properties simply discussed. Considering 
 its position with reference to the line of sight it wiU 
 be seen that near the muzzle it is below the line of 
 sight for some distance, then it cuts it ; beyond this 
 point it riscsabove the line of sight for some'dislance, 
 then falls and cuts it again. This second point of in- 
 tersection is the point-blank and deteriuines the point- 
 lilank-range. With a rifle, up to 175 or 200 yards, 
 the line offirewillnot cut the line of sight; "or. in 
 other words, will not shoot high. Now.as it is neces- 
 sary, in order to hit an object witliin or bejond the 
 point-blank, to aim below or above it certain dis- 
 tances, it is readily seen how indispensable are the 
 coutrivances (sights) which will so alter the point- 
 blank as to make it coincide with any object direct- 
 
 2ry 
 ly aimed at. The range in vacuo equals in which 
 
 9 
 
 X and .y are the horizontal and vertical components 
 of the impulsive force, and g the acceleration due to 
 the force of gravity. From this we see that (veloc- 
 ity being constant) the range will be the same when 
 the angles of fire are equally distant from 45" ; thus, 
 angles of fire 36'^ and .54'-^ will give the same range. 
 It is also seen that the range will be a maximum 
 when ly is a maximum, or when :r=^, or wnen the 
 angle of fire is 4.5'-^ 
 
 The motion of a bullet is grcatlj' modified when 
 the movement is through the air. The progressive 
 velocity of fail of the bullet being so much less than 
 its initial velocity, the air resistance opposed to its 
 descent will be inap]ireciably small in comparison 
 with that in the direction of its motion of translation 
 (the resistances being proportional to tlie squares of 
 the velocities). Hence, when the bullet would have 
 been at certain points, in vacuo, it will in reality be 
 at points below and in rear of them, by distances in- 
 creasing from the point of departure(since the resist- 
 ance of air causes the sp;ices passed over in equal 
 times to become ))rogrcssively smaller and smaller), 
 tiius causing the trajectory in air to be constantly 
 below and in rear of its placi' in vacuo and changing 
 its curviture, so that the left branch jireseiits a flat- 
 tened form while the right liraiich ajiproaehes the 
 vertical. From thus destroying the symmetrj' of 
 this curve, there results that tlie angle of fall is great- 
 er than llu' angle of ascent, and more eonsiderablv
 
 MARKSMANSHIP. 
 
 275 
 
 MARKSMANSHIP. 
 
 80 as ii is clisiiuil frniii the origin, tlmt the poiiil (if 
 ciiliriiiialion is lowiTcd, iiiiil lliiil the nuif^c is i^rci-tly 
 (liiMinisiicd. To iimkc proper iillowanccs, tli<; siulils 
 iiiiisl be carefully iiiaiiipiilaleil, ami ulicn lirini; at 
 loili; rilllge a ilelic'ale esliiiialioii of (listimee is iieees 
 .Mjiry 1o (ihlain ueeiiriiey of lire, even when using llie 
 l)esl. and niosl, aeeiiralely irradiialeil siglils. Any or- 
 <lliiary man ean l;e drilii'd to esliniale dislanees up 
 to (iOl) yanls wifli great aeeuraey and dispaleli, liy 
 tile eye alone. Instriinients may be iiseil for greater 
 dislanees, but their use is of no practical value in 
 the field before an enemy, and can only be resorted 
 to on the drill ground as an aid where lime isuu im- 
 portant eleniei*. 
 
 Having Ihorouglily mastered the principles of 
 uiniing, experienee only ean teach the l)est positions 
 under various conditions and circumstances. Tlie 
 
 wlion the fire is in two ranks, tlie front rank kneel, 
 not only to obtain a sli'adier position, but to got 
 them out of tiic way of the rear rank, and thus se- 
 cure a more rapid ai]d accurate lire. 
 
 Till' favorite posit irin for long-range firing, particu- 
 larly with a military ritle, is that of tlie Skirmikhr ////- 
 huj. In taking Ibis position. Ihi' legssliould be well 
 separated, tile toes lieing turned outward, so as to 
 cause the body to hug tlic ground as clo.sely as pos- 
 silde. Till- left elbow sboiibj be kept almost straiglil 
 luider lh(' rille Cif placed too far lollie left, it straiiM 
 tlie wrist), luid Ihe barrel grasped firmly with tlic 
 left haiKi. The right elbow should be placed a little 
 to the right. To jirevent the elbows Heparating, 08 
 tlwy are naturally inclined to do on ban! ground, a 
 depression m;iy lie made m Ihe ground with the heel 
 of the boot, or something soft placed under tliem. 
 
 regulation position. " firing slaniling," is generally 
 preferred. .Many lind an easier and tirmer position 
 by bringing the left .shoulder well to the front, and 
 r("stiiig the rille over tlic lower part of tlie left 
 thuniij. The advantage of this position is that it 
 brings tlie left elbow directly under the barrel with- 
 out any strain on the muscles. Its disadvantage is 
 tliat, in a side wind, the body is too apt to sway 
 ffldeways, ■which must be avoided by placing the 
 feet fui-ther apart. The llythe Sclioo'l direi'ts that 
 the rille be pressed against the shoulder with the 
 ?r/Y hand, the right holiling tlie stock lightly; Inil, 
 most marksmen prefer, while grasping the barrel 
 firmly with the left hand, so as to keep it steady, to 
 hold it well against the shoulder with the right. .In 
 
 The liips sliould be twisted to tlie reft, and the riirht 
 shoulder well raised, to keep the collar-bone out <if 
 file way and alTord a firm scat for the rille-butt, 
 which must be held closely against it. Many of ilie 
 best shots at t'reeilmoor and Wimbledon shoot, lying 
 on tlieir backs. Some lie slightly on the riirht "sidij 
 resting the rille-barrel over the left leg, the left hand 
 grasping tlie piece at tlie small of the stock, and 
 pressing it against the shoulder. In this position, 
 tlie distance of the rear sight from the eye requires 
 a liirger aperture than usual. The following is a 
 fcivorite back position: — 
 
 The marksman lies on liis Iiack, liis legs crossed, 
 the left leg under the right knee, and firmly held liy 
 the right calf, the muzzle of the riUe resting in the 
 
 all cases, it will he found that the puU-off of the 
 trigger will be lightened by a firm grip with the 
 right thumb. The standiiig position depends so 
 much on the personal equation of the marksman as 
 to prevent that extreme nicety of aim re(|uired in 
 long-range firing. It also renders the rifleman liable 
 to bs- swerved by the wind, and ofTers the enemy a 
 Tjetter target. It is seldom used before the enemy 
 or at long-range. Kneeling is Open to the same ob- 
 jections, but to a less extent. In the English army. 
 
 j crotch between the knees. The left arm is placed 
 behind the head, the hand firmlv grasping the bull 
 
 ^ of the rifle, the back of Ihe head resting on the left 
 forearm, and the right cheek touching the side ofthe 
 butt. The right hand holds the small of the stock 
 with a firm grasp, the elbow resting on the ground. 
 In this position, not only the piece, but the entire 
 
 '■ person of the shooter is perfectly supported, and ali- 
 solute steadiness is secured. Giklersleeve. Coleman, 
 and other Americans have adopted this position, and
 
 MABKSIIANSHIF. 
 
 276 
 
 MABKSHCANSHIF. 
 
 Sir Ilenrj' Ilalford and others at Wimbledon concede 
 its advantages. It is doubtful whether any advan- 
 tage is gained by h'ing on the l)acii, in shooting with 
 military rifles. The position, Face I>tiicninard<, 
 is certainly preferable for militarjf reasons, enabling 
 the soldier to rapidly advance or retreat, to shelter 
 himself behind cover or to entrench himself. Wiieth- 
 er the-rirteman shoots standing, kneeling, sitting, or 
 lying, after having once tested and become satisfied 
 as to the positicm oest suited to himself, he should 
 practice it until it becomes perfectly natural and 
 easy. 
 
 With a steady aim and position, the circumstances 
 which cause the bullet to deviate from the spot at 
 which it is aimed are so numerous, that it is rather 
 the exception than the rule when a man can aim 
 directl}' at the object to be struck. It is, therefore, 
 necessary that the soldier should know how to make 
 allowances for these causes of deviation; to know 
 where he should aim in order to strike the object. 
 A frequent cause of deviation of the bullet is a false 
 or defective barrel, short swells and long depressions 
 being often found on its interior. These swells or 
 ridges, by increasing the friction, may so affect the 
 recoil as to have an injurious effect on the fire, or so 
 affect the exterior form of the bullet as to produce 
 an irregularity in its motion. The swells and de- 
 pressions, moreover, change the interior lines of the 
 piece and give the bullet a false direction. Another 
 cause of deviation of the bullet is the vibration of the 
 barrel when tiring caused by the want of a homo- 
 geneous distribution, of metal about its axis, and 
 often to binding liands. These vibrations tend to alter 
 the direction of tiie bullet as it leaves the muzzle. 
 Recoil causes the lirer to turn to the side from which 
 he fires, and produces deviation in that direction. It 
 is supported by pressing the butt firmly against the 
 shoulder, and is differently felt according as the 
 position of the rifle, relatively to the horizontal, 
 changes. The shock of the recoil against the 
 shoulder is diminished by the bend in the stock, 
 serving to decompose the force into two com- 
 ponents, one acting through the stock against the 
 shoulder, the other in the direction of the axis of 
 the barrel, ten ling to raise it. Whatever lessens 
 the recoil, theoretically, increases the range. The 
 recoil is only 9.5 lbs. for the Kemington rifle (70 
 grains powder and bullet of 450 grains), while in our 
 service rifle, caliber 45, it is 175 lbs. 
 
 When the bullet reaches the muzzle of the rifle, 
 it will revolve about its axis nearly 800 times in a 
 second, and a point on its exterior side siirface will 
 have an axial velocity of about ninety feet per sec- 
 ond. This, in connection with the resistance of the 
 air produces a lateral drifting of the bullet in the di- 
 rection in which the grooves have a turn. This is 
 known as drift, anil is greater in the descending than 
 in the ascending branch of the trajectory. It in- 
 creases as the diameter of the bullet, the angle of fire, 
 the velocity of rotation and the range inn-easi'. and 
 as the velocity of trauslatiou decreases. The drift in 
 our service rifle, at 5U0 3-ards, is two feet. The pull 
 of the trigger should not be too great, a three-poiiiid 
 pull being the minimum. It shovdd be pressed by a 
 steadily increasing pressure of the finger in the direc- 
 tion of the axis of the barrel, without cnmmunicating 
 motion to the rifle, the breath being lielil until the 
 hanuner falls. If the trigger is too liard and is |)ul!ed 
 convulsively, the muzzle will lie turned to the right. 
 There should be a i|uick and decided connection be- 
 tween the mind and finger. Fevv men can pull off 
 the trigger of the service rifle with the first joint 
 of a single finger. A defective position of the line of 
 sight or incorrect graduation of the rear siglit will 
 cause a deviation of the bullet. If the front sight lie 
 to the right of its proper place, the bullet will go to 
 the left, i\m\ i:iceveriiii. The liullet will alsob<^ raised 
 (range increased;, since the top of the sight is lower 
 than it is when in its proper position. If the rear 
 sight be to the right or left of its true place, the bu'... 
 
 let wi'l go to the right or left, and will be lowered 
 (range diminished), since the top of the sight will be 
 lower than when in its true position. 
 
 A serious cause of inaccuracy, originating with 
 the firer. is the faulty position that he gives to the 
 musket in firing, by inclining to the right or left, 
 which tends to carry tlie liullef to the side to which 
 the rifle is inclined, and to diminisli the ange. 
 When firing at long ranges a trifling inclination to 
 the right or left will throw the bullet very wide of 
 the target. The condition of the atmosphere no- 
 ticeably affects the course of the bullet. The more 
 moisture there is in the air, the greater Ihi? elevation 
 required; hence it is that the bullet is frequently 
 noticed to fall immediately after a rain. Warm air 
 offers much less resistance to the motion of the bul- 
 let than cold air does, even a fall of 20'^ in tempera- 
 ture causing the bullet, ordinarily, to lower ten or 
 eleven inches at 300 j'ards range. In firing over 
 water, the elevation must be increased, in conse- 
 quence of the lower temperature of the air over 
 the water. In ascending a mountain, the air be- 
 comes more and more rare, and consequently the re- 
 sistance to the bullet is less on the mountain than at 
 its base. Mirage, an optical illusion, occurrina: in 
 level districts on very warm days, causes the target 
 to apparently raise in the air and become distorFed 
 in sliape. This materially affects such objects as 
 are near the ground, and engenders a tendency to 
 shoot too higii. 
 
 The influence of light and shade on the effect of 
 firing is remarkable. On a bright day the target is 
 refracted so as to apparentlj' stand higher, and will, 
 theoretically, require a lower elevation than on a very 
 dull day. When the light shines directly on the tar- 
 get, when the target is against a light background 
 (so that the details are better brought out); wiienthe 
 sun shines on the firer's back, when the atmosphere 
 is clear, when the ground is level and uniform in ap- 
 pearance or when it gradually rises toward flie tar- 
 get, the same will appear much nearer, and will the- 
 oretically require a higher elevation. The best 
 shooting is invariabl_v done on cloudy days when the 
 sun's light is evenly diffused. It is very difficult to 
 shoot well when passing clouds intercept portions of 
 the sun's light and heat. It is readily seen how this 
 disturbance might set up currents in the air which 
 would tend to carry the bullet from its course, and 
 how the rays of light deflected from their course be 
 fore reaching the eye would cause the target to ap- 
 parently occupy a false position. It will lie well to 
 diminish the elevation should the sun suddenly ap- 
 pear and light up the target while the firer still re- 
 mains in the shade, and to increase it should the tar- 
 get remain in the shade while the sun shines on the 
 firer. Bright sights and barrels are obviously ob- 
 jectionable. The reflection of the sun's light (in the 
 sights causes them to appear as brilliant points and 
 precludes the possibility of an accurate aim. If the 
 sun's rays come laterally, the trouble will be still 
 greater inasmuch as they will brighten the rear side 
 of the fnmt-sight and the opposite side of the notch 
 of the rear-sight, and cause a tcndeucy to shoot 
 away from the sim. The refraction of the sun's 
 rays from a polished barrel causes the target to be- 
 come indistinct and to assume the appearance of 
 motion. The sights and barrel about the muzzle 
 should be blackened with smoke if nothing better is 
 at hand. 
 
 The effect of wind on the trajectory and the al- 
 lowance to hi' made for it are most troublesome 
 questions for the marksman. His best skill and 
 judgment must be faxed when firing in windy 
 weather, or in mountainous districts where there are 
 many (;ross-(urrenls with which to contend. All 
 winds, except toward tile target, retard the bullet and 
 render a liiiihcr elev:ition necessary. A wind from 
 the rear helps the bullet and lendsto high shooting. 
 Experience has sliown it necessary to alter the wind- 
 gauge twelve or more feet between two consecutive
 
 K&BK TIME. 
 
 277 
 
 HASOB. 
 
 sliots over ii ninf;c of 1 ,000 yiirds, in order to make a 
 bull'scye eiicli lime, wlicn llic wind was very liiijii or 
 variiililc. In BuhI<'m 'lIiind-lioi)l< fdr Ilytlic'it in stilt- 
 ed Hint "One liour u d:iy of jirivuic praclice in uini- 
 inn-drill will, in a few weeks, niakcii niun.-i lirsl-cliiss 
 sliot." Tliis is trne, for tlie ]iosilion anil inniini; 
 drills eonstimtc the very foiimlalion of any system 
 of practice. It is an alisnrd inistak(r in any service 
 to have n'cruils fire olf-haiid at a lari;et on(' hundred 
 yards distant, when tliey scarcely know the diireri'nce 
 between a rille and a sholf,nni, .and cannot hit a barn- 
 door when lliirty oacesdislanl with either, fiva Jiijk 
 I'm In. 
 
 MARK TIME.— A (•onimand in the School of the 
 Soldier. It is execnied by niovinijeaeh lej; alternate- 
 ly in iiuiek or ordinary lime, without j;aininn i^roniid. 
 I'his movement is frequently i)racli(U'd when a front 
 line or column has opened t(jo much, in order to af- 
 ford lh(^ rear an ojiiiorlunity of irettin^ up ; and 
 Bometimes to let the liead of a colunm disenj^age it- 
 self, or a body <if troops (ilc by, etc. 
 
 MARLINE SPIKE. A ponderous iron pin. with a 
 lar;;e head and a taper jHiint, used for separatinj; the 
 strands of ro|)e prejiaratory to splicini; or knotting; 
 also employed as a lever in tigntenini; rigijing, etc. 
 
 MARLINREPEATING RIFLE. —An American ritle 
 having' iinialile ad\'.-inlai:i's over most repealing arms. 
 It belongs to the liult class, so long used I))' nuuiy of 
 
 tion, in a simple manner, brings the cartridge with 
 it, and places the same in line with tha chamber of 
 Ihe barrel, while the spring F tirndy holds cartridge 
 in place. The hammer, (i, is brought to full-cock by 
 the same motion, and held there by the action of the 
 trigger. ll,enlering its full-cock iiotcli. Hringing 
 the lever back lo its natural jiosilion causes tlie l)olt 
 to move forward, pushes the cartridge into the 
 chamber, lowers the carrier-block to receive a fresh 
 cartridge, securely locks the breech mechaniHni, and 
 leaves the arm ready to fire. 
 
 The magazine is loaded through an opening in the 
 side (jf the receiver, which opening is closed by a 
 cover. It holds nine carlri<lges and one can' be 
 ])laced in the barrel. The cartridges can be inserted 
 in the magazine either wilh the block open or closed. 
 When th(' bolt is withdrawn the cartridge at the 
 bottom of the magazine enters the carrier-block y/v/rf- 
 iialli/. avoiding Hie concussion produced in many 
 guns by the sudden .jump of the whole column of 
 cartridges with a momentum, in some cases, suffi- 
 cient to explode a sensitive ]irinier. All the advan- 
 tages of a single breech-loader are also contained in 
 this rifle ; it can be used with great rapidity, the car- 
 tridge being inserted in the barrel instead (pf in the 
 magazine, and cartridges specially loaded with patch- 
 ed bullets for target shooting can be used in thU 
 way. The ritle is made for two sizes of cartridges : 
 
 the European Governments ; but instead of opera- 
 ting the bolt by a cumbersome and ungainly handle 
 projecting from the side, it is operated by a stnmg 
 ami powerful lever, on the under side of tlie arm. 
 thus making a handsome model, easy of manipula- 
 tion. The bolt comes solidly up to the base of the 
 cartridge, covering it entirely: in this way all danger 
 is avoided, even though a defective cartridge should 
 happen to lie used. A premature explosion cannot 
 occur, and the greater the recoil, the more firmly the 
 bolt is held in its place. The operation of the gun 
 is of the simplest kind, and yet the action is the 
 strongest that can be made. The drawing shows 
 the ritle with all the operative parts in open position. 
 Throwing forward the lever. A, withdraws the firing- 
 pin, I. ludoeks the bolt, H, and causes it to reoede, 
 carrying with it the extractor, (', which extracts the 
 shell of the cartridge just tired, while the ejector 
 E, attached to the lower .section of the bolt, ejects 
 the same from the receiver. By the same motion. 
 the carrier-block, D, is raised from its natural posi- 
 
 [ 40 cal., GO grains powder, 260 grains lead, straisrht 
 shell ; and 4.5 cal., 70 grains powder, 420 grains lead, 
 being the regulation Government cartridge. In the 
 40 caliber we find a heavy charge of i)owder behind 
 a comparatively light bullet, thus attaining a high 
 initial velocity and very flat trajectory : with excel- 
 lent results up to 800 yards. The barrel is octagonal 
 in cross section, is 28 inches long, and the weight of 
 the arm is 9^ pounds. See Rifle. 
 
 UARLIAS. — Tarred white skeins or long wreaths 
 or lines of untwisted hemp dipped in pitch or tar. 
 with which cables and other rojies are wrapped 
 round, to prevent their fretting and rubbing in the 
 blocks or pulleys through which they pass. The 
 same serves in artillery upon ropes used for rigging 
 gins, usuallv put up in small parcels called skeins. 
 
 MAROLAIS SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— This 
 system adopts the fausse-braye. and the flanks are 
 retired anil casemated. It is a very fair sample of the 
 Dutch Sclio'l. See Forffi-^ition. ' 
 
 MABON. — A piece of brass or copper, about the
 
 UAROONS. 
 
 278 
 
 MA£S. 
 
 size of a crown, on wliieh all the hours for going 
 the rounds were marked in the old French service. 
 Several of these were put into a small bag, and de- 
 posited in the hands of the JIajor of the regiment, 
 out of which they were regularly drawn by iThe Ser- 
 geants of Companies, for the officers belonging to 
 them. The hours and half hours were engraved on 
 each Marun. These pieces were numbered one. 
 two, etc., to correspond with the several periods of 
 the night; so that the officer, for instance, who was 
 to go to the 10 o'clock rounds, had as many Marons 
 marked ten as there were posts gr guard-houses 
 which he was directed to visit. Thus on reaching 
 the first, after having given the mot or watch-word, 
 to the Corporal, he delivers into his hands^the^l/aroon. 
 marked one. These Maroim being pierced in the 
 middle are successively strung by the different Cor- 
 porals upon a piece of wire, from which they slide 
 into a box called Boite nnx Ronden. This "box is 
 carried next morning to the Major, who keeps the 
 ke}' ; and who on opening it can easily ascertain 
 whether the ri>unds have been regularly gone by 
 counting the different Marons, and seeing them suc- 
 cessively strung. 
 
 MAROONS.. — A name given in Jamaica and Dutch 
 Guiana to runaway negro slaves. The term was 
 first applied to those slaves who were deserted by 
 their Masters, the Spaniards, when the British con- 
 quered Jamaica (1655), and who took refuge in the 
 Uplands, where for 140 years they maintained a con- 
 stant warfare with the British Colonists; but in 
 1795 they were subdued, and a portion of them re- 
 moved to Nova Scotia, and afterwards to Sierra 
 Leone. The remnant fraternized with their manu- 
 mitted brethren in 1834-35. The Maroons of Dutch 
 Guiana form a number of small independent com- 
 munilies. 
 
 MARQUEE.— An awning or cover of canvas form- 
 ing an officer's tent ; a tent complete. JIarquees 
 are of two kinds, viz.. Dining and Sleeping Mar- 
 queen -. the former being used as officers' mess tents. 
 Also written Markit. 
 
 MARQUESS— MARQUIS.— The degree of nobility 
 which in the peerage of England ranks next to Duke. 
 Marquises were originally Commanders on the bor- 
 ders or frontiers of countries, or on the sea-coast, 
 which they were bound to protect. In England, the 
 title of Marquis was used in this sense as early as 
 the reign of Henry the III., when there were Mar- 
 quises or Lords-marchers of the borders of Scotland 
 and Wales: and the foreign equivalent of Markgraf 
 was common on the Continent. The first English 
 Marquis in the modern sense was Robert de Vere, 
 Earl of Oxford, who was created Marquis of Dublin 
 by Richard II., to the no small offense of the Earls 
 who had to yield him precedence. The oldest exist- 
 ing Marquisate is that of Winchester, created by Ed- 
 ward VI. in 1551. The title was first introduced in- 
 to Scotland inl599,when the Marquises of Huntlyand 
 Hamilton were created. 
 
 The Coronet of a Marquis, as worn in the United 
 Kingdom, is a circle of gold, with four strawberry 
 leaves (or oak leaves), and as man}' pearls alternat- 
 ing with them, and placed on pyramidal jioints of 
 the same height with the leaves. The mantle is 
 scarlet, with three and a half doublings of ermine. 
 A Marquis is styled "The Most Honorable;" his wife 
 is a Marchioness; his eldest son takes by courtesy 
 the next lower title in the peerage, except where 
 that is identical with the title of the Marquisate, in 
 which case he must take the next lower still, as in 
 thecaseof the Marcpiis and Earl of Salisliury, whose 
 eldest son bears the courtesj'-title of Viscount Cran- 
 borne. The younger sons of a Manpiis are styled 
 'Lord.' and daughters ' Lady,' with tlie addition of 
 Christian n:niie ;itul surname. 
 
 MARRIED ROLL.— A register kept in each regi- 
 ment, troop, battery, or establishment, in the Eng- 
 lish Army, and in which are inserted the names of! 
 all non-commissioned officers and soldiers who are 
 
 married with permission. All non-commissioned 
 officers holding the rank of Staff Sergeants of cer- 
 tain grades are permitted to marry, and also Ser- 
 geants of troops, batteries, or companies, &c., in a 
 certain proportion, as laid down in the Regulations. 
 Of the rank and file, 7 per cent, in England and 10 
 per cent, in India are allowed to marry, and are en- 
 tered on the married roll ; these numbers are calcu- 
 I lated upon the establishment of the corps, except in 
 the royal artillery, in which the calculation is made 
 upon the establishment of each battery. No non- 
 commissioned officer or soldier is entitled to have 
 his name placed on the married roll without having 
 obtained the consent of his Commanding Officer be- 
 fore marriage. In the case of a soldier below the 
 rank of Sergeant wishing to marry, he must have 
 completed 7 years' service and be in possession of at 
 least one G. C. badge. If he has a balance in the 
 savings-bank of £5 or upwards, it will be considered 
 a desirable qualification. The fact of the name of a 
 non-commissioned officer or soldier appearing on the 
 married roll ensures him and his family certain 
 privileges which are not accorded to men marrying 
 without the consent of their Commanding Officer. 
 
 MARRONS.— Small cubic boxes, made of paste- 
 board, filled with powder, and wrapped with strong 
 twine. They are used to give a loud report, or the 
 effect of cannonading. To make a marron, cut the 
 pasteboard into rectangles, whose sides shall be 3 and 
 and 5 times, respectively, the length of the side of the 
 marron required. Divide the rectangle Into 15 equal 
 squares ; cut out the squares forming the four cor- 
 ners of the rectangle, and divide the three remaining 
 squares on the long side from each other bj' a cut 
 the length of their side and perpendicular to the long 
 side of the rectangle. Form a small cubic box with 
 the pasteboard thus cut out ; paste the squares to- 
 gether which cover each other, and paste a band of 
 paper around the box, leaving the cover open. When 
 dry, fill the box with powder, paste down the cover, 
 and envelop It with two or three layers of strong 
 twine. Cover the marron with glue or kit, and prime 
 it with quick-match inserted in a hole punched into the 
 powder at the middle of one of the taces. See Com- 
 poaithins and Fireicorks. 
 
 MARRUCINI. — An ancient people in central Italy, 
 on a narrow tract of land along the right bank of the 
 river Aternus. Their territory extended from the 
 Apennines to the Adriatic: between the Vestini on 
 the north- and the Frentani on the south ; and be- 
 tween the Pellgnl and the Adriatic on the east and 
 west. They were an independent nation, said to be 
 descended from the Sabines, and generally were in 
 alliance with their neighbors, the Marsl and Pelignl. 
 They entered into alliance with the Romans in 304 
 B. c , but rebelled at the beginning of the Social 
 War. Their onlj' place of Importance was Teste, now 
 Chieti, on the right bank of the Aternus, now the Pes- 
 cara. 
 
 MARS. — The Roman Mars, who as a war-god is 
 surnamed Oradhux (=grandiji divnx, the great god), 
 also bore the surname of Silranus, and appears to 
 have been originally an agricultural deltj-; the pro- 
 pitiatory offerings were presented to him as the guar- 
 dian of fields and flocks; but as the fierce shejiherds 
 who founded the city of Rome were even more ad- 
 dicted to martial than to pastoral pursuits, one can 
 easilj- understand how Afars Silvantm should have, 
 in the course of time, become the " God of War." 
 Mars, who was a perfect personification of the stern, 
 relentless, and even cruel valor of the old Romans, 
 was held in tlie highest lionor. He ranked next to 
 .Jupiter; like him lie bore the venerable epillut of 
 ?\it/ier li^hiTA-pitir) ■, he was one of the three Tute- 
 lary Divinities of the City, to each of whom Numa 
 appointed a flamen ; nay, he was said to be the father 
 of Honudus himself (by Khea Silvia, the Priestess of 
 Vestil), and was thus believed to. be the real progen- 
 itor of the lioman ()eo]ilc. He had a sanct\iary on 
 the (Juirinal ; -.uul the liill received its name from hia
 
 HARSKILLAISE. 
 
 279 
 
 nABSUALLIMG OF ASUS. 
 
 suriinnic, Qt/'n'niis, llie most proljaMi' iiicunin;; 
 of wliifli is tfie H-prar-arm d. It, was iiiiilcr this 
 (losiunation that he was invdUcd as tlic pnilcclor <if 
 tlic Qit'rites (fitizensj- in (illicr Wdnls, of tlir Slate. 
 Tlic priiici))al aiiinials sacrcil to liiiii wire tlii' wolf 
 mill till' liorsi'. Ill- liail many Tciiiplis at IJoinr, the 
 most cclclirati'il of wliirli was that oiilsiilo llic I'urld 
 (Uipena, on the Apiiiaii Hoail. The Civnptu MarthiH, 
 whiTc the Uoiiians ]iractici'il athlitic anil Miililary 
 exercises, was named after him ; so was the month 
 of March {MarVnn), tlu' lirst month of the Human 
 year. The LmV MartiaU^ (ijames helil in his honor; 
 were celebrateil every year in the einiis. 
 
 Auks, the (Ireek l;i)i1 of war, was tlie son of Zeus 
 anil Hera, anil the favorite of Aphrodite, who liore 
 him several ehililren. He is represented in (ireek 
 poetry as a most sanguinary divinity. delii;htini; in 
 war for its own sake, and in the destruelion of men. 
 Hefore hijn into battle i^oes his sister Krin (iStrifcj ; 
 aloni; with him are his sons and eompanions, DrimuH 
 (Horror) and I'ImIuih (Fearj. He does not always 
 adherit to the same side, like the iireat Atltriia. hut 
 inspires now tiie one. now the other. He is not al- 
 ways victorious. Diomede wounded him. and in his 
 fall, says Homer, " he roared like nine or ten thous- 
 and warriors toi^ether." Sueh a representation would 
 have been deemed blasphemous by the ancient 
 Roman mini, imbued as it was with a solemn 
 Hebrew-like reverence for its gods. The worship of 
 Ares was never very prevalent in Greece; it is be- 
 lieved to have been imported from Thrace. There, 
 and in Hcythia, were its great .seats, and there Ares 
 was believed tohave his chief home. He had, how- 
 ever. Temples or Shrines at Athens, Sparta, Olym- 
 pia, and other places. On statues and reliefs, he is 
 reiiresented as a person of great muscular power, 
 and eilhi r naked or clothed witli the chlamys. 
 
 MARSEILLAISE. The name by which the grand 
 song iif the lirst French Kevolutidu is known. The 
 circumstances which led to its composition are as 
 follows: In the beginning of 1793, when a column 
 of volunteers was abinit to leave Strasbourg, the 
 Mayor of the city, who gave a banquet on the occa- 
 sion, asked an officer of artillery named Houget de 
 Lisle, to compose a song in their honor. His request 
 was comiilied with, and the result was the Afdiwi'l- 
 Itr'.ir — both verse and nuisic being the work of a 
 single night. De Lisle entitled the piece ('/inntde 
 Guerre d' I'Ariin'e dii li/iin. Next day it was svmg 
 with rapturous enthusiasm that only Frenchmen can 
 exhibit, and instead of (iOO volunteers, 1000 marched 
 out of Strasbourg. Soon from the whole army of 
 the north resounded the thrilling and fiery words 
 (iiixarmes mix iinms ; nevertheless the song was still 
 luiknown at Paris, and was first introduced there by 
 Barbaroux when he smnmoned the youth of Marseilles 
 to the Capital in July, 17!(3. It was received with 
 transports by the Parisians, who — ignorant of its 
 real authorship — uanied it Hymne des MarseiUaine, 
 which name it has ever since borne. 
 
 MARSHAL — Aterm which originally meant a groom 
 or manager of the horse, though eventually the King's 
 Marshal became one of the principal OtticiTsof Stale 
 in England. The Hoyal Farrier rose in dignity with 
 the increasing importance of the C/nralerie, \\\l he 
 became, conjointly with the Constalile, the judge in 
 the Curia' ^/artiales. or Courts of Chivalry. An Flarl- 
 dom is attached to the dignity, and the otiiceof Earl- 
 Marshal is now licreditary in the family of the Duke 
 of Norfolk. When the King headed his army in 
 feudel tiires, the assembled troops were inspected by 
 the Constable and ilarshal, who lixcd the spot for 
 the encamtiment of each noble, and examined the 
 number, arms, and condilion of his retainers. With 
 these duties was naturally combined the regulation of 
 <'ill matters connected with armorial bearings, stand- 
 ards, and ensigns. The Constable's functions were 
 virtually abolished in tlie time of Henry YIIL. and 
 the JIarshal became thenceforth the sole judge in 
 questions of honor and arms. The Earl-Marshal is 
 
 president of the English college of arms, and ap- 
 points the Kings.at-Arms, IleraldH, and PursuivanlK. 
 The Marshal's functions wen; formerly exercised in 
 time ol jxrace in the Aula Iteyiii or King's (Ireat 
 Court, and on the division of the Aula Riijin. lie ap- 
 pointed deputies in the new courts; hence arose the 
 otlicesof .Marshal of the King's CQueen's^Bench, and 
 of Exche(|uer, whose iirincipal (hity is to lake charge 
 of larsons conmiilted to their custody by the court. 
 Besides the Earl-.Marslial thent is a lvnii;hl-.Marshal, 
 or .Marshal of thi' King's ftiueen's; household. The 
 Marshal of the King's Bench held two dilT(;rent 
 I courts, which haver been altogr'ther discontinued 
 since IHIO. Tlie .Marshal, or Provost-Marshal, of the 
 admiralty is an otlicer whose duty it is to act minis- 
 terially iinder the orders of the court of admiralty in 
 securing prizes, executing w;irrants, arresting crimi- 
 j nals, and attcnilini: their execution. 
 I The dignity of ^Marshal existed formerly in Scot- 
 land, where a different nrlhography was adopted, 
 and the office of .Marischal was hcredit:iry in the 
 family of Keith. Sir Kobert Keith, the Marischal, 
 was one of the most distinguished warriors in the 
 army of Kobert the Bruce ; and his descendant, the 
 Marischal in 14.")0. had the dignity of Karl conferred 
 on him with no other title but that of Earl-.Marischai 
 There is little doulit that the Lyon King-al-Arms 
 was, like the English Kings-at-Arms, originally sub- 
 ject to the Marischal, but his dependence ceased at 
 a very early period, and the heraldic functions dis- 
 chariied by Hie Earl-.Marsluil in England devolved 
 in Scotland on the Lord Lyon, who held office di- 
 rectly from the crown. Scotland had no Knight- 
 Marischal till 1()33. when Charles I., at his corona- 
 tion, created the office. In ITUideorge. tenth Earl- 
 Marischal. was atlainted inconsequence of his share 
 in Ihe rebellion of the jirevious year, and the office 
 has since been in abey;nicc. In France the highest 
 military officer is called a Marshal, a dignity which 
 originated early in the 18th century. There was at 
 lirst only one Mareehal de Frame, and there were 
 but two till Ihe time of Francis I. Their number 
 afterwards became unlimited. Originally the Mar- 
 slial was the Ksquire of the King, and commanded 
 Ihe vanguard in war : in later times the command 
 became'supreme, and the rank of the highest mili- 
 tary impi>rt:ince. From the title of this class of 
 geiienil ollicers the Germans have borrowed their 
 Feld-Marschall, and we our Field-Marshal, a dig- 
 nity bestowed on commanders distinguished either 
 by elevated rank or superior talents. In the United 
 States the word is used in three signiticat ions : 1. 
 To denote the Ministerial Officer of Ihe United States 
 Courts, there being one appointed to each judicial 
 district. The duties of this officer resemble those 
 of a Sheriff in the State Courts; he opens and 
 closes the sessions of the District and Circuit Courts, 
 serves warrants, and with his deputies enforces the 
 execution of the internal revenue and other U.S. 
 Statutes. 3. To denote a leader or director of cer- 
 emonies, festivities, or processions. 3. In many 
 states of the south and west the Marshal is the 
 head of the mnniciiial police force, and is to be dis- 
 tinguished from Ihe officers of the county called 
 Sheriffs, and from the officers of the juslice courts 
 called Constables. lu a few northern cities, form- 
 erly the name was applied with doubtful propriety 
 to special police officers. 
 
 MARSHALLING OF ARMS.- -The combining of differ- 
 ent coats-of-arms in one escutcluHm.for the purpose of 
 indicating family alliance or office. In the earlier her- 
 aldry. it was not "the practice to exhibit more than one 
 coat in a shield, but the arras of husband and wife 
 were sometimes placed acfallee, or side by side, in 
 separate escutcheons ; or the principal shield was 
 surrounded bv smaller ones, containing the arms of 
 maternal ancestors : and we not uufrequently find 
 maternal descent or marriage indicated by the addi- 
 tion of some bearing from the wife's or mother's 
 shield. Then followed d'md'ation,w)ieTC theshield
 
 UASSl. 
 
 280 
 
 MAETIAL LAW. 
 
 was parted per pale, and Uic two coats placed side 
 by side, half of each beins shown. By the more 
 niodern custom of impaling (Fig. 1), the whole of 
 eac'.i coat is exhibited, a reminiscence of the older 
 practice being retained in the omission of bordiires, 
 orels, and treasures on the side bo'mded by llie line 
 of impalement. The most common case of impale- 
 
 ^arshaJling of Arms. 
 
 mcnt is where the coats of husband and wife are con- 
 joined, the husliand's arms occupying the dexter 
 side of the sliield, or place of honor, and the wife's 
 the sinister side. Bishops. Deans, Heads of Colleges, 
 and Kings-of-Arms, impale their arms of office with 
 their family coat, giving the dexter side to the for- 
 mer. A man who marries an heiress (in heraldic sense) 
 is entitled to place her arms on a small shield called 
 aneKuU/ieon. of pretence, in the centerof his achieve- 
 ment, instead of impaling (Fig. 2.). QuaHer;ng(F\g. 
 3), or the exhibiting different cvits on a siield divid- 
 ed at once perpendicularly and horizontally, is tlie 
 most common mode of marshalling arms, a practice 
 wdiich, however, was unknown till the middle of the 
 14th century. The divisions of the shield are called 
 quarters, and are numbered horizontally, beginning 
 at the dexter chief. The most common object of 
 quartering is to indicate descent. The coats quar- 
 tered in aia escutcheon must all have been brought in 
 by successive heiresses, who have intermarried into 
 the familv. In the case of a single quartering tlie 
 paternal .arms are placed in the first and fourth quar- 
 ters, and tlie maternal in the second and third. The 
 third and fourth quarters may, in after generations, 
 be occupied by the arms of a second and third heir- 
 ess. Sometimes an already quartered coat is placed 
 in one of the four quarters of the escutcheon, then 
 termed a grand quarter. We occasionally find the 
 shield divided by perpendicular and horizontal lines 
 into^ix, nine, or even more parts, each occupied by 
 a coat brought in by an heiress : ana in case of an 
 odd number of coats, the last division is filled by a 
 repetition of the first. In the course of generations, 
 a sliield may tlius be inconveniently crowded by the 
 accumulation of coats, including the several coats to 
 wliich eacli heiress may, in a similar way, have be- 
 come entitled, and in Germany, sometimes twenty 
 or thirty coats are found marshalled in one escutch- 
 eon ; but in British Heraldry, families entitled to a 
 number of quarterings, generally select some of the 
 most important. Quarterings, at least in Scotland, 
 are not allowed to be added to the paternal coat with- 
 out the sanction of the heraldic authorities. Sov- 
 erc-igns quarter the ensigns of their several States, 
 giving precedence to the most ancient, unless it be in- 
 ferior to the others in importance. In tlie royal es- 
 cutcheon of the United Kingdom, England is placed 
 in the first and fourth quarters, Scotland in tlie sec- 
 ond, and Ireland in tlie third; the relative positions 
 of Scotland and Kngland being, however, reversed 
 on tlie official seals of .Scotland. Spain bears the 
 arms of Leon in tlie first and fourth quarters, and 
 Castile in the second and tliird. An elected King 
 generally places his arms surtout on an escutcheon 
 of pretence. 
 
 MARSI. -An ancient tribe of central Italy, inliabit- 
 ing the district around the lake Fucinus ( /xir/o lU 
 (.'eUi/w). Their origin, like that of otiier Italian 
 tribes, is involved in olicurity and fiction. Tliey 
 were probably of Sabine origin. They an; worlliy 
 of notice chiefly on account of th<-ir warlike spirit. 
 The Marsians were at one lime allies of tlie Itomans, 
 but. in 308 b. c, they revolted and joined the Sani- 
 
 nites. After being subdued they again, 301 b.c, 
 sh^iok off the alliance of Home, but were beaten in 
 the field, anii lost several of tlieir fortresses. From 
 this time they continued tlie firm allies of Rome, 
 contributing by tlieir valor to her triumphs until the 
 Italians were aroused in 91 b.c., to demand a -'dress 
 of tlieir v.Tougs and a share in tlie privileges of 
 Roman citizens. A war ensued, generall}' knov u as 
 the Social War, but frequently call d the Marsic 
 War, because the !Marsi were prominent among the 
 malcontents. Their leader was Silus Ponip«dius. 
 Though often defeated, their perseverance lained 
 the object for which they had taken up arms in 87 
 B.C. Tlie JIarsians, inhabiting a mountainous dij- 
 trict were simple and temperate in tlieir habits, but 
 hardy, brave, and unyielding. So marked was their 
 valor that there was a proverbial saying recorded by 
 App^an, "That Rome had achieved" no triumph Mtr 
 the Marsi, or ir.'t/iniit theMarsi." The an:ient JIarsi 
 were represented as enchanters, able to tame ser- 
 pents and to heal their bites; and it is worthy of note 
 that the jugglers who now amuse the people bj- 
 handling serpents are natives of the region in the 
 vicinity of Lago di Celano. Their only important 
 town was Marruv'um (Qan Benedetto). the ruins of 
 which are visible on the east shore of the lake. 
 
 MAETEAU D'ARMES.— An offensive weapon, so- 
 called from its resemblance to a hammer. 
 
 MAETEL DE FEE.— An offensive weapon in use 
 at the beginning of the 13th century. It was in the 
 shape of a pointed hammer or small pickaxe. It is 
 stated to have made sad havoc in mailorarmor, and 
 left fatal openings for the passage of the sword or 
 lance. 
 
 MAETELLO TOWERS— are round towers for coast 
 defense, aliout 40 feet high, built most solidly, and 
 situated on tlic beach. They occur in several places 
 round the coast of the Uniteil Kingdom; but princi- 
 pally opposite to the French coast, along the south- 
 ern shore of Kent and Sussex, where, for many mil s, 
 they are witliiu easy range of each other. They 
 were mostly ei'ected during the French war as a de- 
 fense against invasion. Each had walls of 5h feet 
 thickness, and was supposed to be bomb-proof. The 
 base formed the magazine ; above were two rooms 
 for the garrison, and over the upper of these the flat 
 roof, with a 4i feet brick parapet all round. On this 
 roof a swivel heavy gun was to be placed to com- 
 mand sliipping, while howitzers on each side were 
 to form a flanking defense in connection with the 
 neighboring towers. Although the cost of these 
 littfe forts was very great, they are generally consid- 
 ered to have lieen a failure ; their armaments have 
 mostly been removed. The name is said to betaken 
 from Italian towers built near the sea, during the 
 period when piracy was common in the Medit - 
 erranean, for the purpose of keeping watch and giv- 
 ing warning if a pirate-ship was seen approaching. 
 This warning was given liy striking on a hell with a 
 hammer (Italian ilurtelli)), and hence these towers 
 were called t'-rri da miirh'ilo. 
 
 MAETIAL LAW. — An arbitrary law, proceeding 
 directly from the military power,and having no imme- 
 diate constitutional or legislative sanction. A place, 
 district, or country occupied by anenemy st:inds, in 
 consequence of tlie occupation, under tlie iMartial 
 Law of the invading or occu])ying Army, whether 
 any proclam;ition declaring Martial Law, orjany pub- 
 lic warning to the inhabitants, has been issued t r 
 not. Martial Law is the immediate and direct effect 
 and consequence of occupation or conquest. The 
 presence of a hostile army proclaims its Martial 
 Law. Martial Law does not cease during the lios- 
 tiie occupation, excejit by special proclamation, or- 
 dered by thccomiiuinder-iii-cliief ; or by s])ieial men- 
 tion in the treaty of peace coucluding tlie war, wlien 
 the oceujiation of a iilace or territory continues be- 
 yond the conclusion of peace as one of the condi- 
 tions of the same. Martial Law in a hostile country 
 consists iu the suspension, by the occupying military
 
 UASTINET. 
 
 281 
 
 UAAIINI U£I<£Y SlfLE. 
 
 antliorily, of the friminiil and rivil liiw, and of the 
 iloiiicslic iulii]inislratioii ami L'oviTnincnt ill the oc- 
 (Mipii'il place or Irrrilory. and in llic siihslitiilioii of 
 military rule and force for the same, as widl as in 
 llie dictation of general laws, as far as inililary ne- 
 cessity reiinires this suspension, sidistilulion, or dic- 
 tation. The commander of the forces nniy proclaim 
 that, the administration of all civil and penal law 
 shall continue, either wholly or in pari, as in limes 
 of peace, unless othiTwisc ordered hy the iidlitary 
 authority. .Martial Law issirnply military authority 
 exercised In accordance with the l.'iws and usaijes of 
 war. ^lilitary oppression is not .Martial I^aw; it is 
 the abuse of the power whii'li that law confiTs. As 
 jNIartial Law is executed by nulitiiry force, it is in- 
 cumbent upon those who administer it to be strictly 
 guided by the iirincljilcs of justice, honor, and hu 
 inanity- virtues adornimr a soldier even more than 
 other men, forthe very reason that he jiossesses the 
 power of his arms aiiainst tlie uuaruied. Martial 
 Jjaw should be less stringent in places and countries 
 fully occupied and fairly con(niered. Much greater 
 severity may be exercised in places or regions where 
 actual hostilities exist, or are exjiected and must be 
 prepared for. Its most complete sway is allowed — 
 even in the commander's own country — when face to 
 face with the enemy, because of the absolute necessi- 
 ties of the case, and of the |iaramount dutytodef nd 
 the country against invasion. To save the country 
 is ])aramount to all other considerations. All civil 
 and penal laws continue to tal<j' their usual course 
 in the enemy's territory under Martial Law.uidess in- 
 terru]ited or stopjicd l)y order of the occupying mili- 
 tary power; but all the functions of the hostile gov 
 ernmcnt — legislative, executive, or administrative — 
 whether of a general, provincial, or local character, 
 ci'asi' under Martial I-aw, or contimie only with the 
 sanction, or, if deemed necessary, the participation 
 of the occupier or invader. Martial Law extends to 
 pro])erty, and to jiersous. whether they are subjects 
 of the enemy or aliens to that government. C'oiistds, 
 among American and Euroi)eau nations, are not dip- 
 lomatic agents. Xevertheless, their otliccs and per- 
 sons will be subjected to ^lartial Law in cases of 
 
 I mainly to the support and etllclency of the Army, its 
 safely, and lhi> safety of its operations. The law of 
 war docs not only dtsclaim all crni-llyand bad faith 
 concernin'.; iiigageinents concluded with Ihi' enemy 
 during the war. but also the bri-aking of stipulations 
 solemnly contracted by the belligerents in time of 
 l)eace, and av(jwedly inlendeil to remain in force in 
 I case of war between the contracting powers. It dis- 
 • claims all extortions and oilier transactions for in- 
 dividual gain ; till acts of private revenge, or conni- 
 vance at such acts. Offenses to the contrary shall 
 be severely punished, and especially so if committed 
 by oMlcers. Whenever feasible, .Marlial Law is car- 
 ried out in cases of individual offenders by Military 
 t'ourts ; but sentences of dtrath shall be executed only 
 with the approval of the chief executive, provided 
 the urgency of the case does not reijiiire a speedier 
 execution, and then only with the ajjproval of the 
 chief commander, fsce Militari/ Ijiir. 
 
 MARTINET A term applieil to a strict disciplina- 
 rian. It is suiijiosed to have taken its origin from 
 an .\djutant of that name, who was in high rei)Ute in 
 the French iirmv as a tlrill otiicer during the reign of 
 Louis .\1V. 
 
 MARTINGALE.- A thong of Icalher.fastened at the 
 end of the ■jirth under the belly of a horse, and at 
 tin' oilier end totliemusral: lo keep him from rearing. 
 
 MARTINI HENRY RIFLE.- This rille. adopted as 
 the new small-arm of 'lie linlish service, has a lireech- 
 loacling aijparatus on the iMartini system united to a 
 barrel ritied on the system of Henry, a guu-maker of 
 Scotland. Martini, a Swi.ss. derived liis system of 
 breech-loading from the Peabody system of this 
 country, liy dispensing with ilie independent out- 
 side lock and substituting therefor a spiral-spring 
 tiring-bolt or striker, inclosed in the breech-block. 
 The breech-loading ajiparalus, the formof the ri- 
 tling.and the cartri<lge,are shown in detail in the ac- 
 companying section taken through the axis of the 
 barrel, with the breech closed. The receiver is a 
 solid frame of iron, uniting the barrel and the front 
 and rear portions of the stock. The barrel is shown 
 at L, the tiii-stock at V S, and the butt-stock at K, 
 The point of the butt-stock is shaped to tit into the 
 
 urgent necessity only ; their property and business 
 are not exempted. Aiiv deliniiueiicv they commit 
 against the established military rule may be punish- 
 ed as in the case of any other inhabitant, and such 
 punishment furnishes no reasonable ground for in- 
 ternational complaint. The functions of Ambassa- 
 dors. Ministers, or other diplomatic agents, accredit- 
 ed by neutral powers lo the hostile government, 
 cea.se, so far as regards the displaced government; 
 but the conquering or occupying power usually rec- 
 ognizes them as temporarily iiccreditcd to itself. 
 !Martial Law affects chiefly the police and collection 
 of public revenue ami taxes, whether imposed by the 
 expelled government or by tlie invader, and refers 
 
 rear end of the receiver, which is cupped to receive 
 it; it is fastened to the re<-eiver by the longitudinal 
 screw-bolt, K tS,iu the manner shown in thedrawing. 
 The several parts of the breech system may be divid- 
 ed into two groups, viz ; 1. The falling breech-block 
 and Uie firing apparatus contained in it: 2. The 
 trigger and other parts attached to the trigger-plate, 
 and the extractor. . The breech-block is pivoted at 
 its rear and upper portion, and in uncovering the 
 clKimber of the barrel for Ihe purpose of loading, its 
 front portion f;dls. The axis-pin, ;) .«, around which 
 the block turns is made of hard bronze. The por- 
 tion of the collar surrounding this pin is embedded 
 in the receiver and constitutes the principal recoil-
 
 MARTINI-HENRY RIFLE. 
 
 282 
 
 MARTINI-HENRY RIFLE. 
 
 bearing surface of the block. As this surface is a- 
 bove the axis of the bore, prolouged to the rear, there 
 is a downward pressure of the block at the moment 
 of explosion. This pressure is resisted by the short 
 arm of the lever, b h. and the block thereby secured 
 in its place. Tliis lever, called the block-lever, is 
 composed of two arms, and turnsround the pin,ii vr. 
 The short arm of the block-lever is divided info two 
 branches. The long arm serves as a handle bj' which 
 the block is worked, and when closed its point en- 
 ters a countersink, and is held in place by a small 
 catch-pin. The short arm of the block-lever works 
 in a cut on the lower side of the breech-block. This 
 cut is so shaped that the points of the branches of tlie 
 short arm working against its sides raise and lower 
 the block and lock it. The drawing shows the block 
 in the locked position. The lever-pin passes through 
 both cheeks of the receiver, and is secured to the 
 left cheek by a small screw, the head of which en- 
 ters a groove in the point of the pin. 
 
 The firing-bolt, or striker, lies in a hole extending 
 nearly through the center of the breech-block. It is 
 composed of its point, which projects througli a cor- 
 responding opening in the head of the block ; a col- 
 lar, which serves as a shoulder for the spiral main- 
 spring to press against, and the body enveloped by 
 this spii al spring. The rear portion of the striker has a 
 vertical slot, in which works .the point of a lever to 
 draw back the striker to the position of full cock. 
 This lever is called the tumbler. The rear end of 
 the striker has a slot in it, that it may be adjusted by 
 a screw-driver to receive tue point of the tumbler. 
 The striker is kept in place by a nut screwed into the 
 rear end of the breecli-block." The tumbler is pivoted 
 on the same axis-pin as the locking-lever, n ir, and is 
 placed between its two branches. To show when 
 the striker is at full cock, the end of the lever-pin. n 
 ir, has an index-arm, which lies on the right side of 
 the receiver and turns with the tumbler. It is for 
 this purpose that the portion of the pin on which the 
 tumbler tits is made square. The tumbler, when at 
 full cock, is supported on a rocker, called the tum- 
 bler-rest. The nose of the trigger,in turn supports the 
 tumbler-rest at r. Tlie tail-piece of the tumbler-rest 
 bears against the back of the trigger when the latter 
 is pulled. The trigger-spring is shown in,rf/. To 
 prevent accidents when the piece is carried loaded, 
 the trigger is secured in place by the trigger-bolt, 
 which Is slid back and forth by pressing on the fin- 
 ger-piece. When locked, the bolt fits into a notch, 
 and is kept in place by a spring. 
 
 The extractor, c , is a bent lever pivoted at e n. Its 
 vertical arm is composed of two branches with points 
 which hook under the rim of the cartridge to extract 
 the shell. The horizontal arm is shaped to receive 
 the downward pressure of the breech-Wock on its 
 point and start the shell from the chamber. As soon 
 as the shell has moved slightly the point of the 
 breech-block strikes the arm near tlie fulcrum, and 
 ejects the shell with force from the piece. The form 
 of the rifling is shown in the drawing. Tiu' number 
 of grooves is seven: in sliaiu- they are tUit at the 
 bottom; the lands are narrow, liaving the appear- 
 ance of sharp ribs, wliich arc designed lo take a firm 
 hold of the bullet. It is understood that these grooves 
 iiTr. made somewhat deeper at the breech than at the 
 muzzle. Twist is one turn in 33 inches. There is 
 a brass collar around the head of the ran\rod to pre- 
 vent injury lo tlie bore in wiping out. The triangu- 
 lar bayonet is issued wiih all arms to private soldiers. 
 The sword-bayonet is issued to non-comnussioned 
 officers. 
 
 Tlie weight of the Martini-Henry rifle is 8i pounds; 
 of the present bayonet 13A ounces ; of the new 
 bayonet, 14 ounces"; of the old scabbard, ounces ; 
 of the new scabbard, 4t ounces. The weight of 
 the rifle with a new bayonet attached is!) jiounds 
 11 ounces; with tin- ol'd biiyoiict, '.) iiouiids 1 1 _i 
 ounces. 
 
 The cartridge iidopted for the .Martini-lleiiry rille 
 
 is made of wrapped metal, after what is known in 
 England as the Boxer system. Each cartridge is 
 composed of some fourteen distinct pieces, as sliown 
 in section. The body of the shell is made by wrap- 
 ping a trapezoidal piece of thin sheet-brass around a 
 cylindrical former, making a tube. One end of this 
 tube is turned inward to form an interior flange for 
 securing the sliell to its head, the other end is re- 
 duced in diameter to fit the cylindrical portion of the 
 bullet. A piece of thin paper 's rolled up witli the 
 brass sheet for a lining to the shell to protect it 
 against the action of the powder. The head of the 
 shell is made of a perforated sheet-iron disk, (, two 
 re-enforcing cups of thin sheet-brass, k. tlie anvil- 
 pocket, g, made of copper, and apsper wad, c. The 
 relative positions of these pieces are shown in the 
 sectional figure, and they are held together by the 
 anvil-pocket and the paper wad, which is pressed in- 
 to its place with great force under the head of the 
 anvil-pocket, while the open end of the pocket is riv- 
 eted to the disk. 
 
 The shell is primed by inserting into the anvil- 
 pocket from the outside a primer composed of a per- 
 cussion-cap of copper, ?, and containing an anvil, a, 
 also of copper. The bottom of the anvil-pccket has 
 a small hole for the passage of the flame from the 
 fulminate of the primer when it is exploded. 
 
 The bullet, c, is of cylindro-conoidalform. made of 
 lead hardened by an admixture of one-thirteenth part 
 of tin. The bullet is slightlj' cupped at the base, 
 and has around it a slight groove, r, 7-, or canne- 
 lure, into which the cartridge-shell is choked to 
 hold the bullet in place. The bullet is enveloped 
 in a patch of thin paper, similar to that u.sed for 
 bank-notes. The lubricating material is a bee's-wax 
 wad, 10 d, lying between the powder and bullet. This 
 wad is separated from the powder by a stout paper 
 disk (jute), and from tlie bullet by two disks of the 
 same material. The weight of the bullet is 480 grains, 
 and the powder is similar in quantity to that known 
 as No. 6, Curtis and Harvey's make, and weighs 85 
 grains. These cartridges can be reorimed and re- 
 loaded. 
 
 Since the Martini-Henry rifles have been placed in 
 the hands of the troops certain defects have been de- 
 veloped, and the, uecessar}' alterations have been 
 made to correct them. The most serious defect ap- 
 pears to have been the recoil, or " kick," of the arm, 
 extending, according to the newspaper accounts, so 
 far as to disable soldiers after firing a series of not 
 more than one hundred shots. The cause of this 
 severe recoil is attributed to the great weight of the 
 charge (powder and bullet) in proportion to the 
 weight of the arm. The prominence of the stock in 
 rear of the breech-frame contriliutes to the incon- 
 venience of the recoil by striking against the face of 
 the firer. if care be not taken to hold the piece prop- 
 erlj'. The injurious effect of the recoil is found to 
 be the greatest with soldiers not accustomed to the 
 use of the new arm, and diminishes as tliey become 
 more accustomed to it. To remedy the evil as far 
 as practicable, it has been decided to lengthen the 
 butt of the stock. Originally the distance from the 
 trigger to the middle point <if the butt-plate was 13 
 and 14 inches, and the two kinds of rifles were issu- 
 ed to the troops in the proportion of two of the for- 
 mer to one of tlie latter lengtli. The corresponding 
 distances now are about 14 inches and 14iinches, 
 andtlie cliangeis said to have gone quite tar toward 
 remedying tiie evil. To protect the left hand from 
 the hciit of the barrel in rapid firing the porlion of 
 the barrel embraced by the hand is covered with a 
 leather shield strapped and buckled on. The butt- 
 plates were fornwrly roughed by cross-hatching witli 
 a file to give a firmer liold against tlie shoulder. 
 This has be<'n dispensed with as unnecessary, and 
 the surface is now left smiiotii. The locking-liolt 
 has also been dispensed with as unnecessary, and 
 the block axis-piii is countersunk and made of steel 
 instead of hard bronze. The strikers having been
 
 MARTIN SHELL. 
 
 283 
 
 MASON AND DIXON'S LINE. 
 
 foiinil Id lircak, Imvi- bffii nintfrinlly slrcni?lli'Tic(l. 
 Till' plan (if scrcwinj; in tlic point nf llic niiiirod to 
 liold it in its place has been (■lianjr''il to a shoulder 
 reMlin/i aijainst a slop, vvliieli is strongly secured to 
 tliesloek below llie lip, somcwhul after the Amer- 
 ican plan. 
 
 The carbines of Ihe cavalry and artillery ])atternM 
 have Ihe same caliber asthe Nrarlini-llenry rille, ami 
 have also the same twist and form of rillinj,', but Ihe 
 barrels are only 111 inches in Ien{;th. The weii;ht of 
 the cavalry carbine is 7 pounds, H ounces, ami that 
 of the artillery cariiine is 7 [loniids, lOi ounces. To- 
 tal length, ;i feet, 1},^ inches, ^vv Hiixr Cartridge, 
 I'eiilHiiii/.Miirthii Itijtc, and Itui/iil S/iiiill <irtiis, 
 
 MARTIN SHELL.— A very ingenious substitute for 
 a red-hot shot, to wliic-h, as far as experience has 
 eont", it is much superior. It is an ordinary shell 
 lurnished with an iron screw stopper. Molten iron 
 is poured into the Hhell, the stopper screwed in, and 
 tile missile discharL'ed for iiiccndiarv iiurposes. 
 
 MARTLET. -In Iferaldry.a birilre- 
 semblinu'a swallow, with lontrwintrs, 
 very short beak and tliii;hs. and no 
 visible Iciis, given as a mark of cad- 
 ency to tlie fourth son. It is also 
 otherwise used as a charge. The 
 martlet was originally meant for the 
 marl in. and in the earliest Heraldry, 
 it is not deprived of its feet. 
 MASCLE. — In Heraldry, a lozenge- 
 shaped figure ])erforated and showing a very narrow 
 border. The term mar-fu'li/ is as a general, thing 
 applied to any tield that is divided by diagonal 
 lines into lozenge-shaped compart- 
 ments of alternate tinctures, each 
 having its center voided of tlic op- 
 posite tincture. L"z, nr/n-miixcally \s 
 a field comjiosed of lozenges and 
 mascles alternately. In the earlier 
 Heraldry, mascally was used for what 
 was after wards callen lozengy . Cros- 
 ses and other ordinaries may be form- 
 in which case they should begin with 
 See Itiriilriry. 
 
 -A kind of armor sometimes 
 
 Martlet. 
 
 ]5£aacIo« 
 
 cd of mascles, 
 half a mascle. 
 
 MASCLED ARMOR 
 worn by the Xorman soldiers, composed of small 
 lozenge-shaped plates of metal fastened on a leathern 
 or ijuilted uniler-coat. 
 
 MASK. — 1. In a permanent fortification, a casema- 
 ted redoubt, one or two stories high and 13 yards in 
 
 width at the capital, which is sometimes added in 
 from of the caponier; a ditch 10 yards wide may be 
 
 formed in front and rear of it. Its salients being 
 made circidar and loop holed, a close and powerful 
 tire can be brought to bear uprmllie enemy if he suc- 
 ceeds in establishing himself in the ravelin. The 
 name miiHlc is given to this reiloubt, as it ads us an 
 eHicicMt mask or counter-guard to the caponier. 2. 
 A wire cage to protect the, facer in fencing. Fig. 1 
 represents the ordinary frnrin;/ iniiKk, furnislied w illi 
 ears and fronts. Fig. 2, represents the hiiu rapier 
 manic padded. 'A. As a military expression, mniik, 
 Is used in several senses. A mnsked lattery is one 
 so constructed, with a grassy glacis, etc., as to be 
 hidden from the view of Ihe enemy until, tr) his sur- 
 prise, it suddenly opens tire upon him — on his flank, 
 perhaps. The lire of a battery is OTOs/c^rf when some 
 
 other work, or a body of friendly troops, intervenes 
 in the line of tire, and jirecludes the use of the guns. 
 A fortress or an army is maxkrd when a superior force 
 of the enemy holds it in check, while some hostile 
 evolution is beins carried out 
 
 MASON AND .^IXONS LINE.-Tliis line f riginated 
 in t lie (lifiiculf ies which occurred in tracing the bound- 
 ary line of a tract of land granted to William Penn 
 in 1081. This land lay west of the Delaware and 
 north of Jlaryland. and a part of its southern bound- 
 ary was defined to be "a circle drawn at 12 miles 
 distant from Newcastle northwards and westwards 
 into the beginning of the 40" of northern laHtnde." 
 Later, Penn received another grant, and, his agent 
 being unable to agree with the authorities in Ameri- 
 ca as to the just boundary, he came to this country 
 himself in 1682 to establish his claim and take pos- 
 session of his land. He was opposed by Lord Bal- 
 timore, the matter was referred to the Committee of 
 Trade and Plantations, a change in the reigning mon- 
 arch of England took place, and it was not until 
 1760 that the final deed was issued to the heirs of 
 Penn, closing the controversy. But even then the 
 question of surveying the disputed territory with a 
 view of defining the boundary-line opened new disa- 
 greement : and it was to arrange this that Charles 
 .Mason and James Dixon, "Mathematicians and Sur- 
 veyors," were mutually agreed upon by the contes- 
 tants. Thomas and Richard Penn, on the one part, 
 and Lord Baltimore, the great grand-son of Cecilius, 
 the first patentee, on Ihe other. "To mark, run out, 
 settle, ti.v and determine all such parts of the circle, 
 marks, lines, and boundaries as were mentioned in 
 the several articles or commissions, and were not 
 completed." The two surveyors commenced their 
 work in 1704, and did not finish it until 1707: the 
 delay being partlj- owing to Indian troubles, involv-
 
 UASOKED. 
 
 284 
 
 MASTEE OF THE HOESE. 
 
 in" negotiations with the SixKatious in their settle- 
 ment. The line as tinally drawn, has l)een popular- 
 ly supposed to have been the dividing line between 
 the Free and the Slave States ; but tiiis is an error, 
 as slavery existed throughout Delaware, which is 
 both east and north of the line, until abolished by 
 the 14th Amendment to the Constitution. To this 
 line is owing the peculiar tract of land known as the 
 Pan-handle," where a part of Virginia runs up be- 
 tween Pennsylvania and the Ohio River. Very little 
 is known of "the two "Surveyors of London," as they 
 were styled. JIason was an assistant of Dr. Brad- 
 ley at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich; Ixith 
 -were members of the American Philosophical Soci- 
 ety : both were sent by the Royal Society to the Cape 
 of" Good Hope to observe the transit of Venus in 
 1769. Dixon died in Durham, England, in 1777: and 
 Mason died in Pennsylvania in 1787. 
 
 MASONED. — In Heraldry, a term used to describe 
 the lines formed by the junction of the stones in 
 buildin;:. 
 
 MASS. — 1. In Statics, the amount of matter con- 
 tained in a bod}'. In Dynamics, that measure of the 
 matter in a body which determines its relation to 
 force. The accepted measure is the weight divided 
 by the force of gravity. 2 The formation of troops 
 in column at less than half distance. To ?)iass 
 troops, is to concentrate them by this arrangement 
 on a certain point. A column is cpised in mass 
 when the sul)-divisions have less than half distance. 
 MASSACRE. — The killing of human beings by in- 
 discriminate slaughter, murder of numliers with 
 cruelty or atrocity, or contrary to the usages of 
 civilized people. As an example, we may cite the 
 Mountain Meadows Massacre, an atrocity committed 
 by the Indians in 1857, in Mountain Meadows. Santa 
 Clara Co.. Utah : as is supposed, under the instigation 
 and direction of the Mormon leaders. A party of 
 130 emigrant settlers, on their way throiigh Utah to 
 California, had in some way aroused the suspicions 
 of the Mormons, and at the place named were sur- 
 rounded by Indians under ilormon control, and bru- 
 tally massacred : onl)' a few children of the party 
 survived. In 1874 an investigation into the affair was 
 ordered by the U. S. Government, and John D. Lee, 
 a Mormon Bishop, and others, were indicted, tried, 
 and condemned. Lee was executed on March 23, 
 1877, by being shot on the very spot where tlie mas- 
 sacre look place. 
 
 MASSAGETAE. — A. nomadic people who inhabited 
 the broad steppes on the northeast of the Caspian 
 sea. to the northward of the river Araxes or Jaxartes. 
 Herodotus says that they had a community of 
 wives; that the}- sacrificed and devoured their aged 
 people ; that they worshipped the sun, and offered 
 horses to him ; lliat they lived on the milk and flesh 
 of their herds, and on lisli ; and fought on horseback 
 and on foot with tlie lance, bow, and double-edged axe. 
 Cyrus is said to liave lost his life in fighting against 
 tliem, .530 e.g. Niebuhr and Boockh are of opinion 
 that they belcmged to the Mongolian, but Humboldt 
 and others to the Indo-Germanic orAryan family. 
 
 MASSE. — A species of stock-purse, which, during 
 the French monarchy, was lodged in the hands of 
 the Regimental Treasurer or Paymaster, for every 
 Sergeant, Corporal, Drummer, and Soldier. The 
 amount retained for each Sergeant was vmgt deniers 
 per day, anil dix denier^ for each of the other ranks, 
 according to the establishment, not the effective 
 number, of each battalion. Out of tliese stopi)ages a 
 settled and regular mns^e, or stock-purse, was made 
 up, and at the en<l of every month it was ])aid into 
 the hands of the Major or Ofliccr intrusted with the 
 interior management of the corps, and was then 
 appropriated to defray the expense of clothing the 
 difTerent regiments, and lodged in the hands of the 
 Directors or Inspector-General of Clothing. 
 
 MASSE D'ARMES. -A warlike weapon, which was 
 formerly usc^d in France. It consisted of a long pole 
 •with a large inm head. 
 
 MASSELOTTE. — A French term used in the foundry 
 tosi'j;nify tliat superfluous metal which remains after 
 a cannon or mortar has been cast, and which is saw- 
 ed or tiled off to give the piece its proper form. 
 
 MASSIE. — A short stick or rod, used by artificers 
 in making cartridges. 
 
 MASSING GUNS.— The best mode of successfully 
 silencing the enemy's artiller_y,or of destroying some 
 special position of his, is by means of a number of 
 guns brought to bear on that point. This system 
 was first introduced by Napoleon at the battles of 
 Wagram, the Moskwa, and Llitzen, and subsequent- 
 ly was emploj-ed with great effect b.v the Germans 
 during the war of 1870-71. 
 
 In the concentration of artillery in action it is not 
 necessary that all the guns should be formed up into 
 one gigantic battery. With pieces commanding a 
 range of 3, 000 yards, a hundred guns might generally 
 direct their fire on to one spot, without being crowded 
 together, and it is hardly likely so many guns would 
 be required to concentrate their fire. It is further 
 shown that it is important in massing guns, es- 
 pecially under the fire of an enemy, that the guns 
 should" come into action as nearly simultaneously as 
 possible; otherwise each battery m.ay be crushed in 
 its turn as it comes up, from the enemy having got 
 the exact ranse of the battery which first got into 
 position. 
 
 MASTER -GENERAL OF THE ORDNANCE.— An offi- 
 cer formerly at the head of the Board of Ordnance. 
 Before the present regimental organization of the ar- 
 tillery, all details of the regiment came under the 
 care and superintendence of the Master-General. 
 The position of Master-General was introduced into 
 the English Army as early as 1483: at all events, that 
 seems to be the earliest date that the name of such a 
 functionary can be traced. This officer was at the 
 head of the Board of Ordnance, to which most im- 
 portant duties were assigned ; and if any one would 
 wish to learn what the Master-General had to do in 
 the 17th century, let him go to the Tower and exam- 
 ine the correspondence of Lord Dartmouth, the 
 faithful friend and servant of Charles 11., a profes- 
 sional artilleryman, and James II., a skilled Master- 
 General to the" last. The last JVIaster-General of the 
 Ordnance was Lord Raglan, who died while in com- 
 mand of the British Arm}- in the Crimea. 
 
 MASTER-GUNNER.— Formerly iin ancient office un- 
 der the crown, as far back as the reign of Henry 
 VIII. The appointment is now filled by pensioned 
 sergeants of artillery. A Master-Gunner, as under- 
 stood nowadays, is a warrant officer selected from 
 the Non-commissioned officers of artillery, whose 
 duty is to take charge of guns, ammunition, stores 
 etc., in a fortress. The Coast Brigade is com- 
 posed of Master Gvmners (pensioners), and there 
 are 3 classes, 1st, 2d, and 3d. containing 16, 26, and 83 
 respectively- 
 
 master" of THE BUCKHOUNDS— An officer in the 
 Master of the Horse Department of the Royiil House- 
 hold, who has the control of all matters relating to 
 the royal hunts. A salary of £1,. 500 is attached to the 
 oflice," which is regarded as one of considerable po- 
 litical importance." The JInstcr of the Buckhonnds 
 goes out of oflice on a ehanije of ministry. 
 
 MASTER OF THE CEREMONIES.— An office insti- 
 tu'ed at the Court of England in 1003, for the more 
 honorable reception of Ambassadors and persons of 
 distin<-tion. The same term was afterwards extend- 
 ed beyond die Court, by beintr applied first to Beau 
 Naslu the famous '■^Miislerof the Ceremonies," or 
 President of the amusements at Bath, and then to 
 other persons exercising the same function in ordin- 
 arv ;isscnd)ru'S. 
 
 MASTER OF THE HORSE.- The lliird great officer 
 of the Court, who lias the suiierintendence of the 
 Royal Stables, and of all horses iinil breeds of horses 
 befongiiig to the (^ueen. He exercises authority 
 over iill the Equerries ami Pages, (Jrooms, Coach- 
 men, Saddlers, and Farriers, and has tlie appointment
 
 MASTER OF THE SWORD. 
 
 285 
 
 MATHEMATICS. 
 
 and conlriil of all arliticirs workinp; for the Qufcn'H 
 slahlcs. Ill' is answcnihlc for the (lislmrwiiicnt of 
 all revenues appropriated to defray the expenses of 
 Ids Deparlriieiil ; hid his aeeoiiiits arei^iidiled and ex- 
 andned liy the iJoard of Green Cloth, lie lias the 
 privilei;e of niakini; iis<! of the royal horses, jiaftes, 
 and servants, and rides next to her Majesty on all 
 stale occasions. The olllce is one of ijreal antiipiity, 
 and is considered to hi' a ])osition of <;reat honor. 
 The Master of the llorse is appointed dnrinf; pleas- 
 ure, hy letter-patent; but his teiuire of olllce depends 
 on the existence of the political parly in power. Tlie 
 salary is t'3..')(IO a vear. 
 
 MASTER OF THE SWORD.— A citizen employed to 
 iiistnicl in the use of llie sMiall-swnrd, liroad-swnrd, 
 and liayon<'t, at the U. S. .Mililary Academy. He is 
 willioul rank, but wears a luiiforni of the fijllowing 
 pattern : 
 
 C(Mit — Double-breasted frock, two rows of but- 
 tons of the General Staff of tlie Army, seven in each 
 row. Ovireoitt. — Same as prescribed for a Second 
 Lieutenant, dismounted. /'iiiitiil'">iin Dark lilue, 
 plain, (.'fill — Chasseur ])atlern, with Icllers .M. A. 
 in silver, encircled hy a wreath in i;old on the front. 
 Sword iiiul Sir'inl.hdt — Same as jjrescribed for Lieu- 
 tenants of Infantry. He is permitted to wear the 
 dark-blue sack-coat prescribed for Army officers, 
 Willi the Inittons of the General StafT. 
 
 MASTER TAILOR.— A compelent tailor, attached 
 to each regiment, who has been, if a soldier, pro- 
 nounced by a Board of Seri;eant Master Tailors lo 
 be eflicieul and well up to his work, or who has 
 been instructed in the art of tailorini; at the Gov- 
 ernment Clothing Establishment, Pindico. A civil- 
 ian tailor may volunteer for the situation; and if so, he 
 will have to pass an examination at the Royal. Army 
 C^lothini; Depot, ami be enlisted as a Sergeant Mas- 
 ter Tailor 
 
 MASTIC. — A species of gum-resin yielded by the 
 mastic or lentisk tree {pi'ntaefa lentisciir>, natural or- 
 der tfrebinthacfjx). It oozes from cuts made in the 
 bark, and hardens on the stem in small round tear- 
 like lumps of a straw-color, or if not collected in 
 time, it falls on the ground ; in the latter state it ) 
 acquires some impurities, and is consequently less i 
 valuable. The chief use of this gum-resin is in j 
 making the almost colorless varnish for varnishing 
 prints, maps, drawings, etc. It is also used by 
 dentists for stoiipiug hollow teeth, and was formerly j 
 used in medicine. It is imported in small quanti- i 
 ties, chiefly from the Morocco coast, but some is 
 occasionally brought from the south of Europe. 
 The name of mastic is also given to oleaginous ce- 
 ments, composed of about 7 parts of litharge and 
 93 of burned clay, reduced to fine powder, made 
 into a paste with linseed oil. 
 
 MATADOR. — A long, narrow sword with a cross- 
 bar. The toreador, on foot, tights with this sword 
 anil kills the bull. 
 
 MATAFUNDA. — An ancient machine of war, which 
 was used for throwing stones, probably by means of 
 a sling. 
 
 MATCH. — The name given to a material, such as 
 cotton, hemp, tow, etc., which is rendered combus- 
 tible by being dipped or soaked in some ignitible so- 
 lution-. There are two kinds of match familiar to 
 the artiller3'man. quick-match and shnc-match. Quick- 
 match is made of different-si/,ed threads- vis: four-, 
 si.x- and ten-thread — soaked in a solution of gunpow- 
 der, mixed with gum arable and water in a l)oiling 
 state, and of such consistency that the thread shall 
 be thoroughly coated with it; it is then wound on 
 reels, and gunpowder sifted on it. If it be stifT, and 
 has the coating of powder perfect over the surface, 
 it is serviceable. If it has been bruised or twisted 
 and the coating of powder removed, it is unservieea- 
 able. It is largely used for priming fuses, etc. Slow- 
 match is made of slightly twisted hempen rope, soak- 
 ed in lime-water and saltpeter, and then dried, or it 
 can be prepared by washing the hemp in a lye of 
 
 water and wood ashes. It burns at the rate of one 
 yard in eight hours, and is used for lighting port- 
 fires, etc. 
 
 MATCHLOCK. The name formerly given to a 
 siriall-.-iiiM or musket. The earlii'st muskets were 
 llri'd hy irieans of a piece of slow-match applied by 
 Hie hand lo Ihe touch-hole. An imiiroveriient on 
 this mode of ignition was made at the end of tlic 
 fourleenlh century by a lock being attached to the 
 musket which held the match, and by firessure ap- 
 jilied to the trigger of Ihe lock, it" brought the 
 lighted match down on the powder-pan and thus 
 ignited tin; priming powder. This mode of ignition 
 cause<l the musket to be called the iniitcldrjck. See 
 Lock. 
 
 MATE GRIFFON.— An ancient machine, the de- 
 stroyer and terror of the Greeks, which projected 
 both stones and darts. 
 
 MATERIEL.— The expression, "materiel of artil- 
 lery," embraces all cannon, carriages, implements, 
 ammunition, etc., necessary for artillery purposes, 
 and is used in conlradistinclion to " fersunntl of ar- 
 lillrri/," which refers to the othcers and men. The 
 expression, " xi/sliiii af firtilliry," tvU-th to the char- 
 acter and arrangement of the materiel of artillery, as 
 adopted b)' a nation at any particular epoch. In the 
 Lnited States' service, the term " ordnance and ord- 
 nance stores," embraces not only all the muteriel of 
 arlillery, but the swords, small-arms, and accoutre- 
 ments used by inf;;ntrv and mounted troops. 
 
 MATHEMATICAL INSTRDMEMTS.— Those instru- 
 ments employed in the determination of the length 
 of lines or the size of angles. Pairs of compasses, 
 surveying-chains, etc., are examples of the former 
 class; while the compass, sextant, theodolite, and 
 the numerous list of astronomical instruments gener- 
 ally denominated telescopes, including the equatorial 
 transit instrument, mural circle, etc., form the latter 
 class. The more important of these instruments 
 will be treated of under separate heads. 
 
 MATHEMATICS.— The science which has for its 
 subject-matter the properties of magnitude and num- 
 ber. It is usually divided into Pure and Mixed; the 
 first including alljdeductions from the abstract, self- 
 evident relations of magnitude and number; the 
 second, the results arrived at by applying the prin- 
 ciple so established to certain relations found by ob- 
 servation to e.tist among the phenomena of nature. 
 The branches of Pure >fathematics which were first; 
 developed were, naturally. Arithmetic, or the science 
 of number, and Geometry, or the science of quantity 
 (in extension). The latter of these was the only 
 branch of mathematics cultivated by the Greeks, 
 their cumbrous notation opposing a barrier to any 
 effective progress in the former science. Algebra, 
 or the science of numbers in its most general form, 
 is of much later growth, and was at first merelv a 
 kind of universal arithmetic, general sjTiibols taking 
 the place of numbers; but its extraordinary develop- 
 ment within the last two centuries has established 
 for it a right to be considered as a distinct science, 
 the Science of Operations. Combinations of these 
 three have given rise to Trigonometry and Analytical 
 Oeoniftry. The Differential and Integral Calculus 
 makes use of the operations or processes of geometr}-, 
 algebra, and analysis indifferentlj' ; the Calculus of 
 Finite Differences is in part included under algebra, 
 and may be considered as an extension of that 
 science : and the Calculus of Variations is based 
 upon the Differential Calculus. The term " Mi.xed 
 Mathematics" is calculated to lead to error; "Applied 
 Mathematics" is a more appropriate name. This 
 portion of mathematics iacludes all those sciences in 
 which a few simple axioms are mathematically shown 
 to be sufficient for the deduction of the most import- 
 ant natural phenomena. This definition includes 
 those sciences which treat of pressure, motion, light 
 heat, sound, electricity and magnetism — usually 
 called Physics — and excludes chemistry, geology 
 political economy, and the other branches of science'
 
 MATRAS. 
 
 286 
 
 UAUSER BIFLE. 
 
 which, however, receive more or less aid from ma- 
 thematics. 
 
 MATRAS. — An ancient bolt or arrow with a round 
 disk or head, which killed witliout piercing. It was 
 ofteuer used for the chase than in war, and was es- 
 pecially useful in bringing down such beasts as the 
 iumter might wish to preserve with the skin uniu- 
 jureil. 
 
 MATRON. — A woman, generally the wife of some 
 well-behaved soldier, who is employed to assist in 
 the hospital, do the washing, etc. The matrons are 
 under the direction of the Surgeon and are originally 
 ajijiointed bj' this officer. 
 
 MATROSS. — A name formerly given to an artillery- 
 man. In the early organization of the British ar- 
 tillery, there were only two-lraiued artillerymen per 
 gun ; they consisted of a gunner and his mntr or 
 matrass. It was in the year 1T83 that the term gun- 
 ner was substituted for that of matross. It would 
 appear from this that the mate, or matross, was in 
 fact a gimuer. Another explanation of the word is 
 as follows : A man whose business it is to be in the 
 train of artillery, next the gunners, to assist them in 
 loading, tirius. and sponging the guns. 
 
 MATTER.— From a pliysical point of view, mat- 
 ter is anything tliat can affect the senses, or that 
 can exert, or be acted on hy force. The existence of 
 matter, in the sense of substaace, has been doubted 
 by many Philosophers, including some of the great- 
 est of Experimenters. Indeed, as we can know 
 matter only by the forces it exerts, it is obvious that 
 the supposition of mere geometric points, capable of 
 exerting force (technically called centirsvffvn-f), will 
 as satisfactorily account for all observed phenomena 
 as any other idea of the ultimate nature of matter. 
 Here, however, we are dealing with a question con- 
 fessedly beyond the reach of experiment, and be- 
 longing to the domain with which metaphysics pro- 
 fesses to deal. Although experiment cannot lead to 
 a knowledge of the ultimate nature of matter, it 
 , may lead to important discoveries as to the arrange- 
 ment of the molecules of different bodies, and their 
 similarity or dissimilarity. Some of the questions 
 to which we may expect an answer, though not a 
 speedy one, have already been mentioned in the 
 article Fokce ; but in order to render intelligible 
 the short account which we intend to give of some 
 very interesting ideas recently propounded by Gra- 
 ham, it will be necessarj- to repeat some of them. 
 The old idea of the transmutation of metals impli- 
 citly contains the assumptinn that all kinds of matter 
 are. ultimately one. Far from being a startling as- 
 sumption, this is the simplest and most easily con- 
 ceived notion we can entertain on the subject; and 
 it offers a remarkably simple explanation of that 
 extraordinary property of matter which Newton 
 proved by careful experiments, that the weight of a 
 body depends only on the quantit\-. not on the qualit_y 
 of the matter that composes it. One idea, then, of 
 matter is, that the atoms (or smallest parts, what- 
 ever these may be) of all bodies are identical, but 
 that the molecules (each of which is a single atom, 
 or a definitely arranged group of atoms) differ from 
 one body to another. Thus (to take an instance 
 merely for explanatiim, not as at all likely to be cor- 
 rect), if hydrogen be supposed to consist of the 
 simple atoms of matter; o.xygen, each mohcide of 
 which is 8 times as heavy as one of hydrogen, 
 may have each molecule formed of 8 elementary 
 atoms, arranged in a group such as the corners of a 
 die; carbon, () times as heavy per molecule, might 
 be coniijosed of fl sim|)le atoms grouped as at the 
 corners of an octoliedron; and so on. It is obvious 
 that here each atom must be supi)Osed capable of 
 exerting force on every other. This leads us natur- 
 ally to speculations as to the medium through which 
 this force, if it be exerted at a distance, is projja- 
 gated ; and then we have introduced matter of a 
 more refined character than oursujiposed elementary 
 atoms. This ditlicullv has suggested to various 
 
 Pliilosophers the idea that there is no actio in distans, 
 that all pressure, for instance, in a gas is due to in- 
 cessant impacts of its particles upon each other and 
 upon the containing vessel. But from various ex- 
 perimental results, we know that this species of mo- 
 tion is capable of being transferred from one body 
 to another, of being increased or diminished by 
 change of temperature, and is, in fact, Iicdt itself, one 
 form of kinetic energy. This, if there be no ultimate 
 difference between kinds of matter, could never be 
 the cause of their apparent difference. Hence, in 
 Graham's view, though all ultimate atoms are 
 identical in substance, Ihey have special motions of 
 their own, by which one is distinguished from an- 
 other, these motions not being capable of transfer 
 from one atom or group of atoms to another. It is 
 difficult to conceive energy in such a form as not to 
 be transferable, so that we refer the reader to Gra- 
 ham's own papers for the further development of 
 his theory- remarking, in conclusion, that no theory 
 of the nature of matter can be considered as at all 
 complete till it account for the mutual action of 
 separate atoms ; for this the existence of a continuous 
 material medium in space would seem to be neces- 
 sary ; and this, in its turn, would, if accepted, enable 
 us to dispense with the idea of atoms. In con- 
 nection with this, we may mention that Sir William 
 Thomson has shown that mere heterogeneity (wliich 
 we know exists in matter)- together with gravitation, 
 is sufficient to explain all the apparently discordant 
 laws of molecular action ; matter being supposed, 
 in this theor}', to be continuous but of varying den- 
 sity from point to point. 
 
 MATTOCK. A pioneer tool, resembling a pick-axe, 
 but ha vim; two broad, sharp edges instead of points. 
 
 MATTUCASHLASH— An ancient Scotch weapon, 
 sometimes called Armpit Dagger, which was worn 
 under the armpit, ready to be used on coming to close 
 quarters. This, with a broad-sword and shield, com- 
 pletely armed the Highlanders. 
 
 MAUL. — A heavy beater, or hammer, usually shod 
 with iron, u.sed in driving stakes, etc. That fur- 
 nished from arsenals has a cylindrical head of wood, 
 6 inches in diameter and 8 inches long, with an iron 
 band around each end. The handle is 24 inches long 
 and 1.. 5 inch in diameter. Weight 10 lbs. Thismaul, 
 as issued, owing to poor material and favdty con- 
 struction, is of but little value. AVliere much ser- 
 vice is required, it is better to make the head of 
 tough, hard wood, with a handle considerably larger 
 tlian the one of regulation pattern. 
 
 MAUSER RIFLE.— The Mauser is a modification of 
 the C'hassepiM system, by which it is adapted to the 
 use of the metallic gas-check cartridge, and has been 
 adopted by the Prussian Government as a substitute 
 for the needle-gun. In the drawing, II represents 
 the housing or receiver attached to the barrel bj- the 
 usual form of screw at its forward end, and to the 
 stock at its rear end by a tang-serew, which pene- 
 trates through the stock to the trigger-guard. The 
 general form of the receiver is a tube cut away at 
 different points for the reception of the parts that 
 work in and are attached to it. The breech is closed 
 by a bolt called the breech-bolt, which contains the 
 firing-pin, and other parts necessary to the operation 
 of locking and cocking. The principal part of the 
 breech-bolt is the tube, K. The rib, w, on the exte- 
 rior of this tube, known as the locking-tube, is for 
 the purpose of locking into the space cut away in 
 the receiver between/and/, to enable the breech- 
 bolt to sustain the force of the discharge. The ends 
 of this ril) licing made quite oblique to the axis 
 of tlie bore, or rallier of s])iral form, and the ends 
 of the cut being moreover made to correspond, the 
 breech-liolt is screwed forward against the cartridge 
 when it is locked in loading. By this arrangement 
 the cartridge is not onl}' forced into its place in the 
 chaml)er, should there be imdue resistan(%', but ac 
 ciilental explosions which might arise from striking 
 the head of the cartridge directly when the bolt is
 
 MAXIMILIAN TOWERS. 
 
 287 
 
 HAXIHILIENNE. 
 
 Hlinviil f(.ru:iri|, :in- avoided. Tlifi tliumb-picce, hg, 
 is lUhn'lii'il to lliis rill for tlii' jiiirpoHcof workin;; 
 the l)rrccli-l)olt. The lircccli-boll is li'riniii:ili'(l in 
 tlic si'piinilc picci-, /■ ft /■. ]{y vviiy of (li'siiriiiition, 
 lliis pic<'c is ("illc<l the holl-licail. Thi' forwarri por- 
 tion liiis 11 sinnll rounil lioli- for llic point of the firing- 
 pin; the tcnnon wliicli cnli-rs tlic locI<ini;-tiil)e, 1ms 
 nil ovul liolit, llml l)('ing the sliiipc of tlic cross-sce- 
 tioii of tlic firinn-pin vvliicli passes tlirougli it.. Tin; 
 cxiractor-liook is ultaclicil to tlic side of the bolt- 
 head Ijy means of a dovelail-teniion and works in a 
 
 over the flange of llie cartridge into its rcccBB in the 
 tiarrel. The screw motion of the lockinK-lidJe ^\vi-n 
 [lower to start the earlridt;e ease sliould it !'dhere to 
 the chandjer. When withdrawn, the ease falls out by 
 slif^hlly tijipintr over the Ijarrel to tlie rifil't. Tlie fol- 
 lowinfi arc some of the princijial weights, dimensions, 
 etc., of the .Manser rifh? and cartridge as adopted for 
 the I'riissian military service : The iiorc is A'A'A inch 
 (\ 1 millimeters j'diameter, and rifh'd witli 4 flat grooves 
 eiinal lo the lands in width ; the depth of the grooves 
 is .01 inch and the twist is from right to left and one 
 
 " 7} K, <3 
 
 corresponding groove cut in the left side of the well j 
 of the receiver. The stud, A. lits into the notch of 
 the rib, and is the means of uniting these two parts 
 longitudinally, at the same time their motions aromid \ 
 their common a.xis are inilependent of each other. 
 
 The lower front corner of the coeking-piece, s p ». ' 
 catches against the nose of the sear, ii s, and Jiolds 
 the tiring-pin at full-cock when the holt isshovcd for- 
 ward and the breech is closed. It has also a groove, I 
 into which the nose of the sear projects when the I 
 tiring-pin is pushed forward. The projection, d, [ 
 works in a cut in the receiver. II, and thereby pre- 
 vents the firing-pin from turning. A projection fits 
 into a correspon<iingly shaped cut, in the locking- 
 tube, K, and by the pressure produced by the firing- 
 pin spring keeps the breech-bolt in the locked posi- 
 tion. 
 
 The firing-pin nut, A .i, secures the cocking-piece to 
 the tiring-jiin. The projection, g. fits into a groove, 
 and is thereby prevented from unscrewing. The 
 parts marked, n f. and a .<, are the sear-spriug and 
 sear combined in one piece. This piece is attached 
 to the lower side of the receiver by ascrew : the |ior- 
 tion through wliicli the screw passes serves as the 
 ramrod-stop. The trigger, a z, is pivoted to the sear, 
 and is composed of an arm and tinger-piece. Fig. b, 
 shows the Hring-pin, and its spiral spring, made <if 
 squnrc instead of round wire. The port ions in front 
 and rear of the siiriui; are made oval in cross-section . 
 to prevent the pin from turning in locking. The re- 1 
 enforce, t. forms a shoulder for the spring to press 
 against. The main drawing represents the firing- 
 pin in the position of resting on the head <if the cart- 
 ridge after firing. As the piece is brought to the 
 position of full-cock in loading, an improvement has 
 lately been introduced into this arm for locking the 
 firing-pin in case it is not to be tired immediate- 
 ly, and thereby preventing accidental explosions. 
 The motion of the breech-bolt to the rear is limited by 
 the sear, a -i, which works in a groove on flic under 
 side of the locking-tube, K. To remove the bolt en- 
 tirely from the receiver it is only necessary to press 
 on the trigger at the same time that the breech-bolt 
 is pressed back. A recess serves to relieve the strain 
 ou the sear-spring by allowing the nose of the scar to 
 penetrate it. The firing-pin screw, b s, is removed 
 with the fingers (having a milled head) by pushing 
 back the firing-pin and slipping forward the cocking- 
 piece so as to free the projection, g. from its recess. 
 The spring of flic extractor allows the hook to pass 
 
 turn in 33 inches. The length of the barrel is SS.fl."! 
 inches ; the total length of the rifle without bayonet 
 is .'iS.l.') inches : with l)ayonet, 71.0.5 inches ; weight, 
 without bayonet, 10 pounds; with bayonet, 11. (J 
 pounds. The sight is arranged for a natural point- 
 blank of 300 meters. Tlie movable part is graduateil 
 up to l.OOO meters, some 500 yards fart her tli:in most 
 military rilles. The initial velocity is about 1.400 
 feet. The cartridge-shell is drawn out in the usual 
 way from a disk of sheet-brass, and is .shown natur- 
 al size. The head is solid, and has an exterior prim- 
 er of the Berdau p;itteru. This distrilmtion of the 
 metal in the lu'ad is somewhat different from that in 
 ordinary solid-head shells, and is such as to give it 
 great strength to resist rujitiire under the pressure 
 of the powder. The interior of the cartridge-shell 
 is covered with a coaling of varnish to prevent the 
 metal from in ting injuriously on the powder-charge. 
 This varnish is applied by means of very ingenious 
 ma(>hines devised and nuide by the I'ratt and Whit- 
 ney Company, of Hartford, Conn. The bullet is 
 patched with bank-note paper, thin and stning, and 
 there is a luliricating-wad between the powder and 
 bullet. The powder-charge is 77 gr:iins- The pow- 
 der for the Mauser rifle differs from all other Prus- 
 sian pow'der. inasmuch as red charcoal instead of 
 black is employed in its manufacture, which is 
 thought to give it greater strength. The s*e and 
 shape of the grain ;ire similar to that of the English 
 musket-powder, known as Curtis and Harvey's No. 
 (i. The bullet weighs 3S() grains. See ''hnimepitt 
 Jit'll' . and Smif/'. ir/it.-*. 
 
 MAXIMILIAN TOWERS.— Circular buildings 33 
 feet high, with a mean thickness of wall of (i^ feet : 
 the diameter of the base is 118 feet, and that of the 
 top 110 feet. They are surrounded by a ditch 8 
 yards wide towards the exterior, and gradually be- 
 coming narrower towards the interior, where it is 
 only four yards wide at the entrance gate. The de- 
 bhiis of the ditches have been employed to construct 
 a glacis, that covers the masonry on the exterior, 
 and gradually falls to the level of the ground in 
 rear. 32 of these towers, from ."iOO to GOO yards 
 apart, have been placed ar<iund Liutz. They are 
 to be connected at the moment of need by a curtain, 
 a ditch, and ;i palisaded covered-way the whole being 
 flanked bv the towers. 
 
 MAXIMILIENNE.— .\ German fluted armor of the 
 Sixteenth century. Often written Maximilifin. See 
 MHana'se.
 
 MAXIM MACHINE-GUN. 
 
 288 
 
 MAXIMUM CHARGE. 
 
 MAXIM MACHINE-GUN.— In otlier machine-guns, 
 
 the feeding and firiu'j: and tlie traversinjj; have to be 
 performed b}' manual power, and, however beauti- 
 fully carried out, the operator in any competition ff)r 
 speed is pretty severly tried; and one operator alone 
 can hardly manipulate the machine at high speed, 
 and in his breathless condition alter its direction to 
 any purpose. Of course, the assistance of another 
 man must be had when the particular magazine from 
 which the rounds are entering the gun is exhausted. 
 The inventor of this gun claims to have achieved a 
 remarkable advance in making the recoil of his bar- 
 rels work the feeding and firing-gear; the operator 
 kneels down quietly behind the breech and directs 
 the barrel at his leisure exactly as he likes. There 
 are clearly more advantages in this than appear at 
 once. First, as noticed above, the heavy work of 
 manipulation is saved ; secondly, the danger of a 
 jamb from a delay or hang lire is obviated, for the 
 obvious reason that as it is the shock of discharge of 
 each round that loads and fires the succeeding oue, 
 when a cartridge hangs fire the gun miist wait for 
 it, as without it there is no motive power to load the 
 next round. This is clearly a very different condi- 
 tion of things from that in other machine -guns, when 
 a man is driving the loading and firing-gear as liard 
 as his strength permits, and when a jamb may be 
 produced by" delay; thirdly, a much greater rate of 
 firing may be attained than by hand-driving gear, 
 viz., 600 rounds per minute, instead of about 200; 
 fourthl}-,the machine may be much lighter, and need 
 not be clamped rigidly, as must be the case when a 
 level handle has to be viotcntly worked on one side 
 of it. 
 
 The gun may be described as follows : It has a 
 single barrel, arranged in such a way as to recoil 
 slightly in its bearings, the force of recoil of each 
 round acting on the feeding and firing-gear, so as to 
 load and discharge the next round, and so on, round 
 after round, in succession. That is, the force of re- 
 coil extracts and ejects the empty case, brings the 
 next round into position, pushes it home, and cocks 
 and liberates the striker. The barrel recoils 9-16 
 inch, with its breech held firmly closed. This gives 
 the bullet time to escape and fly about a hundred 
 feet, so that the gases have also abundant time to 
 escape after it has left the muzzle. Then a locking- 
 hook, which has held it close, is opened, and the 
 barrel is stopped, while the breech and extractor 
 run on, carrying the empty case with them. This 
 is ejected, and the succeeding round brought into 
 position by a feed-wheel, when the return stroke, 
 given by a connecting rod, sends the charge home, 
 closing the breech, pushing the barrel forward into 
 a firiiig position, and finally releasing the striker 
 which tires the round. The recoil of this round re- 
 peats tbe above movements, and so on, as long as 
 filled cartridges are supplied and fired. The inventor 
 has made his gun with a 0.4.5 inch bore to fire the 
 service cartridges. He has a pattern of cartridge 
 case which enables him to have a much simpler 
 gun, because he is able to dispense with the recoil of 
 the barrel proper, and work with the breech recoil 
 alone ; but he thinks it wiser to sacrifice what is 
 necessary to enable him to meet all existing con- 
 ditions. " The gun without stand weighs about 60 
 pounds, a tripod for a man-of-war about 130 pounds, 
 and a C'arriage for field service from about 60 pounds 
 to 200 poimds, according to the requirements of the 
 case. This tripii<l is about three feet high, and the 
 piece from niu/.zleto rear of firing mech;inism meas- 
 ures about 4 feet 1) inches. The gun can be left to 
 move freely by hand for rapid change of position, as 
 in the case of "tor|)edo boats or cavalry at short dis- 
 tances; or it may be clamped and traversed or ele- 
 vated by slow or ()uick n\ovement screws. The car- 
 tridges are fed either from a belt or a drum. The 
 beltls preferred by many. Each band or belt is about 
 7 feel long, and carries ;3;i3 cartridges, and one belt 
 can be joined on to another, so that a stream of in- 
 
 definite length can be used with care and attention in 
 placing the boxes containing each belt in position. 
 The drum fits on to the top, and is, we think, a more 
 ordinary and less complete arrangement ; it only 
 holds 96 cartridges, also, and a man would be much 
 more likely to be exposed in changing drums than in 
 arranging the belts, and he would be kept constantly 
 employed ; in fact, one man does not appear to be at 
 all sufficient for the work in rapid firing. When at 
 full speed— 600 per minute— allowing the bullets a 
 velocity of 1,200 feet per second, it will be seen that 
 a stream of bullets is formed, l.'iO feet from bullet to 
 bullet. Should all the men near the piece be killed, 
 the gun will go on firing as long as the supply of am- 
 munition lasts. Under these conditions, the barrel 
 must become very violently heated. Some of our 
 readers are perhaps familiar with the spectacle of 
 machine-gun barrels firing at a much lower rate of 
 speed passing through the different tempering colors 
 of steel. Mr. JIaxim endeavors to provide for this 
 by enclosing the barrel in an outer gun-metal case, 
 which allows a large space between barrel and case 
 to be filled with wafer. Finally he has devised a plan 
 for carrying the smoke of from the muzzle. 
 
 The natural objections that appear to suggest them- 
 selves are — (1) That the opening of the breech by re- 
 coil is difficult to manage safely at so great a rate. 
 It is thought, however, if it is clearly understood 
 that the breech must remain completeiy closed — in- 
 deed no more opening than any breech-loading can- 
 non during recoil — until it has "reached a point when 
 the bullet is 100 feet awaj-, it will be seen that there 
 is no danger of escape of gas. It would be interest- 
 ing to see what would happen if a bullet lodged in 
 the bore ; but this is an awkward contingency for 
 any machine-gun. (3) It may be objected that a 
 miss-fire stops the firing for the moment, while in 
 many machine-guns it merely involves the failure of 
 one bullet, the cartridge being ejected and the fir- 
 ing going on without interruption. Perhaps the ma- 
 chine can be sent on bj' hand instantly; but we think 
 cartridges for this gun ought to be as free from miss- 
 fires as possible, as the loss of a number of rounds 
 delivered in quick firing must be serious. Alto- 
 gether, the gun is a wonderful design, and one which 
 natiirally attracts much greater interest than almost 
 any piece in tlie same stage of development. The 
 speed of firing, the ease of working, and saving of 
 exposure of men promise great practical advantages, 
 and the extreme neatness of the idea of the automa- 
 tic system, by which each round fires itself and works 
 the gear at exactly the speed that suits its own 
 behavior, is very attractive. See Machine-gun. 
 
 MAXIMUM. — A term variously employed in Ord- 
 nance and Gunnerj". In ilathematics. maxhninn is 
 the greatest value of a variable quantity or nia2;ni- 
 tude, in opposition to minimnm, the least. More 
 strictly, a maximum issuch a value as isgreaterthan 
 those immediately preceding and following it in a 
 series ; and a minimum is a value which is less than 
 those immediately preceding and following it, so 
 that a function may have many maxima and minima 
 unequal among themselves, as in the case of a curve 
 alternately approacliing and receding from an axis. 
 Traces of the doctrine of maxima and minima are to 
 be found in the works of Apollonius on conic sections. 
 Tbe thorough investigation of them requires the aid 
 of the differential calculus, and even of the calculus of 
 variations. The brothers Bernouilli, Newton, Mac. 
 laurin, Euler, and Lagrange, have greatly distin- 
 guislied themselves in tiiis depiirtment of Mathemat 
 ics. The Hindus have displayed great ingenuitj- in 
 solving, by ordinary algebra, problems of maxima 
 and minima, for which, in Europe, the caloilus was 
 considered lo be necessary. 
 
 MAXIMUM CHARGE.— By increasing the charge of 
 powder of aliri'-arm, tbegrcaterand (in couscquence 
 of tbe wedging of the unburned grains among each 
 other) the more ililhcult will be the mass to be set in 
 motion ; the space between the front of the charge
 
 MAXIMUM KANGZ. 
 
 2H0 
 
 MAYNAfiD HIFLE. 
 
 iiiid llie muzzle will %o (liininisliKiI ; iiiuj ii ]itrK<"r 
 nuiiihiT of sriiiiiH will be thrown out iiiiciiiiHiiiiKrd. 
 It is cviilciit, therefore, timt the elTect of ii eharne of 
 powder oil a projectile should not inerense with the 
 size of the clmr^ic; and experiment bIkiws that be- 
 yond aeertaiii point, an increase of <-hari;e is actu- 
 ally accuiupaiiied wilhaloss of velocity. The cliar;;e 
 corresponding to this jjoinl is called the inaxiniuni 
 charj^e. All experience proves that the loii(;er a 
 piece is, in Icrnis of itscaliber, the greater will he the 
 niaximuin charges in jiroportion to the weight of tlu^ 
 l)rojectile. For heavy cannon, lU to 20 calibers 
 long, the inaxiniuni charge may be stateil to be J the 
 weight of the projectile ; and lor light cannon of the 
 same lenglh, i to ij of this weight'; the increase of 
 range for charges above the weight of (he ])ro 
 jectilc, being very Hinall. A charge of .| the weight 
 of the projectile, and a bore of IH calibers, is the 
 most favorable combination that can be made in 
 smooth-bored cannon, to obtain the greatest range 
 with the least strain to th(' carriage. In lh<? early 
 days of artillery, when di'H instead of grained ]iow- 
 der was used in cannon, the weight of the charge 
 was ('(pial to that of the projectile; after the iulro- 
 duclion of grained powder, it was reduced to ij, and 
 in 1740 to \, this weight. 
 
 MAXIMUM range!— In gunnery, the very extreme 
 range of a |)rojectile either I'rt vacuo or in the air. 
 In the former (were it possible), with a given velo- 
 city, the extreme range of a spherical projectile 
 would be obtained at an angle of 45''; in the latter, 
 with a velocity of 1000 feet per second, the maxi- 
 mum range would be obtained at an angle of about 
 32"; a 56-lb shot would, under these circumstances, 
 at 32'' elevation, range 5720 yards in the air, and 
 23,940 yards in tmuo, and at 45°, 20,666 yards in 
 racuo. The maximum range of rifled ordnance is 
 much in excess of that of smooth-bore guns, the 9- 
 inch gun having ranged over 11,000 yaids. 
 
 MAYHEM. — Wounding is the name sometimes 
 
 the loss of one of the jaw-tceth.thc ear, or the nose, 
 ' was no Mayhem in common law, becaugc these mcn- 
 
 bers can be of no use in (igliting. 
 
 MA YNARD PRIMER. A i>rimr-r made by indenting 
 a sliei-t of pMpir ill ri'gular intervals, tiHiiig each in- 
 denlation with a small f:hargff)f Jiercussion powder, 
 and covering the whole- with another sheet of paper 
 lirnily pasted on. The sheet is then cut into strips, 
 each strip containing 00 primers in a single row, 
 'and, to protect it from llie moisture, it is covered 
 I with a thick coat of shellac varnish. — See Friction 
 I'rimfrH. 
 
 MAYNARD RIFLE.- While special attention has 
 bi'eii ji;iid lo llii' m;inufaclure of superior sporting 
 rifles, the interest in rifle shooting at long range, has 
 led lo the invention anil inlroiluclion of what is 
 known as the " New Creedmoor Kifle." in which 
 the acknowledged and superior merits of the May- 
 nard system are introduced, securing convenience, 
 safety, accuracy, and efticiency, all made apjilicable 
 to meet the present demanil for long range practice. 
 The Creedmoor rille is a 32-incli, 44 caliber, special- 
 ly adajited to llic reiiuirenients of the Creedmoor 
 range, and lo which has been ajiplied every facility 
 and appendage which has been found by trial and 
 experience best adapted to secure the most satis- 
 factory results, including ammunition, vernier, and 
 wind-gauge sights, spirit level, and all of superior 
 models and workmanship. All the advantages com- 
 prised in the Creedmoor rifle, have also been applied 
 to a new model mid-range target rifle, 32-incli, 40 
 caliber, designed and esiiecially adapted for target 
 practice and ordinary ticld-service. 
 
 This rifle is represented in the drawing, together 
 with two models of targets selected from the large 
 number in possession of the Massachusetts Arms 
 Company, and representing a fair average result for 
 the distance named. The rifle has an elevating peep, 
 adjustable rear-leaf, and Black's combination-sights, 
 and weighs about nine pounds. 
 
 found in law books for the offense of inflicting on an- 
 other some dangerous hurt or wound; and it has been 
 otherwise described as an aggravated species of bat- 
 tery. A still more aggravated and ;itrocious offense of 
 this kind used to appear in the list of offenses against 
 the criminal law of England under the term of M.w- 
 HEM, which was a violently depriving another of the 
 use of a member proper for his defense, such as an 
 arm, a leg. a linger, an eye, a fore-tooth, and some 
 others; but it was laid down quaintly enough, that 
 
 One valuable and special feature of the Maynard 
 system is, that it admits of an interchange of barrels 
 of any length or caliber. The manner of attaching 
 the barrel to the stock is very simple and as follows: 
 Push the arm of the lever axis-pin down and for- 
 ward until it stops against the screw which holds it 
 in place, then withdraw it as far as possible; hold 
 the barrel in the left hand, pass the lever down 
 throuiih the breech-piece, hook the barrel on to the 
 axis-screw at the front end, insert the lever axis-pin
 
 UcCLELLAN SADDLE. 
 
 290 
 
 McLean foktkess. 
 
 through the lever, then turn its arm back to its fas- 
 tening position. No screw-driver rcquiretl. To de- 
 tach the barrel, place the barrel in position as for in- 
 serting the cartridge, then reverse the motions for at- 
 taching. 
 
 This is a capital gun in the field, and especially on 
 marches through a game countrj-, when it may be 
 desirable to use the weapon either as a rifle or sliot 
 gim. Either barrel can be slipped into the same 
 stock in a moment. The ammunition is peculiar. 
 The strong brass cartridges are loaded at leisure, 
 costing nothing but for the powder and lead, and 
 may be used over and over again for any number of 
 times. One can carry cartridges in his pocket, 
 loaded with different sizes of shot, and slip in and fire 
 any size wanted, for large or small game. The ritie in 
 itself is confined to the central-fire ammunition in 
 each and all of the calibers, excepting the .22, in 
 which the rim-fire ammunition is used ; but, by the 
 application of a simple device rim-fire cartridges 
 may also lie used. See Ilaiky Firing-phi. 
 
 McCLELLAN saddle.— a saddle used by the Uni- 
 ted States cavalry prior to the advent of the Whit- 
 inaii saddle. This saddle was a great step in advance 
 in its time, and was received with much favor. Its 
 greatest faults were bad bearing surface, too wide in 
 front, like the Mexican, allowing it to slip forward 
 and embrace the tender points of the shoulder-blades; 
 too short in the seat and too wide in front of seat, 
 forcing the rider to an upright position, or the ex- 
 treme "forked seat," throwing the weight of the rider 
 too much over the fore-legs of the horse; a high, 
 sliarp. dangerous pommel, and heavy. See Saddle. 
 
 McELDERRY MULE-LITTER.— In the operations 
 against the Modoc Indians, in the lava-beds of Ore- 
 gon, the ordinary methods of transport were found 
 unsuitable, and a form of mule-litter, devised by As- 
 
 ceed the outer limits of the flanks of the pack-ani- 
 mal; a condition adapting it to the passage of nar- 
 row defiles or canyons, or of roads encumbered by 
 vehicles. See Litter. 
 
 McINTYEE-FUSES.— The time-fuse, shown in Fig. 
 1, and inserted in the rear of the shell, consists of 
 the brass stock, A; time-fuse B: a brass screw plug, 
 C; and a lead igniting cap, D. Tlie fust composi- 
 tion driven in a paper case is first mscrted m the 
 
 
 ® ^ hill ' 
 
 sistant Surgeon II. ^IcElderry, U. S. Army, proved 
 serviceable and well adapted to the exigencies encoun- 
 tered. The drawing shows the construction of the 
 litter and the manner of using it. When not in use 
 it can bo folded compactly togetlier, so as to permit 
 a load of grain, provisions, etc., to be packed iipon 
 it. When the animal arrives at its destination, the 
 load may be removeil, the litter unfolded, and made 
 availal)l(' for tl\e transportation of the wounded back 
 to the base of supplies. By the use of the adjustable 
 iron support, which raises up over the lower end of 
 the litter, a wounded lower extremity can be sus- 
 pended in the anterior or other splint, and the pa- 
 tient tluis carried witli much greater ease and com- 
 fort than when tlie wounded meinber is simjily laid 
 upon or fixed to the litter. It is used upon tlie 
 aparejo, is well-balanced, and has no tendency to 
 make the animal's liack sore. It is firmly fixed in 
 position by means of an extra-broad horse-luiir girth, 
 as shown in the drawing. The litter weighs, with- 
 out a mattress. r)4 pounds, and like tlie 77/ Htle litter, 
 has the advantage that its width does not much ex- 
 
 Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 
 
 stock, the screw-plug with a vertical hole, to one 
 side of its center is screwed to touch the top of the 
 fuse. The igniting cap with its channel of pressed 
 powder composition is then inserted so that the 
 under opening of the channel shall commu'iicate 
 directly with the bole through the screw-cap, which 
 is also filled with the composition. Directly under 
 the projection which rises above the top of the 
 igniting cap is the upper opening to the channel. 
 Before firing, this projection is removed with a 
 sharp knife and the composition thus exposed. The 
 combination-fuse, shown in Fig. 3, is identical with 
 the time-fuse, except that there is inserted in the fuse 
 composition a plunger, whose head is of lead, and 
 whose tapering stem is of brass ; immediately sur- 
 rounding the stem of the plunger is a column of 
 plaster of Paris, between which and the composi- 
 tion is a tube of fusible metal. Should the pro- 
 jectile in which the fuse is inserted strike a resisting 
 object before the fuse composition has burned out, 
 the plunger is thrown forward into the shell, giving 
 the Hame from the burning composition direct ac- 
 cess to powder in shell. See Fuse. 
 
 McKEEVER CARTRIDGE-BOX.— This box, inven- 
 ted by Captain Samuel McKeever, of the U.S. Army 
 possesses all the requirements and advantages ne- 
 cessary for the military service, and is at present 
 used b}' the United States troops. It is made of 
 leather, is 6 J inches long, 3| inches wide, and H in- 
 ches thick. It is carried on the waist-belt by two 
 loops, opens from the top. the outside half working 
 on a hinge formed by a brass rod running under the 
 box and holding it together. The cartridges are 
 held in webbing loops, ten in each .section of the 
 box, and are readily extracted from the box, a bel- 
 lows arrangement allowing the tops of the cartridges 
 to incline forward when the box is open. It has 
 been improved by the addition of a brass escutche- 
 on, and by making the bellows of russet leather, 
 which is not so liable to corrode the cartridge. This 
 box possesses all the merits of the thimble, or ser- 
 vice belt, which has been highly recommended by 
 many offlcers of the Army, with the additional ad- 
 vantages of protecting the cartridges from the dan- 
 ger of lo.ss, or exposure to dust or moisture. No 
 provision has been made in this box for a screw- 
 driver, but, whenever necessary to carry one, a car- 
 tridge may lie taken out and the screw-driver in- 
 serte d in its place. 
 
 McLEAN FORTRESS.— This fortress, a section of 
 which is shown in the drawing, is designed to be a 
 permanent structure, or it may be a huge raft, with 
 interior couipartuieuts forsujiplies of all kinds found
 
 IIcL£A» MACHINE QUR. 
 
 291 
 
 V£&S D£VIATIOV. 
 
 necessary. The raft is to be towcil from plarc to 
 place-, ami when in position in simllow water will 
 rest on the bottom, bein)^ liehl by Imllast or piles, or 
 by auuliors. The fort or raft is to bear two turrets. 
 
 one within the other, the outside one bein;; station- 
 ary, the inner one rotalinc. the sruns lirinu; through 
 port-holes in the outer turret. The surface of the 
 fort is to be heavily armored, and have quarters and 
 storerooms lic-low tlie armor. 
 
 McLEAN MACHINE GUN.— This gun, illustrated 
 in lUe (Irawini;, is one in which every detail is made 
 sulionlinate to the one of extreme rapidity of lire. 
 The cartridi^es are in mnsazines at each side of the 
 barrel, and are forced liack l)y their spring followers 
 into asidewise reciprocatins breech slide containing 
 chambers for two cartridges. When one of the cham- 
 bers is in line with the barrel the other is inline with 
 
 the magazine, and the loaded cartridge pushes out 
 the old shell, the bullet being too large to pass into 
 the slide further than its seat. The cartridge is fired 
 in the slide, the force of the recoil serving to cock 
 the firing-pin so that it is in position for the next 
 
 shot. The same system is intended to be used with 
 a maga/.ine stnall arm. ])r. McLean has made more 
 varieties of machine-guns than any oilier maker, Imt, 
 in the opinion of the writi-r, lie has sacrificed too 
 much in other directions in order 
 to secure rapidity of fire, and up 
 to this time none of liis working 
 guns have met with more than u 
 moderate degree of success. lie 
 has a number of improvements 
 now in progress which are I'.x- 
 ])i<led to overcome tlie dilficul- 
 ties hitherto experienced. See 
 MtifJilni -(j'lnn. 
 
 MEALED POWDER. -Gunpow- 
 diT piilviriz<-d by treating with 
 alcohol. It causes compositions 
 to burn readily and quickly. See 
 (liiiij"'irf1f'r. 
 
 MEAN. As a general term, the 
 medium between two extremes, 
 and is ordinarily understood to 
 be what is known in matliematics 
 as an arithmetic mean. An iirllh- 
 metlr miim l)ctween two numliers 
 is found by adding tlieni togetlier 
 and dividing by two. A iirnmet- 
 rir iiirrni is found by dividing the 
 larger number by the smaller, 
 and taking the sfpiare root, which 
 gives the common ratio; the smaller number multi- 
 [ilied by this ratio, or thegrealer number divided by 
 it, gives the mean. A liitrmunic mcnn is found by 
 achling the reeijirocals of the numbers and dividing 
 by two ; the rcci))r(ica! of the result is the mean. 
 
 MEAN DEVIATION.— For the same trajectory, the 
 mi'iin defiatidii of a projectile, at a given distance, 
 may be taken as an indirect measure of its accuracy 
 at that distance. To obtain the mean deviatfon; let 
 the piece be pointed at the center of a target sta- 
 tioned at the required distance, and fire a certain 
 number of shots, say ten : and let the position of 
 each shot-hole be measured in a horizontal and ver- 
 tical direction from tlic oriirin of co-ordinates. tak( n 
 at the lower left hand corner of the target. The sum 
 of the distances in each direction diiided liy the 
 number of shots, gives the corresponding co-ordi- 
 nate of the renter nf impact, or the center of the 
 cluster of shots fired. Multiply the horizontal co- 
 ordinate thus obtained by the number of shots wliose 
 ciirres|)onding co-ordinates exceed that of the center 
 of impact ; take the ditferenee between this product 
 anil the sum of the horizontal co-ordinates that ex- 
 ceed that of the center of impact: this difference 
 divided b}- one-half the number of shots fired, will 
 give the 7Hf«rt hi>riziintal detidtian. The mean rerti- 
 C'7i(fcD/at;V/;i is determined in a similar manner. Each 
 of these results may be verified by making the same 
 calculations upon the shots whose co-ordinates are 
 less than the corresponding one of the center of im- 
 pact. The mean absolute drriatimi. which is the 
 average distance of the shots from the center of im- 
 pact, will be the hypothenuse of a triangle whose 
 sides are the mean horizontal and mean vertical 
 tleviations. The successive steps are explained by 
 the following tabulated example: 
 
 The -|- signs are prefixed after the determination 
 of the center of impact. The foregoing furnishes a 
 measure for the accuracy of fire of the piece and pro- 
 jectile, but it does not afford a measure for marks- 
 manship, the object of which is to direct a projectile 
 so as to strike a given point or surface. In the U. 
 S. Military Service ordinarj' target practice is re- 
 corded by the number of projectiles striking a tar- 
 get of a given size : and when firing for prizes, by 
 the '"string" or sum of the distances of the shots 
 from the point aimed at. each miss counting twenty 
 inches on the string. The shortest string is the one 
 selected. The measure of "marksmanship" now 
 most generally adopted is the " score," or sum of
 
 UEAir IMPACT. 
 
 292 
 
 MEASURING MACHINE. 
 
 the numbers representing the value of shots plaeed screw having been made witli great care by \Vm. 
 within certain circles described abuut the center of a Sellers & Co., of Philadelphia, it was put into the 
 given target. The size of the target and the radii | engine and was found to give, for a certain number 
 
 SHOTS, 
 
 9. 
 10., 
 
 Co-ordinates. 
 
 Horizontal. 
 
 Vertical. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 4-5.60 
 
 -1-5.80 
 
 -1-5.40 
 
 4.95 
 
 5.05 
 
 4.45 
 
 4.85 
 
 -1-5.25 
 
 -1-5.20 
 4.75 
 
 --6. 00 
 --5.45 
 
 -1-5.35 
 
 4..'-0 
 
 4.65 
 
 +5. 2 J 
 
 -1-5.18 
 
 4.30 
 
 -1-5.50 
 
 4.00 
 
 Sum. 
 
 Sum divided by 10 gives center of impact 
 
 Preceding, multiplied: horizontal by 6; vertical by 5.. 
 
 Sum of the greater co-ordinates 
 
 Ditference of two preceding lines 
 
 Divide by 5 for mean deviations 
 
 Center of imp.act ; horizontal multiplied by 4 ; 
 
 Sum of lesser co-ordinates 
 
 Difference of two preceding lines 
 
 Divide bv 5 for mean deviations 
 
 vertical by 5. 
 
 51.53 
 
 49.90 
 
 5.158 
 
 4.99 
 
 30.918 
 
 34.95 
 
 32.23 
 
 27.70 
 
 1.312 
 
 2.75 
 
 .262 
 
 .55 
 
 20.613 
 
 24.95 
 
 19.30 
 
 23.20 
 
 1.312 
 
 2.75 
 
 .262 
 
 .55 
 
 Mean absolute deviation., 
 
 .609 feet. 
 
 of the circles depend upon the distance, the number 
 assigned to corresponding circles being the same for 
 all distances. 
 
 MEAN IMPACT — The point of mean impact on a 
 horizontal target is the intersection of the lines of 
 mean range and mean lateral deviation; and on a 
 vertical target, it is the intersection of the lines of 
 mean vertical and lateral deviation. 
 
 MEAN RADIAL DISTANCE.— The relative precision 
 of small arms is decided by what is termed the irwan 
 radial distance of the shots from the center of the 
 group on the target. To determine it, find the point 
 «/ mmre mpac«,and measure the absolute distance of 
 each sliot from it. Divide the sum of these distances 
 by the number of shots on the target. 
 
 MEASURE OF UNIFORMITY.— In'gunnery, the reg- 
 cu.arity in the velocity given by a numberof consec- 
 utive rounds. It is calculated as follows: Take 
 the mean observed velocity, and from this deduct 
 the difference of each round, and divide the sum of 
 thedilTerences bv tlie number of rounds tired. 
 
 MEASURING MACHINE.— The need of an instru- 
 ment for I he purpose of determining dimensions by 
 difference from verified standards has Ijeen felt in 
 all well-regulated engineering, tool, and machine 
 shops. The screw operated by awheel with gradu- 
 ated periphery, has been in use for many years, and 
 was broughtto ahigh degree of jKTfection by White- 
 worth in Kngland, ami otiiers. It may be siud that, 
 with ])roper safeguards in its use, it "is sufHciently 
 accurate for all practical purposes. It is doubtful if 
 a screw of [jerfeetly uniform pitch tliroughout any 
 considerable length can be made. The attimipt to 
 compensate for this variability of pitch is frequent- 
 ly made by various devices. 
 
 An interesting means of doing so is shown in tho 
 dividing engine al the Frankford Arsenal. A new 
 
 of turns, a greater length than the nominal pitch of 
 its thread indicated. To counteract this an inclined 
 plane was attached to the engine, upon which a 
 weighted lever secured to the nut runs up or down 
 as the nut traverses the screw in opposite directions. 
 The effect, as it runs up the plane, is to back the nut 
 a small fraction of the distance it would otherwise 
 travel, and thereby compensate for the error of the 
 pitch, and rire fersa. If the pitch were absolutely 
 uniform throughout the length of the screw this 
 would leave nothing to be desired from a mech<anical 
 point of view, but when the pitch varies from inch 
 to inch, as is nearly always the case, instead of an in- 
 clined plane, the corrective element of the engine 
 would have to be a surface having a series of eleva- 
 tions and depressions to correspond to the varia- 
 tions of the pitch, a result only to be attained by a 
 "cut and try" process, alike tedious and expensive, 
 and of only approximate accuracy. It coukl not be 
 depended upon for small fractional parts of the 
 inch, .say 0.0003 inch, or more or less, such as are 
 daily brought into use. Short screws, or portions 
 thereof, may be quite uniform, or so nearly so that 
 the error can be safely disr2garded, or an allowance 
 made for it. 
 
 These considerations have led to the adoption at 
 arsenals of the plan of obtaining certified stamlards 
 of length, diameter, etc., in suitable forms and meas- 
 uringiby difference from them, tlie <ibjeet under 
 exaiiiinatidu as jiroposed by Mr. llichards. These 
 st:ui(lar(ls differ liy convenient fractions of an inch 
 from one another, and by using the nearest one to 
 the object whose; dimensions are required, only a 
 very short screw is necessary. The drawing sliows 
 the form of a Measuring Maeliine much used in ar- 
 senals. Tlu-se machines are niad<' <if various si/.es. 
 are adjusted for absolute measurement of dimeu-
 
 MEASURING-STAFF. 
 
 29;- 
 
 HECHANICAL MANEUV££S. 
 
 sions within their rangf, and htp rorrort within a 
 
 limit (if (IMC tcn-th()HSiiM(lth of iin iriili. Tliis \n the 
 usual limit of iiceunicy f'lr cyliiKlriciil j^uagcH, and 
 sufficiently precise for all practical i)iirp(jse8. Tliese 
 
 biscuits were first introduced into Britain from Amcr- 
 irii l)y Mr. IJordrn.in tlie yeurlH/jl. Tlicy havi- been 
 spoken highly of by medical men as food, and arc 
 still made to "a limited extent; but one purpose they 
 
 miuliincs will imlicate, by means of vernier attach- 
 ment, variation.^ to one twenty-tivc-tlioiisandtli of iin 
 incli, or even less ; but mrmciring and iiidiiyiting are 
 very (lilTcrcMt tliimjs. although generally confounded. 
 Sec h' iiitf/i . 
 
 MEASURING STAFF.— An instrument employed in 
 tlie inspccliim (if cannon. It consists of a stuff of 
 steel or inm, in jointsof suitable lengths, connected 
 together by screws. Each joint is provided with a 
 light brass'disk. D, the diameter of which is .O.'i in- 
 ches less than that of the bore. Through tlie center of 
 the disk there is a liole which tits upon the shoulder at 
 the joint; the whole is so arranged that wlien the 
 joints are screwed together the disks between them 
 are held firmly in place, while the length of the staff 
 is not affecte(l by them. A steel point is screwed on 
 to the end. When pushed to the bottom of the bore, 
 the staff coincides very nearly with its axis. The 
 
 outer joint is graduated to inches and tenths. A 
 slide, S, is made to play upon it with a vernier scale, 
 graduated to hundredths of an inch. On the inner end 
 of the slide, a branch, B, projects at a right angle, 
 sutHciently long to reach across the muzzle-face, and, 
 when in contact with it, to indicate the precise 
 length obtained from that point to the end of the 
 measuring-point on the other end of the staff. The 
 instrument is introduced until the point reaches the 
 bottom of the bore, and the branch placed so that it 
 takes across the mazzle-face, and the reading shows 
 the length of the bore of the gun. See Inspection of 
 Ordruince. 
 
 MEAT BISCUIT. — A preparation of the substance ol 
 meat combined with a certain quantity of flour, and 
 made into the form of biscuits, by which process the 
 nutritive qualities of the meat are preserved for any 
 length of time. One way of preparing these biscuits 
 is as follows: Large pieces of beef are placed in a quan- 
 tity of water sufficient to cover them, and are sub- 
 jected to slow ebullition. The fat being skimmed off, 
 evaporation is allowed to take place, until the liquid 
 is about the consistency of syrup, when it is mixed 
 with fine wheaten flour, rolled out to the thickness 
 of ordinary ship-biscuit, cut into any shape required, 
 baked, and dried in the ordinary manner. Onepound 
 of biscuit usually contains the soluble parts of h lbs. 
 of meat and half pound of flour. The meat biscuits 
 can be eaten like ordinary biscuits:but boiled in about 
 twenty times their own weight of water for half an 
 hour.with the usual condiments, they make an excel- 
 lent soup, and for this they are chiefly intended. Meat 
 
 were first intended to serve — that of preserving the 
 animal food of South America fand Australia— has 
 since been more effectually done by other and simple 
 means. 
 
 MECHANICAL GUN CARRIAGES.— The first of all 
 considerations as to the muunliiig of a battery is, 
 that it should admit of the utmost possible rapidity 
 of fire, united with accuracy of aim. It is impor- 
 tant to secure the greatest possible ethciency of the 
 weapon under the conditions in which it is required 
 to be em])Ioycd. The duty of iiroviding the most 
 perfect means of working guns seems to be second 
 only in importance to that of adopting the best ma- 
 terial, form, and construction for the gun itself. Of 
 two similar guns, that which can fire the greatest 
 number of rounds in a given time is certainly more 
 effective, and rapidity of fire depends more on the 
 gun-carriage and convr?niences for loading, than upon 
 any peculiiirity attaching only to the gun. Owing 
 to the increase in the size and power of ordnance 
 since the introduction of armor, gun-carriages have 
 gradually become elaborate machines; and mechani- 
 cal science, in the hands of experts, has produced 
 carriages and slides which enable the heaviest guns 
 to be easily, accurately, and safely worked in 
 cramped positions. Thegreat superiority of wrought- 
 iron to timber as a material for gun-carriages is 
 now universally acknowledged. The principal re- 
 quirements of mechanical carriages are powerful 
 moving-machinery so contrived as to be unaffected 
 by the concussion of firing; self-acting controlling 
 gear, almost independent of human carelessness; the 
 gradual absorption of, rather than rigid resistance to 
 shocks; the dispersion of concussions over large sur- 
 faces; and smoothness and ease of motion in every 
 direction, and safety under all conditions. Guns 
 mounted on the di.sappearing principle, are arranged 
 to drop when fired into a position in which they can 
 be loaded under cover, and from which they are only 
 raised when required again to deliver their fire. 
 In this system the gun must not only be loaded 
 while lowered and under cover, but it is usually 
 fitted to be trained and aimed while there, by in- 
 direct methods, such as by telescopic apparatus 
 adapted to the gim's axis, and so arranged that it 
 can enable an observer to look over and above the 
 cover. 
 
 MECHANICAL MANEUVERS.— The mechanical ma- 
 neuvers iire the applitation of machines and of 
 mechanical powers for mounting, dismounting, mov- 
 ing, and transporting artillery. The implements and 
 machines required for the various operations depend 
 upon the kind and weight of the piece and the na- 
 ture of the maneuver to be performed. In every 
 case the minimum numljer of each is used. When 
 much work is to be done, due allowance must be 
 made for wear and tear, which, with heavy material, 
 is verv considerable. Sound discretion should be
 
 MECHANICAL MANEUVERS. 
 
 294 
 
 MECHANICAL MANEUVEBS. 
 
 exercised not to allow the wearing to go beyond the 
 
 limit of safety. Those now used'for siege-pieces are 
 such as can be found in most localities : the rollers, 
 chocks, and, if necessary, the hand-spikes being 
 readily shaped from sections of trees. The follow, 
 ing is a list of the implements generally used when 
 maneuvering siege-pieces : 
 
 Implements. 
 
 g 
 
 £ 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 is 
 
 1 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Handspike... . 
 
 Loni: roller 
 
 Short roller. 
 
 Gun-chock 
 
 Wheel-chock... 
 Roller-chock... 
 
 Shifting-plank. 
 Trace-rope. 
 
 Inch. 
 84 
 
 42 
 
 18 
 
 3.6 
 
 7 
 
 67 
 360 
 
 ;inch. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Lb. Oz. 
 12 
 
 25 
 12 
 
 6 
 a 4 
 
 1 
 
 48 
 8 8 
 
 2 4 
 
 .55 
 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 2.75 
 
 6 
 5 
 
 12 
 r'nd 
 
 r'nd 
 
 r'nd 
 
 3.5 
 
 3 
 
 2.25 
 1.25 
 
 (■Grooved V inch 
 < de^p iu the 
 ( middle. 
 Wedj^e-shape. 
 fSectlon a tri- 
 1 angle. Top 
 '' rounded ?4 of 
 i an inch. 
 /Ends beveled on 
 \ opposite sides. 
 
 I Sometimes call- 
 -j ed monkey 
 
 
 156 
 
 
 
 ( wrench. 
 
 "Made of round 
 iron 0.75 in. in 
 diameter, with 
 
 
 
 
 
 at each end ; 
 length of links 
 5 inches. 
 
 In every case the wooden handspike is required, 
 and the following general directions for its use are 
 given. Six are the number generally used. When 
 men on opposite sides of a piece apply themselves to 
 a handspike, the handspike used is tliat of one of the 
 
 where square handspikes could not be used. When 
 a handspike rests on a fulcrum, and tlie weight on 
 one end is to be raised by bearing down on the other, 
 the weight should never rest on the beveled side, as 
 the handspike would not then give a good hold, and 
 would be liable to split. In this case the beveled 
 side should be down. But if used for lifting, as 
 when two handspikes are crossed under tlie breech or 
 chase of a gun to heave it upward, their ends resting 
 on the ground or platform, the beveled side should be 
 up. Two or more men, lifting or hauling together, 
 must wait for the command before exerting their 
 strength. The gunner sees that all are ready before 
 giving the command heave. Then all move with a 
 prompt but steady effort, and apply their jiower in- 
 creasingly until the weight responds to their effort. 
 The gunner will repeat the command heave as often 
 as it may be necessary. When the movement has 
 been sufficiently made, the gunner commands : Ease 
 Away. Those making the effort will then desist ; 
 but in doing so will be careful to avoid all sudden 
 shocks or strains. Every operation should be done 
 with spirit and animation, but without bustle or con- 
 fusion. Vigilance should be constantly exercised to 
 have the piece or rollers securely chocked. The 
 limber of a siege-piece makes a powerful lever, and 
 may be advantageously used in manj' cases. The 
 pole is raised and the pintle engaged in a sling around 
 the weight to be raised. The pole is hauled down by 
 a trace-rope attached to the eye. 
 
 The machines and appliances usually employed for 
 moving heavy artillery : Ropes, blocks and tackle, 
 gins, hydrauiic-jacks, sling-carts, casemate truck, 
 truck-wagon, railway truck, cradle, gun-lift, capstan, 
 derrick, shears, blocks and skids, hand-cart, blocks 
 Cwhole, half, and quarter), way-planks, pinch-bars, 
 mortar-wagon, collar. These, with the implements 
 
 even numbers ; the man to whom it belongs is at the 
 smaller end, the corresponding odd number at the 
 I)uttend; those who assist place tliem.selves inside 
 of these two numbers ; the lowest numbers nearest 
 the ends. When two or more men wcjrk at the same 
 eiiil of a haiulspike, the man to wliom it belongs is 
 at tlie end, and theotlicr men in the ascending order 
 of their numliers from liiin. When several hand- 
 spikes are crossed at the muzzle in order to raise or 
 lower it, they are applied in theorderof thenumliers 
 of the men to whom tliey belong. tliose of the liighest 
 numbers nearest to the trunnions. The handspikes 
 used in the mechanical maneuvers are beveled on one 
 side, as these will enter into places or under bodies 
 
 used in the mechanical maneuvers with .siege pieces 
 are sutlicient to manage the heaviest pieces of ar- 
 tillery in all cases which ordinarily present them- 
 selves in service. All implements and machines, be- 
 fore being used, should be most carefully examined 
 in every detail, to see that they are serviceable and 
 suitable for the operation to be performed. None 
 should be put to uses for which they are not intended, 
 nor subjected to strains tliey are not constructed to 
 bear. It must be borne in mind that the giving way 
 of one part breaks and destroysothcrjiarts. frequent- 
 ly to an extent not readily repaired, and, furthermore, 
 endangers tho.se working at the maneuver. Heavy 
 weights must never be allowed to drop, even for the
 
 MECHANICAL MANEUVERS. 
 
 295 
 
 MECHANICAL HANEUVE&8. 
 
 Bhortcxt dintnncPH ; tlicy must he loworefl to rest 
 
 Willi 11 uriillr inotioii. mill ill llii' Hiiiiic time clidckitil 
 t(i prcvcnl nilliiii,' nr siidiiif;. In lioisliiiir. tlicy iiiiist, 
 wlicii |)riicli<"il)lr, be closely follciHcd up with Mocks 
 mill chocks 111 fiiinnl ii;;iiiiist any ])ossililc);ivin;; way. 
 All motions willi licavy lioilics iiiiisl lie slow, sous 
 not lo (jcncralc inoiiiciiluiii. Suiiiiorls miist liiivc a 
 firm base, luiil s<iitrolilin;; a level foundation.'and be 
 liiiill up verlicully. All holdfasts inubt be secure be- 
 yiinil possibility of fiiviiij; way. 
 
 'I'hc iiiancwver of the various service pieces are de- 
 tailed in the Tactics. Within th(^ limits of tliis ar- 
 licli' we will ('Online our dcHcriplions to some f;ene- 
 rid maneuver.s and appliances, the details of which 
 will cover the uriiund of the whole subject. 1. To 
 mmr it i/iin hi/ ndtiiiii it I'liice a skid under the rear 
 of the trunnions, and aniillKT under the middle of 
 the chase, and mil the i;iiii over. By inclinint; the 
 skids and cultinj; the muzzle it may lie moved in dif- 
 ferent directious. lu rolling heavy guns it is most 
 
 convenient to use two collars of wood or cast-iron 
 of equal diameters (one on the breech, the other on 
 the muzzle), larj;e enough to allow the trunnions to 
 turn without striking the ground. A rope used as a 
 jiarlmckle is the best metiiod of rolling a gun. To 
 do this, place the gun on skids, and attach the rope 
 by a bowline to one of the trunninus. passing it un- 
 der and around up over the gun, and hauling on the 
 end. If the gun is to be rolled up aslope, two ropes, 
 of size suitable to the weight of the gun, are used. 
 An end of each rope is made fast to some fixed object 
 at the upper part of the slope: the other ends are 
 carried under the chase and body respectively, and 
 up over the gun: tliese ends are hauled iipnn by 
 iMcans of a capstan, or by attaching to them a fall 
 and tackle. The muzzle is slued forward by pinch- 
 ing with bars, or by means of a rope and tackle at- 
 tached to a roller or skid thrust into the muzzle. 
 The iiiece is lowered b\' inverse means. 
 
 'i. T'l xh ft, II gunfrDin the truniiion-holeK to iti travel, 
 ing-hi'il. — Limber up ; remove the cap-squares and 
 chock the wheels front and rear: place the short roll- 
 er under the reinforce: allacb the trace-rope at its j 
 middle to the cascabel by two half-hitcbes; cross two 
 handspikes under the one in the bore; lift and push 
 at the muzzle, and haul on the rope until the trun- 
 nions are over their travelling position: raise the 
 cha.se.bring forward the roller to the head of the stock 
 and lower the chase upon it; raise the chase again; 
 remove the roller, and lower the chase upon the 
 
 I stock; take off the rope; replace the cap-Bquarcs; in- 
 sert the elevating scri'W from below, and laKJi it. If 
 I a lifting-jack can be used, place it under tlie swell of 
 ' the muzzle ; raise the chase ; place a half-block on 
 the head of the slock; take a second lift, and place 
 two rollers on the slock, on(^ just in rear of tin- trun- 
 nion, the olher under the reinforce; chock the lattc-r 
 toward the muzzle, and remove the half-block: haul 
 on the ro]ic atlaclicd to the cascabcl, and bring the 
 breech over the bolsl<T; chock the rear roller; place 
 the jack under the muzzle, and remove the rollers. 
 To shift the 'gun from its Iravelling-bed to the trun- 
 nion-holes, chock the wheels front and rear; remove 
 the caii-squares; raise the chase and insert the short 
 roller under the trunnions; attach the rope by its 
 midille to the cascabcl; bear down the muzzle, and, 
 as the piece: rolls forward, guide the trunnions into 
 llieir holes by means of the ro|ie; remove tlie short 
 roller. A hfiwitzer is shifted to and from its Iravel- 
 ing-bed by the same means, except that the liand- 
 ."pike in the bore is chocked above and below for rais- 
 ing the chase, the low<'r chock being placed about 
 IH inches in the bore. The vertical diameter of the 
 short roller should be just forward of the rinibases. 
 '.i. 'I'll inure mil! liiinilU- liriity (/iihh irith ii triirk iiiul 
 traiairiiy. The ease with which heavv loads are 
 moved when loaded on an firdinary railway-car, on 
 a smooth, rigid, unyielding track, ascompare<l with 
 other means of conveyance, has led to the adoption 
 of this mode of transportation whenever the work to 
 be done will justify the e.xiiense of preparing the 
 roadway iind laying down the track. It is thought 
 that this means of tninsportation might be madea- 
 vailable for the transportation of LO-incli guns and 
 other heavy loads in and about our ]iermanent works; 
 that a temporary portable track might be provided 
 capable of supporting as great a weight as that of a 
 l.'i-inch gun. and could be laid down readily without 
 much preparation of the road-bed, in nianj- [jlaces 
 none at all,!ind furnished at a small expense! A four- 
 wheeled truck of simple construction, strong enough 
 to sustain a weight of tweuty-tive Ions, could be con- 
 structed at a cost not much greater than that of a 
 cradle, but could be moved with far greater ease and 
 much greater celerity. This idea elaborated, and 
 proposed as the best, for transporting l.'i-inch guns 
 over moderately even ground. For this purpose, 
 under the above mentioned conditions, it will com- 
 mend itself for its simplicity, efficiency, and economy. 
 In foundries, an<l special locations in permanent 
 works, there are positive advantages attending the 
 lise of iir&r/iead tramways, within'ccrtain limits of 
 weight and strain. The excellent machinery in this 
 line made by Edwin Harrington <fc Son. and adopt- 
 ed by the United States Government, has demon- 
 strated that there is an actual saving of 50 per cent, 
 in the cost of labor, and little liability to accident, 
 by the use of such a system. Two men can handle 
 a large casting of 2, .WO lbs. with great ease, and rais- 
 ing it clear of other heavier articles in the path or on 
 t he floor, avoid the necessity of moving or handlincr the 
 latter. Fig. 1 shows a simple form of turn-fable 
 for an overhead track. The load is revolved by 
 means of a hand-gear and pinion ojierated by a wheel 
 and chain: the table can be adjusted to anyre(|uired 
 numlier of tracks that will allow the load, when once 
 raised, to be transported to any desired point with 
 safety and dispatch. The carrier truck c;innot be 
 run off from any track, except on to the turn-table, 
 and when on the turn-table it cannot be run off ex- 
 cept on to some one of the tracks. When connec- 
 tion is made with any track, the table is securely 
 locked in position, thcreliy preventing all pessibility 
 of accident. Fig. '2 shows the construction of the 
 most approved geared truck. The ordinarj- truck, 
 when constructed of one or more wheels, and run by 
 pushing or pulling the load at the lowerend of the 
 cage or sling, is very liable to lurch or jump, espe- 
 cially if running around a curve, often causing lireak- 
 agc of the chain or rope, as may be in nse,"besides
 
 HECHANICAL UAN£UT£RS. 
 
 296 
 
 HECHANICAL UANEUVEHS. 
 
 being a source of great annoyance to persona that 
 may be on the floor over the truck. The geared truck 
 obviates all this, and one man can run the heaviest 
 load required with case on a straight rail or round a 
 curve, stopping and starting at any desired point, 
 the truck running with perfect smoothness and dis- 
 turbing no one. 
 
 To mount a gun on the surface car, raise it by hj'd- 
 raulic jacks high enough to get the track and car 
 under it : support it by blocks built up imdcr the 
 muzzle and breech ; lay the track between tlie blocks, 
 and place the truck on the track under the gun, tlie 
 trunnions midway between the wheels; lower tlae 
 gun on the truck; or place skidding, one end on 
 blocks built up to the required height to reach the 
 boLster, the other on the ground, and roll the gim up 
 the inclined plane thus formed to its place on the 
 truck. The bolsters are just high enough to permit 
 the gun to be rolled into its place. Four men can 
 laj' down the track a distance of eighty yards in 
 thirty minutes where no grading is required. Four 
 men can transport a 15" gun over level ground, us- 
 ing a capstan, twenty 3'ards in live minutes after it 
 has been mounted, the track has been laid down, and 
 the capstan in position, or tliey can lay down the 
 track and transport the gun twenty yards in fifteen 
 minutes, all of the preparations having been first 
 made. A horse with one double and one single 
 block will move a 1.5" gun as fast as the track can 
 be laid and the tackle shifted, or a pair of o.xen will 
 pull a 15" gun. a dead pull, without the interven- 
 tion of pulley-blocks, the road Iieing level. An in- 
 creased force will be required if the track, instead of 
 being in a level, is on an ascending grade, and pro- 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 portionately irreater as the angle of the slope increases. 
 Horse-power is the only one recommended, except 
 in very extraordinary cases, where there is a great 
 amount of work to be done and done quickly. 
 
 4. 'I'o moKe and nuiunt heatygunn, etc., with blocks, 
 hydraitltc, jwh^, enpntiin, or crab, crndleK, etc. — To 
 move a heavy gun a short distance, raise it on skids, 
 so ihat the trunnions will not touch the ground, 
 roll it over by the pinch-lmrs. chocking the breech 
 and cultinj; the muzzle when necessary. For longer 
 
 distances, and through narrow entrances, mount it 
 on the cradle, with rollers and shifting-plank under- 
 neath, and if on level ground move it along with 
 pinch-bars or handspikes; if up a ramp, rig the fall 
 and blocks to cradle, crab, and some fixed or well- 
 secured object on top of ramp, and then work it up 
 with the crab, changing the shifting-plank and roll- 
 ers as required. Weston's hoisting crab, with auto- 
 matic safety brake, should be used on every pos- 
 sible occasion. This excellent machine is shown in 
 Fig. 3, and consists of the usual winding barrel, 
 for common rope or chain, driven by manual power, 
 applied to cranks, through two or more spur wheels, 
 the ratio of the gearing being varied in the several 
 sizes of machines, according to the load to be lifted. 
 The lifting is accomplished in the usual manner. 
 The lowering is done with the least possible exer- 
 tion, by winding the handles backwards, and as 
 long as this motion is continued the load will de- 
 scend. The construction of the safety ratchet or 
 brake is such that the load is always self-sustained 
 and cannot run down. The handles cannot recoil 
 on the operator, and if suddenly "let go" at any 
 time, either in hoisting or lowering, the load will 
 quietly come to rest and remain suspended. The 
 smaller size has onl}- a single speed or power ; the 
 larger size, two changes of speed. The capacitj' of 
 either may be increased by the use of a running 
 block in the usual manner. 
 
 For the purpose of thorough illustration, we will 
 notice the process of mounting a fifteen-inch gtui. 
 The gun is supposed to be in its cradle, the cradle > 
 being blocked up to a level with the skidding that 
 rests one end on the chassis-rail. Each skid is sup- 
 ported near the rail by a crib of heavy 
 blocks piled one on top of the other, three 
 in a crib, and brought to a level with the 
 rail. The cribs, if placed obliquely to the 
 iskidding,will still be stable and support the 
 skidding more in the direction of itslength. 
 lThe ends of the skidding remote from the 
 chassis-rail are supported bj' two double 
 cribs. Each crib is built of three tiers of 
 blocks, alternate ends resting on the lower 
 tier,each pair of blocks parallel to each other 
 and r 6" apart. The cribs are brought 
 to a level with a chassis-rail. To move the 
 gim from the cradle on the skidding, a man 
 with a chock stands by muzzle andbreech, 
 the rest of the men work at the bars. The 
 muzzle is first cut and chocked from the 
 cradle to the skidding; after the muzzle 
 rests on the skidding the breech is cut on 
 the skidding the same way as the muzzle. 
 This operation is continued alternately with 
 breech and muzzle as before, except the 
 men with the chocks now chock on the 
 side toward the chassis-rail until the gun 
 rests on the skidding on the chassis-rail, 
 under its position when mounted on the 
 carriage. The gin or pumps are now set 
 over the muzzle^and breech or under them, 
 as the case may be. The cribs to support 
 the muzzle and breech are now respectively 
 placed 3'from the muzzle, and at the great- 
 er swell of the breech. In raising the gun, 
 the breech is raised first bj' pump or gin 6" 
 full, a man standing on each side with 
 chock, in case of slip, to prevent rolling. 
 Care is taken to set the gin or pump vertical 
 over or under the breech, and when lowering to case 
 up, without jerking. gradually. The muzzle can now 
 be raised 13'' full. Iifocked and chocked in that posi- 
 tion. The skidding is now removed. The breech 
 6" additional, always having the men with chocks 
 on either siiie readv, and following up the gun with 
 the blocks, so that" it cannot have a tall in case of 
 accident. The blocks used <'iime from the cribs for 
 the skiilding that are no longer rcMiuired. The oper. 
 ation of alternate blocking at breech and muzzle is
 
 MECHANICAL MOTION. 
 
 297 
 
 MECHANICAL MOTION. 
 
 continued until tlie gun stands above the licight of 
 the tniiinion-l)P(lswitli the axis tliroufrli the trunnion 
 liori/iiiiliil. Tlic top-cnrriai;i' is now put on the 
 chassis and assciiihlcd with Ihc Irunuion-licils undrr 
 till' Iruuiiions. Tlir i;un is tlicri hiwcrcil in Ihr trun- 
 nions, an I till- l)h)ci<s and };in or piinips removed. 
 
 Anotlier plan, whi'ii the to|)-carriaL':i' lias not been 
 taUen apart, is as folhjws: Mount tlie chassis on 
 philfcirni and toii-carriaijc^ on tlie chassis witli f;in, 
 anil tlien run tlie top-carriaf^e into haltery. Hring 
 tlic gun upon cradles or siiiddini; until it is parallel 
 to a convenient position of chassis. Uoll the fiun 
 over the chassis.'^havin^; the breech ]irojeclini; be- 
 yond the rear end of Ihc chassis, raise it by blockini; 
 iniihT the breech beyond the rails, and under the 
 muzzle by lihx'ks outside rails, with .'i sUiddinit 'aid 
 across thcni, until the nnizzle is hiirli ciioiii.di for llnr 
 foi).carriage to be moved back under the trunnions; 
 the muzzle is raised by [;in and the breech by hy- 
 dr.iiilic pump. Hun thetnp-carriaiie back under the 
 trunnions, lower the nun into the trunninns, remove 
 scatlcildinsj;. In buildini; scalToldimr of blocks, [lut 
 tlic thickest at bottom, an<l as you L;ain in hei!.dit in 
 raising; a gun, replace thin blocks by thicker ones. 
 Derricks for raising and mounting ordnance as heavy 
 as 1.^" are to he avoided, if possible, as tlicy are 
 heavy and troublesome to move and set up — more 
 ditlicidt to handle than guns, and can only be used 
 under favorable conditions of space; in other words, 
 they cniisunie labor :ind tiuw thiit ought to be ex- 
 pended only on the guns. These objections apply 
 to any machine of much weight and size beyondtwo 
 or three cubic feet. Forts arc often at comparative- 
 ly inaccessilile places, and are often in themselves 
 very limited, and possess platforms for guns in an- 
 gles and conrtned places hard toiipj)roach with guns 
 as large as 1.5", and, conseiim-ntly, the minnn of 
 handling— moving and mounting — must be small and 
 powerful. 
 
 We will close this article with a description of the 
 unloading and mounting of the 2()-inch gun at the 
 United States t'eulennial E.vhibition. This gun. with 
 a 13-inch sea-coast mortar of about IS.OOIJ jiounds, a 
 cradle of about 4.000, with heavy ycllow-])ine skid- 
 ding and a deck-loiid of binilier, in all about HO tons, 
 were shipped from Fort .Monroe on a vessel rated at 
 94 tons. She nearly foundered in a gale ou Chesa- 
 peake Bay on her way to the canal at Baltimore, but 
 arrived at Philadelphia atloat but leaking badly, 
 with her deck only about eiglit inches above the 
 water-line and about four feet below the level of the 
 wharf at high tide. The steam-crane on the wharf 
 had Ijeen found by analysis to be insufficiently strong 
 to lift the gun entire ; it was conscquenth' simply 
 used as an auxiliary. A 14-iuch spar was wedged 
 very tightly into the m\izzle of the gun, and served 
 also as a fastening-point for the 11-ineh hawser by 
 which the gun vfas raised. The gun having been 
 blocked up about 3 feet from the cascabel, the 
 crane began to lift. It lifted the muzzle about 15 
 inches, besides stretching the hawser about 8 feet. 
 Blocking was then placed just back of the center of 
 gravity of the gun. and the muzzle lowered on this 
 pile as a fulcrum luitil the breech was high enough 
 to take a fresh pile of blocking beneath it. By tliis 
 lift the gun was raised about 3 inches. The position 
 of the three supports was as follows : 1st, 5 feet 
 from the muzzle ; 2d, immediately back of the 
 trunuious ; 3d, 2 feet from the breech. Owing to 
 the position of the third point the crane was strained 
 about 18 tons by this lift. Doidjle piles of blocking 
 were used at each bearing-point for safety, so as to 
 limit any accidental fall in raising or lowering the 
 gun to an inch or two at the utmost. Chocking- 
 quoins were also used to follow up the gun closely 
 in its movements. About 1.5 men were used through- 
 out the maneuvers. One of these men, as ship- 
 carpenter, with his adze and crosscut-saw, was par- 
 ticularly valuable, and also a rigger from the United 
 States Navy-yard. Heavy 18-iuch yellow-pine skid- 
 
 dinfj was placed from under the gun to the wharf, in- 
 dining slightly upwards, and tlii' hawser parbuckled 
 around the gun and fastened to the crane. A pur- 
 chase was takiii from the muzzle by a locomotive 
 slandiugoii a neJLdilioring track. The crane began 
 to hoist at f).44, the gun immediiitely rolling toward 
 the wharf as the hawser uneoileil. The muzzle was 
 cut meanwhile bv tlii' locomotive. At 7.04 p.m. the 
 gun was landed, in 1 1 hours (J minutes working- 
 time. 
 
 As the vessel was relieved of the weight of the gun 
 it rose, converting the inclined way of skidding into 
 a declivity leading to the wharf. This feature per- 
 mitteil the pile of blocking on deck to be much low- 
 er than would otherwise have been necessary. On the 
 second ilay the gun was rolled by the craneand loco- 
 motive together to a [losition jiarallel with the rail- 
 road track a<Toss which it had lic'cu necessarily land- 
 ed. Toward the latter |iart of this operation the loco- 
 motive was disjiensed with, it being found that bv 
 phicingthe crane in a favorable position, taking hold 
 of tlu; muzzle, and then tojiping l\\v boom, the muz- 
 zle could be cut almost as well as with tin- locomo- 
 tive. After about 4 hours of effective hoistiUL', the 
 gun was placed on the car, on which it was trans- 
 l)orted safely the ne.xt morning to the exhibition 
 grounds, and unloaded the same day. The advan- 
 tages in this operiition were as follows: I. The Jjro.x- 
 imity of William C. Allison it .Son's wharf and their 
 large car-works, from which were olilained. readily, 
 sujiplics of blocking. Hat iron bars, heavy tools. men, 
 and notably the use of their steam-crane and railroad- 
 plant, and the 6-inch oak car-bolsters, especially val- 
 uable for blocking. II. The use of an extra heavy 
 flat car procured from the Pennsylvania Railroad 
 Compan)'. The disadvantages were: I. The small 
 size of the vessel, its breadth of 23 feet giving only 
 8 or 9 feet on each side of the bare gun to work in. 
 The gun also occupied all the space between the 
 masts. With the additional weight of the blocking 
 upoj her decks, used in raising the gun, the danger 
 of breaking them in or of starting fresh leaks was 
 greatly increased. II. The Captain of the schooner 
 refused to permit hydraulic jacks to be used, for fear 
 of breaking in his deck. III. The gun had to be rais- 
 ed so high, in order to roll it otT upon the dock, that 
 the stability of the vessel was considerablj' endanger- 
 ed. IV. The Captain of the schooner refused to lie 
 alonjrside of the wharf, fearing, as he represented, 
 shoal water ; consequently the gun had to be rolled 
 off from end of the wharf in a direction at right 
 angles to the railroad track. V. Much of the work 
 was done after dark, in the hope of getting the gun 
 on the car by Sunday, the Pennsylvania Kailroad 
 wishing to move it to the grounds on that day, for 
 fear of obstruction to the track and to avoid car- 
 demurrage. VI. The men were unaccustomed to 
 moving heavy weights, and shirked all they could, 
 especially at night. In mounting the 20-inch gun, 
 the LaiiUey gun-lift was used, assisted by blocking. 
 The other guns were mounted with blocking only. 
 The light auxiliary shears, provided with the gun- 
 lift, proved of considerable value in placing in position 
 heavy articles, such as the lield-cannon, raising the 
 ways of the drop-hammer, etc. A casemate-gin, 
 mounted on three rollers, was also used. This was 
 very useful in picking up heavy pieces, such as 
 lumps of ore, drop-anvds. etc., and moving them to 
 the pedestal or the foimdation ou which thej' were 
 to be placed. Two of the rollers on the windlass- 
 legs were joined together by a sleeve of heavy steam- 
 pipe, fitting over the projecting limbs of the axles, 
 to prevent the rollers from assuming their natural 
 position at right angles to the line of the leg. See 
 Blocks, Captian, dtemate-gin, Oa*emaU-truck, Cord, 
 age. Crab, Cradle, Derrick, Gin, Giii^derrick, Knots, 
 Lever-jark, Lifting-ja(k. Mounting Cannon, Piper 
 Oin. Mope, /Sfiears, Sling^cart, Sling.wagon, and 
 TackleK. 
 
 MECHANICAL MOTION.— Colonel A. H. Buffing
 
 MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. 
 
 298 
 
 MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. 
 
 ton, United States Army, has recently de.signed an 
 interesting macliiue, which is serviceable as a prac- 
 tical illustration of the resolution of forces into com- 
 ponents, and of the principle of mechanics that ac- 
 tion and reaction are equal, simultaneous, and con- 
 trary. For a full description of this machine, refer- 
 ence is made to the Report of the Chief of Ordnance 
 for 1882. In this connection we will be confined to 
 an investigation of the theory of the contrivance. 
 Suppose, in Fig. 1, the two circles A and B repre- 
 sent the pitch-lines of two gear-wheels, one. the lar- 
 ger, geared inside— a ring-gear — and twice the dia- 
 meter of the other, each ti.xed at, but free to revolve 
 on, its center. Any point, (7, of the smaller will mark 
 on the face and through the center of the other a 
 right line, a b. Suppose a point arer the point d be 
 fi.xed to a slide on the face of smaller A [which 
 slide can move onlj' in the line rfc], and compelled to 
 move in a groove, a h, across the face and center of 
 larger B. If a force whose direction is the same as 
 
 in the direction of e d (Fig. 1). As it was shown 
 above how the perpendicular component of the ap- 
 plied force is destroyed, it remains to show in wliat 
 manner the parallel one is neutralized. 
 
 In Fig. 3 let a b represent the groove across the 
 face and center of B. d the point of a slide on the 
 face of -1, and also of a block free to move in the 
 groove a b, and the arrow e d represent the applied 
 force and direction of it. It has been seen that under 
 the action of this force the gear A would start to roll 
 around inside of B, as indicated by the arrow, carry- 
 ing the arm h i as indicated, which in its turn would 
 carrj- the gear C and give it by means of fi.xed gear 
 D the nifition indicated by the arrow. But the two 
 small gears engage at c, and examining them at this 
 point it is seen that they have motion or, strictly, 
 tendencies to motion, in opposite directions, conse- 
 quently no motion can take place, although the sys- 
 tem is free to move either by application of force to 
 the arm or the//'«e ring-gear. Thus the teeth of a 
 
 the line dehe applied to this point no motion of the 
 system can take place; for the action against the 
 larger would be in the Vmvfdg. perpendicular to a 
 i at rf, and passing through/, the point of engage- 
 ment of the two gears, and X\k renctioii on smaller 
 would be in the same line ; tliese, acticm and reaction, 
 being equal, no motion could take place. But sup- 
 pose the center of smaller gear be free to move, mo- 
 tion would then take place — the smaller would roll 
 arotmd inside the other, the point referred to mov- 
 ing in the groove a h, the larger gear, although free 
 to" move around its center, "remaining stationary — 
 that is, the force applied would be resolved into two 
 components, one perpendicular to and the other par- 
 allel with line a h, the former destroyed by action 
 and reaction, the latter passing through the center 
 of larger, producing motion only of smaller gear. 
 
 Suppose, now, two more gears precisely the same 
 in size and gearing and having the same relation to 
 each other be placed so tliat the small ones shall en- 
 gage over the centers of large ones — these latter hav- 
 ing no direct connection with each other — and that 
 the centers of small ones be connected by an arm 
 fixed so as to revolve at e, (Fig. 2) ; the two systems 
 differing only in that the ring-gear (D, Fig. 2) shall be 
 fixed — unable to move in any way. ^1 and B of 
 Fig. 2 being the two gear.s explained in Fig. 1, en- 
 gaging at/; and Z> (/^and 7^ coincident, showing 
 but one circle), engaging at J, being the equal pair 
 of last supposition"; the' smaller gears engaging at c 
 and luiited by the arm h i, each free to revolve on 
 journals of arm at h and /. If motion be given to 
 the arm the small gear C will roll around inside 
 the fixed ring-gear l>, and revolve Hie other .1 about 
 its center /i, as it is carried around by the arm, and 
 A will carry with it the movalile ring-gear /A or if 
 motion be "given t" this latter (/I) it will carry vl 
 with it. wliich in turn will roll 6' around inside the 
 fixed gear B. During this motion any point of A 
 will describe a riglit line across the face and center 
 of /i as previously noted. But if A and Ji be ar- 
 ranged witli slide and groove and a force applied, as 
 above sujjposed, the system cannot be moved as long 
 as the direction of this force crosses the center of -1 
 
 2. Fig. 3. 
 
 fixed ring-gear are interposed at every point of revo- 
 lution to neutralize the parallel component. To al- 
 waj's practically have the force applied, as described, 
 to a crank arm whose center is at c, a link is attached 
 and connects with tlie slide and block. To carry 
 over the centers, the system of four gears above ex- 
 plained is doubled, the crank-arms being placed at 
 right angles on the shaft to which they are attached. 
 The point d describes during a revolution a double 
 cusp. 
 
 MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS.— In the constniction 
 of models or machinery, tlie skillfid inventor and 
 mechanic will stud.v to avoid clumsiness in the ar- 
 rangement of the parts, and will naturally select the 
 simplest and best forms of mechanical movements. 
 By the kind assistance of the proprietors of the fSci- 
 entifie Atruricnnwe&Te enabled to present a. series of 
 such movements, from among wliich the inventor 
 may select at once that movement best suited for his 
 purpose, and see at a glance the separate parts best 
 adapted to any special combination of mechanism. 
 The following is a brief description of the various 
 movements as numbered: 1. Shaft coupling. 2. 
 Claw coupling. 3. 4. Lever couplings. On the driv- 
 ing sliaft, a disk with spurs is mounted, and to the 
 shaft to be driven a lever is securely hinged. By 
 causing this lever to catch in the spurs of the disk 
 the coupling is readily effected, as in the figure 
 5. Knee or rose coupling, of which 26 gives a side 
 view. 6. Universal joint. 7,8. Disk and spur coupling. 
 9. Prong and spur lever coupling. 10. Fast and 
 loose pulley. 11. Sliding gear, the journal-boxes 
 of one of the wheels being movable. 12. Friction 
 clutch. By tightening or releasing a steel band, en- 
 circling a pulley on the shaft, the machinery is 
 'thrown in or out of gear. 13, 14. Shoe and lever 
 brakes. l.T, 10. Change of motion by sheaves. IT. 
 Spiral Hanged shaft. 18. Cimnecteil with the rod 
 are pawl links, catcliing into ratchet teeth in the 
 wheel to which rotary motion is to be imparted. 
 When the rod moves in one direction, one of the 
 pawls acts; and when the rod moves in the opposit<! 
 direction, the other pawl acts in the same direction 
 as the first. 19. The reciprocating motion of a rod
 
 MECHANICAL MOTION. 
 
 ■2U'.) 
 
 MECHANICAL MOTION. 
 
 Is converted into rotary motion of tlie fly-wheel by a 
 wciijlil suspinik'd frdin a ronl, which piisnis over u 
 siimll |)iillcy that coiiiicctH witli a trcaillc, from whifh 
 thr> iikiI'kjm is Iransiiiillcd to the lly-wliccl. 20. 
 " P'lj'iiii; horse." My piilliii}; tlic cords radialinj; 
 from the craMl<, the persons occiipyiiij; (lie scats or 
 liorscs oil the ends of the arms arc emdilcd to keep 
 tlie apparatus in motion. 2\, 22. IJow-strinn ar- 
 rangements to convert rccii)rocatinn into rotary mo- 
 tion. 2;). Same jMirpose liy dilTerential screw. 24. 
 Tlie .same Iiy donble raclv and wheels. 2!). Coiiplinj^ 
 for square sliafts. 2(i. Side view of Fig. 5. 27, 
 Sliding-spnr pulley coupliuf;. 28. Lever witli bear- 
 ing rcjller to lij^liten pulley bands. 2!). Chain wheel, 
 lit). Reciprocating rectilinear into reciprocating rot- 
 ary motion by two racks and cog-wheel, as shown. 
 31. ()bli(jue-tootlied wheels. 82. Worm and worm- 
 wheel. 33, 34. Claw coupling with liiugcd lever. 
 
 and lifting cam. 55. For giving reciprocating mo. 
 tion to ruck 50. Hame motion to a bar, with hIoI, 
 by means of an eccentric jiin projecting from a re- 
 volving disk and catching in the slot. 57. Walking- 
 beam anil llj-whee!. .'JK. Ueciprocating motion to 
 pump or other rod by means of eccentric disk and 
 friction rollers. (See HI and 104;. VJ. Hoisting 
 crane. (iO. Kriction gears. (See 43;. 01. Kolary 
 into reciprocating by rising and falling ftinion acting 
 on endless rack. 02. Hy the revolving .iim a rising 
 and falling or a reciprocating rectilinear motion in 
 readily imjiarted to a drum. 03. lU'ciprocating mo. 
 
 35, 86. Disk couplings with lugs and cavities. 37. 
 Disk coupling with screw bolts. 38, 39, 40. Shaft 
 couplings. 41. Face view of Fig. 12. 43. Friction 
 cones. 43 Friction pulleys. 44. Self-releasing coup- 
 ling. Disks with oblique teeth. If the resistance 
 to the driven shaft increases beyond a certain point, 
 the disks separate. 45. Hoisting bloeks. 40. El- 
 bow crank, for changing motion. 47. Reciprocating 
 into rotary motion by zigzag groove on cylinder. 48 
 Another form of Fig. 29. ^9. Reciprocating into 
 rotarv motion. 50. Same purpose. 51. Same pur- 
 pose, l\y double rack and two ratchet pinions. When 
 the double rack moves in one direction, one pinion I 
 is rigid with the shaft : when the rack moves in the 
 opposite direction, the other pinion is rigid, and a 
 continuous rotary motion is imparted to the fly-wheel 
 shaft. 52. Reciprocating into oscillating. 53. Ro- ; 
 tary into reciprocating. Ijy the action of the wheel- 
 pins the carriage is moved in one direction, and by 
 the action of the same pins on an elbow-lever it is 
 moved in the opposite direction. 54. Stamp rod 
 
 tion is communicated to a frame by means of the 
 endless rack and pinion. 04. Reciprocating recti- 
 linear motion to a toothed rack by a toothed seg- 
 ment on a lever-arm, which is subjected to the action 
 of a weight, and of an eccentric wrist-pin. projecting 
 from a revolving disk. Go. Reciprocating motion to 
 a rod. The wheels are of different diameters, and 
 consequently the rod has to rise and fall as the 
 wheels revolve. (See 110). 60. Cam and elbow-lever. 
 07. Rod reciprocates by means of cam. 68. Revol- 
 ving into reciprocating motion, by an endless seg- 
 mental rack and pinion, the a.xle of which revolves 
 and slides in a slot toward and from the rack. This 
 rack is secured to a disk, and a rope round the disk 
 extends to the body to which a reciprocating motion 
 is to be imparted. 69. Elliptic gears. 70. Bevel 
 gear. 71. AVomi and worm-wheel. 72. Transmit- 
 ting motion from one axle to another, with three 
 ditlerent velocities, by means of toothed segments of 
 unequal diameters. 73. Continuous revolving into 
 reciprocating, by a cam-disc acting on an oscillating 
 lever. 74. Intermittent revolving motion to a slialt 
 with two pinions, and segment gear-wheel on end of 
 shaft. 75. Oscillating lever, carrying pawls which 
 engage teeth in the edges of a bar to which recti- 
 linear motion is imparted. 76. Oscillating lever, 
 connecting bj- a link with a rod to which a recti- 
 linear motion is imparted. 77. Oscillating lever and
 
 MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. 
 
 300 
 
 MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. 
 
 pawls, which gear in the ratchet-wheel. 78. Com- 
 mon treadle. 79. Describing on a revolving cylin- 
 der a spiral line of a certain given pitch which de- 
 pends upon the comparative sizes of the pinion and 
 bevel-wheels. 80. Marking a spiral line, the graver 
 moved by a screw. 81. (See Fig. 58). 82. Plunger 
 and rods. 83. Cross-head and rods. 84. Recipro- 
 cating rod guided b}- friction rollers. 85. Revolving 
 into reciprocating motion, b}' means of roller-arms 
 extending from a revolving shaft and acting on lugs 
 projecting from a reciprocating frame. 86. Crank 
 motion. 87 Reciprocating motion communicated by 
 toothed wheel and spring-bar. 88. The shaft car- 
 ries a taper, which readily catches against a hook 
 securely hinged to the drum, so as to carry the drum 
 along and raise the weight on the rope. When the 
 tappet has reached its highest position, the hook 
 strikes a pin, the hook disengages from the tappet, 
 and the weight drops. 89. Reciprocating motion 
 to a rod by means of a groove in an oblique ring se- 
 cured to a revolving shaft. 90. Double crank. 91. 
 Cam groove in a drum, to nroduce reciprocating mo- 
 
 tion. 92. Belts and pulleys. 93. Pulleys, belts and 
 internal gear. 94. As the rod moves U]i and down, 
 the teeth of the cog-wheels come in contact with 
 a i)awl. and an intermittent rotary motion is imjjart- 
 ed to said wheel. O.'i. Ry turning the horizontal ax- 
 les with different velocities, the middle wheel is 
 caused to revolve with the mean velocilj-. 96. Os- 
 cillating lever and cam groove in a disk. 97. Lazy 
 tongs. 981. Oscillating segment and belt over jjul- 
 leys. 99. Converting oscillating into a reciprocating 
 motion by a Cam-slot in the end of the oscillating 
 lever which catches over a pin projecting from one 
 of the sides of a parallelogram wliieli is connected to 
 the rod to which re<iprocaling motion is imparled. 
 100. Oscillating motion of a Ijeam into rotary mo- 
 tion. 101. Motion of a treadle into rotary motion. 
 
 103. Double-acting beam. 103. Single-acting beam. 
 
 104. (See Figures 58 and 81). 105. Device to steady 
 a piston by a slotted guide-piece, operated by an ec- 
 centric on the driving shaft. 106. Rod operated by 
 two toothed segments. 107. Two cog-wliee!s of 
 equal diameter, provided with a crank of the same 
 length, and connected b)' links with a cross-bar to 
 which the piston-rod is secured. 108. Device for a 
 rectilinear motion of a piston-rod based on the hy- 
 pocycloidal motion of a pinion in a stationary wheel 
 with internal gear. If the diameter of the pinion is 
 exactly equal to one half the diameter of the internal 
 gear, the hypocycloid becomes a sight line. 109. 
 Same purpose as 56. 110. Action similar to 65. 111. 
 Revolving motion by a circular sliding pinion gear- 
 ing in an elliptical cog-wheel. 112. Similar to 96. 
 113. Carpenter's clamp. The jaws turn on the piv- 
 
 ot-screws, and clamp the board. 114. An irregular 
 vibratory motion is given to the arm carrying the 
 wheel A ly the rotation of the pinion B. as shown. 
 115. Intermittent rotary motion of the pinion-shaft, 
 by the continuous rotary motion of the large wheel. 
 The part of the pinion shown next the wheel is cut 
 on the same turve as the plain portion of the cir- 
 cumference, and therefore serves as a lock whilst 
 the wheel makes part of a revolution, and until the 
 pin upim the wheel strikes the guide-piece upon the 
 pinion, when the pinion-shaft commences another 
 revolution. 116. Stop-motion used in watches to 
 limit the number of revolutions in winding up. The 
 convex curved part, a h, of the wheel B serving as 
 the stop. 117. Several wheels, by connecting-rods, 
 driven from one pulley. 118. Intermittent circvdar 
 motion is inipart<'(l to "the tootlied wheel b_v vibrating 
 the arm H. When the arm H is lifted, tlie pawl is 
 raised from between the teeth of tlie wheel, and tra- 
 veling backward over the cireiunference again, drops 
 between two teeth on lowering the arm, and draws
 
 MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 301 
 
 MECHANICAL P0WEE8, 
 
 Willi it llic vvliccl. 1 r.l. Kcfiproraling rcrtilincar 
 motion is |j;ivcii lo tlic- liar liy tlic loiiliiiiioiiH iiiolion 
 of tli(^ cam. 'I'll!' ciim is of ccjiial diaiiii'lcr in I'vcry 
 ciircttion mcaHurcil across Ilic ccnlfr. 120. Moclian- 
 isni for rcvolviin; the cylinder in Coil's lirearnis. 
 Wlicn tlic lianiincr isj drawn back, the doj;, «, at- 
 tiiclicd to the tumbler acts on the ratchet, l>, on the 
 bark of llurcylinder, and is held ii|) lo Ihe ratchet by 
 a sprinj;, c. \'i\ . Allernnte increasin;,' ami dirninisli- 
 ini^ motion, by means of eccentric loolheil wheel 
 and toothed cylinder. 122. Oscillating or pendiilnm 
 engine. 'V\\v cylinder swings between truimions like 
 a pendulum. The piston-rod coimects directly with 
 crank. 12!i. Intermittent rotary motion. The small 
 wheel is driven, and tln^ friction rollers on its studs 
 move the larger wheel by working against the faces 
 of obliiiue grooves or projections across the face 
 thereof. 124. Longitudinal and rotary motion of 
 the rod is produced by its arrangement between two 
 rotating rollers, the axles of which are oblique to 
 each other. ISR. Friction indicator of Roberts. 
 Upon the jieriphery of the belt-puUey a loaded car- 
 riage is placed, its tongue connected with an indica- 
 
 tor. With a given load the indicating pointer re- 
 mains in a given iiositiou, no matter what velocity is 
 imparted to the pulley. Wlien the load is changed 
 the indicator changes, thus proving that the friction 
 of wheels is in proportion to load, not velocity. 126. 
 Circular intermittent rectilinear reciprocating mo- 
 tion. U.scd on sewing-machines for driving the shut- 
 tle; also on three-revolution cylinderprinting-press- 
 es. 127. Continuous circular into intermittent cir- 
 cular motion. The cam is the driver. 128. Sewing- 
 machine, four-motion feed. The bar, B, carries 
 the feeiling-jioints or spurs, and is pivoted to slide, 
 A. B is lifted by a radial projection on cam, C, 
 which at the same time also carries A and B forward. 
 A si>ring produces the return stroke, and the bar, B, 
 drops by gravity. 129. Patent crank motion to ob- 
 
 viate (lend centers. Pressure on the ireailh- moves 
 the slotted slide. A, forward until the wrist passcfi 
 the center, when lliir spring, B, forc-es the slide againot 
 the slops until ne.vt forward movement. 130. Four- 
 way cock. Kil. One stroke of the piston gives a 
 complete revolution lo the crank. VA2. l{cclilinear 
 motion of variable velocity i.s given to the vertical 
 bar by rotation of Ihe shaft of the curved arm. IIW. 
 I'anlagraph for copying, enlarging and reducing 
 )ilans, etc. C, lixed point. B. ivory tracing point. A, 
 pencil. Trace the lines lo be copied with B, and the 
 I)eneil will reproduce them double size. Shift the 
 slide to which C is attached, also tlie pencil slide, 
 and size of the eo|iy will be varied. 1S4. Ball-and- 
 socket joint for tubing. KW. Numerical registering 
 device. The teeth of the worm-shaft gear with a 
 pair of worm-whei'ls of equal diameter, one having 
 one tooth more than Ihe other. If Ihe tirst wheel has 
 100 teeth and the second 101, the [jointers will indi- 
 cate respectively 101 and 10,100 revolutions. \W. 
 Moutgollier's hydraulic ram. The right-hand valve 
 being kept open by a weight fir spring, the current 
 flowing tlirougli the pi|ie in the direction of the ar- 
 r<iw escapes thereby. When the pressure of the wa- 
 ter current overcomes tlu' weight of the right valve, 
 Ihe momentum of the water opens the oilier valve, 
 and the water passes into the air-chamber. One equi- 
 librium taking place, the left valve shuts and the 
 right valve opens. By this alternate action of the 
 valves, %\ater is raised into the air-chamber at every 
 stroke, 187. Rotary engine. Shaft Band hub, C! 
 are arranged eccentric to the case. Sliding radial 
 pistons, a, a, move in and out of hub C. The pis- 
 Ions slide through rolling packings in the hub C. i;J8. 
 Quadrant engine. Two single-acting pistons, B, B, 
 connect with crank D. Steam is admitted to act on 
 the outer sides of the pistons alternately through valve 
 fi. and the exhaust is between the pistons. 13!). Cir- 
 cular into rectilinear motion. The scalloped wheel 
 communicates motion to the horizontal oscillating 
 rod, and imparts rectilinear movement to the up- 
 right bar. 140. Rotary motion transmitted by roll- 
 ing contact between two obliquely arranged shafts. 
 MECHANICAL POWERS. — Machines are instru- 
 ments interposed between the moving power and the 
 resistance, with a view of changing the direction of 
 the force, or otherwise modifying it. Machines are 
 of various degrees of complexity ; but the simple 
 parts, or elements of which they are all composed, 
 are reducible to a very few. These elementary ma- 
 chines are called the Mechanical Powers, and are 
 usually reckoned as six in number, three being pri- 
 mary — viz., the kter, inclined plan(,anA pulley; and 
 three secondary, or derived from the others — viz., 
 the w/(f^i-aftrf-(U^« (derived from the lever). t\uttredge, 
 and the screw (both derived from the inclined plane). 
 To these .some add toothed wheels. What is special 
 to each machine will be found under its name ; a few 
 observations applicable to all may approjirialely be 
 made here. 1. In treating of the "theory of the lever 
 and other mechanical powers, the question really 
 examined is, not what power is necessary to move a 
 certain weight, but what power is necessary to bal- 
 ance it. This once done, it is obvious that the least 
 additional force to P will suftice to begin motion. 
 2. In pure theoretical mechanics, it is assumed that 
 the machines are without weight, A lever, for in- 
 stance, is supposed to be a mere rigid line ; it is also 
 supposed to be perfectly rigid, not bending or alter- 
 ing its form under any pressure. The motion of the 
 machine is also supposed to be without friction. In 
 practical mechanics, the weight of the machine, the 
 yielding of its parts, and the resistance of friction, 
 have to be taken into account. 3. When the effect of 
 a machine is to make a force overcome a resistance 
 greater than itself, it is said to give a meclianicnl ad- 
 tnntnge. A machine, however, never actually in- 
 creases power — for that would be to create work or 
 energy, a thing now known to be as impossible as to 
 create matter. What is gained in one way by a ma-
 
 MECHANICAL POWEBS. 
 
 302 
 
 MECHANICAL POWEBS 
 
 chine is ahvaj-s lost in another. One pound at tlic 
 long end of a" lever will lift 10 pounds at the short 
 end^ if the arras are rightly proportioned : but to lift 
 the 10 pounds through one foot, it must descend 10 
 feet. The two weiglits, when thus in motion, have 
 equal momenta : the moving mass multiplied into its 
 velocity, is equal to the resisting mass multiplied into 
 its velocity, \yhen the lever seems to multiply force, 
 it only concentrates or accumulates the exertions of 
 the force. The descending one pound weight, in the 
 case above supposed, may be conceived as making 
 10 distinct exertions of its force, each through a space 
 of a foot: and all these are concentrated in the rais- 
 ing of the 10 pound weight through one foot. The 
 principle thus illustrated in the case of the lever holds 
 good of all the mechanical powers. 4. The object of 
 a machine is not always to increase force or pressure; 
 it is as often to gain velocity at the expense of force. 
 In a spinning factory, e. g., the object of the train of 
 machinery is to distribute the slowly working force 
 of a powerful water-wheel or other prime mover, 
 among a multitude of terminal parts moving rapidlj', 
 but having little resistance to overcome. 5. The 
 mechanical advantage of a compound machine is 
 theoretically equal to the product of the separate 
 mechanical advantages of the simple macliines com- 
 posing it ; but in applying machines to do work, al- 
 lowance must be made for the inertia of the materi- 
 als composing them, the flexure of parts subjected 
 to strains, and the friction, which increases rapidly 
 with the complexity of the parts ; and these consid- 
 erations make it desirable that a machine should con- 
 sist of as few parts as are consistent witli the work 
 it has to do. 6. The forces, or "moving powers," 
 by which machines are driven are the muscular 
 strength of men and animals, wind, water, electrical 
 and magnetic attractions, steam, etc.; and the grand 
 object in the construction of machines is, how, with 
 a given iunount of impelling power, to get the great- 
 est amount of work of the kmd required. This gives 
 rise to a multitude of problems, some more or less 
 general, others relating more especially to particular 
 cases — problems, the investigation of which consti- 
 tutes the science of applied mechanics. Oue of the 
 questions of most general application is the follow- 
 ing : If the resistance to a machine were graduiilly 
 reduced to zero, its velocity would be constantly 
 accelerated until it attained a maximum, which 
 would be when the point to which the impelling 
 force is applied was moving at the same rate as the 
 impelling force itself would move if unresisted. If, 
 on the other hand, the resistance were increased to 
 a certain point, the machine would come to a stand. 
 Now. the problem is. between these two extremes to 
 find the rate at which the greatest effect or amount 
 of work is got from the same amount of driving 
 power. The investigation would be out of place 
 here, but the result is that the greatest effect is pro- 
 duced when the velocity of the point of application 
 is one-third of the maximum velocity above spoken 
 of. The moving force and the resistance should 
 therefore be so adjusted as to produce this velocity. 
 It will be our endeavor in this article to find the 
 relation between the power and the weight when 
 they lialance each other in each of the simple ma- 
 chines ; friction and the weight of the machine not 
 being taken into account. For the sake of conven- 
 ience, the power will be denoted by P, and the 
 weight by W. A lever is an inflexible rod, straight 
 or lient, turning on a point calleil Ihi- fii/rrii in. It 
 is mucli used in the form of an iron bar for moving 
 heavy bodies, through small distances. Fig. 1 
 tl.ows a lever used for that purpose, in which F is 
 tlie fulcrum, P is the power exerted by the hand, 
 and W is the weiglit to be moved. Take a straight 
 inflexible bar, .\ B, Fig. 2, and place it on a prop. F. 
 On the end, li, hang a weight, W, and balance it 
 with the power. P. tiimg on the end, A; FA is the 
 power-arm, and F 15 the weight-arm. Now if F \ 
 is equal to F B, then W is equal to P ; if F A is I 
 
 three times the length of the arm. F B. then W is 
 double the length of F B, then W is double of P; if FA 
 is three times P;and so on. The ireight always bears 
 
 the same proportion to the pmmr as the pmrier-nrm 
 bears to the iceig/it-ami. The same thing may be 
 expressed by saying that the power mukiplied 
 by the length of the power-arm is always equal to the 
 
 W 
 
 Fig 2. 
 
 weight multiplied by the length of the weight-arm. 
 This rule holds for all levers; but if the lever be bent 
 as in Fig. 3 we must not take the bent arms of the 
 lever, E JI aud F N, for the power and weight arms; 
 but for the power-arm we must take, FA the per- 
 pendicular drawn from the fulcrum to the direction 
 
 Fi?. 3. 
 
 in which the power acts, and for the weight-arm we 
 must take FB, the perpendicular drawn from the 
 fulcrum to the direction in which the weight acts. 
 The same precaution must be observed if the power 
 and weight do not act in directions parallel to each 
 other, as shown in Fig. 4. 
 In Figs. 3, 3, 4, the power multiplied by the length 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 of F A is called the mrnnent of the power about the 
 fulcrum, and expresses the tendency that the power 
 has to produce motion about thc^ fulcnnu ; in the 
 same figures, the weight multiplied by the length of 
 F B is called the moment of the weight about the ful- 
 crum, and exi^rcsses the tendency that the weight 
 lias to produce motion about the fulcrum in tlie op. 
 posite direction. We see that wIk'U a lever is at rest 
 the moments of the power aud weight about the ful-
 
 MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 cruin are cqnnl. Lrvorfi nro pcnfrally dividpd into ' power is wantpd ; the human arm, Fig. B, is an ex- 
 
 tliriM- kinds, mcdnliiii; In tin- posilicjii of the power ; iiiiiplc. 'I'lic fulrruin is at llii- elbow, the w<-i(rhl IH 
 luid vviij,'hl Willi riL'iiril lo llic liilcniin. In levers of tlic li'uly resting on the hand, and llie coutraclilc 
 the lirsl kind the power and wi'iirlit act on ditTerent 
 
 sides of the fulcrum, as shown in Fiir. .■). It is cvi- 
 
 Flg. 5. 
 
 dent that with levers of tliis kind wemayeitber linve 
 a mer/ui n irat ndrnnUigi' or a nu'c/ianieal (Umidriintage, 
 accordingas the fulcrum is placed nearer the weisjlit 
 or the power. Kxamples of this kind of lever are 
 numerous; the cro\vl)nr. u.sed as seen in Fii;. 1; the 
 poker used in stirring; the fire; and the <law-h;im- 
 mer used in dniwimr a nidi, are faniili;ir illustra- 
 tions. In these, as well as in the examples to l)e 
 piven of the otiier two kinds of levers, the reader 
 shoidd satisfy himsi'lf as to what constitutes llie 
 fiih-rinn. yioirer.awA weight in each case. In levers of 
 the second kmd, the power and weight act ou the 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 same side of the fulcrum, the -weiffht being nearer 
 the fulcrum, as shown in Fig. 6. llere. it is evident, 
 that we have alwaj-s a niii-luinicnl iuhaiitnge,\\\w{\\ex 
 great or small, for the power-arm must be alwavs 
 somewhat longer than the weight-arm. Nut-crackers, 
 a chii)ping-knife.an o;ir used in propelling a boat. and 
 a door taken by the handle and opened on its hinges, 
 are levers of the second kind. In levers of the third 
 kinii, the power and weight also act upon the same 
 side of the fulcrum, the power being nearer the ful- 
 
 A. 
 
 force of the muscle furnishes the power which acts 
 at P. When the nmscle contracts, the hand de- 
 scribes a much longer curve than P does, and this 
 
 ctah- 
 
 w 
 
 FiL'. 'J. 
 
 is convenient. The Wlieel-nn<J-Axle. as represented 
 in PMg. !). consists of two cylinders of different si/.es, 
 having a common axis to which they are rig-irlly 
 attaclied : the larger cylinder is called the wheel, 
 because a wheel having a groove in its circumfer- 
 ence for carrying a rope is sometimes used instead 
 of it ; the smaller cylinder is called the axle; their 
 common axis is firmly supported on a strong frame. 
 The weight is attached to the end of a long rope 
 which is coiled round the axle, and the power 
 acts at the end of another rope which is coiled rf)und 
 the wheel in an opposite direction, so that when the 
 
 W 
 
 Fig. r. 
 
 crum, as in Fig. 7. In this kinn of lever there is al 
 waj's a mtrhanirnl dhndrant/ige^ for in it the power- 
 arm is always shorter than the weight-arm, so that 
 to support a weight with it a greater power is re- 
 quired than if the power were applied direct!}- and 
 without the intervention of a machine at all. " Thii ' rope is pulled down the weight is raised. Fig. 10 
 kind of lever is only used when velocity rather than I represents a vertical section of the wheel-and-axle,
 
 MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 304 
 
 MECHAIflCAL P0WEE8. 
 
 from which it is manifest that it is merely a modifi- 
 cation of the lever, in which C, the center nf the axle, 
 is the fulcrum. C A, the radius of the wheel, is the 
 power-arm. and C B, the radius of the axle is the 
 weight-arm. 
 
 It clearly follows, from the law of the lever, that 
 the wheel-and-axle is in equilibrium when the power 
 multiplied by the radius of the wheel equals the 
 weight multiplied by the radius of the axle ; so that 
 if the radius of the wheel were eighteen inches and 
 tlie radius of the axle two inches, then a power of 
 
 Fig. II. 
 
 one pound would balance a weight of nine poundB. 
 In the windlass, shown in Fig. ll,thearm,AC,is used 
 instead of a wheel. Examples of the practical ap- 
 plication of tlie wheel-and-axle are seen in the caps- 
 tan, crane, water-wheel, and toothed wheels. 
 
 Fig 12 shows a Pulley in use. It is a small disk 
 or wheel, of wood or metal, having a groove in its 
 circumference for carrying a string, and turns on an 
 axis passing through the center of its faces, the axis 
 being supported by a frame called a l)lock. Pulleys 
 are designated as either fixed or movable; a pulley 
 is said to be^Jvrf whenit does not ascend or descend 
 according as the weight is raised or lowered. It is 
 manifest from Fig. 12 that a fixed pulley has no 
 mechanical advantage, for the power, P, must be 
 equal to the weiglit, W, in order to support it. This 
 machine is only used to change the direction in wliich 
 a force acts. Wlien force is transmitted througli a 
 string, as it is in the case of pulleys, it gets the name 
 of te/Miiui, and a string possesses the property of 
 transmitting a force without changing its amount ; 
 thus the tension at every point of the string in Fig. 
 
 Fig. 12. Fig 13. 
 
 12 is the weight, W. Pulleys are called movable 
 when they ascend or descend according as the weight 
 is raised or lowered. We have a movable pulley in 
 Fig. 13. When ()nemoval)le i)ulley is used, Uic strings 
 being parallel. th(^ weight is ('(jual to twice tlie 
 power. For W is supported by th<^ tension in B H 
 and the tension in A P; and since the tension in each 
 of these is the power, P, acting upward, these two 
 tensions would support a weight of 2 I'; therefore 
 W must be equal to 2 P. It is generally found to be 
 convenient to vise a fixed [lulley along witli a mov- 
 able one when we wish to change the direction of 
 the force, as in Fig. 14. There are three systems of 
 
 arranging pulleys — or reeving them, as it is called. In 
 the first system, wliich is shown in Fig. 15, each 
 pulley hangs by a separate string, and all Uie strings 
 are parallel. When three movable pulleys are ar- 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 ranged thus, the weight is equal to eight times the 
 power ; for the tension in the string passing under 
 the first movable pulley at the top is the power, P ; 
 
 Fig, 15. 
 
 the tension in the string passing under the second 
 movable pulley is 2P: the tension in the string pass- 
 ing under the third movable pulley is 4 P ; and the 
 tension in the string hanging from this pulley is 8 P. 
 But this last tension supports the weight, W^, there- 
 fore W ^ 8 P. It will be observed that in this sys- 
 tem each movable pulley that is added doubles the 
 mechanical advantage. In the second system the 
 string passes round all the pullejs, and the folds of 
 this string are parallel, as represented in Fig. 16. 
 Here the weight, W, is supported by the tensions in 
 the folds of the string ; and as there are four fohls, 
 each having the tension of the power, P. the weight 
 must be four times the power. In this system the 
 weight is alwaj'S.as many times the power as there 
 are folds in the string, the folds being counted be- 
 tween the two blocks. In tlie third system Fig. 17, 
 each pulley hangs by a separate string, and the end 
 of each string is attached to the weight, the whole 
 being suspended from a fixed support. The tension 
 m the string passing over the first pulley at the bot- 
 tom is the power, P ; the tension in the string pass- 
 ing over the next pulley is 2 P: the tension in 
 the string passing over the third pulley from the 
 bottom is 4 P ; and so on. Thus it is when three 
 pulleys are arranged in this manner, W is sup- 
 porte'd by P -f 2 P -f- 4 P, that is, by 7 P, and
 
 MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 305 
 
 MECHANICAL P0WEH8. 
 
 therefore tlio wLi>,'lit in exactly cqnnl to seven 
 times tlie power. The I'lTect of iiny <iIIiit nimilMT 
 iniiy he eiilculaled Himilurly. The tirst ihiiit; tliat 
 strikes (iiif (in (xiiiriiiienling with tlie piiMeys is tlie 
 
 principle of virtual velocities. Let us mal^e an ex- 
 
 IHTimcnt with tlie first system, shown in Fii;. LI. 
 Here we liavB three movable puhcys, luiil we tinil 
 that a ]iower of 1 oz. halanees a weight of H oz. Triif: 
 hut cm imtting the machine in action, we also liiHJ 
 that wlien the weight is raised 1 ft. the power has to 
 move through 8 ft., so that what is gained in power 
 is lost in speod. and, as we said before, this is true 
 of every machine. 
 
 We now come to consider the inclined |)lauc. Here 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 is one in Fig. 18. We shall perform an experiment 
 on it, and then draw a conclusion. Let the weight, 
 W, be drawn from the bottom to the top of the in- 
 clined plane by the power, P, which acts on the 
 
 Ftg. m. 
 
 weight in a direction parallel to the length of the plane 
 AB; W will be thus raised through a vertical dis- 
 tance equal to B C. the height of the plane : but dur- 
 ing this time P will have descended through a ver- 
 tical distance equal to A B. the length of the plane. 
 Kow, from the principle of virtual velocities it fol- 
 lows at once that there is equilibrium here, wlien P 
 multiplied by A B is equal to W multiplied b)' B C; 
 that is, on the inclined plane, when the power acts 
 parallel to the length of the plane, there is eqiiilibri- 
 um when the'power multiplied by tlie length is equal 
 to the weight multiplied b}' the height. In Fig. 19, 
 
 an experiment m shown vfhich verificB the rule we 
 have just drawn from the prineiph: of virtual veloc- 
 ities. A \i and A (; are two boards, hinged together 
 at A. A C rests for convenience on a table, and A B 
 can be made to rise from it at any angle by insirrt- 
 ing a wedge, iiro|MTly i]re|mreil as seen in tlie (Igure. 
 Froni I! Jiangs a bar gradiialiMl in inches, by which 
 the height of I lie plane can be at once nieasuri'd. 
 Tlie carriage, W, (-onstitntes the weight, and the 
 power, 1', acts on it in a direction parallel to the 
 longlh of the |ilane. Xow make P balance; W, and 
 then measure the height anil length of the plane; 
 it will be fiiiiiid that P is to W as the height, of the 
 pliine is to its len'.rlli ; that is, the power multiplied 
 iiy the number of iiulies in the length will be equal 
 1(1 the weight iiiiilliplied by the niuiilier of inches in 
 the height. By varying the experiment, so that llic 
 power might act in a (lirection jiarallel to the base, 
 we would lind (hat there would he equilibriuin when 
 the jiower multiiilied liy the base equals the weight 
 niiiltiplicd by tlie height. Two inclined planes 
 ]ilaced base to base form a Wedr/e. It is much used 
 ill splitting wood, as in Fig. 20; it is also used for 
 raising great 
 
 
 Fii;. 20. 
 
 weights through small distances. In dockyards, 
 ships are raised on the stocks by wedges driven un- 
 der their keels. Theoretically considered, the me- 
 chanical advantage of the isosceles wedge is the side 
 of the wedge divided by half the back. But this 
 gives us no idea of the real advantage of the ma- 
 chine : this arises from its enormous friction, and 
 also because the force wliicli urges it is derived from 
 the blow of a hammer or a mallet, 
 etc.; a force so very different in its 
 nature from the resistance that it has 
 to overcome, which is the pressnrc of 
 some weight or the cohesion of the 
 particles of a body, that it admits of 
 no numerical comparison. One part 
 of the theory is true: that the small- 
 er the back the greater is the advan- 
 tage of the wedge. If a flexible in- 
 clined plane, A — one made of paper, 
 for example — be wrapped round a 
 cylinder, B, as in Fig. 2i, a screw is 
 formed. By means of the apparatus 
 in Fig. 23 we can determine the me- 
 chanical advantage of the screw. 
 The resistance here is the bar, AV, 
 which is to be moved forward : the 
 power acts at the handle, A P. When 
 the machine is put in action by turning the handle, 
 the power moves through the circumference of the 
 circle described by the handle, while the weight is 
 only moved from" a to i, the distance between two 
 threads; so that in the screw the power is to the 
 weight as the distance between two threads is to the 
 circumference of the circle described by the power. 
 Thus, suppose A P sweeps a circle of 30 in., and 
 that the distance between two threads is i in.: then 
 the mechanical advantage of the machine is 30 di- 
 vided by A, that is 60; so that if a power of 50 lbs. i» 
 
 Fig. 21.
 
 MEJHAHICS.7 
 
 306 
 
 MEDAL. 
 
 exerted on the handle, A P. the bar, W, is urged 
 forward with a force of GO times 50 lbs., that is 3,000 
 lbs. 
 
 The screw is much used to exert a great pressure 
 tlirougli sniiill distances. Fig. 23 shows a common 
 screw-press. To apply the screw here, in an expe- 
 ditious way, a hollow screw is cut in the nut, N, 
 
 Ffe. 33. 
 iuto the groves of which the threads of the solid 
 screw tit exactly. The solid screw, S, is fixed to 
 the press-board, B B, so that it cannot turn round, 
 but can be made to move up and down; on the 
 other hand, the nut, N, is fixed, so that it cannot 
 be moved up and down, but can be made to turn 
 round by means of the bar, P, which is inserted 
 in a hole" in its side. When the power makes one 
 revolution, the solid screw, with the press-board 
 attached to it, is raised through the distance 
 between two tlireads; so that if the power, P, 
 sweeps a circle of 20 ft., that is, 240 in., and the 
 
 distance between two threads is 1 in., then the 
 mechanical advantage of the machine is 240; so 
 that if a force of 100 lbs. be exerted on the extrem- 
 ity of the lever, anything placed between B and D 
 will be pressed with a force equal to 240 times 
 100 lbs., that is. 24,000 lbs., or W'; tons. In the 
 compomid machines, the mechanical advantage is 
 the |)r()diut of the mechanical advantages of the 
 simple machines which compose them. Thus, in 
 Fitf. 24 we have a compound machine consisting of 
 
 C T7 B 
 
 Fig. at 
 three levers combined together; its mech.anical ad- 
 vantage is 3 times 2 tinu-s 2, or 12: 3 beim; tlu' 
 mechanical advantage of the first lever, 2 that of the 
 second, and 2 that of the third. A jiower of 1 lb. 
 applied at A. would balance a vveiirlit of 12 lbs. 
 :it I). 
 
 MECHANICS. Tlie seiciicc wliich trials of llie 
 nature of forces and of their acliui on liodics, eitlier 
 tlirectlyorby the agency of machinery. The nature of 
 
 force will be found treated of under Fokce. The 
 action of forces on liodies may be in the form of 
 pressure or of impulse, and may or may not produce 
 motion. When the forces are so balanced as to 
 preserve the body affected by them in a state of 
 equilibrium, their actions are investigated in that 
 branch of mechanics called Statics ; when motion 
 is produced, they are considered under the head of 
 Dynamics, or Kyyietics. The equilibrium and motion 
 of fluids (including liquids and gases) is treated in 
 the subordinate branches of Hydrostatics and Hy- 
 drodynamics; though the special terms Aerostatics 
 and Aerodynamics (for which the comprehensive 
 term Pneumatics is often used) are sometimes em- 
 ployed to designate those portions of the science of 
 mechanics in which the action of gaseous bodies is 
 treated of. The science of mechanics owes very 
 little to the ancient philosophers. They were ac- 
 quainted with the conditions of equilibrium on the 
 lever — discovered by Archimedes — and had reduced 
 the theory of all the mechanical powers, except the 
 pulley and the inclined plane and its derivatives, to 
 that of the lever, but this was nearly all. Archi- 
 medes, starting from the principle of equilibrium on 
 the lever, struck out the idea of a center of gravity 
 for every body, and investigated the position of that 
 point for the triangle, parabola, and paraboloid. Till 
 the 16th century, the science remained stationary. 
 Cardan, the Marquis Ubaldi, and Stevinus — tlie 
 first to give the correct theory of equilibrium on the 
 inclined plane — then gave it a slight impetus, and 
 the labors of Galileo, who introduced the expression 
 of mechanical propositions in mathematical formu- 
 las, discovered the laws regulating the motion of 
 falling bodies, and originat.ed investigations con- 
 cerning the strength of materials, placed the science 
 on a bl-oad and substantial basis. Torricelli, Des- 
 cartes, Pascal, Fermat, Roberval. and Huyghens, on 
 the continent, and Wallis and Wren in England — 
 the last three of whom simultaneously discovered 
 the laws which regulate the collision of bodies — 
 added each his quota to the New Science, as Me- 
 chanics was then called. In 1687, appeared New- 
 ton's Principia, in which the complete experimental 
 basis of the subject was first laid down in a satis- 
 factory maimer, and the mechanical principles which 
 had before been considered to act only at the sur- 
 face of the earth, were shown to rule and direct the 
 motions of the planets. Contemporary with Newton 
 were Leibnitz, and the two elder Bernouillis, James 
 and John, who, besides contributing greatly to the 
 advancement of the science, applied to it the newly- 
 invented differential calculus, which was found to 
 be a weapon of immense power. From this time, a 
 constant succession of illustrious men have prose- 
 cuted the study of theoretical mechanics, or of 
 subjects connected with it. The chief names are 
 Daniel Bcrnouilli, Euler, D'Alembert, Clairaut, La- 
 grange, Laplace. Lagrange's Mecanique A7ialyUque 
 not only systematised the subject, but enormousls' 
 increased its power and the range of its applica- 
 tions. The last great additions to the science are 
 those made by Sir W. R. Hamilton, under the name 
 of the principle of Varying Action. The develop- 
 ments which this h,as received from Jacobi, Boole, 
 Cayley, Liouville, Donkin, Bour. etc.. form an ex- 
 tensive and ditficull branch of applied mathematics, 
 chiefly of the theory of simultaneous <lifferential 
 equations. 
 
 MEDAL - A piece of metal in the form of a coin, 
 not issued or circulated as money, but stamped with 
 a figure or device to preserve tlic ]>ortrait of some 
 eminent person, or I he memory of some illustrious ac- 
 tion or event. Tile study of medals, interesting in 
 an historical and anti(|uarian point of view, is also 
 important as illustrating the contemporary state of 
 art. Like coins, medals belong to two periods, an- 
 cient and modern, separated by a wide interval. To 
 the former liehmg those pieces issuing from the mint 
 of ancient Rome, known as M-dn't'iimi, of the size
 
 H£SAILL£ MILITAISS. 
 
 MEDICAL SCHOOL. 
 
 of the aureus in );(ilil, of tlic ilcnarius in Bilvcr, iind 
 of the tirst <jr larjjc Ijrans in copper. 'I'licyare ^fncr- 
 crally .Hupposcil to liavi; bern sirui'k on occasions 
 Niniilar to tlKis<' on wliicli medals arc coined in mod- 
 ern times, on tlie accession of an Emperor, on the 
 ucliievement of an imp<irtant vi(^lory, or us specimens 
 of \vorl<mansliip; hut tlicr<' are circumstances wliich 
 countenance the helief tliat they were circulated as 
 money. Medallions prior to the time of Hadrian arc 
 rare and of ^jrcat value; one of the most lieautifid 
 and most famous hcinnai^'old medallion of AultusIus 
 C'a'sar; from Hadrian to the close of the Kmpire they 
 are comi)aratively conuuon. Of the Roman medal- 
 lions, somct wen' struck l)y order of the Emperors, 
 some by the Senate; the latter nniv be known by being 
 inscribed with the letters S. ('. 'I'lie lar!j;er bronze me- 
 dallions are of adinirabU^ workmanship. In some of 
 them a riny' of bronze surrounds a center of (ropper, 
 and tlie inscription extends over both metals. No por- 
 trail of a person not princely o<-curs on any ancient 
 medal, a rem;irkable circumstance, coiisidcrinu; the 
 numerous conlemporary statues of poets, historians, 
 and philosopliers. The CuntorniiiU are bronze med- 
 als marked with furrows (funtorni). distributed at 
 the public names and apparently also in use as money, 
 Numerous medals and medallions were stru<'kin the 
 (Jrci'k provinces of the Uoman Kmpire, of less sub- 
 stance and thickness, for the most part, than those 
 of Rome. The Sicilian medals are of very tine work- 
 manship, particularly one with a head of Ceres, and 
 on the reverse a Victory crowning a figure in a ear. 
 
 Medals in the present day are conferred by the Sov- 
 ereign as marks of distinction for eminent worth or 
 noble conduct, more particularly for naval and mili- 
 tary services. Such med:ils of honor are seldom of 
 gTe;it intrinsic value, their wortli de|iending merely 
 on lheassociationsconiiectc<l with tlicm. They have 
 ribbons attached, with clasps or small bars, each of 
 wliich bears the name of a particular action. The 
 Waterloo medal is of silver, with the head of (Jeorge 
 IV (Prince Regent), a winged Victory, andthe wonis 
 " Waterloo," " Wellington;" it hangs from a crimson 
 ribbon, with a narrow stripe of blue near ciich edge. 
 The ('rinu';ui nu'dal, also of silver, is attached to a 
 blue ribbon with yellow edges when worn for .service 
 in the Crimea, and to a yellow ribb(m with blue edges 
 when for service in tlie Hallie. Good-service medals 
 of silver were institutedMu 1830 and 1831, and rules 
 formed fortheir distribution among meritorious sail- 
 ors, soldiers, and marines. The Naval medal is worn 
 suspended from a blue, and the Jlilitary from a crim- 
 son ribbon. There are also various British medals 
 which have been conferred for services in the Penin- 
 sula, India, etc. On every medal is engraved the 
 name, rank, etc., regiment or ship of the recipient of 
 it. Medals and decorations do not seem to have been 
 evpr conferred as rewarils in the Army or Navy prior 
 to the Commonwealth. The French military medal 
 and the Sardinian War Jledal were some time ago be- 
 stowetl to a large e.xtent on British officers, soldiers, 
 seamen, and marines. The former exhibits the effigy 
 of Napoleon III. , surmounted by an eagle, and is worn 
 from a yellow ribbon with green borders; the latter is 
 charged with the Cross of Savoy, and suspended from 
 a skv-blue ribbon. 
 
 MEDAILLE MIHTAIEE.— A French military medal 
 inslituled by Napoleon III. It is conferred princi- 
 pally (m privates and nou-commissioned officers for 
 galhiutry in the field, and carries with it a pension 
 of i'5 a year. Tlie medaille miUtaire is, however, 
 also conferred on Field Marshals and Generals when 
 they have attained to the highest rank of military 
 honors, that of Grand-Croix of the Legion of Honor. 
 It exhibits the effigy of the founder, surmounted by 
 an eagle, and is attached to a yellow ribbon with a 
 green border. It was, after the Crimean War, be- 
 stowed, to a large extent, on British soldiers. 
 
 MEDICAL BOARD.— A Board consisting of three or 
 more officers of the Medical Department, convened 
 by an order through the Secretary of War, for the 
 
 inspectiim of woiindcrd ofllcerH in order to He<:iirc 
 them a provision for jifi', in uc<-ordance with the 
 rcirulations rr-LMrrliriL' jjcnsions, etf:. 
 
 MEDICAL DEPARTMENT,- 'Ibis Departriient of an 
 army, next lo Ihi- ( umiiiissariat, is thir most impor- 
 tant of all the non-combatant sections. The surgical 
 trealm<'nt of the woimdeii in actual lighting, and still 
 more the combat with di.sease engendered by crowd- 
 ing, unhealthy stations, and the reckless habits of 
 the soldiery, necessitate a large Medical] SlafT; for,oii 
 an average of the wholi' army, it is found that Ibi; 
 rate of sickness is at least triple that for the civil pop- 
 ulation. 
 
 In the British army every liattalion, when at home 
 or in the temperate zone, has a Surgeon and an As- 
 sistant Surgeon; when in India or the tropics, anolbcr 
 Assistant Surgeon is added. In addition lo these of- 
 ficers, there are numerous Staff .Medical Ollicers at 
 all stations, who have charge of detachnienis, hos- 
 pitals, etc. The active list of the Medical Officers 
 comprised, in 1879-80, H'.Hi Surgeons-General, IJep- 
 utyjSurgeons General. Surgeons Major,and Surgeon.s. 
 Besides these, there are Ix^lween 400 and .000 Medi- 
 cal OHicers em])lo)ed with the army in India. The 
 total estimate for medical establishments and ser- 
 vices in 187i)-80 was XSOIi.SOO. The Medical Depart- 
 ment is governed by a Director-General, who is a 
 member of the War Office, and has charge of the sur- 
 gical, medical, and sanitary arrangements of the 
 army. 
 
 In the United States, the Surgeon General is charg- 
 ed, under the Secretary of Wiir, with the adminis- 
 trative duties of the Medical Dcpiirtment. The Chief 
 Medical Purveyor is the chief purchasing and dis- 
 bursing olHccrof the Medical Department. He has, 
 under the direction of the Surgeon General, tin; su- 
 Iiervision o! the purchase and distribution of all med- 
 ical and hospital supplies. Every military post has 
 at least one medical officer and sometimes two, as 
 the nature of the climate or the strength of the gar- 
 rison demands; all of whom are under the command 
 of the Surgeon Genera'.. 
 
 The Medical Department is, at present, organized 
 as follows: — One Surgeon Genera!, with the rank of 
 Brigadier General; one Assistant Surgeon General, 
 with the rank of Colonel; one Chief Medical Purvey- 
 or, with the rank of Colonel; four Surgeons, with the 
 rank of Colonel; eight Surgeons, with the rank of 
 Lieutenant-colonel; two Assistant 5Iedical Purvey- 
 ors, with the rank of Lieutenant-colonel; fifty Sur- 
 geons, with the rank of Major; eighty-eight Assis- 
 tant Surgeons, with the rank of Captain; and thirl}-- 
 seven Assistant Surgeons, with the rank of First 
 Lieutenant. There are also in the Medical Deiiart- 
 ment, four Medical Storekeepers, and one hundred 
 and tifty Hospital Stewards. Assistant Surgeons 
 have the rank, pay, and emoluments of First Lieu- 
 tenant of Cavalry for the first five years' service, and 
 the rank, pay, and emoluments of the grade of Cap- 
 tain after fire vears 'service. 
 
 MEDICAL' DIRECTOR.— In tlie United States ser- 
 vice, an officer who is assigned to duty at the Head- 
 quarters of a Military Geographical Division or 
 Department, and who, under the supervision of the 
 Surgeon General, has control of the Medical De- 
 partment within the limits of the command in 
 which he is serving. Medical Directors are as- 
 signed by order of the Secretary of A^'ar, and are 
 required to make such special reports to the Sur- 
 geon General as shall at all times keep him fully in- 
 formed as ito the sanitary condition of his Depart- 
 ment. 
 
 MEDICAL SCHOOL.— An establishment for the tech- 
 nical education of medical officers forthe British and 
 Indian military service. Candidates are examined 
 competitively in the ordinary subjects of professional 
 knowledge; and. passing satisfactorily tbrougli that 
 ordeal, are then required to attend, for six months, 
 at the Military Medical School, where they go through 
 jiractical courses of military hygiene, military and
 
 MEDICAL STAFF. 
 
 308 
 
 MEDICAL SUPPLIES. 
 
 clinical-military surgery and medicine, and patholo- 
 gy with morbid anatomy. As tlie School is attached 
 to the Koyal Victoria Hnspital, which is the great in- 
 valid depot for the whole army, the students have 
 ample opportunity of seeing theory exemplified in 
 practice. The School comprises 4 Professors with 
 £850 a year each, 4 Assistant Professors having £450 
 each, and usually about 40 medical candidates, who 
 receive each 5 shillings a day and lodging-money. 
 The annual cost of the whole establishment is about 
 £7,fl00. 
 
 MEDICAL STAFF.— A branch of the British Army, 
 under the control of some experienced officer, sta- 
 tioned at headquarters and denominated Director 
 General. Immediately under his command are a 
 number of Inspectors General, Deputy Inspectors 
 General, and a Corps of Staff Surgeons. The locality 
 of all the ofticers subordinate to the Director Gen- 
 eral is determined by the force to which they may 
 be attached. All the Keginient.al Surgeons and As- 
 sistant Surgeons make their reports to and consult 
 the Staff Officer who is placed in their district. The 
 Director General is paid from the civil department 
 of the Government. A Deputy Inspector General 
 of Hospitals must have served five years at home, 
 or three years abroad in this rank, before he shall 
 be eligible to the hisrhest rank of Inspector General. 
 
 MEDICAL STOREKEEPEES.— Medical Storekeepers 
 are charged, tmderthe direction of the Surgeon Gen- 
 eral and the Chief and Assistant Medical Purveyors, 
 with the storing and safe-keeping of Medical supplies, 
 and with the duties of receiving, issuing.and account- 
 ing for the same, according to regulations. If a Med- 
 ical Storekeeper be assigned to the same depot with 
 an Assistant Medical Purveyor, he prepares all re- 
 quisitions under his direction and subject to his ap- 
 proval. Medical supplies transferred to Medical Store- 
 keepers by the Chief or Assistant Medical Purveyors 
 are receipted for as invoiced, without breaking pack- 
 ages, provided that the number of packages corres- 
 ponds with the invoice, that thej- be in good ship- 
 ping condition, and that there be no reason to sup- 
 pose the contents broken or defective. Medical 
 Storekeepers cause the Medical supplies issued or 
 transferred by them to be well packed, each article 
 designated by the name of the maker or vender, and 
 each package legibly and correctly marked with the 
 address of the oflicer for whom it may be intended, 
 and with its weight and contents, whether medicines, 
 hospital stores, instruments, dressings, books and 
 stationer}', bedding, clothing, or furniture and ap- 
 pliances. There are four Medical Storekeepers iu 
 the United States army, with the rank, pay and 
 emohuuenis of a Captain of Cavalry. 
 
 MEDICAL SUPPLIES.— The Medical supplies for an 
 army are prescribed in the Standard Supply Tables 
 
 furrished by the Surgeons General, and issues are 
 governed by it, except as to the size of packages, 
 which'may be regulated by circumstances and quan- 
 tities re(juired. \Vhen any requisition is not accord- 
 ing to the Supply Table, the reason therefore is ex- 
 plained, as in the prevalence of epidemics, unhealthy 
 location of troops, or other cause making a deviation 
 desirable. In the United States service. Acting 
 Assistant Medical Purveyors at field depots, and the 
 senior Medical Officer of every hospital, regiment, 
 post, or detached command, forward their requisi- 
 tions for Medical supplies to the Medical Director 
 under whom they may be serving. The Medical 
 Director approves or modifies the requisition at his 
 discretion and transmits them to the nearest purvey- 
 ing depot for issue. If the Assistant Medical Pur- 
 veyor or officer in charge of the depot deems 
 necessary, on account of the character of the sup- 
 plies, he forwards the requisition through the Chief 
 Medical Purveyor to the Surgeon General for instruc- 
 tions. If the quantity required be large, and there 
 is time, the Medical Director transmits the requisi- 
 tions, with his recommendations indorsed thereon, 
 to the Surgeon General. 
 
 Requisitions to replenish Medical supplies are madft 
 in detail, in duplicate, and transmitted by different 
 mails, on the 30th June and 31st December They 
 are made only for articles that are, or probably will 
 be, deficient. They exhibit the quantit}- of every 
 article on hand, whether more be wanted or not. At. 
 remote posts, requisitions are made at such times 
 and for such periods as may be specially authorized 
 by the Surgeon General. Special requisitions are 
 only permissible in cases of emergency. A duplicate 
 of every special requisition, giving the name of the 
 officer upon whom it is made, is immediately for- 
 warded to the Surgeon General for his inforniatirn. 
 Requisitions for articles not on the Standard Supply 
 Table is, iu all cases, forwarded to the Surgeon 
 General for his action. When it is necessary to ob- 
 tain Medical supplies, and recourse cannot lie had to a 
 purvej-ing depot.they may be purchased by the Medi- 
 cal Officer, and bills in duplicate therefor sent through 
 the Medical Director to the Surgeon General for ex- 
 amination a,nd payment. The purchasing officer shall 
 prepare, in triplicate, an invoice of all the articles 
 bought — one copy to be forwarded to the Surgeon 
 General, with the bill i one, as a voucher, to accom- 
 pany his next property return, on which he accounts 
 for the articles purchased; and one to be filed with 
 his retained set of vouchers. In all official lists of 
 Medical supplies the nomenclature, order, and classi- 
 fication of the Standard Supply Table is strictly 
 followed. The whole table is not transcribed in all 
 instances, but the names of the articles mentioned 
 follow the official arrangement. 
 
 I.— REGULAR LIST 
 
 MEDICINES. 
 
 Acid, acetic. 
 
 Acid, carbolic, for disinfection. 
 
 Acid, carbolic, pure, crystallized. 
 
 Acid, citric. 
 
 Acid, muriatic. 
 
 Acid, nitric. 
 
 Acid, sulpliuric. 
 
 Acid, suliiliuric, aromatic. 
 
 Acid, tannic. 
 
 Acid, tartaric, powdered. 
 
 Alcohol. 
 
 Aloes, powdered. 
 
 Alumina and potassa, sulpliate of. 
 
 Ammonia, aromatic spirits of. 
 
 Ammonia, carbonate of. 
 
 Ammonia, muriate of. 
 
 Ammonia, solution of. 
 
 Antimony and potassa, tartrate of. 
 
 Arsenic, pills of. 
 
 Arseuite of potassa, solution of. 
 
 Belladonna, alcoholic extract of. 
 
 Bismuth, subnitrate of. 
 
 Borax, powdered. 
 
 Camphor. 
 
 Castor oil. 
 
 Cerate, blistering. 
 
 Cerate, resin. 
 
 Cerate, simple. 
 
 CluiJk, prepared. 
 
 Chlcral, hydrate of. 
 
 Chlorofcjnn, purified. 
 
 CinclKHKi, II 11 id extract of. 
 
 Ciunaninii, oil of. 
 
 ("od liver oil. 
 
 Colehicum seed, Muid extract of. 
 
 Coloeynth. eoni])ound extract of. 
 
 Copper, sulphate of. 
 
 Crotou oil. 
 
 Digitalis, tincture of. 
 
 Lrgot, lluid extract of. 
 
 Ether, compound spirits of. 
 
 Ether, stronger, for anaisthcsia. 
 
 Ether, spirits of nitrous. 
 
 Flaxseed. 
 
 Flaxseed meal. 
 
 Ginger, fluid extract of. 
 
 Glycerine, pure. 
 
 Gum arable, powdered. 
 
 Hyoscyamus, alcoholic extract of. 
 
 Iodine. 
 
 rpecacuanha, powdered. 
 
 Iron, solution of the sulphate of. 
 
 Iron, sulpliate of. 
 
 Iron, tincture of the chloride of. 
 
 Iron and qiiinia, citrate of. 
 
 .lalap, powdered. 
 
 Lavender, compound spirits of. 
 
 Lead, acetate of. 
 
 Liquorice, extract of. 
 
 Licpiorice root, powdered. 
 
 Magnesia, heavy calcined. 
 
 Magnesia, sulpliate of. 
 
 Mercurial ointmeut. 
 
 Mercury, corrosive chloride of.
 
 JIEDICAI, SUPPLIES. 
 
 309 
 
 UEBICAL SUPFLIEB. 
 
 Mprrury witli chalk. 
 
 C'antharides, cerate of the extract 
 
 Flannel, red, all wool. 
 
 Mercury, inilil chloride of. 
 
 of. 
 
 (;utta-])(rcha cloth. 
 
 Mercury, ointiiRiit of the nitrate 
 
 (Jatecliu. 
 
 liinl, patint. 
 
 of. 
 
 Chamomile flowers. 
 
 Lint, pickid. 
 
 Mercury, ])ill of. 
 
 Cinchona bark, powdered, 
 
 .Muslin. 
 
 Mercury, rc<l oxide of. 
 
 Cloves, oil of. 
 
 Needles, cotton, Ihindjle in case. 
 
 Morphiii, sulphiite of. 
 
 Collodion. 
 
 Needles, assorted. 
 
 Mustard Hccd, black, ground. 
 
 Copabia. 
 
 Needles, uphol.sterer'g. 
 
 Ku.x vomica, alcoholic extract of. 
 
 Creosote. 
 
 Oakum. 
 
 Olive oil. 
 
 Cubeb, oleo-resin of. 
 
 Oile<l muslin. 
 
 Opium, camphorated tincture of. 
 
 (ientian, fluid extract of. 
 
 Oile<! silk. 
 
 Opium, compouinl powder of. 
 
 (Jum araliic. 
 
 Plaster of Paris. 
 
 Opium, <lciH|ori/,cil tincture of. 
 
 (iuaiac, resin of. 
 
 Pencils, hair. 
 
 Opium, powdered. 
 
 Indian bcmj), jiuritieil extract of. 
 
 Pins. 
 
 Opium, tincture of. 
 
 Ijx'cacuaidia, fluid extract of. 
 
 Plaster, adhesive. 
 
 Peppiir, Cayeime, uTound. 
 
 Iron, dried sulphate of. 
 
 Plaster, isinglass. 
 
 Pei)pernunt, spirits of. 
 
 Iron, by by<lrogen. 
 
 Silk, gray. 
 
 Pills, cam|)hor and opium, in bot- 
 
 Iron, hyijopliosphate of. 
 
 Silk, ligature. 
 
 tles. 
 
 Iron, syrup of tlic iodide of. 
 
 Splints. 
 
 Pills, compound cathartic, in bot- 
 
 Iron, oxalate of. 
 
 Splints, Smith's anterior. 
 
 tles. 
 
 Iron and potassa, tartrate of. 
 
 Splints, material for making, felt. 
 
 Pills, (ipinin, in bottles. 
 
 Iron, pyrophosphale of. 
 
 Sponge. 
 
 Podophyllum, resin of. 
 
 Mercury, green iodide of. 
 
 Tapi-, cotton. 
 
 Potassa, caustic. 
 
 Mercury, yellow .subsulphate of. 
 
 Thread, linen. 
 
 Potassa, acetate of. 
 
 Mor|)hia, acetate of. 
 
 Thread, cotton, spools. 
 
 Potassa, biearl)onate of. 
 
 Myrrh. 
 
 Tow. 
 
 Potassa, bitartrate of. 
 
 Origanum, oil of. 
 
 Towels. 
 
 Potassa, chlorate of. 
 
 Potassium, cyanide of . 
 
 Towels, roller. 
 
 Potassa, nitrate of. 
 
 Sarsaparilla, fluid extract of. 
 
 Twine. 
 
 Potassa, permanffanate of. 
 
 Senna, confection of. 
 
 
 Potassium, bronude of. 
 
 Sinapism paper. 
 
 IV.- ARTICLES NOT EX- 
 
 Potassium, iodide of. 
 
 Soda, phosphate of, exsiccated. 
 
 PENDABLE. 
 
 Qiiiuia, s\di)hate of. 
 Khuharb, ])o\vdered. 
 
 Soda, suljjhite of, exsiccated. 
 Sulphur, in roll. 
 
 IN8TBUMENTS. 
 
 Roclielle salt. 
 
 Tar, wood. 
 
 Atomizers, steam. 
 
 iSantonin. 
 
 Taraxacum, fluid extract of. 
 
 ('upi)ing glasses. 
 
 Seneka, lluid extract of. 
 
 Tolu, balsam of. 
 
 Cupiiing tins. 
 
 Silver, nitrate of, in crystals. 
 
 Valerian, fluid extract of. 
 
 Kleetric apparatus. 
 
 Silver, nitrate of, fused. 
 
 Veratruin viriile, fluid extract of . 
 
 Field case. 
 
 Soap, eastile. 
 
 Veratrum viride, tincture of. 
 
 Irrigators. 
 
 Soap, common. 
 
 Wax, yellow. 
 
 Lancet, thumb. 
 
 Soda, bicarbonate of. 
 
 Wild-t'herry bark, fluid extract of. 
 
 Leech, artiflcial. 
 
 Soda, chlorinated solution of. 
 
 HOSPITAL STORES. 
 
 Obstetrical case. 
 
 Sqidll, powdered. 
 
 Arrow-root. 
 
 Pocket case. 
 
 Squill, syrup of. 
 
 BarU-y. 
 
 Post-mortem case. 
 
 Strychnia. 
 
 Beef, extractor, Liebigs. 
 
 Scarificators, 
 
 Sulphur, washed. 
 
 Brandy. 
 
 Scissors. 
 
 Turpentine, oil of. 
 
 Candles. 
 
 Speculum for the rectum. 
 
 Vaccine virus. 
 
 Candles. wa.\. 
 
 Speculum for the vagina. 
 
 Wax, white. 
 
 Cinnamon, 
 
 Spongeholders. 
 
 Zinc, acetate of. 
 
 Cocoa or chocolate. 
 
 Spray apparatus. 
 
 Zinc, oxide of. 
 
 Corn starch. 
 
 Stethoscope. 
 
 Zinc, solution of chloride of. 
 
 Farina. 
 
 Stomach-pump and tube, in case. 
 
 Zinc, sulphate of. 
 
 Gelatin, shred. 
 
 Syr'nges, bard rubber, 8-ounce. 
 
 
 Ginger. 
 
 Syringes, hypodermic. 
 
 II.-SUPPLEMENT.\UY LIST. 
 
 Milk, concentrated. 
 
 Syringes, rubber, self-injecting. 
 
 MEDICINES. 
 
 Nutmegs. 
 
 Syringes, rubber, self-injecting. 
 
 Acid, arsenious. 
 
 PepperT black. 
 
 with colpeurynter in each case. 
 
 Acid, benzoic. 
 
 Sugar, white. 
 
 Syringes, universal, hard rubber. 
 
 Acid, chronuc. 
 
 Tapioca. 
 
 Syringes, vagina, glass. 
 
 Acid, gallic. 
 
 Tea, black. 
 
 Syringes, vagina, hard rubber. 
 
 Acid phosphoric, diluted. 
 
 Whiskey. 
 
 T'ooth-extracling case. Army pat- 
 
 Acid, hydrocyanic, diluted. 
 
 Wine. 
 
 tern. 
 
 Aconite root, fluid extract of. 
 
 
 Thermometer, clinicaL 
 
 Aconite root, tincture of. 
 
 III.-AKTICLES EXPENDA- 
 
 Tonirue depressors. 
 
 Ammonia, phosphate of 
 
 BLE. 
 
 Tourniquets, field. 
 
 Anise, oil of. 
 
 INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 Tourniquets, screw, with pad. 
 
 Arnica, fluid extract of 
 
 Nipple shields. 
 
 Urinometers. 
 
 Arsenic and mercury, solution of 
 
 Probangs. 
 
 Amputating case. 
 
 iodide of. 
 
 Syringes, glass. 
 
 Trephining case. 
 
 Assafetida. 
 
 Syringes, rubber. 
 
 General operating case. 
 
 Atropia, sulphate of. 
 
 Trusses, single. 
 
 Exsecling case. 
 
 Bismuth, subcarbonate of. 
 
 Trusses, double. 
 
 Capital operation case. 
 
 Bismuth, tannate of. 
 
 DBESSmOS. 
 
 Jlinor operation case. 
 
 Blistering, liquid. 
 
 Bandages. 
 
 Trunks, leather. 
 
 Bromine. 
 
 Bandages, suspensory. 
 
 Barometer, aneroid. 
 
 Buchu, fluid extract of. 
 
 Binder's boards, small. 
 
 Barometer, mercurial. 
 
 Cacao, butter of. 
 
 Binder's boards, large. 
 
 Hygrometer. 
 
 Calabar bean, extract of. 
 
 Cotton bats. 
 
 Rain-gauge. ■ 
 
 Cantharides, tincture of. 
 
 Cotton wadding. 
 
 Rain-gauge glasses.
 
 ICESICINE CHEST. 
 
 310 
 
 MELDER SYSTEM OF FOETIFICATIOK 
 
 Thermometer, maximum. 
 Thermometer, minimum. 
 Thermometer, standard. , 
 
 Anatomy, Grays. 
 Bumstead on Venereal. 
 Chemistry, Fowne's. 
 Children, Diseases of,Meigs Treat- 
 ise. 
 Children, Diseases of, Vogel. 
 Craig on the Decimal System. 
 Diagnosis, Da Costa's. 
 Dictionary, English, Worcester's. 
 Dictionary Medical, Dimglison's. 
 Diseases of Women, Thomas. ^_, 
 Dispensatory. 
 Ear, Troltsch on. 
 Eye, Stellwag on. 
 Histology, Strieker's. 
 Hygiene, Parke's. 
 Jurisprudence, Taylor's. 
 Jurisprudence, Stille' & Wharton's. 
 Meteorology, Loomis'. 
 
 Midwifery, Hodges. 
 Midwifery, Cazeau.x'. 
 Ophthalmoscope, Zander. 
 Pathology, Surgical, Billroth's, 
 Physics, Ganot's. 
 Physiology, Flint's. 
 Practice of Medicine, Flint's. 
 Practice of Medicine, Wood's. 
 Practice of Medicine, Reynolds'. 
 Practice of Medicine, Aitken's. 
 Practice of Medicine, Niemeyer's. 
 Recruits, Examination of, 'Trip- 
 
 ler's. 
 Skin, Diseases of, Tilbury Fox's. 
 Surgery, Erichsen's. 
 Surgery, Gross'. 
 Surgery, Holmes". 
 Surgery, Guthrie's Commentaries. 
 Therapeutics, Stillc's. 
 Therapeutics, Waring's. 
 Therapeutics, Mechanical, Wales'. 
 Woodward on " Camp Diseases." 
 Woodward's Hospital Steward's 
 
 Manual. 
 Case,Diet and Prescription Book. 
 
 Morning Report Book. 
 Order and Letter Book. 
 Record of Deaths. 
 Register, Meterological. 
 Register of Patients. 
 Register, Surgical Operations. 
 
 Bed sacks. 
 Beds, water. 
 Blankets. 
 Blanket cases. 
 Counterpanes. 
 Cushions, rubber, small. 
 Cushions, rubber, with open cen- 
 ter. 
 Gutta-percha bed covers. 
 Mattresses, hair. 
 Mosquito bars. 
 Pillows, hair. 
 Pillows, feathers. 
 Pillow cases, white. 
 Pillow ticks. 
 Sheets. 
 
 The above Table is ample and sufficiently varied for ordinary practice, but in order to provide for the 
 necessities of unusual emergencies, and to indulge, as far as practicable, individual preference and treat- 
 ment, special requisitions for numerous miscellaneous articles, not on the Table. may be made to the 
 Surgeon General at any time. ^^^__^^ 
 
 UEDICINE CHEST.— A pannier filled with a varie- 
 ty of medicines necessary for a campaign, together 
 with such chirurgical instruments as are useful. 
 These chests are usually provided by the Govern- 
 ment, and are fitted up with a view to being trans- 
 ported on pack animals. Before taking the field for 
 a long or indefinite period. Commanding Officers, or 
 Surgeons-in-Charge, should provide a sufficient num- 
 ber of Medicine Cheats, each supplied with the follow- 
 ing articles : A case of pocket surgical instruments, 
 consisting of, at least, a lancet, sclilpel, small knife, 
 forceps, and scissors; a few rolls of sticking and ad- 
 hesive plaster; some silk, needles and waxed thread; 
 an assortment of bandages, splints, sponges and 
 some red flannel ; some lint, oil-silk and tow ; a flask 
 of wine or brandy ; a hypodermic injection syringe ; 
 a tourniquet and small cup ; blue mass, quinine , 
 opium and cathartic, put up in usual doses ; a little 
 chloroform, laudanum, hartshorn, camphor, solu- 
 tion of morphia, iodine, tincture of chloride of iron, 
 chloride of hme, tincture of m3Trh and aloes, tinct- 
 ure of arnica (excellent for strains and contusions), 
 spirits of nitre, ammonia and turpentine ; sulphates 
 of iron, zinc and copper ; pulverized indigo, carron 
 oil, saltpeter, tartar emetic, nitrate of potash, pre- 
 pared chalk, tincture of opium and catechu, cantha- 
 rides (in powder), sugar of lead, acetic acid, and 
 powdered mustard ; emetics and aperients (mild and 
 powerful); nitrate of silver, in a holder ; cold cream 
 or glycerine (cooling for irritated surfaces) ; a cor- 
 dial for diarrhoea, a sudorific (Dover's powders ex- 
 cellent), and some simple cerate or a mixture of wax 
 and lard ; some alum, Jamaica ginger, castor oil, 
 linseed oil and meal, flaxseed, and an assortment of 
 cathartic, diuretic, sedative, febrifuge and alterative 
 "l)alls"; also some astringent ointment (one part ace- 
 tate of lead and three parts of lard), hoof ointment 
 (equal parts of tar and lard), and a strong liniment. 
 See Field Jiemedien, Medical /Supplies and Military 
 Surgery. 
 
 MEDJIDIE.— A Turkish Order, instituted in 18r)2, 
 and conferred after tiicCrinican Campaign, to a con- 
 siderable extent, on Britisli officers. It has five 
 classes; and tlie decoration, which dilTcrs in size for 
 the dilTerent classes, is a silver sun of seven triple 
 rays, with the device of the crescent and star alter- 
 nating with the rays. On a circle of red enamel, in 
 the center of the decoration, is the Icgeiul in Turkish, 
 whose signification is "Zeal, llonur, aiiil Loyally," 
 and the date 1208, the Mohammedau year corre- 
 
 sponding to 1852; the Sultan's name is inscribed on 
 a gold field within this circle. The first three classes 
 suspend the badge around the neck from a red rib- 
 bon having green borders, and the fourth and fifth 
 classes wear it attached to a similar ribbon on the 
 left breast. A star, in design closely resembling the 
 badge, is worn on the left breast by the first class, 
 and on the right breast by the second class. 
 
 MEDIUM CAVALRY.— An appellation given to 
 some of the regiments of the British army which are 
 neither /(fai'^ nor light. There are 11 regiments of 
 medium cavalry, 5 of which are Lancers (5th, 9th, 
 12th, 16th, and 17th), five Dragoon Guards (1st, 2d, 
 3d, 6th, 7th), and one (6th) Dragoons. The latter 6 
 regiments wear brass helmets. The average weight 
 carried bv the horses of the medium cavalry is about 
 18 stone 10 lbs. 
 
 MEER BDKSHY.— A Chief Paymaster in the East 
 Indies. 
 
 MEER TOZUK.— In the East Indies, a Marshal 
 whose business is to preserve order in a procession 
 or line of march, and to report absentees. 
 
 MEGGHETERIARQUE.— The Commanding Officer 
 of a body of men called Meteriennes, who formerly 
 did duty at Constantinople. They were composed of 
 soldiers who were enlisted in the Allied Nations. 
 
 MEGRIMS, — Megrims and vertigo are the terms 
 usually applied when a horse at work reels, and then 
 either stands for a minute dull and stupid, or falls to 
 the ground, lying for a time partially insensible. 
 These attacks come on suddenly, are often periodi- 
 cal, are most frequent during hot weather, and when 
 the animal is drawing up a hill, or exposeil iluring 
 heavy work to the full raj's of a hot sun. Liability 
 to megrims constitutes unsoundness, and usually de- 
 pends upon the circulation through the brain being 
 •temporarily disturbed by the presence of tumors. 
 Horses subject to megrims are alwaj-s dangerous; if 
 driven at all, they should be used with a lirciistplate 
 or pipe-collar, so as to prevent, as much as possible, 
 pressure on the veins carrying the blood from the 
 head. Uiey should lie moderately and carefully fed, 
 and during hot weather liave an occasional la.xative. 
 MEIGS GDN. — An early |magazine-gun carrying a 
 great mimber of cartridges. Some patterns carried 
 as many as forty or fifty rounds. This system, like 
 many of its contemporaries, did not meet with any 
 considerable success. See M'lqiuine-qnn. 
 
 MELDER SYSTEM OF FORTIJFICATiON.— This sys- 
 tem very much resembles that of Freytag, but there
 
 ]££L££. 
 
 311 
 
 UENAGE. 
 
 in an iiliHciK-o of ravelins on tiio. salirntB of bastions. 
 MELEE. A Miililary t<-riii wliicli in uMcd anioiif; 
 llic KrciK-li to c.vprrssllic hurry anil coiifiiHion of a 
 battle. Mi'lc'c corrcspdiids with the Knglish expres- 
 sion " Tliicli of tlic tit;lit." 
 
 MEMBEKED.— A term in llcralilry; vvliin a l)ir(l 
 lias its lc,i;s of a ditTcri-nt color from its liody, it ia 
 saiil li> he iiicinlpcri'd of that color. 
 
 MEMBERS. Officers are so called who are detailed 
 bv orders to sit on (ieiieral or ( Jarrison Coiirts-.VIar- 
 tial. In case su]ierniituerary niendiers are detailed 
 for a court-martial, lliey are sworn, and it is rii;hl that 
 they should sit and be present at all deliherati<ins 
 even when the court is i;)eared,'.in order to be [in-par- 
 ed to take the place of any absent member. Until 
 thentheyhave no voice. 
 
 MEMOIR. -The title ijiven by military officers to 
 those pl.ins which they olTer 1o their urovcruMient or 
 eonunanders on subjects relalint; to war or .Military 
 economy. Metniiim is a species of history, written 
 by persons who had some share in the transactions 
 tliey relate, answerint; in some measun; to wliat the 
 Komans call (!ommentarii. (.'lesar's Commentaries 
 are the Memoirs of his ('amiiai<;ns. 
 
 MEMORIAL. — Au address in the form of a petition 
 to a iSoverei.<;n or other authority, able to redress the 
 grievance of the memorialist. Aleinorials or peti- 
 tions of the nature above adverted to may he ad- 
 dressed by officers to government; they must be 
 •written, not printed, and signed Dy the writer. 
 
 MENACE.— A hostile threat. A Court-Martial 
 may punish, at discretion, any person who uses any 
 nienaciui; words, siiins or gestures in its presence, 
 or who disturbs its proceedings by any riot or dis- 
 order. 
 
 MENAGE.— All military men should have a tlior- I 
 ough knowledge of the structure and ])ower.s of 
 endurance of horses; slioidd be familiar with the 
 rules for their management under all circumstances; j 
 should understand in detail the method of shoeing ' 
 them, and be able to treat all ordinary cases of in- 
 iury or disease. In the field, or on tiie march, an 
 Ignorant or careless commander will always have 
 many broken down and unserviceable animals, while 
 the animals of other commands, performing the 
 same duties, but judiciously handled, remain in good 
 condition. 
 
 To make the horse tractable and stea^Jy in jn/nmt- 
 ing. - Go up to the horse, and pat him on the neck, 
 and speak to him ; then take the reins from the 
 horse's neck, and bold them at a few inches from the ' 
 rings of the bit with the left hand; take such posi- 
 tion as to offer as much resistance as possible to the 
 horse, should he attempt to break away; hold the 
 whip in the right hand, with the point down; raise 
 the whip quietly and tap the horse on the breast; the 
 horse natural/y tries to move back to avoid the whip, 
 follow the horse, pulling at the .same time against 
 him, and continuing the use of the whip; be c;ireful 
 to show no sign of anger nor any sym|)toin of yield- 
 ing. The horse, tired of trying ineifcctuiilly to avoid 
 the whip, soon ceases to pull, and moves forward; 
 then drop the point of the whip and make much of 
 him. This repeated once or twice, usually proves 
 sufficient; the horse having found how to avoid the 
 punislnnent, no longer waits for flu- application of 
 the whip, but anticipates it, by moving up at the 
 sliglitest gesture; this is of great assist;uic-<' in tlie 
 beudiug-lessons, as also in mounting and dismount- 
 ing, and accelerates the training of the horse. 
 
 To bend the horse's neckand to rein in.dixnyiunted. — 
 The balance of the horse's body, and his lightness 
 in hand, depend on the proper carriage of his heatl 
 and neck. A young horse usually tries to resist the 
 bit, either by bending his neck to one side, bj" set- 
 ting his jaw against the bit, or by carrying bis nose 
 too high or too low. The bending-lessons serve to 
 make a horse manageable by teaching him to con- 
 form to the movements of the reins and to yield to 
 the pressure of the bit. During the lessons the horse 
 
 must never be hurried. To liend the nrrk to the right 
 for inslaiice, lake a posiliun on the near side of the 
 horse, in front of his slioulderand facing toward his 
 neck ; take the off rein close up to the bit with tho 
 right hand, the near rein in the same way with the 
 left band, the thumbs toward each other, the little 
 lingers outward, bring the right hand toward the 
 body, and at tiie same time extend the left arm bo as 
 to turn the horse's head to the right. The force cm- 
 |)loyed must be gradual, and jiroixirtioned to the re- 
 sistance met Willi, ami care must be taken not to 
 bring the horse's nose too close to bis chest. If the 
 horse back, continue the pressure until, finding it 
 impossible to avoid the restraint inijiosed by the bit, 
 he stands still and yiehls to it. \V li<-n the bend is 
 complete, the horse holds his head there without any 
 restraint, and chiimps the bit ; then make much of 
 him, and let him resume his naluriil jiosilion by de- 
 grees, without throwing his head round hurriedly. 
 A horse, as a rule, chani|)s the bit when he ceases to 
 resist. The horse's neck is bent to the lift in a sim- 
 ilar manner, the man standing on the off side. To 
 rein in, cross the reins liehind the horse's jaw, tak- 
 ing the near rein in the right hand, and the off rein 
 in the left, at about si.x inches from the rings ; draw 
 them across each other till the horse gives way to 
 the pressure and iirings his nose in. Prevent the 
 horse from raising his head by lowering the hands. 
 When the horse gives way to the cross-pressure of 
 the reins, ease the hand, and make much of him. 
 
 To bend the horse's neck and to rein in, mounted. — 
 The horse should be equipped with the curb-bridle. 
 To bend the neck to the right, for instance, adjust the 
 reins in the left hand; seize the right rein with the 
 right hand well down; draw it quietly toward you 
 vmtil the horse's head is brought completely around 
 to the right, in the same jiosition as in the bend dis- 
 mounted. When the horse champs the bit, make 
 much of him, and allow him to resume his natural 
 position. I'o rein in. lower the bridle-hand as much 
 as possible, turning the back uppermost; with the 
 right hand, nails down, take hold of the curb-reins 
 above and close to the left hand and shorten them 
 by degrees, drawing them through the left hand, 
 which closes on the'reins each time they are shor- 
 tened. When the horse resists much, and holds his 
 nose up, keep the reins steady; do not shorten or 
 lengthen them; close the legs to prevent the horse 
 from backing; after remaining perhaps a minute or 
 more with his nose up, and his jaw set against the 
 bit, he will yeld, bring his nose in, and champ the 
 bit; make much of him, loosen the reins, and, after 
 a few seconds, rein in again. This exercise gives the 
 horse confidence, and teaches him to arch his neck, 
 and bring his head in proper position whenever he 
 feels the bit. Most young horses are afraid of the 
 bit, and they must never be frightened by sudden 
 jerks on the reins, lest they should afterward refuse 
 to stand the requisite pressure of the bit. A certain 
 amount of bearing is necessary to induce the horse 
 to work boldly and well, as well as to apprise the 
 rider of what the horse is going to do. In reining in, 
 some horses rest the lower jaw against the breast; to 
 counteract this press both legs equally and force the 
 horse forward to the bit. Some liorses will not work 
 up to the hand, that is, will not bear on the bit at 
 all. Such horses are unfit for the service. 
 
 To teach the horse to oliei/ the pressure of the leg.— If 
 it is desired to turn to the right on the fore-feet, for 
 instance, applv the right leg well behind the girth, 
 very quietly, anil without t'oucliing the horse's side 
 with the spur; press airainst him till he makes a 
 step to the left with his hind-legs; then cease the 
 pressure of the leg and make much of him; then re- 
 peat the same until the horse takes another step, and 
 so on until he has turned about, always pausing 
 when he takes a step in turning. The horse should 
 not be reined back ; his fore-legs remain in place, 
 and his hind-quarters move around in a circle. 
 Both legs are kept close to the horse, the pressure of
 
 UEN'S HAKN£SS. 
 
 312 
 
 MEECUEY. 
 
 either leg being increased as the occasion requires. 
 Turning tn tlie left on the fore-feet is executed in a 
 similar manner. 
 
 To break the horse of had habits. — Should the horse 
 rear, the rider must j-ield the hand when the horse 
 is up, and urge liim vigorously forward when he is 
 coming down ; if the iiorse be punished while up, 
 he may spring and fall backward. Kicking can be 
 prevented by liohling the horse's head well up, and 
 closing the legs; if necessary, they are closed so 
 much as to force the horse forward. Shying some- 
 times results from defect of sight, and sometimes 
 from fear. If from fear, the horse must be taken up 
 to the object with great patience and gentleness, 
 and be allowed to touch the object with his nose. 
 In no case shmild a horse be punishrd for t'midity. 
 The dread of chastisement will increase his restive- 
 ness. 
 
 To acpu-stotn horses to firing. Station a few men at 
 a little distance from. ami on both sides of .the stable- 
 door, and cause them to fire pistols as the horses are 
 led into the stable to be fed ; for the same object, a 
 gun mav be fired during the hour of feeding. 
 
 To teach horses to jump — Horses should be first taught 
 to leap the ditch and then the bar. They are equipped 
 with the watering-bridle, and follow a steadv horse 
 who is accustomed to jumping. The horses are taken 
 in the open field and practiced at jumping shallow 
 ditches, fallen logs, very low fences, etc. Great dis- 
 cretion must be used in applying the whip, and the 
 horses will not be required to leap repeatedly over 
 the same thing or at the same place. See Iiorse and 
 Horsemanship. 
 
 MEN'S HARNESS.— An arrangement by which men 
 are attached to a gun-carriage which is to be moved 
 but a short distance, or where animid power cannot 
 be employed. It consists of a rope 18 feet long and 
 4 inches in circumference, having a thimble at one 
 end and a thimble and hook at the other. Ten leather 
 loops are fixed in pairs to the rope, .5 on each side. 
 These are of sufficient size to allow a man to pass 
 Ills body through them, the strain of the draft com- 
 ing on the chest. 
 
 MENSUEATION.— That braach of the application 
 of arithmetic to geometry which teaches, from tlie 
 actual measurement of certain lines of a figure, how 
 to find, by calculation, the length of otherlines, the 
 area of surfaces, and the volume of solids. The de- 
 termination of lines is, however, generally treated of 
 under trigonometrv, and surfaces and solids are now 
 understood to form the sole subjects of mensuration. 
 As the length of a line is expressed by comparing it 
 with some well-known unit of length, such as a j'ard, 
 a foot, an inch, and saying how manj^ such units it 
 contains, so the extent of a surface is expressed by 
 saying how often it contains a corresponding super- 
 ficial unit, that is, a square whose side is a yard, a 
 foot, an inch; and the contents of solid bodies are 
 similarly expressed in cubes or rectangular solids 
 having their length, breadth and deptii a yard, a 
 foot, an inch. To find the length of a line (except 
 in cases where the length maj' be calculated from 
 other known lines, as in trigonometry) we have to 
 apply the unit (in the shape of a foot-rule, a yard 
 measure, a chain), and discover by actual trial "how 
 man)- imits it contains. But in measuring a surface 
 or a solid we do not require to apply an actual square 
 lioard, or a cubic block, or even to divide it into such 
 squares or blocks; we have only to measure certain 
 of its boundarj'-lines or dimensions; and from them 
 we can cak-idate or infer the contents. To illustrate 
 how this is done, suppose that it is required to de- 
 termine the area of a rectangular figure AIK'I), of 
 which the side AH is 7 inches, and the side AC 3 
 inches. If .W be divided at the ])oints F and K into 
 ',i jiortions, <'ach 1 inch long, and parallels l)e drawn 
 from F and K to AB or CI); and if ,\I{ be simil;irly 
 divided into 7 parts, of 1 in<-li ea<h, and jiiindlels be 
 drawn to AC or 151) through the points of section, 
 then the figure will be divided into a number of 
 
 equ"l squares or rectangular figures, whose length 
 and breadth are each 1 inch; and as there are 3 rows 
 of squares, and 7 squares in each row, there must be 
 in all 7x3, or 21 squares. In general terms, if a and 
 li be the lengths of two adjacent sides, there are a 
 rows of little squares, and h squares in each row. 
 Hence the area of a rectangle = tlie product of two 
 adjacent s'des. 
 
 The areas of other figures are foimd from this, by 
 the aid of certain relations or properties of those 
 figures demonstrated b}' pure geometry; for instance, 
 the area of a parallelogram is the same as the area 
 of a rectangle liaving the same base and altitude, 
 and is therefore equal to the base multiplied by the 
 height. As a triangle is half of a parallelogram, the 
 rule for its area can be at once deduced. Irregular 
 quadrilaterals and polygons are measured by dividing 
 them into triangles, tlie area of each of which is 
 separately calculated. By reasoning similar to what 
 has been employed in the case of areas, it is shown 
 that the volume of a rectangular parallelopiped or 
 prism is found in cubic inches by multiplying 
 together the length, breadth, and depth in inches; 
 an<l the ol)Uque paralellopiped, prism, or cylinder, 
 bv multiplvins; the area of the base bv the height. 
 
 "MENTONIERE.— The bearer of a" helmet, some- 
 times c;illed liariere. Also written ilentonniere. 
 
 MERCENARIES.— Soldieis strving for pay in any 
 foreiirn service. 
 
 MERCURY.— One of the so-called noble metals, re- 
 markable as being the only metal that is fluid at or- 
 dinary temperatures. It is of a silvery white color, 
 with a striking metallic luster. When pure, it runs 
 in small spherical drops over smooth surfaces ; but 
 when not perfectly pure, the drops assume an elon- 
 gated oxtail'd form, and often leave a gray stain on 
 the surface of glass or porcelain. Moreover, the pure 
 metal, when shaken with air, presents no change 
 upon its surface; while, if impure, it becomes cov- 
 ered with a gray film. It is slightly volatile at or- 
 dinary temperatures, and at 662° it boils, and forms 
 a colorless vapor of specific gravity 6.976. Hence it 
 is capable of being distilled; and the fact of its being 
 somewhat volatile at ordinary temperatures, helps to 
 explain its pernicious effects upon those whose trades 
 require them to come much in contact with it— as, 
 for example, the makers of barometers, looking- 
 glasses, etc. At a temperature of — 39°, it freezes, 
 when it contracts considerably, and becomes mallea- 
 ble. In consequence of the uniform rate at which it 
 expands when heated, from considerably below 0* 
 to above 300'' , it is employed in the construction of 
 the mercurial thermometer. All mercurial com- 
 pounds are either volatilized or decomposed by heat; 
 and when heated with carbonate of soda, they yield 
 metallic mercury. Native or virgin quicksilver only 
 occurs in small quantity, usuallj- in cavities of mer- 
 curial ores. Of these ores, by far the most im- 
 portant is cinnabar. There are two means of obtain- 
 ing the metal from the cinnabar : the ore may be 
 burned in a furnace, in whicli case the sulphur is 
 given off a; sulphurous acid, and the mercury is col- 
 lected in a condensing chamber ; or the ore may be 
 distilled with some substance capable of com- 
 bining with the sulphur — as, for example, with 
 slaked lime or iron filings. The mercury im- 
 ported into this country is usually almost chemically 
 pure. If the presence of other metals is suspected, 
 it may be pres.sed through leather, re-distilled, and 
 then digested for a few days in dilute cold nitric acid, 
 which exerts little action on the mercury, if more 
 oxidiziiblc metals are present. The mercurj-, after 
 being freed from the nitric acid by washing with 
 water, is cliemicivlly pure. 
 
 There are two oxides of mercury, the black sub- 
 oxide (Hg„0) and the red oxide (IlgO). Both of 
 these lose all their oxygen when lic;itcd, and form 
 salts with acids. Tlie Hack sii/inride, allhougli a pow- 
 <rfiil base, is very unstalile when isolated, being 
 readily converted by gentle warmth, or even by
 
 UGSCUBY SENSIMETEB. 
 
 313 
 
 IiLEEIDIAN. 
 
 mfirc exposure to lii;lit, into red oxu'.c iinil tlic mcliil 
 (Hf;a()»=llg()-flli;). The most iiiii)orliiiit of its 
 siilTs is the iiilnit(' (nir.,(»,N(),.+2Ac| ), from wliosc 
 watery solution iimmoniu tlirowsdovvn ii liluek preci- 
 pitiite known in jiliiirniiiey "s iittrrnriiia xiiiiihiUn 
 Iliilinitii'diii-'. from Its ilisein-erer, an<l consist Iiil; 
 cssentiiilly of tlie bliu-ii sul)oxiile with some amnio- 
 iiia and nitric acid, wliicli an- apparently imiiinbin- 
 ation. Of the ird oiMle. the most important salts 
 are the nitrate (lIf;().N()r,+HA(|); the sulphate 
 (IlsrO.SO.iJ, whieli is employed in the nmnufnelure 
 of Corrosive sublimate: and the l)asi<' sulphate 
 (;ilIi;(),.S().,) which is of aycllow color.and is known 
 as tiirjiiih ininernl. Sulphur forms two compounils 
 with mercury -viz., a sulphide fllL'.^i- » blai'k 
 p iwder of little im])ortance and a suli)hide f IIi;S}, 
 which occurs naturally as cinnabar. Siil/i/n'il'- "f 
 meir'iry is thrown ih/wn as a black preiipilate by 
 passins sulphureted hydroi;en throuirh a solution of 
 a persall of mercury (corrosive sublimate, for exam- 
 ple). When drieci atul sublimed in vessels from 
 which air is exeludeil, it assumes its ordimiry red 
 color. The well-known iiij^ment virniiUinn is sul- 
 phide of mercury, and is soin<'limes obtained from 
 pure cinnabar, but is more fre(|uently an artificial 
 product. Mercury unites with most metals to form 
 amalgams, several of which are employed in the lab- 
 oratory. 
 
 Of the numerous organic compounds of mercury, 
 it is unnecessary to mention more than the fulminate 
 and the cyanide (HgC'y). which may be jirejiared by 
 dissolving the red oxide of mercury in hydrocyanic 
 acid, and is the best source from which to obtain 
 cyanogen. The uses of mercury are so mimerous 
 that a very brief allusion to the most important of 
 these must .sutticc. It is employed extensively in 
 the extraction of gold and silver from their ores by 
 the process of amalgamation. Its amalgams are 
 hirgely employed in the processes of silvering and 
 gilding, and some (as those of copper and cadnnum) 
 are employed by the dentist for stopping teeth. It 
 is indispensable in the construction of pliilosophical 
 instruments, and in the laboratory in the form of 
 tlie mercurial bath, etc. It is the source of the val- 
 uable pigment Vermillion. It is eonslantiv used for 
 percussion caps, and in takiag the density of gun- 
 powder. Spherical projectiles are floated in mer- 
 cury to ascertain whether thev are homogeneous. 
 
 MERCUHY DENSIMETER.— "In order to secure a 
 first-class gunpowder, which is so essential for mili- 
 tary purposes, it is of tlie utmost importance that the 
 several ingredients should be as pure as possible; this 
 
 being secured, it thenbecomes very necessary that the 
 density or specific gravity of the powdershouldat all 
 times be as nearly as possible the same, as any variation 
 however slight, affects its quality and force to an im- 
 mense extent. To ascertain its density, therefore, is a 
 matter of considerable importance anil for this delicate 
 operation a very ingenious instrument has been devis- 
 ed called a " densimeter "; it may be described as fol- 
 lows : On a small table a kind of barometer is fitted, 
 but instead of the glass tube being closed at the up- 
 per end and all in one piece, as is usual, it is in this 
 case made in two pieces and open at the top. The 
 upper part is about 34 inches in lenirth, and is con- 
 
 nected to the lower, which is 10 inclicH in length, by- 
 means of a closely litting and pc-rfectly air-tight 
 screw(-d metal joint; the low-er part, inst(-ad of bi-in^ 
 a plain parallel lub(-of the same diameter Ihroiigli- 
 oiit as tlie ujiper, is made in the form of a glolje or 
 bulb, and on the neck at each end of it a metal union 
 and stop-cock are sectured, both of whi(-li are made 
 p(-rf(-ctly air-tight. I5y means of one of these unions 
 this glass globe or lower half of the instrumi-iil is al- 
 lai-lied to the uppi-r, while the other union, into 
 whi(-h is screw-(-d an open iioz/.li- or metal lubi-. ilips 
 into a cup fast(-n(-il to tbi- tabli- tilleil with mi-rcury. 
 On another tabh- staiiiling by lh(-side of the- tirst one 
 an orilinarv air-iiump is lixed. with vai-uum gauge, 
 etc. It will n-adily be seen that if the upper part of 
 the glass tube of liie densimeter be connected with 
 the iiir-i)umi). and the air be extracterl from the glass 
 tube w-hilsl the lower tap is(-los(-d, a vacuum will be 
 f<irm(-d, and that ujioii opc-ning the lower tap soas to 
 afford a fr(-e passaL;<- for the mercury in the cup, it 
 will rise and fill the glass glolii- and n|)p(-r jxirliou of 
 the tube to su(-h a height as will balance th<- pressure 
 of the atnios])liere, thus giving a column of mercury 
 of pre<-isely the same total height as that in an ordin- 
 ary baromet(-r. 
 
 "To use the instrument, two tables are placed side 
 by side, the open uppc-r (-nd of th(- glass tube of the 
 densimet(-r is (-onnecli-d with the air-i)Ump by means 
 of a flexible tube, the taji on the upper union of the 
 densimeter is op(-n(-d, the lower one is closed. The 
 air-pump is worked; as soon as all the air is exhaust- 
 cil, shown by a vacuum gauge attached to the air- 
 pump, the lower tap on the glass tube immediately 
 below the globe is opened, and the mercury rushes 
 into the tube: when it ceases to rise, the two metal 
 l;ips arc closed, anil the globe part, with the mer<-ury 
 contained therein. is n-moved and carefully weighed. 
 All the mercury is now emptied back again info the 
 cup, and the globe, nearly filled with a known weight 
 of gunpowder, say lOU grammes, is then reconnected 
 to Uie densimeter under the same conditions as be- 
 fore, and the air again exhausted until a vacuum is 
 formed. The lower tap is now opened, ;uiil the mer- 
 cury allowed to linil its way in and rise in the tube; 
 the"mercury rises to precisely the same height in the 
 tube as before; but the globe having been nearly fill- 
 ed with gunpowder will contain less mercury. The 
 taps on the lower portion of the instrument are clos- 
 ed, the globe part removed and again weighed. This 
 weight, as well as that previously ascertained when 
 the globe was entirely filled with mercury, is record- 
 ed, and from these two ascertained weights the den- 
 sity of the powder can readily be obtained liy the 
 following rule: Tofirtd the deuMy of the gunpuirder, 
 we hare only U> multiply the specific gravity "f the mer- 
 cury by the weight of the gunpowder plarid in the globe 
 of the densimeter, and divide by the difference in iceight 
 of th- globe ichen filled with mercury only and whenfill- 
 ed with guupowdir and mercury, plus the weight of the 
 powder placed in the globe ; the result will show the 
 densitv of the gunpowder under test. See Deiui- 
 meter.'Dupont de Nemour's Jhnsimeter, Inspection oj 
 Powdr. anil Mercury Densimeter, 
 
 MERIDIAN.— The name given to the great circle 
 of the celestial sphere which passes through both 
 poles of the heavens, and also through the zenith 
 and nadir of any place on the earth's surface. Every- 
 place on the earth's surface has conseijuently its own 
 meridian. The meridian is divided by the polar axis 
 into two equal portions, which stretch from pole to 
 pole, one on each side of the earth. It is midday at 
 any place on the earth's surface, when the centre of 
 the sun comes upon the meridian of that place: at 
 the same instant it is midday at all jilaces under the 
 same half of that meridia"n, and midnight at all 
 places under the oppo.site half. All places under the 
 same meridian have, therefore, the same longitude. 
 Stars attain their greatest altitude when they come 
 upon the meridian: the same thin": is true approxi- 
 i matelv of the sun and planets; and, as at this point
 
 MEBISIAN UEASUBEUENI. 
 
 314 
 
 UEBBILL OUN. 
 
 the effect of refraction upon these bodies is at a 
 minimum, and their apparent motion is also more 
 uniform, astronomers prefer to malve their observa- 
 tions wlien the body is on the meridian. The instru- 
 ments used for tliis purpose are called meridian 
 circles. 
 
 The meridian may be determined at night by pass- 
 ing a plane through a plumb-line and the north star. 
 The trace of this plane on a horizontal plane will be 
 the projection of the meridian sought, the north star 
 
 
 \ s s /■ 
 «■ — * — ,,-• 
 
 ijrande Oitrse 
 
 '^.i^^ 
 
 /»<> 
 
 / vole antimr/ 
 
 poUum 
 
 n \ 
 
 \ 
 
 X. 
 
 of ic^rease holds good to the poles, the length of 
 every tenth degree of latitude in English feet is as- 
 in the following table : 
 
 being only yV° from the true pole. It is easy to re- 
 cognize the north star— it is the seventh star of the 
 little bear and is found precisely in the prolonga- 
 tion of the two first stars of the great bear {grande 
 otirse), a constellation disposed in symmetrical order 
 as in the drawing. 
 
 To practically determine the variation of the com- 
 pass, erect a pole, and at a distance of 200 yards set 
 up another, so that the two are in a line with the 
 true north ; the variation of the compass may be as- 
 certained the next morning by taking tlie bearing of 
 one pole from the other. 
 
 UERIDIAN MEASUKEMENT.— The determination 
 of the form and size of the earth from the measure- 
 ment of an arc of a meridian has been a favorite 
 problem with mathematicians from the earliest 
 times, but up to the middle of last century 'heir op- 
 erations were not carried on with exactness suffi- 
 cient to render their conclusions of much value. Since 
 that time, however, geodesy has so rapidly progress- 
 ed, owing to the invention of more accurate instru- 
 ments and the discovery of new methods, that the 
 measurement of the meridian can now be performed 
 with the utmost accuracy imaginable. The modux 
 operandi is as follows : Two ctations, having nearly 
 the same longitude, are chosen; their lutitude and 
 longitude arc accurately determined (the error of a 
 second in latitude introduces a considerable error into 
 the result), and the direction of the meridian to be 
 measured ascertained ; then a base line is measured 
 with the greatest accuracy, as an error here general- 
 ly becoincs increased at every subsequent step ; and 
 then, by the method known as triangulation, the 
 length of the arc of the meridian contained between 
 the jiarallcls of latitude of the two stations is ascer- 
 tained. As the previously found latitudes of its two 
 extremities give the number of degrees it contains, 
 the average length of a degree of this arc can be iit 
 once determined: and also — on the supposition that 
 the lengtli of a degree is uniform— the length of the 
 wliole meridional circumferencr of liie carlli. This 
 oiieraticm of incridiaii nicasurenu'ut has liccn per- 
 formed at different times on a great many arcs lying 
 between ()8" north latitude and :W soull'i lalilude., 
 and the results show a stc-idy tliou^li irregular in- 
 <:rease in the length of the degree of laljlude iis the 
 latitude increases. On the supposition that this law 
 
 
 
 cj 
 
 
 t3 
 
 <a 
 
 •C 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 S-: 
 
 
 Sr 
 
 S 
 
 -, 
 
 Deg 
 
 11 fee 
 
 s 
 
 
 •*^ 
 
 •^ .2 
 
 t=! 
 
 c:S 
 
 '£. 
 
 
 
 _ to 
 
 hfj 
 
 
 tfj 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 E a 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 ^J" 
 
 Q 
 
 \-i'~ 
 
 0" 
 
 362,732 
 
 50° 
 
 364,862 
 
 10° 
 
 362.843 
 
 60° 
 
 365,454 
 
 20° 
 
 363,158 
 
 70° 
 
 365,937 
 
 30° 
 
 303.641 
 
 80° 
 
 366,252 
 
 40« 
 
 364,333 
 
 90° 
 
 ?66,361 
 
 This result shows that the earth is not spherical, 
 as in that case the length of all degrees of latitude 
 would be alike, but of a more or less spheroidal 
 form — that is having its curvature becoming less and 
 less as we go from the extremity of its greater or 
 equatorial diameter to the lesser or polar axis. It 
 was by the measurement of a meridional arc that, in 
 1792-99, the length of a quadrant of the earth's cir- 
 cumference was determined, in order to [form the 
 basis of the French metrical system. See Metrii-al 
 Mewoirex. 
 
 MERIT ROLLS.— Rolls prepared by the Academic 
 Board, at each examination, in which the merit of 
 each Cadet (at the United States Military Academy) 
 in each branch of study upon which he has been ex- 
 amined, is denoted by a number proportional to his 
 proticiency and to the importance of the subject ; 
 and in wliich the names of the Cadets are arranged, 
 in their respective classes, in the order of aggregate 
 merit, as determined for each, by the addition of the 
 numbers expressing his merit in each particular 
 branch, and in discipline. The table on page 315 show& 
 the manner of forming the general Merit Roll. 
 
 MERKIN.— A mop used for cleaning caimon. Also 
 written Malkin. 
 
 MERLON — In fortification, the position of the par- 
 apet between two embrasures. Its length is usually 
 from fifteen to eighteen feet. The term is also ap- 
 plied to the projection on the top of a crenellated 
 wall. 
 
 MERRILL BAYONET HANDLE— The essential feature 
 of this device is a slide in tlie side of the handle, which 
 being withdrawn, allows the bayonet-stud to pass a- 
 side into the square notch prepared for it at the far- 
 ther extremity of its L-shaped groove. It is securely 
 kept there by pushing back the slide into its former 
 position. In a modrtication of this invention, the 
 bayonet is held on the gun by the engaging of tiie bay- 
 onet-stud with a corresponding notch in the spring- 
 catch swinging in a slot in the end of the handle. 
 By pressing down the outer end of the spring-catch 
 the shoulder on its forward extremity is passed above 
 the bayonet-stud, and the bayonet is still further se- 
 cured 'on the gun by the muzzle passing througii a 
 corrfspiindin'j; liole f()riiie<l in the guard. 
 
 MERRILL GUN.— A breech-loading rifle having a 
 fixed chamber closed by a movable breech-block, 
 which slides in the line of the barrel by direct action. 
 It is opened by raising the liandle of the breech-bolt 
 to a vertical position and drawing it back to its full 
 extent. In raising the handle, the firing-pin is re- 
 tracted by a lug near its head engaging with a spiral 
 caiu-recess in the receiver; it is held back by tlie lug 
 entering a circumferential groove in the liolt. In 
 withdrawing the bolt, it passes over the hammer 
 and presses it back to the full-cock The piece is 
 closed by reversing the movement of the bolt. At 
 the end of the forward stroke, the point of the ex- 
 tractor engages with a recess in a ring which sur-
 
 M£BBILL LOCK, 
 
 315 
 
 HEBWIN HULBEST BEVOLVZB. 
 
 roundH tlio moull: of the fliambor, and acninst I in the Brooklyn Navy Yard, was forged like tho 
 which the l)olt is prcHscil, and turns tlw riiit,' witli it ; : IIiiri~f(iH (inn. hy llic MirHey Iron WorkH, in 184/1. 
 so that I lie rotation <if the holt in lockin;^ will not I Its iliinensions ari' : total leii;;th. Ifi!) iiiehi-s ; diuni- 
 cauwMt to ^rind ai^'ainst the head of the eartridi^e. I I'tiT over tlie eliamlier, 28 inches ; lenj;lli of hore, 144 
 In turning down the handle, the piece is locked by ' inches; diameter of bore, la inclies ; weight, 10, 7W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 i' 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3. . 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H A 
 
 
 
 
 « . 
 
 
 C5 
 
 •^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H O. 
 
 
 
 
 .■s tn 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 Si 
 
 Class Rank. 
 
 CO 
 « 
 
 s 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 T3 SS 
 oja 
 
 ■go: 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 OS 
 
 
 i 
 
 "a. 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 n^ 
 
 
 'f 
 
 •= o 
 
 
 a 
 
 ij 
 
 
 V 
 
 Jz; 
 
 
 OS 
 
 I 
 
 t 
 
 CO 
 
 ^a" 
 
 
 OS 
 
 s 
 
 5" 
 
 03 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Maximum in) 
 each branch, j' 
 
 300.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 75.0 
 
 300.0 
 
 150.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 300.0 
 
 150.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 75.0 
 
 200.0 
 
 1950 
 
 1 
 
 A.B 
 
 293., 5 
 
 82.8 
 
 66.9 
 
 292*8 
 
 146.6 
 
 95.4 
 
 81.9 
 
 300.0 
 
 144.6 
 
 - 98.8 
 
 75.0 
 
 170.01848.3 
 
 2C. D 
 
 3i)fi.7 
 
 98.9 
 
 74.3 
 
 285.7 
 
 144.9 
 
 89.6 
 
 95.4 
 
 289.3 
 
 135.7 
 
 100.0 
 
 73 3 
 
 150.01838.6 
 
 8E. F 
 
 300.0 
 
 95.9 
 
 67.6 
 
 289.2 
 
 139.8 
 
 85.0 
 
 87.5 
 
 293.8 
 
 146.4 
 
 96.4 
 
 68.7 
 
 138.6 1807.9 
 
 4G.H 
 
 200.3 
 
 75.7 
 
 59 5 
 
 282.1 
 
 136.4 
 
 87.3 
 
 85.3 
 
 285.7 
 
 133.9 
 
 89.2 
 
 66 
 
 173.3 1783.7 
 
 51. J 
 
 287.0 
 
 80.8 
 
 70,6 
 
 296.4 
 
 143.2 
 
 73.5 
 
 84.1 
 
 390.4 
 
 139.3 
 
 97.6 
 
 09 6 
 
 103.3 1T47.8 
 
 6K.L 
 
 283.8 
 
 94.9 
 
 71,3 
 
 257.1 
 
 133.0 
 
 91.9 
 
 79.6 
 
 260.7 
 
 141.1 
 
 92.8 
 
 6<; 9 
 
 172.0 1745.1 
 
 TiM.IN 
 
 277.4 
 
 96.9 
 
 69.8 
 
 300.0 
 
 148.3 
 
 100.0 
 
 92.0 
 
 374.9 
 
 138.6 
 
 90.4 
 
 73.3 
 
 183.3 I7;i4.8 
 
 80. P 
 
 270.9 
 
 92.9 
 
 73 5 
 
 264.2 
 
 138.1 
 
 79.3 
 
 100.0 
 
 253 5 
 
 130 4 
 
 91 6 
 
 74 1 
 
 163 31 7X0 8 
 
 9Q.R 
 
 274.1 
 
 90.9 
 
 63.9 
 
 278.5 
 
 134.7 
 
 64.3 
 
 93.2 
 
 257.1 
 
 142.9 
 
 88.0 
 
 63 5 
 
 107.0ll717.1 
 
 lOS. T 
 
 258.0 
 
 70.7 
 
 58.1 
 
 207.8 
 
 141.5 
 
 97.7 
 
 59.3 
 
 264.2 
 
 133.1 
 
 95.3 
 
 67.8 
 
 191.6J1710.0 
 
 IIU.V 
 
 2(il.2 
 
 64.0 
 
 43.4 
 
 274.9 
 
 1.50.0 
 
 96.5 
 
 96.6 
 
 278.5 
 
 148.2 
 
 94.0 
 
 71 4 
 
 100.6 16.39.9 
 
 12W.A 
 
 264.5 
 
 88.8 
 
 73.3 
 
 242.8 
 
 139.6 
 
 67.8 
 
 88.7 
 
 221.4 
 
 126.8 
 
 86.9 
 
 64 3 
 
 149.0 1603.8 
 
 13B.C 
 
 238.7 
 
 77.7 
 
 58 8 
 
 271.4 
 
 131 3 
 
 68 9 
 
 94 3 
 
 282 1 
 
 117 9 
 
 85 7 
 
 70 5 
 
 102.3 1.599.6 
 148 ;^ 1581 9 
 
 14D.E 
 
 225.8 
 
 89.8 
 
 69 1 
 
 224.9 
 
 127.9 
 
 88.5 
 
 49.1 
 
 271 4 
 
 137 5 
 
 84 5 
 
 65.1 
 
 15|F.G 
 
 251.6 
 
 83.8 
 
 72.0 
 
 185.7 
 
 121.1 
 
 94.2 
 
 77.4 
 
 196.4 
 
 114.6 
 
 70.2 
 
 60.7 
 
 166.31494.0 
 
 See United States Military Academy. 
 
 the engaging of a sectional collar on the bolt with a 
 corresponding groove in the receiver. When this is 
 accomplished, the lug on the tiring-pin is oppo- 
 site the deepest part of the spiral recess and is 
 free to move forward when the piece is fired (by 
 means of a center-lock moved by a double main- 
 spring. ) Extraction is accomplished by a spring- 
 hook lying on top of the breech-bolt : and in draw- 
 ing back the bolt, the natural spring of the extractor 
 presses down the rim of the cartridge upon the bot- 
 tom of the receiver, mitil it is checked by striking 
 against a notch left there for that i)iirpose, and is 
 thereby thrown upward around the hook of the ex- 
 tractor and clear of the gim. 
 
 MERRILL LOCK.— A lock intended to dispense 
 with the tumbler and adjacent parts, and to be her- 
 metically imbedded in the stock. In a modification 
 of the lock the motion of the mainspring is arrested 
 by a stop-pin after the hammer, in falling, has passed 
 the half-cock notch. When applied to the Spring- 
 field system the act of raising tlie tiring-pin guard in 
 turning the cam-latch to open the block would be 
 sufficient to easily overcome the friction and weight 
 of the hammer and to bring it to the half-cock. In 
 this lock there is no swivel, the mainspring pressing 
 directlv on the hammer. 
 
 BIERRILL MAGAZINE.— In this device, the comb 
 of the butt-stock is cut out in a groove deep enough 
 to receive one cartridge, on end, and long enough to 
 accomodate four or five of them side by side. A 
 movable back for this groove is formed by a follower- 
 block, which is pressed forward by a spiral-sjiring, 
 carrying the cartridges ahead of it to the mouth of 
 the magazine, from which they are to be picked out ! 
 one by one. The magazine has a sliding cover by 
 whicli, in traveling, the cartridges are to be kept 
 from falling out. 
 
 MERSEY" GUN.— The 13-inch wrought-iron gun, 
 
 pounds. It was, received after the bursting of the 
 Stockton Gun, of which it is a copy. The Mersey 
 Works have also constructed satisfactory wrought- 
 iron guns by the rolling process. 
 MERWIN HULBURT REVOLVER.— The new Army 
 Revolver, patented and manufactured by the Messrs. 
 
 Merwin, Hulbert and Company, is rapidly becoming
 
 UESAIL. 
 
 316 
 
 MESS KIT. 
 
 a favorite with tlie military organizations throuili- 
 outtiie Uniteii States. Tlie details of its construction 
 may l)e readily understood by a reference to the il- 
 lustration which we present herewith. This revol- 
 ver makes the following claims for superiority: — 
 Compactness, symmetrical, easy outline, and general 
 neat appearance ; no salient points to prevent its 
 ready and easy insertion into or withdrawal from the 
 holster. In handling, not liable to injure the hand : 
 all the projecting parts being rounded and smooth: 
 cleaning being ttierebj' facilitated. Tlie circular form 
 of cylinder front gives a continuous cover to breech 
 of barrel ; prevents sand or dirt entering therein. 
 Accidental unlocking of the parts prevented, as ham- 
 mer must first be set at half-cock. The front sight 
 forged solid with the barrel; not liable to be separ- 
 ated therefrom or injured. The extractor ring pre- 
 vents the interior of the lock and ratchet from foul- 
 ing by escape of gas about the primer when using 
 outside primed ammunition. The hood and collar 
 at front of cylinder covering base-pin and base-pin 
 hole prevents fouling. The tlanged recoil plate here 
 covers and protects the heads of the cartridges ; pre- 
 vents sand or dirt entering between face of recoil 
 plate and cylinder, which miglit clog it and prevent 
 rotation. The cylinder and barrel can be dismount- 
 ed from the frame and re.assembled thereto without 
 the use of screw-driver or any tool. The construc- 
 tion is not intricate nor fragile, and the extractor is 
 a solid part of the base pin. Strength, durability and 
 endurance. Simultaneous, positive, and easy extrac- 
 tion of shells : great power obtained for starting the 
 shells before final extraction by the incline screw ac- 
 tion on the base-pin. Less lateral escape gas is de- 
 flected downward into the works, as no top strap 
 is used. The face of the collar on cylinder takes 
 against the bracket, prevents forward movement of 
 cylinder when pressed by the ball in rotating ; gives 
 a central bearing ; prevents abrasion of cj'linder face 
 against rear of barrel : gives easy rotation ; permits 
 a close joint without friction, reducing the escape 
 of gas ; the cylinder is not forced backward on firing, 
 but is held forward by the hood-clutch taking into 
 the recess of the cylinder collars. The lines of re- 
 coil and resistance are close together, lessening up- 
 ward inclination of barrel when fired. 
 
 The following are the directions for manipulating 
 the arm : 
 
 To load. — Place the hammer at half-cock, press 
 the gate downward and insert the cartridges. 
 
 7« eject, the s/ielLi — Push back the thumb-bolt 
 under the frame, turn the barrel outward, and draw- 
 forward, when the shells will fall out. 
 
 To take the arm apart — When the barrel and 
 cylinder are drawn forward, press the small pin in 
 the barrel-catch even with the frame, then press the 
 catch down and draw forward. 
 
 Complimentary letters have been received as re- 
 gards these arms from all parts of the world. Col. 
 George T. Denison, author of the Russian Imperial 
 Report on Arms and Cavalry Tactics, for which he 
 received the government reward of five thousand 
 dollars and gold medals, as well as medals from 
 other governments, says: "This army revolver is, 
 in mv opinion, the most perfect cavalry pistol in the 
 world." 
 
 MESAIL. — That portion of a helmet which closes 
 on the open front, more generally known in England 
 as the VentniU. Also written Mezail. 
 
 MESNE PROCESS.— Any writ issued in the course 
 of ;i suit between the original process and execution. 
 By tills term is also meant the writ of proceedings 
 in an action to summon or bring the Defendant into 
 coirt.or compel him to appear or put in bail, and 
 then to hear and answer tlie plaintitT's claim. 
 
 MESS. "A term at present used in the sense of a 
 number or association of otticers or of men taking 
 their meals togi'tlier. In societies consisting entire- 
 ly of the male se.x. and of one set of men contiimally 
 thrown together, it is a very important social point 
 
 that the Mess should be well regulated. There are 
 consequently stringent rules — both of the service and 
 of mutual etiquette — laid down for its government. 
 One officer acts as caterer, receives subscriptions 
 from the several members, charges the wine to those 
 who drink it, etc. ; a steward has charge of the more 
 menial department, arranging for the cooking, pur- 
 chase of viands, servants, rations, etc. In the Brit- 
 ish army, the Mess is a regimental institution for 
 the maintenance of a common table for all the offi- 
 cers in a regiment, who are bound to subscribe an 
 annual subscription, whether present or absent. 
 Married men pay one half if they do not regularly 
 attend the mess, but they pay all contributions to 
 the mess fund. The introduction of messes into 
 the British Army has been attended with the happi- 
 est results. Officers of all ranks meet together on 
 an equal social footing, and the youngest officer in 
 the regiment is able to enjoy the society of his senior 
 and brother officers without reserve. The advan- 
 tages of a mess are manifold, and are seen not only 
 in its social value, but also in the means it offers to 
 all ranks of living well and comfortabl}'. A small 
 government allowance is granted in aid of the ex- 
 penses of the officer's mess. Messes are extended 
 also to the non-commissioned officers and men of a 
 regiment, who have their several messes under the 
 superintendence of the officer commanding the regi- 
 ment and the captains of companies. In France, 
 the several grades mess separately ; lieutenants and 
 sub-lieutenants forming two tables ; captains an- 
 other, and field officers of different grades generally 
 eating separately also. 
 
 MESSAGES. — C'ommtmications passing between 
 officials whether in peace or war time. In the for- 
 mer, mes.sages are generally sent by dismounted 
 orderlies, except the communication is urgent, when 
 it is sent by a mounted orderly. In the latter,mount- 
 ed orderlies are sent between the general and his 
 staff, on subjects relating to the army and requiring 
 expedition. Important messages forwarded to a 
 distance, and where the bearers may fall into the 
 enemy's hands, should be sent in duplicate, one real, 
 the other false ; the former to be concealed in a quill 
 about his person, in such a way as is not likely to be 
 discoveretl, and which way will in peril suggest it- 
 self ; the latter in the form of a letter. One orderly 
 is not considered safe ; one or two more should be 
 sent at certain intervals of time, say two or three 
 hours between each. Emissaries sent from besieged 
 cities with messages to relieving forces or to friends 
 should use great wariness to avoid falling into the 
 hands of the enemy; but if they do, they should be 
 able to conceal the message, which in all probability 
 woidd be in cipher and in only a few words, about 
 their person. The modes resorted to in warfare, to 
 avoid written communications being seized, are 
 numerous. During the siege of Metz, Marshal 
 Bazaine, desirous of communicating with the go- 
 vernment at Tours, sent two emissaries disguised as 
 Ijeasants, who both managed to pass through the 
 lierman lines ; one carried liis despatch in cipher 
 inside a hollow tooth, and the other had his message 
 woven in one of his socks. Carrier pigeons very 
 often play an important part in the transmission of 
 messages during hostilities, as they did during the 
 siege of Paris in 1870-71. 
 
 MESSENGERS.— Officers employed by Secretaries 
 of State to convey dispatches at home and abroad. 
 In former (la3-s their occupation consisted, to a con- 
 siderable extent, in serving the Secretaries' warrants 
 for the appn'hension of persons accused of high 
 treason and other grave offenses against the State, 
 nor was it unusual for them to keep the ))risoners 
 whom they a])])rehended at their own houses. They 
 are now principally emjiloyed in foreign service. 
 
 MESS-KIT. — That portion of camp equipage con- 
 sisting of cooking utensils. The cooking imple- 
 ments and table necessaries should be so selected as 
 to nest compactly. The camp kettles may enclose
 
 uejIbe se camp general. 
 
 317 
 
 METALLIC AMMUNITION FOE SMALL AEM8. 
 
 the (iishpnns, and tlipsp tlic skillrts nntl smiillfr ar- 
 
 liclcH. It is licsl willi ;i view In paiUiiiL'' In liiivc llic 
 Kkillt'ls, fryini;i)uiiH, I'tc, so coiirtiructid lliut u spoou 
 
 may be applied as a liandle, and rciiiDvcd wlion not 
 in use or when packed. The drawing hIiows the 
 idea. 
 
 MESTEE DE CAMP GENERAL.— The next otlicer 
 in rank, in the did Fniirh cavalry service, to the 
 CJoloni'l-Gencral. This appointment was created 
 under Henry II. in 1552. Mentre de Camp General 
 rff.v DriKj'iiinx, was an appointment which first took 
 place imder Louis XIV., in l(iH4. 
 
 METAL.- 1. A term in Heraldry. The field of the 
 cicuteheon and the ehart'es wliieh it bears may lie 
 of metal as well as of color; and the two metals in 
 use auKini; lieralds are gold and silver, known as or 
 aud argent. It is a rule of blazon that metal should 
 not be placed on metal, or color on color. 3. Broken 
 stone, etc., used as a road cover. 
 
 METAL CASTING. The art of obtaining casts of 
 any desired object liy means of ])oiiring nu-lted metal 
 into molds prepared for the purjiose. It has risen to 
 great importance in recent limes, on account of the 
 many new applicalionsot iron. Iron-founding, brass- 
 founding, type-foimding, as well as casting in bronze 
 and zinc, are the principal divisions of the art. The 
 casting of the finer metal and alloys, as gold, silver, 
 anil German silver, is necessarily conducted on a 
 smaller scale. Wheu the casting of an object is re- 
 quired, it is necessary, in the first place, to make a 
 pattern. Suppose it to be a plain round iron pillar, 
 such as is used for hanging a gate upon. A patlern 
 of this is turned in some wood which can be readily 
 made smooth on the surface, such as pine, and then 
 varnished or painted so as to come freely out of the 
 mold. This wooden pillar, or any similar pattern, is 
 always made in at least two pieces, the division being 
 lengthwise, for a reason which we shall presently 
 see. The next step is to prepare the mold. The 
 molds used by the iron-Jouiuler are either of sand or 
 loam, but more generally of fine sand. Proceeding 
 with the preparation of the mold, the founder takes 
 a molding-box, which is composed of two open iron 
 frames with cross bars, ..the one fitting exactly on the 
 other, by means of pins in the upper dropping into 
 holes in the lower frame. One half of the box is first 
 filled with damp sand, and the pattern laid upon it a 
 little t'.ry pivrli ag sand\Mi\\\% sprinkled on the surface. 
 The upper half of the box is then put on and sand firm- 
 ly rammed all around the pattern. The box is then 
 carefidly opened, aud when tlie pattern is removed, 
 its impression is left in the sand. The mold at this 
 stage, however, is generall}- rough and broken. It is 
 necessar)-, therefore, to give it a better finish, which 
 is done by taking each half of the mold separately, 
 repairing it with a small trowel, andreiutroduciug the 
 corresponding half of the pattern till the impression 
 is firm ami perfect. Finally, the surface of the mold 
 is coated with charcoal-dust, which gives a smooth 
 surface to the future casting. These columns being 
 made hollow, there is yet another matter to arrange 
 before the casting can be made — namely, the cvre. 
 In the instance before us, it would simply be a rod of 
 iron, covered with straw and loam to whatever thick- 
 ness the internal diameter of the column happened to 
 require. The core of course occupies the center of 
 the mold. 
 
 The cast iron is melted with coke in a round fire- 
 brick furnace, called a cupola, the heat being urged 
 
 ' by means of a powerful blast, created by fanners re- 
 volving at liiL'li speerl. The molten melal is run 
 from a tap at the bottom of the furnace Into a mal- 
 lealile iron ladle, lined with clay, from which it is 
 poured into the mold through holes viiWcd runnert 
 OTgatm. When the mold is newly filled, nutnerouB 
 jets of blue fiaiiie issue from as many small holes 
 pierced in the sand. Tliesr- perforations are necf-s- 
 sary for the escajie of air and other gases [irodiiced 
 by the action of the hot metal on tlu' mold. Care 
 must also be taken not to have the moM too damp, 
 otherwise steam is generated, which may cause 
 holes in the casting, and even force part of the me- 
 tal out of the mohl. The casting remains covered 
 up for a tinu', in order to cool slowly, and is then 
 removed by breaking away the sand, and drawing 
 out the core. In the cas<^ of a fluted or otherwise 
 ornamented ])illar, the pattern w<juld rcfjuire to be 
 in at least four pieces instead of two, because It is 
 only a plain pattern that will come out of the mold 
 in halves without tearing away the sand. When a 
 pattern is necessarily made in several pieces, it is 
 drawn out of the mold bit by bit, to the right or 
 left, as the case may be, and so parts from the sand 
 without breaking it. Suppose that a snuil'. ornament- 
 al vase was to surmount the jiillar, the founder 
 would pre])are the pattern of tliis in a more elabor- 
 ate manner. He would first nu)ld it in wax or clay, 
 from which a cast in plaster of Paris is made ; from 
 that, again, a cast is taken'in an alloy of tin and lead, 
 which, after being sharply chased, and divided into 
 the required number of pieces, is used as a pattern 
 to cast from. All ornamental patterns, such as 
 figures, scrolls, leaves, enriched moldings, and the 
 like, are made in this way, whatever metal the ulti- 
 mate casting is to be produced in. Very large en- 
 gine cylinders, pans, and such vessels, are cast in 
 loam-molds, which are built of brick, plastered with 
 loam, then coated with coal-dust, and finally dried by 
 means of a fire. This method is adopted with large 
 plain objects, where a pattern would be expensive, 
 and when very few castings of ime kind are required. 
 Iron molds, coated with black lead or plumbago, 
 have recently been introduced for casting pipes into; 
 they are greatly more expensive than any other kind, 
 but they enable a founder to dispense with a pat- 
 tern, as, when once made into the required form. they 
 are not destroyed like molds of sand or loam at each 
 casting. Bronze and brass are cast in molds pre- 
 pared with finer sand than that used for iron. Pew- 
 ter and similar soft metallic alloys are cast in brass 
 molds. The tj-pe-founder, on the other hand, uses 
 molds of steel, which are now worked to a great ex- 
 tent by a machine. The variety of articles produced 
 by casting are very numerous, among others we may 
 mention cylinders, cisterns, paper-engines, beams, 
 boilers, pumps, and the heavy parts of machinery 
 generally, gates, railings, lamps, grates, feiulers, 
 cooking-vessk-ls, and the like, in iron ; cannon, many 
 portions of machinery, and numerous ornamental 
 oijjects, in brass ; sculpture and other works of art 
 in bronze and the more costly metals. One of the 
 m ost remarkable cast ings yet execut ed f or t he require- 
 ments of modern engineering, was thecylinder of the 
 hydraulic press used for raising the tubes of the 
 Britannia bridge. It measured 9 ft.x 3 ft. 6 in., the 
 metal being 10 in. thick, and weighed upwards of 20 
 tons. It remained red hot for three days, and it was 
 seven days more before men could approach it to re- 
 move the sand. Sole plates of steam-hammers, and 
 for other jnirposes, have been cast more than double 
 this weight, but the same care was not required in 
 their execution. In regard to sculpture, perhaps.the 
 most wonderftd casting known is the colossal statute 
 of Bavaria at Munich. 'finisiied in 1850. which stands 
 54 ft. high, the face being equal to the height of a 
 man. It took eight years to cast, and the cost of the 
 bronze used was about £10.0no. See Fimndri/. 
 
 METALLIC AMMUNITION FOR SMALI^AEMs'— For 
 the manufacture of metallic ammunition for small-
 
 METALLIC AMMUNITION FOR SMALL- ASMS. 
 
 318 
 
 METALLIC AMMUNITION FOE SMALL ARMS. 
 
 arms and friction and electric primers for cannon on 
 a large scale, the following buildings are required : 
 No. 1. Fi re-proof factory -with L; basement being 
 provided with machinery adapted to tl.e manufacture 
 of primers, etc., with a separate) rooui containing: 
 grindstones, emerj'-wheels, etc., and tumbling bar- 1 
 rels. The first story being fitted up with all the 
 machines, tools, and benches of a first-class machine- 
 shop, for manufacture and repair of the machines 
 and tools employed in the works, with necessary of- 
 fice and engine rooms, and well furnished with presses 
 and cabinets for surplus tools, standard gauges, spe- 
 cimens, etc. A room in L, with all appliances for 
 -washing cases.and a large and conveniently arrang- 
 ed drying-room over the engine boiler. The second 
 story "contains all the machinery necessary for draw- 
 ing, trimming, heading, and forming cartridge-cases, 
 wtth a separate room in L provided with machines 
 and tables for making paper packing bo.\es ; print- 
 ing-presses, type-fonts, etc., for printing. No. 2. Fire- 
 proof factory for manufacture of bullets, with separ- 
 ate rooms for charging eases and inspecting and 
 packing finished ammunition. No. 3 Blaeksinithx'' 
 xhop and stacks for forcings and small castings, and 
 annealing furnaces for tools, etc., with a separate 
 room for annealing and pickling cases. No. 4. Car- 
 penter-shop, for making boxes,tools,implenunts. etc. 
 
 drawing or reducing. The cylindrical shell is trim 
 med to a standard length in a machine called the 
 case-trimmer. After washing, the shells or cases 
 have a fiange formed at the closed end by pressure in 
 a special machine called the header. The headed 
 case is tapered to a standard size. The open end is 
 made cylmdrical for the length the bullet enters it, 
 so as to inclose the latter snugly; and if it be inside- 
 primed, like the present service cup-anvil cartridge, 
 the anvil is inserted and fastened at the same time 
 by crimping the case around its edge. 
 
 Priming is done in a machine called the primer. 
 For outside priming a percussion-cap is vi.sed, made 
 in the ordinary way. Priming of fulminate of mer- 
 cury should not under any circumstances, be de- 
 posited on brass, as it forms an amalgam, and rapidlj- 
 deteriorates the metal and priming. Shellac varnish 
 is used to protect the surface of brass. No injurious 
 deterioration from this cause has been noticed in the 
 use of copper. Bullets are made in a bullet-machine 
 from a cast slug or rolled bar ; the last is considered 
 the best ; they are trimmed by a machine called the 
 bullet-trimmer. The diameter is required to be up 
 to standard with no minimum allowance, and they 
 are sized at the lubricating machine by passing 
 through a die. The form^ width, and depth of 
 grooves must conform to the standard with very little 
 
 No. % I'oint-sh'-p. No. 6. Rit'irt-h'Of, . fur manu- 
 facture of fulminate of mercury. No. T. Magazine. 
 for powder. No. 8. Small Magazine, for fulminate of 
 mercury and friction-powder. No. 9. Store/muse, for 
 storing cartridges, primers, etc. 
 
 The modern center-fire metallic cartridges maybe 
 divided into three classes: the solid attached head, 
 the solid head, and the folded head. There are two 
 varieties of folded-head cartridges the reinforced and 
 non-reinforced. As regartls priming, the above- 
 named classes are divided into outside and inside 
 primed cartridges, and may be designated respect- 
 ively as re-loading and non-reloading cartridges. 
 They are generally made from sheet-co])per or brass, 
 the latter material having more elasticity, and the for- 
 mer more uniformity and durability. 
 
 Mannfa-tnre — Sheet metal of the required thick- 
 ness, from .025" to .09", is used for the various kinds 
 of cartridges. This is fed to a double-acting die and 
 punch, which cuts out a disk and forms it into a cyl- 
 indrical cup at one operation. The cup is reduced 
 to a cylinder of the requin^d length in from four to 
 >ix operations by dies and punches, and is called 
 
 variation. The weights should not vary more than 
 two grains from the standard of 405, grains. The 
 lubricant should be free from acid reaction, and of 
 vegetable origin as bayberryor Japan wa.x, and filled 
 into the grooves by a machine. Loading, or assem- 
 bling thecase, powder, and bullet, is done in a ma- 
 chine called the loader, by one operation (as in the 
 Frankford arsenal loader), or by several operations 
 known as plate-charging. The bullet should be 
 perfectly concentric with the case at the time of in- 
 sertion. The charge of powder should be asimiform 
 as possible, with not more than two grains variation 
 from the standard weight of 70 grains. All cart- 
 ridges should be wiped clean and gauged as to dia- 
 meter, length, and diameter and thickness of head. 
 Those should be rejected showing any defects in 
 material, or bad workmanship. Each cartridge 
 should be weighed to detect loss of parts or defi- 
 ciency in weight of powder. A special automatic 
 weighing machine is used at Frankford arsenal. 
 
 That the present degree of perfection in tlie manu- 
 facture of these several classes of metal cartridges 
 has been the result of gradual and careful develop-
 
 METALLIC AMMUNITION FOR SMALL ARMS. 
 
 ;; 1 '.) 
 
 METALLIC AMMUNITION FOE SMALL ARMS. 
 
 mpnt, is evident from a cursory examination and 
 <'imiimrison of tli(^ earlier, intermediate, and more 
 
 reeeiil licst forms. 
 
 Anions tlu^ tirwt of metal (■iirtri<lf;cn of Ameriean 
 invention is tlie McjrHc, wliieli waH brouf^lit out a 
 short lime before tlie war of the rebellion, bill not 
 thoroiifrhly experimented with at the tiiiic' or intro- 
 duced into serviee. lis objeetionubli; feiitiires are 
 apparent in tlie li^^lit of proi^rehs made. IN merits 
 over paper or similar ammunition are apparent, the 
 chief, p<'rliapa, beinj; that it was desi;:iied as a self- 
 primed carlridi^e, had a tlani^ed-head for e.vtraetin;; 
 the case, and that it reduced the operations of load- 
 ing. 
 
 About the same time the nurnside. Maynard, an<i a 
 few others, were produced, some of whieli \v<-re i;ood 
 in their day, an<i for the arms for which Ihey were 
 desifjned, but were tired by means of a cap, throiii;li 
 a vent, at some distance from the carlrid;;!', and w<-re 
 extracted by the lingers. With them there was not 
 that necessary nicety of fit to the chamber of the crun, 
 the joint was not absolutely closed, and the failures 
 to explode were as frequent as with theold-fashiouctl 
 paper eartridgi^ and perciission-cap. Such failures 
 would, now-a-days, be considered a most unwarranted 
 percentage in any metallie ammunition laying claim 
 to excellence, and, in the best known varieties, do 
 not occur to the extent of one in one thousaixl rounds; 
 in fact, many attain a much liigher standard of sure- 
 ty than indicated l)y this figure. The records of the 
 testing-rounds show long-<ontinued firing and con- 
 sumption of thousands of rounds without failure at 
 all from any cause, and tlie summation of a yi'ar's 
 practice and test, in proof of manufacture, exhibit.s 
 but an exceedingly small percentage of such failures. 
 
 For some time the idea of combining the primer 
 and cartridge did not assert itself, but some in vent itmK 
 were pushed in this direction, and the rim-]irimed 
 cartridge was produced. In this the fulminate com- 
 position was placed in tlie folded head of the case. 
 
 its advantages being Burc exploBion when Htnick by 
 the point of the liring-pin; less of fulminate and less 
 Hlrain on the head of the cartridg('; greater seiMirity 
 in handling and using under all exigencies of Bervice. 
 These cartridges have been subjected to llic Beverest 
 tests to demonstrate their capability to resist all ac- 
 cidents, such as masliing up boxes of ammunition, 
 and even firing into them with bullets. Only the 
 cartridges actually impiuL'ed iijion ex|)loded under 
 such t<'Sts, their neighbors being only lilackened and 
 not otherwisi' damaged. TIk^ safety of handling 
 and transporting this ammunition in comparison 
 witli that of tlie old-fasliione<l kind is vastly in its 
 favor, and the risk attending Us carriage is almost 
 nothing. Its grea'.ly superior quality to resist expo- 
 sure of climate, moisture, c.U-., has also been proven 
 by such exceedingly severe tests that it may be 
 asserteii to be practically water-proof. A central 
 and direct blow on the point primed is an essential 
 and highly important feature of the center-primed 
 cartridge; its general ado|)lion, and adaptation of 
 all breech-loading service sinall-arms to its use, is 
 the best proof of its acknowledged superiority. Sim- 
 ple modifications of the form of the head adapt it to 
 safe us(t in magazine arms, even though the front of 
 one bullet rests on the head of the preceding cart- 
 ridge, while with all varieties of repriming ammu- 
 nition the central fire is a nine gun nim. Otiier rea- 
 Bons in its favor might be given, but it is believed 
 sufficient have already been adduced to warrant the 
 statement that whatever may be claimed as the par- 
 ticular merit of a;iy one variety of metalic ajnmuni- 
 tion, by ardent inventors and admirers of special 
 forms, all are agreed that, for military purposes at 
 lejiBt, the palm to center-priming must be yielded. 
 Theservice-cartridgc', made of a copper case with a 
 folded-head and copper fulminate primed cup-anvil, 
 crimped in position, has been so long used and test- 
 ed on the experimental ground and in the field, and 
 1)V various boards of experts on smali-arms, and its 
 
 This mode of priming requires a large charge of the 
 priming composition, which, being thrown into the 
 fold by swiveling, the entire circumference of the 
 head was not always primed thoroughly, and as the 
 cartridge is exploded by striking the rim at a part of 
 the head under the hammer, it not infrequently hap- 
 pened that it failed from the point struck not having 
 any priming. The large charge required, also (a- 
 bout 5 grains against A grain for the center-fire), 
 was a furtlier objection "to rim-priming; the explod- 
 ing of so large a quantity of cpiick-powder in the 
 folded head, the weak part of the cartridge, tending 
 to strain and open the fold to bursting, as it frequent- 
 ly did. Another objection to rim primed cartridges 
 is that they are more liable to accident in handling, 
 and in shock of transportation, and in those incident 
 to service; in fact, a number of instances of explosion 
 in the magazine of repeating-arms, and in patent 
 cartridge-boxes for service of such, have been report- 
 ed, by which serious injury resulted to the soldier. 
 
 Hence, efforts to produce a still more reliable and 
 satisfactory cartridge, and the development, produc- 
 tion, and general adoption for service of what is now 
 so well known as cenUr.primed metallic ammunitim, 
 
 excellence in all these fields of trial so well demon- 
 strated, that no particular description of its construc- 
 tion and performance is here necessary. Some of 
 the varying modifications of the folded-flange car- 
 tridge are noted in the drawings. It is of rare oc- 
 currence that the fold is sometimes slighth* opened 
 or burst in firing, probably from a defect or thinness 
 of tlie metal, but this is not attended with the least 
 inconvenience or risk to the person or arm, and, in 
 most cases, would escape notice altogether outside 
 the carefully scrutinized cases at the experimental 
 and testing grounds. 
 
 So far this has not been deemed of any consequence 
 in the service, and none of the best model breech-load- 
 ing arms take the least notice of it. If necessarj-, 
 however, the folded-head cartridge is abundantly 
 susceptible of improvement, in an easy and practic- 
 able manner, as is evident from an examination of 
 the various forms of re-enforcement of cartridges of 
 this construction, experimentally tested and herein 
 described. 
 
 The Berdan, made in large numbers for the Rus- 
 sian government, for use in the Berdan breech-load- 
 ing rifle, has been most strictly and severly tested
 
 METALLIC AMJIUNITION FORSMILL-AEMS. 
 
 320 
 
 UEXALLIC AMMUNITION FOK 8MALL-ASMS. 
 
 during manufacture, and has proved of great excel- 
 lence. It is exceedingly ingenious; its re-enforce- 
 ment simple and effective; its capacity as a reloader 
 fully tested and demonstrated b_v prolonged and re- 
 peated trial, daily, during production of millions of 
 rounds; a number of the shells being reloaded, 
 primed, and flred ten times, and much more extend- 
 ed trials have been had for special test of the endur- 
 ance of the cases in this particular. Its chief distin- 
 guishing feature is that its anvil is of the same con- 
 tinuous piece of metal as that of which the case is 
 made. Herein there is no possible displacement or 
 misplacement of the anvil, and it has a fixed position 
 with respect to the primer. The cartridge is singu- 
 lar in this respect, and superior to its rivals that re- 
 quire a separate anvil. In it was a happy idea hit 
 upon by the inventor of making his anvil by a simple 
 return of the met;il of the pocket for the primer. 
 All other anvils are its inferiors in that they have to 
 be handled in assembling the parts of the shell. An- 
 other advantage is, it presents a point to the primer 
 inside, rendering it sensitive to the blow of the ham- 
 mer. The use of the special Hobbs' primer is most 
 excellent in this combination. Other varieties of an 
 excellent re-enforcement may be referred to, as ex- 
 hiliited in the drawings and notes under this class. 
 
 These re-enforcements may be accomplished in var- 
 ious ways, as by a ring of expanding metal, a ring 
 of solder, felt or 7)a;»«7'-»ia<;/(C wads, etc. When the 
 ring of this metal is used as a re-enforcement it is 
 best applied, and perhaps only effectually, in those 
 cartridges having a pocket or return of the head for 
 the priming. In these cases it should be so formed 
 as to act by expansion against the walls of the case 
 and of the pocket, to cut off the escape of gas to 
 the folded head in both directions. The solder ring 
 has been found to be a good re -enforce also, and in 
 the wrapped-metal and some other varities of car- 
 tridges it serves also to attach the flanged-head to 
 the body of the case. It was tirst used here for this 
 purpose, and that it acted also as a re-enforce was a 
 resulting discover}'. The felt or papier-mache wad is 
 not believed to be as good or to hold the head as se- 
 curely, although it is extensively used in the various 
 forms of Boxer ammunition. It is not believed that 
 a simple ring of any soft metal of any shape, as lead 
 or its alloys, forced into the case at the head, will act 
 as a re-enforce, as has been claimed. No matter how 
 closely the metallic surfaces are in contact, if the re- 
 enforcement does not expand more promptly and as 
 fully as the case itself under all the pressure of the 
 gas, it does not strengthen or re-enforce the point to 
 which it is applied. A re-enforcing ring works well, 
 applied to a Martin cartridge, as well.Jinfact, as to a 
 Berdan. and in the same manner. An objection to 
 the Martin is its small anvil for small-headed car- 
 tridges, and their liability to burn the priming com- 
 position inclosing the pocket on the anvil, a difficul- 
 ty met with in their manufacture, with the bar-an- 
 vil, and which can onlv be wholly eliminated by 
 careful inspection of primed cases. 
 
 A very notable cartridge is the Boxer, as made at 
 the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, for the Snider and 
 Martini-Henry rifles. A perusal of the English re- 
 ports of their small-arm ordnance board will show 
 the most casual reader that the failures of these car- 
 tridges, from all causes, have been what would be 
 considered in our trials of the best American car- 
 tridges as a very large percentage, suthcient to war- 
 rant the abandonment of a cartridge that failed so 
 often. Unlike its American prototype, frtim which 
 it was originally taken, its ]iarts are more lunnerous, 
 and the steits of operalicms in its produclidu more 
 than double those in tlial siinjjle cartridge. Its cost, 
 hence, is also large, considering the low prices of la- 
 bor and materials, and the very large numbers fab- 
 ricated in the country of its adoption; a cost very 
 much \n excess, it is believed, of that of any other 
 of the most approved American varieties of metal 
 cartridges fabricated under similar advantages of 
 
 cheap labor, low-priced materials, and large produc- 
 tion It does not appear to be well adapted to stand 
 the shocks of transportatin or exigencies of service, 
 is easily indented and disfigured, so much so as se- 
 riously to interfere, with ease of loading. Per contra, 
 it is beautifull)' expanded and brought into shape of 
 the exact walls of the chamber in firing, and extracts 
 readily if the head holds, which, from the reports, 
 seems not always to be the case. It is not suitable 
 in its present state and form for vise as a reloader, 
 whatever may be claimed for it in this respect, and 
 it is doubtful if it could be made so. The idea of 
 such a use does not seem to receive encouragement 
 from recent reports. Its attachable heads, from the 
 peculiar and awkward mode of fixing them, are not 
 exact or even, and may not always lie firmly put on. 
 Made of iron, it is believetl they never should be for 
 cartridges subjected to all varieties of climate. The 
 use of this metal for a cartridge, otherwise so cost- 
 ly, is the poorest kind of economy. 
 
 There are several varieties of solid heads, as the 
 Hotchkiss, the Dutch, the United States Cartridge 
 Company's &c. The head, here, is re-enforced by 
 using a thick sheet-metal strip to form the case, and 
 leaving sufficient stock in the head, in drawing the 
 case, to flow out and'form the flange solidly. That 
 this is effective in making a very strong case is un- 
 questionable; its manufacture requires some heavier 
 plant for special operations; its cost in metal and 
 production is somewhat greater; and it is believed 
 that the head is unnecessarily strong for the present 
 work required by well-constructed breech-loading 
 small-arms. 
 
 Experience, it is believed, has fully demonstrated 
 that, in order to insure the best results in service, 
 our small Army should be furnished with the most 
 approved arms and material practicable. To effect 
 this, the careful selection of an excellent (the best 
 if it can be determined upon, for the chief trouble of 
 such a selection seems to be from embarroji de richesse 
 in this branch of invention) system of breech-loading 
 rifle small-arm, and suitably working efficient am- 
 munition for the service of the same, is preeminently 
 desirable. Supposing the first part of the proposition 
 accomplished, and such a breech-loading system selec- 
 ted, approved and adopted, their production in such 
 numbers as may be required by the Government for 
 the Army, the uniform equipment of the militia, and 
 the necessary reserve-stores for future emergencies, 
 can unquestionably be accomplished at the National 
 Armory, and no danger need be apprehended of any 
 serious difficulty in the way of adaptation of its 
 present machinery and plant, to the manufacture of 
 any breech-loading system of small-arms, perfectly 
 interchangeable, in these days of advanced scientific 
 manufacture, when the production of the most com- 
 plete and intricate machinery, interchanging in all 
 their parts, is a problem of an easy, sure, and daily 
 accomplishment. 
 
 If, from the abundance of good things to be 
 chosen from, the difficulty of selection can be over- 
 come, the rest, with adequate appropriations, is 
 comparatively easy. A prime essential of such ma- 
 nufacture should be the institution of a rigorous 
 standard from which there should not be the slightest 
 departure, except by competent authority. Expe- 
 cially .should this apply to the chamber of the gun or 
 neat of the cartridge, the dimensions of which should 
 be invariably fixed, s'.nd the greatest nicety of finish 
 and adjustment of breech-mechanism insisted upon. 
 In other words, the chambers should, within the 
 limits of meehiuiical construction, be of the same 
 dimensions, to the tlicuisandlh <if an incli, both for 
 the body of the cartridge and its llange or head, ihe 
 neat (ftfie extractor should not occupy any part whatever 
 of tlie body of the chamber, and its surface 
 should be as smooth as it is possible to make it. 
 The depth of the flange recess of the chamber should 
 only be sufBciently deeper than the thickness of 
 the head of the airtridge to be employed in it to
 
 METAL LINED CASES. 
 
 321 
 
 METALLURGY. 
 
 allow fur the easy cloning of the brcedi-block, the 
 Hiimll viiriiilioiis of thickness of iiicliil fruiii wliifh 
 tlic cusf is iiiailc, 1111(1 of ncccssiiry iiiiiiiiifiiclurc. 
 A (lilVcrciicc lit O'.OI is lii'lirvcd to lie iuii|iU' fur all 
 |mr|)os(/s ; ils diaiiu'liT may lii' at least O'.fKi larj^er 
 than that of the carlrid^^e-head, which should itself 
 be great enough to allow a secure hold to the ex- 
 tractor. Ail the nngli'H of the chamhir x/ioi/ltl he. 
 dUjlMy rovnihd. Tlie leMt;tli of the eliauiber should 
 be but a few hundredths iif un inch lciii;.;cr than that 
 of the case of the eartridije, anil its throal. or seat 
 of the jirojeclinu; ])art of the bullet, shniild lie ac- 
 curately alteuded to, so that, with the cartridge in 
 Hi'tu, the breech-blocU being dosed, it should always 
 occupy the same relative position with respect to its 
 bearings in the chamlier, and the bullet have the i 
 smallest necessary distance to move before engaging | 
 the grooves of the barrel, wliicli engagement should 
 be well advanced before the bullet is free from the 
 case, to insuri! that it will start with its axis in the 
 direction of the axis of the barrel. The expansion 
 of the case in tiring should immediately shut iifV 
 escape of gas arounil its body to the rear- the only 
 limits in diilerence of diameter of chamber and case 
 allowable being those necessary to insure 
 the required ease in loading, and there 
 shinild lie no fiiuling of the chamber in 
 firing' liall-carlridges. 
 
 A little retlectiun will convince all that 
 an invariable chamber ('.t the prime enmntidl 
 to the projwr pirformanre'of the cartridge, 
 assuming, of course, that the latter is also 
 as carefully made. This once obtained, 
 let us insist on the case of the cartridge 
 fitting as closely as practicable- the limit 
 of variation allowalile being only the very 
 small unavoidable range of thickness in 
 metal strips, and a reasonable life or 
 wear of dies and punches necessary to the 
 production of ammunition by the quanti- 
 tj-. These degrees of perfection can be 
 obtained only by the adoption and j.reser- 
 ration of exact standard gauges, by fre- 
 quent and every-day careful inspectim: 
 of material and work, and keeping the 
 attention of mechanics directed to the 
 necessity of constant watchfulness over 
 and frequent verilicaiion of their tools dies, and puu- 
 dies, in current use to insure the desired nicety 
 Without this constant care in keeping up to the 
 standard, work, however satisfactorily and success- 
 fully ■inaugurated, will soon become indifferent. 
 
 All experience shows that the fulminate composi- 
 tion for priming should not be in contact witli any 
 easily corroding metal, or so deposited in the primer ' 
 or in assembling the parts as to rentier any galvanic 
 action possible for its deterioration and eventual de- 
 struction. It is not believed that the service ful- 
 minate composition for ijriming in contact with pure 
 copper undergoes any such deleterious change, as 
 our percussion-caps of twenty years ago are now 
 prompt and perfectly reliable. It should not be in 
 immediate contact with brass, however, where bra.ss 
 is used in construction. This is not necessary, as 
 in the Ilobbs' primer, for instance, it is efficiently 
 protected by being between two coats of varnish, one 
 applied to the botom of the cap before the priming 
 is dropped in, the other to one side of a tin-foil var- 
 nislied disk pressed over the priming, which also 
 hohls it securely in place. Similar means of pro- 
 tection are used in other primers, or an equivalent. 
 The United States Cartridge Company's primers, the 
 Millbank, etc., are well protected from moisture, de- 
 lexioratiiin. and injury. See Ammunition. 
 
 METAL LINED CASES.— Powder barrels lined with 
 sheet copper, for the purpose of holding prepared 
 cartridges. Metal-lined cases are used as portable 
 magazines. When tested. they should be water-tight. 
 
 METALLURGY.— The art of extracting metals from 
 their ores. The operations are partly meclianical 
 
 and partly clicmical . Those proceBscs wli icli depend 
 
 principally on chimical reactions for their results 
 iiave reference chielly to the roasting and smelting 
 of ores, and are described under the heads of the 
 different metals. I!ut there are certain preliminary 
 operations of a mechanical kind which metallic ores 
 undergo, such as crushing, jigging, washing, etc., 
 which we shall describe here, as they are essentially 
 the same for the ores of lead, copper, tin, zini'. and 
 indeed most of the metals. Ores are first broken up 
 with hammers, into piices of a convenient size for 
 crushing or stamping. Waste material, such as pieces 
 of rock, spar, etc., which always accompany ore, 
 are as far as possilile picked out by hand, and the 
 ore itself is arranged in sorts according to its jiurity. 
 Various kinds of apparatus, such as riddles, sieves, 
 etc., are then used for separating it into (iifferent 
 sizes, in order to secure a uniform strain on the 
 crushing machinery. In one of the most a]ii)roved 
 forms of crushing-mills the ore is raised by means of 
 small wagons to a i)latfiirm, where it is ready to bo 
 sup[)lied to the crushing-rollers through an opening. 
 These rollers are mounted in a strong iron frame, 
 held together by ■\\Tought-irou bars, and bolted to 
 
 strong beams- Their distance apart is regulated by 
 means of a lever to which a weight is attached. The 
 bearings of the rollers slide in grooves, so that when 
 any extra pressure is put upon them by a large or 
 hard piece of ore, the lever rises, and allows the 
 space between the rollers to widen. The crushed 
 ore falls upon a series of sieves, which are made to 
 vibrate. These have meshes increasing in fineness 
 as they descend ; and the upper two are so wide that 
 pieces of ore too large to pass through them are 
 conducted into the lower part of the Ijucket-wheel 
 and raised again to the platform to be recrushed. 
 The lower four sieves separate the remaining portion 
 of the crushed ore into different degrees of fineness, 
 which is collected in pits. 
 
 A sectional view of the Blake Ore Crusher, stand- 
 ard in the United States and abroad, is shown in Fig. 
 1. A three-sided framework of cast-iron, with broad 
 flanged base, holding the movable jaw. J, in suspen- 
 sion, from the front part of the machine, between the 
 upright convergent jaws of which tlie stone is crush- 
 ed. "The jaw shaft, K, is held in place b.y wrought 
 iron or steel clamps. C. which serve to take part of 
 the strain due to crushing in the upper part of the 
 jaw space, and also serve as walls thereof. In the low- 
 er part of the three-sided frame or front part of the 
 crusher, and on each side of it. are holes in the cast- 
 ing to receive the main tension rods which connect 
 the front and rear part of the nuichine. Therearpart 
 B. is called the main toggle block, and is also pro- 
 vided with holes for thetension rods R. R., corres- 
 ponding to those in the front casting. These two 
 parts of the machine are connected by the main steel
 
 METAL SEPAKATOK. 
 
 322 
 
 METCALFE CAETEIDGE BLOCK. 
 
 tension rods, R R.,eacli provided -with screw-tliread 
 
 and nuts, ]S. N., by whicli their lcn_s;tlis and the jaw 
 opening are readily adjusted to crush coarse or tine, 
 as may be desired. The front and rear castings are 
 supported on parallel timbers, to the under side of 
 which are boiled the bo.xes carrying the main eccen- 
 tric shaft, S, provided with tiy wheels and pullej', D 
 and E. The timbers are thus made component parts 
 of the machine, and take the transverse strain which 
 comes upon the pitman connecting the main shaft 
 and the toggle joint placed to the rear of the mov- 
 able jaw, and between it and the main toggle block. 
 
 Between the broad flanged bases of the front and 
 rear castings and the timber on which they rest, are 
 placed flat rubber cushions, CC, one-quarter to three 
 eighths of an inch thick. Every revolution of the 
 shaft brings the toggles. O. O, more nearly into line, 
 and throws the swing jaw forward ; it is withdrawn 
 by the rod provided with rubber spring L. In this 
 way a short reciprocating or viljratory movement is 
 communicated to the movalile jaw. 
 
 The rigidity inseparable from macliines with cast 
 iron frames, and which is the cause of frequent break- 
 ages is complete!}' overcome in this machme, and 
 tile longitudinal as well as the transverse strains are 
 brought upon materials which are strong and elastic 
 as compared with cast irnn. The rubber cushions. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 while offering sufficiently great resistance to com- 
 pression in case of the breakage of stone or in doing 
 the normal work of the machine, will, in case of the 
 accidental intrusion of the steel hammers or anything 
 of that kind, be compressed and so permit a par- 
 tial revolution of the fly-wheels before connug to a 
 full stop, thus relieving the machine of those nearly 
 infinite strains to which those of the old forms were 
 subjected, and which resulted in breakage of import- 
 ant parts. The toggles are long, and of equal leugth, 
 and may be worn indefinitely as compared with tho.se 
 in the old machines. The construction of the pit- 
 man, R' II, is such as to admit of change of inclina- 
 tion of the toggles, and consequently of adjustment 
 of the length of stroke of the movable jaw. The jaw 
 opening can be varied between an}' working linnts 
 by means of the nuts, M, on the tension rods, and 
 the machine be .set to cnin/i roarM or fint as iiiiiy be 
 desired. This Breaker can he run at a higher rate 
 of speed with safety than any of the old forms of 
 cruslier with cast iron frames, and will consequently 
 do a greater amount of work. It is verj- uuich light- 
 er than the old forms, and has at least doulile their 
 strength. It has been repcatedl)- subjected to the | 
 test of a steel hammer Ixiiig thniwn between its 
 jaws, when going at as high a rate of s])eed as >iOO 
 revolutions per nnnute without the slightest injury 
 to or any breakage of the machine. The manner 
 fif moutniug the t'rusher, so that it mav lie readil- 
 
 hauled from place to place, is illustrated in Fig. 2. It 
 1 wil' be seen how peculiarily well adapted this style of 
 Breaker is for mounting. The fly wheels themsel- 
 , ves serve as the rear pair of wheels. The keys of 
 I the main Hy wheels are withdrawn, and the main 
 l' shaft is provided with a collar and set screw to hold 
 the wheels in place when the machine is being haul- 
 ed about. After being crushed, the ore is washed 
 and sifted on a jigging sieve. In one of its simiJest 
 forms the ore is placed on a table from which a sieve 
 is tilled. It is then immersed in a tub of water and 
 a jigging motion communicated to it by a workman 
 alternately raising and lowering a handle. This 
 effects two purposes — it washes the ore, and separa- 
 tes the material into two layers: the upper consists of 
 the lighter spar and other impurities, which are 
 raked off; and the lower consi.sts of the heavier and 
 purer portions of the ore, which are now ready for 
 the roasting furnace. It will be apparent that in the 
 bottom of tlie tub there must be a quantity of more 
 or less valuable ore, which, from its fineness, has 
 fallen through the sieve. This is called sludge or 
 slime ; and the minute particles of ore it contains 
 are recovered either by simply forming an incline on 
 the ground, and washing it with a current of water, 
 or by using an inclined table called a dfeping-tnble. 
 Ore which has been reduced to powder at the stamp- 
 ing-mill, as well as slime, is washed by tlab 
 apparatus. The material is put into a chest 
 which is placed in a sloping position, and 
 is supplied with water on turning a stop- 
 cock. The current carries the contents 
 of the chest through an opening at the bot- 
 tom, and spreads it, with the aid of a se- 
 ries of stops, or small bits of wood, over 
 the surface of the table. A stream of water 
 is tlien kept flowing over the table till the 
 earthy impurities are ah carried down into 
 a trough, the pure jjartielcs of the ore re- 
 maining, by reason of their greater specific 
 gravity, near the top of the table, whence 
 tliey ar(! removed to be smelted. Some- 
 times the table is suspended by chains and 
 receives a succession of blows at the top 
 from a hiijf'er, moved b_y cams on the same 
 principle as the stamping-mill. The varie- 
 ty of machinery and apparatus used in 
 dressing ores is very great, and they pass 
 under different names in different districts, 
 but tliev are all very similar in principle 
 to those we have descriiied. See Jrvn. 
 METAL SEPAEATOR.— A machine much used in 
 armuries and arsenals for separating iron and steel 
 chips, turnings filings etc., from those of brass or 
 composition. Its capacity and utility for this kind 
 of work are very great. The machine is not only a 
 great labor-saving device, but brass-stock treated 
 with it is much improved, as it is so tlioroughly 
 cleansed that it may be used for the best of work. 
 The machine may also be used for separating iron 
 from emery. The driving shaft should run tlO to 100 
 turns per minute. There are two things absolutely 
 necessary in using the machine : 1st, ^\ henever the 
 machine is not running, raise the brush and cover the 
 wheel with iron. 2d, The tray uuder the hopper 
 should strike e(iually on each side, so as to distribute 
 the stock evenly on the wheel. If you wish it to feed 
 faster, draw the hopper forward. The bo.\es should 
 be placed as shown in the drawing. 
 
 METCALFE CARTRIDGE-BLOCK.— This consists of 
 a wooden block, H inches by 1 3-4 inches by 11-16 
 incli, bored on its edge with eight holes to receive 
 the same number of ritle cartridges. It is provided 
 with a carrier or metallic hook, sliding ujion th<' belt, 
 in which it isprnjiosed to carry the block full of car 
 fridges. Thcrilleaud tlie block arc so arranged that, 
 at ])lcasure, they cun be secured together in a very 
 convenient position for loading. It is intended that 
 the lilocks, when exhausted, shall be thrown away; 
 but Ihev can, ifnccessarv, lie refilled and used iiLanv
 
 METEOEOLOGICAL REGISTER. 
 
 323 
 
 METRICAL MEASURES. 
 
 imps. It is proposed tlml as iiiiiiiy of tliese carriers 
 anil l)lo<ks I)c worn upon the belt as may Ik- iieces- 
 fiiiry, line re};ar(l Ijeinj; hail to tlie size of the men and 
 to the ehuracler of the service reqnirin^ their nt;e. 
 The ailviinlai;es of this invention are niaiiifohl. The 
 hlork in ilseif is a nooil piieUiiL'e forihe carlridnes. 
 It is nearly indeslrijelihle in Iransportation orhy wet; 
 it keeps ihe eartriiljres from joslliui; together, and 
 
 Metal Srpf^rntor. 
 
 therein', as has been shown by e.xperieuce, endanc;er- 
 ing their surety of tire. It also i)rotects them from 
 dust and sand, quite as injurious to the gun as mois- 
 ture would bo to the cartridge. It is a convenient 
 package in shape and si/.<', if an extra supply of am- 
 muniliou had to be carried in the men's ])ockets. 
 
 When combined with the gun, a considerable in- 
 crease in the possible rapidity of tire is attained and 
 a very marked advantage is found in tiring lying 
 down. In this position it seems jiroijable that nuich 
 of Ihe firing of the future is to be conducted. The 
 only i)ortion of a man so tiring whicli it is at, all 
 necessary to move is his right arm. If an isolated 
 skirmisher, he need not twist or roll over to get at 
 his l)ack or side for amunilion, and thereby attract 
 attention. The cartridges are immediately in front 
 of the firer, imder his eye. He sees just where they 
 are, and how many are left him. We have frequently 
 heard of troops engaged in iutrenchments spreading, 
 for convenience, their cartridges on the parajM't in 
 front of them. In a similar ca.se, a man provided 
 ■with the block has all this facility of manipulation, 
 with this additional advantage, that, if obliged to 
 change his position hurriedly, he does not have to 
 leave his ammunition behind him, but carries it with 
 the gun to which it belongs. Pickets or other troops 
 exposed to surprise maj' sleep with their belts off if 
 they have their blocks fixed. In case of a surprise, 
 they have but one thing to look for — the gun. 
 
 Moreover, the block protects the hand from burn- 
 ing on the barrel. After a few shots have been tired 
 from the new Springfield ritle, especially on a hot 
 day, the barrel becomes so hot that it can hardlj' be 
 touched. The block, when fixed, prevents the hand 
 from touching it if the thumb be properlj' laid along 
 the stock. The English War Department has conse- 
 quentl}' been obliged to issue leal her pads to buckle 
 over the barrel at the grip. With the cartridge-block 
 it h nerer xn niiif/i ni't'tl'dii.i irhf/i it i.i tixed. 
 
 METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER.— A monthly report 
 prepared and transmitted by the Senior Surgeon on 
 duty at each military post. It embraces the follow- 
 ing items, as noted in the forms on pages 334 and 
 32.'). 
 
 "methylated spirit.— AIcoholCC^HsOHO), of 
 specific gravity of-83. mixed with 10 per cent, of 
 
 wood spirit, or mcthylic alcohol (C'HjO, HO), which 
 
 is one of the products of the destructive! distillation 
 of w<ioil. Methylated spirit is used for damping de. 
 tonal ing compositions, so as to form them into paste, 
 when tliey can be handled. It dissolves siiellac. 
 
 METIER. A term apiplicable to those nations 
 which keep up large standing armies, and make war 
 their princijjal objecl and pursuit. Chevalier I'olard 
 gives the following definition relative to Ihe question 
 which is often discussed on the subject of war, name- 
 ly whether war be a trade or a science. The Eng- 
 lish 'call it a profession. Folard, however, distin- 
 guishes it in this manner: /ai guerre cut unr, nnHifr 
 pour I'ti it/in'rii iitu, it iinr nrifure ])"ur leHhabileK fjens, 
 
 METRICAL MEASURES. The frequently recurring 
 necessity for clianging tables expressing the dimen- 
 sions, weights, and |>ower of foreign guns Mother than , 
 British) into their equivalents in our own system has 
 suggested tlu; preparation and compilation of tlie 
 tables on pages 320 and 327. Some of the tables have 
 been pidjlished in part, or in another form, but such 
 have been generally based upon values for the meter 
 and /-/foyraw, whicli tlie latest accurate investigations 
 have rendered obsolete; other of the tables, if ever 
 published, are not generally accessible. All (except 
 table M) are based upon the value of the meter in 
 iiirhen and of the kilogram in (jrainx. The standard 
 inch and grain of the United States are copies of 
 the British ; the tables, therefore, also express the 
 equivalents of metrical in British measures. 
 
 MeasukesofLknoth, Squabes. and C'cbic Measures. 
 — (Tables A., J5., and C; The international bu- 
 reau of weights and measures at Paris is now en- 
 gaged in delermining, with the utmost exactness, the 
 relations of the French standard to those of other 
 nations. Since 1808 the United States Coast Survey 
 Ollice has used a value for the meter equal to 
 31). 370432 inches, as determined by an extensive se- 
 ries of comparisons, the results of which are pub- 
 lished in a volume entitled "Comparisons of the 
 Standard of Lengths of England, France, Belgium, 
 Prussia. Russia. India, and Australia, made at the 
 Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton, 1800." Pend- 
 ing the result of the investigation at Paris, this value 
 of the meter is generall.y accepted by scientific men. 
 The fact that the meter "is standard at 0° C. (32" F.) 
 and the yard at 02" F. has been taken into account, 
 and the value given is that of the meter in inches of 
 the standard yard. Tables A, B, and C, like all the 
 remaining ones, consist of the values of each denom- 
 ination, from 1 to 9 inclusive, which can be applied 
 to all numbers, by decimal multiplication and di- 
 vision. 
 
 Weiohts. — (Table D.) The standard troy pound of 
 the United States.at Philadelphia, is our only standard 
 of weight; it is an exact copy of the imperial troy 
 pound of Great Britain, obtained in 1827. Elaborate 
 comparisons, since 18.>5, of this troy pound, weighing 
 .5.700 grains, and of the commercial or avoirdvipois 
 pound of 7,000 grains, derived from the former, 
 with copies of similar weights from the standard 
 pound of Great Britain, have shown that there is less 
 than ^ Jjj of a grain difference between the monev 
 standards (troy weights) of the two countries. The 
 British ntnndard pmind armrdnpoi.i is the weight, in 
 the latitude of London, of a certain piece of platinum 
 kept in the exchequer oflice. In the Philosophic;d 
 Transactions for 1856, is published Prof, W. II. 
 Miller's determination of the weight of the kilogram 
 equal to 15.432.34874 grains, which is accepted as 
 authoritative. This value has been used in the pre- 
 paration of Table D. 
 
 Ant Space per Unit of Weight of Powder-charge. 
 — (Table E. ) In the metrical system, the volume 
 of the chamber and bore of the gun is expressed in 
 decimeter cubes (d. c.) or liters. The space in the 
 bore (or chamber), in rear of the projectile in place, 
 in which the combustion of the charge takes place, 
 constitutes the initial tolume, smAlhe final ralumeTe- 
 sults when the projectile leaves the piece and the in
 
 METRICAL MEASURES. 
 
 324 
 
 METRICAL MEASUEES. 
 
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 Metbical measures. 
 
 325 
 
 UETRICAL MEASUBEB. 
 
 188 . 
 
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 lOITEICAL MEASURES. 
 
 326 
 
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 327 
 
 METRICAL MEASURES. 
 
 
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 METRICAL ME4SUEES. 
 
 328 
 
 METRICAL MEASURES 
 
 flamed passes have ex]3andetl to completely fill the 
 wholeof the bore. The detiuite i elation between the 
 ^powder-charge and the initial and final volumes, 
 
 which we express by " cubic inches of air-space 
 
 :to the pound of powder," is in that system expressed 
 
 by " decimeter cubes of air-space to the kilo- 
 
 _gram of powder." Table E enables us to convert 
 these expressions. 
 
 PREsstTRE OF AN ATMOSPHERE. — (Table F.) Thc 
 value of the unit atmosphere (or atmo.) which has 
 been adopted in tlie metrical system, and used by 
 Regnault in his investigations to determine the rela- 
 tions between the temperature and pressure of gases, 
 is the pressure of T60 millimeters(29.923 inches) of the 
 mercurial column at O'' C. (33'^ F.) at Paris; which 
 amounts, in that latitude, to 1.0333 kilograms on the 
 square centimeter, or 14. 69(17 pounds on the square 
 inch. In consulting this table it is therefore neces- 
 sary to remember that it deals with an arbitrary unit 
 atju-fsphre. 
 
 The Encvclopa-diaBritannica, gives as an ntmos- 
 phei-c. in tlie English system, the pressure due to39.- 
 905 inches of the mercurial column at 32" F. at IjOU- 
 don, which atmosphere thus becomes 0.99968 of that 
 of the metrical system. Under this pressure (39,905) 
 distilled water boils at 313° F. 
 
 Rankine assumes as the value of an English atmos- 
 p/'iere the pressure due to 39,933 inches of the mercur- 
 ial column at 83"^ F., which in the latitude of London 
 corresponds to a pressure of 14.704 pounds per square 
 inch. This, it will be observ?d is the/ie-g/it used in 
 the metrical system, which is thus indicated as the 
 universal standard. ■ 
 
 There are two ways of taking such a standard. 
 1st. If the absolute pressure at Paris, due to 76 cen- 
 .timeters of the mercurial column at 0° C. be as- 
 sumed, then if we would have the same absolute 
 pressure in taking readings of the barometer for 
 presmrts, in a different latitude, allowance must be 
 made for a dilTerence of height of the mercurial col- 
 umn, corresponding to the'difference between the 
 latitude of the place of observation and that of Paris. 
 Tile height of the mercurial column at 0" C. giving 
 a pressure equivalent to that of this metrical atmos- 
 phere, can be computed in centimeters by the follow- 
 ing expression : 
 
 (1 -f .00531 sin^ 48° 50') 
 
 76 X 
 
 1 + .00531 sin- I. 
 for any latitude I. (48"^ 50' being the latitude of 
 Paris.) Thus we have for New York City, taking 
 ^=40° 42' 43", a value for the expression, of 76.063- 
 14 centimeters=29.946 inches, which height of the 
 mercurial column at 33° F. at New York City would 
 indicate a pressure equivalent to the metrical atmos- 
 phere of constant pre^n^ure. 
 
 2d. On the other hand, assuming the universal 
 standard to be the pressure (wherever taken) due 
 to 39.922 inches of the mercuri.al column at 33*^ F., 
 then the absolute pressure of this unit utmnsphere at 
 New York would equal but 14.686 pounds on the 
 square inch, which is 0.999373 of the metrical at- 
 mosphere nt Paris. It may be added that 39.923 
 inches of the mercurial column at 32° F. corres- 
 ponds to 30 inches at 57°.8 F. ; the reduction to 32° 
 for this reading being— 0.078 of an inch for an ob 
 served reading of "the attached thermometer of 
 57°.8 F. 
 
 Bendino-Stress per Unit of IjEnoth.— (Table G.) — 
 In the case of a uniformly distrilnited load, or of a 
 pressure tending to bend or burst ojien a structure, 
 this table enables us to pass from "kilogrammes to 
 the centimeter" to "pounds to the incli." etc., and 
 i)ice mrsa. 
 
 Stress per Unit of Square and Cbbio Measures. — 
 —(Tables II and I.) The first of these tables finds its 
 application especially in thc conversion of (■xpressi(ms 
 giving the tensile strength of materials, wherein we 
 change thc^ metrical expression in "kilogrammes to 
 the square millimeter" into "pounds to the square 
 
 nch,." otherwise stated simply as " pounds ten- 
 sile Etrength." The two tables apply to the conver- 
 sion of values of forces of compression ; the word 
 stress being used to indicate either a force of exten- 
 sion or compression. 
 
 Units OF Work or Enekoy. — (Table K.) — This table 
 gives simply the equivalent values of "kilogramme- 
 ters" in "foot-pounds." and "tonnes-metres" (some- 
 times written rfy»«mo(ic,«) in "foot-tons." It will be 
 used in the translation of abstract quantities of work 
 or energy. 
 
 Energy of Projectiles. — (Table L.) — The transla- 
 tion of expressions for total energies will be made by 
 Table K, while in this series (L) we pass readily to 
 expressions for energies of projectiles in terras of 
 the "unitsof the shot's circumference" and "units of 
 the shot's cross section." This series also enables 
 us to translate the proportion of the total eneigy due 
 to each kilogram of the powder-charge, each kilo- 
 gram of the piece, or each kilogram of the projectile, 
 into equivalent denominations in our own system, 
 and »«■« versa. Further, it includes a translation of 
 the proportion of the total energy due to each unit 
 of the terms in which the pressure upon the bore is 
 expressed ; as, for example, "tonnes-metres (of en- 
 ergy) per atmosphere of pressure" in "foot-tons per 
 pound of pressure." 
 
 In Ordnance Notes, No. XLV, Maj. George W. 
 JIcKee, United States Army, has already called at- 
 tention to the influence of the local value of the force 
 
 Vfv' 
 of gravity (g) in using the formula E= , which 
 
 2g 
 is employed |for determining the energy of a pro- 
 jectile. In connection with these tables, it may be 
 remarked that while they translate the value given 
 in the foreign tables, yet the values thus deduced 
 may not alwaj's be strictly comparable with each 
 other or with our own. The practice of the United 
 States Ordnance Department is to use a value for ff= 
 33.2, which is the same as that used in Great Bri- 
 tain ; this makes the published tallies of energy di- 
 rectly comparable for the two countries, but slightly 
 underrates the local power of our own guns. 
 
 The French use the value of g at Paris, where it is 
 equal to 9.81 meters=33.l85 feet, which, it will be 
 seen, gives slighth- greater energies for one of their 
 guns than we publish for one of ours, supposing all 
 the values entering in the formula (except g) to be 
 identically the same for the two guns under com- 
 parison. Small changes introduced in the value of^ 
 will, however, make little practical difference in 
 the published results, which, for energies, are usu- 
 ally given in foot-tons to tenths only. 
 
 'Phermometers. — (Table M.) This table presents 
 merely a tabulated solution of the formula 
 
 C° X 9 • Ro X 9 
 
 F°= h 33= 1-33. 
 
 5 4 
 
 By decimal multiplica'.ion and division it can be ap- 
 plied to all numbers, as the others. In passing from 
 centigrade or Heaumur to Fahrenheit we first take 
 out tiie tabular numbers and then add 33 ; in tlie re- 
 verse operation we first subtract 32 from the Fahren- 
 heit degrees, to be converted into centigrade or 
 Reaumur, and tlien take out the tabular numbers 
 corresponding to this remainder. 
 
 Units of Heat— (Table N.)— The thermal unit 
 centigrade is the amount of heat required to raise 
 unit mass of water from to 1° C. 
 
 This table exjiresses the relation between the 
 amount of heal re(|uiri'd to Tn'i>iv one kilogram (2.2046 
 pounds) of water from to 1° C. (I'^.S. F), and the 
 amount of heat reciuired to raise one pmind of water 
 1" F, (from 33° to 33° F). The mechanical equiva- 
 lents of the " unit of heat " in the two syst<'fiis bear 
 a like relation to each other. This " mechanical 
 equivalent, in the English system, is the number of
 
 METEOKOUE. 
 
 329 
 
 UICBOHETES. 
 
 foot-iiDunds of iTiorliniiifiil ciMTi^y wliicli must l)c ex- 
 pended ill order to riiise tlic leiii|)i'niliireof one jioiiiid 
 of vviiter one dei;rec>. For Fureiilieil's deirrei' timt 
 <piiiintily (".Ionic's ei|iiiviileiil ) i-i 77;J fool iioiindn; for 
 Uie Ceiiti^nide decree I of 77:2- HiHD.d foot-pouiidH. 
 If we replnce tiie pound l>y ii lviloi;niin (2.'ii)'Ui-\- 
 poniids), Unit qimiililv liecomes for the Cenli'^nide 
 degree 2.2()4(>of g of 7t2--- W)f.i.r,4 foot-poiindn.whieli 
 is the inechiinical e(|niviUein of the nielrieid nnil of 
 Ileal, iiiiil U i'(|iiiil to 4'3:i.r).') kiloijr:iinelers. 
 
 METRONOME. A viilnalih' nmehiiie for indiealinj; 
 the correct liiiieor eudeiiee. It was inveiiled in 1H1.') 
 by Miilzel, tlie invenloralso of Ihe anlonialon Irninp- 
 eter. The lest of a correcl inctronoine is. tliat wlien 
 set al I'll) il shall heat seconds. 
 
 MEURTRIERES. Small loop-lioles.siillicienlly larjre 
 to admit the barrel of a rille or musket. throin;li 
 which soldiers may Hre, undercover, against an ene- 
 my. Likewise tlu' cavities made in tlic walls of a 
 forlilicd town or place. 
 
 MEXICAN SADDLE. The ]\Iexiean, or California 
 saddles as soiiidiiiics cnlleil, are extensively used 
 tlinnn^honl Ihe Western Slates of America; and, in 
 proportion to their excessive cost, are considered b}' 
 the traders and Indians far superior to any other sad- 
 dles manufactured. They are furnished with wool- 
 lined baslos. llama skin ancpieras, siidaderos. tapade- 
 ros and slirrup-Ieatlicrs handsomely eiit-stam]ied. 
 These saddles, direct descendants of the .Moorish- 
 Spanisli, hrounht over by Cortcz JiOO years aio.liave 
 hardly improved in the cli:ui>i;es. The convenience 
 and safely of the rider are alone considered. The 
 shape of the bearing surface runniiii; through all the 
 many varieties is invarialily liar/. They can never be 
 used without a great thickness of saddle cloth or 
 blankets, and even then cut, gouge, and lacerate the 
 back of the liorse. They are always hmry and aw/i- 
 ■ward. 
 
 MICRO CHRONOMETER.— When the clironograph 
 is used, willi an interval 
 of /iO meters or more be- 
 tween the targets. the chro- 
 nometer receives the dents 
 near the top, when of 
 course it is moving with its 
 greatest speed, and. conse- 
 quently, small dilTcreuces 
 in time irive proportion- 
 ately large differences in 
 height. But when the in- 
 terval to be measured be- 
 comes small this no longer 
 obtains, for then the dent 
 of the shot is imprinted on 
 the to(Pf;' recorder near the 
 disjunction circle before 
 the chronometer has ac- 
 quired much acceleration. 
 To obviate this difficulty 
 the arrangement shown in 
 the drawing is adopted. 
 The electro-magnet of the 
 registrar with its stop is 
 removed to the upper part 
 of the column, and iiitro- 
 ducfd III the circuit that in 
 broken first. Ky this ar- 
 rangement we obtain a dis- 
 junction dent near the up- 
 per end of the chronometer 
 and thus regain the ad- 
 vantage, even when the in- 
 terval is very small, of re- 
 cording very minute times 
 where the representative 
 scale is greatest. This dis- 
 junctor-reading is about 
 0".3, at least double what 
 U was before, hence the representative dents cf 
 small times are readily marked on the chronometer 
 
 when it has double its former velocity. We may re- 
 mark here thai for diminishing velocities and in 
 measuring small liiiies for di'crcasinir intervals, the 
 units of the sialc in the one case and the correspond- 
 ing spai-es on the ilironometer in the otIiiT increase 
 —most desirable attributes of instrumc-nls of thJB 
 class. The fall corresponding to Ihe time to be meas- 
 uied is recorded nif/ativeli/, as thi- tiring dent is be- 
 low the disjunctor-reading, and Ihe duration of this 
 fall is found by siiblnicliiig that of Ihe former from 
 the latter. These heights are measured to tenths of 
 a millimeter by means of the scale engraved on the 
 rule and by its vernier and the correspon ling times 
 
 2 11 
 inav be caleulaleil from (he formula T = j . or 
 
 *J g 
 
 taken directly from a table, which is formed anal- 
 ogously to the ordinary logarithmic tables. When the 
 interval becomes so great as to give a dent below the 
 up|)er recorder. Ihe ring on the rod iiiiistbe removed, 
 and two of the larger tubes applied to the chronom- 
 eter, one above the other. The largest interval that 
 can be recorded by the inslrument thus arranged is 
 that which corresjionds to the disjundor-reading, a 
 little over 0". 3. When Ihe time between the rupture 
 of the two circuits exceeds this reading, the cliron- 
 ometer is struck before il has commenced to fall. and 
 the dent of the origin is obtained. See A« Jioulenge 
 (!hr"ii'tijr<ij //. 
 
 MICROMETER An instrument used with a tele- 
 scope or microscope to measure small distances, O! 
 the apparent diameters of objeels which subtend 
 very small singles. The micrometer with a gradu- 
 ated scale is used for measuring distances by direct 
 comparison. The apiilication of the micrometer to 
 the telescope is credited by Whewell to Huyghens, 
 Malvasia and Azout. It was a great advan<'e in the 
 attempt to do by accuracy of measurement what had 
 previously been attempled, and in part accom]ilished, 
 by enlarging the instrument so as to enable the meas- 
 urcmenls of smaller arcs. The first micrometer on 
 record is that of Gascoigne, of England, constructed 
 about l(i4l), and used by him in measuring the diam- 
 eters of the moon and some of the planets. The 
 instrument had nicely-ground parallel edges of brass- 
 plate, and parallel hairs were substituted by the re- 
 nowned Dr. Ilooke. 
 
 The drawing shows the micrometer used with the 
 Engineer's Transit and other standard instruments. 
 
 It consists of a compound cross-wire ring or dia- 
 pliragrr.. having three horizontal wires, of which the 
 middle one is cemented to the ring, as tisual, while 
 the others, lb and cc. are fa.stened to small slides, 
 held apart bv a slender brass spring lioo)i, and ac- 
 tuated by independent screws, dtt. by which the dis- 
 tance between the two movable wires can be adjusted 
 to include a given space, as one foot on a rod one 
 hundred feet distant. These wires will in the same 
 manner include two feet on a rod two himdn^d feet 
 distant, or half a foot at a distance of fifty feet, and 
 so on in the same proportion, thus furnishing a 
 means of measuring distances, esjjecially over broken 
 irround. much more easily and even more accunttely 
 than with a tajie or chain.— See Engineer's lyansit. 
 Gradienter anil Stadia.
 
 MICEOPHONE. 
 
 330 
 
 HICBOSCOFE. 
 
 MICROPHONE.— This instrument, invented in 18 
 by I^rnf. Hiijrlios. does for faint sounds what tlic 
 microscope does for matter too small for siii;ht: the 
 fall of a bit of tissue-paper or the tread of a fliy being 
 rendered audible at man_v miles distance. In prin- 
 ciple the microphone illustrates the action of sonor- 
 ous vibrations on the strength of an electric current. 
 One of the most sensitive substances for microphonic 
 action is willow-charcoal, plunged in a state of 
 white lieat into mercury. The theory is that in a 
 liomogeneous conductor the compressions and dila- 
 tations of the molecules balance each other, and no 
 variation of current ensues while under minute sub- 
 division, with electrical continuity, sonorous waves 
 affect the strength of an electric current, and varia- 
 tions in the current reproduce sonorous waves. One 
 form of microphone consists of a piece of mercury- 
 tempered carbon an inch long, placed vertically 
 between two carbon-blocks hollowed to receive its 
 ends, wires connecting the blocks with the batter_v 
 and the receiver by which the sounds are to be 
 heard. " A piece of willow-charcoal," says the 
 iuveutor, " the size of a pin's head is sutKcient to 
 produce articulate speech." Two nails laid parallel, 
 with wire connections, and a third nail laid across 
 them, make a simple form of microphone. A few 
 cells of any form of battery may l)e used. A con- 
 tinuous sound has been made by the mutvial inter- 
 action of the microphone and telephone, each instru- 
 ment in turn repeating the sound made by the other. 
 Many iiseful applications of the microphone have 
 been made or suggested. 
 
 MICROSCOPE.— An optical instrumentby which ob- 
 jects too small to be viewed by the naked eye may 
 be seen and examined. A single or simple micros- 
 cope is one by which the object is seen directly: it 
 may consist of a single lens or more than one. In a 
 mmpiiurid microscope two or more lenses are so ar- 
 ranged that the image formed by one is magnified by 
 the others, and viewed as if it were the object itself. 
 In a tiolrir microscope a reflector and condensor are 
 employed to direct the sun's rayson the object. In a 
 tuceriiiil microscope the rays of a lamp are similarly 
 directed. The microscope is used for a variety of 
 military purposes in arsenals, and also for detecting 
 adulterations in the ration and fabrics. Another use 
 to which it may be applied was disclosed during the 
 late Franco-Prussian war. Copies of newspapers, 
 reduced many-fold in size by photography, were 
 fastened in large numbers to carrier-pigeons and in- 
 troduced into besieged cities. These were easil}- 
 real by the microscope. 
 
 The United States Army microscope, made by 
 Zentmayer, is thus described : It has a brass body, 
 16 inches high, on a bra.ss stand, with a joint to in- 
 cline it to any angle, double-milled head-rack and 
 pinion for coarse adjustment, micrometer-screw 
 for tine adjustment, and a movable glass stage ; 
 under the stage a tube is titted for carrying the ac- 
 cessory illuminating apparatus, concave and plane 
 mirrors, arranged for direct or oblique illumination, 
 two eye-pieces, one achromatic object-glpss {(, of an 
 inch focus, of 24 degrees angular aperture, one ach- 
 romatic object-glass { of an inch focus, of 80 degrees 
 angular aperture (not adjustable for glass-cover), 
 giving power of 50, 100, 250, and 4.')0 diameters ; 
 camera lucida, stage micrometer ruled -rJ j and ^^,-,'5,-, 
 of an inch, and a condensing lens two inches diam- 
 eter on a separate stand. 
 
 The drawing shows one of the latest improved mi- 
 croscopes and stands. The stand has a tripod (A) 
 for its base, upon which is ])laccd a rcvolviiig fitting 
 (B), graduated to degrees, by wliich means the mi- 
 croscope can be turned around wilhoul lis being lift- 
 ed from the lal)le, and the anujuni of such rolaliou 
 registered; upon this titling two pillars are firmly 
 fixed. and between them the limb ((') can be elevated 
 or depressed to any angle, and tightened in its posi- 
 tion by the lever (D). The limb carries at one end 
 the body (E; (binocnilar or monocular), with eye- 
 
 pieces and object-glasses ; inits center the compound 
 stage (F), beneath which is the circular plate, slid- 
 ing on a dove-tailed fitting, and moved up and down 
 by the lever (Z), and ca'rrying the supplementary 
 liody or sub-stage (G); and at tlie lower end a triang- 
 ular bar carrying tlu mirror (H). Each of these parts 
 requires a separate description. 
 
 The binocular body consists of two tubes, the one 
 fitted in the optical a.xis of the microscope, and the 
 other oblique. At their lower end and immediately 
 above the object-glass tliere is an opening. into which 
 a small brass box" or fitting (I) slides; this box holds 
 a prism so constructed that when slid in it intercepts 
 half the rays from the object-glass, diverts them from 
 their direct course, and reflects them into the addi- 
 tional or obliipie tube. To the prism-box is attached 
 a spring-catch, which, when pressed in, permits of 
 the removal of the prism-box: but this is only need- 
 ed for cleaning, as, when the box is drawn back to 
 tlie distance properly allowd by this spring, the 
 prism in no waywhiitever interferes with the field of 
 view, and all the rays pass up the direct body and 
 the microscope is converted into a monocular one. 
 The upper or eye-piece ends of the tubes are fitted 
 with racks and pinion for varying the distances be- 
 tween the eyes of various persons; and arrangements 
 are made for racking out one tube more than the oth- 
 er, to suit irregularities or inequalities between the 
 eyes of the observer. This body is moved up anil 
 down with a quick movement by means of the mill- 
 heads (K), and with a very delicate and a fine ad- 
 justment by the milled head (L). This milled head 
 works against a lever, which moves a slide indepen- 
 dent of the rack-movement, and gives an adjustment 
 at once certain and decided. 
 
 The compound stage is of an entirely new construc- 
 tion ; the object is most frequently merely placed 
 upon it, but, if necessary, it can be clamped by pare- 
 fully bringing down the spring-piece (JI); tlit' ledge 
 will slide up or down, and the object may be pushed 
 sidewa_ys ; this arrangement forms the coarse adjust- 
 ment. Finer movements in vertical and horizontal di- 
 rections are effected by means of two milled heads 
 (N and O), the screws attached to which are kept up 
 to their work by opposing springs, so as to avoid all 
 strain or loss of time. The whole stage revolves in 
 a circular ring by the milled head (P), or this can be 
 drawn out, and then it turns rapidly by merely ap- 
 plying the fingers to the two ivory studs (Q, Q) fas- 
 tened on the top plate, which is divided into degrees 
 to register the amount of revolution. The stage is 
 attached to the limb on a pivot, and can be rotated to 
 any angle, which angle is recorded on the divided 
 plate (R), or can be turned completely over, so that 
 the object can be viewed by light of any obliquity 
 without any interference from the thickness of the 
 stage. Beneath and attached to the stage is an iris 
 diaphram (S). which can be easily and altogether re- 
 moved, as shown in the illustration, from its dove- 
 tailed fitting, so as not to interfere in the .slightest 
 degiee during the rotation of the stage. The va- 
 riations in the aperture of this diaphragm are made 
 by a pinion working into a racked arc and adjusted 
 by the milled head'(T). 
 
 "Beneath the stage are two triangular bars (U, V), 
 the one revolving around and tlie other rigiil in the 
 optical axis of the instrument. Ou the former the 
 sub-stage (G), carrying all the apparatus licn-ifler 
 described for illumination and pi>lariz;ition. fits, and 
 is racked up and down by the milled head (W): the 
 mirror also, if desired, slides on the same bar: the 
 revolving motion to this bar is given by the milled 
 head ( X), and the amount of angular movement is 
 recorded on the circle (Y), whilst the whole of this 
 part of the stand is raised and lowered coiu-eutric 
 with the optical axis of the instrument by the lever 
 (Z), and the amount of siu'h elevation or de])res:-ion 
 registered on a scale attached to the limb. This bar 
 can be carried around and above the stage, and l)e 
 thus used for opacjue illumination. The lower tri-
 
 MICH08C0FE. 
 
 331 
 
 HIC£OSCOF£. 
 
 anpiilar liar (V) rarrips the mirror II. or a ripht- ' of HIiiminHtinn. unmo provision has to be made for 
 
 iiiif;lc prisiii, when llii' illuiniiiiilioii is rc(|iiiriMl lo lir lioliliiiK variuiiM picci-M of apjiaratus between the ob- 
 
 <iiiii'ciitiic with till' ciplical axiB of tlir iiistniiiiriit, jict anil llic> mirror. For lliiH piirpoHe a Hupplenii-nl- 
 
 anil inil<'pi'ii(lcnl of llic iiiovcini-ntM of oilier iJiiiiiiin- ary Ixxiy, or Hulj-Ktage, i.s inouriti-il perfectly true 
 
 utin" apparatus. Tlie iiiirror-lio.\ eoiUainK two mir- willi llie l)orly, and iH moved up and down in itH fit- 
 
 rors, one !lat and the other eoneave: it HwinL's in a tinj; by rack and pinion eonneeted witli tlie milled 
 
 rotalins; HctniiireU^ attaehed to a lenifthi'iiiiif^-liar, lieailMfW). Thi.'< Hiil).»tai;e, to whieli reference liaa 
 
 wliicli enables it to l)e turned from iiiie Bide to the already been made, is now regarded as one of the 
 
 other, and revolves on a circular tittins for frivin? I most important parts of the achromatic microscope; 
 greater facilities in regulating the direction of the ' in it all the varied appliances for modifying the char- 
 beam of liglit retlected,' the whole sliding on either , acter and direction of the light are titled. But a few 
 of the triiiugvdar bars, previously referred to. and : years since it was considered sufficient for this 
 made to reverse in the socket (a) so as to bring the "part of the stand to be constructed so as to move up 
 center of the mirror concentric with the axis of the i and down perfectly coincident with theoptical a.xisof 
 microscope in either case. the instrument, and for that purpose it was racked in 
 
 As the mirror alone is insufficient for many kinds | a groove planed out on the same limb as that on the
 
 ■MICROSCOPIC-GAUGE. 
 
 332 
 
 MICRO SFECTROSCOPE. 
 
 Tipper end of which the optical iiortions were carried. 
 But lately microscopists have shown the desirability 
 of alTordi'na: every facility for lateral angular adjust- 
 ments: and this has led to the sub-stage being attach- 
 ed to an arc (A) working in the circular plate (Y),and 
 moved by a rack and pinion (X).whilot the amount of 
 such aniular movement is recorded on the upper sur- 
 face of tlie plat? (Y). Having once fixed the angular 
 direction of the light.the focusing of it depends upon 
 the lever (Z). which moves the circle up and down, 
 and with it the arm ta'Tving the illuminating appar- 
 atus, in the "pt'rn' ax x of the instrument. 
 
 MICROSCOPIC-GAUGE.—An instrument used in coc- 
 nection with the testing machine. It consists of a pair 
 of glass sides, which are connected with the speci- 
 men l)y collars in the manner shown. One of the 
 
 Omz 
 
 1'^-.l-<-IM: 
 
 els*^ 
 
 glass sides is graduated to thousandths of an inch, 
 and the other to hundredths of an inch. A micro- 
 scope using a one-inch objection is employed in 
 reading these scales, and by means of it the scale 
 of thousandths may be readily subdivided into ten 
 th(jusandths of an "inch by the eye alone. Tlie mi- 
 croscope is supported by an adjvistable arm attached 
 to one of the posts or the testing machine, or to a 
 post e.xpresslj' provided for this purpose, and de- 
 taclied from the machine. See Taper-rule and Ver- 
 nier f/auge 
 
 MICRO-SFECTEOSCOPE. — A spectroscope placed in 
 comiection wiih a microscope, in order that the ab- 
 sorption lines may be readily produced. The in- 
 strument is employed in various testings ; but nota- 
 
 the focus of the top lens of an eye-piece especially 
 constructed is placed wliat is technically termed a 
 slit, B ; this consists of two shutters me( ting in the 
 center of the field, the one sliding up to the center of 
 the field of view, and the other adjusting by means 
 of a delicate milled head. L'pon the delicacy of the 
 edge of this slit the value of the Spectroscope large- 
 ly depends, any irregularity or piece of dust appear- 
 ing a dark band at right angles to the spectrum un- 
 der examination, and greatly interfering with the 
 definition. In the same part of the instrument is in- 
 serted a small right-angle prism, (D), which can be 
 pushed forward or drawn back out of the field of 
 view by a milled head. In the former position it re- 
 flects the rays passing through any object placed 
 upon the supplementary stage to the eye placed at 
 the eye-end of the instrument, and enables the ob- 
 server to compare two spectra witii one another, or 
 to measure and record the position of the absorption 
 bauds. Placed on the flat surface of tlie eye-piece 
 are a couple of levers, moving two shutters, placed 
 immediately over the slit, for regulating the length 
 of the spectrum under examination. Above the top 
 lens of the eye-piece the most important portion of 
 tlic instrument slides; this consists of a series of 
 prisms, (A), so arranged as to give a direct-vision 
 spectrum, and upon the amount of the dispersion of 
 which prisms much of the. value of the instrument 
 depends. At the side of the main tube is a supple- 
 mentary stage, upon which a standard scale, or a 
 second cbject is placed, supjilied with a mirror, for 
 reflecting the light through tlie object, the rays then 
 being totally reflected by the right-angle prism, (D), 
 before alluded to, and thrown up the fube to the ob- 
 server. To u.se the instrument, remove the ordinary 
 eye-piece of the microscope, and siide the spectro- 
 .scope eye-piece (Figs. 1 and 2) into the body in its 
 place. Remove the upper tube, containing the series 
 of prisms, and draw back the sliding slit by a milled 
 head, so that one-half of the fleld of view is clear. 
 Focus the microscope to the object to be examined. 
 
 Fig 1. 
 
 blv.by Surgeons in viewing the absorption bands of 
 brood in toxieological research. The micro-spec- 
 'troscoiH' designed tjy Walmsley and Co., and shown 
 •in figures 1 and 2. consists of a series of prisms, (A), 
 arranged for direct vision, fitted into an eye-piece, 
 and sujiplied with various appliances namely, a 
 slit, (H), a suijplemenlary siieclrum arriuigement, 
 consisting of a small right-angle jirism, D. a stage, 
 .for |)lacing an object upon, and a niirrdr, for reflect- 
 ing the light and all the necessary udjustmeuls. In 
 
 which is placed upon the stage, pass it up to the 
 ed"-e of the slit, move the side shutters by the levers, 
 so'as to sliut off all side light, save that passing 
 llirough the object, and push back the sliding side 
 of the slit by Ih'e milled head. Focus tile top lens of 
 tlie eve-piece to the slit by nutans of the rack-aud- 
 pinion place the tube, containing the compound 
 prism (A), over the eve-piece, remove the object 
 from the stage, adjust the slit by means of an adjust- 
 in" milled head, so as to obtain clear vision, if by day.
 
 MICRO! ASIMETER. 
 
 333 
 
 HILBANK GUN. 
 
 Hglit, Sf) tliat llic Frnnnhofcr lines iiro faintly sppn, 
 rcpliuc llic iilijcct tij lie <'XiiiMiiii'(l upon llic hIhuc. 
 and llic. absorption-hands will \iv readily Ki'i'n. The 
 clmractcr of these hands and their jiosilion varies in 
 every objeet: and if any praelieal use is to he made 
 of the investigations, it is necessary not only to ob- 
 serve, bnt to record their position, by means of a 
 standaril scale provideil for the |)iirpose. 
 
 MICROTASIMETER. An iicsinimeiil invented by 
 Mr. Thomas A. lOdison for the purpose of mi'asnrini; 
 very minute Viiriulioiis of pressure causi'd by the e.\ 
 pansion or contraction of any t;ivcn bodj-, from what 
 ever causes, heat, moisture, etc. A part of the a])- 
 paratus is constructed upon the principle of the py 
 rometer. and when the e.\pansion is caused by moist 
 lire, uj)on that of some forms of liyurometer. Hut 
 the novel and unicpie part of the invention consists 
 in the elfeet which th<' pressure of the e.\])aii(linj,' 
 rod has upon the electric resistance of a piece of car- 
 bon placed in the circuit of a galvanic batter}'. A 
 rod of vulcanite is vised as the expanding element 
 when it is desired to use the instrument to ascertain 
 slight variations in the heat vil)rations coming from 
 any object, as the sun, or a gas, or electric light. 
 This rod is adjusted in a strong frame kepi at an 
 equabU; temperature, so that no expansions or con- 
 tractions shall exert any inliucnce, except those 
 wliich take place in the vulcanite rod itself. In th(! 
 chamber which receives one end of this rod, or plate, 
 there is placed under a follower, or slide, a piece of 
 carbon, which becomes compressed witli great force 
 upon the exi)ansion of the vulcanite rod. If radiant 
 heat is to be nieas\ircd, a large funnel is placed in 
 front of the ap|)aratus to gatlier the rays and throw 
 them upon tlic rod or plate. When the ravs increase 
 in intensity the rod expands, compresses tlie button, 
 aiid changes its conducting capacity, which at every 
 moment is indicated by a galvanometer. The in- 
 stnnnent has been used successfully to ascertain the 
 variations in the radiation from the sun during an 
 eclipse. It may also be used to note the variations 
 taking place on a day when clouds are passing across 
 the sun's disk, or wiu-n the transmission of his raj's 
 differs from increase or decrease of moisture. It 
 may bi^ used as a delicate liygronu;tcr by substitut- 
 ing in place of the v\dranite rod a body containing 
 gelatine', which expands under the influence of 
 moisture. 
 
 MIDDLE AGES. —The designation applied to the 
 great historic period between the limes of cl.assir an- 
 tiquity and modern times. The beginning and close 
 of this period are not very definite. It is usual. how. 
 ever.to regard the Middle Ages as beginning with the 
 overthrow of the Western Roman Empire in tlie3'ear 
 476 ; and there is a pretty general concurrence in fix- 
 ing on the Reformation as the great event which 
 brought this period to a close. It began with the 
 rise of the Frankish upon the ruins of the ancient 
 Homiui Empire, and with the commencement of civ- 
 ilization among the barbarous tribes which had taken 
 I)09session of what were formerly Roman Provinces. 
 lu course of it the different nations of Modern 
 Europe were formed, and their political and social 
 systems developed. It was a period of ranch super- 
 stition, in connection with which much religious en- 
 thusiasm very extensively prevailed, luanifested in 
 many great religious endowments, in magnificent 
 ecclesiastical buildings, in pilgrimages, and, above 
 all, in the Crusades. In the earlier parts of this per- 
 iod file Church was much occupied in the extension 
 of its bounds in the north of Europe, where heath- 
 enism still subsisted, and the means employed were 
 not always consistent with the spirit of Christianity. 
 During the Middle Ages the Hierarchy acquired 
 enormous power and wealth, and the Papacy rose 
 from comparatively small beginnings to its utmost 
 greatne'ss. During thcMiddlc Ages chivalry had its rise 
 and decline, modifying and, in many respects, tending 
 to refine the feelings and usages of society. Towards 
 the close of the Middle Ages the revival of letters, 
 
 the increase of knowledge, and the formation of a 
 wealthy and influential class in society .diHtincI alike 
 from the aristocracy and the peasantry, tended. even 
 before the Reformation, both to the dindnution of 
 the power of llic Hierarchy and the liecay of the 
 feudal system. 
 
 MIDDLE ASSEMBLING BAR.- A eompon<fnt part 
 of the caisson. It is made of iron, has two ears in 
 the middle to serve as stay-plates fi;r the middle- 
 chests, and a slot for the axe on the right of the mid- 
 dle-rail. 
 
 MIDDLE CHEST.— The front ammunition-chest on 
 the body of the caisson ; so called because it is be- 
 tween the hind chest and the limber-chest wlien t)ie 
 caisson is liiiilnTed. 
 
 MIDDLECULVERIN. -A cannon of tlie Fren^li ar- 
 tillery, under Henry II., carrying a projectile weigh- 
 ing two pr.iinds. 
 
 MIGNON. -The former French term for & piekrd 
 HoMii r at present called Elite. 
 
 MIKADO. The popular title of the Emperor of Ja- 
 piui, though in official documents the term Tcnno 
 (Heavenly King) or Tenshi (Child of Heaven) is 
 most frei|uently used. Other titles used inthenative 
 parlance or literature are Nin-o (King of men;, 0-6 
 or I)ai-o (Great King), Ko-tei (Ruler of Nations). 
 Other terms arising from the application of the name 
 of the Mikado's place of residence to his jjerson, are 
 Dai-ri (Imperial Palace), Chd-tei, (Hall of Audience), 
 Kinri (the Forbidden Interior), Go-sho (Palace;, which 
 names occur frecpiently in old European works on, 
 Japan. The term Mikado means Honorable Gate, 
 like the Turkish "Sublime Porte," and the Egyptian 
 "Pharoah." The Dynasty of Mikados is the'oldest 
 in the world, the [iresent ruler, JIutsuliito, beingtlie 
 12W of the Imperial Line. The first Mikado Was 
 JimmuTemio, who began to reign (itiO b.c, the pro- 
 fessed starting-point of Japanese chronology. The 
 lirst seventeen Mikados in the oflicial list are said to 
 have died at ages ranging from 100 to 141 years. The 
 Mikados have each a personal name, but no family 
 name, and the name of any one Mikado is never re- 
 peated; though in two instances in the list, two Mika- 
 dos reigned each twice, ami have each two posthu- 
 mous titles. Seven of these Sovereigns of Japan were 
 females. The average duration of each reign is nearly 
 31 years. The 3Iikados claim descent from the 
 heavenly gods, and their regalia of sovereignity area 
 mirror, crystal ball, and sword. The possession of 
 these palladia is the test of legitimacy during civil or 
 dynastic war, of which but one is known in Japanese 
 history — the period 1336-92, when a compromise was 
 made by the rival in jiossession of the regalia receiv- 
 ing the title of Ex-Emperor, and handing over the 
 sacred embleir s to the other. After death, the ."^likado 
 receives a posthumous title bj' which he is known in 
 history. The Mikado is allowed twelve miV^^'/orcon- 
 aubines, besides the Empre.ss; and in addition, there 
 are four noble families called Shinno from whom 
 heirs may be chosen for adoption. Succession is 
 not always to the oldest son, but usually to the Mi- 
 kado's nominee. The Imperial Household forms a 
 distinct department o' :he govermnent, called the 
 Kimaisho. 
 
 MILANAISE.— A G.-rman fluted armor of the be- 
 ginning of the sixteenth century. The cuirass is 
 rounded, the breast-plate does not possess the cen- 
 tral ridge oi ti^palAxiA the shoulder pieces are large 
 with jiiuM-gardm. The cuishes and upper arm pieces 
 are fluted like the rest of the armor but, the lower 
 arm pieces and the greaves are plain. The mlereU 
 are paw-shaped and indicate the time to which tliis 
 armor belonsr^. 
 
 MILBANK GUK.— A breech - loading small-arm, 
 having a fixed chamber closed by a movable breech- 
 block, which slides in the line of the barrel by di- 
 rect action. The piece is opened by raising the han- 
 dle of the breech-bolt from its recoil-bearing in the 
 receiver, and then drawing back the bolt. It is 
 closed by reversing the action of the bolt ; the ham-
 
 Iin,B STEEL. 
 
 MILD STEEL. 
 
 J 
 
 mer-bolt striking a sear-bolt in closing, antl thercb}' 
 compressing the spiral mainspring which surrounds 
 its rear portion. It is locked by the support afford- 
 ed the base of the handle by its bearing on the re- 
 coil-shoulder of the receiver when the piece is closed. 
 The piece is tired by the action of a spiral main- 
 spring surrounding the hammer-bolt. The hammer- 
 bolt is kept from accidentally discharging the cart- 
 ridge by striking the tiring-pin before the breech is 
 fulfv closed, by meansof a tiausversc stop-pin, which, 
 when the handle is up, passes through the liriug-pin 
 and keeps it forced back with its point fiush with tlie 
 face of the bolt. When the breech is fully locked by 
 turning do\\"n the handle into place, the transver.se 
 pin is drawn back by an inclined surface in the bole 
 of the tiring-pin through which it passes, and it 
 leaves the tiring-pin free to be driven forward, at 
 pleasure, in the usual way. The rear end of the 
 tiring-bolt when drawn back passes through the base 
 of the rear section of the breech-bolt, and indicates 
 the position if cocked. Extraction is accomplished 
 by a book swinging on a pin passing transversely 
 through the recoil-block near its face. Ejection is 
 caused by the action of a spiral spring, set in the face 
 of the bolt and pressing against the lower edge of 
 the cartridge-head until tlie shell is clear of the 
 chamber. The shell being then free to turn, is rota- 
 ted around the hook by which it is held and is 
 thrown clear of the gun. A .safety-lever is connect- 
 ed with this arm and serves to disi^ense wdth the ne- 
 cessity of a half-cock notch. The accidental open- 
 ing of the breech may be prevented bj' turning up 
 the handle part way and jjressing down its stop- 
 pin ; the point of this passes into a hole in the side 
 of the recoil-block, and thus prevents the revolution 
 of the entire bolt. 
 
 MILD STEEL.— The statistics of iron and steel are 
 very suggestive of the condition of the times. In 
 the middle of the last centur}- the amount made in 
 England was about one five-hundredth part of what 
 it is at present; the amount imported was more than 
 that manufactured at home, whilst now the English 
 aunuallj' export millions of tons; the last few years 
 have shown a striking increase in the world's annual 
 production, though great fluctuations have occurred; 
 the amount produced has risen from some 10^ mil- 
 lion tons in 1869 toabout twent)'-one millions in 1882 
 — an enormous increase due to the vast development 
 in tlie use of iron and steel for ships, railways, bridg- 
 es, buildings, machines, etc. Apart, however, from 
 the increase in the total qiiantities we notice (Fig.l) 
 that cast iron, wrought iron, and steel have not in- 
 creased uniformly, but the last has far surpassed the 
 others in the rate of its growth, having nndtiplied 
 some twelve times in the thirteen years under consid- 
 eration. 
 
 Although steel has been made from remote ages, 
 it was only about twenty-tive years ago employed on 
 a comparatively small scale for such articles as tools, 
 knives, swords, springs, etc.. and from the expendi- 
 ture of time and fuel on its manufacture, it was ne- 
 cessarily an expensive article: but the inventions of 
 Bessemer, Siemens, and others have resulted in the 
 production of a class of " mild" steel in large quan- 
 tities, moderate in price, suitable for various purposes 
 of construction, and surpassing wrought iron in all, 
 or almost all, of its good qualities. Of late years 
 competition in the trade has led to numberless im- 
 jirovements, and great economy in manufacture, es- 
 pe<'ially in the amount of fuel consumed. It may be 
 interesting to notice the pro]iortion of iron and steel 
 annually produced (in 1882, for example) in each 
 country. We are at once struck by the salient fea- 
 ture that (Jreal Britain is far ahead of all others in 
 quantity ; in fact, excluding the United States, her 
 production probably exceeds that of all the rest of 
 tlur world i)ut together; but other nations an^ also 
 now making good progress. With regard to qnality. 
 the reputation of English iron and sle(tl is deservetUy 
 very high ; the great majority of modern impro\c- 
 
 ments in manufacture are due to English inventors, 
 practically developed by English makers, and many 
 foreign firms are glad of English assistance. Iron 
 ores and good coal, as well as niateri;ds for fire-bricks 
 and fluxes, are found abundantly all over England, 
 while the great carrj-iug trade gives facilities for the 
 plentiful supplj'of good ores from Spain, and pig iron 
 from Sweden for modern steel making, as well as for 
 the export of manufactured iron and steel to foreign 
 customers. The resources of other countries are, 
 however, being largely developed. 
 
 Second on the list comes the United States, whose 
 rate of increase of manufacture is unexampled. The 
 demand has been hitherto so great, to meet the won- 
 derful development of the railway system, and other 
 large works, that millions of tons have been sent 
 from across the Atlantic, but the time has now 
 come when the United States produces sufficient for 
 its own wants. Its natural resources are very great, 
 and it has excellent ores of great richness and abun- 
 dance, vast coal-fields, calculated to last for centuries, 
 and a peo|jle fidl of energy. At first sight it may seem 
 strange that at the present moment steel for only an 
 8-in. gun can lie produced, but this is simply because 
 until lately there has been no demand for it. The 
 colossal plant needed for heavy gun manufacture 
 does not exist in America, where the heaviest ham- 
 mer is one of 17 tons, while France bas one of 100 
 tons, and Krupp is said to be making oneof l.TO tons. 
 Whitworth is now supplying the Government of the 
 States with steel for 10 in. guns. The United States 
 have lately sent a Gun Foundry Board to make in- 
 quiries in Europe concerning the manufacture of 
 steel for military purposes ; their report has been 
 published, and contains most valuable information : 
 a supplement submitted to the Senate 22d December 
 last, gives plans of two proposed gun factories, one 
 for the Army and the other for the Navy. Besides 
 certain annual expenses, it is estimated that a sum 
 of A'7, 000,000 will last for six and a half years, in- 
 two years will be required. 
 
 Next on the list of producers comes Germany, 
 which po.ssesses the largest manufactory in the world 
 — that of Krupp— remarkable for its excellent steel 
 which soon attained a wide reputation, as shown by 
 the fact that in 186.'5 England ordered from this firm, 
 for her own use and that of her colonies, no less 
 than 11,3!)0 tyres and .564 axles for railwa}- purposes. 
 Krupp early applied his steel to the manufacture of 
 ordnance, and he lias supplied several nations with 
 guns. Germany depends greatly on this maker for 
 her ordnance, but the American officers do not con- 
 sider this a wise arrangement, as the Government 
 may find it difficult to deal with a single private firm 
 in times of great emergency. 
 
 Fourth in magnitvide comes France; with her well 
 known Le Creusut, Terre Noire, and other works. 
 The first, with its massive plant and 100-ton ham- 
 mer bas produced steel armor plates of excellent 
 quality; while the second has, after many difficulties, 
 attained great success in steel castings, and in the 
 manufacture of steel projectiles. Although the loss 
 of Alsace bas told heavily on the production of iron 
 and steel by France, and though half her ores are 
 imported, her progress is certainly very good, es- 
 pecially in the steel required for warlike purposes, 
 as after the war of 1870 the French Govcrnnu'nt en- 
 couraged private companies to such an extent that 
 several can prixhice the largest steel ingots, otlu'rs 
 have the plant of a gun factory, and others again are 
 able to produ<-e armor-plates of excellent quality. 
 The American officers consider that France has made 
 belter arrangements than other nations between the 
 Governnu'nt and the steel makers. 
 
 Belgium has good sujiplies of coal, but Having ex- 
 hausted her own ores, has to import for the numu- 
 facture of steel; nevertheless she has made good 
 jirogrcss, especially considering the means at her 
 disposal, and she enters keenly into competition with 
 England in certain departments of the trade.
 
 UILD STEEL. 
 
 335 
 
 MILD BTEEL. 
 
 • Austria, though formrrly cololirated for nctal- 
 
 lurjricnl m!iiiiif;ictiircs, and possi'ssinir cxrcllcnl fnics. 
 lias l)c(?i iin.-ihlc Id keep i)ac(: with oilier coiiiilrirs in 
 tlic pnidiictiijM (if inin iiixi Htccl. 'I'lie wiiiil of coal, 
 and of caHy (Miiimmniciitifms, and piTliaps tlic lacli of 
 ornaniziilion and (■apilal, have proved liindranocs to 
 dc'chiiiMicnl. 
 
 Kussia possesses exeellent ores in tlie mountains of 
 Hiberiaaiid tlie Krai, liiitllic want of l'ooiI means of 
 transport and of eoal prevents a larire manufaet,ire : 
 Imt mild steel has been made since 1870, andlhi' pro- 
 duel ion for ndliliiiT ])urposes is now consideralile. 
 The Russian (lovermueni seems anxii>us lo supjily 
 ilsi'lf Willi sleel ; armor and i^iins up lo oO tons are 
 now made iu Russia. Formerly Krupp supplied 
 ordnance. 
 
 The best Swedish pig iron is of capital quality, as 
 the ores from which it is produced are very pure, 
 and the charcoal employed as the fuel in smelting 
 being free from sulphur, does not conlamiiiale the 
 cast iron: but the waat of coal limits the supply. 
 Fifj. 1 . 
 
 1882. 
 
 1869 
 
 .B 
 
 1 
 
 :^ii 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 ; ',:'■'• 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ym 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 n 
 
 s 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 The production of iron and steel by the 
 countries of the world in 188:', 
 
 Pig. 3 
 
 Increase of the c 
 world's annual "3 
 production o f -p* 
 iron and stcffl CQ 
 during i:j years — « 
 1869 to 1883. g 
 
 
 6 5 ^---^HS S*' 
 
 'S d^ a. 
 Figs. ! and 2 .—A, steel : B, wronglit iron : C. cosMron 
 3:— B. Bessemer; t", crucible; O. H., open hearth. 
 
 ■ U 
 
 Fig 
 
 Spain cannot be calleil a manufactuiing country; 
 but the Bilbao ore has lately been very largely used 
 in steel making ; twenty years ago hardly any for- Iresult wi'llbeto give brittlenesslnsleaT of'strength 
 
 lign ore was used in England ; now she annually im- 
 ports about 8,000.000 tons from Spain, and other na- 
 tions also supply Ihemselvcs largely. This country 
 is conseipieiilly ini|iorlant to the steel makers. 
 
 Ital}' has harilly any iron or steel works; the Klbd 
 ore has loii'.^ been fiimous. but is not so important as 
 formerly. The huge armor-clad ships of Italy, willi 
 their very heavy iruns. have, however, called for 
 large "Upplies of mild sleel for warlike purposes 
 from abroad, and they have cimlribiiled not a little 
 to the development of some i>rivate (inns for 
 producing heavy war material. Accftrdiiig to the 
 Stani/jini of recent date the firm of Sir U'. Ami- 
 slroiig and Co. has obtained a concession for estab- 
 lisliing large factories for making guns and armor 
 plates in the neiichborhood of Naples. 
 
 The other nations of Europe produce but little 
 iron and steel, and Ihey are chiefly supplied from 
 those already named. In the other countries of the 
 world considerable progress has been made, as also 
 in some (jf the colonies— the establishment of a gun 
 foundry at (Quebec is under consideration; and in 
 many places large sujiplies of ore are available. 
 
 Steel is by no means easy to define, since it is a 
 complex body, and as all "persons are not exactly 
 agreed concerning the dillerence between it and 
 iron, lawsuits have conseijuently arisen; but the 
 detinilion of mild steel given liy Holley. quoted in 
 the Royal Gun Factory Treatise, that itis "an alloy 
 of iron, cast, while in a fluid slate, into a malleable 
 ingot," has, at any rale, the advantage of simplicity, 
 if not (jf perfect exactness. This detinilion serves 
 to distinguish it from cast iron on the one hand, and 
 from wrought iron on the other ; as cast iron is not 
 malleable, but crumbles to pieces if heated and 
 struck by the hammer, and wrought iron, though 
 malleable, is produced, not as a fluid, but as a pasty 
 niass, the temperature of the ordmary furnace being 
 insutlieient to mell it. 
 
 Wrought iron is more fibrous than mild steel, and 
 it contains, from the method of its manufacture, an 
 average of 3 jjer cent by weight, or Ti per cent by 
 volume of slag, dispersed through its" mass in fine 
 tilamenls, which detracts from its strength ; on the 
 other hand, the process of fusion in the manufacture 
 of mild sleel gets rid of all traces of slag ; and this 
 is a great advantage. (.)ld definition.; of 'steel stated 
 that I he pro))orlion of carbon in it was more than in 
 wrought iron, but less th;in in east iron; but this 
 hardly holds good at the present time, wdien some 
 mild steel has no more carbon than some wrouclit 
 iron. Sir V,'. Armstrong states that " steel is iron 
 produced by a process of fusion instead of by one of 
 adhesion, and in that sense it is mdependent of any 
 particular sense of carbonization. Using the teriii 
 in this sense, steel has the advantage over iron in 
 being free from defects in vvehlini:. It irenerallv 
 contains more carbon than wrought iron, which reii- 
 ders it stronger. It is also tougher under some tests, 
 but more prone to fracture under others. . . . The 
 manufacture of steel continues to improve, while 
 that of iron is stationary, and the time is probably 
 near when the manufaetureof iron, as now practiced, 
 will entirely merge into that of steel, as produced by 
 the process of fusion." 
 
 Taking HoUey's definition, carbon is the essential 
 substance which alloys with iron to form steel ; it 
 increases the hardness, elasticity, and tenacity, al- 
 though it decreases the elongation before fracture : 
 it also gives rise to the important property of tem- 
 pering by rapid cooling, by which these advantases 
 can be increased, though with a further loss of power 
 to elongate. Annealing, or softening by slow cool- 
 ing, may be called the reverse of tempering. The 
 presence of carbon, however, greatly adds to the 
 difficulty of forging, which must be done at a lower 
 temperature as Uie proportion of carbon increases : 
 if too hot. the mass will crumble to pieces under the 
 hammer, or if this does not actually take place, the
 
 mUD STEEL. 
 
 336 
 
 MUD STEEL. 
 
 in the operation of forging — producing what is tech- 
 nically called ••burnt steel," : in explanation of this 
 remarkal)le fact it can only be stated that some phy- 
 sical and (possibly) chemical change takes place in 
 steel at a certain temperature depending on the pro- 
 portion of carbon present, which causes it to assume 
 a coarsely crystalline structure, greatly decreasing 
 its strength and reliability : the forging of steel is 
 consequently generally more tedious than that of 
 wrought iron, which can often be heated to a white 
 heat when it becomes soft, and can then be quickly 
 hammered into tlie required shape. At the begin- 
 ning of modern steel making, the necessity for care 
 about the temperature tor forging was not fully rec- 
 ognized, and •• burnt steel " was often produced, ac- 
 counting probably for many of the mysterious frac- 
 tures which happened, -and wliich gave reason for so 
 much distrust. At Terre Noire especially, the men 
 who had been accustomed to deal with wrought iron 
 could not understand for a long time that steel must 
 be treated differently, and experience was only 
 gained at the cost of a good many failures. On one 
 occasion, the ordinary workmen were turned away, 
 and carpenters who had to learn the work, but who 
 would do what they were told, were engaged in- 
 stead 
 
 So great, however, is the progress in some depart- 
 ments of steel-making, that notwithstanding these 
 ditlicuUies of working we find Mr. Denny writing 
 that "steel for ships' plates has become so uniform as 
 to have lost interest, while iron attracts attention 
 from its deterioration and want of uniformit}'. and 
 the men complain if they are put to work upon it on 
 account of the amount of spoilt work involved :" 
 and this is not an isolated opinion. It cannot be said, 
 however, that the large masses of steel for guns are 
 as yet produced with such uniformity. 
 
 Mild steel can be welded like wrought iron, but 
 the operation becomes more and more difficult as the 
 carbon increases ; the 13-pr. steel axletree is conse- 
 quently made in one piece without any weld, but 
 wrouglit iron axletrees are most conveniently made 
 in two pieces, which are afterwards welded together. 
 On the other hand, large quantities of excellent tubu- 
 lar steel are now produced by the process of lap 
 welding. 
 
 It is more difficult to cast mild steel than cast iron, 
 because a more uniform result is required, and since 
 the temperature of fusion is so much higher (from 
 the smaller proportion of carbon), much greater con- 
 traction takes place on cooling, giving rise to a vari- 
 ety of intense molecular strains, whicli are sometimes 
 sufficient to tear the metal apart in the mold, and 
 often cause surface cracks, telling of a state of strain 
 which must be allowed for and counteracted as far as 
 possible by suitable methods of cooling and reheating 
 Krupp takes the greatest care on this point, making 
 the cooling of his ingots very slow indeed, keeping 
 them warm with hot ashes sometimes for weeks, and 
 they are said to be remarkably free from cracks or 
 flaws. Annealing for several days is often resort- 
 ed to in the case of steel castings. 
 
 As small differences in the proportion of carbon 
 make very great differences in the elasticity, tenaci- 
 ty, liardness, elongation, etc., it is most important 
 to use every effort to control the quantity admitted 
 into steel in manufacture, and it is one of the great- 
 est aims in nuiking steel for ordnance, to obtain, as 
 nearly as possible, the desired propDrtion of carbon; 
 for this i)Mrpose it ranges from about O.^iT to 0..'). 
 For the hard steel face of compound armor plates it 
 may be as high as 0.8 per cent. 
 
 In all modern steel there is a considerable proj^ir- 
 tion of manganese; this is supposed to act in the 
 sanu: way as carbon in hardening, but its eilect is 
 not so marked. It is always added to nu'lted steel 
 in manufai'ture. in order (it is sup])osed)to lake away 
 ferrous oxide, which forms at a high lemperalure, 
 and also to a certain extent, it may take away otlur 
 impurities which would impart red shortness or 
 
 brittleuess at the forging temperature ; asmangan-. 
 ese Las an extraordinary affinity for oxygen, it is 
 prepared for use as an alloy with carbon and iron, 
 termed spiegeleisen or ferro-mangauese, according 
 as the proportion of iron or manganese predomi- 
 nates; both of these alloys are now important articles 
 of commerce. When the manganese mixture is put 
 into the liquid steel, some of it immediately attacks 
 the ferrous oxide, deprives it of its o.xygen, and be- 
 coming itself oxidized, runs harmlessly into the slag, 
 leaving a certain small quantity of metallic mangan- 
 ese to alloy with the steel ; this is the last operation 
 before pouring out, in the Bessemer and •'open 
 hearth" processes, so that no time may be given for 
 the formation of any more f';rrous oxide. Mild steel 
 should not have more than about 1.0 per cent, of 
 manganese, or it will be brittle, but it is generally 
 best to have less than this quantity. Messrs. Had- 
 fleld and Co., however, have lately produced steel 
 having as much as 12 per cent, of manganese which 
 has shown remarkable qualities, and may perhaps 
 become of practical utilit.v in various ways. This 
 alloy is very hard, but not brittle, and is scarcely 
 affected if lieated and plunged into water ; but con- 
 siderable variations have occurred in its properties. 
 Silicon has the property of rendering cast-steel in- 
 gots sound and free from blow-holes ; small quanti- 
 ties of pig iron rich in silicon are often added for this 
 purpose. It is supposed to de-oxidize, the carbonic 
 oxide gas which forms the bubbles, and thus silica is 
 produced which enters the slag. Not more than about 
 0,3 per cent, of silicon should be present, and much 
 less if the steel is to be of very mild quality 'or 
 brittleuess will be produced.) 
 
 Sulphur and phosphorus (especially the latter) are 
 the enemies of the steel maker, for if present beyond 
 a very small amount (say 0.04 and O.OG respectively) 
 they jjroduce britfleness : as a very large proportion 
 of the ore-deposits in the world contain too mucli 
 phosphorus to allow them to be used in the manu- 
 facture of steel as it is generally carried on, it has long 
 been a great problem to invent some process by 
 which it could be eliminated, and it appears that 
 this has at last been practically accomplislied by the 
 basic process, invented by Messrs. Thomas and Gil- 
 christ, in which freshly calcined magnesian lime- 
 stone (dolomite) absorbs the phosphorus almost en- 
 tirely when the metal is melted, and by this process 
 good steel has been produced from highly phos- 
 phoric ores. The averages of analy.ses inade in the 
 North Eastern Railway Company's laboratory by 
 Mr. Routledge.of twenty steel rails made from ha?ma- 
 tite iron, and of twenty others made from pho'sphoric 
 Cleveland iron by thebasic process, give very nearly 
 the same results. 
 
 Car- Sili- Sul- Phos- Man- 
 bon con. ptiur. phorus. eancse. Iron. 
 Ilfematite Steel. 0-4.5S 0-105 0-121 0-0.53 1-178 98-093 
 Cleveland steel. 0-4.50 0065 0-095 0-0.54 1-301 98-134 
 As far as .present experience goes, the physical 
 qualities of the two steels are said to be similar : 
 basic steel has not yet, however been employed for 
 ordnance. 
 
 Although this plan was invented by Englishmen, 
 it has been more widely adopted in some parts of the 
 Continent (where phosphoric ores abound) than in 
 Euffland, where good ores are generally procurable 
 from abroad if not close at hand : and the practical 
 question now seems to be generally one of economy, 
 whether it is better acc<irding to local conditions, 
 cost of carriage, etc., to employ an expensive ore and 
 a comparatively cheap method of production, or a 
 cheap ore and a somewhat more expensive process : 
 as further experience, however, is obtained, the ad- 
 ditional labor and expense of the basic lining plan 
 may possil)ly be reduced. The results have been so 
 godd that it"seemsasif a new(le|)arture has occurred 
 in tlie pnigress of steel makiiii; ; already about a. 
 million tons of steel are manufactured annually in 
 Europe from phosphoric pig, and the highest honors
 
 MILD 6TEEL. 
 
 337 
 
 KILD STEEL. 
 
 Ii;n !• Iiiiti i^ivcn to tlie inventora. It must, how- 
 ever, \h; stiileil that orcH rich in Bilicon [in'seiit 
 Bnme (lifllcully with this |)roccss, us Ihr fiiriiiice lin- 
 ini; in iiuicli corroded, iiiid cure must he tulien to use 
 freshly caleiiied liincstone, us it sooti iihsorl)s nmist- 
 ure from (he atmosphere. 
 
 'Pile ]>{iwer lo resist alirasioiiaiid ruhliini; possessed 
 h)' jjiihl slcel, is jrreater lliun tliat of wrou^lit iron; 
 tliis is a|iparetitly due, not only to greater liardness 
 imparted l)y more earl)!!!!, hut it also results from 
 the ureater unifortnily of its structure: wrousihl iron, 
 on the other hand, Ihikes olT, from the [iresence of 
 lilauienis of slai;. The udvantaf^e of mild steel over 
 wrouirht iron in this respect has heen shown in a 
 marked manner liy the superior endurance and uni- 
 forniily of steel rails : as, for instance, when the Lon- 
 don and Norlliweslern Haihvay Company some years 
 ago made a careful experiment it Chalk Farm Slulion 
 at a spot where the tralllc^ was specially heavy, the 
 top side only of steel rails lasted eleven times as lonj; 
 as both sides of wroui;ht iron om'S on the other side 
 of the same liii^. Steel has con.sequently been wide- 
 ly adopted for rails, thouj^h it cannot be said that all 
 now mamifactured are of nearly such linnd quality 
 us those made for that experiment. This samei)rop- 
 erty was long ago recogni/.ed in gun making, when 
 t le bores of ordnance, which have lo resist the 
 abrasion of studs, etc., and the erosive action of lired 
 gunpowder, were made of steel. 
 
 The proreis of drawing into wire increases the 
 elasticity, tenacity, and elongation of steel to a degree 
 miattainalile in any other way. Advantage has of 
 late year.'i been taken of this fact in the manufacture 
 of ordnance, as this nietlif d also allows of the initial 
 tensions being very accurately uljusted. and no ex- 
 tensive Haws can remain undetected. Many other 
 physical and chemical properties of steel might be 
 considered, but those just mentioned are probably 
 the most important for the purposes under consid- 
 eration. 
 
 Kxcluding the oliler processes for the manufacture 
 of hard tool steels, we tind that mild §teel for con- 
 structional purposes is produced by the three follow- 
 ing methods: 
 
 1. Crucible. 2. Open hearth. 3. Bessemer. 
 In each of these plans a very high temperature 
 must be obtained in flrder to melt the steel, which 
 must not be in contact with the solid fuel, because 
 if it were so, the proportion of carbon in the steel 
 would be too large; and means are always taKen to 
 reniler the product as uniform as possible. 
 
 1. The crucible plan is by far the oldest, but it 
 is now the least employed; it has long been known 
 that wrought iron enclosed in a crucible with car- 
 bonaceous matter is capable of combining with the 
 carbon, and melting, to form steel, at a temperature 
 insuthcieut to melt wrought iron alone. At the 
 present time, carefully weighed proportions of 
 wrought iron, with sometimes a little steel, or even 
 good cast iron of known composition, powdered 
 charcoal, and spiegeleisen are put into a crucible 
 capable of holding some GO to 100 pounds, this being 
 about the limit which its strength will enable it to 
 bear without risk of cracking. A number of such 
 crucibles are placed in a furnace specially construct- 
 ed for their reception; a very high temperature is 
 obtained, and after some two and a half to three 
 hours, according to the degree of carbonization re- 
 quired, the contents are melted, the carbon has al- 
 loyeil with the iron to form steel, and the manganese 
 in the spiegeleisen has reduced any ferrous oxide 
 which may be present. A liquid slag formed at the 
 top, and a tire-clay cover prevent oxidation, which 
 might otherwise occur at the high temperature at- 
 tained; the contents of several crucibles are then 
 poured into the same ingot mold as rapidly as pos- 
 sible. Krupp has greatly developed this" method, 
 anil he has poured from as many as 1 800 crucibles 
 into one mold : great care and arrangement in the 
 large numbers of men employed being necessary. 
 
 The advantages claimed for tliis plan are tliat the 
 
 llam(' is not in contact with the sleel. and. therefore, 
 cannot contaminate it; and uniformity of quality ig 
 gaineil if the temperatun; and timeof heating are the 
 same, othi-rwise the reactions may differ in dilferent 
 crucililes if the heat varies in ileralion and intensity. 
 Till' disadvantages are, tlir' r'xpense and the great- 
 care and arrangement necessary for very large in- 
 gots, when great numbers of men must lie carefully 
 trained to work togetl:i-r ; the length of time taken in 
 casting is al.so a drawback, but llie product is often 
 excellent if ull necessary conditions are observed, 
 und it has been largely employed for gun tubes, 
 where Firth's crucibli^ steel has been much used. 
 
 2. The 0|)en hearth plan is pirhai>sthe most recent 
 mi'thod of steel making, and it owes its success to 
 (111! invention of Siemens and others, who have con- 
 structed furnaces of the regenerating lype.capulile of 
 producing very high temiieratures. Thisso-called 
 j hearth is somewhat spoon-shaped, sloping down to 
 one point, and the bed is covered widi partly fused 
 sand ; good cast iron is first thrust in, Jind the flame 
 beating down or reverberating from the low roof, 
 soon melts i(, as the metal is readily fusilile from (he 
 large quantity of carbon which it contains, and thu.-j 
 i the so-called "bath" is formed. Sometimes only one 
 kind of pig iron is used, but generally it is more 
 economical to make a mixture- for instance, a very 
 j pure Swedish ])ig iron combined w't^U a cheaper iron 
 I from English hienialite ore, which h asagood deal of 
 sulphur, but not enough tomakean injurious amount 
 in the mixture, and sometimes steel mixed at first 
 with the cast iron. When the bath is sufliciently 
 fluid, steel scrap, crop ends of rails or wrought 
 iron are thrown in, after being warmed by the waste 
 heat, the object beingto obtain a mixture having less 
 and less carbon ; when these have been well melted 
 down, a further .reduction of carbon is effected by 
 the addition of known quantities of good Spanish 
 hiematite ore— an oxide of iron. When this is added, 
 a violent ebullition ensues, due to the combination of 
 tJ»e carbon in the melted charge with the oxygen in 
 the hffimatite, and the consequent production of car- 
 bonic oxide gas; this is technically called "boiling." 
 The whole operation 7Hi(//it be done by the use of pig 
 iron and ore without any wrought iron or steel. Tliis 
 was a good deal practiced at one time, but it was 
 found to be very expensive, as more fuel was re- 
 quired, and the wear and tear of the furnace lining 
 was considerable, from the corrosive action of the 
 large quantities of slag produced. JJuring the latter 
 part of the process the steel maker is constantly 
 testing the composition of the molten mass, by insert- 
 ing a large iron rod with a spoon at the end of it. 
 and taking out a little of the steel; this is judiciously 
 cooled, hammered on an anvil, bent over and broken, 
 and the fracture and general appearance are ci m- 
 pared with the samples previously obtained wliich 
 have given good results, and which have been 
 chemically analysed. If it is judged that the carbon 
 is not low enough, more ore must be added if no 
 "boil" is going on; but if, on the other hand, it is 
 too low alreadv, some good pig iron must be put in. 
 and on leaving off the operation the steel should be 
 as quiet and free from bubbles as possible, to avoid 
 blow holes in the casting. 
 
 Great practical skill is required on the part of tlie 
 s(eel maker; his tests must be (akeu rapidly, and a 
 judgment must soon be made from the scan(y and 
 apparentl}- rough data furnished by the comparison 
 of the test pieces with the standards but. never- 
 theless, the same results may be repeatedly attained 
 by the same operator within comparatively' narrow 
 limits. 
 
 Just before the pouring out. comes the addition of 
 the proper quantity of spiegeleisen or ferro-mac- 
 ganese : both of these necessarily contain carbon, 
 and consequently the melted mass should previously 
 be more decarbonized than the finished steel. The 
 manganese is previously heated, carefully scattered
 
 MILD STEEL. 
 
 ;'.;w 
 
 MILS STEEL. 
 
 over and stirred up in the steel, and allowed to re- ' it becomes decarbonized and consequently more in- 
 main a short time to become Ihorouijhly incorporated i fusiiilc, it still remains lii|uid ; after some :3IJ minutes 
 and to ensure vmiformity of cnmiiosilion ; at the last i the Hame becomes much shorter and alters its char- 
 moment two spoon tests are taken, one for chemical I acter. signifying that the carbon is becoming very 
 analysis of the carbon and the other for physical low, and that the operation is nearly completed ; it 
 
 trial : the lapping hole at the bottom is knocked 
 through by means of hammers and a long rod. and 
 tlie liquid steel flows out along a gutter into a large 
 iron ladle lined with tire-clay and previously healed; 
 if not heated, or if the temperature of tne liquid 
 steel is too low, a good deal of waste occurs from 
 the formation of a considerable '•skull," or metallic 
 lining, caused by the solidifying of the outer part cf 
 the steel in the ladle. When all the steel has been 
 poured out. two spoon samples are very generally 
 taken for chemical and physical tests, the hulle is 
 carried by a powerful crane to the ingot mold it is 
 desired to till, and a plug is raised at the bottom, 
 worked bj- a rod passing through rings of fire-clay in 
 the liquid mass; the steel then runs out of the bot- 
 tom of the ladle and tills the ingot mold: the slag 
 being lighter remains at the top and is not mi.vcd up 
 with the steel, unless indeed any difficulty occurs 
 with the bottom plug, when the sieel must be poured 
 from the top of the jadle, as water is from a jug ; in 
 this case, small quantities of slag may become en- 
 tangled in the steel, and the ingot will probably be 
 spoilt. 
 
 Sometimes the metal is run direct into the ingot 
 mold without the use of a ladle, but this is not 
 generally' considered a convenient plan. The whole 
 operation lasts from 7 to 11 hours, or longer, accord- 
 ing to the size of the furnace and tlie weight of 
 charge ; the largest furnace yet made will melt over 
 30 tons at a time ; the furnace bottom needs repair 
 after each charge. The advantages of this process 
 are that it is cheaper than the last, the composition 
 of the steel can be very carefully controlled, but it 
 requires very great attention and skill on the part 
 of one or two responsible persons. It is verv largely 
 employed in making steel for ordnance, carriages, 
 and other military constructions, where uniformity 
 and liigh qualities are more desirable than economy. 
 3. By far the largest proportion of mild steel 
 <^nearly 80 per cent.) is manufactured by the Besse- 
 mer process, but it is not applied to military piir- 
 2ioses to anything like that degree ; the ra))idi"ty and 
 economv of tliis plan are considerable, and the whole 
 operation is startling and impressive. A large egg- 
 shaped iron vessel called a "converter," can re- 
 volve on trunnions, one of which is provided with 
 teeth which gear with rack-work, by means of 
 which it can be turned up or down. The other trun- 
 nion is Imllow, and through it comes a pipe eomnui- 
 iiicating with a great numlier of small holes or 
 "tuyeres" fitted in the fire-bricks situated in the 
 bottom of file vessel ; a blast of air can thus be sent 
 from an engine through the tuyeres. The top of the 
 converter is provided with a sliort chimnej', and 
 the interior is lined with a very refractory material 
 called ganister. The operation is as follows : The 
 <-oiiverter being heated, it is turned down and 
 melted cast-iron is poured in by a gutter, either from 
 a reluMtiug furnace, or in some e:Lses, as first prac- 
 ticed at Terre Noire, direct from the blast furnace, 
 where it is reduced from the ore ; when a sufficient 
 <liarge has lieen poured in— onl}' about J of the to- 
 tal capacity, so that the iron may not rise to the tuy- 
 e'res on p-uiriug in— the blast is turned on, and when 
 it is fully on, the converter is turned up: the li- 
 (luid iron c;mnot run down the small tuyere holes 
 through which the blast coiui'S, but on the contrary, 
 the i)ressure is sufticient to cause a eonliniuius 
 stream of bubbh's of air to rise up through the mol- 
 ten mass, thus oxidizing the carbon in it with the 
 formation of carbonic o.\ide gas, which burns with a 
 strong flame some 20 feet in length at the top of the 
 <.'liimiiey. 
 
 The t(-mperature of the iron is considerably raised 
 Jjy the combustion of the carbon in it, and, although 
 
 is essential that the exact lime of leaving off should 
 be chosen, as if the "blow" is stopped too soon, 
 sufficient carljon is not extracted ; if, on the other 
 Inind, it is continued too long, the iron becomes oxi- 
 dized, when not only is some of it wasted but the 
 quality of the rest is spoilt, for the ir<m itself burns, 
 and excess of o.xide is formed. The appearance of 
 certain lines in the spectroscopic appearance of the 
 flame is employed to find the proper time for leaving 
 oflf. but it is often determined by eye alone. Before 
 pouriug out, however, comes the addition of man- 
 ganese, which is absolutely neces.saiT in this plan : 
 as from the method of manufacture a good deal of 
 ferrous oxide must necessarily be formed ; the 
 "blow" is continued for rather less than a minute, 
 after which the steel is poured out into the ladle, 
 when it is sometimes stirred b}' meaAs of an "agi- 
 tator" to distribute the manganese and produce 
 uniformity. Tlie ingot casting is the same as in the 
 "open hearth" system. The rapidity of this plan 
 enables an enormous output to be made with a mod- 
 erate plant, as each "blow" lasts less than half an 
 hour to produce 6 to 13 tons of steel, but this very 
 rapidity prevents the careful control over the residts 
 which can be exercised in the last method: in a 
 large firm this can be allowed for by sorting the in- 
 gots produced, and ;i|)plying each to the purpose for 
 which it is most suited: but it is most dlHicidt to 
 know what will be the exact proportions of carbon 
 and tlie other qualities of any particular "blow." 
 It does not appear at present to be well suited for 
 the manufacture of ordnance ; and the following 
 extract from the " Proceedings of the American So- 
 ciety of Civil Engineers" about the Jlonongahela 
 Bridge, Pittsburg, seems to represent the facts con- 
 cerning the employment of this steel for work of the 
 higher qualifies : "The difhcultj' seemed to consist 
 in controlling the uniformity of the steel within 
 close limits for quality and strength with the Bes- 
 semer process. After a while, the attempt was 
 given up, and the 'open iiearth' was substituted— 
 no froidile was then experienctd in getting a uni- 
 form grade of steel of prescribed quality." Some 
 43,000 tons of "open liearth" steel will be used in 
 tlie construction of the Forth Bridge. Bessemer 
 steel is very much used for rails, and also for a great 
 variety of other purposes, including comjiound ar- 
 mor. 
 
 When steel is to be forged, it is c;ist into an ingot 
 mold of a very simple form, efforts being made, by 
 the use of silicon, cither in the pig or in a special 
 mixture, or by fluid pressure as used by ^\'hitworth. 
 to get rid of blow-holes: the ingot is taken out. re- 
 heated, carefully inspected, cracks cut out, and it is 
 then either hammered, rolled, or pressed to the re- 
 quired shape, great care being taken about the tem- 
 perature. In order that the_blows may be well trans- 
 mitted through the mass, it appears that very heavy 
 hammers are now generally preferred, iirobably be- 
 cause mild steel is not in as soft a condition as 
 wrought iron when forged. As large masses of steel 
 are now worked, it is probalile that the numbers of 
 already existing very heavy haniniers may be in- 
 creased, unless Wliitwcn'fh's method of hydraidic 
 pressure be employed instead; and this now appears 
 to be verj- gemrally prefi'rred: great progress has 
 been made in some of the leading factories abroad: 
 and this .seems an important unitter for Kuglish 
 manufacturers to consider, with reference to the hirge 
 masses re(|uired for ordnance. Larger ingots h.ave 
 been produced in France iuid (fcrmany th;ui in Kng- 
 land. 
 
 Increase of tenacity can be obtained by Hie inqior- 
 tant operation of tempering, but this is at the ex- 
 pense of elougatioujbefore fracture. The temper ob-
 
 UILD STEEL 
 
 339 
 
 UILD STEEL. 
 
 liiincil viiricH with the aiiioiiiit of ciirboii iti the steci, 
 the li'iniH-nitiiri' iirid tlic iiiiturcof llic coormf; iimliT- 
 ial nipr oil hi'iiii; uciicnilly I'oiisiclcrcd llic lii'st fur 
 iari;i- iiiasscM, as it Man a k'ss cKiulucliiii; |miw<t tliaii 
 waTcr, and codls llie niflal more sli)wly. Kiupp in 
 nai(l li> temper liis Ktcel ala uniform lieat; wiiile our 
 plan for oriliiance is to temper a lest pii'ce at 1,450 
 <;eLC- Fm li'i'l 'f "''i^ ''"'■'* ""' .'-''^''' ?-"""' results, tlie 
 temperature is varieil within eertaiii limits, amltlii'M 
 the whole mass is treati-d in th<' sami' way as nearly 
 as possilile, as the test piece whi<'h ;;ave the hest re- 
 Bulls. Temperin'j; lowers tlie si)eeitie j;ravity sliu;htly, 
 (■oiisei|Uently warpini: and surface eraeks are often 
 produced by this operation, when larf,'e masses are 
 aeteil upon.' The S<-hneiiler steel jilate at the Hpez- 
 zia experiment in 1883 was tempered on the face to 
 fiain hardness, and it eonse(|uently warped so much 
 that it had to he planed otV at the corners to make it 
 tit the franu' it was jilaced in. (iun tubes often de- 1 
 vclop surface cracks after Icmpcriui;-, but sullieii-nt , 
 thickness of metal is allowed so that tliey may after- 
 wards be cut out in the lathe. 
 
 With steel castinijs, every effort is made to get rid 
 of blow-holes ; this lienerally involves (for all irood 
 work) a very consideral)le deadhead, which adds to 
 the expens.-" and has to be cut olf. Annealin'; for 
 several days is resorted to by some, while others are 
 content with slow cooling in hot ashes; t<'mi)erinj; 
 is scuuctimes used for sjiecial pvirposcs, such as the 
 head of an armor-piercini; projectile, tlioujj;h it can- 
 not be said that east-steer projectiles are as yet ver>' 
 suecessfid for arnior-pierciuj:: purposes a;zainst steel 
 or compound armor. Great progress has recently 
 beon made iu steel castings; and they are now ii.sed 
 for a great variety of purposes; stmie cast trucks have 
 been subjected to very rough treatment, and yet they 
 have not shown anv s'i^nis of fraeture.but liavc simi)- 
 Iv bent out of shape. Swedish castings now being ex- 
 hibited by Mr. Xordenfeldl have attracted very great 
 
 (lono with boiler plalcH, which arc madcof vcrj'mild 
 
 sli'cl, having' but little <arbon. 
 
 For ordnance, the tension and bending tests are 
 ^•en.rally sutllcienl ; the elasticity, tenacity, and 
 
 ,.l, ition are carefully recorded, and the area of 
 
 the .^aclure anil its general appearance are also no- 
 ticed both b<fore and after tempermg. In gun man- 
 ufactut : the behavior of the temixred te.st piece 
 serves as a "uide for the treatment of the mass from 
 which itcaine; bit il appears now to be generally 
 acknowledged, that the same heat will cause a dif- 
 ferent temper in a small test piece, and in the large 
 mass as the latter will cool so much more slowly .ami 
 will not, therefore, be so much all'ected as the smaller 
 iiieee It seems a sound method to jjroceed (as it 
 is believed the French do; to cut a piece off the 
 tempered mass and then test it, and the result will 
 be a more certain knowledge of the tenacity etc., 
 really attained-more particularly as with all the 
 ( ariMit ijresent used, it is not possible to be quite 
 sure that the large mass is brought to the same heat 
 as the test piece was. The elongation on fracture 
 has of late attracted attention, as it is a well recog- 
 nized fact that a short test piece will elongate much 
 more per cent, of its lenu'Hi than a longer one of the 
 same material : this is explained by the circumstance 
 that as the elongation is only considerable ju.st im- 
 mediately at the i)oint where rupture takes place, 
 the U>Ud elongation of the long piece is not actuaUy 
 
 
 A 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 Exflnn)les of stffl ejifstiniis of compIicHtod forms. Mes..ir*. n;ul. 
 IU-I(1 .& Co. 
 
 attention on account of their soundness and excel- 
 lence ; a very high temperature is obtained when 
 melting the steel, and liquid fuel is employed. In 
 designing the shape of a casting, sharp corners and 
 great ditferences of thickness must, if possible, be 
 avoided on account of the difficulties of preventing 
 unequal strains tending to produce rupture in con- 
 tracting (Ml cooling down. 
 
 A great varietj' of tests arc applied to steei in iiif- 
 ferent places, according to the purpose for which it 
 is retiuired ; latterly there has been a growing tend- 
 ency towards uniformity; the workmen's rough tests 
 of bending, breaking, and observing the friicture has 
 been systemJitized in various pulling machines, actu- 
 ated by a dead weight or by levers, or by hydraulic 
 pressure, by idl of which the limits of elasticity and 
 tenacity are indicated; liending and torsional tests 
 are also often applied, ;nid in other cases dynamical 
 trials are made, as by dropping heavyweights on to 
 rails, or by exploding gun-cotton, as is sometimes 
 
 Fig. .3. 
 
 Showing toes of floiiijation ]ht cent, in test pieces of tliiu pro 
 portions, bnt of tlic suine material. 
 
 The dotted lines .\ B C. A'h'C are drawn to indicate similar 
 etongaliuns .\ .\', B B'. C C.) 
 
 much more than that of the short piece, and is con- 
 sequently less iu proportion to its length — or the 
 elongation per cent, of its length is less — {vMeFig. 
 3, where a test piece of Whitworth's dimensions is 
 supposed to elongate an amount A A ; if the same 
 material is made according to Koyal Arsenal pattern. 
 it will only elongate BH", instead of BB' which 
 would be iii the same proportion as the last, while if 
 the test pieces are stiU longer, the elongation C'C" is 
 even less per cent ;) thus if a test is taken according 
 to the Woolwich plan, it will not give such a favor- 
 able result as by the Whitworth method unless the 
 differences in the proportions of the test pieces are 
 taken into account. It is usual to say that the 
 elongation is so much in a test piece of so many 
 inches, but this is not really correct, as a thick piece 
 will elongate more than a thin one: it is now pro- 
 l)osed that all test pieces shall be of the same pro- 
 portion of length to thickness. 
 
 ] It is important that the tests imposed should be 
 \ reasonable and possible, but this apparently has not 
 ' always been the case. as. for instance, when iron was 
 first employed in the construction of ships. the test em- 
 ployed iDy Lloyd's was the single one of good tenacity, 
 irrespective of ehjngation. before fracture ; the con- 
 sequence was that much inferior brittle iron was 
 I built into manv a vessel, accounting, doubtless, for 
 numbers of casualities. On the other hand, to show
 
 MILD STEEL. 
 
 840 
 
 UILD STEEL 
 
 the advantage of good elongation before fracture, 
 many instances have occurred of steel vessels ground- 
 ing on rocky places, when the bottom plates have 
 been bent anil crumpled, but not fractured, as they 
 doubtless would have been if they had been brittle, 
 although with a high tenacity. Going to the other 
 extreme, the demands for tenacitj' and elongation, 
 within certain limits of temperature for tempering, 
 have been so high in some specifications that it has 
 not been found possible to come up to the standard 
 when large masses have been supplied; the steel has 
 in some cases been rejected wholesale, whilst at other 
 times it has been passed, when the tests being set 
 aside became useless. 
 
 Not only are mechanical tests employed, but the 
 chemical composition of steel is found by quantitative 
 analysis in a most systematic manner: and each large 
 factory has a regular laboratory, with one or more 
 analysts, a class of men created by the require- 
 ments of the steel trade, in which sound scientitic 
 training in those concerned is a sine qua non for suc- 
 cessful manufacture. 
 
 The tests imposed b}' the Ordnance Committee on 
 large masses of steel appear to have been very strin- 
 gent, and manufacturers have found a difficulty in 
 complying with the conditions, but the making of 
 steel in the Royal Arsenal has given a decided im- 
 petus to gun steel, which differs somewliat from that 
 required for most other purposes. The French Gov- 
 ernment, intent upon progress,have insisted on rigor- 
 ous tests for steel which their own makers at first de- 
 clined. but afterwards agreed to complj- with ; in the 
 meantime, however, a large contract was given to a 
 foreign firm. It would appear to be the wisest course 
 to insist on obtaining the very best material for gun 
 steel. 
 
 The amount of steel used for naval and military 
 purposes bears only a small proportion to that which 
 is used for ordinary industries, and this ratio varied 
 greatly in different countries, being probably high- 
 est in Russia and lowest in the United .States. A great 
 part of the steel for warlike uses can only be pro- 
 duced by special plant on a colossal scale— thus we 
 hear of 100-ton iiammers, immense rolling mills for 
 armor. 160-ton cranes, a tank containing 100 tons 
 of oil for tempering, railway trucks for Faking im- 
 mense weights, and tools for machining enormous 
 masses of metal. The number of factories in the 
 world where the heaviest gims and armor can be 
 produced is thus necessarily limited. 
 
 About two years ago a most important decision 
 was made that English ordnance, of all calibers, 
 was in future to be constructed entirely of steel, and 
 wrought iron coils were abandoned, as there was no 
 longer a doubt that steel is much superior to 
 wrought iron for this purpose, from its greater 
 strength. This has been especially noticed with 
 guns tiring the mi dern large charges of slow-burn- 
 ing powder. The 3;eel for ordnance should be of 
 such a qualit)' as to possess a consitlerable elastic 
 limit, so that permanent deformation or enlargement 
 of the bore may not take place to any appreciable ex- 
 tent, its uncertainty being always urged as a reason 
 for its non-adoption in the service as long as wrought 
 iron was used in numufacture. It appears, howevtr. 
 that rclialjility and uniformity are now bi'ing attain- 
 ed. thougli only by most unceasing and intelligent 
 care in all processes of manufacture. Especially is 
 this recosruized to he the casi; where very large 
 masses are forged, a< the difficulties in obtaining un- 
 iformity in the mass become greatly increased. The 
 percentage of carbon is about 0.4 to 0.4") with cru- 
 cible steel wlien tlie manganese is low ; but with the 
 " open hearth " sleil lh<' percentage is a good deal 
 less (0.2S to 0.31) when more manganese is present. 
 ■ A modem heavy steel gun is constructed as fol- 
 lows : The tube is made from the ingot by repeated- 
 ly and alternately heating and drawing out under 
 the hammer, and a core is tlien cut out or treparmed 
 and thus most of the material cut to pieces iu the or- 
 
 dinary process of boring is available for other pur- 
 poses ; the process is also quicker. Whitworth ]iro- 
 po.ses, however, to proceed in a different manner, 
 suggesting the plan adopted with such success by his 
 firm in forging hollow propeller sliafts, which are 
 made thus : An ingot is bored, and the shavings re- 
 melted; the interior containing a higher percentage 
 of carbon and other constituents, is not considered 
 of sufficiently good quality for further use without 
 remelting. The hollowed ingot or cylinder is then 
 heated, a hollow steel mandrel of smaller diameter 
 than the interior is passed through it, anil both are 
 
 
 
 .»4(iatr""TUw* ^^1 
 
 
 
 Manohu 
 
 1^ 
 
 ^ h""^ 
 
 • ^ 
 
 |j 1 
 
 F"-* 
 
 
 / 
 
 IS 1 
 
 n 
 
 V. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 Wllitworth's Hydraulic Forging Press. Drawing out a Tube. 
 
 placed in the powerful hydraulic pressing machine, 
 which presses the metal of the cylinder against the 
 mandrel b}' repeated pressings while the cylinder and 
 mandrel are turned round into fresh positions (Fig. 
 4) ; the consequence is the hollow cylinder becomes 
 gradually less in diameter, but increases in length, 
 this process is repeated with thinner mandrels and 
 repeated heats until the cylinder assumes the desired 
 proportions of the propeller shaft ; the mandrels are 
 kept cool by water circulating through them. No 
 service gun tubes, except those supplied through the 
 Elswick Company, have yet been made in this man- 
 ner, though it may possibly be adopted for some of 
 the largest. 
 
 The hoops for service guns are also made from 
 the ingot, which is trepanned, the ends cut off and 
 remelted, and the rest is cut into thick rings, each of 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 Wllitworth's Hydraulic Forging Press. Enlarging a IToop- 
 
 which is afterwards heated and made thinner by 
 hammering on a mandrel placed through it and sup- 
 ported at each end (the hoop is thus suspended on 
 the mandrel). This operation naturally increases 
 the diameter, anil llie manufaelure resembles thai of 
 the weldless tin's of railway wheels. Wliitworth 
 makes some hoops in this way. sulistituting flic press 
 for the hammer (see Fig. .')), but he proposes to con 
 struct others in tl>e same way as the tube, in the 
 form of long, thin cylinders, and thus the heaviest 
 guns could hi! made of fewer parts than tlio8<> at 
 present designed. K'or instance, the 1 10-lcm gun is 
 intended to bu made of forty-three parts, but one
 
 MILD STEEL. 
 
 341 
 
 MILD STEIU,. 
 
 of Wliitwortli (Icsip-n woulil fonsist of only clfvcii 
 picfc.s. The iiiw Knulisli liciivy guns an? now rc- 
 quiri'd in liirjjc nuinlicrs for tlu; Niivy, iind also fur 
 the coasl. dcfcnHrs of Knirland and llic ColcinicH, anil 
 every cITiirl slmidd l»' inadi' to supply llicin with all 
 the rapiilily I'Dnsislciit willi cllii icncy. Tin- nIi-cI 
 for the 110-lon i^iiiis is bciiii; inadf liy Wliilworlli 
 and Caninicll. and llic forginjjs will lie liandi-d over 
 to lh(! Klswick Ordnance C'oni|)any. who will mach- 
 ine Iheni a]id build up the L!;Mns. In a few months 
 time Whilworlh's liiie eslahlislinient will have all the 
 tools necessary for erjniplelinc; tlu' heaviest };uns, 
 anil KlswieU will jirolialily have the plant fur casl- 
 inj; and for^ini; tlie heaviest infrots; the country will 
 then ])ossess two complete establishments to supple- 
 inent the Itoyal Gun Factories, and there are of 
 course several other firms wdiich can produce excellent 
 steel in lar^e masses, and who are accustomed to 
 the workini; of heavy steel fori^iugs. Care sliould 
 be taken that thoroughly reliable i;uns are produced, 
 an 1 close inspection should be insisted on durini; 
 manufacture, as well as rigorous proofs, liefore the 
 guns are admitted in the service. Military maUrulhns 
 before now been nesleeted in our country for years 
 during peace time, from indifference or on the score 
 of economy; then suddenly, wdien the need for it has 
 been felt, on the outbreak of war, a hurried onU'r 
 lias been i;iven for laru'e quantities; this is an expen- 
 sive ]>hin, as a liiL'h price is nceess:irily ehiirircd un- 
 der such I'ircumslances, ;ind it is ditlicult to m;ike 
 proper insiiectioii; it is far the wisest plan to pro- 
 ceed methodically and ililiirenlly while there is time. 
 
 The barrels for small arms are made of mild steel 
 from tlie bar, in an mirenious machine with a series 
 of vertical and horizontal rolls, which in one heat 
 draws out tlie barrel to the required lentrtli with ac- 
 curacy. This has been in use some six years at En- 
 field, and copies have since been supplied by an 
 En!j;lish firm to several foreign goverinnenls. The 
 bayonet is made of a hard steel welded by the aid of 
 borax to a socket of softer steel ; great care being 
 taken not to overheat the end of the bar, w hieh will 
 form the blade, while the socket being milder, i.-^ 
 made much hotter; the tests to which bayonets are 
 subjected before being passed into the Service hsive 
 lately been niiide a good deal more severe than be- 
 fore the iate %var in the Eastern Soudan. 
 
 The increased strains which the large charges of 
 modern guns impose on gun-carriages have necessi- 
 tated the employment of steel in their consttuction, 
 in order to obtain the necessary strength; and steel 
 plates and axles are now freely used, as in the 13-pr., 
 but wrought iron is still preferred for some parts, as 
 for instance the trail eye of a field gun-carriage, 
 ■which is subject to constant jars. Steel castings are 
 much used for heavy gun carriages ; some of 5.5 
 cwt. each have been made in considerable numbers 
 for the sides of 43-tou gun-carriages ; and steel cast- 
 ings on a grand scale are contemplated for the proof 
 ' carriage of the 110-ton gun. Steel racers have long 
 been introduced for use with some of the heavier 
 garrison guns, as they well resist the blow caused by 
 the jump of the platform on tiring, wdiich indented 
 the older and softer wrought-iron racers, and ren- 
 dered subsequent traversing a difficult operation ; 
 the path and twenty-eight rollers of cast iron on 
 which the tvirrets of the Iiifex'ble revolve have not 
 been found hard enough ; in future they will prob- 
 nbly be of steel. Tubular steel linings are employed 
 for the cylinders of Vavasseur mountings ; and cor- 
 rug;iled steel plate has been tried for tield artillery 
 ammiuiition boxes and appears to succeed. 
 
 Steel has been applied to shells with great success, 
 but at present the expense is considerable. Shrap- 
 nel are made for the 7-pr. and 13-pr. of Delmard's 
 tubes, with thin walls and bursting charge in the 
 liead ; the proportion of useful weight in the former 
 being 45.4 per cent., while in other natures it is 35 
 per cent., ;ind often much less. Steel h;islieen tried 
 for common shells, as they do not break up so often 
 
 on striking earth as east-iron shells. An example 
 of the advantage of their usif was furnished by an 
 cxperiiiiiiit. whi-n a parapet was more readily 
 breached by a 13-pr. with steel shells, than bya.5-in. 
 gun with 50 lb. cast-iron ones, the velocities being 
 about the same in each rase : the walls of steel sliellB 
 being made thinner than those of cast-iron a larger 
 bursting charge can bi' inserted. IJy lengthening 
 sliells and compressing the powder, it has been found 
 l)OSsiblc lo more tjian double the bursting charge; 
 thus with the O-inch gun the bursting charge in the 
 ordinary common shell is under 7 lbs., but long steel 
 ones have been made liol ling 10 lbs. of compressed 
 I)owder; this increase is most important when de- 
 stroying e;irthworks, etc. Krupp has done a good 
 deal in this direction. It is doubtful which is the 
 best way to apply steel for these purposes. wlielhcT 
 to cast it at once to the rcipiircd slnipe or to forge 
 it; the first is the simplest and eliejipest way; but at 
 present ditliciiltics arc ;qit to appear with blow-holes 
 which may lead lo fniclure in the bore when the 
 walls of the shell are thin ; however, with recent im- 
 provements in casting steel, this objection may very 
 t possibly be overcome. 
 
 I Anotlier plan is to cut off lengths of tubular steel 
 heat it, bend in one end for the head, and turn in 
 I and close up the other end for the base, or else weld 
 in a base disk ; another device has been ingeniously 
 .employed of cutting olT apiece of thick bar steel 
 stamping it into a hollow, and drawing up the sides 
 [ gradually wdicn he;iteil to form a shell. With regard 
 to armor-piercing ])ri)jectiles, some few years ago 
 experiments were nnide at Shoeburyness with !)-in<;h 
 I)rojectiles, with striking velocity about 1,.500 f. s., 
 to determine the best material of which they should 
 be made, and also the form of bead, etc. The gen- 
 eral result was that forged steel (from Sir J. W hit- 
 worth and Co.) was decidedly the best, but at the 
 sametimeit wasvery expensive; sincethen, however, 
 conditions have altered, and not only is the striking 
 velocity of modern projectiles often considerably 
 above 1,500 f. s., but the steel and compound armor 
 of ships now being made is hardcrlhan the wrought 
 iron plates which were formerly employed. Conse- 
 quently, the projectiles break up. and it cannot be 
 said that the present shells are ipiite satisfactory. 
 Careful experiment is needed to find out the best 
 methods to pursue. It is to be hoped that the sub- 
 jects of steel armor piercing projectiles for the heav- 
 iest guns may be thoroughly £one into, and the best 
 material for the purpose employed. 
 
 At the present time the Service Palliser cast iron 
 chilled shells do very great damage to the targets. but 
 the)- break up in doing so. Krupp has produced a 
 good armor-piercing projectile, and the French 2S'avy 
 has for some years past been provided with steel ar- 
 mor-piercing "shells for 33 and 19 cm. guns, all sup- 
 jilied by contract under severe tests for reception. 
 The following conditions were imposed some time 
 ago when the French Government invited their steel 
 makers to supply a large number (3,100) of armor- 
 piercing projectiles for 33 and 27 cm. guns ; the 
 conditions imposed appear to be somewhat severe, 
 and show that a high standard of excellence is de- 
 sired. The total number is divided into four for 
 each caliber, and the behavior of two shells tested 
 out of each lot will determine the acceptance or re- 
 jection of the others. The heavier projectiles are to 
 be fired almost at right angles against a 30 cm. 
 Creusot steel plate with wood backing with striking 
 velocity of 435 to 445 meters per second, while the 
 lighterones will strikea 25 cm. steel plate with a 
 velocity of 455 to 4G5 meters per second. If the first 
 ))rojectilc perforates the target ijnbroken and im- 
 craeked, the lot to w hich it belongs is to be at once 
 accepted; but if it breaks up in perforating, the sec- 
 ond projectile will be fired, and only if it getsthrougli 
 uninjured will the lot be accepted. If the first round 
 does not perforate tiic target, the lot will at once be 
 rejected. Facilities were given to allow the makers
 
 MILEAGE. 
 
 342 
 
 UILEA6E. 
 
 to fire trial shots against steel plates before submit- 
 ting their finished shells. 
 
 Nordenfeldt bullets for penetratina; the sides of 
 torpedo-boats are forged from steel bars by drawing 
 down a part to form two heads: pieces are tlieu cut 
 off, stamped to true shape in a die, and oil tempered. 
 Compound armor is constructed on two plans by the 
 only two firms which at present manufacture it in 
 England. 
 
 The Atlas Works (Sir J. Brown & Co.) make it 
 on Ellis's patent; a considerable thickness of wrought 
 iron and a thin steel face plate are kept at a few 
 inches distance from each other, with wedge plates 
 round three sides, ami small steel studs at several 
 points keep them from coming too close to each 
 other in the furnace ; tlie whole mass is then strong- 
 ly heated with the plates horizontal ; when hot 
 enough it is taken out and lifted by a crane, swimg 
 vertical, placed in a pit, and melted steel is poured 
 from a large ladle into a trough which distributes 
 little streams into the cavity between the t.vo plates 
 and joins them together ; in a short time the whole 
 plate is taken up and j^ut back again into the fur- 
 nace ; when reheated, it is taken out. and the whole 
 is passed through the large rolling mill. 
 
 In Wilson's plan, adopted by Cammell and Co.. a 
 large wrought iron plaie built up of many thick- 
 nesses is passed through the rolls, and is then pushed 
 horizontally into a huge iron chamber which can re- 
 volve on trunnions ; when the plate is secured, the 
 whole is turned up and becomes vertical, and liquid 
 steel is poured in from a ladle and tfough, between 
 one side of the wrought iron and the side of the bo.x, 
 precautions being taken to prevent it from flowing 
 elsewhere. In "VVilson's plan the steel was formerly 
 poured on to a wrought iron plate provided with a 
 rim and placed horizontally ; but this was given up, 
 as the scum, etc., tended to remain on the face of 
 the plate. The whole is afterwards rolled. 
 
 The steel constitutes about one-third of the weight 
 in both systems, its object being to break up the 
 projectile on impact ; it consequently has a consid- 
 erable amoimt of carbon in order to give it the neces- 
 sary hardness, while the wrought iron at the back 
 of the plate is intended to hold the plate together, 
 and to prevent the formation of cracks and splits as 
 far as possible. This class of armor has achieved 
 good results : the experiments at St. Petersburg and 
 at Spezzia during the last two or three years, as well 
 as some made at Shoeburyness, having been favor- 
 able. Ellis's plan has the advantage of a very good 
 front surface, but the results attained by each are 
 generally considered to be about the same as far 
 as present experience .has shown. The resisting 
 power of compound armor is greater than that of 
 wrought iron, and consequently a less weight will 
 give as great protection under ordinary circum- 
 stances, and it is coming into use on board sliips ; 
 on land, however, it will probably be little used, ex- 
 cept, perhaps, in some very confined situations. 
 Wrought iron of equal resisting power, but of great- 
 er weight is cheaper. 
 
 The injury sustained by wrought iron when it is 
 struck is generally local; but compound armor tends 
 to split over a considerable area, and is not well cal- 
 culated to resist blows falling close together. Very 
 good estimates can be formed beforehand by calcu- 
 lation of the probable penetralion of wrought iron, 
 if the plate be of orilinary (|ualily, but tlu' resisting 
 power of comi)ouiid armor is at present dillicult to 
 foretell ; it depends uu)re, perli:ips, on tlie total 
 weiirht than on the thickness of the jilale, and the 
 nalunt of the backing h:is a most imporkinl infiii- 
 enee on the rcsistftnce olfered. It has been suggested 
 that a consideral)l(^ number of experiments might 
 prolitably be made on a small se;U(^ in order to en- 
 deavor to determine the value of various alter;itions 
 in its arrangement. Compound armor is now made 
 in larL'i' qiiaiililies in Russia, (iermaiiy, and France 
 on the Wilson system; in the latter eouiitry there 
 
 are three factories busily eng.iged and in Germany 
 the Dillengen works have been in operation for two 
 years producing compound armor for tlie three 
 ships Ulcli iiburg, Brernne, and Bremmer. The Rus- 
 sian works at Kolpino, 16 miles from St. Petersburg, 
 are just completed, and the first of their compound 
 armor-plates, under an English director, are now 
 being manufactured. The works will probably be 
 well employed, as the Russians are rapidly develop- 
 ing their navy, and six large armor-clads are fast 
 approaching completion. Excellent steel armor has 
 been made at Le Creusut, of a milder quality than 
 the face plates of compound armor, and it has" given 
 good results when tested at Spezzia, in competition 
 with compound armor. Thin shields are used for 
 the protection from musketry fire of men working 
 machine-guns : they are \ inch thick, and oil tem- 
 pered ; the resisting power is considerably better 
 than that of wrought iron. 
 
 Steel enters into the construction of a variety of 
 warlike stores, notably in torpedoes; the beautiful 
 air receiver before us is a good example of the fin- 
 est work, forged from a bored-out ingot, oil temper- 
 ed, and accurately turned down till the metal is very 
 thin. It is most carefully tested to make sure that 
 it will sustain the pressure of the compressed air 
 which drives the engine in the Whitehead torpedo ; 
 and the hollow torpedo propeller shaft also pre- 
 sents a good example of a weldless steel tube of 
 great strength. Tubular steel also cornea into use 
 in rocket cases and in sockets for tent poles, in 
 which strength and lightness are combined. Large 
 quantities of compressed hay have been sent out to 
 Egypt bound round with Bessemer steel wire. A 
 very interesting and recent example of the use of 
 welded steel tubes is furnished by the gas vessels 
 which contain compressed hydrogen for military 
 balloons. These have only been developed during 
 the last few months, and 150 are now in South Africa 
 with Major Elsdale, R. E.. who hopes to make good 
 use of them under Sir Charles Warren. It was con- 
 sidered difficult to make hydrogen in the field, and 
 therefore the plan was adopted to carry it in strong 
 receivers. Various makers were asked to produce 
 this rather novel work, and many responded, with 
 the result that the pattern shown by Mr, Delmard 
 was considered far the best, as it holds more than 
 any other with due regard to weight and safety. 
 Each vessel is proved before uge, and it must not 
 sJiow signs of any permanent enlargement when 
 charged with a test pressvire very considerablv in ex- 
 cess of that which it will have tc stand when the hy- 
 drogen is stored in it. Some said that under such 
 higii pressure the gas would get through the thin 
 metal ; but as a matter of fact it does not do so, and 
 some vessels have remained fully charged for montlis. 
 It will be most interesting to hear how this contriv- 
 ance will answer on active service. The receivers 
 can easily be transported ; the weight of gas in them 
 is only 12 ozs. when fidly charged, and thej' will 
 float in water. In fact some fully charged have been 
 formed into a raft. Somewhat similar vessels are 
 also emjiloyed for carrying oxygen and hydrogen 
 under great pressure for use with the lime light 
 when signalling. See Steel. 
 
 MILEAGE —An allowance of eight cents |)er mile 
 paid to othccrs for travel. To entitle an officer to 
 mileage the travel nuisl be performed iriUiinit trflopn, 
 and be covered by ;i sjieeific (ird<Tin the case issued 
 bv a superior ofiieer previous |o conuiieneement of 
 llu: journey. Sueo orders are issued only where the 
 journey is on account of and necessary lo the public 
 service Distances nnist "be calculated by the short- 
 est usually traveled route," no matter by what route 
 the travel was performed. Ivxceplion lo this nde 
 may be m;ide only when the l<'rms of tl.e order, or 
 impraclicability of the "shortest usu;illy traveled 
 route," compel the officer to proceed bya longer 
 route. In such cases mileage maybe p:ii(l for "each 
 mile actually traveled." Lists of distances are fur-
 
 MILES. 
 
 HIUXABT COLLEGEb. 
 
 nislicd by the PaTinnstcr (Iciifral. Milciiiii- (viiwiot 
 . l)c allowed for micli li.'irl of a dlHlaiirc aH lies over 
 thai, portion of a "railroail on wliicli tlic IroopH and 
 SupplicH of Ihc- rnili-d Stales arc cnlilli-d lo belrans- 
 ported free." Ollieers whose orders entitle tlietn to 
 niiU'a.i;e may exercise tlieoplion of "niilea;j;e" forllie 
 entire journey (free railroads exeliided): or of "trans- 
 portation in kind" for the enliri' jmirney ; or of "mile- 
 ULCe" and "transportation in kind" fordilTerent parts 
 <)' the same journey. lint nnli'a;;e earniot lie allowed 
 for any dist'anee for which Iransporlalion in any 
 other form has been furnished by the I'nited Slates. 
 Ailvan<(^ mileage may by paid, without special nu- 
 Ihority, when the distance to lie traveled, exclusive; 
 of anv part which may by embraced in the list of 
 free roads, is not less than twothousand miles. This 
 will nol apply, however, lo journeys in which the 
 order contcinplates delays at intermediate points 
 alTordinii; <ip]iorlunity to collect milcafje for complet- : 
 ed travel. In the followini; cases no expense of 
 travel is allowed : In joiniut; for duly upon lirst 
 aiipointment to the military service ; <ir under lirst 
 order after reinstatement, reappointment, or revoca- 
 tion of an order of dismissal ; or to elTect an exchani;e 
 of station, or a transfer from one company or regi- 
 ment to another wlien the same is made at the re- 
 quest of the parlies. Except inj; oidy in the follow- 
 iui; cases : Assistant Surireons, approved by an ex- 
 aminiivi; board and commissioneil, joiniuii; for duty 
 under the tirsl order; jiraduates of the .Military 
 Academy, from West Point to their stations ; enlist- 
 ed men journeyins under first order after appoint- 
 ment or commission. 
 
 MILES. — A soldier of the Middle Ages, usually of 
 noble or knightly rank. He went "to the wars, 
 mounted on a uooil war-horse and followed by an 
 escort, more or less uuniero\is in accordance with 
 his own rank and means, composed of vassals and 
 serfs, who were equipped with slings, bows and ar- 
 rows, cutlasses, and spears. 
 
 MILITARY ART.— Military art may be divided into 
 two principal branches. The first relates to the or 
 der and arrangement which must be observed in 
 the management of an army, — when it is to fight, 
 to march, or to be <'ncamped. This branch is gen- 
 erally known under the name of liirticK, which sig- 
 nifies order. The second belongs to the other 
 branch of military art. and includes the composition 
 and apiilicalioM of warlike machines. 
 
 MILITARY ASYLUM, ROYAL. An educational 
 (iovernment Institution at Chelsea, near, but wholly 
 distinct from, the Royal Hospital for I'ensioned Sol- 
 diers. Its object is the suitable education for trade, 
 etc., of .TOO male children — generally orphans — of 
 British soldiers. For tliese, there are a Model 
 Scliool and an Infant School, and the boys have a 
 cimipletel}' military organization, with scarlet imi- 
 foim, band, etc. As a result of their training, a 
 large proportion of tlie pupils ultimately volunteer 
 into the army. Tliis school was originally estab- 
 lished ill 1803 by the late Duke of York, wlien<-e it is 
 still commonly known as the " Duke of York's 
 School." Originally a similar school for soldiers' 
 daughters was included, but was not found to an- 
 swer, and has been discontinued. Attached to 
 the school is a training establishment for military 
 schoolmasters, known as the Normal School. The 
 total cost of the whole Institution is about £11,. 000 
 per annum. 
 
 MILITARY BRIDGE.— A temporary construction, 
 to facilitate the passage of rivers by troops, cannon, 
 and military wagons. The most efticient are de- 
 scribed under Pontoon; but there are many other 
 kinds. A bridge of boaU is formed of sniaII-<Taft. 
 especially cargo-boats, collected from various places 
 up and down the river; trestles are placed in them to 
 bring tlieir tops to one common level; the lio;its are 
 anchored across the river, and baulks of timber, rest- 
 ing on the trestles, form a continuous road from boat 
 to boat across the wdiole breadth of tlie river; the 
 
 lioats ought to be of such size that, when fully laden, 
 
 the gunwales or upper edges shall nol be Iffss than 
 one foot above tin; water. lOipi-hriilaen are sonie- 
 times.bul not fn^qiK'iitly, used by military enKineers. 
 A liudt-niid-riipf, hriili/i' consists of rrables resting on 
 boats, anil supporlinga plalformor road of stout tim- 
 ber. A rdMk-liridiji' consists of a series of timber-rafts 
 resting on casks; the casks are grouped togellier in 
 ipiadrangular masses; at certain intervals timbers are 
 laid upon them to form rafts, and sevi'ral such rafts 
 form a bridge; it is an inferior kind of pontoon- 
 bridge. A treMi -hridiii- is sometimes made forcro(;8- 
 ing a small stream in a hilly country: it consists of 
 trestles hastily made up in any rough materials tliat 
 may Ik; at hand, with phinking or fascines lo form u 
 flooring, cables to kei-pthe trestles in a straight lire, 
 and heavy stones lo prevriil them from Hoaling. 
 lldJ't.lirid'jIiK. consisling of jilanks lashed together, are 
 easily made of any rough materials thai may be 
 found on the spot;" but they have little buoyancy, 
 and are not very maiiageiible. A nw!iiij-Jlyinij I ridge 
 consists of a bridge of boats, of which one end is 
 moored in the center of the river, and the other end 
 left loose; tills loose end is Iirouglit to the proper 
 side of the river, the boats are laden, and they make 
 a semicircular sweep across the river, by means of 
 rudders iind o;irs, until the loose end of the bridge 
 reaches the other li;ink. A triiil-Jiying I ridge is a 
 boat or raft, or a string of boats or rafts, which is 
 drawn across a river by ropes, in a line marked out 
 and limited Iiy other ropes. 
 
 History has many examples of the use of military 
 bridges. The first of magnitude, of which we liave 
 (k-tafled accounts, was the one built of boats, over 
 the Hellespont, by Xerxes, when he invaded Greece, 
 nearly two thousand four hundred years ago. This 
 bridge was about one and one half miles long, and 
 was composed of two roadways. One was used by 
 the troops; the other by the baggage train and camp 
 followers. It is said lliat the number with him was 
 .'5.283,220, and that they were seven days and nights 
 in crossing. Bridge's across the Tigris resting on 
 boats are mentioned by Xeiioplioi'i. Alexander the 
 Great used skins of animals inllated, or filled with 
 hay, as floats in crossing streams, as shown in his 
 passage of the Oxus. The Romans carried witli their 
 armies small boats and bridge material, when rivers 
 iiitersected their lines of march. An example of a 
 military bridge resting upon fixed iioints of support 
 is described In the fourth book of " t'jfsar's Com- 
 mentaries." This bridge was across the Rhine, and 
 was of sufficient strength to meet all the demands 
 made upon it. We find many descriptions of military 
 operations along the Rhine. and of the means used to 
 pass this river, by armies operating along its banks. 
 The .same may be said with reference to the Danube. 
 History records, in many cases, the failures arising 
 ] from a want of a military equipage. and the disasters 
 j averted by the use of such equipage, or by the con- 
 i St met ion of an improvised bridge from the materials 
 found in the neighborhood. The want of a bridge 
 equipage was particularly felt by Bonaparte in his 
 campaign in Italy, in IT'.Ui. The presence of such 
 an equipment would have enabled him to cross the 
 Po in time lo place his forces in the rear of the Aus- 
 trians, and would have avoided the forcing of a pas- 
 sage over the Adda, at Lodi. The importance of 
 bridtre equip:i2es was pari iciilarly fell by the armies 
 of till' United States in the war of IHiil ."). The delay 
 in the arrival of the bridge material was. on more 
 than one occasion, a cause of di.saster. Xo better 
 example of the imporhuice of a bridge equipage and 
 the value of skilled pontoniers can be given than the 
 single instance of Napoleon's crossing of the Beresi- 
 na.in 1812, in his retreat from Moscow. See Bridges 
 and P'-nt/wn. 
 
 MILITARY COLLEGES. — The great improvements 
 made in the art of war in late years, in weapons and 
 discipline, makes a demand "for a body of trained 
 officers capable of moving, directing, and bringing
 
 MILITART COLUMH. 
 
 344 
 
 MILITARY DISCIPLINE. 
 
 into effective operation tlie modern applian'-es of 
 ■war. As this special traininjr cannot be olilained at 
 tlie few Government Institutions and ordinary ed- 
 ucational estalilisliments, it has become the policy 
 of most governments to encouraie a study of mili- 
 tary science by establishing); military departments 
 in "the various State and private Colleges. In the 
 United States, officers of the army are detailed as 
 Drofessors at Colleges and Universities as follows:— 
 The details are apportioned throughout the United 
 States as nearly as may be practicable according to 
 population ; such States as do not contain sufficient 
 population to entitle them to one officer are grouped 
 with one or more contiguous States or Territories, 
 80 that the combined population of the group will 
 allow the detail of one or more officers, to the extent 
 of thirty officers in all. As a rule Captains of Com- 
 panies, Regimental Staff Officers, or officers who have 
 served less than three years with their regiments or 
 corps, or who have recently cojiipleted a tour of de- 
 tached duty, are not eligible. No details are made 
 tliat will leave a battery, troop, or company without 
 two officers for duty with it. The period for detail 
 is not longer than three years. Retired officers, if 
 acceptable to any Institution. may, on their own re- 
 quest, be detailed on this duty among the thirty au- 
 thorized. Besides this number, any retired oiEcer 
 ma}' arrange to serve at a College or University 
 ■without detail from or reference to the War Depart- 
 ment; but unless rfft(f(7cfZ imder section 133o, Revised 
 Statutes, such service will not entitle the institution 
 to the arms, etc., provided by tliat section. No de- 
 dail is made for any Institution except upon an ap- 
 plication from its proper representatives, nor is any 
 other so detailed, unless acceptable to the authorities' 
 o* the Institution, who sliould make theii selection 
 from the officers available for this [duty. Applica- 
 tions for officers should be addressed to the Secretary 
 of War, and should duly certify the number of male 
 students the College or University has the capacity 
 to educate, and should also be accompanied by the 
 last printed catalogue. Officers of thearmj' desiring 
 a detail at Colleges or Universities may make appli- 
 cation to the Adjutant Genera'., through the usual 
 militarv channels; their applications and the recom- 
 mendations forwarded therewith will, if the officers 
 are available, be furnished to such Institutions as 
 may desire to make a selection. 
 
 Issue of stores, limited to the following, will be 
 made, under section 123.'), Revised Statutes, b}' the 
 Chief of Ordnance to any selected Institution upon 
 its filing a bond in the penal sum of double the value 
 of the property, conditioned that it will take good 
 care of and safely keep account for the same, and 
 will, when required by the Secretary of War, duly 
 return the same, within thirty days, in good order, 
 to the Chief of Ordnance United States Army, or to 
 such officer or person as the Secretary of War may 
 designate to receive it. 
 2 3-inch rifled guns, wrought-iron, model 
 
 18G1, at $4no, $900 00 
 
 2 carriages and limbers, 3-incli gun, at $325, 650 00 
 2 gunners' haversacks, at $3,35, . . , 6 70 
 
 4 lanyards, at 10 cents, ...... 40 
 
 2 priming wires, at 10 cents, 20 
 
 2 liandspikes, trail, at $1 2 00 
 
 4 sponges and rammers, 3-inch, at fl, . 4 00 
 
 4 sponge covers, 3-inch, at 80 cents, . . 1 20 
 
 2 tube-pouches at $1.50 3 00 
 
 4 thumbstalls, at 20 cents, . . - . . 80 
 
 2 tonipions. ;i-incli, at 30 cents, ... 60 
 
 2 vcnl-covers. at 40 cents 80 
 
 1 pciulMlum haussc, 3-inch, 2 50 
 
 1 ix'iidulmn haussc seat 60 
 
 1 ]>cnduhiMi hausse pouch 75 
 
 2 pauliiis, 12 l)y l."") feet, at .fll,75, . . . 23 50 
 1.50 Spriiiglield "cadet" rifles, cal. .45, with 
 
 appendages, etc., at $18 2,700 00 
 
 150 bayonet scabbards, steel, 'cadet." at 
 
 91 cents 136 50 
 
 1.50 waist belts and plates, at 50 cents, . 75 00 
 
 1.50 cartridge-boxes, <-al. 45, at $1. '25. . . 187.50 
 
 For practice-firing the following allowances of am- 
 munition will be made annually to each of the vari- 
 ous institutions, viz: 1.000 carbine metallic ball- 
 cartridges, cal. .45; 1.000 metallic blank cartridges, 
 cal. .45; 100 rounds blank cartridges for 3-inch gun; 
 300 friction primers. This ammunition is issued 
 upon requisitions, which should be forwarded to the 
 Chief of Ordnance by the presidents or superintend- 
 ents of the institutions. See Military Schools, and 
 Post Sdtnoh. 
 
 MILITARY COLUMN.— Among the Romans a col- 
 umn on wliich was engraven a list of the forces in 
 the Roman Army, ranged by legions in their proper 
 order. They had another kind of Military Culumn 
 called Ciilu'iina Bell'ra. standing before the Temple 
 of Janus, at the foot of which the Consul declared 
 war bv throwing a javelin towards the enemy's 
 coimlrv. 
 
 MILITARY CREST.— A common expression for the 
 top line of a slope. The drawing shows how the 
 defender (who. while standing near the military 
 crest, uncovers only his shoulders and observes 
 
 the whole body of the assailant as he climbs the as- 
 cehtj will, on receding from the crest, place himself 
 below the jjrolongation of the slope and lose sight 
 of his climbing adversary. At the same time, he 
 will receive the enemy's grazing fire as the latter 
 ascends to the crest. See interior Crest. 
 
 MILITARY DECORATION.— A medal.cross of honor, 
 etc., bestowed fi>r di^linguislied services. 
 
 MILITARY DEPARTMENT.— A military sub-divi- 
 sion of a country. The whole territory of the United 
 States is divided into Jlilitary Departments, each be- 
 ing under the command of a general officer. See 
 Oeogrnpliicnl Drpartn.ents and IJivisionH. 
 MILITARY DISCIPLINE.— The obedience to and exer- 
 cise of all orders and regulations which have for their 
 object the good govenunent and management of a 
 regiment or army. In fact, discipline may be de- 
 fined as the perfection of order and regidation in an 
 army. To it may be attrilnited in the ilaj' of battle 
 much of the success which has attended the arms of 
 a nation. Without it, an army becomi-s a rabble; 
 and though braverj' will do much towards achieving 
 success, it is by discipline mainly that the object of 
 a war can be idtimately attained. In tlie United 
 States service, the following regulations in this con- 
 nection are observed : All inferiors are required to 
 obey strictly, and to execute with alacrity and good 
 faith the lawful orders of the superiors appointed 
 over them. Military avithority is to be exercised 
 with lirnniess. but with kindness and justice to in- 
 feriors. Punishments shall be strictly conformable 
 to military law. Superiors of every griide arc for- 
 liidden to injure those tmder them by tyr;innical or 
 capricious conduct, or by abusive language. Cour- 
 tesy among military mensis indispensable to disci- 
 pline ; respect to superiors will not be c(mtined to 
 obedience on duty, but will be extended on all oc 
 casions. Deliberations or discussions among any
 
 amiTAKY EXECUTION. 
 
 345 
 
 MILITABY JH8TICE. 
 
 class of mililiiry n>cn liavintr tlif ohjpi^t nf ronyoyinK 
 priiisc^ or (•(■iisurc, or any ruiirl; of aiiproiiiilioii to- 
 ward llicir Hii|H'rii>rs or others in llic inililary Kcrvicc. 
 and all piililiralions rclalivcio IraiiHactions helwccn 
 oflicernof a private or persoiiid naliire. whether news- 
 jiapir, i)aniphlet, or hand-bill, are strictly prohibitfd. 
 Bel' Di'f'/il'iii'. 
 
 MILITARY EXECUTION. The punishinint infliil- 
 fd by the scMleiiee of a ( 'ourt-.Marl iai : also the rav- 
 ii'-riiiir or ilc-.ini\ ire.: of .■! loinilry or town that refuses 
 to p.MV till' eoliliilillliori inllieird npoM tlieni. 
 
 MILITARY FIRST PRINCIPLES. 'I'he bodily Irain- 
 Ini; for a soldier, to niaUe him hardy, robust, and cap- 
 able of preserviiii; health arnidsf fatii;ue, bad weath- 
 er, and chanvce of climate: to niar<-li at such possible 
 pace, for such len'j;lli of time, and with such burden, 
 as wilhoul IrainiiiL' Iw would not be able to do. 
 
 MILITARY FRONTIER. The formir name of a nar- 
 row strip of land alon;;' the TurUisli frontier of the 
 Austro-llumcarian F.mpire. It bad a si)ecial military 
 constitution and formed a sejiarate •' (!ro\vn-land." 
 Of lato, however, the peculiar institutions of the Mil- 
 itary Frontier have been abolished ; portions of the 
 territory have been incor])orated with ailjoinin.i; 
 provin("es; and since 187;^ the remainder of the Mili- 
 tary Frontier, now oHicially ternu'd tbv Croato-Slav- 
 oni"c liorder-land. forms, ]iUm<x with Slavonia and 
 Croatia, a de]iendence of tlu' llumrarian Crown. The 
 Constitution, civil and military, is now accordinizly 
 similiar to that of the other Provinces of the HutiLrar- 
 ian part of the Empire- The area of the ^Military 
 Frontier was about T.^^OO scpiarc miles, and its pop\i- 
 la-tion in lH(i!) was (i!)l),800. The breadth of the ter- 
 ritory once known under this name is considerable 
 towards the western <'.\tremily, but diminishes to 
 only a few mileu at the eastern'. The surface has an 
 avera;j;e elevation of upwards of 2,000 feet. .\11 tbc 
 important rivers How eastward. The climate is se- 
 vere in the hiiihlands of the west. but mild in the low- 
 er districts toward Slavonia. Maize, wheat, oats, 
 fruits, and vcjietablcs are the principal productions. 
 Till' Military Frontier owes its oriijiu as a Crown- 
 Ian 1 to the necessity of havini; a permanent body of 
 defenders on the borders durini; former wars, and 
 cspeciallv durina; wars wi h the Ti:t: s. In the 15tb 
 century "the Austrians had gained from the Turks 
 certain tracts of territory on the banks of the Save 
 and Danube. These tracts they colonized, making 
 it, however, a condition that the Colonists must ren- 
 der military service against the Turks. Tims orig- 
 inated the Capitanate of Zengg. during the reign of 
 Mat bias Corvinus. The Wanisdin Frontier originat- 
 ed in the same manner in the KJtb, and the Banat 
 Frontier in the 17th century. The Constitution of 
 the Military Frontier, as it e"xistc<l till 1873, has been 
 thus described : The nulilary stations along the fron- 
 tier serve a threefold purpose — tlie defense of the 
 country, the prevention of smuggling, and the pre- 
 vention of the spread of contagious disease into the 
 territories of the Austrian Empire. The inhabitants 
 of this Crown-land enjoy peculiar privileges. Their 
 immigrant ancestors received only the temporary' 
 use of lands consigned to them: but in 18.50 a law 
 was passed making over the land to the occupiers 
 as their own property. This right of property does 
 not belong, however, to indiviiluals, but to the f im- 
 ily in a luiited sense. The oldest member of a fam- 
 ily (called the Jlrni.teatff) is intrusted with the man- 
 agement of the land; his partner (the Hau^mutUr) 
 ranks equal with him. and thev each receive a 
 double share of the profits for the year as recom- 
 pense for the management of the estate. A family 
 of this sort is called a border-house {(!>•( iiihaux). All 
 ■who are able to bear arms are sworn to the service 
 from their 20th year. The soldier of the frontier, 
 who is clothed as well as armed and supplied with 
 anununition liy Government, finds it bis duty not 
 only to watch and protect the frontier, but to pre- 
 serve peace and order in the interior, and to go on 
 foreign service when rciiuired. Only the smaller 
 
 portion of the l..i<. - ,,r the Militarj' Frontier in re- 
 tained in readiness for active service, while the re- 
 mainder pursue their ordinary cmploymcniH. To 
 facilitate the accomplislunent of the purpoHcs aimed 
 at by the Military Frontier, the rwdon. a Hcries of 
 guarii-houses along the frontier, affording accomnio- 
 dalion to from four lo eight men, as well as larger 
 ones acconniiodating twelve men and a ji;nior ofTl- 
 cer, has beiii instituted. Within this line an- the 
 olllcer.s' posts. Without annount iiig himself at the 
 posts, no one is allowed to pass the lioundary ; and, 
 after permission is given, the passenger nuist re- 
 main a longer or shorter lime at the (|Uarimline eg- 
 lablisliment, in order that all introduction of disease 
 may be ]irc'\ciilc d. 
 
 MILITARY INDICATIONS. There are mr.ny indi- 
 cation- which, if reported to a General and his Staff, 
 enable them to judge of what they wish to know, as 
 clearly as if a detailed i)icture of thi' enemy were 
 spread before them. It is necessary, therefore, tiiat 
 every ollicerand soldier should know- how to mark 
 and colled these signs. They consist, when a camp, 
 bivouac, or cantonment is observed, in the color of 
 coats and pantaloons; other distinctive marks, the 
 numbers of videtles, sentinels, tires, and tenis of the 
 enemy: the fre(|uency and direction of rounds, pa- 
 trols, and recomioissances; the nature and time of 
 signals by truni|iet or dnnn; the placing of signal 
 ])osts; measures of straw; boughs broken off; the 
 arrival of reinforcements; new uniforms; collections 
 of fascines, beams, joists, ladders, boats. When a 
 corps is watched on the march, the signs to observe 
 are the depth and front of columns; tlie number of 
 subdivisions: the sort of troops, infantry, cavalry, 
 artillery, trains; the f|uickness and direction of the 
 march: the height of the dust: the reliection of arms; 
 the munber of the tliinkersand the eclaireurs. When 
 an army ready for battle is observed, we should 
 particuhirly note the number of its Hues, their extent, 
 the composition of the troops in column or in line 
 of battle; the cidiber of pieces; their position relative 
 to cavalry and infantry; the number of skirmishers; 
 their maneuvers; the concentration of forces or 
 artillery on s\ich a point, Ihuik marches of <me or 
 many corps. If troops are followed on their march, 
 we note the tracks of tnen and horses, those made by 
 wheels, cattle, and beasts of burden; the relative 
 positions of these tracks: whether they are regular 
 and preserve an invariable order; whether the places 
 where thev stop have little or much space between 
 them: whether the route passed over is covered with 
 remains of animals; whether the skletons of the 
 horses are lean and sore; whether the ground is 
 bloodv; if graves have been freshly made, whether 
 some indications ma.v not show them to be for sup- 
 erior officers; whether the coimtrj- has been devas- 
 tated; whether the entrails of beef, mutton, or horses 
 are seen; whether the tires are recent: whether they 
 are numerous, and show much or little ashes; 
 whether bridges are broken, and in what jjarts: 
 whether the inh;ibitants of the country are anxious, 
 sad. Inunble, iuumated. or satistied. Sec SigiiJi. 
 
 MILITARY JURISDICTION.— Military jurisdiction 
 is of two kinds: first, tluit which is conferred andde- 
 tined by statute ; second, that which is derived from 
 the common law of war. Jliiitary offenses under the 
 statute law nmst be tried in the manner therein di- 
 rected ; but military ofTcnses which do not come 
 within the statute nnist be tried and punished under 
 the common law of war. The character of the courts 
 which exercise these jurisdictions depends upon the 
 local laws of each particular country. In the armies 
 of the United States the first is exercised by Courts- 
 Martiid : while cases w Inch do not come within the 
 '■ Rules and Articles of War." tr the jurisdiction con- 
 ferred by statute on Courls-Martial,aretried,by mili- 
 t:ir\ commission-. See Jurhdktinn. 
 
 MILITARY JUSTICE.— That species of justice which 
 prevails in the army, and which is administered by 
 militarv tribunals in accordance with the Articles of
 
 MILITARY KNIG:ITS. 
 
 346 
 
 MILITAIIY OKDEES. 
 
 War. In Russia just ice is frfquently obtained tlirouuli 
 wliat is known as tlie Court of Honor. In tlic Unit- 
 ed States the Articles of War provide that any ofticer 
 who thinks himself wrona;ed by the Commandin.; 
 Officer of liis regiment, and upon due application to 
 such Commander, is refused redress, may complain 
 to the General commandina; in the State or Territory 
 where such regiment is stadoned. The General shall 
 examine into said complaint and take jiroper meas- 
 ures for redressing the wrong complained of : and he 
 shall, as soon as possible, transmit to the Department 
 of War a true statement of such complaint with the 
 proceedings had thereon. Any soldier who thinks 
 himself wronged by any officer may complain to the 
 Commanding Officer of his regiment, who shall sum- 
 rnon a Kegimental Court-Martial for the doing of jus- 
 tice to the complainant. Either party may- appeal 
 from such Kegimental Court-Martial'to a "General 
 Court-Mart ia! ; but if, upon such second hearing, the 
 appeal appears to be groundless and vexatious, 
 the party appealing shall be punished at the discre- 
 tion of said General Court-Martial. . See Articles of 
 W<n: T2 to lO.i. Court of II,m„r, and Courtn.Martial. 
 MILITARY KNIGHTS.— An Institution of Mill- 
 tary Knights at Windsor. England, formerly called 
 '• Poor Knights," which owes its origin to Edward 
 III., and is a provision for a limited "number of old 
 officers. These officers consist of a Governor and 
 13 Knights on the upper foundation, and .5 on the 
 lower, together 18, and are composed of officers se- 
 lected from every grade, from a Ciolonel to a Sub- 
 altern, chiefly veterans, or on half-pay. They are 
 allowed three rooms each in Windsor Palace, "and 2 
 shillings per diem for their sustenance, besides other 
 small allowances. See Knights. 
 
 MILITARY LAW.— Under the Constitution of the 
 United States, Congress is intrusted with the crea- 
 tion, government, regulation and support of armies; 
 and all laws passed by Congress for those purposes 
 are military laws. Congress, being also invested 
 with power '• to make alUaws which shall be neces- 
 sary and proper for carrying into execution the fore- 
 going powers, and all other powers vested by this 
 Constitution in the Government of theUnited States, 
 or in any department or officer thereof," is supreme 
 in all military matters. The office of Commander- 
 in-Chief, intrusted by the Constitution to the Presi- 
 dent, must have its "functions first defined by Con- 
 gress. Such military powers only as Congress 
 confers upon him can be exercised. E.xcept- 
 ing that, being the Commander-in-Chief under the 
 Constitution, he of course exercises all authority that 
 Congress may delegate to any militarv commiinder 
 whatever, by reason of the axiom that" the power of 
 the greater includes that of the less. Many of the 
 functions, thus devolved by the Constitution on Con- 
 gress, in most governments' belong to the Executive. 
 The King of Great Britain makes rules and articles 
 for the government of armies raised bv him with tlie 
 consent of Parliament. Congress, with us, both 
 raises and governs armies. An army raised in Great 
 Britain is the King's army ; with lis it is the Army 
 of the United States. These most essential distinc- 
 tions should cause Congress to give more of its at- 
 tention to the army. It should "be borne in mind 
 that our rules for the government of the army have 
 been borrowed almost entirely from Great Britain 
 
 martial law is in the highest degree arbitrary and 
 capable of alnise. It may be decreed at will bycom- 
 petent military authority, and the only rule as to the 
 propriety of its[being established is the test of neces- 
 sity. Tiie Duke of Wellington, from his place in the 
 English House of Lords, deprecated its employment, 
 except under the most urgent pressure, and then 
 only with great modifications. In a celebrated Cey- 
 lon case the late Lord Chief-Justice Cockburn was 
 very reluctant to admit that civil law could be super- 
 seded by Court-Martial, except where, as in India, the 
 military government was absolute; but in the same 
 case Blackburn. .1.. laid down the dictum universally 
 accepted in tlie United States, that martial law is de- 
 rived from statutory provisions and fovmded on para- 
 mount necessity. Thus the question as to its nature 
 is closely connected with the manner of its exercise, 
 and this again with the rettpunsibility for such exer- 
 cise. As to its extent, we may refer to a decision of 
 the U. S. Supreme Court in the case of Neal Dmc v. 
 Bralish Johnson, October term, 1870. It was held: 
 that an officer of the United States, while in service 
 in an enemy's country, was not liable to an action in 
 Civil Courts for acts done in pursuance of a Super- 
 ior's orders ; and when anj' portion of an enemy's 
 country was in the military possession of tlie United 
 States, the municipal laws were to be continued in 
 force and administered through the ordinary chan- 
 nels for the protection and benefit of the inhabitants 
 and others not in military service, but not for the 
 protection and control of army officers or soldiers. 
 In the Supreme Court of Missouri it has been held 
 that the Act of Congress making the order or author- 
 ity of the President a good defense for acts done or 
 left undone during tlie Rebellion, is unconstitutional. 
 The whole subject of the relations of the civil and 
 military authorities in time of war, and especially 
 the constitutionality of Acts passed distinctly as wa"r 
 measures, is of great interest, and, while much may 
 be ret judicata, there are many points not yet clearly 
 determined. See Martial Lair. 
 
 MILITARY NECESSITY.— Military necessity, as un- 
 derstood by modern civilized nations, consists in the 
 necessity of those measures which are indispeusible 
 for securing the ends of the war, and which are law- 
 ful according to the modern law and usages of war. 
 It admits of all direct destruction of life and limb 
 of armed enemies, and of other persons whose de- 
 struction is incidentall}' unaroidabie in the armed 
 contests of the war; it allows of the capturing of 
 every armed enemy, and every enemy of importance 
 to the hostile government, or of peculiar danger to 
 the captor ; it allows of all destruction of property, 
 and obstruction of the ways and channels of traffic, 
 travel, or communication, and of all withholding of 
 sustenance or means of life from the enemy; of the 
 appropriation of whatever an enemy's country af- 
 fords necessary for the subsistence and safety of the 
 Army, and of such deception as does not involve the 
 breaking of good faith, either positively pledged, 
 regarding agreements entered into during the war, 
 or supposed by the modernJaw of war to exist. Men 
 who take up arms against one another in public war 
 do not cease on this account to be moral beings, re- 
 sptmsible to one another, and to God. 
 
 Military necessity does not admit of cruelly, that 
 is, the iutliction of sutlering for the sake of suffering 
 
 that the relation of the army to the jieople is in the j or for revenge, nor of maiming or wounding, except 
 two countries entiri^ly distinct ; therefore, that rules "" ' " ' ' ' 
 
 adapted to an aristocratic government may not be 
 entirely suited to democratic form.-. 
 
 .Martiid law must lie distinguished from both mili- 
 tary law and military government. The last denotes 
 the rule of a coucpicredor iiisurrectionarv dislrlcH)V 
 military authority, while military law is iliat branch 
 of the law which regards military iliscipline and the 
 government of (lersons employee! in the military ser- 
 vice. Martial law. says Kent, supersedes and sus- 
 pends the civil law. but military law is superadded 
 an 1 subordinate to thecivil law. It will be seen that 
 
 in fight, nor of torture to extort confessions. It doi s 
 not admit of the use of poison in any way, nor of the 
 wanton devastation of a district. It admits of de- 
 ception. b\it disclaims acts of perfidy : and. in gen- 
 end, military necessity does not include any act of 
 hostility which makes the return to peace unneces- 
 siirily (lilticull. 
 
 MILITARY ORDERS.— Religious Associations which 
 arose from a mixture of the religious enthusiasm and 
 the chivalrous love of arms which almost e()ually 
 formed tlie characteristics of medieval society. The 
 first origin of such Associations may be traced to tlie
 
 UILITAJIY PITS. 
 
 :il7 
 
 UILITABY P08ITI0B. 
 
 npcpssitics nf the ("liristiiiii rcsidiiiis uf ilic Holy 
 Liuiil.iii wliicli IIk' iiKiiikn.wlioM' Mrs! duly liail liccii 
 t(i Hcrvc III!' pilLtrinis in the liuspihil ut .Icriisiilciii, 
 were coiiipcUi'il. by llu' iicci'ssily nf si'If-dcfciisc, to 
 asHiiiiKr the cliiiraclcr of solilicrs as well asnf rnnnkH. 
 Till! Order of the 'rcniplars was of siiiillar orif^iii. 
 Tlioso of Alciiiilara and t'alalniva in Spain had f<jr 
 llu'ir ininicdialc (jlijcct llic difcnsi' of llicir country 
 a;;ainsl llic Moors. 'I'licsc ()rd<'rs, as well as llial of 
 Avis in l'ortMi,'al,\vliicli was inslif.ilcd willi a similar 
 view, followed llic (islcrciaii rnic, and all llirc<' dif- 
 fered frcjMi iMe 'I'eiMplarsand llie Kniijlils of Si. John 
 in lieini; ])erMiiUed l)y their institute to marry onee. 
 The .same privileire was enjoyeil in the Savoyard Or- 
 (IcTof Knii^hts of SI. Maurice and the Flemish Order 
 of SI. Ilulicrt. Oil the contrary, the Teutonic 
 Knights, who had their orii^in in the Crusades, were 
 bound by an absolute vow of chastity. Willi the 
 varyini; conditions of society, these Hclii;ious Asso- 
 ciations have at various limes lieeii abollslu'd or fallen 
 into disuse; but most of tliem still subsist in the 
 form of Orders of Kiiijihtliood. and in some of lliein, 
 attempts liave recently been made to revive, with 
 c<rtain niodilications, the monastic character which 
 tliev orii^inallv ])ossessed. See Onlrr. 
 
 MILITARY PITS. Rows of jiits in the form of in 
 verted cones or pyramids made before a work, and 
 having a stroiii; |ialisadc or slake in the center of 
 each. To prevent Ihe enemy's rillemen from making 
 use of them, they should be made either too deep or 
 too shallow, that is, either 8 feet or 2j feet deep. 
 Till' diameter of the pits at the top is 6" feet, and 1 
 foot at the bottom ; that of the shallow pits, 8 feet 
 sipiare at the lop, and not more than 2,i feet deep. 
 The usual position for mililary pits is beyond the 
 counterscarp, and principally opposite the salient 
 angles. They would form an obstacle to cavalry. 
 One man can construct two deep jiits per day iu easy 
 .soil, ami ten shallow pits under the same circum- 
 stances. 
 
 MILITARY POLICE.— A few steady soldiers wlio 
 are cho.scn from a regiment or regiments to main- 
 tain order and regularity within the liin's of a camji 
 or garrison. They are under the supcriiiteudeuee of 
 the Provost-Sergeant, and their number varies ac- 
 cording to circumstances. When on duly, they wear 
 i<. badge round their right arm marked M. V. 
 
 When an army is in the field, it is reoommended 
 that a troop of polii'c should be attached to each di- 
 vision, and one to the hcad-iiuarters of each army 
 corps, to preserve civil order as distinct from mili- 
 tary discipline. This body of men to be umler the 
 Provost-Marshal, who. during war time, is vested 
 with exceptional iiowers. 
 
 MILITARY POSITION.— All officer, to be able to 
 select a suitable posiiion for an army, should know 
 the distances taken up by troops in order of battle: 
 the tactical combinations of the different arms, and 
 their placing for mutual support to derive the great- 
 est advantages from their respective action in battle, 
 the qualitications of each for the defensive and offen- 
 sive, and the nature of the ground best adaiiled to 
 their maneuvers. In selecting a position for an ar- 
 my, regard must be had not only to the ground in 
 the immediate vicinity of the field of battle; but also 
 to Ihe nature of the surrounding country in its rela- 
 tion to the position to be chosen: whether the latter 
 U'uds itself in every respect to advantage to the par- 
 ticular ground iu question. 
 
 The following are the principal points to be held 
 in view in selecting a position: 
 
 1st. The extent should be in proportion to the 
 number of troops in hand to occupy it; its general 
 direction being such as to present :iii unliroken front 
 throughout, from which a strong direct tire ni;iy be 
 broug-lit to bear upon iill the ;ippr"aclies leading to 
 it. it too cxtendeil, weak points will have to be left 
 in the line; if too contracted, all the troo]is available 
 cannot be placed to bring their fire to bear upon the 
 enemy. An allowance of one thousaml y;irds for 
 
 every live Ihoimand to six thousand men of all arms 
 will generally be maile. 'i'liis provides for two linen 
 and a reservi'. Cavalry in line r(<)uires one yard to 
 each file, infantry two feet, and artillery from eighty 
 to one hundred and ten yards for ( ach battery of 
 six pieces, depending upon th<; inlirvals. Kvery 
 po.sition should have u depth of at least five liundred 
 to one thousand yards, to permit Ihi' free inoveiiientB 
 of troops of all arms. iS'o position should lie taken 
 up which does not prisent ample means for retreat, 
 allowing the troops to be marched ofl the field with- 
 
 1 out confusion from crowding. 
 
 i 2d. Good communications should exist througli- 
 
 ! out the whole extent of the posiiion, permitting the 
 troops to move freely from point to point to re-en- 
 force the line where necessary; good dctioiK^/ien to the 
 front, to allow the offensive to be promptly assumed; 
 good roads leading to the rear, to facilitate tlie safe 
 withdrawal of the troops in case of di.saster. As a 
 
 j passive defense will never lead to any decisive re- 
 sults, a position should always present every facility 
 necessary for the army to assume the offensive at 
 
 ] any favorable period of the battle. 
 
 ad. Good commaiul over the ground by which 
 Ihe enemy must approach, thus providing for a 
 
 Utrong, direct fire, and facilitating shelter for the 
 iro ips, which, if n it afforded by the natural features 
 of the ground, should be sui)plied by the construc- 
 tion of the best protections possible under the cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 4tli. There should be natural obstructions along 
 the front of the position within effective rifle range, 
 as a marsh or a stream. These serve to l)reak the 
 enemy's line and delay him in bis advance at a time 
 when the most daimige may lie inflicted. If these 
 obstacles do not exist, the weak [loints of the line 
 should he strengthened by abattis, slashed timber, 
 enlanglenients, etc. The obstacles should not, how- 
 ever, be of a nature to afford shelter to the enemy, 
 but simply cause a ilelay in his advance. A pond, 
 marsh, or a narrow, deep stream, are good examples 
 of what is most f:ivorable to fulfill this condition. Aji 
 obstruction p:irallel to the front, and between one 
 hundred iind three liundred yards from it, is very 
 favorable and adds to the strength of a position, 
 provided always, that it does not afford shelter to 
 the enemy's troops. Any position with obstacles 
 perpendicular to the front, as hills, wooded ground, 
 etc., should be avoided, as they afford shelter for 
 the enemy and conceal his movements. If, how- 
 ever, these obstructions cease some distu.ice in ad- 
 vance of the line, they are not so uufavoratile. Any 
 position along a small stream flowing into the sea 
 or a large river, would be a desirable one, as it ])re- 
 sents the features of an obstruction in the front, and 
 at the same time a strong sup}>ort for one fiank. 
 
 .'ilk. Strength on the flanks is particularly import- 
 ant at Ihe present time. as. with the improved weap- 
 ons, a front attack will not offer many chances of 
 success without severe losses. Pleasures must then 
 Ije taken to turn a tiank and thus render the position 
 untenable, at the same time liaving a strong force in 
 fnmt to prevent the enemy from re-euforcing the 
 tiank attacked, or extending his line to mcei the 
 turning' movement. If the Hanks do not rest on some 
 natural obstacles, as a village, extended marsh, an 
 unfordable river, etc., they must be strengthened by 
 all the means at hand, ;is fortifications, accumulations 
 of troops, etc. The flanks should not he commanded 
 by any ground in the vicinity, nor should there be 
 facilities of auy kind iu the neighborhood which 
 would allow the enemy to approach unseen. 
 
 Gth. The location should be healthy, and the re- 
 cpiisite wood and water should be near at hand and 
 e:isy of access. 
 
 7th. Conditions two and four cannot be satisfied 
 
 at one and the same time. In case an active defense 
 is intended, condition too will govern, in order to 
 have good <ii/ii>iir/u.ihy which to fall upon tlie enemy 
 at the proper time. For a passive defense, which is
 
 MILITABY POSITIONS. 
 
 348 
 
 MILITAKY POST. 
 
 generally impnserl when ilie forces are much inferior 
 to the enemy in nuiiil)ers or discipline, the third con- 
 dition shouli! l)e fulfilled. 
 
 In a defensive position, if the flanks are well pro- 
 tected, the concave front is the strongest; for the 
 enemy while moving forward to the attack exposes 
 both ins Hanks to a strong tire of artillery posted at 
 the extremities of the line. If, however, the flanks 
 are not strong naturallj', or are liable to be turned, a 
 convex front is desirable: for it gives short lines of 
 communications, allowing supports to be moved 
 quickly to either wing when threatened. The gen- 
 eral case will be a combination of the two above men- 
 tioned, presenting alternately salients, re-entering 
 ansles. and straiulit lines joinins; ihem. 
 
 MILITARY POSITIONS.— Isotated positions, oc- 
 cupied by small detachments, for the purpose of 
 guarding particular points wliicli are of importance 
 during the operations of a campaign, or for the lon- 
 ger or shorter period. These positions are frecmently 
 villages, farm houses, etc. The ofticer charged with 
 placing a village in a defensive attitude, should flrst 
 proceed to a careful examination of its environs, tor 
 the purpose of ascertaining what natural obstacles, 
 and what facilities, they present to the approach of 
 the enemy. Very slight accidents of ground may 
 be greatly improved by trenches of trifling depth, to 
 place troops speedily under cover. When the sur- 
 face is undulating it should be particularly examined 
 witli this view, the ofticer taking a position at differ- 
 ent points and directing men to approach him, and 
 occasioually stooping to observe how much they 
 will be masked from a fire at various heights above 
 the surface. The side slope of a ridge from the en- 
 emy will be the best position for the trench to obtain 
 speed)' cover, provided the ground in advance of it 
 can be well swept from its crest. The next points 
 to be considered are the walls, hedges, etc., of en- 
 closures, which ma}' be turned to a useful account 
 for the defense, or which might serve as a shelter 
 totheenemj'. After having finished this examina- 
 tion, he will next proceed to lay out his works; ar- 
 ranging their plan so as to draw every possible ad- 
 vantage from the natural and artificial olistacles at 
 hand, to render certain points inaccessible, and to 
 procure a shelter for troops snd flanking arrange- 
 ments by means of the walls, hedges, etc. If there 
 should be danger of an attack before these works 
 can be completed, the roads leading to the village, 
 by which the enemy might approach, should be 
 broken up ; and cannon should be placed in the best 
 position to guard the most accessible points. The 
 streets of the village should by barricaded, and the 
 houses and walls, in the vicinity of the barricades. 
 
 shorld be placed in a defensive attitude. In taking 
 these preparator)' measures against a sudden attack, 
 any means that will afford the troops a cover from 
 the enemy's fire should be resorted to ; bales of cot- 
 ton or wool, casks set side by side, and filled with 
 earth, piles of timber, etc., have been used with 
 great success under such circumstances. As the vari- 
 ous arrangements called for under such circum- 
 stances will demand great activity on the part of tlie 
 garrison, care should be taken to distribute the work 
 among the men most conversant with it, placing the 
 men who liave any skill in the handling of tools at 
 preparing the wooden and stone defenses, and com- 
 mon laborers at throwing up the earthen works, etc. 
 The works that surround the village should be 
 placed so far from tlie houses that the troops shall 
 not be incommoded either b}' the splinters occasion- 
 ed by the enemy's artillerj-, or by the flames and 
 smoke, should the houses be set on fire. The com- 
 munications from all the exterior defenses to some 
 central rallying point should be carefully arranged, 
 to avoid confusion in retreat, and check the pursuit 
 of the enemy. The garrison should be made per- 
 fectly familiar with them and with the resources they 
 may'afford, incase of need. Short-cuts should be 
 made for this purpose by breaking through garden 
 walls, the party walls of houses, etc., and by the erec- 
 tion of barricades at all suitable points to make a 
 stand. 
 
 MILITARY POST.— A Military ''Station" is synony- 
 mous with Jlilitary "Post." In each case it means 
 not an ordinary residence, having nothing military 
 about it except that one of its occupants holds 
 a militarj' commission, but a place where military 
 duty is performed or stores are kept or distribu- 
 ted, or something connected with war or arms is kept 
 or done. The interchangeof official compliments and 
 visits between foreign Military or Kaval Officers and 
 the authorities of a Slilitary Post are international in 
 character. In all cases it is the duty of the comman- 
 dant of a Military Post, without regard to his rank, 
 to send a suitable officer to offer civilities and assist- 
 ance to a ves.sel-of-war (foreign or otherwise) recent- 
 arrived. After such offer it is the duty of tlie Com- 
 manding Officer of the vessel to send a suitable offi- 
 cer to acknowledge such civilities, and request that 
 a time be specified for his reception by the Command- 
 ing Officer of the Post. The Commanding Officer 
 of a Military Post, after the usual offer of civilities, 
 is always to receive the first visit without regard to 
 rank. The return visit by the Commanding Officer 
 of the Military Post is made the following day. or as 
 soon thereafter as practicable, \\nian a Military Com- 
 mander officially visits a vessel-of-war he gives notice 
 
 Abraham Lincoln, Fort, D. T., 
 
 Dept. Dak. 
 Adams, Fort, H. I., Dept. East. 
 Alcatraz Island, Cal., Dept.Cal. 
 •Andrew, Fort, Mass., Dept. 
 
 East. 
 Angel Island, Cal., Dept. Cal. 
 Apache, Fort, Ariz., Dept. Ariz. 
 Assinaboine, Fort. Mont., Dept. 
 
 Dak. 
 Barrancas, Fort, Fla., Dept. 
 
 Eajrt,. 
 *Bat(m Rouge Barracks, La., 
 
 De])l. East. 
 Bayard, Fort, N. M., Dept. Mo. 
 Benieia Barracks, Cal., Dept. 
 
 Cal. 
 Bennett.Fort, D. T..Dppt. Dak. 
 Bidwell, Fort, Cal.. Dept.Cal. 
 Bliss, Fort, Texan, Dept. Mo. 
 Boise Barracks, Idaho, Dept. 
 
 Colundjia. 
 
 Bowie, Fort, Ariz., Dept. Ariz. 
 Brady, Fort, Midi., Dept. East. 
 Bridger, Fort, Wyo., Dept. 
 
 Platte. 
 Brown, Fort. Texas, Dept. 
 
 Texas. 
 Buford, Fort, D. T., Dept. Dak. 
 Canby, Fort, Wash. T., Dept. 
 Columbia. 
 •Carroll, Fort, Md., Dept. East. 
 •Caswell, Fort. N. (;., Dept. East. 
 Clark, Fort, Texas, Dept. Texas. 
 •Clark's Point, Mass., Fort at, 
 
 Dept. East. 
 •Clinch, Fort, Fla., Dept. Ea,t. 
 Ca'ur d'Alene, Fort, Idaho, Dept 
 
 Columbia. 
 Columbus Barracks, Ohio. 
 Columbus, Fort.N. Y. II., Dept. 
 
 East. 
 Concho, Fort, Texas, Dept. 
 Texas. 
 
 •Constitution, Fort, K. II.. Dept. 
 East. 
 Craig, Fort, N. M.. Dept. Mo. 
 Cumniin2;s, Fort, N, ^I., Dept. 
 
 Mo. 
 Custer, Fort, Mont., Dept. Dak. 
 D. A. Russell, Fort, Wvo., Dept. 
 
 Platte. 
 Davids Island, N. Y. 
 Davis, Fort, Texas, Dept. Texas. 
 •Delaware, Fort, Del., Dept. East. 
 Doufflas, Fort, Utah, Dept. 
 
 Platte. 
 
 •Dutcli Island, R. I., Fort on, 
 
 Depl. East. 
 
 Elliott, Fort, Texas, Dept. Mo. 
 
 Ellis, Fort., Mont., De])!. Dak. 
 
 •Finn's Point, N.J., Battery at, 
 
 Depl. East. 
 •Foote. Fort, JId., Dept. East. 
 Fred Steele, Fort, Wvo., Dept. 
 Platte.
 
 MILITARY PUNISHMENT. 
 
 U\) 
 
 MILITAHY PnHIBHMEHT. 
 
 ♦Gaines, Fort, Alii., Dfpt. Kast. 
 (iastdii, Fori, Cal.. Dcpl. Cul. 
 (iil)si.ii, Flirt, 1)1(1. T., I)(|il. .Mo. 
 •Oorucs, Fort, .Mc, Dcpt. Kasl. 
 (iraiit. Fort. Ariz., Dcpt. Ariz. 
 *Ori»wolil, Fijrt,' Coiiii., Dcpt. 
 East. 
 Hale, Fort, D. T., Dcpt. Dak. 
 llalleek, Fort, Nev., Dej)!. Cal. 
 JIainilton, Fori, N. V., Uept. 
 
 East. 
 Hays, Fort, Kans., Dcpt. Mo. 
 Huachuca, Fort, Ariz, licpt. 
 Ariz. 
 •Indepeiidenoe, Fort, -Mass., Dcpt. 
 
 East 
 Jackson Barracks, La., Dept. 
 East. 
 ♦Jackson, Fort, Ga., Dept. East. 
 ♦Jackson Fort, T,a.. Dcpt. East. 
 JelTcrson Barracks, Mo. 
 ♦Jell'erson, Fort, Fla., Dept. East. 
 ♦Johnston, Fort, IS. C, Dept. 
 East. 
 KeoLtli, Fort, Mont., Dept. Dak. 
 ♦Key West Barracks, Fla., Dept. 
 Kast. 
 Klamath, Fort, Oreg., Dept. 
 Columbia. 
 ♦Kno.v, Fort, Mc., Dept. East. 
 ♦Lafayette, Fort, N. Y. H., Dcpt. 
 
 East. 
 Lapwai, Fort, Llaho, Dept. Co- 
 
 lumliia. " 
 
 I.,arainie, Fort, AVyo., Dept. 
 
 Platte. 
 Leavenworth, Fort, Kans., Dept. 
 
 Mo. 
 Leavenworth Military Prison, 
 
 Kans. 
 Lewis, Fort, Colo., Dcpt. Mo. 
 Little Rock Barracks, Ark., Dept. 
 East. 
 ♦Livingston, Fort, La., Dept. 
 East. 
 Lowell, Fort, Ariz., Dept. Ariz. 
 Lyon, Fort, Colo., Dept. Mo. 
 Mackinac, Fort, Mich., Dept. 
 East. 
 ♦JIacorab, Fort. La.. Dept. East. 
 ♦Macon, F'ort, N. C, Dept. East. 
 Madison Barracks, N. Y., Dept. 
 
 East. 
 Maginnis, Fort, Mont., Dept. 
 
 Dak. 
 Marcy, Fort, N.5L, Dept. Mo. 
 ♦Marion, Fort, Fla., Dept. East. 
 Mason, Fort, Cal., Dept. Cal. 
 ♦McClary, Fort, Jle., Dept. East. 
 McDermit, Port. Nev., Dept. Cal. 
 
 McDowell. Fort. Ariz., Dept. 
 
 Ariz. 
 M<llcnry, Fort, .Md., Dcpt. East. 
 Mcintosh, Fort, Texas, Dept. 
 
 T( xas. 
 McKinncy, Fort, Wyo., Dept. 
 
 I'latte. 
 Mia.le, Fori, D. T., Dcpl. Dak. 
 ♦.Millliii. Fort, I'a., Dcpt. Kast. 
 Missoula. Fort, Mont..Dciit. Dak. 
 .Mojavc. Fort, Ariz., Dcpt. Ariz. 
 Monroe, Fori, Va.. Dept. East. 
 •Montgomery, Fort, N. Y., Dept. 
 
 Kast. 
 ♦Morgan, Fort, Ala., Dept. East. 
 ♦Monltric, Fort, S. (:.. Dept. East. 
 Mount Vernon Barracks. Ala., 
 
 Dcpt. Kast. 
 Jlycr, Fort, Va. 
 Newport Barracks, K}., Dcjit. 
 
 East. 
 Niagara, Fort, N. Y.,Dept East. 
 Niobrara, Fort, Neb., Dept. 
 
 Plutte. 
 Omaha, Fort, Neb., Dept. Platte. 
 ♦Ontario, Fort, N. Y., Dept. East. 
 Pembina, Fort, D. T., Dept. 
 Dak. 
 ♦Phoiii.x, Fort, ^fass., Dept. East. 
 •Pickens, Fort, Fla., Dept. East. 
 •Pilic, Fort, La., Dept. East. 
 Platlslmrg Barracks, N.Y. Dept. 
 East. 
 •Popham, Fort, Me., Dept. East. 
 Poplar River, Camp, Mont., 
 
 Dept. Dak. , 
 
 Porter, Fort, N. Y., Dept. Eas.. 
 Preble, Fort, Me., Dept. Kast. 
 Presidio of San Francisco, Cal., 
 
 Dcpt. Cal. 
 •I'uliiski, Fort, C5a., Dept. East. 
 Randall, Fort, D.T., Dept. Dak. 
 Reno, Fort, Ind. T., Dcpt. :\Io. 
 Riley, Fort, Kans., Dept. Jlo. 
 Ringgold, Fort, Te.xas, Dept. 
 
 Texas. 
 Robinson, Fort, Neb., Dept. 
 
 Platte. 
 San Antonia, Texas, Dept. Texas. 
 San Diego Barracks, Cal., Dept. 
 Cal. " 
 •Sandy Hook, N.J., Fort at, Dept. 
 
 East. 
 •Scammel, Fort, Me., Dept. East. 
 Schuyler, Fort, N. Y., Dept. 
 
 East. 
 Seklen, Fort, N.M., Dept. Mo. 
 •Sewall, Fort, Mass., Dept. East. 
 Shaw, Fort, Mont.. Dept. Dak. 
 •Ship Island, Miss„ Dept. East. 
 
 Sirlnev, Fort, Neb. Dept. Platte. 
 Sill, luirt, Ind. T.. Deiii. .\Io. 
 Sisseton, Fort, D.T., Dcpt. Dak. 
 Snclling, Fort, Minn., Dcpt. Dak. 
 Spokane, Fort, Wash. T., Dept. 
 
 Columbia. 
 ^Standisli, Fort, Masn., Dept. 
 
 Kast. 
 Stanton, Fort, N.M., Dept. Mo. 
 Stevens, Fort CJreg. Dept. Col- 
 
 luiibia. 
 Stockton, Fort, Texas. Dept. 
 
 Texas. 
 St. Francis Barracks. Fla., Dept. 
 
 East. 
 ♦St. Philip. Fort. La.. Dipt. 
 
 East. 
 Sullivan, Fort, Me., Dept. East. 
 Sully, Fort, D. T.,Dept. Dak. 
 •Sumter, Fort, S. ('., Dcpt. East. 
 Supply, Fort, In(l.,T,. Dept. Mo. 
 •Taylor, Fort, Fla.. Dept. East. 
 Thomas, Fort, Ariz.. Dcpt. Ariz. 
 •Thornburgh, Fort. Utah. Dept. 
 
 Platte. 
 TolK n. Fort, D. T., Dept. Dak. 
 Townsend, Fort Wash. T., Dept. 
 
 Columbia. 
 Trumbull, Fort, Conn.. DepU 
 
 East. 
 Uncompahgre River.Cantonment 
 
 on, Colo., Dept. Mo. 
 Union, Fort. N. M., Dept. Mo. 
 Vancouver Barracks. Wash. T., 
 
 Dept. Columbia. 
 Verde, Fort, Ariz.. Dept. Ariz. 
 Wadsworth, Fort, N. Y.. Dcpt. 
 
 East. 
 Walla Walla. Fort, Wash. T., 
 
 Dept. Columbia. 
 Warren, Fort, Mass.. Dept. East. 
 Washakie, Fort, Wyo.. Dept. 
 
 Platte. 
 •Washington Barracks. D. C, 
 
 Dept. East. 
 Washington, Fort, Md., Dept. 
 
 East. 
 Wayne, Fort, Mich., Dept. East. 
 West Point, N. Y., U. S. Military 
 
 Academy. 
 Whipple Barracks, Ariz., Dept. 
 
 Ariz. 
 Willets Point, N. Y. 
 Wintield Scott Fort, Cal., Dept. 
 
 Cal. 
 Wingate, Fort.N.M.. Dept. Mo. 
 ♦WinUirop, Fort, Mass.. Dept. 
 
 East. 
 •Wolcott, Fort. R. L, Dept. East. 
 Yates, Fort, D. T., Dept. Dak. 
 
 of his visit to the vessel previously thereto, or sends 
 
 an officer to the gangway to annoimce his presence, 
 if such notice has not been given. He is then receiv- 
 ed at the gangway by the Commander of the vessel, 
 and is accompanied there on leaving liy the same offi- 
 cer. The officer who is sent with the customary offer 
 of civilities is met at the gangway of a vessel-of-war 
 by the Officer-of-the-Deck ; through the latter he is 
 presented to theComnuinderof the vessel, with whom 
 it is his duty to communicate. A vessel-of-war is ap- 
 proached and boarded by Commissioned Officers by 
 the starboard side and gangway. when tlicre are gang- 
 ways on each side. In entering a boat the^wwV'rgoes 
 first and other officers according to rank : in leaving 
 a boat, the siiiior goes first. The latter is to acknowl- 
 edge the salutes which are given at the gangway of 
 naval vessels. Naval vessels fire personal salutes to 
 efficers entitled to them when the boat containing the 
 officer to be saluted has cleared the ship. It is an ac- 
 
 knowledgment for his boat to " lie on her oars " from 
 the first until the last gun of the salute, and for the 
 officer saluted to uncoVer. then at the conclusion to 
 "give way." The exchange of official visits between 
 the Commanding Officers "of a Post and vessel opens 
 the door to both official and social courtesies among 
 the other officers. 
 
 The foregoing list comprises the Military Posts oc- 
 cupied by troops of the United States on the 1st of 
 January, 1884. Those not garrisoned are marked*. 
 
 MILITAHY PONISHMENT.— In a military sense, 
 the execution of a sentence pronounced by a Court- 
 Martial upon any delin(|uent. The Ronians pun- 
 ished crimes committed by the soldiery with the ut- 
 most rigor. On the occurrence of a mutiny, every 
 tenth, twentieth, or hundredth man was sometimes 
 chosen by lot. but generally only the ringleaders 
 were selected for punishment. Deserters and sedi- 
 tious persons were frequently, after being scoorged.
 
 MILITARY REGULATIONS. 
 
 350 
 
 MILITARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 sold for slaves, and occasionally the offender was 
 made to lose his right haud, or was bled nearly to 
 death. Among the nations of Western Europe, t':e 
 ■punishments for military offen.ses were, till ]atel_v, 
 no less severe than tliey were among the Romans. 
 Besides the infliction of a certain number of lashes 
 with cords, soldiers convicted <if theft, marauding, 
 or any other breach c^f discipline which was not 
 punishable with death, were sentenced to run the 
 gantlope. In Russia the knout was extensively 
 used. (See Knout.) It is often necessary to punish 
 to maintain discipline,, and the Rules and Articles of 
 War provide ample means of punishment, but not 
 sufficient rewards and guards against errors of judg- 
 ment. In the French Army degrading pimishmcnts 
 are illegal, but soldiers may be confined to quarters 
 or deprived of the libert.y of leaving the garrison ; 
 confined in the guard-room, in prison, or in dun- 
 geon ; required to walk or to perform hard labor ; 
 and officers may be subjected to simple or rigorous 
 arrests. Everj' officer who inflicts a punishment 
 must account for it to his superior, who approves or 
 disapproves, confirms, augments, or diminishes it. 
 If an inferior is confined to the guard-room, he can- 
 not be lil)erated except upon application to a super- 
 ior. Any officer who has been subjected to pun- 
 ishment must, when relieved, make a visit to him 
 who ordered it. The French Code has, in a word, 
 been careful to provide for both the security of its 
 citizens and the strength of authority. The punish- 
 ments establislied by law or custom for U. R. sol- 
 diers' by senteuce of Court-Martial, arc embodied in 
 the Articles of War. (See Articles of War.) It is 
 regarded as inhuman to punish by solitary confine- 
 ment or confinement on bread and water exceeding 
 fourteen days at a time, or for more than eighty- 
 four days in a year, at intervals of fourteen daj-s. 
 
 MILITARY REGULATIONS.— The rules and regula- 
 tions observed in one uniform system, and by which 
 the discipline, formations, fleld-exercises, and move- 
 ments of the whole army are directed. See Army 
 Eegidatioiu and Articles of War. 
 
 MILITARY SCHOOLS.— Establishments for the edu- 
 cation of officers, non-commissioned officers, and 
 men of the army. In the United States, schools are 
 established at all posts, garrisons, and permanent 
 camps at which troops are stationed, in which the 
 enlisted men are instructed in the common English 
 V)ranches of education, and especially in the history 
 of tlie United States. The Secretary of War details 
 such officers and enlisted men as may be necessary 
 to conduct them. It is the duty of every post and 
 garrison commander to set apart a suitable room or 
 iiuilding forschool and religious purposes. The Uni- 
 ted States Military Academy, the Artillery Scliool, 
 and the School of Application for Cavalry and In- 
 fantry are discussed in detail imder the appropriate 
 lieads. 
 
 Tiie military schools of foreign countries deserve 
 consideralile attention, especialh' those of France, 
 where a military commission is one of the best schol- 
 astic prizes looked forward to. In France no at- 
 tempt is made to impait general education at the mili- 
 tary semiuarics; a boy is required to have a thorough 
 general knowledge before he can be admitted to these 
 institutions. Being open to universal competition, 
 and being the only channel — or nearly so — to the Ijcst 
 employment under tlic state the great military schools 
 by the high standard required for them, give great 
 im])etus to general education throughout the em- 
 pire and tlie ly<'ees, or public schools, adapt their 
 course of instruction to'the anticipated competition. 
 In the army, two-thirds of the line commissions and 
 one-third of those for the scientific corps are given 
 to non-commissioned olhcers, but very few of tliese 
 rise bcy<md tlie rank of Captain; the remaining com- 
 missions in tlie line and scientific corps, and all ap- 
 pointments to tlie Staff, are given by competion after 
 a careful course of ])rot,'ssional education. The can- 
 didates in open competition are jjlaced according to 
 
 merit either in the Infantrj' School of St. Cyr or the 
 
 celebrated Polytechnique: at both colleges tliey have 
 the right, if tliey need it, to jjartial or entire stale 
 support. From the School of St. Cyr tlie more prom- 
 ising pupils pass to the Staff School, and thence, af- 
 ter a thorough course, to the Etat Majeur of the 
 army; the remaining students pass as subalterns in. 
 to the Line. The pupils of the Polytechnique, which 
 is entered after the age of 17 years, have annually 
 about IGO valuable prizes open to them. The first 
 30 to 40 candidates usually select civil emploj-ment 
 under the state, such as the "ponts et chausiies;" 
 those next in merit choose the artillery and engineers, 
 and pass through a technical course at the School of 
 Application. The remaining students either fail to 
 (jualifv and leave the school, or have to content 
 tliemselves with commissions in the line, subordin- 
 ate situations in the government, civil or colonial 
 service, or they retire into civil life altogether. In 
 actual service there are schools for the men, who are 
 also taught trades and singing. The standard of edu- 
 cation among French soldiers is far higher than 
 among their English brethren, as the conscription 
 draws the men from all classes of society. 
 
 The Prussian system of military education differs 
 from that of France in that competition is but spar- 
 ingly resorted to; and the object is to give a good 
 general and professional education to all the officers, 
 rather than a specially excellent training to a selected 
 few. Aspirants for commissions must enter in the 
 ranks, and within six months pass a good examina- 
 tion in general and liberal knowledge; if however, 
 the candidate has been educated in Cadet House — 
 which is a semi-military school for j-ouths — and has 
 passed properly out of it, this examination is dis- 
 pensed with. After some further service, the aspi- 
 rant goes for nine months to one of three "Division 
 Schools", where he completes his professional edu- 
 cation. If he pass the standard here required, he is 
 eligible for the next vacancy, but cannot be com- 
 tnissioned unless tlie officers of tlie corps are willing 
 to accept him as a comrade. The Artillery and En- 
 gineer Schools do for those services what the Divi- 
 sion Schools do for the line. The culmination of 
 Prussian military education is the Staff School, open 
 to competition for all the officers of the army, and 
 presenting the highest prizes in the profession. In 
 all the schools, the candidates study at the expense 
 of the state, or receive great auxiliary grants. 
 
 The Austrian system is very elaborate, and com- 
 mences at an early age; boys intended for military 
 service beginning their professional almost contem- 
 poraneously with their general education. There 
 are schools for training for non-commissioned 
 officers and for officers, and senior departments for 
 imparting more extended instruction to both classes. 
 C'andidates for appointment as non-commissioned 
 officers pass by competition through the lower 
 houses, where they remain till 11 years old; the 
 upper houses, which detain them till 15; and the 
 school companies, whence, after actual apprentice- 
 ship to service, a few pupils pass to the academies 
 for aspirants for commissions, and the others are 
 drafted into the service as non-commissioned officers. 
 For officers, boys are pledged to the service by their 
 parents at the age of 11, when they are placed in 
 Ciidet Schools; after which the state takes charge of 
 them. At about 16 the hoys pass, according to 
 qualification, to the line or scientific corps academies, 
 and four years later into tho.se services themselves. 
 The young otHcer's cluince of entering the Staff 
 School — and tlierefore the Staff — depends upon his 
 place at tlie final academic cxiimination. The compe- 
 tition observed through<iut the course of militarj' 
 education is said to impart great vigor to ^lie 
 tuition. 
 
 In tlic Italian army the system so nejirly approaches 
 tlial of France tliiU a separate descriplioii is unne- 
 cessary. It need only be slat,ed that the educational 
 status of the Italian oflicers is consider(!d high. In
 
 MILITARY SCIENCE. 
 
 351 
 
 MILITARY BURGEE Y. 
 
 the British army tlie scliools are of spvcnil variciics. cxclianjrcfl. plerlged, loaned, or given away; and no 
 
 1. Tliosi- for Ihi: t'diiciition (jf the olHccrH alrciidy piTson not a soldier, or duly aiitliori/.cd oftf^•r of *hc 
 in llic sirvife, an the Stuff CulViji' uiid (lie ewlabliHli- ' l'nit<-d SlateH.wlioliaH possrssion of any Kiieli eJotlieB, 
 meiil at Clialliain for training eni;incr-r olHecrs. [ arriix, inililary outfltH, or aeeouterments, no furniHli- 
 
 2. I'rofi'ssiona! scliools connnoii to odlccrs and 
 
 men, as tlie Sciiooi. ok (itTNNKitv and the Sciiooi, or 
 Mc'HKKTHV. ;!. Schools for Ihc professional ediiea- 
 lion of candidates for conwnissions; as Sand iichht 
 
 MiLITAIlY (loI.LKOK anil the KoYAL MiLITAIiy ACAD- 
 
 KMV. 4. The schools for men in the ranks and for 
 their children, or llie Ukoimkntal Schooi.s; and tin- 
 
 ed, an<l which have been the subjeet of any hikJi 
 sale, tiarler. exchange, pleilife, loan, or irift.can have 
 any riiihl. lille.or inleri'st therein: Init the same may 
 bi' seized and taken wherevir found by any ofllcer 
 of the l'nit<'d States, civil or military, ami thi'nupon 
 \h- delivered lo any (^uarlermastir. or other odioer 
 authorized to receive the same. The possession of 
 instruction provided for their sons or orplnuis, as at 1 any such clothes, arms, military outfits, or accouter- 
 th(^ RovAi. Mii.iTAHv Asylum. See MiUlary f'o/- ments by any person not a soldier or oHicer of the 
 ^r/c.v. United States is i)rcsum])tive evidence uf such a sal?, 
 
 MILITARY SCIENCE. -War is both a iirirnra\nt\ an ' barter, c.vchani^e, pledije, loan, or K'f- 
 art. AH invcstitjalioiis whicli liavc lor their o'ljcct MILITARY SURGERY.— Heslricted to its rijrorous 
 thedetcrni illation of tlic iireal principles ivliich should | sii;nilicatioii, MiliUiry Surf/iTy is the surfjical prac- 
 govern a Ueneral in condiictinir his military opera- tiee in armii-s; but in lis broad anrl ordinary accept- 
 tions; all analyses which are made to show the im- ' ation embraces many other branches of artcompre- 
 portant and essential fealiircs which characterizi^ a '[ liendin!; the practice of medicine, sanitary preeau- 
 campaiirn or battle, and coni])arisons made with other i tions, hosjiital administration, andiulanccs, etc. 
 campaisjns .•mil bullies; all deductions and forma-' The military surceon must not finly be a skillful 
 tions of rules wliicli are to be used in military oper- physician iin:l surireon. but he must have a constitu- 
 atioiis; all thi'se belon;; to the ■' .Sc/'trtce "/' Tl'a;-." , tion snfliciently strong to resist the fatigues of war. 
 The pra<tical application of these great principles i and all inclemencies of weather; a solid judgment 
 and rules belong to the " AH of War." | and a generous. activity in givinij prompt assistance 
 
 In the science of war as in the other physical I to the wounded without distinction of rank or grade, 
 geiences, the facts must precede theory; and al- | and without even e.\T:luding enemies. Hemusthave 
 though the number of known facts issteadily increas- i the courage to face dangers without the power, in 
 ingtlie number of general principles upon which the all cases, of combating them: hemusthave great 
 thi'ories of the science are b.'iseil. is constant, if not ' coolness in order to act and operate in the most diifi- 
 decreasing. Tiiese general principles are deduced by cult positions, whether amidst tile movement of 
 a close and critical e.xamiimtiou of such methods of troops, the shock of arms, the cries of the wounded, 
 
 waging war as have been adopted by those great 
 (Jenerals who are known as eminent in their profes- 
 sion. It is evident then that an intimate connection 
 exists between military history and the science of 
 war. Napoleon said, " AU-xander made eight cam- 
 paigns; Hannibal, seventeen, one in Spain, fifteen in 
 Italy, and one in Africa; C'a'sar. thirteen, of which 
 eight were against the Gauls and five against the le- 
 gions of Pompey ; (Justavus Adolphus, three ; Tii- 
 reune, eighteen ; Prince Eugene of Savoy, thirteen ; 
 Frederick, eleven, in Bohemia. Silesia, and on the 
 banks of the Elbe. The history of these eighty-four 
 campaigns, written with care, would be a complete 
 treatise on the art of war. From this source, the 
 prin<'iples whicli ought to be followed. in offensive as 
 well as defensive warfare, could at once be obtained." 
 To these campaigns, are to be added the battles and 
 campaigns of Napoleon. .Jomini, an eminent writer 
 on military art. says: "Correct theories, founded 
 upon right principles, sustained by actual events of 
 wars, ami added to accurate military history will 
 form a true school of instruction for generals. If 
 these means do not produce great men. they will at 
 least proiiuee generals of sufficient skill to take rank | 
 next after the natural masters of the art of war." 
 The sources of all treatises on ilHltarji Sc'i'iire are to 
 be found in the military liistories narr;itiug the events 
 an 1 results of the b;Utlesaud campaigns just enumer- 
 ated. 
 
 MILITARY STORES. —The arms, ammunition, cloth- 
 ing. ])rovisious, etc., pertaining to an army. In the 
 United States all public stores hiken in the enemy's 
 camp, towns, forts, or magazines, is secured for the 
 service of the rnited States. The clothes, arms. mili- 
 tary outfits, and acc.outerments furnished by the 
 Doited States to any soldier cannot be sold, bartered. 
 
 in a charge, in a retreat, in intrenclim;-nts. under the 
 I ramparts of a besieged place, or at a breach. He 
 niust have inventive ingenuity which will supply the 
 wants of the wounded in extreme cases, and must be 
 prepared for all emergencies. 
 
 Frequently the surgeon is not immediately avail- 
 able. In anticipation of such an evmt, it is incum- 
 bent upon all who take the tield to possess a suffi- 
 cient knowledge of medicine and practical surgerj- 
 to enable them to relieve the sick and wounded 
 (both men and horses) until professional aid c;iu be 
 secured. 
 
 The fracture or dislocation of a limb is the most 
 fretpient of all accidents attending a campaign in a 
 rough or mountainous country. A mis-step of the 
 soldier, or a fall of the horse", often results in this 
 mishap. When fractures occur and there are no 
 splints at hand, they must be improvised from such 
 materials as may be found. If the thigh be fractur- 
 ed, a rifle may be used for a splint, placing its butt in 
 the axilla, and allowing it to pass ahmg the outside 
 of the limb, being secured by bandages around the 
 trunk and ankle. A fractured leg may be secured 
 with a splint of any description placed along its out- 
 side and the whole then wrapped in a coat or blank- 
 et and made fast by strajis. or strings of soft materi- 
 al. It is a good plan to tie the fractured leg. at the 
 ankles and convenient points, to the uninjured leg, 
 and rest them on coats, blankets, or a mattress. In 
 this manner the two legs will move as one, and the 
 broken bone will not injure the flesli. A fracture 
 may be "put tip" with a gim stock or sword scab- 
 bard—even a roll of straw or grass makes a good 
 temporary splint. A fracture of the arm may be 
 "put up" with a bayonet scabbard, or with thin bun- 
 dles of straw or grass. Light pieces of board, bark.
 
 MILlf ABY TENTTRE. 
 
 MILITABY TENURE. 
 
 or even tie soles of shoes or boots are often useful 
 for splints. Tlie fore-arm should be carefully sup- 
 ported in a sling. Often a severe shock or collapse 
 from pain or nervous fear follows the fracture, in 
 
 which case a stimulant (whisky and water) should 
 be administered. 
 
 Dislocated and broken ribs are frequently the re- 
 sults of falls and other accidents. The drawino- 
 shows the normal position of the ribs and adjacent 
 bones— IT is the breast-bone ; c. c. r. the ribs, which 
 a,Ti fastened at one end to the spine 
 i. />.. and at the other end are at- 
 tached to the breast-bone by means 
 of strips of cartilage, d. d.'d. ; e is 
 the collar-bone. There are twelve 
 (13) ribs on each side, all of differ- 
 ent lengths— the shortest are at the 
 top and have the smallest curves ; 
 descending they increase in lengt ' 
 to the seventh, which is the longest, 
 then decrease. The last two have no cartilages, 
 are very short, and are attached to the spine only. 
 
 In this connection it would be well to carefully 
 note the formation of the pelvis, and the sacrurn 
 which supports the spine. The pelvis is frequently 
 
 of the limb. Should there beany difficulty in check- 
 ing it. ligatures should be applied. When the bleed- 
 ing is arterial, the limb should be firmly grasped by 
 both hands above the wound, so as to cut off tlie 
 current from the heart by firmly compressing the 
 woimded vessel against the bone, until a tourniquet 
 may be applied. 
 
 A temporary tourniquet may be adjusted by plac- 
 ing a fiat or roundish stone over the course "of the 
 artery and above the wound, l)etweenit and the cen- 
 ter of circulation, holding it hi situ by means of a 
 biud.handkerchief,string,or thong, the ends of which 
 are securely tied. A stick or bayonet is then passed 
 througb the band or thong and twisted round and 
 round several times, until the band is so tightened 
 as to press the stone forcibly on the artery, which, 
 being compressed against the main bone of the limb, 
 will cut off ihe passage of blood through the vessel. 
 If the bleeding be from the hand, fore-arm, or arm, 
 apply the tourniquet or bandage near the shoulder. 
 If from the foot, leg, or thigh, apply it between the 
 knee and hip. 
 
 As a rule the main arteries are so placed that they 
 are not likely to be reached and injured; they are 
 deep in tlie flesh, and follow the courses of the inner 
 seams of the coat sleeves and pants. Thus the main 
 artery of the arm runs from the a.xilla down the inner 
 side or the arm, at the lower edge of the biceps 
 muscle, to the end of the elbow; that of the thigh 
 runs from midway the groin, down the inner side of 
 the thigh, under the deeper muscles to the back of 
 the thigh near the ham. 
 
 Ice. if convenient, may be applied to wounds of 
 small vessels, with good results, causing a rapid con- 
 gelation of the blood. Hot water will accomplish the 
 
 injured by thrusts and gun-shots.all of which wounds 
 demand the most careful and cautious treatment. 
 The drawing shows its form, with the location of 
 the iliac fossae, a. a., and the anterior surface of the 
 promontory of the sacrum, h. To know how to 
 arrest bleeding is all important, as life may often be 
 saved by promptly adopting simple means." Bleeding 
 may be from veins or from arteries. In the first 
 case the blood is of a dark color, and flows slowly 
 in a stream towards the heart; in the second ease 
 it is of a bright red color, forcibly issues in jets, and 
 is in a direction from the heart. In ordinary venous 
 hemorrhage, such as the bursting of a varicose vein, 
 the bleeding may be stopped by pressure or elevation 
 
 same, and is far preferable if the patient be feeble. 
 When the patient becomes faint and insensible from 
 loss of blood, he should be placed flat on his hack, 
 with his head low. Cautery may be resorted to 
 when the tourniquet fails to do its work. The ac- 
 companying drawing shows the manner of Uie at- 
 tacliment of the muscles, a, b, to the bone, the func- 
 tions of ligaments about the joints, and the manner 
 in which the arteries are covered and protected by 
 the muscles, etc. In reseting a strong and muscu- 
 lar limb it is often necessary to keep up a great strain 
 on the muscles in order to weary them and cause 
 them to rela.K, when the bone may be set with less 
 difficulty. See Fifld Remedies, Medical Supplies, 
 Medicine C'he/<t, and Woutidn, 
 
 MILITARY TENURE.— In England, an accompani- 
 ment or immediate consequence of the Feudal Sj's- 
 tem estalilislied during theMiddle Ages throughout 
 j the greater part of Europe. Feuds were introduced 
 by the barbarous tribes who poured themselves into 
 the Roman Empire during the 4th. .5th, and (itli cen- 
 turies. The chief feature of feuds was, that the 
 lands of the conquered country were parceled out to 
 the leaders, on the condition of bearing arms when- 
 ever the Sovereign required them. The relation thus 
 created between Sovereign and Vassal was called 
 a feud. The Grantee held his lands at first for life 
 oiilv, but grailually it was developed into a heredi- 
 tary character, and also into one which admitted of 
 subinfeudatiim, i. e., the parceling out of the feudal 
 land among Vassals of the head Vassal, who was 
 the Lord of his own Vass.als Tliis kind of relation 
 between Lord and Vassal gradually was extended to 
 all kinds of land, for the owners ofallcidial land vo- 
 luntarily surrendered their land to some Lord, so as
 
 MILITARY TRAIN. 
 
 353 
 
 MILITIA. 
 
 to Imvc tlie Hiuno advantaces. The Vassal diil ho- 
 niUK'''"'!"' Ijonl. anil ti)i)k thf oalli of fciilly. Hc 
 Kidcs llicsfi cliariiftcrislics, the licililiri}; cariic to he 
 atU-nilcd with llic folliiwiiij; incidciils. 1. An aid, 
 wliicli was a paymcnl [jraiiti'd tn lii-l|) the Lord in his 
 ncccssitirs. 2. .\ relief was a triliiiti' [laid liy a new 
 Tenant on succeeding to his |)redeeessor. It. A tine 
 was paid by a Tenant to the Lord on alienating tlie 
 lauds to a pnrciiaser. 4. An escheat or forfeiture 
 was tl'.e revertini; of the estate to the Lord when 
 there was a failure of heirs or some violation of duty 
 on the part of the Vassal. The Feuilal System was 
 extended to iCnijland by the Norman 15arons soon 
 after the ('oni|uesl, with the concurrence of William 
 L, mucii to th(^ dislike of the Sa.vons, whose griev,- 
 anees grew until th<!y found vent in Magna Cliarta, 
 which Was in fact an attempt to restore their earlier 
 Constitution. — Th(^ chief liction, however, of a rela- 
 tion between the Crown and tlie holders of land was 
 not got rill of. The Crown was nominally the Lord 
 I'arariiount, and tliere were intermediate Lords called 
 Mesne L'lrcls, of whom the Tenants helil. (ira<lual- 
 ly. the kinds of tenure were classed uniler free and 
 base services- -the former being those which a free- 
 man might p'rform, as serving in war, or paying a 
 sum of money; the latter, such as a Peasant might 
 perform, such as ploughing the Lord's land, etc. 
 
 MILITARY TRAIN. Formerly a highly important 
 corps of the army, of winch the function was to 
 transport the provisions, ammunition and all other 
 materiel, together with the wounded in time of bat- 
 tle. It was formed after the Crimean war, on the 
 dissolution of the Land-Transport Corps. It com- 
 prised six battalions, in all 1H4(J officers and men ; 
 and its annual cost forjjay, etc., was about X71.000. 
 The corps ranked after the Koyal Engineers, and was 
 classed as Moimted Infantry, the otHcers receiving 
 infantry rates, anil the men cavalry rates of pay. 
 The commissions were purchasable, as in the line. 
 The men were armed with carbine and sword, but 
 rather for defensive than aggressive purposes. At- 
 tached to each battalion were 100 liorses, with pro- 
 portionate wagons and aml)idances. 
 
 It is proper to observe that the Military Train con- 
 stituted only the nucleus of a transport service for a 
 large army, and that in lime of war it would be ex- 
 panded by the addition of thousands of horses or 
 mules, and the incorporation of many hundred 
 drivers, etc. The advantage of posse.ssing even a 
 few men ready traineil, and capable of directing the 
 movements of others, was amply demonstrated liy 
 the failures of the Crimea in 1854-1800 ; so tha* Par- 
 liament voted ungrudgingh' the expense of this corps, 
 although in time of peace it was comparatively with- 
 out employment. The jMilitarj" Train was disband- 
 ed in 1870" as being too military in its formation. Its 
 functions were transferred to tlic Transport section 
 of the Army Service Corps, a purely non-combatant 
 organization. 
 
 MILITARY WAYS.— The large Roman roads which 
 Airripiia caused to be made through the empire in the 
 reign of Augustus for the marching of troops and 
 conveying of carriages. They were paved from tlie 
 gates "of Home to the utmost limits of the Empire. 
 The British have constructed a military road 
 throughout India, with wells and other accommoda- 
 tions at certain distances. 
 
 MILITIA. — The purpose and opinion of tne found- 
 ers of our government is unequivocally expressed in 
 the second ameudment to the Conslitution, which 
 declares, " A well-regulated militia being uecessarj- 
 to the security of a free State." The unvaried 
 agreement of all subsequent writers and statesmen 
 WMth this assertion might well cause us to view with 
 some alarm the fact that all attempts to secure an 
 efficient militia have hitherto signally failed. While 
 all agree that the perpetuity of a republican form of 
 government depends on raaiutainiug a well-regulated 
 militia, the fact has been demonstrated that under 
 no other form of government is it so difficult, owing 
 
 to the indisposition of the people to subinit to the 
 enforcement of military duty in time of peace. 
 Washington, in liis annual mesHage to C'ongresH in 
 17i)4, said : " The devising and establishing of a well- 
 regulated militia would be a genuine source of legis- 
 lative honor, and a perfect title to publirt gratitude." 
 The wisdom of this assertion has been proven by 
 the stibsecjuent failure of all attempts at legislation. 
 Nevertheless, we are certainly convinced that llir; 
 solution of the difllculties is now en.sy, not through 
 any superior wisdom of our own, but because 
 time and experience have solved the difficulties 
 for us. This solution we conceive to be to sub- 
 stitute a volunteer militia in place of enforced militia 
 duty, believing that our population has reached such 
 a number that the volunteer militia of the Slates will 
 be sufficiently large and efficient for all the purposes 
 for which militia can or ever should be used. 
 
 Xo subject, unless it be that of finance, has so long 
 and so often engaged the attention of Congress as that 
 of the militia, anil on none have more able and ex- 
 haustive reports been written by those whose slight- 
 est utterances we have been taught to honor and re- 
 spect. The records of Congress are filled with mes- 
 sages from Presidents, reports of Executive Officers, 
 reports of Committees of both Houses of Congress, 
 and with jilans and bills for the imjirovement and or- 
 ganization of the militia, to attempt even a brief out- 
 line of which would far exceed the proper limits of 
 this article. We cannot, therefore, do more than give 
 a brief outline of the most salient features in the his- 
 tory of the subject. 
 
 On July 18, 177.5, the Continental Congress pa.ssed 
 a series of resolutions recommending '■ to the inhab- 
 itants of all the United English Colonies in Xorth 
 America that all able-bodied effective men between 
 sixteen and fifty years of age in each colony immed- 
 iately form themselves info regular companies of 
 militia." One of these resolutions is particularly sug- 
 gestive, as it contains the germ of the volunteer sys- 
 tem which has now grown to such nroporlions. ' It 
 is as follows: 
 
 That one-fourth i)arl of the militia In every Colony 
 be selected for minute men, of such persons as are 
 willing to enter into the necessary service, . . . and 
 as these minute men may eventually be called to ac- 
 tion before the whole body of the militia are suffic- 
 iently trained, it is recommended that a more par- 
 ticular and diligent attention be paid to their instruc- 
 tion in military discipline. 
 
 On the formation of the Federal Government one 
 of the earliest acts of the first House of Kepresenla- 
 tives, in 1789, was the appointment of a Committee 
 to prepare a bill to organize the militia. The session 
 adjourned before the Committee made a report, but 
 at the following session, in 1790, General Knox, 
 Secretary of War, submitted his celebrated plan for 
 organizing the militia, accompanying it by a letter 
 of transmittal which is remarkable for its terse, 
 striking, and strong arguments. His plan, in brief, 
 was that every boy on arriving at the age of eighteen 
 years should be enrolled in the cadet corps of militia 
 and be obliged to serve in camp of instruction thirty 
 days in each of first two years and ten days in the 
 third year, and that no person arriving at the age 
 of twenty-one years .should be entitled to exercise 
 the rights of a citizen unless he could produce his 
 certificate of having so served ; all citizens between 
 twenty-one and forty-five years of age were to be 
 enrolled in the main corps of militia and be obliged 
 to drill four days in each year ; and between forty- 
 five anil sixty years of age to be enrolled in the re- 
 serve corps, which should be assembled twice in 
 each year for inspection of arms. L'nder his plan 
 the general government was to furnish uniform, 
 arms, equipments, and bear all the expenses of the 
 camps of instruc.ion. The features of General Knox's 
 plan were clearly embodied in a bill prepared by a 
 Committee of the House of Representatives, and the 
 subject was discussed in detail on many occasion*
 
 ffllLITIA. 
 
 354 
 
 MILITIA. 
 
 through the two su'cceedinj: sessions until all of its 
 original features were eliangeil or nioililied, and the 
 Act of May 8, 1792. tinally agreed upon and enacted. 
 As this is ilie law still in force, we reserve a detailed 
 explanation of its provisions, and simply state here 
 that its main feature is that every citizen, between 
 eighteen and forty-five years of age. shall be enrolled 
 in the militia and shall arm and equij) himself at his 
 individual expense. This law was found to be so 
 crude and inadequate that it became the subject of 
 criticism immediately- after its passage, and of ef- 
 forts to amend it which have continued to the pres- 
 ent time. As well expressed by Washington, after 
 the attempt was made to put it in practical operation 
 it •■ exhiljited such striking defects, as could not 
 have Ijeen siqiplied but by the zeal of our citizens" ; 
 and in his annual messages to each succeeding ses- 
 sion of Congress, during his two terms of office, he 
 urged that the evident defects of the law be re- 
 medied. In the session succeeding the enactment 
 of the law an effort was made to repeal the provi- 
 sion requiring everj' citizen to arm himself. In the 
 next following session, in 1794. a bill was reported 
 by a C'onimitfee of the House of Representatives to 
 organize a " select carps" of militia, to be armed and 
 equipped b}' the general government, and paid for 
 service in amiual camps of instruction. Different 
 propositions, having in view these two changes in 
 the militia system, were discussed in successive ses- 
 sions until 1798. when the threatening condition of 
 our relations with France culminated in the forma- 
 tion of a provisional army and other warlike prepa- 
 rations that temporarily suspended consideration of 
 the militia system. 
 
 Our troubles with France having been amicably 
 settled, the militia (juestion again assumed promin- 
 ence, and Jefferson, in his annual message to Con- 
 gress, importuned them to take some action. It was 
 chieflv through his earnest efforts that the law of 
 Aprir23, 1808 (section 1661 Revised Statutes), was 
 passed, making a permanent appropriation of f 200,- 
 000 a year to provide arms and equijimeuts for the 
 militia. Somewhat curiously, however, the require- 
 ment of the old law that everj- citizen shouhl arm and 
 equip himself was not repealed, and still remains the 
 statute. As the country was rapidly increasing in 
 population the uselessuess of requiring active mili- 
 tary duty from the whole body of citizens became 
 more apparent, and was felt to be an unnecessary bur- 
 den. JelTerson in his annual message in 180.'5. recom- 
 mended that the militia be classined according to 
 ages, and thought that those from eighteen to twenty- 
 six years of age would form a sufficiently large body 
 to be subjected to any duty in time of peace. This 
 proposition was taken up by Congress, and in various 
 forms was the subject of debate in successive ses- 
 sions, until the war of 1812 put an end to the discus- 
 sion without any result having been reached. 
 
 Madison was almost as urgent in liis appeals to Con- 
 gress to amend the militia law as JelTerson had been. 
 In his annual message in 1810 he advanced anew 
 ])roposition in the suggestion that the commissi(med 
 and non-conunissioned officers of the militia should he 
 assembled in annual camps of instruction at the ex- 
 pense of the general government: and in his last an- 
 nual message, in 1816. he earnestly reeonunended a 
 reorganization of the militia, and classifying Ihem ac- 
 cording to age. Pronqited bylhe reconiniendal ions 
 of Madison, the Fourteenth Congress, in 1816. di- 
 rected the Secretary of War to prepare anil report a 
 plan for the organization of the militia. Secretary of 
 War (Iraham reported to the following Session, re- 
 commending very forcibly that the militia be divi- 
 ded into three <'lasses aceoriling to age, anil thai the 
 two younger,; classes be detailed and required lo 
 assemble annually in large camps of instruclion 
 and l)e arnu'd. eipiipped. and subsisted at the ex- 
 pense of the general government. This report was 
 referred lo a eommiltee of which (ieneral Harrison 
 ((then a Representalive from Ohio; was chairman. 
 
 Harnson took a deep interest in the subject, and pre- 
 sented a careful report. lie deemed it essential that 
 the whole body of the people should be instructed in 
 military mailers, and fortius purpose recommended 
 that mililary instruction be made a branch of educa- 
 ticm in every school in the country. Believing that 
 it would entail loo great an expenditure of time and 
 money to subject the whole enrolled militia to drill 
 and military training, he revived the old proposi- 
 tit>ns first made by President Madison, and recom- 
 mended tliiit the Officers and Sergeants be as.seinbled 
 annually in camps of instruction, be paid for their 
 time, and be tlioroughh' drilled and instructed at the 
 expense of the general government, which he esti- 
 mated would amount to about one and a half million 
 dollars a year. Harrison continued the agitation of 
 the subject while he remained in Congress, and made 
 reports in 1818 and 1819 urging action. ■ 
 
 In 182.') Secretary of War Barl)our addressed a cir- 
 cular letter to the Governors of all the States and to 
 many citizens most prominent in military and civil 
 life, setting forth that it had long been apparent that 
 some change in the militia law was uecessar}-. and 
 asking their views on the subject. He then conven- 
 ed a Board composed of some of the most distinguish- 
 ed officers of the army and militia for the purpose 
 of considering the question, and sidjmitted to them 
 the voluminous correspondence that had resulted 
 from his circular letter. It is worthy of note that the 
 president of this Board was Winfield Scott, then a 
 Jlajor General in the Army, and that Zachary Tay- 
 lor.then a Lieutenant-colonel of Artillery. was one of 
 the members. The militia were represented on the 
 Board by General Cadwalader of Pennsylvania, Gen- 
 eral Sumner.of Massachusetts, and General Daniel of 
 Xorlh Carolina. The report of this Board, together 
 with all the papers and correspondence connected 
 with it, was transmitted to Congress by the Presi- 
 dent. The Board reported that they considered the 
 primarj' defect of the militia law to be in the excess 
 of numbers which it held to service. They recom- 
 mended that a select corps of militia be formed, to 
 consist in each State of one brigade for every Con- 
 gressional Representative, and that the officers of 
 this select militia be assembled in camps of in.struc- 
 tion ten days in each year, and be paid by the gen- 
 eral government for their time and traveling ex- 
 penses. They also recommended that the office of 
 Adjutant General of militia be created, and that, on 
 the application of State Executives. the United States 
 shoidd furnish officers to instruct the annual camps. 
 In 183.5 President Jackson, in his amuial message 
 urged C^ongress. in his usual forcible style, to give 
 their attention to the subject. and among other things 
 recommended that volimteer organizations be en- 
 couragetl and inducements held out for their forma- 
 tion. The Secretary of War (General Cass), in his 
 annual report, gave his views on the subject, and 
 represented the necessity of some legislation. Ur- 
 gent etfort waf nuide in Congress to secure agree- 
 ment to some plan, but without success. 
 
 In 1840 Secretary of War Poinsett submitted a 
 jilan to Congress. Ajiparenlly d<>spairing of securing 
 agreement Xo any plan that sinqily changed and per- 
 petuated the existing system, he proposed a radical 
 reform that strelehed" the constitutional powers of 
 the general government lo such an extent as to cause 
 opposition lo it on that ground. His plan was to 
 divide the militia into three classes -the active, re- 
 serve, and mass. The active militia to consist of 
 100.000 men. apporticmed to the respective States. 
 and each Stale lo be rei|uired to keep its (piola filled 
 at all tiuu'S, either by voluntary enlistment or draft. 
 One-fourlh of the active mililia to go out of .service 
 ■imuially and be enrolled in the reserve corjjs. The 
 mass of llie mililia not lo be subject to any duly in 
 lime of jieace. He proposed thai Congress should 
 by law aiilhorize the PresidenI to order the active 
 niililia inio the service anil pay of Ihe United Slates 
 for tliJrly days iu each year for i he purpo.se of placing
 
 UIUXIA. 
 
 355 
 
 MILITIA. 
 
 them in campa of instriiftion. This appRiirs ti> 
 have been tlie lust derided allcmpt to save the de- 
 oayiiiK system from <lissoliili()ii, willi tlie exeeplion 
 of an eli'orl in 1H4(), when a liill was reporh'd lo 
 renii'dy the excess of mmmiIiit of the militia hy lim- 
 itinfj tlie enrollment in lime of peaee to those be- 
 tween twenty-one and Ihirly years of ai;e, who 
 shonld lie formed into a lej^ion of active militia in 
 oaeii State, the olliccrs of which should serve an- 
 nually in camps of instructiou at the expense of the 
 general frovernment. 
 
 The militia system, iiy this time, was virtually 
 dead ; durini,' the many years ilevoled to dehalinfj a 
 remedy for its defects it iiad gradually sunk, until it 
 no longer existed except on the Statute-hook. In 
 the mean time, in all the States, by a process of 
 " natural selection," there had sprung up volunteer 
 organizations of militia, and the Slates, by fostering 
 and encouraging Ihem, had supplieil the (leticieiicies 
 of the general law. These volunleer organizations 
 made possible and gave elliciency lo that splendid 
 body of volunteers whose soldierly (pialili<'S and 
 deeds of valor in the Mexican War gave such re- 
 nown to our arms. After that war still greater in- 
 terest was manifested in the volunteer militia ; the 
 States devoted to Ihem the meager supply of arms and 
 e(|ui|)ments olitained aninnilly from the general gov- 
 ernmcMt. which in many inslances they supplemenled 
 by large appropriations of Ihcir own, and Ihe volun- 
 teiT mililia continued lo increasi' in nundiers and 
 efficiency until the lireaking out of the " War of the 
 Kebelliou." Of that fearful struggle it is safe to say 
 that the magnificent armies which were so quickly 
 formed on both sides were only made possible by 
 the facts that the efforts of regularly educated ofli- 
 cers in drilling and disciplining them were supple- 
 mented by those who had received a partial military 
 training in the volunteer militia. 
 
 .Inst before Ihe war, in ll-KiO, an earnest effort was 
 made in the House of Representatives to increase the 
 annual appropriation for furnishing arms and equip- 
 ments to ttie mililia. In urging the measure, Mr. 
 Vallandigham reviewed the militia system and spoke 
 of the volunteer system replacing it. asserting that 
 they would '' in time become the National (iuard of 
 America." 
 
 After the close of the War of the Rebellion, an- 
 other most decided effort was made, both in the 
 House and Senate, to reorganize thenulitia, or rather 
 to create a new militia system, and several bills for 
 that purpose were introduced in the Thirty-ninth 
 Congress. Although none of these bills were passed, 
 they contained provisiims that are interesting and 
 suggestive, and some that went lo the extreme limit, 
 if they did not go beyond the constitutional power 
 of Congress in the premises. It w'as. however, 
 a purpose common to all the bills to form au act- 
 ive volunteer militia, and that seemed to be ac- 
 cepted as the true solution of the militia question. 
 This closes the history of the efforts to achieve a 
 satisfactory militia system, with the exception of an 
 interesting report by the Chief of Ordnance, and a 
 report by the Senate Committee on Jlilitary Affairs 
 (S. Report 50, second .session Forty-tifth Congress), 
 both recommending that the permanent appropria- 
 tion for providing arms and equipments for the mi- 
 Mtia be increa.sed'to .fl, 000, 000 a year. 
 
 The three following points are at present urged as 
 the proper remedy for the defects in the Militia sys- 
 tem : 
 
 First. To substitute a volunteer militia, limited in 
 number in time of peace, for the existing compul- 
 sory system that applies to the whole body of the 
 people, and which has become so inapplicable as to 
 be utterly disregarded. 
 
 Second. To make such provisions as will aid and 
 encourage the formation of volunteer organizations, 
 remove the disparity in their numbers and discipline 
 tliat exists between ditfercnt States, ami promote 
 their efficiency to a common standard that will make 
 
 thi-m availal)!e for all the purpoBCB for which a mi. 
 litia is reipiired. 
 
 Thiril. To abolish the present system of a perma. 
 nent appropriation to provide arms an<l equipmi-nl)) 
 for tlie mililia, and subslilute provisions prescribing 
 with wlial amis and equipments the mililia shall be 
 furnished, and on what conditions— leaving it lo tin; 
 discretion of Congress to regulate the aiiniiul ujipro- 
 prialions for that purpose. 
 
 In relation to the lirsl frature, the substilulion of 
 the volunlier system, Ihe lirief sketch we have given 
 of Ihe history of the mililia law will liave made il 
 apparent that the chief defect of Ihe existing system 
 was early recognizicl to be in the excess of numbers 
 lield to milili.-i duty by it. As tliecounlry increased 
 in iiopiilalion this excess of numbers corresponding- 
 ly increas<d, until the law lias now bi'come a prac- 
 tical alisurdity by re(|uiring to-day actual militia ser- 
 vici; from six and one-half millions of tiien. We 
 have seen that for more than half a century the Itest 
 and wi.sest statesmen of our country endeavored to 
 procure agreemeni to some plan that would limit 
 the militia to a practicaljle number, in order that it 
 might be made an elfective body. The more the 
 coimtry increased in population, and the more the 
 population became absorbed in the pursuit of wealth 
 and material prosperity, the more imi)racticabli' be- 
 came the provisions of the militia law, until tinally 
 it sank into such utter contempt that all iireiensi- of 
 regarding it ceased- The "cornstalk mililia" and 
 the annual "trainings," with all their accompanying 
 parodies on military efticiencj', remain only as recol- 
 lections of our boyhood days. Volunteer organiza- 
 tions gradually increased as regard of existing law 
 decreased, and, though unrecognized by the general 
 law, and without any of the. aids or requirements 
 necessary to secure efliciency, they have managed 
 to maintain a precarious existence. .Hid have nn- 
 questionalily been of great and essential service to 
 the country. We think it good policy and true 
 statesmanship to acknowledge the changesand avail 
 ourselves of the results which time and the force of 
 circumstances have brought aliout, and we there- 
 fore assent to the proposition that the volunteer 
 militia of the State— the mililia in fact— should be 
 recognized as the militia of the law, and provided 
 for accordingly. On the second feature, the provi- 
 sions made for promoting the efficiency of the vol- 
 unteer militia and securing a uniformly high stan- 
 dard in -Jill the States, we tielieve there can be no 
 disagreement. Theunorganized levies which, un<ler 
 the name of militia, have been called into service in 
 all the great wars of the country, while they occa- 
 sionally performed some brilliant service, have not 
 only shown the inefficiency of existing law, but have 
 also served to make the term "militia" one of con- 
 tempt and derision. It is not denied that great dis- 
 parity exists in the character and efficiency of the 
 existing volunteer organizations between the Slates 
 and even within the States. During the "Labor 
 Riots of 1877" some volunteer organizations proved 
 utterly undi.sciplined and unreliable, while others 
 performed conspicuous and valuable service. Con- 
 gress has never exercised its constitutional power 
 " to provide for organizing, arming, and disciplin- 
 ing" the volunteer militia. On the ccmtran.-. Ihe 
 volunteer organizations have maintained themselves 
 at their own expense, with such aid as by unwearied 
 exertions they may have been able to procure from 
 their respective States. It is due solely to the want 
 of support and of uniform requirements as to drill 
 and discipline that the volunteer organizations have 
 not all reached the same efficiency that characterize 
 a part of them. The men who constitute the volun- 
 teer organizations are naturally those who have 
 some love or aptitude for military affairs, and we 
 therefore see no reas(ni why. un<ler the proper regu- 
 lations for their discipline and training, they cannot 
 attain a high and uniform efficiency. That they 
 have been or are in any particular inefficient is not
 
 MILITIA. 
 
 356 
 
 MILITIA. 
 
 an arsiument against the possibility of making them 
 all that we desire. We therefore consiiler the sug- 
 gestions made, to aid and encourage tht volunteer 
 system and to exact certain requirements of them, 
 as both politic iin<l wise. We deem Ihem politic, 
 for the reason that the aid they offer is conditioned 
 on the volunteers complying with the provisions 
 which are deemed essential to'their efficiency. We 
 deem them wise, for the reason that we believe that 
 under their operations a volunteer militia will be 
 created, which, although remaining under the ex- 
 clusive control of the States, will, when its services 
 are required by the general government, be fovmd 
 ready and ecpiipped for instantaneous service and 
 fully efficient to perform the duties of militia, which 
 Jefferson defined to be " not only to meet the first 
 attack, but, it it threatens to be permanent, to main- 
 tain the defense until regulars can be engaged to re- 
 lieve them." It is also worthy of consideration that 
 in encouraging the volunteer system you provide for 
 disseminating military knowledge and a partial 
 
 milit*yy training among those who would be most 
 likely to respond to a call for volunteers in time of 
 war. It has been agreed by all who have preceded 
 us in considering the subject that, whatever might 
 be the expense of securing an eflicient militia, it 
 would be so small, as compared with the benefits to 
 be derived from it, that it sliould not be considered, 
 and would, in fact, be covered by indirect savings of 
 expense which it would render practicable in ofiier 
 directions. While the States have applied all the 
 existing permanent appropriation for the militia to 
 providing the volunteer militia, the issue of property 
 under that appropriation is limited to arms and 
 equipments. This has been not only the greatest 
 obstacle to the advancement of the volunteer militia, 
 but has also prevented them from being useful on 
 the occasions when theirservices have been required, 
 Tents and camp equijjage are absolutely necessary 
 to enable the volunteers to go into camps of instruc- 
 tion and learn the elementary duties of soldiers. A 
 plain, serviceable, and unostentatious uniform, over- 
 
 
 
 
 Organized strength. 
 
 
 
 So 
 
 STATES. 
 
 
 2 
 g 
 
 e 
 o • 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 2 
 
 O 
 
 e 
 
 O 
 
 2 
 
 c 
 
 5 
 
 - o 
 
 aO 
 
 2 
 
 a 
 
 e 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 -3 
 
 ZJ 
 
 a 
 _o 
 
 S 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 'S 
 o 
 H 
 
 o a 
 
 Ill 
 
 E- 
 
 ho 
 
 la a 
 :a 3 
 
 03 ^-' 
 
 §>, 
 S S.2 
 
 3 
 
 
 1878 
 1879 
 1879 
 1879 
 1878 
 1879 
 1879 
 1878 
 1879 
 1879 
 1879 
 1879 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 19 
 3 
 6 
 3 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 35 
 
 15 
 
 205 
 
 35 
 
 50 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 13 
 
 95 
 
 76 
 
 37 
 
 264 
 
 67 
 
 174 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 23 
 
 41 
 107 
 
 38 
 215 
 
 99 
 134 
 851 
 130 
 451 
 6 
 
 66 
 161 
 
 61 
 143 
 
 65 
 329 
 214 
 193 
 1,339 
 235 
 687 
 
 14 
 
 81 
 185 
 
 814 
 
 1.805 
 
 605 
 
 3,699 
 
 1.764 
 
 2,895 
 
 18,941 
 
 2,988 
 
 9,063 
 
 76 
 
 1,164 
 
 2,450 
 
 875 
 1,948 
 
 670 
 4,028 
 1,978 
 3,088 
 20.280 
 3,223 
 9,750 
 90 
 1.245 
 2,635 
 
 78.458 
 
 Ne w Hampshire 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 48.770 
 44.366 
 225.461 
 42,969 
 73.961 
 
 
 567,669 
 
 
 248,127 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Delaware 
 
 433.371 
 24,073 
 89.344 
 
 Virginia 
 
 315.200 
 100.000 
 
 
 1879 
 1879 
 
 7 
 16 
 
 18 
 163 
 
 41 
 67 
 
 196 
 
 748 
 
 263 
 993 
 
 2,. 521 
 
 10,812 
 
 3,783 
 
 11,805 
 
 
 
 200,000 
 
 
 95,856 
 
 
 180.000 
 
 Florida 
 
 1878 
 
 8 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 315 
 
 373 
 
 5,130 
 
 5.503 
 
 25.903 
 
 
 170,000 
 
 
 1879 
 1879 
 1879 
 1877 
 1879 
 1876 
 1879 
 1879 
 1879 
 1879 
 1879 
 1879 
 1879 
 1877 
 1879 
 1879 
 
 7 
 5 
 
 1 
 14 
 
 2 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 32 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 ■ 8 
 
 12 
 
 51 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 206 
 87 
 
 953 
 48 
 79 
 
 531 
 80 
 
 111 
 
 548 
 77 
 92 
 13 
 
 331 
 38 
 
 127 
 
 
 9 
 
 3,757 
 
 1,306 
 
 16,377 
 
 722 
 1.284 
 8,374 
 1,.544 
 1,799 
 7,394 
 1,347 
 1,824 
 
 204 
 4,581 
 
 696 
 2.047 
 
 135,178 
 
 
 47 
 1 
 
 197 
 4 
 
 149 
 84 
 
 710 
 43 
 72 
 
 400 
 73 
 71 
 
 387 
 
 67 
 
 78 
 
 8 
 
 369 
 36 
 
 106 
 
 2,.551 
 
 1,119 
 
 15,424 
 
 674 
 1,205 
 7,343 
 1.464 
 1,688 
 0.846 
 1.370 
 1.732 
 
 191 
 4 250 
 
 658 
 1.920 
 
 137.973 
 
 Texas 
 
 1.50.000 
 100.000 
 
 
 218,000 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 239,564 
 
 Oil jo 
 
 114 
 
 500.000 
 
 
 320.546 
 
 
 5 
 3 
 1 
 3 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 5 
 
 23 
 
 107 
 5 
 5 
 
 1 
 50 
 
 300.000 
 
 
 350,000 
 
 
 300,000 
 
 
 250,(100 
 
 
 120,000 
 
 
 197,456 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 46 000 
 
 11 
 
 121.070 
 
 
 20.000 
 
 
 1878 
 1879 
 1878 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 6 
 
 34 
 
 88 
 
 7 
 
 
 33 
 
 130 
 
 36 
 
 59 
 
 357 
 
 49 
 
 582 
 
 2,340 
 
 553 
 
 641 
 
 2,.597 
 
 603 
 
 14,878 
 
 
 42 
 
 114,.565 
 
 
 29,000 
 
 
 
 
 Grand aggregate 
 
 
 145 
 
 931 
 
 1,605 
 
 6,198 
 
 8.869 
 
 117,037 
 
 125,906 
 
 6,516,758
 
 MILITIA ADJUTANT. 
 
 357 
 
 UlLITIA ABJU'i'ANT. 
 
 cduls, liliiiikc(s, liiivcrsucks, ranlccns, dr., are cs- 
 Hciitial lo Uic outfit of tlx' volunteer, lliiil hr iiiiiy be 
 ciilleil into Herviee iit a nioinenl's warniinr, ami that 
 lliH .services may l)e ell'eelive wljen caKeil for. 
 
 (Id |)ai,'e ■H'lll U an alistrael of llie inililiii force of 
 the United Stales foruanizeil anil unorL'ani/.eilj, ac- 
 cording' to tlic latest returns received at llie olllce of 
 the Adjutant General, United States Artny, furnislwd 
 for the information of the ('onf;ress of the United 
 Slates in compliance vi'itli section 3^3 of the Keviscd 
 Slaliiles. 
 
 The existini; vohinleer militia are provided with 
 what is essential. !-ioiu<' of the Stales have made very 
 lari:e appropriations to sup|)lemeiit tlii' amount here- 
 tofore allowed b}' theOeneral ( iovernineni, anil many 
 of the States, as we have before menlioned. have 
 now in possession considerable amounts of arms and 
 eipiipments thai have been issued to them by the 
 fieneral f;overnnient. It is Iherefore dillicult to es- 
 tiniale what would be the cost of making up dehc- 
 iencies, and of conipletinij the armiu'.:; and eipiip- 
 mcnt and of |)rovidiim; luiiforms and i:nnp e(|uipaire 
 for the vohinleer militia in the manner eonlemplaled, 
 but we .judge that three million dollars wo\dd be am- 
 ple for that purpose, and that itsappropriation mi;j;ht 
 be distributed into the budget of three successive 
 years. After the volunteer militia should be once 
 "completely armed and e(pupped, we juil;;e that an 
 annual expenditure of $750,000 would mainlaiu it in 
 proper condition. These sums are comparatively 
 very small, scarcely larsjc enough to excite either 
 opposition or comment, being smaller than was fre- 
 qiU'ntly contemplated and advocated in the earlj' 
 days of tlie Republic. The annual expenditure 
 would be less than is required to sustain a regiment 
 of cavalry in the regular service, and it cannot for a 
 moment be questioned that a standing force of l.'JO,- 
 000 thoroughly armed, equipped, and well-drilled 
 volunteers, ready to take the ticld atthe lirst mo- 
 ment of danger, would be as eJTective in the national 
 defense as one regiment of regulars, ami that the ex- 
 istence of such a force would be seriously considered 
 by any Nation contemplating an attack on us. In 
 this connection it is not improper for us to observe 
 thattlie Senate C'onunittee on Military Affairs in the 
 Forty-tiftli Congress recomniended that the annual 
 appro])rialiou fcr the militia be increased to iji 1,000, - 
 000, very pertinently observing that "if .fSOO.OOO was 
 none too much in 1808, certainly $1,000,000 is none 
 too much now " 
 
 There is no feature in our form of government in 
 which the powers of the general government and 
 the rights of the States are so intimate'.y interwoven 
 as in the jurisdiction over the militia. One of the 
 stated primary causes for forming the Union was to 
 "provide for the common defense." In the opinion 
 of the framers of the Constitution, a well-regidated 
 militia was the essential means of providing for the 
 common defense, and they accordingly framed the 
 clause to provide tliat Congress sliall have power — 
 to provide for organizing, arming, and disciplin- 
 ing the militia, and for governing such part of them 
 as may be enqjloyed in the service of the United 
 States, reserving to the States respectively the ap- 
 pointment of the officers and tlie authority of train- 
 ing the militia according to the discipline prescribed, 
 by Congress. 
 
 The purposes and provisions of this clause are 
 clearly and distinctly stated and scarcely admit of 
 misinterpretation. The States are expressly limited 
 to the appointment of the officers and to training the 
 militia, and in training it, it will be observed, ac- 
 cording to the discipline prescribed l)y Congress 
 If the certain power conveyed to Congress by the 
 words "organizing, arming, and disciplining" could 
 bedoulited, the debates of tlie Federal Convention 
 are sufficiently clear to remove them. The Commit- 
 tee that reported the clause, on being asked the scope 
 of the powers that they intended to convey, replied 
 that they meant bj' "organizing" proportioning the 
 
 ofllcer.s to the men ; l)y "arming," not only lo pro- 
 vide for uidformily of arms, but llie uuthorily lo 
 regulate the modesof furnishing thiMn, either tjy the 
 miiilla Iheinselves, the Stall' governmenis, or the na- 
 tional Treasury ; and by "iliseii)lining," to prescribe 
 the manual exercise, evolutions, etc., and that laws 
 for disciplining miiHt involve; penalties and every- 
 thing necessary for enforring pi-nalties. 
 
 TJie debates of the Federal Convinlion on adopt- 
 ing the clause, Ihouirh short, are pertinent. jMr. 
 Mason, who inlrodiiced the subiect, llioiight that all 
 powers overthe militia should be vested in the gene- 
 ral government, which he suliseipiently morlilied liy 
 suggesting that this absolute power should lie limit- 
 ed to a iiortion of the militia at a time, so that tiy 
 serving in rotation the whole body woulfl finally be 
 disciplined. Mr. Madison Ihouirhl that the regula- 
 tion of the militia naturally apiartained to the au- 
 thority charged with the public defense, that it flid 
 not seem in its nature divisible between two distinct 
 authorities, and that the discipline of the militia is 
 evidently a national concern, and ought to be pro- 
 vided for in the national Constitution. The clause as 
 reported by the Committee had but little opposition, 
 it being conceded, as stated by Mr. Handoli)h. tliat 
 reserving to theStateslheapiiointinent of the officers 
 was all the security they needed. .Mr. Dayton and 
 Mr. Ellsworth expressed Ihem.selves in favorof plac- 
 ing greater limitation on the power of Congress, but 
 a motion made for that )iuri)Ose received only one 
 vote, that of Mr. p^llsworlh, who moved it. and the 
 clause, as it now stands, wasthereforcaihipled with 
 a marked unanimity in sentiment and vote. 
 
 We have only adverted lo the question of the con- 
 stitutional power of Congress as a matter of historic- 
 al interest in connection with the general subject, for 
 whatever (pieslion there may he as to the constitu- 
 tionality of the existing law, or of some of the plans 
 heretofore suggested for reorganizing the militia, 
 none can possibly arise on the proposed reorganiza- 
 tion, for it is a happy solution of all the constitution- 
 al questions involved. There is not a compulsory 
 feature presented. It simply says to the Slates that 
 if they will by their own laws provide for and enforce 
 such requirements as Congress deems necessary to 
 secure an efiicient militia. Congress will exercise its 
 unquestioned constitutional power, and provide for 
 arming such militia out of the national Treasury. 
 ■ From this review of the subject we are satisfied 
 that time has solved those difficulties of the militia 
 system for which the wisdom of our predecessors 
 could find no acceptable remedy, and that the great 
 increase in the population of the country now makes 
 it not onl)' practicable but desirable to substitute the 
 volunteer system for enforced militia duty in time of 
 peace. The subject is one on which there never liave 
 been any political differences, and on which none 
 should exist. Washington, as the exponent of the 
 Federalists, was unceasing in his efforts to procure 
 legislation, and Jefferson, as the leader of the Anti- 
 Federalists, was even more importunate in urging it. 
 In view of these facts, and of the fact that we now 
 have practically no militia system, and that the 
 strength and perpetuity of our republican form of 
 government largely depend on the existence of a 
 well-regulated militia, we indulge the hope that the 
 subject'will receive the earnest consideration whicli 
 it deserves, and that some decisive action will be 
 taken on it. See Stote Trofp.i. 
 
 MILITIA ADJUTANT. -^.\n officer appointed to each 
 regiment of militia to superintend the drill and in- 
 struction of the regiment. He is taken from the reg- 
 ular army. The following are the regulations re- 
 cently issued relative to the duties of Adjutants of 
 Militia: 
 
 -■ 1. The Militia Adjutant will be, during the nrtn- 
 training period, the representative at the brigade 
 depot of the officer commanding the militia battalion 
 or battalions. 
 
 "2. He will raise and enroll all recruits for the
 
 MILITIA AETILLEKY. 
 
 358 
 
 MILLING. 
 
 militia battalion or battalions, and superintend tlie 
 out-statiou recruiting for the army and the militia as 
 required. 
 
 "3. He will have military charge of the militia 
 staff during the non-training period, and the military 
 charge and supervision of tlie drill of the militia re- 
 cruits when they are trained in large bodies; militia 
 recruits, when they come up singly or in small num- 
 bers, will be attached to squads of line recruits, and 
 they will in that case be under the supervision of the 
 officer of the brigade depot. 
 
 4. Tlie duties specified in the foregoing paragraph 
 will have priority over all others, but when Militia 
 Adjutants are not employed upon them, they will be 
 liable to perform such other depot and sub-district 
 duties as the officer commanding the brigade depot 
 or sub-district niav direct. 
 
 MILITIA ARTILLERY.— Forms a large body of ar- 
 tillery in atldition to that of the regular forces of 
 Great Britain. Formerly the militia artillery was 
 called upon to exerci.se with all kinds of ordnance, 
 tut since 1873 the}' only practice with garrison and 
 coast guns. Each regiment, however, has some 
 Armstrong guns for the drill of recruits; but, from 
 the absence of horses, its organization into batteries 
 remains incomplete. The places of meeting chosen 
 for the yearly drills (two months for recruits, and one 
 for a regiment) are some fortified poin*sof the coast, 
 where the men are taught to exercise with garrison 
 and field pieces. There are 30 regiments of artillery, 
 composed of 7'.)() officers, 06 surgeons, 15,978 men. 
 
 MILITIA RESERVE.— A force^created by the Act of 
 1867 ; its numbers not to exceed one-fourth of mili- 
 tia quota; the men to be enlisted for 5 years, during 
 which time they remain on the strength of militia 
 regiments, but are liable to be drafted into the army 
 in time of war. 
 
 MILLAR GUNS.— Guns introduced into the English 
 service liy General Millar in 1827. The thickness of 
 metal at the breech is considerable, and comparative- I 
 ly slight in the chase. Two of his 8-inch guns are 
 still in the service. Besides these guns. General ilil- 
 lar also introduced the 10-inch and 8-inch iron how- 
 itzers and the present L. S. S. B. iron mortars. 
 
 MILLAR HIND SIGHT.— A sight consisting of a 
 block of guu-metal, with a thumb-screw, lead pack- 
 ing, a brass scale, and two screws. The blocks are 
 of five different patterns. The scale differs for each 
 nature. It is tightened by a thumb-screw working 
 against a brass spring in the block, and is in every' 
 case graduated to j degrees. It is attached to the 
 rear of the base ring at an angle of 76'-'. 
 
 MILLBANK — A large prison. situated on the banks 
 of the Thames, Chelsea. All soldiers under sentence 
 of Courts-Martial for lengthened terms of imprison- 
 ment in England are committed to the military divi- 
 sion of this prison. Soldiers also sent from abroad 
 un'ler punishment for lengthened periods are gener- 
 ally sent to Jlillbank, or to the military prisonin the 
 district in which they disembark. 
 
 MILL-CAKE. — The incorporated materials for gun- 
 powder, in tlie form of a dense mass or cake, ready- 
 to be subjected to the process of granulation. As 
 the process of incorporation approaches completion, 
 the (;harge requires to be carefully watched, in or- 
 der to insure each finished charge leaving the mill in 
 as nearly as ])ossil)Ie the same state as regards mois- 
 ture. The appearance of the ])owder wlien finished 
 depends mainly on the state in which the charges 
 leave the mill. The finished charge usually has from 
 two to three per cent, of moisture. If loo much 
 moisture be present as the incori)oralion draws to a 
 close, the charge nuist be repeatedly pushed u]i witli 
 wsliirer; if too little, some more must be added 
 from the watering-pot. Tlie color of the charge 
 gives a very good indication of the amoMul^of mois- 
 lirre present. When the process is finished, the 
 charge, now known «.» mill-mice — being pari ly in the 
 state of soft cake, and partly of dust— is scraped 
 and swept up from the mill-bed, placed in wooden 
 
 tubs, and transferred to the charge-house to await 
 inspection. If the charges are found to be of a 
 ])roper color and consistency, samples from each are 
 taken, wliich, after being roughly granulated by 
 hand and dried, are Hashed on a gliiss-plate to ^cer- 
 tain the thoroughness of the incorporation they have 
 undergone. This flashing is more a matter of form 
 than anything else, for the mill-cake seldom fails to 
 give satisfactory results. See (junpuwder. 
 
 MILLER MAGAZINE-GUN.— This gun is an adapta- 
 tion of a magazine to the United States service Spring- 
 fieUl rifle. The alterations are as follows : The or- 
 iginal receiver and breech-pin are replaced by a re- 
 ceiver alone the tang being solid with it. The upper 
 ' rear pari of the receiver gives the bearing for the 
 I cam, while the space ordinarily filled by the breech- 
 pin if utilized as a channel through which the cart- 
 ridges are fed from the magazine in tlie butt-stock. 
 The ejector-stud is replaced by one beveled on its rear 
 as well as its front, in order that the cartridges may 
 slip easily over it into the chamber. The magazine, 
 is a tube slotted through its whole length. To the 
 upper side of the side of the tube fiat springs are 
 screwed. At the end of each spring and riveted to it 
 is a lug, beveled on its rear service ; all these lugs 
 pass through holes cut in the magazine and serve to 
 separate the cartridges. A ratchet works in the slot 
 in tlie magazine-tube. It is operated by a slide at- 
 tached to the guard-plate. When the slide is drawn 
 back the teeth of the ratchet pass in the rear of the 
 heads of the cartridges. On being returned to posi- 
 tion each tooth moves a cartridge forward, the lugs 
 on the springs being pressed out of the way by the 
 cartridges themselves. At the front of the ratchet 
 is a cartridge-stop, held up b}' a spring. The stop is 
 prevented from rising too far by a pin. Wlien the 
 ratchet is withdrawn the stop-spring jields — since 
 the cartridge cannot move backward on account of 
 the shoulders of the lugs on the springs— the stop 
 descends and is drawn under the firstcartridge, which 
 is then free to leave the magazine and enter the cham- 
 ber, gravit}' being tlie motive force, the gun being 
 held muzzle downward. When the ratchet is moved 
 forward the 2 1 cartridge occupies the place of the 
 1st, the 3d of the 2d, and so on. The ratchet is pre- 
 vented from entering the tube by two pins which 
 bear against the outer surface of the tube along the 
 edges of the slot. It is held in contact with the tube 
 by a spring, which is kept from slipping off the bot- 
 tom of ;thc ratchet by two forks. The magazine is 
 loaded through a gale in the butt-plate. A projec- 
 tion im the breech-block hooks over a pin and pre- 
 vents motion of the ratchet when the piece is lock- 
 ed. As a magazine-gun, five motions are necessary 
 to operate it, viz : cocked, opened, loaded (by oper- 
 ating the ratchet by the slide), closed, fired. The 
 same number of motions is necessary as a single- 
 loader. This gun carries six cartridges in the mag- 
 azine and one in the chamber. The last cartridge will 
 not feed from the magazine, however, until forced 
 down by others when the magazine is reloaded. See 
 Magazine-nun, ami Springjiild Ji/'flt'. 
 
 MILLING.— Tlie term "milling" as generally un- 
 derstood, means the cutting of inetals by aid of ser- 
 rated revolving cutters, eacli having a suitable 
 number of cutting-teeth. Milling cutters have been 
 used in this country for many years, but until re- 
 cently Willi only a limileil amount of success, owing 
 to the expense anil dillicully of iiroduciug their cut- 
 ting edges and keeping them in order. This was 
 next toimpossible before the introduction of a small 
 emery-wheel and compound slides, etc., for carrying 
 the milling cutter wliile being re-sharpened. Hence 
 in the old system of milling, v.hicli did not permit 
 of the re-sbiirpening of the hiird [leclh, the results 
 were, that after much expense and time had been 
 bestowed on a culler (including a (inantily of hand- 
 labor spent upon it while in its unsliarpeued state), 
 the whole was as it were upset by the process of 
 tempering ; the accuracy which had previously been
 
 HILLING. 
 
 350 
 
 KILLIHa. 
 
 iinpiirlcd lo it, liciiitr iisiiully <|"'''' 'l'''*'''"y<"(l liy lli'' 
 aclinii (if 111!' liri' ;uiil siiildcii cijcjIiiiL'. In siimi' cases 
 the culliT would lie fi)iiiiil sli'j:lilly warped iirt wisleil; 
 in (iIIkts it, woidd lie oval or eef:enl,rie ; mid tiiosI 
 In'iineiilly, when set to work o? 
 
 ex|Mri-'ive and iinrelinblo prnrrss of rp-sharpcning 
 by liand-liliri'^ Mail Id lie ;.'oiie tliroiifrli oiiei- iiioro ; 
 llieii llie re-li-rii|)<Tiii;;, wliieli caused the eiiltiT aj^ain 
 to become; warped, swelleil, or eccentric ; and eiicli 
 
 niotlK'rsit. woiMil tie oval or ecf:eniric ; aiiii niosi , lo oecome w.ii pen, nnemii, oi i-eieiniji , unn I'lieii 
 frciinenlly, when set to work on a trnly-rnnniiiK li""' it was siitiji'cted to the lieat of lh(r lire, It raa 
 mandrel in the millini; machine, not more "than one- the risk of beinj; destroyed by cracking when plunged 
 third of the number of its le<lh were foniid to 1)<; I into a cold bath. 
 ....ifincr lit all. the others not comiiej- in contact with' We reiiresent in Fit'. 1 the Brown and ShiirDe 
 
 iniril '" lit* liUUHUl ,'i II. T 11,1. II ,, ,1, i'',i,i>, ,,r •"■ 
 
 cnttin;; at all. the others not cominir in contact with 
 tlie work. This really meant that not more than oni' 
 third of the pro]KT feed per revoliilion could be ap 
 
 We represent in FIl'. 1 the I5rown and Shurpe 
 niiiv<irsal millini; inachinc. which has all the move- 
 ments of a plain milliicj- macirme, and the following 
 
 
 plied, and not more than one-thir.l of|tlie proper 
 work produced. Nor was this tlie only drawback: 
 the quality of the workmanship produced by such 
 a millini: cutter was not of the best, and deteriorated 
 hourly from blunting and wear. Sucli a culler would 
 probably not work for more than two whole days 
 before it would require to be asain softene 1 by being 
 heated red-hot and allowed to cool gradually. The 
 
 in addition: — the carriage moves and^is fed auto- 
 matically, not only at right angles to the spindle, but 
 at any angle, and can be stopped at any required 
 point. On the carriage, centers are arranged in 
 which reamers, drills ;ind mills can be cut either 
 strai::ht or spiral. The head which holds one center 
 can be raised to any angle, and conical blanks placed 
 on an arbor iii it, cut straight or spiralling. The
 
 MILLING. 
 
 360 
 
 MILLING. 
 
 cone has three diameters, each 3^ inches face. In 
 addition, the cone is strongly geared, thus making 
 six changes of speed. Tlicre are. also, the same 
 number of changes of feed. The spindle boxes are 
 of hardened east steel, and, together with the spin- 
 dle bearings, are carefully ground, and are provided 
 with means of compensation for wear. The spindle 
 will carry a cutter arbor projecting 15 inches, which 
 is supported by an adjustable center at the outer 
 end. Cutters of eight inches or less diameter can 
 be used. The horizontal movement of the spiral 
 clamp bed upon the knee, in a Hue with the spindle 
 of the machine, is 6i inches, and the vertical move- 
 ment of the spiral bed centers below the spindle 
 centers is 11 inches. The spiral bed can be set at 
 angles of 3.5" each way from center line of spindle, 
 and can be fed automatically 33 inches, taking also 
 23 inches between the centers, and will swing lU 
 inches. The hole througli the chuck anr! iTpira'l 
 head is U inches. In add'ition to all the more com- 
 mon kinds of plain surface milling, this macliine is 
 applicable to a great variety of work, among which 
 
 on a mandrel of the small cutter-grinding machine ; 
 th" mandrel itself is adjusted vertically and liori- 
 zontally Ijy ordinary slides, and by means of a 
 ^yorm and worm-wheel, to its required angular po- 
 sition ; and each tooth is ground or re-sharpened 
 by passing at once rapidly f(3rward and backward 
 under a small revolving emery-wheel. The man- 
 drel fits easily into the cutter which is being ground, 
 so that the latter may be readily turned round by 
 the thumb and linger of the operator. Milling cut- 
 ters are made of the required form to suit the va- 
 rious shapes they are intended to produce ; and 
 all the ordinary forms can be used in any milling 
 machine eillief of the horizontal or vertical class" 
 The face-milling cutters. Fig. 3. are of disk form, and 
 are among the most useful. They are constructed 
 to cut on one face and on the periphery ; and they 
 produce very perfect finish, especially on cast-iron. 
 This form is also very useful for all kinds of stepped 
 work, wliich even when not of the simplest form, 
 can be readily and reliably finished to standard 
 breadths and depths ; so that the pieces may be in- 
 
 Fig 4. 
 
 may be mentioned the following : cutting nf bevel and 
 spur wheels, worm wheels and racks ; milling of cir- 
 cular arcs and slots ; squaring of bolt heads and 
 nuts ; fluting of tops, reamers. &c., cutting the teeth 
 of mills, either straight or spiral ; slotting of screw- 
 heads ; making of twist drills; drilling of holes on 
 the periphery or face of plates; die-sinking, milling 
 key-ways in spindles, &c., &c.; proving as its name 
 indicates, a machine adapted for universal applica- 
 tion to milling purposes. 
 
 It is proper now to describe the modem system of 
 making and maintaining the improved milling cut- 
 ters. A cast-steel forging, or l)lank as it is usu- 
 ally styled, is bored, and then turned to its proper 
 shape in a lathe. The teeth are then machined 
 out of the solid to the required forms, in a uni- 
 versal milling or other machine. The work is so 
 accurately jiroduced, direct from the machine, that 
 no costly hand-labor need be expended ui)Ou the 
 milled cutter, which is tiiken direct from the mill- 
 ing maclnne to the hardening furnace, and tem- 
 pered. The hole in the center of the cutter is then ; 
 carefully ground out to standard size, so that it ! 
 may tit accurately and without shake on the nian- 
 «irels both of the grinding machine and of its own ! 
 milling machine. The culler or mill isnowplaeeil 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 terchanffeablp, and fit together without the slightest 
 shake or play, just as they leave the machine, and 
 without any hand-labor bestowed on them. Another 
 ordinary and useful form is the cylindrical cutter, 
 with teeth cut spirally over its circumference. This 
 is largely employed for cutting flat, vertical, or hor- 
 izontal surfaces, for finishing concave and convex 
 curves, and for complicated forms made up of straight 
 lines and curves. With this spiral arrangement of 
 the teeth, and with reliable means of re-grinding or 
 re-sharpening them, very high-class machine work 
 can be produced. Some experiments liave been made 
 by cutting a spiral groove or thread into the outer 
 surface of one of this class of mills, and thus re- 
 ducing the aggregate length of its cutting surface. 
 Other mills again arc made in the form of sm;dl cir- 
 cular saws, varying from ^J to Ik in. or more in thick- 
 ness. Tiie teeth in some of these arc sinqily cut 
 around the circumference ; others have these teeth 
 cxti'nding SOUK' dist;ince down each side, their edges 
 radiating from the center of the mill. Towa-d the 
 center they are reduced in thickness so as to clear 
 themselves. These cuttersareusefid foragrcat vari- 
 ety of work ; for instiince the cutting of key-ways, 
 parting otT or cutting through pieces of metal, and 
 making parallel slotsof various widths, for the broad-
 
 KILLINa. 
 
 mi 
 
 MILLINO. 
 
 or of which two or moro riittors mny bo nwrl side bv 
 Hide. Coniciil iiiid iiiiL'uhir iiiiHiiiL; ruttcrs arc iiiucli 
 c>iM|)l()yo(l for a ureal variely of work, such as llienit- 
 tini; of rimers, tlie iiiakiii!; of iiiilliii^ cullers Uietii- 
 selves.bcvclintt.ctilliiii; llie serraled part of hand and 
 tliumb-acrews, inilH,etc. Any loniphx fonns. such us 
 tlu' spaces bet ween llie leelliof spur, miler, and otiier 
 wheels, I'an l)e machined by usiiii; what are known 
 as tlic paleill cutters, which can he rc-sliiirpencd as 
 often as rc((uireil liy simjily ^rriiidiuL; the face of eacli 
 tootli. They are so coustrncled that, liowcver often 
 tliey arc re-ground, lliey never lose their original 
 curved forms, and always produce the same (hpth 
 of cut. One of these cutters, for instance, will cut 
 the same standard shajies of teeth in a spur-wlieel, 
 after it has been u.sed for years, as it did the first 
 day it was started. Fiijufes, :i, 4, and n illustrate 
 some forms to which tliese cutters are adapted. 
 There is risk of fracture in niakim.; lar!j;e milling 
 cutlers out of one solid cast steel blank, tlie principal 
 dilticulty being in the teinpering. In practice it is 
 found that if they arc required of larger diameter 
 
 ly fastonod at any angle, by two square h. ;i'l i r^ ws, 
 one of which is shown in the drawing. Fig. it shows 
 a dividini/ haul iiiul tail Stock, well adapted to tho 
 uses for which it is designed. It has a conipensaling 
 wedg<- for adjusting the halves of the spacing worm 
 gear. and .'in alteration of the usual tail stock pattern 
 so that milling riitters. ailjusted close to the center, 
 pass clear across. With it gears can be accurately 
 s|)iiced, mills cut of straight, conical or irri'giilar 
 forms, taps and reamers tliitcfl and worm wheels 
 gasheil. The slots in the stock allow the head to be 
 elevated from a horizontal to a vertical position. and 
 by supplemental slots in the elevated head, in which 
 llicT heads of clamp l>olts slide, the head can be rje- 
 pressed to :il) dr irri'cs iielow a horizontal line, and .'i 
 degrees beyond a vertical, making 125 deirrees of 
 change, all determined by graduations on stock. The 
 spacing worm gear is made in halves, and all points 
 liable io wear are provided with means of c:om|)ensa- 
 tion for wear. Three inde.x dials go with the hea<l, di- 
 viding all numbers uj) to 50, and as many others as 
 an every day machine shop practice may demand. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 than about 8 ins. they are better made of wrought- 1 
 iron or mild-steel disks, with hardened cast-steel 
 30 securely titled into them that they do not re- [ 
 quire to be removed. The cutting-edges can then 
 be re-sharpeneil in their own places, as in the case 
 of the ordinary uiilling cutters; thus insuring that 
 each shall liave the same angle of cutting and 
 clearance, run perfectly concentric, and therefore 
 do a maximiun amount of c\itting in a given time. 
 It must however be borne in mind that the smaller 
 the diameter of the milling cutter, the better finish 
 it will produce; and cutters of large diiimeters should 
 only be used to reach into depths where one of 
 smaller diameter cotdd not, or to do the heavier 
 classes of work. Again, the smaller the cutter, the 
 less does it cost to make and maintain. 
 
 Fig. 6 represents a cutter in connection with the 
 work, showing the position required in cutting the 
 teeth of a spiral cutter. The distance a=one tenth 
 of B. The hole in the cutter is I inch. Fig. 7 shows 
 
 FJg. 8. 
 
 Garvin's spiral attachment, designed for use with the 
 milling machine, and which will cut with the proper 
 charge gears, spirals with pitch varying from one 
 turn in 1.66 inches to one turn in (iO inches. Fig. 8 
 shows the swivel vise, mounted upon a graduated 
 base 3i inches high. This vise is useful for a vari- 
 ety of work, is quickly adjusted, aud may be secure- 
 
 The spindle of the elevating head has a taper hole 
 clear through, and the end of the spindle is threaded 
 to receive the chuck, allowing pieces of any lenirth 
 less than 1 and l-lli inch diameter to be milled. The 
 tongues under the base of the head and tail stock are 
 of steel, and can be removed to allow swivelling of 
 the head, so that work held in the chuck, such as 
 hollow mills, etc., can be cut under or hooking. The 
 tail stock has a milled head adjusting screw, and 
 screw to bind the spindle central in any position. 
 These centers are designed to be used on milling, 
 shaping and planing machines. 
 
 The cutting speed which can be employed in mill- 
 ing is much greater than that which can be used in 
 any of the ordinary operations of turning in the lathe, 
 or of planing, shaping, or slotting. A milling cutter 
 with a plentiful supply pf oil, or soap and water, can 
 be run at from 80 to 100 ft. perminute when cutting 
 wrought iron. The same metal can only be turned 
 in a lathe, with a tool-holder having a good cutter, 
 at the rate of 30 ft. per minute, or about one-third 
 the speed of milling. Again, a milling cutter will cut 
 cast-steel at the rate of 25 to 30 ft. per minute. The 
 uicrcased cutting speed is due to the fact that a mill- 
 ing cutter, having some thirty points, has rarely 
 more than three of these cutting at the same time. 
 Each cutting point therefore is only in contact with 
 the metal during one-tenth of each revohition. Thus, 
 if we suppose it is cutting for one second, it is out 
 of ciuitact, and therefore cooling, for the succeeding 
 nine seconds, before it has made a complete revolu- 
 tion and commences to cut again. On the other hand, 
 a turning tool while cutting is constantlj- in contact 
 with the metal: and therels no time for it to cool 
 down and loo.se the heat imparted to it by the cut- 
 ting. Hence, if the cutting speed exceeds .30 ft. per 
 minute, so much heat will be produced that the tem- 
 per will be drawn from the tool. The same ditticulty 
 to a great extent applies to the cutting tools in plan- 
 ing, shaping, and slotting machines. The speed of 
 cutting is governed also by the thickness of the shav- 
 ing and by the hardness and tenacity of the me'al 
 which is being cut; for instance, in cutting mild steel
 
 HILLSINS. 
 
 362 
 
 HILLS SPUS. 
 
 ■withatraverseof 3-8 in. per revolution or stroke, and drawing, is composed of a liecl-strap, a, or "main 
 with a shaving about US in. thick, the speed of cut- I leather band," as it is called by the inventor, to 
 ting.must be reduced to about 8 ft. per minute. A [ which the rowel-plate, b, is riveted, a lower strap, 
 good average cutting speed for wrought or cast-iron i or under strap, c, passing under the boot : and a 
 is 20 ft. per minute, whether for the lathe, planing, j spur-strap, d. The metallic parts of the spur are the 
 shaping, or slotting machine. i rowel-plate, b, the yoke or frame, 6, the shoulder, h 
 
 Fig. 
 MILLBIITS, — MTLLBiND. or Fer | 
 DE MOULIN in Heraldry: a charge 
 meaut to represent a mill-iron or- 
 iginally a mere variety in desig- 
 nating the cross moline, but ac- 
 counted a distinct charge by some 
 heralds. See Heraldry. 
 
 MILLS CARTRIDGE BELT. This 
 Ill-It in its ninin features is not un- 
 ilillrmd. \\\i^^. what has beeu for along time 
 
 known as the ''Prairie Belt," its distinguishing cliar- 
 acteristic being tliat it is not only made entirely of 
 heavy cotton fabric, but that the whole belt — the 
 main fabric or body of the belt, as well as the loops 
 or thimbles which hold the cartridges — are woven 
 in one solid piece, at one and the same time, in the 
 same loom, there being no sewing whatever in the 
 entire belt. The cylindrical loops are taken from 
 and returned to the main web at the same point, so 
 the cartridge is held in place b.y friction produced by 
 contact with its whole circumference, and are of 
 such accurate form that, aided hy tlie cord at the top 
 of the belt, the cartridge cannot drop out. 
 
 (all of brass in one piece), the rowel,/, of steel, the 
 rowel-pin of steel, the buckle, k. of brass, eyelet, I, 
 and the brass rivets and burs, marked 1, 2, and 3. 
 The buckle is fastened to the understrap by means 
 of a small projection, which is twined over the bar 
 of the buckle and riveted, the tongue passing through 
 the slot. The eyelet, I, is intended for the insertiou 
 of a button attached to a steel wire double loop for 
 strapping down the trowsers. 
 
 Tue different steps in the process of manufacture 
 of the rowel-plate and yoke are very simple. The 
 plate and yoke are first punched out flat in a rotary 
 press. The middle slot and the holes for the rivet^ 
 and rowel-pin are then punched. The branches of 
 the yoke are next rounded and bent up b}- means of 
 a punch and die of proper shape. The shoulder is 
 then formed and by the next operation set lirmly 
 down on tlie rowel-plate. The holes are then drilled, 
 and the finished rowel-plate and yoke are pickled 
 ami i)(ilislieil. The hole for the rivet is drilled or 
 punclied, and the rowels are strung on a wire pass- 
 ing tlirougli the hole, placed in the milling machine, 
 and the teeth milled out. 
 
 '^.M^:AM.I^ 
 
 As seen in the drawing, the belt has a suitable 
 margin above and below the cartridge and loop 
 wliicli prevents the wearing of the former by rubbing 
 against the clothes of the wearer. Handsome and 
 (lural)lc buckles are furnished, so formed that the 
 wearer may adjust tlic length of the belt to his 
 person without sewing or cutting, and can also 
 adjust the buckle midway Iietwecn the cartridge 
 loops. This belt was recommended by llie Kipiip- 
 meiit Board of 1879, was very fully approved by tlie 
 (Jcneral of the Army, and adopted by the Secretary 
 of War. and is now the Regulation Helt for tlie 
 I'nitcd States Army. See Pwiler-Juiii'H lielt. 
 
 MILLS SPUR.— This spur, the^invention of (' olonc 
 Anson Mills, I'nited Slates Armv. and shown in the 
 
 The rowel is riveted in the yoke with a rotary 
 press. The rivet is increased in diameter throughout 
 its entire length by this operation, and the hole in 
 the rowel is made i'^'' larger than the rivet to allow 
 for this increase. The rowel-plate is riveted to the 
 heej-slrap by the same press, as it is not easy to do 
 the rivetingby hand without the iilate. The leather 
 parts are assembled after the rowel-plate has been 
 riveted. The sjiur-strap and heel-strap are placed 
 together and the eyelet inserted; the heel-slrap and 
 under-strap on the other side are assembled in the 
 same manner; the end of the under-strap with the 
 ■slot in it is theu'carefully hiserlcd between the heel- 
 strap and the spur-strap, and the whole securely 
 riveted.
 
 V.-p'tf'iw; X 
 
 mt 
 
 iX-S7S. 
 
 Mining. 1. Miners ftt work. !). ScafTol.ling. 8. Filling ore-carl. 
 
 I'
 
 miners ill Strassfiirt satt-mine. G. Steam-nuiiip. 7. I.lfal soctioi. ..f a mine.
 
 MIM BASHT. 
 
 m 
 
 MINES. 
 
 MIM BA8HY. -In the East Indies, a commander of 
 
 Oiii' tliiiiisiuiil liiirsc. 
 MINER'S TRUCK. In lnw gallerips and branches, 
 
 wlicri' wheelbarrows cuiinot, l)(^ UHed, small wagons 
 or mf/ifj'\H intr/rs, restini; on short east-iron wlieels, 
 answer the same piirpnse, a man pushing l)eliiri(I, 
 assisted hy arinlher piilliiii; wilh a rope in front, 
 wlieu lljc gallery is desceudim;. 
 
 chief wToiijrht hy the mine often very frrc&t 1» its 
 
 moral iiilluenee on tlie troops, and especially on the 
 assailants. The hravesl soldiers, who advance with- 
 ont llinciiinu: to the very mouth of the cannon ir/u'r./i. 
 tlinj Hfe, will hesitate to cross jff'und which they 
 suppose to he iindirmined, and on whicli Ihi-y may 
 he dashed to di'slruelion in a moment, without tin; 
 \ power of averting llic uusctii. danger. Tht lirsl em- 
 
 MilJH Spur. 
 
 MINES. — Military mines constitute at imce one of 
 the most important dej);irtmenls in niililary enjrin- 
 eeTing, and a very formidable accessory bolh in the i 
 attack and defense of fortresses. A nnlitary mine I 
 consists of a gallery of crreater or less length, run 
 from some point of safety imder an opposim; work, \ 
 or\mderan area over which an at larUiiiir force must 
 pass, and terndnatins; in a chandxT which, beim; 
 stored witli tninpowder, can be exploded at the 
 critical moment. Mines are of great ii.su to the be- 1 
 
 ploymenl of ndnes was very ancient,and merely con- 
 sisted in obtaining an entrance to the interior of 
 towns by passing lieneatli the defenses ; but this 
 soon fell into disuse, the chances of success being 
 merely those of introducing a body of men before the 
 besieged discovered the mine. Tlie ne.vluse occured 
 during the Middle Ages, and was more destructive. 
 'I'he miners went no further than beneath the wall, 
 tlien diverged to either side, and undermined the 
 wall, say for about IIH) feet. During the process, 
 
 Fii,', 1. 
 
 siegers in the overthrow of ramparts and formation 1 the wall was sustained Ijy timber props; and these 
 of a l)reach : the '■<"(«((rw/'«(S of the besieged in \ui- being ultimately set on lire, the wall fell: and the 
 dermining the glacis over which the assaulting col- 1 besiegers, wlio had awaited the opportunity, rushed 
 umn nuist charge, and blowing them into the air. in at the lireaeh. This use of ndnes of attack neces- 
 or in destroying batteries erected for breaching, are | silated those of defense winch obtained in medi.Tval 
 equally serviceable. But far above tlie actual mis- 1 times and have ever since kept the name of" cninter.
 
 VnSTES. 
 
 364 
 
 KINES. 
 
 mine!'." The earliest subterranean defense consisted 
 of a gallery surrounding the fort in advance of the 
 foot of the wall, and termed an enveloping gallery. 
 From this the garrison would- push forward small 
 branches of triliutarj' galleries, wlience they could 
 obtain warning of the approach of hostile miners, 
 and by which they succeeded, at times, in overthrow- 
 ing the biittering-rams or towers of the besiegers. 
 
 Two centuries appear to have elapsed between the 
 introduction of gunpowder into European warfare 
 and its application to subterranean operations. The 
 first instance of this occurred in l.'JOS, at the siege of 
 the Castello del' Uovo, in tlie bay of Naples, which 
 a French garrison liad succeeded in holding for 
 three years against the combined Spanish and Nea- 
 politan forces. At length a Spanish Captain, Pedro 
 Navarro, devised a gallery into the rock, which he 
 stored with powder, whereof the explosion, hurling 
 portions of the rock and many of the besieged into 
 the sea, caused the immediate capture of the place. 
 At once the use of mines of attack spread through- 
 out Europe : and so irresistible were they soon con- 
 sidered by all military engineers, that it was not 
 at all unusual for the besieger, after preparing his 
 mine, to invite the besieged to inspect it, with the 
 view of inducing the latter at once to surrender. 
 Defense soon availed itself of the new power, and, 
 retaining the enveloping gallery as a base, ran small 
 countermines in many directions, to ascertain, by 
 hearing, the approach of the enemy's sappers — his 
 work being audible, to a practiced ear, at a hori- 
 zontal distance of CO feet. Small charges were then 
 exploded, which, without creating surface disturb- 
 ance, blew in the approaching gallery, and buried 
 the sappers in its ruins. Thus commenced a sj-stem 
 of subterranean warfare, requiring the greatest risk 
 and courage, in which the operator was in constant 
 danger of being suffocated. Of course, in such a 
 system, the balance of advantage lay with the be- 
 sieged, who had ample opportunities, before the 
 siege commenced, of completing his ramifications in 
 every direction, and, if desirable, of revetting them 
 with masonry, which much diminished the chance 
 of being blown in; while the assailant, no longer 
 able to cross the glacis by an open zigzag trench, 
 was compelled to engage in a most uncertain subter- 
 ranean advance. The French engineer, Belidor, in 
 the 18th century restored the advantage to the attack, 
 by demonstrating that the explosion of a very large 
 mass of powder in a mine which had not yet entered 
 the labyrinth of defensive mines, effected the de- 
 struction of the latter for a great space round, clear- 
 ing the way with certainty for the hostile advance. 
 Although the primary purpose of a mine is the ex- 
 plosion of a charge of powder, they are often used 
 as a means of communication between different 
 works, or between different parts of the same work, 
 some being constructed of size sufiieient to permit 
 the passage of four men abreast, of horses, and of 
 artillery. 
 
 It is, of course, impossible, in such a work as this 
 to give even an outline of the professional part of 
 military mining; but the article would be incom- 
 plete without some allusion to the main principles. 
 Mines are either vertical (x/iafts). horizontal, or in- 
 clined, in either of which latter cases, they are giU- 
 kru'.n, the word "ascending" or "descending" being 
 added if there be inclination. The dimensions range 
 from the i/reat gallery, ft, 6 in. by 7 ft., to the 
 xmiM branrh — tlie last diminutive of the gallery — 
 which has but 'i ft, G in. height, with a breadth of 3 
 feet. The most fre(|i»'nt work is the rmiimoii (jdtltry, 
 4 ft. in. by 'A ft., which is considered the easiest 
 for the miner. The sapper's tools are numeroiis, 
 but most in request are his shovel, pickaxe, and, 
 above all, his push-pick, he has, besides, a l)arrow, 
 a small wagon, a lamp, and other accessories. As 
 he advances, it is necessary to line his gallery, al- 
 ways at the top, and almost always at the sides. 
 This he does either by frames — which resemble door- 
 
 frames, and serve to retain horizontal planks or 
 sheetmg in position against the earth — or by cases 
 somewh.at resembling packing-cases, of little depth, 
 which are used to form the sides and top. With 
 cases, galleries are suppo.sed to advance one foot and 
 a half per hour ; while with frames, the progress is 
 barely more than half that amount. Whena mine 
 is exploded, the circular opening on the surface is 
 cjilled the crater; the line of leant resistance is the 
 perpendicular from the charge to the surface; the half, 
 diameter of the crater is its radius ; and the radius 
 of explosion is a line from the charge to the edge of 
 the crater, on the hypothenuse of the triangle, the 
 revolution of which would form the cone. When 
 the diameter equals the line of least resistance, the 
 crater is called a one-lined crater ; when it doubles 
 that line, a two-lined crater; and so on. The com- 
 mon mine for ordinany operations is the two-lined 
 crater ; and for this the charge of powder should — 
 in ground of average weight and tenacity — be in 
 pounds a number equal to one-tenth of the" cube of 
 the line of least resistance in feet, for example, at a 
 depth of 18 feet, the charge should consist of 583 
 pounds. In surcharged mines, or globes of com- 
 pression, as introduced by Belidor, vastly greater 
 charges are employed, and craters of sixlines are 
 sometimes produced. The rules, in these cases, for 
 computing the charges vary exceedingly, accord- 
 ing to different engineers, and in every case are very 
 complicated. Previous to the explosion, the gallery- 
 is filled up behind the charge, or tamped, witirearth, 
 sand-bags, etc., to prevent the force of the powder 
 wasting itself in the mine. This tamping must extend 
 backwards for one and a half or twice the length of 
 the line of least resistance. The mine is commonly 
 fired by means of a powder-hose, composed of strong 
 linen, inclosed in a wooden pipe laid carefully through 
 the tamping, or b_y wires from a voltaic battery. 
 
 One of the most important subjects engaging the 
 attention of the engineer is the proper ventilation of 
 the mines. With the progress of civilization, this sub- 
 ject is assuming, every day, aspects of more and 
 more importance, not only in relation to safety and 
 health, but in a great measure from its vital connec- 
 tion with some of the great enterprises of the day. 
 The entire inadequacy of any of the present arrange- 
 ments or systems to give any thing like a thorough 
 and perfect ventilation becomes niore and more ap- 
 parent as they proceed to greater depths and dis- 
 tances under ground ; which, taken in connection 
 with the unhealthiness, great risk and fearful loss of 
 life from explosions, now of such common occur- 
 rence, suggest the alarming contingency of being 
 compelled to abandon them at no very distant day. 
 The consequences of even a slight interference with 
 the mining interests of Europe are dreadful to con- 
 template. And in some parts of our own country 
 the subject is one of great importance. Sometimes, 
 in connection with high chimneys above ground, 
 additional shafts have been sunk. Fires have been 
 kept in the mines and chimneys, in order to rarefy 
 the air and thus produce draught. This is uot only 
 dangerous, but to a great degree ineffectual. And 
 further, it has been demonstrated that the power re- 
 sulting from the combustion of one pound of coal 
 will give more ventilation than thirty to fifty pounds 
 consumed in the way spoken of. May we not, there- 
 fore, on the whole, pronounce this system a failure? 
 The only remaining plan of note to be considered is 
 the fan. Of late they have received considerable at- 
 tention. Enormous fans of from twenty to fifty feet 
 in diameter, have been constructed at great cxpcn.sc, 
 and rc(pnring ;i vast amount of power to run them. 
 But these considerations would not be of so much 
 consequence, if they accomplished the purpose; but 
 this, in mines of any consideral)le dcptii and extent, 
 tliey do not and can not. Within a certain range, 
 fauM woidd luidoubtedly be beneficial, but fans do 
 not have a |)ositive action either fcu' pressure or ex- 
 haustion. Their capabilities are thus limited. Tlie
 
 MINES. 
 
 3G5 
 
 UIB£6. 
 
 (lc'<'i)(T and nioro extensive tlie mine, I lie printer the 
 neeessilicH fur tlioruuf^li venlilulion. lleri^ they 
 must iilwiiys fail. 
 
 The KiioI'h ])iisilive hlower appears to Ik; Hk; 
 most sati.Hfaotory niaehine ever iiHcil by llie mining 
 engineer. With tliis apparatus phieeil at the mouth 
 of the shaft we ean exhaust tlie damps and foul air 
 in any required ((Uiiiitity, and discliarge it entirely 
 out of ami away from tlie mine, where it ean do no 
 liarm whatever. The foul air thus displaced will l)e 
 replaced by ])urc air, which will rush in from the 
 surface in a volunu' equal 1o the air displaced. Thus 
 the most distant parts of the mine; will be e(pudly as 
 well ventilated as any other part and th(; nunc 
 throughout its entire extent may be said to be washed 
 out with pure air. By this method, the foul air re- 
 sulting from blasting in mines and tunnels is ex-' 
 hausletl at the point where the gases are formed, and 
 entirely removed from I he tunnel and replaced with 
 pure air. This venlilalor is shown in scclion in Fig. 
 1. It consists of two rotary pistons, which are eacii 
 2:") ft. diameter and 11! ft. wide, and arc built upon 
 steel shafts. Upon each of the shafts are keyed live 
 cast iron disc plates, having llanges at, their circum- 
 ference which are all turned to exactly the same i 
 diameter. In each disc jilate there are three wrought ' 
 iron bars lixed on each siilc of the center, and reach- \ 
 ing Id the outsid<' of the rotary piston ; planed re- 
 cessi'S are provided in the disc plates to receive the 
 bars, which are also secured to the disc plates by 
 bolls turned to tit. The outer ends of the bars are 
 widened, and marked off and slotted to the radius 
 of the outer circle. Angle irons bent to the radius I 
 of the outer circle are riveted to the extremities of i 
 
 tween the periphery of one of the rotary pistonB 
 and the center circle of the other is also tlie sarnc, 
 and thus in any part of the ventilator the clearance 
 for loss by l\w. returning of the air is not much more 
 llian fl inch. 
 
 The arrangement of the engine-house and venti- 
 lator building is shown in the engraving ; the dis- 
 charged air escapes through perforated openings in 
 the roof, and, owing to the viTv large area of outlet 
 from the ventilator— the top of the ventilator casing 
 being left entirely ojien tlie air that is being ex- 
 hausted from the pit must necessarily be delivered 
 into tli<; atmosphere at a lower velocity than is usual 
 with other ventilating machines. The range of thi.H 
 blower, when employed as an exhauster, is cer- 
 tainly in advance of any of the previous mechanical 
 ventilators ; and in the writer's opinion this would 
 be a decided advantage in the case (jf an explosion. 
 When the air-doors become disarranged, the ventila- 
 tion of the mine is interfered with at the moment 
 when it would be of the greatest service, and this 
 owing to the limited power of fan ventilation, which 
 can only be dependetl ujion up to about 3 in. water 
 gauge ; but in a case of emergency, with a Root's 
 ventilator similar to the one described, the machine 
 could be instantly driven at its maximum power, 
 and would speedily clear the workings of the choke- 
 damp, fire-damp, or after-damp. Since explosion.s 
 cannot always be prevented, it is of importance that 
 the deadly gases should be drawn out in tlie shortest 
 possible space of time, and replaced with pure air; 
 and from present experience this ventilator appears 
 to be well fitted to suit these reipiirements. 
 
 rig 2. shows the adaptation of the Cameron min- 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 the bars, and are covered with ^ in. sheet iron plate; 
 the center circles are also covered with | in. sheet 
 iron jilates on the turned flanges of the disc plates. 
 The sides of the pistons are covered with %vood, and 
 the ends with sheet iron. These rotary pistons re- 
 volve in bearings fixed upon deep cast iron girders, 
 which form the framework of the ventilator pit, 
 and are connected together at each end of the ven- 
 tilator by cross girders. The girders and the cast 
 iron side plates above them are planed on their in- 
 side surfaces, and the stonework of the ventilator 
 pit is dressed off level with the planed girders. The 
 engines to drive the ventilator are a pair of 28 inch 
 cylinders with 4 ft. stroke, and provided with ad- 
 justable cut-off valves. They are placed at right 
 angles to the ventilator, and are connected to it with 
 bevel wheels 9 ft. 2-| in. diameter, two bevel wheels 
 being tixcd upon the crank shaft, each gearing into 
 a bevel wheel keyed upou the end of the ventilator 
 shalts. The engine beds are carried along and fixed 
 upon a stay girder, securely keyed and bolted to 
 the main girder. The main girders are fixed 13 ft. 
 ^ in. apart, therefore, the clearance between the 
 rotary pistons of 13 ft. and the sides of the ventila- 
 tor pit is only ^ in. on each side. At each end of 
 the ventilator pit, and at the bottom on each side of 
 the inlet from the upcast shaft, adjustable packing 
 blocks of timber are fixed^pon hinged iron frames, ! 
 and can be adjusted with screws and nut ; these j 
 blocks are set up quite clo.se to the periphery of the 
 rotary pistons within ^ inch. The clearance be- I 
 
 ing pump for sinking and recovering shafts. It fre- 
 quently happens in sinking a shaft that it makes 
 water so rapidly that it is very difficult to remove it 
 as fast as necessary, and for the same reason great 
 trouble is experienced in lowering an ordinary hori- 
 zontal ptjmp from one level to another ; and in 
 attempting to recover old mines fhat liave been 
 " drownecl out," the difficulty is the more serious, 
 because of the large surface below to make water. 
 This machine is held in suspension in the shaft, and 
 being vertical, reipiires but little room, and can be 
 raised and lowered as required. There is no dan- 
 ger of its being submerged. Being compact and 
 strongly made, without any of the working parts 
 exposed to injury, they are well adapted for the 
 rough usage incidental to the work for which they 
 were designed. Adjustable wrought-iron dogs are 
 provided to fasten the pump to the shaft timbering, 
 although they will work equally as well when hang- 
 ing by the tackle, or will operate perfectly when 
 placed at an angle or horizontally. The general 
 features are exacUy the same as in an ordinary hori- 
 zontal machine, except that they are arranged to 
 work vertically. Iron pipes or flexible hose may be 
 employed as best suits the situation. 
 
 It is but rare that, in the defensive arrrangements 
 of a field work, any combination for a war of mining 
 is provided for ; although in many, and those but 
 recent cases of a stubborn and protracted defense of 
 field works against regular siege operations, mines 
 have been employed with great success, although
 
 UINIE BALL. 
 
 566 
 
 MINISTEK. 
 
 not made before the works of the assailant were un- 
 der way. As the end to be attained is the same in 
 conducting the defense of a work by mines, whether 
 it be a temporary or a permanent one, the same prin- 
 ciples in the .arrangement of a combination of mines 
 for this purpose are equally applicable to the two 
 cases; the most essential of which are as follows: 
 As the galleries of a system of mines serve the pur- 
 pose of underground communication, they should be 
 sul)jected to the same conditions as other communi- 
 cations. A condition of primary importance is, that 
 no combination shall be made which might com- 
 promise the safety of the work. To this end, no gal- 
 lery beyond the ditch should lead to the interior of 
 the work; for should the enemy get possession of 
 such a gallery he might either penetrate into the 
 work, or else barricade the gallery and hold posses- 
 sion of it long enough to blow up the works under 
 which it leads. The galleries should not offer anj- 
 facilities to the besiegers for carrying on tlieir works. 
 Those galleries, therefore, which, communicating 
 with the ditches, might serve the besiegers for their 
 descent of the ditch ; also a continued counterscarp 
 galler}% which may not only facilitate the descent of 
 the ditch to the besiegers, but also, when in their 
 possession, give them that of the whole system of 
 mines, and, besides, serve to protect their passage of 
 the ditch, and to prevent sorties in it, should be re- 
 jected. A gallery behind a portion of the counter- 
 scarp not favorable to the enemy's works, is very use- 
 ful as a depot for the implements of the miners, and 
 also as a communication. A complex sj'stem of mines 
 should not be used for works that can be carried by 
 storm ; for the reason that the besiegers might easily 
 get possession of the system before it could be 
 brought into play. The entrance to a sytsem from 
 the ditch must be revetted, to offer a sufficient ob- 
 stacle to prevent the enemy from getting possession 
 of the system by surprise ; hence, a revetted counter- 
 scarp is a necessary condition in the establishment 
 of the system. The galleries should not be run out 
 to any considerable distance beyond the covered- 
 ways, both on account of procuring a good circula- 
 tion of air, and because very advanced galleries are 
 easily destroyed by the besiegers. The distance to 
 which the galleries may extend should be so much 
 the less as the ground above them is well protected 
 by the collateral defenses. The soil must be suita- 
 ble for the establishment of a system ; wet, marshy 
 ground, shifting sand, and hard rock, present almost 
 insuperable obstacles ; whereas a dry, firm soil, soft 
 rock, or ordinary earth, under a thin superstratum 
 of hard rock, are very favorable circumst.-inces. If 
 tlie sub-soil is wet, but presents a firm and dry su- 
 perstratum 13 ft. thick above the level at which the 
 water collects^ mines may still bo jilaced with ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 Besides the above general conditions, there are 
 certain special ones to be attended to in arranging 
 the" galleries and chambers. The galleries should be 
 placed as far below the surface as practicable, to 
 withdraw them from the effect of the globes of com- 
 pression of the besiegers. To drain the galleries they 
 sliould have a slight inclination, about j'j, towards 
 the ditches ; or, if the ground descends towards a 
 hollow, the inclination may be given in that direc- 
 tion. The cliambers, on the contrary, should be 
 near the surface ; by this arrangement the powder is 
 economized, and all danger to the galleries from the 
 explosion avoided, whilst the object of the mines, 
 which is to destroy the enemy's works, can be as ful- 
 ly attained by small mines as large ones. The galler- 
 ies should not be placed nearer to eacli other than 
 twic(^ tlie lineof least resistance of tlie heaviest cliarg- 
 ed mines, and not mueli less than four times tlie line 
 of least resistance of llie smallest charges. This ar- 
 rangement will readily admit of a combination of 
 mines in two tiers, the line of least resistance of 
 the lower being at least doubles tliat of the u|)per, 
 the cliamberH of which mav be so arranged that the 
 
 explosions of one tier shall not affect either the gal- 
 leries or the mines of the other. Twice the line of 
 least resistance of the largest mines is the least dis- 
 tance that can be allowed between the galleries, in 
 order that the mines of the lowest tier, which, be- 
 ing placed near one gallery to destroy a part of it, 
 shall not injure those parallel to it. By placing the 
 galleries at this least distance apart, the" branches for 
 the service of the upper tier will be as short as pos- 
 sible, effecting thus a saving of time and labor ; and 
 for the same reason, the galleries on any one point 
 being as many as can be "placed, there will be less 
 chance of all being destroyed by an explosion, but 
 that some one of the galleries will be found service- 
 able. The galleries and branches for the service of 
 the different groups of mines should be independent 
 of each other, so that there may be no confusion in 
 the service, and that no group may be rendered un- 
 serviceable by the destruction of the communications 
 to another. The same principle should be attended 
 to in combining the different groups of mine cham- 
 bers. The galleries and branches should never pre- 
 sent their flanks or sides to the globes of compres- 
 sion of the besiegers. This rule leads to the rejec- 
 tion of enveloping galleries. See lUoirer, Gounter- 
 mhien, F!r'iig.'i<itt(ry. Oallery, and Shaft. 
 
 MINIE BALL.— A liall or bullet of peculiar con- 
 struction. It is cast hollow for nearly two-thirds of 
 its length, and into the opening of the internal cyl- 
 inder there is introduced a small concave piece of 
 iron, which the powder at the moment of firing 
 forces into the slug, spreading it open, and causing 
 it to fit perfectly to the barrel. Hence, a great in- 
 crease in the precision of aim and the extent of range. 
 See /hilM. 
 
 MINIE RIFLE.— A rifle introduced some years ago 
 and adapted for firing the Minie bullet, the peculiar- 
 ity of which bvdlet was that it had an iron cup placed 
 in a cavity at the base, which, on the rifle being fired, 
 expanded the lead into the grooves of the barrel. In 
 1851 a rifle musket of the Minie pattern was 
 supplied to the English Army, but only to a limited 
 extent; it was used in the Crimea, at the battles of 
 the Alma and Inkermau. Notwithstanding its many 
 advantages, it was found to be defective in practice, 
 and was superseded by the Enfield rifle in 1853. 
 
 MINION. — An ancient form of ordnance of small 
 size, the caliber of which was about three inches. 
 
 MINISTER.— I. FuNCTioNAKY Diplomatic. By the 
 American system Ministers to exercise diplomatic 
 f imctions near Foreign Courts are appointed by the 
 President and confirmed by the Senate of the United 
 States. They are accredited by letter to the Sover- 
 eign of the country to which they are appointed, and 
 are permitted certain immunities and privileges, 
 being entitled to be addressed as " Excellency," and 
 conceded exemption from the operation of municipal 
 law. The United States send no Envoys of the rank 
 of Embassadors, permanently accredited to Foreign 
 Courts; but have not infrequently conferred the rank 
 and authority in the case of special missions. II, 
 Functionary Executive, In the United .States Gov- 
 ernment, the executive officers are under the imme- 
 diate official direction and control of Heads of De- 
 partments, ineludingthose of State, Treasury, Interi- 
 or, War, Post-Oftice, Navy, Justice, and Agriculture. 
 Seven of these Officials have seats in the Cabinet or 
 Coimcil of Advisers of the President, and are termed 
 "The Cabinet." They are the Secretaries of State, 
 War, the Treasury, the Navy, and the Interior; the 
 Postmaster-Oeneral, and the Attorney-General, or 
 the H( ad of the Department of .lustice! These Offi- 
 cials are aiipoiiiled by the Presiilent, and confirmed 
 by the Senate; their duly is to administer or execiile 
 the functions of their respective offices under the 
 direction of the President; to whom they are imnu>- 
 (liately resi)onsil)le and t(» whom they report aniuially; 
 and from tiim^ to time on special subjects if so desir- 
 ed by him. They hold their offices at llie will of the 
 President, who may request their resignations if the
 
 KIROR BARONS. 
 
 367 
 
 HIBAOE. 
 
 good (if Ilic publir Hprvico slmllofprn torcr|iiirc it. As 
 iin AilviHory Council, tlicy iis.^cuililrui llic call of tlic 
 President, or ill stilled tiincs, for coiifcn-ncc, to cn- 
 unciiitc oi)inions or to imswcr (nioslions. Tiicre iH 
 nothini;, liowrv(T,in UicConstitutioii or elsewhere in 
 American law wliicli renders il ol)lii;Hlory on the 
 President to eni|)loy them in this nianner, thoujcli 
 custom has made it usual and convenient so to do. 
 K.vcepliiif; to the {'resident for tlie [iroper perfonn- 
 anee of their ofljcial duties, tliey have no responsibil- 
 ities; and in no particidar e.xce])! in l\w nature of 
 these duties do they resemble the IMinislers of Great 
 ISritain or those of the Kuropean Powers 
 
 MINOR BARONS. Tin' word baron, in the earliest 
 Iieriod of l''eu(hilisni, sii;nilied one who held lands 
 of a superior by military lenun'. The superior miL'ht 
 be the Sovereinn, or he mi;,dit be an Karl or other 
 eminent jxTson, who held of the Hovereijrn. Ac- 
 cording as he was the one or the other, the Huron 
 waa, in the earliest sense of the distinction, a (ireat- 
 cr or Lesser Baron. At the Coiujuest a larj;e jjart 
 of the soil of Kiifjland was parceled by William the 
 Norman amons; liis military retainers, wlio were 
 bound in return to perform services, to do honuii^e, 
 aiul to assist in ailministerini; justice, and in trans- 
 act ini; the other business done in the Court of the 
 King. 400 of these Tenants-in-Chief of the Crown 
 are enumerated in Domesday, ineludinij; among them 
 "Yiee-coniites" and "comites", who together con- 
 Ktituted the body of men called the Barons of Kng- 
 land. As the Sovereign was entitled to demand from 
 11. e Baron's military service, homage, and attendance 
 in tlie Courts, so, many of tlie principal liarons, pnr- 
 ticularly^ such of them as were Karls, had .Military 
 Tenants, from whom they in turn received homage 
 and assistance in administering justice in their Ba- 
 ronial Courts. These Tenants were Barons of the 
 Barons, or, in the earliest sense. Minor Barons ; but 
 by the usage of England, from the Conijuest down- 
 wards, they were seldom called ISarons, that term 
 having l)een generally restricted to the' former class, 
 the holders of land direct from the Crown, who 
 were ne.xt to the King in dignity, formed his army 
 and his legislative as.scmbly, ami ol)tained the great 
 Cliarter from King.Iohn. Thesul)infcudation which 
 produced the iMinor Barons was checked by a statute 
 of Kdward I., directing that all persons acquiring 
 lands from a subjc<'t, should hold not of that subject, 
 but of his superior. 
 
 MINUTE GUNS.— Guns lired on the interment of an 
 officer of rank, or of some liigh pers<mage of the 
 realm. The officer to whom these honors are paid 
 must have been above the rank of Colonel in the 
 Armj', or of Commodore in the Navy, and have died 
 on service. Minute gims are also tired as signals of 
 distress. 
 
 MINUTE MAN. — A man enlisteil for service wher- 
 ever required, and ready to march at a moment's 
 notice. The term was first used in the American 
 Uevplution. 
 
 MINUTES.— A l)rief orrough rejiort of the proceed- 
 ings of a Society or Council drawn uji by the Secre- 
 tary or Hecorder. They are so called from being 
 taken down sliorlly, and in minute or small writing, j 
 tfi lie afterwards ensjrossed. I 
 
 MINUTES OF COUNCILS IN THE MILITARY DE- 
 PARTMENT.— 'I'he notification of orders and regula- 
 tions, which are directed to be observed by the Brit- 
 ish Army in India. These minutes receive the sanc- 
 tion of tiie Governor-General in Council, and are the 
 results of previous communications from the Court 
 of Directors in Europe. The answer to the French 
 word, Iltxultiit, which was prefixed to all orders and 
 regulations that were occasionally issued by tlie Mil- ) 
 itary Boards, or ConseiiKle Guerre, for the govern- 
 irent of tlie Army. The term, Jugeinent (fun Conneil | 
 de Guerre, corresponded with minutes of a General ; 
 or Garrison Court-Martial, and expressed not only 
 the minutes, but the .sentence of the Court. 
 
 MIQUELETTI.— Asmall body of mountain fusiliers, ! 
 
 ' who formerly belonged to the Neapolitan Army. 
 The term jl/M/'/'Wt is applird to Bandits, who liav« 
 infested th«! I'yrenean Alouiilains ; the name is alHo 
 I borne by the Captain-General's Guard. In 1H08, 
 Napoleon organized a corps of Miipielet» Fraiicaiii, 
 who ri'iidered good services. 
 j MIRAGE.— A phenomenon extremely common in 
 ' certain localities, and as simple in itB*origin as aston- 
 ishing in its elTe('ts. L'nder it art classed the ap- 
 pearance of distant objects as double, or as if bus. 
 jiended in the air erect or inverted, etc. One caiise 
 of the mirage is a diminution of the density of 
 I the air near the .surface of the earth, produceil 
 I by the transmission of heat from flie earth, or in 
 ' some other way; the denser stratum being thiiH 
 placed (ihitn , instead of. as is usually the case, hehw 
 the rare#. Now, rays of light from a distant object 
 situated in the denser nieiiiiim ti. e., a little above 
 the earth's level), coming in a direction nearly jiar- 
 allel to the earth's surface, meet the rarer medium 
 at a very obtuse angle, and instead of passing into il, 
 are reflected back to the dense medium, the com- 
 mon 8urfac(? of the two media acting as a mirror. 
 Su)ipose, then. iisiiectHlor tobe situated on an emin- 
 ence, and looking at an object situated like himself 
 in the denser stratum of air, he will see the object 
 by means of Vlirectly transmitted rays; but besides 
 this, rays from the object will be retfeeted from the 
 upper surface of the rarer stratum of air beneath to 
 his eye. The image produced by the rellected rays 
 will appear inverted, and luhiw the real object, just 
 as an image rellected in water appears when ob- 
 served from a distance. If the object is a cloud or 
 portion of sky, it will apjiear by the reflected raj's 
 as lying on the surface of the earth, and bearing a 
 strong resemblance to a sheet of water; also, as the 
 reflecting surface is irregular, and constantly varies 
 its position, owing to the constant communication 
 of heat to the upper stratum, the reflected image 
 will be constantly varying, and will ]iresent the ap- 
 pearance of a water surface ruftled liy the wind. This 
 form of mirage, which even experienced travelers 
 have found to be completely deceptive, is of com- 
 mon occurrence in the arid deserts of lower Egj-pt. 
 Persia, Tartary, etc. 
 
 In particular states of the atmosphere, reflection 
 of a portion only of the rays takes place at the sur- 
 face of the dense medium, and thus double images 
 are formed, one by reflection, and the other by re- 
 fraction — the first inverted, and the seccmd erect. 
 The phenomena of mirage are fre(iuently much more 
 strange and complicated, the images being often 
 much distorted and magnified,]and in some instanc- 
 es occurring at a consideral)le distance from the 
 object, as iii the case of a tower or church seen over 
 the sea, or a vessel over dry land, etc. The particu- 
 lar form of mirage known as looming is very fre- 
 (juently observed pt sea, and consists in an excessive 
 apparent elevation of the object. A most remarkable 
 case of this sort occurred on July 26, 1798. at Has- 
 tings. From this place the French coast is fifty 
 miles distant; yet. from the sea-side the whole coast 
 of France, from Calais to near Dieppe, was distinctly
 
 HIRE. 
 
 368 
 
 MITEAILLE. 
 
 visible, and continued so for three hours. In the 
 Artie regions it is no uncommon occurrence for 
 whale-flshers to discover tlie proximity of other ships 
 by meaus of thier images seen elevated in tlie air, 
 though tlie ships themselves may be below the hori- 
 zon. GeneralU', when the ship is above the horizon, 
 only one image, and that inverted, is found; but 
 when it is wholly, or in great part below the hori- 
 zon, double images, one erect aud t!ie other inverted, 
 are f rcqueutly seen. The faithfuluess and distinct- 
 ness of these images at times may be imagined from 
 the fact, that Captain Scoresby, while cruising oflf 
 the coast of Greenland in 1822, discovered the pro- 
 pinquity of his father's ship from its inverted image 
 in the sky. Another remarkable instance of mirage 
 occurred in May, 1854, when, from the deck of H. 
 M. screw-steamer Archer, then cruising of Oesel, in 
 the Baltic, the whole English fleet of nineteen sail, 
 then nearly thirty miles distant, was seen as if sus- 
 pended in the air upside down. Besides such phe- 
 nomena as these the celebrated Fata Morgana of the 
 Straits of Messina sinks into insignificance. The 
 Spfctcr of the Bracken in Hanover, is another cele- 
 brated instance of mirage. Its varieties are indeed 
 numberless, and we refer those who wish for fur- 
 ther information to Brewster's Optics, Blot's Traite 
 de Phys'que, and for the mathematical theory of the 
 mirage to the works of Biot, Monge, and Wollaston. 
 MIKE. — In the French artillery, a piece of wood 
 aboiu. 4 inches thick, 1 foot high, and 2^ feet long, 
 which is used in pointing cannon. 
 
 MIKEUE. — An instrument employed in coast bat- 
 teries for ascertaining whether the enemy's ships are 
 within the range of the guns, and thus to prevent 
 the gunners from expending their shot unneces- 
 sarily. 
 
 MIRMILLONES.— A variety of Roman gladiators, 
 said to have been so called from their having the 
 image of a fish on their helmets. Their armsVere 
 like those of the Gauls; hence we find that they 
 were also called Galli. They were usually matched 
 with the''Retiarii. 
 
 MIRROK. — An instrument used in the inspection 
 of cannon. The interior of the bore is examined b_y 
 reflecting the rays of the sun into it from tlie mirror 
 or mirrors ; or, if the sun is obscured, and there can 
 be no delay, by means of a spirit-lamp or of a wax 
 taper on the end of a rod, tiiking care not to smoke 
 the surface of the bore. See Inspfrtimi of Ordnance. 
 MISBEHAVIOK BEFORE THE ENEMY.— The Art- 
 icles of War declare that anj' officer or soldier who 
 misbehaves himself before the enemy, runs awav, 
 or shamefully abandons any fort, post, or a guard 
 which lie is commanded to defend, or speaks words 
 inducing others to do the like, or casts away his 
 arms or ammunition, or quits his post or colors to 
 plunder or pillage, shall suffer death, or such other 
 punishment as a Court-Martial may direct. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS.— An item or charge in the Esti . 
 mates of the British Army, and so distinguished as 
 Miscellnnewds Services; the same as our Contingent 
 JSipfnditnres. 
 
 MISCONDUCT AT DIVINE SERVICE.- In the Art- 
 icles of War, it is earnestly recommended to all 
 Officers and Soldiers diligently to attend divine 
 service. Any officer who behaves indecently or 
 irreverently at any place of divine worship is 
 brought before a General Court-Martial, there to be 
 jmblicly and severely reprimanded by the President 
 tliereof. Any soldier who so ofl'enda, for his first 
 offense, forfeits oue-si.xth of a dollar; foreacli further 
 offense he forfeits ii like sum, and is confined twenty- 
 four hours. Tlie money so forfeited is deducted 
 from his ne.xt jiay, and is ajiplied, by the Ciqitain or 
 Senior Officer of his troop, battery, or company, to 
 the use of llie sick scildicrs of the same. 
 
 MISCONDUCT IN TIME OF WAR.— All Officers and 
 Soldiers are to beliave themselves orderly in quarters 
 and fin tlie march; and wlioever commits any waste 
 orspoil, either in walks or trees, parks, warrens, fish- 
 
 ponds, houses, gardens, grain-fields.inclosures, or mea- 
 dows, or maliciously destroys any property whatsoev- 
 er belonging to inhabitants of the United States (un- 
 less by order of a General Officer commanding a sep- 
 arate army in the field), shall, besides such penalties 
 as he may be liable to by law, be punished as a Court- 
 Martial may direct. 
 
 In time of war, insurrection, or rebellion, larceny, 
 robbery, burglary, arson, mayhem, manslaughter, 
 murder, assault and battery with an intent to kill, 
 wounding, by shooting or stabliing, with an intent 
 to commit murder, rape, or assault and battery with 
 and intent to commit rape, shall be punishable by 
 the sentence of a General Court-Martial, when com- 
 mitted by persons in the military service of the Unit- 
 ed States, and the punishment in any such case shall 
 not be less than the punishment provided, for the 
 like offense, by the laws of the State, Territorj', or 
 District in which such offense may have been com- 
 mitted. 
 
 MISERXCORDE. —A very short sword, in early times, 
 attached to the right side, corresponding with the 
 position of thereguhir sword on the left side. This 
 weapon is so called because it was habitually used to 
 stab the fallen and vanquished foe, when iii such ex- 
 tremity either that mercy would be sought, or that it 
 would be a merciful deed to put an end to the suffer- 
 er's agonies. 
 
 MISNOMER.- Themistaking of the true name of a 
 person. If auj' prisoner plead a misnomer heiore a 
 Court-Martial, tlie Court may ask the prisoner his 
 real name, and call upon him to plead to the amend- 
 ed charge. 
 
 MISSILE. -^A weapon thrown, or intended to be 
 thrown, for doing execution ; as. a lance, an arrow, 
 or a bullet. 
 
 MITER. — The miter, as an ornament, seems to 
 have descended in the earliest times from Bishop to 
 Bishop. Among the Cottonian MSS. is an order 
 dated July 1, 4 Henry VI., for the delivery to Arch- 
 bishop Chichely of the miter which had been worn 
 b/ his predecessor. It was in some cases a very 
 costly ornament. Ajchbishop Pecheham's new 
 miter, in 1288, cost £17.3 4s. Id. In England, since 
 the Reformation, the miter is no longer a part of the 
 Epi.scopal costume, but it is placed over the shield 
 of an Archbishop or Bishop, instead of a crest. 
 The miter of a Bishop has its lower rim surrounded 
 with a fillet of gold ; but the Archbishops of Canter- 
 bur}' and York are in the practice of encircling theirs 
 with a ducal conmet, a usage of late date and doubt- 
 ful propriety. The Bishop of Durham surrounds his 
 miter with an Earl's coronet, in consequence of being 
 titular count palatine of Durham and Earl of Sed- 
 burgh. Before the custom was introduced of Bish- 
 ops impaling the insignia of their sees with their 
 family arms, tliej' sometimes differenced their pater- 
 nal coat by the addition of a miter. Miters are rare 
 as a charge in Heraldry, but are sometimes borne as 
 a crest, particularly in Germany, to indicate that the 
 bearers were feudatories, or dependencies of ancient 
 Abbevs. 
 
 MITFORD PERCUSSION BULLET.— An ordinary En- 
 field bullet, having a iliamber.down its longer axis, 
 to within \ inch of the hollow; this clianiber contains 
 i\ grains of detonating composition ; and the bot- 
 tom is closed with wa.v. It is intended to explode, 
 ammunition wagons. 
 
 MITIGATE.— T'o diminish the severhy of punish- 
 ment. Every otlicer who is authorized to order a 
 Genenil Court-Martial has jiower to pardon or miti- 
 gate any punisliment adjudged by it, except the 
 punishment of deiilh or of dismissal of an officer. 
 Every officer commanding a regiment or garrison in 
 which a Regimental or Gaitrison Court-Martial may 
 bi' held, has power to pardon or mitigate any pun- 
 ishment which such Court may adjudge. 
 
 MITRAILLE. Small pieces of old iron, such as 
 lieads of n;nls, etc., with whicli pieces of ordnance 
 are sometimes loaded.
 
 MITKAILLEUK. 
 
 •m;'.) 
 
 MITBAILLEUB. 
 
 MITRAILLEUE.— A nmchino-ciin in vvliicli nii- 
 iiicroiis liirn<' Imri'd rifles arc ('(itiiljini'il with hrcceli 
 iiclioii, 1)V iiic'iiiis of wliicli a shower of liiillels may 
 h.' rapiilly projeelcil by oik- man. It was invcnti'd in 
 Helitiiiin, anil uiloplcil by llie Freneh Kni])eror kooii 
 Mft<T the I'rnHsiaii-AnHtriaii war of lH(!(i. It was t)i(! 
 ejiief cannon of the Frenell artillery diirini; the 
 Franeo-(;erinan war of 1870. The mitrailleuse e.x- 
 isteil in a jirimitivc form as early as the Ittli eeii- 
 lury, and well-preserved speeimens mav lie found 
 in the arsenals and museums of Vienna, Uome, Ber- 
 lin, Moscow and ('onstantinoi)lc. A late form of the 
 weapon, used liy the French, has :i7 barrels, and am- 
 inuiiilion chests alongside the iinn on the same axle. 
 The :!T carlridi;es, intended for the cliari;e, are con- 
 tained in a small box. A steel plate with corres- 
 p.mdini; holes is placed on the open box, which is 
 then reversed, and the cartridges fall, ])oints fore- 
 most into their respective holes. They iire prevent- 
 ed from fallini; throngh by the rims at their bases. 
 The loaded plate is then introduced into the breech- 
 slot, an 1 when the breech is closed by a lever, a 
 number of steel pins, pressed by spiral springs, arc 
 only lirevcnted from striking the percussion arrange- 
 ment ill the cartridges by a plate in front of llicm. 
 When this case is moved slowly by a handle, the 
 cartridges are tired one by one. If the plate be with- 
 drawn rapidly, tlu'y follow each other so quickly 
 that Iheir discharge is almost simultaneous. The 
 projectile weighs ;i7 grammes, or a little over an 
 ounce. The charge of powder is from (! to 8 gram- 
 mes. The last amount is that connseled by the in- 
 ventors. Thismilrailleur weighs ISO kilogrammes, 
 or 400 pounds without the carriage, and it can be 
 worked by two men. It was found, however, at 
 Vienna, in December \W.), that to obtain the most 
 rapid tiring, or 48 balls jicr mimite, five men were 
 necessary to work the piece. The front carriage 
 contains from 48 to Hii boxes for loading, an'd the 
 two caissons hold l(i breech- plates furnished with 
 cartridges. The piece is, therefore, ])rovi<led with 
 23(i8 cartridges ; and a battery of 8 mitrailleurs can 
 hurl on an attacking column 3848 effective projec- 
 tiles per minute. 
 
 The description and nomenclature of the one-inch 
 mitrailleur (Gatlin Gun), a jiiece much used in the 
 United States Army, is as follows: The breech load- 
 ing rifled hurrels (1) are fastened together by a front 
 
 per-gromtii; hnp^fr-itpr.'ng. Son the drawing below 
 The following parts are within the breech-easing 
 lork.r.yliiidfr; rcar-giLde nut ; a/ckiny-ring; CKkiiig 
 kwih ; cucking-di-vice ; mrking-rinf/ clatitpn ; Hpiral 
 cam ; diaphragm ; diaphnigin-jilug ; genr-irluel ; pin. 
 inn ; rn'ir iiainKC.ri'W ; era nk-Hlioft ; in/rm ; ituriii-gc/ir. 
 Kach lock consists of a hirk-hntl, lork-tuhe iir plunger, 
 hick-li<iiitiiirr, tork.Hpring,Jiring-jiin, and iTlrnrli.r. 
 
 T(i talcf' Itie. mitrailleur upurt ii]i>ik tip frame anil 
 Ijarrels; takeoff hopper; take off cascabel jilati- ; 
 take pin out of pinion, turn crank downward, and 
 then remove crank-Khaft ; take out rear-sight, and 
 then remove large gear-wheel ; take out rear plug 
 in diaphragm, and gently revolve the jiiece until a 
 lock presents itself on a line with the hole in the 
 diaphragm, through which the locks are success- 
 ively removed ; take out large screws on sides of 
 breech-casing, and remove casing to the rear. Be 
 careful to have the lock-cylinder and piece supported 
 so as to keep the center-line of main-shaft parallel 
 to top of frame ; this is necessary to prevent the 
 inner breech or rear of the piece from dropping 
 when the casing is removed. The large rear nut, 
 on the shaft in rear of the lock-cylinder," and which 
 serves as a guide for the rear-ends of the locks, is 
 made fast by a tapered |)in and a bft-htinded ncriic ; 
 to remove this nut, the pin is taken out and the nut 
 turned to the right. The lock-cylinder and carrier- 
 block are then taken off. The spiral cam need not 
 come out of the casing in taking the mitrailleur 
 apart. 
 
 To put the mitrailleur together — P\it main-shaft in 
 place, through the plates which hold the barrels, and 
 then replace carrier-block, lock-cylinder, and large 
 rear nut; screw up this nut tightly. and put tapered pin 
 through the nut and shaft: jjlace the mitrailleur in 
 the frame, and let front end of main shaft rest in the 
 hole designed for it. in the front of frame; take care 
 to keep the center of iiKiin-shaft in the plane of top 
 of frame. When the piece is in this position, push 
 the cocking-ring over the lock-cylinder :ind let it 
 hang loosely round the carrier-block; raise the 
 breech .slightly, and push the breech-casing over 
 the lock-cylinder, etc., to its place; screw casing to 
 frame and put cocking-ring in its proper place ; re- 
 volve the piece to the right or left, so that the places 
 for the locks will come on a line with the liole ia 
 the diaphragm, through which the locks are suc- 
 
 barrel-plute (2) and a rear hnrrel-plute (3). The enr- 
 riir-hloek (4), a hollow cylinder whicli carries the car- 
 tridges, is directly behind the barrels. The lock-cyl- 
 inder, another cylinder behind the carrier-block. con- 
 tains the loek.^ (one to each barrel). The barrels, 
 carrier-block, and lock-cylinder, revolve around a 
 common axis called the mninshaft (5). which is turn- 
 by the hand-crank ((i). The lock-cylinder revolves 
 within a brerch-casi/ig (7), forming the body of the 
 gnu and closed in rear by the cn.mibel plate (8) The 
 breech-casing is fastened to {he frame (9) by theca<- 
 ing-screirn (W). The cartridges are inserted in the 
 h'ipper (\\), and pass successively into the rhannels 
 of the carrier-block, whence the)' are thrust into the 
 barrels by tlie lork-tiiheK or plungers . and held there 
 until exploded by tUaf ring-pins. The cartridgi-nliell 
 stop is attached to the hopper. The other parts are 
 the trunnions (12) ; rear-sight (13) ; front-sight (14): 
 face (15) : socket, for head of elevating-screw ; socket 
 guide-plnte and screic ; locking-block for locking bolt : 
 plug for removing locks : trarersing-screir ; regulat- 
 ing nut, on traversing-screw ; thumb-.y,ring for regu- 
 lating nut; crank-atop; hinges; hoppei-spindle; hop- 
 
 cessivcly inserted and placed in a proper position; 
 then insert screw-plug to close the hole through 
 diaphragm ; put on cog-wheel : replace crank-shaft, 
 pinion, and tapered pin ; then put on rear-sight, and 
 screw on butt-plate and hojiper. 
 
 The following is the nomenclature of the gun-car- 
 riage for the mitrailleur: Stock: head ; groove ; trail; 
 rounding of trail; trail-plate; henette ; jointing -rng; 
 pointing-socket; trail-handler; wheel-guard plate; tle- 
 vating-screw ; elevating-scrau box ; ehrating-screic bid; 
 rondelles; checks; ira.':her-hooks for liandspike ; under, 
 straps ; handspike-rings ; ceiji-iqtiare.i ; cap~\qiiare 
 chains; key-chains and keys; trunninn.bids ; trunnion 
 swivel; trunnion.-swicel friction-bed; Jrame ferr trater. 
 sing.apparatus or tran rsing-arm ; tracersing-fork ; 
 traversing-fork spring: (si)iral); traversing-fork han- 
 dle: tran rsing-fork ciamp-screw: traversing-fork c<7.i>', 
 with slot for handle ; locking-bolt connected with 
 traversing-fork by a lueking-lecer ; I'xking-lolt c-nse; 
 .itock-teat, with /linge and prop; drag-hooks; eletating- 
 screuD nut ; elevating-n ut luindlr ; eletating-rlamp 
 .icrew; rod-ca.ie and kegs; axle; uheels. See GatXing 
 Oun, Machine-gun, and Piece.
 
 MITTEN. 
 
 370 
 
 MODEL. 
 
 MITTEN. — A liand-covering which superseded the 
 gauntlet in tlie 15th century. It was made of thin 
 plates of steel, with joints, to enable the hand to 
 move freely. It is of this mitten that Bayard saj's, — 
 "Ce que gantelet gague. gorgeriu le mange." 
 
 MITTLEREE.— One of the three parts of which the 
 encieute is formed, in the German system of fortifi- 
 cation. 
 
 MIXED BATTLE. — A combination of defensive and 
 offensive battles. The most common case of this 
 class is that in which a position is selected before 
 hand where the army awaits the attack of the enem}-, 
 and at a suitable moment moves from it and attacks 
 the assaulting columns. This case is sometimes 
 known as a "defensive-offensive" battle. Where the 
 ground is favorable ami the troops are in good con- 
 dition, these battles offer peculiar advantages, since 
 the assaulting columns, being exhausted by their first 
 efforts are not in the best condition to repel the at- 
 tack of an armj' rushing forward from its position. 
 See liiiltlj'n. Defensive Battle, and Offensive Battle. 
 
 MIXING MACHINE.- A machine employed in the 
 manufacture of gun powder. It consists of a hollow 
 drum of copper about 2' wide by 3' in diameter 
 which is made to revolve at a speed of thirt3--five 
 revolutions per minute. The bearings of this drum 
 are hollow, and a shaft passes through them, having 
 in the interior of the drum an eight sided boss or 
 tube secured to it; into this a series of arms or flyers 
 are screwed, there being five on one face of the octa- 
 gon and six on tlie next alternately, so that there are 
 
 iortj'-four flyers altogether. They are made of a flat 
 section, but forked at the ends, and provided with 
 holes through their flat sides, and each one is set at 
 a different angle to the next: their points just clear 
 the inside of the drum, and they revolve in the op- 
 posite direction to it at the rate of seventy revolu- 
 tions per minute. The three bags of ingredients (50 
 lb. in all) are emiitied one at a time through a door 
 into the copper drum, and after the machine has been 
 five minutes at work they will be found to be thor- 
 oughly mixed. Tlie door in the drum is now opened, 
 and tlie com])ositicm falls down a shoot into a tub, 
 and after being spread out, is carefidly examined, 
 and then placed in the receiving bags. When the 
 bags are filled, they are tightly tied up, and it is very 
 essential that this operation be carefully performed, 
 for should tlie eoinposition be allowcil to remain loose 
 in the bags (the ingredients having very dillVrent 
 specific gravities), the saltpeter would fall to the 
 bottom, the charcoal rise to the top, and the sulphur 
 occupy th(' center, lliereby undoing the mixing; and 
 as any vibration caused l)y the working of adjacent 
 machinery would lie much ag;iinst the composition 
 retiiining llie thorough mixture given loit liythi'uia- 
 rf-hiuc, tlie bags are put into small magazines sepa- 
 
 rate from all buildings containing machinery, and 
 there laid on their sides, so that the weight of the 
 saltpeter may affect the mixture as little as possible 
 The composition is now ready for the next operation, 
 and this is performed in the incorporating mill. See 
 Gimpowder. 
 
 MOAT. — The ditch round the ramparts of a fort- 
 ress, may be either wet — i.e., full of water— or dry. 
 In the latter, which is the commoner case, the depth 
 should not be less than 12 feet nor the widtli under 
 24. The more perpendicular the walls, so much the 
 greater will be the obstruction to the enemy. In 
 regular works the walls are usually reveted with 
 masonry, that at the foot of the rampart being the 
 scarp or escarp, and that below the covered way the 
 counterscarp. See Ditch ;ind FortiHration. 
 
 MOBILISATION MOBILIZATION.— The act of pre- 
 paring troops for war. The process consists in augu- 
 mentmg a regiment from its peace to its war com- 
 plement, in calling in men on furlough, in organizing 
 the staff of divisiolis and brigades, constitudng the 
 commissariat, medical, artillerj-, and transport ser- 
 vices, and in accumulating provisions and munitions 
 As the work of mobilizing an armj' causes great and 
 inevitable expense, it is only resorted to \vhen hos- 
 tilities appear imminent. The rapidity with which 
 armies can be mobilized has been of late years great. 
 In 18.59, it took thirty-seven days for Prance to collect 
 on the river Po, a force of 104,000 men, with 12,000 
 more in Italy. In 1806, the Prussian armies (220.000 
 in number) were placed on the Frontiers of Saxony 
 and Silesia iua fortnight; and in 1870, Germany was 
 able to mobilize her forces in nine days, and 
 to send in eight days more to the French frontier an 
 army of 400,000 soldiers and 1200 guns. The mobil- 
 ization of the British armj- has been provided for 
 under orders issued by the War Office and Horse 
 Guards. By this scheme, which is not only based 
 upon defensive requirements, but also adapted for 
 offensive warfare as well. 800.000 men will be avail- 
 able within a few da3's for the defense of the coun- 
 try, and if necessary, a certain portion of the force 
 can be embarked for a war in foreign countries. 
 
 MOBILITY. — Lightness, facilit}- in moving. In war- 
 fare it is of the highest importance that the artillery 
 and transport of the army should be as light and 
 movable as is consistent with efficiency. Not only 
 does this term apply to the particular branches 
 above adverted to, but mobility expresses also the 
 facility and rapidity with which an army can trav- 
 erse a country, when called upon to do battle with 
 the enemy, which, combined with concentration of 
 force, is likely to bring :iiatters to a successful issue. 
 
 MODEL. — A pattern or imitation of anything on a 
 small scale, in wood, stone, wax, or any other con- 
 venient substance. Models are not only made for 
 the reduction in size of, articles of all sorts, and for 
 possession of fac-similes of all such works as are 
 either too large to be moved or too expensive to be 
 bought, but they are valuable in a military point of 
 view in giving, in a handy and instructive form, the 
 elevation of grovmd sketched out in topographical 
 maps, and which is also applicable to fortifications, 
 etc. Under the name oi model an ajiparatus has been 
 lately invented by Captain E. Padmore Clark (In- 
 structor of Musketry, Herefordshire Militia), for the 
 purpose of instructing officers and men in the cavalry 
 and infantry drill. The infantry model consists of 
 a miniature regiment of infantry, i . metal, and is so 
 formed that the ranks can be simultaneously turned 
 in any direction, ;uid the position of otflcers and 
 m;u'kers is ele;irly dctiiied. This appamtus. which 
 is called " Drill Moiiel App;iratus," consists of a bat- 
 talion of six companies, with mounted ami other of- 
 ficers, color-party, band, and picnieers. complete. Two 
 of the companies are divisilile into half-companies, 
 for the purpose of sliowing the movement of the side- 
 face cinn panics in the format ion of a two-deep square 
 in a batlalion of/"//r comiianics. There are six small 
 stands to attacli to the riglit or left, or the center, of
 
 MODULUS. 
 
 371 
 
 MOFyATT GUN. 
 
 oacli company, for tlu' loadiiijj; Riiidc in formations 
 
 of fours Id a ihiiik, or for llic rii^'lil ujiiiilc in n-tiriiif; 
 in liiir. Tliis apparatiiH will, (loiil)llrss. jirovc vc-ry 
 iisi'fiil \i iinpiirlitiiit.o younn olliccrs jirai'ticai knowi- 
 cdf^c in lliisirniiorlanl hrancli of tiii-ir profrwsion.and 
 will assist tlicin in (•Icarly unili-rstandini.; llir diircrint 
 movements whirli eoni|)anics and l)allalions arceall- 
 ed upon to perform on the drill-ground or in the 
 Held. Tlie drill model for eavalry is similar, and rr>- 
 l)r<'senls a whole regiment, and the troopsand sipiail- 
 rons are divisihle on the plaJi of the infanlry nioilel. 
 MODULUS. X constant c<ieHicient or nudtiplier, 
 Ijy means of which one .series or system of quanti- 
 ties can he reduced to another similar series or sys- 
 tem. Thus we have the modulus of elasticity, of 
 friction, and of .systems of lonarilhnis. The system 
 of loijarillims wliich is universally acf^'pted as the 
 prim.'iry is Napier's, and from it all other systems are 
 deduei'd in the followini,' muimer : l,et N he a 
 numlier of which th<' Napierian loij;arillini is /<, <■ heiiiir 
 the Napierian hase, it is required to find the lou;ariHim 
 of N to some other base a. Let x be this logaritlim, 
 then, we will liud 
 
 A log.cN 1 
 
 X= ; i. e., log. nN= = X log. cN. 
 
 log. i" log. ,a log. t« 
 
 1 
 This multiplier or "modulus," • — , is indc- 
 
 log. id 
 
 pendent of N, and is therefore constant for the re- 
 duction of all Napierian logarithms to the system 
 whose hase is a. If ((=^11), ihe multiplier becomes 
 ■ 1 
 
 , the modulus of Brliigs', or the common sys- 
 
 log. clO, 
 
 temof logarithn:s, and is equal to- 
 
 =.4342- 
 
 2.30258.509 
 944. 
 
 MOENCHS BUCHSE.— A small hand-cannon 11 
 inches long and 4',' inches in diameter. It preceded 
 the invention of tlie wheel-lock, and gave the tirst 
 idea of it, 
 
 MOFFATT GUN.— A breecli-loading rifled field- 
 gun. The body A is of steel, and bored through 
 from end to end. The breech-mechanism consists 
 of a conical lireech-plug, accurately fitted to the bot- 
 tom of the bore, and efticiently closing the same 
 through the support atforded by the lireech-strap. 
 This strap is attached to the truunious as au a.\is of 
 
 against the lugs, the loops of the strap over thr- 
 trunnions acbnitting of a slight play for that pur- 
 pose. 
 
 In the |)reliminary lirings had with the gun, to test 
 till' working of the parts, the breech was thrown 
 open by the shock of discharge, closing again during 
 the recoil. To obviate this a locking device wa8 
 adiled. consisting of a bolt and key, passing through 
 the breech-strap and into a rccesH in the breecli- 
 block. A half-turn of the handle is sufllcient to 
 press the block liirnly ilown into jilace, and there 
 retain it. A half-liirn in a contrary direction disen- 
 gages the key from the recess in tlie block, and the 
 breech can be thrown open. Should the breech- 
 block not always fall back on tilling up the breech, 
 a leather strap is provided, which pulls back the 
 block after the breech has been sntlicii-ntly rai.sed to 
 disengage it from the strap. The trunnions are 
 screwed into the gun-body, and are furnished with 
 shoulders, by which the loops of the brceeh-straps 
 are confined to IIk; rimbases. 
 
 The rilling of the gun consists of twelve grooves 
 and lands each, the width of the lands being 0".2.5, 
 and the depth of the grooves 0".0.5. The twist is 
 uniform, and makes one turn in 12 feet. The cham- 
 ber is concentric with the bore, but of larger diam- 
 eter, measuring 3". 19. the diameter of the bore 
 through grooves being but 3". 17. Its capacity is 
 such as to accommodate a charge of 1{ pounds of 
 powder and a lead-coated or a double-bearing Butler 
 projectile of about 10 pounds weight, the projectile 
 being inserted in the ritled portion of the bore as far 
 as the front rib or band. The vent is in the normal 
 position on top of the gun. When the gun was orig- 
 inally linished it was provided with a cup-shaped 
 gas-che<'k of copper; but having failed to give satis- 
 faction under heavy charges, a number of Broadwell 
 rings, of steel, brass, and compositicm, were tried, 
 several of w hich gave excellent results. The use of 
 a loose internal Hodman pressure-gauge being pre- 
 cluded in a small breech-loader, and it not being 
 wished to mar the gun liy boring for the external 
 gauge, the inner faci' of the breech-block was bored 
 and tapped for the reception of an interior plug. 
 
 The gun-body was manufactured by Messrs. Firth 
 & Sons, Sheffield, England, of the best quality of 
 crucible cast-steel, and forgeii from a single ingot. 
 As received at the South Boston foundry, it was 
 rough-bored and turned. The steel for the l)reecli- 
 block, strap, etc., were forgings from the XasUua 
 
 motion, but is enabled to withstand the strain of 
 discharge by locking into lugs on either side of the 
 breech of tlie gun. "The breech-strap rests in n'ar 
 upon the top of the elevating-screw, to which it is 
 attached by a suitable coupling, to a<lniit of the free 
 movement of the screw. The breech-block is hinged 
 in a fork attached to tlie under side of the breech. 
 The operation of the mechanism is as follows: The 
 breech is opened bj- tilting up the breech of the gun. 
 through the medium of a lever E, which has its axis 
 in a stirrup underneath the breech-strap. By this 
 operation the block is raised out of the breech-strap, 
 and falls back tiy its own weight upon the latter, 
 thus exposing the chamber. To close the breech 
 again the lever is raised, and the gun, owing to its 
 preponderance, falls back into the position for tir- 
 in<T ; the wedge-shaped back of the breech-lilock, at 
 the same time, enters a correspondingly beveled re- 
 ■ cess in the breech-strap, and draws the latter firmly 
 
 Works, New Hampshire. The final work of fitting, 
 finishing, and assembling, was accomplished at the 
 South Boston foundry, under the :;upervision of the 
 Inventor. 
 
 The following are the dimensions of its principal 
 parts, to wit : 
 
 Diameter of bore across lands 3.07 inches 
 
 Diameter of bore through grooves 3.17 inches 
 
 Diameter of chamber 3.19 inches 
 
 Diameter of breech-block cavity at seat 
 
 of gas-check 3.90 Inches 
 
 Diameter of breech-block cavity, outer 
 
 edse 5-23 inches 
 
 Diameter of piece at muzzle 5.90 inches 
 
 Diameter of piece at trunnions S.OO inches 
 
 Diameter of breech 9.57 inches 
 
 Diameter of trunnions 3.67 inches 
 
 Length of rille portion of bore 55.00 inches
 
 MOGRABIAN. 
 
 372 
 
 MOLDING. 
 
 Length of beveled juuction of chamber 
 
 and bore 1.00 inches 
 
 Length of chamber 9.50 inches 
 
 Total lengtli of gun 72.05 inches 
 
 Pitch of rifling uuiform;^one turn in 144.00 inches 
 
 Number of grooves and lauds 12 
 
 AVidth of lands 0.25 inch. 
 
 Weight of gun 1,000 lbs, 
 
 Weiiilit of gun-carriage without imple- 
 ments....." 900 lbs. 
 
 The preponderance of the gun at the elevating- 
 screw is such as to render the gun easily operated. 
 The gun is mounted on a United States 6-poundcr 
 carriage; the only modifications required being to 
 change the housing for the elevating-screw, and to 
 slighUy increase the space between tlie cheek-pieces. 
 See R'liKl ILiiritzcrs, anil Ordiifinfe. 
 MOGEABIAN.— A soldier of a branch of the Turk- 
 
 fuse of distillery wash called " returns." Great care 
 is required in securing the proper degree of cohe- 
 aiveness in the composition, as it must be sufficient to 
 enable the mold to preserve its form in handling, 
 and not so much as to cause it to be injured by con- 
 traction in drying. It is considered sufficiently co- 
 hesive when it wil! retain its form when taken in a 
 moist state and squeezed in the hand. The same 
 composition may be repeatedly used in molding, but 
 as its cohesive property is destroyed bj' tiie heat to 
 which it is exposed, it must be reprepared in the 
 same manner as when first formed. 
 
 The mold is formed in a cast-iron case called a 
 flank, which is usually made in sections correspond- 
 ing in number and length to those of the pattern. 
 These sections consist of two pieces wliicli, when 
 united, arc circular iu cross-section, excepting two 
 slight enlargements opposite each otlier for the for- 
 
 ish infantry composed of the peasants of the north- ; mation of the channels or "side gates" for the metal 
 ern part of Africa, who sought to better their con- \ to pass down. The pieces are flanged at the edges, 
 dition by entering foreign service. | fastened by bolts, and additionally secured by clamps 
 
 MOGUL.- The popular designation of the Emperor | over the flanges. The trunnion sections of the flask 
 
 of Delhi, as the impersonation of the powerful Em 
 pire established iu Hindustan by the Mongols, who 
 were called MnguU by the Persians. The first Great 
 Mogul was Baber, the great-grandson of Timur,whD 
 founded the Mongol Empire in Hindustan iu 1526. 
 In 1803 the Great Mogul was deprived of his throne ; 
 In 1827, of even the appearance of autliority, be- 
 coming a mere pensioner of the British ; and in 1858, 
 >Iohammed Bahadur, the last of the Dynasty, was 
 
 are fitted with trunnion boxes which have movable 
 plates at their ends for the purpose of introducing 
 the trunnion patterns and facilitating the formation, 
 of that part of the mold. The several sections are 
 so constructed as to be tmited to each otlier in their 
 regular order by means of clamps over tlie flanges at 
 the top and bottom. To form the mold the lower or 
 breech section of the flask is placed upon an iron 
 plate in an upright position, the corresponding sec- 
 
 condemned, and transported for complicity in the ' tion of the pattern introduced and centered: the 
 
 Indian Mutiny. i space between the pattern and the flask filled with 
 
 MOIENNE.-A piece of ordnance, which is now called molding composition, which is rammed down in thin 
 
 a 4-pounder, and which is tea feet long. It was for- ' la_yers around the pattern until the section is com- 
 
 merly used by the French. ] pleted. The patterns for the side gates and their 
 
 MOINEAU. — A small, flat bastion, raised in front of : branches for conveying the metal into the mold are 
 
 an indented fortification, to defend it against attacks ' iatroduced as the work progresses. After the mold 
 
 fnim small-arms. i for the lower section is finished the next section of 
 
 MOLDED POWDER. — A powder having the same ! the fiask is placed upon it and secured, the corre- 
 
 ingredients as those of ordinarj- gunpowder, but sponding section of the pattern introduced, fitted 
 
 each grain is separately molde<l. Gen. Hodman was the 
 first to propose this variety of powder : the object 
 being to cause the powder to burn on an increasing 
 surface, thus lessening the strain on the gun in the 
 first moments of combustion. See Oiijipmcchr. 
 
 MOLDING. — The process by which a cavity of the 
 form of the gun is obtained by imbedding a model 
 in sand and then withdrawing it. The model of a 
 gun, technically termed the pattei-ii, is usually con- 
 structed of wood made in as many sections and parts 
 as may be necessary to admit of its being easily 
 withdrawn from the mold. The sections of the 
 pattern for the breech and reinforce are made with 
 diameters exceeding very slightly those of the fin- 
 ished gun. while the diameters of the sections for 
 the chase are largely in excess. The breech section 
 is provided with a cascabel_ for supporting the gun 
 in tlie lathe while being turned and bored. The pat- 
 terns of the trunnions are attached in tlieir places 
 by wooden pins, which can be easily witlulrawu 
 when it becomes necessary to detach the pattenis. 
 Tlie several sections of the pattern for the body of 
 the gun are made with a slight taper to facilitate 
 their withdrawal. The pattern for the chase of the 
 gun is made considerably longer than the required 
 length of that part, to provide a "sinking-head"' 
 which, when the gun is cast, receives the scoria of 
 the melted metal as it rises to the surface, and also 
 furnishes the metal required to feed tlie shrinkage 
 caused by the cooling of the casting. The sand 
 used for ilie molding composition should lie princi- 
 pally of silex, very refractory, commonly called 
 sharp-sand. When not .sufficiently refractory it is 
 vitrified by the high temperature of the melted metal, 
 and protuberances are formed ujion the casting 
 which are removed with great difficulty. To pre- 
 pare th(^ composition for use the sand is carefully 
 aifled. then projierly mixed and moistened with 
 water in which clay has been stirred, or with the rc- 
 
 witli dowels, which enter the breech section and 
 hold it accurately in place. The molding is con- 
 tinued with this section as with the first, and when 
 completed it is lifted off, the pattern being left in 
 the mold. The third section of the flask, which is 
 usually the trunnion section, is then placed upon 
 the second and secured, and the pattern adjusted in 
 the same way as before. The trunnion patterns are 
 attached and the molding is continued. When this 
 section is completed the pins attaching the trunnion 
 patterns are removed and the patterns withdrawn. 
 The formation of the remaining sections is continued 
 until the whole is completed, thus insuring a perfect 
 mold throughout, free from irregularities at the 
 junction of the sections. 
 
 Care is taken to sprinkle dry sand upon the surface 
 of each section of the mold before continuing the 
 work to prevent adhesion and to admit of the sec- 
 tions being separated without injur}-. As the work 
 upon the respective sections is finished the patterns 
 are withdrawn. If any portions of the mold are 
 injured iu the withdrawal they are repaired. The 
 several sections are placed in the drying oven, where 
 a moderate heat is kept up, until thoroughly drie<i. 
 They arc then removed from the oven, and a .vash, 
 composed of German graphite, pulverized anthracite 
 coal, and distillery returns, applied to the interior 
 surface of the mold. The sections are replaced in 
 the oven, and when dried removed, and a second 
 coating of the wash applied while the mold is still 
 warm. This wash is to produce a smooth, hard sur- 
 face. It prevents the melted metal from mixing 
 with the sand of the mokl and forming protuber- 
 ances on the surface of the casting. 
 
 The ciire-harrcl or arbor consists of a water-tight 
 cast-iron tube, made sufficieully thick to withstand 
 the pressure of the metal in the mold. lis length 
 and diameter are such as to leavea sufiicieut surplus 
 of metal iu the bore of tlie gun to secure a good
 
 HOLDING COMPOSITION. 
 
 373 
 
 MOLLY MAGUIEE8. 
 
 finish. It is conslnictcd witli n sliirlit taper to fnfil- 
 itate its wiUiilruwiil after the riislin},'. 'I"he hiwer 
 end is rouiiiled oil' uiiil is lilted with sevenil iniii 
 pins fi)r seeuriii}; tlje extremity iif the rope, wliich 
 is used iiH vvruppin;; nmteriid in tlie prepariitiun 
 of the cure; tlie exterior of tlic l)arrel is fluted 
 from top to hottom to allow the escape of the 
 pases generated hy its combustion. liefore bc- 
 int; used the core-l)arrel is always sulijeeted 
 to a powiTful water i)ressure to test its soundnes. 
 To prepare the core for <'astin!^, journals are fitted at 
 its extremities. It is tlien placed iti a horizontal po- 
 mlion upon an iron truck, sup]iorte(l hy the jour- 
 nals rest iiii; in heariims, and turned Ijy a crank at- 
 tached to on<' of the journals. It is first wrapped 
 ■with wliite hemp rope so as to cover uU of llie e.xter- 
 
 ior surface in contact with the melted metal in the 
 mold. (_)ver this a coatins; of molding composition 
 is applied quite wet, wrapped with twine or wire to 
 instire its adhering. AVhen the compo.sition has par- 
 tially dried another thin coating is applied, and the 
 surface rendered smooth and even by revolving the 
 core in contact with a straight edge resting on the 
 truck. The truck witli the core is then rolled into 
 the drying oven. When the composition is dried the 
 core is removed from the oven and a coating of the 
 same wash again applied. It is again replaced in the 
 oven luitil thoroughly dry, when it is removed and 
 the journals taken out. Tlie one at the bottom is 
 replaced by a tight fitting screw-plug covered over 
 with molding composition. The top is fitted with a 
 water-tiglit cap so constructed as to receive the con- 
 ducting-pipes for the water, and is ready for use. 
 
 Thvpi't as usually constructed for the casting of 
 guns on the Uodman plan, is cylindrical in form and 
 is surrounded with a brick wall, Ijuilt in offsets, af- 
 fording supports for braces to steady the mold in po- 
 sition; grates are arranged aro\md the circumference 
 of the ijottom for tires lighted immediately after the 
 casting to retard the radiation of heat from the ex- 
 terior of the mold. To retain the lieat of the fires 
 in the grates the mouth of the pit is covered with a 
 close-fitting cover of boiler iron. For furnishing air 
 to the fires, flues are made opening into the pit below 
 
 the grates, while near the top another flue, making 
 suitable connection with a chimney, produces the 
 necessary drauglit. If the pit has bein out of use 
 for any very great length of time, it is thorouglily 
 dried l)y tires in the grates liefore placing the 
 molds in position. To prepare the pit to receive 
 the mold, the bottom is covered with a layer of 
 sand. A heavy cast-iron plate in then laid down 
 and carefully leveled. Upon this section the breech 
 section of the mold is placed in an upright position. 
 The otliiT sections are successively lowereil and 
 secureil in their places, the whole beinir liraceil from 
 the sides of tlie pit to keep it in a vertical i)osition. 
 The core is then lowered into the mold of the gun. 
 To center and secure it in position, a cast-iron frame, 
 usually termed a " si)irler," is employed. The spider 
 consists of a heavy ring supported upon three legs, 
 each having a projection at the bottom fitted with 
 an adjustable screw resting uj)on the upper flange 
 of file flask. The core passes through the ring 
 of the spider, is secured to it by bolts through the 
 Itange at the top of the barrel, and held firmly, so 
 that any movement of the sjiider will produce a 
 change in the position of the core. To center the 
 core, a long wooden rod is used, to the end of which 
 a piece of board is fixed to hold a light. The length 
 of this projecting board, previousjy determined, is 
 the distance which the core shoulil be, whi'ii in the 
 center, from the mold at its maximum diameter. 
 Having adjusted the core in the mold by means of 
 the screws in the legs of the spider, it is firmly 
 secured in its position by clamps made to fit under 
 the flange at the top of the flask and over the pro- 
 jections at the end of the legs of the spider. The 
 fuel for the tires in the ])it i^; arranged on the grates 
 in readiness to be kindled. See It'idinnn Gun. 
 
 MOLDING COMPOSITION.- The sand most used 
 for this purpose is a kind of hjani, which contains a 
 suliicient (|uantity of clay to reniler it moderately 
 cohesive when damp. Sand, possessing all the 
 qinilities required for molding, is seldom, if ever, 
 found in a state of nature; but when the requisite 
 qualities are known the materials may be selected, 
 and an artificial composition produced without 
 difficulty. The sand should lie principally of silex, 
 very refractory, and of the kind commonly called 
 aftarp-sand. When not sufficiently refractory, the 
 sand is vitrified by the high temperature of the 
 melted metal, and protuberances are found upon the 
 casting which are not easily removed. 
 
 The method of preparing the molding-composition 
 artificial!}', varies according to the kind of casting 
 for which it is to be used. In preparing it for cannon, 
 great care is taken to introduce the exact quantity 
 of clay required. When too litle is used, the com- 
 position is not sufficiently adhesive; when too nuich 
 is used, the mold is injured by contraction in drying. 
 The sand is first carefutly sifted, then properly 
 mixed and moistened with water in which clay has 
 been stirred; the composition is considered sufficient- 
 ly adhesive when it will retain its form after having 
 been taken in a moist state and squeezed in the 
 hand. 
 
 The same composition may be repeatedly used 
 for molding, but as the adhesive property of the 
 clay is destroyed by the heat to which it is exposed 
 in casting, more clay must be added every time, in 
 the same manner as wlien the composition is first 
 formed. See .UnMhig. 
 
 MOLLY MAGUIRES.— A secret Order which existed 
 in 1S54-~T, and probablj' still exists, in the anthra- 
 cite coal mining region of north-eastern Pennsyl- 
 vania. Here 400 collieries employed 60.000 men; 
 Americans. Germans, Welshmen, Englishmen, and 
 Swedes comprising one-half the number, the re- 
 mainder being Irisli. Among the latter half origi- 
 nated, in the loc;dity named, the Order of JfoTly 
 Maguires, a branch of the " Ribbonmen" of Ire- 
 land. The Order, howevsr. had a much wider ex- 
 istence, and is alleged to have been affiliated with
 
 UOMENI. 
 
 374 
 
 VOUENTUU. 
 
 the "Ancient Order of Ilibercians," elsewhere a 
 peaeeable and reputable organization. Until 1865 
 and '66 the Order of Molly Maguires had not become 
 generally known for the murders and other brutali- 
 ties which then distinguished it. In ISTn, having 
 gained control of a combination which forced a 
 general strike in the coal regions, it succeeded in 
 obtaining an ascendency in the councils of the 
 miners, and from that period was prominent in 
 assassinations and other outrages, committed usu- 
 ally on the persons and against the property of Jus- 
 tices of the Peace, Police Officers, and Mining 
 Bosses. The number of murders increased between 
 1869 and '71, and fell off after the latter year, and 
 until that of the great strike of 1875. According to 
 some of those who made an investigation into the 
 antecedents of the Mollj' Maguires, they originated 
 in the trade-unions, and not in the A. O. H. or 
 among the Ribbonmeu. None but Catholic Irish- 
 men or their descendants were admitted to member- 
 ship : the Order was organized in divisions, each 
 having a chief ofBcial known as a " Bod3'-Master " ; 
 and there were signs and passwords to enable mem- 
 bers to distinguish each other. These signs and 
 passwords were given to the members by the Body- 
 Masters, who received them from the County Dele- 
 gate, wlio got them from the State Delegate, to 
 whom the}' were furnished by the National Delegate 
 or National Board in New York City ; to the latter 
 they came quarterly from Ireland, by the hands of 
 the Steward of one of the transatlantic steamships. 
 A central and governing organization known as 
 "The Board of trin" was said to be the origination 
 of the Order, and this held quarterly meetings in 
 England, Scotland, or Ireland. So extended were 
 tlie ramitications of this Order in Pennsylvania, that 
 it was made known during the trials of the Molly 
 Maguires in 1877 that one of their Body-Masters in 
 thei'ottsville district held tlie high office of County 
 Commissioner. The tiual exposure, capture, and 
 punishment of the ili^lly >Iaguires was largel}' due 
 to the energy and determination of Franklin B. 
 Gowen, President of the Philadelphia and Reading 
 Railroad Company ; through the immediate instru- 
 mentality of James McParlan, a detective, who joined 
 the JIoll}' Maguires, he became acquainted with 
 their members and the secrets of organization, and 
 was at length enabled to afford information which 
 disclosed the names of criminals connected with a 
 majority of the murders committed by the Order. 
 A large number were apprehended, tried, and con- 
 demned, and their execution — that of a number of 
 them occurring on the same day — so alarmed 'the 
 members of the Order that it ceased to possess any 
 extended influence. 
 
 MOMENT. — The moment of any physical agency is 
 it> importance with reference to some special appli- 
 cation. Thus the moment of a force applied (per- 
 pendicularly) to a lever, is the importance of the 
 force as regards turning tlie lever about its fulcrum. 
 It is. as we know (see Lever), proportional to the 
 product of the force b)' the distance of its point of 
 application from the fulcrum. The moment of a force 
 about any axis (to which its direction is perpendic- 
 ular) is the product of the force by its least distance 
 from the axis ; and a similar definition is laid down 
 for moment of velocity and moment of momentum. 
 It is easy to see (see Momentum) that in any system 
 of nnilually acting bodies the moment of momentum 
 about any axis remains constant, since tlie equal 
 mutual forces measure the momentum transferred 
 from one body to another, and the moments of these 
 forces are in pairs equal and opposite. A particular 
 case of this is Kepler's law, I hat each planet describes 
 equal areas in equal times about the sun. 
 
 In the rotation of bodies round an axis, (he mo- 
 ment of inertia is thct sum of the products of each par- 
 ticle of the: bo ly into the square of its distance from 
 the axis; or if .M lie the body, 7/»i, 7/1.^. m,,, etc., the 
 particles composing it,and /'i, rj, r,, etc., their corres- 
 
 ponding distances from the axis, then the moment of 
 inertia of M=m.,)\--^-m„r^^-{-7n,r,'-'-\- etc., and if a 
 quantity, K, be found such that MK^="iir,=-|-m2r2 ^ 
 -)- '«3''3^+. etc. then K is called the radius "f gyra- 
 tion. See Ctnter of Gyration. 
 
 MOMENTUM. — Momentum maybe defined as pro- 
 portional to the mass moving, and its velocity, con- 
 jointly. If we assume unit of momentum to be that 
 unit of mass moving with unit of velocity, we shall 
 evidently have, for the momentum of a mass M, 
 moving with velocity V, the expression MV. And 
 such is the unit generally adopted. It is .shown by 
 experiment that, when force produces motion in any 
 body, the momentum produced in one second is pro- 
 portional to the force — and, in fact,/o;r« ismeasni-ed 
 by the, momentum it is capable of producing in unit of 
 tinw. Thus, the same force, if acting for one second 
 on each of a number of bodies, produces in them 
 velocities which are inversely as their masses. Also 
 when, as in the case of falling bodies, the velocities 
 produced in one second are the same in all, we con- 
 clude that the forces are pi'opurtiomil to the masses; 
 and, in fact, this is the phj-sical proof that the weight 
 of a body is proportional to its mass. Again, if 
 diflEerent forces act, each for a second, on the same 
 mass, the velocities produced are proportional to the 
 forces. All these are but different modes of state- 
 ment of the experimental fact that force is propor- 
 tional to the momentum it produces in unit of time ; 
 which forms a part of Newton's second law of 
 motion. When two masses act on each other, 
 Newton's third law of motion shows that the 
 forces they mutually exert are equal and oppo- 
 site. The momenta produced by these must there- 
 fore be equal and opposite. Thus in attraction 
 or impact of two masses, no momentum is lost; 
 since what is lost by one is gained bj- the other. 
 The momentum of a system of bodies can be re- 
 solved (as velocity is resolved) into components in 
 any assigned directions, and the mutual forces of the 
 system may be thus likewise resolved. Applying 
 the previous result, we see at once that in any s3-stem 
 of mutually acting bodies (such, for instance, as the 
 solar system), no momentum is, on the whole, either 
 gained or lost in any particular direction ; it is merely 
 transferred from one part of the sj'stem to another. 
 This fact, called the conservation of momentum, has 
 caused great confusion in the minds of p.seudo-phy.sic- 
 ists, who constantly confound it with conservation 
 of work or energy, a totally different thing. The mo- 
 mentum produced by a force in any period of time is 
 measured by the product of the force and the tiine 
 during which it has acted — the energy or work done by 
 a force is measured by the product of the force and the 
 spacf through which it has acted. Jlomentum is pro- 
 portional to the simple velocity of a body, and can, 
 iiecer, by any i'notrn process, he transformed into any- 
 thing elsi'. Energ3', when de[>ending on velocity, is 
 proportional to the square of the velocity, and is in 
 the natural world constantly being tran.iform^'d from 
 its actual or kinetic form to its pott ntial form , and bach 
 again, or to some other kinetic form, sucli as heat, and 
 finally m.ust liectmie heat. Momentum, on the con- 
 trarJ^ is never altered, either in kind or in amount. 
 In knocking doirn a wall, or in staving in the whole 
 side of a ship, the battering-ram of the ancients (when 
 constructed of sufficient mass, and worked by the 
 proper number of men or animals) was jirobably 
 nearly as etfective as the best modern artillery. But 
 in making a breach in a wall, or in punching a hole 
 in the armor of an iron-clad, mere massive shot with 
 low velocities (such as those of the Dahlgren guns), 
 are comparatively ineffective, however great tlieir 
 momentum ; while an Armstrong or 'Whitworth (iro- 
 jectile, with a fraction of the momentum, but with 
 greater velocity, and, for its size, much greater 
 kinetic energy, effects the object with ease. In many 
 every-day ])henomena, we see most distinctly the 
 dilTerence between these two atfections of matter. 
 Thus, a blow delivered from the shoulder by a heavj/
 
 MONARCHY. 
 
 375 
 
 MONCBIEFF DEFBESSION CABBIAGES. 
 
 pugilist, evfln if it be Hliic;gi»lily Rivpn, senenilly 
 floors its man, witlioul ildiiiiririiicli oIIkt injur}' ; but 
 a sharp stroke adniiniKtcrcil liya liglil wcii,'lit, while 
 liardly disturbini; I he adversary's equilihriuMi, iii- 
 fliets serious |MUiishriienl. 
 
 MONARCHY. - 'I'liat fonn of ij;overnineiil iu aeoin- 
 linniit\' by whicli one person e.\creises Uk* soverf-ii^n 
 aulhorily. Il is only when the Ivini;, or Cliief .Mag- 
 istrate of the coinniunily, possesses Ihe entire rnl- 
 ini^ power liiatlie is, in Ihe proi)er aeeeplalion of Ihi' 
 term, a Monareli. Most of tlie Oriental (Joverninents 
 past ami pre.scnt, Russia at ])resent, anil Spain ami 
 France as they were- in the last century, are in this 
 strict sense Monarchies. Tlie deiienerale form of 
 Monarchy is tyranny, or (Joverinnent for tlie exclu- 
 sive^ benelit of the liuler. Wlien thelleadof the 
 State, still possessin;;; IIk! status and diLTnity of roy- 
 alty, shares the supreme power with a class of No- 
 btes, with a pojmlar body, or with both, as in our 
 own country, the (iovernment, though no Ioniser in 
 strictness monarchical, is called in jiopular laniruaife 
 a Mixed or I.iiniled Monarchy, the term Absolute 
 Monarchy beini; applied to a Goveriuuent properly 
 monarchical. The biiiliest ideal of (government 
 would piTliaps beallaiiieil by an Absolute Monarchy, 
 if there were any seenrily for always possessin;^ a 
 thoroui^hly wi.se and uood Monarch ; but tliis con- 
 dition is obviously unattainable, and a bad Despot 
 Inis it in his power to intlict intinite evil. It there- 
 for becomes desirable that a coverning class, com- 
 posed, if possible, of the wisest and most enlight- 
 ened in the country, should share the stiprcme ])ow- 
 er with the Sovereign. A Limited .Monarchy has 
 this ailvautage over an Aristocratic Republic that, 
 in ditiicult crises of the nation's e.xistanee, Royalty 
 becomes a neutral and guiding [Kiwer, raised al)ove 
 the accidents and struggles of political life. Mon- 
 archy, most usually hereditar}-, has sometimes been 
 elective, a condition generall}- attended with feuds 
 and distractions, as was the case iu Poland. The 
 elective system is still followed in the choice of the 
 Pope. Constitutional Monarchy may be in its ori- 
 gin elective, or combine both sj'stems, as when one 
 family is disinherited, and the scepter declared 
 hereditary in the hands of another under certain con- 
 ditions. 
 
 MONCRIEFF DEPRESSION CARRIAGES.— The de- 
 pressing garrison-carriages have been made to 
 mount guns of G. 3-inch, 7-inch, and 'J-inch calibers, 
 the latter being as large as it is thought practicable 
 to work on this kind of carriage. The cheeks are 
 made like those of the heavy carriages, of two h- 
 incli plates riveted together, with wrought-iron 
 frames S\ inches wide between them. The cheeks 
 are connected by two transoms of plate-iron. The 
 elevator is made in the same way as the cheeks. The 
 chassis-rails are of girder-iron, 19J feet long, G',- 
 incbes wide on the flange, and 12 inches deep for 
 the 9-inch gun. Si.v traverse-wheels are used. The 
 carriage lias been tested at Shoeburyness by re- 
 peated firings, some of which with the 6.3-inch and 
 9-inch gnu we witnessed. The smaller gun comes 
 down to the loading position after firing more 
 smoothly .and with less shock than the larger gun. 
 the charge for which was 50 pounds of powder and 
 a projectile weighing 2.')0 pounds. The G.8-incli gun 
 is designed to fire over a parapet 9 feet 4 inclies 
 high, and the 9-inch gun over one 12i feet high. In 
 the 9-inch hydro-pneumatic carriage the force of 
 the recoil is utilized to compress a certain volume 
 of air contained within a close vessel, and is after- 
 ward employed to raise the gun from under cover 
 to the firing position. The gun is supported on two 
 strong lever supports. One end of each embraces 
 the trunnion of the gun. and the other is keyed to a 
 heavy shaft which turns in journals near the founda- 
 tion-plate. This shaft has two strong cranks wliich 
 operate pistons fitted to two cylinders. A third lever 
 support is hinged at one end to the breech of the 
 gun,, and the other to a support attached to the ele- 
 
 vating-apparatus. The cylinders communicat* by 
 
 means of strong pipes witli air-vessels, and a valve 
 is arranged to jiermit the water to pass from the 
 cylinders to the air-vessels, but does not allow it to 
 return. A sutllcient quantity of water is used to 
 assuri: the valves being always immersc'd in it. The 
 air in Ihe vessels is compressed by means of the air- 
 pump until it is under sutllcient pressure to raise the 
 gun from the loading to the firing position. When 
 the gun is tired, tho. recoil forces the pistons in the 
 cylinders, and compresses the air in the vessels, 
 whi(^h hold it in store until required to raise the gun 
 for the next i'lrtt. By turning the valve which allows 
 the water to flow back fnjm the vessels to the cylin- 
 ders, the water at on<-e jiresses against the piston- 
 heads, and forcing them back raises the gun to the 
 firing position. The carriage is the same in prin- 
 ciple as the hydro-pneumatic siege-carriage, which 
 will be noticed in detail. 
 
 Major Moncriefl" urges with much force that by the 
 adoption of a depressing carriage for siege-guns, 
 embrazuri's for earthworks, which are entirely un- 
 suited to modern warfare, may be dispensed with, 
 and a better and safer Ijattery can be used ; namely, 
 that in which the guns are i)lanted in pits or trench- 
 es where the gunners are entirely protected from the 
 fire of sharpshooters and the direct fire of canister 
 and shrajjuel. In his siege-carriage, instead of using 
 the recoil of the gun to raise a counterpoise weight 
 which sliall in turn elevate the gun from the loading 
 to the firing jiosition as in his sea-coast carriage, he 
 utilizc'sthe recoil to compress a volume of air. which 
 being brought to act upon the gun shall raise it to 
 the firing position. The same idea, was proposed 
 several jears ago by Mr. James Eads, civil engineer 
 of St. Louis, and a carriage made to operate on this 
 principle was patented by him. Moncrieff's car- 
 riage is built for a (H-pounder rifled gun. It resem- 
 bles in its general appearance an ordinary wrought- 
 iron siege-carriage, and diiTers from it only in the 
 addition of the hydro-pneumatic cylinder and piston, 
 the elevating arms or supports, and a modification 
 of the apparatus for pointing the gun. Between 
 the cheeks of the carriage is placed a cast-iron cj'lin- 
 der with trunnions, which are supported in trun- 
 nion-beds in the cheeks. The cylinder hangs in a 
 vertical position, and comes down to within lo inch- 
 es of the ground. This cylinder is a compound 
 one, having an inner cylinder in its axis, there being 
 two channels of communication between them. closed 
 by valves. The first is intended to permit the pas- 
 .sage of the liquid from Ihe inner to the outer cylin- 
 der, and is closed on . one side by a valve which 
 works out automatically, and on the otherby a reg- 
 ulating-valve for moderating the motion of the piece 
 at the last part of the recoil, and also acting auto- 
 matically : the other channel allows the liquid in the 
 outer cylinder to pass into the inner one. and is 
 closed b}' a valve which is operated by means of a 
 lever attached to the left trunnion of the cylinder. 
 A piston fits the inner cylinder closely. Its head is 
 divided into two branches and serves as a transom 
 to the two lever arms, to which it is secured by 
 hinge-bolts. The two lever-iirms are strong wrought- 
 iron bars, the lower ends of which are formed in the 
 shape of trunnions, and fit in the trunnion-beds of 
 the carriage, being held in place by the cap-squares. 
 The upper ends have holes bored in them to receive 
 the trunnions of the gun. In the firing position 
 these arms are nearly vertical, and raise the axis of 
 the piece 8 feet above the platform : the recoil 
 brings them nearly horizontal, lowering the trun- 
 nions of the gun to about 3| feet. Two long iron 
 rods are fastened to one end to the breech of the gun 
 by a hinge-bolt, and the other end to the elevating 
 apparatus. 
 
 The inner cylinder is filled with liquid, which also 
 occupies the lower part of the outer cylinder, but 
 only for a short distance, so as to cover the passages 
 between the two cylinders. The liquid is a mixture
 
 MONGOLIAN CASQinB. 
 
 376 
 
 HONE. 
 
 of one part of glycerine to two of water. The air is the 
 outer cylinder is compressed ,by means of an air- 
 pump before it is put in position. The exact degree 
 of pressure must be determined by experiment. The 
 carriage is held in place l)ehind the epaulement by 
 means of a chain or rope, which is made fast at one 
 end to a hook on the axle at its middle point, and the 
 other to an anchor in the ground in frout of the gun. 
 The recoil of the carriage must be prevented in order 
 that the hydraulic apparatus may be made to oper- 
 ate. The regulating-valve of the cylinder is worked 
 by a crank, which is moved by a connecting-rod at- 
 tached at its uppc end by a hinge-bolt to the right 
 lever-arm. The connecting-rod has a slot in its low- 
 er end, in which the pin of the crank plays. Suppos- 
 ing the gun to be in the firing position, the regulat- 
 ing-valve is wide open. "When the gun is discharged 
 the recoil presses the lever-arms down to the rear, 
 forcing the piston in the cylinder, which turns around 
 its trunions. The pressure on the liquid opens the 
 valve and allows it to pass into the outer cylinder, 
 compressing the air contained therein. The regulat- 
 ing-valve is open during the great part of the motion 
 downward, the length of the slot being so regulated 
 that the pin of the crank will not reach its upper end 
 until the gun is almost down, when it will turn the 
 crank and close the passage between the two cylind- 
 ers. The trunions strike on India-rubber buffers bolt- 
 
 long iron rods attached to the breech are hinged to 
 the upper end of the racks. By turning the handle 
 of the endless screw, the circular racks are raised or 
 lowered, and also the breech of the gun. The circu- 
 lar rack has its center at the point around which the 
 rod is pivoted on the breech of the gun when it is in 
 the loading position, so that the angle that its axis 
 makes with the horizon in this position is the same, 
 no matter at what angle it may be fired. Reflecting 
 sights are arranged on the carriage, so that the gun 
 maybe aimed by the gunner without exposing him- 
 self to the enemy's fire. 
 
 The carriage is mounted on an ordinary siege-plat- 
 form. and the^ parapet should be an overhanging one, 
 in order that there should be the necessary space for 
 loading, and to insure the muzzle of the gun when 
 in the firing position being well beyond the crest. 
 If the hydro-pneumatic arrangement be disabled, the 
 gun may be then mounted on the carriage as an or- 
 dinary siege-gun. The hydro-pneumatic cylinder 
 should be charged in the park and not in the battery. 
 Air-pumps are provided for this purpose. The mean 
 pressure in the cylinder during the experiments has 
 been 400 pounds per square inch, about 27.2 atmos- 
 pheres, the piece being in the firing position. and cor- 
 responds to 500 pounds when it is in the loading pos- 
 ition. If it should be necessary for any reason to 
 increase the pressure in the cylinder, portable air- 
 
 ed to the upper side of the cheeks. The greatest dis- 
 tance that the piston can be forced into the cylinder 
 is 28J inches, and the dimensions of the cylinder and 
 piston are so determined that at the end of the mo- 
 tion this air will have been compressed to about 
 one-third of its original volume. When the piece is 
 loaded, in order tobringit to the firing position, it is 
 only necessary to open the passage between the out- 
 er and inner cylinders. To effect this, the gunner 
 on the left turns the key in the left trunnion of the 
 cvlinder, and opens the valve which allows the li- 
 . quid to return to the inner cylinder ; tlie pressure 
 of air drives back the lifiuid, 'which raises the pis- 
 ton and the gun. Two chains fastened on the right 
 and left of the piece, one end to the lever-arms and 
 the other to the clu'eks, stop the gim when it has 
 Tcaclicd the firing j)Osition. During the ujiward 
 motiim the conned ing-rod attaclied to the right lever 
 turns the regulating-valve and opens it ready for the 
 discharge of tlie piece. A windlass lictwcen tlu' 
 sides of the trail affords (he means of bringing down 
 the gun by the aid of ropes to the loading position 
 without firing, or when the trunnions are not 
 brought in contact with the rubber buffers, as will 
 happen when firing with small charges at high an- 
 gles. 
 
 The elevating apparatus consists of two circular 
 lacks placed on the inside of the cheeks, and o])cr- 
 ateil by means of an ciulless screw, which turns a 
 pinion" engaging in the teeth of the rack. The two 
 
 reservoirs are proviiicd containing air compressed to 
 75 or 80 atmosplieres. The gun lias been fired many 
 times with 12 pounds of powder and a projectile 
 weighing 64 pounds; tlie carriage worked well. It 
 has been found that it can be fired at the rate of one 
 round per minute at low angles of elevation. The 
 weiglit of the carriage comprete is G2J- cwt., the ser- 
 vice-carriage being 32} cwt. Major Moncrieff be- 
 lieves the weight may be reduced (by making the 
 cylinder of bronze instead of iron, the plunger a hol- 
 low cylinder of wrought iron, and the lever-arms of 
 built iieams instead of solid) to 50j cwt. The great 
 weight of the carriage is still regarded as a serious 
 objection to it. Besides, the complex and delicate 
 nature of the machinery, and the complication of 
 stores required to go with it, induce the belief that 
 it would prove too cumbrous for use in sieges gener- 
 ally. See Seawnut and Garrison C'arriagefi,' ana Siege 
 C'ai-riar/ef.. 
 
 MONGOLIAN CASQUE.— An ancient helmet with 
 peak crest ami socket for plume. It was very beau- 
 tiful, and richly ornamented with damascened work. 
 
 MONK. — The most common methods of firing 
 mines are by the use of the monk and the box-trap 
 These two methods recpiire a powder-hose. The 
 monk is a bit of agaric lA inches in length. The 
 train to be fired by it. is arranged as follows. Stretch 
 the extremity of the hose tipnii a sheet of jiaper and 
 sprinkle some dry. fine powder ujion it; cover this 
 powder over with another sheet of paper, secured at
 
 MONOMACHY. 
 
 377 
 
 UOORINO. 
 
 its four forncra with dry ciirlli or Htoncs; pass tlic; 
 monk tlirouLtli 11 hole in llic iiii])cr slicct, and let it 
 project liiUf itH IcMu'lli alirivc it, its Imsclicirit; pliiiiu'- 
 Cll in tlie j)oW(l(r on llir liotloin kIiimM; si-l lire lotlie 
 nioiilt lit top witli another pie(M; of agaric, termed an 
 infiirmfr of tli(^ same diuiensions and form as the 
 first, and retire (ini(:l<ly. 
 
 IJoth tlie use of tlie Ijox-traj) and monk I.ave tli(^ 
 jnconvenienee of recpiirini; a powder-hose, wliieli, 
 from its own explosion, poisons llie. galleries. They 
 have also, and more jiarlicularly the monk, thedefeet 
 of not producing the explosion aUvaysat the instant 
 desired. To avoid these inconveniences a galvanic 
 current has of late l)een applicil to lire mines, and 
 with complete success. This method has been found 
 particularl}' serviceable in tiringchargi'S underwater. 
 Sec //<(.('-^;v(/),and Jtiirket-tniiiuh. 
 
 MONOMACHY.— A single combat or the fighting of 
 two, hanil to hand. Il is di-rivcd from Ihc (in^'k. 
 A due] Miav prcipcrly l)e (■.■dli'd a .Moiiomachv. 
 
 montal'embert" system of foktification> 
 
 Among the wrilcTs on permanent fori ilic.al ion whose 
 works liave hail an imporlant bearing <jn Ihc' progress 
 of Ilie art, Monlalcmbert holds a conspicuous ])lace, 
 although not educated as an engineer. Struck liy 
 the evident defccis of the methoils of Ids prede- 
 cessors, particularly the want of casemates, both for 
 defensive dispositions for artillery and musketry, 
 imd the shelter of the garrison and munitions, Mon- 
 ta.enibert devoted his time, talents, and fortime to 
 bringing about a change in tlie direction in which 
 it seemed to him called for. Ilis elforts, however, 
 ..ed to no modilicatious of consequence during his 
 -ife, which was principally spent in angry contro- 
 versies with his opponents, except the extension of 
 casemaled defenses for sea-coast works; and it is 
 only within a comparatively recent period, in the 
 present century, that a new sciiool of engineers has 
 grown up principally in Germany, based upon the 
 views put forth mainly by Montalembert. Tlie prin- 
 cipal propositions of Montalend)ert consist : 1. In 
 the entire rejection of the bastioned .system, as, 
 according to liis views, imsuitable to a good defen- 
 sive disposition; and in its stead he proposed to n.se 
 either the Unnillcilty.ilitii, or else thv j)ii/ygoiiiil .yj/nh-in. 
 2. In basing the strength of these last systems upon 
 aa overwhelming force of artillery tire in defensive 
 casemates. 3. In organizing strong permanent' 
 works within, and indeueudeut of the body of the 
 place, wliicli are to serve as a .secure retreat for the 
 garrison when forced to give up its defense. Mon- 
 talembert tirst gave the name jiolygonal system to a 
 trace of the enceinte in which all of the angles are 
 either salient, or where the re-entcrings are very 
 slight. A description of the polygonal system in its 
 most simple form, tlie one in wliicli Montalembert 
 presented it for the fortifications at Cherbourg, one 
 of the most important naval stations in France, will 
 be given lierc as an example. The body of the place 
 consists of the sc;irp wall, arranged with casemates 
 for artillery and musketry; of n corridor, between 
 these casemates ami the earthen rampart and para- 
 pet. In rear of the rampart is a high wall, arranged 
 with loop-holes, within which the garrison retired 
 when driven from the defense of the rampart. Case- 
 mated capoimieres, which arc secure from a cmt.p-de- 
 mahi, are placed along the rampart, and so amiiged 
 that a tire can be thrown from tlieni overtlu- parapet 
 and also along the tcrre-plein. The corridor is also 
 swept by a casemated capouiiiere for musketry; 
 and the front of the wall b_v a like arrangement. 
 The principal caponniere for tlauking the main ditch 
 is in the form of a lunette, anil placed at the middle 
 of the exterior side, its ilanks joining the casemated 
 gallery of the enceinte. The Hanks and the faces of 
 this work, are arranged with two tiers of artilU-ry 
 and musketry lire; e;ich think carrying ten ami each 
 face twelve guns. A wet ditch sep;irates the faces ;ind 
 flanks; a loop-holed wall enclosesthe portion between 
 the tlanks, from which the opposite port ion between \ 
 
 the faces is swept by muskrrtry. The capoimiJ-rc !» 
 covered in front by a face cover of earth, in the 
 shape of a redan. Tlie scarp of the enceinte i» 
 covered in like manner by the continuous face cover 
 of earth, in the re entering angles of whicli casema- 
 led batteries of two stories, for artillery and mus- 
 ketry, ari' i>laced to (lank the ditches ami sweej) tlic 
 positions for counter batteries around the salients of 
 the covered- way. These batteries are 7nasked in 
 front by eartlien works. Tlie whole is covered by 
 the glacis of the covered way, arranged in the usual 
 manner. The better to flank the main caponnitrc, 
 the portion of the casemated gallery joining it ig 
 arranged with two tiers of artillery tire, the remain- 
 ing jjortion having but one tier of guns. The com- 
 munications between the dilferent works are by 
 bridges across the wet ditches. Sec I'olyf/nnal fiyn- 
 ieiii of FDrUftratiim, and St/ntem of Forlifiration. 
 
 MONTER -.A term signifying to rise from one 
 rank to another in the way of [jromotion, as from 
 l-ieuteiiant to Captain, etc.", orfroni having the com- 
 mand of the youngest company to be promoted to 
 that of thi. oldest. 
 
 MONTEEO.— A military cap and hood formerly worn 
 
 in ("imp. 
 
 MONTIGNY MITRAILLEUR.— A machine gun con- 
 sisting III :iT ritliil still b:irrels, hexagonally formed 
 exteriorly, and fitted iinil soldered into a wroiiglit- 
 iron tube, somewhat in Ihe form of an ordinary 
 piece of artillery. This has a movalile breech-piece 
 worked by means of ii lever, and containing a sjiring 
 and striker, corresponding with each barrel. The 
 whole of the barrels can be charged simultaneously 
 by the introduction of a steel plate containing the 
 thirty-seven cartridges ; they can be tired independ- 
 ently, and at any interval of lime, or the whole may 
 be tired in one second ; reloading takes five seconds, 
 and a continuous tire at the rale of ten discharges 
 per minute can be maint;dned. The l'uu is provid- 
 ed with both vertical and horizontal' adjustments, 
 and may be made to sweep horizontally along a line 
 of adjustment between each discharge, or "during 
 the discharge itself. As there is no recoil, the gun 
 once laid will continue to throw 28 lbs. weiglif of 
 lirojectiles per minute on tlie same spot, or at var- 
 ious points of any line requiring the same eleva- 
 tion without any further labor Uian that involved 
 in the working of the lateral adjustment. It appears 
 from Major Fosbery's account, who was sent to Bel- 
 gium by the English government to report on this 
 mitrailleiir, that at 860 yards the hits were 32-12 per 
 cent. From the report of the Special Committee ap- 
 pointed to carry out comparative experiments with 
 the Jlontigny and Galling milrailleurs, it would 
 seem that the result is in faVor of the latter. In the 
 special competition between this gun andthe.Mon- 
 tigny mitrailleur of thirty-seven barrels, the former 
 made G18 hitsin 3minutes31 seconds, in 720 roundsat 
 (iOO yards; the Montigny. at the same ran^e and with 
 the same number of rounds, scoring .'iSS in 4 min- 
 tutes. With ."ioS roundsat SOIJ vards^ the result was 
 even more favorable to the (Jailing, which made 439 ' 
 hitsin 2 minutes 20 seconds, agaiiist the Montigny's 
 292 in 3 minutes 3 seconds. 
 
 MONT-PAGNOTE.— In fortification, an eminence 
 where persons post themselves out of reach of can 
 non, to see a camp, siege, battle, etc., without beino- 
 exposed to danger. It is also called the Post of the 
 InruhwrafileK. 
 
 MOORING- — This is the most difficult operation con- 
 nected with submarine mines. It is a problem con- 
 taining so many conditions 1 hat it is impossible to sive 
 more than general suggestions coucernius its solu- 
 tion. In order to possess a ma.xinium of "efficiency, 
 no indication of the position of a mine should appear 
 on the surface of the water, and yet the spot, to 
 within a few feet of where it is deposited, must be 
 known to the defenders of the channel in which it is 
 used. In certain cases— as when there is consider- 
 able rise and fall of the tide— it is impossible to total-
 
 MOOBS. 
 
 378 
 
 MOOBS. 
 
 ly conceal the position of a system of mines. Wlien 
 such is the case, the very smallest indication possible 
 should be allowed to appear on the surface of the 
 water. It has been found that the least current, or 
 so much roughness as only a moderate breeze would 
 cause, renders the placing of even a single mine in a 
 definite position a matter of very considerable difB- 
 cult}-. When a series of mines are to be moored in 
 proper relative position, this difficulty is much in- 
 creased, and it is, furthermore, augmented in propor- 
 tion to the depth of the water. 
 
 The objects to be obtained in mooring are as fol- 
 lows : 1st. That the charge should be ke^pt as nearly 
 as possible stationary at the point where it is requir- 
 ed to act. This is paVtieularly necessary where there 
 is a tide which, flowing first in one direction and 
 then in another, tends to cause the mine to shift its 
 position, and is indispensable in the case of mines 
 intended to be fired by judgment. 2d. The moorings 
 should be so arranged that there shall be as little 
 twisting as possible, which might break or injure the 
 insulation of the electrical cables. 3d. The anchors 
 or heavy weights used should be suited to the nature 
 of the holding ground or bottom. 4th. Mooring cables 
 should be so arranged that they may not be likely to 
 become twisted together or entangled. The best 
 special mooring appartus for general purposes is tlie 
 mu«tirixim anclior. It is decidedly so for a soft, mud- 
 dy bottom. On a hard, rocky bottom the dead- 
 w'eight of the mooring must be depended upon to 
 keep a mine stationary, and if a heavy mushroom 
 anchor is used, its edges should be furnished with 
 toes or points to catch in the crevices of the rocks. 
 The weight of the anchor would depend on the buoy- 
 ancy to be overcome, and would usually be from 500 
 pounds upwards. Ordinary mooring chains and hemp 
 cables may generally be employed in connecting the 
 charges or circuit-closers with the anchors. Where 
 there is any tendency to twist, a wire cable is tlie 
 best to counteract it. Any considerable amount of 
 twisting must be checked, as it is liable to entangle 
 the moorings and to rub and injure the electric 
 cables. 
 
 Jvext to the mushroom sinker the ordinary anchor 
 is the best. For make-shifts, any heavy-weights— as 
 large stones, pigs of metal, or bars of iron— may be 
 used. These must necessarily be sufficiently heavy 
 to hold a mine iu position simply b}' their dead- 
 weight. The material just mentioned can be fastened 
 to frames of wood, and the whole sunk as one mass. 
 
 The weight necessary for a mooring, whetlier an- 
 chor, sinker,or other apparatus, will depend upon the 
 buoyant force of the mine, the nature of the bottom, 
 an<l the currents. 
 
 The buoyancy of a mine is in excess of flotation 
 over its weight. This would be measured by the 
 number of poimds required to sink it, and no more. 
 When wooden casks are used the Ijuoj'ancy may be 
 roughly taken as equal to the vvciglit of the charge 
 of powder. With heavy metallic cases their weight 
 must, in all cases, be taken into consideration. In 
 watcT free from currents twice its buoyancy is con- 
 sidered necessary to keep the mine in a vertical posi- 
 tion over the mooring; this, tlierefore, wovild l)e the 
 wi-ii;hl rccpiircd for tlic mooring. Wlieri- tlicre is a 
 current, additional weight to keep it from swinging 
 off with' it is required, and this hiereases with the 
 strengtii of tlic latter. Whi'uthe mine is moored by 
 a single cable, a convenient rule, approximating 
 closely to results from experiments, is to allow one 
 addition.'w buoyancy for each mile per hour of current; 
 i.e., two buoyancies being allowed for slill watei, 
 three would be allowed for a current of one mile; 
 four for two miles; five for three miles, ami so on. 
 These represent the weights fortlnr mooring in each 
 instance. In a tide-way where there is a current of 
 more than five miles au hour, two anchors m.ay be 
 advantageously used, placed up and down stream at 
 a considerable distance ajiart, depending upon the 
 force of the- current and the ilistance from the bot- 
 
 tom at which the mine is to float. It is extremely 
 difficult to moor miues in proper lines and depths 
 by this means. When the mine is small, say one 
 containing a charge not greater than 200 pounds, a 
 single large barge may suffice for placing it. The 
 anchors can be let down at a suitable distance apart 
 from the extremities of two out-riggers, (me from 
 each end of the barge. The mine, attached to the 
 middle of the cable connecting the anchors, is weight- 
 ed down by a heavy saddle, wliich after the an- 
 chors are down, is hoisted in and the mine permitted 
 to rise to the proper depth from the surface. 
 
 In order to place a large buoyant charge of, say, 
 1000 pounds and upwards, three of these large boats 
 are required to carry it and its anchors.one for each 
 anchor or mooring sinker, and one for the chargfe it- 
 self. They are connected by a rope, which, if kept 
 stretched, would insure the anchors being placed at 
 the proper distance apart. The sinkers and mine are 
 carried out and lowered from the davits at the stern 
 of each boat. Skillful boatmen and sailors are re- 
 quired for all operations connected with the placing 
 of mines, and a handy steam-tug is the most conven- 
 ient craft to use. The floating mine is used where 
 the depth of water is so great that, if placed on the 
 bottom, the mine would require for efficiency an ex- 
 cessively large charge. In this case it is held to the 
 bottom by moorings in such position as not to rise 
 to the surface at low tide. nor at high tide be so deep 
 as to be beyond effective range of over-passing 
 vessels. To arrive at this exact point, it is best to 
 haul the mine down towards the sinker. For this 
 purpose there are various contrivances, someone of 
 which would be supplied with the rigging furnished 
 with the mine. When the mines are to rest upon the 
 bottom, they are lashed to some heavy object suffi- 
 cient to sink and hold them in position, and then 
 lowered to their places. See t^ubmariiie ilines. 
 
 MOORS, — A people who form the great majority 
 of the population of Barbary. Their appearance in- 
 dicates their origin, which is a mixture of the Mauri, 
 (from whom they derive their name), Numidians, 
 Phenicians, Romans, and Arabs, who have success- 
 ively held possession of the country. Inconsequence, 
 they are found to vary considerably in appearance 
 and character in different parts of Barbary, but all 
 show much more or less strongly the sj'mptoms of a 
 • considerable infusion of Arabian blood. They are a 
 well-formed race, with fine oriental features, and a 
 mild and melancholy expression of countenance. 
 They are more friendly and sociable than the Be- 
 doinns and Berbers, who inhabit the deserts and 
 mountains: but are inferior to them in mental ability, 
 besides being voluptuous and cruel. 
 
 As the Arab conquerors of Spain invaded that 
 countrj' from Africa, where they had largely re- 
 cruited their forces, they were naturally enough 
 called Moors, and in Spanish history the terms Moors, 
 Saracens, and Arabs are synonymous. From this 
 mixed Moorish-Arab race sprang the ^VonVwHCf who 
 were permitted by Ferdinand the Catholic to remain 
 in Spain after the expulsion of their cinmtrymen, on 
 condition of their embracing Christianity. A cruel 
 persecution, which was originated by Philip II., 
 drove them to rebellion (l.'iOT-TO), and in l/JTl many 
 of them emigrated to Africa; those who remained 
 lieins, to the number of 500,000, expelled in 1610 by 
 Philip III. 
 
 The Moors first appear in modern history as the 
 Allies of the Vandals in their invasion of Africa, and 
 wcrecontimially rebelling ag;iinst the Byzantine Krn- 
 peror. They were next, after a severe struggle, con- 
 quered and converted by the Arabs in 707. In lO'.tl 
 they were smnmonedhy the latter into Spain, to aid 
 in stemming the tide of Christian Conqiu'st; and af- 
 ter faithfully siqiporling the Arab Calif of Cordova, 
 etc., till bis dominions fell inlotlie hands of the King 
 of Leon and Castile, tliey n-lired in 1238 to Granada, 
 where Ihey founded tlu'ir kingdom. The Kings of 
 (Jranada carried on a vigorous, and, at the same
 
 MOOBSOM FUSE. 
 
 379 
 
 MORTAR. 
 
 timo , rliivalrotis wiirfaro with the KinRH of Cnstilo; 
 bill ill Iciinlli, wc-;ikciii'il liy iiilcnial ilisciinl, were 
 (•(irnpL-llcil U) succiiinli lo FinliiiuMd llic ( 'utiiolic in 
 14!)3. The Moors, or ill Iciisl Ihiil, portion of them 
 who refused to adopt Christianity, were then ex- 
 pelled from Spiiin, mid in revenue, foundeil in IHIH 
 the pinillr;il Sillies of Ali;iers Tiinis, iind Morocco. 
 
 MOORSOM FUSE. 'I'lie liody of lliis fuse is made 
 of hroii/i', mid is screwed into the ey of llie sliell by 
 incmis of a licy tilled into two niorlises made in the 
 head. Tlie lower part is not Ihrcaded, and iirojec'ts 
 into the ehamber of the shell. In llie body of the fuse 
 two cylindrical chambers are ])laced, one above the 
 other, with their axes perpendicular to each other. 
 These chmiibersare both alike, with similar jiercus- 
 sion apparatus. In each chamber is placed a solid 
 cylinder of tironze.terminaled al each end by a small 
 l)roie(iioii, or piston One head of the chmnber is 
 movable, and win n screwed into ils place, its exter- 
 ior is Hush with the convex surface of the fuse. Holes 
 are left on the exterior for the use of a key, and the 
 head is screwed in, after the hammer is placed in the 
 chamber and suspended. In each end of the cham- 
 lier is a small recess, a vent beinn bored throuijh to 
 it from the I'Xteriiir of the fuse. 'I'liese are both tilled 
 with fulminating powder. A hole is drilled through 
 the hammer at its middle point, and per^ieudicular 
 to its axis, and is used to suspend the hammer, by 
 means of a copper wire, in the center of the cham- 
 ber. The wire passes througii corresponding lioles 
 iu the body of the fuse, and is soldered at the ends 
 in the curved positions of the holes near the surface 
 of tlie fuse. In the lower end of tiiefusc a third 
 chamber is placed willi a percussion apparatus sim- 
 ilar lo the preceding, acting, however, in the direc- 
 tion of the axis of the fuse, and having but one end 
 of the chamber provided with percussion-powder, 
 the vent leading from which communicates with a 
 cross-chamber, liaving at eacli end a small chamber 
 tilled with powder. The hammer, a cylinder of 
 bronze, with a piston like Ibe others, on its upper 
 end, is suspended in the same way, and has below it 
 a copper-wire passing through holes in the fuse, and 
 soldered like tlie rest. At the Iiottom of this last 
 chamber stands a cylinder of lead, fixed in its posi- 
 tion by its base, which is pressed in a little offset,be- 
 tween the bottom end of the fuse and the cap wliicli 
 closes the chamber. When the shell strikes, the sus- 
 pension wire of that liammer whose axis coincides 
 with diameter of the shell passing through the point 
 of impact, or, is parallel to it, is torn loose, relea.sing 
 the hammer, and allowing it to plunge forward and 
 explode the fulminate, by striking it with the piston 
 ou its end. From the construction of this fuse it 
 will be seen that there are six points on the surface 
 of the shell, the striking of wliieli will produce the 
 working of tlie apparatus with certainty. See Fuse. 
 
 MOOflANA.— In the East Indies, a "term applied 
 to the soldiers who are employed to collect the 
 revenue. 
 
 MOPPAT. — A very early name for a cannon sponge. 
 
 MORGENSTEEN.— A mace with a long handle and 
 spiked liead. See Jfurn/ii)} Star. 
 
 MORGENSTERN GUN.— A breech-loading rifle hav- 
 ing a fixed chamber closed by a movable breech- 
 block, which rotates about a horizontal at DC to the 
 axis of tlie barrel, lying above the axis of the barrel, 
 and in front. It is opened by drawing back the 
 handle of the tiring-bolt until" the ribs on its sides 
 are clear of the grooves in the receiver in which they 
 slide. This cocks the piece by compressing the 
 spiral mainspring which surrounds the tiring-bolt, 
 until it is caught and held by a sear lying well in 
 the bottom of the breech-lilock. The breech-block 
 may then be thrown upward and forward until it is 
 stopped by striking the front part of the receiver. 
 It is held open there by the head of the ejector- 
 spindle, which changes its bearing on the extractor 
 so as, througii it, to support the block. The piece 
 is closed by reversing the movement of the breech- 
 
 Work, nnd is lorked by the sidn ribs of the flring- 
 
 boll engaging with the undercut grooves in the rear 
 portion ot the receiver, 'i'lie piece is llred by a con- 
 cealed spiral-spring lock the liring-bolt being re- 
 leased by the action of the triggiT within the re- 
 ceiver upon the sear within the block. Extraction 
 is accomplished by the breech-blork striking the liiK 
 on the extra<tor above its centre of motion, and 
 ejection is caiiseii liy the acceleraliun im|iresseil on 
 Ihe extractor liy the action of the ejector spring on 
 the fjector-siiindle, when, by the motion of opening, 
 the direction of this latter passes below the 
 axis of th(! extractor. The ejector-spring is then 
 released from \\u: tension caused by its compression 
 in opening, and causes the extractor to rapirlly 
 rotate about its axis, carrying the empty cartridge 
 against the beveled shoulders of the receiver, by 
 which it is deflected upward and thrown clear of 
 the L'un. 
 
 MORGLAY. — An ancient and very deadly weapon, 
 in the form of a great sword. 
 
 MORION. -Originally a {Spanish helmet. It had 
 neither vizor, nose-piece, gorget, nor neck-guard; 
 but was suniionnled by a high crest sometimes half 
 the height of the helmet. Its edge lurned up in a 
 |)oint in front and behind, so as to form a crescent 
 when seen in profile. The itfojv'ore was worn by Ar- 
 quebusiers and Men-at-Arms. 
 
 HORNE. — The head of the lance used in tilting or 
 other peaceful encounters. It was curved so that an 
 adversary might be unhorsed, but not wounded, by 
 a stroke. Also written Martru:. 
 
 MORNING GUN. The gun fired at the first note of 
 reveille, al all mililarv posts, forts, etc. 
 
 MORNING PARADE. -The daily parade at troop, 
 sometimes called Troop Parade. In every garri- 
 soned town, fortified place and camp, as well as in 
 every town througii which soldiers pass, or occa- 
 sionally halt, a certain hour in the morning is fixed 
 for the assembling of the different corps, troops, or 
 companies, in regular order. See Dre.ts Parade. 
 
 MORNING REPORT.— A report of troops, their 
 service, condition, etc., rendered every morning to 
 superior authority. The Morning Reports of Com- 
 panies and Detachments are comliined and form the 
 Conmlidated Morning Report. The form of Jlorn- 
 ing Report, given on page 380, used at West Point, 
 will illustrate its purpose. 
 
 MORNING STAB.— A mace having a long handle 
 and a head with projecting spikes. It received its 
 name from the ominous jest of wishing the enemy 
 good morning with the Morning-itar. when they 
 had been surprised in camp or city. This weapon 
 became very popular on account of the facility and 
 quickness with which it could be manufactured. 
 The peasant made it easily with the trunk of a 
 small shrub and a handful of large nails. Mornijig- 
 stim, short in the handle, like hammers, were 
 made especially for the Cavalry, Some were sup- 
 plemented witli small hand-cannon in the 1.5tU cen- 
 turv. 
 
 MORRIS-PIKE.— An ancient pike much used by Ihe 
 Moors. See Pike. 
 
 MORTAR.— A short and comparatively light can- 
 non, employed to throw hollow projectiles at great 
 angles of elevation. It is intended to produce effect 
 by'the force with which these explode. The great 
 curvature of their fire gives them power of reacliing 
 objects behind works which would be secure from 
 direct fire. As the projectile has a large diameter, 
 and, except in rare instances, a very great range is 
 necessary, a comparatively small charge of powder 
 is requisite. To give this" its utmost powerand con- 
 centration, it is confined in a hemispherical chamber 
 at the lower end of the bore, but of less diameter. 
 The shell completely closes tliis chamber; and when 
 the explosion ensues receives its full force on its 
 center. Ordinary mortars range in diameter of bore 
 from f> to 13 incites. Large mortars have, however, 
 been tried at times, as at the siege of Antwerp citadel
 
 MORTAR. 
 
 380 
 
 MORTAH. 
 
 
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 MORIAB BATIEBIES. 
 
 381 
 
 UOBTA£ BATT£EI£S. 
 
 in 1833, when Hie Frcnrh broufi;lit tm<- of 24 inches 
 bore to llic ailiicU. 'I'liis inonHtcr, owin^ to its iin- 
 wii-lcliiiiss and otlicr raiiscs, was a failuri'. I^arifcr 
 Hiili tliari lliis, tlioiiL;li iiciliaps nionr manai;cal)lc, is 
 Mr. .Mallet's great, ;i(i-ineli mortar, constriicti'd in 
 ISHf), of iniii |>arts wel leil toi;ellier. and now at 
 Woolwich, riitlier iis a curiosity than for use. Ah 
 loaded shells arc of immense wei!i;ht, so lieavy, in- 
 deed, as in larger calibers to involve the apparatus 
 to deposit them in their places, and the mortar is 
 lired at liiLjh elevaliims, the recoil is so great and so 
 nearly vertical that no carriaLTc conid withstand the 
 shock; it is necessary, therefore, that the mortar 
 shoiilil be mounted on a solid iron or lindier bed, by 
 the trunnions, which are placed l)i'hind the breech, 
 and supported in front by massive bhx^ks of wood. 
 Tills arraugenieut renders the ajiparatus so heavy I 
 
 provided with complete' pointing apparatus, are oa- 
 pabli' of following the course of a moving vcbhcI with 
 the same facility as a gun. 
 
 Mortars, likcr other cannon, are aimed In' first 
 giving the direction and then the elevation. The ele- 
 vation, which is usually tliatof tlu^ greatest range of 
 projectiles in rac'/'/, vi/.., ^I", is determined by ap- 
 plying theijuadranl to tlie face of the piece, and raiH- 
 ingandlowering the breech until that number of de- 
 grees is indicated. Tliechargeof powder is varied to 
 suit tile re(iuired range. 'I o give tlie shell, for the 
 same range, a greater velocity in l\u: decendinp 
 liranch of its trajef^tory, the mortar is sometimes lired 
 at an angle of (i(J", in winch case the charge of pow- 
 der must be increa.sed accordingly. As ?nortars are 
 usually masked from llie object to be bombardeil by 
 an epaulment or parapet, different means from those 
 
 -T »0 
 
 1. Chcfkn, 2. Maneuvering bolt. .3. Deck plank. 4. .'<lee^JU^. 
 
 5. Cap square, tj. Cap straps. 7. BoisttT. 8. (^uuin. 
 
 a. Eye bolts. 
 
 that mortars of large size .arc rarely used in field 
 operations, their ordinary positions being in defen- 
 sive or siege works, and in mortar-vessels. More 
 ■wieldy, however, are t he Coehorn mortars, invented by 
 the Dutch engineer of that name, for clearing the 
 covert-way or ditch of a fortress. This mortar issufti- 
 cieutl}' small to be managed by one man, and is ac- 
 counted usefid in siege or defense operations. Tlie 
 French use a similar Lilliputian ordnance under the 
 denomination of pierriers,or stone-throwers. Small 
 mortars are likewise constructed for mountain war- 
 fare: a mule carries the mortar, another the bed. and a 
 third is laden with the projectiles. The use of mor- 
 tars is diminishing at the present time, elongated 
 shells of great weight being now thrown from rifled 
 cannon. 
 
 Vertical fire is effective when it is desirable to 
 prevent an enemy from occupying certain anchor- 
 age. The deck of a ship is as completely vulnerable 
 to falling shells as the bottom is to submarine mines 
 and torpedoes. Judiciously-placed batteries, if arm- 
 ed with a sufficient number of mortals throwing 
 shells, would make it perilous for an enemy to re- 
 main within their reach. But mortar-firing from 
 smooth-bore mortars is at best somewhat wild, ami 
 depends on quantity for its effectiveness. It is, 
 however, safe to say that no fleet nor vessel can re- 
 main under well-directed fire from heavy mortars. 
 A battery of one hundred heavy mortars will keep 
 at bay all the iron-clads that can maneuver or anchor 
 within th :ir range. The moral elTect of mortar-fir- 
 ing is appalling, and increases vastly with the num- 
 bers of mortars used. The armor that a vessel is 
 capable of carrying on her deck, in addition to that 
 upon other parts, is not sutticient to resist the crush- 
 ing power of a 13-iuch shell withma.\imum velocity 
 — il9 feet per second. The 10-iiich mortar is ser- 
 vicealile only against unarmored decks, or those 
 very slightly protected. In firing at iron-clads the 
 shells slundd not burst before striking; in fact, it is 
 best to fill the shells with .sand instead of jiowder. 
 Solid shot would be preferable to either. JFortars 
 mounted on the center-pintle traversing chassis, and 
 
 used with guns become necessarj- for giving them 
 their direction. There are several processes em- 
 ployed, all of which, however, are reduced to de- 
 termining practically two fi.xed points which sliallbe 
 in line with the piece and tne object, and sufficiently 
 near to be readily distinguislied by the person point- 
 ing the mortar. Tliese points determine a vertical 
 plane which when including the line of metal becomes 
 the plane of fire. See Ji"b, Coelmm Mortnr, l)y(r 
 Pointing Apparatus, Ordnance, I'addock InterpoUi- 
 ter. Plummet, Sea-ninst Mortar, and Siege Mortar. 
 
 MORTAH BATTERIES.— :Mortar batteries have prin- 
 cipal fc.-iluns of b;itteries for guns. It is desirable 
 that they should be located where good views of tlie 
 enemy's positicm may be had : this, in order that the 
 gunner may himself see the effect of his shot, and 
 not, as is too frequently the case, have to depend up- 
 on the imperfect report of a distant observer. For 
 siege mortars, the platforms are placed the same dia- 
 tance apart as for siege guns, viz., 16 feet: for sea- 
 coast mortars, the distance is the same as for sea- 
 coast guns, viz., 18 to 23 feet. They are usually 
 placed in pairs, with traverses between each set of 
 jiairs. Embrasures are not required, and as tlie 
 platform must be at such distance from the parapet 
 that the blast will not injure the interior crest, it is 
 not necessary to revet the interior slope, the earth 
 being allowed to assume its natural .slope. 
 
 There are two kinds of mortar batteries used in 
 the attack: those for mortars throwing shells ; and 
 those for mortars throwing baskets of stones, or 
 other like projectiles. Hesides these, there is the 
 Coehorn mortar, which, from its small size, may be 
 placed in any unoccupied corner of the trenches 
 within their range from the besieged works. The 
 first kind of batteries maybe in front of the first and 
 second parallels, or any other points farther back. 
 The positions chosen for them should be such as to 
 bring as great a portion of the defences under the 
 direction of their fire as jiracticable, to increase the 
 chances of destructibility of each shell thrown. The 
 second kind are usually placed in front of the third 
 parallel, mainly with li view to annoy the covered-
 
 MORTAR BEDS. 
 
 382 
 
 MORTAR CARRIAGES. 
 
 ways and parts adjacent. These batteries are usually 
 sunk below the natural surface, since even several 
 feet difference nf level iu the position of a mortar 
 will have but little effect on the range, or the tra- 
 jectory. The profile suitable for such positions, 
 vHider the ordinary circumstances, is the following. 
 Widtli of trench a"t bottom. 13 feet 6 inches. Depth 
 in front, 3 feet 6 inches. Depth in rear, 4 feet. Re- 
 verse slope, i. Front slope, 2 feel base. Height of 
 parapet, 4 feet. Thickness of parapet, 18 feet. 
 Berm, 1 foot. Tlie earth for the epaulement is taken 
 from an exterior ditch ; and, when splinter-proof 
 traverses are required, portions of ditches are made 
 opposite to their position to furnish the requisite 
 earth. 
 
 The siege-mortar platform furnished for field-pur- 
 poses is too light to sustain much firing. For fi.xed 
 batteries, they shoidd lie constructed of heavy tim- 
 bers, and to insure anything like accuracy iu firing, 
 must be both level and stable. The sea-coast plat- 
 forms when properly laid, are in every respect effic- 
 ient. A good kind of rail platform may be made by 
 using two pieces of timber, 13 to 15 inches square 
 and 9 feet long for the rails, to which planks 3 (cr 8 
 inches thick aud 8 or 9 feet long are spiked. The rails 
 are parallel, and have their centres 38 inches apart 
 for the 10-inch mortar, aud 32 inches for the 8-inch. 
 A pit is dug large enough to receive this structure, 
 and the bottom being made perfectly level, it is placed 
 in it with planks down. Earth is filled in on top of 
 the planking. Tliis kind of platform is particularly 
 well adapted to sandy localities. If the mortar is in- 
 tended to be fired in various directions, a sufficient 
 number of rails are used to extend over the whole 
 surface, the planks being spiked to all of them. Mor- 
 tar and other batteries for firing. loaded shells, are 
 provided with bomb-proof shelters for the men who 
 load tlie shells, and others also for the loaded shells 
 These shelters may be placed in the epaulements of 
 the batteries, under thick traverses, or in an}- posi- 
 tion most convenitnt for the service of the battery. 
 
 When the site of the battery is marshj-, the con- 
 struction of the parapet and the laying of the plat- 
 forms require great care to give them the requisite 
 strength and firmness. Each of these parts should 
 receive a firm bottoming of two layers of long fas- 
 -cines, 13 inches in diameter, the border for a breadth 
 of 3 or 3 feet receiving a thickness of 3 or 4 layers, 
 the first well covered with sand or rammed clay, if 
 they can be obtained, before placing the second 
 
 forms are to rest, is too uneven or too much inclined 
 to be easily leveled by hammers, it will be necessary 
 to fill in the space required for the service of the 
 guns with earth or sand, and to use a cribwork if 
 necessary around the border of t!ie interior to con- 
 fine the soil, which, as in the case of a marshy soil, 
 sJiould be well rammed and levelled before laying 
 Uie platforms. 
 
 The drawing shows a plan of an indented sunken 
 battery on a causeway from 50 to GO feet wide. a.b. 
 is the line of direction of fire; c, contraction of rear 
 of battery; d d, enlargement of rear of battery ; e, 
 ramp. 
 
 MORTAR BEDS.— Mortar beds serve the same pur- 
 pose as gun-carriages. The beds for the smaller 
 
 Jf^ 
 
 layer, which should cross the first at rieht angles, 
 and be well picketed to it. On this bed the parapet 
 is raised, and, if the adjacent soil of wliicli it is 
 formed is very wet, layers of smaller fascines may be 
 advantageously used at different heii;hts to prevent 
 the wet soil from running. The site of the guns 
 should be covered, to a depth of at least (> inches, 
 with moist sand, or good loam well rammed, to re- 
 cciv(^ the platforms; which, like those at the sieges 
 of Forts Pulaski and Wugiier. should rest on a bed 
 of plank, over which the weight of the guns should 
 be well distributed by the under timbers of the plat- 
 form. 
 
 On a site of solid rock the only means that can be 
 well employed for constructing the jxirapel is sand- 
 bars. If the surf;ice of the rock on which the ]ilat- 
 
 mortars are made of one solid block. The larger 
 beds are constructed and put together in a manner 
 similar to the top-carriages for guns. At the ends 
 of each cheek are projections, called front and rear 
 notches, underneath which the cannoneers embar 
 with their handspikes to move the carriage. On 
 those for siege mortars there are also two front aud 
 two rear maneuvering bolts for the same purpose. 
 The bottom part of each cheek, resting on the plat- 
 form, is called the shoe; the front aud rear ends 
 being designated the toe and heel, respectively. 
 Carriages for siege mortars are without truck- 
 wheels, and rest directly on the platform. Sea- 
 coast mortars have two truck-wheels on an eccen- 
 tric axle, for maneuvering the carriage on the plat- 
 form, and maneuvering bolts are omitted. See 
 Miirtur ('arriaqen and Tliirteen-inrh Mortar. 
 
 MORTAR CARRIAGES.— The application of the 
 principle of rifling to mortars, in common with guns 
 of all kinds, has had the effect to obliterate to a 
 great degree the sharply-defined lines of distinction 
 which formerly divided the different classes of can- 
 non, and to reduce them more closely to a common 
 model, adapted more nearly to a common use. The 
 rilled mortar, to give it the desired efficiency, has 
 been increased in length until it differs 
 in no respect from a howitzer or short 
 gun, and is no longer confined as for- 
 merly to a vertical tire exclusively, but 
 may be used with effect for direct or 
 curved fire, with solid or hollow shot, 
 as well as shell. Tlie carriages for the 
 different guns havT' had to iradcrgo ne- 
 cessarily corresponding changes to adapt 
 them to the new ccmditions of service ; 
 and as the guns have been modified till 
 tliey bear a resemblance to each other, 
 so the carriages on which moiuued 
 are less distinctive in appearance and 
 more nearly approach the same pattern. The mor- 
 tar, in place of being mounted as formerly on its 
 bed. must in its changed condition be provided with 
 a carriage constructed so as to enable it to deliver 
 its fire at any angle from O*-' to 00'^, and be turned 
 with promptness on any object within a wide field 
 of fire, 
 
 United States. — The Coehorn mortar carriage is 
 simply a block of wood, weighing 133 pounds ; 
 the total weiglit of piece, e(|uiiiMients, and carriage 
 being 311 pounds. The carriage or block ujxm 
 whicli the mortar is mounted, is provided with two 
 handles on each side, by means of which the mortar 
 is readily carried by four men from one part of the 
 work to another. They accompany troops in the 
 field for use against an enemy covered by intrench-
 
 UOKTAR CARRIAGES, 
 
 388 
 
 MOETAH CAEHIAGE8. 
 
 menla. The fjround, wlicii firm, in sufTlciinl for llic 
 carriiitjc Id rest upiin; if il is mil, linn, ii |il:iifiirMi 
 can rriiilily Iki (,'.\UMii|)ciri/.cii fnirii siiili iii;it('ri:il iiH 
 may lii' al lianil. Tlic carriaiic sIkimIiI lie li-vrl wlini 
 tlic iiiorlar is tirfd. Tlic sici;c murlars arc lircil 
 from woollen plalforms, 'I'lic carriagcH arc of 
 wrouKlit-iroii, ami, bcim; williout fhasHos, rest di- 
 rectly 111)011 the plalforms. 'I'lic lli-iiicji mortar is 
 fired from a wooden plaiform. The ('arria^e is of 
 wroui^lil-iroii, and, lieiii'^ willimit eliaxsis. re.^ls di- 
 rectly upon llie ]ilalform. An axle, earryini,' at each 
 extremity a IrneU-wlieel, (lasses llironi;li tlie carriai;!^ 
 near (lie front end ; this axle is eccentric, and when 
 thrown in u;ear the truck-wheels rest upon the plat- 
 form ; only the rear part of the shoo then rests on 
 the platform and moves with slidini; friction. Two 
 steps are placed on tlu^ front pari of the carriai;e for 
 convenience in loadinu;, 'I'lic carria;;e of lli(> lO-incli 
 .sea-coast mortar is of vvrou^dil-iron, and is provideil 
 with an eccentric axle and truck-wheels similar to 
 the earriaiji' for the i;i-incli niorlar, 
 
 Aii.itn'ii.— The Austrian carriai^e is composed of 
 two cIku'Us, ciK'h formed of 1 wo plates of hoiler-iron 
 riveted tos^etlicr around their outer edtjes. with a 
 wrousht iron frame between them. The cheeks 
 are 47 inches liii^h in front and \H\ indies in rear. 
 Trunnion-lieds formed in thc> upjier face are jiro- 
 vided with Irunnion-plates and cap squares: the 
 hitter are held each by two keys. The two cheeks 
 are joined to,!::etlier front and rear by two transoms, 
 each formed of two plates of iron and aniile-irons. 
 These transoms pass throui;h cuts made in the 
 inner plate and arc riveted to the outer jilale of the 
 cheek; they are also secured to the inner plate by 
 angle-irons riveted to each. Two bolts pass throuich 
 these transoms and join the cheeks, besides a. bolt, 
 about a third of the heiii'lit from the top in front. 
 The part of the bolts embraced between the cheeks 
 has a wroughl-iron pipe over it. A square hole is 
 cut in the cheek near the front edge, intended for 
 the wrought-iron axle used in transportation. The 
 a.xle is eonijiosed of a body, sipiarc in cross-.section, 
 and two cylindrical arms for the wooden wheels. 
 The cheeks arc provided with four pairs of truck- 
 wheels, two for moving the carriage to the front or 
 rear, and two others for moving it lalerall}'. They 
 are all mounted onecceutric axles, which have cast- 
 
 iron handspike sockets. The carriage ma)' be thus 
 moved in either direction, as may be desired, or it 
 muy rest flat on the platform for tiring. The axles 
 are held in position by means of keys. The elevat- 
 ing apparatus is composed of a screw, which moves 
 a nut which has a hook bearing against the breech 
 of the mortar. The screw rests in a bi'd of sheet- 
 iron inclined upward to the rear, riveted by angle- 
 irons to the inner face of the cheeks. Near tlie 
 Tear end of the bed there is a collar, in which the 
 screw turns. The head of the screw has in il holes 
 
 in whidi is inserted a crank-handU- to give rotation 
 to the screw. 'I"hi- nut is guided in its motion by 
 two projections which move in correspondinj; 
 grooves in the bill. For firing at low angles of 
 elevation a block is placed on the hook, lilting over 
 it and increasing ils height. In order to bring the 
 mortar quickly from the (iring posilion to that for 
 loading, there are fastened to eiiher side of the 
 
 I lireecli of the mortar two circular steel arcs with 
 
 i teeth which engage each with a jiinion on the iniier 
 face of the checks. A wheel and pillion on the out- 
 side of the cheeks are used to give motion to the 
 inner pinion. To transport the mortar an axle i.s 
 inserted in the checks of the carriage and ordinary 
 wheels are put on, raising the carriage with jacks. 
 A trail is )irovided which lias a lunette for hooking 
 on to an ordinary siege-limber : it is secured to the 
 carriage by passing one end under the front tran- 
 som and engaging it in two hooks under the point- 
 ing-bed, and held liy a cro.ss-piece. Weight of the 
 carriage, r>,l40 pounds: of the axle, 2;jl pounds; 
 the trail, 1!)^ pounds; with the lock-chain and shoe. 
 380 pounds; the two wheels, 470 poi nils ; the lim- 
 ber with wheels, 838 pounds; the total weight of 
 the carriage ready for traveling. 0,973 |)oiinds ; with 
 the mortar, 17,830 pounds. Width of track of rear 
 wheels, 73 inches; front wheels, 48./). Angle for 
 turning. 43". The elevating screw with the ordin- 
 ary hool: will give elevation of 20" to 00" ; by put- . 
 ting on the block, angles from 10" to 20". 
 
 Gtrman!/ — This carriage is composed of two 
 wooden cheeks, the greater portion of the border re- 
 enforced by iron straps and ji^ined together bj' four 
 wooden transoms and eight transom-bolts. A trun- 
 nion-piece, rt, of wrouglit-iron is bolted to the upper 
 side of each check, and is provided with a cap- 
 square, key, and chain. The elevating apparatus is 
 composed of a long iron screw with a square double 
 thread, turning from right to left. inclined at about 2,')". 
 It is terminated at the upper end by a wheel and 
 handle, and turns in two collars fastened one to the 
 front side of the lower transom and the other to the 
 middle transom. The nut '■ travels along the screw 
 tliroughoul its length. The ends of the female screw 
 are provideil with rollers, which play in the grooves 
 of channel-beams secured on the inner face .of the 
 cheeks. Two iron rods, t>, connect the female screw- 
 to the breech of the mortar, which has a horiz-ntal 
 hole drilled into it to receive a bolt, forming an axle 
 around which the rods, o n. move. By this ;irr;inge- 
 menl ;iiigles of elevation froniO" 10 7.5*^ may be given. 
 The c;irri:ige is provided w illi two siege-wlieels and 
 a wroughl-iron axle, which may be raised vertically 
 by means of a hoisting apparatus and made to move 
 in two slots formed by an iron bar fastened to the 
 front face of the cheeks. This axle has near each 
 arm a square re-enforce, with a vertical hole in it. in 
 which is placed a lironze female screw with a doulile 
 thread; one nut is right-hamled. the other left. The 
 hoisting apparatus is composed of two vertical screws 
 in the slots, e, passing through the nuts in the axle. 
 The screws have on their upper end the spur-w heel, 
 
 /. engaging in the threads of the endless screws. one 
 of which is right-handed, the other left. and mounted 
 
 \ on the same horizontal shaft, which is turned in jour- 
 nal-boxes in the upper part of the grooves by means 
 of a cai)stan-liandle. A, on each end. The axle is 
 guided in its motion in the grooves by a plate of iron, 
 screwed to the inner face of the axle, between the two 
 -shoulders, and terminating in square hooks, which 
 form guides, and slide in tlie grooves. The hoisting 
 apparatus is used either to lower the carriage on the 
 platform by raising the wheels so that they do not 
 touch, ortoraise the carriage by bringing the wheels 
 on the ground. Fournun :it the handles of the screw 
 are sutficient todo this work. To lower the mortar 
 on the platform, it is neccssarj- to raise the wheels 
 only from i to ij of an inch, whereas for the transpor- 
 tation of the mortar the carr^ige must be raised suffi- 
 cientlv to attach it to the limber. This is done by
 
 MORTAB CAHBIAGES. 
 
 384 
 
 HOKTAB CABBIAGES. 
 
 means of a trail. /■, of T-iron. This lias a lunette at 
 one end, and is made fast to l\u- middle transom by 
 means of a strong bolt, I. and to the rear transom 
 bj' two iron ears, between which it is tirmly held, 
 A 15-centiraeter gun-limber is used. The wear on 
 the female screws in the axle is diminished b}- means 
 of stirrups with screw ends ; the axle is lowered to 
 its lowe.st point in the groove, the ends of the stir- 
 rups are passed through holes drilled in the axle to 
 the right and left of the shoulders, and the threaded 
 ends are screwed into double nuts, which are jammed 
 hard. The middle part of the stirrup fits in a notch, 
 g, cut in the lower end of the screw, and prevents it 
 from turning. There are several other irons on the 
 cheeks ; two priming wire eye-bolts, four equipment- 
 
 axles, and when the gun is to be traversed these 
 wlieels are thrown in gear, and when the proper 
 horizontal direction has been given to the gun they 
 are thrown out of gear,and receive none of the shock 
 of the recoil. The n jans for traversing the chassis 
 are the same as in the sea-coast carriages, namely, 
 a windlass and chain maile fast to the platform near 
 either end of the outer traverse-fircle. The pintle is 
 in the front transom. In order to preserve the axis 
 of the gun at the proper height above the platform 
 to enable the gun to tire over parapets of the usual 
 construction.it is necessary to make the top carriage 
 as much higher as the top of the chassis has been low- 
 ered. To give the different elevations ranging from 
 to 75", a circular rack is fixed to the under side of 
 
 rings, / /, two hooks, t, four plates, p p, at the rear, 
 two of which are on the otiterface of the cheeks and 
 two on the rear face; they present a kiud of cup 
 turned downward, in which the hook of the roller- 
 liandspike engages. The lower front transom and 
 rear transom are provided with pointing-plates. 
 Weight of carriage, 4,457 pounds; the carriage and 
 morTar, 11,125 pounds. Height of the axis of the 
 ti'unnions above the platform in tiring position, 54 
 inches. Length of the cheeks, 80 inches. Total 
 length from the front part of the wheels to the end 
 of the trail, 158 inches. 
 
 Krupp's carriage for what he designates as his 28- 
 ceutimeter (11-inch; howitzer is arranged to enable 
 the gun to deliver a direct tire over a parapet in the 
 same manner as a gun mounted in an ordinary bar- 
 bette battery, and to tire as a mortar at an angle of 
 elevation of 15°. The carnage in its general cou- 
 
 tlic gun, the center of the rack tieing at the intersec- 
 tion of the axis of the trunnions with that of the gun. 
 A cog-wheel engages in the teeth of the rack, and is 
 operated by two wheels on the outside of the cheeks, 
 the same as in the sea-coast carriage. A graduated 
 arc is attached to the outside of the left cheek, just 
 under the tnmnion; an index about 11 inclies in 
 length is made fast to the left trunnion, and indicates 
 the elevation of the gun. The means for checking 
 the recoil, nmning the gun from battery, hoisting the 
 allot, etc., are the same as in the other carriages for 
 heavy guns. 
 
 Hussm. — The 6-inch-mortar carriage represented 
 in the drawing, as well as the 8-iuch, which differs 
 from this only in the dimensions, were designed by 
 Colonel SemeuotT. It is composed of two cheeks of 
 boiler-plate 1 inch thick, connected by five bolts, 
 with pipes, forming transoms, two above and three 
 
 stniotion is quite similar to that made for the sea- 
 coast guns, wilh such moditications only as became 
 necessary to fit it for the special service required of it. 
 To enable- tliechassislo resist the strain brougbl upon 
 il in tiring at elevations of 75". the rails are made to 
 licar evenly fm four traverse-circles laid in the plat- 
 form, placed at (•(|ual distances from <'ach other. 
 
 below. The tninnion-bcd is formed by re-enforcing 
 the hole cut in the iilate with a Hat piece of iron on 
 the outside and an angle-iron on the inside. The 
 trunnion-bed is secured to this by means of rivets 
 with countersunk heads, and inside of the angle- 
 irons are ballens, with screws on tlie end for hold- 
 ing the cap-s(|uares. The lower edge of the clieek 
 
 The rear traverse-wlieefs are mounted on eccentric i is re-enforced both on the inside and outside by
 
 UORTAR CABRIAGE8. 
 
 385 
 
 MORTAE CARRIAGES. 
 
 angle-irons, nnd slind with a flat bar fnstoncd liy 
 rivets witli oountcrsunk heads. Two jriiiiles are 
 fastened to tlie aiigle-irons in front and rear, and 
 serve lo niii(h' the earriai^<' in its motion hy i)ressinf; 
 against tlie direelrix, wliich will lie ineiUi<iiied here. 
 after. The elevating iipparatiis is composed of an 
 are fastened at each end to the mortar, having teeth 
 which cngag<' in a jiinion iiioiinted on an axle turned 
 by two haililles outside of the checks. Two can- 
 noneers, one on tlie right and the other on the left, 
 give the elevation by turning the two handles at the 
 same time. The angles of lire are embraced be- 
 tween !>" depression and 73° of elevation. A clamp- 
 gcrew on th<> left end of the shaft prevents the gun 
 from moving after it has been pointed. To load the 
 mortar, it must be brought after tiring to nearly a 
 liori/.onlal position. The use of a gunner's level 
 each time is avoided by having a graduated bron/e 
 arc fastened on the outside of tiic cheeks, just under 
 the right truimion. anil an index marked on the face 
 of the truiuiion. 
 
 In firing, the carriage slides on the jilatform ; or, 
 for the facility of running it into battery anil moving 
 it lalcrally, it may be mounted by means of four 
 truck-wheels on a kind of low chassis or directrix. 
 The two front wheels, mounted on the same axle, 
 are just over the top of the chassis, but do not touch 
 it; the rear wheels are mounted each on a crank-axle; 
 a forked lever, \<1iieh can be l)rought down between 
 the cheeks, serves to bring the wheels in contact 
 with the tops of the directrix. To cause the carriage 
 to run on its four wheels, it is sullicient for a can- 
 noneer to force the forked lever down to the rear : 
 the rear end of the carriage is thus raised, and the 
 front wheels are made to bear. The directrix is com- 
 posed of two wooden beams, covered on top and sides 
 bj' plates of iron, and ioineil by two wooden tran- 
 soms and three bolts. Near the front end is an iron 
 axle, with a vertical hole in its middle for the pintle, 
 and provided with two traverse-wheels which rest 
 on the front traverse-circle of the platform. Two 
 hurters, attached to the front end of the directrix. 
 Stop the carriage in its motion into battery, and two 
 counter-liurters, placed la rear, limit the recoil when 
 
 in cross-section, arc placed crosswise, four toward 
 the front, thn-e in the ndildle, and two in rear; 
 eleven round sleepers are laid on and slightly let into 
 them; nine of the round sleepers are laid down in 
 the shape of a fan, and the other two halved inlfi the 
 others form the rear obliipn' sides f)f the platform. 
 On top of the eleven slecpirs. and slightly let into 
 them, arc laid thirty-two (1-inch sipiare scantling of 
 variable length, accordinir to their jiosition, the <'nd8 
 cut olf ol]|i(|ui'ly. The last sixteen sciintlini; are se- 
 cured at their ends by two hnrler-planks let into the 
 scantling and held by bolts. The front scantlings are 
 secured in the same way, only the Ijurtcr-plank is 
 not let into the scantling. In rear of each sleeper a 
 large |iicket is driven. Near the front end of the 
 platform the pintle])lateand friction-circlearc placed 
 and screwed fast, .and near tln' middle of Ihi' plat- 
 form a second traverse-circle with ohhng holes in it. 
 The length of the platfiprm is Id feet, its slope to the 
 rear U", and the lateral lield of tire 00". This plat- 
 form, wddch is still provisionally used in sea-coast 
 batteries, has been recently replaced in siege and 
 garrison batteries by a simpler one, which has been 
 tested with much satisfaction since 1873. This last 
 is formed of two rectangular parts f)f unerpial width. 
 It is composed of nine sleepers, (i inches sijuare, 
 and covered with twenty pl.-uiks 3 inches thick and 
 9 inches wide ; seven sleepers, five in the middle and 
 two at the edge of the platform, arc b") feet long, and 
 extend from one end to the other ; the remaining two 
 are 7 feet !) inches long, and sujiport only the rear 
 plank. The sleepers rest on the heads of fifty-eiglit 
 pickets 3 inches in diameter and 3 feet long, driven 
 into the earth. Twocross-pieces are placi-d under 
 the front ends and middle of the seven long sleepens; 
 that under the middle supports the front ends of the 
 short sleepers, also the traverse-circle and the rear 
 end of the carriage. 
 
 For transporting the mortar and its carriage an 
 axle has been Htted to the latter for two wheels, and 
 a movable trail intended to hitch onto the siege- 
 limber is used. The axle is held in the boxes cut in 
 the front edge of the clieeks by means of cap-squares 
 and bolts. 'The movable trail is represented in the 
 
 firing at low angles. Near the middle, between the 
 two beams, is placed a traverse-wheel, which travels 
 on the rear traverse-circle. The directrix is provided 
 imderneath with four cross- sleepers, which prevent 
 its bending under the weight of the carriage. The 
 length of the directrix will allow a recoil of 9 feet, 
 which is sufficient for the maximmn charges with a 
 dry platform at angles greater than 20'"''. and with a 
 damp platform at angles greater than 45". For less 
 angles it is necessary to throw some sand or similar 
 materi:d under the carriage. To give lateral mo- 
 tion to the mortar, if only a slight motion is re- 
 quired, insert the end of the lever in the holes in the 
 rear traverse-circle and press against the carriage. 
 If, on the contrary, it is desired to move the carriage 
 through a great angle, the directrix is traversed on 
 its wheels by three or four men pulling on a rope 
 fastened to its rear end. The platform, as originally 
 adopted, is fan-shaped; nine sleepers, semi-circular 
 
 drawing, with its lunette, its friction-plate, and lash- 
 ing-ring. It is put in place by unscrewing the two 
 rear bolts of the carriage, bringing the trail in posi- 
 tion, replacing the bolts, and securing them by the 
 nuts. The mortar being in battery, to put it in 
 traveling position it is rini back to the rear of the 
 lilatform: the axle and trail are put in place. The 
 front of the carriage is raised by means of a jack put 
 under the middle of the axle, blocking up with blocks 
 till it is high enouirh. The rear end of the carriage 
 is raised with two jacks, or by means of a lever-bar 
 passed imder the carriage crosswise. Tli. wheels 
 are put on and the limber hooked. A seat for the 
 driver IS placed on the forward end of the trail, in 
 front of the pintle; in the box under this scat the 
 bandlesof the elevating-screw are carried: they have 
 to be removed to admit the wheels being put on. The 
 axle is provided with a bucket-hook. The siege- 
 limber is arranged so as to be drawn by ten horses.
 
 UORTAB CASEMATES. 
 
 386 
 
 MORTISING MACHINE. 
 
 In rear of the fixed splinter-bar, with its two swingle- 
 trees, a longer splinter-bar is made fast, and provided 
 with two swingle-trees. The pole has a movable 
 double-tree at its end with three swingle-trees : the 
 front horses are hitched to the traces of the three 
 middle ones. Two lock-shoes for the rear wheels are 
 carried on the body of the limber. The directrices 
 of the mortar carriages are carried by themselves in 
 siege-wagons ; four can be carried in one wagon, with 
 great ease. 
 
 The following are the principal weights and di- 
 mensions : 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Weight of the carriage with mortar and 
 
 limber 8,893 
 
 Weight of the mortar 3,461 
 
 "Weight of the carriage without trail, a.vle 
 
 . or wheels 3,693 
 
 Weight of the trail and seat 3,373 
 
 Weight of the axle with two wheels . . 1,030 
 
 Weight of the siege-limber 1.373 
 
 Kumljer of horses to draw the carriage . 10 
 
 Wliole length of the carriage to the end 
 
 of the pole 23 feet. 
 
 Width of the carriage ...... 76 inches. 
 
 Diameter of the front wheels ... 56 inclies. 
 Diameter of the rear wheels . . . 62i inches. 
 See Gu>i-mrriage< and 8!ege-m'jHar. 
 
 MORTAK CASEMATES. —These arc usually placed 
 in rear of the parapet, by which it is covered from 
 direct fire. The arch is"covered by earth, to break 
 the shock of shells. It rises towards the front to 
 give ample room for the shell in its flight. The case- 
 mates are covered on their flanks from enfilading 
 fire by an embankment, and are partly closed by a 
 wall in the rear. A small ditch is made in front of 
 the chamber, and a slight wall built within it, to 
 give cover from the splinters of shells falling l)e- 
 tweeu the parapet and the casemate. Arched cham- 
 bers are in some cases made beneath the mortar 
 chambers which serve as store-rooms and tempo- 
 rary magazines. When these casemates are placed in 
 rear of a portion of the parapet but little expo.sed to 
 direct fire, the thickness of the parapet in front of 
 them maj^ be reduced, and the interim slope be re- 
 placed by a breast-height wall along the front of the 
 casemates, in order to give better cover in flank and 
 from slant fire, by throwing forward the casemates 
 more under cover of the parapet. See Caseinatea. 
 
 MORTAR-FOSE.— The mortar-fuse now used is a 
 paper-case time-fuse, similar in general appearance 
 to the ordinary paper-case fuse, of long time of 
 burning. The}' are made up in packages and marked 
 with the kind and length of fuse. For any shorter 
 time the fuse is cut with" a sharp 
 knife or fine saw. With this fuse is 
 used a wooden fuse-plug, having a 
 conical opening, which is reamed out 
 to fit the paper case. When the shell 
 is loaded, and the fuse cut to the 
 required lengtli, it is pressed in the 
 plug and the plug firndy set in the 
 fuse-hole. The lieail of the fuse hav- 
 ing been covered vvitli tow or some- 
 tliiiig to prevent breakuig the com- 
 position, the fuse-setter is placed on 
 the plug, and it is driven with the 
 mallet until the head is about :|- of an 
 incli above the surface of tlie shell. 
 The old form of mortar-fuse con- 
 sists of a case made of beecli-wood, 
 turned in a lathe to a conical shape, 
 and bored out nearly to the bottom 
 to receive the composition. The 
 composition is driven with fifteen 
 blows of the mallet. The bore is en- 
 larged at the lop to receive a priming 
 of mealed powder moistened witii 
 alcohol. To protect priming from 
 moisture, the top of the fuse is covered with a 
 
 cap of water-proof paper, on which is marked the 
 
 rate of burning of the composition. The exterior is 
 divided into inches and tenths, to guide tlie gunner 
 in regulating the time of burning. This operation is 
 generally performed before tlie fuse is driven into 
 the fuse-hole of the shell, by cutting it off with a saw, 
 or boring into the composition with a gimlet. If 
 the fuse be driven, the column of composition may 
 be shortened by taking a nortion from the top with 
 the fuse-auger. 
 
 Tlie great disadvantage of this fuse is its irregu- 
 larity, it being very difficult to press such a large 
 column of composition so that equal lengths will 
 burn in equal times. See Fuae and Time-fane. 
 
 MORTAR PLATFORM.— A platform similar to that 
 used with siege guns, but of smaller dimensions and 
 withiiut a slope. See riatfurm. 
 
 MDRTAR SCRAPER.— A slender piece of iron with 
 a spciou at one end and a scraper at the other, used 
 for cleaning the cliambers of mortars. 
 
 MORTAR SHELL.— A hollow projectile of dimen- 
 sions to fit the pieces shown under the head of Mor- 
 tar. Mortar shells are issued loose, but are filled 
 with a charge of bursting-powder at the time they 
 are required. They are tired from mortars at high 
 angles ; the larger natures, with the object of set- 
 ting fire to buildings, ships, or other combustible 
 constructions (and in the attack of a place they 
 would be especially directed on the gunpowder 
 magazines); the smaller natures, to annoy or drive 
 out troops behind parapets or any particular cover. 
 
 MORTAR VESSEL.— A class of gun-boat for mount- 
 ing sea-service mortars, and in some cases provided 
 with steam-power. The mortars are usually of the 
 largest caliber — 13 inch. To enable the mortar to be 
 properly maneuvered, and to resist the recoil from 
 the nearly perpendicular explosion of so great a piece 
 of ordnance, the vessel has considerable breadth in 
 proportion to her length. The mortar is slung amid- 
 ships in a massive bed. The ancient form of mor- 
 tar-vessel was the " bomb-ketch," convenient because 
 of the length of deck without a mast. The present 
 vessels originated during the Russian war. and were 
 fonnd serviceable at the bombardment of Sveaborg. 
 
 MORTAR "WAGON.— A wagon used for the trans- 
 portjition of siege mortars. siege guns, and heavj' pro- 
 jectiles. The limber and wheels are the same as those 
 for the siege-gun carriage. The body consists of a 
 platform of rails and transoms, resting on the rear 
 axle-tree, the two middle rails being prolonged to the 
 front to form the stock. The side rails -are prolong- 
 ed to the rear, and furnish supports for the roller ijf 
 a windlass; which is used for loading the wagon, the 
 guns, mortars, etc., being drawn up the stock. which 
 rests on tlie ground, forming an inclined plane. Each 
 end of the roller is provided with pawl and ratchet, 
 operated by a handspike, fitting into a socket after 
 the manner of the windlass of a giu. Over good and 
 firm roads, the mortar-wagon is capable of carrying 
 the 100-pounder Parrott, or any other uiece not ex- 
 ceeding in weight 10,000 pounds. 
 
 MORTISING-MACHINE.— A machine much used in 
 arsenals in the construction of gun-carriages, etc. 
 The self-acting mortising-machine was invented by 
 General Bentham, and described in his specification 
 of 1793. lie made them for the Uritish Admiralty 
 previous to 1800. His descriptiim includes the oper- 
 ation by means of a hole previously bored and then 
 elongated by a vertically reciprocating chisel; and 
 also the making of a mortise liy a rotiiry cutter dur- 
 ing the traveling of the work. One form included a 
 pivoted table. Hrunel's mortising-machine, made 
 by .Maudslay for the iiritish Admiralty, about 1804, 
 with improvements, is emiiloyed at this time for 
 mortising the shells of blocks. The drawing shows 
 the C B. Rogers medium-power mortising-niachine, 
 as employed in most of the arsenals of construction. 
 This niacliine is provided with boring appiiralus and 
 is especially adapted for ordinary work in hard 
 wood and the heavier classes of building. The
 
 MOSS TROOPERS. 
 
 387 
 
 MOTION. 
 
 oliiscl liim a rapid perpendicular niDlion, and !« 
 br()M;;lit down to (lie work hy the treadle, and ear 
 ried up l)y the baianee-wei!;lil on baeU end of treadle. 
 It is self-revernin}j, twrninK the chiMel when the 
 treadle is l<'t u\>, at eaeh end of the mortise. Tlio 
 lied can he set at any anule re(|uircd. The inaeliine 
 has llie horirii,' apparatus, which is si't on the same 
 line wilh Ihe chisi'l, so Ihal the work can he liored 
 and llien riui under the chisel and morlised without 
 unclampirii; it from the lieil. The hit-shaft is run 
 by a bell from the chisel-shaft, and so arraugcd, that 
 
 when the chisel is workint; the hit stops, and, as the 
 chisel is let up by the treadle, the bit starts, ready 
 for horiiis:. The driving pulley is 10 inch diameter, 
 3 inch face, and should make 800 revolutions per 
 minute. The machine may be driven from a main 
 line, if it is level with the pulley in top of machine. 
 If not. a counter will be needed, to set on a level 
 with the pulley, and 8 or 10 feet distant. The weight 
 
 of the m.'irhine is 1,4.')0 pounds. 8cc Double llnrlny 
 and M'rrtixiiiii-iiKirkinf, and Jfith Mi/rliHijiy-mmliiw. 
 
 MOSS TROOPERS.— AfaraiiderH; free-boolcrH; plun- 
 derers, 'i'hey wf 11- eonlined to the districts winch 
 divided the Scotcii and KuKlish territories before (he 
 Union. They were lianded top'dii-r in clans, anri 
 lived by rapine, and received this denomination from 
 the characlir of (he country over which they (ravel- 
 ed in their adventurous mode of life. In Fuller's 
 Wi>rl/iit:i of h'/ir/ln/iil it is stated that, at one time, 
 they nuiid)ered S(!veral thousands, and that their 
 jfreat enemies were "The laws of llie land and the 
 Lord William Naworlh," who finally reduced them 
 to leijal obedience. Scolt mentions them in 'J'/ie Imj/ 
 I'f till- l,a«t Min«lrH. 
 
 MOTHIR AL MOOLK.— In the East Indies, a term 
 applied lofordlications, tiarricades, intrenchmen(s,or 
 hrcast works. 
 
 MOTION. — 1. A division of a movement in the 
 manual of arms to facilitate the instruction of re- 
 cruits. 2. The laws of motion are the fundamental 
 principles connectin^r force and motion in (he physi- 
 cal universe; and are oliviously to be derived from 
 I'xperiiiienl alone, since intuitive reasoning cannot 
 possibly give us any informal ion as to what may or 
 may not be a law of nature. Thou<;h these laws are 
 derived from experiment, it cannot be said that we 
 have any very direct experimental proofs of their 
 truth — our most satisfactory veriticatioua of them 
 are derived from (he exact accordance of the results 
 of calculation widi those of ob.servation in the case 
 of such i,dirantic comliinations of mutually influenc- 
 ing bodies as (hat of the solar system: and it is by 
 such proofs that they must be considered to have 
 been finally established. They seem first to have 
 been given .systematically and completely by New- 
 ton, at the opening of the J'rhicipia; but tlie first 
 two were known to Galileo, and some of the many 
 forms of a //((/•< of the third were known to Hookc, 
 Iluyghens, Wren, and others. We shall give them 
 here in order, wi(h a few brief comments, showing 
 their htn.wfi/ and (heir ii.se First, then, we natur- 
 ally inquire, what matter would do if left to itself; 
 and, by considering cases in which less and less e.x- 
 lerual force is applied to a body, we are led to the 
 statement called [he first law of median. 
 
 1 . Jii'cry body continues in its state of rest or of uni- 
 form motion in a straight line, except in so far as it 
 
 may be compelled by impressed forces to change that 
 stiite. This e-xjiresses simply the inertia of matter — 
 i. e., a body cannot alter its stiit( of rest or motion ; 
 for any such alteration external force is required. 
 Hence the definition of force as that which changes 
 or tends to change a body's state of rest or motion. 
 Now, how does the change of state depend on the 
 force which produces it ? This is obviously a new 
 question, to he resolved b)' experiment ; and the an- 
 swer is (he second lair of motion: 
 
 2. Change of motion is proportional to the impressed 
 force, and takes place in the direction of the straight line 
 inwkieh the force acts. Newton's silence is as expres- 
 sive as his speech. Nothing is here said about the 
 previous motion of the body, or about the number 
 of forces which may be at work simultaneously. 
 Hence, a force produces its full effect in the form of 
 change of motion, whether it act singularly, or be 
 associated with others; and whatever, moreover, be 
 the original motion of the body to which it is applied. 
 Hence, there is no such thing as equilibrium oi forces; 
 every force produces motion— and what we call equi- 
 librium is not the balancing of forces, but the bal- 
 ancing of their iff(cts. Hence, the absurdity of at- 
 tempting to found the science of Statics on aiiy other 
 basis than is to be derived from the second hu»of 
 motion ; which, in fact, leads us at once (by the ;«/•- 
 allelogram of velocities, which is a purely geometrical 
 conception) to Wie paralU I ig ram of forces, and thence, 
 with the help of the third law, (o (he whole subject of 
 Statics. The second law also supplies the means of 
 measuring /orc« and mass; and of solving any prob-
 
 MOTON. 
 
 388 
 
 MOUNT. 
 
 lem whatever coneeming the motion nf one particle. 
 But more is required before we can study Hie motion 
 of a sysU'in of particles — as a rigid bod_v, or a liquid, 
 for instance ; or a system of connected bodies. Here 
 there are mutual actions and reactions of the nature 
 of pressure or of transference of energy between the 
 parts — and these are regulated by the third law of 
 motion. 
 
 3. To euery motion there is always an eqiuil and 
 contrary reactian; or, the mutual actions of any two 
 bodies are always equal and oppositely directed m the 
 same straight line. Thus, the mutual pressure be- 
 tween two bodies has equal, but opposite, values for 
 the two. The tension of a rope is the same through- 
 out, and tends as much to pull back the horse at one 
 end as to pull fn-ward the ^inal-boat at the other. 
 The earth exerts as much attractive force on the 
 suu as the sun e.xerts on the earth — and the same 
 law applies to the other attractive and repulsive 
 forces, as those cf electricity and magnetism. But 
 Newton goes much further than this : he shows, in 
 fact, that action and reaction fsubject to the third 
 law) may consist in work done by a force, instead of 
 the mere force or pressure itself. From this form 
 of the third law we derive at once the principle of 
 virtual velocities, which in its application to ma- 
 chines is familiar as " What is gained in power is lost 
 in spe4!d." But we also derive the grand principle of 
 the indestructibility of work or energy ; at all events 
 in the case of the ordinar}' meclianical forces — and 
 this must be regarded as one of the grandest dis- 
 coveries which Science owes to Newton. It is true 
 that he merely mentions it, and then abruptly passes 
 to another subject ; yet we can hardly exaggerate 
 the value of this single remark. Experimenters, 
 mainly Davy and Joule, have since shown that all 
 the physical energies, as heat, light, electricity, etc., 
 are subject in their transformations to the third law 
 of motion, and tlius the system constructed by New- 
 ton for ordinary dynamical purposes, is now found 
 to rule the most mysterious of the affections of 
 matter. See Force, and Mutipli^rs. 
 
 MOTON. — In ancient armor, a small plate covering 
 the armpits of a knight, used when plate armor was 
 worn. 
 
 MOTTLED CAST-IRON.— A mi.\t\ire of the white 
 and the gray varieties in varying proporiions, the 
 gray iron sometimes appearing in specks, like min- 
 ute flowers upon a white ground; whilst in other 
 specimens the mass is composed of gray iron, and 
 the white iron appears in spots. Fine^ graj' mottled 
 iron from its great tenacity is known to be the best 
 titted for large castings wliere great strength is re- 
 quired, and is employed for gun-founding. It may 
 be made by mixing white and gray iron, or by con- 
 tinuing gray iron in fusion for some time, until it 
 gets the proper color. The kind of mottle will de- 
 pend much upon tlie size of the castings. See Cast- 
 iron. 
 
 MOTTO.— In Heraldry, a word or short sentence 
 which forms an accompaniment to a coat-of-arms, 
 crest, or household badge. Mottoes were originally 
 attached to the badge when the family had one, or 
 to tlic crest where there was no badge. In later 
 Heraldry, the practice isto place the motto in an es- 
 crol either over the crest or below the shield. A mot- 
 to is sometimes a religious or moral sentiment, as 
 '•Gardez la foi." "Ilumanitate;" it isnot unfrequent- 
 ly a heroic exclamation or war-cry, "Courage sans 
 peur, ■' "Forward." In a great many cases it bears 
 reference to the crest, badge, or some bearing of the 
 escutcheon ; thus, Stuart, Earl of Moray, has for 
 crest a jielican wounding herself, and for motto, 
 "Stilus per C'lirislum Hedemptorcni ;"and not a few 
 mottoes are punning allusions to Hie family name — 
 as Scudamore. "Scutoamo.*s Uivini:" Vernon, "V'er 
 non semper viret;" "Fare, fac," for Fairfax; and 
 "Time Deum, cole regem," for (Coleridge. Two 
 mottoes are sometimes used liy the samir family — 
 one above the crest, the other below the shield. The 
 
 [ motto, "Dieu et mon Droit," which accompanies the 
 royal arms of Great Britain, is supposed to have been 
 I a war-cry, and was used in England at least as early 
 ; as the time of Henry VI. Its origin has been as- 
 ; signed to a saying of Richard I., "Not we, but God 
 and our right have vanquished France." 
 
 MOULINETS.— 1. Circular swings of the sword or 
 saber, performed as follows: Left Moulinet. Being 
 at guard, extend the arm oliliquely to tlie left and 
 front to its full length, the hand in tierce and as high 
 as the eyes, the point of the saber to the front, and 
 a little higher than the hilt. (Two). Lower the 
 blade, edge to the front, and make rapidly a circle 
 around tlie hand, to the left of and near the horse's 
 j neck, the blade passing close to the left elbow; re- 
 turn to the first position. (Thbee). Resume the 
 guard. 
 
 Right Moulinet. Being at guard, extend the arm 
 to the front to its full length, the hand in quarte, 
 and as high as the eyes, the point to the front, and a 
 little higher than the hilt. (Two). Lower the blade, 
 edge to the front, make rapidly a circle around the 
 hand, to the right of and near the horse's neck, the 
 blade passing close to the right elbow; return to the 
 first position. (Thbee). Resume the guard. 
 
 Rear Moulinet. Being at guard, raise the arm to 
 the right and rear to its full extent, the point of the 
 saber upward, the edge to the right, the body 
 slightly turned to the right. (Two.) Begin by 
 moving the point of the saber toward the left, and 
 describe a circle in rear. (Thbee.) Resume the 
 guard. In executing the moulinets, the right arm 
 is kept as steady as possible in position, the saber 
 being controlled by motions of the wrist and hand. 
 See Saber Exercise. 
 
 2. Mechanical appliances employed to draw up 
 the cords of the cross-bows, while the bows were 
 held down by the feet. They were in common use 
 about the end of the 13th century. 
 
 MOUND.— A bulwark for of- 
 fense or defense. 2. In Herald- 
 ry, a representation of a globe, 
 surmounted with a cross (gene- 
 rally) patttie. As a device, it 
 is said to liave been used by 
 the Emperor Justinian, and to 
 have been intended to represent 
 the ascendancy of Christianity 
 over the world. The royal crown 
 of England is surmounted by a 
 mound, which first appears on the seal of William 
 the Conqueror, though the globe without the cross 
 was used earlier. 
 
 MOUNT. — The means or opportunity for mount- 
 ing, especially a horse : and the equipments essen- 
 tial to a mounted horseman. 2. To place one's self 
 on, as a hor.se, or anything that 
 one bestrides or sits upon. Hence, 
 to put on horseback ; to furnish 
 with animals for riding. 3. To 
 put anything that sustains and 
 tits, for use ; as, to mount a gun 
 on its carriage, to prepare'for 
 being worn or otherwise used ; 
 as, a sword-blade by adding the 
 hilt and scabbard. A sliii) or a 
 fort is said to »H6<»;(i cannon when 
 they are arranged for use in and about it. 4. A term 
 in Heraldry. When the lower part of the shield is oc- 
 cupied with a representation of ground sliglilly rais- 
 ed, and covered with grass, this is called a mount in 
 base; e. g., argent, on a mount in base, a grove of 
 trees ppr. — Walkinshaw. of that ilk, S<-olland. ,'>. A 
 word of command in cavalry exercise for tiic men to 
 mount their horses. It is executed as follows: The 
 men standing to horse, the Instructor commands : 
 Pkepauk to mount, whereupon the odd numlxrs lead 
 out. All the men then face to the right, dropping 
 the right rein from the hand, take two side steps to 
 the right, sliding the hand along the left rein, make 
 
 HonncL 
 
 •Mnnrifc
 
 MOUNTAIN AETILLEHT. 
 
 380 
 
 MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY CARRIAGE. 
 
 a half face In tlic left ho uh tn brinj; tlic riclil ni(lc to- 
 ward tlic liursc'M Hank; nirry the rif;lil, fool, three 
 inches Id the rear ; take the reinM with llje riL'hl hariil 
 aided by the left, and plaee the rii;lil hiirid on llje 
 j)oniinei, ll»^ reins eoniini,' into the lianil hel ween the 
 tliiirnli and fnre-tini^er, and held so as to feel lit,'litly 
 Uie horse's nicmlli. (Two.) Ka<'h reernit places a 
 third of the left foot in the stirrup, with the assist- 
 ance of the left hand if ne<'essary, and supports it, 
 ai;ainst the forearm of tlie horse; rests upon the hall 
 of the riiiht foot; places the h'fl hand on top of lh(^ 
 neck, well forward, and i;rasps a lock of the ni-ine, 
 the lock eoniini; out between the ihunih and forc- 
 finirer. The Instructor thin conunands : 2. .Mount. 
 At this eoninuind, siirini; from the riirht foot, hold- 
 ing lirinly to the mane, and keeiiin^ the ris;hl hand 
 on the poMUuel ; l)rini; the heels toi^ether, tlie knees 
 straiiihtened and resting against the saddle, tlu' l)ody 
 erect. (Two.) Pass the rijiht lei; extended over the 
 croup of the horse without touching him ; let the 
 body come gently down into the saddle; let go the 
 maiie. insert the right foot in the stirrup, pass the 
 reins into the left hand and adjust them. At the 
 conunands, 3. For?)!., 4. Hank, the even numbers 
 move n|) upon reaching tin- saddle, a position shonhi 
 be assumeil with the buttocks bearing e((iuilly upon 
 the saddle, and as far forward as possible ; the reins 
 coming into the left hand on the side of the little 
 linger, and leaving it between the thunib and fore- 
 finger; the little finger between the reins, the other 
 lingers closed, the thumb pressing the reins tirmly 
 on the second Joint of the fore-tingcr; the left fore- 
 arm horizontal, the lingers six inches from the body 
 and turned toward it; the little linger a little nearer 
 the body than the upper i)art of the luuid ; the right 
 hand behind the thigh, the arm falling niitnrally, the 
 feet inserted one-third of their length in the stirrups, 
 the hi'els slightly lower thiin the toes. 
 
 MOUNTAIN AETILLEEY.— Mountain artillery is 
 designed to operate in a country destitate of car 
 
 from the facility will] which it eoidil ]»■ carried up 
 stei'p ascents, and to the tops of llal-roofed houses, 
 in slreel.flL'liling. See Full/ , I /•////, /■//. 
 
 MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY CARRIAGE. Till; carri- 
 age fur llie Miountain-rille is ^imihir in material and 
 general conslrui-lion to that of the lield-gun.and com- 
 l)ines strength, simplicity, and lightnesH. Tlic axle 
 is without an axle-body, and the wheels Iiave metal 
 naves. 
 
 The mounlain-howit/.er carriage should be light 
 enough to be carried on the back of a i>ar;k animal, 
 and the axle-tree should be short enough to permit it 
 to ])ass through very narrow deliles. It dillers in 
 construction from the lield-carriage, inasmuf:li as the 
 stock and cheeks are formed of the same jjieee, by 
 hollowing out the head of tlx; stock. The wlieelH 
 an; thirty-eight inchi'S in diameter, and the axle-tree 
 is nuide of wood, the arms being protected from 
 wear by «/>«««. or strips of iron. The distance be." 
 twecn ihe wheels is about e(|ual to thi-ir diainelcr. 
 It is arrangecl for dr:iught liy attaching a jiair of 
 shafts to the trail. The pack-saddle and its harness 
 are constructed to carry severally. tli(; howitzer and 
 shaft, the carriage, or two anniumition chests, or it 
 enables an animal to draw the carriage, with the 
 howitzer mounted upon it. A iiortable forge ac- 
 companies each mount;iin battery, and is so construct- 
 ed that it can be enclosed in two chests, and carried, 
 with a bag of co;il, u])on the jiack-saddle. 
 
 The Russian carriage has very short cheeks, the 
 front ends of which are cut off obliquely instead of 
 vertically; the trunnion-beds are let into this ob- 
 lique face, and the trunnions are heldliy cap-squares 
 and keys. Krupp makes two sizes of carriages for 
 the 8-ccntimeter and (i-centimeter guns, respectively. 
 The elevating-screw admits of IH" of elevation and 
 10" depression. The anmumilion-chests arc made 
 of wood, with iron angle-pieces. 
 
 The English have two carriage.?, as shown in the 
 drawing, for the two 7-pounder guns, one of which 
 
 riage-roads, and inaccessible to field artillery. It 
 must, therefore, be light enough to be carried on 
 pack-animals. The piece used for nu)untain service 
 in the United States is a short, light 12-pdr. how- 
 itzer, weighing 320 lbs. The form of the chamber 
 is cylindrical, and suited to a charge of \ lb. of pow- 
 der. The projectiles are shells and case-sliot. It is 
 discharged from a low, two-wheel carriage, which 
 serves for transportation whenever the ground will 
 permit. When the piece is packed, the carriage is 
 packed on a separate animal The mountain howit- 
 zer is also employed for prairie service, and in de- 
 fending camps and frontier forts against Inilians, in 
 which^asc it is mounted on a light, four-wheel car- 
 riage, called '■ the prairie carriage." In the Mexi- 
 can war, the mountain howitzer was found useful. 
 
 weighs 150 pounds when made of steel, and 200 
 pounds if made of brass ; the other weighs 200 pound.s 
 when made of steel, and 224 if made of bronze. The 
 wheels are 30 inches and 3lj inches in diameter, re- 
 spectively, and have a track of 27 inches. The ele- 
 vating apparatus consists of a movable bed. which 
 hooks on a cross-bar between the cheeks over the 
 axle, and has two studs, one on each side, to rest in 
 racks riveted to the inside of the trail-pieces. A 
 sliding-quoin rests on the bed. and is worked by a 
 screw" which passes through a collar in the end of 
 the bed and enters a nut in the quoin. A light iron 
 limber is made for tlie heavier carriage, and carries 
 two ammunition-ciiests, which contain ten rounds 
 of ammunition each. 
 In transportation the gun is carried in Russia and
 
 MOUNTAINOUS SITES. 
 
 390 
 
 MOUNTAIN TEANSIT. 
 
 6-centimet«r. 
 178^ pounds. 
 198 pounde. 
 
 105^^ pounds. 
 
 16' 
 
 4fJV pounds. 
 7 ounces. 
 
 4 lbs. C>r oz. 
 919 feet. 
 
 Germany over the horse's spine, the breech in front, 
 this being deemed the more favorable position for 
 passing narrow passes and tlie roads Ihrougli wliicli 
 mountain artillery has frequently to make its way. 
 The obiection to having any part of the load cross- 
 ways has induced the Russians to detach the axles for 
 transportation, believing that the delays which may 
 occur on the march from the axle-arms interfering 
 ■with a free passage through woods, etc., would be 
 greater than would result from having to adjust the 
 axle to the carriage when it was required to com- 
 mence tiring. The carriage pack-saddle is provided 
 ■with a rear pad to protect the animal's rump from 
 blows from the end of the trail. 
 
 The following are the principal -weights and di- 
 mensions of Krupps carriages :— 
 
 8-ceBtimeter, 
 "Welglit of carriage with wheels. 332 pounds. 
 
 ■Weiglit of gun with wedge 2*27 pounds. 
 
 Weight of aramunition-chest, 
 
 paclced 103.6 pounds. 
 
 Number of roundsin each chest. 8 
 
 Weight of pack-saddle 4G?i pounds. 
 
 ■yVeight of powder-charge 14 ounces. 
 
 Weight of shell, loaded 8 lbs. 13 oz. 
 
 Initial velocity of shell 952 feet 
 
 The following are the principal weights of the 
 English carriages: — 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Weight of lisht carriage without wheels 161 
 
 Weight of light carriage with wheels 287 
 
 Weight of lieavier carriage without wheels 192 
 
 Weight of tieavier carriage witll wheels 328 
 
 Weight of limber 333 
 
 MOUNTAINOUS SITES.— The crests and gorges are 
 the most important military features of a promi- 
 nently marked mountainous position. It is tlirough 
 the latter that the roads are made, and the former, 
 from their elevation, command the latter. The 
 crests should therefore never be abandoned to the 
 enemy, although from their position, or distance, 
 they may not directly overlook the gorges ; for, 
 independently of the real advantage of position, 
 ■which the enemy would thus acquire, he would 
 possess a relative advantage in the moral effect pro- 
 duced on troops when they lind themselves in a com- 
 manded position. If the base of the mountain does 
 not stretch out too far from the summit to admit of 
 a sure retreat on the latter, -^orks may be thrown 
 up for the defense of the base, with intermediate 
 works between the base and the summit placed on 
 the secondary ridges, or other commanding points. 
 But if the distance between the summit and the 
 base is great, and particularly if it is decided before- 
 liand to retreat upon the summits, in case of disaster, 
 then the base should be disregarded. 
 
 The works thrown up for the defense of the sum- 
 mit should be laid out on the brow of the height, 
 for the purpose of overlooking and guarding its 
 sides. As has already been stated, the ]ilan and 
 relief of the defenses will be subordinated to the 
 features of the ground. Where the surface along 
 the crests is undulating, presenting salient and re- 
 entering parts, consisting of spurs and ravines more 
 or less prominent, the salient points should be occu- 
 pied by works with a good relief, and otherwise 
 strengthened b}' passive obstructions to the assail- 
 ant's advance, as from tJu-ir position a broad Hank- 
 ing sweep of the surface for artillery can be ob- 
 tained for the defense of the approaches upon the 
 collateral salients. The re-entering portions may be 
 occupied with defenses of a ■weaker profile, as their 
 position is stronger and it is from them tliat a strong 
 fire of mvisketry and of llu; lighler Held guns can be 
 brought to l)ear upon the ground directlj^ in front 
 of the salients adjacent to them. Tlic cremaillere 
 line and tlie redan line with long curtains broken 
 forward, so as to form a tenailled combination with 
 alternate long and short brandies, botli lend them- 
 selves lictter tlian most other combinations to a wm- 
 figuration of ground of this description. 
 
 Very steep slopes will not admit of a defense with 
 artillery, because the gun cannot be tireil under a 
 
 much greater depression than one-si.xth, and unless 
 the shot take effect the enemy will be inspirited lo 
 advance, confiding in the safety of his position. In 
 slopes of this character the works may consist sim- 
 ply of a parapet, in the form of a glacis, without any 
 ditch, the earth for the parapet being taken from an 
 interior trench ; in some cases a dry stone wall may 
 be substituted for an eartlien parapet. An abattis 
 may be formed in front of the parapet ■within close 
 musket range; and heavy round logs, or large 
 masses of rock, be arranged along the parapet, 
 ready to be rolled over on the enemy should he 
 break through the abattis. Steep escarpments of 
 rock are generally considered as inaccessible ; but 
 those points should never be left to their o^wn 
 strength. It is always prudent to post a small de- 
 tachment to frustrate an attempt of the enemy to sur- 
 prise them. A steep natural slope maybe made in- 
 accessible by cutting awaj' the face of tlie eminence. 
 
 It may, in some cases, be indispensably necessary 
 to guard certain points at the base of a mountain, as, 
 for example, where the base is washed by a river, 
 over which there is an important ferry. Under 
 such circumstances the point to be guarded should 
 be most thoroughly protected by some strong work; 
 moreover, a number of posts, placed at intervals on 
 the most commanding points between the summit 
 and the base, should connect the two. These posts 
 should, when practicable, be placed in defensive re- 
 lations, and in all cases their tire should sweep all 
 the ground between the two principal points. The 
 interior of the posts most advanced should be ex- 
 posed to the Are of those in their rear, in order that 
 the enemy may be driven out, should he succeed in 
 forcing his way into any one. As these posts will 
 require a considerable detachment for their defense, 
 care should be taken not to multiply their number 
 unnecessaril}-, and never at the expense of the main 
 defense. All communications, leading through the 
 mountains, should be carefully guarded, both at 
 their outlets and at the most suitable intermediate 
 points for defense ; otherwise the most respectable 
 positions will be liable to be turned by the enemy. 
 If the communications are not of ase to the assailed, 
 they must be barred b}- a line of abattis, or by an 
 artilicial inundation, etc. ; and they sliould be 
 watched by a detachment of light troops, whose 
 retreat on the main works should be secured in case 
 of an attack by superinr forces. If the communica- 
 tions are of use to the assailed they should be de- 
 fended by intrenchraents, which should command 
 and enlilade them in the most effectual manner. 
 
 MOUNTAIN TRANSIT.— This instrument is a mod- 
 ification of the Engineer's Transit, made for moun- 
 tain and mine survej-s. but applicalile as well to all 
 the other work of the Engineer. It is made exceed- 
 ingly light and portable, its needle being 4 inches 
 long; and its telescope 8 inches long, having a pow- 
 er of 30 diameters. Its sockets with the leveling 
 head, remain attached to the instrument; and its 
 compass circle is movable about its center, so as to 
 lay off the variation of the needle. In this instru- 
 ment the limb is divided on solid silver to half de- 
 grees, with verniers reading to single minutes; some- 
 times the limb is divided to twenty minutes with 
 verniers reading to half minutes. There are also 
 cylindrical caps above the leveling screws to exclude 
 the dust, etc. The drawing shows one of the cellu- 
 loid refiectors, wliieh are placed over the two oppo- 
 site verniers of the limb, and are of service especially 
 in the surveys of mines, to throw light upon the di- 
 visions below. 
 
 Like the Engineer's Transit, this instrument is 
 sometimes used Willi a plain telescope; but oftener 
 with one or more of the extras, as level, chiiiip and 
 tangent, and vertical circle. More frequently, how- 
 ever, the Alountain Transit is furnished as shown, 
 with vertical arc, level, clamp and tangent, and the 
 solar altaehinent. ' which is essentially the solar ap- 
 paratus of IJurt iilaced upon the cross-bar of the or-
 
 MOUNTAIN WARFAHK. 
 
 MOUNTAIN WAEFAHE. 
 
 (liiiiiry Iniiisit, llii' jmliir axis being directed above 
 insteud of liclow, iif* is llieoiisc in llic solar coinpiiss. 
 A lit lie circular disk of about an inch and a half 
 diamclcr, and having a very short, round pivot, 
 projcclini; hIkivc its u])p('r surface, is first sccuri'ly 
 screwed to the lelevcope axis. I'pon this piv(;t 
 rr!sls Ihi' eularijcd base of the polar axis, which is 
 also lirnily connected with the disk by four capslan- 
 liead screws iiassini; from the underside of the disk 
 into the base already named. These screws serve to 
 adjust the polar axis. 
 
 The hour circle surr()un<lini; the base of I he polar 
 axis is easily movable about it. and can bcfaslened 
 at any point desireil by two fhil-head screws above. 
 It is dividcii to live minutes of lime; is lii^ured from 
 1. to XII., anil is re;id liy a small index tixed lo llic 
 declinathiu are, and moving with il. A hollow coui', 
 or Rocket, tittinu; closely to the polar axis and made 
 to move snuijly upon it, or clamped at any jioint 
 desired by a milled-head screw on top, furnishes 
 by its two expandeil arms below, a lirni supjiortfor 
 the declination arc, which is securely fastened to it 
 by two lari^e screws, as shown. 
 
 The (h'clinution arc is of about five inches radius, 
 is divided tociuarter degrees, and reads by its ver- 
 nier to simrle minutes of arc, the divisions of both 
 vernier aiKi limb bcini; in the same plane. The ile- 
 cliuatiou arm lias the usual lenses and silver plates 
 
 on the two opposite lilocks. made precisely like those 
 of the ordinary solar compass, but its vernier is out- 
 side the block, and more easily read. The declination 
 arm lias also a clamp and tangent movement, as 
 shown in the drawing. The arc of the declination 
 limb is turned on its axis and one or the other solar 
 lens used, as the sun is north or south of the equa- 
 tor; the drawing shows its position when it is north. 
 The latitude is set olT liy means of a large vertical 
 limb having a radius of two and a half inches; the 
 are is divided to thirty minutes, is figured from the 
 center, each way, in two rows, viz., from to 80"^ 
 and from 90*^ to 10^, the first series being intendej 
 for reading vertical angles; the last series for setting 
 off the latitude, and is read by its vernier to single 
 minutes. When desired. an arc of three inches rad- 
 ius is prepared reading by its vernier to lialf min- 
 utes of a degree. It lias also a clamp-screw inser- 
 ted near its center, by which it can be set fast to the 
 telescope axis in any desired pi sition. The vernier 
 of tlie vertical limb is made movable by the tangent- 
 
 Hcrew attached, ho that its zero and that of the limb 
 arc ri'iidily made to coincide when, in adjusting the 
 limb to the- level of the leles<;one, the ar<: is clamped 
 I to the a.xis. The iiwial tangent movement to the 
 telescope; axis serves, of course, to bring the vertical 
 limb lo the proper elevation. A level on the under 
 side of I hi- telescope, with ground vial and scale, ig 
 indispensable in the use of the solar ..tiachment. 
 The diviih'd arcs, verniers, and hour circle are all on 
 silver plate, and are thus easily read and [)reserved 
 from tarnishing. 
 
 To determine latitude, first level the instrument 
 very carefully, using, as befon;, the level of the 
 lele.scoiie until the bubble will remain in the center 
 during a complete revolution of the instrument, the 
 tangent movement of the ti'lescope beini.' used in 
 connection with the leveling screws of the parallel 
 plates, and the a.xis of the teli-scope firmly clam[)ed. 
 Next clamp the vertical arc, so tliat its zero and that 
 of its vernier coincide as near as may be, and tlien 
 bring them into exact line by the tangent-screw of 
 the vernier. 'I'lien, having the declination of the 
 sun for 12 o'clock of the given day as aflected by the 
 meridional refraction carefully set off u|)on the de- 
 clination arc, note also the c(|uation of lime and 
 fifteen or twenty minutes before noon, the telescope 
 being directed lo the north, and the object-end 
 lowered until, by moving the instrument upon its 
 spindle and the declination arc from side to side, the 
 sun's image is brought nearly into position between 
 the equatorial lines. Now bring the declinalii n arc 
 directly in line with the telescope, chimp the a.xis 
 firmly, and with the tangent-screw bring Ihe image 
 precisely between the lines and keep it there with 
 the tangent-screw, raising it just as long as it will 
 run bclovir the lower equatorial line, or in other 
 words, as long as the sun continues to rise in 
 the heavens. When the sun reaches the merid- 
 ian the image will remain stationary for an in- 
 stant, and then begin to rise on the plate. The 
 moment the image ceases to run below is of course 
 apparent noon, when the inde.x of the hour arc 
 should indicate XII, and the latitude be determined 
 by the reading of the vertical arc. It must be 
 remembered, however, that the angle through which 
 the polar axis has moved in the operation just de- 
 scribed is measured from the zenith instead of the 
 horizon as in the ordinary solar, so that the angle 
 read on the vertical limb is the complement of the 
 latitude. 
 
 The Mountain Transit is usuallj' placed upon an 
 extension tripod, in which all the legs can be short- 
 ened or lengthened at will. It is thus adapted for 
 use in mountain surveys, where one or more legs 
 must be shortened ; or for mines, where in many 
 places a short tripod is indispensable. If desired, 
 Ihe sliding pieces can be easily turned end for end, 
 the points being thus put out of the way, and the 
 tripod morr s,;?ely transported. The tripod wheu 
 closed is only three feet long, and is carried by an 
 ordinary shawl-strap. The weight of this instru- 
 ment, as made by the Jlessrs. Ourlcy. United States, 
 with plain telescope is 8i pounds: with the solar at- 
 tachment, arc, level, and clamp, Di jiounds. The 
 extension tripod weighs about 8 pounds. See En- 
 giiiffV^x Transit. 
 
 MOUNTAIN WARFARE.— In warfare, mountains 
 offer a considerable obstacle to an invading army, 
 and, if properly defended, may either stay the ad- 
 vance of an enemy or prevent ingress into the coun- 
 try. The difliculty to be overcome will be still 
 greater if there be other obstacles, such as rivers and 
 a succession of mountain ranges. In such warfare 
 the invading General should use every precaution in 
 examining each step of the way, and gleaning all in- 
 formatiim in his power from maps, guides, and re- 
 connoissances. Further, he should be careful that 
 he does not fall into a trap, which the enemy may 
 lay for him in feigning retreat, when he is endeavor- 
 ing to outflank him and get in his rear, thus render-
 
 HOUNTED PAY. 
 
 392 
 
 MOUNTING CANNON. 
 
 ing the position of the invader very precarious. It 
 sliould therefore be laid down as a nia.xim that, in 
 mountain operations, especially, the tianks and rear 
 of the invading army must be secured, to prevent 
 being surrounded. One of the great difficulties in 
 
 small bodies of mounted riflemen. Mounted rifle" 
 men were considerably used and appreciated by 
 Napoleon I. and his Generals. .Jomini writes on the 
 subject as follows: " It is certainly an advantage to 
 liavc several battalions of mounted infantry, who can 
 this nature of warfare is keeping the communication ' anticipate an enemy at a defile, defend itin retreat, 
 open with the rear, and bringing up food for the j or scour a wood." Sir G. Wolseley, in writing on 
 army, as mountain ranges, passes, etc., do not afford the subject of outposts, gives it as liis opinion that, 
 facility for using wheeled carriages ; and the trans- ! whenever mounted infantry is introduced into the 
 
 port, therefore, resolves itself into men and pack 
 animals. Such transport forms but a slow and pre- 
 carious means of carrying forward supplies, if not 
 well guarded. History affords examples of the diffi- 
 culty of mountain warfare in transporting the wa- 
 teriel of war : thus, for instance, that of Napoleon, 
 the First Consul, whilst effecting the passage of the 
 Alps, with the French army, in'that part called the 
 Great and the Little St. Bernard. The carriage of 
 his artillery and stores was a source of great anxiety 
 ami difficulty. The exertion of a whole battalion 
 was requisite for the conveyance of one field-piece, 
 with its proportion of ammunition; one-half of the 
 regiment could only draw the load, while the other 
 half was obliged to carry the knapsacks, firelocks, 
 camp kettles, and five days' rations. 
 
 MOUNTED PAY.— A grade of pay allowed mounted 
 officers, or to other officers serving under conditions 
 which entitle them to the same pay. The following 
 officers, in addition to those whose pay is fixed by 
 law, are entitled to pay as mounted oilicers : officers 
 of the Staff Corps below the rank of Major, officers 
 of troops of cavalry, officers of one light battery for 
 each regiment of artillery, officers announced in 
 orders from the Adjutant General's Office as Acting 
 Signal Officers, and authorized Aides-de-Camp duly 
 appointed as such. Other light batteries of artillerv 
 which may be designated by the President, and 
 equipped as such, will each have the organization of 
 a light battery, except the additional 2d Lieutenant 
 and the officers thereof actually serving with the 
 light batteries will be mounted. Officers actually 
 serving with companies of infantry mounted by au- 
 thority of the War Department, and not iu excess 
 of the legal organization of infantry, are mounted 
 while so serving. A company of infantry moimted 
 retains the same organization as on foot. Other 
 officers on duty which, in the opinion of the Depart- 
 ment Commander, requires them to be mounted, 
 are entitled to be so considered, on the certificate of 
 their Department Commanders that they have been 
 on duty in the service of the United States which re- 
 quired them to be mounted during the time. See 
 Pai/. 
 
 MOUNTED RIFLEMEN.— Mounted infantry, the 
 designation of riflemen being given to them from the 
 arm they were equipped with. Mounted riflemen 
 are soldiers trained to act as foot and cavalry sol- 
 diers. This arm is but little known at the present 
 time in the British service, but since the war of 1870- 
 71, which has confirmed the opinion held by many 
 soldiers, ^that mcmnted riflemen are now essential to 
 every enterprising army, the subject of reintroduc- 
 ing it in the army has been often discussed. The 
 flrst mention in military history of mounted riflemen 
 is that of the dragoons created by Marechal de Bris- 
 sac in 1600. They were foot soldiers mounted on 
 horses, who on emergencies carried a comrade en 
 i-niuiv. The flrst official record of such troops in the 
 Brilish service dates from a royal warrant of 1072, 
 which regulates the matchlock as one of the arms. ' 
 The Scots Greys, who were raised in 1083, carried 
 also fire-arms, as well as the British (iragoons of the 
 seventeenth century ; both were instructed to act as 
 infantry on horses, to enable them to make more 
 rapid movements. Dragoons, acting as such, were 
 evcniually changed into cavalry ; and the last corps 
 liearing the name of mounted riflemen was that at 
 the Cape, which wasdisbandecl afew yearsago. This 
 nature of n)ounled infantry has been reintroduced in 
 the volunteer forces of the country, there being four 
 
 service, and its employment properly understood, 
 these outpost duties will devolve to a very consider- 
 able extent on it. Such men are invaluable in cover- 
 ing retreats; to seize, destroy, and hold bridges; for 
 works of destruction, such as removing rails and 
 telegraphs, etc. For these duties they were frequent- 
 ly employed in the American and thelast Continental 
 wars, most foreign armies having adhered to that 
 system. Colonel Hamley says, in his "Operations 
 of War," second edition: "As cavalry alone could 
 effect nothing in an intersected country, or against a 
 body of mixed troops, or a force shelteredby ob- 
 stacles, it is indispensable that the troops thus em- 
 ployed, while mounted for the sake of celerity, should 
 be able to meet infantry on good terms. Their chief 
 action must therefore be as infantry, the horses of the 
 dismounted men being held by their comrades. . . . 
 Mounted infantry is altogether a different thing from 
 dismounted cavalry, and the two kinds of" force 
 should be kept carefully distinct. All experience 
 has shown that cavalry who are habituated to rely 
 on their fire-arms are apt to lose their distinctive 
 characteristics of promptitude, impulsion, and reso- 
 lution iu attack; and it would be impossible, by any 
 amount of training, to combine such opposite "func- 
 tions in the same troops. By establishing mounted 
 riflemen as a separate arm of the service, men and 
 horses of a size which, though admirably suited for 
 rapid and sustained movements, is deficient in the 
 power and weight that tell so formidably in the 
 charge, might be turned to excellent account." 
 Colonel Hamley further states that on this kind of 
 troops might jjroperly devolve the business of recon- 
 noitring or heading the advanced guards, of seizing 
 defiles, etc. On the other hand, the regular cavalry, 
 spared in great measure the harassing duties which 
 fritter away its strength, would be preserved intact 
 for the day of battle. In a country like India, in- 
 fantrj* can be mounted on camels, and has been .so 
 utilized when it was desirable to send troops on a 
 forced march to take a place by surprise, or to scat- 
 ter a collecting force. Each camel carries two men. 
 It would be necessary on such service to dismount; 
 and rest the men during the journey. But except 
 for the expense there is no reason why there should 
 not be a permanent Corps. 
 
 MOUNTING CANNON.-Jf the platform is nmch 
 above the general level of the ground, as in case- 
 mated batteries and on ramparts, the cannon have 
 to be raised by strong derricks to the level of the 
 platform, or they may be drawn up ramps of earth 
 or of scaffolding. 
 
 1st. The cha.ssis being on the jjlatform, the top 
 carriage not in position. 
 
 There will be re(iuired to mount the gun one or 
 two hydrnuUc or two or three screw jacks, depending 
 on their power, and hhcks of different lengths and 
 widths, varying in thickness from one to twelve in., 
 also a few skids and chocks. The gun is brought 
 parallel and near the chassis, a jack is jilaced under 
 the breech luid one under the nuizzle ; the extrem- 
 ities of the gun are raised alternately and sujiported 
 by blocks till they are at such a height that skids 
 jJaced <m the rails of the chassis will p;iss under it. 
 The gun is rolled till it occupies a proper position 
 tuuler that for the top carriage. It is then raised as 
 before, being suiiported by cribs of blocks built one 
 luider Iheswellof the hreecli.anotlier under the chase, 
 three feet from the muzzle, till it is brought to a 
 height iibove that for the truimion beds. the trunnions 
 being level. The lop carriage is taken to pieces and
 
 UOUBNE. 
 
 393 
 
 MOVABLE PIVOT. 
 
 asspmhlpd in posilion under tho gun, which is then 
 
 let ilown inli> |il,'icc. 
 
 2(i. The (liiisHis iiriil l(pii ciirriagc IxMng in posi- 1 
 tion. — T\ut jfun is bnnmlil piinillcl to tlicchiissis. and 
 is raist'il anil rolled us i)i-fcjrc on to skids placed on 
 tlie rails in rear of the top carriage, tlie breeeh pro- 
 jectini; to the rear. It is then lifted liy jaeks and sup- 
 porleil on a erih of tiloeks bnilt in rear of Ihc'ehassis 
 nnder tile hreeeh, and Ijy a skid liearinir under the 
 lini/./.le laid across and restini; on I wo cribs, one on 
 each side of the muzzle without the chassis. The 
 gun l)eing sufllciently hii;li, the top carriajri' is moved 
 to the rear and the gun lowered into the trunnion 
 beds. In raising heavy cannon an onlinary gin can 
 sonu'liines be used for llie muzzle, the jack being re- | 
 ((uired for elcvaling tlie breech only. In buililing 
 tlic cribs the thickest blocks, as a rule, should be I 
 
 — "y- 
 
 was flomotimoB used in uport to dlHtingiiiRh the bat- 
 talion men from the flank companies. It was in- 
 deed generally apiilieil to them by the Grenudiern 
 and Fjghl IJobs, meaning that whilr- the latter arc de- 
 tached, the former rr main in (juarters, like cutH to 
 
 watell the iriiri'. etc. 
 
 MOUSING A HOOK.— A mode of passing a piece of 
 spun yarn round the point and back of the liook of 
 a block, in ordiT to prevent it disengaging itself 
 from anvlhiii'.; to which it may be hooked. 
 
 MOUSftUETAIRES.- A body of horse-soldiers un- 
 der the oM I'reiK h lli'jfimf., raised by Louis XIII. in 
 1033. This Corjjs was considered a Military School 
 for the French nobility. It was disbanded in l(i4(f, 
 but was restored in l(i.')7. A .second company wa.i 
 created in KidO, and formed (,'ardinal Muzarin's 
 Guard. Also written Muaketeim 
 
 /fl* 
 
 tt^aaafgstfejtfe* 
 
 placed at the bottom, and thin blocks .should be re- 
 placed by thicker ones as the gun rises. 
 
 3d. The cannon being on or by the platform, the 
 chassis and the top carriage in position or not. 
 
 In many instances the position of the platform is 
 such that the mounting may be facilitated by th? 
 jacks being placed above the gun. In this case a 
 special device is used. The jacks, two in number, 
 are supported each upon a heavy timber or bolnter 
 resting on blocks, or on high, strong trestles. On 
 top of the jac:k rests one end of a lerer, the other end 
 bearing on a fulcrum. A strong iron hoisting-bnr 
 also through one made in the lever. This bar is 
 passes through a mortise prepared in the bolster and 
 pierced with a number of holes, into which iron pins 
 maj- be placed. The extremities of the gun are 
 slung to the lower ends of the hoisting-bars ; pins 
 being placed in the bars immediately above the 
 levers, the jacks acting on the levers raise the gun ; 
 pins are then passed through the bars above the 
 bolsters and the weight sustained by them till a new- 
 lift is taken with the jacks ; by transferring the pins 
 the gun is brought to any desired height, the jacks 
 being worked together. The bolsters should be of 
 sufficient length to embrace the chas.sis, and the gun 
 placed by the side of it. If the chassis and top car- 
 riage are in position the gun is raised to the neces- 
 sary height, the carriage traversed till it is brought 
 beneath it, and the gun then lowered into place. If 
 the gun alone is on the platform it can be raised, 
 and the chassis and top carriage be brought in suc- 
 cession on a truck and placed in position beneath it. 
 The appliances to be employed in mounting heavy 
 cannon, and the order in which the different parts 
 should be placed on the platform, must vary with 
 the position and nature of the work and the am- 
 strnction and the arrangement of each particular 
 platform. Any device or arrangement that maj- 
 expedite or facilitate the work sliould be resorted to. 
 The circumstances may be such as to render advis- 
 able slight variations in the steps taken in mounting 
 each sun in a battery. See Mefhnnical Maneuvers. 
 
 MOURNE.— That part of a lance or halbert to 
 'which the steel or blade is fixed. 
 
 MOTTSER. — In the British Army, a sobriquet which 
 
 ! MOUSQUET FUSIL.— A//»«-''W- gun which was in- 
 venteil by .Marshal Vauban, about 1(!40. and which 
 was so contrived that in case the Hint did not strike 
 tire, the powder might beintlamed by means of a small 
 match which was fixed to the breech. Most authors 
 of Encyclopedias, from the habit of copying one an- 
 other, have repeated that the bayonet was invented 
 and manufactured at BayonnebyPuysegur, who died 
 in 1682. Nevertheless this sort of dagger pr sword 
 had been adapted to the arquebuscand even perhaps 
 to the earliest portable fire-arms. The bayonet was 
 already known in France in l.'iTO, but was not uni- 
 versally adopted tmtil 1640. when it replaced the pike 
 in certain regiments. Subsequently the bayonet was 
 fixed at the end of the gun by means of the socket. 
 This was the side-arm joined to the fire-arm, called 
 mii^ket-gun, and attributed to Vauban. 
 
 MOUTH. — 1. The opening of a piece of ordnance 
 at which the charge is introduced, and from which, 
 when fired, it issues. 2. The interior opening of an 
 embrasure, from eighteen inches to two feet wide, 
 according to the caliber of the gun, and of a rect- 
 aniular or trapezoidal form. See Einbra.fure. 
 
 MOVABLE BATTERY.— A battery usually consist- 
 ing of field guns and small mortars which can take 
 up, temporarily, any favorable position for damaging 
 the enemy's defences. The movable gun batteries 
 will consist of 10, in some cases, 20-pounder rifled 
 guns ; and the Napoleon gun for throwing hollow 
 projectiles. These guns will take advantage of any 
 temporarj' covers, as undulations of the ground, 
 woods, fences, etc., from which they can bring a 
 damaging fire on the defences, and which they will 
 maintain until the fire of the besieged becomes too 
 heavy for them. In this way, a very important au.x- 
 iliary to the fixed batteries will be called into play ; 
 sometimes forcing the besieged to establish new po- 
 sitions to drive oil these light guns. In like manner 
 the smaller mortars that can be readily moved by 
 hand, or on sleds, may be placed in good temporary 
 positions to increase the amount of fire delivered on 
 anv stiven point. See BatUrie.'i SlViA Fixed Batttries. 
 
 MOVABLE PIVOT.— The arc described by the sol- 
 dier or guide on that flank of a line of troops toward 
 which a wheel is made. See Pivot.
 
 MOTEMEHT. 
 
 394 
 
 MULLET. 
 
 MOVEMENT.— The regular and orderly motion of 
 au army for some particular purpose. It is also de- 
 scribed as the changes made by an army from place 
 to place, either to take up new camping ground, to 
 engage the enemy, or to avoid him. "Under this 
 term are comprehended all the ditferent evolutions, 
 marches, countermarches, and maneuvers, which 
 are made in Tactics, for the purpose of retreating 
 from or of approaching towards an enemy. The 
 science of military movements forms one of the prin- 
 cipal features in the character of a great Commander. 
 If he be full of resource in this important branch, he 
 may oftentimes defeat an enemy without even com- 
 ing to blows, for to conceal one's movements re- 
 quires great art and much ingenuity. 
 
 MOTJENNE.— An ancient 4-pounder, 10 feet long, 
 weighing 1,300 pounds. In the time of Charles IX. 
 (1572) it was a 2J pounder. 
 
 MOYENNE VILLE.— A term formerly given by the 
 Fr'-nch to an\' town in which the garrison was equal 
 to one-third of the inhabitants, and which was not 
 deemed sufRcienth' important to bear the expense 
 of a citadel ; more especially so because it was not 
 in the power of the inhabitants to form seditious 
 meetings without the knowledge of the soldiers who 
 were quartered on them. 
 
 MOYENS COTES.— In a fortification, all those sides 
 which contain from 80 to 120 toises in extent. The}' 
 are always fortified with bastions on their angles. 
 Tlie miij/eii.t cottn are generally found along the ex- 
 tent of irregular places, and "each one of these is in- 
 dividually subdivided into small, mean, and great 
 sides. 
 
 MUFTI. — A term in the army for plain clothes, the 
 opposite of regimental clothing. In the British army, 
 an officer in England is permitted to appear in vmfti 
 when off duty. 
 
 MUHLAGIS. — Turkish Cavalry composed of expert 
 horsemen, who generally attend the beglierbe3's. 
 Tlicv arc not verv numerous. 
 
 MUIKKIRK IKON.— A variety of iron well suited for 
 the purposes of gun construction. It is made with 
 charcoal at Muifkirk, Prince George's County, Mary- 
 land The ore used is a nodular carbonate of iron 
 from the tertiary sands of the western shore of Ches- 
 apeake Bay. It is more or less altered into sesqui- 
 oxido of iron by the action of surface water, and is 
 cleaned and roasted before charging the furnace. 
 The yield of iron from the raw ore is from 40 to 45 
 per cent., and from the roasted about 50 per cent. 
 This iron has been used at the South Boston foundry 
 for a number of years and with excellent results, bu"t 
 has not until recently been employed for ordnance 
 purposes. Sec Don r [run and Iron. 
 
 MUIR MONTSTOEM KIFLE. — A breech-loading 
 small-arm ha ving a fixed chamber closed by a movable 
 breech-block, winch rotates about a horizontal axis 
 at 'M" to the axis of the barrel, lying below the axis of 
 the barrel and in front, being moved from above by a 
 thumb-piece. The breech-block of this arm is moved 
 by an outside lever, the interior shaft connected with 
 which is cam-shaped, so that the first motion of 
 opening draws down the breech-block, until a li]i on 
 its upper surface is clear of a hook or jaw formed on 
 the under side of a projection of tlie frame over- 
 hanging the mouth of the chamber. By continuing 
 the Miulion of the lever, the breech is fully exposed 
 by the rotation of Die block, I he h:imnicrat the same 
 time being brought to tlie full-cock. Bv reversing 
 tlie movement of the lever the bn'ccji is Hosed. The 
 breech-block is locked by the abutment of the frame 
 upon its back. Extraction and ejection are accom- 
 plished by a sliding extractor in'the lower side of 
 the barrel. Its under side is notched for the upper 
 end of a lever, which is pivoted on the .same pin as 
 Ihc hammer. This lever has two horizonlid arms, 
 which are struck by corresponding jirongs on the 
 lower side of the block, in opening the piece. 
 
 MULCT. A soldier is said to be niiilrtirl of Ifis pay 
 when put under fine or slojjpages for necessaries, o"r 
 
 to make good some dilapidations committed by him 
 on the propert}' of the people or the government. 
 
 MULE. — A hybrid animal, the offspring of the male 
 ass and the mare, much used and valued in many 
 parts of the world as a beast of burden. The ears 
 are long; the head, croup, and tail resemble thoseof 
 the ass rather than those of the horse; but in bulk 
 and stature the mule approaches more nearly to the 
 horse. The mule seems to excel both the ass and 
 the horse in intelligence ; it is remarkable for its 
 powers of muscular endurance ; and its sure-footed- 
 ness particularly adapts it to mountainous coun- 
 tries. It has been common from very ancient times 
 in many parts of the East ; and is much used also in 
 most of the countries around the Mediterranean Sea, 
 and in the mountainous parts of South America. 
 Great care is bestowed on the breeding of mules in 
 Spain and Italy, and those of particular districts are 
 highl}' esteemed. In ancient times the sons of Kings 
 rode on mules, and they were yoked in chariots. 
 They are still used to draw the carriages of Italian 
 Cardinals and other ecclesiastical dignitaries. Both 
 in Spain and in South America mules emplojed to 
 carry burdens are driven in troops, each preceded 
 by an animal— in Soutii America usually an old mare 
 — called tiie iixf/rina, or godmother, to the neck of 
 which a little bell is attacdied, and the mules follow 
 with the greatest docility. When troops mingle in 
 their halting-places or elsewhere, they are readily 
 separated, as they recognize at once the sound of 
 their own bell. Mules are comparatively little used 
 in Britain. 
 
 Pack mules should not be too large or high on 
 their legs. The Spanish-Mexican mules, for endur- 
 ance, are superior to all others. These mules are 
 small, but can stand a great amount of abuse and 
 starvation, and will suffer but little from the effects 
 of a hard drive. Being smaller than the American 
 nmles, they can fill up in a much less time, and it 
 will be found that in three hours on thin grass they 
 will fill up and recuperate better than American 
 mules on the same pasture in six hours. This is the 
 secret of small mules outlasting the large ones in the 
 mountains and on the prairies. The time spent in 
 camp is not sutficientlj- long, when the grass is 
 scarce, to allow a large one to find enough to eat. 
 The small mule finds sulficient in a shortVhile and 
 has some time left for rest and recuperation. 
 
 As in other hybrid animals generally, males are 
 more numerous among mules than females, in the 
 proportion, it is said, of two or three to one. There 
 is no instance on record of offspring produced by 
 two mules: but instances occur, although rarely, of 
 their producing offspring with the horse and with 
 the ass. The mule is verj- superior in size, strength, 
 and beauty to the hinny, the offspring of the male 
 horse and the female ass. See Pack A nimah. 
 
 MULLEB. — A hand instrument made of wood and 
 covered with leather; it is used in the laboratory for 
 reducing powder to great fineness. The term is also 
 applied (u the painter's stone for miximj paint. 
 
 MULLET. -Mullet, or MoUet, in Heraldry, is a 
 charge in the form of a star, having generally five 
 
 Mullets. 
 
 points, intended to represent a spur-rowel, and of 
 fr,^'i|uent occurrence from the earliest beginnings of 
 coat-armor. Gwillim, SirGeorgc jMackenzic, lUulNis- 
 betlay it downtlial mullclssbould always be iiierced 
 to represent tlie round bole in which the spur-rowel 
 lunis, liut Ihis has been by no means uniformly at- 
 tended to in practice. Much confusion exists iu bla-
 
 MULTIBALL CARTRIDGE. 
 
 •MK) 
 
 MULTIPLF, DEILI. 
 
 zonry hetwi'iii mullcls lunl slars; in Enp^land tlie 
 rule most gcncrully luloptcil is thai llic iniillcl liiis 
 live |)oints, wliiTciis the star liiis si.\, unless any 
 otliiT nuinljcr lie spccilied. Nishct lays (Idwii st 
 rule nearly tlic convcrHi! of this, wliieli lias never 
 been ailliered to; anil in Seollisli Heraldry llie same 
 fifTure seems lo he often hlazoned as a midlel or a 
 star, aeeordin;^ as it aeeompanies mililary or celes- 
 tial lii;iires. The midlel is llie mark of eadenev as- 
 sij^neil lo (he third son, "Toineile him to <'hivalry." 
 Till; mullet is occasionally used in Heraldry for the 
 fish so called. See Jfinttdry. 
 
 MULTIBALL CARTRIDGE." A carl ridge in which 
 two or more liidlels or jiieces of lead are snhslitiiled 
 for the ordinary bullel, with the idea of doini; more 
 execution at short ranges, 'i'lie followim; advan- 
 tages are claimed for the encased multiljall cart- 
 ridge as manufactured liy Mervvin, lliilhert A; Co: 
 1. No Icadiiii; of liarrel l)y any numlier of discliarg- 
 cs. 2. At each discharse the casing acts as the 
 cleaner and lubricates the barrel. 3. The lubricated 
 case taking the rilling gives an easy transit of halls 
 iiud accuraiy of lliglit. 4. The hd)rieant is preserv- 
 ed uniier the dilVercnt ordinary degrees of tempera- 
 ture, f). By the centrifugal force given to the casing 
 and balls by the rilling, the casing is thrown olT 
 after leaving the barrel, Ihe balls diverge or separate 
 nearly e(pial to the front of three men at about one 
 hundred yards distance. (!. The multi (or ;i-ball) 
 cartridge in its cfTcclivc (or destructive) results at 
 each discharge at short range is nearly ecpial to three 
 separate discharges by a breech-loiuler throwing one 
 ball. 7. The cartridge is tirndy constructed and 
 will withstand rough usage of actual service and 
 preserve its uniformity of shape. 8. Continuous 
 (and rapid) firing without re(iuiring the barrel to be 
 cleaned. 9. Preservation of powder. The casing 
 as an insulator prevents galvanic action between the 
 metallic shell and balls which chemical action in 
 time would deteriorate the powder. 10. The cas- 
 ings are made, the balls placed an<l secured firmly 
 therein, separate from Ihemclallic shells and can l)e 
 transported in l)ulk or otherwise without injury and 
 attached to the loaded metallic powder case when 
 desirable (or at reloading of shells) 
 
 The mulliball carlriilge for the service rifie is 
 shown in Fig. 1. and has the following particulars: 
 Weight of powder charge. . . .grains. .53 
 
 Nuntber of balls 8 
 
 Diameter of balls (each) 0".424 
 
 Weight of balls grains. 108. OG 
 
 Total weight of lead grains, 326 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 The charge is inclosed in a copper cartridge case 
 of service dimensious. The three balls are inclosed 
 
 I in a strong casing of paper lubricated with a mlxtiir" 
 
 Of paralllni- and beeswax, making of them a single 
 
 piece. The paper is saturated with the lubricant. 
 
 The case is crimped at the base to hold the bulls in 
 
 place; longitudinal cuts are made through the case 
 
 ; to facilitate rupture after it has left Ihe i>iece. (A 
 
 I light coating of shellac covers the portion of IhecuHC 
 
 I that projects from the shcjl in some of the carlrirlgcH 
 
 with a view to ])rotection of the cartridges from al- 
 
 niospheric intluences;. 'Ihe lubricant is placed in 
 
 [ the recesses (corresponding to cannelures), where 
 
 the balls come in contact. 
 
 The mulliball cartridge for the service revolver ia 
 shown in Fig. 2, ;ind has the following parlicularH: 
 Weight of powder charger . . . grains 23 
 Number of balls (1 ogival and 2 spherical seg- 
 ments; 3 
 
 Diameter of balls 0".434 
 
 Length of ogival bidlc't 0".39 
 
 Altitude of segments - 0".23<J 
 
 Weight of ogival bullet • . . . grains 111 
 Weight of segments (each) . . . grains. H3 
 Total weight of lead ..... grains. 27.5 
 
 The charge is inclosed in a copper cartridge case, 
 of service dimensions- The paper casing for the 
 bullets is like that for the rifie. The ogival has a 
 fiat base, and the bases of the segments fit to this 
 and to each other. The lid)ricant is placed in the 
 reces.ses and about their junctions. 'Assuming that 
 li inches penetration in soft |)ine boards with these 
 balls would inllic-l a dangerous wound, it has Iieen. 
 foinid by experiment that the effective range (jf the 
 rifie-bullel mulliball is limited to tibout 100 yards; 
 and with the ])istol even at 2-5 yards, but one" of the 
 bullets in Ihe ciirtridge has a penetration of 1^ inches. 
 The (luestion naturally arises whether it woidd be 
 advisable to encumber men in action with cartridges 
 wdiich.as revolver cartridges, are not at any range 
 ajperior to the uniball lo inflict a dangerous wound, 
 and in an}- case could not be used with effect beyond 
 7-5 yards; and as rille cartridges cotdil not be "iisc-d 
 with c-fi'ect beyond 17.5 yards, while their«uperiority 
 lo the imiball is limited between 30 and 100 yards. 
 See Hnckxliut Cartridge and Wright Multihall Cart. 
 riiige. 
 
 MULTI-CHARGE GUN.— Many attempts have been 
 made by inventors lo utilize the accelerating effect 
 on Ihe projectile of several charges successively fired 
 in a gun. Bessemer proposed to use a very long gun, 
 placing the charges separ:ilely in holes at the breech, 
 to be fired in succession by electricity. In the Ly- 
 man-Haskell midti-charge cannon, the inertia of the 
 shot is first overcome b.y a moderate charge of 
 very coarse-grained, slow-burning powder, and then 
 repeated charges of quick-ljurning powder are ap- 
 plied in succession until a great increased velocity 
 is allained. In recent experiments with an acc.^ e - 
 atiug or multi-charge gun tlie average ])enetration in 
 laminated armor composed of one-half inch boiler- 
 plates was 4]',5 inches. No doubts are entertained 
 by experts tliat early experiments will show that 
 these guns, at comparatvely moderate cost, will be 
 at least as efficient as the best in Europe. See 
 I,l/iiiiin Hdx/,-/!/ Miilti-clidrgi' Cnnin/n, 
 
 MULTIPLE DRILL.— A tool designed more espe- 
 ciidly for drilling side fr;inu-s and steel armor plates, 
 but well ;idapted to a wide range of other general 
 w irk in the armory. The large size machine is 
 fitte 1 with two or any required numtjer of sliding 
 heads ; these heads, carrying drill spindles, with a 
 lateral range of 17 feet from center to center of 
 spindles, and a forward and back movement, at 
 riglit angles, on a sliding horizontal arm, of 10 
 incites (or more if desired), thus enabling holes to be 
 drilled in line orot/ierwise. Capacity on top of table 
 under drill spindle, 32 inches ; from floor to top of 
 table. 32 inches: fsom colui."n to center of drill 
 spindle. 22 inches, or more, according to length of 
 tiie sliding arm: from column to frc'int of table 18 
 inches; top surface of table. 14 inches wide by 18
 
 JTOLTIPLE LimSS. 
 
 39G 
 
 UITLTIFLIEB8. 
 
 feet 4 inches in length ; table has a front or vertical 
 surface, 25 inches deep by 18 feet 4 inches in length; 
 T-slots on both top and vertical surfaces for clamp- 
 ing work ; vertical traverse of spindles, 13 inches : 
 spindles balanced by weight attached direct to top 
 of spindle ; lias quick return by wheel and rack : 
 has automatic gear feed suitalile for drilling or 
 boring: driving cone 22x4j inches in diameter, 
 to run 325 turns per minute, four or more sections ; 
 each head has perfectly independent universal move- 
 ment and an independent feed, also an independent 
 friction for stopping and starting ; spindles are 
 steel ; pinions and rack gearing are of steel ; steel 
 shafts and screws ; all cut gearing ; floor space oc- 
 
 cupied, 48 inches wide by 18 feet 8 inches long ; 
 total height to top of spindles, 9 feet ; weight, 18,- 
 000 pounds. The drawing shows a smaller tool 
 which is used for general work. The spindles have 
 hand and power feed ; balanced, quick return by 
 lever; lateral adjustment, can be run one or more at 
 same time, and at any desired speed, by arrange- 
 ment of gearing ; table has vertical adjustment by 
 right and left screw ; distance from spindle to col- 
 umn. 7i inches ; and with counter-shaft and pulleys, 
 12 by Sk inches, to run 350 turns per minute. 
 Weight, 850 pounds. See Drill Prem and Gang 
 Briih. 
 
 MULTIPLE LINES.— It has been proposed, by some 
 writers, til throw )ip several lines of detached works 
 for the defence of a position ; so that the troops in 
 the first line m;iy retreat under cover of the second, 
 and so on. This arrangement, in the first |)laci', can 
 seldom be made, without makfiiing the order nf bat- 
 tle, and fherefore weakening the defence, by too 
 great a dissemination of the troops. Moreover, in 
 works of great extent there never can be that con- 
 cert wliirli is soessc.lial 1o a vigorous defence, from 
 the iinprai-licabiiity to direct it properly. The troops 
 destine<l to act offensively against the enemy if re- 
 pulsed, are too far in the rear to be l)roughi u]) in 
 time; and the ground being greatly cut up. by such 
 a multiplication of works, will render the man- 
 euvers slow and dilllcull. Besides, a rrrj/ e.dpitnl oh. 
 i'c.tion in war, the time a;id liibor reiiuireil to throw 
 
 up so many works are altogether beyond what can 
 be disposed of in the ordinary circumstances of an 
 army. See Lines. 
 
 MULTIPLIERS.— It would exceed the limits of l\\\s 
 work to enter into a discusion of the formulas from 
 which the values of the multipliers used in the equa- 
 tions of motion in air are calculated ; it will be suffi- 
 cient to explain how these tables are used in prac- 
 tice. 
 
 The reader will find this .subject, as well as all 
 others relating to Ballistics, ably and fully treated 
 in Dinion's Traite de Baliatique. 
 
 Multiplier B. The decimals are carried out to 
 three places, which Is sufficient for ordinary pur- 
 
 X 
 
 poses. The values of — are given in the first hori- 
 e 
 V, 
 zontal line, the value of — in the first vertical col- 
 
 r 
 lunn. and the values of the corresponding multipliers 
 are set opposite to them. 
 To find the multiplier B for two intermediate 
 X V, 
 values of — and — , not given in the tables, we seek, 
 
 c r 
 in the absence of the proper numbers, the corres- 
 ponding values of the nearest tabular numbers. We 
 add to these, parts proportional to the differences, 
 as though each part were to be considered separ- 
 ately. 
 
 Multiplier I. The values of / are given in the 
 same table as tho.se of B; except that it is necessary 
 to commence in the lower horizontal line, and sub- 
 
 tract from them the product of 
 
 t(-:^) 
 
 by 
 
 the corresponding number of the line called "Correc- 
 tion." 
 
 Values of Uand D. This table is calculated for 
 
 X 
 
 differences of 0.10 in case of -, in the upper line, and 
 
 c 
 V, 
 for differences of .05 in case of — . For P',the values 
 
 r 
 
 of - are fotmd in the upper horizontal line, and for 
 
 c 
 D, in the lower line. 
 
 X 
 
 Values of -Bfor\calculationoj Ranges. This table 
 c 
 
 X V, 
 
 gives the value of - and — , for differences of 0.05 
 
 c r 
 
 and 0.05; the unknown quantity to be determined is 
 X V, X 
 
 ~ when — and -iJ=:P, are given. 
 c, re 
 
 Arrange the calculations as in the preceding cases. 
 Only (me of the proportional parts is unknown, and 
 this is determined by the condition, that if it be ad- 
 ded to the other proportional part, and to the num- 
 ber in the table, the sum is equal to the required num- 
 ber, y, 
 
 Vahies of r for initial velocities. This table gives 
 
 the result arising by dividing by v//? for vahies of 
 
 r 
 X . V, V, 
 
 -and—; tlie i|u;inlitv to be determined is —. The 
 e r ' r 
 
 method is the same ;is in the preceding table ; the 
 siiznof the ililTercnce should invariably be clianged 
 ifllie valui' of file quotient'/ is found to diminish as
 
 MnNCHEEL. 
 
 397 
 
 MUSKET. 
 
 -increases. Sec DhUaii'K Formulan. 
 
 MUNCHEEL. A kind iif litter wljicli iHtisedon tlie 
 Muclras \\.w\ lidiiiliiiy side of India. It is Kiinply a 
 liainiiHK U siispeiideil from a liori/Diilal pole, an<l is 
 carried liy two iiwii, It, \veii;lis uliout yO llis. To 
 keej) llie canvas of tlie cot or Ijainiiioelt at full lenirlli, 
 there is a cross piec(' of wood at the top and liottoni. 
 On service it wonldbe used for the same purpose us 
 the doolie of Heiii^al. Under another name, the 
 mnnclieel is largely used to carry jieople ahout in 
 tlie Himalaya Mountains. A large niidirella is used 
 to keep oil' the snn. and a waterproof ])i('ce of clotli, 
 or a l)lanUet, is thrown over the siipiHirting pole to 
 keep otT the rain. See LitUr. 
 
 MUNIFICE. A Honian soldier who was subjected 
 to every kind of drudgery-work in camp. 
 
 MUNIMELL. — A stronghold, fortification, breast- 
 work. I'le. 
 
 MUNITIONS OF WAR.— Ammunition and military 
 stores of (•v<Ty description. 
 
 MURAOE. — An ancient term for money appropri- 
 ated to the r<'pair of military works. 
 
 MURAL CIRCLE. -An astronomical instrument for 
 taking declinations ; consisting of a large circle built 
 against the wall (whence its name), movalile on its 
 axis in the plane of the m^.idian, and with a tele- 
 scope attached, also in the plane of the meridian, 
 which turns about an axis. The circle is graduated, 
 the whole instrviment counterweighted and furnisheil 
 with an illuminating apparatus for night readings. 
 Headings are made accurate by set-screws and mi- 
 croscopic micrometers. Tlie plane of the limb and 
 the optical axis of the telescope are made [jarallel to 
 the meridian by leveling and sweeping-screws, and 
 the cross lines of the eye-piece should follow a star 
 near the etiuator their whole length. The instru- 
 ment being rectitied, the height of a star above the 
 horizon is measured by a cu]) of mercury ; the star 
 is observed directly and then by reflexion, the half 
 sum of the readings being the correct angle. The 
 co-latitude of the place is obtained as with the the- 
 odolite. As the tube is movable about the circle, 
 reading should always be checked by reiteration : 
 with more tiian one limb of tiie circle. 
 
 MURAL CROWN.— In Heraldry, a crown in the 
 form of the top of a circular tower, masoned and em- 
 battled. It is meant to represent the crown which 
 was given by the Romans as a mark of distinction to 
 the soldier who first mounted the walls of a besieged 
 town, and fixed there the standard of the army. A 
 mural crown sujiporting the crest, in place of a 
 wreath, occurs in the achievements of several of the 
 English Nobility, and in various grants of arms made 
 in tlie early part of the present century to officers 
 who had distinguished themselves in war. Viscount 
 Bercsford, in consequence of his gallantry at the 
 battle of Albuera. obtained as crest, issuing out of a 
 mural crown, a dragon's head with its neck pierced 
 tlirough by a broken spear, the head of the spear, 
 point downwards, being held in the mouth of the 
 dragon. 
 
 MURDER. — The crime of killing a human being of 
 malice aforethought, and is punishable with death. 
 It is immaterial what means are employed to effect 
 the object. Blackstone says that the name of mur- 
 der, as a crime, was anciently applied only to the 
 secret killing of another, which the word moerda 
 signifies in the Teutonic language. And among the 
 ancient Goths in Sweden and Denmark the whole 
 vill or neigliborhood was punished for the crime, if 
 the murderer was not discovered. Murder is defined 
 by Coke thus: "When a person of sound memory 
 and tliscretion unlawfully killeth any reasonable 
 creature in being, and under the King's peace, with 
 malice aforethought, either express or implied." Al- 
 most every word in this definition has been the sub- 
 ject of discussion in the numerous cases that have 
 occurred in the law courts. Tlie murderer must be 
 
 of sounil memory or discretion; I. e., he must be at 
 least 14 years of age, and not a liinalie or idiot. Tlie 
 act must be done unlawfully, i. e.,it must not be in 
 self-defense, or from other justifiable cause. The 
 person killed must be a reasonable creature, and 
 lienci; killing a child in the womb is not murder, 
 but is puiiisliabh' in another way. The essential 
 thing in murder is that it be done maliciously and 
 deliberately, and hence in cases of hot blood and 
 sciitlling, the olfense is generally manslaughter only. 
 Killing by duelling is thus murder, for it is deliber- 
 ate. It is not necessary, in order to constitute mur- 
 der, that the murderer kill the man he intended, 
 provided he had a deliberate design to murder some 
 one. Thus if one shoots at A, and misses hiin, but 
 kills IJ, this is murder, because of the previous felon- 
 ious intent which the law transfers from one to the 
 other. So if one lays poison for A, and B, again.st 
 whom the poisoner had no felonious intent, takes it, 
 and is killed, this is murder. The only sentence on 
 murderers is now deatli. which is carried out by 
 hanging. Formerly the murderer was directed after 
 death to be hung on a gibbet in chains near the 
 jilace of the crime. Formerly, also, dissection wa.* 
 added as part of the sentence, and the execution was 
 to take iilace on the day next but one after sentence- 
 But now an interval of a fortnight usually takea 
 [ilace and the body is buried in the precincts of the 
 prison. Attempts to murder were until recently pun- 
 ishable i(i England like capital felony; but now all 
 attempts to murder are jiunishable only with penal 
 servitude for life, or for a term not less than three 
 years. 
 
 MURDERER. — A great piece of artillery. Among 
 the ordnance given up to jlonk with Edinburgh Cas- 
 tle in KioO is mentioned "The great iron murderer, 
 Muekl.' Meg." 
 
 MURDEESSES.— In ancient fortification, a sort of 
 battlement w ilh interstices raised on the tops of tow- 
 ers in order to fire through. 
 
 MURSAIL.— That portion of the helmet made so 
 as to lower or turn down in order to protect the 
 face. So called from the resemblance it bore to the 
 muzzle of an animal. It is the same as Mesail and 
 Ventail. 
 
 MUSCHITE. — A local designation applied to the 
 earl\- hand-culverins, and which gave its form to the 
 word Vd'unquet or musket. 
 
 MUSCULE. — In ancient times, a machine of war; 
 alow, long, and sharp-roofed shed, which enabled 
 the besiegers to advance to and sap the wall of the 
 besieged. See Textudu. 
 
 MU'SICIANS.— The men enlisted and detailed to 
 furnish music for troops. Regiments are supplied 
 with field music on the requsitions of the Command- 
 ers, made, from time to time, direct on the Adjutant 
 General ; and, when requested by Regimental Com- 
 manders, the Adjutaut General will endeavor to have 
 suitable men selected from the recruits, or enlisted, 
 for the regimental bands. See Band, Drummer, 
 Fiftr, and Trumpeter. 
 
 MUSKET— MUSQUET.— The fire-arm for infantry 
 soldiers, which succeeded the clumsy arquebuse, and 
 in I80I gave wa}' before the Enfield rifle, which, in 
 its turn, was converted into Snider's patent breech- 
 loading rifle, now known as the Snider-Enfleld ; the 
 latter arm, so far as the regular infantry is concerned, 
 has been replaced by theilartiui-Henry breech-load- 
 er, but the English navy, cavalry, andthe auxilliary 
 forces still retain the Snider. The first muskets 
 were match-locKs; after which came wheel-locks 
 asnaphans or snap-hance and flint muskets: and last- 
 ly, percussion muskets, w hich were a vast improve- 
 liient, both for accuracy and lightness, on all which 
 had gone before. Compared, however, to either the 
 Enfield or JIartini-Henry rifle, the musket familiar- 
 ly known as Brown Bess, was a heavy, ugly, and in- 
 effective weapon. The following is a table of the 
 ranges attained, on an average, by the musket, the 
 Enfield, and the Martini-Henry :
 
 MUSKET BASKETS. 
 
 398 
 
 MUTINY. 
 
 Enfield Martini- 
 Musket Rifle. Hcnrv Rifle. 
 
 Accuratefire 100 600 1300 
 
 Effective against detached parties.... 150 800 1500 
 
 Effectivcagainst troops iu column... 200 1000 1800 
 
 MUSKET BASKETS.— Small baskets about afoot or 
 
 a font and a half high, 8 or 10 inches diameter at 
 bottom, and a foot at the top, so that being filled 
 with earth there is room to lay a musket between 
 tliem at the bottom. They are set on low breast- 
 works, or parapets, or on such as are beaten down. 
 MUSKETEEK.— A soldier armed with a musket. 
 See Monsfjuetiu'res. 
 
 MUSKETOON. — An obsolete weapon, a short mus- 
 ket witli a very wide bore, carrying a ball of 5 oz., 
 and sometimes bell-mouthed like a blunderbuss. 
 The arm was mostly used toward the close of the 
 seventeentli century. Also written Musquetoon. 
 
 MUSKETRY INSTRUCTION.— The knowledge im- 
 parted to the officers and soldiers of a regiment, to 
 perfect them in the theory and practice of small- 
 arms. The following is the course pursued in all 
 Line Regiments. Every year,in tlie infantry and ca- 
 valry, each company and troop in a regiment is 
 struck off duty in turn, to go through the annual 
 course of mu.sketrj', under the Regimental Instructor. 
 This is divided into preliminarj' drill and practice. 
 The former lasts four days, and consists of position 
 (standing and kneeling), aiming, the judging dis- 
 tance drill, and the teaching of theory ; the latter is 
 divided into three periods, and consists in firing a 
 number of rounds at different distances, from l.^O to 
 8U0 _yards — standing, kneeling, or in an}- position. 
 Volley and independent firing, skirmishing, etc. 
 form part of the course, during which each man 
 fires 90 rounds. The result of each man's firing is 
 consigned to carefully drawn up tables, and c'las- 
 sified by regiments according to the figure of merit. 
 These tables are publislied yearly ma. blue-book. 
 See Schiuila of Muxketn/. ' j 
 
 MUSKETRY INSTRUCTOR —In England, an officer 
 attached to each regiment of the regular and au.xi- 
 liary forces, to carry out the instruction and prac- 
 tice of the musket. He is one of the Permanent 
 Staff of a regiment. 
 
 MUSTER. — A review of troops under arms and 
 fullly equipped, in order to take an account of their 
 numbers, inspect their arms and accoutrements, and 
 examine their condition. 
 
 In the British army, muster is a calling over of 
 the names of all the men composing a regiment. 
 Each man present answers to his nalne, those not 
 answering being returned as absent. The muster- 
 roll from which the names are called is the Pay- 
 master's voucher for the pay he issues, and must be 
 signed by the Commanding Offlcer,the Adjutant, and 
 himself. The crime of signing a fal.se muster-roll, 
 or of personating another individual at a muster, is 
 held most severely punishable — by imprisonment and 
 flogging for a common soldier, by immediate cashier- 
 ing in the case of an officer. In regiments of the 
 Line a nuister is taken on the 24th of each month. 
 The muster after a battle is a melancholy proceed- 
 ing, intended to show the casualties death has 
 wrought. In early times, before the army was a 
 standmg force, and when each (.Captain was a sort of 
 contractor to the Crown for so many men, the mus- 
 ter was most important as the only security the 
 Sovereign had that he really obtained the services of 
 the number of men for whom he paid. Accordingly, 
 any fraud, as making a false return, or as mustering 
 with his troop men not actually serving in it was 
 by the Articles of War of Henry V. made pimishable 
 with dentil for the .second offense, and by Charles I. 
 with death " witlioul mercy " for evi^n tiie first such 
 crime; while any jjcrson abetting in any way in the 
 fraud shared the penalty. 
 
 In the United Stales, troops are mustered for pay 
 on the last day of February, April, .June, August, 
 October, and December. The musters are made 
 
 by sox Inspector General, if present, otherwise by an 
 officer specially designated by the Commander of 
 the Arm}', Division, or Department ; and in absence 
 of either an Inspector General or officer specially 
 designated, the muster is made by the Commander 
 of the Post. All stated musters of the troops, when 
 practicable, are preceded by a minute and careful 
 Inxpei-tion in the prescribed mode ; and if the com- 
 mand be of more than a company, by a Review, 
 before inspection. The Mustering Officer having 
 inspected the companies in succession, beginning at 
 tlie head of the cohnnn, returns to the first company 
 to muster it ; each Captain, as the Mustering Officer 
 approaches, brings his company to rear open order, 
 supports arms, and commands : Attention to muster. 
 The Mustering Officer then calls over the names on 
 the roll ; each man, as his name is called, distinctly 
 answers Here! and brings his piece to a carry and 
 then to an order anas. The Adjutant, at muster, 
 provides himself with the muster-roll of the Field 
 and Staff ; and each Captain with a roll of his com- 
 pany, and a list of absentees alphabetically arranged. 
 After muster, the presence of the men reported in 
 the hospital and on guard is verified by the Muster- 
 ing Officer, who is accompanied by the Company 
 Commanders. 
 
 MUSTER-BOOK.— A book in which military forces 
 are registered. 
 
 MUSTER-MASTER.— The Mmtering or Inspecting 
 officer who takes an account of troops, and of their 
 arms and other military apparatus. Tliis title is not 
 known in the United States Army. See Muder. 
 
 MUSTER-ROLL.— A return or list of all troops and 
 establishments, actually present on parade or other- 
 wise accounted for, which is taken on the day of mus- 
 ter. The presence at muster of all concerned is per- 
 emptorily necessary, otherwise au officer or soldier 
 subjects himself to forfeiture of pay, unless leave by 
 competent authority has been obtained Sometimes 
 written Muster-file . See Pay-roll. 
 
 MUTILATED. — Wounded in such a manner as to 
 lose the use of a limb. A battalion is said to be muti- 
 lated when its divisions, etc., stand unequal. 
 
 MUTINY. — Behavior either by word or deed sub- 
 versive of discipline, or tending to undermine su- 
 perior authority. Till recently mutiny comprised 
 speaking disrespectfully of the Sovereign, Royal 
 Family, or General Commanding, quarrelling, and 
 resisting arrest while quarrelling; but these offenses 
 have now been reduced to the lesser crime of 
 "Mutinous Conduct." The acts now constituting 
 mutiny proper are e.xciting, causing, or joining in 
 any mutiny or sedition ; or when present thereat, 
 failing to use the utmost effort to suppress it; when, 
 knowing of a mutiny or intended mutiny, failing to 
 give notice of it to the Commanding Officer; strik- 
 ing a Superior Officer; or in using or offering any 
 violence against him while in the execution of his 
 duty: disobeying the lawful command of a Superior 
 Officer. The puni.shment awarded by the Mutiny 
 Act to these crimes is, if the culprit be an officer, 
 death or such other punishment as a General Court- 
 Martial shall award; if a soldier, death, penal servi- 
 tude for not less than four years, or such other 
 punishment as a General Court-Martial shall award. 
 As the crime of mutiny has a tendency to immedia- 
 tely destroy all authority and all cohesion in tlie 
 naval or military body. Commanding Officers have 
 strong powers to stop it summarily. A Drum-liead 
 Court-Martial may sentence an offender, and if the 
 case be urgent, and the spread of the mutiny appre- 
 hended, the immediate execution of the mutineer 
 may follow within a few minutes of the detection of, 
 his crime. It, however, behooves Commanding 
 Officers to exercise this extraordinary power with 
 great caution, as the use of so absolute an authority 
 is narrowly and jealously watched. To prevent 
 mutiny among men the ofiieers should be strict 
 without harshness, kind without familiarity, atten- 
 tive to all the just rights of their subordinates, and
 
 MUTINY ACT. 
 
 399 
 
 MYOPIA. 
 
 above all tilings inOHl ijarlicular io Ihr- currying out, 
 to tlic very letter of any promisi; they may liavc 
 
 IIlMilr. 
 
 MUTINY ACT;— An Act of the BritiBli Parliament 
 
 pasHi-d from ycarto year, invcstinj; the Crown with 
 powors Io n'fi;iilat(! Hie j;ovcniiiiciil, of llir Army anil 
 to frame Arlieles of War. The Navy stands under 
 Navy Discipline Acts, IMIil and IHfili, the suceessors 
 of Articles of War first enacted imdc'r (,'harles II., 
 which, indike the Mutiny Act. remained in forces for 
 an indelijiite lime. i}y ihe Bill of |{if;hts,the main- 
 tenance of a Htandiiifi Army in time of peace, unless 
 by consent of I'arliajnenI, was declareil ille.^al, and 
 from that time the nuniIxT of troDps to he maintain- 
 ed, and the cost of the dilVerenl hranelies (if th(' ser- 
 vice, have been regulated by an anmial vote of Ihe 
 House of (Commons. Hut Parliament possesses a 
 further control ov('r the Army. Soldiers, in time of 
 war or rebellion, being subject to martial law, may 
 be piuiisluMl for mutiny or desertion; but the occur- 
 rence of a mutiny in certain Scotch regiments soon 
 after the Kevohition, raiseil the (pieslion whether 
 military disciplines coidd be maintained in lime of 
 peace; and tlie courts of law decided that, in the ab- 
 sence of any statute to enforce discipline, a soldier 
 was only amenable to the common law ; if he de- 
 serted, he was only liable for breach of contract ; or 
 if \h: struck his oll'icer, to an indictment for assault. 
 The authority of the Legislature became indispens- 
 ablis to the mainlena'i'-e of disciijline ; and Parlia- 
 ment, from UiSl) till IHT!), at the beginning of every 
 Session, conferred this and other powers in the !Mn- 
 tiny Act, limited in its duration at one time to si.\ 
 months, but latterly to a year. Although it was 
 greatly changed from the form in which it tirst 
 passed, l'.)0 years ago, the annual alterations were 
 slight, and substantially it had a lixed form. The 
 preamble ([Uoting thealiove de<!laratiou from the Bill 
 of Rights, added that it was judged necessary that a 
 force of such a number should be continued, while 
 it gave authority to the Sovereign to enact Articles 
 of War for the government of the force. The Act 
 had 107 clauses, the (irst live speeitied the persons 
 liable to its provisions — namely, all enlisted soldiers 
 or commissioned otlicers on full pay, those of the 
 Militia or Yeomanry employed on active service, and 
 to recruits for the Militia under training. Clauses 
 C-14 treated of Courts-Martial; clauses l.'i-SS re- 
 lated to crimes and their punishment; for mutiny, 
 desertion, cowardice, treason, insubordination, death 
 might be the penalty; for frauds, embezzlement, etc., 
 penal servitude was awarded. Clauses 29-33 pro- 
 vided for military prisons, the reception of soldiers 
 in civil jails under the sentences of Courts-Martial. 
 Clauses 34-37 enacted rules for deserters. Clause 
 38 referred to furlough; 39-41 enacted that no per- 
 son acquitted or convicted by a Civil Magistrate or 
 Jurj' be tried by Court-Martial for the same offense, 
 and similar matters. Clauses 4'2-.')9 referred to En 
 listment ; GO-74 to stoppages, billets, carriages, and 
 ferries, and the conveyance and entertainment of 
 troops. The remaining 24 clauses adverted to mis- 
 cellaneous matters. By clauses II).') and 100, the Mi- 
 litia, Yeomanry and Volunteers might on emergency 
 be attached to the regular forces. For years prior 
 to 1878, attention had been drawn in Parliament and 
 ehsewhere to the shortcomings of tlie Act, as well as 
 to its cumbrousness, and the Articles of War by 
 which it was accompanied, explained and amplilied. 
 These represenlatiimsctdniinated in the appointment 
 of a Parliamentary Committee, which, in 1879, pre- 
 sented a Bill to supersede the JIutiny Act, and, like 
 it, to be passed annually as the "Army Discipline 
 and Regulation Act." The Marine Mutiny Act. ap- 
 plj'ing to the Marine Forces when serving on shore, 
 was almost identical in its jirovisious with the Mu- 
 tiny Act. Passed annually up to 1!S78. it was in 
 1S79 -nergcd with the Mutiny .Vet in the " Army 
 Discipline ami Regulation Act." 
 MUZZLE-LOADER.— The name given to all guns. 
 
 smooth-bore or rifled, which are loaded at the mouth 
 or muzzle, to distinguish them from those loaded 
 at the brei-cji. All the; newly-made ordnance used 
 in the service are rilli-d, and loaded at the muzzle, 
 but the tirst rilled guns ('.\rmslrong'sj were breech- 
 loaders. The change from breech-loading to muz- 
 zh'-loading was brought about, (sjiielly, from the in- 
 stability of the system in lieavy guns, a want of a, 
 reliable l)ree('h-clo8er, ami the want also of a suit- 
 able percussion-fuse. JMoreover, the nature of the 
 powder used when heavy breech-loaders were in the 
 .service was such as to render the? breech apparutuH 
 unsafe. A muzzle-loading gun has a simpler, less 
 costly, and stronger construction ; the ammunition 
 is less t:ostly, and a simi)le fuse, without percussion 
 urrantremeni, can be \ised. 
 
 MUZZLE-PIVOTING CARRIAGE.— The vertical ficl 1 
 of tire of guns mounted in casemates is so muoli re- 
 stricted by the embrasure Ihat l\u: want has long 
 been felt of a carriage which w ill allow tlie gun to 
 be used at high angles of elevation, and also at a 
 depression, without a great enlargement of the em- 
 brasure. With the view of solving this problem, a 
 new carriage for casennites has been constructed 
 recently, by which the gun can l)e fired through an 
 embrasure of the usual dimensions at 1.0" elevation 
 and 7" depression. The principle adopted in its 
 <oustruction is to vary the height of th(' trunnion- 
 beds instead of always preserving them in tbe .same 
 li.xed positions as in the ordinary <arriages. To 
 effect this, each cheek of the carriage is cut with a 
 wide vertical slot, in which plays up and down a 
 rectangular block of iron bored with a hole to re- 
 ceive the truimion of the gun. Under this block is 
 placed a strong screw to support the weight of 
 the gun. By means of a hydraulic jack i)laced 
 under each trunnion-block the gun is raised or 
 lowered (o any desired height, and the motion is 
 immediately followed up by the two screws, to 
 which the weight of the gun is at once trans- 
 ferred. Two minutes are required to raise the gun 
 from the lowest to the highest position. In order 
 to obtain the greatest elevation, it is of course neces- 
 sary to lower the trunnion-blocks to the bottom of 
 the slot, and for the greatest depression to raise 
 them to their highest position. See Sea-coajit and 
 Oarrisiii, I 'tirriftfjta. 
 
 MUZZLE RING.— The metallic ring or circle that 
 surrounds the mouth of a cannon or other piece of 
 ordnance. 
 
 MUZZLE SIGHT.— A front sight placed on or near 
 tbe muzzle of a tire-arm. 
 
 MUZZLE VELOCITY.— A term more properly em- 
 ployed for tlie iiiitiiil velocitj', or the velocitj' at 
 the muzzle of the piece. 
 
 MYOPIA. — An anomaly in the refraction of the 
 eye which, by law, disr|ualifies a recruit for enlist- 
 ment in the army. This defect depends upon the 
 
 refrarlive condition of the eye ; it is that condition 
 
 in which the rays from distant objects come to a 
 
 \Uicnn ill front of the retina, and consequently the 
 
 latter receives but the blurred and indistinct image 
 
 of external objects. A glance at the drawing will 
 
 explain this. Myopia is usually due to an abnormal 
 
 lengthening of the eyeball, thus" causing the retina to 
 
 recede from the point where the rays come to an ac- 
 
 I curate focus. It is a disease which often exists from 
 
 i birth, and is freqiienlly hereditary; but. although 
 
 I frequently this condition is present from birth, and
 
 MYElAaCH. 
 
 400 
 
 NAIE8. 
 
 manifests itself in later life, no doubt, many cases 
 are developed by excessive use of the eyes at fine 
 " near work," such as reading or sewing, before the 
 coats of the e}-e have become fully developed and 
 hardened. Statistics show that the percentage of 
 Myopia iucreases in proportion to intellectual devel- 
 opment, and, that while it may be quite small in the 
 lowest grades of Schools, it steadily gains in num- 
 bers as the course of study becomes higher, uutil, in 
 the Colleges and Universities it reaches a very large 
 percentage. 
 
 Among the prolific causes of the development of 
 this disease, is the habit of reading with the head 
 bent forward and over the book, thus preventing the 
 free circulation of >he blood, and causing a conges- 
 tion of the eyes, which tends still further to stretch 
 the coats of the perhaps already weakened organ. 
 The habit of reading with insutiicient illumination, 
 or in a reclining posture, is also most injurious. The 
 popular belief that near-sighted eyes are strong ones 
 is not only absolutely incorrect, but also most mis- ! 
 chievous, since there is no state of the eye which j 
 more urgently demands the use of a proper glass, 
 than does Alj-opia. Such eyes instead of being 
 strong, are not only absolutely weak, but they are ! 
 
 sick ejes, and, if the defect be of a high degree, li- 
 able to the most serious accidents, which may result 
 in loss of sight. The danger lies not in the imper- 
 fect vision. Ibut in the interocular changes which ac 
 company the defect in its higher grades, and which 
 often are progressive. 
 
 The treatment of near-sightedness is the use of the 
 proper cuncate glasses. By this, there is an endeav- 
 or to attain two objects. The rays are brought to a 
 focus on the retina, and thus distinct vision is insur- 
 ed : and, by wearing the proper glasses, the disease 
 may usually be arrested. In cases where the defect 
 is slight, the correcting-glasses can be given by a 
 good optician, care being taken to select the irea'/cest 
 concave lens with which vision is normal ; where, 
 however, the defect is high, the advice of an oculist 
 should be sought. Messrs. Walmslej' & Co. make a 
 specialty of glasses for mj'opic eyes, and supply most 
 hospitals with same. See -Recruits. 
 
 MYRIARCH.— A Captain or Commander of 10,000 
 men. 
 
 MYRMIDONS.— Tliose soldiers who accompanied 
 Achilles in the expedition against Troy. Hough, 
 desperate characters banded under a leader, are fre- 
 quently called Myrmidons. 
 
 N 
 
 NABOB. — A corruption of the word nntrith (depu- 
 ty;, was the title belonging to the atlministrators, un- 
 der the Mogul Empire, of the separate Provinces into 
 which the district of a Suhahdar was divided. The 
 title was continued under the British rule. but it grad- 
 ually came to be applied generally to natives who 
 were men of wealth and consideration. In Evirope, 
 and especially in Britain, it is applied derisively to 
 those who, having made great fortunes in the Indies, 
 return to their native country, where they live in ori- 
 ental splendor. Also written A'n'ab. 
 
 N4GAKKANA,— In the East Indies,tbe place where 
 all the drums and war-music are kept. 
 
 NAGGUK. — The principal drum in Asiatic armies, 
 commonly allowed only to persons of high dignity; 
 the Ijass drum. 
 
 NAIANT— NATANT.— A heraldic 
 term applied to a fish when borne 
 horizontally across the shield in a 
 swimming position. 
 
 NAIGUE.— A native subaltern of- 
 ficer among Indian and Anglo- Asia- 
 tic troops, whose functions are rath- 
 er somewhat analogous to those per- 
 , , formed among European troops by 
 
 TSaianB. (jjg DriU-sergeant. Also written 
 
 Kii/'rk and Naik. 
 
 NAIL BALL. — A round projectile with an iron pin 
 proinidiug from it, to prevent its turning in the bore 
 of the i)iece. 
 
 NAILS. — Pointed pieces of metal, generally having 
 flattened or rounded heads, used for driving into 
 wood-work, for the purpose 'of holding 'lie |iieces 
 together. A variety, in which the head is very large, 
 and the spike portion snudl, used by shoemakers for 
 [irotecting the soles of boots and shoes from wear, 
 is.called the h'lli-iinil; another, which is ma<le by cut- 
 ting thin plate-iron into thin |)ointed |iic<esof various 
 lengths, is called brmh: these sometimesare without 
 heads, but are usually made with a slight projection 
 by way of a head. When made small, with fiat 
 heads, for attaching cloth or hangings in upholstery 
 work, they are called Uiekii; and when very large for 
 heavy carpentry, spikes. formerly, all nails were 
 
 hand-made, by forging on an anvil; and in Britain 
 and the north of Europe vast quantities are still made 
 in this manner, being preferable, for many kinds of 
 carpenters' work, to those made by machinery. In 
 France, the greater part of the nails used for light 
 carpentry-work are made of soft iron wire, pointed 
 with the hammer; and in order to head them they 
 are pinched in a toothed-vise; which leaves the 
 portion for the head projecting, and makes below it 
 three or four grooves in the nail, which increase its 
 hold on the wood when driven home. The head is 
 beaten into a counter-sinking on the vise, which reg- 
 ulates the size. The iron used for hand nail-making 
 in Britain is sold in bimdles, and is called nail-rods; 
 it is either prepared bj' rolliug the malleable iron in- 
 to r .ds or small bars of the required thickness — 
 which process is only employed for very fine quali- 
 ties — or by cutting plate-iron into strips by means of 
 rolling-shears; these shears consist of two powerful 
 revolving shafts, upon which are fixed discs of hard 
 steel with squared edges. The discs of one shaft al- 
 ternate with those of The other; they are of the thick- 
 ness of the plate to be cut, and the shafts are so 
 placed tiiiit a small portion of one set of the discs are 
 inserted between those of the other set. When the 
 shaftsjare revolving a plate of iron is pressed between 
 the discs, and it is forcibly drawn through, the steel 
 discs cutting the plates into strips with great rapidity. 
 The quantity proiluced in this waj- is enormous, some 
 mills turning out at the rale of ten miles per hour of 
 nail-rods. Several inventions in which America took 
 the leiul, have been introduced, and are succes.sfully 
 worked, for making nails direct from plate-iron, 
 either by cutting them out cold or hot; and a very 
 large jiroportion of the naihi in use are m;ide in this 
 way. Nail-making by machinerj' was originated in 
 Massachusetts in IHlti. 
 
 NAIKS.— A nativi' military tribe of the Malabar 
 Coast. Thiy atlirm that they are the oldest nobil- 
 ity in the world. Thi'ir ]iri(leon this supposition 
 is greater than that of the Kiijpoots. In 17.T), the 
 King of Travaiieore, with the assistance of a French 
 officer called Lannoy, disciplined 10,000 J^uirs in the 
 method of European Infantry.
 
 KAISSANT. 
 
 401 
 
 NATIONAL ABMOEY CIECULAE CUTTEB. 
 
 NAI88ANT. A term iii)plic(l in 
 hcialilric liliizoii tii an aiiiiniil dc- 
 picicil as coiiiini; forlli out of llic 
 middle not lii\r i/thtiant or jtHHunt 
 oiil of llic hoiindary line— of iiii or- 
 dinary . 
 
 NAKED BULLET.— A (rrnnvfd or 
 cannclnriMl hullcl as dislinf;iii»hcd 
 from llic patcliiMl Itiillct. S<'c Hiillel. 
 NANA.- In the East Indi'H, tlie 
 Niiieeant. ,i,|,. „ lii.li isfrivcn to a Chief of tlic 
 
 ^lalirattas. It more pro[iiTly sij^nilics llic aclinj; 
 lii'ud of llic ( iovcrniiicnt, and Ocncral of llic forccH. 
 NAPOLEON GUN. -In iK.^li it was jiroposcd to in- 
 crease llie power of the liijlit and diniinisli tin- weifilil 
 of llic heavy lield arlillcry, liy llie inlroduetion of u 
 single piece of nicdinni wci);lil and ealihcr. 'riieforni 
 of the new piece is sliown in the drawing;. It has no 
 clianibcr and shoidd tlicreforc lie chis.scd as a K""' 
 Its e.vterlor is characterized by the entire aliscnce of 
 nioldinj; and ornament ; ami in this respect il may be 
 al om-c dislin;;uislicd from llie old lield cannon. 'Plic 
 first reinforce is cylindrical ; and il has no second re- 
 inforce, ii3 the exterior tiiixrs uniformly with the 
 chase from the extremity of the first reinforce. The 
 size of the trunnions and the distance between the 
 rimbases are the same as in the a4-pdr. liowitzer. in 
 order Unit both pieces may be transported on the 
 same kind of carriage, '['hi' </iameiir of t/ie b'rre \n 
 that of a 12-i)dr. The Irnyth nf Imre is ju.«t l!i^' cali- 
 bers. The weight is one hundred times the pro- 
 jectile, or 1,200 lbs. The fluirge (if pumUr is exact- 
 ly tlie same as that for the heavy li-pdrs. (pattern 
 of 1840), or 2J lbs. for solid and case shot. and '21bs. 
 
 iSl 
 
 for canister shot. It lias,' therefore, as trrcat range 
 and accuracy as the heaviest gun of the old system; 
 and, at the same time, the recoil and strain on the 
 carriage are not so severe. The new gun and carriage 
 weigh about 500 lbs. more tlian the 6pdr. and car- 
 riage; still it has been found to possess sufficient mobil- 
 ity for the general purposes of light artillery. The 
 effect of this change is to simplify the innteriel of field 
 artillery, and to increase its ability to cope with the 
 rifle-musket, principally by the use of larger and 
 more spherical case-shot. The principal objection 
 to an increased caliber for light field-guns is the in- 
 creased weight of the ammunition, and the reduction 
 of the number of rounds that can be carried in the am- 
 munition chests. See Field Artillery. 
 
 NASAL. — A kind of peak or visor,on ancient helms 
 for the protection of the nose. 
 
 NASIR-JUNG. — An Indian term expressing victor- 
 ious or triumphant in war. 
 
 NATION. — A word used in two distinct senses. 
 1. A State or Independent Society united by com- 
 mon Political Institutions. 2. An aggregate mass 
 of persons connected by ties of blood and lineage. 
 and sometimes of language. The modern dogma 
 of nationalism, as maintained by a class of Conti- 
 nental Politicians, starts from an assumption that a 
 nation in the latter sense ought necessarily to be 
 also a Nation in the former, and endeavors lo assign 
 limits to the several races of Europe, with the view ' 
 of erecting each into a distinct State, separated from 
 other States or Nationalities. The extreme Polili- 
 cians of the. National School seem to consider the 
 supposed rights of Nationalities as paramount even 
 to llie obligations of treaties, and the political con- 
 junction of one Nationality witli another is looked 
 on by them as an adequate ground for a revolt or 
 separation, apart altogether from the cpicstlon 
 whether the Kalionality is well or ill governed. In 
 
 point of fact, the different races in Europe are »o 
 commingled, that any reconKlriiction <if the political 
 map of Europe, on elhnological principles, would 
 be impossible, even if <leHirabli'. The blood of ninc- 
 lenllis of Euro|)e lias been mixeil within the histor- 
 ical period. 'I'hc test of language, on which Nation- 
 ality has .somelimes been based, is a dr-ceptive one, 
 in so far as il is indelinilr- and perpetually lluclnatinf;. 
 The people on tlii' fronlier between two races, as in 
 the South Tyrol, generally speak two languuf;c8. 
 Then we have dialects, liki- the Walloon, the (Jrfid- 
 nerisch of the Tyrol, and the J{omaiiscli of the «!ri- 
 Kons— as also the IJrclon, Welsh, (iaelic. anil Irish 
 languages, which could hardly be made the basis of 
 independent communities. The well-being of the 
 people governed is properly the end of all govern- 
 ment, and it has praelically not been iilways found 
 that a State is better governed when it eo'nsisis of 
 one race only, than when it includes an aggregutc of 
 races. Highly diversified Xalionalilies may be 
 united in one political .syst<'m, provided only that 
 the Uovernment respects and (-onsulls the (lecul'ari- 
 ties of the several races and does not attempt to 
 force the usages, habits, or language of one oa the 
 rest. 
 
 NATIONAL ANTHEM.— A selection of music set lo 
 words. :ui(l < iiiiimc.n lo all nations. In England the 
 national anlheiii is "God save the Queen," which is 
 played when troops pay the prescribed honors to the 
 Sovereign and members of the Koyal Family ; in 
 the latter case only six bars of ihi' aiilliem are "play- 
 ed. The first part of the national anthem may also 
 be played at the salute of a Viceroy, at state cere- 
 monials, and at the trooping of colors. The play- 
 ing of the national anthem is only due to 
 those personages who are entitled, under 
 
 the regulations, to a royal salute. 
 
 __b NATIONAL ARMORY.— A national es- 
 
 I tablishment for the manufacture of small- 
 — jj arms, etc. The manufacture of I'nited 
 ^ States small-arms and small-arm am- 
 munition for the present armies and mil- 
 itia, and for the reserve supply, isoneof the LTcatest 
 importance, and the Springfield Armory is a model 
 one of the world in the perfectiim of its fabrications, 
 the extent and completeness of its arrangements and 
 the facilties for the production of this class of war- 
 ike stores. 
 
 NATIONAL ARMORY CIRCULAR CUTTER.- A mod- 
 ification of the Adams cutter, from whicli it differs 
 only in the details of its form and dimensions. The 
 diameter of the circle which forms the cutting-edge 
 is 3"; the angle formed by the elements of the two 
 right cones whose intersection forms that edge is 60° 
 instead of 61" 20'. The altitudes of these cones are 
 the same, and are equal to 0'.86G. The thickness 
 of the disk is 0".25 The angle of 60'' was adopted 
 for the edge as being an an^le which could be ac- 
 curately formed in a turning-lathe without difficulty, 
 as almost every machinist possesses an equilateral 
 triangular gauge by which he can verify at any in- 
 stant the angle included between the" legs of the 
 striding-gauge that he uses to guide him in turning 
 the bevels. "The diameter and Uiicknc-ss of the disk- 
 plate were cho.sen with reference to retaining the 
 angle of 60', ar.d with reference to ease of exact 
 measurement by practical mechanics. By assuming 
 these dimensions the strength of the cutter is not 
 impaired : it is rendered a little more sensitive to 
 small dilTercnces of pressure than the Adams cutter; 
 and its dimensions, both linear and angular, are 
 easily jireserved in fabrication by any one of ordi- 
 nary mechanical skill. The limits of these linear 
 dimensions, whether expressed in hundredths or 
 thousandths of an inch, can always be made to fall 
 upon the larger and more common divisions of al- 
 most any English scale of inches. The special ad- 
 vantage of the circular cutting or indenting edge is 
 that it can be readily pressed into the indentation, 
 previously made in the copper block or disk while
 
 NATIONAL CEMETKRIES. 
 
 402 
 
 NATIONAL HYMNS. 
 
 in the piece, upon its removal to tlie dynamometer 
 or testing-machine. In tlie case of the pyramidal 
 cutter, it is, and always will be, a matter of consid- 
 erable difficulty to make the apex of the pyramid 
 coincide with its former position, in adjusting it in 
 a dynamometer for the purpose of getting the read- 
 ing" of the estimator or the setting of the limit-gauge, 
 in order to govern the operator in making the simi- 
 lar secondary cut or cuts from or by means of which 
 the pressures are determined. The more accurately 
 the cutter is inserted into the indentation made by 
 the force of discharge, and the greater the precision 
 of the adjustment of the limit-gauge, the more near- 
 ly will be the appro.ximation to the true pressure as 
 determined by the dynamometer. AVith the circular 
 cutter, no difficulty is experienced in adjiisting its 
 edge to the bottom of the indentation in the copper. 
 The steel disks for the National Armory circular 
 cutters were made in September, 18T(i. See Adams 
 Cutter, Benton Dynamometer, Circular Cutter, and 
 Prear-ure Gauge. 
 
 NATIONAL CEMETERIES.— In the United States, 
 these arc the burial-places for soldiers, provided by 
 the general government. The Quartermaster Gene- 
 ral of the arm}' has cliarge of all the National Ceme- 
 teries, and the records pertaining thereto. There 
 are, at present, (1884) 26 National Cemeteries of the 
 First Class; 20 of the Second Class; 11 of the T/tird 
 Class, and some 23 of the Fuurth (Hass. The 
 Superintendents of these classes are paid |>75, 
 $70, .*6.5. and $60 per month respectively. Military 
 Commanders exercise the same supervision over 
 National jMilitary Cemeteries within the Geographi- 
 cal limits of their commands as over other military 
 posts or establishments under them, only excepting 
 the Military Cemeteries in the District of Columbia 
 and at Arlington and Alexandria, Virginia, which 
 are attached to the Quartermaster's Priucipal Depot 
 of Washington. D. C. — 
 
 A copy of the following law is kept posted at the 
 entrance, and in several other conspicuous places, in 
 eacii Cemetery : 
 
 Every person who willfully destroys, mutilates, 
 defaces, injures, or removes an}- monument, grave- 
 stone, or other structure, or who willfull}' destroys, 
 cuts, breaks, injures, or removes any tree, shrub, or 
 plant within the limits of any National Cemetery, 
 shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, punishable 
 by a fine of not less than twenty-five dollars and not 
 more than one hundred, or by imprisonment for not 
 less than fifteen daj-s and not more than sixty. The 
 Superintendent in charge of any National Ceme- 
 terj- is authorized to arrest forthwith any person 
 engaged in committing any misdemeanor herein 
 pniliibited, and to bring such person before any 
 United States commissioner or judge of any district 
 or circuit court of the United Slates within any 
 State or district where any of the cemeteries are 
 situated, for the purpo.se of holding such person to 
 answer lor such misdemeanor, and then and there 
 .shall make the complaint in due form. See Battle- 
 gniund Cemeteries, I'ost Cemeteries, and Superin- 
 tendent rif National Cenieteriis. 
 
 NATIONAL DEFENSE.' The defense of a State or a 
 Nation against invasion. The national defenses of a 
 country consist, besid<'S her armies and reserves, of 
 the navy ; of the fortifications, forts, and fortresses 
 l)uilt along the coasts, and on some important strate- 
 gical points, either iidand or on the frontier line ; of 
 torpedoes laid <lown for tlie iirotection of harbors, 
 arsenals, etc. When these have been found insuffi- 
 cient, an a])peal is maik' to all men alile to carry 
 arms to stand up for the defense of the country, and 
 to repulscr the invasion. This is called a levee en 
 Timsse. In England, in the event of a threatened in- 
 vasion, the volunteers would be called out and mobi- 
 lised with the different army corps to which they 
 liehmg. 
 NATIONAL GDAED.— A body of militia composed 
 ncipally of the Bourgeoisie, first formed by the 
 
 Committee of safety in 1789, and musterine at cue 
 time 300,000 men under the command of Laiayette. 
 Napoleon dissolved them in 1795, and reorganized 
 them in 1814. They were again dissolved in 1837, 
 by Charles X., were reorganized in 1830, deserted 
 Louis Philippe in 1848, were reorganized in 18.52, 
 and took part in the Franco-Prussian war and the 
 Insurrection of the Commune. — The .same term is 
 applied to the State Militia of New York and New 
 Jersey. 
 
 In England the National Guard is an organization 
 for local defense, differing from the British militia 
 and volunteers, in being at the disposal of the Mu- 
 nicipalities, not of the Crown. Italy, Greece, and 
 other nations have maintained this civic force; but 
 the country whence it derives historic fame is 
 France. The French National Guard was instituted 
 in Paris in 1789, when the Government had an army 
 of 30,000 at the gates. The Municipality armed 48^- 
 000 men, and their example was followed by the 
 chief towns ofFrance. These corps obtained the 
 name of National Guard and assumed the famous 
 tricolor as their ensign. In 179.5, 30,000 of the Paris 
 National Guards attacked the Tuileries and were re- 
 pulsed by Napoleon Bonaparte with 6,000 regular 
 fjoops. In 1830 they were reorganized under the 
 command of Lafayette, their original chief; and be- 
 tween 1848 and 1851 a law was passed by which all 
 males above 20 not otherwise employed under Gov- 
 ernment were included in the National Guard. Af- 
 ter the Coup d'Etat in December, 1851, they were 
 reduced to the condition of an armed police. In the 
 war of 1870-1871 they showed some signs of vitality 
 in sympathy with the Commune, but effected 
 nothing for France. After the fall of the Commune 
 thev were disbandad. See Militia. 
 
 NATIONAL HYMNS.— Popular airs which are pe- 
 culiar to and characteristic of a particular nation. It 
 is a singular fact that the composers of national 
 hymns are seldom known. The Germans call their 
 national music i)olk's mimik. a designation which is 
 very appropriate, as a people collectively may not 
 improperly be considered as the actual composer of 
 its national tunes. A short melody extemporized 
 by some one in a moment of patriotic emotion, is 
 often taken upby others and traditionally preserved. 
 In the course of time it generally undergoes modifi- 
 cations, until it has attained those conditions which 
 insure it a general acceptance. This fully explains 
 what W. Grimm means in his laconic saying, "A 
 national song composes itself " {Eiyi Volkslieddiehtet 
 ■lick .wlbst), for the attempts of celebrated musicians 
 to invest a tune with universal and permanent popu- 
 larity have been successful in a few instances only. 
 Among the most popular European national hymns, 
 is Cod sffi'f the King, but the authorship of the tune 
 has not hitherto been satisfactorily ascertained. In 
 Prussia it is called Heil Dir im Sieger Kram, and in 
 the United Statf s the melody is simg with the words 
 " My country 'tis of thee," etc. Although there is no 
 satisfactory evidence of its having been in existence 
 before the reign of George II., there are several tunes 
 known of an earlier date in some degree resembling 
 it. The Austrian national hymn, Gotte irhatte 
 l^Franz] den Kaiser, is a composition by Joseph 
 llaydn. Having during his visit to England wit- 
 nessed tlie effect of God. save the King, on public oc- 
 casions, Haydn resolved .after his return to Vienna, 
 to present his country with a similiir composition. 
 15aron Swicten and (lount Saurau procured the 
 ])octr_v for him, and the hymn was sung for the first 
 time on the birtlulay of the Emperor Franz, Feb. 
 12, 1797. The iioetry was written by L. Leopold 
 Haschka. The Russian hymn dates from the year 
 1K30, when the Emperor Nicholas ordered it to be per- 
 formed in concerts and representations on the stage. 
 Its coiii))oser was Alexis LwofT, and the air appears 
 to have been suggested liy the Sicilian Marincr'x 
 Hymn, which is also a favorite melody of the Gon- 
 doliers iit Venice. The poetry of the patriotic song
 
 JCATIONAL BIPLE ASSOCIATION. \ 
 
 403 
 
 NATIONAL RIFLE ASSOCIATION. 
 
 of the Danes, Kong Christian stod ved piyien Mont, 
 was written by Ewald, iind the iimsie Ik by a (Jer- 
 liian CDmiioscr, .Ii)li:iiin i larliiiauri. The Freiieh 
 imtioiial liyii". tl"' Miii-n(Hl(iini . dates fniiii tlieyeur 
 17i)2. It was eoinposed liy Koujjet de I'lsh', diiriiii; 
 tlie Freneh Uevohitioii. Ylie national hymn of the 
 Germans, Die Wuclit, nin /I'/iciu, eame into f;reat 
 popuhirity durini; the Franeo-German war of 1H~0. 
 Will iit dfx Deiitxclien Vulirlund was written hy 
 Krnst Moritz Arndt, a (Jornian patriot. diirini.f the 
 wars of Napoleon I. There liave hei'n many at- 
 tempts to mannfaeture national son^s in llii- Inited 
 States, but the great national liymn of Ameriea will 
 probably be a spontaneous ])ri)duction. The mar- 
 Spnni/led lianner was written by F. S. Key, in 
 1814, and the words were adapted hy F. Durang to 
 an old Freneh air, long known in England as Ann. 
 creoii in, Itirinn, and in Ameriea as Ailnmn and 
 Liberty. It grew in favor in the Loyal Stales during 
 the Rebellion, and was played eontinually liy all 
 military and orehestral bands. But as a patriotic 
 song for tlie people at large it is almost useless, as 
 the range of the air, an octave and a half, places it 
 out of the compass of ordinary voices. Yankee 
 Doodle has the claim of long association, and will 
 probabl}' always retain a certain degree of favor. Its 
 words are mere childish burlesque, audit is n'ported 
 to have been a popular tune in England during the 
 Commonwealth. Some state that its doggerel 
 words originated at that time, Oliver Cromwell lieing 
 designated as Nankee Doodle. Others state that it 
 was the tune originally set to the old English song, 
 Lydia Locket lout her I'ucket, and that the present 
 words were written by a British Sergeant in Boston 
 in 177.5. Hail ('ulnmbia. was written by .biseph 
 Ilopkinson in 1798, and was set to the music of the 
 V rexid) nV a March, which was composed by one 
 Phylas or Fayles, a German leader of orchestra in 
 New York. Columbia the Oem of the Ocean, and 
 Harrison Millard's Viva V America have also attained 
 considerable jiopularitv. 
 
 NATIONAL ELFLE ASSOCIATION.— Althougli the 
 introduction of the ritHe as a military weapon was 
 owing to the lessons of our Kevolution, andalthough 
 our success in the earlier contests of our history de- 
 pended upon the skill in its use displayed by our an- 
 cestors, no recognition, until lately, was given by our 
 citizens of the fact that the change which has taken 
 place in the habits of the American people was rapid- 
 ly depriving them of that personal skill in arms and 
 marksmanship, which hitherto formed one of tlie 
 greaest elements of our national strength. Other 
 nations have long since instituted a thorough system 
 in rifle practice. France, Germany, Switzerland, 
 and, above all, England and Canada, unite in giving 
 to rifle practice a leading position in their system of 
 military training. 150,000 trained riflemen are a 
 standing proof of the Wimbletou contests in Eng- 
 land. So, on our Northern border. Canada boasts 
 lier 40,000 skilled shots, and has her annual Local, 
 Provincial, and Dominion matches, by which their 
 skill is maintained. In this country, on the other 
 hand, the matter was entirely neglected, although 
 our entire system of defense is based upon the levy- 
 ing of volunteers in cases of emergency, who, to be 
 valuable, or even available, must understand the 
 use of arms, and supply by their skill as individuals 
 the confidence which discipline gives to regular 
 troops. 
 
 While England had a system of rifle practice which 
 was required to be annually and thoroughly perform- 
 ed by everj' soldier in the army, whether stationed in 
 India, Australia, or Europe, our war Department 
 for a long time sent raw recruits against the Indian 
 sharp-shooters of the plains. In the National tiuards 
 a similar apathy prevailed ; and it was tlie rule, not 
 the exception, for a man to .serve out liis full term 
 of enlistment in their ranks without firing a shot. 
 
 This anomalous condition of affairs having excited 
 on siderable discussion among military men through 
 
 the press, finally, on November 24, 1871, led to the 
 formation in the cit_v of New V'ork of the NotioruU 
 liijle AHKociatlon, which was designed to Ije the 
 parent of many similar Associations throughout the 
 country, and of uniform pra<;tiei' in the Army. Thi« 
 Association was incorporated under the laws of the 
 state of N(;w York, and included among its incorpo- 
 rators many jirominent otllcers and ex-ollicers of the 
 Army and iN'ational guard. 
 
 TIk' main aim of the ,\ssociation is the encourage- 
 ment of ritl(- |)raeti(,e throughout the United States, 
 and the success thus far attained surpasses the mo.st 
 sanguine anticipations. The present scope and con- 
 dition of th(^ Association will be best comprehended 
 by carefully reviewing the Regulations: 
 
 I. — Manaokmknt. — A. — Annval Meetingx. — 1. An- 
 nual meetings for competition will be conducted by 
 an E.xecutive Ollicer, wearing a tri^colored badge, 
 allied by a Slalislieal Ollicer, wearing a blue badge, 
 a Financial Ollicer, wearing a white badge, a Range 
 Officer, wearing a red badge, and assistants, wearing 
 badges corresponding in color to those worn by the 
 chiefs of their res])ectiv(? Departments. 2. The Ex- 
 ecutive Ollicer shall have control of the range for the 
 conduct of matches, and shall a|)[>oint an Adjutant 
 to assLst Inin. y. The Statistical Ollicer shall have 
 charge of all statistics. 4. The Financial Officer 
 shall have charge of all tinanees connected with these 
 meetings. 5. The Range Ollicer shall have charge 
 of all Firing Points, and of the shooting thereat. B. 
 — Other detmpetitionx. 1. All other association compe- 
 titions will be conducted by an Officer or Director of 
 the Association, or other competent person previous- 
 ly designated as the E.xecutive Officer. In the ab- 
 sence of the Oflieer, Director, or other person previ- 
 ously designated, the Assistant-Secretary or Super- 
 intendent of Range shall act as the E.xecutive Officer. 
 
 II. — General Regulations. — 1. During the pro- 
 gress of a match, no one, except, the Oflicers, Di- 
 rectors and Employees of the Association, the com- 
 petitors and the Scorekeepers, will be permitted 
 within tlie ropes, without special permission of the 
 Range Officer. 3. The squads of competitors will 
 be stationed not less than four yards in the rear of 
 the tiring points, where each competitor must remain 
 until called by the Scorekeeper to take liis position 
 at the firing point, and until he has completed his 
 score. The Scorekeepers will be seated close to and 
 in rear of the firing point stakes. 3. Scorekeepers 
 shall, as each shot is signaled, call in a loud voice 
 the name of the competitor andthe value of the shot, 
 and at the conclusion of the score of each competitor, 
 announce in like manner his name and total score. 
 Competitors must paj- attention to tlie scores as an- 
 nounced and recorded, so that any error may be 
 promptly investigated. 4. All competitors will be 
 allowed to examine the records of the Scorekeeper 
 during the progress of any match. 5. All protests 
 and objections must be made to the Executive Offi- 
 cer, or, in his absence, to the Range Officer in 
 charge. In case a competitor is dissatisfied with the 
 decison of the latter, he may appeal to the Executive 
 Officer. 6. Anj' competitor feeling himself aggriev- 
 ed by the ruling of an Executive Officer, may make 
 to the Secretary a statement of his grievance in 
 writing, giving the names of two ormore witnesses in 
 the case, whicli shall be handed to the Executive 
 Committee at its first meeting thereafter for its con- 
 sideration. The decision of tlie Executive Commit- 
 tee shall be final, subject, however, to the discretion 
 of said Committee, or any two members of it. to refer 
 tlifi matter to the Board of Directorsfor its decision. 
 7. .lUl practice upon the Range is subordinate and 
 must give way to matches of the Association. 8. 
 These regulations, and such special rules or direc- 
 tions as the Executive Officer may give, must be rig- 
 idly complied with by competitors and all other per- 
 sons upon the Range grounds. 
 
 III. — Rlfles.— The rifles or carbines allowed to be 
 used in the competitions are — 1st. Military rifles;
 
 NATIONAL RIFLE ASSOCIATION. 
 
 404 
 
 NATIONAL BLFLE ASSOCLATION^ 
 
 2d. Any rifles ; and must comply with the following 
 conditions, viz.: 1. Military Ii>ytes. V!e\ght (without 
 bayonet) not to exceed 9 pounds, 4 ounces. Stock 
 sufficiently strong for military purposes, and such as 
 to admit the use "of a sling ; minimum pull of trigger 
 six pounds. Sights to be of h"na fide military pat- 
 tern, to be attached to the barrel ; the front sight to 
 be immovable. The rear sight may be used as a 
 wind gauge, by the sliding bar or the leaf being 
 moved laterally, either by sTiding, or by a screw, or 
 by an}' similar device suitable for military purposes. 
 Filing or altering the sights of such rifles, or of the 
 riflesused by the Katioiial Guard, or Regular forces 
 (except as authorized by the military authorities 
 thereof) is prohibited. The sliding bar of the rear 
 sight may be inverted, and lines drawn to mark the 
 center. Any pad or shoe attached to the butt is 
 prohibited. 2. -4Hy i?///<", maximum weight lOpounds, 
 minimum pidl of trigger three pounds ; sights of any 
 description, except telescope, magnifying and sucli 
 front aperture sights as solid disks or bnshes pierced 
 in the center, which cover the target so as to con- 
 ceal the danger signal when displayed. No stirrup 
 constructed of metal or other substance, connected 
 to the ritle by straps of any kind, for the purpose of 
 taking up or" lessening its recoil, will be allowed. 3. 
 Competitors shall sut)niit their rifles and ammunition 
 for inspection whenever required. 4. No hair or 
 set trigger will be allowed. 5. No fixed or artificial 
 rests will be allowed. 
 
 IV. — Ammttnitiox. — 1. In competitions restricted 
 to the use of breech-loaders, the gun shall be loaded 
 at the breech with fixed ammunition. 2. In all 
 other competitions any ammunition may be used. 
 
 V. — Takgets. — The targets are divided into three 
 classes, and shall be of the following sizes : 
 
 1. Third ClnKf, to be used at all distances up to, 
 and including 300 yards — Target 4x6 feet. 
 
 Bull's-eye circular, 8 inches in diameter. 
 Center "' 26 " 
 
 Inner " 46 " 
 
 Outer, remainder of target. 
 
 2. Second Ctas/<. to be used at !ill distances over 
 300, to, and including 600 yards— Target 6x6 feet. 
 
 Bull's-eye, circular, 23 inches in diameter. 
 
 Center " 38 ' 
 
 Inner " 54 " " " 
 
 Outer, remainder of target. 
 8. Firxt C'laxK, to be used at all distances over 600 
 yards— Target 6x12 feet. 
 
 Bull's-eye, circular, 36 inches in|diameter, 
 Center " 54 " " " 
 
 Inner, square, 6x6 feet. 
 Outer, remainder of the target. 
 
 MAKKING, SCOKING AND SIGNALING. 
 
 1. Bull's-eye, counts 5 ; signal, white circular disk. 
 Center," " 4; " red 
 
 white and black ■• 
 black " 
 
 red flag waved quicklj' 
 twice right and left in front of the target. Ricochet 
 hits will be marked out after the flag signal. 2. 
 Wlicn a shot strikes the angh- iron uikiu which the 
 tarL'Cl sIuikIs. the marker will open II. e trap andraise 
 and lower his flag three times in front of the target. 3. 
 Any objection to the record of a sliot as signaled or 
 to one not signaled, must be made before another 
 shot is fired. Any competitor challenging the mark- 
 ing of a shot shall first deposit witli the Kxecutive 
 officer, or his representative, the sum of §1.00. If 
 liis challenge is sustained the money sliall lie return- 
 ed. In ease the challenge is not sustained tlie money 
 shall be forfeited to the Association. The C'iiallen- 
 ger shall be permitted to inspect the target in com- 
 pany with the proper officer. 4 Any alterati(m of 
 a scoring ticket must be witnessed by the officer in 
 charge of the firing point, and endorsed with his 
 initials. 
 
 VII. — KcNNiNG Deeb. — 1. Will he run only liy a 
 signal from the firing point. Any rifle may he used, 
 
 VI. 
 
 Inner, " 3; 
 
 Outer, '• 2; 
 
 Ricocliet, scored R : 
 
 provided the sights are without traverse adjust- 
 ment. Position, standing: distance, 100 yards, un- 
 less otherwise prescribed. A fine of ten cents will be 
 imposed for firing when out of bounds, not firing, or 
 for hitting the haunch. 
 
 Scaring and Signalling, 
 
 Bull's-eye, wliite disk, counts 4, 
 
 Center, red " " 3. 
 
 Outer black " " 2. 
 
 Haunch, white disk, with black cross, scoring II. 
 
 VIII. — Bull's-Eye Targets. — 1. Bull's-eye tar- 
 gets will be open all the time during the Annual 
 Meetings. 2. Tickets (entitling the hoMer to one 
 shot af any Bull's-eye target) will be sold at the 
 office of the Financial Officer, upon the Range, at 10 
 cents each, or fsvelve for ifl.OO. i. Each competi- 
 tor making a Bull's-eye will receive a Bull's-eye 
 ticket. 4. At the close of the firing each evening, 
 the pool receipts (less one-half retained for expenses) 
 will be divided yro rnto among tliose making Bull's- 
 eyes, on presentation of their tickets. 5. No person 
 will be allowed to fire more than three shots consec- 
 utively at any Bull's-eye target, provided others are 
 waiting to fire. 
 
 IX. — Matches. — 1. The commencement of the An- 
 nual Meetings will be signaled by the firing of two 
 guns, 15 minutes apart. The first will be" the sig- 
 nal for competitors and scorekeepers to assemble at 
 the firing points, and the second to commence firing. 
 
 2. The matches will take place, if possible, at the 
 hour previously named. Any deviation from the 
 programmes will be posted upon the Bulletin board 
 as long before hand as practicable. The pouting 
 upon mick bulletin board trill be coniddfred .sufficient 
 notice to all competiUrrs of everything so posted. It 
 sliould be examined by all competitors daily, both 
 morning and afternoon, before the shooting com- 
 mences. 3. In team matches, at Annual Meetings, 
 an officer will be assigned to each of the firing posts- 
 as Supervisor, and he will, in connection with the 
 Scorekeeper, keep a record of the firing ; and any 
 disagreement between such officer and Scorekeeper, 
 will be decided bj' the Executive Officer, subject to 
 appeal, as provided for in the Regulations. 4 Each 
 Team may appoint a responsible person to act as 
 Supervisor, whose duty it shall be to see that the 
 rules of the N. R. A. are strictly adhered to by tlie 
 team at whose target he may be assigned. 5. No 
 practice will be allowed upon the range on any of 
 tlie days of the Annual Meetings, unless specially 
 authorized by the Executive Officer. This does not 
 apply to days upon which special matches of the As- 
 sociation, or of affiliating associations or clubs take 
 place. 
 
 X. — Entries. — A.''Annual Meetings. — 1. For all 
 competitions open to militarj' organizations, the 
 teams shall (unless otherwise specified ) consist of 
 twelve from each Regiment, Battalion, Company, 
 or Troop. 2. In all cases competitors for prizes of- 
 fered to military organizations must be either offi- 
 cers or regularly enlisted members in good standing 
 of thcReiriment. 15att:ilion, Company, or Troop which 
 they represent, and shall have been such for at least 
 three months prior to the match for which they are 
 entered. All entries must be made for full teams. 
 
 3. Entries must be made at tlie office of tlie Associa- 
 tion, in New York City, at least one ireek preceding 
 the commencement of the meetings, when the en- 
 try books will be closed ;it the office of the Associa- 
 tion, .indall subsequent entrii's shall be called I'ost 
 ICnIi'ies. and a ch;irge of .'iO percent, additional will 
 be imposed upon all such I'ost Entries. 4. Com- 
 jietitors who are prevented from being jiresent at 
 any meeting shall have the entrance fees they have 
 paid returned after the meeting, provided that they 
 send their tickets and give written notice to the 
 Secretary before thi^ (lay on which the prize for 
 which tluy have entered has been aimoimccd for 
 competition. 5. Competitors i>revented from com 
 peting by illness will receive back tlieir entrance fee
 
 NATIONAL KIFLE ASSOCIATION. 
 
 401 
 
 NAXIONAX. £IFL£ ASSOCIATION. 
 
 in full, on production i)f it incilical rcrlillciito and 
 tlu'ir entry tickils. (!. The lioldcrsof post cnlry 
 tickets nmy lie (inlered tci tire wlienever tiiTf^et iie- 
 conmicHliitinn ciin lie |ir(jviile(l, Init slioiild tiii'V l)e 
 precluded friini eiinipetini; by delieieney of tiirnet 
 accoinniodalion, their I'ntniMce fees will be returned 
 to them, the iCxecutive Otiicernol l)einf; ubletonnar- 
 antee acconmiodal ion for all siu-h entries. 7. All en- 
 tries are received upon the express <'ondition that 
 the coinp<'tilor is toappear at tiie lirin'.; point at the 
 exact time named upon his score ciinl, and completi' 
 liisscore within tlie limitation of time prescribed, 
 regardless of weather or any other nnforeseen cause. 
 8. The same person shall not be a member of more 
 than one team in the .same unit ch. i). ('om|)etitors 
 selected to shoot in team matches, or who are de- 
 tailed to shoot olf a tie at a particular hour, and who 
 tind that such en!;ai;ements will int<'rf'ere with their 
 shootimj; in other conipetitions, irnist at once com- 
 municate with the I'jxeculive Otlicer. 'i'hesi: cases 
 will be i)rovided for, irhen jmnxi/di', liy alt<'rin!; the 
 hour ; and when that cannot be done, the entry 
 will be cancelled and the entrance fee refunded. 
 Ji.— OeneralUegul(iti'iit.i.-\. A mendierof the Associa- 
 tion enterinj; for or shooting in a matcli on the range 
 must exhibit his badge. 2. A register ticket may 
 be transferred at any time before the tiring for the 
 match has commenced, l)y cxi'hanging it at the 
 office of the Statistical 011i<'er for one having the 
 name of the new liolder. It is available oidy for 
 the hour and target for which it was originally is- 
 sued. Any erasure or alteration not initialed l>y tlu' 
 Executive Ollicer will r<'nder the ticket invalid. 3. 
 No post entries shall be received for any competi- 
 tion after the tiring in such competition has com- 
 menced, unless expressly permitted by tlie terms of 
 a match. 
 
 XI. — SHooTtNO. — 1. Competitors must be present 
 at the firing points punctually at the time stated 
 upon their tickets, or forfeit their riglit to shoot. 2. 
 After a competitor has joined a sipiad he shall not 
 quit it until he has completed his tiring, or retired. 
 3. No two competitors shall shoot in any match 
 with the sanu' ritle, nor shall a competitor change 
 Ids rifle during a competition, unless exjiressly per- 
 mitted liy the terms of a match, or unless his first 
 rifie has become iuiserviceat)le througli an accident, 
 which must be verified liy the officer in charge of 
 his firing point. 4. In all competitions confined to 
 members of military organizations, competitors shall 
 shoot in tlie authorized uniform of their corps, in- 
 cluding waist belts. .5. In each match of the An- 
 nual Meetings, except wliere otherwise stated, the 
 squad or team assigned to each target will lie re- 
 quired to commence firing at the time nanu'd on the 
 score card, and to continue firing at the rate of one 
 shot per minute until the completion of the score. 
 6 The time for each squad to commence and close 
 will be signaled by firing a gun every thirty nnnutes, 
 from 9 A. M. to 5.30 p. m., and no firing by any of its 
 members will be permitted except between tliose 
 signals. In case a competitor, without fault on his 
 part, has Ijeen prevented from finishing his score 
 within that time, he may apply to the Executive 
 Officer for further assignment, the granting of which 
 will be in the discretion of that officer. 7. Competi- 
 tors retiring from matches forfeit all claims therein. 
 
 8. iV« sighting .i/intn trill he allowed in any iimtrli, but 
 targets will be assigned as BuWu-eye Tnrgetn at which 
 competitors may practice at any time, provided such 
 practice does not in any manner interfere with their 
 presence at the designated time at the firing point 
 to which tliey may have been previously assigned. 
 
 9. In all competitions restricted to military rifies the 
 competitors sliall place themselves at the firing 
 point by twos, and shall fire alternately until they 
 have fired all their shots. 10. In other competitions 
 the competitors shall fire their shots alternately j 
 throughout the squad. 11. Competitors may wipe 
 or clean their rifles during any competition, except I 
 
 those restricted to the use of mililary rifles. In 
 com[ietitions at more than one distance, restricted 
 to mililary ritles, cleaning will lie permitted between 
 distances. 12. Wheniver the daiiL'er Hag is dis- 
 played, competitors about to lire will be reipiired to 
 open the breecli block of their rifles ("if breedi- 
 load(rrs). If they leave the firing point thev miiHt 
 withdraw the cartriilge. 13. Any competitor" delay- 
 ing his sipiad will be passed l)y. In no case will the 
 tiring be delayed to enalile a competitor to jjrocure a 
 ritle. 14. Compelilors must shoot their scores at 
 (lilferent distances in the oriler named in the condi- 
 tions of the competition. 
 
 XII.— I'oHiTioN. — 1. In all matches rexcept those 
 specially for carbinesj, the position \\\t to and in- 
 cluding 300 yards, shall be standing. The left elbow 
 nuiy be rested against tlie body, jirovidc-il the little 
 linger of the left hand is in"frout of the trigger 
 guard. 2. In carbine matches, the position at' 200 
 yards shall be standing; at 300 yards, kneeling; 
 over that distance, in anv position tas prescribed 
 for infantry;. 3. In all other matches, at distances 
 aliove .300 yards, any position may be taken without 
 artificial rest to the rifie or body. 4. One-armed 
 competitors will be allowed to use false arms, with- 
 out extra sujiport, in the standing and kneeling 
 jiositions, and to assume any position in the use 
 of military rifles, at distances above 200 yard.s. 
 T). Shots at Bull's-eye larirets, at all distances, be^ 
 yond 300 yards may be fired in any position without 
 artificial rest. 6. In all cases the rifle shall be held 
 clear of the ground. 
 
 XIII — Ties.— 1. Ties shall be decided as follows : 
 A.— fa ludividual Shmtiiig. 1. When the firinc 
 takes place at more than one distance, liy the total 
 score made at the longest distance ; and if still a tie, 
 and there be three distances in tlie comjietition by 
 tlie total score at the seconil distance. 2. By the 
 fewest misses in the entire score. 3. By tlie fewest 
 outers in the entire score. 4. By the fewest inners 
 in the entire score. ,5. In handicap n'latches (after 
 the preceding), by the fewest centers in the entire 
 score. 0. If still a tie, by inverse order of shots 
 counting singly from the last to the first. 7. In 
 matches where two or more scores added together 
 count, if still a tie, by adding together the last shots 
 of each single score, and if .still a tie. by adding to- 
 gether the next to the last and so on. 8. By tirine 
 single shots at the longest range. 
 
 B.~I)i Team Shooting. 1. By the aggregate total 
 score made at the different distances in inverse order. 
 2. By the fewest misses in the entire .score. 3. By 
 the fewest outers in the entire score. 4. By the few. 
 est inners in the entire score. .5. By the loijd of each 
 round in inverse order. 6. By the competitor on 
 each side who has made the highest s<-ore, firing five 
 rounds at the longest distance. II. The naines of 
 competitors who have to shoot off ties will be po.sted 
 on the Bulletin-board as soon after each match as 
 practicable. III. When the ties are shot off, one 
 sighting shot shall be allowed without charge ' IV. 
 Competitors not present at tlie firins: point's at the 
 hour named for shooting off tics, loo.sc their right to 
 shoot. V. If. having forfeited their right to'^ com- 
 pete, they shall still be within the number of prize 
 winners, they shall take any prize that may be al- 
 lotted to them by the Executive Committee. 
 
 Xiy.— PRIZES. 1. Prize winners, upon application to 
 Statistical Officer on tlie range, will receive certifi- 
 cates, which must be given up on receiving the prizes. 
 2. Prizes will be delivered on the ranseat the close 
 of the nieetino;, under the direction of the Prize 
 Committee, uuleBs otherwise specified. 3. All prizes 
 and Bull's-eye money not claimed within thirty days 
 after the day on which same was won, shall be for- 
 feited to the Association. 
 
 XV.— Penalties.- Competitors must make them- 
 selves acquainted with the regulations, as well as 
 with the conditions of anv match for which they 
 may have entered, as the plea of ignorance of either
 
 NATIONAL SALUTE. 
 
 406 
 
 NAVAL HOWITZ£B. 
 
 of them will not be entertained. DisqvnUflcaUon -. 
 Any competitor (a) who shall tire in a name other 
 than his own, or who shall fire twice for the same 
 prize, unless permitted by the conditions of the 
 competition to do so, or '{h) who shall be guilty 
 of any conduct considered by the Board of Directors 
 or the Executive Committee as discreditable ; or {c) 
 who shall be guilty of falsifying his score or being 
 accessory thereto: or {d) who shall offer a bribe of any 
 kind to an employee — shall, upon the occurrence be- 
 ing proved to tlie satisfaction of the Board of Directors 
 or the Executive Committee, forfeit all his entrance 
 fees, be forever disqualified from competing at any 
 time upon the range of the association, and shall 
 not be entitled to have any prize won by him at the 
 time or meeting awarded to him. 
 
 Exclusion from all further Competition. 1. Any 
 competitor who shall be detected in an in- 
 vasion of the conditions prescribed for the conduct 
 of any match, shall be ruled out of such competition. 
 2. Any competitor, in any meeting or match, refusing 
 to obey any instructions of the Executive Officer, or 
 his assistants, or violating any of these regulations, 
 or being guilty of imruly or disorderly conduct, or 
 being intoxicated, will be immediately ruled out of 
 all furtlier competition, during such meeting or 
 match, and forfeit his entrance fees ; and may also 
 be reported to the Board of Directors or the Execu- 
 tive Committee, and be by them disqualified from 
 the use of the Range. 3. Any competitor firing when 
 the danger flag or trap disc is shown at the target or 
 firing point, or knowingly discharging his rifle except 
 at alarget to which he has been assigned or into the 
 blowing-off pits, or as may be directed by an Officer, 
 shall be debarred fromallfurthercompetitionsdtiring 
 the meeting, and shall forfeit his entrance fees. This 
 shall not apply to a competitor accidentally firing 
 at the wrong target, when no danger disc is up. 4. 
 Any person discharging a rifle or snapping a cap 
 within the inclosure. except in accordance with the 
 regulations for shooting may, at the discretion of the 
 Executive Officer, be required to leave the ground. 
 
 5. Any competitor or other person found with a load- 
 ed rifle except at tlie firing points and when about 
 to shoot, shall be debarred from further competition 
 during the whole of that meeting or competition. 
 
 6. Any person, whether a competitor or not, inter- 
 fering with anj' of the firing squads, or annoying 
 them in any way will be at once expelled frorri the 
 ground. 7. Anj' competitor discharging his rifle 
 accidentally, either by his own want of care or by 
 reason of any defect in the rifle, shall be disqualified 
 from further competition in the match. 8. Should 
 a competitor lose his register ticket, omit to take it 
 to the firing point, fail to attend at the prescribed 
 hour, or give a wrong ticket, and so by his own 
 neglect miss tlie opportunity given to him of com- 
 licting for the prize for which his ticket was issued, 
 his claim in regard to such competition shall be can- 
 celled. 9. Any person firing on a wrong target will 
 be reported by the scorer to the Executive or Range 
 Officers present and will be fined i|1.00 or be de- 
 barred from further competition ; or both, in the 
 discretion of the Executive Officer. 10. Any per- 
 son ruled out of any meeting or competition shall 
 forfeit all entrance fees. 
 
 NATIONAL SALUTE.— A salute of one gun for each 
 State in llic Union. This salute is fired at noon on 
 the anniversary of the Independence of the United 
 States at each military post or camp providetl with 
 artillery. See Sriliit)H. 
 
 NATIONAL TROOPS. -Troops raised under the au- 
 thority (if Ciiugress, in contradistinction to the Mil- 
 ilia, which may be called State troops, being organ- 
 i/eil bv the several States. 
 
 NATURAL ANGLE OF SIGHT. The angle which 
 the niitiirdl line if night iTiakes with the axis of tlie 
 pieee. 
 
 NATURAL FORTIFICATION.— A fortification consist- 
 ing of those obstacles wliich nature affords to retard 
 
 the progress of an enemy ; such as woods, deep rav. 
 ines, rocks, marshes, etc. The term is emploj'ed in 
 contradistinction to Artificial Portifieatioii, or that 
 which is raised by liuman ingenuity to aid the nat^ 
 ural advantages of the ground, or supply its defi- 
 ciencies. See Fortification. 
 
 NATURAL LINE OF SIGHT.— The right line pass- 
 ing through the highest point of the line of metal at 
 the muzzle, and the highest point of the same line in 
 rear of the trunnions. See Line of Metal. 
 
 NATURAL POINT-BLANK.— The point-blank is the 
 point at which the line of sight intersects the tra- 
 jectory the second time ; or, more practically speak- 
 ing, it is that point which, being aimed at, is struck 
 by the projectile. The natural point-blank corre- 
 sponds to the natural line of sight when this line is 
 horizontal, and the distance of this point from the 
 muzzle is called the point-blank range. 
 
 NATURAL STEEL.— A variety of steel which is ob- 
 tained by reducing the rich and pure kinds of iron 
 ore with charcoal, and refining the cast-iron, so as to 
 bring it to a malleable state. It is made principally 
 in Germany, and is used for making files and other 
 tools. The India steel, called irooti, is said to be a 
 natural steel, containing a small portion of other 
 metals. See Shear Steel and Steel. 
 
 NAVAL CAMP.— In .military antiquities, a fortifi- 
 cation, consisting of a ditch and parapet on the land 
 side, or a wall built in the form of a semi-circle, and 
 extended from one point of the sea to the other. 
 This was beautified with gates, and sometimes de- 
 fended with towers, through which the defender* 
 issued forth to attack their enemies. Towards the 
 sea, or within it, they fixed great piles of wood, like 
 those in their artificial harbors; before these, the ves- 
 sels of burden were placed in such order, that they 
 might serve instead of a wall, and give protection to 
 those without; in this maimer, Nicias is reported by 
 Thucydides to have encamped himself. When their 
 fortifications were thought strong enough to defend 
 them from the assaults of enemies, the ancients fre- 
 quently dragged their ships on shore. Around these 
 ships the soldiers disposed their tents, as appears 
 everywhere in Homer But this seems only to have 
 been practiced in winter, when their enemy's fleet 
 was laid up, and could not assault them; or in long 
 sieges, and when they lay in no danger from their en- 
 emies by sea, as in the Trojan war, where the de- 
 fenders of Troy never once attempted to encounter 
 the Grecians in a sea-fight. 
 
 NAVAL CROWN. — In"Heraldry,a rim of gold round 
 which are placed alternately prows of galleys and 
 square sails. The device is said to have originated 
 with the Roman Emperor Claudius, who, afler the 
 conquest of Britain instituted it as a reward for 
 maritime services. He who first boarded the 
 enemy's ship, and was the occasion of its being 
 captured, was entitled to a naval 
 crown. A naval crown supporting 
 the crest in place of a wreath oc- 
 curs in various grants of arms in 
 the early part of the present cen- 
 tur_v, to the naval heroes of the 
 late war. The crest of the Earl of 
 St. Vincent, bestowed on him after 
 his victory over the Spanish fleet in 
 1797, is issuing otit of a naval crown or, enwrapped 
 by a wreath of laurel vert, a demi-pegasus argent 
 nianed and hoofed of the first and winged azure, 
 charijed in the win;; with a fleur-de-lis or. 
 
 NAVAL HOWITZER,- A bninze shell-gun. adapted 
 t(i field and biial servi<'e. Tliey are made (if bronze 
 on aecdiint (if their cdinparative lightness for the 
 same strength, and from their being less liable to 
 burst than iron guns of the same caliber. They are 
 both smooth-bore and rifled, and are alike in the 
 principle of construction and general appearance, 
 and differ only in weight and dimensions. Around 
 the charge the metal is distributed in the form of a. 
 evlinder, extending suflicienllv in fr(int of the seal 
 
 Naval Crown.
 
 NAVE. 
 
 407 
 
 NAVEZ LEUE8 CHEONOSCOPE. 
 
 of tlic prnjpctilc ; thence to the muzzle it iH continued 
 
 UH a triHicati'd cone. 
 
 NAVE. — The central portion of a wheel; it is'^en- 
 (■rally coinijosed of a cylindriciil ]<\<ick of wood in 
 wliicU the .H])okes arc lirnily lixerl, and in which the 
 axle-arm works. This has hillierto hcen Wiv inive of 
 all artillery carriajj;cs in the Urilisli service, hut in 
 tlic newly constructed wroui;lit-iron carriafies the 
 Madras pattern nave, made of metal, willi some 
 slight modilication, has heen adopted. In the .Mad- 
 ras wheel, as ori;;inally formed, the nave. box is 
 made of gun-metal, and cast in one piece with one 
 t)f the plates, hut the principle of construction is the 
 same whether it he so united or cast separately, be- 
 tween the two plates, 13 spokes anr placed, so 
 formed that the parts which enter the nave are in 
 close (-ontac^t with each other, and with their ends 
 forming an arch completely round, hut not (piite 
 touching, the nave hox. Tlic vvliole <-onstru(tion is 
 tlu'ii tirndy bolted togetlier, witli \2 triangular holts 
 passing through holes in the discs, and fitting into 
 the triangular spaces fornu-d hetwecn each sjjokc by 
 their radiation from each other. These bolls have 
 circular heads, ami when driven into their places, 
 their ends are secured outside by nuts. The naves 
 are in two or three parts. The great advantage in 
 the latter is that the top and bottom, as two cjf its 
 parts are termed, are almost rendered perpetual, 
 whereas in the nave in two parts, if the i)ox wears 
 and therefore becomes unserviceable, the box with 
 bottom, altogether nearly three-fourths of the nave , 
 is rendered useless, and must be reneweil; hut with 
 the nave in three parts, the box alone is renewable 
 if it wears away. In the late Madras artillery, the 
 guH-meUil lunv hud been in use for the last sixty or 
 seventy years, and no failure of its strength or want 
 of durability had ever been reported. For many 
 
 in the nave, must bo fixed with ■■peeial reference to 
 thes(r side thrusts. Th(t strains in the planes of 
 traction are l)ut slight, on account of the small in- 
 ertia of the nave about itsaxis. IScc Arr/ii/jitl/l Wheel. 
 
 NAVE BOXES. H>;xes which are plated in the 
 naves; they were formerly made of brasH, but expe- 
 rien<:e has shown that those of cast-iron cause Icbb 
 friction, and are mucli cheaper. There are two, 
 one at each end, to diminish the friction of the uxle- 
 tree aL'ainst the nave. 
 
 NAVE BEAKE. A contrivance for skidiling the 
 weeds of giHi carriages in order to increase the 
 frictional resistance, at the time of recoil. The 
 two halves of the brake clasp the nave with more or 
 less tightness. The attachmi'iit between the brake 
 and tiie nave is only a frictional one, and a certain 
 amount of slipping round occurs if there is a very 
 violent recoil. 
 
 NAVE HOOPS.— Flat iron rings used to bind the 
 nave; tlKTc are generally three on each nave. 
 
 NAVEL.— A lug with a hole through it on the 
 under side of a carronadc, used to connect it with its 
 carriage. • 
 
 NAVEZ LEUES CHEONOSCOPE.— This is probably 
 the most successful of all the pendulum instruments, 
 where the value of the time is expressed in arc. It 
 may be said to consist of two separate instruments, 
 the pend'dinii and the (liHJunrUir. The pendulum is 
 an upright plate of vulcanite with a graduated arc, 
 .1, moiuited on a stand, and supportin;' two pendu- 
 lums, two electro-magnets, a pair of sprmgs, and the 
 pivot upon which the escapement system works. 
 One of the pendulums, «, is termed the chronometer 
 pendulum, and the other, i, the regixUr pendulum; 
 and the magnets are so adjusted, one behind each 
 pen<lulum, that when magnetized by a current of 
 electricity they will just sustain the" bobs o£ their 
 
 .^circuit from t)aflery which maffnetize.'! the chronometer electro-magnet. 
 . .(.'ircuit Irom ttic buttery which maunetizes the rejrister electro. magnet. 
 -Arrangement of the second circuit to investigate the value of the coeflicicnt x. 
 
 reasons it was a great improvement on the hlnck 
 nave. Its durability was apparent after the occupa- 
 tion of Burmah in 1852, and svibsequent years. In 
 that country, for a long period after it was annexed to 
 the British possessions, gun carriages. Bengal and 
 Madras, had for want of cover to stand out exposed 
 to Sim and rain. During that period not a Madras 
 wheel was the worse for exposure, wiiereas the ma- 
 jority of the Bengal wheels had large deep slits in 
 the wooden naves, wddch necessitated their being re- 
 placed and the wheels set up afresh. Side thrusts 
 on the wheel tend to shear the material of the nave 
 (if it be of wood), and to bend the flanges when of 
 metal. The amount of material and its disposition 
 
 respective pendulums, into both of which a piece of 
 soft iron is inserted. -Yn index-needle, having a 
 vernier at the end to slide along the graduated arc, 
 is riveted to a steel disc, c. working in the same axis 
 as the chronometer pendulum, with which it oscil- 
 lates, simply by friction, initil clamped by the action 
 of the escapement. The springs are attached to the 
 vertical plate, and pass one on each side of the 
 steel disc, e; near the ends of the springs are two 
 cleats, one on each spring, between which a wedge- 
 lever, f, can be adjusted To keep the springs apart : 
 
 \ two other cleats close on the disc of the index-needle, 
 which is between the springs, when the wedge- 
 
 I lever, e, is displaced by the face of the stirrup, rf.
 
 NAVICULAR DISEASE. 
 
 408 
 
 VEEDLK, 
 
 The rod of the register pendulum is provided with an 
 arc carrying a stirrup, rf, which in its descent when 
 tlie pendulum is released, knocks away the wedge- 
 lever, e, from between the springs, and so closes 
 them upon the disc, c, of the index-needle, thus 
 clamping it. The disjunctor consists of a small 
 stand. B, on which are two pieces of brass,//, each 
 provided with a pressure-screw, a brass spring, 
 g. fastened by another pressure-screw, and a cam, 7>, 
 to work the spring ; the brass pieces have platinum 
 points, separated from each other liy a very short in- 
 terval, and the spring has also a platinum point be- 
 low it, which, when pressed down by the action of 
 the cam, connects the two other points ; thus con- 
 necting, when requisite, the circuits through the 
 apparatus. 
 
 The electric currents are obtained b.y means of 
 Bunsen's voltaic batteries, there being two circuits 
 for an ordinary- experiment, one passing tlirough tlie 
 magnet of the chronometer pendulum on the first 
 screw, the otlier through the magnet of the register 
 pendulum and the second screw ; as both pass 
 through the disjunctor.the simultaneous disjunction 
 of both circuits can be effected by turning the cam, 
 releasing the spring, and so disconnecting the plati- 
 num points. The apparatus is placed in a small 
 house at a distance of about 130 yards from the gun. 
 so that it may not be effected by the firing, and tlie 
 arrangement of the gun and targets is as follows : 
 The first target is place<l at a distance of 10 j-anls in 
 front of the muzzle of the piece, and the second tar- 
 get 40 yards beyond the former ; both targets are of 
 the same construction and dimensions ; each con- 
 sisting of a wooden frame having copper wires 
 stretcued across in parallel rows liy means of pins 
 in the sides of the frame, and these wires are broken 
 by the passage of the projectile through them. In 
 order to protect the wires of the first target from the 
 action of the gas, a wooden screen is pUiced about 
 40 inches from this target, between it and the gun ; 
 the screen has a circular hole, about 1^ calibers in 
 diameter, through which tlie projectile passes. When 
 the gun is fired, the projectile passes through the 
 first target, breaks the first circuit, and demagnet- 
 izes the magnet of the chronometer pendulum ; the 
 bob begins to fall, carrying with it the index-needle. 
 When the projectile cuts the wires of the second 
 target, the circuit is broken, and the magnet of the 
 register pendulum is demagnetized ; the bob falls, 
 carrying with it the arc and stirrup, which in its 
 descent knocks away the wedge-lever and clamps 
 the index-needle. The time due to this arc of vi- 
 bration can, by the theory of the pendulum, be read- 
 ily ascertained, but it must be greater than the time 
 taken by the projectile to pass from one target to 
 the other ; for a certain small interval of time eTapses 
 between the rupture of the second circuit and the 
 claniiiing of the index-needle. This small portion 
 of time is found Iiy means of the disjunctor, before 
 the gun is fired, by breaking both circuits at once, 
 and the small arc so found must be deducted from 
 the arc determined by firing the gun. See Chruno- 
 
 NAVICULAR DISEASE.— A disease in the horse, 
 consisting in strain of the strong fiexor tendon of the 
 foot, at tlie point within the hollow of the fetlock, 
 where it passes over the navicular bone. It is mo.st 
 common amongst the ligiiter sorts nf horses, and 
 especially where they have upright jiasterns, out- 
 turned toes, and early severe work on hard roads. 
 It soon gives rise to a short, trijiping, yet cautious 
 gait, undue wear of the toe of the siioe, wasting of 
 the muscles of the shoulder, and jirojecting or 
 '■pointing" of the alTected limb whilst standing. 
 VVIieu early noticed, and in horses with well-forined 
 legs, it is often curable ; Imt when of several weeks 
 standing, it leads to so much iiiMainination and de- 
 .struction of the tendon and adjoining parts, that 
 .soundness and fitness for fast work are again inipos 
 sible. Kest should at once be given, the shoe re- 
 
 moved, the toe shortened, and the foot placed in a 
 large, soft, hot poultice, chansed everj' few hours. 
 Laxative medicine and bran niashes should be or- 
 dered, and a soft bed made with old short litter. 
 After a few days, and when the heat and tenderness 
 abate, cold applications should supersede the hot ; 
 and. after another week, a blister may be applied 
 round the coronet, and the animal placed for two 
 mouths in a good yard or in a grass field, if the 
 ground be soft and moist ; or, if sufficiently strong, 
 at slow farm-work on soft land. Division of the 
 nerve going to the foot removes sensation, and con- 
 sequently lameness ; and hence is useful in relieving 
 animals intended for breeding jiurposes or for slow 
 work. The operation, however, is not to be recom- 
 mended where fast work is recpiired ; for the animal, 
 insensible to pain, uses the limb as if nothing were 
 amiss, and the disease rapidly becomes worse. 
 
 NEBULY. — One of the partition lines in Heraldry, 
 which runs out and in, in a form supposed to represent 
 the uneven ed-ies of clouds. 
 
 NECESSARIES.— The articles issued to the British 
 soldier, such as boots, shirts, stockings; razor, etc., 
 which are requisite for his comfort and cleanliness. 
 These are technically termed regimental nece-imriex. 
 Non-commissioned officers are not allowed to sell 
 regimental necessaries to the soldiers. Every arti- 
 cle is directed by the Regulations to be marked with 
 the owner's name, the letter of his company, and the 
 number of his regiment; and the sale or injury of 
 them renders him liable to be tried by Court-Martial 
 and punished. 
 
 NECK.— The elbow or part connecting the blade 
 and socket of a bayonet. See Jinyonet. 
 
 NECK COLLAR. — A piece of armor which support- 
 ed the whole of the rest of the harness. This must 
 not be confounded with the ^'"/•jrff. underneath which 
 it was placed, and which, like it, was formed of sev- 
 eral plates. 
 
 NECK LINE. — Xn old term in fortification signify- 
 ing the cortre. 
 
 NECK OF A CASCABEL.— The part joining the knob 
 to the base of the breech. See Camihel. 
 
 NECK OF A GUN.— The small part of the piece in 
 front of the chase. 
 
 NEEDFIRE.— Fire obtained by the friction of wood 
 upon wood, or the friction of a rope on a stake of wood, 
 to which a wide-spread superstition assigns peculiar 
 virtues. With varieties of detail, the practice of 
 raising needfire in cases of calamity, particularly of 
 disease among cattle, has been found to exist among 
 most nations of the Indo-European race. It has been 
 supposed effectual to defeat the sorcery to which the 
 disease is assigned. When the incantation is taking 
 place, all the fires in the neighborhood must be ex- 
 tinguished and they have aU to be relighted from 
 the sacred spark. In various parts of the Scottish 
 highlands the raising of needfire was practiced not 
 long ago, and it is perhaps still had recourse to in 
 some very remote localities. The sacrifice of a heifer 
 was thought necessary to insure its efficiency. The 
 ways of obtaining fire from wood have been various; 
 one is lij- an apparatus which has been called the 
 '■ fire-churn," a cylinder turning on a pivot, and fur- 
 nished with spokes, by means of which it is made to 
 revolve very rapidly, and fire is generated by the 
 friction. Fire struck from metal has been supposed 
 not to possess the same virtue, and in .some instances 
 the persons who performed the ceremony were re- 
 quired to divest themselves of any metal which 
 might be about them. In its origin the fire-churn 
 was considered a moih'l of the apparatus by which 
 the fires of heaven were daily rekindled. It is still 
 in daily use in the temples <if the Hindus. The 
 same superstition was doubtless the origiu of the 
 story of Prometheus. 
 
 NEEDLE.- An instrument of metal, or other ma- 
 terial, for the jiiirpose of carrying the thread in sew- 
 ing, embroiderv, knitting, netting, and other similar 
 operations. >feedles are generally made of metal,
 
 KEEDLE-QUKB. 
 
 409 
 
 NEEDLE OURS. 
 
 but hone, ivory, ami wood urc also used ; for orrli- 
 niiry iiciMllcwork. ciillcil Hrwioi;, tlicy an' made of 
 line Hlccl, iind arr too wril known to need descrip- 
 tion ; for other kimls of work they are ofleii inueli 
 larger ami dill'ereiitly formed, aeeordiii(; to the re- 
 quirenientH of tlie work to be done. Tlie iiKUiiirtic, 
 iu'kUi- is a slender bar, usually pointed and resting 
 on a pivot, in a compass, so as to turn freelv towards 
 the maiineti(^ poles of the earth by vii'tne of the mag- 
 nelic polarity with which il has been arliliciully en- 
 dued. 
 
 NEEDLE GUNS.- To be loaded at the breech, and 
 lo lie lired by the |)eiietrali(in of a needle into, or the 
 impiiiiiint; of a piston on, a detonatiii!; cap within 
 the cartridi^e, arc distinct attributes in a weapon ; 
 and althoui^li it is only within the last tifty years 
 that the .system has been carrieil out with success, 
 breech-loadini; arms have been tried, accepted, and 
 aliandoned without niunber durini; the last three 
 centuries. Indeed, a sort of instinct iliclates that 
 loadini; at the breech is the jircferable course ; and 
 all the earliest nuiskets were so made, the system 
 beinj; doubtless abandoned from the dilliculty of ac- 
 curately closim; the breech, in tlio.se days of rough 
 workmanship. The extraordinary ellicacy of breech- 
 loading arms for military i)ur])oscs was brought 
 |)rominently forward during I he wars of the last few 
 years, and mitably in the Prussian campaigns of 
 "l8()4 against Denmark, and of l.S(it) against Austria. 
 The successes of the Prussian arms were attributed 
 in no small degree to the rapidity with which their 
 troops cotddlirc as compared with the enemy. They 
 had, in greater or less numbers, liorne these same 
 rilles since 1835, but these were the first opportuni- 
 ties of using them in warfare. To all tie other' 
 powers, whose men still carried nuizzle-Ioadiug ritles 
 and who bad debated, without practical result, for 
 years past the (luestion of armanu'iit with breech- i 
 loaders, soldiers thus armed appeared irresistible. | 
 From July. 1800, to the present moment, the ham- 
 mer and the anvil have been busy night and day 
 througliout the civilized world in making the weap- 
 ons of ileatb yet more deadly. Scarcely two couii- 
 tries seem to have adopted the same i)lan ; each na- 
 tion has elaborated a system from among its own in- 
 ventors. Tho.se possessing no great reserve of rifles 
 have prepared new arms ; but the majority of Gov- 
 ernments have been content, in the tirst instance, to 
 convert their existing stock into breech-loaders of as 
 good a con.struction as circumstances would permit. 
 Thus, Britain, after oiTcring a handsome prize for 
 the best design, selected one said (subject to some 
 controversy) to be the invention of the late Mr. 
 Snider. It is to be borne in mind that the British 
 Government only regarded the Snider arm as a make- i 
 shift for the conversicm of the enormous stock of 
 Enfield rifles then in hand, reserving to itself the 
 ultimate selection of a sintable pattern on which 
 to manufacture new weapons. It is not to be under- 
 stood from what is said above that Britain adopted 
 a breech-loading arm in a sort of panic after the 
 battle of Sadowa. It was after the Danish Cam- 
 paign, on the llth Jul}-, 18t)4, that it was decided as 
 an abstract question to arm the British infantry with 
 breech-loaders; a portion of the cavalry having for 
 aminiber of years previously been armed with Sharp 
 and Westley Richards carbines, loading at the breech. 
 The selection of an arm took longer ; tiut by the be- 
 ginning of 18G.5 it had been decided to convert the 
 great stock of rifles on the "Snider" sj'stem. In 186!) 
 it Vi-as determined that new arms should be on the 
 Martini-Henry system — i. e , with the Henry barrel, 
 and the Martini breech action. The advantage of 
 breech-loading is obvious ; to be able to insert the 
 charge at the breech end instead of tli<' muzzle, is to 
 save time, and to avoid exposure to hostile tire dur- 
 ing the operation of loading and ramming home, 
 wliich involves considerable outstretching of the 
 limbs. The great condition of success is, that the 
 bullet shall be propelletl with equal force and ac- 
 
 curacy, and with equal safety to the rifleman, an 
 from the muzzle-loader. When a charge is Ignited, 
 the constituents of the gunpowder, assnnnng a gas- 
 eous condition under the lieat engendered, expand 
 into a voluiiU' of light gas many times greater in bulk 
 than the powder Ix'fore occupied. On the amount 
 r)f this expansion and its sudden action on the pro- 
 jectile, the force of the shot depends. Any joint in 
 the breech-piece through wliich a portion of this gas 
 can escape, without having imparled its thrust to 
 the ball, tends, tlierefon-, to lessen tin- range and 
 penetration ; while the shock of the explosion falling 
 more severely on this than on any other part of tlie 
 barrel, tends yet more^lo dislocate the breech-piece, 
 and diminish the clo.seness of the joint's fit. In 
 weapons which do not call for a long range, as re- 
 volver pistols, a jierceptible interval is left between 
 the chamber and barrel, through which much gas 
 es<!apes ; but in rifles, which have range and pene- 
 tration as i)rincipal objects, there is prima facie 
 ground for preferring a muzzle-loader. The gas, 
 however, is far from i)ure, as generated in the barrel, 
 for much water is produced and held in suspension, 
 while there is also a solid residuum consisting of un- 
 burned materials of the powder. In the muzzle- 
 loader, these clog for, technically, foul; the barrel, 
 filling the gnxives. and ren<iering the ramming home 
 of succeeding charges more and more dirticult. Tlic 
 effect is, that a solid mass of unburned matter is 
 gradually forced by ramming into the head of the 
 barrel, destroying th(^ accuracy and usefulness of 
 the weapon. In the breech-loader, this solid depos- 
 it must be provich'd against both ways. The back- 
 ward throw on firing (for, of course, the charge ex- 
 plodes with ecpial power in every direction j tends 
 to force it into the mechanism of the joints, prevent- 
 ing their proper til, and continually augmenting the 
 escape of gas; and, on the other hiind.tlie de])osit in 
 front is most detrimental to accuracy of fire. This 
 protection of the breech apparatus, the prevention 
 of fouling, and the retaining. and. if possible. improv- 
 ing the force and accuracy of fire, were the pro- 
 blems which inventors have had to solve. 
 
 A moderate escape of gas in front of the first position 
 of the ball, is not under an}' circumstance, found to l)e 
 of any material disadvantage. If, then, the barrel 
 could have an opening where the cartridge could be 
 inserted, and then pushed backwards, an escape of 
 gas through the joints by which the opening might 
 he subsequently clo.sed would be comparatively im- 
 material; but this formation would be impracticalile, 
 because the explosion of each cartridge would drive 
 the fouling more and more backwards, till ultimately 
 the chamber at the breech would be unable to con- 
 tain the cartridge. It is clear, therefore, that tlie 
 charge must be inserted either at the barrel's head, 
 or, if the barrel be opened, in a space close to the 
 barrel's head. In either of these cases, the breech 
 must be solidly closed to resist the explosion. A 
 third case, as in the Snider, is where the cartridge 
 is inserted and then pushed forward, tlie aperture 
 being closed by a solid breech-piece which com- 
 pletely fills that portion of the barrel, and forms, 
 with the barrel's head, a massive foot to resist the 
 
 , backward pressure of the fired powder. Xo breech 
 action can be made to fit so accurately, as to prevent a 
 backward escape of gas unless a properly-construct- 
 ed cartridge-case is used. A perpendicular moving 
 joint is found in practice to be the one which is 
 best adapted for preventing a serious escape of gas. 
 In the Prussian needle-gun, the end of the barrel is 
 the frustum of a cone, which fits into a correspond- 
 ing cavity in the fore-end of the breech-piece, but* 
 
 ' in practice this joint is not sufficiently tight to pre- 
 vent an escape of gas from the self-consuming cart- 
 ridge used with this gun, which becomes incon- 
 veiiientl}' great after long use of the weapon, and it 
 is only ;ivailable when the breech-piece is pushed up 
 from the rear. In the Snider and several other 
 
 I breech-loading weapons, the cartridge is made itself
 
 N££DL£-6UNS. 
 
 410 
 
 NEEDLE GUNS 
 
 to close hermetically the aperture between the barrel 
 and the fore-end of the breech-piece. Tliis is effected 
 by the expansion of the cartridge-case which, being 
 composed of metal, or a combination of metal and 
 paper, is driven out by the force of the explosion till 
 it completely tills the chamber and prevents any 
 escape backwards between the sides of the case and 
 the chamber. The cartridge has a portion of its 
 case at the base flattened out into a rim which tits 
 
 along the groove. When the cartridge is deposited 
 in vhe recess in the chamber, this breech-piece is- 
 closed against the heel of the barrel by moving up 
 the handle to the front end of the groove, and then 
 turning it down to prevent it from being driven back 
 on the explosion of the charge ; representing, indeed, 
 the resistance offered by the heel of an ordinary 
 muzzle-loading barrel. Firmly screwed within the 
 breech-piece, at a short distance from its front, is a 
 
 FiL'. 1. 
 
 into a corresponding recess in the end of the barrel; 
 and to prevent expansion backwards, which would 
 fracture the cartridge-case, and injure the breech or 
 the firer, the breech-piece is made to fit as closely as 
 possible against this base. This rim is on the Snider 
 cartridM. 
 
 The Prussian gun, although it may be said to be 
 now obsolete (having been superseded bj' the Mauser, 
 a bolt gun on much the same principle, but \ising a 
 metallic cartridge-case), was first in the field. As 
 regards its breech-apparatus and needle-lock, it con- 
 sists of three concentric hollow cylinders, with a 
 solid cylindrical bolt inside the last (Figs. 1 and 3). 
 
 solid block of metal, on which impinges the first 
 force of the explosion. Projecting from this block 
 to the base of the cartridge is a strong tige, or pillar, 
 around which a suitable space containing air is left. 
 Through this same pillar is the channel for the 
 needle to work. Fitting within the rear-end of the 
 breech-piece is a smaller cylinder, h. constituting the 
 lock of the gun. It slides within the breerh-piece, 
 and is retained from falling out backwards by the 
 spring, /, which catches in a notch, d. Along the 
 bottom of this cylinder is a groove to admit the pas- 
 sage of the trigger, k, and at the back is a short, up- 
 right handle, by means of which the weapon is 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 The rear-end of the barrel is firmly screwed into the 
 head of the chamber, a. which is fixed to the stock 
 of the iiiecc, and is open at the rear-end. Tlie up- 
 |)er half of tiie cylinder is cut away at the front end 
 for rather luore than the length of the cartridge ; this 
 constitutes the opening in whicli the musketeer in- 
 serts the cartridge. From the rear of this opening 
 to the back, a groove is cut, sultii-iently wide to al- 
 low the square pillar of the breech-handle, c, to pass 
 along it. In the middle of this groove is aright- 
 angled shunt, iiffcriug a stop to the lireeeli-iianiUc 
 when drawn backwards, unless it he likewise lurneil 
 downwards wlien it may be passed eompl<'tcly out 
 at the rear end. Next within the chamber is the 
 Iireech-piece, which, to ailniit the cartridge, is drawn 
 back for a sutlicienl distance by the breecli-handk' 
 
 cocked. Lastly, within the lock is a bolt, I, pressed 
 forward by a spiral spring, and having the needle, 
 m, rigidly fastened to its front end. Having now 
 descrilK'd the several parts of the ritle, it is easy to 
 follow it from the moment of a shot being fired until 
 the next is ready for discharge. The soldier first 
 presses down the spring, i, with his finger, releasing 
 the catch below it, and enabling him to draw back 
 the lock to the next catch on the spring (Fig. 1.) 
 Having done so, he raises the breeeli-handle to the 
 
 ! perpenilieular, and passes it along the groove to open 
 the lireecli. This done, \u' ])laces the cartridge in 
 
 j the opening tlius made in the chamber, and again 
 moving up llie breech-piece to close the breech, the 
 tige in it pushes the cartridge forward into the bar- 
 rel, and the rifle is at once at "half-cock;" for in
 
 NEE8HUN0PAT. 
 
 Ill 
 
 R£UT£ALg. 
 
 drawinpbiirk the Inrk, tlin front point of the sprinp, 
 
 /, fiircc'd llic holt, I fiiii'liiilinir llic nrcdlc m), with 
 it, 1111(1 till- iirojcctiiiii, II., oil it, Imviiif; pusHrd over 
 tlic liciid-of llic IrifTL'cr, k, isfuutclit by the litltcr in 
 awuywliicli (-an only be rilcaHcd by 1 he fulling of 
 the Irinncr. 
 
 t It will be observed that at half-cock tlie needle is 
 ready lo penetrate the carlridu'c, hut thai the Kpirii! 
 HJiriii;; is loose and witliout power. To " fiill-crick," 
 iio more is necessary than lo push /( back lo ils ori;^- 
 inal position. It cannot lake llie boll, I. with il, as 
 the I rii;!;er retains it t<i the rear. 'I'hc posilion (Fij^.i; 
 is now obtained, in which the boll, /, ])rojeets at the 
 back, and the spiral sprin;; iseoinjiressed into ustale 
 of passive slreiii;th. All Ihat is now needed to lire 
 the {tun is to |iress upon the trinijer, iiiilil the jxiint 
 II bears, when Ihe boll, /, beiiii; released by Hie de- 
 pression of /', the spiral sprini; asserts ils jiower, and 
 drives Ihe needle into ilie heart of Ihe carlrid{;e, tlie 
 parts all resuming their orif^inal positions. At first 
 sifrht, one cannot help exclaiming: " What a com- 
 plicated apparatus with Ihe four cylinders and Ihe 
 springs"; but, in reality, it is as simple as almost any 
 otlier gun, for the whole ineclianisin of Ihe lock is 
 dispensed with. If il be desired lo lake the needle- 
 gun to pieces, press Ihe trigger till the iioini,/), bears. 
 If the breech-handle hellien in Ihe tiinder pari of ils 
 groove, the breech-piece with its <'oiilenls will slip 
 out of the chamber. Pressing down, next, Ihe sjiring 
 !", until the second catch is passed, there is nothing 
 to retain the lock, //, in the bn'cch-piece; and Ihe 
 lock being free, the needle, with its attached liolt 
 and spring, falls readily out of ils fore-end. The gun 
 is thus taken to pi<'ces in a few seconds, and as many 
 sutlice to put it again in lighting order. The niosi 
 delicate portions are the needle and Ihe spiral spring; 
 but in case of accident to these, I here is a spare one 
 in a small cavity opening by a spring in the butt-end 
 of the stock. The worst feature about this celebrat- 
 ed gun is its weiglil, 12 lbs., or 33 ])er cent, heavier 
 than IheEntield or Snider ritle. See "rumian Nee- 
 dle (^trfiinf and J'ntnniiiit Nu'dle.guii. 
 
 NEESHUNGPAT.- An Indian term expressinga vio- 
 lent assault without bloodshed. 
 
 NEGATIVE.— 1. A term used to express the result 
 of measures or enterprises which, though not enlirely 
 successful, are not productive of serious or mischiev- 
 ous consequences. Hence the lirilish expeditions to 
 Spain and Walcheren may be consideretl as having 
 had negative success. 3. In pholograidiy, that 
 kind of photographic picture in •which the lights 
 and shadows of the natural object are transposed; 
 the high lights being black, and Ihe deep shadows 
 transparent, or nearly so. Negatives are taken on 
 glass and paper by various processes, and should 
 indicate with extreme delicacy, and in reverse order, 
 the various gradations of light and shade which 
 occur in a landscape or portrait. A negative dilTers 
 from a positive inasmuch as in the latter case it is 
 required to produce a deposit of pure metallic silver 
 to be viewed by reflected light; while in the latter, 
 density to traiiamltted light is the chief desideratum; 
 accordingly inorganic reducing and retarding agents 
 are employed in the development of a positive, while 
 those of organic origin are used in the production of 
 a neirative. 
 
 NEGATIVE HAUSSE.— In order to strike an object 
 at a distance less than point-blank range, it will be 
 necessary to diminish the angle that the axis of the 
 piece makes with Ihe natural line of sight. This 
 will be accomplished by diminishing the difference 
 between the radii of the muzzle and base-ring. 
 This amount, required to be taken from Ihe radius 
 of the base-ring, is generally calletl the iiegathe 
 
 NEGATIVE PENALTY.— The term applied to such 
 punishments as removal from command, bars to in- 
 dulgence, reprimands, etc. 
 
 NEGLECT OF DUTY. — Total omission or disregard 
 of any prescribed service, or unsoldier-like execu- 
 
 tion. All crimcH not cnpitnl, and all disorders and 
 nr-glects, which oIlicerH and soldiers may be guilty 
 of, lo the prejudice of good order and military dis- 
 ciiiline, though not meiilioned in Ihe Arlicfes iif 
 War, an; lo be taken cognizance of by a (iineral, or 
 a Kegimenlal, (iarrisoii, or Field Olllcers' Courl- 
 .Marlial, according lo Ihe nature and degree of the 
 olfeiisi', and punished at the di.scretiou of such 
 Coiirl. 
 
 NESHAUMBURDAE.- The Indian name of an En- 
 siL'ii. 
 
 NETLEY HOSPITAL. -The Royal Victoria Hospital, 
 at Nelley, is a superb building, on Ihe shore of 
 Southanipton water, for the recepli(m <if invalids from 
 Ihe army on foreign srrvice, and from among the 
 Iroops serving in the adjacent niililary districts. In 
 times of peace, il is only necessary lo use a portion 
 of the vast slriiclure; but in Ihe event of a Kuropean 
 war, in wliicii Ihe British armv should lake jiart, the 
 exigencies of the servi<;e woufd probably tax its ac- 
 commodalion lo the utmost. There is provision for 
 1,000 patients willi power lo increase the number if 
 necessary. The .Medical SlalT of course varies in pro- 
 |)orlion to Ihe work to lie done : but al jiresent it con- 
 sists of a (Jovernor. an ,\djulaiit. a I'ayniasler, an 
 .\ssistanl-('oiiiiiiandant, and .Medical (jtlicers, and 
 Ollicers of Orderlies of various ranks. The total cost 
 of the conslruclion of this hospital, which was com- 
 menced in 1H.")5, has been about XSOO.IXtO. Attached 
 is Ihe Medical School for candidates^ for the army 
 .Medical Dejiarlment, the students having the best 
 means of [iraclical inslruclion in the wards of the 
 hospital. Netley is also the head-quarters of the fe- 
 male nurses of the army, who are under the control 
 of a lady stationed there as Superintendent. Complete 
 arrangements have been made for Ihe landing of 
 wounded men in front of the hospital and for con- 
 veying them thither with the least disturbance. 
 Tliere is no doubt as to the convenience of this great 
 hospital for its purposes; but some questions have 
 been raised, under high sanitiiry authority, as to the 
 salubrity of the site, adjacent as it is to the wide 
 banks of mud which Southampton water uncoversat 
 low tide. 
 
 NETTOYERLESMAGAZINS.— In artillery, a term 
 which means lo remove Ihe different pieces of ord- 
 nance, for the purpose of having them carefully ex- 
 amined, etc.. and to have the stores and ammunition 
 so arranged as not to receive damage. 
 
 NEJ'TOYER LES TRANCHEES. -A term meaning 
 to scour or <lean the trenches. This is effected by 
 means of a vigorous sally which the garrison of a 
 besieged place make upon the besiegers; when they 
 beat in the guijrd, drive off the workmen, level Ihe 
 parapet, break up and choke the line of circumval- 
 lation, and spike or nail the cannon. 
 
 NEUTRAL AXIS.— The name given to an imaginary 
 line to any body which is being subjected to a trans- 
 verse strain, and separating the forces of extension 
 from those of compression. If the ratio of the resist- 
 ances to extension and compression were the same 
 for all substances, and depended merely on the form 
 of the body, then in all bodies of Ihe same form the 
 neutrals axiwould have a detinite geometrical posi- 
 tion; but it has been satisfactorily proved by 3Ir. 
 Eaton Hodgkiuson. that this ratio has a separate 
 value for each substance. In wood, Avherethe ratio 
 is one of equality, the neutral axis in a beam sup- 
 ported al both ends, whose section is rectangular, 
 passes lengthwise through the center of the beam; 
 while in cast-iron, in which Ihe resistance to com- 
 pression is greater than tluil to extension, it is a lit- 
 tle above, and in wrouglil-iron. in which Ihe con- 
 trary is Ihe case, it is a little lielow, the center. 
 
 NEUTRALS.- Nations who. when a war is being 
 carried on, take no part in the contest, and evince 
 no particular friendship for or hostility to any of the 
 belligerents. As a general rule Neutrals should con 
 duel "themselves with perfect impartiality, and do 
 nothing which can be considered as favoring one
 
 SETTBATJEK SYSTEM OF FOETIFICATIOW. 
 
 412 
 
 NIGHT-FIEINa. 
 
 ■belligerent more than another. The duties and ob- 
 ligations of Neutrals at sea have given rise to many 
 complicated questions. It is allowed on all hands 
 that a Neutral State forfeits lier character of neu- 
 trality by furnishing to eitlier belligerent any of the 
 articles that come under the denomination of con- 
 traband of war. If she does so, tlie other belligerent 
 is warranted in intercepting the succors, and contis- 
 cating tliem as lawful prize. Contraband of war, 
 besides warlike stores, has sometimes been held to 
 include various other articles, a supplj' of which is 
 necessary for tlie prosecution of the war: and it 
 has been doubted liow far, in some cirrumstances, 
 com, hay, and coal may not come under that cate- 
 gory- 
 
 An important question regarding the rights of 
 Neutrals is, wliether enemies' goods not contraband 
 of war may be lawfuUv conveyed in neutral bot- 
 toms. The principle tliat free sliips make free goods 
 was long resisted by England and other maritime 
 countries : and the general understanding has been 
 that belligerents have a right of visiting and search- 
 ing neutral vessels for tlie purpose of ascertaining — 
 First, whether the sliip is really neutral, as the 
 hoisting of a neutral flag affords no absolute secu- 
 rity that it is so : Second, whether it has contra- 
 band of war or enemies' property on board. Neu- 
 tral ships have therefore Ijeeu held bound to pro- 
 vide themselves with passports from their Govern- 
 ment, and sucli papers as are necessary to prove 
 the property of the ship and cargo ; and it is their 
 duty to heave to when summoned by the cruisers 
 of either belligerent. It lias been considered that 
 a neutral sliip which seeks to avoid search by crowd- 
 ing sail, or by open force, may be captured and con- 
 fiscated. When a merchant-ship is sailing under 
 convoy of a vessel of war it has been said that the 
 declaration of the officer in command of the con- 
 voy that there is no contraband of war or belli- 
 gerent property on board is sufficient to bar the e.x- 
 ercise of tlie right of search. 
 
 A declaration having important bearings on the 
 rights of Neutrals was adopted by the Plenipoten- 
 tiaries of Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, 
 Eussia, Sardinia, and Turkey, assembled in Con- 
 gress at Paris on April 10, 1856. By its provisions, 
 1. Privateering is abolished. 2. A neutral flag 
 covers enemies' goods, with the exception of contra- 
 band of war. 3. Neutral goods, with the exception 
 of contraband of war, are not liable to capture 
 under the enemy's flag. 4. Blockades, in order to 
 be binding, must be effective— that is, maintained 
 by a force sufficient really to prevent access to the 
 coast of the enemy. It has sometimes been pro- 
 posed to exempt private jiroperty at sea from attack 
 during war. Such a project, however, seems inex- 
 pedient. There may be a propriety in respecting 
 the property of individuals on land in a time of war, 
 because its destruction, however injurious to the 
 persons immediately concerned, can liave little in- 
 fluence on the decision of the contest. But at sea 
 private property is destroyed, because those from 
 wliom it is taken, being purveyors or carriers for 
 the eoniniunity at large, its loss must seriously 
 affect the public, and have no small influence in 
 bringing the contest to an end. See Hlockarle, and 
 Cmtrahiind of War. 
 
 HEUBAUER SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— This 
 system is distinguished by a rc<iiiit in the re-enter- 
 ing places of armcs, imitated by C'ormontaingne. 
 It also proposes six fold flanks. 
 
 NEW MATTER.— It is not proper that the Prose- 
 cutor shoulil be all()W<'d to introduce iiein matter, 
 neither should it lie ailmilled on the defense. There 
 is a great difTereuce between new matter of accusa- 
 tion and facts proved by evidence to mitigate the 
 sentence. The latter are not new matter in its strict 
 sense. ShouM cillier party, in the course of their 
 examination of witnesses, or by bringing forward 
 ncTV ones for that purpose, introducenew matter. 
 
 the opposite one has the right of calling other wit- 
 ] nesses to rebut such new matter. The Court-Martial 
 ' should be very circumspect to see and prevent new 
 matter from being introduced, either in the prosecu. 
 lion or defense. But the Accused may urge in his 
 defense mitigating circumstances, or examine wit- 
 nesses as to character or service, and produce testi- 
 monials of such facts, without its being considered 
 new matter ; and if any point of law be raised, or 
 any matter requiring explanation, the Judge-Advo- 
 cate may explain ; no other reply is admitted. 
 
 NEW'MODEL.- In the United States, all cannon 
 made since 1861 are on the New Model. This is 
 characterized by the absence of all ornament on the 
 exterior, — the outline is made up of gentle curves 
 as far as possible, — and on the inside the bottom of 
 the bore is a semi-ellipsoid. 
 
 NEW TRIAL.— In Court-Martial, the privilege of a 
 new trial is not denied. The provisions therefore 
 are borro"wc(l from common law, and are not held, 
 in either civil or military tribunals, to preclude the 
 accused from having a second trial on his own mo- 
 tion. Officers who sat on the first trial should not 
 be detailed for the new trial ; they have formed and 
 expressed opinions. New, or second trial, can only 
 be authorized where the sentence adjudged upon the 
 first trial has been disapproved. After a sentence 
 has been duly approved and has taken effect, the 
 granting of a new trial is beyond the power of a Mil- 
 itarv ('ommander, or the President. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND CROSS.— A decoration instituted in 
 the year liSU'J. The New Zealand Cross was provided 
 in the year 1869, b}' the Government of the Colony, 
 with the sanction of the Crown, as a reward for acts 
 of distinguished valor similar to those recognized by 
 the Victoria Cross. The fourth clause of the Order 
 in Council, which subsequently received her Majes- 
 ty's special sanction, as "Fountain of Honor," pro- 
 vides that "The distinction shall only be conferred 
 upon those officers or men who, when serving in the 
 presence of the enemy, shall have performed some 
 signal act of valor or devotion to their duty, or who 
 shall have performed any very intrepid action in the 
 public service : and neither rank nor long service, 
 nor wounds, nor any other circumstance or condi- 
 tion whatever, save merit or conspicuous braverj-, 
 sliall be held to establish a sufficient claim to the 
 honor." 
 
 NIELLO-WORK.— A method of ornamenting metal 
 plates by engraving the surface, and rubbing a black 
 or colored composition, so as to fill the incised lines, 
 and give effect to the intaglio picture. It is by no 
 means quite certain when this art was originated : 
 Byzantine works of the 13th century still exist to at- 
 test its early employment. The finest works of this 
 kind belong to the former half of the ISth century, 
 when remarkable excellence in drawing and group- 
 ing minute figures in these metal pictures was at- 
 tained by Maso di Finiguerra, an eminent painter, 
 and student of Ghiberti and Massacio. In his hands 
 it gave rise to copper-plate engraving, and hence 
 much interest attaches to the art of niello-cut- 
 ting. Genuine specimens of this art are rare, 
 some of those by Finiguerra are very beautiful and 
 effective, tlie black pigment in the lines giving a 
 pleasing effect to the surface of the metal, which is 
 usually silver. Tho.se of his works best known are 
 some elaborately beautiful [lattines wrought by him 
 for the church of San Giovanni at Florence, one of 
 which is in the Uffizia. and some are in various pri- 
 vate collections. In the collection of ornamental art 
 at South Kensington, there are no less than 17 spec- 
 imens of this art. 
 
 NIOHER. — An Indian term for any fortified city 
 measuring at least Scoss.or y English miles, in length 
 and breadth. 
 
 NIGHT-FIRING. — Canncin arc pointed at night by 
 means of certain marks, or measurements, on the 
 carriage and ])l;ilform, which are accurately deter- 
 mined during thi' day. In the case of guns and
 
 3J. _.-
 
 
 |?fFi.P. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "tit, '
 
 NIGHTLY CORDON. 
 
 413 
 
 NITRATE OF SODA. 
 
 liowitzcrs, the clcvatifni iiiiiy be (Iftcrmiiicd by mark- 
 iiit; the clcvaliiig screw where it eiitcrH llie nut, (ir 
 by meaniiriiii; llie diHlaiiee lielweeii the head (it the 
 gcrew and stuck. In the case of mortars, the [)Osition 
 of the <|iiiiin may lie di'termined liy marking;, or ]>y 
 nailiiit; a eleul cm llie hiplster. 'I'lie direetidri of a 
 (■arriai;e or mortar-lied is (h-lerndned hy nailinf;Htri|is 
 of lioards alom; the jilalforni, as i,'uich's to tlie trail 
 and vvlieels; to ])revent tlie strips from lieintf injured 
 by tlie recoil, they should hv nailed at a i-ertain dis- 
 tance from the carriaiie, or bed, and the space lilli'd 
 uj) with a stick of pro]ier wiillli, which should l»^ 
 removed before tirini:. The chassis of a sea-coast 
 rarriafc can be secured in a particular direction by 
 lirndv chorkini,' the traverse wheels. See J''iiiitii:t/, 
 
 NI(3HTLY CORDON. In the operation of a sie{;'e, 
 the investment of the iiosition is usually jierformecl 
 by a stroni; body of troops detached from theattack- 
 inff force, which body moves quickly and suddenly, 
 siirroumlinu; the position, andseizinujallthe avenues 
 of approach. A chain of outposts and sentinels 
 placed just outside of the raiii;<' of lire of llie difence, 
 but close enouirh to watch all the avenues leading to 
 the position, is established by the investing force. 
 This chain is drawn iniiearer to the position at nifiht, 
 and moveil back a short distance in day time. The 
 terms nightly cordon and daily cordon are frequent- 
 ly used to desi;;iiate this chain. See ('ordiiii. 
 
 NIGHT SIGNALLING.— An important branch of sig- 
 nalling. It may be elfected in various ways. Inor- 
 dinary service two torches are used.— one on the 
 ground and the other attached to a staiT, which is 
 used precisely as the Hag for day signals. Lanterns 
 held in the hands can also be used. For long dis- 
 tances and when stations cannot be seen on account 
 of intervening obstacles, such as woods, signal-roc- 
 kets, candle-bombs, and other pyrotechnic devices 
 are used. 
 
 NIHILISTS. — A revolutionary organization in Rus- 
 sia, aiming at the destruction of all existing laws, 
 religions, and politi<al and social systems, while 
 preparing to replace them with nothing. It is stated 
 that the term was first employed by the Russian 
 novelist, Ivan Turgenieff, in his stories of Russian 
 society. It was, however accepted by the organiza- 
 tion itself, as will apjjear in the following quotation 
 from a speech by a member, and which may be ac- 
 cepted as fairly significant of the doctrines with 
 ■which the minds of the advanced Radicals of Rus- 
 sia have become imbued. " Nothing, in the present 
 state of social organization can be worth much, for 
 the simple reason that our ancestors instituted it. 
 If we are still obliged to confess ourselves ignorant 
 of the e.xact medium between good and evil, how- 
 could our ancestors, less enlightened than we, know 
 it ? A German Philosopher has said : ' Every law 
 is of use. It rules the conduct of individuals who 
 feel for one another and appreciate their respective 
 wants. Every religion, on the other hand, is use- 
 less ; for ruling, as it does, our relations with an 
 incommensurable and indefinite Being, it can be the 
 residt only of a areat terror or else of a fantastic 
 imagination.' ISow, we Xihilists say, no law, no 
 religion — Nihil ! The very men who instituted 
 these laws ruling their fellow-creatures have lived 
 and died iu complete ignorance of the value of their 
 own acts, and without knowing iu the least how 
 they liad accomplished the mission traced for them 
 by destiny at the moment of their birth. Even 
 taking it for granted that our ancestors were com- 
 petent to order the acts of their fellow-creatures, 
 does it necessarily follow that the re(|uirements of 
 their time are similar to those of to-day? Evidently 
 not. Let us, then, cast ofT this garment of law, for 
 it has not been made according to our measure, and 
 it impedes our free movements. Hither with the axe 
 and let us demolish everything. Those who come 
 after us will know how to rebuild au edifice quite 
 as solid as that which we now feel trembling over 
 our heads." Two points will be observed iu this 
 
 manifesto : the one being its positive unlugoniHrn to 
 all existing things — because ,lliey exist ; the (■Iher 
 the sophistry with which the accepted position is 
 reasoned out to a logical conclusion. And lliin 
 brings us naturally to the- starting points of Russian 
 Nihilism: iu tin: inlluence of the Russian history; 
 in the nature of the Russian people; and in the ex- 
 (■e])tional character of the Russian Political System. 
 
 NIP. — A term used in artillery, meaning to stop 
 ropes with a gasket, or with several turns of spun 
 yarn round each, and the ends made fast, 
 
 NIPPLE. — The passage of communication in per- 
 cussion arms between thi; cap an(l the charge; the 
 ixreussion cap is jjlaced on the nipple when the tire 
 lock is iirimed, and by the action of the lock the 
 piece is discharged. In breech-loading arms, except 
 in the Snider, there is a different arrangement for 
 igniting the charge, which renders the nipple un- 
 necessary; these are fired by means of a needle or 
 some similar method. 
 
 NIPPLE WRENCH.- The spanner with sides which 
 tit the scjuare of the ni|iple, and which is used for 
 screwini; it to and unscrewing it from the barrel. 
 
 NIQUIBS. — An Indian term for men whose mill- 
 tary functions anumg the Sepoys, correspond with 
 th(ise of Curporals in other services. 
 
 NITEE— NITRE.— Niter occurs as a natural pro- 
 duct iu the East Indies, Egypt Persia, where it is 
 found sometimes as an eftlore.scence upon the soil, 
 and sometimes disseminated through its upper strat- 
 um. Tlie crude salt is obtained bj' lixiviating the 
 soil, and allowing the solution to crystallize. A large 
 ([uantity of niter is artificially formed in many coun- 
 tries of f^urope, by imitating the conditions under 
 which it is naturally produced. The most essential 
 of these conditions seems to be the presence of de- 
 caying organic matter whose nitrogen is oxidized by 
 the aeti<iii of the atmosphere into nitric acid, which 
 combines with the bases (potash and lime) contained 
 in the soil. The method employed in the artificial 
 production of niter consists in placing animal mat- 
 ters, mingled with ashes and lime rubbish, in loosely 
 aggregated heaps, exposed to the air, but sheltered 
 from rain. The heaps are watered from time to time 
 with urine or stable runnings ; at suitable intervals 
 the earth is lixiviated, and the salt crystallized. Three 
 years usually elapse before the niter bed is washed ; 
 after this interval a cubic foot of the debris should 
 yield between 4 and 5 ounces of niter. As there is 
 always a considerable quantity of the nitrates of lime 
 and "magnesia present, which will not crystallize, 
 carbimate of potash, in the shape of wood-ashes, is 
 added so long as any precipitate occurs. The nitrate 
 of lime is decomposed, and the insoluble carbonate 
 of lime separated : 
 
 Carbonate of Nitrate of Carbonate of Nitrate of 
 Potash. Lime. Lime. Potash. 
 
 K0,C02 -f CaON'Oj = CaCCO^ + K0,N05 
 The clear liquor is then evaporated and crj'stallized. 
 It has been found that the earth in which niter has 
 once been formed furnishes fresh niter more readily 
 than on the first occasion. Care is taken that the niter 
 pill lit it'onx. as they are termed, shall rest upon an 
 impervious flooring of clay, so that the liquid which 
 drains away fromlhem may be collected and pre- 
 served. See NitrnU'n and •Saltpeter. 
 
 NITHING. — An old term for coward or poltroon. 
 Also written yidiiir;. 
 
 NITRATE OF SODA.— An extensive deposit in the 
 soils of some jiortiniis of Peru and northern Mexico. 
 It is cheaper than nitrate of potassa.andforthe same 
 weight affords a greater amount of nitric acid, or 
 oxysen. Its affinity for moisture constitutes a 
 serious objection to its use in the manufacture of a 
 gunpowder for war purposes, or one that is to be 
 preserved for [any length of time. The nitrate of 
 soda may be used in obtaining the nitrate of potassa 
 by decomposing it with carbonate of potassa — the 
 ]iotash of commerce. See Chlorate of Potassa and 
 JS'iter.
 
 NITKATES. 
 
 414 
 
 NITROGLYCERINE. 
 
 NITRATES.— Salts formed by the union of nitric 
 acid with bases. Some are found in a natural min- 
 eral condition, as saltpeter and cubic niter. The}- 
 are distinguished for their solubility in water. On 
 being heated, they undergo decomposition, being 
 converted either into free nitric acid and a base, or 
 into oxygen and a nitrite. In many respects one of 
 the most important nitrates is the nitrate of silver, 
 or lunar caustic. It is of great use in surgery and 
 the arts. As a caustic it acts powerfully, but rather 
 superficially, producing a white slough, whichblack- 
 ens soon on exposure to the light. It is used in a 
 solid state, or in solutions of all strengths. If dis- 
 solved in pure water, it remains colorless ; but the 
 smallest particle of organic matter will cause the 
 solution to turn dark. On this account it is em- 
 ployed for making marking-fluids for linen. Indeli- 
 ble ink is usually made by dissolving 1 part of nitrate 
 of silver and 4 parts of gum-arabic in 4 parts of 
 water, and adding a little India ink to give it color, 
 so that it may be seen when the mixture is applied. 
 The place which is to receive the impression is first 
 moistened with a solution of carbonate of soda and 
 dried. After the application of the ink. the writing 
 is exposed to the sunlight. Lunar caustic markings 
 may be readily removed by applying a few drops of 
 tincture of iodine, iind dissolving out the io('ide of 
 silver thus formed by a solution of hyposulpiiite of 
 soda, or a dilute solution of caustic potash. Nitrate 
 of silver is used in photography. Nitrate of am- 
 monia, or ammonic nitrate (according to modern 
 nomenclature, ammonium nitrate), NHjO.NOj, or, 
 according to later views, NO3NH4, may be formed 
 by the action of the galvanic current on a mixture of 
 nitrogen and oxj'gen with an excess of hydrogen ; 
 but the common method is to add a slight excess of 
 aqua ammonia to nitric acid. If crystallization is 
 conducted slowly, six-sided prisms, like those of ni- 
 trate of potash, will be formed, having a specific 
 gravity of 1.035. It melts at 226° F., and at 482" 
 decomposes into water and nitrous oxide, or laugh- 
 ing-gas. Nitrate of baryta, or baryta saltpeter, is 
 made by treating the native carbonate of baryta with 
 nitric acid. It crystallizes in anh3-drous regular 
 octahedrons, having a specific gravity of 3.184. 
 When heated strongly it is converted into baryta, or 
 baric oxide, with evolution of oxygen and nitrogen. 
 Nitrate of bismuth and also sub-nitrate are important 
 salts in the arts and medicine. Nitrate of cobalt, 
 prepared by the action of nitric acid on the oxide, 
 crystallizes from solutions in beautiful pink-red deli- 
 quescent crystals, having a specific gravity of 1.83. 
 It is much used in the chemical laboratory, particu- 
 larly as a blow-pipe reagent. With magnesium com- 
 pounds, it yields a pink color ; with those of zinc, 
 green ; and with aluminum compounds a beautiful 
 blue ; for this reason it is much used in coloring 
 porcelain and earthenware Nitrate of copper is 
 made by the action of diluted nitric acid on copper 
 turnings. Nitric oxide gas is given otf during the 
 operation. It crystallizes from cold solutions in 
 beautiful blue, deliquescent, rhomboidal prisms, 
 containing four molecules of water. From solutions 
 above r>d" it crystallizes with three molecules of 
 water in needles, liaving a specific gravity of 2.047, 
 soluble in alcohol. Nitrate of copper is'converted, 
 by moderate heat, into an in>olul)le basic nitrate. 
 By raising the lieat, the acid is comjiletely driven 
 off, leaving only the black oxide of the metal. Ni- 
 trate of copper is sometimes useful in surgery, as an 
 application to certain ill-conditioned ulcers. The 
 nitrates of iron are important salts. The protonitrate 
 or ferrous nitrate, is formed by digesting iron-turn- 
 ings in very dilute nitric acid. It crystallizes in pale 
 treen rhombohedrons, having the formida Fe(N()J.,, 
 H„0._ It is much used in dyeing. The peniitriit(\ 
 or ferric nitrate, is made by di.ssolving iron-turnings 
 in nitric acid of sp. gr. between 1.2 and 1.3. It is 
 used in surgery. Nitric acidfonns several salts with 
 lead, the principal of whicli is the common nitrate, 
 
 or plumbl nitrate, PbCNOj)^. It crystallizes in an- 
 hydrous regular octahedrons, usually milk-white 
 and opaque. It dissolves in 7i parts of cold water. 
 Is is decomposed by heat, with evolution of peroxide 
 of nitrogen. Nitric acid forms a greater number of 
 salts with mercury than with any other metal, one 
 of which is used in medicine, and the other for the 
 manufacture of corrosive sublimate. See Niter. 
 
 NITRO-CELLULOSE.- During the last few years 
 great improvements have been effected in the manu- 
 facture and application of this material, and in con- 
 sequence, its use is rapidly extending, especially in 
 Great Britain, where it is found of great advantage 
 in mining operations, owing to its not producing 
 smoke when exploded. For the improvements as 
 well as the invention of gun-cotton, we are indeljted 
 to Germany and Austria, the most important im- 
 provement being that of Baron Lenk, consisting 
 chiefl}' in the following precaiitions in the manufac- 
 ture: 1. A perfect cleansing and drying of the cot- 
 ton. 2. The u.se of the most concentrated and purest 
 acids procurable commercially. 3. Steeping the cot- 
 ton a second time in a mixture of the strong acids. 
 4. Continuance of this steep for 48 hours. 5. A 
 thorough purification of the gun-cotton from free acid 
 by washing in a running stream for several weeks. 
 This may be supplemented by washing in a weak 
 solution of potash, but is not absolutely necessarj'. 
 The following are the important advantages insured 
 by the new method of making nitro-cellulose : 1. 
 The same initial velocity of the projectile can be ob- 
 tained by a charge of nitro-cellulose one-fourth of 
 the weight of gunpowder. 3. There is no smoke 
 from the explosion of nitro-cellulose. 3. Nitro-cel- 
 lulose does not foul the gun. 4. Nitro-cellulose 
 does not heat the gun to the injurious degree of 
 gunpowder. .5. Nitro-cellulose gives the same vel- 
 ocity to the projectile with much smaller recoil of 
 the gun. 6. Nitro-cellulose will produce the same 
 initial velocity of projectile with a shorter length of 
 barrel. 7. In projectiles of the nature of explosive 
 shells, nitro-cellulose has the advantage of breaking 
 the shell more equally into much more numerous 
 pieces than gunpowder. 8. When nitro-cellulose is 
 used in shells instead of gunpowder, a quantity equal 
 in'weight to one-third of the latter produces double 
 the explosive force. 
 
 NITRO-GLTCERINE.— An explosive agent formed 
 by the action of nitric acid upon glycerine at a low 
 temperature. The following reaction occurs : 
 
 When freshly made it is a white, opaque, heavy oil, 
 but becomes transparent and nearly colorlessj on 
 
 standing for a sufficient lime. Above .1" (41"^ F.) it 
 has a specific gravity of 1 .C,is odorless and of a sweet 
 taste. It is poisonous, and if placed in contact with
 
 NITBO OLYCEBINE. 
 
 415 
 
 NITBO GLYCERINE. 
 
 the skin, oven in Hinall fiuiintitii'S, Ijcforo tlio syHtem 
 has hcconie ucciislomcd to its uclion, ]iri)iiiU!cH vio- 
 Iciil, lic'iuliiclic. If iiicoriiplcli'ly freed from acids, it 
 uiiderf;iieB .M)ioiiUmeoiiH ilecdiiipoHiliuii, is dani;<rrous 
 t(i liuiidlc. and iilliiiialely iiiuy lose its ex|)losivc proj)- 
 crlies; when piir<' il eon^ceals heh)W 0'' (41" F.J 
 into a white, crystalline solid, which is nearly inca- 
 pable! of explosion ; it may readily he thawed hy in- 
 troducing the vessel (■ontainini; il into warm water, 
 which restores its full explosive power. Milro- 
 glycerine, ignited in small quantities hy a Ihune, 
 anil uneonlined, burns with ditlieulty; at 217.2" 
 (42^!" i'\) it dellaijrates vi<ilently ; if ignited contined, 
 or if sul)ii'eted to the exphision of l.'i grains of ful- 
 minating mercury, it detonates with tremendous 
 force ; fully exploded it gives oil no injurious gases. 
 It is not ordinarily sensitive to friction or moderate 
 percussion, but is very much so when in a state of 
 decomposition. 
 
 In th(' numufacture, nitric acid is niixed with 
 twi<-e its weight of strong sulphuric acid to take up 
 the water formed during the reaction, and prevent 
 the dilution of the nitric acid. The process consists 
 t'8.scntially in the conversion of glycerine into nitro- 
 glycerine, and the separation and washing of the 
 iiitro-glycerine. The apparatus is shown in the 
 drawing. A, -4, arc wooden troughs placed around 
 the brick <'hinmey, /', J>. In these troughs are the 
 earthenware pitchers, ", ", which contain the acid 
 mixture. On the shelf, Ji, above the pilc:lier, are 
 the bottles, /i, h, which contain the glycerine. The 
 bottles arc loosely closed by wooden stojipers with 
 broad, rounded tops. Through holes in these stop- 
 pers pass loo.sely the rubber tubes, c, c, which reach 
 to the bottom of the bottles and carry small glass 
 jets at their outer ends. C^onical wooden plugs, e, 
 e, are placed in the holes through the stojipers 
 alongside the rubber tubes. The steam-|iipe, O, 
 passes along the shelves, Ji, B, iust behind the gly- 
 cerine bottles. The air-main, F, passes under the 
 shelf, Ji, and carries on its under auU' a number of 
 small, short pipes or jets (two for etich pitcher), to 
 which are attached the rubber tubes, d, d, wliicii 
 hang over the jiitchers. In these rubber tubes are 
 inserted glass tubes, long enough to extend to the 
 bottom of the acid pitchers. The troughs are mad(! 
 tight to hold the ice-water with which the pitchers 
 are surrounded Partitions, with openings at the 
 bottoms, cut off the corners of the troughs forming 
 clear spaces. These spaces contain water only, as 
 the partitions keep out the ice. These water spaces 
 are convenient as affording opportunities for quickly 
 emptying a pitcher into water if it becomes neces- 
 sarj'. In one corner of each tro\igh is j)laced a pipe, 
 through whicli the water may be drawn off into the 
 escape, E, when the operation is tinished. The 
 pitchers stand on narrow strips, which raise them 
 off the bottom about two inches, thus giving the 
 cold water free antl perfect access all about them, 
 and when set in proper position are well imder 
 the overhanging hoods, (\, V,. These hoods are 
 flat wooden boxes, wide at the bottoms and drawn 
 in at the tops, where they lit against openings in the 
 chimneys, J)L>. In the lower part of thc^ chinmc}', 
 on the floor below, is placed a grate and Hre-door. 
 Each pitcher receives 18 to 20 lbs. of the aciil mix- 
 ture according to the strength of the latter. All are 
 then set in place in the troughs, covered with glass 
 plates, surrounded with ice and water, and allowed 
 to stand until completely cooled. Into each bottle 
 is put 2 lbs. of glycerine, When the acid in the 
 pitchers has fallen to the temperature of the sur- 
 rounding ice water, the covers are removed from 
 the pitchers, and the air-tubes passed through holes 
 in the hoods down into them. Through these air- 
 tiibes a strong current of air is forced by means of 
 a pump driven by steam. This current of air keeps 
 the contents of tlie pitchers in continual agitation. 
 The air for the pump is drawn through sulphuric 
 acid to render it perfectly drj-, and just before it 
 
 enters the air-main over the troughs it is thoroughly 
 (!Ooled. The cooling arrangement is made of 10 coim 
 of small tin pipe, which are surroundid hy ice. ThcHf! 
 coils are so arranged as to give an extcnHive cool- 
 ing surface' without impeding the current. As soon 
 as the air current has been turned on, the flow of 
 glycerine is begun. Kach rubber lube, <•, is a syphon 
 which is started by suction through a glass tube iii- 
 Hcrted in the outer end. As soon as the glycerine 
 runs freely, the suction tube is witliilrawn anil a (in(!- 
 pointe<l glass jet i)Ut in its place. The glycerine runs 
 from this jet in a fine stream directly into the pitcher 
 under it. In cold weather the glycerine may become 
 too thick to How easily. To overcome this the bot- 
 tles of glycerine are warmed by passingsteam llirongli 
 the pipe behind them until the glycerine is Kuflicient- 
 ly thin. The glycerine dropping into the acid mix- 
 ture is rapidly acted on and converted into nitro- 
 glycerine. The reac-tion is accompanied b.v a con- 
 siderable evolution of heat. This heat must be re- 
 moved, for if the temperature be allowed to rise loo 
 liigh the glycerine is not converted into nitro-glyc(;r- 
 ine, but is oxydized or burned, with formation of 
 other substances. The limits of temperature are 
 very narrow. Starting at 32", the temperature must 
 never go beyond 48" ; at ■'50" to ijO", there is grcat_ 
 danger of "firing" taking place. The liquid in' 
 the pitchers is kejit colil by surroimding them with 
 ice-cold water and by the stream of cold air passing 
 into the acid. The most important work of the air- 
 current is to keep the acid mixture in constant agi- 
 tation. In this way the heat generated is quickly 
 diffused through the whole, preventing an.y sudden 
 local rise of temperature. The glycerine is much 
 lighter than the acid mixture, and would be apt to 
 collect in little pools above it. and when these were 
 broken \q) and a (piantily of glycerine suddenly 
 brought into contact with the acid, the ac'tion would 
 be so rapid that it could not be controlled. While 
 the glycerine is running into the pitchers, observa- 
 tions with the thermometer are con.stantly made of 
 the temperature attained in them. If in a pitcher 
 the temperature is found to be rising too rapidly and 
 to be approaching the higher limit, the glycerini^ is 
 evidently running in too fast, and its flow must be 
 checked, which is done liy pressing down the coni- 
 cal wooden plugiu the stf>pperof the glycerine bottle. 
 This plug passes through the same opening as the 
 rubber glycerine tube ; therefore, when it is pressed 
 down, it compresses the latter so that less liquid can 
 pass through. If the temperature is too high or con- 
 tinues to rtse, the plug is forced hard down, closing 
 tlie glycerine tube altogether. The flow of glycerine 
 being "checked or stopped, the pitcher rapidly cools 
 down again. As Jsoon as the thermometer shows 
 this to be the case, the plug is loosened and the flow 
 again set up. Constant care is therefore necessarj', 
 but the operation is a simple one, easily learned and 
 performed by orilinary workmen. If the limit of 
 temperature "is exceeded, "firing" takes place, in- 
 dicated by the copious evolution of red, nitrous 
 fumes, and in extreme cases by flame. Usually when 
 this occurs it is easily controlled by stopping the 
 glycerine stream and stirring vigorously the contents 
 of the pitcher, but if it is violent the pitcher nmst 
 be emptied as quickly as possible. During the op- 
 eration of conversion! acid and irritating fumes are 
 given off in large quantities, greatly to the injurj- of 
 those compelled to breatlie tliem. In the apparatus 
 here described these are entirely removed through 
 the hoods and chimney. K fire in the ^rate at the 
 bottom of the chimney causes a powerful draught in 
 the hoods, which overhang the pitchers, drawing up- 
 wards all the fumes and dis<harging them into the 
 open air. Generally a small fire at "first is found to 
 be suflicient, and quite frequently no fire at all is 
 ncressarv. 
 
 It does not mix with and is unaffected by water. 
 It has a sweet, pungent, aromatic taste, and pro- 
 duces a violent headache if placed on the tongue, or
 
 NITRO-MANNITE. 
 
 416 
 
 NOBILITY. 
 
 even if allowed to touch the skin at any point. 
 Those constantly iisina; it soon loose their suscepti- 
 bility to this action. Freshly made, opaque nitro- 
 glycerine does not freeze until the temperature is 
 Towered to S°-5° below 0" Fah., but the transparent 
 or cleared nitro-glycerine freezes at 39''-40'' F. Ni- 
 tro-jjlycerine freezes to a white crystalline mass. 
 When frozen it can be thawed by placing the vessel 
 containing it iu water at a temperature not over 100"^ 
 Fah. Pure nitro-glj'cerine does not spontaneously 
 decompose at an ordinary temperature: but if it con- 
 tains free acid, decomposition is apt to occur. It is, 
 therefore, very important tliat all acid should be re- 
 moved by thorough washing when it is made. No 
 Instance has yet been noticed of the spontaneous 
 decomposition of properly made and purified nitro- 
 glycerine. Pure nitro-giycerine is not sensitive to 
 friction or moderate percussion. If placed upon an 
 anvil and struck with a hammer, only the particle 
 receiving the blow explodes, scattering the remain- 
 der. Nitro-glycerine in a state of decomposition be- 
 comes very sensitive, exploding violently when it is 
 struck, even when uncoufined. 
 
 Nitro-glycerine may be conveniently kept in large 
 earthen jars, with a layer of water over the explo- 
 sive. If it is to be transported, the liquid form is 
 very inconvenient, especially from the danger of 
 leakage. It is therefore advisable to freeze it, and 
 carrj' it in a frozen state, when it is perfectly safe. 
 For transportation it should be put in strong tin cans 
 holding about 45 or .50 lbs. Each can should be para- 
 ffined on the inside, and have passing vertically 
 through its center a tin tube, so that freezing or 
 thawing maybe more easily accomplished. All ves- 
 sels in which nitro-glycerine has been kept should 
 be destroyed when not wanted for the same vfse, as 
 the nitro-glj'cerine cannot be easily washed off. 
 
 Nitro-glycerine is the most powerful explosive in 
 use. In difficult blasting, where very violent effects 
 are required, it surpasses all others. In spite of the 
 many accidents that have occurred with it, it has 
 been found to be so valuable that its use has steadily 
 and largely increased. Its liquid form is a disad- 
 vantage except under favorable circumstances, as 
 when made at the place where it is to be employed. 
 It, however, forms the essential ingredient in a 
 number of solid mixtures. When used iu blasting- 
 work it is usually put iu tin cans or cartridge-cases. 
 If the bore-holes are tight, it may be poured direct- 
 ly in ; but it is rarely safe to do this, as there is 
 great danger that some of it will escape through 
 Beams in the rock, and not be exploded, remaining 
 to cause accident at a future time. Since nitro-gly- 
 cerine is so readily detonated, it has the advantage 
 of not requiring strong confinement. Even when 
 freely exposed it will exert violent effects, such as 
 breaking masses of rock or blocks of iron. So, in 
 blasting, it requires but little tamping. Loose sand 
 or water is entirely sufficient. The relative force of 
 nitro-glycerine is not easily estimated, since the ef- 
 fect produced depends greall.v on the circumstauces. 
 Thus, a charge of nitro-glycerine iu wet sand or any 
 soft material will exercise but a slight effect, while 
 the same charge will .shatter nuuiy tons of the hard- 
 est rock. In tiie former case much more sand would 
 be thrown out by a slower e.\plosiim, wliich would 
 gradually move it, than by the sudden, violent shock 
 of tlie nitro-glycerine, whicli would only compress 
 the material immediately about it. But in the hard 
 rock the sudden explosion is much more effective 
 than the same amouiU of force more slowly applied. 
 Koughly, it may be said that nitro-glycerine is eight 
 times as powerful as gunpowder.wheu taken weight 
 for weight. 
 
 On ('xplosion, nitro-glycerine is resolved entirely 
 into the gases — carbonic, anhydride, water, nitro- 
 gen, and o.xygen (Nobel;, the last named a|)pearing 
 onl}' in small (piantity. If explosion is imperfectly 
 accomplished, oxides of nitrogen are formed, and 
 the total quantity of gas is lessened. If fully exi>lod- 
 
 ed, no disagreeable or poisonous gases are given off. 
 See Duaiin, Dynamite, Gun-cotton, Gunpowder, and 
 LiUtofrartni r. 
 
 NITEO-MANNITE.— A high explosive resembling 
 nitro-glycerine in its properties, and made in an anal- 
 ogous manner by the action of nitric and sulphuric ac- 
 ids upon Mannite; a peculier saccharine matter which 
 forms the principal constituent of manna; it is also 
 found in several kinds of fungi, in asparagus, celery, 
 I onions, etc. It is most readily obtained by digesting 
 manna in hot alcohol. On cooling the filtered solu- 
 tion, the mannite is deposited in crystals, which are 
 very solu'ljle in water, and possess a sweet taste. 
 
 NOBILITY.— That distinction of rank in civil so- 
 ciety whieli raises a man above the condition of the 
 mass of the people. Society has a tendency to in- 
 equality of condition, arising from the natural in- 
 equality, physical, moral, and intellectual, of those 
 who compose it, aided by the diversity of external 
 advantages, and of the principles and habits imbibed 
 at an early age. This inequality is apt to increase ; 
 the son, inheriting the faculties of his father, is 
 more favorably situated than his father was for 
 making use of them ; and hence, in almost every na- 
 tion, in even the very early stages of civilization, we 
 find something like a hereditary nobility. Privileges 
 originally acquired by wealth or political power are 
 secured to the family of the possessor of them ; and 
 the privileged class come to constitute an Order, ad- 
 mission into which requires the consent of society 
 or of the order itself. The military tenant who held 
 but a portion of a knight's fee participated in all the 
 privileges of nobility, and an impassable barrier ex- 
 isted between his Order and the people. Over 
 Continental E\irope in general, the Nobles, greater 
 and lesser, were in use, after the 10th century, to as- 
 sume a territorial name from their castles or the 
 principal town or village on their demesne ; hence, 
 the prefix "Pe,"or its German equivalent "Von," 
 still considered over a great part of the continent as 
 the criterion of nobility or gentility. Britain was, 
 to a great extent, an exception to lliis rule, many of 
 the most distinguished family names of the aristo- 
 cracy not having a territorial origin. 
 
 After the introduction of HeraTdrj', and its reduc- 
 tion to a system, the possession of a coat of arms was 
 a recognized distinction between the Noble and the 
 Plebeian. In the words of Sir James Lawrence : 
 "Any individual who distinguishes himself may be 
 said to ennoble himself. A Prince judging an in- 
 dividual worthy of notice gave him patent letters of 
 nobility. In these letters were blazoned the arms 
 that were to distinguish his shield. By this shield-he 
 was to be known or nobilin. A Plebeian had no blazon- 
 ry on his shield because he was ignobilis.oT unworthy 
 of notice. Hence arms are the criterion of nobility. 
 Every Nobleman must have a shield of arms. Who- 
 ever has a shield of arms is a Nobleman. In every 
 country iu Europe, without exception, a grant of 
 arms, or letters of nobility, is conferred on all the 
 descendants." On the Continent the term Noble is 
 still generally used in this sense ; in England it is 
 now more common to restrict the words noble and 
 nobility to the five ranks of the peerage constituting 
 the greater nobility, and to the head of the family, 
 to whom alone the title behmgs. Gentility, in its 
 more strict sense, corresponds to the nobility of Sir 
 J. Lawrence and of Continental Countries. This 
 dilTerence of usage is a frequent source of misappre- 
 heusion on both sides of the channel ; at some of the 
 minor German Courts the untitled member of au Eu- 
 glisli family of ancient distinguislied blood and line- 
 age has sometimes been posliioned to a recently 
 created Baro.i or"HerrVon," who has received 
 that title, anil the gentility accompanying it along 
 with his commission in the army. It has been taken 
 for granted that the latter belongs to the "Add" or 
 nol)ilitj', and not the former. 
 
 The nobilil ,■ of Spain boasts of a special antiquity 
 and purity of blood, a descent from warriors and
 
 HOBLE CHRONOSCOFE. 
 
 417 
 
 NOBLE CHRONOSCOFE. 
 
 conquerors aloiii', without tlu; infusion of imy of tlit 
 clenu^nts dcrivcil from tlu^ oliurcli, hiw, and com- 
 merce thai arc to be founil in olhcr countries. " Hi- 
 dalgo"(A<7"'''"'.'/".**on of HOMiclioily.nol./iV/M.i )iiilliiin) 
 is a Icriu which implies nciitilily or nol)ilily. TIk; 
 ]Ii(lid?;o aloMc ii.'is in strictness a ri'.;lil to the title 
 "Don," which, like "Sir" of Kni;lish Kniirhls and 
 15aronels,r<M(Mires the adjimctt of the Cliristian name. 
 When the Cliristian name is omitted, Ihi' titU^ "Se- 
 nor" instead is prelixed willi the addition of " I)e." 
 "Don" has latterly been used by persons who have 
 no proper claim to it about as extensively as " Es- 
 quire " in Miiu'lanil. lliiliilnuia, till recently, conferred 
 important privileges and immunilies. The higher 
 nobility arc stylcil (Irandees; formerly the lille was 
 " l{icohombrc,"and the ceremonial of creation con- 
 sisted in granting the right of assuming the pennon 
 and caldron {penon y cdidcra) — the one the rallying 
 ensign of command, the olhcr of maintenance of fol- 
 lowers. In conlradislinclion from the Grandees, the 
 class of nobility below Ibem are called " Los Titula- 
 dos de (lastilla." Hcil lilood is said to How in the 
 veins of the Hidalgo, blue in that of the Grandee. 
 Formerly there were three classes of Grandees, who.se 
 mark of tlistinction was this -that a Grandee of the 
 lirst class was entitled to put on his hat in the royal 
 presence before the King spoke to him; the second, 
 after the King spoke to him : the third, after the 
 King had spoken and he had replied. The secoud 
 and third classes arc now absorbed into the first. 
 
 of this shaft can be recorded wilh uecurary to the 
 onc-tenlh part of a second. The speed usually at- 
 tained in working this instrument is about l.OfJO 
 inches per secon<l. linear velocity, at the circumfer- 
 encr' of lh(^ revolving discs so that each inch trav- 
 ellcil at that sjiccd ri'prcsents the one-thousandth 
 part C)f a second; and as thc' inch is Kulxlivided by 
 j the vernier, V., into a thousand parts, alinearreprc- 
 sentation at the cin-urnfercnce is thus obtained of 
 intervals of time as minute as the onc-ruiHionth part 
 of a second. 
 
 As a small variation in speed would afTect thc re- 
 lation betwi'cn thc sevend records obtained, the 
 uniformity of rolalicjn is ascerlained on each occa- 
 sion of experiment by Ihree observations: one im- 
 mediately l)efore, one during, and one immediately 
 after the experiment, the mean of the three observa- 
 tions being taken for thc average speed. With a 
 liltle ])rnclice there is no difficulty in arranging the 
 instrument so that thc discs may rotate either imi- 
 formly or at a rate very slowly increasing or decreas- 
 ing. The arrangements for obtaining the tlertrical 
 /•(crrf.i arc as follows : the revolving discs are cov- 
 ered on the edge witli a strip of white caper, and 
 are connected with one of tlie secondary wires, G, 
 of an induction coil. The other secondary wire, H, 
 carcfidly insulated, is brought to a discharger, I, op- 
 posite tiie edge of ils corri's]ionding disc, and is fix- 
 ed so as to bi' just clear of I he latter. When a spark 
 passes from the discharger to the disc, a minute hole 
 
 NOBLE CHBONOSCOPE.— The principle of action 
 of this instrument consists in registering, by means 
 of electric currents upon a recording surface, travel- 
 ing at a uniform and very high speed, the precise 
 instant at whicli a projectile passes certain delined 
 points in the bore. It consists of two portions : 
 first, the mechaiiii-al arrangemtnt for obtaining the 
 necessary speed, and keeping that speed uniform; 
 secondly, the dectrii'itl recording arrimgement. The 
 first part of the instrument consists of a series of 
 thin metal discs, A, A, each 80 inches in circumfer- 
 ence, fixed at intervals upon a horizontal shaft, SS, 
 whicli is driven at a high speed by a heavy descend- 
 ing weight, B, through a train of gearing, multply- 
 ing 62>5 times. The driving-weight is, during thc ex- 
 periment continually moved up by means of the 
 handle II. If the requisite speed of rotation were 
 got up by the action of thc falling weiglit alone, a 
 considerable waste of time would ensue. To obviate 
 this inconvenience, the required velocity can be ob- 
 tained with great ra])idity by means of the handle C. 
 The precise rale of the discs is obtained by nieansof 
 the stop-clock D, which can at pleasure be connect- 
 ed or disconnected with the revolving .shaft. E; 
 and the time of making any number of revolutions 
 
 is perforated in the paper covering upon that part of 
 the disc which was opposite the discharger at the 
 inslant of the passage of the spark: but. as the situ- 
 ation of this hole in the jiiipcr would be very difficult 
 to find, on account of its extreme minuteness, the 
 paper is previously coaled willi lamp-black, and the 
 position of the hole is thus readily seen: a di-^tinct 
 white spot is left on the blackened paper, the lamp- 
 black at that point having been burnt awa\- by the 
 spark, so that the white paper is shown beneath. By 
 nieansof thc micrometer the distance between the 
 sparks on thc disc is reail olT. 
 
 In order to connect the primary wires of the in- 
 duction coils with the bore of t!ie gun, so thai they 
 may be cut by the projectile in its passage, the gun 
 is lapped in a number Of pl;ices for the reception of 
 hollow steel plugs carrying at the end next the bore 
 a cutter which projects slightly into the bore. This 
 cutter is held in position liy the primary wire, which 
 is carefully insulated and passed down the plug, 
 through the cutter, and b:ick out of the plug, the 
 ends being connected to tlie main wires leading.to 
 the induction coils. When the projectile reaches the 
 point where the plug is screwed in, it presses the 
 cutter in flush with tlie bore, and, by so doing, cuts
 
 NOISY. 
 
 418 
 
 NOIZET SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. 
 
 the primary circuit. As each plug is reached a spark 
 is clelivered, and thus tlie passage of the projectile 
 along the bore is recorded at regular intervals. Some 
 idea may be conveyed of the minute intervals of time 
 which can be measured by this means, from the fact 
 that the distances between the parts of a X-lnch gun 
 at which tlie time-records have been obtained are in 
 some instances only 3.4 inches, while tlie total lime 
 the projectile takes to reach the muzzle of the gun — a 
 distance of 100 inches — when tired with a full charge, 
 is about the one-hundreth part of a second. By this 
 means the time may be recorded which the projec- 
 tile occupies, from the commencement of motion, in 
 reaching ditferent parts of the bore, and from these 
 time-records may be deduced tlie velocit}' with whicli 
 the projectile is passing through the different parts 
 of the bore, and the pressures in the gun which cor- 
 respond to these velocities. See Chrvnoscupe. 
 
 NOISY. — A term applied to projectiles in flight. The 
 passage of a rifled projectile through the air causes 
 a shrill, tearing sound. An experienced ear at exper- 
 imental practice can detect from this sound whether 
 the projectile is properly centered; if not,it is said to 
 be noixij in flight. 
 
 NOIZET SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— The School 
 of Application for engineer and artillerv officers, 
 flrst established at Mi^zieres and sulisequently at 
 Metz, has given to France, from about the period of 
 the French Revolution down to the present day, 
 nianv able officers who have gained universal and 
 deserved celebrity for these two corps. In these 
 schools the precepts of Vauban and CornKmtaigne 
 have been jealously regarded as the highest authori- 
 ty, and their manuscripts and works have formed the 
 basis of the instruction given in them. Some slight 
 modifications were proposed in the front of Cormon- 
 taigue by two engineers. IhatiUnn and Dvrigneau, 
 and taught by them in the course of permanent for- 
 tification given in the school. These changes chiefly 
 consisted m enlarging the demi-lune and making it 
 more salient ; and in placing casemates for cannon 
 in the flanks of its redoubt, with reverse views on 
 the breaches that miglit be made in the bastion faces. 
 The teaching of the school of Metz has received its 
 principal impress in later years from General Noizet. 
 For nearly fifty years. General Noizet was engaged 
 in tlie study and practice of his profession, serving 
 for many years as professor of the art of fortification 
 in the school at Metz. He had the good fortune to 
 applv practically on a large scale the principles 
 taught by him in the school. He was for ten years 
 a member of what we would call the Board of En- 
 gineers for France, and has visited ever\' fortifica- 
 tion in France. He is regarded as first among tlie 
 successors of Vauban and Cormontaigne. The front 
 planned bj- him has been taken as an elementary 
 exercise for instruction in the art of fortification for 
 the cadets of the U. S. Militar)- Academy at West 
 Point, N. Y. In it, there is no sensible departure 
 from the views and method of Cormontaigne, except- 
 ing to introduce such modifications as would remedy 
 some of the acknowledged defects of his method. 
 This front combines the principles of the science of 
 fortification to as great an extent as any one sys- 
 tem or method that can be given to the student. An- 
 other object has been kept in view in using this 
 front. That is, to present in its combinations, uproh- 
 Inn. in the solution of which the iiupil would have 
 to apply to a special case, both the cli'iiuiitary piin- 
 ciples of fortifications, and the geometrical methods 
 used by the military cgineer in the practice of his 
 profession. Noizet, in the jilaii of his enceinte, has 
 adopted dimensions and constructions which gives 
 results for the most part, the same as those of Vau- 
 lian and Cormontaigne, making the defensive pro- 
 perties of tlies« different iiietliods about ec|iia]. The 
 Client of tlie exterior side, the lengtli of the curtain, 
 the diiiiinished angle, and the direction assumed for 
 the flanks, produce a combination giving an etflcicnt 
 flanking, both as to direction and amount of fire, for 
 
 the >5ntire scarp, and a powerful cross-fire upon the 
 covered-way and its glacis in advance of the bastion 
 
 'salient. The lines of defense, by this combination, 
 are within the eflfective range of the most improved 
 small-arms, and the flanks are capable of receiving 
 a battery superior to the counter batteries that can be 
 brought against them from the glacis crest of tlie op- 
 posite covered-way. The dimensions and form of 
 the profile are such as experience has shown will 
 give durability and stability to the masonry from the 
 pressure of the embankments, and the ordinary causes 
 of destructibility to which it is liable when exposed 
 
 ' to the weather. The rampart and jjarapet have suf- 
 ficient strength to resi.st the action of the heaviest 
 siege artillery in ordinary use. whilst they offer to 
 
 I the assailed every convenience for their prompt ac- 
 tion, and the use of their arms. The width and slopes 
 of the ramps are regulated for the passage of artil- 
 
 I lery. Where the height to be overcome is slight, as 
 that between the terre-plein and barbette, l\xv slope 
 of the ramp may be as great as J, and its width be 
 3.30 yards. Where the height is greater, the decliv- 
 ity of the ramp should be proportionally less steep, 
 and its width be 4.30 yards at least. The position of 
 the terre-plein with respect to the interior crests is 
 that usually considered necessarj* to give shelter to 
 the troops and materiel on it. By inclining that of 
 the bastion, the guns and troops on the faces and 
 flanks are better covered from the enfilading and ri- 
 cochet fire than they would be if the terre-plain was 
 horizontal; as a ball passing over the salient will 
 of necessity reach an inclined terre-plein at a point 
 much farther from the salient than one which is 
 horizontal. The following is the summary of the 
 principles, anil es.sential details involved in this sys- 
 tem. 1st. The enceinte of every permanent work 
 should present an uninterrupted line of scarp wall, 
 which, when the ditch is dry, should beat least 30 
 feet high above the bottom of the ditch. 2d. All the 
 approaches to the work, beyond the ditcii within the 
 effective range of its fire, as well as the ditch itself 
 shouldbe completelj-sweptby thisfire. 3d. All scarp 
 walls should be sheltered from the fire of the enemy's 
 artillerj-, to the latest moment, by earthen masks. 
 4th. AH parapets should be proof against the heav- 
 iest projectiles, to which they may be exposed. .5th. 
 The terre-plein of the rampart sliould be masked by 
 the parapet from the enemy's view : it should be 
 wide enough for the infantry and artillery service ; 
 should have convenient communications for these 
 between all its parts: and lietweenit and the parade. 
 6th. All outworks, except the covered-ways, should 
 be regarded as accessories rather than indispensable 
 additions to the main work. When properly placed, 
 they strengthen weak points and delay the enemy's 
 progress, by forcing him to gain possession of them 
 before he can advance beyond the points they oc- 
 cupy. Their scarps, and the gorges liable to be 
 turned by the enemy, should be of masonry, not less 
 than 12 feet in height. The more retired of these 
 works should command the more advanced, and 
 where this rule is violated, the retired work should 
 be defiled from an_v establishments that the enemy 
 might be able to make on the advanced one by 
 which it is commanded. They should be command- 
 ed by the enceinte, and as far as practicable Hanked 
 by I'ne fire of its small-arms, 7th. The covered- 
 ways are regarded as indisiiensable. Without Ihcm 
 the commimicaticms between the main work and tlie 
 exterior would not be secure. Their enibaiiUnieiits 
 form, in a great majority of cases, the only masks for 
 the scarps of the works in their rear, and by alTord- 
 ing advanced cover for the garrison, give the means 
 of annoying the enemy by sharpshooters, and re- 
 tarding hisapproacli by sorties in small |iarties. They 
 should be Ihoroughly swept liy the tire of small-arms 
 of all the works in their rear, anil have tlicir terre- 
 plcins delileil from all conimaiidiiig points liable to 
 fall into the hands of the eneiiiy. Htli. The glacis 
 should be thoroughly swept by the fire of ariillery
 
 NOLAN RANGE-FINSEB. 
 
 419 
 
 NOLLE PROSEQUI, 
 
 anil sinall-nrms of tlic main work and outworks 
 where a fire can lio liroiif;!)!, to liear upon il. For 
 this purpose, the surfaees shouhl he soarrani;erl that 
 their interseelions shall not form liollows or ridi^es, 
 wliieh niii^lit he of ailvantafji; to llie enemy in ad- 
 vaueimj; upon the work. i)tli. The ti'naijle is an es- 
 Benlial achlilion to all fronts of attack. Without it, 
 the postern in the curlaiji would he not only insecure 
 but absolutely unserviceable as soon as the enemy 
 couhl in any manner j;ain a position where Ids (ire 
 could l)e broui;ht to bear on its outlet. It also 
 enables the <lefense to form retrenchments reslinp 
 either on the thinks or curtain of the enceinte, that 
 cannot bi^ turned l)y thi' enemy, and also olTers a 
 sheltered place-of-amis, in the ditch, between it and 
 the curtain, whidi can be used for assemliling troops 
 against the enemy in the ditches. Its relief is so de- 
 ternnned that it shall not mask the tire of tlie Hanks 
 on the bastion-faces, whilst at the same tinu' it af- 
 fords cover to the scarp of the curtain and Hanks. 
 10th. The demi-huie, when properly arraui^ed, forms 
 an imiiortant addition to tlu' defense. It covers tlie 
 curtain and portions of the bastion-faces near the 
 shoulder angle from the lire of the enemy's artillery, 
 ami secures the main outlet from the enceinte from 
 surprise. The arrangenu'Ut of thedemi-lunes places 
 the l)astions in strong re-enterings, thus forcing the 
 enemy to take them before he can attempt the as- 
 sault of thcenceinte ; and when the faces of the bas- 
 tions prolonged fall within the demi-lunes, they mask 
 tliem from enfilading views. These advantages are 
 the more decided as the demi-lune is the larger and 
 more advanced. Its scarp is taken 23.50 feel high to 
 afford the necessary security against an open ssault, 
 and to obtain a ver}' cHicient cut across its face. 
 11th. The denu-lune redoulit adds to the strength of 
 the demi-lune. Its arrangement with Hanks adds 
 directly to the strength of the enceinte, as the re- 
 verse tire from the tianks on the breach in the bas- 
 tion-face will force the enemy to carry the redoubt 
 before he can risk an assault on the breach. 12th. 
 The redoubt of the re-entering placc-of-arms, adds 
 greatly to the] xtrength and M'curltii of the covered 
 way. From its retired jiosition, it can be occupied 
 after the dimi-lune has fallen, provided there is an 
 efficient cut in the demi-lune face, and the redoidjt 
 has bcendetiled from the establishments of the ene- 
 my on the parapet of the demi-lune. It also, in con- 
 nection with the demi-lune, covers that portion of 
 the curtain which is exposed through the ditch be- 
 tween the tenaille and enceinte flank. Its crest should 
 mask as little as practicable the lire of the bastion- 
 face on the glacis in advance of it. Kith. The cut 
 in the demi-lune face is an important addition, as it 
 secures the redoubt of the re-entering place of arms 
 from being turned. Its position should be so chosen 
 that the face of the redoubt may be Hanked through 
 it by the fire from the demi-lune redoubt. A para- 
 pet is thrown up behind the cut to ilefend it after 
 the enemy has gained possession of the demi-lune 
 salient. It should command the salient and its 
 tcrre-plein should be defiled from the same point. 
 14th. The ditches should furnish the earth required 
 for the embankments. Their dimensions, therefore, 
 will depend upon the amount necessary for this pur- 
 pose. When water can be used, it is more advan- 
 tageous to increase the width at the expense of the 
 depth. The ditches of the different works should 
 afford no communications through which an enemy 
 might penetrate from one into that of another, anil 
 thus as.sault the works by the rear, l.lth. The com- 
 munications, in accordance with our general prin- 
 ciples already stated, should be of convenient di- 
 mensions, and of easy access; be swept by the fire 
 of the works in their rear; be covered from the fire 
 from all points that the enemy can occupy whilst 
 they are needed; be secure from surprise, and from 
 being approached in the rear by the enemy; anil 
 not compromise the safety of any work through 
 ■which they may lead. 
 
 A fortification constructed in keeping with tlie.se 
 principlis, possesHes the advantage of having its 
 dilches thoroughly swept from the main work itself; 
 of bringing a cross and Hank lint to bear upon the 
 approaches on thesalienis of the enceinte ; and fur- 
 iMshing a strong direct and cross Hre upon the site 
 in advance of tli<^ curtains and the faces of the bas- 
 tions. The principal objections urged against lliiH 
 particular system are: 1. That its chief character- 
 istic, a perfect Hanking disposition for the entire line 
 of the scarp, is attainable only under certain relations 
 between the n^quisite relief for a lirTUianenl work 
 and the lengths of the exterior hide and curtain, 
 which therefore restricts it in its application to for. 
 tifications of a i)ermanent character. 2. That, in or- . 
 der to secure a suHicient length of flank for an ef- 
 fective flanking disposition, the angle between the 
 face of the bastion and the exterior side, termed the 
 ilirniiiinhnl irnr/li' of the [lolygon, has to be made so 
 great as to decrease considerably the space inclosed 
 within the polygon, whilst the development of the 
 lineof the encefnte is greatly increased by it. '.i. That 
 the direction necessarily given to the faces from this 
 cause throws their prolongations in positions very 
 favorable to the erection of all the enfilading batteries 
 against them. 4. That the flanks, upon which the 
 wliole .sj'stem is based, lie in positions in which, like 
 the faces, they can be not only easily enfiladed, but 
 are further exposed to a reverse firclrom shot which 
 may jiass over the parapet of the faces as well as the 
 opposite flank. 5. And that these objections are 
 much the stronger as the salient angles of the poly- 
 gon are .^mailer or as the nun ber of the sides is 
 decreased. See Cdrmanla'gne System of Fortijica- 
 tiiiii. Fiirlifii-dtnin, and Sifitem i>f Furtifimtion. 
 
 NOLAN RANGE FINDER.— The principal parts of 
 this instrument are ; 1. Two instruments for meas- 
 uring angles. 2. One tape-line. 8. One reckoning 
 cylinder. Kach of the two instruments consists of 
 two telescopes, which lie crosswise one above the 
 other under an angle of about 90"; the smaller of the 
 two has a long arm, with a vernier at one end; to 
 the other a sector is fastened, which is divided up 
 into degrees. By means of a screw, an angle of 
 about 30" can be described by the upper or smaller 
 telescope. The reekimiug cylinder consists of a 
 solid body and two rotating rings. The lower ring 
 and the lower edge of the body are divided into 100 
 equal parts. On the upper ring are the logarithms 
 of the figures, and on the upper edge of the body are 
 the logarithms of the signs, from tj" up to 2" 15'. 
 
 To find the range, the instruments on their tripods 
 are arranged at the end of the assumed base-line, 
 which is perpendicular to the range; or the instru- 
 ments may be attached to the right and left guns of 
 a battery. The long telescopes" are turned loward 
 the object whose distance is to be found ; the smaller 
 ones upon each other, and the cross-threads of each 
 made to cover the cross-lines on the leather disc 
 through which each small telescope points. The 
 coincidence obtained by directing the longer tele- 
 scope on ,tlie object, the two angles at the tiasc are 
 determined ; the base-line being measured, one side 
 and two angles of the triangle arc obtained. With 
 this data recourse is then had to the reckoning cyl- 
 inder. The arrow marked " band " is set on the fig- 
 ure that corresponds with the distance between the 
 instruments or base-line — say 34 yards; then set the 
 arrow on the lower ring on the figure correspond- 
 ing with the angle found through the instrument — 
 say 18"^; then find the figure for the number of de- 
 grees of the other angle — say 42'^, on the lower ring. 
 Just above that is the figures 60 on the other division 
 of the lower ring ; coinciding with this on the lower 
 edge of the upper ring is the distance, 1,320 yards. 
 The bases used are conveniently taken from 30 to 
 40 yards for a range of 3,000 yjirds and over. See 
 I'rutt Rnng'-fiindfr. 
 
 NOLLE PROSEQUI.— An entry upon the records of 
 a Court-Martial by the plaintitf or the prosecutor,
 
 MOMBHIL POINT. 
 
 420 
 
 NORDENFELT MACHINE GUN. 
 
 declaring that the proceedings against the defend- 
 ant shall be discontinued. A NoLe Proxequi is not 
 equivalent to an acquittal, but acts merely as a stay 
 of proceedings, and the defendant is liable at any 
 time to be re-indicted. It may be entered as to one 
 of several defendants, and is often done so to allow 
 his testimony to be introduced against the others. 
 It is generally in the discretion of the prosecuting 
 ofBcer to enter a nolle prosequi, but in some cases 
 leave must be obtained from the Court. 
 
 NOMBRtL POINT.— A term in Heraldry. See 
 Escuti-lie'in. 
 
 NOMENCLATURE.— Technical designation. Tlie 
 term, as applied to military stores, signities a sys- 
 'tematic classilication of words pertaining to each 
 article used in the service. For nomenclature of 
 ordnance, etc., see appropriate headings in this 
 work. 
 
 NON COMBATANT.— Any person connected with 
 an army, or within the lines of an army, who does 
 not make it his business to fight, as any one of the 
 Medical Officers and their assistants. Chaplains, and 
 others; also, any of the citizens of a place occupied 
 by an army. In the English Army, the duties of 
 all non-combatants are restricted to the Civil De- 
 partment. 
 
 NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS.— Subordinate offi- 
 cers of the tieniTal Staff, Regiments and Compan- 
 ies who are appointed, not by commission, but by 
 the Secretary of War or Commanding Officers of 
 Regiments: The}' are usually selected on account 
 of good conduct or superior abilities. In the British 
 Army, the Non-commissioned Officers constitute a 
 numerous and very important class in the regimen- 
 tal system between the Commissioned Officers and 
 the men. As the former are not permitted to mix with 
 the private soldiers, lest familiarity sliould diminish 
 tlie sway of absolute discipline, it is necessary to 
 have an intermediate class to overlook the men in 
 their barracks and at all times when off the parade. 
 None are so suited for this duty as the best conduc- 
 ted of the men themselves, who are promoted by 
 selection to Non-commissioned rank, and hold many 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 privileges and powers unallainable by the privates. 
 The Non-commissioned Officers comprise the Ser- 
 geants-Major, and all the S<'rgeanls, i\w. 'I'ruuqtcters, 
 DruMimcrs, and liuglcrs, and, in the Life Guards, 
 and Royal Horse (iuanls only the Corporals. Tliey 
 can be reduced to the ranks by sentence of a Court 
 Martial, or by thci' Colonel Commandant; but not 
 
 by a Lieutenant Colonel nor by any Junior Officer. 
 
 Non-commissioned Officers are entitled to quarters 
 for their wives, or lodging mouey in lieu of quarters. 
 Accustomed themselves to obey, the Non-coranus- 
 ioued Officers are admirable assistants in preserv- 
 ing discipline; veterans, to whom military life is a 
 second nature, they are looked up to b}' their cf)m- 
 rades as examples, to lead in battle or to teaeli in 
 drill. The Non-commissioned Officers have a mess 
 to themselves. In a battalion of infantry at home, 
 there were, in 1874. 58 Non-commissioned Officers 
 to 530 rank and file: in India, 66 to 830; but the 
 rank and file may be greatly augmented withoiit 
 affecting the number of Non-commissioned Officers. 
 In the whole British army (European) for the year 
 1874-75, there were 30, U49 Non-commissioned Offi- 
 cers. This rank is a necessity in all armies; in 
 France, the Non-commissioned Officers are termed 
 Sinia-Offiferii; in Germany, Vinter-Offizieren. 
 
 NON-EFFECTIVE.— The term applied to the por- 
 tion of the personnel of the army or navy not on ac- 
 tive service or in immediate readiness for active ser- 
 vice. It thus comprises all officers on retired or 
 half-pay, pensioners, and superannuated officers. 
 In a force liable to frequent augmentations and re- 
 ductions, the non-eft'ective charge must be considera- 
 ble, and a large retirement is necessar_y, in order 
 to rapid promotion. The great French war, also, 
 with the reductions following it, bequeathed to the 
 British an annual non-effective charge of several mil- 
 lions, which is not yet wholly expunged. In 1878-79, 
 the non-effective charges were £3,344.912 for the 
 the army, and £1,887,571 for the navy, being up- 
 wards of 16 per cent on the gross cost of the two ser- 
 vices. 
 
 NOOSE. — A rinming knot, which binds the closer 
 the more it is drawn. See Cordage, Knots, and Lasso. 
 
 NON-POLAR PROJICTILES.— A designation ap- 
 plied to projectiles which do not keep the same end 
 or aspect foremost throughout their courses. 
 
 NORDENFELT MACHINE GUN.— In addition to the 
 older mechanism devised by Mr. Nordenfelt for his 
 well-known four-barrel 1-inch gun, he has lately in- 
 
 FiL,'. •-', 
 
 troduced modifications more suitable for two or three 
 barrels, and as several of these new guns liiive been 
 recently tried with great success at Portsmouth and 
 elsewhere, we give a complete description of :ill the 
 Nordenfelt vcilley guns now miide. In order In ex- 
 plain the differences in the meeluinism used for the 
 several guns, we will commence our description
 
 BOBDEBFELT MACHINE OUN. 
 
 421 
 
 HOaDEHFELT MACHINE GCN. 
 
 with two of the 1-inch guns as representatives of the 
 
 two Hj'stcins. 
 
 Tilt! fiiur-harrH X.inch gun, AdmiriiUy jinWrn. — 
 When tlic u.S(? of the torpedo Ijoiil luiaiiii' fir'ncnil, 
 it foUowud as a iicccuHiiry (■oii.si'(|Uciici' tluil a iiicaiiM 
 of defence must be provided afj;ainst llie.se swift and 
 destructive little vessels, and the Hrilisli Adiniralty 
 searched for a weapon haviiii; suMi<ient penetrating 
 power to dain»i;(- the l)oiler of a torpeilo boat at a 
 distance of from liOO to . '>()() yards. Otiier essential 
 conditions required were that I he f;un could l)e 
 fired so rapidly that it would almost certainly score 
 asuHii'ient mimber of hits on an approacliinjj; tor- 
 pedo boat to insure its bcini; disabled during its run 
 at fidl speed from the distance named, before it 
 could reach the vessel attacked, or which could l)e 
 flred so rapidly as to make it impossible for the 
 boat to discharge a Whitehead torpedo at such a 
 range that the missile would have any reasonable 
 chanci' of hilling ils mark. After various I'oinpeli- 
 lions the Adiniralty deciiled iu fuvor of the Morden- 
 felt gun. 
 
 The four-barrel gun, shown in Fig. 1, consists of 
 a rectangular framework of wrought iron, the sides 
 of wliicli art! connected by three jilales or transoms. 
 The four barrels are placed sid(' by si<li' in the fraiix', 
 their muzzle ends passing through the front cross- 
 pie<'e. while the breech ends are screwed into the 
 middle transom. In the rear of the middle cross- 
 piece is the action block, which is capable of move- 
 ment backwards and forwards. In front of this 
 action block are four breech plugs, corresponding to 
 the barrels. These are of steel pierced with a tdian- 
 nel, iu which a tiring pin or striker moves freely, 
 and they are furnished with an extractor on the 
 right side. Behind each plunger is a hiininu'r, with 
 a projecting t<'non, and behind the hammer is a 
 strong s])iral siiring. 
 
 The trunnions til into a cross-head pivoting on a 
 cone, which is tirmly fixed to the side or other part 
 of the ship, where the gun is to.be tired. The train- 
 ing is given by a hand-wheel, which works a worm 
 gearing into a horizontal tootlied rack attached to the 
 top of the cone. The elevation is produced liy a 
 wheel working a dilTerential screw. One turn of the 
 training wheel gives (i degrees of training, and one of 
 the elevating wheel 12 degrees of elevation or depress- 
 ion. The action of the mechanism is as follows. 
 Supposing the discharge to have been just completed, 
 that the lock closes the breech end of the barrels, and 
 is still secured in its place by the two bolts ; 1. The 
 handle begins to move to the rear ; the friction rol- 
 ler traverses the concentric part of the action i)late. 
 and the action block remains steady. The spring 
 and the heel of I he lever, acting on the trigger comb, 
 drive It from right to left. 2. As the movement con- 
 tinues, the action lever acts on the locking-bolt plate, 
 and withdraws the bolts leaving the action block free. 
 3. At the moment these bolts are withdrawn the 
 friction roHer engages in the straight part of the 
 action plate, and the action block begins to move 
 back, drawing with it the breech plugs, which ex- 
 tract the cartridge cases 4. When the breech plugs 
 are clear the friction roller on the action block bears 
 against the forked arm and so pushes the carrier to 
 the left. At the same time the cocking cam begins 
 to press against the tooth of the trigger comb, carry- 
 ing the hitter to the right. The empty cartridge 
 cases fall to the ground and are readily replaced 
 by filled ones. The tenons of the hammers pass be- 
 hind the teeth of the trigger comb, which is driven 
 to the left by the spring, or by tlie cocking cam, as 
 the action block moves forward. The handle moves 
 forward with the following effects : 1. The fric- 
 tion roller on the action lever acts on the director, 
 and moves the action block to the front. The action 
 block, pressing against the fork, drives the carrier 
 to the right, thus placing the cartridges in line with 
 the barrels. 2. The action block advances to the front 
 and the spiral springs are compressed by the ham- 
 
 mers, which are kept bark by the trigger comb. The 
 plungers push the cartridges into Die barrels, a. 
 When till- carlriilges an- qiiile homer, the action 
 block stops, and the stud on the action lever causes 
 the closinj' cam to drive the bolls into the lioles in 
 the gun frame, so that the breech dosing is <!om- 
 lilete. 4. The action lever now bi-gins to carry the 
 trigger comb to the right. Kacli hammer is released 
 in turn from the toriih which retains it, and the 
 striker pertaining lo it is ilriven forward in consc- 
 ()uence. The action of the drill slop is this: The 
 hand lever is brought up by it before it has com- 
 pleted the back stroke, so that the hammers cannot 
 pass behind the trigger comb. Thus, the gun is not 
 iull cocked, l)ecause the springs are not compressed 
 whi'ii the action block moves forward. The gun is 
 sighted up to 1,800 yards, and the sight is so litted 
 that it can be moved nji and down by means of a 
 rack and pinion. The following are some of the 
 prhicipal advaiilages claimed for guns made on the 
 Nordeiifelt system: They are strong and simple, and 
 the whole mechanism, as well as the springs and 
 tiring pins, can be taken out without the use of any 
 tools ; they lire either single shots or volleys of four 
 shots each as desired. The cartridges are fed to each 
 iKirrel from its own comiiiirlnient, iind imlependent 
 of the otlii'i's, so that if one or more barrels become 
 damaged the lire can be continued from the remain- 
 ing barrels. The gun is free from any jKissihle 
 llaliility to jam, more es])ecially after some of the 
 ini|)rovements recently adopted by the Admiralty. 
 In order to test these improvements, 2.000 rounds 
 were tired very rapidly without any hitch or jam 
 whatever and most of the vessels at the bombard- 
 ment of Alexandria were armed with these guns, 
 lirhig m:iny thousands of rounds without any failure 
 or dilliculty. Uesides their principid obj.-ct as de- 
 fense against torpedo boats, these guns are especially 
 useful for firing against the guns ami rifiemen in the 
 enemy's tops, even if iirotected by shields — against 
 conning towers and gun-ports— and in Egypt they 
 have been recently used for firing through the port- 
 holes of forts, and mounted on railway trucks, they 
 have served forking range firing against troops. The 
 cajiacity of the system for verv nipid firing of steel 
 projectiles of larger caliber tlian rifie bullets, makes 
 it a very valuable weapon, even for purposes where, 
 perhaps, strictly speaking, small shells might be more 
 suitable, because with the modem swift vessels a 
 slow-firing machine gun has really very little chance 
 against a quick-volley gun for purposes where the 
 latter has sufficient penetrating power. 
 
 llie double-barrel \-inch guii — This double-barrel 
 1-inch gun, shown in Fig. 2, has been made for the 
 purpose of being mounted on torpedo boats, where 
 the four-barrel 1-inch gun has been considered too 
 heavy. The gun weighs only li cwt., and its naval 
 carriage and stand weigh together IGH pounds. 
 Counting 345 pounds for SOOrounds of amnuinilion, 
 80 pounds for hoppers, and 132 pounds for the gun- 
 ner, the weapon, with mounting ammunition and 
 gunner complete, weighs 8 cwt., which is well with- 
 in the limits that can conveniently be carried on a 
 torpedo boat. When not in action, >. e, when the 
 gunner and ammunition arc below, the weight of gun 
 and mounting is only one-third of the weight of the 
 Nordenfelt four-barrel gun. It fires the same l-inch 
 steel-shot cartridges aslhe four-barrel gun. and with 
 exactly the same'initial velocity of 1,500 feet. Its 
 penetrating power is consciiuenlly the same as that 
 of the four-barrel 1-inch gun already described. The 
 accuracy of fire is also the same when firing very 
 slowly, and is somewhat higher when firing more 
 rapidly, because its volley of two shots causes less 
 vibrationto the weapon from accumulated recoil than 
 the volley of four shots. The rai)idity of fire in pro- 
 portion to the number of barrels is somewhat great- 
 er than that of the four-barrel gun. because the stroke 
 of the lever is shorter. The four-barrel gun fires ten 
 volleys in eight to ten seconds , this two-barrel gun
 
 NOEDENFELT MACHINE-GUN. 
 
 422 
 
 NOEDENFELT MACHINE-GUN. 
 
 fires ten volleys in six to seven seconds. This gun 
 thus fires twenty shots in six to seven seconds, and it 
 fires sixty shots in the half minute. As will be seen, 
 the rectangular frame is made in one piece, with the 
 center cross-bar dovetailed into it, and the front 
 cross-piece bolted on to its fore end. Tlie barrels 
 are screwed into the center cross-piece and pass 
 throiigh the front cross-piece. The action cam is cut 
 into the cam plate and is driven by the friction roller 
 on the action lever, which again is moved by the firing 
 handle, keyed on to the axis pin. The breech plugs 
 are made in one piece with the cam plate, and contain 
 the firing pins. On the upper face of the cam plate 
 are two studs which pull back the hammers. The 
 action block is moved right and left by the rear end 
 of the action lever. In the action block there are 
 four grooves, two of which receive the breech plugs 
 when drawn back, the other two contain the ham- 
 mers and spiral springs, which are held within them 
 by the back plate, which carries the pressure of the 
 action block on to the rear of the frame itself. Tlie 
 cartridge receiver is moved right and left in front of 
 the action block by two lugs or cams on the cam 
 plate. The trigger comb is inserted into the action 
 block, and is held by a spring ; '.he sloping surfaces 
 of the hammer studs move it to the one side to catch 
 the hammers, and the trigger comb is pushed against 
 the side of the frame in order to release the hammers 
 when the shots are to be fired, showing the parts 
 separately. The operation of the mechanism of the 
 Nordenfelt machine-gun may be described briefly as 
 follows, supposing a discharge to have just taken 
 place : 1. The tiring handle travels to the rear, 
 
 supports the rear of the breech plugs, the back plate 
 of the action block resting firmly against the rear of 
 the frame. 4. The movement of the action block 
 to the riglii pushes the trigger comb against the 
 inner side of the frame until the hammers are re- 
 leased and the shots fired. The principal advantages 
 claimed for this system, in addition to those men- 
 tioned above for the four-barrel gun, and which also 
 apply to this weapon, arc the great simplicity of the 
 mechanism, in which the number of parts is 16 in all, or 
 only 8 parts per barrel. Tlie movemeuts of the 
 parts of the mechanism are all inside the frame, so 
 that the action block does not move beyond the rear 
 part of the frame. When the firing handle is held 
 for^vard in the position in which the gun would 
 travel, the entire mechanism is inclosed, so that not 
 even the slots for the extraction of fired cartridge 
 cases are open. This makes this system especially 
 suitable for guns which are exposed to dust and 
 storms of sand. 
 
 In the following article are described all the Nor- 
 denfelt volley -tiring guns which are at present 
 manufactured : No. 1. 2 ico-barrellh iiich gun — This 
 tj'pe weighs 4 J cwt., and fires steel shot and shell 
 weighing 23 ounces, with an initial velocity of 1,600 
 feet, giving a penetration of li inches into an iron 
 plate at 300 yards ; the shells iiave 580 grains burst- 
 ing charge. This gun is made to compete with re- 
 volving cannon of the same caliber which fire 16 
 ounce shells with 337 grains bursting charge and 
 1,390 feet initial velocity, giving a penetration of \\ 
 inches at 300 yards range. The rapidity of fire is 
 about 40 shots per half minute. Both guns are about 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 while the friction roller moves along the concentric 
 part of the action cam, the plungers remaining steady 
 in order to give sulticient support to the cartridge 
 case after the discharge. The rear end of the action 
 lever during this movement brings the action block 
 over to the left and allows the spring to pusli the 
 of trigger comb into position. 2. The continued 
 rearward movement causes the cam plate to draw 
 back the breech plugs into their grooves in the ac- 
 ti<m block, after which the lugs upon it move the 
 cartridge receiver over to the left to take a fresh 
 layer oif cartridges. 3. .lust before the rearward 
 movement is completed the hauuners are caught by 
 the studs on the trigger comb. The forward move- 
 nu-nl of the tiring handle has the following effect : 
 1. It forces the lugs on the cam plate against the 
 cartridge receiver and inishes it to the right so that 
 the cartridges are in a line with the chambers in the 
 barrels. 2. The cam plate is driven forward, and 
 the breech plugs enter the grooves in the cartridge 
 n-ceiver, pusliing the earlridgcs into the clianibers. 
 3. When the lirecch plugs have closed the lireech, 
 thi! rear end of the action lever jiuslies llic action 
 block over to tin- right imlil tin- hammers couic in a 
 line with the tiring pins, when the action block fully 
 
 the same weight ; the Nordenfelt is, however, the 
 more rapid of the two, as it tires a volley of two shots 
 for every single shot fired by the revolving gun. 
 No. 2. Two-barrel \\ inch gun. This weighs 3J cwt., 
 and is made in the same way as No. 1, and for the 
 same purposes. Its shell weighs 14L ounces, with 
 460 grains bursting charge, but its greater initial 
 velocity of 1,500 feet gives to this gun the same 
 penetrating power as the \\ inch revolving gun, 
 with its rapidity of fire and slightly less weight of gun. 
 No. 3. Two-barrel 1-inch {heary) gun. — Is made to 
 No. 3 pattern, with exceptionally l<mg barrels. The 
 weight is 4 cwt, and it fires solid steel shot of 9^ ounces 
 (shells are not allowed for this weight of projectile). 
 This steel shot gave at Porlsmouth an initial velocity 
 of 2,009 feet jjer second and penetrated a 2-inch sol- 
 id iron jilale at 300 yards range. This gun has been 
 made for defense against torpedo boats if in future 
 any cnuutry should carry out the idea to arm such 
 vulnerable parts as boiler and engines with 1-incli 
 steel plates. No. 4, Ftnir-lmrrcl X-im-h (midium') 
 gun— TUt' type of this gun is illustrated liy Fig. 1. 
 It tires 8.9-o"unces solid steel bullets, with 1,6.50 feet 
 initial velocity, and gives greater penetration than 
 the four-barrel 1-inch English Admiralty gun; it
 
 NORDENFELT MACHINE GUN. 
 
 423 
 
 HOEDENFELT MACHINE OUH. 
 
 weightB about ^ cwt. more, and i» rnoiint to be ugfd 
 for tlic siinic imrpDHCM and in the hhiiic iiianucras tlit.' 
 ordinary four-tiarrc! 1-inch j;un No. (1, l)y any Navy 
 tliul may desire to liave ^^rcatiT iicnctratiiit; power 
 at till! cost of more expensive aniniiiiiilinn and vvilli- 
 oiil redneini^ llie rapidity of (ire. No. !j. /<'iur-/i(irrii 
 
 \-iiirJi (/'III 'I'lds unn is sijniliir to No. and I'restli 
 Haine arnjunnilion ; it coMsecinently lias I lie same jjen- 
 etratintf power but lires 30 per cenl. nion- rapidlj' 
 and weii;lis k ewt. more liian the four-barrel ^iin. 
 No. (i. Fiiur-harrel l-inrh i/i/m— Tliis gun has been 
 already fully described as representing Hie Norden- 
 felt volley guns with more (ban three tiarrels. No. 
 7. Tinii-hiii-rii \-inch r/ii.ii -This gun has also been 
 noticed ( Fig. 2), as represeiitativit of the [latlorn of 
 volley guns with less than four barrels, and is prcp- 
 poseil for arming torpedo l)oats, as being the lightest 
 volley gun made with siiflicient penetrating power 
 for this purpose, the only other guu of less weight of 
 any other system with sulHcient jienetrating power, 
 being the Nordenfelt s' 
 
 , single-barrel IJ inch shell-gun. 
 No. 8. Ticeliv-hnrrii rijlr-crilihtr gun; and No. 'J. 
 Ten.harrel rifle caliber guii. fully illustrated in Fig. 
 'A. These machine-guns weigh about 2.', cwt. and 
 3 cwt., re.=ipectively, and Hre 1,200 "and 1,000 
 rounds per minute. Thej' are constructed after 
 the same pattern as the four-barrel English gun, 
 and are especially designed for naval as well as for 
 land service, in competition with the tive-barrel 
 Gardner gun. At the Slioeburyness trials in Feb- 
 ruary, 1H81, the ten-barrel Nordenfelt did not act 
 (|uile so well as it shonlil have done in cousecjuence 
 of it having been adjusted to incorrect ammunition, 
 but after the extraciing and feeding gear had been 
 [Hit in order, the gun worked to perfection at all 
 the Portsmouth trials in July, 1H82. On that occa- 
 sion it tired 3.000 rounds in three minutes three 
 seconds without any hitch or jam wliatever, and it 
 worked so easily that the same man tireil the whole 
 of the 3,000 rounds without any relief ; immediately 
 after the tiring ceased, the officers ascertained that 
 the gun was in perfect order and worked quite as 
 easily as at the commencement. 
 
 For laud service they have been recommended 
 more especially for two purposes. First, for acting 
 on the thinks of artillery for the protection of artil- 
 lery against infantry lire. The enemy's infantry 
 could never advance so close up to a battery of artil- 
 lery as to force it to retire if the battery had on each 
 flank a ten-barrel gun firing ritle cartridges, and ca- 
 valry w(>uld never charge, or could never reach a 
 battery protected thus by two guns capalile of a very 
 rapid tire continuously poured out of it, wliile the 
 gimner who aims the guu wovdd all the time follow 
 the movements of the advancing cavalry. The ten- 
 barrel guns are mounted on an ordinary light field 
 carriage with its limber which holds 4,000 rounds 
 (Fig. 3). Four horses easily manage the gun and 
 Umber, three men ride on the limber, and the Cap- 
 tain of the guu is separately mounted. The second 
 purpose for which this t_ype is adapted is especially 
 for position defense. Wherever machine-guns can 
 be used in such positions that there is little or no dif- 
 ficulty to provide ammunition, and where it is not 
 required to lift the gun about too often, the ten-bar- 
 rel Nordenfelt is to be recommended. Even with its 
 great rapidity of fire it does not require any greater 
 number of gunners to serve it than the five-barrel 
 guns. 
 
 It has been stated that a machine-gun wastes am- 
 munition, but this is not tlie ease, because it must 
 score a nuich greater percentage of hits than has 
 been recorded in recent wars from rifle fire. This is 
 quite natural, because the gun has no nerves and is 
 not fired from the unsteady shoulder of a man pant- 
 ing with fatigue or excitement— and a soldier would 
 commence to fire his rifle at long range (where he 
 wastes Ills shots) for fear tliat he might not be able 
 to stop in time an enemy who outnumbers him. If 
 he has a gun that fires 1,000 rounds a minute, he, 
 
 would keep cool and aim carefully, well knowing 
 that when he does commence lire at short range no 
 enemy can face il . The No. 10. Sc-ceii-harrel rifli-i-ali. 
 her fjan; and \\u- 'Hit. W. Fice-lmrrel riJleuuiUlier yun 
 are each made to the jiatleni of tlie four-barrel gun. 
 with such alterations in llii' inner mechanism as are, 
 nei fssary.in conse(|ueiice of the gun being narrower. 
 They weigh \\ cwt. and 1 cwt. res|)eclively, and lire 
 with a rajiidily of 7.'")0 and 000 rouiuls pir minute. 
 The llvi'-barri'l gun has lintd 3,000 rounds in 5 
 minutes ,5 seconds without any hitch or jam ; the 
 same man firing tlie whole of tlie 3,0(XJ rounds with- 
 out relief. It has also fired at 30 degrees elevation, 
 and at 30 degrees depression, tlie feeding andexlrao 
 tion giving iierfect satisf.ution. For the very rapid 
 movements of mounled infantry, and to save "lime In 
 dismounting the gun for tiring, and mounting it again 
 when it has to be moved, a very light carriage has 
 been made at the suggestion of Lord Charles IJeres- 
 ford, on four wheels, to be drawn by two horses 
 driven by a man sitting on his box on the two front 
 wheels. The gun is mounted at the rear of the car- 
 riage, and is fired fnjin it without taking out the 
 horses; 3,000 rounds of ammunition are carried on 
 the same carriage, as well as the gunner wlio fires 
 (he gun, and .a second man who looks after and 
 supplies the ammunition. 'Hie remainder of the ser- 
 vice for the gun are mounted on spare horses, liar- 
 nessed so as to replace quickly any of the driven 
 horses that become disabled 'I'lie carriage itself is 
 so light that it carries a shield to protect the gun and 
 the gunners, and also to prot(,'ct 'he horses against 
 direct lire from the enemy's rifles during the time the 
 gun is fired. This shiehl enables the giin to advance 
 within shorter distance of the enemy's rifle fire than 
 could otherwise be done, and allows the gun to be 
 kept at shorter and more effective ranges when re- 
 tiring before infantry. The essential idea of this 
 mode of using the gun is of course to make all pos- 
 sible use of its exceedingly rapid movements, to rush 
 forward to a comparatively close range against in- 
 fantry or artillery, taking t"he risk of being disabled 
 while galloping forwanis (much in the same way as 
 the men in a torpedo boat take the risk when ap- 
 proaching a vessel). In infantry service the gun is 
 mounted on its own limber (Fig. 4), from which it is 
 fired; the limber, as represented in th,e drawing, 
 is on two wheels, the pole acting as a trail wdien 
 the gun is to be fired. In this case, as well as in the 
 previous one, the gun can be trained nearly all round 
 by means of a traversing screw without shifting the 
 position of the carriage. When mounted for infantry 
 on the two-wheel limber carriage it can be served 
 with six men with drag-ropes. " If desirable, there 
 can be four men dragging, the other two acting as 
 reliefs when changing the men at the ropes, or as 
 spare men if any of tlie others are di.sabled. With 
 the Captain of the gun there would thus be only seven 
 men required. The five-barrel gun can also be used 
 for mountain service with advantage, the gun and 
 the trail being quite light enough to be carried each 
 on a mule, a third mule taking the wheels and axle, 
 and a fourth the ammunition, hoppers, and imple- 
 ments, with other mules for spare ammunition — the 
 only difference from .the three-barrel gun being that 
 this would require an additional mule for the gun 
 and carriage and more ammunition. On the other 
 hand its fire w-ould be more effective, and only the 
 same luimber of men are required to serve it." It 
 could also be placed in an ammunition wagon for the 
 use of infantry, though only four five-barrel guns 
 could be carried, if cTosely packed, by the wagon 
 within the same weight as si.x live-barrel guns. 
 No. 12. 2'lirec-harri'l rifle-caliber gun ; and No. 13,* 
 Tiro-biirrel rifle-caliber gun. These are made to the 
 pattern of the two-barrel volley gun. They weigh 
 respectively riS pounds and 40 i)ounds, and fire at 
 the rate of 400 and 300 rounds per minute. For na- 
 val service they are not used at present, because tlie 
 five-barrel Norileiifelt is quite light enough for all na-
 
 NORMAL PROFILE. 
 
 424 
 
 flORHAL PROFILE. 
 
 val purposes, but for land service tbey are very use- 
 ful, in consequence of tin ir lishtnessand simplicity. 
 The three-barrel gun does not weigh more than tlie 
 Gardner one-barrel, and the Nordenfelt three-barrel 
 gun consists of thirty-tive pieces compared to thirty- 
 three pieces in the Gardner one-barrel.. All these light 
 Nordenfelt guns are, like those of larger calibers, 
 made almost entirely of best wrought steel instead of 
 the gun-metal so freely used in some other types of 
 machine-guns. In order not to be exposed to rust, 
 these light Nordenfelt steel guns are carefully and 
 completely covered over in a galvanic bath with a 
 coating of copper which protects the guns as well 
 as all the various parts of the mechanism except the 
 actual wearing surfaces. These types are designed 
 especially for the following purposes: 1. Fur cnv- 
 alry. — The gun is so light and so convenient in shape 
 that it can be carried on a led horse at the same 
 speed as the cavalry advances without disabling the 
 horse. One led horse would then be required fur 
 the gun and implements, one led horse for the stand 
 from which it is to be tired when the gun is dis- 
 mounted, and one led horse for the cartridge hop- 
 pers or feed cases tilled with ammunition. Other 
 horses or baggage wagons would carry the e.xtra 
 supply of ammunition. 2. Fur mounta'n sire'cs. — 
 A gun nmle which can carry 2 cwt., including sad- 
 
 — except, perhaps, as a wall piece — when it is proved 
 that I ven a tliree-barrel gun can be made light enough 
 to be carried by a man on his shoulder. A General 
 would probably not submit to the expense and incon- 
 venience of a macliine-guu eiiuipnient and service of 
 men and mules for gun and ammunition, when the 
 efficiency of the gun is entirely dependent on one 
 single ritlc barrel. See Machitn'-rjun. 
 
 NORMAL PROFILE.— Profile which would be con- 
 structed for a work located upon a level site, and 
 when there is time to build it. It is evident that 
 great variations must occur, influenced largely liy 
 the hind of eartli and the surrounding circumstances 
 at the time of the construction. Slopes which are 
 practicable in one kind of earth will not retain their 
 shapes in other kinds. Parapets placed on sites com- 
 manding all ground in common range need not be 
 so high as those on lower ground commanded by 
 neighboring heights. The principles laid down and 
 the reasons expressed for the normal profile apply 
 equally well to all its variations. A consideration 
 of the following jirinciples will lead to the construc- 
 tion of a strong profile which is essential to a vigor- 
 ous defense. Men of the greatest ordinary stature, 
 in bringing their muskets lo an aim, do not fire at a 
 higher level than about five feet ; therefore any 
 mass of this height in front of them will just inter- 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 die, would carrj- the gun and stand. A second 
 mule would carry the wheels, axle, and cartridge 
 hoppers filled, and other mules would carry the 
 extra supply of ammunition wanted for the gun. 3. 
 For infiintry. — Six of these guns, with tlieir stands, 
 wheels and hoppers can be stowed away in one bag- 
 gage wagon or extra ammunition wagon, and follow 
 the ammunition train which is nearest to the front. 
 "Whenever a comparatively small force of infantr}' is 
 hard pressed, or when it has to protect a threatened 
 point, a larger cantonment, or temporary mtrench- 
 ment, the six guns can be lifted otT the wagon and be 
 ready to commence fire in a few minutes. Two men 
 can drag each gun on its wheels for considerable dis- 
 ances. and one man can carry the gun with two men 
 carrying the stand, if such difficult ground is met 
 with that such a light gim cannot conveniently be 
 dragged over on its wheels. No. 14. Single-barrel 
 rifie-rnliher gun. — This gini is made wifli a ditTerent 
 mechanism from the two patterns ibove named. It 
 •veighs in pounds, and it fires at the rale of 180 
 rounds per minute; it has often fired successive 
 spurts of 30 shots each in eight to ten seconds. This 
 gun has been made in order to show that a single- 
 barred machine-gun need not be more than 4 pounds 
 lieavier than an ordinary rifle ; at the same time no 
 single-barrel rille-caliber would really be used in war 
 
 cept their fire : but this mass would not shelter a 
 man standing behind it ; to effect this, in the case of 
 the tallest men usually found in the ranks, the in- 
 terior crest should be at least six feet six inches 
 above the terre-plein. The command must then be 
 regulated by these two facts, and this principle may 
 belaid down. The command of a field work over 
 the ground occupied by the assailant, should be at 
 least five feet; and six feet six inches over that oc- 
 cupied by the a.ssailed. In following this rule for 
 the command, we deprive the assailant of a plunging 
 fire upon the parade ; but as a breast-height of five 
 feet is too high for men of ordinary stature to tiro 
 over it and give their pieces any sensible depression, 
 as is very often requisite, it would be necessary to 
 throw lip a sufficient banquette for this purpose 
 behind the parapet, which would add to the time 
 and labor of constructing the work. On this ac- 
 count it is best to give the parapet only the height 
 to admit effective firing over it, which is about four 
 and a ipiarter feet. But this minimum command 
 would give the assailed cuily a sliglit advantage, as 
 the men, when on the banquette, would be still 
 much exposed; and in an assault the height of the 
 parapet would present an inconsiderable obstacle. 
 These defects of low works have led Engineers to 
 adopt eight feet as the lemt height of parapet which
 
 KOBTON LIQUID FIKE. 
 
 42: 
 
 NOTABLES. 
 
 •will admit of any rcspcftablo defcnao. Tlic greateU 
 heiykl liiiH Ik-cm IixcmJ iit tiDiliv fr.rt, owing to tlic <lif- 
 ficully of Ihrowiiif; up a work willi \\w. ordinary 
 means at liand, wliicli arc usually only llic |iick and 
 Bliovil. 
 
 Tlic thickness of tlie parapet, wlilcli is iilways esti- 
 mated by tlie iHirizcJMlai ilisiancc hclwecn tin- interi- 
 or and exterior crests, is rci^ulated by the niaterlid 
 lisi'd for the [)arapcl; the kind of allaek: and its pro- 
 bahle duraliou. 'I'he rule adnptcd for this is to add 
 to the dei)tli of penetration of the projectile, given 
 by experiment, one-half for this thickness. In fol- 
 lowing lliis ride there will always he a Ihickness of 
 earth between the extreme penetration of a projectile, 
 at any point below the exterior crest and tli<' interior of 
 the work, ureal er than one- third the Ihickjiess of I he 
 parapet. The su|}i!rior slope is arrangeil to defend the 
 crt^st of the coimti'rscar|); to ellect which the tire 
 slioidd not strike below the crest, nor pass more than 
 three feet over it; otlierwise, cither the counlerscarp 
 would be damaged, or the assailed by stooping when 
 near the crest, would lind a shelter. The inclination 
 of the superior slope, however, sliouldnot be greater 
 than ouc-fourth, niir less than one-sixth. If greater 
 than nnc-fourlh, it would make tli<^ portion of Ilie 
 j)arapel, about tlic interior crest, too weak; and if 
 less than one-si.\tli the ground <lirectl3' in front of 
 the work woiiUl not be so well (Ufended; moreover, 
 as artillery cannot be lired at a greater depression 
 than one-sixth, without injuring the carriage, this 
 inclination of the superior slope serves as a check in 
 rapid tiring. 
 
 The exterior slope i» the same that the earth natu- 
 rallij ainiiinen. An}' means used to make it steeper 
 would be injurious; because they would be soon 
 destroyed by the enemy's lire, and the earth giving 
 way, the necessary thickness of the parapet would 
 be diminished. 
 
 riie interior slope receives a base equal to one-third 
 itn fieiyht. This is a residt of experience, which has 
 shown that it is the most convenient fur the soldier 
 in leaning forward to deliver his tire over a parapet. 
 
 The tread of the banquette is placed four Jeet iitree 
 inches beliiin the interior crest ; this will admit men of 
 the lowest ordinary stature, to tire conveniently over 
 the parapet. Its width is tiro feet, J or a defense with 
 one ran/t-; andfnirfict for two or three ranks; be- 
 cause the third rank does not tire, and i.s therefore 
 placed on the banquette slope, the hase of which is 
 twice the altitude, to render the ascent convenient. 
 Wlien the tread of the bancpiette is very high, and 
 particularly in enclosed works, wIutc interior space 
 is wanted, steps may be substituted for a slope. 
 
 The berm is a defect in Held works, because it 
 yie'ids the enemy a foothold to breathe a moment, be- 
 fore attempting to ascend the exterior slope. It is 
 useful in tlie construction of the work for the work- 
 man to stand on; and it throws the weigiit of the 
 parapet back on the scarp, which might be crushed 
 out by this pressure. In tirin soils, the berm may be 
 only from eighteen incites to two feet wide; in other 
 cases, as in marshy soils, it may require a width of 
 six feet. In all cases, it should be six feet below the 
 exterior crest — to prevent the enemy, should he form 
 on it, from firing on the troops on the banquette. 
 
 The dill u should be regulated to furnish the earth 
 for the parapet. To determine its tlimensions, the 
 following points require attention: its depth should 
 not be less than six feet, nor lis width less than 
 twelve feet, to present a respectable obstacle to the 
 enemy. It cannot, with convenience, be made deeper 
 than twelve feet; and ils greatest width is regulated 
 by the inclination of the superior sloiie. which, pro- 
 duced, should not pass below tlie crest of the coun- 
 terscarp. The slopes of the scarp and counterscarp 
 will depend on the nature of the soil, and the action 
 on it ot frost and rain. The sc;irp is less steep than 
 the counterscarp, because it has to sustain the weight 
 of the ))arapet. It is usual to give the slope of the 
 scarp a base equal to two-thirds of the base of the 
 
 natural slopo of a mound of fresh oarth whose altU 
 lude is equal tolhcdejilh of theditch; the baseof the 
 coiinterscarji slope is made cipial loone-lialf tlie same; 
 base. In excavating the dileh it will be found that 
 more earth will lie furnished at the salients than is 
 re()uired then- for the p:irapet; and that the re-enter- 
 ings will not always turnish enough. On this ac- 
 counl, the' widlli oif the dil(;li should not bi^ uniform, 
 but narrower at the salients than the re-enterings. 
 Tlie salients of the jiarapel on horizontal sites, are 
 sometimes mad(^ higher than the re^'nterings,a grad- 
 Uid slope being given to the interior crest from the 
 salieiils to the ri'-enterings, with a view to cover bet- 
 ter the terrc-plein, towards these last jioints, from 
 tli(^ plunge of an enlilailing fire on tlie faces. The 
 elTcct of this, however, is but trilling, as the descend- 
 ing |ilunge of the projectile is the greater, as the sa- 
 lient is higher over which it passes. On such sites, 
 therefore, the jirolilc of the parapet is usually uni- 
 form throughout. See Field Pvrtificati'm and Profll. 
 inq. 
 
 NORTON LIQUID FIRE.— In the character of its 
 efl'ccls, Ibis rivals all tli;it has been recorded of the 
 old (Imli Jir( . The composilion henr used consists 
 of a chemical combimition of sulphur, carbon, and 
 phosphorus. The compo.sition is enclosed in a shell, 
 and is instantly ignited upon the shell striking any 
 object. 
 
 NORWEGIAN ARMY.— By the terms of the laws 
 of I8(ili and 1^7(1, the ;irmy of Norway is composed 
 of Troops of iIk' Line, the Miiilary Train, the Mili- 
 tia or Landevaern, the Civic (Juards, and the I.and- 
 storm, or liiial war levy, In 1HT8 the Troops of the 
 Line numbered 18,000 men and 7/50 ollicers. All 
 young men above twenty-one years of age are liable 
 to serve, with the exception of the inhabitants of the 
 three northern amis of the kingdom. The only for- 
 titied spots are Fredericksteen at Frederickshald, 
 Frcderickslad, Akersliuus, Bergenshuus, Jlunkholni, 
 ;iiid Vardohuus. 
 
 NOSE BAG. A biig of stout canvas with a leather 
 bcltcnn, and having straps at its upper, open end. by 
 
 which it may be fastened to a horse's head while he 
 is eating the contained provender. It is generally 
 used for feeding the grain out of the stables. The 
 drawing represents a nose-bag properly provided 
 with means for ventilation, llorses suffer much 
 when their noses are confined in a close nose-bag, 
 where the jaws cannot be opened without compress- 
 ing the nostrils and preventing the ingress of suffi- 
 cient air. 
 
 NOSE-BAND.— The lower band of a military bridle, 
 passing over in front and attached to the cheek- 
 str;ips. 
 
 NOTABLES.— The name formerly given in France 
 to persons of distinction and political importance. 
 As the States General were inconvenient to the des- 
 potism of the Monarchv. the Kings of the House of 
 Valois adopted the expedient of calling in their stead 
 Assemblies of the jXotabU-s. the time of calling them 
 and the composition of them being entirely depend- 
 ent on the pleasure of the Crown, by which also 
 their whole proceedings were guided, so that they 
 seuerally consented at once to whatever was pro- 
 posed to them. Thev showed a particular readiness 
 in granting subsidies, to which they themselves, as
 
 NOTE. 
 
 426 
 
 NTTNCUPATIVE WILLS. 
 
 belonging to the privileged classes, were not to con- 
 tribute. An Assembly of Notables, convened in 
 Paris by Richelieu in 1636, and presided over by 
 Gaston, brother of Louis VIII., consisted of only 35 
 members. For more than a century and a half even 
 this poor acknowledgment of any other mind or 
 will in the nation tlian that of the Sovereign ceased to 
 be made ; but when the state of the finances brought 
 the monarchy into difficulties and perils, Louis 
 XVI., at the instigation of the Minister C'alonne, had 
 recourse again to an Assembly of Notables, whicli 
 met Feb. 22, 1787, and was dissolved May 25. It 
 consisted of 137 members, among whom were 7 
 Princes of the Blood, 9 Dukes and Peers, 8 Mar- 
 shals, 11 Archbishops, 22 Nobles. 8 Councilors of 
 State, 4 Masters of Requests, 37 Judges, 12 Depu- 
 ties of the Pays d'Etats, the Civil Lieutenant, and 25 
 persons belonging to the Magistracy of diflerent 
 cities of the kingdom. Calonne's representations 
 of the state of the finances induced the Notables 
 to adopt many reforms in the matter of taxation; 
 but no sooner was the assembly dissolved, than 
 many of them joined the Parliaments in opposition 
 to resolutions adverse to their private interests, so 
 that the King was compelled to determine upon 
 assembling the States General. Necker, who had 
 meanwhile been placed at the head of affairs, assem- 
 bled the Notables again, Nov. 6, 1788, to consult 
 them concerning the form in which the States 
 General should be convened. The Notables de- 
 clared against every innovation, and so compelled 
 tlie court to half measures which helped to pre- 
 pare the way for the Revolution. The Parliament 
 of the new principality of Bulgaria is spoken of as 
 the Assembly of the Notables. 
 
 NOTE. — A brief writing intended to assist the 
 memory. Members of Courts-Martial sometimes 
 take notes. They are frequently necessary to enable 
 a member to bring the whole body of evidence into 
 a connected view, where the case is complex. 
 
 NOT GUILTY. — The form of verdict in a criminal 
 prosecution, and also in some civil actions, when the 
 Court find in favor of thj defendant or accused party. 
 The verdict is conclusive, and the accused cannot, in 
 criminal cases, be tried a second lime. 
 
 NOT PROVEN. — A form of verdict used in criminal 
 prosecutions when the Court thinks there is some 
 foundation for the charge, but tlie evidence is not 
 strong enough against the prisoner to warrant a ver- 
 dict of guilty. In such a case, a verdict of '• Not 
 Proven " is substantially a verdict of acquittal. Tlie 
 prisoner cannot be tried afterward, even though new 
 and conclusive evidence come to light after the ver- 
 dict. 
 
 NOYADES. — The execution of political offenders in 
 irreat numbers at once by drowning them, one of tlie 
 atrocities of the French Revolution, practiced at 
 Nantes by Carrier, the deputy of the Convention. 
 This mode of execution was also called, in cruel sport, 
 V<rtieiil DrpiirtntioH. 
 
 NOYAN. — 1 . The whole of the vacant space or bore 
 of a cannon, under which are compreliended the di- 
 ameter of the mouth, the vacant cylinder, the breech, 
 and the vent. 2. With respect to bombs, grenades, 
 and hollow balls, that which is called yoyan consists 
 of a globular piece of earth, upon which the cover is 
 cast. The metal is poured in between the cover and 
 the Noyan, after which the Noyan,orcore, is broken 
 ami the eiirtli taken out. 
 
 NtJGGAR, A term in the East Indies for a fort. 
 
 NUMEROS. Uoiuid pieces of brass or other metal, 
 wliii h wire niHiibcred and used in the old French 
 service ill tlie detail of guards. 
 
 NUNCIO. The name given to the superior grade 
 of the Ambassadors sent by the Pope to Foreign 
 Courts, who are all calledby the general name of Le- 
 gate. ANuncioisan Ambassador to the CViurt of 
 an Kmperor or King. The Ambassador to a Repub- 
 lic, or to \\\v. Court of a Minor Sovereign, is t'alled 
 Internuncio. 
 
 NUNCUPATIVE WILLS.— A nuncupative will, so 
 termed from naming an executor by word of mouth, 
 is a verbal testamentary declaration or disposition. 
 By the common law, it was as valid in respect to 
 personal estate as a written testament. A will could 
 not only be made by word of mouth, but the most 
 solemn instrument in writing might be revoked oral- 
 ly. In a rude and uncul'ivated age, to have required 
 a written will would have been a great hardship, but 
 with the growth and progress of letters, the reason 
 forpermitting averbal testament diminished in force, 
 until an effort to establish such a will by means of 
 gross fraud and perjury gave rise to the provisions of 
 the Statute of Frauds. Nuncupative wills, not being 
 regulated by statute as to their mode of celebration 
 or execution, the single question for the judgment of 
 the Court is, whether the nuncupation was made by 
 a person entitled to that privilege. The restrictions 
 of the Statute of Frauds were not applied to wills 
 made by "any soldier being in actual military ser- 
 vice, or any mariner or seaman being at sea." By 
 the revised staLUtes of New York it was provided 
 that nuncupative wills should not be valid, "unless 
 made by a soldier while in actual military service, 
 or by a mariner while at sea." The terms of the ex- 
 ception in the statute are briefly stated as follows : — 
 " Any soldier being in actual military service, or any 
 mariner or seaman being at sea." The phrase- 
 ology is slightly different in these statutes ; but the 
 rule is substantially the same in all- that the nuncu- 
 pation is only valid when made by a soldier in ac- 
 tual military service, or a mariner at sea, at the time 
 of the testamentary act. It is not enough to be a 
 soldier or a sailor, but there must be actual service. 
 The military testament was lirst conceded by Julius 
 CiEsar to all soldiers, but it was subsequentl_v limited 
 by Justinian to those engaged in an expedition — solis 
 qui in expeditiunibus oc^vpati aunt. The exception 
 was borrowed with the rule from the civil law, and 
 the courts have invariably adhered to the principle 
 that there cannot be actual warfare and the soldier 
 not be engaged in txpeditione. So also the nuncu- 
 pation of a mariner to be valid must be made at 
 sea. It is sometimes difficult to determine when the 
 mariner is to be considered at sea. For example. 
 Lord Hugh Seymour, the Admiral of the station at 
 Jamaica, made a codicil by nuncupation while stay- 
 ing at the house on shore appropriated to the ad- 
 miral of the station. The codicil was rejected on 
 the ground that he only visited his ship occasionally, 
 while his family establishment and place of abode 
 were on land at the official residence. But when a 
 mariner belonging to a vessel lying in the harbor of 
 Buenos Ayres, met with an accident when on shore 
 by leave, made a nuncupative will, and died there, 
 probate was granted for the reason that he was only 
 casually absent from his ship. The will of a ship- 
 master made off Otaheite has also been allowed. 
 The principle upon which the privilege of nuncupa- 
 tion is conceded applies to all persons of whatso- 
 ever classes engaged in the marine service, wliat- 
 ever may be their special duty or their occupation on 
 the vessel. As in the army, the term " soldier" em- 
 braces every grade, from the private to the highest 
 officer, and includes the gunner, the surgeon, or the 
 general; so in the marine, the term " mariner" ap- 
 plies to every person in the naval or mercantile ser- 
 vice, from the common seaman lo the captain or ad- 
 miral. It is not limited or restricted to any sjiecial 
 occupation on shipboard, but a pur.ser, or any other 
 person whose particular vocation does not relate to 
 the sailing of the vessel, possesses the same right as 
 the sailor. A cook is certainly as mucli a necessary 
 jiart of the eil'eclive service of a vessel as the purser 
 or the sailor; and there would seem to be no ri'ason 
 why he should be ex<'luded from the advantage of a 
 rule designed for the benefit of men engaged in the 
 marine, without reference to the particular branch 
 of duty performed in the vessel. As well because the 
 wills of sokliers and mariners were excepted from
 
 NUBSE. 
 
 427 
 
 OBEDIENCE. 
 
 the oporationsof the proviHinns of tlin Statute of 
 Frauds, as for the niifioii ami irnniiiil of the excep- 
 tion. ami tlu: ])cciiliar charai'tcr of tlic military IcHta- 
 nu'iit, it was never licld rciinisili- lliat llicir nuncu- 
 
 Siitions Hlioiild be made liiiriii;.; I lie last sickness, 
 'or has any ])arti<iilar mode lieen iirescriljcd in re- 
 spect to the niiiniier of makin'.^ the leslanient. The 
 very essence of the privilejie, however, consists in 
 the iil)SeIi<:e of all c<Temonies as lejral re(|iiisiles -or, 
 us Merlin stales the pro])ositioii, "Iheir f<irin was 
 properly to have no form." It is true the Roman law 
 prescribes two witnesses; l)iit this, however, did not 
 relate to the essence of the act, hut only to the proof. 
 In respect to evidence, we do not follow the civil or 
 canon law; no particular number of witnesses is re- 
 (|uired lo verify an ad jiidiciiUly, and ;dl the court 
 (ieni:uids is lobe s;itislicd l)y siiHicienl evidence as 
 to the substance of th<' last leslanii'ntary requestor 
 declaration of the deceased. This ascerliiined, the 
 law holds it sacred, and carries it into elTect with as 
 much favor and regard as would be paid to the most 
 formal instrument executed with every Ici^id solem- 
 nity. And so, according to numerous decisions, 
 made in (Jrcat Bril;iin, quoted t)y I'rendergasI, 
 "whenever ii military ollicer on full p;iy m;ikes an in- 
 formal will its validity can only be supportcil by 
 showing the testator to have been on actu;d military 
 service at tlic time the will was made. And the re- 
 sult of tlie decisions ajipears to be, thiit an officer 
 serving with his regiment, or in command of troops 
 in garrison or quarters, either in the United King- 
 dom or the Colonies, is not deemed ondi-lmil military 
 service. To satisfy the meaning of the Act of Par- 
 liatnent in that respect, he must be on an expedition, 
 or on some duly associated with positive danger." 
 
 HUB8E. — A person whose whole buBineflB is to 
 attend tin- sick in hospital. In the L'nilr'rl Stutc-H 
 service, nurses are dclailed in post hospitals from 
 the companies who ari' serving at the post. Ordi- 
 narily one nurse is allowed to every ten persons sick 
 in hospital. In ('ontinental Armies the "Sisters of 
 Charilv" usually carry their mission of niercy into 
 the military hosjiilals. Protestant Knghinil having 
 no such organization to f;ill back upon, the soldierH 
 have l)een dependent on the regular male hospital 
 attendants for their care during sickness, or whea 
 sidfering from wounds. Th<; Crimean campaign, 
 however, disclosed so melancholy ii picture of the 
 want of women's co-operation, thai a liand of self- 
 sacrificing ladies, headed by .Miss Nightingale, pro- 
 ceeded to Turkey, an<l were soon acknowledged as 
 messengers of health and life l)y the unfortunate 
 wounded. The example thus set has not been 
 without effect. In th<' Franco-German war of 1870- 
 71 lady luirses in large nund)crs and of various na- 
 tion« ministered in all tin- mililarv hospitals, and the 
 like took plat-e again during tlie Uusso-Turkish war 
 of 1H77-7H. 
 
 NUTHALL RIFLE.— In the ordinary mode of groov- 
 ing rillcs, sharp iingles are left between the groove 
 and "land " (those parts of the smooth-bore left in 
 their original state after the process of grooving has 
 been completed). These create great friction with 
 the projectile, both in loading and discharging. Ma- 
 jor Nut hall removes these objections liy rounding 
 off the "lands" into the grooves, that "is, making 
 them a series of convex and concave curves, the bore 
 assuming a beautiful ajipearance to the eye, for the 
 smoothness and evenness with which the lands and 
 grooves blend into each other. 
 
 o 
 
 OAKUM. — A tangled mass of tarred hempen fibers. 
 
 ni:iilc from old rope by untwisting the stniiids and 
 rubbing the fibers free from each other. Its princi- 
 pal use is in caulking the seams between planks, the 
 space round rivets, bolts, etc., for the purpose of 
 preventing water from penetrating. It is much used 
 in artillery for packing shot and shell, wiping the 
 vents of guns after tiring, cleaning elevating screws 
 and implements, and in making washing sponges. 
 
 OATHS. —The taking of the oath of lid'elity to Gov- 
 ernment and obedience to Superior Officers, was, 
 among ancient armies, a very solemn atlair. A whole 
 corps took the oath together, sometimes ;ui entire 
 army. In modern times, when so many other checks 
 are used for maintaining discipline, the oath has be- 
 come little more than a form. In the United King- 
 dom a recruit enlisting into the armj' or militia, or 
 a volunteer enrolling himself, swears to be faithful 
 to the Sovereign, and obedient to all or any of his 
 Superior Officers; also to divulge any facts coming 
 to his knowledge whicli might atfeet the safety of 
 his Sovereign, or the stability of that Sovereign's 
 Government. The Members of a Court-Martial take 
 oath to try the cases brought before them justly, ac- 
 cording to the evidence, to keep secret the finding 
 until ooutirmed b}- the proper authority, and to 
 keep secret always the opinions given by the mem- 
 bers iudividualTy. The only other military oath is 
 the common oath of a witness before ;i Court-Mar- 
 tial to tell the truth the whole truth, and nothing but 
 the truth. See .lrt(Wf« «/ U'rt;-. 
 
 OBEDIENCE.— Submission to the lawful orders of 
 a Superior. Two questions arise under this article ; 
 AVho is to judge of the legality of the command, and 
 
 who may constitute a Snperior OJfiferf It is evident 
 that if all officers and soldiers are to judge when 
 an order is Imrful and when not, the captious and 
 the mutinous would never be at a loss for a plea to 
 justify their insubordination. It is, therefore, an es- 
 tablished principle, that, unless an order is so mani- 
 festly against law that the (|Uestion does not admit 
 of dispute, the order must first be obeyed by the In- 
 ferior, and he must subsequently seek such redress 
 against his Superior as the laws allow. If the In- 
 ferior disputes the legality before obedience, error 
 of judgment is never admitted in mitigation of the 
 offense. The redress now afforded by the laws to 
 Inferiors is not. however, sufficient ; for doubtful 
 questions of construction of Statutes, instead of 
 being referred to the Federal Courts of Law for their 
 true exposition, have received variable expositions 
 from the E.xecutive, and left the army in an unfortu- 
 nate state of uncertainty as to the true meaning of 
 certain laws, and this uncertainty has been most un- 
 favorable to discipline. Again, wliilethe punishment 
 of death is meted to officers and soldiers for dis- 
 obedience of Imrful commands, the law does not 
 protert, officers and soldiers for obeying unlatrful 
 commands. Instances have occurred in our country, 
 where officers and soldiers have been subjected to 
 vexatious prosecutions, simply for obeying orders, 
 according to their oath of office. Would it not be 
 just if the law, instead of requiring otlicers and sol- 
 diers thus nicely to steer between Scylla andChaiyb- 
 dis. should hold the Superior who gives an illegal 
 order, alone responsible for its execution? By Sit.. 
 perhr Officer in tlie Articles of War, is meant an offi- 
 cer who has the risrht lo command his inferiors in
 
 OBEBEB. 
 
 428 
 
 OBLIQUE. 
 
 the military hierarchy. The word superior, there- 
 fore, embraces, within their appropriate circle of 
 of cominand. Commanding Generals, Superior Regi- 
 mental and Company Officers, Superior Officers of 
 Corps or Departments, and the Commanding Officer 
 en guards, marches, or in quarters of whatever 
 corps of the line of the army, marine corps or mil- 
 itia authorized to command the whole, whenever 
 different corps come together. This construction of 
 the words ''officers appointed over me, according to 
 to the Rules and Articles of War," is manifest by 
 an attentive examination of those articles. See for 
 e.xample, Abt. 34, which gives authority to "all 
 officers of what condition soever to part and quell 
 all quarrels, frays, and disorders, though the permmx 
 cimc'rned should belong to anMher regiment, troop, or 
 company:' Here it is seen that the ordinary subor- 
 dination, by grades, is found only in the same " rrgi- 
 inent, troop, or company:' Tl^e power to part and 
 quell quarrels, is, however, made an exceptional 
 case, in favor not only of officers of different fegi- 
 ments, but the power is even extended to those of an 
 " inferior rank." In a company, regiment, or corps, 
 subordination by grades is established by the terms 
 of the c(3mmission held in such regiment or corps. 
 So, also, where officers hold commissions in the arm)' 
 at large, their right to command when on duty is 
 co-extensive with their commissions. Within regi- 
 ments and corps the muster-roll, then, at once deter- 
 mines the question of superiorly of officers on duty. 
 
 OBEKEE.— One of the three parts of which the en- 
 ciente is formed, in the German system of fortifica- 
 tion. 
 
 OBJECT-GLASS.— The glass in a telescope or micro- 
 scope, which is placed at the end of the tube nearest 
 the object, and first receives theraj-s of light retlected 
 from it. The office of the object-glass will be clearly 
 understood by an examination of the common opera- 
 glass, shown in the drawing. This is a double tele- 
 
 scope, constructed optically on the same principle 
 as the telescope invented by Galileo, and is used for 
 looking at objects that require to be clearly seen 
 rather than greatly magnified— such as scenery and 
 performances in theaters and pulilic halls. Each 
 tube contains a convex achromatic object lens and a 
 double concave eye lens, which are placed at neatly 
 the difference of their focal length apart. Thus, if 
 the object-glass is five inches focus, and the eye-piece 
 one inch negative focus, the length of the bodies will 
 be about four inches, and the power will be nearly 
 live times — that is, the objects looked at through the 
 opera-glass will be seen as distinctly as they would 
 be with tlie naked eye if brouglit four times nearer 
 the observer. Opera-glasses, are short and light, and 
 can l)e easily managed with one hand; they have 
 small maguifying power, say from two to four times. 
 The two object-glasses or large lenses are the most 
 important ones, and upon their perfection the qual- 
 ity of the opera-glass depends. 
 
 With the opera-glass a low magnifying power and 
 large and clear field of vi(^w are the great objects to 
 be desired, on account of the comparative nearness 
 of the objects looked at; l)ut when Ihe objects are 
 one or more miles distant, power becomes a more 
 
 important quality than field of view. To obtain a 
 greater magnifying power with glasses constructed 
 upon the principle of the opera-glass, the distance 
 between the object-glasses and cj'e-pieces must be 
 increased, and the greater that distance the higlier 
 the power. In order to keep up fair proportion of 
 light with the increase of power, the object-gla.sses 
 must increase in diameter. Such glasses, as they 
 are only intended for outdoor use, are called Field 
 or Marine-glasses, have shades to extend beyond the 
 object-glasses to keep off the sun or rain, and are 
 made throughout very substantially, in order to bear 
 rough handling of field or sea service. They are put 
 up in strong leather cases, with strap to sling over 
 the shoulder. The power of field-glasses varies from 
 five to eight times, and their cfearness and efficiency 
 depend upon the accuracy of finish of the object- 
 glasses, and their durability to the strength and good 
 workmanship of the body. See Spy-glass. 
 
 OBJECTIVE POINT.— The point to be reached or 
 gained by an army in executing a movement, has 
 been termed the objective poi7it. There are two 
 classes of objectives, viz : natural and a-ridental. 
 The term geographical is frequently used to designate 
 the first of these. A natural objectice may be an 
 important position, strong naturally, or made so by 
 fortifications, the possession of which gives control 
 over a tract of co\mtrv, and furnishes good point of 
 support or good lines of defense for other military 
 operations. Or, it may be a great business center, 
 or a capital of the country, the possession of which 
 has the effect of discouraging the enemy and mak- 
 ing him willing to sue for peace. Acridentnl objec- 
 tives are dependent upon the militarj' operations 
 which have for their object the destruction or dis- 
 integration of the enemy's forces. These objectives 
 are sometimes called " objective points ofmanfuver. " 
 The position of the enemy determines their location. 
 Thus, if the enemy's forces are greath* scattered, or 
 his front much extended, the central point of his 
 position would be a good objective point, since the 
 possession of it would divide the enemy's forces, 
 and allow his detachments to be attacked separately. 
 Or. if the enemy has his forces well supported, a 
 good objective would be on that flank, the possession 
 of which would allow his communications with uis 
 base to be threatened. It is well to remark that the 
 term "point" used in this connection is not to be 
 considered merely in its geometrical sense, but is 
 used to apply to the object which the army desires to 
 attain, whether it be a position, a place, a line, or 
 even a section of country. See Base of Operations 
 and Line of Operations. 
 
 OBLAT. — A disabled soldier formerly- maintained 
 by alilieys. 
 
 OBLIQUE. — This term, in tactics, indicates a direc- 
 tion which is neither parallel nor perpendicular to 
 the front, but more or less diagonal. It is a com- 
 mand of warning in the tactics for the movenu-nt. 
 It is used when referring to diagonal alignments, 
 attacks, orders of battle, squares against cavalry, 
 changes of front, fires, etc. The oblique step is a 
 step or movement in marching, in which the soldier, 
 while advancing, gradually takes ground to the 
 right or left at an angle of about 25". It is not now 
 practiced. 
 
 As soon as recruits are well established in the 
 principles of the direct tnarch, they should be exer- 
 cised in luiirehlng obliquely. The squad marching 
 in line, tlie Instructor commands: 1 . Right (or left) ob. 
 liqiie, 3. Makch. At the command oiarrh, each man 
 makes a half face to the right, and I hen marches 
 .straight in the new direction. As the men no longer 
 touch elbows, they glance along the shoiddersof the 
 nearest files, toward the side to which they are ob- 
 li(iuing, and regulate their steps so that their shoul- 
 ders are always behind those of the next man on that 
 siile, and Ihat his headconceals the heads of the other 
 men In the rank. The men preserve the same length 
 of pace and the sanu' (U'gree of ol)li(iuily, the line of
 
 OBLIQUE EMBBASURE. 
 
 429 
 
 OBSTACLES. 
 
 the milk ntiiminiiii!; piinillcl to its orifrinal position. 
 To rcHiiiiic ilic orli;iiiiil ilircftioii, tint iiislriictor coiii- 
 niiUKis: 1. Forward, 'i. Maiich. At the coiiiinaMil 
 miirch, ciicli iimii imiiUcn ii liiilf fac(-' to Ihr left in 
 nmrfliini;, mill llicn imovch slniiujlit to the front. If 
 the s(|ii;i(i lie at a Ijall, llic men half face to tlic riijlit 
 at llic coniinaiid /vV//(/"W/V/«^', anil slrp olT at (he corn- 
 niaiid iiKirrh. M lialtcd while ol)lii|iiinLr, ""'.V will, 
 after halting, face to the front willioiil fiirllier eoiii- 
 mand. In the oblitiue inareh in line, the fjuard is 
 always on the side toward which Iheoliliijue is made, 
 withoutany indiealion toihat elleet lieinjx ;xiven: and. 
 when tile direet iiiareh is resumed, the irnide is, 
 equally without indication, on the side where it was 
 previous to the ol)lii|ue. Tliis rule /.< gfinriil. The 
 squad in colunin of tiles otiliques by the sanic? foni- 
 mands and means as when in line, the leading file 
 beiiiL' the ^;uiile. 
 
 OBLIQUE EMBRASURE.— A direct emlirasure is 
 one in which the directrix is perpendicular to the 
 interior crest at the point of intersection with the 
 (Test ; an iihliiiiir eiiihrnimrc is one in wliicli the 
 dircctri.x makes an ansile with the interior crest. 
 When possible, direct embrasures are the ones which 
 are made. If oblique embrasures are to be made, 
 their method of eonstruetiou is practically the same 
 as that fjiven for direet embrasures. Obliipie em- 
 brasures do not admit of the muzzle of the nun beinir 
 inserted so far as the direct ones, and they weaken 
 the parapets more. Oblique embrasures are not 
 used, as a rule, if the directrix makes with the nor- 
 mal to the crest an angle exceeding ten desrees. In 
 case the anfjle is greater, the embrasure is provided 
 for, in field works, by modifying the interior crest. 
 The manner of laying out an oblique embrasure is 
 similar to the direct ; the month is of a rectangular 
 form, but is made wider in ])roportion to the ob- 
 liquity, in order that the part of the embrasure 
 which correspcmds to the muzzle of the gun may be 
 nearly of the same width in both the direct and ob- 
 licpie embrasures. The exterior width of the sole is 
 made equal to one-half the length of the directrix, 
 measured on the sole. The cheeks are laid out as in 
 the last case. The muzzle of a gun should enter at 
 least six inches into the embrasure, to prevent the 
 blast from injuring the checks ; this limits the oli- 
 liquity of the dirertrix to about sixty for long guns. 
 The height of the cheeks must not lie more than four 
 feet forlhe same reason ; it will, therefore, in most 
 cases, be necessary to raise the ground on which 
 the wheels rest, giving to the toj) surface the same 
 dimensions as for a barbette, and forming (he side 
 slo]ies and ramjis in like manner. See Eml.raxure. 
 
 OBLIQUE FIRE.- When two b.itteries bring their 
 fire obliquely upon one point of the enemy's line, 
 they make, what is called, a cross or concentrated 
 fire, which is very destructive upon columns, though 
 not so efTective as enfilade fire. If a pointed pro- 
 jectile strike an iron plate at a less angle than that 
 formed by a tangent to the curve of the bead, it will 
 probably glance off, as the tendency of the shoulder 
 will be to slide along the plate, and the point will find 
 a difficulty in "biting." If theanglebe greater than 
 about .00 degrees, the resistance will approximately 
 be increased in the proportion of the extra thickness 
 to be traversed. In this case the sharp point of the 
 projectile '"bites" the plate on striking, and the 
 shot has a tendency tobring its axis perpendicular to 
 the face of the target ; perforation then depends upon 
 the energy with which the projectile may be anima- 
 ted. Tlius the side of the Mnnnrrh (T-inch plates) 
 could be perforated "directly" by a projectile having ; 
 a zone-energy of 90 foot-tons, but it would require lib I 
 foot-tons to send the same projectile through at an ' 
 angle of (50 degrees. The defense, therefore, should | 
 not rely too much on the chance of shot striking "ob- 
 liquely" ; for the projectiles fired from large modern 
 rified ordnance would probably perforate all thinly 
 armored ironehidsat all fighting angles and ranges. 
 
 OBLIQUE FLANK.— In fortification, that part of the \ 
 
 curtain from whence the face of the opposite bastion 
 may be discovered; and is the dislanee between thr; 
 lines r««/7i< nni\Ji'/iant, which an- rejected by some 
 engineers, us being liable to be ruined at the begin- 
 ning of a siege, esjiecially when made of sandy earth. 
 This olilique or second Hank defends very obliquely 
 the opposite face, and is lo he used only in a place 
 attacked bv an anov witlmnr arlillerv. 
 
 OBLIQUE order" OF BATTLE. Military writers 
 describe this order of battle us one in whi<!h the 
 [irimitive jiarallel order has been departed from, with 
 the design of giving the one force, liy maneuvering, 
 a superiority over the other, or, in otlier words, if an 
 army attacks its enemy in Hank, say the right, its 
 own right must be refused, and lience. when it ar- 
 rives on the enemy's line, the army will be in oblique 
 order. In order to make use of the obliipK- order 
 with success, the enemy must be deceived as to the 
 intention to attempt it, otherwise it may be in his 
 power to frustrate its execution by reinforcing tlie 
 menaced Hank ; extreme caution, therefore, in the 
 preparation for such a maneuver, and the utmost 
 rapidity in its execution, are indispensalily reipiisitc. 
 The aim of using tliis order of battle is to turn or 
 outflank the enemy. See Order i if liattk. 
 
 OBLIQUE STEP.— A step or movement in march- 
 ing, in which the soldier, while advancing, gradually 
 takes ground to the right or left at an angle of about 
 25"^. It is not now |)racliced. 
 
 OBLONG BULLET.- This form of bullet at present 
 used in the United States' service, is composed of a 
 cylinder surmounted by a conoid — the conoid being 
 
 formed of the arcs of three circles. The cylinder 
 has three grooves cut in it, in a direction perpendic- 
 ular to its axis, to hold the grease necessary for lu- 
 bricating the bore of the piece in loading, and possi- 
 bly to guide the bullet in its flight, after the manner 
 of the feathers of an arrow. A conical cavity is form- 
 ed in the bottom, in which the gas of the charge ex- 
 pands, and forces the sides of the bullet into the 
 grooves or rifies of the gun. From these grooves it 
 receives a rotary motion around its long axis, which 
 prevents it from turning over in its flight. See Bui- 
 let. Pr'ijirtilis and Rmind Bullet. 
 
 OBSERVATORY.— For the purpose of observing 
 the flight and effect of the projectiles, a look-out 
 termed an observatory, is arranged on one of the 
 flanks of the batterj' ; in most cases the end of an 
 cpaulement will afford a safe point, where a secure 
 shelter of sand-bags can be made so as to enable an 
 officer with a field-glass to note the range and effect 
 of the fire, so as to regulate it and give the greatest 
 ethcienev. 
 
 OBSERVER SERGEANTS.— In the United States, 
 Sergeants in the Signal Service, stationed in large 
 towns and important commercial centers to give 
 timely warning of the approach of storms, rise of 
 rivers, and all other important weather news for the 
 guidance of niercliants and others. 
 
 OBSISIONAL CROWN.— A crown so called- among 
 the ancients, which was bestowed upon a Governor 
 or General, who by his skill and exertions, either 
 held out or caused the seige to be raised of any town 
 belonging to the Republic. It was made from the 
 grass which grew on the spot, and was therefore 
 called r/rniiiinenji. 
 
 OBSTACLES. — No obstacle is insurmountable. Ob- 
 stacles may hinder, and even slop for a while, an
 
 OBSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 430 
 
 OBSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 euemy's approach, but they can be overcome. Their 
 passive resistance must be aided by tlie active re- 
 sistance of the defense. These obstacles, in order 
 that tliey should be accemory means of defense, 
 should detain the enemy in a position where he will 
 be under the fire of the defenders at close range. 
 Hence, the following conditions should be observed 
 in arranging the obstacles in front of a field work. 
 1. The obstacles should be placed within close 
 musketry range of the defense. 3. They should be 
 arranged so as not to afford shelter to the enemy. 
 3. Tliey should, as a rule, be protected from the fire 
 of the enemy's artillerj'. 4. They should be ar- 
 ranged so as not to interfere with an active defense 
 of the work. Their uses as obstacles wUl depend 
 upon the degree of resistance which they offer in 
 harmony with the foregoing conditions. Abatis 
 placed in the ditch will, in one case, be in the best 
 position ; in another, it should be placed some 
 distance in front of the work. A fraise placed in 
 tlie scarp, when the ditch is swept b_v a fire from 
 the work or from ditch defenses, will be better than 
 if along the counterscarp. Torpedoes, military pits, 
 entanglements, etc., may all be combined. In some 
 cases The grotmd in front of the work will be the 
 better position; in others, the crest of the counter- 
 .scarp and the ditclies offer the best conditions for 
 their use. As a general rule, it is advisable to place 
 the obstacles not nearer than fifty yards to the in- 
 terior crest, if the profile is a weak one. When the 
 profile is strong, it is not a matter of so much im- 
 portance, so long as the assaulting columns are 
 exposed to the fire of the defense. It is well to 
 remark with respect to inundations, that they should 
 not be used until tlie last moment. The unliealthi- 
 ness due to the presence of stagnant water is apt to 
 produce more casualties than are to be feared from 
 the enemy's attacks. If the dams can not be pro- 
 tected or hidden from the enemy's artillery fire, 
 they should be built, as far as possible, so that the 
 enemy can bring his fire to bear only upon the 
 upper side. The amount of the dam exposed to his 
 fire will then only be the portion between the top 
 and the surface of the water. See Accessory Means 
 of Defense. 
 
 OBSTRUCTIONS.— Water may be made a very im- 
 portant accessary means of defense in many localities, 
 as in a fiat, marshy country where the level of the 
 natural surface lies but at a slight elevation above 
 the water-level; or as, in the case of an undulating 
 surface, where small streams running through val- 
 leys, can be dammed back, so as to produce an in- 
 undation of some extent. 
 
 In the former case, the defensive works can be 
 easily girdled by a zone of marsliy ground, which 
 will give an assailant great trouble to construct his 
 trenches and other siege-works upon, whilst the 
 work itself can be secured from attempts at surprise, 
 by keeping its ditches filled with water to the depth 
 of six feet at least. In such a locality — moreover, if 
 in a climate where the winters are mild — revetted 
 scarps and counterscarps, the chief use of which is 
 to prevent an attempt at an open assault, may be 
 replaced by earthen ones, a strong stockade being 
 formed along a wide berm, answering as a corridor, 
 to give greater securitj' on the more exposed fronts 
 of the work. 
 
 In the latter case, portions of the ground, in the 
 immediate vicinity of the works, may be covered by 
 a sheet of water, of sulHcient depth to prevent their 
 being us('d by the assailant in his approaches; and 
 within the inundation thus artificially produced de- 
 tached works may be erected, wliieli, bj' taking 
 flank and reverse views over other lines of approach 
 of the assailant, may force him to make his approach 
 upon other points which will have been strongly 
 fortified to mc'ct this condition of things. 
 
 To form these artificial inundations the locality 
 must lend itself to the construction of dams, in such 
 a position that they cannot be reached by the 
 
 assail&at's missiles, and will be secure from any other 
 means he may take to destroy them. This supposes, 
 then, that the stream should either run through the 
 works, so that the dam could be erected within them 
 or so near to them that, in combination with some 
 advanced work, the dam may be made secure. 
 
 In a locality having these features, the inundation 
 would, as a general rule, have to be formed on the 
 upstream side of the work, since, if made below it, 
 the dam would have to be placed further from the 
 work, and the inundation itself might spread up too 
 far within. Besides these objections to this position, 
 an assailant would evidently have greater facilities 
 for tapping the inundation and running the water off 
 than when it occupies the upstream position. The 
 position and extent of the dams, and the other neces- 
 sary constructions connected with them, as sluices, 
 waste weirs, etc., will depend entirely upon the lo- 
 cal features of the site, and will form a particular 
 study in each case for the engineer. 
 
 Besides these uses of water as a passive obstruc- 
 tion, arrangements may be made, when the locality 
 is favorable to it, for producing a powerful current 
 to sweep away the assailant's works in the ditches by 
 letting loose a large body of water, which has been 
 dammed back for the purpose, with a rush into the 
 ditches. This, in like manner, will require the same 
 constructions as in the preceding ease, and Hash 
 gates which can be suddenly turned about a hori- 
 zontal or a vertical axis, so as to give an outlet to 
 the water in considerable volume" and with great 
 velocity. These gates have to be placed in some 
 secure point of the ditches, inaccessible to the assail- 
 ant and covered from his missiles, and, if effectively 
 used, may prove a source of great annoyance to him 
 by frequentl}- frustrating his attempts to make a pas- 
 sage of the ditch. 
 
 Solid hard rock, or even thin layers of soft rock 
 alternating with layers of soil, as was the case at 
 Sebastopol, are great obstructions to an assailant's 
 siege works, as the rock has, in many cases to be 
 blasted out to gain partial cover, and a large amount 
 of earth, with trench materials, has to be brought 
 forward at great risk of life to form the parapets. 
 In constructing a work, nothing should be omitted 
 which, if placed on the line of the assailant's ap- 
 proaches, will delay his operations and force him to 
 greater efforts and exposure. To this end, where 
 fragments of rock can be readily had in sutticient 
 quantities, it should be used in forming the embank- 
 ment of the glacis, and also be thrown in upon 
 other points, over which important lines of trenches 
 must necessarily run. 
 
 Besides these accessory means of delaying the pro- 
 gress of the besieger's works, a site of solid rock, of- 
 fers the farther advantage of giving natural scarps 
 and counterscarps, where the ditches are excavated 
 out of the rocks, of far greater resistance to the as- 
 sailant's means of destruction than any masonry, 
 however solidly and carefully constructed, can offer; 
 besides forcing the assailant to construct galleries 
 through the rock to attain the level of the bottom of 
 the ditch where his passage of it is to be constructed. 
 With a similar purpose, the stumps of large trees 
 may be left in like positions, and trees may be plant- 
 ed when the work is constructed with the object of 
 cutting them down and leaving their stumps when 
 the work is threatened with a siege. 
 
 Mines, when properly, arranged and well planned, 
 are so important a defensive means that they should 
 constitute a part of the permanent dispositions of 
 defense of every work wliere the eliaracter of the 
 soil will admit of it, at least on those points which 
 are otherwise weakest, and therefore most liable to 
 be assailed. The general arrangement of a combina- 
 tion of galleries and mine chambers, as well as the 
 details fortheir construction, are given in the articles, 
 Mines, and CJountekmines; therefore, nothing further 
 is called for here than to state that li>e jirincipal gal- 
 leries of the combination should be constructed with
 
 OBTUEATEUE. 
 
 ODOKETZK. 
 
 the work, and of durablo malprials, Ifavini; llicf)tli<T 
 parts to bi! done when I lie i-xi'icncy calliri'^ for tliciii 
 iniiv liiippi'Il. Si'C, AraxxDiy/ Mrii.uH oj Ihfi iiac, 
 
 OBTUEATEUE.- A kiiiil of slnppcr, wliiili is usual- 
 ly iiiaili' (if uriKiglil iron, anil umucI with the Mailcn, 
 and similar fuses. The i>hltir<itcur is screwed into 
 tlic Ial)le, and assists in preventing the soft metal of 
 the fuse from being driven into the shell by tlie force 
 of tlie eliars;e. 
 
 OBTUEATION. — The'eseape of i;as at tlie junction 
 of the brceeli block and tlie end of tiic bore must be 
 preveiitccl; the sj'stem of «/'^«/'a<'«rtemployed by tlie 
 Enijlish i]i tlieir iiu)dern IS. I;., (interrupted screw; 
 oninance was a carefully made steel cup attached to 
 the breech-block ; when the gun was fired tlie ex- 
 panding gases pressed the sides of the steel cup 
 against the bore and over the junction with the 
 block, thus closing all small orifices. Iinnicdiati'ly 
 afterwards the elasticity of the steel caus<Ml the cup 
 to regain its former shape, and the breech could be 
 opc^ned again. Th<' French have obtained good 
 results from tlu; lateral expansion of a wad of asbes- 
 tos and tallow acted on by a hemispherical steel 
 block at the end of the bore. With 15. L. small arms 
 the oMuratiini., is elTec:ted by the use of a nielallic 
 cartridge-case. 
 
 OBUS- OBUSIEE.— A species of small mortar, re- 
 sembling a mortar in everything but the carriage, 
 ■which was made in the furm of that belonging to a 
 gun, onl}' shorter. It has been frequently used at 
 sieges; and was well calculated to sweep the cover- 
 ed-way and to lire ricochet .shots. They wen' usual- 
 ly loaded with cartouches. A howitzer, called Ohiis. 
 icr, was known under the name of lluHcnicze, in 
 1434. 
 
 OC. — An arrow used by Turkish archers and bow- 
 men. 
 
 OCCUPATION AEMY.— An army that remains in 
 possession of a newly conquered country, retaining it 
 as a kind of hostage, until peace is signed and the 
 ■war indemnity paid. Armies of Occupation are gen- 
 erally fed at liie expense of the defeated nation. 
 
 OCTAGON. A plane closed tigure of 8 sides. When 
 the sides are e(jual, anil also tlie angles, the figure is 
 called a "regular octagon"; in this case, each angle 
 is 135", or equal to three half right angles. If the 
 alternate corners of a regular octagon be joined, a 
 square is constructed ; and as the angle contained 
 between the sides of the square and of the octagon 
 is one-fourth of a right angle, the octagon may easily 
 be constructed from the square as a basis. The oc- 
 t.agon in fortitication is well calculated in its ground 
 for the construction of large towns, or for such as 
 have the advantage of neighboring rivers, especially 
 if the engineer can so place the bastions, that the en- 
 trances and outlets of the rivers may be in some of 
 the curtains. By means of this disposition, no per- 
 son could come in or go out of the garrison without 
 the Commandant's permission, as the sentinels must 
 have a full view from the flanks of the neighboring 
 bastions. 
 
 ODA. — A name given to the different corps or com- 
 panies into which the Janissaires were divided. The 
 ■word Oda means a room, and the companies were 
 so called from messing separately. 
 
 ODA-BACHI.— A termapplied to a Captain super- 
 intending the gunners at Constantinople. 
 
 ODIUS. — A herald in the camp of the Greeks be- 
 fore Troy. 
 
 OBOMETEB. — An instrument attached to a carriage 
 or other vehicle, for the purpose of registering the 
 distance it has traveled. Such machines have been 
 in use from an early period, and one is described by 
 Vitruvius in that part of his work De ArchiUxtura, 
 ■which is devoted to machines. The instrument, as 
 commonly employed, consists of a train of wheel- 
 work, which communicates motion from the axle of 
 the carriage wheel to an index which moves round 
 the circumference of a dial fixed in one side of the 
 carriage over the axle. The wheel-work is arranged 
 
 so as to produce a great diminution of the velocity 
 impressed by the axle of the vehicle, and the dial m 
 so graduated that llie index can show the niimbirof 
 miles, furloii'.'s, yards, etc., traversed. The instru- 
 mi'iit is also constructed to work independently, lie- 
 ing in this case provided with wheels and an axle of 
 its own; when this is done the wheel is made of 
 such a size that its circumference is an aliquot part 
 of a mile, an arrangement which greatly siniplifieg 
 tilt; calculation of the distance traversed. The 
 complete Odometer can then be drawn along by a 
 man on foot, or attached behind a carriage. 
 
 The Odometer, shown in Fig. 1, consists essen- 
 tially of a .s(|uare brass weight or pendulum, hung 
 within a rectangular frame which revolves with the 
 wlieel, while the pendulum remains vertical. Upon 
 the front face of the pendulum are fwo brass ■wlieels, 
 
 two inches in diameter, the inner surfaces of which 
 are in contact, the edges of both uniting to make a 
 groove corresponding to a worm cut in the middle 
 of a shaft fastened to the sides of the frame. The 
 front wheel has one hundred teeth, the rear one 
 ninety-nine, and both pitch into and are moved by 
 the revolving worm of the frame. There are also 
 the same number of divisions as of teeth on eacli 
 wheel, and they are figured, tlie front wheel from 
 to 100, the rear one from to 0000. The front wheel 
 has three spokes, an index being also cut down on 
 its perimeter to read the divisions of the rear wheel, 
 the front wheel itself being read by a slender steel 
 wire fastened to the brass weight and curving over 
 the worm, so as to be immedia>' .y over the divisions 
 of the wheel. Now when t)'^ frame is made to re- 
 volve by the revolution o*" the wagon wheel, the 
 worm will turn both wheel , and each will be moved 
 forward one tooth by evei^ turn, and when one hun- 
 dred turns are made, the front wheel wUl have moved 
 completelj- around, and the index of its zero division 
 will liave been carried over one division of the inner 
 wheel. And thus by noting the positions of the in- 
 dices of both wheels, the number of revolutions of 
 the wagon wheel can be easily obtained up to 9900, 
 when both wheels will be at zero again. The wagon 
 wheel being of a given size, the number of feet 
 traveled can be at ^nce ascertained by noting the 
 readings of the wheels, at the beginning and end of 
 the journey, subtracting one from the other, and mul- 
 tiplying tlie perimeter of the wagon wheel by the 
 number of turns made. 
 
 An excellent form of Odometer devised by Messrs 
 Gurley, United States, is represented in Fig. 2. The 
 pendulum is fastened to a shaft turning in tlie center 
 of a strong circular metal box on this shaft, and turn- 
 ing ■nitli it is a pinion giving motion to a train of 
 wheels, each of which has also a shaft to the end 
 of which an index is fastened. There are dials for 
 each index as shown, and the number of turns of the 
 wagon wheel can thus be counted up to 100,000. A
 
 (EIL DE B(EUF. 
 
 432 
 
 OFFENSIVE BATTIE. 
 
 strona: bezel ring with thick glass covers the dials 
 and allows them to be easily read. The Odometer is 
 securely fastened to the spokes of the wheel by 
 three carriage-bolts, there being also a thick leather 
 washer on each side confined between the bottom of 
 the projectmg arms, and a metal washer of same shaue 
 on the other "side of the spokes. In using this Odo- 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 meter the reading of the dials must be taken at both 
 ends of the journey, the one subtracted from the 
 other, and the remainder showing the number of 
 turns of the wagon wheel, multiplied into its peri- 
 meter. See PedomeUr. 
 
 CEIL DE BCEDF.— A French term literally signify- 
 ing ox's eye, applied in architecture to those small 
 round or oval openings in the frieze or roof of large 
 buildings, which serve to give light to spaces other- 
 wise dark. The most famous is that in the ante- 
 room (where the courtiers waited) of the Royal Cham- 
 ber at Versailles, which gave name to the apartment. 
 Hence the expression, Les Fnstes de V (Eil-de-Batif 
 —\. e., the history of the courtiers of the Grand Jlon- 
 arque, and by extension, of courtiers in general. 
 
 OFF. — Most distant ; a term commonly used in 
 speaking of horses harnessed to a carriage, in con- 
 tradistinction to near. It means the animal which 
 is harnessed on the right hand facing the front of a 
 team. The tennis variouslj' compounded, as in the 
 expressions, tn march off, to sound off\ to tell off', etc. 
 
 OFFENSE. — A crime committed by an officer or 
 soldier for which he deserves punishment. All acts 
 that are contrary to good order and iliscipline. omis- 
 sions of duty, etc., may be called military oflenses, 
 and subject the olTeudcr to be tried by Court-^AIar- 
 tial. The principal oflenses are specified in the Ar- 
 ticles of \V:ir. 
 
 OFFENSIVE BATTLE.— In a purely Offensive Bat- 
 tle, an army seeks file enemy and attacks him wher- 
 ever he is to be found. To know wiiat we are going 
 to encounter is half the battle in almost all affairs of 
 life ; for we are, thus far, secure from the siirprise 
 of finding something in our way that we had not 
 counted upon. In no transaction is lliis beforeliaud 
 knowledge more important tlian in jirepaiing for 
 a battle. Tliere is hardly any labor, any ]iers<inal risk 
 to which a General should not subject himself to gain 
 precise and accurate information on this head. Here 
 he must see for himself, at llie risk of finding his 
 orders misconstrued, and his jilaus (Ufeated by tlie 
 carelessness or stupidity of his sul)ordinafes. 
 
 A personal reconnoissance therefore of the enemy's 
 
 position is indispensable, and if this is made on the 
 eve of the attack the General should take another 
 last look in the morning, before moving, to see that 
 the enemy has not anticipated him, and taken steps 
 that call for changes on his part. Of course, what- 
 ever is advantageous to the defensive will particular- 
 ly engage his attention ; but, as his great object is, 
 iiot only to drive back the enemy, but to 
 bring on him a great disaster, the chief point 
 to which he will bend his thoughts, will be 
 to see by what mode and by what point of 
 attack he can secure the greatest strategical 
 results. 
 
 Considerations therefore both of tactical 
 and strategical character must receive the 
 careful examination of the Commanding Gen- 
 eral, in deciding upon iiis plan of attack. 
 The first, as carrying with it the most im- 
 portant advantage, is the strategical result ; 
 the two principal of which are, first, either to 
 direct the main effort upon that wing of the 
 enemy which, if overthrown, will naturally 
 bring us on the line of retreat of his forces, 
 or, second, upon some point between his two 
 wings which, if pierced, may force his dis- 
 connected forces ondivergent lines of retreat, 
 and thus expose them to the disaster of being 
 beaten in detail, or to the capture or de- 
 struction of one of the fractions. In the bat- 
 tle of Austerlitz, for example, in which the 
 Allies at first acted offensively, their plan 
 was made subservient wholly to the strategi- 
 cal result. The right of the French position 
 was nearest to their line of retreat on Vien- 
 na; by forcing this point, the Allies would 
 have been brought between the French and 
 Vienna, thus throwing them further from 
 their base. It repulsed in this attempt, which was 
 possible, the Allies still covered their own line 
 of retreat, so long as their center and right held firm. 
 The strategical object of Kapoleon, on the contrar3', 
 was to pierce the Allied center, and thus secure the 
 advantages of a successful operation of this kind. 
 Next in importance come what may be termed the 
 grand tactical considerations ; that is, the means 
 of doing most damage to the enemy on the field 
 of battle itself. For example, if the enemy's position 
 is such that he has an impassable obstacle on one of 
 his wings, as a river, lake, or a narrow defile, tac- 
 tical considerations alone would suggest to direct our 
 main attack on the opposite wing, since it is evident 
 that by defeating this, the center and the remaining 
 wing may be very easily thrown upon the ob- 
 struction which it either cannot pass, or must 
 pass with difficulty, and thus be captured or great- 
 ly cut up. In like maimer, tactical considerations 
 would engage us to attack a height on the ene- 
 my's position which, if gained, would give our 
 forces a decided advantage ; or, if his line of bat- 
 tle presents a very salient point, upon which our 
 efforts can be concentrated to attack this point; 
 or if his line at any point presents a wide break, 
 into which we can force our way, to do so ; any 
 one of these pointsi, if gained, would give decided 
 tactical advantage. 
 
 Though not necessarily leading to the same de- 
 cisive results as the two preceding, a third consid- 
 eration, in choosing the point of attack, is the fa- 
 cility which the natural features of the ground, 
 over which we nuist move tipon it, afford for the 
 combined operatiim of the troops of the different 
 arms that are to make the attack. Too much 
 weight, however, is not to be given to this, in se- 
 lecting the point of attack; as ground, hbwever 
 dillicult, may almost always be got over by troops of 
 all arms, and very often it more tlian compensates 
 for tlie labor of doing so, by the cover and other ad- 
 vantages it may afford in advancing. 
 
 In tiie liattle of Austerlitz the laclica! advantages 
 were greatly against the Allied point of attack, as
 
 OFFENSIVE PATROLS. 
 
 OFFICER IN CHARGE. 
 
 they, in the first place, had to advance againHt the 
 villafjfH nccupii'cl liy the Frciicli and 1liroiii;h nar- 
 row, lioMovv riiuds, in which llicir ccilurniiH l)i'canic 
 confuHcd and disnrdiTcd ; and tlicy haii, iiiorrovcr. 
 on the (lank and rear .'iiviral pniids, wilh only 
 narrow cause way w ijcl wccn tlicin,ori which.if thrown, 
 tlicnt was no onllcl of cscap<: cxcciit over these nar- 
 row defdes. all (jf which were exposed to llic artil- 
 lery of the French. The rcsidt, as we know, was a 
 frightful disaster. Prudence c<iunsels, in all such 
 cases, to fon'f;olhe teniptinf; ohjcct of a ^rand result 
 if to gain it we ccjiosc o\irselves, if iinsuccessful, to 
 a f;r<'at disaster. The (lencral who looks forward 
 alone, not proviilini; for his own n'ar or flanks, or 
 who. intent only upon some strikinj; success, rushes 
 recklessly in the purstdt of it. within the jaws of 
 destruction, has learned hut half his trade, and that 
 the most easily ac(|uired and the most dangerous in 
 its ap[)lication in such hands. It is in nicely weii;h- 
 inn these <'onsidcrations and selectinj^ the l)est, that 
 the fireat (Jencral shows his powers. Kccoi^nizin;; 
 scttleil principles as his guides, he does not apply 
 them hlindly. 
 
 Althou);h hut one point, known as the kf.y-ipnmt, is 
 usually selected for the main effort of the assailant, 
 still the whole line of the assaile<i is more or less 
 menaced, to prevent the key-point from receiving 
 reinforcements. A difTerent course, one hy which 
 we endeavor, so to speak, to envelop the a.ssailed, 
 can only be attempted with a prospect of success, 
 when we are greatly superior in force. Had the Al- 
 lies at Austcrlitz, instead of pressing with such vigor 
 the French left whilst they weakened their center in 
 moving on the French right, thus leaving the pla- 
 teau of Pratzen a comparatively easy prey to the 
 French, simply menaced the left and held the plateau 
 with a strong force, not succeeded in their main at- 
 tack, they would at least have avoided the sub.sequent 
 disaster. Connected with enveloping attacks is that 
 of sending a strong detachment, hy a circuiloi:s 
 route, to fall cm the enemy's rear, wddlst an attack is 
 made on him in front. Such maneuvers are wrong in 
 principle, and nulitary history presents stiking in- 
 stances of their failure in practice. The topograph- 
 ical features of the immediate theater of operations 
 can alone determine whether to risk turning opera- 
 tions. When this is in a very broken or obstructed 
 country so that such a movement may be concealed 
 for the time necessary to perform it, the risk will he 
 less, but the chances are still against it. 
 
 An attack on the center is the obvious operation 
 when the enemy's line is too extended for the num- 
 ber of his forces. It may also be the best course 
 when the enemy's line of retreat is through a detile 
 in the rear of his center, as, in case of success, each 
 wing is cut off from the line of retreat, and the troops 
 of the center, if forced upon the detile, cannot escape 
 from a serious disaster. Where both flanks of the 
 enemy's position are secure, and it becomes a case of 
 necessity to attack some point of the front must be 
 selected for the main effort, which, if gained, will 
 give a decided advantage. For example, if there is 
 a commanding eminence on his front, every efTort 
 sliould he made to carry it, as, from there, the field 
 of battle being overlooked the enemy would be ob- 
 liged to fall back. In this case the order of battle 
 would necessarily become (wnixat; the divisions of the 
 center, to make the assault, .being in advance whilst 
 their flanks and rear wotild be secured hy the divi- 
 sions of the wings advancing in echelon, those near- 
 est the center being most advanced. P-liminating all 
 exceptional local features, the general case which 
 presents itself is that, where the entire line of the 
 enemy is equally exposed, and where success there- 
 fore depends upon the ability of the assailant to keep 
 the wh(de line so threatened that its reserve alone 
 can be moved with safety from one point to another, 
 whilst a powerful effort with concentrated forces is 
 made on some one point, usually one of the wings. 
 In this case the assailing wing will be strongly rein- 
 
 forced, particularly with artillery; the center alBO 
 
 strengthened, whilst the opposite wing will be re- 
 fused, thedivisions receding from towards the center, 
 in echelon, so as to parry any attempt at turning 
 tliiiii. or at making a Hank attack on tliispart. The 
 only geiHTal rules that can he well laid down for the 
 distribution of tliedilTerent arms on thc-tli-ld of battle 
 have already been given. Detailson this point must 
 be necessarily left to the subordinates, wiio, if well 
 ac(piainled with the true functions and resources of 
 their respective arms, will seldom fail to post them 
 so as to do as much injury to the enemy and be ex- 
 posed to as little danger to llK'niselves as the natural 
 features of the lield of battle will admit of. The 
 plan of thi^ battle having been decided on, the maneu- 
 vers to carry it out shoidd be as simple as possible, 
 so as to guard against the failures that almost in- 
 variably attend any attempt at complex movements, 
 within striking distance of the enemy. All di.-ilribu- 
 tions for what are termed passages of lines .'■hoidd 
 be avoided, even in the case of thoroughly drilled 
 troops. The distril)ution of infantry in echelons, 
 wherever it can hea<lopted, is onei,f thi- best, as each 
 division has its sujiport at hand on its flank, wddlst 
 the interval left between the flank of the one in ad- 
 vance and that <jf the one next it in rear, should of- 
 fer sulHcient space for cavalry or artillery to move 
 forward to the front if wanted. See liattlcK, Defen- 
 sire Htittli', and Mired liattlr. 
 
 OFFENSIVE PATROLS.- That class of patrols made 
 exterior to the line of out-posts, with a view of gain- 
 ing intelligence of the enemy's whereabouts. 'They 
 are composed of larger bodies of men than defen- 
 sive patrols, the number being proportioned both to 
 the distance to be gone over, and the extent of front 
 to be examined. In a position, presenting but few 
 cross-roads, and sparsely settled, a patrol of ten or 
 twenty horsemen may be found ample, to search, 
 with all desirable thoroughness, from twenty to 
 forty miles in advance of the position, along the 
 principal avenues to it ; whereas, with a more ex- 
 tended front, presenting many lateral avenues, 
 double this number might be required for the same 
 duty. From the information obtained, through the 
 ordinary channels of maps, and by questioning the 
 inhabitants at hand, the commanding-oflicer can 
 usually settle, with sufficient accuracy, the strength 
 of a patrol. 
 
 OFFENSIVE WAR.— Military acts of aggression 
 constitute what is called an Offennite War. Those 
 who assail an opposite or adverse army, or invade 
 the dominions of another power, are said to wage an 
 Offennive War. See War. 
 
 OFFENSIVE WEAPONS.— All arms of the present 
 day, such as cannon, small-arms, swords, and other 
 weapons which would be used on an army taking 
 the field for offensive operations. See Ordiuince and 
 Smnll-firms. 
 
 OYTICER.— Military Offif^s are combatant and 
 non-combatant, the latter term including Paymasters, 
 Medical Officers, Commissariat, and other Civil 
 Officers. Commissioned Officers in the English 
 army are those holding commissions from the 
 Crown, or a Lord-Lieutenant, and comprise all 
 holding the rank of ensign, or corresponding or 
 superior rank. Divided by duties, they are Staff 
 Officers (see Staff), or Regimental Officers (see 
 Regiment) ; divided by rank. General Officers, 
 Field Officers, and Troop or Company Officers. 
 The last are Captains, Lieutenants, and Sub- 
 Lieutenants, and, except in the cavalry, are un- 
 mounted. The only Warrant Officers in the army 
 are Master Gunners and Schoolmasters. Non-com- 
 missioned Officers are described under that heading. 
 
 OFFICER IN CHARGE.— An officer, at the United 
 States Military A( adeiny, charged with the enforce- 
 f ment of all regulations governing the Corps of Ca- 
 dets. Each of the Assistant Instructors of Tactics 
 are in turn detailed as Officer in Charge ; his tour of 
 duty to commence at guard-mounting, at which time
 
 OFFICER IN WAITING. 
 
 434 
 
 OFFICIAL CODETESIES. 
 
 he reports for orders to the Commandant of CndHs, 
 
 Between tliirly minutes after receille roll-call and 
 tap:< he stations himself in, or near his office, and 
 at no time durins; his tour absents liimself from it, 
 except on duty or at meals, witliout the sanction of 
 the Cummandant of C'adetn. He is in tlie Cadets' 
 mess-hall at their meals, is present at every parade 
 and roll-call during his tour, and sees that all duty 
 during the day which does not require the presence 
 of the Commandant of Cadets is performed in a sol- 
 dier-like manner, and according to regulations and 
 orders. He sees that all signaTs are sounded at the 
 proper time, and takes effectual measures to sup- 
 press all irregularties and disturbances that may oc- 
 cur in the quarters or their vicinity, and corrects 
 all violations of orders or regulations coming to his 
 knowledge. He visits the sentinels at his discretion 
 during his tour, to see that they are well acquainted 
 with their duties. On being relieved, he embraces 
 in his report all suggestions that maj' be of service 
 to the Commandant for the preservation and pro- 
 motion of health, police and discipline, and reports 
 all offenses against discipline, coming to his knowl- 
 ediie. which have nccurred during his tour of duty. 
 
 OFFICER IN WAITING.— In the British service, 
 the Officer next for duty. He is mentioned in orders, 
 and ought to be ready for the service specified at a 
 minutes warning. He must not on this account quit 
 the camp, garrison, or cantonment. 
 
 OFFICER OF THE DAY.— An ofticer whose immed- 
 iate duty is to attend to the interior economy of the 
 corps or garrison to which he belongs, or of those 
 with which he ma)' be doing duty. The Officer of 
 the Day has charge of the guard, prisoners, and po- 
 lice of the garrison; and inspects the soldiers bar- 
 racks, messes, etc. Both the old and the new Officer 
 of the Day are present at guard-mounting. While 
 the old guard is being relieved, they inspect the 
 guard-house, orients, and verify the number of pris- 
 oners. Theyj then proceed to report to the Com- 
 manding Officer, when the Officer relieved presents 
 the report of 'the Officer of the Guard, upon which he 
 previou.sly makes such remarks as circumstances re- 
 quire. At the same time, the new Officer of the Day 
 receives his instructions. The Officer of the Day is 
 responsible for the enforcement of the police regvila- 
 tions, and the cleanliness of the post or camp. " Fa- 
 tigue parties are furnished him when the number of 
 prisoners is insufficient for police purposes. The | 
 Officer of the Day visits the guards during the day at 
 such times as ne may deem necessary, and makes I 
 his rounds at night at least once after 12 o'clock. I 
 The Officer of the Day sees that the Officer of the 
 Guard is furnished with the parole and countersign 
 before retreat. In war time, the Officer of the Day 
 satisfies himself frequently during the night of the 
 vigilance of the police guard and advanced posts. 
 He prescribes patrols and rounds to be made by the 
 Officer and Non-commissioned Officers of the Guard. 
 The Officer of the Guard orders them when he thinks 
 necessarv. He visits the sentinels frequently. — 
 
 OFFICER OF THE GUARD.— An officer "detailed 
 daily for service with the guard. It is his duty, 
 imder the Ofiicer of the Day, to see that the Non- 
 commissioned Officers and men of his guard are well 
 instructed in all their duties; he inspects the reliefs, 
 visits the sentinels, and is responsible for the pris- 
 oners and the property used by them and the guard. 
 He is also responsible for good order, alertness, and 
 discipline. ( )fficers remain constantly at their guards, 
 except while visiting their sentinels, or necessarily 
 engaged elsewhere on their proper duty. The Of- 
 ficer of the (iuard insi)ects his guard at reveille and 
 retreat, and sees that the (-ountersign is duly rom- 
 miniicated to the sentinels at the prliper time before 
 twilight. See (hiard Ilipurt. 
 
 OFFICIAL COURTESIES. The interchange of offi. 
 cial ei)mj)liincnts and visits between foreign military 
 or naval otliicrs, and the authorities of a military 
 post, urc international in character. In all cases it 
 
 I is the dutj' of the Commandant of a military post, 
 without regard to his rank, to send a suitable officer 
 to offer civilities and assistance to a vessel-of-war 
 (foreign or otherwise) recently arrived. After such 
 offer it is the duty of the Commanding Officer of the 
 vessel to send a suitable officer to acknowledge such 
 civilities, and request that a time be specified forliis 
 reception by the Conmianding Officer of the post. 
 The Commanding Officerof a military post, after the 
 usual offer of civilities, is always to receive the first 
 visit without regard to rank. The return visit by 
 the Commanding Officer of the military post is made 
 the following day, or as soon thereafter as practicable. 
 
 When a Military Commander officially visits a 
 vessel-of-war he gives notice of his visit to the vessel 
 previously thereto, or sends a suitable officer (or an 
 orderly) to the gangway to announce his presence, 
 if such notice has not been given. He is then received 
 at the gangway by the Commander of the vessel, and 
 is accompanied there on leaving by the same officer. 
 The officer who is sent with the customary offer of 
 civilities is met at the gangwaj' of a vessel-of-war bj' 
 the Officer-of-the-Deck ; through the latter he is pre- 
 sented to the Commander of the vessel, with whom 
 it is his duty to commimicate. A vessel-of-war is 
 approached and boarded, by commissioned officers, 
 bj' the star-board side and gangway, when there are 
 gangways on each side. In entering a boat, the 
 junior goes first and other officers according to 
 rank; in leaving a boat, the senior goes first. The 
 latter is to acknowledge the sahites which arc given 
 at the gangwa)' of naval vessels. Naval vessels fire 
 personal salutes to officers entitled to them when the 
 l)oat containing the officer to be saluted has cleared 
 the ship. It is an acknowledgment for his boat to 
 "lie on her oars" from the first until the last gun of 
 the salute, and for the officer saluted to uncover, 
 then at the conclusion to "give way." The exchange 
 of official visits between the Commanding Officers of 
 a post and vessel, opens the door to both official and 
 social courtesies among the other officers 
 
 To a boat with the Hag of an Admiral, Vice-Admiral, 
 or Rear-Admiral, or the broad pennant of a Commo- 
 dore, boats with narrow pennants "lie on their 
 oars" or "let fly their sheets," and boats without 
 pennants "toss their oars." In both cases officers 
 in them salute. In the case of two boats meeting or 
 passing each other, each with the same insignia of a 
 Commanding Officer, the jimior is the first to salute. 
 Officers of inferior grade to a Commanding Officer 
 passing him in a boat, "lie on their oars" or "let 
 fly their sheets," and salute. All other officers pass- 
 ing each other in boats are to exchange salutes, the 
 junior saluting first. Cockswains steering boats are, 
 whenever commissioned officers are saluted, to stand 
 up and raise their caps, and whenever warrant of- 
 ficers are saluted they raise their caps onlj . The of- 
 ficer or Cockswain of a loaded boat, or of boats en- 
 gaged in towing, salute a boat with the flag of an 
 Admiral, Vice-Admiral, or Rear-Admiral, or the broad 
 pennant of a Commodore, by standing and raising 
 their caps. When boats are rowing in tlie same di- 
 rection, an inferior is not to pass a superior in grade 
 unless he is on urgent duty, or authorized by the 
 superior. When boats are pursuing opposite direc- 
 tions, the rule of the road to prevent fouling is, that 
 both shall "put their helms to port" — /. e., to pass 
 to the right, circumstances permitting. When boats 
 are approaching the same landing or vessel, an in- 
 ferior is always to give way to a superior in rank. 
 Boats about leaving a ship's side or landing are to 
 give way in anq)le time to others approaching. It 
 is not projicr to land over another boat without per- 
 mission, and only when it cannot be avoided is per- 
 mission to be asked. Boats display their ensigns 
 when they shove off.andkeep them dying until llieir 
 return. 
 
 To distinguish ofllcers in boats, Commanding Offi- 
 cers of fleets, s(|uadrous, or divisions carry the dis- 
 tinguishing marks of their rank on the bow of their
 
 OinCIAL ENTEL0FE8. 
 
 435 
 
 OIUIS LAW. 
 
 bar^fx. Flii}?s and piiiiiants (iislint;iii«liinK rank arc. 
 also worn at the. hows of lioals. An AdniiraPH tlajr ifl 
 a liliic llai; licarin;; four vvliilc stars ; llial of a Vii'c- 
 Admiral liiars llircc^ stars; a Ut-ar-Adniiral.two slaiw- 
 a Coinniodorc's pennant, one slar, and is a swallow- 
 laili-d Ma;;. 'I'lic narrow pennant is worn liy (loni- 
 niandinn OlUc'crs of lesser ranli. In addition, (Cap- 
 tains in tlic Navy wear a );ilt ball on tlic end of tlii'ir 
 boat staffs, and Commanders a |,'ilt star. To tlie 
 HJiips, l)()ats, and ollieers of llie Uniled Slates Navy, 
 as well as foreif^n olticers, llie foreLfoini: is due; and 
 courtesy between the land and naval services is in- 
 ilispensable to j;ood order and diseiplini*, as well as 
 necessary to tlur national dignity and honor. Mili- 
 lary ollieers of assimilative rank are entitled to 
 and should carry the above boat insignia. Navy 
 rei^ulations require ollieers and men never to omit, 
 on any occasion, to extend the same complimi'iits 
 toolllcers of the Army us are paid by them to ollieers 
 of the Navy. 
 
 When a civil functionary entitled to a salute ar- 
 rives at a military post, the Commanding Ollicer 
 meets or calls upon him as soon as practicable. The 
 Commanding Otiicer will tender him a review, pro- 
 viding the garrison of the place is not less than four 
 batteries of artillery, or their e(|uivalent of other 
 troops. When an officer entitled to a salute visits a 
 post within his own command, the troops are para<l- 
 ed and he receives the honor of a review, unless he 
 directs otherwise. When a salute is to be given an 
 officer junior to another present- at a post, the senior 
 will be notified to that effect by the Commanding Of- 
 ficer. Military or naval officers of whatever rank, 
 arriving at a military post or station, are expected lo 
 call upon the Commanding Officer. Under no cir- 
 cumstances is the flag of a military post dipped by 
 wav of salute or compliment. 
 
 OFFICIAL ENVELOPES.— In the United States, it 
 is lawful to transmit through the mail, free of post- 
 age, any letters, packiiges, or other matters relating 
 exclusively to the business of the Government of 
 the United States : Provided, That every such letter 
 or package to entitle it to pass free bears over the 
 words "Official business" an indorsement showing 
 also the name of the Department, and, if from a 
 bureau or office, the names of the Department and 
 bureau or office, as the case may be, whence trans- 
 mitted. And if any person makes iLse of any such 
 official envelope to avoid the payment of postage 
 on his private letter, package or other matter in the 
 mail, the person so offending is deemed guilty of a 
 misdemeanor, and subject to a fine of.three hundred 
 dollars, to be prosecuted in any court of competent 
 jurisdiction. For the purpose of carrying this act 
 into effect, it is the duty of each of the Executive 
 Departments of the United States to provide for it- 
 self and its subordinate offices the necessary enve- 
 lopes ; and in addition to the indorsement designat- 
 ing the Department in which they are to be used, 
 the penalty for the unlawful use of these envelopes 
 is stated thereon. These Envelopes, with the pen- 
 alty clause printed thereon, are confined to the War 
 Department and its bureaus and offices in Washing- 
 ton City. For small packages of public property, 
 weigliing not more than four pounds, the mails may 
 be used, as authorized by law, provided the cost of 
 freight is not less than the postage at legal rates. 
 Such packages may be prepaid with official postage 
 stamps at the rates required by law for the matter 
 inclosed ; and by authority of the Post Office De- 
 partment packages containing public property may 
 he sealed, provided a written certificate is affixed, 
 signed by the officer mailing the same, that they 
 contain no matter subject to a higher rate of postage 
 than has been prepaid thereon. Under the pro- 
 visions of the Universal Postal Union Convention, 
 concluded at Paris on the 1st of June, 1878, the 
 prepayment of postage on every kind of correspond- 
 ence exchanged in the mails between countries of 
 the Postal tfnion can only be effected by means of 
 
 postage stamps valid in the country of origin for 
 the correspoiKhrnce iif private individuabi. Tlie only 
 correspondence exern|)ted from this reipiirement is 
 ollleiid correspondence relative to the [joslal hervice 
 and exchanged directly between Postal Administra- 
 tions. Correspondence a<ldressed lo Postal Union 
 countries and colonies can only be prepaid by means 
 of the ordinary United Slates postage stamps which 
 are furnished lo the public. See I' ranking IMt/rn. 
 
 OFF RECKONINGS. An allowance formerly given 
 to the Commanding Officers of regiments and Cap- 
 tains of (,'on]paiiies. out of the annual clothing 
 money set aside for their men The allowance was 
 subsequently paid only to the Colonels of regiments, 
 and was a fluctuating sum, depending on the amount 
 of the surplus left after the clothing was made up. 
 About twenty-five years ago. an average of thirty 
 years was struck, and a fixed sum from that period 
 allowed yearly to Colonels, termeii dolonrfx All'/ir. 
 ««'•(', amounting to about i'GOO a year inline regi- 
 ments, in aildition to the regular pay. Tiie term uff. 
 reehiningn is th<Teforc now obsolete. 
 
 OGEE.— A molding Consisting of two curves, one 
 concave and the other convex. It Is called (in clas- 
 sic architecture) cymaliiim or ryma reterivi. The 
 ogee is also mucli used in Gothic architecture. An 
 arch having each siile formed with two contrasted 
 curves is called an ogee arch. The ogee, sometimes 
 written ogive, frequently constituted the ornamental 
 molding on guns, mortars, and howitzers. 
 
 OGIVAL. — The form usually given the head of ob- 
 long ])rojectiles. It was found by Borda that this 
 shape experienced less resistance from the air than 
 any other. See Oblong Bullet, and Projectiles. 
 
 OHM'S LAW. — This law is singularly in accordance 
 witli experimental results. It assumes that the elec- 
 tro-motive force for a particular galvanic pair is con- 
 stant, and that the strength of the curent it produces is 
 the quotient which results from dividing it by the re- 
 sistance of the circuit. This resistance arises from two 
 sources, the first being the resistance within the cell 
 offered by the exciting liquid, and the second the 
 interpolar resistance. He represent the electromotive 
 force; I, the resistance within the cell; «c, the inter- 
 polar resistance; and S, the strength of the current, 
 or the quantity of electricity actually transmitted, 
 the statement of the law for one couple stands thus: 
 e 
 
 S= •. The application of the law in a few partic- 
 
 l-\-w 
 ular cases will best illustrate its meaning. If we in- 
 crease the number of cells to n, we increase the elec- 
 tromotive force n times, and at the same time we in- 
 crease the liquid resistance « times, for the current has 
 
 ne 
 Titimesasmuchof it totravel,thenS=— — ^. If w be 
 
 nl-^w 
 
 small compared with nl — that is, if the external con- 
 nection be made by a short, thick wire — it may be 
 
 ne e 
 neglected, and so S = -- = — . This shows that one 
 
 nl I 
 cell gives in these circvtmstances as powerful a cur. 
 rent as a large battery. But if nl be small with re- 
 spect to ic— as in the interpolar circuit of an electric 
 
 nt 
 telegraph batter)'— ?»; may be neglected.and S = — . 
 
 w 
 
 Here we learn that the strength of the current in- 
 creases directly as the number of cells. We may learn 
 from the same that the introduciion of the coil of 
 long,thin wire of a galvanometer into such a circuit, 
 introducing but a comparatively small increase of 
 resistance, causes a very slight diminution of the cur- 
 rent strength. If. again, we increase the size of the 
 plates of a galvanic "pair n times, the section of the 
 liquid is proportionately increased, so that whilst the 
 electromotive force remains the same, the cell re-
 
 OIL-BATH. 
 
 43(j 
 
 OLEOMETEH. 
 
 sistance diminishes n times; therefore S = - 
 
 l+w 
 
 ne 
 
 If the exterior resistance is small, nl 
 
 l-\-nii! 
 may be neglected, and S = 
 
 I 
 
 and the strcnffth is 
 
 . thus shown to'increase n times. These are only a 
 verj' few of the conclusions arrived at by this law. 
 With the aid of a tangent galvanometer, which gives 
 the value of S expressed in absolute magnetic units, 
 or centimeters of voltameter gas, we ascertain e and 
 I for an}' pair. By making two observations with 
 two wires of known resistance separately included 
 in the circuit, we have two simple equations with 
 two unknown quantities, from which e and I can be 
 easily found. In doing so, we must adopt a unit of 
 resistance. The unit proposed and determined by the 
 British Association, the B. A. unit, or the ohm, is the 
 only one now used in this countrj'. The resistance 
 of the liquid of the pair would be expressed in units 
 of this, and the electromotive force in absolute imits 
 or centimeters of gas, with a circuit offering a unit 
 of resistance. See Galnanism. 
 
 OIL-BATH. — A bath employed in tempering steel. 
 The tube of steel is drawn out of the furnace and 
 sunk into a large iron tank about twenty feet deep, 
 containing several hundred gallons of oil. The heated 
 steel in passing into oil will sometimes cause the sur- 
 face-oil to take fire, which is extinguished by closing 
 the top of the tank. A covering of coal is also form- 
 ed round the steel by the burned oil, which greatly 
 retards transmission of heat. The tank has a water- 
 space surrounding it, and as the steel parts with its 
 heat, raising the temperature of the oil, the temper- 
 ature of the water is also raised. The water, as it is 
 heated, is drawn off by an escape-pipe, and a sup- 
 ply of cold water is continually running in, thus the 
 heat is gradually taken from the mass. Exceeding 
 toughness is the result of the operation ; the tensile 
 strength of the steel is made higher, and it is harder 
 and more elastic. See Tempering. 
 
 OnXETS. — Small openings often circular, used in 
 mediieval buildings for discharging arrows, etc., 
 through. Also written Oeillets. 
 
 OIL TEMPEEING.— In English gun construction, all 
 tubes being procured by contract with the different 
 steel producers in great Britain, are delivered at 
 Woolwich as solid ingots, and, of course, untem- 
 pered. The facilities at that place are ample for all 
 needs for tempering in oil. The general details of 
 this process as practiced at Woolwich have been pub- 
 lished in the English text-books, and need not he in 
 consequence described in this work. The effects of 
 Oil-tempering are to increase the hardness, tensile 
 strength, and elastic limit of the metal, but some- 
 what at the expense of its ductility. It is a process, 
 however, which is applied to all steel products for 
 heavy ordnance in England, and also in France, and 
 has been so long practised, with confidence in it re- 
 maining so long unshaken, and, in fact, increasing, 
 that it must be recognized as probably an important 
 process to be employed iti constnictions where steel 
 tubes of about equal diameters throughout their en- 
 tire length are designed for use in built-up guns. 
 For ingots, however, wherein uneciual diiuneters find 
 place, the process becomes one of dcnduful benefit in 
 its application, as it evidently disturbs the molecular 
 conditions of the metal ; secticms of different dianu'- 
 ters lieing une(|ually acted upon by the tempering 
 process, injurious strains are introduced similar to 
 those produced by uneciual cooling in iiuiss<'S of cast 
 iron where the areas of adjacent cross-sections are 
 sensibly and abrujily different. 
 
 The increased hardness and diminution of the 
 percentage of elongation in the metal introduced hy 
 
 the amplication of the process are subjectB for consi- 
 deration, and should leave the question of tempering 
 one for consideration and further experiment. The 
 increased tenacity and hardness secured by the 
 process was a matter of great moment to the En- 
 glish constructors when the Palliser stud system of 
 projectiles was standard in the British service, as 
 the enormous strains brought to bear on the bearing 
 edges of a few deep rifle grooves required these 
 qualities to be present in the highest degree attain- 
 able; but now, when the Palliser stud sj'stem for 
 securing rotation is a thing of the past, it remains to 
 be considered if the merits of the oil-tempering 
 process should not be further inquired into, both 
 theoretically and experimentally, if praticable, and 
 the result may be that a modification of the process, 
 securing an increase in toughness and tenacity to a 
 more limited extent, may be attained without .sacri- 
 ficing too much the extensibility of the metal, which, 
 by permitting a yielding at the critical period in gun 
 practice with high pressures, instantaneously pro- 
 duced, adds largely to the ability of the construction 
 to withstand the effects of those powerful, danger- 
 ous, and suddenly applied strains. 
 
 The steels used have not changed m qualities 
 since 1872, and about the same physical properties 
 obtain now as then, as exhibited by their tests. A 
 soft steel of 31 tons per square inch at the breaking 
 point, and when tempered in oil raising to 47 tons, 
 is now, from the latest information in print, about 
 the standard required at the Woolwich arsenal. The 
 untempered steel reaches its elastic limit, at, say 13 
 tons per square inch. and the tempered at 31 tons per 
 square inch. It is thus apparent that the oil-temper- 
 ing not only increases the tensile strength of the 
 metal, btit also increases in much greater ratio its 
 elasticity. It is stated on good authority that no 
 standard of heat required for tempering has been es- 
 tablished — different specimens requiring different 
 heats — and hence tests for the required temperatures 
 are made for each tube from specimens taken from 
 their ends. The more hammered steels require less 
 heating than the less denser or softer ones, and hence 
 the degree of heat required varies in every case depend- 
 ing on the grade of the steel under treatment as to its 
 physical properties as determined by tests. See 
 Tempering. 
 
 OIL TESTER. — A machine used for ascertaining the 
 relative value of lubricants, giving the co-efficient of 
 friction, and pressure per square-inch of journal; also 
 the temperature at the .same time. The drawing 
 on the opposite page shows such a contrivance with 
 the following: 
 
 Extreme height 
 Extreme length 
 Extreme width 
 
 Weight . 
 
 DISTENSIONS 
 
 21 inches. 
 46 •' 
 28 " 
 3S0 pounds. 
 
 ADAPTATION. 
 
 Provided with three sizes of journals, viz, 2 inches, 
 
 2f inches, and 3 inches, also a cone-pulley to run 
 
 at 3 different speeds. 
 Capacity 2.200 jioiuids. 
 
 In using the machine, a small and determinate 
 (juantity of the oil to be tested is placed on the jour- 
 nal, the pressure is adjusted to that at which the 
 oil is desired to run muler test: and the machine is 
 started at a speed whicli will give the desired rela- 
 tive velocity of rubbing surfaces. Observations are 
 made at short intervals, and recorded, until the test 
 is closed by rapid heating, as shown by the ther- 
 mometer, and ('xcessive increase of friction is indi- 
 cated. Competing oils are similarly tried, an<l the 
 records afford a perfect me;ins of comparison. The 
 relative jiiiwcr of resisting high temperatures with- 
 out dccciinpcisilicin is another ini|)ortant point which 
 may be ti'^lid. See Testing-vim'/iine. 
 
 OLEOMETER. — An instrument for ascertaining the 
 densities of fixed oils. It consists of a very delicate
 
 OLITAHT. 
 
 437 
 
 OLTUFIC 0AHZ8. 
 
 thcriiioinctcr-tiibc tlic t)iilh ticine: liirirc in prnpnr- 
 tidii li> llic Hloiii. It in (iividcil inid lifly di-i^rccH, 
 
 and IJuatH ul zi-ro in [iiirc oil (jf puppy.H i. al !W 
 
 to liH.J'^ ill pure oil of iilriioiidM, :iiid iit RO*-' in pnrc 
 olive oil. Also wriltcii I'jIiiiiiiiKi.i r. 
 
 OLIFANT. A lioru wliicli .i I'iiliidiii or Knif^lit 
 sounded in token of deHuMce, or iiH ii cliiillcnjie. 
 C'oiMiMoiily written (Hiji}i<tnt . 
 
 OLINDE. A term iipplied to iin eiirly fcjrin of 
 sword-blnde. 
 
 OLYMPIC GAMES.— The most splendid National 
 Festival of the Ancient Oreeks, celebrated every 
 fiftli year iu liouor of Zeus, the father of the gods, 
 
 In 1)0 present, on pain of Ixtinj? tlirown headlong; 
 from the 'I'yp.'ean rock. 'I'lie panics wene lii-ld from 
 the 11th to the LOlii of the Attic inonlli Ifika'^mi. 
 4(/",« (our.) Illy Aiii;iiHt;,diiriiiL' whic'lj, lirsl lhroii{rh. 
 out Klirt, and then throiij;hoiil the rent of (Jrcece, 
 lierald.T ])roclainied the cessation of all intestine hoH- 
 lililies ; while the territory of Elis itself was de- 
 elariil invi<ilal)le. Tlur eoiiihatants wiTc reipiired 
 to iiiideru;o a preparatory traiiiinj; for 10 months in 
 th<' (iyiiiiiaHiiim at Klis, and diirini; the last of these 
 months the K.vninasium was almost as numerously 
 atlcnd(-d as were the games themselves. Much un- 
 certaiuty prevaila as to the manner in which the con- 
 
 Oil Tester. 
 
 on the Plain of Olympia. Their orisrin goes back 
 into Trehistoric Ages. According to the myth elab- 
 orated or preserved by the Elcan Priests, tiiey were 
 instituted by the Idccan Herakles in the time of 
 Kronos, father of Zeus ; according to others, by the 
 later Herakles, son of Zeus ami Alkmene ; while 
 Strabo, rejecting the older and more incredible le- 
 gends, attributes their origin to the Heraklcidse after 
 their Conquest of the Peloponnesus. But the first 
 glimpse of anything approaching to historic fact in 
 connection with the games is their so-called revival 
 by Iphitos, King of Elis, with the assistance of the 
 Spartan lawgiver, Lycurgus, about 884 b. c; or, ac- 
 cording to others, about 828 b. c, an event com- 
 memorated by an inscription on a disc kept in the 
 Heroium at Olympia, which Pausanias saw. That 
 festive games were celebrated here — in other words, 
 that Olympia was a sacred spot long before the time 
 of Iphitos, can indeed hardly be doubted : the uni- 
 versal tradition that the Elean King had only " re- 
 vived" the games proves this; but nothing what- 
 ever can be historically ascertained concerning their 
 origin, character, or frequency, in this remoter time. 
 Iphitos may, therefore, be regarded as their founder, 
 yet the reckoning of time by Olympiads — the real 
 dawn of the historical period in (Jrcek history — did 
 not begin till more than a century later. At first, it 
 is conjectured, only Peloponnesians resorted to the 
 Olympic Gaines, but gradually the other Greek 
 States were attracted to them, and the Festival be- 
 came Panhflknic. Originally, and for a long time, 
 none were allowed to contend except those of pure 
 Hellenic blood ; but after the Conquest of Greece by 
 the Romans, the latter sought and obtained this 
 honor, and both Tiberius and Nero figure in the list 
 of Roman victors. Women— with one exception, 
 the Priestess of Demeter Chamyne — were forbidden 
 
 tests were distributed over the different days. Krause 
 suggests the following order: (.)n the fir.st day the 
 great initiatory sacrifices were ofl'ered, after which 
 the competitors were properly das.sed and arranged 
 by the Judges, and the contests of the trumpeters 
 took place; the second day was set apart for the boys 
 who competed with each other in foot-races, wrest- 
 ling, boxing, i\\e pentathlon . Ihe p'inkrntiun, horse- 
 races; the third and principal day was devoted to the 
 contests of men in foot-races of different kinds (as, 
 for example, the simple race, once over the course: 
 the dinulds, in which the competitors had to run the 
 distance twice; and the dolic/ion, in which they had 
 to run it seven or twelve times); wrestling, boxing, 
 the pankratioii, (in which all the power and skill of 
 the combatants were exhibited), and the race of /lop- 
 litfx, or men in heavy armor; on the fourth daj- came 
 oft the pfiitnthlon, (contest of five games — viz: leap- 
 ing, running, throwing the discus, throwing the 
 spear, and wrestling), the chariot and horse races, 
 and perhaps the contests of the heralds; the fifth day 
 was set apart for processions, sacrifices, and ban- 
 quets to the victors (called Olympinnikm ), who were 
 crowned with a garland of wild olive twigs cut from 
 a sacred tree which grew in the Altis, and presented 
 to the assembled people, each with a palm branch in 
 his hand, while the heralds proclaimed hisname. and 
 that of his father and country. On his return home; 
 he was received with extraordinary distinction; 
 songs were sung iu his praise, statues were erected 
 to him, both in the Altis and in his native city; a 
 place of honor was given him at all public spectacles; 
 he was in general exempted from public taxes, and 
 at Athens was boarded at the expense of the Slate 
 in the Prytaneion. The regulation of the games be- 
 longed to the Elcans, from whom were chosen the 
 Heilanodikal, or Judges, whose number varied. At
 
 ONAGER. 
 
 43« 
 
 OPENING OF THE TBENCHE8. 
 
 first there were only two, but as the games became 
 more and more national, and consequently more nu- 
 merous, they were gradually increased to ten. some- 
 times even to twelve. They were instructed in their 
 duties for ten months beforehand at Elis, and held 
 their office onh' for one year. The officers who exe- 
 cuted their commands were called Alytioe. and were 
 imder the presidency of an Alytarcli. 
 
 ONAGER. — A warlike machine, which was used 
 by the ancients to throw stones of diflerent sizes. It 
 is mentioned bv Vesetins. See Ballsta. 
 
 ONE-HORSE "litter.— A litter intended to be 
 dragged by one horse or mule. It is variously ex- 
 temporized from such material as may be at hand. 
 The drawing, from a photograph of one of these 
 
 to wa'ls not more than 2i feet thick, the others to 
 heavier walls ; the object being to lessen, as far as 
 practicable, the weakness which loop-holes neces- 
 sarily cause to the wall ; this defect increasing as 
 the exterior or interior opening is greater. 
 
 For thin walls, where the plan of the loop-hole is 
 trapezoidal, the width of the exterior opening may 
 be from 3 to 4 inches, and that of the interior from 
 15 to 18 inches. These dimensions, however, may 
 vary according to the field of fire to be brouglit 
 within tlie range of the loop-hole, the more or less 
 cover to be given to the troops, and the strength of 
 the masonry of which the wall is formed. The ver- 
 tical dimensions of the loop-hole, both on the inter- 
 ior and the exterior, will depend upon the field of 
 
 contrivances, used in the Powder River Indian Cam- 
 paign, in 1876, shows the manner of its construction 
 and use. When two animals can be spared, or when 
 the country to be passed over is exceedingly rough, 
 the tiroJiorse litter will usually give better satisfac- 
 tion. See Litter, Stretcher and I'ravee. 
 
 ONEIN. — An offensive weapon of mediaeval times, 
 consisting of a staff with a hooked iron head. 
 
 OPEN.— A term frequently used in military move- 
 ments and dispositions, in contradistinction to close; 
 as open column, open distance, open order, etc. It 
 also constitutes part of a word of command ; as, 
 rear open order. By open distance in aihimn is meant 
 that the intervals are always equal in depth to the 
 extent in front of the different component parts of 
 the column. 
 
 OPEN DEFENSES.— To this class belong the ar- 
 rangement of the parapet which has already been 
 described ; simple loiyp-holed loalls for musketry used 
 as inclosurcs of gorges, etc. ; exterior corridors 
 which are covered either bj' a wall or an earthen 
 parapet; unA barbettes and emf/rasures for artillery. 
 Walls of this class, when used as the inclosures of 
 the gorges of lunettes or other isolated works, placed 
 in advance of the eneiente, but within the reach of 
 its artillery fire, should be high enough to secure 
 tlie work from an open assault, and sufficiently 
 thick to resist the occasional shot which may reach 
 them over the parapet by which they are covered. 
 Tor these purposes tlie height sliould be from 12 to 
 1.5 feet, and the thickness from 4 to 5 feet. The 
 loop-holes are not placed nearer to each other than 
 from 3 to 4 feet, estimated between their axes. They 
 should be at least G feet above the exterior foot of 
 the wall, and 4J feet above the ground or banquette 
 within. The loop-holes are usually placed at regu- 
 lar intervals along llie line of tlie wall ; or only op- 
 posite that portion of the exterior ground upon 
 which a tire is to he brought to bear. 
 
 The form and dimensions of the loop-hole will de- 
 pend upon the thickness of the wall and the field of 
 view, both vertically and horizontally, which istobe 
 covered by its fire. The plan is either trapezoidal, wid- 
 ening from file front of the wall inwards, or else it 
 widens from the center each way to the front and 
 back; or, as is the more usual form in our works, 
 the interior portion from the center widens inwards, 
 whilst the; exterior part is rectangular in plan, and 
 of the same width as the width on the interior or the 
 back of the wall. The first form is best adajrted 
 
 fire to be embraced in this last direction, and they 
 will be regulated accordingly ; the top and sole of 
 the loop-hole receiving a suitable slope or direction 
 for this purpose. 
 
 The foregoing details can only be determined upon 
 from the special object to which the loop-holed de- 
 fenses are to be applied. Care only is to be taken 
 that in attempting to give cover to the troops their 
 field of view be not too restricted by too narrow an 
 opening for the use of the firearms. Where the throat 
 or narrowest part of the loop-hole is within the wall, 
 the exterior opening leaves a wider mark for the 
 missiles of the assailed, and when the sides of the 
 loop-hole gradually widen outwards, a shot striking 
 one of them may glance inward and do injury. To 
 prevent this accident, the sides and sometimes the 
 sole are made in offsets. A more convenient form 
 for construction, and one better adapted to arresting 
 the enemy's balls, is to make the exterior portion 
 rectangular in plan for half the width of the wall, as 
 already descriljed. 
 
 In open exterior corridors the troops covered in 
 front either by an earthen parapet, which is usually 
 only musket-proof, the scarp wall being run up to the 
 superior slope ; or else the scarp wall serves as the 
 cover, in which case it is pierced either throughout 
 its length or at suitable points with loop-holes. The 
 floor of the corridor serves as abamiuefte tread for 
 the loop-holes, and is therefore placed with reference 
 to the direction of the fire from the loop-holes. Tlie 
 height at which the scarp wall rises above the floor 
 of the corridor will depend upon the level of the 
 floor and that of the bottom of the ditch ; this height, 
 however, should not be less than 6i feet to afford a 
 Bufliicient cover to the troops. See Barbette Battery, 
 Covered. Defenses, EmbraMtre Battery, and Machicou- 
 lis. 
 
 OPEN FLANK.— In fortification, that part of the 
 flank which is covered bv the orillon. 
 
 OPENING OF THE TRENCHES —This operation, in 
 the progress of a siege, supposes that all the meas- 
 ures preparatory to it have been taken ; the depots 
 of trench materials estalilished and well provided; 
 careful reconnaissances of the site and the defenses 
 made; an accurate map made from sueh instru- 
 mental surveys as were practic;ible, and other infor- 
 mation gained ; the positions of the defenses marked 
 out upon the map giving the directions of the faces 
 and cajiitals of the principiil works; the distances 
 and heights of their salient points from that of the
 
 OPEN ORDEE. 
 
 430 
 
 OPTICAL ILLUBION. 
 
 lirHl imnillcl, c\c.; nnil tlic fipproximalc positions of 
 tlic lirst piinillcl and of llic iippromlics to il from tli(- 
 (l('pi)tH in its rear, and of tiiosi' Iciidini; from il npon 
 tlio (i(!f('nH<:s. Willi till' i/iif'i furnished from these 
 Boiirccs tliecnijineers can proceed lo staUe out nj)o]i 
 llie i^roiiiid Uie direcliuns of tlie purlions of tlie 
 trenches npon which i^rimnd is to he lirst broken, 
 either on tlie sanieniuhl, or a nif^lil or two before, as 
 oiipcirtiinity may serve. 'Pliis duty is readily per- 
 formed with the aid of roiiLjh ski'tclies, dark lanterns, 
 Hinall pockel compasses, and jiiekcts painted white, 
 with all of which tlie oMicers are provided, and with 
 llie aid of several intelligent n(in-cominissioucd olll- 
 cers or suldiers of the engineer troojjs. 
 
 Kverythiii!; beini; in readiness, the workmen are 
 assembled in detachments, at the projjer momenl 
 towards nighl-fall, at the depots of the trenches, 
 wliere they receive their trenchini; tools, and what- 
 ever else is necessary to carry on the work with. 
 They are then led, in sins;le tile, to the positions tliey 
 arc lo occujiy in breakim; ti;rcjund, by an otlicer or 
 engineer soldier; sometimes each man grasping with 
 tlie right or left hand a tracing rojie or tape, on 
 which his position is marked in the usual way, or 
 else the traeing-tape is tirst stretclie<l and the men 
 placed in their position near il. When once in 
 position, the working parlies are commanded to 
 lie down and keep perfectly quiet until ordered to 
 rise and commence work; to give time to the engi- 
 ncer otlicers to rectify any mistakes of direction in 
 the lines. So soon as this is done, the order is given 
 to rise and break ground. This will be done by 
 each man digging a hole as speedily as posssible, and 
 llirowing the earth towards the defenses, bo as lo 
 give cover for himself, and from which he can 
 gradually, and with security, work forward in the 
 ilirettifm of the trench he is to e.\cavate. This ope- 
 ration is supervised by the engineers on <luty. who 
 sec that any mistakes made by the men digging are 
 corrected at the proper moment. In the prosecu- 
 tion of the works <iuriDg this period, the simple 
 trench, Hying sap. or full sap will be used, as op- 
 portunity may offer, and as the fire of the defenses 
 
 T-leides have sometirnCH been used in large orcheHtraH, 
 but the amount of breath which is recpiired to play 
 them has prevented lh-:ir coming into general use. 
 OPINION. I. Decision, deti-rminalion, and judge- 
 ment formed upon matters that havi- bi-en laid before 
 a Court-.Marliid or Court of Intpiiry. 2. The lecli- 
 nical name for tlur advice; given by an Advocate. 
 Till! Attorney orSolicitor writes astali-iiient of facts, 
 called "a ease" in Kngland, and "a memorial" in 
 Scotland, which ends by asking certain ipiiries, and 
 till' answer written by the (/'ounsel is his opinion. A 
 Counsel is not liable for any damages caused by his 
 giving a wrong opinion, though the result of gross ig. 
 noraiice, this being one of the [irivileges of Counsd. 
 OPLITAI,- A (Jrecian army, at the period when 
 the military art was in the greatest pc-rfect ion among 
 them, was composed of infantry and cavalry. The 
 former was made up of three different orders of 
 soldiers; termed, 1. The O/ilitai, or heavily armed, 
 who wore a very complete defensive armor, and bore 
 the.iam.vrt, or Macedcjuian pike, a formidable weapon 
 either for the attack or defense, .'iboiit 24 feet ia 
 length. 3. The l'iiiln\ or light infantry, who were 
 without defeiLsivc armor, and carried the javelin, 
 bow, and sling. 3. The I'liUmtir, who were inter- 
 mediate between the other two, carrying a lighter 
 defensive armor, as well as a shorter pike than the 
 opiitai. 
 
 The opiitai, when formed for exercise or parade, 
 were drawn up in open order; leaving an eijual in- 
 terval between the men of each rank and between 
 the ranks. When ready to charge, each man occu- 
 pied a square of 8 feet, and the six leading ranks 
 brought their pikes to a level ; thus presenting an 
 array in which the pikes of the sixth rank extended 
 3 feet in advance of \\w front one. In attacks on 
 intrenchments, or fortified cities, the men of caeli 
 rank closed shoulder to shoulder, asufflcient interval 
 being left between the ranks to move with celerity ; 
 the leading rank kept their shields overlajiped lo 
 cover their front ; the others held them above their 
 heads for shelter against the weapons of the enemy. 
 OPTICAL ILLUSION.— Of all the senses none is more 
 
 is more or less certain and destructive. As the flying j deceptive than the sense of sight; il often deceives 
 sap will afford the most speedy cover against case [ us as to the distance, size, shape, and color of objects; 
 
 shot, it will be employed geuer.ally so soon as the 
 trenches have been advanced within destructive 
 range of this; using, however, the simple trench at 
 night, or at any other opportune momenl. The full 
 sap must be used when within the certain range of 
 small-arms, and when the cannon fire of the defenses 
 is very deadly; resorting, however, to the flying eap 
 whenever the risk is but slight. See Siege. 
 
 OPEN ORDER. — In taclics,anintervalof about three 
 yards between each rank. See Hear Opt /i (Jrder. 
 
 OPERATIONS.— Under the term Slilitary Opera- 
 tions are included ; field operations ; offensive and 
 defensive operations; underground operations; siege 
 operations, etc. All consist in the resolute applica- 
 tion of preconcerted measures in secrecy, dispatch, 
 tegular movements, occasional encampments, and 
 desultory combats or pitched battles. 
 
 OPHICLEIDE. — A musical wind-instrument of brass 
 or copper, invented to supersede the serpent in mili- 
 tary bands. It consists of a concial tube, terminat- 
 ing in a bell like that of the horn, with a mouth- 
 piece similar to that of the serpent, and ten ventages 
 or holes, all stopped by keys like those of the bas- 
 son, but of larger size. Opliicleides are of two kinds, 
 the bass and the alto. The bass ophicleide offers 
 great resources for maintaining the low part of masses 
 of liarmon}'. JMusic for it is written in the bass clef, 
 and the compass of the instrument is from B, flu 
 
 it frequently makes them appear as if in situations 
 where their existence is impossible ; and often makes 
 us think them movable when they are not so, and 
 vice versa. An object appears to us as large, near or 
 distant, according as the rays from its opposite bor- 
 ders meeting at the eye form a large or a small angle: 
 when the angle is large, the object is either large C.r 
 near ; when small the object must be small or distant. 
 Practice alone enables us to decide whether an ob- 
 ject of large apparent size is so (m account of its 
 real size, or of its proximity ; and our decision is ar- 
 rived at by a comparison of the object in jumtiun, 
 with other common objects, such as trees, houses, 
 etc., which may chance to be near it, and of which 
 we have by experience come to form a correct idea. 
 The same is, of course, true of apparently small ob- 
 jects. But when all means for comparison are re- 
 moved, as when we see a distant object floating ou 
 an extensive sheet of water, or erect in an apparently 
 boundless sandy plain, where no other object meets 
 the eye, then our judgment is completely at fault. 
 Imperfection in the acquired perceptions of siglit, as 
 it is called, produces inanj' other illusions; il leads 
 us lo consider spherical solids at a distance as flat 
 discs, and deceives us regarding the size of objects, 
 by their color ; the sun appears larger than he would 
 if illumined by a fainter light, and a man in a white 
 habit seems larger than he would if he wore a dark 
 
 third space below the bass staff to C, the fifth added \ dress. Illusions are also produced by external causes, 
 space above il, including all the intervening chrom- I The property which the eye possesses of retainingan 
 alic intervals. The alto ophicleide is an instrument I impression for a very brief, though sensible period 
 of very inferior quality, and less used. Its compass \ of time (about one-quarter of a second), after the ob- 
 is also three octaves and one note. The music for it I jecl which produced the impression has been re- 
 is written in the treble clefT, and an octave higher I moved, produces a third chiss of illusions. Common 
 than it is played. Double bass or monster ophi- I examples of this are the illuminated circle formed by
 
 OPTTMATES AND POPULAEES. 
 
 440 
 
 ORDER OF BATTLE. 
 
 the rapid revolution of an ignited carbon point, piece 
 of red-liot iron, or other luminous body, and the 
 fiery cvirve produced by a red-hot shot projected 
 from a cannon. 
 
 OPTIMATES AND POPULARES.— In the politics of 
 republican Rome, the conservative or aristocratic, 
 and the democratic or progressive parties respective- 
 ly. The Popjilnres comprised the great body of the 
 people, including not only the proletariat but many 
 men of wealth, but without personal influence. The 
 Optimates were the aristocracy, the great oftlcial 
 bouses, and their followers. The two" parties per- 
 petuated the old contests between the patricians and 
 plebians. The Popularea triumplied under the leader- 
 ship of C. Gracchus, and were crushed by Sulla. 
 
 OR. — In Heraldry, the metal gold 
 represented in heraldic engravings 
 b_v an unlimited number of dots. 
 
 ORB.— In tactics, tlie disposing 
 of a number of soldiers in circular 
 form. The orb is a good forma- 
 tion for a bod_y of infantry in an 
 open country when resisting caval- 
 Q ry, or a superior force of infantry, 
 
 inasmuch as it is regular and equal- 
 ly strong, and gives an enemy no reason to expect 
 better success by attacking one place than anotlier. 
 Caesar drew up his whole army in this form wlien 
 he fought against Latiienus. The whole army of 
 the Gauls wal^ formed into an orb, under the com- 
 mand of Sabinus and Cotto, when fighting against 
 the Romans. The orb was generally formed six 
 deep. 
 
 ORDER. — Tins word is applied to an aggregate of 
 conventual communities comprehended under one 
 rule, or the societies, half military half religious, 
 out of which the institution of Knii:hthood sprang. 
 Religious Orders are generally classified as Monastic, 
 Military, and Mendicant. 
 
 The earliest comprehension of Monastic Societies 
 under one rule was effected by St . Bazil, Archbishop 
 of Cfesarea, who united the hermits and cenohites, 
 in his diocese, and prescribed for them a uniform 
 constitution, recommending at the same time a vow 
 of celibacy. The Basilian rule subsists to the pres- 
 ent day in the Eastern Church. Next in order of 
 time was the Benedictine Order, founded by St. 
 Benedict of Nursia, who considered a mild discip- 
 line preferable to excessive austerity. The offshoots 
 from the Benedictine Order include some of the 
 most important Orders in ecclesiastical bistorj-, 
 among others the Carthusians, Cistercians, and Prse- 
 monstrants. The order of Augustinians professed 
 to draw their rule from the writings of St. Augustine; 
 they were the first Order who were not entirely com- 
 posed of laymen, but ol ordained priests, or persons 
 destined to the clerical profession. 
 
 The Military orders, of which the members united 
 the military with the religious profession, arose from 
 the necessity under which the monks lay of defend- 
 ing the possessions which they had accumulated, 
 and the supposed duty of recovering Palestine from 
 the Saracens, and retaining possession of it. The 
 most famous Orders of this kind were the Hospital- 
 lers or Knights of St. .John of Jerusalem, the Knights 
 Tcmi>lars. and the Teutonic Order. Many other 
 Military Orders existed, and nut a few continue to 
 exist, particularly in Spain and Portugal. The phrase- 
 ology of the old .Military Orders is preserved in the 
 Orders of Knlglithood of modern times, into which 
 individuals are admitted in reward for merit of differ- 
 ent kinds, military and civil. 
 
 The three .Mendicant Orders of Franciscans, Do- 
 minicans, and Carmelites were instituted in the ISth 
 century. Their ]irin<ipal i)iirpose was to put down 
 the oi)posilii>n to the Churcli, which had bct;nn to 
 show itself, and also to reform the Church liy ex- 
 ample and precept. At a later period theOrderof 
 Jesuits was founded, with the object of increasing 
 the power of the Church, and putting down heresy. 
 
 — NotiGes of the more Important Orders, Monastic, 
 Military, and Mendicant, will be found under separate 
 
 articles. Sei' Ordfrn. 
 
 ORDER ARMS.— A position in the Manual of Arms, 
 executed as follows: The Instructor commands 1, 
 Order. 2. Arms. Grasp the piece with the left hand, 
 the forearm horizontal, let go with the right hand ; 
 lower the piece quickly with the left ; regrasping it 
 with the right above the lower band, the little finger 
 in rear of the barrel, the hand near the thigli, the 
 butt about three inches from the ground, the left 
 hand steadying the piece near the right, the fingers 
 extended and joined. (Two.) Lower the piece gent- 
 ly to the ground with the right hand, drop the left 
 hand by the side, and take the position to be de- 
 described. The position of Order Arms has the arm 
 hanging naturally, elbow close to the body, the back 
 of the hand to tlie right, the fingers extended and 
 joined: the barrel between the thumb and forefinger 
 extended along the stock ; the butt against tiie toe 
 of the right foot, tlie barrel to the rear and verti- 
 cal. See Manvdl nf Arms, Fig. 4. 
 
 ORDER BOOK.— A book kept at all military head- 
 quarters, in which orders are written for the infor- 
 mation of officers and men. Every order in this 
 book sliould be signed by the Officer whose signature 
 was attached to the originals sent from the office, and 
 each order should be separated from the one follow- 
 ing b}' a red line. The mode of numbering, distri- 
 bution, and general form of orders are prescribed Ijy 
 the regulations ; but the distribution in each particu- 
 lar case should be noted in red ink in the margin to 
 show that the regulations have been complied with ; 
 and where orders, are sent to one officer, under cover 
 to his Commander (which course ought always to be 
 pursued), or furnished at a date subsequent to that 
 of their issue — these facts should likewise be added: 
 where the order has been printed, it will be sufficient 
 to write the word " printed" in red ink in the mar- 
 gin, to indicate that the widest circulation has been 
 given to it. There are two indexes attached to the 
 iKiok — one of nam^s, the other of subjects — every or- 
 der will be indexed in the ^'«M(T immediately after lie- 
 ing copied. For names, a deta-lied index will first be 
 used until the record book is full, when they will be 
 arranged under each letter as in City Directories, and 
 tlms classified, transferred to the permanent alphabet- 
 ical index attached to the record book. Every proper 
 name will be indexed anda red line drawn in the bo ly 
 of the order under it, to facilitate a reference to it. 
 
 ORDER OF BATTLE.— The combination which is 
 made to attack one or more points of an army in 
 position. Is called the order af battle. The four prin- 
 cipal orders of battle are the parallel, oblique, eon. 
 cave, and convex. The lines of battle of the opposing 
 forces being sensibly parallel to each other is an ex- 
 ample of the parallel order of battle. This order of 
 battle naturally results when a simultaneous attack 
 is made along the whole front of an enemy's posi- 
 tion. The results will usually be very decisive for 
 the army whicli gains the advantage, but the price 
 paid for success will also be very dear. When the 
 line of battle of the assailant makes an angle witii 
 that of the assailed, the order of batt.e is said to 
 be oblique. Tiiis order of battle results when the 
 attack is made with one wing, the other wing at the 
 same time being lu-ld back, or refused. When the 
 attack is made by both wings, the center being >¥- 
 /w.scf/, tlie order of battle iaeoneai'e ; and, when made 
 by the center, with the wings refused, coiirej-. The 
 order of battle then results from the dispositions 
 made to atttack the enemy's position ; so it naturally 
 follows, that when the enemy is found, the first 
 point, to be decided is, hoin to make the attark with the 
 grea,tf.it duinage to the enemy and witli the l-east to the 
 attacking force. Owing to the great loss which usual- 
 ly follows attacks along the whole lin<% even when 
 successful, they should seldom be made, except when 
 the chances of success and the probalile results of 
 victory are very great.
 
 ORDERLIES. 
 
 441 
 
 OBSmART OF ARH8. 
 
 ORDERLIES. — Non-fomm'msionril ciflii-crs ami kmI- 
 dicrs iiiipiiiiilcii to wiiil Mpnii (Jnicral unit otlirr Coiii- 
 maiiiling Olliccrs, In coiniiiimifiili' iliiir urilcrH, ami 
 to curry iiii^s pes. 'l"Mc OnUil/ Ojjinr. or Officer of 
 the Day, iH the otHecr of a corjiH or regiinenl, wliow 
 turn it is to superintend its inlericjr economy, as 
 cleanliness llu' goodness of the food, etc. (yriltrli/ 
 Non.rirmiitisniiiiir(l 0£irATS are tlie Ser^^^eants in each 
 company who are " orderly,' or an <luty for the 
 week. On the drum heatini; for orders, they pro- 
 ceed to the f)rdcrly Hoom taUe down the j;eneral or 
 reginuMital orilers afl'eclinjr Ihi'ir respective com- 
 panies, show them to the Company OHicers. and 
 warn the necessary men for any duties siiecitied in 
 those orders An Ordirlil Hunk is provided by the 
 ('aptain of each troop or comi)any in a rej^iment for 
 the insertion of i;eneral or regimental orders from 
 lime lo lime issued. 
 
 ORDERLY DRUMMER. - The drummer that beats 
 the orders, and gives notic'c of the hour for messing, 
 etc. 
 
 ORDERLY ROOM.— The court of the Commanding 
 Officer, where charges brought against the men of 
 his regiment are investigated, and s<'nle!ice ]«issed. 
 It is also the ollice of the Commanding Ollicer. usually 
 in Ihe barracks, from winch all orders emanate. 
 
 ORDERLY SERGEANTS.— The First Sergeant of a 
 company is commonly so called. ( )n hearing the drum 
 beat for orders. Orderly Sergeants repair to the Adju- 
 tant's Office, and, having taken down the orders in 
 writing, they are inunediately to show them to the 
 otlicers of their com|)any. and to warn the men for 
 duly. 
 
 ORDER OF MARCH. -The formation assumed by 
 troops on the march, and which <lepends on the na- 
 ture of the country they are moving in, the object to 
 be attained, and the characteristic of the enemy, as 
 well as the mimber of Iroops composing the force. 
 If at any distance from Ihe enemy, the comfort of 
 the men, as well as the means of giving them the 
 necessary supplies, must be studied. \Vhen in the 
 proximity of the opposinjj force, tactical consider- 
 ations must alone weigh in disposing of the order of 
 march. In all cases an army is preceded by an a<l- 
 vance guard, covered by the main force, the rear 
 of whicli is followed by a rear guard. 
 
 ORDER OF MERIT.- A military distinction given 
 to officers or soldiers for some signal service, the 
 badge of which is generally expressive of the ser- 
 vice. Such was the Medal or Order of Merit, pre- 
 sented by the Austrian Emperor to tlie Officers of 
 the 15th British Light Dragoons for their bravery in 
 the affair of Villers en Couche iu 1794. x 
 
 ORDERS.— The intructions, injimctions, or com- 
 mands issued by superior officers. The orders of Com- 
 manders of Armies, Divisions, Brigades, and Kegi- 
 ments are denominated orders of such Army, Division 
 etc., and are either General or Special. Orders are 
 numbered. General and Special in separate series. each 
 beginning with the year. Those issued by Command- 
 ers of Posts, Battalions,Companies or Detachments are 
 simply denominated "Orders," and mimbertd in one 
 series, beginning with the year. In the British service, 
 orders are General, Divisional, Brigade, or Regimen- 
 tal. General Orders are issuedby the Commander-in- 
 Chief of an army, and affect the whole of his force. 
 The others emanate from Generals of Division or 
 Brigade, or from officers commanding Regiments.and 
 severally affect their respective commands. In the 
 United States, a General Order or an important Spec- 
 ial Order, is read and ajiproved by the officer whose 
 Order it is before it is issued by the Staff Officer. An 
 Order states at its head whether it is Special or Gen- 
 eral ; its number, date, and place of issue : and at 
 its foot, the name of the Commander by whose au- 
 thority it is issued. An Order may l)e put iu the 
 form of a letter addressed to the individual concern- 
 ed, through the proper channel. Such Orders should 
 be in strict military — not semi-official— forms. Every 
 Commander who gives an Order involving an ex- 
 
 penditure of pidilic money Hcnds a copy, without 
 dilay, to the Bureau of Ihe War Oepartmeiit to wliich 
 llie expendiluri' appcrlains. and if Kuch (Commander 
 be serving in a .Military Deparlment, lie wids a 
 copy of the order lo Ihe llcadi|i]arters of the De- 
 parlmenl. If a Military Commander gives to a di»- 
 bursiiig olUcer any onler in conflict with orders re- 
 ceived by him from the officer in charge of hJH 
 I)e|>artment at any superior headcjiiarlers, such 
 Comnumder forthwith transmits the order lo such 
 headquarters, with explanation of Ihe newssily 
 which justifies it. Commaiiiling officers of Mili- 
 lary Divisions, Departments. an<i DislrictH forward, 
 direct, co|iies of all Ihe orders afrectin'.; tlie ofliccrH 
 of the (Jencral .SlatT under Ihcir comMjandto llir- l)e- 
 partmenls at Washington to which Ihe duties of (he 
 officer pertain. It is important that advices of leaves 
 of absence, clianges of locality, duties, etc., of sub- 
 ordinate officers of the General Staff l)e early com- 
 municated to tlie heads of their respective Depart- 
 ments. Orders and inslrurtions are transmitted 
 through intermediate Commanders, in the order of 
 rank, except when they are of such a character as 
 lo leave the intermediate Commanders no discre- 
 tionary power lo modify or suspend them. In such 
 exceptional cases, the (Orders or instructions will lie 
 sent direct to the officer unrler whose aulhority tliey 
 are to be executed, copies being furnished to ihe in- 
 termediate Commanders. Orders for any body of 
 j troops are addressed to its Commander, are opened 
 and executed by the Conunander present, and are 
 publisiied and distributed tiy him when necessary. 
 Copies of all orders of the Commanders of Armies, 
 Departments. Divisions, and detached Brigades, and 
 of the Superintendents of the Recruiting J^ervice, are 
 forwanleil at their dates, or as soon thereafter as 
 practicable, in separate series (m full slieets of letter- 
 paper, or as printed, tothe Adjutant General's Office. 
 A tile of the printed orders is kept with the head- 
 <iuarters of each Regiment, with each Company, and 
 at each Military Post, and is regularly turned over 
 fiy the Commander, when relieved, to his successor. 
 The orderly hours being fixed at each headquarters, 
 the Staff Officers and chiefs of the special services 
 either attend in person or send their assistants to 
 obtain the orders of the day; and the 1st Sergeants 
 of companies repair for that purpose to the Adju- 
 tant's office. During marches and active operations, 
 and wiien the regular orderly hours cannot be ob- 
 served, all orders are either sent direct to the troops, 
 or the respective Commanders of Regiments or Corps 
 are informed wlien to send to headquarters forthem. 
 Under the same circumstances, orders are read to the 
 troops during a halt, without waiting for tlie regular 
 parades. See General Orderx, and Special Ord^m, 
 
 ORDINAIRE.— The common French term for the 
 soldiers' mess. 
 
 ORDINARIES. — In Heraldry, certain cliarges com- 
 posed of straight lines, and in very common use, to 
 which writers on Heraldry had assigned abstruse 
 symbolical meanings, but whose real chief peculiari- 
 ty seems to be that they originally represented the 
 wooden or metal fastenings of the shields in use in 
 actual warfare. The Ordinarii-s are usualh- accounted 
 nine — the chief, pale, fess, bar, bend, bend sinister, 
 chevron, saltire, and cross. Heralds vary a little in 
 their enumeration, some taking in the pile in place 
 of the bar. Each is noticed under a separate article. 
 See JTernMry. 
 
 ORDINARY OF ARMS. In Heraldry, an index or 
 dictionary of armorial coats, arranged, not accord- 
 ing to names, like an armory, but according to the 
 leading charges in the resjiective shields, so as to 
 enable any one conversant with lieraldic language, 
 on seeing a shield of arms, to tell to whom it be- 
 longed. A very imperfect Ordinary for England is 
 appended to Edmonson's Heraldry: a far more com- 
 plete and elaborate work of the same kind. Pap- 
 worth's Ordiniiry of Jhitinh Armnriah. partly edited 
 by Alfred Morant, was published in 1874.
 
 ORDNANCE. 
 
 442 
 
 ORDNANCE. 
 
 ORDNANCE. — The term ordnance includes cannon 
 of all kinds tired from carriages, slides, beds, tripods, 
 etc. Cannon are classified according to their nature, 
 as guns, howitzers, mortars, and machine-guns, and 
 according to their uses as field, mountain, siege, and 
 sea-coast. Guns are further classified as to their con- 
 struction, as smooth-bore and rifle ; as muzzle-load- 
 ing and breech-loading ; and as east and built up 
 cannon. All ordnance for land service in the United 
 States is made by private Contractors, under the di- 
 rection of otficers of the Ordnance Department. Ri- 
 fled howitzers and mortars, and guns with chambers 
 for large charges, are now under consideration. Ri- 
 fled breech-loading field-guns are also under trial. 
 For the present, until superior armament can be pro- 
 vided, guns of obsolete patterns and kinds are re- 
 tained "in service. Standard guns, howitzers, and 
 mortars take their denomination from the caliber in 
 inches. 
 
 Heavy modern ordnance dates properlj- from the 
 casting of the great Rodman smooth-bores in the 
 United States. "To the impetus thus given may be 
 ascribed the origin of the powerful guns of the pres- 
 ent day. In Rodman's study of gunpowder and the 
 improvements introduced by him, lay the germ of 
 all subsequent progress in ordnance. His most im- 
 portant invention, perjtyrated cake powder, was trans- 
 planted bodily to the Continent of Europe, where, 
 under the name oiprhmatic powder, it has been used 
 ever since. So perfect is the theory of this powder, 
 that invention and science toiling over the subject 
 for twenty years has produced nothing better. Since 
 the first half of the decade— 1860-70— the United 
 States has fallen behind the nations of Europe in the 
 
 ordnauce in the present stage of its development. 
 Large-grained powder, the first of these requisites, 
 is universally used. Great length of bore, to utilize 
 the whole force of the powder, is another character- 
 istic. Great power is secured by immense charges 
 of powder and weight of shot. A caliber of at least 
 12 inches, giving an obloag shot of about 700 pounds, 
 seems to be regarded as a sine qiia non for all arma- 
 ments. England has taken the lead in all these im- 
 provements, and though it would appear from re- 
 cent events that her choice of gun systems is unfortu- 
 nate, there is no question that all great advances 
 since Rodman's day have been based upon her ex- 
 pensive experiments. The work of the celebrated 
 "Committee on Explosives," 1875, of which Col. 
 Younghusband and Capt. Noble (now a member of 
 SirWm. Armstrong's firm), were members, did more 
 to this end than any other investigation since General 
 Rodman's experiments in gunpowder. Acting upon 
 the obvious idea that the peril to the life of the gun 
 is relieved by air-space, the Committee recommended 
 the enlargement of the bore at the seat of the charge, 
 or the use of a chamber larger than the bore. This 
 simple expedient led at once to an increase in the 
 power of guns while the pressure endangering them 
 was kept at a point lower than before. Every good 
 thing can be pushed too far. The immense charges 
 made possible by the English chamber have been 
 continually added to by the Italians in their 100-ton 
 Armstrong monsters and the vital air-space greatly 
 reduced till a charge of about 5.52 pounds of pow- 
 der has recently (1880) burst one of these magnificent 
 guns. 
 The following table gives an interesting compari- 
 
 Type of Gun. 
 
 Krupp, 35-cal. 30.5 p. m... 
 Krupp, 35-cal. 35.5 c. m... 
 German, 30.5 c. m. mar.... 
 
 Russian, 12 in. (long) 
 
 French, pat. 1870, 32 c. m. 
 
 English, 80-ton m. 1 
 
 English, 63-ton b. 1 
 
 Italian, 100-ton b. 1 
 
 French, pat. 1875, 34 c. m., 
 Bange, 34 c. m 
 
 d 
 Q 
 
 c 
 
 305 
 355 
 305 
 305 
 320 
 406 
 343 
 432 
 340 
 340 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 so 
 
 a 
 
 ■*? 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Gun. 
 
 
 O 
 
 Kilogrammes. 
 
 10.70 
 
 12.40 
 
 6.70 
 
 9.14 
 
 6.70 
 
 8.15 
 
 10.97 
 
 11.89 
 
 6.7 
 
 11.20 
 
 48,550 455 
 
 81,350 735 
 
 36,600 325 
 
 43,3411 344 
 
 39,000, 341 
 
 82,300 
 
 771 
 
 64,000 
 
 567 
 
 103,100 
 
 908 
 
 48,340 
 
 420 
 
 37,500 
 
 450 
 
 141 
 225 
 
 72 
 128 
 
 86 
 204 
 2H3 
 300 
 117 
 180 
 
 530 
 530 
 488 
 597 
 470 
 498 
 624 
 558 
 480 
 600 
 
 Total 
 energy at 
 the 
 muzzle 
 per kilo- 
 gramme 
 of the 
 weight 
 of gun. 
 
 .104 
 .103 
 .103 
 .14 
 .104 
 .114 
 .175 
 .118 
 .101 
 .221 
 
 power of her armament. Having been committed 
 by her two great inventors, Rodman and Dahlgren, 
 to cast-iron smooth-bores, which were fabricated in 
 great numbers, her attitude has been that of Micaw- 
 ber — "waiting for something to turn up." England 
 occupies the other extreme. — of all the powers she 
 has ventured the greatest sums upon the theories of 
 her gun-makers. Her private manufacturers have 
 received such encouragement at home or abroad that 
 they are now able to supply tlie whole world. Their 
 only great rival on tlie Continent is Krupp, wlio finds 
 hismarkct priucii)ally in Germany, Russia and Tur- 
 key. 
 
 ■The early adoption of the rifle principle by all 
 European powers placed them at once on a jjlane of 
 advancement. The vexed questions of breech and 
 muzzle-loading and of gun construction have been 
 decided by each nation in tlie manner most satisfac- 
 tory to itself. Opinions dilTer widely, and it is i)rob- 
 able that many clianges may be made iii tliesc mat- 
 ters. Still they all possess powerful guns whicli 
 have certain feiilures in common, essenthil to heavy 
 
 son between the largest suns at present existent : 
 
 Tables I, II, III, andlV, on pages 443, 444, 445, 
 and446,emi50dythe principal dimensions and weights 
 of ordnance and ammunition of the United States 
 Land Service. The tables, pages 447-456, together 
 with the descriptions of ordnance referred to in this 
 Encyclopedia, at the clo.se of this article, will enable 
 the reader to trace the history of ordnance, ancient 
 and modern, and at the same time, to make compar- 
 isons of that pertaining to the various military ser- 
 vices. See Armstrong Ouiut, Artillery. BlnkelyGun, 
 Breich-initertion, Bronze Guns, Built-up (f-uris. (Gan- 
 non, Cannon MHaU, Cust-iron Guiih, Cast-xteel Ouns, 
 Converted Ouns, Cooling of ('Ustings, Ihthlgren Qun, 
 EUiriek Gun Work,H, Fabrication of Ttilies, Fifteen- 
 inch Gun, Fraser Gun, French Army Ordnance, Gun 
 ('onxtructioH, Inspection of Ordnance. Mann Gun, 
 Moffntt Gun, Mortar, J'alliser Gun, Parrott Gun, 
 Parsons Gun. Rifled Hoicilzers, Hodman Gun, Schulti 
 Wire Gun, Sutclijfe Gun. Systt^ms of Artillery, Thnmp. 
 son Gvn,Uchatius Gun, Whitwort'h Guns, Wire Guns, 
 and Woobcich Gun.
 
 ORDNANCE. 
 
 443 
 
 OBDNANCZ. 
 
 *~ 
 
 o o 
 
 I-* 
 
 !-• 05 OS *. 
 
 Cn OO 1- 
 
 00 
 
 it" 
 
 ►- ■-• ►- ►- — to » 
 
 ,_, ,_, 
 
 *-* 
 
 
 
 
 
 rf^ it^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 Ol S- in Ol 
 OI g ' . lO 
 
 faotP 
 
 
 Ol 
 
 OS -1 OS CI c;i o ;.. 
 
 i. i. .1. .L. i. i. B 
 
 B B B C S 3 O 
 
 *o 
 
 *o 
 
 
 
 
 »o 
 
 m oi 
 
 en 
 
 5' 
 
 S 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 o o :{^ 
 
 p1 
 
 O r/i ^ 
 
 rn 
 
 O 'S O o C c B- 
 B-p- B-B-B-B-^ 
 
 B-B- 
 
 S- 
 
 ■y, 
 
 
 
 3 Ti 
 
 n 
 
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 g 
 
 S 
 
 p- 
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 5' 
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 ^ : 
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 a 
 
 
 
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 k 
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 0) 
 
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 3 
 
 5' 
 
 O 
 
 tr 
 5" 
 
 ED 
 
 a. 
 3 
 
 
 FIELD PIECES. 
 
 '12-pounder)smooth bo 
 rifle 
 
 3 
 o 
 o 
 
 cr 
 o 
 
 ? 
 S- 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 a 
 S 
 
 if 
 S3 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 3 
 
 III 
 
 ifle (converted) 
 
 smooth bore 
 
 smooth horn (model 187 
 smooth bon- (model 186 
 smooth bore 
 
 
 1 "1 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 p 
 
 a 
 pi 
 
 
 
 B- 
 
 
 
 B* 
 
 
 
 i s 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ; 
 
 : I- rf* : : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
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 w 
 
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 o 
 
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 : : : O: 
 
 ^ ^Si 
 
 3o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 tc 
 
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 ^ 
 
 5 
 
 
 
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 D 
 N 
 
 
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 c o. o. _. s. g = s „ c 5 - 
 o o o g o 3,"i. 5- a.''i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 B 
 
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 : : : B i 
 
 r.3 e 
 
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 : : : : : 
 
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 30 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 B 
 
 
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 t-* »-• 
 
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 09 OS |C> 
 
 cn OOO 
 
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 to 
 
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 rf>. rf^ rf^ 
 
 e> 
 
 en OS 
 
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 Caliber. 
 
 
 
 lO 
 
 oi cn cn 
 
 on 
 
 CO 
 
 KO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 t-* )-» 
 
 »-» t-» 
 
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 c to 
 
 
 
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 H-* lO 
 
 Ku 
 
 00 'h-» "to 
 
 H- O CD 
 
 OS 
 
 ift. 
 
 
 
 «l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rs 
 
 
 
 
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 rf- O O 
 
 o 
 
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 ►-00 
 
 "Z. 
 
 
 
 
 en 05 
 
 00 
 
 on 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w- 
 
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 tM 
 
 Preponderance. 
 
 -3 
 
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 OOO 
 
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 00 
 
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 h^ 
 
 ooo 
 
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 OOK^ 
 
 
 I-* 
 
 o 
 
 >- ^ ^ H- ^ H* O 
 
 
 
 
 Windage 
 
 
 <Ti 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 en en o 
 
 rf^ toco 
 
 to 
 
 en 
 
 CO CO rf^ cn ci CD cn 
 
 00 CO 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t-» 
 
 ^ ^ to tOH- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ee 
 
 1^ 03 
 
 & 
 
 -q-a-q 
 
 -^ to bD 
 
 m 
 
 OS 
 
 :» <i <i CD i-> »^ CO 
 
 00 >c> 
 
 s 
 
 Of entire 
 
 
 
 -a 
 
 CO Oi 
 
 
 ca CO CO 
 
 o 
 
 OS 
 
 oscn -3 o cn CO 05 
 
 00 
 
 Ss^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 ts 
 
 '-i'-^ 
 
 OS 
 
 ojooen 
 
 CO to to 
 
 
 
 cn OS cn 05 
 
 
 00 §. 
 
 piece. 
 
 
 7) 
 
 H* 
 
 
 
 en )f^ en 
 
 tsvxvt 
 
 
 
 I-' 05 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V-* 
 
 t-* t— t-- to t-» 
 
 H- to 
 
 to 
 
 
 CO 
 
 OS c;i 
 
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 -. >-- bS 
 
 *>. 
 
 CO 
 
 
 ono 
 
 
 Of bore in 
 inches. 
 
 
 ri 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 OT en OS 
 
 b 
 
 CO Od o 
 
 b cn 
 
 OS 
 
 en 
 
 o 
 
 cn H* cn cn o o <i 
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 en 
 
 -] 
 
 B- 
 
 9. 
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 2. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cn cn cn 
 
 
 
 
 
 >s 
 
 
 
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 to OS OS 
 
 to &3 OS 
 
 en 
 
 *i. 
 
 tfk.cn *k rf*. rf^ ci CO 
 
 K^en 
 
 o»S^ 
 
 
 io 
 
 
 
 <I 
 
 00 to to 
 
 cn to to 
 
 
 
 cn cn cn cn cn to 
 
 en 
 
 Of trunnions. 
 
 
 en 
 
 
 
 -a 
 
 
 
 
 
 cn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : "-^ 
 
 ^ to 
 
 I-* 
 
 t_l 
 
 
 rf^ ►f- cn Oi CO 
 
 if^ en 
 
 a^ 
 
 
 
 *i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -4 
 
 cn 
 
 
 cn 00 I-- hf«. to 
 
 cn *. 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 s 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to; 
 
 
 cn 
 
 CS 
 
 
 
 
 g. 
 
 At base line. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >— to 
 
 
 
 ■^ cn bo CO to CO ^ 
 
 to to 
 
 
 
 o> 
 
 ct: 
 
 
 OS c» ^ 
 
 -a C5 O 
 
 « 
 
 CO 
 
 wo ►- cn rf». rf» oi 
 
 H- 00 
 
 
 3 
 
 V 
 
 <o 
 
 oo: 
 
 en 
 
 *4 en 
 
 C5 
 
 
 
 *a to 
 
 
 
 At muzzle. 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 ts 
 
 
 
 c;f 
 
 
 
 
 
 o.** 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 t-^ ►-^ 
 
 1— bO 
 
 
 t-* 
 
 
 
 ^? 
 
 
 
 -J 
 
 oi: 
 
 en 
 
 CO H* I-* 
 
 X Ci o 
 
 -q 
 
 OS 
 
 j5 to cn 00 1-^ rfk. to 
 
 cn*. 
 
 
 
 
 OS 
 
 c!i: 
 
 o 
 
 -a to 
 
 S5 
 
 yt 
 
 
 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (-*>-^ . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ::;>*»■ 
 
 en 00 
 
 -q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >^ 
 
 o to : 
 
 
 
 
 
 cn 
 
 
 
 : : : 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 05 ^ 
 
 t-* 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Twist in feet. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 t-» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I I '. t-* 
 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 
 
 
 Oi 
 
 o 
 
 <i-a : 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO : 
 
 
 
 : : : cn 
 
 -J ►- 
 
 ^ 
 
 grooves. 
 
 
 
 
 o o 
 
 o 
 
 o 1-': 
 
 
 
 
 
 o : 
 
 
 
 . : : 
 
 o^- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 »-• 03 
 
 03 
 
 CO o : 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO : 
 
 
 
 : : : bo 
 
 CO 
 
 sr 
 
 Width of 
 
 ..V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to »^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 05 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : : : *a 
 : : : *3 
 
 <t-a 
 
 c:s . 
 
 grooves. 
 
 5' 
 
 tri 
 
 
 
 O O 
 
 bb 
 
 o 
 b 
 
 o o: 
 
 b b : 
 
 
 
 
 
 o : 
 9 : 
 
 
 
 : : : 
 : : : b 
 
 
 b>- 
 
 OS 
 
 Depth of 
 
 
 
 O CD 
 
 to 
 
 cnoi • 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ : 
 
 
 
 : : : a 
 
 00 
 
 cog. 
 
 grooves. 
 
 
 
 
 o o 
 
 o 
 
 o o: 
 
 
 
 
 
 o : 
 
 
 
 : : : 
 
 00 
 
 e. 
 
 
 
 
 1-' *. 
 
 (-* 
 
 en en: 
 
 
 
 
 
 OS : 
 
 
 
 : : : 00 
 
 to <l 
 
 boS^ 
 
 Width of 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... OS 
 
 : : : -J 
 
 ^" 
 
 S§. 
 
 lands. 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OS- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 = 
 
 c 
 
 o o : 
 
 
 0^ '< 
 
 Diameter of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 O I 
 
 o to 
 
 ■c tc to 
 
 o 
 
 to t 
 
 c to to to : to to 
 
 tc to 
 
 to :^ 
 
 vent. 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 t 
 
 -» h-* 
 
 )-A to 
 
 NO 
 
 ^ 
 
 -S CO CO rf*.: <I 00 
 
 CO h^ 
 
 '='5' 
 
 Dis.f rom bot- 
 
 
 lf> 
 
 
 
 
 tOOtl-' 
 
 en en 
 
 *» 
 
 
 s 
 
 J cncn 
 
 
 ing. 
 
 tom of bore. 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 Dis. fr'm ver. 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 ooo 
 
 brcn 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 NO CO 
 
 cn 
 
 OS : *. to 
 
 : cn 
 
 to CO 
 
 o- 
 
 plane thro' 
 a.\is of bore. 
 Height of 
 
 b' 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 ooo o o 
 
 
 
 °^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ci 
 
 
 <I -^ *:i ^ *3 
 
 ■^ -a 
 
 -:■ ^ 
 
 head. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cn oi c? Cn cn 
 
 Cn cn 
 
 en- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *"* '. 
 
 
 t-A t-^ »-> t—t i-t 
 
 h- ^- 
 
 .-N 
 
 Diameter of 
 
 
 
 
 
 *:i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
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 head. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 cn oi cn cn cn 
 
 Cn cn 
 
 en- 
 

 
 OBDMANCE. 
 
 444 
 
 OBDNAKCI. 
 
 l^Oi O p H^ (**■ ^ I-* CO CO CO OtOOI-^ 
 
 Mi. C7I i. g ti Si en 5 g i. »» S «■ 
 
 C3 
 O 
 
 s 
 
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 o 
 
 
 C O 05 
 
 2. t« re C 
 
 en o 
 
 CO 
 
 
 ip o 
 
 a.. 
 
 •S3 
 2 o 
 
 Eg 
 
 
 a ►fl 
 
 ii5 
 
 •5-p 
 
 p-a 
 
 2 c 
 
 3 o 
 
 ■ P 
 
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 -J 5 
 i°§ 
 
 I ^^ ^ 
 
 I ?3 3 
 
 Or 00 
 
 bo 5* 
 
 2- a 
 
 m O 
 
 3 C 
 
 P 
 
 i^j^ H-^ k-t. 1-^ GO 1-* •-*•-*»-* to ffi 
 
 OCOO? ^. ocooro? 
 
 o o — • 
 
 2 !=■ 
 
 
 o 
 
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 ° o 
 So 
 
 r; C D 3 D 
 Cr O O o O 
 
 tS OS -^ C5 00 i — 
 
 9 i^ :.. V i. o 
 
 »-* OO ^^ H-i 
 
 01 am 
 
 B SB 
 
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 B- - 
 
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 B 
 
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 -co"! 
 
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 qs 
 
 BB 
 
 ^-. . ^B■r. 
 
 3 3' r; g- n D 
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 3" -L — B* 
 •^ B^ t-l B^ M "^ 
 
 3 2. 3t 2. a •-■ 
 
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 to ^■=' - o g 
 
 ^ c-L o-a 
 
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 B S.C g g 
 £.'' 3 r-g 
 
 O h-^ to 
 
 o b'b'b' 
 B-o o o 
 
 B-C-B- 
 
 a S. 2. 3. 
 
 re ^ pj a 
 
 ■ a a o 
 
 2 • "b"? „ 
 
 B . I-' P CD 
 
 ^ : o o w 
 ^^ o 
 
 00 00 M 
 C *^ 
 
 a. 
 
 3 
 
 tr5' 
 gin 
 
 P P 
 oo 
 
 oo o pp 
 t^to CO 1^ ta 
 
 o opp 
 
 pppp pp 
 
 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO 
 
 ooo oa 
 
 ^3 
 
 [r; • o 
 c : -1 
 
 •. ?;^P 
 
 gs 
 
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 to 
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 Sp 
 
 g = 
 
 p o 
 = 3 
 "5.3 
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 oo 
 
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 ccg C&C,P 
 
 O- CI* 
 
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 Olio 
 
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 OOSOTOiOOO;^ 
 
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 B(j5' 
 
 C B* 
 
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 9^ 
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 fCO. 
 
 »^ »^ c;? 
 
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 X m X ^ 
 
 oo 05 
 
 t-^ o ***■ ►^ o 
 C5 to ... c;i c;i 00 
 ooooSBooo 
 
 •"-i tS CO i-J *. OS -I 
 
 ooooc ooo 
 oo oo o oo 
 
 
 p p 
 
 H-iM CO 
 ►-*-00 I-"*. MM Oi-'CO 
 
 H^ to CO CO <l 
 ^O to CO CO to 
 5 O i**-0 O Ol 
 
 r* >-* to ^^ CO 
 O 0» CJI CJT OS 
 
 oooo 
 
 O H'CO 
 
 ~ibo 
 
 Ol-" 
 
 >-i CO <I ^ <1 
 
 — rd 
 
 T3 re 
 
 o 
 
 W 
 
 rrc 
 
 p 
 *-* 
 
 frq 
 
 a 
 
 re 
 
 3 
 
 
 TO 
 
 to -7 
 
 err cs 
 
 to ^ CO 
 CO ^ '-' 
 to GC rf^ 
 
 to*- 
 ?c to 
 
 CO o 
 
 o» a? -J 
 
 O itO CO 
 
 o -^ c;t 
 
 V rfi- CO CO !^ 
 
 -a 
 o 5. 
 
 KJ. in J© 
 "co co"iu 
 tcco^^ 
 
 to en -^jco r 
 
 
 ■-' M 
 
 b'co 
 
 oto o 
 
 888 
 
 >-> to JO 
 
 io to o 
 
 ►-■to 
 
 CO io 
 
 O to OS to Oo 
 O Sn *■ to o 
 
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 coco 
 
 OS OS 
 
 00 
 
 "o 
 
 V to to 
 Or ^J M 
 
 .^ 
 
 w 
 
 p 
 3
 
 OBDNA 
 
 NCE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 445 
 
 
 
 
 OBDNANCX 
 
 a 
 
 CO 
 
 Or 
 
 »U 
 
 t-" OC >-' 5V -1 0> 00 1— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V'B'd 
 
 00 
 
 to 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p* 
 
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 B 
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 c- 
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 8 
 
 
 
 
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 : i.o,=g4-'gS 8 
 : B S-'o ° -a -i -a 
 : B = = S ° 2 2 
 : c a o-B B B 
 
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 B 
 
 
 
 
 
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 o- 
 
 
 : D-s o-o- "■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 bd 
 
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 3 
 
 ; ss 
 
 ^-& 
 
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 r. b.b.a.r.b.s.2 .^. 
 
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 c o 
 
 : -] osoo Oi,^ 
 : b"*. S* 
 
 . 00 
 
 
 Caliber. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^_. 
 
 
 K- to , 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 cc'ooo 
 
 
 rfk 
 
 -q o 
 
 w 'it 
 
 D OI 
 
 
 ; to CS CS t*1 
 
 
 Weight. 
 
 
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 K) 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 o c 
 
 5 0I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 Or 
 
 »o 
 
 Oi 
 
 o c 
 
 > to 
 
 
 : o o o 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 O 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 o c 
 
 5 O 
 
 
 t-i 
 oo o? 
 
 Preponderance. 
 
 't 
 
 p 
 
 oo 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 © c 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 i S' 
 
 
 Windage. 
 
 
 » 
 
 en 
 
 
 
 It" 
 
 
 M fc 
 
 SCO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^_ 
 
 ' C t— * k^ t— * t-^ »— i 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 ggs 
 
 en 
 
 00 
 
 § 
 
 g £gS§§l? fc;:< 
 
 
 Of bore. 
 
 
 3 
 ft 
 
 
 
 
 
 en 
 
 Ol 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ f* l-i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ; Ie:^ 
 
 
 
 ; ^ 
 
 
 Of rifled part of bore. 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ; OI 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 •1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0, 
 
 
 
 H* 
 
 
 to 
 
 -4 a- 
 
 -J : 
 
 
 OS*- OI 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 Cl 
 
 
 I-* 
 
 Si 
 
 « : 
 
 
 60 ^ 
 
 
 Of semi-axis of ellipse, 
 
 X 
 
 9 
 3 
 
 ft 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 • I 
 
 
 ^ 1 -i S 
 
 
 bottom of bore. 
 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 
 p. C^ (^ 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 CO 
 
 
 «o 
 
 •«1 
 
 to 
 
 u cc 
 
 CO OS Jl OI *. 1^ k« 
 
 jo en en Ol ?^ 
 
 
 
 
 Ol 
 
 
 00 
 
 g 
 
 
 ■o tc 
 
 
 Of trunnions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OI 
 
 Ji c;! 
 
 Ol 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^" 
 
 
 fe 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IS 
 
 
 » 1 
 
 o tc 
 
 -JOOO^-OS p ,^ 
 
 
 From axis of trunnions 
 
 
 
 g : 
 
 
 t-* 
 
 
 
 oc 
 cc 
 
 -JOI le- 00 S 
 
 OS to to 
 
 OI 1- 
 
 
 to face of muzzle. 
 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ lo 
 
 gjsggg §^ 
 
 
 
 
 (8 : 
 
 
 to 
 
 ^0 
 
 05 < 
 
 = Ol 
 
 
 Between rimbases. 
 
 B 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 OI < 
 
 » 
 
 00 f 
 
 [»■ -J 
 
 1-1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 From base line to face 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o: 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 of muzzle. 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 _i 
 
 
 
 ►- ►- k^H^I_i 63 
 
 
 
 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 Cl 
 
 -^ 
 
 00 < 
 
 5 CO 
 
 OS ►- to coos OS 
 
 
 At muzzle. 
 
 
 
 to : 
 
 
 00 
 
 -q 
 
 CT> 
 
 ts 
 
 to -1 *• to r 
 
 or 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 I-* » 
 
 _i 
 
 
 
 CO 63 to 63 CO l(>i 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 » C5 H-* 
 
 n 
 
 00 1 
 
 s o 
 
 63 Ol Ol OT to O s 
 
 to toto S 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 < 
 
 SCOCO ( 
 
 ■» 
 
 CO 
 
 OS 
 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _1 
 
 ,—1 i_L l_l 
 
 
 
 
 K*- : 
 
 
 
 
 
 o a 
 
 OOS-JOOO o,^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 o : 
 
 
 03 
 
 ■:% 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 Of trunnions. 
 
 
 
 10 : 
 
 
 -J ) 
 
 ■o 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO05 
 
 OS • 
 
 ; i 
 
 
 i §g: 
 
 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 Twist. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : >-- 
 
 
 Number of grooves. 
 
 
 : <: 
 
 » C503 : 
 
 
 Ol : 
 
 
 : COOI ten-' OI- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ; H-* ; 
 
 
 H-i ; 
 
 
 : o o-'^ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 : : 
 
 : cr? : 
 
 
 CO : 
 
 
 : to Gci-« -i b b* 
 : t^ c-. ^ *t^ •**■ ^ 
 
 
 Width of grooves. 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 : 3 : 
 
 
 
 
 : OS to -J to ^ • 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 : CD : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : < 
 
 :>o o : 
 
 
 o : 
 
 
 : OO" o o 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 • 1- 
 
 JO-' : 
 
 
 •-* : 
 
 
 : oioi 
 
 
 Depth of grooves. 
 

 
 
 OBDNANCE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 446 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OKDNANCE 
 
 rf>. v\ 
 
 CO*. 00i-« 
 
 00 
 
 v;ik.p p 
 
 l-it- O01-' 
 
 05-500 le 
 
 
 
 to to 
 
 bsoi B-"p 
 T'^ g b" 
 
 b' 
 
 OS CO bo 
 
 O-m 
 -inc 
 
 3-iu 
 O-iu 
 
 0-inch 
 -inch s 
 inch s 
 .4-inch 
 
 
 
 S'5" 
 
 o ra 
 
 
 B" 
 
 5'o 5* 
 
 2-5. ^2- 
 
 
 
 B-p- 
 
 p-p- gg 
 
 CD » O » 
 
 B 
 
 t=^«, =^ 
 
 BS i§ 
 
 smoot 
 
 mooth 
 
 mooth 
 
 smoo 
 
 
 
 2 S2 
 
 o 
 
 » 3 £ 
 
 
 
 B B 
 2 ° 
 
 ii s§ 
 
 o 
 
 B53 
 
 o o 5 
 
 So CO 
 o o so 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 o o 
 
 o o p;-,- 
 
 o* 
 
 s&s 
 
 S'^ S-? 
 
 tJ-h-i^V 
 
 
 p- p- 
 
 =-~ ?ir 
 
 o 
 
 SIEGE PIECES. 
 
 li-bore24-pounder, model 
 -bore 18-pounder, model 
 h-bore 12-pounder, mode 
 
 c- =• o a" 
 
 SEA-OOi 
 
 Gu 
 bore col 
 ore colli 
 ore 43-p 
 -bore 32 
 
 
 fi. a. 2 
 I-* to 9. 
 
 ore, m 
 ire, mo 
 
 FIELD : 
 
 Gu 
 -bore, 1 
 -bore 6 
 
 
 ore, m( 
 re, mo 
 
 Mor, 
 ore, m 
 ore, mi 
 
 B 
 a> 
 
 
 
 
 tters. 
 
 4-pounder, mode 
 3-pounder, mode 
 
 PIECES. 
 
 l2-pounder, mode 
 -pounder, model 
 
 iO ST- 
 ^00 
 
 - *. 
 
 
 II 
 
 00 
 1^ 
 
 tzers. 
 
 adcll841 
 
 del 1841 
 
 odel 1841 
 
 odel 1841 
 
 iST PIECES. 
 
 umbiad, model 1 
 mbiad, model 18 
 ounder, model 1: 
 -pounder, model 
 
 
 "I 
 £1. 
 B 
 SJ 
 B 
 
 
 <xia> 
 
 S5 • 
 
 
 
 
 sii 
 
 
 
 
 ^ OD Jl CE 
 
 
 
 
 t¥ 
 
 "-^ "^ : 
 
 
 
 
 gfp 
 
 
 
 
 1^ ' '■ I 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 O.S a 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 s= 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 so 
 
 X 
 
 03 
 
 CO 
 
 
 cc 
 
 Co 
 
 p.ca.r. 
 
 Material. 
 
 
 o :" 
 
 o . o 
 
 -1* 
 
 •-J" 
 
 3 0*^ 
 
 o ^ o 
 
 5' 
 
 o o o 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 • . o 
 
 • o • 
 
 O, 
 
 . . • o 
 
 
 
 
 • • 
 
 ; 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 : : P 
 
 . ? : 
 
 P* 
 
 : : : B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h-' 
 
 
 y^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 CO »^ OI 
 
 CTf-' 5Tp 
 
 <I OOp Ol j>, 
 
 to rfk to"*rf*- ^ 
 
 
 
 O CO 
 
 00 Vl t£ 
 
 GO 
 
 C5 
 
 OT CO^ 
 
 "^ Cn 'Vi'bi 
 
 Weicfht. 
 
 
 00 »-. 
 
 00 or a 
 
 OI 
 
 1-.! 
 
 CO i-'tO 
 
 -30 ^o 
 
 O O! .f^ o .» 
 
 
 
 
 QOOD 
 
 It'-J c 
 
 to 
 
 *. 
 
 oeoo 
 
 OIO o o 
 
 ooi oo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 o*. 
 
 *-o : 
 
 
 *■ 
 
 to 
 
 toco CO 
 <l o o 
 
 
 
 0:0 OJ-3 fcl 
 
 Preponderance. 
 
 » 
 
 
 CHOI 
 
 -300 : 
 
 
 o 
 
 OC1 OI 
 
 
 tc Or 
 
 OT Ol . 
 
 
 3 
 
 I-* >-i 
 
 I-* Hi : 
 
 
 t-' 
 
 H-i t-'t-' 
 
 
 
 
 : : H-' (-' 
 
 
 oo 
 
 o o : 
 
 
 o 
 
 COCOCO 
 
 
 
 
 i : to to ~ 
 
 Natural angle of sight. 
 
 
 oo 
 
 oo : 
 
 
 o 
 
 ooo 
 
 
 
 
 : : C01-' ^ 
 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *-cn 
 
 c;t <l t- 
 
 H-i 
 
 CO 
 
 ooo 
 
 to to oo 
 
 O 
 
 Oi-> OCO s 
 
 Of bore, exclusive 
 
 
 S 
 
 OOJ 
 
 -3 *. to 
 
 OT 
 
 00 
 
 05GC 30 
 
 OI Oi OI 
 
 OS 
 
 -3 CO ^ 
 
 of chamber. 
 
 t-" 
 
 
 isi^ 
 
 bi 
 
 
 bi 
 
 ifbi 
 
 bi 
 
 
 OS ."^ 
 
 
 
 2^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CR 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t-' h-' 
 
 
 i : ►--'S 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 it...<^ 
 
 ■ : *. 
 
 OI 
 
 oo 
 
 
 
 
 oco <! 
 
 p 
 
 : ; '-'to S 
 
 Of chamber. 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 is <i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bi 
 
 bi 
 
 : 1 >* 
 
 
 
 CJI en 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ I-. I-" 
 
 
 
 t-' 
 
 s 
 
 From rear base- 
 
 
 B 
 P 
 
 a 
 
 sa 
 
 ooo : 
 
 
 Ol 
 
 to 
 
 X i^l? 
 
 
 § 
 
 to 
 
 I-* »-' ^ to S 
 *. -3 S" 
 
 ring to muzzle. 
 
 
 »0 05 
 
 gfc 5 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 5! OOJ 
 
 <■.*- OT 
 
 o 
 
 -3 -3 -S S 
 
 From axis of tnm- 
 
 2 
 
 r* 9^ 
 
 l«>- 
 
 OI 
 
 15-100 
 
 l-»-J <l 
 
 -a 
 
 ooppp S 
 
 nions to face of 
 
 » 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 £0 C?T 
 
 
 § 
 
 ig§ 
 
 bi *. 
 
 
 bj CO bi bi p. 
 
 muzzle. 
 
 B 
 
 0) 
 
 
 t-.^ 
 
 t-^ 1— t 
 
 to 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 to to 
 
 to 
 
 to to toco S 
 
 Between rim- 
 
 
 tot-' 
 
 »to p 
 
 p 
 
 00 
 
 f^OOO 
 
 -I p 
 
 C!I 
 
 OtOOIl-' S 
 
 
 
 OI br 
 
 
 bi 
 
 
 »bo 
 
 bi 1-j 
 
 
 ^ §. 
 
 bases. 
 
 
 
 l-L t-' 
 
 _1. 1_^ »-i 
 
 § 
 
 l-L I 
 
 -'-'to 
 
 to CO to 
 
 to 
 
 ts to toco l>l 
 
 10*-O5 to g 
 
 
 
 
 o ts 
 
 oco p 
 
 00 
 
 -150>-' 
 
 -QOS to 
 
 o 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 W bl 
 
 S 
 
 js 
 
 c;i 
 
 bi to 
 
 OT 
 
 *-*. s< 
 
 
 
 
 
 (-1 l-l 
 
 to 
 
 l_^ 
 
 -J t-i k-* 
 
 to CO •-' 
 
 to 
 
 h-' !-' l-i to . 
 
 
 
 00 to 
 
 X o oa 
 
 o 
 
 Oi 
 
 -■COOT 
 
 -3 OT O 
 
 o 
 
 OI 05-3 t-* ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^S 
 
 sk ^ 
 
 s 
 
 ^ ; 
 
 » 00 bi 
 
 bibi bi 
 
 to 
 
 OT 
 
 1(^00 bi § 
 
 At swell of muzzle. 
 
 g 
 
 ft 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H-i 
 
 
 ■^b 
 
 
 
 cc*. 
 
 »t&. 05 
 
 00 
 
 OI \ 
 
 ^Oipi 
 
 CO to o 
 
 oo 
 
 35-3 00 g 
 
 Of trunnions. 
 
 
 
 i» to 
 
 3S O 
 
 
 bo < 
 
 31CO00 
 
 >;>■ 
 
 
 C §. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 »J 
 
 -^»a 
 
 
 to ) 
 
 o to 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 Utt>- 
 35 C> 
 
 : o» 
 : o 
 
 -» 
 
 <» 
 
 
 
 
 
 -:i p p 
 
 ^ br rf^ 
 
 -3 
 
 
 ojoob' 
 *■ 5, 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 
 
 
 
 >qt9 
 
 : 00 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 OI 
 
 
 
 ^s- 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : ''^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 p<i • 
 
 
 
 
 
 i:^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o to : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rS- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SO < 
 
 3p o 
 
 p 
 
 p t 
 
 *-* 1 
 
 
 PP P 
 
 D < 
 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 ft 1 
 
 Windage. 
 
 
 Oit>- < 
 
 DO <0 
 
 CO 
 
 tc c 
 
 3CCl(>' 
 
 coco to 
 
 W 
 
 ■n 05 CO CO r^ I 
 
 — 

 
 ORDNANCE. 
 
 447 
 
 O&DNANCE. 
 
 t** ^ ^ W W 
 ? a- =^ 2.§ » 
 
 (Tl ti S 
 
 •n rj N 
 
 2 S o 
 
 2 ■> !» 
 
 o (^ <) 
 2fl <T^ -^ 
 
 CI? 
 
 8 
 
 lui I--. to I-*. 
 00 OS i-t GO 
 
 o en a^ o 
 
 tfik. »^ 00 ^ 
 
 >— ' 00 CD •— ^ 
 >(». cs ►** w 
 
 CO 
 
 to ^bi 
 
 
 
 
 S.t E. B ■ 
 
 r-3 =; 
 
 
 
 
 B : 
 
 -1 '5 't 2 
 
 
 3 : 
 
 1) O ^ N 
 
 
 O 
 
 r s-N 
 
 
 N * 
 
 
 
 
 i-rri 1 
 
 
 
 
 i£.i 
 
 
 'Z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 5 -< -" ~ 
 
 
 » 
 
 1^,^ S 
 
 
 a. 
 
 SS 2 ^ 
 
 
 -1 
 
 
 
 «) 
 
 - ^-1 
 
 
 /.-\ 
 
 o 
 
 S 
 
 -I o ■ 
 B : 
 
 
 
 
 3 ' 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 ?? 3. : 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 c - 
 
 3 
 
 'S 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 P 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■1 
 
 » 
 
 
 "W 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 a. 
 
 
 ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 .s 
 
 .coo 
 
 
 
 4.. 
 
 fc 
 
 
 
 JS 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 _^ 
 
 -iH* h- 
 
 
 <x> 
 
 » 
 
 -4 to 00 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 ifc 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 -L 
 
 h.* H-* 1-^ 
 
 
 35 
 
 i1 05 >>- 
 
 !5 
 
 ts 
 
 o to cn 
 
 1 
 
 ts 
 
 :;t 
 
 ai 05 en 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 *s 
 
 yr 
 
 
 i 
 
 -1 
 
 a 
 
 05C5--I 
 
 o 
 
 -^ 
 
 3500 
 
 tn 
 
 
 *j 
 
 
 q 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 r/3 
 
 >(>- 
 
 
 lO u »^ 
 
 
 
 -A 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 -J 
 
 O'lf^ o 
 
 
 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >«>. 
 
 >^>l^ CO 
 
 
 00 
 
 >:* 
 
 to W 05 
 
 
 
 -I 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 »^ 
 
 
 ts 
 
 
 to 
 
 -J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Si 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 *. 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 " 
 
 : o 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 CT 
 
 en 05 05 
 
 
 & 
 
 o 
 
 ^ ^ rf^ 
 
 
 >(>. 
 
 
 tOM 
 
 
 
 
 t-^ t-^ \-t- 
 
 
 
 I-* 
 
 to CO OS 
 
 
 c^ 
 
 -1 
 
 CO tots 
 
 
 02 
 
 
 -J-ltO 
 
 
 
 
 H.1 I-' 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 oo o 
 
 
 .-^ 
 
 to 
 
 to ^ to 
 
 
 'X 
 
 X 
 
 05 on-J 
 
 
 o 
 
 <! 
 
 ooooeo 
 
 
 03 
 
 oa 
 
 (0 00(9 
 
 
 OD 
 
 00 
 
 K^OStO 
 
 
 <I 
 
 » 
 
 05 -1 -J 
 
 
 to 
 
 ii>- 
 
 to *. 00 
 
 
 -1 
 
 
 to 
 
 a.^ 1 
 
 « ^ -1 o 
 
 -- g - li" ^' &' 
 
 = o = b£U 
 
 er^ g 
 
 -1 /^ ^ 
 
 2 "^ S 
 
 2 " N 
 
 m _ .^ 
 
 ^ CO ^■^ 
 
 » o 3 
 X ,— o 
 
 '3. 
 
 1-1 O •- ►- 
 
 I-* l-» to H- 
 
 w CO -J cn 
 
 lt>. VI 
 to CO 
 CIOI 
 
 >(>. CO 
 
 o en 
 
 to 
 
 00 
 
 1- o 
 to J-" 
 
 I 
 
 ^ti-WMt;. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 _ - K -1 3 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i=?|3| 
 
 
 
 : Bolder 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : SLi-f? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i iT^^i 
 
 7\ 
 
 
 : t o — --- T 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ;^f?r3 
 
 
 2. 
 
 
 : 2 =?■ : ,= 
 
 
 tn 
 
 
 : 5 2 : 'i. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : o I : 3 
 
 
 
 
 : ? a i S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nlil 
 
 
 
 
 : c 2 : r. 
 
 
 
 
 : a? c? : c 
 
 
 
 
 : s-Y : o- 
 
 
 
 
 • •p : : « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : o : : ■• 
 
 
 
 
 ■ D : : : 
 
 
 
 
 H-„,-«t:* 
 
 9 
 
 
 tCi tc tc tc to ^ 
 
 
 
 to C5 ^ 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 Jl 
 
 
 g ssgggy 
 
 2.^ 
 
 TO » 
 
 
 
 CO OD 5 
 
 O 5C ie 
 
 5w 
 
 ^H 
 
 CO to to >-• to ks^ 
 
 5^ ■ 
 
 
 to en to Si C5 s^ 
 
 
 <I to --1 to *. ri 
 
 
 1 
 
 ■-b, ? 
 
 on 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 -1 • 
 
 
 2 
 
 ^ --=^^ 
 
 -,§ 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 *!. 
 
 
 hH 
 
 5t 
 
 r" o 
 
 •^ 
 
 -1 -1 C5 -1 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 '^ 
 
 7f 
 
 O -i 05 O ^ 2 
 
 
 
 O O IJ- O -1 2 
 
 If 
 
 
 «■§' 
 
 
 
 2.S 
 o c 
 
 
 o to to o ^ ^ 
 
 
 
 CO o -.c O *" S. 
 
 >< 5" 
 
 
 
 
 
 »-i to — to •— ;^ 
 
 
 -q 00 •- X CT s 
 
 
 en *. o C5 X S 
 
 '^ -c 
 
 
 o en 05 *- ~3 iT 
 
 as 
 
 
 to bStO to S' !»( 
 
 s 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'S 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 -l 
 
 
 ■*. bo X ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ft., 
 tons 
 
 184 
 180 
 171. 
 
 205 
 
 n 
 
 ■-1 
 
 
 00 t*. 
 
 
 cr 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Ft., 
 tout 
 
 157. 
 152. 
 147. 
 
 173 
 
 V, (0 
 
 0.0 
 
 09 
 
 1 
 
 
 ?* S 
 
 
 to to S5 en • ■ 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ CO eo eo i ^ 
 
 •<>= 
 
 
 
 3.0 
 
 3 
 
 
 -] oo» g r- 
 
 Cfi O 
 
 
 to totoi^ • ' 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ft 
 ton 
 
 124 
 lU! 
 113 
 
 127 
 
 "5 -"^ 
 
 
 
 1 _] It- 05 to • 
 
 
 1
 
 OBDNANCE. 
 
 448 
 
 OEDNANCE. 
 
 1 „_.f^ 
 
 a a a 
 
 o3^ 
 
 Armstr 
 pound 
 loadin 
 ing tl 
 meclia 
 
 Woolw 
 pound 
 loadin 
 ing stt 
 
 1 
 
 
 ited 
 . mu 
 grifl 
 
 » c c 
 
 ,5 3^ 
 
 
 ft N GO 
 
 
 a ?5"^ S 3 
 
 ai'=l So 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 "■ ^^ .-"• —era 
 
 ? £ ELS 
 
 o 
 •o. 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 ^— ,• — ' 
 
 I. ^ 1 
 
 ' . ' 
 
 
 
 
 >F>. 
 
 ir» 
 
 =^ S' 
 
 Caliber. 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 en 
 
 3 ?• 
 
 . 
 
 
 00 
 
 M 
 ^ 
 
 
 CO t~i 
 
 Weight. 
 
 
 g 
 
 ;g 
 
 g 
 
 § • 
 
 
 
 >~-L 
 
 (-* 
 
 I-* 
 
 1— »■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 GO 
 
 CTT 
 
 K) 
 
 
 Nominal exterior length. 
 
 
 1—1. 
 
 h-^ 
 
 l-L 
 
 H-i 
 
 
 f* 
 
 § 
 
 g 
 
 S 
 
 2 
 
 Inches. 
 
 
 
 
 
 en 
 
 en 
 
 
 OCR 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 63 
 
 
 OT 
 
 h-* 
 
 to 
 
 ta 
 
 Caliber. 
 
 
 □ 
 
 
 OS 
 
 C7» 
 
 
 
 
 <-H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nunmber of 
 
 
 ::? 
 
 to 
 
 00 
 
 <i 
 
 CO 
 
 grooves. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 h-4 
 
 l-H 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 oc! 
 
 a 
 
 osi 
 
 
 CO 
 
 Caliber. 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 □Q 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 5" 
 TO 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 13 
 
 B 
 
 o" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CK5 
 
 ^tr? 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 *> 
 
 g^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 coS 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 en 
 
 '^O 
 
 00 o 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 B 
 
 §. 
 
 QD 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 H.D.No 
 
 H.D.No 
 H.D.No 
 
 .<= '-d o ;;■ '-d 
 
 en ™ ■ - , 2. 
 
 Ot:^- o 3 
 
 3^ 
 
 4 
 
 is 
 
 Kind. 
 
 13 
 o 
 
 *. *. CO 
 
 g™^s!i 
 
 
 t-l 
 
 
 2 
 
 n 
 
 
 \^- ■■ J, ^^/ 
 
 
 'W -V— ' 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 - 1= 
 
 
 
 
 -? *^ OS -4 *^ 
 
 
 oogo .-3 
 
 Weight. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 t. 
 
 
 V , ' 
 
 w ,^^ 
 
 so 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 (0 ^ O* 
 
 se o 
 
 o-O 
 to o 
 B"0 
 
 B 
 
 Kind. 
 
 
 I 
 
 S5 5 
 
 O-tJ 
 
 rti a 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 0,1 
 
 p.1 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 g 
 
 to 
 
 » 
 
 ts 
 
 J£ 
 
 
 2 
 
 CO 
 
 en 
 
 00 
 
 
 .§ 
 
 Length. 
 
 3. 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 CO (S to 
 
 en en en 
 
 coco 
 
 QO OS 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 otco 
 
 SS 
 
 
 Weight. 
 
 
 •« 
 
 ^—.*— ..—*—. 
 
 
 /"^ '- — \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1-1 H.L t-L H-i h-l 
 
 l-» »-* 
 
 t-t. t-t. ,-L 
 
 1-1 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 o o 
 
 o o o 
 
 o 
 
 Of charge to weight 
 
 w 
 
 € 
 
 en co*^ CO CO 
 
 en en 
 
 CO >f^ »;k. 
 
 en 
 
 of projectile. 
 
 p 
 
 en I-* CO en 
 
 h^ 
 
 CD I— ' to 
 
 -:j 
 
 
 
 
 -JOi CO-I 
 
 
 GO H-i Crt 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 > ^ ' 
 
 
 ^-^ 1 — ^ 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 t-^ (_i 
 
 t-l I-* 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 
 i 
 
 cfq 
 
 ^V 
 
 
 o o 
 00 oo 
 
 1-^ 
 
 5 
 
 s 
 
 CO 
 
 Of weight of pro- 
 jectile to weight 
 
 3. 
 
 § fe 
 
 ^^-s 
 
 ■ 3 
 
 00 
 
 of piece. 
 
 &• 
 
 GO 
 
 
 
 
 -H. ^ 
 
 
 
 >F^cn »fk. cnen 
 ocn o &i o 
 
 en en 
 
 en b? *.. 
 
 "coco S. 
 
 Initial velocity. 
 
 
 r<^ »;^ 
 
 ^ ^ ^ 
 
 00 CO 
 
 
 
 fcl K> 
 
 OC t^ o 
 
 c to 
 
 
 
 
 ^T^ 
 
 s---,-^-/ 
 
 ^r~- 
 
 
 
 CO to M CO lO 
 
 ^^ Gc CO c; .-* 
 
 : 
 
 1-*. 
 ^ 
 
 en t-i 
 
 Pressure per square inch of 
 
 
 » o oo en 
 
 i 
 
 'cr 
 
 tf^ 
 
 bore. 
 
 
 
 rf^ 
 
 
 
 
 oo o oo 
 
 ! 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 oS 
 
 
 
 
 en 
 
 to 
 
 Or 
 
 en 
 1*^ 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 io ►-> 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CD 
 
 -7 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 g 
 
 § 
 
 Per square inch of 
 shot's cross-sec- 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 
 
 
 IO 
 
 OS 
 
 OB 
 
 tion 
 
 S3 

 
 ORDNANCE. 
 
 449 
 
 ORDNANCE. 
 
 »— 1 
 
 
 I-* 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 — 
 
 >^ 
 
 I-* ^o 
 
 
 
 
 
 »-* 
 
 H^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 o ^ 
 
 6' B' 
 
 00 o ^:o c* 
 
 
 
 iw x p w cn p 05 w ►*» "fC p *o ;o 
 
 
 
 5' 5' 5' 5' 
 
 i/^ 
 
 
 ■g 5' 5' 5' 5' 5' 5' r' f; 5' 5* 5* 'if 
 
 g 3-3- 3- 3-3- 3-= ^ 3- 3- 3-3 
 
 
 
 o o 
 
 n ft rs 1 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 o- p-tb. o-s-a-s- ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 CO w 
 
 a B- 3 =- 3 ^^ 
 
 
 ^ '/. w t/i rfl w -( ^ ~ -1 ,„, i-( O 
 
 553B3SHii S^S- 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 2 o 2 o<S 
 
 
 
 
 
 a N T N T ?• 
 5! a . rt . 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^ o o o o o 
 
 2 o o o o o 
 
 ■5 
 
 3.31 
 
 T> 
 
 "' 7 
 
 Q 
 
 ■S 
 
 
 
 o o 
 
 T* 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 o o'c-e-3-o* 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q« 
 
 
 
 
 rtar 
 rtar 
 
 
 
 
 !° 
 
 
 3^ 1 1 *1 -^ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^ O r5 '^ '^ o 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,_4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 75 75 W '1- '(5 
 3 3 3 C 3 C 
 '-33333 
 r^q . . . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 0> CI 
 
 en M 
 
 OS CI -3 o 
 H^ 10 p> o 
 
 Weight in 
 
 
 -i 
 
 
 (-• 00 
 
 (O 
 
 cwts. 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -1 
 
 (I 
 
 
 ■^ en 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 M H^ 
 
 »— ^ »-^ 
 
 Caliber in 
 
 
 O U 
 
 00 O CD Od 
 
 inflies. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "2. 
 
 
 fe g 
 
 OJ *--1 CI 
 CI C5 CS CO 
 
 Of piece 
 
 re 
 
 
 k "• 
 
 io 
 
 in inches 
 
 3 
 Oq 
 
 B' 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g S 
 
 feSSgg 
 
 Of bore 
 
 
 cn f-i 
 
 
 in inches 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , ^^^^_ 
 
 -\ 
 
 
 
 5 -JO 
 
 O OS 4^ OO 
 
 Charge in 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CI 
 
 ^ 
 
 pounds. 
 
 5' 
 (n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _/ CT 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I-* to 
 
 l-» lO to "^ 
 
 
 
 2 s; 
 
 w to o p ^ 
 
 "Weight of 
 
 ?r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 1 
 
 projectiles. 
 
 
 rf>.OOCl(»CI005CC*-OOOlOlOS_ 
 
 
 
 -J 
 
 
 o 
 
 ! 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 
 to -4 
 
 cn cn -J •-* g 
 
 Bursting 
 
 ts 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 as 1 
 
 charge. 
 
 Ctl 
 
 (-.^h_i>_*i_i^(Oi-'tOH-''-^"-'N-iSi 
 
 
 ■1 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 05Cn OO OCS-^'-JCS-T—CO-^ 
 
 Length. 
 
 
 S ft 
 
 (O w :d cn ^ 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 
 jfk. CO ^»;*- 
 
 
 Range, 
 
 
 s: : 2SS 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 1— ( 
 
 
 
 bi rf^ cs 
 
 ^ CtVilio 
 
 yards. 
 
 <j" 
 
 . . » 2 2 
 
 2 § 
 
 
 
 rs 
 
 
 
 M_;ig_ 
 
 3 segs§ 
 
 
 
 » S-?-^-.- i ?-- § a-a-c-J 
 
 Nature. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 r* ? 
 
 111^ 
 
 3-» 3-: S 
 
 3 
 
 .;> 
 
 -> 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 to O ^ UT 
 O O O CJl 
 
 Lateral. 
 
 1 
 
 
 : : : : r* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3' 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 •-'CO •-''—' L 
 l"-!*-^*©© CO 00 O >-* O 
 
 tootnocnobow-jcnooos?* 
 
 Weight. 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5' 
 
 -^ 
 
 cn'' "^ v^v^ ^ -^ ^^ .-* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cn -3 w a> 
 
 In range 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 OO bob bob b 
 
 CO CO CO CO CO CO coco CO 1^ 
 
 o rf^ cn GD en wi c: CD oo t^ 
 
 Weight per cubic 
 
 
 
 
 
 -J 00 CO CO 
 
 
 o 
 
 ca cn'-'Cnco*-'*-' os S^ 
 
 CD GO to . 
 
 inch. 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 ' , 
 
 t-» CO tfk. ^ ►&. Ci <l 
 ►-*05tOOCrii-'i-^COXOOOK- 
 
 cocnoooooocscnoooo^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 TO 
 
 Weight of projectil 
 
 
 
 
 : 5' °° — 3 T- 
 
 
 P 
 
 CO 00-1 .* 
 
 o cn 
 
 
 
 1— 1 k- • 1— • (— • 1— * 
 
 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 : B 
 
 
 
 g. 
 
 C0G0l0OC0^X<ICDOC5OO 
 
 b--iODi*>'b-icn-aoorf>hO'-'CO 
 
 rfi-H-OODO^Ci-i^WOCOtO 
 
 Total volume in 
 bore. 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 S' 
 
 
 td 
 
 CO coi—o ciOto*^o;nco 
 
 
 
 
 H.^,-^^_^_^,-':g 
 
 
 
 r M 
 
 : "o 
 : w 
 : i*^ 
 
 O 
 3> 
 
 i "H:^.. 
 
 
 a 
 
 4». rf».*:n cn^ 
 
 Voj *.V'h;>. ij *- S 
 
 Actual. 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o o o cn CO 
 
 
 
 
 ■: S3o§S 
 
 
 cno 
 
 S-l Cl 
 
 00 *^o rf^ O O CO * 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 : '■< 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 'qo'o --1 b o 
 
 -3 cn -.3 c^ o cn cn ch 
 
 Calculated. 
 
 
 : ci- 
 
 
 
 
 w <j ::; oco 
 
 i.-.O'*^'-'— '-Jrf^r*- 
 
 
 
 . IP 
 
 
 : ■ crq o (t. ^ 
 
 . u^ -5 3 _ re 
 
 
 
 tD -* cn -1 o 
 
 00 Ci 00 o to o --■ 
 
 
 «< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 -I 
 
 
 GO GO 00 00 00 
 
 I-* CO CO H-. Cn 
 
 00 CO CD X 00 00 o 
 to to ^ ^J X to t-» 
 
 cn CO to X -J o -^ 
 
 Percentage realized 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO CO CO CO '-* C5 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 re 
 •-J 
 
 
 
 • 3;S= 
 
 
 
 
 -1 00 -q <l *3 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 Tg.3 
 
 • f-' rD 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OS 00 O C35 Cn 
 
 to CO CD to cn 
 
 OSJi-i-OH-Csr' 
 
 <iaaoo^ooooao^ 
 
 Actual. 
 
 2? 
 
 : ^ 
 
 
 _:_ ^ » 
 
 -3 " 
 
 a: P 1-5 
 
 
 
 j^tOtP-*- o 
 
 OOOl-'-q to W S 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 i g-^1 
 
 
 • r* 'T) -I J :3 
 
 •> 
 
 
 "3 
 
 
 
 : 
 
 g?i- 
 
 
 
 H^tOwOO'-'OOOlSOOpT* 
 
 Calculated maxi- 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 : 00 
 
 : ""'* 9° 
 
 
 
 #i-Cn4*GOCO^t.OODCllCiOCOff-^ 
 
 mum. 
 
 ■— * 
 
 1 
 
 ; 33^" 
 
 
 
 cn^i4^'---cncirfa'0'-'*>'»-'Cocoi: 
 
 00 Wl 5« 
 
 
 
 
 : 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : (. 
 
 
 O-'ISS-^*^* OSOCS-~5-JCSCO 
 
 go^oco: -^T^T^r^pcoto 
 
 Percentage realized 
 
 
 1 ft) • 
 
 
 
 cn to b cn b : b *- -i b ca — oo 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 OD»-'OJoco: oorf^ — -jtT 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 IT 
 
 a 
 
 5" 
 
 S' 
 
 » 
 
 c; 
 
 ! ■« 
 
 o 
 
 e 
 
 3 
 
 a. 
 
 •a 
 a. 
 
 3" 
 DO 
 
 s 
 
 B
 
 OBDNANCE. 
 
 450 
 
 OHDNANCE. 
 
 Cd 2 
 
 Ills ^i 
 -i?i ii 
 
 
 03 
 
 c O. 
 
 
 = ° En SS." 
 
 n- o o ffi 2 — L-j r* • - 
 
 ;> ^ c ■'' t-i o >:^ 
 
 a" 
 
 : 3 3 
 
 • B 3 
 - O O 
 
 : _B 3 
 
 i SS-2 
 Saw 
 
 o o O 
 
 3 o a 
 
 3 
 
 3 3 
 
 
 32 
 
 -4. » s. 
 
 3 > 
 
 -3 
 
 r 
 12 
 
 
 ca 
 
 o K 
 
 S " 
 
 •'3 2,3 
 O 3 „ B 
 
 go go 
 
 o B 
 
 S O 
 
 71 a 
 
 2.S 
 o2 
 
 W 
 2! 
 
 
 
 £ J5 
 
 B A 
 
 
 bs; 
 
 1^ 
 
 : — ^n 
 
 Bg. 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 d 
 S! 
 
 a- 
 o 
 
 B' 
 en 
 
 
 i« »co or 
 
 Caliber. 
 
 CO >-t 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Total length. 
 
 cocc 
 ctbi 
 
 Length of bore. 
 
 Twiet in number 
 of calibers. 
 
 oi o 
 ■ 5 
 
 i^i^ 
 
 j Number of 
 : eroovcs. 
 
 
 
 . !c. is CO CO 
 
 4- -1 tZi 
 
 »-4 cn 
 
 CO-l 
 
 
 c 
 
 "4 
 
 €al|. 
 
 •^ "^ "^ ' — "^ "^ 
 
 _ c3 _ BiB a 't3&'^3 2. 
 
 ' o 
 
 1 TJ 
 
 re X 
 
 ca to K) til n- tZ/ tZ-KUCK-KrH) 
 
 Length. 
 
 i i § I 
 
 ti, ■— _ M CO o; ci 
 
 Sk-i o» O c o: oi 
 K. OS X cc •&- o 
 
 -1 _ *j ^j _. I-. i_* o 
 
 gOl—'OCSOi OOCCOO —I 
 
 ^JCD 
 
 8SS8S S:' 
 
 »13 
 
 2 3 
 
 'io 
 
 H 
 
 
 CTQ t^ 
 
 
 g'S 
 
 
 
 "1 ■-* 
 
 c^S: 
 
 
 
 a CJ 
 
 ^5 
 
 •c-s 
 
 tr-c 
 
 c P 
 
 D = 
 
 DS2 n-oooo; : 
 
 -=■3 » ^-s-c-o-a . . 
 
 ■Q-3 p. C-'C'C-CT! & a 
 '^- n oorDfXOO 
 
 c-o-o £ crcro-cr: : 
 
 -»2- "»pp». 
 
 a, ^ 3 3Dj&.CjD.' * 
 
 S p ^ p 
 
 ^3 3^ 5.3 
 
 ft N N P N 
 
 •^ n a '^' ft fi 
 
 P ?. S. 3*^ 2L 
 » = = !?« = 
 
 nn JE TO pr "- - 
 
 ^P^c^S- 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Means of 
 rotation. 
 
 ai II II 
 
 MM-';-' -H-lh 
 *;M CO C;ViS"^^ S?S 
 
 
 o'o^vS'b^ 'SS Initial velocity. 
 
 gg2g£_8r 
 
 3 3 
 
 KWWOCO oco 
 
 7 tSS « O 
 
 *--05CO I- 
 
 2:J2 
 
 9SSgg 
 
 M C5 Oi toe 
 0> CO 1^ !:oc 
 
 (0 4.j-'/0 J^*/ 
 
 l:S?i82 Sb 
 
 Muzzle energy. 
 Total. 
 
 r,S gg 
 
 :5^i5J 
 
 ,<£> OC ^ ol 
 
 S8!: 
 
 8S 
 
 gS SS :i SSSigg fezas^g:^ jg^sa 
 
 COKiM COCO W^ 
 
 Ol >i^ OCOK> 00 3 
 
 CO -^ 1-' ^ ■-' OS ts- 
 
 to J- O S ~T to ■ 
 
 
 88 
 
 8Sio fejgfeSjS gJS^gSS gggK 8 
 
 
 At muz- 
 zle. 
 
 At 1,000 
 yards. 
 
 c 
 
 3 3 g
 
 ORDNANCE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ORDNANCE. 
 
 
 B>i-i 2. 
 
 t 
 
 3. 
 
 5d 
 
 CD J » 
 
 
 
 1" 
 
 ■0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 05 : en 
 
 s 
 
 .0 -5 .0 
 
 
 
 01 
 
 « 
 
 2. .3 
 
 en 
 
 1 ^1 -^^ 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 ' : o 
 
 -1 
 
 S-vv=" 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 p 
 
 -1S-.21" 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 to 
 
 
 P 
 
 B 
 
 
 •^ 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 td 
 
 
 3 
 
 B«2g 
 
 
 
 
 
 tr' 
 
 K) 
 
 r 
 
 "m 
 
 n 
 
 p 
 
 g- 
 
 c-i 
 
 t3r~ 
 
 a 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 2.- o 
 
 t-' 
 
 3 . 
 
 : 
 
 t-' 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 2.: 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 r' 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 B 
 
 « : 
 
 cr 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 N : 
 
 
 -1 
 
 3 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 3; 5 
 
 o 
 3 
 
 p : 
 
 
 3. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 OS : 
 
 
 1? 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 X ■ ,— , 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : ; TS 
 
 ■i 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 
 
 ta 
 
 ■< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • • -1 
 
 
 
 
 fD 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■-1 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 
 
 : : o 
 
 
 
 
 <-* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : n 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 § I 
 
 c 
 a 
 
 ■a 
 p 
 
 1? 
 
 ;? 
 
 
 "=3 
 
 3 
 
 '9' 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 '9^ 
 
 IF 
 
 2^ 
 
 tl 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 ^ 
 
 rn *-•» 
 
 
 : : 't> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2, 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o- 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 ■g^ 
 
 2 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 ■22^2 
 
 i-? 
 
 
 a" 
 
 
 o 
 
 o : 
 
 o 
 
 OB^ 
 
 8S 
 
 ft 
 w 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 3' 3 -1 3' 
 
 
 
 
 in : 
 
 i 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 re a 
 
 
 3-S 
 p 2 
 
 i'o 
 
 
 2. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i^' 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 i^i i 
 
 ^ ^^ 
 
 
 & 
 
 p 
 
 o : 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 CO -ip 
 
 • 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 f a] f 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 cno CO 2 
 
 2-0 
 
 Us 
 
 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 o 
 
 o : 
 
 o 
 
 S 
 
 OS 
 
 b §. 
 
 3? 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 
 
 -a «• 
 
 g 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 SI 
 
 
 
 Ci 
 
 CD !« 
 
 
 CO 
 
 2 
 
 g 
 
 »>-' g- 
 
 f 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 »(>^ 
 
 
 
 ■^^ 
 
 r 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 •^ 
 
 -> 
 
 o 
 
 3 S 
 
 g 
 
 § «.>^ 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 en 
 
 lb. 
 
 CO 
 
 OS en .-3 S: 
 -jco 05, 
 
 a? 
 
 
 
 i 
 9 
 
 CO 
 
 to o 
 
 C3 
 
 ° 2Sa 
 
 s- 
 
 
 Ift* 
 
 F^ 
 
 B 
 
 U CO bo's 
 00 -3 .=» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 3' 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 VI 
 
 
 : i .2 
 
 P _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i? 
 
 Preponc 
 
 ier- 
 
 : 
 
 •M 
 
 00 
 
 l~ 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ance 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "I 
 
 
 1 
 
 <5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 »- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 wio : S^ 
 .-fO • g, 
 
 is 
 
 TO 
 
 
 H 
 
 c* 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 Is- 2. 
 
 - a TO 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■I 
 
 5' 
 era 
 
 
 
 
 Nature 
 chec 
 
 of gas 
 k. 
 
 
 
 en 
 
 3 -J : 00 
 
 
 
 §■■ 
 
 » ti 
 
 e>. 
 
 eo 
 
 s 
 
 CO OS 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «D 1 
 
 ji 
 
 CO 
 
 CO to CI 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
 3 ^2 
 
 1 — 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 
 Sera 
 3. ■ 
 
 if 
 
 D : 2. 
 
 — 3q O 
 
 1-1 00 
 -. 5 
 
 s B. 2. 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 to 
 
 
 n 
 
 CO 
 
 bo 
 
 
 ft X 
 
 §.B 
 
 
 
 1 ' 
 
 »■ : p' 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s !| 
 
 B 
 
 
 ^ : 
 
 ^ : 
 
 
 g. 
 
 i^ ^ 
 
 
 
 00 J 
 
 5 
 
 ca 
 
 
 
 
 •-I >■ 
 
 ■J 
 
 
 
 
 
 b c 
 
 3 
 
 bo 
 
 — ■ § 
 
 
 
 
 
 o c 
 
 2 : 
 
 
 ft) 
 
 
 
 
 S- 
 
 
 
 
 
 rf^ 
 
 ; «o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 : 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 3 c 
 
 i \ 
 
 
 T 
 
 8r. r. 
 
 g-3 3 
 
 
 p] 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • s" 
 
 (0 
 
 p ■• 
 
 B 
 
 a. 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 B j 
 
 
 
 
 a? = 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : a- 
 
 : 2 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 jo : 
 
 
 
 K) to 2 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 B "-^ 
 
 
 
 
 CO < 
 
 
 
 
 "0 'n 5 
 
 
 
 >p. c 
 en t 
 
 n 
 
 
 GO 
 
 • -1 
 
 : &- 
 
 : .2 
 
 i'i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p » s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 .o 
 
 a : 
 o 
 
 
 
 CO c» 
 
 
 — rj P 
 < K 
 
 ^ g.5' 
 
 CSC 
 ■ Bg 
 
 
 » : 
 
 § i 
 
 
 
 -5 
 
 b 
 
 r 
 
 1^ 
 
 

 
 ORDNANCE. 
 
 452 
 
 OBDNANCE. 
 
 <=5^ 
 
 •a 
 
 c 
 
 2 ."" 
 
 '='g^ = 
 
 CO jj 5 ^ 
 
 5* T ^ X 
 
 "-I K tl H 
 
 p ^ 
 
 re o 
 
 5 
 
 P 
 
 CO 
 
 B 
 
 re 
 
 f^ 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 c- 
 o 
 
 o 
 c 
 
 P 
 
 3 
 
 
 <• 
 
 
 
 
 re 
 
 n 
 
 -- 
 
 ^» 
 
 r/j 
 
 *-< 
 
 re 
 
 3* 
 re 
 
 re 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 s 
 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 
 B 
 o 
 
 p. 
 
 -1 
 
 p 
 
 3::jq 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 cc 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 re' 
 
 :a 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 § 
 
 p 
 -1 
 
 
 
 rn 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 "I 
 
 D- 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rn 
 
 o 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 c5 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 r: 
 
 CfH 
 
 ^ 
 
 P 
 
 c 
 
 
 ;^ 
 
 
 & 
 
 Cl 
 
 J5 
 
 p 
 
 •-» 
 
 , , 
 
 2"2. 
 
 p-p 
 
 ; 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 < 
 
 ri 
 
 iz: 
 
 re 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 *"*, 
 
 Qj 
 
 n 
 
 3 
 
 —. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ft) 
 
 E3 
 
 « 
 
 ?r 
 
 !75 W M t> W 
 
 O re -1 ' 
 a S.re^ 
 
 2 S-c ? 
 
 g^re re g 
 „ P p <= 
 
 re o o 2 
 era <i c =. 
 re re g a, 
 
 f H» 
 
 g-re a 
 Is " 
 
 ?S3 
 
 ?1: 
 
 OI C5 ►-» - P 
 
 3 
 ta 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 o o 
 
 CO to 
 
 3 
 
 133 
 
 ►^ -^ to 
 
 ==:? 
 
 GO 
 
 C O O O O O O 
 
 to cc to CO tc to ^ 
 
 )--■ ^3 X •-' iri ■— - to 
 
 00 -I O C". O »J CO 
 
 -^ CO >— H- o CI !:c 
 
 too 
 
 CO bo 
 
 0:: 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 re 
 
 
 o 
 
 re 
 
 
 iq 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 uq 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 ri 
 
 
 
 
 
 T-! 
 
 P 
 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 si 
 
 xi 
 
 ^ 
 
 re 
 
 
 
 
 re 
 
 re era 1 
 
 
 
 
 re 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 si 
 
 o 
 
 
 re 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 •I 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 re 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 •-h 
 
 
 tsl 
 
 -"•5 re 
 
 r-- C CO 
 
 S » ^" 
 
 re 
 
 ^ c 
 
 re 
 
 g-5 
 
 W 
 
 tra 
 
 '1= ^ 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 H 
 
 to 
 
 > 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V Q re c 
 
 -^ re 
 
 
 
 
 
 c tra era S 
 
 l^B 
 
 
 
 
 
 ? & 1 g 
 
 p 2 p= 
 
 
 
 
 
 CT ca H-i " 
 
 'c-y^'^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 z: i c? "-^ 
 
 . m H-i 
 
 
 
 
 
 o -^ 
 
 "'^ ^* Cn 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. « - 
 
 P o: 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO - o 
 
 re '-ri o 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 3 g 
 " r w a 
 
 eg 3 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 P 
 
 L mortar, 
 1. mortar . 
 owilzer .. 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 71 
 
 
 
 3. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 re 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 pi oi cn ci 
 
 C5 CI 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 
 CD CO CO CT 
 
 b b 
 
 S" 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 o p o to 
 
 t^ :^i<i 
 
 :^ 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 CO 00 cn o 
 
 or 1-^0,- 
 
 re 
 
 
 J— 1 
 
 
 Of CO 00 o 
 
 *■ *= S 
 
 ^2.' 
 
 
 '1 
 
 
 ,;>. -q CO to 
 
 C CO S 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 VI CO oo -^ 
 
 *-^ *^. 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 •0 
 
 
 oi r* 5^ : 
 
 S| 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 w 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 g c.| 
 
 
 re 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t-3 
 t4 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 ! S> 
 
 
 f 
 
 0^ 
 re 
 
 
 • a w tf>- 
 
 CO 
 
 
 5 
 
 z 
 
 
 
 
 i to CO <i 
 
 X 
 
 2 
 
 era 
 
 
 
 
 
 : '^ 
 
 w 
 
 S 
 
 .« 
 
 01 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 re 
 
 1 'S 
 
 »-» ^ r^ a 
 
 >(*. bS 
 
 
 p 
 
 H 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 c 
 •1 
 
 
 Ul g o — 
 
 
 
 i" 
 
 S 
 
 
 il to 
 
 
 "1 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 o ^ 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >^ 
 
 S) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a a 
 
 M 
 
 CS 
 
 
 
 
 *2 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 p p 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 Ol to 
 
 
 °'5' 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ox CO 
 
 
 B 0, 
 
 P 
 
 B* 
 
 
 -^ i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "1 
 
 s 
 
 re 
 
 
 oo 
 
 QD 
 
 r^<^''o 
 
 
 
 
 II s 
 
 E g-^3 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 
 
 c 
 : 
 
 m 
 
 5' 
 
 
 B- 
 
 
 
 
 
 p . 
 
 p. 
 
 
 
 
 
 : o O 
 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 re 
 
 
 : CO ■ 
 
 
 re 
 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 
 . CO 
 
 
 re 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -1 
 
 
 « 
 
 p 
 
 
 -■-. 
 
 ^3 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 J-* CO to »p»- ^ rf»- ;^ 
 
 ■^ Oil 
 
 re 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 COCO ' * ^ CO CO 
 00 OJ CO 
 
 -^ or ^ 
 
 s- 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 : OWHOt-^f t 
 
 -1 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 : o X >! o '^ ™ ' 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 
 
 
 : 'a-5'd'a £ g ' 
 
 ^ -d 
 
 
 
 
 
 : -3 p S •o CP- ( 
 
 i. -a 
 
 
 
 
 
 : 5 g,S 3 g re [ 
 
 , re 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 3 ■■ 
 
 ■<! 
 
 
 
 
 
 i I 
 
 re 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 : c^ TTi ri^ c:, r^ Cl- 
 
 P' 
 
 
 
 
 
 ; ixi ^ ^ rxi 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 • • crcr- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : : o o : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 tri 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 toS. 
 
 re 
 
 
 
 
 lOlO 
 
 M W 
 
 ^.2 
 
 .St: 
 
 B 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 »-,«*■,« 
 
 (*,-K)- 
 
 H C5 0- 
 
 tra 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 p 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 - ^ 
 
 0^ 
 
 
 
 CiCSC^CinOOOCGO 
 
 -I CSK 
 
 S '^ 
 
 
 
 
 *4i. rf.. CO CO Ci ?0 CO * 
 
 ~. S 
 
 
 
 
 
 cncTf ^o^^ 
 
 
 . c* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 •-1 h-t 
 
 05 0) CO 
 
 ooceco 
 
 00 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 p "^ 
 
 era p. 
 
 re E 
 
 
 
 
 ^>(^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,,- 
 
 
 3c 
 
 • tra 
 

 
 OBDNANCE. 
 
 453 
 
 0SDRANC2. 
 
 c 
 •a 
 
 T3 
 
 B 
 
 f 
 a 
 
 a- 
 
 5^ 
 
 > w 
 
 •a 
 o 
 c 
 
 
 a 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 tJ- 
 
 « 
 
 ? 
 
 S 
 W 
 
 3 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 w 
 as, 
 
 o to 
 
 S =^ 
 
 re 
 
 CD 
 re 
 ■-f 
 
 5- 
 
 crq 
 
 ^ re 
 
 Cf? 
 
 B' 
 B- 
 
 en 
 
 3 
 
 '"2 S 
 .3 g 
 
 re re a o o 
 o 2 D. o 
 
 1- ^g:5 ^ 
 
 S BS.E- 
 
 B re o 
 
 jir- 5" ?i* re" 
 ^cnj CO, 
 
 " Q 
 
 B 
 
 o 
 
 ^ — • O M 
 
 £• B B - 
 
 (to r** w l:^' 
 
 re p re D 
 
 o-y. -t re o- 
 
 M O B 
 
 B Hhp S 
 
 11. "-1 ■ 
 
 » re fB 
 
 U3 c/i m 
 
 B 2 Bg^SB 
 o o o S 2 2 
 
 B E.B ;2 w 5. 
 re fo re^ S5 re 
 
 (=■■' £"6 grg" 
 
 ra 3 2 o 2 
 m S " " "■" 
 
 B » 5 5 t" B 
 
 c — 5^ 
 res™ 
 
 o ='o 
 
 T 3 1 
 
 ^ re r^ 
 
 ■^ B a 
 
 tc -JJ g 
 
 B ;;■ B 
 
 o f o 
 •-« ^ 
 
 '< P 
 
 re 2 
 B ^ 
 
 c ■ 
 3 :j 
 
 3 p 
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 g re -^ 
 
 •I 
 O 
 
 B 
 TO 
 B- 
 
 O 
 
 B 
 (J? 
 B" 
 
 r. 
 
 o 
 
 B 
 
 O 
 
 :^ ^ 
 
 on m 
 
 O- B- 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 a. 
 
 i 
 
 •" ."^ S" 
 
 00 C5 '>-' 
 
 O O? tfr- 
 
 ts o o 
 
 1^2 
 2iu 
 
 Si 
 
 
 TO 
 
 p 
 
 If 
 
 p 
 
 s 
 
 re £ B 
 ■^o'B 
 .^B 3 
 
 TO 
 
 S 
 
 •a 
 •a 
 
 W 
 
 ^ 5" ^ 
 
 7 
 
 c 
 
 •a 
 o 
 
 
 B- 
 O 
 
 B- 
 O 
 
 to 
 
 f ■ 
 
 a B 
 
 3 r' 
 o 
 
 S 3 
 
 CO 2j o 
 
 2.13 5 1 
 ° = 5^o-B 
 
 ft re B .r* 
 D-Cbo " 
 
 : • D 2. 
 
 O CO tB 
 
 » re a 
 
 Si 2. re O 
 
 ^ r* 2* B 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 
 5) K 
 
 re H 
 O- a- 
 TO T 
 
 " O 
 
 O 
 
 ^ b;=3 =:=■ o 
 
 re H '^ S '^ C 
 
 ci^ - - . - - . 
 
 re o re c re 
 
 B 3 
 p p 
 
 O -J «o 
 
 O 00 (M 
 CO 00 
 
 C:> ,b ^ 
 rfi. O '-' 
 
 CD 
 
 O) 
 
 to 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 00 K| 
 
 
 
 *^ 
 
 
 «5 
 
 o 
 
 50 
 
 
 Nominal 
 
 
 § 
 
 1-^ 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 § 
 
 exterior. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i_i 
 
 
 w 
 
 ts 
 
 ::;bi 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 C5 
 
 a 
 
 C5 
 
 
 
 
 
 c? 
 
 Ct 
 
 CO 
 
 
 CO 5. 
 
 Of chamber. 
 
 »— t 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 «s 
 
 
 re 
 a 
 TO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 rf^ 
 
 <t- ■^ 
 
 
 
 
 en 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 
 00? 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 
 Of rifling. 
 
 
 00 
 
 ft 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 C5 k-N, 
 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t-^ 
 
 l-i 
 
 b5. 
 
 Total of bore. 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 OI 
 
 § 
 
 ^■'5. 
 
 
 
 CD 
 
 B| 
 "» 2 
 
 ZB 
 
 5 o 
 
 Caliber of piece. 
 
 TO 
 
 re 
 o 
 
 •o 
 
 3' 
 
 W 
 
 w § Maximum exterior^ 
 o5 ^ I diameter. 
 
 co^ 
 
 .5^1 
 
 or 
 
 po CO ?« §, Diameter at muzzle 5 
 
 g g g No. of grooves, 
 
 
 g 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 p 
 
 00 
 
 to b ■ g 
 
 Width of 
 
 grooves. 
 
 O.S 
 
 ?5 
 
 Depth of 
 
 grooves. 
 
 
 Preponderance.
 
 OBDNANCE. 
 
 454 
 
 0£DMANC£. 
 
 80 § s 5'» g r 3 3 S 
 ►^S- ^ » - „ » o ii"g. 
 
 f^.J5 '•-?■'■' = =>« S ^& 
 
 s.g.2's.2-;.<i:--5-||s 
 
 
 ss ^3 o J 
 
 f^fR 
 
 2.-3 
 
 P-''? 
 
 
 -■^03 g'^ 
 
 5^ » :i o p;-^ 
 
 
 
 2.3 
 
 t^ re-' 
 
 o o 
 
 N N 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 O 
 CO 
 QD 
 
 •a 2 ra 
 
 
 pgooSTo 
 
 
 
 a'lS'O; 
 
 = Q i 
 
 » s-o » ! 
 
 sO^ I 
 
 |Si|l;?|i2|l 
 
 * Sc c-3 5:2 "^ S-5 " S 
 j; ■^x 3>" <'3 Sr^re < „ 
 
 C S 5 T " : C3.=^ p - 
 
 g'a2." = = s^B J-*'" 
 
 i?5'-'5K '^■flo 5 3-~S 
 R-Sg 3.a<i>n5=^g. 
 |2.g.|.5-o| 15.3VS 
 «Sgp8g5^533'< 
 
 TO 3 o E.S .. 3 s-=i-- a 
 
 |s.i"?!ip|-:l 
 
 3 f^ 3'^ =^ "r* o :! >■ 
 
 s tc ^^ K - _ - 
 
 a E5 : 
 
 CD ^5 CO 
 CO O f^ 
 
 CO OT CO 
 
 03 Ci 00 
 
 
 Oq 
 
 osg- 
 
 COS. 
 
 C5 .» 
 
 :■ o S " " a 
 
 1 = 5 o !5 = 2 
 
 3 "^ ^ •=» -X 
 
 3-5; 
 
 (t 3 •• 3 •>(» 2 ;5 " pM 3 
 
 • -■ 1 3- 3 s o « =■ "■a 
 
 5 p <:cn3 *■-! a =,•' » 
 
 — ^-.g 2, £-3 ~^- 
 
 » " o 3 P *< . — 3 ^ 
 g-''S2jlC1.3^CJ3 3^ 
 
 S O « « ffl ''' 3 =-"■ ^- ? P 
 
 ES'Sop'J^q £■»■§ 
 
 ^3<r.B2.--53- p 
 
 og-r?3 a;!E'o|!^ 
 
 1== 
 
 
 ils§1 
 
 = 2.3 
 
 S,3'i5 5B 
 
 as ss|g 
 
 I'p op's-- 
 
 3 ? in S-§ 
 s " 33.5™ 
 
 wg ^'".•a 
 
 S E ooS a s 
 
 K » -t^ 5 g 
 
 IS 
 
 t-p ' 
 
 >o 
 
 i as 
 
 ;» 
 
 ■|J_5_ 
 
 Initial 
 velocity. 
 
 .t?d 
 
 X a "> H 
 ■ ■2 c 
 
 o p f^ 
 
 RecoU. 
 
 Range. 
 
 tKk J 
 
 p 
 
 BOC! 
 
 5 Z^ C. f^ 
 
 ■ P 
 
 p^ tsi'^t>toU 
 
 c 
 •a 
 •a 
 
 Cd 
 
 m S- 2- »■ 2. 
 
 0.3 o 2.P 
 
 ^ s - S 3 
 
 fv 5. s p o 
 
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 00 00 OC 00 30 00 ^ 
 
 ti b ^ M o io S. 
 
 CS o 0& Oi O Cw ^ 
 
 55 CO 00 00 .» 
 
 CO b b? w CO (J- 
 o CO -3 ►-■ -J :> 
 
 CT CO ^ --I >;; e^ 
 C5 CO CO rf^-O . 
 
 C5 
 
 O O -^ 00 00 ? 
 
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 0-0 *^ 
 
 O O iTJ » '13 O f O 
 
 rr ii'l-O'^P'l 
 
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 •1 11 -I • O 
 
 
 S" p 
 
 •■ "5 B 
 
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 o : Co" o 
 S^: f^c : B 
 
 
 C5 05 
 
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 b to CO b ^ S 
 
 ^ 
 
 
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 B 
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 B- 
 
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 B- 
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 'X3 
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 ? 
 
 c 
 
 H 
 
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 13 
 
 P 
 
 B 
 
 a. 
 
 
 t 
 
 c 
 
 p 
 B 
 p. 
 
 f 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 £ 
 
 Lead coated 
 Lead coated 
 Lead coated 
 
 StiiHa ... 
 
 CO 
 
 re 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 CO to w to to g 
 
 B 
 
 '5 
 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 to CT b o» a 
 
 c" 2 
 
 r 
 
 to 
 
 
 p 
 
 i 
 
 Pounds. 
 176.0 
 175.83 
 191.4 
 175.56 
 180.0 
 
 IS 
 
 p-B' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 it^OO 00O5I-' S 
 
 ca 
 c-c 
 S3 
 
 
 CI 
 
 01 
 
 gooocoo| 
 
 crq pr. 
 re p 
 ' era 

 
 OBSNANCZ. 
 
 455 
 
 0£DNANC£. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 B 
 ■5 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 ^- 
 
 5* 
 
 ■a 
 V 
 
 
 
 
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 0^ 
 
 
 
 
 p" 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
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 9 
 
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 5' 
 
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 B" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fei 
 
 W 
 
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 33 
 
 
 
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 4 
 
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 n 
 
 
 
 
 
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 ■5 
 
 
 
 
 j^ 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /—N 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 re 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■a 
 
 re 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 re 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 f 
 
 3 
 
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 5 
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 § 
 
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 ^ 2. 
 
 
 
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 p-g 
 
 3. 
 
 
 — 
 
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 4 
 
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 ^ 
 
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 f- 
 
 
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 s re 
 
 
 
 
 
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 p 
 
 5* 
 
 r re 
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 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 is 
 
 ^ 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 o o 
 
 = o 3. 
 
 Caliber of piece. 
 
 
 
 
 
 • Hh 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 = 
 
 to Ut a 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 SSh 
 
 
 t--^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 b» 
 
 
 
 O M *? 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 a> 
 
 
 
 g§~ 
 
 UJ 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 3. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^) 
 
 
 
 
 _^ 
 
 -s' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Preponderance 
 
 
 
 -3 
 
 at 
 
 o 
 
 'X) 
 
 o 
 
 SI. 
 
 b2 
 
 Nominal exterior 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 oo- 
 
 
 
 1-^ 
 
 p 
 
 j3 
 
 
 Of chamber. 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 => 
 
 SI 6» ?^ 
 
 O it 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 o c 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 => 
 
 
 re 
 
 
 
 ►i 
 
 •-I 
 
 B-S 
 
 
 
 
 
 cn • 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 |- 
 
 cp- 
 
 re re 
 
 
 
 en 
 
 o 
 
 8 
 
 
 OS? 
 
 Of rifling. 
 
 "X 
 
 To 
 and c 
 draul 
 
 To] 
 and c 
 draul 
 
 a o 
 
 E.O o 
 
 
 
 :z! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 _.H 
 
 
 c-g g 
 C 2. T 
 
 2 "-r» 
 
 
 s'g-v 
 
 p 2.S 
 tS? 3. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 ^ 
 
 2 2» 
 
 <i to" 
 
 -1 p 
 re ^- 
 
 ■ o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Maximum 
 
 exterior. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 f 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 c 
 
 o 
 1= 
 era 
 
 o 
 B 
 crq 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t—k 
 
 _^ 
 
 ^-^ 
 
 
 &■ 
 
 £3* 
 
 
 •i 
 
 
 CO 
 
 a 
 
 C»S 
 
 At muzzle. 
 
 
 c;- 
 
 ■1 
 
 1 
 't' 
 
 g] 
 
 p' 
 
 
 t9 
 
 
 si* 
 
 
 a 
 
 5' 
 
 o 
 
 B 
 
 O 
 
 
 o 
 
 B 
 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 «^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 §5^ 
 
 lO ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 cog* 
 
 Over breech-band 
 
 re 
 re 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 •^." 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 is. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 ° 
 
 
 
 ifS* 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 >5 
 
 => 
 
 
 Of tninnions. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 OI 
 
 re zT. — 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 :ir 
 
 »* 
 
 Of chamber. 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 O-O 3 
 • B => 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 g 
 
 «:k.<;^ 
 
 
 
 B 
 O
 
 OBDNANCE. 
 
 456 
 
 OBDNANCE. 
 
 
 m C 
 £2. t3 
 
 t-A ^ *^ 
 
 o n '^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 3 C- 
 
 S 3 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 o o o 
 
 O 05 O 
 
 Weight of projectile 
 to weight of piece. 
 
 
 O CT o o o 
 
 Initial velocity. 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 f^ 
 
 D 
 
 c 
 
 •-1 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 C3 
 
 •o 
 
 ^ oc 
 
 t-' 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 Pressure per square 
 inch of bore. 
 
 mo to 'r] I 
 oc c* '>-' S i 
 
 p 
 
 
 o ^^ - a 
 
 C 
 
 c: cc to «£>■ 
 
 
 Time of flight. 
 
 *>. to *>. cji a 
 
 CT O '3 Ci 'S 
 . . . gi. 
 
 to co-ito y 
 
 CO 00 CT to ^ 
 
 D 
 Cf5 
 
 
 D 
 
 re n 
 
 c o 
 
 O 3 
 
 X P 
 
 5' 
 5' 
 
 o 
 to 
 
 w 
 
 B 
 
 era 
 
 Deflection. 
 
 3 C- 
 
 I 5) 
 
 3 
 
 tra 
 
 —■a 
 
 3 2 
 
 era c. 
 • » 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 9 
 •a 
 
 a 
 p 
 
 b 
 
 Mean reduced de- 
 flection. 
 
 Derivation. 
 
 Final inclination. 
 
 ^ 
 ^ 
 
 § II HjJ 
 
 tTi _. r* 
 
 
 fc 
 
 CD O 
 
 C 
 
 a. 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 ^ 
 
 era 
 
 3* 
 
 o 
 
 3* 
 P 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Weight loaded. 
 
 B 
 
 o 
 ■a 
 
 
 a 
 a 
 3- 
 
 Hi 
 3" 
 
 o 
 
 Bursting charge. 
 
 Weight of charge to 
 weight of projectile. 
 
 o W
 
 OSDNANCE AND OBDNANCE STOBES. 
 
 457 
 
 OBDKANCE BEBOEANTS. 
 
 OBDNANCE AND OBDNANCE STOBES.— Tlin pr-no- I oliolition nf tlic wliolc. In 1(104 JamcH I. 'liirnificd 
 nil (IriiiHiiiiiiiliiin ■■OrWiiiuii I- .■iinl I )ril:tiK'(: HtoreH " j tli<; iMu>*i(T iin'l Lii'iui-nunt with llur respeclivo lilli_-H 
 comprcliciKl.s ull chmmom iiml nrlilliTy liirriiififs iinii of .MuMlcr-rJi'iuTuI uiiil I.iciilciiant-Ocricral. Tlio liin- 
 oi|iiii)iMciils; nil iiii|mr;iluM iiDil iMiicliiiiiH for tlio tory of the Onliiaiicc Ollicc in of iiiipurtiinrc in IJrit- 
 SLTvicf andmiinc-uviT of arlillcry; all Mtiiall-arms, ac- isli liJKtory, as in all warn it lias hccn rcsponsiblo not 
 ooutcrmcnts and liorsc ciiiiIihikiiIs; all anmiunil ion only for llii' nianagcmicnt of tin; maliriel of the ar- 
 
 and all tools, machinery, and nialcrials for the Ord- 
 nance Hervicc; and all horse eiiiiipnienls and harness 
 for the artillery; and, in general, all property of 
 whatever nature supplied to the military establish- 
 nienl liy the Ordnance l)e[>arliiient . 
 
 It is a duty of the Cliief of Ordiianc(; to furnish es- 
 timates, and, under the direction of the Secretary of 
 War, to make contracts and purchases, for procur- 
 
 mies, but also for the direction of the j>eri<imn'l of the 
 artillery anil <n);ineirs. IJy an (Jrder in Council of 
 June 2;J. 1H70. the Department of Ordnancu in a very 
 modilied form was reviv(;d under the Hurveyor-Geu- 
 eral of the Onhiancc, as a section of the War Office, 
 respoiisilil<- for ull supplies and vuiU-rielol War. See 
 liiitird ,'f Orihiiiiur. 
 OBDNANCE OFFICE.— Before the invention of kudb, 
 
 ing the necessary supplies of Ordnance and Ordnance ' this ottice was supplied by oHicers under the follow- 
 Htores; to direct the inspeclion and ijrovini; of the inj; names : the Howyer, tlie Cross-Uowy<'r, the (ial- 
 same, and to direct tlii' construction of all cannon eater, or Purveyor of Helmets, the Armorer, and 
 and carriai^es, ammunition-wai^ons. travelins; forges, the Keeper of the Tents. Henry VIH. i)laced it un- 
 
 arlilicers' wagons, and of every iini)lemeiil and a] 
 ])aralus for onlnance, and the ]ireparalion of all 
 kiu<ls of anununil ion and ( )rdnauce Stores construct- 
 ed or prepared fcir the service. 
 
 OBDNANCE BOAED. -In the United States Army, 
 a Hoard composed of such oflicers of the Ordnance 
 Department as the Secretary of War may designate, 
 and which is advisory to the Cluef of Ordnance and 
 is charged willi the invesligati<m of such subjects 
 and the performance of such duties, and at such 
 times and places as the Uiiief of Ordnance nuiy di- 
 
 der the management of a Master-G(;neral, a Lieu- 
 t<-nanl .Surveyor, etc. Tli<- .Master-General was cho.sen 
 from among the lirst Generals in the service of the 
 Sovereign. The appointment was formerly for life; 
 but since the restoration, was held diintnte beue pUi- 
 cito, and not unfrequently by a Cabinet Minister. 
 The letters patent for tliis ollice were revoked May 
 3J). 18.5.5, and its duties vesteil in the Minister of War. 
 The last Master-General was Lord Fitzroy Somer- 
 set, afterwarils Lord Kaglan. 
 
 OBDNANCE PBOJECTILE.— A projectile having a 
 
 rect. No changes are made in the established mod- \ cast-iron body, wilh a sabot composed of an alloy of 
 els or patterns of (Jrduance and Ordnance Stores for j lead and tin, which is cast on the base of the projec- 
 
 the service of the United Stales except on the recom 
 mendation of I he Ordnance Hoard, approved by the 
 Secretary of War. Sec Ihmrd of Ordnance. 
 
 OBDNANCE DEPABTMENT.- In the I'nitert States 
 Service, the OrdiiHnce Deparlment of the Army con- 
 sists of one Chief of (/rdiiance, wilh Ihe rank t>f 
 Brigadier-General, three Colonels, four Lieutenant - 
 colonels, ten Majors, twenty Captains, sixteen First 
 
 tile, and held in position by undercuts and dove- 
 tails ; the action of the charge being to force the sa- 
 bot on the cast-iron body and to make it take the 
 grooves. 
 
 OBDNANCE SELECT COMMITTEE.— A Committee 
 composed ot scicniilic ollii ers. to advise the Secre- 
 tary of Slate for War on all invtntionsin war mate- 
 riel. It had its officers at Woolwich, in the midst 
 
 Lieutenants, ten Second Lieutenants, and thirteen i of the manufactories of the Koyal Arsenal, and near 
 Ordnance Store-keepers. The Ordnance Slore-keeper \ the head-quarters of the Royal Artillery, l)y whom 
 
 at Springfield Armory has the rank of Major of Cav 
 airy. All oilier Ordnance Store-keepers have the 
 rank of Captain of Cavalry. No Officer of Ihe Army- 
 is commissioned as an Ordnance Ofiicer until he shall 
 have been examined and approved by a Board of not 
 less tliau three Ordnance Officers, senior to him in 
 rank. If an Officer of the Army fail on such exam- 
 ination he is suspended from appointment for one 
 year, when he may be re-examined tjefore a like 
 Board. In case of failure on such re-examination he 
 can not be commissioned as an Ordnance Ofiicer. 
 Any number, not exceeding six. of the Ordnance 
 Store-keepers may be authorized to act as Paymas- 
 ters at armories and arsenals. The Ordnance Depart- 
 ment was first established in the United States in 
 1812. It was not provided tor in the reduction of 
 the army in 181.5, but continued in the service. In 
 1831. the Department was merged info the Artillery, 
 attaching to each regiment of Artillery one super- 
 ntmierary Captain, and giving to each Company four 
 subaltern officers. The Ordnance Corps was re-es- 
 tablished April 5, 1832. 
 
 In the British service, the Ordnance Department 
 was abolished by an Order in Council of May 2.5, 
 1855, after an existence of at least 400 years. Its con- 
 stitution, its important functions, and the causes 
 which led to its dissolution, will be found under 
 Board of Oud^.^nce. The early history of the 
 Department is lost in the Middle Ages ; but it ap- 
 pears to have risen gradually under the Lancas- 
 trian kings. A Master of the Ordnance is men- 
 
 most of the designs had to be practically tested. The 
 President of tlie Comnuttee was usually a General 
 Officer of xVrtillery : and a Captain in the Royal Navy 
 served as Vice-President. Since 1870 these functions 
 have been fulfilled by officers of the Department of 
 the Director of Artillery and Stores, who has his 
 head-quarters at the War office. 
 
 OBDNANCE SEBGEANTS. —Non-commissioned 
 Stall Ofiicers appointed, by the Secretary of War, 
 from Sergeants who have faithfully served eight 
 years in the Line, four of which shall have tieen In 
 the grade of Non-commissioned Officers. Sergeants 
 receiving these appointments are dropped from the 
 rolls of the regiment or company in which they have 
 been serving. Captains report to their Colonels such 
 Sergeants as, by their conduct and service, merit ap- 
 pointments as Ordnance Sergeants, setting forth the 
 description and length of service of the Sergeant ; 
 the portion of his .service he was a Non-commissioned 
 Officer ; his general character as to fidelity and sobri- 
 ety ; his qualifications as a clerk, and his fitness for 
 the duties of the position for which he is recom- 
 mended. 
 
 The duties of Ordnance Sergeants relate to the 
 care of the ordnance, arms, ammunition, and other 
 ndlitary stores at the post, under the direction of the 
 Commanding Officer. Should the post be evacuated, 
 he remains at the station, under the direction of the 
 Chief of Ordnance, in charge of Ordnance and Ord- 
 nance Stores, and of such other public property as 
 is not in charge of some Officer or agent of other De- 
 
 tioned in the time of Richard 111. ; but we read I partments ; and for this property he accounts to the 
 of John Louth being Clerk of the Onlnance as ear- Chief of the Department to which it belongs. If in 
 ly as 1418. Henry VII. constituted the Board, ' charge of stores at a post where there is no Corn- 
 adding a Lieutenant, aSurveyor, and a Slore-keeper. I missioned Officer, he is responsible forthe safe keep- 
 to whom a Clerk of the Cheque, was subsequently ing of the property, and is governed by the Regula- 
 joined. With the exception of the last, whose office I lions of the Ordnance Department in issuing andao- 
 was abolished in tlie beginning of the present cen- i counting forthe same. If the means at his disposal 
 
 - - :[1 ' - - - 
 
 tury, this organization was mamlained until the [be insufficient for the preservation of such property.
 
 OBSNANCE STOKE K££F£R. 
 
 458 
 
 ORDNANCE 8DEVEY. 
 
 he reports the circmnstancea to the Chief of Ord- 
 nance. 
 
 OEDNANCE STORE KEEPEE.— An Officer of the 
 Ordnance Department who holds the rank of Cap- 
 tain of Cavalry, excepting the Ordnance Store-keeper 
 at Springfield Armory who, by law, has the rank of 
 Major of Cavalry. There are, at present, five Ord- 
 nance Store-keepers in the service ; but the grade 
 has been abolished by a recent Act of Congress, and 
 henceforth the duties appertaining to the office will 
 be performed by other officers of the Ordnance De- 
 partment. 
 
 In the British service, the Ordnance Store-keeper 
 is a civil officer in the Artillery who has charge of all 
 the stores, for which he is accountable to the Ord- 
 nance Office. See Ordnance Department. 
 
 ORDNANCE SURVEY.— By this term is understood 
 the various operations undertaken by the Ordnance 
 Department of the British government for preparing 
 maps and plans of the whole kingdom and its parts. 
 The idea of a general map of the country to be exe- 
 cuted by the government was first proposed after 
 the Rebellion in 1745, when the want of any reliable 
 map of the northern parts of Scotland was much felt 
 by the officers in command of the Royal troops. A 
 drawing, on a scale of one inch and three-fourths to 
 the mile, was completed in 1755; but inconsequence 
 of the war which broke out in that year, was never 
 published. In 1763 it was proposed to extend the 
 survey to the whole kingdom ; but the first steps to 
 effect this were taken only in 1784, when Major- 
 General Roy commenced measuring a base-line on 
 Hounslow Heath, near London, This principal tri- 
 angulation was designed partly for astronomical 
 purposes, and partly as a basis for a map on a small 
 scale. The base-line was remeasured with great 
 care in 1791; and detailed plans were commenced by 
 officers of the Royal Engineers, partly for practicing 
 them in military drawing, and parti}' for the purpose 
 of forming plans of some portions of Kent for the 
 use of the Ordnance. The principal object was, 
 however, the instruction of a Corps of MUitary Sur- 
 veyors and Draughtsmen, the plans themselves be- 
 ing regarded as of secondary importance. In 1794 
 the survey for the one-inch map was begun, and 
 some sheets were published in 1796. As the series 
 of principal triangles were extended westward to- 
 wards the Land's End, it was thought right to 
 measure another base, for fortification, on Salisbury 
 plaiQ in 1704; and two other base-lines were subse- 
 qu'eutly measured— one in 1801 at Misterton Carr, 
 and the other in 1806 on Ruddlan ;Marsh. Though 
 first intended chiefly as a military map, the publica- 
 tion of the survey soon created a desire on the part 
 of the public for better maps, and surveyors were 
 then hired to hasten its progress. This, however, 
 was very slow, the map being at one time entirely 
 suspended during the war in the beginning of this 
 century, and even the parts which were executed, 
 having been done by contract, were found very in- 
 accurate. In this condition the survey of England 
 continued during the first quarter of the present 
 century, sometimes delayed by the government from 
 motives of economy, at other times urged on by the 
 county gentlemen, who wished the map either as a 
 hunting-map or for local improvements. 
 
 In Scotland, the principal triangulation was begun 
 in 1809, but was discontinued in the following year, 
 to enable the persons who had been employed there to 
 carry forward the subordinate triangulation required 
 for constructing the detail maps in Eiiirland. In 
 18i;j it was resumed, and continued steadily up to 
 1819; a new base line having been measured on Bel- 
 helvie Links, near Aberdeen, in 1817, and the great 
 sector used at various stations, both on the main- 
 land and in the islands. It 1820 it wasagaij suspend- 
 ed, was resumed in 1H21 anp 1822, and anew broken 
 off in 182:i, the large theodolite being wanted in or- 
 der to proceed with the princi|)al triangulation in 
 South Britain. In 1824 the survey of Ireland was 
 
 begun, and nothing more was done in Scotland till 
 1888, except that some detail surveying for a one- 
 inch map was continued for a few years in the south- 
 ern Counties. The chief strength of the surveying 
 corps was now transferred to Ireland. A map of 
 that country was required for the purpose of mak- 
 ing a valuation which should form the basis of cer- 
 tain fiscal arrangements and other improvements 
 which the social evils and anomalies of Ireland ur- 
 gently demanded. For this map a scale of 6 inches 
 to the mile was adoped, as best suited for the pur- 
 poses in view. On this scale the whole map was 
 completed, and published in 1845, though the first 
 portions were in an imperfect form, and needed re- 
 vision which was proceeded with in 1873. 
 
 This great national undertaking has been conduct- 
 ed at different times on different scales and plans, 
 and the system now pursued was only adopted after 
 much discussion both in Parliament and out of 
 doors. The map was originally begun as a military 
 map, and the scale of one inch to the mile chosen, 
 without considering whether some other scale would 
 not offer greater advantages. Many now think that 
 a scale a little larger, and an aliquot part of na- 
 ture such as 1-50,000, or about 1^ inch to the mile, 
 would have been preferable for the small map; in 
 which case a scale of 1-10,000 of nature, or about 6^ 
 inches, might have been chosen for the intermediate, 
 instead of the six-inch scale selected at first for 
 mere local purposes in Ireland. Be this as it may, 
 the arguments in favor of the one-inch map are that 
 it is the most convenient both as a general and tra- 
 veling map. For general views of the structure of 
 the country, the distribution and relations of its 
 mountains, plains, valleys, and rivers, the one-inch 
 is admitted to be superior to the six-inch, and thus 
 better adapted in the first instance for laying roads, 
 railways, or other extensive public works, or for the 
 publication of a general geological survey. Such a 
 map. on the other hand, is on too small a scale to admit 
 of correct measurement of small distances ; it is in 
 some respects a generalized picture, and not a correct 
 plan. The six-inchmaps were at first selected in Ire- 
 land as the smallest size on which correct measure- 
 ments of distances and areas could l)e made. On 
 them every house and field, and almost every tree 
 and bush might be laid down. Hence they are su- 
 perior for working out details, as in minute surveys 
 of railways and roads, or the complex geological 
 structure of rich mineral districts. On such sheets, 
 too, a proprietor or farmer may find every field laid 
 down, and the relative heights indicated by contour 
 lines, and may therefore use them for drainage and 
 other improvements. It has also been proposed to 
 use these six-inch maps as a record of sales or,encum- 
 brances of laud, thus lessening the cost and simplify- 
 ing the transfer of property. On the other hand, 
 their size unfits them for most of the purposes for 
 which the one-inch map is useful, and the contour 
 lines give a far less vivid and correct impression of 
 the pliysical features of a country than the hill sketch- 
 ing of the one-inch map. Most of the purposes of 
 the six-inch plans are attained in a still more perfect 
 manner from the 25-inch plans or cadastral survey. 
 The last name is taken from the French cmlustre (a 
 register of lands), and is defined as a plan from which 
 the area of land may be computed, and from which 
 its revenue may be valued. The purposes to which 
 these large plans may be applieil are. as estate plans, 
 for managing. draining, and othewise improving land, 
 for farilialiiig its transfer by registering sales or en- 
 cumbrances ; and as publii^ maps according to which 
 local or general taxes may be raised, roads, railways, 
 canals, and other public works, laid out and executed. 
 
 Nearly all the States of Etirope have produced trig- 
 onometrical surveys, many of them of great excel- 
 lence as scientific works. All of these have been 
 published, or are in course of publication, on con- 
 venient scales ; generally smaller than one inch to a 
 statute mile.
 
 ORDNANCE TIMBER. 
 
 459 
 
 ORDNANCE TIUBEK. 
 
 The greatest extra European work of tliis kind is 
 the Trigononiclriciil Survey nf liiili;i, wliii li w;is be- 
 gun over Heventy years ai;i), iiiid lias t)eeii eoiiducted 
 with ftn'at al)ilily. The work is drawing to a eloHe, 
 but will still occupy several years. TluMnapH are 
 published on a scale of srin'ooo "^ 1 "f "" ''"•'' •" l'"' 
 mile. In'Ameriea, the Coast Survey of the Unite<l 
 States, a map of iitimI accuracy and niiinile iletail, 
 has been f^oiiifi; on for many years. The f;eneral 
 charts are jiublislied on a scale of |,„Jo(i or J of an 
 inch to a mile; the hiniiors and ports if,Jorj '"^ '^i "f 
 an inch to a mile. Ko systemalic survey has yet 
 been nnilerlaUen for the inlerior of the (country, 
 
 ORDNANCE TIMBER. -Timber and wrought iron 
 are the principal materials used in the construction 
 of artillery carria/;jes and machines. Timber forthe 
 arsenal is usually purchased in pieces of the size re- 
 (piired to make each i)arl. A list of the pieces for a 
 certain kind of carriage, includinf; the contents of 
 each piece, in Imard-measure, is called a lull of Um- 
 ber. None but the best wrought iron should be em- 
 ployed in ordnance constructions. Large and pe- 
 culiar-shaped pieces, as axle-treen, trunnian-platen, 
 etc., as well as those requiring great strength, are 
 made from Iminmered n/iapix, furnished by the iron 
 manufacturer, according to preseril)c(i patterns ; 
 other parts are ma<le of rolled iron. Tlie following 
 varieties of timber are Ijrietiy noticeii as being most 
 frequently required in the vprious ordnance con- 
 structions : W/iite oak — The bark of white oak is 
 white, the leaf long, narrow, and deeply indented ; 
 tlie wood is of a straw-color, with a somewhat red- 
 dish tinge, tough, and pliable. It is the principal 
 timber used for ordnance purposes, being emi)loyed 
 for all khuis of artillery-carriages. Beech — The 
 white and red beeches are used for fuzes, mallets, 
 plane-stocks, and other tools. An/t — White ash is 
 straight-grained, tough, and elastic, and is therefore 
 suitable for light carriage-shafts ; in artillery, it is 
 chiefly used for sponge and rammer staves, some- 
 limes for handspikes, and for sabots and tool-hand- 
 les. JSlm — Elm is used for felloes and for snnill 
 naves. Hickory — Hickory is ver}' tough and flexi- 
 ble ; the most suitable wood for handspikes, tool- 
 handles, and wooden axle-trees. /Hack, walnut. — 
 Black walnut is hard and tine-grained ; it is some- 
 times used for naves, and the sides and ends of am- 
 munition-chests : it is exclusively used for stocks of 
 small arms. Po/dar — White poplar, or tulip -wood, 
 is a soft, light, tine-grained wood, which grows to a 
 great size ; it is used for sabots, cartridge-blocks, 
 etc., and for the lining of ammunition-chests. Pine. 
 White pine is used for arm-chests and packing-boxes 
 generally, and for building purposes. Cypress — Cy- 
 press is a soft, light, straight-grained wood which 
 grows to a very large size. On account of the diffi- 
 culty of procuring oak wood of a suitable kind in 
 the. Southern States, cypress has been used for sea- 
 coast and garrison carriages. It resists better than 
 oak the alternate action of the heat and moisture to 
 which sea-coast carriages are particularly exposed 
 in casemates ; but being of inferior strength, a larger 
 scantling of cj-press than oak is required for the same 
 purpose ; and" on account of its softness, it does not 
 resist sufficiently the friction and shocks to which 
 such carriages are liable. Bassieood. — Basswood is 
 very light, not easily split, and is an excellent mater- 
 ial for sabots and cartridge-blocks. Dogwood. — Dog- 
 wood is hard and tine-grained, suitable for mallets, 
 drifts, etc. 
 
 The principal circumstances which affect the qual- 
 ity of growing trees are soil, climate, and aspect. In 
 a moist soil, timber grows to a larger size, but is less 
 firm and decays sooner, than in a dry, sandy soil ; 
 the best is that which grows in a dark soil, mixed 
 with stones and gravel ; this remark does not apply 
 to the poplar, willow, cypress, and other light woods 
 w^hich grow best in wet situations. In the United 
 States the climate in the Northern and Middle States 
 is most favorable to the growth of limber used for 
 
 ordnance purposes, except the cypress. Trees grow- 
 ing in the center of a fonst. or on a plain, are gener. 
 ally Htraighter ami freer from limbs than those grow- 
 ing on lh(- edge <jf a forest, in open ground, or on the 
 sides of hills, but the former are.at the same time, less 
 hard. The as|iect most sheltered from prevalent 
 winds is generally most favorable to the growth of 
 timber. 'I'hc: vicinity of salt water is favorable to the 
 strength and harilness of wliiteoak. The selection 
 of timber trees should be made before the fall of the 
 leaf. A healthy tree is indicated by the top branches 
 being vigorous and well covered with leaves ; the 
 bark is clear and smooth, and of uniform color. If 
 the top has a regular, roumled form ; if the bark ia 
 dull, scabby, and covered with while and red spots, 
 caused by running water or sap, the tree is unsound. 
 The decay of the topmost branches, and the separa- 
 tion of the bark from the wood, are infallible signs 
 of the decline of the tree. 
 
 The most suitable season for felling timber is that 
 in which vegetation is at rest, which is the case in 
 midwinter and midsummer. Kecent experiments in- 
 cline to give preference to the latter season, say the 
 month of July; but the usual practice is to fell trees 
 for timber between the first of December and the 
 middle of March. The tree should be allowed to at- 
 tain full maturity before being felled ; this period, 
 in oak timber, is generally at the age of seventy-five 
 to one hundred years, or upward, according to cir- 
 cumstances. The age of the hard wood is deter- 
 mined by the number of rings which may be counted 
 in a section of a tree. The tree should be cut as 
 near the ground as possible, the lower part being 
 the best timber ; the quality of the wood is, in some 
 degree indicated by the color,which should be near- 
 ly uniform in the heart-wood, a little deeper toward 
 the center, and without any sudden transitions. 
 Felled timber should, as a rule, be immediately 
 stripped of its bark, and raised from the ground. 
 The white wood next to the bark, which very soon 
 rots, should never be used, except that of hickory. 
 There are sometimes found rings of light-colored 
 wood surrounded by good hard wood ; this may be 
 called {he second sap; it should cause the rejection 
 of the tree in which it occurs. Brashuood is a de- 
 fect generally consequent on the decline of the tree 
 from age ; the pores of the wood are open, the wood 
 is reddish-colored, it breaks short, without splinters, 
 and the chips crumble to pieces. This wood is en- 
 tirely unfit for artillery carriages. Wood which 
 died" before felling should, generally, be rejected ; so 
 should knotty trees, and those which are covered 
 with tubercles and excrescences. Wood in which 
 the grain ascends in a spiral form is unfit for use in 
 large scantlings ; but if the defect is not very de- 
 cided, the wood may be used for naves and for 
 some light pieces. Splits, checks and cracks ex- 
 tending toward the center, if deep and strongly 
 marked, make wood unfit for use, unless it is in- 
 tended to be split. Wind-shakes are cracks separat- 
 ing the concentric layers of wood from each other ; 
 if the shake extends through the entire circle, it is a 
 serious defect. The center-Zi^art is also to be rejected, 
 except in timber of very large size, which cannot, 
 generally, be procured free from it. As soon as 
 practicable, after the tree is felled, the sapwood 
 should be taken off, and the timber reduced, either 
 by sawing or splitting, nearly to the dimensions re- 
 quired for use. Pieces of thickness, or of peculiar 
 I form, such as those for the bodies of gun-carriages 
 and for |chassis, are got out with a saw ; smaller 
 pieces, as spokes, are split with wedges. Naves 
 I should be cut to the right length, and bored out, to 
 I facilitate seasoning and to prevent cracking. Tim- 
 ber of large dimensions is improved by imjnersio.i 
 in icater for some weeks, according to size, after 
 which it is less subject to warp and crack in season- 
 ing. To season or dry timber, it should be piled 
 under shelter, in such manner as to allow a free cir- 
 culation, but not a strong current of air, around
 
 OBDNANCE TIUBEB. 
 
 460 
 
 OBDNANCE TIMBEB. 
 
 each piece. The piles should be taken down and 
 put up again at intervals, varj-ing with the length of 
 time the timber has been cut. The seasoning of 
 timber requires from two to eight 3'ears, according 
 to size. Oak timber loses a little more than ow- 
 fifth of its weight in seasoning, and about one-third 
 of its weight in becoming perfectlj' dry. 
 
 From the fact that certain blowers are used with [ 
 equal facility either for forcing or exhausting air, or 
 producing a continuous current, which can be re- 
 versed at will by simply changing the motion of the 
 blower without any other alteration whatever, they 
 are peculiarly adapted to drying lumber. It is owing 
 to the fact that air has the capacitj' to take up moist- 
 ure and hold it in solution, that the process called ' 
 drying is possible. The water thus taken up is, in this 1 
 
 rangement a nearly uniform temperature is secured 
 between the air at the ceiling and the floor, sea- 
 soning all tlie lumber alike. Lumber seasoned in 
 this way is not nearly so liable to crack and check 
 as when seasoned with unequal heat. 
 
 Timber for gun-carriages is now, almost entirely, 
 worked into shape by machinery ; the operations 
 are sawing, plani/ig, tui-ning, nicfrtisino tmd tenrnu 
 ing, dove-tailing, etc., and are described in detail, 
 under the various machines, in this work. In join- 
 ing together the different pieces of a carriage, regard 
 should be had to the character of the fiber of the, 
 wood, and the effect of drying in changing the form 
 of the piece. If a piece be supported at both ends, 
 as in the cases of carriage-stocks, chassis-rails, etc., 
 the greatest convexity of the fiber should be placed 
 
 condition, invisible. At a low temperature, this ca- 
 pacity is very small ; at 33° Fahrenheit, a cubic foot 
 of air will only hold in solution two grains of water. 
 This capacity is rapidly increased as the temperature 
 is elevated, in the ratio of about three grains per foot 
 for every ten degrees of heat ; so that at 200° Fahr- 
 enheit, a cubic foot of air would take up about fif- 
 ty grains of water. For rapid drying, therefore, it is 
 necessary to liave an elevated temperature. But at 
 any temperature, the air can be saturated with moist- 
 ure, that is so loaded that it can hold no more, even 
 though it be very hot. Hence it is necessary for rapid 
 drying, not only to have heated air, but also to have 
 a constant change, so that as fast as the air becomes 
 saturated with moisture, it may pass off, carrying its 
 load with it, and a fresh supply presented that may, 
 in its turn, carry off its quantum. In simple lan- 
 guage, this is the process of drying. The drawing 
 shows Root's Blower as arranged for seasoning tim- 
 ber or lumber. A notice of the drawing will explain 
 the operation. The dry air is taken in at the inlet of 
 the Blower and forced tlirough the heating apparatus, 
 which may be a hot-air furnace, or coils of pijjc heat- 
 ed by steam, as shown ifl the cut, or any otlu-r device 
 for heating air. Afterpassing through tli<' heater the 
 rarified air rises to the ceiling of the ilry-liouse, l)ut 
 being positive!}' forced into the room, it dis|)laces an 
 equal quantity of the air already there, which is 
 forced out at the bottom of the flue, as shown by the 
 arrows. By this means a constant and regular 
 change of air in the dry-house is secured, thi' air 
 passing out being loaded with moisture. By this ar- 
 
 uppermost ; if in the middle, as in cases of hounds 
 of limbers, side-rails of caissons, etc., it should be 
 placed downward. When the pieces are to be united 
 in pairs, as cheeks, side-rails, etc., use such pieces 
 as have nearly the same curvature of fiber. In dry- 
 ing a piece of timber, the sapwood shrinks more 
 than the heart, and the effect will be to warp in the 
 direction of the sap ; therefore to prevent the joint, 
 formed by the two pieces which constitute a car- 
 riage-stock, from opening, the heart-wood should be 
 placed on the outside. To prevent the cheeks from 
 warping inward, place the heart-wood on the inside. 
 In hounds and side-rails, the heart side should be 
 placed on the outside, as this will have a tendency 
 to tighten the joints. When pieces are to be joined, 
 the surfaces of contact and the dowels should be 
 covered with a good coat of white-lead. Bolts and 
 bolt-holes should be well covered with tallow moist- 
 ened with neat's-foot oil. The surface of holes for 
 elevating screws and pintles should be always well 
 painted. If woodwork is to be painted immedi- 
 ately, it should luive a good priming coat of lead 
 before the irons are put on ; if not, it should receive 
 a good co.at of linseed oil. For service, the wood- 
 work of carriages and machines is painted, in ad- 
 dition to the priming of lead-color, with two coats 
 of olive paint; the iron-work, with one coat of lead, 
 and one coat black paint. Great care should be ob- 
 serveil to protect iron fortress-carriages against the 
 corroding influence of the sea-coast atmosphere ; the 
 best means remains to be determined by e.xperience ; 
 at present they arc covered with one coat of hot lin-
 
 OB£ILLERE. 
 
 461 
 
 OBOARIZATIOH. 
 
 seed oil siiid three coats of a reddish brown paint. 
 
 Mudiin. itc. — The modclH, etc., of nil orilnance 
 '^materiil" arc dclcriiiiiicd tiy the Onlniint (! Bimrd, 
 siibji'ct to the rcvisidii of Ihc ('hicf of Onliiaiicc, and 
 the final approval of tlic HctTclary of War. When 
 a niodil has hccii duly approvcil, copies, or draw- 
 inffs of it, are sent to the diircrciit arsenals of con- 
 Btrnclion, and from these. i)alteriis and ;j:aiii;eH arc 
 made for I he ijuidance of the workmen. I'utterns 
 are f;ener:illy m,-ide of well-seasoned mahoi;any, and 
 bound with strips of brass; K""f?''^ iir(.' made of 
 slieet iron or steel. To secure uniformity of work 
 at the dilTerent arspnals, it is made a part of the duty 
 of the inspector of arsenals to see that the patterns 
 correspond with the oriirinals ; and it is always the 
 duty of the oflicers stationed at an arse.ial, to see 
 thai the work, as it proi;resses, corresponds with the 
 patterns, and tliat none but suitable materials are 
 used. 
 
 OREILLERE.— The ear-piece of an ancient helmet, 
 shaped like an oyster shell, employed to protect the 
 ear and cheek. 
 
 OREILLON.— The ear of a sword, lani;uet, or small 
 slip of metal on the hilt, which, when the sword is 
 sheathed, extends alone the scabbard. 
 
 O'REILLY COMBINATION-FUSE This -fuse con- 
 sists of a metal stock, A, open at the rear, but closed 
 
 at the front end by a screw-cap, B, from which pro- 
 jects two studs, C C, for screwing and unscrewing 
 the caps. There are also two holes, D D, in the 
 screw-cap through which is passed and secured a 
 strand of quickmatch, E. 
 
 The fuse, F, is tightly pressed into a conical shap- 
 ed, snug-fitting plunger, G, held in place by a wire, 
 H, which passes thro'ugh a hole, I, in the side of the 
 stock and enters a cannelure on the plunger. 
 
 The operation of the fuse is as follows : At tlie 
 instant of discharge the quick-match is ignited by 
 the flame from the charge of powder ; this ignites 
 the fuse, which continues to burn as an ordinary 
 time-fuse ; when the Hight of the projectile is arrest- 
 ed, the plunger, by its inertia, is driven forward, 
 sheering off tlie pin which holds it, and, being fol- 
 lowed by loose powder in the shell, ignition and ex- 
 plosion follow, iee Fuse. 
 
 ORGAN GUN. — A gnu consisting of a number of 
 tubes or barrels placed in arrow like the pipes of an 
 organ. See Orrjiif a SerpenUn. 
 
 ORGANIZATION.— For the pnrpose of supply, disci- 
 pline, rapidity and precision of movement, an army 
 is divided into corps; corps into divisions; divisions 
 into brigades; brigades into regiments; regiments 
 into battalions, and battalions into companies. For 
 the purpose of employing to advantage the different 
 weapons and of providing for that mutual support 
 
 an<i aid so essential to succcHS, an army is organized 
 into different arms of service, viz.: Infantry, Ca- 
 valry, Artillery and Engineers. These four arms of 
 the service are called 'I' niojiH of the. I,ine. A battalion 
 is the tactical unit of infantry, but the company 
 should undoubtedly be considered th(; lighting unit, 
 for it is the only organization that will in future 
 wars fulllll all the re(iuirements of a unit, viz: All 
 tlie men be known to, overlooked by. and within 
 reach of the voice of the olHcer commanding i!. The 
 s(iuadron of two troops is the unit of cavalry. The 
 battery of si.\ guns is the unit of artillery. An army 
 corps usually c<jnsists of about thirty thousand men, 
 divided into two or more divisions, depending upon 
 the strength of the corps. Each division is jjenerally 
 composed of the four arms of the service — infantry, 
 cavalry, artillery, and engineers— the artillery being 
 assigned to the corps by battery, and the engineers 
 by company. The corps is, as a rule, provided with 
 a renerne of artillerj', which, with the artillery as- 
 signed to the different divisions, is under the orderg 
 of one commander. The organization of an army 
 into corps was introduced by Kapoleon about the 
 year 1804, while i)reparing his army for the contem- 
 plated invasion of England. The idea is to make 
 each corps a complete army in itself, in order that 
 it may be detached at any time from the main army 
 when the necessity arises, and be ready to act as an 
 independent force. The division is composed of two 
 or more brigades, and rarely of more than four. 
 Brigades are composed of two or more regiments, 
 and regiments of two or more battalions, each con- 
 sisting of two or more companies, generally four. 
 T.ie battalion organization is for administrative 
 purposes, and for instruction in the movements 
 prescribed in tactics. As all the duties devolving 
 upon the General in command of an army cannot 
 well be performed by one man, he is assisted in his 
 duties by the officers who corhpose his Staff. The 
 duties of Staff-officers are : to transmit the Geneial's 
 orders; to procure information, both of the enemy, 
 and of the condition of his own forces; to prepare 
 reports, obtain guides, spies, etc.; to inspect the 
 troops to see that they are properly supplied and 
 in good condition of drill and discipline; to preserve 
 the correspondence and records; in fact, to perform 
 all those duties required of the General in command, 
 which will enable him to have his army at all times 
 prepared in every respect to meet the enemy. 
 The principle of Staff organization is also extended 
 to the divisions, brigades, and regiments, compo- 
 sing the army; the duties being less important and 
 arduous as the body of troops is smaller. 
 
 The necessity for a body of officers specially 
 trained in staff duties has been greatly increased in 
 consequence of the fact that wars are now waged 
 by much larger armies than formerly. Therefore 
 every army should be provided with a body of offi- 
 cers who in time of peace should be thoroughly in- 
 structed in all duties pertaining to the staff, so 
 when war is declared they will be fully competent 
 to enter upon the active and efficient discharge of 
 their duties. Nearly all European armies have such 
 an organization, which is commonly known as the 
 Gerieral Staff. 
 
 Jomini lays down the following general condi- 
 tions, as essential to the perfect organization of an 
 army: — 1. A good system of recruiting. 2. An 
 efficient formation, 'i. A well organized system of 
 national reserves. 4. That officers should be well 
 instructed in drill and maneuvers, and in all the 
 duties of a camp and in the field, and that there 
 should be a good system of interior economy. 5. A 
 discipline strict, but not humiliating; a spirit of sub- 
 ordination as far as possible on a conviction pervad- 
 ing all ranks of its importance, rather than on the 
 mere orders of the service. 0. A well regulated sys- 
 tem of rewards and a spirit of emulation. 7. A 
 special corps, engineers and artillery, well instruct- 
 ed. S. An armament well understood, and, if pos-
 
 OaOITE & S£BF£NTIN. 
 
 4G2 
 
 OUTOUAEDS. 
 
 sible, superior to that of the enemy, comprising 
 arms defensive a3 well as offensive. 9. A staff cap- 
 able of applying all these elements to the greatest 
 advantages and with an organization adapted to the 
 theoretical and practical instruction of its members. 
 10. Well organized commissariat and medical de- 
 partments. 11. The command of armies and the 
 supreme direction of operations by a sound practi- 
 cal system. 18. The maintenance of a high military 
 spirit. 
 
 OKOUE A SERPENTIN.— A machine composed of 
 a great number of guns of small bore loaded either 
 from the muzzle or at the breech. Each separate 
 chamber was encased, as far as the muzzle in wood 
 or metal, and they were fired in succession or all at 
 once. The term orgue was applied to .several pat- 
 terns of ordnance, composed of a number of musket 
 barrels, all so joined on the same carriage, and the 
 touch-holes corresponding with each other, that they 
 could be discharged simultaneously. This weapon 
 may be said to have been the origin of the Mitrail- 
 leur. 
 
 ORCrUES. — Thick and long wooden beams, pointed 
 and shod with iron, hung vertically by separate 
 ropes in the gateway of and over the entrance to a 
 fortified place. They answer the purpose of a port- 
 cullis or door, and are dropped into position by cut- 
 ting the ropes from which they hang. Their de- 
 scent is inevitable, in which they possess an advan- 
 tage over the portcullis, which may be held up bj' 
 the enemy or blown in by petards, whereas petards 
 have little effect on orgues, for if one beam be des- 
 trovcd another can be dropped to fill up the gap. 
 
 ORIENTAL POWDER. — A variety of gunpowder 
 made at the Oriental Powder Mills at South Wind- 
 ham. Me., on the Presumpscot Eiver, where every 
 facility is at hand for making powder to the best ad- 
 vantage. The following brands are well known and 
 are regarded as excellent : 
 
 Falcon Ducking — Especially adapted for breech- 
 loading guns and target practice Its sizes are No. 
 1 (fine). No. 2, No. 3, and No. 4 (coarse). Packed in 
 kegs of 6| lbs., and in canisters of 1 lb. each. 
 
 Western Sporting — A clean and moist burning pow- 
 der, and used for ordinary purposes m the field. Its 
 sizes are Fo (coarse), FFo and FFFo (fine). Packed 
 in wood or metalkegs of 251bs., IS^lbs., and 6;^ lbs., 
 and in canisters of 1 lb. each. 
 
 Wild Fowl Shooting — Of a coarser grain than 
 "Western Sporting," and especially prepared for 
 use in very damp places, and for muzzle or breech- 
 loading guns. Its sizes are No. 1 (fine). No. 3, No. 
 3, No. 4. (coarse). Packed in wood or metal kegs 
 of 25 lbs., 12J lbs., and 6i lbs., and in canisters of 
 6 lbs. and 1 lb. each. 
 
 Blasting — A superior grade, and especially 
 adapted for military and mineral mining, also for 
 railroad work. Its sizes are C (coarse), T, Tpo, F, 
 FF, FFF (fine). Packed in wood or metal kegs of 25 
 lbs. 
 
 ORrFLAMME. — A banner which originally belong- 
 ed to the Abbey of St. Denis, and which was borne by 
 the Counts of Ve.xin, patrons of that church, but 
 which, after the county of Vexin fell into the hands 
 of the French crown, became the principal banner 
 of the Kingdom. It was charged with a saltire 
 wavy or, witli rays Issuing from the center cross- 
 ways. In later times the oriflamme became the 
 insignia of the French infantry. The name seems 
 also to have been given to other flags ; according to 
 Sir N. II. Nicolas, the oriflamme borne at Agincourt 
 was an oblong red flag split into five parts. Also 
 written Aurijlainme. 
 
 ORILLON.— In fortification, and especially in the 
 earlier systcans, tlie orillon is a semicircular projec- 
 tion at the sliouhlcr of a bastion, intended to cover 
 from the ol)serva1ion of the enemy the guns and 
 defenders on the flank, which, with such a construc- 
 tion, is somewliat retired or thrown back. Tlie 
 flank thus protected is held by many distinguished 
 
 engineers to be most valuable in the defense of the 
 ditch, when clearing it from an attacking party, or 
 from hostile miners. The retired flank is sometimes 
 
 Orillon : 
 
 a, a, orillons ; b, h, retired flanks (the dotted 
 
 lines show the original bastion). 
 
 straight, at others curved. The orillon is as old as 
 the bastion, and is found in the works of Pagan and 
 Speckle. 
 
 OBLE. — In Heraldry, one of the charges known un- 
 der the name of sub-ordinaries, said to be the dimin- 
 utive of a Bordure, but differing from it in being de- 
 tached from the sides of the shield. It may be the 
 sole charge in a shield. Or, an orle gules was the 
 
 Orle, 
 
 coat borne by John Baliol. An orle of heraldric 
 charges of any kind denotes a certain number (gen- 
 erallj' eight) of tliese charges placed in orle, as in the 
 coat of the old Scottish family of Gladstanes of that 
 Ilk ; argent, a savage's head couped, distilling drops 
 of blood proper, thereon a bonnet composed of bay 
 and holly leaves all proper, within an orle of eight 
 martlets sable. 
 
 ORMOLU. — A variety of brass, consisting of zinc 
 25 parts, and copper 75 parts, which has a nearer re- 
 semblance in color to gold than ordinary brass. It 
 is extensively used for castings of ornaments. When 
 the casting is made, its color is brought out by a 
 pickle of dilute sulphuric acid, after which the acid 
 is remeved by water, and a liquor varnish is put on 
 to keep it from tarnishing. 
 
 ORNAMENTS.— Those parts of the dress of a sol- 
 dier which are more for appearance or distinction 
 than for absolute use ; as belt-plates, shoulder straps, 
 trimmings, etc. 
 
 ORPIMENT.— A sulphuret of arsenic. There are 
 many varieties of orpiment, one in fine golden col- 
 ored scales, another in dense yellow stony lumps, a 
 third in earth}'-looking masses, called King's Yellow, 
 a familiar paint ; but the orpiment required in the 
 laboratory for blue lights, signal-lights, and para- 
 chute light-balls, is the red proto-sulphiiret or realgar. 
 
 OUTER. — A term applied to a portion of the target. 
 On the regulation targets it is all the space outside 
 of the larger circle, of the space outside the vertical 
 lines. See Inner 
 
 OUTFIT ALLOWANCE.— In the British army, a sum 
 of £150 for the cavalry and, £100 for the infantry, 
 granted to Non-commissi(mcd Officers promoted to 
 Commissions, to enable them to meet the heavy 
 charges for uniform and equipments. The larger 
 sum is given in tlie cavalry because the newly Com- 
 missioned OIHcer has to purchase his charger. 
 
 ODTFLANK.— To turn the flank or flanks' of an ene- 
 my. See Flank Mintrmfnt. 
 
 0UTGUARD8.- Small bodies of troops stationed at 
 a greater or less distance beyond the limits of a camp 
 or main army, for the purpose of preventing an ene-
 
 OUTLET. 
 
 463 
 
 OUTEANCZ. 
 
 my npiiroacli'mj; willioul noliof, and also to ofTiT op- 
 poniliiiPi lo Ills prof^rcss, wliilc till: iiiiiin fiinc: prc- 
 parcM for rcsiHlaiicc. OiilijuardH iiiarcli olT to their 
 position silciilly, and pay no coiMpliniciiU (jf any 
 kind to olllccrnor citliiTM. Assoon as tlii! ollicer coni- 
 inanding an outmiard arrivcM on liiM (ground, ho pro- 
 ceeds to carefully examine the environs, noting all 
 heights within rille-rant^e, roads and paths liy vvhieli 
 aneneiny may approach, etc. Il(! also takes Buch im- 
 promptu means of 8trenf;theiiing his position as oc- 
 cur to liim — felling a tree here, cuttinj; brushwood 
 there, liloeicinK a path in another place, and resort- 
 iiV!^ lo any expedient which may serve to delay the 
 foe at point-blaidi rani,'( — an ol)jecl of importance, 
 as a stoppajje at such a point is known lo act as a 
 great discoura>;ement lo advancing Iroopa. See Out- 
 
 OniLET. — CUitlet8,in fortification, are the passages 
 made through a parapet, or an enclosure of a gorge, 
 for Ihc services of the work, 'riiey should in all 
 cases be made in tlic least e.\])<)s<'d jiart of the work. 
 Their width need not be more tlian six and a half 
 feet, when tised only for tlie service of the work ; 
 but when they serve as a common passage for 
 wagons, etc., intlie case of the intreuchmenl cross- 
 ing a roud, they sliould be at least ten feet wide. 
 Vi hen cut through a parapet, tlie sides receive a 
 slope of three perpendiiuilar to one base, and are 
 revetted witli sods, etc. A gate, termed a /xirrur, 
 serves as an enclosure to tlie outlet. 'Plit; framework 
 of the barrier is iiuide like an ordinary gate, consist- 
 ing of two uprights, or xtilrK, a cross-piece, or rail, 
 at top and lioltom, and a siringiiig bur, or a diagonal 
 brace. Upright palisades, about seven feet long and 
 four inches thick, are spiked to Ihe frame about 
 four inches apart; they are tinislied at top with 
 spikes, A barrier thus constructed will not offer a 
 slielter to the enemy should he attempt to cut it 
 away. The barrier is hung on hinges like an ordin- 
 ary gate. See Hnrge. 
 
 OUTLINE. — In fortificatiou, the succession of lines 
 that show the figure of the works, and indicate the 
 direction in which the defensive masses are laid out, 
 in order to obtaiu a proper defense. 
 
 OUTLYEKS.— A term formerly applied, in the Brit- 
 ish service, to men who were permitted to work, on 
 condition that the whole of their pay was left in the 
 hands of their Captain for the time they were so em- 
 ployed. This sum the officer appropriated to his 
 own use. to enable him to increase his pay and keep 
 a handsome table when he mounted guard. It was 
 also a common practice to place on the muster-rolls 
 the names of ortieers' children, and instances have 
 occurred of girls receiving men's pay as outlyers. 
 
 OUT-LYING PICKETS.— Detachments of cavalry 
 and infantry, accompanied sometimes with light 
 guns, and posted on the front and Hanks of an army 
 in the field, in order to guard against surprise, and 
 to keep reeonnoitering parties at a distance. See 
 Ont~pi>!<t!<. 
 
 OUT OF GEAE.— For most heavy guns, the motion 
 of the top carriage to and from battery is regulated 
 by a pair of truck-wheels, one on each side, which 
 work on an eccentric axle placed underneath and a 
 little in front of the axis of the trunnions. The 
 wheels are thrown out of gear by means of hand- 
 spikes inserted into sockets upon the ends of the ec- 
 centric axle. See Into Gear. 
 
 OUT-PENSIONEE.— A pensioner attached to a hos- 
 pital, as Greenwich or Chelsea, England, who has 
 liberty to live where he pleases. 
 
 OUT-POSTS.— The detachments of troops and the 
 method of arranging them, by means of which an 
 Army when in bivouac, in camp, or in cantonment, 
 is protected from surprise by an enemy. The duties 
 of the out-posts, and of the grand-guards which form 
 their supports, are strictly those of observation. If 
 attacked, they offer no resistance farther than to en- 
 able them to feel the enemy perfectly, and never lose 
 sight of him. The task of holding the enemy in 
 
 check by a vigorous resistance, so as to procure suf- 
 lieienl time for Ihe main-body to make its dispositions 
 forballle, is <-onsigned to the pickets. The position 
 of llie outposts, with respect to the main-body, will 
 Ijk regulated by the more or less broken character of 
 the country. As a gi-neral rule the mean distance 
 may be taken at about two miles. The line occupied 
 by these posts should take in all the approaches to 
 the front and flanks of the |main position. When 
 a position is to be held for a considerable time, the 
 out-posts may be thrown farther in advance : to pro- 
 cure greater repose and security for the main-body. 
 The ground on which the line of out-posts is estali- 
 lishecl should be carefully examined ; with a view 
 both to observation and defense. As far as practic- 
 able, those points should be selected for posts which 
 present some natural advantages for the defense; 
 will screen the troops from the enemy's view; and en- 
 able them to watch all his movements. Whenever 
 the features of the ground do not offer natural ob- 
 stacles to cover tlie jjosts, artificial means of a slight 
 character sIkjuIiI be resorted to. The Hanks of the 
 line should rest upon sirong natural obstacles; when 
 such cannot be found, witliout giving the line too 
 great an extent, these points must be secured by 
 strong pickets of cavalry or infantry, thrown back to 
 form crotchets ; from which ])alroles must be ('on- 
 stantly kept up on the flanks in the presumed di- 
 rection of the enemy. 
 
 The strength of each out-post, and the distance 
 from one to the other, will be regulated by the feat- 
 ures of the ground, and the number of sentinels, or 
 vedettes that each post must throw out. The posts 
 should, as far as practicable, be within sight of the 
 grand-guards to which they belong ; and the sen- 
 tinels of their respective posts. When the ground 
 does not permit tills arrangement, sentinels should 
 be placed at intermediate points, to communicate 
 promptly whatever may happen at the line of posts, 
 or of sentinels to the rear. Posts of infantry should 
 not, as a general rule, be placed farther apart than 
 (iOO paces ; nor their .=eutinels more than 300 paces 
 in advance of the posts. Those of cavalry may be 
 some 1,.500 paces apart ; and their vedettes from 600 
 to 800 paces in advance. The strengti. of each post 
 should be calculated at the rate of four men for each 
 sentinel, or vedette. An officer in command of any 
 of the out-posts must be capable of untiring vigilance 
 and activity ; to perform the various duties that de- 
 volve upon him. He should be provided with a good 
 map of the country, a telescope and writing mater- 
 ials. He will thoroughly reconnoiter the ground 
 upon w-hich he is to dispose his command ; and also as 
 far in advance as circumstances admit questioning 
 closely any inhabitant he may find. After tak- 
 ing up his position, he should go forward with the 
 half of his command ; and post each sentinel him- 
 self. If however, he relieves another in the com- 
 mand, and deems it advisable to make any changes 
 in the dispositions of his predecessors, he should 
 promptly report the facts to the Commanding ( )fficer 
 in his rear. When the officer finds that the enemy 
 is not in his immediate neighborhood, he should en- 
 deavor to feel his way cautiously towards liim by- 
 patrols ; and when in immediate presence, he should 
 omit no means to watch the enemy's movements ; 
 and from the occurrences of the moment, such as 
 noises, the motion of the clouds of dust, camp fires, 
 conflagrations, etc.. endeavor to divine what is 
 passing in his camp, and his probable intentions. 
 Accurate written reports should be promptly sent to 
 the officer in command, in the rear, on all these 
 points. The reports should be legibly written, and 
 should clearly but coru-isely, state what has fallen 
 under the officer's eye; what he has learned from 
 others ; and the character of the sources from which 
 his information is drawn. See Adtanced Posts. 
 
 OUTRANGE.— To the utmost ; to the last extremity. 
 Thus the French say, Se battre A mUrance, to fight to 
 the last extremity.
 
 OUT-SENTKY. 
 
 464 
 
 OVEECOAT. 
 
 OUT-SENTEY. — A sentry posted to guard the ( n- 
 trance or approach to a place. See Omguards. 
 
 OUTSIDE.- In fencing, that part which is to the 
 right of the line of defense. The Outside Guard is 
 used with the broadsword and saber, to defend the 
 outside of the position. 
 
 OUTWABD FACE. — A word of commfod for troops 
 to face to the right and left from their center. 
 
 OUTWARD FLANK.— The extreme tile on the right 
 or left of a division, subdivision, or section, accord- 
 ing to the given front, when the battalion is at close 
 or open column, and which is the farthest wheeling 
 point from line into column, or from column into 
 line. It is likewise called the reverse flank. 
 
 OUTWOKKS.— A work consisting of an enceinte 
 alone is more or less exposed to surprise, as it must 
 have outlets of some description to keep up a com- 
 munication with the exterior, and a bridge, or other 
 means for crossing the ditch. This is not the only 
 defect of a fortification of this simple character ; for 
 having no covers beyond the ditch for its garrison, 
 their action must 'be restricted to what may be 
 termed a passive resistance alone ; in any attempt to 
 operate on the exterior, they are exposed to fire as 
 soon as they emerge from the ditch, and in a retreat 
 towards the work, if closely pursued by the assail- 
 ant, they will not only run the risk of being cut off, 
 but a retreat under such circumstances may lead to 
 the capture of the work itself, by the assailant being 
 enabled to enter it with the retreating force. To 
 provide against dangers of so grave a character, en- 
 gineers have devised other defenses beyond the 
 ditch, and which they have placed in immediate de- 
 fensive relations with the enceinte, being under its 
 fire, and in positions where, if assaulted, they can 
 be readily succored by the garrison. To this class 
 of exterior defenses the term outicorks has been ap- 
 plied. 
 
 The outworks should satisfy the following condi- 
 tions to render them very effective and secure: 1. 
 They should have revetted scarps of a sufiicient 
 height to secure them from any ordinary open as- 
 sault. 2. As far as practicable their scarps should be 
 flanked by the enceinte and be masked from the 
 positions of the assailant's batteries. 3. Their para- 
 pets and covered shelters should be shot-proof. 4. 
 Those which are most retired should command 
 those in advance ; and whenever this cannot be 
 done the retired work should be defiled from the 
 one in advance by which it is commanded. 5. In 
 any combination of outworks the dispositions should 
 be such that the more advanced ones shall fall into 
 the hands of the assailant before he will be able to 
 gain possession of the more retired. 6. The com- 
 munications should be ample, and satisfy the general 
 conditions for these elements. See Counter-guard, 
 Cmered-wny, Demx-lune. Redoubt, and Tenaille. 
 
 OVATION.— A lesser triumph allowed to a Com- 
 mander for any victory not deserving a triumph, in 
 the strict sense ; hence, an expression of popular 
 homage. See Triumph. 
 
 OVEN.— A very necessary apparatus in military 
 economy to preserve the health of troops, by enab- 
 ling them, at a comparatively small expenditure of 
 
 tfrg*^^.^:':*''"* 
 
 wa'ds Lord Herbert) brought to light the excessive 
 
 mortality among soldiers, which was partly— and, 
 as the event has shown, justly— attributed to the bad 
 cookery of their food. Captain Grant has bestowed 
 much attention to army cookery, and has invented 
 ovens for barrack use and for the field. While great 
 improvements on the system — or want of 8}'stem — 
 wliich preceded them, these ovens are still admitted 
 to be far from perfect in their arrangements. For 
 boiling meat, etc., in the field, he employs detached 
 cylinders, which, when empty, he proposes to join 
 and floor over for use as pontoons ; when in use 
 they are united crosswise, one in the middle serving 
 for a chimney, One or more empty barrels can be 
 attached for steaming potatoes, and the roasting of 
 coffee is performed, though not altogether success- 
 fully, in another cylinder made to revolve over the 
 
 OVEIf or GABIONS, DIOTNSIOTfB IN MITXM. 
 
 fuel, to cook many rations together. In the British 
 army little allcutinn was jiaid to such subjects, until, 
 in ia08, the inuuiries of Mr. Sidney Herbert (after- 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 chimney. Up to the present time other systema 
 have been partially resorted to ; but none has as yet 
 been definitively adopted to the exclusion of others. 
 Cylindrical ovens are preferable for field service, and 
 tlie want of brick for the arch and fireplace may be 
 supplied by two gabions of semi-circular or semi- 
 elliptical form Im. 44 in diameter; the basket work 
 is not go close as the ordinary gabion, and is Im. 32 
 in height. The two gabions, resting one over the 
 other upon tlie flat s'de, make a cradle 2m. 64 long, 
 Im. 44 broad, and Om. 72 high. (Fig. 1). The interior 
 and exterior is then plastered with clay, which must 
 penetrate the interstices of the basket work. The 
 front and back part is shut in the same manner, or 
 with sods. The cradle is then covered with earth to 
 retain theheat, and in order that the superincumbent 
 weight may not cause it to give way. Withes are 
 attached to the top of the basket work, and passed 
 vertically through the embankment, and then 
 fastened to the longitudinal beam of a wooden horse 
 straddled against the exterior curve. Eight of these 
 furnaces may be made in 24 hours. The wooden 
 oven (Fig. 2j is made by digging an excavation of 
 3m. 20 in length by 2m. 40 in breadth, and Om. 50 in 
 depth, making the fireplace slightly descending 
 towards the mouth. This trench is covered with 
 pieces of wood of Om. 15 to Om. 25 square, placed 
 close together ; the wood is covered with earth 
 carefully packed, the chimneyplace is sodded. The 
 fireplace is dried by lieating for 7 or 8 hours, and 
 subsequent heatings require two hours. Such ovens 
 resist verv well five or six bakings. 
 
 OVERCHAEGED MINE.— A uiine whose crater is 
 wider at the top than it is deep. See CraUr. 
 
 OVERCOAT. — A part of the uniform, worn in cold 
 weather and when specialh' ordered. In the United 
 States army it is prescribed as follows :— 
 
 Fur Gnuriii Ojfirirs. — Of dark blue cloth, closing 
 t)_y means of four frog buttons of black silk and 
 loops of black silk cord; cord down the breast, and 
 at the throat by a long loop "(/ I'echeUi ." without 
 tassel or plate, on the left side, and a black silk frog 
 button on the right; cord for the loops fifteen liund- 
 redths of an inch in diameter; back, a single piece, 
 slit up from the liottcmi from fifteen to seventeen 
 inches, according to the height of the wearer, ajid.
 
 OTEBHAUL. 
 
 465 
 
 OXYHYDEOGEN BLOV/ PIPE. 
 
 cloHini; at, will by billions, iind button-liolcs cut in a 
 concealed Ihip; cnUar of the Hunie eolur and material 
 us the coal, roiindcil at the edfjes, and to stand or 
 fall; when standing t.-) be about live incbes liiL'h ; 
 sleeves loose, cjf a sinfjlc piec(! and rownd at tb(t bot- 
 tom, witliont eiilT or slit; linin;^ woolen, and, with 
 the facings, to correspond in color with the trim- 
 mings of the uniform; around the front and lower 
 borders, the edges of the pockets, the edges of the 
 sleeves, collar, and slil, in the back, a Hat braid of 
 black silk one-half an inch wide; ami arouml each 
 frog button on the breast a knot two and onenuarter 
 inches in diameter, of black silk conl, seven hund- 
 rcdtlis of an inch in diameter, cape of the siime color 
 and material as the coal, removaljle at the pleasure 
 of tlie wearer, and reaching to the cult of the coal 
 sleeve when the arm is extended; coat to extend 
 down the leg from six to eight inches below the 
 knee, according to hi'ight. To indicate rank, there 
 is on both sleeves, near the lower edge, a knot of 
 flat black silk braid, not exceeding one-eighth of an 
 inch in width, and composed of live braiils, double 
 knot. 
 
 For all other Offiars — Dark blue, close-litling don 
 
 ment of the Ifouschold lirigade. It was raisetl in 
 Kifil, and took part in .Marlborough's campaigns; it 
 also served under VVellinglon in the Peninsula and 
 at, Waterloo. 'I'bis rcgiuK^nl, like the two regiments of 
 Life Guards, wears a steel cuirass, but over a blue 
 coatee, whereas the coatee of the two latter regi- 
 ments is red. jSee Ilt/me-duardn. 
 
 OXIDES.- .Metallic oxides are the most important 
 of all the compounds of the metals, and in many 
 cases occur naturally as abundant and valuable ores. 
 They are divided by chemists into lliree classes — 
 viz., (1) basil! oxides or bases, C2; saline or indif- 
 ferent oxides, and C-i) acid oxides or metallic acids. 
 The dillercnt oxiiles of the .same metal usuallv af- 
 ford illustrations of two, and not unfnijuently of all 
 three of these classes. Thus (to take the case of 
 manganese) the protoxide (MnO; is a powerful base, 
 the red oxide (Mn,(J , ) is a saline or indilferent oxide, 
 showing' little tendency to comtjine either with acids 
 or alkalies, while permanganic acid (Mn^O,; presents 
 all the properties of an acid. As a general rule, the 
 greater the number of atoms of oxygen which an 
 oxide contains, the less is it disposed to unite with 
 the acids ; on the contrary, it frequently possesses 
 
 ble-breasted surtoul-coat, having a cape, made to i acid properties, and then unites with bases to form 
 
 det;i<'h from the coat and fall tothi' tips of tlie lingers 
 when the arm and hand are extended; \\u: skirl of 
 the coat for mounted officers to reach iialf way be- 
 tween tlie knee and the sole of the fool; for dis- 
 mounted officers, three inches below the knee. 
 
 The coat has seven buttons on each breast, of the 
 same pattern as those on the imifortji coal. Tiie 
 insignia of rank is on the sleeve, as follows, viz: 
 Colonel, live braids, single knot. Lieutenant-colonel, 
 four braids, single knot. Major, tliree braids, single 
 knot. Caiitaiu, two braids, single knot. 1st Lieu- 
 tenant, one braid, single knot. 3d Lieutenant and 
 Additional 3d Lieutenant, without braid. Military 
 Storekeepers, same as officers of the General Stall of 
 like rank. Chaplains, without braid. 
 
 On the frontier and campaign, officers may wear 
 
 sails. Protoxides generally are strong salifiable 
 bases ; they require one equivalent of a monobasic 
 acid to form neutral salts. Sesquioxides are weaker 
 bases; their salts are usually unstable: they re- 
 quire three atoms or equivalents of a monobasic 
 acid to form a salt which is neutral in coiniw;- 
 silion. though it may not be neutral to test-paper: 
 and in general, all oxides require as many equiv- 
 alents of acid as Ihey contain atoms of oxygen 
 in their composition. Some of the metallic aVfds. 
 like the stannic and titanic, contain two atoms 
 of oxygen to one atom of metal, but most or 
 them contain three atoms of o.xygen- such, for ex- 
 ample, as the manganic, ferric, chromic, tungstic, 
 molybdic, and vanadie acids; whilst in a few cases, 
 such as the arsenic, antimonic, and permanganic, the 
 
 the soldier's great-coat, with the insignia of rank on i proportion of o.xygen is still higher. Of tlie basic 
 Hut sleeve. See Great-coat. I oxides, which form by far the most important cla.ss, 
 
 OVERHAUL. — A term used in artillery appliances ' it may be observed llial they are devoid of all me- 
 tallic appearance, and present the characters of i art liy 
 
 in "overhauling" a tackle, that, is, in separaling the 
 blocks. This should invariably be clone from the 
 standing, and not from tlie movalile block. 
 
 OVERLAP. — In marching by echelon tor tlie pur- 
 pose of forming upon any given point, and particu- 
 larly in wheeling from column into line, troops may 
 lose their relative distances by not taking ground e- 
 nough; when this occurs, the rear division, company, 
 or section, unavoidably crowds upon its preceding 
 one, and is th?nsaid to overlap. 
 
 OVERSEER.— An officer in the Ordnance Depart- 
 ment, who superintends the artificers in the construc- 
 tion of works, etc. He is called Superintendent. 
 
 OVERSLAUGH.— To hinder or stop by an unex- 
 pected iinpediment; as to overslaugh a military offi- 
 cer, that is to hinder or stop his promotion or em- 
 ployment by the appointment of another to his rank 
 or duties. 
 
 OWN. — A term wliich has been attached to some 
 British regiments since the Kevolution in l(i8M. Thus 
 the 4lli Fool, which landed with William III., was 
 called the 4lli Kings Own. 
 
 OX. — A ruminant quadruped of tlie family hon'dtp, 
 much used as a draught animal in military trains. 
 The ox is more frequently employed as a beast of 
 draught in some parts of the continent of Europe 
 than in Britain. From llie earliest historic times the 
 horse has been more generally thus employed, and 
 has now almost entirely superseded the ox. The 
 gait of the ox is slow and plodding, but its strength 
 enables it to perform a great amount of work, and it 
 is not easily exhausted. It needs, however, intervals 
 of rest inconvenient for the marches ; and it is not 
 capable of exertion at all equal to that of the liorse 
 on any occasion of emergt'ucv. See Bullock. 
 OXFORD BLUES.— The third heavy cavalry regi- 
 
 matters, and that six <jnly of them are soluble in 
 water to any considerable "extent, viz, the three al- 
 kalies and baryta, stronlia, and lime. All the oxides 
 are solid at ordinarv temperatures, and as a general 
 rule, the addition of oxygen to a metal renders it. 
 much less fusible and soluble; the protoxide of iron, 
 the sesquioxide of chromium, and molybdic acid be- 
 ing the only oxides that melt more readily tlian the 
 metal. 
 
 OXYHYDEOGEN BLOW PIPE.— An mstrument for 
 the purpose of burning o.xygen and hydrogen gases 
 in their equivalent proportions, so as to get tlie 
 greatest heat from the combination. Two volumes 
 of hydrogen and one of oxygen form an exceedingly 
 powerful explosive mixture, in consequence ot tireir 
 instantaneous union upon tlie application of suffi- 
 eiinl heat, as the ejectric spark or a taper, the result 
 being the formation of water. It was, therefore, 
 early known to be dangerous to experiment with the 
 mi.xed gases. In some instances, when the gases 
 were contained in separate reservoirs and connected 
 by tubes at their extremities, they have become 
 mingled in one of the reservoirs in consequence of a 
 backward flow of the mixture, and serious accidents 
 have resulted. Tliis led to the early use of concen- 
 tric tubes for the delivery of the gases, the hydro- 
 gen tip usually surrounding the one discharging the 
 oxygen. By properly regulating the pressure in the 
 gas-liolders the two gases may be mingled without 
 danger, near the end of the tubes, at the entrance of 
 the burner, llemming's .safety jet is used for burn- 
 ing the gases mixed in the same reservoir; but it is 
 not thought safe to have this of metal, but of a mem- 
 brane. The ordinary burner, which mingles the 
 two gases for some iuclies before llieir exit, is all that
 
 PACE. 
 
 466 
 
 PACK ANIMALS. 
 
 is sutBcient to produce thorough admixture previous 
 to ignition, and will furnish as "solid" a tlame as 
 may be desired. The chief uses of the osyhydrogen 
 
 hlow-pipe are to readily fuse metals, and to render 
 lime incandescent in the Drummond light. See 
 Drummvnd Light. 
 
 P 
 
 PACE. — In its modern acceptation, the distance, 
 when the legs are extended in walking, between the 
 heel of one foot and that of the other. Among dis- 
 ciplined men the pace becomes of constant length, 
 and as such is of the utmost value in determining 
 military movements, the relative distances of corps 
 and men being tixed by the number of paces marched, 
 and so on. The pace in the British army is 3i feet 
 for ordinary marching, and 3 feet for "double 
 quick" or running time. "With the Romans the pace 
 had a different signification, and it is important to 
 bear the distinction in mind, when reading of dis- 
 tances in Latin works ; the single extension of the 
 legs w;is not with them a pace (paamis), but a step 
 (gradux): their pace {panKus) being the interval be- 
 tween the mark of a heel and the next mark of the 
 same heel, or a double step. This pace was equiva- 
 lent to 4.84 English feet. The pace was the Roman 
 unit in itinerary measure; the mile being 1.000 paces, 
 or .5,000 Roman feet, equal to .917 of an English 
 mile. Whether measurements were effected b}- ac- 
 tually counting the paces, or by the time occupied, is 
 not clear; but either method woidd, with disciplined 
 troops, give a safe result. In the Middle Ages, 
 writers confuse accounts of distances by allusion to 
 a geometrical pace, a measure which varied with 
 different authors. 
 
 PACING DRILL.— In the United States Army, be- 
 fore teaching the soldier to estimate distances sim- 
 pl_y by sight, he is first instructed to measure them 
 ))}■ walking over them and carefully counting the 
 number of equal paces thus taken. The Instructor 
 causes a distance of one hundred yards to be 
 measured off on smooth, level ground, and marked 
 by a stake and small flag at each end. The squad is 
 marched to the ground under arms, and formed in 
 single rank, in a line passing through the first stake 
 and at right angles to the measured line. The In- 
 structor directs each man to march straight forward 
 nntil he comes opposite to the flag planted at the 
 100-yard stake, and to carefullj- preserve his natural 
 step without either increasing or diminishing its 
 length, at the same time coimting the number of 
 steps taken. This is repeated three times. From 
 the mean of the three trials the Instructor will give 
 to each man a number of steps that he will lake 
 in measuring 10 yards and 100 yards, so that if he 
 march with equal paces he can step 100 yards with 
 somedegree of accuracj*. When the men have learned 
 to measure distances on smooth and level ground, 
 they are next practiced on that whicli is more or less 
 broken. The Instructor reminds them that in ascend- 
 ing, a shorter step is always taken, and the reverse 
 in descending. Wlicre it is possible, he selects dif- 
 ferent practice grounds, which will give the luen the 
 opportunity of dclcrMiining the number of steps 
 taken in a given distance in .going up or down hill, 
 and also that which is more or less broken by ruts 
 and furrows. The number of steps taken under 
 these circumstances are recorded by each man, giv- 
 ing the inrlinati(m of the ground and other irrciiu- 
 larities as nearly as possible. The men are then ex- 
 ercised in measuring unknown distances, embnicing 
 as great a variety of surf:ice as convenient, ;ind con- 
 tinued until they are al)le tf) reduce the error made 
 to within live per cent, of the distance measureil. 
 The ditliculty of correctly estimaling anv L'iven dis- 
 tance without the aid of proper instruments for the 
 
 purijose increases rapidly as the distance becomes 
 greater. The exercises for the instruction of the 
 men are for this reason divided into three parts, and 
 the men are assigned to one of three classes accord- 
 ing to their proficiency in the drill. The third sec- 
 tion of the course has reference only to distances 
 varying from 100 to 300 yards; the second section to 
 those from 300 to COO yards, and the first from 600 
 to 900 yards. Beginners form the third class; those 
 who become e.xpert in estimating the distances of 
 the third section are advanced to the second; and 
 : when the drill has been mastered as regards the dis- 
 tances of the second section, the pupiHs passed into 
 the first class, and practices estimating all distances 
 j up to 900 yards. 
 
 PACK-ANIMALS. —Pack-animals may be advanta- 
 geously employed in sections of country not permit- 
 ting the use of wheeled carriages. Horses, ponies, 
 mules, oxen, elephants, camels, goats and degs are 
 more or less used as pack-animals in different coun- 
 tries, and the variet}' of packing gear is very great. 
 The nature of the country to be traversed and of the 
 load to be transported, will in a great measure de- 
 termine the form and adjustment of the gear. The 
 wwteisa favorite pack-animal in many countries, but' 
 the ox is far superior, and would be in greater de- 
 mand, were it only fashionable to use him as a pack 
 and saddle animal. Oxen hold out much better than 
 mules over long marches, are much cheaper, are less 
 liable to be stampeded by the enemy, are easily 
 caught when needed, and in case of emergency may 
 be used for beef . In some respects the mule is a 
 superior pack-animal to the horse. His peculiar 
 build gives him, in proportion to his weight, a great, 
 er power to transport a load on his back ; besides 
 this, the mule eats less than the horse, and is more 
 sure-footed. 
 
 The load, gait, journey, forage, intervalB of rest, 
 etc., of a pack-animal shotdd be so proportioned 
 that he will be no more fatigued one day than an- 
 other. It has been determined by experience that a 
 pack-animal, traveling at a walk, over a good road, 
 can carry from 230 to 300 lbs. . 30 miles in 10 hours ; 
 or if he moves at a trot, 175 lbs. over the same dis- 
 tance : and the daily work of a pack-animal is equal 
 to that of five men, under the same circumstances. 
 If the road be hilly the advantage will be in favor of 
 the men. The above data supposes that the animal 
 is regularly fed on the service-ration. If he be fed 
 on grass alone, an allowance must be made for its 
 quality and abundance. Over difficult and long- 
 continued journeys, with pastures seldom good, the 
 net weight of the packs should not exceed the half 
 of those readily transported over a level country, 
 furnishing a sufficiency of grain and camps at regu- 
 lar intervals. The qu<'stion lioic must the (inimiil be 
 lixuled and urged to uhtiiin the innxiinum work or tinr- 
 ful effect, is an important one. If he transports a 
 light weight, he may make a Icmg day's journey; if 
 he transports an excessive weight, he may soon come 
 to a standstill, and in either case the " useful effect" 
 is little or nothing. Let l)=the disliince an animal 
 could travel daily if mdoadcd. W^tlie weight under 
 which he could not travel at idl. W':=some weight 
 less than W, under uliirh he could travel D' miles 
 per day. Then, thire obtains \\V>' ="W (I>— D/-. 
 Now the work or • ti3.;ful elTect" will be a maxi- 
 nmmwhenW'D' is auuixinmm, orwhen W''=: jW,
 
 PACKFONG. 
 
 467 
 
 PACKING. 
 
 mid I)'^<1D, or in otlicr words, the animal •will 
 ucconiplisli the most work when lie triinK])oi'lH Jtlin 
 of the load iindtT which he would HtUfjficr. and 
 li<! will travel just i th(! disliini-e he eoulil if he 
 carri(Ml no load al all. For example: Suppose 
 an auinial Ib ahle to travel 20 miles |)er day, liearinj; 
 u load of 300 Ihs., and 40 miles per day, when he 
 carrieH nolhinf^ ; then, from lh<- e()UUliou WD" =W 
 
 (D—iry, wc lind \V=" - =648 lbs., the load 
 
 (;2r, 
 
 under which he would l)e hroufjht to a standstill, and 
 from \V'= J W and I)' = /,]),we lind the best load to 
 be 28Hlbs., earri<'d If) miles per day. 
 
 An army reipiires to be accompanied by several 
 thousand piick-aiiimals. Homelinu'S horses, hut pre- 
 feralily mules; and in Asia, cummnnly camels, or even 
 elephants. I'ack-saddlcs are variously titled, accord- 
 ing to the objects to be carried; some for provisicms 
 or amnuunlicin; others for carryins wounded men, 
 tents, and, in mountain warfare, even small cannon. 
 In battle, the immediate reserves of small-arm am- 
 numilion are borne in the rear of divisidiis by ])ack 
 animals; tlie heavy reserves beinsj; in wagons between 
 the army and its baai; of operations. See Buffalo, 
 (!<tiitel. Elephant, Llama, Mule, Packing, and Pack- 
 miiille. 
 
 PACKFONG.— A Chinese alloy or white metal, con- 
 sisting of arsenic and copper. It is formed by put- 
 ling two parts of arsenic in a crucible with live parts 
 of copper turnings, or lincly divided copper; the ar- 
 senic and copper require to be placed in alternate 
 layers, and the whole is covered with a layer of com- 
 mon salt, and pressed down. When melted, tlu^ al- 
 loy contains nearly the whole of the arsenic, and is 
 yellowish-white in color when in therougli stale, but 
 takes a tine white |)olish resembling silver. It is not 
 very ductile, and cannot be fu.sed without decompo- 
 sition, as the arsenic is easily dissipated. It is seldom 
 imported now, the nickel alloys of Europe having 
 quite super.seded its use; in China, however, it is ex- 
 tensively employed in the laboratory. Also written 
 I'rtnnfi. 
 
 PACKING. — The art of making up and adjusting 
 the load of a pack-animal. The mode of packing 
 varies with the pack-saddle and gear. \\ ilh the 
 aparejo, used in the United States Army, the pack- 
 ing process is very simple. It requires two men to 
 
 justs the saddle blanket and corona. CTwo). No. 1 
 seizes the aparejo, the left hand near the center of 
 its front, the right hand near the off and rear eiirner, 
 and ])laces it will to the rear on the back of the ani- 
 mal, when Is'o. 2 immeiliately adjusts the crupjjer, 
 and assists No. 1 in moving the aparejo as far for- 
 ward as jicissilile. fThreej. No. 1 jiasses the aparejo 
 cinch to ihe nil side, till the sliilc-r end readies di- 
 rectly under the animal, and assisted by No. 2, passes 
 th(^ laligo strap downwards over the slider and in- 
 wariis through the ring, and again over tin; slider. 
 While No. 1 is drawing the laligo strap moderately 
 tight. No. 2 reaches over the animal, in front of the 
 aparejo, seizes its front corners and draws them 
 upward and forward, placing the aparejo squarely 
 over the animal. This being done and the aparejo 
 Hi.l, No. 1 places bis left knee against the aparejo, ami 
 seizes the laligo strap as far down as possible, the 
 left hand in advance. (Fourj. The laligo strap is 
 drawn until the cinch is surticieutly tight, when No. 
 1 doubles it, and passes it through the loop on the 
 cinch, drawing it tight. No. 2 removes the blind, 
 and ties the animal al or near his cargo. If No. 1 
 is not sufficiently strong. No. 2 passes around to tlie 
 near .side, faces No. 1 and assists him in drawing the 
 latigo strap. 
 
 1. Sling. 3. The Pack. 
 At this command. No. 2 unties the animal, places 
 the blind, and lakes his position near the cargo. No. 
 1 seizes the sling rope, doubles it and throws the loop 
 well over on the off side. (Two). No. 2 quietly 
 raises his side of the pack high up on the aparejo, 
 and holding it there with his left hand passes, with 
 his right hand, the loop of the sling-rope over the 
 cargo to No. l,who pas.scs the ends of the sling-rope 
 through the loop, drawing them tight. (Three). 
 No. 1 quickly places his side of the pack on the apa- 
 rejo against that of No. 2, holds it tliere with his left 
 hand, and passes one end of the sling-rope to No. 2, 
 who passes it under a branch of the sling rope al- 
 ready on his side, and back to No. 1. No 1, resting 
 Ills left arm against the pack, quickly brings the 
 ends of the sling-rope together and ties them in a 
 square knot, after drawing tight. (Four). Nos. 1 
 and 2 seize the pack at the lower and inner edges, 
 settle it to the full extent of the sling-rope, and care- 
 fully balance it. No. 2 removing the blind, and gently 
 leading the mule a few steps forward, while No. 1 
 
 properly pack the animal. Designating the packers 
 as No. 1 and No. 2, their duties are as follows: 
 
 No. 1 is habitually on the near or left side, and No. 
 2 on the off or right side of the animal. To leach 
 the art, the Instructor commands : 
 
 1. Prepare. 2. To Pack. 
 
 At this command. No. 2 places the hackamore 
 upon the animal, leads him on the off side of and 
 near the rigging, places the blind and assumes his 
 position on the off side. No. 1, assisted by No. 
 2, on the off side, then places and carefully ad- 
 
 observes the pack from the rear. No. 1 then places 
 tlie pack cover, and is assisted by No. 2 in adjusting 
 it. When the manias are not in use, they are folded 
 and carried on the aparejos under the oinches. 
 1. La.<,h. 2. The Pack. 
 At this command. No. 1 takes the lash-rope, and hold- 
 ing it coiled in his right, seizes it with his left hand 
 near the cinch, and throws it to its full e.xtent to the 
 right; whereupon he passes the cinch hook from him, 
 under the mule, and holding it steady, he places the 
 rope lengthwise on the center of the pack (Fie 1.)
 
 PACKING-BOX. 
 
 4G8 
 
 PACKING SMALL ARMS. 
 
 (Two.) No. 1 now moves forward to the animal's 
 shoulder, draws the lash rope forwards two-tliirds 
 of its length, seizes it .'5 or 6 feet from the cinch, 
 and passes it doubled to No. 3 (Fig. 2j, who takes 
 the double in his right hand, and the hook of the 
 cinch in his left. No. 2 then moves his hands, 
 until he feels the rope tight, when he passes the rear 
 branch of the rope from above into the hook and 
 the slack back to No. 1, who draws it tight with his 
 left hand. He then passes his right band under his 
 left, seizes the rope in front of the pack and passes 
 It to the rear (Fig. 3). (Three.) No. 1 passes the 
 rope in his left hand under the standing branch from 
 rear to front, pulls it well up on the pack (Fig. 4) 
 and forces tlie bight thus formed below the aparejo. 
 In the meanwhile. No. 2 grasps the end of the rope, 
 passes it under the front standing branch on his side 
 (from front to rear or from rear to front), pushes it 
 to the top rf the pack, and throws the end in front 
 of the .pack on the side of No. 1 ; No. 2 then seizes 
 the front standing l)ranch with both hands, well 
 down, and places his left knee against the aparejo. 
 No. 1 seizes the front branch on" his side, placing 
 his left shoulder against the pack. No. 2 pulls 
 while No. 1 takes in the .slack. When all is suffi- 
 ciently tight. No. 1 says "good," and seeing the 
 pack well balanced passes to the rear and tightly 
 pulls the branch under the aparejo. (Fig" 5). 
 (Four.) No. 2 goes to the rear, pulls the branch on 
 his right and passes it forward imder the points of 
 the aparejo. No. 1 moves forward, on his own side, 
 takes the end of the rope, tightens it, passes it down 
 under the points of the aparejo, back to the center 
 of the pack and there fastens it by drawing it under 
 the standing branches (Fig. G). If the lash roi>e is 
 very long. No. 1 passes the end to No. 2. who makes 
 it fast as stated. All set, No. 2 removes the blind, 
 ties up the hackamore strap and drives off the animal. 
 1. Unsling. 2. The Pack. 
 
 At this command. No. 2 loosens tlie end of the 
 lash ropo, goes to irlie animal's shoulderaiid pulls out 
 the Ijrancli on his side. (Two.) No. 1 slackens the 
 rear and front branches on his side in succession, 
 passes the front branch under the standing branch 
 from front to rear, withdraws it and passes the slack 
 to No. 2, who tmhooks it, whereupon Nos. 1 and 2 
 throw the lash rope to the rear. (Three.) No. 1 
 unties the sling rope quickly. (Four.) Nos. 1 and 
 2 take down the portions of the pack on their sides. 
 
 The aparejo is taken off in the inverse order in 
 which it is put on. This being done, No.l arranges 
 the cargoes while No. 3 collects and assorts the rig- 
 ging, placing the aparejos in line, resting on the low- 
 er ends of the pads. As tlie train moves out, each 
 animal should be carefully noticed. Raising the 
 hips and twiching the mouth or noseindicates ^'(7i- 
 ing, and. should lead to immediate examination. 
 The hackamores should fit very closely. Nothing is so 
 liable to irritate an animal and give him "fits of fury" 
 as sore ears. If possible, the cargo should be made 
 into two packages of equal weight and bulk, of about 
 100 or 125 pounds, and the highest loads should be 
 the bulkiest and most valuable stores. All ratlliuir 
 pins camp kettles, buckets, etc, sliould be closely 
 packed in sacks and securely lashrd on top between 
 the side [jacks. If carelessly packed and allowed to 
 rattle, the animals will frequently bcciime alarnu-d 
 and as frc((uenllv succeed in dropping Iheir jiacks. 
 
 PACKING-BOX. A box used for keeping fixed shot 
 or sliell ill si ore, or in transit from place to place, or 
 on the march with siege trains. The name is given 
 to anv bdx or case containing mililarv stores. 
 
 PACKING OF POWDER, -(ioverniueiit powder is 
 packed in barrels of 101) pounds eacli, I 'owcUt bar- 
 rels are made of well seasoned white oak, and hoop- 
 eil with hickory or cedar hoops, which sliould be de- 
 prived of their bark ; the cedar is not so liable as 
 hickory or white oak to be attacked by worms, and 
 it should therefore be used in prefc'rcnce: or the 
 hoops may be prepared by immersion in a soluti(m 
 
 of corrosive sublimate. The hoops should cover 
 two-thirds of the barrel. The grain powders may 
 be packed in canvas liags before being barreled. In- 
 stead of a bung on the side, a screw-bole 1.5 inches 
 in diameter is'made in the head of the barrel,- for 
 mortar and musket powder; it is closed by a wood- 
 screw with an octagonal bead, which must not pro- 
 ject beyond the ends of the staves ; under the head 
 of the screw is a washer of thin leather, steeped in 
 a solution of beeswax in spirits of turpentine. This 
 screw-plug renders it unnecessary to take out the 
 head of the barrel, and the hoops may therefore be 
 secured with copper nails ; frjr transportation, a piece 
 of cloth should be glued over the head of the plug. 
 Some barrels have been made with six copper hoops, 
 and others with four copper and eight or ten cedar 
 hoops ; the copper hoops are one inch wide and one- 
 eighth of an ineli thick, fastened with two rivets and 
 nailed each with three copper nails O.I52o inch long. 
 Average weight of a hoop 2,^ pounds. Powder boxes 
 lined with galvanized iron and cooper with large 
 screw lids are now on trial, holding 100 pounds. It 
 has been found that lining pomler barrels with 
 India-rubber cloth has an injurious effect on the 
 powder in consequence of the affinity of the caout- 
 cliouc for sulphur. The heads of powder barrels are 
 painted bUick in order to show the marks more plain- 
 ly in dark magazines. The following are the dimen- 
 sions of powder barrels : — 
 
 Whole length 20.5 inches. 
 
 Length, interior, in the clear .... 18 inches. 
 
 Interior diameter of head 14 inches. 
 
 Interior diameter of bilge 16 inches. 
 
 Thickness of the staves and heads . . 0.5 inch. 
 Weight of the barrel , . 25 pimnds. 
 
 The barrels have generally 12 hoops, 14 to 16 
 staves, and two or three pieces in each head. T.ie 
 dimensions are such that with 100 pounds of powiler 
 there shall be a vacant space on the barrel to allow 
 for shaking to prevent caking. The barrel will hold 
 120 pounds settled by shaking. See h'unpimde ■. 
 
 PACKING SMALL-ARMS.— When small-arms are 
 to be sent on a long sea voyage the arm-chests are 
 provided with tin linings, securely soldered, so as to 
 exclude all ilanipness. The clamps for the bayonets 
 are screwed down precisely as in the unlined chest. 
 The tenons of the packings (muzzle, butt, top, and 
 middle) are cut off, as tlie dn does not e.xtend in the 
 grooves ordinarily tilled by them. In a chest in- 
 tended to be lined the grooves are omitted. A 
 leather strip is placed under each bottom muzzle- 
 clamp to prevent the butt-plate rubbing on the lin- 
 ing. Two strips of wood ^ inch wide and 1 inch 
 thick are placed lengthwise with the box, oiij' on 
 each side, their ends resting in notches cut in \..e 
 ends of the top clamps. The edges of the lining are 
 about one inch above the level of the chest. Tiiey 
 are bent inward, and hammered down on the strips 
 of wood before mentioned. The edges are then care- 
 fully soldered to the cover. To open the box asol- 
 dcriug-iron and thin knife are required to ouen the 
 soldered joint. 
 
 In the field, or under other circumstances, when 
 the proper arm-chests are not on baud, it may some- 
 times be necessary to pack arms with straw. The 
 interior dimensions of a box for twenty muskets 
 may be the same as for the regular packing-box. 
 The straw should b" long, perfectly dry, and tree 
 from dust; ri/c straii^ is the best; /laj/ should not be 
 used; aliout twenty-five pounds of straw are required 
 to a box. To prepare the mwikrt for packing — Oil it; 
 let down the hammer, pass the bayonet up to the 
 socket into the guard-bow, on the rigid side, in front 
 of the trigger. Alake a rope of about forty straws, 
 slightly twisted, and forty inches long; wrap it 
 about the musket , commencing on top of tlie hammer 
 going round the baycmel below, again over the ham- 
 mer an 1 round the pii'ce in front of the guard, then 
 f ver the socket of the bayonet near tlii^ neck, and 
 wrapping the rest around the handle of the stuck.
 
 FACE-SASDUE. 
 
 469 
 
 PADDOCK INTEEPOLATEa 
 
 Lay a bed of straw 2 inches thick in thcbulloni of 
 the box ; in the ini(hllc and at (i inc lies from the 
 ends, iiluce three cusliions of Htraw (> inciies thicl< 
 and i;i in< lies wi(h'. I'lil in a tier of 10 niiisl<els, 
 crossinfi each other, the butts resliiiif allcriiati'ly 
 against the ends of the box, the i,niards iipperiMosl 
 and the- lianiiiK-rs licarinfr on the ensliii'iis. I'lit 
 Hiiiidl trusses of sliaw iindir Ihe U|i])er and iidrlille 
 bands l)y raising Ihe nuiskels at one end and Ihcn 
 pressiiiii; them down between the oIlK'rs. I'uek l)c- 
 tween the butts wads of straw 8 inches long, 
 made of a liandfnl of straws folded in three ; cover 
 the i^uards ami ^nard-bows wilh thi; ends of the 
 straw that form these wads, which will be still about 
 12 inches loni;. I'ut in another tier of 10 iniiskctM 
 in Ihe same manner, m diini; the cushions 4 inches 
 thick. I'ack llic implciucnls in straw in the vacant 
 spaces. Fill the b'l.x with stiaw, so that the cover 
 shall re(niire stroiu; pressure to keep it down. Put 
 two hoops round the box, at 18 inches from the 
 ends. (Jther arms, swords, etc., are packed in a 
 similar manner. Arms should not be wrapped in 
 paper, unless it be oiled, as it attracts moisture more 
 readily tliiin straw does. See Smnll-annx. 
 
 PACK SADDLE. — I'ack-saddles are variously fitted, 
 according; to the n.'ilure of the loads to be carried : 
 some for provisions or ammunilion ; others for car- 
 ryini^ wounded men, tents, and, in mountain war- 
 fare, even small cannon. 'J'he cmna-triv saddle and 
 gear, repri'senlcd in the ilrawini;, is used to a great 
 extent by the Indians and traders in Northwestern 
 America. This description of saddle is very well 
 adapted for smooth roads and evenly formed packs, 
 but for scout ing trains or the professional packer, 
 where objects of every imajinahle shape and vari- 
 ous weights are to be transported, notliing has yet 
 been invented so suitable as the aparejn, composed 
 entirely of hide. 
 
 In very early times the sad lie to which the bun- 
 dles were fastened consist) d of two pieces of wood, 
 
 been substituted for tlie Iiorse. 8ce Aparejo and 
 I'liekinr/. 
 
 I PACK THAIN — A troop of patk-animals. When 
 
 littiMLT out a train, as few riilTercnt kinds of animalii 
 
 sliould be taken as jiossible, as thi'V will run in dif- 
 
 ferenl herds and rcquiri' much more attintion. 
 
 PADDLING. The removal, by means of a copper 
 
 ' spud, of such lumps of gunpowtler as adhere to the 
 face:' of the rollers during liie incorprjraling process 
 in the manufacture of gunpowder. The operation 
 recpiires j^reat care, and should oidy be resorlefl to 
 
 I under exceptional circumstances. Generally water 
 poured on the face of a roller will, to some extent, 
 loosen (he powdr-r. 
 
 PADDOCK INTERPOLATEH.— When, owing to the 
 inlerpiisllion of an iiilirmediate obstacle, the object 
 to be (ired at cannot be s<'en from the mortar, a point 
 must be interiiolatcd on the reijuired line in such 
 position that it can be seen from the mortar. This 
 is most readily effected by this most simple and con- 
 venient instrument, consistijig of two small mirrors 
 attached to a metallic frame. One of these, termed 
 the upper mirror, revolves on a horizontal axis; the 
 other is calli-il the lower mirror, and toil is attached 
 a small spirit level, «. Hair-lines are marked on 
 these mirrors, representing the trace of a plane aor- 
 
 cttrved so as to fit the horse's back, and joined to- 
 gether at the ends by two other straight pieces. 
 This frame was well padded iinderneath, to prevent 
 injury to the horse's back, and was firmly fastened 
 by a girth. To each side of the saddle a strong 
 hook was attached, for the purpose of carrying 
 packages, panniers, etc. Panniers were sometimes 
 simply slung across the liorse's back with a pad 
 under the band. The panniers were wicker Ijaskets, 
 and of various shapes, according to the nature of 
 their usual contents, being sometimes long and nar- 
 row, but most generally having a length of three 
 feet or upwards, a depth of about two-thirds of the 
 length, and a width of from one to two feet. The 
 pack-horse with panniers was at one time in general 
 use for carrying merchandise, and for those agricul- 
 tural operations for which the horse and cart are 
 now employed ; and in the mountainous regions of 
 Spain and Austria, and in other parts of the world. 
 it still forms the sole medium for transport : though 
 the mule has, especially in Europe and America, 
 
 mal to the axis of the level at its center, and also to 
 the axis of the upper mirrfjr. To use the instrument, 
 the observer places himself approximatel}' on the 
 line from the mortar to the object to be fired at. 
 Keeping the bubble in the center of the level, lie 
 turns the instrument so that the mortar will be re- 
 flected from the upper mirror onto the hair-line of 
 the lower mirror. He then revolves the upper mir- 
 ror, and, catcliing the retlection of the object, ob- 
 serves on which side of the hair-line of the lower 
 mirror it falls. He moves in that direction until iSoth 
 images— that of the mortar and of the object — fall 
 upon the lower hair-line, the two hair-lines being co- 
 incident. A pin or plummet is placed in prolonga- 
 tion of this line to mark the required point. To 
 make the last part of the observation with accuracy, 
 the instrument should be rested on some convenient 
 object. 
 
 When the foregoing instrument is not to be liad, 
 a point may be interpolated by two persons, each 
 using a light, slender stake. They place them.selvts 
 as near as practicable on the required line, one fac- 
 ing towards the mortar, where he can see it. and the 
 other towards the object, where he can see it, and 
 both within view of each other. Holding their stakes 
 vertical, they sight and move them alternately, until 
 finally they liave them in s ich po.sition that they 
 range both upon the mortar and the object. The 
 stakes or, belter, plummets are then adjusted at 
 these points, and sighting by them back to the 
 mortar, a plummet is suspended in the usual manner 
 behind the platform. The plummets thus established 
 mark the desired plane of sight. This operation is 
 more conveniently performed by using a strip of 
 board, ten or twelve feet long, in which is set at 
 each end a priming-wire. The board is placed at 
 the intermediate point in a position approximately in 
 the plane of sight, and where the mortar can bessen 
 by sighting past both wires back upon it, and the 
 object can be seen by sighting forward in the same 
 manner. Two persons, one at each end, by 
 alternately sighting and moving the board, readily
 
 FADS. 
 
 470 
 
 FAISIS. 
 
 establish the wires in the required line. A phiramet 
 is then suspended, at some convenient point in front 
 of the mortar, in line witli the two wires on the 
 board. Tlie plummet in rear of the mortar is sus- 
 pended on the same line. The two plummets thus 
 established determine the plane of siglit. — See 
 Plummet. 
 
 PADS. — In the artillery and cavalry service, pads 
 are used to protect saddle and draught liorses from 
 galls. The pad recommended is in the form of a 
 folded blaulvet, or pad made of sheep or liid's skin, 
 stuffed with hair, 6 inches by 4 inches. When placed 
 above and below tlie gall considerable relief will be 
 afforded. If a piece of harness is seen to be com- 
 mencing to rub a horse, besides altering the fitting, 
 friction may be prevented by rubbing in any lubri- 
 cant (tallow will do on an emergency). To cure a 
 gall or sore while tlie horse continues liis work, pads 
 must be judiciously applied. Sheep skin is the fav- 
 orite specific of many collar-makers ; it sometimes 
 effects more tlian would be e.xpected; it enables the 
 harness and skin side of tlie sheep skin to move, 
 while the ends of tlie liair remain without motion on 
 the tender part of tlie horse. The rubbing of a trace 
 is sometimes difficult to prevent ; we have seen the 
 pressure completely removed by attaching a short, 
 flat piece of wood along a hip or bearing strap, with 
 the ends extending 2 inches past the trace, small pads 
 being fixed on it above and below the trace. It looks 
 ugly, but it works well. Elastic pads constructed 
 of a certain number of tubes of vulcanized caout- 
 cliouc united together, and invented, some years ago, 
 by General Angelini, of the Italian army, are stated 
 to liave been very successful in the Italian cavalry 
 in preventing galls. 
 
 PAGAN SYSTEM OF FORTITICATION.— This system j 
 paved tlie way for Vaubau. It included tliree kinds 
 of Fortification, tlie great, the mean, and the small, 
 with fronts of 390 yards, 3.50 yards, and 312 yards 
 respcctivelj'; and was the first to employ the perpen- 
 dicular (whicli equaled 58 yards) to draw the line of 
 defense. The faces of the bastion were equal to y'^ 
 of the front. The flanks were perpendicular to the 
 lines of defense, the ditch 30 yards wide at the sa- 
 lient, and its counterscarp directed on the shoulder- 
 angle of the bastion. Inside the bastions were con- 
 structed interior retrenchments.with magistrals par- 
 allel to, and 32 yards from the enceinte. The flank 
 was triple; the first retired and level with the ground, 
 the third level with the inner bastion, and the sec- 
 ond of intermediate command. The ravelin had a 
 90 yards' face, and occasionally received a reduit, 
 while a counterguard sometimes covered the has- 
 tions. In another method, called " re-inforced," the 
 enceinte was preceded by a continuous envelope. 
 The weak point of this S3'stcm was the possibility of 
 breaching the curtain from the re-entering place of 
 arms, thereby turning the interior bastion. The tri- 
 ple flanks were also defective, the defenders being too 
 much exjiosed to the splinters of the upper scarijs 
 
 PAGEANT. — In ancient military history, a tri- 
 umphal car, chariot, or arch, variously, adorned with 
 colors, flags, etc., carried about in public shows, pro- 
 cessions, etc. Also a gorgeous show or spectacle. 
 
 PAGEANT SHIELDS.— Richly embossed shields of 
 the null centur}-. Although they were pieces of de- 
 fensive armor, they were rather intended to be worn 
 on gala days, when the Nobles rivalled one another 
 in the magnificence and artistic richness of their 
 equipments. 
 
 PAH — The name of the stockaded intrenchments 
 of the New Zealanders. 
 
 PAILLEE.— An ant-ient body of French Militia. 
 The soldiers belonging to it were probably so called 
 eilhi-r from the circumstance of their wearing straw 
 in their helmets, in order to , know one unolher in 
 action, or because they were accuslinned to set fire 
 to the habitations of tlieir enemies with bundles of 
 straw, which they always carried with lliem forlhat 
 purpose. 
 
 PAINTS. — Prepared or unprepared compositions by 
 which wood, iron and other materials are coated 
 with a preservative surface of oil, mixed with an 
 earthy matter to give it color and consistency The 
 art of painting in its primitive state consisted merely 
 in applying such natural, mineral, and vegetable 
 colors as were spontaneous'iy yielded, witliout any 
 vehicle to render them permanent, consequently they 
 had to be renewed as often as tliey were rubbed or 
 washed off from the surfaces to which they were 
 applied. The paints now in use are nearly all mixed 
 with a liquid vehicle, and are applied in the liquid 
 state. The mixing materials are varied according to 
 the requirements of the work. Thus for some kinds 
 of decorative work, and for water-color di'awings, 
 gum, glue, size, or other adhesive materials dissolved 
 in water, are employed; whilst for the painting of 
 buildings, etc., oils of various kinds are used for 
 mixing and thinning the colors. Thus, for painted 
 work exposed to the weather, it is found that linseed 
 oil boiled with the sulphates of lead (litharge) or zinc, 
 or witli acetate of lead (sugar of lead), is the best. 
 The preparation of boiled oil is one requiring par- 
 ticular care, as it is desirable to have it bright and 
 clear. Hence the proportions of the metallic salts 
 are much varied by different manufacturers, and by 
 some various other ingredients are added. The time 
 of boiling and the method of filtering are also much 
 varied. For indoor work, plain linseed oil and oil 
 (spirit) of turpentine are used; if a glossy surface is 
 wished, the linseed oil must be in excess; if a (!ull,OT 
 flattened surface, then the quantity of turpentine, or 
 turps, as it is often technically called, must be in- 
 creased; and it is usual to add a small quantity of 
 ground litharge and sugar |of lead, which are pre- 
 pared for this purpose, and sold under the name of 
 driers. For artists' colors, very fine linseed or nut 
 oil is used, unboiled, and in small quantity, and 
 turpentine is employed to dilute them. Paints for 
 very rougli purposes, such as ordnance work, stone 
 walls, etc., are often mixed with whale oil boiled 
 with white vitriol (acetate of zinc), litharge, and 
 vinegar, and they are diluted with common linseed 
 oil and turpentine. 
 
 Most of the paints used for ordinarj' purposes are 
 composed first of the coloring matter, then of a quan- 
 tity of white-lead, w-ith which and the oil they are 
 worked into a paste of the shade required, and after- 
 ward thinned down with oil and turpentine when 
 used. The white-lead which thus forms the basis of 
 most paints, and by itself a color, is a carbonate and 
 oxide of the metal, produced by exposing pieces of 
 lead to the action of the steam of acetic acid in beds 
 of fermenting tan. It is the principal whhe paint 
 used, but is liable to discoloration from the gases 
 contained in impure atmospheres. Other white pig- 
 ments are prepared from the oxide of zinc, and the 
 carbonate and sulphate of barytes. Olires. for car- 
 riages, are produced by mixtures of yellow ochre, 
 boiled oil, litharge, lampblack, spirits of turpentine, 
 and Japiin varnish. Meds are either purely mineral, 
 or they are lakes, i. e., organic colors precipitated on 
 alumina bases. Of tlie latter there are madder-lakes, 
 prepared from madder-roots, and carmine-lakes, pre- 
 pared from cochineal ; of the former, vermilion (bisul- 
 yiliuret of mercurj-), Indian red(a native oxiileof iron), 
 Venetian red (an oxide of iron), red lead (red oxide 
 of lead or minium,). Blues consist of the artificial 
 ultramarine, and for artists' purposes of the real ul- 
 tramarine, also the silicate of cobalt, and foi water- 
 colors, indigo and Prvissian blue. (Ireens are either 
 prochiced by mixtures of yelUnrs a.r\A blues, or they 
 are m;iiU' directly from the phosphates, carbonates, 
 acetates, and arsenitea of copper, also from the ses- 
 quioxide of chromium and from tcrre terte, a native 
 mineral, consisting of iron, silica, potassa, and mag- 
 nesia. Broiriis are numerous, and various in their 
 composili(m. Decomposed peat, burned madder, 
 burned Prussian blue, burned terre verte, asphalt, 
 manganese brown, catechu. umber(which is au oxide
 
 PAIEIHO. 
 
 171 
 
 PALANQUIH. 
 
 of iron with miij;ancHc). ami mummy, or tlic uspliall 
 inixi'd witli otliiTmiitliTHlnki-ii Irotji Kf^ypliim miim- 
 iiiii'S, lire niiionirst Ilic bi'st known iiiiii most iiscil. 
 JIIwIls lire made of lampliliick unil lionc-liliick, i>cr- 
 oxiilc ol nian?;anc.si-, anil lihic-tilack, wliifli is made 
 of tli<' cliarcoal of Imrncd vine twigs. In all cascB 
 tlic colorinj; mal<Tials of paints reipiire to be very 
 finely uroiirid, and as very many are poisonous, great 
 eare is reipiired in their pre|)aration, and several 
 forms of mill have lieen invenled for the purposl^ 
 The prineiplc upon wliich all are made is lo seeure 
 the operatorfrom the pciisonousdusl and exhalations, 
 and to reduee the eolorinjj; material, if ground dry, 
 lo an impalpable powder, ov, if mixed with the oil, 
 to a perfectly smooth paste. 
 
 The following table shows the quantity of ])aints 
 reipiired for carriages: 
 
 eideril or ilisastcT. Kuch parts should be carefully 
 ixandned by means of punches and hanimirs, and 
 no such material be sultered lo remain wlicre it is 
 dangerous. .Sec l,<icktrii. 
 
 PAIHING. When the web of a gabion is made 
 with two rod- at a time, tlieprocess is called /;«/mio. 
 
 PAIXHANS GUN. - This gun, intended for Hhipsof 
 war or coast fortresses, and adapted lo throwing 
 shells and hollow shot, was adopted in France about 
 1824, and afterwards in England. It was used by 
 the HuHsian Meet wliich destroyed the Turkish forts 
 and ships in the harborof .Sinope. I'aixlians recom- 
 mended cylindro-conieal projectiles as going more 
 directly and striking more powerfully than round 
 balls, and exposed to less resistance from the air. 
 lie believed in small ships carrying lieavier gun.sfor 
 firing shell and hollow shot. The original Paixhans 
 
 Kind of carriage. 
 
 Field gun-carriage and limber with implements.. . 
 
 (;aisson with limber and implements 
 
 Forge with limber 
 
 Battery-wagon with limber 
 
 Siege-carriage, limber, and implements 
 
 Mortar-wagon 
 
 Carriages and chassis, iron. 
 
 8-inch casemate 
 
 8-inch barbette 
 
 10-inch casemate 
 
 lO-inch barbette 
 
 LO-inch barbette 
 
 20-inch barbette 
 
 A priming of lead color and two coats of olive 
 color are applied to new wood-work, and one coat 
 of lead color and one of black, to the iron-work of 
 field-carriages. Two coats of metallic paint are re- 
 quired for the iron carriages. Add 60 per {'cnt. for 
 10'' and 40 per cent, for 1.5" carriages with imeu- 
 matic buflfcrs, and 30 and 20 per cent, for these car- 
 riages with hydraulic buffers. One coat will last a 
 year. Oriental red is the best for iron-work, most 
 durable, and retains its full, rich, red color better 
 than other metallic paints. For use mix 100 pounds 
 of oriental red paint (in a dry state) with .5 gallons 
 of raw linseed-oil to prepare it for grinding ; for use, 
 add 10 gallons boiled linseed-oil, 1 gallon spirits of 
 turpentine, i gallon Japan dryer; mix thoroughly. 
 This mixture will make about 230 pounds. Brown 
 metallic paint requires about the same quantity of 
 oils, etc. The oriental red has a good body, spreads, 
 and adheres well to iron. Vermilion red and red ochre 
 are good substitutes when the oriental is not avail- 
 able ; their color may be moderated by yellow ochre. 
 Spanish brown is also a good substitute for oriental 
 red. Mix as follows : 100 pounds of Spanish brown, 
 with 2-5 pounds of red lead ; grind each in raw lin- 
 seed-oil before mixing. Mix as for oriental red ; the 
 red lead makes this paint dry harder and firmer, and 
 stands exposure well. It requires about 2 gallons 
 more oil than the oriental red. 
 
 Before painting, all blisters, rust, or accumulation 
 of old paint should be removed with a scraper. The 
 top of the chassis rails should neither be painted nor 
 oiled, but kept clean by dry scraping. All iron 
 handspikes, elevating-bars, and similar implements, 
 are painted black, using for this purpose common 
 black paint. Heads of bolts and edges of rails may 
 likewise be painted black. The damp location of 
 most artillery posts is particularly favorable to the 
 rapid decay of material. Rust gradually eats away 
 iron parts of carriages and machines. These defects 
 are frequently hidden by repeated coats of paint or 
 lacquer, making them extremelj' liable to lead to ac- , 
 
 Lead 
 color. 
 
 Olive. Black. 
 
 Pound*, 
 6 
 8 
 6 
 
 Pounds. 
 10 
 15 
 10 
 13 
 11 
 
 PoundJi. 
 0.75 
 0.80 
 l.CO 
 0.90 
 1.00 
 0.75 
 
 Metallic. 
 
 Pound*. 
 
 :iL 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 20 
 
 gun was 9J feet long, with a bore of 8| inches, and a 
 weight of about 7,400 pounds. The charge was be- 
 tween lOi and 18 pounds of powder. It would bear 
 hollow shot of 60 pounds, or solid shot of K6 to 8« 
 pounds. The chell was mostly employed for incen- 
 diary purposes, and was either charged with gun 
 powder alone, or, as in the French service, with gun 
 powder and carcass composition. See Ordnance. 
 
 FALASIN. — A term originally derived from the 
 Counts Palatine or of the Palace, who were the 
 highest dignitaries in the Byzantine Court, and 
 thence used generally for a Lord or Chiefiain, and 
 by the Italian romantic poets for a Knight-Errant. 
 
 PALAESTRA. — In Grecian antiquity, apublic build- 
 ing where the youth exercised themselves in the 
 military art, wrestling, running, etc. 
 
 PALANKA. — A species of permanent intrenched 
 camp attached to Turkish frontier fortresses, in 
 which the ramparts are revetted with large beams. 
 rising 7 or 8 feet above the eartlswork, so as to form 
 a stronu' palisade above. 
 
 PALANQUIN— PALKI.— A vehicle commonly used 
 in Hindustan by travelers, and for the transport of 
 sick and wounded. It is usually a wooden box, 
 about 8ft. long 4ft. wide, and 4ft. high. with wooden 
 shutters which can be opened or .shut at pleasure, 
 and constructed like Venetian blinds for the purpose 
 of admitting fresh air. while at the same time they 
 exclude the scorching rays of the sun, and the heavy 
 showers of rain so common in that country. The 
 furniture of the interior consists of a cocoa mattress 
 well stuffed and covered with morocco leather, on 
 which the traveler reclines : two small bolsters are 
 placed under his he.ad, and one under his thighs, to 
 render his position as comfortable as possible. At 
 the upper end is a shelf and drawer, and at the sides 
 are nettings of larger dimensions than the ordinary 
 pockets in carriages, for containing those articles 
 which may be nece.s.sary during the journey. At 
 each end of the palanquin, on the outside, two iron 
 rings are fixed, and the fianunais, or palanquin-bear-
 
 PALE. 
 
 472 
 
 FAILISEB GUH. 
 
 crs, of whom there are four, two at each end, sup- 
 port the palanquin by a pole passing through these 
 rings. Traveling in this mode is continued both by 
 day and night. The palanquia is also used at the 
 present day in Brazil, with the prominent exception 
 of Rio Janeiro. 
 
 Similar modes of traveling have been at various 
 times in use in western Europe, but only for short 
 distances. The Roman '•litter," the French "chaise 
 a porteurs," and the " sedau-chair " were the forms 
 of vehicle most in use, and the two latter were in 
 general use till they were superseded by hackney 
 coaches. The Roman " litter" was one of the criteria 
 of its owner's wealth, the rich man generallj- exhibit- 
 ing the prosperous condition of his affairs by the 
 mulitude of the bearers and other attendants accom- 
 panying him. See Stretcher and Tico-harse Litter. 
 
 FAL£. 1. In Heraldry, one of the figures known 
 as ordinaries, consisting of a perpendicular band in 
 
 the middle of the shield, of which it is said to occu- 
 py one-third (No. 1). Several charges of any kind 
 aie said to be "in pale" when they stand overeach 
 other perpendicularly, as do the three lions of En- 
 gland. A sliield divided through the middle by a 
 perpendicular line is said to be "parted per pale." The 
 Pallet is the diminutive of the pale, and is 
 most generally not borne singly. Three 
 pallets gules (No. 2), were the arms of Ray- 
 mond, Count of Provence. When the field 
 Is divided into an even number of parts 
 by perpendicular lines, it is called "paly 
 of" so many pieces as the (No. 3), Paly 
 of six argent and gules, the arms of the 
 family of Ituthven. When divided bylines 
 perpendicular and bendways crossing, it is 
 called pa! bend_v (No. 4). An Endorse is a 
 further diminutive of the pallet, and a 
 pale placed between two endorses is said 
 to be endorsed (No. 5). 2. In Irish 
 histor}', pale means that portion of the 
 Kingdom over which the English rule and English 
 law was acknowledged. There is so much vague- 
 ness in the meaning of the term that a few words of 
 explanation appear necessary. The vagueness arises 
 from the great tiuctuations which the English author- 
 ity underwent in Ireland at various periods, and from 
 the consequent fluctuation of the actual territorial 
 limits of the pale. The designation dates from the 
 reign of John, who distributed the portion of Ireland 
 then nominally subject to England into twelve coun- 
 ties palatine, Dublin, Meath,Kildare, Louth, Oarlow, 
 Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Tipper- 
 arv and Limerick. To this entire district, in a gen- 
 eral waj', was afterwards given the designati(m of 
 tlie Pale. But, as it may be said that the term is 
 commonly applied by the writers of each age to the 
 actual English territory of the jieriod, ami as this 
 varied very much, care must be taken lo allude to 
 the age of which the name Pale is used. Thus, 
 very soon after the important date of the statute of 
 Kilkenny, at the close of the reign of Edward 111., 
 the English law extended only to tlw four comities 
 of Dublin, Carlow. Mea'li, and Louth. In the reign 
 of Henry VI. the limits were still further restricted. 
 In a general way, however, the Pale may be con- 
 sidered as ctmiprising the Counties of Dulilin, Meatli, 
 Carlow, Kilkenny, and Louth. This, altliough not 
 quite cxiKi, will he. sullicienl for most purposes. 
 
 PALEAGAS. -Chiefs of mountainous and woody 
 districts in the peninsula if India, who pay only a 
 temporary liomaL'e. Also written I'l'tyrinrK. 
 
 PALETTES. — The imrt of the armor protecting the 
 
 arm-pits. Pnlettes date back to the middle of the 
 fifteenth century, and disappear at the end of the 
 sixteenth. 
 
 PALINTONE. — An ancient machine of war, de- 
 scribed by Heron, Philon and Vitruvius. It was a 
 varietv of the catapult. 
 
 PALISADES.— A palisade is a stake about ten feet 
 long, and of triangular form, each side of the tri- 
 angle being eight inches. The trunks of straight 
 trees should be s "lected for palisades. The diameter 
 j of the trunk should be from sixteen to twenty inches. 
 : The trunk is sawed into lengths of ten and a half 
 } feet, and is split up into rails, each length furnishing 
 from five to seven rails. The palisade is pointed at 
 top ; the other extremity ma^' be charred if the wood 
 is seasoned, otherwise the charring will be cf no ser- 
 vice. A. pnlisadin/j is a TOW of palisades set in the 
 ground, either vertically, or slightly inclined towards 
 the enemy. To plant ihe palisades, a trench is dug 
 three feet deep; they are then placed about three 
 inches asunder, with an edge towards the enemy. 
 Each palisade is nailed to a strip of thick plank, 
 termed a riband, placed horizontally about one foot 
 below the ground; another riband is placed eighteen 
 inches below the top. The earth is firmly packed in 
 the trench. A palisading is sometimes used as a 
 priinar}' means of defence, particularly for low works. 
 A banquette is tlirown up for this purpose against 
 it; the tread of the banquette being six feet below 
 the top of the palisading, and four feet three inches 
 below the upper riband. As an obstacle in flanked 
 works, it is best placed at the foot of the counter- 
 scarp ; the points being twelve inches below its crest, 
 
 or else covered by a small glacis. In this position 
 the palisading fulfills all the conditions of an efficient 
 obstacle ; it is under the fire of the work ; covered 
 from the enemy's fire ; will not afford a shelter to 
 the enemy ; and cannot be cut down without great 
 difficulty. An inclined palisading, [as shown in the 
 drawing, is sometimes placed in an advanced posi- 
 tion in front of an ordinary trench to secure it from 
 surprise. This was done to secure a line of trench 
 at the seige of Fort Wagner. The palisading was 
 made at the depot in panels of four or five palisades, 
 cut from pine saplings Tar3'ing from four to eight 
 inches in diameter, those above five inches being 
 split in two, and placed with the bark side upwards. 
 The spaces between the palisades were left onl)' small 
 enough to prevent a man forcing his bodj' through 
 them. See AcreMnry Means nf Defence, and Stockade. 
 PALL.— In Heraldry, the upper 
 part of a saltire conjoined to the 
 lower part of a pale. It appears 
 much in the arms of ecclesiastical 
 sees. 
 
 PALLISERBOLT.— A screw bolt 
 for .securing armor-plates. The 
 end upon which the screw-thread 
 is cut is larger than the sh;ink. See Units. 
 
 PALLISER GUN.— Major Palliser, of the British 
 Service, describes his manner of making a gun to 
 consist in introducing into a cast-iron gun a barrel 
 or hollow cylinder of coiled wrought-iron, of such 
 thickness in ])ro|)ortioii to its calilicr, that the resi- 
 duiil strain borne by the tube shall have a relation 
 
 PalL
 
 ■^ E 
 
 N 
 
 
 .1 Ss) 
 
 [ 
 
 
 
 \. 
 
 
 3 C.
 
 PALLIBEK PROJECTILES. 
 
 473 
 
 PALM. 
 
 to the fltrain it transinits to llic surroiimJini; cast- 1 
 iron, wlii<-li sliiill be most suiUtbly pr(i|)i)rti(iiii-il to 
 their respective elastieitiefl. Tlie |)reeiH(^ proportionH • 
 will (lejiend on various ('irciinistunccs, viz: the ex- j 
 cessive expansion of wroufjlit-iron ducr to heat, also 
 the t;reater rani^e lietween tlie limits of eUislieily and j 
 rupture of this metal, anil that the eastinm will have 
 to do nearly all the l(in;;itudinal worU. liy varying 
 the thiekniss of the tube, the transmitted strains 
 ran be n'i;ulated with the' greatest nieety. 
 
 The mi'lhod of construction is very simple. The 
 gun having bei-n bored, a coiled wrought-iron tube 
 is inserted, as shown in the drawing. The tube con- 
 sists of two thin wrought-iron liarnOs, the outer one 
 being much shorter tlian the inner one. and shrunk 
 to it at the breech-c'nd. Two are used tor the pur- 
 pose of obtaining the benelit of the tension, and also 
 to break the contiauity of any internal fracture. The 
 
 from the center of gravity, and llin Rame diRtance 
 apart on all projectilen for the same gun. The bear- 
 ing of the projectile i»on the Htiids alone. The solid 
 shot are constructed on the plan of .Major Palliser, 
 formerly of the Hoyal Artilliry, and are designed 
 especiafly for the penetration of armor. They con- 
 sist, as shown in th(^ drawing, of the /wdy IJ, from 
 (/)) to (/>'): of the /laid II, fro.Ti (//) to C//;; the fatit// 
 C; the stneh S; the ncreir.plhf/l\ with its //uii/iing(p); 
 and two rxtr'irl'tr-hidiH, one shown at E. The es- 
 sential feature of this [irojcctile is that the body is 
 east in a sand mold and the head in one of metal. 
 J$y this means, the head is chilled white nearly to 
 the center, and acipiircs the pro[irrties iii intense 
 hardness, crushing strength, brittleness, and hi'.rh 
 dc-nsity. Hardness here relates to the rigidity of 
 actual particles, and crushing strength to the rigid 
 conneclion or building up of particles so as to resist 
 
 tube is made to slightly taper, and the bore of the 
 gun is tapered correspondingly; the tube is jjlaced 
 in the li(}re, and as soon as it comes m contact 
 throughout its length, a screw-locking ring. A, which 
 lakes against a shoulder on the tube, is screwed into 
 the muzzle, and sets the tube home ; and since in 
 praeties it has been found that the elasticity of tlie 
 wrought-iron inner lube is not proportioned to its 
 greater elongation, the deticiency is supjilied by 
 putting the tube under slight compression, which is 
 elTi-cled by permanenlly stretching the wrought-iron 
 in the gun by heavy proof-charges. The tube is 
 further secured in the gun by means of a screw which 
 passes through the cast-iron shell a short distance be- 
 fore the trunnions at right angles to the bore, and 
 screws into the tube. 
 
 In the larger guns Captain Palliscr proposes to use 
 two or more concentric tubes. In the very largest 
 guns he proposes three tubes, the inner one to be of 
 tlie softest and most ductile wrought-iron ; the next 
 may be of a stronger and harsher nature ; the third 
 of steel for some distance in front of tiie chamber. 
 The system is being applied in the United States, 
 and with most promising results, in the conversion 
 of 10" Rodman guns into 8" rifles. In these guns 
 the rifling consists of fifteen grooves and lands of 
 equal width, with a uniform twist of one turn in 
 forty feet. The shape of the groove is flat. The 
 center of gravity is, b\' this alteration, thrown in 
 front of the axis of the trunnions. This renders a 
 special elevating apparatus necessarj-. The rifle 
 thus obtained, though giving to a projectile a less 
 muzzle velocitj' than does the 10" smooth-bore, has, 
 on account of the increased weight of shot, greater 
 penetrating power at all ranges, being doubled at 
 s:mie and trebled at others. Its accuracj' is three 
 times greater and the capacity of its shell twice that 
 of the original gun. See Built-up Guns. Converted 
 (ri/ni, and Ordnance. 
 
 PALLISER PROJECTILES.— The French and Wool- 
 wich systems ilitTer only in the form and position of 
 the studs. and the material of whieli they are made; 
 in each system, the number of buttons varies with 
 the size of the gun, there being, however, always 
 one set for each groove in the piece. The body of 
 these projectiles is made of cast-iron : the form is 
 cylindro-ogival. The studs, of an alloy of copper 
 and tin, are secured to the projectile by beingpressed 
 into undercut holes; their shape differs with the 
 kind of rifling employed. Two studs to each groove 
 are used for all guns smaller than 12 inches \p cali- 
 ber, and, except for cored shot, are at equal distances 
 
 [ their being forced in upon each other. The deficien- 
 ' cy of the heail iii tenacity is met by the form given 
 ) to it. The body of the projectile, being cast in sand, 
 has greater tenacity than the head; a sounder casting 
 is ensured; and the metal is rendered much less sub- 
 ject to the action of the mf)lecular forces which may 
 either split it in store, or crack it so as to cause rup- 
 ture intheboreof the gun; the presence of the cavity 
 also reduces this liability, and 
 adds to the strength of the pro- 
 jectile, as it is very diflicult to 
 obtain a solid casting from such 
 a metal, and any defect in this 
 respect would be a source of 
 weakness. The shape of the 
 cavity is especially adapted to 
 the work required. The iron i.s 
 cast aliout the bushing in the 
 base, which is of wrought-iron, 
 as the metal employed. even wIk n 
 cast in sand, is too hard to admit 
 of tool work. The Palliscr Shell also is designed for 
 the penetration of armor, and differs from the shot 
 in construction only, having a larger cavity in order 
 that a bursting-charge may be used. No fuse is em- 
 ployeil, the charge being ignited by the heat pro- 
 duced in the metal on impact. To prevent the explo- 
 sion from taking place before uenetratiou is accom- 
 plished, the interior of the shell is covered with a 
 lacker, and the charge is placed in a woolen bag. 
 The Boxer shrapnel, named from its inventor, em- 
 bodies all the features essential to such a projectile. 
 The charge being at the base, the t<'ndency is, on 
 explosion, to increase the forward velocity of the 
 bullets instead of their lateral spread. See SturitUd 
 Pri))frt>lfs. 
 
 PALM. — That measure of length, originally taken 
 from the width of the hand, measured across the 
 joints of the four lingers. In Greece it was known 
 as palahte. and was reckoned at 3 in., or J of a cubit, 
 which was their standard unit. The Homans-.idopt 
 ed two measures of this name — the one was th( 
 Greek pal'iixte. and was c:illed pnlmu.t minor ; tli( 
 other, which was not introduced till later times, wa: 
 called piilmiis innjr>r, or pahna. and was taken from 
 the length of the hand, being therefore usually es- 
 timated at three times the length of the other. .\t 
 the present day, this measure varies in a most ar- 
 bitrary manner, being different in each country, and 
 occasionally varying in the same. The English palm, 
 when used at all. whirti is seldom, is considered to 
 be the fourth part of an English foot or 3 inches.
 
 PALMER EQUIPMENT. 
 
 474 
 
 PAHIC. 
 
 The following is a list of the most common measures 
 to which the name palm is given : 
 
 Value in Eng. 
 inches. 
 
 Greek palaiste = 3.03375 
 
 Roman ^"im'M, or lesser palm . = 2.9124 
 pnlma, or greater palm . = 8.7373 
 
 English palm (J- of a foot) . . = 3.0000 
 Hamburg palm ({ of a foot) . . = 3.7633 
 Amsterdam "round" palm . . = 4.1200 
 '•diameter" palm . . = 11.9687 
 
 EolSbaXaTm} P-perly the ..«V«...^ 3.9371 
 Spanish Palm, or prttoo OTo/'jr . . = 8.3450 
 •' " oxpalmo minor . =. 2.7817 
 
 Portuguese palm, orT^cr/morfc Craveira^ 8.6616 
 In Germany and in the low countries the palm is 
 
 feneraUy confined to wood-measurement, while in 
 'ortugal it used to be the standard of linear meas- 
 ure. 
 
 PALMER EQUIPMENT.— The Equipment, invent- 
 ed by Lieutenant George H. Palmer, of the U. S. 
 Army, consists of carrying-braces, coat-straps, knap- 
 sack, and haversack — the whole weighing 'A^ pounds. 
 The haversack, which is a little smaller than the 
 knapsack, is carried on the rightside, th^ knapsack 
 on the left side The carrying-braces consist of a 
 back-pad and double shoulder-straps — two straps 
 for each shoulder. The shoulder-straps are attached 
 to the back-pad by rivets, so as to be movable on 
 their fastenings. The back-pad gives additional 
 bearing-surface for the weight carried. Its shape 
 enables the shoulder-straps to be attached in such a 
 manner as to separate them on the back and should- 
 ers. The back-pad, in connection with the should- 
 er-straps, prevents the weight carried from pulling 
 directly downward on the shoulders, instead of 
 which it tends to pull toward the center of the back 
 by means of a pad supporting a portion of the weight. 
 Two straps are attached to the front ends of each 
 shoulder-strap, for supporting the front corners of 
 the bags, the waist-belt, and cartridge-boxes. To 
 the back-pads are fastened rings which hold the 
 blanket-straps. Two straps are attached to the pad 
 for supporting the rear corners of the bags. On 
 these straps is a double loop, which may be moved 
 down or up, for the purpose of drawing the bags to- 
 gether at the back, or to permit them to hang at the 
 sides. A strap looped at each end is on the blanket- 
 straps and passes underneath the straps supporting 
 the bags, for the purpose of holding the blanket 
 more firmly in place when marching at double time. 
 At the bottom of the bags are straps with buckles 
 for diawing the bags together at the back and to re- 
 tain them more firmly in place. 
 
 PALUDAMENTUM.— A military mantle, worn by 
 the ancient Romans, differing little, if at all, from 
 the Chlamj-s. It was worn by the otficers and prin- 
 cipal men iu the time of war, who were therefore 
 called Paludiiti, and this distinguished them from the 
 common soldiers, who, because they wore the Saguin. 
 were caWvd the fSrigat). The Paludamtntum, which 
 was generally white or red. came down to the knees or 
 lower, was open in front, hung loosely over the 
 shoulders, and was fastened across the chest by a 
 clasp. Also written Pnli/r'imditiim. 
 
 PALY. — A term used in Heraldry, to signify di- 
 vision into four or more e(iual parts by perpendicular 
 lines, and of two different tinctures disposed alter- 
 liatcl>. See Pale. 
 
 PAN. — 1. That part of the lock of a musket, pis- 
 tol, etc., which holds the priming powder, the neces- 
 sity <if which is sujxTseded by the use of percussion- 
 caps. 2. The distance wliii^li is comprised between 
 the angle of the cpaule and tlie Hanked angle in a 
 fortification. 3. In military history, one wlio was 
 Lieutenant General to JlrwcMuK and his Indian ex- 
 pedition. He is recordc'd to have been the first 
 author of a general .shout, which tlie Grecians prac- 
 ticed in the beginning of their outsets in battle. 
 
 FANACHX. — A plume worn upon the crest of an 
 ancient helmet. The term is now commonly applied 
 to any militarj' plume or feather. 
 
 PANCARTE.— An ancient exercise or tournament, 
 which was performed in the Roman Amphitheater, 
 when strong, athletic men were opposed to all sorts 
 of enraged animals. 
 
 PAN COUPE. —The short length of parapet by which 
 the salient angle of a work is sometimes <-ut off. 
 
 PANDOURS. — A people of Servian origin who lived 
 scattered among the mountains of Hungary, nearthe 
 village of Pandour in the county of Sohl. The name 
 used to be applied to that portion of the light-armed 
 infantry iu the Austrian service which is raised in the 
 Slavonian districts on the Turkish frontier. The 
 Pandours originally fought under the orders of their 
 own ])roper cliief , who was known as Harun-Basha, 
 and rendered essential service to the Austriaus dur- 
 ing the Spanish war of succession, and afterward in 
 the Seven Years War. They originally fought after 
 the fashion of the "free lances," and were a terror 
 to the enemy whom they annoyed incessantly. Their 
 appearance was exceedingly picturesque, being some- 
 what oriental in character, and their arms consisted 
 of a musket, pistols, a Hungarian saber, and two 
 Turkish poniards. Their habits of brigandage and 
 cruelty rendered them, however, as much a terror 
 to the people they defended as to the enemy. Since 
 1750 they have been gradually put under a stricter 
 discipline and are now incorporated with the Aus- 
 trian frontier regiments. 
 
 PANIC. — A term employed where fear, whether 
 arising from an adequate or inadequate cause, obtains 
 the mastery over every other consideration and mo- 
 tive, and urges to dastard extravagance, or hurries 
 into danger or even unto death. An inexplicable 
 sound causes a rush from a church, a vague report 
 in the market-place causes a run on a bank, and pre- 
 cipitate the very events that are dreaded. This 
 emotion either differs from natural apprehension, or 
 presents so intense and uncontrollable a form of the 
 feeling, that it is propagable from one person to an- 
 other, and involves alike the educated and ignorant 
 — those who act from judgment as well as those who 
 act from impulse. There are, besides this feature, 
 several grounds for believing that such manifesta- 
 tions of involimtary terror are of morbid origin, and 
 should be regarded as moral epidemics. They have 
 generally arisen during, or have followed, seasons 
 of scarcity and of phj'sical want and disease, the 
 ravages of war or periods of great religious fervor 
 and superstition. The dancing mania, the retreat of 
 the French Army from Moscow, and recent and 
 familiar commercial panics afford illustrations of 
 certain of these relations. The most notable in- 
 stance of universal panic, and that which demon- 
 strates most aptly the connection here indicated, is 
 the dread of the approacliingend of the world which 
 pervaded all minds, and almost broke up human 
 society, in the 10th century. The Empire of Charle- 
 magne had fallen to pieces ; public misfortune and 
 civil discord merged into miser}- and famine so ex- 
 treme that cannibalism prevailed even in Paris ; 
 superstitions and vague predictions became for- 
 malized into a prophecy of tlie end of all things and 
 universal doom in the year 1000- This expectation 
 suspended even vengeance and war. The "Truce 
 of God" was proclaimed. Enormous riches were 
 placed upon the altars. Worship and praise never 
 ceased. The fields were left uncultivated ; serfs 
 were set free ; four Kings and thousanils of Nobles 
 retired to the cloister ; and all men, according to 
 their tendeiieies, prepared to die. It is worthy of 
 note that during all iiestilenres there have arisen 
 epidemic terrors, not so much of the devastations of 
 disease, as of plots and poisonings directed by the 
 rich against the poor. Even where these epidemic 
 terrors are legitimately traceable to local and 
 ])hysiml causes, as in the case of the singular 
 affection timoria, which occurs in the marshy and
 
 FAItNELS. 
 
 475 
 
 PAF£B AMMUNITION FOB SMALL ABM8. 
 
 unhcaltliy districta in Saniinin, thf tremor and 
 trcpidatinn, iiiid iilliir phciuiiiiena, arc asi-ribeil to 
 the inaixi'al iiilhiciKM' (if iTiciiiicH. 
 
 PANNELS. Ill arlillcry, llic carriagr's upon whicli 
 mortars and their beds arc eonveyed on a march. 
 
 PANNIERS.— 1. Shields of -basket work formerly 
 used liv archers, who set tlicni up in front during bat- 
 tle. 2. Wicker baskets of various slia|)es. usually slung 
 in pairs over the back of a pack-animal to carry a 
 load. Also leather bags used in the .tame way; and 
 especially the cases used for carrying medicines. See 
 J'ai'k-Mi'li/lr. 
 
 PANONCEAU.--An ancient name for an ensign or 
 banner. 
 
 PANOPLY. — Complete armor or defense ; a full suit 
 of defensive armor. 
 
 PANTAGRAPH PANTOGRAPH.— An instrument 
 for copying maps and oIIht drawings. Its invention 
 is ascriiied to t'liristophcr Scheiner, a .Jesuit, in 1003. 
 It has since nndergon(^ various niodilications and 
 improvements. Jt usually consists (Fig. Ijof four 
 metallic rules, jointed two and two. and perforated 
 with holes, a tracer, a pencil or picker ; and a screw 
 or point which is forced into the drawing-board or 
 table to hold the instrument in position. For use, 
 the rules arc secured to each other by inserting 
 thumb-screws through the holes corresjionding with 
 the scale to which the drawing is to ije reduced or 
 enlarged. The micropantagraph,U8ed for copying 
 
 copy. To remedy tlieRC defects, the pantagraph liati 
 been constructeil in a variety of forms, all of which, 
 however, like the one described, depend upon the 
 principle that the two triangles which liave, for their 
 angular points, the fulcrum the pencil-point and a 
 joint, and the fulcrum, the tracer-ixiint, and a joint, 
 must always preserve their similarity. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows the instrument arranged for use as 
 an accessory to the indicator, to reduce the motion 
 between the cross-head, or any other part of the 
 engine, iii I the indicator.— See 7,'izi/ TimfjK. 
 
 PANTHER.- A term in Heraldry. The panthtr iB 
 borne gardant and incensed, i.f., with (ire issuing 
 from his mouth and ears. 
 
 PANZERBRECKEH.- An ancient small, three-sided 
 poiiiiird. It ligured cons])i(uously at the battle of 
 IJouvines. in 1214. 
 
 PAPEGAI. A popinjay ; a bird made of wood or 
 pasteboard, stuck upon a lance, and used as a mark 
 when practicing with the bow, cross-bow, musket, 
 etc. 
 
 PAPER AMMUNITION FOR SMALL ARMS.— There 
 are two kinds of paper cartridges u^cd in the United 
 Slates Service, the ball-cartridge, made with a single 
 elongated ball, and the blank cartridge. 
 
 Lead balls are made by compression, by means of 
 nnichines for that jiurpose. J'alls thus made are 
 more uniform in size and weight, smoother, more 
 solid, and give more accurate results than cast balls. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 mieriiscopic di«patches, may be described as a system 
 of connected pantagraphic levers, the least of which 
 carries a piece of glass on which the original is re- 
 duced in a proportion determined by the relation be- 
 tween the lengths of the longer and shorter arms of 
 the series. The glass rests and moves upon a 
 diamond-point while the point remains stationary. 
 The diamond may be raised or lowered by ap- 
 propriate mechanism, to regulate the width and 
 depth of the cut, or entirely remove it from the glass. 
 With an instrument of this kind the Lord's Prayer 
 
 has been written within the space of 
 
 , of a 
 
 square inch. In the same ratio the whole o' the Old 
 and New Testament would be contained within -^V of 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 a square inch. The defects of the instrument are its 
 weight and the ditliculty of rendering it perfectly 
 mobile, both of which prevent that steady motion of 
 the tracer which is necessary for making an accurate 
 
 Tiie lead is first cast into round cylindrical bars, .58 
 inch in diameter for the calber ..08, and 21 inches 
 long, and then rolled to .46 inch in diameter ; length, 
 2.5 i'ncues. These bars are fed to the machine, which 
 cuts off a part sufficient for one ball and transfers it 
 to a die, in which the ball is formed, with cavity 
 and rings, the surplus metal being forced out in 
 a thin belt around the ball in the direction of 
 its axis. The balls are trimmed by hand, with a 
 knife, and are then passed tlirough a cylinder-gauge 
 of the proper size. One man can make with the 
 machine 30,000 balls in ten hours, the bars of lead 
 being prepared for him. One man can cast 1..500 
 bars' in ten hours, and can trim and roll 2.0t)0 bars 
 in ten hours. A boy can trim and gauge .^.OOO 
 in 10 hours. Bullet-molds are provided to 
 cast balls where the pressed Ijalls cannot be 
 liad. The mold is so constructed as to trim 
 the balls t)y a single operation before they 
 are taken from the mold. To grease the balls, 
 place them on their bases on a tin frame 
 capable of holding /50 balls, and immerse 
 it in a melted mixture of one part of tallow 
 and eiffht of beeswa.x, kept warm, until the 
 cylindrical part of the ball is covered. Re- 
 move the frame and let it stand till thegrease 
 hardens. Three frames are required for each 
 boy. 
 
 The paper is first cut into strips of a width 
 equal to the length of a trapezoid, using the 
 pattern as a gufde. The paper and ruler are 
 kept from moving by means of a lever, one 
 end of which is fixed and the other is moved 
 by the foot by means of a cord and treadle. The 
 knife is held in both hands. From six to eight reams 
 maybe cutat a time m this way. A cutting-machine 
 like that used by book-binders facilitates the operju-
 
 PAFEB AMMUNITION FOE SMALL ARMS. 
 
 476 
 
 PAPER AMMUNinON FOE SMALL-AEM8. 
 
 tion when many hands are employed. When only 
 a knife and ruler are used, about 13 sheets are cut at 
 a time. 
 
 The following implements are required by each 
 workman when making the cartridges : 
 
 Two biyxex to hold cylinders. 20 inches long, 8 
 inches wide, and 4 inches liigh, in the clear, made of 
 ^-inch boards, without a cover ; they are placed on 
 their sides, their backs inclined against the partition 
 in the middle of the cartridge-table, the front resting 
 on cleats nailed to the table ; 1 former, cylindrical, 
 of hard wood, of the same diameter as the ball, 6 to 
 7 inches long, one end pointed almost as much as 
 the ball, and marked with a shallow groove 4 inches 
 from the end ; 1 xnbot or frame, tacked to the table, 
 to hold balls, placed at tlie left hand of the boy ; 1 
 spool ofthreiid. turning on a vertical spindle tixed in 
 the table near the balls ; 1 choking-slring, made of 
 four or live cartridge-threads twisted together, abovit 
 9 inches long, with a wooden toggle at \\xe end, fas- 
 tened to the edge of the table at the right hand of 
 the boy; 1 knife blade, li inch long, hooked, driven 
 into the front of the table below and near the choke- 
 string. 
 
 To form the cylinder, lay the trapezoids on the 
 table with the sides perpendicular to the bases, to- 
 ward the workman, the broad end to the left. Take 
 the former in the right hand and lay it on a trape- 
 zoid, the groove in flie former against the right edge 
 of the paper, bringing the poinled end ^ inch from 
 the broad end of tfie paper ; envelop the former with 
 the paper ; then, with the lingers of the left hand 
 laid flat upon the paper, turn the former and roll 
 all the paper upon it ; hold it firmly with the 
 left hand and, with the choking-stringin the right, 
 take one turn around the cylinder at about \ inch 
 from the end ; hold the former firmly in the left hand 
 and draw gently upon the choking-string, pressing 
 at the same" time with the left forefinger upon the 
 projecting end of the cylinder, thus folding it neatly 
 
 inder on it. on a second trapezoid ; put a ball over 
 the end of the former ; roll the paper on the former 
 and the ball ; hold the cylinder in the left hand and 
 choke and fie it as thus described for the inner cylin- 
 der; withdraw the former, pressing the cylinder with 
 the left hand, and place it in the box. 
 
 The following implements are required to fill the 
 cylinder: 
 
 One charger, made of a cylinder of wood or brass 
 pierced with two holes through its length, holding 
 the exact charge of powder ; a funnel attached to 
 one end of the cylinder, and a discharge pipe to tho 
 other. Tlie holes in the cylinder are inade to com- 
 nnmicate and shut oft, alternately, from the funnel 
 holding the powder, and the discharge-pipe at the 
 lower end. by a reciprocating motion given to the 
 cylinder by the hands. Fill the funnel with powder, 
 insert the discharge-pipe in a cartridge, holding the 
 charger in both hands, and turn the cylinder ; the 
 charge of powder is deposited in tlie cartridge ; in- 
 sert the pipe in the next, and turn the cylinder in the 
 opposite direction, and continue in the same way 
 for all the rest. Cartridges may be filled with a 
 copper charger made to hold the exact charge, pour- 
 ing the powder by means of a small funnel, which is 
 inserted in the cartridge. 
 
 To pinch the cartridge, take it in the right hand, 
 strike it lightly on the table to settle the powder; 
 flatten the empty part of the cylinder and bend it 
 flush with the top of the powder at right angles to 
 the cartridge, the oblique side of the trapezoid on 
 top, the cartridge standing vertical on the table; fold 
 the flattened part in the direction of its length, with 
 two folds from the exterior, meeting in the middle ; 
 bend this folded end back on itself and strike it on 
 the table to set the folds. 
 
 The following utensils are required to bundle the 
 cartridges : — 1 Tiox without ends or top, width equal 
 to five times the diameter of the ball, height equal to 
 twice that diameter, and length that of the cartridge. 
 
 Cabtkidges for Small-arms. 
 
 Kind of cartridge . 
 
 Kind of iirni.. 
 
 Caliber inclies . 
 
 _ ,, (Diameter inches. 
 
 "^" \ Weigllt grains . 
 
 Charge of powder do . 
 
 f Htinht inches. 
 
 Trapezoid < Long basse do . 
 
 (short base do . 
 
 Number of trapezoids in one sheet 
 
 fLength inches. 
 
 ,,. J Width do . 
 
 v\ rapper < Number in one sheet 
 
 (color 
 
 Thread for I.UOO ounces. 
 
 Weight of 10 cartridges do . 
 
 ( Length inches. 
 
 BundlesoflO -^Wirtth do . 
 
 (I3cpth do . 
 
 . ,• , fLength do . 
 
 f or 1,6a) cartridges. I wmtn................. ao . 
 
 Weight of box packed pounds. 
 
 Color of box 
 
 fljength inches. 
 
 Packing-box for 1,000 1 WiiUh do . 
 
 balls. 1 Depth do . 
 
 l^Wiight pounds. 
 
 Expanding-ball. 
 
 .58 
 .5775 
 500 
 60 
 4.12 
 4.0 
 2.5 
 16 
 9 
 
 6.5 
 6 
 Ordinary, 
 color. 
 
 .5 
 13.5 
 2.6 
 2.9 
 1.15 
 14.75 
 10.75 
 6.38 
 98 
 
 Olive 
 
 8.25 
 8.25 
 5 
 73 
 
 ..58 
 .577i 
 450 
 50 
 4.12 
 4.0 
 2.5 
 16 
 9 
 
 6.5 
 6 
 Red.... 
 
 13 
 2.5 
 2.9 
 
 1 15 
 
 Gray . . . 
 8.25 
 8.25 
 4.25 
 59.5 
 
 Blank. 
 
 .58 
 
 60 
 3.75 
 4.16 
 2.2 
 
 24 
 
 Ordinary. 
 
 15.5 
 11.0 
 6.25 
 
 Olive.. 
 
 Elongated ball. 
 
 .58 
 .5775 
 450 
 40 
 4.1 
 4.0 
 2.5 
 
 1 • 
 f.5 
 6 
 Blue 
 
 .5 
 
 12.5 
 
 2.4 
 
 2.9 
 
 1.15 
 
 Yellow. 
 5.25 
 5 
 
 4.25 
 59.5 
 
 K 
 
 .44 
 .46 
 216 
 30 
 2.75 
 3.25 
 1.6 
 30 
 8 
 
 6.5 
 6 
 Ordinary 
 
 .5 
 6 
 
 S.3 
 
 2.0 
 
 .85 
 
 13.1 
 
 4.6 
 
 3.6 
 
 28.5 
 
 Olive ... 
 
 .38 
 .39 
 145 
 17 
 2.4 
 2.5 
 1.6 
 40 
 7.5 
 4,9 
 12 
 Blue... 
 
 .5 
 5 
 
 2.20 
 1.9 
 .85 
 10.5 
 3.8 
 3.25 
 16.5 
 Blue.. . . 
 
 K 
 
 .54 
 .56 
 475 
 50 
 3 
 
 3.25 
 2.25 
 24 
 10 
 6.8 
 4 
 Ordinary. 
 
 .6 
 13.5 
 2.6 
 2.5 
 
 1.1 
 14.7'5 
 8.9 
 6.2 
 
 78 
 
 Olive. 
 
 down upon the end of the former. Having choked 
 the cylinder close, carry it to the right side, and 
 with the thread in tlie right hand, take two half- 
 hitches firmly iiround the p:irt that has been choked ; 
 cut the ttirciid on the knifc-lilade anil press thi^ choke 
 in a cavity in the table; place the former with a cyl- 
 
 It is tacked to the table, the sides parallel to and 
 near the edge of the table. 
 
 I'ut a wrapi>ir in the box, the long side perpen- 
 diciilar to the edge of the table, the middle of the 
 ]iaper in the middle of the box; parallel lo the side8 
 of the box, two tiers of cartridges of 5 each, the baU<t
 
 PAPER8HELL. 
 
 477 
 
 FABABOLA. 
 
 altcriiiitiiiij;; briiij; llxt short ends of Uu- paper to- 
 Hi'lliir 1111(1 fold them twice cIoHo down on the cur- 
 tridiri s; insert a piicUago of Ciiprt in llic end of the 
 ImiidU' next to the ends of the lower tier; fold the 
 wrapper on the ends and tie the bundle, lirst in the 
 direction of the lenj^th, then its breadtli, with the 
 twine fiLslencd in a single-bow knot. 
 
 When niakin;; blank carlridi;es, cut the paper into 
 trapezoids, as for llie ball-carl rid;;es; roll the trape- 
 zoid on tlic former one turn, fold down this much of 
 the paper on the head of tlnr former with the left 
 hand; roll the rest of the papiT; fold down the rest 
 of tlie iiaper; touch the fold with a little paste on the 
 finLi;cr; press the end of the informer on a ball im- 
 bedded in the table for the purpose; remove the 
 cylinder from the former: place ii in a box lo dry. 
 Fill lh(^ cylinders, as dcscribnl. for ball-carlriilL'es. 
 
 Halls are packed in boxes with tow or saw-dust, to 
 prevent their bruising. The boxes arc made of 1- 
 inch boards, and contain 1,000 balls. They arc mark- 
 ed on both ends with the number and kind of balls, 
 and on the inside of the cover with the place and 
 dale of fabrication. The cover is fastened with six 
 2-inch screws, and the l)oxes must be hooped with 
 iron for transportation. They are not painted. 
 
 TIk' c'lp for small-arms is made of copper. It is 
 very slightly conical, with a rim or Han^e at the open 
 end: it has four slits, cxiendinj; about half the height 
 of the cap. The cap is charg<'d with J'lilminate of 
 mercHry, mixed with half its weight of niter, the ob- 
 ject of the niter being to render the fulminate less 
 explosive and to give body to the 11am<'. To protect 
 the percussion-]iowdcr from miiislurc, and alsoto se- 
 cure it from falling out, it is covered over, in each 
 cap, with a tlrop of pure shellac varnish. 'I'hi' cop- 
 per for making tfie cops is obtained in sheets 48 inches 
 long and 14 inches wide, weighing 3 pounds; a vari- 
 ation of 4 ounces, more or less, is allowed. The cop- 
 per should be pure, free from seams, holes, or blis- 
 ters, well annealed, and as evenly rolled as possible, 
 with straight and smooth edges. The copper is 
 cleaned by immersion in a pickle made of one part 
 .( by measure ) of sulphuric acid and forty parts wa- 
 ter; it is scoured with line sand and a hand-brush, 
 and washed in running water; after which it is well 
 dried in clean saw-dust and rubbed over with a cloth 
 slightly oiled; it is then ready for the machine. See 
 Afufnfin''ti(ni. 
 
 PAPERSHELL.— A species of fireworks, in the 
 shape of an ordinary shell made of paper, tilled with 
 decorative pieces, and tired from a mortar. It con- 
 tains a small bursting charge of powder, and has a 
 fuse regulated to ignite itvvhen tiie shell reaches the 
 summit of its trai'ectory. " 
 
 PAPER- TESTER.— A machine for ascertaining the 
 strength of v:irious papers. The drawing shows 
 such a contrivance with the following: 
 
 DLMESSIONP. ADAPTATION. 
 
 Extreme lieight S ft. Tensile specimens 12 in. long 
 
 Extreme lenclli I ft. by 1 jii wide or lees. 
 
 Extreme width 1ft. Capacity 100 lbs. 
 
 Weight 45 lbs. 
 
 A weight balance indicates the strain. There are 
 no loose weights. A weighing beam can be substi- 
 tuted for a spring balance if desired. When the 
 specimen is secured, the wheel at the end of the 
 machine being turned, causes the mandrel to turn 
 and apply the strain to specimens. The indicator, 
 on the face of the dial, remains stationary at the 
 breaking point. A test can be made with speed and 
 accuracy. The machine is cpiite valuitble in testing 
 the qualities, etc., of papers for the laboratory. See 
 Tfxthif! Mofiiinr. 
 
 PAPER TIME FUSE.— A fuse consisting of a cylin- 
 dric:d column of burning composition packed'in a 
 paper case, gradually increasing in thickness from 
 its lower to its upper or outer extremity : to insure 
 ignition, it is primed with ritie-powder at the larger 
 end. It is inserted at the time of loading the-piece 
 into a brass or wooden plug previously driven into 
 
 the fuse-hole of the shell. The comprmilion has the 
 same ingredients as gunjiowder, the proportions 
 being varied to suit the required rate of combustion; 
 I pure meal, poirdfr 'ii}\t-» the quickest eomposilif)n; by 
 adding certain pro|)orlions of sulphur and nitir, the 
 composition burns more slowly. The rate of burn- 
 ing also depends upon tlie density of the composition 
 
 rajuT ti'ster. 
 
 and the purity and thorough mixture of the ingredi- 
 ents. These fuses vary in length, burning from 4 to 
 40 seconds: they are graduated in seconds on the 
 outside of the case, ami can be cut to a length cor- 
 respondiuLT to any time of Hight. See Ftme. 
 
 PAPIER MACHE.— From the extension of the ap- 
 plications fif papier-miiche in the lal)oratory, modi- 
 fications have taken place in its composition, .:ud 
 it is now of three kinds— 1st, the true kind, made of 
 paper pulp; 3d, sheets of paper pasted together after 
 the manner of pasteboard, but submitted to far 
 greater pressure : and 3d, sheets of thick millboard 
 cast from the pulp are also heavily pressed. The 
 terra papier-mache is in tr:ide held to apph- rather to 
 the articles made of the pulp tlian to the pulp itself; 
 and a vast manufacture has sprung up during the 
 present century, p;irticularly in Birmingham, in 
 which a great variety of articles of use and ornament 
 are made of tliis material. They are coated with 
 successive layers of asphalt varnish, which is acted 
 upon by heat in ovens until its volatile pa-'ts are dis- 
 sipated, and it becomes hard, and capable of receiv- 
 ing a high polish. The tine surface which can be 
 given to the asphalt v.arnish also permits of burnished 
 gilding and other decorative applications with excel- 
 lent effect. 
 
 PAPILIO. — A square Roman tent for eight men. 
 
 PAPYROGRAPHY.— A term applied to a modified 
 process of photolithography for enlarging copies of 
 maps, which is considered lo possess certain ad- 
 vantages for use ill the field. The process is carried 
 out b}- means of an ink invented by Captain Abney, 
 which is not greasy, and drawings made with which 
 upon ordinary paper might be transferred to stone 
 or zinc, for the reproduction of topographical maps 
 and military sketches. This invention Las been in- 
 troduced into the British Army. 
 
 PARABOLA. — One of the conic .sections, produced 
 by a plane not passing through the vertex, which 
 cuts the cone in a direction parallel to that of a plane 
 touching the convex surface of the cone. A little 
 consideration will show that a section so produced 
 cannot be a closed curve, but its two branches, 
 though continually widening out from each other, 
 do not diverge so rapidly as in the hyperbola. The
 
 PARACHUTE. 
 
 478 
 
 PARACHUTE LIGHT. 
 
 nearer the cutting plane is to that toucliLng the cone, 
 the less the two "branches diverge; and when the 
 two planes coincide, the branches also coincide, 
 forming a straight line, which is therefore the limit 
 of the parabola. It may otherwise be considered as 
 a curve, every point of which is equally distant from 
 a fixed straiglit line and given point ; the fixed 
 straight line is tailed the direetrix, and the given 
 
 point Ihefijcun. Thus PAP', is a parabola, any point 
 P iu which is equally distant from the focus" S and 
 the directrix CB, or PS = PD. If, from S, a per- 
 pendicular, SE, be drawn to the directrix, and pro- 
 duced backward, this line, AO, is the axis or jtrinci- 
 pal diameter of the parabola, and the curve is sym- 
 metrical on both sides of it. As A is a point iu the 
 parabola, AS = AE, or the vertex of a parabola bi- 
 sects the perpendicular from the focus to the direct- 
 rix. All lines in a parabola which are parallel to the 
 axis cut the curve in only one point and are called dia- 
 meters. All lines, such as PP', which cut the curve in 
 two points, are ordinates, and the diameter to which 
 they are ordinates. is that one which bisects them ; 
 the portion of this diameter which is intercepted 
 between the ordinate and the curve, is the corres- 
 ponding abscissa. Prom the property of the para- 
 bola that PS = PD, the equation to the curve may 
 be at once deduced for PS = PD = EN, therefore 
 PS2 (which = PN2 -f NS2 ) = EN^ ; hence PN^ 
 = EN2 — NS-' = (ES + SN)2— NSa=ES2+ 2 ES. 
 SN = (since ES = 2AS) iAS^ + 4AS.SN = 4AS 
 (AS + SN) = 4AS.AN ; and calling PN, the semi- 
 ordinate, y; AN, the abscissa, x ■, and AS, a; the 
 equation to the parabola becomes y- = 4ax, where 
 a (the distance of the vertex from the focus) remains 
 the same for all points in the same curve. It is evi- 
 dent from the equation, as well as from the geomet- 
 rical derivation of the parabola, that it must have 
 two, and only two branches, and that the further it 
 is extended the nearer its branches approach to the 
 condition of straight lines parallel to the axis, though 
 they never actually become so. The parabola 
 has no asymptotes, like the hyperbola, but it pos- 
 sesses many properties which are common to it with 
 that curve and tlie ellipse. In fact, the parabola is 
 nothing more than an ellipse, whose major axis is 
 infinitely long. If parallel rays of light or heat fall 
 vipon the concave surface of a paraboloidal mirror, 
 they are reflected to the focus, and conversely, if a 
 light be placed in the focus of a paraboloidal reflector, 
 its rays will be retlected in parallel directions, and 
 would appear e(iually bright at all distances did light 
 move without deviation, and uuabsorbed. Also, if a 
 body be projected iu a direction not vertical, but 
 inclined to the direction of gravity, it would, if un- 
 disturbed by the resisting force of the atmos|)here, 
 describe accurately a i)arabola whose axis is vertical, 
 and whose vertex is the liighesi point reached by the 
 body. The term parabola is used in analysis in a 
 general sense, to denote that class of curves in which 
 some power of the ordinate is proportional to a 
 
 lower power of the abscissa. Thus the curve we 
 have just described, and which is distinguished as 
 the cummoH or Apollonian parabola, has the square 
 of its ordinate proportional to its abscissa ; the cubi. 
 cut parabola, has the cube of its ordinate propor- 
 tional to its abscissa ; and the semicuhical parabola 
 has the cube of its ordinate proportional to the square 
 of its abscissa. — See Projectiles and Trajecti/ry. 
 
 PARACHUTE.— A machine invented for the \mx- 
 pose of retarding the velocit}' of descent of any body 
 througli the air, and employed by aeronauts as a 
 means of descending from balloons. It is a gigantic 
 imibrella, strongly made, and having the outer ex- 
 tremities of the rods on which the canvas is stretched, 
 firmly connected by ropes or stays to the lower part 
 of the handle. The handle of the parachute is a 
 liollow iron tube, through which passes a rope con- 
 necting the balloon above with the car (in which are 
 tlie aeronauts and their ajiparatus) beneath, but so 
 fastened, that when the balloon is cut loose, tlie car 
 and parachute still remain connected. AVlien the 
 balloon ascends, the parachute collapses like an 
 umbrella ; but when the balloon rope is severed, and 
 the car begins to descend, the parachute is extended 
 l)y the action of the air, aud prevents the car from 
 acquiring a dangerous velocity of descent ; the final 
 velocity in those cases where the machine is of a 
 size proportioned to the weight it has to support, 
 being no more than would be acquired b}' a person 
 leaping frcm aheight of between two and three feet. 
 But the slightest derangement of the parachute's 
 equilibrium, such as might be caused by a breath of 
 wind, or the smallest deviation from perfect symme- 
 try in the parachute itself, immediately produces an 
 oscillatory motion of the car, having the apex of the 
 parachute as a center, and the oscillations becoming 
 gradually greater and more rapid, the occupants of 
 the car are in most cases either pitched out or are 
 along with it dashed on the grouud with frightful 
 force. This defect in the parachute has been at- 
 tempted to be remedied in various ways, but hither- 
 to without success. The first successful experiment 
 with the parachute was made by Blanchard at Stras- 
 burg in 1787, and the experiment has been often re- 
 peated by Garnerin and others ; very frequently, 
 however, with fatal results. The parachute was 
 employed by Captain Boxer, R.N., as an essential 
 part of his patent light-ball, for discovering the 
 movements of an enemy at night, and was so ar- 
 ranged as to open up when the lighted ball had at- 
 tained its greatest elevation, so as to keep it for a 
 considerable jjeriod almost suspended in the air. 
 
 PARACHUTE LIGHT.— A suspended light invented 
 by General Boxer, It. A., and which is used for the 
 same purposes as ground light-balls, viz.: to light up 
 the enemy's works and working parties. It is pre- 
 ferred to light-balls, as they can be extinguished or 
 their lights hid with a few shovels full of earth, 
 whereas the parachute has the advantage of being 
 out of reach, so it cannot be interfered with. 
 
 The parachute, light consists of two outer and two 
 inner tinned iron hemispheres ; the two outer are 
 lightl)' riveted together, the two upper hemispheres 
 are connected by a chain; the inner upper hemisphere 
 has a depression at the top, to admit the bursting 
 charge and fuse. A quick-match leader conducts 
 the tiash fri>m the bursting charge to the fuse com- 
 position in the lower inner hemisphere. The inner 
 ui)per hemisphere contains the parachute tightly 
 folded up. To insure its opening, a cord is passed 
 between its folds, and through a hole in the top of 
 lh(^ paracthute, and is fastened to the upper inner 
 hemisphere, so that, when the lieiuisphere is blown 
 away, tlie cord is pulled and the ])arachute expaniled. 
 The lower inner hemispliere contains the compo- 
 sition. A hole is bored, and driven with fuse com- 
 position, and matched as usual : this hemisphere is 
 connected with the parachute by cords and chains ; 
 The bursting charge is issued in the iiarachule, the 
 fuse is bored to the requited length and well ham-
 
 FABACHUTE IiaHT-BALL. 
 
 479 
 
 PABALUEL. 
 
 mered in ; tlic piiriicliuli; Dhiccil in llir iiuirliir, and 
 fired. 
 
 Tli(^ nction in furl liiT described iis follows: The 
 fuMe ii;iiiles the Ijiirslini; ciiiiri;e, the outer liemi- 
 spliereH are lilowii iiway, and the inner upper lienn- 
 Bphere, which is cliained (o the outer one. is Ijlown 
 away witli it; the panichuti^ is opened liy tlie cord 
 and e.\|)ands,lhecoiripi]silioM in I he hiwer hemisphere 
 liein^ ignited liy tlie (|uiek-niateh leader, wliicli ig- 
 nites tile fuse eoniposilion, llie eoiuposiliou burning 
 al)out three minutes when tired from the 10-inch mor- 
 tar. 
 
 PARACHUTE LIGHT-BALL.— A thin shell, the up- 
 per half of whieli is blown oil' by the charge at a cer- 
 tain lieight. The lower half, tilled wilh composilion, 
 •wliich is kindled by the e.xiilosion, is ke[)l floating 
 in the air by means <if a small iiaraehute. which is 
 set free when the ujjper half of the shell Hies off. 
 
 FABADE. Tliis word signified in its original sense 
 a prepared ground, and was applied to the court- 
 yard of a castle, or to any inclosed and h'vel plain. 
 From the practice of reviewing troops al such a sjKit, 
 tlie Review itself has acquired the name of I'arade. 
 In its modern military acceptation, a I'ardde is the 
 turning (uit of tlu^ garrison or of a regiment in full 
 equipment, for inspection or evolutions before some 
 superior officer. It is the boast of IJritish troops 
 that tlicir line and discipline are as perfect under an 
 enemy's fire as on the jjarade-ground. Parades are 
 General, Regimental, or Private (Troop, Battery, or 
 Company), according to the strength of the force 
 assembled. See lln.in I'arndr. and I'lidresn Parade. 
 
 PARADE OFFICER. An ollicer who attends to the 
 nnnulia' of regimental duty, but wdio is not re- 
 markable for nnlitary science. 
 
 PARADE ORDER.— When a regiment of horse or 
 foot, a troop or cinnpany, is drawn up with the ranks 
 open and the officers in front, it is said to be in 
 Piifiidf Ordi'r. 
 
 PARADE REST.— A position of rest for soldiers, in 
 which, iiowi:ver, they are required to be silent and 
 motionless ; used specially at parade. Also, the coni- 
 mand for the position. When witlioutarms, to give 
 the men rest, imposing both steadiness of position 
 and silence, the Instructor commands : \. Parade, 3. 
 Rest. 
 
 Carry the ri^ht foot three inches directly to the 
 rear, the left knee sligbtlj' bent ; clasp tlie hands in 
 front of the center of the body, the left hand uppiT- 
 most, the left thumb clasped l)y the thumb and fore- 
 finger of the riglit hand. 
 
 When under arms, and at an order arms, the In- 
 structor commands : 
 
 1. Parade, 2. Rest. 
 
 At last the command rest, carry the muzzle in 
 front of the center of the body, the barrel to the left ; 
 'grasp the piece with the left hand just above, and 
 witli file right hand at the upper band ; carry the 
 right foot three inches straight to the rear, the left 
 knee slightly bent. 
 
 To resume order arms the Instructor commands : 
 1. Squad, 3. Attention. 
 
 1. Carri/, 3. Arms. Raise tlie piece vertically 
 witli the right hand, grasping it at the same time 
 with the left above the right, resume the carry with 
 the right liand, (Two.) Drop the left hand by the 
 side. See Manual of Arms, Fig. 5. 
 
 PARADOS. — Another name for a traverse. It is an 
 intercepting mountl, erected in various parts of a 
 fortification for the purpose of protecting the de- 
 fenders from a rear or ricocliet-fire. 
 
 PARALLEL. — In siege operations, parallels are 
 trenches cut in the ground before a fortress, roughl}' 
 parallel to its defenses, for the purpose of giving 
 cover to the besiegers from the guns of the place. 
 The parallels are usually three, ■^ith zigzag trenches 
 leading from one to another. The old rule used to 
 be to dig the first at (!()() yards distance, but tlie im- 
 provements in artillery have rendered a greater dis- 
 tance necessary; and at Sebastopol, the .VUies made 
 
 tlieir first trench 2,000 yards from tli<! walls. Tho 
 tliird trench is very near to tlie liesieged works, and 
 
 i from it saps and zigzag ajiproaches are directed to 
 file C(jvered-way. The trenches of tlie parallels re- 
 ceive a width at bottom of 10 feet ; tlieir depth in 
 froiit is 'i feet, ami in rear, ',i feet ({ inches. Two 
 
 I steps, each IH inches high anrl \H wide, lead from 
 the biiltom <if the trencli, on tin; front side, to the 
 natural ground. The reverse of the trench receives 
 a slope of 40"; or else, i.s also cut into steps. The 
 steps in front are alone revetted with fascines. Vau- 
 ban, in his ma.vims, prescribes that there shall be at 
 least three parallels, or places-of-arms to be occupied 
 by the troops of the besieging force immediately on 
 duty, with a view to meet any sorties of the garri- 
 son on the besieger's works; anil further, that these 
 parallels should embrace so wide a front as to con- 
 trol all the defenses which bear in any manner upon 
 the ground over which the besiegers will have to run 
 their trenches. 
 
 In Vauban's time, and to within quite a recent 
 day, it was considered that when Hie site was eom- 
 pletc'ly exposed to the fire of the besieged, the first 
 parallel might be l:iid out at about libO yards from 
 the most advanced points of the defenses to be em- 
 braced within it, and concentric with a line Joining 
 these points, and extended so far each way as to 
 guard all the batteries thrown up along its front to 
 silence the fire of the defenses from assaults in front 
 and on eitlier flank of the parallel. The position of 
 the 1st parallel, Vauban makes dependent on the 
 site, as affording more or less of shelter from the 
 fire of the defenses ; and, at the celebrated siege of 
 Sebastopol, the French established their 1st parallels 
 at two separate points, the one at nearly 1000 yards, 
 the other at nearlj' 1800 yards from the defenses; 
 and file English, in their attack, also placed theirlst 
 liarallel at nearly IHOO yards from the defenses in 
 their front. This departure from usaire was owing 
 to the great caliber of the guns and the large quantity 
 of fire of the Russian defenses. Instead of three 
 parallels, the French found it quite necessary to 
 tlirow up as manj- as seven, the nearest of which 
 to the Russian defenses was about 30 yards, when 
 the final open assault was made from it upon the key 
 point of the Russian position. 
 
 The greater range and accuracy of fire of rifled 
 guns will necessarily lead to establishing the first 
 batteries against the di-fenses at much greater dis- 
 tances flian formerly, when smooth bores were alone 
 used ; and assuming the 30-pounder, as the protiable 
 largest ordinary caliber of siege gims for the attack, 
 tile first batteries will probably, in futute sieges, oc- 
 oupy positions at from 2,000 to 3,000 yards from the 
 defenses. These distances will secure for these bat- 
 teries, what is essential for all those of the attack, a 
 good range for destroying the artillery of the de- 
 fenses, and security, if properly guarded, either tiy 
 placing them within strong inclosed works, with 
 sufficient troops to defend the works, or by troops 
 occupying trenches so disposed as to meet a front or 
 flank attack on the batterj'. Anj'thing like a con- 
 tinuous line of parallel would seldom be requisite at 
 this distance, as the garrison would hardly venture 
 sorties so far from their defenses. Besides which, 
 considering the great extent of front that the bat- 
 teries would have to embrace at this distance, to con- 
 trol all the fire of the defenses, it would require too 
 great a length of continuous entrenchment. 
 
 Tactical considerations require that, in the es- 
 tablishment of Hie successive parallels, the one most 
 advanced should be laid out nearer to the one in its 
 rear, bj- which the workmen completing the former 
 are protected, than to the defenses; so that it can 
 
 1 receive timely succor against an assault upon it by 
 tlie besieged. Considering the first line of batteries 
 and trenches as a 1st parallel, the position of the 2d 
 parallel may be safely placed at 1 .000 yards in ad- 
 vance of it; that is, nearer to it by 100 yards or 
 more than to the defenses. As it is usual to place
 
 PARALLEL FORCES. 
 
 480 
 
 PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES. 
 
 the 3d parallel so near to *.he defenses as to bring the 
 covered ways, or other juost advanced defenses, 
 ■which may be assaulted opcv ly, within range of stone 
 mortars, placed in batteries either within or in front 
 of this parallel ; its position, for this object, should 
 be some GO yards from the salient p(ants of the most 
 advanced portions of the defenses, or as to bring their 
 interior within the range of the stones and othermis- 
 siles thrown from the mortars. 
 
 In giving the 3d parallel this position, there will 
 be a %vide zone of ground between it and the 3d par- 
 allel, over which the approaches connecting these 
 two parallels must be run, which would be very 
 much exposed to the sorties of the besieged, as well 
 as the 3d parallel, were its protection left to troops 
 stationed as a guard in the 2d parallel. To provide 
 protection for these approaches and for the 3d par- 
 allel, whilst in process of construction, ends of 
 trenches, termed dim /-parallels, are run out, on the 
 right and left of the lines of the approaches, far 
 enough to contain sufficient bodies of troops to pro- 
 tect all the men working on the trenches in advance 
 of them from sorties. The positions of the demi- 
 parallels will be regulated by the same tactical con- 
 siderations as those which regulate the positions of 
 the parallels. The length to which they should be 
 extended on the flanks of the approach, will be regu- 
 lated by tlie number of troops that it may be deemed 
 necessary to post within tliem, and also from the con- 
 siderations that they shall not obstruct or be endan- 
 gered by the fire of any batteries to their rear. See 
 ApprowhcK and Siege. 
 
 PARALLEL FORCES.— Those forces which act up- 
 on a body in directions parallel to each other. Every 
 body, being an assemblage of separate particles, 
 each of which is acted upon by gravit_y, may thus be 
 considered as impressed upon by a system of parallel 
 forces. The following demonstration will exhibit 
 
 the mode in which the amount and ihe position of 
 the resultant forces are found : Let P and Q be two 
 parallel forces acting at the points A and B respect- 
 ively, either in the same (Fig. 1) or in opposite 
 (Fig. 2) directions ; join AB, and in this line, at the 
 points A and B, apply the equal and opposite forces 
 S and S, which counterbalance each other, and there- 
 fore do not affect the system. Find M and N, the 
 resultants of P and S. and Q and S respectively, and 
 produce their directionstill they meet in D, at which 
 point let the resultants be resolved ])arallel to their 
 original directions ; then there are two equal forces, 
 S and H, acting parallel to AB. Imt in opposite direc- 
 tions, and thus, as they counterbalance each other, 
 they may be removed. Then there remain t wo forces, 
 P andtj, acting at D, in the line DC, iiarallel to their 
 original directions, and their sum (Fig. 1) or differ- 
 ence (Fig. 2) represented by K, is accordingly the 
 resultant of the original forces at A jind B. To find 
 the position of f', the point in AB, or AB produced, 
 through which the resultant passes, it is necessary to 
 make use of tlie well-known property denominated 
 the triangle nfforcru, according to which the three 
 forces S, M, and P are proportional to the lengths 
 of AC, AD, DC, the sides of tlie triangle ADC ; then 
 S : P :; AC : CD, similarly Q : .S :.- DC : C15, there- 
 fore Q : P :: AC : V.C, and Q P or ]{ : P :: AC > BC 
 or AB : BC, from which proportions we derive the 
 
 prineiole of the lever, P x AC = Q X BC, and also 
 
 P 
 
 that K X BC = P X AB, whence BC = — X AB, 
 
 R 
 
 and the point C is found. The failing case of this 
 proposition is when P and Q acting in opposite par- 
 allel directions at different points are equal, in which 
 case the resultant K := Q — P = Q — Q = 0. In all 
 other cases there is a progressive motion, such as 
 would be caused by the action of a single force R 
 (= Q i P) acting at the point C in the direction of 
 CR ; but in the failing case, since R = 0, there is 
 
 no progressive motion but a rotatory movement 
 round tlie center of AB. It is of no consequence 
 whether A and B be the true points of application 
 of the forces P and Q, provided their directions when 
 produced pass through these points, and the point 
 of application of the resultant need not be in the 
 line joining the points of application of the compo- 
 nent forces, but its direction must, when produced, 
 pass through C. If there be more than two parallel 
 forces, the resultant of the whole is found by com- 
 pounding the resultant of the first two with the third 
 in the way given above, thus obtaining a new resu t- 
 ant, which is similarly combined with the fourth 
 force ; and so on till the final resultant is found. The 
 center of gravity is only a special name for the point 
 of application of the final resultant of a number of 
 parallel forces. See Couple 
 
 PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES.— The fundamental 
 problem in statics is to find the magnitude and di- 
 rection of the resultant of twofoices; in other words, 
 to compound them into a single force, wuich shall 
 be in every respect their equivalent. Intensity and 
 direction being the only elements necessary to en- 
 tirely describe a force, forces in statics are repre- 
 sented by lines, which are obviously capable of 
 being made to represent them both in magnitude 
 and direction. When two forces act along the same 
 straight line on a particle, it is sufBcientlj' obvious 
 that if they act in the same direction, the resultant 
 will be their algebraical sum; if in opposite directions, 
 their algebraical difference. This being premised, 
 the relation between two forces acting at the same 
 point, but not in the same line, and their resultant, 
 is set forth in the following theorem, which is known 
 as the Parallelogram of Forces. If two forces, P, 
 
 Fig. ]. 
 
 Q, acting on aparticle A, be represented in direction 
 and magnitude by the lines .\/), \q, then the re- 
 sultant will be represented in direction and magni- 
 tude by (he diagonal Ar of the parallelogram 
 described upon A/<, A7. The proof of this depends 
 upon the simple princiiiles. that a force may lie sup- 
 posed to act at any point of its direction, that ])oint 
 being conceived to be rigidly attached to the par- 
 ticle on which the force acts ; ami what may be ac-
 
 PABALLEL OBDEB OF BATTLE. 
 
 481 
 
 PABAUETSa. 
 
 cpptcd as ail axiom of univcrHiil cxpcrir'ncc, that 
 ■whi'ii any iiuiiibcr of foiccH arc iiiiprcsmMl on a par- 
 tichr or body, each exerts itself, as if llie others wen; 
 not acting, to produce its full (•IT<'cl. 'I'lie doelriiii^ 
 of th(t parallelogram of fon^es liast,'iveii rise to nim-h 
 controversy, not as to its truth, lint as to ils deriva- 
 tion, some appearing to contend that it is directly 
 deducilile from Ihe axiom above stated, wilhont the 
 necessity of fnrth<T reasoning. Knowmn how to 
 compound two forces actinf; at a point, we arc ab e 
 to componiul or determine the resultant of any num- 
 ber. ]f the forces, thoufjli in the same plane, do not 
 act at the same point of a body, thosi'of lliem whose 
 directions meet may be compounded by Ihe preced- 
 in>,' rule ; if they are parallel, llieir resullanl is a 
 force paralh'l to them and equal to their alf,'eliraical 
 Bum, coimlinij; those acting in om^ direction as 
 po.sitive, and in the oppoHite direction as n<'!;alive. 
 The singidar case is that of equal parallel forces act- 
 int: in opposite direc'tious. These constitute a couple, 
 and caimot be represented by any simple force. 
 
 The resolution of forces is the converse problem. 
 To resolve a ;;ivcn force K, wdiosc direction and maf;- 
 nitude is A;-, into two forces actiiif; in any directions 
 that may I »■ chosen, as AP, AtJ, we have only lu draw 
 
 Fig. a. 
 
 parallels throtigh r, which determine the lines A/), 
 Ay.representing the magnitude of the forces required. 
 It is evident that there is an indefinite number of 
 pairs of forces into which Ar might be resolved, ac- 
 cording to the direction in which the new forces are 
 to net. It is usual, however, to resolve a force into 
 forces that arc at right angles to each other. 
 
 The composition of motions is analogous in every 
 ■way to that of forces ; motions are the results of 
 forces, and the analogy might be expected. If a 
 body be actuated simultancoiisly by two velocities 
 having different directions, it will evidently move in 
 a direction intermediate to the two, and with a ve- 
 locity wdiich will in some way depend on each of 
 them, and which is called their resultant. The 
 proposition wdnch sets forth how to find tlie resul- 
 tant, is called the Parallelogram of Velocities. It is: 
 If two velocities, with which a particle is sunultanc- 
 ously impressed, be represented in direction and 
 magnitude by two straight lines drawn from the par- 
 ticle, the resultant velocity of the particle will be 
 represented in direction and magnitude by the di- 
 agonal of the parallelogram described on those two 
 straight lines. The proof is very simple. There is 
 no reason wliy the full effect of both velocities sho\dd 
 not be produced, as if the body moved first with one 
 of them, and then with the other, in their respective 
 directions. If in one second the body moving with 
 the one velocity would reach /), and if we suppose it 
 then to move on j^r for another second, parallel with 
 the other velocity, it would at the end of the second 
 second be at r. Hence, under their joint influence, 
 it will be at r at the end of one second. The resolu- 
 tion of motions is altogether analogous to that of 
 forces. All the principles of the Parallelogram of 
 
 Forces may be readily illuslrnlcd by the apparatus 
 shown in KiL'Ure 2. Sec Fullinri Hodien. 
 
 PABALLEL OBDEB OF BATTLE. In tactics, the 
 
 natural order of liallle is when IroopH coming upon 
 ordinary ground arc ranged in line of battle by the 
 jirescribiMl tactical means, and when they arc formed 
 in column right in front. 
 
 The parallel order operates on the contrary against 
 lh(' whole front of the ('nemy. Turenne anrl Condo 
 fought habitually in parallel order, allbougb they 
 sometinKm made a skillful use of oblique attacks. 
 (liiiht rl well says that !i contiguous and regular par- 
 allel order can be of no usi- in war. 
 
 The oblique order is contradistinguished from the 
 |)arallcl, and in gcnerid means every tactical com- 
 bination the aim of which is to produce an effect 
 upon two points of an enemy's line by bringing a 
 superior force to bear down on those two points. 
 Such combinations constitute the oblique order, 
 whatever maneuvers nniy be used to accomplish the 
 object. 
 
 PABALLEL EETBE AT.— Great advantages some- 
 times arise in conducting a retreat iiarallel to our 
 frontier, when the topography lends itself to this 
 operation ; as, the enemy, in following up, really 
 gains but little ground in advance. If a retreat of 
 this kind, termed a parallel retreat, is made in the 
 enemy's country, the army subsists at the enemy's 
 expense; the evils of war fall on him; and he is al- 
 most as badly off as if he had not the upper hand. 
 If this retreat takes place within our own frontier 
 we draw after us the victorious army; we force him 
 to move onwards without gaining a foot of ground 
 towards the interior; we abandon to him only our 
 borders, whilst we force him to offer his flank to any 
 force we may have in the interior. But, with all 
 these obvious advantages, we must look out how we 
 attempt anything of the kind in a territory which ia 
 open, and would give the enemy an easy means of 
 cutting us off from our base. Such a retreat, there- 
 fore, requires to be covered by a river, a mountaia 
 chain, or some other obstacle that an enemy cannot 
 cro.ss with safety, to interrupt our communications 
 to the interior. If the parallel retreat is covered by 
 a river,all bridges by wddch the enemy might intercept 
 our communications, or attack in flank, should be 
 timely destroyed, the fords obstructed and guarded. 
 Like precautions are to be taken, when covered by a 
 mountain chain, in occupying the main defiles, and 
 obstructing other less important passes. Our troops 
 should be so disposed as to fall in mass upon any 
 corps of the enemy that attempts to force its way 
 through ; and we shovild not show too much anxiety- 
 respecting any weak body of troops that may have 
 risked a raid upon our rear, as the peril is for it and 
 not for our troops. It will be readily seen that a 
 parallel retreat can only be resorted to with effect 
 along a frontier of some considerable extent. Al- 
 though a frontier of this character is more difficult to 
 guard than one more limited, it presents, on the 
 other hand, the advantages above pointed out, and 
 lends itself well to the defemhe—offimo're on our side, 
 which of itself, in the hands of an able General, is 
 the surest means of success in a defensive war. 
 
 PABALLEL EULEE.—.V draughtsman's instniment 
 consisting of two wooden or metallic blades, so join- 
 ed together by jointed cross-pieces as to open to 
 different intervals and 3-et retain their parallelism, 
 Fig. 1. A still simpler form is a rolling cylinder. 
 Fig. 2, represents a rolling parallel nder, consisting 
 of a flat ruler, and a roller rotatmg in bearing-posts 
 fastened to the ruler. This instrument is very useful 
 for constructing the plans and elevations of fortifica- 
 tions and numerous other military subjects. The 
 illustrations are on pase 482. See Drairing. 
 
 PAEAMETEE.— This term, used in conic sections, 
 denotes, in the case of parabola, a tlurd proportional 
 to the abscissa of anv diameterand its corresponding 
 ordinate: in the ellipse and hyperbola, a third pro- 
 porticnal to a diameter and its conjugate. The par-
 
 PARAPET. 
 
 482 
 
 PAEBUCZLING. 
 
 ameter of any diameter is, in the case of the para- 
 bola, the same as the double ordinate of that diameter 
 which pas5e>i through the focus, and is four times as 
 long as the distance between the diameter's vertex 
 
 '1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 ''"^IDIRS ' 
 
 "iDlni 
 
 m 
 
 'In 
 
 1 
 
 Jlill'i 
 
 Fig. 1. Fig. a. 
 
 and the directrix. The term parameter was also at 
 one time used to denote any straight line about a 
 curve, upon which its form could be made to depend, 
 or any constant in its equation, the value of which 
 determined the individual curve; but its employ- 
 ment in this sense is now discontinued, except in the 
 theory of homogeneous ditf erential equations, where 
 the constants, for the purpose of aiding the solution, 
 are supposed to vary, and the method is consequently 
 denominated the ' ' variation of the parameters." 
 
 PARAPET. — 1. A wall raised higher than the gut- 
 ter of a roof for protection; in domestic buildings, 
 churches, etc., to prevent accident by falling from 
 the roof. Parapets are of very ancient date. The 
 Israelites were commanded to build "a battlement" 
 round their flat roofs. In classic architecture balus- 
 trades were used as parapets. In Gothic architecture 
 parapets of all kinds are used. In early work they 
 are generally plain, but in later buildings they are 
 pierced and ornamented with tracery, which is fre- 
 quently of elaborate design, especially in French 
 flamboyant work. Shields and little arcades are also I 
 
 vised as ornaments to parapets; and the battlements 
 of castles are imitated in the parapets of religiou.s 
 and domestic buildings. 2. In field fortifications the 
 main features are the covering masses of earth of 
 which they are constructed, and which are intended 
 to shelter the assailed from the view and fire of the 
 
 ass^dlant. When the covering mass is so constructed 
 as to afford the assailed a view and fire over the 
 assailant's line of approach, it is termed a parapet. 
 The rifle trench is the simplest form of work. In 
 this, the parapet is formed by throwing the earth 
 from a trench within to the front. The earth thus 
 thrown up, together with the depth of the trench, 
 afl'ords the desired shelter. The troops stand or 
 squat in the trench and deliver their fire over the 
 bank of earth in front. The method of intrenching 
 affords the speediest means of obtaining cover, and 
 is the one resorted to when troops are under fire, or 
 when they intrench their camp or position for a tem- 
 porary stay. Rails, logs, in fact, almost anything at 
 hand may be used as a rough interior revetment for 
 sustaining the earth. For artillery, the trench is 
 made somewhat wider than is necessary for infantrj-. 
 In the more elaborate class of field fortifications, 
 such as the inclosed works of various descriptions, 
 the earth to form the parapet is taken from the ex- 
 terior, thus forming in front of the parapet a ditch 
 which makes a formidable obstacle in the way of an 
 assailant attempting to enter the work by escalade. 
 Having fixed upon the profile, the pick commences 
 the construction of the parapet by breaking ground 
 so far from the counterscarp crest that, by digging 
 vertically three feet, he will arrive at the positioli of 
 the counterscarp. The excavation is carried on at 
 the same depth of three feet, advancing toward the 
 scarp, where the same caution is observed as at the 
 counterscarp. The earth is thrown forward, and 
 evenly spread and rammed, in laj'ers of about twelve 
 inches, from the banquette slope to the exterior 
 slope. For the facility of entering the ditch, whilst 
 working, the offsets at the scarp and counterscarp 
 may be formed into steps with a rise of eighteen 
 inches each; and if the ditch is deeper than six feet, 
 an offset, about four feet broad, should be left at the 
 scarp, about mid-depth of the ditch, to place a relay 
 of shovels to throw the earth on the berm. In some 
 cases, a scaffold of plank is raised in the ditch for 
 the same purpose, ^yhen the ditch has been exca- 
 vated to the bottom, the offsets are cat away, and 
 the proper slope given to the sides. The earth fur- 
 nished by the oft'sets, if not required to complete the 
 parapet, may be formed into a small glacis. If the 
 soil is stony, the vegetable mold on the surface 
 should be scraped off, and reserved to form the top 
 of the parapet, which should be made of earth of this 
 kind, to the depth of at least eighteen inches, to pre- 
 pent injury to the troops from the effect of a shot 
 striking the top, and scattering the pebbles in their 
 faces. In making the parapet, care should be taken 
 to form a drain, at some suitable point, to carry off 
 the water from the interior into the ditch. Tlie wa- 
 ter from the drain should not be suffered to run 
 down the scarp, as it would soon destroy it. A gut- 
 ter formed of boards, should be made to prevent 
 this. See Field Fortifications and Normal Profile. 
 PARASAN6. — A Persian military measure, some 
 times assumed as a league, but equal to about four 
 English miles. 
 FARAZONIUM. — A name given by the early Greeks, 
 to a short sword or dagger worn in the 
 belt at the right side. 
 
 PARBUCKLES.— Four-inch ropes, 13 feet 
 long, with a hook at one end and a loop at 
 the other. To parbuckle a gun, is to roll 
 it in either direction from the spot in which 
 it rests. To do this, place the gun on skids, 
 and if it is to be moved up or down a slope, 
 two 4i-inch ropes are made fast to some 
 place on the upper part of the slope, the 
 ends arc carrieil under the chase and breech 
 of the gun respectively round it, and up the slope. 
 If the nmning ends of these ropes are hauled upon, 
 the gun ascends ; if cased off, it descends. If the 
 ground is horizontal, handspikes only are necessary 
 to move the gun. 
 PARBUCKLINO. — A mode of drawing up or lower-
 
 FABCEL. 
 
 483 
 
 PABKER OUN. 
 
 ing down an inclined piano any rylinilriciil objert, 
 as a barrel or a licavy gun, wil liimt tlie aid of a crane 
 or tackle. It consiHts in passing a Htoiit rope round 
 a post or some suitable object at tlie to[) of the in- 
 cline, and then doubling the ends under and over the 
 object to be moved. This converts the cask or gun 
 into a pulley in its own IxOialf, and limits Ihi- [)res- 
 Bure at each end of Hie rope to one-fourlh the weight 
 of the object moved, as felt on the incline. JJy haul- 
 ing in the (lids ('{lually, the gun ascends, or vice 
 ver.iil. See Mirliimirdl S/iiiiiiii'rni. 
 
 PARCEL. — A tiTui, meaningin the artillery service, 
 as applied to a rope, to put around it canvas well 
 daubed with tar and boiuid with spun yam to pro- 
 tect it from chaling. 
 
 PARCHMENT.— There are several kinds of parch- 
 ment, prepared from the skins of dilVerent animals, 
 according to their intended uses. The ordinary 
 writing parchment is made from those of the sheep 
 and of the she-goat ; the tiner kind, known nnvellmii. 
 is made from those of very young calves, kids, and 
 lambs ; the thick, common kinds, for drums, tam- 
 bourines, battledores, etc., from those of old he- 
 goats and she-goats, and in northern Europe from 
 wolves ; and a peculiar kind is made from asses' 
 skins, the surface of which is enameled. It is used 
 for tablets, as black-lead writing can be readily re- 
 moved from it by moisture. The method of making 
 parchment is at first the same as in dressing skins for 
 leather. The skins are limed in the lime-pit until 
 the hair is easily removed. They are then stretched 
 tightly and equally, and the flesh side is dressed as 
 in currying, until a perfectly smooth surface is ob- 
 tained. It is ne.\t ground by rubbing over it a fiat 
 piece of pumice-stone, previously dressing the flesh 
 side only with powdered chalk, and slaked lime 
 sprinkled over it. It is next allowed to dry, still 
 tightly stretched on the frame. The drying process 
 is an important one and must be rather slowly carried 
 on, for which purpose it must be done in the shade. 
 Sometimes these operations have to be repeated 
 several times, in order to insure an excellent quality, 
 and much depends upon the skill with which the 
 pumice-stone is used, and also upon the fineness of 
 the pumice itself. When quite dried, the lime and 
 chalk are removed by rubbing with a soft lambskin 
 with the wool on. 
 
 . FABCOURIR.— A term e.xpressive of those move- 
 ments which are made by General Oflicers, OfBcers 
 Commanding Brigades, etc., for the purpose of en- 
 couraging their soldiers in the heat of an engage- 
 ment. 
 
 PARDON.— An act of grace emanating from that 
 power in the State intrusted with the execution of the 
 laws, and exempting the individual on whom it is 
 bestowed from the punishment to which he has been 
 legally sentenced after conviction of crime, or to 
 which he is by law liable for an offence on which he 
 has not been tried and convicted. Every officer 
 authorized to appoint a General Court-Martial, has 
 the power to pardon or mitigate the sentence of 
 death ; or of cashiering an officer, which, in cases 
 where he has no authority to carry them into exe- 
 cution, he may suspend, until the pleasure of the 
 President of the United States can be known, which 
 suspension, together with copies of the proceedings 
 of the Court-Martial, ,the said officer immediately 
 transmits to the President for his determination. 
 And the Colonel or Commanding Officer of the regi- 
 ment or garrison where any Regimental or Garrison 
 Court-Martial is held, may parclon or mitigate any 
 punishment to be inflicted. 
 
 PARK. — An enclosure, or any place, where guns, 
 wagons, animals, etc., can be placed in safety. A 
 Park of Artillery is the whole train of great' guns 
 with equipment, ammunition, horses, and gunners 
 for an army in the field. It is placed in a situation 
 whence rapid access can be had to the line of the 
 army in any part ; and at the same time where the 
 divisions of the force can easily mass for its protec- 
 
 tion. The horses of the park are picketed in lines in 
 its rear. Tin; term is also applied to th<- ground on 
 which all guns stanil orari' parked. During a siege 
 the park must be sheltered and screencfd as much uh 
 possible from the view anil fire of the enemy ; but, 
 in a position to communicate frer-ly with the besieg- 
 er's trenches. If possible, its locality should also be 
 chosen close to some good line of communication, 
 either a road or river. Great care should be given 
 to the position of the laboratories ; tliey should be as 
 far away from the enemy as the jjark will permit. 
 The officer in charge of the park should be assisled 
 by well, trained nu.-n of the Ordnance iJepartment and 
 a sufficient number of artificers. Kwhriglwir Piirk 
 comprehends all the materials, tools, etc.. attached 
 to that branch of the service. A iiiegf Piirk com- 
 jiriscs the guns collected together at the commence- 
 ment of tlie iiivestiiiint of a fortress, taken from the 
 artillery park, and manned by artillery, aided l)y tlic 
 men of the Ordnance Department. The carriages of 
 a battery are parked in two ranks, all the pieces 
 limbered" and in the front rank, the caissons cov- 
 ering their pieces ; the interval is such as is most 
 convenient; the distance from the rear part of the 
 pieces to the end of the poles of the caissons 
 is about eight yards. The carriages of each section 
 are arranged from right to left in the order of their 
 permanent numbers, the 1st section on the right. In 
 home bntterif!<, the distance is seventeen j'ards, but 
 may be decreased to eight yards if the nature of the 
 ground requires it. 
 
 To form the park, the Captain directs the column 
 of sections toward either flank, or in rear, of the 
 position to be occupied by the park, and establishes 
 the Guidon near the point where the lead-driver of 
 the leading carriage is to halt. lie then directs the 
 column forty-seven yards in rear of, and parallel to, 
 the line to be occupied by the lead-drivers of the 
 front-rank carriages, and commands : 
 
 1. Right {or lejt) into park, 2. At (so vaaxiy) yardif 
 interral, 3. March, 4. Front. The Chief of the lead- 
 ing section commands : Right -irheel, at the first com- 
 mand, and repeats the third. At the command 
 march, given when the leading section is three and 
 one-quarter yards from the point opposite the posi- 
 tion which it is to occupy, the leading section wheels 
 to the right moves forward and is halted by its Chief 
 when the leading driver arrives in line with the 
 Guidon. Each of the other sections continues the 
 march until three and one-quarter yards from' the 
 point opposite its place in park, then wheels to the 
 right at the command of its Chief, and moves for- 
 ward ; on arriving at three yards from the line, the 
 Chief commands: 1. Section, 2 Haxt, 3. Left, 4. 
 Dress. The Chiefs of platoon superintend the move- 
 ments of their sections, but do not repeat the com- 
 mands. The Captain and Chief of caissons go to the 
 left and superintend the alignment as previously ex- 
 plained. The Captain commands right into park, or 
 left into park, according as the column is left, or 
 right, in front. See Train. 
 
 'PARKER GUN.— This gun is a distinctively Ameri- 
 can production, and has all the advantages of the 
 American system of manufacturing. The different 
 parts are made bj' special machiner}-, and by work- 
 men who make a speciality of one thing onh', and 
 are subjected to rigid inspection so that no defective 
 or imperfect part can find its way into the finished 
 gun. The number of parts is reduced to a minimum, 
 and the construction is so simple that an}"one with no 
 tool but a screw-driver can take the gun apart for 
 cleaning or repairs. No breech-loader has less to 
 get out of order, and none will stand better the 
 ordeal to which a breech-loader is subjected. The 
 drawing shows the top action. Pressing the thumb 
 againstthe lever, throws it to the right, and acting 
 through the piece, 16, forces the piece, 18, to the 
 rear. "This piece being pivoted at the top withdraws 
 the bolt, 17, from the'mortise which is cut in the 
 lug, G, and releases the barrels. When the gun is
 
 PABKZK GUN. 
 
 484 
 
 PARKEB 6UH. 
 
 closed the sides of the extension rib, 24, being upon 
 the arc of a circle, with the hinge joint, 13, as a center, 
 have a bearing along their entire surface, and the 
 extension rib tits securely into its seat,24,in the frame. 
 When the barrels are brought to place for firing, the 
 bottom of the lug,6, strikes the trip, 21, withdrawing 
 it from the bolt, 17, which then enters the mortise in 
 the lug, 6, and securely locks the gun. The taper- 
 
 portion of the chambers of the barrels, as shown In 
 the drawing (which represents an end view of the 
 breech of the barrels). When the gun is closed, the 
 extractor, 14. extends from the rear end of the bar- 
 rels to the projection on the joint, 13, and as the bar- 
 rels swing on this joint, 13, which remains station- 
 ary, this projection forces the extractor, 14, from 
 the rear end of the barrels, ao that when they ar- 
 
 bolt,17,locks the bp.rrcls positively firm, and the use 
 ot a taper-bolt for fastening the gun gives it a de- 
 cided advantage, as it does not allow a little dirt 
 (which is very liable to get under barrels when open) 
 to prevent the gun from locking. Many times when 
 shooting, marksmen are balked in this way, but this 
 pin closes with the same ease and locks as securely 
 even if there is a little dirt in the way. When the 
 gun is opened, the check-hook. T. comes in contact 
 
 with the pin, E, which avoids any strain on the joint, 
 13, and thus prevents the gun becoming shaky by 
 constant use. 
 
 This gun has an automatic extractor which draws 
 the shells or cartridges from tlie barrels during the 
 
 rive at the position as shown above, the cartridges 
 are withdrawn from them quite far enough to 
 be entirely removed by hand. In connection with 
 the lock, which is rebounding^ attention should be 
 called to the direct blow of tlie flring-pin exactly in 
 the center of the cap and at right angles with the 
 head of the shell. By this arrangement the chance 
 of a miss-fire is very much lessened, and the efficiency 
 of the arm is increased. The locking-bolt is held 
 back while the gun is open, doing away with the 
 wear on the hinge joint which all breech-loaders are 
 subjected to when the barrels are forced down 
 against a strong spring in the rear of the bolt. 
 
 The following drawing explains the b'ftcT action 
 peculiar to this gun : Pressing up on the finger- 
 piece, 1, in front of the guard. 2. raises the lifter,3, and 
 its beveled side — coming in contact with the screw, 
 4 — acts as a wedge to draw the bolt, 5, from the 
 mortise which is cut in the lug 6. and releases the 
 barrels ready for the insertion of the cartridges. It 
 will be observed that when the bolt, 5, is back to the 
 position as shown, the small hole which is drilled in 
 the under side of said bolt comes directly over the 
 trip, 7, which, by the assistance of the small spiral 
 spring, 8, is made to enter this hole in the bolt, 5, and 
 
 operation of opening the gun. Theextractor, 14, 
 is inserted in a liole drilled in the lug, 34, with lis 
 rear end enlarged unil extending into and around a 
 
 thereby holds it in position. The finger-piece, 1, is 
 soMd and a part of lifter, 3. The action of tlw liftrr, 
 3, is pisithe, not only to withdraw the bolt fmrn, hut
 
 PAKKHUEST BACHIHE GTJW . 
 
 485 
 
 PA££OTT OUH. 
 
 toforce it forward into tlie mortise inth<> ug, f>. I "r 
 the purpose of oleaninf;. it can be very cHHily remove. 
 l.V liikiiiL' olT th<- locks iii.d removing' Hie smiUl 
 Jrew 4 from tl.<- end of l)olt, 5, Uicn press down on 
 trii) 7 whieli will iillow tlx^ lifu,-r to be willidrawu 
 without removin^r either stock, Ruard, or triRpr- 
 plate. The improved roll, Hi, gives great stn-nglh t<, 
 tlie joint This gun has been issued by the I nited 
 States (Jov.Tumenl for arming Paymasters' escorts, 
 etc., when light shooting and rough usage were an- 
 
 '^^p'aBKHURST machine gun. In machine-guns 
 the heatin.^ <it llie Imrrcls has limited the number of 
 Charges tlPat could be rapidly tired before I hey be- 
 come too hot for use, so that after a p<-riod of rai)id 
 firinn- the gun would become dangerous if not allowe.l 
 to cool T'he I'arkhur.Ht gun has a devii'e for keep- 
 ing the barrelscool by surrounding them wilh w.Uer | 
 umler atmosplxTic pressure, thus prevcutmg the 
 temperature from rising above the boiling point of 
 water. A temperature not e.\cceding 312" tahren- 
 heit does not impair the action of the gun. The liar- 
 rels are inclosed in a metallic water-tiglit casing 
 having a vent for the escape of steam. The casing 
 is tilled from time to time during the tiring as may 
 be required. The mechanism for rapidly loading and 
 firing is also improved. 
 
 PARK1N80NIA. — A shrub found comnumly in 
 Bentral It has been slated to yield a very fair char- 
 coal' for gunpowder purposes; but from trials made 
 of it of late years, at the Government Powder W orks 
 at Ishapore, it was not foumi to be ecpial to that 
 made from urhur or dhall xtdlk. Nevertheless it 
 mii^ht be used if the latter crop failed. 
 
 PARK PALING.— A very inferior gun-material, 
 from which vast numbers of very inferior guns were 
 made during the existence of the slave-trade. 
 
 PARK PICKETS.— Small wooden posts which sup- 
 port the rope line round the artillery park. They 
 are carried either on carts or camels in India when 
 on the march. Dimensions-length hZ inches, and 
 diameter 3 inches. 
 
 PARLEY.— In military language, an oral conference 
 wilh the enemy. It takes place under a tlag of truce, 
 and usually at some spot-for the time neutral-be- 
 tween the lines of the two armies. To hmt a parley 
 is to give a signal for such conference by beat of 
 drurn'or sound of trumpet. , , ., 
 
 PARMA.— A kind of round buckler used by the 
 Velites in the Roman Army. It was 3 feet in diame- 
 ter, made of wood, and covered with leather Its 
 form was round, and its substance strong ; but berv- 
 ius on the Aeneid, and even Virgil, say that it was 
 a light piece of armor in comparison with the clyp- 
 eust though larger than the pelta. 
 
 PAROL— A stout wooden frame having long, sharp- 
 pointed stakes driven into it horizontally. It is 
 placed upon the parapet to oppose scaling parties. 
 
 PAROLE.— 1. A watch-word differing from the 
 countersign in that it is only communicated to Oiii- 
 cers of Guards, while the countersign is given to all 
 the members. The parole is usually the name of a 
 person, generally a distinguished officer while the 
 countersign is the name of a place, as of a battle-held. 
 2 A declaration made on honor by an officer, in a 
 case in which there is no more than his sense of hon- 
 or to restrain him from breaking his word. Ihus 
 
 lU'signatcd limits ; or he may even be allowed to rfs 
 turn to his own country on his //arui; not to fi/jlit 
 a"ain, during Ihi- existing war, against his captors. To 
 break/'rtr"/' is aicounted infamous in all civilized na- 
 tions, and an olllccr who has bo far forgotten his po- 
 sition as a gciilleuian, ceases to liave any claim to 
 the treatment of an hmiorabht man, nor can he ex- 
 pect (luartiT should lie again fall into the hands of 
 Ihfi enemy he has deceived. The following rules m 
 regard to pamlen are established by the common law 
 and usages of war : An otlicer who gives ti. parol, for 
 himself or his <'oiiimaiHl on the battle-field is deemed 
 a deserter, and will be punished accordingly. For 
 the ofllcer, the jiledging of U\A parole is an individu- 
 id act and no wholesale jjaroling by an otlicer, for a 
 number of inferiors in rank, is permitted or valid. 
 No iirisoner of war can be forced by the hostile Go- 
 vernment to pledge his ywrw^; and any threat or ill 
 treatment to force thegivingof Iha parole is contrary 
 to the law of war, and not binding. 
 
 No prisoner of war can enter into engagements in- 
 consistent with his character and iluties as a citizen 
 and a subject of his State. He can only bind him- 
 self not to bear arms against his captor for a limited 
 period, or until he is exchanged, and this only with 
 1 the stipulated or implied consent of his own Govern- 
 ment. If the engairement which he makes is not 
 approved by his Government, he is bound to return 
 : ami surrender himself as a prisoner of war. His 
 own Government cannot at the same time disown hi3 
 engagement and refuse liis return as a prisf.ner. 
 
 No'' one <:an pledge his paroU- that he will never 
 bear arms against tlie Government of bis captors, nor 
 that he will not bear arms against any other enemy 
 of his Government, not at the time the ally of his 
 captors. Such agreements have reference only to 
 the existing enemy and his existing allies, and to the 
 existino- war, and not to future belligerents. 
 
 Whife the pledging of the military pary^e is a vol- 
 untary act of the individual, the capturing power is 
 not obliged to grant it, nor is the Government of the 
 individiilxl paroled bound to approve or ratify it. 
 1 I'aroles not authorized by the common law of war 
 are not valid till approved by the Government of the 
 1 individual so pledging his parole. 
 ' The pled'^ing of any unauthorized mihlHTy parole 
 is a military offense, punishable under the common 
 
 law of war. , . , . , 
 
 PAROLE EVIDENCE.— In law, it is such evidence 
 as is ■'■iven by witnesses by word of mouth at a 
 trial or hearing of a cause. Parole agreeinent, in 
 Enn-lish law, means any agreement made either by 
 word of mouth or bv writing not under seal. _ If 
 the a-'reemcnt is made by writing under seal, it is 
 called a deed, or indenture, or covenant, according to 
 the nature of its contents. 
 
 PARRAIN.— In military orders, the person who 
 introduces or presents a newl.v-elected Knight. The 
 term is also used to signify the comrade who is se- 
 lected by a soldier who is condemned to be shot tc 
 bind the handkerchief over his eyes. 
 
 PARROT BEAKED.— A term apphed to a battle- 
 axe and the like when very short in the handle and 
 resemblim: a parrot's beak. 
 
 PARROTTGUN.— The Parrot t rifle-.gun is a cast- 
 iron piece of about the usual dimensions, strength- 
 ened by shrinkms a coiled band or barrel of wrought- 
 
 a prisoner of war mav be released from actual pris- 
 on on his parole that "he will not go beyond certain 
 
 iron over that portion of the reinforce '«-hi^h sur- 
 rounds the charge. The bodies of the larger Pr.r70tt
 
 PAEEOTT LIFE-SAVING MOETAE. 
 
 486 
 
 PAEEOTT LIFE SAVING MOETAE. 
 
 guns are cast hollow, and cooled from the interior 
 on the Rodman plan. The barrel is formed b}- bend- 
 ing a rectangular bar of wrought-iron spirally around 
 a mandrel and then welding the mass together by 
 hammering it in a strong cast-iron cylinder, or tube. 
 In bending the bar, the outer side being more elon- 
 gated than the inner one, is diminished in thickness, 
 giving the cross section of the bar a wedge shape, 
 which possesses the advantage of allowing the cinder 
 
 the Parrott projectiles were frequently broken at the 
 bottom by the force of the powder in such manner 
 as to wedge the body against the bore. It is quite 
 probable that this cause had much to do with the 
 bursting of the gims. The inventor thinks he has 
 corrected this evil. 
 
 The following table gives the more important di- 
 mensions, etc., of Parrott guns; ranging from the 
 lO-pounder to the 10-inch. 
 
 Gun. 
 
 10-pounder., 
 
 20-pouuder., 
 
 30-poundcr. 
 
 100-pounder. 
 
 8-inch 
 
 10-inch 
 
 o 
 
 o . 
 Q 
 
 .sm 
 
 Q 
 
 
 Number of 
 Grooves. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 70 
 
 3. 
 
 11.3 
 
 890 
 
 3 
 
 0.1 
 
 79 
 
 3.67 
 
 14.5 
 
 1,750 
 
 5 
 
 0.1 
 
 120 
 
 4.20 
 
 18.3 
 
 4,200 
 
 7 
 
 0.1 
 
 130 
 
 6.4 
 
 25.9 
 
 9,700 
 
 9 
 
 0.1 
 
 136 
 
 8. 
 
 32. 
 
 16,300 
 
 11 
 
 0.1 
 
 144 
 
 10. 
 
 40. 
 
 23.500 
 
 15 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 1 turn in ft. 
 at Muzzle. 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 bo 
 
 eS 
 5 
 
 Lbs. 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 28 
 
 86 
 150 
 250 
 
 to escape through the opening, thereby securing a 
 more perfect weld. The barrel is shrunk on by the 
 aid of heat, and for this purpose the reinforce of the 
 gun is carefully turned to a cylindrical shape, and 
 about one-sixteenth of an inch to the foot larger than 
 the interior diameter of the barrel in a cold state. 
 To prevent the cast-iron from expanding when the 
 barrel is slipped on to its place a stream of cold water 
 is allowed to run through the bore. At the same time 
 and while the bands hang loosely upon it, the body 
 of the gun is rotated around its axis to render the 
 cooling uniform over the whole surface of the bar- 
 rel. A large number of these guns were used in the 
 late war, both on sea and land; and the amotint of 
 
 The proof of these guns consists in tiring each 
 piece te?! rounds with service charges. The table 
 given below shows the ranges of the 100-pounder 
 Parrott gun ; charge, 10 pounds of cannon powder ; 
 projectile, Parrott shell, tilled, 100 pounds ; initial 
 velocity being 1,080 feet. See Cast-iron Guns and 
 Ordnance. 
 
 PAEEOTT LIFE-SAVING MONSTEB. — A mortar 
 made of cast-iron and lined with a steel tube. The 
 piece is cylindrical about the seat of the charge, 
 gradually tapering to the face of the muzzle. The 
 breech is hemispherical. The trunnions are placed 
 near the breech ; their projection upon a plane 
 through the vent and axis of the bore, being in front 
 
 
 
 .a 
 
 
 1 . 
 
 
 
 .c 
 
 
 > 
 
 c5 
 bo 
 
 g 
 PS 
 
 i 
 
 > 
 
 E 
 
 O 
 
 B 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 ■< 
 
 Remaining 
 
 locity. 
 
 to 
 
 Q 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 > 
 
 a- 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 "5) 
 
 4 
 
 Remaining 
 locity. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 O ' 
 
 Seconds. 
 
 O ' 
 
 Ft. -sees. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 O ' 
 
 Seconds. 
 
 a ' 
 
 Ft.-secB. 
 
 100 
 
 14 
 
 0.28 
 
 14 
 
 1066 
 
 1700 
 
 4 36 
 
 5.15 
 
 5 09 
 
 933 
 
 200 
 
 29 
 
 0.56 
 
 29 
 
 1053 
 
 1800 
 
 4 54 
 
 5.48 
 
 5 24 
 
 916 
 
 300 
 
 44 
 
 0.85 
 
 44 
 
 1041 
 
 1835 
 
 5 00 
 
 5.50 
 
 5 33 
 
 914 
 
 ' 400 
 
 59 
 
 1.14 
 
 1 00 
 
 1029 
 
 1900 
 
 5 12 
 
 5.81 
 
 5 47 
 
 910 
 
 405 
 
 1 00 
 
 1.16 
 
 1 01 
 
 1029 
 
 2000 
 
 5 31 
 
 6.14 
 
 6 10 
 
 903 
 
 500 
 
 1 14 
 
 1.44 
 
 1 16 
 
 1019 
 
 2100 
 
 5 50 
 
 6.47 
 
 6 33 
 
 897 
 
 600 
 
 1 30 
 
 1.73 
 
 1 33 
 
 1009 
 
 2158 
 
 6 00 
 
 6.67 
 
 6 45 
 
 893 
 
 700 
 
 1 46 
 
 2.03 
 
 1 50 
 
 1000 
 
 220Q 
 
 6 09 
 
 6.81 
 
 6 56 
 
 891 
 
 788 
 
 2 00 
 
 2.29 
 
 2 06 
 
 992 
 
 2300 
 
 6 28 
 
 7.15 
 
 7 19 
 
 885 
 
 800 
 
 2 02 
 
 2.33 
 
 2 08 
 
 991 
 
 2400 
 
 6 47 
 
 7.49 
 
 7 42 
 
 879 
 
 900 
 
 2 18 
 
 2.63 
 
 2 26 
 
 983 
 
 2470 
 
 7 00 
 
 7.73 
 
 7 59 
 
 875 
 
 1000 
 
 2 34 
 
 2.94 
 
 2 44 
 
 974 
 
 2500 
 
 7 07 
 
 7.83 
 
 8 08 
 
 873 
 
 1100 
 
 2 51 
 
 3.25 
 
 3 03 
 
 966 
 
 2G00 
 
 7 27 
 
 8.18 
 
 8 34 
 
 867 
 
 1151 
 
 3 00 
 
 3.41 
 
 3 13 
 
 962 
 
 2700 
 
 7 47 
 
 8.,53 
 
 9 00 
 
 861 
 
 1200 
 
 3 08 
 
 3.56 
 
 3 22 
 
 959 
 
 2767 
 
 8 00 
 
 8.76 
 
 9 13 
 
 857 
 
 1300 
 
 3 2r. 
 
 3.87 
 
 3 41 
 
 951 
 
 2800 
 
 8 07 
 
 8.88 
 
 9 26 
 
 855 
 
 1400 
 
 3 42 
 
 4.19 
 
 4 00 
 
 944 
 
 2900 
 
 8 27 
 
 9.23 
 
 9 52 
 
 850 
 
 l.-,00 
 
 4 00 
 
 4.51 
 
 4 21 
 
 987 
 
 3000 
 
 8 48 
 
 9.58 
 
 10 18 
 
 844 
 
 1500 
 
 4 00 
 
 4.51 
 
 4 21 
 
 937 
 
 3056 
 
 9 00 
 
 9.78 
 
 10 32 
 
 841 
 
 1600 
 
 4 18 
 
 4.83 
 
 4 42 
 
 930 
 
 3100 
 
 9 09 
 
 9.94 
 
 10 47 
 
 839 
 
 •work done by them, especially in breaching mason- 
 ry, is probably not exceeded by the ritlc-gimsof any 
 o"tlicr system. While a few of them have failed in 
 the service, others liave shown very great emlurance. 
 The cause of this failure has been attributed to the 
 bursting of shells In the bore, the presence of sand 
 in the bore, etc., but late investigations show that 
 
 of and tangent to a plane perpendicular to that axis 
 and containing the front end of the chamber. The 
 chamber has the form of the frustum of acone. The 
 projectile is of cast-iron, cylindrical, with the ends 
 rounded. An eye-bolt is screwed into the base for 
 the attachment of the line. The eye of this bolt is 
 close to the base of the shot. The cylindrical portion
 
 PAKROTT PROJECTILES. 
 
 487 
 
 PAHET. 
 
 is liirncil in a liitlic sous to bcitliiioHt u pcrfi'd, (il for 
 Uic liorc. 
 
 This iipparatiiR is proviilcd with a siifrly iitlafli- 
 mfiit, coiisislinij of a piccr of ruliliiT, rcctaiiKular in 
 cross-section, about 1' loni;, 0".75 wide, and O"..") 
 thick, and of tlircc or four i;alvani/,cd-iron wires 
 about, (!' Inni;, laiil iiarallcl to each other, loosely 
 twisted and coiled into a helix of from IH lo l'.( turns. 
 Tlie rubbiTstriip is sotnetinies placeil insiile the coil, 
 and at others outside of it. This cond)ine(l strap 
 and spring is interposed between the shot and line 
 in lirinfj. The object of the combination is to ab- 
 Horl) the shock of the discharge and thns prevent the 
 breakage of the line, by letting the lirst Jerk come 
 upon tlio rubber, which will generally l)reak. and 
 tlien upon the coiled wire spring. The wires will be 
 straigliteneil out before the full strain falls upon the 
 line. See /,i/>-.vini/i!/ li'icketn. 
 
 PARROTT "projectiles. — Th<'S(^ projectiles are 
 composed of a cast-iron body and a brass ring cast 
 
 into a rabbet formed around the l)ase. The (lame 
 presses against the bottom of the ringand underneath 
 it, so as to expand it into the grooves of the gun. 
 To prevent tlie ring from turning in the rabbet the 
 latter is recessed at several points of its circumfer- 
 ence. 
 
 Parrott's incendiary shell has two compartments 
 formed by a partition at riglit angles to its length. 
 The lower and larger space is filled with a burning 
 composition; the upper one is filled with a bursting 
 
 charge of powder, which is fired by a tirnc or con- 
 cussion fuse. Tlie burning romposition is intro- 
 duced through a hoh' in lUc. bollom of the gtieU, 
 which is stoppril up willi a screw-plug. 
 
 A more recent form of the I'arrott Projectile for 
 large calibers shown iti tlie drawing. Th(' sabot in 
 cast on to the projrctile, anil is provided with a lip 
 iiiid cannelure. It is prevented from turning on the 
 projeclile and from stripping by means of recesses 
 and undercuts upon the basi; of the projeclile, into 
 wliich the metal when liipiid enters. See Expanding 
 J'riijn'tiliH and I'mjertiUH. 
 
 PARRY.— A defensive movement in bayonet and 
 saber exi;rcises, executed as follows : With the hay. 
 unci -The Instructor commands: 1. 'J'lerr^, 2. Pabry. 
 Move the point of the bayonet five or six inches lo 
 the right. 1. Qnnrti , 2. I^aiuiy. Move the piece 
 (piickly to the left, the small of the stock passing un- 
 der the left elbow, the piece covering the left shoul- 
 der ; the liarrel to the left, bayonet in frimt of, and 
 higher than the shoulder, the left forearm on the 
 right of tlie i)iece. theelbow touching the right wrist, 
 the fingers on the slock. 1. Heronde, 2. Paeby. 
 Move the point of the bayonet quickly to the left, 
 describing a semi-circle from left to right, the point 
 fif the bayonet at the height of and in front of llie 
 right knee, barrel to the left; the left elbow in front 
 of the body, the fiat of the butt under tlie right fore- 
 arm, theelbow two or three inches higher than the 
 right shoulder. 1. Ilutt. 2. Pakky. Move the piece 
 quickly to the left, covering the left knee and shoul- 
 der ; the barrel to the right, the butt tliree inches 
 above, and to the left of the left knee : the left hand 
 and arm as in quarte parry. 1 . I'rirroe. 2. Pakby. 
 Lower the point of the bayonet and describe a semi- 
 circle to the left, carry the piece to the left, covering 
 the left shoulder ; the barrel downward, the left fore- 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Big. 2. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Pig. 6 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Fig. la
 
 PARSONS GUN. 
 
 488 
 
 FASnSAH. 
 
 arm oehind the piece, the bayonet at the height of 
 and to tl\e left of tlie left kuee ; the butt higher thrn 
 the head, the right forearm above the eyes and six 
 inches in front of the forehead. The double parries 
 are combinations of the simple parries, and are exe- 
 cuted by the following commands: 1. Tierce, 
 2, Quarte. 1. Prime, 2. Seconde. 1. Quarte. 2. 
 Tierce. 1. Seconde, 2. Prime. 1. Tierce, 2. Se- 
 conde. 1. Tierce, 2. Butt. 1. Seconde, 2. Tierce. 
 1. Butt, 2. Tierce. The U'erre and guarte parrieK are 
 used against blows aimed above the arms ; seconde 
 and butt parrie.i, below the arms ; prime parry, for 
 blows either above or belo%v the arms. In all par- 
 ries, care must be taken not to uncover the body, by 
 moving the piece farther than necessary to parry the 
 blow. These positions are shown in Figures 1, 2, 3, 
 4, and ,5. Viith the Sabei — The Instructor commands: 
 1. Ti-erc€, 2. Parry. Carry the hand quickly a little 
 to the right, point of the saber as high as the eyes. 
 and opposite the right shoulder, edge to the right. 
 (Two.) Resume the guard. 1. Quarte. 2. Parry. 
 Turn the hand in quarte, and carrj' it opposite the 
 left breast, edge of the blade to the left, point to the 
 
 front, as high as the eyes, and a little to the left of 
 the left shoulder. (Two.) Resume the guard. 1. 
 -l^f'ft, 2. Parry. Raise the hand above and six inches 
 in front of the eyes, the elbow somewhat bent, edge 
 of the blade to the left, point downward, and parry 
 the blow aimed at the left side. (Two.) Resume 
 the guard. 1. Left, head, 2. Parry. Raise the saber 
 quickly above the head, the right arm vertical, edge 
 upward, point to the left and about twelve inches 
 below the guard. (Two.) Resume the guard. 1. 
 Jiight head, 2. Parry. Raise the saber quickly 
 above the head, edge up, point to the left and higher 
 
 hanu, still in tierce, above the left shoulder. (Three.) 
 Resume the guard. 1. Against infantry, 2. Right, 3. 
 Parry. Turn tlie head to the right, throwing back 
 the right shoulder, raise the saber, the arm extend- 
 ing upward to the right and rear, the hand in tierce, 
 edge of the blade to the left, point upward. (Two.) 
 Describe a circle quickly on the right, from rear to 
 front, the arm extended ; turn aside the bayonet with 
 the back ot the blade, bringing the hand as high as 
 the head, the point upward. (Three.) Resume the 
 guard. See Bayonet Exercise. C'aralry Parr.'ei, Fenc- 
 ing and Sahfr Exercise. 
 
 PARSONS GUN.— The principle upon which Mr. 
 Parsons makes his gun would seem to be similar lu 
 that of Captain Palliser's, /. e, by varying elasticity. 
 As applied to strengthening a 68-pounder cast-iron 
 gun. his method consists of boring into the breech 
 of the gun, coincident with its axis, reaming out 
 the bore into a slightly conical shape as far as the 
 front of the trunnions, and then inserting into this 
 space a reinforced wrought-iron tube, which is se- 
 cured in its place by a breech-plug. The exterior 
 of this compound tube is turned to tit the conical 
 space easily, its length being cut so that it will be 
 compressed longitudinally by screwing up the 
 breech-plug, thus communicating to the outer cast- 
 iron portion the entire longitudinal strain of the 
 powder. This method is based on the fact that 
 wrought-iron may be stretched three times as much 
 as cast-iron, and will offer from three and a half to 
 six times the resistance within the limit of its elasti- 
 city. Mr. Parsons has also proposed that the tube 
 should be made of steel, having a solid breech, A, 
 as shown in the drawing, the ingot not being bored 
 through its entire length. He proposes to reinforce 
 tlie tube with jackets of steel shrunk on, B, and to 
 insert the whole tube and jacket, from the rear of 
 the iron casting, the cast-iron gun being so bored out 
 as to require force to insert the tube in its place. The 
 tul)e being inserted, a steel plug, C, is to be screwed 
 on from the rear, which presses against the rear of 
 the tube, and the breech is then closed by a cast-iron 
 lug representing the cascabel of the piece. See Con- 
 eried Guns, Ordnance, and I'alliser Gun. 
 
 PARTIALITY. — An unequal state of judgment or 
 leaning in favor of one of two parties. Every mem- 
 ber of a Court-Martial is sworn to do ju.stice, with- 
 out partiality, favor or affection. A previous opinion 
 expressed by a member, before the Court is sworn, 
 is deemed a good and sufficient cause of challenge 
 b3' either the prisoner or prosecutor, and the indi- 
 vidual cannot sit on the trial and judgment of the 
 case. 
 
 PARTISAN. — 1. A name for a halberd or pike, or 
 for a Marshal's baton. Tlie name is also given to 
 the leader of a detached body of light troops, who 
 make war by harassing the enemy, rather than com- 
 ing to direct fighting, by cutting off stragglers, inter- 
 rupting his supplies, and confusing him by rapid 
 
 than the head, the right forearm nearly vertical. 
 OTwo.) Resume the guard. 1. Against infantry. 2. 
 Left 3. Pakry. Turn the Iiead and shoulders to the 
 left, raise the saber, the arm extended upward to the 
 front and left, the hand in tierce, back of the blade 
 to tlie front, point upward. (Two.) Describe a 
 circle quickly on the left, from front to rear, parallel 
 to the horse's neck, the arm extended ; turn aside 
 the bayonet with the back of the blade, bringing the 
 
 strategy. The action of such a corps is known as 
 Partisan Warfare. 
 
 2. Partisans are soldiers armed and wearing the 
 uniform of their army, but belonging to a corps 
 which acts dct;iched from llic main body for the pur- 
 pose of making inroads intci the territory occupied 
 by the enemy. If captured, tliey are entitled to all 
 the privileges of the prisoner of war. 
 
 Partisan warfare is advantageously pursued only
 
 PABTITION LINES. 
 
 489 
 
 FASeAOE OF DITCHES. 
 
 in monntninnufl or tliiokly-wnoilcd irmtricts. In an 
 open couMtry, lliiM-iiviilry very rciiilily ilcHtroys them. 
 Sec (Itii rrilliia. 
 
 PARTITION LINES, lii Ilcralilry, liiiis dividing; 
 the Hliii'ld in (lircftiuns <'orri'H])(iiiiliiif; In llic onli- 
 narii'S. Arcordinfi; to the dircctidii <if Uic imrtition 
 linrH, II shield is Kiiid to he party nr imrlcd per fcss, 
 per ])alc, |)rr l)cnd,pcr ch.'vcrnii.pir siiltin; ; a Hlncld 
 divi(h'(l hy lines in the dirceticin of a orojirt, is Haid to 
 
 Partition Lines in Hcraldir. 
 
 be quartorod ; and a shield parted at onee per rroas and 
 per saltirc, is said to Gironni' of eight. Tiie parti- 
 tion lines are not always plain ; they may be en- 
 grailed, inveeted, embattled, wavy, nebuly, indented, 
 daiK-ette or ragul)'— forms which will be found ex- 
 plained under separate articles. See Heraldry. 
 
 PARTIZAN. — A species of halbird. Tlie "iron is 
 long, broad, and double-edged; there is no a.xe, but 
 barbs in the style of the ranseur. The pnrtitnv 
 ■was known in France from the time of I>ouis XI. 
 (1401) until the end of the 17th century, but its in- 
 vention was not, earlier than 1400. Also written 
 Partisan. 
 
 PARTRIDGES.— In artillery, very large bombards 
 formerly in use at sieges and in defensive works. 
 They are mentionetl in Froissart. 
 
 PARTY. — 1. In Heraldry, parted or divided; — 
 used in reference to any division of a field or charge. 
 2. Any small number of soldiers detached from an 
 army or regiment on any particular duty either in 
 peace or war time. A party is often sent out to 
 forage, reconnoiter, and gain intelligence. The term 
 is also applied to other duties which small bodies of 
 men are engaged on such as recruiting parties,work- 
 ing partiex. storming parties, etc. 
 
 PAS D'ANE. — The ring-shaped sword-guard below 
 the cross-piece, on each side of the blade. It is not 
 generally met with until the second half of the 16th 
 century. 
 
 PASDE SODRS.— Steps leading from the bottom to 
 the top of a ditch in permanent fortification. 
 
 PASHA, — A title used in the Ottoman Empire, and 
 applied to Governors of Provinces, or Military and 
 Naval Commanders of high rank. The name is said 
 to be derived from two Persian words — pti, foot or 
 support, and sAaA, ruler — and signifies "The support 
 of the Ruler." The title was limited in the early 
 period of the Ottoman Empire to the Princes of the 
 Blood, but was subsequently extended to the Grand- 
 Vizier, the Members of the Divan, the Seraskier, 
 Capitan-Pasha, the Begler-Begs, and other civil and 
 military authorities. The distinctive badge of a 
 Pasha is a horse's tail, waving from the end of a 
 staff, crowned with a gilt ball ; in war this badge is 
 always carried before him when he goes abroad, and 
 is at other times planted in front of his tent. The 
 three grades of Pashas are distinguished by the num- 
 ber of the horse-tails on their standards ; those of 
 the highest rank are Pashas of three tails, and in- 
 clude, in general, the highest functionaries, civil and 
 military. All Pashas of this class have the title of 
 Vizier ; and the Grand-Vizier is, par exrellence, a 
 Pasha of three tails. The Pashas of two tails are the 
 Governors of Provinces, who generally are called by 
 the simple title of "Pasha." The lowest rank of 
 Pasha is the Pasha of one tail ; the Sanjaks, or low- 
 
 est class of I'rovincial Oovirnors, are of this rank. 
 The I'asha of a Province has authority over the mili- 
 tary force, the revenue, and the administration of 
 juatico. His aulhorily was formerly absoluti:, but 
 recently a check was imposed (jii him by the appoint- 
 ment of local Councils. The I'asha is in his own 
 person the military leader and administrator of juH- 
 liee for the Province under his charge, and holds of- 
 fice during the pleasure of the Sultan — a most pre- 
 carious tenure, as the Stdliui can at any moment, in 
 the exercise of his despotic power, exile, impri.son, 
 or pirt him to death; and tliis has frequently been 
 done in eases where the Pasha's power has excited 
 the apprehension, f>r his wealth the avarice of Ids 
 Uoyal .Master. Also written /y<n/(«w and I'acha. 
 
 PASS.— 1. A straiglit, difficult, and narrow pass- 
 age, which, well defended, shuts up the entrance to 
 a country. 2. Permission granted by a Command- 
 ing OHicer to a soldier to be al)sent from his qiiarters, 
 recorded and signed by the Commanding Olficer, so 
 that the soldier may be able to show to others, if 
 necessary, the authority for his being absent from 
 his regiment. 3. A road or path leading from one 
 side of a mountain to another. Jn latitudes wher.; 
 much snow falls, the " passes" are only open for 
 egress or ingress during the summer months. In 
 warfare, mountain passes play a very important part, 
 if the operations, whether defensive or ollensive, 
 are carried on in a mountainous country. 
 
 PASSADE. — In fencing, a push or thrust ; a sud- 
 den movement to the front. Often written I'mtuwid. 
 
 PASSAGE — A movement in the School of the Sol- 
 dier Mounted, for gaining distance to the right or 
 left, executed as follows: To passage to the right, 
 gather the horse and incline him to the right, by car- 
 rying the bridle-hand slightly to the right, and clos- 
 ing the right leg; then carry the bridle-hand well to 
 the right, close the left leg "behind the girth without 
 leaning to the left, so thai the haunches may move 
 last, and hold the right leg near to support the horse 
 and moderate his movement. The horse having 
 obeyed, keep up the passage by a gentle application 
 of the same 'means. To halt, replace the bridle-hand 
 and left leg by degrees, and straighten the horse by 
 carrying the bridle-hand slightly to the left and cIo.s- 
 ing the left leg. In passaging, the movement of the 
 horse's shoulders always precedes that of his haunch- 
 es. To facilitate this, the horse is held inclined to 
 the side toward which the passage is to be made. If 
 the horse oblique too much, the rider carries the 
 hand a little to the left, and increases the effect of 
 the left leg. If the horse step too quickly to the side 
 toward which he passages, diminish the effect of the 
 reins and left leg. carrying the bridle-hand to the 
 left, and holding the right" leg close. If the horse 
 back, bear his shoulders well toward the side toward 
 which he should passage, diminish the effect of the 
 reins, and increase that of the legs ; a horse usually 
 backs on account of the constraint he feels when his 
 haunches have begun to move before his shoulders. 
 
 PASSAGE OF DITCHES. — In siege operations the 
 passage of a dry ditch consists in the descent (which 
 is by a blindage, if the ditch is not too deep, or a 
 blindage and gallery for deep ditches) and a full sap, 
 which leads from the outlet of the de.m:itXo the bot- 
 tom of the breach. The passage of a wet ditch is 
 more difficult, and specially perilous if the besieged 
 can produce sudden freshets by flood-gates or other 
 contrivances. The method usually followed is to 
 build a dike or bridge of fascines and hurdles across 
 the ditch. The abutment for this bridge is formed 
 by excavating a grand gallery behind the counter- 
 scarp and throwing the earth taken from it into the 
 ditch through the outlet of the descext. The dike 
 is carried forward from this abutment by sappers, 
 who work on a raft carrying a musket-proof mask 
 on the side of the enemy". A gabionade parapet on 
 the exposed side of the dike serves to protect the 
 men in bringing forward the fascines, hurdles, etc., 
 to extend the dike.
 
 PASSAGE OF KIVEES. 
 
 490 
 
 PASSPOHT. 
 
 PASSAGE OF KIVEKS.— The passage is effected by 
 surprise or by main force, and detacliments are 
 tlirown by one means or the other upon the enemy's 
 bank of the river before proceeding to tlie construc- 
 tion of bridges. The passage by force ought always 
 to be favored by diversions upon other points. In- 
 fantry cross bridges without keeping step. Cavalry 
 dismount in crossing, leading their horses. Wagons 
 heavily loaded, pass at a gallop. See Bridges and 
 Ford. ' 
 
 PASSAGES. — Openings cut in the parapet of the 
 covered-way, close to the traverses in order to con- 
 tinue the communication through all parts of the 
 covered- way. See Traverses. 
 
 passage' 'WARRANT. — One among the numer- 
 ous royal warrants issued for the guidance of the 
 army. It relates, as its name implies, to tlie rules 
 and regulations to be observed in applying for pass- 
 ages on board troop and other government ships. 
 The accommodation granted to officers, and the quan- 
 tity of baggage allowed, as well as messing costs, 
 will be found in the copy of this warrant. 
 
 PASSANDEAU. — An ancient 8 pounder gun, which 
 was l.T feet long, and weighed about 3,500 pounds. 
 
 PASSANT. — A heraldic term used to e.xpress the 
 attitude of an animal in a walking position, with his 
 
 head straight before him, Fig. 1. Fig. 2. represents 
 the attitude, Pansant gardaiit ; Fig. 3. Pa-miant re- 
 gardant. 
 
 PASS-BOX,— A wooden or metallic box with a lid 
 and handles, used for carrying cartridges from the 
 service magazine to the piece. The boxes are of 
 various sizes to suit the caliber of the piece, one cart- 
 ridge being carried at a time. The top is fastened 
 on with two butt hinges and kept closed by strong 
 hook and staple. A wooden handle is fastened with 
 screws diagonally on one end, by which the box is 
 carried. 
 
 PASSEGARDES.— In ancient armor, ridges on the 
 shoulder-pieces to turn the blow of a lance. 
 
 PASSE-MUH. — An ancient 16-pounder gun, which 
 was 18 feet long, and weighed about 4300 pounds. 
 
 PASSES- BALLES. — Boards or machines made of 
 iron or brass, used in disparting cannon, and fitted 
 to every species of caliber. 
 
 PASS'eVOLANT.— A light piece of ordnance, used 
 in France in the l.'jth century. 
 
 PASSION CROSS.— A cross of the form on which 
 our Saviour suffered, with a long stem and a short 
 traverse near the top. It is of occasional occurrence 
 
 Passion Cross. 
 
 as a her.ildic charge, though less frequent than many 
 other variclics of cross. A passion cross, when ele- 
 vated on three steps or degrees (which have been 
 said by heralds to represent the virtues of Faith, 
 Hope, and Charity), is called a Cross Calvary. 
 
 PASS OF ARMS.— In ancient chivalry, a "bridge, 
 road, etc.. wliicli the Knights iindertook to defend, 
 and which was not to be passed without fighting 
 the person who kept it. lie who was (lisjxiscd to 
 dispute the pass touched one of the armories of the 
 other Knight who held tlic pass, tli;it were iiuiisr on 
 pales, columns, etc., erected for the purpose ; and 
 
 this Tas a challenge whicli the other was ol)liged to 
 accept. The vanquished gave the conqueror such 
 prize as was agreed upon. 
 
 PASSOMETER.- A watch-shaped instrument car- 
 ried about the person to register the steps taken in 
 walking. It consists of a dial and two hands, which 
 are moved by a ratchet worked by a weight which 
 the motion of walking causes to vilirate. 
 
 PASS PAROLE.— An order passed from front to 
 rear of an army by word of mouth. 
 
 PASSPORT. — A warrant of protection and permis- 
 sion to travel, granted by the proper authoritj-, to 
 persons moving from place to place. Every Inde- 
 pendent State has the right to exclude whom it 
 pleases from its territory, and may require that all 
 strangers entering it be furnished with properly au- 
 thenticated documents, showing who they are, and 
 for what purpose they are visiting the countrj'. 
 Passports are sometimes issued by the Ministers and 
 Consuls of the country which the traveler intends to 
 visit, which cannot, however, be done without the 
 consent or connivance of the State of which the 
 holder of the instrument is a subject ; thej' properly 
 proceed from the authorities of the State to which 
 the traveler belongs, and ought to bear the tha or 
 countersignature of the Minister or Consul of the 
 country which he is about to visit. In some Euro- 
 pean States no one is allowed to go abroad without 
 a passport from his Government authorizing him to 
 leave the countrj' — a provision used as a means of 
 detaining persons charged with crime ; and pass- 
 ports are even required by the natives to enable them 
 to go from place to place in their own country. The 
 regulations of different States have varied much re- 
 garding the use of passports ; and of late j'ears there 
 has been a great relaxation of the stringency of the 
 regulations connected with !them. Since the facili- 
 ties of traveling have so greatly increased, it seems 
 to have become the prevalent opinion that the pass- 
 port system tends to obstruct the free intercourse 
 that is desirable between citizens of different coun- 
 tries ; while it is ineffectual to prevent the entrance 
 of dangerous or suspicious cliaracters, who can ob- 
 tain passports on false pretences, or make their way 
 in without them. Within the United Kingdom no 
 passports are required; but for a British subject 
 traveling in some parts of the Continent they are 
 still requsite. At one time the greater part of Brit- 
 ish subjects traveling abroad used to be furnished 
 with passports from the Ministers or Consuls of the 
 countries which they purposed to visit ; the Lord 
 Provost of Edinburgh was also in the way of issuing 
 passports to Scotchmen. Of late years the passport 
 most used by British subjects is that of the British 
 Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, which is now 
 granted to any British subject for a fee of two shil- 
 lings, and is good for life. If the applicant be not 
 personally known to the Secretary of State, he must 
 either be recommended to him b.y some person who 
 is known to him, or produ«! an application in his 
 favor b}- some banking firm established in London 
 or elsewhere in the United Kingdom, or a certificate 
 of identity signed by a jNIayor, Magistrate, Justice of 
 the Peace, Minister of Keligion, Physician, Surgeon, 
 Solicitor, or Notary, resident in the United Kingdom. 
 In certain cases the production of a certificate of 
 birth may be required. If the applicant be a nat- 
 uralized IBritish suljject, his certificate of naturaliza- 
 tion must be forwarded to the Foreign Office. If it 
 he dated subsequently to Aug. 24, 1850, and previous- 
 ly to Aug. 1, IH.OS, his passport will be good for (me 
 year only: if subsequently to Aug. 1, 1858, for six 
 months only. The passport of a British subject nat- 
 unili/.ed by Act of Parliament is good for life. Where 
 the ])assport system is in full force, it is required 
 that the pass])ort be countersigned by the ^Minister 
 or Consul of the country which the holder means to 
 visit, the visa being only of force for a year. The 
 French (government allows Hrilish subjects to enter 
 and leave France, and travel in it without passports ;
 
 PASTE. 
 
 491 
 
 PATBOLI. 
 
 f. 
 
 but tlicy lire wiid to 1)« Homctimfs asked for when 
 France- is entered from the Soiitli iind Kust. In IJel- 
 jiuni, lI()lhuul,(}erniiiny,Hwilz<Tland, AuHtriii, Italy, 
 Jeninark, Norway, and Hwcden, passports are no 
 lonj^er rcipiired. For Greece and I'ortiii;al they anr 
 necessary, and (he visa is insisted on in Hnssia, Tur- 
 key, and Kiiypl. In time of war, jiassporls or safe- 
 conducts are ;^ranted liy tlie Supreme AuHiority on 
 tlie spot — /.('., llie Ollicer in Counnand to insure 
 safely to tlie holders wlien passin;; from si)ot to spot, 
 or while occupied in the performance of some act 
 specilied in and iiermitted by the passport. Pass- 
 ports nniy be granted for goods as well as individ- 
 uals; and in iime of war, the jiassport of a ship is 
 the formal vo\icher of its neulral character. It pur- 
 ports to be a rc(|uisition on the part of the (Jovern- 
 inent of a Stale to allow the vessel to pass freely 
 with her company, passengers, goods, and nuTchan- 
 dise, without hindrance, seizure, or molestation, as 
 being owned by citizens or subjects of such State. 
 
 PASTE. — A tenacious mi.xture of flour and alum 
 in the proportion of 2 lbs. of Hour to 1 oz. of pounded 
 alum mixed with 1 gallon of boiling water. The 
 mode of preparing it is as follows: Heat it gently, 
 stir it, and let it boil :J of an hour; when it becomes 
 ropy, pour it into bowls, and pass it thnuigli a sieve 
 before it is quite cold. It should be used cold, and 
 only 2 or S daj-s' supply made at a time, but it may 
 be preserved longer by adding alum in the propor- 
 tion of one-tenth the weight of flour. Haste is used 
 in the laboratory in case-making, for porttires, rock- 
 ets, light-balls, etc. 
 
 PATAREMO. —A sort of small swivel artillerj-, hav- 
 ing a movable chamber. 
 
 PATCH. — 1. A greased piece of cloth wrapped 
 around a rifle bullet. 2. A block on the muzzle of 
 a gun to do awaj' with the eft'ect of disjjart ; making 
 the line of bore and line of sight parallel. 
 
 PATE. — 1. In fortification, a .sort of platform or 
 terre-plein, irregularly built, yet generally constructed 
 in an oval form. It is surrounded by a parapet, 
 without anything to flank it, and having no other 
 defense than what is front or fore right. Path are 
 usually erected in marshy grounds to cover the gate 
 of a fortified town or place. 2. An iron or earthen 
 pot filled with powder and grenades for throwing 
 against besiegers; some were used at Lille, in 1708. 
 PATEREROS.— Small pieces of ordnance, now ob- 
 solete, worked on swivels; most commonly used on 
 board ships, where they were moimted on the gun- 
 wale, and discharged showers of old nails, etc., into 
 hostile boats. The French called them Pierriers 
 from loading them with stones. 
 
 PATONCE.— In Heraldry, a cross 
 with its terminations expanding like 
 early vegetat ion or an opening blossom. 
 PATOO. — A very formidable weap- 
 on with sharp edges, used by the Poly- 
 nesian Islanders and New Zealanders 
 as a sort of battle-axe to cleave the 
 skulls of their enemies. 
 -_____^ PATRIARCHAL CROSS. — A cross 
 
 ^"■^ I like tlie patriarchal crosier, having its 
 i-^ t—, I upright part crossed by two horizon 
 ^ T"^ J tal bars, the upper being shorter than 
 < I y the lower. A cross patriarchal flm- 
 \~X briated »r was a badge of the Knights 
 
 Templars. 
 
 PATRICK.— The Order of Saint Pat- ' 
 rick is the national order of knight- 
 hood for Ireland, established bj' George III. Feb. .5, 
 1783, and enlarged in 1833. It consisted of the 
 Sovereign, the Grand-master (who was the Lord- 
 Lieutenant of Ireland for the time being), and 1.5 
 Knights. By the statutes of 1833 the number of 
 Knights was increased to 23. The Collar of the order 
 (of gold) is composed of roses alternating with harps, 
 tied together with a knot of gold, the roses being en- j 
 ameled alternately white within red, and red within 
 "white, and in the center is an imperial crown sur- , 
 
 mounting a harp of gold, from wliich the badge is 
 suHpendid. The /;«//(/*■ or tlie .fn/ifl is of gold, and 
 oval ; surrounding it is a wreath of sliamrock proper 
 
 £aicmc& 
 
 fairiarcluiL 
 Crosa. 
 
 Older of St Patrick. 
 
 on a gold field ; within this is a band of sky-blue en- 
 amel charged with the motto of the order, Qns Sep- 
 AKABiT MDCOLXxxiil, in goid letters ; and within this 
 band a saltire gules (the cross of St. Patrick), sur- 
 mounted by a shamrock or trefoil slipped vert, hav- 
 ing on each of its leaves an imperial crown or. The 
 field of the cross is either argent, or pierced and left 
 open. A sky-blue Ribbon, worn over the right 
 shoulder, sustains the badge when the collar is not 
 worn. The Star, worn on the left side, differs from 
 the badge only in being circular in place of oval, and 
 in substituting for the exterior wreath of shamrocks 
 eight rays of silver, four of which are larger than 
 the other four.' The Mantle is of rich sky-blue tab- 
 inet, lined with white silk, and fastened In' a cordon 
 of blue silk and gold with tassels. On the right 
 shoulder is the Hood, of the same material as the 
 mantle. The order is indicated by the initials k. p. 
 PATROLS.— Patrols are of twoclasses,|from the dif- 
 ferent objects had in view. The first are those made 
 with a view of insuring greater security from the 
 enemy's attempts to pass, or force the line of out- 
 posts, and may therefore be termed defenuhe patrols. 
 They consist usually of three or four men. who go 
 the rounds, along the chain of sentinels and between 
 the posts; seldom venturing farther than a few hun- 
 dred paces beyond the sentinels chain; the object 
 being to search points which might present a cover 
 to the enemy's scouts, and to keep the sentinels on 
 the alert. The second class are those made exterior 
 to the line of out-posts, with a view of gaining intel- 
 ligence of the enemj's whereabouts; and may there- 
 fore be termed iiffen,iite patrul.i. They are composed 
 of larger bodies of men than the first class, the num- 
 ber being proportioned both to the distance to be 
 gone over, and the extent of front to be examined. 
 In a po.sition, presenting but few cross-roads, and 
 sparsely settled, a patrol of ten or twenty horsemen, 
 may be found ample, to search with all desirable 
 thoroughness, from twenty to forty miles in advance 
 of the position, along the principal avenues to it ; 
 whereas, with a more extended front, presenting 
 many lateral avenues, double this number might be 
 required for the same duty. From the information 
 obtained, through the ordinary channels of maps, and 
 by questioning the near inhabitants, the Command-
 
 PATTE D'OIE. 
 
 492 
 
 PAVAVA. 
 
 ing-Offlcer can usually settle, with sufficient accuracy, 
 the strength of a patrol. 
 
 From the duties to be performed by patrols, cav- 
 alry are usually employed alone; in cases of very 
 broken country, infantry may be necessary, but they 
 should always be accompanied by some horse, if for 
 no other purpose than to transmit intelligeuce prompt- 
 ly to the rear. The main duties of a patrol are to 
 find the enemy if in the neighborhood; gain a good 
 idea of his position and strength; to make out his 
 movements, and to bring in an accurate account of 
 his distance from the out-posts of their own force; 
 and the character of the ground between the position 
 occupied by the respective forces. From the nature 
 of these duties; it is evident that both officers and 
 men, for a patrol, should be selected with a special 
 reference to their activity, intelligence, and the ap- 
 titude they may possess, from previous habits of life, 
 for a service requiring a union of courage, prudence, 
 and discriminating observation — usually to be met 
 with only in individuals who have been thrown very 
 much upon their own resources. When the charac- 
 ter of the country admits of it, the employment of 
 such individuals, singly, or in very small bodies, as 
 scouts, is one of the most available means of gaining 
 intelligence of an enemy, without betraying the se- 
 cret of our own whereabout. 
 
 In conducting a patrol, the Commanding Officer 
 should provide himself with a good map, telescope, 
 and guides; and gain all the information he can be- 
 fore starting, by questioning persons in the neigh- 
 borhood. Nothing should escape his eye along his 
 line of search; and he should particularly note points 
 wJiich might be favorable to his defense, if driven 
 back by the enemy; or by which his retreat might 
 be endangered. The order of march of the patrol will 
 be regulated by the circumstances of its strength, kind 
 of troops employed, the character of the country 
 passed over, the hour of the daj'. and the particular 
 object in view. Tlie intelligence and judgment of 
 the officer in command will have sufficient exercise 
 on these points; as he will be continually called upon 
 to vary his dispositions. The general and obvious 
 rule of keeping a look-out on all sides, will prompt 
 the general disposition of an advanced-guard, rear- 
 guard, and flankers, according to the circumstances 
 of the case, however small his command. The sole 
 object being to carry back intelligence of the enemy, 
 no precautions should be omitted to cover and secure 
 his line of march, without making, however, too 
 great a subdivision of his force. 
 
 Too much circumsiiection cannot be shown in ap- 
 proaching points favorable to ambuscades; as woods, 
 ravines.defiles, inclosures, farm-houses, villages, etc. 
 The main-body should alwaj's be lialted, in a good 
 position beyond musket-shot, or where cover can be 
 obtained, whilst a few men proceed cautiously for- 
 ward, following at some distance in the rear of, but 
 never losing sight of each other, to examine the sus- 
 pected spot. If the officer deem it necessary, at any 
 point, to detach from his command smaller patrols, 
 to examine points at some distance on his flanks, he 
 should halt the rest, at the point where they sepa- 
 rate, until the detachments come in and report; or, 
 if he decides to move forward, he should leave three 
 or four men at the spot, to convey intelligence 
 jiromptly to the rear, if anything is discovered, as 
 well as to himself. It may frequently be found that 
 some eminence on the flanks may present a good 
 view of the surrounding country, in which case, if 
 it be decided to use it, two or three men ought to be 
 detached for the purpose, with orders to keep in 
 sight of each other, but far enough apart to guard : 
 against a surprise of the whole. When the officer j 
 finds himself in the presence of the enemy, he should 
 halt his command at a convenient spot, wliere they 
 will be screened from the enemy's view; and, liaving 
 made his dispositions against a surprise, he will jiro- 
 ceed with a few picked men, to the most favorable 
 point from which he can obtain a good look-out, to 
 
 lattfie. 
 
 recounoiter the position occupied, and the other 
 points of interest. If he deem it advisable to keep 
 liis position, or change it for some other point more 
 favorable, he will first transmit a report to the rear 
 of what he has observed. 
 
 When the patrol moves by night, the ordinary pre- 
 cautions must be redoubled. Signals must be agreed 
 upon to avoid danger, .should any of the parly be- 
 come separated from the main body. Careful atten- 
 tion must be given to everything passing around; as 
 the barking of dogs, noises, fires, etc. On approach- 
 ing any inhabited spot, the command should be 
 brought to a halt, whilst a few picked men move 
 noiselessly forward, and if practicable, by stealing 
 up to the windows, learn the character of the in- 
 mates. It cannot be too strongly impressed upon 
 the mind of the officer in command of a patrol, that 
 he must be all ears and eyes; that he will be called 
 upon in turn, to exercise great boldness, caution, 
 presence of mind, and good judgment, in accom- 
 plishing a mission where the enemy must be seen 
 but not encountered; and such roads and halting 
 points be selected, both in moving forward and re- 
 turning, as shall be most favorable to his move- 
 ments," and least liable to expose him to a surprise, 
 or a disadvantageous collision with the enemy. See 
 Reconnoissanct, 
 
 PATTE D'OIE.— A term used in 
 mining to describe three small branch- 
 es which are run out at the extremity 
 of a gallery. They are so called from 
 their clo?e resemblance to the foot of a 
 goose. 
 
 PATTEE.— Acrossin Heraldry, also 
 called Cross Formee, a cross with its 
 arms expanding towards the ends, and 
 flat at their outer edges. 
 
 PATTERN. — The wooden model used in easting is 
 technically called the Pattern. Models for casting 
 should be made of one or several pieces, according 
 to the form of the mold required. When the form 
 is such that the whole model can be withdrawn from 
 the sand at once, without injuring the mold, a single 
 piece will suffice ; but generally the model is com- 
 posed of several pieces, so fitted that they can be 
 put together in succession as the molding progresses, 
 and finally taken apart and removed by piecemeal 
 when the molding is complete. See Molding. 
 
 PATTISON PROJECTILE.— This shot has projections 
 cast upon it to fit the rounded grooves of the gun. 
 The windage is stopped by a simple leather band, 
 which is driven upon the conical base of the shot by 
 the powder-gas. 
 
 PAUL. — The name given to a Sepoy's tent. It is 
 of a different pattern to the European soldier's tents 
 being much smaller and lighter. 
 
 PAULDRONS. — In ancient armor, reinforcing metal 
 plates covering the shoulders. 
 
 PAULIN. — A kind of tarpatdin. It is made of 
 thick, unpainted canvas, and forms part of the 
 equipment for each carriage of a field-battery of ar- 
 tillery. They are of four sizes, viz ; — Alagazine, 
 large ; Magazine, small ; Camel paulins ; Cart paul- 
 ins. Large piiuliiu are used on the floors of labora- 
 tory tents. Small magmine pmilins are used in cov- 
 ering powder barrels and live shells in the batteries. 
 Camel pauliii.i, being of small size, are frequently 
 very convenient, ami are used for the .same purposes 
 as small magazine paulins. Cart paulins are used 
 with tilts for artificers' carts. With the exception 
 of the camel and cart paulins, which are made of 
 coarse country canvas, all others are made of vitry. 
 
 PAVADE.— A term formerly applied to a short 
 dagger in Scotland. 
 
 iPAVAVA.— A conveyance drawn by a Imffalo, 
 and employed in the Philippine Islands. The draw- 
 ing sliows the manner of its construction and use. 
 The shafts, framework, and body, are of bamboo ; 
 the collar and nose-band of the buffalo of chair cane, 
 ami the roof of the paudauus leaves. This arrange^
 
 FAVESIEB. 
 
 493 
 
 PAY. 
 
 nicMl furiiislicM II hint for iiiiiUiri); Inivi'fM itiore coni- 
 furtublc. L'liliuppily, tin: liaTiiljurj, iKlmimlily suited 
 
 to thr rnnstrurtinn of litters and strctohers, is not 
 iivalliihlc in lliis and iimiiy iiIImt countries. 
 
 PAVESIER. An ancient militia who lurried the 
 (piinii.^) shield. Also written I'dvechfur. 
 
 PAVILION. ^1. IiiHeruldry.acoverinitin the form 
 of a tent, investini; the iinnories of Kings. 2. A 
 tent raised on posts; a Hag, colors, ensign, or ban- 
 ner. 
 
 PA VISE. — A large shield covering the wliole bod}', 
 having an inward curve, managed by a Pavisier, 
 
 Pay of Offl)XT» 
 
 who witli itscreened, an ardier. Also written I'limU, 
 I'liraji, I'dvrne ariri I'arrKHe. 
 
 PAVI8IER8 Warriors armed willi the puvise. In 
 ancient (iKi.unters, bodies of I'amnierH v:irv formed 
 on each side; and, doubtless, these strong defenses 
 were opposed, as much as possible, to the hristije 
 ardiers. ,\lso written I'livint/Tii. 
 
 PAV0I8. -A small cuirass first worn by infantry 
 soldiers aliout 7f)0 u. c. It consisted of plates of 
 metal sewi'il i.n to woven stuffs or skins. Hea J'iivi,e. 
 
 PAVOIS D'ASSAUT.— A German shield of the fif. 
 teenlh century, 44 inches by 73 inches, composed 
 of wood covered over with leather. It was al.so 
 constructed in various shapes and sizes. 
 
 PAVOISIENNE. - A small hand shield of the mid- 
 dle of the fiiiirlcenlh century. It was one foot and 
 one ((uarlir nf an inch in diameter. 
 
 PAVON.- .\n ancient military flag shaped like a 
 right-angled triangle. 
 
 PAY.— The stipend or salary allowed for each in- 
 dividual serving in the army. The following is a 
 table of the monthly pay allowed in the United 
 States Army; — 
 
 in Active Service. 
 
 GRADE. 
 
 General 
 
 Lieutcnant-Geueral 
 
 Maj or-General 
 
 Brigad icr-Ge neral 
 
 Colonel 
 
 Lieutenant-Colonel 
 
 Major 
 
 Captain, mounted 
 
 Captain, not mounted 
 
 Regimental Adjutant 
 
 Regimental (Quartermaster 
 
 First Lieutenant, mounted 
 
 First Lieutenant, not mounted 
 
 Second Lieutenant, mounted 
 
 Second Lieutenant, not mounted..., 
 Chaplain 
 
 PAY OF OBADE. 
 
 Yearly. 
 
 ifl3,500 00 
 11,000 00 
 7,500 00 
 5,500 00 
 3,500 00 
 3,000 00 
 2,-500 00 
 2,000 00 
 1,800 00 
 1,800 00 
 1,800 00 
 1,600 00 
 1,500 00 
 1..500 90 
 1,400 00 
 1,500 00 
 
 Monthly. 
 
 .«!l,125 00 
 910 67 
 625 00 
 458 33 
 391 67 
 250 00 
 308 33 
 166 67 
 150 00 
 150 00 
 150 00 
 133 33 
 135 00 
 125 00 
 116 67 
 125 00 
 
 MONTHLY PAT. 
 
 After 
 5 years' 
 service. 
 
 10 per et. 
 
 t320 83 
 275 00 
 229 17 
 183 33 
 165 00 
 165 00 
 165 00 
 146 67 
 137 50 
 137 50 
 128 33 
 137 50 
 
 After 
 10 years' 
 service. 
 
 20 per ct. 
 
 f350 00 
 300 00 
 250 00 
 200 00 
 180 00 
 180 00 
 180 00 
 ICO 00 
 1.50 00 
 150 00 
 140 00 
 150 00 
 
 After I After 
 15 years' 20 years' 
 service, i service. 
 
 30 per ct. 40 per ct 
 
 *375 00 
 32.5 00 
 270 83 
 316 67 
 195 00 
 19.5 00 
 195 00 
 173 33 
 162 .50 
 162 50 
 151 67 
 162 50 
 
 $375 00 
 333 33 
 291 67 
 2:^3 33 
 210 00 
 210 00 
 210 00 
 18G 67 
 175 00 
 175 00 
 163 33 
 175 00 
 
 Pay of Officers and Cadets at the Military Academy. 
 
 Grade. 
 
 Superintendent 
 
 Commandant of Cadets. 
 Adjutant 
 
 Quartermaster and Commissary of the Battalion of 
 Cadets 
 
 Treasurer 
 
 Surgeon 
 
 Assistant Surgeon 
 
 Professor, of more than ten years' service at the 
 Academy 
 
 Professor, of less than ten years' service 
 
 Assistant Professor 
 
 Senior Assistant Instructor of Tactics 
 
 Assistant Instructor of Tactics, commanding a Com- 
 pany of Cadets 
 
 Acting Assistant Professor 
 
 Acting Assistant Instructor of Tactics 
 
 Instructors of Ordnance and Science of Gunnerj- and 
 of Practical Engineering 
 
 Sword Master 
 
 Cadet 
 
 Grade or assimilated pay. 
 
 Pay of Colonel. 
 
 Pay of Lieutenant-Colonel. 
 
 Pay of Regimental Adjutant. 
 
 Pay of his grade in the Army. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Pay of Colonel. 
 
 Paj- of Licutcnant-Colouel. 
 
 Pay of Captain, mounted. 
 
 .do. 
 .do. 
 
 Pay of his grade in the Army. 
 
 do. 
 
 Pay of Major. 
 
 $540 per annum.
 
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 494 
 
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 H 
 
 w 
 
 TO 
 P 
 P"
 
 PAY ACCOUNTS. 
 
 495 
 
 PAYNIZINO. 
 
 Thp Ocncnil of thr Army has bcfn rctirprl, with- 
 out iiiiy rcdiii'tinn in liiM current piiy anil allowanocH. 
 The Miaxiiniiiii [)ay cif a ('(iloiicl is liy law .'{<4,r)(K) jht 
 niiniiMi ; lii'iicc full 41) piT cent, cannot aecnic. 'Phe 
 niaxiniiini [lay of a Licutenant-( 'ulnnel is liy Iaw.'5i4.0ll0 
 jiiT aiiimin ; liiiicc full 40 ])cr cent, cannot accrui>. 
 An Aiil-(le-('ainp to a Major-deneral is allowed .'Ji2U0 
 per year in addition to the pay of his rank, not to he 
 included in conipulinj; the service increase. An 
 Aid-de-C'anip to a ]{rii;adier-General is allowerl .tlAO 
 per year in addition to the pay of his rank, not to 
 i)e incltidi'd in computing the service inen'ase. An 
 Actin'i; Cmninissary of Sul)sistence is allowed ftlDO 
 piT year in addition to the pay of his rank, not to he 
 included in coinputini; the service increase. Assist- 
 uiit Surf^eons are entitli'd to pay of Captain after live 
 years' service. Retired ofllcers receive 75 per cent, 
 of pay (salary and increase) of their rank. A retired 
 Chaplain receives three-fourths of the i)ay ("salary 
 and also increase) of his rank (Captain not inount- 
 cdj. Tlie ollicer havin;; charije of the jiuhlic build- 
 ings and grounds (Washington) has, while so serv- 
 ing, the rank, pay, and emolunients of a Colonel. 
 The Aides-de-(;anip and Military Secretary to the 
 Lieutenant-General, selected by him from the Army, 
 have, while so serving, the rank and pay of hieii- 
 tenant-C'olonel. The i)rincipal assistant in tlie Ord- 
 nance IJureau of the War Department receives a com- 
 pensation, including pay and emohuiienls, not ex- 
 ceeding that of a Major of Ordnance. Only one Vet- 
 erinary Surgeon, at #75 per month, is allowed each 
 of the cavalry regiments, from the Kirst to the Sixth 
 Regiment, inclusive ; two, one at $100 and one at 
 $75 per month are allowed each of the Seventh, 
 Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth Regintents ; the senior in 
 date of appointment entitled to the higher grade. 
 The Teacher of Music.w ho shall be leader of band at 
 Military Academy, receives $00 per month. The 
 clothing account Is settled Jinie 30 and December 31 
 of each year. Balances founil due United States are 
 charged soldier on muster-rolls of tliose dates. Ual- 
 ances due soldier are carried forward on company 
 books credited to his current clothing account ; any 
 balance remaining due him at discharge is credited 
 on final statements. Enlisted men of Signal Corps 
 have the pav of Engineer soldiers of a similar grade. 
 
 PAY ACCOUNTS.— The Paymaster's vouchers for 
 payments of salary made to officers and in final settle- 
 ments with discharged soldiers. The form of the 
 account used by officers is shown on page 496. 
 
 PAY BILLS — In the British Service, accounts re- 
 gularly tendered by Captains of troops or companies 
 of the money required by them for the effectives of 
 such troops or company. 
 
 PAY DEPARTMENT. —That department of a govern- 
 ment which takes charge of all matters relating to 
 the pay of the army. In the United States Armj', 
 the Pay Department consists, at present, of one Pay- 
 master-General, with the rank of Brigadier-General : 
 two Assistant Paymaster-Generals, with the rank of 
 Colonel of Cavalry ; two Deputy Paymaster-Generals, 
 with the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel of Cavalry ; and 
 fortj--eight Paymasters, with the rank of Major of 
 Cavalry. An Act of Congress, making appropria- 
 tions for the support of the Army for the year end- 
 ing June 30. 1884, providts that vacancies that may 
 hereafter occur in the Pay Corps of the Army in the 
 grades of Lieutenant-Colonel and Major, by reason 
 of death, resignation, dismissal, or retirement, shall 
 not be tilled by original appointment until the Pay 
 Corps shall, by such vacancies, be reduced to forty 
 Paymasters, and the number of the Pay Corps shall 
 tlien be established at forty and no more. 
 
 PAYMASTER.- An otlicer appointed in the army 
 for the purpose of keeping its pay accounts, and the 
 disbursing of moneys in payment of troops. In tlie 
 United States Service, it is the duty of Paymasters to 
 pay all the regular and other troops ; and to insure 
 punctuality and responsibilitj', correct reports must 
 be made to the Paymaster-General once in every two 
 
 months, showing the disposition of the funds pre- 
 viously transmitted, with accurate estimates for tlie 
 next payment of such regimi'Uts, garrisons, or lie- 
 partmenls, as may he assigned to each. When vol- 
 unteers or militia are calleil into service, the I^resi- 
 dent may assign to any officer of the army the duty 
 of Paymaster. Paymasters are required to give 
 bondB. 
 
 In the BritiBh Service, Military Paymasters arc 
 eith(tr "Control" or '•Regimental." Of the latter, 
 who constituti- by far the more numerous class, 
 there is one to every brigade fjf artillery, regiment 
 of cavalry, and ballalion of infantry. The I'aymas- 
 ter holds no other commission, but the appointment 
 is nearly always conferred upon some person who 
 has previously held a combatant rank in the arm)-. 
 The finictions of Paymast(;r comprise issuing and ac- 
 counting for the pay of officers and men, and having 
 charge generally of all the finances of the corps. ]n 
 discipline, the Paymaster is responsible to the Officer 
 Commanding the Regiment; but in all money mat- 
 ters he looks for orilers to the War Office alone. He 
 cciinmences with a pay of 12s. 6d. a day, with the 
 relative rank of Captain ; and after 20 years' service 
 attains the pay of £1, 2s. Od. a day and relative rank 
 as Major. Regimenlal Paymasters were first ap- 
 pointed durin"; the French war. Control Paymasters 
 liav<' financial charge in the military districts or 
 sub-districts. They form a separate Department 
 under the Surveyor General of the Ordnance, com- 
 prising Paymasters, Deputy Paymasters, and Assist- 
 ant Paymasters. 
 
 PAYMASTER-GENERAL.— The Paymaster-General, 
 in conformity with tiie laws and regulations, is 
 charged with all necessary instructions to his sub- 
 ordinates in reference to the supply and distribution 
 of fimds for the payment of the Army, and all other 
 things pertaining to the financial duties of his De- 
 partment, and the accountability of its officers. In 
 these and all other matters having relation specially 
 to the internal administration of the Pay Depart- 
 ment, the correspondence between the Paymaster- 
 General and his subordinates, and between the 
 Division and Department Chief Paymaster and their 
 subordinates, is direct. In England the Paymaster- 
 General is an officer of the British Jlinistry, but not 
 of the Cabinet, charged with superintending the 
 issue of all moneys voted by Parliament, lie is 
 virtually the Paymaster of the public service, hav- 
 ing no control over the sums issued, paying merely 
 on the order of the Department concerned and re- 
 ceives A'2,000 a year as Chancellor of the Duchy of 
 Lancaster. He is always either a Peer or a member 
 of the House of Commons, and changes with the 
 Ministrj'. Of late years the office has been held in 
 conjunction with that of Vice-President of the Board 
 of Trade. The Paymaster-General is assisted by a 
 Deputy and a staff of clerks, the annual cost of the 
 whole department amounting to about £25,000. The 
 first notice of this office is in the early part of the 
 reign of Charles II., when the Paymaster-General 
 was nothing more than the sole Paymaster of the 
 Army. The present extensive duties of the office 
 have been added by deurees during the 19th centurj'. 
 
 PAYMASTER-SERGEANT. — A Json-commissioned 
 Officer, in the British Army, whose duty it istoact as 
 clerk to the Paymaster. He ranks with other stafT 
 sergeants, and receives from Is. lid., to 2s. lid. a 
 da3% according to his corps, with an increase of 6d. 
 after 3 years' uninterrupted service as Paymaster- 
 Sergeant. 
 
 PAYNIZING. — A process for preserving and hard- 
 ening wood, invented by a Mr. Payne. It consists 
 in placing well-seasoned timber in an air-tight cham- 
 ber, and then, when, by means of a powerful air- 
 pump, the wood is deprived of its air. a solution of 
 nulpliuret of cnlcium, or a sulphuret of barium is ad- 
 mitted, and readily fills up the empty ves.sels all 
 through the wood. The air-pump is again used, and 
 the superfluous moisture is drawn out, and a solution
 
 PATHIZIHQ. 
 
 49G 
 
 FATinZIHO. 
 
 The United States, 
 
 To.. 
 
 .Dr. 
 
 Salary. 
 
 For over years' 
 
 service. 
 
 Station. 
 
 From. 
 
 the .. 
 18.. 
 
 of 
 
 the .. 
 
 18., 
 
 To... 
 
 of. 
 
 On leave of absence from my station. 
 Since 
 
 Under S. O.. No , dated Headquarters 
 
 Extended by S. O., No dated Headquarters., 
 
 Returned to duty. 
 
 Months.j^^^^P^"' I Amount. 
 
 Deduct half pay 
 
 for mouths 
 
 days leave 
 
 of absence. 
 
 I certify on honor, that the amounts charged in the foregoing account are correct and just, as au. 
 thorized by law, and that they are rightfully due me as stated ; and that I am not in arrears with the 
 United States on any account whatsoever. 
 
 I was last paid to , 18..., by Paymaster , and I acknowledge to have received 
 
 this day of , 18..., of Paymaster , U. S. A., in full of this account, the sum 
 
 of ^j;jj dollars, by check No , on 
 
 (Signed in duplicate.) 
 
 The following is the form of account to be used by discharged soldiers : 
 
 T7ie United States, 
 Discharged from.. 
 
 To . 
 
 Company U. S.,. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 For pay from 1st of , 188-. to of 188-, being months 
 
 days, at dollars per month 
 
 For retained pa}^ due 
 
 For pay for traveling from the place of my discharge, 
 
 to the place of my residence, 
 
 miles, at twenty miles per day, equal to days, at dollars 
 
 per month 
 
 For deposits, Interest, 
 
 For subsistence for traveling as above, days, at 30 cents per ration, or 
 
 day .' 
 
 For clothing due soldier 
 
 Amount 
 
 Deduct for Army Asylum -.. 
 
 Due United States for clothing. 
 Due United States for tobacco. , 
 
 Balance., 
 
 Dollars. Cents, 
 
 Received of. . 
 
 this date and amount. 
 (Signed in duplicate.) 
 
 , Paymaster, U. S. A., this day of , 188-, 
 
 ■imidollars in full of the above account, by check No on
 
 PAY BOLL. 
 
 497 
 
 PEAEODY MAHTINI RIFLE. 
 
 of Hiilplialc of iron ih injcftod; this arts rlifmicnlly 
 upon till' siilpliiirct of hariiiiii or of calcium, and 
 foniiH all tliroiii;!! Ilic wood cither the insoluble kiiI- 
 |)liat(; of liariuriL riicavy spar) or of lime (iiypsiini;. 
 Tlie adrliliciM of lliese mineral liialcrialH reniierH llie 
 wool! very heavy, Iml il lie>-omeH also very durable, 
 and almost in(:oml)ii>tilile. 
 
 PAY-ROLL.- A roll or list of jx-rsons entitled to 
 payment, with the sums which are to be paid on 
 them. In the United States Army, at each regular 
 muflter of the troops, one ordinary muster-roll and 
 three Muster luid I'ay-rolls are-maile. The muster- 
 roll is transmitted by the muslerini; ollicer to the 
 Adjutant (leneral's Ollice, at \Vashini;ton, within 
 three days after the muster. Two copies of the pay- 
 roll arc for the I'aymaster, IIk^ other is kept with 
 the company records. Muster, and Muster and Pay- 
 rolls are made on the printed forms furnished from 
 the Adjutant Oeneral's Ollice; and in making: the 
 rolls special attention must be fjiven to the printed 
 directions thereon. The caU'ulations on the Pay- 
 rolls are made liy the Paymaster. They are tran- 
 scribed by the C'ajitain on the copy retained with 
 the (•ompany records, in order that an exact account 
 of each soldier's pay may be kept. If it should be- 
 come necessary to use manuscript forms, they slionld 
 embrace all tlic data rei|uired to insure justice to the 
 soldier, and guide the Paymaster in making I)ay- 
 mcnl. Companies are designated on the Muster, and 
 Muster and Pay-rolls by the names of their Captains, 
 wliethcr present or absent. Soldiers in hospital, 
 patients, and nurses, except stewards, are mustered 
 on the rolls of their company, if it be present at the 
 post. 
 
 PEABODT-MARTINI KIFLE.— This rifle is a com- 
 bination of the IVabody and Martini systems, the 
 fornur covering the mechanism for closing the breech 
 and extracting the' cartridge shell, after the riHe has 
 been tired, ami the latter covering the device for ig- 
 niting the cartridge. Tliis rifle was adopted by the 
 
 EugliRli and Turkish Goveroments, after long and ex- 
 haustive trials in competition with all the prominent 
 breech-loading rifles of the world. It endured the 
 test of actual experience in war during the contest 
 between Russia and Turkey, and obtained the high- 
 est reputation for solidity, accuracy, long range, and 
 other desirable qualities of a military weapon. The 
 official reports from the armies in the field, and the 
 letters of army correspondents, unite in prai.se of the 
 Turkish rifles. The parts composing the breech 
 mechanism combine the greatest possible strength 
 with simplicity of construction, and the system^ in 
 
 its present perfection, is the result of long and carp, 
 ful study to produce a rille meeting all the require- 
 ments of military service. Its form is compact and 
 graceful, and the symnu-try of its lines is nowhire in- 
 fringed uiionby unscc'mly projr'ctions, which Ijesides 
 being iilfeiisive to the eye, are ofti-n prr-judicial to the 
 comfort of the soldiir on the march or in the perform- 
 ance of its necessary mani|)ulalions. No movement 
 of the barrel, or any other parts, except tlifise im- 
 mediately connected with the lilock, is reouired in 
 the performance of any of its operations. Tlie.se are 
 I)erforMied in the simplest |iossible maimer, and with- 
 out in the least infringing upon the strength and dur- 
 ability of the ritle, whi<h is e(|ual, in these res|)ecls, 
 to the bi'st inuz/le-loader. In the operation of load- 
 ing, the whole mov<'menl of the block is made with- 
 iu the breech-frame or receiver the end of the block- 
 lever falling but a sliort distance from the slock. 
 The block itself is a strong, substantial piece, and 
 when in position for firing, is so firndy secured as to 
 ensure its perfect safety, as has been repeatedly 
 shown in the severe tests to which it has been sub- 
 jected. 
 
 The drawing shows the Pcabody-Marlini breech 
 system. The imsition of the block, wlien it is drawn 
 down for loading, is such as to form an inclined 
 plane, sloping toward the breech of the barrel, and 
 th(' groove in its upjier surface corresponding with 
 the bore of the barrel, facilitates the entrance of the 
 cartridge so that it slides easily into the chamber, 
 without the necessityevcn of lookingto see that il is 
 properly inserted. The adoption of the coil main- 
 spring in place of the common gun-lock main-spring, 
 is considered a great improvement, and this opinion 
 is confirmed by the exjierience of the Knglish and 
 Turkish troops who have been supplied with the 
 Peabody-Martini rifles. It has been found that, in 
 s<'veral instances, where the coil main-springs were 
 broken, the defects were not noticed, and the springs 
 compressed in the blocks worked as tnisal. Had 
 such mishaps occcurred to the old gim-lock 
 mainsprings, tlie arm would liavc been ren- 
 dered useless. The accuracy and range of 
 this rifle are very remarkable. The system 
 of rifling used is that known in England as 
 the Henry. There are seven grooves, of 
 jx'culiarshape, with a sharp twist (one turn 
 in twcntj- inches). After a long series of 
 experiments, with different kinds of rifling, 
 the English Arms Commission finally de- 
 cided upon this system as giving the most 
 satisfactorj- results, both with regard to 
 accuracy and range. 
 
 The manipulations for loading and firing 
 are of the simplest kind : Throw down the 
 block-lever with considerable force, press- 
 ing with the thumb of the right hand : in- 
 sert the cartridge ; and return the lever to 
 its place, which raises the block to its pro- 
 per position when the rifle is ready for fir- 
 ing. 
 
 After firing, throw down the block-lever 
 with force, and the empty cartridge shell is 
 tlirown out clear from the rille, leaving the 
 chamber ready for the insertion of another 
 cartridge. This extraction of the cartridge 
 shell is^ effected by the action of an elbow 
 lever, which throws it out with unerring 
 ' certainty, the instant the block-lever is lowered. This 
 elbow lever derives its power simply from the action 
 of the block itself, and cannot become deranged, as 
 its action is not dependent upon any spring and is 
 of such strength as to prevent the possiliility of 
 breakage or derangement by any service to which 
 I it can be subjected. If it is desired to preserve the 
 cartridge shell for reloading, throw down the block- 
 lever witli a gentle movement, and it is drawn out 
 into the groove of the block, from whence it can 
 readily be taken by the person firing. 
 I For" rapidity of firing, this rifle is believed to be
 
 PEACE ESTABLISHMENT. 
 
 498 
 
 PEBBLE POWDEE. 
 
 equal, if not superior to any other single loader, and 
 in continuous firing, to any repeater. It cannot be 
 fired until the block is in its proper position, so that 
 it is impossible for accidents from premature explo- 
 .sion to occur. Tlie objection to the excessive recoil 
 of this rifle, wliich has been raised in some quarters, 
 has been obviated in the arms manufactured "by tlie 
 Providence Tool Company, by the adoption of a dif- 
 ferent form of ammunition. After the decision of 
 the Eni^lisli Arms Commission in favor of the Pea- 
 body-JIartini rifle, and its subsequent adoption as 
 the standard national arm, the Imperial Ottoman 
 Government contracted with the Providence Tool 
 Company to manufacture 000,000. The productive 
 capacity" of this Company's factories is 1000 rifles 
 per day. In conclusion it may be said, that wherever 
 the rifle has been introduced,its superior qualities of 
 safety, strength, simplicity, easy manipulation, ac- 
 curacy, and range, have been fully conceded. See 
 Jlfartini-Henry Tiifie. 
 
 PEACE ESTABLISHMENT.— The reduced nimiber 
 of effective men of an army during peace time ; reg- 
 iments are raised to tlieir full complement in war 
 time, or, as it is termed, to a irai' entablhhment. In 
 Great Britain tlie raising of tlie army from a peace 
 to a war establishment is effected by calling out the 
 reserve, the militia, enrolled pensioners, and voltm- 
 leers : in continental armies, where the compulsory 
 service is in force, by calling out the men on fur- 
 lough and the reserves. 
 
 PEAN. — One of the furs borne 
 
 _^ . — -| in Heraldry, dilTering from Er- 
 
 l *] mine only in the tinctures: the 
 
 ground being sable, and the spots 
 of gold. See Heraldry. 
 
 PEA-OEE.— A form of compact 
 brown iron ore (hydrated pero.x- 
 ide of iron), consisting of rotmd. 
 smooth grains, from the size of 
 mustard-seed to that of small 
 pease. Sometimes the grains are 
 still smaller and flattish. This iron ore is very abun- 
 dant in some places in France, and is smelted. 
 
 PEA-EIFLE. — A rifle of small bore carrying a ball 
 of tlie size of a pea. 
 
 PEBBLE POWDEE. — Since tlie pellet powder was 
 first l)rought into use, another description of large 
 grain powder, called " pebble powder," has been in- 
 troduced for service with guns of large caliber. 
 This pebble powder is formed of large grains rang- 
 ing from j,V of an inch to as much as 2" cubes ; and 
 to manufacture this class of powder expeditiously 
 and cheaj)ly, has brought forth another description 
 of machine for forming the pebbles by cutting up 
 previously compressed cake into cubes of the re- 
 quired dimensions. This is done in the following 
 manner, by a very simple self-acting machine : The 
 cake as brought from the press-house is, to begin 
 with, of the thickness of the required cubes, aud 
 tliis cake the machine has to cut up— first, into long 
 strips of the same widtli as the thickness of the cake; 
 and, secondly, to cut tliese long strips transversely 
 into cubes. This is accomplished in the machine by 
 means of two pairs of rollers in the following man- 
 ner : Tlie cake is fed into a liopper iila<'c<l imme- 
 diately al)Ove the first pair of rollers, and, as these 
 are provided witli knives upon their surfaces, they 
 cut the cak(^ up into long strips. These strips fall 
 upon an endless traveling band, wliich conveys and 
 carries them forward to the second jiair of rollers, 
 wliere they are cut transversely into culies. Tliey 
 then drop into a spout, and are delivered into a 
 revolving sifter covered with copper wire, wliicli 
 conveys the perfect cubes into a number of wooden 
 boxes contained in a small gun-melal Inick ; but the 
 dust and small pieces fall lliroiigli the sifter into otlier 
 boxes, and are taken back to the press-house and 
 worked up again. The framing of this machine 
 (like most of llie other machines used in tlu^ manu- 
 facture of gunpowder;, is composed entirely of giin- 
 
 Pean. 
 
 metal, and has the requisite seatings cast upon it 
 for the reception of the several brackets and pedestals 
 which are also of gun-metal, as well as the cutting 
 rollers, each pair being about 7" in diameter, with a 
 number of equidistant" teeth or knives formed upon 
 their surfaces, cut out of the solid metal. These 
 rollers are securely fixed upon wrought-iron shafts, 
 wliich receive their motion from a main driving 
 shaft by means of spur gearing. The underside of 
 the bearings of these roflers are planed and faced so 
 as to slide in their respective brackets. One of each 
 pair of bearings is fitted with a spring box controlled 
 by a set-screw, by means of which tiie amount of re- 
 sistance to the openiig of the rollers is adjusted. 
 Blocks of hard wood are also fitted between each 
 pair of bearings to act as stops, and thus determine 
 the minimum" distance between the surface of the 
 rollers, and an adjustable gun-metal scraper is fitted 
 to each roller for removing the surplus powder from 
 its surface. A skeleton carrying band, made of two 
 leather belts fitted with ash cross-bars of a triangular 
 section and at about 3" apart, is provided. These 
 
 wooden cross-bars are rivetted with cojiper rivets to 
 the leather belts aud to gun-metal strips upon their 
 underside, these strips being of such a form as to 
 serve the purpose of teeth for driving the band. This 
 endless handworks upon two gun-metal drums; the 
 one is driven by gearing from the main shaft, and 
 the other is fitted in adjustable bearings, which can 
 be tiglitcned by means of a screw so as to take up 
 any slack in the band. These drums are made with 
 flanges at each end, and have recesses formed on 
 their liarrels to receive the gun-metal projections or 
 strips upon tlie carrying band. A sliding table 
 made of bard wood and provided with four gun- 
 metal grooved wheels, which travel upon V rails, 
 also made of gun-metal, is fitted to work underneath 
 the carrying band, and travels at the same uniform 
 rate of speed. The top surface of this table is 
 covered witli leather, and made perfectly smootli ; a 
 reciprocating motion is given to it by means of an 
 endless chaiiQ made of slieet copper, upon one link 
 of which a stud is fitted and works in a gun-metal 
 block tliat slides in a bracket fixed upon the under- 
 side of the table. A weighted gun-metai frame is 
 also provided, and so ailjusted that the underside of 
 it rests upon tlMvupper surface of the bars of the 
 carr3'ing baud ; the ends of this frame are fitted witli 
 gun-metal stay-rods, which project and work in 
 slotted l)rackets connected to the machine ; the frame 
 is by this means free to rise if the pressure from any 
 causi^ exceeds that of the weight by whicli it is liekl 
 down. The underside of this frame is planed and 
 nia(l(^ perfectly smooth, so as to allow the carrying 
 liand to work freely between the underside and 
 the upperside of the sliding table. 
 
 The feeding web — which is made of strong Dowlas 
 canvas — is driven by a gun-metal drum 7" in dia- 
 meter, thefollowing roller lieing Ij" in diameter ; the 
 top surface of this web is supported by a board to 
 prevent its sagging, and. in addilioii, the bearings 
 wherein the shaft of the driving drum revolves are 
 lirovided with slides made adjustable by means of 
 screw L'caring. A revolving sifter is fitted under- 
 neath the second pair of rollers, and works in bear-
 
 PECTORAL. 
 
 499 
 
 PEEP SIGHT. 
 
 inRS boltorl fn tho iinrlcrsidc of thr- fruiniiif; of the 
 iiuii'liinc ; tliis siflcr is coMiixiHcd of a number of 
 ;;iin-iiioliil (IruiiiH kcyc(l upon ii Hliiift, and its peri- 
 pliery is covered with copper wire, th(! wliole lieinj; 
 enclosed in a wooden caniiit;. Underneath the sifter 
 three Hlidinu; boxes are placed toreceiveihe liustand 
 small pieces which pass through the copper wire cov- 
 ering of the screen. At tlie end of the sifter a K""- 
 inetal Iravelini; truck or carriatre is providi'd, with 
 four wheels adajited to run on V ;;un-iiietal rails lix- 
 ed ui)oii till' lloor ; this carriajje is capable of holding 
 five wooden boxes, each about 18" srpiare, into which 
 the finished |)ebblesfall from the end of the sifter as 
 it slowly revolves. A wooden hopper of sufllcient 
 viridth to cover the entire lenfrth of Ihi' rollers is pro- 
 vided for feedinu; the press-cake into the first pair, 
 and asheet cojiper casini? islitleil lo the second pair, 
 with a s])oul at thebottom for conveyingthe pebbles 
 into tlict sifter. All exposed i>arts, such as the ends 
 of wrought-iron shafts, etc., are covered with recess- 
 ed gun-metal washers securely fixed to them, and 
 any others which may \h'. miuU: of- iron or steel are 
 covered with leather. All hearings are fitted with 
 suitable lubricators, and channels or pipes for con- 
 venienlly and efficiently lubricating thi^ rubbing sur- 
 faces ; and, as it is of the utmost im|)ortance that no 
 oil or grease be permitted to come in contact with 
 the i)()wdcr, the bearings of the cutting rollers are 
 fitted with sheet copper casings made in halves and 
 hinged, so that the upper part can be lifted and the 
 bearings cleaned. The copper casings at the geared 
 end of the rollers are sufiiciently large to contain the 
 wheels and act as drip-pans. The pebbles from 
 this machine, as well as the pellets from the hy- 
 draulic apparatus are generally taken to the glazing 
 barrels, the treatment they there receive glazes them 
 and also rounds off the sliarp corners, thereby ren- 
 dering them much better adapted for transport, stor- 
 age etc. St^e Gunpowder. 
 
 PECTORAL. — Among the Romans, the poorer sol- 
 diers, who were rated under 1,000 drachnuis. Instead 
 of the li-trica, or brigantine (a leathern coat of mail) 
 they wore a peetorM, or breast-plate of brass, about 
 twelve fingers square. Some modern troops, such 
 as the Cuirassiers, etc., wear pectorals for the direct 
 purposes of defense and bodily protection ; but, in 
 general, small ornamental plates with clasps have 
 been substituted. 
 
 PECULATION. — A term used in a military sense for 
 embezzling public moneys, stores, arms, or ammu- 
 nition. See Articles of iVar, 00. 
 
 PEDDOWK. — A tree whicli grows in the forests of 
 Burmah and tlie Andaman Islands. It resembles 
 mahogany in its color. It was formerly much used 
 by the Burmese for gun carriages, and was intro- 
 duced, some years back, into the gun carriage man- 
 ufactory at Madras. A cubic foot of unseasoned 
 wood weighs from 65 to 70 lbs. 
 
 PEDESTALS. — Props made of wood, and used for 
 the support of stool beds of carriages when the ele- 
 vating screws are removed. 
 
 PEDIEUX. — Coverings for the feet, used in the four- 
 teenth century, and made of thin plates of steel or 
 iron. 
 
 FEBOUETER. — An instrument for measuring walk- 
 ing distances. A common form consists of a string 
 with a piece of lead at the end, and knotted at dis- 
 tances of 44 feet apart. It is to be used in connec- 
 tion with a seconds watch. Forty-four feet bears 
 the same relation to an English statute mile (=5280 
 feet) that i minute does to an hour; that is, the 
 knots are -^o of a mile apart. Drop the lead and 
 allow the string to pass through the hand, the num- 
 ber of knots slipping through the hand indicate the 
 rate of walking in the number of miles per liour. 
 Small Pedometers, to be worn on the person, con 
 sist of a train of wheels in a small case, and a dial 
 which registers the number of impulses derived from 
 a cord attached to the foot. In this form it becomes 
 a register of the number of paten. In Payne's En- 
 
 glish pedometer there is a npcaiing watch, which 
 shows seconds I7iinutes and liours ; and also the 
 day of the month. See OilomiUr. 
 
 PEDRO. An early gun of large caliber, employed 
 f(jr throwing stone balls. 
 
 FEEL. 1. A small tower or fort. The term /V«i. 
 /('<7/«' is applied lo any small fortified place. 3. To 
 strip: to iilundcr; to pillage. 
 
 PEEL-TOWERS.— The name given to the towers 
 erected on the Scottish borders for defense. They 
 are square, with turrets at the angles, and the door 
 is sometimes at a height from the ground. The 
 lower story is usually vaulted, ami formed a stal)lc 
 for horses, cattle, etc. For an account of these old 
 towers, now mostly in ruin, see JlixUjry <}f Peeblen- 
 K/iiri , by W. Chambers, 1804. 
 
 PEE-MAH.— A tree which grows in India and Bur- 
 mah, and is made use of in the Madras gun carriage 
 factory for c(?rtain portions of gun carriages. It is a 
 light and tough wood. There are two descriptions 
 of it, red and white colored; the former is the tou^^'her 
 of the two. A cubic foot of unseasoned wood weighs 
 from .50 to 53 lbs. 
 
 PEEP-SIGHT.— The basis of the sights used at Creed- 
 moor in the most approved long-range rifles is the 
 old-fashioned "peep and globe." To insure accur- 
 ate shooting, the rear sight is made with a vernier 
 
 scale operated by a screw, by which an alteration of 
 one-hundreth of an inch, and even of half that 
 amount, can be made in the elevation, the result being 
 exact, and recorded in figures— the only way in 
 which a correct record of elevations can be kept. On 
 the Remington rifle the divisions on the vernier are 
 termed degrees and minutes, and on the Sharps 
 decimals of an inch. On the former each minute is 
 gV of an inch, and corresponds >ipon a 34-inch barrel 
 with lyV of an inch, at each 100 yards. On the 
 Sharps rifle each'subdivision is , J ^ of an inch, corres- 
 pondins theoretically to li inch to every one hun- 
 dred yards. As no inan can hold or sight a rifle at 
 1 000 yards within ten inches, the elevation on both 
 rifles is practically the same, or about two inches to 
 each 100 yards for each subdivision on the vernier 
 that is, twenty inches at 1.000 yards. The elevations 
 on the Metford and Rigby rifles is about the same. 
 The subdivisions upon the wind-gauge of both the
 
 PEETEES BULLET. 
 
 500 
 
 PELLET POWDEH. 
 
 Remington and Sharps rifles are about ^^ of an inch, 
 and are equivalent in practice to two inches at each 
 100 j'ards, or 20 inclies at 1,000 yards, on the 34-inch 
 barrel. 
 
 As the errors incident to aiming at long range will, 
 in most cases, increase the effect of any alteration 
 in the sights, care should be taken to keep well 
 within the elevations which would he malhemaf icall}' 
 correct. It must also be recollected that the veloc- 
 ity of a bullet decreases with the distance, and as it 
 loses its velocity it becomes more likely to be afl'ecte<i 
 by currents of air. Consequently the effect of any 
 change upon the sights is greater proportionately at 
 long than at short range. The effect of wind, etc., 
 increases in a still greater proportion, that which 
 would require an alteration of 2 points in the eleva- 
 tion at 800 yards, requiring 2i at 900, and 3 at 1,000. 
 The best riflemen prefer to have the peep-hole of the 
 rear sight of considerable size, as affording more 
 light, and consequently allowing a better sight to be 
 taken. In the Metford rear sight, discs having dif- 
 ferent sized apertures may be used: and it has been 
 stated by some of the Irish team of 1874 that they 
 have, in foggy or dark weather, done good shooting 
 b}' removing the disc entirely, so as to leave an aper- 
 ture of nearly a quarter of an inch. Every rifleman 
 should, therefore, have an extra disc, with a large 
 aperture, to use in dusky weather. The vernier 
 sight is usually placed upon the small of the stock. 
 General Dakin and others who shoot on tlieir backs, 
 have it placed upon the heel of the butt. When the 
 latter is the case, it makes the distance between the 
 two sights nearly a third greater than when placed 
 upon the small of the stock, and consequently a pro- 
 portionately greater allowance both for elevation 
 and wind will be required. 
 
 PEETEHS BULLET.— A form of bullet first used 
 with the rifled mu.sket by the Bel- 
 gian infantry. It has a considerable 
 cavity of a peculiar form. The metal 
 of the projectile is left about the 
 axis and projects downward, filling 
 about one half of the forward half 
 of the cavity. In consequence of the 
 cavity, this bullet is somewhat lighter 
 than the bullet for the rifle a tige. 
 
 PEISHWA.— The title of the per- 
 sonage thiril in rank and authority at 
 the Court of the Mahratta Mahara- 
 jahs of Satara, there being only the 
 Priti-nidhi (Delegate of Rajah), be- 
 tween him and his Sovereign. How- 
 ever, during the weak reigns of Sev- 
 ajee's descendants, the Minister in- 
 creased in importance, till, about the 
 commencement of the 18th century, 
 Balajee Biswanath, the then Peisli- 
 wa, and a man of distinguished ad- 
 ministrative ability and diplomatic 
 talents, made himself virtually the 
 Ruler of the :\Iahrattas. 
 PELICAN. In Heraldry, the pelican is drawn with 
 wings imiorsed, and wound- 
 ing her breast with her beak. 
 When represented in her nest 
 feeding her young with her 
 blood, she is called a pelican 
 ill hrr pitti/. 
 
 pellet'.— 1. An old word 
 for shot or bullet. 2. In Kng- 
 lish Heraldry, a roundle sable. 
 (kjrecu has the saiiic significa- 
 tion. 
 
 PELLET POWDER. -In con- 
 sequence of the very great 
 increase in the size of modern rifled cannon, and 
 the large charges of gunpfivvder which have now to 
 be used (from 300 lbs. to.lOO lbs. being fre(|uently em- 
 ployed), it HO(m became evident that some modiH(-a- 
 tion would have to be made in the description of 
 
 gunpowder used. It was found that the ordinary 
 large-grain powder hitherto adopted for small char- 
 ges was not suitable for guns of large caliber, owing 
 to the very rapid generation of the gases, and the 
 inordinate strain to which the gun was thereby sub- 
 jected. E.xtensive experiments were therefore car- 
 ried out, with a view to determine the kind of pow- 
 der that would give to the projectile a high initial 
 velocity, and at the same time reduce the strain 
 upon the gun to a minimum. This resulted in the 
 adoption of a very large-grain powder called "pellet 
 powder," which upon trial was found to give very 
 remarkable results, as high an initial velocity as 1,600 
 per second being obtained, with a low pressure in 
 the interior of the gun of not more than from 21 to 
 23 tons per square inch. These pellets are formed 
 by compressing the powder meal into metal molds; 
 various shapes and sizes were tried, some were tlat 
 discs, others prisms, but the shape which found 
 most favor at first was the cylindrical pellet, 3-4" in 
 diameter by ^" in length, and weighing 95 grains. 
 Originally, these were made by hand, but it waa 
 soon apparent, that, if required in large quantities, 
 machinery would have to be devised for their pro- 
 duction; consequently a large machine of somewhat 
 novel description, and capable of making 400 pellets 
 at one time, was designed by Dr. John Anderson, 
 and manufactured at Birmingham. This machine 
 is worked entirely by means of hydraulic power de- 
 rived from an accumidator, which affords a pressure 
 equal to 1,000 lbs. per square inch. 
 
 This machine — which has given most excellent re- 
 sults — consists of two hydraulic cylinders, with a 
 division in the center of each — thus, in reality, mak- 
 ing four cylinders ; in the two upper ones a plain cyl- 
 indrical ram is fitted, which merely rises and falls as 
 the water is admitted underneath the ram or is with- 
 
 Pelican, in IIcTiildry. 
 
 drawn. These rams are used, first, for compressing 
 the pellets, and second, for ejecting them, when fin- 
 ished, out of the molil plates. The two lower di- 
 visions are fitted with pislim rams, securely atlached 
 to crossheads, whieli are united together, and also 
 connected to two other crossheads above the cylin- 
 ders by means of str(mg wrouglit-iron side rods, pro- 
 vided with collars working between lugs cast upon 
 tlie hydraulic presses, and so adjusted as to allow 
 oul}' a certain limited travel either u]) or down. The 
 upper crossheads can be adjusted to their exact ])0- 
 sitionsby lucaiis of screwed threads and lock nuts cm 
 the ujijier end of the side rods. The use of the lower 
 piston rams is to close the upper <ip<'niiigs in the 
 mold |)lates by bringing the top ])imches — which 
 are connected to Ihe upper crossheads by a gun-metal 
 plate, down upon the mold ])liite, and thus confine 
 the meal powder in the molds. The upper rams 
 are now slowly raised, and these, acting upon the 
 lower punches, compress the powder in the mold
 
 PELTA. 
 
 501 
 
 PENSABT. 
 
 plate. After tlio projier (lensity IiiiH lieen Mcriiretl, 
 till! iictioii of the lower rains is reversed, liy wliieli 
 nieiins 1)1)1 h tlii' lower iiiiil upper crosslx'iiils rer'cive 
 an upwaril niolioii, tlierel)y rai^iiii,' the upper punehi'H 
 oli'iir out of the way, so as lo ai|ii)itr)f ll)i' eoin pressed 
 pellets beiiii; ejecliMl out of the Diolil |)liili\ and this 
 is (lone by f^ivinfj a fiirtlier upward motion to the two 
 plain eylindrieal rams. This will he belter uniler- 
 stood by referrinir to the enlarged view, where tin; 
 mold plate whi<'h is double- n)ay be siipposi'd to 
 contain a charj;)' of meal powder in tlie mold ready 
 for eonipressini; into a pellet. The lower i)art of the 
 niolil is closed by the lower slei'l punch tliat fits the 
 mold very accurately, while the point of thi' punch 
 rests upon the top surface of the plain cylindrical 
 mm in the upper part of the hydraulic cylinder. The 
 upper ])unch is also of steel, but much larger in di- 
 ameter Ihun the lower one. 
 
 To compress the powiler in the mold, and form a 
 pellet, reipiires four distinct movemi'Uts of the n)a- 
 oliine. First, the upper punch is brouj,dit down un- 
 til it rests upon the mold ])lati' and closes the mold ; 
 this is elTected by a downwiird motion of the two 
 lower piston rams, to which the ui)per and lower 
 
 orosshcads are connected together with the upper 
 punches. Secondly, the lower punches arc raised 
 by the two upper plain rams, and the powder is com- 
 pressed in the niolil between the two punches. Third- 
 ly, when the pellet is sufficiently compressed, the up- 
 per punches are raised from off the mold plate, this 
 being done by reversing the action of the two lower 
 piston rams until the upper crosshead and punches 
 are at a sufficient height to admit of the compressed 
 pellet being ejected out of the mold plate. This 
 fourth and last operation of ejecting the pellet is ef- 
 fected by allowing the upper plain rams to rise still 
 further, and thus force the finished pellet out of the 
 mold by means of the lower steel punches. All these 
 operations are simply and readily performed by means 
 of a very ingenious arrangement of valves, the at- 
 tendant having nothing to do beyond placing a han- 
 dle in the several positions indicated on a dial. 
 These valves are so constructed that the water power 
 is admitted to the two presses simultaneously, whilst, 
 by a self-acting arrangement, the pressure is shut off 
 by the press itself when it has traveled the required 
 distance. A relief valve is also provided, to allow 
 any e.xce-;sive pressure to escape should it accumu- 
 late from any cause, and this prevents damage hap- 
 pening either to the pipes or other parts of the appa- 
 ratus. 
 
 It will thus be seen that a machine of this descrip- 
 tion is capable of easily making pellets of slraost any 
 shape, such as cyhndrical. hexagonal, prismatic, or 
 —what is possibly the best oif all — spherical, by 
 merely altering the form of the mold and punches. 
 In the machine referred to. there are (on a revolv- 
 ing table, the framework of which is made of gun- 
 metal) four mold plates fitted ; each contains 200 
 holes, but as there are only two hydraulic presses 
 to the machine, it follows that only two sets, or 400 
 molds, are under compression at one time, so that 
 when we number these mold plates consecutively, 
 then Nos. 1 and 3 will be under pressure whilst No. 
 2 and 4 are being filled. When the powder in Nos. 
 1 and 3 mold plate is sufficiently compressed, and 
 the pellets formed therein have been removed, the 
 entire table is turned one-fourth of the way round 
 by means of a handle and toothed pinion working 
 
 into correHpr)nding teeth provided round the jjeri- 
 phery of thi' gun inelal table, the revolving of which 
 is n)uch assisted by eighl small antifri<-tion rollers 
 li.xeil to Ihi' c;isl-iron fr.imi- of thi' machine ; thesf! 
 rolli-rs support l\w gun.n)etal table as it revolves 
 upon its own center. Nos. 2 and 4 mold plates, 
 which have been wholly filled with meal i)oW]ler, 
 are now brought under the crossheads of the machine 
 and ari' in position for the powder contained there, 
 in to be con)pr(ssed into pellets, whilst Nos. 1 and 
 ;j in turn take their [)laces lo be refilled; the r)pera- 
 tion, therefore, of pressing and refilling are continu- 
 ous, and the n)aihine is capable of producing a 
 large (pjimtity of i)ibble powder per day, and with 
 very little waste. Sec Ounpi/trdtr. 
 
 PELTA.— A small, light shield, sometimes attribut- 
 ed to the Anuizons, but used by numerous nations 
 of antitpiity, such as the inhabitants of Thrace, Spain, 
 and ^Mauritania, before its general introduction 
 among the (Irceks. It consisted mainly of a frami- 
 of wood or wicker-work covered with skin or leather, 
 without the metallic rim, and of a great variety of 
 shapes. It was sometimes round, as in the special 
 case of the (Jclra, sometimes elliptical, but most 
 commonly crescent-shaped orlunated. Soldiers bear- 
 ing tbi' pilta were called I'eltaxtat. 
 
 PELTAST.ffi;.— Grecian soldiers who were interme- 
 diate between the '^>//Wrt/ and the Pmlii. The pel- 
 tast corresponded to our elite corps of infantry, se- 
 lected for enterprises recjuiring both celerity and a 
 certain firmness. The formation of the peltasta; 
 and psiloi was analogous to that of the oplitai, the 
 number of files being 8, instead of IC as in the last. 
 See Oplitai. 
 
 PEMMICAK.— This was originally a North Ameri- 
 can Indian preparation only, but it was introduced 
 into the Jiritish Navy victualing-yards, in order to 
 supply the arctic expeditions with an easily pre- 
 served food, containing the largest amount of nutri- 
 ment in the smallest space. As made by the Indians, 
 it consists of the lean portions of venison dried by 
 the sun or wind, aud then pounded into a paste, and 
 tightly pressed into cakes ; sometimes a few fruits of 
 (i)nelani-hier ovata are added, to improve the flavor. 
 It will keep for a very long time uninjured. That 
 made for the arctic voyagers was chiefly of beef. In 
 making pemmican, it is necessary to remove the fat 
 completely. 
 
 PENAXSERVITUDE.— A pimishment awarded by 
 the Articles of War for certain crimes committed by 
 soldiers. 
 
 PENALTY. — A sum of money declared by some 
 statute or contract to be payable by one who com- 
 mits an offense or breach of contract. It is con- 
 sidered as a kind of punishment, and constituting 
 indirectly a motive to the party to avoid the com- 
 mission of the act which induces such a consequence. 
 Many contracts executed between parties and gov- 
 ernment contain a clause that one or other of them 
 who fails to perform his part of the contract will in- 
 cur a penalty, i.e., will be liable to pay a fixed sum 
 of money to the other party. In such cases, a dis. 
 tinction is drawn between a liquidated and un- 
 liquidated penalty ; and whether it is of the one 
 kind or the other, depends on the language used in 
 the contract. If it is a liquidated penalty, then, 
 when the breach of contract is committed, the party 
 in default must pay that precise sum, neither more 
 nor less ; but if it is unliquidated, then he is not to 
 pay the whole sum, but merely such part of it as 
 corresponds to the amount of injury or damage done, 
 and of which proportion a jury is the sole judge in 
 an action of damages. 
 
 PENCEL. — A sniall flag orstreamer which was for- 
 merly carried at the top of a lance. Also called 
 I'eniuincel. 
 
 PENDANT- PENNANT.— 1. In Heraldry, a part 
 hansins from the label, resembling the drops in the 
 Doric frieze. 2. A narrow llag of great length, taper- 
 ing to a point, and usually carried at the head of the
 
 PENDULUM. 
 
 502 
 
 PENDULUM. 
 
 principal mast in a royal ship, to show that she is in 
 commission. In the British Navy the Pendants are 
 borne of three colors — red, white, or blue — according 
 fo the color to which the Admiral commanding the 
 fleet pertains. On shore. Pendants are frequently em- 
 ployed at rifle ranges to indicate the strength and 
 direction of the wind. 
 
 PENDULUM. — In its widest scientific sense, a pen- 
 dulum is a body of any form or material which, under 
 the action of some force, vibrates about a position 
 of stable equilibrium. In its more usual applica- 
 tion, however, this term is restricted, in conformity 
 with its etymology, to bodies suspended from a point, 
 or oscillating about an a.\is, under the action of 
 gravity. The simple pendulum consists (in theory) 
 of a heavy point or particle, suspended by a flexible 
 string without weight, and therefore constrained to 
 move as if it were always on the inner surface of a 
 smooth spherical bowl. If such a pendulum be 
 drawn aside into a slightly inclined position, and al- 
 lowed to fall back, it evidently will oscillate from 
 side to side of its position of equilibrium, the motion 
 being confined to a vertical plane. If, instead of 
 being allowed to fall back, it be projected horizon- 
 tally in a direction perpendicular to that in which 
 gravity tends to move it, the bob will revolve about 
 its lowest position; and there is a particular ve- 
 locity with which, if it be projected, it describes a 
 circle about that point, and is then called a conical 
 pendulum. 
 
 If the bob of the simple pendulum be slightly dis- 
 placed in any manner, it describes an ellipse about 
 its lowest position as center. This ellipse may, of 
 
 course, become a straight line or a circle. The bob 
 does not accurately describe the same curve in suc- 
 cessive revolution's; in fact, the elliplie orbit just 
 mentioned rotates in its own plane about its center, 
 in the same direction as the bob moves, with an an- 
 gular velotMty nearly proportioned to tlie area of the 
 ellipse. This is an interesting case of prugrennidii 
 (if Ike apse, which can be watched by anv one who 
 will attacli a small bullet to a line threall ; or, still 
 licller, altacb to the lower end <if a loiif,' string, fixe<l 
 to tlie ceiling, a funnel full of fine .sand or ink which 
 is allowed to escape from a small orifice. By this 
 process, a more or less ))crnuuient trace of the motion 
 of the pi-iiduluni is recorded, by wliich the ellijrtic 
 form of the path and tlie phenomena of progression 
 are well shown. The very simple arrangemeni of 
 appanitus, shown in the drawing, will be found con- 
 venient for the demonstration of the princi])les of 
 
 pendulums, as also the laws of impact, both in elastic 
 and non-elastic bodies. 
 
 It is readily seen that there should be no progres- 
 sion if the pendulum could be made to vibrate sim- 
 ply in a straight line, as then the area of its elliptic or- 
 bit vanishes.lt is, however. found tobe almost impossi- 
 ble in practice to render the path absolutely straight: 
 so that there always is from this cause a slight rate of 
 change in the position of the line of oscillation. But 
 as the direction of this change depends on the direc- 
 tion of rotation in the ellipse, it is as likely to effect 
 the motion in one way as in the opposite, and is thus 
 easily separable from the very curious result obtain- 
 ed by Poucault, that on account of the earth's rota- 
 tion, the plane of vibration of the pendulum appears 
 P-i turn in the same direction as the sun, that is, in the 
 opposite direction to the earth's rotation about its 
 axis. To illustrate this now well-known case, con- 
 sider for a moment a simple pendulum vibrating at 
 the pole of the earth. Here, if the pendulum vibrates 
 in a straight Ime, the direction of that line remains 
 absolutel}' fixed in space, while the earth turns round 
 below it once in 24 hours. To a spectator on the 
 earth, it appears, of course, as if the plane of motion 
 of the pendulum were turning once round in 24 
 hours, but in the opposite direction. To find the a- 
 mount of the corresponding phenomenon in any oth- 
 er latitude, all that is required is to know the rate of 
 the earth's rotation about the vertical in that latitude. 
 This is easy, for velocities of rotation are resolved 
 and compounded by the same process as forces, hence 
 the rate at which the earth rotates about the vertical 
 in latitude A is less than that of rotation about the 
 polar axis in the ratio of sin. X to 1. Hence the time 
 of the apparent rotation of the plane of the pendu- 
 24 hours 
 
 lum's motion is . At the pole, this is simply 
 
 sin S. 
 24 hours; at the equator, it is infinitely great, or there 
 is no elTect of this kind; in the latitude of Edinburgh 
 (56® 57' 23.2"), it is 28 hr. 37 m. 48 seconds. 
 
 We have not yet alluded to the obvious fact, that 
 a simple pendulum, such as we have described above, 
 exists in theory only, since we cannot procure either 
 a single heavy particle, or a perfectly light and flex- 
 ible string. But it is easily shown, although the 
 process cannot be given here, that a rigid body of 
 any form whatever vibrates about an axis under the 
 action of gravity, according to the same law as the 
 hypothetical simple pendulum. The length of the 
 equivalent simple pendulum depends upon what is 
 called the radius of gyration of the pendulous body. 
 Its property is simply this, that if the whole mass 
 of the body were collected at a point whose distance 
 from the axis is the radius of gyration, the moment 
 of Inertia of this heavy point (about the axis) would 
 be the same as that of the complex body The 
 square of the radius of gyration of a body about 
 any axis, is greater than the square of the radius of 
 gyration about a parallel axis through the center of 
 gravity, by the square of the distance between those 
 lines. Now, the length of the simple pendulum 
 equivalent to a body oscillating about any axis ip 
 directly as the square of the radius of gyration, and 
 inversely as the distance of the center of gravity 
 from the axis. Hence, if k be the radius of gyration 
 of a body about au axis through the center of 
 
 gravity, 'yk^-\-h'^ is that about a parallel axis whose 
 distance from the first is h ; and the length, I, of 
 
 k°--\-h-^ 
 
 the ei|uivalent simjile pendulum is 1= . Thia 
 
 h 
 
 expression becomes infinitely great if A be very 
 large, and also if h be very small (that is a body 
 vibrates very slowly about an axis either far from, 
 or near to, its center of gravity). It must therefore 
 have a mininuuu value. By solving the equation 
 aliove as a quadratic in A, we find that I camiot bo 
 less than %k, which is, therefore, the length of the
 
 PENDnLTTK HAUSSE. 
 
 503 
 
 PENETRATION OF PROJECTILES. 
 
 Bimplo i)rn<liiluiri cnrrcspoiHliiij; to Ihc qiiickcHl vi- 
 bratioiiH wliu'li tlicr hculy <ini rxcciitc about any axis 
 parallel to IIk; j;iv<Ti mii'. 
 
 An llu; Iciif^tli of a rod or liar <if any material (1(n 
 peiids on its tcinperatiirc!, a eloek with an ordinary 
 peiidiiliiiii goes faster in cold, and slower in hot, 
 weather. Various contrivances have been devise<l 
 for the purpose of diniinisliini;, if not destroyinK, 
 these elTccts. The most perfr-ct in theory, tlioufjli 
 perhaps imt the most available in pralice, is that of 
 Sir I). Urevvsler, founiled uiion the experimental 
 discovery of Mitscherlich, that some crystals irpaiid 
 by heat in one direct ion, while c.imtrnrting in the 
 perpendicular one; and therefore that a roil iiuiy be 
 out out of the crystal in such a direction as not to 
 alt<!r in lenjith by any rhange of lemperalure. In 
 the method of correction usually emjilriyed, and call- 
 ed rompciiMiliiiii, advantaj;!? is taken of the fact that 
 (lilferent substances have diirerent coellleients of 
 linear dilatation; so thai if the bob of the pendulum 
 be so suspended as to be raised by the expansion of 
 one substance, and depressed by the expansion of 
 another, the lengths of the effeotive port ions of these 
 substances may bt^ so adjusted that tlie raising and 
 depression, takini; place simultaneously, may leave 
 the position of the bol) unafTecled. There are two 
 common methods of elTectini; this, dillcring a little 
 in construction, but ultimately depending on the 
 same principle. Of these, the mercurial pendulum 
 is the more easily described. The rod and frame- 
 work are of steel. Inside the framework is placed 
 a cylindrical glass jar, nearly full of mercury, which 
 can be raised or depressed by turnini; a nut. Hy 
 increase of temperature, the steel poriiim is length- 
 ened by an amount proportional to its length, its 
 coefficient of linear dilatation, and the change of 
 temperature, conjointly — and thus the jar of mercury 
 is removed from the axis of suspension. But neglect- 
 ing the expansion of the glass, which is very small, 
 the mercury rises in the jar by an amount propor- 
 tional to its bulk, its coefficient of cubical dilatation, 
 and the change of temperature, conjointly. Now, 
 by increasing or diminishing the quantity of mer- 
 cury, it is obvious that we may so adjust the instru- 
 
 ment that till 
 
 — I of tl 
 
 A/ 
 
 le equivalent sim- 
 
 ple pendulum shall be unaltered by the change of 
 temperature, whatever be its amount, so long as it 
 is not great enough to sensibly change the coellicients 
 of dilatation of the two metals. The screw has 
 nothing to do with the cnmpiii.idtion, its use is to 
 adjust the length of the pendulum so that it shall 
 vibrate in one second. See Bob, G^un-pendulum, and 
 Pliimnwt. 
 
 PENDULUM-HAUSSE. — A contrivance used to 
 point field-pieces, and at the same time to obviate 
 ^ the error which arises when the wheels 
 
 of the carriage stand on uneven ground. 
 It consists of a scale and slidtr. The 
 scale is made of sheet-brass ; at the low- 
 er end is a brass bulb filled with lead. 
 The slider is of thin brass, and is retained 
 in any desired position on the scale by 
 means of a brass set screw with a milled 
 head. The scale is passed through a 
 .slit in a piece of steel, with which it is 
 connected by a brass screw, forming a 
 pivot on which the scale can vibrate 
 laterally ; this slit is made long enough 
 to allow the scale to take a vertical 
 position in any ordinary inequality of 
 the ground on which the wheels of the carriage are 
 required to stand; the ends of this pie(;e of steel form 
 two journals by means of which the scale is supported 
 on tiie seat attached to the piece, and is at liberty to 
 vibrate in the direction of the axis of the piece. The 
 neat for suspending the pendulum-hausse upon the 
 piece is screwed to the base of the breech in such 
 
 a manner that the centers of the two jour;iul nolclieK 
 shall be at adistancc from the axis equal to the great- 
 , est exterior radius of the base of tlie breech. The 
 height of the front-sight being eipial to the dispart 
 I of the piece, a line from the top of the muz/le-sight 
 to the zero, which is the pivot of the scale, is par- 
 allel to the axis of tin- pii'cc ; hence the vertical plane 
 of sight passing through th(- center linr- of the scale 
 and th<- top of the mu/./.ht-sighl, will \>c |>arallel to 
 the axis in any position of the piece ; the scale will 
 therefore always indicate correctly the angle which 
 ; the line of sight makes with the axis. The hausse, 
 i the seat, and the muzzle-sight, vary, in their con- 
 I struction and arrangement, with the piet^' for which 
 they are inteniled. The graduations on the scale 
 are the tangents of ea(;h (piarler-dcgree to a radius 
 ecpial to the distance between the nuizzlc-sight and 
 the center of the journal-notches, which are in all 
 cases one inch in rear of the highest point of the 
 base of the bn'c'ch. 
 
 PENETRATION OF PROJECTILES.— The most com- 
 mon substances encountered by projectiles arc ar- 
 ranged in the following series, in the order of their 
 resistance to penetration: ai'r, waUr, nanif, trnnd, 
 lend, copper, ■wr<>it(jlit-irun,ni>fl ute^il, aint-iron, cldlUd- 
 iroii, hardened Kteel, etc. All other substances may 
 be arranged between these, or in continuation of the 
 series. -4ir opposes the motion of a projectile by 
 its inertia, elastic force, and the pressure due to its 
 weight. The projectile compresses the air in its 
 front and disperses it laterally, while the rear of the 
 projectile is relieved by its motion of the normal 
 pressure of the air. A small amount of resistance 
 is also met with in the shape of friction. In the case 
 of water these resistances are increased by the great- 
 er density and weight of this substance, and there 
 is also a slight additional resistance due to the co- 
 hesion among the particles. Sand, being a solid, or 
 at least made up of solid elements, presents the ad- 
 ditional resistance of "crushing-strength." It can- 
 not be penetrated at a high velocity witliout crushing 
 some of the grains, and the higher the velocity the 
 greater the amount of work expended in this manner. 
 This resistance to crushing implies a continuation 
 of the elastic force beyond the elastic limits, and in- 
 volves indirectly tensile strength, since a solid in be- 
 ing crushed must enlarge laterally and finally yield 
 to a strain of tension. In penetrating icmd, lead, or 
 any of the other materials, "ten.sile strength" forms 
 the chief element of the resistance, while inertia and 
 friction become of minor importance. 
 
 The office of elasticity in all these cases is to trans- 
 mit the effect of the projectile from those parlicle-s 
 first acted upon to those more remote, and thus call- 
 ing into play their inertia or tensile strength, as the 
 ca'se may be; and were it not for this properly, the 
 statical resistance of a plate of any material to per- 
 foration would be entirely independent of the thick- 
 ness of the plate; a thick plate would offer no greater 
 resistance than a thin one, since each layer or unit 
 of thickness would be perforated without receiving 
 any assistance from its neighbors. The irurk of pen- 
 etration would then vary directly with the distance 
 penetrated, or the thickness of the plate : elasticity, 
 however, has its maximum point of usefulness in 
 resisting penetration, and beyond this it becomes a 
 great disadvantage. While increasing the number 
 of fibers or elementary portions of the material brok- 
 en at once, thereby increasing the statical resistance, 
 it diminishes the "time during which this resistance 
 opposes the motion of the projectile in like ratio: and 
 the amount of motion destroyed or generated in- 
 creases with, the time as well as with the force or re- 
 sistance. For this reason hardened steel and chill- 
 ed iron are less efficient in stopping projectiles than 
 soft iron, although tliev offer a much greater statical 
 resistance to penetration. There are many reasons 
 for believino- that a general formula for the jx-netra- 
 tion of projectiles in all materials may be deduced, 
 when experiments have been sufficiently extended.
 
 PENETRATIVE EFFECT. 
 
 504 
 
 PEHETRATITE EFFECT. 
 
 in wliich the constants will simply require changing 
 to suit any particular case under consideration. 
 
 That the penetration of an elongated projectile is 
 influenced by the form of its head has been shown by 
 experiment, many different forms of head having 
 been tried. The flat head has been strongly advo- 
 cated, because it is asserted to be a better form for 
 punching than any of the pointed heads, and be- 
 cause it is also asserted that it will bite into an iron 
 plate at such an oblique angle as would cause a point- 
 ed head to merely glance. But the truth of these 
 assertions lias not been generally admitted. The 
 flat-headed projectile is objectionable both as regards 
 accuracy and velocity, and it has also a tendency to 
 upset or bulge at tlie head on impact, and this result 
 is very marked. The pointed projectile is superior 
 in accuracy and range, and does not upset on im- 
 pact to any thing like the same extent. It is assert- 
 ed that it cuts through an iron plate to a better ad- 
 vantage, or rather tears through, bending back the 
 plate. 
 
 Another point in connection with the penetration of 
 elongated projectiles is the effect of different forms 
 of head upon the rotation of the projectile when the 
 impact is oblique. If the axis of the projectile is 
 tangent to the trajectory on impact, and at the same 
 
 ter, sa that its axis becomes perpendicular, or nearly 
 so, to the face of the plate, having then only the 
 least thickness to penetrate. 
 
 It is diihcult to obtain for comparison the results 
 of practice with the flat and pointed headed projec- 
 tiles of the same material fired at targets inclined to 
 the line of the range; the former having been so 
 little used, as its form is so objectionable, both as 
 regards accuracy and velocity. On the whole, it may 
 be said that in the case when the projectile ought to 
 be capable of piercing the plate or target, there is 
 little difference between the effect of a tiat head and 
 a hemispherical head ; but when the target is beyond 
 the power of tlie projectUe, the hemispherical head 
 makes the deepest indent. 
 
 The impact of a projectile, in addition to indent- 
 ing or penetrating a target, produces more or less 
 bending, tearing, and other damage at a distance 
 from the point of impact ; which effects may be 
 classed under the term " Concussion." The effect of 
 concussion is transmitted from the point of impact 
 in all directions, in the same manner as sound- 
 waves, and increases with the elasticity of the ma- 
 terial. Whatever tends to diminish the elasticity of 
 the structure, as dividing it into many pieces, or 
 using soft ductile material to receive the projectile, 
 
 »ii;, ^\\\\ \^\^\ \N^-^-S^\\^\\ \' .V\ ^N . .^N, ^ NWW.kxW \^ \^^ 
 
 time normal to the target, there will be no tendency 
 to rotate about any axis parallel with the plane of the 
 target. In the drawing, if we suppose a projectile to 
 arrive at A, under tliese conditions it will undoubt- 
 edly penetrate the plate directly. But let one arrive 
 at D or E, and there will be a tendency to rotate, 
 and this tendency will depend upon the form of the 
 projectile as well as upon the angle between the tra- 
 jectory and its axis. 
 
 It is often asserted,however, that the advantage in 
 the latter case will be in favor of the flat-headed 
 projectile, since the moment of the rotating-force 
 will be the variable resistance of the plate multiplied 
 by the lever arm Dd, for the pointed projectile, and 
 the same multiplied by a much shorter lever arm, 
 Ee, incase of the flat-lieaded projectile, and this may 
 be negative; or in other words, there may be a ten- 
 dency to rotate towards the normal, which would be 
 a decided advantage. This would take place when 
 the line of the trajectory passed within the base of 
 the shot. In the third case, represented at B and C, 
 a projectile is moving with its axis tangent to the 
 trajectory, but oblique to the target; here there is 
 also a tendency for the flat-headed projectile to ro- 
 tate toward the normal, but it is questionable whether 
 such rotation would be advantageous. The pointed 
 projectile would have a less tendency to such rota- 
 tion. 
 
 On the other hand, the respective motions of a flat 
 and pointed headed projectile on oblique impact are 
 explained as follows : It is asserted that the flat- 
 lieaded ])rojcctile, on striking, cuts out a portion of 
 the face (if the plate, which it carries along in front, 
 thus increasing the thickness to be penetrated; and. 
 remaining nearly ])arallel to its original direction, it 
 lias to jiiiss through tlie jilate obliquely. While, if 
 the projectile has a pointed lieail, the [mint eiuers at 
 first more deeply into the plate than tlie Hat head, 
 and the center of gravity moving forward, the pro- 
 jectile turns around more readily than with the lat- 
 
 will diminish the effect of concussion. This effect 
 is expended in two ways — First, in giving motion to 
 the structure or in developing inertia; and, Seajiid, 
 in overcoming the tenacity of the material, either in 
 bending or tearing those portions first acted upon 
 from those more remote. Both of these compo- 
 nents increase with the whole amount of work ex- 
 pended by the projectile, other conditions being 
 equal. See. Impact of Projectiles &nd Prujectiles. 
 
 PENETRATIVE EFFECT.— Generally speaking, the 
 penetrative effect depends on the shape and material 
 of the projectile, on its energy and diameter, and the 
 direction with which it strikes the target. It is quite 
 impossible to accurately determine the coefficients of 
 resistance for the different materials of projectiles 
 and plates; but practically the amount of penetra- 
 tion, whether for iron or steel plates, or masonry, or 
 earth, may be determined by experiment. Various 
 empirical laws sufliiee to give approximate results; 
 but they do not stand the test of any general appli- 
 cation. In consequence of the varying qualities of 
 resistance both in projectiles and targets, the varia- 
 tion in shape of the projectile on impact, the possi- 
 bility of the projectile breaking up, and the amount 
 of heat developed on impact, strictly analytical in- 
 vestigations cannot be made. If V is the velocity 
 required for a projectile to pierce an armor-plate 
 with right-angled impact, its energy per inch of cir- 
 
 W V« 
 
 cumference ( See Eiurgy)U . But if the 
 
 2g. n d. 
 projectile strikes obliquely at an angle A, then, if it 
 turns in on its point and perforiiti's wrmally, it is 
 readily seen that the velocity for perforation must be 
 V 
 
 ,and consequently the energy per inch of cir- 
 
 Sin A 
 cumference for oblique perforation will be 
 
 W V 
 
 '2g7r d.sin'A
 
 FENNATED DAOOEB. 
 
 505 
 
 PENSIONS. 
 
 that is the number of foot-tons pfr inrli of rirriini- 
 fercncf to pcrfornli' iiu nrnior-pliit(: ol)li(iii<'ly i« 
 found by dividinj^ tlic iiumiImt of foot-tons n-quired 
 for perforation by rinlil-iiiinlcd iinpiiel bytlie H(|uiire 
 of the 8in(' of the unfile of impact. If the proj<e- 
 tile f;0C8Hlriiif(lit ihroiiKli tlie phile without turtiinfr 
 in, the eneri^v per inch of eireuinference for obliijue 
 
 perforation will be 
 
 2g 7Ti\. Sin A 
 
 In this ease we would hiuc best results for flat-head- 
 ed i)rojeeliles mid eoniiiariitively thin aruior-plates. 
 
 'I'he results of e.xpcrinu'nt show that the amount 
 of peni-tration is directly |)r(]poilional to the produet 
 of till' weif^lif of the projectile, mulliplied l)y its ve- 
 locity raised to ]iowers that vary but lilllc from unity 
 for the ditrereiil resistiiif;: Imdics. 'I'lie iiinelralion 
 into nias.ses, such as earthen jiarapets and thick 
 platee, is inversely proportional to the area of cro.ss- 
 section of the projectile. From these deductions we 
 p V 
 
 obtain the expression W = in which W , called 
 
 d- 
 tlie penetrative effect, is taken as a measure of the 
 projectile's power, p = weight of the projectile in 
 pounds, V = velocity of impact in feet, d -^ diame- 
 ter of shot in inches. Letting S = iienetrationof the 
 
 1 p V W 
 
 sliol in inches, we have (1) S = ^ — , A 
 
 A d= A 
 being a coefficient, depending iipon the shape of the 
 projectile and the nature of the resisting substance, 
 to be determined by experiment. For the best (puU- 
 ity of wrought-iron plates, subjected to the action 
 of ogiva! projectiles of steel or chilled east-iron, the 
 above formula may be used. For plates not exceed- 
 ing 3i ipches in thickness A = 575, whence (2) S = 
 
 . For plates of a greater thickness than 2i Indies 
 
 575 
 
 W 
 
 (3) S = 1.5 inches. For plates not exceedmg 
 
 360 
 20 inches in thickness, this formula gives results 
 closely appro.ximating those determined by experi- 
 ment. The depth to which a projectile will bury it- 
 self in a resisting body, which is too thick to bo per- 
 forated, is less than the thickness of the obstacle 
 that it will just pass through. For example, the 
 shells of the 2.76 inch Italian field-gun, at l,Ot>0 yards 
 range, pass through a brick wall 1.97 feet thick, but 
 only penetrate 1.66 feet into a similar wall 3.94 feet 
 thick. In speaking of the penetration Into masses 
 of earth, wood, or masonry, the depth of penetra- 
 tion is meant, and S In formula (i) gives the number 
 of inches the projectile will bury Itself In a resisting 
 body too thick to be perforated. The thickness of 
 plate that the projectile can just pass through is 
 generally taken as a measure of the power of guns 
 against iron plates, and S in formulas (2) and (3) has 
 this signification. The penetration of a projectile 
 depends not only on Its velocity, but also upon the 
 direction in which it strikes the object, the compo- 
 nent of the velocity normal to the surface struck de- 
 termining the penetration. In this case the cosine 
 of tlie angle of Incidence should be Introduced. 
 
 To find the penetrating power of a projectile, at 
 any point of Its flight, "into armor-plates, the em- 
 pirical formula of Major Noble, of the Royal Artillery, 
 is used • 
 
 
 i 
 
 in which, A = penetration in feet; r ^ velocity on 
 impact. In feet per seconil ; W = weight of shot, in 
 pounds ; r = ratio of diameter to circumference of 
 circle. 3.141.59: Ji —- radius of shot, in feet; g = 
 force of gravity. 32.16 pounds; * = a co-etflc'ient 
 determined by experiment, depending on the nature 
 
 of the wrought-iron in the plate, ami the nature and 
 form of the head of tlie shot. For a spherieul pro. 
 jeclile against an unbacked plate, CA; is 5,:)57,200. 
 For an ogival lieadr-d projectile against a backed 
 plate f*), is assumed to be 4.H'21,4H0. The plate in 
 considered to be vertical, and the trajeit<iry to be in 
 a plane perpenilieular to the plate. Should the shot 
 strike the pliite oliliijuely, the value of (h) determined 
 as above, must be niulti|)lied by the sine of the 
 angle; of incidence. Foru given projectile anil a plate 
 of known thickness, the work required to produce 
 penetration win be found from the equation placed 
 
 under the form, = 2rR kb* ; and the velocity 
 
 2k 
 needed at impact, from the same equation solved 
 with reference to (r). 
 
 PENNATED DAGGER —An Italian main ganehe 
 with three blades expanding by means of a spring 
 when a button was pressed in the handle, and form- 
 ing a guard of great leni;th and breadth, in which 
 the adversary's sword might be cauirht and sna|)ped. 
 
 PENNETIERE.— A pocket or small bug in which 
 slingers carried stones and leaden balls. Also writ- 
 ten Panrtiere. 
 
 PENNON. — 1. Formerly a copper wing of along, 
 light arrow {Vtrettm) substituted for a feather. 2. A 
 small, pointed, or swallow-tailed flag, carried by the 
 
 medincval knight on his lance.bearing his personal de- 
 vice or badge, and sometimes richly fringed with 
 gold. The device was so placed as to appear in its 
 proper position when the weapon was laid for the 
 charge. Permoncelle is a long streamer-like flag, the 
 diminutive of the pennon. See Flags. 
 
 PENSIONS. —In the United States pensions are 
 most generously granted by Act of Congress In the 
 many cases of persons who have seen active service in 
 the Army or Navy, and who have been honorably 
 discharged. They are also awarded to widows, 
 orphans, or other persons dependent on those in- 
 stanced above. The existing pension-list of the 
 United States Includes those which have been grant- 
 ed for account of services rendered In the A\ ar of 
 1812 ; the Mexican War, and the War of the Rebel- 
 lion. For the laws governing the distribution of 
 pensions, and their amounts, etc., see Eetmd Sta- 
 tutes of the United State.i. 
 
 In England, pensions are awarded for good service, 
 for mere faithful ordlnarj- service, for wounds, and 
 to representatives of deceased officers. Oood-xerriee 
 Pensions are rewards to selected Officers in the Brit- 
 ish Navy for distlngui.shed service. In 1873 they 
 were as follows : 12 Admirals had £300 each. 25 Cap- 
 tains £150, 1 General of Marines £300, 5 do. £200. 2 
 Colonels £150. and 5 Medical Officers £100: total 
 £9.150. In 1875-76 the total was £7.500. The cor 
 responding pension in the Arm}' is called a Reward 
 for Distinguished Service. 
 
 The Pensions for I^ong Service are awarded in the 
 army to Non-commissioned Officers and Soldiers 
 who have served 21 years in the infantry, or 24 years 
 in the cavalrv, or earlier if disabled from further ser-
 
 PENSTOCK. 
 
 506 
 
 PEHCUSSION CAPS. 
 
 vice, according to tlie wounds, less of Ixealth, and 
 conduct of the pensioner. Tlie amount is fi.\ed by 
 the Commissioners of Chelsea Hospital, and varies 
 from lid. to 3s. 6d. a day, the lower rates being main- 
 ly confined to Negro Pensioners from the West In- 
 dia regiments. Pensioners are either In-Pensioners 
 of Chelsea, or Kilmainham Hospitals, in which case 
 they forego their proper pensions, andreceive board, 
 lodging, and a small sum for tobacco-money, or Out- 
 Pensioners residing where they please, and drawing 
 their pensions from the Staff Officers of Pensioners, 
 of whom there is one in every considerable town. 
 These men can follow other pursuits, often do so 
 with very great success, as their militarj' habits of 
 regularity stand them in good stead in civil life. 
 
 Pensions for Wounds are common to both services, 
 and are limited to officers. The}' are awarded res- 
 pectively by the Secretarj' of War and Lords of the 
 Admiralty, for serious bodily injur)-, as the loss of a 
 limb or eye, and vary according to the rank of the 
 recipient and other circumstances. In cases of ser- 
 ious injury, temporary pensions are sometimes grant- 
 ed, or gratuities. The charge for Pensions for 
 Wounds for 1875-76 was — army, 172 recipients, £16,- 
 453 ; navy, 85 recipients, £9,036 ; total; £25,479. In 
 the case of Common Soldiers and Sailors, wounds 
 may serve to hasten or augment the pension for ser- 
 vice, but they have no distinctive Pension for 
 Wounds. 
 
 Widows of Commissioned and Warrant Officers in 
 the army and navy receive pensions so long as they 
 remain unmarried, provided they have Ijeen married 
 severally twelve months when their husbands die, 
 and that the latter were under 60 years of age (50 
 for Warrant officers) when they married tlie Claim- 
 ants. Such pension is not granted if the widow be 
 left in wealthy circumstances, and lies dormant dur- 
 ing a second marriage, though it may be revived 
 should she again become a widow. The amount of 
 pension varies according to rank, and there are 
 three distinct classes for each rank : 1st, Wlien the 
 husband was killed in the battle, or died within six 
 months of wounds received therein ; 2d, When he 
 died from some cause distinctly falling within the 
 sphere of liis duty, but not from wounds in action; 
 3d. When he died in the course of nature. 
 
 In an elaborate opinion given by Mr. Attorney- 
 General Cushing, published by the War Department 
 in General Orders, No. 11 of 1855, he draws the con- 
 clusion that " the phrase "line of duty' is an apt one, 
 to donote that an act of duty performed must have 
 relation of causation, mediate or immediate, to the 
 wound, the casualty, the injury, or the disease pro- 
 ducing disability of death." Every person (says Mr. 
 Cushing) who enters the military service of the coun- 
 try — officer, soldier, sailor, or marine — takes upon 
 himself certain moral and legal engagements of duty 
 wliich constitute his official or professional obliga- 
 tions. While in the performance of those things 
 which the law requires of him as military duty, he 
 is in the line of his duty. But at the same time, though 
 a soldier or sailor, he is not the less a man and a citi- 
 zen, with private rights to e.xercise and duties to per- 
 form ; ami while attending to these things he is not 
 in the line of liis public duty. In addition to this, a 
 Koldier or sailor, like any other man, has the physical 
 faculty of doing many tilings which are in violation 
 of duties either general or special; and in doing these 
 things he is not acting in the line of his duty, .\round 
 all those acts of tlie soldier or sailor which are offi- 
 cial in their nature the pension laws draw a legisla- 
 tive line, and then they say to tlie .so]di<'r or sailor : 
 If, while performing acts which are within that line, 
 you thereby incur disability or death, you or your 
 widow or children, as the case may be, shall receive 
 pension or allow:inc,<'; but not if the disaliility or 
 death arise from acts performed outside of that line; 
 that is, absolutely discniuiecled from, and wliolly in- 
 dependent of, the ])rrformancc of duly. Was llie 
 cause of disability or deatli u cause within the Hue of 
 
 duty or outside of it? Wasthatcauseapperlaining to, 
 dependent upim or otherwise necessarily and essential- 
 ly connected with, duty within the line; or was it un- 
 appertinent, independent, and not of necessary and 
 essential connection ? That is the true test-criterion 
 of the class of pension cases under consideration. 
 
 PENSTOCK. — A machine composed of timber, 
 which, by means of a movable board, enables the 
 defenders of a fortress to allow such a rush of water 
 from the batardeaux as to inundate and destroy the 
 works which the enemy may have constructed in the 
 ditch. 
 
 PENTAGON.— In fortification, a figure bounded by 
 five siiles, which form so many angles, capable of 
 being fortified with an equal number of bastions, 
 
 PENTATHLON.— The five exercises performed in 
 the Grecian games, namely, leaping, running, quoit- 
 ing. darting, and wrestling. 
 
 PENTHOUSE.— 1. A shed hanging forward in a 
 sloping direction from the main wall of a place. 3. 
 A small house, made of boards united by hooks and 
 staples, for protecting a gun and its carriages mount- 
 ed en hfirbeUe from the weather. 
 
 PEON. — In India, a term formerly given to a foot- 
 soldier, but in these days it does not bear this signi- 
 fication. Native servants or mes- 
 sengers attached to the Govern- 
 ment offices in India are designa- 
 ted Peons, and wear a belt with a 
 brass plate bearing the name of 
 the office to distinguish them from 
 private servants. 
 
 PERCLOSE.— Pekclose or Demi- 
 CiETER, in Heraldry, is the lower 
 Berolosa. i,,,]f ,^f ^ g;arterwith the buckle. 
 
 PEHCUSSION BULLETS.— Percussion bullets may 
 be made by placing a small quantity of percussion 
 powder, enclosed in a copper en- 
 velope, in the point of an ordinary 
 rifle-musket bullet, or by casting 
 the bullet around a small iron 
 tube, which is afterward filled 
 with powder and surmounted with 
 a common percussion-cap. The im- 
 pact of the bullet against a sub- 
 stance no harder than wood is 
 found to readily ignite the percus- 
 sion charge or cap, and produce an 
 effective explosion. These projectiles can be used 
 to blow up caissons and boxes containing ammu- 
 nition at very long distances. See Bullet and Pro. 
 jecUles. 
 
 FEBCUSSION CAPS.— Small coppei cylinders. closed 
 at one end, for conveniently holding the detonating 
 powder which is exploded by the act of percussion 
 in percussion-arms. Caps were not used with the 
 earliest percussion-arms, which the Rev. Mr. For- 
 syth, of Belhelvie, Aberdeenshire, patented in 1807 ; 
 but they became tolerably general between 1820 and 
 1830, and were adopted for the army by 1840. 
 With the adoption of breech-loading arms, the use 
 of separate caps has been discontinued. Tlie cap 
 now forms apart of the cartridge, and atone opera- 
 tion is placed with it in the opened breech of the 
 gun. The manufacture is extremely simple : A 
 sheet of thin copper is stamped into pieces of ap- 
 propriate shape, which are bent into the form of 
 caps by stamping-apparatus closing round a man- 
 dril, tlie whole behig done in one machine by two 
 operations. The caps are then placed in a tray, 
 nioulhs upward ; and tlie inside of each is touched 
 with a strongly adiiesive varnish. Over this is dusted 
 llie detonating powder, all tlie jiarticles which fail 
 to adhere being lilown, dusted, or shaken out. A 
 stamper once more is forced into the cap, to fix and 
 compress the powder, and the operation is com- 
 pleted. For muskets, the caps are charged with 
 ei|ual parts of fulminating mercury and clilorate of 
 potash; for ciiniion, witli ;i mixture coiiipiised of 
 two parts of chlorate of potash, two parts of native
 
 PERCUSSION FUSE. 
 
 ■y()7 
 
 PEEER. 
 
 sulpliiirct iif anliiiiuii_v, and one of powdered {;liin» ; 
 the last ingredient taking; no part in llie rliendeal 
 action, and beiiii^ added merely to inerease llu^ frie- 
 tion. See Ce.nter-Jiri' MctdUicciiae Carlridi/i^ and 
 
 l.ol-k. 
 
 PERCUSSION FUSE. — A percussion-fnse e.xplodeH 
 Ljy the striking ii[ Home parliculur ])oint of a pro- 
 jectile afjainnt an object, as in llie case of rillc- 
 cannon projectiles. (Jne of the l)est and simplest 
 forms of this kind of fuse is the ordinary percussion- 
 cap i)laced on a cone ullixed to the iioint of llie pro- 
 jectile. 'I'he piece to which the cone is attached 
 may lie li.\ed <ir movalile; in eillier case, the appa- 
 ratus should he covered with u safety-cap to prevent 
 the percussion-cap from lakiniz; lire by Ihe dischar!i;e 
 of the ))ii'ce. The drawing represents a fuse of Ihe 
 percussion kind, in which b is a movalile cone-piece, 
 bearinix a musket-cap (c); and a is the safety-cap 
 which covers the fuse-hole. When the jirojectile is 
 set in nuilioii, the cone-piece, or "plunder," by its 
 inertia, presses against Ihe shoulders of Ihe fuse- 
 hole; when ils motion is arrested, the inertia of the 
 tone-piece cau.ses the percussion-cap to nni)i)i<;e 
 against Ihe safety-cap, which ]iro- 
 duces exi)losion. The explosion 
 of the projectile may lie made to 
 take |)lac(^ at any desired time, 
 afler the explosion of the cap, by 
 inlcrposini; strain, or meali'd pow- 
 der, iietween the cap and burstinj; 
 chari;e. Experience has shown 
 that the ])lunger should be en- 
 closed in a light metal case to pre- 
 vent it from being fouled by the 
 action of the powder; and to prevent premature ex- 
 plosions, the cone-piece should be confined by a 
 .screw or other device, to prevent it from moving 
 nntil the projectile sirikcs ils object. 
 
 The essential rcquiremenls of a good percussion- 
 fuse are: that it should not be ignited by Ihe shock 
 of discharge or on striking water ; that it shall be 
 ignited on the impact of a shell against the object, 
 and that it may not be liable to explode by hau(lling 
 or during transport. The percussion-fuse has many 
 points in its favor : it assures the bursting of the 
 projectile ; it can be u.sed for all ranges, be they 
 never so great ; it admits— a very important desiil- 
 eratum iu war — of estimating distances, and of cor- 
 rectiug the error of the estimation ; it augments the 
 result of tiring by adding great moral to physical 
 effect, due to the explosion of the projectile in the 
 midst of the enemy. Its only inconvenience is its 
 inability to cause tlie bursting of tlie projectile be- 
 fore it has touclied the object, thus rendering the 
 effects of tire dependent upon the nature and con- 
 formation of the target at the point of impact. See 
 Fuse. 
 
 PERCUSSION LOCK.— A lock of a gun in which 
 gunpowder is exploded b_v tire obtained from the 
 percussion of fulminating powder. Before the in- 
 vention of friction-tubes, percussion caps or wafers 
 were used iu connection with a lock, which was 
 screwed to the body of tield pieces, and to the lock- 
 pieces in heavier ordnance. The percussion powder 
 was placed in a thin layer between two circular 
 pieces of cartridge-paper, united by glue, pressed 
 firmly together, dried and varnished with any water- 
 proof varnish forming the wafer. Tlie caps were 
 made by forming the wafer at the bottom ot .i paper 
 cap which tilted on the end of the lock hammer. 
 
 PERCUSSION - POWDER. — Powder composed of 
 such materials as to ignite by slight percussion; ful- 
 minating powder. See Gunpmtider. 
 
 PERCUSSION-PRIMERS. — The percussion-primer 
 has a wafer or tlat-head attached to a qidll-barrel. 
 The process usually observed iu selecting the ma- 
 terial and manufacturing the primers is as follows : 
 Each rpiill must be clarified ami furnish a barrel at 
 least two and a half inches long. The barrel is to 
 be round, free from Haws, pith, and brittleness oc- 
 
 casioned by clarifying, or uny other defect wliicli 
 may render it until for the purpose refpiired. It 
 must not exceeil in diameter nineteen-hundredtlis of 
 aji inch at any pari, nor lie li'hs than seveiiteen- 
 hiiuilredlhs of an inch, wilhin one and one-liulf 
 inches of the <ijd lliat is cut from the quill. The 
 small end must not be broken or bruised. Cut the 
 barrels of the quills (tlose from the feather, and in- 
 sert them inio tlie socket of a wooden block made 
 two inches deeji and two-tenths of un inch in 
 diameter. A punch, having ten cutters radiating 
 from the stem, is entered into each quill-barr<-l, ami 
 driven down with a smart tap, so as to slit the upper 
 end of the barrel into ten jirongs, and as far as the 
 ujiper surface of the block permits. Turn back the 
 prongs, so that they will lie on the surface of the 
 block ; a circular punch isajiplied to each, and made 
 by a blow to cut olT the prongs to its own diameter 
 (O.M inch). Very stout paper, previously prepared 
 by two coats of shellac-varnish (giimlac dissolved in 
 alcohol), ispunclK'd witliholes 0.17inc'h indiameter, 
 and so arranged as to correspon<l with the sockets of 
 the wooden lilock. The (piill-barrcls are freed from 
 jiith, the punched iiajicrlaid on the block, the holes 
 corresponding and tint varnished side up, the (juill- 
 barrels put Ihrough the paper into the sockets of the 
 block, filled with grained powder, seven grains Troy, 
 and pressed firmly (hiwn with their prongs flat fin Ihe 
 varnished side of the sheet of stout paper. iirush 
 the shellac-varnish over the sjiaces of paper between 
 the heads of the (|uill-liarrels, and sjiread a sheet of 
 good writing-paper, slightly moistened with water, 
 over the entire surface of the stout sheet and the 
 prongs of the quills. Put the block and the sheets 
 thus stuck together, with the ijuill prongs between 
 them, into a jiress, applya force<if about thirly tons, 
 and keep tliem long euough to set the prongs and 
 make the sheets of paper adhere firmly. Kach (piill is 
 separated from the card by means of a circular punch, 
 v.hich cuts out a disc 0.62 inch in diameter, and of 
 course includes the prongs enclosed between Ihem. 
 A stellated disc to cover the head of the primer is 
 punched out of linen-made paper of the finest and 
 closest fabric. This disc has twelve points — diame- 
 ter from exterior points, 1.25 inches, from interior 
 0.7 inch. Jletal jilafes are at hand with superfi<ial 
 recesses about 0.(5.") inches in diameter. On each of 
 these a stellated cover is placed, and four grains of 
 fulminate deposited on it. This is composed of five 
 part.s of fulminating mercury and one of mealed 
 powder, both dry. Place the head of the ]irimer 
 on the charge of fulminate, holding it Ijy the (piill- 
 barrel and pressing it down firmly; brush good 
 wiieat-paste on the points of the cover and on the 
 under surface of the head, turn the points over, and 
 unite them neatly and closely on the paper head. 
 The primer is now made and only recjuires to 
 be protected from moisture. For this purpose, 
 shellac is dissolved in alcohol, so as to be thin 
 enough to be laid on with a brush. This is of a 
 lirownish yellow; a portiou is prepared with lamp- 
 black. Coat over the the quill-barrel with shellac, 
 then the under side of the wafer with the black 
 shellac-varnish. Then shellac the upper surface of 
 the wafer. Tip the end of the quill-barrel with black 
 varnish, and apply a second coat of uncolored shel- 
 lac thicklv about the jirimer. See Frietiun-primtr^. 
 
 PERCUSSION WAFER.— The earliest percussion- 
 primers iu use were made iu the form of wafers. 
 The wafer was placed in the vent of the piece, the 
 metal of the gun being cut away in such a manner 
 as to form a recess at the exterior orifice of the vent, 
 in w Inch the wafer was deposited, and exposed to 
 the direct action of the hammer. 
 
 PERDU. — A word adopted from the French, signi- 
 fying to lie tJat and closely in wait. It likewise 
 means employed on desperate purposes ; accustomed 
 to desperate enterprises. 
 
 PERER. — .\n old form of gun. used mostly on 
 ships, for throwing stone-shot.
 
 PEKFORATED DISC GUNPOWDER. 
 
 508 
 
 PERMANENT FORTIFICATION. 
 
 PERFORATED DISC GUNPOWDER— Compressed 
 
 gunpowder, perforated with a eertaia number of 
 holes. From the excessive pressure given to the 
 discs, the powder burns slowly ; it has "been, and is 
 still used for discharging rifled ordnance by some 
 foreign artilleries. In the British artillery it is not 
 used. See Gunpoicder. 
 
 PERJURY. — The crime committed by one who, 
 ■when giving evidence on oath as a witness in a Court 
 of Justice, or before some constituted authority of 
 the same kind, gives evidence which he knows to be 
 false. But in order to make the giving of the false 
 evidence liable to criminal punishment^ it must have 
 been not only false to the knowledge of the witness, 
 but the matter must have been material to tlie issue 
 raised. If the falsehood occurred as to some trifling 
 or immaterial fact, no crime is committed. More- 
 over, it is necessarj-, in proving the crime, that at 
 least two persons should be able to testif_y to the 
 falsehood of the matter, so that there might be a 
 majority of oaths on the matter — there being then 
 two oaths to one. But this rule is satisfied though 
 both witnesses do not testify to one point. The 
 perjury must also have taken place before some 
 Court or Tribunal which had power to administer 
 the oath. Though in some Courts aflirmations are 
 allowed instead of oaths, yet the punishment of false 
 affirmation is made precisely tlie same as for false 
 swearing. The punishment for perjury was, before 
 the Conquest, sometimes death or cutting out the 
 tongue; but, latterly, it was confined to fiue and im- 
 prisonment, and at present the latter is the only 
 punishment, with the addition of hard labor. The 
 crime of subornation of perjurj' — ;'. e., the persuad- 
 ing or procuring a person to give false evidence, is 
 also punishable as a distinct offense. 
 
 PERKERNUCKA.— An Indian term for Petty Offi- 
 cers. 
 
 PERMANENT ANGLE.— It is always important that 
 the gunner should be able to aim directl}' at tlie ob- 
 ject, so as to reduce the persunul eqnatiim to a mini- 
 mum. But in consequence of the deviation due to 
 the rifling, there is always a deflection from the line 
 of sight. To avoid this, the rear sight is set at a per- 
 manent angle of deflection, so that, no matter how 
 much it is raised, the line of sight will always pass 
 through the object. The formula for determining 
 the angle for each range is 
 deflection 
 
 tan A = X cosec. elevation. 
 
 range 
 Let b c represent a perpendicular rear sight, and/ 
 the front sight of the gun; then bft represents the 
 
 angl? e is changed, the product of the three variables 
 
 d 
 in the expression - cosec e is always very nearly con- 
 
 r 
 slant. A is always small and never exceeds about 38. 
 It varies for different ordnance, and is practically 
 found by firing a scries of rounds at different ordin- 
 ary elevation to find the corresponding mean ranges 
 and drifts : the value of tan A, from the above for- 
 mula, for each elevation is then calculated, and the 
 mean o'f all the values of A thus found is called the 
 permanent angle cf drift. By this means one adjust- 
 ment of the scale is sufficient instead of two, and the 
 deflection leaf is only used for occasional fine adjust- 
 ment and for accidental circumstances, sucli as cross 
 wind or difference of level of wheels. With howit- 
 zers, however, the var^-ing charges prevent the use 
 of this plan, and no permanent angle of drift can be 
 found for them, -which will do under all circum- 
 stances ; their tangent scales are therefore exactly 
 perpendicular to the axes of the piece and of the 
 trunnions, and they are provided with long deflection 
 bars. 
 
 PERMANENT FORTIFICATION.— Permanant fortifi- 
 cations are designed to secure the possession of those 
 poir^ts that are of importance to the safety of the 
 country, and also those that will or may have an im- 
 portant influence on the operations of a defensive or 
 an offensive war, in which the country may be en- 
 gaged. To secure them, they must be made so strong 
 that to gain possession of them, an enemy would 
 have to resort to the tedious, laborious, and costly 
 operations of a siege or blockade. "Whatever diver- 
 sity of opinion may be found amongst engineers and 
 writers on permanent fortification, as to the best 
 mode of arranging the elements of these defenses to 
 attain this end, most of them agree on certain gener- 
 al conditions as necessary. 
 
 These conditions, thus generall}' admitted, may be 
 enunciated as follows : 1st. They should be of sutS- 
 cient strength to resist with success all the ordinary 
 means resorted to by an assailant in an open assault. 
 2d. Have secure and easy means of commimication 
 for the movement of the troops, both within the de- 
 fenses and to the exterior. 3d. Be so planned that 
 every point exterior to the defenses within cannon 
 range shall be thoroughly swept by their fire. 4th. 
 Be provided with suitable shelters to protect the 
 troops, the armament, and the magazines of provis- 
 ions and munitions of war, required for their de- 
 fense, against the destructive measures of the assail- 
 ant of every description. 5th. And, finally, be pro- 
 vided with all such accessory defensive means as the 
 
 line or sight, the gun being laid on the target, t, at 
 the angle of elevation, b f r = e. Suppose .i to be the 
 point where the shot falls, then < s measured at right 
 angles to the line of sight, represents the deflection 
 of the shot. Join ■•< f, produce it to a. draw i a at 
 right angles to h t, and join a c; now a is the point 
 at which the head of the rear sight should be placed 
 in order to compensate for the deflection t s ; and a 
 e b = A is the angle of deflection required. Let the 
 range/< cciual r, and the deflectionta equals. Now, 
 in the similar triangles, 
 
 ab st d 
 
 hf~ tf" r 
 but, ab — be tan A, and If = he cosec «, 
 d be, tan A d 
 
 .'. - = ; tan A = - cosec. e. 
 
 r be. cosec e r 
 
 It is found practically that for ordinary service 
 angles of (•l('v;ili(iii, tljc values of the ranges and 
 lateral deviations vary in such a way that when the 
 
 f natural feattires of the position itself may afford, to 
 enable the garrison to dispute with energy the occu- 
 pancy by the assailant of everj' point both within and 
 exterior to the defenses. The defensive branch of 
 the militarj- engineer's art consists in a knowledge of 
 the means which are employed to fulfil the above 
 conditions, and of their suitable adaptation to the 
 natural features of the positions he may be called up- 
 on lo fortify. 
 
 The most simjile mode of fortifying a position in a 
 permanent manner consists in inclosing it with a 
 rampart surrounded by a jmrapet, with a ditch the 
 Hc;irp of which, when dry, is reveltcd with nuisonry, 
 and so covered by anearllieu mask that it cannot be 
 breached except by batteries placed on the border of 
 the countcr.scrap. The general form of the parapet 
 and ditch to fulfil l\\e fr.it of the general condiliona 
 given aliove will be better nn<lerstood by an e.\ain- 
 iiialioii of the ]irofilc which is a section m.ade by a 
 vcrlical ]iliim' pcrpciidicuJar to (he gentral direction 
 of the principal bounding line, in plan. The rain-
 
 PERMANENT FORTIFCATION. 
 
 509 
 
 PERMANENT FOETIFICATIOH. 
 
 pari s( rvrs to give the troops and armament, whicli 
 arc pliK rd 1)11 top of it anil bcliirifl tlu^ parapet, a 
 cnniMiaiiiliim view iiviT llii' unjunrl Id be nuanlcd by 
 the lire of tlie licfciiHcs : wbilsl at tlic sairic lime, it 
 inereaues llie obstacle loan open assault, by tbe ad- 
 ditional lieiglil it gives to the Hcarj). The top sur- 
 
 el 
 
 A, Rnmpart;C Parapet; C, Scarp wall; 11, Ditch O.CouDter- 
 icarp ; K, t'overed-wuy ; F, Kiubaiikmcnt (if covt-red-way. u b, 
 rampart slope ; b c, terrcplein ; c (I, haiiiini'tti' nlope; (i e, ban- 
 quette tread; of, interior Hlojie; f. interior crest; f g, superior- 
 Biope ; tj h, exterior nlope ; h i, benn ; k r, ulueiw. 
 
 face of the rampart, b,c. in rear of the parapet, 
 termed the terre-plcin, affords the troops and arma- 
 ment a convenient position for circulation from point 
 to point, where they are sheltered from the direct 
 views of the assailants' tire. The rampart is usually 
 terminated on the interior, a,b, by allowing the earth 
 to assume its natural slope, or one somewhat less 
 Bteep, and wliich is termed the rampart-slipe. In 
 cases where this slope would take up too much of 
 the ground within the defenses it is replaced by a 
 wall, termed the parnde-wall, which rises from the 
 level of the interior ground, termed the parade, to 
 the interior line of the terre-plein. Inclined planes of 
 earth, termed rampn, lead from the parade to the 
 terre-plein. being placed against the rampart-slope, or 
 the parade-wall. The ramps are, in some cases, ter- 
 minated, inwardly, with the same slope as that of 
 the rampart : in others, this slope is replaced by a 
 wall, which rises to the top surface of the ramp, or 
 a little above it. The essential properties of the par- 
 apet are to afford cover to the troops and armament 
 from the missiles of the enemj-, and every facility 
 for sweeping his positions by the fire of its artillery 
 and small-arms. Its form and dimensions are there- 
 fore so adjusted as to fidfil these requirements. The 
 exterior slope, gh, is the part of the parapet towards 
 the enemy; it is usually made with the same slope 
 that the earth when first thrown up naturally takes. 
 The top of the parapet, fg, called the superii/r slope, 
 is the line along which the assailed fire on the enemy. 
 Its inclination is generallj" taken at \ that is, six 
 base to one perpendicular. A greater slope than 
 this would make tlie portion of the parapet about 
 the interior crest, weaker, and less would not so well 
 defend the ground directly in front. A greater 
 slope would be attended by the inconvenience of 
 firing, under a greater depression than ,!, which 
 would necessitate using very deep embrasures for 
 the guns or raising the platform so high to the rear 
 that the men serving the guns would be exposed 
 to tire. The interior slope, ef, sometimes called tlie 
 breaat height, is tlie part against which the assailed 
 naturally lean in the act of tiring. It has usually a 
 slope of f , three perpendicular to one base. This is 
 a result of experience, being the most convenient 
 one for a soldier leaning forward to fire over the 
 
 parapet. The baru/uHte is a sniull terrace on which 
 the soldier stands wlien tiring; the top is called the 
 trend, antX tin- inclined phuii- bv which ills ascended, 
 the «/"/«. 'VUilrcwl is placeil four and one-half feet 
 belo-.v the interior crest and is two feet wide. This 
 width is increased when more than one rank are to 
 use it or where other causes require it. The ili>pe of 
 the banquette may have an inclination of \, or ),oi 
 may be replaced by steps. The Urre.pleiii is placed 
 geiicTally from light to twelve feet below the interior 
 crest with a fall to the rear of one foot to drain off 
 the surface-water. 
 
 The thickness of the parapet, which is estimated by 
 the horizontal distance between the interior and ex- 
 terior crests, seldom exceeded twenty feet. Thi.s 
 was the dimension usually given in European con- 
 structions of important works. Experience showed 
 that it was sutliciently great to afford protection 
 against the fire of the heaviest guns then used. At 
 present, the profile most generally adopted for this 
 part of the parapet and rampart is one in which the 
 portion of the toj) of the rampart, for a distance of 1.5 
 feet back from the interior crest, is held on a level 
 of G} feet l)eIow the interior crest and serves as a 
 general barbette for heavy guns; whilst the remain- 
 ing portion of tln^ top surface is placed at a level of 
 eight feet below the interior crest, and made wide 
 eiiough to serve as a roadway in rear of the general 
 barbette; the two levels being connected by a slope 
 of j or \-, and the roadway receiving a slight pitch 
 to the rear for drainage. In tbe later profile, the in- 
 terior slope is j , and has a banquette tread of only 2 
 feet, with only a banquette slope of only }. Where 
 guns are mounted either in barbette or embrasure, 
 the interior slope isincreased to \, and the banquette 
 and its .slope removed; the earth taken off by these 
 modifications serving to form the merlons between 
 the shallow embrasures cut into the parapets. When 
 the foot of the exterior slope rests on the top of the 
 scarp wall, a berm of two feet in breadth is left be- 
 tween it and the edge of the coping. This breadth 
 of berm is objectionable, as giving a good landing- 
 place for a scaling party in an open assault; and it is 
 proposed,' when the work is in danger of an attack, 
 to reduce the berm to 18 inches or one foot, by in- 
 creasing the thickness of the parapet 6 inches or one 
 foot. 
 
 Circumjacent totherampart a wide and deep ditch 
 is made, which from its position and proximity to' 
 the parapet, serves the double purpose of increasing 
 the obstacle which the enemy must surmount before 
 reaching the assailed, and of furnishing the earth to 
 form the rampart, parapet and glacis. Its width and 
 depth will depend mainly upon the amount of em- 
 bankment required, and therefore will result from 
 the calculation for equalizing tbe excavation and 
 embankment which these demand. It has been the 
 practice to make the main ditch when dry, from 20 
 to 30 yards wide, and from 30 to 45 yards when wet. 
 These dimensions may be reduced to within 10 or 12 
 yards where the embankments are not great and cir- 
 cumstances are unfavorable to an attempt at escalade. 
 The bottom of the ditch, when dry, usually receives 
 a slight slope from the foot of the scarp and counter- 
 scarp to its center, where a small drain, termed a 
 eu7ietie. is dug to receive the surface water and keep 
 the ditch dry. In some cases, from motives of econ- 
 omy, the difference of level between the cunette 
 andthefootof the counterscarp wall is increased, 
 thus giving a less height of wall. 
 
 To give strength and durability, the faces of the 
 ditch arc revetted with walls of masonry which sus- 
 tain the pressure of the earth, protect them from the 
 effects of the weather, and by their height and 
 steepness present an additional obstacle to an open 
 assault. The wall of Inasonry toward the rampart 
 rises to the level of the foot of the exterior slope of 
 the parapet, sustaining the pressure of the rampart 
 and the parapet, and is called the searp trail or scarp 
 revetment; the face of it towards the ditch, the scarp.
 
 PEHMANENT KANK. 
 
 510 
 
 PERPKNDICULAK FORTIFICATION. 
 
 The line in which the face of the scarp wall if pro- 
 longed would intersect the upper surface of the cop- 
 ing is termed Uie magistral. Tliis is a very import- 
 ant line in drawing the plans of permanent works, 
 serving as the directing line to tix, both upon the 
 drawing and upon the ground, in setting out tlie 
 work, tlie dimensions and relative positions of all 
 the bounding lines. The top portion of the coping, 
 from the foot of the exterior slope outwards, is termed 
 the Be>-m. The opposite face of the ditch is usually 
 revetted in the same manner. It is called the coun- 
 terscarp wall, and its face towards the ditch, the 
 cimnUrscnrp. 
 
 The cmnmand of the parapet over the exterior 
 ground and any outworks of the defenses, its relief, 
 or height above the bottom of the ditch, and its 
 height above the top of the scarp wall, are all points 
 which call for a careful consideration on the part of 
 the engineer in any combination of these that he 
 may be called upon to make. The fire over the 
 parapet should thoroughly sweep all the ground 
 within range, at least up to the glacis crest ; aud the 
 more so as the closer the assailant's trenches ap- 
 proach the work, the greater will be the plunge ob- 
 tained upon them, and the more difficult it will be 
 for the assailant to cover himself by his trenches. 
 The parapet should command all outworks within 
 range of its fire, otherwise, when seized by the as- 
 sailant, these outworks would have a plunging fire 
 upon the main work. The relief of the parapet of the 
 fiimking parts of the work should be sucli that every 
 point along the foot of the scarp wall shall be swept 
 by its fire. This supposes also a certaiu correlation 
 between the relief and the length of the lines flanked, 
 so that this condition shall be satisfied ; a rela- 
 tion that can always be easily found, either by cal- 
 culation, or by geometrical construction. 
 
 The width anil depth of tlie ditch also call for a 
 careful consideration on the part of the etigineer. A 
 deep aud narrow ditch offers the advantage of pre- 
 senting more difficulty to the assailant in reaching 
 the bottom of it, either in an open assault, or by a 
 gallery in the attack by regular approaches, thus pro- 
 longing the defense. It masks better the sally-ports 
 from the enemy's fire by allowing them to be placed 
 so low that the projectiles coming over the counter- 
 scarp cannot reach them. In like manner by draw- 
 ing in the crest of the glacis nearer to the scarp the 
 latter will be better masked by it from the plunge of 
 the distant fire of the assailant's batteries ; and can- 
 not be breached so low down from his batteries 
 placed along the glacis crest. On the other hand, 
 when the ditch is narrow and deep it may be partly 
 filled by breaching the scarp, and then blowing in 
 the counterscarp so as by the united debris to form 
 an easy roadway for an assaulting column to enter 
 the work. A wide ditch, on the other hand. requires 
 more labor to construct the trench across it by which 
 the assailant can reach the foot of the breach under 
 cover. This is a consideration of some importance 
 in wet ditches, where tlie assailant is obliged to con- 
 struct a dike upon which the parapet of his cover is 
 placed. 
 
 These considerations suggest that nothing like ab- 
 solute rules can be laid down so as to give a routine 
 character to the practice of this branch of the mili- 
 tary art. The rules here given witli respect to the 
 form and dimensions of the general profile of the en- 
 ceinte are founded upon reasons growing out of the 
 nature of llie (|ucstion, and as sucli bav(r served as 
 guides to engineers in the iiractice of tlieir jirofes- 
 sion. As they have stood tlie test of long experience, 
 it is safe to follow tliem, whilst at the same tinier the 
 engineer should not hesitate to vary from them wlieii 
 satisfied, after careful examination, that the <'ase be- 
 fore him re(inire8 it. Fortification, it must be re- 
 membered, is like all other arts. It lias its canons, 
 which are founded upon the nature of the (|iieslion 
 and its rules of practice based ujioii these and upon 
 experience. Aa the latter presents to the Engineer 
 
 newfacts, his practice must be made to conform to 
 them ; but the general principles of his art must ever 
 remain the same, and be his invariable guide. See 
 Viiunterscarp Wall, Firrtification, Frontier Defense, 
 Interior Retrenchments, Irregular Sites, and /Scarp 
 Wall. 
 
 PERMANENT RANK.- A rank in the military ser- 
 vice which does not cease witli any particular ser 
 vice, or locality of circumstances; in opposition to 
 local or temporary rank, 
 
 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS.— A combi- 
 nation, in mathematics, is a selection of a number of 
 objects from a given set of objects, without any re- 
 gard to the order in which they are placed. The 
 objects are called elements, and the combinations 
 are divided into classes, according to the number of 
 elements in each. Let the given elements be the 
 four letters a, b. c, d; the binary combinations or se- 
 lections of two are ab, or, ad, be, bd, ed — six in all; 
 the combinations of three are abc, abd, acd, bed — four 
 in all; while there is only one combination of four, 
 namely, abed. 
 
 Permutation, again, has reference to the order of 
 arrangement ; thus, the two elements a and b may 
 stand ab or ba, so that every combination of two 
 gives two permutations; the three elements a, b, and 
 c may stand abc, acb, bac, bca, cab, cba, one combina- 
 tion of three thus affording six permutations. The 
 combinations of any order with all their permutations 
 are called the variations. Formulas are given in 
 works of algebra for calculating the number of per- 
 mutations or combinations in any given case. Suppose 
 seven projectiles marked 1, 2, 3, to 7, and that two 
 are to be drawn; if it is asked how many possible 
 pairs of projectiles there are this is a question of the 
 number of combinations of seven elements, tm> to- 
 gether, which is found to be 21. If we want to know 
 how many times the same seven persons could serve 
 at a piece of artillery, with a different arrangement 
 each time, this is to ask how many permutations 
 seven objects admit of, and the formula gives 7x6x 
 5x4x3x8=5,040. The theory of probabilities is 
 founded on the laws of combination. Thus, in 
 the case of drawing two tickets out of seven, 
 since there are 21 possible pairs, the chance or 
 probability of drawing any particular pair is 1 in 
 21,or2\. In working out questions in "combina- 
 tions," advantage is often taken of the fact that 
 whatever number of elements be taken from a group 
 to form a combination, the number left gives the 
 same number of combinations; thus the number of 
 combinations of 10 elements three together, is the 
 same as that of 10 elements seten together, etc. 
 
 PERPENDICULAR.— A straight line standing on an- 
 other straight line is said to be perpendicular to that 
 other when the angles it makes on both sides are equal. 
 A line is said to be perpendicular to a plane when it 
 is at right angles to any line in that plane meeting it. 
 Planes are said to be perpendicular to each other 
 when any line in the one plane perpendicular to their 
 common line of intersection is also perpendicular to 
 all lines meeting it in the other plane. The word 
 "perpendicular," in common usage refers to a di- 
 rection at right angles to the surface of still water, 
 and is synonymous with vertical. 
 
 PERPENDICULAR DIRECTION.— In the march of a 
 line, the direction at right angles to the line which 
 each man should take in a direct movement to the 
 front. Without the strictest attention is paid to this 
 essential principle in all movements, the greatest ir- 
 regidarity, and ultimately the greatest confusion, 
 must ensue. Perpendicular and parallel movements 
 constitute, indeed, the whole .system of good march- 
 ing. When several columns, divisions, or companies 
 advance, the lines and directi;ins of marching must 
 be strictly perjieiidicular and parallel to each oilier, 
 otlierwise llie dislanci' will be lost, and the ultimate 
 object (if fiirminn' a correct line must be defeated. 
 
 PERPENDICULAR FORTIFICATION.- This system 
 of fortification owes its origin to the Marquis do
 
 PERRIERE. 
 
 511 
 
 PEE80NAL 8EEVICE. 
 
 Monliilcinlxrl, a (iislinjiuiMlicd Frfncli Ofiicrnl, who 
 publiHiicd his work iipun llic subjcci in 1770. Viiii- 
 bmi Imd, it was adiniltcd, rciicli-nci lljc art of attack 
 Bui)(Tior to tliat of (lcfins<'. Mimliilc miIutI xtrovi' to 
 reverse tliiH relation, and in his endeavorn, rejecterl 
 onlirclv the lianlion sysleni of the older r-ni;ineers. 
 Instead of the occasional bastions, with intervcniiif; 
 curtains, Willi which I he_v surrounded their tncrinte, 
 }iu broke the whole polyi^on into sali<'nl and re-entcr- 
 inj; an;j;Ics, the latter lieinn ijenerally rii^ht an;;les. 
 Before the connected reilans thus formed were coiin- 
 ter-!;nards of low elevation anil ravelins, to which 
 the a|)|iroa<hes were throutth cas<'nialed w;w«7j/r7'(?«. 
 In the salient a .irle of eacji redan, he built a l>rick 
 tower, 40 feet in dianieliT, twelve-sided, and four 
 Stories high. The se<-ond aud third tiers were l)inlt 
 for heavy gmis, and \\w upper loopholed for musket- 
 ry. In the center of the lower was a circular reduH, 
 intended as a last refuge for the garrison. Monta- 
 lembert maintained that from these towers every 
 possible api)roach could be commanded, which to a 
 great extent is true; but it must be also remembered 
 that the greater sjiacc a gun commands, by so much 
 the more is it raised above the jilain, and rendered 
 visible. These towers would have little chance 
 against the rilled ordnance of the present day. Mon- 
 talcmbert's system was violently attacked by tlie 
 French engineers. hutCaruot subse((ucntly adopted 
 it, with some modifications, and it enters largely into 
 the modern (ierman defensive works. The system 
 lias never, however, found favor with British engin- 
 eers. 
 
 PERRIERE.— The early bombards being very un- 
 satisfactory, to economize the ai tion of the powder, 
 and give a more accurate direction to the projectile. 
 
 the interior space, or bore, was made nearly cylin- 
 drical, from 4 to M calibers long; it was terminated 
 at the bottom by a very narrow and deep chamber. 
 the object of which was to increase the effect of the 
 powder, by retarding the escape of the gas before it 
 acted on the projectile. These cannon were further 
 improved by making the bores perfectly cylindrical; 
 and were called perrhren, from the fact "that they 
 fired stone balls. They were princiiially employed 
 to breach stone walls, and for this purpose were tired 
 horizontally. See Bmnhtrd. 
 
 PERSIAN "WHEEL.— A contrivance for raising 
 water from a well or stream, and used in the coun- 
 try from which it takes its name. It is also exten- 
 sively used in Egypt, where it is known as the ,««- 
 guteh, in nothern India, in the Punjab, in Sinde, and 
 also in Spain as the ntiria. It consists of a wheel, 
 about 4 feet in diameter, revolving on a wooden axle, 
 which is flush with the mouth of the well, and is .set 
 in motion by means of a driving wheel turned by a 
 pair of bullocks. The wheel has on its rim pins" of 
 wood inserted into it, at sliort distances apart, to 
 which buckets or jars are suspended by means of an 
 endless band or double rope; the buckets descend on 
 one side into the well and ascend on the other tilled 
 with water, and discharge themselves into a reser- 
 voir at, the mouth of the well. The Persian wlieel, 
 used for raising water from a stream instead of a 
 well, has the buckets somewhat differently arranged 
 for lifting the water, but the principle is the same. 
 
 PERSONAl SALUTES.— Civil and diplomatic au- 
 thorities receive salutes as follows : The President of 
 the United States receives a salute, to be given both 
 on his arrival at and final departure from a military 
 post or station provided with artillery, of 21 guns. 
 The Vice President of the United States, 19 guns. 
 Members of the Cabinet, the Chief Justice^ the 
 
 Speaker of the House of Representatives, the Gov. 
 (•mors within their respective Stales or Territories, 
 17 guns. A Commitli'f! of Congress ottlcially visiting 
 a mililary post or station, 17 guns. The Sovereign 
 or Chief jMagislrate of a foreign Stale, to be given 
 both on arrival at and final depiirlnnr from a mili- 
 tary post or station provided with artillery, 21 guns. 
 Memliers of the Itoyal Family, i. /-., the Heir-apjiar- 
 ent and Consort of the reignuig Sovereign of a for- 
 eign Slate, 21 guns. The Viceroy, Governor-Gener- 
 al, or Governors of Provinces belonging to foreign 
 Slates, 17 guns. Ambassadors Extraordinary and 
 Plenipotentiary 17 guns. Envoys Extraordinary and 
 .Ministers I'lenipolentiary, 1.5 guns. Ministers I{es- 
 ident accredited to the United States, l.'J guns. Char- 
 ges d' Affaires, or suborrlinale diplomatic agents left 
 in charge of missions in the United States, 11 guns. 
 Consuls-General accredited to the United Slates. !» 
 guns. 
 
 Military and naval officers receive salutes as fol- 
 lows: The Gcni-ral-in-Chief, Field Marshal, or Ad- 
 miral, 17 guns. Lieutenant General or Vice Admiral, 
 \r, guns. Major General or Rear Admiral, IH guns! 
 Brigadier General or Commodore, 11 guns. t)(ticers 
 of volunteers and militia, only wlien in the service of 
 the United States, the salute s"pecified for their rank. 
 Oltirers of foreign services visiting anv military post 
 or station provided with artillery, are" saluted "in ac- 
 cordance with their rank. 
 
 Ill addition to the foregoing, occasions of a public 
 nature frequently arise when salutes are both desir- 
 able and proi)er. Orders will govern in such cases. 
 Personal salutes are, however, strictly confined to 
 the foregoing, and are fired but once, unless other- 
 wise specified. The President of the United Slates, 
 the Sovereign or Chief Magistrate of a foreiirn coun- 
 try traveling in a public capacity, is saluted when 
 jKixxing in the vicinity of a military post. A vessel- 
 of-war on which the President of the United States 
 is traveling displays the nationel ensign at the main. 
 In the case of foreign sovereigns, vessels diplay the 
 royal standard of the sovereign in like manner." 
 
 Personal salutes, in compltment to foreign diplo- 
 matic authorities, are to be fired onlvfor thosewho.se 
 nations pay the same compliments'to United Slates 
 diplomatic ministers in their territories. Personal 
 salutes at the same place and in compliment to the 
 same person, whether civil, diplomatic, mililarv, or 
 naval, are never to be tired oftener than on("e' in 
 twelve months, unless such person shall have been, 
 in the meantime, advanced in rank. Olficers on the 
 retired list, whether military or naval, are not to be 
 saluted. This, however, does not apply to funeral 
 ceremonies. An officer, whether civil, ofmilitary.or 
 naval, holding two or more positions, either of 
 which entitles him to a salute, receives only the sa- 
 lute due to the highest grade. In no event is"the same 
 person to be saluted in more than one capacity. 
 When several persons, each of whom is entitled lo"a 
 salute, arrive together at a post, the one hiirhest in 
 rank or position is alone saluted. If they arrive suc- 
 cessively, each is saluted in turn. An o"fficer a.ssimi- 
 ed to duty according to brevet rank receives lhe"sa- 
 lute due to the full rank of the grade to which he has 
 been assigned. As a rule, a personal salute is to be 
 fired when the personage entitled to it enters the post. 
 When the troops at a military post are to be review- 
 ed by a personage entitled to" a salute, it is most ap- 
 propriate to tire the salute from tield guns at the 
 place of review ; and at the time, just previous to 
 the review, when the personage arrives on the 
 ground. See Sdbttf.s. 
 
 " PERSONAL SERVICE.— The term " Permnal f^.er- 
 vi'c€s," employed in section 3,70.5, Revised Statutes, 
 means services which are contracted for because of 
 some special confidence reposed in the person who 
 is to render them, based upon his supposed peculiar 
 fitness as an expert, and irrespective generally of 
 his pecuniary or any other resources; such, for in- 
 stance, as the services of a Civil Engineer or Sur-
 
 PERSONNEL. 
 
 512 
 
 PEBSPECTIVE. 
 
 veyor,a Lawyer or Surgeon, Telcsraph Operator, etc. 
 
 No person belongins; to, or employed in, tlie mil- 
 itary service of the United States shall, in behalf of 
 the United States, purchase from any other such 
 person, or make any contract with such person to 
 furnish supplies or services ; nor make any purchase 
 or contract in which such person shall be admitted 
 to any share or part, or to any benefit to arise there- 
 from. 
 
 No person belonging to, or employed in, the mili- 
 tary service of the United States shall be pecuniarily 
 interested, directly or indirectly, in the purchase or 
 sale, on behalf of the United States, of any article 
 appertaining to such service ; nor shall take, receive, 
 or apply to his own use any gain or emolument, un- 
 der the guise of presents or otherwise, for negotiat- 
 ing or transacting any public business, other than 
 what is or may be allowed by law. 
 
 PKESONNEL. — In speaking of an army, this term 
 represents the officers and soldiers, as opposed to the 
 Materiel, in which are comprised the gims, provis- 
 ions, wagons, and stores of every description. The 
 Personnel of a Battery comprises all the off.cers and 
 men necessary for the maneuvering, management, 
 anil care of a battery. 
 
 PERSPECTIVE.— The art of representing natural 
 objects upon a plane surface in such a manner that 
 the representation shall affect the eye in the same 
 way as the objects themselves. The distance and 
 position of objects affect both their distinctness and 
 apparent form, giving rise to a subdivision of per- 
 spective into linear peritpective-vih\c\\,&s, its name de- 
 notes, considers exclusively the effect produced by 
 the position and distance of the observer upon the 
 apparent form and grouping of objects ; while eierial 
 perspective confines itself to their distinctness, as 
 modified by distance and light. The necessity of at- 
 tending to the principles of perspective in all pictor- 
 ial drawing is apparent when we consider, for in- 
 stance, that a circle, wlien seen obliquely, appears 
 to be not a circle, but an ellipse, with its shortest 
 diameter in line with the spectator audits longest at 
 right angles to this. A square, when looked at from 
 a position opposite the center of one of its sides, ap- 
 pears as a trapezoid, the sides which are perpendicu- 
 lar to the direction of the vision appearing to be par- 
 allel, while the other two appear to converge to a 
 point in front of the spectator, etc. For the same 
 reason, two rows of parallel pillars of equal height, 
 seen from a point between and equidistant from each 
 row, appear not only to converge at the further end, 
 but to become gradually smaller and smaller. An 
 excellent idea of a perspective plan can be easily ob- 
 tained by interposing a vertical transparent plane (as 
 
 observance of which painters may be enabled to 
 produce an effect true to nature. After the "scope" 
 (t. f., the number of objects to be introduced, and 
 the distance at which they are to be viewed; of the 
 picture has been determined, and before the design 
 is commenced, it is necessary to draw upon the per- 
 spective plan three lines: 1. The base line, ot ground 
 line, which limits the sketch towards the operator, 
 and is the base line of the picture. 3. The lioriziintal 
 line, which represents the ordinary position of the 
 sensible horizon. The height of the liorizontal line 
 is about one-third of the height of the picture, when 
 the sketcher is placed at or a little above the level 
 of the horizon ; but it may rise in a degree corres- 
 ponding to his increase of elevation till it reaches 
 near to the top of the perspective plan. The gen- 
 eral rule is to have a high horizontal line when the 
 view is taken, or supposed to be taken, from an emi- 
 nence; but when the station is on a level, either 
 actual or assumed, as is the case when a statue or a 
 mountainous landscape is figured, the horizontal 
 line must be low. The horizontal line in nearly all 
 cases is supposed to be level with the spectator's 
 cj'e. 3. The vertical line, which is drawn from the 
 supposed position of the sketcher, perpendicular to 
 the ground and liorizontal lines, meeting the latter in 
 a point which is called the point of sight, or center 
 of the picture. The vertical line has no representa- 
 tive in nature, and is merely a mechanical adjunct 
 to the construction of the picture, all vertical lines 
 in nature being parallel to it in the picture. The 
 point of sight, being the point directly opposite to 
 the observer, is properly placed in the center of the 
 picture, for it is most natural that the view should 
 lie symmetrically on each side of the principal 
 visual line ; but this is not by any means a universal 
 rule, for we very frequently find it on the right or 
 left side, but always, of course, on the horizontal 
 line. All lines which in nature are perpendicular to 
 the ground line, or to a vertical plane which is 
 raised upon it as a base, meet in the point of sight, 
 which is thus their vanishing point (see the line of 
 the tops and bottoms of the pillars in Fig. 1). The 
 points of distance are two points in the horizontal 
 line on each side of the point of sight, and in a 
 "direct" sketch are at a distance from it equal to 
 the horizontal distance of the sketcher's eye from 
 the ground line. The equality of distance of these 
 points from the point of sight is not, however, 
 necessary, as it occurs only in those cases where the 
 lines, of which Ibe points of distance are the vanish- 
 ing points, are inclined (in nature) at an angle of 
 45° to the base line ; but, in all cases, the two points 
 of distance are about twice as far apart as the 
 
 Fig. 1.— Illustrating the more important points 
 
 of glass — a window, for instance) between the ob- 
 server and the objects of his vision, and supposing 
 that the oljjects he sees are not seen thnnigh the glass, 
 but painted on it. A sketch made on a glass plane 
 in this position, by following with a pencil all the 
 lines and shades of the objects seen through it, the 
 eye being all tlie tinu; kept (|uite steady, would form 
 a picture in perfect perspective. In practice, how- 
 ever, it is found, unfortunately, that the ghiss is not 
 a suitable material for sketching on, and that tlie 
 vertical position is not tlie most convenient ; it is 
 tlierefore preferable to make a careful study of the 
 elTects produced by change of position and distance 
 on the appearand! of olijects in nature, and from 
 the results of this to compile a body of rules, by the 
 
 ond lines; PVR ie ihe principal and visual rny. 
 
 eye is from the picture. One important use of 
 the points of distance is to define the distance of 
 objects in a row (Fig. 1) from each other. For this 
 purpose two poiuts of distance are not necessary, as 
 when the position of one pillar is found, that of the 
 opposite is at once obtained by drawing a line 
 parallel to the base or ground line. We have seen 
 that the point of sight is the vanishing point of all 
 level lines which meet tlie ground line or a vertical 
 plaIl(^ on it at riglit angles, and tliat the points of 
 distance (in a direct picture) arc the vanishing points 
 of all lines which cut the ground line at an angle of 
 Vi'^ ; but there are many other groups of parallel 
 lines in a picture wliicli have dilTereut situations, 
 and therefore different vanishing points. Such lines
 
 PETAED. 
 
 5U 
 
 PETTMAH-FUaOE. 
 
 with tlipir vani.iliinK pointH Cnillccl for diHtinction's 
 snke, arcidental jioinlH) arc rrprcsciiicd in Fii;. 2. If 
 ihf lU'cidenliil point is above tli(^ horizontal linr-, It 
 is nillcil tlic n^ri(h'iil(il piiiitt dcriiil if l»'low, the 
 amiltntiil ]ii>liU lirrentridl; anil a lillli- consideration 
 muki'M it evident that these points may or may not 
 be situated within the plane of the jiieturc. Such 
 are the |)oinls and lines necessary for th(^ construc- 
 tion of a plan in true iKTspective; and from the 
 above cxiilanalion, we may deduce the two ujeneral 
 principles; 1. Tlial all parallel straii;ht lines in 
 nature are no longer jiarallel when ])roje(led on the 
 pers])ective plane, but nu'ctin a i)oint which is called 
 the vanishing ])oinl, and issomeoneof tli(! three above 
 described, unless these lines happen to be also paralh'l 
 to the ground line or llie vertical line, in wlueli 
 
 Milan ('1440), whose body of rules was extended and 
 coiiiplelerl by Peruz/.i and Ubaldi about IfiOO. 
 
 PETARD. An instrument for blfiwinj; open f^nloH, 
 dcMiolishinix [lalisades, etc. It consists of a lialf-cone 
 of thick iron tilled with jiowderand ball ; this is (irm- 
 ly fastened to a plank, and the latter is provided with 
 hooks, to allow of its beinn attached securely to a 
 f!;ate,<rtc. The Petardii-rs attaclied the petard, liirhted 
 the slow-match by which it was to be fired, and fled. 
 When the e\[)losion took etrect a supportinj? column 
 charijed tliroii^rh the bn-arh, while the defenders 
 were yet in consternation. The petard has been al- 
 most universally superseded by the use of powder- 
 bags. Large petards contained as much as 13 lbs. 
 of powder. Various curious devices were employed, 
 in ancient times for preventing the close propinquity 
 
 
 / 
 
 V f ^..-.e- 
 
 H.L.. 
 
 — "W.,U,jj^.j,^.___ 
 
 CL. 
 
 Fig. 2. — The lines O O converge to tlie accidentnl point aerial, and P P to the accidental point terreetrial. 
 
 case they remain parallel wiien transferred to the 
 picture ; and 2. That since the bodies drawn below 
 the horizontal line arc seen as if from above, those 
 above as if from below, and those to t!ie right and 
 left of the point of sight as if observed from the 
 left and right, it follows, that straight lines which in 
 the picture are above the horizontal line lower them- 
 selves, and those below raise themselves to it ; those 
 to the left, foUovving the same law, direct themselves 
 to the right, and tice verm. Aerial ptrspeftive, con- 
 sists in a modulation of the brightness and colors of 
 objects in accordance with the state of the atmos- 
 phere, tiie depth of the body in the perspective 
 plane {i.e., distance in nature from the ground line), 
 and other accidents of place and time. As the dis- 
 tance of objects increases, their illuminated parts 
 are made less brilliant, and their shaded parts more j 
 feeble. The bluish tint imparted by a large mass of 
 the atmosphere to the bodies seen through it, is fre- 
 quently imitated by the mixing of a slight tint of [ 
 blue with the colors to be applied : a yellow object , 
 thus assumes a greenish tint; a red one a violet tint, 
 etc. The air, when charged with vapor, is repre- 
 sented by a diminution of the brightness of colors, 
 and by the grayish tint imjiarted to them. But in I 
 this part of the subject rules are of Utile avail, for | 
 experience alone can guide the painter in faithfully ] 
 cop3'ing the myriad aspects presented by nature. A 
 thorough knowledge of perspective is a xine quanrm 
 to the painter or designer, and tliough many are in- 
 clined to tliink it a superfluity, and that the sketcher 
 has only to make use of his e_vcs, and copy justly, 
 the very fact that such is their opinion shows that 
 they have never made the attempt : for it is impossi- 
 ble for the painter, and much more so for the de- 
 signer, to execute a copy of nature with sufficient 
 accuracy by the sole aid of the eye and hand, a fact 
 that is unfortunately much too frequently proved b)' . 
 mam* of the sketches exhibited in tine-art collec- 
 tions. Perspective was known to the ancients, but 
 seems to have become extinct during the disturb- 
 ance"! that convulsed Italy, and was revived by Al- 
 bert Dri'irer, Pietro del Horgo, and Bramantino of 
 
 between the petard and the gate ; one of the most 
 curious of which was a kindof enormous rat gin, set 
 in such a manner as to close at once on the petard 
 and the soldiers apnlying it. 
 
 PETARDS.— In pyrotechny. small paper cases filled 
 with powder. One end is entirely closed, and the 
 other has only a small hole left for a piece of quick- 
 match, to communicate tire to the powder. Petards 
 are placed at the bottom of lances: thej- are also used 
 to imitate the fire of musketrj-. See Firein/rk.i. 
 
 PETAUDIEES.— A name anciently given to the 
 foot-troops armed with Cranequinx. 
 
 PETERERO. — A term formerly applied to a very- 
 short piece of chambered ordnance. Also written 
 I'eiln ro. 
 
 PETRONEL. — A firearm between a carbine and a 
 pistol (with a wheel-lock), which was used bv the 
 French during the reign of Francis I.: it wasYired 
 resting against the breast — hence its name. To pre- 
 vent any injury from its recoil, the soldier who used 
 it was provided with a pad. Also written Petrijial 
 and P'litriiinl. 
 
 PETTAH.— In southern India, a term applied to 
 the Enceinte of a town, as distinguished from the 
 fortress hv which it is protected. 
 
 PETTMAN-FUSE.— This fuse consists of the fol- 
 
 lowing parts: A, body : B, top-plu": C. plain ball; 
 D, steadv' plug; E. detonating ball: F, cone plug; 
 G, lead cup : and H, suspending wire. The steaily 
 and top plugs are cupped in the center to receive
 
 PEWTER. 
 
 514 
 
 PHOSPHOR-BEONZE. 
 
 the small plain ball of brass wire which hohls them 
 apart ; and to prevent the ball adhering from cor- 
 rosion, the cups are slightly larger in diameter than 
 the ball. Round the top of the stead}- plug runs a 
 groove tilled with detonating composition, and two 
 fire-holes pass from the composition down through 
 the plug. 
 
 The composition in the annular groove is covered 
 with thin sheet brass. The detonating ball, which 
 is coated with composition, is covered with two hol- 
 low hemispheres of sheet-copper, and over these 
 with silk. The cone plug (not at present coned) has 
 three fire-holes and is supported by a copper wire 
 which passes through the tube : but the hollow of 
 the latter is enlarged below the wire to prevent its 
 being choked. The lead cup (pure lead) does not 
 Test on the bottom of the fuse, but is supported at 
 the top on a shoulder on the cone plug. 
 
 The detonating composition in the steady plug 
 and on the detonating ball consists of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Chlorate of potash 13 
 
 Sulphide of antimonj' 13 
 
 Sulphur 1 
 
 Mealed powder 1 
 
 On the discharge of the gun the suspending wire 
 is broken and the lead cup crushed in consequence 
 of the inertia of cone and steady plugs and of balls, 
 which do not move instantaneously with the fuse 
 and lead cup; sufficient space is therefore left for the 
 disengagement of the balls, and on impact the fuse 
 ignited by the concussion of the detonating ball on 
 the inside of the body, or by the plain ball on the 
 composition in the groove of the steady plug, which 
 continuing to move, after the sudden check to the 
 motion of the fuse, presses the plain ball between 
 itself and the top plug. See Fuae. 
 
 PEWTER. — A common and very useful alloy of 
 the metals, tin and lead. Two other kinds of pewter 
 have a more compound character. Common, or 
 ley-peieter, consists of 4 parts of tin and 1 part of 
 lead; plate-peater is made of 100 parts of tin, 8 parts 
 of antimony, 2 parts each of bismuth and copper; 
 another kind, called trifle, is composed of 83 parts 
 of tin and 17 parts of antimony. Although these are 
 the standard formulas, each kind is often much 
 varied to suit the purposes of the manufacturer; the 
 chief alteration being the addition of a large propor- 
 tion of lead to the last, and a large increase of the 
 same metal in the other two. 
 
 PFEIL. — The German name of the arrow for the 
 long bow. 
 
 PHALANX.— The ancient Greek formation for 
 heavy infantry, which won for itself a reputation of 
 invincibility, may be described as a line of parallel 
 columns, rendered by its depth and solidity capable 
 of penetrating any line of troops. The oldest pha- 
 lanx was the Lacedaemonian or Spartan, in which the 
 soldiers stood eight deep; the Athenian phalanx had 
 been the same, until, at the battle of Marathon (480 
 B.C.) Miltiades reduced the depth to four men in or- 
 <ier to increase liis front. When Bpaminondas or- 
 jianized the Theban army against Sparta, he felt that 
 the Spartan line of battle would be impregnable to 
 troops organized in their own manner. He there- 
 fore increased the depth and lessened the front of his 
 phalanx, which enabled him to burst through the 
 Spartan line, inflicting the sanguinarj- defeat of Le- 
 uctra (371 u.c). Philip of Macedon had learned the 
 Art of War under Epaminondas, and when he re- 
 solved to nuike his state a military power, he formed 
 the celeliralcd Mareiionian |)halanx (;i5!t D.r. ), which 
 •enabled him to conquer Greece, and wilh wliich his 
 son Alexander s\ibdued the Eastern World. The 
 Macedonian phalanx, as the latest form tliat organi- 
 zation assumed, and as the shape in which the pha- 
 lanx encountered the military skill of the West, is de- 
 serving of description. The line was 10 deep; a 
 grand-phalanx (omprising l<',.;iH4 //"/)i?/te<, or heavy- 
 armed soldiers, subdivided as follows: tlie granil- 
 
 pha'anx composed of four phalanxes or divisions, 
 eacli under a General Officer, called a I'Jialangarcli ; 
 his command was divided into two brigades or Mer- 
 archien (sometimes called Te!arehie.i), each of these 
 comprising two regiments, or Cliiliarclii-eH, of four 
 battalions or Syntagmata each. A Syntogina an- 
 swered accurately to a modem battalion, except that 
 it was smaller. It was a perfect square, with 16 men 
 each way, was commanded by a Syntiigmatarch or 
 Xenagox; and liad an Adjutant, with one or two oth- 
 er Staff Officers who stood behind. Eight files unit- 
 ed were under a Taxinrch, four under a Tetrari-h, 
 corresponding probably to a modem Captain, two 
 files were under a Ihluehite or Subaltern. A single 
 file of Ifi men was called a Lochn.i and the best man 
 was placed at its head; a picked man, the Otiraguti, 
 also marching in the rear. The arms of all these 
 phalanx-men were pikes or spears, 34 feet long, of 
 which G ft. were behind and 18 ft. held in front of 
 the combatant. As each man occujiied with his 
 shield 3 feet, the phalanx, when it advanced, had six 
 tiers of spear-points in front, a wall of steel which 
 no troops could withstand, especially as the bearers 
 of the spears were pressed on by the ten ranks in 
 their rear. By rapid movements the phalanx could 
 change front, form in close column of syntagmata, 
 and execute other critical maneuvers. The heavj'- 
 armed phalanx was ordinarily flanked bj' Peltastes 
 or light infantry, similarly formed, but only eight 
 deep, while the cavalry were but four deep. The 
 phalanx, as representative of the heavy formation, 
 came in contact with the lighter legion of Rome dur- 
 ing the wars of Pyrrhus in Italy. At the great bat- 
 tle of Heraclea (379 b.c), the phalanx won the day; 
 but the victory was attributable to other causes as 
 much as to any superiority of formation. 
 
 PHEON.— In Heraldry, the barbed head of a dart. 
 It is represented as engrailed on the inner side, and 
 its position is with the point downward, unless oth- 
 erwise blazoned. 
 
 PHOENIX RIFLE. —A breech-loading rifle formerly 
 manufactured by the Whitney Arms Company. This, 
 like the Whitney and Kennedy rifles, which are im- 
 provements on it, is very simple of construction, and 
 perfectly strong, safe and durable, while the ease of 
 manipvdation in opening and closing the breech, and 
 extracting the shell or cartridge cannot be surpass- 
 ed. These arms have less parts than any other 
 breech-loading rifles in use, and the parts are of sush 
 form as to render them as strong and safe as rifles 
 can be made. They have short top action, and are 
 symmetrical in form. See Kennedy Rifle and Whit- 
 ney Rifle. 
 
 PHOSPHOR-BRONZE.— Of the many useful inven- 
 tions and discoveries recently made in the arts, that 
 of phosphor-bronze has proved to be one of the 
 most important. The invention is the result of a 
 long series of careful experiments, which have es- 
 tablished, as a scientific fact, the great superiority 
 of phosphorized alloys of copper and tin over other 
 alloys and metals. The chemical action of phos- 
 phorus on the metals composing the alloys is claimed 
 to be two-fold; on the one hand it reduces any ox- 
 ides dissolved therein, and on the other it forms with 
 the purified metals a most homogeneous and regular 
 combination, the hardness, strength and toughness 
 of which are completely under control. No other 
 metal combines, in so high a degree as phosphor- 
 bronze, the conditions of toughness, rigidity, hard- 
 ness, and great elastic resistance. From the drop- 
 tests following its comparative relation in this re- 
 spect to some of the best grades of wrougbt-iron is 
 made very apparent; moreover, if jointly with these 
 qualities the fact of the total absence of easily cor- 
 roded metals, such as zinc, be taken into consider- 
 ation, the advantages offered by the use of phosphor- 
 bronze can scarcely lie over-estimated. 
 
 In the following droji-tests. the weight of the dro]) 
 was one hundred and forly-eiglu pounds ; be ght of 
 stroke, twelve inches, except where otherwise stated;
 
 FHOBPHORUS. 
 
 515 
 
 FHO8PHOB08. 
 
 (lisliincc iK'twccn supports, four inflios; striking-face 
 of (Imp, a liluntcd wcdgc-Hliapc! ; tcst-liiirs, six inclicH 
 Ion;;, two inclics wide, and onc-lialf incli thick. Tlic 
 fnictionH of inclics stated in llie talile represent tlic 
 permanent set of the test-bar after tlie blow. 
 
 'V\w letters inserted in tlie tabic' indicate the state 
 <if the surface of tlie test-bar, on Ihi' side opposite to 
 thai npcin which I he blow has been ijiven : a, sound ; 
 A, slif^hl cracks at <'di;e; r, cracks at eil;;e increase 
 in size ; (I, slijihl cracks in the middle of the test- 
 bar; e, cracks in the middle increase in mimbir; /, 
 cracks in the iniddl(! increase in size ; 17, remains un- 
 altered ; — , straight; '--, tcHt-bar reversed. It is 
 apparent from these dro])-tests that the riu:idity of 
 phosphor-bronze is i;reatly sujicrior to that of lies! 
 wroMi;hl-iron, for it lakes thirteen Ijlows In benil the 
 bar Xl\'. H to the depth of one inch, whilst the best 
 fpialily of forLjed cliarcoal iron lakes ci,u;lit blows, 
 and the best charcoal scrap iron but six blows for 
 the same bend. The strength of the phosplior- 
 bronze bar No. (ix 17 is superior to that of tiest char- 
 coal scrap iron, it havini; stood five more blows of 
 twelve inches than the latter before bcini; ai^ain com- 
 l)letely strai,K;litene(l. The relative streni,'lh of phos- 
 phor-bronze as to that of other qualities of iron test- 
 ed needs no comment. ' 
 
 newed in consequence of their freedom from any ad. 
 Iiering slag is a great point in their favor. Phosphor- 
 bronze chisels, hammers, swages, BciHHor», key wed- 
 ges, etc., are made of various sizes and possess 
 tine temper, great hardness and are without any 
 liability to give forth sparks. The application of 
 |)liosphf>r-bronze will also be appreciated by all who 
 iiavc experieneed llw dillicully of removing brass or 
 iron wood screws after they have been exposed to 
 th(! weather for a short time. Urass screws are 
 more likely to twist off than withdraw, and those 
 made of iron become so rusted that their removal is 
 next to impossible. For all fortification work, car- 
 riage linisliinir, and exterior fastenings, especially at 
 the sea-side Garrisons, |)hos|)hor-bronze .screws are 
 recommended as the best article yet produced. See 
 
 PHOSPHORUS.— One of the most unwelcome in- 
 gredients in iron ores, from the ease with whch it 
 passes into the metal during the smelting process, 
 producing the most injurious effects, if present in 
 more than a very small proportion. Practically 
 speaking, all the phosphorus in the ore and in the 
 fuel passes into the pig-iron made. Ijike silicon, it 
 makes pig-iron weak ; although it is thr)ught that 
 when the amount is not more than one-half to three- 
 
 Metals tested. 
 
 Number of blows. 
 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 a 
 
 5 6 
 
 7 
 
 H 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 f 
 a 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 g 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 19 20 
 
 Phosphor-bronze, XIV . B. 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 a 
 
 i 
 a 
 
 f 
 
 a 
 
 g 
 
 l-H 
 
 f 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 a 
 
 t 
 
 *f 
 
 I Broke. 
 
 Phosphor-bronze, 6x17. 
 
 a 
 
 f 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 f M U 
 
 a a a 
 
 If 
 a 
 
 1" 
 a 
 
 7 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 A 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 t 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 8- foot blowe. 
 
 ',„ ^ ■> 
 1 —Broke, 
 b a 
 
 ... 
 
 
 i 
 a 
 
 t 
 
 g 
 
 g g 
 
 
 a 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 8 foot blows. 
 
 
 i 1 
 
 lioUed Charcoal Scrap-iron, best quality. 
 
 lA 
 
 — Broke. 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 1 a 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Best Charcoal Fire-flox Plate-iron. 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 c 
 
 H 
 c 
 
 1" 
 c 
 
 11 
 
 a 
 
 f 
 a 
 
 A 
 
 } Broke. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The same, cvit crosswise off plate. 
 
 t 
 
 c 
 
 I'fflf Broke 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ...j.... 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Charcoal Tank Plate-iron. 
 
 I 
 
 At's 
 
 c 
 
 fBroke 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a lb c 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 Best Foro^e Charcoal Iron. 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 f 
 
 ii 
 
 ^f* 
 
 n \i 
 
 fc 
 
 9 
 
 II Broke. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 tb 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The important applications of phosphor-bronze 
 have received constant and careful attention, and the 
 use of the special alloj' has become so widely ex- 
 tended into almost every branch of industry that it 
 has become known as the " best" metal for bear- 
 ings ; it has been adopted by many of the leading 
 railroads for bearings of their locomotives and cars, 
 and large quantities are in use in rolling mills, foun- 
 dries, steam engines, steam ships, and industrial 
 works of all kinds throughout the countr}-. Phos- 
 phor-bronze tuyeres have been in use for several 
 years in the iron furnaces of the United States with 
 great success. They have proved much more durable 
 than those made of iron, and after long service are 
 found to be free from incrustation by scoria of the 
 furnace. The facility with which they can be re- 
 
 fourths per cent., the strength of the pig-iron is not 
 materiall}' affected by it. 
 
 Phosphorus occasionally forms between one-fiftieth 
 and one-sixtieth part of the weight of cast iron, but 
 about one-hundredth part is a more common propor- 
 tion of phosphorus. It exists in combination with a 
 portion of the metal as pfioiij)hidf of iron, and is de- 
 rived either from phosphate of iron contained in the 
 iron, or from phosphate of lime, which is frequently 
 present in the limestone employed as a flux, and in 
 minute quantitj' in the coal. These phosphates con- 
 tain phosphorus in a state of combination with oxj-. 
 gen, which is abstracted by the carbon of the fuel 
 in ,the blast-furnace, and the phosphorus, thus set 
 free enters into combination with the iron. So com- 
 pletely is the phosphorus taken up by the metal, that
 
 PHOTO-GLTPHOGRAPHT. 
 
 516 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 only traces of that element in the form of phosphates 
 are usually found in the slag from the blast-furnace. 
 
 The effects of phosphorus are to harden cast-iron, 
 decrease its strength, and to increase its fusibility. 
 Iron made from ores containing much phosphorus 
 is always mid-short, or incapable of being wrought 
 cold under the hammer without breaking, bee 
 ta«t-iri>7i. 
 
 PHOTO-GLYPHOGRAPHY. — \ process, invented by 
 Mr. Fo.\ Talbot, for etching a photograph into a steel 
 plate. It consists iu coafing the plate with a mi.x- 
 ture of bicliromate of potash and gelatine, and expos- 
 ing under a negative. The effect of this treatment- 
 is 1o render the" gelatine insoluble, just in proportion 
 to the intensity of the light's action, after which a 
 solution of perchloride of iron, of a certain detinite 
 strength, is poured over the film, which solution 
 penetrates those parts unacted on by light, reaching 
 the steel plate, and biting itself in. but is repelled by 
 that portion of the gelatine rendered insoluble ; the 
 plate being tlms protected from the action of the 
 solvent. Because a dilute solution of perchloride (.f 
 iron soaks into a tilm of gelatine more readily than 
 a strong solution, it is very important that the etching 
 fluid should possess that amount of dilution which 
 has been found by practice to yield the best results. 
 
 The utility of such a process for copying old and 
 rare original manuscripts or maps and plans of all 
 kinds for the use of engineers and others will at once 
 be apparent, and it has already been largely adopted 
 in the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton, for 
 the reproduction of maps and old manuscript records; 
 at the India Museum, London, for the reproduction 
 of the patterns of Indian fabrics; and at Woolwich 
 Arsenal, for the reproduction of drawings of ord- 
 nance, equipment.etc. It is also largely used by the 
 War Departments of the various European States and 
 in America, but in no country in the world has Pho- 
 to-glyphography been so extensively and so usefully 
 applied to the reproduction of maps as m India, 
 where skilled lithographic draughtsmen and engrav- 
 ers are very scarce. It has been most successfully 
 worked in the Surveyor General's office, Calcutta, 
 in the office of the Superintendent of the Great Tri- 
 gonometrical Survey, Dehra Dhoon, and in the Pho- 
 tozincooraphic Office of the Bombay Government at 
 Poonah. By its aid the maps of the various surveys 
 are issued to the public within a few months after 
 the completion of the survey, instead of being kept 
 
 ticns. The adaptation of this art to military pur- 
 poses, in copying, enlarging, and in reducing maps, 
 etc., also in reconnoissances, has been greatly ex- 
 tended during the last few years. One of its most 
 useful applications to surveying consists in taking 
 small circular pictures or panoramas round each 
 station of the triangulation into whicli the survey is 
 divided. These panoramas are printed by the 
 ordinary photographic method, and are cut out and 
 fastened on a sheet of drawing paper in the relative 
 position to each other which they occupied on the 
 ground to be surveyed ; and straight lines or radii 
 being produced from the center of each, through the 
 objects shown in tliem, give by their intersections 
 the relative position of each object on the paper, so 
 that the " filling in," as it is technically termed, is 
 completed as rapidlj' as these intersections can be 
 found. Such a system dispenses with the very 
 slow process of observing each object separately, 
 and the liability to any possible error in recording 
 the observation in the field-book, which is now quite 
 done away with. Tlie great interest taken in field 
 photography of late years, at posts and on the march, 
 is due in a great measure to the improvements made 
 in the apparatus, which began with the iutroduction 
 of the dry plates. Tliese are sensitive gelatino- 
 bromide dry plates, and can be carried about with 
 little trouble. Formerly, when the wet plates were 
 in ttse, it was necessary for an amateur to carry 
 around with him a chemical laboratory and an ex- 
 temporized dark-room. Solutions had to be ready 
 beforehand. With dry plates it is not necessary to 
 bother with chemicals while in the field. All that is 
 necessary is to keep the plates, after the exposure, 
 from tlie light. They can be packed away iu cases 
 to be developed in the dark room at home. If the 
 party wishes to make his picture at the time, a dark 
 closet can be arranged under canvas. Onh' two 
 solutions are necessary, and they can be carried in 
 small bottles. Many explorers develop their plates 
 when they get back at night from a day's photograph- 
 ing tramp. Others save their plates and take them 
 to a professional in the city to be developed. 
 
 Pig. 1, shows a camera designed especially for 
 field-service by the Rochester Optical Company. It 
 is a very accurate, simple and practical instrument 
 and may be operated by any soldier, of ordinary intelli- 
 gence. The camera-box, in three sizes, is made of 
 the best seasoned cherry, well finished in the natural 
 
 i'i!,'. i. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 hack for years, as they would be, had they to be 
 lithographed or engraved. Besides being used in so 
 many (iovcrnrnent'Offlces, this process is extensive- 
 ly worked by mauy private individuals in Europe and 
 Aiiicric;i. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY.— The art of producing pictures 
 by the action of light upon certain chemical prepara- 
 
 wood. The focusing screen is hi'nffed to the camera- 
 back, which is more convenient than where loose, 
 and liable to loss and lircaUage. The back with 
 screen slides uiionlhc beil, being faslened by a set 
 screw when the focus has l)een olitiiined. The tripod 
 isallacheil to the bed by a screw wliich, wliile it al- 
 lows of the swinging of the box horizontally, or its
 
 Physics. 1. Apparatus for congealing water by evaporation. 2. 3. Vessel for reception of solid cai 
 heat. 10. Leslie's differeniial tliermometer. 11, 12, 15. Melloni's apparatus for radiation of c 
 thermo-t'olumn. 17. Spi'olnil i-iirve of tlierniic intensity. 18. Curves of intensity of the chem 
 ture of a tlaine with wire netting;. 22. 2.'J. Davy's safety-hiinp. 24. C'onihiclinn of lieat by v 
 constant pressure. 2M. Fonnation of mist by expansion of steam. 2it, 'iO. (ienemtioTi of he 
 3-1. IMaK'ietie iiuluction. 3."). Attraction and repulsion of i>aranel currents. 3G. Curr^'iil-breakt 
 polaiizaiiun by electro-magnets. 43. Induced currents. 44, 45. Action of the nrnguetlc poI»*i t 
 
 XI— 678.
 
 acid. 4 to 8. Apparatus for determination of specific heat. 9. Concave mirrors fo« experiments in radiation of 
 
 13. Heated slit'et-copper as a sonrce of rays of caloric. 14. Absorbtion of rays of heat by gases. 16. Linear 
 
 pticaliiini tlKTiuio inrtueuces of the spectrum. 19. Comparative conduction in solids. 20,21. Reducing tenipera- 
 
 25. Coiidu<-ti(m of lieat by gases. 26. Generation of lieat by compressing air. 27. Specific heat of air inider 
 friction. 31. Generation of heat by compressing lead. 32. Tension of aqueoiig vapor. 33. Induced currents. 
 
 Magnetic hammer. 38,39. Geissler's tubes. 40. Rotating copper cube. 41. Diamaguetic repulsion. 42. Circular
 
 PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY. 
 
 517 
 
 PIBROCH. 
 
 removal, rciimins in its Hockt't at uj] times, tints ob- 
 viatini; loss. Tlic lens is of remiirkiilily line i|uality, 
 giving sharp dolinition and )>;real ilcplli. 'I'lKr dia- 
 phrafjms are ri'immMi' — a point of the greatest im- 
 portance, to eompensate for the varyini; .streiifjlh of 
 dillercnt lif^hts. 'I"he ])lat(vhol(l<T is made on an im- 
 proved [jjan, doinj; away with ledi;es and thus e,\- 
 ])osini; the full jilale to the action of the li^riil, mak- 
 ini; a jiicture the fnll size of the fjlass. liv the old 
 • method a (piarter of an inch all around was lo.st. The 
 Tri|)od Lcfjs are jointed, capable of folding to half 
 length, Imt when in position are rigid and lirm. These 
 <-ameras are |)rovided with rising and falling fronts, 
 swinging backs, hinged anil folding beds (almost in- 
 dispensable adjiinets on some views), ami are adjust- 
 able for stereoscopic work, having double lenses, on 
 intcrcliangeable fronts and partitions. 
 
 Figures 3 and li, show a swivel-bed camera. The 
 front is mitcred in four pieces, giving it a very ele- 
 gant ajipearance. The bed swivels under the bo.\, 
 as shown in the drawing L, Fig. 3, is a focusing 
 screw, and M, a lock nut for fastening the box in 
 position when the focus is obtained. The trijjod 
 head, /v, is adjustable, so that the camera may be 
 leveled without the necessity of moving the tripod 
 legs. The rising and falling front, (1, is reversible 
 for packing more compactly. The diaphragms arc 
 removable. The foc'us screen is hinged and falls 
 down at the camera back, thus offering the least re- 
 sistance to wind. This camera is but two inches 
 thick when closed, thus making it most compact for 
 transportation. The lens is of great depth, and fine 
 quality, giving a sharp and clear cut picture. 
 
 One of the latest of instantaneous cameras consists 
 of a small wooden bo.\ which can be carried easily 
 imder the arm. Inside the box is the lens through 
 ■which the picture is taken. This is covered by a 
 shutter, which by the mere pressing of a little knob 
 on the outside uncovers the lens for an instant. On 
 the upper side is another lens, and underneath a 
 ground-glass plate. This is simply to enable the 
 photographer to see the image he wishes to take. 
 When it falls on the right spot in the plate he presses 
 the little knob for less than a twentieth of a second, 
 the dry plate is exposed and the picture is taken. 
 Troops in motion, exploding shells, etc., have thus 
 been photographed. With a little practice, instan- 
 taneous photographing reaches so fine a point that a 
 longer exposure than one-twentieth of a second is 
 not required. 
 
 It is not within the province of this article to go 
 into an abstruse demonstration of optical, chemical 
 or mechanical facts, but simply to direct attention 
 to an art of no little value to Topographical Engin- 
 eers, and all others in the active service of the mili- 
 tary profession. Tlie dark room, preparation of 
 chemicals, manipulation of camera, development, 
 printing, and toning may form special studies for 
 those desiring to become experts. The art of pho- 
 tography is now taught as a part of the regular 
 course at the Artillery School, Fortress Monroe, and 
 in most of the Military Schools of other Countries. 
 
 PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY.— The application of pho- 
 tography to engraving on stone. A lithographic stone 
 is coated with a mixture of water, gum-arabic, sugar, 
 and bichromate of potash, dried in the dark, exposed 
 in the camera, or under a negative. The effect of the 
 luminous action is to render the gum almost insolu- 
 ble. A solution of soap is then applied, which serves | 
 the double purpose, by its decomposition, of yielding 
 a greasy printing s irface, and by its solvent action to 
 remove those portions unacted on by light ; its ac- 
 tion being inversely proportionate to the extent to 
 which the gum was fixed by the light. In this con- 
 dition the stone is freely washed with water, and 
 ■when dry, receives a coating of printer's ink from 
 the roller, ■which, by uniting with the soap, gives ad- 
 ditional body to the picture. This processVas pat- 
 ented by Mr. W. E Newton ; but, in common ■n-ith ' 
 Others of a kindred character, the resulting pictures ' 
 
 were invariably deficient in middle lint. possessing a 
 degree of hardness very unpleasant to the eye, which 
 previiiled its enmiMg into geni-ral use. 
 
 PHOTO MICROGRAPHY. The enlargement of mi- 
 croseopic objects, by means of tlie microscope, and 
 the projection of the enlarged image on a sensitive 
 \ collodion (ilm. 'I'he manipulatory dela>ls are the same 
 as in the collodion process, only tliat, on account of the 
 delicate nature of the markings to !»• rendered, it is 
 necessary loemploy a collodion yielding what is term- 
 ed a structureless film. TIk- prineijile upon wliich the 
 enlargement is effected is that of the conjugate foci. 
 This branch of microscopic and jjliotographic science 
 has [)roved a useful aid in the study of th(^ sciences 
 of botany, physiology, and entomology, by delineat- 
 ing, with unerring accuracy, woody fiber, ducts, 
 .starch granules, muscular fiber, blood discs, nerve 
 papilla-, etc. Among the numerous experimentera 
 attracted by this interesting study. ])r. Maddox is 
 perhaps the only one who iuis attaineil to any re- 
 nown : and by him, minute animalcuhe. all but in- 
 visible by unassisted vision, have been magnilied to 
 a superficial areaof l^s(|uare inches, in which the most 
 delicate iletails have been faithfully preserved, ijy 
 reversing the arrangement ueces.sary for these en- 
 largements of microscopic otjjects. it will be .seen 
 that minute photographs of engravings, or other ob- 
 jects, may be produced which wouhf require a mi- 
 croscope for their inspection. In this way com- 
 munication was maintained, during the investment 
 of Paris, when copies of letters and newspapers were 
 inserted in quills, and fastened to carrier pigeons; and 
 this is really by no means so diflicult to accomplish 
 as it may seem at first sight, since i)hotographs no 
 larger than a pin's head have been produced, includ- 
 ing in that small space portraits of no less than .'500 
 eminent men. 
 
 PHOUS-DAN.— An East Indian term for a com- 
 man<ler of a large body of forces. 
 
 PHYLa;. — A Greek word, meaning tribes, applied 
 specially to the divisions of Attica, originally four, 
 but made ten by Clcisthenes after the Pisistratidm 
 were driven from Athens. The number was still 
 later raised to twelve. Each I'hyle had a leader or 
 Phylarch, who possessed certain authority, both of a 
 civil anrt military nature, and each tribe sent fifty 
 representatives to the Athenian Senate. In time 
 the civil duties, such as presiding over the assem- 
 blies, were taken from the Phylarch and given to an 
 officer called the Epimeletes. 
 
 PHYLARQUE. — A Grecian cavalry officer who 
 commanded the cavalry of his tribe. 
 
 PISROCH. — Music played on the bagpipe, ■which 
 has a wonderful power in exciting the martial in- 
 stincts and hilarity of the Highlanders. Its rythm is 
 so irregular, and its notes in the quicker parts so 
 much jumbled together, that a stranger has difficulty 
 in following the modulations or reconciling his ear 
 to them. The earliest mention of the military music 
 of the bagpipe is in 1594, at the Battle of Balrinnes ; 
 indeed, prior to that period, the bagpipe can hardly 
 be looked on as a national instrument of Scotland. 
 There are appropriate pibrochs belonging to various 
 clans and districts, but some of these may not be 
 older than the beginning of the last century. On* 
 of the oldest known pibrochs is called the " Battle 
 of Harlaw," but it may be doubted whether it was 
 contemporary with that event (1411). In the ballad 
 account of that battle there is mention of trumpets 
 and horns, but none of the bagpipe ; and the pibrocU 
 style of music has so obvious a relation to the bag- 
 pipe that it is difficult to suppose that it preceded 
 the use of that instrument. According to Sir Waltef 
 Scott, the connoisseurs in pipe-music affect to dis- 
 cover in a well composed pibroch the imitative 
 sounds of march, conflict, flight, pursuit, and all the 
 current of a heady fight. Many remarkable instances 
 have been recorded of the effect of the pibroch on 
 the Highlanders. At the Battle of Quebec, in April, 
 1760, whilst the British troops were retreating in
 
 PICADOR. 
 
 518 
 
 PICKETS. 
 
 confusion, the pipers were ordered to strike up a 
 favorite pibroch, and the result was that the High- 
 landers, who were broken, rallied the moment they 
 heard the music, and formed with great alacrity in 
 the rear. 
 
 PICADOR.— A horseman armed with a lauce, who 
 commences the exercises of a bull-fight by attacking 
 the animal without attempting to kill him. 
 
 PICAROOK.— A pillager or plunderer ; one who 
 violates the laws. 
 
 PICCOLO.— A flute of small dimensions, having 
 the same compass as the ordinary flute, while tlie 
 notes all sound an octave higher than their nota- 
 tion. In joyous as well as violent passages this 
 instrument is sometimes very effective in a band. 
 
 PICKER.— A small, pointed brass wire, which was 
 formerly supplied to every infantry soldier for the 
 purpose" of cleaning the vent of his musket. 
 
 PICKERING.— -Clittle flying skirmish, which the 
 marauders make when detached for pillage, or be- 
 fore a main battle. Also writen Pickerooning, and 
 Picqneering. 
 
 PICKET.— A technical term fo' an elongated 
 conoidal projectile. See Pickets. 
 
 PICKET-GOARD.— A guard- of horse and foot, 
 always in readiness in case of alarm. See Pickets. 
 
 PICKET-LINE.— 1. A positionheld and guarded by 
 small bodies of men placed at intervals. 2. A rope 
 to which horses are secured when groomed. The 
 rope, which usually passes through holes near the 
 tops of posts planted in the ground, is frequently re- 
 placed by a timber framed on the posts. 
 
 In the" Crimea, the cavalry usually encamped in 
 line with two rows of picket-lines and a line of shel- 
 ter tents in front of and behind the picket-lines; the 
 arms and equipments between the shelters and the 
 
 picket-hnes. The picket-lines were stretched on the 
 ground, and tlie horses secured to tliem by hobbles 
 on the right fore-feet; the liobble being about three 
 feet long and buckling around thepastern-joint. The 
 drawin^shows this arrangment, which is spoken of 
 by tlie French officers as'being the best manner of 
 securing the horses. 
 
 PICKET-PIN.— An iron pin with a ring at the top. 
 It is driven ill the grouml, and tlie lariat is attached 
 to it to secure a liorse while grazing. 
 
 PICKETS.— 1. Stout wooden stakes driven into 
 the ground and used for securing purposes, and in 
 the construction of lioldfasts. The ordinary slakes 
 for siege-gun platforms answer for most cases. 
 When very lieavy strains are to be borne, posts from 
 five to eight feet long are required, and are set into 
 tlie ground liy digging holes, or witli a piie-driver. 
 When tlie latter is us(!d. the post should lie shod with 
 an iron point, and have a ring upon the head to pre- 
 vent splitting. 
 
 2. An early militarj' punishment where the cul- 
 prit was held by the raised arm in such a position 
 thai his whole weight fell on one foot, wliicli was 
 8Uli]iorli-il on a picket with a blunt point. Tlie time 
 
 the man thus stood was proportioned to the offense. 
 The punishment became, after a few moments, ex- 
 tremelj' painful; it has long been discontinued on 
 sanitary grounds. 
 
 3. Detachments of troops whose principal duty is 
 to guard an army from surprise, and oppose such 
 small parties as the enemy may push forward for 
 the purpose of reconnoitering. The main-detacli- 
 ments or pickets, which form the supports to the 
 grand-guards and out-posts, occupy the principal 
 avenues to the position of the main-body. As their 
 duty is to hold the enemy in check, the points which 
 they take up should be susceptible of a good defense; 
 such, for example, as villages, defiles, etc.; when- 
 ever these advantages are not found at hand, resort 
 should be had to any temporary obstacles, as abatis, 
 etc., which can be' readily procured, to place the 
 troops under shelter. The points thus occupied 
 should, as a general rule, be about midway between 
 the line of out-posts and the position of the main- 
 body. Small posts should be thrown forward by 
 the pickets, between their position and the line of 
 grand-guards; both for the greater security of the 
 detachments, and as supports to the grand-guards. 
 In like manner, when the line of pickets is of con- 
 siderable e.xtent, intermediate posts must be estab- 
 lished, to keep open a communication between them. 
 No pains should be spared to obstruct the approaches 
 of the enemy to the points occupied by the pickets; 
 particularly those which lead to the flanks ; leaving 
 open such only as will oblige the enemy to attack 
 under the most unfavorable circumstances; and if, 
 between the advanced-posts and the main-body, a 
 defile, or other unfavorable pass should occur, which 
 the enemy, by turning the line of the advanced-posts, 
 might seize upon, and thus cut off their retreat, it 
 should be occupied by a strong detachment; 
 both to prevent such a maneuver, and to favor 
 the retreat on the main-body. 
 
 The entire strength of the advanced-posts, as 
 well as the relative strength of the pickets, 
 grand-guards, and out-posts, will depend upon 
 the character of the ground covered by them ; 
 as being more or less open, and presenting 
 more or less facilities for circumscribing the 
 approaches of the enemy to the main-position. 
 It rarely occurs that sufficient troops can be 
 Eac^ detached to cover all the accessible ground, 
 i and perform the duties in a tiiorough manner 
 The strength of each picket, and tlie kind of 
 
 I;; troops of which it is composed, will depend on 
 
 the degree of resistance to be offered to the 
 enemy's attack ; and the character of the posi- 
 tion occupied. In most cases where a vigorous 
 defense is called for. they will consist of troops 
 of all the arms ; and an aggregate of several 
 hundred men. The grand-guards, out-posts, and 
 patrols, should not as a general rule exceed one-third 
 the strength of the pickets to which they belong. 
 They will be composed of cavalry, or infantry, ac- 
 cording to the more or less broken features of the 
 ground. It rarely occurs that artillery is placed at the 
 out-posts. Whenever it happens that a piece, or 
 two, may be deemed necessary, to swee]) some 
 passage, or defile, in advance of the line of otit-posts, 
 the guns must be protected by a strong ]iosl. to in- 
 sure their safety in a retreat. If, from the character 
 of the ground, the out-posts are mahily of infantry, 
 some cavalry should always be attaelied to them, to 
 patrol in advance of the position, and to convey in- 
 telligence to the rear of what may be passing in the 
 ncighboriiood of the out-posts. When the advanced- 
 posts cover aiiadvaiieed-guard.tlieCoriiniaiiding Offi- 
 cer of tlie whole sliould take a ])osilion, with his artil- 
 lery and the main-body of his coiiiniaiid, at some 
 cent ml point, in the rear of the jiiekets: in order to be 
 ready to supjxirt them if hard jiressed by the enemy. 
 The choice of this ])osition is an object of the greatest 
 importance; as the safety of the advanced-posts as 
 well as that of the main-body, may depend upon the
 
 PICRATE8. 
 
 5in 
 
 PIECE. 
 
 degree of judgment shown in liia Holection. bo booh ' 
 aa the adviinfcd-<|K).HtH liave tukcn up their slalions, 
 iMSlruclidiis !<hould Ik^ given to the iillieers iif tlie 
 dilTercMl poKtH, vvilh respect to Hie points upon whieh 
 tliey are to full baeli, in case of their Ijeing forced in: 
 the lincH of <:oinniuiiication tlu'}' must of necessity 
 H'lire by; and tlie position tliey must take up, when 
 j<iining tlie supports to wliich they respectively !)(•- 
 long. An oliieer in eonuMaml of any of the out- 
 posts must be eajiiihleof untiring vigilance and activ- 
 ity; to perform (he various (hities which devolve 
 upon him. lie should lie provided with a good 
 map of the country, a telescope, and writing mater- 1 
 ials. lie will thoroughly recoimoiter the ground upon j 
 which he is to dispose Ins command; and also as far | 
 in advance as circumstances will admit; (|uestioning 
 closely any inhabitant lie may lind. .\ftcr tid<ing uj) 
 his position, he shoidd go forward with the half of 
 his command, and post each sentinel himself. If, 
 however, he relieves another in the connnand, and 
 deems it advisable to make any changes in the dis- 
 positions of his predecessors, he sliould promptly re- 
 port the facts to the comnianding-oni<'er in his rear. 
 When the officer finds that the enemy is not in bis 
 immediatt^ neighborhood, he shoidd endeavor to 
 feel his way cautiously towards him by p;itrols; and 
 when in immediate presence, lie should omit no 
 means to watch the enemy's movements; and from 
 the occurrences of the moment, such as noises, the 
 motion of clouds of dust, camp tires, conflagrations, 
 etc., endeavor to divine what is passing in his camp, 
 and his probable intentions. Accurate written re- 
 ports should be promptly sent to the otTieer in (com- 
 mand, in the rear, on all these points. The reports 
 should be Iffjilily written, and should clearly, but 
 cutwixely, state what has fallen under the officer's 
 eye; what he has learned from others; and the charac- 
 ter of the sources from wdiich his information is 
 drawn. The post under the otiiccr's command, 
 whether horse or foot, should not all be allowed to 
 sleep or eat at once. The horses, when wanted, 
 should be taken singly or by pairs, and always mount- 
 ed. At night one-half of the command should be 
 under arms, prepared for an attack; the others sealed, 
 their arms and the bridles of their horses in hand. 
 The men should never be permitted to occupy a 
 house; and if the weather is such that a fire out of 
 doors is indispensalile, it should be as much con- 
 cealed as practicable; one-half being only allowed to 
 sit near it; the other posted, at a convenient spot at 
 hand, to fall on the enemy should he attempt a 
 stroke. When the position taken up is to be held 
 for some time, it will be well to change the locality 
 of the posts occasionally; this should be done, par- 
 ticularly at night, in a hilly district, changing the 
 post from the brow of the hill, where the men can 
 best keep a look-out by day, to the low ground at 
 night, as more favorable to detect any movement 
 above. The out-posts are usually relieved at day- 
 break, as being the most favorable mcmient for the 
 enemy to attempt a surprise; the new-guard, will 
 serve to reinforce the old. For the same reason, 
 the old-guard should not be suffered to retire before 
 the patrols come in and report all safe. See Ad- 
 vanced-posts. Fkld-service . Grand Guards, and Out- 
 posts. 
 
 PICKATES. — The picrates are salts of picric acid. 
 Picric or trinitrophenic acid is a nitro-substitution 
 product, formed by the action of nitric acid on car- 
 bolic acid (phenol, CjHcOj. Three substitution 
 products may be derived from this action, but only 
 one, picric acid, possesses any marked explosive [ 
 properties. Picric acid has the composition indica- 1 
 ted by its symbol— C„H3(NO„)30. or C'olIaNaO-, 
 Picric acid is found in commerce, being used to dye 
 silk and wool yellow. If the acid is heated, it takes 
 fire and burns sharply and rapidly witliout e.\plo- 1 
 sion. The picrates are all exploded with more or 
 less violence by heat or blows. When used as e.\- 1 
 plosiveagents they are mixed with potassium nitrate 1 
 
 CHaltpeler) or potassium chlorate. A large number 
 of picrates are kiuiwn, but the potassium and am- 
 monium salts are the only onr'S tliatliuve been much 
 usid in exiilosive prei)arations. 
 
 I'litnssiiiin J'icraU \ (y',,HjKNjO,, is the most vio- 
 lently explosive of the picrates. Potassium picrate 
 and jxitassium chlorate form a mixture nearly as 
 powerful as nitro-glycerine, but it is so senHitive to 
 friction or penjussion as to render it practically use- 
 less. With potassium nitrate instead of f-hlorate a 
 li;ss violent mixture is (obtained, but one still too liable 
 to accidental explosion. 
 
 AmiiKiuiiim J'icrnte, C,n2(Nri4)N,0,, has been 
 proposed by Abel as an ingredient of a i)Owder for 
 bursting charges of shells. The properties of am- 
 nioiiiuni picrate are very difTerent from those of the 
 jiotassiiim .salt. If flame is applied to the former, it 
 imrns (|uietly, withastrong, smoky flame. If heated 
 it nx'lts, sublimes, .-ind burns without explosion. It 
 is almost eniirely uiiiilfected tiy blows or friction. 
 This salt mixed with saltpeter forms Abel's picric- 
 powder (Brugf^re's powder). Experiments with this 
 [jowder in England indicate that it po.ssesses some 
 advantages when used in shells. A number of shells 
 charged with it were fired from guns of different 
 caliber without accidents. It is more powerful than 
 gunpowder and less violent than nitro-glycerine and 
 gun-cotton. It is insensitive to ordinary means of 
 ignition. If flame is applied to it, the particles 
 touched burn, but the combustion does not readily 
 extend to the others. IJlows or friction do not ex- 
 plode it. It must be confined in order to develop its 
 explosive force. It does not absorb moisture from 
 the air, so that it may be stored and handled like 
 gunpowder, and is at le;ist equally safe and perma- 
 nent. It is prepared for use by the usual gunpowder 
 processes of incorponition—pressing, granulation, 
 etc.; so that it has the same form and may be handled 
 in the same way. It may therefore be a good sub- 
 stitute for powder when a more violent explosive is 
 wanted and neither gun-cotton nor nitro-glycerine 
 are available. The mixture contains 40 parts of 
 saltpeter and 54 parts of the picrate. 
 
 The picrate is prepared from picric acid and am- 
 monia. The picric acid is dissolved in water, and 
 ammonia added to neutralization. Another charge 
 of picric acid is then dissolved in the same liquid, 
 and ammonia again added. This is repeated several 
 times, and the liquid allowed to stand for some time, 
 when the ammonium picrate crystallizes out in large 
 quantities. The mother liquoris dr;iwn off, the crys- 
 talline deposit drained and dried. The mother 
 liquor may be used for the preparation of successive 
 lots of the ammonia salt until it becomes charged 
 with impurities, when it may be otherwise treated 
 or thrown away. In this way a considerable amount 
 of the salt can be expeditiously prepared with little 
 hibor and without much loss. " The working of the 
 mixture is. of course, to be done at a powder-mill. 
 Set Expl'isiie Aquits. 
 
 PICEIC POWDER.— Picrate of potash. This pow- 
 der, of a bright yellow color, has been recommended 
 as stronger than gunpowder, and less susceptible to 
 ignite bv means offriction or a lilow. 
 
 PICTS' WALL.— One of the barriers erected by the 
 Romans across the northern part of England to re- 
 strain the incursions of the Picts. 
 
 PIECE.— 1. In Heraldry, an ordinary or charge; as 
 the fesse, the bend, the pale, the cross, the saltire. 
 the chevron, called honorable pieces. 3. Thetcrms 
 cannon and ordnance are applied to all heavy fire- 
 arms which are fired from carriages, in contradis- 
 tinction to S7nall-)irms. whi( h arc fired from the hand. 
 The termp/Vc« is applied to cannon; it also used to 
 designate a cannon in union with its carriage with 
 or without the limber. 
 
 The light artillery of the United States now com- 
 prises the following pieces, viz. : thret-inch rifle and 
 three-and-one-half-inck rifled-guns; half-inch and one- 
 inch mitrailleurs; and the twelve-poundtr smooth-txrre
 
 PIECE. 
 
 520 
 
 PIECE. 
 
 gun. A .45-inch mitrailleiir lias just been adopted 
 (1874) ; it is intended to ultimately replace the half- 
 inch mitraillcur. The three-inch rifle was adopted 
 in 1861. It is made of ■mought-iron, by wrapping 
 boiler-plate round an iron bar, so as to form a cyl- 
 indrical mass, which is brought to welding heat and 
 passed through rollers, so as to unite it solidly ; the 
 trunnions are afterward welded on, and the piece is 
 bored and turned to its proper size and shape. The 
 method originated at the Phcenixville Iron Works, 
 Pa. The model for the t/i ree-a?id-i'ne-ha!f-inc.h rille 
 was adopted in 1870. It is to be made of wrought- 
 iron or bronze, and in its general appearance will 
 
 -.J-— 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 //I 
 
 izr 
 
 closely resemble the three-inch rifle. The mitrail- 
 leurx are Gatling's, and were adopted in 1868 ; they 
 are made of steel, some of the smaller parts being of 
 brass. The Ucelce-puunder, or Napoleon gun, adopt- 
 ed in 1857, is still (1874) retained in the United 
 States service, though abandoned by all other civil- 
 ized nations. It is cast in gun-metal or bronze, 
 which consists of ninety parts of copper and ten of 
 tin, allowing a variation of one part more or less. 
 JJestrription and nomenrlatnre of light guns: The 
 bore (1) is the hollow cj'li'ider which receives the 
 charge. The mouth (2) is that part of the bore near- 
 est the front of the piece. The bottom of the bore (3) 
 is its extreme rear: in the three inch ritle, it is a 
 semi-elliptical surface. Tlie bores of rifled-guns have 
 grooves; the intervals between the grooves are called 
 lands; the grooves and lands are of equal width. 
 The tent is a cylindrical hole, perpendicular to the 
 axis of the ji/cce (4), near the bottom of the bore, 
 through which fire is communicated to the charge. 
 The surface of the piece in the immediate vicinity 
 
 trunnions with the gun ; their ends, or \.\\e shoulders 
 of the trunnions, are planes parallel to each other and 
 perpendicular to the axis of the trunnions. The 
 breech (8) is that part of the piece in rear of a plane 
 passing through the vent and perpendicular to the 
 axis of the piece. The base of the frrcifcA is the plane, 
 or curved, surface at the rear of the piece. The.seat 
 for the pendulom-hnusse is screwed into the base of 
 the breech. The breech includes the cnscabel (9) 
 which consists of a knob terminating the rear of the 
 piece, and of a neck, or narrow part, whicli unites 
 the knob to the base of the breech. When the body 
 of the gun is strengthened by a band, or jacket, this 
 addition is termed a reinforce. The 
 ■^i chase (10) is that-part of the gun in 
 
 ! front of the trunnions. The muzde 
 
 (11 ) is the general term for the front 
 of the gun ; if t he chase be enlarged 
 at the muzzle, the enlargement is 
 called the sicell of the muzzle, and 
 the part of the chase where the 
 swell begins is called the neck. The 
 front, or mutzle, sight is screwed into the muzzle, 
 or into the swell of the muzzle at its highest point. 
 The /ace (13) is the perpendicular plane terminating 
 the front of the gun. Preponderance is the excess of 
 the weight of the piece in rear of the trunnions over 
 that in front ; it is measured by the lifting power in 
 pounds, which must be applied at the base of the 
 breech to balance the piece when suspended freely 
 on the axis of the trunnions. It is decided to dispense 
 with preponderance in all guns hereafter cast. The 
 bore is kept as dry as possible by depressing the 
 piece and using a vent-cover and tompion. Great 
 care must be taken not to bend or injure the front- 
 sights, as it affects the accuracy of pointing. After 
 firing, the bore of the gun must be washed out, and 
 the piece depressed. Steel guns are bronzed or 
 lackered on the exterior. Slitrailleurs are kept 
 cleaned and oiled to prevent them from getting rusty; 
 after marching over dusty roads and, if possible, 
 before going into action, the barrels and carrier-block 
 are wiped and the parta oiled, the crank being re- 
 
 Diameter of bore 
 
 Length of bore 
 
 Whole length of piece 
 
 Greatest exterior radius of base of 
 
 breech 
 
 Greatest exterior radius of l)reech- 
 
 casing 
 
 Length of front-sight 
 
 Length of trunnions 
 
 Diameter of trunnions 
 
 Depth of grooves 
 
 Twist of grooves 
 
 Weight 
 
 Preponderance 
 
 Rifles. 
 
 3-inch. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 3. 
 
 65. 
 
 72.7 
 
 4.85 
 
 1.85 
 3.8 
 3.67 
 .075 
 1 in 10 ft. 
 
 Pounds. 
 830 
 40 
 
 8i-inch 
 
 Inches. 
 3.5 
 65. 
 73.84 
 
 5.6 
 
 2.25 
 3.25 
 4.2 
 .075 
 1 in 12 ft. 
 
 Pounds. 
 1,156 
 
 None. 
 
 Mitrailleurs. 
 
 ^-inch. 
 
 Inches. 
 .5 
 33. 
 
 58. 
 
 3.81 
 
 1-inch. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 1. 
 
 33. 
 
 68.15 
 
 6.5 
 
 2.35 2.8 
 
 2.7 3.67 
 
 .01 .01 
 
 1 in 43 inch. 1 in G ft. 
 
 Pounds. 
 365 
 45 
 
 Pounds. 
 1,008 
 110 
 
 13-Pdr. 
 
 model of 
 
 1857. 
 
 Inches. 
 4.62 
 63.6 
 
 72.55 
 
 5.5 
 
 3.5 
 3.25 
 
 4.3 
 
 Pounds. 
 1.230 
 105 
 
 of the exterior orifice of the vent is called tlie vent- 
 field. The bodg (5) is that part of the piece in rear 
 of a plane perpendicular to the axis of the piece and 
 tangent to the front ])art of the </•«««/'/«.'! ((!. 6), or jiro- 
 jecting cylinders at the sides of the piece, vyjiich are 
 iiiteuiled to support it on its carriage ; th( ir axes 
 arc in a line piTpendicular to tlie axin of the jiiecc, 
 and in the same plane with it. The rimbases (7,7) 
 arc the short masses of metal which unite the two 
 
 versed to avoid unnecessary snapping. Tlie foregoing 
 are the princi|)al dimensions aiKl weights of pieces. 
 In bronze, the weight of the three and one-half 
 inch rifie is l,2!)i) lbs. There are seven grooves in 
 the three-inch and thrce-and-one-half-inch rifles, and 
 six grooves in the barrels of the mitrailleurs. In the 
 twelve-pounder, the irhidai/c, or dilTerence between 
 diameters of bore and projectile, is 0.1 inch. See 
 Cannon, Gatling Gun, anil Mitrailleur.
 
 FrEBCED. 
 
 521 
 
 PIEZOMETER. 
 
 FI£BCED.— In Heraldry, a term used to indicute 
 tluil 11 clmrttc is perforated so as to show the Held 
 bcneiilli it. Tlie aperture is presumed to he eir<:uliir, 
 unless some oilier form, as sipiari-piereed or loz- 
 cnf;e pierced, lie s|)ecilic-d in the bla/.oii. 
 
 PIERCES.' -An inslriimenl employeil in the fuhri- 
 cution of ordnance. The horini; of a cannon is com- 
 menced liy plaeinj; the l)orini;-rod, armed with the 
 lirsl. culle'r, called the iiiirrer, in tlii' prolonv;iilion 
 of the axis of the ]iiece, and jiressini^ it a};iiinst the 
 metal. The piercer is used till it piiielrates to tiie 
 bottom of llie chamlier, after which a second cutter, 
 or reamer, is altnched to the borinfi-rod, and with 
 this the lioriiii^ is made complete to the round jiarl 
 of the chamher. 
 
 FIEKRIER. A term originally ap|)lied to an en- 
 gine f<ir casliiii; stones, and later to a small kind of 
 cannon. The term is now generally applied to a 
 liiorlar used for discharging stones, etc. 
 
 PIERS. In fortilication, the buttresses on which 
 the roadway of a bridge rests. In the case of wood- 
 en bridges, piiTS are made of barrels, etc. 
 
 PIES.— Counts Palatine, who were! created in ISfiO 
 by Popi' Pius IV, and who had precedence at Home 
 over Knights of the Teutonic Order and Order of 
 Malla. 
 
 PIEZOMETER. — An instrument invented by Oer- 
 sted for measuring the compressibility of liipiids. It 
 has been pr()po.s<Ml to ascertain the jiressure of the 
 gases evolved by the combustion of gunpowder, by 
 including in the cavity within which the jiressurc 
 should be restrained a piezometer, which, by regis- 
 tering the compression of a liquid contained within 
 it, sliould afTonl an indication of the pressure to 
 which it had been exposed. This instrument, as em- 
 ployed in these experiments, is shown in the draw- 
 ing. Fig. 1,is a section through its axis; Fig. 2. an 
 exterior side view. Tlie same letters are used in re- 
 
 is a tubular support for the point, and 
 To It is at- 
 
 Fig. 1. Fii;. i 
 
 ferring to like parts in each of the figures. A, is the 
 body of the instrument. The general form of its low- 
 er (or outer end) is hemispherical, but it is flattened 
 on four sides (as at a and a) for fitting a socket at- 
 tached to the middle of a small oil-pan used in filling 
 it. B, is the barrel to which the piston is fitted. It 
 screws freely into the body.and makes with it a close 
 joint. C, is the piston, packed with a leather ring 
 occupying a groove ; c, is the eye of the piston, by 
 means of which it is withdrawn or turned when re- 
 quired. A special itnplemcnt (not represented) is 
 fitted to the eye for this manipulation. D, is a stem 
 screwed into the piston. The lower end is squared, 
 to fit a socket like that of a watch-key. As it is de- 
 sirable to use anew stem for each experiment, spec- 
 ial appliances were prepared for making duplicates 
 readily and with accuracy. They are coated with a 
 thin tilm of black varni.sh to render the marks the)' 
 are to receive more distinct. E, is the point from 
 which the stem receives the mark recording com- 
 
 pregslon. F 
 
 also a guide for the stem fif the piston. 
 
 Inched the spring, (i, pressing the point against the 
 
 stem; //, are holes in the support to permit the oil 
 
 within It to escajie freelv when the stem is sudd<rnly 
 
 thrust in, under the action of surrounding pressure. 
 
 II, is a screw pr'rinitting the escaix; of oil when the 
 
 instrument is hiing " set" for use, but also capable 
 
 of closing tightly tlie opening in which it is situated. 
 
 Tists were made of the tightness of the piston and 
 
 of the joints. 
 
 In preparing the piezometer for an experiment, two 
 itemsaretohe specially observed ; it must contain 
 no air, and (he " setting," or adjustment of the quan- 
 tity of oil contained, must be done at the precise tem- 
 perature the instrument is to have at the moment 
 of firing. The procedure is simply as follows: All 
 the parts are tirst oiled, over their whole surfaces. 
 The adjusting-screw is inserted into the body of 
 the instrument, which is then set upright in a socket 
 attached to the middle of a small pan intended to 
 catch any overflow, and is nearly or quite filled with 
 oil, which should be made to flow down the side of 
 the cavity rather than in a stream. The support of 
 the marking-point, (juite clean but covered with oil, 
 is now screwed into its )>lace, with the aid of a spec- 
 ial implement, not described. When this is with- 
 drawn, it will he necessary to replace the oil caused 
 to overllow by its insertion. The barrel is now 
 slowdy put in its place and screwed firmly down. 
 The hole in the piston for receiving the stem is filled 
 with oil, the stem screwed in, and the piston insert- 
 ed in the barrel. The adjusting-.screw is loosened a 
 little, permitting the piston to lie pressed just below 
 the top of the barrel, and again tightened. The next 
 step is to bring the instrument ancl its contents to the 
 setting temperature. Fortius purpose a water bath 
 (a common wooden pail) is provided ; also a narrow- 
 tin ctip. deeper than the bath and weighted at the 
 bottom so as to stand upright within it; and a pair 
 of wooden pinchers for handling the piezometer, 
 which instrument could be inserted in them in such 
 a way as to be nearly enveloped and yet to leave the 
 adjusting screw and piston readilj- accessible. The 
 piezometer, seized in the pinchers, is placed at the 
 bottom of the cup in company with the tools to be 
 used in setting it, and is covered with a loose wad of 
 cotton. The cup is set in the middle of the bath and 
 surrounded with water kept as nearly as possible at 
 the desired temperature, for a sufficient time to im- 
 part, as nearly as appreciable, the same to the instru- 
 ment. It is then withdrawn, the screw loosened, the 
 piston depressed a little to a regulated depth with a 
 special tool, the screw tightened, and the piston ro- 
 tated a few degrees, which completes the setting. 
 The object of this last movement is to inscribe a 
 transverse line on the stem, affording a starting point 
 in measuring the length of the stroke. 
 
 Small changes of temperature after theinstnunent 
 I is set are of no consequence, as tlie oil will of course 
 return to the same volume, and the piston stand at 
 the same place, on returning to the same tempera- 
 ture. Before placing the piezometer in the hollow 
 plug, a thin leather envelope, kept saturated with 
 oil, is drawnupon it, (with the intention of affording 
 protection against the shock of firing), and when in- 
 serted, the remaining space within the plug is filled 
 with oil, which is retained by stopping the opening 
 through the retaining ring (which forms the com- 
 munication with the bore of the gun) with aloosely- 
 fitted disk of cork or leather. One particular to be 
 noted is the position of the eye of the piston with 
 reference to the line in which the gun will recoil on 
 firing. The metal surrounding the eye occupies a 
 position at one side of the piston's axis of rotation in 
 I the barrel, thereby throwing the center of gyration 
 out of that line; and if that center be so situated as 
 to fall outside of a plane coincident with the line of 
 recoil, it is evident that the piston will have a ten- 
 dencv to rotation when the gun is fired.
 
 PIFFARD HEEL PLATE. 
 
 n5>9 
 
 PILE-DEIVEE. 
 
 PIFFAKD HEEL-PLATE.— This device consists of 
 a soft rubber pad or cushion about half an inch in 
 thickness. It is applied to the butt of the jiun (after 
 removal of the iron heel-plate), and is retained in 
 position by a skeleton plate. The latter is attached 
 to the stock by usin.s one of the original screws, and 
 in addition a small screw inserted near the toe of the 
 heel-plate, as shown in the drawing. The stock of 
 the gun is not altered in any manner, and the origin- 
 al butt-plate can be re-applied at will. E.xperience 
 has shown that, when using this contrivance, the 
 effect of recoil has been "greatly moditied, and a 
 charge of as much as 110 grains of powder, with 430 
 
 of lead, can be shot without discomfort. The bene- 
 fits accruing from the lessened recoil are : Recruits 
 and beginners will not become "gun-shy," and con- 
 tract the habit of flinching ; increased accuracy from 
 absence of flinching ; target practice can be more 
 continuously and efficiently carried on than is prac- 
 ticable without the elastic-plate, owing to the bruis- 
 ing and other injuries attendant on the use of the 
 service cartridge ; and, the powder charge for ser- 
 vice ammunition could be materially Increased, 
 thereby flattening the trajectory, andin other res- 
 pects rendering the weapon more effective. 
 
 It is evident that the use of this description of 
 heel-plate insures greater safety and increased ac- 
 curacy. The dropping of a loaded gun (cocked or 
 half-cocked), butt downwards, on a stone or hard 
 ground may result in breaking the point of the sear 
 or one of the notches of the tumbler, causing a pre- 
 mature discharge. This heel-plate would diminish 
 the force of the concussion and lessen the liability 
 to accident. In repeating rifles, in which the car- 
 tridges are arranged in the magazine with the bullet 
 of one pressing on the primer of the one in front of 
 it, the dropping of the gun might cause an explo- 
 sion in the magazine. The liability to this accident 
 ■would be diminished by the use ofthe plate. Prac- 
 tical marksmen have found that wlien using this 
 heel-plate the butt of the rifle is retaint^d in proper 
 position against the arm with less e.xertion, the rub- 
 ber not slipping from the arm as readily as the iron 
 butt-plate. On drill. Order Arm.i is accompanied 
 with less noise, and less jar to the mechanism of the 
 weapon. By a recent resolution of the Directors of 
 the National Rifle Association, the use of this heel- 
 plate is permitted in all military and other competi- 
 tions held under their auspices. 
 
 PIKE.— Previously to the use of the bayonet, in- 
 fantry of the line of" battle— that is, the heavy-armed 
 troops— were from the earliest times armed with 
 pikes or spears. The Macedonians carried pikes 24 
 feet long ; those of modern warfare averaged 12 or 
 14 feci. They were of stout wood, and tipped with 
 a flat iron spearhead, which sometimes hticl cutting 
 edges. As a (lefeiise against cavalry, the jiike, from 
 its length and rigidity, was of great value; but 
 though it long surviveil the introduction of gunpow- 
 der, that event was really fatal to it. For success 
 with the pike, especially in ollensive war, a dc'pth 
 of several men was essential, and this depth ren- 
 dered the fire of arlillery peculiarly fatal. The pike 
 is now sujjerseded by the bayonet on the end of the 
 nniskcl. 
 
 PIKEMEN. -Men who were armeu with the pike. 
 Fn.1,1 111,, reign of Henry VIII. to that of William 
 III. the greater part of theEnglish Army was formed 
 of Pikemtn. 
 
 PILE. — 1. In Heraldry, an ordinary, or, according 
 
 to some Heralds, a subordinary, in the form of a 
 wedge, issuing generally from the middle chief, and 
 extending towards the middle base of th ; shield. It 
 is said that a pile should occupy one-third of the 
 breadth of the chief, or, it charged, double that 
 breadth. When a pile is borne issuing, not from the 
 
 Pile. 
 
 middle chief, but from some other part of the bound- 
 ing-line of the shield, thi5 must be specified in the 
 blazon. Three piles are sometimes borne conjoined 
 in point. A pile transposed is one whose point is 
 upward. 
 
 2. A round or squared log of wood used in engin- 
 eering operations, such as dams, bridges, roads, etc. 
 They are sharpened at the point, and, if necessary, 
 protected with iron points, to enable them to cut 
 tlirough the strata they encounter as they are driven 
 into the ground. When used for cotfer-dams, or 
 such temporary purposes, they are placed close to- 
 gether, and driven firmly into the earth ; the water 
 is then pumped out, and the piles form a dam, to 
 enable workmen to lay foundations of piers, etc. 
 When the force of the water round the dam is great, 
 two rows of piles are driven in all round, and the 
 space between the rows filled with clay, and puddled. 
 Piles are also used for permanent works, when they 
 are driven through loose soil till they reach a firm 
 bottom, and thus form a foundation on which build- 
 ings, roads, etc.. may be placed. Cast-iron is fre- 
 quently used for piles, which are cast hollow. 
 Wharf-walls are sometimes built of piles ; tliey are 
 then cast with grooves on the sides, into which cast- 
 iron plates (forming the walls) are fitted. A kind of 
 pile has been invented by Mr. Mitchell, which is of 
 great use in very loose and shifting substances. It 
 is called the screw-pile, and consists of a long shaft 
 (of wrought iron), with a broad cast-iron disc, of a 
 screw form, at the lower end. These piles are espe- 
 cially useful for light-houses, beacons, etc., which 
 have to be placed on sands. They are fi.xed by means 
 of capstans, which give them a rotatory motion. 
 In 1843 Dr. L. H. Potts obtained a patent for a new 
 kind of pile, which consists of hollow tubes of iron, 
 from which the sand, etc., within them is removed 
 by means of an air-pump, and the pipes are then 
 sunk. In recent railway bridges, cylinders have 
 been much used to form both piles and piers. They 
 are of cast-iron, and made in pieces (of about 6 feet 
 in heiglit), which are applied one on top of another. 
 The sand or gravel is removed from the inside of 
 the first laid, which thus sinks down ; another c)'l- 
 inder is placed above it, and the same process con- 
 tinued till it also has sunk suflicientl}-; and so on, cyl- 
 inder over cylinder, till a solid foundation is reached. 
 The requisite number of cylinders is then piled up 
 to form the pier above ground. 
 
 PILE ARMS.— To place three muskets, with bayo- 
 nets fixed or unfixed, in such a relative position that 
 they shall niuluallj- supjiort each <itlu'r. This is done 
 when men stand from their arms either on parade, 
 on the march, or in camp. See SUirh Arms. 
 
 PILE BRIDGE.— A form of bridge nuich used in 
 military operations, having Ihc piers built will) piles. 
 These may be either temiiorary wooden strucliires, 
 in which wooden ])ili's, driven into llie ground, serve 
 also as ])iers, or they may be iH'riuanent bridges, 
 with iron cylinders fornung the piles below the 
 surface, and jiiers above. 
 
 PILE-DRIVER.— A machine having a rising and 
 falling weight to drive a |)ile into the bed. Nearly 
 forty years ago an cnnnent Scotch Engineer, James 
 Nasmyth, th einventor of the sleam-bainmer, con-
 
 PILE DEIVEE. 
 
 523 
 
 PILE DEIVEE. 
 
 Btructed the first steam pile driver wliinli, although 
 a grciit improvement dii the onlinary drop-lmiiimer 
 in many respecln, iK'Ver ciurie iiiln j^eiicnd usi' fur 
 Heveral reasons. I'rinripal anion;; wliieli were tlie 
 liability of tlie machines tliroiii;li eonipliealion of 
 parts to ^et out of order, and tlie fact llial llii' end of 
 eiieli separates i)il(^ reipiired to be accurately lilted 
 and banded before it could be driven. Subsequent 
 
 steam is exhausted and the cylinder falling delivers 
 its blow, and tliereafter continui's to rain blows 
 upon llie pile with a speed at the will of thr- operator 
 until the pile be down, or the supply of the steam 
 cutoff, when th(! machine is hoisteif to the rest at 
 the top of theleadersready forari'petition of tlieper- 
 formanei! just described. In this connection it may 
 be slated thai li^ht or lieavy blows may be struck 
 at the will of the operator, as a reverse motion of the 
 valve lever, which, in the hands of the operator, ad- 
 mits steam to the hammer, causr's the steam to be 
 e.\haust<'d at any ilesired point in tin- stroke, and a 
 blow correspondini,' to the height from which the 
 ram falls delivered ; makin;; it possible, if desired 
 by the operator, to test the pile by one or more light 
 blow^s before the machine is permitted to work au- 
 tomatically at fidl stroke, or if it is desired to 
 drive the pile in jiosilion under the hammer to any 
 desired point. It is jiossible, when the pih; is found 
 to be nearly liome, to stop the autcmiatic working 
 of the hammer and deliver the remaining blows re- 
 quired to bring the i)ile to its proper position by 
 hand. This feature in the working of this hammer 
 is particularly advantageous, because since the heads 
 of the iiiles driven with this hammer are neither bruis- 
 ed nor shattered, the ability to drive to any desired 
 level with accuracy and expedition precludes, in 
 many cases, the ne<'essitv of cutting ofT the piles to 
 gain a common level, In the use of this machine, 
 whether on land or mounted on a float, it is found 
 that witli the point of the pile in position, and the 
 head held by the bonnet casting, no other guides 
 of any sort are required to insure accuracy 
 I of position when driven. The bonnet casting re- 
 ferred to in this maihine is so constructed that no 
 preparation of the heads of the piles is necessary 
 
 Fig- 1. 
 
 modificjition of Nasmyth's niacliine has greatly less- 
 ened its liability to get out of order, and largely in- 
 creased its usefulness, but it has remained for .Mr. 
 R. J. Cram, an American and the inventor of the 
 machine which we describe in this article, to devise 
 an engine sufficiently simple in construction and ef- 
 fective in practice. The Cram pile-driver, or pile- 
 hammer, as it is more properly termed, has a cylin- 
 drical ram, Fig. 1, made to reciprocate between 
 wrought-iron I Ijeams, which with the casting con- 
 necting the upper ends, carrying the piston rod and 
 valve and the honnet ra.tting, hoTding the head of the 
 pile, and connecting the bcttom ends, make the 
 frame which guid<'S the machine while being hoisted 
 between the leaders, or when following a pile which 
 is being driven. These pile-hammers maybe readi- 
 ly applied to anj' machine of the ordinary patterns 
 without any alteration excepting such as may be 
 necessary to accommodate the width of the hammer, 
 and afford an opportunity for connecting the flexi- 
 ble pipe which conveys steam from the boiler to op- 
 erate the hammer. The hammer being hoisted to 
 a rest at a convenient height, the pile to be driven is 
 placed in position and the hammer lowered until the 
 bonnet casting, which forms the bottom of the frame, 
 receives the head in the conical aperture through 
 which the pintle-like projection on the bottom face 
 of the hammer strikes, when a blow is delivered. 
 The weight of the hammer being on the pile, the 
 clutch on the winding drum or other device ccmtrol- 
 ling its descent, is cast adrift and the valve thrown 
 open to admit the passage of steam through the flex- 
 ible pipe and the hollow piston rod suttieieut to op- 
 erate the hammer at any desired speed. 
 
 On the admission of steam the hammer immedi- 
 ately rises in its frame or cage, to the full e.xteut of 
 the stroke at which it maybe set, ordinarilj- about four 
 inches, and on reaching the end of its stroke the 
 
 ■when the diameters do not exceed eighteen or twenty 
 inches. When it is desired to drive piles of a greater 
 diameter the heails are roughly chamfered with a 
 chopping axe. It is an exceedingly difficult matter 
 to compare the work done by this" simple machine 
 with that of the ordinary drop-hammer, because thia
 
 PELETUS. 
 
 524 
 
 PILING. 
 
 steam-hammer will so readily do ! work that the or- 
 dinary drop-hammer will not do at all, for instance, 
 after a pile has been driven with an ordinary drop 
 hammer until it has become necessary to remove 
 the ring and cut a section off the pile to" form a new 
 and solid head, by experiment it has been found that 
 the steam-hammer experiences no difficulty in forc- 
 ing the pile imtil the point reaches hard pan or rock, 
 and it will, perhaps, be sutlicient to state tbat in tbe 
 machine here illustrated, the ram weighing 5,500 lbs., 
 when working under a pressure of 75 lbs. of steam 
 delivers upwards of 100 blows per minute, more 
 than sufficient to force a pile through hard sand or 
 clay to the depth usually desired. 
 
 The fact that the ram, when the blow is delivered, 
 is free, unattached to piston rod, valve gear, or any 
 other pari, will recommend the machine to practical 
 men, as will also the fact that the valve is a perfectly 
 balanced, positive action valve, with a travel of but 
 I of an inch in a steam jacketed chest, and that the at- 
 tachments of the hose at either end are flexible, thus 
 avoiding any cramping, or twisting which otherwise 
 w.ould occur. The tappit or trip operating the valve 
 is adjustable, permitting the operator to control the 
 length of stroke when the machine is working auto- 
 matically, thereby making the force of the blows suit 
 the work in hand. Spiral percussion springs are 
 fitted in pockets in the " bonnet casting" to receive 
 any chance blow.and in practice are found to effect- 
 ually prevent any loosening of the fastenings con- 
 necting the bonnet casting with the I beams. Fig 2 
 shows a portable spur-geared pile-driver engine, hav- 
 
 PltlNG. — In iron-working, the process of building 
 up piles of iron bars, to be charged into the balling- 
 furnace. The amount of work put into bar-iron varies 
 with the quality. For the common kinds, puddled 
 bars, or No 1 iron, cut into lengths, are piled, and 
 when brought to a welding-heat are rolled off, either 
 with or without first being worked into a bloom under 
 the hammer. More usually, however, the iron of 
 second-rolling, No. 2, is employed at the top and bot- 
 
 tom plates of the piles when making finished No 3. 
 or best iron. Beyond this, if further piled and welded, 
 the iron is distinguished as best-heat and trehle-heat 
 according to the number of heatings and weldings 
 to which it has been subjected. The drawing shows 
 samples of piling for plate, T, girder and bar-iron ; 
 the deeper shaded inner outlines representini: finished 
 sections. The harder and more granular kinds of 
 iron are worked almost exclusively under the ham- 
 mer, the rolling-mill being only used in giving the 
 proper figure to the bar at the finishing stage. 
 
 The great improvement in the strength of malle- 
 able iron by the processes of piling and rolling has 
 been more satisfactorily established by experience 
 than explained by theory. One obvious effect of the 
 violent compression between the rollers is the squeez- 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Boiler. 
 
 Tubes. 
 
 Dia. of 
 
 Duty of 
 
 
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 10 
 
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 ccted 
 e era 
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 ( 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 40 
 
 90 
 
 85 
 
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 6000 
 
 W 
 
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 Two Drums. 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
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 36 
 
 78 
 
 55 
 
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 54 
 
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 1800 
 
 
 L O 2 
 
 L ( 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
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 90 
 
 85 
 
 2 
 
 60 
 
 3000 
 
 
 Double Vertical ( 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 36 
 
 78 
 
 55 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 
 10 o| 
 
 1800 
 
 
 Independent Engines. "i 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 40 
 
 90 
 
 85 
 
 2 
 
 60 
 
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 12 Q 
 
 3000 
 
 ing a cone friction single drum. The engine is de- 
 signed for either portable or stationary purposes, and 
 is constructed either with or witliout wheels. The 
 drum is loose on the shaft, having a conical friction 
 clutch which is thrown into or out of contact with 
 tlie large gear wheel by means of a hand lever oper- 
 ating a spiral sleeve on the drum shaft. The drum, in 
 lowering, revolves back free of the gear, and is con- 
 trolled by a strap brake lined with wood, operated 
 by a foot lever. A relief valve is also fitted to the 
 engine, which allows it to back down with llie load. 
 This style of engine is the favorite in the United States 
 for land pile driving machines. It is also well adapt- 
 ed for other kinds of work where speed in lowering 
 is required. Tlie engine may l)e made eitlier vertical 
 or horizontal, single or double cylinder, eillier con- 
 nected or in(h-pendent of each other, and witli simrle 
 or double drums. The foregoing table shows the 
 power required for a specified duty. See Ounjmrdir- 
 hnmmir. 
 
 PILETUS. A kind of armor formerly used, having 
 a knob u])on tlie shaft, near the head, to prevent it 
 from penetrating the object aimed at too deeply. 
 
 mg out of slag, which is liable to become entangled 
 in the iron during hammering and rolling of the 
 balls taken from the puddling-furnace. Tlie occur- 
 rence of small masses of slag in malleable iron is 
 not an uncommon cause of weakness, each particle 
 of slag giving rise to a flaw in the metal. In the 
 process of reheating the bars this slag is melted, 
 and may then be squeezed out by the action of the 
 rollers. 
 
 A marked diminution in the proportions of carbon 
 and silicon present in the iron is also effected during 
 the process, as shown by the following results of 
 chemical analysis: 
 
 In 100 parts Carbon. Silicon. 
 
 Puddled bar 0.2'.l(5 0.120 
 
 Best bar 0.111 0.088 
 
 This may be explained by the action of the oxide 
 of iron formed upon the surficc of tlie bar during 
 exposure to air at a weldiiig-lieat. The rolling of 
 several bars into one single bar would n'luler the 
 sinicliirc of the iiK'lul uniform, so that the bar would 
 be equally strong throughout.
 
 PIUNO OF UALL8. 
 
 525 
 
 PILLAB CEAME. 
 
 During the opcriUion of liifintiiii;, or piling and 
 rolling, the iron iicfjuircs ii n'lniirkablc til)roiiK str.ic- 
 lurc, so tliut if 11 bur of tin; best iron be nolclicd willi 
 a cluHfl, and broken across by a steady pressure, the 
 fracture will present a stringy appearance, resem- 
 bling I hat of a green stick; whilst a puddled bar 
 thus Ireateii would exhibit a crystalline, sliiningfrac- 
 ture, not uiilik(; I bat of cast-iron. That this iirrre, 
 or reed, as the librous slru(-'ture is sonietirnes called, 
 should nuiterially incn^ase the resistance of a bar to 
 any Iransverse strain, can readily be believed, for 
 Bueh a bar n'send)les a bundle of wires lirinly bound 
 together, wbilst a crystalline bar must be regarded 
 as composed of a number of particles of iron stuck 
 together in a confused Miauuer. See /run. 
 
 FILING OF BALLS. Balls are piled according to 
 kind and calil)er, under cover if practicable, in a 
 place where there is a free circulation of air, to facil- 
 itate which the piles should be made narrow, if the 
 locality permits; the width of the bottom tier may 
 be from 12 to 14 balls, according to the caliber. Pre- 
 pare the ground for the base of the pile by raising it 
 above the surrounding ground so as to throw off the 
 water; level it, ram it well, and cover it with a layer 
 of screened .-land. Hake the bottom of the pile with 
 a tier of unserviceable balls, buried about two-thirds 
 of theirdiametcr in the sand ; this base may be made 
 permanent ; clean the base well and form the pile, 
 putting the fvise-holes of shells downwards, in the 
 intervals, and not resting on the shells below. Each 
 pile is marked with the number of serviceable balls 
 it contains. The base may be made of bricks, con- 
 crete, stone, or with borders and braces of iron. 
 Good and imperfect balls should not be used in the 
 same base ; and, to avoid confusion, the unservice- 
 able should be left vmpainted, or painted of a differ- 
 ent color from the serviceable. 
 
 To find the. number of hall« in a pile: Multiply the 
 Bum of the three parallel edges by one-third of the 
 number of balls in a triangular face. In a square 
 pile one of the parallel edges contains but one ball ; 
 in a triangular pile two of the edges have but one 
 ball in each. The number of balls in a triangular 
 n {n + 1) 
 
 face is ; n being the number in the bot- 
 
 2 
 tom row. The sum of the three parallel edges in a 
 triangular pile is » + 2 ; in a square pile, 2 « -j- 1 ; 
 in an oblong pile, 3N4"2 n — 2,N being the length 
 of the top row, and n the width of the bottom tier; 
 or 3 TO — « + 1, m being the length, and n the width 
 of the bottom tier. If a pile consists of two piles 
 joined at a right angle, calculate the contents of one 
 as a common oblong line, and of the other as a pile 
 of which the tliree parallel edges are equal. 
 
 To find the length of ii pile tchich shall hold a given 
 number of balls, the width of the biise being fixed : A 
 = the number of Imlls to be piled, n = the number 
 in the width of the base of the pile, vi = the num- 
 ber of balls in the length of the base of the pile; then 
 6 A+ n(n + 1) {n -f 1) 
 
 m = 
 
 3 71 (ra + 1) 
 In the table of the number of balls in a pile, on page 
 .526, the second hne shows the number in a triangu- 
 lar pile, the base of which is the corresponding num- 
 ber in the lirst line. The other numbers show the 
 contents of square and oblong piles ; the length and 
 width of the base being in the upper line and in the 
 left-hand column, respectively. 
 
 For rifle projectiles : Divide the ntimber of pro- 
 jectiles to be piled by the number in the triangular 
 face decided upon, and multiply this number by the 
 caliber in feet of tlie particular projectile to be piled. 
 The dimensions provisionally adopted for service 
 ritlc projectiles areas follows, viz: Total length, 
 3i calibers. Radius of head, Ii diameter of projec- 
 tile. Windage, 0".O5. The cavity for cored shot 
 and for shells is of a somewhat similar form to the 
 exterior of the projectile, except that the bottom is 
 
 rounded, and its size is so proportioned as to secure 
 the pr(i[)er weight to the projectile. 
 
 The following formulas are useful in connection 
 with this sul)ject : 
 
 For an ogival head of 1 diameter radius: Volume 
 of head ^ D' X 0".3i(.W!)2. 
 
 For an ogival head of IJ diameter radius : Vol- 
 ume of head— I)''X 0" 44705. 
 For an ogival head of U diameter radius: Volume 
 of h(;ad = D' x 0".4942.'; 
 (D =: diameter of shot. J 
 
 Center of gravity of ogival hea/l ; Distance from 
 i (r« + a") gi - 1^ gi +a a a' - r\ 
 
 base = . in 
 
 (r« + a2)ir — iy» + 2a « 
 which g = length of head, r = radius of head, a = 
 radius of head — radius of projectile. 
 
 (Diam.;' 
 
 Weight of eored slvjt ; Small calibers large 
 
 3 
 calibers Cradius)^ x 2.H. 
 
 PILING OF BARBELS.— The following formute 
 refer to the \i8ual manner of piling barrels in maga- 
 zines. 
 
 Vase 1. — Pyramid pile. 
 
 8 = 1+2+3 +;i- 
 
 where 8 = number of barrels, 
 
 n = number in bottom row. 
 n (n+1) 
 
 •••S = (1) 
 
 2 
 In an incomplete pyramid pile, 
 n (n+1) {m — 1) m 
 
 S = 
 
 2 2 
 
 n* — m*-\-n-\-m 
 
 2 
 (n-\-m) (n — mxl) 
 
 = 2 ■' ''' 
 
 where m = number in top row. 
 
 Casel. — Where oft« end of the pile rests against 
 an upright, and the top row does not touch the up- 
 right. 
 
 S = re« — nj2; 
 where n = number in bottom row, and m number 
 in top row. 
 
 Suppose the pile continued till m = 1. Then, 
 8 = 2 (1+2+3. . . . +n) — 71 — 1 
 
 = n (71+1) - (?H-1) 
 
 = (71+1) (n— 1) = 7i« — 1; (3) 
 
 and in an incomplete pile, 
 
 S = (71= — 1) — (m» ~l) = n* ~m' (4) 
 
 Cojie 3. — If the top row touch the upright. 
 S = 7i8 — m^-\-m (5) 
 
 Case 4. — Where the barrels are piled between two 
 uprights so that if bottom row = n, second = n — 1, 
 third = n. and so on. 
 
 If top row = re — 1, i.e. if top row do not touch 
 the uprights, 
 
 tn m 
 
 S = mn = — (2n —1); (6) 
 
 2 2 
 
 where m = number of courses. 
 
 When top row = n, i.e. when top row touches up- 
 rights, 
 
 S = mn — i (to — 1) 
 7» (271 — 1 ) + 1 
 
 = (7) 
 
 2 
 
 These results, being only calculated for piles of 
 one barrel in depth, must of course be multiplied 
 by the number of barrels in the dfpth of the piles. 
 
 PILLAGE. — The act of plundering; that which is 
 taken from another bj" open force, particularly and 
 chiefly from enemies in war. 
 
 PILLAK CRANE.— -A. crane of this class is entirely 
 supported from below, and the masonrj- which 
 forms the foimdation must have sufficient stability
 
 PILLAR CRANE. 
 
 526 
 
 PILLAR CRANE. 
 
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 PILLENLICHTE. 
 
 527 
 
 PIWCH-BAB. 
 
 to resist tlic nvrrtuminc; tcndcnry rauscd l)y tin; loud 
 lianfj;ini; from the outer end of the boom. VVliere 
 tlie surrouiidiiii; ground in siilliciently firm the pro- 
 portions of lliis foiiiidalioii arc ulioul as represented 
 in (li(^ drawiiii;. On lilled ;.'ronnd. piliiif; (jr a lim- 
 ber pliUform lienealli Ibe musonry, or bolli, may be 
 necessary. 'I'licsc (lueslions can only be properly 
 determined by a consideralion of the fact in eacli 
 case. Keferrinj.; to the dravvinj;, A is the efjlnmn of 
 the cran(% and 15 the boom earryinj; the upper block 
 and revolvin;; nronnd the lixed mast or cohimn, A ; 
 I) is Ibe musonry foundation ; 10. u heavy iron plate or 
 rini; emlii'dded in the masonry near its bottom ; KF 
 fouU' alion-liolts jiassini^ throu^jh this ring and also 
 throu;;li the l]ase of the pillar. A, thus securely fast- 
 ening; the latter to the foundation. The foundation, 
 D, may consist of ordinary rubble masonry, covered 
 with a cap stone, C, the upper surface of which 
 should be dressed smooth to receive thebasf^ of the 
 pillar, A. After the comjiletion of the foundation 
 the ground surroundini; it slioidd be retilled and tlior- 
 <)u;;'hly ]iacUed by r.'inunini; or puihllini. so as to as- 
 sist the foundation in resisting tlie strains caused by 
 the crane. 
 
 The pillar or column of the crane is of cast-iron, 
 and of simple but symmetrical design, its form being 
 proportioned to the strains it has to resist. It has a 
 broad base, thus giving it a good footing on the foun- 
 dation and spreading the holding down bolts well 
 apart. Fixed in the head of the column is a steel 
 pin or pivot upon which rests the cross bead orj'oke. 
 The latter is bushed with bronze and has proper pro- 
 vision for lubrieatiim, so that the cross-head shall al- 
 ways turn freely cm the pin. The boom or strut con- 
 sists of two wrought-iron channel beams, well braced 
 together and united at the upper end by a head cast- 
 ing carrying the upper chain sheaves over which the 
 chain passes to the running-block. The foot of the 
 boom is supported vertically by two suspension rods, 
 bung from the ends of the cross-bead, and its upper 
 end or head is held by two guy rods, also extending 
 back to the cross-head. The horizontal thrust at the 
 footot the boom is transmitted totwo turned rollers, 
 placed within the foot casting of the boom and trav- 
 eling upon a turned path aromid the base of the 
 column. The weight, botli of the boom and load, is 
 entirely carried by a steel pin at the top of the colunni, 
 and the friction of rotation is thus reduced to a mini- 
 mum. 
 
 a train of spur gearing provided with an automatic 
 safety ratchet and with the Weston dlsc-brake for 
 lowering, substantially as in the jib-crane, so that 
 the load is always self-sustaini'd and cannot run 
 down, nor the handles recoil on the operator. Low- 
 ering is elTected by turning' thecranks backward, the 
 load descending easily and smoothly so long as this 
 motion is continued, but coming to rest if flie back- 
 ward motion b(^ discontinued or the handles let go. 
 Two changes of speed are provided. Swinging or 
 rotation of the crane is effected by pushing or pull- 
 ing the suspended load, an<l the con.struction is such 
 that the maximum load can be easily swuug by one 
 man. 
 
 This type of crane is designed for yard use where 
 there is no roof or ceiling to support the top of crane, 
 and w here guy rods are objectionable. It is particu- 
 larly adapted to railroad and wharf use, for loading 
 and unloading heavy ordnance from cars or boats, 
 and is a useful aildition to the yard appliances of any 
 large foundries. They are constructed for operation 
 by band, by power, or by direct steam, according to 
 the rrr|uirements of the case. See ('rniceA. 
 
 PILLENLICHTE.— Short cylindrical tubes of labor- 
 atory paper, tilled with acomposition resembling that 
 used in porl-lires. A countiTsLnk is formed in one 
 end, at the bottom of which is placed a small disk of 
 fulminate covered with a water-proof cap. The entire 
 exterior is varnished. These are used to light the 
 fuses of the life-saving and anchor rockets of the 
 Germans. They arc put u]) in packages of twenty 
 each. The following are the dimensions and weight: 
 
 Total length 
 
 Exterior diameter 
 
 Depth of countersink in end. 
 
 Time of burning. 
 "Weight 
 
 Inches. 
 
 1.55 
 0.623 
 0.1 
 Seconds. 
 
 45 
 
 Grains. 
 
 230 
 
 (S'ec fri'rman Ltfe-mving Rocket. 
 
 Centi- 
 meters. 
 
 3.93 
 1.58 
 0.25 
 
 The hoisting gear is attached to the boom near the 
 column and rotates with the former. It consists of 
 
 FILLES. — A name given to arrows in the twelfth 
 century, according to the chronicles of Saint Denis. 
 
 FILON. — A half-pike, 7 feet long exclusive 
 of the iron, which was 18 inches. It consisted 
 of a fir tube covered with parchment and 
 varnished. Marshal Saxe proposed to draw 
 up an army four deep, the two front ranks 
 armed with muskets, and the two rear with 
 both pilons and muskets. 
 
 PILUM.— A formidable spear used by the 
 Romans. It bore no resemblance to any 
 other weapon of the same class, either lance, 
 pike, or javelin. Each soldier of the legions 
 carried two pila. The weight of the pilum 
 caused it to be regarded rather as a spear 
 than as a dart. 
 
 PIS. — A short piece of wood or metal, 
 generally with a head and hole at the other 
 end to receive a key. There are many sorts 
 used in army material. See Bolt, and Linth- 
 pf'n. 
 
 Fines.— To pinch a gun or other object is 
 to move it by small heaves with a pincb-bar 
 or handspike, without allowing it to turn on 
 its axis. A piece is pinched one end at a 
 time, the other end being chocked. The bar 
 or handspike is placed ~as a lever, with the 
 beveled side down, and the power applied 
 at the other end by bearing down. 
 
 PINCH BAB.— -\ stoiit handspike, of iron, 
 with a round-beveled butt, turned up into a 
 blunt edge for the purpose of catching under a gun 
 or other similar object. It is used as a lever, by
 
 PINCHBECK. 
 
 528 
 
 FIBATES. 
 
 pressing down, thus Jiimptng the gun forward a very 
 short distance at a time. The butt end is of steel. 
 The length of tlie biir is from five to seven feet. 
 Those used witli tlie 15-inch gun are of the largest 
 size, and weigh 53 pounds ; the shorter size weigh 
 26 pounds. See Mec/iinical Maneuvers. 
 
 PINCHBECK. — An alloy of zinc and copper, in 
 wliich the proportions slightly differ from those 
 which constitute brass ; 3 parts zinc to 16 of copper 
 constitute this material, instead of 1 part of the for- 
 mer to 2 of the latter as in common brass. Pinch- 
 beck, wlun new, has a color resembling red gold. 
 
 PINDAEEES.— In the East Indies, plunderers and 
 marauders who accompany a Mahratta army. Tlie 
 name is properly that of persons who travel with 
 grain and merchandise ; but war affording so many 
 opportunities and creating so many necessities, the 
 merchants, as it is all over the world, become plun- 
 derers and the worst of enemies. 
 
 PING.— The whistle of a shot, especially the rifle- 
 bullet in its flight. 
 
 PINTLE. — The vertical bolt around which tlie chas- 
 sis is traversed. In the center-pintle carriage it is in 
 the center of the chassis, but in the front-pintle car- 
 riage it is in the center of the front transom. It is a 
 stout cylinder of wrought-iron inserted in a block of 
 stone, if the battery be a fixed one; or it is secured to 
 cross pieces of timber bolted to a platform firmly em- 
 bedded in the ground, if it be of a temporary nature. 
 In casemate batteries the pintle is placed immediate- 
 ly under the throat of the embrasure, and the chassis 
 is connected with it by a stout strap of iron, called 
 the tongue. Casemate carriages differ from barbette 
 carriages in being much lower, hut their mode of 
 construction is essentially the same. 
 
 PINTLE- HOLE. — An oval-shaped aperture made in 
 the trailtransom of a field-carriage, wider above than 
 below, to leave room for the pintle to play in. 
 
 PINTLE-HOOK.— In ordnance, a hook attached to 
 the rear of the limber axle-tree bed of a light field 
 carriage to enable the gun or ammunition carriage to 
 be limbered up to it. In this position the gun forms 
 a counterpoise to the weight that would otherwise 
 rest on the shafts. In heavy howitzers and siege 
 carriages formed with bracket sides, the pintle-hook 
 is either a stiff or movable iron perch, attached to 
 the top of the limber axle-tree, to which the gun 
 carriage is limbered up by a hole passing through the 
 rear transom. 
 
 PINTLE-PLATE— A flat iron, nailed tohoth sides of 
 the bolster, and through which the pintle passes. 
 
 PINTLE WASHER. —An iron ring, thrcmgh which 
 the pintle passes, placed close to the bolster for the 
 trail to move upon, 
 
 PIONEER. — A military laborer employed to form 
 roatis, dig trenches, and make bridges as an arrhy 
 advances, and to preserve cleanliness in the camp 
 when it halts. Fornicrly, the pioneers were ordinary 
 laborers of the country in which the army was, im- 
 pressed for militarj- purposes; but now such persons 
 are onl}' brought in as auxiliaries, a few men being 
 attached to every Corps as a permanent bodj- of pio- 
 neers. In the British Army one man is selected, for 
 his intelligence, from every company. These pion- 
 eers march at the head of the regiment, and the sen- 
 ior among them commands as Corporal. Instead of 
 a musket each man carries a saw-liacked sword, 
 which is at once tool and weai)oii. Each liears also' 
 an axe and two gun-spikes, other necessary tools be- 
 ing distributed among them. There is something 
 rather conllictin'r between the functions of the pion- 
 eers and thosi^ ot I lie engineer force. 
 
 PIONEER SERGEANTr— In the British service, the 
 Kon-comniissioncd Officer who commands the pio- 
 neers. 
 
 PIPE BOX.- The cylindrical box in the nave of a 
 wheel in which the axle-tree arm works, and in which 
 is a recess for holding grease. A hard alloy, techni- 
 cally known as " metal," composed of copper, tin, 
 and zinc, is now used as the material for pipe-boxes 
 
 in preference to cast-iron, on account of the less de- 
 velopment of friction between it and the iron arm. 
 
 PIPE-CLAY. — A fine clay, free from iron and other 
 impurities, having a grayish.white color, a greasy 
 feel, and an earthy fracture. It adheres strongly to 
 the tongue, and is very plastic, tenacious, and infusible. 
 The localities where it is chiefly obtained areDevon- 
 .shire. and the Trough of Poole in Dorsetshire. It is 
 also found in various places in France, Belgium. and 
 Germany. This substance is much used by soldiers 
 for the purpose of keeping their bufi belts, etc., 
 clean. • 
 
 PIPER GIN.— In this gin, the windlass is attached 
 by placing it in windlass seats of peculiar construc- 
 tion, and is secured in position by icf^jfrs attached to 
 tne legs. The keepers are placed under the axles of 
 the windlass. Two stay chains connect the pry-pole 
 and legs at the upper brace-bands, and prevent them 
 from spreading. They also serve to connect theparts 
 for transportation. Two braces (upper and lower) 
 connect and secure the legs when the gin is put to- 
 gether, and serve to distinguish the right from the 
 left leg — the long brace being permanently attached 
 to the right and the short brace to the left leg. The 
 clevis and clevis bolt are attached to the head of the 
 prj'-pole with keyes which secure the clevis bolt when 
 the gin is assembled ; double and single blocks, with 
 fall, are used. This gin was designed by the late 
 Captain J. W. Piper, Fifth artillery. 
 
 Length of legs 13 feet 8 inches. 
 
 Length of pry-pole 13 feet 8 inches. 
 
 Weight of gin 365 pounds. 
 
 Weight of windlass 88 pounds. 
 
 Weight of block and fall. . . . 100 pounds. 
 
 Weight of bail and dowels. .. 41 pounds. 
 
 The parts are estimated to be suflicientl}' strong to 
 bear a weight of of 5,000 pounds. The advantages of 
 this gin are, its superior lightness and portability, 
 and its great facility of being assembled, taken apart 
 packed up, and transported. See Gin, and Mechan- 
 icnl Maniurei:<i. 
 
 PIQUICHINS. — Irregular and ill-armed soldiers, of 
 which mention is made in the history of the reign of 
 Philip Augustus. They were attached to the infan- 
 try. 
 
 PIRACY. — Robbery on the high seas, and is an 
 offense against the Law of Nations. It is a crime 
 not against any particular State, but against all man- 
 kind, and may be punished in the competent tri- 
 bunal of any country where the offender may be 
 found, or into which he maj' be carried, although 
 committed on board a foreign vessel on the high 
 seas. It is of the essence of piracy that the pirate 
 has no commission from a Foreign State, or from 
 one belligerent State at war with another. Pirates 
 being the common enemies of all mankind, and all 
 Nations having an equal interest in their apprehen- 
 sion and punishment, tliej' may be lawfully captured 
 on the high seas by the armed vessels of any partic- 
 ular State, and brought within its territorial jurisdic- 
 tion for trial in its tribunals. The African slave- 
 trade was not considered jiiracy by the Law of Na- 
 tions; but the municipal laws of the United King- 
 dom and of the United States by statute declared it 
 to be so ; and since the treaty of 1841 with Great 
 Britain, it is also declared to be so by Austria, Prus- 
 sia, and Russia. 
 
 PIRAMETER. — An instrument for measuring the 
 power required to draw a gun carriage, etc., upon 
 a road or track. See Dynaniometfr. 
 
 PIRATES. Men, or .stpiads of men, who commit 
 hostil-tics, wlielher by fighting or inroads for de- 
 struction oi )iluudcr, or by raids of any kind, with- 
 out conunission, wilhout lieing i>art and jxirlion of 
 tlie organi/.etl hostile army, and without sharing 
 (•(inlinuously in the war, but who do so with inter- 
 milting returns to their homes and avocations, or 
 wilh tiie occasional a.ssiimption of the semblance of 
 peaceful pursuits, divesting themselves of the char- 
 acter or apiiearance of soldiers — such men, or squads
 
 PIESCHEE SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. 
 
 529 
 
 PISTON. 
 
 of men, are not public enemies, and, llicrclore, if 
 captured, are not entitled to the privilcKes of priHonerH 
 of war, but shall be treated Humnuirily as lii(;hway 
 
 robbers (ir pirMtes. 
 
 PIRSCHER SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. In this 
 sysleni, the (iiri'iiili- is circular, and Ihi' dileh is oe- 
 (•ui)icd liv two lines of works nuituallv llardiiuf; each 
 other. 'I'lu! covered way and glacis are replaced by 
 advaiiceil works. 
 
 PISA REVETMENT.— A wall of clay built aj,'aiiist a 
 slcipi- iu the followini^ manner : Common earth, 
 mi.xed with clay and moistened with water, is 
 kneaded until the particles will adiiere when pressed 
 or squeezed totjcther. Sometimes (^hopped straw is 
 ini.ved in the mass. A row of pickets, with the 
 pro))er inclination niven to them, is driven aloufithe 
 foot of the interior slnpe, the tups extcndinir a short 
 distance above the height marked for tlie interior 
 crest. A shallow trench about twelve inches wide 
 is duf; in the |)arai)(t, behind the lini' of pickets, and 
 a board laid horizontally on edf^e on the side ne.xtto 
 and supported by the]nckets. The tempered clay is 
 then placed in tlie trench and rammed. Successive 
 layers are placed in until the day reaches the top of 
 the board, the earth (if the jiarapet beinfj; carried up 
 simullaneiiusly with the revetment. A second board 
 is then plac^ecl upon the lirst, and the clay rammeil 
 in, rising simultaneously with the parapet as in tlie 
 first course ; and this process is continued until the 
 top layer is on the same level with the interior crest. 
 When the claj' has dried, the boards and pickets are 
 removed.— See Jievetment. 
 
 PISTOL. — The smallest description of fire-arm, and 
 is intended to be used with one hand only. Pistols 
 vary in size from the delicate saloon-pistol, often 
 not si.\ indies long, to the horse-pistol, which may 
 measure eighteen inches and sometimes even two 
 feet. They are carried in holsters at the saddle-bow, 
 in the belt, or in the pocket. Every cavalry soldier 
 should have pistols, for a fire-arm is often of great 
 
 Weight of powder, 40.'K) ip-n. 
 
 Initial velocity OOii.OO feet. 
 
 PISTOL GRIP. —A shape given to the small of the 
 
 1 stock in hhot-giins and rillcH, to give a betler hold 
 
 I for tli(; hand. The pistol-grip has of late become 
 
 (|uile popular and nearly all the recent model; of 
 
 sporting arms embody it. See I'iiiUjl-rttrhlne. 
 
 PISTON.- A device so fitted as to occupy the serv 
 tional area of a tube, and be capable of reciprocation 
 by pressure on eiiher of its sidi'S. It may be of any 
 shape corresponding accurately to the bore of the 
 tube; but the cylindrical form is almost exclusively 
 I'mployed for both, as in the common pump and 
 steam-engine. One of its sides is fitted to a rod, to 
 which it either imparts reeiprocatory motion, as in 
 llicsti'am-engine,orby which it is itself ri'clprocaterl, 
 as iu the pump. In the former case it is termed 
 solid, though generally not ri-ally so; but in the lat- 
 ter, an aperture controlled by a valve permits the 
 passage of the tluid from one side to the other dur- 
 ing its downward movement. The piston usually 
 requires "packing" to cause it to fit closely within 
 its cylinder, and at the same time allow its free back- 
 ward and forward motion. For this purpo.se its 
 ends are usually fiirmedby two connected discs, or 
 have a deejianiiular groove b<-tween them for receiv- 
 ing the packing material, which may be hempen cord 
 wound around it, or other somewhat expansible 
 substance, which will not wear loo rapidly nor 
 cause excessive friction. In modem practice, me- 
 tallic rings, cut through at one side, so that their 
 expansion may compensate for any wear, are largely 
 employed in the steam-engine. 
 
 The Cut on page 5.'J0 shows the plan and section of 
 the t'ummerpiston. It is made large enough to give 
 ample wearing surface, and with sufficient weight 
 and careful distribution of metal, to secure strength, 
 no extra weight being given for any other purpose. 
 The piston consists of three parts, the piston proper, 
 to which is fitted the tapered end of the piston rod 
 
 Pistol-grip. 
 
 service for personal defense, and almost indispensa- secured by a cotter, the chunk ring, and the follower, 
 ble for giving an alarm or signal. Sailors, when | These parts are all dearly shown in the section. The 
 Ixiarding an enemy's ship, carry each two in their plan exhibits the piston with its follower removed 
 waist-belts. As earlj- as the reign of Henry VIII. lint showing in section the four bolts which hold it 
 the English cavalry carried clumsy pistols called in place when connected. It will be noticed that the 
 " Dao-s." The latest improvement on the pistol is I piston itself and also the follower are made con- 
 the revolver. 'Y\\a phtol probably derives its name J siderably smaller than the cylinder, and that the 
 from ihe word pMalln, which means "pommel," and , chunk ring is external to these and forms the bearing 
 not from the word Pintiyn, for it appears not to have | surface, ^he chunk ring is turned up so as to be an 
 been first made at Pistoja, but at Perugia. accurate fit. and is then adjusted so as to be perfectly 
 
 PISTOL CARBINE. — A horseman's pistol provided | central by means of four stud bolts, which appear 
 with a removable butt-piece, which may be secured in the plan and section: their outer ends have a eoni- 
 to its slock bv a spring-catch, or detached, so that 
 the weapon may be fired either from the hand or the 
 shoulder. The pistol-carbine used in the United 
 States, and particularly suited to the service of light 
 artillery, has the following particulars : 
 
 cal pciint which bears against the chunk ring, while 
 the other ends are tapped into the boss of the piston 
 and are provided with jam nuts. The center of the 
 chunk ring is grooved to receive the cast-iron pis- 
 ion ring which is pressed well outwards by several 
 
 Length of barrel. 
 Weight complete. 
 Weight of )iroji-ctile, 
 
 Pistol-carbine. i i • * 
 
 12.no inch. ' small spiral sprimrs spaced around the circnmter- 
 
 .5.00 lbs. ence. The positions of these springs appear m the 
 
 i.50.00 grs. , plan, and one of them is shown in the section. An
 
 PISTOS. 
 
 530 
 
 PITCHED FASCINE. 
 
 additional packina; is provided by turning two small 
 grooves in tlie clumli rinj on either side of tlie cen- 
 tral piston ring. Tlie advantage of using a eiiunk 
 ring is, that we can make a very exact Ht. and by 
 using the central adjustment, secure perfect align- 
 ment, and we obtain a greater wearing surface for 
 the same thickness of piston because the cliunk ring 
 is the same width as the piston itself and bears over ' 
 its whole surface, whereas in the ordinary form a ' 
 
 vertical hole or chimney (which is afterwards closed 
 
 at the top), and the process of charring commences, 
 beginning at the center and spreading all round until 
 the whole pile is charred. A shifting screen is gener- 
 ally employed so as to regulate the draught on the 
 windward side, and small holes are made through 
 the sods with a half-inch iron rod, these allow the 
 vapor to escape and draw the fire to any side of the 
 I)ile tliat may be desired. From seventy to eighty 
 
 part of the piston, and the follower also, are turned 
 down below size and do not bear at all. By this ar- 
 rangement, also, whenever after long wear it becomes 
 necessary to rebore the cylinder, we have only to turn 
 up a new chimk ring instead of titling up a whole new 
 piston. See Steam-engine. 
 
 PISTOS. — Broad, short, double-edged swords of 
 the fifteenth century, which do not differ materially 
 from the anelacea. 
 
 PIT. — The pit, in gun-casting, is usually a circular 
 well, nineteen feet deep, and twelve feet in diameter; 
 the walls are of brick, and the bottom, an iron tank of 
 one-half inch sheet-iron, extending upwards eight 
 feet. The mouth of the pit is provided with iron 
 covers, made to fit closely to prevent escaping of heat 
 from the fire built around the flask. During the cast- 
 ing, the gas which is generated and passed out 
 through the holes in the flask is ignited by dropping 
 small (juantities of molten metal into tlie pit, and as 
 soon after " cast " as possible, afire is built in the pit, 
 about the bottom of the flask — wood and bituminous 
 coal being used in sufficient quantities to burn four 
 or five days; the mouth of the pit being covered, after 
 tlie mass is thoroughly ignited. See Molding. 
 
 PITAUX. — This term, sometimes written Petaux, 
 was formerly used to distinguish those peasants who 
 were pressed into the service, in contradistinction to 
 .soldiers who were regularly enlisted. 
 
 PIT BURNED CHAECOAL.— This description of 
 charcoal is used in the manufacture of wliat is known 
 as " pit gunpowder," and is found to be more suita- 
 ble for filling fuses, port-fires, etc., tiian that made 
 from retort-burned charcoal; it is also used for py- 
 rotechnic compositions and other purpo.ses of a simi- 
 lar kind. Charring the wood in a pile covered up 
 with s^^aw and s<h1s is found to jiroduce a cliarcoal 
 which will give to the gunpowder the peculiar qual- 
 ities requir(vl for the before-mentioned purposes; the 
 process employed isasfollows: Thewood is built upin 
 a cone about 10' in diameter at the base and from .'"/to 
 7' in height, a vertical hole being left in the center of 
 the pile or cone reaching from the bottom to the top, 
 so as to act as achimney. Thewood is then entirely 
 covered over with a layer of straw from 1" to .'>" in 
 thickness, then a covering of charcnid refuse or 
 sweepings from the store, if such can be obtained, 
 -■ind overall a covering of sods with the grass side 
 inwards. The pile is now fired by a few pieces of 
 lighted charcoal being dropped to the bottom of the 
 
 hours are required to char the whole mass, and as 
 the charcoal produced by this process contains more 
 of the wood)' fiber than the cylinder retort-burned 
 charcoal, it consequently burns more slowly, is heav- 
 ier, has a reddish tinge, is not so brittle, and has a 
 more metallic sound when dropped. See Cliarcoal. 
 
 PITCH. — A thick substance obtained by boiling 
 down tar to the requisite consistency, either by itself 
 or combined with a portion of rosin; it becomes 
 solid on cooling, but is soon softened by the heat of 
 tlie hand, in which state it is very adhesive. When 
 of good quality, it is clear and hard. It is used in 
 making carcasses, light-balls, kit, and smoke-balls. 
 
 The term is also used in wheel-work, signifying 
 the distance between the centers of two contiguous 
 teeth. Pitch-line is the circJe concentric witli the 
 circumference which passes through all the centres 
 of the teeth. 
 
 What is known as \\iepitch of a acrew is the inter- 
 val between the points of starting and of arrival of 
 a complete revolution of a screw, and consequently 
 of the thread of a screw, which is traversed by the 
 screw, or its thread, when it has completed an entire 
 revolution. The pitch is therefore independent of 
 the diameter of the screw. 
 
 In rifling, the pitch is described as term resistance 
 of the direct progressive motion of the projectile 
 through the bore. This resistance varies according 
 to the incline as well as the pattern of rifling ; for 
 as the more defined the pattern the more the resist- 
 ance, so the sharper the pitch the greater the rota- 
 tion of projectile around the axis of progression, 
 and conse(iuently the more difficult its initial and 
 tlie slower its direct forward motion There are 
 two natures of pitch, an increasing and decreasing 
 pitch. See Tirixt. 
 
 PITCHED BATTLE.— A battle m which the hostile 
 forces have firm or fixed positions, in distinction 
 from a skirmish. Sec Battle. 
 
 PITCHED FASCINE.— Pitched fascines are fagots 
 of dry twigs, covered over with an incendiarj' com- 
 position, and used to set fire to buildings or to liglit 
 up a work. The following materials and utensils 
 arc re<iuired to make pitclieil fascines : Dry lira nrhex, 
 about ..') inch diiuiutcr. or other light, <iimbustiblc 
 wood; iron wire, about .0.5 inch diametiT ; four 
 pickets, about 40 inches long and Ij inch diameter; 
 cylindrical stickH. 20 inches long, Ij inch diameter ; 2 
 tracc-ropcH ; 1 rope for a capstan ; 2 leeem ; 1 mmill
 
 PITCHING FIKE. 
 
 r,?,\ 
 
 PLAIH. 
 
 cord- 1 flat punch; 1 saie, or bill.hi>ok ; 1 block. To 
 makp the fasrincs, form two r-rnlclica, 1 foot apart. 
 will] llic 4(l-iM<'li pickcis; cut llic lir:incMcs 'iO iiir'lics 
 loiii;, anil lii'llicni in llic miildlc of their l(ii;;lli, ami 
 iil)oiit 'i inchijH from their enils, with aiineiih'il wire, 
 aiul place inthi^ axis a cylindrical slick, inteii(h'il to 
 preserve a vacant siiace; draw the hriiiiches tijrhtly 
 tOfietluT, that they may hold the composition better, 
 undent olT the ends scpnin^ 
 
 Tlie fascines receive two coats of composition, 
 wiicn pitched. ViiT tile first coat, melt 20 parts of 
 pitch and one of tallow in the pots, tillini; (lii'rn not 
 moretliMii half foil. ILaviii^ tirst well oiled the cyl- 
 indrical stick, plunf;etlie fasi'inc into the liquid with 
 the fork, tirst one end and then the other, each time 
 pouring on the upper end two ladl<'fiils of the com- 
 position. Let the composition iiardcn, holding the 
 tascine over the pot, turning it slowly and tlien im- 
 merse it in the toll of water. The assistant, with his 
 hands covered with oil, fashions the fascine, rolling 
 it on the bottom of the tub, and places it on the 
 planks. 
 
 The second coat is ])ut on 24 hours after the first ; 
 it is composed of eipial parts of pitch and rosin melt- 
 ed and mixed together in the pot. The cylindrical 
 stick is taken oiii, and the fascine immersed in the 
 composition, as with the first coat; it isjiermitted to 
 drip, and is then hiid in saw-dust, and jiowdcred all 
 oviT with it. A fascine requires about I.l pound of 
 each composition. Fascines should be iirimcd only 
 a short time before being used. For this purpose, 
 dip each end, for a distance of half an inch, into a 
 kettle holding melted rock-fire. 
 
 When used for incendiary purposes, fascines are 
 placed in piles, and pieces of quick-match and port- 
 tire scattered over them, to make the whole mass 
 take tiri! at once. See Fireworki:. 
 
 PITCHING FIRE.— Fire is pitching when the shot 
 is projected against an object, covered in front by a 
 work or obstacle, the ordnance being tired at full 
 charge. 
 
 PITCHINGTENTS.— There isan art in pitching a 
 tent, and the men of a regiment should be instructed 
 from time to time how to [litch their tents and to 
 strike them ready for a march; but they will soon 
 come to know how to do so, even if they have had 
 no previous experience, when once they enter on 
 camp life. The following is the proper method of 
 pitching the ordinary wall tent : After selecting a 
 suitable spot, place the ridge pole, A B. upon the 
 ground, approximately beneath its place when in 
 position. iJrive pins at A and B. From .! and B 
 
 -^ 
 
 0+— •— 
 
 
 -1 
 
 F 
 
 continue A B to C and />, by stepping one pace 
 from each end. From Cand D make four paces at 
 right angles with C D on each side, and determine 
 the points E, F, O, H. At these points drive the 
 corner tent pegs. By following these directions the 
 tent may be promptly pitched and will make a beau- 
 tiful appearance, every portion of canvas being in 
 proper position and free from wrinkles. An impor- 
 tant point to be <ibserved in pitching a tent is not to 
 dig in.side but outside of it, viz., to use such means, 
 in case of rain, that water shall not flood the tent. 
 This, however, cannot always be prevented, but a 
 drain dug all round the tent to the lowest ground 
 may save a flooding. Then, again, to secure a tent 
 
 from being blown down, the comer ropei) «liould be 
 
 bushed. 
 
 PITS. -Military pits, whether round or square, 
 should lie so arranged as to cause an advancing 
 enemy as much delay and annoyance as possible. 
 They are usually made about six feet in diameter at 
 top, and about one footat the bottom, and are placed 
 so that the (centers shall be about ten feet apart. 
 They shall be placi-d in rows, at least tliree in num- 
 ber, the jiits being in (piincunx order. The earth 
 obtained by the excavation, should be heaped up on 
 till' ground between the pits. Shallow pits should 
 not be deeper than about two feet, so that the 
 enemy could not obtain shelter by getting in them. 
 They should cover the ground in zig-zag arrange- 
 ment, the upper liases being made square or rect- 
 angular in form, and in contact with each otlier. 
 The side of the upper base should be made about 
 (■(lual to the depth of the pit. The earth obtained 
 from the holes is thrown in frontof the arrangement, 
 making a glacis. See Trimx-ile-lf/ap. 
 
 PIVOT.— The soldier or guide upon whom a line 
 of trooiis whcelSjOr partly wheels. The pivot is eiUier 
 fixed or nK/nnhh. 
 
 In a wheel on a movable pivot the radius is: 
 
 F'or a column of tiles 2yards. 
 
 For a column of twos, fours, or double col- 
 umn of fours 3 " 
 
 For a phitDon 6 " 
 
 For a coinp;Lny 12 " 
 
 PIVOT BOLT.— The axis of horizontal oscillation. 
 A traversing platform passing through the pivot tran- 
 som and the front sleeper of the platform. 
 
 PIVOT FLANK.— When a regiment is drawn up in 
 column right in front that is, when the company 
 which stood on the right, when in line, is in front 
 the left-hand man will be the pivot flank of each 
 company. When the column is left in front, the 
 right-hand man will be the pivot Hank of each com- 
 pany. 
 
 PIVOT GUN. — A cannon which turns on a pivot in 
 any direction. 
 
 PLACAGE.— In fortification, a kind of revetment, 
 which is made of thick, plastic earth laid along the 
 talus of such parapets as have no mason-work, and 
 which is covered with turf. 
 
 PLACATES. — In ancient armor, small plates placed 
 in front of tlie shoulders. 
 
 PLACE DU MOMENT.— When the operations of an 
 army render it necessary that a position should be 
 fortified and occupied for the whole campaign, the 
 works assume more importance, and many consist 
 of forts having five or six bastioned fronts. Such 
 a fort is called a place du moment. 
 
 PLACES-OF-ARMS.— The covered-way, from the 
 direction given to the counter-scarps of the enceinte 
 and outworks, forms a line of communication with 
 salient and re-entering parts. The salient portions 
 are termed nalient places-of-arms -. and the re-enter- 
 ing^parts the re-entering places-of-ariiin. 
 
 The salient places-of-arms result from the general 
 plan of the covered way ; but the re-entering place.s- 
 of-arms are formed by changing the directions of 
 the two branches where they form the re-enterings, 
 so as to make a salient within the re-enterings ; 
 thus enlarging the covered-way at these points, and 
 producing a flanking arrangement, by which the 
 glacis can be swept, and a cross-fire be brought to 
 bear on the ground in advance of the salients. See 
 (>iitwi>rk.i. 
 
 PLAID. — A woolen shawl of a tartan pattern, worn 
 over the shoulder by the Scotch lUglilanders. and 
 still worn by Highland regiments. 
 
 PLAIN. — in geography, an extensive tract of coun- 
 tni- which, on the whule. preserves a nearly uniform 
 ekvation. When referred to the level of the sea. 
 plains may be distinguished into low plains or low- 
 lands, and elevated plains called plateaux or t^bk- 
 ltin<i,<<. Plains differ much in appearance, according 
 to the nature of their soil and the climate, from
 
 PLAIN CLOTHES. 
 
 532 
 
 PLAIN COMPASS. 
 
 the frightful sandy wastes of Africa, to the luxuriant 
 
 fertility of the South American silvas. They are oc- 
 casionally crossed by hills of moderate altitude, 
 which, however, are i;enerally detached, and exhibit 
 no connection witli any neighborins; mountain sys- 
 tem. These hills often, as "in tlie North American 
 Plains degenerate into mere undulations, quite uni- 
 form in structure. The term " Plains " is, in a limited 
 sense, confined to the Plains of Western Europe ; 
 those of other parts of tlie world receiving special 
 designations, and diilering from each other in many 
 important points thus we have the Steppes ot Eastern 
 Europe and Asia ; the Deserts of Arabia and Africa ; 
 tlie Saennnafis and Prairies of North America ; and 
 tlie Llanos. Pampas and Silvan of South America. 
 The chief Plains of Europe are, the country stretch- 
 ing from the foot of the Carpatliians in Galicia to the 
 Ural ^Mountains, including Poland and Russia, the 
 drainage area of the Danube in Hungary, and the 
 portion of Europe which is bounded by the Elbe, 
 the Hartz mountains, France, and the sea. Plains 
 of comparatively small extent, but presenting the 
 necessary characteristics in perfection, are found in 
 almost all countries. 
 
 PLAIN CLOTHES.— A citizen's every-day dress, as 
 applied to an officer not in uniform; tliis dress is also 
 known liy the familiar name of mufti. It is left to 
 tlie discretion of General Officers Commanding, to 
 permit the use of plain clothes for the purpose of 
 recreation : otherwise all Officers must appear in uni- 
 form in camp or quarters, or when attending public 
 lialls witliin the district iu which they are quartered. 
 
 PLAIN COMPASS.— The plain compass, as shown 
 in the drawing, lias a 6-inch needle, and is furnished 
 with levels, sight-vanes, socliet, etc. The compass- 
 box is in the same piece with the main plate, and the 
 
 instrument is used mainly in the surveys of new lines, 
 or in tlie preparation of maps, where i.be variation of 
 the needle is not recjuired. To adjust tlie compass, 
 first bring the bulibles into the center, by the pressure 
 of the hand on dilTerenl parts of the plate. and then 
 turn tlie compass half-way around; should the bub- 
 bles run to the end of the tubes, it would indicate 
 that those ends were the highest; lower them by 
 tightening the screws immediately under, and loo.seu- 
 iiig those underthe lowest ends until, by estimation, 
 tlu' error is half removed ; level ti)c pliite iigain. and 
 repeat the first openition until the Imlililes will re- 
 main in lUr center, during an entire revululion of 
 the compass. The siirhts may next be tested by ob- 
 serving through the slits a tine hair or thread, made 
 exactly vertical by a pluinli. Should the hair ap- 
 pear on one side of the slit, the sight must be ad- 
 
 justed by filing off its under surface on that side 
 which seems the highest. The needle is adjusted in 
 the following manner : Having the e_ye nearly in the 
 same plane with the graduated rim of the compass- 
 circle, with a small splinter of wood or a slender 
 iron wire, bring one end of the needle in line with 
 any prominent division of the circle, as the zero, or 
 ninety degree-mark, and notice if the other end cor- 
 responds with the degree on the opposite side ; if it 
 does, the needle is said to "cut" opposite degrees; if 
 not, bend the center-pin by applying a small brass 
 wrench, furnished with the compasses, about one- 
 eighth of an inch below the point of the pin, until 
 the ends of the needle are brought into line with the 
 opposite degrees. Then, holding the needle in the 
 same position, turn the compass half-waj' around, 
 and note whether it now cuts opposite degrees ; if 
 not, correct half the error b_v bending the needle, 
 and the remainder by bending the center-pin. The 
 operation should be repeated until perfect reversion 
 is secured in the first position. This being obtained, 
 it may be tried on another quarter of the circle ; if 
 any error is there manifested, the correction must be 
 made in the center-pin only, the needle being already 
 straightened by the previous operation. When again 
 made to cut, it should be tried on the other quarters 
 of the circle, and corrections made in the same man- 
 ner until the error is entirely removed. and the neetlle 
 will reverse in every point of the divided surface. 
 
 In using the compass, the Surveyor should keep the 
 south end towards his person, and read the bearings 
 from the north end of the needle. He will observe 
 that the E and W letters on the face of the compass 
 are reversed from their natural position, in order 
 that the direction of the line of sight maybe correctly 
 read. The compass-circle being graduated to half- 
 degrees, a little practice will enable the 
 surveyor to read the bearings to quarters 
 or even finer — estimating with his eye the 
 space bisected by the point of the needle, 
 and as this is as low as the traverse table 
 is usually calculated, it is the general prac- 
 tice. Sometimes, however, a small vernier 
 is placed upon the south end of the needle, 
 and reads the circle to five minutes of a 
 degree — the circle being in that case gra- 
 duated to whole degrees. This contri- 
 vance, however, is quite objectionable on 
 account of the additional weight imposed 
 on the center-pin, and the difficulty of 
 reading a vernier which is in constant 
 vibration ; it is therefore but little used. 
 
 To take angles of elevation.— Having 
 first leveled the compass, bring the south 
 end towards you, and place the eye at the 
 little button, or eye-piece, on the right 
 side of the south sight, and with the band 
 fix a card on the front surface of the north 
 sight, so that its top edge will be at right 
 angles to the divided edge, and coincide 
 with the zero mark ; then sighting over 
 the top of the card, note upon a flagstaff 
 the height cut by the line of sight ; then 
 move the staff up the elevation, and carry the card 
 along the sight until the line of sight again cuts 
 the same height on the staff, read off the degrees 
 and half-degrees passed over by the card. 
 
 For angles of depression, proceed in the same 
 manner, using the eye-piece and divisions on the 
 opposite sides of the sights, and ri':uliiig from the 
 top of the sights. When the instrument is to be 
 used in making new surveys, the vernier should be 
 set at zero and securely clamped by screwing up the 
 nut beneath the plate. In surveying old lines, the 
 change of the variatidn of the neeilU^ should be a.s- 
 eertiiined by setting llie etmipass on some one well- 
 deliued line of the tract, and making the bearing to 
 agree with that of the old survey, by moving the 
 circle as already described. Then the circle can be 
 clamped, and the old lines retraced from the bear-
 
 FLAN. 
 
 533 
 
 PLANE OF DEFILEMENT. 
 
 in|»(i Riven liy tlic firifriniil Siirvcy'ir. When the vii- 
 riiitiiin of the lU'cdlc is Idiown.il ciin be ciisilysct olT 
 by llic vernier, niid IIk^ cDiiipuHH used to run a true 
 nii'riiliiiii by Ibe iiei'dle. 
 
 A little eaiition in neeessiiry in bandling tlio eoni- 
 pass, tbat llie ulass eoverini; be not excited by t be 
 frietion of elotb, sillt, or tlie Imiul, so as to atlniel 
 the needle to its under surface. Wbr^n, however, 
 the ijjlasM bocomps electric, tlu' tliiid nmy be reiTioved 
 by lireathini; u])on il, or to\icliini; ililferent parts of 
 itssMrfu<'e vvitli the moistened lln;;er. An iffiiorance 
 of this appareiUly trillini; matter has caused many 
 errors and perplexities iiithe practice of the inexper- 
 ienced Surveyor. 
 
 The railroail compass is an instrument of the liij;liest 
 grade, in which by the addition of a diviileilliml)and 
 verniers the Surveyor is enabled to take anjrles, and 
 run lines unalleeted by the imperfections of the mni;- 
 netic needle. 
 
 The vernier compass has a neat compass-circle, to 
 which is attached a "vernier," movable about a com- 
 mon center a short distance in either direction, thus 
 enabling; tin; Surveyor to set the zeros of llie<'ircle at 
 any required an<;le with the line of sii^bts; the num- 
 ber of dcjfrecs contained in this anirlc or the " varia- 
 tion of tiie needle" Ueing read off bj' the vernier. 
 See S'llirr Ci)mpass. 
 
 PLAN. — The representation on paper.on a reduced 
 scab', by means of conventional siiins and jirocess, 
 of any jiortion of the earth's surface. In fortilication, 
 a ]ilan shows the tracinji, also the horizontal lengtlis 
 and breadths of the works, the thickness of the ram- 
 parts and parapet, the vvidth of the ditches, etc. It 
 exhibits the extent, division, and distribution of the 
 works, but the depth of the ditches and the height 
 of the works are not represented in tlie plan. See 
 I'ldii of ('iiinpiiiffii.Hnd Plan af Defenxv. 
 
 PLANE. -1. A surface without curvature, and the 
 test of it is, that any two points whatever being taken 
 in the surface, the straight line which joins them 
 lies wholly in the surface. When two planes cross 
 or intersect one another, their comniiui section is a 
 straight line; and the inclination of the planes to 
 each otlier is measured by taking any point in their 
 common section, and drawing from it two straight 
 lines, one in each plane, perpendicular to tlie com- 
 mon section ; the angle contained by these lines is 
 the angle of inclination of the planes. When the 
 angle is a right angle, the planes are perpendicular 
 to each other. 
 
 2. A tool used for rendering the surface of wood 
 smooth and level. It consists of an oblong block of 
 wood or metal (the latter has only recently come into 
 use), with an opening through the center; this open- 
 ing is square on the upper side, ami is always large 
 enough to admit the cutting instrument ; it dimin- 
 ishes down to a mere slit on the vuider side, just wide 
 enough to allow the cutting edge of the plane-iron 
 and the shaving of wood which it cuts otf to pass 
 through. The essential part of the tool is the plane- 
 iron, a piece of steel witli a chisel-shaped edge, and 
 a slot in its center for a large- headed screw to work 
 and to attach to it a strengthening plate. They are 
 held in place by the hard-wood wedge. By driving 
 in the wedge, the irons are held very firmly in their 
 plai-e. and they are so adjusted that only the tine 
 sharp chisel-edge of the cutting-tool [irojects through 
 the slit in the bottom of the body of the plane, so 
 that when the too! is pushed forward by the force of 
 the hand, the cutting edge pares off all irregularities, 
 until the wood is as smooth as the under surface of 
 the plane. There are many modifications in this 
 tool, which can have its cutting edge and under sur- 
 face made to almost any contour, so tliat mouldings 
 of all kinds may be made. The two commonest are 
 the jack-plane for rough work, and the smoothing- 
 plane f<ir tinishing off plane surfaces. See Pianiiig- 
 mai'hiiu, 
 
 PLANE OF COMPARISON.— A plan of a fortress, 
 tud of the surroundini; countrv, on which are ex- 
 
 prcBsed the distanccH of the principal points from a 
 liorizontal |)!ane, imagined to paHs through the high- 
 est (jr lowest points of (rroimd, in the Hurvey. This 
 imaginary plane is cidhd a plane of comparisim. 
 
 PLANE OF DEFILEMENT. A plane, which con- 
 taining the interior crest of a, work, passes at lensl 
 I'ight feet abovir those points to be sheltered, and at 
 least live feet above the grounil which can be occu- 
 pied by an enemy within cannon range. The amount 
 of space in rear of a i)arapet which is reipiircd to be 
 defiladed, depends upon circumstances. In some 
 cases, the entire s])ace enclosed, and in others only 
 a part, is to be protected from this tire from a com- 
 manding height. Thus, it is usual to require that 
 the whole interior space of an enclosed work should 
 be defilaiU'd; that the interior as far as the gorge 
 slioiild be defilade<l for a lialf-enclosed work; and 
 that so much of the interior,or so much of the terre- 
 plein behinri tlie parapet as may be necessary for 
 the free movements of the defense, should be defil- 
 aded in ojien works or lines. 
 
 It is not convenient in practice to place the eve at 
 !i distance of eight feet from the ground, nor" is it 
 an easy thing to judge, from a distance, what should 
 be the position of a point which shall be live feet 
 above the ground. The method used is to place 
 the eye at a convenient distance from the grounil, 
 observe tlie highest point of the top of the hill, and 
 determine the position of a visual plane tangent to 
 the hill. Knowing the position of Ibis visual plane, 
 a second plane is passed parallel to it and five feet 
 above it. The tangent visual jilane is known as the 
 rampant plane, and the plane parallel to it is the 
 plane of defilement. The position of the rampant 
 plane and the plane of <letilemeiit may be fixed as 
 follows: To illustrate the method, a redan is sup- 
 posed to be the lield work which is to be built, upon 
 a position commanded by a neighboring height, and 
 that the salient and extremities of the faces are 
 marked by upright poles planted in tlieground. The 
 trace marked, the next step is to profile the work, 
 imd this requires the height of the interior crest to 
 be determined. Two stakes, at a convenient dis- 
 tance apart, are erected ttpon the gorge line; if not 
 too far apart, the poles already erected to mark the 
 extremities of the faces may be used. A line, three 
 feet from the ground, is marked by a strip of wood 
 having a straight edge, or by a cord tightly stretched, 
 and fastened to these uprights. An observer is 
 placed in rear of this line; he sights along it and tan- 
 gent to the hill, and determines where the visual 
 plane containing this line cuts the pole placed at 
 the salient. This point is carefully marked, and 
 with the line joining the two ujirights on the gorge 
 line, fixes the position of a plane tangent to the hill 
 and three feet above the ground at the gorge. If 
 on the three posts, points be marked, five feet above 
 the points of intersection of the posts by the rampant 
 plane, these will be points of a iilane which will pass 
 eight feet above the ground at the gorge and five 
 above the ground at the top of the hill. If the faces 
 of the redan are held in this [ilane, the whole inter- 
 ior of the redan will be defiladed from this hill, and 
 the last plane determined will be the jilane of defil- 
 ade, or defilement. The extremities of the faces at 
 the gorge have parapets of the ordinary height, viz., 
 eight feet; the parapets from these points, increase 
 in height until the salient is reached, where the 
 height is the greatest. The height of the interior 
 crest can then be determined, at the points where 
 the profiles are to be placed. The site being level, 
 there is no reason why any one part of the interior 
 crest should be higher than another. It is neverthe- 
 less the practice, even in this case, to give addition- 
 al height to the parapet at a salient, not for the 
 purposes of defilading the interior, but to lessen the 
 elTect of any enfilading fire which an enemy might 
 obtain upon the faces, and to allow for the descent 
 of the trajectorj- of a projectile which might graze 
 the interior crest at the salient.
 
 PLAWE OF ITKE. 
 
 534 
 
 PLANE TABLE. 
 
 A slight deviation from the method just described 
 is made when the worl{ to be defiladed is a lunette, 
 instead of a redan. Two uprights, about twelve 
 feet apart, are planted upon, and near the center of, 
 the gorge line. A third upright is placed in front of 
 the gorge and ten or twelve feet from it upon the 
 line "joining the center of the gorge line with the 
 salient. The points are then marked where the 
 rampant plane, three feet above the ground, cuts 
 these three uprights and the uprights planted at the 
 salient, and at the shoulders. A distance of five 
 feet is marked above the points just determined, 
 and this will fix the position of the plane of defilade 
 for the lunette. See -Defilement, Direct Defilement, 
 and Bi^i-erse Defilement. 
 
 PLANE OF FIKE.— la Gunnery, a vertical plane 
 thriMiijli the line of tire. See Pointing. 
 
 PLANE OF SIGHT. —In Gunnery, a vertical plane 
 throusch tlie line of sight. See Pointing. 
 
 PLANE OF SITE.— The general level of the ground, 
 or ground line, upon which the works are construct- 
 ed,"i8 called the plane of site, whether that plane be 
 horizontal or oblique to the horizon. 
 
 PLANE OF SYMMETRY.— In artillery, an imaginary 
 plane everywhere bisecting the space between the 
 two cheeks of a gini carriage. 
 
 PLANER-CENTERS.- Devices for supporting small 
 work on the bed of a planing-machine. One of the 
 two is provided with a worm and worm-wheel, by 
 which tiie work may be rotated, so as to present 
 each face in succession to the cutter: the other has 
 
 gra|. hy and map drawing. As shown in the draw- 
 ing, tlie plane table consists mainly of a drawing- 
 board set upon a very firm tripod, and having upon 
 its upper surface a movable straight edge or nlidaele., 
 arranged either with sight-vanes or telescope, by 
 which it may be directed to any given point, the line 
 being then drawn on the paper along the edge of the 
 alidade. A rectangular plate of brass to whicli is 
 attached a small compassand two spirit-levels, is also 
 shown, and serves both to level the table and when 
 applied by the edges parallel n the zero points of 
 the compass circle, to determine the magnetic bear- 
 ing of the lines drawn on the paper, or tlie direction 
 of the table itself. The table is made of wood ar- 
 ranged in sections so as to prevent warping, and has 
 an adjustable wooden roller at each end by which 
 the paper is brought down snugly to the board, or 
 upon which a long sheet can be rolled and unrolled 
 at will. In place of the rollers, sometimes, and often 
 in combination with them, a number of brass clamps 
 as shown are used in holding the paper firmly. The 
 plumbing arm shown in the figure has its end brought 
 to a point, that it may be set at any given point on 
 the paper, the plunnnet hanging from the underarm 
 determining the corresponding point on the ground; 
 the lower arm moves upon a hinge, an index on the 
 side showing when the ends of the two arms are 
 plumb with each other as applied to the table. 
 
 The construction of the socket and tripod-head is 
 shown in the drawing on page 53,5, in which n repre- 
 sents the hemispherical concave metal cup fastened 
 
 an inclined plane by which the slope of the work is 
 regulated so as to give a taper, if required. The 
 drawing shows an improvement in the device for 
 dropping the worm out of gear, as in many cases it 
 's not needed, the''''by saving time. The dials are so 
 drilled that they are calculated to plane any shape 
 ♦hat is generally required, and for fluting taps, ream- 
 ers, ste. 
 
 by six screws to the wood top of the tripod, b the 
 upper or convex part fitting nicely into the cup and 
 clamped to it at will by the clamping piece c and nut 
 d ; a strong spiral-ring in the hollow cylinder be- 
 tween c and d, serves to hold the two spherical sur- 
 faces of the socket together, and allow of the easy 
 movement of the one within the other in the leveling 
 of the table. The flange of the socket b supports the 
 
 PLANE TABLE.— I'liiMc l.ibles may be >ised to deter 
 mine dislanics and to note file fall of projeclilcs \n 
 target-practice or firing for rang 
 
 tabh' and is connected with its luider s\irface by three 
 
 sciliiienis of brass, I wo of which are sluiwM at (W / 
 
 iilso in topo- 1 these are brought down firmly upon the shoulder of
 
 FLANIMETEB. 
 
 r)3r 
 
 PLANI1I£T£B. 
 
 the flanRd by ciipHMiii-licad Hcrows uh Hliown, or rc- 
 leiiHiMl 111 will, tliiiM lUlowin;; llic |)laii(; table to be 
 moved liori/.oiilally wlieii dcMircil. A set of tlirci' 
 Icvcliiif^-xcrcws is Hoinctiiiics added for mon- aeeiir- 
 alely leveling (lie (able, but ordinarily llie jiressure 
 of tile liatiil upon it willi tbe Hoekel alone will be all 
 tlial is re(iiiiri^d. Wlien clesired, a lanj,'cut movement 
 in a/.iniiilli may also bc^ added. 
 
 \VI:en estimlitinu; dislanee, if the target is on the 
 water, a iwiut along the shore, the diHtance of which 
 
 from the battery has been asorrtained, is selected so 
 that a line drawn from it towards the place where 
 the tirst grazes are expected to occur will be at right 
 angles to the line of tire, or nearly so ; here one of 
 the plane tables is placed. The other is situated as 
 nearly in line with the larg<'l and battery as con- 
 venient; sulliciently removed, however, not to be in- 
 
 convenienced by the smoke. The two stations should 
 be so situated that lines drawn from them to the tar- 
 get will be nearly at right angles to each other. Their 
 distances from each other and from the battery are 
 known. The table is ailjusted with the small metal 
 plate over the stake thiit marks the slation. anil 
 leveled. The observer places his alidade on the 
 
 pivot-pin, Bights carefully on a given point at the 
 battery, and marks on the paper uflixed to the table 
 IIk' direction assigned by the beveled I'dge of the 
 ruler. The direction of the other station is noted in 
 the same way, as is also the target and any stakiiB 
 which may be jilaced in the line of (ire. V\ hen (lie 
 cannon is ready to lire, a preparatory signal is hoisted 
 at the battery ; se(Mng this, the observer points the 
 alidade in tin; exiiected direction of the llrst graze. 
 The signal is lowered and the gun fired. The instant 
 the jet takis place, the sights of the alidade are 
 aligned upon it, an<l the direction indicated by the 
 beveled edge of the ruler marked ujion the paper, 
 'i'he lini' connecting the two stations is a base from 
 which is determined the position of the fxiint struck 
 and of tli(! battery. The ])rojeclion of this base on 
 any scale will enable one to ascertain in terms of 
 that scale the distances desired. After tlie firing, 
 the tables are returne(l, the observations maileon one 
 lalil<' transferred lo the other, and the intersections 
 of llie lines lo(;ale the positions of the points struck. 
 See . I h'lhiih . 
 
 PLANIMETEE.— An inRtnimcnt for ascertaining 
 the contents of all irregular plane figures. More than 
 thirty years ago, OpjiikolTer, of Berne, invented an 
 instrument of Ibis description, which seemed to fulfill 
 all the rei|iiirements of the case ; but its cost and the 
 practical dillicullies attending its use prevented its 
 general adopliijn. More recently, Amsler-LalTon, of 
 Scholfhauseu. devised a simpler and imich less costly 
 instrumeni of the kind, which was exhibited 
 at the Paris Expo.sition of 1807. The prin- 
 ciple of each is nearly the same, the area 
 being measured by a roller of given surface, 
 the number of revolutions of which are in- 
 dicated by a disc. The drawing shows the 
 Amsler ])olar planimeter, whicii, in addition 
 to the ordinary requirements of the instru- 
 ment, is well adapted for measuring the area 
 of iiidiriitirr (Ungrnm.i. To use the instru- 
 ment, press the point A slightiy into the 
 paper, n(jt clear through, ia such position 
 that the tracer B will follow the desired line 
 without bringing the roller C against any 
 projection. The roller must move (ma con- 
 tinuous flat surface. It is also well to fasten 
 the diagram to a drawing-board, or soma 
 other flat surface, by means of pins or springs, 
 to prevent it from slipping. IMark a starling 
 point at any point on the outline of diagram 
 D. set the tracer on that point, and place 
 zero on the roller so it exactly coincides with 
 zero on the vernier E. Now trace the line, 
 moving in tlic direction traveled by the 
 hands of a watch, stop at the starting point 
 and take the reading. 1st. Find the high- 
 est figure on the roller that has pa.ssed the 
 zero on the vernier, moving to the left, 
 [^^--nJ whicli we will assume to be 4; now the 
 ij o construction of the instrument is such, that 
 
 IV j each figure on the roller represents an equal 
 
 number of scpiare inches. 2d. Find the 
 number of omipUUd divisions between four 
 on the roller and zero on the vernier, which 
 we will assiniie to be .5. 3d. Findthe number 
 of the mark on the vernier which coincides 
 with some mark on the roller, which in this 
 I case may be (5. ^A'e now have the exact 
 reading, 4,'^,,", inclies area. In measuring- 
 diagrams of more than 10 inches area, add 10 
 to the result. 
 
 To those wlio are familiar with the in- 
 strument, it is not necessary to place the 
 zeros together ; but take the reading as it is. and 
 subtract it from the result. Should the second read- 
 ing be less than the tirst. add 10 to the second read- 
 ing before making the subtraction. If the area to 
 be measured is very large, divide it by lines into 
 areas of less than 20 si|uare inches, and take separate 
 measurements. If the drawing is to a scale, multi-
 
 FLAinHG-MACHiHE. 
 
 536 
 
 PLANING MACHIKE. 
 
 ply the result by the square of the ratio number of 
 the scale. In using the Planimeter for indicator 
 diagrams, and for which it is specUiUy adapted, we 
 find the area of the diagram, according to the fore- 
 going directions, whicli we will assume to be 2.48 ; 
 we now measiire tlic length of the diagram parallel 
 with the atmospheric line, which we will say in this 
 case is 4 inches. Now divide the area by the length ; 
 the quotient is the mean, or average height of the 
 diastrara, in inches, which is .()3 inches : this we mul- 
 tiply by the scale of the indicator, whicli we will as- 
 sume to be 40 ; the product gives us 24.8 lbs. mean 
 pressure on each square inch of the piston. 
 
 PLANING-MACHINE.— Planing- machines have re- 
 cently been much in use, by which both wood and 
 metal are planed. In the case of those intended for 
 wood, the cutting instruments are moved forw-ard 
 over the wood by machinery in the same manner as 
 in the hand-plane. The precision and rapidity with 
 which these machines work have given great facili- 
 ties for building, us one machine will do as nuich 
 
 of tl first ; and this is repeated until the whole sur- 
 face of the plate is reduced to the required level. 
 However tedious this process may appear, it offers 
 such facilities for metal working as were previously 
 unknown. 
 
 In" its usual form, the metaUlc object is dogged to a 
 traversing-table and is moved against a relatively 
 fi.xed cutler. In practice, the cutter is adjusted in a 
 stock, and is usually fed automatically between 
 strokes. The machine is variously constructed, and 
 in sizes to suit the work in hand. The drawings il- 
 lustrate the Pond machines of the latest patterns, and 
 including novel features. Fig. 1 shows a 2fi-inch 
 machine which is intended for light work. Its bed 
 lias great depth and its length in proportion to the 
 length of table is greatly in excess of usual pr.actice. 
 The uprights have sufficient metal and breadth of 
 liase to resist heavy cuts without jar when the tool 
 is at the greatest height. The table is very thick, 
 with three bolt-slots truly planed and pin-holes drill- 
 ed and reamed, and receives back and forward mo- 
 
 
 
 Fig. 
 
 work as sixty men. The planing-machines used for 
 metal are different in principle. A well-tempered, 
 chisel-edged steel cutter is held in a fixed position, 
 pressing downwards upon tlic metal plate, which is 
 moved forward by powerfiil machiucry. The action 
 of this movement is that a groove is plowed into 
 the metal of the size of the steel cutter; when the 
 metal has traveled its full length, and has made the 
 
 tion from an open and cross belt through a powerful 
 train of cut gears and rack. These gears are mounted 
 on shafts liaving very large diameters and more 
 than twice the usual length of the journal. These 
 journals are carefully scraped together and straight 
 surfaces scraped to surface plates. The automatic 
 belt-shifter transfers but one belt at same time, thus 
 obviating squealing of belts and jar of machine, it is 
 
 groove complete, the downward pressure of tlie tool I entirely 
 is removed, and by the action of the double screw 
 which has carried it forward, it is riiurncd, and re- 
 adjusted for another groove to be formed by the side 
 
 discniuii'cl<'d fioin feeding apparatus and is 
 irranged 1o llirow out 1" iliar llw reviTsing dogs on 
 the lable wliich i an then lie run backward to exam- 
 ine the work. The feeding device gives aulomatio
 
 PLANK B£V£TK£NT. 
 
 537 
 
 PLAN OF CAUPAIQH. 
 
 feed in nil dircrlinns and is adjiistiililc from to J of 
 an inch wide and takes no power exrept ul tlie mo- 
 ment of feedin;;. 'I"ln' down and anixnlar fi'eds can 
 be operated by hand, if more ennveiiieni, from bolli 
 ends of I he cross-head as well as I he top of I he saddle. 
 'I'lie countershaft lias two pulleys, each lU inches di- 
 ameter, by .') inches face for Ihe^i-inch belt and shonid 
 make itlO revolutions every minute. Weight 5,000 
 pounds. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows an 81-inch planer, designed for the 
 heavier work. It possesses all the features above 
 enumerated, the countershaft liavini; two ])nllcyscaeh 
 21 inches, by .') inches face for .'i-inch belt, and mak- 
 lufj; 2iH) rcvdiulions a minute. The weii;lil of this 
 machine is .'>('>, 000 pounds. See liotary IHiiner, and 
 i^hiipinq-iniirjii lit'. 
 
 PLANK REVETMENT. - Plank is an excellent ma- 
 terial for rcvelnienis wliere dural)ilily and very great 
 strenvclh are not re(piired. Tlu^ ease of working and 
 eonvenicnc(^ of handling are its great advantages. 
 When it can be easily obtained and can be sparetl for 
 the purpose, it will always be used in works of liur- 
 ried construction. 
 
 Kevetments nuiy be maae with it by driving posts 
 or pieces of scantling into the earth, three or four 
 feet a])art, giving to them the sanu' inclination as 
 the inl<'rior slope. Hoards, in a horizontal position, 
 to retain the earth, an' then nailed to these scant- 
 lings or posts. Or, the scantlings may be capped, 
 and the boards having been cut into suitable li'ngths, 
 placed in an vipri^ilit position, similar to the jiosts in 
 the limber revetments. The moisture of the earth 
 soon produces rot in the boards, and renders the 
 revetment a very perishable one. See lieretment. 
 
 PLAN OF CAMPAIGN. -^Before undertaking any 
 military ojieralion, great or small, we should first 
 sellle down upon some decidecl end to be gained : 
 determine upon beforc'liand. as far as practicable, 
 the steps to be taken to attain (»ir obje(!t. In one 
 word, we should clearly see what we propose to ac- 
 complish, in order that we may not go blindly to 
 work and leave anything to chance. The inental 
 process by which all that is here supposed is elabo- 
 rated is ternu'd The huj nq nut tlic VUiti. nf Cnni-pn'tjn. 
 In the first place, it stands to reason that this pliui 
 should be so limited as to comjjrise only the leading 
 strategical disjiositions, thus presenting only the out- 
 line features, within which the mesliwork of the mi- 
 nor operations is to be confined ; thus leaving ample 
 latitude for all movements of detail and their execu- 
 tion. Nothing could be more absurd than to pretend 
 to dictate to the Commanding (General what he shall 
 do from day to day: yet this has been (hme, and 
 with but few exce])tions, with disastrous results. 
 Once within the sphere of the enemy's operations, a 
 Commanding (ieneral is no longer at liberty to do 
 what he wishes, but what he best can. Marches, 
 maneuvers, combats depend on circumstances for 
 the most part imperative; decisions arrived at are 
 often sudden, and brought about Ijy the attitude, re- 
 sources, strength, and the tnora'.f of the enemy. 
 The Commanding General shotdd have rnrti- hlnnrlie 
 for carrying out the details of the campaign, the 
 plan of which may have ticen deciiicd upon by a 
 coimcil, but even this is far better left in the hands 
 of him who has the whole responsibility of its exe- 
 cution on his shoulders, and has the greatest interest 
 in its success. It is with the aid of the general maps 
 of a comitry, made to a small scale, as embracing a 
 wider territory, that the general plan of campaign is 
 marked out. All that is wanted for this object is that 
 the map should contain the exact positions of the 
 places upon it : the water courses, the mountain 
 crests, the jirincipal lines of commimication, and the 
 political and geographical boundaries. The less de- 
 tail on such maps the belter they are for this pur- 
 pose, as the mind is not distracted by them from I he 
 main features. For all ])oints of detail topographic- 
 al maps, on a large scale, are necessary. To these 
 we have recourse when it is a question to choose an 
 
 encampment; to decide upon u nulitary position ; to 
 dispo.se an order of battle, elc. The plan of cam- 
 paign lays down the points where the troops are to 
 be assembled, the base and lin<' of operations, and 
 th<! strategical points to be attained. The choice of 
 the positions where the troops are to be assembled is 
 not only diilatcd by the facility of sulisisting them, 
 I although this is a point of great importance ; but by 
 their sidtableness to deceive the enemy UH to the 
 point on which wc; intend to make an advance, so 
 that we nwiy take the initiative and follow up our 
 blow with the most crushing effect. The advance, 
 where practicable, should be made over rommoil- 
 ious roads rather than upon narrow and obstructed 
 byways. The nature of towns or defiles to be Ira- 
 versed may force us to leave them on one side to lake 
 byways, although bad ; for we overcome with le.ss 
 difficulty material obstacles on our line of march 
 than we can towns and defiles well defended. When 
 an army can, in its onwanl movement, rest one wing 
 upon a natural obstacle to an enemy, it will be well 
 for it to keep as near that obstacle as practicable; 
 because it will be better covered by the army, the 
 front of which during the march occupies always 
 several ndles in extent : at least so long as a battle is 
 not imminent. When the two wings of the army are 
 not supported in this way, the line of operations 
 should cut the middle of the front of the army, in 
 order that it may be efjually well covered on each 
 side. There is one general nde both on the march 
 and for battle, which i::, never to expose your line 
 of operations; every disposition, on the contrary, 
 should be tidten to cover it and defend it in the best 
 possil)le manner. The plan of campaign for the de- 
 fensive is usualh- termed the IhftiiMte I'lnn. It 
 chiefly consists in deciding upon the character of the 
 warfare to be adopted : one which will depend upon 
 national traits, the resources, topography, and cli- 
 mate of the country. The French, for example, 
 make a defensive warfare by assailing their enemies; 
 the Germans, on the contrary, carry on patiently a 
 methodical defensive behind their own frontiers: 
 the Spaniards have been seen to carry on an extermi- 
 nating war of detail : whilst the Russians, under 
 like circumstances, have laid waste whole provinces, 
 and destroyed by fire their capital city, to deprive 
 their invaders of every luaterial resource. .\ brave 
 people, but not babituated t* privations, will not 
 drag out a war by patient endurance, but will en- 
 deavor to bring it speedily to a close by a few bril- 
 liant actions ; its preferences will be for sledge-ham- 
 mer blows, preferring the hazard of a great decisive 
 battle, in which it may fall with glor}-, to a series 
 of petty combats which only serve to exhaust the 
 resources of the country without bringing about any 
 decisive results. Carrying the war into the heart of 
 the assailant's coimtry, or that of his allies, is the 
 surest plan of making him share its burdens and foil- 
 ing his plans. The courage and conduct of troops 
 i are improved in this way, and the chances in their 
 I favor increased. But to be successful, the party 
 I adopting it must not be too inferior in strength, and 
 the nature of the frontiers should favor it : as there 
 would be too great a risk under less favorable cir- 
 cumstances, and in these even it would not be pru- 
 i dent lo advance too far beyond our own frontier. 
 \ The army will chiefly depend for the supply of its 
 i wants upon the zone "of territory adjacent to the 
 frontier, and this should be desperately disputed, 
 liy vmiting all its forces against the enemy's invading 
 corps. If this succeeds, from the defensive the ar- 
 my can assume the offensive. If unsuccessful, no- 
 thing remains to be done but to concentrate all the 
 troops possible and fall back upon positions selected 
 beforehand, either of very great natural or artificial 
 strength, as rivers, mountain-passes, fortresses, etc. 
 In this manner the enemy is drawn forward into a 
 region the devastations of which are upon his shoul- 
 ders. The skilful .Montecuculi. in his memoirs, 
 argues strongly for llie adoption of such a plan of
 
 PLAN OF DEFENSE. 
 
 538 
 
 PLANT. 
 
 defensive measures; remarking that upon the ter- 
 ritory of our enemy wc arouse tlic discontented, 
 whilst the fountains of men, money, and whatever 
 else war calls for, are only disordered and fail in this 
 portion in which the war rages. 
 
 PLAN OF DEFENSE.— The determination of the 
 points on which resistance is to he made, those upon 
 which we are to fall back in case of disaster, and the 
 roads leading to these, in retreat; the dispositions of 
 our forces at the outset so as to anticipate the enemy 
 on every point; an indication of tlie points in rear of 
 our frontier for concentration, so soon as the enemy 
 has unmasked his projects; the mode of supporting 
 our advanced corps and those of observation by cen- 
 tral reserves; tinally, the designation of the points to 
 be fortified by art, "bridges to'^be destroyed, roads to 
 be repaired, etc., etc. : such are some of the objects 
 upon which attention must be directed in any defen- 
 sive plan. The suitable military dispositions in all 
 suchplanswill be controUedby the local topography; 
 it is, therefore, impracticable to lay dovi^n invariable 
 rules on this point; the most that can be said is, that 
 too great a dissemination of our force is always dan- 
 gerous; therefore that, so far from attempting to de- 
 fend every pass some must be abandoned to their 
 fate, in order to effectually guard those whicli are 
 most important and the more directly threatened by 
 the enemy. If, instead of moving upon the latter, 
 the enemy makes a show of gaining the former, he 
 must be met by analogous movements, and our task 
 should be to be in readiness to meet him by what- 
 ever route he may arrive; and also with the most 
 troops he can concentrate. It is from this cause that 
 the configuration of frontiers, and the direction and 
 nature of the roads by which they are approached, 
 have so great an influence upon the defensive meas- 
 ures against invasion. If these last are such as to 
 permit our moving on right lines, from a center, 
 upon the enemy maneuvering on the periphery, every 
 advantage of mobility is on our side, and we ought to 
 reach any point before the enemy. But, in any case, 
 it is next" to impossible to close every pass. To do 
 so would require a continuous line of troops, which, 
 from its extent alone, would be weak at all points, 
 and which an enterprising enemy would easily pierce 
 at any one. Instead of attempting any such imprac- 
 ticable plan it would be better to place a considera- 
 ble force at some one favorable point in rear of our 
 frontier, and, from there, take the chances of antici- 
 pating the enemy on any point he may threaten by 
 moving on him promptly. In advance of this cen- 
 tral force, and upon its front and flanks, small bod- 
 ies can be thrown forward to occupy the principal 
 passes momentarily and give wiirning of the enemy's 
 movements. These cfetachments, by retiring slowly 
 and holding the enemy in check, will give the main 
 body time to make its dispositions, either to advance 
 or to receive the enemy at any point further back. 
 With these precautions the main body will be se- 
 cured from surprise, a:ud all the troops can be kept 
 near enough to concentrate for battle. Such are the 
 general defensive dispositions recommended by the 
 highest military authority. It is readily seen that 
 great discretion is necessarily left to tlie Command- 
 in"- General, and th;it his measures should lend 
 themselves to tlie local fitatun-s of his line of de- 
 fense. All that is requisite that these should be 
 good is that tliey should be based upon the simple 
 idea of concentration. This is always preferable to 
 a feeble continucms line, with separated bodies that 
 cannot alTord mutual sii|)])ort; which are too tar re- 
 moved from the supervision ol* the ('(iinnianding 
 General, who cannot be everywhere, and which, ow- 
 ing to the distances between them, cannot he ral- 
 lied and concentrated in time when the line is 
 pierced at any imint. With the foregoing disposi- 
 tions there should be combined some suitable sys- 
 tem of signals, or oilier means of Iransinitling in- 
 telligence promptly from the interior line of delach- 
 lucnts lothe niain'body. No Jiains should be spared 
 
 to have this system as perfect as practicable, an(i 
 not liable to mistakes. A position chosen on the 
 direct road that the enemy must follow is not always 
 the best tocheck with advantage his onward march; 
 flank positions can also often be found of superior 
 advantage for this purpose from which the enemy's 
 line of operations can be threatened it he persists in 
 neglecting this position. This is particularly the 
 case when the force thrown on the flank is of such 
 strength that the enemy dare not to leave it in his 
 rear, "and therefore must attack and drive it back 
 so that he may not expose himself to be separated 
 from his case. In this simple manner the enemy 
 is forced to give battle on a ground, of our own 
 choice, and where we will have had time to make 
 every defensive disposition. The searching out 
 and establishing, on sound principles, flank posi- 
 tions for concentration of troops, forms an essential 
 feature in laying down anj' plan of defense. Having 
 decided upon the most advanced positions to be oc- 
 cupied, attention should next be directed to those of 
 a secondary character, which will naturally be con- 
 trolled by the water courses and mountain chains in 
 rear of the first line. These will demand in their 
 selection verj' careful study. The best of this class 
 are those which have their wings or extremities- 
 resting upon natural obstacles that an enemy can- 
 not turn — as the sea, lakes, unfordable rivers, which, 
 in some respects, overlook the lines of approach on 
 them ; are accessible from the front only by a few 
 practicable roads which can be easily guarded : the 
 general outline of the position being convex towards 
 the enemy, and in rear having good roads leading to 
 all points of it, along which troops can be rapidly 
 moved to any point in danger. Fortified places on 
 a frontier will, of course, play an important part in 
 any defensive plan ; even open towns, by properly 
 covering them with field works, may give the means 
 of effective resistance to any usual mode of attack. 
 When these places lie upon a river, which is itself 
 a line of defense, particularly wlien thej- occupy 
 both banks of it, they afford great facilities for the 
 operation of an army which can maneuver on either 
 shore with safet}', so long as the place itself is not 
 invested. Fortifications so placed completely pre- 
 vent the enemy from using the river as a means of 
 transportation, whUst they assist us in so using them; 
 and, in most cases, they would therefore force an 
 enemy to take all the known measures for gaining 
 possession of them before he would dare to pass be- 
 yond them. In whatever way a river may lie, which 
 has fortified points on it, the disadvantages to an 
 invading force are necessarily great. If parallel to 
 our line of frontier an enemy cannot cross the river, 
 leaving these occupied in his rear, without running 
 the risk of a grcatdisaster. When perpendicular, he 
 cannot with safety divide his forces to operate on 
 both banks at once, as we have, by means of the 
 fortified points, the ready facility of concentrating on 
 either side at our pleasure. Without such strong 
 points on it, a river, on the contrary, might be a posi- 
 tive advantage to the enemy, by allowing liiin to se- 
 cure one of his own wings from attack by resting it 
 upon the river, whilst he would also thus facilitate 
 his own means of transportation. As to military 
 positions, properlj' so called, that is localities favor- 
 able to accepting battle, great care should be taken 
 in designating tliem on the [ilan of defense, and in 
 preparing them beforehand for every eventuiility, by 
 field works, lines of retreat, the removal of all ob- 
 structions between the points of the position, etc. In 
 every plan of defense, parlicular care should be 
 talun in pointing out what reads shonkl be care- 
 fully i)reserved, and which, in any emergency, may 
 he broken up, or otlierwi.se obstructed. "These 
 measures of deslruction arcalmosl always put off so 
 late as to become impracticable at the" moment of 
 need. 
 
 PLANT.— In a military sense, to place or to flx; as 
 til iildiitii utandiird. It likewise signifies to arrange
 
 FLAN. 
 
 539 
 
 PLATE-ABMOB. 
 
 dilTerenl picccB of oriliiHiicc for the i)iirpoH<t of (loiiij; 
 excoiil.ion UK'''''*'t "" •■■H'liiy '"^ ''i** work«; hence, t/i 
 plant a hdlt' ry. Some iiiilliorH iipply this word to 
 the act of direct ill;; ii ciiiiiioii properly. 
 
 PLANTATIONS. '!><■<■« which are KometiineH 
 pluiilcd "11 Ihi' ;;hicis of fortresses. Wlieii juiiiei- 
 ously pliic<'d, they form a vahialile aid to the dcfeiiMe. 
 First, ill tile wood lieiiii; uscil for tiiiilier, as they 
 would be cut down when the place wjis aliout to he 
 attacked. Secondly, in the roots of the trees which 
 run under the glacis formiiii^a considerahle obstacle 
 to the lie»ieu;er's sups. Care should be taken toleuvc 
 a space of aliout 20 feet clear in front of the crest. 
 This p.'irt will be of no use to the besie^cer, as the sap 
 of his lod'j:riiem will probabjy be excavated <jiitside 
 of it; and the defenders may liave occiision (biriiig 
 the siei;e to cut rainp.s in it ascending from tlic 
 covered way to facilitate sorties, or to construct 
 lodiiments thereon for ritlemen. For the same rea- 
 son it would he advisable to avoid planting any 
 parts of the glacis where it is likely the defenders 
 will have to excavate counter-approaches. 
 
 FLASH. — A term coninionlv used to signify the in- 
 terwc'aving of branches, as for gabions, (Tikes, weirs, 
 hunlles. e>c. 
 
 PLASTRON.— 1. A stiifTed pad or cushion, for- 
 merly worn at the shoulder to sustain 'he recoil of 
 heavy muskets and other lire-arnis, and still used 
 
 by fencers upon the right side. 3. A brcast-platc 
 or half cuirass. In the old French service, the (iens 
 d'Arines, the heavy cavalry, the light horse, etc., 
 were obliged to wear them on all occasions, at re- 
 views, etc. Sometimes written J'lii.ttnii. 
 
 PLATE. — 1. In Heraldry, a roundle argent. It is 
 represented flat, and in the Heraldry of Scotland is 
 known as a fiizant argent. 2. Metallic armor com- 
 posed of broad pieces, and thus distinguished from 
 mail. 
 
 PLATE-AEMOR.— The employment of tliick slabs 
 of iron to protect the sides of ships of war and the 
 fronts of fortiticatiuns, is quite a recent invention : 
 or rather, the modern system is the practical reali- 
 zation ( f plans surrsrested long ago by Mersenne and 
 others. In 1842, Jlr. Balmaiio, of New York, pro- 
 posed that war-ships should be clad with several 
 thicknesses of iron plate, riveted one iipon another, 
 the plates being individually ^th inch thick. Soon 
 afterwards, Mr. Stevens, an American ship-builder, 
 made further suggestions on the subject, and other 
 practical men kept the matter before the attention 
 
 of thi^ aiilhorilieH in various coiintrieH. In 1854, 
 the French sent several lloating-lmtterieH to the 
 Hlack Sea, clad witli iron plates; and th<! Knglish 
 Admiralty hastily iinilaleil this example, producing 
 eight very slow and iiiimanagealile butteries in IH.'j.'j- 
 ;j(i. Then laine in a llo(jil of Huggi'Slions for arming 
 regular ships of war in a similar way. Tlie A(i- 
 miralty, dismayed at the thought of dismantling the 
 existing lleet, which hail cost so miieh, delayed the 
 subject as long as they could, but without abandon 
 ing it. In IHtiO, the French sent to sea /<« (lli/ire, a 
 timber-built ship of war, altered from a !W-gun three 
 decker to a 4i)-gim corvette, clad with 4J-inch iron 
 plates having a burden of ;i,0()0 tons. This proceed- 
 ing at once set the English Government on the alert 
 they saw that further delay would be imprudent, and 
 they set about the creation of an armor-clad navy. 
 Many problems had to be solved — whether to case 
 old wooden ships with armor; to build and case new 
 wooden ships ; or to build new vessels, of which the 
 hull as well as the armor should be of iron. Then 
 arosit further jirobleins- how near the bulwarks 
 should the armor-plates come, how near the bottom 
 of the vessel, how near the stem and stern ; also, 
 what thickness of iron, and whether the same thick- 
 ness in every part. 
 
 From IHtil to 18Tt!, the British Admiralty were en- 
 gaged on a series of costly constructions and recon- 
 structions, intended to alford eventually solutions to 
 the above jiroblems. Several of t he shijis built have cost 
 from t::il>l),OtK)to £45U,00Ueach : several half-tinislied 
 timber three-deckers have been cut down and con- 
 verted into iron-clads; and variations of detail almost 
 innumerable have been introduced. Thefollowing isa 
 list of English vessels which in 187G formed the Iron- 
 clad Navy. Those wliicli an; wholly clad—/, e. covered 
 with armor plates in all parts of the hull needing pro- 
 tection—are the MinoUiur, Agincimrt, Xvrthumlier- 
 laml, lioyal Oak, Prince Connort, Caiedonia, Oaan, 
 Ijord Ciyd-e, Ijn-d Warden, Audacious, InviruibU, 
 Prince All/ert, Scjrrpion, Wyvern, Monarch, Iron 
 Duke, Sultan, Glaitun, CyelapH, Hecate, Hydra, Gor- 
 gon, Dreadnought, Dnuxtatiun, Thunderer, Swiftmre, 
 Triumph, Rupert, Jlotupur, Ilerculet, Indexible. Alex- 
 ander, and tihannon. Those which are only partially 
 clad — /. e. covered with armor-plates only in tlie 
 more exposed portions— comprise tlie Black Prince, 
 Warrior, Defenxe, Jie.v'ntance, Achillea, JlecVrr, VaU 
 iant. Royal Alfred, Bellerophon. Zealvuji, Pallan, 
 Favorite, Rexearch Enterprise, Viper, Vixen. Water. 
 witch, Penelope. Regarded as to the material of 
 which the hulls are mostly built, and on which the 
 armor-plates are laid, the following are timber-built : 
 Royal Oak, Prince Connnrt, Calednnia. Ocean, Royal 
 Alfred, Zealous, Lord (Hyde, Lord Warden, Pallan, 
 Favoritr, liexearch, and Enterprise. The Vixen is 
 wood and iron: the Siriftsure and Trimnph are iron 
 [ sheathed with wood; all the rest are iron. The 
 ' dimensions and weight of these ships, laden with 
 armor-plates from 3 t'o 24 inches thick, are enormous. 
 The load displacement of five of them exceeds 10,000 
 tons each ; six, 9,000 to 10.000; four, 7,000 to 9,tM.O ; 
 twelve. 0,000 to 7,000; seven, 4,0u0toU,0()0. Some of 
 the steam engines for these ponderous ships, nomin- 
 ally of 1200 "horse-power, work up to (indicated) 
 8000 horse-power. Whatever the thickness of the 
 armor, the plates are nicely tongued and grooved to 
 fit closely together edgewise. The bolts wliieli fas- 
 ten them to the ship are generally 2 to 2J imhes 
 thick, expanded at one end to form a head, andhav- 
 ins a screw-thread at the other to receive a nut. 
 
 It is not yet known whether the thickest armor 
 will resist any shot that can be liurled against it ; 
 whether, in o"ther words, the thickest practical ar- 
 mor will overcome, or be overcome by, the heaviest 
 practicable shot. Experiments at enormous cost have 
 been conducted for some years to determine this im- 
 portant (luestion ; a natural result has been that can- 
 non are m;ide larger and larger, and armor-plates 
 thicker and thicker, in the struggle between artillery
 
 FLATFORM-BOABD. 
 
 540 
 
 FLATFOKUS. 
 
 and ship-building. The experimpnts (so far as Eng- 
 land is concerned) have been conducted principaUy 
 at Shoeburyness. The usual mode is, to construct a 
 target resembling the armed sitie of one of the iron- 
 clads, ani then to try to pierce it with shot fired 
 from guns at various distances. A Warrior target, 
 for instance, consists of a 4i-in. armor-plate, backed 
 by 18 in. of teak, and an inner skin of :,'-in. iron ; 
 while a Lord Wnrdoi target has 4i in. plate, 30 in. 
 teak, and 1| in. skin. A few examples will serve to 
 illustrate the method of proceeding. In August, 
 1866, a Warrior target was built up at Shoebury- 
 ness — /. e., a target similar in strength and construc- 
 tion to the side of that ship. Alderson's steel sliell, 
 Armstrong's conlcle sliell, and Palliser's chilled-iron 
 shell were tired at it from a 7-in. gun at 200 j-ards: 
 the Palliser shot excelled the others, going clean 
 thrtnigh the target, armor and all, and bursting be- 
 hind. On another occasion, a Palliser 115-lb. shot 
 went through the target even at an angle of 30*^ from 
 the perpendicular. T[\e Lord WardenXavgeX has been 
 pierced by 9A and 10-in. shot at a distance of 1,000 
 yards ; while the thinner Warrior target was pierced 
 at 2000 yards. The Bellirophon and Herai let targets 
 were more ponderous. At the end of 1878. the 
 British navy consisted of 64 ships, afloat or building, 
 of wliich 46 were efficient. They were divided into 
 five classes, the first two of which contain only the 
 formidable turret-ships. I'he armor of the first class 
 comprising 4 ships, ranged from 12 to 24 in. in thick- 
 ness : the Inflexible hasarmor from 16 to 24 in. The 
 second class, of 9 ships, has armor from 8 to 14 in. 
 thick. The third, of 16 ships, from 5 to 12 in. The 
 fourth, of 4 ships, from 6 to 10 in. In the fifth class, 
 13 ships, the armor is from 4^ to 5j in. The last 
 class comprises the two old iron-clads, the Warrior, 
 Black Prince, and others. 
 
 Armor-clad forts are also attracting attention. 
 Iron has been used largel}- in the defenses of Plymouth 
 and Portsmouth. In 1864, a line of iron-clad fort was 
 built up at Shoeburyness, to test several modes of 
 construction. In the same year, the Russian Gov- 
 ernment employed the Millwall Company to build a 
 w rought-iron shield. as an experiment for the defenses 
 of Cronstadt. The front was made of 12 in. thick of 
 iron in horizontal bars; this was backed by 14 in. of 
 thickness in upright bars ; and the whole strength- 
 ened with enormous struts, brackets, ribs, and dove- 
 tails of iron. The shield was to form the facing or 
 armor for a battery of three of Krupp's 600-pounder 
 steel guns, and measured 43 ft. by 10. The shield, 
 with its foundation-plate, weighed 140 tons. In 
 one experiment at Shoeburyness, a plate 13 in. thick 
 was placed in front of a mass of granite 14 ft. thick, 
 and tired at with 200-poiinders; ifour shots cracked 
 the granite, although the plate was not pierced. The 
 
 Fig. 1. — Front View of ''Wiirrior" target, after practice 
 witli COO-pouiider Armstrong Gun. 
 
 Americans made an experiment in Chesapeake Bay, 
 in September, 1866, on a temporary fortification, made 
 of enormous granite blocks faced with 10 in. armor; 
 shots of 4:M) and 630 lbs. were fired from the Hoilman 
 guns, at a range of about S.'iO yards, and eleven such 
 shots destroyed the whole fabric. The Thinirlerer 
 was titled up as aliirgct-slii]iat I'ortsmoutli, ])artly to 
 test very thick plates at very short distances. The 
 
 plateu were fastened to an enormous bulkhead near 
 one end of the ship, and the guns placed near the 
 other end. On one special occasion, a Palliser 115- 
 lb. chilled shot, with an extra charge of powder tired 
 at 25 ft. ofT, went clean through a 7-in. plate and 45 
 in. of teak bulkhead. On another occasion soon after- 
 wards, a nereides target, with a 9-in. plate, was tired 
 at with an 8-in. spherical shot at 30 ft.; the sliot made 
 a dent 2j in. deep, but did not further disturb the 
 plate. The 24-in. armor of the Inflexible is divided 
 into two 12-in. plates, with 9 in. of teak between — 
 the theory of this arrangement being that the outer 
 plate, even if pierced, will shatter the shot, which 
 will then be stopped by the inner armor. Dr. CoUis 
 Brown has suggested a system of sloping armored 
 sides which would give a ship armor of 36 in. at any 
 given point in a displacement not exceeding tliat of 
 existing iron-clads. In the trial of the 100-ion Arm- 
 strong gun at Spezzia, a steel armor-plate was fired 
 at, and the shot, though it penetrated the plate, was 
 stopped in the backing. 
 
 Regarded as articles of manufacture, armor-plates 
 were first produced mainly by hammering, several 
 thicknesses of iron being welded one tipon another, 
 
 Fig. 2. — Section of ''Warrior" Target, eliowing tlie hole made 
 by the 600-[)ouud Shell, and displacement of the upper plate, 
 a. armor plating, 43,i in. tliick (displaced) ; h. teak ijacking, 18 
 in. thick; c, boiler-plate skip. ?b' in. thick; d, wrought-iron 
 beams ; e, platform. 
 
 at a white beat, by blows of a ponderous steam-ham- 
 mer; but it is now more customary to produce them 
 by rolling than by hammering — pressure being con- 
 sidered to produce more satisfactory results than per- 
 cussion. Whatever the thickness of the slab is to be, 
 operations are commenced with plates about an inch 
 thick; these are heated, rolled, cut. piled up, heated 
 and rolled over and over again, >mtil the required 
 thickness is produced. The rollers are placed fur- 
 ther and further apart, as the slab becomes thicker 
 and thicker.' Some of them are truly enormous 
 masses of metal, solid cylinders 8 ft. long by 32 in. 
 diameter. At the Atlas works of Mes- rs. Brown & 
 Co., Shefliekl (the chief manufactory for armor- 
 platesj, there has been produced a rolled slab 17 ft. 
 long, 7 ft. wide, and 14 in. thick, weighing 30 tons. 
 At Grtiser, in Germany, some excellent armor-plates 
 of chilled (cast) iron have been manufactured. For 
 armor-plates, the metal is very scrupulously selected, 
 and every part of the processes conducted with great 
 caution. 
 
 PLATFORM -BOARD. — A'side-board on an ammuni- 
 tion carria:;c for forage. 
 
 PLATFORM WAGON. — A carriage on four'wheels; 
 having no sides, and used for the transport of guns, 
 mortare, traversing platforms, and for every de- 
 scri])lion of heavy stores. 
 
 PLATFORMS.— To insure accuracy of fire with 
 heavy nuns ;iiid mortars, it is absolutely necessary 
 to have solid and substantial platforms. For case- 
 mate and barbette batteries in forlitieafions, fixed 
 platforms are constructed with the works. The bar- 
 bette platform consists essentially of the pintle block, 
 which is of irraiiite firmly imbedded in concrete ; in 
 the lilock is inserted flic ]iintle, of iron, and around 
 this is the friction plalc for the pintle transom of the 
 chassis to rest upon. Traverse circles, of iron, form 
 level and smooth tracks, upon which the traverse-
 
 PLATFORMS. 
 
 541 
 
 PLATF0HM8. 
 
 wliccls run. »Tlic pinUc of iiciiscirmtr' carriiigp i.i iii- 
 wrlrd in a hole in tlic .soli' of llic (•nil)ruHiirc, and i« 
 liflcd oul wlii-n (lie clmssiH IH to bi; removed. The 
 cliassis is ulliiclicd to it liy a tonf;iic, and is provided 
 willi a front set of truverse-wlieeju. I'lalfornis for 
 Bicj;e jjieccs accompany troops in llie field, and it Ih 
 dcHir!d)Ie to Ijave tliem asliiilit as is compalilile with 
 sidlicii 111 Htrenj;lh to endure llie shock of liriiii;. 
 Tliose nsed in tiie United Stales Service conitiine. in 
 a hiirh deiirec, tlie essential qiialilie.s of slren;;lli and 
 portability. All the pieces coniposinf; them are of 
 the sanu^ dimensions, and, as the w<ii:lit of each 
 piece is oidy lifty jionnda, a soldier can carry one 
 from the de])ot to the batteries, or any moderate dis- 
 tance, in addition to his arms and eqnipmenls. An- 
 other ])lalform for mortars is de.scrilied, which is 
 very simple, atronii:, anil well snited to positions 
 when' trees or tindier <'an bi^ easily pnanired. This 
 is desii^nated the mil philfunn. \Vhen a n'w^t: );iin or 
 liowilzer is to lie llred constantly in one direction, it 
 is best to Ljive the platform an inclination to the rear. 
 This prevents excessive recoil, and also serves to 
 carry ofT water from rain. The dci^ree of inclination 
 is not alisolule. When the piece is to be traversed 
 over a wiile lielil of tire, the platform should be \WT- 
 feelly level ; the recoil is then checUed l)y placini; a 
 ban "f earth or a i)ile of sods at a proper distance 
 (about live feet) behind each wheel. The followinu: 
 is the method of laying the platform when it lias an 
 inclinalion. To lay it horizontally, simply omit 
 what is .said with reference to the slope : Tlie direc- 
 tion in which the piece is to lire is established by 
 stri'tcliimi a cord over the center of the ])lace where 
 the platform is to be laid. This line is the directri.\ 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 of the platform. Prepare a bed for the platform by 
 excavating the earth so that it will have the proper 
 inclination to the rear and be perfectly level across. 
 The earth, if not already firm, should be well 
 rammed. Lay the outside sleepers parallel to the 
 directrix, their outside edges being fifty-four inches 
 distant from it. The four other sleepers are laid 
 parallel to these, the edge of each fifteen and a 
 half inches from the edge of the next. The upper 
 surface of the front ends of these sleepers is fifty 
 inches below the sole of the embrasure, and they 
 are laid with an elevation to the rear of one and a 
 half in<-lies to the yard, or four and a half inches in 
 their vvliole length. Tliis elevation is delermined by 
 placing a block four and a half inches high on tlie 
 front end of the sleeper, and laying a straight-edge, 
 with a level on it, from this block to the rear end: 
 the earth is then arranged so as to bring the level 
 true in this position. The next set of sleepers are 
 laid against and inside of the first, overlapping them 
 three feet, having the rear ends inclined outwards, 
 so that the outer edges of the exterior ones sliall each 
 be fifly-four inches from the directrix, and tlu' space 
 between the rear edges of the oiuers the same as in 
 the first set, viz., fifteen and a half inches from the 
 edge of one to the edge of the next; all having an 
 elevation to the rear of one and a half inches to the 
 yard, and perfectly level across. The earth is then 
 
 rammed firmly around the sleepers and made even 
 with their ujipcr surface. The first deck-plank, 
 with a hole tlirough each end for the eye-bolts, is 
 laid in jilacc, perpendicular to the directrix, its holes 
 corresponding with those in the sleepers. The luirler 
 is placed on it, and the bolls driven througli the 
 corresponding holes in these pieces. The jiurler 
 should bi- so placed as to prevent the wheels from 
 striking against the epaulcnient when the piece is in 
 battery. If the interior slope lias a base of two- 
 sevenths of ils height, the inner edge of the liurler 
 should be two and a half inches from th<' foot of the 
 slope. The other jjlauks are laid, each bi-ing forced 
 against the jireceding, with the dowels fitting into 
 llieir respective holes; the last plank has holes for 
 the eye-bolts. Hy dritwing out or driving in the 
 outsiiie slee|)ers, the holes through their ri-ar ends 
 are made to correspond with those in the last deck- 
 plank. The bolls are then driven. Drive stakes in 
 rear of each sleeper, leaving their tops level with the 
 upper surface of the platform. Raise, ram, and level 
 the earth in rear of th(' platform, so as to have a 
 |)lain, hard surface to support the trail when the 
 recoil is great. The earlli should lie raised nearly 
 as high as the iilatform along llie sides, and well 
 ramnied, giving it a slight inclination outward to 
 allow water to run olT. Tlu^ platform is fifteen feet 
 long and nine feet wide. Instead of twelve sleepers, 
 each nine feet long, it is pr(^ferable to use six, each 
 fifteen feet long. See Fig. 1. 
 
 The field platform is for siege guns and howitzers 
 when serving with an army in the field, and the 
 method of conslructing it indicates the wity in which 
 platforms may be extemporized from sucii material 
 as may be at hand. To lay this platform, level off 
 the ground and mark the directrix; dig trenches for 
 the sleepers; place the latter in the trenches so that 
 the boles for the eye-bolts will correspond in place 
 to those in the wheel-planks; place the wheel-planks 
 in position, and drive in the eye-bolts. The front 
 eye-bolts pass through and secure the hurter; apply 
 the level and make the structure perfectly level; 
 secure the front sleeper with stakes; it is well to 
 secure also the rear ends of the wheel-planks with 
 stakes; lay on the trail-plank and secure it with an 
 eye-bolt to the third sleeper; ram the dirt well in 
 around the sleepers. Fig. 2. To check recoil, place 
 
 r.. 
 
 • 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 ,' 
 
 
 
 :.■ 
 
 
 
 ^-^ 
 
 
 '' i 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 ( 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 sacks of earth or piles of sods over the eye-bolts of 
 the third sleeper, or a stick of timber, similar to a 
 sleeper, laid across will effect the same object. This 
 platform admits a chansre of direction of about ten 
 degrees on each side of the directrix, thus covering 
 as much of a field of fire as is ordinarily required. 
 To make this chanse of direction, slightly loosen or 
 remove the earth about the three rear sleepers, and 
 heave the rear ends of the wheel-plauks over with 
 handspikes. The platt<irm then has the position 
 indicated bv the dotted lines in the figure. 
 The siege liiorlar platform is composed of six sleepers 
 and twent v-oiie deck-planks. It is laid level, and the 
 front and fear deck-planks are connected by eye-bolts 
 to each sleeper. A bed for the platform is first pre- 
 pared bv leveling off the ground, and, if not already
 
 PLATINUM FUSE. 
 
 542 
 
 PLEA. 
 
 solid, the earth should be well rammed. This bed 
 should be sunk only so deep as to allow the upper 
 surface of the platform to be slightly above the sur- 
 rounding ground, for drainage. The sleepers are laid 
 paralleHo the directrix or plane of fire, three on eacli 
 side of it, at equal distances apart, so that the holes 
 in tlieir ends shall correspond to the holes in the front 
 and rear deck-planks. The front deck-plank is laid 
 first, and the eye-bolts driven to secure it ; the re- 
 maining planks are driven up against it, and the last 
 secured, like the first, with eye-bolts. At the rear end 
 of eacli sleeper a securing stake is driven. Fig.:l The 
 earth, on all sides, should be raised nearly as high as 
 the platform, and well rammed, giving it a slight in- 
 clination outwards to allow the water to run oil. It 
 
 ^huMXlMf-**^ • 
 
 -T= 
 
 ^ 7g A^. 
 
 Fii:. .■!. 
 
 is of the first importance fliat the upper surface of 
 the platform should be level and true. 
 
 The rail platform for siege mortars consists of three 
 sleepers and two rails for the shoes of the mortar to 
 rest on. It is very strong, and easily constructed and 
 laid. The rails and sleepers are notched and fitted 
 together as represented in Fig. 4. The distance be- 
 tween the center lines of the rails is equal to that be- 
 
 .n n n , 
 1.^ -, -_i 
 
 nin 
 
 "^~n 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 tween the center lines of the cheeks of the mortar 
 carriage. The pieces are put together at the battery, 
 and the earth is e.xcavated eight inches in depth, and 
 of suitable length and width to receive the platform. 
 The bottom of this excavation is made perfectly level. 
 The directrix being accurately marked by stakes, the 
 platform is placed in position, its center line coincid- 
 ing with a cord stretched between the stakes mark- 
 ing the directrix. The earth is filled in as high as 
 the upper surface of the sleepers and firmly rammed; 
 stakes are driven in the rear angles formed by tlie 
 sleepers and the rails, and one at the rear end of eacli 
 rail. 
 
 The platform for sea-coast mortars is 15 feet by 
 1.5 feet by 2 feet 2 inches. To lay it, a pit is dug 2 
 feet deep and about 18 feet square on the bottom. 
 The earth on the bottom is well rammed and leveled 
 The two inch-planking is laid level on the rammed 
 earth, perpendicular to the directrix. The cylin- 
 drical bolts are put in the sleepers, and the .sleepers, 
 with bolt-heads down, are laid compactly on, and 
 perpendicular to the planking and parallel to the 
 directrix. As the deck-timbers are laid the bolts 
 pass through the holes in them. These timbers are 
 hiid compactly upon the sleepers, perpendicular to 
 the directrix. Tln' nuts are put on the bolts and 
 screwed down. Both the nut and bolt-heads arc 
 countersunk. The iron plates are laid parallel to the 
 directrix, and secured firmly with screws to the 
 deck-timbers, covering nine feet in the center of the 
 platform and leaving three feet on each side un- 
 covered. The earth is then filled in, and rammed 
 compactly around the platform, with a slight inclin- 
 
 ation' outwards, so as to shed water. The plat- 
 form for the center-pintle classis is 17 feet square ; 
 the bottom of the pit must therefore be 20 feet 
 square. 
 
 Tlie 10-inch sea-coast mortar platform is 12 feet 
 by 12 feet by a 1 foot 8 inches. To lay it, a pit is 
 dug 1 foot G inches deep by 15 feet square ; the re- 
 mainder of the operation is similar to that for the 
 13-inc'h mortar. See Mortar Carriages, and 8iege 
 Ciirn'iiges. 
 
 PLATINUM ruSE.— Afuse of great value introduc- 
 ed by tlie Laflin and Rand Powder Company, and 
 used with their magneto machines. These fuses have 
 become noted for their surety, regularity, and perfect 
 safety. They cannot be fired by a spark or by the 
 effects of free electricity, but need a current of suffi- 
 cient strength and persistence that in 
 its passage througli the circuit it shall 
 heal to redness a small bridge of fine 
 platinum wire in the body of the fuse. 
 The drawing shows, in section, one of 
 these fuses nearly of actual size. The 
 following are its parts : A, the shell, 
 of copper, having a corrugation, thrown 
 out from the inside, which holds the sul- 
 phur cement more firmly in place. B, 
 chamber containing the charge of ex- 
 plosive, composed mainly of fulminate 
 of mercury — very powerful. C. the fuse 
 wires, of copper, entering the shell, 
 having a covering which is a partial 
 insulator sufficient for all ordinary pur- 
 poses. D, the bare ends of the copper 
 fuse wires, projecting above the sul- 
 phur cement and into the charge. E, 
 the small platinum wire, or bridge, sol- 
 dered to and connecting the two ends 
 of the fuse wires : this is heated to red- 
 ness or combustion by the passage of 
 the electric current. F, the sulphur 
 cement holding the fuse wires firmly in 
 place. These fuses are of cotton-covered 
 wires; the nicety of insulation by gutta 
 percha not being needed for general 
 work, but only where blasting is to be 
 done in deep water, and not then unless 
 several fuses are to be fired simultane- 
 ously through a great length of sub- 
 merged wire. 
 
 In March, 1880, these fuses were sub- 
 mitted to a rigid and careful testiug at 
 Willet's Point, N. Y . , and were found to be remark- 
 ably imiform both in resistance and in the current re- 
 quired to explode them. The blasting machine with 
 which tliey are intended to be used is a small n^.ag- 
 neto-electric instrument,weighing only about sixteen 
 pounds, and occupying considerably less than oiie- 
 lialf of a cubic foot of space. The capacity of this 
 machine is for about twelve or fifteen holes, though 
 under entirely favorable circumstances many more 
 can be fired. As to durability, the construction is 
 such that one should last as long as a clock. No un- 
 certainty exists. In the deep mining of the Terri- 
 tories, especially in Colorado, many of them have 
 been used in very wet shafts, and have been found 
 invaluable. The patent self-discharging arrange- 
 ment, a remarkable invention, has made them far 
 superior, for practical use, to any instrument ever 
 made. See JUa«ting. 
 
 PLATOON. —A subdivision of a company. This 
 term (probably from the French plMim) was for- 
 merly used to designate a body of troops who fired 
 together. A battalion was commonly divided into 
 10 platoons, and each compau)- into 2 platoons, the 
 platoon thus corresponding to the present subdivi- 
 sion. The word is olisolete in this its original sense; 
 but it survives in the expression "platoon exercise," 
 which is the course of motions in connection with 
 handling, loading, and firmg the musket or rifle. 
 PLEA^— A technical term in law. In England it
 
 PLOUBEE. 
 
 54?, 
 
 PLTnHACHEE PEBCUSSION FUSE. 
 
 Imd II vfry rostrirlcd mciinin;;, brinj; fonlim-d tollic 
 nk'iidinf; iif a dcfciidiiiil Id lui iiction iil ciiiiiiiioii law. 
 Now ill all actions in the lli^li Court it is called the 
 "Statcimiil of Defense." In Serjtiand it is not used 
 in the same Hens(^ but denotes the short lei;al ;;roiind 
 on vvhieli a |)arty . whether pursuer or defender, bases 
 luK case or pleadinij. Hence the pleas in law are 
 only short jiropo^iilions of law. i'li-as are subdivided 
 aecordinj; to their subject-niatler, into pleas dilalory 
 and pereniptory, pleas of abatement, pleas to the 
 jurisdic^tion. I'leas in bar are the same as peremp- 
 tory ])leas; but in criminal cases in Knglaml, special 
 picas in bar are pleas statins; some ground for not 
 proeeedini; with lh<^ indictment, such as a plea of 
 formal ac(iuittal or aulrefois acquit; or of conviction, 
 or autrefois convict; or a jilea of pardon. In Scot- 
 land a "Plea of r'aiiel" means a plea of fj;uilly or not 
 guilty. "Picas of the Crown" was an expression 
 anciently used to denote the divisions of criminal 
 offenses generally, as in the well-known work called 
 Pleanof the Crmnn, by Sir Matthew Hale, and other 
 writers. The phrase was so used because the 
 Sovereign was supi)osed in law to be the person in- 
 jured by every wrong done to the conimunily, and 
 therefore was the i)rosecutor for every such oilense. 
 
 FLOMBEE. — An ancient war-club, whose liead was 
 loadi-il with lead. 
 
 PLONGEE. — In artillery and fortification, a slope 
 toward the front. Thus, in speaking of the course 
 of a shell through the air. its plongee is from the 
 point of greatest altitude to tl:e point at which it 
 strikes the earth. So, in fortification, the plongee is 
 the top of tin: parapet sloping gently toward the 
 front. Tills slope is ordinarily 1 in G; but a devia- 
 
 f right companlcB ploy In front, 
 
 In ploying on an J dress to lift. 
 interior company, if I left companies ploy in front, 
 I (IreH.s to rifj/it. 
 
 In ployments <« or on the right or left, the com- 
 panies clear lh(r columns bv ^iO yards before forming 
 lini' 
 
 PLUMACHER PERCUSSION-FUSE.— This fuse con- 
 sists of a lube, the iutirjor <i{ which has three 
 peculiar-shaped communicating chambers of difTer- 
 ent sizes, u screw cap, a Hcrew-l)ottotn, a winged 
 needle-discharging plunger in the upper chamber, 
 and a chargerl plunger in the lower chamber, the 
 two plungers being kept apart by the thiril smaller 
 or intervi'uing chamber, as will be shown by refer- 
 ence to the drawing. Fig. 1 is a vertical section of 
 the charged fuse in repose, top end up. Fig. 2 is a 
 vertical section of the charged fuse at the point of 
 striking, after having been discharged from the gun, 
 top entl down. Fig. 3 :s a vertical section of the 
 empty fuse-case. In external appearance the fuse- 
 tube, A, is an ordinary cylinder, having a screw- 
 thread, t, cut to a proper depth at one end on the 
 periphery of the projectile. It is made of the size 
 usual for percussion-fuses, so that it may be used 
 in any paltern of elongated shell. The cavity of 
 this cylinder is tapped at both top and bottom at 
 V v', and is provided with a screw-cap, D, anil a 
 screw-bottom, E. and the interior is divided, by 
 abutting shoulders, '> ", into three different-sized 
 chambers, /', g. and fi, in which the sliding plungers 
 ojierate. The screw-cap, D, has a groove, r, that it 
 may be handled by a serew-driver. and an indent, «, 
 on the lower side, to admit the point of a needle, 
 
 ii e' w 
 
 u e It 
 
 a. J, a. 
 
 V\'i. i 
 
 tion is permissible of from 1 in 9 to 1 in -t; the sharp- 
 er the slope, however, the more liable is the crest of 
 the parapet to be destroyed by an enemy's fire. 
 Moreover, as flat a plongee as possible is desirable, 
 that sandbags may, when required, be laid upon it 
 to form cover for riflemen. 
 
 PLOUGH. — A wooden wedge ,or a shoe, shod with 
 leather. It is attached to a gunpo\v<ler incorporating 
 mill, for confining the charge under the patli of the 
 runner. There are two attached to each pair of run- 
 ners. 
 
 PLOYMENTS.— A general term for all tactical 
 movements by which column is formed from line up- 
 on a designated subdivision. The following points 
 are general: 
 
 If right is to be in front, heads of companies in- 
 cline to the right. 
 
 If Ujt is to be in front, heads of companies incline 
 to the'/</<. 
 
 Always wheel by fours away from the file-closers. 
 
 In all ployments (except to or on the right or left) 
 the designated company, unless it is to be the rear 
 company of the dose column, moves forward — 19 
 yards, if from line, and 1-5 yards, if from column. 
 
 In ploying on a flank, or leading eompanj-, dress 
 on side which company enters the column. 
 
 should it be deemed necessary to reverse the dis- 
 charge-plunger wlien shipping the projectile. The 
 screw-bottom, E, has keyholes, (/ u. by which it is 
 screwed, etc., and an escape-hole, e' , through its 
 axis, to permit the passage of tire into the magazine 
 of the shell. Thedischarging-plunger, B, is a cone- 
 crowned piece of metal, smaller in diameter than 
 either of the chambers, with a tapped hole, c, in the 
 ape.x. into which a pointed steel needle is screwed, 
 holding in place by a shoulder on the needle a many- 
 pointed .steel spring, k. The steel spring, k, is just 
 sufficiently stiff to hold the plimger in place and to 
 prevent it from being forced into the center or 
 chamber, g, by any power less than the impact pro- 
 duced by the discharge of the projectile from the 
 gun. The plunger is contained, needle-point down, 
 in the chamber, /. but by the impact produced by 
 the discharge of the gun it is thrown forward and 
 secured by the flaring springs in the chamber, g. 
 The sliding plunger, C, incased in the chamber, n. 
 larger and lieavitrthan the plunger, B, is of cylind- 
 rical shape — a body of metal with a cone-shaped 
 crown, having through its a.xis a hole, e. in which 
 is secured by a drop of varnish or other suitable 
 material, the fulminating powder or pill. Through 
 this hole also passes the fire into the magazine of
 
 PLUMES. 
 
 544 
 
 PNEUMATIC BUFFER. 
 
 the shell Extra security in transportation may be 
 obtained by unscrewing the cap, D, and taking out 
 and reversing the neei lie-plunger, B, securing the 
 point of the needle in the. indent in the lower side 
 of the cap. When tired, the impact produced upon 
 the projectile by discharging the gun from which it 
 was thrown forces the pluuger, B. from its normal 
 position into the center chamber, (/, where it is held, 
 at the bottom, by the narrow entrance to the lower 
 chamber, and from the top bj' the ends of the many- 
 pointed spring coming in contact with projecting 
 shoulder, o o, dividing chamber, /, from g, the point 
 of the needle protruding into the larger chamber, h. 
 Then, by the check on fhe projectile when striking, 
 the plunger, C, is thrown violently forward on to 
 the plunger, B, the point of the utedle entering and 
 discharging the pill or fulminaling-powder, thereby 
 exploding the shell. See Fuse. 
 
 PLUMES.— Large and handsome feathers knots of 
 buffalo-hair, etc., worn as ornaments on helmets, 
 chapeaux, military hats, etc. In the United States, 
 the General-in-Chief wears three black ostrich feath- 
 ers. All other general officers, officers of the General 
 Staff and Staff Corps, except the Signal Corps, wear 
 two black ostrich feathers. See Helmet. 
 
 PLUMMET. — S. lead or iron weight suspended by 
 a string, used by artificers to sound the depth of 
 water, or to regulate the perpendicular direction of 
 any buijding. Pendulums, called also plummets, 
 which vibrate the required times of march in a min- 
 ute, are of great utility. The different lengths of 
 these plummets are as follows: For common time, 
 90 steps in a minute, 17.37 inches ; quick time, 110 
 steps in a minute, 11.6 inches; double time, 165 
 steps in a minute, .5.17 inches. 
 
 The plane of sight is established by plummets ; 
 one suspended in front and another in the rear of the 
 mortar. A convenient method of suspending the 
 plummets is by means of trestles, made light and 
 easy to handle. The one in rear of the mortar should 
 be about six feet high, to permit the gunner to sight 
 without stooping. The one in front being on the par- 
 
 apet, need not be more than eighteen inches high. 
 The}- should have their upper edges scored with 
 fine saw-cuts, close together, to secure the plummets 
 when adjusted in position. The plummet-eord should 
 be of fine thread or silk, and if affected by wind when 
 suspended, the bob should swing in a bucket of 
 water. A third trestle and plummet is required tem- 
 porarily for placing the first two in position. To es- 
 tablish tlie plummets in position, the Instructor com- 
 mands : 1, Place the plummets. — The gunner, as- 
 sisted by No. 2, places a trestle upon the parapet near 
 the interior crest, and susjiends from it a plummet 
 ill such jiositicm that it will be appro.viinately in the 
 line passing through the center of the platfdrm and 
 the object to be fired at. No. ;i brings up another 
 trestle, which tlie gunner causes iiim to place a few 
 feet in advance of the first, and in line with it and 
 the object; sighting by the plummet first establish- 
 ed, he cau.ses tlie second plummet to be accurately 
 adjusted on the line to the object; then, going to the 
 front pluiiunet ;uid sighting back, he causes. No. 4 
 to jilacc in jiiisiticju the trestle in rear of the mortiir. 
 and suspeiiil from it the plummet, being careful to 
 have it in exact line with the two on the parapet. 
 The front trestle is then removed by No. 3. The tres- 
 tle in rear of the mortar should be about three yards 
 
 from the platform. Should the fire from the enemy 
 endanger the plummet on the parapet, a priming- 
 wire may be stuck there in itsplace to murk tlie line. 
 When, owing to the interposition of an intermediate 
 obstacle, the object to be tired at cannot be seenfrom 
 the mortar, a point must be interpolated on the re- 
 quired line in such position that it can be seen from 
 the mortar. This is most readily effected by using 
 the Paddock interpolater. See Bub, Mortar ,&n(!L Pad. 
 (liii'k Interpolater. 
 
 PLUNDEE. —That which is taken from an enemy 
 by pillage or open force. In the United States the 
 Articles of AVar declare that every officer or soldier, 
 who shall quit his post or colors to plunder and pil- 
 lage, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as 
 may be ordered by a General Court-Martial. 
 
 PLUNGER. — Aformof strikerused in some breech- 
 loadius fire-arms. See Firing-pin. 
 
 PLUNGING FIRE.— When a battery is raised con- 
 siderably above the object, so that the shot impinges 
 at a great angle, and is buried without grazing, the 
 fire is termed " Plunging Fire."* 
 
 PLUNGING RICOCHET.— The description of rim- 
 chet fire, when the angle of fall is comprised between 
 6'^ and 10". In this fire, the ball is given a small 
 velocitv, and the curve described is short and high. 
 
 PLUTEUS.— A kind of wicker helmet covered with 
 raw ox-hide, worn by the ancient Greeks when 
 engaged in sapping walls. Others were made of 
 hurdles, covered in the same way, running upon 
 three wheels, and affording cover to 7 or 8 miners. 
 
 PLUVIOMETER.— An instrument to measure the 
 quantity of rain that falls. It usually consists of a 
 metal funnel from .5 to 7 inches in diameter, the rain 
 being collected in a glass bottle. This bottle should 
 be placed in a small stand near the surface of the 
 
 ground, to protect the bottle from the action of the 
 sun. The amount of rain fallen in a given time is 
 measured in a graduated glass-jar, one-tenth the area 
 of the funnel, and so divided that every inch in depth 
 of the tube shall indicate j'j, inchfalling in the funnel. 
 Tlie ainoiint of rain which has fallen can be meas- 
 ured by such an instrument to suVoP'*'''' ^^ ''■^ inch, 
 or even less. 
 
 Another kind of rain-gauge may also be adopted. 
 It consists of a cylinder of copper or other metal, 
 from 5 to 7 inches in diameter, and 30 inches long. 
 A float, just so much smaller as to allow it to rise 
 freely, is placed within the cylinder, and to the cen- 
 ter of the llo;it ;in upright staff is attached, marked 
 in inches and tenths of an inch, wliicli, rising through 
 a hole in the bottom of the funiul, indicates the 
 depth of rain received into the guage. The drawing 
 shows this inslrumenl as employed in the United 
 States SiLcnal Service. See liain-f/iinge. 
 
 PNEUMATIC BUFFER.— A device for checking re-
 
 PNEUMATIC DISPATCH. 
 
 545 
 
 PNEUMATIC DISPATCH. 
 
 coil tliroiigh tlio agency of ntmo'tplicric nir, 
 present, only the l.^-ineli frun is lliiis iiroviiled. Be- 
 tween llie front ends of llie eli:is-i"-iiii|s ari' iittiielied 
 two eust-iron cylinders eiieli 110 inelies Ion;;, with 
 III) interior diiinieter of 14.2"! inelies. The ends of 
 the evlinders iire closed with tiirht-littini; heads se 
 
 At I his speciiliitionH were called to mind in later years, 
 iind fed to the estnl)lishinent of ArMOKMiKitic Kail- 
 WAYH. In IHtil was aijiioiineed a I'm innalli; Diiipnlfh 
 project, based on a ri'eonsideration of the eanses of 
 failiin^ in the earlier sehenies. The conveyance of 
 passenirers and of Imlky j;oods was not here contetn- 
 
 ciired with screw bolts. A (liston works in each I plated: parcels and niail-baKS were the articles held 
 cylinder. The rods of the pistons jiass out lliroii<;h chi<-l!y in vi(rw. To lest the theory, a quarter of a 
 tile rear cylinder heads and are attaelied. by nuts, mile of iron tube was ixperiinentally laid down near 
 to a heavy tninsoin on the rear end of the tijp-ear- Hallersea, with a very fair average of uradients and 
 riaue. Tlie cylinders have Die same in<-lination as Cnrves purposely g.ven to it. The tube was about 
 the chassis-rail i, and are secured to the latter by DO inches in diameter: and it was found easy to pro- 
 three cylinder transoms. When tiie piece recoils the ' pel a train through the lube consisting of two iron- 
 piston-rod is withdrawn, and the air contained in carriagesof Tewi. eaf:h, at a rate of SOniiles an hour, 
 the cylinder compressed between the piston and the i After many financial discouragements, a I'nenmatic 
 rear fiead of the cylinder. A small hole in the front j D'upalch ('iniiiiany obtained capital in 1802, and be- 
 head admits air tii supply the vacinim in front of the i gan operations in IHdIi. The expr-rimental tube was 
 piston. The air in rear "of tile piston thus forms an I removed to London, and laid down beneath tlie 
 elastic cushion, olTering but slight resis!;ince to the : roadway of Seymour Street, Kiiston Srpiare— a dis- 
 tirst, movement of recoil, but gradually increasing in j tanee of one-third of a mile. Mail-bags being suc- 
 cessfully transmitted in this way, the Company corn- 
 
 resisting force as the carriage moves back, until 
 linally ilie force of recoil is overcome and the top- 
 carriage is brought to a state of rest. The shock of 
 recoil is to a great extent absorbed without sudden 
 strain to the carriage. The top-carriage must be 
 out tif (/ear whenever the piece is discharged: it then 
 niovi's on the chassis with slidingfriclion. This, to- 
 gether with the inclination of the chassis-rails, assists 
 in cheeking the recoil. When the carriage isingood 
 running order, it generally runs forward a short dis- 
 t;ince liy the reaction of the compressed air after re- 
 coil. To run the piece in hatUry.Ww top-carriage 
 is thrown into gear; it then moves forward, the air 
 is compressed in front of the pistons, and. escaping 
 gradually through lh<' small holes in tliehe:ids(>f the 
 cylinders, allows the carriage to move forward with 
 a gentle motion. The weiglit of the air-cvlinders 
 with attachments is about oOOO pouuils. See lHydraii- 
 lir li'ifftr. 
 
 PNEUMATIC DISPATCH.— This name is given to a 
 mode of sending parcels, mail-bags, or telegram pa- 
 
 HBiliiaJllkdESilliilia 
 
 I'-i.;. 1. 
 
 pers through a tube by atmospheric pressure, or by a 
 partial vacuum. Earl_v in the present century, jlr. 
 Medhurst conceived the idea of some such contriv- 
 ance, lie proposed to construct air-tight tunnels, 
 with carriages moving through them on rails; and 
 these carriages were to be propelled by compressed 
 
 menced in 1H(!4 the construction of a tube ona larg- 
 er scale, and this has since been completed. The 
 tube has been laid down from Euston Square to St. 
 >Iartin's-le-(!rand. by way of Tottenham Court Road, 
 Holborn, and Newgate Street — over a distance of 2y 
 miles The tube is of large size, nearly 4J feet in 
 diameter, laid down at as small a depth fieneath the 
 carriage-way of the several streets as the water and 
 gas pipes will permit. It is chiefly of cast-iron: but 
 some portions on a sharp curve are of brick. There 
 is a large engine-house on the south side of Holborn, 
 near Lmcolu's Inn Fields, to sui)ply all the power 
 for working the whole tube in both directions. li:ire- 
 lied air in one-half of the tube draws a train of 
 iron carriages, laden with parcels and mail-bags, 
 from Euston Station to Holborn; and compressed 
 air drives them through the other length of I ube from 
 Holborn to the General Post-Ofliee— there being a 
 suction in the one case and pressure in the other. 
 A reverse action brings trains in the other oi- 
 rection. The necessary amount of rarefac- 
 tion in the one case, and of compression in the 
 other was determined by experiment; but 
 both are produced by means of a revolv- 
 ing fan of peculiar construction and large 
 iliiiuiisions worked by a powerful steam-en- 
 gine at the Holborn Station. If this mode of 
 transmission were to come into general use, 
 tlicre would be great saving of time in the 
 ill livery of letter.s ami parcels, and a material 
 li sseniug of the number of parcels and mail- 
 \ alls and carts in the overcrowded streets of 
 I ities. It is to be regretted that a work so 
 Micessful ina scientific and engineering point 
 
 I view should still remain undeveloped in a 
 inmercial sense. The Postmaster General, 
 
 II Railway Companies, and the great Carri- 
 ii>, have made no practical working engage- 
 ments with thePneumatic Dispatch Company; 
 and this costly tube, with the engine-house in 
 Holborn, has now remained silent and unused 
 for several years. This of course has check- 
 ed any extension of the system into other 
 distric'ts. We cannot resist the conviction 
 that a better result will present itself sooner 
 or Inter. The problem of pii.i.ie)iger convey- 
 ance with a pneumatic tube was shown to 
 be practicable by Mr. Rammell, in an exper- 
 iment tried at the Crystal Palace in 18(54: but 
 nothing further has been done in the matter. 
 
 More success has attended the introduction of a 
 system for transmitting small rolls of paper through 
 tiibes of a few inches diameter, by pneumatic pres- 
 sure. Mr. Siemens introduced it at Berlin: it was 
 next tried with success at Paris; Mr. Latimer Clark 
 constructed similar apparatus in London : and the 
 
 air from behind, or else bv suction in virtue of a plan is now in regular use in the telegraph depart- 
 vacuum formed in front of them. Medhurst was ment of the new buildings connected with the Gen- 
 laughed at by his contemporaries as a visionary; but eral Post Office in St. Martin's-le-Grand, while :t 13
 
 PNEUMATIC DISPATCH. 
 
 546 
 
 PNEUMATIC DISPATCH. 
 
 also used in some of the chief provincial cities and 
 towns. In 1875 the number of tubes in London was 
 24, with an aggregate length of nearly 18 miles; 
 there were 4 tubes in Liverpool ; 3 in Dublin ; .5 in 
 Manchester: 3 in Birmingham: and 1 in Glasgow. 
 Small tubes, two or three inches in diameter, are ar- 
 ranged for the reception of telegraph forms or pa- 
 pers, made up into aroll, and put into a felt cylinder. 
 The purpose is to economize time and expense in 
 conducting the Government Postal Telegraph Inisi- 
 ness by blowing along the telegraph forms at a rate 
 
 of SOTiiles an hour, instead of sending them by street 
 conveyance. Two parallel tuljes have been laid 
 down "beneath the pavements of the streets from the 
 General Post Office to various parts of London, and 
 also in some of the large provincial cities and towns; 
 additions being made to tlie length of tube according 
 as the system liecomes practically developed. One 
 tube in eacli pair may be called the down line, the 
 other the iip ; the two are placed in connection at 
 each end, and one steam-engine work:? them both. 
 The felt cylinder very nearly fiUs up the tube, 
 
 Bift. 8.
 
 PNEUMATIC DRILL. 
 
 547 
 
 PNEUMATIC DRILL. 
 
 bill, still moves ciisily along it ; this movciiieiil is 
 bniiiiilit about cither by tlio fonimtioii of a par- 
 tiid vacuum in front of the cylinder, or byconiprcss- 
 jni; tile air behind it ; and tlio Hleam power is so a|). 
 plied as to ])rodiice either or but h of these two results, 
 acc<irdini; as convenience may sui;i;est. An inj^en- 
 ious plan isadopleil foraccoinmodaliin; one or more 
 iiilcrmediate ollices, just as local stations are ac- 
 CMinmodalei! between thi^ two termini of a railway. 
 The cylinder or m/vvV;- travels from end to end of 
 the tulic, unless a block or check action is puriiosely 
 put in force at an intermediate station; and the mode 
 of clfectini; this is one of the most beautiful of Mr. 
 Hienien's inventions relatini? to the subjecl. Two 
 pieces of l)ipe, the mv/cf/- and the trniismith r, are 
 mad(^ exactly alike, and are so jiivoted toijetlier that 
 cither may be adjusted into a cavity cut in the tube, 
 and made temporarily to form ])arl of it. The car- 
 rier, we will HU])pose, is intended to stop at the inter- 
 mediate stations, to admit of the removal of some 
 teleiiram pa]>ers and tluMntroduclion of others. A 
 click is heard, the carrier strikes ai^ainst an obstruc- 
 tion in the receiver; the cavity is opened; the ex- 
 chanu;e of pajiers is made; the carrier is re-intro- 
 duced, but into the transmitter instead of the re- 
 ceiver; the cavity is closed airain, and the carrier re- 
 aumes its journey. All this is the work of a few 
 seconds merely. If the intermediate station has 
 nothinu; to send and nothing to receive, the trans- 
 mitter alone is used, and tlie carrier travels on with- 
 out slop])iiig. The up-lulie and the down-tube have 
 each its apparatus of receiver and transmitter. The 
 felt cylinder and its contents being very light, a 
 slight rarefaction of the air in fnnit of it, orcon'leu- 
 sation of the air behind it, is suflicient to produce a 
 speed equal to twenty or thirty miles an hour. Prac- 
 tically, there is a cum nt of air maintained, circulat- 
 ing through the two tubes and their terminal connec- 
 tion^■.; wherever !i carrier is placed in this current it 
 is blown along, and there may be two or more car- 
 riers traveling at the same time. 
 
 We have recently examined, with considerable in- 
 terest, the pneumatic system of transmitting tele- 
 graphic messages between the operating and re- 
 ceiving rooms in the newly constructed building of 
 the Western Union Telegraph Company, in New 
 York. In such an immense edifice, comprising elev- 
 en stories, it would obviously involve great delay 
 to maintain the necessary communication liy means 
 of messenger boys, and consequently the apparatus 
 which we describe and illustrate herewith has been 
 introduced, with remarkably successful results. In 
 the large engraving, f'ig. 3, sections of several of the 
 stories are represented, showing the numerous tubes 
 througii which the necessary current of air which 
 propels the packages, are maintained. Those of 
 our readers who have had occasion to send a tele- 
 gram at the Central Otllce above named, may re- 
 member that, after they had delivered the writing 
 to the clerk, that functionary rolled the paper in a 
 little parcel and inserted it in a wood and leather 
 case, of the manner and form shown in the upper 
 portion of the illustration. Fig. 2. He then dropped 
 the case into an open tube, leading up through his 
 desk, at A, and perhaps announced that the packet ; 
 had reached the operating room, in the seventh 
 story, almost before tlie curious watcher of his pro- 
 ceedings had had time to draw a second breath. 
 The packet appeared to be sucked into the tube, and 
 so in fact it is, and in about two seconds it is drawn 
 up almost to the top of the great building. After 
 leaving the clerk's hand it passes down through the 
 wide curve in its conduit, at 15, and thence ascends 
 the straight portion of the same, nntilit jumps forth 
 from the end of the tube i none of the compart- 
 ments of the receptacle, C, in the operating room. 
 A section of a good portion of this receptacle is 
 also well represented in Fig. 1, in one compart- 
 ment of which a packet is seen emerging from its 
 tube. The compartments, C, are entirely cut off 
 
 from the nniin portion of the case, being constnict- 
 ed within the same, so that above them and extend- 
 ing over all is a large emiMy cliamlx-r, K. With tlie 
 latter, however, each compartment commiinicaleB 
 by an orilice, F. wliicli is provided witli a cover 
 openid or closed at pleasure, thus, as will be seen 
 further on, tlirowingaiiy tube into or out of action, 
 or moderating the air current therein as is desired. 
 In the center of tlie receptacle and opening into 
 the upper chamber, E, is a large tube, D. which ex- 
 tends down beside the pipes, IJ, and connects with 
 a blower in the cellar. It is a positive blast rotary 
 blower, invented and constructed by the well known 
 firm of I'. II. & F. M. Koots, of Connersville, Ind. 
 The machine has long l)een in use in iron founderies, 
 machine and blacksmith shops, and other estalilish- 
 nients, and, besides, has met with extensive employ- 
 ment for ventilating purposes in buildings, ships, 
 mines, and other localities. It will be understood 
 that, in the present instance, the blower forces the 
 air out beneath, so that the current is drawn down 
 the tube, l>. through the chamber, E, in the recepta- 
 cle above, thence through the oritices, F, and com- 
 partments, C, and tinally uj) through the pipes, B. 
 Thus used as an exhauster, and at the slow speed of 
 120 revolutions per minute, it draws down five cubic 
 feet of air per revolution, or 3ii,000 cubic feet per 
 hour, thus propelling the packets, and at the same 
 time (by removing the last mentioned aggregate 
 quantity of air from the atmospheres of the rooms 
 with wiiicli the pijie orifices communicate; serving 
 as an excellent and ellicient ventilating apparatus. 
 
 After a packet arrives in the upper story, the per- 
 son stationed at the receiitacle lifts a little window 
 in the compartment which it enters, takes out the 
 case, extracts the paper therefrom, and passes the 
 message at once to the projier operator, who im- 
 mediately telegraphs its contents to their destination. 
 The case" is then returned to the first story by drop- 
 ping it into the open tubes, (i, through wfiich it falls 
 by its own gravity, landing in the box, II, whence it 
 is again taken out to be filled and started liack on its 
 journey. The general adojition of this system by all 
 Military Headquarters, .allowing that it will operate 
 througii tubes of half a mile length as effectively as 
 it does at the AVestern Union Office, would expedite 
 the collection and distribution of otticial matter, and 
 greatly promote the public service and convenience. 
 
 PNEUMATIC DRILL. — A drilling-machine operated 
 by conipresseed air admittted alternately above and 
 below a piston connected with gear-wheel.s which 
 rotate the drill. The air-reservoir and force-pump 
 may be placed at any required distance from the cyl- 
 inder, and connccte"d therewith by a flexible pipe. 
 The introduction of the first Burleigh drill into the 
 Iloosac Tunnel ten years ago marked a new era, not 
 only in that great eiigineering enterprise, but in the 
 history of rock work througliout the world. Up to 
 that diite many bad been the attempts to jiroduce a ma- 
 chine that would supersede the severe manual labor 
 of the sledge and hand drill, but all proved failures. 
 Eventually^Mr. Burleigh took up thematter and solv- 
 ed the problem bv producing the machine which 
 liears his name, and which is a monument to his gen- 
 ius. The main elements of the drill, shown in the 
 drawing, are the cage, the cyliniTer, and the piston. 
 The cage is merely a trough, with ways on either 
 side, in which the cvlinder, by means of a feed-screw 
 and an automatic feed-lever", is moved forward as 
 the drill cuts away the rock. The piston moves back 
 and forth in the cylinder, propelled and operated 
 either by steam or compressed air, like the piston of 
 an ordinary steam-engine. The drill point is attached 
 to the end"of the piston, which is a solid bar of steel. 
 The piston is rotated as it moves back and forth by 
 ingenious and simple mechanism. The forward mo- 
 tion of the cylinder in the trough is regulated by an 
 automatic feed as the rock is cut away, the advance 
 being more or less rapid, as by the variation in the 
 nature of the rock, the cutting i's fast or slow. It will
 
 PNEUMATIC GUN-CARKIAGE. 
 
 548 
 
 PNEUMATIC GUN CAERIAGE. 
 
 thus be seen that the drill-point and solid steel piston 
 alone receive the shock of the blow : and it also 
 should be stated, that the piston-rod. arranged witli 
 a double annular cam and spiral grooves, in its move- 
 ments performs three important functions. First. 
 The movement of the valve admitting the steam or 
 compressed air to the cylinder. Second. By the op- 
 eration of the annular cam acting upon the feeding 
 device, the cylinder is moved forward (as the rock 
 is penetrated) in the cage or slide. Third. By the 
 spiral grooves and a spline in the ratchet, the piston 
 bar is automatically rotated, a partial revoliuion tak- 
 ing place at eacli upward movement of the piston. 
 
 the ratchet remaining perfectly stationary while the 
 rotating movement occurs, and moving only as the 
 piston again descends. When the cylinder has been 
 fed forward the entire length of the feed-screw, it 
 may be run back, and a longer drill-point inserted in 
 the end of the piston. 
 
 By an ingeuioius peculiarity in the form of the cut- 
 ting-edge of the drill-point, perfectly round holes are 
 ensured ; thus giving a greater area to the hole, and 
 a larger percentage of the powiler near its bottom. 
 The regular rotation of the drill insures tlu' deliverv 
 of each blowatthe point of greatest etticiencj' ; eacii 
 wing of the drilI-i)oint striking the rock at a point 
 just far enougli in advance of the cut of the preced- 
 ing blow to chip away the rock lying between. The 
 3'ielding of the chip saves the edge of the drill-point; 
 and thus the advance of the drill-point in the rock, 
 without sharpening, is te/i timex r/mitjr than is pos- 
 sible in hand-drilling, where the hole is formed by 
 the crushing and |)ulverisiug of the rock. The drili- 
 ing-inaehine is attac'hed to a clamp by means of a 
 circular plate, with a beveled edge cast ujion the 
 
 botti>m of the cage near its center. This plate tit s 
 a corresponding cavity in one side of the clamp, and 
 is held t here tirmly in any required position bj- the 
 tightening of screws. The clamp is clasped about a 
 bar of iron to which it may be quite tightly held by 
 screws. 
 
 By the motions — upon one plane, of the plate in 
 its cavity, and upon anotlier. at aright angle to the 
 first, of the clamp upon the bar, and the sUding end- 
 wi.se of the clamp upon the bar — it will be seen at 
 once tliat any position and direction of the drill is 
 attainable. It only remains to securely attach the 
 liar, of any reasonable length, to a convenient car- 
 riage or suitable frame, and the machinery is ready 
 for operation. The.se machines are applicable to all 
 kinds of rock work, whether in mining, quarrving, 
 cutting, tunneling, or in sub-marine drilling. They 
 combine simplicity, strength, lightnessand compact- 
 ness, are easily handled, and require but few re- 
 pairs. With them, holes may be drilled from three- 
 ' fourths of an inch to five inches diameter, and to a 
 depth not exceeding thirty to thirty-five feet, at the 
 rate of from two to ten inches per minute, according 
 to the nature of the rock. They are driven by either 
 steam or compressed air as a motor, and, under a 
 pressure of fift}- pounds to the inch, work at two 
 hundred to three hundred blows per minute, accord- 
 ing to the size of the machine. 
 
 PNEUMATIC GUN-CARKIAGE.— Facility of man- 
 euver is of the greatest importance, after strength 
 and stability, in a gun-carriage, and the training and 
 running of heavy carriages,and the elevating and de- 
 pressing of the gun, are now generally accomplished 
 by means of toothed-gear. Modern guns should 
 be trained very quickly and smoothly, and facility 
 in that respect is of inestimable advantage in com- 
 bat, hence a simple carriage that will return a B. L. 
 gun, automatically to battery after each discharge 
 is greatly to be desired. 
 
 Simplicity of construction also is a very important 
 quality in a gun-carriage for sea-service, where the 
 liabilitj' to rust, deterioration and damage from shot 
 is very great, and the facilities for repair limited. 
 Unfortunately, the modern carriages are entirely too 
 elaborate in construction, and the aim in the design 
 should be always to make the working parts as ac- 
 cessible as possible, and as simple as is consistent 
 with the object in view. 
 
 The endurance of a carriage is greatly enhanced 
 by a real judicious application of fhe recoil check. 
 Though it is desirable, on general principles, to allow 
 the carriage free recoil, it is not usually possible 
 to do so in practice, and, in fact, since the introduc- 
 tion of B. L. cannon, it has been an object to limit 
 t he recoil as much as possible, with a view to return 
 the gun quickly to battery. Any device that will 
 give an increasing check is much the easier on the 
 carriage. 
 
 A comparison of the foregoing will demonstrate 
 the advantages of the pneumatic carriage in rapid- 
 ity of mancuver.simplicity of construction, certainty 
 of action in any climate, protection of the vital parts, 
 and endurance. The use of water as a recoil check 
 makes a summer gun-carriage ; other Huids are liable 
 to cake or clog the cylinders at an important moment. 
 Any misadjustmenl or accident to the valves of any 
 hydraulic check would cause an instant splitting of 
 the cylinders, thereby disabling the gun — an impos- 
 sible occurrence when using an elastic gas. 
 
 .Vs a familiar exampU' of the application of pneu- 
 matic force, th'i Westinghouse air-brake may be here 
 cited. The introduction of lliis appliance was baf- 
 fied for si.\ years by the adver.se opinion of eminent 
 ■Engineers as to its 'x>rM-\ ical utility. It iK'ver freezes 
 clogs or splits the pipes, and one man controls witli 
 ea.se a gri'at train of cars. In this coimeelion it may 
 be remarked that the use of band-gearing in modern 
 gim-carriages is comparable to the old style "brakes" 
 on a railway train. • Tlie operating of the gun-car- 
 riages, either in the forts or on ships, by means of com-
 
 PNEUMATIC GUN CARRIAGE. 
 
 549 
 
 PNEUMATIC GUN CARRIAGE.
 
 P3CKET LEDGER. 
 
 550 
 
 POCKET SOLAR COMPASS. 
 
 pressed air supplied to tlie working parts from the 
 pipe led to the breast of the carriags, and controlled 
 b}' simple levers, for rapid training, for rapidly rais- 
 ing or lowering the gun to aim. for checking the re- 
 coil without shock, and for running in and out when 
 desired, is absolutely practical, certain in its action, 
 and the least liable to accident. 
 
 A section of the Westinghouse air-pump is shown 
 in the drawing. The parts are numbered as follows: 
 Steam-cj'linder Head (with reversing-cylinder, pis- 
 ton, and" valve bushes), 2; Steam-cylinder (with the 
 main valve and bushes,) 3: Center-piece, 4: Air- 
 cylinder (with lower discharging-valve), 5; Steam- 
 piston and Rod. 7; Air-piston, SfJIain Piston PacK- 
 ing-ring, 9; theReversimr-valve, the Reversins-valve 
 Plate, the Plate Bolt and Stim, 13, 10, 11, 12, Mam 
 Steam-valve, 14 ; Packmg-rings for the Upper and 
 Lower Piston-valves, 15, 16; the Upper and Lower 
 Main Steam-valve Bushes, 17, 18 ; Reversing-cyl- 
 inder and Cap, 19, 33; Reversing-piston and Packing- 
 ring, 20, 21: Reversing-valve Bush and Cap, 23, 24; 
 Piston-rod Nut, 35; Discharge-valve Stop-bolt, 2<'>; 
 Piston-packing Kut and Gland, 37, 38; Right and 
 Left Chamber Caps, 29, 30; Upper Discharge-valve 
 and Seat, 32, 31 ; Receiving-valve, 34; Half-inch 
 Union, 35; Three-quarter-incli Union, 36; One-inch 
 Union, 37; Top and Bottom Steam-cylinder Gaskets, 
 40, 41; Top Air-cylinder Gasket, 43. The steam from 
 the boiler enters the top c.ylinder between two pis- 
 tons forming the main valve, 14. The upper piston 
 being of greater diameter than the lower, the ten- 
 dency of the pressure is to raise the valve, unless it 
 is held down by the pressure of a third piston. 30, of 
 still greater diameter, working in a cylinder directly 
 above the main valve. 
 
 The pressure on this third piston is regulated by 
 the small slide-valve, 13, working in the central 
 chamber on the top head. This valve receives its 
 motions from a rod, 13, extending into the hollow 
 piston, which, as shown in the drawing, has a knob 
 at its lower end and a shoulder just below the top 
 head. This valve chamber in the top head, by a 
 suitable steam-port, is constantly in communication 
 with the steam space between the two pistons of the 
 main valve. The steam .acting on the third piston, 
 80. and holding the main valve down, enters below 
 the main piston; as the main piston approaches the 
 upper head, the reversing-valve rod, 13, and its 
 valve, 13, are raised until the slide-valve exhausts 
 the steam from the space above the third or revers- 
 ing piston, when the main valve is raised by the 
 steam pressure on the greater area of its upper pis- 
 on, which movement of the main valve admits the 
 steam to the upper end of the main cylimler. 
 
 Wlien the main valve is moved up to admit steam 
 to tlie upper end of the cylinder, it opens an exliaust- 
 port at the lower end, just below the lower steam- 
 port, which latter is closed by the lower piston of 
 the main valve; and when the main piston is on its 
 upward stroke, the upper exhaust-port is similarly 
 opened. The air-valves of the pump are similar to 
 those used in all pumps. The lift of a discharge 
 valve should not exceed one sixteenth of an inch. 
 Sec I'liirlitt <!Hii-r(i.rria{/e. 
 
 POCKET LEDGER.— A small account-book with 
 which a soldier in the British service is provided, 
 and in wliich is inserted the monthly settlement of 
 his accounts, having reference to his pay, the state 
 of his savings-l):ink account, date of enlistment, etc. 
 Commanding Otlicers are to see that these books are 
 kci)t with tlie utmost regularity, the officer com- 
 manding the company of the soldier being respon- 
 sible that the book is kept correctlv, his signature 
 being a voucher for the same. This book is familiar- 
 ly termed bv llie soldier his " Tomniv Atkins." 
 
 POCKET SOLAR COMPASS.— This instrument has a 
 needle '.'< inelies long, and a limb of IJ. indies diam- 
 eter, ilivided toli:iIf deirrees and reailing by its one 
 double vernier horizontal angles to single minutes. 
 The arrangement of the plates is similar to that of 
 
 the large solar corap?,ss, the under plate carrying the 
 sights revolving around the upper or compass-plate 
 to which are attached the solar apparatus, levels, etc.; 
 there is also a clamp with tangent-screw between the 
 two plates, and another to the whole instrument 
 about its spindle. The distance between the sights 
 is nearly 7 inches, the sights themselves are i\ inches 
 high, and have a slot and hair in half their heights ; 
 they are hinged so as to fold down in packing. The 
 compass-circle is arranged with pini(m and movable 
 part so as to set off the variation of the needle to five 
 minutes; the needle has a lifting-lever, as usual, by 
 which it is raised against the glass. The solar ap- 
 
 paratus IS attached to the flange of the upper plate, 
 and consists of the usual hour, latitude, and declina- 
 tiun area, marked respectively. A, C, and B, in the 
 drawing, with an arm, FF, to the last named, carry- 
 ing the solar lenses and lines as in the larger instru- 
 ments. The latitude and declination arcs are each 
 divided to half degrees, and read by verniers, the 
 latitude arc to five minutes, and the declination arc 
 to single minutes of a degree ; the hour arc is divid- 
 ed on its inner edge into hours and twelfths, or spaces 
 of five minutes each, the inde.x of the declination 
 arc above easily enabling one to read the time to 
 single minutes. 
 
 The hour arc is made movable on its supporting seg- 
 ment to either side, its outer edge being also divided 
 on the middle portion to spaces of five minutes of 
 time, and read by a vernier upon the segments to 
 single minutes; in this way the equntion nf time for 
 any given day is set off at once, and the time given 
 by the index of the hour arc thus made to agree with 
 mean time or that given by the ordinary clock. 
 
 The solar lenses and lines are placed as in the 
 larger instruments, the declination arc being also re- 
 versible, as the sun changes from north to south of 
 the equator. 
 
 When [lacked in the case the declination arc with 
 its arm is detached from the hour arc; and this itself, 
 together with the latitude arc, folds very closely to 
 the compass box. 
 
 The pocket solar is set up for use cither upon the 
 ball spindle, with stalT mountings, or upon a light tri- 
 pod like the other jiocket compasses, and very often 
 with small leveling-head with clamp and tangent 
 screws. 
 
 Sometimes a side telescope with enterpoise is sub- 
 stituted for tlie sight-vanes.
 
 POIMT. 
 
 551 
 
 FOIHTIBO. 
 
 When iiliout to use tlic instniincnt, it is Bct upon 
 its tripod orstiitl, mid citrcfiilly leveled; tlie <lecliiiii- 
 tinn of the sun for tliefjiven diiyiind hour isohliiined 
 from lh<' Kpheineris hiipiilii'd willi [hi* and other 
 Boliir iiislrunients, and set oil' upon its arc, and (he 
 liour ar<r is raised until its vernier marks the lati- 
 tude of the place upon the lalilude arc. The e(pia- 
 tion of liin(^ for the day is also set oil as before de- 
 seribed, the zero of the hour eirele IkmiilT moved to 
 the ri^ht wlu'ii th(^ equal ion is to be added, and to 
 the left when it is to be sublraeted from api)arent 
 time. The index of the deelination arc bein^ then 
 setlolhe proper division on the hour arc. and the 
 declination arm ilirected to the sun, the limb bein^ 
 also set at zero, and the .sun's inia;re l)rou;;ht be- 
 tween the hour lines of the silver plate by turning 
 the whole instrument upon its spindle, the sights 
 will indicate the Inn' iHcriiUiiii precisely as with the 
 larger s(;lar compass. The compass-circle being 
 now turned by the jiinion until the lu'cdle points to 
 zero, the needle also will beset to the true meridian, 
 and the variation of tlu^ needle can be read off upon 
 the outside divisions of the compass-lK),\. 
 
 The adjustments and the use of this solar an^ sub- 
 stanliidly I be same as those of the solar compass, and 
 its indications so accurate that after repealed trials 
 it will give the true nu-ridian within an error of less 
 than three inimites of a degree, which taken in con- 
 nection with the dellection of the magnetic needle 
 will indicate with certainty the presence and direc- 
 tion of veins of magnetic iron ore. 
 
 Indeed, we liave the assurance of competent Sur- 
 veyors that while it is much more portable it is also 
 very nearly or (piite as accurate in all its indications 
 as the large solar compass. Its weight, excluding 
 box .'ind tripod, is 4',' lbs. See Satar (^'om/jaxii. 
 POINT. — In Heraldry, a triangular figure issuing 
 from the dexter and sinister base of 
 the shield. It is common in French 
 and (ierman Ili'raldry, and occurs in 
 the shield of Hanover, which was a 
 part of the royal arms of Great Bri- 
 tain from the accession of George I. 
 till that of the iiresenl Sovereign. A 
 shield cliarged with a ]ioint is in her- 
 aldic drawing hardly distinguishable 
 from one parted per cheverou. See I'dinU. 
 
 POINT-BLANK.— With all small-arms, the second 
 point in wliich the natural line of sight (when hori- 
 zontal) cuts the trajectory. With artillery, it is tlie 
 point where the projectile tirst strikes the horizontal 
 plane on which the gun stands, the axis of the piece 
 being horizontal. 
 
 Usually, the object aimed at has a certain heiglit; 
 hence, it will not only be struck when at j>'iint-hlank, 
 but also when at points in rear or in front of the 
 point-blank where the vertical distances of the tra- 
 jectory from such points shall be equal to or less 
 tlian the height of the object. This distance between 
 these two points, known as the dangerous space, is 
 greater as the trajectory is Hattened or as the height 
 of the object is greater. 
 
 In the drawing, A F, is the line of tire; A' F P, is 
 the natural line of sight; and A" F P', is an artificial 
 
 Point. 
 
 line of sight. It will be seen thaj the object P P', 
 beyond the point-hlmik, is struck at the bottom, P'. 
 If it were at pi>int-lil-ink. it would be struck at P. 
 Were the object increased in height, above P, it 
 would also be struck when placed between point- 
 bUink and tlie piece. The sum of the distances in 
 front and rear of the point-blank, at which the ob- 
 ject could be struck at its bottom and top. is the dan- 
 gerous space. This permits us to make slight errors 
 
 in eslimafing distanceB; we can eitlier over or under 
 estinuite tliemso long as the errors do notexceed the 
 limits of till' dun'.'crous s|)ace. See Artijki'd Point- 
 hlonk. 
 
 POINT BLANK RANGE.— The distance from the 
 muzzle of the piece to that point in the projectile's 
 trajectory where it cuts the prolongation of the natural 
 line of sight, a second time, the natural line of sight 
 being horizontal. The; Hritish define jioiut-hlank 
 ruiKjr as, the distance from the muzzle to the firBt 
 L'raze when the axis of the piece is parallel to the 
 horizontal plane upon which the carriage stands ; but 
 this is really nothing more than the range due to the 
 aiiyU ofelmiti'ii equal to the angle subtended Ijy the 
 height of tlie gun from th<- point struck. See I'oint. 
 blank. 
 
 POINT BLANK SHOT.— The shot of a gun pointed 
 direcllv low.'ird tin' object to be hit. 
 
 POINT D'APPUI. -A fixed point of support in rear 
 of the operations of an army, or on its flanks, such 
 as a fortress or some convenient locality to resort 
 to in case of necessity. A I'oint d'Appuiia of great 
 importance in military tactics. Few battles have 
 I been fought without niiiking use of villages,hills.and 
 • even trees as J'^iuti d'Apjuii. In changes of front, 
 I one flank, or part <if the force, shoiihl be held se- 
 curely appuye<l. Artillery massed in batteries have 
 also serveil as I'nlaU (V A/ipni. as instanced at the 
 battles of liiprodino. Kamilies, Ilohenkirch, etc. 
 I POINTED STAKES.— A form of impediment used 
 I on the lierm, at the bottom of the ditch and beyond 
 I the counterscarp. They are placed about one foot 
 in the ground, and stand about one foot above it. 
 
 POINTING. — To ])oint or aim a fire-arm, is to give 
 it sucli diiection and elevation that the projectile 
 shall strike the object. To do this properly, it is 
 necessary to understand the relations which exist be- 
 tween the lineof sight, the line of fire, tlie trajectory, 
 etc. The line of mglit is the riglit line contain- 
 ing the guiding points of the sights. The sights 
 are two pieces, A audi?, on the upper surface of the 
 gun, the situation of which with regard to the axis 
 of the bore is known. The front sight is situated 
 near the muzzle, or on the riglit rimliase, and is gen- 
 erally lixed; the rear sight is placed near the breech, 
 and is movable in a vertical, and sometimes in a 
 horizontal direction. The natural line of sight is 
 the line of siglit nearest the axis of the piece; the 
 others are called artificial lines of sight. The lineof 
 fri'h the axis of the bore prolonged in tlie direction 
 of the muzzle, or C I). The angle of fire is the angle 
 incliide(l lielweenthe lineof tire and horizon; on ac- 
 count of the balloting of the projectile, the angle of 
 tire is not always equal to the angle of departure, or 
 projection. TJiis is evident. The angle of night is 
 the angle included between the line of sight and line 
 of fire: angles of siglit are divided into natural and 
 artificial angles of sight, corresponding to the natural 
 and artificial lines of sight which encUjse them. The 
 plane of fire is the vertical plane containing the line 
 of lire. The plane if siglit is the vertical plane con- 
 taining the line of sight. The jiointMank is the 
 point at which the line of sight intersects the tra- 
 jectory, or /'. Strictly speaking, the line of sight 
 " intersects tlie trajectory at two points. Cand 
 P; but, in practice, the latter point P is only- 
 considered. The distance, 13 P, is called 
 the point-blank distance. The natural pnnt. 
 blank corresponds to the natural line of sight : 
 all other point-blanks are called artificial pvint- 
 blanks. In speaking of the point-blank of a 
 piece, the natural line of sight is supposed to be 
 horizontal. In the Hritish service, the point-blank 
 distance is the distance at which the projectile strikes 
 the level ground on which the carriage stands, the 
 axis of the piece being horizontal. It is evident that 
 this detinitiou of point-blank distance conveys a bet- 
 ter idea of the power of tlie piece than the former, 
 wliich makes it depend on the form of the piece, as 
 well as on the charge. As the angle of sight .1 V C"
 
 POINTING. 
 
 552 
 
 FOINTIHO. 
 
 is increased, the point-blank distance is increased ; 
 as it is diniinislied, the intersections of the line of 
 sight and trajectorj' approach each other until they 
 unite, when the line of sight and trajectory are tan- 
 gent to each other; beyond this, the point-blank is I 
 imaginary. As the angle of tire increases, the force 
 of gravity acts more in opposition to the force of 
 projection, and the poiut-lilank distance is tlimin- 
 ished. until at 90'^ it becomes zero. Under an angle 
 of depression, the force of projection acts more j 
 nearly in the direction of gravity, and the point- , 
 blank distance is increased, becoming infinite when 
 the angle of depression is equal to 90^ minus the 
 
 of the plane of fire. As the lines of sight and fire 
 are parallel in their revolved position, tlie planes of 
 sisrht and tire must also be parallel. The angle COC 
 = BOB\ therefore CV = OC sin. BOH. It is 
 easily seen that with this arrangement of the front 
 sight, the error of pointing can never exceed the ra- 
 dius of the breech. By an inspection of the figure, 
 it will also be seen, that in the revolved position of 
 the line of sight, the elevation is diminished by a 
 small quantity, wliich is equal to the versed sine of 
 the arc CV . 
 
 If the natural line of sight be not parallel to the 
 a.\is of the piece, the planes of sight and lire inter- 
 
 X.. . 
 
 -T <^_ 
 
 
 -_^ 
 
 
 .—■ — ••" 
 
 /7 ^^.^ 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 ^=— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tvi. \. 
 
 
 
 
 angle of sight. In ordinary tiring, it is not considered 
 that the trajectory changes itsposition with refer- 
 ence to the line of sight and line of tire, for any 
 angles of elevation and depression, less than 1.5". 
 In aiming at an object, therefore, tlie anglf nf ele- 
 'catioii. of which is less than 1,5°, aim exactly as 
 though it were in the same horizontal plane with the 
 • piece. For the same piece, the point-blank distance 
 increases with the charge of powder: for the same 
 initial velocity, a large projectile has a greater point- 
 blank distance than a small one ; a solid shot than a 
 lioUow one ; an oblong projectile than a roiuid one ; 
 or, in other words, it varies with the value of c, 
 before referred to. Range is the distance at which 
 a projectile first strikes the ground on which the 
 carriage is situated ; extreme; range is tlie distance to 
 the point at which the projectile is brought to rest. 
 
 In pointing guns and howitzers under ordinar}- an- 
 gles of elevation, the piece is first directed toward 
 the object, and then elevated to suit the distance. 
 The accuracy of the aim depends — 1st. On the fact 
 that the object is situated in the plane of sight; 2d. 
 That the projectile moves in the plane of fire, and 
 that the planes of sight and fire coincide, or are par- 
 allel and near to each other ; and 3d. On the accura- 
 cy of tlie elevation. The first of these conditions de- 
 pends on the eye of tlie gunner, and the accuracy 
 and delicacy of the sights ; the errors under this head 
 are of but little practical importance. When the 
 trunnions of the piece are horizontal, and the sights 
 are properly placed on the surface of the piece, the 
 planes of sight and fire will coincide ; but when the 
 axis of the trunnions is inclined, and the natural line 
 
 
 k 
 
 f- 
 
 \-^' 
 
 / 
 
 1 
 
 \-^ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 :^ 
 
 -no 
 
 
 > 
 
 -^1 
 
 \z,^ 
 
 J 
 
 of sight is oblique to the axis of the bore, the planes 
 are neither parallel nor coincident, and the aim will 
 be incorrect. If the natural line of sight be made 
 parallel to the line of fire, by making the height of 
 the front sight equal to the ilispart of the piece, the 
 ])lanes of sight and tire will be jiarallel, and at a dis- 
 tance from each other equal to the radius of the 
 breech multiplied by the sine of the angle which the 
 axlctree makes with the horizon. To sliow this, let 
 the circle yl (J H I), in Fig. 2, represent the section 
 of the breech taken at right angles to the axis, and 
 C the Jirojection of the natural line of sight >ipon 
 this plane; let Ai K be the inclined position of the 
 axlctree, <ir trunnions, (" marks the revolved position 
 of the natural line of sight, and C D' the trace of llie 
 plane of sight, which is parallel to C D, the trace 
 
 sect at a short distance from the muzzle ; hence, it 
 follows, that as the object is situated in the plane of 
 sight, the projectile will deviate from the object to 
 the side on which the lower wheel is situated, and 
 at a distance from it, which is proportional to the 
 distance of the object from the piece ; to correct for 
 this source of error, the line of sight should be 
 pointed to the side of the higher wheel, and at a dis- 
 tance from the object, which is proportional to the 
 distance of the object from the piece. Siege and 
 sea-coast cannon are generally fired from fixed plat- 
 forms, which renders the axis of the trunnions hori- 
 zontal ; they are, therefore, not furnished with pen- 
 dulum sights. In case the axis of the trunnions is 
 not horizontal, and the piece has not a pendulum 
 hausse, the highest points of metal at the breech and 
 muzzle may be determined by the gunner's level and 
 marked with chalk; the center line of the tangent 
 scale, or lireech-sight, is placed on the mark at the 
 breech, the slider is placed at the proper elevation, 
 and the aim is taken along the notch of the slider 
 and the mark on the muzzle. This method, how- 
 ever, does not give a pcrfectlj' accurate aim. In the 
 absence of a breech-sight, the piece can be pointed 
 with the natural line of sight so as to strike objects 
 not situated at point-blank distance if the object be 
 within point-blank range, as at /'", Fig. 1, the na- 
 tural line of sight should be depressed below the ob- 
 ject as much as the trajectory is above it ; if it be 
 beyond point-blank, as at /", the natural line of 
 sight should be directed to a point //, which is as 
 much above the object, as the point H' , of the tra- 
 jectory, is below it. Owing to the shape and size of 
 the reinforce of sea-coast cannon, the natural line of 
 sight is formed by affixing a front sight to the muz- 
 zle, or to a projection cast on the piece between the 
 trunnions. Although the latter arrangement does 
 not give quite so long a distance between the sights 
 as is desirable, it permits the use of a shorter breech- 
 sight, and the front sight does not interfere with the 
 roof of the embrasure, when the piece is fired under 
 high elevation. 
 
 In pointing small-arms and mortars, the piece is 
 first given the elevation, and then the direction nec- 
 essary to attain the object. Mortars are generally 
 fired from behind epualements, which screen the ob- 
 ject from the eye of the gunner. The elevation is 
 first given by a gunner's quadrant; and the direc- 
 tion is given by moving the mortar-bed with a hand- 
 s]iike, so as to bring the line of sight into the plane 
 of sight, which, by construction, passes through the 
 object and the center of the platfnnn. The plane of 
 sight may be determined in several ways; the me- 
 thod prescribed is to plant two stakes, one on the 
 crest of the ejiaulement, and the other a little in ad- 
 vanceofthe first, so that the two shall be in a line 
 with tlie object, and the gunner standing in the mid- 
 dle of tlie rear-edge of the platform ; a <'or(l isattach- 
 ed to the second stake, ;uid carefull}' held so as to 
 touch the first stake; a third slake is driven in a line
 
 POINTINO-BOABS. 
 
 553 
 
 POINT OF IMPACT. 
 
 with t/ie ford, in rear of the pliilforiii, iinil a plum, 
 met is attucli('(l to this conl so iis to full ii little in 
 rriir of the iiinrtar. It ;s I'viilcnt tliiil the cord jijid 
 ])liiriiiii('t ili'lcniiini' tlir rc(|iiirr(l |ihuii' of sii;lit into 
 whii'h the line of sijrht of I he mortar iiuist \>v 
 l)roiij;ht. TIk' usual anjilr of liri' of mortars is ^l", 
 which corresponds nearly with the maximum rani;e. 
 The advanlaiies of the angle of greatest range are : 
 1st. Economy of [lowder; 2il. Diminished recoil, 
 and slrain on the jiid'c, lied. and jilatforni; i}d. More 
 uniform rangi's. When the distance is not great and 
 the oliject is to peru'trate the roofs of magazines, 
 buildings, eti'.. Ihc force of f.'ill may he increased liy 
 firing under an angle of tiO". The rangcH obtained 
 under an tiiigle of (iO" are about nne tnitli less than 
 those obtained with an angle of 4.'j''. If the object be 
 to iiroduce etTeet by the bursting of the projectile, 
 the penetration should be iliminished by firing under 
 an angle of ',W\ AVhen the object is not on a level 
 with the piece, the angle of greatest range is consid- 
 ered in practice to be -lo^-j-.l-V, or 40 — i.V. A being 
 the angle of elevation or depression of the object. 
 Thus, to attain a magazine, for instance, situated on 
 a hill, for which A=i.')'^, the angle of greatest range 
 Is h^y^ instead of 45". The angle of lire being fi.xed 
 at 4.')'' for objects on the same level with the ]iicce, 
 the range is varied by varying the charge of jiowder. 
 The jiractical rule is founded on the knowledge of 
 the amoinil of jiowder necesNary to diminish or in- 
 crease the range 1!) yards. For the French ,S and 10 
 inch siege moriars, tins amount is about (iO graiusfor 
 the former, and 125 grains for the lallcr. .\ jiracti- 
 cal rule for finding the time of llight by which the 
 length of the fuse is regulated, is to take the sciuare 
 root of the rang<' in feet, and ilividc it by four : the 
 quotient is the ajiproximatctiuie in seconds. Stone- 
 mortars are pointed in the same manner as common 
 mortars : the angle of lire for stones is from (!0^ lo 
 75", in order that they may have great force in fall- 
 ing ; the angle for grenades is about 33", in order 
 that their bursting effect may not be destroyed by 
 their penetration into the earth. Cannon are" point- 
 ed at uiglit by means of certain marks, or measure- 
 ments, on the carriage and platform, which are ac- 
 curately determined during the day. See Cannon 
 and Firhifi. | 
 
 POINTING-BOARD.— In gunnery, a piece of 1)oard 
 1 foot long, 2 or 3 inches wide, and 1 inch thick, 
 having a notcli cut in the middle of one side to tit i 
 on the stake, and eraduatetl into c<iual divisions 
 from its middle. When not in use the pointing ; 
 cord may lie wound on it. This board is used for 1 
 poinliuL' mortars. I 
 
 POINTING-CORD.— A cord used in pointing mor- ! 
 tars IJy means of pohiting-Htaken, one of the lixed 
 points is established upon the crest of the parapet or 
 at the foot of the interior slope, and another in rear 
 of the piece. Then by a cord called the puintiiig. 
 cord, stretched between these two points, with the 
 plummet suspended from it, a vertical plane is de- 
 termined witli which the line of metal is made to 
 coinciile. 
 
 POINTING-RINGS.— Two rings, one smaller than 
 the other, attached to the upper surface of the trail 
 of the stock of a field gun-carriage, for the recep- 
 tion of a handspike, which enables the cannoneers 
 to raise the trail and carry it to the right or left. 
 The trail-hanilles serve the same purpose, but are 
 used jirincipallv for raising the stock. 
 
 POINTING-RODS.— Pickets or rods of iron i inch 
 round, and about 2 feet long, two of which are 
 phu'ed upon the epanlement of a battery in front of 
 each mortar, b_v means of which, with the aid of a 
 plummet, the mortar can he directed with tolerable 
 accuracy upon the oliject to be slruc'.;. The pickets 
 are first lined upon the oliject ; the jilummct. which 
 is in the hands of the laying otiieer, who stands be- 
 hin 1 the mortar, is made to coincide with them, and 
 the mortar is then traversed until the line of the 
 plummet covers the center line on the mortar, which 
 
 I is denoted by a notch on the muzzle, and another 
 behind the vent ; a chalkid line is geneially drawn 
 on the exterior surface of the mortar between tlieHC 
 notches. In masonry works, they must bi- placed 
 <in a fir [ilank, and about (i inches from each end. 
 The plank should be lilteil witli u grummet or 
 handle al each end. In carlhworkH, two ramrods 
 will answer for poiniing-rods. 
 
 j POINT OF ATTACK.- In siege operaliong, after ob- 
 1 taining all the informal i<in that can be liad from re- 
 connaissances, surveys, and other sourceH, the nex' 
 <ibject is to decide ujion the jiortion of tlic defenses 
 which it will lie ne<cssary lo gain possession of to 
 force the garrison to a surrender; this portion, wliicli 
 j usually embraces one or more fronts of the position, 
 with ihe outworks and any advanced works that 
 I may be connected with them, and which must be re- 
 duced before the points of Ihe main work can be as- 
 sailed, is termed Ihe I'liint af AUwIc. It is in the 
 choice of this point — a decision which mainly rests 
 with theCommandingfJIlicer — that the judgment and 
 skill of this Olliccr are shown. In making this se- 
 lection, not only must the relative strength of the 
 I various points of Ihe defenses which are accessible 
 j be carefully weighed, but the nature fif the site as 
 to .soil, natural surface, etc., uponwhich the trenches 
 and other works of the attack must be laid out, and 
 the f.acililies afforded of iui easy communication be- 
 tween Ihe ]iarks, (/(/«;<.v, etc , and the ]ioint selected. 
 In considering Ihe strength of the defenses, those 
 parts arc regarded as unassailable by the ordinary- 
 measures of an attack, whieli border upon precipices, 
 marshes, a water-course that cannot be forded ; or 
 are protected by works on inaccessible points, the 
 lire from which sweeps in flank and reverse the 
 ground over which the trenches must be run. Tho.se 
 parts, again, are considered as offering pcctdiar dif- 
 ficulties which ]iresent a series of works in good de- 
 fensive relations which can only be carried in suc- 
 i cession; or works which are mined; or those which 
 have their ditches arranged fora play of water; which 
 have dry ditches of unusual depth ; or, those parts 
 where the works to be carried are displayed on a 
 right line, embracing nearly Ihe same extent of front 
 that the besiegers can take up with their trenches ; 
 ) or, finally, portions which present a concave front 
 to the attack. The points^which are looked upon as 
 most advantageous to the attack are those in which 
 the general condiiualiou of the works forms a salient 
 point with respect to the rest of the defenses ; as a 
 point so situated can receive but little support from 
 the collateral portions, and can be enveloped by a 
 line of trench of much greater extent than itself, 
 along which positions can be obtained for enfilading 
 and other batteries, the fire of which will be con- 
 vergent u]ion that of the defenses. See Key.puint. 
 
 POINT OP FALL.— The point at which the projec- 
 tile strikes the ground, w hen permitted to do so. 
 When the gun ami point of fall are on the same level, 
 the iiiiijkiif fire is always less than Xheangle of fait. 
 POINT OF FORMATION.— The point taken, upon 
 which troops are formed in militarv order. 
 
 POINT OF HONOR.— A nice discrimination in mat- 
 ters affecting one's honor. A delicacy of feeling, 
 which is most generally acquired by education, and 
 strengthened b}- intercour.sewith men of strict integ- 
 rity and good conduct. It is likewise very frequently 
 the offspring of peculiar habits, received notions, 
 and established etii|uettes. 
 
 POINT OF IMPACT.— That point or spot which a 
 projectile first strikes on meeting an opposing body. 
 The method of finding the poiniof mean impact is as 
 follows: The horizontal distance of each shot upon 
 the target from a fixed vertical base (generally one 
 side of the target) is first found, and a mean horizon- 
 tal distance obtained, by dividiugthe sum of the dis- 
 tance by the number of shot: the same process is 
 followed to obtain a mean vertical distance from a 
 fixeii horizontal base (generally the bottom of the 
 targetj. The intersection of the two lines drawn
 
 POnfT OF WAR. 
 
 554 
 
 POLAB DISTORTION. 
 
 parallel to the bases respectively arc! at distances 
 equal to the horizontal and vertical mean distances 
 already found, gives what is termed the pnnitH of 
 mean impni-t. The distance of each shot from the 
 point of mean impact is measured; these distances are 
 added together, and the sum, divided by the num- 
 ber of shot on the target, gives the agure. of merit. 
 Half a diagonal is allowed for every shot that does not 
 strike the target. 
 
 POINT OF WAR. — A loud and impressive beat of 
 the ilrura, the perfect execution of which requires 
 great skill and activitj'. 'X\\t Point of V,'ar is beat 
 when a battalion charges. 
 
 POINTS. — Movements in Sabre Exercise executed 
 as follows : 
 
 Tierce Point. — Being at guard, raise the hand in 
 tierce as high as tlie eye : throw back the right shoul- 
 der, carrying the elbow to the rear, the point of the 
 saber to the front, the edge upward. (Two.) Tlirust 
 to the front, extending the arm to its full length, 
 edge up. (Three.) Resume the guard. 
 
 Qurirte Point. — Being at guard, lower the hand in 
 quarte near the right hip, the point a little higher 
 than the wrist. (Two.) Thrust to the front, extend- 
 ing the arm to its full length. (Thbee.) Resume 
 the guard 
 
 Left Point. — Being at guard, turn the head and 
 shoulders to the left, draw back the hand in tierce 
 toward the right shoulder, the hand at the height of 
 the neck, the edge of the blade upward, the point to 
 the left and as high as the hand. fTwo.) Thrust to 
 the left, extending the arm to its full length. (Thbee.) 
 Resume the guard. 
 
 Right Point. — Being at guard, turn the head to tlie 
 right, carry the hand in quarte near the k ft breast, 
 the edge of the blade upward, the point to the right 
 and as high as the hand. (Two.) Thrust to the right, 
 extending the arm to its full length. (Three.) Re- 
 sume the guard. 
 
 Hear Point. — Being at guard, turn the head and 
 shoulders to the right and rear, bring the hand in 
 quarte near the leii breast, the point to the rear and 
 as high as the hand, the edge upward. (Two.) 
 Thrust to the rear, extending the arm to its full 
 length. (Three.) Resume the guard. 
 
 Againut Infantry. Eight Point. — Being at guard, 
 this movement is executed the same as quarte point, 
 
 point ; G, the dexter base point ; 
 H, the middle base point ; and 
 I, the sinister base point. The 
 dexter and sinister sides of the 
 shield are so called, not in rela- 
 tion to the eye of the spectator, 
 but from the right and left sides 
 of the supposed bearer of the 
 sliield. 
 
 joints Of ili9 POITRAIL.— That portion of 
 
 JEacutchcoa. the horse armor which covers the 
 
 breast, fitted either with hinges or like a flounce. 
 Also written Poitrel. 
 
 POITRINAL. — In ancient armor, the horse's breast- 
 plate, formed of metal plates riveted together as a 
 covering for the breast and shoulders. The term 
 Pectoral has a like signification, and is commonly 
 used. 
 
 POLANS. — A term applied to knee-pieces in ancient 
 armor. 
 
 POLAR DISTORTION —In the practice of gunner}-, 
 trajectories are generally constructed by the system 
 (A polar distoriion. By this method the angles of 
 elevation are multiplied by an assumed co-efficient of 
 distortion. The data necessary are the angles of ele- 
 vation and the corresponding ranges. Assume a 
 range scale, a co-efficient of distortion, and a point 
 as the origin of the curve. Through the origin draw 
 a straight line representing the axis of fije, and from 
 this line, with the origin as a center, plot successive- 
 ly (commencing with the least) the angles of eleva- 
 tion multiplied by the co-efficient of distortion. Up- 
 on the lines of sight so established mark points at 
 distances from the origin equal to the corresponding 
 ranges reduced to scale. A curve drawn through the 
 origin and the points located will represent the trajec- 
 tory. Let O, be the origin; OA,the axis of fire; AOB. 
 AOC, AOD, etc., the angles of elevation, multiplied 
 by the co-efficient of distortion, to which correspond 
 respectively tho ranges from 100 to 500 yards ; then 
 will Oi, Oii, O'li, Ol^ O, be points of the curve. The 
 portion of the curve lying above each line of sight 
 will represent the trajectory for that range. The dan- 
 gerous space , or the limits in distance within which the 
 object aimed at is liable to be hit, is dependent, with 
 the same arm, on the extent of that object above and 
 below the point of aim. To determine this, describe 
 
 turning tho head and shoulders to the right, inclin- 
 ing the point downward. (Two.) Thrust in quarte. 
 (Three.) Resume the guard. 
 
 Against Infantry, Lift Point. — Being at guard, 
 this movement is executed the same as Left Point, 
 except the point is downward. (Two.) Thrust down 
 in tierce . (Three.) Resume the guard. 
 
 Against Infantry, Front Point. — Being at guard, 
 ben(l well down to the right, extend the rigiit arm 
 well downward, the hand in rear of the thigh, 
 the b;ick of the saber upward. (Three). Resume 
 the LHiard. See t^oher Exercise. 
 
 POINTS OF PASSING.— The ground on which one 
 or more bodies of armed men march by a Reviewing 
 General. 
 
 POINTS OF THE ESCUTCHEON. — In Heraldry, in 
 onliT to facilitate the descriptiiiii of a coat-of-arms, 
 it is the practice to suppose the shield to be divided 
 into nine points, wliich are known by the following 
 names: A. the dexter chief point: B, the middle 
 chief ; C, the sinister chief; D, the colhir or honor 
 point; E, the fess point ; F, the nonibril. or naval 
 
 two circles one about the origin as a center, the oth- 
 er about the point aimed at: the former with a rad- 
 ius equal to the assumed muzzle height multiplied 
 by the co-efficient of distortion, and the latter with 
 a radius equal to the height of tlie point aimed at 
 above the ground multiplied by this same co-efficient. 
 A straight line tangent to these circles at their low- 
 est point will be the ground line ; and a line tangent 
 to the second circle and parallel to tlie ground line, 
 will be the lineifheigld. The dangerous space will 
 be tlic projection, on the ground line, of the portion 
 of the trajectory ciimiiriscd between these two lines. 
 With the U. S. liille the dangerous space is calculat- 
 ed for the muzzle fifty-six inclu's from the ground, 
 aimed at a jioint thirty-four inches from the ground; 
 for .'300 yards, this extends 40 yards before the ob- 
 ject (a foot soldier) and 30 yards behind it. The dis- 
 tance on the figure is D'S.nv/' being equal to HA. 
 To ascertain the vertical height above tho ground 
 line of a particular jioint of tjie trajectory at any dis- 
 tance from the oriL'in : with this distance as a radius 
 describe an arc cutting the trajectory. The length
 
 POLAR PROJECTILES. 
 
 555 
 
 P0IJXIC8. 
 
 of tlie pfi'pcndiciilar to Uk- ground lini' from lliis in- 
 UTscction is the rcijiiinil IumkIU. 'I'Iic numliiT 10 
 iiiiiy !)(■ cinploycil us ii c<mvciiicnt co-clHciciit of (lis- 
 tortiou. J{y this method of ))h)tlin};, the rehitiveeur- 
 viiture of eoiisefiilivit jKirtioiis of the tnijcctriry is 
 represented willi siillleien'.uceiiruey to detenninc"tlie 
 '* diini^eroiis sp;ier." 
 
 POLAR PROJECTILES. -A de»if;niition applied to 
 priijecliles which pursue tlieir lliglit llirout;li tiie 
 air, idwiiys lieepiii'j; one end or aspeet foremost. 
 
 POLE. -In iirlillery, tliat portion of a carriage to 
 wiiich tlie wlieel iiorses are attaclied. At tlic ex- 
 trcmily (if llie pole are placed two pole-chains, by 
 which it is held up, and a iiole-yoke with two mov- 
 alile hranches, to prevent, as much as jiossible, the 
 [Idle from oscillating and striking the horses. 
 
 POLE AXE. -A weapon nnich used by thi; early 
 northern nations, Celtic and Scandinavian, retpiiring 
 great strength in its use. Some were held with one 
 hand; some with two, the former kind coul 1 be 
 wielded equally by liorse and foot, but the latter 
 was for fiioi-soldicrs only. The pole-axe had a 
 lon,^er handle, and a broader, stronger, an 1 sharper 
 blade than the common axe. During tlie Middle 
 
 ^=^ 
 
 33= 
 
 Ages, and somewhat earlier, it was much used in 
 sorties, and to prevent the escahiding of a besieged 
 fortress. The pole-axe diiTered but little from the 
 l)atlle-axc. The hlark hill and hrtiirn hill where a 
 sort of halbert. having the cutting jiart hooked like 
 a woodman's bill, with a spike projecting from the 
 back, and another from the head. The r/laive was 
 a kind of pole-axe, or bill, useil by the Welsh. 
 
 POLE HAMMER. — An early weapcm of war. con- 
 sisting of a spiked hammer placed at the end of a 
 very long shaft or pole. See War-hnmmer, and Ln- 
 terner. 
 
 POLE MARCH.— Originally, in Greci.an antiquity, 
 the Comnianilcr-in-C'hief; hut, afterwards, a civil 
 Magistrate, who had under his care all strangers and 
 sojourners in the city. 
 
 POLE -PAD.— A pad placed on tlie end of the pole 
 in field-gun carriages, to prevent injury to the horses. 
 
 POLE-PROP.— A bar for suiiportiug the end of the 
 pole or tongue, especially used with the various car- 
 riages of the artillery service. 
 
 POLE-STRAP.— -V heavy strap by which the poleof 
 the carriage is attached to the collar of the hor.se. 
 Also called Pole.piece. 
 
 POLIABOLE.— A ballista, which was capable of 
 throwing both arrows and stones. Also written 
 Piihnt inne. 
 
 POLICE. — 1. The term Military Police has two 
 significations— 1st, the organized bod}' employed 
 within an army to preserve civil order, as distinct 
 from military discipline; and, 2d, a civil police with | 
 a military organization. The police of an army com- : 
 monly consists of steady, intelligent soldiers, who act 
 under the orders of the I'rovost-Marshal. and arrest j 
 all persons out of bounds, civilians not authorized to t 
 pass the lines, disorderly soldiers, etc.; they also at- 
 tend to sanitary arrangements. As in all military 
 matters, the police of an army possess siunmary 
 powers, and a sentence of the Pros'ost-^Marshal is I 
 carried out immediately after it is pronounced. Of 
 civil police with military orgaui/.aticm may be in- 
 stanced, as specimens, the Gendarmerie of France, I 
 tlu- Sbirri of Italy, and, in an eminent degree, the j 
 Irish Constabulary. 
 
 2. The cleaning of a camp or garrison, or the state 
 of a camp in regard to cleanliness. The workmg 
 party engaged in policing is called the Pulice Party, 
 and the .Sergeant in charge of the same, the Police 
 iSi'rf/iiiiif. 
 
 POLICE GUARD. — An interior guard, having the care 
 of the arms, property and prisoners : also charged 
 
 with enforcing the regulations of the camp in regard 
 to order and cleanliness. In each regiment, in the 
 Held, a police guard is detailed every day, consist- 
 ing of two Sergeants, three Corporals. two drummcrB, 
 and men enough to furnish the required sentinels 
 and patrols. The; men nri: taken from all the com- 
 panies- from each in i)roportion to its strength. 
 The guard is commanded by a I>ieutenant. under the 
 supervision of a Captain, as Kegimental Olllcer of 
 the Day. It furnishes ten sentinels ut the camp — 
 one over the arms of llu' guard ; one at the Colonel's 
 tent ; three on the color front, one of them over the 
 colors; three, fifty jiuces in renr of the lield-ollicers' 
 tents ; and one on each flank, between it and tlie 
 next regiment. If it is a flank regiment, one more 
 sentinel is posted on the outer flank. See Fitld- 
 Hrrrii'i . 
 
 POLISHING.— Polishing, in the armory, is effected 
 by first removing any tarnish or oxidation by means 
 of some material which will chemically act upon it; 
 for this purpose sulphuric, hydrochloric, oxalic, 
 anil acetic acids are used, and in various states of 
 dilution. Usually, it is necessary to remove the acid 
 with clean water, and dry rai)idly, to prevent re- 
 oxidation ; and then either friction with various 
 polishing uiateri;ds, or rubbing with ;i smooth. hard 
 surface or burnisher, brings out the luster of the 
 metal. The/""<-polishing lathe. shown in the draw- 
 ing, is used for all small articles and [larts. It has 
 a spindle, one end of which is threaded and tapers 
 
 to a point for holding a brush, buff, or other polish- 
 ing wheels. The otiier end of the spindle forms aa 
 arbor for holding emery and other grinding wheels, 
 also for small drills. PdV^hing Pimieg vary accord- 
 ing to the materials upon which they are to be era- 
 ployed. For brass, the best kind is a mixture of 2 
 parts of soft soap with 4 parts of rotten-stone in very 
 fine powder. Another sort is 8 parts of fine rotten- 
 stone powder, 2 parts of oxalic acid powdered, 3 
 parts olive oil, and enough of turpentine to make 
 them into a paste. For iron, a mixture of emery 
 powder and lard is used ; and for pewter a mixture 
 of flnel}--powdcred bath-brick and soft soap. For 
 wood, a paste called furniture paste is made by add- 
 ing spirit of turpentine to beeswax, sufficient to 
 form it into a soft paste, which is rubbed on thinly 
 with a brush and woolen rag, and afterwards polished 
 with a dry woolen cloth and soft brush. See Kmtry. 
 POLITICS.— That branch of ethics which has for its 
 subject the proper moile of governing a State, so as 
 to secure its prosperity, jieace, and safety, and to 
 attain as perfectly as possible, the ends of civil soci- 
 ety. Among the subjects which political science 
 embraces are the principles on wliich Government is
 
 POLKOWNICK. 
 
 556 
 
 POLTSPASTE. 
 
 founded, the hands in which the supreme power may 
 be most advantageously placed, the duties and obli- 
 gations of the governing and governed portions of so- 
 ciety, the development and increase of the resources 
 of the State, the protection of the right and liberties 
 of the citizens, the preservation of fheir morals, and 
 the defense of the independence of the State against 
 foreign control or conquest. While the philosophy 
 of governing constitutes the scienre of politics, the 
 art of politic-s consists in the application of that sci- 
 ence to the individual circumstances of particular 
 States. The ancient Greek writers treated politics 
 ■with reference to an ideal perfect State, which each 
 propounded according to his own speculative views, 
 pointing out the variation of every existing govern- 
 ment from his standard. The politics of a coimtry, 
 in common parlance implies the course of its Gov- 
 ernment, more especially in its relations with foreign 
 powers. 
 
 POLKOWNICK.— A Colonel of a Polish regiment. 
 
 POLO. — This may be described as hockey on horse- 
 back. It is a game of Asiatic origin, and was intro- 
 duced into England in 1872 by Cavalry Officers who 
 had learned it in India. Two goals, as for football, 
 are set up about 350 yards apart, and the object is 
 to drive a ball about the size of a cricket-ball through 
 the goal b}' striking it with long sticks having bent 
 or crooked ends. The players are mounted on ponies, 
 and much depends on the skill with which these are 
 managed. Four or five a side are the usual numbers, 
 and those scoring the greater number of goals win 
 the game. Polo has become very popular among 
 EugUsh Cavalry Officers, and a few clubs have also 
 been formed. 
 
 POLEON. — That part of the armor which covers 
 the neck and shoulders. 
 
 POLTROON. — A coward; a dastard; one who has no 
 courage. The origin of this word is stated by some 
 to coine from the Latin polUx trunc)js,m consequence 
 of the frequent instances of men cutting off their 
 thumbs to disqualify themselves for military service. 
 Others, however.derive it from High Dutch, pointer, 
 a bed, from poltroons taking to their beds whenever 
 any peril presents itself ; or again, from the Italian 
 poltroiie. a colt, because of that animal's readiness 
 to run away. 
 
 POLYGAR HELMET. — A casque of Central India, 
 with fixed nose-piece, cheek pieces, and very long 
 neck-guard, or mail hood. 
 
 POLYGON. — 1. A school of practice for artillery 
 in Japan. 2. The name applied to the many-angled 
 forms in which the outer walls of all fortified places 
 are built. Polygons of 5, 6, 7, 8, etc., sides are de- 
 nominated pentagons, hexagons, heptagons, octa- 
 gons, etc., and when the number of sides exceed 
 twelve, the figure is merely mentioned as a polygon 
 of so man}' sides. The quindecagon, or figure of 15 
 sides, is the only common exception to this rule. 
 Polj'gons have many general properties: such as that 
 the sum of the angles of a polygon, when increased 
 by four right angles, or 360'',is equal to twice as many 
 right angles as there are sides in the poh-gon, and that 
 (supposing the number of sides of the polj'gonfohe 
 
 n{n — 3) 
 expressed by li) the luimber of its diagonals is ; 
 
 also, if a polygon of an even number of sides be cir- 
 cumscribed about a circle, the sums of its even and 
 odd sides are equal; and if a polj gon of an even 
 number of sides be inscribed in a circle, the sums of 
 its even and odd angles are equal. A polygon whicli 
 has all its sides and angles equal is called a nyular 
 polygon. All polygons of this class arc capable of 
 l)eiiig inscribed in or circumscribed about, a circle ; 
 but tliough the ])n)blem is merely to divide the cir- 
 cunifercnce of a circle into a number of equal parts, 
 corresponding to flu; number of sides in Ihe jiol.v- 
 gon, geometry was till lately only able to perform it 
 m those cases where Ihe lunnber of sides of the pol.v- 
 gon belongs to one or other of the series 2. 4, 8. 10, 
 
 etc.; X G, 12, 24, etc.; or 5, 10, 20, 40, etc. Gauss, 
 however, in the beginning of the present century, 
 showed how it could be done in the case of all poly- 
 gons, the number of whose sides was of the form 
 2" + 1 (provided it be a prime number), or a mul- 
 tiple of this prime number by any power of 2. This 
 discover}- supplies us with iunumerable series repre- 
 sentative of the numbers of the sides of polygons 
 which can be described around or inscrilied in a cir- 
 cle, such as 17, 34, (IS. etc.; 2Tu . 514.1028. etc. 
 
 POLYGONAL SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— The 
 polygonal S3'stem has been proposed by several 
 engineers of distinction, but its most ardent advo- 
 cate has been the celebrated Montalembert. Con- 
 sisting of either a simple polygonal enceinte without 
 re-euterings, the sides of which are flanked by case- 
 mated caponnieres, placed at the middle point of 
 the fronts; or of fronts either slightly tenailled or of 
 a bastion form, with short casemated flanks to flank 
 the faces of the central caponnieres, this s^'stem 
 affords more interior space, and from the mode 
 adopted of flanking the enceinte, will ailmit of much 
 larger fronts than either the bastioned or the tenailled 
 systems. The salient angles moreover will be more 
 open in this than in the other two .systems. From 
 these peculiarities of this sy.steni the positions suit- 
 able for the erection of batteries to enfilade the faces 
 of the enceinte are less advantageous, from their 
 being thrown in nearer to the adjacent fronts than in 
 either of the other systems; whilst a greater devel- 
 opment of trenches will also be requisite to envelop 
 the fronts of attack. The polygonal trac^ has cer- 
 tain prominent advantages and defects which may 
 be seen by a slight comparison with the bastioned 
 system. As the exterior sides are longer and the 
 re-enterings of the enceinte less deep than in the 
 bastioned systems, it follows : 1. That the interior 
 space enclosed by the enceinte is greater in the 
 polygonal trace. 2. That the faces of the enceinte 
 are less exposed to ricochet from the greater obtuse- 
 ness of the salient angles. 3. That the tire of the 
 faces has thus a better bearing on the distant de- 
 fence. 4, That requiring fewer fronts on a given 
 extent of line to be fortified, there will be fewer 
 flanks and more artillery therefore disposable for 
 the faces and curtains. 5. That, in the usual mode 
 of attack; the besiegers will be forced into a greater 
 development of trenches for the same number of 
 fronts. 
 
 The defects of the system are: 1. That the enceinte, 
 having no other flanking defen.se than the main 
 caponni^re, will be exposed to an escalade so soon as 
 the fire of this defense is silenced. 2. That the progress 
 of the besiegers during the last and most important 
 period of the siege is but little delayed, owing to the 
 want of the concentrated cross-fires which arc afford- 
 ed in both the bastioned and tenailled systems, in 
 advance of the salients of the enceinte, and upon 
 the ground generallj' in advance of the fronts, due 
 to the slighter re-entering formed by the independ- 
 ent works in front of the enceinte salient. It is fur- 
 ther objected that in the German method. First. 
 The system makes use of numerous works of ma- 
 sonry that can be easily ruined by distant batteries 
 of heavy caliber, especially when pierced with em- 
 brasures and loop-holes like the casemated capon- 
 nieres and defensive barracks of the German method. 
 Seamd. That the di.stribution of troops -dwA mnteriel 
 of war throughout the independent works deprive 
 i the defense of the union ;m(i concerted action that 
 j c:in only exist inider a single command<T. Third. 
 1 Th:it the cxjjen.se of construction is mucli greater, 
 j in consceiuence of the numerous works of masonry 
 reijuiring nice workm;inship. And, Fo>irth. That 
 it is imprudent to abandon existing sy.stems that 
 have stood the l<'st of experience for those not pos- 
 sessing this advantage. See Ihrmiiii Synttm of For- 
 tijiciiliiiii. .Uoiitiilitiilirrt Si/>itim of Fo-rtificntiun, and 
 Si/sl> III of Fortifriiti'iii. 
 
 POLYSPASTE.— The crane of Archimedes, an en-
 
 POL'xTECHNIC SCHOOL. 
 
 557 
 
 PONCHAHEA EIFLE. 
 
 ginc wliicli was iiscil to rii'mc anil sliattcr to picfps 
 wlioli! vessels, and ideiililied with those enormous 
 hooks that were used lo pull olV Ihe heads of Ihe 
 hallerhm-ranis. 
 
 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. An Inslilijlion, first es. 
 tahli>he(i ill I'iiris ( ITllI i liy Hie Nalional Convenlioii, 
 under Ihe name of Iv^itr iIih 'J'niriiiij- /'u/)lin< (f>i-\itni\ 
 of I'lihlie worlds). No sliideiils were adinilti'd Imt 
 those wlio intended to enter tli<' |)iil)lie servifM'; and 
 tlioni;h tlic" genc'ral ')hject of the Institution was tiic 
 BUjipiyin.i; of well-educated youtlis to all hranrlies, 
 it was more particularly devoted to tlie tliorou;;li 
 instruction of recruits for the (lorps of Civil and 
 Military Kivi^'ineers. 'I'lie Institution reeeivi-rl (lie 
 name of " Keole I'(ilyteehnii|u<' " in 171(5. 'I'he pu- 
 pils were at first ;il!) in nurnher, and eacli receiv(-d, 
 durini; his stay nf two years in tlie Institution, an 
 aiuiual stipend of l,2lll) francs (i'4.S nearly;; the 
 teachers were in most cases the most eminent sa- 
 vants of France. In 17!)!) some modilications were 
 introduced into tlnr working of the School; the 
 numljcr of impils was at the sime time limited to 
 21)1), and tliey were put into uniform. Tlie advan- 
 taij;es of an Instiliilion of tills sort, wlien ably eon- 
 ducted, soon made tliemselves evident, and tlie 
 Polyteclinique, in consequence, rose into hi<;h esti- 
 mation, not only in France, but tlirouiilioiit Europe, 
 BO much so, that it became common for foreiij;n 
 nations, when entering into a treaty with France, to 
 stipulate for tlie admission of a certain number of 
 their sulijects into the Institution, after passing the 
 prescribed entrance e.xamiiialion. In 1H()4, tlie Em- 
 peror Napoleon introduced various modifications 
 into its working, and gave it a military organization; 
 it was also removed from the Palais Bourbon (wliere 
 it had existed from its first establisliment) to the 
 Old College de Navarre. Tlic In.stitution became 
 more and more, as the end of tlie Napoleonic Eni])ire 
 drew near, a training-scliool for j-oung artillerists 
 and engineers; !ind such was the enthusiasm of Hie 
 pupils in the Kmperor's c;uisc, that, after the di.sa.s- 
 ters of IS 14, they dem;inded to be enrolled en mnxse 
 in the ranks of the French Army. However, Napo- 
 leon was (to use his own words) not inclined "to 
 kill the hen for the golden eggs;" but he allowed 
 them to form three out of the twelve companies of 
 which the Artillery Corps of the National Guard was 
 composed. These three companies rendered impor- 
 tant service in manning the walls of Paris, and be- 
 haved heroically in tlie battle of JIarcli 30, 1.S14. 
 After the First Restoration, the Polytechuiquc, 
 being considered to be evil-disposed to the Govern- 
 ment, suffered considerable reductions: but was 
 restored to its former imjiortance for the brief pe- 
 riod of the "hundred days." After the Second 
 Restoration (July, 1815), the StafT of Professors was 
 remodeled; Lacroi.v and some others were dis- 
 missed, and replaced by Poisson, Arago, Caucliy, 
 etc. Notwithstanding these changes, the Govern- 
 ment still had its doubts as to the loyalty of the 
 establishment, and took advantage of an outbreak, 
 April 3, 181(>, to break it up. It was reconstituted 
 in Septemberof the same year, under a revised code 
 of regulations, and ill 11S33 the old severity of mili- 
 tary discipline was restored. During the w:ir of 
 1870-71, the Government of National Defense ordered 
 the jiupils to meet at Bordeaux, and classes were 
 opened there under distinguished pupils of the 
 School brought from all p;irts of France. Iloweverthe 
 attempt had to be abandoned, and the pupils having 
 sought permission to take part in the war, were 
 divided among the ditTereut sections of the army, in 
 which their services were highly appreciated. The 
 Constitution of the School, which has so freiiuenlly 
 BuiTered change, was, in the end of 1,S73 regulated by 
 Decret of Nov. 30, 18()3, and Jlinisterial Pules issued 
 on Mar. .5, 1857, 1. No pupil can be admitted unless 
 he has 'leen successful in the public competitive ex- 
 amination which is held each _year. 2. The condi- 
 tions of admission to the competitive examination 
 
 are, that the candidate shall be a Frenchman ; that 
 \h: shall be more than 10, and less than 20 years of 
 age, on the 1st of .(aniiary of that year ; and tliat he 
 shall be either a Bachelor of Letli fs or a Bachelor of 
 Sciences of the University of France. If he holclti 
 both ilegrees he is alloweil 50 marks in llii' exuniina- 
 tion for admission. 3. Kegular soldiers are adniillcd 
 up to the agi' of 25 years, provided Ihcy liavi- 1 een 
 on real and elTeclive service- for two years. 4. 'I'lie 
 charge for board is 1.000 francs ('X40/prT auniini, and 
 the cost of outlil Ho be also paid by Ihe pui>il; about 
 f!00 francs. 5. The duration of the course of in- 
 struction is two years; the pupils, after finishing 
 their course, must |ia.ss a final examination ; Hie suc- 
 cessfiil candidates, if found lo be jiliysically (jualified, 
 are arranged in order of merit, and choose In fjrder 
 what branch of the public service they wish to enter. 
 <). The branches of the public service whidi are re- 
 rruited from the Polyteclinique are, tlie Corps of 
 Land and Naval Artillery, Military and Naval 
 Engineers, tlii' Imperial .Marine, the Corps of Hydro- 
 graphic Engineers, that of Engineers of Hoads, 
 Bridges, and Mines, the Corps of Staff Ollicers, the 
 Superintendence of Telegraphs and Gunpowder and 
 Tobacco Manufactories; ami generally every Depart- 
 ment which, requiring special scientific knowledge, 
 niaj' be added by Din-rtU to these. The following 
 branches of study are embraced in the curriculum . 
 Alat hematics, Pnysics, Chemistry and Chemical ^Man- 
 ipulation. History and Literature, (Jernian, Written 
 Exercises, Drawing, Geodesy, Mechanics, Ard.i- 
 tecture, Art Mililaire. Lessons in Fencing, Music, 
 and Dancing are given out as optional, and must be 
 .separately paid for. The number of pujiils varies 
 with the requirements of the public service. In 1794 
 there were 3i)lj pupils; in 1H20 only fifi. During the 
 First Empire, the numbers increased from 110 in 
 1808, to 227 in 1813; under Louis Philippe the 
 average number was 130. During the Second 
 Empire, it had risen to 140 iiiid 1-50. After the war 
 with Germany in 1870-71 the number rose to 2C0. 
 The numerous and admirably equipped Technical 
 Schools of Germany, often called l'i'!ytechnii-n^ have 
 received no military restriction, and are available for 
 all interested in the industrial arts ; thej- are in 
 many cases scientific centers comparable to the 
 Universities. 
 
 POMADA. — An exercise of 
 
 W I vaulting the wooden horse, by 
 
 ^^I^^I laying one hand over the pom- 
 
 ^■■B^NW mel of the saddle. See Gym- 
 
 \ « y POMEL CROSS.— In Herald- 
 
 ry, a cross whose extremities 
 Pommettee Cross. terminate in single knots or 
 poniels, like the linurdon or 
 Pilgrim's St;iff. ^Vlso written Pnmmittie Cross. 
 
 POMERIUM. — In ancient architecture, that space 
 of ground which lay between the walls of a fortified 
 town and the inhabitants' houses. The term is stUl 
 used among modern architects, particularly by the 
 Italians, to describe the breadth of the terreplein 
 of the rampart, its inward talus, and the vacant 
 space which is usually left between this talus and 
 the houses of the town 
 
 POMME. — In Heraldry, a bearing or device repre- 
 sentintr, or in the form of, an apple. 
 
 POMMEL.— The knob on the hilt of a sword. Also 
 the protuberant part of a saddle-bow. The term 
 I'ammeled . ox Pommelled, signifies furnished or 
 mounted with one or more pommels, as a sword, 
 dagger, or the like. 
 
 POMMELION.— The cascabel.or hindmost knob of 
 a cannon. See Cascabcl.. 
 
 POMPON. — .\ tuft of wool, or other material, some- 
 times worn by soldiers on the top of the hat in front, 
 instead of a feather. 
 
 PONCHARRA RIFLE.— In 1833, Colonel Poncharra 
 suggested jilacing ;i" sabot "of hardwood under- 
 neath the ball with a greased patch. which, resting on
 
 PONCHO. 
 
 558 
 
 PONTOON. 
 
 the offsets of the mouth of the chamber, was prevent- 
 ed from entering it. This rifle was objected to as a war 
 weapon on acronnt of the complicated nature of its 
 ammunition, and the difficulty of procuring it in the 
 field ; besides which, the sabots frequently broke in 
 loading, from the ramming necessary to expand the 
 bullet into the grooves. 
 
 PONCHO. — A "Spanish-American garment, consist- 
 ing of a piece of 'woolen cloth, 5-7 ft. long, 3^ feet 
 broad, having in the middle a slit through which the 
 wearer passes his head, so that the poncho rests upon 
 the shoulders and hangs down before and behind. In 
 the fashions of recent times, the poncho has been in- 
 troduced in Europe. In the United States Army, 
 mounted troops are issued a waterproof poncho,con- 
 sistiug of painted cotton or rubber cloth. 
 
 PONIARD. — A pointed instrument for stabbing, 
 usually borne in the hand, at the girdle, or in the 
 pocket. See Dagger . 
 
 PONTONES. — Ancient square-built ferry-boats for 
 passing rivers, as described by both Caesar and Aulus 
 Gellius. 
 
 PONTOON, — The name given to buoyant vessels 
 used in military operations for supporting a tempo- 
 rary bridge. Pontoon bridges have been construct- 
 ed, with greater or less skill, from the earliest times. 
 Darius passed the Hellespont and Danube by pon- 
 toon bridges, and the former was traversed by Xerxes' 
 immense array on similar temporary bridges, very 
 admirably formed. A pontoon train is a necessity 
 for every army maneuvering in a country where 
 there are rivers, and many campaigns have proved 
 failures for want of this cumbrous but indispensable 
 apparatus. In most armies the pontoons are under 
 the charge of the engineers ; but in the Austrian 
 army there is a distinct and highly-trained corps, 
 called pontonCereyt . Marlborough used clumsy wood- 
 en pontoons. Napoleon and ^Vellington had them 
 lighter of tin and copper. They were flat-bottomed, 
 rectangular boats, open at the top. Anchored at 
 stem and stern, beams were laid over from one to 
 another, anil transoms with planks crossing these 
 beams completed the roadwa}' of the bridge. These 
 open pontoons were exposed to the disadvantage 
 that they were very liable to be filled with water, and 
 thus ceased to support the bridge. They were, 
 moreover, very heavy, one pontoon, with appurten- 
 ances, constituting a wagon-load. As 36 were 
 deemed necessarj' for the train, a pontoon equip- 
 ment was a serious item in the impedimenta of an 
 army. The Open pontoons are now, however, obso- 
 lete, modern science having substituted closed C)'lin- 
 drical vessels of copper (or occasionally of India- 
 rubber), which are far lighter, can in an emergency 
 be rolled along, and can only be submerged if per- 
 forated. Against the last contingency, thej^ are di- 
 vided within into water-tight compartments, so that 
 one perforation may not seriously detract from the 
 total buoyancy of a pontoon. In the British service 
 two pontoons are used ; the larger, with hemispher- 
 ical ends, being 33 ft. 3 in. in length, and 2 ft. 8 in. 
 in diameter ; the smaller, cigar-shaped, with conical 
 ends, 15 ft. in length, 1 ft. 8 in. diameter. Two of 
 the largest used to form a raft weigh 8 cwt. 7 lbs.; 
 the superstructure 18J cwt. At 34 ft. apart from 
 center to center, this raft will carry infantry four 
 deep, marching at ease ; cavalry, two deep, and 
 light field guns ; at 16 ft. interval, heavy guns. A 
 raft of three pontoons, at close distances, will sup- 
 port siege-ordnance. The pontoons can be used in 
 very wide rivers as rafts, in thfiir proper sense, or 
 they can be connected, when the width permits, to 
 form a bridge. In the latter ease, each is towe<l into 
 lin(N anchored above as it drops to its jjlaee, and a 
 second time when its exact spot is reached. It is 
 computed that each pontoon requires li minutes to 
 take its position, and that when the pontoons are 
 l)laced, the roadway can be laid, if properly arranged 
 previously, in IJ minutes for each interval between 
 two pontoons. A river of 6IJ0 feet may thus be 
 
 bridged in less than 1^^ hours. The process of 
 throwing a bridge over in face of an enemy is 
 fraught with the utmost danger to the engineers em- 
 ployed. Pontoon bridges have to be passed with 
 great care, and every measure should be adoiited, 
 such as breaking step, etc., which can reduce the 
 peculiarly dangerous vibration. The following is 
 the method generally employed for building bridges 
 with the bridge equipage of the United States Army, 
 and known as the construction by successive pmitoons. 
 The place for building the bridge having been se- 
 lected, the pontoons are brought to the banks of the 
 stream, near the spot, and theboatsare launched in- 
 to the water. Each boat is provided with an an- 
 chor. Some of the boats cast their anchors up- 
 stream, while others cast them down-stream. The 
 
 number of anchors to be cast will depend upon the 
 rapidity and strength of the current. Under ordi- 
 nary circumstances, an anchor cast uij-stream from 
 ever}' alternate boat, and half the number down- 
 stream, will be sufficient. The boats casting up- 
 stream anchors are launched above the bridge ; the 
 others Ijelow. If none exists, an easy approach for 
 the wagons and artillery should be constructed, 
 leading'down the bank to the bridge. A strong sill 
 is then imbedded in a trench, perpendicular to the 
 axis of the bridge, and is held firmly in place by four 
 stout pickets, driven about eight inches from each 
 end. This sill is horizontal, and should be as near- 
 ly as possible on a level with the flooring of the 
 bridge. A pontoon is then brought up opposite to 
 this "sill, and close to it. Five balks are brought 
 forward, and the ends placed upon, and lashed to 
 the outer gunwale of the boat, in the proper places 
 The men holding the balks push the pontoon off, 
 until the ends of the balks on shore rest upon the 
 abutment sill. The pontoon is then secured in posi- 
 tion by shore-lines running out from the 1)0W and 
 stern, and fastened to mooring-pickets. The chess 
 are brought forward and laid upon the balks, to 
 witliin one foot of the boat. A second pontoon is 
 brought alongside of the first ; five balks are again 
 used, and this second boat pu.shed out. The balks 
 are firmly lashed togetlwr and to the gunwales of 
 the first pontoon. The intervals between the pon- 
 toons are known as bays. The chess are laid as 
 soon as the balks are lashed: and when a liay is com- 
 pletely covered, the side rails are laid and lashed to 
 tlie balks beneath. This operation is continued un- 
 til I he entire length of bridge is obtained. It is re- 
 <-iiiiimi'nd(Ml to strengthen the first bay by using two 
 additional balks — one between the first and second, 
 aud in contact with the latter; the other, between
 
 PONTVALENT. 
 
 PONY PLANER. 
 
 the fourth and liflli. in fiuiliicl, witli tlir foiirlli. 
 Wlicii llic wiitcr is not (ii'i'p cnuiiuli to (lout tlic llrsl 
 pontdiin, 11 Iri'stic, or oilier lixi-il [loint of support, 
 may lie usimI inslciul of tlir ]ioiilonii. 'Plic irn'iil oli- 
 •'H'ciiou lo lliis ])oiilooii is its wcitrlil, wliicli iiial<i-s 
 its Iranspiirlaliou over bad roads dillicwll. For liad 
 roads and rapid niovciiicnls a li;;hter pontoon tlian 
 tliis wooden boat lias to 1)(; used. The one employ- 
 ed under these clrrumstanoes is the canvas pontoon, 
 wliifh c'oiisists of a\voo(l<'n frames covered witii can- 
 vas. The wooden frame comes apart, so as to be 
 casil}' loaded on \va,i;ons for lrans))orlalion. It has 
 two side frames, trapezoidal in shape, the upper 
 piece beini; twenty-one feet long; the lower, ci.^li- 
 tcen feet and four inches lonj;. The depth of this 
 frame is two feel and four inches. The frames arc 
 connected by pieces called transoms, framed into 
 the side frames, and these latter are fastened togeth- 
 er by ropes passing through ringsin the ends of the 
 frames. The inner width of the boat frame, or dis- 
 tance l)Ptween the, side frames, when the jiarts are 
 arranged, is four feet and eight inches. In some 
 cases, the side frames are hinged in the middle, so 
 that when taken apart, they may be folded up. The 
 canvas cover is made of cotton duck. The balks are 
 twent.y two feet long, witlia cross-section of four and 
 and one-half inches, and are provided with claws as 
 before des('ribeil. Tlie chess is the same as that de- 
 scribed, but only eleven feet long, instead of Ihirtei'n. 
 The reserve equipage is divided into trains, each 
 train being composed of four ])ontoon divisions, and 
 one supply division. Each pontoon division contains 
 all the material necessary to construct a bridge of 
 eleven bays, or a bridge two bundreil and twenty-five 
 feet long. The advance guard equipaire is also di- 
 vided into trains each train having four ))ontoon 
 divisions. A division contains eight pontoon wagons 
 two wagons for chess and two for trestles. Tint 
 pontoon wagons of this e(|uii)age arc so loaded 
 that each wasou will have all the material necessarv 
 
 I sterile regions. They are in general the jjroperly of 
 man, and not truly wild, ultliough, in vt.-ry many 
 cases, they live almost in a wild state, and receive no 
 care or attention except when tbi'y are wanted for 
 use. They are in gcfncral very liardy, and their 
 strenglh is great in proiwrtion to tlieir'sijce. They 
 an^ often vicious, or at least playfully tricky to a 
 nnicli greater degree than is usual with large liorsen. 
 Ponies arc very often covered with rough hair, and 
 Inive large, shaggy manes apd forelocks. The 8/iH- 
 1(1 lid puny is a very good examjilc of these small races 
 of horse. The Irilaixl p>nyK scarcely difTerent from 
 it, anil is hardy enougli to endure the winter of Ice- 
 land without shelter. The tliiWiirny, WHih, JJiirt- 
 ■mo(/r, Exinnirr, and Nt-w Furmt breeds are British 
 races of pony larger than the Shetland. The pro- 
 gress of indosure and cultivation in their native re- 
 gions has so changed the circumstances in which 
 they long subsisted, and in which, perhaps, they ori- 
 ginated, that scarcely any of them are now to be seen 
 of pure and unmixed race. Sardinia and Corsica 
 have small races of ponies which have subsisted un- 
 changed from ancient times. In the Morea there is 
 a race of ponies, driven iu herds to Attica for sale, 
 exceedingly wild and vicious, but capable of being 
 rendered very serviceable. But it is unnecessarj' to 
 mention the many races both of Europe and Asia. 
 They dill'er considerably in size, some, like the Shet- 
 land jiony, sugiresling a comparison with a large dog, 
 some nuicb larger. They also differ much in color: 
 a dun or tan color, with a black stripe along the back, 
 is prevalent in man\ of them. Ponies are seldom 
 employed in agricultural labors; but they are of in- 
 estimable value for campaign purposes in many wild 
 and mounl;iinous regions, from their hardiness and 
 surefootedness, and are often used as saddle-horses, 
 the hirgesl kinds being even employed as horses for 
 lisrht cavalry. 
 
 >ONY PLANER.— Until quite recently the more 
 important arsenals and armories were equipped with 
 
 to construct one complete biiv. By this arramrc- 
 meut the number of wagons may be increased or 
 diminished, as the case mav refpiire. See Jiridgen. 
 
 PONTVALENT.— A kind of light bridge, used in 
 sieges, for surprising a post or outwork which has 
 but a narrow moat. See Flying Bridge. 
 
 PONY. — The common name of many small, active 
 ■breeds of horses, belonging to different countries, 
 from India and Africa to Iceland; but in the warmer 
 parts of the world chiefly foimd in mountainous or 
 
 a novel machine in which an emery wheel was used 
 for surfacing tiles, finishing anvils, nuts, gilw, keys, 
 slide valves, straps, crossheads, and, in short, for 
 accomplishing the majority of work usually surfaced 
 on the planer, milling-inachine. and shaper. The 
 mode of operation consisted in adjusting the object 
 to be surfaced in the clnick to proper elevation, 
 when it was carried under the wheel, and at the same 
 time the latter was drawn across it. This motion 
 continued until the table carried the work out of the
 
 POOLEE-JONES CABTKIDGE-BELT. 
 
 560 
 
 POEOSITT. 
 
 action of the grinder. Then, by means of suitable 
 mechanism, the operator slightly elevated the object 
 and caused it to run back again under tlie wheel. 
 Of this machine, the invention of the Tauite Com- 
 pany is a moditication. The main ditlerence is that 
 the planer bed is made to slide to an 1 fro on its ways 
 by the action of a crank, the work being thus moved 
 to and fro in the line of the emery wheel's revolution, 
 while the wheel also has a cross motion imparted to 
 it by another crank. This motion of the table cor- 
 rects the inaccuracy resulting from gradual decrease 
 in the wheel's diameter, there being a perceptible 
 wear in the wheel, so that it grinds a long, flat piece 
 taper instead of plane, when the work slowl}' passes 
 under it; while, by this crank throw, the whole 
 length of work is brought into contact with the 
 wheel at each throw. A chuck rests on four springs, 
 and rises and falls vertically in planed wa_vs. When 
 the adjustable stops have been adjusted, and the 
 wheel no longer cuts, the work must be plane. The 
 springs force the (chuck) work against the wheel, 
 and yet act as safety appliances against over-friction 
 and pressure. The whole table and bed has a verti- 
 cal adjustment by a screw. Three belts are needed: 
 
 ly. The driving belt can come from above, below 
 or from the back. When standing in front of the 
 machine the cutter-head pulley is at the left hand. 
 See Einery-grindtr. 
 
 POOLER-JONES OAETRIDGE-BELT —A belt hav- 
 ing cartridge holders attached to it. suitable for eith- 
 er paper or brass shells. These holders can be easily 
 attached to an}' hunting vest, coat front, or belt. An 
 ordinary vest will hold from 36 to 50, each hoder 
 weighing about J of an ounce. A belt with 30 hold- 
 ers attached (weighing one poimd) is shown inthe 
 drawing. The belts can be perfectly adjusted by 
 wearer to fit either a slim or large man, with waist 
 measuring from 30 inches to 41 inciics. It can be 
 worn over or under a coat, and it is impossible to 
 lose the cartridges. The belt is intended to be worn 
 or put on witli tlie biickle behind. The cartridges are 
 nearly all to the front and can be easily reached. The 
 holder, B, with the side cut away to show the wad 
 supporter, is for carrying brass or paper shells with- 
 out being crimped. The form shown at. A, is for 
 carrying paper shells crimped, or with ends turned 
 down. 
 
 POOR KNIGHTS OF WINDSOR.— An institution of 
 
 one to the wheel mandrels, one to the suction fan, 
 and one to the driver. The gears, being interchange- 
 able, allow the proportion of speeds between the 
 wheel shafts and the table to be altered in various 
 ways. The machinery stands 'A'i inches high, and is 
 2 feet 8 inches each way. It will grind work 9 inches 
 long by 5 inches wide. It is adapted to all small, 
 flat work, especially to dies of hardened steel and 
 chilled iron, to parts of gun and pistol locks, machine 
 work, small levels, machine keys, locks, etc. It is 
 claimed that thousands of small parts can, by this 
 means, be finished to a gauge with greater exactness 
 than can be done in any other way. The remaining 
 portions of the device are similar to those in the de- 
 vice first alluded to above. 
 
 The name Pony Planer is also given to a most 
 useful wood-planing machine. One of the best ma- 
 chines of this cla.ss, and one adapted for a great 
 variety of work, is shown in the drawing. It has 
 very powerful, geared, double feed-rolls, four inches 
 in diameter. Those in front are weighted, those be- 
 hind are provided with self-adju.sting scrapers. The 
 machine can take a ij inch cut, and is adjustable to 
 different thicknesses of stuff by a single hand wheel, 
 -j>,i of an inch to a turn. Either plane is smooth 
 enough for any work. but three admit of faster feed, 
 and tlie feed cones are made accordingly. Two 
 pressure bars are close to the cutterliead. the front 
 one hinged and weighted. The machine is suitable 
 for heavy as well as tor light and very short stuff. 
 The shaving giuird and feed-roll covers are hinged, 
 to give access to the knives, which can be whetted 
 when in place. The principal bearing boxes are self- 
 oiling. The heavy boxed shaped base is proof 
 against twisting even when standing on a weak 
 floor, which will often yield from the weight of lum- 
 ber, thereby straining the bearings of the macliincs, 
 and causing them to work hard and wear out quick- 
 
 Military Knights at "Windsor, England, wliich owes 
 its origin to Edward III., and is a provision for a 
 limited number of old otficers. These officers consist 
 of a Governor and 13 Knights on the upper founda- 
 tion, and 5 on the lower, together 18, and are com- 
 posed of olBcers selected from every grade, from a 
 Colonel to a Subaltern, chiefly veterans, or on half- 
 pay. The.y are allowed three rooms each in'Windsor 
 Palace, and 2 shillings per diem for their sustenance, 
 besides other small allowances. 
 
 POPPET-HEAD.—That part of a lathe which holds 
 the back-center, and can be fixed on any part of the 
 bed. Boring-machines have a poppet-head. 
 
 POROSITY.— By this term we express the experi- 
 mental fact that no kind of matter completely nils 
 the space it occupies ; in other words, that all bodies 
 are full of minute cavities or interstices, such as are 
 ilhistrated on a large scale by a sponge. On the 
 atomic theory, it is obvious that this must be the 
 case if the atoms of matter are spherical, or, indeed, 
 if they have any form save one or two special ones, 
 such as cubes or rhomlnc dodecahedrons. It is 
 commonly asserted that all bodies must be porous, 
 becatise they are compressible ; but this is a great 
 mistake, since we have no reason to believe "that 
 matter is not jjcr.w compressil)le, independently of 
 the existence of interstices. The Florentine Acade- 
 micians, in their attempts to compress water, 
 proved the porosity of silver by flattening sphere 
 of tliat metal, filled with water, nd soldered. The 
 water escaped llirough the ])ores of the silver, and 
 stood in fine drops on its surface. The porosity of 
 liquids is easily shown by mixing alcohol and water. 
 Tlie bulk of ttie mixture is considerably less than 
 the sum of the bulks of the components, showing 
 tliat these must in part have entered each other's 
 (•ores. Tliis iiroperty of matter is of great impor- 
 tance in the Arsenal and Laboratory.
 
 PORTABLE DRILL. 
 
 561 
 
 PORTABLE FIRE ARU8. 
 
 PORTABLE DRILL. A form of drill iiuicli frnploy- 
 C(l inarHciials. l'„ drillHiil any luiuli', in iuiy poHilioii, 
 at any diHtancc, and in any din-el ion from llic power. 
 It is especially adapted to drilliiii: all |)ieees which 
 are ine<invenient to move, or wliieli eaniiol lie readi- 
 ly .'idjusled under ulalionary drilliiiix miiehiiies. TIk- 
 (irawini; shows the drill as employed al Ihe Waler- 
 lowti Ars<'nal. It is used in four sizes: No. 1 is in- 
 tended for lii;ht work only. It will drill \iptn 1 inch 
 diameter. Th(' spindle has inches feed — the post 
 has C) inches vertical adjuslmenl -the arm is moved 
 in and out by a screw, and roliiled liy a worm an<l 
 taM};ent-whe(0. nivini; a convenient and deliealf ail- 
 juslment to the drill. With one settini; it will drill 
 anywhere over a surface of ;i:i inches oulsidi' di- 
 ameter, and 11 inches inside diameter- the spindle 
 cau be set to any anjjjle (up to 30 degrees) with the 
 base — the post can be held in the split bearing on the 
 side for drilling parallel with the base. The weight 
 is I'Za poun<ls. No. 2, is similar to No. 1, with more 
 power and range. It will drill up to 1 h inches di- 
 ameter. The sjiindle hasti inches feed- the post has 
 n inches vertical adjustment. With one settini; it 
 will drill over a surface 43 inches outside diameter, 
 ami i:5 inches inside diameter. The w-eighl is 200 
 pounds. No. 3, is the most popular and useful size. 
 It will drill up to 2 inches diameter. The spincDe has 
 8 inches feed, working automatically when desired, 
 with 3 speeds of feed -the jxist has (i inches vertical 
 adjustment. With one .setting it will drill anywiiere 
 over a surface 43 inches outsi(le, and 13 inches inside 
 diameter. The weight is 240 pounds. No. 4, is in- 
 tended for heavy work. It will drill anj' size hole and 
 bore up to 8 inches diameter. The spindle luiH 13 
 inches automatic feed — the post hasO inches vertical 
 adjustment- with one setting it will drill anywhere 
 over a surface 5G inches outside, and IG inches in.side 
 diameter. Back gearing. The weight is 390 pounds. 
 The operation of llu^ drill is simple and as follows: 
 The counter-hanger is bolted to the ceiling or otlier 
 convenient place, and receives power from the "line 
 shaft" by a tiat belt on the fast and loose pidleys. 
 The frame carrying the "idlers" rotates on a hollow 
 stud, through which the round belt passes to the 
 grooved driving pulley. The rotation of this frame 
 permits the belt to be led to the drilling-nuichine in 
 any direction, radially, from the hanger, while the 
 rise and fall of the weighted "idler" permits it to be 
 led to any point within the scope of this rise and fall 
 — say ten to fifteen feet or more. By inserting sec- 
 tions of belt, by means of the hook "couplings, any 
 distance can be reached. The base is intended to be 
 bolted or clamped to the piece to be drilled. Tlie 
 height of the post can be adjusted to suit the different 
 lengths of drills aiKl 
 chucks used in the sjiin- 
 dle. The radial slotttxl 
 arm is fastened to the 
 post b)' the stud and 
 nut ; the position of tlie 
 drill being adjusted by 
 Ihe screw which travels 
 the arm, and the worm 
 and tangent-wheel that 
 rotates it on the post. 
 When it is required to 
 drill parallel with the 
 , base, the post Is held uy 
 the clamp bearing on the 
 
 side of the base. There is a shoulder turned on the 
 bottom of the ball on the gear frame (of sizes 1, 2, 
 and 3), and a half collar fitted to it and bolted on 
 the arm; this keeps the spindle square with the base. 
 When this half collar is removed, the spindie can be 
 aet to an angle in any direction. When not being 
 used on the floor, it serves the purpose of a bench 
 drill press. See Drilling-tnachine. 
 
 PORTABLE FIRE-ARMS.— The portable-fire arms 
 employed as militar.r weapons of war are rities, 
 carbines, and pistols ; these generally rary in con- 
 
 struction witli the Nation by which thr:y are used. 
 The term "breech-loailing" a|)plieK to those urrng 
 in which the charge is inserted through an opening 
 in the breech, and in the loading of which no ramrod 
 is re(|uirecl. All ndlitary br<<-ch-louderH, now in use, 
 employ the metallic cas'e carlriilgi' ; they may be i\\. 
 vidediiUo i/m/"V l,ni'li.!i''i'l'ri utA ri"riyitcrH. The 
 
 essential parts of all such arms are the barrel, the 
 chamber, the birech-meclianiim. the lock, the stock, 
 the nightu, and the mauntingK. and in repeaters the 
 magazine. If the chamber be made in the piece 
 which closes the breech, commonly called the breech- 
 block, the arm is said to have a niorabU chamber; if 
 it be formed bv counterboring the barrel, it is said 
 to have &fiid chamber. The latter has great ad- 
 vantages, and is generally used. With the fixed 
 chamber the interior of the barrel is divided into 
 two distinct parts, viz., the bi/re proper, or space
 
 PORTABLE FIEE-AEMS. 
 
 562 
 
 PORTABLE FIRE ARMS. 
 
 through which the projectile moves under tlic in- 
 flueuce of the powder, and the chamber in wliicli the 
 charge is deposited. Tlie principal parts peculiar 
 to simple breech-loaders are ; 1st. The tiiuvable hreecli- 
 block, by which the chamber is opened and closed. 
 3d The hreerh -frame, upon wliich the breech-block 
 is mounted and united to the barrel. 3d. Theo/;^;?!- 
 ber, with its recess, to receive the rim of the cart- 
 ridge. 4th. The firing-pin, which transmits the blow 
 of the hammer to the cartridge. 5th. The extraetor , 
 by which the empty case is removed after tiring. 
 
 The foregoing named parts may be said to be es- 
 sential to all breech-loading arms in which tlie me- 
 tallic cartridge is used; the diflferent ways in which 
 they are combined mark the systems. These com- 
 binations have reference chiefly to the modes of 
 operating and locking the breech-ljlock. The dif- 
 ferent systems may be classified into: 1st, those 
 with a fixed chamber; 2d, those with a mirrable 
 chamber. The latter have now become obsolete. 
 The first class have: 1st, a morable bnrnl; 3d, a 
 movable breech-block. With each the motion ma_v be 
 sliding, in which case it moves in grooves; rotating, 
 when it swings on a hinge ; or sliding and rotating 
 combined. The greater number of systems belong 
 to the class of a •'m(>val)le breech-jjlock rotating 
 about an axis." In arms of this class the axis of 
 motion may be parallel to the axis of the barrel, and 
 above, below, or to one side of it ; or perpendicular 
 to that axis, being vertical or horizontal, and lying 
 in or out of the plane of the axis. The position of the 
 hinge has an important influence on the facility of 
 operating the block, inserting the cartridge, and ex- 
 tracting the empty shell : the most suitable position 
 is deemed to be in front of the center of the block. 
 In this case the motion of opening and closing the 
 block is natural and easy ; the cartridge is pushed 
 into its place by the block, and a very simple re- 
 tractor serves to withdraw the empty shell after fir- 
 ing. The most serious defect found in breecli-load- 
 ing arms w.as the escape of the flame through the 
 joint, which not only incommoded the soldier, but, 
 by fouling tlie machinery, seriously interfered with 
 its operations. At present this is entirely overcome 
 by the elastic metallic case of the cartridge. The 
 advantages of breech-loading over muzzle-loading 
 arms are : 1st. Greater certainty and rapidity of fire". 
 3d. Greater security from accidents and loading. 
 3d. The impossibilitj' of getting more than one cart- 
 ridge into the piece at the same time. 4th. Great- 
 er facility of loading under all circumstances, and 
 particularly when the soldier is mounted, lying on 
 the ground, or firing from behind any cover. "The 
 greater security with which the charge is kept in 
 place when the piece, is carried on horse-back with 
 the muzzle down. 
 
 TluTe are certain functions performed by, and 
 certain important conditions to lje fulfilled in, the 
 construction of the different portions of a small- 
 arm. Tlie barrel is by far the most important part 
 of a fire-arm, its oflice Ix'ing to concentrate the force 
 of a charge of powder on a projectile, and give it 
 proper initial velocity and direction; for these 
 purposes, and for the safety of the firer. it should 
 fje made of tlie best material and with the greatest 
 care. In determining the exterior form, it is not 
 only necessary' to give siicli tliickness to the ditTer- 
 «nt parts iis will best resist the explosion effect of 
 the charge, but such as will ^ireveiit it from beiiiu: 
 "bentwhen used as a jiike.or when subject to the rough 
 "usage of the service. We'ght, to a certain extent 
 is necessary to limit recoil, to give steadiness to the 
 barrel in aiiiiiiig, and to jirevent it from " s]>rin!jing" 
 in firing. The latter defect generally arises from 
 bad workinaiiship, whereby there is a greater thick- 
 ness of metal, and consecpiently less expansion, on 
 one side of tlie bore than on the otlier. In souk; 
 sporting rilles till' barrel weighs from 13 to l.") Ilis., 
 tut in the military service, where it is carried bv 
 tlie soldier, it seldom weighs more than 4i lbs. The 
 
 I ngth of the barrel is determined by the nature of 
 the service to which it is applied.rather than by the ef- 
 fect wliich it exerts on the force ofthecharge. It was 
 shown by experiment that the velocity of a projec- 
 tile in a smooth-bored musket increased with the 
 length of the bore up to 108 calibers at least, but 
 such length of barrel would be too heavy for a fire- 
 arm and too unwield}' as a pike ; in a rifled barrel 
 the increase extended to about 350 calibers. 
 
 Three points are to be considered in determining 
 the caliber of small arms: 1st. It should be as small 
 as possible to enable the soldier to carrv the greatest 
 number of cartridges. 3d. To diminish the amount' 
 of ammunition required to supply the wants of an 
 arm}', and to prevent the confusion liable to arise 
 from a variety of calibers, there should not be more 
 than two for all arms of the same service, viz., one 
 for the rifle and the carbine, and one for the pistol. 
 3d. This point relates to the force and accuracy of 
 the projectile, and to the flatness of its trajectory. 
 The introduction of elongated projectiles affordel 
 the means of increasing the accuracy and range of 
 fire-arms, withoiit increasing the weight of the pro- 
 jectile, simply by reducing the caliber, which dimin- 
 ished tlie surface opposed to the air. Too great 
 reduction of caliber, however, gives a very long 
 and weak projectile, and besides the effect of a pro- 
 jectile on an animate object depends not onlj' on its 
 penetration, but also on the shock communicated by 
 it to the nervous system, or upon the surface of con- 
 tact. These considerations have led to a general re- 
 duction of caliber of military rifles. 
 
 The gromes being for the purpose of communicat- 
 ing a rotar_v motion to the p-'ojectile around an axis 
 coincident with its flight, their construction will de- 
 pend upon the form, dimension and material of the 
 projectile, charge of powder, and angle of fire. The 
 points to be considered in determining the form of 
 grooves for military arms are range, accuracy of 
 fire, endurance, and facility of cleanin'j; the bore. 
 Experiment, in this country, has shown that for 
 breech-loaders these points are best attained by mak- 
 ing the grooves broad and shallow, and with a rapid 
 twist. Tlie cltamber being a receptacle for the charge, 
 its shape is made to conform to that of the cartridge. 
 Its diameter is made a little larger, and that of the 
 bore a little smaller than that of the projectile , this 
 facilitates the insertion of the charge, and causes the 
 projectile to be compressed and held firmly by the 
 lands in its passage through the bore. The bottom 
 of the grooves and the surface of the chamber are 
 generally continuous. 
 
 The breech-ynecJianism comprises the principal parts 
 that are peculiar to arms loading at the breech. 
 The functions of these parts are the opening, closing, 
 and locking of the breech, firing the charge, and re- 
 moving the empty cartridge shell. These are the 
 objects for the accomplishment of which the differ- 
 ent sj'stemsare variously contrived, and with which 
 alone thej'are concerned. The most important con- 
 ditions to be fulfilled in the arrangement of this me- 
 chanism are: 1st. The number of parts shoidd be as 
 few as possible, and all should be of the simplest 
 construction. 2d. The strength and union of the 
 parts should be such as not only to resist repeated 
 discharges, but the bursting of a cartridge case, 
 which sometimes occurs from defective material or 
 workmanship. 3d. The locking of the breech-block 
 should not only be secure, but all the parts by which 
 it is effected should worlc freely without sticking. 
 4tli. The parts sliould be so iirranged tli;it the ham- 
 mer cannot strike the tiriug-pin until the breech- 
 block is properly locked, .'ith. The liaiiiuier should 
 not necessarily rest on the liriiig-pin when the iiieccis 
 carried loaded (Ah. The breech sliould be unlocked 
 without the hammer liiini; brought necessarily to 
 full cock. 7tli. The working parts should, as far as 
 possible, lie covered from dust and water, 8lli. The 
 extractor should be so arranged as to reipiire no cuts 
 or openings in that i>«irt of the chamber which sur-
 
 POBTABLE FOSOE. 
 
 )r)3 
 
 POHTABLE FOBOE. 
 
 rounds tliR body of llio riirlriilgc riisp. Tlii' ^Wi; is 
 tlicmuchinn by which llii: chiir^jc in the ('urlridi^f! \n 
 if^nitod. Thortcof the prcHciil diiybi'loni; to llicpcr-i 
 cus.sion class, in wliich tire is produced l)y a blow 
 upon thofulininiitin); powder conliiincd in the cart- ; 
 ridf;c-case. Fiocks are divided into »/>/'■ and cfnl^^rl 
 locks, (h'pendini; upon tlie position occupied in tin- 
 Mtock; eadi of th<'S(^ may lie cltlier friiii.t-iicfiun, 
 wherein tlic inainsprinij is in front of llie luinl)l<T, 
 or hnck-acliiiii, wlien! tins s])rini; is in rear of the 
 tmnbler. The mortise, which forms a bed for the 
 lock of the latter (construction, seriously alTects the 
 streni^tli of the stock at the handle, -and for this 
 reason the front-action lock is j;''"i'™lly i)reffrred 
 for all military arms, except revolvers. Tin' condi- 
 tions to be fullilled in the construction of a military 
 lock, are simplicity, strenu;tli, cerlainly of action, 
 ami freedom from such accidental motion of the parts 
 as might produce explosion of the charge in the bar- 
 rel. 
 
 The stock is the wooden part of the fire-arm, to 
 which all the parts are asscmble<l; for military arms 
 it is preferable that it sliould be ill one piece. The 
 material should be lii;lit, stroni;, and well seasoned. 
 The bull, the jKirl intended Ifi rest aj^ainst the shoul- 
 der and to sup))ort the recoil of the piece, should be 
 of such leni^th and sliajie as will ('nable it to trans- 
 mit the recoil with the least inconvenience to the 
 soldier. The longer it is, to a certain extent, the 
 more firmly will it be ]iresscd aijainst the shoul- 
 der, and the effect of the recoil will be a piixli rather 
 than a hhnf. The stock is crooked at the handle for 
 convenience in aimina;, and for the purpose of dimin- 
 ishing the direct action of the recoil, ('hanginir the 
 direction of the recoil in this manner causes the piece 
 to rotate around the shoulder; but if the stock be 
 made toocrooked, the butt will be liable to fly up and 
 , strike the soldier's face. The nirjliU are guides by 
 which the piece is given the elevation and direction 
 necessary to hit the object. There are two; calletl 
 front and rfnr nigliU. The //■««? m'glit is fixed to the 
 barrel near the mu/./.le. 'T\w. flnrninK of its point is 
 regulated by the length of the barrel, or distance 
 from the eye, and the size and distance of the ob- 
 ject generally aimed at; it is made coarser in mili- 
 tary than in sporting arms, to prevent injury. The 
 rmr night is attached to the l)arrel a short dis- 
 tance from the breech; it has a movable part, capa- 
 ble of being adjusted for ditfcrent elevations of the 
 barrel. A sight for a military arm should sati.sf)- 
 the following conditions, viz. : 1st, it should be 
 easily adjusted for all distances within effective 
 range; 2d, the form of the notch should permit the 
 eyeto catch the object quickly; 3d, it should not 
 be easily deranged by the accidents of service. Olobe 
 and telescopic sights are used for very accurate sport- 
 ing arms, but they are too delicate in their structure 
 and too slow in their operations for general pur- 
 poses. 
 
 The mountings may be divided into three classes, 
 viz.: 1st, those which serve to connect the principal 
 parts, generally bands and screws; 2d, those which 
 protect from wear or strengthen the stock at certain 
 points, as the butt-plate, guard-plate, tip: 3d, the 
 minor parts which secure the different parts (includ- 
 ing the mountings proper) in their place, consisting 
 of "springs, screws, rivets, pins, washers and nuts. 
 
 A butt-plate is to protect the end of the stock from 
 injury by contact with the ground; it is generally 
 curved to fit the shoulder in tiring. A guard-plate is 
 to strengthen the handle of the stock; it may serve as 
 a fulcrum for the trigger. A tip is a shield placed on 
 the end of the stock towards the muzzle. If the 
 piece be intended to be carried upon the soldier's 
 back, it is provided with awireh for that purpose. 
 generally two, one of which may be fastened to a 
 band and the other to the guard-plate, or to a point 
 of the stock in rear of that plate. The trigger is a 
 lever used to set the lock in motion. TViggers are 
 divided, according to their construction and the 
 
 force reipiired to rlraw them, inlii ri/mmon and net or 
 /inir triggers; the latter are employed only in sport- 
 iiig arms. The force re(|uired to set off the trigger, 
 if very great, may <Iislurb the accuracy of tlie aim; if 
 it be slight, the piece will be liable to accidental (iio- 
 oliarges. The trigger has a guard which protects 
 thir finger.i)iec(' from injury, and from accidental 
 blows that might produce explosions. 'I'he ramrod 
 is a long, slender piece, carried with an arm; with 
 breech-loaders it is only eniploye<l to wipi; out the 
 barrel to remove from it any obstruction, as a defec- 
 tive cartridge-shell. Hee Small-nrmii, and Mpring. 
 field Rifle. 
 
 PORTABLE FOBGE.-Alight and compact black- 
 siiiitli's forge, with bellows or lilowers, etc., all so 
 arranged as to be readily movi'd from place to place. 
 Kig. 1, shows a most complete jxirtable forge, de- 
 signed for army usage. Its height is 22 inches ; 
 size of firepan, 22x'-i7 inches, weight, 20() pounds ; 
 and diameter of the fan 9 inches. The firepan is 
 made of wrought-iron. and is 10 inches deep, con- 
 taining all till' other p:irts of the forge when packed 
 for transjjortation. The blower and gearing are 
 compactly framed together, and lit into a slot on the 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 end of the forge when in use. It has the chain gear- 
 ing described under Riveting Forge. The legs made 
 of angle iron, fit into slots at the comers of the fire- 
 pan. The tuyere-box fits into a slot under the hearth, 
 which is made of heavy cast-iron, and is bolted to the 
 bottom of the firepan. The lid of the firepan is made 
 of heavy sheet-iron, and so attached by strong hinges, 
 that when the forge is in use, it is raised perpen- 
 dicularly, forming a back or a fender. The forge 
 can be set up for use, or packed for transportation 
 in one minute. To pack the forge for transportation. 
 
 as shown in Fig. 2, the blower and gearing, the legs 
 and tuyere-box are withdrawn from their slots, and 
 with the short blast pipe, are placed in the firepan. 
 The falling doors at the sides of the firepan are 
 closed and fastened. The lid is shut down, and fa.«- 
 tened by a hasp. The entire forge thus packed oc- 
 cupies a space only 22 X '^7 inches square and 10 ia-
 
 PORTABLE MAGAZINE. 
 
 564 
 
 POSITION OF THE SOLDIEB. 
 
 ches deep. This forge will produce a quick welding 
 heat on iron three inches diameter, and on larger 
 iron if required, as there is an abundance of spare 
 blast. 
 
 PORTABLE MAGAZINE.— A wooden box or metal- 
 liueil case, covered with canvas, aud of such size as 
 to be easily carried in a battery from place to place 
 when there is only one expense magazine for several 
 batteries ; but this would scarcely ever be the case 
 in the future, as expense magazines in the present 
 fortifications are provided in the proportion of 1 to 
 every 4 or 5 guns, or in the case of very heavy guns, 
 1 to evcrv 2 or 3. 
 
 PORT "arms.— This old command in musketry 
 drill, is derived from p"Hare. to carry, and applies 
 to a motion in which the tire-arm is brouglit to a 
 slanting position in front of the body, lock to the 
 front, the barrel crossing opposite the front of the 
 left shnulder. See Arms Port. 
 
 PORTATE.— In Heraldry, borne not erect, but 
 athwart an escutcheon ; as, a portate cross. 
 PORTCULLIS.— A b irrier, termed a porUullh, which 
 can be lowered or raised vertically by machinery, is 
 sometimes added to secure a passage-way from 
 surprise. The ancient portcullis was a framework 
 of heavy beams, placed vertically, leaving a few 
 inches only between each pair of beams. Tfiese ver- 
 tical beams were either solidly confined between hor- 
 izontal beams, or clamping- 
 pieces, in pairs; or else they 
 were so arranged that they 
 rould slide upwards between 
 the clamping-pieces. Each 
 of the vertical beams was shod 
 at the bottom with a strong 
 pointed iron shoe. The hori- 
 zontal pieces were framed se- 
 curely with two heavy vertical 
 beams that formed the sides of the frame, aud were 
 fitted into vertical grooves made in the side walls 
 of the passage-way "in which the frame could slide 
 when raised or lowered. By arranging the vertical 
 beams to slide upwards between the clamping-pieces, 
 it enabled the passage-way to be closed where an ob- 
 struct ion might be designedly placed before the port- 
 cullis to prevent this being done; as the beams which 
 meet the obstruction would be pushed upwards, 
 whilst the others would fall to their ordinary level 
 and close the passage-way on each side of the ob- 
 struction. 
 
 In the works recently constructed with us the port- 
 cullis, and even the doors preceding them, have 
 been constructed of a strong open lattice-work of 
 wrought-iron bars bolted strongly to the wrought- 
 iron uprights and cross-pieces, forming the frame- 
 work of tlie lattice. Tliis is a great improvement 
 for these purposes, both as to durability and defense. 
 Passage-ways of this description should l)e secured 
 by all tlie means at an engineer's disposal. A large 
 guard-room, with loop-holes bearing on the passage, 
 should be erected on one side, near the gateway; 
 and if the enceinte is a simple one, w>tliout outworks 
 beyond its ditch, a small lunette, or loopholed tam- 
 bour of masonry, or tindier, should be constructed 
 beyond the coun1crscar]i, fdrming a tete-de-pont, for 
 the security of the liridge from surprise. 
 
 2. In Heraldry, the portcullis is represented with 
 rings at its uppermost angles, from which chains de- 
 pend on either side. It was a badge of the JSeaufort 
 family, and borne in virtue of their Beaufort descent 
 by the Tudor Sovereigns. Portcullis is the title of a 
 pursuivant in the Kuglisli College of Arms, whose 
 oriicr was iiisiituted by Henry VH. 
 
 PORTER BAR. In iron working, when a mass is 
 too large to be handled conveuienily with the tongs, 
 a large iron rod, called the porter-bar, is welded to 
 it to serve as a porter or guide-rod. Somc'.inu's a 
 part of tlie porler-bar is made to fo;-ni the core of the 
 forging, and the slalis of iron which form the forg- 
 ing arc welclcd ;iii(l liuilt up on the bar. When the 
 
 Width. 
 
 Depth. Weight 
 
 9.1 
 
 .5.1 38 
 
 0.1 
 
 10.1 70 
 
 -The name formerly given 
 
 mass of iron is too large to be handled by the forge- 
 man, it is supported by a crane, which .serves to 
 swinii: it from the lire to the hammer. SeellfWmjr. 
 
 PORT-FIRE.— A sort of slow match for tiring guns. 
 It consists of a paper tube from 10 to 20 inches in 
 length, filled with a composition thus proportioned: 
 Saltpeter GOG parts, sulphur 222 parts, mealed gun- 
 powder 112 parts. The composition is rammed with 
 force into the paper barrel, and then when ignited it 
 burns for a considerable period. As a substitute 
 ma3' be employed soft brown paper dipped in a solu- 
 tion of two ounces of niter to a gallon of water, dried, 
 and rolled up to the size of a common port-fire. An- 
 other port-fire consists of a rod cut square, of lime, 
 birch, or poplar, boiled for six hours in a solution 
 formed by dissolving 1 lb. of nitrate of lead in one 
 quart of water. The rod is subsequently boiled in 
 spirits of turpentine. When thoroughly dried, one 
 yard will burn three hours. 
 
 Port-fires are packed in boxes containing 100 or 
 200. The contents of the box should be marked in 
 white letters on each end, aud the place and date of 
 fabrication on the inside of the cover. The follow- 
 ing are the particulars of the packing-boxes for port- 
 fires. 
 
 Length. 
 For 100 port-fires, 18 
 For 200 port-fires, 18 
 
 See Firfirorks. 
 
 PORT-FIRE CLIPPEK.- 
 to the cutting implement which was fixed on the off 
 side of the beam trail of a gun carriage, for cutting 
 off the lighted end of the port-fire. Port-fires being 
 no longer in use, except on emergency, and having 
 been superseded by friction tubes, the sockets and 
 cutters have been removed from all artillery car- 
 riages. 
 
 PORT-FIRE CUTTER — An implement for cutting 
 port-fires to place in shells or for other purposes. It 
 is simply a strong pair of steel scissors, with an in- 
 dentation one inch wide and four inches deep made 
 in one of the blades for the purpose of holding the 
 port-fire. 
 
 PORTGLAVE. — An ancient name for a sword- 
 bearer. 
 
 POSITION OF THE SOLDIER.— When dismounted, 
 the proper pondliou of the soldier is as follows: Heels 
 on the same line, aud as near each other as the con- 
 formation of the man permits. The feet turned out 
 equally, and lorming with each other an angle of 
 about sixty degrees. The knees straight, without 
 stiffness. The body erect on the hips, inclining a 
 little forward. The shoulders square, and falling 
 equally. The arms hanging naturally. The elbows 
 near tiie body. The palms of the hand turned slight- 
 ly to the frcmt, the little fingers behind the seams of 
 the trousers. The head erect and square to the front. 
 The chin slightly drawn in, without constraint. The 
 eyes straight to the front, and striking the ground at 
 about the distance of fifteen yards. 
 
 These points will lie belter imder.stood by a refer- 
 ence to the following remarks : lleils on Vie mine 
 line. If one be in rear of tlie other, the shoulder on 
 that side will be thrown back, and the position con- 
 strained. Ileili mure or lexs rhmil. Slen who are 
 knock-kneed, or who have legs with large calves, 
 cannot, without constraint, make their heels touch 
 while standing. Feet turned out erjiiolli/, and not 
 fiirming too large an angle. If one foot be turned 
 out more than the other, the shoulders will be de- 
 ranged, anil if both feet be too niucli turned out, it 
 wili lie iiiipc\ siblc to incline the up]ii'r ]>art of the 
 body fcirward without making the whole position 
 unsteady. Knees straight, iritlioiit stiffness. If stift'- 
 ened, cinistraint and fatigue will be ■.mavoidablc. 
 liody erect on tlie hips. This gives equilibrium to the 
 position. The Instructor will ob.servc, that many re- 
 cruits have the liad haliit of drojiping a shoulder or 
 advancing a hip, These defects he will labor to cor- 
 rect. The upjier part of body incting Jbrirard. lie-
 
 POSITIONS. 
 
 565 
 
 POSITIONS. 
 
 criiit.s are commonly disposed to the reverse, to pro- 
 ject the belly and throw back the shoulders, which 
 causes i^rc'at ijicoMveiiieiice in MiarchiriiT. 'I"he habit 
 of inclining; forward Ihc upper |)art of thi' body is so 
 important to contract, that tin- Inslructor must en- 
 force it from the beninnirif;, parlicularly with re- 
 cruits who have naturally the o])posite tendency. 
 tS/ii/ii/.(liri Kf/miri\ If the shoulilers be advanceil be- 
 yond the line of the breast, and tlie bacU arched 
 (the defiM-l callril round-shoulilereil i. the man can- 
 Miit alii;n himself nor us<' his arms with address. 
 I'nless the coat tits easily about the shoidders and 
 arm]iits, it will he ditlicult to correct this defect. 
 The shoulders must not hi' tlirown too far back, as 
 this will mak(' the belly project, and curve tlie small 
 <»f the back. Arinn JniiKjinti nntur'flli/; rthiurM iti'iir 
 I hi' hiiilij: polmn nf tin Juin ils I urn id filii/htlj/'J/i llie fnrnt; 
 null' finyerx heJiind tlir maiiiH of tin- trou«i'n. These 
 positions prevent tlie men from occupyinj; unneces- 
 sary space in the ranks, and keep in the shoulders. 
 lleailtrcet and Mpiare to the front; cJihiKliglitly ilniirn 
 in irilhimt atnstraint. If tluTe be stiffness in these 
 posili(ms, it will be coinnuinicated tollie upper [jart 
 of the body, embarrass its movements, andi;ive jiain 
 and fatii^iie. Kifix xtrnhjhtto thv frmit. Tliis is the 
 surest way of maintainim; tlie shoulders in a lini — an 
 essential oliject to be insisted upon and attained. 
 
 When mounted (horse unsaddled) the proper posi- 
 tion of the soldier is as follows: Tlie buttocks bear- 
 ini; equally ujion the horse's back, and as far forward 
 as |)ossible. The thijilis turned upon their Hat side 
 without etfort, embracini^ the horse equally, and 
 stretched only by their <iwn weiijht and that of the 
 lejjs. The knees bent without stilVncss. The leirs and 
 feet free, and falliii;; naturally, the feet, jiarallel to 
 the horse. The body erect and unconstiaiiied. The 
 slioulders e()ually thrown back. The arms free, the 
 elbows fallinsr naturally. The head erect, square to 
 the front, and without constraint. One rein in each 
 hanil, the rein comins; into the closed hand on the 
 si(h' of the little tinjxer.and passinu; (Hit over the first 
 tiiij?er,ou which the thumb is |iressed,the hijiht (end) 
 of the reins falliiii: to the front and b<-tween the right 
 rein and the horse's neck; the hands as hisih as the 
 elbows, and six inches apart; the fingers turned to- 
 ward each other. 
 
 These points will be better understood by a refer- 
 ence to the followini; remarks; Buttnehi hearing e- 
 qiiiiUy upon the hm'xt'n hitrk. If they do not sujiport 
 equally the weight of the bod}', its steadiness will be 
 impaired. As furforinird as pr'niiible. That the thighs 
 may readily clasp the horse. Thighs turned upon their 
 Jtiitside.irithinit ejf'ort.eml/raeitig the horse eijiiaUp. The 
 more tlie thighs adhere to the Iiorse, the greater is 
 the stability of the rider; if they do not clasp the 
 horse equally, the seat will be der;uigetl. Stretched 
 only hy their mm weight, iind that of the ligs. If they 
 do not fall naturally, they can only lie extended by 
 an effort, which will cause constraint. Kiwes bent 
 ■inthout stiffness. To give facility in carrying the legs 
 more orless to the rear, without deranging the posi- 
 tion of the thighs. Legs and feet free, and falling 
 ■naturally: feet parallel to the horse. Stiffness in the 
 legs will impair their action ; if the feet be parallel 
 to the horse, the thighs will be in proper position. 
 liody i-reet and unennstrained. This gives ease, and 
 enables it to conform with suppleness to the motions 
 of the horse. S/io'ilders er/iially throirn bark. If thrown 
 forward, the back will be curved, and the breast con- 
 tracted; if not thrown back equally, the position of 
 the body will lie distorted. Anns free, and elboics 
 fiitliny naturally. That the)- may contribute to the 
 steadiness of tlie seat, and not stiffen tiie shoulders or 
 forearms. Head erert. sr/iiare to the ront, and irith- 
 out ronstraint. If not erect, the body will incline to 
 one side; if there be stiffness, it will be communicat- 
 ed to the upper part of the body, and prevent the 
 head fnnii iiiovins with freedom. 
 
 POSITIONS.- The skill of the Engineer is chieHy 
 shown in adapting tlic resources of his art to the 
 
 great variety of topograpliical feuturcH met witli in 
 the positions that an army is necessuriiy obliged lo 
 occupy wh<n acting on the defi'nsive. No less skill 
 is called for on the jiart of the General in the selec- 
 tion of his defensive jioints, as no engineering skill 
 can remedy, in other than a defective manner, a 
 position which is strongly coinmaniled by points 
 which the assailed can occupy within good cannon 
 range, or tin- flanks of which can be readily turned. 
 To fortify similar jxisitions demands a degree of 
 effort in the invers<' ratio of their strength, ami for 
 the most part is but labor in vain. Two principal 
 questions present themselves in a strictly defensive 
 war; the one strati giriil, the other tarXieeil. The first 
 is based upon the general features of the territory to 
 be defended as affecting the ojierations of the assail- 
 ing force, and the system of w;irfare the liest adap- 
 t<'dto the assailed; tlie second on the particular tojK)- 
 grajiliiial features of the positions where resistance 
 is to be made. The first attention, will naturally be 
 given to the system of defense for the frontier, 
 whether one or more strong jioints shall be alone oc- 
 cupied from which the assailed can be ob.servcd; or 
 wlKther a continued line of natural and artificial ob- 
 stacles sh.-ill be ])resentedto obstruct the movements 
 of the invading force. Although opinion is against 
 the latter method, the question is one that cannot 
 be decided in an absolute manner. The numbers 
 and quality of the army on the defensive : polit- 
 ical as well as numerois military considerations ; 
 the character of the frontier in great detail : the 
 facilities for the rajiid concentratiim of the troops: 
 and the security of the line of retreat have an impor- 
 tant bearing u|>oii it and at all times demand the 
 most careful consideration. That a very extended 
 line is n<'cessarily a weak one is generally admitted; 
 still a system of continued lines, ina countrj' difficult 
 to penetrate, may be nsed with advantage, and if 
 weak when assailed by a strcjng force, may serve as 
 an obstruction to a weak one, and be i)articiilarly 
 serviceable agaiuts niids. Such a line may be made 
 to play the s;ime p:irt as the lines thrown u]) in siege 
 operations to prevent the garrison besieged from 
 obtaining succor or supiilies by detachments trying 
 to penetrate them. The tactical considerations are 
 the same in the application of field fortifications 
 a position as for the distribution of troops for its 
 defense. Their principal value depends upon the 
 character of the site itself. If it has the (|ualitiesof 
 a good defensive field of battle, and lends itself to 
 such a disposition of intrenchments as the troops 
 themselves would naturally assume, then the essen- 
 tial tactical considerations can be secured. In all 
 such cases both the plan and the command of the 
 s\-stem employed must be subordinate to the site: to 
 attempt more than this would require the time and 
 means far beyond the command of an army in the 
 field. 
 
 Positions derive their great importance from the 
 influence of fire-arms in the decision of liattles; 
 for whatever enables one party to deliver its fire 
 with effect against the other, whilst it, at the same 
 time, remains sheltered in any degree from that of 
 its adversary, places the advantage, all other things 
 being equal, greatly on its side: and it is this advan- 
 tage which should be principally kept in view in 
 selecting a position. Woods, commanding heightx, 
 preripires. and villages, constitute the strong points 
 of a position. They .serve as points of support 
 against which the wings of the army rest: or else, by 
 covering parts of the front, they may serve as tiie key 
 points in the defense. A wood, if properly in- 
 trenched, covers the infantry from the attacKS of 
 cavalry; conceals its maneuvers, and enables it to 
 deliver its fire without being exposed to that of the 
 enemy. Heights, by giving a commanding view of 
 the surrounding ground, increase both the range and 
 the effects of fire-arms; whilst they, at the .same 
 time, serve to screen the troops behind them until 
 thev are required to be brought into action. Preci-
 
 POSITIVE FEED. 
 
 566 
 
 POSSE C0MITATU8. 
 
 pices offer similar advantages to heights, and are 
 moreover unassailable. \ illages serve as secure 
 shelters for detarlimeuts, which, by their fire, cover 
 the maneuvers of the troops in their rear; and, if 
 properly intrenched, will cause the enemy great loss 
 in his effort to force his way into them. Ewers, 
 marshes, fiollmos and ravines, are the most luifavor- 
 able features of a position, because they may pre- 
 vent a free circulation from one point to another, and 
 thus impede the maneuvers; and they are exposed 
 to the full fire of the enemj'. They may, however, Ije 
 of service when they are so placed as to support the 
 wings, or, when the position being too extended for 
 the number of troops, they render parts of the front 
 unassailable. The best positions are those which, 
 being in due proportion to the force by which they 
 are occupied, command all the surrounding ground 
 within cannon range, the ground descending in a 
 gentle slope to the front, presenting woods, villages, 
 etc., to support the wings and cover parts of the 
 front, and admitting of a free circulation from one 
 point to another, with secure communications in 
 their rear in case of retreat. If with these advantag- 
 es, they present marshes, or other obstacles, which 
 will embarrass the enemy's movements, and force 
 him to advance in column, exposed to the fire and 
 free maneuvers of the assailed, they will unite 
 everything desirable in a favorable field of battle. 
 
 POSITIVE FEED.— The earlier model Galling guns 
 had cartridges fed to them by means of feed cases, 
 or b}' a drum , but recently a new method for supply- 
 ing the cartridges to the gun has been devised, which 
 is positive and certainin its action. In the old methods 
 of supplying ammunition to the gun, it was possible 
 for the cartridges to jam in feeding down from the 
 feed cases into the carrier or receiver, but in this 
 newly-improved feed, the mechanism never loses 
 control of the cartridges from the time they leave 
 the feed magazine, until they enter the chambers, 
 are loaded, fired, and the empty cases extracted. 
 With this new feed, it is impossible for the gun to 
 fail in its operation, even when it is worked by men 
 unacquainted with its use. This new improvement 
 not only greatly increases the rapidit}' and certainty 
 of fire, but enables the gun to be fired at the rate of 
 over 1,200 shots per minute, and at all degrees of 
 elevation or depression, which is something no other 
 machine gun can do. By firing the gun at proper 
 elevations, ascertained by means of a quadrant, the 
 bullets disciiargcd from it can be made to fall upon 
 men beliind breastworks, or entrenchments, at .all 
 distances, from 200 to 3500 3ards from the gun. 
 This " high angle," or " mortar" fire, adds greatly 
 to the effectiveness of the gun, and will, no doubt, 
 prove of inestiniiible value in future warfare. Ex- 
 periments have proved that musket-size balls, fired 
 from a Gatling gun at high angles, strike the ground 
 with sufficient force to penetrate from two to three 
 inches of timber. About 1,200 shots per minute can 
 be fired from the gun, raining down a hailstorm of 
 bullets on the heads of men behind entrenchments, 
 thus making such positions, in a short space of 
 time, untenable. Open breastworks, or uncovered 
 entrenclunents, would furnish little or no protection 
 totriKips aitainst llicrtre of this forniidabh- weapon. 
 
 POSSE COMITATUS.— A Sheriff or .Marsh;il, for the 
 purpiise of kei'piiig the peace and i>ursuing felons, 
 in;iy ccjmmaud ;ill the people of his county, above 15 
 years old, to attend hiin, which is called the Posse 
 Comitntus, or Power of the County. 
 
 It is not lawfid to cnii)loy any part of the Army of 
 the United States, as a Posse Comitatus, or other- 
 wise, for the i)urpose of executing the laws, except in 
 such cases and under such circumstances assuch em- 
 ployment of said force miiy be expresslj- authorized 
 bylhe (..'onslitulion or liy some special Act of Con- 
 gress ; and no money appropriated is used to pay the 
 expenses of any kind incurred in the eniployinent 
 of any troops in violation of this law; and any person 
 willfully violating the same is deemed guilty of a 
 
 misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof is punished 
 by fine not exceeding ten thousand dollars or impris- 
 onment not exceeding two years, or by both such 
 fine and imprisonment. The provisions of the Con- 
 stitution and of Acts of Congress understood as in- 
 tended to be excepted from the operation of this law, 
 authorizing the employment of the military forces 
 for the purpose of executing the laws, are as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 1. The United States guarantees to every State in 
 this Union a republican form of government, and 
 protects each of them against invasion; and on appli- 
 cation of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when 
 the Legislature cannot be convened), against domes- 
 tic violence. 
 
 2. It is lawful for the President of the United 
 States, or such persons as he may empower for 
 that purpose, to employ such part of the land or 
 naval forces of the United States, or of the militia, 
 as may be necessary to aid in the execution of judi- 
 cial process issued under any of tlie provisions of 
 the ■' Civil Rights" bill, or as shall be necessary to 
 prevent the violation, and enforce the due execution of 
 the same. 
 
 3. No military or naval officer, or other person 
 engaged in the civil, military, or naval service 
 of the United States, can order, bring, keep, or 
 have under his authority or control, any troops or 
 armed men at the place where any general or special 
 election is held in any State, unless it may be neces- 
 sary to repel tlie armed enemies of the United States, 
 or to keep the peace at the polls. 
 
 4. The military forces of the United States may be 
 employed at any time in such manner and under such 
 regulations as the President may direct — First. In 
 the apprehension of every person who may be in 
 the Indian country in violation of ihe law ; and 
 in conveying him immediately from the Indian 
 country, by the nearest convenient and safe route, 
 to the civil authority of the Territory or judicial 
 district in which such person shall be found, to 
 be proceeiled against in due course of law; Second. 
 In the examination and seizure of stores, packages, 
 and boats, authorized by law; Third. In preventing 
 the introduction of persons and property into the In- 
 dian country contrary to law; which persons and 
 property shall be proceeded against according to law; 
 Fourth. And also in destro3'ing and breaking up any 
 distillery for manufacturing ardent spirits set up or 
 continued within the Indian country. No person 
 apprehended by militarj' force under the preceding 
 laws can be detained longer than five days after ar- 
 rest and before removal. All officers and soldiers 
 who may have any such person in custody shall treat 
 him with all the humanity which the circumstances 
 will permit. The superintendents, agents, and sub- 
 agenis, endeavor to procure the arrest and trial of 
 all Indians accused of committing any crime, offense, 
 or misderaeaner, and of all other persons who may 
 have committed crimes or offenses within any State 
 or Territory, and have fled into the Indian country, 
 either by demanding the same of the chiefs of the 
 proper tribe, or by such other means as the Presi- 
 dent ma)' authorize. The President may direct the 
 military force of the United States to be employ- 
 ed in the appreliension of such Indians, and also in 
 preventing or terminating hostilities between any of 
 the Indian tril)es. 
 
 5. The President is authorized to employ so much 
 of the laud and naval forces of the I'nited States as 
 may be necessary effectually to prevent the felling, 
 cutting down, or other destruction of the timber of 
 the United States in Florida, and toiirevent tlie trans- 
 portation or carrying away any such timlicr as may 
 be already felled or cut down : and to take such 
 iilher and further nu'asures as may be deemed ad- 
 visablf for tlie preservation of the limber of the Uni- 
 ted States in Florida. 
 
 0. Thequarantincs and other restraints established 
 bv the healt h laws of any State, respecting any vessels
 
 POSSE COMITATUS. 
 
 5G7 
 
 POSSE COMITATUS. 
 
 arriving in, or lioiinil to, uiiy port unliHirict thereof, 
 arc (Inly olmcrvcil by tl"' olllccrs d! Ilic fiisloinH 
 rcvcnui' of the I'nitrd Sliitcs, liy tlic inaslcrH jiiiil 
 • Tews of tlic scvcnil ri-vriiiic-ciillcrs. iiiiil liy Ilic mil- 
 itary olticrrs coiniimMiliii^j; in iinv fort or sliilion upon 
 llie seu-coasl ; anil all Hncli ohlcTS of the. Uiiitc<l 
 HiJites faithfully aid in the CACiiilion of such fpiur- 
 ajvlincs anil hcallh-lawM, ai-conlinf; to their rcHpcclivc 
 [KiwcrM anil within their rcsjjcctivc precincts, and as 
 they shall lie ilirecled from lime to time, by the Hec- 
 retJiry of the Treasury. 
 
 7. WhcMcvcr any ])iTson is ilelivered by any foreifin 
 jiovunment to an ajjjcnl of the I'niled .Slates, for the 
 Ijuri>"*'e of beini; lirout'ht within the l' lilted States 
 aiul tried for any crime for which he is <luly accused, 
 tlu' President has power to take all necessary meas- 
 ures for the transportation and safe-keepiuf; of such 
 accused person, and for his security asiainst lawless 
 violence, until the liiial conclusion of his trial for the 
 crimes or offenses specilied in the warrant of extra- 
 dition, and until his linal ilischari;e from <'Usloilyor 
 imprisonment for or on account of such crimes or 
 offenses, and for a reasonable time th<Teafler. and may 
 employ such portion of the land or naval forces of 
 tlic United States, or of the militia thereof, as may 
 bi^ necessary for tlic safe-keeping and protection of 
 tjie accused. 
 
 H. Every person who, within the territory orjuris- 
 fUction of the United States. bei;ins. or sets on foot. 
 or provides or prepares the means for, any military 
 expedition or entcriirise.to be carrieil on from thence 
 against the territory or dominions of any foreiirn 
 prince or state, or of any colony, district, or peo])le, 
 with whom the United States are at peace. is deemed 
 gtiilty of a liiuli niisdenieanor, and is fined not e.\- 
 ecedins; three thousatnl dollars, and imprisoned not 
 more than three years. 
 
 t). In every case in wliich a vessel is fitted out and 
 armed, or attempted to be fitted out and armed, or 
 in whicli the force of any vessel of war, cruiser, or 
 other armed vessel is increased or augmented, or in 
 whidi any military expedition or enterprise is bejrun 
 or set on foot, contrary to the provisions and pro- 
 liibitions of the Neutrality Acts, and in every case 
 of the capture of a vessel within the jurisdiction or 
 protection of the United States asbeforedctined; and 
 in every case in which any process issuing out of any 
 court of the United States is disobeyed or resisted 
 by any person having the custody of any vessel of 
 war, cruiser, or other armed vessel of any foreign 
 prince or state, or of any colony, district, or people, 
 or of any subjects or citizens of any foreign prince 
 or state, orof any colony, district, or people, it is law- 
 ful for the President, or such other person as he 
 shall have empowered for that purpose, to employ 
 such part of the land or naval forces of the United 
 States, or of the militia thereof, for the purpose of 
 taking possession of and detaining any such vessel, 
 with Tier prizes, if any ; and also for tiie jiurpose of 
 preventing the carrying on of any such exjiedition 
 or enterprise from the territories or jurisdiction of 
 tlie United States against the territories or dominions 
 of any foreign prince or state, or of any colony, dis- 
 trict, or people with whom the United States are at 
 peace. 
 
 10. It shall be lawful fortlie ['resident, or such per- 
 son as he shall empower for that purpose, to em- 
 ploy such i)art of the land or naval forces of the 
 United States, or of the militia thereof, as shall lie 
 necessary to compel any foreign vessel to depart the 
 United States in all cases in which, by the laws of 
 nations or the treaties of the United States, she ought 
 not to remain withiu the United States. 
 
 11. In case of an insurrection in any State.against 
 the governmer.l thereof, it is lawful for the President, 
 on application of the I.igislaturc of sucli State, orof 
 the Executive, when the Legislature cannot be con- 
 vened, to call forth such number of the militia of any 
 other State or States, whichniay be applied for.as he 
 deems sufficient to suppress such insurrection ; or, 
 
 on like application, toernpl.oy, for the same piirpoHes, 
 such part i/f tin- land or naval forces of the United 
 States as he deems necessary. 
 
 12. Whenever, by reason of unlawful obstructions, 
 combinations, or as.semblages of persons, or reljellion 
 against the authority of the Government of the Uni- 
 ted States.it becomes impracticable, in the judgment 
 of the President .to enforce, by the ordinary course of 
 judicial proceedings, the laws of the United States 
 within anv SlatcorTerritory.it is lawful for the Presi- 
 dent lo/all furl h the militia of anv or all the States. and 
 to employ such jjarts of the lanil and naval forces rjf 
 the United Slates as he may deem necessary to en- 
 force the faithful <'xecution of the laws of the Unit- 
 ' ed States, or to suppress such rebellion, in whatever 
 State or Territory thereof the laws of the United 
 States may be forcibly opposed, or the execution 
 thereof forcibly oljslructed. 
 
 ' i;i. Whenever insurrection, domestic violence, un- 
 lawful combinations, or conspiracies in any State so 
 olistructs or hinders the execution of tlie law th'jre 
 of, and of the United States, as to deprive any por- 
 l tion or class of the people of such State of any of 
 the rights, privileges, or immunities, or protection, 
 named in the Constitution and secured by the laws 
 ! for the protection of such rights, privileges, or im- 
 munities, and the constituted authorities of such 
 State are unatile to protect, or. from an)' cause fail 
 or refuse protection of the people in such rights, 
 such facts, are deemed a denial by such State of the 
 e(|ual protection of the laws to which they are en- 
 titled under the Constitution of the United States ; 
 ; and in all such cases, or whenever any such insur- 
 rection, violence, unlawful combination, or conspir- 
 i acy, opi)oses or obstructs the laws of the United 
 States, or the due execution thereof, fir impedes or 
 I obstructs the due course of justice under the same, 
 I it is lawful for the President, and it is his duty, to 
 ! take such measures, by the employment of the mili- 
 , tia or the land and naval forces of the United States, 
 or of either, or by other means, as he may deem nec- 
 essary, for the suppression of such insurrection, 
 domestic violence, or combinations. 
 
 14. It is unlawful to take any vessel or cargo de- 
 tained under section 9 from the custody of the proper 
 officers of tJie customs, unless by process of some 
 ] court of the United States; and in case of any attempt 
 I otherwise to take such vessel or cargo by any force. or 
 j combination.or assemblage of persons. loo great to be 
 i overcome by the officers of the customs. the President, 
 ! or such person as be shall have empowered for that 
 jmrpose. may employ such part of the Army or 
 j Navj' or militia of the United States, or such force 
 I of citizen volunteers as may be necessary, to pre- 
 j vent the removal of such vessel or cargo, and to pro- 
 I tect the officers of the customs in retaining the cus- 
 tody thereof. 
 
 1.5. The President is authorized, at his discretion, 
 
 ! to employ the land and naval forces of the United 
 
 ! States to protect the rights of the discoverer [of a 
 
 guano island] or of his widow, heir, executor, ad- 
 
 ' ministrator, or assigns. 
 
 j Officers of the Army can not permit the use of tlie 
 troops under their command to aid the civil author- 
 ities as a Pu.ise f'«;rt(tf'?i« or in execution of the lawj 
 except as authorized in the foregoing enactments. 
 If time will admit, the application for the use ot 
 troops for these purposes must be forwarded, with 
 a statement of all the material facts, for the consi- 
 deration and action of the President ; but. in cases 
 of sudden and unexpected invasion, insurrection, or 
 riot, endangering the public property of the United 
 States, or in cases of attempted or threatened rob- 
 berj- or interruption of the United States mails, or 
 other equal emergency, officers of the Army may, 
 if they think a necessity exists, take such action be- 
 fore the receipt of instructions from the seat of Go- 
 vernment as the circumstances and the law under 
 which they are acting may justify ; and will then 
 promptly report their action and the reasons there-.
 
 POST. 
 
 568 
 
 POST FUND. 
 
 for to the Adjutant-General for the information of 
 the President. See Civil Authority, and Execution 
 of Laws. 
 
 POST. — 1. A soldier's beat while on sentry, or a 
 position assiijned to or taken up by a soldier or body 
 of men ; it generally consists of an entrenched vil- 
 lage or position, or any building placed in a state of 
 defense. The necessity of strengthening a post is 
 admitted to be of paramount importance, and every 
 endeavor should be made by an officer in command 
 to place himself in such a defensive position as shall 
 prevent his being taken unawares, or. if attacked, 
 enable him to make a good fight. Often neither 
 time, material, intrenching tools, nor men, will per- 
 mit of solid works, such as a redoubt or other elab- 
 orate field-works, being thrown up, but it is possible, 
 when villages or detached houses are occupied by 
 troops, to throw up temporary cover which shall 
 greatly strengthen the position. The following are 
 principles to be borne in mind in forming a post, or 
 in strengthening a position ; 1 — To obtain cover 
 for the men and animals from the enemy's fire. 3 — 
 To enable the troops to fire, in the most advantageous 
 manner, on the ground over which the enemy must 
 advance. 3 — To hinder the approach of the enemy 
 by obstacles, which, even if surmountable, shall be 
 sufficient to break his order and detain him for some 
 time under lire. 4 — To enable the troops to pass free- 
 ly from one part of the works to another, in order to 
 concentrate (m any point attacked. 5 — To impede 
 the flank movements of the enemy as much as pos- 
 sible, and thus prevent his different parties from sup- 
 porting each other effectually. 
 
 2. — rust, in a military sense, frequently means to 
 station ; as, to post a sentinel or relief. To be posted 
 signifies to be formed ready for action. Thus, when 
 troops are brought up in column, and ordered to de- 
 ploy, it frequently happens that some part of the 
 line is refused, in order to flank an enemj', or to 
 cover a weak position ; the part that is aligned is 
 said to be posted. The phrase also means, in a 
 familiar sense, to be publicly announced as an in- 
 famous or degraded character. 
 
 3. — In the British service, the term Post is given 
 to the bugling which precedes the tattoo. This is 
 the First Post, the Last Post that which follows it. 
 See Advanced Post, Garrison, Military Post, Outpost, 
 and Station. 
 
 POST BAKER.— The person who bakes bread for a 
 garrison. In the United States service the Post 
 Baker is an enlisted man, who receives additional 
 pay for his labor. 
 
 POST CEMETERIES." The Commanding Officers of 
 all posts, situated on all pulilic lands of the United 
 States, see tliat a suitable portion of sucli land is set 
 apart and propcrlj- maintained for the burial of de- 
 ceased officers, and soldiers, and their families, and 
 of Government emploj-es. The burial ground is suit- 
 ably and securely inclosed with the best material 
 available— a stone or adobe brick wall, or a neat 
 wooden picket fence — and maintained by the labor 
 of the garrison. At each grave is placed a head- 
 board, plainly marked with a number, and with the 
 name, company, regiment, and date of <lealh of the 
 occupant, the number on the head-ljoard to corres- 
 pond willi the number on the record of burials. The 
 iiead-boards are about four feet long, ten inches wide, 
 and one and three-eighths inch thick; and stand two 
 feet out of the ground; of well-seasoned wood, and 
 painted with three coats of white pamt ; inscription 
 in black Ictlers one inch long. The w;ilks are about 
 four feet wide, neatly rounded up, proiJerly drained, 
 and graveled wlien the material is at hand. Wliere 
 practicable, a good grass sod covers all the rest of 
 the ground, including the graves ; and native trees 
 and shrubs are preserved or planted for ornament 
 and shade. A record of interments is kejit at each 
 post by the Acting Assistant Quartermaster in the 
 form on page Wi ; and when he is relieved, is turned 
 over by him to his successors; and if the post be 
 
 broken up, is transmitted to the Quartermaster Gen- 
 eral. 
 
 A list of the names of those buried (including a 
 transcript of the items embraced in columns 1,2, 7, 
 8, 9. 10, 11, 23. and 2.'5) is forwarded to the Quarter- 
 master General at the end of each year. 
 
 A public Cemetery is established near Salt Lake 
 City, Utah, underthe provisions of an Act approved 
 May 10, 1874. This Cemetery is under control of a 
 Board of which the Commanding Officer.Camp Dou- 
 glas, Utah, is ex-offi'io a member. See Battle-groundi, 
 Cemeteries, National Cemeteries, and Superintendent 
 of National Cemeteries. . 
 
 POSTERN. — Posterns are arched, bomb-proof pass- 
 age-ways constructed under the terre-pleins and ram- 
 parts, forming subterranean comnuu)ieat ions Ijet ween 
 the parade and the enceinte ditch, or between the 
 ditches and the interior of the outworks. The width 
 and height of the interior of posterns depend upon 
 the use to which the communication is to be applied. 
 For artillery the width is usually taken at 10 feet, 
 and the height under the crown or key of the arch at 
 least 8 feet. Posterns for infantry may be only from 
 4 to G feet wide, and from G feet 6 inches to 8 feet 
 high under the crown of the arch. The thickness of 
 the piers of the arches is generally taken at about 
 half the width of the postern. The arches are from 
 18 inches to two feet thick, and are covered with a 
 thickness of earth sufficient to protect them from any 
 injury from shells bursting over them. A strong 
 wooden door is placed at each outlet of the postern 
 to secure it against surprise. The doorway in pos- 
 terns for tlie service of artillery should be of just 
 sufficient height for the convenient passage of a gun. 
 
 The most important postern is the one leading 
 from the parade to the main ditch. This generally 
 receives a width of 12 feet and the same height under 
 the crown. For greater security from surprise, its 
 outlet is at least 6 feet above the bottom of the 
 ditch, this difference of level being overcome by 
 means of a temporary wooden ramp which receives 
 an inclination or at least \. Besides two strong 
 doors at the two ends of the postern, there is a par- 
 tition of masonry about midway between the two 
 ends, which is pierced with a doorway of the same 
 size as the doorways of the ends, and closed by a 
 strong door which, as well as the partition wall, is 
 loop-holed for musketr}'. 
 
 In cases where the postern forms the main en- 
 trance to the work, an arched chamber is placed on 
 one side of it, at the outlet, which serves as a guard- 
 room for a few men, to secure the outlet from sur- 
 prise. The wall between this chamber and the pos- 
 tern is loop-holed, so that a flre can be brought to 
 bear on the doorway of the postern; and as a further 
 precaution against surprise a machicoulis defense is 
 sometimes arranged at the top of the scarp wall just 
 above the doorway of the postern. See Communi- 
 cations, 
 
 POST FLAG.— In the United States Army, the Post 
 Flag is the National Flag, It is twenty feet fly and 
 ten feet hoist, is furnished to all posts garrisoned by 
 troops, and is hoisted onlj- in pleasant weather. See 
 Flags. 
 
 POST FtJND.— In the United States Army, a fund 
 constituted by the troops liaking their own bread 
 and thereby saving 33', percent., the difference be- 
 tween bresvl and Hour. The I'ost Trader also pays 
 an assessment of 10 cents, or less, ii month for every 
 officer and soldier in the garrison, which is carried 
 to the credit of the I'ost I'lind. The following (ex- 
 (■lusiv<' of sums tnuisferred to the regimental fund) 
 are the objects to which the Post Fund may be ap- 
 propriated, and Councils will give them precedence 
 in the order named: 1. Kxpenses of bake-house. 
 3. Garden seeds and utensils (for all troops serving 
 at the post). 3. Post schools. 4. Post library and 
 reading-room. .'i. dynuiasinm. Wlien tlic neces- 
 sary material anil lalior ;irc in thi' I'ost tjuiirternnis- 
 ler's Depart menl, and can be spared from more im-
 
 POST OASSENS. 
 
 ')f;o 
 
 POST SCUOOLB. 
 
 Record of Jieceam'd Ojjkem ami NolUicrs buried by ■ 
 
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 Number and locality of 
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 Coujugal condition, if 
 married or single. 
 
 Residence of widow. 
 
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 30 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 portant work, the neces.'<ary apparatus for the gym- 
 nasium, and for such games and exercises as the 
 Council niaj' consider desirable for the health and 
 amusement of the soldiers at the post may be con- 
 structed by the Quartermaster's Department, fi. 
 Chapel. 7. For fruit and shade trees. 8. For fruit- 
 bearing vines and bushes. 9. For printing press. 
 The Quartermaster (iencral, imder direction of the 
 Secretary of War. procures and forwards to the ))ost 
 librarian such periodicals and newspapers as Ids ap- 
 propriation for incidental expenses can afford to 
 pay for, or school books in lieu of periodicals, 
 when the Post Fund is not sulticient to supply I hem 
 and the post does not ilesire j^eriodicals. The pe- 
 riodicals, newspapers and school books are intended 
 for the use of the enlisteci men, and nuist not be 
 taken from the library or school-room. If used at 
 all by olUeers it must be at a time when other du- 
 ties prevent their use by enlisted men. The neces- 
 sary school books for soldiers and for soldiers' child- 
 ren are purchased from the Post Fund, except in 
 cases provided for in the foregoing paragraph. See 
 Ctiinpany Fund and liigiiiientiil Fund. 
 
 POST GARDENS.— Coinm.inding Officers.of posts, 
 at or near wliich suitable public lands are available, 
 set aside for Company or Post Gardens such extent 
 of those lands as may be necessary for the produc- 
 tion of vegetables for the command, and cause the 
 same to be duly cultivated by the garrison, and 
 such varieties and (plant ities of vegetal)les to be rai.s- 
 ed as may be necessary for the subsistence or health 
 of the troops. On approved requisitions, the Sub- 
 sistence Department procures for sale to companies 
 or posts, seed potatoes, garden seeds, and agricultur- 
 al implements necessary forestablishing,cultivaling, 
 and perpetuating companv or post gardens. Pav- 
 meul to the Subsistence Department forthe.se articles, , 
 at cost price, is made from the company or post 
 fund. The Commissary General of Subsistence gives : 
 to the oltieers of his Department the necessary in- 
 structions for the purchase and distribution of seeds 
 and agricultural implements. If in changes of sta- 
 tion a company or garrison is succeeded by another, 
 the latter succeeds to the garden of the former, re- 
 imbursing the fund of the former for its actual ex- 
 penditures for seeds, agricultural im])lemcnts, etc. 
 Comman<iers of Divisions and Department give 
 such detailed instructions as may be necessary for 
 carrying these regulations into effect, and for the 
 proper distributicni of products of gardens among 
 those entitled to them. Surplus products may be 
 sold, and the proceeds credited to the post fund, or 
 
 .ifiriiH>iTfran^4*ii^ 
 
 divided among the comi)any funds of the garrison, 
 whichever may have borne the expen.se of '.he culti- 
 vation. 
 
 POST OF HONOR.— The guard in the advance. The 
 right of the two lines is also the post of honor, and 
 is generally given to the eldest corps: the left is the 
 next post, and is given to tlie next eldest, and so on. 
 The laws of military disci))liue forbid an inconven- 
 ii'Ut accordance with this practice, as the circum- 
 stances of the case may reipiire a verv different ar- 
 rans;emeiit, which it wovild be wanton to oppose. 
 
 POST REVETMENT.— A revetment constructed of 
 posts from 4 lot; inches in diameter, cut into lengths 
 of h.5 feet, and set with proper slo])e, in close con- 
 tact, in a trench two feet in depth, at the foot of the 
 breast-height. The tops of the posts, if not already 
 so, are sawed off level, to receive a horizontal cap- 
 ' ping piece, wbicli Ls spiked on. Anchor ties are 
 dove-tailed Into the cap and 
 secured to an anchor log Im- 
 bedded In the parapet. On 
 top of the cap are laid sever- 
 al C(nirses of sods, raising 
 the interior crest to the pro- 
 per height. WItli a good cpiality of timber this 
 revetment is durable. It is easily constructed, and 
 next to sods, is the best. Sec licnUnent. 
 
 POST SCHOOLS.— Schools are established at all the 
 posts, garrisons, and the permanent camps at which 
 troops are stationed, in which the enlisted men may 
 be instructed in the common English branches of 
 education and especially In the history of the United 
 States; and the Secretary of War details such otli- 
 cers and enlisted men as miv be necessary to carry 
 out this provision. It is the duty of the Post or 
 (Tarrison Commander to set apart a suitable room or 
 bulkling for school and religious purposes. The 
 teachers and schools are under the control of the 
 Post Commander, or such officer as the Post Com- 
 mander may designate. School teachers are de- 
 tailed from the enlisted men of the Army. The num- 
 ber of teachers detailed cannot exceed one for each 
 company serving at the post. At any post at which 
 there are no soldiers suitable for detail as school- 
 teachers, application is made to the Adjutant General 
 of the Army by the Post Commander for the neces- 
 sary number of teachers. A soldier while serving as 
 school teacher receives extra-duty pay as overseer 
 (Ji.i cents per day) Irom the Quartermaster's Depart- 
 ment, not deducting for Saturdays and Sundays. 
 Soldiers while detailed as school teachers will attend 
 such parades, inspections, and drills as, in the judg-
 
 POST TBASEB. 
 
 570 
 
 POTENT COUNTEE-POTENT. 
 
 ment of the Post Commander, are necessary to 
 keep them well instructed in their company duties. 
 While it is left optional with soldiers whether to at- 
 tend school or not, yet they are advised to avail 
 themselves of the means afforded to improve them- 
 selves, and Commanding Officers not only give them 
 all possible opportunities, but advise and encourage 
 them to use them. The children of soldiers are re- 
 quired to attend the post school for children, unless 
 specially, excused by the officer in charge of schools. 
 The children of citizens living near a post are al- 
 lowed to attend the post school for children. For 
 the instruction given them they are required, if able, 
 to pay a small rate into the post fund. Officers and 
 citizens furnish the school books necessary for their 
 own children. Tlie Post Council of Administration 
 decide whether it is advisable or practicable to have 
 separate schools for adults and children. An officer 
 is detailed by the Secretary of War to visit and in- 
 spect regularh' the various post schools. It is made 
 his duty to examine into the sj'stem of instruction ; 
 to advise Commanders of Posts of defects which he 
 maj' discover, and to suggest methods of improve- 
 ment; to endeavor to bring about uniformity in the 
 methods of management and instruction, and to 
 make known throughout the Army the best methods 
 and systems in existence at any Military Post. He 
 reports the results of his inspection fully to the War 
 Department from time to time. His inspections do 
 not dispense with or interfere witii those of the In- 
 spector Generals of the Army, but are specially and 
 directlv addressed to the schools alone. 
 
 POST TRADER.— In the United States, every mili- 
 tary post may have one Trader, who is appointed by 
 the Secretary of War, or the recommendation of 
 the Coimcil of Administration, approved by the 
 Commanding Officer. Post Traders are furnished 
 with a letter of appointment from the Secretarj' of 
 War indicating the posts to which they are ap- 
 pointed. They are subject, in all respects, to the 
 rules and regulations for the government of the 
 Army. They actually carry on the business them- 
 selves, and habitually reside at the station to which 
 the}' are appointed. They can not farm out, sublet, 
 transfer, sell or assign the business to others. They 
 are permitted to erect buildings for the purpose of 
 carrying on their business upon such part of the 
 military reservation or post where they are assigned 
 as the Commanding Officer may direct. Such build- 
 ings are in convenient reach of the garrison. [Oirr. 
 A. G. 0., Aug. 28, 1879.] When "a Trader is re- 
 moved from his post, he has a right to remove and 
 dispose of the materials of the buildings erected by 
 him as his own property. He cannot lease or sell 
 his buildings to another Post Trader without per- 
 mission of the military authorities ; but such per- 
 mission woulil have the same force as a license to a 
 new Post Trader to erect such a building at that 
 spot. Post Traders have the exclusive right of trade 
 
 hel(i to pay for the benefit of the post fund, at a rate 
 to be determined by the Post Council of Adndnistra- 
 tion, not exceeding ten cents per month, for every 
 officer and enlisted man serving at the post — the 
 monthly average to be determined equitably by the 
 Council. The Council of Administration once in six 
 months, and not oftener, examines the Post Trader's 
 goods and invoices or bills of sale, and. subject to the 
 approval of the Post Commander, establishes the 
 rates and prices (which should be fair and reason- 
 able) at which tlie goods .shall be sold. A copy of 
 the list thus established is kept posted in the Trader's 
 store. Should the Post Trader feel himself aggrieved 
 by the action of the Council of Administration, he 
 may appeal therefrom, through the Post Commander, 
 to the War Department. In determining the rate of 
 profit to be allowed, the Council considers not only 
 the prime cost, freight, and other charges, but also 
 the fact that the Trader has no lien on the soldier's 
 pay, and is without security in this respect. Post 
 Commanders report to the War Department any 
 misconduct, breach of military regulations, or failure 
 on the part of Post Traders to comply with the re- 
 quirements of regulations. 
 
 When any cause of complaint against a Trader 
 arises, the Post Commander places the same before 
 the Council of Administration, and the Council ex- 
 amines the evidence for and against the Trader, and 
 makes a report of the facts, through the Post Com- 
 mander, to the Adjutant General of the Army, for 
 the action of the Secretary of War, in whom alone 
 is the power vested to remove a Post Trader. When. 
 a new Trader is selected, and his appointment is is- 
 sued, the appointment of the former Trader will be 
 revoked; but, in order that injustice may not be done 
 the former Trader in the total loss of his investment 
 in buildings and goods, the new appointee will be 
 required to purchase a portion or all of the same at 
 a fair valuation — the articles to be so purchased and 
 the appraisement of their value to be determined by 
 the Council of Administration. The former Trader 
 is not debarred from withdrawing his goods if he so 
 elect, nor from entering upon the reservation to at- 
 tend to the settlement of his business until the same 
 has been closed; such privilege, however, does not 
 entitle him to continue to trade at the post. See 
 Canteen and Sutler. 
 
 POT. — The paper cylinder forming the head of a 
 signal-rocket and containing the decorations. To 
 diminish the resistance of the airthe pot is surmount- 
 ed by a paper cone. 
 
 POT DE FER. — A heavy helm worn in siege oper- 
 ations. It is related that Louis XIV., like the other 
 soldiers, went into the trenches in full armor, and 
 wearing the pot-de-fer. See Pet Helmet. 
 POTENCE. — Troops are ranged en potence by break- 
 ing a straight line, anil throwing acertain proportion 
 of it either forward or backward, from the right or 
 left, according to the circumstances, for the purpose 
 
 Potent. 
 
 £ot«at Cotmtcr-Potent'. 
 
 Patentee, 
 
 upon the mililary reserve to which tlu'V are ap- 
 jiiiiulc'd: and no dlhcr person is allowed to trade, 
 pcdille, or sell goods, by sample or ollu'rwisc, within 
 the limits of the reserve. This does not prohibit tlu; 
 sal(', oy producers, of fresh fruit or vegetables Iiy 
 permission of tlie Post (\immander. Post Traders 
 in the Indian country have no right to ni;iintain a 
 traOic in goods with the Indians, unless tliey be 
 jirojierly licensed for sucli trade. For the exclusive^ 
 privilege allowed them, Post Traders are a.ssessed and 
 
 of securing that line. An army may be posted ere /)<?- 
 If nee h\ lui-ans cif a villMi;e, a river, or a wood. 
 
 POTENT COUNTER POTENT.- One of the heraldic 
 furs, in wiiicli tlie liehl is tilled with crutch-shaped 
 figures alternately of metal and color, those of oppo- 
 site tinctures being jilac'ed liase against base, and 
 point against point. The metal and color are under- 
 stood to be argent and azure, unless they be sjieeial- 
 ly blazoned otherwise. Potent counter-potent is 
 sometimes blazoned vairy-cuppy.
 
 POTENT CBOBS. 
 
 POWSEB BOX£B. 
 
 POTENT CROSS.— In ncraldry.arroHHcnitr'li-Mliiipcd I cd tunic and rlKniHHeK. was frr'(|iicnlly worn by the 
 at cacli ixlicMiily. — It in also called a .IcniKalcin KniglitH of this jii-riod bi-iicalli the Kurcoal. which 
 c-roHH, froin ilMdcciirroncc in till' iiisii;nia of the Cliris- waH, as a general tiling, conBiderably lengthened, 
 tian l;ing(l(iMi of .liriisalein.vvhirh arc.argent a eross and very richly emblazoned with the armH of the 
 potent lietween f(iur eros.slets or. This coat is re- wearer. 
 
 markable as lieing a deparlnre from (he usual jjeral- ' POWDER, — A fommon term for gunpowder. Un- 
 die rule which prohibits the placing of nielal upon der this name is found a variety of nowderH in u»e 
 metal. | at the present day for small-ariRH and guns. 
 
 America 
 Austria 
 
 England 
 
 France 
 Germany 
 
 Italy 
 
 Kus.sia 
 
 Spain 
 
 COUKTKIES 
 
 
 iUNPOWDEB 
 
 . 
 
 Smaj 
 
 1.I.-A2H Po^ 
 
 VDEB. 
 
 Saltpeter. 
 
 Charcoal. 
 
 12 •.'50 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 Saltpeter. 
 
 Charcoal. 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 75 
 
 12-50 
 
 75-50 
 
 13-20 
 
 11-30 
 
 70 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 75-50 
 
 13-20 
 
 11-30 
 
 76 
 
 1.5 
 
 10 
 
 76-.50 
 
 14-.'50 
 
 9 
 
 76 
 
 U-.-iO 
 
 O-.TO 
 
 76 
 
 13-.50 
 
 9 
 
 75 
 
 U-.TO 
 
 i)-.50 
 
 75 
 
 12-.'-.0 
 
 12-50 
 
 7.5 
 
 13-00 
 
 11 -.50 
 
 75 
 
 12-.50 
 
 12-.50 
 
 7C 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 75-.'50 
 
 13-20 
 
 11-30 
 
 71 
 
 17-r.o 
 
 11-50 
 
 80 
 
 11-30 
 
 8-70 
 
 76-50 
 
 12-70 
 
 10-80 
 
 75-50 
 
 13-20 
 
 11-30 
 
 POTENTEE. — A heralilic line of division which 
 takes \\\'- form of the outline of a succession of crutch- 
 shaped figures. 
 
 POT GUN. — A mortar for firing salutes. The name 
 is derived from its shape being formed like a pot. It 
 is now obsolete. 
 
 POT-HELMET. — A sort of skull-cap of thick iron, 
 and very heavy. It was used, partie\darly in sieges 
 in the lOth and 17th centuries. The wurd p</t-/ifliiiet 
 is also very commonly used for iron hats much lighter 
 in weight, that were inucU worn by ('romwell's foot- 
 soldiers. 
 
 POT METAL. — An alloy of lead and copper, ob- 
 tained by throwing hunps of copper into red-hot 
 melted lead. It is of a gray color, Ijrittleand graiui- 
 lar. 
 
 POUCH. — A stout leather box, black or brown, 
 lined witli tin, covered with a strong flap, and orna- 
 mented with the device of the regiment. It serves 
 to carry the cartridges retpiired by a soldier for im- 
 mediate use. When cartridges are supplied for a 
 •whole day's service, two pouches are worn, one on 
 the front point of the hip, and a larger one on a belt 
 suspended over the left shoulder. The leather cases 
 containing primers, lanyard, etc., in field and heavy 
 artillery, and those containing a guimer's level, vent- 
 punch, gindet, etc., in licav}- artillery, are also called 
 pouclies. 
 
 POULEYNS. — In ancient armor, a variety of knee- 
 guards, which were very elaborately and variously 
 enriched. 
 
 POUNDER.— The name by which dilTerent nafiires 
 of ordnance and shot and shell are distinguished. 
 By being so denominated, the w<'ight of the projec- 
 tile which the gun throws is implied. Projectiles 
 fired from heavy howitzers and mortars are distin- 
 guished by the diameter of the pieces, such as those 
 propelled from the 10-inch and 8-iuch howitzer and 
 mortar; and it would be advisable to denominate all 
 projectiles by the diameter of the piece, and also by 
 the weight of the projectile itself. This is done in 
 the case of shot and shell used with the heavy JI.L. 
 R. guns of 7-inch caliber and upwards, but below 
 this caliber they are known only by the weight of 
 the shot. The weight of heavy rifled ordnance is 
 alwaj's expressed in tons, if of 5 tons or upwards; 
 otherwise in cwts. 
 
 POURPOINT.— A military babi* worn in the tliir- 
 tecntli cent\iry, but which was subserjuently modi- 
 fied, and from the iieculiar work with which it was 
 then ornamented, obtained the name of I'oiirpmnt or 
 Counterpoint, A complete suit, consisting of a slcev- 
 
 The following table gives the pro])ortions of the 
 composition most generally used in the manufacture 
 of gunpowder in the countries mentioned. SeeOttn- 
 poirder. 
 
 POWDER BARREL.— Barrels in w-hich gunpowder 
 is stored. There are three sizes, called vliolf, half, 
 and iinnrtir, liolding respecti-.-ely IIIO lbs.. .50 lbs., 2.5 
 lbs. .of ordinary ]iowder. The whole barrel iscajiable 
 also of containing 125 lbs. of pebble powder. There 
 is also a barrel in the service termed a hnnge barrel, 
 which is the size of a quarter barrel, and intended to 
 be used, not for storage, but for holding loose pow- 
 der for mortars or cartudges in a standing battery. 
 This barrel is distinguished from the ordinarj- pow-- 
 der barrel, in having a leather bag attached to it, 
 which takes the place of one head of the barrel, and 
 is closed by a leather tlnrng. The word tmuge or 
 hwlye is a corruption of the French word huuget, a 
 leather bag. 
 
 Powder barrels are composed of heads and staves 
 bound round with copper and ash hoops, and are 
 made by hand or by machinery. The wood used in 
 English barrels is usually American oak. whereas 
 the Indian powder barrels are made of teak, if any- 
 thing a stronger and closer-grained wood than the 
 oak alluded to. so that it is not found necessarj' to 
 bind tliem round with ash hoops, as in the English 
 barrels, 
 
 POWDER BOXES. — Contrivances analogous to fou- 
 gasses, used by the Russians at Sebastopol. Each 
 consisted of a double deal box, of a capacity suffi- 
 
 cient to contain 3.5 pounds of powder, water-tight. and 
 elTectually secure it from the penetration of damp, 
 into the top of each box was inserted a vertical tin
 
 POWDEK CART. 
 
 572 
 
 FOWSEB UAGAZIKE. 
 
 tube, connected with a horizontal tin tube at the sur- 
 face of the ground. Witliin the latter was a glas» 
 tube, filled with sulphuric acid, and coated with a 
 composition of chlorate of potassa, sugar, sulphur, 
 and gum-water, which immediately takes fire on 
 coming in contact with the acid. The space be- 
 tween the interior of the tin tube, and the exterior 
 of the glass tube, as well as the vertical tin tube, is 
 filled with gunpowder. A little earth spread lightly 
 over the whole completes the arrangement. A per- 
 son walking over the ground, and treading on the 
 tin tube, crushes it and the glass tube contained :n 
 it, causing the escape of the sulphuric acid, and tlie 
 explosion of tlie sunpowder. See Foiigames. 
 
 POWDER CART.— A two-wheeled carriage covered 
 with an angular roof of boards. To prevent the 
 powder from getting damp, a tarred canvas is put 
 over the roof; and on each side are lockers to hold 
 shot, in proportion to the quantity of powder. 
 
 POWDER DEPOTS.— Large depots for the storage 
 of powder, and the materials for its manufacture. 
 In selecting sites for these depots, the following con- 
 siderations should be observed: 1st. That the depot 
 should be in a region of countr}' which docs not ad- 
 mit of being populated, so that destruction of life 
 and property in case of accident would be a mini- 
 mum. 2d. The tract should be sufficient in extent 
 to contain suitable positions for magazines for stor- 
 age of 10,000 tons of powder, material for its manu- 
 facture, etc., and the necessary buildings for a govern- 
 ment powder-mill. 3d. It should be near enough to rail 
 and water transportation to afford facilities of trans- 
 portation to the seaboard, interior, and the lakes, hav- 
 inga shortlineofgovernmcnt railroad connecting the 
 site with rivers and trunk-lines. When the present ar- 
 senals in theUnited States were established, their loca- 
 tions were but sparsel}' settled. The rapid increase of 
 population in theadjacent towns and cities has, how- 
 ever, in the majority of cases, rendered these mag.a- 
 zines dangerous to the communities in which thej- are 
 located and hence the Government either has aban- 
 doned, or eventually will have to essentialh' abandon, 
 the storage of powder at all of our arsenals. The damp 
 sea-air renders our fortifications unfitted for this 
 purpose, and the Government has now large quanti- 
 ties of powder rapidly deteriorating at these places 
 for want of j^roper storage-facilities. See Lightning 
 Coyidwti>rn, Mngazine. and Preservation, Storage, and 
 I'mnnpiirtati'in nfPmrder. 
 
 POWDER DUST.- All gimpowder, in the process 
 of reeling, gives off a certain amount of dust. It is 
 a' great object to remove the dust from the powder, 
 as it quickly absorbs moisture from the atmosphere, 
 and, consequently, impairs its preserving qualities. 
 This dust is not lost to the factory, but is worked 
 over again, receiving first the process of incorpora- 
 tion for a short time, and then going througli the 
 rest of the mills until it becomes perfect gunpowder. 
 The operation of dusting is effected by cylindrical 
 reels covered with canvas, which revolve at a given 
 rate. See Dusting Heeln. 
 
 POWDERED.— In Heraldry, Powdered, or Seniee. 
 signify strewn with an indefinite number of small 
 charircs. 
 
 POWDER-FLASK.— A pouch or metallic case for 
 holding gunpowder, and having a charging nozzle 
 at the end. A horn is often fitted to hold powder 
 and used as a flask. 
 
 POWDER-HOSE.— A tube of strong linen, about an 
 inch ill diaiiii'ler, filled with powder, and used in 
 tiriui; iiiililMTv Miincs. 
 
 POWDER MAGAZINE.— The main objects to be 
 obtained in constructing a powder magazine are, to 
 place it in a position convenient to the pieces to be 
 served, and one least exposed to the fire of the 
 enemy; to make it shot-proof; and to secure the 
 contents from moisture. It is usually placed iiO feet 
 in rear of the i)arapet of the battery. The ceiling of 
 tlie magazine siioujd not be more than a few inclics 
 above the natural level, Tlie interior hiiirht neeil 
 
 not ^e more than .5 feet. The width may be 6 feet, 
 and the length 12 feet in the clear. The sides ot the 
 magazine may be formed of frames and sheeting 
 boards; or, of a row of gabions crowned with two 
 courses of fascines. Tlie magazine is covered at top 
 by splinter-proof of timbers, 6 by 9 inches, laid in 
 
 juxtaposition and covered with at least 3 feet of 
 earth, both on top and on the sides tow-ards the 
 parapet. A passage leads into the magazine on the 
 side from the parapet, which is reached by one or 
 two inclined trenches. 
 
 The drawing shows the plan and section of a 
 powder magazine employed at the siege of Fort 
 Wagner A, the Magazine; B, the covered entrance; 
 C, the telegraph oliice ; D, the lookout on top; E, 
 an embankment of sand covering the ra.igazine. 
 The plan is taken just below the ceiling. In the 
 section. A', is the interior of the magazine; B', the 
 entrance; D', the lookout; E', the covering of .sand. 
 The rules given for the construction and location of 
 bomb-proof shelters for men, apply equally to shel- 
 ters of this class. The only ditference in construc- 
 tion is in the size of the shelters, it being much 
 smaller, as a rule, than that required for the use of 
 troops. Large magazines are not constructed in 
 ordinary field works. Tliey take up too much room, 
 and even the best of them are but poor places in 
 which to store ammunition for any length of time. 
 The usual method adopted is to construct as many 
 service magazines as may be necessary, near the 
 guns to be served by them, making them large 
 enough to contain the amount required for a definite 
 service of the gun or guns to which the_y belong. 
 
 In Permanent Fortification, powder magazines are 
 built with strong, full center bomb-proof lirick 
 arches, supported on heavy stone piers which form 
 the outward walls, and to which interior buttresses 
 are sometimes added. The capping of the arches is 
 covered with from 4 to 10 feet of solidly packed 
 earth. The interior of the magazine, tlie floors, 
 and the doors and windows, are built with a view to 
 security from fire; and to preserve the powder from 
 (himpness, by a good system of drainage around the 
 fouiulations, and of ventilation by means of air-holes 
 madethrougli tlic jtiers, and panelsof ci)|)]H'r pierced 
 Willi small holes placed in the doors. IS'o iron or 
 steel fastening or sheeting is allowed in any jiart of 
 the structure; and in arranging the air-holes through 
 the piers they receive a broken direction, and have 
 a copper mesli-w^ork jilaced across them, to prevent 
 aiij' combustible material or rats, or mice, penetrat- 
 ing to the interior of the magazine. In large works 
 the magazines are isohitcd, as far as jiracticable, 
 from the enceinte, so as not to endanger it should
 
 POWDER MILL. 
 
 573 
 
 POWDER PHE88. 
 
 an aooidcniitl cxploHion take place. The magazine 
 is inclosed liy a si roiifr, lii!,'li wall for Mcciirily, an<l 
 is provided willi liixliliiiiii; rods. In sriiidl works 
 some oiii' or more of llir eascrnules iiillii' position 
 least exposed to the ussailanl's lire uru buill fur the 
 l)iirposes of H inaiiaziiie. 
 
 Tlie followiiii; iiK'nioraiida respecting tliovenlila- 
 tion of jaiwder niai,'a/ines is lierewith aiip<'nded : 1. 
 The dampness complained of in l)nildinf;s will fre- 
 (Hienlly.l"' found to arise from eondensaljon of the 
 watery va])or of ilie air whieli enters the IniildinL'. 
 Unililinns with thick walls and vaulted roofs, and 
 especially those covered with earth, ari' parlii-nlarly 
 llalile to dampness from this cause. 2. Air always 
 contains some proportion of watery vapor. When 
 the proportion is snndl, the air is said to be dry, and 
 when lari^c, the air is said to be damp; wlii'n the pro- 
 portion is the sreatest that can be ilill'used lhrou>;li 
 uiral a j;iven temperature, the air is said to be satu- 
 rated at that temperature. H, The proportion of 
 watery vapor whieli saturated airconlains varies with 
 the temperature, beins; i;reater for hisih than for low 
 temperatures. .\ir containing a particular propor- 
 tion of moisture is rendered less capable of deposit- 
 inj; moisture by its lemia-rature beinj; raised, and the 
 reverse when it is lowered. 4. Air may be brought 
 to a state of saturation by reducinic its temperature. 
 If the air contain Init III lie moisture, the reduction of 
 temperature nuist be considerable ; but if it contain 
 niucii, a slijrht reduction will bring it to a state of 
 saturation. .T. If air be cooled below the degree of 
 temperature al which it will be in a state of satura- 
 tion, a portion of the watery vapor contained there- 
 in will be deposited on any cold substance with 
 which it may eonu' in contact. The degree of tem- 
 perature at wdiich air will thus begin to deposit 
 moisture is called its diif.pnint. G. Wlieit warm air 
 enters a comparatively cold building, the tempera- 
 ture of the air is reduced by coming in conta<'t with 
 the interior walls and other cold .surfaces ; and if its 
 temperature be thus reduced below the duo-pnint, 
 condensation will take place. In the latter case it is 
 obvious that the admission of fresh air will not tend 
 to dry a building, but toreniler it damp. 7. If a mag- 
 a/lne 40 feet by ;i4 feet by 12 feet, the tem]ierature 
 of whose internal walls, etc., is 4.5^, were to be tilled 
 with saturated air having a temperature of 50", and 
 the magazine were then closed, nearly a pint of 
 moisture would be deposited during the cooling of 
 the fresh air to the temperature of the wall.^. The 
 pint of moisture would result from the quantity of 
 air sulHcienl merely to till the magazine ; but if the 
 ventilators were opened, the air might be renewed 
 many times in the course of a day, anil ver\' much 
 more than a pint of moisture be deposited. 8. Air 
 entering a building whose temperature is higher than 
 itf! own becomes capable of absorbing moisture from 
 (lamp surfaces. 9. The efficiency of the ventilation 
 of a magazine will depend upon the degree of dr3'ness 
 which the fresh air admitted into it possesses, and tlie 
 rapidity of the current of dry air passing through tlie 
 liuilding. 10. The dryness of air is indicated by tlie 
 nunil)er of degrees by which its temperature exceeds 
 itsdevv-i>oint. U.The ventilators of magazines should, 
 in all cases, be constructed so as to exclude or admit 
 the external air at discretion, aiulthe instriictioitu fur 
 thi'ir line xhtnild be framed irith a vieir to the rxcluninn 
 tf the external air irheii. tlte temperature of its deir- 
 piiint IS above that of the interior of the fmildiitg, 
 and the admission of tlie air when its deir.point is 
 below the temperature of the interior of tlie building. 
 12. The interior of a bombproof magazine with thick 
 walls and a vaulted roof is commonly colder than 
 the outside air in summer and warmer iu winter. 
 Winter is therefore the more favorable season for 
 ventilation ; but in the climateof England the excep- 
 tions to this rule are numerous, owing to the preva- 
 lence during winter of warm, damp winds from the 
 south and west, and during summer of cold, dry winds 
 from the north and east. 13. Whenever, uotwith- : 
 
 standing a careful attention to ventilation, maguziues 
 are found to bit dam|), their condition maybe im- 
 proved by the usi'of i|uiek-lime. which has the [irop- 
 crty of absorbing from the air about one third of its 
 own weight of watir. 14. The pr<Ji)ertime for using 
 lime is when the condition of the magazine woula 
 not be improved by ventilation, ami when, conse- 
 (piently, the ventilators are closed. I.,inie would be 
 of very little service while a rapid current of air 
 was ]iassing throuL'h the buililing. l.l. Lime will 
 be used during the seasons of tlie year least favora- 
 ble for ventilation ill all magazines that show signs 
 of dam|)ness. l(i. The lime should be fri'sli from 
 the kiln, broken into lumps not larger than about the 
 size of a pigeon's egg, and exposed to the air of the 
 interior of the magazine in shallow ves.sels. It 
 should be kejit in air-tight casks until spread out 
 for use. 
 
 POWDER MILL. Works in which the materials 
 for guiipowilcr arc prcpan'd and compounded, and 
 the powdiT LTained and faced. See (1 unpoirder. 
 
 POWDER MINE. -A cave or hollow in which pow- 
 der is jilaced lo be tired at any particular time. These 
 were first used in l.WH. at Naples, when it was be- 
 sieged by the Spanish (teneral Gonzalvo, of Cordova. 
 
 POWDER PRESS.— The last operation of breaking 
 down the mill cake, and the one now about to be 
 described, of pressing the meal into a solid cake, is 
 nier<-ly for the purpose of lilting it to be made into a 
 hard grain of c(iual density. In the [ircssing pro- 
 cess, the powder that has passed through tli(- break- 
 ing-down machine is brought from the small maga- 
 zines to the press-house, wliere it is compressed into 
 hard cake. Many advantages are gained by this opera- 
 tion, first, the cake when made into grain of the re- 
 quired size absorbs less moisture from the atmo- 
 sphere than if it had been soft and not pressed, and 
 the lasting qualities of the powder are much in- 
 creased, especially if glazed ; again, by having been 
 compressed the powder is less liable to be reduced 
 to dust in transport, for if proix-rly made it may 
 safely be kept for a number of years, even on board 
 ship at sea, without any appreciable deterioration. 
 Further, by a closer connection of the ingredients a 
 larger volume of gas is proiluced. bulk for bulk, than 
 from a soft light powder; it also produces more 
 
 grain than could be obtained from '• mill cake " not 
 pressed, ami consequently there is less waste by dust 
 in manufacture, and in addition to this, a hard, 
 clean-grained powder does not foul the gun so much 
 as a soft powder. 
 
 For the purpose of compressing the meal powder 
 into what is called "press cake," a powerful hyilrau- 
 lic press is employed. The apparatus for holding 
 the meal consists of a very strong gun-metal box 
 incased on the outer and inner sides with oak; it is
 
 POWDER-PKOOF. 
 
 574 
 
 POWER OF ATTORNEY. 
 
 2' square and 2' 6" deep, the bottom and one side 
 are permanently fixed to each other, but the other 
 three sides are hinged to the bottom, so as to allow 
 of their being opened; when shut these sides are 
 firmly held together by strong, coarse-threaded metal 
 screws. The box, when about to be tilled, is first 
 laid on its side in front of the press, and the upper- 
 most side is then opened and laid back. Two guide 
 racks, of gun-metal, with wooden ribs on them, form- 
 ing a number of grooves one-tenth of an inch in 
 width and tive-eighths of an inch apart, are hung on 
 the inside of the box to those sides that have not 
 been opened; into these grooves a series of gun-metal 
 plates one-tenth of an inch thick are slid, the racks 
 keeping them upright and equidistant. The spaces 
 between the plates are now filled in with the meal 
 powder, and this being dune, the racks are with- 
 drawn, leaving the plates supported in their position 
 by the powder between them. The third side — 
 which has remained open until now— is then lowered 
 down and screwed fast up to the two sides already 
 in position. The box is provided with two project- 
 ing gun-metal claws that fit into a mandrel attached 
 to the front of the press; upon this mandrel the box 
 is now turned by means of overhead tackle, the 
 mandrel being so adjusted that when the box is 
 raised partly into a vertical position it is pushed 
 over and lowered down exactly on the center of the 
 press table. Attached to the press cross-head are 
 two overhead rails, carrying a large block of hard 
 wood, which is hung and travels upon these rails by 
 means of four wheels; when the box is turned over 
 on its side for the purpose of filling, this block is 
 drawn back to the extremity of the rails, and when 
 the box is filled and replaced on the table and in the 
 proper position for pressing, the block is drawn for- 
 ward again until it arrives exactly over the center of 
 the box, where it is retained in position by means of 
 a catch. 
 
 The press is now put in motion by means of 
 pumps, which are driven either by steam, water, or 
 hand power, and are placed in a separate building, 
 on the opposite side of a high traverse that divides 
 the one building from the other. In the pump-house 
 the attendants remain in safety while the pressing 
 operation is being performed. The pumps are of 
 the description generally used for such purposes, and 
 are fitted with large and small plungers. At first, 
 when the material to be pressed is soft, the large 
 plungers are used and the box is raised rapidly, but 
 when the press has traversed about three-fourths of 
 its distance the use of the large plungers is discon- 
 tinued, and the smaller ones worked until such time 
 as the powder is subjected to a pressure of 70 tons per 
 square foot of surface. Wlien the piunps are first 
 put in motion, one of the attendants remains in the 
 press-house for a short time to see that the block en- 
 ters the box fairly, and that it is in tlie center; a 
 clearance of about a quarter of an inch is allowed all 
 round between it and the box. If all is in order, the 
 attendant then retires to the pump-house, and when 
 the requisite pressure has been obtained, the press is 
 allowed to stand for a few minutes with the full 
 pressure on it ; this allows the air to escape and the 
 powder to consolidate. Should the pressure go 
 df)wn from this cause, the pumps are again set in 
 molicin until the full pressure is attained; "and, after 
 allowing a few minutes to elapse, the escajx^ valve is 
 opened and the ram with the box descends. The 
 overhead block is now run back out of the way, the 
 box turned over on its side, and all the fixing screws 
 removed from the three sides, the uppernu)St one is 
 lifted up and turned over, and the other two are 
 opened out. The powder, with the giui-metal'plates 
 between it, will now be found to be standing like 
 a solid mass on the side of the box underneath, and 
 which for tlic time forms the bottom. 
 
 The plates anil powder cakes are now separated 
 hy copper chisels, and the cake — being from three- 
 eighth of an inch to one-half inch in thickness, and 
 
 loolving like slabs of slate — is broken mto pieces a- 
 bout the size of a man's hand by means of wooden 
 mallets. It is now collected, put into tubs, and re- 
 moved to the next magazine, where it is allowed to 
 remain for two or three days; this renders it so hard 
 that it is not easy to break it. Some difilculty is at 
 times experienced in obtaining precisely the same 
 density in the pressed powdei ,and it is an ascertain- 
 ed reality that any great difference in this particidar 
 causes the powder" to vary considerably in quality 
 and strength ; in fact, until the greatest precision 
 and certainty are obtained, firstly, in purifying the 
 ingredients, so as to ensure their containing the same 
 percentage of gases and carbon; and, secondly, by 
 an equally precise amount of,incorporating and press- 
 ing, absohite uniformity in the quality and strengtli 
 of the powder manufactured cannot be secured. See 
 Gunpowdrr. 
 
 POWDER -PROOF. —All guiipoirdei- for proving ord- 
 nance should be of the best qualitj', of the kind used 
 in the gun to be proved, and giving not less than the 
 standard iiutial velocity; it should be tested imnjedi- 
 ately before being used unless it shall have been test- 
 ' ed within one year previously, and there be no reason 
 to suspect that it has become deteriorated. 
 ! POWER.— In military affairs, as well as in all others 
 power is knowledge — of human passions, of arms, 
 of distance, of the skill and numbers of an enemy. 
 To be in the power of an enemy, is to have taken up, 
 injudiciously, such a position as to expose to defeat 
 whenever the enemy mav think proper to attack. 
 
 POWER MILLING-MACHINE.— A machine much 
 used in the manufacture of small-arms. The draw- 
 ing represents the Pratt & Whitney No. 2 Power 
 Milling-Machine (Lincoln Pattern), which is in ex- 
 tensive use in armories and manufactories in Amer- 
 ica and Europe, and is highly approved at the Na- 
 tional Armory. Springfield, Mass. It has automatic 
 
 screw-feed, and automatic stop-motion adjustable at 
 any point, a foot-stock for steadying the ends of 
 long arbors in heavy cuts, and a vise with perman- 
 ent crank-wrench. Tlie head is furnished with 
 back-gears. The cone has three grades, and carriesa 
 U-inchbelt. The feed cone has four grades. Speed 
 of countershaft, having 11 by 3J inch tight and 
 loose pulleys, I'i.'i revolutions per minute. Weight, 
 with countershaft, 1,200 pounds. 
 
 POWER OF ATTORNEY.— An instrument author- 
 izing a person to act as the agent or attorney of the
 
 POWER PRESS. 
 
 575 
 
 POWER TRAVELLING CRABE. 
 
 person pnintini,' it. A general power aiUliorizeH tlie 
 ajjeiit to ael ircnenilly for llie i)riiieipiil. A special 
 power liiiiils the iii,rciiey lo jiarllciilar l|]iiii;«. A 
 jiower of alloriiey iriiiy lie hy parole, or under Heal. 
 The attorney eannoti'Xeeijtc! a sealed instrument that 
 will bind his principal unless his own power is j;iv(;n 
 under seal. Oranis of this nature an^ very strictly 
 construed. Aulliority </i\-r\\ to one person ciiiwiot 
 be dele;;aled by liini lo anothiT, unless e.xpressjv set 
 forth in the oriL,'inal j^ranlr The dealli of the prin- 
 cipal at once cancels a power of attorney. All con- 
 ditions in the [lower must be strictly ob-served to 
 rcn<ler llie alloriiey's action lc!;al. 
 
 POWER PRESS. — A form of |)ress extensively em- 
 ployed in the niaaufuclure of lire-arnis. That repre- 
 
 sented in tlie drawint; is provi<led with Stannard's 
 hydraulic adjustment. A foot-lever actuates a stop- 
 motion that instantly stops the jihiniier, always at 
 the hirjhest point of the stroke. The crank-shaft, of 
 steel, is made with a throw of 2\ inches, or less, as it 
 may be ordered for trimminj; or for pimchina; pur- 
 poses. The shaft-bearinu;s are 3 inches diameter and 
 8 inches lone;. The driviui;-wlieel. 33 inches diam 
 eter and weigliing 380 pounds, receives a 4-inch belt. 
 The plunger is a lioUow cylinder, open at the top, 
 and bored to receive a piston, which is also hollow. 
 The plunger travels in gibbed slides, and has a por- 
 tion of (me of its Hanges toothed, to engage with a 
 pnion operated by a crank-wrench. The hollow pis- 
 ton contains oil, or glycerine (preferably the latter, 
 as being unaffected by changes of temperature). This 
 
 piston is attached to the crank l)y u connecting-bar. 
 I5y means of a thumb-value in the bottom of the pig 
 ton,operaleil by a rod extending up through the lop 
 and termiiiatr'd by a knob, the liipiiil may be allow- 
 ed to pass from thi^ pi^ton to the plunger, and vire 
 rrrmi, as tlie plunger is lowered or raised by tlir- pin- 
 ion anil toothed flange. 'l"he adjustnn:nt of the 
 punch can thus be made very minute and exact, and 
 the relative positions of the jilunger and piston may 
 lie firmly secured by a biniling-screw on the former, 
 which is split a portion of its length for this purpose. 
 The bed of the press may receive a dii-|)late, 12 by 
 14 inches. Weight of tiie machine, 2,7o0 i)ound». 
 Speed of driving-wheel, 17.T revolutions jjer minute. 
 The hydraulic adjustment being ipjile costiv, is sel- 
 dom onh'red. In lieu of it, one is made by substitut- 
 ing for the hollow piston, a solid one, having its cir- 
 cumference threaded to match an annularnut placed 
 in the central part of the |)lunger, and projecting 
 therefrom sufliciently to be readily turned to raise 
 or lower the plunger. The press is also furnished 
 withoul pliuejcr adjustment. 
 
 POWER shears!— A shearing-machine manufac- 
 tured by the I'ratt it Whitney Company, for use in 
 armories. The machine, as represented on page .576, 
 I is novel in style and action, noiseless in its opera- 
 ; tion, and all its parts liable to be clogged by dust 
 or injured by scale are contained inside of the pe- 
 'Ir^lai. but an; still fully accessible through tlie 
 medium of doors. On a shaft passing through the 
 machine from end to end is a worm engaging with 
 a large worm-wheel. This shaft is driven by a 
 faced balance-wliecl (used as a pidley for belt) from 
 which connection with the shaft is made by means 
 of Pratt's Patent Friction-clutch. The transverse 
 shaft carries the worm-wheel, which has an eccen- 
 tric, forming a part of the wheel, a connecting-rod 
 from which engages with the lower end or pro- 
 longation of a vertically vibrating horizontal cutter- 
 head, furnished with steel jaws on either side the 
 central bearing, which engage as shears with corre- 
 sponding fixed jaws. One pair of these jaws is made 
 witli recesses of the form of segments of circles to 
 receive roimd bars, and the otlier is straight. In 
 front of the jaws are adjustable sliding rests, to re- 
 sist the upward tendency of the piece to be cut, 
 and at the back is an adjustable gauge for deter- 
 mining its length. The machine is started or stop- 
 ped instantaneously, without the slightest shock, 
 and there is no loss of power b_v starting it from a 
 perfect stand-still. Speed of pulley on macliine is 
 280 to 300 every minute. The steel cutting-blades 
 may be removed from the jaws for sharpening or 
 replacement with very little trouble. The condjina- 
 tion of the screw, worm-wheel, eccentric, and lever 
 results in a machine of immense power. One size 
 machine is made. It will cut round iron to 1^ in- 
 ches diameter; or fiat iron J inch thick to 3 inches 
 wide. Weight, with coimtershaft, 4.600 poimds. 
 Speed of countershaft, having 16 by 6 inch tight and 
 loose ptilleys, about 240 revolutions per minute. See 
 Angle S/ii(in'iir/-iii<ic/iine. Lri-ir Shfnring-mac/iine, and 
 Sheariiiq-)iHrrfihn'. 
 
 POWER TRAVELING CRANE.— This crane consists 
 of a bridge composed of two wrought-iron girders 
 carried at each end by a two-wheeled truck with 
 double-tlanged truck wheels having chilled treads. 
 At one end of the bridge is a crab containing the 
 operating mechanism, and suspended beneath this 
 is the operating platform. Power is communicated 
 to the crane by an endless rope, moving continually 
 in one direction, aad drivenby a suitable wheel on a 
 stationary shaft at one end of the longitudinal tracks, 
 this shaft being driven by the power transmitted in 
 any convenient manner from a stationarj- engine, 
 either directly or through the line shafting. The 
 mechanism of the crab is such that the operator, 
 standing upon the suspended platform. is enabled by 
 means of three levers, to apply power so as to 
 cause the bridge to travel longitudinally on the
 
 POWER TRAVELING CRANE. 
 
 576 
 
 POWER TRAVELING CRANE. 
 
 tracks in either direction, or the trolley to travel in 
 either direction, across the bridge, or to raise or 
 lower the load. The bridge and troUe}' may be mov- 
 ed independently or sinuiltaneousl}^, at will. 
 
 The illustration on page .577 shows Weston's Tra- 
 veling crane, driven by power transmitted from a sta- 
 tionary source, and controlled by an operator standing 
 on a phiiform suspended from the crane at one end 
 of the bridge. The bridge is arranged to travel longi- 
 tudinallj' upon overheaci tracks. "and the trolley to 
 travel transversely across the bridge, so that the effi- 
 ciency of the crane covers the entire rectangle in- 
 cluded between the tracks, which latter may if de- 
 sired, be 400 or 500 feet, or more, in length. Cranes 
 of this construction are built of any desired capacity 
 from 5 to 50 tons, and of an}' span. 
 
 The motions of the bridge are effected by fixed 
 wire cables, so arranged as to constitute a perfect 
 squaring device, which insures the absolute parallel- 
 ism of the end trucks of the bridge with their tracks 
 under all conditions, so that the bridge always moves 
 smoothly and with the least possible friction. The 
 
 form should, if possible, be arranged as shown in the 
 engraving, beneath the bridge, as in this position the 
 operator has best command of the floor below. Where 
 the headroom does not allow of this, or where other 
 obstructions interfere, the ijlatform can be arranged 
 at each side'of the bridge. and projecting but .slightly 
 below the crab. But, for the reason above given, 
 this arrangement is not so good as that shown in the 
 engraving. A foot way across the bridge gives ac- 
 cess to the parts attached to the latter, and also to 
 the trolley. The main chain sheaves have a)iti-fric- 
 tion bushings, and the action is such as to distribute 
 the wear equally throughout the entire length of the 
 chain. The power traveling crane constitutes the 
 most perfect and complete "apparatus for handling 
 heavy loads, and is to be preferred to all other tvpes 
 of cranes, wherever the construction of the building, 
 and the other surrounding conditions admit of its use. 
 j It avoids all strains ofher than vertical upon the 
 building in which it is contained, and for its support 
 requires merely a trestle or wall of sufficient stability 
 to resist the direct pressure of the crane and its load, 
 
 motions of the trolley on the bridge are effected 
 through the two parts of the main hoisting-chain, 
 thus avoiding the need of an independent traversing 
 mechanism and greatly simplifying the machine. 
 
 The hoisting and lowering gear consists of cut 
 worm-wheels with bronze rims, driven by cut steel 
 worms running in oil, and provided with automatic 
 devices by which the load is always self-sustained. 
 Motion is transmitted to the worm gears by cut spur- 
 gearing, driven by the primary shaft, which in turn 
 is driven continuously in one direction by the driv- 
 ing rope. Automatic stO])S arc provided for arrest- 
 ing the transverse motion of tlie trolley nt either 
 end of the bridge, and also of the bridge at eitlier end 
 of the longitudinal tracks, so that over-travel, either 
 of the bridge or of the trolley, cannot by any acci- 
 dent occur. 
 
 Provision is always made for two speeds of hoist- 
 ing anil lowering, and when desired hack gearing is 
 added to the crab, tlius alTiirding four sjiecds of 
 hoisting and lowering and two speeds of travel, both 
 of bridge and trolley. Wlicn desired, liand gearing 
 can be also added to enable the crane to lie moved 
 bj' hand in the event of the power being temporari- 
 ly disabled. This adds somewhat to the expense 
 of the crane and is usually not desirable, as the mo- 
 tions by hand are necessarily very slow and the oc 
 casions for its use very rare. Tlie oiierating plat- 
 
 so that there is practicall}' no limit to the capacity 
 which nuiy be obtained. With jih cranes, on the 
 contrary, lateral strains upon the building are un- 
 avoidably introduced ; and, where the crane is large, 
 either in capacity or dimensions, these strains be- 
 come exceedingly severe. A jib crane encroaches 
 seriously upon the floor it covers, and its capacity 
 for the horizontal transfer of loads is necessarQy 
 very limited. The traveling crane, on the contrary 
 leaves the floor below it entirely clear, and is practi- 
 cally unrestricted in the length of its travel. The 
 designing of the Weston power traveling cranes 
 has been a subject of the most careful studv and 
 thorough experiment, extended over a number of 
 years. ' It is believed that these are the most highly 
 organized and mechanically perfect cranes whicli 
 have ever been Imilt. Cranes of this construction are 
 adai)ted for use in foundries, armories, forges, ma- 
 chine shops, rolling mills, stone yards, and other 
 places where heavy loads are to be liandled, and 
 where it is desired to accomiilisli this in the most ef- 
 licicnt and economical manner. Where actively em- 
 ployed cranes of this type will do the work of from 
 30 to 50 men using the ordinary devices of tackles, 
 jacks and screws, so that it is demonstrable in many 
 cases that the economy cfTected by a crane witliin 
 one or two years will cnlirelv cover the cost of pro- 
 curing it. See C'ranen, and tliind Traveling Crane,
 
 POWLDRON. 
 
 577 
 
 POWWOW 
 
 POWLDRON. — Ill llinildry, llial |iarl of armor 
 wliicli ciiviTM the Hliiiiililcrs. 
 
 POWLETT GUN CARRIAGE. — A pmiiiimlir car- 
 riage coiisislin'i: of nil iiiiprovcil slide lilted with 
 Kuilahle erosH-lraiisoiiis uriii aiii;li-kiiees for llie sup- 
 port of riiiiniiif; and recoil cylinders, which arc placed 
 iiiideriieiith the jj;iiti and liel ween the Kliilc rails in 
 such a manlier as to lie eiilirely protected Ihereliy 
 from the chances of disarraii!;enienl b)' a shot or 
 shell in action. A rack-piece runs alon;; the inside 
 of one of the slide rails with a rolliii;;, eccentric 
 c:Uitch, with a lever attached to its collar, so that 
 when the j;"" '*< fired and the recoil is " brought 
 up", the lever falls ami automatically secures the 
 nun in that position until it is desired to run in 
 battery, or to he lirouL^hl hack to Ilie rear liutTers 
 for loading. The ruiiiiiiiir cylinders are liriiily lixed 
 to the cross-transoms of llie slidi'. and arc lilted witli 
 pistons, the rods of which arc secured to the for- 
 ward transom of the brackets of the slidinu; carriage 
 carryinu; the gun. 'Phis attacliment of the collar of 
 the piston-rod to the carriage has a slot motion, so 
 arranged that when llu' gun is lired there is sulVicient 
 play not to strain the piston-rod in the gland stulT- 
 ing box at the forward end of the cyliuder head. 
 
 This running cylinder is fitted "with supply and 
 
 into n cogged racer wheel, so arranged and meshed 
 thai any niotiim to the right or to the left will tra- 
 verse or train the gun lo right or left, us desired. 
 The oscillating cylinders are placed at such an angle 
 thai there is no center of a,\is or motion, and. like- 
 wise, there are no slide valves for reversion of mo- 
 li<in, as lliis is acconi])lished liy two pairs of supply 
 pipes leading lo the ports or base fif the cyliiiilers 
 on binli siiles of the trunnion support; therefore, by 
 moving the lever to the right or left, the training 
 engintwould follow that motion and train the gun lo 
 the right or li-ft, as desired. 
 
 The elevating and depressing gear of this carriage 
 is operated by an \ipriglit cylinder, with siifJicient 
 drift to give instantaneously the extreme degree of 
 elevation or depression required by the action of 
 compressed air. On either side of the breech of the 
 gun are racked standards, with :. movable slot, hav- 
 ing a compressor screw encompassing a racked die 
 or slot-plug, by which, with one-half turn of the 
 screw lever, the breech of the gun is firmly .secured 
 at any degree of elevation or depression desired. 
 By this method of working heavy guns, two men and 
 agunnerare all the crew that is ret|uired lo work 
 and load the heaviest ordnance, and all the p<iwer 
 is furnished trom below, from an air compressor en- 
 
 exhaust pipes, with reversing valves or cocks, \vhere- 
 by compressed air funiislied from below at a pres- 
 sure may be supplied to eitlier end of the cyliuder, 
 at will, by moving the lever allached lo the stem of 
 such reversing valves forward or backward, for 
 ruiming out or running in. When the gun is run 
 out and tired, a pressure of any number of pounds of 
 compressed air as may be desired remains at llie rear 
 end of the cylinder for picking up the recoil, and. if 
 it is desired, the clutch-lever may be elevated and 
 secured and the gun made to run immediately in 
 liatli-ry again, aulomatically. after each tire. In 
 training this carriage, which is done without tackle, 
 winch, or clmiu wheel, there is placed at the rear of 
 the carriage slide and between the same a pair of 
 oscillating cylinders laid horizontally with a plane 
 of the slides and attached directly with a worm 
 geared into a worm wliecl having a pinion geared 
 
 gine and receiver of suitable size. The drawing 
 represents a 3-5-ton B.L.K. gun mounted on the 
 Powlett carriage. Connected with this carriage is 
 an ingenious stand-by recoil check device, winch, 
 should any accident happen to the compressed-air 
 machinery or pipes during action, can be thrown by 
 a lever and clutch instantly into service. This recoil 
 check is mechanical, and has no cogged gearing, 
 and keeps itself in order by running perfectly free 
 during all maneuvering, until thro^vninto gear in 
 an emergency. Sec Bnike. 
 
 POWWOW. — A priest or conjuror among the North 
 American Indians: also, conjurations performed for 
 the cure of diseases and other purposes, attended 
 with great noise and confusion, and often with danc- 
 ing. When an accepting Chief wishes to organize 
 his war party, he mounts his horse, both in full war 
 paint, raises' a pole to which is attached a bunch of
 
 POYNADO. 
 
 578 
 
 PfiECEDENCE. 
 
 feathers and a small red blanket, and rides about the 
 village singing the war song. Those wishing to go, 
 mount their pouies and follow the chief. This is 
 continued several days, until there is a sufficiency of 
 volunteers for the work. 
 
 During the absence of the war party, the people 
 at liome become very anxious, and all the conversa- 
 tion is centered on the absent party and its probable 
 time of return. When it is announced that the war- 
 tiors are returning victorious, there is a great excite- 
 ment throughout the village. The womnu chant songs 
 of victory, while the old men narrate the deeds of 
 their forefathers and themselves to excite the emu- 
 lation of the young. The '■ Medicine Men" gallop 
 through the camp beating their drums and shouting 
 encouragement, while the warriors painted black, 
 with their horses in the full war paint, perform the 
 scalp (lance. 
 
 If the expedition turns out to be a failure, and some 
 of the party are killed, the relatives of the killed cut 
 off their own hair and the tails and manes of the fa- 
 vorite horses of the deceased, and crj" without ces- 
 sation for days, weeks, and even months. 
 
 POYNADO. — An earh- name for a poniard. 
 
 PKAELIARES. — Among the Romans, lighting days 
 on which they thought it lawful to engage in acts of 
 liostility ; for duriug the time of some particular 
 feasts, the)' reckoned it a piece of impiety to raise, 
 march, or exerci.se men for war, or to encounter the 
 eucniy. unless first attacked. 
 
 PKAIKIE. — The name given, by the early French 
 Explorers of the northern portion of the Mississippi 
 Valley, North America, to the vast fertile plains 
 which extend from western Ohio and southern Michi- 
 gan, across the States of Indiana, Illinois, Jlissouri, 
 Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and Dakota Ter- 
 ritory, including the southern portions of Wisconsin 
 and Minnesota. These great plains or .savannas are 
 sometimes flat. but oftener rollinglike the long swells 
 of the ocean, and rise in gradual elevation from 800 
 to L.^iOO feet above the level of the sea. They are 
 draiued by numerous rivers, branches of the Ohio, 
 Mississippi, and Missouri, or emptying into Lake 
 Michigan, who.se channels seem to have been worn 
 to the depth of 50 to 300 feet, with vertical walls or 
 bluffs of limestone, sandstone, displaying in some 
 places banks of clay, sand, and loam, 200 feet in 
 thickness. Beneath the prairies, northwest of the 
 Ohio, are extensive coal-flelds, with deposits of iron, 
 lead, etc. The soil is finely comminuted, rich, and 
 fxtremely fertile, varying in thickness from 1 or 2 
 feet to tlie Ijottom-lands on the borders of the rivers, 
 which are of great depth and inexhaustible fertility. 
 These plains are destitute of trees, except in isolated 
 groves. a few rocky ridges, and the borders of streams. 
 They are covered with fine grasses, and brilliant flow- 
 ers of various species of the helianthoid rompoxitm. 
 Water is found from 1.5 to 30 feet below the surface. 
 Tliesc great prairies. covering an area of about -400,000 
 square miles, formerly fed vast herds of buffalo, 
 deer, wild turkeys, prairie-hens or grouse, prairie- 
 dogs, squirrels, etc. In the autumn, the dried grasses, 
 lired by the Indians, converted them into seas of 
 fiame. The lack of timber is attributed by some to 
 the fineness of thesoil. Kemains of ancient jnounds, 
 fori itical ions, and cities show that they were, at some 
 distant period, inlial)ite(l by a more civilized race 
 than the Indians found by European discoverers. 
 These great rolling plains, or natural pastures, with 
 only the labor of plowing, produce large crops of 
 wheat or niai/.e,aiiil, |)enetrated by navigable rivers, 
 and crossed by <:licai>ly binlt railvva3-s, they form one 
 of the nu)st easily cidlivated and prolitic regions of 
 the world, and are capable of sustaining immense 
 populatioMs. 
 
 PEAIRIE CARRIAGE.— The necessity for a small 
 carriaL'e fcpr llic luouiitain howitzer, when used on 
 our western prairies, has led to the adoption of a 
 special carriage for that service, with a limlicr at- 
 tached as iua field carriage. This renders the car- 
 
 riagte less liable to overturn, and preferable in every 
 respect to the two-wheeled one. The limber is fur- 
 nished with two ammunition boxes, placed over the 
 axle-tree, and parallel to it, and just wide enough 
 for one row of shells and their cartridges. See Giui- 
 carria(]en. 
 
 PRATT RANGE-FINDER.— Any device, by means 
 of whicli the distance between two objects may be 
 measured with such accuracy as will warrant its ap- 
 plication in determining what elevation should be 
 given to a fire-arm discharged at one of the points, in 
 order that its projectile shall strike the other, or 
 within effective proximity, may be called a range-fin- 
 der. For militarypurposes, a range-finder should be as 
 small inexpensive, durable, and simple as is possibly 
 consistent with necessar}' accuracy. It should also 
 not be limited in its apphcation to one base, and the 
 base should not be long in comparison with the 
 range. It is thought that the method of use sug- 
 gested by Lieut. Sedgwick Pratt, Third Artillery, C. 
 b. A., may materially increase the value of fixed- 
 angle telemeters. An outline of this method is here 
 given as applied in general to telemeters with fixed 
 angles. It enables the observer to obtain the dis- 
 tance between two points even when he can occupy 
 neither of them. The observer being at C, to obtain 
 the distance between the points A and B, he lays 
 off the bases C C and C C", as if to determine the 
 distances C A and C B, respectively. AVithout 
 measuring these ba&es|he measure's the distance C'C", 
 and this is multiplied by the number correspond- 
 ing to the instrument, 20, for instance, giving the 
 distance A B. This is because the angle C C C" is 
 equal to the angle A C B.and the sides C C and C C" 
 are proportioned to the sides A C and B C in the tri- 
 angles C C C" and A B C. Care must be taken to 
 lay off the bases in the same direction from C, that 
 is, both to the right or both to 
 the left of the observer at C as 
 he stands facing the points A 
 and B for the two bases re- 
 spectively. Where the instru- 
 ment is adapted to laying off 
 a right angle also, the observ- 
 er can place himself on the 
 line between two points, A and 
 B, and obtain the distance be- 
 tween them in a very simple 
 manner. Being at C, he lays 
 off in the same direction tiie 
 bases C C and C C". one cor- 
 responding to the distance C 
 A and the other to C B, adds 
 the bases, and multiplies their 
 sum by the usual number. 
 Lieutenant Pratt's instrument 
 consists of four mirrors. Two 
 are set at an angle of 45° and 
 two at a lesser angle. The 
 number of nnrrors is the same 
 as in the modified Azemar in- 
 stnunent, which gives three 
 angles. The bases are ,',, and 
 -i^ of the distance to be determined, and with the 
 longer base the instrument is used like Weldon's. 
 The method shown in the tigure is applicable t<i the 
 Weldon range-finder, as well as to those giving a 
 right angle. When the right-angle instriments are 
 used, care must t)e taken to lay olf this angle at 
 the riglit or at the left extremity of the base in both 
 observations. When A C C and 1$ C C" are both 
 right angles the line C C" will be perpendicular to 
 tlie line A B, anil this affords an easy method of lay- 
 ing off a |)erpcndiculur to an inaccessible line, two 
 points of which are visilile to the observer. This 
 method can be used also with variable-angle tilenie- 
 lers. See Nulnn, Rangi-fiiuler, liiiswU I'rixm liange- 
 fiiiilfr. Telemeter, Watkiiis Jiange-finder, and, Weld<m 
 luiiige-finiler. 
 PRECEDENCE. — Priority in rank or precedenc in
 
 PRECEPTORY. 
 
 579 
 
 PRESENT ARMS. 
 
 military life is reguliitcd by tlie dutf of an officer's government patronapje, including the appointment 
 
 oominiHsion, or the Htiindini; in the (.'orpt towliinh 
 )u' iiuiy licicin^. The fulldwin^r Im the order of pre- 
 ccdciice (if tin: sfvcriil Kcgiiiii'iitM and Corps of her 
 Majesty's service, viz: - (1) The Keijimenis of 
 Life (iiiards, mid tlie lloyul Hci^imciil of Horse 
 Ginirds. Ci) Tlie Uoyal Horse Arlillery; Ijul on |)iir- 
 ade, with their K"i's, tliis Corps will liike the riylit 
 and march at tlie head of the Hoiisehdld Cavalry. 
 (;i) The Keiriinents of Cavalry of the I,ine, aeeord- 
 inn to llieir nuniher and order of preeedenccs (4) 
 The Koyal Uei^inient of Artillery. (Ti) The Corps of 
 Hoyal Kni^ineers. (0) The Uepiin('nts of Foot 
 Guards. (7) The Rei^iineutH of Infantry of the I>ine 
 according to their number and order of precedence. 
 (H) The Departmental (,'orps. The Royal Marines, 
 when acting; with the Troops of the Line, taki' rank 
 next to the •tilth Rei;imenl. The Kille Brii;iiile rank 
 next to the '.Cid Kei;iiiient. The .Mililia KeLjimenIs 
 have iireeedence after those of the Lini;, accordini; 
 to their respective numbers as fixed bj- lot. When 
 l{ej;iments of Hritish and Irish Militia of the same 
 arm are serving toi;ether, the Mililia of tliat part of 
 the United Kinjjdom in which the Regiments may at 
 
 of a KoitM prifct for each ArroinliiiMeinfnt, and in time 
 of tumult may call out the military, or provisionally 
 <leclare a state of siege. The chiif check on Ihesf 
 extensive powers is to be found in the dinmeil dr. Itt 
 J'ri'ferture, which acts in some measure as a court 
 of appeal from the decisions of the Prdfet. 
 
 PREPONDERANCE.-The excess of weight of the 
 part of the pic:(te in rear of the trunnions over that 
 in front. It is expressed by Ihr; lifting force, in 
 pounds, which must be applir-d at the cascabel to 
 balance the piece upon the trunnions. It is u.seful 
 only for pieces mouiiled on traveling carriages, to 
 keep them steady in transportation. For all other 
 pieces of recent model the axis of the trunnions in- 
 tersects the axis of the piece at the center of gravity, 
 thus enabling the piece to lie elevated and depressed 
 with greater ease. The discharge does not sensibly 
 change the ]iosition of the piece before the projectile 
 leaves the bore. 
 
 PRESBYOPIA.— This condition is an accompaniment 
 of tin- later years of life ; it is a physiological or nat- 
 ural, not an abnormal change, and effecis all eyes. 
 It depends almost solely upon the failure of the ac- 
 
 the time be ipiartered has jirecedence over other ; commodatiou, due to a gradual hardening of the lens 
 Militia, but Reginienis of Artillery Militia always have l and decrease of the power of the ciliarj' muscle as 
 precedence over the Infantry Militia. On jiarade for age advances. Although this decrease in the power 
 purposes of maneuvering. Corps are to be distributed of adjustment for near objects is not noticed until, 
 and drawn up in the mode which the General or , jierhaps, the 40th or 4oth year, yet, from theatre of 
 other Officer commanding may judge most conven- ! nine or ten, the accommodation is gradually growing 
 lent, and best adapted to the purposes of the ser- weaker, that is, tine print can no longer be seen as 
 
 vice. Rifle Battalions should be formed upon a 
 flank. 
 
 PRECEPTORY.— The name given to certain houses 
 
 close to the eye as formerly. 
 This defect is not of itself a cause for the rejection 
 
 of a recruit, but those in whom it exists are usiiallj' 
 of the Knights Templar, the Superiors of which I over age. All eyes undergo the changes producing 
 were called Knights Preceptor. All the preceptories ' " ' ..- ■ 
 
 of a province were subject to a Provincial Superior, 
 called Grand Preceptor ; and there were three of 
 these who held rank above all the rest, the Grand 
 Preceptors of Jerusalem, of Tripolis.and of Antioch. 
 Other houses of the order were called " Command- 
 eries." 
 
 presbyopia ; we frequently, however, hear of perl 
 sons, ripe in years, who have never felt the necessity 
 of glasses for reading or other tine work, and whose 
 " strong " eyes are their especial pride. Such per- 
 sons have been near-sighted, probably, all their lives 
 their defect neutralizing the normal changes taking 
 place ; a weak concave glass liefore such ej-es wiU 
 
 PRECISION. — Exactness ; accuracy ; scrupulous ; usually improve distant vision. 
 
 observance of certain given rules. In military phrase 
 ology, this term is often employed when remarking 
 on the drill or marching of a regiment. The term is 
 also applied to rifled arms under the name of Arms 
 
 of /')Yi-isin/l. 
 
 FREDAL WAR. — A war carried on by plunder and 
 
 rapine. Commonlj' written Predatory Wnr. 
 
 PREFECT. — A common name apjilicable to various 
 Ronuiu functionaries. The most important was the 
 Prirfectu-H Urbi, or warden of the city, whose office 
 existed at an early period of Roman hislorj-, but was 
 
 The popular opinion that the use of glasses should 
 be postponed as long is possilile, is erroneous. As 
 soon as unpleasant feelings denote the approach of 
 presbyopia, glasses should be resorted to at once, as 
 the longer the eyes are deprived of the aid which 
 they need, and consequently are subjected to strain, 
 the more rapidly will the changes in the eye become 
 developed. 
 
 The treatment of presbyopia is found in convex 
 glasses, of such strength that flne print may be seen 
 readily at 7 to 8 inches. Here such a glass is em- 
 
 revived under Augustus, with new and greatly al- ' ploj-ed not to correct the refraction, as the case of 
 tere<I and extended authority, including Uie whole the convex lenses in hypermetropia, but to aid the 
 powers necessary for the maintenance oif peace and \ power of the eye in accommodating. Presbyopia, in 
 
 order in the city, and an extensive jurisdiction civil 
 and criminal. "The Prcefictus Prffturin was the Com- 
 mander of the troops that guarded the Emperor's 
 person. 
 
 PREFECT PRETORIAN.— In Roman antiquity, the 
 C'ommaiuler of the l'nu'ti>rmii (huirds. 
 
 a perfectly healthj- eye, does not affect the sharpness 
 of distant vision, although in extreme old age, distant 
 vision also is somewhat diminished, owing to other 
 changes which affect the eye. 
 
 The "lasses should be used at first only while read- 
 ing by lamp or gaslight. When the unpleasant sen- 
 
 PREFET.— The name of an important magistrate | sations show tliemselves also in the day-time, then 
 in modern France, so called from his exercising i the glasses previou.sl3- worn at night should be used 
 functions somewhat similar to those of the prirfectun \ for reading by daylight, and their place supplied by 
 ^trbi at Rome. In old times, the officers whose duty ] a pair of slightly stronger glasses for night-work. In 
 it was to superintend the details of administration in j old persons, when distant vision is improved by weak 
 the Provinces were csil\ed.\fa>trei<de Riquetes. Under convex glasses, those of the proper strength may be 
 Henry II., their office was rendered permanent ; and ' worn constantlj-. See Recruits. 
 at a later period, their powers were much extended, I PRESENT.— A term used in the British service, 
 and they were known by the designation of Int4-n- \ meaning to bring the musket to a horizontal position, 
 dants. The Intendants were abolished at the Revo- j the butt resting against the right shoulder for the 
 lution ; and a law of 1800 first appointed Prefets for { purpose of di.scliarging its contents at a given object, 
 the departments, with powers greatly similar to PRESENT ARMS.— A command in tactics dire<ting 
 those of the Intendants. The office, as it now exists, that the musket be brought to a certain prescribed 
 
 includes the superintendence of police establishment, 
 the enforcement of the laws, and the entire control 
 of the administration of the departments. The PrtS- 
 fet is the head of the executive, exercises most of the 
 
 position, for the purpose of paying a military com- 
 pliment. The movement is ex?cuted as follows: 
 The Instructor commands: 1. Present, 2. Abms. 
 Carry the piece with the right hand, in front of the
 
 PRESERVATION OF AMMUNITION. 
 
 580 
 
 PRESERVATION OF PROJECTILES. 
 
 center of the body, at the same time gra.sp it witli 
 the left hand at "the lower bund, the forearm hori- 
 zontal and resting against the bod_v, (Two.) Grasp 
 the small of the stock with the right hand, below 
 and against the guard. 1. Can-//, 2. Arms. Re- 
 sume the carry with the rirfit hand. (Two.) Drop 
 the left hand by the side. See Manual of Arms, Fig. 
 
 ^PRESERVATION OF AMMUNITION AND FIRE- 
 WORKS. — Stiirc'huusL-s and magazines should be kept 
 in tlie neatest possible order, the stores arranged as 
 much as possible, by classes, kinds, and calibers, 
 and labeled. They should be ventilated from time 
 to time, in the middle of the daj', in line weather, 
 particularly those which contain ammunition and 
 tireworks, which are injured by moisture. LeaAkn 
 balU are generally kept in cellars, on account of their 
 weight ; the boxes should be kept as dry as possible, 
 and so piled as to admit the circulation of air about 
 them. C'lrtridgen /(»• KinaU-drms SiTe'k.ept in mag.a- 
 zines, the barrels or boxes being piled 3 or 4 tiers 
 high at most. Fixed ammunitioHfur cannvii, it not 
 inboxes, should be placed in piles formed of two 
 parallel rows of cartridges, with the sabots together, 
 m 4 tiers for 12-pounder ; chock the lower tier with 
 strips of wood fastened with small nails ; put a lay- 
 er of tow 3 inches thick between the shot; let the 
 piles rest on planks, if there be no floor, and cover 
 them with paulins ; have the place swept, and the 
 cartridge-bags brushed off. Leave a passage of 18 
 inches between the double rows, and keep them 2 
 feet from the walls. Fixed ammunition should not j 
 be put into powder-magazines if it can be avoided ; 
 it should be kept in a dry place, above the ground- [ 
 floor if practicable. The store-rooms should always 
 be aired in line weather ; the piles siiould be taken 
 down anil made up again every six months at most, 
 the bags examined, repaired, and the damaged cart- 
 ridges broken up. A ticket on each pile shoul43how 
 thenumber and kind of cartridges, the additions to 
 the pile, and the issues. Canisters are piled up like 
 fixed ammunition, in 4 or .5 tiers. Empty cannis- 
 ters in 10 or 12 tiers, the bottoms and covers separ- 
 ately. Cartridge-bag^ are filled and kept like 
 fixed ammunition, or packed in boxes or barrels. 
 When empty, they are stored in bundles of 50, sealed 
 up in paper cases, carefully closed with strips of thin 
 paper pasted over the seams. Paper cartridge-bags 
 are kept in bundles, packed in boxes or on shelves, in 
 a dry place, with pounded camphor and black pep- 
 per or tobacco: the flannel bottom dipped in a solu- 
 tion of the sulphate of copper. Luadtd shdln should 
 never be put into magazines, except from .absolute 
 necessitj'; powder is not well preserved in them. 
 They should be piled on the ground-floor of a secure 
 building, on planks, if the floor be not boarded, in 6 
 tiers at most; the fuses of the lower tier, in the va- 
 cant spaces between the shells; those of the other 
 tiers, turned downwards, like the fuse-holes of emp- 
 ty shells. The pile should be covered with a paulin. 
 Use the same precautions against moisture and acci- 
 dents as in a jxjwder-magazine. The different kinds 
 of caiiinUr shut are kept together, in bins or boxes. 
 Shw-match is kept in a dry place, such as a garret, 
 in boxes or barrels, or are piled on tlie floor. "Quick- 
 iiiatf/i, if not in boxes, may be hung up in bundles 
 on ropes or jiins and covered with paper. Frirtinn. 
 pritnirK should be ke])l in tin boxes. Port-Jirea, in 
 liumlels of ten, are placed in boxes or in barrels on 
 end in safe and dry sitiuitions. Fanes are packed in 
 boxes, the same kind, as much as possible, in the 
 same box, in very dry and well-ventilated stores. 
 ('flinders of ruak-Jire are kept inbo.vesor barrels like 
 fuses. Fire.lialls are kejjt in cool but dry and airy 
 ])laces, suspended by the handle, the bottom restin"- 
 on a board nr fluor llial llicy may not become de- 
 formed. Each ball should be labeled, stating itscali- 
 ber, weiglit, andyear of fabricalion. Signal-riirkrtsarv. 
 ])acked in boxes, the sticks tied togeth.er. Each box 
 should contain rockets of but one caliber, andshoulil 
 
 be nfarked with the size and the kind of decoration. 
 If the sticks be attached they are tied in bundles of 
 n according to the kind of decoration. War-rejckets 
 are preserved in dr_y places with the same precau- 
 tions as loaded shells. Tarred links are strung on a 
 rope and hung up. For transportation they are 
 packed in barrels with straw between the tiers. 
 Fetscines aniX ton'/(fs are packed like tarred links. The 
 parts of ornamental fireworks, owing to their liabil- 
 ity to deteriorate in store, are generally made as re- 
 ipiired. They may be packed in the same manner 
 as ]iiirt-fires. See Ammunition. 
 
 PRESERVATION OF PROJECTILES.— Projectiles for 
 rifle guns shouUl be neither lacquered nor painted, 
 for the reason that either of these substances would 
 adhere to and foul the grooves of the piece. When 
 practicable, they should be kept under cover, in a 
 dry place, and if unboxed, should be oiled once a 
 year with sperm oil. They are piled, according to 
 kind and calilier, on their sides, in tiers of conven- 
 ient height. The fuse holes should be stopped with 
 tow or cotton-waste. Great care should be taken 
 when handling them to avoid injuring the sabot. 
 No shells of any description should be kept habitual- 
 ly charged. This is done, as occasion requires, when 
 tiring. Empty shell, whether in store or in trans- 
 portation, are most carefully protected from damp- 
 ness. They have the fuse-bouching coated with 
 composition, and the fuse-hole is stopped by a plug 
 of very soft wood wliich is well coated with a mix- 
 ture of oil and tallow, and screwed in. The ends of 
 the plugs are not sawed off even with the shell, but 
 left square, and project sufficiently to allow them to 
 be unscrewed by means of a wrench; and when 
 these plugs are removed for the purpose of fitting 
 the shells for service, they are not thrown away, but 
 preserved for future use. 
 
 When projectiles have been allowed to become 
 very rusty, they may be thoroughly cleaned in tlie fol- 
 lowing manner : Provide stout rectangular wooden 
 tubs, fitted with faucets and troughs, for conducting 
 the waste water, acids, etc., to the gutters. The 
 loose rust having been removed with a file-card, 
 place the projectiles in the tubs, and cover them 
 with a mixture of three parts muriatic acid and four 
 parts water. After pickling for an hour, or an hour 
 and a half, remove the acid directly into another tub, 
 if convenient, as the same mixture may be used 
 many times. Then thoroughly rinse the projectiles 
 in running water ; if any rust remains it will be in a 
 spongy, half-dissolved condition. easily removed with 
 a file-card. After rinsing, the projectiles are wiped 
 with a dry cloth and piled, when they will be ready 
 for lacquering. 
 
 Whenever projectiles are to receive lacquer, care is 
 taken that the quantity applied tloes not increase 
 the diameter more than is indispensabl}' necessary, 
 and in no case above established high ga\ige. Old 
 lacquer and rust are removed by scraping, as far 
 as can be conveniently done, before a new coat- 
 ing is applied. Neither liammering nor beating is 
 resorted to fortius purpose. After numerous ex- 
 periments upon different lacquers employed for the 
 preservation of projectiles from rust, the French 
 have abandoned all of them. The projectiles are 
 simi)ly piled, imder sheds when practicable, or in 
 the open air, and, when put onboard of shii), cleaned 
 of rust and rublied over with whale-oil; the same 
 means are adopted every three months of the cruise. 
 
 In emptying slu'U they are handled carefully and 
 placed on a bench with a hole in it to re<five and 
 suiiport the inverted shell. A wooden vessel i)laced 
 below re(-eives the powder. The powder which has 
 been removed from shells is only used for filling 
 shell, as it always contains a small (juantity of grit, 
 which renders it unlit for gi'ueral service. All [low- 
 der taken from shell is sifted, and all dust and jiar- 
 ticles of dirt removed, asfaras possilile, Iiefore put- 
 ting it into barrels. Shoidil the powder have bc- 
 conie caked, so as not to be easily removed by wash-
 
 FB£8£aVAII0N OF FOWOEB. 
 
 581 
 
 PRESIDKNT. 
 
 ing out the shell, !i Imnilful of small iron shot piit in ' not bf mod. Tlic Rontinfl or puard at a magazine, 
 the slicll fiicilitalcs lliis opiratioii. See /'iliiif/ nf wlien it is open, should liavr no tirc-arriiH, and j-v<;ry 
 
 one wlio fntcrs tin; nmjra/.inr should take o(T hm 
 
 Ihill.i mid I'riiji'i'titin. 
 
 PRESERVATION. STORAGE. AND TRAN8P0RTA 
 TION OF POWDER. In the poH dir.iii,iL';i/iMcs Ihr 
 liarrcls arc f,'ciirrHlly pla<-cd on the sidi-s, llircc lli-r>< 
 liish, or four tiers, if iic-eessaiy. Small skids should 
 lie i)laced on the lloor and lietwcen the seviral tiers 
 of i)arr<'ls, in order to steady tliein, and cliocks 
 should lie plaeed at intervals on the skids to pre- 
 vent the rolling of the liarrels. The powder should 
 be separated iie<-iirdinLC toils kind, the |ilaee and ilate 
 of falirieatioM and the proof-ran<:e. Fixed ainiiiiini- 
 tioii, espeeiidly for cannon, should not tie put in the 
 Biime ina!j;azine with po\vd<T in barrels, if it can be 
 avoided. In a room i;t or 14 feel wide, the barrels 
 may be arranged in a double row in llu' center, two 
 alleys 'ih feet wide, and two single rows to 13 inehes 
 from the walls ; in this way the marks of eaeli barrel 
 may be seen and any barrel can be easily reached. 
 In a room 13 feet wide, an cipial luunber of barrels 
 may be plaee<l in Iwo doulile rows, with a central 
 alley of :{ feet, and two side alleys, next the walls, 
 of about 10 inches each. Thi're should be an un- 
 encundx'red space of 6 or 8 feet at the door or doors 
 of the magazine. , 
 
 Should it be necessary to pile the barrels more 
 than four tiers high, the upper tiers should be sup- 
 ported by a frame resting on the tioor; orthe barrels 
 may be placed on their heads, with boards between 
 the tiers. Besides being recorded in the magazine 
 book, each parcel of powdersliould be inscribed on 
 a ticket attached to the pile, showing the entries 
 and the issues. 
 
 For the preservation of the powder, and of the 
 
 slioi'S, or ])ut socks over I hem; no sword or cane, or 
 anything which might ncrasion sparks, should be 
 carried ill. The window s ^lioiild have inside slnittere 
 of co])per wire-doth. Fire should never be kindled 
 near the magazine for the repair of the roof or liclit- 
 ningrods. Barrels of powder should not be rolled 
 for transi)ortation; they should be carrii'd in hand- 
 barrows, or slings made of ro|ie or leather. In mov- 
 ing powder in the- ma^Mzine. a cloth or carpet should 
 be spread; all inslnimenis used there shoulil be of 
 wood or cojipcr, and the barrels should ni-ver be re- 
 ])aired in I he niairaziiw. When it is necessarv to 
 roll the ])owder for its betti-r jireservation and to 
 prevent its caking, this should lie done, with a small 
 ipiantity at a lime, on boards in the magazine yard, 
 In the spring an ins]ieclion of the barrels should 
 be mide, and the hoops swept with a brush wherever 
 they can be got at, to remove the insects which de- 
 posit their eggs at this season. In wagons, barrels 
 of powder must be packed in straw, secured in such 
 a manner as not to rub against each other, and the 
 load covered with thick canvas. In transportation 
 by railroad, each barrel should be carefully boxed 
 and packed, so as to avoid all friction. TIk" barrels 
 should have a thick paulin under them. The cars 
 should have springs similar to those of passenger 
 cars. When ])owder has been ilamaged by being 
 stored in d:imp places, it loses its strength, and re- 
 quires to be worked over. If the quantity of mois- 
 ture absorbed does not exceed 7 per cent!, it is suf- 
 ficient to dry it to restore it to service. This is done 
 by e.xposing it to the sun, or in a drying room. 
 
 floors and lining of the magazine, it is of the great- 1 When "powder has absorbed more than 7 per cent., of 
 est importance to preserve unobstructed the circula- water it is sent to the powder-mills to be worked over, 
 tinn of air under tlie tlooring as well as above. The|orsold as condemned [lowder. When it has been 
 magazine should be opened and aired in clear, dry ! damaged b)- salt water, or become mixed with for- 
 •wniMwr, when the Umperatunnf the air uiit^i<le in Awp- , eign matters which cannot be separated by sifting, 
 er than that inxide the magazine. It should not be | the saltpeter is dissolved out from the other mater- 
 opened in damp weather if it can be avoided. The ials and collected by evaporation. 
 
 Pr'ipoHiunn of ingredientn. 
 
 By the atomic theory 
 
 In the United" States : 
 
 For the military service (the latter proportion is generally used; - 
 
 For sporting j 
 
 In England same as United States; 
 For the military service 
 
 For sporting ,' 
 
 In France (Wetteren powder has given best results ; many e.\- 
 periments have been made with varviu.g jiroportions) : 
 
 For the military service 
 
 For sporting 
 
 For blasting 
 
 In Prussia, same as England and United States : 
 For the military service T, 
 
 In Spain : — 
 For the military service 
 
 In Austria : 
 For the militarv service 
 
 Saltpeter. 
 
 Charcoal. 
 
 74,64 
 76. 
 
 rjtt 
 
 75. 
 
 78. 
 75. 
 
 73.775 
 
 78. 
 
 63. 
 
 75. 
 
 76.5 
 
 74. 
 
 11.51 
 
 14. 
 IS- 
 IS. 
 13. 
 
 15. 
 
 14. 
 17. 
 
 14.205 
 12. 
 
 18. 
 
 15. 
 
 13.7 
 
 16. 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 11.85 
 
 10. 
 10. 
 10. 
 10. 
 
 10. 
 
 8. 
 8. 
 
 13.020 
 
 10. 
 
 20. 
 
 10. 
 
 10.8 
 
 10. 
 
 See Gunpowder and Powder Depots. 
 ventilators must be kept free; no shrubbery or frees j 
 should be allowed to grow so near as to p"rotect the . 
 builuing from the sun. The magazine vard should 
 be paved and well drained. Tbeinoistufe of a maiia- 
 ziue may be absorbed by chloride of lime suspended 
 in an open box under t"he arch, and renewed from 
 time to time; quicKlimc is dangerous, and should 
 
 PRESIDENT.— The President of the United States 
 is Commander-in-Chief of the army, narj-, and mili- 
 tia called into service. His functions as such are 
 assigned by Congress, but embrace of course what- 
 ever authority may be assigned to any Military Com- 
 mander. r:n the principle that the authority of the 
 greater includes that of the less. For the command.
 
 PKESIDENX OF COURT. 
 
 582 
 
 PBETOB. 
 
 government, and reculation of the army, however, 
 bugress has created a military liierarchy or range 
 of subordination in the army w'ith rights and duties 
 regulated by Congress, and the Commander-in-Chief 
 cannot make use of any other agents in exercising 
 Ins command; and all orders is"sued bv him must 
 be according to the rules and articles ma'de by Con- 
 gress for the government of the army. In his capa- 
 city of Chief Magistrate of the Unioia, Congress has 
 also invested the President with many ad"ininistra- 
 tive functions relating to military affairs : and for 
 the performance of fhe latter duties the Secretary 
 of the Department of War has been made his Min- 
 ister, upon matters connected with materiel^ ac- 
 counts, returns, the support of troops, and the rais- 
 ins of troops. 
 
 PHESIDENT OF COURT.— The President of a Court- 
 Martial is the senior member. He preserves order 
 in Court ; administers the oath taken by the Jud'je- 
 Advocate. and the proceedings of the Court are au- 
 thenticated by his signature and that of the Judge- 
 Advocate. See CinirU-Martial. 
 
 PRESIDIO. — A place of strong defense ; a garrison 
 guard-house. 
 
 PRESS CAKE.— Gunpowder after it has been sub- 
 jected to hydraulic pressure. The different natures 
 of powder used in the service receive a pressure of 
 so many tons on the square foot, with reference to 
 the density required. Pebble powder receives a 
 pressure which gives it a density in e.\cess of the 
 usual powders. The amount of pressure varies with 
 the season of the year, less pressure being required 
 in summer than in winter. See (jlnnpoirdtr. 
 
 PRESSURE-GAUGE. — An apparatus invented by 
 General Kodman for measuring the pressure exert- 
 ed by the gases of e.xploded powder. The drawing 
 shows the construction of the instrument. It consist's 
 of the hmmng,VL, c\oseA.hj the plug , h; of thepwtoH, 
 P, with its head, p, to which is attached the ind^nt- 
 ing-tool, I ; and the recorder, R, of copper. The gns- 
 check, C, a thin copper cup, and the ganktt, G, a cop- 
 per rin,"-, exclude the gas from the cavity of the hous- 
 ing. AVhen the gauge is placed in the cartridge-ban-, 
 it is^ securely tied to it at the croove,"!!' h'. 
 In using this instrument, all its parts, except the ex- 
 terior of the outer cylinder, are carefully cleaned be- 
 fore each tire, and the threads of the screw-plug and 
 the indenting-piston carefully oiled; the copper 
 specimen is then placed in the iiottom of the cylinder, 
 the indenting-piston inserted into thescrew-p"lug,and 
 with the outer cylinder horizontal the plug is scrl'wed 
 home, being afterwards tightly set in with a wrench 
 while the cylinder is held m a" vise. The cylinder is 
 
 then carefully set downupon its closed end, and the 
 ind(iiling-])iston gently pushed down till tlie point 
 of tlie indenting tool rests u|)(m the copper specimen; 
 a sinal! gas check is then inserted, mouth outward! 
 till it rests \\\»m tlie end of the indenting-piston. It 
 gives additional security against the passage of gas 
 to jilace a small wad of "cotton or tow over the giis- 
 clieck, i)ressing it in liniily without ilriving, a"s a 
 very light blow, several limes repeated, miglil give 
 a greater indentation than Unit ihie to tlir pressure 
 to which it was to be subjected, and thus give erron- 
 
 eous results. The instrument is inserted into the gun 
 with the screw-plug toward the muzzle, and is gen- 
 erally found in the bore of the gun after its discharge, 
 when the screw-plug is withdrawn and the speciujen 
 removed, having an indentation in its surface, due to 
 the pressure tliat has been exerted upon the outer 
 end of the indenting-piston. The indications of pres- 
 sure are found to be, generally, something less, for 
 equal charges, b3'this instrument than by the exter- 
 nal housing ; tills may be, and proljably is, due to 
 the retardiUion of the rate of intlamma'tion of the 
 charge by the presence of the instrument, and to the 
 heat absorbed by it. Another reason for this is prob- 
 ablj' owing to the fact that in the external gauge the 
 gas has a considerable space to travel through be- 
 tween the powder-chamber and the indicating parts, 
 so that before reaching the piston the gases have at- 
 tained a high rix-viva, especially with quick-burning 
 powders. For these reasons this instrument should 
 be as small as may be compatible with its practical 
 use. See Crusher-gauge. External Pressure-gauge, 
 and Internal PrtsKure-gavge. 
 
 PRESSURE-SCREW.— A screw variously applied In 
 ordnance constructions to exert pressure and hold 
 parts in proper positions. An example of the im- 
 portance of the pressvrescrew may be seen in the 
 Breithaupt fuse, when gauging the fuse for firing. 
 
 PRESUMPTION.— An inference drawn by the law 
 in certain circumstances or conditions of "facts, and 
 is used generally as a mere starting point in an argu- 
 ment or litigation. Presumptions are often divided 
 into pre.fumptio juris and presumptio jtiri's et de jure. 
 The former serves as a mere starting-point, and 
 ma3' be rebutted by proof to the contrary. Thus, a 
 person who has possession of goods, is presumed to 
 be the owner till the contrary is proved. A man is 
 presumed to be innocent until the contraryis proved. 
 A presumptio juris et dejure is said to be a presump- 
 tion which cannot be rebutted; but there are few in- 
 stances of this. Presumptions abound in all de- 
 partments of the law, and are adopted from the 
 necessity of coming to some conclusion or other in 
 most cases where the evidence is general or incon- 
 clusive. 
 
 PRETENSE.- In Heraldry, an Escutclieon of Pre- 
 tense or Escutcheon Surtout, is a small shield placed 
 in the center of the tiekl of another shield. The 
 husband of an heiress may be:\r the arms of his wife 
 in an Escutcheon of Pretense; instead of impaling 
 them. Feudal arms are also sometimes placed on 
 an Escutcheon of Pretense, particularly in the in- 
 signia of Elective Sovereigns, who have been in use 
 of bearing their own proper arms in surtout over 
 those of tlie dominions to which they are entitled. 
 The Crown of Charlemagne is placed in surtout in 
 the Arms of Hanover; and from 1801 to the acces- 
 sion of Queen Victoria, the Hanoverian insignia oc- 
 cupied an Escutcheon of Pretense in the center of 
 the Royal Arms of the United Kingdom. 
 
 PRETOR. — Among the ancient Romans, the title 
 given to the Consuls as leaders of the armies of the 
 State: but it was specially employed to designate a 
 JIagistrate whose powers were scarcely inferior to 
 those of a Consul. The Pretorship. in this specific 
 .sense of the term, was first instituted in 30G b. c, 
 us a compensation to the Patricians for lieing obliged 
 to share with the Plebeians the honors of Consulship. 
 It was virtually a third Consulship; the Pretor was 
 entitled ('"Uega C'unsulihus ; he was elected by the 
 .same ausjiices and at the .same Coniilia. For nearly 
 ;i(t years. Patricians alone were eligible for the office; 
 but, in 337 b.c. the Plebeians made good their right 
 to it also. The Pretor's functions were chiefiy judi- 
 cial. Though he sometimes commaniled armies, and, 
 in the absence of the Consuls, exercised considerable 
 authority witliin the city, yet his principal business 
 was the ailministralion of justice both in matters 
 civil and criminal; and " to the edicts cif successive 
 I'retors," says .Mr. G. Long, " the Hdiiian law owes, 
 in a great degree, its development and improvement."
 
 PEETORIAN BANDS. 
 
 583 
 
 PEIMEE. 
 
 Orininiilly. there was only one Pretor; but, as the 
 City and" Slate inorciiHcd, ami tlnir relations with 
 other nations l)eeanie more coinpliealed. otlnTS 
 ■Hiicre ailded. In 24() u. c. a second I'retor was j 
 appoinlcd, to settle disputes that niiLdil arise lie- I 
 tween Konnins and Foreigners temporarily n'sidi'nl j 
 Ht KoMii'. for trailinf; ipr other jiiirposes. lienee called 
 I'ra'tiir l'eri(iriiiiiK (Foreign I'relorj, to distin^jiiisli 
 liini from the original I'rwU/r Urbiinitii (I'Wy I'retorj. 
 In 2'27 B.C., two new Pretors were npiHjiafed, to ad- 
 ministrate alTairs in Sicily and Sardinia; and in 11)7 
 11. <•., two more for the Spanish Provinces, or in 
 all. Sulla incrcaseil the niimlier to H, and .lulins 
 Cicsar to l(i. An^uslus reiliiced the niind)er to I'i: 
 hut at a later period wi- read of is, if not more. The 
 city I'retor-ships were reckoned the highest; and 
 after a person had tilled these olliees, he sometimes 
 received tlie administration of a province with the 
 title of I'mprirt'ir or I'ruC'inKiit. 
 
 PKETORIAN BANDS.— The name iriven more par- 
 tieularly durinir I he perioil of the Koman Kmpire. 
 to a hody of soldiers, (>ri;anized for the purpose of 
 protectinc; the jierson and maintainiuLC the power of 
 the Emperors. We indeed rea<l of n I'nrturin Cohnrx, 
 or select guard of the most valiant soldiers attached 
 to the person of Scipio Afrieanus. who, according to 
 Festus, received six-fold ])a_v, and the exigencies of 
 the civil wars naturally increaseil their nundier; but 
 it was to Augustus that tlie insliiution of them as 
 a separate force is owing. lie formed '.tor IDcohorts, 
 each consisting of l,O0()men (horse and fool): but 
 kept only three of them in IJome, the rest being dis- 
 persed in cities not far off. Tiberius, however, as- 
 sembled the !l cohorts at the caiiital in a permanent 
 camp, and Vitellius increased their number to Ki. 
 The I'retorians served at tirst for 12, and afterward 
 for ICi years ; they received double pay ; the privates 
 Were held in e([ual rank to the Centurions in the reg- 
 \\\\\x army, and on theirretirement each received 2(1,- 
 0(10 sesterces. They socm acquired a dangerous 
 power, which the}' exercised in a most unscrupulous 
 manner, deposing and elevating Kmperors at their 
 pleasure. Aspirants for the Imperial Dignity found 
 it advisable, and even necessary, tobribe them large- 
 ly ; while those who acquired that dignitj' without 
 their assistance were accustomed on tlieir accession 
 to purchase their favor by liberal donations. The 
 Pretorians. however, had no political or ambitious 
 views; they were sim[ily an insolent and riqiacious 
 soldiery, fondof substantial gratitications. and care- 
 less how they got them. After the death <if Pertina.x 
 (11)3 A D.), they actually sold "the purple" for a 
 sum of I money to Didius .Tulianus; but in the same 
 j-ear their peculiar organization was entirely broken 
 U)) by Severus, who formed new cohorts altogether 
 out of thebest legions serving on the frontiers, which 
 he increased to four times the number of the old. 
 After several other changes, they were entirely abol- 
 ished by C'onstantine (312 a. d.), who dispersed them 
 among his regular legions. 
 
 PRETORIUM.— The'IIall or Court where the Pretor 
 lived and administered justice. It also denoted the 
 tent of the Koman General, in which councils of war 
 were held. The place where the Pretorian Guanls 
 were ([uartered or lodged was likewise called pre- 
 toriuni. 
 
 PREVENTOR ROPE.— A contrivance for checking 
 the forward motion of a carriage. It is attached to 
 the rear block of the carriage, and being twisted 
 round the hnUiirtJ of the platform, is held by one of 
 the cannoneers. 
 
 PRICE RETORT FURNACE.— The Price furnace is 
 in part a g;is furnace, and it embraces some of the 
 features of the regenerative system, as the tempera- 
 ture of the air, as well as that of the gaseous and 
 fi.xed constituents of coal, is raised by the waste 
 heat before it enters the chimney. It consists of a 
 combu.stion chamber or fire-box. furnished with 
 grate-bars in the ordinary way : a heating chamber 
 or hearth, separated from" thecombustiou chamber 
 
 by the usual bridge ; and a neck leading Into a flue, 
 which ojiens to the retort cliaMiber. fii the center 
 of the retort chamber is a circular firebrick pillar, 
 on which is placed a cast-iron cylindrical air-vi'ssel 
 iiroticled all round by lirehrick. On this air-vessel 
 IS liuilt thr- rr-tort, the lower part of which is made 
 of brick while the upper jiarl is cast-iron. At the 
 top of the retort and aliovtr the closed end of the 
 chamber is placed a hojiper, in the throat of which 
 are fitted two doors worked by a lever from the 
 ground. This feeding apparatus may he of any oth- 
 er Huitabh^ construction. In the tirebrick portion 
 of the ret')rt are two passages, tin- one leading to (he 
 coiidiuslion chamber, and the other to the outside 
 of the furnace for the insertion of stoking tools to 
 force the fuel forward into the combustion chamber. 
 The entrance to the outer pas.sage is closed by a 
 tii^ht door. Near the bottom of the retort chamber, 
 and in a line with the center of the air-vessel, are 
 pipes inserted in the walls of the chamber and ])ass- 
 ing all around it. On the inner sidi' of these pipes 
 and opening into the retort chamber are a number 
 of holes li'a<ling into the space around the pipes. 
 This space affords room for expansion and for a free 
 circulation of heal. The pipes are connected with 
 the blast from a fan or from any suitabli- blower. 
 The air passes into Xhv. air-vessel and is delivered 
 through an outlet in. the ash-pit, directly vuider the 
 grate. It will be seen from this descri[)tion that the 
 retort furnace embraces some of the best features of 
 the regenerative system, while it entirely dispenses 
 with its complications of producers, regenerators, 
 and reversing valves. See Furnace. 
 
 PRICKER. 1. An early name for a light horseman. 
 2. A priming-wire. 
 
 PRIDE.— A term in Heraldry. A peacock, or oth- 
 er bird, when the tail is sjireadout in a circidarform, 
 and the wings dropped, is said to be " in his jiride." 
 
 PRIEST CAP —When the faces of a redan cannot 
 be so placed as to sweep well the flank approaches 
 without making the salient angle too acute; or when 
 
 the flank approaches extend towards the rear; then 
 the plan may, in the first case, be what is termed a 
 priest-cap. or xiraltmr-teiil, in which the two main 
 faces sweep the flank approaches, and. instead of a 
 pn/i-ci/npie,>i broken line forming a reentering angle, 
 placed in the salient, affords a cross-fire on the 
 ground in front. In the second case a flank is added 
 to each face of the redan, and receives such a direc- 
 tion as to sweep that portion of the flank approach 
 whic'i cannot be reac-hed from the faces except by a 
 very oblique fire. The priest-cap is so named from 
 its shape. See Fielil Wi/rkn&iid Simlhir.titil. 
 
 PRIME. — 1. In fencing, one of the chief guards. 
 2. To charge with the jiowder, percussion-cap, or 
 other device for communicating fire to the charge, 
 as a fire-arm. 
 
 PRIMER.— .\. wafer, cap, tube, or other device 
 for connnimicating fire to the charge of powder in 
 a cannon. The cap or tube usually contains a fric- 
 tion or percussion-powder. The friction-prhiier is 
 generally used in the land service. For service on 
 ship-board, a quill filled with rifle-powder, having on 
 the top a capsule of fulminate of mercury, is gener- 
 ally employed. The cajisule is exploded by a blow 
 from the lock-hammer. The tape-primer, used some- 
 times in blasting, is formed of long, flexible strips
 
 PEIMEK EXTEACTOB. 
 
 584 
 
 PBISUATIC FOWSEB. 
 
 of paper or fabric containing fulminate or other 
 quick-burning substance. Tlie electric primer is used 
 to lire simultaneous discharges, botli in ordnance and 
 blasting. In tiring wet gun"-cotton. the small charge 
 of dry gun-cotton Used in conjunction with the de. 
 timathig exploder is called a primer. In small-arms, 
 the term is specially applied, at the present time, to 
 the percussion-caps" used in reloading metallic car- 
 tridge-cases. See Cniinon-primern. 
 
 PEIMER EXTRACTOR.— A reloading tool, whose 
 function is to extract the 7>W;«r;- from the cartridge- 
 shell, when it is required to reload the shell. It is 
 variously designed. The drawing shows a very 
 handy and efficient form of extractor, suitable for re- 
 
 certain States in Germany. The title is now very 
 geneially applied to tlie sons of Kings and Emper- 
 ors, and persons of the Blood-Hoyal. In various 
 parts of Continental Europe, the title Prince is borne 
 liv families of eminent rank, but not possessed of 
 sovereignty: ami in England a Duke is, in strict her- 
 aldic lang\iage, entitled to be styled " High Puissant 
 and Most Noble Prince," and a JIarquis or Earl as 
 "Most Noble and Puissant Prince." Practically, 
 however, in Britain, the term Prince is restricted to 
 members of the Royal Family. The eldest son of 
 the reigning Sovereign is by a special patent created 
 Prince of Wales, and this is the only case in which 
 the title Prince is connected with a territorial dis- 
 
 loading central fire cartridge-shells of any caliber. 
 To operate it. it is only necessary to insert the shell, 
 close the handles just enough to cause the chisel to 
 penetrate the primer, and elevate the tongue suffi- 
 ciently to throw it out. 
 
 PEIMIGENIA. — A kind oi pike very much resem- 
 blins tlie pilum. 
 
 PKIMING-TTJBE.— A tube to contain an inflamma- 
 ble composition, which occupies the vent of a gun 
 whose charge is fired when the composition is ignit- 
 ed. There are several kinds of priming-tubes, fired 
 by port- fire, lock . or frkt'on . The tube is made of 
 quill, paper, or metol. and is charged with mealed 
 powder damped with methylated spirit, or by a de- 
 tonating composition, sucli as chlorate of potash and 
 antimony. The tube is .slightly smaller than the gun 
 vent, inthe relative proportions of -f^, and | of an 
 inch, and a hollow is made down the middle of the 
 composition, so that the fire may involve the whole 
 length instantaneously. The simplest form i.? that 
 in which the tube is merely a holder for the priming, 
 which is touched off by a port-fire. This is the 
 guill, Dutch, or amimon metal tube. Another variety 
 has a cross-head or snipe to contain a detonating 
 composition which is exploded b}- a hammer. This 
 is the crobs-hfnd, or detonating tube. A third variety 
 is operated by friction, a roughened bar occupying 
 the hollow in|the composition, and exploding liy fric- 
 tion the detonating composition in the head of the 
 tube. The rough bar is jerked out by a lanyard. 
 See Frirtion-primer. 
 
 PRIMING WIRE. — An implement used to prick the 
 cartridge before priming when the quill or metal 
 tubes are used. It is made of wire a little less in 
 diameter than the vent, sloping to a point at one 
 end, and at the other vent into a circle, which serves 
 to hold it by, as well as prevent it from slipping 
 Ihrouirli the loop on the primer pouch, where it is 
 carried wlien not in use. 
 
 PRIMIPILUS.— The Centurion belonging to the fir.?t 
 cohort (if a leL;ion. Among the Rnmaiis, the I'rinii- 
 pilarii were such as had formerly lioriie tlie otHrc of 
 Primipilus. Among other privileges which lliey 
 enjoyed, they became heirs to what little pro|)erty 
 was left by the soldiers who died in tlie campaign. 
 
 PRINCE.— An epithet whicli was origiiuilly ap- 
 plieil to the I'rincepH Senatim of the Roman Slate 
 and afterward liecamo a title of dignity. It was 
 adopteil by Augustus and his successors; hence the 
 word was afterward applied to persons enjoying 
 kingly jiowcr, mori' especially tlie Rulers of small 
 States, either Sovereign, as in the case of the ancient 
 Princes of Wales, or Dependent, like the Rulers of 
 
 tinction. In Germany, the ambiguity of appl}'ing 
 the same title to tlie members of Royal Houses and 
 Princely Families, not Sovereign, is avoided, the 
 former being .styled "Prinz," the latter " Fiirst." 
 The German Fiirst takes rank below the Duke (Her- 
 zog). Most of the Counts who had a seat in the old 
 German Diet were elevated to the dignity of Prince 
 on the acquiescence in the dismemberment of the 
 German Empire. In a more general acceptation, the 
 term Prince is often used for a Sovereign or Ruler of 
 a State. 
 
 PRINCE ALFRED GUN.— This gun was forged hol- 
 low, on a plan intended principally to overcome the 
 defect of unequal shrinkage and initial strain and 
 rupture. Broad plates, bent to the proper curve, 
 were laid and welded upon a barrel made of rolled 
 staves. Its dimensions are: length (without cas- 
 cabel), 1,1-51 inches; length of bore. 137 inches; di- 
 ameter over the chamber, 31j inches; diameter at 
 muzzle, 141 inches; diameter of bore, 10 inches; 
 weight, 24,094 pounds. -The gun is rifled with three 
 grooves ^ inch deep, but cut the wrong way, so that 
 the projectile would be rotated by the inclined in- 
 stead of the radial surface of the grooves. It will 
 therefore have to be borod out to lOi inches, and 
 will then carry a 156 pound spherical shot. The test 
 proposed by the makers is one round with one shot 
 and 100 pounds of powder. 
 
 PRINCEPS SENATUS.— An officer of the Roman 
 Senate, who, under the Monarchy, was a ro^-al ap- 
 pointee for life, Cuittos Urhis, and had jirecedence 
 among the Decemviri. Under the Republic, he was 
 the appointee of the Curies, b, c. 487, the Paties 
 Minorum Gentium, previously ineligible, were made 
 eligible, and afterward the senior Ex-Censor held 
 the office Bx-Officio. Later, any Senator was eligi- 
 ble, but the office was simply honorary, and did not 
 carry with it the Presidency of the Senate, Finally 
 the title belonged to the Emperor. 
 
 PRINCIPES.— In the Roman armies, Principes 
 were the infantry, who formed the second line in 
 the. order of battle. They were armed like the /lan. 
 tiiti, with this difference, that tlie former had half- 
 pikes instead of whole ones. See IlfiHtnti. 
 
 PRISE-BOLTS.— The projecting bolts at the rear of 
 a mortar-bed or g;irrison gun-carriage, under wliich 
 the handspikes are inserted for training and man- 
 euvering the ])iece. They are formed by the pro- 
 longation of the assembling bolts. Also written 
 J'ri:,-b»l/s. 
 
 PRISMATIC POWDER.— Tlie adoption of this form 
 of powder by some n;iliiins. ;ind production of ma- 
 chinery for its niauufacluru, iiuccbsilatBd the use of
 
 PEI8MATIC TRANSIT 
 
 585 
 
 PEISMAII^ TRANSIT. 
 
 pri'HHfs of pi'ciiliiir ciiiislrMclioM to iiimirn sufflrifnt 
 and iinifdriM dciisily ; I lie pnsH to ]»• si) di'visi'd as Id 
 produce uniforni size luid sliupi' of j;niiiis, iind iillow 
 their rem ly witlidnnvid from Ihe molds ; tlK'Kurfaees 
 suoli us to allow close ]iackiiii; ill a i;ivenspace. Tlies.; 
 C'onsideralions led lo tin- ailoptioii of a rejrular geo- 
 melrical ligiire: the lie.\aj;on oIVits i;ood shape for 
 Iiiliiii;, the angles heiim' all siiltlcieiill_v ol>liis<-1o pre- 
 vent hreakini; or spavvlini;al the edi;es. Kach layer 
 and the whole carlridi;e is easily made up. I'er- 
 foralions were found necessary to insure lielle- and 
 more uniform control of condiiislion in the f;rain. 
 The nimiher of perforations first adopt<'il were seven 
 — one central, the olhi'r six at eipial distances from 
 the central one - although one perforation iu the cen- 
 ter has been found sutlicient. 
 
 The iiii;redii'nts for the manufaclnre of the pow- 
 der base are tile same as used in llie manufacluri' of 
 ordinary powder. The ]iulverized materials for 2'M 
 pounds are placed in wooilen drum lined with sole- 
 leatiier, with li;i() pounils of bron/<' balls, and sub- 
 jected to 1.440 revolutions at the rate of H or 10 per. 
 minute. The powder is then lirnuiiht to the moist- 
 liiiiij: table of wood surrounded by an iiprii;ht ediie. 
 over which is suspended a :;radualed udass measure 
 havini; a pipe of copper and rose at the bottom. 
 On the table a charLTc of .W pounds of powder is 
 spread and nioisteneii with 2', quarts of distilled wa- 
 ter. It is then jiassed from a liopper to an endless 
 canvas belt 20 inches wide, between a lower paper 
 anil upper bronze roller, weii;hiii!j 2,12") pounds, 
 making a revolution in twelve minutes. The bron/e 
 roller can be weighed to exert a pressure of (iO.OOO 
 pounds. The powder is then broken into coarse 
 luni])s by wooden mallets, and granulated to two 
 sizes of grains: the tirst. cannon powder— used for 
 maiiufactiir<' of the jirisms — is passed through a sieve 
 of 0.2() inch diameter of holes. 
 
 Ordinary grain powder. niiide a.s above, is of a spe- 
 cific gravity of l.r>, and too elastic for the use in the 
 press. By reworking it loses a part of its elasticity, 
 and is then tit for formation of the prisms by the fol- 
 lowing process: The powder-base, as above, is moist- 
 ened with 10 per cent, of water. ))assed through the 
 
 spindle press with the prescribed pressure and granu 
 lated grain and dust being collected in a receptacle. 1 
 This mixture of grain and dust is dried in the air or 
 by artirtcial heat "till U per cent, of the moisture re- 
 mains. It is placed iu a mixing-drum —220 pounds 
 of powder and 330 pounds of bronze balls — and sub- 
 jected to 1.440 revolutions, moisteiieil and pressed as 
 before, giving it a specific gravity of 1 .<iT.5 to 1.75. It 
 is granulated and separated, the cannon size again 
 dried by air till (! jier cent, iu dry weailier of moist- 
 ure remains, and placed iu barrels covered with damp 
 cloths for use. 
 
 Tlie press for this purpose is constructed to giv? a 
 pressure of Go. 000 pounds per sipiare inch. It con- 
 sists of a heavj' casting on a stone foumlation: a main 
 
 j and BPcondarc shaft, one flxc-d and two movable 
 eroHS-heads. Tlic- main shaft carries a heavy wheel 
 I at I'aih end,ovir whii li belts conduct the powrr from 
 lliircenter shafting lo llie press. ItliasacI itch opera- 
 ted by a lever for starting and stopping the iiiacliine; 
 two pinions on the main operate geared wheels on 
 the secondary shaft, on whicli two eccentrics ami 
 cranks operate respectively, by connecting rods, the 
 lower and u|)per movable cross-heads. Tliesc have 
 each six hc-xagonal stamps perforated witli seven 
 holes which enter corresponding hexagonal molds on 
 the low<T cross-head. Six groups of seven needles 
 are tixed in such position that they e.\tend up Ihrougll 
 the perforations of the lower stamps throughout into 
 tlK- molds and enter the perforations of the upper 
 stamps as the latter descend to press the powder in 
 the molds; these form the jierforations in the prisms. 
 The eccentrics and cranks operating the croHS-heads 
 are timed so that when the ujiper stamps have reach- 
 ed their lowest point of descent. tthe lower ones are 
 moving upward giving the extreme ])ressure, after 
 which the u])per stamps ascend ami the lower ones 
 simultaneously ])usli the perforated prisms up from 
 the molds. The lower stamps constitute the bottom 
 of the molds. The molds are tilled from a ho|)per 
 having a table with forward-and-back motion, con- 
 laining six suitable measures which receive tlie ])0W- 
 der from the hopper ; thecharging table moves for- 
 ward and drops the charge in the molds; its edge 
 carries the prisms brought up from the mold to an 
 inclined shelf, whence^ they are removed. The ca- 
 pacity of the powder measures can be regulated as 
 desired. Two rooms are required for each press ; 
 one for the press, the other for the prisms. 
 
 Before starting the press, the mold-needles and 
 stamps. and all rubbing surfaces ought to be oiled 
 with a light. pure oil or graphite. All surplus lubri- 
 cant must be wiped oil. The ]«)wder to be pressed 
 ought to have at least .TJ per cent, of moisture. The 
 moist prisms weigh about 020 grains each, and must 
 not vary more than 5 grains. The first two sets of 
 ])risms should be rejected because of excess of oil. The 
 weiLTht of prisms must be veritied. Three men can 
 work ;i ]iri'ss; a carrier for every press is also re- 
 quired. The height and weight of tlie prisms must 
 be veritied from time to time, and the powder in the 
 hopper stirred from time to time. Loose powder 
 must be lirushed away from tlie stamps and top of 
 the molds; lubricate as often as once an hour. If a 
 needle breaks, stop the press and replace it at once. 
 On dry days, the powder loses moisture; this will 
 be indicated by increased height of prisms or vil)ra- 
 tions of the press, in which case moisten with ] per 
 cent, of moisture, which is done in a drum by a fine 
 rose sprinkler. The prisms pressed by the press con- 
 tain about 5 per cent, of moisture. and must be dried 
 to about f per cent, by exposure to air or ;,n shelves 
 in a suitably arranged drying-room; they are then 
 exposed to a tem])erature of 120*^ Fahr. for 48 hours, 
 and are ready for packing. 
 
 The prisms are jjacked in wooden boxes in layers 
 (12 rows of 11. and 11 rows of 9, deep) weighing a- 
 bout 110 pounds to the box. The prisms are regular 
 hexagons 0".992 high and 1".0 width across the an- 
 gles. The packing-boxes are of inch stuil. and may 
 be tin-lined. Two sheets of felt — the smaller at one 
 end. the other on top — keep the prisms from rubbing 
 against each other in transportation. The boxes have 
 rope handles, and are marked with the weight, kind, 
 place, and date of fabrication of the powder. See 
 Giinpoirdfr. 
 
 PRISMATIC TRANSIT.— This form of transit, sug- 
 gested bySteinheil. anil designed by Mr. G.N. Sieg- 
 muller.was manufactured for the United States Coast 
 Survey. It is intended to be set up in the prime 
 vertical, tlie tilescope pointing ea.st and west. By 
 the use of a prism;itic objective, any stiir passing the 
 meridian will be reflected and seen in the field when 
 the instrument is set up correctly : by turning it in its 
 bearings it will sweep the meridian. The pivot-rings
 
 PRISON. 
 
 586 
 
 PEISONEKS OF WAB. 
 
 are of phosphor-bronze,and,to avoid flexure as much 
 as possible, these rings are again connected by a tube, 
 so that the telescope body is really double. By one 
 of the three setting-screws the instrument is moved 
 an azimuth. It is provided with a reversing appara- 
 tus, which also carries the illuminating lamp. The 
 tine level over the telescope is held by a projection 
 from the reversing apparatus, which secures the great 
 advantage that the level need not be taken off on 
 reversing the instrument ; it remains on whether ob- 
 serving in the zenith or horizon. The setting-circle 
 is attached behind the micrometric eye-piece with 
 level alidade, divided on silver, and reading to min- 
 utes. It also carries the latitude level, which is 
 chambered and reads to single seconds. This instru- 
 ment, being very simple and portable, is especiallj' 
 adapted for work in a rough or mountainous country. 
 See Enginefr's Traimt. 
 
 PRISON. — In a military sense, a building con- 
 structed for the retention of prisoners of war, or for 
 the safe-keeping and punishment of oflenders against 
 military law. Sometimes during war, forts and 
 other strong structures are utilized for these pur- 
 poses. A permanent military prison was established 
 at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, in 1873. The De- 
 partment Commander stationed at Fort Leavenworth , 
 is cr-tijficin Commandant of this prison. The other 
 officers of the prison, detailed by the Secretary of 
 War, from the officers of the Army, are a Governor, 
 an Adjutant, a Disbursing officer, Commissary, Sur- 
 geon, and Chaplain. Division and Department 
 Commanders may designate this prison as the place 
 of confinement for all prisoners sentenced to be eon- 
 fined for one year or upwards, except such as are 
 convicted of offenses which lawfully subject them 
 to punishment in a State penitentiary. Discharge 
 papers, descriptive lists, orders promulgating or 
 modifj'ing sentences, and statements of conduct 
 since under sentence, are forwarded to the Com- 
 mandant of the prison with each prisoner sent there 
 for confinement. Before sending convicts to the 
 military prison, a careful medical examination is 
 made of those wliose physical or mental condition 
 appears to be sueli as might be seriously affected by 
 the confinement, or be in danger of ending in per- 
 manent disability which might cause them to be 
 discharged before the expiration of their sentence. 
 Special report is made of cases found to be of this 
 description, with a view to avoid imnecessary ex- 
 pense of transportation. 
 
 The following were noted prisons during the Civil 
 War, 1861-C5, for the retention of Federal prisoners 
 of war. Andersonville. Belle Isle. Castle Thvmder. 
 Libby and Salisbury. The prison at -\ndersonville. 
 was notorious for unhealthfulness and its discipline 
 for barbarity ; and in ISU.'i, after the close of the war, 
 Henry Wirz, a Swiss, the chief instrument of ill- 
 treatment, was indicted for "injuring the health and 
 destroying the lives of prisoner:; by subjecting them 
 to torture and great suffering, by confinement in un- 
 health3'and unwholesome quarters, by exposing them 
 to the inclemency of the winter and the dews and 
 burning sun of the summer, by compelling the use 
 of impure water, and by furnishing iusutficient and 
 unwholesome food ; for establishing the dead line 
 and ordering the guards to shoot down any prisoner 
 attempting to cross it ; for keeping and using blood- 
 hounds to hunt down prisoners attempting to escape; 
 and for torturing prisoners and contining them in 
 stocks." He was found guilty and hanged. Under 
 orders of the Ooveniment.the place where the bodies 
 had been rudely l>uried in long trenches was arranged 
 as a cemetery, and adorned with gravel walks an<l 
 trees: 12,4(11 dead soldiers of the I'nion -Vriny were 
 identified, and llu-ir placesof burial marked witli tab- 
 lets ; 451 were "unknown." Prisons were also estab- 
 lished for the retention of Confederate prisoners at 
 Camp Douglas, Utah; Chicago, Illinois; Camp Chase, 
 Ohio; Elinira, New York; "Point Lookout, Mary- 
 land; and Kock Island, Illinois. 
 
 PRISONERS OF WAR.— A prisoner of war is a 
 public enemy armed or attached to the hostile army 
 for active aid, who lias fallen into the hands of the 
 captor, either figliting or wounded, on the field or 
 in the hospital. % individual surrender or by capit- 
 ulation. All soldiers, of whatever species of arms ; 
 all men wlio belong to the rising en ma.ise of the hos- 
 tile country; all those who are attached to the army 
 for its efficiency and promote directly the object of 
 the war ; all disabled men or officers on the field or 
 elsewhere, if captured; all enemies who have thrown 
 away their arms and ask for quarter, are prisoners of 
 war, and as such exposed to the inconveniences as 
 well as entitled to the privileges of a prisoner of 
 war. Moreover, citizens who accompany an army, 
 for whatever purpose, such as sutlers, editors, or re- 
 porters of journals, or contractors, if captured, may 
 be made prisoners of war, and be detained as such. 
 The monarch and members of the hostile reigning 
 family, male or female, the chief, and chief officers 
 of the hostile government, its diplomatic agents,and 
 all persons who are of particular and singular use 
 and benefit to the hostile army or its government, are, 
 if captured on belligerent ground, and if unprovided 
 with a safe-conduct granted by the captor's govern- 
 ment, prisoners of war. If the people of that por- 
 tion of an invaded country which is not yet occu- 
 pied by the enemy, or of the whole countr}-, at the 
 approach of a hostile army, rise, under a duly au- 
 thorized levy, enmnsHe to resist the invader, they are 
 now treated as public enemies, and if captured, are 
 prisoners of war. No belligerent has the right to 
 declare that he will treat every captured man in arms 
 of a levy en, inasne as a brigand or bandit. If, how- 
 over, the people of a countr}', or any portion of the 
 same, already occupied by an army, rise against it, 
 they are violators of the laws of war, and are not en- 
 titled to their protection. The enemy's chaplains, 
 officers of the medical staff, apothecaries, hospital 
 nurses and servants, if they fall into the hands of the 
 American Armj-, are not prisoners of war, unless 
 the commander has reasons to retain them. 
 In this latter case, or if at their own desire, they are 
 allowed to remain with their captured companions, 
 the}' are treated as prisoners of war, and may be ex- 
 changed if the commander sees fit. 
 
 Bythe laws or recognized principles of war, the 
 entire people of a vanquished town, state, or nation 
 become the absolute property of the victors ; but 
 civilization has greatly modified this stern rule, and 
 except when a country is devastated for military 
 reasons, it is rare for non-combatant citizens to be 
 subjected to penalties of concpiest, beyond the levy- 
 ing of contributions in money or provisions. The 
 combatants who have laid down their arms become 
 prisoners of war. Their lives and liberty are at the 
 disposal of their conquerors, and even in modern 
 times, their lives are sometimes taken, as, for in- 
 stance, when Napoleon put the Turkish prisoners to 
 death at Jaffa in 1T99 ; otherwise, prisoners of war 
 are kept in confinement until peace ensues, or they 
 are exchanged for prisoners of their conqueror's na- 
 tion, held in captivity by their own countrymen. It 
 is unusual to subject prisoners of war to penal dis- 
 cipline ; but the loss of liberty and liard fare (for, of 
 course, they arc allowed no more th;m a bare sub- 
 sistence) render a captivity sufficiently irk.some. lu 
 ancient times, the treatnient of prisoners of war 
 was far more severe. In the (ireek wars, it was no 
 uncommon thing to put the whole aiiull male popu- 
 lation of a conquered state to the sword, while tlie 
 women and children were enslaved. Although the 
 putting to dciith of prisoners became less freiiuetit, 
 they and their families were conunonly redu('ed to 
 slavery to as recent a period as the i:!th century. 
 About" that time the more humane custom of ex- 
 changing jirisoners came into practice. Notwith- 
 standing frequent exelianges, large numbers of pris- 
 oners acctnnulate during w;ir. In liill about 47, (JOO 
 French were prisoners in England.
 
 FBIICH£T BULLET. 
 
 587 
 
 PHOBAEILITY FACTORS. 
 
 Money antl other valiiiibles on tlie person of a 
 priHoner, micli lis wiilclies or jewelry, us well lis ex- 
 tni elotliiiii;, are rei,Mrcleil liy llie Aiiierii-iiii Army lis 
 the private properly ol'llie prisorn-r, and the appro- 
 priation of sueli valuables or money is eonsiilered 
 (tishonorable and is prohibited. Nevertheless, if /«/•//'' 
 sums are foiinil upon tiie persons of. prisoners, or in 
 their possession, they shall be lakin from thiTii, and 
 the surplus, after providini; for their own siipporl, 
 apiiropriated for the use of the army, under liw di- 
 reelion of the ecjirimander, unless otherwise ordered 
 by the i;overmiienl. Nor eaii (irisoners elaim, as 
 private properly, large sums f<iiind ami captured in 
 their train, allhoiiirh they had been placed in llie 
 jirivate luggau;e of the prisoners. All otlicers, when 
 capliired, surrender their siiU'-arms to the captor. 
 They may be restored to the prisoner in inarked 
 rases, by the Commander, to sij.;nalizi; admiration 
 of his distini^uished bravery, or approlialion of his 
 liumaiK' treatment of prisoners before his capture. 
 The caiiturcd otlieer to whom they may be restoreil 
 cannot wear them durini; captivity. A prisoner of 
 war, beins a jjublic enemy, is the prisoner of the 
 government, and not of the captor. No ransom can 
 be paid by a prisoner of warto his individual captor, 
 or to any ollicer in command. The j^overnment 
 alone releases captives accordinj^ to rules prescribed 
 by itself. Prisoners of war are subject to cfmtine- 
 nient or imprisonment such as may \>o deemed nec- 
 essary on account of safety, but they are to be sub- 
 jected to no other intentional sulTerint; or indinnit}-. 
 The continement and mode of treatinj; a prisoner 
 may be varied during his captivity according to the 
 demands of safety. Prisoners of war shall be fed 
 upon jilain and wholesome food, whenever practic- 
 nlile, and treated with humanity. They may be re- 
 quired to work for the benefit of the {'aptor's gov- 
 ernment, according to their rank and condition. 
 
 A prisoner of war who escapes may be shot, or 
 otherwise killed in his flight; but neither death nor 
 any other punishment shall be intlicte<i upon him 
 simply for his attempt to escape, which the law of 
 war does not consi(U-r a crime. Stricter means of 
 security shall be used after an unsuccessful attempt 
 at escape. If. however, a conspiracy is discovered, 
 the purpose of which is a united or general escape, 
 the conspirators'] may l)e rigorously punished, even 
 with death; and capital punishment may also be in- 
 flicted upon prisoners of war discovered to have 
 plotted rebelion against the authorities of the cap- 
 tors, whether in union with fellow-prisoners or 
 other persons. If prisoners of war. h;iving given no 
 pledge nor made any promise on their honor, forci- 
 bly or otherwise escape, and are captured again in 
 battle, after having rejoined their own army, they 
 shall not be punished for their escape, b>it shall be 
 treated as simple prisoners of war, although they will 
 be subjected to stricter continement. See Cartel, and 
 rarolr. 
 
 PHITCKET BULLET. — The Englisli retained a 
 wedge made of wood, which was placed in the base 
 of the Pritchet bullet used with the Entield riHe, and 
 wliich prevented the gas from penetrating any lis- 
 sures that might exist, while at the same time it was 
 driven before fhe gas into the cavitj', e.xpanding the 
 ball. 
 
 PRIVATE.— The title applied in the British Army to 
 a common soldier of the Cavalry and Infantry, the 
 corresponding nuik in the Arliller\' being gunner or 
 driver, and in the Engineers the sapper. The pay of a 
 private is one shilling a day in the infantry, and Is. 
 2d in the cavalry — exclusive of a free ration or corres- 
 ponding allowance. A private in the cavalry is 
 sometimes called a trooper. In the United States 
 Army all soldiers below the grade of non-commis- 
 sioned officers are called privates. 
 
 PRIVATEER.— A ship owned by a private indi- 
 vidual, wliich. under government permission, ex- 
 pressed Iiy letter of marque, makes war iqion the 
 shipping of a hostile power. To make war upon an 
 
 enemy witlinut this commiftsion, or upon the Bliip- 
 ping of a nation not specified in it, is piracy. I'riva- 
 lecring was al)olislie(i by mutual agreement among 
 Eiirojiean Nations by the Treaty of Paris in IH.VJ. 
 It is doubtful, liowev(-r, how far that abolition 
 would stand in a general war, for privateering is 
 the natural resource of a nation whose regular navy 
 is too weak to make liead against the maritime 
 power of the enemy, espi-cially when the latter 
 oilers the temptation of a weallhy commerce. An 
 effort was made at an early period by the govern- 
 ment of the I'nited Slates to have provisions in 
 treaties with foreign countries which would abolish 
 privateering in case of war: and the laws of the 
 United Slates are more prohibiting in this respect 
 than those of most other nations. At the time of 
 the mutual agreement among European nations to 
 abolish the eustom miiilioned above, the govern- 
 ment declared ils willingness to unite with them, 
 provided a certain clause of the treaty was amended 
 so that the private property of the subject or citi- 
 zen of a belligerent on the high seas should be ex- 
 empted from seizure by public armed vessels of tlie 
 other belligerent, except it be contraband of war. 
 Hut this was declined, and eonsecpiently no arrange- 
 ment with the United .States was included in the 
 treat V. 
 
 PRIVY COAT.— A light coat or defense of mail, 
 concealed under the (jrdinary dress. 
 
 PRIZE. — Property captured from an enemy, or an 
 enemy's jjroperty captured from a neutral in time 
 of war. Prize-money is distributed in the United 
 Stales in accordance with the provisions of the Act 
 of ,Iune 30, 18<i4. This statute directs that where 
 the prize is equal or superior in force to the capturer 
 the Captors shall have the whole; where it is in- 
 ferior in force, the Captors shall have half, and the 
 United States the other half. In the case of Letters 
 of Marque and Privateers, the Captors shall have 
 the whole, unless otherwise stipulated in the com- 
 missions issued to such vessels. Strictly speaking, 
 /idcti/ is the military term, the word prizf being more 
 freiiuently used in the Navy. See lilttekade, Vuntra- 
 hand I'f \V({r. Nftitrality, and I'ru-utetr. 
 
 PRIZE AGENTS.— Officers belonging to an army 
 in tlie field, who are cho.sen after a campaign to col- 
 lect all property belonging to the enemy which has 
 fallen into the" hands'of "the victors. In England 
 all military booty is apportioned as the Sovereign 
 from time to time may direct. Deserters, and those 
 who do not claim their share within six years, re- 
 ceive none. The officers appoint two Prize Agents, 
 by letters of attorney : the Field Officers naming 
 one, and tlie Subordinate Officers another. The 
 Officer commanding the successful expedition sends 
 to the military autliorities a list of the persons en- 
 titled to booty. The Agents collect the property, 
 convert it into money at the best advantage, and 
 hand over the proceeds to the authorities, receiving 
 a small percentage for their trouble. A scale of dis- 
 tribution is thenniade out. and the money is paid 
 after a certain interval. When an army and a fleet 
 join in a capture, the Admiralty calculaies the armjr 
 share, and sends the amount to the military authori- 
 ties. Prize and booty originally belonged to the 
 Sovereign, and are only distributed to the Captors 
 as an act of crace ; for, if tlie Sovereign pleases, 
 the ]iro]ierlv can be given back again tolhe enemy. 
 
 PRIZE MONEY.— The value of tlie property cap 
 lured from the enemy after its realization by sale. 
 To carry out the rules having reference to prize 
 property. Prize Agents are appointed, selected by 
 the army, to collect all property wliich has been cap- 
 tured in each of the towns and fortresses through 
 which the conquering army has passed. No oppres- 
 sion is permitted in the matter; all that is demanded 
 is that what, by the rules of war. falls to the posses- 
 sion of the captors he iiiven up. Such property 13 
 sold, ami tiuMllv dividcil among the army. 
 
 PROBABILITY FACTORS.— A table of factors, which
 
 PROBABLE RECTANGLE. 
 
 588 
 
 FROFILE-BOABDS. 
 
 multiplied by the width of a zone containiug 50 per 
 cent, of the hits, will give the widths of zones con- 
 taining any other percentage of hits. Thus, if the 
 width of a SO per cent, zone is 1.00, we would find 
 from such a table that the widths of 20, 40, 60, 80, 
 and 99 per cent, zones are .38, .78, 1.25, 1.90, and 
 3.82 respectivel}-. From such a table, we would 
 also see that a zone twice as wide as that of ijO |)er 
 cent, will not contain all the hits, but onlj" a little 
 over S2 per cent. 
 
 PROBABLE RECTANGLE.— The relative accuracy 
 of different guns at different ranges is estimated by 
 the dimensions of a rectangle, called the pmhalle 
 rect-angle. If we determine the lateral and longitudi- 
 nal probable zn/iex, and suppose them to be super- 
 posed, we shall have a rectangle which must con- 
 tain .50 per cent, of -50 per cent, or 25 per cent of the 
 total number of hits. Then by reference to a table 
 of probability fart'irs, we can tind the proportionate 
 widths of any other zones (containing a different 
 percentage of hits) to one of 50 per cent, as unity. 
 To illustrate take the following example : 
 
 Suppose a raft, 25 yards square, is tired at by the 40- 
 pr.R. M. L. at an elevation of 5°, how many rounds 
 may be e.xpected to hit, when the range is accurately 
 obtained ? Here, the mean error in range is 17.0 yards 
 and the mean lateral deviation is 0.02 3'ards. Conse- 
 quently, the 50 per cent. longitudinal zone=17. 9x1.69 
 =30.25 yards in width, and the 50 per cent, lateral 
 zone = 9.02xl.69 = 15.23 yards in width. Hence, 
 25 25 
 
 the zones are respectively = .88,and = 1.64 
 
 30.25 15.23 
 
 of the width of the 50 per cent. zone. From a table 
 of probability jactor», we find, that a zone .83 the 
 width of the .50 per cent, one would receive about 
 42.5 per cent., and one of 1.64 would have 73 per 
 cent, of the total number of rounds fired. Conse- 
 quently the rectangle formed by the intersection of 
 the zones would receive 42.5 per cent, of 73 per cent., 
 or 31 per cent, of the total tired. 
 
 PROBABLE ZONES. — It can be shown by the theory 
 of probabilitie-:, that if each of the three mean errors 
 (range-vertical and lateral) is multiplied by the fac- 
 tor 1.69, we will have the breadth of three zones (of 
 infinite length), each of which will contain .50 per 
 cent, of the hits. If the mean errors in two direc- 
 tions are given, we can tind two .50 per cent, zones, 
 and hence a rectangle, in the plane of the zones, 
 which must contain 50 per cent, of 50 per cent., or 
 25 per cent, of the total number of hits. 
 
 PROCEEDINGS.— The proceedings of Courts-Mar- 
 tial of the previous day are usually read over each 
 day by the Judge Advocate. Much time is lost by 
 adopting this measure, and there is no rule directing 
 the Court to read them. All ";■(/<>« which have been 
 issued, modifying the detail of a Court, after its 
 original organization, should be included in the pro- 
 ceedings of every case. The entire proceedings ol 
 the Court in each case should be fully set forth. All 
 orders, motions, or rulings of the Court itself — all 
 motions, propositions, objections, arguments, state- 
 ments, etc., of Uie Judge Advocate and the prisoner 
 — the entire testimony of each witness, given in rhis 
 own language — and, indeed, every feature of the 
 proceedings material to a complete history of the 
 case and to a correct understanding of every point 
 of the same by the reviewing authority — should be 
 recorded at length. The record of proceedings, and 
 the final defense fif the accused, should be wrilten 
 upon Icgal-ca]) jiaper of uniform size. The ])roceed- 
 ings in eacli completed case should be immediately 
 signed by the President and Judge AdvcK'ale. Ifr. 
 coimiiendations to C'lemenei/ shoidd not be i)laced in 
 connection with the sentence, but should be ai)i)end- 
 ed to the record. The oriyinal procenliiig.H of a 
 Court are not the rough minutc-s kept by the Judge 
 Advocate or Recorder : but those finally aullicnti- 
 cated by the signatures of the ['resident and .ludirc ' 
 Advocate (or recorder). All documeutar_\- evidence I 
 
 subnitted to the Court must be attached to the pro- 
 ceedings, lettered in the order of submission, as Ex- 
 hibits ^-A," " B," etc. 
 
 PROCLAMATION. —A jjublic notice given by the 
 Sovereign to liis subjects. The power of issuing 
 proclamations is part of the prerogative of royalty as 
 the fountain of justice. They sometimes consist of 
 an authoritative announcement of some matter of 
 state, or act of the executive government affecting 
 the duties and obligations of subjects. The demise 
 of the Crown, and accession of a new Sovereign, a 
 declaration of war, and the issue of new coin, are 
 all occasions on which a royal proclamation is issued. 
 A jiroclamiition may .also be issued to declare the iu- 
 tenliiin of the Crown toexercise some prerogative or 
 enforce some law which has for a long time been 
 dormant or suspended. In time of war, the Crown 
 by a proclamation may laj'an embargo on shipping, 
 and order the ports to be shut. But the most usual 
 class of proclamations are admonitory notices for the 
 prevention of offenses, consisting of form.al decla- 
 rations of existing laws and penalties and of the in- 
 tention to enforce them: such as the proclamation 
 against vice and immorality, appointed to be read at 
 the opening of all courts of quarter sessions in Eng- 
 land. Proclamations are only binding when they do 
 not contradict existing laws, or tend to establish new 
 ones, but only enforce the execution of those which 
 are already in being, in such manner as the Sover- 
 eign judges necessary. 
 
 PROCONSUL. — A Roman Magistrate not holding 
 the Consulship, who was invested with powers near- 
 ly approaching those of a Consul, not however, ex- 
 tending over the city and its vicinity. The Procon- 
 sul was, at first, one who had held the office of Con- 
 sul, whose Imperium was prolonged to enable him 
 to bring an unfinished campaign to a close. The 
 duration of the office was a year. During the latter 
 period of the Republic, when the Consuls were ex- 
 pected to spend a year of their consulate at Rome, 
 they were generally appointed at its close to under- 
 take, as Proconsuls, either the conduct of a war in 
 some Province, or its peaceful administration. Oc- 
 casionalh', the office of Proconsul, with the govern- 
 ment of a Province, was conferred on a person who 
 had never held the Consulship. Under Constantino, 
 parts of certain Dioceses came to be governed by 
 Proconsuls. 
 
 PRODD. — A light cross-bow, used chiefly in field 
 sports, in the sixteenth century. It usuallj' projected 
 bidlets. 
 
 PROFESSORS OF THE UNITED STATES MILITARY 
 ACADEMY.— The Professors of the Academy, being 
 Staff Officers of the Army, are assimilated in rank 
 to the grades of which they are entitled by law ttr 
 the pay and allowances. They are respected and 
 obe3'ed according to their rank and office in the 
 Academy. The uniform of Professors is that of officers 
 of the General Staff of the Army of their assimilated 
 rank, with the letters M. A. on the shoulder-knot. 
 Or they ma_y at their option wear a citizen's blue 
 cloth coat, with Inittons of the General Staff of the 
 Army; black dress hat; pantaloons and vest plain, 
 white or dark blue; cravat or stock, black. The 
 uniform of the Chaplain is that i)rescribed for Chap- 
 lains in the Army. See United Stnten Military Aaidemy. 
 PROFILE BOARDS.— Boards employed in the in- 
 spection of cannon formeasuring distances in front 
 and rear of base line. Their lower edges are adapt- 
 ed to the shape of the gun, and the ujiper ones are 
 parallel to the axis of tlu' bore. The distances from 
 the baM' line of the several parts, and of points at 
 which dianu'lers are to be Uieasured are laid otT ac- 
 curately on the upper edge, and then marked in 
 lines |)erpendicular to it on the sides and lower 
 edges of the profile. An iron strap is attached to 
 the upjier edge to prevent warping, and the whole 
 is well coated with shellac-varnisli to keep it from 
 alisorbiiig moisture. 
 The following instruments are used in connection
 
 PROFILING. 
 
 589 
 
 PKOFILING-MACHINE. 
 
 with IliP prolilc-hnnrds : A r'llf, for vorifyinc the 
 marks, of sucli a. Icii;j;th that iKit iiiDre than ime Uc l- 
 hiu; may be necessary, !in<l to be ^^railiiaU-d deci- 
 mally accordiiij; Id tliu Ktandard. AKinall Hquare of 
 Htcd, to bf iiK.id ill ri'fcrrint; themarlts on Ihi' board 
 to those on tlie rule. A uteel utrahjUt kIj/i', loiii; 
 enoiiuli to cxti'iid across the muz/.le-faec and several 
 inches on the board, used to ascertain the extri'me 
 length from liases to nui/zle. It is also used for the 
 same |>iir|iose at the I'Xtrcme end of the cascabel. A 
 steel Kcrdlclier, to mark the i;nn at jioints, not other- 
 wise indicated, where diameters are to be raeusured. 
 Bee Insptftion <if (Jrdiiiiiire. 
 
 PROFILING. — An operation in the construction of 
 field Works which consists in erect ini; at ])ro|)er 
 points aloii;; the sub-crests, wooden pniji/m which 
 j;ive the form of the |)arapets at those points, and 
 which guide tlie workrnen in the construction of the 
 works. Proliles are placeil at the extremities of a 
 parapet; at points along the siil)-crest from twenty 
 to thirty yards apart: at the salients and re-entrants; 
 and at any points where a change of direction or di- 
 
 mensions .arc to bo made. The profiles or poles hav- 
 ing l)een planted at the angles of the work, and the 
 lieight of the interior crest marked on them, a line 
 is traced on the ground with a pick, showing the direc- 
 tion of the interior crests. When the gromid is sensibly 
 level, lines perpendicular to the direction of the inte- 
 
 rior crest are I raced ujion if , at suitable distances, from 
 
 twenty tu thirty yards apart, to mark the positions ; manipiilation of the parts, in the absence of the pat 
 
 slopes in eitlier direction, cords are stretched above 
 the surface, in a horizontal line, between two stout 
 pickets, in the direction of the proliles, and so as to 
 include all of its lines. This cord serves to measure 
 the horizontal distances on, and to lind the points of 
 the prolile. above and below it, by means of an or. 
 ditiary plummet. A stout s(piare jiicket is driven 
 tirmlv into the ground, where the cord crosses above 
 the pick-line, ami a slip of pine, on which the height 
 of the interiorcresl is marked, is nailed to tin- picket. 
 The thickness of the parapet is measured on the cord, 
 an<l a picket driven into the ground to mark the 
 l)oint. The base of the interior slope, and the tread 
 of the bamiuette, are set off in a similar manner; 
 and a slip of deal is nailed to each of the |)ickets. 
 The height of the interior crest, and tin- tread of the 
 banquette, are easily ascertained, from th<- position 
 of the cord and the "interior crest ; these points hav- 
 ing been marked on their respective slips, the out- 
 line of the parapet is shown by connecting them by 
 other slips, which are nailed to the uprights; the ban- 
 i quette slope and exterior siope will be determined by 
 a simila! process. 
 
 From the proliles thus formed perpen- 
 dicidar to the interior crests, the oblique 
 profiles at the angles can readily be set 
 up, by a process wliich will suggest itself 
 without explanation. Having completed 
 the protilimr, the foot of the banquette, 
 and that of the exterior slope, are mark- 
 ed out with the pick, and also the crests 
 of the scarp and counterscarp. All the 
 arrangements preparatory to commencing the ex- 
 cavation are now complete. See Fintd-fm-tifica- 
 ti<m. \<>rmiil I'mfi/i . /'iinijut. and Tracing. 
 
 PROFILING MACHINE.— A machine much tised in 
 armories, and bv which ;ui object of a given contour 
 or outline may be duplicated; or one by which any 
 given profile may be given to a piece by adequate 
 
 of the profiles, and the horizontal distances for the I tern which forms an automatic guide for the tooL 
 thickness of the parapet ; the bases of the slopes. In the former case, the machine is used for duplicat- 
 etc, are set off on these lines. But when the ground ' ing templets, gauges, and patterns (now much used 
 along the direction of the profile is undulating, or ; in making various machines) in great numbers loan
 
 PROGRESSIVE POWDER. 
 
 )90 
 
 PROJECTILES. 
 
 exact size and proportion, to be afterwards assem- 
 bled. Fire-arms, sewing-machines, watches, and 
 many other articles are thus made. 
 
 The drawini; shows a two-spindle profiling; ma- 
 chine, as manufactured by the Pratt & Whitney 
 Company, wlio make a specialty of gun machinery. 
 It is built withor,without Parkhurst's device for cut- 
 ting formers without reversing the fixtures. With 
 this improvement, to produce the forming pattern, 
 the model piece is secured in the place and position 
 afterward occupied by the work to be machined, 
 aud the piece to be cut for the forming pattern is 
 placed in the position it will permanentlj- retain. 
 The guide-pin is put in the spindle which usually 
 carries the cutter, and follows the outline of the 
 model piece, while the cutter, in tlie spindle, which 
 afterward holds the guide-pin, cuts the forming pat- 
 tern in the exact position it will retain in use. After 
 disconnecting the gearing upon the spindles, revers- 
 ing the relative positions of the guide-pin and cutter, 
 and smoothing the edge of the forming pattern (if this 
 be necessary), tlie machine is ready for work. The 
 gearing for moving the table and cross-slide is ad- 
 justable by means of double gears, set to prevent 
 back-lash by two independent adjusting screws, ami 
 also b}' a double rack adjusted in the same manner. 
 This arrangement is indispensable to secure perfect 
 accuracy in cutting irregular forms, especially in turn- 
 ing corners. The No. 1 two-spindle machine has 
 an area of table of 10^ by 8 inches, distance between 
 top of table and under side of cross-head 3 inches, 
 and distance between center of guide-pin and cutter 
 also 3 inclies. Weight, 1,350 pounds. Speed of 
 countershaft, with ',) by Sj inch tight and loose pul- 
 leys, 12.5 revolutions per minute. The No. 2 two- 
 spindle machine has an area of table of 15 by 12 
 inches, distance between top of table and under side 
 of cross-head 4^ inches, and between centers of guide- 
 pin and cutter 4^ inches. Weight, 2,600 pounds. 
 Speed of countershaft, with 14 by 3 inch tight and 
 loo.se pulleys, 140 revolutions per minute. The cut- 
 ter will profile or surface work to the extreme limit 
 of the table area. The height between table and 
 cross-head may be increased, if so required. Tlie ma- 
 chine may be constructed with one to three spindles, 
 running in one adjustal)le head sliding on the cross- 
 head. See Edging-mcwhine. 
 
 PROGRESSIVE POWDER.— The excellent results 
 obtained in Italy with wliat was termed "Progressive 
 Powder," suggested the advisability of making trials 
 of similar powders in some of the United States larg- 
 er calibers, all of which have resulted satisfactorily. 
 Progressive powder is fabricated as follows : After 
 passmg through the first stage of manufacture, and 
 being brought to the condition of mealed powder, it 
 is pressed into cakes which have a density of 1.79; the 
 cake is broken up into irregular grains of from 0.3 in. 
 to 0.6-in. in thickness, as is required, which are not 
 to be glazed. These grains are mixed with 40 per 
 cent, of mealed powder, taken from the same work- 
 ing as tliat from which the grains themselves are 
 made, and the whole mass pressed into a cake hav- 
 ing a less density than the original small grains, say 
 1.75. The cake is then granulated as may be pre- 
 scribed. Each grain of the resulting powder is thus 
 a conglomerate grain, consisting of one or more 
 small grains of very dense powder imbedded in a 
 mass of less density, the mean density being 1.75. 
 The theory of the comliustioii of this powder is that 
 the powder of less density being more quickly con- 
 sumed, the whole charge breaks up into a much 
 greater number of smaller grains, thereby cxi)osiug 
 a greatly increased surface to the action of the fiame. 
 In using this powder that size of the regular-shaped 
 grains is employed most suitaVile to the caliber of 
 the gun. and is mixed with a certain proiKirtion, to 
 be determined by experiment, of the powder of ir- 
 regular or mammoth grain. See FossaTio Pmi>der,»,ni\ 
 Oinipinrder. 
 
 PROJECTILE FORCE — The projectile firrce is that 
 
 produced by the combustion of the powder in the 
 piece, causing sudden development of gas, the expand- 
 ing force of which, acting on the projectile, impels 
 it forward and out of the piece. It is physically 
 impossible to obtain cxactuniformity in the charges. 
 In practice there will always be a difl'erence in the 
 weight and shape in the cartridges, and in pushing 
 them home, greater pressure will be applied at one 
 time than at another.thus causing want of unifonnity 
 in combustion. The temperature of the piece, aris- 
 ing from previous discharges and from the tempera- 
 ture of the air or tsxjs of the sun ; the nature of the 
 projectile and its movement iii the bore ; the condi- 
 tion of the bore with respect to humidity and foul- 
 ness — all have more or less influence on the combus- 
 tion of the powder, and consequently on the velo- 
 city and range. Above all, however-,. is the want of 
 uniformity in the quality of ))Owder. In this respect 
 considerable latitude must be allowed in the size and 
 density of grain or pellet, in the manipulation of the 
 ingredients, and in its condition resulting from age, 
 moisture, and handling. With small charges, especi- 
 ally with fine-grained powder, it is possible to so 
 mix the contents of different barrels for any series 
 of shots as to secure a fair degree of uniforniit)' for 
 that particular occasion ; but with charges requiring 
 large quantities of powder, this, except to a limited 
 degree, is impracticable. 
 
 PROJECTILES.— In a military sense, the term pro- 
 jectile is applied to a mass usually thrown from a 
 firearm by some explosive to strike, or destroj' a dis- 
 tant object. To accomplish this, a projectile should 
 have certain hardness, tenacity, and weight. If it 
 be soft and weak compared with the body struck, it 
 will spread out laterally or break into pieces, and 
 presenting an increased surface will meet with a 
 greater resistance, and consequently will penetrate 
 less than if it had retained its original fonn. High 
 density gives to the mass the least possible volume, 
 whereby the effect of the resistance offered by the 
 air and by the body to be penetrated is diminished. 
 Different materials liave been used for projectiles. 
 Stone, lead, wrought-iron, 'steel, cast-iron. and chilled 
 iron possess peculiar properties which render each 
 advantageous according to the object to be attained. 
 Prior to the invention of gunpowder, large masses 
 of stone without regard to form were thrown from 
 machines constructed for that purpose. This ma- 
 terial was very generally employed until the year 
 1400; but its want of strength and density, qualities 
 required in a projectile propelled by powder, neces- 
 sitated its use in large masses and with compara- 
 tively small charges. Such projectiles were destruc- 
 tive against unbacked walls of masonry, but broke 
 if ricocheted on earth. As late as 1807, stone balls 
 of enormous caliber were used by the Turks in de- 
 fending the passage of the Dardanelles. 
 
 Lead, as a material for projectiles, possesses the es- 
 sential quality of density; but it is too soft to be used 
 against verj- resisting objects, since it is flattened 
 even against water. From its softness and fusibility, 
 large projectiles of this material are liable to be dis- 
 figured, and partially melted, by the violent shock 
 and great heat of large charges of powder. Its use 
 is chieily confined to small-arms and case-shot, which 
 are generally directed against animate objects. These 
 defects of lead may be corrected, in a measure, by 
 alloying it with tin, antimony, etc. 
 
 From tlie first introducticui of cannon, wrought- 
 iron projectiles have at ilifrereiit times been tried. 
 This melal has great density and tenacity, but has 
 not a high degree of hardness, cannot be easily 
 worked into the necessary shapes, aud when used in 
 large masses becomes very expensive. Steel pos- 
 sesses the qualities riMiuired In a projectile, but is 
 very costly and dllHcult to manipulate. 
 
 The adoption of cast-lrou for projectiles caused an 
 important advance in artillery. It has great hard- 
 ness, sufficient density and tenacity; is cheap, easy 
 to mold, and can at slight cost be given exact forms.
 
 PK0JECTILE8. 
 
 591 
 
 PROJECTILES. 
 
 Kcccnt improvempnts in tlic ni'iniifartiirf" of this 
 metal liiivi; so grciitly iiuTciiscd llic Htri'ii>;tli nf pro- 
 lectikH iimdf from it.tlmt tlicy <:aii lir uscil ciri'ciivc- 
 ly uniiinsl heavy armor. Cast iron, rhiilnl hy being 
 coole<l rapidly, has its hanhiess, iTiiHliing .strength, 
 and density increased. I'mjeetiles so prepari'd are 
 now employed with e.xeellent results against the 
 most powerful armor, and are found aliont aseffect- 
 ive as tliose of steel ami very niueli less costly. Com- 
 pound jirojcctiles, uniting the good and correcting 
 the had nualilies of diircrent metals, have sometimes 
 been used. Thus, at the siege of Cadi/,, cast-iron 
 shells tilled with lead, forming i)rojectiles of great 
 strength and density, were thrown from niorturs to 
 a distance of three miles anil three-i|uarters. 
 
 Projectiles may be either nji/imfdl or elunr/iited. 
 Spherical projectiles are commonly used in smooth- 
 bored cannon, and for this purpose possess certain 
 advantages over those of oblong form : 1st They 
 touch tlie surface of the bore at only one point, and 
 are therefore less liable to wedge in the bore and en- 
 danger the safety of the pieci^ ; ^d. The centers of 
 ligure and inertia coinci(h': :td. The mass is eni- 
 Ijraced in the least possible volume; 4th. As they 
 turn over in their llight.the surfa<'e presented to the 
 resistance of the air is uniform and a nuninunii; 
 5th. In ricocheting on land or water, their rebounds 
 are more certain and regular, and less deviation oc- 
 curs from the plane of tire. 
 
 It was known at an early day that the spherical Iiall 
 was not the one to whirh, for an e(pial weiglit, the 
 air ollered tlie least resistance. In order that any ad- 
 vantage may be gained from an oblong projectile, it 
 must move through the air in the directiim of its 
 length ; numerous imsuccessful attemjjts have been 
 made to ensure accuracy in its liight when fired from 
 a smooth-bored piece. One of tlie simplest plans for 
 this purjiose is to place the center of gravity, or in- 
 ertia, in advance of the center of figure, or resistance. 
 As these points slio\dd be in the longer axis of the 
 projectile, the force of inertia and the resistance of 
 the air, acting along the same right line and in o])- 
 posite directions, will tend to preserve the line of 
 flight. This was tried on a hollow, pointed projec- 
 tile in the time of Louis XIV.; the cavity was divided 
 into two compartments; the front one was tilled with 
 leaden balls and powder, and the rear one with 
 powder only. The tlight of these projectiles was 
 uncertain and irregular, some of them bursting in 
 the air. and otliers striking tlie oljject sidewise. An- 
 other plan of this kind, proposed by Thirou.x, is to 
 make the projectile very long, with its rear portion 
 of wood, and its point of lead or iron, somewhat 
 after the manner of an arrow; but it does not appear 
 that that method has ever been submitted to the test 
 of practice. 
 
 Attempts have also been made to give an elongated 
 projectile a motion of rotation around its longer 
 axis : 1st, by cutting spiral grooves on the base for 
 the action of the gas from the cliarge ; 2d, by form- 
 ing such grooves on the forward part for the action 
 of the air ; 3d, by combining he preceding methods 
 in the same projectile ; 4tli. by causing the air to 
 enter a cavity at the front end. pass through nearly 
 the length of the cylinder, and escape by radial 
 openings at the sides. None of these plans have 
 succeeded in practice, for the reason, perhaps, that 
 the projectile naturallj- turns over end for end, and 
 the charge and the air do not act with sufficient 
 promptness, energy, and certainty to prevent it. An 
 oblong projectile, thrown under a high angle and 
 with a moderate velocity, can have rotation about 
 its shortest axis arrested by attaching to its rear por- 
 tion a light body, by means of a chain or cord ; the 
 resistance which this body experiences from the air 
 will cause the projectile to move point foremost. 
 Projectiles with wide flanges or wings, operated by 
 springs by which they were extended after the shot 
 left the piece, have been tried, but without success. 
 
 ProjectUes may be further classified according to 
 
 their construction and mode of operation, as mlid, 
 liiiUoir, and cum nli'it. Solid proJef:tiIes iiroduce their 
 etlVct by impact ; they are used 'mi/uun and in mnall- 
 (iniiH ; those for guns are known as mdid kIidI dt nil-it, 
 and tiiose for small-arms as huUetn. Such projectiles 
 I are recpiireil when great range, accuracy, and pene- 
 tration an; sought ; they must, therefore, pos.seHS 
 great strength anil den.sity, and be llrtd with large 
 charges of powder. 
 
 Shells are hollow shot which act both by impact 
 and explosion, for which purpose they contain an 
 explosive and a fuse to ignite it at the proiier time. 
 As they have less strength, they are fired with 
 smaller charges of powder than solid projectiles, 
 and are used against aniniiite objects and such inani- 
 mate ones as will not cause them to break on strik- 
 ing. Th(^ thicker the sides of a shell, the greater its 
 ability to resist the sho(;k of discliarge, and the 
 greater the penetriition and accuracy ; on the other 
 hand, a shell should be capable of containing suffi- 
 cient exiilosive or incendiary material to accomplish 
 the proposed end. The number of pieces resulting 
 from an explosion varies with the lirittleness of the 
 metal, and is increased by giving to the interior the 
 form of a regular polyhedron. A dodecahedral form 
 lias been found advantageous. The most rapid and 
 violent explosive practicable should be employed; 
 the size of the fuse-liole should l)e as small as possi- 
 ble, and should diniinisli with the size of the cavity, 
 to prevent the loss of too great an amount of gas. 
 
 Case-shot act only by impact » they consist of a 
 collection of small projectiles enclosed in a case or 
 envelope. The envelope is intended to be liroken, 
 either in the piece by the sliock of discharge, or at 
 any iioint of its flight, by a charge of powder, in- 
 closed within it ; in either ease, the contained pro- 
 jectiles continue to move on after the rupture, but 
 cover a largj-r surface, and attain agreater number of 
 objects. These projectiles can be used with efTect 
 only against animate objects situated at a short dis- 
 tance from the point of rupture ; they are divided 
 into grape, ciininter, and nhrapnel. Grenades are pro- 
 jectiles that are commonly thrown by the hand, or 
 are rolled down the slopes of a work. They are 
 designed to act only by the force of their own ex- 
 plosion. Hdiid Grennden are thrown against troops 
 in mass ; for this purpose any spherical projectiles 
 filled with powder only and weighing not over six 
 pounds are Suitable ; these can be thrown from 20 
 to 311 yards ; they are provided with a .short fuse 
 which is ignited by a match, or, in the act of throw- 
 ing, by a special device. Projectiles have been de- 
 signed especially for this service, an example of 
 which is the " Ketchum " hand grenade. This is a 
 small oblong percussion shell, which explodes on 
 striking a slightly resisting object ; a guide attached 
 to the rear end causes it, when thrown, to move 
 point foremost. Rampart Grenades are intended to 
 be rolled down a breach in its defense, or to be 
 thrown over the ran.part. etc. Spherical shells of 
 any size will answer for this purpose ; those unfit 
 for firing may thus be utilized. Shells are fired from 
 guns, from howitzers, i>nd from mortars. They are 
 made of cast-iron, and their caliber is expressed in 
 the same manner as solid shot of an equal diameter. 
 The thiclvness of metal in spherical shells is about 
 one-sixth of the diameter, and their weight, when 
 empt)-, is generally about tir,>-t/iird.i of that of the 
 correspondmg solid shot. In the United States' Ser- 
 vice, there are two kinds of spherical shells; one 
 for guns, and another for mortars. Each consists of 
 the Kidfn, the cavity, the fii.ir.kide. and the earn ; and, 
 in gun-shells, the reinforce. Tlie sides are thicker 
 in gun-shells than in mortar shells of the same size, 
 to withstand the high charges of powder with which 
 they are fired. The fuse-hole is used for inserting 
 the charge, and to hold the fuse for communicat- 
 ing fire to it. All shells of eight inches or more in 
 diameter have ears to receive the "hooks" used in 
 lifting the projectile to the muzzle of the piece in
 
 PROreCTILES. 
 
 592 
 
 PROJECTILES. 
 
 loading. The reinforce of metal, about the fuse- 
 hole of the gun-shell, gives a greater bearing sur- 
 face to the fuse, and prevents it from being driven 
 in by the force of the discharge ; this reinforce also 
 serves, in a measure, to compensate for the metal 
 taken out of the fuse-hole, and thereby render the 
 shell more nearly concentric. In some services, 
 shells have, in the upper hemisphere. a charging-hole, 
 placed at an angle of 45'' with tlie fuse-hole, through 
 which the charge is povired immediately before the 
 shell is used and after the fuse has been inserted. 
 This is not necessary with the fuses used mosth' in 
 the United States' Service, as the powder and fuse 
 can be readily introduced at the moment of loading. 
 
 A carcass is a thick shell which has three addi- 
 tional holes, of the same dimensions as the fuse- 
 hole, pierced at equal distances apart in its upper 
 hemisphere, their exterior openings being tangent to 
 the great circle perpendicular to the a.xisof the fuse- 
 hole" The object of a carcass is to set tire to wooden 
 structures, by the Hame of an incendiary composi- 
 tion issuing from the holes. This shell has no fuse. 
 and is not intended to be exploded, although a 
 charge of powder may be placed beneath the com- 
 position to prevent it from being approached by the 
 enemy. 
 
 A stand of grape-shot is composed of nine small 
 cast-iron balls, disposed in three layers of three balls 
 each. The diameter of the balls for grape-shot va- 
 ries with the size of the piece ; being used at longer 
 distances, they are larger than the shot for the cor- 
 responding canister. (Jrape-shot are employed only 
 in the siege and sea-coast services; as now construct- 
 ed, they cannot be used in rifled pieces. 
 
 The (?nvelopefor a stand of canister-shot, consists 
 of a tin cylinder, closed at the bottom by a thick 
 plate of cast-iron, and at the top by one of sheet- 
 iron. The plates are kept in place by cutting the 
 ends of the cylinder in strips about 0.5 inch long, 
 which are turned down over the plates. A wire 
 handle is attached to the top plate. To give more 
 solidity to the mass, and to prevent the contained 
 balls from cro%vding upon each other when the piece 
 is fired, the interstices are closely packed with saw- 
 dust. For a gun, 37 small cast-iron balls are used, 
 arranged in four layers, the top of 6 and the re- 
 mainder of 7 each : this makes the diameter of the 
 balls about one-third that of the bore. For howitz- 
 ers, the envelope contains 48 balls, in folir layers of 
 12 each, the balls being smaller than those in a can- 
 ister for the corresponding g\in. Canister-shot are 
 used in all services. For those in which the charge 
 of powder is attached to the projectile, the canister 
 has a block of wood, called a sabot, to which the 
 envelope is nailed at the bottom; the lower plate 
 rests upon this block ; the wire handle is omitted. 
 The parts composing a stand of grape or canister 
 begin to separate the moment the}' leave the piece. 
 
 Shrapnel are cast-iron shells, in which, besides 
 the bursting-charge of powder, is placed a number 
 of small bails. Their sides are much thinner than 
 those of ordinary sliells, in order that they may con- 
 tain a greater numlier of bullets; the thickness must 
 be such that, when supported by tlie bullets, the case 
 will not be broken by the force of discharge, but 
 will yield readily to a small bursting-charge. The 
 weight of the case, emiity, is about one-half, and, 
 when tilled, about e(|Ual to that of the solid shot of 
 the same diameter. This projectile is prepared by fill- 
 ing the case with leaden musket-balls well packed in; 
 the interstices are then filled with melted rosin; this 
 prevents the fracture of the envelope by the liullets. 
 when the piece is fired. The (■hmaher for the pow- 
 der is afterwards bored out. The case is stemithened 
 by a reinfarri', and to increase the effect of the burst- 
 ing-charge, the lower portiuu of tlie fuse-hole is clos- 
 ed bva iti«i\t)i wrougiit-iroM, perforateil with a small 
 hole for the i)assage of the flame from the fuse. A 
 shrapnel may l)e made to explode at any jioint of its 
 flight, and, "as the bursting-charge should be only 
 
 sufficient to open the envelope, without scattering 
 the bullets too much, the execution depends on the 
 velocit}' which the case has at the moment it is brok- 
 en. This projectile is therefore of more general use 
 than grape or canister, and should be fired with as 
 large a charge as possible. It may be used in all 
 services, but is most effective in the field. A defect 
 of this construction is that the bullets, adhering to 
 one another and to the case,arenot always separated 
 by the bursting-charge. The shrapnel adopted in the 
 English Service is known as the " Boxer diaphragm 
 shell." It consists of a thin cast-iron shell, weakened 
 by four grooves down the sides to make it open out 
 more readily; of a wrought-iron diaphragm which di- 
 vides the shell imequally,the upper portion contain- 
 ing the bursting-charge, and the lower being filled 
 with balls of hardenecTlead, packed in coal dust. A 
 socket is screwed into the fuse-hole and passes through 
 the diaphragm; this forms a channel for the intro- 
 duction of the bullets and coal ; the bottom of the 
 socket is then closed by a plug. Into this socket is 
 screwed the fuse, the fire from which is communi- 
 cated to the powder-chamber through the fire-hole. 
 The bursting-charge is inserted at the loading.hole, 
 closed by a metal screw-plug. 
 
 The advantages to be derived from the use of p- 
 longated projectiles having once been established, it 
 became necessary that some means should be devis- 
 ed to make their flight accurate. It has been found 
 that to do this with certainty, a motion of rotation 
 about its longer axis must lie communicated to the 
 projectile, and this end has been satisfactorily attain- 
 ed only by cutting spiral grooves, or '• rifles" in the 
 surface of the bore of the piece, with which the pro- 
 jectile is connected, and by means of which it starts 
 with a motion about an a.xis parallel to or coincident 
 with that of the bore. The rotation continues dur- 
 ing the flight of the projectile. Without this rotation, 
 an elongated projectile will naturally turn over end 
 for end, and present a constantly varying surface to the 
 resistance of the air. This " rifle-motion," therefore, 
 tends to cause the projectile to move through the air 
 in the direction of the least resistance, thereby in- 
 creasing the range, and thii effect of impact, and, 
 furthermore, giving steadiness to the projectile by 
 distributing the deviating forces uniformly around 
 its line of flight. The more important advantages 
 of elongated projectiles are, that the form may 
 be altered at anj' time, and the center of gravity 
 can be placed at any desired point; the projectile 
 niaj' be elongated so as to oppose, for an equal 
 weight, a diminished surface to any resisting medium; 
 by this, the range is extended, and a flatter trajectory 
 with greater accuracy and penetration obtained. 
 The chief disadvantages are, increased strain on the 
 gun; greater probability of jamming and injury to 
 the bore ; irregularity of ricochet ; increased com- 
 plication and expense of manufacture; and the lia- 
 bility of an}- soft metal on the exterior to be acci- 
 dentally injured. 
 
 The different systems of projectiles for rifled pieces 
 are classified according to the manner in which they 
 are caused to follow the grooves. The systems are 
 distinguished by some peculiarity of construction, 
 and are generally known by the name of the person 
 by whom designed, or by the place at which first 
 made. The same principles are applicable to differ- 
 ent systems, and the same precision of fire may 
 practically be olitained from several. All systems 
 are comprised under three classes: 1st. I'rojectiles 
 with projecting ribs or studs; or having a peculiar 
 cross-section. 3d. Projectiles having a portion that 
 is expanded by the action of the gases in the bore, 
 lid. Those more or less of whose surfiice is com- 
 pres*;ed by the charge into the form of the bore. 
 Tlie first and .second classes are a|)i)lieable to muzzle- 
 loading jiieces ; the third to breech-loaders only. 
 The principal points to be considered, as regards the 
 piece and the projectile, are the mnrst and nafest 
 means of causing the projectile to follow the grooves
 
 PROJECTION. 
 
 503 
 
 PfiOJECT/ON. 
 
 of llic piece. To fiillil tliese comiilions, llie pro- 
 jeelile should lie siinple in eonHtriiclion. mill of suf- 
 fieieiil strerij:;!!! to iidiiiil of its use willi tlie ]itr>;esl 
 cliiir}.'e lliiit tuny he desin'd ; it luusi not he liiiliie lo 
 jiiMi in the l)ore in loj.din;,' or lirinj;: imd innsl pro- 
 dnee a inodenile and uniform strain on tlie ;;un. 
 'I'lie system tlial most nearly complies with these re- 
 (|uiremenls, and gives insured aeeuracy of lire willi 
 imiform and hiirli velocities, slioul<l lie the best. In 
 many systems, one or more of these considerations 
 liave been sacriticed to some extent, to secure a 
 closer com pi iiince with others tlionuht to heof greuler 
 Importance or of easier attaimneul. 
 
 \.il, (,'/(i.H«. Sfilid Manures, projectiun from the liody 
 of a projectile and so shaped as to til the rillini; of 
 the bore, were th<- means lirst used lo coinnuinicate 
 the rille-infition in cannon. In some cases, there 
 was for each fjroove a rilx-xtcndini; the entire lelij^tli 
 of the cylindrical portion of the projectile, while in 
 others, sets of rounded bullous were employe<l. 
 These projections were of the same material as the 
 boily of the projectile, and beini; of a very unyield- 
 ini; nature, frequently led to tin- burslini; of the 
 piece; buttons of zinc, copper, or bron/e, lirmly 
 sccuretl in mortises in the projectiles, were therefore 
 adopted. The buttons are arranjred in rows of two 
 or more so that each row enters freely into a corre- 
 spon<linij; groove, in loading. When the bore of a 
 gun is a twisted prism, with any plane ligure for its 
 base, the projectile, if shapeil to tit it, will receive 
 the rille-motion when lireil. The Whitworlli cannon 
 is ritled in this manner, the cross-section being a 
 he.xagon with rounded corners, (inns have also 
 been constructed with ribs projecting from the bore, 
 fitting into corres|)oniling grooves in the projectile. 
 To the last system belongs the Vavasseur gun, which 
 has given good results; the system preceding has 
 not, however, proved so satisfactory. 
 
 The principal advantages of systems of the first 
 class arc that the projectiles are stnmg, and that the 
 required motion is communicated to them with 
 great certainty and regularity. The escape of gas 
 around the projectile, as it causes injury to the bore, 
 is an objection to the class ; various experiments 
 have been nuide to overcome it, the latest being by 
 the attachment of a metal cup to the rear of the pro- 
 jectile, which, by the action of the powder, is ex- 
 panded and pressed against the sides of the bore. 
 The French studded projectile, employed generally 
 on the Continent with muzzle-loading cannon, and 
 the Woolwich system, similar to it and used in Eng- 
 land, arc the best representatives of this class. 
 
 3/. C'liinx. In projectiles of tlic^ second class, the 
 body is composed of a hard metal, as cast-iron, and 
 there is attached ti-> it, generally at the base, a cup. 
 band, or other arrangement of softer metal, which is 
 expanded bj' the action of the charge into the groo- 
 ves of the gun, when tired. Expanding projectiles 
 are easy to load, are not liable to overstrain the 
 piece, and those of different systems can generally 
 be fired from the same piece — a point of great im- 
 portance. Such projectiles do not always withstand 
 the heaviest charges of powder, and are not certain 
 to receive the rifle motion. The use of projectiles 
 of this class is confined more particularly to the 
 United States. The most important are the Parrott, 
 HotchkLss, and Butler systems. 
 
 Si Cldis. In breech-loading cannon, the recepta- 
 cle for the charge is of larger diameter than the bore 
 of the piece. The projectile is of tlie same size as 
 this chamber, and must be reduced to enable it to 
 ]);iss into the bore. Such projectiles are emlmiceil 
 under the third class; the body has a coating of soft 
 metal, which is compressed as the projectile is driv- 
 en through the bore, the grooves compelling it to 
 follow the direction of the rifling. The same result 
 is sometimes accomplisheil by one or more rings of 
 soft metal. The chief advantages of this class are, 
 that the projectile is generally certain iotake up the 
 rifle-motion; that its axis is steady on leaving the 
 
 bore; anil that the wear of the bore, from gas pass- 
 ing the ]irojectile, or from any irregular movement 
 of the latter, is [)reveiiled. The objections are, 
 that till' necessary compression of the coaling, the 
 sudden closing of winilage. and the fouling of the 
 bore, produce uiidui' strain upon the piece; that the 
 velocity of the jirojeclile is reduced by the force ex- 
 pendeil in compressing it; and that the soft metal 
 forms an extra weight, which is useless in penetrat- 
 ing resisting objects. The Cerrnan and the Frencli 
 systems are the most ])roniiiient typ(;s of this class. 
 All sinall-arms, at tlie pnsent time, use bullets of 
 this class, which being entirelv of soft metal arc- 
 readily compressed without their general form being 
 injured. 
 
 In consequence of windage and of the action of 
 gravity, the axis of the projectile df)CB not always 
 coincide with that of the bore, in tiring; this gives 
 rise to inaccuracy of fire. With projectiles of each 
 clasg means have been devised to overcome this 
 (lifiiculty, partially if not entirely, by the system of 
 rilling, or by the nature of the chamber. These 
 properly relate lo the construction of the iiicce. 
 See Armor-piercing PrujectiUn. Armatrong Projec- 
 tile, ('hilled I'rojectile.x, Comjiremion ProjertileK, Detia. 
 tioH (if 1' rojeel'len. Effects of J'rojectileti, Elojigntfd Pro- 
 jectiles, Expanding Projectiles, Fnhric/ttioii of Projec. 
 tiles. Vailing Jlodies, Form of Projectile. Insjiertinn of 
 Projectiles, l'< nitration of I'rojrrliles. Pretervation of 
 Projectiles, Iloekrti, Hnjilure if Shells, Shells, SmcUL- 
 ' arm Projectiles, Solid Shot, Spherir/d Projictiles, Stfel 
 Projectiles. Studded I'rojictiUs and Trajectory. 
 
 PROJECTION.— The representation, on any surface, 
 of till- p:irts of fortification and other objects as they 
 appear to the eye of the observer. It thus includes 
 perspective, and is most simply illustrated by the 
 shadow of an object thrown by a candle on a wall : 
 the shadow being the projection, and the place of 
 the light the ])osition of the eye. The theory of pro- 
 jections is of great importance, both in mathe- 
 matics, engineering, and geojrraphy ; being in the 
 former cases, perfectly general in its aiiplication ; 
 while in the latter only the jirojection of the sphere 
 I is required. Projections of the sphere are of var- 
 ious kinds, depeudimr on the position and distance 
 of the eye from the sphere, and the form of the sur- 
 face on which the projection is thrown; thus we 
 have the ortlingropliic. stereograpliir. globular, conical, 
 and cylirulriciil or Mircator's projections. Another 
 projection freiiuently employed is the g/Mmonic. In 
 gnomonic projection, the eye is supposed to be situ- 
 ated at the center of the sphere, anil the surface on 
 which the projection is thrown is a plane surface 
 which touches the sphere at ;iny one point (called the 
 principal jioint). It is evident that a map constructed 
 on the gnomonic projection, is sensibly correct only 
 for a circular area whose circumference is at a 
 small angular distance from the principal point. 
 From the position of the eye in the gnomonic projec- 
 tion, it follows that all great circles, or portions of 
 great circles, of the sphere are represented by straight 
 lines, for their planes pass through the eye. The 
 distance of two points on the sphere, when measured 
 along the surface, is least if they are measured along 
 a great circle ; and as the distance of the projections 
 of these points on the plane is represented by a 
 straight line, which is the shortest distance between 
 two points on a plane, this projection, if employed 
 in the construction of manners' cliarts, would at 
 on<;e show the shortest course. Majis of the earth's 
 I surface have been projected by the gnomimic meth- 
 od, the surface of projection being the interior sur- 
 j face of a cube circumscribing the sphere, and the 
 I complete series consequently amounting tosix maps: 
 j but it is not fitted for the construction of maps of 
 large portions of the earth's surface. The gnomonic 
 projection derives its name from its connection with 
 the mode of describing a gnomon or dial. The or- 
 thographic and stereographic projections were eni- 
 I ployed by the Greek astronomers for the construe-
 
 PROKING SPIT. 
 
 594 
 
 PEOMOTION. 
 
 tion of maps of the heavens : the former, or analem- 
 ma, being tlie best known and most used. The ste- 
 reographic, called phi rii.ip/uiv hy the Greeks, is siiid 
 to have been invented b_y llipparchus, and the gno- 
 monic is described l)y Ptolemy. Tlie otliers are of 
 modern invention. In mathematics, tlie theory of 
 projections is general in its application, and has 
 been employed within the last few years to general- 
 ize the ancient geometrj', as a powerful aid to alge- 
 bra. Its basis is the investigation and determina- 
 tion of those properties wdiich, being true of a tigure. 
 are also true of its projections, such properties be- 
 ing necessarih- dependent, not on the " magnitude," 
 but on the "position" of the lines and angles be- 
 longing to the tigure. These properties are general- 
 ly denominated pvijerthe -priyperties. For instance, 
 the three conic sections, the parabola, ellipse, and 
 In'perbola, are merely various projections of a circle 
 on a plane, and all "positional" properties of the 
 circle are at once, by this theory, connected with 
 similar properties of the three conic sections. The 
 theory is also largely employed in demonstrative 
 meclKinics. 
 
 PKOKIHG-SPIT.— An early name for a large Span- 
 ish rapier. 
 
 PROLONGATION OF THE LINE.— A tactical ma- 
 neuver effected by parallel movements at the right 
 or left of any given number of men on a front di- 
 vision. 
 
 PROIONGE. — A strong hemp rope used with field 
 pieces til attach the gun to the limber when tiring in 
 retreat, or advancing, instead of limbering up: for 
 the same purpose in crossing ditches ; for slinging a 
 piece to a limber ; for righting carriages when up- 
 set, and for various other purposes. It is usuall)- 
 26' 7" long, and is carried wound around the pro- 
 longe-hooks on the trail of the piece. It has a hook 
 at one end and a toggle at the other, with two inter- 
 mediate rings, into which the hook and toggle are 
 fastened to shorten the distance between the limber 
 and carriage. 
 
 PROLONGED FLANK. -In fortification, the flank 
 extension from the angle of the epaule to the exterior 
 side, whin the ansle of the flank is a right one. 
 
 PROMOTION.— The efliciency of any body of men 
 depends upon the energy of the individuals com- 
 posing it ; the root of that energy is emulation; and 
 emulation can only be secured by maintaining a 
 proper current of promotion. The elticiencv of a 
 service is thus dependent on the system of promo- 
 tion adopted ; and so important, consequently, does 
 promotion become, that in the present article it is 
 purposed to glance at the rules observed in the prin- 
 cipal armies of the world. 
 
 In the Army of France it is a very common saying 
 that every Conscript has a Marshal's hiiton in his 
 knapsack. Speaking of the times of the Hcvolution- 
 ary War. this was doubtless true, for battalions cho.se 
 their cluef oflicers from their own ranks— a Conscript 
 of one year was often a Lieut. -Col. the next, and per- 
 liaps a Brig. Gen. the following. In the quieter times 
 or recent years, however, progress is slower; and, al- 
 though promotion is open to all, and a considerable 
 proportion of the officers do rise from the ranks, yet 
 it is very rarely indeed that an otticer who basso risen 
 <'ver ;ittains a hiffher grade than tli;it of Captain, 
 .lunior coiniiiissii)ns are — if the rule nf the service 
 were strictly followed — given, one-third to men from 
 the ranks, one-third to cadets from military schools, 
 and one-third by government patronage. In practice 
 it aiijiears that in the artillery and engineers two- 
 tliirds of the first ])ositions are given to puj)ils from 
 tlic I'lilytcchiiique. and the remainder to men from 
 the ranks; wliilr in the Line two-tliinis of the iilticers 
 rise from the ranks, and one-lhird cnnie fmm the 
 Military School of St. Cyr. liefore ollicers can be 
 promoted certain service in each rank is recjuired, 
 viz., as 2d tjiinitenant, two years: as Lieutenant, two 
 years; ast'aptain, fotir years: as Major, three years; 
 and as liieuteuant Colonel, two years. These peri. 
 
 ods aiOi however, curtailed in time of war. Pro- 
 motion takes place in the regiment up to the rank of 
 Captain, two-thirds by seniority, and one-third by 
 selection. From Captain to Major (cJiefd'inciK/ri/H uu 
 de bataiUim), promotion is divided equally between 
 seniority and selection ; while to all higher ranks it 
 falls exclusively to selection. The selection is made 
 on reports b}' the Inspectors General of the several 
 arms — their reports being founded on personal ob- 
 servation, and the testimony of senior regimental of- 
 ficers. To maintain rapidity of promotion there is a 
 fixed age at which officers must retire — viz.. Lieu- 
 tenant General, 05; Major General, G3; Colonel. GO; 
 Lieutenant Colonel, .58; Major, 56; Captain. 53; and 
 Lieutenant, 52. These ages do not prevent the offi- 
 cers of a regiment from being the opposite of youth- 
 ful. 
 
 In Anntria all officers are at first Cadets; but a large 
 proportion of these Cadets are nominated from men 
 in the ranks b}' their comrades Promotion goes by 
 seniority, and in the regiment, with occasional se- 
 lection from other regiments. The organization and 
 officering of the German Army are both peculiar. 
 Every German subject, of whatever rank, is bound 
 to serve from the age of 20 to 25: but in practice this 
 service is reduced ^o a j'ear in the case of profes- 
 sional men. Every officer must serve in the ranks 
 but not necessarily longer than a day. Young gentle- 
 men intended for officers enter the nn^is,. aitpirnnten. 
 They do duty as common soldiers for from six to 
 nine months, and pass two examinations. After- 
 ward they remain nine months at a division school 
 or twelve months at an artillery and engineer school. 
 The}' then become eligible for appointment as offi- 
 cers when vacancies occur which, however, they 
 cannot obtain unless recommended by the officers 
 of their respective regiments. Two-thirds of the 
 first commissions are given to these aspiranten. and 
 one-third to pupils from the cadet schools. 
 
 In the Italian Army, one-third of the Sub-Lieuten- 
 ants are promoted from the ranks. Of subsequent 
 promotion, two-thirds go by senioritj-. and one-third 
 by selection. It is always urged against the British 
 system of army promotion, that it is too exclusive, 
 and confines the commissions to the upper classes 
 of society; and there is no doubt that promotion 
 from the ranks is much rarer than in almost any 
 other army. But. on the other hand, it is argued, 
 the constituents of the force are very different. Sol- 
 diers in Britain are not Conscripts, who necessarily 
 comprise men of all classes and all degrees of educa- 
 tion, but are taken as a rule, from an extremely low 
 and very uneducated class of society. Again, Brit- 
 ain lias a true middle class, which is wanting in al- 
 most every continental nation. Its army is not, 
 therefore, necessarily aristocratic because it is not 
 officered from the ranks. Lastly, the habits of the 
 different classes of society differ so greatlj', that un- 
 less the soldier be very superior to his comrades, 
 promotion to a commission is a small boon. 
 
 With regard to the actual system of promotion 
 which obtains; in the ranks, promotion from Pri- 
 vate up to Company Sergeant takes place in the com- 
 pany, and is made by the regimental officers. The 
 promotion of C'ompany Sergeants to be Stafl" Ser- 
 geants is made throughout the regiment. All tlie.se 
 promotions are by selection entirely. Of the com- 
 missioned otfieers. the Quartermasters and Hiding 
 masters are ajipointed almost exclusively from the 
 ranks; but they have no further promotion to look 
 forward to — Sergeants and Sergeants-niiijor are oc 
 easionally gazetted to Eusigncies or Lieutenancies. 
 The junior combatant offiei'rs ;iei|uire their commis, 
 sinus I'itlier liy a competitive e.\iiiuiiiatinii open to 
 the whole nation, or. by previ ms service in the mili- 
 tia as officers, or in the ranks of the army ;is non- 
 <-oniniissioned oflicers. The artillery and engineers 
 are olficeretl entirely l>v Cadets from the Hoyal Mili- 
 tary Academy, whose subsciiuent jiromotion is by 
 seniority only. In the cavalry, guards, and line, vci-
 
 PROOF HOUSE. 
 
 59f 
 
 FBOOF OF ODRPOWDEK. 
 
 caiK-icM lire, since the abolition of llic piircliaso sys- 
 tem in 1H71, lilled Ijy "seniorily lenipcreil hy selec- 
 tion," the si'li'ction becomint; more strict as the bibb- 
 er ranks are reach<(l. The pniniotion of otlicers; up 
 to tlie ranl< of Captain, is mainly re!;iin<-nlai, and is, 
 at the same lime, liy seniorily; hut seniority is. in 
 this case (pu'ililied l)y what has been called ne;;ative 
 selection - that is, in other words, the exclusion of 
 thos(! otlicers who do not prove their fitness for jiro- 
 molionuttbe [leriodical inspections and exaniiniitions. 
 Above the rank of Cajitain, for suhtMintin: or m//- 
 inniUil rank, seniorily is little regarded, and selection 
 is more absolnte; but otlicers may hold at the same 
 time ((/■///// or hn'vel rank, conferred for<lislini;nisbed 
 service, or for mere seniority, in the i;cneral list of 
 tlii^ whole army. This brevet rank does not alTecl 
 the position in a reiximi'iil. and adds but a small sum 
 to the officer's pay; hut it is of j;reat importance, in- 
 asmuch as C'olonels rise by seniorily ulone to be gen- 
 eral officers, and Colonel is almost exclusively a bre- 
 vet rank (the only exceptions being in tin' artillery 
 and enLciiicers, where Colonel is a retjiniental rank). 
 Underthcse rules, it sometinu^s happ<'nsthat anollle- 
 er who lias never held liinber rci;imenlal rank than 
 Capt;iiu, may become successively, for j;ood servi(;e, 
 Brevet-Miijor, Brevet-Lieutenant Colonel, and IJrevet- 
 Colonel, until he succeeds, in bis turn, to the rank of 
 Major General. 
 
 In the Unhed States Arm;/, promotions in tlic line 
 are made throuub the whole Army, in the several 
 lines of artillery, cavalry, and infantry, respectively. 
 Promotions in the tStaif of tlu' Army are nuide in 
 the several departments and corps, respectively. 
 Officers may bi' transferred from the Line to the 
 StatT of the Army witlnmt prejudice to their rank or 
 promotion in the Line ; but no officer can hold, at 
 the sam<' time, an ajiiiointment in the Line and an 
 appointment in the Stall' which confer equal rank in 
 the Army. When any otticer so transferred lias, in 
 virtue of seniority, obtained or becmne entitled to a 
 grade in his rcninu'iit equ;il to the jjrade of his com- 
 mission in the tStalT. he vacates either his commis- 
 sion in the Ijine or his commission in the Staff. No 
 officer of the Corps of Engineers below the rank of 
 Field-Otlicer can be promoted to a higher grade, un- 
 til be has been examined and approved by a Hoard 
 of three Engineers, senior to him in rank. If an 
 Engineer officer fail on such examination he is sus- 
 pended from promotion for one year, when he is re- 
 examined before a like Hoard, fn case of failure on 
 such re-examination, he is dismissed from the ser- 
 vice. When any Lieutenant of the Corps of Engi- 
 neers [or Ordnance Corps] fias served fourteen years' 
 continuous service as Lieutenant, be is promoted to 
 the rank of Captain, on passing the required examin- 
 ation, but such proinotion does not authorize an ap- 
 pointment to till any vacancy, when such ajipoint- 
 nient would increase the v^hole number of officers 
 in the corps beyond the number tixed by law ; nor 
 can any officer be promoted before officers of the 
 same grade who rank hiin in his corps. When pro- 
 motions in the ( )rdnance Department of the Army 
 are allowed by law, no officer of the corps, below 
 the rank of Field Otiicer, can be promoted to a high- 
 er grade until he h;is been examined and a])proved 
 by a Board of not less than three Ordnance Officers, 
 seniors to him in rank. If an Ordnance officer fail 
 on such an examination he is suspended from pro- 
 motion for one year, when he is re-examiued before 
 a like board. In ca.se of failvircon such re-examina- 
 tion, he is dismissed frinn the service. When any 
 officer in the line of promotion is retired from iictive 
 service, the next otiicer in rank is promoted to his 
 place, according to the established rules of the ser- 
 vice ; and the same rule of promotion is applied, 
 successively, to the vacancies consequent upon such 
 retirement. Sec Appointment, and Staff. | 
 
 PKOOF-HOUSE.— A house titled up for proving I 
 barrels of tire-arnis. They are e.xtra heavily charged, 
 laid ou a bench, primed, and fired by a train of pow- 
 
 der into a bank of sand. The average loss in Eng- 
 land is four per cent, on (iOO.tJtJtJ barrclH aunually. 
 A second proving takes place wlicn tlie piece is ready 
 for assemblinL'. 
 
 PROOF OF GUNPOWDER.— A process pursued in 
 testiii'.' gunpowih r as rigarils its ipialily, strength, 
 and uniformity. The ipiality is ascertained, both 
 small and large grain, by its general appearance, its 
 lirmness, ghizing, uniformity of grain, and density ; 
 its strength and uniformity, as explained further on. 
 The weight of a cubic foot of government powrler 
 varies according to the nature of the powder. The 
 process oi Jlffihiny is also resorted to for testing the 
 cleanliness and intimate mixture of the ingredients. 
 W'ith this view, about :i drachms of prjwder are 
 placed on aglass plate, and tired with a red-hot iron, 
 whi'n. if the powder has been properly made, no res- 
 idue or foulness should be left. In addition to tlie 
 above proof, the hygrometric test is a very neces- 
 sary one to be taken of all natures of powder. The 
 usual mode ado|>t<Ml to ti'sttbe explosive strength or 
 pressure of guniiowder in a gun is thus explained: An 
 H-inch pror)f gun is littc<l with y screw gauges, or 
 "crushers." by wliicli the pressure of the exploding 
 charge is recorded at three points in the bore, name- 
 ly — in the axis by a gauge screwed through the cas- 
 ("abel of the gun ; by a gauge, screwed into the side 
 of the gun at 7:'J inches from the end of the bore ; 
 and by a gauge screwed into the side of the gun at 
 l.Ti inches from the end of th(' bore. The velocity 
 of the shot, or cylinder, is measured by two chrono- 
 scopes. For this purpose four wire screens are ar- 
 ranged in front of the gun at tlie respective distances 
 from the muzzle of itd feet, 100 feet, 210 feet, and 
 220 feet. Nos. 1 and 3 screws ijelong to No. 1 in- 
 strument, Nos. 2 and 4 screws to No. 2 instrument. 
 The velocity of each projectile is, therefore, regis- 
 tered at two points in front of the gun. namely, at 
 1.50 feet and 160 feet, by two independent instru- 
 ments. This affords a complete check on the me- 
 thod of recording the velocity. The "crusher" 
 gauge, or instrument for measuring the pressure 
 caused by the explosion of the charge, consists of a 
 screw-plug of steel, provided with a movable base 
 which admits of the insertion of a small copper cy- 
 linder, ^ inch in length, into a chamber. One end 
 of this copper cylinder rests on an anvil, while the 
 other is acted upon by a movable piston. The cop- 
 per cylinder is centered in the chamber by a small 
 circular watch spring. The action of the apparatus 
 is as follows : Upon the explosicm of the charge, the 
 gas, acting on the area of the piston, one end of which 
 isalmost flush with the interior of the bore, crushes 
 the copper cylinder against the anvil. The amount 
 of compression which the cojjper thereby sustains 
 becomes an indication of the pressure. The area 
 of the copper cj'linders used for proof of gunpowder 
 is ,'j square inch, while the area of the piston is J 
 square inch. To form a table of pressure, a series 
 of experiments has been <-arried out in a testing 
 machine, so as to determine the pressure required to 
 produce a definite amount of compression in copper 
 cylinders corresponding to those used in the instru- 
 ment. The tabulated results furnish a means of 
 comparison whereby the amount of compression 
 produced in the " crusher" becomes a direct indica- 
 tion of the pressure at that part of the bore where 
 the i)lug is inserted. The interesting experiments 
 carried out by the committee on explosives have 
 shown that the pressure indicated by each " crusher 
 gauge" is, practically speaking, a true measure of 
 the strain on the gun at that point. 
 
 The modu.i operandi of contlucting an individual 
 experiment in connection with the proof of gunpow- 
 der is as follows: The electric batteries and wire 
 screens for use with the chronoscope having been 
 duly prepared, the operator having satisfied himself 
 that the instruments are in thorough working order, 
 the command is given to "load." L'pon this the men 
 at the gun insert a cartridge of 3,5 lbs. weight and 19
 
 PROOF OF ORDNANCE. 
 
 596 
 
 PROPORTIONAL DIVIDEH8. 
 
 inches length into tlie bore, and ram it home until a 
 stopper on the stave of the rammer comes in contact 
 with the face of the muzzle. The cylinder, tiat at 
 both ends, is then inserted and rammed home in a sim- 
 ilar manner. This proceeding insures uniformity. as, 
 owing to the stops on the rammer staves. each charge 
 occupies tlie same space in the bore. The "crush- 
 er" plugs are then screwed into their respective holes, 
 the copper cylinders having previously been titled 
 into the chamber in the extremity of the plug. All 
 is now ready. The operator adjusts the chronoscopes. 
 and gives the signal to lire. The projectile passes 
 through the wire screens before it buries itself iu the 
 e;irth butt at which it is directed. The operator notes 
 the readings of the instruments. The "crusher" 
 plugs are withdrawn, and the little copper cylinders 
 removed, stamped with the experimental number of 
 the series, and measured in a calipers or micrometer 
 gauge. A reduction iu the length of the copper cj'l- 
 rnder of yV ioch indicates a pressure of 12 tons on the 
 square inch; of one-tenth and a half, of 16 tons; of 
 ■^i;. of 31 tons; ot^fg, of 36 tons, etc. Thus, the op- 
 erator, in each round, records two velocities, which 
 ought to be almost equal, and pressures at three 
 points in the bore. Let us assume that the pres- 
 sures at the three points are respectively 17.6 tons, 
 17.9 tons, and 16.3 tons, and that the observed ve- 
 locities per second are 1430 and 1436 feet at the res- 
 pective distances of 150 feet and 160 feet from the 
 muzzle. As a flat-headed cylinder of ISOIbs. weight 
 and 8 inches in diameter, traveling at 1400 feet a 
 second, would, owing to the resistance of the air, lose 
 about 15 feet velocity' in passing over 1.50 feet of space, 
 the mean velocity at the muzzle will be 1443 feet. Tliis 
 batch of powder, therefore, would have passed proof 
 within the terms of the specification. Had. howev- 
 er, the pressure recorded at any one point exceeded 
 tweut}- tons, or the observed velocities been less 
 than about 1405 feet, or greater than about 1465 feet, 
 the powder would be rejected. The instrument in- 
 vented by Le Boulenge for proving powder.has now 
 nearly superseded that of Navez-Leurs, both in India 
 and in England. 
 
 A very valuable paper on " Fired Gunpowder," by 
 Captain A. Noble, F. R S., and Professor Abel, F. 
 R. S., will be found in the " Philosophical Transac- 
 tions of the Royal Society " for the year 1875, in 
 which is given the result of certain experiments for 
 ascertaining the different phenomena of fired gun- 
 powder within the bore of a gun. a subject until very 
 lately veiled in obscuritj' for want of suitable instru- 
 ments and data on which to carrj- out the experi- 
 ments. The different chronographs which have been 
 invented give us the measure of velocity of a projec- 
 tile at the muzzle of a gun and during its flight, but 
 the velocity of a shot within the bore from the first 
 movement, along certain fixed points until it leaves 
 the gun, has been left to Captain Noble to discover 
 with his beautiful chronoscope. which is able to re- 
 cord the milliontli part of a second. This instrument, 
 in conjunction with the " crusher gauge," enables us 
 to ascertain all the phenomena attending the com- 
 bustion of guni)Owder, such as its tension or pres- 
 sure — its rapidity of ignition — the time occupied iu 
 burning dilferent natures of gunpowder, etc. The 
 suliject is so interesting that it canmit fail to attract 
 tlie alleutiou of all scientific men and tliat of tlie 
 practical arliUerist. The length of the memoir pre- 
 vents, in a work of this sort, a longer allusion to the 
 results of the experiments than is now given. See 
 Fj)triiiir,tt, . ■,\\\i\i; III! iiiiird, r. 
 
 PROOF OF ORDNANCE.— Guns of all descriptions 
 are iirovcd before being issued for service. Mus- 
 kets are test'jd by licing fired witli heavier bul- 
 lets and larger charge of powder than they will in 
 the ordinary way be required to carry. Cannon are 
 Hubjecled to a series of tests. First, they an^ gauged 
 to ascertain that the dimensions are correct, the ut- 
 most va-iatiou iiermitteri lieing .3 in. externally, and 
 .033. iu the (liauielcr of llie bore, but the positi(jn of 
 
 the jore may frequently deviate .25 in. from the 
 line of the piece's axis. The next trial is by firing 
 twice with very heavy charges— the bore being sub- 
 sequently minutely examined, to detect flaws or 
 crevices in the metal. A cavity exceeding in depth 
 .2 in. if behind the first re-infor"ce ring, or .25 if be- 
 fore that ring, condemns the piece. After the proof 
 by firing, wateris forced at a great pressure into the 
 bore, in order that it may permeate way honeycombs 
 or flaws; the next day the bore is examined by 
 means of a mirror, which casts a strong light into it. 
 Flaws arethen easily detected for wliile'the'rest of the 
 bore is thoroughly dry. water will continue for some 
 time to weep or run from the holes, and will stand 
 over them in drops. This operation completes the 
 proof. When a gun bursts in proof, the remainder 
 of the guns of the same sort tlien in proof are sub- 
 jected to another round. 
 
 Gunpowder for proving ordnance should be of the 
 best quality of the kind used in the gun to be proved, 
 giving not less than the standard initial velocitj-; it 
 should be proved immediately before being used un- 
 less it shall have been proved within one year pre- 
 viously, and there be no reason to suspect that it 
 has become deteriorated. The cartridgebags are 
 made of woolen or raw silk, the full diameter of the 
 bore or chamber. They are filled by weight. The 
 shot must be smooth, free from seams and other in- 
 equalities that might injure the bore of the piece, 
 and they must be of the true diameter and weight 
 given in the tables. Guns and hueiUers are laid 
 with the muzzle resting on a block oi wood, and the 
 breach on the ground or on a thick plank, giving the 
 bore a small elevation. Mitrtars are mounted on 
 strong wooden frames or iron beds, at an elevation 
 of 45°, supported by the trunnions. Each piece 
 should be tired two rounds with maximum charges 
 and projectiles. The bore, vent, and the exterior 
 surface of every piece which is approved, should 
 be well covered with sperm oil immediately after the 
 inspection. Bronze cannons are fired three times 
 with solid shot and a charge of powder ojie-third the 
 weight of the shot. If the piece has been in service, 
 or if it be new, and its bore be of the true size, the 
 shot should be wrapped in cloth or strong paper, to 
 save the bore as much as possible from injury. See 
 Inspection of Ordnancf. 
 
 PRi)OF-PLUG. — A plug screwed temporarily into 
 the breech of a gun-barrel to be proved. 
 
 PROPER.— A term in Heraldry. A charge borne 
 of its natural color, is said to be proper. An object 
 whose color varies at different times and in different 
 examples, as a rose, which maj' be white or red, can- 
 not be borne proper. 
 
 PROPORTIONAL DIVIDERS.— An instrument de- 
 signed for dividing a line into any number of equal 
 parts: for describing regular polygons in given cir- 
 cles; forreducing or enlarging the area of a drawing, 
 and also for taking the square and cube-root of num- 
 bers, The bodies of the legs of these dividers are 
 made of a flat piece of German silver, or brass, with 
 a rectangular opening cut in each nearly the whole 
 length; tlie ends of the legs are armed with steel 
 points; the longest two are four or five times the 
 length of the shortest ones. The legs are put togeth- 
 er with the rectangular openings exactly opp<isite 
 each other, and retained in their jilace by clamp 
 plates and a thumb-screw, which can be moved up 
 and down the opening and made tight at any desir- 
 ed point; these clamp-plates and thumb-screw consti- 
 tute the joint of the dividers, upon which the legs 
 are opened, and it is easy to perceive that if this joint 
 is exactly halfway between the extremity of the 
 points llie two ends will npcii to the same distance, 
 init if the joint is moved nearer one end the opening 
 of the points will bear the same proportion to each 
 I other as the liniger does to the shorter [lart. The 
 I cheaper form of these dividers have but one set of 
 graduations, by wliich lines only can be subdivided; 
 the proportions are .J. |. \, {, J, !, J, J, ,'„; that is, if
 
 PROPOSALS. 
 
 597 
 
 PE0P08AL8. 
 
 till' liiif! across one of llio clamp-plates is made to 
 
 iMinic opposite' cidicr of the divisions on tlir li'K. the 
 Uvo cndsof llic (liviiliTH will open in llial |ircpporlion. 
 Till' licst proportionid dividers Imvi' oni' siilc of one 
 of tli(! legs graduated for dividiiii; liiii's into | J. S, }. 
 1. 2. J. |. s. J. 71 S. J. I'o. I'l. "'"1 till' other Hide of 
 tlie leg IS graduated for inseriliing regular polygons 
 of (i. 7, H, 1) 10, 11. 12, Hi, 14, l.'i, U;, 17. IH, 1!), and 
 20 sides in given circles. To use iMe lines of poly- 
 gons, bring tile line across llie elaiup pliile to eoiii- 
 eide with the gradiialicjii which is marked with the 
 lunnlier tiiat tiie polygon is to have sidi-s, then opi-ri 
 the dividers and make tlu^ long steel jioinls take in 
 the radius of the circle, then the distance between 
 the small i)oiuts will be the length of one side of the 
 
 is made upon an abstract showing fully all its essen- 
 tial particulars. As soon as the pro])osals have been 
 opened and di'cided upon, an "Abstract" of tlieni 
 is made, one c'opy of which, together with one of 
 the duplicates of each propcjsal ollered.is forwarded 
 to the proper liiireaii without delay. Thi: "Abstract 
 of J'roposals" has a eo|)y (jf the notice attached, and 
 has separate columns for "No. of prr)i)Osal." "Name 
 of biihhr." "Date of delivery." "Hrniarks." and two 
 columns folic for (jiuuility and one for jirice; for each 
 article, variety of article, or jiackage that nwiv beof- 
 fered; for example under the item of jwrk, there 
 are two columns (price and(|uantity) for each of the 
 varieties "Mess," " I'rime mess," "Thin mess;" 
 under colTee, two for each of the items "Green, in 
 
 reipiired iiolygon. Tlii' joint of most of the propor- 
 tional dividers is slipped along the rectangular open- 
 ing by the hand; but it is frequenliy quite ditlicult to 
 bring it exactly to the right place, as a little tor) 
 much |)ressure will move the line a little too far, and 
 an ojiposite pressure may put it too far in the origi- 
 nal direction again. For nicety in adjusting the 
 jninl to the reipiired jioint. some proportional divid- 
 ers are fitted with a bar and micrometer screw, by 
 which the joint can he drawn exactly to the required 
 division. Another plan is to have it rack litted on 
 the inside of the rectangular opeinng and a pinion 
 all.ached to the sliding joint fitting into it; by turning 
 till' milled Ihninb-screw of the pinion the joint is 
 moved up and down in thi' re<tangidaropening with 
 gri'at regularity and exactness, (irealcare must be 
 taken that none of the points of tlie proportional di- 
 viders get broken. 
 
 PROPOSALS. -Information in regard to supplies 
 or services for which proposals have been invited by 
 advertisements is furnished to all persons desiring 
 it, on a]iplication to such sources as are designated 
 in the advertisement. Incase of supjilies, they are 
 informed of the kind. (luantity. and quality of articles 
 reipured ; place, time, and rate of delivery ; con- 
 ditions of payment, etc. In case of services, they 
 are informed of the nature and extent of the services 
 required; the place where or places between whicli 
 they are to be performed, and the time allowed for 
 the performance ; furnished with or allowed to ex- 
 amine plans and specitic;itions of all buildings, con- 
 structions and other works in contemplation, etc. 
 No bidder is informed, directly or indirectly, of the 
 name of siuy person intending to bid or not to bid, 
 or to whom information in respect to proposals may 
 have been given. All proposals should be inclosed 
 in suitable envelopes, securely sealed, indorsed, and j 
 addressed as required by the advertisement, and be 
 delivered to, or received by, the otlicer to whom ad- 
 dressed before the time appointed for the opening ; 
 and no responsibilty should attach tQ that otlicer for 
 premature opening of any proposal not so indorsed 
 as to show that it is a proposal, and the particular j 
 purpose for which it is made. When an advertise- j 
 meut calls for propo-sals to deliver supplies or render i 
 services at more than one place, a separate proposal 
 should be made for eacli place, but all maj- be sub- 
 mitted in the .same envelope. The otlicer whose 
 duty it is to open proposals decides wdieu the time fix- 
 ed upon for tlie opening has arrived, and no propo.sal 
 for that opening is thereafter received as formal. 
 If a bidder wishes to withdraw his proposal, he may 
 do so before the time tixed for the opening, without 
 prejudice to himself.by communicating his purpose, 
 in writing, to the otlicer who holds it; and when his 
 proposal is reached it is handed to him.or his author- 
 ized agent, unread. Proposals are opened and read 
 aloud at the time and place appointed for tlie open- 
 ing; and ;i record of each proposal then and tlicre 
 
 barrels;" "Green, in bags:" "Roasted, in bags," etc. 
 The following is the general form of proposal : 
 
 The undersigned, engaged in the business, in 
 
 response to your dated the day of , 
 
 hereby otl'er for sale to the - - Department of the 
 U. S. Army the following stores, viz: ■ 
 
 at dollars and cents per 
 
 . and should this proposal be accepted 
 
 hereby bind to deliver the stores in strict com- 
 pliance with the terms of your on or before the 
 
 (Signature) . 
 
 r. s] A. 
 On the above proposal is accepted the following : 
 
 (Signature) , 
 
 Office U. S. , 
 
 In all cases where bonds are required from bid- 
 ders, no ])roposal is ccmsidered unless accompanied 
 by a bond nuide according to the form prescribed. 
 The condition of the bidder's bond is to the effect 
 that the bidder will not withdraw his proposal within 
 sixty days succeeding the date announced in the ad- 
 vertisenu-nt or notice for the opening of propo.sals; 
 and that, if his proposal be accepted and the con- 
 tract for which he has bid be awarded him. he will 
 enter into a contract and bond ;igreeablc to the terms 
 of his proposal within such number of days after 
 the day on which lie is notified of such acceptance 
 and award as may be designated by the officer rep- 
 resenting the United States. 
 
 The form of the bidder's bond is as follows : 
 
 Know all men bv' these presents. That we [name 
 <>f,ihlig<n'], of [residence (if obiig'ir. giving tmni. ctjunty. 
 State, etr.'], as principal, and [name of utrety], of 
 [residene-e. of mrety\. and [name of siirety], of [rexi- 
 denceof mretyl. as sureties, are held and b<jiind unto 
 the United States of America in the penal sum of 
 
 dollars, to the paj'nient of which sum, well and 
 
 truly to be made, we do bind ourselves, our heirs, 
 executors, and administrators, jointly and severally, 
 lirmly by these presents. 
 
 Givenunder our hands and seals this day of 
 
 , 18-. 
 
 The condition of this obligation is such that. 
 Whereas the above-boundeu [name of obligor], in re- 
 sponse to a public advertisement and notice dated 
 
 , 18—, and given and pulilished by , 
 
 United States Army, has made and presented to 
 , United States Army, a formal pro- 
 posal, in writing, whereliy he has proposed and 
 
 airreed to enter mto a contract with , 
 
 Uniteil States Army, acting for and representing the 
 said United States," to ['i(re nUite in brief the subject 
 of the contra-l], according to the terms and condi- 
 tions set forth in said advertisement or notice:
 
 PROSECUTOR. 
 
 598 
 
 PROVISIONAL FORTIFICATION. 
 
 Now, therefore, if the said Iname of obligor] shall 
 make and shall not withdraw bis said proposal 
 within sixty daj's from the date of opening the pro- 
 posals, and shall within da}'S from the date on 
 
 which he may be notified that his said proposal has 
 been accepted and the said contract awarded to 
 him (provided such award lie made within the sixty 
 days above mentioned, duly and formally entered 
 into such contract agreeably to the terms of his said 
 proposal, and into such bond for its due performance 
 as sliall be required of him, or if his proposal shall 
 not be accepted and such contract not be awarded 
 him, then this oblit;ation shall be void ; otherwise, 
 that is to say, if either he shall -nithdraw his pro- 
 posal within said sixty days, or fail to enter withhi 
 
 said days into such contract, if awarded him, 
 
 and into such bond, to remain in full force, effect, 
 and virtue. 
 
 "Witnesses : 
 
 , , [L. s.] 
 
 , , [L. s.] 
 
 , , [L. s.] 
 
 (Executed in duplicate.) 
 
 The following is the form of the Justification of 
 the Sureties : 
 
 State of , 
 
 County of , m: 
 
 I [name of surety], one of the sureties named in 
 the within bond, do swear that I am pecuniarily 
 
 worth the sum of dollars, over and above all my 
 
 debts and liabilities. 
 
 [Signature of surety.] 
 
 Before me. 
 
 [Signature of offlcer administer- 
 ing oath, with seal, if any.] 
 
 PROSECUTOR.— In Courts-ilartial the Judge Ad- 
 vocate is usually the prosecutor; but it an officer 
 prefers a charge, he sometimes appears to sustain 
 the prosecution. No person can appear as prosecu- 
 tor, 'who is not subject to the Articles of War, ex- 
 cept the Judge-Advocate. 
 
 PROTRACTOR.— A mathematical instrument much 
 used in engineering and fortification drawing. Fig. 
 1, shows tlie protractor in common use, provided 
 
 with arms and verniers. Crozet's protractor is shown 
 in Fig. 2. It is named from its inventor, an officer of 
 the t^nited States Engineer Corps, and is considered 
 tlie best among the various protractors yet devised. 
 It maybe useclwith the T-rule or straight edge. The 
 feather edge is always set to the starting point and 
 the line produced without puncturing the paper. 
 The feather edge is the only metallic bearing upon 
 the paper, small ivory projections on the underside 
 of the frame keep the metal from contact with the 
 paper and |in-vciil soilinu; it. 
 
 PROVISIONAL FORTIFICATION.— Broadly speak- 
 ing, provisional works may be divided into two class- 
 es" according to the conditions under which they 
 may be e.vpeeted to be employed. 1st. Works con- 
 stnicted after the beginning of a campaign on sites 
 not previously strategically considered, or which 
 have become important in consequence of strategic 
 developments not anticipated. In such cases neitiier 
 the topographical nor geological conditions might be 
 fully known, aiid.whicli is alsoof niucli importance, 
 theextent of the resources of the neighborhood in 
 labor and material might be more or less undetermin- 
 
 ed.- 2d. Works constructed at the declaration of 
 war. or its approach, for a well defined and previous- 
 ly considered object, on sites perfectly well known, 
 and under conditions accurately ascertained before- 
 
 FIl;. ■-'. 
 
 hand. As an instance of works of tlie first class, 
 Plevna may be' cited ; as instances of the second, 
 Adrianople and Tschataldscha ; as an instance of the 
 possible demand for the second class, London. The 
 former class would usually have to be carried out by 
 Military Engineers capable of adapting standard de- 
 signs to varj'ing conditions and full of resource, so 
 as to be able to make the best use of the time avail- 
 able and the material and labor forthcoming. On 
 the other hand, works of the latter class could be 
 designed in the fullest sense during the calm of peace. 
 Their requirements in labor and material would be 
 exactly known. The resources of the neighborhood 
 woidd have been accurately gauged, and the how 
 and the whence to supply deficiencies would have 
 been considered. Moreover, if a properly elaborated 
 design existed, the execution might safely be left to 
 civif labor under civil supervision. In the defense 
 of England both classes of fortification would pro- 
 bably come into play. Certain strategic, commercial, 
 or manufacturing centers would appear to need pro- 
 tection under any circumstances, others would call 
 for fortification as soon as the landing place of the 
 invader, or his subsequent plan of operations, had 
 declared itself. 
 
 A method of fortification, in which forethought 
 and brain power applied in advance may save enor- 
 mous and possibly useless, because misdirected, 
 expenditure, appears to be worth very careful study; 
 and there are circumstances which make provisional 
 fortification jiarticularly applicable to England, The 
 sea secures her time and a fair warning. Her re- 
 sources in labor and the very ordinary materials 
 required arc practically luilimited. I ler great rail- 
 way system facilitates' the rapid concentration at any 
 spot "of labor and material. Moreover, England 
 possesses in her Civil Engineers a very powerful 
 force, which could at a time of need be ajiplied to 
 the defense of the country. There is a very cnnsider- 
 able body of young and able Kngincers who, if 
 provided witli proper designs, arc perfectly well 
 able to ciirry out all the work necessary to fortify a 
 position, anil who have great experience in dealing 
 with, and organizing civil labor on a large scale. 
 In any time of real necessity the per.ioniui of the 
 Corps would have demands made upon it which its 
 strength could scarcely meet, and it is no small ad- 
 vantage to have this very real "reserve force" to 
 fall biiek upon. The same may be said of many of
 
 PROVISIONAL FORTIFICATION. 
 
 5f)lt 
 
 PROVISIONAi: FORTIFICATION. 
 
 the colnnips, and it rcnmiiiK to iircpiirc in jifiKu- 
 liiiic a (•(iiiiplclc^ Hystciii of provi.^ioiml defciisi-, and 
 liy iiioilifyiiin il from liini^ to lime to kci-p il abn-asi 
 of llic ailvaticiiii; power of Hk; attack. A paprr 
 army is riuihtly held up to (■oiit<'mpt as a spccticK of 
 deception, wliicli no ureal nations, jealous of the 
 iiiananenient of its alTairs. sliouhl toleriit<': l)Ul a 
 papiT system of fortilii alion may, it ir. conleiided, 
 form a very real defense. Only this papiT system 
 must l)e thorouj;h, anil the liraiii power apprK'd to it 
 unstinted. A very little relleetioii serves to show 
 that the desi{;n of a provisional work is a task of 
 considerably greater ditlicidty than that of a lield 
 reih)\d)t. The restriction to two or three days, or 
 less, in the case of tlic latter introduces a very sharp 
 limitation to the possiliilities of design. K.\teiid the 
 lime to lliree or four weeks, or even longer, postu- 
 late an ample supply of timl)er, of railway l)ars. and 
 even perhaps of bricks and cement, and il will be 
 evident that these possiliilities have enormously 
 widened, and that very consideral)le variations of 
 trace, profile, and {leneral arran^jement will present 
 themselves for consideration. It is even conlende<l 
 that the design of a good jjrovisional work is more 
 dillicult than that of an analogous permanent struc- 
 ture, and that it affords more scope for clever and 
 resourceful engineering. 
 
 The drawing shows a plan of a typical provisional 
 work for the defense of a hill top. This desiyu was 
 
 around the work, and the front lini' is broken so us 
 to form two bastioiii<l fronts and also two places of 
 arms at the shoulilers, deliladed by four traverBCS 
 containing casemates. Brickwork is employed in 
 all the casemates and also in the steps leadini; from 
 the ditch down Into the caponiers and up to the cov- 
 ercfl way. 'I'he total length of the line of lire i.s 
 about (thO yards run. and to man ;l, therefore, at 
 least an e(pial munber of men would be needed. 
 
 Casemate cover for 20(1 men is provided, and niag- 
 azine accommodation to the e.Ment of about 045 
 s()uare feet. 
 
 The most salient features of the works attributed 
 to Mluhm are thus: 1. The curved trace of the 
 cnst of the main work. 2. The polygonal trace of 
 the ditch ; tne latlir usually untlanked. 3. The 
 combination of artillerv and infantry lire from the 
 work itself ; the emplovment of the latter only from 
 the covered way. 4. 'I'he curved defensible traverse 
 to cover the gorge ; the large lateraJ traverses con- 
 taining casemates for men and magazines, p. The 
 employment of brickwork as nnicii as possible for 
 the walls of the casemates and for steppi'd ap- 
 proaches. The work ajipears t(] have several merits. 
 The circular or elliptic trace cannot well be enfiladed: 
 it affords a ma.xinium of interior space with a mini- 
 miun of ])arapet ; there are no undefended angles. 
 The old objection to circidar re(lotd)ls— that they 
 tend to too great a dispersion of lire— haa now less 
 
 furnished by Bltihm Pasha to Colonel Ott of the 
 Swiss Engineers. The work is in trace a circidar 
 Sfgnient (diameter about 60 yards) and four sides of 
 the polygonal ditch are flanked l)y caponiers with 
 two tiers of fire, formed in the counterscarp at its 
 front ends. These caponiers are well placed for pro- 
 tection from distant artillery tire, hut in the event of 
 the enemy gaining and maintaining possession of 
 the ditch their defenders would he sacriticeil. Ac- 
 commodation is provided for eight overljankguns in 
 the work and one in the gorge traverse. The latter 
 is really a segmental lunette partially inclosing a 
 traverse containing a shell-proof casemate. A cov- 
 ered way affording a good line of infantry fire runs 
 
 weight, since a omnller number of hreeeh-londers is 
 as effective as a comparatively large nuiid)er of ihe 
 old rifles. Nor has the other olijection — that the 
 circular trace is suited only to direct defense, and 
 that works so designed have no self-flanking power 
 — c|uitc its old force, since the increased range of ar- 
 tillery enables works belonging to a line to afTord 
 eacii other more elTectual mutual flank defense than 
 formerly. Moreover redmdtts would frequently be 
 flanked" by detached batteries in rear of the general 
 line of their positions. On the other hand, it may 
 perhaps be said that the work above described pro- 
 vides insufflcient cover for its garrison, that the 
 broad berni at the angles of the ditch aflords a good
 
 rKOVOST. 
 
 600 
 
 PEUSSIAN GUN -LIFT. 
 
 resting place for an assaulting party to accumulate 
 prior to the final rush for the parapet, and tliat tliere 
 is on the whole too little storm-freedom. The latter 
 objection may, however, be partiallj- met by a liberal 
 use of obstacles. See Fortification. 
 
 PROVOST. — Tlie temporary prison in which the 
 military police contiue prisoners until they are dis- 
 posed nt. 
 
 PROVOST CELLS.— In the British service, those 
 certilied cells under a Provost or acting Provost Ser- 
 geant, in which Court-Martial prisoners may be im- 
 prisoned up to forty-two days. Also, called Regi- 
 mental or (Tiirrisnn cells. 
 
 PROVOST MARSHAL.— An oflScer appointed in ev- 
 ery army. in tlie tieUl, to secure the prisoners confined 
 on charges of a general nature. .In the British Army 
 he is an officer, with the ranli of t'aptain, appointed 
 to superintend the preservation of order, and to be, 
 as it were, flie head of the police of any particular 
 camp or district. He has cognizance of all caiiip- 
 foUovvers, as well as of members of the army. His 
 power is summary, and he can punish an offender, 
 ta.\ien flagrante delicto, on X\\es-poX, according to the 
 penalties laiil down in the Mutiny Act. 
 
 PROVOST SEGEANT.— A Sergeant who is charged 
 with the military police of a corps. He is generally 
 given one or two non-commissioned oflieers as as- 
 sistants. In the British service he is also charged 
 with tlie custody of all prisoners in the cells. 
 
 PROWLERS. — Armed prowlers.by whatever names 
 they may be called, or persons of the enemy's terri- 
 tory, who steal witiiin tlie Hues of the hostile army. 
 for the purpose of robbing, killing, or of dcstroj-ing 
 the mail, or of cutting the telegraph wires, are not 
 entitled to the privileges of the prisoner of war. 
 
 PEUSSIAN BREECH-LOADER.— This method of clo- 
 sing the breech is similar to that of the Wn/trenr/orf 
 Breech-loader. The leakage of gas is st<ii>ped by a 
 valve and a papier mache cup. The sliding block is 
 set up by a wedffc tightened by a screw. 
 
 PRUSSIAN FUSE.— This fuse might be designated 
 as a tim"-ci'iici(xxion-chemical fuse. It consists of tliree 
 parts. 1st. The body of the fuse, or fuse-case, which 
 holds the other parts, and is screwed into the eye of 
 the shell, the top being flush with the outer surface. 
 This part has been constructed of both metal (lironze 
 and cast iron) and wood. The interior is divided 
 into two parts, both cylindrical, and with a common 
 axis. The onene.xt tlie outside of the shell is much 
 the larger in diameter. This case was made the 
 same size for all calibers, but that part destined for 
 the reception of the fuse-composition, is longer for 
 fuses v.-hich are to be tired with small charges tiianfor 
 those with which large charges are to be used. 2d. The 
 percussion apparatus consists of a small glass tube, 
 hermetically closed at both ends, partly 'filled with 
 concentrated sulphuric acid, and wra]i"ped with cot- 
 ton thread soaked in a composition of 70 parts (by 
 weight) of chlorate of potassa, 10 parts of flowers of 
 sulphur and 20 parts of white sugar, pulverized. sifted, 
 and moistened with alcohol. This covering is put 
 on of such a thickness that the tube can just be in- 
 serted in a paper case which serves it as an envel- 
 ope, and wliich fits partly into tlie siiialliT o)iciiing 
 in the fuse-case and partly into a thiiuble-sljaped 
 breaker of lead, which is inserted over it in the larsje 
 part of the opening. 3d. The composition column. 
 The explosive ajiparatus being in position, there re- 
 mains between the tiiimble and the sides of the fuse- 
 case a vacant space, wliich is tilled with compressed 
 meal-powder, filled in by means of a hollow drift, 
 the interior diameter of which is a little irrrater than 
 the diameter of the thimble. Wlicn the ((impiisi- 
 tion readies tlie top of the thimhle. iiiicompressed 
 mealed powder is tilled in to thetoj) of the case. On 
 being fired, the thimble or lin'aker being supported 
 by the composition around it, is not disturbed. 
 But as this takes fire like an ordinary fuse, and 
 burns down to the bottom of the breaker, it leaves 
 thi3 unsupported; and if the composition is all con- 
 
 sumed when the shell strikes, the shock overthrows 
 the breaker, rupturing the glass tube, setting free the 
 sulphuric acid, and exploding the shell. Experi- 
 ments go to show that, in this fuse, the best mater- 
 ial for the fuse-case is beech-wood; and the worst, 
 cast iron. 
 
 PRUSSIAN GUN-LIFT.— The gun-lift adopted for 
 service in the Prussian Army cons>sts of two tele- 
 scopic hydraulic jacks, each mounted on a solid 
 base, and carrying suspended from the heads of the 
 two upper jacks a wrought-iron cross-beam, with a 
 double hook depending from the middle for attach- 
 ing the load. The lower jacks areSj inches in dia- 
 meter, and the upper ones 6J inches, each having a 
 lift of 3i feet. They are operated by means of a 
 crank on an axle, which rests in two bearings on the 
 lower jack. A fly-wheel with a handle is attached 
 to each end of the axle; they are used to transport 
 the jack from place to place. The cross-beam is 
 built up of two rolled plates placed vertically, 
 strengthened by angle-irons, and joined together by 
 a top plate riveted to them. A cast-iron block is 
 bolted between the plates at the middle of their 
 length, and a link pa.sses around it and carries the 
 double-hook. Length of cross-beam, 10 feet; weight, 
 1,430 pounds. Capacity of the lift, ()2, 000 pounds, 
 raised 7 feet. 
 
 Great care must be taken to prepare the founda- 
 tions for the jacks to set on, so that they shall not 
 yield unequally when the weight is brought upon 
 them, and cause the jacks to upset. If the ground 
 be soft, the foundations may be made of timbers 
 bolted together and resting on piles. The jacks are 
 placed on the bases at the proper distance apart 
 (depending upon the length of the cross-beam, 
 which is usually 10 feet). The cross-beam is brought 
 into position by 24 men. the ends at the foot of the 
 jacks. A chain is passed through the stirrup of the 
 upper jack, and is made fast to the end of the cross- 
 beam, which is raised by pumping the jack, and is 
 rested on a trestle prepared for the purpose. The 
 jack is now lowered, the end of the beam is secured 
 in the stirrup, and the trestle removed. The same 
 oi^eration is performed with the other end, thus 
 bringing the cross-beam into a horizontal position, 
 and the heads of both jacks down. The cross-beam 
 is suspended more quicklj- and safely by using two 
 trestles ; raise both ends of the cross-beam at the 
 same time, rest it on the trestles, lower the heads of 
 the jacks, and suspend the cross-beam in the stir- 
 rups, then raise it slightly and remove the trestles. 
 
 The cross-beam is placed across the gun, a block 
 of wood of projier shape being first interposed to 
 protect the gun from injury. The first jack is 
 placed a feet from the axis of the gun. and the end 
 of the cross-beam is inserted in the stirrup. The 
 second jack is set up in a corresponding position on 
 the other side of the gun; a chain is passed through 
 
 the stirrup and made fast to the end of the cross- 
 beam, which is raised by pum]>iiig the jaik; a trestle 
 is jihu'ed under the cross-beam when it is brought 
 to a horizontal position, the head of tlie jack is 
 lowered, and the stirrup is placed over the end of
 
 PRUSSIA 
 
 AND 
 
 NORTH GERMAN 1 
 
 eULE OF MILES 
 
 See also Hap of Oerman Empin 
 
 2S SO 75 100 US 
 Hallrottda ' ^ "^ 
 
 10 Lon^tutle Kast 12 from Greeinvich
 
 FBUSSIAN N££I)L£ CA£BXN£. 
 
 601 
 
 PnBUC ANIMALS. 
 
 the cross -bpnin. Tlip slinirs arr> passfd around the | with a rorresponding notfh in tlif iipppr Bnrfanc of 
 
 pun Hiiil honked In the iloiil))!' hiiok. l$y piiiiipin^; j the bore of llic hrccfh-lioil. the niuiii Kpriu)^ is coin, 
 up tlic- jncks the weight is raisrd. When llic >,'un- pressed, so thul wlien lli<' sear is piiNed out of tlio 
 lifl eaniiol l)e set up over tlie wei^'lu lo be raised it | way by (lie lriir;;fr, llic iiee<ne luav be darted for- 
 luay l)e set up on planks, eillier in front or rear, and ward, and, uui(led by aHUiall holi: fn the face of the 
 then niovecl into tlie recpiired po.sitioii liy means of bolt, find its way llirouL'h llie |)owderin th<; car- 
 rollers. The lifl id taken down in the inverse man- Iriil^'e lo e.xplrxfe the fulminate lyintr in llie base of 
 
 Iter of setlini; it u|i. 
 
 Tweiilyfour men transport the crossbeam by two 
 lont; haiidsi)ikes run ihrouLth holes in the beam for 
 thai purjiose, and place it on a truck or carl. The 
 fly-wheels are use(i as truck-wheels for lrans|)ortiB}; 
 the jacks. The keys which fasten them to thea.x'eH 
 are removed, also the handles. The heads of the 
 jacks are secured by ropes, and the bolls of Ihca.vle- 
 bearini;s liirhlened. The jack is broUL'b' down inio 
 a nearly bori/onlal position, and Ihe stirrup is ])lace(l 
 over the pintle-ho<ik of a licld-limber and secured by 
 a rope. See (liin-lift, and hntjip lltni-lift. 
 
 PRUSSIAN NE£DLE CARBINE.— A brecch-loadinf: 
 suiall-ariii. haviiij;- a tl\<(l chaiubcrclosed by a mova- 
 ble barrel, wliich rotates aliout an axis at itO" to Ihe 
 a.xis of Ihe barrel, and vertical ii\ \\w plane of the 
 axis of the barrel. It is opened by turnim: a lever 
 back anil to the rii;ht: in so doini; thi' barrel is 
 moved forward by an eccentric as far as Ihe corres- 
 pondini; arm of a b<'art-shaped slot in the tansrof the 
 receiver will iiermit the rear iruide-stud to jxo. Hy 
 the same means the butt of Ihe barrel is swuns 
 around to the riirht, so that the mouth of Ihe cham- 
 ber may be readily reached with the load. As the 
 eccentric turns, an eccentric plate, which is on the 
 same shaft with it, turns also; and by means ofacon- 
 nectini; rod, which is linked at its forward end to 
 the eccentric plate anil in rear to the cocking-bolt, 
 slides Ihe latter backward asjainst the pressure of a 
 spiral mainsprinj; surrounding the stem of the needle- 
 bolt, against Ihe face of wliich the vertical arm of 
 the cocking-bolt presses. This motion is so timed, 
 that at till' moment the ])iece is fully opened, the nose 
 of a spring-sear riding over the beveled shoulder of 
 a tillel on the needle-bolt, catches against its square- 
 face and retains the bolt against the pressure of the 
 mainspring, when, in order to load the jiiece, the re- 
 sistance of the hand has been withdrawn. It is 
 closed by reluming the lever to its place beneath the 
 barrel; the barrel is first swung around in the pro- 
 longation of its original position, and is then drawn 
 back so that a gas-plug projecting from the receiv- 
 er shall enter the moutli of tlie chamber. The car- 
 bine is tired in the same manner as the Pru.ssian 
 needle-gun, and in case of a failure to jignite the 
 charge, the piece, without opening it, may be re- 
 cocked in the same manner. The arm using a self- 
 consuming cartridge-case, llie extracting or ejecting 
 apparatus is not needed. The enormous swell left 
 at the muzzle of this piece, it is supposed, is intend- 
 ed to protect it from the indentations likely lo oc- 
 cur in common use in the mounted service. See Nee- 
 d'l'-quns. 
 
 PRUSSIAN NEEDLE-GUN.— A breech-loading gun 
 (smiill-arm ), having a tixed chamber closed by a mov- 
 able breech-block wiiich slides in the line of the bar- 
 rel by direct action. It is opened by releasing a 
 spring catcli by pressing down upon it, and then 
 drawing it back by the thumb. This slides a pro- 
 jecting thumb-piece of the lock-tube out of its 
 square notch in the receiver, and allows the handle 
 of the l)reech-boU to be raised to a vertical position 
 and Ihe bolt itself to be withdrawn. The piece may 
 then be closed by reversing the movement of the bolt, 
 and may be locked bv turnins down the base of the 
 
 Ihe paper sabot which surrounds the ball. 
 
 The cartridge being self-consiiming, no extracting 
 or ejecting devices are reipiired. The butt of the 
 barrel is chambered, and the face of the lireech-bolt 
 is counter-bored at the same angle, so as to make a 
 close lit and to prevent,' as far as possible, the es- 
 cape of gas. The recoil-sliouhh'r on the receiver ih 
 inclined lo the front, so that as tin- ends of the liar- 
 rel and breech-bolt wear olf. the boll may lie brought 
 forward to supply their loss. Tlie arm may be 
 cocked indeiHiidenlly of the bolt, l)y lirsl withdraw- 
 ing, and then shoving forward the lock-tube. The 
 system nuiy lie dismounteil by withdrawing tlie 
 bolt, and at the same time itidling hard on the trig- 
 ger ; this causes a change of fulcrum lo Ihe rear- 
 most of the scolloped surfaces, into which its upper 
 side is formed, and ])erniits the no.se of the sear to 
 be pulled coniijlelely out of the waj'forllie passage 
 ofllwlioli. See An(ll(-r/iinit. 
 
 PRUSSIAN RULING.— The Prussians early a<lopt- 
 ed anil pciteiliil [hf mmpre/ixi/iff sj/Hrm. and obtained 
 great accuracy and range with charges of one-tenth 
 the weight of the projectile. The rilling consisted of 
 numerous shallow rectangular grooves. The shot 
 was encased by four rounded lead l)andsor liooj*, 
 held in place by grooves in I he shot. With this system 
 the shot is larger than the bore, and is sipieezed or 
 planed to lit the bore by the lands of the rifling. 
 The shot must therefore be entered at the breech, 
 into a chamber larger than the rest of the bore ; and 
 whatever escape of gas there may be around the 
 breech-closing apparatus reduces its range and ve- 
 locity. 
 
 PRYCK SPUR. — In ancient armor, a spur having a 
 single spike. 
 
 PSILOI.— Among the Greeks, Psiloi were the light 
 armed men who fought with arrows and darts, "or 
 stones and slings ; but were unlit for close fight. 
 They were in honor and dignity inferior to the heavy- 
 armed soldiers. The Psiloi performed till the duties 
 usually devolved, in the present day, upon light in- 
 fantry, both before and at the opening of an engage- 
 ment. See (Iplitiii. 
 
 PUBLIC ANIMALS.— The animals in the employ of 
 a Government. In the United Stales, the following 
 specifications govern in purchasing the horses and 
 mules for the military service : 
 
 Cai'iilry Ilnrsea — To be geldings, of Iiardy colors. 
 sound in all particulars, in good condition, well 
 broken to the saddle, from fifteen to sixteen liands 
 lii^h, not less than five nor more than nine years 
 old, and suitable in every respect for Cavalry ser- 
 vice. Whenever it becomes necessary to purchase 
 the half-breed horses of California or Soutliem 
 Texas, the standard of lieight may be reduced to 
 not less than fourteen and a half hands. 
 
 Artillo-i/ II"i-Kt's — To be geldings, of hardy colors, 
 sound in all particulars, in good condition, square 
 trotters, well broken to harness, from fifteen to 
 sixteen liauds high, not less than five nor more than 
 nine years old, tind s.iitable in everj' respect for Ar- 
 tillery service. 
 
 Miilex— To be strong, stout, compact animals, 
 sound in all particulars, in good condition, well 
 broken to harness, not under fourteen hands high. 
 
 handle against a recoil-shoulder formed for it on the I not less than four nor more than nine years old, and 
 
 receiver. In the act of closing, Ihe front shoulder 
 of the needle-bolt, around the stem of which the 
 main spring is coiled, catches against the nose of a 
 sear, and pushes the lock-tube out to the rear by 
 means of the main spring included between them. 
 By then pushing forward with the hand, tlie base of 
 
 suitalile in every respect for the transportation ser- 
 vice of the army. 
 
 When work-horses are to be purchased, they 
 should be sound in all particulars, fifteen and one- 
 half hands high and upwards, strong l)uilt, well 
 lirokeu to work in harness, not less than four nor 
 
 the lock-tube until the spring-catch above it engages ', more than nine years old. For pack purposes, ths
 
 PUBLIC EXIGENCY. 
 
 602 
 
 PUBLIC PROPEKTT. 
 
 Standard of height may be reduced to thirteen and a 
 half hands, if tlie anima! be in other respects suita- 
 ble. The pack mule need not necessarily be broken 
 to harness. 
 
 For general transportation purposes of the army, 
 horses cannot be advantageously substituted for 
 mules. For draught purposes in the Northern and 
 Eastern States, and at depots in large cities, and for 
 saddle purposes of wagon-masters, messengers, and 
 expressmen, horses may be advantageously used in 
 place of mules. 
 
 The following weights are suggested as the mini- 
 mum, except for the half-breed horses of Texas and 
 Southern California: 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Artillery wheel-horses 1,300 
 
 Artillery swing and lead horses 1.100 
 
 Cavalr3' horses 9.50 
 
 Horses for messengers, etc 950 
 
 Draft-horses of the Quartermaster's Department 1 .200 
 
 Wheel-mules 1.200 
 
 S wing- nudes 1 ,0.50 
 
 Lead-mules 850 
 
 At the headquarters of every regiment of Cavalry, 
 with every company of Cavalry and battery of 
 mounted Artillery, and with the" records of every 
 otBcer in immediate charge of public animals, a de- 
 scriptive list of horses and mules is kept, showing 
 the name, age, size, color, and other peculiarities of 
 each animal, how and when acquired, his titness for 
 service, how long he has been in service, the name 
 of his rider or driver, and the particular use to which 
 he is or was applied. 
 
 PUBLIC EXIGENCY. —The term " PiiMic Exigency." 
 employed in section 3.700, Revised Statutes, refers 
 to an exceptional and urgent necessity, requiring an 
 immediate supply of articles for military use, or the 
 immediate performance of work or service, such as 
 may grow out of the pressure of an existing state of 
 war, rebellion, or insurrection, or of some particular 
 act of warfare on the part of an enemy, or may be 
 occasioned by any unexpected movement of troops; 
 or such as may consist in the destruction or loss of 
 supplies, structures, etc., by fire or the violence of 
 the elements, by acts of rioters or trespassers, by 
 theft or waste, by the negligence of common carriers 
 or others, by the "failure of contractors, etc. Exigen- 
 cies are sometimes assumed to exist where none have 
 legitimately occurred. By carefully observing the 
 laws regulating contracts, and making prompt pro- 
 vision for the future supplies, etc., of the command, 
 recourse to purchases in open market to meet sup- 
 posed emergencies may ordinarily be avoided. In- 
 formation can generally be derived from the proper 
 records as to tlie average quantity of supplies requir- 
 ed in ye.'irs past, which will provide against the hap- 
 pening of such emergencies: and timely advertise- 
 ments should be made accordingly. But that sta- 
 tute fthe acr. r>f MarchS. 1861), while requiring such 
 advertisement as a general rule, invests the officer 
 charged witli the duty of procuring supplies with a 
 discretion to dispense with advertising if the exigen- 
 cies of the public service require immediate delivery 
 or performance. It is too well settled to admit of 
 dispute attliis day. that where there is a discretion 
 of tills kind conferred on an officer, or lioiiril of of- 
 ficers, anda contract is made in wliicli they have ex- 
 erciseil that discretion, the validity of [tlie contract 
 cannot be made to depenil on tiie degree of wisdom 
 or skill which may have a<'Companied its exercise. 
 
 PUBLIC MONEYS. -All otTicers of the Quartermas- 
 ter's Siibsislciice and I'ay Departments, the Chief 
 Medical Purveyor and Assistant Medical Purveyors, 
 and all Storekeepers before entering upon the duties 
 of their respective offices, give good and sufficient 
 bonds to the United Stales, in such sums as llie Sec- 
 retary of War may dir<'ct, faitlifully to account for 
 all jjuIiKk' moneys"anil property which they may re- 
 ceive. The President may, at any time, increase 
 tlie sums 80 prescribed. It" is the diity of every dis- 
 
 bursing officer having any public money intrusted 
 
 to him for disbursement "to deposit the same with 
 the Treasurer, or some one of the Assistant Treasur- 
 ers, of the United States, and to draw for the same 
 only as it may be required for payments to be made 
 by "him in pursuance of law, and to draw for the same 
 only in favor of the persons to whom payment is 
 made : and all transfers from the Treasurer of the 
 United States to a disbursing officer are by draft or 
 warrant on the Treasury, nr'an Assistant Treasurer, 
 of the United States. In places, however, where 
 there is no Treasurer or Assistant Treasurer. the .Sec- 
 retary of the Treasury may, when he deems it essen- 
 tial to the public interest, s"pecially authorize in writ- 
 ing the deposit of such public money in any other 
 pirblic depository, or, in writing, authorize the same 
 to be kept in any other manner, "and under such rules 
 and regulations as he may deem most safe and ef- 
 fectual to facilitate the payments to public creditors. 
 All public money advanced to disbursing officers 
 of the United States must, in accordance with the 
 law, be deposited immediately, to their respective 
 credits, with either the United States Treasurer, 
 some Assistant Treasurer, or Designated Depositary, 
 other than a National Bank Depositary, nearest or 
 most convenient : or, by special direction of the 
 Secretary of the Treasury, with a National Bank De- 
 positary, except— 1. Any disbursing officer of the 
 War Department, specially authorized by the Sec- 
 retary of War, when stationed on the extreme frontier 
 or at places far remote from such depositaries, may 
 keep, at his own risk, such moneys as may be in- 
 trusted to him for disbursement. 2. Any officer re- 
 ceiving money remitted to him upon specific esti- 
 mates, may disburse it accordingly, without waiting 
 to place it in a depository, provided the payments 
 are due, and he prefers this method to that of draw- 
 ing checks. Any check drawn by a disbursing of- 
 ficer upon moneys thus deposited, must be in favor 
 of the partv, by name, to whom the payment is to 
 be made, and payable to "order" or "bearer", with 
 these exceptions — 1. To make p.ayments of individ- 
 ual pensions, checks for which must be made pay- 
 able to "order". 2. To make payments of amouiiA 
 not exceeding twenty dollars. "3. To make pay- 
 ments at a distance from a depositary. 4. To make 
 payments of fixed salaries due at a certain period. 
 In either of which cases, except the first, any dis- 
 bursing officer may draw his check in favor of him- 
 self or bearer for such amount as may be necessary 
 for such payment, l)ut. in the last-named case the 
 check must be drawn not more than two days be- 
 fore the salaries become due. 
 
 Whenever a United States disbursing officer serv- 
 ing in two distinct capacities, and having moneys 
 advanced to him from two distinct Bureaus, depos- 
 its his funds with the Treasurer of the United States, 
 an Assistant Treasurer, or United States Depos- 
 itar_y, separate accounts should be kept of such 
 moneys, and the balance to the credit of each should 
 be reported separately on the weekly lists of dis- 
 bursing officers' balances. These instructions are in- 
 tended to apply more particularly to Quarter-masters 
 serving as Commissarii's of SubsistencB,and vic^ ver- 
 M. See DhhxrsiiKi Ojficm. 
 
 PUBLIC PROPERTY.— It is the duty of all officers 
 to guani llic pulilic iiroperty for which they are re- 
 sponsible by all means in their power. Wlienever 
 inforniiition is received that horses, mules, or other 
 property belonging to the United States, are unlaw- 
 fully in the possession of any person not in the mili- 
 tary service, the Quartermaster, or other Sta IT otlicer 
 of the Department to which the Jiroperly belongs, 
 should cause proper proci-edings to be promptly in- 
 stituted and diligently prosecuted before the civil 
 authorities for the recovery of the (iroperly, and. if 
 the same lias been stolen, for tlu^ arrest, trial, and 
 conviction, and due puiiishiiienl of the thieves, and 
 of all those who aid and abet them by receiving the 
 stolen property, or otherwise.
 
 PUDDLED STEEL. 
 
 003 
 
 PUGILISM. 
 
 Upon satisfactory infcirinal ion lliat UniliMl Stall's 
 property, in unlawful liands, is llki-ly lo \)C taken 
 away, concealed, or otherwise disposed iif, Ijcforc 
 the necessary proccediuu^s can lie iiad in the civil tri- 
 bunals for the recovery thereof, the post or detach- 
 ment coiiinmnder should at once ord<'r the same to 
 be seized, and hold it std)ject lo any lei;al proceed- 
 ings that may he inslituled by other parties. Per- 
 sons cauiiht in the act of stealiiii; public properly, or 
 of makiiiv; way wilh properly receully sloleii fnini 
 the United Slates, an^ summarily arresliMl by Ihi' 
 troops, and turned over to the <-ivil authorities for 
 .trial. Quartermasters are authorized, when found 
 ['expedient, after failure of ordinary means of recov- 
 ery, to olfer for recovery of any lost or stolen animal 
 a fewanl of $2!> : and. in case of .itolcn animals, an 
 additional reward of f2.5for each thi<'f arrcslcd.lrieil, 
 and convicted, and duly sentenced lo punishmenl. 
 
 Tlu- clothes, arms, ndlilary oullils. and accouter- 
 ments furnished by the United .Stales lo any soldier, 
 cannot be sold, bartered, e.\cliani;ed, pled;j;ed, lotmed, 
 or given away; and no person not a soldier, or duly 
 authorized officer of the United Stales, who has 
 possession of any such clothes, arms, military out- 
 fits, or accouterments, so furnished, and which have 
 been the subjects of any such sale, barler. exchange, 
 pledge, loan, or gift, can have any right, lille. or in- 
 terest therein; but the same luiiy be seized and taken 
 wherever found by any officer of flic UniledStat<'s. civ- 
 il or military, and should I hereupon be delivered to any 
 Quartermaster, or other officer authorized to receive 
 the same. The possession of any such clothes, arms, 
 military outfits, or accouterments by any person not 
 a soldier or officer of the United Stales is presumpt- 
 ive evidence of such a sale, barter, exchange, pledge, 
 loan, or gift. 
 
 PUDDLED STEEL. ~ A variety of steel, made in the 
 puddling-furn;uc by a modification of the puddling 
 process, as follows : Cast-iron contains from three 
 to about five per cent, of carbon ; ordinary steel con- 
 tains from three-fourths to one ]ier cent, of carbon ; 
 while wrought-iron contains but a trace. In the 
 changing from the cast to wrought-iron in a pud- 
 ling-furnace, the pig-metal passes through the con- 
 dition of steel, that is to say, it is steel before it is 
 wrought-iron. Now, making the puddled steel is 
 simply slopping the common puddling process just 
 at the moment when the decarbonizing mass under 
 treatment is in the state of steel. Several modifica- 
 tions in furnaces and processes have been patented 
 and various fluxes, especially manganese, are differ- 
 ently used by different mamifacturers. See Puddling 
 and Stivl. 
 
 PUDDLING. — Although the process of puddling is 
 susceptible of considerable modification accordingto 
 the nature of the pig-metal employed and that of the 
 iron which it is desired to produce, it may be gener- 
 ally stated to include the following oiKTiitious ; 1st. 
 Melting down of the charge with or without the pre- 
 
 vious heating. 2d. Incorporation of oxidizing fluxes 
 with the- charge at a low heat. lid. Elimination of 
 carbon by stirring the contents of the furnace at a 
 liigh temperature. Ith. Consolichition of the reduced 
 iron to masses or balls fit for hammering. 
 
 The.'ommon puildrmg-fiirnace is of the reverbera- 
 tory form, one iti which thc' flame is made to pass 
 over a bridge and then beat down again, or reverber- 
 ate upon a hc-arth or surface on whir-li the matcrialH 
 to be heated are placed. It is shown in the drawing, 
 and consists of an oblong casing of iron plates (irm- 
 ly bound together by iron tii--bars. and lined with 
 fire-brick. 'I'hc tirephuc, F. is separated from the 
 heart ii. A. by a ./i/v-/«-/V/i'/<'. over which the heated 
 prriducls of combustion with a surplus of oxygen 
 phiy upon the surface of the molten metal, effecting 
 its conversion, and thence pass tlirougli the flue to a 
 lofty chimney, C in which is suspended a metal 
 danijicr-plate.by which the draught can be: regulated. 
 The firepla<-e varies in depth wilh the nature of the 
 fuel employed, being greatest wilh the hard kinds of 
 co;d. 
 
 .The fire-grate is made of plain wrought-iron bars. 
 A forced draught, produced by blowing air in below 
 the grate is sometimes used. The surface of the 
 grille slioulil be between oni'-half and one-third of 
 tliat of th(^ bed or hearth. The charging or fire hole 
 is about a loot idiove the grate. Th<' bottom of the 
 bed is formed of cast-iron liearth-])lates resting upon 
 cast-irf)n beams. Tlw hearth is covered wilh cinders 
 or sand, and is terminated at either end by a straight 
 wall or bridge, called respectively the_/i>*'-//r/'/i'e anrl 
 \\\e Jitif-hrkh/r. The roof of the furnace is curved to 
 a flat arch, and is generally made to slope at a small 
 angle towards the flue, which slopes towards the 
 stack. The sectional area of the flue varies with the 
 nature of the fuel, being larger for soft coal. The 
 main working-door is maiie of brick set in a cast- 
 iron frame ; it may be rea<lily lifted and lowered by 
 means of a lever. It is only opened during the in- 
 troduction of the charge and the removal of the 
 puddled balls. The sill of lh<- door is about a foot 
 above the level of the bed. There is sometimes a 
 second working-door near the fi;ie for introducing 
 the cast-iron, so that it may soften slowly till it be 
 ready for drawing towards the bridge. A small 
 rectangular or arched n<itcli. called the stopper-hole, 
 is cut out of the lower edge of the door for the in- 
 troduction of the tool used in stirring the metal, and 
 through which the workman can observe the slate 
 of the" furnace. It may be closed »ir-tight. The 
 tap-hole, through which the .slag, or tap-cinder, is 
 withdrawn from the hearth, is placed below the 
 door-sill. It is plugged up with sand. A portion 
 of the cinder also overflows the flue-bridge, and runs 
 down the inclined surface of the flue to the bottom 
 of the stack, h. 
 
 When charging the furnace, pieces of metal are 
 successively introduced wilh a long shovel, and laid 
 one over another on the sides of the hearth in the 
 fomi of piles rising to the roof, the middle being left 
 open for puddling the metal as it is successively 
 fused. The piles are kept separate, to give free cir- 
 culation of air round the metal. The working-door 
 of the furnace is now closed, fuel is laid on the 
 grate, and the mouth of the fireplace is filled up 
 with coal; at the same lime the damper is en- 
 tirely opened. In pu<idliug refined metal, or in 
 dry puddling, the furnace is charged with met- 
 al alone; but in juuldling gray metal— that is, 
 in wet puddling, or boiling, as it is termed — 
 forge-cindfr is charged along wilh the metal. 
 and the temperature rises much higher. See 
 
 PUGILISM.— The art of defending one's self 
 or attacking others wilh the weapons which 
 nature has bestowed — viz.. the fists and arms. 
 The origin of boxing, or the use of the fists, 
 is likely as old as man himself. We find nu- 
 merous allusions lo it in the classic authors. 
 Pollux, the twin-lirotlier of Castor, in the heathen 
 mvtliolosy. was reckoned the first who obtained 
 very arreiit distinction by the use of his fists, 
 coniiuerins: all who opposed him. and obtaining, 
 with Hercules, a place among the gods for his spai-
 
 PULFORD MAGNETIC PAIMT. 
 
 fi04 
 
 PULLEY. 
 
 ring talents. The ancients were not, hoTvever. satis- 
 fied with the use of the weapons of nature, but in- 
 creased their power bj- the addition of the cestus, 
 Witli the ancients, pugilism was considered an es- 
 sential part in the education of youth, and formed 
 part of the course of training practiced in their g_ym- 
 nasia: it was valued as a means of strengthening the 
 body and banishing fear: but it was practiced in 
 public rather with a view to the exhiliitiou of the 
 power of endurance than for mere skillful self-de- 
 fense. The earliest account we have of systematic 
 boxing is in 1740, when public exliibitions of Profes- 
 sors of the Art attracted general attention. Up to 
 this period, the science of self-defense had made but 
 little progress, and strength and endurance cousti- 
 ti'ted the onh' recommendations of the prai-titioners 
 at Smithfield, Moorfield, and Southwark fair, which 
 had long had booths and rings for the display of 
 boxing. Broughton, who occupied the position of 
 " Champion of England ". built a theater in Hau- 
 way street, Oxford street, in 1740, for the display of 
 boxing : advertisements were issued announcing a 
 succession of battles between tirst-rate pugilists, who 
 never quitted the stage till one or other was defeated, 
 the reward of each man being dependent iipon, and 
 proportioned to, tlie receipts. Broughton was for 18 
 years Champion of England, and with him commences 
 the first scientific era of pugilism. He propounded 
 some rules for the regulation of the ring, and these 
 remained in authority till 1838, when they were 
 materially altered. To Broughton also is due the 
 introduction of gloves for "sparring-matches." 
 where lessons could be taken without injur}-. The 
 greatest Professor of the Art was Jackson, who was 
 Champion in 179.5. He was not only the most scien- 
 tific boxer of his day, but he gave his art such a 
 prestige and popularit)' that half the men of rank , 
 and fashion of the period were proud to call them- j 
 selves his pupils. He opened rooms for tlie prac- | 
 tice of boxing in Bond street, and for years these 
 were crowded by men of note. His " principles of 
 pugilism" were, that contempt of danger and confi- 
 dence in one's self were the first and best quiilities of 
 a pugilist; that in hitting, you must judge well your 
 distances, for a blow delivered at all out of range, 
 was like a spent shot, and valueless; that men should 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 fight on most occasions with their legs, using all 
 possible agility, as well as with their hands- and 
 that all stilTness of style and position was radically 
 wron". Jackson is still regarded by many as the 
 best theorist on the "Noble Art," and since his time. 
 
 it has received no essential improvement. Sha-w, 
 the Life-guardsman, who immortalized himself at 
 Waterloo, was a pupil of his, and '' orowess which 
 he so brilliantly displayed c ' >. .^casion, was ow- 
 ing as much to his scien*'.-„ training as to his great 
 strength. At this period, pugilism was actively sup- 
 ported by many persons of high rank — the Dukes of 
 York and Clarence, the Earls of Albemarle, Sefton, 
 etc.. Lords Byron, Craven, Pomfret. The art of 
 boxing, a.- an active and healthy exercise, is likely 
 to be maintamed; and the display of science between 
 two accomplished boxers is very interesting, while 
 it is deprived of all the horrors of the prize-ring; the 
 rapidity of tlie blows, the facility w-:th w-hicli they 
 are mostly guarded or avoided by moving the head 
 and arms: die trial of skill and maneuver to g:dn a 
 trilling advantage in position, all give a wonderful 
 interest to the spectator, who can watch the perfec- 
 tion of the art devoid of the brutalities of the ring. 
 The pugilists of the present day are mostly publicans; 
 their friends and the patrons of the " fancy " meet 
 at their houses for convivial evenings, sparring 
 matches, ratting, and the like. It has con.stantly 
 l)eeu urged in defense of pugilism that, were it abol- 
 ished, the use of the knife would increase and Eng- 
 lishnien would lose their present manly system of 
 self-defense. This may be true, if the use of the fist 
 in self-defense depended on the mercenary exhibition 
 of pugilistic encounters, w-hich, however, is mere as- 
 sumption. 
 
 PULFORD MAGNETIC PAINT.— A paint now uni- 
 versally used instead of anti-cfirrosion paint for lac- 
 quering iron ordnance aud projectiles. It is an o.x- 
 ide of iron. This paint is called ' ' magnetic " from the 
 property of being attracted by a magnet. 
 
 PULK. A term chiefiy used in Russia to denote a 
 tribe or a particular body of men; as. a pulk of Cos- 
 sacks. 
 
 PULLEY. — One of the mechanical powers, consist- 
 ing usuallj- of a wheel with a groove cut all round 
 its circumference, and movable on an axis : the 
 wheel, which is commonly called a s/ieave, is 
 often placed inside a hollow oblong mass of wood 
 called a //lock, aud to the sides of this block the ex- 
 tremities of the sheave's axle are fixed for support ; 
 the cord which passes over the circumference of the 
 sheave is called the triekk. Pulle3-3 
 may be used either singly or in com- 
 bination ; in the former case, they 
 are either fixed or movable. The 
 .fixed jmlley gives no mechanical ad- 
 vantage ; it merely changes the di- 
 rection in which a force would na- 
 turally be applied to one more con- 
 venient. The .single moradle pvlley, 
 with parallel cords, gives a mechani- 
 cal advantage = 2, for a little con- 
 sideration will show that as the 
 w-eight, W, is supported by the two 
 strings, the strain on each string is 
 AW, and the strain on the one being 
 supported by the hook, the power, 
 P, requires merely to support the 
 strain on tin- other string. The fixed 
 jjulley, is only of service in clianging 
 the naturally upward direction of 
 the power into a downw-ard one. 
 If the strings in tlie single movable 
 pulley are not parallel, there is a 
 diminution of mechanical advantage 
 — /. ('., P must he more than half of 
 Wto produce onexiict counter|)oise ; 
 if tlie auirle made liy the strings is 
 120'\ P must lie e(|ual to W; and if 
 the angle be greater than this, there 
 is a great inecliaiiic:il disadvantage, or P must be 
 greater than W. The following are examples of dif- 
 ferent combinations of ])ulleys. nciicmlly known as 
 the tirst, second, and third systems of pulleys. In 
 the first system, one end of each cord is fastened
 
 22 13 14 
 
 Pru.EY. etc. 1. Steam winch. 2. Coinpouud pulleys. 3,12. Movable cranes. 4. Joints crane. 5. Hydi 
 
 toot IhmI jack. 11. Jack-screw. 12, Movable double compound crane. 13. Compound pulley. 14. FulU 
 XII-270.
 
 :k. 6. Winch. 7. Stationary steam-crane. 8. Transportable steam-crane. 9. Sea-crane. 10. Cog- 
 iudlass. 15. Platform crane. 16. Friction windlans.
 
 PULLEY. 
 
 no5 
 
 PULLET. 
 
 tea lixcil support iibovc ; cacli conl iIcsccikIh. piiHScn 
 round a pulley do the lowest of which Ihcweit'lit W 
 is fiisteuech, iilid is fiisleiied to the block of the next 
 Jjldley, with the exception of the lust cord, which 
 jKisses round ii tixcd pulley uhove. and is attachid to 
 the counterpoise, J'. The tension of a strini; beini; 
 the same in all its parts, the tension of every part of 
 the slrinij;, over two pulleys, is that which is produc- 
 ed l)y the weight of 1', conse(|ueMtly, as the last niov- 
 al)le ipulley is supported on both sides by a string 
 havini; a tension I', the tension applied in its sup- 
 port is 21'. 'I'he tension of the sirin;; is therefore 21', 
 anil the second nioval)le pulley is su^iportcd by a 
 force ecpml to 41'. It inaj' similarly be shown tliat 
 tlic force applied by the strinifs in support of tlie 
 last or fourth pulley ( wiiicli is attached to \Vj is HP. 
 Hence we see, that according to this arrangetnent, 1 
 lb. can support 41bs., if two movable pulleys are 
 \ised ; Hlbs., if there are ;i movable jiulleys ; Ki lbs., 
 if there are 4 moval)le ])ulleys ; and if there are « 
 movable pulleys, llli can support 2" lbs. It must be 
 noticed, however, that in practice, the weight of the 
 fords, mid cifihe i)ullevs,and the friction of thecnrd 
 on the pulleys, nuist be allowed for; and the fact 
 that in this system all of these resist the action of 
 the power P, and that to a large extent, has render- 
 ed it of little use in ])ractice. — The second system Ls 
 much inferior in jiroducing a mechanical ailvantage, 
 but it is found to be mm h more convenient in gener- 
 al practice, and is conveniently modified acccjrding 
 to the i)urpose for which it is intended to l)e used. In 
 this system, one string passes romid all the p\Uleys. 
 and as the tension in every part of it is that produced 
 by the weight of P, the whole force applied to ele- 
 vate the lower l)lock with its attached weight, \V. is 
 Ihe weight I' multiplied l)y tln^ luiniber of strings 
 attached to the lower block; the ])ullevs in the up- 
 per block being only of use in changing the direction 
 of the pulling force. This system is tlie one in com- 
 mon use in mechanical numeiivcrs in dockyards and 
 on board ship, and various modifications of it— such 
 as White's pulley. Smeaton's pulley, etc., have been 
 iutroducBd ; but the simpler forms have been found 
 to answer best. — Tlie third system is merely the tirst 
 Rystein inverted, and it is a litth' more powerful, be- 
 sides having tlie weight of the pulleys to support the 
 
 in one combination, Ihe greater )« the meclianical 
 advantage allordr'd : liut Ihe enormoiiH friction pro- 
 duced, and tlie want of pirfect flexibility in llic 
 ropes, pri-vint any great inrrease in the nunilier of 
 pulleys. In Fig. 1, we illustrate Ihe pulleys coun- 
 terpoised, and the manner of emplriying them in the 
 mechanical muneuvcTS. 1. Fixed pulley, power and 
 weight equal. 2. One fixed and one movabli- pul- 
 ley, jiower and weight ,1:2. .3. One fixed and two 
 movabli- pulleys, power and weight, I : 2 and 1 : 4. 
 4. One fixed block of three pulleyH of dilTerent sizes, 
 and one movul)le pulley of same cliaraiter, power 
 and weight, I : (!. r>. ()nefixeil block with four pul- 
 leys of same size, and one movable of .same kind, 
 power and weight, 1:8. 0. Wheel and axle, three 
 radii in iiroportion of 1. 2, and 4. 7. Capstan, cord 
 utiached to first system of pulleys. 
 
 Pulleys without blocks or carriers are projierly 
 k/wjivi'h or j)iillij/-<r/ifilH^ which are mounterl in va- 
 rious wjiys, according to Ihe purpose for wliicli 
 they are designed. The simplest form is that of a 
 wheel with a nearly Mat face, over which a band 
 passes. This is tlu' common niacliine-piilley used 
 on shafting, which is ordinarily supported by hang- 
 ers from the ceiling of the shop. Couplings and 
 hangers are carefully arranged in all arsenals and 
 armories. Pulleys so mounted are ; Fnxt, being firm- 
 
 Fig. a. 
 
 ly attached to their shaft, from which they receive, 
 or to which they communicate, motion : fj"<)xf, run- 
 ning free on the shaft, to receive the belt and allow 
 it still to traverse without being affected bv, or 
 
 power, instead of acting in opposition to it, as in the 
 former case. By this time, it will h;ive been evident 
 to the reader tli;it the niecb:inical advantaije is not 
 produei'd by tlie [uilleys, but by the strinirsi and that 
 the pulleys are merely useful in keeping the strinirs 
 in a certain iiosition, changing with as little fri<'tio!i 
 as possible the direction of the imll, iind alfordins ;i 
 convenient means of attaching the weiirht. Theor- 
 etically, the larger the number of movable pulleys 
 
 affecting the motion of. the shafting : Spred. having 
 a number of faces or grooves of different diameter, 
 so as to communicate varying speeds with a given 
 rate of motion of the belt or cord. This is common 
 in lathes and analogous machines, and i.s sometimes 
 called a m/zf-pu'lev. Fi:r. 2 shows iin improvini 
 loose pulley, at present used on most machines, with 
 Ihe advantaire of savins: Ihe wear of pulley, shaft, 
 and belt. The loose i)ulley is one inch less iliameler
 
 PULLING JACK. 
 
 GOG 
 
 PULSOMETEE. 
 
 than the tight pulley, andthus relieves the tight ten- 
 sion of belt when running idle. A bevel tlange 
 connects the pulley faces, and the belt ships with 
 perfect ease. In Fig. 3 is shown what is known as 
 the mule pulley, a most useful combination for the 
 general work of the arsenal. Lines of shafting in 
 the same plane, but at an angle, one to the other, to 
 run quickly and noiselessly, should be driven by a 
 belt running over mule pulleys, on a shaft stepped 
 and stayed as shown in Fig. 3. If the mule pulleys 
 are not too small, and if they liave long hubs, they 
 will run with little friction and wear. For the sake 
 of an adjustment wliich is required only in special 
 cases, mule pulleys are commonly placed on ex- 
 pensive arrangements of castings, which, through 
 not permitting the use of pulleys sufficiently large, 
 and through not being properly stayed, cause much 
 trouble and loss of power. These disadvantages are 
 obviated by the arrangement sho'ivn in the drawing. 
 The following table gives the weight, principal di- 
 mensions, etc., of pulley-blocks, complete, as used 
 in the more common mechanical maneuvers. See 
 Blocks. Mechanical Maneuvers, Rii-pe, and Tackles. 
 
 PVLL-OFF.— In musketry, the test applied to the 
 trigger of all small-arms. The te.st is regulated so as 
 to require a mean weight of about 7 lbs. to be ap- 
 plied to the tinger-piece of the trigger, in order to 
 release the sear-nose from the top-bent; this result is 
 obtained only when the lock and trigger are perfect- 
 ly clean and free from dried-up oil," or other matter 
 causing obstruction to the free working of the vari- 
 ous parts. As a rule, the pull-off of the small-arms 
 in use will be found to be influenced mainly by the 
 condition of cleanliness of the lock and' trigger. 
 Should the lock, after having been thoroughly 
 cleaned and oiled, be found to pull-off either light or 
 heavy, i.e. below 6 lbs. or above 8 lbs., it may easily 
 be regulated by squaring the sear-nose and top-bent 
 in the tumb'er, care being taken to preserve the same 
 ansrlcs. 
 
 iPULSOMETEE —A steam pump of considerable mil- 
 itary' importance, which requires but little steam for 
 its operation. When the water has been displaced 
 by the steam which follows the water through the 
 opening to the discharge chamber, it will suddenly 
 condense by passing under the water, and the va- 
 
 Kind of blocks. 
 
 1 sheave. 
 
 Weight of block, complete, 
 
 pounds 35 
 
 Total length of block over 
 
 all. inches SS..") 
 
 Total width of block over 
 
 all, inches 
 
 Total deptli of block over 
 
 all, inches 
 
 Greatest diameter of sheaves, 
 
 inches 
 
 Largest rope used with 
 
 block, inches i 4.75 
 
 30 
 19.5 
 
 7.5 
 
 8.5 
 
 6.375 
 
 3.25 
 
 3 sheaves. 
 
 19.5 
 7.5 
 5.25 
 G.375 
 3.25 
 
 80 
 2g.5 
 
 7.25 
 4.75 
 
 3 sheaves. 
 
 100 
 25.5 
 8 
 9 
 
 7.25 
 4.75 
 
 134 
 26 
 
 9 
 10.5 
 
 7 
 
 6.25 
 
 191 
 33 
 10 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 G.25 
 
 201 
 31.5 
 12 
 11.5 
 10 
 6.25 
 
 4 sheaves. 
 
 120 
 
 25.5 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 7.35 
 4.75 
 
 165 
 26 
 
 9 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 6.25 
 
 226 
 32 
 10 
 13.75 
 
 9 
 
 6>35 
 
 270 
 31.5 
 13 
 14 
 10 
 625 
 
 PULLING-JACK.— A variety of. jack much employ- 
 ed for artillery purposes. To nse it, screw one end 
 to some fixed object (that end nearer the pump is 
 preferable); unscrew the valve in the pump by two 
 or three turns with the key, and stretch the" jack 
 apart; attach the free end of it to the object to be 
 moved; shut the valve by screwing Ijack the two or 
 three turns that were unscrewed; attach the long le- 
 ver and pump away at it until the object is moved as 
 desired. When there is not room for the long lever, 
 tlie pump can be worked by the short lever. If the 
 jack does not start at, once, slack the screw in the 
 cylinder close to the pump (which the same key fits) 
 until a drop or two of the fiiud comes out ; as soon 
 as this occurs, turn the .screw immediately back. If 
 the piston or ram will not run out to its entire length 
 or stroke, place the jack in a horizontal position, 
 take out the screw at each end of the cylinder, and 
 till through both holes witli the usual liquid. 
 
 The pulling-jack can be used to pull or lift at any 
 angle l)etween the horizontal and the iicrpendicidar, 
 but the direction of its force must be in a straight 
 line, and the force punii) always at the lower end 
 when the jack is used in any other way than hori- 
 zontally. When the pulling-jack is in lise, the lever 
 joints must be well oiled and kept free from dirt; 
 when not in use, the piston-rod must be kept in; anci 
 when hung up, th<- end where the pump is nmsi al- 
 ways be downward. 
 
 No greater force than that of one man (provided \ 
 lie applies a power of al)oul 1.50 pounds) need ever 
 l)e applied to the lever of either the lifting or the 
 pulling-jack, since that force is amply sulliclent to 
 work the jack to its full ca[)acity. See Uiiilraiilic 
 Jack. 
 
 cuum thereby formed will cause the steam ball to 
 change, shut off the steam, and transmit the pres- 
 sure to the opposite cylinder, and at the same time 
 induce the water to fill the chamber in place of the 
 condensed steam. Thus will they alternate..keep- 
 iiig up very nearly a continuous stream, as long as 
 there is steam supplied and water to be pimiped. 
 
 The machine, a section of which is shown in the 
 drawing, consists principally of two bottle-shaped 
 chambers. A, A, joined together side hy side, with 
 tapering necks bent towards each other, to which is 
 attached, by means of a flange-joint, B, a contin- 
 uou passage from each cjlinder leading to one com- 
 mon upright passage, into which a small ball, C, is 
 fitted so as to oscitlate with a slight rolling motion 
 between seats formed in the junction. These cham- 
 bers also connect by means of openings with the 
 vertical induction passage, D, which openings are so 
 formed that the valves, E, E, consisting of pure vul- 
 canized rubber, and their seats, F, "&. constructed 
 so as to sustain the valves, maj' be easily inserted. 
 The delivery passage, II, which is common to both 
 chambers, is also constructed so that in the openings 
 that connnunicate with each cylinder are placed 
 valve-seats, G, G, fitted for the reception of the same 
 style of valves as in the induction passage. I, I, are 
 valve-guards to prevent the valves from opening too 
 far, I'o facililiUc the re;uly removal of the valves 
 and valve-seats, it will be observed the flanges that 
 cover the openings are slotted to receive the bolts, 
 the inits of which being loosened they are readily 
 removed and the covers displaced. J, represents the 
 vacuum chamber, cast with and between the necks 
 of chambers A, A, and connects only with the induc- 
 tion passage below the valves E, E. K, K, are llanges
 
 PULSOMETER. 
 
 607 
 
 FUL801I£TEB. 
 
 (■(ivcrinir (lie openings to llic respective elianiliers, 
 wliicli niiiy lie rcinoveil fur llie repair iir renewal of 
 valves and seats, when necessary. V<'nt plu^s are 
 inserted into these flanges, for llie purpose of draw- 
 ing oir the water lo])revenl freezing. L, L, ar<! rods 
 extending from tiic valve-guiirils to tlic set-screws 
 M, M, li# which the siielion seals, valves and guards 
 are lightly pressed loplace. N, N, are hrass s<icket- 
 lieailiMl holts by whi(-'li the disehargi' seats, valves 
 and guards aredrawii down to place. A small hrass 
 air check-valve is screweil into Ihe neck of each 
 chamher, A. A. ami one irilo the vacuum elunuher 
 
 J, so that their stems hang downwarc 
 valve in the neck of each chamber, 
 small quantity of air to cnler above 
 prevent the steam from agitating it 
 trance, and thus forms an air piston 
 condensation. The check-valve in the 
 ber, J, serves to cushion the ramniin 
 water consequent upon the tilling of 
 alternately. 
 
 The pulsometer. when titled with a 
 ber ball valve, seat, and guard, is espi 
 
 I. The clieck- 
 A, A. adows a 
 the water, to 
 on its first en- 
 for preventing 
 vaiuumcham- 
 g action of the 
 each chamber 
 
 very hard rub- 
 ■ciaily adajited 
 
 l>ulsomeli-r, D-inch sut'tion CIO feel;, and ;t-inili din- 
 charge will readily raise water ■'iO feel out of a well. 
 A braii<;h from the discharge pipe leads into a hogs- 
 head or tank, ami supplies water to charge the pump 
 before turning on steam to'slartil. and for furnishing 
 walc-r to the inji'clor for feeding the boiler. The 
 leading of a i)ipe from a reservoir or water pipe to 
 the middle chandiir of the pump for charging will 
 be fouml very convenient in other situations, espec- 
 ially whi-re tiu' |)unip is lial)le to loose its charge 
 from sediment getting under the valves. The chief 
 point to l>e observed in working the iiulsorneter on 
 arlesian wells is to select a size pump that the well 
 will supply with water. If not a flowing well, a 
 ))ump of smaller suction than the [>]]»■ in the well 
 should be applied Oiw raising 300 gallons per uun- 
 ute will fail to work on a well giving but 100 gal- 
 
 lons. A Ko. 5 (175 gallons per minute) usually re- 
 ([uires a chain of at least five two-inch pipes, con- 
 nected with a three or four inch nuiin to supply it with 
 water. In cases where Ihe water does not raise to 
 within ten feet of the surface, it will be found ad- 
 vantageous to lower the pump a litth' in order to ob- 
 tain tiie water freely. If the pump is found to be 
 large at times, the "remedy may be had by making a 
 connection from the discharge pipe back into the 
 pump and regulated by a globe valve as shown in tlie 
 above drawing. 
 
 The remaining applications of the pidsometer are 
 numerous: 1. For policing ])urposes an<i as a lire ex- 
 
 to cofTer-dani work, sinking wells, sewers, excava- tinguisher, it has no ecpial. The absence of all ma- 
 
 tious. foundations, etc., where all the water 
 pmnped contains more or less sand, gravel. 
 
 to be 
 mud , 
 and "other sediment that would clog tlic grid valve 
 seat and disc valve usually used in tin- pumps. .\ 
 
 chinery, its simple arrangement of valves, the easy 
 manner in which they can be replaced without skill- 
 ed labor, their inability to clog from sediment, and 
 the certaintv in which il can be started marks a
 
 PULTUH. 
 
 608 
 
 PUMPING ENGINE. 
 
 strong contrast to the ordinary donkey pump. 2. 
 As a pumping engine in garriscjns, to be on lianii at 
 short notice for pumping out flooded casemates, cel- 
 lars, excavations, wells, and other inundated places. 
 The pump can be detached from the carriage and 
 lowered to places too low down /or suction from the 
 engine, steam being carried to it from the boiler 
 through tlexible steam-hose. 3. As a mine pinup, 
 there being no exhaust steam to dispose of. It is es- 
 pecially adapted for lifting water from one level to 
 another. For use underground in mines, colleries, 
 etc., where lifts do not exceed 60 to 90 feet, its use 
 has been fully proved. For a greater height one 
 can be used above another. 4. For tilling water 
 tanks in foundries, etc., it is very handy, and may be 
 so located as to till the tanks directly from a contigu- 
 ous pond, stream, or well, by using the steam from 
 the working engines. B\- having a flexible steam 
 connection readj'for instant application, it would do 
 away with the necessity of water tanks, separate 
 boiler, and the expenses of a special engineer. 5. As 
 an irrigating pump for post and company gardens, 
 its simplicity, strength, durability efficiency and econ- 
 omj- are all in its favor. G. For tilling tanks on 
 buildings, for use with elevators, or in case of fire. 
 The pipe leading down from upper tank has hose 
 connections on each floor, from which a hose should 
 be connected and ready to run out to extinguish a 
 fire within a few seconds from time of discovery, and 
 long before an alarm could be made to the depart- 
 ment. Hose connections are also made from dis- 
 charge pipe of pump on the upper floors. 
 
 cai composition, it agrees with obsidian, of which it 
 may be regarded as a ])eculiar form, rapidly cooled 
 from a melted and boiling state. It is of a white or 
 gray color, more rarely yellow, brown, or black ; 
 but so vesicular, that in mass it is lighter than wa- 
 ter, and swims in it. The vesicles, or cells, are often 
 of a much elongated shape. Pumice often exhibits 
 more or less of a filamentous structure, and it is said 
 to be most filamentous when silica is most abundant 
 in its composition. It is very hard and very brittle. 
 It is much used in arsenals for polishing wood, me- 
 tals, lithographic stones, etc., and in the'preparation 
 of vellum, parchment, and some kinds of leather. 
 
 PUMMEL.— The hilt of a .sword, the end of a gun, 
 etc. 
 
 PUMPING-ENGINE.— An engine especially de- 
 signed for pumping, and much used for military pur- 
 poses. A pump may he driven by an ordinary 
 steam-engine which also drives other machinery, but 
 in the pumping-engine the pump and steam-engine 
 are inseparably connected, and are confined to the 
 act of pumping. There are a good many smaD ma- 
 chines of this kind which only pump, but they are 
 not commonly called pumping-engines, that term be- 
 ing applied only to large works. The first steam- 
 engines were pumping-engines ; that of Newcomen, 
 which was driven by atmospheric pressure (steam 
 being used only to create a vacuum), and Watt's, 
 and the Cornish engine, which used steam as the 
 motive power. There has been much improvement 
 in the duty of piuuping-engines since the Newcomen 
 engine. Estimating the work done by the number 
 
 ^^ 
 
 PULTUN.— An Indian term for a regiment f)f iiifan- of poimds raised one foot by a bushel of Welsh coal 
 
 try 
 
 PULVERMASSEN.— The German name for a kind 
 of h.iMrick with wooden powder-tubes. 
 
 PUMICE. .V mineral found in volcanic CdUiitries 
 gem rally with obsidian and porphyries. In chemi- 
 
 ('.14 lbs.), the following notes show the improvenu'nt 
 which has been made: Newcomen engine (1760 ),,'>, ."iOO 
 (KIO; the same improved by Smeaton (1772),9,.'")00,- 
 000. Watt's engine {1778 to IHl.")), 20.000,000. Cor 
 uish engine (1820), 28,000,000; the same '1820), 30,-
 
 PUMPING-ENOINK. 
 
 609 
 
 PUMPING ENGIME. 
 
 THE LEAM:TT PrMPING-EXGI>rE 
 
 UriLT BY 
 
 I. P. MORRIS & CO., 
 POET RICHMOND IKON WOKKS, PHILADELPHIA.
 
 PUNCHING. 
 
 610 
 
 PUNCHING. 
 
 000.000; same C182S), .37,000,000; same (1829), 41,000.- 
 000; same (1839), 54.000,000; same (18.50), 60,000,000. 
 Consolidated mines, highest duty (182T), 67,000,000. 
 Fo%yey consols, Cornwall, hisrliest duty (1834), 97,- 
 000,000. United mines, highest duty (1842). 108,- 
 000,000. Among the largest pumpiug-engines in the 
 world are tlie three wliicll were employed in the 
 drainage of Haarlem Lake inHolland. Each engine 
 worked several pumps, and had an average duty of 
 75,000.000 lbs., raised one foot by 94 lbs. of Welsh 
 coal. One of these engines is described as follows : 
 two steam cylinders are placed concentrically, the 
 diameters being 144J and 84t inches. They are 
 united at the boUom. jjut there is a space of nearly \h 
 in. between the inner cylinder and the top. The 
 areas of the pistons are as 1 to 2.8.5, and are con- 
 nected to a common cross-head or cap by one prin- 
 cipal and four small piston-rods. This engine works 
 11 pumps, each of <13 in. (.5j ft.) diameter. The 
 measured delivery of all the 11 pumps at each stroke 
 is 63 tons. The steam is cut off in the small cylin- 
 ders at from one-quarter to two-thirds the stroke, 
 and after expanding through the remainder it is fur- 
 tlier expanded in the large cylinder. 
 
 Tlie drawing shows in section the horizontal com- 
 pound-cylinder pumping-engines. of the tvpe de- 
 signed by Jlr. H. F. Gaskill, an America'n. The 
 novel feature by which this type of engine is distin- 
 guished is the location of thehigh-pressure C3iinder 
 on the top of the low-pressure cylinder, giving short 
 steam communication. This arrangement requires 
 the pistons in the two cylinders to move in opposite 
 directions. These are connected with each other, 
 and the pressure of steam upon them is transmitted 
 to the plunger of tlie pump in the following manner; 
 The latter is set in line with the low-pressure cylin- 
 der, and so receives the thrust produced by the 
 pressure in that cylinder directly. The low-pressure 
 piston is provided with two rods, which are extend- 
 ed to the length of teufeet tothecro.ss-headby which 
 they are connected to the rod of the pump plunger. 
 Midway in their length, another cross-head is se- 
 cured upon tliem. which runs on a guide. The 
 rod from the high-pressure piston is keyed into a 
 cross-head corresponding to this. The connection 
 between these cross-heads is made by means of a 
 short vertical beam and connecting links, through 
 which also the force exerted in the high-pressure 
 cylinder is transmitted. A shaft carrying a fly- 
 ■wheel revolves in bearings which are set iqjon the 
 delivery chambers of the two pumps. The two en- 
 gines are connected through this shaft by means of 
 cranks set on either end of It, at right angle's with each 
 other, and connecting rods from these cranks to the 
 upper enils of the beams. The cranks determine the 
 length of the stroke, control the movements of the 
 pistons and plungers, maintaining those of the two 
 engines and pumps in a constant relaiion witli each 
 other, and give motion to the valve gear. The 
 steam is admitted to the liigh-pressure cylinders by 
 double-seated poppet-valves. A cut-off mechanism 
 is introduced into the motion of these valves, 
 vvhicli is adjustable to cut the steam off at anv point 
 in the length of the stroke. The point of cut-off 
 jnay be fixed liy hand, or by the action of the gov- 
 ernor wlieu the latter is thrown into gear. 'The 
 .governor is constructed to be operated by 'changes 
 in the pressure of water iv the delivery main, and 
 acts to correct the.se changes by varying' the point of 
 cut-off, and thus the speed of the engiiie, in accord- 
 ance with the variations in the demand for water. 
 The conmiuiiicating valves between the high and 
 low pressure cylinders and the exhaust valves are 
 gridiron slides. 
 
 Tlie engraving on the iireceding page gives a per- 
 spective view ol a pviraping-engine, having a remark- 
 able capacity and duty, built by the I. I'. Morris 
 C'om])any, I'hil.adelphia. It is a (■()nipouiiil beam en- 
 wine, the steam cylinders of which are inclined out- 
 i^ardly at the top to connect with opposite ends of 
 
 the working beam. The cylinders are jacketed on 
 
 the sides and heads, steam of boiler pressure being 
 u.icd in the jacket of the high pressure cylinder, and 
 steam of a reduced pressure in the other jacket. 
 The drainage from these jackets is ordinarily re- 
 turned directly to the boilers. The steam and ex- 
 haust valves are gridiron slides giving large open- 
 ings with small movements. The valves are ac- 
 tuated by cams, whicli are driven b_y gearing from 
 the crank-shaft, and a centrifugal governor adjusts 
 the cams, operating the steam valves of the hiL'lx 
 pressure cylinder so as to vary the point of cut-off 
 and maintain a constant engine speed. The pump is 
 driven by a connecting rod attached to one end of 
 the working beam. The pump consists of a plunger, 
 to which is attached a bucket with valve opening 
 upward. There are seven receiving valves, and four 
 delivery valves, in addition to the valve in the buck- 
 et, the water being discharged from the pump 
 through two delivery pipes, above and below the 
 bucket respectively." Tlie pump valves consist of 
 loaded rubber discs with central guiding stems. 
 The original valves were of metal, double beat, and 
 the introduction oI the present form has greatly in- 
 creased the pump's efficiency. 
 
 The following are the results of the dtit^ trial of 
 this engine : 
 
 Pounds of wood used to start fires, 400. Pounds 
 of coal put into furnaces, 3. .500. Pounds of coal 
 withdrawn from furnaces at end of trial, 27. Pounds of 
 coal wholly consumed (400x0.4-)-3,500— 27)=3,633. 
 Pressure on main by gauge (lbs. per sq. inch), 64. 
 Water level in well befow'gauge (ft.). 29.05. Water 
 pressure (lbs. per sq. in.)"; 29.05x0.433-1-64=76.0. 
 Area of pump bucket (sq. in.), .536.0465. Revolu- 
 tions of engine, 12.337. Duty of engine, (ft-lbs., per 
 100 lbs. of coal), 
 
 536.0465 X 8 X 12,337 X 76.6 x 100 
 = =111,548,935. 
 
 3.633 
 -When any heavy beam of wrought- 
 
 PUNCHING. 
 
 iron — one, say, twelve or fourteen inches square — 
 is struck by a heavy shot at high velocity, the beam 
 snaps short off. as though it were cast-iron The 
 same shot, striking a wrought-iron plate backed in 
 the usual manner of armor, penetrates or perforates 
 it in a manner similar to the action of a hand-punch 
 on a sheet of iron laid on a block of wood. The ef- 
 fect is entirely local ; the hole is made without bend- 
 ing or twisting the plate in one case, or the sheet in 
 the other. The same projectile, propelled with a 
 low velocity, will bend the beam and produce the 
 ordinary fracture of wrought-iron, and in case of the 
 plate, the latter will be distorted, strained, and loos- 
 ened from its fastenings. A simple way of explain- 
 ing these phenomena is as follows : In the case of 
 the high velocity the effect is wliolly local, liecause 
 the surrounding material has not time to propagate 
 the vibration of impact throughout the mass. In other 
 words, the cohesion of the material is not sufficient, 
 in the time allowed, to overcome the inertia of the 
 surrounding mass. The distributian of the eff'ect in 
 the other case is due to the low velocity, wlierein a 
 certain length of time is consumed in accomplishing 
 the blow. During this interval, all surrounding par- 
 ticles of iron have time to sustain the point struck; 
 tlu! force of the blow is thus sjiread over a large sur- 
 face, and the cohesion of the jjarticles is undisturbed, 
 since each particle is enabled to contribute the force 
 of its attraction towarils uniting the whole. These 
 two distinct cfl'ects are called, respectively, ?)»»(,7im^ 
 and rackiitij. The work done by a shot is represent- 
 ed by its weight multi|ilied by the square of its ve- 
 locity at th(' moment of impact ; from which it will 
 be seen thai a small projectile moving with great ve- 
 locity is capable of doing the same amount of work 
 as a large projectile with low velocity. The rhararter 
 of the work is, however, as above explained, entire- 
 ly dilTereiil. In case of a given projectile, whatever
 
 PUNCHIHG MACHINE. 
 
 on 
 
 PUHIC WABS. 
 
 powpr is pmplnypfl in rackinj; tlio Bide of the vrtisd 
 doi'H iKitliiii!; towards prni'tnilion, iind virrvrmd. 
 
 The theory in ftivor of punchiiit; is, that tlie vital 
 parts of the vessel and tlie active enemj within- the 
 men, puns, and machinery— arc reached at once. 
 A projectile picrcini; (lie armor of a vessel carries 
 with it portions of the tiroli<'n ]ilate, which, toj;etli- 
 er with bolts, nuts, and frai^mi'iits of wooit from 
 tlie liiiekin^', form a species of biii(jriiiii\ the cITect of 
 which is not less to lie feared on a crowded deck, or 
 in a turret, than the explosion of the most formiilalile 
 shell. I5ut to i)rodiice this result the jirojectile must 
 penetrate entirely through. A projcctih^ movinj; with 
 a punchini; velocity has oidy local eflcct, penetrat- 
 ini; without rackini; the armor. If it ;;oes hut partly 
 throufih.it does no daniafje either to the ship or lo the 
 enemy within. 'I'liercfore, whether from the i;reat- 
 ness of ran!je,the thickness of the armor, or want of 
 power in the gun, entire perforation cannot \iv elTcct- 
 ed, it is only a waste of ammunition to use it in sim- 
 ply indenting armor. Although as|)herical iirojectile 
 may have, >ipon starting, greater velocity thanarille 
 projectile of equal calil)cr, and conse(iuently may 
 have greater punching power stored up in it at this 
 part of its tlight, nevertheless, owing to its greater 
 cro.ss-sectional areu, in proportion to its weight, it will 
 lose its velocity more rapidly, and the rillc projectile 
 will soon overtake it in its lligUt and go far beyond 
 
 .inch objects as armor-plates, steam-boilers, iron- 
 ships, bridges, an<l (/tlier gn'at works, would have 
 been so great as to have (•Ifeetiially prevented tliem 
 from lieing undertaken. The piincliing-muchine in- 
 vented by .Messrs. Kol)erls anrl N'usmyth, willi re- 
 cent moditi<ations and improvement.s, is in very 
 general iiscf in all our great engineering works and 
 arsenals; its issential [larts are the punch, levir, 
 anil the spring. The punch is simply a piece of 
 tough, hard steel of a eylindrieal form, and of the 
 size of the intended holes; it fits into a socket, 
 which is suspended over a fixed iron plate or bench, 
 which has a hole exactly under the punch, and ex- 
 actly tilling it. In tlie socket which holds the punch 
 is a coiled iron spring, which holds up the punch, 
 and allows it to descend when the power is applied, 
 and returns it w lien llie pressure is relieved. The 
 lever, wlien in action, presseson the top of the punch, 
 and the plate of metal which is to be perforated be- 
 ing placed on tlu^ iron liencli, receives the pressure 
 of Ww. punch with sutHcient force to press out a disk 
 of metal e.Mictly the diameter of the punch, which 
 falls through the hole in the iron bench. The lever 
 is moved by a cam on a very powerful wheel, which 
 presses uiion it until it can pass; then the lever be- 
 ing relieved, the punch is drawn up by the spring in 
 its socket, ready to receive the action of the cam 
 when the revolution of the wheel again brings it to 
 
 it in range. At the distances that iron-clads usually 
 engage land batteries,smooth-bore projectiles would 
 possess no punching power ; therefore for this kind 
 of work rifles are the only suitable armament for 
 such batteries. They should be powerful enough to 
 do the work effectually. When heavy enough for 
 this, all additional weight is rather a detriment than 
 an advantage, from the fact that light guns are less 
 cumbersome, can be tired more rapidly, are more 
 easilj' replaced, when disaliled, and less costly in 
 ammunition. They likewise stand greater relative 
 charges and yield higher velocities with safety. The 
 8-inch rifle, carrying a projectile 18.5 pounds in weight, 
 fired with a charge of 35 pounds hexagonal powder, 
 is the minimum caliber that can be successfully used 
 against tlie present style of sea-going iron-clatls. See 
 Rarking. 
 
 PUNCHIHG MACHINE.— The enormous develop- 
 ment of our iron manufactures has necessitated 
 the use of machine tools in the place of those made 
 for the hand, and none of the very ingenious in- 
 ventions for this purpose have played a much more 
 important part thanthe punehing-marhhie.t, for with- 
 out them the labor of drilling holes in iron plates for 
 
 bear on the lever. The punch itself is always solid, 
 differing entirely in this respect from the hand-tools. 
 This useful machine will perforate thick plates of 
 iron, such as are used for ship-building, almost as 
 quickly as a workman with an ordinary liand-punch 
 could perforate thin plates of tin ; tlie holes made 
 are quite true, and are ready to receive the rivets. 
 The drawing represents the improved machine, hav- 
 ing sufficient power to punch an inch hole tlirough 
 half inch iron ; it is driven by an eccentric and slid- 
 ing box, civing IJ in. movement to the punch bar ; 
 it "has a clutch on the eccentric shaft for stopping it 
 without shifting the belt. 
 
 There are both fast and loose pulleys on the driving 
 shaft, so that the countershaft is not needed. The 
 weisht of the machine is 0.850 pounds. 
 
 PUNCTO.— A term applied to the point in fencing. 
 
 PUNIC WAES.— The name commonly given to the 
 three creat wars waged for supremacy between 
 Rome and Carthage. The Latin word punicuD, or 
 pcFnietm. was the name given by the Romans to the 
 Carthaginians, in allusion to their Phenician descent. 
 The Romans, who believed, not without reason, that 
 the Carthasinians never sincerely meant to keep any
 
 PtJKISHMENTS. 
 
 612 
 
 puEsurr. 
 
 treaty of peace, employed the phrase punicn ficks, 
 '• Punio failli." to denote a false and faithless spirit. 
 
 PUNISHMENTS.— Sentences awarded by Courts- 
 Martial or t'onimauding Officers for crimes commit- 
 ted b}' officers or soldiers. They are detailed in the 
 Articles of War. They consist of death by hanging 
 or shooting, according to the offense, and of flogging. 
 These are Uie punishments for the most aggravated 
 and flagrant form of offenses. The minor punish- 
 ments include imprisonment, loss of gooil-conduct 
 stripes, degradation of rank, loss of appointments, 
 extra drill, stoppage of pay. and confinement to bar- 
 racks. An otHcer can be sentenced by General Court- 
 Martial to death (in time of war), cashiering, or dis- 
 missal from the service, according to the crime lie is 
 guilty of. In the British service, military punish- 
 ments include death by shooting, if for any olTense 
 against discipline — or by hanging, if for a disgrace- 
 ful olTense : for serious crimes in the field against 
 discipline, flogging, not exceeding 50 hashes, with 
 the cat-o'-nine-tails, for minor offenses, degradation 
 of rank, imprisonment, extra <lrill, stoppage of grog, 
 loss of good-conduct pay, stoppage of leave, etc. 
 Death, degradation, and loss of leave are the only 
 punishments of those named above which can be in- 
 flicted on an officer. An officer can only be punish- 
 ed by sentence of a Coiirt-Martial ; he may be cash- 
 iered, dismissed the service, deprived of his regiment 
 or ship ; or, in the navy, reduced in rank by being 
 placed at the bottom of the list of officers of his 
 grade. In certain of the German armies, punish- 
 ment is inflicted on the men in the form of strokes 
 with a cane or with the flat of a saber. The punish- 
 ments established by law or custom for United States 
 soldiers by sentence of Court-Martial, according to 
 the offense, and the jurisdiction of the court, are: 
 deatu; stripes for desertion only; confinement ; hard 
 labor; ball and chain ; forfeiture of pay and allow- 
 ances ; and dishonorable discharge from service, 
 with or without niarking. It is regarded as inhu- 
 man to punish by solitary confinement, or confine- 
 ment on bread and water exceeding 14 days at a time, 
 or for more than 84 days in a year at intervals of 14 
 days. 
 
 PUPPET-HEAD.— A sliding device on the upper 
 part of the bed of a lathe or boring-machine. It 
 holds tlie back center, and may be fixed at any re- 
 quired distance from the front center. See Lathe. 
 
 PURCHASE. — A nuchauical power to increase the 
 power ajiplied. The names are various ; some indi- 
 cate a difference in character; others merely in ap- 
 plication. Among them are : irhi'i), irhip-npun-irhip, 
 liiff-tdcklr, li/ff-upou-luff, runner, dimhle-runner , bar- 
 ton, jeer, viitl, gun-tackle ; as well as icinclt, gin, jnck, 
 ih rri'ik, erah, i-apgtiin, windlans, etc. See Block, Piil- 
 //.(/. and T.f.kl,. 
 
 PUKCHASE SYSTEM.— A highly unpopular and 
 much-misunderstood arrangement in tlie British 
 army; by wliich a large prciporlion — more than half 
 — of the first appointment of officers and their subse- 
 quent promotion used to be effected. It dates from 
 the first formation of an English standing army, and 
 was fornmlly recognized in the reign of Queen Anne. 
 The system itself was vcr_v simple. A price was fix- 
 ed by regulation for each subsliinlive rank, vi/.: 
 
 Pric(^ Difference. 
 
 Lieutenant-colonel i'4.500 £i:iOO 
 
 Major :«00 1400 
 
 Oaptain IHOO 1100 
 
 Lieutenant 700 2.'50 
 
 Cornet or Ensign 4.')0 
 
 Wlien any officer holding one of lliese regimental 
 comnussions desired to retire from the army, he was 
 entitled to sell his conunission for the price slijiuliiled 
 in the above table — £i,hM in the case of a Lieuten- 
 ant-colonel. This sum was made up by the senior 
 Jliijor, w'ho was willing and able to purcliase, buy- 
 ing tlie rank of Lieulenanl-colonel for t'l.IiOO: Ihc 
 senior Captain, willing and able to purchase, buying 
 a Majority for XI, 100; u Lieutenant purchasing" his 
 
 company for £1.100; a Cornet or Ensign becoming 
 Lieutenant on payment of £350; and lastly, by the 
 sale to some young gentleman of an Easigucy or 
 Cornetcy for £1.50. In practice, fancy prices higher 
 than the above were usually given, according to the 
 popularity of the regiment, and vested interest in 
 tliese over-regulation prices caused most serious 
 complications whenever the Government made any 
 cliange affecting the promotion of Purchase Officers. 
 Tlie value of commissions in the Guards was iUso 
 greater; but as they constitute but ;i few regiments, 
 and are mostly officered from the Xohility.they do 
 not need particular description. No commission 
 coidd be purchased by one officer unless another 
 officer vacated his position by its sale. Death va- 
 cancies, vacancies caused by augmenting any regi- 
 ment, vacancies residting from the promotion of 
 Colonels to be Major G^enerals, were filled without 
 purchase, usually by seniorit\-. No rank above Lieu- 
 tenant-colonel could be purchased. 
 
 It is alleged with truth that purchase enabled the 
 rich man to step over the head of the poorer but per- 
 haps better qualified Non-purchasing Officer : and 
 that monej' decided where merit should be the only 
 guide. These disadvantages, however, it is replied, 
 were not unmixed. Purchase, it is argued, intro- 
 duced into the army men of a very high class in so- 
 ciety, who gave a tone to the whole of military life. 
 A great proportion of these wealthy men entered 
 with the intention of merely spending a few years in 
 the army. This tended to keep the officers young — 
 a great advantage ; and. further, provided in the 
 cotmtry, among its gentlemen, a body of men well 
 adapted for commands in the militia and volunteers. 
 Moreover, selection exercised arbitrarily, as it must 
 be when the men from wdiom the selection is to be 
 made are scattered all over the world, away from 
 the selecting power, isliableto create dissatisfaction. 
 LTnder purchase, exchange was a common thing ; 
 for the rich officers, for private reasons of locality, 
 etc., were glad to change frequently from regiment 
 to regiment, entering in each case at the butUnn of 
 the list of officers of their rank in their new regi- 
 ment. This, of course, was an advantage to the 
 Non-exchanging Officer, as it pushed him to the top ; 
 and the first death or other non-purchase promotion 
 then fell to him. An officer who had not purchased 
 at all might, nevertheless, sell his commission for its 
 full value if he had served 20 years, or for a sum 
 less than the regulated price after shorter service. 
 Tins was also a spur to proinotion. On the whole, 
 though exposed to the disadvantage and annoyance 
 of being passed over \>y younger officers, the non- 
 purchasing, /. e. the poor officers'benefited pecuniarily 
 by the purchase-system. This is proved by the slow 
 progress officers made in corps where purchase did 
 not exist, as. for instance, in the Royal JIarines. 
 Few would counsel the formation of a new army wiUi 
 such a system as purch;ise; but (m the other hand, it 
 had its advantages in its workings. Purchase did not 
 exist in the artillery, engineers, marines, 19th to 21st 
 regimeuts of cavalry, 101st to lOOtli regiment.s of 
 foot. The purchase-system was abolished by Koyal 
 Warrant in .July. 18T1; and by the regulation of the 
 Forces Act of the same year. P;irli;niu'iU laid down 
 a scheme for the gradual compens;ition of officers 
 wlio had lost the selling rights. Under that scheme 
 It is expected that a sum-total amounting to nearly 
 £8, 000, OIK) will be re(|uired. 
 
 PURPLED.— A term in Heraldry, used with refer- 
 ence to file lining, bordering, iir garnishing of robes, 
 or (iriiumentaliou of armor. Of- 
 ten written J'lir/li ired. 
 
 PURPURE.—In'lleraldry, the co- 
 lor jiurple, expressed in engravings 
 by lines in bend sinister. It is 
 oif infrequent occurrence in British 
 ller.'ihlrv. 
 
 Purpuro. PURSUIT.— A victory, by which 
 
 the enemv isonlv forced from the battle-field, is for
 
 PURSUIVANT. 
 
 013 
 
 PUTNAM NAIL. 
 
 tho most part hut a half sucrpflH, if such it might be 
 called, lis the losses uiiilcr (in- un- tiiil. very siimll 
 ooiiiparcd to those arisini; from llic (leiiiondi/alion 
 of a lirokcii anil dispersed army. A protiipt and 
 vinorous />'/;'/i'/rt is tlie only mli'utih of insiiriiii; coiii- 
 pl()l(^ success. Defealed and disorf;ani/.ed, the oidy 
 hope that remains lo the enemy is llial he: nniy have 
 time to rally and concenlrate his scattered troops. 
 Tlie only way to frustrate this hope is to pursue these 
 disorf;ani7.ed nuisses, which are in no condition to 
 resiirt a very inferior force if it assails them in i|;ood 
 order. Under these circumstances we nniy separate 
 our army into corps, forcing the enemy thus upon 
 diver^'cnt lines of retreat, and preventini; all co- 
 operation between them. In doinf; this, we must, 
 however, be very careful not to drive the enemy in 
 such directions as will lead to his concentration on 
 any one point. 
 
 If the enemy retires in good order, covering his 
 line of retreat from our attempts to turn it. nothing 
 remains to be done l)ut lo pusli him back with our 
 entire force; keeping close upon his heels, and giving 
 him no time to take advantage of deliles or other 
 .strong points to check us, so us to nuike us lose 
 time, and give the opportunity to him to receive re- 
 inforcements. When he attempts to do this we 
 should hold him in check on the main road, whilst 
 we attempt to turn his Hank, ami endeavor to gain 
 his rear. By this promptilude and vigor of action 
 our forces will hardly be relarded, but will be al- 
 ways in position to turn any point upon which he 
 attempts to make a stand, and thus force him to fall 
 back continually as we push forward. 
 
 When we have come up with the enemy, we have 
 one of two courses open to us : either to tlirow our- 
 .selves across his line of retreat, or else to leave this 
 open to him. whilst we take a position on his flank. 
 Tins last course is usually the more prudent, for, 
 however weakened, it is a very dangerous tiling to 
 reduce an enemy to despair, and thus <all forth heroic 
 efforts, where but a moment liefore lliere was nothing 
 but discouragement and a willingness to get away 
 at any cost, even honor. With great superiority of 
 force, by barring the way to the rear, and pressing 
 on vigorously in front, we may hope " <" !ing" the 
 entire army ; in all other cases, it is more certain to 
 limit ourselves to operating on the Hank, and thus 
 secure a part, with but little loss to ourselves, but 
 with great demoralization of the enemy. 
 
 Having dispersed and demoralized the enemy's 
 forces, the more ditlicult problem remains of hold- 
 ing Uie conquered territory. This becomes the more 
 ditlicult when the enemy's territory has no fortified 
 phices that we have been able to seize, and thus hold 
 as rallying points for our own troops. All that re- 
 mains then to be done is to occupy strong strategical 
 and populated points, by detachments of sufficient 
 slreaigth to keep the enemy quiet. This brings about 
 numerous inconveniences : first, as these points must 
 be strengthened by field works, and, in the second 
 place, the main army must be greatly weakened by 
 the detachments that this system renders necessary. 
 In the mean lime the enemy's broken forces having 
 retired towards the interior, are there reorganized, 
 recruited, and concentrated, until, at last, an equili- 
 brium between the two contending forces is brought 
 about, and the struggle is recommenced to go, per- 
 liaps, through the same phases. 
 
 "These inconveniences may, in a great degree, be 
 avoided by having a rexerve force in rear of the mov- 
 able army, charged with the sole duty of holding 
 the territory occupied. This reserve, which should 
 not be further than a few days' march from the 
 front of operations of the movable forces, should be 
 dispersed over as great an extent, parallel to this 
 line, as practicable; thus enlarging the base of oper- 
 ations, collecting supplies on a greater extent, and 
 keeping a larger amount of population quiet. This 
 reserve may be composed of new levies, and, being 
 held in all points subordinate to the active army, it 
 
 will be ready to co-operate with it in anyway deemed 
 
 besl. 
 
 PURSUIVANT.— The third and the lowest order of 
 heraldic olllccrs. The olHce was instituted as a no- 
 vitiate, or slateof probation IhroUL'h wliich tin- olllces 
 of ilerald and King-al-.\riiis were ordinarily to be at- 
 tained, though it has been held that a Herald or 
 King-at-Arms may be made per mKtum, There are 
 four pursuivants fjclongint to the English (,'ollegc of 
 Arms: J{'>uge droix, the oldest, ho named, from the 
 cross of St. (leorge; lilue Mantle, instituted either 
 by Edward III. or llcmry V., and named in allusion 
 to the robes of the Order of the (iurter, or perhaps to 
 the color of tlie arms of France; Jtouije JJriigvn, du- 
 riving his title from King Henry VII. 's dexter sup- 
 porter, a red dragon, assumed in allusion to his de- 
 scent from C'adwaladyr; and Portculih, named from 
 a badge of the same >fonarch. There are six fiursui- 
 vants in the heraliiic establishment of Scotland, 
 known by the nariii'S of Dinyirall. llute, Carrick, Or- 
 iiuiitd, l\i:itj/ri', and I ' nifurn —i\\.U:n which, as well 
 as tlio.se of the Heralds, seem to have originated in 
 the reign of James III. The Scottish pursuivants 
 take precedence according to seniority in olTlce. 
 
 In ancient times, any great nobleman might insti- 
 tute his own pursuivant with his own hands and by 
 his single authority. The Uukes of Norfolk had a 
 pursuivant, called lUawh Lyon, from the white lion 
 in their arms; the pursuivant of the Dukes of Xorth- 
 umberland was styled Eaperance, from the Percy 
 motto; and Richard Nevil, Earl of Salisbury, had a 
 pursuivant called Kgle Vert. We even find Sir John 
 Lisle in 1443 making Thomas de Laiiney his pursui- 
 vant, by the title of lUiinrh Snuglier. The ancient 
 costume of a pursuivant of the King was a surcoat, 
 embroidered with the Koyal Arms, and worn with 
 one sleeve hanging down in front, and another be- 
 hind. In 1.57(5 Houge Croix was severely censured 
 for wearing his coat as a Herald. In later times, 
 however, a pursuivant's coat is worn exactly as a 
 Herald's, the latter officer being distinguished by the 
 collar of SS. 
 
 PURVEYOR. — Anoflicerwho is charged with super- 
 intending the civil affairs of army hospitals, as the 
 payment of men, procuring provisions, medical com- 
 forts, bedding, etc. The Purveyor acted independ- 
 ently of the Medical Officer, and was responsible 
 through the Purveyorin-Cliief to the Secretary of 
 State for War. The Department consisted of a 
 Purveyor-in-Chief, Principal Purveyors, Purveyors, 
 Deputy-Purveyors, and Clerks. The Purveyor-in- 
 Chief ranked with a Colonel in tlie army, and" had a 
 salary of £.547 per annum, rising to i-'TyO after long 
 service. In 1808, the Department was merged with 
 others in the Control Department ; and on the abo- 
 lition of the latter in 187.5, its functions passed 
 to the Commissariat and Transport Department. 
 In the United States Service, the Chief lledical Pur- 
 veyor is the chief purchasing and disbursing officer 
 of the Medical Department ; and under the direction 
 of the Surgeon General, he is charged with the sup- 
 ervision and distribution of all medical and hospital 
 supplies. See Medifal Department. 
 
 PUSH-PICK. — An implement, fiat and pointed, used 
 to place the frames and sheeting, when constructing 
 a mine. 
 
 PUTNAM NAIL.— .V hot-forged and hammer-poin- 
 ted horse-shoe nail recently introduced, and regard- 
 ed by the military authorities as the best machine- 
 made nail manufactured at the present lime. These 
 nails are forgeil separately from the rods, the iron 
 when nearly at a welding heat being drawn out un- 
 der four hammers, by use of petroleum gas (thus 
 avoiding all sulphur}, by which means a firmer, 
 tougher^ and more compact nail is made than is 
 possible by any other process. In the pointing as 
 well as in the making, an endeavor has been made 
 to follow the old ha'nd process as nearly as pos- 
 sible. All lameness', temporary, or eveii perma- 
 nent, often results from a sliver or thin shell of the
 
 POTTT-POWDEE. 
 
 614 
 
 PYBOHETEB. 
 
 nail entering the quick when driven into the hoof, 
 causing great inconvenience and sometimes pecun- 
 iary loss, butinthcsenailsgreatstiffness and ductility 
 has been maintained, the tibcr of the iron is kept un- 
 injured, and it is impossible to cause them to sliver. 
 The drawing represents a section of a horse's foot, 
 and shows the frequent effect of driving cold-cut 
 horse-nails that are liable to sliver in driving. 1, is 
 the coronet bone: 2, is the colBn-bone; 3, is the 
 navicular bone: 4, is one blade of a slivering nail, 
 passing through the quick, or sensitive sole, into the 
 coffin bone: fi, is the other blade of the nail passing 
 out of the wall of the hoof for clinchins. The other 
 
 parts may be represented as follows: — n. The wall. t>. 
 The sole. c. The cleft of the frog, d d. Tlie frog. 
 e e. The fatty frog, or elastic cushion. /. The sensi- 
 tive .sole. g. The sensitive sole, h h h. The ten- 
 dons of the muscles which bend the foot. /. Part of 
 the pastern-bone, k k. The tendons of the muscles 
 which e.xtend the foot. i. The coffin-joint, m. The 
 navicular joint. ?i. The coronary substance, o. 
 The sensible laminse, or covering of the coffln-bone. 
 
 It requires but little observation and reflection to 
 arrive at the conclusion as to the kind of nails to be 
 used in the horse's foot, whether a mangled piece of 
 iron, rendered dangerous by improper manipulation, 
 or one made from the rod at a welding heat, where 
 all the fibers remain intact, and afterwards hammer- 
 pointed. The foot is an important member of the 
 animal's body, and demands the greatest care and 
 attention, for when it becomes injured or diseased, 
 no matter how perfect the other parts may be, the 
 horse's services are diminished or altogether lost. 
 Hence the value of a horse depends upon the condi- 
 tion of his feet. 
 
 From the days of Tubal Cain to the present time 
 fire has been the only sure element with which iron 
 could be properly wrought. Every other method 
 has resulted in producing articles of great inferiority 
 where strength and durability are required, and in 
 no place are these two requisites more necessary 
 than in the horse's shoe-nail. The ancients used 
 only charcoal in the working of iron, thus avoiding 
 all sulphurous gases, hence the superiority of their 
 weapons. Tlie old Damascus blades owe "their su- 
 periority in part to the use of asphalt when being 
 forged, thus avoiding the presence of sulphur, which 
 is so ruinous to all kinds of iron and steel. I'rofil- 
 ing by this knowledge, the manufacturers of tliis 
 nail have abiuidoned the use of coal and coke in the 
 
 forging, and use only pure carbon gas made from 
 petroleum, and are tliereby enabled to obtain a much 
 higher temperature in the working of the iron. Tlie 
 Putnam niiil is drawn down to a point from the rod 
 of iron, as shown in the drawing, and receives about 
 sixty (juick, successive, sharp blows, at a welding 
 heat. It is then sealed by the water process, no 
 acids being used, and ;ifterw:ir(ls liamnier-jiointeil. 
 It is to all intents and jmrposes the same as the old- 
 fasliioned haud-mude and hammer-pointed nail. 
 
 PUTTY- POWDER.— A material consisting of perox- 
 ide of tin, in great use for polishing small-arms and 
 metal work. It is also used as a coloring mate- 
 rial for white glass, and for the white enamels of 
 porcelain, etc. It is made by melting tin ; as the 
 .surface o.xidizes, the scum, which is the peroxide, 
 is raked off. and when cold, is reduced to a fine pow- 
 der, which is white in color, and the particles are 
 extremely hard. See Polishing. 
 
 PTKGI. — Movable towers, used by the Greeks in 
 scaling the walls of besieged towns. They were 
 driven forward upon wheels, and were divided into 
 different stories, capable of carrying a great number 
 of soldiers and military engines. 
 
 PTKITES. — A common name for the ancient vhed- 
 lock, used before the invention of the flint-lock. 
 
 PYKOBOLI.— Fireballs, used both by the Greeks 
 and Komaiis. Frequently called Malleoli. 
 
 PYROMETER. ~A term originally applied by Mus- 
 chenbroek, in 1731, to an instrument which he invent- 
 ed for measuring all the changes produced in the 
 dimensions of solid bodies by the application of 
 heat. It is, however, now applied to any instrument 
 the object of which is to measure all gradations of 
 temperature above those that can be indicated by 
 the Mercurial Thermometer. DesaguHers gives a 
 description of Muscheubroek's instrument, as im- 
 proved by liimself, in his Expetimental Philoi,<tphy. 
 Numerous pyrometers have since been invented, 
 amongst which may be noticed those of Ellicott (des- 
 cribed in the Pliilosoplucal Transactions for 1736 and 
 1751), Graham (in Do. for 1754), Wedgwood (in Do. 
 for 1782, 1784and 1786) and Guyton (in the Annales, 
 de Chimie. tome 46). None of these instruments, 
 however, gave accurate results for very high tem- 
 peratures; and it was not till the j-ear 1821 that Pro- 
 fessor Daniell announced the invention of his pyro- 
 meter, which has supplanted all others, and for 
 which, in an unproved form, he received the Rum- 
 ford Medal from the Royal Society. 
 
 The method by shrinkage having been adopted for 
 the insertion of the tube of the 8-inch breech-load- 
 ing rifle, it at once became important to provide 
 some reliable means for measuring, from time to 
 time, the expansion of the cast-iron casing while 
 undergoing heating. It was deemed most desirable, 
 also, m connection with these measurements, to 
 determine accurately the corresponding tergpera- 
 turcs, in order to acquire trustworthy data, which 
 might serve for reference in future operations of this 
 nature. The instruments prepared for the above 
 purposes were as follows : 
 
 1. For the measurement of the expansion. In this 
 operation, since the instrument would require to be 
 inserted within thebore of the heated casing, it was 
 deemed necessary to emplo)' a measuring tool of 
 such poor conducting material as would undergo 
 itself as little change from the heat as possible. 
 Accordingly, a number of wooden measuring-rods, 
 with steel points screwed into the ends, were con- 
 structed. The lengths of these rods were then ad- 
 justed by a vernier rule, reading to 0".001, so as to 
 form a series, gradually increasing bv 0".005, from 
 22". 00 to 22". 09, or to a little be.yond the re(iuired 
 expansion. The length of each measuring-rod was 
 stamped upon it, and a stiff wire attached to it at 
 tlie middle, by which to handle it in taking a meas- 
 urement. By means of these rods, using a longer 
 and longer one till one was found that would just 
 enter the casing, the measurements of the inlerior 
 diameter of the healed casing were rapidly, and, it is 
 thought, quite accurately made. The lengths of the 
 measuring-rods, as verified by the vernier rule, im- 
 medi;ilely after being withdrawn, showed no sensi- 
 ble change. This mode of measurement was devised 
 by the South Boston Iron Company. 
 
 2. For the measurement of the temperature. For 
 the delcrmination of the teniperalure it was decided 
 tociii|iloy a pyrometer of the form usually known as 
 the hydro-pyrometer; in which the temperature i8 as-
 
 PTROPHORE STIRRUP. 
 
 615 
 
 PTHOTECHNY. 
 
 ccrtainc'd by f.xpoMing to the action of the heat 
 
 ivhicli is lo !)(' iiicaHiircrl a dctinitc wcifjhl of some 
 liiclal. as plaliiiiiiii. slcrl. copper, elc, ami then 
 iiueiieliin'.; Ilie same ill a kn.iwii weifjlil of water, 
 and iioliiii; the rise in teniperatiire of the latter. 
 From lliis data, and the specilie heal of the metal 
 employed, the initial temperature of the metal, 
 whieli is till' temperaiure reipiired, ean he readily 
 oMiiiiied. Tims, if a piece of platiimm weiLrhiiiir 
 1,0(111 '.Tains should, when immersed in 2.0(10 j;rains 
 of water at a Icmpcradire of (iO" Fahrenheit, raise 
 the temperature of the latter to 'JO", then 90"— 00" 
 =30", multiplied liy 2 hecaii.se the weight of the 
 •.vat<'r is twice that of the platinum, uives 00", the 
 temperature to which a wci;;lil of water equal to 
 the |>latiiiuni would have liccn raised. Tu obtain 
 from this the initial temperature of the platinum, in 
 F.ihreiihcit degrees, we multiply by 31 \. the spceitie 
 heat of water as compared willi ]ilatiimm, that of 
 the latter being 1, and to Die result add the tem- 
 Iieratnre of the water. Therefore (00 X 31 1 J -f 90 
 = l'.t(i5 is the temperature re(piired. The principle 
 may otherwise be stated as follows: A body of 
 known weight W is raised to a final temperature T, 
 and then ])liiiiged into a quantity of water of weight 
 W' and lein])eratur<' t. which is contained in a cop- 
 per vessel called a "calorimeter." .\s T is sujiijosed 
 to exceed t. the water gains in temperature by the 
 immersion of the body, and finally attains a maxi- 
 
 case con be easily written down, since it in onlj' nec- 
 essary loexpressthat Iheqnanlity of heat given up by 
 the heated liody H equal lotlial gained by the water, 
 the caloriiiielrr. tlermomelir, iiii.xer. etr-. 
 
 Ijet W denote tlu' weight of the hod}- : T its initial 
 temperature ; a; itH specilie heat : H'' the weight ol 
 the water in the calorimeter; m' the weight of the 
 calorimeter; a;* its specific heat ; w" the weight of 
 th<' mixer, and a-" its speeide heat : w'" the weight 
 of the tljcrinometer-liibe immersed in the water; y 
 its specilie heat, and if'^' the W(-ight of the mercury 
 in the thermometer-tube, and x'*' its specific heat. 
 
 Then 
 
 Wx ('T—A)='W' -j- ir'y + w"x" -|-Mi"'a:"'4-»/-lvxiv) 
 {A—t), and 
 
 (W + w'x' + w"x"-\-w"'i!" -\- wiva-iv) Cyl — t) 
 
 T= -f A 
 
 Wi 
 
 In the above expression the coefficient tti{A—t) is 
 called the vater ((juiraUnt nf the rah,rivuter, and 
 evidently represents a mass of water such that, sup- 
 posing it to receive exclusively all the heat given up 
 in the exjierimert. a therniomiter placed in it would 
 indicate the variation of temiierature actually ob- 
 si'rved. To determine this value for the particular 
 case under consideration, take the following sched- 
 ule : 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Material. 
 Copper. 
 
 Weight, ozs. 
 
 "o 
 
 C 
 
 •so 
 
 CO 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 So. 
 
 Numerical 
 value. 
 
 Ball. 
 
 5.012 
 
 W. 
 
 .1013. 
 
 x. 
 
 t'" 
 
 x" 
 
 Wx. 
 
 .50772 
 
 
 Water 
 
 
 34.192 
 
 11.23 
 
 1.51 
 
 .25 
 
 .30 
 
 W' 
 
 w" 
 w'" 
 
 JO'V 
 
 1. 
 
 .1013 
 .1002 
 .199 
 035 
 
 W' 
 
 w'x' 
 
 w"x" 
 
 w"'x"' 
 
 Ujivxiv 
 
 
 34.192 
 
 1.137G 
 
 .1513 
 
 .0498 
 
 0105 
 
 Calorimeter 
 
 Mixer 
 
 Tliermometer-tube 
 
 Copper 
 
 Brass 
 
 Glass 
 
 
 
 
 W'-l-wiV 4- w"x" + (r"V+"''^'*''^'= 
 
 
 
 
 
 .50772 
 
 35 .5412 
 
 ^ ^ ^ ^ 1 
 
 
 mum temperature .1, which is noted. In the change 
 from t to -i, the water has gained a quantity of heat 
 equal to W (.1 — 0.,Mnd the t)ody immersed has 
 lost a (juantity equal to Wx (T — -4); x being the spe- 
 cific heat of the body, that of water being equal to 
 1. Equating these two quantities we have 
 
 "W' (.4 — = Wj(T — -1) 
 Solving in reference to T. we obtain 
 W' {A—t) 
 
 T = h .1 
 
 Wj 
 This metliod of pyrometric measurement was first 
 adopted by Clement-Desormes and Schwarz, for the 
 measurement of the heat of furnaces ; it was after- 
 ward employed by Regnault in the determination of 
 the specific heats of various substances, liquid and 
 solid, and by Dr. Siemens in some delicate experi- 
 ments up<m the varying electrical conductivity of 
 telegraph wire under different degrees of tempera- 
 ture. The above equation assumes that the only 
 exchange of heat is between the water and the heat- 
 etX body, which is not actually the case. The heat 
 of the body is not given up exclusively to the water 
 in the calorimeter, but partly to the calorimeter it- 
 .self, to the thermometer, the mixer, and such other 
 instruments as may be employed in the experiments 
 and come in contact, directly or indirectly, with the 
 heated body. -4 The equation for the most general 
 
 From which we determine — 
 
 W'4-«>'a;'-|-M"j "-|-tp"V-|-Kiiva;'v 35.5412 
 Wx ^ 50772' " 
 
 =70. 
 
 for the wafer equivalent of the pyrometer, or the 
 value of each degree in the difference between the 
 temperature of the water before and after the im- 
 mersion of the heated coppc. . The expression fot 
 the temperature thus becomes T=70 (A — t)-\-A. See 
 Tliermnmftfr. 
 
 PYROPHORE STIRRUP.— .V stirrup in ver>- ancient 
 times provided with a lantern, which gave light and 
 warmed the feet of the rider. 
 
 PYROTECHNY.— The art of making fireworks, and 
 of unknown antiquity. It was practiced among the 
 Chinese from th:- earliest times. and has attained with 
 them a perfection unknown in other countries So 
 much is this the case, that they treat as insignificant 
 the most brilliant of other displays. In their fire- 
 works they introduce many surprises, such as figures 
 of men and animals darting out. but they are some- 
 what deficient in the mechanical arrangements. Fire- 
 works, as the name is now understood, were hardly 
 known in Europe until the discovery of the com posi- 
 tion of gunpowder, and for a long time only very 
 simple pyrotechnic contrivances were used. At pres- 
 ent they may be divided into two kinds — the simple
 
 PYEOXYLE. 
 
 61G 
 
 PYKHHIC DANCE. 
 
 hand-pieces, such as squibs, crackers, rockets etc.; 
 and the other, the fixed contrivances whicli have 
 often very ingenious mechanical arrantrements for 
 making some of their parts revolve rapidly wlieu be- 
 ing discharged. The materials used are gunpow- 
 der, sulphur, charcoal, saltpeter, filings of steel, iron- 
 copper, etc., and several salts: such as nitrate of 
 atrontian, acetate of copper common salt, etc. The 
 in'^redients of tireworks arc usually filled into pa- 
 pe'r cases, made by rolling pasted paper round a cy- 
 linder of wood, of the proper diameter, until the 
 case is of suflicient thickness, and then cutting the 
 paper tube so formed into the required lengths 
 for squibs, Roman candles, small rockets, and simi- 
 lar articles ; they seldom exceed ten inches ; one 
 end of each is closed by drawing a piece of string 
 tii'htly round, so as to pinch it in. or choke it, as it is 
 te'chuically called, and then dipping it into melted 
 resin, which effectually seals it. the combustible 
 ingredients are filled in"at the open end, and, if neces- 
 sary, are rammed down with a wooden ramrod ; the 
 opening is afterward covered with a piece of touch- 
 paper, to prevent the composition falling out, and to 
 ignite it by. The effects produced by fireworks are 
 either streams of fire issuing straight out of the 
 cases, and much varied witii sparks in the form of 
 stars, etc., and col'ired with brilliant colors, or wheels 
 of beautiful sparks produced by making the cases 
 revolve rapidly. Revolving pieces are made by coil- 
 ing the paper tube, when not too tightly filled, around 
 a Sat wooden center; the force with which the com- 
 bustion of the materials is carried on, is sufficient to 
 make the board revolve with great rapidity. Small 
 wheels of this kind are called ("'atheriae mlieelx. fb'guihx 
 or serpents are made by filling tubes, eight to ten 
 inches in length, with a composition of 1 lb. of niter, 
 2 oz. of charcoal powder (rather coarse 1,4 oz. of gun- 
 powder, 4 oz. of sulphur, and 6 oz. of steel filings. 
 The last is an important ingredient in many fire- 
 works, producing brilliant," feather-like corusca- 
 tions, which are the more beautiful the larger and 
 cleaner the filings are. Rm-kets are tied to a wooden 
 stick. When they are about to be discharged,, this 
 stick is stuck in the ground, and in that position the 
 io-niting point of the rocket is downward ; when 
 lighted, it rushes into the air with great velo- 
 city and reaches a consideriible height, discharging 
 as "it goes a brilliant stream of sparks. Rockets re- 
 quire a hollow center all down the tube ; without 
 this they will not rise. At the end of their course, 
 they often discharge very brilliant clusters of golden, 
 ruby . emerald, sapphire-like stars, or showers of 
 golden or colored rain, or of fiery serpents. This is 
 produced by a supplementary part, called i\\e gnrni- 
 ture of the rocket, consisting of a shorter and broad- 
 er paper tube, called the p"(, attached to the end of 
 the fusee part of the rocket, and filled with a com- 
 position made into paste with pure alcohol, and cut 
 into stars, or granulated into small, round bodies for 
 drops. The serpents for rockets are small tusees, 
 with the same composition as scjuibs ; they are so 
 packed as to ignite all at once. The white stars are 
 made of niterV 16 parts ; .sulpluir, 8 parts ; gunpow- 
 der, 3 or 4 parts ; nitrate of strontian added, makes 
 them ruby red ; sulphur or acetate of copper, and 
 sulphate "and carbonate of barytes, green; zinc fil- 
 ings give a blue color. YiUinc stm-s and ylloir s/ioir. 
 #rii are made of niter, 10 parts, 10 of sulphu;-, 4 of 
 charcoal, 16 of gimpowder, and 2 of lamp-black. 
 A deeper and richer golden color is produced by a 
 very slight variation in the composition— viz., 2 
 parts less of sulpluir and charcoal, and 4 additional 
 of gunpowder. .Many other ingenious devices are 
 used by masters in the art of jjyrotechny, but they 
 are loo numerous and too technical to come within 
 the limits of this work. The Itnmnn cii/idle is a 
 favorite firework ; it is a tube which is held on the 
 ground, and discharges upward a continuous stream 
 of blue or wliite stars or balls. Hini/itl lights 
 are cases of about an inch or more in dumu'ter.filled 
 
 with a composition of 7 parts niter, 2 of sulphur, 
 and 1 of antimony. These are much used as sig- 
 nals at sea ; they diffuse an immense glare of bluish- 
 white light. Chinese or j<i.iemine ft'/v, which is used 
 bj' itselfor in combination with other mixtures, con- 
 sists of 16 parts of gunpowder, 8 of niter, 3 of finely- 
 powdered cliarcoai.3 of sulphur, and 10 of small cast- 
 iron borings ; the last must be finer or coaser in pro- 
 portion to the bore of the case to be filled. The com- 
 pound devices in fixed fireworks, such as are seen at 
 publio entertainments, are very complicated in their 
 structure, and are varied more or less by every artist. 
 One nice point in the arrangement is to insure sim- 
 ultaneous ignition of all the various parts. See Fire- 
 icorks. 
 
 PYROXYLE— FYKOXYLIN.— The action of nitric 
 acid on such vegetable substancesas saw-dust, linen, 
 paper, ami cotton, is to render them very combusti- 
 ble. In their natural state these substances are al- 
 most entirel}' composed of Uynine, the constituents 
 of which are oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon ; nitric 
 acid furnishes nitrogen, a substance which enters 
 into the composition of nearly all explosive bodies. 
 Pj-roxyleor gun-cotton has the composition indicat- 
 ed by the symbol C„H,(NO,)305, or C.;H,N30, _,, 
 and is formed by the action of concentrated nitric 
 acid on cotton. The reaction consists in the sub- 
 stitution of nitrogen and o.xygen in feeble combina- 
 tion for part of the hydrogen in the cotton or cellu- 
 lose, and is therefore similar to the one by which 
 nitro-glycerine is produced. The equation illustrat- 
 ing tlie reaction may be thus written : 
 
 CeHioOs -f 3HN0, = CeH,(N0s,)305 + 3 H^O 
 
 Cotton or Nitric acid. Nitro-cellnlose or Water. 
 
 Cfllulose. gun-cotton. 
 
 A number of these substitution products are 
 known, but only one is used as an explosive agent. 
 Some of the others are largely employed for making 
 collodion. 
 
 Pyroxylc was discovered by Prof. Schonbein, 
 and published to the world in 1840. His method of 
 preparing it consists of mixing three parts of sul- 
 phuric acid, sp. grav. 1.85, with one part of nitric 
 acid, sp. gr. 1.4.5 tol..50; and when the mixture cools 
 down to between 50'^ and 60° Falir., clean rough 
 cotton, in an open state, is immersed in it; when 
 soaked, the excess of acid is poured off, and the 
 cotton pressed tightly to remove as much as possi- 
 ble of what remains. The cotton is then covered 
 over and left for half an hour, when it is again 
 pressed, and thoroughlj' washed in running water 
 to remove all free acid. After being partially dried 
 by pressure, it is washed in an alkaline solution 
 made by dissolving one ounce of carbonate of potash 
 in a gallon of water. The free acid being thus expelled, 
 it is placed in a press, the excess of alkaline solution 
 expelled, and the cotton left nearly dry. It is then 
 washed iu a solution of pure nitrate of potash, one 
 ounce to the gallon, and being again pressed, is dried 
 under a temperature of from 150*^ to ITO''. The sul- 
 phuric acid has no direct action on lignine, its use 
 in the preparation of pj'roxyle being to retain the 
 water abstracted from the cotton, and prevent the 
 solution of the compoimd, which would take place, 
 to a greater or less extent, in nitric acid alone. See 
 (fun-cott'in 
 
 PYRRHIC DANCE.— The most famous of all the 
 war-dances of antitiuity, said to have received its 
 name from one Pyiriclios, or, according to others, 
 from Pyrrhus or Neo|itolemus, the son of Achilles, 
 Orilical scholars, however, content themselves with 
 a general inference deduced from the substanlial har- 
 mony of the various niythi(;il or legendary accounts 
 given of its origin — viz.. thiit it w;is a Doric inven- 
 tion. It w;is d:inced to the llute. and its time was 
 both quick iuid light, as niiiy be seen from the Pvrr- 
 hic foot, composed of two shorts (- -), and the t'ro- 
 keleusmatic, orchallenging-foot. of twoilouble shorts 
 (-■--'-). According to Plato, it aimed to represent 
 the nimble motions of a warrior cither avoiding mis-
 
 QUACEENBUBH AIB OUN. 
 
 617 
 
 QnAKTE. 
 
 siles and blows, or assniilting the nnemy; and in tlie Julius CccBar introdurfd it at Rnmr?, where it borame 
 Doric Statr's, it was as murh a picfo of military train- a great favorite. The Hirmnika, Htill danced in 
 iiii; as an aniuHcinent. KIscwIiitc, in (Jricci', it was Grccrcc, is saifl lo be a inorlcrn relic of the ancient 
 purely a mimetic dance, in « liidi the parts \vcr<r i I'yrrhic dance; but if Dr. Corrigan's deHcription of it 
 Bomctimcs represented by women. It formed part C Ten. Dayn in Athenn, 18G1J Ih correct, it is not easy 
 of the public eulcrtaiumtut at I^auatheuaic festivals. ■ to sec the resemblance. 
 
 Q 
 
 QUACKENBUSH AIE GUK.— The moBt perfect and 
 efTeclive i^iin of its cla^s, at present made. Being 
 a hard-sliooter,an<l easily iuanipulaled.it is well suit- 
 ed for practice at short range: and is very extensively 
 us<'d hy N'cruits wlien learning the principles of aim- 
 ing and firing. Tlie ilrawing shows its workiuL' 
 parts. Pulling Ihe tri^'ger releases the piston iV). 
 which is then thrown foward hvthc spriiiir. c.xpellinL' 
 the air from the chamber (Cj. through the barrel (15;i 
 with great force, carrying tlie dart or bunet before | 
 
 an instrtiment employed, like the spirit-level quad- 
 rant, to give angles of elevation or (lepression when 
 there are no sights to a gun. or when they cannot be 
 used. It dilTers from the spirit-level quadrant in 
 having no spirit-level, but a plumb-line which is sus- 
 pemled from the rit'lil angle. 
 
 QUADRANT ANGLE, llu^ angle which the axis of 
 the |iiece, when laid, makeswiththe horizontal plane. 
 It is termed, rpiadriuit elevatii/n or gurulrant dfjrrex- 
 xliin, according as the piece is laid above or below 
 
 it. To Imid the gun. the barrel (3) is pushed into j the horizontal plane, 
 the cylinder ("C). which re-sets the pistim, compresii- i QUADRATE. — In gunnery, a term meaninc to as- 
 es the spriiijr, and allows the dart or bullet to be certain if .a piece of ordnance is properly placed on 
 inserleil through the opening (A), after which the i its carriaL'e, and the wheels are of ef|inil height, 
 barrel is drawn forward to the stop as shown. It | QUADKILATEHAL.— In military language, an ex- 
 
 will be observed that the spring guard ffl) can be 
 drawn back instantly to remove the barrel for [lack- 
 ing, etc.; andthat tlu' whole length of the Ijarrel is 
 effective, there being no waste space to occasion a 
 loss of air. The barrel is easily pushed into the 
 chamber, by placing the muzzle upon the floor or 
 against some tirm ooject. .See Air-gnn. 
 
 QUADI. — An ancient people living in south-east 
 Germania ; of the Suevic race, and inhabiting that 
 part of what is now Bohemia, Lower Austria, and 
 Moravia, which lay between the Sarmatian moun- 
 tains and Ilcrcynian forests and the Isteror Danube. 
 They were Allies of the Marcomanni, their neigh- 
 iDors on the north-west. The Roman Emperor Ti- 
 berius established a king<lom of the Quadi, and made 
 Yannius, one of his generals, King. In 174 b. c. the 
 Quadi, rose against the Empire in confederation 
 with other Germanic races, and it was only after 
 stubborn resistance that they were overcome. 
 
 QUADRANT. — In gunnery, an instrument, gcner- 
 all)' nuide of brass, for ascertaining or adjusting the 
 elevation of ordnance, particidarly mortars, which 
 have no tangent scale. The quadrant is graduated 
 into degrees and parts of a degree, having a movable 
 index, with a spirit-level and vernier attached to it. 
 When the instrument is used, the limb or bar of the 
 quadrant is inserted into the bor<' of the piece; the 
 index which is attached to tlie graduate<l arc is then 
 tixed to the particidar elevation re(piired. and the 
 piece elevated or depressed until the s])irit-level is 
 horizontal, which is shown by the air bubble run- 
 ning to the center. Another pattern iiuadrant to 
 that hitherto in use has been introduced. It differs 
 from the one generally known in being altogether of 
 a str<mger form ; the bar or limb has been reiluced 
 to 13 inches in length; the base is broader, and is 
 fitted with a stop to prevent its slipping iuti> the 
 chamber. The counterbalance weight is arranged ' 
 so as to ensure the quadrant lying flat on the bottom 
 of the bore of the piece. A 'Guriner'n Quadrant is 
 
 pression denoting a combination of four fortresses, not 
 necessarily connected together, but mutuallv sup- 
 porting each other; and from the fact that if one be 
 attacked, the garrisons of the others, unless careful- 
 ly observed, will harass the besiegers, rendering' it 
 necessarj'that a very large army should be employed 
 to turn the combined position." As a remarkable" in- 
 stance, and a very powerful one, may be cited the 
 Venetian Quadrila"teral (Austrian till I'SGG), compris- 
 ing the four strong posts of Mantua, Verona, Pesch- 
 ' iera. and Legnago. These form a sort of outwork 
 to the bastion which the southern mountains of the 
 Tyrol constitute, and divide the north plain of the 
 Po into two sections by a most powerful banier. 
 Napoleon III., in 18.59. even after the victories of 
 Magenta and Solferino, hesitated to attack this quad- 
 rilateral. 
 
 QUADRILLE.— Small parties of horse richly capari- 
 soned, etc.. in tournaments and at public festivals. 
 The quadrilles were distinguished from one another 
 by the shape or color of the coats which the riders 
 wore. 
 
 QUAKER GUNS. —Old wooden pieces of ordnance 
 which were made to resemble the real artillery, and 
 placed in the embrasures of forts, in order to deceive 
 the enemy. 
 
 QUARREL. — The missiles used for all cross-bows, 
 witli the exception of the rrnxs-hoir n galet.\rcTe call- 
 ed qninreh or bolts; and often written quarry. One 
 kind of quarrel (!;/rf^<«) was feathered so as to reg- 
 ulate the movement by giving a rotatorj- motion. 
 Another kind {matras) ended with a round knob, 
 which killed without shedding blood. See Articles 
 of \\',ir. 24. 
 
 QUARTE. — In tactics, a word of command given 
 in the bayonet exercise; as quarte parry, wliich is 
 executed as follows: 3Iove the piece quickly to the 
 left, the small of the stock passing imderthe left 
 elbow, the piece covering the left shoulder; the bar- 
 rel to the left, bayonet in front of, and higher than the
 
 QUARTEB. 
 
 618 
 
 QUARTERMASTER OF CADETS. 
 
 shoulder, the left forearm on the right of the piece, 
 
 the elbow touching the right wrist, the tingers on the 
 
 stock, 
 j QUARTER.— 1. In Heraldry, a subordinary con- 
 I sisting of the upper de.\ter fourth part of the shield, 
 1 cut off by a vertical and a liorizontal line meeting in 
 
 the center of the shield. When two or more coats 
 
 are marshaled together on a shield divided into 
 
 squares for their reception, such divisions are also 
 
 called quarters. See Qiuirtering. 
 2. In war, the sparing of the life of a vanquished 
 
 enemy, which bj- the laws of war is forfeit to the 
 
 victor. The expression seems to be derived from 
 
 the use of the word "quarter" to designate the lodg- 
 ing of the particular warrior ; to give quarter to a pri- 
 soner being to send him to his captor's quarter for 
 
 liberation, ransom, or slavery. The refusal of quart- 
 er is a terrible aggravation of the horrors of war. 
 
 and is only at all justifiable towards an enemy who 
 
 has been guilty of atrocious cruelty himself, or of 
 
 some flagrant breaclx of faith. 
 
 It is against tlie usage of modern war to resolve, 
 
 in hatred and revenge, to give no quarter. No body 
 
 of troops has the right to declare tliat it will not 
 
 give, and therefore will not expect, quarter ; but a : third quarter of the shield, and the paternal arms the 
 
 Castile and Leon, and first wife of Edward I., as re- 
 presented on her tomb in Westminster Abbev— the 
 Castle of Castile occupying the flrstand fourtli quar- 
 ters, and the Lion of Leon the second and third. The 
 arms of England and Ponthieu are similarly quar- 
 tered on the same monument, and on the "crosses 
 erected to queen Eleanor's memory. The received 
 rule regarding the quartering of theensignsof differ- 
 ent states is, that precedence is given To the most 
 ancient, unless it be inferior in importance. Feudal 
 arms are sometimes quartered 
 intlie same way by subjects. 2. 
 Arms of augmentation, or spec- 
 ial concession accorded to a 
 subject by his Sovereign, by 
 way of honor, are sometimes 
 granted to be borne quarterly 
 with the paternal arms. Tliese 
 contain a portion of the royal 
 insignia, and have precedence 
 of the paternal coat. 3. The most unusual reason 
 for quartering is to indicate descent from an heiress 
 who has intermarried into tiie family. Where there 
 is but one heiress, her coat occupies the second and 
 
 commander is permitted to direct his troops to give 
 no quarter, in great straits, when his own salvation 
 makes it impnmble to cumber himself with prisoners. 
 Troops that give no quarter have no right to kill ene- 
 mies already disabled on the ground," or prisoners 
 captured b)' other troops. Alt troops of the enemy 
 known or discovered to give no quarter in general, 
 or to any portion of the army, receive none. "Troops 
 who fight in the uniform of their enemies, without any 
 plain, striking, and uniform mark of distinction (if 
 their own, can e.xpect no quarter. 
 
 If American troops capture a train containing uni- 
 forms of the enemy, and the commander considers 
 It advisable to distribute tliem for u.se among his 
 men, some striking mark or sign must be adopted 
 to distinguish the American soldier from the enemy. 
 The use of the enemy's national standard, flag, or 
 other emblem of nationality, for the purpose of de- 
 ceiving the enemy in battle, is an act of perfidy by 
 which they lose all claim to the protection of the 
 laws of war. Quarter having been given to an ene- 
 my by American troops, under a misapprehension 
 of his true character, he may, nevertheless, be or- 
 dered to suffer death if, within three days after the 
 l)attle, it be discovered that he belongs to a corps 
 wliich gives no quarter. 
 
 QUARTER ARMS.— A term in Heraldry, meaning to 
 place the arms of other families in the compart- 
 ments of a shield, which is divided into four quar- I 
 ters, the family arms being placed in the first quarter 
 
 first and fourth. Where there are more than one, 
 they are marshaled in the successive quarters in the 
 order of the intermarriages. Where more than four 
 coats have to be marshaled, the nimiber of vertical 
 lines is increased, and the divisions, though more 
 than four, are still called quarters. Where there 
 is an odd number of coats, the last quarter is usual- 
 ly filled up by repeating the first. One of tlie quar- 
 ters may itself, be quartered, when the heiress was 
 entitled to bear a quartered coat ; the shield is then 
 said to be counter-quartered, and its primary- quar- 
 ters are called grand quarters. Quarterings are not 
 allowed to be added to the paternal coat without 
 the sanction of the heraldic authorities. The expres- 
 sion " quarterings" is often loosely used for dfsc-ents 
 in cases where tliere is no right to quarter from rep- 
 resentation. The eightVr sixteen quarterings which 
 are sometimes ranged around the Scottish funeral 
 escutcheon, and which are still important for many 
 purposes in Germany, have no reference to repre- 
 sentation, but simply purity of blood for four or five 
 generations; i.e., that the father and mother, the 
 two grandmothers, and four great-grandmottiers, 
 as also in the case of sixteen quarterings, the eight 
 great-great-grandmothers, have all been entitled to 
 coat-armor. See Quarter. 
 
 QUARTERLY.— A term in Heraldry, meaning in 
 quarters or (juarterin'js : as, to bear arms quarterly. 
 
 QUARTERMASTER.— A regimental Staff Officer, "of 
 the relative rank of Lieutenant, wiiose dutv is to 
 
 when more than three other arms are to be quartered 1 look after the assignment of quarters, the provision 
 with the family arms, it is usual to divide the shield j of clothing, forage, fuel, and all other Quartermas- 
 into a suitable number of compartments; and still j ter's supplies : and when on the march he superin- 
 
 the arms are said to be quartered. 
 
 QUARTER BLOCKS. —Small blocks used for v.arious 
 purposes in meclianical maneuvers. They are 
 usually 20 inelies long, 6 Inches wide, and 2 inches 
 thick." 
 
 QUARTER GUARD.— A guard mounted in camp, 
 mimediately on the arrival of each corps on its 
 grounil. [t is placed in front of the center of the 
 camp, at about eiglity paces from it and is charged 
 ■with special <luties 
 
 QUARTER HUNG. -A term emi)loyed when speak- 
 ing of a gun whose trunnions have tlui. axis below 
 the line iif bore. 
 
 QUARTERING. In Heraldry, the bearing of two 
 or more coals on a sliield divided by horizontal and 
 perpendicular lines, a practice not to be found in the 
 earlier heraldry, and little in use till the l.'ith century. 
 Arms may be ([uartered for various reasons. 1. 
 To indicate dominion. A Sovereign quarters the en- 
 signs of his different States. The earliest instance 
 of quartering in Kngland is fouml in the |)alernid 
 arms of Eleanor, daughter of Frederick III., King of 
 
 tends the marking out of camp. He is appointed 
 by tlie Colonel of the regiment, subject to the ap- 
 [jroval of the Secretary of^ War. He vacates his 
 Staff position wdien promoted to the rank of C'aptain, 
 or at tlie discretion of the Colonel. In the British 
 service, the regimental Quartermaster rises, with few 
 exceptions, from the ranks. His duties are to su- 
 perintend, assign to their respei'tive occupants, and 
 have charge of, quarters, barracks, tents, clothing, 
 etc., used bj' the regiment. He is also regimental 
 storekeeper. The Quartermaster lias no further pro- 
 motion to look forward to; but after ;iO years' ser- 
 vice in all — incluiliug 10 as an <inicer— he may retire 
 with the honorary rank of Captain. He ri'ceives 
 lOs. 2d. a day in the cavalry, and Us. 2d. in the in- 
 fantry, rising by length of service to l.'is. 2d. and 
 lys. 'id.: with slightly dilTerenf rales in the guards, 
 engini'ers. etc. He is mil n'quired In jciiii the Mess 
 QUARTERMASTER AND COMMISSARY OF CADETS. 
 — .\n Ollicer of the Army, detailed liy the Secretary 
 of War. and assigned to duty as t^uartermaster and 
 Commissary of Cadets at the C S. Military Academy.
 
 QUARTERMASTER GENERAL. 
 
 (;i!) 
 
 QUATliENIONB. 
 
 litis charged willi all matters relatinp to clothing, 
 (■(|iiipjiicnt, liiid sulisisli'iifc of I lie CiKlctH, inchiding 
 jiiirvi viiit; and supiTvision of I he ('adds' Mchh. 
 
 A Hoard of Iiispcclors, coiisisliiii; of tlirce oltk-crs 
 appointed liy llie Superintendent, cxaniirics and com- 
 l)ares «ilh approveil jjatterns all uriieles of (,'adets' 
 clotldni;, an<l materials for makiiii; the siimc ; and 
 also examines all otIuT supplies fiirnislied liy the 
 Quartermaster and Commissarv of Cadets, and re- 
 ports to the Superintendent, at such times as he ap- 
 points on the qualit}- andsuitableness of the articles ; 
 ' but the Superintendent may assign an oflicer to in- 
 spect clothini; and shoes furnished for issue. No 
 cIothlDK or other article is issued or sold to the Ca- 
 dets without heins; tirst inspected and approved. 
 After every muster this Hoard carefully audits the 
 accounts for clothing, and all other authorized 
 charges asiaiiist Ciiili'ls. 
 
 QUARTERMASTER GENERAL.— A Slalf Officer in 
 the United States Army, wlio has the rank of Briga- 
 dier General, and is at the head of the (^uarlerinas- 
 ter's Department. In the British army he is a Stall 
 Oflicer uf lugh rank, whose duty it is to arrange the 
 marches, quarters, anil internal arrangements of the 
 army to which lie l)clougs. Kvery army lias some 
 officer of this Department; from a lirigade with a 
 Deputy Assistant Quartermaster General, receiving 
 £173 7s. (id. a year, besides regimental pay, up to a 
 complete army under a Commander-in-Chief, with a 
 Quartermaster General, who is usually a general 
 officer, and receives .£'(iS)l IDs. 7d. per annum, be- 
 sides his other pay. At headquarters there is a per- 
 manent Quartermaster General, responsilile for all 
 the movements of the army, the organization of ex- 
 peditions, camps of instruction, etc. He receives 
 i'l ,.500, besides his pay as a general officer, and has 
 a Sub-Department at the War Oflice, witli clerks, 
 etc. He is under the officer commanding in chief, 
 and the Adjutant (leiieral. 
 
 QUARTERMASTER'S DEPARTMENT. Department 
 is charged with the duty of providing the means of 
 transportation, b.v land and water, for all troops, 
 and all material of war, It furnishes the horses of 
 the artillery and cavalry, and horses and mules for 
 the trains. It provides and distributes clothing, 
 tents, camp and garrison equipage, forage, lumber, 
 and all material for cam]is and for shelter of troops 
 and of stores. It builds liarracks, storehouses, hos- 
 pitals; provides wagons andaiiibulaiices;iiid harness, 
 except lor cavalry and artillery horses: builds or 
 charters ships, steamers, and boats, docks, and 
 wharves; constructs and repairs roads, railways, and 
 bridges; clears out olistructions in rivers and har- 
 bors, when necessary for military purposes: provides, 
 by hire or purchase, grounds for military encamp- 
 tiients and buildings; pays generally all expenses of 
 military operations not by law expressly assigned to 
 some other Department; and, linsUly, it provides and 
 maintains military cemeteries, in which the dead of 
 the army are buried. 
 
 The following are general depots of the Quarter- 
 master's Department in theUnited States, and the offic- 
 ers in charge thereof report directly to the (Quarter- 
 master General: New York. Philadelphia, and Schuyl- 
 kill Arsenals, Washington, D. C, JelTersonville, lud.. 
 and San Francisco, Cal. All other depots are under 
 the orders of the Commanding Generals of the Mili- 
 tary Departments in which tluy are situated. The 
 Commander of the Military Division of the Pacilic, 
 however, for all purposes of his command, has au- 
 thority over the depot of San Francisco as over De- 
 partment depots; but in matters relating exclusively 
 to the collection and manufacture of military suj)- 
 plies, the officer in charge of that depot communi- 
 cates directly with the Quartermaster General of the 
 army. 
 
 The present organization of the Quartermaster's 
 Department consists of one (Jmirtermaster (ieneral, 
 with the rank of Brigadier General; four Assistant 
 Quartermaster Generals, with the rank of Colonel: 
 
 eight Deputy QuartermaHter (iencrals, with tlie rank 
 
 of Lieutenant C(j|onel: fourteen (Quartermasters, with 
 ' the rank of Major; and thirty Assistant Quarter- 
 masters, with tlie rank of Captain. 
 
 QUARTERMASTER SERGEANT.— A Non-commin- 
 sioiied Olllcer who assists tlie (Quartermaster in his 
 vari<ius duties. He ranks among the regimi-ntal 
 Non-commishioned Statl, and is appoinli'd by llic 
 Colonel of the regiment upon the recommendation of 
 the (Quartermaster. In the British service, he re- 
 ceives daily 4s. .'id. in the cavalry, 4s. in the artille- 
 r3", 2s. lid. in the infantrv of the line. 
 
 QUARTER OF ASSEMBLY. -A rendezvous or place 
 where llie tn.i.jis lueei to march from in a boily. 
 
 QUARTERS.- 1. 'riKMiicampmcnt on one of the 
 l)riiHip;il passages round a place besieged, to prevent 
 relief and intercept convoys. 
 
 2. In military affairs, ((uarters are generally the 
 positions assigned to persons or bodiesof men. In a 
 more special sense, the quarters in the army are the 
 places of lodging assigned to olhcers or men, when 
 not actually on duty. At all posts and stations where 
 tliere are public quarters in buildings belonging to 
 the United Sl;ites. olhcers may be furnished with 
 quarters in kind in such public buildings by the 
 (Quartermaster's Deiiartment. There is allotted by 
 the (Quartermaster at the station. under the direction 
 of the Commanding OHicer.to each officer such num- 
 ber of rooms as is allowed to his grade by the Kegu- 
 lations of the Army. When assigned to duty with- 
 out troops. or temporarily and involuntarily awaiting 
 orders, under com])etent authority, officers are entitl- 
 ed to the prescribed allowance of quarters. But in no 
 case is an officer furnished with quarters at two dif- 
 ferent stations at the same time. Application .should 
 be made to the Quartermaster on the arrival of the 
 officer at the place where (juarlers are to be provid- 
 ed. See All'tirance of (Jnartem. 
 
 QUARTER SIGHTS.— In gunnery, divisions marked 
 on the upper quarters of the base-ring, commencing 
 where it would be intersected by a plane parallel to 
 the axis of the piece, and tangent to the upper sur- 
 face of the trunnions. These sights are used for 
 giving elevations up to 3". The mode of elevating 
 the gun is by bringing the division on the base ring 
 expressing the required degree of elevation and the 
 notch on the aide of the muzzle in direct line with 
 the object; the^un will then have the proper degree 
 of elevation. To lay the gun point-blank, the low- 
 est notch on the base ring and that on the side of the 
 muzzle are brought directly in line with the object, 
 and though the gun may have been laid point-blank 
 with reference to the object, it may have several 
 degrees of elevation or depression with regard to the 
 ground or plane of the horizon. 
 " QUARTERS OF REFRESHMENT.— The place where 
 the troops that have been much harassed are put 
 to recover themselves, during some part of the cam- 
 pa ii:n. 
 
 QUARTER STAFF.— Formerly a favorite weapon 
 with the English for hand-to-hand encounters, being 
 a stout pole of heavy wood, about 6i feet long, shod 
 with iron at both ends. It was grasped in the mid- 
 dle by one hand, and the attack was made by giving 
 it a rapid circular motion, which brought the loaded 
 ends on the adversarj' at unexpected points. 
 
 QUATERNIONS.— the name given by its inventor. 
 Sir W. R. Hamilton, to one of the most remarkable of 
 the mathematical methods of calculi, which have so 
 enormously extended the range of analysis, while 
 simplifying its application tc the most formidable 
 problems in geometry and gunner)-. It would be 
 inconsistent with our phmto give even a complete 
 though elementary analytical view of this calculus; 
 but it is possible, by means of elementary geometry 
 and algebra alone, to give the reader a notion of its 
 nature and value, i'or this purpose, it will be 
 necessary to consider some very simple, but im- 
 portant ideas with reference to the relatire jumtion, 
 of points in space. Suppose A and B to be any two
 
 QUATEKNIONS. 
 
 620 
 
 QUATEBNIONS. 
 
 Stations, one, for instance, at the top of a mountain, 
 the other at the bottom of a coal-pit. Upon how 
 many distinct numbers dtjes their relative position de- 
 pend? Tliis can be easily answered thus: B is so 
 many degrees of longitude to the east or west of A, 
 so many degrees of latitude to the north or southof A, 
 and so many feet above or below the level of A. 
 Tliree numbers suffice, according to this mode of 
 viewing the question, to determine the position of 
 B when that of A is given. Looking at it from an- 
 other point of view, suppose A to be the eartli. B a 
 fixed star. To point a telescope at B, we require to 
 know its altitude and azimuth, its latitude and lon- 
 gitude, or its right ascension and declination. Any 
 of these pairs of numbers will give us the direction 
 of the line AB, but to determine absolutely the po- 
 sition of B, we require a third number— viz., the 
 length of AB. Hence, it appears tliat any given 
 line AB, of definite length and direction, is com- 
 pletely determined by three numbers. Also, if the 
 line at be parallel and equal to AB, it evidently de- 
 pends on the sapie three numbers. Hence, if we 
 take the expression (AB) to denote {not. as in geom- 
 etrv, the lengtli of AB merely, but) the length and 
 direction of ^AB; we see that there will be no error 
 introduced, if we use it in the following sense : 
 
 A + (AB) = B ; 
 i.e., if beginning with A, we take the step repre- 
 sented by (AB). we shall find ourselves at B. From 
 this it follows at once that, if C be anv third point, 
 
 A + (AB) -f (BC) = C: 
 i.e.. beginning at A, and taking the successive steps 
 (ABj and (BC), we are finally brought to C. But 
 we have also 
 
 A-|-(AC)=C, 
 by taking the step from A to C at once. Hence, 
 ■with the present signification of (AB), etc.. we see 
 that 
 
 (AB)+(BC) = (AC), 
 which shows that lines, when their length and direc- 
 tion are huth considered, are to be added or compound- 
 ed according to the same law as velocities or forces. 
 In this sense, a line is called by Sir W. R. Hamilton 
 Avectur. Again, we have evidently 
 
 A + (AB) + (BC) + (CA) = A, 
 because the three successive steps bring us back to 
 the starting-point. Hence 
 
 (AB)-f (BC) = -(CA), 
 and therefore (AC) =: — (CA), or the sign (only) of a 
 vector is changed if its direction be reversed. The 
 rules for the addition, and, therefore, for the sub- 
 traction, of vectors are thus extremely simple ; and, 
 without any further preface, we are in a position to 
 solve a great many geometrical problems, some of 
 which are of no common difficulty. A comparative- 
 ly simple one must suffice ; let us prove Euclid i. 33 
 i'. c . if AB lie parallel and equal to CD, AC is paral- 
 lel anil equal to BD. In vectors, given (AB)=(CD), 
 prove (AC)=(BD). We have at once, by going di- 
 rectly from A to C, and then by the course A, B, 
 D,C, 
 
 (AC; = (AB) + (BD) + (DC). 
 But (AB) = (CD) = — (DC) by what we have just 
 proved. Hence the first and lliird terms of the ex- 
 pression for (AC) are equal and of opposite signs, 
 and therefore 
 
 (AC) = (BD), 
 This example has been chosen from its simplicity, 
 and gives an extremely inadequate idea of the grasp 
 whicli vectors take in common geometr}-. 
 
 So far, we have not advanced much beyond com- 
 mon geometrical methods; but we noir come to the 
 Step in which (|uatiriiions proper are introduced, a 
 vector being merely a degradeil species of quaternion. 
 This new step contains Hamilton's answer to the 
 question, answered over and over again during the 
 last 50 vears in forms of the most uncouth complex- 
 ity, " flow to express the product, or the <jUotient,of 
 tiro vectors, or directed line.i." In other words, keep- 
 
 ing to one part of the question only, what is the 
 nature of the factor g in the equation 
 (AC) = }(AB). 
 where A, B, C are any three points ? Let us first 
 consider on hmc many independent nwmbers does it 
 depend? It might at first sight appear to depend 
 upon six, for (AB) and (AC), as we have alreaay 
 seen each contain tlree. But let us analyze the pro- 
 cess of passing from the one vector to the other, 
 much as we have already analyzed the vector step 
 of passing from one point to another. To sim- 
 plify the idea of the process, let us suppose it to 
 be effected by a species of rotation. First, then, in 
 
 order that (AB) may be turned so as to coincide in 
 directiim with (AC) it must be ttirned about an axis 
 perpendicular to the plane of the triangle ABC, 
 and through an angle BAC. Now, the direction 
 of a line always depends on tiro numbers, as we have 
 seen above; hence, we will have two for the direc- 
 tion of the axis, and one for the angle through 
 which AB is turned. But AB and AC are not. in 
 general, of equal length; hence, after their direc- 
 tions have b_v turning been made coincident, AB 
 must be compressed or stretched till its length is 
 the same as that of AC. Thus, a fourth number 
 is required for the complete description of the pro- 
 cess, and, therefore, q depends upon four indepen- 
 dent numerical guantities ; hence its name, quater- 
 nion. A similar investigation, but somewhat less 
 elementary, shows that The product of two vectors 
 also depends on four distinct numbers. This will 
 be proved analytically further on in the article. 
 Now, suppose AB and AC to be egual to each other, 
 and at right angles ; and suppose 
 9(AB) = (AC) ; 
 i.e., suppose that g turns AB through a right ange 
 in a given plane without altering its length. Apply 
 the operation denoted by g, a second time, and we 
 have 
 
 ?. .?(AB=?(AC). g 
 Now ?(AC) must represent a vector equal to AC 
 in length, but turned through a right angle in the 
 plane BAC. It must therefore be in the direction 
 of BA produced through A, and equal in length to 
 AB. Hence, by a previous remark, it may be ex- 
 pressed by 
 
 — (AB), or by (BA). 
 Hence, g. 9(AB) = — (AB), or g.g= — 1. 
 The particular quaternion, therefore, which turns 
 a vector through 90'^ without altering its length, has 
 its square equal to — 1. Though, of course, they 
 are essentially a real geometrical conception, this 
 result shows how closely quaternions are connected 
 with what are called imaginary (luantities in analy- 
 tical gcimietryand algebra. Now it is found, by a 
 careful examination of all the consequences involv- 
 ed, that we are at liberty to represent by a vector of 
 unit length, perpendicular to the plane of two equal 
 lines at right angles to each other, the quaternion 
 which, employed as a mvdtiiilier, changes one of 
 these lines into the other. This result we nuist as- 
 sume ; as its proof, thougli not in any sense difficult, 
 woulil rcquin- tlie free use of analytical symbols to 
 condense it within our assigned limits. Hence tiiree 
 vectors, each of tmit length, and each perpendicular 
 to the other two, have the pro])erty that the product 
 of anv two, taken in the proper order, is the third. 
 For illustration, suppose these to be drawn eastward, 
 northwaril, and upward, and lit them l)e represent-
 
 ftOATREFOIL. 
 
 (iL'l 
 
 QUICK MATCH. 
 
 ed (according to Hamilton's notation) by /, j, k. run- 
 pectivcly ; we have tlu^ following ('(nmtlons among 
 
 tlU'Ill t 
 
 i.j = /.%j. /.■ = /, k. i=j ; 
 when- it isto Ih'oIjsitvciI llml Ilii-onlcr of the alplia- 
 bet is inainlaiiicil llirouglnnii. Also, as before. «■<■ 
 sec that i' ^j- = k' — — 1. 
 
 'C'onsiilcriiig them for a moment as handles to be 
 laid hold of to turn the whole system alioiit one of 
 them, we see that / turns ,/ ijilo the |)osiliou of/-; 
 that is, llie operation/ may bcelTeeled liy a leflhand- 
 ed (|uadianlal rolalion alioul llie eastward line /. 
 What. Ihen, is the resuh, uiion the veelor / of the 
 rotation symbolized by ;'? Layiui: hold (if IheiKirlh- 
 ward line;', use it as an axis of left-handed (inadran- 
 tal rotation, and the efTeet on lh<' system will be not 
 (mly (as above,, ;'/■= 'o make the upward line an 
 eastward one, but to make the eastward line a limrn- 
 wird one ; in symools, 
 
 j. i=—k. 
 Comparing this with 
 
 '•./ = k. 
 we see that in quaternions, the commvtatire Imr of 
 7nulti/iliC(Ui»ii (/"C.1 n"t hold; i, r.. that the proiliiet de- [ 
 pends not only on the faetors, as in arithmetic ami 
 algebra, but upon the nrdfr in which the multipliia- 
 tion is elfected. Tliis is. of course, a litlh/ jierplex- 
 ing to the beginner, but is eii-.ily gut 
 over; and the mere consideration of 
 this fact is often sutticient for the 
 proof of theorems regarded in gene- 
 ral MS (if 11(1 (irdiiiary dillieulty. 
 
 QUATREFOLL.— A heraldic bear- 
 ing meant to reiiresent a Hower with 
 four leaves. It is not represented 
 Qoatre&il. ^^■n\^ ^ ^^.^\\^ unless lila/oned as Klip- 
 
 pfd, in which case the stalk joins the lower leaf. 
 
 QUEEN. — In its primary signification, the King's 
 Consort, who has in all countries been invested with 
 privileges not belonging to other married women. 
 The English tjiieen. unlike other wives, can make a 
 
 §rant to her husband, and receive one from him. 
 he can sue and be sued alone, and purchase land 
 witlidiit the King's concurrence. Tlie statute of 
 treasons makes it treas(,)n to compass her death, or 
 to violate her chastity, even with her consent, and 
 the Queen consenting, is herself guilty of treason. 
 If accused of treason, the Queen is tried by the Peers 
 of the Realm. A duty, amounting to one one-tenth 
 of the value of lines on grants by tlie Crown, was in 
 former times due to the Queen, under the name of 
 queen-nold. Charles I. purchased it from his Con- 
 sort, Henrietta Maria, in Ida."), for X10,0()i), but it 
 ■was not renewed at the restoration. The Queen's 
 Consort is c.\empt from paying toll, and from n- 
 mercements in any court. She has a household of 
 her own, consisting of six I.adies of the Bedchamber, 
 a Lord Chamberlain. Vice-chamberlain. Mistress of 
 the Robes, blaster of the Horse, and three E(|uerries, 
 as also her Attorney (leneral and Solicitor (Jencral. 
 distinct from those of the King, who are entitled to 
 take a jilace witliin the bar along with the King's 
 counsel, and prosecute suits in law and e(iuity for 
 the Queen. It has been the usual practice to Crown 
 the Queen Consort with solemnities similar to those 
 in the coronal ion of the King. In the case of the 
 Qiiteii /^<((c,f(7<v is the widow of the deceased King. 
 She retains most of the privileges which she enjoyed 
 as (^ueen Consort, nor does she lose her dignity by 
 re-marriage ; but it has been held that no one can 
 marry the Queen Dowager without permission from 
 the King.on pain of forfeiture of lands and goods. On 
 the marriage of a King, or accession of an unmar- 
 ried Prince, Parliament makes provision for the 
 Queen's maintenance, in case of her siirvivance. 
 An income of iUID.dOO a year, with two residences, 
 was settled on the Queen of George III.; and the 
 same provision was made for the late Dowager Queen 
 Adelaide, at the commencement of the reign of 
 William rV. The Queen-Dowager. when mother of 
 
 the reigning Sovc-rcign, U styled the Qiiccn-Mutlicr. 
 
 Until tiie time of (Jeorge If, Qneenii Consort bore 
 the arms of the King impaled with their paternal 
 coat, with the King's dexter and their jmternal sin- 
 isler-supporler; since that period, they have uwd 
 both royal siiiiiiorters. It is not usual to place the 
 arms of the Queen Consort within the tarter. 
 
 'i'he Qiifen Jl'ynarU is a Sovereign PrlnceKH who 
 has succeeded to the kingly power. In modern tinicn, 
 in those countries where the Salic law does not pre- 
 vail, on failure of nudcH. a female succeeds to the 
 throne. Hy an act of (^ueen .Mary, the tlrst ({iieen- 
 Kegnant in Kngland, it was declared '• thai the regal 
 ]iower of this realnie is in the Queen's mujestie us 
 fully and absolulelv as ever it wu.s in any of lier most 
 noble progenitors kings of this realme:" and it Iiuh 
 sin('e been held that the powers, jirerogalives, and 
 dignities of the (^ueen Ketrnant dilTer in no respect 
 from those of the King. The husband of the t^iieen- 
 Regnant is her subject; but in the matter of conjug- 
 al intidelily, he is not subjected to the same penal 
 restrictions as tli<' (^ueen Con.sort. lie is not endow, 
 ed by the constitution with any political rights or 
 privileges, and his lionors and precedence must lie 
 derived from tliet^iieen. A t^ueen Regnant is the only 
 woman who is in her own right entitled to bear her 
 arms in a shield and not in a lozenge. She is also 
 entitled to the exteriorornaments of lielmet. mantling, 
 crest, and motto, and may surround her shield with 
 the garter, and tlie collars and ribbons of all other 
 Orders of Knighthood of which she is Sovereign. 
 
 QUEEN ANNE'S POCKET PIECE.— An ancient IH- 
 pounder (■•■iimou ;it Dover. England. This piece is 
 
 more thilll L'S feel ill IcllL'tll. 
 
 QUEEN'S ALLOWANCE.— An allowance in Eng- 
 land, in aid of the expenses of the officers' mess. 
 It is applied towards reducing the cost of wine and 
 diminishing the daily expenses of the mess, in equal 
 proportions, viz., one-half for wine and one-half for 
 mess expenses. This grant isalso knownas Hegml'ii 
 
 Atb'irillifi . 
 
 QUEEN'S COLOR.— In the British service, the color 
 carried on the right of the two colors of a battalion 
 of infantry. It is, in the line, the great Union or 
 Union-jack, with the Imperial crown in the center, 
 and the number of the regiment in gold Roman 
 characters below the crown. In the guards, the 
 Queen's color is crimson, with various devices on it. 
 
 QUEEN'S REGULATIONS. — Tho.se collections of 
 orders and regulations in force in the English Army, 
 which serve to guide commanding and other officers 
 in all matters of discipline and personal conduct. 
 Financial matters are left to the War Office regula- 
 tions. The Regulations for the army were first col- 
 lectetl in 1788, since when .several editions have been 
 issued, the last being in 1873. The current Regnla- 
 titms are supplemented, corrected, and canceled by 
 numerous circulars and addenda; so that they never 
 re|iresent the whole body of military rules for many 
 d;iys together. 
 
 QUEUE.— A tail-like twist of hair formerly worn 
 at the iKick iif the head by soldiers. 
 
 QUEUES D'HIRONDE.— In fortitication. lines com- 
 posed of projecting tenailles, or works, which, from 
 the facility with which an enemy can enfilade their 
 long branches, are considered extremely defective, 
 and C(inse(|ueiitly are seldom employed. 
 
 QUICK-MATCH.- Cotton yarn, of "several strands, 
 saturated and covered with an inflammable composi- 
 tion. It is used for communicating fire from point to 
 point in fireworks, etc. The following materials are, 
 required in manufacture : MfdUdpoirder: rott'-u i/urn 
 wound in loose balls of convenient size (say 1 pound, 
 which will measure about l,Ot)0 yards), such as is 
 used for candle-wick. AVhen doubled and slightly 
 twisted in the fingers it should be about .07 inch in 
 diameter. Gummed Irrandj/ or irkij>kj/. in the pro- 
 portion of 1 ounce of gum to i gallon of spirits. 
 The gum is first dissolved in the smallest quantify of 
 hot water or vinegar, and afterward mixed with the
 
 QUICKNESS OF BURNING. 
 
 622 
 
 BACKAHOCK. 
 
 whisky. Strips of paper ; thread. One thousand 
 yards of quick -match require 1 pound cf cotton 
 yarn, 8 pounds of mealed powder, \\ gallons of 
 spirits, and 2\ ounces of gum arabic. Weight when 
 dried, 9 pounds. The following utensils are used in 
 preparing the quick-match : Wooden or cupper 
 buirbt ; 1 quart measure ; funnel or jrame ; reel. 
 Steep the balls of yarn in the gummed whisky until 
 they are quite thoroughly saturated. Make a good 
 paste of mealed powder, by mixing 1 quart of gummed 
 whisky to 2 pounds of powder, and put a layer of it 
 about i inch deep in the bowl ; on tliis spread a roil 
 of the cotton by unrolling the ball and distributing it 
 equally on the surface of the paste until there are 
 5 or 6 yarns over one another ; put another layer of 
 the paste.and proceed in this manner until the bowl is 
 full, taking care not to entangle the strands; the last 
 layer of this paste should be a little deeper than the 
 others. After the cotton has been 3 or 4 hours in 
 the bowl, wind it on a reel, or stretch it on nails 40 
 or .50 feet apart, making it pass through a funnel, or 
 the hand, tilled with the paste, and taking care tliat 
 the several turns of yarn do not touch each other. 
 Before it is dry dredge it with mealed powder ; let it 
 dry slowly, then cut it off from the reel or nails and 
 put it in bundles. During the winter quick match 
 should be made in a warm room. Match thus pre- 
 pared should be hard and stiff, and the composition 
 should hold flrmh' on. One yard burns, in tlie open 
 air, 13 seconds. By using rinrgar, a match is made 
 which burns less rapidly, in the proportion of 4 to -5: 
 and with pure water, in the ratio of 4 to 6. Alcohol 
 makes a quicker match, but it cannot be gummed, 
 and the composition does not stick. A slow kind of 
 match is made by adding sulphur to the mealed 
 powder. With J of sulphur, one yard of match 
 burns 23 seconds; with 5,33 seconds; with \, 53 
 seconds ; with ^, 163 seconds. Quick-match carefully 
 inclosed in tubes burns much more rapidlv than in the 
 open air, and more so in proportion as the tubes are 
 made smaller. To communicate tire very rapidlv, it 
 is inclosed in paper tubes, callled leaders. See t^ire- 
 tcorkx. 
 
 QUICKNESS OF BURNING.— The relative quickness 
 of burning of two dillerent powders may be deter- 
 mined by burning a train laid in a circular or other 
 groove which returns into itself, one-half of the 
 groove bein^ filled with each kind of powder, and 
 lire communicated at one of the points of meeting of 
 the two trains; the relative quickness is readily "de- 
 duced from observation of the point at which the 
 flames meet. 
 
 QUICKSTEP.— ,\ lively, spirited march frequently 
 played by military bauds. 
 
 QDICK TIME.— In tactics, the length of.the direct 
 
 step in quick time is 38 inches, measured from heel 
 to heel; the cadence is at the rate of 110 steps per 
 minute, or 2 miles 1G13 yards in an hour. See On 
 di iicf and Step. 
 
 QUILLED. — In Heraldry, a term used in describ- 
 ing a feather, to indicate that the quill differs i,n 
 tincture from the rest. 
 
 QUILLON. — The ordinary cross-guard of a sword. 
 See ' 'ross-f/unrd. 
 
 QUILTED GRAPE.— The old pattern grape-shot, 
 which consisted of a round iron plate or bottom, 
 having an iron pin in its center, around which the 
 small shot were piled, quilted with canvas, and tied, 
 so as to appear in form something like a bunch of 
 grapes. 
 
 " QUINAN BREECH-SIGHT.— An improvement on 
 the pendulum hausse. It is fixed in a socket on the 
 right side of the breech. The scale has a spirit-level, 
 by means of which it is made vertical. Tlie front 
 sight is a sliort tube with cross-hairs fixed in it. The 
 advantages claimed over the hausse are increased 
 steadiness and accuracy. 
 
 QUINTE. — An important guard in fencing. Usu- 
 ally the fifth. 
 
 QUINTIN. — An instrument used in the ancient prac- 
 tice of tilting on horseback with the lance. It con- 
 sisted of an upright post, surmounted by a cross-bar 
 turning on a pivot, which had at one end a fiat 
 board, at the otlier a bag of sand. The object of the 
 tilter was to strike the board at such speed that the 
 rider was past before the bag of sand, as it whirled 
 round, could hit him on the back. Also written 
 Quintain. 
 
 QUIRITF.S. — A term applied, in ancient Rome, to 
 the citizens as distinguished from the orgnaized sol- 
 diery. 
 
 QUISCHENS.— Tlie old term for Cuisses. the pieces 
 of armor wliicli protected the thighs. 
 
 QUITTING GUARD.— The Articles of War provide 
 that an_v otficer or soldier who quits his guard, pla- 
 toon, or division, without leave from his superior 
 officer, except in a case of urgent necessity, shall be 
 punLshed as a Court-Martial may direct. Quitting 
 any post or duty without having received any pre- 
 vious order for that purpose, is severely punished in 
 the arm)'. 
 
 QUIVER. — A case or sheath for arrows, formerly 
 woni Ijy archers or bowmen. 
 
 QUOIN. — A large wedge, used in place of an eleva- 
 ting screw under the chase of mortars and the breech 
 of short howitzers, to keep them in the proper posi- 
 tion when elevating. It has a handle on the large 
 end, by which it is moved. 
 
 R 
 
 RABINET. — A small piece of ordnance formerly 
 in use. It weighed but 300 lbs., and fired a small 
 ball of IJ in. diameter, with a very limited range. 
 
 RACERS.— Circular rails of metal located in the 
 ground on which the trucks of traversing platforms 
 run. The racers used witli wooden platforms arc 
 made of wrought-iron, laid with the iipper surface 
 rai.sed. For wrought-iron traversing platforms on 
 which heavy muzzle loading rified guns of less size 
 than the 10-inch stand, flanged racers of wrought-iron 
 are used, but for the guns of a larger size steel is sub- 
 stituted for wrouL'ht-iron. 
 
 EACHAT DES CLOCHES.— Formerly, in France, 
 wlieii a ftjrtitieil i)lace was taken, the bells became 
 the property of the Master General of Artillery, 
 wliieh were usually redeemed by the inhabitants of 
 the place at a certain price ; it was necessary that 
 
 the place should be attacked by artillery in order to 
 secure tliis right over the bells. 
 
 RACK.— A straight bar, with cogs or teeth placed 
 along it, so as to correspond with similar cogs or 
 teeth placed on a wheel, thus: If the bar is not 
 movable, the wheel is attached to a traversing frame, 
 and as it revolves, is moved along by the resistance 
 of its teeth to those on the bar. 'It was in this way 
 that the formation of a railway was first projected, 
 the rail and the driving-wheel of the engine to be 
 both furnished with corresponding teeth. In me- 
 chanics, rack-work has innumerable application.s. 
 
 RACKAHOCK.— The name given to a blasting pow- 
 der formed by the imion of two ingredients, one a 
 solid and the "other a lluid, both being absolutely in- 
 explosive until combined by the consumer. Many 
 attempts have been made to prepare ingredients that
 
 RACKING. 
 
 023 
 
 EACKINO. 
 
 would form an cfTet'tivt' explosive immt'dmU'lyiipon 
 
 mixture, lint, nearly nil the jihiiiM proposed Imve 
 j)rovcil iiii|inieliealile friirii ilillieiilty or ilaiij;er. The 
 l{e?i(lr(iek I'dwder (jo., of New York, have on the 
 market a powder named as above, the invention of 
 .Silas H. Divine. It has heeii most elTeetivi'ly used 
 in !i ureal variety of oi)erations in tumielinK and 
 niininu. and has jiroved to he an explosive of Kfeat 
 power- rivalinu; nitro-ulyeerine in Ihat respect- «n(l 
 safer than most other hifih explosives, even after the 
 Beparati- in^redienls have heen eoinliined ready for 
 use ill hlaslini;. In manufacture, trans|iortalion' and 
 Htoraue, there can of course be no daiij;er, as the 
 materials are kept sei)arate until wantid for imme- 
 diate use. A dry oxyiren-yieldini; salt, in a linely- 
 pnlveri/ed condition, is packed in cylindrical muHlin 
 biii^s. which form the cartridiies. 'Vhese arc (npped 
 into a suitable lluid hydrocarbon- iireferably nitrat- 
 ed, as, for instance, nitro-benzole -and allowed toab- 
 .sorb a certain amount, which c'an be made delinile 
 by timiiii; the immersion, or by wcii^hiin; the car- 
 tridges bcfiire they are ili|)pcd,and arrestini; the ah- 
 sorption when they have ac(juired the requisite in- 
 crease in weiirht. The jxirous envelope or cartridge 
 of muslin is an inixcnious device. The idea of inuk- 
 iuij; explosives by puttini; the oxyi;en salt in porous 
 cartridi^cs and then saturating them, seems simple 
 eniiuixh after it has once been done, the same as 
 Howe's idea of [mttinir the eye of the needle near 
 the /)"('«<, instead of in the blunt end, seemed sim- 
 ple after it was once disclosed, but the ])erfection of 
 the invention in both ceases was only reached after 
 hard study. Like the invention of the sewing-ma- 
 chine needle, it became necessary to reverse the old 
 processes. The old way in explosives was to make 
 the cartridijc Huid-proof— the new way is to make it 
 porous. It allows the free jiercolation of the lluid to 
 the powder, and when the interstices of the envelope 
 are tiKed with an oil or lluid that will not mix with 
 water, it resists i\u: entrance of the latter to the solu- 
 ble .salt inside. When the muslin cartridges were 
 first used, they were fully saturated, and removed 
 from the lluid in a dripping condition, and theexcess 
 of oil s(pieezed out by wringing the cartridges. This 
 method was tedious and laborious. At length it was 
 found that by allowiiii; a little lime, a small ([uantity 
 of fluid would eciually diffuse throuLdi the whole 
 mass of i)owder contained in the cartridges by capil- 
 lary attraction. It is desirabU^ not to oversatnrate 
 the powder, as there may be too much hydrocarbon 
 for complete combustion with the oxygen furnished 
 by the dry salt. An excess of hydrocarlxm will can.se 
 more smoke when the powder is exploded, and will 
 not give so high a result dynamically. 
 
 In practice, the cartridges are placed in a wire 
 basket and lowered into a pail or vessel containing 
 the fluid, and allowed to remain a certain number of 
 seconds, depending upon the diameter of the cart- 
 ridges. 
 
 For l+-inch cartridges, about 6 seconds. 
 " ij- " " " 8 
 
 " i|. " " " 10 
 
 The cartridges saturated as above, if cut open after 
 saturation, will present in the center of the cross sec- 
 tion, an area about the size of the end Of a lead pencil 
 which is not wet, but which will be wet if the car- 
 tridges are allowed to stand a few minutes before 
 using, as the oil will eiflially diffuse by capillary at- 
 traction. When this mode was tirsl adopted the 
 wire basket containing the cartridges was hung on a 
 spring balance and alternately dipped and w ithdrawu 
 until the desired increase in weight was obtained. 
 
 Mr. A. V. Hand proposed to secure the right pro- 
 portions by immersion for a certain detiuite time for 
 each size of cartridge. This plan was successful in 
 practice, and has been in constant use since its adop- 
 tion. Another mode of securing proper proportions 
 of dry salt and combu.stible liipiid has been introduced 
 by the manufacturers of Hackarock. This is to mix 
 a very volatile liquid like carbon disulpliide, with a 
 
 fixed oil like nitrobcnzolc, and allow the cartridges 
 
 to becoriK! completely saturated. Then tliey are al- 
 lowed to remain in the. oprn air until the voliitile in- 
 gredieiit has rvaporated, leaving tlie proper iiiMoiiiit 
 of lixed oil in the powder. 'Ibis iiinde ha» also been 
 successful ill prailice. With reference tr) the use of 
 nitratid hydrocarbons, it may be slated that the 
 greater Ihi' (juantity of oxygen that is conlainiil the 
 less the relative weight of the oil that is to be mixed 
 with the oxygen yielding salt. When the liydrocur- 
 boii is present in such (|uanlity that the carbon can 
 only be burned to carbonic oxide instead of carbonic 
 acid, the mechanical result Is not so great, and more 
 smoke is evolved on exjiloslon. The cartrirlges when 
 properly prei)aredare practically wati-rproof. and re- 
 nndn good for some days in wet drill-holes, as the oil 
 repels the water and prevents its permeating the pow- 
 der through the muslin. The consistence of the pre- 
 jiared powder is like that of damp brown sugar, and 
 it may bi^ closely packed in the drill-hole, especially 
 if till- muslin is slit before the cartridges are dropped 
 ', in and rammed. 
 
 The s])ecitic gravity of the powder is from 1 .7 to 2 
 and its density allows the concentration of great 
 power in a small space. It gives the highest resullA 
 in hard compact rock, and is tnucli useilin tunnelw, 
 drifts, and shafts, where the rock is (irmly bound. The 
 gases produced during combustion are not sickening 
 like those from nitroglycerine- and the dynamites. 
 
 The sensitiveness of Hackarock can be increased or 
 decreased by special means employed bv the manu- 
 facturers, and one variety that has been largely used 
 will not explode with a fulminating cap without con- 
 linement. In the oijen air at common temperatures 
 the powder will be scattered about without exploding 
 when a fuse and cap are inserted in a cartridge and 
 tired. But when contined in a drill-hole the powder 
 receives an impact from the detonating primer that 
 causes the whole mass to explode. 
 
 RACKING. — It has been shown that the penetration 
 of a projectile depends more upon velocity than 
 weight, and thai the elongated is a better form than 
 the spherical for mere penetration or punc/n'ng. It 
 must, however, be remembered tlnxt very heavy shot, 
 tired with velocities which might not enable them to 
 penetrate or punch holes in iron armor, may still do 
 great damage, especially if many are tired succes- 
 sively, by breaking bolts and shaking the whole fab- 
 ric ; also, that a spherical shot, having a larger di- 
 ameter than the elongated projectile, may often do 
 more damage in cracking or shattering a plate, than 
 the latter in jmnehiitg it, the irork done by the ball 
 being distributed over a larger area. The same ar- 
 gument will apply to the case of two elongated 
 projectiles, having different diameters, striking a 
 target witli the .same force, as measured by irr'. 
 Hence there are two general methods of attempting 
 the deslniction of iron-clad vessels, termed respect- 
 ively nvking and punching. The American shave 
 shown a preference for the racking system, which 
 requires heavy projectiles of large diameters, lireil 
 with low velocities, to destroy and shake off the ar- 
 mor by repeated shocks without penetration, and 
 thus to expose the vessel to the effects of ordinary 
 projectiles. It is believed that the two forces may 
 prepare the way for each other, so as to produce a 
 more formidable result than when they are inde- 
 pendently exercised. The defect of the light-shot 
 system when the range is very long or the armor 
 very thick, and of the heavy-shot .system when the 
 range is even very short and the armor is laminated, 
 or so constructed as to suffer little from racking and 
 shaking, is the waste of power in producing local 
 effect, that is fruitless becau.sc it is incomplete. By 
 combining the two systems, the light fast shot may 
 weaken- tlie armor by the loss of substance and con- 
 tinuity, until the heavy shot can earni- in a large 
 section of it bodily ; and at the same time the gen- 
 eral straining and cracking of plates produced by the 
 heavy shot will make punching all the easier.
 
 BACKING DOWN. 
 
 624 
 
 KAILROADS. 
 
 The tlieory in favor of the racking system is, tliat 
 heavy projectiles may be lired with low velocites 
 ■without straining the gun ; that blows given in this 
 way waste no power in puncliing mere holes, but that 
 the'entire work will be expended in straining, loosen- 
 ing, and dislocating the armor and breaking its fast- 
 enings, tearing it off and exposing unprotected spots 
 easily vulnerable to shells, at the same time racking 
 and breaking the ribs and sides of the vessel to such 
 extent as to render her unseaworthy. ^For produc- 
 ing these effects the 15-inch gun," throwing solid 
 cast-iron balls, is quite as formidable as the powerful 
 ritle expending costly bolts ; but the accuracy of tire 
 from the rifle is so greatly superior to that from the 
 smooth-bore, as to leave a large margin in its favor. 
 Spherical shot, and slow shot of any form, will do 
 very little execution under water. The concussion 
 from racking blows, although it may not seriously 
 injure the vessel, stuns and temporarilj' paralyzes 
 many of the crew, and spreading terror to all, great- 
 ly interferes with the efficient working of the ship 
 and of her armament. See Armor-plates and Puncli- 
 inrj. 
 
 RACKING DOWN.— An operation performed with 
 the aid of rnck-laxhing in laying a' gun or a mortar 
 platform, for the purpose of securing the flanks and 
 the ribands of the platform together, so as to pre- 
 vent them from moving. 
 
 EACK-STICK AND LASHING.— A piece of two-inch 
 rope, about C feet long, fastened to a picket about !'-> 
 inches long, having a hole in its head to receive the 
 rope. Rack-lashings are used for securing the planks 
 of a gun or mortar platform, between the ribands and 
 the slee]iers. 
 
 EACKUMITICK.— A large javelin skillfully used by 
 the Hottentots. With this weapon, they venture to 
 attack the elephant, the rhinoceros, and even tlie lion. 
 
 EADIAL DEILL. — An upright machine, designed 
 for drilling a series of holes without changing the 
 position of the work. The value of a radial drill in 
 the armory consists, primarih-, inthe readiness with 
 which the drill can be moved to the work, or shifted 
 over the various parts of the work, requiring 
 to be drilled. In, the use of radial drills having the 
 swinging arm at one fixed and unalterable height 
 above the floor plate. the work must either be blocked 
 up to suit the height of the machine, or extension 
 pieces must be used to lower the drill to the work. 
 In Sellers' machines the swinging arm is raised and 
 lowered by power, and thus quickly adjusted to the 
 proper height, so that the work to be drilled has 
 only to be brought under the drilling machine in 
 any convenient ])osition and height, and the drill is 
 then quickly set to suit the height of the work, 
 thus saving nuich time. Too much s:ress cannot be 
 laid on this feature of these drills, jis the saddle 
 carrying the swinging arm is so litted and of such a 
 length as not to require any bolting to place, this 
 adjustment of height is rendered simple in the ex- 
 treiue. The feed motion is obtained tlirough adjust- 
 able feeil discs. It has a wide range through two 
 series, one for the single gear, the other for the dou- 
 ble gear, and can be put on or off instantaneouslj' 
 by a tap of the hand on a lever close to the hand- 
 wheel. All tlie adjustments of the machine are 
 quickly made, the shifting of the back gear into or 
 out of use being as readily done as on any well- 
 made turning laihe. A convenient clamp is arranged 
 at the biiltoin joint of tlie swinging arm to <'nalile 
 thc' radial arm to be sec\ired in positiim; but if the 
 drills used are correctly formed and run true, the 
 arm needs no clamping to place. 
 
 EADII OF KUPTURE. In military mining, to ef- 
 fi'ct all (Wplosion of the surrounding ground, a 
 charge nf gunpowder is used, which, according to 
 its .strength, and the nature of the grounil. and the 
 depth at which it is placed, more or less affects the 
 quantity of earlli to be displaced. Such an explo- 
 si(m raises and scatters a portion of the superincum- 
 bent earth, and causes a hollow or crater. Besides 
 
 this effect, an internal commotion is caused, capable 
 of injuring or destroying shafts or galleries in the 
 immediate neighborhood. The distances from the 
 charge to which this commotion extends are called 
 radii (if rupture. 
 
 RADIUS.— 1. In fortification, a term applied to a 
 line drawn from the center of the polygon to the ex- 
 tremity of the exterior side. There are the exterior, 
 the interior, and the rigid radii. 2. In geometry, 
 the radius is a straight line drawn from the center to 
 the circumference of a circle. In trigonometry, 
 the radius is taken as unity, and the sines, cosines, 
 etc.. are expressed in terms of it. In astronomy the 
 same term is employed in a slightly different sense; 
 and to prevent confusion it is changed to radius-vec- 
 t<:rr. The radius-vector is a straightTline drawn from 
 the center of force to tlie position of a body which 
 describes its orbit round the center; if the orbit is a 
 circle, the radius-vector is invariable in its length, 
 but constantlj' changes if the orbit be any of the 
 other conic sections. F-om astronomy the term has 
 been transferred to what are callad ]x>lar eqiiati'ins in 
 the higher matliematics. To express a curve by this 
 method a point is taken for the pole; through this 
 point a line, the axis, is drawn, indefinite in length 
 and arbitrary in direction; then as one end of the ra- 
 dius-vector is at the pole, its inclination to the axis, 
 and its length at this inclination, will give a point in 
 the curve. Equations of curves, when thus express- 
 ed in terms of the radius-vector, and its inclination 
 to the axis, are ciiWedpolar co-ordinates, and are gen- 
 erally much simpler in form than when exnressed by 
 rectangular co-ordinates. 
 
 EAFTS. — Baulks of timber lashed together to form 
 a bridge for crossing a river or stream, when more 
 perfect means are not at hand. From their low de- 
 gree of buoyanc}', however, they are se'dom employ- 
 ed. Fir, pine, hazel, poplar,juniper. larch. and wil- 
 low, being the lightest woods, are the best for mak- 
 ing timl)er rafts. "Rafts of timber should not be used 
 in rivers where the velocity of the current exceeds 6 
 feet per second, or 4 miles per hour. Good rafts 
 can be made of casks or barrels, and form a better 
 bridge than baulks of timber. See JSr.'dges. 
 
 BAGULED.— In Heraldry, jagged or notched in an 
 irregtdar manner. A rnguled cross is one made of two 
 truiJks of trees without their branches. of which only 
 the stumps appear. Also written Rnggued. 
 
 EAGULY.— In Heraldry, a term ap- 
 plied to an ordinary whose bounding 
 lines are furnished with serrated pro- 
 jections. 
 
 BAID. — A hostile or predatory in- 
 cursion, especially an inroad or iu- 
 . cursion of mounted men; any sudden 
 
 Bagtily, jijjj^j rapid invasion bj- a cavalry force. 
 
 EAH/LON. — The French term for a short arrow or 
 quarrel. 
 
 BAIL -PLATFORM. — This platform for siege-mor- 
 tars consists of three .sleepers and two rails for the 
 cheeks of tlie mortar-bed to slide on, instead of the 
 deck-plank, and is very strong, and easily cim- 
 structed and laid. The pieces being notcheil to fit, 
 are driven together at the battery, the distance bet- 
 ween the center lines of the rails being equal to that 
 between the center lines of the cheeks. The earth is 
 excavated eight and a half inches, the depth of the 
 .sleepers, and the bottom made perfectly level. The 
 directrix being exactly marked by stakes, the plat- 
 ' form is placed in position, its center line coinciding 
 with a cord stretched between the stakes marking 
 the line of fire. The earth is filled in as high as the 
 upper surface of the sleepers, and finiily rammed; 
 and the stakes are driven in the rear angles formed 
 liy the slceiH-rs and rails, and one at the rear end of 
 eaeli rail. 
 
 RAILROADS.— Railroads have played an impor- 
 tant part in recent wars. Beginning with the Cri- 
 mean war of l.H.'i.'"!, and ending with the late wars in 
 Europe, the military student will be stnuk with the
 
 BAILBOADS. 
 
 r,25 
 
 EAILEOADS. 
 
 cnt. Thr parts moHl liable to he <liBlrovi''l or iiijiirci] 
 arc the briilijtH aiiillNiini-lH. (jiiiinlH hIioiiIiI Ik- mU. 
 tioncil mar tlii'sc poiiilH, and Ijc prolcctid l»y Orld- 
 works or hlrx^k-lioiiHcH. Tlw ^'ciiiral tra< k of tin- 
 road Klioulrl l)c furcfully walclicil by tra< kiiiiii and 
 patrols. Cavalry dctaf'liiticiits slioiilrl ncour llii- ap- 
 proaclifH ill cvcr^y dircflioii, to );iv(; limi'ly notice of 
 
 importance of this rlass of coriiMiiiiiiialiojis iji llie 
 elticient Hupplyiiiii; of iiii army, anil in tlic eoneenlra- 
 tion of troopH. liy llicir use, nnMjbcrsare concren- 
 trate<l and snpplied in a ^ pace of lime wliieli was not 
 dreamed of in tlK'beijinninic of llie i>resent eenlnrv. 
 It is safe to predict that, in all future wars in civil- 
 ized eountri<s, the railroad will he the line of com. 
 
 innnicalion for an army. If a system of rHilroa<lH ap[iroacliinn raids, and to arrest ^iispiciuUK pcrHonB 
 already exists, this system will ]><■ used ; if not, tern- , in llje vicinity of the railroad. 
 
 porary lines of riiilroad will he eonslrncled. It has , 'I'hc destruction of a railroad, or an injury intliclcd 
 now becomes an imi)orliuil p;irt of an ollicer's <-dnea- I upon it so that it cannot he <|uiekly repai'ri-d, may 
 tion to uiulersland the princii)les of const ruction, and form, at times, the special duly of any oflieer. There 
 the working;, of railroads, to know how they can he arc two general casts; one, where flic injuries in- 
 preserved, and how they may be destroyed. The ! flieted are to prevent its use by an enemy ; and the 
 construction of a railroad for niililary purposes dif- j other, where it is desired to (fo as much injury aB 
 fcrs from tliat intended for jieaiM-ful traltlc only in the possible, and render the wi'rk irreparable, compclU 
 decree of its very i;reat excellence. Kcononiy an<i inf; an actual reconstruction of the road. The llrsl 
 rapidity are the most essential ((ualilics looked for j consists in removin<^ parts of the rollin/^j-slock and 
 in the construcliou of a military railroad. The prin- ! Iifdinj; them, or, where rails cannot he obtained, in 
 cipal thini;s in its construction are the i;radini; and removini; the track at various intervals. 
 
 the laying of the track. (Jradesand curves are nec- 
 essary evils incident to railroads, and a proper selec- 
 tion of them requires an exercise of good judfiment, 
 in many cases. Sometimes, the track may he laid on 
 the naturalsurfaceof the ground, or with so little lill- 
 iiii; and excavation as to amount to the same thing. 
 The placing of the cross-tics, the spiking of the rails, 
 and the general linishiug of tlie road are better done, 
 when men used to this kind of labor can l)e procured. 
 Usually there can be found among the troops, a great 
 many who have a practical knowledge of this class of 
 construction, and these men can he profitably used as 
 foremen and superintendents of I he working parties. 
 The successful working of a railroad re(|uires an 
 etticient superintendent, as much as it requires sulli- 
 cient rolling-stock and good locomotives. A good 
 man for superintendent can generally be obtained 
 from some of the railroad companies, hut he has the 
 defect, as a rule, of knowing nothing of the peculiar- 
 ities of military service, Nevertheless, his exper- 
 ience and knowledge will be of great service to the 
 military olHcerin charge of the road, and the working 
 may thus hemadesuccessfid. From the numbers em- 
 ployed upon the railroads in the United States, there 
 will be no difliculty, in future wars, in the goveni- 
 ment obtaining as many men as may be necessary, 
 who will be thoroughly cognizant of the duties that 
 may be required of them. In the beginning, there 
 will be some friction and irregularities, but these will 
 wear off, and an efficient corps of trained men can 
 soon be formed. It would be better, however, if "lime 
 were taken by the forelock, "and a skeleton organiza- 
 tion formed in advance. Engineer otflcers should paj' 
 particular attention to this part of their profession, 
 and on short notice organize bodies of workmen 
 whose special duties will be those assigned to con- 
 struction, working, and preservation of railroads. 
 And since the other officers of the army, are more or 
 less liable to be assigned to duties connected with the 
 preservation, as well as the construction, of these 
 roads, it is equally incumbent on them to acquire 
 this knowledge and be able to put it to a practical use. 
 Tlie movement of troops by railroad may be divid- 
 ed into five distinct parts, viz: — 1 The march to 
 the point where the troops are to get into the cars. 
 2. The embarkation. 3. The journey. 4. Leav- 
 ing the train at the end of the journey. ■">. The 
 march from this point to the pl.ice of camping. A 
 careful examination made beforehand of each por- 
 tion of the movement will add greatly to the sol- 
 dier's comfort, and prevent mucli confusion, delay, 
 and annoyance. Elaborate rules are laid down, both 
 in the Prussian and French services, for moving 
 troops by rail, and it is recommended that these be 
 read bv officers who desire to inform themselves on i 
 
 riie following is a method of removing the track 
 to render the road temporarily useless: Select a part 
 of the track laid on a higli embankment. Tear up 
 the rails of the extremities of the part to be remov- 
 ed. Line the outside of the track with men for the 
 whole length of the portion to be taken up. and have 
 the men to face inwards. At a given signal the men 
 seize the rail next to them; and, at another signal. all 
 lift the rail, raising it and the ties to a vertical posi- 
 tion, when they let the whole fall over the embank- 
 ment. If the road is ballasted, the men must pro- 
 vide themselves with levers to lift the track. The 
 portion thrown over the embankment cannot be re- 
 placed until the rails arc unfastened from the ties, 
 and tills takes time. The second case consists in re- 
 moving the rails and bending and twisting them so 
 as to render them unfit for use in repairing the road; 
 in burning or blowing up the bridges ; destroying 
 the tunnels; disabling the rolling stock, etc. Loco- 
 motives can be temporarily disabled by removing 
 parts of the machinery. They may be permanently 
 disabled by tiring a round shot through the boiler. 
 Another way, is to let out all the water in the boiler 
 and then build a large fire in the tire-box : the fire 
 soon destroys the flues. All other kinds of rolling- 
 stock may be temporarily disabled by removing parts, 
 or permanently injured by burning them. 
 
 Some labor is required to bend and twist the rails, 
 as it is not an easy matter to remove the rails from 
 the ties. Workmen have special tools for drawing 
 out the spikes and unscrewing the nuts, but these 
 tools are too heavy to be carried upon a raid, where 
 time is so important an element. But when the rails 
 have been taken up, and there is time, it is recom- 
 mended to form the ties into heaps, and set them on 
 lire. Then to place the rails on the burning heap, 
 loading the ends with other ties. As the rails be- 
 come red hot, they will bend under the load, and can- 
 not be used again until they are straightened. This 
 bending may also he done by men catching the ends 
 of the rail and bending it, while heated, against a tree' 
 or telegraph pole. Kails which are simply bent can 
 easily be straightened by re-heating and hammering. 
 Where only slightly bent, they can be straightened 
 without even being" re-heated. To make them use- 
 less, it is necessary to give the rail a twist. A twist- 
 ed rail can only be used again by bein" re-rolled. 
 
 Wooden bridges may be destroyed by burning. 
 A simple device" called" a torpedo was used in our 
 late war for destroying wooden bridges, where time 
 was of importance." A bolt of j inch iron. 8 inches 
 long, with head and nut, was used. The head was 
 2 imhes in diameter, and abovit 1 inch thick. A tin 
 cylinder, IJ inches in diameter, open at both ends, 
 e"nolosed the bolt, and was held in place by the head 
 md the nut. A washer between the bead and the 
 
 this subject. A line of railroad used as a line of 
 
 communication of an army with its base, is protected ' cylinder made it tight at that end. The cylinder was 
 in a great measure by the army itself. It is, however. ^ filled with powder ."and an arrangement made for a 
 liable to injury from" cavalry raids of the enemy, and i fuse near the nut. A fvise was inserted and the nut 
 from the acts" of a hostile population, if they be pres- Iscrewed on, and the torpedo was ready for use.
 
 BAILWAT COaiMUNICATION. 
 
 626 
 
 BAILWAT COMMUKICATIOir. 
 
 In using it. a hole was bored into the timber witli ! different sizes and weights, giving much additional 
 an augur. The head of the bolt was inserted and | labor and loss of time in laying. For rolling stock 
 
 was driven by a hard blow into the hole. The fuse 
 liglited, anil the explosion tore the timber in pieies. 
 
 As the railroad bridges to be destroyed were ordi- 
 nary truss-bridges, it was only necessary to insert a 
 torpedo in one of the main braces, or if these braces 
 were in pairs, in tlie two pieces forming a pair. 
 The destruction of these braces at one end. or on 
 one side, was sufficient to wreck the bridge. 
 
 The importance of guarding a railroad, and of hav- 
 ing a good construction corps thoroughlj' organized 
 to repair the damages, was illustrated in the war of 
 1861-5. This war illustrated the uses of the systems 
 of railroads already in existence for military purpo- 
 ses, and also the great advantages of temporary rail- 
 roads to perforin a given service. — See Railway 
 Com ifi n nicath'ii. 
 
 RAILWAY COMMUNICATION.— In looking for the 
 
 four contractors' tank locomotives, which had been 
 much u.sed, were supplied : half of them were con- 
 stantly under repairs. The material for making 
 bridges consisted of rolled-iron floor-joists for bar- 
 rack buildings, which were procured from Aden. 
 One great advantage of a railway at a point of debark- 
 ation was noticed on this occasion— the saving of 
 labor that was effected by being able to run the trucks 
 on rails into the water, so that boats with stores from 
 the transport vessels could be unloaded directly into 
 the trucks. For the war in Ashantee, where the ob- 
 jective was to force the troops over many miles of 
 the wildest African bush coimtry.some steam-sappers 
 (road traction engines), adapted for running on rails, 
 were sent from England, and light rails were shipped 
 for making a raihvay of 4 ft. 8^ in. gauge. This 
 plant could not be well utilized for the following 
 
 quickest and simple>t metho.l to make a railway for j reasons : It was diffleull to land heavy stores on a 
 ■ ■ ■ ' beach that had a surf constantly rolling on it; the 
 
 amount of labor required to clear a track for so wide 
 a gauge through the bush would have been excessive; 
 and the period of fair season at the disposal of the Gen- 
 eral for the accomplishment of his enterprise was too 
 limited for making a field railway of the full gauge 
 of 4 ft. 8i in. A light portable surface tramway 
 (such as is hereafter described), with light trucks 
 that could have been pushed by manual labor, might 
 have answered in Ashantee for transporting stores 
 and provisions better than the swarms of carriers 
 that had to be employed for supplying the force that 
 went on to Coomassie. A tramway of this class 
 could have been laid quite as fast as the troops cut 
 their path through the bush. These are the attempts 
 that have been made by England to construct and 
 utilize railways for troops in the field. They have 
 not been very successful, owing to the plant used for 
 them being unsuited for military requirements and 
 being hastily got together. The 4 ft. 8^ in. gauge 
 of the ordinary permanent railways is adapted speci- 
 ally to heavy and rapid traffic; its carrying capacity 
 is greatly in excess of what is likely to be required 
 for a force operating in an enemy's country. The 
 plant is heavy, and it takes a long time to make a 
 line of this gauge, which must be well and truly laid 
 to take the rollmg stock adapted for it. The' rails 
 should be 78 lbs. to the yard; a mile of line of single 
 rails weighs 273 tons, and costs about £1,700. The 
 ordinary plate-laying gang of three superintendents, 
 thirty plate-layers, and forty laborers, can only lay a 
 mile of this track in thirty hours. A field railway 
 is only a similar line to the above, with a very much 
 lighter rail of about 43 lbs. to the yard; it weighs 131 
 tons and costs on an average of £1Z1 to the mile. 
 The same plate-laying party can make a mile of 
 field railway in twelve hours. In its construction 
 nearly the same curves of large radius are required, 
 and the gradients cannot be made steeper, while 
 the rate of traveling on it is much .slower than on a 
 permanent line of the same gauge. In India a meter- 
 
 military communications in a strange country, and 
 for themost suitable material and plant to use in its 
 construction, it is well to have a description of the 
 various gauges of which railways are usuallj' made; 
 to study the powers and capacfty of different loco- 
 motives and rolling stock for these lines ; and to 
 consider the time, labor, and cost of making a rail- 
 way. Before commencing a study of these three 
 subjects a statement will be given of what has been 
 done in making railways in war time, excluding any 
 account of their construction for the same purpose 
 in civilized countries, such as the case of the Prus- 
 sians, who made a raihvay round the fortress of 
 Metz, and at the destroyed tunnel of Nanteuil; or 
 the railways made by the Russians from Bender to 
 Galatz, and from Fratesi to Zimnltza. After a 
 season of great siiSeriug to the troops engaged in 
 the siege of Sebastopol, caused partly by the diffi- 
 culty of communicating with their base at Balaclava, 
 a railwav was constructed of the ordinary gauge of 
 4 ft. 8| in. About 31 miles of track were made of 
 single line: civil engineers with a working staff of 
 natives were employed in its construction. The 
 rolling stock consisted of five locomotives of 12 to 
 18 tons weight, and about 40 ordinary side-tip bal- 
 last trucks; one of the locomotives was worked as 
 a stationary engine to haul trains up a short incline. 
 This railway never had the capacity for transporting 
 all the supplies required by an army engaged in a 
 siege. It did a fair amount of work at the re-em- 
 barkation of the troops on the conclusicm of peace, 
 but it would have been of no use if hostilities had 
 been continued on a different line of operations. 
 It must not be attributed to any failing of the 
 Army Works Corps that better results were not ob- 
 taint"d from this line, for it was composed of a staff 
 thoroughly practiced in railway construction ; the 
 mistake was in having only one line of rails instead of 
 n double line, which is indispensable to insure unin- 
 terrupted traffic; and in tlie plant being cumbersome 
 and quite unsuited for military requirements. For 
 the Abyssinian campaign materials for a railway 
 were collected in India from the public works and 
 other sources, and a works corps of nalives for laying 
 the line was raised in Bombay. In the mouth of 
 November.Government came to the decision of s«'nd- 
 ing railway plant to Abyssinia ; in the following 
 January, work was comnu-nccd at the landing place 
 in the Ked Sea, at Zoulla; and about the mil of 
 March, 13 miles of the line were opened for traffic, 
 giving a rale of progress in constructing of one mile 
 a week. As the railway took so hmg to make it was 
 not of much n.se to the expedition. The chief causes 
 of delay in making this railway miiy be attributed 
 to the maleri.ils having been shi])ped from India 
 ■without any system, any tran.;port vessel that could 
 afford space being employed. The l)lant was all for 
 the Indian standard gauge of 5 ft. (! in., which was 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 pauije has been adopted on some of the Government 
 lines : it is li ft.SJ in. wide ; rails of 3(1 lbs. to the yard 
 may be used for it ; the line weighs about 10(1 tona 
 i'.nd costs £51)0 to the n)ile. Hallways of this gauge 
 
 heavy and difficult to handle under tmfavorablc i^on- i are made for (piick tratlic. and recpiire to be laid 
 ditious of lauding appliances ; the rails were also of ] nearly as well us wider liaes. Tlie rolling-stock
 
 BAILWAT COMMUNICATION. g27 
 
 EAII.WAY COMMDNICATIOH 
 
 wliicli is madcin Kn;;Iiin(l niid sent oiil to Iniliii, is 
 of a liciivy nature ; the IdcoiMotivc.'S wcij^li 10 tons, 
 anil lli(^ carriugcrt. vvliicli ur(' iron-fraiiii'ii, weigh 
 about;!! tons. The Uniled States have lately adopt- 
 ed llie II ft. K"".'?*' '" '^ .t,'real many lines, which an- 
 swer their jjurpoHes just as well as Ihi' wiijir perrna- 
 iienl railway. They ean construct the lini's with 
 great rajjidity, ])rof;rcssin,!; as much as four miles in 
 one day, includini; formint; the earthwork. The 
 Americans carry these light railways over the most 
 ditllcult country, and tij) ravines and over moun- 
 tain passes where it seems almost impraclicable to 
 make any sort of road. There are ])ortable railway.s 
 made in Englaml as well as in France, which pos- 
 sess all the requircmcnls of a military line. Tliey are 
 of various !;au;;es, but tlie 2 ft. 15 in. wide has advant- 
 ages over the narrower gauges — such as the power 
 and speed of the locomotive, the capacity of rolling 
 stock, and the great simplicity of parts. The.se seem 
 to point to this gauge being more suitable for mili- 
 tary purposes than the narrowerones. The rails are 
 of steel, of 30 lbs. to the yard, fixed in lengths of 12 
 ft, to the sleepers; the sleepers are also of steel, 
 made of various sections. The most convenient 
 seems to be the U-shaped Fig. 1 ; these can be placed 
 at any distance apart to suit the nature of soil. One 
 section of rails of this tramway of 1'2 ft. weighs 310 
 lbs., and forms an easy load for four men to handle 
 in laying the line, which is intended to be a surface 
 line. It can be laid very fast by inexperienced men 
 — about nine miles in a day. It is easily taken up, re- 
 moved, and relaid in another situation." The plant for 
 the track is complete in all its parts, such as curves, 
 points, and crossings ; it is also very compact for 
 shipment, borne very narrow-gauge railways have 
 been made in North Wales; the line to Festiniog is 
 1 ft. lU in. wide; passenger and mineral Iratlichave 
 been running on it regularly for some time. This 
 
 railway is 13J miles long and rises 700 ft. the gra- 
 dients are from 1 in 70 to 1 in 180, and the curves of 
 2 to 30 chains radius; the locomotives, which are of 
 Farlie's pattern, weigh about 8 tons, and can draw 
 trains of 120 tons at an average speed of 12 miles an 
 hour; the rails are 30 lbs. to the yard, and the sleep- 
 ers are of wood. Railways are made of an even 
 narrower gauge, 18 in.; they are much used in H. 
 M. Dockyards and the Royal Arsenal. This gauge 
 has been adopted in the service for a tramway to 
 run along trenches and parallels to supply' the ar- 
 tillery and engineer requirements of sieges. There 
 are two types of this tramway — one with rails on 
 ■wooden sleepers, and the oilier of a portable des- 
 cription. The first is that which has been taken for 
 the service; it is designed for laying down without 
 noise at night, this being a necessary requirement 
 in making a tramway in siege trenches; the sleepers 
 are of wood, 3 ft. G in. long, 7 in. wide, by 3 in. deep: 
 the rails are fixed to these sleepers by T-headed 
 coach-screws. With rails of 24 lbs. to the yard. 14 
 men can la)' 100 yards of trench tramway in tlw 
 dark m an hour. The other description of portable 
 tramway of the same gauge is made of steel rails, 
 18 lbs. to the yard, secured in lengths of 10 ft. to 
 steel-plate sleepers. Fig. 2. it is a handy line for 
 laying on the surface of the ground, and is much 
 used for agricidtural and the numerous manufac- 
 turing purposes. Each section of 10 ft. of rails, 
 with all the sleepers attached, weighs about 180 lbs., 
 so that two men can very easily carry it ; a party 
 of 14 men can laj- 400 yards of this nature of tram- 
 way in an hour. The end sleepers are made to lock, 
 
 NO that llie joint at the rail ends is quite Kecurc; with 
 wooden sleeperH, llHliplatirs should be used to fallen 
 the ends of the rails; this is very neccHsary on all 
 roughly-laid lines. It would be thought that thiM 
 gauge of tramway would be suitable for all military 
 reijuiremints besides sir'ge work ; but it is only np- 
 |)licalile on very Mat sites, and the engines for it have- 
 so little power that they would not lie erpial to llic 
 wants of keeping uninterrupteil communiimtion for 
 an army. Tlu-y answer perfectly in the iJockyardo 
 and the Arsenal, and are admirably adapted for lay- 
 ing in a trench ; the engines would, however, fail in 
 the event of a long line being required, or one over 
 a rough country. 
 
 Systems of litrht tramways on slructurcH raiiicil 
 from the ground have been suggested for Die use of 
 armies. One of these tramways, designed by Mr. 
 Fell, Fig., 3. has been experimented with at Alder- 
 shot. It consists of rails on the edges of beams sup- 
 
 
 Fig. .3. 
 
 ported on trestles of various heights to overcome 
 the inecjualities of ground, the principle being to 
 <lispetise with cuttings and embankments as far as 
 pos.-.ible, and to use trestles whenever the earthwork 
 exceeds 3 or 4 feet in height. Jlr. Fell has worked 
 his st;hcme out still further, and .suggests the adop- 
 tion of iron lattice-girders on posts of a quite simi- 
 lar construction for raising the track over hollows, 
 or those places wherever the rails cannot be laid 
 on the surface of the ground. There are advan- 
 tages in this method of making a railway ; the raised 
 portions of the work keep the line above the influ- 
 ence of rains, and make tlie least disturbance of nat- 
 ural watercourses. It requires time, however, to 
 put together elevated iron or wooden structures. and 
 a great deal of material is necessarj- ; for instance, 
 one mile of modern structure for this railway, 
 with an average height of trestles of 3 ft. 9 
 in., takes 250 tons weiglit of material. The re- 
 sults of the trials of Mr. Fell's railway, which was 
 erected at Aldershot, were as follows : An engine 
 weighing 4i tons, took 2.5 tons of load up an incline , 
 of 1 in 50 ; at a speed of 25 miles an hour trestles. 20 
 feet high, were quite steady. It was found that 500 
 soldiers could lay two miles of this class of tram- 
 way, after a little practice, in a day of 10 hours. 
 Another style of raised tramway has been de- 
 signed by Mr. Hadden, Fig. 4. The structure can 
 be made of wood or iron ; itconsists of a single upper 
 rail or beam, fixed on posts 7 feet high, let into the 
 ground 3 feet ; there are also lower or grip rails 
 made of wood, which are halved and let into the 
 posts. These have saw-cuts in them to admit of 
 their bending to take curves in the line of 100 ft. 
 radius. The breaking strength of the structure is 
 estimated to be 20 tons. The materials for one mile 
 of this tramway are stated to measure 40 cubic ft. 
 and to weigh 80 tons. The rolling stock consists of 
 pairs of boxes of panniers suspended on the upper 
 rail or beam by means of central wheels or rollers 
 with V-shaped tires ; they also often have horizontal
 
 RAILWAT COMMUNICATION. 
 
 628 
 
 HAILWAT COMHUNICATIOir. 
 
 wheels acting on a lower or grip rail. These boxes 
 are ingeniously contrived to take stores, horses, and 
 passengers, and may be used as pontoons for taking 
 loads across rivers. By employing long ropes, trains 
 may be drawn by animals towing alongside of the 
 raised tramway. The locomotives to be used on this 
 raised tramway are reported by Mr. Hadden to be 
 capable of drawing a load of 100 tons up an incline 
 of tin 10 ; they are said to gain the necessary power 
 by acting on the grip principle instead of by gravity 
 and traction like ordinary locomotives. The driving 
 machinery is located on a carriage by itself, and the 
 power is very conveniently applied to one pair of 
 the horizontal wheels on one side of the grip rail ; 
 the steam is generated in two boilers, placed in front 
 and behind the engine truck. It is further stated by 
 the inventor that an endless rope or chain attach- 
 ment can be applied to all the wheels on one side of 
 a train, giving continuous grip power for ascending 
 gradients and break power for descending steep in- 
 
 CUpReOt. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 clines. The draw-bars connecting the trucks of a 
 train are devised to work automatically on tlie driv- 
 ing action of the wheels, increasing or diminishing 
 their grip or break power according as the strain on 
 the draw-bar is augmented or decreased by varia- 
 tions in the gradients the train is traveling over. 
 Whether the engine and the draw-bars can be perfect- 
 ed and made to perform these various duties remains to 
 be proved by experiment. With regard to raised 
 railways, it should be observed that they obstruct 
 traffic crossing them — this is objectionable in a mili- 
 tary point of view; they do not lend themselves to 
 the drawing of loads by manual labor or by animal 
 power as favorably as surface lines ; sidings are not 
 easily managed on raised structures ; separate 
 bridges are required for the passage of rivers when 
 the carriages cannot be run on rails on the roadway 
 of pontoon or other field bridges ; they require a 
 great deal of time to construct, and take much mate- 
 rial ; and they are not so easy to take up and relay as 
 surface lines, and are more destructible. 
 
 In treating of lines of railway for military pur- 
 poses, the use of locomotives upon them must be 
 taken into consideration ; for although the line may 
 at first be worked by horse or by other means of 
 draught, it must eventually be adapted to engines to 
 make it of any use for keeping up the supplies of 
 an army in the field. It will be advisable to look at 
 the different natures of locomotives, and to see 
 which appear to give tlie best results of work under 
 the special conditions of service in a strange coun- 
 try. 
 
 Taking the ordinary passenger or goods engine of 
 permanent lines, it will be seen to be a very heavy 
 machine to handle, particularly in situations deficient 
 of appliances for landing such engines. Tlicy pos- 
 sess great power and sjieed, but are tooc\imbcrsome 
 to be used on a light line ; they require the railway 
 to be laid with care and to be nearly level, that is 
 with gradients not exceeding 1 in 70 ; and they can- 
 
 not work round sharp curves, 15 chains being the 
 maximum thut can be safely got round with engines 
 of this class. The weight on each pair of driving 
 wheels is so great, 10 to 15 tons, that the rails re- 
 quire to be heavy to stand the traffic. There are 
 contractor's and tank engines which are very suitable 
 to roughly-laid lines ; they weigh about 16 or 18 
 tons ; they seem, however, beyond the limit of 
 weight that should be adopted for military lines. 
 The same remarks apply to the class of engines that 
 are used for the meter-gauge lines ; they weigh 
 about IG tons, giving 6 tons on each pair of wheels, 
 and, like the others, are constructed for quick speed ; 
 they are also not easy to handle under difficulties. 
 The small engines made by Manning, Wardle & Co., 
 and which are extensively used in H. M. Dockyards 
 and the Royal Arsenal, are not powerful enough to 
 take a load up a steep gradient ; they are very well 
 adapted for the 18-iu. gauge of rails on level sites ; 
 tliBy will take sharp curves and have good speed ; 
 but the lines of these locomotives must be well laid 
 and almost level ; that is the reason why such good 
 results have been obtained from these engines in the 
 dockyards and the arsenal, where the rails are gen- 
 erally cast in solid iron plates and the sites are per- 
 fectly level. The Royal Engineer Committee de- 
 signed an engine for the 18-in. trench tramway, 
 which has some advantages over the locomotives 
 last described. It possesses the following character- 
 istics: The working weight of the locomotive is 8 
 tons ; the driving wheels are on a rigid base of only 
 3 ft., admitting of its traveling on very sharp curves; 
 the engine is furnished with a "rail-clip" con- 
 structed on the Handyside principle, and has also 
 a winding drum on the part, with 400 yds. of very 
 strong steel-wire rope worked by a distinct pair of 
 engines to the ones required for driving the locomo- 
 tive; the last two appliances enable it to get up a very 
 steep gradient; by sending the engine up by itself, 
 and then, by clipping the rails, it can draw the train 
 after, it by means of the rope. In trials made with 
 this locomotive, 25 tons were drawn on the level on 
 a very roughly-laid surface line ; up a slope 1 in 25, 
 7 tons could be drawn by the engine attached in the 
 ordinary way ; this incline had a curve in it of 25 ft. 
 radius; the engine could just steam up a slope of 1 
 in 11, and draw 10 tons up the same by means of the 
 " rail-clip" and the winding drum. There is another 
 method of applying winding power to an engine ; it 
 is a suggestion of Sir. Russell Shaw, C. E., and con- 
 sists of a chain securely fixed at the top of an incline, 
 and the locomotive is furnished with a clip-drum that 
 j can catch up the chain. The steam-power generated 
 in the boiler will serve to wind up a loaded train by 
 means of this chain and drum, and, by reversing the 
 action, the chain can be made to break the descent 
 of the train down the same incline. It would be 
 well to convert one of the Royal Engineer Commit- 
 tee locomotives to this system of haulage, eo as to 
 test the appliance. 
 
 To afford means of crossing wide rivers with a 
 tramway, steel boats of the same description as were 
 advocated by General Sir Lintorn Simmons, G. C. B., 
 could be employed as pontoons for a floating bridge. 
 The locomotives would have to be taken over the 
 water on rafts made of these steel boats, for use with 
 trains on the opposite side of tlie stream, as it is 
 doubtful whether they could be steamed across a 
 river on any sort of floating structure. As floating 
 bridges for a double line of rails would have to re- 
 main some time in position, the steel pontoons advo- 
 cated would be more suitalile than the service pon- 
 toon bridge, and besides, the pontoon train would 
 have their own functions to perform in the front 
 with the troops. An idea of the sort of steel pontocm 
 tramway wagon on bogies is given in Fig. 5. The 
 boats are made to rest on the frame which forms the 
 longitudinal bearers or superstructure of the bridge 
 for the rails of the tramway; when the boats are not 
 required to form a bridge, they would thus be avail-
 
 EAILWAY COMMUNICATION. 
 
 629 
 
 KAILWAY COMMUNICATION. 
 
 able for freiglit wagons. Whatever kind of rolling 
 slock is ailopteil for military Hervi<-i', it i« ul)Soliil(fly 
 necessary tliat every (■arria>;e sIiijiiI<1 liave its lireak 
 to render ])<Tfcctly Niifc the drawiiii; of wii^joiis iniii- 
 vidiially l)V animal draiii^^ht, and also to have com- 
 plete control over a train desccndinj; inclines. The 
 "Uuberleiu" continnous break is well suited for 
 
 ■-■---;tf--y</v>^-H-^----"-"----'-^ 
 
 > i 
 
 : I 
 
 'iMi [^)f 
 
 the mugazincH on thenc platform wsgonii ; and now 
 that the main artillery maga/ines have to be eHlab- 
 lished at a niiich jjreater distunee from a fortreBO 
 than formerly was llie case, a very great having of 
 lalior is made by moving tlie lieuvy shot and shell 
 on tram-trucks instead of the old trench cart, Kig. 8. 
 Wagons also for siege A'ork have heen designed 
 
 .'■A.. 
 
 J C 
 J [ 
 
 \\w))[^))' 'i.c^jj i(W)j' 
 
 ^y^^jK^j) 
 
 this purpose. It can be apiilii'd !>ythe enjjine driver 
 of the train or by the ijuani. and can also be put on 
 by a jicrson on the siiU- of tlic wagons. It shoulil lie 
 observed Ihiil, Ihuui^h the l)(ii;ic-;ruck syst<'m is re- 
 commended for mililary rollin;; stock as bcin;; the 
 safest to travel on roUij;hly-laiil lines, and as giving 
 the power to make sharp curves on a railway, tliere 
 is another plan of " tlexible wheel base," invented 
 by Mr. James Cleminson, which has all the advan- 
 tages of bogies. By this method the detects of a 
 rigid wheel base are overcome, the carriages travel 
 
 Waxforv locuded. "^ 
 
 that make andjulances for wounded men, and can 
 laki" them from the trenches to the riar wilh ease 
 and comfort, Fig, '.I : the platforms that an- used 
 for general work arc lajiahle of l)eing converted 
 into andjulances so as to utilize the empty return 
 trucks. These trench tramway wagons weigh only 
 H ton, and are c'lual to a load of three tons. In 
 nniking a comparison between transport by wheeled 
 wagons and by means of a railway, the (fuanlity of 
 forage and fuel for the two systems must be taken 
 into account. The conditions under which frjrage 
 
 smoothly and safely round sharp curves, and the 
 rolling s"tock can be made much lighter in weight 
 than ordinary railway carriages. They have been 
 constructed to take ten passengers, or tliree tons to 
 every ton weight of the carriage, giving about two 
 tons on each pair of wheels on the rails. Thi' rolling 
 Stock that lias been approved for tlie trench tram- 
 way is on the same principle as is advocated for mili- 
 tary railways; it consists of platform wagons 18 feet 
 long Fig. 3i 6, and 7. which are well suited for trans- 
 porting'the requirements of troops at sieges, such as 
 fascines, rails, and timber for gun platfonns and 
 splinter proofs. These platform wagons run on 
 bogie trucks, they are easily drawn by men and by a 
 horse pulling at the side of "the wagon, and are made 
 low so as not to be seen by the enemy over the earth- 
 work of the parallels. Trucks for siege purposes have 
 been made for the transport of artillery to the bat- 
 teries; they are particularly suitable for this work, 
 saving the very heavy labor to the artillery of arm- 
 ing their batteries by transporting the guns over 
 
 £oaA3 Tons. 
 
 Supply in ff _^ 
 
 ^nununition/ia Ja2^. 
 
 Fig. 8, 
 
 the open country during the night. The weights of 
 the siege guns of the present day would make this 
 operationonc of grf at difticvdty if a tramway in the 
 parallels were not available. 
 The ammunition, too, can be readil}' supplied to 
 
 may be procured vary greatly with the different 
 localities : but in most cases transport columns 
 nuist move with a certain number of days' forage for 
 the draught or pack animals employed, and in the 
 same way a locomotive must take its fuel along 
 with it. Taking, as an example, the transport of 
 100 tons of stores for 200 miles, the following table 
 shows appro.ximately the (luantity of fuel, forage, 
 and time that would be required. The calculations 
 of this table are based upon the employment of gen- 
 eral service wagons, taking 1\ tons, 4 horses to 
 draw, and 2 drivers to each wagon, with proportion 
 
 - JS 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 of non-commissioned officers: for the pack animals 
 the load is taken at 200 lbs. for the good horses, with 
 one attendant to 6 horses, and non-commissioned 
 officers in proportion. The trucks for the railway 
 are loaded to li tons, and the road wagons of the 
 •• steam-sappers" to 4 tons. 
 
 The column of cross weight s estimated on the 
 load of 100 tons with the weight of the wagons, the 
 horses, the locomotives, the trucks, and the forage 
 or fuel, accordins to the numbers and quantities in 
 each case. To the railway means of tr.insport has 
 been added the wciirht of tlie plant that is necessary 
 for making the railwav: if 2 ft. 6 in. gauge is em- 
 ployed, the weight of 100 miles of single line will 
 be 6,100 tons.
 
 EAILWAY STAFF VOLUNTEER COKPS. 
 
 630 
 
 EAIN GAUGE. 
 
 Means of Transport. 
 
 
 Horse drauffht 180 
 
 Pack animals 1,200 
 
 Steam traction on • I 
 railways > 
 
 Steam-sappers 
 
 80 
 230 
 
 25 
 
 Wagons or 
 trucks. 
 
 40 G. S. wagons... 
 
 (3 locomotives. 
 
 '(18 trucks 
 
 ( 5 steam-sappers. 
 ■J 25 road wagons. 
 
 Time. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■c 
 
 X ^ 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 '>>£? 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 5 C3 03 
 
 c 
 
 Q s 
 
 te 
 
 ^ 
 
 Miles 
 
 
 Total 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 < . 
 
 
 
 ( ' 
 
 
 s 
 
 \n 
 
 
 H 
 
 o = 
 
 Tons. 
 Forage, 30 
 Forage, 120. 
 
 Steam coal, 5. 
 Steam coal, 20, 
 
 O 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Tons 
 
 253 2.5-mile march. 
 
 820 30-mile march. 
 • At 15 miles an 
 "( hour. 
 (At 4 miles an 
 \ hour. 
 
 6,290 
 225 
 
 See Tron-i'lad Triii'us. 
 
 EAILWAY STAFF VOLUNTEER CORPS.— A Corps 
 whose object is to secure unity of action among the 
 Railway Companies in time of war. It consists of 
 three classes — namely. Eminent Civil Engineers, 
 the General ^Managers of Railway Companies, ami the 
 leading Contractors. Their duty"is to consider points 
 relating to the transport of troops, the formation of 
 lines oif railway, etc., and to meet any exigency in 
 time of war, all which information would prove of 
 great value. In Germany the railways.as far as they 
 are employed for military purposes, are under tlie 
 control of the Great G"eneral StatT at Berlin, a 
 special section of that department being entirely 
 devoted to collect and arrange systematically all in- 
 formation on railways.at home and abroad, especial- 
 ly with regard to their capacity for carrying troops. 
 This branch of the Staff works out the instructions 
 given for the transport of troops and munitions of 
 war, examines all projects of railways, and, lastly, 
 prepares plans for the transport of German troops 
 under different circumstances, so that tn the event 
 of war they can be concentrated with the greatest 
 possible speed on any given point. The Railway 
 Battalion, which was organized after the war of 1870- 
 71, and which is now in full working order, is under 
 the superintendence of this section. This Battalion 
 is composed in time of peace of four companies, re- 
 cruited from among the employes and officers of ex- 
 isting railways. The men are taught by very prac- 
 tical lessons how to construct and work a line, being 
 employed, while learning the tirst dutj% on the State 
 Railways,and afterwards on a special line, called the 
 " Military Railway," running from Berlin to the ar- 
 tillery practice ground at Zossen. On war breaking 
 out, "the Battalion is mobilized, and consists then of 
 eight i-oiutnuting and four irnrking companies. The 
 duties of the former are to make impromptu lines, and 
 for that purpose each company is provided with a 
 train of its own, containing all the necessary imple- 
 ments. The four working companies, taking up the 
 line as it is made, will begin to put it in running or- 
 der, manning it with drivers, guards, stokers, points- 
 men, and telegraph clerks from their own num- 
 ber, and, after the service is regularly establi>*hed, 
 handing it over to the ordinary Civilian Staff, 
 while tliey pass forward to make a frcsli section 
 on ahead. This Batlalion includes tlirce 
 classes: Line, Reserve, and Lnndirehr; the two latter 
 being at present supplemented by a list of ordinary 
 railway servants, engaged for enrollment in time of 
 need. In Russia, a system has been organized closely 
 resembling that ado|)le<l by (iermauy. Every year 
 picked men and ollicers are sent on all tlii' Railway 
 Lines, the former to study the theory of all that con- 
 cerns the working and managing of railways, the 
 latter to fulfill the duties of Station .Masters. Ii"i 1871. 
 after two year.?' practice, these men (4;!3 and 8 offi- 
 cers), together with a divisitm of infantry, and a 
 battalion of engineera, constructed in seven days a 
 
 line of 5 miles in lengtli, with two stations and ten 
 bridges, one of them of 54 yards span. Tlie cost of 
 the line was valued at £31,200. and was so well con- 
 structed that it has remained in use ever since. By 
 an Imperial Ukase promulgated in 1870, all the Rus- 
 sian Railwa}' Companies have to provide a certain 
 number of carriages for the wounded, fitted up with 
 litters, and well ventilated, and a number of carriges, 
 wagons, and trucks, speciallj' devised for military 
 purposes. France has also introduced a Railway- 
 Battalion under her new militarj' organization. The 
 men of this Battalion will be in time of war asso- 
 ciated with the Civil Railway Staff, and are classed 
 in three categories: The first (two-thirds of annual 
 Contingent) is incorporated in the Active Battalion, 
 and instructed as sappers and miners, or as soldiers 
 of the engineer train. The second (one-sixth of the 
 Contingent) serves one year only in the Active Bat- 
 talion; after which it is distributed among certain of 
 the principal Railwaj' Companies, in order to learn 
 the working and managing of the lines, their con- 
 struction, and restoration. The third (one-sixth of the 
 Contingent) serves only one year in the Active Bat- 
 talion, and is then transferred to the depots. This 
 carries on operations witli torpedoes, and is prac- 
 ticed generally in the destruction of rail waj's, bridges, 
 etc. A very similar organization of the Military 
 Railway Department has been established in Italy. 
 
 RAIN-GAUGE. — The use of rain-gauges is to as- 
 certain the amount of rain which falls at any given 
 place. The}' are of various constructions. The 
 simplest is that which consists of a metallic cjdinder, 
 from the bottom of which a glass tube, divided into 
 inches and parts of an inch. projects downwards. It is 
 provided with a funnel, inserted within at the top, to 
 prevent evaporation, and the rain-water is emptied 
 out by means of a stop-cock at the bottom, or still 
 simpler, by a hole pierced in the funnel at the top. 
 As this form of gauge is objectionable on account 
 of the frequent breakage of the glass-tube by frost, 
 a float is used instead, which is raised by the water, 
 and a scale is attached to it, to show tlie quantity of 
 rain received. As this gauge does not admit of very 
 nice readings, another sort is frequently employed, 
 viz.. a receiving-vessel and a glass mciisure of much 
 smaller diameter, which thus admits f)f as nice grad- 
 uaticui as may lie desired. As, praclieally, there is 
 often great dillicully or trouble experienced in re- 
 placing the glass measure when it chances to get 
 broken, the late G. V. .lagga Rao, a wealthy zemin- 
 dar of Vizagapatam, proposed a gauge in tlie form 
 of a funnel hiivinga dianu'ter of 4'(i!l7 inches, or an 
 area of 17-l!8 squ:ire inelies. .\s a fluid ounce contains 
 1-733 cubic inclies.it follows that for every lluid 
 ounce collected by this gauge, the tenth of an inch of 
 rain has fallen. This measure can. of course, be 
 graduated to any degree of nicety, and may be re- 
 produced at jileasure. Self-registering rain-gauges 
 have been invenled by Osier, Crosley, and Beckly,
 
 EAIN OF FIKE. 
 
 631 
 
 BAJP00T8. 
 
 but they are too cxpcnsivi! to come into very com- 
 mnn use. TIk' (iniwiii!; reprt'scnts the ContiDcntul 
 Siumil Service niiii-(;iiiii;c. 
 
 A iiKiHl importiuit point with regiinl to tlio rain- 
 gmiiic is ils hei;;hl above the f^roiind. I'rofcsHor 
 Phillips found the fall of rain at York, for 12 nionllis 
 in lH;i:i 1h:)4, to be H'.in inches at a height of 213 
 feet from the ground; Wt-H't inches at 44 feet; and 
 25'71 inches on the fj;rou!id. This n'niarkable fact 
 — vi/.., that dilTcrcnt i|uarililies are collected at dif- 
 ferent heijilits, the amount beini; always creater at 
 the lower level, has l)C<n confirmed wherever the 
 experiment has been made. No perfectly satis- 
 factory account h;is yet been given of this siniruhir 
 plienomenon. Tlie condensing of tlie vapor of tlnj 
 
 atmosphere on the surface of r;iindrops as they fall 
 — the rebound of the finer p;irlicl(s into which ninny 
 of the drops break themselves !us they strike with 
 violence on the ground and the eddies and currents 
 which prevail most and strongest around isolated 
 objects raised above the surface of the ground, to a 
 large extent account for the pheuomenon. Of these 
 three, the greatest weight is to be given to the last 
 two; and this is confirmed l.iy the fact, that ;i gauge 
 placed on the roof of a building that iKippens to be 
 flat, of considerable area, and 'with few or no chim- 
 ney-stalks to disturb the air-currents, collects an 
 aniount equal to th;it collected at tlie same time by 
 a gauge on the grouud. The proper size and shape 
 ofthe rain-gauge, and its height above the ground, 
 so as to measure witli the greatest exactness possible 
 the real quantity of rain that falls, about all of which 
 much diversity of opinion exists, luive been ably in- 
 vestigated by a series of extensive experiments eon- 
 ducted by Jtajor AVard. Mr. iSymons, Rev. Charles 
 Griffith, and others, and tlie results have been pub- 
 lished auniially in Symons' British Hniiifall. 
 
 BAIN OF FIRE.— -\ decoration for roekets, made 
 ■with paper-cases -f^ iucli in diameter, and 2 inches 
 long, two thicknesses of paper being suflicient. The 
 
 end of the ease Ih eloM'd. and it in ehar(;ed ar.ii primed 
 like that for a serpent, except the jxjwder for a 
 cracKcr. I lie eompoKJlion it It) rmrlHor riieahd pow- 
 der and about of chari-oai. Another eompohiiion 
 which shows in sparks, is made of 1(1 partH euniphor, 
 8 of nitre. H of mealed powder, and S of low 
 
 RAISING AHMIE8.- Armies are ruinfil in two wuyH: 
 Either liy vobiniary engagi'menls. or by lot or con- 
 script ion. The (jreek and I<o:iian levieo were the 
 result of a rigid fvstem of conscri[)tir>n. The VIk!- 
 gotlis practiced a general conscri|)lion ; poverty, old 
 age and sickness wcTe the only reasons udmilled for 
 exemption. Subseqiientlv.the feudal military' tenures 
 had superseded that earlier system of public defense, 
 which calli'd upon every man, and espieially upon 
 every landholder, to protert his country. The rela- 
 tions of a vassal cami- in place of those of a subjeet 
 and a citizen. This was the revolution fif tlie 'Jth 
 century. In the 12lh an<l ll'th another innovation 
 rather more gradually iirevailed. and marks the 
 third period in the mili'iary history of Europe. Mer- 
 cenary troops were subsliliile<l for the Feudal Militia. 
 These military adventurers played a more remark- 
 able part in Italy than in France, though not a little 
 troublesome to the latter country. A necessary ef- 
 fect of the formation of JIer(;enaries was the central- 
 ization of authority. Money became the sinews of 
 war. The invention of fire-arms caused it to be ac- 
 knowledged that skill was no less essential for war- 
 like operations than strength and valor. Towards 
 tlie end of the Middle Ages, the power of Princes 
 was calculated by the number and quality of paid 
 troops tliey could support. France first set the ex- 
 ample of keeping troops in time of peace. Charles 
 VII.. foreseeing the danger of invasion, authorized 
 the a.sseniblage of Armed Mercenaries called Cum. 
 pagmen d^<)rd"nnancf. Louis XI., dismissed these 
 troops.but enrolled new troops composed of French, 
 Swiss, and Scotch. Under Charles VIII., German« 
 were admitted in the French army, and the highest 
 and iiiost illustrious Noliles of France regarded it 
 as an honor to serve in the <!enn (rArmeji. !Moral 
 qualifications not being exacted for admission to the 
 ranks, the restraints of a barbarous di-scipline be- 
 came necessary, and this discipline divided widely 
 the soldier from the people. The French Hevoliition 
 overturned this .system. Now Mercenary Troops 
 have completely disappeared from Continental Eur- 
 ope. England only now raises armies by the system 
 of lierrii/U'r.i. The last wars of Europe have been wars 
 of the people and have been fought liy nationalities. 
 After peace armies remain national. for their elements 
 are taken from the people. and are returned to the peo- 
 ple by legal liberations. The institution of conscrip- 
 tion is evidently the most important of modern limes. 
 Among otlier advantages, it has bridged the other- 
 wise impassable gulf bet weea the citizen and soldier, 
 who, children of the same family, are now united in 
 defense of their country. Pernianent armies have 
 ceased to be the personal guard of Kings, but their 
 sympathies are always with the people, and their 
 jiist title is that of skillful warriors maintained as a 
 nucleus for the instruction of their countrymen in 
 the liiL'hest school of art. 
 
 RAJA— KAJ AH.— Originally a title which belonged 
 to those princes of Hindu races who. either as inde- 
 pendent Sovereigns or as Feudatories, governed a. 
 Territory; it then^ however, became a title given by 
 the native governments, and. in later times, by the 
 British government to Hindus of rank, and it is now 
 not uncommonly assumed by the Zeinimlars or Land- 
 holders: the tit'le Jlahrtriijah. or 'Great Kajah." be- 
 ing, in these davs. generally resers-ed to Ibe more or 
 less independent native Princes. According to the 
 ancient social system of India, the Kajah belongeil 
 to the Kshatlriva or Military Casle: now, however. 
 the title is given to, and assumed by, members also 
 of an inferior Cast<'. 
 
 RAJPOOTS RAJPUTS.— The name of various tribes 
 in India wliieh are of .Vryau origin, and either de-
 
 BAKE. 
 
 632 
 
 BAMPABT GBERASE. 
 
 scended from the old royal races of the Hindus, or 
 from their Kshattriya or Warrior Caste. At all per- 
 iods they seem to have played a conspicuous part 
 in the history of India ; and all over Hindustan there 
 are many families who, rightly or vcrongly, claim the 
 title of Kajputs. At present they occupy chiefly the 
 country known as Rajasthan or Rajputana. includ- 
 ing, among other States, those of Mewar, Jlarwar, 
 Jeypur, Bikanir, Jessulmir, Kotah, and Bundi. Be- 
 fore the invasion of Mahmiid the Ghiznevidc, four 
 great kingdoms were under the dominion of Rajput 
 families — viz., Delhi, Kanoj, Mewar, and Anhulvar- 
 ra ; and all the Kings mentioned in the Rdjntaranji ■ 
 ni of Kalhana were of Rajput origin. 
 
 RAKE. — A term meaning to enfilade, or to fire in 
 the direction of an enemy's ranks. To rake a ship 
 is to bring gims to bear so as to fire them along her 
 deck from end to end; this is the most disastrous 
 thing that can happen to a vessel in action, and it is 
 the object of all good seamanship to avoid it. When 
 a ship is raked at short range, grape can be used 
 with great and fatal effect. 
 
 HAM. — In fortification the act of compressing, by 
 means of rammers, the loose earth used in building 
 parapets and in filling gabions. Althougli a parapet 
 of loose earth is less injured by shot than a rammed 
 one, ramming is essential for the stability of the ram- 
 parts and parapets, as they might be scriouslj- injured 
 by a continuance of bad weaUier. To ram is also a 
 term used in thrusting home the charge into a piece 
 of ordnance. Hence "to ram home" a charge. 
 
 EAMMEfi.— 1. The rod by which the charge of a 
 small arm is forced home. 2. A staff having a 
 cylindrical or conoidal head attached, used in can- 
 non for the same purpose. The rammer-head is 
 made of beech, maple, or other hardwood not easily 
 split, and is bored for about two-thirds of its length 
 to receive a tenon on the staff. For rifled guns, or 
 for hollow projectiles, its face is countersunk. Ram- 
 mers for large guns are technically termed rammers 
 and stares. For field artillery, a sponge is attached 
 to the other end of the staff, and the combinea im- 
 plement is called a sponge and rammer. 
 
 BAHMER-HEAD. — An instrument employed in the 
 inspection of cannon for ascertaining the interior 
 position of the vent A head of well-seasoned wood, 
 which fits the chamber, is attached to a wooden disc 
 of the diameter of the main bore. The surface of the 
 head corresponds with a longitudinal central section ,, 
 of the chamber; at the point where the projection of 
 the vent would meet it a piece of hard wood is in- 
 serted. A central line drawn through its length, 
 crossed at aright angle by another line at any known 
 point from the smaller end, will afford convenient 
 points to measure from. A stout wooden staff is 
 attached to the axis of the head ; at a distance equal 
 to the length of the bore, the end is jogged into the 
 center of a half-disc of wood, which is fitted to the 
 bore. The whole is so constructed that the straight 
 edge of the half-disc (or the chord) is in the same 
 plane as a hori/.ontal section of the head. A few 
 holes are bored tlirougli the discattached to the half- 
 head, to allow tlie instrument to pass freely into the 
 giui and out of it. A wire of uutcmpered steel, of 
 thesize of the vent, withasharp, well-crntcred point, 
 and a small spirit-level, are reijuired to use with this 
 tnstruincnt. 
 
 The gun being leveled, and the instrument being 
 pushed to the bottom of the bore, the upper edge of 
 the half-di.sc near the outer end of tlie staff is then 
 brought to a level. The surface of the half-head 
 then corresponds with the horizontal central section 
 of the chamber. The point of the wire being pushed 
 gently to meet it, will show very accurately the inter- 
 ior positiciii of tlic vent. See /ns/ieflion "fOrd/iaiice. 
 EAMMEES. —Large l)locks of wood, very commonly 
 used ill military works, for the ramming of loose 
 earth. Th(^ word rammer is also applied to the man 
 employed in tliat duty. 
 
 RAMP. — in fortification, a gradual slope by which 
 
 approach is had from the level of the town or inter- 
 ior area to the terreplein orgeneral level of the forti- 
 fications behind the parapet. The width of ramps 
 at top for the service of the artillery and other vehi- 
 cles may be from 10 to 10 feet, and their inclination 
 from J to i'e, or less, depending on the difference 
 of level to be overcome. They are usually placed in 
 positions where they will occupy the least room of 
 the parade. As a general rule, their side slopes are 
 of eartli ; Imt where it is desirable to economize 
 room on the parade the side slopes are replaced on 
 one or both sides by a wall which sustains the 
 earth of the ramp. When ramps serve for infantry 
 alone their width may be reduced to 6 feet, and in 
 some cases to 4 feet. See Vvmimmicatii.ms. 
 RAMPANT.— In Heraldry, an epithet applied to a 
 [ lion or other beast of prey when placed erect on the 
 ; two hind-legs, with only one of the fore-legs eleva- 
 '' ted, the head being seen in profile. When the 
 face is turned toward the spectator, the attitude is 
 
 Bampanti 
 
 called rampant gardant, and when the head is turn- 
 ed backwards, rampant ngardiint. A lion counter- 
 rampant is one rampant towards the sinister, instead 
 of towards the dexter, the usual attitude. Two 
 lions rampant coutrarj'-waysin saltier, are sometimes 
 also said to be counter-rampant. 
 
 RAMPANT PLANE.— In the earlier methods of de- 
 filement, a line was taken, the position of which was 
 determined by a series of trials, having for their ob- 
 ject to obtain satisfactory results both as to the econ- 
 omy of the requisite embankments and the disposition 
 of command of the various parts at, or in the rear of,the 
 gorge of the work to be defiled; this position, coin- 
 ciding with the natural surface, or being above or 
 beneath it as the case required. Through this line a 
 plane was passed tangent to the dangerous ground. 
 This plane, termed a. Rampant Plane, was taken as 
 the artificial site of the work, in reference to which 
 the relative command of all the parts was arranged 
 upon a horizontal site. Or, in other words, there- 
 sult was nearly the same as if the works had been 
 arranged on a horizontal site, and then the whole 
 combination turned around some fixed line of this 
 site, until it was brought into the position of the re- 
 quired rampant plane. The defects of this method 
 are evident at a glance. It preserves the relations of 
 defense of the various works the same as in a hori- 
 zontal site ; but, to a great extent, it leaves out of 
 consideration the bearing of the command on the 
 exterior ground, and, in many cases, may lead to ex- 
 cessive excavations and embankments which the 
 method now followed enable the engineer, for the 
 most part, to avoid. 
 
 RAMPART. — A structure forming the substratum 
 of every permanent fortification. It constitutes the 
 enceinte, and is constructed immediately within the 
 main ditcli by throwing up tlie soil excavated from 
 it. On the front of tlie raiiijiart the parapet is raised, 
 and widtli sliould he left behind it to allow of guns, 
 wagons, and triKjps passing freely on the top of the 
 rampart. Thi' lieiglit of the rampart is dependent on 
 the relief (height) of the buildings to be defended, 
 and on the positions in the neigiiborhood which an 
 enemj' might assume. Also wrMenr ampler, and ram- 
 pire. See Permanent Ju/rt/Jiration. 
 
 RAMPART GRENADE.- Rampart grenades are in- 
 tended to be rolled down tlie rampart of a work, to 
 protect a breaeli against the attack of any storiiiing
 
 EAMPART GUN. 
 
 iV. 
 
 HARK. 
 
 column. Shells of any size will answer for Ihis pur- 
 poBc, and piirlicularly those which ari' iiiiHi-rviccahle 
 for oriliiiary purposes. (jrcniuiiH arc lllh-il wilh a 
 burslini; charge, anil arc ariiicd with a .sliurl fii>i<-', 
 wliich is linhtcil l)y a match in the liaiiils of ihcf;rcn- 
 adicr iMimcdiatcl^' before il \h lliriiwn. They act by 
 the force of their explotdori alone. Bee (Jreiiade, 
 Hand firtiiiirli', and /'nijtrtilei, 
 
 RAMPART GUN. A lari;e nun fitted for rampart 
 use. and not nsed for licld purpoHcs. 
 
 RAMROD. A loiif;, slender piece of steel, employ- 
 ed in mn/./ledoadiiii; arms, to push the cliarf;e toils 
 ])roper place, and to wipe out llie barrel. It is car- 
 ried in a groove cut into tlie under side of the stock, 
 and it is ke])! in its place by the ])ressure of the «iri'U 
 against the tiji of lh<' stock. The /iinil of the rod is 
 countersunk to lit the point of the projectile ; and the 
 point has ascrew to receiveihe wijirr and liUl-nrmr — 
 implements that are used to clean and remove' ob- 
 structions fi(un the bore. The temper of the ram- 
 r<id may be tested by s])rin;;inii >l i" four direi-l ions, 
 witli the point resting on the Moor. When the mus- 
 kel-rod is bent si.\ inches out of line, it sliould spring 
 back perfectly straight without setting. Its sound- 
 ness may be tested by striking it with u piece of 
 metal, or by bending it over the edge of a block of 
 wood; in the first case the sounil emitted should be 
 clear, and in the second case the Hawsor cracks will 
 bcopened. The screw on the point of the rod should 
 be properly cut ; it shoidilbear [jroperly in its groove, 
 neither too light, nor too loose. The point should 
 rest on the stop. 
 
 RAMROD CROSS BOW.— A very heavy and compar- 
 atively useless weapon of the time of Louis XIV. 
 
 RAMSHORNS. — In fortification, are semicircular 
 works of low profile in the ditch, widch they sweep, 
 being themselves commanded by the main works. 
 They were invented by M. Helidor, a great French 
 engineer, and, when used, take the place of tenailles, 
 
 RANCHEROS. — A name given in Mexico to a mi.xed 
 breed of 8|)anisli and Indian blood, who inhabit the 
 country, and may almost be said to live in the saddle 
 from their youth, are splendid riders and hunters, 
 and form the brav('st part of the Mexican army -its 
 irregidar cavalry. The importance of their services 
 was seen in the wars wilh the I'nited States. The 
 Rancheros are lank in frame, with brown, weather- 
 stained faces and muscular limbs, hardy, temperate, 
 and always ready for the boldest enterprises. 
 
 RANCON. — The name of an old weapon, consisting 
 of a long stake with a sharp iron point at one end, 
 and two blades or wings bent backwards, and ex- 
 tremely keen. 
 
 HANDING.— In fortification, a kind of basket-work, 
 formed in making gabions. One rod only is used, 
 and an odd number of pickets, in forming the bas- 
 ket the rod being passed alternately inside and out- 
 side the pickets. 
 
 RANDOM. -Want of direction in firing a gun or 
 musket : hence the expression, V> fire at naidom. A 
 random xhot is a common expression when a fire-arm 
 has been discharged without aiming in any particular 
 direction. 
 
 RANGE. — In gunnery, the distance between a 
 point on the ground vertically below the muzzle of 
 the piece and the point on the same level at which 
 the projectile touches in its descent. The point- 
 blank range is when the piece is fired in a horizontal 
 position ; the range then increases with the eleva- 
 tion ; and if the air did not oppose resistance, the 
 greatest range would be attained with the piece ele- 
 vated at an angle of 4.")^ ; but in practice this angle 
 is found to be on an average a little over SC. As 
 the resistance of the atmosphere increases as the 
 square of the velocity of the shot, being also in the 
 direct ratio of its front section, while the momentum 
 is as the velocity multiplied by the weight ; it follows 
 that a heavy shot should have a greater range than a 
 light one ; and that of two shots of the same weight, 
 an elongated cylinder of small diameter will have a 
 
 longer range tliiin a fiphcrlcnl ball of ^eater diameter. 
 On the other hand, .roni the rapid mcreawr in u du- 
 plicat(^ ratio of the resistaucc, uh coinparcfd with 
 the initial velocity, the rang".' only incrr'UHeK to aci-r- 
 tain point, in consei|uence of a more rapid lliglit of 
 the projectile. The loMgest range yet attained lia« 
 been by Sir Joseph Whitwortli, wilh a U-incli rillMl 
 gun, with which he sent a bolt a distance of l],:M:i 
 yards, or (J miles and fW3 yards. See (Junntry, and 
 TrajecUtri/ . 
 
 RANGE BOARD.- This nature of board in intended 
 for guns in fortresses, from tlii' "-inch citbher up- 
 wards; it is placi'd in a conveiuent |)OHition in the 
 fortress where il can be seen and consulted. It haH 
 the distances painted on il of i>roniinent objecls with- 
 in the raii'.'i' of tlie guns moimted on the works. 
 
 RANGE CURVE. - The ranges corresponding to the 
 angles of elevation given in tables are delerinined 
 by means of a Jiany Ciirti-. which is conHlriicted 
 from the results of practice. Having traced thi; 
 curve through several points delennined by experi- 
 ment, it is eiisy to find a series of ranges for inter- 
 mediate ;inL'l(s ajiii minutes. 
 
 RANGE-FINDER. An instrument for determining 
 ranges. There are several different principles which 
 may be used. The distance may be measured- 1st, 
 by the visual angle subtended by objects of known 
 height; 2d, by the velocity of sound; 3d, the in- 
 strument may furnish a base line in itself, and solve 
 a triangle in which the base and two adjacent anirleg 
 are given. The term is also applied to instrumenlii 
 used to solve a triangle, the base of which is obtained 
 by outside means. The various range-firutem are 
 described under appropriate headings in this work. 
 See WdtkiiiH lliinf/t-Jiiukr. 
 
 RANGE PLATES. — I'lates of brass attached to the 
 brackets of the Knglish lli-pr. and Jl-pr. wrought-iron 
 field carriages. They are marked with three cobnnns 
 of figures, showing the range in yards from 100 to 
 4,000 for 16-prs. andfrom 100 to 3,.500 for yi)rs., with 
 the corresponding elevations and tenths of fuse. 
 
 RANGER.- One of a body of mounted troops, who 
 were formerly armed with short muskets, and who 
 ranged over the country, often fighting on foot. 
 
 RANGE-TABLES.— .\. properly constructed gauge- 
 table for a particular i)iece contains the range an<I tlie 
 time of Hight for each elevation, charge of powder, 
 and kind of projectile. Its object is to serve as a guide 
 in pointing, without waste of time and ammunition, 
 and also when the effect of the projectile cannot be 
 seen. It aids in securing good practice. The Ord- 
 nance Instructions contain approximate range tables 
 for the service cannon. It is with great diHiculty that 
 tables are constructed from results of the most careful 
 experiments, owing to the different ranges and deflec- 
 tions obtained in firing projectiles, even from the 
 same gun with similar charges and elevations. It 
 must be remembered that any practice table will only 
 serve as a general guide, and that small alterations 
 in elevation or detlection are required, according to 
 the force and direction of the wind, the position of 
 the piece with respect to the object, the quality of 
 the powder, and several other circumstances. 
 
 RANK. — 1. A line of soldiers drawn up side by 
 side in one row ; opposed to fiU. 2. The relative 
 position, in the army, which officers and men hold 
 with respect to each other, or to military things in 
 general. In the English Army, rank is .somewhat 
 confusing from its varieties, and from the fact that 
 the same officer niaj* hold at once three different 
 ranks. The first and only rank up to the grade of 
 Captain is regimental or mibntantatite rank. Above 
 this, officers may advance in two ways : First up to 
 rank of Lieutenant Colonel by substa'ntative or regi- 
 ' mental rank ; second, up to Colonel by obtaining 
 ' rank in the army, generally called hrerH rank, and 
 above that by army rank through the several grades 
 of general officers. In his regiment, the officer 
 holds only his regimental rank, whatever his brevet 
 rank maybe; but among officers of the army gener-
 
 BANS. 
 
 634 
 
 BANK. 
 
 ally he takes precedence according to his brevet 
 rank. In describing an officer wliolias brevet rank, 
 his regimental rank is placed first — as. Captain and 
 brevet Lieutenant Colonel Brown, which means that 
 an officer named Brown, who holds rank in a regi- 
 ment as Captain, has for his services been promoted 
 in the army to be Lieutenant Colonel. Officers of 
 the foot-guards have higher rank in the army. Ano- 
 ther class of rank is relative rank, which attaches to 
 certain officers. Thus Captain Brown aforesaid, in 
 addition to regimental rank as Captain, and army 
 rank as Lieutenant Colonel, may possibly hold a 
 staff appointment which confers on him the relative 
 rank of Colonel. Local rank is a common expedient 
 for advancing comparatively junior officers to im- 
 portant duties, a higher rank than that properly 
 held in the army being assigned to an individual 
 within certain geographical limits, as in the East 
 Indies, the Crimea, etc. Temporary rnnk is simi- 
 larly limited by time, and is conferred usually for 
 the period during which some appointment is held, 
 as the officer acting as director of ordnance ranks 
 as Major General while so employed. Honwnry 
 rank carries neither duty nor emolument; it is 
 commonh' given to the amount of one step to an offi- 
 cer who has served the time necessary for retirement; 
 thus, a Captain, after thirty years' service, may 
 retire (on the pay of Captain) with the honorary rank 
 of Major. Officers who have quitted the army are 
 also allowed to retain as honorary the last rank they 
 held. 
 
 In the L'nited States, officersof the Regular Army, 
 of the Marine Corps, and of Volunteers, wheu com- 
 missioned or mustered into the service, being upon 
 equal footing, take precedence in'each grade by date 
 of commission or appointment. Officers serving by 
 commission from any State of the Union take rank 
 next after officers of like grade by commission from 
 the United States, except commissions issued by the 
 President to officers of Volunteer regiments, which 
 are considered the same as if issued by Governors of 
 States. Militia officers, when employed in conjunc- 
 tion with the Regular or Volunteer forces of the 
 United States, take rank next after all officers of like 
 grade in those forces. In fixing relative rank between 
 officers of the same grade and date of appointment 
 and commission, the time which each maj- have ac- 
 tually served as a commissioned officer of the United 
 States, whether continuously or at different periods, 
 is taken into account. And in computing such time 
 no distinction is to be made between service as a 
 commissioned officer in the Regular Army and ser- 
 vice since the 19th day of April, 1861, in the Volun- 
 teer forces, whether under appointment or commis- 
 sion from the President or from the governor of a 
 State. Wliere periods of service are equal, prece- 
 dence is determined between ofl[icers of the same re- 
 giment, corps, or department, by the order of ap- 
 pointment. Between officers of different regiments : 
 1st. Rank in actual service when appointed ; 2d. For- 
 mer rank in the Regular Army, in the JIarine Corps, 
 or in the Volunteer service ; 3d. By lot among such 
 as have not been in th." military service of the United 
 States. The rank of officers and non-conmiissioned 
 officers in the service is as follows : — 1 . General. 2. 
 Lieutenant General. 3. Major General. 4. Hrigadier 
 General. .'>. Colonel. 6. Lieutenant Colonel. 7. 
 Major. 8. Captain. 9. First Lieutenant. 10. Second 
 Lieutenant. 11. Cadet. 12. Sergeant Major and 
 Veterinary Surgetm. 13. Quartermaster and Saddler 
 Sergeant (regimental). 14. Onlnaure and Coinnus- 
 sary Sergeant and Hospital Stcw;ird of tlie tirst class. 
 l."!. First Sergeant. 16. Sergeant iinii Cnmpaiiy (Quar- 
 termaster Sergeant. 17. Corporal. In each grade 
 these rank by date of commission, appointment, or 
 warrant. Chai>lains have the rank of Cajjtains of 
 Infantry without command. On parade, orother oc- 
 casions of ceremony, troops of dilTerent arms are ar- 
 ranged from right to left in the following order: first, 
 Infantry; second, mounted Artillery; third, Cavalry. 
 
 Artillery not mounted and Engineers serving as In- 
 fantry are p isted as Infantry. Engineers serving as 
 such are posted on the right of the Infantry. Marines 
 and dismounted Cavalry are on the left of the In- 
 fantry. In the same arm, Regulars, Volunteers, and 
 Militia are posted in line from right to left in the 
 order named. On all other occasions troops of all 
 classes are posted at the discretion of the General or 
 senior Commander. 
 
 Questions as to the positive or relative rank of offi- 
 cers may often be of the greatest importance at law, 
 in consequence of the rule, that every person who 
 justifies his own acts on the ground of obedience to 
 superior authority must establish, by clear evidence, 
 the sufficiency of the authority on which he so re- 
 lies. There may also be many occasions on which 
 the propriety of an officer's assumption of command, 
 or his exercise of particular functions, or his right to 
 share with a particular class of officers in prize-mon- 
 ey, bounties, grants, and other allowances, may de- 
 pend on the correctness of the view taken by him- 
 self or others of his right to a specific rank or com- 
 mand ; and an error in this respect may expose him 
 to personal loss and damage in suits before the civil 
 tribunals. The regulation of military rank is vested 
 absolutely in Congress, which confers or varies it at 
 pleasure. The will of Congress in this respect is 
 signified by the creation of different grades of rank; 
 by making rules of appointment and promotion ; by 
 other rules of government and regulation ; or is by 
 fair deduction to be inferred from the nature of the 
 functions assigned to each officer; for every man 
 who is intrusted with an employment, is presumed 
 to be invested with all the powers necessary for the 
 effective discharge of the duties annexed to his office. 
 Rank and Grade are sjnonymous, and in their mili- 
 tary acceptation indicate rights, powers, and duties 
 determined b}' laws creating the different degrees of 
 rank, and specifying fixed forms for passing from 
 grade to grade ; and when rank in one body shall 
 give command in another body ; and also when rank 
 in the army at large shall not be exercised. Rank is 
 a right of which an oflieer cannot be deprived, ex- 
 cept through forms prescribed b_v law. AVhen an 
 officer ii' on duty, his rank itself indicates his relative 
 position to other officers of the bod}' in which it is 
 created. It is not, however, a perpetual right to ex- 
 ercise command, because the President may, at any 
 time relieve an officer from duty ; or an officer may 
 be so relieved by arrest duly made according to law; 
 or by inability to perform duty from sickness, or by 
 being placed by competent authority on some other 
 duty. But whenever an officer is on duty his rank 
 indicates his command. Struggle as commentators 
 may, who desire to subject rank to executive caprice, 
 rather than have its powers and duties defined by 
 law, as the Constitution requires in giving to Con- 
 gress the power to make rules for the government 
 and reguUitUin of tlie army, tlie rights of rank cannot, 
 without usurpation, be varied at the will of the Pres- 
 ident. The law has created rank. Rank means a 
 range of subordination in the particular body in 
 which it is created. It is, therefore, effective in that 
 body, without any further legislatiim, and its etl'ect, 
 when the officer is present for duty, is <'Xtended be- 
 yond that particular portion of the army in whi<-h 
 the orticcr holds rank, or its exerci.se is restri<'ted 
 within a Corps only by legislation. Executive au- 
 thority <'annot make rank vary at will, but what- 
 ever authority the executive has over nuik must be 
 determined by law. A reference to the Articles of 
 "War will show that the President is given the 
 authority to limit the discretion of Comnuuiding 
 Officers, in special cases, in respect to what is need- 
 ful iov the service, and also to relieve the senior 
 officer from any command, so that the conunand may 
 fall upon the next officer in the Line of the Army, 
 Marine Corps, or Militia, "by commission there on 
 duty or in (luarters," or assign some senior to duty 
 with troops, in order that such officer may become
 
 BANK AND FILE. 
 
 635 
 
 BABALDAB. 
 
 entitled to commnnd. Any power of twm'gnment 
 cliiiiiK'il for llic f'rcMidiiit bcyinid lliis is not iirid 
 oiii^lil ricil Id I)(' siiiicl ioiii'd liy law. 'I'lic li'^^iNlation 
 on l.'ic siilijcci of ninU is lliiis <'<>iii|ili'i('. OlllciTS, 
 wiicn scTvin;; <jnly willi llifir own ri'fxinirni, serve 
 iiccoriliim to llic-ir rcniiMcnlai nmli ; hut wlicn witli 
 other corps. Ilic senior liy coniniission in the line, 
 whether hy l)revet or otherwise, is eiilitled to eoni- 
 nunid. See < ''luiiminfK 
 
 RANK AND FILE. -Tlio body of stildlers constitu- 
 tirii; tlie ureal mass of the Army, ineliidinK 'j'orpor- 
 llls, Homliardiers, and I'rivales. 'I'lie Hiink utiil Jili 
 means lilerally the lines of men from side to side, 
 and from front to hack a raidv lieim; a row of mi-n 
 standini; side hy side, and a lile of soldiers a line of 
 men slanilini; one; lieliind anolher. The strength of 
 a force is reckoned hy its Hunk ah'l Jile: the JS'on- 
 Cf)tninissioned anil ("oinmissioncd Olllcers fornnnj; 
 the supernumerary ranks cliari;ed with tlie direction 
 of the mass. 
 
 RANKER.- A Non-comnussioned Ollicer who rises 
 to lie a Cnmniissioned Ollicer. 
 
 RANKS. — The order of common soldiers. Non- 
 commissioned Oilicers are frequently reduced to the 
 rankn. The term is variously ajiplied — Tn fill tlif 
 rrt/iA.iisto supply the authorized or competent num- 
 ber of men. Td tnke niiik '^' is lo enjoy precedence 
 over, or to have the riL;ht of takin;; a liiirh<'r place. 
 
 RANSEUR. A kind of piirtitnii, well known in 
 Germany durins^ tlie \'A\\ century. It came orii^i- 
 nally from Corsica, and has been callcilboth ci/mrjue 
 ami niiiniiil by some authors. 
 
 RANSOM. — The price paid hy a prisoner of war, or 
 paid on his Iiehalf, in consideration of Ids being 
 granted libertyto return again toldsown country. In 
 early times, when arnues received little or no res^u- 
 lar pay, the soldier lonked for his reward in the 
 booty he inii;ht ca[)ture, and this l)Oot)' included the 
 bodies as well as Ihe chattels of the vancpiished. 
 The con(|ueror had the option of slaying his pri.soner; 
 but for his ])rotit, ho would make inm his slave, or 
 sell him into slavery. The transition wouhl be na- 
 tural to accepting compensation from the prisoner 
 himself, and setting him at lilierly. In feudal war- 
 fare, the ransoms formed a large portion of a soldier's 
 gains; those for persons of low degree belonging to 
 the indivulual eajjlors: but those for Princes or 
 Great Nobles, to the King. Kansom.s were some- 
 times of large amount, more than the immediate 
 family of the captive could pay. His retainers were 
 then required by feudal usage to contribute; as in 
 the case of redeeming King Hichard I. for ilOO.OOO, 
 when twenty shillings wasassessed on every Knight's 
 Fee, and the Clergy subscribed liliemlly. IJavid 
 Bruce, of Scotland, was ransomedfor 11)0,000 marks, 
 and King John, of France. for i.'.'jOOiOOO, payable in in- 
 stalments. In modern warfare, wdiere Ihe lighting 
 is performed by professimial soldiers, pecuniary ran- 
 soms are scarcely ever resorted to, freedrm lieing 
 granted to prisoners in exchange for others of corre- 
 Bixinding rank captured on the opposite side. 
 
 RAPIDITY OF FIRE.— The rapidity witli wliich 
 cannon can be loaded and discharged depends on the 
 size of the piece, the construction of the carriage, 
 and the care required in aiming. Field-cannon can 
 be discharged with careful aim, about tw'ice per 
 minute ; in case of eniergenc)', wdien closely i>ressed i 
 by the enemy, canister-shot m;u' be discharged fiuir 
 times per minute. The 1'2-pdr. boat-howitzer of the 
 Navy, with experienced gunners, can lie discharged i 
 at the rate of sixteen times per minute. Siege-guns | 
 are generally dischargcil twelve times per hour ; if 
 necessary, they can be discharged as rapidly as twen- | 
 ty times per hour. Iron cannon can be tired more rap- | 
 idly than bronze, as the latter meUil is softened by 
 hciit, and the piece is li:ible lo bend. Siege-mortars ! 
 can be Hrcd twelve times per hour, and more rap- 
 idly than this if the obji'ct he large, as a city. 
 Siege-howitzers can lie tired eight times in an hour. . 
 Ttie tire of a sea-coast cannon depends much on | 
 
 the ease with which Iih carriage can be maneuvered. 
 
 [The lieaviest, or l/i-iti. gun, nioiiiited on llie new. 
 iron earriat'e, can belmiderl and (Ired in 1' 10"; the 
 timereipnred in aiming depinds on theiinirlr- Ihrongh 
 which tlir' chassis is to be IraverHed. and jdece ele. 
 vated, or depressed ; it can be traver«ed through un 
 angle of 1)0" in 2' 20". .Muzzledouding hnml|.Hrm» 
 can be discharged two or three linicH in a minute, 
 and breech-loading arms about ten limcH ; the revol- 
 ver can be discharged much more rapidly for nix 
 shots. • This quality of a military fire-arm uliould l»c 
 carefully guanleil, as il is finind llial Holdiern arc 
 prom; to discharge Ihi-ir pieceH in (he excitement of 
 battle without taking proper aim, and conitequently 
 to waste their ammnnition. 
 
 The calculations of the power of gunn, by Colonel 
 Maitland in his very valuable paper on " Tlie Heavy 
 Guns of 1881," lately read at the L'niied .Service In- 
 stitution, are utterly misleading, as they leave out of 
 account all consideration of rapidity and safely of 
 tiring; in fact, they give onlv the edleieiicy of Ihe 
 gun for a single round, thus pfacing a gun thai could 
 be fired only one round p( r hour on an e(|ualilv with 
 another gun firing a hundred similar rounds per hour. 
 The Krupp gun is calculated to fire one round every 
 ten minutes from his large guns on the practice 
 ground at Meppen. and Captain Filzirerahl, I{. N., 
 slated in his lecture at Ihe 1 idled Service Inslilution 
 that the Knglish 100-ton breecli-loa<ling gun could be 
 fired only once in fifteen or twenty minutes. He 
 institutes the following comparison to show the ilif- 
 ference between a gun firing six shots an hour and 
 an ideal gun ("Gun of 1880") supposed to fire 20 
 shots in the same time ; 
 
 Data. 
 
 Elswick Gun of 
 1884. 
 
 Gun of 1886. 
 
 Diameter of bore 
 
 16.35 
 
 16.25 
 
 Weight of gun... 
 
 110 Ions 
 
 120 tons. 
 
 " of charge.. 
 
 900 lb. 
 
 !)(K) lb. 
 
 " ofpr'jectile 
 
 1,800 lb. 
 
 l.HOO lb. 
 
 Muzzle velocity 
 
 
 
 of projectile ... 
 
 2,020 ft. per sec. 
 
 2,020 ft. per sec. 
 
 Muzzle energy of 
 
 
 
 projectile 
 
 50.924 ft. tons. 
 
 50,924 ft. tons. 
 
 Muzzle energy of 
 
 
 
 projectile per 
 
 
 
 ton of gun 
 
 513 ft. tons. 
 
 424.3 ft. Ions. 
 
 No. of" rounds 
 
 
 
 fired per hour. 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 Total power of 
 
 
 
 gun 
 
 305,544 ft. tons. 
 
 1.018,480ft. tons. 
 
 Power per ton 
 
 
 
 weight of gun. 
 
 2,777 ft. tons. 
 
 8.487.5 ft. tons. 
 
 The above shows that the more rapid firing cun. al- 
 though not 10 per cent, heavier than the filswick 
 gun, is over 200 per cent, more powerful for destnic- 
 tive purposes. Sec Ordnancf. 
 
 RAPIER.— This word is said to have had distinct 
 meanings at different times, and in ancient fencing 
 to have been a long culling broadsword; but fur Ihe 
 last century at least the rapier has been a light, high- 
 ly-tempered, edgeless, thrusting weapon, finely 
 pointed, and about 3 feet in length. Il was for a 
 long lime the favorite weapon in dueling, and was 
 worn by every gentleman. At present it is worn 
 only on occasions of court ceremonial, and answers 
 no other purpose than to incommode Ihe wearer. In 
 war a nipier could never have been of any ser\-irc. 
 
 RAPPAREE.— A wild Irish plunderer' so called 
 from his being generally armed with a r'tptiry. or 
 half-pike. The term was in common use in the 17tli 
 century. See Xotoi and Qwrif.s. August IT. 1861. 
 
 RAPPEL. —The beat of the drum to call soldiers to 
 arms 
 
 RASALDAR. In the E;ist Indies, the name applied 
 to the Comiii:inder of liasallah, which is 10,000 arm- 
 ed horsemen.
 
 BASANTE. 
 
 636 
 
 EATION BETTJHNS 
 
 EASANTE.— A French term, applied to a style of 
 fortification in which the command of the works 
 over each other, and over the countrj', is kept very 
 low, in order that the shot may more effectually 
 sweep or graze the ground before them. Also writ- 
 ten Raiant. 
 
 EASP. — Tlie rasp, like the file, 's an abrading 
 tool, but differs in that its surface is studded by pro- 
 truding, isolated teeth, instead of chisel-cut teeth. 
 The teeth of rasps are formed by a pointed tool call- 
 ed a punch. The point of this punch is geherally 
 of a triangular pyramidal form, whose triedral angles 
 vary in size according to the effect required to be 
 produced. The spaces between the teeth are, com- 
 paratively, wider than those for files. The appar- 
 ently irregular intermingling of the teeth is such as 
 will produce the smoothest surface for the number 
 of teeth on the rasp. 
 
 The classification of rasps is very similar to that 
 of files. Rasps have different degrees of coarseness. 
 
 tine or star candles ; four pounds of soap ; four 
 pounds of salt ; four ounces of pepper ; and to 
 troops in the field, when neces.sary, four pounds of 
 yeast-powder to the one hundred rations of flour. 
 
 Fresh mutton may be issued in lieu of, and at the 
 same rate as, fresh beef, when the cost of the former 
 docs not exceed that of the latter. Fourteen oimces 
 of dried fish, or eigliteen ounces of pickled or fresh 
 fish, may be issued in lieu of the meat components 
 of a ration. Molasses or syrup may be issued in lieu 
 of sugar, at the rate of two gallons to fifteen pounds 
 of sugar. When it is impracticable for troops in 
 the field or those traveling upon cars or transports, 
 to draw or cook beans or rice, equivalents in money 
 value of bread or meat may be issued; the value (in 
 detail) of the stores not drawn, and those is.sued in 
 lieu thereof, must be entered upon the abstract of 
 issues. The following issues may be made to troops : 
 Per 100 rations, in lieu of the usual meat portion of 
 the ration, 75 pounds canned fresh beef ; or about 75 
 
 and the cuts are usually classed as — coarse, bastard, 
 second-cut, and smooth. The coarse-cut is that used 
 by horsc-shoers; the bastard by machinists, carriage- 
 makers, and wheelwrights; while the second cut is 
 applied to shoe-rasps, and the smooth to cabinet- 
 makers, etc. The rows of teeth range obliquely from 
 left to right, or from right to left, and sometimes in 
 circular arcs. The planes of the cutting faces of the 
 teetli are generally placed at right angles to the axis 
 of the file; but occasionally they are made with a 
 slight obliquity, alternately to the right and left, for 
 the purpose of allowing the teeth to clear themselves 
 more freely from particles of stock. See File. 
 
 EATCHET.— A small piece of metal, so placed with 
 one end on a pivot that the other can fall into the 
 teetli of a wheel. Being perfectly free to move up 
 and down, its own weight makes it drop into tooth 
 after tooth as the wheel revolves. — But, from the 
 peculiar shape of the teeth, which have the form of 
 an inclined plane on one side, and a perpendicular 
 face on the other, the wheel can only revolve in one 
 direction. 
 
 RATCHET-POST.— A cast-iron post at the head of 
 large Hodman guns to serve as a fulcrum for the bar 
 used in elevating the gun. 
 
 EATCHET-SABOT. — A copper-cupped plate, at- 
 tached to the base of a projectile, and firmly held in 
 its place by radial grooves. 
 
 EATCHET-WHEEL.— A wheel with pointed aud 
 angular teeth, against which a ratchet abuts, used 
 either for converting a reciprocating into a rotatory 
 motion on the shaft to which it is fixed, or for ad- 
 mitting of its motion in one direction only. Sec Me- 
 ch'ini'ful Maneuvers. 
 
 BATE BOOK. — A priced vocabulary of government 
 stores, by which officers and soldiers are debited for 
 the loss of, or injury done to, government property 
 under their charge, if committed through careless- 
 ness, etc. 
 
 EATION. -The established daily allowance of food 
 for one person. For the United States Army it is 
 now composed as follows : Twelve ounces of pork or 
 bacon, or one i>oun(i andfour ounces of fresh beef, 
 or twenty-two ounces of salt beef; eiglitccii ounces 
 of soft bread or of flour, or about sixteen ounces of 
 liiird-bread, or one pound and four ounces of corn 
 UK'al. To every one hundred rations, fifteen |)(iunds 
 of beans or of peas, or ten pounds of rice or lioniiny ; 
 ten i)ounds of green coffee or about eight jioiiuds of 
 rnasti'd for roastc<i ami ground) coffee, or about two 
 pounds of lea; liftccM jiounds of sugar ; four cpiarts 
 of vinegar ; one pound and eight ounces of ailaman- 
 
 pounds canned com beef. Per 100 rations, in lieu 
 of the dry- vegetable portion of the ration, 33 I- 
 pound cans baked beans ; or 30 2-pound cans baked 
 beans ; or 1.5 3-pound cans baked beans ; or .5 1-gal- 
 lon cans baked beans ; or 25 pounds cheese. Six- 
 pound cans of beef, and gallon or three-pound cans 
 of beans should be issued in all cases when con- 
 venient ; one and two pound cans of beans, and two 
 and four pound cans of beef, to be issued only when 
 it is inconvenient to issue the larger cans, or but 
 small amounts are to be issued. 
 
 The army ration, in England, at home, is f lb. of 
 meat, and 1 lb. of bread ("best seconds") if in bar- 
 racks, or J lb. of meat with li lbs. of bread if in 
 camp. If a grocery ration is also issued, Hd. for 
 each such ration is deducted from the pay of the 
 recipient. When men are not supplied with rations, 
 an allowance of 6d. per diem is granted. Abroad, 
 the Ration is 1 lb. of bread, or J lb. of biscuit, and 
 1 lb. of fresh or salt meat, except at certain stations, 
 where, for climatic reasons, a different Ration is 
 specially provided. The bread ration may be in- 
 creased during operations in the field, though not 
 above 1^ lbs. of bread or 1 lb. of biscuit. During 
 active operations, the officer commanding maj' di- 
 rect the issue, in addition to the above, of wine, 
 spirits, or any other article of subsistence equiva- 
 lent thereto. The stoppage for this foreign ra- 
 tion is Id. The families of soldiers accompanying 
 them abroad are allowed the following rations: the 
 wife (married under regulation), half a ration: each 
 legitimate child under 7, a quarter ration : from 7 
 to 14, a third part of a ration. When officers re- 
 ceive a colonial allowance in lieu of rations in kind, 
 each is subjected to a daily stoppage of 2Jd. A Ra- 
 tion of forage at home C(msists of 10 lbs. of oats, 12 
 lbs. of hay. and 8 lbs. of straw for each horse. Ca- 
 valry soldiers receive this without stoppage; but their 
 officers suffer a deduction of 8kl. per ration. Staff 
 officers and mounted officers of infantry provide 
 their own forage, and are granted a pecuniary allow- 
 ance of Is. lOd. per day to enable them to do so. See 
 Fixiil. 
 
 RATION RETUENS. — The is.sues of subsistence are 
 made to troops on ration returns, signed by their 
 immediate Commander and approved by the com- 
 manding officer of the post or station. These returns 
 call for only such liuiit<'d ipiantity of stores as can be 
 received iiiid properly cared for by the troops draw- 
 ing, and will, ordinarily, be made fur a few days at 
 a time. They are consolidaleil f(ir the post or regi- 
 ment when practicable, and embrace only the niim-
 
 AATIOS. 
 
 637 
 
 HATI08. 
 
 bir (if enlisted men, authorized Ia\indrcRBefl, and liog- square, but legs than the circle; the regular polygon 
 
 I)il!il iimlroiiH ficliiiUly prcHciit. At IIkm-iuI of iho 1 of 10 hIiIch greater than thi- orla^^on, but lens tlian 
 <-iil(li(i(r Mionlli, the CunirniMsnry ciili rH (in Hcpiiritle \ the circle: and so (in, conntimlly doiitilinjf llic niim- 
 iilislracls.for eiicli cliiss (if lri"i|iH. every reliirn i]|i(iii her of sides. IJijt it cun he shown that the dilTcrcnce 
 wliicli lie lias issued pnivisidris in llml nionlli: wjiicli of area lielween llie [lolv^'on and llie circle niav he 
 abslracls tlieCoinniandin^^Olticcrconipares willi llic made as small a pcrceniagc of the area of the circle 
 original ration returns, and if correct, so certifies. I as we please, by making the sides of the polygon 
 
 liatioTi-Ueturn of Virmpany ■ Regiment of , ntationtd at fur ^'V, "O""- 
 
 mencing tlie d/iy of , 188 — and ending the day of , 188—. 
 
 1 KuMiliir i.f mill. 
 
 1 1 Number of days. 
 
 1 Number of women. 
 
 Number of ration'-. 
 
 1 1 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Number of rations of- 
 
 i{i,-marki. 
 
 Pork. 
 
 1 Peas. ; 
 
 
 Bacon. 
 
 1 Rice. 
 
 
 Salt Beef. 
 
 1 1 Hominy. 
 
 
 Fresh beef. 
 
 1 I Cheese. 
 
 
 Mutton. 
 
 1 Coffee. 
 
 
 Fresh beef, canned. 
 
 1 Tea. 
 
 
 Corned beef, canned. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 
 Fish, dried. 
 
 Vinegar. 
 
 
 Fish, pickled. 
 
 Adamantine candles. 
 
 
 1 Flour. 
 
 Soap. 
 
 
 1 Hard bread. 
 
 Salt. 
 
 
 
 Corn-meal. 
 
 Pepper. 
 
 
 1 Beans. 
 
 Yeast-powder. 
 
 
 1 1 Baked beans, canned. 
 
 
 
 The A. A. C. S. will issue on the above return. 
 
 JRegt. of- 
 
 Comd'g Post. 
 
 -Regt. of- 
 
 EATI08.— There can be little doubt that Newton 
 discovered b}' means of fiu.xions, of which he was in 
 possession at a very early age, the greater part of 
 that extraordinary series of theorems regarding mo- 
 tion, etc, which he first published in the I'rincipi'a. 
 He had, however, a great partialitj- for the .synthetic 
 form of demonstration emplojed with such success 
 by the Greek geometers; and the consequence was 
 that, in the Principia, he avoided entirely the use of 
 analysis by fluxions, and invented for synthetical ap- 
 plications the closely allied method of Prime and 
 Ultimate Ratios. The fundamental idea involved in 
 fluxions, prime and ultimate ratios, and the differen- 
 tial calculus, is the same, that of a Limit. To give 
 an idea of the nature, as well as to show the real 
 origin of the name of the method, we may take a 
 very simple case. Let a particle be projected in any 
 direction; it will move uniformly in that direction 
 forever, unless deflected from it by some external 
 force. Suppose that gravity alone acts upon it, then 
 it will describe a parabolic path, to which the origi- 
 nal direction is the tangent at the origin: and the 
 line which joins the disturbed and undisturbed posi- 
 tions of the particle at any instant is vertical. Now, 
 the original and secondary distances of the particle 
 from the origin are not, in general, e(iual, but they 
 are more and more nearly equal as both are smaller: 
 and, by taking each small enough, we may m;ike 
 the percentage of difference between them as small as 
 we choose. In other words, their prime ratio, just 
 atJthe origin, is unity. Again, the inscribed square 
 is less than a circle; the octagon is greater than the 
 
 jComd'g Company. 
 
 numerous enough. Hence, the ultimate ratio of the 
 areas of the circle, and inscribed polygon with an in- 
 definitely great number of equal sides, is unity. The 
 basis of the method, which is implicitly involved in 
 the foregoing illustrations, is Newton's first Umma, 
 which is thus stated: " Quantities, and the ratios 
 of quantities, which lend constantly to equnlily, and 
 may be made to approximate to each other by less 
 than any assignable difference, become ultimately 
 equal." In other words, if we can make ihe perctn. 
 tage of difference of two quantities as small ns we 
 choose, we must produce tdlimate equality. From 
 this, in his second and third lemmas. Newton proves 
 the fundamental principle of the integral calculus as 
 applied to the determination of the areas of cur\-es, 
 by showing that if a set of parallelograms be inscrib- 
 ed in any curvilinear space, the percentage of differ- 
 ence between the sum of their areas and that rif the 
 curve may be made as small as we please by dimin- 
 ishing indefinitely the breadth of each parallelogram 
 and increasing their number proportionally. Next, 
 he shows how to compare two curvilinear spaces, 
 by supposing them filled with such parallelograms, 
 each of the first bearing to one of the second a con- 
 stant ratio. Next, that "^the homolocous sides of sim- 
 ilar r!/rri7''n<-ar figures are proportional. The sixth 
 lemma is mereh' a definition of continuous curva- 
 ture in a curve." as distinguished from abrupt change 
 of direction. The seventh, eighth, and ninth lemmas 
 \ are of very great importance. The general ;irin- 
 cipleinvolvedlin their proof is this— to examine what 
 always occurs in indefinitely small arcs. by drawing ::
 
 EAVELIN. 
 
 638 
 
 REACTION. 
 
 magnified representation of them such as always to 
 be on a finite scale, however small the arcs them- 
 selves may he. Thus, to show that the chord of a 
 small arc "is ultimately equal to the arc— of which we 
 have in trigonometr}", as a particular case, the ulti- 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 mate equality of an arc and its sine — he proceeds 
 somewhat as follows: Let AB, (Fig. 1) be an arc of 
 continued curvature, AC the tangent at A. Produce 
 the chord AB till it has a. finite length. A*. Describe 
 on A4, as chord, an arc similar to AB. This, by a 
 previous lemma, will touch AC at A. Now, as B 
 moves up to A, let the same construction be perpet- 
 ually made, then b will approximate more and more 
 closely to AC (because the arc AB is one of con- 
 tinuous curvature), and the magnified arc will con. 
 stantly lie between AC and A*. Hence, ultimately, 
 when A* and AC coincide in direction, the arc Kb 
 (which is always between them) will coincide with 
 Ah. Similarly", AD being any line making a finite 
 angle with AC, draw DBE" cutting off a finite 
 length from AD ; this process enables us to prove 
 that the triangles AED, and the rectilinear .and 
 curvilinear triangles ABD, are all ultimately equal. 
 Finally (and this is the step of the greatest import- 
 ance in the dynamical applications), if the lines AD, 
 DE. D'E' (Fia;. 2) be drawn under the above restric- 
 tions, the ulffmate ratio of the curvilinear or rectili- 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 near triangles AEB, AE'B' is that of the squares of 
 corresponding sides. Prom this, in the ninth and 
 last lemma, it is easily shown that the spaces de- 
 scribed under the action of a finite force have 
 their prime ratios as the squares of the times : 
 ■whence we pass at once to the ever-memorable in- 
 vestigations of the Prindpia regarding the orbits 
 described imder the action of various forces. The 
 metho of prime and ultimate ratios is little used 
 now (except in Cambridge, whicli does honor to 
 itself in making part of tlie Prlncipin a subject of 
 study), as the diflerential and integral calculus help 
 us to the required results with far greater ease. But 
 to the tru(? student of gunnery, the synthetic 
 metho<l of Newton is of very great value, as it show.s 
 him clearly at I'very step the nature of the process he 
 is carrying out, wliich is too apt to be lost sight of 
 entirely in the semi-mechanical procedures common 
 to all forms of symbolical reasoning. 
 
 EAVELIN.- In fortification, a triangular work of 
 less elevation tliau the main defenses, situated with 
 its salient angle to the front before the curtain, 
 which with tlie shoulders of the adjoining bastions it 
 serves to protect. It is open at the rear, so as to be 
 commanded by the curtain, if taken, and is separat- 
 ed from that work bv tlie main ditch while in its 
 
 own front the ditch of the ravelin intervenes be- 
 tween itself and the covered-way. The guns of the 
 ravelin sweep the glacis, and perform a very im- 
 portant function in commanding the space imme- 
 diately before the salient angles of the two next 
 bastions, ground which the guns of the bastions 
 themselves cannot cover. The bastions, on the other 
 band, flank the ravelin. In the fortifications of 
 Alessandria, designed by Bousmard, in 1803, the 
 ravelins are placed in front of the glacis. The origi- 
 nal name of the ravelin was ritelUno, which indi- 
 cates a derivation from vegliare, to watch, the rave- 
 lin having probably been at first a watch-tower, an- 
 swering to the still" earlier barbacan. 
 
 RAVINE.— In field-fortification, any deep hollow, 
 usuall}' formed bj' a great flood, or a long-continued 
 running water ; frequently turned to advantage in 
 the field. See Dimde. 
 
 RAW HIDES.— Hides not tanned. They are used 
 to cover the revetments of embrasures in fieldworks. 
 The hides are doubled, the hair inwards, two to each 
 cheek of the embrasure, and fixed by pickets driven 
 through them. 
 
 RAW PIG. — The iron, as it comes from the smelt- 
 ing-furnace, is termed, -'Raw Pig,'" and is a first fu- 
 sion. The second-fusion iron (as understood by 
 founders) is produced by a combination of raw pig 
 and second-fusion, melted in an ordinary air-furnace, 
 and then run out. These pigs are usually of a differ- 
 ent shape than the raw pig, but to prevent confu- 
 sion, and at the same time to distinguish different 
 second-fusion irons one from another, each should 
 be distinctly marked and piled separately. The ob- 
 ject of using a second-fusion iron in a casting is to 
 obtain greater density than can be produced from 
 the rawpig alone; it moreover increases the tensile 
 strength. In the casting of the XV-inch gun, the 
 furnaces are charged as follows: 
 
 Bloomfield raw pig 21,143 lbs. 
 
 Bloomfield second-fusion (red-dot) 13,214 " 
 
 Bloomfield second-fusion (red-cross) 3,643 " 
 
 37,00n " 
 
 Total in both furnaces 74,000 " 
 
 The second-fusion, marked "red-dot," consists of 
 the followinc; combinations, viz.; 
 
 Bloomfield raw pig 50,000 lbs. 
 
 Bloomfield second-fusion 19,575 " 
 
 Run into pigs and marked "red-dot" 69,575 " 
 
 The proportions of the other grade, marked " red- 
 cross," are as follows, vis.; 
 
 Bloomfield raw pig 29,410 lbs. 
 
 Bloomfield second-fusion 32,590 " 
 
 Run into pigs and marked '• red-cross "...62,000"' 
 
 The second-fusion iron used in these combinations 
 is produced by melting two parts of raw pig with 
 one of second fusion. See Casting and Iron. 
 
 RAW TROOPS. — Inexperienced soldiers or men 
 who have been little accustomed to the use of arms. 
 
 RAZED.- A term applied to works or fortifications 
 when they are totally demolished. 
 
 RAZZIA. — A plundering and destructive incursion. 
 
 REACTION.— A term used in reference to the pol- 
 itical history of a Nation, to designate that tendency, 
 often showi"ng itself, to recoil from the effects of Re- 
 form or Reviilution, and to seek a restoration of the 
 previous state of things, or one still more antiquated 
 and despotic. The causes that lead to reaction are 
 various. Sometunes it springs, partly at least, from 
 mere disappointment at thesmallness of the rinible 
 results of those changes advocated with so much 
 eloquence, and waited for with so much enthusiasm 
 and hope. The inconsiderate imagination of tho 
 people <'xppcts a millenium to follow every import- 
 ant change ; and when, after the event men find 
 tluty arc still in the old world of imperfections, hard- 
 ships, and sorrows, they are prone to believe that
 
 BEADINE8S. 
 
 639 
 
 BEAR GUABD. 
 
 they have been tlchided, and nre only too willing to 
 lend im vnr U> the insi<U<jiiH iiiiHrcprcHi'uiationH of 
 Ihosr wlicj arc (i|i|iosc(l to iirojircss. liul. more frr. 
 quenll) i)oliii<ul rcuitioii sprin^^'s from citlii-r iiiitiia- 
 tiire or injudicious, or cxlravu;;:!!)!, rcvoliilioii The 
 tinie.4 arc not yet ripe (iia in the first Italian re- 
 volts), or the leaders are unfit (as in the German and 
 lluntcarian slruirj^les of 1848-40), or excesses are 
 committed (as in the f;rcat Fniieli oullireak of 
 1789), and so a revolution is nipped in the bud. or 
 overthrown in Ihe Imtlle-licld ; or iullaiued with 
 san.i^uinary thirst for revcui^e. it );oes mud in a 
 " Keii:n of 'I'error," and exhausting itself in unprolit- 
 able frenzies, falls at last an easy prey to any hold 
 and unscrupulous adventurer wliom the crowd may 
 elect out of desperation and disi^ust of anarchy, and 
 whose rule is as absolute as any that preceded it. A 
 reaction may thus, in certain cases, be useful, in so 
 far as it teaches refornuTs and revolutionists the 
 point beyond which nature forbids them to iro ; but 
 its agents arc .Mlmost invariably basit in cliaracter, 
 odious in their principles, and seltish in their pro- 
 jects. Religious reactions exhil)it the same char- 
 acteristics as political ones, and i)roceed from the 
 same causes. 
 
 BEADINESS. — A state of alertness or preparation ; 
 thus, to hiUil a rorpn in rdidiruwii, is to have it jjrc- 
 pared in consequence of some previous order to 
 march at a moment's notice. 
 
 READY. — A word of command in the Manual of 
 Arms, executed as follows: The Instructor com- 
 mands — 1. Squad. 2. Heady. Same as lirst motion 
 of load, except that the muzzle is at the height of 
 the chin, the right thumb on the head of the" ham- 
 mer, the lingers supported against the guard and 
 small of the stock. (Two.) Cock the piece, and 
 then grasp it at the small of the stock. The piet^', 
 after loading, nuiy be brought to a remly by the 
 commands: 1. Squad. 2. Heady. At which the 
 piece is cocked. See Mnnunlof Armn, Fig. 15. 
 
 BEAMER. — A tool much u.sed in the arsenal to en- 
 large a hole and bring it to a shape the counterpart 
 of the tool, whether cylindrical or tapering. Instead 
 of mere longitudinal fluting, the grooves in the tool 
 may be maile spiral, a riglit and a left hand, cross- 
 ing obliquely so as to leave the surface in diamond- 
 shaped portions. The tlutings are then planed out 
 and backed off, the result being a toothed reamer 
 of effective character. The drawing shows an ad- 
 
 calibered ordnance were not abHohitcly decided on. 
 
 It was therefore but a lemporarj' expedient; unil 
 for that particular jiurpose, reaming out has been 
 abandoned. Kut in tin- convi-n<iiin of hMiootli-boru 
 ordnanci- for the purptwi' of being ritled, the gun» 
 have still to be reamed out preparatory lu beinj; re> 
 lini'd 
 
 BEAB. In the general uccepttttion of the word, 
 anything situated or jjlaced behind another. Thin 
 term is variously used in military nuitterH. Itmr i>f 
 II hoilji i>f IriinjiH uHunn the hinilerniost part of that 
 body such as the r.virof anarmy battiilion. squadron, 
 or company ; niir rnuk. the rank wliieh covers the 
 front r.'iiik. 
 
 BEAB ASSEMBLING BAH.--A component imrt of 
 the caisson. It supports the spare-wheel axle, and 
 has a slot for the i)ickaxe on the left of the ndddle- 
 rail. 
 
 BEAB BBACE.— The lower arm-plute of an arm- 
 gmird. 
 
 BEAB CHOCK CABBIAGE.— A carriage similar in 
 construction to tlie garrison standing carriage, ex- 
 cept that it has only the two front trucks; and, in- 
 stead of a rear axle tree, it has a block of wood 
 which rests upon th(^ platform. 
 
 BEAB FRONT.— The rear rank of a body of troops 
 wIku faced about and standing in that position. 
 
 BEAB GUARD. — ,1 rtar.gnnrd is a bi^dj' of troops 
 formed to protect the rear of an army when on the 
 retreat; it corresponds to tlie advanced guard in a 
 forward movement. A small rear-guard also follows 
 an army on the advance, its duty oeing to pick up 
 stragglers and prevent small bodies of the enemy's 
 cavalry from making raids on the rear of the army 
 to capture llu' baggage, etc. As regards its order of 
 march, a rear-guard is described as an advanced- 
 guard reversed. The principles of formation are 
 identical in both, and the .same rules generally guide 
 both; with this ilifTerence, that the rear-guard retires 
 before the enemy, while the advanced guard pushes 
 against him. Consetpiently, although the distribution 
 is the same as with the advanced-guard, the strength 
 of the fractions of the rear-guard decreases instead 
 increases from front to rear. The reserve is nearest 
 the main body. The support is farther to the rear, 
 in support of the rear party, which moves in several 
 groups or in consolidated formations according to 
 the country it passes over. In a fairly open counlrj', 
 where the pursuit is not immediate, the extreme rear 
 
 justable reamer, designed by the Betts Machine 
 Company, Wilmington, Delaware. The shank of the 
 reamer is made of steel, the blades are si.x in num- 
 ber and unevenly spaced; the bladi'S are inserted in 
 dove-tailed slots the bottoms of which are inclined 
 planes; the shanks are ground to standard size (a 
 thing impossible in a solid reamer, unless it reams 
 much above standard size when new), and the blades 
 made slightly above standard. It is plain that when 
 the blades wear down, it is then only necessary to 
 drive them further into the shank, and by that 
 means again enlarge the diameter to standard size. 
 This may be repeated until the blades are driven to 
 the upper end of the slots, when new ones may be 
 inserted. The solid reamer was a great advance 
 when introiiuced, but the requirements of fine 
 machine fitting call for a tool which makes solid 
 reamers a thiug of the past. The practice of ream, 
 ing out puus, oT horing litem up, i\T:it took place in' 
 the British service in 1830 ; it was done with the 
 view of increasing the weight of metal projected [ 
 from such guns as were then on hand in the British , 
 service, at the time when the aiivantages of large- ' 
 
 will be formed of reconnoiterers, moving in a line 
 thrown back at each end towards the flankers, until 
 it a.ssumes the semi-circular form in a manner more 
 marked than it would in the advance. If the pur- 
 suit is active and attack imminent Ihe rear-guird 
 must maneuver; and here we may remark that the 
 nature of the country affects not only the composi- 
 tion of the rear-guard, but the kind of action it must 
 take with the troops at its command. 
 
 A change of base or position may have caused an 
 armj- temporarily to make a retrograde movement, 
 or the force may be retreating. In either case the 
 mission of the rear-guard is to retard Ihe pursuit of 
 the enemy, and to interpose between him and the 
 main body on Ihe march. In carrjing out this duly 
 the rear-guard must often maintain a struggle at a 
 disadvantage, and even, if necessarj-, sacrifice itself 
 in order to ensible Ihe main force to get away in 
 safety. No more honorable post can be assigned to 
 an ofticer than that of commanding or serving with 
 a rear-guard in such a case. The verj- best officers 
 and the freshest troops shouhl be selected for this 
 service, especially if covering the retreat of a beaten
 
 KEAB-GUAED. 
 
 640 
 
 KEAK aUAED. 
 
 army. In the latter case the position of a rear-guard 
 IB one of much difficulty, the enemy nearly always 
 pursuing with activity, and also endeavoring by 
 flank attacks to cut off the retreat. As regards the 
 strength of the rear-guard in a retreat, it would ordi- 
 narily take the same proportion as would be allotted 
 to the advanced-guard in a forward march. This 
 proportion would commonly be about one-sixth of 
 the whole marching strength. In exceptional cases 
 it might even amount to one-fimrth of the whole. It 
 is nof without reluctance on the part of a Commander 
 that so large a rear-guard is detailed, as his tirst 
 an.xiety and care must natural!}' be to withdraw and 
 place in safety the greatest number possible of his 
 men. But if he neglects to cover his retreat by a 
 sufficiently strong force the result will probably be 
 that the rear-guard, unable to withstand the assaults 
 of the enemy," will constantly be driven back upon 
 the main column, aud throw it into disorder. The 
 demoralizing effect upon troops of tlie mere know- 
 ledge that they are in retreat is in itself very great. 
 Should the rear-guard not be strong enough to en- 
 able the column to retire with due regularity, the 
 feeling of depression will increase, the retreat will 
 turn to a rout, and disaster will result. A skillful 
 rear-guard Commander will endeavor by every 
 means to obtain even small advantages over the 
 enemy, in order to encourage his men and to obtain 
 WvAx morale , thus enabling them to endure with bet- 
 ter spirit a harassing pursuit. With this view it ap- 
 pears desirable that" the extreme rear and flanking 
 detachments of the rear-guard should be sufficiently 
 Btrong, to take all possible advantage of any impru- 
 dence on the part of the enemy's advanced troops. 
 In the event of a retreat after an engagement some- 
 thing may also be done toward this end, by selecting 
 for the rear-guard such troops as have not only suf- 
 fered least during the day, but have themselves per- 
 haps obtained some local advantage, which, insuffi- 
 cient to affect the general result, may yet be enough 
 to prevent the men feeling down-hearted, and with 
 little further stomach for action. The distance that 
 a rear-guard should be from the main body depends 
 upon the nature of the country, its numbers, and the 
 manner in which the pursuit is conducted. If the 
 pursuit is slack it can safely be a march in rear. 
 Under all circumstances, however, constant commu- 
 nication should be maintained between it and the 
 main body. It is difficult to prescribe any definite 
 distance for the rear-guard to take up from the main 
 body. The latter, as is natural in retreat, proceeds 
 as fast as is convenient in the desired direction. 
 The rear-guard has to interpose between the main 
 body and the enemy, to check the advance of the 
 pursuer, and to observe and reconnoiter him. in order 
 to discover at the earliest moment any intention, on 
 his part, of a flank or turning movement. Hence it 
 happens that the distance of the rear-guard from the 
 main column, in two or more cases, may vary con- 
 siderably, in accordance with a great variety cf 
 circumstances; but under onlinary conditions the 
 distances usually laid down for the advanced- 
 guard in a forward movement would be approxi- 
 mately suitable for the rear-guard in retreat. A rear- 
 guard does not require to reconnoiter in advance of 
 its march, for the enemy cannot be there, and since 
 the main column goes first over the ground, and in- 
 vestigates it thoroughly, reports and sketches of 
 roads, bridges, and positions suitable for making a 
 stand against the enemy, can be sent back to the 
 rear-guard whenever it is likely to need them. In 
 most cases the enemy, if following, is easily recon- 
 noitercd in the rear, as in the eagerness of pursuit 
 he has little heed for concealment. On the flanks 
 alone tliere is ditflcult and delicate work, of this par- 
 ticular nature, to be done. The most serious danger 
 for a rear-guard is undoid)tedly that of being turned 
 or cut off. and not only is its own safety iniperilled 
 in such event, but its protective character as a guanl 
 to the rear of its own main column ceases to have 
 
 effect. To be attacked upon its flanks is almost as 
 dangerous as to be cut off, and against both of these 
 condngencies the best precautionary measure is ac- 
 curate and extensive reconnoissance to the flanks. 
 The parties sent out upon this most important duty 
 should in all possible cases be composed largely 
 if not entirely of cavalry. As regards the com- 
 position of the rear-guard, in an open country cavalry 
 is certainly necessary, not only for reconnoitering on 
 the flanks, but also to meet the enem_v's cavalry. 
 But infantry is mdispensable in more or less strength 
 under all circumstances, in order to make a stand 
 at suitable positions for defense, to form rallying 
 points and protection for the cavalry if driven in, 
 and to check the eager pursuit of the enemy's caval- 
 ry. If the force is of any magnitude, its rear-guard 
 should be composed of the three arms, in proportions 
 suited to the ground that is to be passed over. Cav- 
 alry, to meet and ward off the enemy's cavalry. which 
 in open ground can hover round the rear and flanks, 
 artillery, to take up favorable positions in retreat to 
 bear on the heads of pursuing columns; and infantry, 
 to bear the brunt of the enem}''s attack and retard 
 his advance at the chosen points of resistance. If 
 guns are used with skill in a retreat they can often 
 save deployment of their own infantry, by obliging 
 the enemy, as he presses on in pursuit, to halt and 
 deploy; the guns retreating rapidly as the enemy 
 forms up. Artillery is thus of special value when 
 added to a rear-guard. 
 
 As regards the action of the rear-guard generally, 
 since the great object which it has to effect is to 
 keep back the enemy without comprondsing the 
 safety or delaying the retreat of the main body, it is 
 evident that its duties can be best performed by 
 very frequently occupying such natural positions as 
 the country may possibly afford, thus absolutely 
 forcing the enemy not only to deploy ,but even to Bt^ 
 tack, and then getting safely away without serious 
 fighting. The great art of rear-guards is that of be- 
 ing constantly able, without risk, and with but little 
 trouble, to force an enemy to deploy for attack, and 
 then to get safely away yourself without serious 
 fighting; in other words, the rear-guard should, by 
 frequent occupation of strong positions, be continu- 
 ally threatening to fight, as it is by so doing, and not 
 by actual conflict, that it best fulfills its purpose. In 
 a long retreat, when this course has been followed 
 for a number of successive daj's, the general com- 
 manding the pursuit is apt to become reckless, and, 
 neglecting to take all necessary precautions, may 
 push on to attack with an insufficient force at hand, 
 or in an irregular manner; it wiU then be for the 
 rear-guard to pounce suddenly upon him, with all his 
 available force, and having struck him a severe blow, 
 at once resume the retreat. The officer commanding 
 must not allow himself to be carried away by any 
 partial success of this nature so as to forget his prim- 
 ary duty, for he should bear in mind that he cannot 
 stop, except to retard the pursuit, and that every suc- 
 ceeding quarter of an hour brings his enemy re-en- 
 forcements. The length of time that a rear-guard 
 can remain with safety in a position depends on its 
 intrinsic strength, and the obstacles in the way of an 
 enemy's turning it. 
 
 In the details of conflict the Knowledge which it 
 has of the grovmd is much to the advantage of the 
 rear-guard, as it can decide what points to make a 
 stand at, what to pass over as untenable. In this 
 respect its position seems better than that of the 
 advanced-guard in the forward march, but the ap- 
 parent superiority is fleeting, for the conditions under 
 which the rear-guard and ailvanced-guard fight are 
 widely different. The advanced-guard can push on 
 with the confidence fairly engendered by knowing 
 its sujiports to be approaching from the rear in any 
 re(|uired force ; the rear-guard, on the other hand, 
 caniiiit but feel that the longer the conflict is jiro- 
 tracled the farther it gets from its main body. The 
 rear-guard, therefore, has to consider a danger which
 
 REAR OPEN ORDER. 
 
 f!41 
 
 REBELLION. 
 
 (loeH not exist for tlic lulvuiK'i-d.fiimrd, Unit of \ifiun 
 cut off from its coUinin sliimlil il rciimin loo loiiK it' 
 position anil be succcssfiillv oiillliiiiltcd. If tlic rcur- 
 iruiird. however, eiiii liold ils ;;roiind Ion}; enoii|;li to 
 Ciiiise llic cneniy first lo reionnoiler.and llien lo form 
 up fcjr iiltacli, ils |>iir|iosc anil otijeet as a delayinj; 
 foree will liave liecn ilTeelcil for llie niornenl, and 
 tile eonirnander, on liis Hanks lieini; llireateniMl, nniv 
 well relire, aj;ain lo oceii|iy a farther seleeled jjosi- 
 tion, and again to relard ilie progress of liis pur- 
 suers. In a very close connlry every elieek thus 
 given to the enemy oliliires him lo incur a consider- 
 able and serious delay ; but the Commander of the 
 rear-irmird nnist not forLjet that he may be pursu- 
 ed by a eoluTMii manhiiiir on a road lo his Hank, in 
 addiliou lo llial inumdialely behind him. This is 
 perhaps the greatest of all dangers against wliieli ho 
 has lo guard. 
 
 If llie pursuit of a rear-guard. which has been act- 
 ivelv carried on by the enemy up to a certain [loint. 
 suddenly ajipears to i-easc, the Coinmander slioulil 
 send out strong cavalry patrols lo ascertain the 
 cause. The enemy, it will lie found. has either stop, 
 ped in his pursuit on the main roiMe.or he has taken 
 a dilVereut direction and is still advancing. In the lat- 
 ter case active recoimaissauce by cavalry patrols 
 should immediately be undertaken by the rear-guard, 
 the main cohunn being also advised of the route tak- 
 en by the enemy, that il may send out flanking de- 
 tachments lo feel for him. An army retiring by 
 more than one road, whose directions .are generally 
 parallel, would usually have a rear-guard upon each 
 road under a separate comn\ander, the rearmost 
 groups being continued across Ihe whole rear, and 
 Hankers only upon the outer flanks of Ihe outer 
 coliunns. The whole of these rear-guards would be in- 
 cluded in (me high command. The army wotdd 
 thus retire in as many columns as might be neces- 
 sary, coimection lieinit kept up between thi' difTcrent 
 main columns, and also between those of Ihe rear- 
 guards at every cross road, and whenever the conn- 
 try may allow of ccnnmunication. No war material 
 that could be useful to the enem\' should be allowed 
 in a retreat to fall into his hands. The rear-guard 
 must destroy it if it cannot be removed. If hardly 
 pressed, everything that coidd assist the enemy, such 
 as standing corn and provisions, nuist be burnt, 
 liorses and wagons pressed and sent on to the main 
 body. As an extreme measure, villages on the line 
 of route must even be fired, if necessary to retard 
 the pursuit. 
 REAR OPEN ORDER. — \n»pen omfr,executecl as fol- 
 lows: Being at a halt, the Captain comnumds : 1. Jinir 
 (ipi)i(>rdir.2.yiA.RCH.'ii. Fkont. AI Ihe lirst connnand. 
 'the right and left guides step briskly three yards 
 to the rear, to mark the new alignment of the rear 
 rank ; Ihe First and Second Lieutenants place them- 
 selves on the right and left of the front rank ; the 
 Third Lieutenant covers the second, in Ihe rear rank ; 
 the Captain goes to the right Hank, and sees that the 
 guides are on a line par.illel to the front rank. 
 
 At the command iiihit/i. the Lieutenants jjlace 
 themselves opposite their places in line, three yards 
 in front of the company ; the front-raidi men dress 
 to the right ; the rear-rank men cast their eyes to the 
 right, stej) backward, halt a little in rear of Ihe 
 alignment, and then dress lo the right on the line es- 
 tablislied by the guides. The file-closers step to 
 the rear and place themselves three vards from the 
 rear rank. 
 
 The Captain superintends the alignment of Ihe 
 ollicers.and the fnnit rank, ami the right guide that 
 of the rear rank ; the Captain verities Ihe alignment 
 of Ihe rear rank, and of Ihe tile-closers : llie officers 
 and tile-closers cast their eyes to the front, as soon 
 as their alignment is verified. 
 
 At the command front, the guides resume their 
 places in the front rank, and the men cast their eyes 
 to the front ; the Captain places himself three yards 
 in front of the right file. 
 
 REAR SIGHT.- The rfrir myld Ih coniiM.Hed of it 
 base, widrli is firmly Hccured to Ihe barrel iil a nhon 
 distance from the breech, and a movable part iiipii- 
 ble of lieing adjiislecl for dilTereril elevationH of the 
 barrel. Tiii' n\\r\i\ originally alllxeil lolhe nlle.iniiK> 
 ket had a single leaf, lo which was iillaclied a "lide, 
 conlainiiig the sight notch, which could be udjusleil 
 
 for all distances between UK) and 000 yards. By an 
 order fif Ihe War I)e|iarlment, this was replncec'l by 
 a sight which had three movalile leaves, turning on 
 a common axis, ?.nd bearing notches adjusted lo 
 1011, 300, and HOO yards, respectively. Aiming a fire- 
 arm consists in bringing Ihe top of tlie front siglit, 
 and Ihe bottom of the notch of the rear sight, into 
 the line, joining the eye and the object. A siglil for 
 a military arm should satisfy the following condi- 
 tions, viz.: Isl. It should be easily adjusted for all 
 distances within elTcctive range; 2d. The form of 
 the notch should permit the eye to catch the object 
 quickly ; 3d. It should not be easily deranged by 
 the accidents of the service. The globr and lelfnopK 
 sights are used for very accurate sporting-arms, but 
 they are too delicate in their structure, and too slow- 
 in their operation, for general purpo.ses. In Ihe ah. 
 since of a proper rear sight. Ihe soldier of Ihe line 
 may be taught to point his pi<ce by aiming over the 
 center of the knuckle of his left thumlj : the position 
 of the thumb along Ihe barrel determines Ihe eleva- 
 tion of the piece. This method is practiced by cer- 
 tain French troops of the line, for distances less 
 than 400 y:irds. 
 
 REBELLION.— The term rebellion is applied lo an 
 insurrection of large extent, and is usually a war 
 lietween the legitimate government of a countrj' 
 and portions or provinces of the same who .seek to 
 throw off their allegiance to il, and set up a govem- 
 ment of their own^ When humanity induces the 
 adoption of the*rules of regular war "towanl rebels, 
 whether the adoption is partial or entire, it <Ioes in 
 no wav whatever imply either a partial or complete 
 acknowledgment of tiieir government, if thev have 
 set up one," or of them, as either an independent or 
 sovereisrn power. Neutrals have no right to make 
 Ihe adoption of the rules of war by the a.ssailed 
 sovernment towards rebels the ground of their own 
 acknowledgment of the revolted jx'oplc as an in- 
 dependent power. 
 
 Treatimr captured rebels as prisoners of war. ex- 
 chamrinsr them, concluding of cartels, capitulations, 
 or oilier Warlike asreemenls with them ; addressing 
 officers of a rebel array by the rank they may have 
 in the same: accepting flags of truce: or. on the 
 other hand, prodaiminac Martial La-v in theirterrilo- 
 ry. or levving war taxes or forced loans, or doing 
 any other" act sanctioned or demanded by the law 
 anil usages of public war between sovereign beliger- 
 ents. nefthcr proves nor establishes an acknowledg- 
 ment of the rebellious people, or of tlie government
 
 EEBOUNDINU LOCK. 
 
 G42 
 
 BECIFROCAL DEFENSE. 
 
 which the}' may have erected, as a public or sover- 
 eign power. Nor does the adoption of the rules of 
 war towards rebels imply an ensageiAent with them 
 extending beyond the limits of these rules. It is 
 victory in the tield that ends the strife and settles 
 the future relations between the contending parties. 
 Treating, in the tield, the rebellious enemy according 
 to the law and usages of war has never prevented 
 the legitimate government from trying the leaders of 
 the rebellion or chief rebels for high treason, and 
 from treating them accordingl}-, unless they are in- 
 cluded in a general amnesty. 
 
 All enemies in regular war are divided into two gen- 
 eral classes; that is to say, into combatants and 
 non-combatants, or unarmed citizens of the hostile 
 government. The military commander of the legiti- 
 mate government, in any war of rebldlion, dis- 
 tinguislies between the loyal citizen in the revolted 
 portion of the country au<l the disloyal citizen. The 
 disloyal citizens may further be classified into those 
 citizens known to sympathize with the rebellion, 
 without positively aiding it, and those who, without 
 taking up arms, give positive aid and comfort to the 
 rebellious enemy, without being bodily forced there- 
 to. Common justice and plain expediency require 
 that the military commander protect the manifestly 
 loj'al citizens, in revolted territories, against the 
 hardships of the w ar as much as the common mis- 
 fortune of all war admits. The commander v.-ill 
 throw the burden of the war. as much as lies within 
 his power, on the disloyal citizens of the revolted 
 portion or province, subjecting them to a stricter 
 police than tne non-combatant enemies have to suffer 
 in regular war ; and if lie deems it appropriate, or if 
 his government demands of him that every citizen 
 shall, by an oath of allegiance, or by some other 
 manifest act, declara his fidelitj- to the legitimate 
 government, he may cither expel. transfer.impriscm, or 
 fine the revolted citizens who refuse to pledge them- 
 
 thc hammer in the usual manner until the spring 
 comes in contact with the stud in the plate and stops. 
 The hammer by its own momentum now explodes 
 the cap, and at this point is shown in Fig. 1, with 
 the nose of the sear resting on the incline of the turn- 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 blcr ready to force it back to half-cock as soon as 
 tlie pressure is relieved from the trigger. 
 
 EEBUFFO. — A bastard cannon, or a three-fourth 
 Carthoum (Karthanne), a 36-pounder of 15 calibers 
 long: according to Ufauo. a 4.5-pouuder. 
 
 RECALL. ~A call on the trumpet, bugle, or drum, 
 bv wliicli soldiers are recalled from duty, labor, etc. 
 
 RECEIPT. — A voucher or acknowledgment, which 
 
 Received at 
 
 of , 188 , from 
 
 in good order and condition, the uuder-mentioned packag 
 
 for transportation and delivery to 
 
 at 
 
 .this., 
 
 •day 
 
 lof. 
 
 
 Articles au<i (|uautities. 
 
 Cost. 
 
 
 No. of packages. 
 
 Dolls. 
 
 Cts. 
 
 Gross weiglit. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Signed i]i duplicate. J 
 
 selves anew as citizens oliedient to the law and loyal 
 to th(^ government. Whether it is expedient to do 
 so, and whether reliance can be placed \ipon such 
 oaths, the conunaMder or hi.< government have the 
 r.ghl to de.;-ide. 
 
 Armed or unarmed resistance by citizens of the 
 United States against the lawful movements of their 
 troops is levying war against tlie United States, and 
 is therefore treason. See Civil Wiir, Inmrrection, 
 smd I'os.v ('•nnifjiti/K. 
 
 REBOUNDING LOCK. A gun-lock in which the 
 hauuncr rebunnds tn half-cock, after discharge, as a 
 means of safety. The drawings show the action of 
 the Parker n/)i)iiiiilinf/-/'>r/,-. The operation of the 
 hick is very simple and renders all fire-arms using it 
 safe from lial)ility of a premature or accidental dis- 
 charge. Fig. 1 shows the hammer down on Ihi' 
 plunirer, and Fig. 2 shows the lock at h.nlf-eock. 
 When the gun is di^cliar^ed, the main spring' carries 
 
 Quartermasie?: 
 
 should always be given when official pai>ers are re- 
 ci'ived. When flags of truce are the liearers of a 
 parcel or a letter, the officer commanding an outpost 
 should give a receipt for it, an<t require the liartj- to 
 depart forthwith. The above is the form of a receipt 
 used liy (Quartermasters. 
 
 RECHAUD. — A cliafiug-dish, or |ian, used for vari- 
 ous pur|i(ises,]>articularly durins;a siege, lleeliauds 
 are tilleil willi liurniug materials, and hung in dilTiT 
 <-nl parts of the walls, so as to throw light into the 
 ditclies, and to iirevent surprises. 
 
 RECHUTE.— A term used in fortification to signify 
 a greater elevation of the rampart in those parts 
 where it is lik<'lv to be commanded. 
 
 RECIPROCAL DEFENSE.— A gooil Hanking defense, 
 to lie found in prrmanent fort itieat ions. !n con- 
 striietiug works of this nature, the following are the 
 obj<'cts ainieil at: -1 . To afford eovi'r or |iroleiiion to 
 the guns, masonry, and bodies of the defenders from
 
 BECOIL. 
 
 G43 
 
 BECOIL DTHAHOHETER. 
 
 the (•tTc(-ls of (in i'lK.'my'H Hre of every ileHeripliDii. 
 2. To arrange llie eoveriiig works in sui'li a manner 
 that Die defenders may use their wc-apons with faeil- 
 hy, and tliat tlie enemy may l)e kept iinihrlirc; from 
 his lirsl appearance within range of the heavii'st guns 
 to tlu' moment evc^n of his arrival at tlie crest of the 
 defender's worlcs, a eomlilion wliieh necessarily 
 leads to the introduclicin of reciprocal or llaidting 
 defense, as it would, in many cases, he impossilile 
 that itcoulil he fullillcd hy means of direct lirc^ alone, 
 each work of defense, hecoming a cover to tlieassaih 
 auts against the tire of its defenders when they have 
 advanced to its hase, it lieing also evident that Hank- 
 ing lire is much more ellicient than direct lire. The 
 term 'reciprocal" liere used expresses more fully th(^ 
 oharai'ler and obj<'ct of such defense than the term 
 "Hanking," .as it generalises the idea intended to he 
 conveyed, by including reverse lire and I'very ar- 
 rangement hy which the ground not acted upon hy 
 direct lire of one part of a work is hrought withiii 
 the action of the lire of anotlier part. 
 
 RECOIL. -When the charge of gunpowder con- 
 tained in a gun is tire<l, the sudden expansion of 
 the powder into many times its former hulk acts 
 with e((ual force in every direction, 'i'ht! resistance 
 olfered hy the ball, which moves more or less easily 
 in the bore, being far less than that of the bulky anil 
 heavier gun and carriage, tlie ball is forced to a great 
 distance ; hut the gun, with its carriage, must never- 
 theless feel the reaction, and is driven backward a 
 certain space, ordinarily a few feet. This retrograde 
 motion is called the recoil, and dangerous accidents 
 souK'times take place from it. After the recoil, the 
 gininers have to work the i)iece back to its former 
 position for the next <lischarge. In tlie Armstrong 
 naval gun, and some other modern cannon, the trun- 
 nions of the gun are mounted on an inclined plane. 
 Up which the recoil drives them, to run down again 
 by their own weight. The gun and shot remaining 
 the .same, the recoil is proportionates to the charge. 
 The recoil of small-arms is known as their "kick," 
 and is felt on the shoulder of the marksman. The 
 increase in the size of camion and in the charges em- 
 ployed, has necessitated the introduction of some 
 additional means for controlling the recoil. The fol- 
 lowing are used, viz : 1st. Pneumatic Buffers. 2d. 
 Hydraulic Buffers. :td. Friction Checks. 
 
 I'm-umatir linffefH. — These are attached principal- 
 ly to carriages for 15-inch guns. They consist of 
 two closed iron cylinders, placed bi'twi'cn the rails 
 at the front part of the chassis, secured thereto by 
 iron straps : and of two piston-rods with heads, 
 working air-tight through the iron heads that close 
 tlie rear ends of the cylinders. The rear ends of the 
 piston-rods are attaclied to a heavy iron plate pro- 
 jecting below the rear part of the gun carriage. A 
 small hole in each end of the cjiiuders relieves the 
 pressure of the air in front of each piston-head and 
 prevents the formation of a vacuum in rear of it. 
 When the recoil takes place, the piston-rods are 
 drawn to the rear, compressing the air in the cylin- 
 ders and checking, gradually, the motion of the sys- 
 tem. Should vacuums be formed in front of the 
 heads, the expansion of the air in rear would force 
 the piece forward beyond the position for loading. 
 
 llydrdiilic Buffers. — The hydraulic buffer is at- 
 tached to carriages for 1.5-inch guns and for heavy 
 rifics. Each consists of a cast-iron cylinder with 
 head, and a piston-rod and heads the latter hav- 
 ing perforations in it instead of being solid as 
 in the previous system. A uon-frccziiig liquid is 
 placed in the cylinder. Tin; motion given to 
 the piston-rod by the recoil is arrested by the 
 liipiid which is forced to pass through the holes 
 in the head. The amount of liquid, and the num- 
 ber and size of the lioles, which are determined by 
 experiment, regulate the amount of recoil. One 
 cylinder may thus be sulticient for any sized gun, 
 though with the largest cannon two arc generally 
 employed. The cylinder may be attached to the 
 
 front or to the rear end of tlii' chuHHiM. In the flntt 
 case, the piMton-rod. connecled with the rear of the 
 top-carriage, is drawn out of Die cvlinder : in tlii! 
 second (tase, the rod necnri'd to the front of the car- 
 riage in forced into the cyliniler. Kacli haH ll» iidvun. 
 tugi-H, the llrsl is, however, llie most rigiil. 
 
 Fricliiiii (Uierkf. -These are found upon many «f 
 this carriages for heavy rilles. The Kimplest is llie 
 " I'arrott" system. Two iron clamps uetuuted by 
 serewH arc placed on tlie railn in rear of the lop- 
 carriage; their pressure on the rails is regulated Ijy 
 the screws. I'art of the force of re(-oil U ex|K-mled 
 in moving the clamps on the rails; they may, before 
 tiring, be so i)laced as to allow free recoil over a 
 certain distance, the motion being afterwards check- 
 ed. The "Sinclair" chirk is now preferred. It 
 consists of a bo.x-elamp bearing against ihi- front 
 axl(! of the tfip-carriagc; and of a broad wroughl- 
 iron rail slightly wedge-shaped, exieniling nearly 
 the length of the chassis along its center line. At- 
 tached to the front of the chassis are two transom- 
 plates between which the rail works, free to move 
 to the front, but pri'venlr'd by them from moving to 
 the rear. The rail is seiureil to the rear of the 
 chassis by a steel, or rubber spring. Tin- clamp liuH 
 two friction plates between which the rail passes, 
 and on which they are tightened by means of a screw 
 and handle. The friction of the clump upon the 
 rail checks the recoil, and when it ceases the reac- 
 tion of the strain upon the rail, due to its elasticity 
 would cause the rail to bend were it not free to move 
 forward in the direction of its length, being retained 
 oiilv by the spriii_'. 
 
 KECba DYNAMOMETER.— Three conditions, llico- 
 retlcally essential to obtaining a true record of re- 
 coils, c!Ui only be approximated to in practice: I. 
 The recoiling mass should consist of mithing Inil the 
 gun. II. The entire remil should be expended on 
 the tljiunmometfr. III. The registration should be 
 effected witlmut .ii iidhU mulinn of the gun. Tiie first 
 condition would require that the gun should be sus- 
 pended by an imponderable penilulum rod. This ig 
 approximated to by reducing the suspending appa- 
 ratus to the minimum consistent with strength and 
 convenience. . The second condition would require 
 that the gun should be stripped of all guides and re- 
 straints involving friction. This is effected by hav- 
 ing guides near enough to the gun to prevent incon- 
 venient derangements, but ncjwhere in actual con- 
 tact. The third condition would require that the dy- 
 namometer should be set, in advance, at an initial 
 tension exactly equal to the expected recoil. Thus 
 condition can only be satisfied so far as to .set the dy- 
 namometer at an initial tension not greater than the 
 minimum recoil which the instrument can reasona- 
 bly be expected to be called upon to measure. In 
 the particular instrument, which forms the subject 
 of this report, the spring stands at an initial ten.sion 
 of fifty pounds avoirdupois, which is. consequently, 
 the minimum limit of its capacity for measurmg re- 
 coils. 
 
 The accompanying drawing will give a general 
 idea of the instrument, and enable it to be assem- 
 bled. Being assembled the following sequence of 
 adjustments has been found most convenient: 1. 
 Open and depress the front guide; 2. Balance the 
 piece, loaded, in the sling, at the elevation desired. 
 having first attached the "bridle," described beyond: 
 3. Bring the butt-plate heel nearly into contact with 
 the recoil-block, by shifting the pendulum column, 
 and clamp it: 4. C'limiilete the contact accurately by 
 means of the horizontal screw at the head of the pen- 
 dulum column: 5 Kai.se or lower the gun by mean.* 
 of the vertical screw, at the head of the pendulum 
 column, until the point of contact is in the center of 
 the circular face of the recoil-block. .\n iLssistant 
 should now steady the butt in this position while the 
 front adjustments' are made: 6. Slide the front guide 
 to a convenient point under the barrel and clamp it 
 7. Raise the front guide until, when closed, the bar-
 
 KECOMMENDATIONS. 
 
 644 
 
 RECONNOISSANCE- 
 
 rel hangs midway iu it without touching; then, before 
 clamping: 8. Rotate the front guide in a horizontal 
 plane until tlie gun has the least perceptable lateral 
 "inshake." at which position its vertical " insliake" 
 also will he limited. Clamp the front guide iu tliis 
 position; 9. Bring the faces of the butt-guiiies nearly 
 into contact with the butt. See that the butt-plate 
 contact has not been deranged. Mark the position 
 of the sling on the gun to facilitate readjustment. 
 See that the index has been pushed back to 50: 10. 
 Adjust the bridle. 
 
 The "bridle is not an essential element of the in- 
 strument, but only a convenient accessory. There- 
 turn of the dj-namometer spring inflicts a sharp lilow 
 on the gun, whicli would throw it forward and ne- 
 cessitate tedious readjustments after each shot. The 
 bridle restrains this forward throw without mater- 
 ially interfering with the prime object of the instru- 
 ment. Two forms of l.iridleaccompany the instru- 
 ment, one of which embraces the gun at tlie small of : 
 the stock by a leather collar, which is buckled back 
 to a hook on the dynamometer by a leather strap; the I 
 
 number of contingencies. To supply these deficien- 
 cies of maps, an examination of the ground must be 
 made liy the eye ; and verbal information be gained 
 on all the points connected with the operation over 
 this ground. This examination and collection of 
 facts is termed a reconnoiHsanfe. 
 
 From the services demanded of a reconnoiteriug 
 officer, it is, in the lirst place, evident that lie should 
 possess acquirements of no ordinary character; but, 
 iu addition to these, he should be gifted by nature 
 with certain traits, without which his acquisitions 
 would be of little account in the discharge of the re- 
 sponsible duty in question. With clear and specific 
 information before him, one-half of a General's 
 difficulties, in planning his measures, are dissipated. 
 In a letter from General Washington to Major 
 Tallmadge, he remarks, in relation to reports made 
 to him, on a certain occasion ; "■ But these things, 
 not being delivered with a cer.ainty, rather perplex 
 than form the judgment." It is in truth this feeling 
 of certainty that" constitutes all the difference; 
 having it, the General makes his dispositions witli 
 
 other embraces the gvm in front of the front sight by 
 a metallic collar, similarly buckled back to the column 
 ofthefrontguide. The first form is the lighterandless 
 objectionable, and can be used with all guns and car- 
 liiues, except such as open b\' a lever, like the Sharp's 
 arms. In a series of trials with the service ritle and 
 ammunition the instrument gave a very uniform 
 record of 98 pounds recoil. Tlie pull of the trigger, 
 in experiments for recoil, is canceled by the simple 
 expedient of placing the thumb behind the guard- 
 bow and phirhing t/igether the bow and the trigger 
 while st;inding on tlu' right of the gun. 
 
 KECOMMENDATIONS.- All niemiiers of any Court 
 who concur iu rcconiiiieudiiliiuis to mercy sign. The 
 recommendation is introduced after the finding and 
 sentence are closed and aiitlienticatf d. The reconi- 
 meiid;ition should distinctly set forth tlie reasons 
 which pniinpt it. 
 
 RECONNOISSANCE.— There are mi more imiiortant 
 duties, wliicli ;in (illicer may be called ujidii to jier- 
 form, lliuu th(>^^e of collecting iind arranging the 
 inform;iti(m upon which either the general or daily 
 operations of a campaign must be based. For the 
 proper performance of the former, acquirementsof a 
 very high order, in the deiiartments of geography ' 
 and statistics, are indispensable requisites; to whicii i 
 must be adtled a minute accpiaiiitance with topo- 
 graphy, and ii good mnp (I'lrii militahv for that of 
 the latter. However detaileil and perfect may lie a 
 map, it can never convey all the informalinn that 
 will enable an officer to plan, even an ordinary 
 march, with safety : still less, operations that neces- 
 ,sarily depend, for' I heir success, upon a far greater 
 
 confidence ; without it, he acts hesitatingly; and 
 thus communicates to others that want "of con- 
 fidence felt in his own mind. An officer, then, 
 selected for the duly in question should be known 
 to be cool-headed and truthful: one who sees things 
 as they are, and tells clearly and precisely what he 
 has seen. In making his report, whether verbally 
 or in writing, the officer should study conciseness 
 and precision of language. He must carefully 
 separate what he knows, from his own observation, 
 from that which he has learned from others ; and 
 add all the circumstances of place anil time with 
 accuracy. 
 
 The first thing to be done by an officer selected 
 for any reconnoissauce, is to ascertain prerixtiy the 
 duty required of him ; and what further should be 
 done in case of certain contingencies that may, 
 from the nature of the duty, be naturally looked 
 for. In the performance of thi' duty assigned him, 
 and in making his report, the officer should keep 
 always iu mind Ihe specific chanicterof his missiim, 
 as his guide in both points. As the deed of a re- 
 eoiinoi.ssanec supposes a great deficiency in iufor- 
 nialion upon the Uiitural features of the country, 
 the officer, detailed to make one, should iirovide 
 himself with majis, a good leleseope, such simple 
 aids for judging of distances, and ascertaining 
 the relative jiosilions of objects, as he can him- 
 self readily make ; writing materials; one or more 
 good guides: and gain all Ihe knowleilge he can, 
 from the inhabitants at hand, bearing iiiion his mis- 
 sion. Thelideiit of judging of distances, and of the 
 coimeclion between the viirions features of a eoun-
 
 BECORDER. 
 
 Ci'y 
 
 RECORDS. 
 
 try within Uii; Held of vision. \h partly ii imliiriil uini 
 parlly an aci|uircil one. Sonic iniliviiliial» <an ncvrr 
 l)c l)r(iii>;lit to liavr any ronliilcnci- in llii'ir own jiiiljr- 
 nii'nl on tlii'sc points; otliiTH liavr analiiral aplilnili' 
 for llicni, wliicli ri(|iiin'S l>iit lilllr praclici' for their 
 perfect ileveloiinuiil. Tlic^ powern of the eye vary 
 so Lrreally anion;^ civilized ])erson.H. thai no general 
 rules can lie laid rhuvn as a s.'uiile for tiic nialliT in 
 (picslion. .Xnion;; iiiicivili/ed liordcs.nseil to ii roam- 
 ini; life, there arc found slarnlanls which are well 
 luiderstood by all, — the Arab, for inslanee, callin;; 
 the distance a mile, at which a man is no longer dis- 
 liniiuisliablc from a woman — firowini; out of their 
 habits. The lirst thinir liien to be done by an olHi-er, 
 in acciiiirini; the cuiip (/'wit militdir' js lo learn, both 
 from books and on the li( Id, what s]iace is taUi'U up 
 by a liatlalion and its intervals, by a sipiadrrin. and 
 by a battery when in order of liattic ; how much ; 
 when in column of march; and the average time re- 
 quired for certain movements, under given circum- 
 stances of the sround. This aciiuirement he may 
 make by adopting some standard of his own; his or- 
 dinary pace, and that of a Iwirse, servinir for com- 
 puting time and distance reciprocally. The ne.Mstep 
 is to accjuirc^ tlu' habit of estimating, liy the appear- 
 ances of these dilVerent objects, from various points 
 of view, how far olf they are. This must be done 
 practically. A very simple aid to it is the following: 
 — Upon the stem of a lead-pencil, cut siiuare. and 
 lield out at a uniform arm's length from the eye, by 
 means of a thread allaclied to it and fastened lo the 
 toi) button-hole, let the olticer mark olT, on one of 
 the edges, Ihi- length seen on it by holding the pen- 
 cil upright between the eye, and a man ])laced suc- 
 cessively at different distances from it, as 100, bW — 
 1,000 yards. Tliis will give one rough standard for 
 practice. 
 
 Trustworthy guides are invahiablc, but most rare, 
 in an enemy's country. The best, from the informa- 
 tion I hey ac(piirc by their habits of life, are to be 
 foiMid ;iniong those (-lasses whose avocations i<eep 
 them much abroad, going from place to place within 
 a certain siihere constantly; such as conunon carriers, 
 hunters, snuigglers, etc. Among the tirst things to be 
 attended to by an officer, in taking jiost at any point, is 
 to liud out persons of this class, and to ascertain their 
 whereabouts when wanted. Kind treatnu'nt. d'ni- 
 eritrs, and promises, should not be spared to enlist 
 either their good will or their interests ; and, if policy 
 reijuires it, they may openly be treated with apparent 
 harshness, to screen tiu-m from odium among their 
 neighbors. If none of this class can be found, then 
 resort must be had to a higher ; local authorities l)eiug 
 in preference selected, and if necessary forced to act. 
 ' Here very careful treatment is re(piisite ; when the 
 necessity of the case is admitted iiy then;, much may 
 be gleaned by kindness, courtesy, and a certain de- 
 ference, from such persons, that cannot be looked for 
 from their iuferi(jrs. 
 
 Before starting on his mission, the officer should 
 questiira his guide thoroughly ; and if he has several, 
 question each apart; like jirccautions should be taken 
 with respect to other inhabitants. Care must be had 
 to find out the usual beats of one taken as a guide, 
 so as not to take him out of his own neighborhood. 
 Should there be but one guide, he must necessarily 
 be placed with the most advanced portion of the de- 
 tachment accompanying the otliccr. It nuiy be well 
 to reiuark that guides are useful even in a country of 
 easy communications ; as, in case of a rencontre, they 
 may point out by-ways convenient for retreat if ne- 
 cessary. 
 
 To designate all the objects to be embraced in a 
 reconnoissance, would lead further than the limitsof 
 this article will allow ; some general heads, which 
 will serve as guides in all cases, will therefore be 
 alone noticed. A general view of the ground to be 
 examined must tirst be taken in, so as to obtain some 
 notion of the forms of the parts, their connection, 
 and relations to each other, before going into a de- 
 
 tailed exatiiination. To one pohhcsHcd of xoiiie topo. 
 graphical knowledge. tlilHHtudy of what In before him 
 will iKJt denuiml much time. A level country', for 
 example, he knows ik usually well eullivuttrl, umJ 
 then-fore has plenty of hedges, dilclieH, etc., which 
 lend themselves well to alTuirsof light troopH- mav 
 be not a little inconvenir-nt to mam-uvers of urlil- 
 lery and frecpienlly bring up cavalry very unex- 
 pectedly in full career. In a mountainoiin one, 
 dangirrous passes, narrow roadH, torrerilN with 
 rough beds, ugly sudden turns, etc.. will neeeMm- 
 rily be met with. Kar-li and all of these demand a 
 parlicidar exandimtion, ami in his re|H<rl their ad- 
 vantages anil disadvantages should bo clearly point- 
 ed out by tin: ofilcr-r. 
 
 If the reconnoissance is for an onward move- 
 ment ; the distani-es from halt lo halt, as well UJI 
 all others, should be estimated in /I'/iirn <if umrch, 
 the nature of the roads, and the obstacles along them 
 be carefully detailed ; the means that nniy be gath- 
 ered along the line to facilitate the ni<ivemenl,aK ve- 
 hicles, men. an<l materials for removing obMlB<-les, 
 etc. The points where cross-roads are found, must 
 be specified; the direction of these roads; their useu, 
 etc. All local objects along the line, as villages, 
 farm-houses, etc., should be carefully designated, 
 both as to their position on the line, or on either 
 side of it : and also as to their form, and color, etc., 
 as "square white house on the right:" "round gray 
 stone lower on hill to left." The nami-s of locali- 
 ties, in the way in which the mhabilanis pronr>unce 
 them, shoidd be carefully written, ami eallerl over 
 several times, so as lo be sure lo get them as nearly 
 as practicable right in sound; then the names. a» 
 written by an intelligent inhabitant, should be added. 
 All haltiijg points nuist be well looked lo; their 
 military capabilities, in case of attack ; as well as 
 their resources for accommodating the troops, be 
 thoroughly gone into. If the halt is to lake posi- 
 tion for some time, to await or watch the enemy, 
 then more care must be taken, the whole site be 
 well studied as to its fulfilling the proposed end ; 
 the points of support on the Hanks be designated, 
 as well as others in front and rear, that may require 
 to be occupied ; tlu- suitable localities lo be chosen 
 for parks, hospital, etc. ; the comnmnications lo bo 
 opened or repaired, pointed out ; and all the facili- 
 ties e>lhcr for an advance or a retrograde movement, 
 be laid down. See Armed liemniwugancf. J'atrot*. 
 and T(tp<i(irapkiml liecunnniinnnrt. 
 
 RECORDER.— One who keeps a record: specitically, 
 the officer who registers the proceedings of a lioard 
 or Minor ('ourt. 
 
 RECORD OF FIRING.— A book is furnished to each 
 post for the •■rti„rd i if artillery" and ••reO'rd uf fir- 
 ing:' In the front of this book are jirinled instruc- 
 tions fidlv explaining how it is lo be kept. Lnder 
 appropriate headings, in the i)art set aside for record 
 of artillerv, each cun is described by its nimiber and 
 marks; when received and where from: whether 
 1 mounted or dismounted; if mounted, in what part 
 of the work, statins its platform mnuber. The re- 
 sult of each inspec-iion. made as hereinafter describ- 
 ed, will be entered for each piece in this part of the 
 book. 
 
 In the portion of the book devoted to record of 
 tiring, each piece has a separate page, which, when 
 tilled, is carried on to another. Kach shot tired is 
 duly recorded as lo date of lire, kind ami weight of 
 ' projectile, kind and quantity of i)owder. elevalion, 
 ; time of liisrht. range, etc. When a piece is trans- 
 ferred froni one post to another a complete record is 
 sent with it. and the previous number of fires is 
 entered in the book at the last post, so that the firing 
 may not 20 bevond the limit prescribed as the eadur- 
 j ance of the piece; this lias been fixed at one thous- 
 and service rounds for cast-iron cannon. 
 ' RECORDS.— Otticial accounts or registers. .\ll Mil- 
 itary Records, such as files of public letters, leller- 
 I books, order-books, and other recorU-bo. k - iiiu<ter-
 
 BECOTES. 
 
 646 
 
 HECRUITING. 
 
 rolls, etc., are the property of the Government, and 
 are preserved for future reference iu the settlement 
 of claims against tlie Government and for other offi- 
 cial purposes. AVhenever posts. Districts, Geogra- 
 phical Departments. Divisions, and other commands, 
 are discontinued, all such Records as are not re- 
 quired for use at the Department Headquarters in 
 which the commands were included are immediatelj' 
 sent by express to the Adjutant General of the Army. 
 Kvery person who wilfully destroys, or attempts "to 
 destroy, or with intent to steal or destroy, takes and 
 carries away any Record, paper, or proceeding of a 
 court of justice tiled or deposited with an_v clerk or 
 officer of such court, or an}' paper, or document, or 
 Record tiled or deposited in any public office; or with 
 any judicial or public officer, without reference to 
 the value of the Record, paper, document, or pro- 
 ceeding so taken, pays a flue of not more than two 
 thousand dollars, or suffers imprisonment at hard lab- 
 or, not more than three years, or both. Every offi- 
 cer having the custody of any Record, document, 
 paper, or proceeding specified above who fraudulent- 
 ly takes away, or withdraws or destroj'S any stich 
 Record, document, paper, or proceeding filed in his 
 office, or deposited with him, orin his custody, pays 
 a fine of not more than two thousand dollars, or suf- 
 fers imprisonment at hard labor not more than three 
 years, or both: and moreover, forfeits his office, and 
 is forever afterward disqualified from holding any 
 office under the Government. The established print- 
 ed forms and blanks of all nmsterrolls and returns 
 required from the Commanders of Divisions, Brigades 
 Regiments, Corps, Companies, and Posts are fur- 
 nished from the Adjutant General's Office on re- 
 quistions m.ade directly upon him. The receipt of 
 these forms and blanks is immediately acknowledged. 
 Officers keep these blanks under their own personal 
 care, to guard against their being misapplied. The 
 use of violet or other colored inks (e.xcept as carmine 
 or red ink is used in annotation, indorsement, and 
 ruling! is prohibited in the Records and correspond- 
 ence of the army. Hides for keeping the principal 
 Record-books at the different headquarters ; forms 
 for making rolls. returns, etc., lists of papers required 
 from each command in the army, and of blank forms 
 and books issued by the several Departments, are 
 furnished the proper officers on application to the 
 Adjutiuit General of the army. All officers and 
 clerks on duty in the Bureaus of the War Depart- 
 ment are prohil)ited from exhibiting any table, state- 
 ment, (ir paper ijelongiug to the ofticial" Records, or 
 giving any iuformationr copy, or extract from the 
 same, or giving any information respecting the busi- 
 ness of the Department to any person whatever not 
 on duty in one of the offices of the Department, with- 
 out, in each case, the authorit}', iu writing, of the 
 Chief of the Bureau concerned. A rigid compliance 
 witli this order is enforced, to prevent improper use 
 of information irregularly obtained. 
 
 RECOVER. — In tactics, a word of command in tir- 
 ing, whereby the piece is brought from the position 
 of (liin to Dial of rendy. 
 
 RECRUITING.— Formerly, in lOngland, the task of 
 raising recruits for the army was inlrusled to the 
 Colonels of Rogimeiits, who em|)loye(l civilian agents 
 and otiiers to persuade young luen to join their stan- 
 dards; these agents often resorting to very illegal 
 methods to entrap recruits. Subse(iuenlly, the duty 
 was assigned to several Recruiting Corps, each known 
 by the name of its Comnumdiiig Officer, but under 
 tliis system, so many irregularities, and such differ- 
 ence of practice arose, that in 1*12, for purposes of 
 uniformity, economy, and proper control, il was de- 
 cided to place the wliok- recruiting under the imme- 
 diate direction of the Adjutant (ieneral. For this 
 purpose, the country was divided into recruitiui; 
 districts. At the heiui of each district was placed 
 an Inspecting Field-officer, with the duty of super- 
 intending all recruiting parties in his district, and 
 of approving the recruits brought. At the District 
 
 Headquarters there was a Paymaster, responsible 
 for all the financial concerns, and a Medical Officer, 
 who examined the recruits iu point of health and 
 physical fitness. Recruiting parties used to consist 
 of old Sergeants, who souglit by everj^ means to in- 
 duce young men to enter the army; they frequented 
 fairs, wakes, and country gatherings, endeavoring by 
 beat of drum, smart uniforms, well-fed personal ap- 
 pearance, and persuasion— not always too truthful — 
 to convince the rustics of the advantages of the 
 Queen's Service: advantages which really existed, 
 though not always to the extent depicted. The adop- 
 tion in 1872-73 of the system of Regimental Locali- 
 zation changed all this. The United Kingdom is 
 divided into 60 sub-districts, at the head of each of 
 which is a Colonel, who commands the Brigade De- 
 pot, and the auxiliary and reserve forces of his sub- 
 district. He also controls the recruiting within his 
 command, primarily, for the regiments composing 
 the brigade: and secondly, for the rest of the Army. 
 To preserve uniformity of action, the Colonels re- 
 port on recruiting matters to the Inspector General 
 of Recruiting, an official on the Staff at the War 
 Office. On a would-be recruit presenting him.self, 
 the recruiter must ask him if he already belongs to 
 the militia; if not, and he appear physically eligible, 
 he is given a shilling, after which, sliould he ab- 
 scond, he becomes a deserter. The Sergeant must 
 then give the recruit 24 hours for consideration; 
 afterward, but within 96 hours from his first enlist- 
 ment, he must take him before a magistrate, when, 
 if the recruit declare that he voluntarily enlists, the 
 justice reads to him the Articles of War relative to 
 desertion, and puts the questions detailed in the at- 
 testation. This done, the oath of allegiance is ad- 
 ministered, and the man becomes definitely a soldier, 
 receiving his free kit and boimty. The recruit may 
 avow his dissent before the magistrate, when he must 
 be forthwith discharged on returning the shilling, 
 and paying twenty shillings as "smart" for the 
 trouble he has given. False declarations as to age, 
 previous service, health, etc., involve the recruit in 
 various penalties. About 18,000 recruits are raised 
 annually in time of peace for the British Army; but 
 a larger number will be necessary, as enlistment for 
 short service with the colors becomes more the rule. 
 In the United States, the recruiting service is 
 conducted by the Adjutant General, under the direc- 
 tion of the Secretary of War and the Commander of 
 the Army. Details for recruiting service are or- 
 dinarily for the period of two years. The Adjutant 
 General details the field officers for Superintendents, 
 and announces in Orders the number and grade of 
 the company officers to be selected by the Com- 
 mander of each regiment for the charge of recruit- 
 ing parties. These officers are chosen irrespective 
 of the roster, and with regard to their fitness for the 
 duty. They are ordered by their Regimental Com- 
 manders to report in person to the Superintendents 
 designated for their respective arms of service. Offi- 
 cers on the general recruiting service are not order- 
 ed on auy other duty, except from the Adjutant 
 General's Office. A recruiting party coi-.si.sts gen- 
 erally of one Lieulenant. one Ntm-coinmissioned 
 officer, and not UKirc than four ]irivates. The par- 
 ties arc sent from the priucip;d depots, and none but 
 stiilii' le men selected. The Adjul;ui1 (ienend of the 
 Army <';iuscs freiiuent insjuclions to be m;ide of the 
 recruiting depots and rendezvous, for the purpose of 
 enforcing the regulations and orders governing en- 
 listments, and especially to ijrevent the reception of 
 men of bad character, ami 1 he illegal enlistnu'iit of 
 nuMors into the service. Officers in t'luirge of ren- 
 dezvous will in no <'ase ;ibsent themselves from their 
 slalious wUhoul ;iutbority from the Superintendent. 
 Success in obtaining recruits depends mtu-h on the 
 activity and pirxnwd atUiili'ni of recruiting officers. 
 They must not intrust to enlisted men the duties for 
 which they alone are responsible, but must use every 
 care to (irevent the imposition of minors and bad
 
 RECROITINO DEPOT. 
 
 047 
 
 KECHUIT8. 
 
 men upon tlie .s(Tvi<!c. Kccniilin); ofTlccrs will imi 
 allow liny iimn to 1)C diT-civcil or iiivciftlcil into lln- 
 Hcrvic<' by fiilsc rc|)rcsciilali<iiiH, Iml, will in person 
 oxpliiin llic niiliirc of llic service, llic leiifjlh (,f the 
 term, the piiy, clolliinn, riilion.-t, anil oilier ullow- 
 ances to wliicli a hoIiUct is enlillerl by law, to every 
 man liefore lie signs the enlislnient. See ItirniiUui/ 
 Ihl'i't, Ili'triiilK, and Si/jJiruiti'/iikul of Kecriiitiiiy 
 Sirriri. 
 
 RECRUITING DEPOT. A (lejiot for the folk-ction 
 aiul insiniiiion of ricriiils. These depots are es- 
 tablished by orders from the Adjiilaiil General's 
 Office. To each (h pnt there is asMi;;ned a Huilable 
 number of ollleers to commimd and instruct the re- 
 cruits The recruits are r/irnKid in tiiiif'irnn uccord- 
 ini; to their respective arms, and arc rci;iiliirly mus- 
 tered iiiid insjiecled. 'I'hey are well drilled" in the 
 Infantry Tactics, Ihrou^di the school of tlu' soldier 
 to that of the baltalioii, and in the c.\ercisc> of lield 
 and L'arrison pieces. Duly is done accordini; to the 
 strict rules of service. Kecniitsare not put to any I 
 labor or work which would interfere with their in- I 
 structioii, nor are they employed olhervvise than as 
 soldiers, in the r(\i;ular duties of i;arrison and camp. 
 To };ivc encouragement to the recruits, anil hi-lil out 
 inducements to tjood coiiducl. tne ('omiiiandini; 
 Olticer of the liepot may promote such of them as j 
 exhibit the requisite qiialitications to lie Lance ('iir-\ 
 puratx ni\(\ Jjdirc Si /y{'(ints, i\o\ e.xceedinj; the proper 
 proiiortion to the number of recruits at the l)epot. 
 These appointments are announced in orders in the 
 usual way, and are continued in force until they join 
 their regiments, unless sooner revoked. No allow- 
 ance of ])ay or emoluments is assigned to these ap- 
 poinlmenls; they are only to be consideri'd as re- 
 commendation to the Captains of companies and 
 Colonels of regiments for the places in which the re- 
 cruits may have acted ; but such Non-commissioned 
 ollicers are to lie treated with all the respect and to 
 have all the autliorily which belong to the stations 
 of Sergeant and Coriioral. 
 
 The (Jeneral Siipcrinleiidcnt causes such of the re- 
 cruits as arc found to pos.sess a natural talent for 
 music to lie inslnicled (besides the drill of the sol- 
 dier) on the fife, bugle, and drum, and other mili- 
 tary inslriiiiients ; and boys of si.xtccii years of age, 
 ami upward, may, under his direction, be enlisted 
 for this purpose. Care is taken to enlist those only 
 who have a natural talent for music, and. if practic- 
 able, they arc taken on trial for some time before 
 being enlisted. The posts used as Kecriiiling l)e])ots 
 are not tube made places of conlineinent for military 
 prisoners. Whenever deserters from the Army are 
 apprehended by. or come in custody of recruiting 
 parties, thej- are sent to the depots, and thence, at 
 the earliest opportunity, forwarded for trial to their 
 regiments, where the wilnrsses in Ilieir cases should 
 be. When trial by tiencral Cniirl-Marlial of pris- 
 oners belonging to or under charge of the recruiting 
 service becomes neees.sary, the charges are forward- 
 ed, thrcnigh the Superintendent, to the Adjutant 
 General of the Army, with a list of the officers avail- l 
 able for duty on the Court, lierrniting parties and 
 recruits arc mustered, inspected, and paid in the 
 same manuer as are other soldiers. 'I'lic number of 
 recruits at depots to be assigned to each arm and 
 regiment is directed from the Adjutant Geiierai's 
 Ottice. As soon as a recruit joins any recruiting 
 depot, regiment, or station, he is e.xamineil by the I 
 Medical Officer, and vaccinated when it is reqinred. ; 
 
 The Boards of Inspection at recruiting depots re- 
 ject any man found to have borne an unsatisfactory 
 character on any previous enlistment, or who lias 
 shown such character since enlistment. In all cases 
 of rijictiim, the reasons therefor are stated at large in 
 a special ripi'H, made by the Board, which alsoshows 
 when, where, and by whom the recruit was enlisted. ! 
 This report, together with the Surgeon's certificate ' 
 of disability for service, is forwarded by the Super- 
 intendent or Commandant, of the post direct to the , 
 
 Adjiilanl OcncTiil. In all hucIi com/b llii> Command- 
 ing Olllcer caiiKCH the articIcK of clollilng wliicli rnay 
 liave been issued to the ri'iriiil, with the price of 
 each article, to be indorsed on the cerlillculrH of <lii*- 
 abiliiy. If the recomriiendiitioii of the Itoiird for llii: 
 discharge of the recruit be approved, the aiilliority 
 therefor is Indorsed on (he cerlilliale, which Ih M-nt 
 back to be tilled up and signed by the Coniniunilini; 
 Olllcer. who returns the same to the Adjiilaiil (Jene- 
 ral's olllee. The Jioanl slates in the report whetlicr 
 the disability, or other (iiiise of rejiciicn, I'xiHieil be- 
 fore Ins enlistment; and whether, with pnijur rare 
 and eimniiiatiiin, it might not have been discovered. 
 In all other cases the Superintendent or Coriimand- 
 ing Officer causes an exiraci from tin- proee)'din);g 
 of the Board of Inspection to be fiirnislieil the oNlc- 
 er making the enlistinenl. I'lioii receipt of llii.n ex- 
 tract the officer promplly renders a special report in 
 explanation lollie Adjutant General. 
 
 All officer intrusted with the command of recniitg 
 ordered to regiments, on arriving at the place of des- 
 tination, forwards the following [lapers: 1. To the 
 AiljuUmt General and Siijii rintiniOnt, each, a dis- 
 criptive roll and an account of clothing of such men 
 as may have deserted, died, or been left on the route 
 from any cause whatever, with dale and [ilaie: also, 
 a special report of the date of his arrival at the post, 
 the strength and c:ondition of the party when liimecl 
 over to the Commanding Oflicer, and all circiini- 
 stances worthy of remark which may have occurred 
 on the march. To the Cmninaniling Offlrrr of the 
 regiment or post, the muster and descriptive roll 
 furnished him at the time of setting out, properly 
 signed and completed by recording the names of the 
 recruits 7)/<=w/i^. and by noting in the column for re- 
 marks.opposite the appropriate spaces, the time and 
 place of death, desertion, ajiprehension, or other 
 casualty that may have occurred on the route. See 
 Recruiting, llej^ruitx, and Superintendent of lieeruit- 
 ing Service. 
 
 RECRUITS. —Men raised for service in the army, 
 to till vacuncies in regiments or to augment the 
 strength of the Army. In the United Slates, any 
 male person above the age of sixteen and under the 
 age of thirly-tivc years, effective, able-bodied, sober, 
 free from disease, of good character and habits, and 
 with a competent knowledge of the P^nglish lan- 
 guage, maj- be enlisted, due attention being given 
 to the restrictions concerning minors. This regula- 
 tion, so far as respects age, does not extend to .m,I- 
 diers who may re-enlist, or who haveservc-d honestly 
 and faithfully a previous enlistment in the army. 
 Men having the appearance of being hard drinkers 
 are rejected, though they may not at the time be in- 
 toxicated. No man having a wife or minor child can be 
 enlisted or re-enlisted without special autliorily from 
 the .\djutant General's office. If minors present them- 
 selves, they are to be treated with great candor: the 
 names and residences of their parents or guardians, 
 if they have any. are ascertained. and these are inform- 
 ed of the minor's wish to enlist, that they may make 
 objections or give their consent. No person under 
 the age of twenty-one years can be enlisted or re-en- 
 listed without the written consent of his parents or 
 guardians, provided that such minor has parents or 
 guardians entitled to his custody and control. Re- 
 cruiting Officers are very ]iartieular in ascertaining 
 the true age of the recruit. If any dmiH c-xist as to 
 the age of the applicant, his oath is not taken as the 
 sole evidence of legal age : and if he cannot, in addi- 
 tion, furnish undoubted proof of the fact, he will 
 not be accepted. The law forbids the enlistment of 
 boys under sixteen years of age : of all insane or in- 
 toxicated persons : of deserters from the militari' or 
 naval service of the United States: and of all per- 
 sons who have been convicted of felony. Minors 
 under eighteen years are not enlisted except for mu- 
 sicians, or to learn music, and then only undc-r au- 
 thority from the Superintendent. In every case of a 
 recruit rejected, or discharged as a minor, when it
 
 RECURSANT. 
 
 648 
 
 REDAN. 
 
 appears that the enlistment was carelessly made in 
 violation of Regulations, recommendation is made 
 that the expenses incurred by the Government in 
 consequence thereof shall be stopped against the pay 
 of tlie Recruiting Officer. 
 
 After the nature of the service and terms of 
 enlistment have been fairly explained to the recruit, 
 the officer, before the enlistments are tilled up, will 
 read to him, and offer for his signatvire the annexed 
 declaration, to be appended to each copy of his 
 enlistment ; 
 
 I, , desiring to enlist in the Army of 
 
 the United States for the period of five years, do 
 
 declare that I am years and months of age ; 
 
 that I have neither wife nor child ; that I have never 
 beau discharged from the United States service on 
 account of disabilit}', or by sentence of a Court- 
 Martial, or by order before the expiration of a term 
 of enlistment : and I know of no impediment to my , 
 serving honestly and faithfuUv as a soldier for five 
 years." " . 
 
 ^V'itness ; ' 
 
 If the recruit be a minor, his parents or guardian 
 must sign a consent to his enlisting, which is added 1 
 to the preceding declaration, in the following form : [ 
 
 I, , do certify that I am the {father. ! 
 
 only surviving parent, or guardian, as the case maybe) 
 
 of : that the said is 
 
 years of age : and I do hereby freely give my con- { 
 sent to his enlisting as a soldier in the Army of the ' 
 United States for the period of five years. 
 
 Witness : 
 
 The forms of declaration, and of consent in case 
 of a minor, having been signed and witnessed, the 
 recruit is then duh' examined by the Recruiting Offi- 
 cer and Surgeon, if one be present, and, if accepted, 
 the 4Tth and 103d Articles of war are read to him ; 
 after which he is allowed time to consider the subject 
 until his mind appears to be fully made up before 
 the oath is administered to him. 
 
 As soon as practicable, and ;it least within six days 
 after his enlistment, the following oath is adminis- 
 tered to the recruit : 
 State of , 
 
 I,- 
 
 Tiiwn of- 
 
 -born in- 
 
 ■,in the State of- 
 
 and by occupation a ,do hereby acknowledge to 
 
 have voluntarily enlisted [orre-enlis"ted] this day 
 
 of , 18—, as a soldier in tlie Army of the Uni- 
 ted States of America for the period of" years, 
 
 unless sooner discharged by proper authority, and 
 do also agree to accept from" the United States such 
 bounty, pay, rations, and clotliiug as are or may be 
 established by law; and I do solemnly swear that I 
 
 am years and months of age, and know 
 
 of no impediment to my serving honestlv and faith- 
 fully as a soldier for — ' years, under this enlist- 
 ment contract with the United States. And I, 
 
 , do solemnly swear (or atlirm) lliat I will bear 
 
 true faith and afiegianci' to the United States of 
 America; that I will serve them honestly and faith- 
 fully against all their enemies whomsoever; and that 
 I will obey the orders of the President of the United 
 States, and the orders of the officers appointed over 
 me, according to the Rules and Articles of War. 
 
 . [.SE.4L.] 
 
 Subscribed and sworn to before me this day 
 
 of . 18-. 
 
 Recruiting Officrr. 
 
 This oath niny be administered by any Commis- 
 sioned Otiu-cr of the armv. 
 
 The Medical Ollicer iwlienoneis provided ) next 
 examines the recruit. Wlien there is no Medicid 
 Officer, the Recruiting Officer personally makes this 
 examination. The recruit is examined'striiiped, to 
 
 see that he has free useof all his limbs; that his chest 
 is ample ; that liis hearing, vision, and speech are 
 perfect ; that he has no tumors or ulcerated or exten- 
 sively cicatrized legs ; no rupture or chronic cutane- 
 ous affection: that he has not received iuij- contusion, 
 or wound of the head, that may impair his faculties; 
 that he is not a drunkard ; is not subject to convid- 
 sions; and has no infectious disorder, nor any other 
 that ma}' unfit him for military service. 
 
 In accepting recruits at rendezvous, the following 
 instructions govern in examining the eye : 
 
 1. No recruit shall be enlisted who cannot see 
 well, at six hundred j-ards' distance, a black centre 
 three feet in diameter on a white ground. The test 
 will be made by means of cards, prepared under the 
 direction of the Surgeon General of the army : the 
 black spots on the cards will be circular, four-tenths 
 of an inch in diameter, and the recruit must be able 
 to count them with facility at twenty feet distance. 
 
 2. Anomalies in t/f refrnetiimuftheiye. — The princi- 
 pal anomalies in the refraction of the eye are myo- 
 pia, hj-permetropia, and astigmatism. These ano- 
 malies, if unaccompanied by disease of the eye, are 
 not to be regarded as a cause for the rejection of a 
 recruit, unless they impair the vision to such a degree 
 as to prevent him from counting the test-spots de- 
 scrilied in the last paragraph at the distance named. 
 Myopia (uear-sightedness) is a refractive defect of 
 the eye in which parallel rays falling upon the cor- 
 nea are brought to a focus before they reach the 
 retina. Hypermetropia (over-sightedness)is a refrac- 
 tive defect of the eye in which parallel rays falling 
 upon the cornea are not yet brought to a focus when 
 they reach the retina. Astigmati-im is a refractive 
 defect in which when parallel rays fall upon the cor- 
 nea they are not brought to a focus in the same 
 plane for all the meridians of the eye. The charac- 
 ter and approximately the degree of these defects can 
 be ascertained by the spectacles and test-types which 
 will be issued for this purpose by the Surgeon Gen- 
 eral of the army, on requisition from the Medical 
 Officers. 
 
 3. Presbyopia is not a refractive anomaly, but a 
 condition due to a diminution in the accommodation 
 of the eye, resulting from advancing age Vision 
 for distant objects remains normal, while that for 
 near objects is impaired. Tliis defect is not of it- 
 self a cause for the rejection of a recruit, but those 
 in whom it exists are usually over age. The exist- 
 ence of the defect can be ascertained by the test- 
 types referred to in the preceding paragraph. 
 
 4. Color-hlinthifss. — At the principal recruiting de- 
 pots all the accepted recruits are e.vannned for col- 
 or-blindness by the Medical Officers on duty. Any 
 defect observed is noted on the descriptive list of the 
 soldier, but does not of itself constitute a cause of 
 rejection, except in the case of enlistments for the 
 Signal Corps. The examination for this defect is 
 made by the method of Holmgren. Test-wools for 
 the purpose, accompanied by jirinted directions for 
 their use, are issued to the principal recruiting de- 
 l)Ots bv tlie Surgeon General. See liecriiiting. lie. 
 rriiitin;/ D- pot.anA l^i/pt rintendiiit of Jiecruiting Srr- 
 ■t^irr, 
 
 RECURSANT.— In Heraldry, moving or coursing 
 backwiiid : said— of an eagle displayed with th<' back 
 towards the spectator's face. 
 
 REDAN.— The simplest work in Field Fortification. 
 It consists of two parapets whose faces join in form- 
 ing a salient angle toward the eileniy. like a letter 
 \, in which the apex is to the front. Regarded by 
 itself, the redan is a work of very little".strength, 
 since there is no Hanking fire to protect its faces, and 
 nothing to prevent an enemy from forcing an en- 
 trance at tlie gorge : but re(hiiis are useful in many 
 positions, and tlii' rapidity with wliich liny may be 
 constrncleil, render them favorites with engineers 
 and ueiieials. .\ row of redans along an exposed 
 iroiit cif an army adds much to its strength. the troops 
 behind protecting the gorge, and tlie redans fianking
 
 REDAN LINE. 
 
 (; I ;| REDOUBT OF RE ENTERIRO PLACE OF ARMS. 
 
 fiicli olhcr. It fonns an pxcellcnl dcfcnHc for u 
 liriil!,'c-lica(l, tlu- tii>r'A<- liciiiK CDvcrfd Ijy llie rivi-r. 
 [{(•cliiiis Ii;riircil larL'c'ly in Wi-llinirlon's wr/rk.s for (ie- 
 finclin;? Lisbon in IMK). 'n,,. rcilan of Si'lm»to|)ol 
 in lM.-,r, was tlii'priiM ipal point of 1 lie En^'lisli attack, 
 ;inil Ilic scene of fuo hlooily repulses by the KiisHlaiis 
 in Jnne and JsejilenilH-r. 
 
 Tlie faces of the icdan should receive direction 
 such as to swe<'i) (he ajiproaches to the Hanks of the 
 liosiii.in. From the ansnlar point hut a sin;,'le line 
 of direct lire can he brought to bear on the sector 
 
 in advance of it, and when the salient is BO" or loss, 
 only a very oblique fire from the fjici-s can he brnuiriit 
 ujjon this sector, which becomes thus a sector with- 
 out lire for the assailed. To remedv this, a portion 
 of the salient is tilled in soa.s toforn'i a short defens- 
 ive line ])erpendicular to the capital. This line is 
 termed a puii-miipiv. axnl irives a direct lire in the 
 direction of the capital prolonged outwards. See 
 Fiflil-W'irl-K. 
 
 REDAN LINE. — The .simplest arrangement for a 
 contimied line. consists in a series of redans connect- 
 ed by straight curtains. The faces of the redansare 
 si.xty yards inlenirlh; their salient angles 00": and the 
 distance between ihcir cajiit.als ISO vards. Tl; 
 
 fenilcrH imdir the fiovernt.r, Genirul Klliotl. the at- 
 larking s<|uadron being conipletely itilenced, and a 
 lap'.'c niiiiihir of ships set on lire. 
 
 REDOUBT.- A Kuiall fori of vurving Mliape, con- 
 Hlructid for a temporary nurjiow, unrl iibii«||v wjOi- 
 oul Hanking defenses, 'I he lerni Ik vague in ilH ac. 
 ceplalion,beinL'applie.le()inilly todilucliidj)<«litund 
 loa strong jiosition within another forlresH. HedoiibU 
 are maile square, pentagonal, and even circular. 
 Each redouhl has parapet, ditch, scarps, hnn>|iietlc 
 etc., as in regular fortillcations : but it Ih comnionlv 
 rather roughly cmslrucleii, husle and unprof.HHioniil 
 labor precluding mathematical accuracy. The en- 
 trance may be by a cutting through the'paraix-t, the 
 culling being covered within by a tniverse ; or pre. 
 ferably, by an e.\cavaled gallirv leading into the 
 clilch,andllienr(byaramptliruuglilliicounlers<-arp. 
 For the sake of thinking tliedilch. and prcventini; an 
 a8.saulling.i)arly from lorniinL' in it. caponni.-r<-- of 
 timber, loopholi-d, are somelimes formed; or. if 
 the soil be stilf or chalky, a gallery may be cul be- 
 hind the counterscarp and loopholed' toward the 
 ditch. In some modern redoidils the line of each 
 side is broken to afford Hanking rlefense. HeiiouhlM 
 I have the weak feature of not ilefending their own 
 I ditches, anil of liring approacheil at their salient an- 
 I gles with comparative impunity. They an- ihere- 
 j fore not adapted to a protracted defense, but as tem- 
 porary field works, or in a war of posts, thi-y are 
 often of incalculable importance. Troops wliofie 
 stability in the open licld is doubtful are es|)<-ciallv 
 strengthened by redoubts in their line. Redoubt's 
 are particularly useful in forlifyinir the tops of hilU. 
 or commanding passes, or wheVc the object is to oc- 
 cupy a hostile territor)-, or to feel the way grailually 
 through a wooded counlrj-. The si/e to begiven to 
 a redoubt, or generally to"any inclosed work, Will de- 
 
 ....■.....^v ./v I ., ^ . II tiiv II ia)ii(.ii> inv \arilS. 1 Ills com- ," " " ' 7 ■"•' "" -' •"'-■"'■-v.. .. ...1 n. ■* Hi u<;- 
 
 binatiou will place the salients at liiO yardsfrom the '"■'"' "'^"" "'^' '"""'"■'" <'f ""^i- available for its de 
 
 fense, taking it as an established rule that it is heller 
 
 to have a force concentrated than too much dislrib- 
 
 iited, and therefore injudicious to make works of a 
 
 greater extent than can be well manned and viiror- 
 
 oiisly defended. The number of men will depend 
 
 I upon the particular circumstances of the ca.se ; a.s, 
 
 j for instance, its situation with regard to distance 
 
 from the enemy ; whether it is likely to be attacked 
 
 I by a powerful force or only by raiding parlies: 
 
 collateral recnterings. An inspection of this system whether it is of such vital importance as to reijuire it 
 
 shows tlial the dilches are not Hanked: liiat the sa- lf> be held at all hazards, and its distance from sup- 
 
 lients are not well protecti-d, owing to the cross-fire j porlingforce. 
 
 leaving a considerable sector without tire in front of I In permanent fortification. the Icnn redoubt, or re. 
 
 them; that the curtains, which, from llicir position. rf«rt. is applied to the outworks placed within other 
 
 are the strongest points, are the best defended, and outworks : their object being to strengthen the de- 
 
 in turn they afford no jirotection to the faces. All I fense of the principal work." A work of this class is 
 
 these defects become more sensible as the redansare ^ usually placed within the demi-lune, and is termed 
 
 placed further tiparl. See /.mc.'i. 
 RED COAT.— An English soldier, or a soldier who 
 
 "wears a red coat. 
 
 RED FLAG. — A flag used by Revolutionists as an 
 
 emblem of defiance. It is u.sed in the I'nited Stales 
 
 service as a danger-signal at target practice, and on 
 
 a m;in-of-war as a signal that the ship is receiving or 
 
 diselKirging lier powder. See Flngn. 
 
 RED HAND. — In ller;ildry. a sinister hand erect, 
 
 open, and ccuipeil or, the wrist gules, being the arms 
 
 of the province of Ulster, was granted to the baronets 
 
 of England and of Irelanil 
 
 badge on the institution of that orderin Kill, and is 
 home by the baronets of Great Britain ami of the 
 United Kingdom, It is assumed into the armorial 
 coat, and may be borni' upon a canton, or on an 
 escutcheon, which UKiy lie ]ilaccd either in the mid- 
 dle cliief or in the fess |i: inl. so as least to interfere 
 with ilir rliarircs composinir the family arms. 
 
 RED-HOT SHOT.— Cannon-balls heated to redness, 
 and fired from cannon at shipping, magazines, 
 w(|oden buildings, etc.. to combine destruction by 
 
 the ilemi-buir re(li»ihl. Small works of this kind arc 
 al.so placed in the salient and re-entering places-of- 
 arms of the covered-way, and arelermed the r<</"HA( 
 of the salient, orre^enUring plafi-iif-nnii». These re- 
 doubts are in some cases simjile earthen works ; in 
 others they are revetted ; and in others ca.seniated 
 both for the service of artillery and small-anns. See 
 Inehmid U <';'<-.«.and (hitir.irkn.' 
 
 REDOUBT OF THE RE ENTERING PLACE OF ASMS. 
 
 Tlie ohjeci of this redoubt is to strengthen the 
 
 _ covered-way and sweep with its fire the enemy's 
 
 their distimruishins; establishments on llie glacis of the demi-lune. The 
 
 redoubt being directly in front of the baslion-face, 
 its relief should be reduced that the fire of this 
 face ma\- not he too much masked. To effect this, we 
 commence by establishing the bottom of its ditch, 
 so that the iioint of it nearest the bastion may jnsl 
 be seen by the musketry fire of the face: we then 
 adopt nearly a minimum relief of scarp wall; 
 finally, we arrange the interior crest of one face, so 
 as to allow no exterior slope at one extremity and 
 make the other at the salient "3 feet hisher. This 
 
 fire w ith battering by c(mcussion. In the great slope of 2 feet, and the direction given to the scale 
 bomliardiiunt of tJibniltar, on Sept. 13 and 14,1782, of declivity of the interior crest, determine a plane 
 red-hot shot was used with great effect liy the de- ; of defilemiiit for the redoubt, the prolongation ol
 
 EEDRESSING WRONGS. 
 
 650 
 
 REFINING OF METALS. 
 
 which will pass at about 3 feet above the salients of 
 the two demi-liines, which arc symmetrically situ- 
 ated with respect to the bastion capital. This is 
 done in accordance with a principle generalh- 
 adnpted, that when one work is less advanced than 
 another, and commanded by it, the plane of its 
 interior crest prolonged should pass 3 feet above 
 the points which the enemy can occupy on the ad- 
 vanced work — which, from the nature of the attack, 
 must first fall into his possession — so that he may 
 not have a plunging tire into the retired work, from 
 his establishments, which are generally about 3 feet 
 above the parapet of the work occupied. 
 
 On account of the ditch between the tenaille and 
 the enceinte flank, a breacli might be opened in the 
 curtain, by means of a battery, established on the 
 glacis of the re-entering place-of-arms, if there was 
 no mask beeween the ditch referred to and this 
 glacis. By placing the angle of the redoubt on the 
 line drawn through the e-\treraity of the curtain 
 and the extreme of the dem-lune, it is readily seen 
 tliat these two works so combined cover the opening 
 left by tlie ditch. The means here resorted to is 
 of frequent use in fortificatiou ; and the problem 
 may be thus stated : a line being given, which is 
 partially covered by an existing mass, from tires 
 in a given direction, to interpose another mass, 
 which combined with the first, shall entirely mask 
 the ffiven line. See Nonet System of F(irtii>ention. 
 REDRESSING WRONGS.— If any officer shall think 
 himself wronged by his Colonel, or the Command- 
 ing Officer of the Regiment, and shall, upon due 
 application being made to him, be refused redress, 
 he may complain to the General, commanding in the 
 State or Territory where such Regiment shall be 
 stationed, in order to obtain justice: who is required 
 to examine into the said complaint, and take jjroper 
 measures for redressing the wrong complained of, 
 and transmit, as soon as possible, to tlie Depart- 
 ment of War. a triie state of such complaint, with 
 the proceedings had thereon. If any inferior officer 
 or soldier shall think himself wronged Ijy his Cap- 
 tain or other officer, he is to complain f liereof to the 
 Commanding Officer of the Regiment, who is 
 required to summon a Regimental Court - Jlar- 
 tiai for the doing of justiee to the complai- 
 nant : from which Regimental Court-Martial, ei- 
 ther party ma_v, if he thinks himself still aggrieved, 
 appeal to a general Court-Martial. But if, "upon a 
 8econ<l hearing, the appeal shall appear vexatious 
 and groundless, the person so appealing, shall be 
 punislied at the discretion of the said Court-^Iartial. 
 RED SHORT IRON.— Iron which is difflcult to 
 weld and is brittle when heated is said to be red-short 
 or hot-nhm-t. This defect is due to the presence of 
 sulphur. 
 
 RED TAPE.— The tape used in Pulilic Offices for 
 tying up (Incmnents, etc.; hence, oflicial formalit}-. 
 REDUCE. — This term is u.sed in various military 
 senses. To ridncf « plwe, is to f)blige the com- 
 mander to surrender it to the besiegers, by capitula- 
 tion. To rediiee tJienejiKire. is to restore or liring liack 
 a battalion or battalions, which have lieeii formed in 
 a hollow or oblong square, to their natural situation 
 in line or column. To reduce to the rnn/ix, is to de- 
 grade, for misconduct, to the station of a private sol- 
 dier, liediiced, in its ordinary sense, is to be taken 
 off the establislunent, and to cease to receive pay as 
 soldiers. When a regiment is reduce<l. tlie officers 
 are generally jiiu upon half-]ia_y. i^onietinu's the 
 corps are reduceil, and the ollicers remain npon fidl 
 pay. This happens at the close of a war, when the 
 standing army of the eotuitry is confined to a certain 
 nnml)er of battalions. Hence is derived the expres- 
 siciM in, and out of the lireiik. 
 
 REDUIT. — In forlificati<in,a central or retired work 
 williin any other work, intended to afford the garri- 
 son a last retreat, whenc<' tliey may capilidati'. It is 
 commonly of masonry, liioi)lioled. and often cinular. 
 Many engineers doubt the use of reduits altogellicr. 
 
 as blocking up the working space, being themselves 
 I inconvenient for the men, and incapable of protract- 
 ed defense, while the}' frequently mask the fire of 
 ' other works more to the rear. 
 
 REDUCTION OF METALS.— A metal is said to be re- 
 duced to its metallic state when it is separated from 
 the condition of a chemical <'ompound in which it 
 exists as an ore. This is generally effected either by 
 the direct action of heat, or by heating the com- 
 pound along with a reducing iigent. Thus, when ox- 
 I ide of mercury is simply heated, the oxygen is given 
 j off as gas, and mercury or quicksilver appears as 
 I metal. Again, when sulphuret of lead is heated 
 with iron, sulpluiret of iron is formed, and the lead 
 \ is reduced to its metallic state. In this case the iron 
 is the reducing agent. The principal reducing agent 
 j employed in metallurgy is carbon, or rather the gas 
 ciirl)onic oxide, which is formed under certain con- 
 ditions when carbon is burned. See /TO«,and Meteil- 
 Inrgfi. 
 
 RE ENLISTMENT.— A renewed enlistment. In the 
 United States Army, any Non-commissioned Officer, 
 musician or private, who re-enlists within one month 
 after the date of discharge from first enlistment, re- 
 ceives $3 per month in addition to the monthly pay 
 he was receiving prior to discharge; and also ifl per 
 month additional after each subsequent re-enlist- 
 ment so long as he shall remain continuously in the 
 armv. 
 
 RE-ENTERING ANGLE. —In fortification, an angle 
 in till' line of works of whicli the apex points away 
 from the front. As an example, the flanks of a bas- 
 tion make re-entering angles with the adjoining cur- 
 tains. Advantage is commonly taken of the "com- 
 paratively sheltered position of these angles to form 
 PlnreK d' Annex for the assemblv of troops. See An- 
 ejh. 
 
 RE-ENTERING ORDER OF BATTLE.— An order of 
 battle, the front of the army forming a re-entering or 
 inclosing angle, and the reverse of the salient forma- 
 tion. This order presents many advantages, as it 
 can inclose the enemy, and shake morally and ph3's- 
 ically the troops which form the angle of the salient, 
 bv their rear being threatened and their retreat cut 
 off. 
 
 RE-ENTERING PLACE OF ARMS.-Enlargements in 
 the covered-way. at the re-entering angles of the 
 counterscarp; this space is formed by" setting off 
 demi-gorges of 30 3'ards (more or less), "and making 
 the spaces form angles of 100'^ wifli the adjoining 
 branches of the covered way. 
 
 REEVE. — A word used in S]ieaking of ropes, signi- 
 fies the passing of a rope thrc>ut;h any hole, deaii- 
 eye. block, or pulley, in conjunction with which it 
 is to lie usi'd. See Cordafir. 
 
 REFINING OF METALS.— The last operation con- 
 nected with the smelting of copper, tin, lead, and 
 some other metals, is usually called the refining pro- 
 cess. With copper, for example, the impure or 
 blister copper, containing from ll.'ii to i)8 per cent, 
 of the metal, alloyed usually with small quantities 
 of iron, fin, antimony, etc., is melted in a refining 
 furnace, and exjiosed to the oxidizing influence of 
 the air. By this means, the foreign metals present 
 become oxidized, and rise to the surface as slag, 
 which is skimmed off ; the oxide of copper, formed 
 during the process, being afterwards reduced by 
 throwing coal on the surface of the melted metal, 
 anil stirring with u pole of green wood. Tlie dis- 
 engagement of gases from the wnod during the 
 "poling" causes the metal to splash about, and so ex- 
 jHjse every portion of it to the redueingaetinn of the 
 coal ; thus the oxide of copjier is deprived of its oxy- 
 gen, and the copper rendered nearly jmre. Tin "is 
 also relineil by throwing billets of green wood into it 
 wliilr ill a melted slate, which has tlie elTeet of brin;;-- 
 ing impurities to the surface .'is froth, in a somewhiit 
 similar way to the o.\idi/,iiig of foreign metals in 
 eop]ier. Lead is purified fmm antimony and tin by 
 an analiigous mode of oxidation, and silver is sepa-
 
 REFLECTING SIGHTS. 
 
 (If)! 
 
 9E0AUA. 
 
 riilc(l from it \ty ii spcc'ml iirticcHH. The ri'liiiiii'/ rif 
 iron in a name applied to tlii' prori-HS for jiarlially 
 Hiparatiiii; llic carhoii fioiii casl-iron, and iH dc- 
 HcrilK'd under Iuon. Of the less itnp<irlanl iiietalH 
 used ill the arts, /.ine, aiitiinony. and iiiereury do 
 not usually uiideri;o any special relinini; process; 
 aluniiniu..!, it is said, will not aftiTwards ptirifv 
 when onee reduced lothe nu-lallie stale ; and iiickef, 
 of whicli Oeruian silver is lar;;ely composed, is re- 
 lined hy a jjrocess or uroeesses kept strictly secret 
 l>y mauiifaclurers. \V c; may state Iktc that no metal 
 is ever (|uite pure in its commercial state, even 
 thoUf;li it has ;;oni' Ihrouirh the usual operation of 
 relininir, hut all are 1o a certain extent alloyed with 
 cerlain others. For the i;reat niajorily of purposes, 
 it is not necessary that metals should he chemically 
 ])ure, and wlien il is, they can only he made so hy 
 relined chemical i)rcK-esses. II will l)e readily nnder- 
 slood, liowever, tiiat it is always necessary to carry 
 the relinini; of fjo'.d and silver further than the less 
 valualile metals. To render i;old sullicienlly pure 
 for maiuifaclure into coin, an inirenious process has, 
 within I he lasl few years, hccn pvcpposed, hy which 
 fused jrold is ini.\ed willi about 10 |)er cent, of liluck 
 o.xide of copper, and then stirred so as to oxidize any 
 foreign metals which happen to he present. Th<' 
 oxide of cop])er does not fuse, hut is disseniinatec'. 
 through the nulled nu'tal, and oxidizes any tin, an- 
 timony, or arsenic, anil causes them to rise to the 
 surface, so that they may he sUimmed off. I'erfeet- 
 ly pure golil is pnpared hy dissolviiiir the melal in 
 aqua-rei;ia— a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric 
 acids—and precipitating silver (with which it is al- 
 most always alloyed) as well as any other foreign 
 metals hy (•henii<als which have no action on tlieso- 
 hition of gold. The metallic gold is afterwards 
 pri-cipilaled as a linely-divided powder, hy a salt of 
 iron, and is then fused and cast into bars. Silver is 
 rendered pure by dissolving; il in nilrie acid, tiller- 
 ing the solution, and then precipitating llu' metal 
 with common sail as a chloride of silver. This is 
 afterwards mixed with sulphuric acid, and then, by 
 iulroduciug bars of zinct, a chloride of zinc is formed, 
 whilst I he silver is readily reduced to the metallic 
 state. 
 
 REFLECTING SIGHTS.-( Inns are laid with refltcting 
 nn/lilx wlnii ibe size of the port in a casemate is not 
 large enough lo use llie ordinary sights, or when it is 
 desirable to protect the menemplovi'd in aligning the 
 sights from the enemy's tire. Several uu-thods of using 
 them are employed. 
 
 In the first ])lan, the sights are very similar to those 
 usually employed, but Ihey are both placed on the 
 thinner part of The gun in front of the trnmiions. And 
 as there is not room for a man's head to be placed 
 behind the tangent scale, on acco.mt of the coils of 
 the gun. a small mirror on a moveable socket is placed 
 just behind the tangent scale notch, and the man who 
 lays the gnu stands at some convenient position at 
 tlie side of the muzzle, and aligns the sights in the 
 mirror exactly as he would do in laying direct, lie 
 is well protected from the enemy's "tire. 
 
 In the second jilan. which is adopted in MoncriefTs 
 protected barbette system, in aildilion to a set of di- 1 
 rect sights, a mirror at the breech, set at an angle. ] 
 with a cross cvit on it is useii in conjunction with a 
 notch, which slides in a graduated vertical groove at 
 the trunnions. The trunnion nolch is tirst adjusted 
 to the rei[uired elevation, and a man below then looks 
 np at tlie mirror, and the gun is nuued until by re- 
 flection the distant and the trunnion-sight notch co- 
 incide with the Intersection of the lines cut on the i 
 glass. j 
 
 Another plan is to have one mirror set at an angle 
 attached to a trunnion, so that the distant object is ! 
 reflected on to another mirror, which slides under, 
 cover in a graduated slot in the side of the elevator. 
 The irun is laid by slidimr the lower mirror to a cer- 
 tain graduation (reipiired by the range) on the slot, 
 and then moving the gun till the distant object is seen 
 
 rellectcd in the lower mirror covering the inlerM'ctinn 
 of cross-lines, which are cut on liotli the inirrofH. 
 
 Uedecting sights have liie diHudviintage of a limit- 
 ed field of view, which may cuiine delay in tindiiiK 
 th<! ol)jeet in the mirror, even wlieii the gun ix ujt- 
 |»roximalely brought mio Ihecorrerl lini- before using 
 these sijjhis ; and reflection, ep-peciallv when double. 
 causes iiidi^linclness, piirticularly at long ranges. 
 
 SEFORMADO. Anolllcer, fornierlv so calli-d. wIid 
 for some disgrace wasdiprived of his coininund, but 
 retained his rank, and perhaps Ids pay. 
 
 REFORMED. In a military S4'nse, after some ma- 
 neuver or evolution, lo bring h line to its natural 
 ordir. by aliirning it on some given jioinl. Also, to 
 restore order amouL' broken troops. 
 
 REFORMED OFFICER. In tlii- ISrilish Army, one 
 whose troo|)s or company being broken up, is con- 
 tinued on full or half-pay. lie preserves Hie riglit 
 of seniority, and continues in I he way of preferment 
 by brevr^t. 
 
 REFUSE. A military term, signifying to throw 
 back, or lo keep back oul of the regular aligmnent 
 which is formed when troops are upon the point of 
 engaging the enemy. Thus it is saiil in the obliipie 
 order of battle, that if the right flank attacks, the left 
 unist be iifUKf.d 
 
 REGALIA.- The ensigns of royalty, including more 
 parlicularly the a|)paralus of a coronation. The re- 
 galia of England were, prior to the Heformation. in 
 the kee])ini.c "f the Monks of Weslminsler Alibey, 
 aiul Ihey arc still presenii'd lo the Sovereign at the 
 coronation by the Dean and I'rebendaries of that 
 Church. Dtiriug the Civil War the Crown and most 
 of the regalia fell victims to Puritan zeal ; and on the 
 restoration of the Hoyal Family, new ensigns had to 
 be made for the coronation of" Charles II., whicli, 
 with occasional alterations and repairs, have contin- 
 ued in use down lo the iireseni <la>. The regalia, 
 strictly so called, consist of the crown, the siepter 
 with The cross, the verge or rod with the dove, the 
 so-called staff of Edward the Confessor (made in 
 reality for Charles II.,) the blunt sword of mercy 
 called Curtana, the two sharp swords of justice, 
 spiritual and temporal, the ampulla or receptacle for 
 the coronal ion oil, the anoint ing spoon (probably 
 the only existing relii' of the old regalia;, the annillie 
 or bracelets, the sjiurs of chivalry, and various roy- 
 al vestments. All these, with tlie exception of the 
 vestments, are now exhibited in the jewel-room in 
 the Tower of London, in which are also a smaller 
 crown, scepter, and orb for the coronation of a 
 Queen Consort, two other Oiieen Consorts scep- 
 ters—one of ivory, made for >Iarie d'Este : and the 
 state crown of silver and diamonds, whicli was used 
 at the coronation of Queen Victoria, containing a 
 large ruby and sapphire, the former said to have 
 been worn by Edward the Black Prince. The 
 Prince of Wales' crown of gold, which is without 
 stones, is moder;i. 
 
 The proper reiralia of Scotland consist ot the crown, 
 the scepter, anil the sword of state. The crown 
 probably belongs to the time of Kobert Bruce, and 
 is adorned with crosses and flenrs de lis alternately. 
 It was orisinally an o])en crown, but twoconcentric 
 arches were added in the reign of James V.. sur- 
 mounted at the point of intersection by a mound of 
 gold and a large cross patee. The scepter is of the 
 Hmc of James v.; the sword was a pres«-nt from 
 Pope^ulius II. to James IV. in ir.07. During the 
 Civil War the regalia were removed by the Earl 
 Marischal for safe'custody from the crown-room of 
 Edinburgh Castle, their lisual place of deposit, to 
 his Castle of Dunnottar; and while Dunnottar was 
 besieged by the parliamentary army, the regalia 
 were "preserved bv being conveyed by stratagem lo 
 the JIanse of KinnefT, by the wife of Ogilvy of Bar- 
 ras, the Lieutenant Governor, and the wife of the 
 Minister of KinnefT. From the restonilion lo the 
 union the regalia continued to be kepi in the crowii- 
 rooin as formerly ; at the beginning of each session
 
 BEGAN CARTRIDGE BELT. 
 
 652 
 
 REGIMENT. 
 
 they were delivered to the Earl Marisclial or his 
 Deput}', in whose custody tliey remained while Par- 
 liament was sitting, and were afterward restored to 
 the charge of the Treasurer. William, uintli Earl 
 Marischal, who opposed tlie Treaty of Union in all 
 its stages, declined to witness its consummation, but 
 appeared by his Deputy, who took a written protest 
 tliat the regalia should not be removed from the Cas- 
 tle of Edinburgh witliout warning given to him or 
 his successor in office. From tliat time till 1818, the 
 regalia remained locked in a chest in the crown- 
 room, awaj' from pidjlic gaze. On Feb. 4, 1818, an 
 order being obtained by warrant under the sign-man- 
 ual of George IV., then the Prince Regent, the chest 
 was Ijroken open, and the crown, sword, and scepter 
 were found as they liad been deposited at tlie union, 
 along with a silver rod of office, supposed to be that 
 of the Lord High Treasurer. Tliey are now in the 
 cliarge of tin- Officers of State for Scotland, as com- 
 missioners for the custody of regalia, and are exhi- 
 bite<:l in the crown-room, along with a ruby ring set 
 witli diamonds, worn bj' Charles I. at his coronation 
 at Holyrood in 1633 ; the golden collar of the garter, 
 sent Ijy Elizabeth to James VI. : the St. George and 
 dragon, or badge of the order of the garter : and the 
 badge of the order of tlie thistle, with figures of St. 
 Andrew and Anne of Denmark, set in diamonds. 
 These latter insignia were bequeathed by Cardinal 
 York, the last of the Stuarts, to George IV., and sent 
 to Etlinburgh Castle in 1830 by the special order of 
 William IV 
 
 REGAN CARTRIDGE-BELT.— This belt is intended 
 to carrj- from thirtv-tivr to forty cartridges, arranged 
 so as to have five in each division. The thimbles 
 are sewed to the belt. Between each division of five 
 cartridges is a space of about half an inch, designed 
 to allow the covers to project a little beyond the ex- 
 treme cartridges in each division. In one of these 
 spaces is a little oblong pocket, like a spectacle-case, 
 for screw-driver. In the second space, on either side 
 of the front of the belt, is a buckle, which is riveted 
 to the belt, and designed to fasten the cross-belts. 
 On each side of the center division of thimbles on 
 the back part of the belt are two other buckles, to. 
 fasten the cross-belts on behind. To each division 
 of five cartridges is arranged a little cover for the 
 cartridges, to prevent them from being lost b)- drop- 
 ping out, fastened by a small brass knob, adjusted 
 to the center thimble of each division of cartridges. 
 A strap and buckle, to support the bayonet scabbard, 
 is sewed on inside of the belt on the left side. Cross- 
 belts are attached to the waist-belt, to remove the 
 weight from the waist, and these are so arranged as 
 to carry a blanket and a change of underclothing. 
 
 REGARDANT.— A term use'd in Heraldry with re- 
 
 a Colonel's command, and tlie largest permanent as- 
 sociation of soldiers. Hegiments"'niay be combined 
 into brigades, brigades into divisions" and divisions 
 into armies; but these combinations are but tcinpo- 
 rar}', while in the regiment the same officers serve 
 continually, and in command of the same body of 
 men. The strength of a regiment may vary greatly 
 even in the same arm}-, as each may comprise any 
 number of battalions. French and Austrian regi- 
 ments have ordinarily 4 to 6 battalions. Among 
 British infantry, the "smallest regiments are those 
 numbered from the 26th upward re.xcept the (iOth), 
 which have 000 men each, composing one battalion. 
 The GOth and rifle brigade comprise each 4 battalions. 
 The whole artillery force is comprised in one regi- 
 ment. The strength of a regiment is changed from 
 time to time ; usually by the addition or withdrawal 
 of private soldiers. The present plan would be, in 
 case of war, to raise the skeleton regiment to war 
 strength by calling in men from the arnij' reserve. 
 
 The regimental system could only exist where 
 standing armies are maintained. Accordingly, the 
 Macedonian syntagmata and the Roman "cohorts 
 were evidently regiments in a strict sense. During 
 the Middle Aires, feudal organization precluded the 
 system, and its first reappearance was in France. 
 Francis I. formed legions of 6,000 men each, which 
 were divided into independent companies, the latter 
 being, in fact, battalions, and each legion a regiment. 
 The word regiment began to be applied to bodies 
 of Britisli troops in Elizabeth's reign; regiments are 
 spoken of at the time of the Arniada, 1588, and as 
 composing the force in Ireland in l.'iSW. From that 
 time forward, the army and militia of Britain have 
 been organized into regiments. Charles I. and the 
 parliament each raised regiments, all of which were 
 disbanded at the restoration, with the exception of 
 the Lord General's Regiment of Foot, and his Life- 
 Guard of Horse. Tliese two were re-engaged (1661), 
 and form the present Coldstream Guards and Royal 
 IIorse-Guards. In the same year, a Scotch corps of 
 17O0 men, which had taken service in France in the 
 time of James I., returned to England, and was in- 
 cluded in the British Army as the 1st foot. Other 
 regiments of infantry were gradually rai.sed as re- 
 quired. In 1693 was raised the first troop of horse 
 Grenadier Guards, and the 2d troop in 1702. These 
 were disbanded in 1782, and reformed as the 1st and 
 2d Life-Guards, which still exist. Besides Cavalry 
 and Infantry, the British Army comprises the Regi- 
 ment of Artillery, and the Corps of Royal Engineers, 
 and military train. 
 
 The total Regiments of the British Army for the 
 year 1876-77 (and substantially the same at present) 
 were: 
 
 Life Guards 
 
 Horse-Guards (Blues)..., 
 Cavalry of the Line — 
 
 Dragoon Guards.... 
 
 Dragoons 
 
 Hussars 
 
 Lancers 
 
 Horse Artillery 
 
 Foot Artillery 
 
 Royal Engineers 
 
 Fool (.Tuards 
 
 Infantry of the Line 
 
 Army Hospital Corps .... 
 
 Army Service Corps 
 
 West India Regiments i 
 
 (black troojis) / 
 Colonial Corps 
 
 Regiments. 
 2 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 Officers and Men. 
 868 
 434 
 
 15,973 
 
 Total . 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 110 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 151 
 
 ( 5,633 in 6 brigades. 
 "(29,291 in 26 brigades. 
 
 5,710 
 
 5,!).50 in 7 battalions. 
 119,-183in Ml battalions 
 
 1.574 
 
 3,014 
 
 1,832 in 2 b:ilt;ilions. 
 049 in 1 battalion. 
 
 190,411 
 
 ference to an animal whose head is turned back- Each regiment is nominally commaiKh'd by a Gol- 
 
 ward. Si'i- i'nKKdiil and Jldinpanl. oncl, who is an old Gencnil Officer, ;uid whose office 
 
 REGIMENT.- In all modern armies, a regiment is is merely a sinecure. The real command, however
 
 REGIMENTAL COUKT MARTIAL. 
 
 653 
 
 REOIMEHTAL RECRtnTINO BEHVIOT. 
 
 rests vvilli the Liculciiniit (,'olom'l. ineucli biittiiliriii, 
 who is assisted liy ii Miijor imd 1ms for ii HliifV an 
 Acljiitant,on(' (^iiartcniiastiT.onr I'liyiiiasliT, and i>iii- 
 Siiriicdii. Tlic r('i;iiii.-iil or liallallioii is divided in- 
 to comiiaiiics in tlie Infant ry, En^'ineers, and Army 
 Servi<'c Corps ; and into (rcMjps ir] llic Cavalry. Tliu 
 Artillery is ilivided into ;i(J hrijiades. eiicli of which 
 is as lari;e as an ordinary reifinienl. The brijrade is 
 snhdividi'd into lialleries, wliieli are the workini; 
 units. 'Pile worUini;' olllccr> are Captain and two 
 I.ienleiiants to each infantry company or cavalry 
 troop: .Major, Captain, three LicutcnunlH per battery 
 of artillery. 
 
 The following is the present orirnnization of regi- 
 ments and companies in the I'niled Slates Army: 
 
 i preceding two nionthii after dediiclliig the C'X|K-niu.i< 
 
 ; of the bakiTy. 'I'hiH amount c(msli''i''- "■• ''•'■ »- 
 
 Oil Fund. If private coiilrilnitioii p. 
 
 port of the biind are maile, the Hum re 
 
 not taken iij> in the account eurreul u( tliu Ki-gimen- 
 lal Fund. 
 
 The Ailjulant i.s Treasurer of the Fund for lii»regl. 
 mi'ut. which he dislinrseH on warrants drawn by llii! 
 Colonel or Commanding Odieer. under fpecillc re. 
 solves of the Keginiental Council of Administration. 
 He renders, through the Coloml. periodical relumH 
 of the Htate of the Fund and of the pmperly iiur- 
 cliased therefrom, in the same manniras prescribed 
 for the Post Treasurer, and his accounts arealwayii 
 open to the inspection of the Colomd and Hegimen- 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 ! >< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 u 
 — . 
 
 
 si 
 
 
 
 
 
 1- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 c a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 5 
 
 
 g 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 « 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 SS 
 
 a 
 
 'Si 
 
 0/ 
 
 3 
 
 % 
 
 o 
 '5 
 
 2 
 
 
 ■§. 
 
 
 
 B 1 ^ 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 ►J 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■< 
 
 K 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 U 
 
 (^ 
 
 CCl 
 
 O 
 
 <fi 
 
 C 
 
 H < 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 la 
 
 1?, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Ta- 841 
 
 BjTroop of Cavalry 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 66 60 
 
 '\ 
 
 PH'e roeiiiiifnts of Artillery — each 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 19. 
 
 94 
 
 18 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 525 ."581 
 
 4 
 
 Ijit'^'lil. hatttTv of Vrtillcrv . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 80 HT) 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 in 
 
 2 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 40 44 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1' 1 
 
 
 f) 
 
 Tweuty-five Regiments of Infantry — each. 
 
 505 541 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 50 53 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 200 216 
 
 () 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 50 .")3 
 
 to 
 
 Two Companies— each 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 49 52 
 
 On the organization of a regiment, the batteries of 
 artillery, companies of infiuilry.and troops of ciivalry 
 are permanently designated by letters in alphabeti- 
 cal order. Officers in the first instance arc assigned 
 to these subdivisions, and afterward succeed thereto 
 as jiromoted to fill vacancies. Battalion and parade 
 formations are regulated Ijy the Tactics. The field 
 officers are assigned by their Department Com- 
 manders wherever their services are most required, 
 provi<led the assignment is with troops of their own 
 regiments. Kegiments are furnished with field mu- 
 sic on the requisitions of the coninnuiders, made, 
 from time to lime, direct on the Adjutant General: 
 and, when requested by regimental commanders, 
 the Adjutant General endeavors to have suitable 
 men selected from tl-.e recruits, or enlisted, for the 
 regimental binds. 
 
 Kaeli regiment is supplied with a Regimental Or- 
 der HooU, a Regimental Letter Hook, a book of the 
 Letters Received, ami a Descriptive Rook, to coMl;un 
 a list of the officers of the regiment, with their rank, 
 and dates of appointment, and promotions, transfers, 
 leaves of alisence. .and ])l:ices and dates of birth. 
 
 REGIMENTAL COURT MARTIAL.— A legal tribu- 
 nal, i-iinqiose.l nf iliree Mendiers and a Judge-Advo- 
 cate, convened for tlie punishment of offenders in 
 the army. See Otmrts-MuHud, Judge- Advocate, and 
 
 REGIMENTAL FUND.— Councils of Administration 
 at posts occupied by companies of the same regi- 
 ment at regular meetings, .set aside and cau.se to be 
 paid over to the regimental treasurer fifty per cent. 
 /)f the amoimt accruing to the post fund during the 
 
 tal Council. 
 
 The nmsical instruments and everything pertain- 
 ing to the band are kept by the Adjutant. The 
 Colonel or Commanding Officer, who approves the 
 appropriations of the Council, is held accountable 
 for all expenditures of the fund not made in accord- 
 ance with the Regulations. 
 
 The following are the objects to which the Regi- 
 mental Fund is appropriated exclusively : 
 
 1. The maintenance of a band. 
 
 2. When not needed for the liand, it may be trans- 
 ferred to the companies of the regiment as company 
 fund. See (^"iLjnini/ h'lihd. and l^'mt Fund. 
 
 REGIMENTAL HOSPITAL.— In Great Britain, each 
 regiment has a Hospital for the reception of the 
 sick belonging to it. This Hospital is under tiie im- 
 mediate care of the Regimental Surgeon, who is 
 subordinate to the general .Medical Board. See Ho»- 
 pitnlK. 
 
 REGIMENTAL ORDERS.— Such orders as are issued 
 l)y the ullieer con\nianding a regiment for the infor- 
 niatioirof the ollicers and regiment generally. 
 
 Resimental orders follow up all orders issued by 
 the officer commanding the lirig;ide, gjirrison. sta- 
 tion, etc.. haviuLT nference to the reirinieut. 
 
 REGIMENTAL RECRUITING SERVICE. —The Com- 
 mander of a regiment is the Superintendent of the 
 Recruiting Service for his regiment. When men 
 are enlisted by Regimental Recruiting Otficers. the 
 princii)les governing the general service in regard 
 to qualificalions of recruits are observed. As a rule, 
 recruiting funds are not furnished for the regimental 
 service. "When special authority is given to open a
 
 REGIMENTALS. 
 
 ()54 
 
 REGULAR APPROACHES. 
 
 temporary rendezvous, or detach a party to recruit 
 companies whicli liave become reduced, requisition 
 for funds may be made by the Regimental Com- 
 mander upon tlie Adjutant Genera!. 
 
 To prevent deserters at larsre and men who liavc 
 been discharged with bad character from imposing 
 tliemselves again upon the service, no enlistments 
 are made by company officers, or at posts, without 
 special authority in each case, except when the man 
 has been honorably discharged from the same com- 
 pany or post withui one month previous to his ap- 
 plication, so that his character is known. In all 
 other cases, appli(.ation is made to the Adjutant 
 General for authority to enlist the man— naming him 
 — and, if a discharged soldier, giving liis last com- 
 pany and regiment, and such evidence of good char- 
 acter as can be obtamed. Enlistments, when made 
 under such conditions, may bear the date of the ap- 
 plication. 
 
 REGIMENTALS.— The uniform clothing of officers 
 and men in the military service, as prescribed for 
 each ri'iriment and department. 
 
 REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS.— In the British Army,the 
 Schools for Adults,and Boys above eight 3'ears of age, 
 under the Scliool-master, and the Injfant and Indus- 
 trial Schools under the School-mistress,for girls and 
 little boys. In the first, plain subjects are taught to 
 soldiers who voluntarily attend, or to soldiers' chil- 
 dren. The education is wholly .secular, the only 
 theological teaching being exposition of a portion of 
 Scripture during the first lialf-hour of morning 
 school : but even at this, attendance is at the option 
 of tlie parents. The Infant School is conducted on 
 similar principles. The Industrial School is to fit 
 girls for the occupations of life, and to render them 
 capable of entering domestic service ; a grant of 
 monej^ is made by Government for the provision 
 of materials. There is a school of each sort ,in every 
 l)attalion of infantry or regiment of cavalry, the total 
 cost of which amounts, for 1873-74, to 4:36,253. 
 Adult soldiers are admitted gratuitously ; for chil- 
 dren, there is a nominal charge of Id. each a month. 
 The orphans of soldiers and the children of soldiers 
 serving abroad are received at any neighboring 
 school without payment ; those of pensioners, con- 
 tractors, etc.. at 3d. a montli: and the children ot 
 officers at ."Js. a month. It is forbidden tliat any dif- 
 ference should be made in the schools in the treat- 
 ment of these different classes of pupils. 
 
 REGULAR APPROACHES.— The term Rfgnlar Ap- 
 pviiiii-lim is applied to the means employed by a be- 
 sieging force to reduce a fortified position which is 
 too strong to be carried by the usual mode of an 
 open assaidt. These means consist in approaching 
 the position under the cover of the ordinary trench 
 
 Fig. 1. Proftlt: of Approach l)y tin- .simple Trcuch. 
 
 Ijordered by a parapet, which is gradually pushed 
 forward in the most favorable directions to shelter 
 the troops ]ilaced in it from bulh ciitiladingaiid plinis- 
 ing fires. In the coustniclion of the trenches var- 
 ious articles arc recjuired to give speedy and safe 
 cover, besides the usual trenching tools. These are 
 termed Treru-h MateriaU, and consist of — 1. Tracing 
 Tape f/r (Jord; 2. Traeiii;/ J'/rArtx; 3. Ordinary J'irk- 
 ets; 4. Faxrinrn; H. fiap P'lignU; 4. Gahiuns; Vi. 8ap- 
 rolkrs;(i. Sand-'iagu; 7. /ili/ulagf FnimeK; 8. (lallery 
 Framen and Shieting. The tracing tape is a strong 
 white tape or cord usually 150 feel long, and divided 
 off into spaces of (i f<'Ct. a piece of \n\)v (J inches 
 long being sewed to each point of division. At each 
 
 end of the tracing tape a short piece of cord is at- 
 tached to tie the tape to two tracing pickets. The 
 tracing tape, for convenience, is rolled up into a 
 ball. The tracing pickets are 18 inches long and 
 one inch in diameter. For ordinary use thej' are 
 tied up in bundles with their bark on; but for set- 
 ting out night work the bark should be stripped off 
 to make them more readily seen. Those used for 
 securing fascines are from 2' to 4' long, and from 
 \\" to \\" thick ; those for setting out or tracing 
 the works are 18" long and 1" diameter. The fas- 
 cines are usually made 18' long, and 9" in diameter, 
 and are afterwards cut into suitable lengths for the 
 purposes to which they are to be applied. Sap-fagots 
 are made, like fascines, of straight brush-wood at 
 least 1" in diameter. They are 2' 9" long, and 5" 
 in diameter. The center stake should be from li" 
 to 2" in diameter, and project 9" inches beyond one 
 end of the sap-fagot : this projecting portion is 
 sharpened, to enable the sap-fagot to be planted 
 firmly in the ground in an upright position. The 
 exterior diameter of the gabions is 2', and the height 
 of wattling 2' 9". They are made with seven, or 
 nine stakes, which project G" above the wattling at 
 top. and are pointed. The ordinary trench galiion 
 and the gabion for revetting batteries receive the 
 same dimensions ; the latter is more strongly made 
 and of the heaviest brush wood. At the siege of 
 Sebastopol the want of brush wood for the wattling 
 of gabions led to the introduction of the common 
 hoop-iron for this purpose, which had served to se- 
 cure the bales of hay. The number of pickets em- 
 ployed for each gabion was usually thirteen. It was 
 found that these gabions could be constructed more 
 readily than the ordinarj' kind : that they were not 
 much heavier, were more durable, and in all other 
 respects as serviceable. The sap-roller is a large 
 galiion 7 feet (5 inches in length, and 4 feet 4 inches 
 exterior diameter. It requires for its construction 
 fifteen stakes, each from 1| inches to 2 inches in 
 diameter. After it is completed, it is stuffed com- 
 pactly with fascines 7 feet 6 inches long. The sap- 
 roller is sometimes made of two concentric gabions, 
 the diameter pf the smaller 2 feet 6 inclies. The . 
 space between the two is well stuffed with fascines 
 The sand-bag, for the revetment of batteries, when 
 empty and laid flat, is 2 feet 8 inches long, and 1 foot 
 4 inches wide; those used in the construction of the 
 trenches are 2 feet long and 12 inches wide. 
 
 The trendies are divided into two principal classes; 
 apprnai-hm or boywu; and paralleh. The approaches 
 serve simply as covered communications which lead 
 to and connect the parallels, and are usually directed 
 towards the points of the defenses upon which tlie 
 attack of the besiegers is made. The approaches are 
 run in a zigzag, or in a straight line, towards one or 
 several of these points. The trenches of the ap- 
 proaches are 8 feet wide at bottom; 3 feet 6 inches 
 deep in front, and 4 feet at the rear. The reverse 
 receives a slope of 4.5''. The front is usually made 
 with a slo])e of 2 feet base. The earth from the 
 trench is thrown ti> the front to form a parapet. The 
 general height of this parapet is nearly 5 feet; its 
 width at the liase about 18 feet. The parallels are 
 designed as stations for troops to guard the besiegers' 
 works and the workmen emplojed in their execu- 
 tion from the sorties of the garrison. The general 
 direction of the parallels is parallel to, or concentric 
 with, a line connecting the most salient points of that 
 portion of the defenses attacked. The trenches of 
 tlie ])arallels receive a width at bottom of 10 feet; 
 their depth in front is 3 feet, and in rear. 3 feet 6 
 inches. Two steps. eaclilS iiu'hes high and 18 wide, 
 lead from near the bottom of the trench, on the front 
 side, up to the natural ground. The reverse of the 
 trench receives a slope of 45^; or else, is also cut 
 into two steps. The steps in front arcalone revetted 
 with fascines. 
 
 When the parapet is formed iif earth alone as is 
 represented in Fig. 1, the trench is termed a Simple
 
 REGULARS. 
 
 055 
 
 REODLUB. 
 
 Trench. In this case the earlli of ihr |i;ii;i|iri in 
 allowed t(i luUc its iiiituriil slopi- Ujwiirds liic- Irciicli. 
 The sli']), nr hcriii cif IH JMclic'S l)i-twccii llir |]iini|ii'l 
 anil llii- trench in the parallel, nerves asa l)uni|iielle. 
 I'orlions i)f the i)aralhls, from 20 to DO yarils in 
 lenntli, are arrani;<vl with ste|)s, revetted with fas- 
 cines, leadinfT from the trench over tlw parapet, to 
 enable the troops in the parallil to move from it lo 
 repel a sortie of I he liesie!.'ed. Kij; 'i. The direction 
 (if the simple Ircriih Is laid out liy the Iraciiifj-tape 
 and pi(?kels. The trench is I'xecMleil hy soldiers of 
 tile line; each man lieinn fiirni-ihed willia niik and 
 shovel, with which he places himself speedily iin<ier 
 
 Fig. 2. I'rollli' (it H I'limliel uf ii Slmpli! Trcnrh witli Stopn fur 
 Sortk'M. 
 
 cover, by dis;s"iS '^ \\n\v and tlirowinji the earth in 
 front of hiniV continnini; his labor mitil he has ex- 
 cavated (I feet in leni;th of the trench, and as much 
 of ii to the rear us nniy be assifrned to the relief, or 
 workini; party, to which he belongs. .ifler the 
 trench lias received its ireneral width and (hp'h. tlie| 
 slopes and ste])S are finished olT under llie direction 
 of the eni:inecr troops. See t^iegf 
 
 REGULARS. - 'I'hose troops whose condilionsof en- 
 rollmenl are not limited to time or place, in conlra- 
 dislinetioii to militia or volunteer corps: troops per- 
 manently in service. France first set llie example 
 of keepins; troops in peace. Charles VII , forsceing 
 the dantjer of invasion. authorizeil the assemblage of 
 armed inercenaries. or Coinpagnies D'ordonnance. 
 Louis XI. dismissed th<'se troops but enrolled new- 
 ones, composed of French. Swiss and Scotch. Under 
 C!harles VIII..<iermans were admilled in the French 
 army, and the highest and most illustrious nobles of 
 France regarded it as an honor to serve in the Gens 
 IVarmes. Moral cpialitications not being exacted for 
 admission to the army the restraints of a barbarous 
 discipline became necessary, anil this discipline divi- 
 ded widely the soldier from the people. The French 
 Kcvolulion overturned this system : now no mercen- 
 ary troops are to be found in continental Europe. 
 England only now raisesarmies by the system of Ri- 
 crditem. The last wars of Euroi)e have been wars 
 of the people and have been fouglit by nationalities. 
 After ]>eare, armies remain national. for theirelements 
 are taken from the pc^ople bv legal liberations. 
 
 REGULATION PRICE. This phrase as applied to an 
 Ollieei's Commission, was the regulated |iricc jiaid 
 by Orticers for each step of rank (according to a fix- 
 ed scale), other than death vacancies, vacancies 
 caused by augmenting a regiment, or vacancies re- 
 sulting from the promotions of Colonels to be Major 
 Generals. Whi-n an Otlicer of any rank, from a 
 Lieutenant Colonel downwards, was desirous of re- 
 tiring from tlie service, he was enlilled to sell his 
 <'oinmission for the price stipulati'd l)y the regula- 
 tions. Sometimes, he received more than the regula- 
 tion sum. Purchase being no longer per:nitte(l in 
 the army, the sale of commissions mentioned has 
 only reference to Otlicers wlio entered the army be- 
 fore November 1,1.S71. 
 
 REGULATIONS.— Under the Constitution of the 
 United States, rules for the go^-ernmcnt and regulation 
 of the army must be made by Ccmgress. Hegulation 
 implies regularity. It signities fixed forms ; a cer- 
 tain order : metliod : precise determination of func- 
 tions, rights and duties. Rules Of Hegulation also 
 embrace, besides rules for the administrative service, 
 systems of tactics, and the regulation of service in 
 campaign, garrison, and quarters. In the case of 
 
 the StalT DepartmenlH, lecislalive authority liaH >M-i>n 
 delegated j"intl// to the President and Secretary of 
 War. Hut in relation Iri the powerH, ri|{hlH, and 
 duties of oHli-ersand Holrliern in cunipiilgn, ;;arri»i>n, 
 anil (piarters, (Jonj^cHH liaH not delegated itHaiithitri- 
 ly to the I'ri'Hidenl, nor have hucIi inatters Ix-en 
 preriHely determined liy military Iiiwh. Even righU 
 of rank, cominariil. and pay, concerning wliicli Con- 
 gress has liL'i-laled. are siilijects of dispute, ami 
 variable expositions of laws regulating those eKwnlialu 
 of good government have been given by dilTerent 
 executives, with an increaHing tendency to invalidate 
 rank created by Congress. There can bi- no remedy 
 for these encroachments, unless Congresit HboulU 
 pass a law to enable cases to be broiigtit before tlm 
 Federal Civil Courts, in order that the trneexpoHition 
 of military statutes and authorities in dispute may 
 he determined. With such a remedy, laws, however 
 defective they may be, would at leant be kiir>wn. 
 and rights, jiowers. and duties eHtabiished by law 
 would he well determined. 
 
 But it may be said in relation to such nilcs of 
 regulation, how can a body like Congress determine 
 upon systems of tactics, etc.? Their constitutional 
 duly might easily be performed as follows: I. Hy 
 clearly dcclariu'.'. in a manner not to be niisiinder- 
 stooil. that the <ieneral-in-Chief is charged with the 
 discipline and military control of the army under the 
 rules made by Congress and the orders of the 
 President. 2. The Secretary of War is charged- 
 with the administrative service of the army under 
 the niles made by Congress and the orders of the 
 President. 3. By directing the General-in-Chief, 
 with the advice of properly constituted .Militarj- 
 Boards, to report to the President rules for the 
 government and regulation of the army in campaign, 
 garrison, or quarters, including systems of tactici* 
 for the different arms of the service. 4. By di- 
 recting the Secretary of War, with the advice of 
 ])roperly constituted Boards, to report to the Presl- 
 dent rules for raising and sui)|)orting armies : in- 
 eluding regulations ifor the ailininislrative service. 
 .'). By directing the President to submit ihe rules 
 made in accordance with provisions 3 and 4. to 
 another board organized by the President, with di- 
 rections to harmonize the details of Ihe several 
 reports: which last report shall be siilimitted lo 
 Congress for confirmation or orders in the ease. fi. 
 Uy directing tliat each year, j)revious totlie meeting 
 of Congress, the following Boards be asjiembled 
 under tiie orders of the (ienenil-in-chief, viz. : a 
 "Board of General Staff Officers : a Board of Artillerj- 
 Offlcers : a Board of Cavalry (Officers : and a Boartl 
 of Infantry Officers. The Secretarj- of war to a.s- 
 semble all the following Boards, viz. : a Board of 
 Engineer Otliccrs : a Board of Ordnance Officers ; a 
 Board of Medical Officers: and a Board of (biar- 
 termasters. Commis.saries and Paymasters. Eacli 
 of the Boards so assembled tri report to the General- 
 in-Chief or Secretary of War. such siiggektions of 
 improvements in their respective services as it mavbe 
 desirable to adopt. 7. The repeal of all laws Jele- 
 gating legi.slative authority to the President and 
 f^ecretarv of War. 
 
 REGULATORS. 1. The popular name of a parly in 
 Isorth Carolina, which arose in ITtVS and harl for its 
 object the forcible redress of iiublic grievances. 2. 
 Contrivances designed to render '.iic power and 
 resistance proportionate to each other. Hegulalors 
 generally act upon that point of the machine which 
 commands Ihe supply of the jiower by means of 
 some mechanical contrivances, which chit-k the 
 quantity of the moving principle conveyed to the 
 machine whenever the motion becomes accelerBle<l, 
 and increase the supply whenever it becomes re- 
 tarded. For example. "this is accomplished in a 
 steam-engine by acting on a valve c.nlled the throttle 
 valve, placed in the main pipe. 
 
 REGULUS. — .V term in metallurgy, which i.s now 
 used in a generic sense for metals in different stages
 
 REIGN OF TERROR. 
 
 656 
 
 REINS. 
 
 of purity, but which still retain, to a greater or less 
 extent, the impurities they contained in the state of 
 ore. When, for example, tlie ore known as the sul- 
 phuret of copper is smelted, the product of the 
 different furnaces through wliich it passes is called 
 regulus until it is nearly pure copper. The name, 
 which signities "Little King," was Hrst given by the 
 alchemists to the metal antimon}', on account of its 
 pow.r to render sold brittle. 
 
 REIGN OF TERROR.— The name given to that 
 period in the liistory of France when the Revolu- 
 tionar}- Government, under the guidance of Maxi- 
 milien Robespierre, supported itself b}' the pure 
 operation of terror, exterminating with the guillo- 
 tine all the enemies, or supposed enemies, of the 
 Democratic Dictatorship. In the year 1793 the 
 Convention vested the Government in a "Committee 
 of Public Safety", a body belonging to the Party of 
 the ^Mountain, and of which Robespierre, Couthon, 
 and St. Just became the Triumvirate. This Com- 
 mittee. to which every other authority in the country 
 was subjected, deliberated in secret, and the conven- 
 tion sanctioned all its decrees. Louis XVL had al- 
 ready been brought to the scaffold; and on Oct. 16 
 his Queen, ilarie Antoiuette, after being subjected 
 to every possible indignity, was beheaded; the Prin- 
 cess Elizabeth sharing the same fate on May 10. 
 1794. The execution of the Girondists followed, and 
 that of the Duke of Orleans. The guillotine became 
 the only instrument of Government : a look or a 
 gesture might excite suspicion, and suspicion was 
 death. The Calendar was remodeled, and all reli- 
 gious rites suppressed. When the power of the 
 Committee had attained its climax, a decree was 
 passed abrogating every delay or usage calculated 
 to protect an accused person: but from that moment 
 a reaction began. A section of the Mountain Party 
 were satiated with blood, and, had become impatient 
 of the control of Robespierre. On July 28, 1794, he 
 was denounced in the Convention for his barbarities, 
 and his death brought to a close this sanguinary era 
 in Fix-nch history. 
 
 REIN. — A term applied to a crack or vein in a 
 musket barrel. 
 
 REINFORCE.— The cylinder of a cannon is usually 
 divided into two portions, called the Jirxt and second 
 re'nfi'rn'. The first reinforce extends from the biise- 
 ring to the seat of the ball, and is the thickest part of 
 the piece, for the reason that the pressure of the pow- 
 der is found, both by experiment and calculation, to 
 be greatest before the projectile is moved far from its 
 place. Tlie shape of this reinforce was formerly made 
 slightly conical, under the impression that the pres- 
 sure was greater at the vent tiian at the seat of the 
 projectile; but it is now made cylindrical throughout. 
 For bronze cannon, the thickness of this part is ap- 
 proximately siven bv the empirical formula 
 
 E^=D I I o . in w'hich I> represents the diameter of 
 
 a solid cast-iron shot suited to the bore : f^ the proof 
 charge; and P the real weight of tlic projectile. For 
 cast-iron cannon. A' should be multiplied by tlie co- 
 efficient 1.17. In general terms, the thickness of a 
 bronze gun, at the seat of the charge, is a little less, 
 and of a cast-iron gun a little greater, than the dia- 
 meter of the bore. Tliese dimensions exceed those 
 determin<'d by calcul^ition, but are necessary to en- 
 able the piece to resist the shocks of the piMJeclilc, 
 etc. The second reinforce connects the lirst reinforce 
 with the chase. It is miide considenbly thicker than 
 necessary to resist the pressure of tlie powiler. in or- , 
 der to serve as a proper point of support for the trun- 
 nions, and to compensate for certain defects of metal 
 liable to occur in the vicinity of llie trunnions of all 
 cast cannon, arising from Ihecryslalline arrangement, 1 
 ancl uni-(|ual conling of the diU'erent jiarts. See ('dii- 
 lion . 
 
 REINFORCE-BAND.— In ordnance a band at the junc- 
 tion of the lirst and second reinforce. 
 
 REINFORCEMENTS.— Additional forces; especially 
 those troops intended to augment the strength of an 
 army. History proves that battles have been de- 
 cided by reinforcements, and that victory is com- 
 monly the prize of the General who is the last to 
 bring his reinforcements into action. It was to the 
 proper employment of reserves that Napoleon owed 
 so much of his success; and the barren victory of 
 Borodino and his complete defeat at Waterloo are by 
 many attributed, in the one case to his holding back 
 tlie guard altogether, and in the other to his delay in 
 using it. Jomini and other writers lay down that 
 reinforcements being the last argument on the battle- 
 field should always lie composed of troops of a su- 
 perior kind, but the experience of recent wars shows 
 that, on account of the new tactics which have been 
 adopted since the introduction of arms of precision, 
 all troops, so far as they have not come into action, 
 are reserves to the leader. Reinforcements should be 
 placed near enough to support the troops in action, 
 but the}^ must be kept out of sight, and their position 
 concealed from the enemj'. Their distance from the 
 second line depends entireh' upon the nature of the 
 ground, as well as upon the extent of the ground 
 covered by the line from right to left ; and their 
 strength should consist of abmit one-fourth or one- 
 fifth of the whole force in cavalry and infantrj-, and 
 of about one-third of tlie guns. The reserve batter- 
 ies ma}' eitlier be kept with the main reserve, or con- 
 centrated on any point where their united fire may 
 help to shake the enemy previous to the final attack. 
 In the attack of the fortress, no assault should be 
 attempted without a sufficient reserve, which should 
 be well placed for following the supports of the 
 escalading parties : its strength should never be less 
 than three-fourths of the garrison of the work as- 
 saulted. 
 
 REINFORCE-RING.— In ordnance, a flat molding at 
 the breech end of tlie reinforce. 
 
 REINS.— The straps of a bridle, fastened to the 
 curb or snaffle on each side, by which the rider or 
 driver restrains and governs the horse. They serve 
 to prepare the horse for the movements, to guide 
 and halt him; their action should be gradual and 
 in harmony witli tliat of the legs. In using them 
 the arms shoulil be moved with ease, and from the 
 wrist to the shoulder. The rein-hold will vary with 
 the design of the rider and the propensities of the 
 horse. The drawing shows the usual manner of 
 holding and shifting the reins. In holding them 
 separately, one passes into each hand, between the 
 third and tlic fourth fingers, and out over the fore- 
 
 finger, where it is lield down by the thumb. Usually 
 the reins are held in the left liand. as when first 
 taken up. Here the left rein passes under the little 
 finger, and the right under the tliird, lintli passing 
 tlirough the hand, and tlie supi'rtluims lein hanging 
 over the :irst joint of the fore-linger, the thumb 
 .securing if. Sometimes, the right rein enters the 
 hand over the fore-finger from above and crosses 
 llie left rein in the palm, where the fingers close 
 u))on them. The loop, formed of the residue, hangs 
 down between the hand and body. 
 
 The reins should be shifted (pdckly and expertly 
 without lireaking the time or altering the pace. 
 
 To shift the reins from the left hand: Turn the 
 thumbs well towards each other and carry the right 
 hand over the left ; place the fore-finger of the right
 
 REIS EFFENDI. 
 
 (;')7 
 
 RELOADING CARTRIDGES 
 
 Imnd ilownwaril. ill I lie place (if llir> lillle tin)j;er rif [ 
 I lie lefl liiiiiil, between llie reins; iiihI piisH the rciiiH 
 tlirou^li the ri;.'iit liiiiiil, pliieiiii; the lliiiiiili upon the 
 left rein, near llie secdiid joiiil uf llie fdre-lln^rcr. 
 
 To reliini Iheiii to liie lefl hunil : ( 'arry the lefl 
 liaiiil over the riulil mill place the lillle fliii/er of llie 
 lefl liaiiil ilownwaril lielween Ihe reins; then curry 
 lliein snioollily iipwaril lliroiiirli the liiind, und lei | 
 the cmiIh liaiiLT over Ihe fore-tiii>;er. | 
 
 KEIS EFFENDI. A I il le loniierlyL'iven to un Ollleer 
 of Si ale in Ihe ()l Ionian Km pi re. lie was the Chan- 
 cellorof Ihe Ijnpire, anil .Minister of Koreifin AfTuirs. 
 His iliily in Ihe lirst-nieiilioneil capacity was lo con- 
 fer wilh Ihe (Iranil Vizier ri'.'aiilinf; Ihe orilers anil 
 instructions lo be seiil to the ililTirent Provinces, 
 anil reiiariliiii; Ihe proper decision on any siihject 
 afl'ectini!; Ihe ICnipire, whether internal or external; 
 anil in the latter capacity he had llie sole and exclu- 
 sive charjie of Ihe relalions of the I'orle with Foreign I 
 Courts. I 
 
 REITRF.S.- .V body of armed horsemen. who came 
 out of Oermany and inlerid the Krench service diir- 
 ins the ninii of Henry HI. They were ineorporuted 
 wilh Ihe eiir.ibineers. 
 
 REJOINDER.- In military law, the defendiint's 
 answer to the plaintilt's replicalion. The weight of 
 iiuthority Is against pcrinitting a rejoinder on the 
 part of the prisoner, unless evidence has been ad- 
 duced in the reply of the prosecutor. Hut such evi- 
 dence should not be permitted in reply, and there 
 should be no rejoinder. 
 
 RELAIS. — .V term used in fortification to signify a 
 space, conlaining some feet in breadth, which is be- 
 tween the fool of the rampart and Ihe scarp of the 
 fosse. It serves as a convenient receptacle for the - 
 earth that occasionallv erunibles off. i 
 
 RELATIVE RANK.— The precedence which certain 
 Non-eombalanI ( lllicers and ol hers are entitled to 
 take among llirir coinbatant brelhren; for instance a 
 CommissaryGeneral in thc^ English Army has the rank 
 of Major General. Uilative rank carries with it all 
 precedence and advantages attaching to the military 
 rank with which it corresponds, e.Ncept command, 
 and regulates rates of lodging, money, number of ser- 
 vants, rations of fuel and light (orailowance in their 
 stead), detention and [irizc money. Relative rank 
 does not entille the holilej lo salines from slii]is or 
 fortresses, nor to the turning out of guard. It has 
 lately been determined that the Assistant Jlilitary 
 Secretary at the Horse Guards is to have the relative 
 rank of Colonel. 
 
 The following is the relative rank of Ihe English 
 Navy and Army: i 
 
 JVari/ Army 
 
 Admiral of the Fleet Field Marshal. 
 
 Admirals (ieiierals. 
 
 Vice Admirals Lieutenant Generals 
 
 Rear Admirals Major Generals. 
 
 Captains of the ~| 
 
 f, ^'''''' , ,, ,' Brigadier Generals. 
 
 Commodores, 1st and j '^ 
 
 3d class 
 Captains over three 
 
 years' service Colonels. 
 
 Captains under three 
 
 years' service Lieutenant Colonels. 
 
 C-iinimanders ^ Lieutenant Colonels. 
 
 Lieutenants of 8 years' 
 
 standing Majors. 
 
 Lieutenants under 8 years' 
 
 standing Captains. 
 
 8iib-Lieutenanls Lieulenants. 
 
 Midshipmen Siib-I,ieiitenants. 
 
 In the United States Army and Navy the relative . 
 rank of officers is as follows: 
 
 .1 rmy JViivy 
 
 Second Lieutenant Ensign . 
 
 First Lieutenant blaster. 
 
 Captain Lieutenant. 
 
 Major Licut't Commander. 
 
 Lii'iitenunt Colonel (.'onmiander. 
 
 Colonel Ciipluin 
 
 Brigadier (jenerai Coiiimodore. 
 
 .Major (ienernl Keiir Admiral 
 
 Lieiilenant General Vice AdiiilruL 
 
 General Adminil. 
 
 The ollleers In Ihe Marine CorpH rnr.k with thoHC 
 beariiiL' Ihe -iiiiif liilr- in Ihi- arniy. i^'f Idink. 
 
 RELEASE OF PRISONERS. The Arli<le» of War 
 jirovide that any ollleer wlio preHunicH, without pnj- 
 per authority, to release any prisoner coinmilled lo 
 his charge, or sufTers any prisoner ho comniifteil to 
 escape, shall he punished us u CoijrtMarliul may 
 direct. 
 
 RELEVANCY.— In law, Ihe condilion of a plea 
 which is well founded in point of law. provicled il 
 be Irui- in fact. An objection lo the relevuney cor- 
 responds in many respeels to a demurrer in Kng- 
 lish. 
 
 RELIEF. In fortification, the ^.'enerul Iieiglit to 
 which Ihe works are raised: if the works be gen- 
 erally high and cominanding, they are suid to have 
 i\ hitlil riliif; \i the reverse, a /'/"■ rflirf. The term 
 retiif\s also given to a party of soldiers deluchecl 
 from a guard, who relieve sentries off their jiost on 
 till- i\pir:ition of their term on duly. 
 
 RELIEVER. — An iron ring fixed to a handle, by 
 means of a socket, so as to he at right angles to if. 
 It serves to disengage Ihe searcher of a gun. when 
 one of its points is relained in a hole, and cannot Ix; 
 exlniilid olherw ise. 
 
 RELIEVING THE ENEMY.— Whosoever relievea 
 the enemy wilh money, victuals, or ammiinilioii. or 
 knowingly harbors or protects an enemy, suffers 
 death, or such other punishment as a Court-Marlial 
 may direct. 
 
 RELOADING CARTRIDGES. — In 18C0, when Ihe 
 maniifiii Inn of liii- Mrvice-cartridge was commenced 
 at Fr;inkford Arsenal. Philadelpliia. Pa., little or 
 nothing was known as to how a good reliable mili- 
 tary cartridge could be made. To explain Ihe diffi- 
 culties which had to be overcome at every step, the 
 machines to be invented to do the work uniformly, 
 accurately, and economically, would fill a large vol- 
 ume. It can be said. however, that throu<:h the com- 
 bined efforts of the officersin command of Frankford 
 Arsenal, Philadelphia, and the National Armory, 
 Springfield. JIass., a cartridge was produced which 
 would retlect credit upon any nation. Up lo the 
 present time this cartridge, perfected and slightly 
 modified, has been the service-cartridge for breech- 
 loading small-arms and machine guu.s. Wilh the in- 
 vention and adoption of breech-loading small-arms 
 and metiillic cartridge shells, heavier and more uni- 
 form charges of powder were introduced, giving 
 greater range and accuracy. This was followed by 
 a desire and necessity for soldiers becoming trained 
 marksmen. To meet economically the demand 
 for an increased expenditure of ammunition thus 
 produced, reloading shells were used. Until this de- 
 mand came such shells had not been made lo any 
 extent at Frankford .Vrsenal. although a plan for 
 making them h:id been worked up at that posl.w hich 
 has since been quite generally adopted by all manu- 
 facturers, of reloading shells in this countrj-, and also 
 abroad by several nations, viz.. making a pocket in 
 the headof the shell formed in the continuous melal 
 from which it is drawn, and into which a primer 
 co«ild be inserted from the exterior. Reloading shells 
 have generally been made of bniss. and are iif>w so 
 made to a great extent. This melal pos.sesses sufficient 
 elasticity, but is wanting in durability, as experience 
 has proved. The service non-reloading shell is made 
 of copper with a small percentage of spelter, and 
 has shown durability equal in years to those longest 
 made. 
 
 The reloading cartridges now ftimished to Ihe army 
 are the foUowins : — Frankford .\rsenal, solid head; 
 Lowell, solid heiid : Winchester, solid head : Berdan, 
 folded head. The Frankford Arsenal. Lowell, and
 
 BELOADING CARTRIDGES. 
 
 658 
 
 RELOADING CARTRIDGES. 
 
 Winchester cartridges have a central vent in the 
 primer pocket, which admits of the exploded primer 
 being driven out of the pocket from the empty shell 
 b)' apunch. The Berdan, having no central vent, 
 requires a special tool, applied on the outside, to 
 remove the exploded primer. 
 
 The materials required for reloading comprise 
 lubricated bullets, musket powder, and cartridge 
 primers adapted to the shells to be reloaded. The 
 following comprises a set of Frankfort Arsenal hand 
 tools for reloading cartridges : 
 
 Name. Cost price. 
 
 1 brush wiper -fO 10 
 
 1 charger ",'» 
 
 1 die, crimping .1 On 
 
 1 die, reloading T5 
 
 1 die, resizing 1 1!) 
 
 1 drift : 05 
 
 1 extractor, primer 1 00 
 
 1 funnel 10 
 
 1 mallet IH 
 
 1 oil cup 25 
 
 1 priming tool 1 00 
 
 1 punch, primer 3") 
 
 1 punch, reloading die 2-5 
 
 1 punch, resizing die 35 
 
 1 safety socket 2.5 
 
 1 scraper, sliell 10 
 
 1 setter, primer r 1 2.5 
 
 1 wiping rod 10 
 
 1 box containing set 35 
 
 Total cost of set $ 9 00 
 
 The first operation of reloading is the removal of 
 the exploded primer. For central-vent cartridges 
 this is done by inserting the extractor in the shell and 
 resting the head of tlie latter in the recess for it on 
 the safety-socket, then driving out the primer with 
 
 cleaning, examine the shell to ascertain if it sliows 
 signs of rupture. These may generally be seen at 
 the head, tlie moutli, or as transverse or longitudi- 
 
 nal marks on the body. The shell is next forced in- 
 to the die for resizing, using the mallet if necessarv. 
 
 the mallet. The Bridgeport tool for exterior extrac- 
 tion, sliown in Fig. 1. and specially adipted to the 
 '•Berdan" slu-lls, ma}' be used for all carlridges : but 
 the primer |)unrli for central-vent shells is tlie in<ire 
 simple .'uiil positive in its acti(m. If the wire of the 
 extractor should break, extra ones are sui)i)lied with 
 oach set of tools, and arc put in by unscrewing the 
 plug in the head of the extractor, driving out the 
 broken jiin with the IX'W one in Ihe direction of the 
 head, Ihe hole being tapered, dropping in the new 
 pin at the head, and rc])la<-iiig Ihe screw plug. 
 
 The shi'lls, uiiether old or recently lirrd, should 
 always, if possible. bc' cleaned of the powder ri'sidue, 
 etc., by immersion and agitation in hot water. Cold 
 ■water will clean them, but hot water is a l)etter sol- 
 vent, and the shells ilry more (piickly when taken 
 out of it. When circumstances render it impossible 
 or incoiivenieni to u>c water, the brush wiper miiy 
 he used for brushing out lh<' residuum lefl in Ihe sliell 
 l).v the combustion of powder and fuluiinate. After 
 
 striking fairly and squarely on the head of the shell. 
 
 so as to avoid bending or distorting its flange. The 
 outside of the shell or inside of the die should be 
 oiled to facilitate the entrance of the shell and jire- 
 vent abrasion. It is driven out by means of the 
 punch inserted in the die and shell. This last op- 
 eration is likely to cause a bur on the mouth of the 
 shell, which would deface the bullet if not removed. 
 For this purpose the serajxT is su|iplie(!. Insert it 
 about 0".5 iiilo the shell, held in lefl hand, scraper 
 in right ; give the shell and scra)ier a half-turn in op- 
 posite directions, bearing with tli<' scraper luily linrd 
 e;t'/i/jf/( to take olT Ihe bur. The handle of scraper 
 and axis of shell should be k<'pt nearly parallel lo 
 each other to avoid thinning the moulhof the shell. 
 Although the shell may be fired several limes wilh- 
 out resizing, this operation is considered luri'-iiiiri/ 
 after tiiiii nnind. otherwise the shell will be unduly 
 exp.aiided by successive rounds, and evrnlually fail 
 to enter the gun-chamber: after which the extra
 
 BEMASKS. 
 
 <i.39 
 
 SEHBLAI. 
 
 force required to resize it miglit prove injiirimis to 
 the nx^tiil. 
 
 Tlie shell Ih next Inserted in the l<ui(lin{; die, Ihe 
 primer entered into the poel<el,und the Hiifely Hoekel 
 I)Iiieed over it, lari^e c'nci down; the i)rirner may then 
 fx' driven honii! with llie priiner-pimcli and inullel. 
 <;onsideral)le Iosh of primers liy prenialure explosion 
 in this operation has oeeiirred, ami a tool is supplied 
 for seltins; primers l)y pressure', whieli is \ised as fol- 
 lows: The sIkII is placed in Die tool for insertin<; 
 primers — the primer having; lieen prrvioiislv jnst en- 
 tered iTi the pocket- and the primir presseil honii' 
 by means of the lever and screw. The end of Ihe 
 screw is so formed us to insure the j)rimer lii'iiii; be. 
 low the surface of the head at least 0".(ll).'), Itshoulrl 
 be sliu;litly lubricated to avoid wearof the projection 
 on the end and abrasion of the primer. The Hridge- 
 port tool, shown in Kiir. '2, nuiy also bi- ns<'d to set I 
 the i)rimers of all shellsliut the "I.,owi'll." whiehlias, I 
 intenlioiiully, a jirimer to til Ihe pocket tii;htly. anil 
 reciuires ('(nisidiTalile force for ils proper uisertion. 
 The screw tool will set the "Frankford Arsenal," i 
 '■Herdan," "Lowell," and " Winchester" primers 
 equally well. The shell is now ready for reloadinj;. j 
 It is inserted in the loaded die, the latter into the 
 .safety-socket, and thi' i)owder-fuiuiel into Ihe nioiilh 
 of the die. A level measunful of jtowdcr is then 
 poured into the shell Ihrounh Ihe fuiuiel, after which 
 tlie l)ullel, or shot, is inserti-d an<l driven home with 
 th<' iMuich and mallet until Iheshoulderof the punch , 
 toiK'hes the end of the die. as shown in Fig. 3. This 
 insures proper and uniform leni;th of cartridjrc. j 
 
 The reloadins die may be used as a nauj^e for de- 1 
 terminiuix whether cartridires arc of tlie proper di- 
 mensions for cnterini; the chanibers of j;uns. As a 
 rule, any carlrid^e that will enter Ihe reloaciini; die 
 will enter the chamber of the irun freely. It is, in 
 fact, a combined reloading die and gauge for cart- ' 
 
 Hlioeks in driving home the bullet, an'l It alno Kuidiit 
 the punch in settini; the priiners. Fi);- 4 nbowH tin- 
 liri(l)j;eporl erimpiiij; appiiraliiH. The wiping-rod 
 serves to eliiin out the liore of the diex, etc., by 
 means of cotton waste or a raj; drawn Ihroueh the 
 slot in ils end. Particular can- should bi- liiKen to 
 free the exti-rior of Ihe shell from t'rit or dirt before 
 resi/.iii)^, to protect the die and shell from HeruUlii-N ; 
 also, that neither walirnor oil ^els into the cum- or 
 
 - primer, as either w ill injure or ileHlroy the powder 
 or fulminate. No iri-ini, of oil shoulii be left In the 
 chamber of Ihe (;un or on the eartrid^re, as it would 
 tend to rupture thcMase in llrinu' and al«o lemiionirily 
 disable I Ik' ;^un. A slij^ht amount of bibrieanl on 
 the curtridp- or chandier tliroui;lioiit their lenctli 
 seems to prolong the life of reloailed sIii-IIn. The 
 tendency of thir shells to tear apart appears to be due 
 
 I to their uneijual <'Xpansion in the chamber: the front 
 
 I end beini; Ihiu is more quicklv expanded, and in the 
 absence of the lubricant is hi-[il by prissureand fric- 
 tif>n against the walls of Ihe chamiier. while llii- thick 
 
 I rear end of the shell is forced backward by Ihe preiu 
 sure of the gases. Asa rule, suflleient lubricant from 
 
 j the bullet finds ils way into the chamber to answer 
 all purpo.ses. These tools are made as simple anil 
 strong as possible. Some of llii-m. purlieularly the 
 dies and punches, require to be use! with irreat care, 
 so as not to injure their surfaces or alter llwir dimen- 
 sions, where such would affect Ihe cartridge. Tlie^v 
 are cheap, durable, and cjuile rapid in operation if 
 the work be divided among several operators or be 
 done bj' one person performing each operation sep- 
 arately on a number of shells. Special tools em- 
 ployed in the operations of loading, other than those 
 required for the service cartridges, are noticed under 
 specilic headinjTS. See t'urtrklije, (nrtridijt.hxuUinj 
 Impli iKtiits. and Center-fire .VeUilUf-cwe fartruige. 
 EEMAEKS.— Army lietums. Regimental Retunw, 
 
 Fi!:. 4. 
 
 ridges. To use it as a gauge insert the punch in the 
 small end and the cartridge in the opposite end. If 
 the cartridge enters fully without moving the punch. 
 It is of proper lenglli and diameter. 
 
 When shells are reloailed for immediate use they 
 may be tired after the foregoing operation. But if 
 loaded for storage for any lenglli of time, the crimp- 
 ing die should be used to secure the bullet in position. 
 To i)erform this operation, in.sert Ihe loaded cart- 
 ridge into the die, then set the head in the recess of 
 the safety-socket, the latter resting on a bench or 
 table, and drive the cartridge in with the blows of 
 tlie mallet on top of the die The safety-socket has a 
 central hole concentric with Ihe counter-bore. In 
 extracting the primers it supports Ihe head of the 
 case and forms a receptacle for exploded primers. 
 It also supports tlie head of Ihe shell on opposite 
 ends in the operations of loading and crimping, and 
 tlie central hole protects the primer from severe 
 
 Guard Reports, etc., have a column allotted for ob- 
 servations relative to extraordinar)- occurrences, 
 headed "Remarks." The voucher to Abstract B. 
 page G60. used by Quartermasters, may be noticed as 
 au example. 
 
 BEMBLAI. — The quantity of earth in the ma.ss of 
 rampart, parapet and banquette. In well construct- 
 ed works, the equality between the dt/'iti and retn- 
 A/rt(" is indispensable for everj- part. nay. for everj* 
 face. For works not defiladed, and having therefore 
 their crests horizontal, the following method of cal- 
 culation may be employed, whenever expedition i.s 
 required. Supposing the parapet and the ditch to 
 have the same length and equal profiles, their vol- 
 umes will be equai and the problem becomes thus 
 simplified : knowing the area of the profile of the 
 covering mass, to calculate the dimensions of the 
 ditch so as to make the surface of ils section equal 
 to that of the remblai. Let S represent the an-a of
 
 EEMINGTON LEE MAGAZINE-GUN. 
 
 G60 
 
 REMINGTON REVOLVEB. 
 
 Quartermaster - 
 U. S. Army, at- 
 
 for the period herein e.xpressed. liavina; signed du- 
 plicates hereof. 
 
 Amount 
 of pay. 
 
 Amount 
 
 of stop- 
 
 Amount 
 received. 
 
 
 
 
 pages. 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 Zi 
 
 •2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bl) 
 
 •—• 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 , 
 
 f 
 
 
 CC 
 
 "% 
 
 C2 
 
 A 
 
 a 
 
 S 
 
 -r. 
 
 A 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 o \ 
 
 « 
 
 ■■-> 
 
 O 
 
 (-> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 on my Form 
 
 for tlie moutli of- 
 
 188 
 
 -Quartermaster- 
 
 the section ot the remblai. Wlien earth is excavated, 
 it increases in bulk, and whatever care be taken in 
 ramming it in, the volume it occupies in the remblai 
 will be greater than the space it tilled in the deblai 
 this increase of bulk, called /"isonnement, is J in 
 strong soil, ^^ in ordinary soil, and ^'^ in sand. Re- 
 present it by 1-f-F and let the area of the profile of 
 the ditch ^ S'; then, we have 
 
 S' S. F 
 
 S = S' -| , whence S'= 
 
 F 1+F. 
 
 When the work is defiladed by an increase of com- 
 mand at the salients, it becomes- necessary to ob- 
 tain the mean profile: this is done by calculating the 
 areas of the profiles at the salient and at the extrem- 
 ity of the face, and taking their mean 
 
 KEMINGTON-LEE MAGAZINE-GUN.— This arm is 
 the same in jirinciple as the one previousl}' described 
 in this work, untler the head of l^ee Magiiziiie-gini. 
 Since E. Kemiugton &, Sons have secured the exclu- 
 
 that the trigger is pulled. By referring to the Fron- 
 tispiece we can see that when the bolt is closed the 
 position of the handle is directly above tlie trigger. 
 The bolt has also a removable front end or ■' head." 
 This allows the firing-pin and main-spring to be put 
 into it from the front end. so that the rear end where 
 tJie handle is now attached is very much stronger 
 than the old bolt, as no cutting has to be made for 
 the key-sleeve, F, shown and described on page 193 
 of this volume, that piece being now discarded. 
 
 A dillerent method is also emplo3-ed in fastening 
 the firing pin, C.to the thumb-piece or cocking-piece, 
 E, by a locking-nut, T. 
 
 The magazine is made of one piece of metal, in the 
 sides of which are depressions having certain curva- 
 tures and angles, which form projections on the inside 
 for the guidance of the follower upon which the car- 
 tridges "rest, so that they shall each be presented 
 in their turn to the center of the borj of the barrel. 
 The lugs on the rear end of the top of the magazine 
 are extended forward a sufflcieut distance to prevent 
 the cartridge from rising above the bore, and also 
 prevents their es<'ape from the magazine wh( n it is 
 detached from the piece. The quadruple-leafed 
 spring, N, shown on page 192, is substituted for a 
 coileil one, which is much simpler and more effec- ' 
 live. 
 
 B}- the use of this improved magazine, that part 
 of the receiver which projects above and in the rear 
 of the chamber known as the "overhang," is re- 
 moved.^making a larger opening for the introduction 
 of a cartridge, when the arm is used as a single 
 breech-loader. See Lie ildgazinc-guii. 
 
 REMINGTON REVOLVER.— This revolver is a mod- 
 ification of the Colt revolver. As the hammer Is 
 cocked a hand, which is pivoted to its lower por- 
 tion, rises and engages the ratchet on the base of the 
 cylinder and causes it to revolve. A stop-bolt engages 
 tiie stop notches in the surface of the cylinder to 
 Ijrevent the momentum of the cylinder from carry- 
 ing it past the firing point. It disengages from them 
 under the action of a hammer cam, which, rising 
 during the cocking of the hammer, presses up the 
 rear end of the boTt and liberates its front end from 
 the notch. When the revolution is about complete, 
 the beveled lower surface of the hanuner cam comes 
 opposite the point of contact on the bolt. At this 
 moment the tail of the bolt (being slit so as to have 
 a lateral spring, and the head being pressed upward 
 by a flat spring, slides down over the inclined 
 surface of the cam, and the head engages the stop- 
 notch in the cylinder. The spring is slit and bent 
 so as to act upon both the liolt and the trigger. The 
 drawing shows the general a))pearance of the Kem- 
 
 sive right to manufacture and sell the Loo Magazine- 
 giui they have inlniduceil several valuable improve- 
 menls, among which liiay be inentiouid the change 
 of the handle of the bolt from the middle position to 
 the rear end. This greatly facilitates the rapidity 
 ■with which the arm can be fired, as I lie hand can 
 keep its hold on the bolt-handle at tlie same time 
 
 ington revolver, as at present made. The very nu- 
 merous advantages or improvements claimed for 
 the Kemiugton revolver, as compared with the Colt 
 arm are the use of a light base pin, which can be with- 
 drawn by loosening its catch, and thus allowing the 
 removal of the cylinder; the inlroiliiclion of the 
 ejector frame, fas'tening to the barrel by a small
 
 REMIHGTON RIFLE. 
 
 (i(i 
 
 KEMIBSIOir 
 
 screw anil lo lln' frame by a dowel-pin, IvHRcniiig 
 
 the liiiliilily of luciilciitiiUy Iciiriti^j; the ejeotiiij; hvh- 
 tem fnjrii lh(r barnl; the cdiliii}; (if thcejcetor Hpriii); 
 urounil I lie Imsc-piri iiistriiil nf nrduiicl the cjiT-lor; 
 the fuel thiit the hull (if Uic l{criiiiii;i(in is forjjed 
 solid with thi^ pi.Hldl friiine. Jt i» also eliiiiiied tliiil 
 tlie pistol has n neater appearance than the Colt. 
 iivf I 'lilt li)'ridi-er. 
 
 REMINGTON RIFLE. The mechanical conslriic 
 tion (if Ihc lirccch-HyHlcm of the Ucniiiiiflnii arm is 
 l)lainly shown in the accompanyin;; drawini;. cxhih- 
 itini; the system with hreccli-hjork and hammer 
 open and in jxisilion for loadiie,'. The simplicily of 
 Ihc syslcm, Ihc lnrj,'cncss of ilsparls.and Ihcirpccn- 
 liarly natural operation, it is tlioiij;lil. avoid the ne- 
 cessity of more elaborate and distinct ilhistnilion. 
 The receiver, comjjoscd of frame and unard-strap 
 (AA), is a substantial lionsinij; of wroufjht-iron, case- 
 hardened, tiic sides of which are .'iH inch in thick- 
 ness. Tills frame, coiitainin;; thi^ lock and action, 
 is closed at thebollom by the uuard-strap, which is 
 (irmly secured in its jilaccby two screws. The butt- 
 slock is morliscil for the reception of the end of 
 the guard-strap (lower \), and tang of frame (upper 
 A), tenoned into the receiver, and fastened by a 
 
 thus, by a very InKcnioiiii construction, nuwJc t<> 
 Hiihserve the (Uiublu purprxie uf guard-Htrap anci 
 loek-plute. 
 
 The extractor work» in a rece»H cut in the left in- 
 teriorof the chumlier, and \» o|Mrrated by nieanM of 
 a projection on its lower face, which enguges willi 
 the shoulder of the breech-block, ho that the act of 
 Hwingiiif; back the block viry readily withdruuK the 
 empty cartridge-ease by an entirely ponilive motion, 
 indepc-ndenl of spring or indirect agent, a mode of 
 extraction distingiiislii'd for its Nimpllcity, xmootlu 
 nesM, and ecrlainly of operation. The llring.pin 
 works through the bri'ech-bloek. It is forced 
 against the primer by the sudden shock of the 
 hammer, which is imparled IhrouKh the direct 
 action of the strong anil very slightly-curved main- 
 spring, so that a mislire is impossible with carl- 
 ridges properly mad<' and fitted to Ihi' clianiber. 
 
 The operation of this arm is I'snecially Himple. 
 To load the piece, I he hammer is llrst brought to 
 full cock, and the breech-piece swung back by 
 ])ressing the thumb-piece with the thumb of the 
 right hand. The backward motion of the breech- 
 block withdraws the discharged shell from the 
 chamber, and if this muliou is executed quickly. 
 
 tang-acrew passing through the stock vertically from 
 tang to guard-strap. The front part of the receiver 
 is the chamber, 1^ inches in length, into which the 
 barrel is screwed. The fore-slock is secured to the 
 barrel by a recoil-stud upon the under side of the 
 latter. The constituent parts of the action are the 
 breech-block (B) and pin (b); hammer (C) and pin 
 (b): main-spring (a) and screw : trigger (C), trigger- 
 spring (e) and screw ; locking-h^ver (D), locking- 
 lever spring (d), and screw ; tiring pin and screw. 
 The extractor engages in a slot in the shoulder of 
 the breech-block. The end of the ramrod screws 
 into a ramrod-stud. The breech-block and ham- 
 mer are solid pieces of line steel, (ii)- lot) of an inch 
 thick, pivoteii upon pins of the same material 4ii-100 
 in diameter. These pins pass entirely through the 
 sides i>f the frame, and are held in place by the but- 
 ton screwed on to its left exterior side. The main-' 
 spring, trigger-sjiring, locking-lever, and the locking- 
 lever spring are all of the very tinesi ([uality of relin- 
 ed steel, the springs having the simplest possible 
 curves, and the action of the main-spring upon the 
 hammer being direct. The function of the locking- 
 lever is two-fold, one of its otlices being to lock the 
 trigger, so that it cannot escape from its notch in 
 the tumliler, when the breech-block is opened, and a 
 second to secure the breech-block when closed by 
 the force, directly transmitted, of the lever-spring 
 (d). It should be remarked that the whole of the 
 lock work of this system, with the exception of the 
 hammer, is attached to the guard-strap, which is 
 
 with the muzzle of the .arm slightly elevated, the 
 case will fall out without uecessitating the use of 
 the fingers. The fresh cartridge is then inserted, 
 and the breech closed in one continuous motion. 
 The arm is then ready to tire. fSee llephurii-Iiem- 
 iw/t'i/i Hille and K" iit-I!i iiiiiiqt"ti .\t'iiimin(-gun. 
 
 REHINOTON THREE BARRELLED BIFL£.--Agun, 
 recently designed by Mr. G. 1{. Uemington and tested 
 with very satisfactory results. It has a fixed cham- 
 ber closed by a movable breech-block. which rotates 
 about a horizontal axis at 90'' to the axis of the bar- 
 rel, lying below the axis of the barrel and in front. 
 The locks complete are contained in I In- breech-block, 
 which being lowered out of the way by the lang on 
 its lower end, permits the insertion of the cartriilges 
 into the chambers throusih a perforated extractor 
 plate. This plate l)eing moved by the arm on the 
 pivot of the breech-block, withdraws the empty 
 shells when the block is fully opened. A weak 
 spring-catch in the slock holds up the tang of the 
 breech-block when the piece is closed, and aflonU 
 the only means of locking it. 
 
 REMISSION. — Abatement : forgiveness. Remission 
 of punishment. as regards a soldier tried by a Comt- 
 Marlial, is in the power of the confinning authority, 
 and he can at any time remit any portion of the sen- 
 tence at discretion. The periodical visitors of mili- 
 tary prisons have the power of recommending re- 
 missiim of punishment. AVhen a prisoner contincd 
 in a military prison is recommended for a remission 
 of punishment by his commanding ot]icer,tlie recom-
 
 REMONSTRATE. 
 
 662 
 
 REPOSITORY. 
 
 mendation should be submitted for the approval of 
 the periodical visitors. 
 
 Though a soldier's punishment may have been 
 wholly remitted, there is to be no remission of any 
 penalty consequent on his conviction, such as forfeit- 
 ure of service, good-conduct pay, etc. 
 
 REMONSTRATE.— To urge strong reasons against 
 the instructions given by superior authority. If an 
 officer or soldier considers himself aggrieved on any 
 point, he is permitted to represent his case, but it 
 must be done in a respectful manner through his 
 commanding officer to higher authority ; at the same 
 time, where the duty of the service may require it, 
 that duty must be first carried out with cheerfulness 
 and alacrity. 
 
 REMOUNT.— To furnish the cavalry with horses in 
 the room of those which have been killed, disabled, 
 or cast. 
 
 REMOUNTS. — The name given to horses that are 
 passed into the government service by purchase for 
 artillery or cavalry purposes, or which are reared in 
 astud,asiu India. The general age of remounts 
 varies from 3 to 5 years old. 
 
 RENDEZVOUS.— A place appointed for a meeting ; 
 especially for the assembling of troops. The term 
 commonly denotes a place for enlistment. 
 
 RENEGADE.— A term applied to one who deserts 
 from a military or naval post. 
 
 HENNEN.— A kind of tilt. A description of tour- 
 nament practiced at the close of the r2tli century. 
 
 REPAIR OF ARMS.— The keeping in constant good 
 order tlie dilfcrent fire-arms belonging to a troop or 
 company, such as rifles, etc. In the British Army a 
 half-yearly allowance is made to Captains of troops 
 and companies for this purpose. In the United States 
 service the cost of repairs of damage done to arms, 
 equipments, etc., through negligence of an officer or 
 soldier, is deducted from the pa}' of said officer or 
 soldier. 
 
 REPEATER. — Any fire-arm that may be discharged 
 many times in quick succession ; especially a form 
 of fire-arm so constructed that the charges may be 
 successively introduced, by an action of the lock, 
 from a chamber containing them, into the breech, 
 and fired, or are discharged from a revolving cham- 
 ber at the breech. See Magazine-gun, and Remher. 
 
 REPLEADER.— In English law, a right to plead 
 again, or deliver a fresh pleading in consequence of 
 the issue which had been joined not meeting or 
 exhausting the real point in dispute. This right is 
 much abridged, in consequence of the liberalitj' now 
 used in amending the record. 
 
 REPLEVIN. — In English law, a form of action by 
 which goods which have been seized under an illegal 
 distress are taken back (security being given to the 
 amount for which tlie goods were distrained), and 
 the action of replevin commenced, to try the legality 
 of the seizure. 
 
 REPLICATION. — In common law, the ijleading of 
 the plaintiff in answer to the defendant's ])lea. The 
 ])laintiirs first pleading is the declaration, which is 
 answered byllie defendant's plea, and wliichinturn 
 is answered by the plaintitl's replication. 
 
 REPLY. — it is the duty of a Court to prevent new 
 matter from being introdmcd into flic ])rosecution 
 or defense, but a prisoner may urge in his defense 
 mitigating circumstances, or examine witnesses as 
 to character or services, and ))r(idu(:e testimonials of 
 such facts, without its being considered new matter. 
 If any point of law be raised, or any matter requir- 
 ing e.\i)lanation, the .ludgc Advocate may exi)lain. 
 No other reply is to be admitted. 
 
 REPORT. — i. A loud noise, such as that made by 
 the discharge of a cannon or nuisket. The distance 
 at wliicli cannon can he heard dejiends on the wind 
 and the state of the atm(js])here, also whether con- 
 veyed over water, which considerably increases the 
 distance to which sound can reach. During the 
 Sutlej campaign in 184.5-4''., the report of the guns 
 at the battle of Soliraon was very distinctly heard at 
 
 Loodianah, a distance of 80 miles. But the report 
 
 of cannon, it is stated, has been heard at far greater 
 distauces. 
 
 2. A statement of facts when any officer or sol- 
 dier is accused of a breach of military discipline. 
 A report is usually made b\' stating on paper, in 
 official form, by the officer making the report, the 
 nature of the case, for the information of the Com- 
 manding Officer. In a regiment this is done through 
 the .\djutant. 
 
 REPORTS.— Specific statements of any particular 
 occurrences. Officers or men making written re- 
 ports are required to sign them, specifying the regi- 
 ment to which they belong, and their rank. All 
 field officers not serving at the headquarters of their 
 regiments make monthly reports to their regiment- 
 al Comnumders. These reports embrace everything 
 essential to a correct record of their services. The 
 number, date, and source of authority of every or- 
 der affecting their duties is stated, with the date of 
 its receipt, their execution of its requirements, and 
 the time they were so employed. The date of de- 
 parture of a field officer from his post or station, 
 whether on leave or on duty, as well as the date of 
 his return to his post, is in all cases specified. 
 
 Officers on detached duty report, monthly, to the 
 Commanders of their Posts, of their Regiments, or 
 Corps, and to the ^Adjutant General, their stations, 
 the nature of their duties, and the authority placing 
 them thereon — likewise each change of eiddre^a. All 
 officers doing duty iu the Quartermaster's Depart- 
 ment are required to make out and forward to the 
 Quartermaster General, on the first day of each 
 month, a personal report, giving their post-office ad- 
 dress, and a statement of the duty on which they 
 have been employed, since their last report. On the 
 first day of each month the officers of the Subsistence 
 Department report by letter to the Commissary Gen- 
 eral their stations and duties during the preceding 
 month. This letter is required from Commissaries 
 of Subsistence only, and not from officers acting as 
 such. Ever}' Medical Officer reports to the Surgeon 
 General and to the Medical Director the date when he 
 arrives at a station, or when he leaves it, and the 
 orders under which he acts. At the end of each 
 month he sends a personal report to the Surgeon 
 General, giving his post-office address for the next 
 month, and a statement of the duty upon which he 
 has been emplo}ed, or if on leave of absence, since 
 his last report. 
 
 Company, Post, and also Regimental Commanders 
 make a report annually, on the first day of July, 
 through the usual military chaimel, of any officers 
 imder their command who, by special aptitude or 
 study, are notably well fitted for any branch of ser- 
 vice, science, or art, either civil or military. Such 
 reports give full particulars of qualifications and pre- 
 paration. This information is useful to the General 
 of the Army in making details and selections for 
 duty. The date of appointment, of detail, and of 
 removal of all Staff officers, or of officers selected for 
 duty in Staff Iic])artmenfs, which may entitle them 
 to receive additional pay, is innnediately reported 
 by the officer making such appoiiUnunt, <letail, or 
 remov.-il. to the Adjutant ticneral, and to the I'ay- 
 master of the Deiiartment, or cimunand to which 
 such officers belong. Whenever a change takes 
 place in the position or location of troojis, the fact 
 is imnu'diately reported by the Conunanding Officer 
 to (icniral. Division, or Departuu'iit Ilcadiiuarlers, 
 specifying the dale of di'parture of the whole or any 
 part of tlie troo])s, or of the arrival of any detach- 
 meut, as well as all cither circumstances connected 
 with such changes in the c<immand. These special 
 reports are always accompanied by an exact reluni 
 of the troops according to tlu' established jirinted 
 forms. A similar report i:-* noted on the next 
 ifTonlhly return of the Post or Station. 
 
 REPOSITORY. A museum, or place of deposit of 
 musters nr the samples of the different arm.s, tools.
 
 BEFRIEVE. 
 
 003 
 
 REQUISITION. 
 
 stores, elf., used in the servirp. The rcpusilory iil 
 Wocilwicli forms a Mclioril nf iiiHtPtictiini for tmlli 
 oflic'crs mill iiicii on lirsl joiniiij; llic iirlillcry, iilid in 
 interi'slinj; and instniclivc In all ranks in tlio regi- 
 ment. 
 
 REPRIEVE.— The s\is|>cnsi(m of punislimriil for a 
 criini', lUHJ is used rliirllv in connection with capital 
 crimes. The jiower of siispi^ndint' all siiilences at 
 anytime is vcsleil in llie Crown al discrclion. There 
 lire also several grounds on wliich Ihe .lud;;e or a 
 (lourt reprieves the sentence. The I'rrsidirit of the 
 I'nited Slates lias power to grant reprieves and 
 pardons for ofTenses against the United States, 
 except in cases of impeailiincnt. 
 
 REPRIMAND.- rebuke, which is inclnded intlie 
 army under the liea<l of punishments. Courts- 
 Martial only inllict it on oltii-ers. in which case it 
 maj' be either a simple rciirimanil or a severe repri- 
 mand, and may, at the discretion of the Conlirming 
 Otficcr. be ailministered privately or publicly. 
 
 REPRISAL.— The retaking, from an enemy, goods 
 which he has seized, or the capture from him of 
 other goods, as an equivalent for the damage he has 
 wrought. A reprise is a ship caiitiired from an 
 enemy or pirate. If recaptured within 24 hours of the 
 hostile seizure, she must lie wholly n'slored to her 
 owners ; if later, she becomes the lawful prize of 
 her reeaptors. Ueprisals form \hv worst features of 
 warfare, and are seldom resorted to in conflicts be- 
 tween civilized nations, or, at least, should not be. 
 
 REPROACHFUL, OR PROVOKING SPEECHES— The 
 Articles of War declare that no ollicer or soldier 
 shall use any rejiroachful or provoking s]ieeclies or 
 gestures to another. An}' otticer who so olTends 
 shall be put in arrest. Any soldier whoso oflends 
 shall be confined, and required to ask pardcm of the 
 party offended, in the presence of his Commauding 
 Officer. 
 
 REPUBLIC. — A political community in which the 
 sovereign power is lodged, not in a hereditary 
 chief, imt either in certain privileged members of 
 the community, or in tlie whole community. Ac- 
 cording to the constitution of a governing body, a 
 Republi<- may therefore vary from the most exclu- 
 sive Oligarchy to a pure Democracy. The several 
 Republics of Greece, and that of Home were, at the 
 outset at least, aristocratic communities. The Me- 
 diiBval Republics of Venice, (ienoa, and the other 
 Italian towns, were also more or less aristocratic. 
 The sovereign power was held to be vested in the 
 franchised citizens, and every function — legislative, 
 executive, or judicial — not exercised directly ijy that 
 body could only be exercised by parties deriving 
 their authority from it. But the extent of the fran- 
 chise, and the mode of exercising it. varied much in 
 these civic communities ; and the most prosperous 
 
 and lonR-livert wan Venice which .%..i ... i. ilic 
 
 most aristocratic: of them all. In the I'lth vinUfty 
 the seven I'rovinces of lh<- .NelherlandH, on their re- 
 volt from Spain, adopted ii Repiililican form of (Jov- 
 cmnienl, as did Switzerland on becoming indejH-nil- 
 ent of Ihe <ii-rman Km|)ire. (Jreal lirltain wu" nomi- 
 nally a l{epul)lic for eleven years ffrom \<'A'.i to 
 KiHO). France was a Republic from I Tim to IWVi, 
 an<l Uitm 1m4n to \x't'.\: ami tin- Republic wuHiiL'ttln 
 proclaimed Sept. 4. 1H70. SiKli government hm 
 Spain hail between Keli. 187i(, mid iJec. IJI. lK74,wnK 
 of a true Republican form. Switzt-rland is also a 
 Republic ; since IK4H more dernocratii- than for- 
 merly. The other Republics of Kiiropi- are the di- 
 minutive Slates of San Marino and Andorra : and, 
 in certain respicts. Ihi' frei' lilies of Hamburg. Ure. 
 men, and Lllbeck. The most important of nioilem 
 ■{(•publics is that of Ihe I'niled States of America — 
 dating from its separation from tJreut liritain — 
 where pure Democracj- liiw been tried on a scale un- 
 known elsewhere. Except during the ohort-lived 
 Kmpire from 1H(',;{ 07. Mexico bus lieen a Republic 
 since 1824. Nine Republics at present exist in South 
 America — Peru, Chili, Paraguay, Bolivia, Colomliia 
 or new (iranada. Venezuela. Kcuador, I'raguay.und 
 the Argintine Confederation. In the Republics of 
 the ancient world, the franchised dasscg exercLwd 
 their [lower directly witlioul any system of dele- 
 gation or representation. The same was at first the 
 case in the Swiss Cantons where, however, repre- 
 sentative government has been gradually inlroduccd. 
 Jlodern Republics have been founded on the repre- 
 sentative, not the direct, system, which can hardly 
 exist except in a community that is very small and 
 concentrated as to space. Switzerland and the 
 United States of America are Federal Republics, 
 consisting of a number of separate States bound to- 
 gether by a treaty, so as to present to the external 
 world the appearance of one State with a central 
 Government, which has the power of enacting laws 
 and issiiini; orders which are directly binding on the 
 individual citizens. 
 
 REQUA BATTERY.— A kind of mitrailleur, having 
 twenty-live barrels arranged horizontally. It was 
 used at the siege of Charleston in 18(53. Its weight 
 complete is 1,382 pounds. 
 
 REQUEST COURT.— A local Court assembled period- 
 icallv ill Inilia for the recovery of small debts not ex- 
 ceediiig 400 rupees. In each militar)' cantonment, 
 a Court of Request is assembled monthly, and all 
 persons are amenable to it except soldiers in Ihe 
 ranks. Not less than three officers, all militarj- men 
 should form the Court. 
 
 REQUISITION. 1. This term, in international law. 
 besiiles meaning the demand made by the Authorities 
 of one Nation or State upon those of another for the 
 
 Requisition for Stationery' for— - 
 • the day of 
 
 stationed at 
 
 188 — , and ending on the 
 
 . for the — 
 — day of • 
 
 . commencing on 
 188 :. 
 
 
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 C- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • cu 
 
 
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 00 
 
 b. 
 
 S 
 
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 O* 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Si ! 
 
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 XI 
 
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 CO 
 
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 C3 
 
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 3 
 
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 *5 
 
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 S 
 
 c?* 
 
 c 
 
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 t« 
 
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 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 C3 
 
 
 
 
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 in 
 
 
 
 t« 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 
 
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 S 
 
 
 
 H^ 
 
 IM 
 
 m 
 
 
 O 
 
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 £ 
 
 
 c 
 
 -r 
 
 - -r = TS 
 
 
 — CO 
 
 5 I s 
 
 ^ < a 
 •i I J 
 
 I certify that the above requisitinn i> 
 the time specified. 
 
 correct, and that I have not drawn stationery for any part of
 
 KEEEWAED. 
 
 664 
 
 EESI6IT. 
 
 rendering up (or extradition) of an alleged criminal, 
 iiused also in the rules of war as nearly synony- 
 mous with the word " Contribution." The distinc- 
 tion made is that a Requisition is a demand upon 
 the people of an invaded country to furnish such 
 things as provisions, forage, transportation, or even 
 labor ; while a Contribution is a payment in money 
 to provide for the needs of the military or civil 
 government established. The former term, how- 
 ever, is generally used to cover all demands iipon 
 the people of tlie conquered country. It is now 
 well settled that the rights of private citizens should 
 be respected and their property secured from pil- 
 lage. It is the rule of most civilized nations that 
 supplies or labor demanded should be paid for after 
 the war, and receipts given at the time. This is the 
 principle laid down in the Instrtirtionsfor Vie Ar- 
 mies iif the iTiiited states in the Field. It was former- 
 ly the usual practice to inflict severe requisitions in 
 the way of fines on an offending district or town as 
 a penalty. It is now generally agreed that such 
 measures are rarely justifiable, and are of little prac- 
 tical benefit to those who employ them. 3. Forms 
 prescribed for the demand of certain allowances. 
 Ou page 6(33 will be seen the form of Requisition for 
 Stationery. 
 
 EEEEWAED. — The part of an army that marches 
 in the rear, usually the guard; the rear-guard. 
 
 EESEEVE.— Tlie reserve of a Nationals that force 
 upon which the national defense is thrown, wlicn its 
 rt'gular armies have failed in securing its safety. 
 This reserve may be the levee en mmm of the whole 
 adult male population, or it may consist of a smaller 
 section of the people dulv trained to arms. The 
 latter is, of course, the preferable system, when the 
 arms of scientific modem warfare are to be brought 
 into action. In different countries the reserves are 
 organized on very different principles. In Great 
 Britain they comprise the Armj' Reserve, the En- 
 rolled Pensioners — both of which consist of soldiers 
 who have served in the army — the Jlilitia, Yeomanry, 
 Volunteers, and trained Constabulary. Tlie numbers 
 of the reserve forces provided for in the Army Esti- 
 mates of 1876-77 were as follows: 
 
 Militia 139,619 
 
 Yeomanry Cavalry l.'>,078 
 
 Volunteers 168,750 
 
 Army Reserve force (including Enrolled 
 
 Pensioners) first-class 10,000 
 
 second-class 21,000 
 
 354.447 
 Of the volunteers, 31.823 were Artillery Volun- 
 teers, 36G Light Horse, 6,3!).'5 Engineers. 139 Mounted 
 Rifles, l,4oH Permanent Staff, and 128.669 Rifle Vol- 
 unteers. 
 
 The scheme of array reorganization, which has 
 been carried out during the past few years, has had 
 a very important bearing on the reserve forces. In 
 1870 it was attempted, by modifying somewhat the 
 <'onditions of enlistment into the regular army, to 
 make the provisions for securing and maintaining a 
 numerically strong Army Reserve more efficient tlian 
 they had hitherto been. Enlislment continued as 
 liefore to be for twelve yeais; but service in regi- 
 ments going abroad was to be for si.v years, while 
 the remaining six years' servit'C was to lie in the Re- 
 serve, the men being liable to be called out like the 
 Naval Reserve, and receiving a jiay of 4d. a day. In 
 1H76 men commenced to pass from the Colors into 
 the Reserve, which is expected ultimately to reach 
 about 80,(100 men. I'y an Order in Council of March 
 31, 1H71 , the iKiwer of (he I;(ird Lieutenant ceases, 
 and the management of the ItesiTve Foreis in coun- 
 ties is vested in the Miiiislers of the Crown. 
 
 One of the objects cliietly kejit in view in the com- 
 prehensive scheme of 1H72 for the reorganization of 
 the army was the bringing of the Auxiliary Forces 
 into closer and more niiilually helpful relations with 
 the regular army. The main feature of that scheme 
 
 is the localization of the combined military forces in 
 certain territorial districts, so that there shall belong 
 to eacli such district two Line Battalions, two Militia 
 Battalions, and Volunteers, formed into an Adminis- 
 trative Brigrade, the whole to rest on the Brigade 
 Depot as center. Arrangements were made to secure 
 that a larger number of officers of the line regiments 
 should pass into the Militia and the Yeomanry, and 
 that the efficiency of the Reserve should increase. 
 Tlie aim of the measure was "To unite the spon- 
 taneity and all the other advantages of the Auxiliary 
 Forces with the highest amount of training that the 
 Regular Army could furnish to any other body of 
 men." 
 
 EESEEVE AMMUNITION.— This term is applied to 
 the supply of war aminunilion carried in rear of an 
 army for replenishing men and guns with fresh am- 
 munition in case the first supply failp. 
 
 The reserve ammunitinn of a regiment is carried in 
 carts, one for the cavalrv' and three for the infantry. 
 These carts can carry 9,600 rounds each of Martini- 
 Henry or 8,960 rounds of Snider. In the artillery, 
 there are three reserves of ammunition. The first 
 (108 rounds per 9-pr. and 72 per IC-pr. gun) is that 
 contained in the second line of wagons of each bat- 
 tery ; the second(44 per 9-pr. and 108 per 16-pr. gun) 
 is conveyed in the artillery general service wagons, 
 and should be always up with the army, but kept 
 from under fire Tlie third reserve is carried by the 
 transport, and contains 200 rounds per 9-pr. gun and 
 200 per 16-pr. gun, and remains at one or two days 
 march in rear of the army. The above number of 
 rounds, with those with the battery, makes up 500 
 rounds ])er 9-pr. gun, and 4h0 rounds per 16-pr. gun. 
 EESEEVE MILITIA.- A portion of the Militia. A 
 certain number not exceeding the fourth part of the 
 quota of the privates of the Militia for England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland, respectively, maj- volunteer 
 to join this force. They may volunteer to be train- 
 ed for 56 dajs in each jear with the regular armj', 
 and in case of national dantrer or great emergency 
 are liable to general service in the regular army. 
 
 EESIGN.— To resign an appointment or commis- 
 sion, an officer must send in his resignation through 
 the prescribed channels. Non-commissioned officers 
 can resign their appointments, when they find them- 
 selves unequal to the performance of the duties of 
 their rank, with the consent ol their Commanding 
 Officer. Enlisted men are not permitted to resign, 
 and can only quit the service after having been pro- 
 perly discharged. 
 
 In the United States service, no oflScer is consid- 
 ered out of service on the tender of his resignation, 
 until it shall have been duly accepted by the propel 
 authority. Any officer who, having tendered his 
 resignation, prior to due notice of the acceptance of 
 the same by the proper authority, and without leave, 
 quits his post or proper duties with the intent to 
 remain permanently absent therefrom is registered 
 as a deserter, and punished as such. The resigna- 
 tions of officers appointed by the President can be 
 accepted by him alone. 
 
 Before approving tenders of resignation of <lisburs- 
 ing officers. Commanding Generals cause all public 
 moneys or properly in their hands to be turned over 
 to the officer (Icsigiiateil to receivi' llie same. This 
 action is indorsed on the resignation, and promptly 
 reported to the War Department. Resignations 
 tendered under charges, when forwarded by any 
 commander, are always accompanied by a copy of 
 the cliarges; or, in the absence of written charges, 
 by a re))orl of the case, for the iiiforiiKilion of the 
 Secretary of War. iSefore final ]iayiiii'iils are made 
 to an officer whose resignation has Ii.mm accepted, 
 be is rei|uired lo exhibit a certificate of noii-iiidelited- 
 ness to the lulled States from the jiroper account- 
 ing offlc(^rs of the Treasury. 
 
 In lime of war, or with an army in the field, resig- 
 nations lake effect witliin thirty days from the date 
 of the order of acceptance. Leaves of absence are
 
 KESISTANCE OF THE AIR, 
 
 GO.-) 
 
 BE8I8TANCE OF THE AIB 
 
 not tjrantcd by (•miiiiiiiinling ofllrcrH to offlotTH on 
 ti'ndcriii'j; their nsiuimlioii, imlcHH llw rcKif;imli'iri 
 lie iiiiciiii(lili'iii;il liiiil iiiiiiicdialc. Any oftlccr of llic 
 nrniy who iicccpls or hiihU any appoiiiliiiciit in l!ic 
 (liplonialic or I'onsular siTvicc of Ihr (Jovcrnmcnl is 
 <nnsiclcri(l as Inivini: resii;uril his phii'c in Ihc' army. 
 'I'his npplii'S to iilllccrs on the Aclivr List, iiml to all 
 H'tircil ollii'i'rs, (xccplini; those cxi'niplcil l)V law. 
 
 KESISTANCE OF THE AIR.- A l)oily niovii'i'; in the 
 air cxpiriciicis a resistance which diniinishes the 
 velocity with which it is aninniled. Thai the re. 
 lardins; ellecl of the air, on projectilcH niovin); with 
 IiiLcli velocities, is very i;reat, is seen by conipariii!; 
 the aclnal rani^es of projectiles with those conipuled 
 under the sn])pcisilion that they move in vacuo. 
 Thus it has been shown thai ciTlain cannon-balls do 
 not raniie one-eighth as fur in the air as they wo\dd 
 if they did not, meet with this resistance to their mo- 
 tion, and small-arm jirojecliles, which have but lit- 
 tle mass, are still mor<' alVecled by it. 
 
 Iiiciiiiipri'Huihli' fluid.- - The resistance experienced 
 by a plane surface nioviiiLr parallel to itself through 
 jin incompressihle lluid. is e(|ual to the pressure of 
 u colunui of the lluid, the base (if which is the mov- 
 ing surface, and its height that due to the velocity 
 with which the surface is moved through the lluid, or, 
 
 from the law of falling bodies. h= — ; in which li is 
 
 the height, n the velocity, and 17 the force of gravity. 
 The resistance on a given area is therefore propor- 
 tiimal to the scjuare of the velocity, and the density 
 of the lluid medium. 
 
 Let rf, 8, and v represent the density or weight of 
 a unit of vohime of lluid, the area pressed upon, 
 and the velociiy of the moving surface, respectively, 
 and y the resistance in terms of the unit of weight, 
 and we have, 
 
 Q=k,hS- ; 
 
 in which / is a coefficient to be determined by exper- 
 iment. 
 
 (hmpremiMe fluid. — If the medium be furnu'd of 
 compressible gases, as the atmosphere, the density 
 in front of the moving body will be greater than that 
 behind it ; and it will be readily seen that the body 
 will uie<'l with a resistance which increases more 
 rapidl.v thanthe square of the velocity, in such aman- 
 ner that the coefficient, A-,or the density of the medium, 
 d, should lie increased by a ((uantity which is a 
 f\inction of the velocity itself, or, what is the same 
 thing, by adding another term to the resistance which 
 shall lie" proportional to the culie of the velocity. In 
 examining the table of resistances, obtaiiucl by Hut- 
 ton liy tiring a one-pound ball into a liallistic pen- 
 dulum, at ditTerent distances, with velocities vary- 
 ing from 300 to 1 ,000 feet, Piobert foinid.that if e- in 
 the foregoing expression be replaced by the binomial 
 
 1 1 
 
 in which — = , the ex- 
 
 )• 1427 ft. 
 
 term 
 
 iregomgcxpri 
 
 pression would 
 ments. Calling. 1= 
 
 section of a projectile, the general expression forthe 
 resistance in air becomes. 
 
 Q^.lTTir- 
 
 '■('^)-- 
 
 In this expression, A is the resistance, in pounds, 
 on a sciuare foot of the cross-section of a projectile 
 moving with a velocity of one foot ; ;■ is a linear 
 (luantity depending on the velocity of the projectile. 
 Forall service spherical projectiles, .l^.000.")14 ; and 
 for all service velocities ; =1,407 feet. The value of 
 -1 for the ritle-musket bullet has been determined at 
 the Washington Arsenal, and found equal to 0.000358. 
 
 TliiH hIiowb tliut the reiiiHtancn of the air U altout one- 
 third lesM on the ngrrrul than 011 the npliericul frjmi 
 of projectile. Tlii» value lius lieen found lo annwer 
 well for caliuhi'ing the rungcH of ritle.ciinnon pro. 
 jeililes. The crielllcieiit A, lieing u funclion of the 
 density of the air, its value clepi iiiIh on Ihi- leiii(«-ni. 
 tiiri', pressure, ami hygromilric inndilioii; in Ihc 
 above value the weight of a 1 ubic foot of uir. .0".< 
 II)., at a temperature of (}<»^ Kahr., and fora biiromel- 
 rical pressure of a!*.."; inchcH. If the nurface rif the 
 projectile be rriiigh or irregular, the valilf of (hin 
 coellicient will be slightly loo hiiwill. 
 
 The motion of a body falling through the air, will 
 l)e accelerated by its weiirht, and ri-larded by the 
 buoyant elfort of the air, and the resistance wliicli 
 the air offers to motion. As liie re^ihl«nce of the 
 air increases nuire rapidly than the vehnily. it fol- 
 lows that tlii're is a point where the rilariling and 
 accelerating forces will be eipnil, anil that beyond 
 this, the body will move with a iniiforin veloc- 
 ity Cfpial to that which it had acquired dow n to this 
 point. The buovant elTort of the air is ecjual to the 
 
 d 
 weight of the volume displaced, or 7' — ; in which /' 
 
 is the weight and D the denBily of the projectile, and 
 d the density of the air. When the projectile meets 
 with a resisiance equal to its weight, we shall have, 
 
 P^i--0=.,,w.-..^^i4-;). 
 
 in which the weight of the displaced air is transferred 
 to the first member of the equation. A.s the den.sity 
 of the air is very slight compared to that of lead or 
 
 d 
 iron, the materials of which projectiles are made, — 
 
 I) 
 may be neglected. Making this change, and substi- 
 
 4 
 tuting for P, — nP^D {g liaving been divided out of 
 
 3 
 the second member, should be omitted in the first), 
 the expression for the final telncily reduces to 
 • r \ 4 IID 
 
 (r "V 4 IIL 
 
 The resistance on the entire projectile for a velocity 
 
 of 1 foot, is Anli* ; dividing this by—, or the mass, 
 
 wc get the resistance on a unit of mass. Calling this 
 1 
 — , we have, 
 
 1 Ann* P 
 
 -= , or 2ge= —— . 
 
 2e P ArrJi' 
 
 Substituting for P its value in the equation of verti- 
 cal descent, we have. 
 
 nearly satisfy the results of experi- - 
 k'd 
 
 and 7t/l- the area of the cross 
 
 2</c^r 
 
 (-0 
 
 from which we see that r depenils only on f ; but 
 •2 nil 
 
 3 gA 
 hence, the final velocitv of a projectile falling in the 
 air is directly proportioned to the product of its dia- 
 meter and density, and inversely proportional to the 
 density of the air. winch is a factor of .1. The ex. 
 pression fortlie value of ('i shows, that the retarding 
 effect of the air is less on the larger and denst-r pro- 
 jectiles. To adapt it to an oblons: projectile of the 
 pointed form, the value of J> should be inrrea.sed, 
 (inasmuch as its weisht is increased in proportion to 
 its cross section), while that of A should be dimin-
 
 RES JUDICATA. 
 
 666 
 
 EEST ON ABMS. 
 
 islied. It follows, thcreforp, that for the same caliber 
 an obloug projectile will be less retarded by tlie air 
 than one of spherical form, and consequently with an 
 equal and perhaps less initial velocity its range will 
 be greater. The value of (c) for service projectiles 
 will be found ready calculated in the Tables of Fire. 
 For the purpose of determining the velocity which a 
 projectile loses by the resistance of the air, in moving 
 through a certain distance, r, the force of gravity 
 may be disregarded : in which case the trajectory de- 
 scribed will be a ritrht line. 
 
 Let V be the initial velocity, and « the remaining 
 velocity at the end of the distance x. 
 
 The expression for the resistance of the air is- as 
 we have seen, 
 
 Q^AttR^ 
 
 (-0 
 
 But we know that the retarding force of the air is 
 equal to the mass of the projectile against which it 
 acts, multiplied by the first differential coetticientof 
 the velocity, regarded as a function of the time, 
 
 P 
 with its sign changed, and that — is the mass of the 
 
 .? 
 projectile. We have, therefore. 
 
 — = — = AvR'-l 1 + - |)'^ 
 
 P dt P \ t / 
 
 4 i RD 
 
 Recollecting that P=—^R^D, and that 2<;= , 
 
 3 3 gA 
 
 the equation reduces to, 
 rft) v 
 
 dt 
 
 i(-0 
 
 Integrating this equation between the limits and 
 X, which correspond to V and i', we have. 
 
 t = 1c( I- 
 
 2r,, 
 
 1+- 
 
 r 
 1 + - 
 V 
 To obtain a relation bctweenthe space and veloci- 
 dx dx 
 
 ty; we have i'= — , or dt= — ; substituting this in 
 
 dt r 
 
 the equation for tlieintensit}' of the retarding force, 
 and reducing, we have, 
 
 dv 
 (to= — 2c 
 
 (-0 
 
 Integrating between the same limits as in the pre- 
 ceding case, we have, 
 r 
 
 \ +- X 
 
 x = 2c log. or 1 ■ 
 
 r 
 
 1+- 
 V 
 
 Solving this equation with reference tot', we have, 
 r 
 ■0= (2). 
 
 X 
 
 .2c , 
 
 ■+--= I 1 + — I 2c ,,, 
 
 (-0 
 
 le iibi>ve cqu 
 
 t=2ci I — 
 
 \t. V/ 
 
 Substituting in the iibi)Ve equations we have, 
 
 t=2c| ■ CA). 
 
 Tlie logarithms in the above equations belong to 
 the Napierian system, and are obtained by multiply- 
 ing the corresponding common logarithm bv 2.3026: 
 e=2.713. 
 
 Equation (1) gives the space passed over by a cer- 
 tain projectile when the velocities at the commence- 
 ment and end of the flight, are known. 
 
 p^quaticm (2) gives the remaining velocity when 
 the initial velocity and the space passed over are 
 known. . 
 
 Equation (3) gives the time of flight when the ve- 
 locities at the begiiuiing and end and the space pass- 
 ed over are known. 
 
 The distance at which the velocity V is reduced 
 to r, and the duration of the trajectorj-, being pro- 
 portional to c, are directly proportional to the pro- 
 duct of the diameter and density of the projectile, 
 and inversely proportional to the density of the air. 
 This fact shows the great advantage, in point of 
 range, to be derived from using large projectiles 
 over small ones, of solid projectiles over hollow 
 onoe, of leaden projectiles over iron ones, and of ob- 
 long projectiles over roimd ones. See JJidimi'x For- 
 mutas, EqiiatiiiiiH nf Motivn of Projectiles and Trajec- 
 tory. 
 
 KES JUDICATA. — In law, a term meaning that 
 the subject matter of an action has been already 
 decided by a court of competent jurisdiction, and if 
 so, a plea" setting up the res judicata is a sufficient 
 defense. In order to be binding, however, the suit 
 in the former case mast have been between the same 
 parties. 
 
 RESPECTANT.— In Heraldry, a term employed to 
 describe two animals borne face to face. Beasts of 
 prey ramjiant wlien so borne, are, however, said to 
 be riiiiijKint cDiihateuit. Also written Refipecting. 
 
 RESSAIRDAR.— In the East Indies, a native officer 
 in ii native cavalry regiment who commands the left 
 troo]) of a squadron. 
 
 RESSALAH. — Tlie Indian term for a squadron of 
 native cavalry. 
 
 RESSALDAR.— In the East Indies, a native officer 
 in a native cavalry regiment. He commands the 
 right troop of a s<iuadron, and on parade leads the 
 squadron. Ressakiar Major is the native command- 
 ant of a native cavalry regiment. 
 
 REST.— 1. In tactics, a word of comm.and, where- 
 by the men are brought to a position of rest; as 
 parade rest in place rest, etc. 2. A support for the 
 muzzle of a gun in aiming and firing. The Arbal- 
 est or cross-bow, and the earlier hand fire-arms 
 were always thus supported, and the long guns of 
 the Moors "and Arabs are still universally provided 
 witli a device of this kind. In civilized countries 
 the rest is employed by the sharp-shooters and in 
 practice-firing. It may consist of a stake or picket, 
 whose pointed end is driven in the groinid, the gim 
 resting in a crotch at tlie upper extremity; or, as in 
 some of the European armies, of a device having a 
 screw-point, by which it may be attached to a tree 
 or other support. 3. In a lathe, a piece of iron for 
 holding the turning tool, fixed at the end of a slide 
 by a set-screw; the slide can be moved at right 
 angles to the bar of the lathe, and the whole can be 
 fixed at any part of the bed between the centers. 
 4. In Ih'ndilry, the name usually given to a cliarge, 
 varying coiisideriibly in the different representations. 
 It appears at too early a date to be wliat it is often 
 said to be — a spear rest. It is sometimes called an 
 organ-rest, iuul in old rolls, a clarion — and is most 
 likely a represeiitation of some musical instrument 
 like "tlie pande;in pipe. It was a rebus badge of the 
 Clares. 
 
 RESTON ARMS.— A position in the Manual of Arms, 
 executed as follows : Heingat a carry, the Instruct- 
 or commands : 1. /fci? (/», 2. Arms. Uaise the])iece- 
 vertically with the right hand, advancing it slightly, 
 grasp it with the left hand at the lower band, the 
 forearm horizontal; reverse it with both hands, the 
 muzzle dropping to the front, the butt passing be-
 
 EETAINED PAY. 
 
 Ctn 
 
 EKTALIATIOH. 
 
 tween Uic breast and tlie riplit forearm ; place the 
 iiiuz/.lc upmi llic left toe, the l)iirrcl to llic riirlif, llir 
 left liaiiil slippill;? up the stocU, (lie hiifk lo llii- li'fl. 
 (Two.) (^arrry tlic ri^rlil fo'it ihrcc inclics lollnTiMir : 
 at tlio saiiK' time plarc llic Imriils upon tin' Imlt, llic 
 rijilit hand iippcniiosl, llic left kiicc sli^'lilly IhmI. 
 ('fiiicEK.) Incline the h'^ad lowani I hi' liainN. 
 1. Ctirri/, 2. AiiMs. (Irasp Ihc small of llic Klock 
 with the riirhl hanil, hack lo Ihc rijilit ; carry Ihc 
 piece with the ri^hl han<l opposite Ihc ri};lit shoiij. 
 dcr, barrel lo the front iinil vertical, fonMirin horizon- 
 tal ; LCrasp the piece at tlii' lowc-r hand with Ihc left 
 hanii, liack t'l the left, the thnnil> poinlini.' down, 
 ward ; l)rinti; the ri'i;lit foot liy IIk' side of the left. 
 (Two). Reverse the piece with both hands, the bull 
 passing between the breast and rif^ht forearm ; re- 
 sume the carry with the ris;ht hand. (Thkkk.; Drop 
 the left luiiid by the side. See Mftnunl of Armn, 
 Fig. Vi. 
 
 RETAINED PAY. In the rnilod Stales servirc, 
 this pay is retainc(l from the soldier until the cxpi- 
 nilion of his term of service, and is forfeiled unless 
 he shall have serve<l honestly and faithfully to the 
 dateof dischariie. orforanyof the followini; causes: 
 1. Desertion during; the |)eriod of enlistment. 2. 
 When dischargcil (by way of punishment for an of- 
 fense) before expiration of term of service by sen- 
 tence of Court-Mart iai, or by order from the War 
 Dc|)artment specifying that such forfeiture shall be 
 made. H. ('<inviction and imprisonment by the civil 
 authorities. 4. When discliar^cd as a minor, or for 
 other cause involving fraud on his |iart in Ihc enlist- 
 ment, fi. Kepeated trials by Court-.Martial and pun- 
 ishments for n\isconducl, of which timely report 
 shall be made to the War Department and approved 
 as basis of forfeiture. In which case the .sol<iier 
 shall be dischari^cd without character, and shall not 
 be r<'-enlistcd. 
 
 RETAINEKS. -It is declared in the Articles of War, 
 that all retainers to the camp, and all persons serv- 
 ini; with the armies of the United States in the Held, 
 tlnnm^h not enlisted soldiers, are to be subject lo 
 orders, accordimx to the rules and discipline of war. 
 
 RETAINING WALLS. These, as their name im- 
 plies, are walls built lo retain earth, sand, or other 
 incoherent substances in positions and. forms which 
 without their aid they could not maintain. These 
 substan<-es. if left to themselves, will not stand with 
 vertical sides, but will fall down till they assume a 
 certain slope. The angle which this slope makes 
 with the horizontal is called the "angle of repose." 
 This angle varies according to the nature of the ma- 
 terial ; for example, that of moist soil is about 45*^. 
 
 '.IN 
 
 •1 
 
 J^ 
 
 i...d.. y \ 
 
 ^^•. 
 
 . m, / 
 
 jfcs,-^' 
 
 / / 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 7. 
 
 ac, revetment ; 1>. Iiottnm of d'tch, level nf jzrnund witliin the 
 work; de. top of ninipart ; fi,'h, pnropet; it\. b^tiniuctle; kle. 
 inju*!; of earth supported t)T revelineiit ; in. center of <n';>vity of 
 aia-is; a, point of grealetit pressure on revetment. 
 
 while fine sand assumes an angle of about 30". The 
 drawing shows a retaining wall of masonry built in 
 permanent fortification. Prior to Vaiiban's lime the 
 scarp revetment or retaining wall was commonly 
 raised to the top of the parapet ; but as in this case 
 the artillery of a Ixsiegcr jjlayed on the top of the 
 wall, and mined it soon after the siege commenced, 
 that engineer adopted the principU — fhenceforth fol- 
 lowed — of raising it uo higher tliiin the crest of the 
 
 fclaclH, or about 7 feet above the natural irround, 
 leaving the parapet above of itlo[MMl earlli only. 
 When the main ditch in 'iA feet deep, the xcarti ri;. 
 vetment will he about W feet high. AildillonttI 
 slrenglh is imparled to the revelnient wall by inan- 
 sivi' liullrcHSCH at every l."< feel, calleil runuUrJ'irU, 
 and these, again, are HoinciimcH conneclcd und 
 strengthened by masonry arciicH oiitHide the revet- 
 menl. The revetment fornm n terrible burrjer lo an 
 assaulting party. 
 
 In estimating the rei|iiiHlte tliickncHN of tlie wall, 
 it must be taken into account that the wall niuy give 
 way in various manners ; it may lie f)verliimed, or 
 it may slide as a whole along its base Dli, or the 
 upp<-r parts may give way, while llii- base reniuinit. 
 Kroin these data, nnilhemalical formulie have Ix-en 
 worki'd out, which deterininc the thickncKS re(|iiiKitc 
 for different situations ami nuitcrialH, such us that 
 given by M. I'oncelet for ordinary materiuls, and 
 within ordinarv limits: 
 
 x = .2H.';(-|l +/'). 
 Where H, the height of the wall, anri A, the aildi- 
 lii>nal height of the bank above the lop of the wall, 
 being given, x, Ihc thic'kness of the wall, can be 
 found. These formula-, howevi-r, are not of much 
 practical value, on account of the varying nature of 
 the data on which Ihi-y aie fiamded. and of the ex- 
 cess of strength reipiisile in all such construeti<ini!, 
 to allow for causes of failure which cannot Ik- fore- 
 seen or provided for in the calculations. Practical 
 experience is found to be the only safe guiile in all 
 such considerations. In the construction of a re- 
 taining wall, a great desideratum is, that tlie earth 
 behind it be well drained ; for if water be allowed to 
 accumulate behind the wall, the earth gets into a 
 semi-Hnid state, in which it gives a very much iu- 
 creased pressure on the wall. For this [Mirpose. holes 
 are left through the wall called "weeping holes;" 
 these holes are about 9 inches high and 2 inches wide, 
 and are generally placed about 1 for every 3f5 sq. ft. 
 of wall. Also stones without mortar are frecpK-ntly 
 built up behind the wall, so forming an r)pen stra- 
 tum, into which the water drains, and is thence car- 
 ried olf tlirnu:.di the weeping-holes. 
 
 RETALIATION. War is not carried on by arms 
 alone. It is hiwful to starve the hostile belligerent, 
 armed or unarmed, so that it leads to the speedier 
 subjection of the enemy. When the commander of a 
 besieged place expels the non-combatants, in order lo 
 lessen the numl)er of those who consume his stock of 
 provisions.it is lawful, though an extreme measure, 
 to drive them back, so as to hasten on the surrender. 
 Commanders, whenever admissible, inform the 
 enemy of their intention to bombard a place, so that 
 the non-combatants, and especially the women and 
 ehiklrcn, may be removed before the bumbardment 
 commences. But it is no infraction of the common 
 law of war to omit thus to inform the enemy. Sur- 
 prise may l>e a necessity. Public war is a stale of 
 armed hostility between sovereign nations or govern- 
 ments. It is a law and recpiisile of civilized exis- 
 tence that men live in political, continuous societies, 
 forming organized units, called stales or nations, 
 whose cousfituenis bear, enjoy, and suffer, advance 
 and retrograde together, in peace and in war. 
 
 The citizen or native of a hostile country is Ihus an 
 enemy, as one of the constituents of the hostile slate 
 or nation, and as such is subjected to the hardships 
 of the war. Neverlheless as civilizjition has advanc- 
 ed during the last centuries, so has likewise steadily 
 advanced. especiaKy in war on land, the distinction 
 between the private individual belonging to a hostile 
 country and the hostile countrj- it.«eif, with its men 
 in arms. The principle has been more and more 
 acknowledged that the unarmed citizen is to be 
 spared in person, property, and honor as much as 
 the e.xisences of war will admit. Private citizens are 
 no longer murdered, enslaved, or carried off to dis- 
 tant parts, and the inoffensive individual is as little 
 disturbed in his private relations as the commander
 
 BETARDATION. 
 
 668 
 
 EETIHEMENT. 
 
 of the hostile troops can afford to grant in the over- 
 ruling demands of a vigorous war^ 
 
 The almost universal rule in remote times was, 
 and continues to be with barbarous armies, that the 
 private individual of the hostile country is destined 
 to suffer every privation of liberty and protecti(m, 
 and every disruption of family ties. Protection was, 
 and still is with uncivilized people, the exception. 
 In modern regular wars of the Europeans, and their 
 descendants in other portions of the globe, protec- 
 tion of the inoffensive citizen of the hostile country 
 is the rule ; privation and disturbance of private re- 
 lations are the exceptions. 
 
 Commanding Generals may cause the magistrates 
 and civil officers of the hostile country to lake the 
 oath of temporary allegiance or an oath of fidelity to 
 their own victorious government or rulers, and they 
 may expel every one who declines to do so. But 
 whether they do so or not, the people and their civil 
 officers owe strict obedience to them as long as they 
 hold sway over the district or country, at the peril of 
 their lives. The law of war can no more wholly' dis- 
 pense with reralialion than can the law of nations, of 
 which it is branch. Yet, civilized nations acknowl- 
 edge retaliation as the sternest feature of war. A 
 reckless enemy often leaves to his opponent no other 
 means of securing himself against the repetitiijn of 
 barbarous outrage. 
 
 Retaliation will, therefore, never be resorted to 
 as a measure of mere revenge, but only as a means 
 of protective retribution, and. moreover, cautiously 
 and unavoidably; that is to say. retaliation shall 
 only he resorted to after careful inquiry into the real 
 occurrence, and the character of the misdeeds that 
 may demand retribution. Unjust or inconsiderate 
 retaliation removes the belligerents further and 
 further from the mitigating rules of a regular war, 
 and by rapid steps leads them nearer to the interne- 
 cine war of savages. 
 
 Modern times are distinguished from earlier ages 
 by the existence, atone and the same time, of very 
 many nations and great governments related to one 
 another in close intercourse. Peace is their normal 
 condition; war is the exception. The ultimate ob- 
 ject of all modern war is a renewed state of peace. 
 The more vigorously wars are pursued, the better it 
 is for humanity. Sharp wars are brief. 
 
 Ever since the formation and coexistence of mod- 
 ern nations, and ever since wars have become great 
 national wars, war has come to be acknowledged 
 not to tje its own end, but the means to obtain great 
 ends of state, or to consist in defense against wrong; 
 and no conventional restriction of the modes adopt- 
 ed to injure the enemy is any longer admitted ; but 
 the law of war imposes many lunitations and re- 
 strictions on principles of justice, faith, and honor. 
 
 RETARDATION.— The velocity a ball loses in con- 
 sequence of a resisting medium is termed rrtardntinn. 
 This varies with the degree of resistance, and the 
 weight of the ball. In case of ordinary spherical 
 
 projectiles retardation will vary as (rf=the 
 
 diameter of tnc ball, and ii=its velocity). If two 
 shot of different diameters, but of equal density, be 
 fired under similar circumstances, it apjiears from 
 this that the shot of the larger diameter will range to 
 a greater distance than the other; consequently for 
 equal ranges, the elevation of the piece from wliich 
 the larger shot is fired may be reduced, and the 
 chances of its striking the object fireil at, will be 
 greater, the trajectory being less curved. 
 
 The effect of a pressure or resistance (A') acting 
 on a projectile or other body is to cause acceleration 
 or retarclaticin (f) in velocity, and the aiuount of it 
 is known from tlie elementary law in dynanncs ex- 
 pressed by the proportion. It: W::— /: g, where c is 
 the weight of the ])rojectile in pounds ; or retarda- 
 tion (/) = g. Here we notice that retiirdation 
 
 varies inversely as the weight of the projectile. Re- 
 tardation is negative acceleration. It is subject 
 [ to the same laws, but is the opposite to it in sign. 
 Hence, the minus sign in the proportion above. 
 
 RETIARIDS.— A kind of gladiator who fought in 
 I the amphitheater during the time of the Romans. He 
 was dressed in a short coat, having afusi'inn, or tri- 
 dent, in his left hand, and a net, from which he de- 
 rived his name, in liis right. With this he endeav- 
 ored to entangle his adversary, that he might tben 
 with his trident easily dispatch him. On his head 
 he wore only a hat tied under his chin with a broad 
 ribbon. 
 
 RETINUE.— The body of retainers who follow a 
 prince or other distinguished person; a train of at- 
 tendants. 
 
 RETIRADE. — In fortification, a retrenchment, 
 which is generally made with two faces, forming a 
 re-entrant angle, and is thrown up in the body of a 
 work, for the purpose of receiving troops, who may 
 dispute the ground inch by inch. 
 
 RETIRE. — A bugle-sound intimating to skirmish- 
 ers that they are to fall back. In the United States 
 service, tliis call is termed "to the rear." 
 
 RETIRED FLANKS.— In fortification, those made 
 behind the line which joins the extremity of the face 
 and the curtain towards the capital of tlie bastion. 
 
 RETIRED LIST.— The list of oflicers retired from 
 an Army. To maintain a reasonably low age among 
 the officers actively employed, it is essential that an 
 army should have some fixed scale for the retire- 
 ment of the old and enfeebled officers. In the Brit- 
 ish Army, this matter is well regulated, and in most 
 instances the retiring officer is allowed a step of 
 honorary rank ; which higher rank, however, does 
 not carry present nor prospective advantage. 
 
 In the United States service, the whole number of 
 officers of the Army on the Retired List can not at 
 any time exceed four hundred, and any less number 
 to be allowed thereon may be fixed by the President 
 at his descrotion. Retired officers of the Army may 
 be assigned to duty at the Soldiers' Home, upon a 
 selection by the commissioners of that institution, 
 approved by the Secretary of War ; and a retired 
 officer is not assignable to any olher duty. Any re- 
 tired officer may, on his own application, be de- 
 tailed to serve as professor in any college ; but while 
 so serving, such officer is allowed no additional com- 
 pensation. Upon the application of any college, 
 university, or institution of learning incorporated 
 under the laws of any State within the United States, 
 having capacity at the same time to educate not less 
 than one hundred and fifty male students, the Presi- 
 dent may detail an officer of the Army on the Re- 
 tired List to act as president. superintendent, or pro- 
 fessor thereof ; and such officer may receive from 
 the institution to which he may be detailed the dif- 
 ference between his retired and full pay, but will 
 not receive any additional pay or allowance from the 
 United States. 
 
 When any officer has served forty-five years as a 
 commissioned officer, or is sixty-four jears old, he 
 ma}' be retired from active service at the discretion 
 of the President. And all such are retired upon 
 the actual rank held by them at the date of retire- 
 ment; but are withdrawn from command and from 
 the line of promotion, as are all officers on the Re- 
 tired List. They are entitled to wear the uniform of 
 the rank on which they may bi^ retired. They con- 
 tinue to be borneou the Army Register, and are sub- 
 ject to tliLi Rules anil Articles of War, and to Iri.'d by 
 General Court- IMurlia! for any breach thereof. The 
 pay of officers <m the Retired List is J of the pay of 
 the rank upon which they are retired. ^\'hen 
 wholly retired from the service, they are entitled to 
 receive, upon retirement, one year's pay and allow- 
 ances of the highest rank held by them, whetlur by 
 staff or regimental commission, at the tune of their 
 retirement. 
 
 RETIREMENT. In the British Army, a Royal War-
 
 BETXRINO BOARD. 
 
 ecu 
 
 RETURN OAI.LEHY. 
 
 rant, inlroducini; luicl rct'ululin^' cnrnpulKory rc- 
 tirciMciil friirii llic army whs isHucil in 1877. 
 Voluiiliiry rclirciiic-iit on Imlf pay is allowed to 
 (ililci'i-s after not less lliuii ll! years' service. OllleiTs 
 beluw tlie raiil< of Major, who have served in their 
 present rank for seven years without promotion, are 
 to be plaicd on lialf-|iay after a total service of 30 
 years; Majors after 27 years, and iii;^her odlcers 
 after varyinu; periods. As to aife, a Colonel, who 
 has not retired on other f;ronnds, must, unless 
 Sl)eeial exeepliim lie made, retire at theatre of lllj 
 years, IJeiitentuil t'oloiiel at f.O years. .Major al W 
 years, and ollicers of lower rank at .')■') years— (he 
 pension varying accordini; to eircumsliinces. In 
 1878 then' were 37lt olUeers on retired fidl-pay, 
 costing .<.i;i3,000, and 1,.')7.S on half-pay, eoslinir 
 .i'280,(IO(); hut tiiese numhers include "nearly ail 
 Stall' Ollicers, and many on temporary lialf-pay on 
 account of sickness, ])rivati' all'airs. etc. 
 
 In the riiited States service, Department Com- 
 manders, from time to time, report to the Adjutant 
 General of the army the names of ollicers belonging 
 to their Departments who are incapacitated for 
 active service or comnuuid, with n view to their 
 being brought before a Retiring Hoard. Tlic re- 
 ports in each separate ease contain a spccillc slatl- 
 ment of facts, and the names of witnesses to prove' 
 them. Habitual intemiierance. gambling, low com- 
 pany, or other vices tliat tend to corrupt an officer 
 and lower the professional stanchird, are causes suf- 
 ficient to bring an olticer before a Hoard, to be 
 wholly retired. WIumi ample testimony establishes 
 the fact thai an otlicer has, through vicious inihd- 
 gcnces, slighted or neglected his onlinary duties to 
 such a degree as to make it evidently unsafe to in- 
 trust him with a eomm.and or resjMinsiliility that 
 rightfully belongs to his grade, and wheii it is 
 phown that sucii habits have continued for such 
 length of time as to make a permanent reformation 
 improliable, this fact, ratlier than the present con- 
 dition of tlic officer when lie ajipears before the I 
 Board, weighs in the venliet as to ins incai)acity for 
 active duty. Officers on the Retired List" are 
 amenable to the Rules and Articles of War, and 
 subject to trial by Court-Martial for a violation 
 thereof. It is made the duty of all officers of the 
 army who may become cognizant of thigraut viola- 
 tions of military law by any retired officer to report ' 
 the same to the Adjutant General of the army for 
 the action of the General. See Dinchnrge, Pension, 
 Hetirrd Lint, Ritiriiiff Haiird, and fivpi rnnnuation. 
 
 RETIRING BOARD.— The Secretary of War. nniler 
 the direction of the President, from time to time, 
 assembles an Army Retiring Board, consisting of 
 ,not more than nine nor less than live officers, two- 
 fifths of whom are selected from 'he Medical Corps. 
 The Hoard, excepting t lie officers selected from the 
 Medical Corps, is composed, as far as may be, of 
 seniors in rank to the officer whose disability is in- 
 quired of. The members of the Board are sworn in \ 
 every case to discharge their duties honestly and ' 
 impartially. 
 
 A Retiring Board may incpiire into and determine j 
 the facts touching tlie nature and occasion of the 
 disability of any officer who appears to be incapable 
 of perfornuug the duties of his office, and lias such 
 powers of a ('ourt-Martial and of a Court of Inquiry 
 as may be necessary for that purpose. | 
 
 When the Hoard tinds an officer incapacitated for 
 active service, it tinds ami reports the cause which, 
 in its judgment, has produced his incapacity, and 
 ■whether such cause is ati incident of service, 
 
 Tlie proceedings and decision of the Hoard arc 
 transmitted to the Secretary of War, and are laid by 
 him before the President for his approval or disap- 
 proval and orders in the ease. 
 
 When a Retiring Hoard tinds lliat an officer is inca- 
 pacitated for active service, and tliat his incapacity is 
 the result of an incident of service, and such decision 
 is approved by the President, said officer is retired ^ 
 
 from active service and placed on the lint of retired 
 oMlc'ers. 
 
 Whin the Hoard lliids that un oflleer i» lnru|MicU 
 talcd for active servici-, and llml hix incupiiriiv U 
 not the result of any incident of service, ancl il«' de- 
 cision is approved' by the I'risident, the olllcer in 
 retired from active service, or wholly retired from 
 the service, as the I'nsiilent nniv determine. The 
 names of ofllcers wholly reiinil from the ittrvice ire 
 omitted from the Army RegJHter. 
 
 RETRACTOR. A d.-vice by which the inelallli; 
 cartndgc--cases employed in lireecli-loading giinn are 
 withdrawn after tiring. A lug or prong r.hl« l>ehind 
 the llange of the cartridge and withdraws llie spent 
 shell when the breech is opened. Usually the \Km\- 
 
 tive movement of the notched extractor-plate lonttenfl 
 the sliell from the bore, and after pii.s.Mmg a certain 
 point a spring conies into pluy. and gives a smiden 
 impulse to the shell, which liirows it <le»r of the 
 tire-arm. The drawinir represents the Bridgeport 
 tool, worked by hand, which is (piite effective, and 
 avoids 111,- prissibilily of failure to act. 
 
 KETREAT.— A refrogradi' movement of a f<irce, 
 with the intention of avoiding an encounter with a 
 liostile body in the front. The greatest exertion of 
 talent is requisite in a (ieneral to conduct an able 
 retreat, more de|)eniling on arrangement and cfH>l. 
 ness than even in the preliminaries of a battle. When 
 the enemy iiursue, if the retreat is not to degenerate 
 intr) a rout, the retreating army must be covered by 
 a powerful rear-guanl, wliich from lime to time must 
 hold the pursuers at bay, whilelhe artillery-train and 
 baggage pass defiles, cross streams, and overcome 
 other .special obstacles. A strong retreat is made 
 when the rear is formed by a line of .solid battalions, 
 of which alternate masses retreat, while those inter- 
 vening face about and oppose the enemy; the latter 
 afterward retreating between and tothe rear of those 
 wliich retreated in the first instan<e. The retreat is 
 tlius continued by alternate lialting and falling back 
 on the part of each corps. 
 
 HETRENCHMENT.— In fortification, a defensive 
 work, ciiniprising at least ditch and parapet within 
 some other work of a fortress, and intended as a 
 place of retreat for the defenders, whence they may 
 jirolong the defense, or capitulate after tlie faces of 
 the work itself have fallen into the enemy's hands. 
 The retrenchment bears a considerable resemblance 
 to the rediiit except that it is almost always of earth. 
 Retrenchments are made in ravelins, and the re-en- 
 tfring pUii-fs irunnr.i at the time of constnicting those 
 works. A retrenchment is thrown across the gorge 
 of a redan or bastion, or from shoulder to shoulder, 
 when it is apprehended that the salient angle will 
 fall into the possession of tlie besiegers: these re- 
 trencliments are usually made when wanted. Such 
 a retrenchujent across the interior of the Kedan at 
 Sebastopol caused the sanguinary repulse of the 
 British on Sept. S. IHrif). 
 
 RETURN GALLERY.— In fortification, a gallery 
 wlHch leads from another gallery. The line. C I), in 
 the drawing, is the axis of a galleni- of departure, 
 and A H tliTit of the return. The line A B is the in- 
 terior line of the gallery frames: c d the interior line 
 of the same; e f ihat of the sheeting. The corres- 
 ponding lines for the remaining half of the gallery 
 of depanure, and tliose of the return, will be readily 
 recognized. The frames M and m' bound the en- 
 trances or Landings to the returns. 
 
 Tlie frames m. m'. of the landing, in the gallery of 
 departure, are put so far apart that, were the return 
 gallery all of one piece, it could be shoved in or out 
 between them. The same idea also regulates the re-
 
 BETUENS. 
 
 670 
 
 RETEB8E. 
 
 lativc positions of the landing frames of the gallery 
 of departure, and the return gallery in all other 
 cases. 
 
 In oblique returns, where the angle between the 
 axes of the two galleries is 45" or greater, the return 
 is run directly from the main gallery. The tirst frame 
 of the return being an oblique one. having its stan- 
 chions and sills cut with a suitable obliquity, so that, 
 when the frame is placed along side of the main 
 gallery, the outside of its stanchions will lie parallel 
 to the axis of the return. The position of the land- 
 
 !M p Mi 
 
 iH^Mztzzdal ..._.. 
 
 • "^ :::::::z;mz:_ 
 
 
 '{H~<^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ii i " Mi 
 
 ing frames m. m', is so determined that one of the 
 e.xterior lines of the sheeting of the return will in- 
 tersect the exterior edge of the stanchion of m at o, 
 and the other the interior edgn of m' at o'. When the 
 angle between the axes is less than 4.5'-^. it would give 
 too wide a landing in the gallery of departure to run 
 the return directly from it. A sliort rectangular 
 return must first be made to serve as a landing to 
 the oblique return. To determine the position of 
 the rectangular return, so that it shall be the shortest 
 practicable, set off the lines of the gallery of depar- 
 ture and of the oblique return in the usual manner, 
 draw a line parallel to the axis CD, and at the thick- 
 ness of the gallery frame of the rectangular return 
 from the exterior line of the sheeting : the point 
 where this line cuts the exterior line of the sheeting 
 of the oblique return, will be the position of the in- 
 terior edge of the stanchion of the gallery frame of 
 the rectangular return: having next drawn the lines 
 of this return, the position of tlie other frame, will 
 be at the point, where the outside line of the stan- 
 chions of the rectangular cuts the outside line of the 
 sheeting of the oblique return. See Oallei-y. 
 
 KETUENS. — The official accounts, reports, or state- 
 ments, rendered to Superior Officers. Commanders 
 of Departments, Regiments, Corps, and Posts make 
 to the Adjutant General's Office in Washington 
 monthly Hiturnn of their respective commands on 
 the forms furnished, and according to the directions 
 printed on them. In like manner Captains jnake 
 monthly Eetartis of their companies to Regimental 
 Headquarters. Regimental lieturns are made in 
 the name of the Colonel, and those of the company 
 in the name of the Captain, wliether those officers 
 be present or absent. Monthly returns of Military 
 Departments are sent direct to the Adjutant General 
 of the Army and to Division Headquarters. Every 
 Commander of a separate body of troops — either 
 Division, Brigade, Regiment,or Detachment— wheth- 
 er engaged in campaign, field-service, or occupy- 
 ing a temporary camp, or simi)ly in trani-it from one 
 post to another, makes the liionthly Returns re- 
 quired by the Regulations. Any detachment so far 
 separated from tlie main bodyto which it bclonixs 
 as to render it impracticable for the Commander 7)f 
 the main body to make the muster and insjx'ction en- 
 joined by lU'gulations, is a separate conunand within 
 the meaning and for the purpose of the law. These 
 Returns exiiibit separately the several Regimenlsatid 
 Detachments, and Hlaff Corps, and the strengtli of 
 each garrison within the command. 
 
 After any action or alTair a Return of the killed, 
 •wounded, and missing is made, in which the name, 
 
 \ rank, and regiment of each officer and soldier is 
 specified, with such remarks and explanations as 
 may be requisite for the Records of the Department 
 of War to establish the just claims of any individual 
 who may have been wounded, or of the heirs and 
 ; representatives of any killed in action. The nature 
 \ of the wuniid, the time and place oi its occurrence, 
 the Company, Regiment, or Corps, and the name of 
 the Captain, Colonel, or other Commanding Officer, 
 should always be carefully stated. A copy of this 
 return is promptly forwarded direct to the Adjutant 
 General of the army. After every battle, skirmish, 
 or otlier engagement, CommandinV Officers of Regi- 
 ments, or detached portions thereof, forward direct 
 to the Adjutant General of the army duplicates of 
 the Returns, to be transmitted through intermediate 
 Commanders, of killed, wounded, and missing A 
 Return of all property captured is made by the Com- 
 manding Officer of the troops by whom "such cap- 
 ture was made to the Adjutant General, at Wash- 
 ington, that the property maybe disposed of accord- 
 ing to the orders of the War Department. 
 
 EEVEILLE.— The beat of the drum about break 
 of day, to give notice that it is time fo rthe soldiers to 
 rise, and for the sentinels to forbear challenging. 
 The reveille-gun is fired just before the first note of re- 
 veille is sounded. 
 
 EEVEIL-MATIN.— An ancient French 96-pounder, 
 double cannon. 
 
 KEVERBERATOET FUENACE.— A furnace so con- 
 structed that matter may be heated in it without 
 coming in direct contact with the fuel. It consists 
 essentially of three parts, viz., a fire-place at one 
 end; in the middle, a flat bed or sole, on which the 
 material to be heated is placed: and at the other end 
 a chimney to carry off the smoke or fume. Between 
 the fire-place and the bed, a low partition-wall, call- 
 ed a fire-bridge, is placed, and the whole built over 
 with a tlat arch, dipping toward the chimney. The 
 flame plays over the fire-bridge, and is reflected, or re- 
 verberated, on the material beneath; hence the name. 
 
 KEVEBONI SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— The en- 
 ceinte of this system consists of a bastion front case- 
 mated on a peculiar principle. The guns are placed 
 on a " bascule," and are only exposed when actually 
 firing. Their recoil lowers them and closes the em- 
 brasure. In rear is an earthen retrenchment, while 
 earthen counterguards in front are defended by the 
 casemated flank of a ravelin. The reduit of this 
 work is also casemated. 
 
 EEVEESE. — 1. A change for the worse, or partial 
 defeat. 2. A movement by which an artillery car- 
 riage is placed on the same ground, but facing in the 
 opposite direction. To execute the reverse, the lead- 
 driver, after gaining seven yards in that direction, 
 moves his horses toward the left, so that the extreme 
 part of the curve described by the off horse will bo 
 fourteen yards from the line of departure (or line oc- 
 cupied by the heads of the leaders at the begimiing of 
 the movement), and that, after passing three yards 
 to the left of the original left flank of the team and 
 carriage, they will return to the ground occupied by 
 the carriage at the beginning of the movement. The 
 swing-driver follows the lead-driver. The wheel- 
 driver directs his horses so that tl'.e right limber- 
 wheel describes a loop, which, extending seven 
 j'ards to the right and eleven to the front of the line 
 of departure, passes a little to the left of the original 
 left flank and then returns, bringing the hind-wheels 
 in such a position that the rear of the carriage occu- 
 pies the line of (h'parture. Tlic jiairs in front move 
 according to tlu'ir distiincc*; from the pole, and must 
 keep out of the way of the wlu'elers, wlio control 
 the carriage. On the completion of the rever.se, the 
 drivers move off their horses in the new direction. 
 In reversing at a tmt, or galloj), the loop is opened 
 a little, an(i the gait moderated so as not to incur 
 the risk of upsetting the carriage. This rule in gen- 
 eral. If llie carriage have but t wo jiairs of horses, 
 the lead-driver moves as above prescribed for the
 
 REVERSE ARMS. 
 
 r,7\ 
 
 BZVERSIBLE SIGHT. 
 
 HwiiiK-drivcr; if Imt a sirif^Ii^ pair, tin; drivcfr iiiovcH 
 as |)rcKcrilicd for line wliccl-drivcr. Hc-c ('nuiUtr- 
 iiKirrh . 
 
 REVERSE ARMS. Tliat poKilirin in llic Manual of 
 AniiH, cxcciMid lis followH : The IiislruclDr cimi- 
 inands — 1. Hererxi-. 3. Ahms. RaiHc llii' pic<i- 
 vtTli(!ally witli \\w rifflit liaiiil, wliilr a<lvan(inK il 
 Hliplillv; jrrasp it willi Ilic left Imnd al the lower 
 liiiiid.lhc fonarni liori/oiital: al llic Hiiinctinii' Krasp 
 the i;uii at llic siiiull <jf the stock with the rif^lit hand. 
 (Two.) Reverse the piece, the inii/zlc dropping' lo 
 tlic froiil, the hntt passiiii; between Ihe hreast and 
 riiflit foreiirni ; the risjhl iiainl ijnispiiii; the small of 
 the stock at Ihe lii-ifrhl of Ihe siioiildcr, llic barrel In 
 the froni and vertical ; Ihi' linijers of Ihe left hand 
 extended, and joiiieil in front of the barrel, the lilllc 
 finj;er al the lower band. (Thukk. ) I'ress the muz- 
 zle lo th<' rear willi Ihe left hand, Ihe piece inclined 
 at an ani;le of forly-live deirrccs ; steady il in this jki- 
 sition by pressure of Ihe riL'hl elbow a^rainsl Ihe 
 body; carry Ihe left hand behind the back and grasp 
 the piece between the l)ands. 
 
 1. (^(irry. 3, Aums. Let go the piece with the left 
 hand, and rei;rasp it in front at Ihe lower band, l)ack 
 of Ihe band to the lefl, Ihe thumb poiiilinjj down- 
 ward. Ihe rii^ht forearm hori/oiilal, Ihe barrel verli- 
 cal. (Two.) Hevi.Tse Ihe piece with bolli hands, 
 the bult passing between Ihe breast and ris^ht fore- 
 arm ; (piickly resume the larry willi Ihe riglil hand. 
 (Thhee.) Drop the left hand by the side. 
 
 Wlien necessary to nnir<h ions; distances with 
 arms reversed, the piece may be chanired ton corres- 
 ponding position under the left arm by the com- 
 mands : 1. Lefl UeverM. 3. Aums. The piece is 
 placed under the left arm with the right hand, the 
 lefl band carried to Ihe snnill of the stock, and the 
 right hand behind Ihe back. ' 
 
 The piece is similarly restored by the comman<ls : 
 1. UetiTse. 3. Aums. See Mnnunl nf Armx. Fig. 13. 
 
 REVERSED. In Heraldry, Ihe term applied lo a 
 oh.'irsje lurned upside down. 
 
 REVERSE DEFILEMENT. Wluiiawork is placed 
 in a hollow roniied by two eiiiinenees, and is exposed 
 to bolh a direct and reverse lire from them, il cannot 
 be cU'tiled by direct means, without giving it a relief 
 generally loo great for tield works. To avoid this, 
 the method of reverse defilement must be resorted 
 to. 
 
 Suppose the work defiled, and a section be made 
 by vertical planes passing Ihrough the highest 
 points. () and ()'. If in this |)lane a vertical A B, be 
 drawn, <'orresponding to Ihe capital of the work, and 
 eight feet be set off on this vertical from the point, 
 A, and two verticals be drawn Ihrough the points, 
 
 of it will pasH III leuHt eighteen iiichen above llic Iwo 
 parupelH, and, since the bani|uetleH are four feet 
 three inches below the interior creslM, the »,liol niuHt 
 pass dvi' feel nine inchei' above the bunqueltiti, 
 which will be ipiite snlllcieiil lo clear the hi-iidh of 
 the in<-n wlii-n on Hie biiiii(uelles. Thih ilbintration 
 explains tin; spirit of the inelhoil of reviTMC rledle- 
 nienl. 
 
 The IrnverBc Ih ItniHlied on top like the roof of a 
 house, with a slight pitch ; its thickncHK ul the lop 
 should seldom excied li'U fi-el, and will bi- regij. 
 laled by the means the enemy can bring lo the 
 attack ; its sides are maile wilb'lhi- iialnrHl nlope of 
 Ihi- earlh : but, when the height of ihr (ruverse Ih 
 <i)n»iilerable, the base of the nirle hIoim-k would 
 oc<-upy a large portion of the interior space ; to 
 remedy Ibis, in some measure, the (Minion of the 
 sides which are below the planes of direct deflle- 
 nic'nl. may be made sleeper than the natural hIo|)«' ; 
 the earlh being retained by a facing of ■■ods. elc. 
 
 When Ihe .salient of the work is to be arrangeil 
 for defense, the Iraverse cannot then be extended 
 to the salient angle; il Ih however usual lo change 
 its direction within some yards of the salient, 
 and unite il with the face most exposed. Truvermii 
 are also usiil to covi-r faces exposed lo an enttlade 
 lire ; for this purpose thi'y are placed p<T|)endicular 
 to the face to be covered. If several are required, 
 they may be placed twenty or thirty yards apart; 
 each traverse should be about Iwenly-four feet long, 
 luid thick enough lo be cannon proof. As the 
 traverses require a large quantity of earth, and much 
 time and labor for Iheir construction, their lenglli 
 should not be greater than is indispen.sably requisite 
 lo form a good screen. This may be determined by 
 drawing lines from the dangerous points lo the 
 furllijst point of the line lo be screened ; the one 
 which intersects the line of the traverse furthest from 
 the salient will give the best length of the required 
 Iraverse. The lines drawn from o and o' to e and a, 
 cut the line of traver.se al .v and c, thus requiring the 
 traverse lo be run back tort to cover eacli face and 
 tlank. The dillicully of detilement, owing lo the 
 great relief Ihat may be re(|uired for the parapets, 
 Ihe labor of erecting the traverses and Hie room 
 which they occupy within the work, which is fre- 
 ipienlly wanted for the defense, restricts its applica- 
 tion mostly lo enclosed works, which are to remain 
 occupied during sonx' time, and whose position, from 
 some point to be defended, caimol be shifted. 
 
 The case of dclilemcnl here examined is that of 
 works open at the .gorge : the same principles, and 
 similar methods, would be applied lo enclosed works. 
 After the plan of the work has been regulated, the 
 
 () and O'. and five feet be set ofT on each of them : [ 
 and then the points (" and t', be joined with D.ilis 
 obvious that the interior crest of the para[)el, A. 
 being placed ou the line, C F), will screen all the 
 ground in the rear of it, as far as the capital, from 
 the direct lire from (). The parapet. B. being 
 regulated ill a similar manner, will screen all the 
 ground behind it as far as the same line But the 
 tire from <)' would take the jiarapet A in reverse, 
 anil that from () the parapet B ; lo prevent this, a 
 trimTxr must be erected on the line of the capital, 
 and a sultieienl height lie given to it to screen bolh 
 A and B from a reverse tire. To cITect this, let 
 <'ighteen inches be set off above the interior crests of 
 AandB; Ihe point, K, being joined with C", and [ 
 the point E' with V ; il is here also obvious, that if j 
 the top of the traver.se be placed on the line C K', it 
 will efTeetually screen both the parapets from all 
 reverse tire ; because every shot that strikes the top 
 
 arrangement of the traverses next demands the ot- 
 tenlion : the only rule that can be laid down is, to 
 place them in the most favorable position lo inter- 
 cept the reverse and enfilading tire of the enemy : 
 and if there should be a clioiie with respect to si'V- 
 cral positions, to select the one which will give Ihe 
 lowest traverse. If il is not even probable Ihat a 
 commanding eminence will be occupied by the en- 
 emy, nevertheless should the defense be not impair- 
 ed, it will be belter to place the work beyond the 
 cannon ranire of Ihe eminence. See DtjUrment. and 
 I'laiif of Jhjihmtiit. 
 
 REVERSE FIRE. — In gunnery, when the shot 
 strikes the interior slope of Ihe parapet al an angle 
 greater than .'!()'■'. it is called nrerw fire. 
 
 REVERSE FLANK. The extremity of the division 
 furthest from the |iivot llank. See Oiitirard FInnk. 
 
 REVERSIBLE SIGHT. -A front sight recently in- 
 troduced by the Winchester Arms I'oniiwny. The
 
 REVETMENT. 
 
 672 
 
 EEVIEW. 
 
 drawing shows the manner of its construction ami 
 use. B\- revolving the sight on its base. 90"^ hori- 
 zontal!}', it changes in appearance from an open 
 sight to a globe sight. It thus permits tlie raarks- 
 
 As Open. 
 
 As rloSLll. 
 
 man to use either form of sight at will. It may be 
 readily detached from the barrel and replaced by a 
 siglit of any other form. 
 
 "revetment.— The interior slopes of the parapets 
 of permanent and field-works, as well as in some 
 cases the sides of the ditches of the latter, require 
 revetments to enable them to stand at that shipe 
 which is necessary, and to endure the action of the 
 weather. The materials made use of in the con- 
 struction of field-revetments are: fascines, gabions, 
 hurdles, sod, sand-bags, and timber. In siege opera- 
 tions, and in fact in all operations in active warfare, 
 vast quantities of these materials are required, and 
 are daily consumed, in the construction of breast- 
 works, parapets, batteries, magazines, and a variety 
 of miscellaneous purposes. Large quantities, then, 
 must be prepared or manufactured by the ordinary 
 troops of the line, superintended by their own offi- 
 cers, who should be acquainted with all the details 
 necessarj- for their production. 
 
 In permanent fortifications, the revetments are 
 retaining walls of masonry built for the purpose of 
 holding back the earth of which the works are com- 
 posed." The most ordinary position of such revet- 
 ments is for the escarp and counterscarp of the 
 ditch. The more important of these two is the es- 
 carp, which has to holdback the great mass of earth 
 represented by the rampart, parapet, banquette, etc. 
 It is usually of solid brickwork or stone. .5 feet thick 
 at the top, and sloping outward as it descends (on 
 the ditch-side only) to'the extent of 1 in 6. Prior to 
 Vauban's time, tlie escarp revetment was commonly 
 raised to the top of the parapet : but as in this case the 
 artillery of a besieger played on the top of the wall, 
 and ruined it soon after the siege commenced, that 
 engineer adopted the principle — thenceforth followed 
 — of raising it no higher than the'crest of the glacis, 
 or about 7 feet above the natural ground, leaving the 
 parapet above of sloped earth only. Wlien the main 
 ditch is 24 feet deep, the scarp revetment will be 
 about *) feet high. Additional strength is imparted 
 to the revetment wall bj' massive buttresses at every 
 15 feet called counterfarU, and these, again, are 
 sometimes connected and strengthened by masonry 
 arches outside the revetment. The revetment forms 
 a terrible barrier to an assaulting party. See Fas- 
 cine Revetment, Gahinn Reretment. Hurdle. RevetyneiU. 
 Pisa Revetment, Plank Revetmrnt, Saml-hng Revet- 
 ment, iSearp Revetment, Sod Revetment, and Timber 
 Rere^nu lit. 
 
 REVIEW. — In military parlance, a review is the 
 ins|)ection by some staff-officer of any body (if troops 
 in parade order. Reviews always comprise a inarch 
 past the inspecting-otficer in column, and a general 
 salute in line; to these is frequently added a mock- 
 battle, for the amusement of spectators, and the 
 practicing of the Iroops themselves in warlike ma- 
 neuvers. The following is the manner of reviewing 
 a battalion of the United Sates Army; 
 
 Dismounted TroopH. — The reviewing officer takes 
 his post in front of the center of the battalion, the 
 point being in<licaled by a marker or camp-color 
 previously established by the Adjutant; the Adjulaiil 
 also posts markers o,t the ]ioinls wliere the column 
 will have to change direction in order that llie right 
 flank, in passing, shall be at six or eight yards from 
 the reviewing officer. The battalion being in line, 
 
 ba3'onets fixed, the Colonel in front of and facing the 
 center commands: 1. Prepare for revierr, 2. Rear 
 ojien order. 3 MiECH. At the third command, the 
 ranks are opened ; and the Colonel superintends the 
 alignment of the company officers and the front rank; 
 the Leutenant Colonel the rear rank.andthe Adjutant 
 the line of file-closers. The Colonel, seeing the ranks 
 ali'.ined, returns to the right of the line of company 
 officers, faces to the left, commands ; Feont, and, 
 passing in front of the company officers to the center, 
 places liimself, facing to the front, six yards in front 
 of the line of Field Officers, opposite the center of the 
 battalion. The reviewing officer now approaches 
 a few yards toward the Colonel and halts, when the 
 Colonel faces about and commands: 1. Present, 2, 
 Aems. At the second command, the officers and 
 men present arms; the color also salutes, should the 
 rank of the reviewing officer entitle him to it, in which 
 case the band, trumpeters, or field-music sound a 
 march, flourishes, or ruffles, according to his rank ; 
 arms having been presented, the Colonel faces about 
 and salutes. The reviewing officer acknowledges 
 the salute by touching or raising his hat, after which 
 the Colonel faces about and brings the battalion to 
 carry arms. The Colonel then joins the reviewing 
 officer, who proceeds to tlie right of the band, and, 
 passing in front of the company officers to the left 
 of the line, returns to the right, passing in rear of the 
 file-closers. 
 
 While the reviewing officer is going around the 
 battallion.the baud plays, ceasing when he leaves the 
 right of the band to return to his station ;'tlie Colonel 
 returns to his post in front of the center, and com- 
 mands : 1. Close order, 2. Maech. At the command 
 march, the company officers return to their places in 
 line ; the field, staff, and nou-commissioned staff, re- 
 main in their places. The reviewing officer having 
 taken his position, the Colonel commands : 1. Com- 
 panies right wheel, 2. March. At the second commanil, 
 the battalion lireaks into column of companies ; the 
 staff(e.xceptingthe Adjutant) place themselves in the 
 order of rankfrom right to left, on a line equal to 
 the front of the column, si.x yards in front of the 
 leading Captain; the Lieutenant-colonel on a line with 
 the leading company, the Major on a line with the 
 rear comiiany, the Adjutant on a line with the second 
 company from the front, the Sergeant-major on a 
 line with the second company from the rear, each 
 si.x yards from the left fiank of the column ; the non- 
 commissioned staff, excepting the Sergeant-major, 
 place themselves, in the order of rank from right to 
 left, on a line equal to the front of the column, six 
 yards in rear of the file-closers of the rear company ; 
 the band wheels to the right and takes post twelve 
 yards in front of the staff. The Colonel then com- 
 mands ; 1. Pa-<s in review, 2. Forward, 3. Guide 
 right, 4. March. At the fourth command, the 
 column steps off, the officers remaining in the po- 
 sitions above prescribed, the band playing : the 
 column changes direction, without command from 
 the Colonel, at the points iiidic:ited, the Colonel tak- 
 ing his place six yards in front of tlie staff immediate- 
 ly after the second change ; the hand having passed 
 the reviewing officer, wheels to the left out of the 
 column, and takes post in front of, and facing, the 
 reviewing officer, where it remains fill the rear of the 
 column lias passed, when it countermarches and re- 
 turns to its place before the review, ceasing to play 
 as llic liiiltalionaiiproaclics its original position. The 
 Colonel and stall, except the Adjutant, salute to- 
 gether when the Colonel is at six yards from the re- 
 viewing otHcer,and return to the carry together when 
 the Colonel has marched six yards behind him. The 
 other officers, and thenon-coniinissioned staff, salute 
 and return lo the carry at the points prescribed for 
 the Colonel. In saluting, all officers turn the head, 
 an<l look toward the reviewing ollicer. Non-com- 
 missioned officers incomman<l of sulxlivisions salute 
 as prescribeil for a Sergeant. Start and non-com- 
 missioned stall officers without swords do not salute.
 
 BEVIE"W. 
 
 G73 
 
 REVIEW 
 
 If cntillcd to a siiliilr Iroiii Ujc ooUir, llic (^olor hii- 
 lutcs when at six yards frorii IIk' rrvicwinj; olllctr, 
 and is raised when six yards licyond liiiii ; as llif 
 colors Haliitc. the Ininipilcrs or flcld-nuisic sound u 
 iiiarili, lloiirislic-i, or nillli's, accordiiiji to Ids rank. 
 I 111' b.'iiiii iniiliiMiini; loplny. 'I'll'' rcvicwin); odiccr 
 aikiiowli-(li.'cs only llir salulc of llii' Colonrl and ilic 
 color. 'I'lic Colonel liavinj; saliilcd, places liiniBclf 
 on Hie ri;;lil of Hie revievviny;ollicer, where lie remains 
 till tile rear of llie battalion has passed, 'vlien he re- 
 joins the battalion. The head of Iheeolninn having 
 execiilid a second change of direction to the left, 
 after haviiin passed the reviewiiiix ollicer. the ('olonel 
 coinnia?ids : (liiidi lift ; and wIkmi it arrives on lh<' 
 (iriudnal i:r(}iind wheels it into line to the left, opens 
 the ranks as in the iirevions casi\ presents arms, and 
 salutes; the salute lieiiiir acknowledfied by the re- 
 viewing; ollicer, terminates the review. Should it be 
 desirable to march past the reviewini; ollicer airain, 
 and in double lime, instead of ehaniiini; the jiuide 
 and fiiriiiini; line as above, the Colonel commands: 
 1. Iliiiihli tiiiir.'i. Maiu;h; and, at Ihesecoml change 
 of <lireclion. ]ilac<'s himself , at the heail of lliecohinin. 
 The band, previously notified, remains in its position 
 opposite the reviewini; ollicer, and ])lays in double 
 time. In passinir in nniew in double time, there is 
 no salulini; ; theC'olonel liaviiiL; passedtlie revimving 
 ollicer, places himself on liis right, aii<l the review is 
 conciuded as already explained. After the review, 
 the Colonel causes tile battalion to perform such ma- 
 neuvers as the reviewiiii; ollicer may direct. When 
 desirable that a batlalion should be reviewed before 
 an Inspector junior in rank to the Commanding OfH- 
 cer.thc Commanding OHicer will receive the review, 
 and will be accompanied by the Inspector. 
 
 Mounted y/v'cyw.— The reviewing oHicer takes his 
 post in front of the center of the battalion, the point 
 Iieing clearly indicated by a guidon, jirevioiisly es- 
 tablished by the Adjutant : the Adjutant also posts 
 lirincipal guides at the ]ioinls where the column 
 will have to change direction in order that the right 
 tlank in passing, shall be at six or eight yards from 
 the reviewing olticer. The battalion being in line, 
 the Major in front of and facing the center, com- 
 mands: 1. I' riiHiri' fur Uetkir, 2. Ihar Open Order, 
 H. ALtucH. At the third enniiimud, the battal on '' 
 takes open order as prescribed. The reviewing ofH- '■ 
 cer now approaches a few yards toward the major, 
 and halts when the Major faces about and commands: 
 1. Driiir, 2. Saber, 3. I'resfnt. i. Saber. At the 
 fourth command, the officers and men present saber; 
 the stanthiril also salutes, should the rank of the re- 
 viewing ollicer entitle him to it, in which case the 
 blind or trumpeters sound a march, or the tlourishes, 
 a<(ording to his rank : sabi-rs having been pre- 
 sented, the Major faces about and ^alutes. The re- 
 viewing officer acknowledges the salute by touching 
 or raising his liat, after which the Major faces about 
 and commands ; 1. ('ttrry.i. Saber. The Major 
 then joins the reviewing ollicer, who proceeds to \ 
 the right of the liauil, and, passing in front of the 
 olMcers to the left of the line, returns to the right, 
 passing in rear of the lile-closers. 
 
 While the reviewing ollicer is going around the 
 lialtalion, the band plays, ceasing when he leaves : 
 the right of the band to return to his station ; the ! 
 Major returns to his post in front of the center, and 
 commands: 1. Clone ordfr. 2. JIakch. At the com- , 
 niand »('"•(•/(, the company otlicers return to their; 
 jiliices in line ; the field, stalT, anil non-commissioned 
 stafT. remain in their places. The reviewing ollicer 
 luiving taken his position, the Major breaks the bat- 
 talion into column of companies or platoons, right 
 in fr,)nt.. At the command marrh for breaking into 
 column, the staff (excepting the Adjutant l place 
 themselves in the order of rank from right to left, 
 on a line eciual to the front of the column, six yards 
 in front of the chief of the leading sub-division. 
 The Field Otlicers, Adjutant .and the Sergeant-major, 
 take post as prescribed in column; the non-coiu- 
 
 nussioned stair, exci'pling (he Sergeant-iniijor, place 
 tlieniselveH, in the ordi-r of rank, from ri({lil to Ii ft, 
 on u line ei|iial to the- front of the coliinin, Hi>. 
 in rear of the llle-climerH of the reiir miiImII'. 
 the band lakrs [niBt llfteen yurdH In front oi tin 
 'stair. The Major then coiiiiinindH ; 1 /'(IM in rr. 
 ririr, 2. l''</ririird. I), (hiiilr riijld, 4 Maiicii. At llie 
 third command, the Meld otlicers, Adjiitanl, und S<t 
 geant-inajor, remain o|i the li-fl think of Hie column. 
 At the fourth command, the column Hle|n« nfT, lliu 
 bund playing; the column cjinnges diri'r'lion, at the 
 points indicated. without commanil from the Mujor; 
 the nnijor lakes his place six yards in front *\ the 
 stail immediately aftir the second chanire of direc- 
 tion ; the band, having passerl the reviewing ollicer, 
 whi'cls to the left out of the column, and lakes pool 
 in front of and facing the revii'wing olllter, where it 
 remains till the ri'ar of the column has pusseil, when 
 it returns to its |)lace before Hie review, ci-asing to 
 j>luy as the battalion approaches its original position, 
 riie Major and stalT, except the Adjutant, salute to. 
 getlier. when Hie major is al six yards from the re. 
 viewing fdlicer, and return to the carry together 
 when the Major has marched six yar<ls beyond liim. 
 The other otlicers, and the non-commissioned slalT, 
 salute and return to the carry at the points pre- 
 scribed for the major. In saluting, all olHcers turn 
 the head, and look straight toward Hie reviewing 
 officer. Xon-commissioned otlicers in command of 
 subdivisions, suliile as prescribed in the School of 
 the Soldier Dismounted. If entitled to a salute from 
 the standard, the standard salutes when at six yards 
 from the reviewing oflicer. and is raiserl when six 
 yards beyond him; as the standard salutes.lhelrnni- 
 peters sound a march, or the nourishes, according to 
 his rank, the band continuing to play. The reviewing 
 officer acknowledges only the salute of the Major 
 and of the standard. Tiie .Major, having sidiilcd. 
 places himself on the right of the reviewing ollicir, 
 where be remains till the rear of the battalion has 
 passed, when he rejoins the battalion. The head of 
 the column having executed second change of di- 
 rection to the left, after having jiassed the reviewing 
 officer.the Major commands : Guide lift ; ami when 
 the battalion arrives on the original grouml. the 
 Major wheels it into line to the left. opens the ranks, 
 presents saber, and salutes as before; the salute hav- 
 ing been acknowledged by the reviewing officer. the 
 review is ended. Instead "of changing the guide and 
 wheelins into line. the Major may command: 1. C'lm. 
 panks (or plat<H>nn), 2. Right f'rtmrd. 3. >'"/r« 
 right, 4. March ; and form the line, by wheeling 
 bv fours to the left. 
 
 ' ArtiHfry.—T\\v battalion being in line, its com- 
 mander executes a left about and commands: 1 . I're. 
 pare for reriftr. At this commantl, each captain 
 adds: 2. Action, 3. Frost, 4. Jiight. H. Ube-ss, (i. 
 Front, 7. Draw. 8. Saber, which are executed a-; 
 prescribed for the review of a battery. The Capt.iin- 
 havins taken their posts, the battalion Commander 
 faces to the front. The reviewing officer now ap- 
 proaches the battalion Commander, and halts al 
 thirtv yards from him to receive the sjibite. The 
 battalion Commander then faces toward the line and 
 conmiands: 1. Preficnt. 2 Saber. Sabers being i)re- 
 sented. the battalion Commander executes a left 
 about and salutes. The reviewing ollicer havins: 
 acknowledged the salute, the battalion Commander 
 faces toward the line and commands: 1. Currg.-i. 
 Saber. He then joins the reviewing otlicer.who pro- 
 ceeds to the right of the trumpeters, and, pa.s.-'ing in 
 front of the officers to the left of the line, returns to 
 the risht. passing in rear of the Chiefs of rni«nn. 
 The trumpets are sounded while the revi. 
 cer is goius round the battalion, until lie 
 ri"ht to return to his station; the ball..... ., . ,.,- 
 
 mandcr returns to his post in front of the center and 
 commands: 1. Limter. 2. Fbovt. 3.l'M'-on.- i. 
 liiqht ichetl.a. March, H. Jinlt^ili'-n. ,. Halt. Kx- 
 ecutedintacUbatterv: eachCaptain.at the command
 
 KEVIEW. 
 
 (i74 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 halt, causes bis cannoneers to mount, and then places 
 liimself with tlie croup of his liorse four yard sin 
 front of the lieadof tlie horso of the cliief of liis lead- 
 ing platoon : the Adjutant and Sergeant-major place 
 themselves fourteen yards from the left dank of the 
 column, the former abreast of the leaders of the lead- 
 ing carriage of the column, the latter abreast of t!)e 
 leadersof the rear carriage of the column: the trum- 
 peters take post, with tlie croups of the rear-rank 
 horses fourteen yards in front of the head of the horse 
 of the Cajitain of the leading battery. The battalion 
 Commander then commands:!. Pfisginreciew, 2. Fm'- 
 irard, 3 Guide rigid, 4. March. At the third com- 
 mand, the Adjutant and Sergeant-majorreniain on the 
 left flank of the column. At the command marcii. the 
 column passes in review according to the principles 
 prescribed for the review of a battery, except that 
 each Captain remains at the head of his battery after 
 saluting the reviewing officer; the battalion Com- 
 mander, immediately after the second c!i;mge of di- 
 rection, places himself with the crou]) of his hor.se 
 four yards in front of the head of tlie horse of the 
 Captain of the leading batter^', and, having passed 
 the reviewing officer, places himself on his right, 
 where he remains imtil tlie rear batter}- has passed, 
 "vvhen he rejoins the battalion. The trumpeters be- 
 gin to sound when at fortv ^'ards from tlie reviewing 
 officer, and wheel out of the column as ])reviously ex- 
 plained. The head of the column having executed 
 a second change of direction to the left, after passing 
 the reviewing officer, the battalion Commander com- 
 mands: Guide ?(/<; and, when the battalion arrives 
 on the original ground, he wheels it into line to the 
 left, prepares it for review as before, presents saber, 
 and salutes ; the acknowledgment of the salute by 
 the reviewing officer terminates the review. 
 
 The following general rules are observed for re- 
 views of brigades and larger bodies of troops: All 
 mounted officers remain mounted. A camp-color is 
 planted to indicate the post of the reviewing officer 
 while the troops are passing in review. Another 
 camp-color is planted fiftj- yards from the first, to 
 indicate the point where each battalion is brought 
 to a carry before passing the reviewing officer. The 
 statf of the reviewing officer is in single rank, six 
 yards in his rear; the flag and orderlies place them- 
 selves three yards in rear of the staff. When other 
 officers and personages accompanj- the reviewing of- 
 ficer, they place themselves on the left of the staff of 
 the reviewing officer: their own staffs and orderlies 
 place themselves in their rear. The trumpeters, or 
 field-music, of each brigade, if there be no regiment- 
 al bands, are consolidated on the right, in rear of the 
 brigade band. Brigades are arranged in line from 
 right to left according to the rank of brigade com- 
 manders, the senior on tlie right; if in tlu-ee lines, the 
 senior Commander is in front. Divisions are arranged 
 in the same manner. When more than one brigade 
 is to be reviewed, the staff-officers, after the reviewing 
 officer passes along the front of eiicli brigade, may 
 remain near its left, while the reviewing otlicer goes 
 to receive the salute from the next brig;ide; on his 
 return the}' rejoin liim and aceompany him as be- 
 fore. The st:iiT-officers in passing around the troops, 
 ride in one or more ranks, aceording to the numlier. 
 Tlie troops pass in review in (|uick time. Before 
 tlie head of the colunm appronclies the post of the 
 reviewing officer, he goes wherever lie can best ol)- 
 serve the movements of tlie troops. The (.'olouels re- 
 peat commands as prescribed in brigade revolutions. 
 Whenever the General of brigade faces toward th(^ 
 line to give commands, the Colonels face about at tlie 
 same time; they also resume their front at the .«anie 
 time with th(^ general. While the troo])s are on the 
 m;ircli. the Colonels cause the arms to bu curried at 
 a rir/hl xhnulilrr, .lu/ipart, or cnrri/. The arms (■! each 
 battaliou are brought to a m/r// when the le:idjiig 
 company arrives at fifty yards from the reviewing of- 
 ficer. Uenerals of divisions and corps, ami their 
 staff-oflicers, draw their swords when tliey t;iUe their 
 
 1 places in column before passing in review; the 
 swords are returned immediately after placing theni- 
 I selves on the right of the reviewing officer. In re- 
 views of divisions and corps, each Ijattalicm, after its 
 1 rear has passed the reviewing officer tliirty yards, 
 ! takes the double time for one hundred yards in or- 
 der not to interfere with the march of the column in 
 rear. The troops having passed the reviewing offic- 
 ! er, return to their camps by the most practicable 
 j route, being careful not to delay the march of the 
 troops in their rear. 
 
 When reviewing a brigade in line, each Colonel 
 takes his post, facing the front, thirty j-ards in front of 
 the center of his battalion: the General takes post. 
 I facing to the front, thirty yards in advance of the 
 j line of Colonels, opposite the center, his staff taken 
 post in single rauk six yards in his rear, the orderlies 
 three yards in rear of the staff. The line being form- 
 ed, the General faces about and commands : 1. Pre- 
 pare for review, 2. Maech. At the first command, the 
 Colonels add : Hear open order. At the command 
 march, each battaliou executes the movement as 
 prescribed for the review of a battalion; the Colonel 
 after commanding front returns to his post, thirt}- 
 yards in front of the center of his battalion. The 
 Colonels having resumed their posts, the General 
 faces to the front. The ranks being open, the re- 
 viewing officer, accompanied by his staff, approaches 
 the General. and halts at thirty yards in front of him 
 to receive the .'^alute. The General then faces to the 
 1 left about and commands : 1. Preaent, 2. Arms. The 
 I arms being presented, the General and Colonels face 
 to the left about and salute. The reviewing officer 
 having acknowdedged the salute, the General faces 
 about, and commands : 1. ('nrry, 2. Arms, and re- 
 sumes his front. The General and staff then return 
 their swords, and join the reviewing officer, the Ge- 
 neral placing himself on his right, the staff place 
 themselves on the right of the stail of the reviewing 
 officer. The reviewing officer then goes to the 
 right of the line, passes in rear of the line of Colonels 
 to the left, and returns in rear of the file-closers to 
 the right, whence he proceeds to his post, in front 
 of the center of the brigade. While the reviewing 
 officer is passiug in front and in rear of each bat- 
 talion, it stands at carry arms, the remainder of the 
 time the Colonel causes it to stand at parade rent. 
 The battalions are brought to the carry at the signal 
 attention fi-om the General given after the review- 
 ing officer leaves the right of the line. While the 
 reviewing officer is passing around the line, the 
 brigade band plaj's. If there be regimental bands, 
 instead of a brigade band, each plays while the re- 
 viewing officer is passing in front and in rear of its 
 battalion. When the reviewiug officer leaves the 
 right of tlie line after passing around the troops, the 
 General returns to his post and draws his sword; the 
 staff draw their swoi'ds at the same time. The Gene- 
 ral then faces about and commands ; 1. (Jloxe order, 
 2.JlARCH.The reviewiug officer having taken his post, 
 the General commands: 1. Cowpanien (oT dirixionx) 
 right wheel, 2. March. At the second command 
 each battalion forms in column of companies or di- 
 visions, in the order prescribed for review of a bat- 
 talion, and each Colonel brings his battalion to r/g/it 
 .ihoiilder itrmi ; \\\v pioneers pn niiitly iilace them- 
 selves twelve yards in front of the Colonel of the lead- 
 ing batt;ili(m. the brig;ide hand twelve yards in 
 front of the pioneers; the (ieiienil is thirty yards in 
 front of tlie band, his staff in single rank, six yards 
 in his rear, his ordei-li<'s three yards in rear of the 
 staff. The General tlien commands : 1. J'anx in re- 
 rieic. 2. Ftrrward, 3. Guide right, 4. Mahch. The 
 column passes in review aceoriliug to the yriucijiles 
 ]irescribed for the review of it liatliilion. The Gene- 
 liil having sainted, places himself on the right of 
 the reviewing oIVkmt, his sl;ilf ;it llie same time [ilace 
 thi'ms<'lves in single nod; on the right of the sliilT of 
 the reviewingotlieer.the (irderlies place themselves in 
 rear of the siiilT. Tlielcuid wheels <iut of the column.
 
 HEVIEW. 
 
 (575 
 
 HEVIEW. 
 
 placcH itsrlf (ipposiU' the reviewiiirr otllccr, iind ion- coliiiiwi of coinpiiniiH or ilivlnionn Ui the riijli 
 
 lien it follows (;oiiiiiiun(l : I. I'hhk in ricirip, 'i. Fiiru-ard, A. 
 
 A\\., anil 
 tinucH to pliiy lill llio ri'iir liiiH pn.MHi'd, wlii'ii it follows coiiiiiiund : I. J'nxii in rnine, 'i. h'liriraril, A. (JuOJe 
 the rear l)iilliiliori ; llii! IniiiipcliTS, or llclil-imiHir, j n'^/ii. Tlir (iiMUTiil of ilivJHioii orilcm llii' /wni'nrrf 
 Hoiiiid till! iimrili, lIoiiriHlirs, or nilllcH, iih tlii? rolor i Hoiiiidi'd, wliii.'li bciiiif ri-|MMilcil. tlii-iliviHJon munlii-H 
 of ciicli Imttidion wiliitcH. If tlicri' hi- rririiiu'iiliil | in ri:vii'W, ronforiiiiiin lolln' prinrlplfM pn m-rllMil for 
 band.s, each wliri'ls out of the coliiinii afli-r pjtHHinK i tlu! rovii'W of a liriv;uilr. Wtiin tin.- column inforrninl 
 llirrrvicwiii^ ollicrr, and irasi'H to play aH Hooii as lln' KtalT of I hi- (iiin ral of divihioii, i-xiipl llir Adjiit- 
 thr rear i-oiiipaiiy of ilM hallalion liaH passid. Tlir i ant (irnrral anil AidiK-di -ramp, plan- liii-m-ilviH in 
 band lliiii iiiarilns on the Hank of tlir liallalioii and j Hinuli- rank tliirlv varilKJii front of llii' li.nrrul of tin; 
 places itsilf in its riarafliTllir tianil of Ihr hatlalinn li'iidii').^ bri;;adc. tiir divinion lla;; and ordrrlii-K in 
 next in rear has wlii'ilcd out of the column. 'I'hc their rear. While the trooiw are a(ipriiiiiliiiii; there- 
 rear of the column liaviuf; passed Ihc reviewiii); ofll- j vie\vini;onicer, the General of divinion, uml (ifUiTn\» 
 ccr, the battalions, unless otherwise directed, return ; of bri){aileH, accompanied by their Adjutants (ieneml 
 to their quarters, and the (leneraland stall salute , and Aides-de-ianip, (;o where they can be«t observe 
 the reviewini; oflicers. The salute beintf ackuowl- 
 edi;ed, liTuiinales the review. 
 
 When revicwinj; a bri^'ade in line of masses, the 
 
 General and stall' face to (he front. The reviewing 
 oflicer havini; halted at thirty yards from the Gen- 
 eral, the latter faces about and comnuinds; 1. Pren- 
 ent, 2. AuMs. Thesalute beinjiacUnowled^'ed, arms 
 are carried; the reviewinij ollicer then passes around 
 the brii^ade as before, the lialtalions reniiiinini; at a 
 cdrri/; if there be regimental bands, but one plays 
 while the reviewinj; ollicer is passim; around tlie 
 troops. The reviewins; ollicer having taken his 
 post.thc General conunands: 1. lialUiUimn, 2. Clintxje 
 dirertiiin hy tin', hfljiank.'i. March, 4. GuuUnJt. Posts. 
 The General then commands: 1. Pn*s in revi'tin, 2. 
 Fitrirnrd. 'A. (iuiile right. 4. March. At the third 
 command, the Colonel of the lirst comniand.s : 1. 
 Take irlieeling dintniiri . 2. (tuidf rigid. At the com- 
 mand tiiarcli. the leading battalion takes wheeling 
 liislaucc; the other battalions, by command of their 
 
 the march, each placing him^i-lf in front of his slulT, 
 when the head of his column arrives at llfty yurdu 
 from the reviewing oOicer. The (ieneral of division 
 having .sainted, i)laces himself on the right of there- 
 viewing ollicer; his Hag, BlafT, and orderlies, at the 
 same time promptly |)lace theniMelveH on Ihe'right 
 of the slalT and the orderlies of the reviewing ofH- 
 cer. 
 
 Kacli l)rigade Commander linving saluted, place* 
 himself on the right of the (ieneral of division; hlH 
 statT, Hag, and orderliis, at the same time arrange 
 themselves on the right of the staff and orderlies of 
 thedivision. The bandof each brigade ceases to plu)- 
 as soon as the colors of tlic rear battalion Imve xaluted 
 the reviewing ollicer. 
 
 When reviewing a division of infantry in three 
 lines, each brigade is in line, the distance between 
 brigades being one hundred yards. The division ii" 
 prei>ared for review at the signal fittfiili'm ; the 
 brigades are successively presented to the reviewing 
 
 Colonels, take wheeling distance in time to follow ] officer, as previously explained, except that the re- 
 the battalion preceding in the order prescribed for viewing officer passes around each brigade, in front 
 review. If the General commands : I. In column of, and rear, before proceeding to receive the salute of 
 cmipnniex. pfurn in rmiiw, each Colonel, as soon as his | the brigade next in rear. Having passed around the 
 battalion has taken wheeling distance, commands: ! rear brigade, the General of division causes the 
 1. liiglit. by (■miipiiitiiii.2. JIarch, 3. Guide rigid. | i7<«<>7i<wi to be sounded. At this signal, which is re- 
 Wli'en reviewing a division in line, the brigades peated, each brigade commander closes ranks and 
 are formed in line as prescribed for the review of a ' wheels into column of companies or divisions to the 
 brigade, with an interval of sixty yards between ' right. The General of the leading brigade gives the 
 brigades . Ou the arrival of the "reviewing officer, t commands for passing in review ; the Generals of the 
 the Major General commanding the division causes [ center and rear brigades bring them to "rdfr arm* 
 his trumpeter to sound the (/«i'«</"h; at this i^vina.\.\&i\CLparmlerextoTinplnnif.it. At the signal /or- 
 reijealed in each brigade, the brigade Commanders , micrf, repeated in the leading brigade, the brigade 
 prepare the brigades for review.' after which the moves forward ; the Generals of the other brigades 
 Commanders of the center and left brigades bring give the commands for marching in review, causing 
 
 them to iirdrr iiniis and piir/ide ir.it. The reviewing 
 officer and Genenil of division then go to a point 
 thirty yards in front of the General of the right bri- 
 gade and halt, when the General of brigacle com- 
 mands : 1. I'rt'nent, 2. Arms. The salute beincr ac- 
 
 ihem to change direction to the left, or half left, in 
 time to follow'^at sixty yards in rear of the brigade 
 preceding. The review is completed as previously 
 cxplainetl. 
 When reviewing a division in line of masses, each 
 
 knowledged by the reviewing oflicer, the General ' brigade is formed as prescribed for review in line of 
 commands, 1 . 'Carry. 2. Arms. The reviewing oHi- ' masses. The arms are presented, and the reviewing 
 cer accompanied bvihe (ieneral of division.' then officer passes around the brigades, as prescribed for 
 goes to the right of "the right brigade, passes along the review of the division in line. Each brigade, 
 its front to "its lefl, and proceeds in front of while the reviewing officer is passing in its front and , 
 the General of the center brigade to receive the sa- rear, stands at c<trry armn. the remainderof the time 
 lute. The General of the centre brigade causes the the General causes it to stand at imnulf rt>t. The re- ^ 
 aUnitinn \o \w sounded when the reviewing officer viewing officer havingpassed arounil the troops, t he 
 approaches its right, and /);w((,<,< (/;-m.« as biMTore ex- ' signal otUnlion is given, at which the (Jenerals of 
 plained. Having receiveil the salute, the reviewing \ brigade cause their battalions to change direction by 
 officer goes to the riirht of the center briirade, passes I the left flank: the General of the leading brigade 
 along its front to I he lefl. and then proceeds to a ! gives the commands for passing in review in cohinin 
 point thirty yards in front of the General of the left i of companies or divisions ; the Generals of the other 
 brigade, which brigade is presented as explained for I brigades bring them Xo vrder^arnu auA pa nide^nit or 
 
 the second. The (ieneral having passed along the ' ' ' ' '' " ' "'"' 
 
 front of the left brigade, returns to the right of the di- 
 vision, passing in rear of the line. The band of each , .... 
 
 brigade plays" as the reviewiii"- ollicer passes along [explained in the review of a brigade in liii 
 
 the front of the brigade, and also while he is passing The Generals of the center and rear br,. 
 
 in its rear. If there be regimental bauds instead of the commands for marching in review in time l^, l..|. 
 
 a brigade baud, each plays while the reviewing offi- ! low the brigade preceding at the distance of sixty 
 
 cer is passing in front and rear of its battalion. 
 
 When the reviewing otficer passes the right of the 
 
 division from the rear, the General of the division 
 
 causes the ntUntion to besounded. At this signal 
 
 the brigade Commanders close the ranks, wheel into 
 
 /■« plaefrrxt. At the signal forirard. reiK-ated in the 
 leading brigade, the b"rigaile moves forward, the 
 battalions executing the movement sue '--i^' iv -.s 
 
 yards. Inpassing around the division, the r. 
 ing officer mav pass between the diflerent ba' 
 from front to rear, and from rear to front. 
 
 A corps of infantry-, in line of ma.sscs, or in three 
 lines of masses with "a distance of one hundred yards
 
 REVISION . 
 
 (J7(i 
 
 REVOLUTION. 
 
 between divisions, is reviewed as follows: On the 
 arrival of the reviewing officer, the General com- 
 manding the corps causes the attention to be sounded, 
 which is repeated by the trumpeters of the General;-, 
 of division ; each division is presented by brigade, as 
 explained for the review of a divisonin line of mass- 
 es : the General of division, accompanied by his staff, 
 joins the reviewing officer and corps commander, in 
 front of his right brigade, and accompanies them to 
 receive the sahitesfrom the brigades, and while piiss- 
 iug in front and in rear of his division ; he then re- 
 mains near the right of his division. The reviewing 
 officer having passed around the troops, tlie General 
 commanding the corps causes the attentiim to be 
 sounded, which being repeated by the trumpeters of 
 division and brigade conmianders, each brigade is 
 formed in column of masses to the right. The General 
 commanding the corps then causes "lhe/(';'!r(H'n! tnbe 
 sounded, which bein^ repeated by the trumpeters of 
 the first division, the first division execules the move- 
 ment, as previously explained; the other divisions 
 stand //( place rest, the Generals causing the forward 
 to be sounded in time to follow the divison preceding 
 at a distance of one hundred yards. The troops may 
 march in review in column of masses. If there be 
 regimental bands only, tlie one at the head of each 
 brigade wheels out of the column, when opposite the 
 reviewing officer. While on the march and passing 
 in review, but one band in each brigade plays at a 
 time. On approaching the reviewing officer, the Gen- 
 eral commamiing the corps places himself about 
 fifty yards in front of the General of the first division ; 
 his staff place themselves in single rank six yards in 
 his rear, the flag and orderlies three yards in rear of 
 the staff. The General having saluted, places himself 
 on the right of the reviewing officer : the staff, fol- 
 lowed by the flag and orderlies, place themselves on 
 the right of the staff and orderlies of the reviewing 
 officer. The Generals of division, while their divisions 
 are passing in review, place themselves on the right 
 of the corps commander ; each brigade commander, 
 in like manner, places himself on the right of the di- 
 vision commander ; their staffs, followed by their 
 flags and orderlies, place themselves on the right of 
 the staff and orderlies of corps or division command- 
 ers. When more than one corps is to be reviewed. 
 the reviewing officer does not go to the front of each \ 
 brigade commander to receive'lhe salute. The Gene- 
 rals of brigade facing tlie line present arms and salute 
 as the reviewing officer arrives opposite his riffht ; 
 he then causes arms to be carried and resumes his 
 front. The march in review is conducted as explain- 
 ed for a corps. When troops of different arms are 
 reviewed in line they are arranged from riglit to left 
 in the following order: one. infantry ; two'.' mounted 
 artillery; third, cavalry. In the saniearm, regulars, 
 vohmlcers, and militia are posted in line from right 
 to left ill the order named. 
 
 REVISION. — A n-examiuation for any correction. 
 Where an officer, who orders a Court-.Vlartial, does 
 not approve their proceedintrs. he may, liy the cus- 
 tom of war. return them to tlie Court f,>r /{evi-iwii, 
 and no additional evidence can he taken on such 
 lievision. 
 
 When a record is returned to the Conn for 7iV- 
 vuion, the subsequent proceedings thereon should 
 be recorded as follows ; 
 
 188 , (or memorandum) containing the instruc- 
 tions to the Court, and the reasons of the reviewing 
 authority for requiring a reconsideration of the find- 
 ings (or sentence, or correction of the record), w^as 
 then read to the Court by the Judge Advocate, and 
 
 is attached to the record and marked " ." 
 
 The Court then maturely deliberated upon and 
 considered the said communication, and the reasons 
 set forth for revi.sion; and, on motion, (a.) now re- 
 voke the foregoing findings, and having maturely 
 considered the evidence adcluced. find, elc, etc.; f/r 
 (A.) now revoke the foregoing sentence, and do sen- 
 tence, etc., etc.. or. (r.) respectfully adheres to the 
 
 foregoing findings and sentence, — ^^ ; or, (d.) cor- 
 
 rects the record by, etc., etc. 
 
 Colonel, U. S. Artillery, 
 
 President. 
 
 BABRACKS, 
 
 ' . 188 . 
 
 The Court reconvened with closed doors, pursuant 
 to the following order, at ten o'clock a. m.: 
 {Here insert eopy of order. ) 
 
 Pkesent : 
 
 * * 1, 
 
 Absent . 
 
 * « * ♦ 
 
 The comnninieation from the Commanding Gen- 
 eral, Department of the , of date , 
 
 l.«i Lieutenant U. B. Artillery, 
 
 Judge Advocate. 
 
 It is always proper for the Court, sliould it so de- 
 sire, to give the reasons for adhering to its original 
 findings and sentence. 
 
 No witnesses, not previously called, can legally be 
 examined before a reconvened Court. 
 
 When, however, a Court has erred in its rulings 
 in the rejection of a witness for supposed incompe- 
 tency, or in rejecting offered documentary evidence, 
 or in not permitting a proper and legal question to 
 be put to a witness, or in refusing to summon a cer- 
 tain material witness asked for by the prisoner, and 
 the reviewing authority has reconvened the Court 
 for a reconsideration of its action, the Court may, 
 should it concur in the views submitted, proceed to 
 remedy such error by revoking its findings and sni- 
 tenee. and correct the record by permitting the in- 
 troduction of the excluded testimony. Before the 
 Court thus proceeds to correct the record, the pris- 
 oner and his counsel must resume their seats and 
 the record so state. In consetiuence of receiving 
 such excluded testimony, the other party maj' liave 
 to call witnesses in rebuttal, which is authorized. 
 See C<>iri-t.i-.Vartial. 
 
 REVOLUTION.— Any extensive change in the Con- 
 stitution of a country suddenly brought about. 
 The two most important events in modern history 
 known under this name are the English Revolution 
 of the 17th century, and the French Revolution of 
 the 18th. The former began in the early part of 
 the reign of Charles I., with the struggle between 
 that King and his Parliament. In 1G43 the struggle 
 became a civil war, in which the Parliament ob- 
 tained the ascendency, and brought Charles to the 
 block in 1649. A llepublic followed, under the 
 Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, which was suc- 
 ceeded in 1600 by the restoration of llonarchy in the 
 person of Charles II.: but the arbitrary rule of 
 James II. brought the King and the people again 
 into antagonism; and, .James having fled the 
 country, William III. w;is called to the throne 
 under such conditions ;ind s;ife-guards as secured 
 the Balance of iheConstilulion. The French Revo- 
 lution was a violent reaction agaiust that Absolu- 
 tism which had come in the course of time to sup- 
 plant the old feudal institutions of tlie country. It 
 began with an outbreak of insurrectionary move- 
 ments at Paris in July, ITS'.t, including the destruc- 
 tion of the Bastille". On .)ami;iry 21, 17113, King 
 Louis XVI. was lieheaded. The Christian religion 
 was deposed, the sacredness of the reptdilic and 
 worship of reason solemnized, and a disastrous 
 reign of blood and terror followed; which was 
 brought to an end in 17i)4, when ]{obespierre him- 
 self suffered on the guillotine the fate to which he 
 had condemned countU'ss multitudes of his country- 
 men. Among other important revolutions in the 
 modern world are the American Hevohition of \T7r>, 
 bv which the United States threw off their depend- 
 ence on Great Britain ; the French Revolution of
 
 HEVOLDTION. 
 
 (;; 
 
 HEVOLUTIOH. 
 
 IHIiO, wliirli drove Clmrlcs X. into exile, and mined 
 Louis I'liilippe.Duke of OrleiiiiH to the Iliroiie liy llie 
 will of till' people; us iilso llie Kevoliilioii of IHln, 
 when Fnuice rose ni;aiiist I>oiiis I'liilippe, tiiiil 
 adopted for a time n repiihlii uii form of ffoverii- 
 ment, tiie revoliilioiiary eoiiliis;ioii spreudiii^ leiii- 
 jmnirily over most of Coiilininliil Kiirope. By llie 
 llaliiiM Uevolulion of lUfi!) 00. tli(^ various iiiinor 
 Hovereii;iis of Italy were ilriven into e\ile, and the 
 whole of the |)eiiinsiihi Ijciamc-, Nvilli llie JMCorpora- 
 tion of llie lioiiian 'I'errilories in IS70. sulijecl lo 
 Vioior Kmmaiuiel. The followlni,' oliservalioiis, in 
 lH(ii),prior to the third Freiieli |{i-piililic,are pertiiieiil. 
 
 The French Uevolulion is an event so extraordi- 
 nary that it must needs be the starting-point in any 
 series of (•onsiderations on the alTairs of our own 
 time. Nothini: of importance happens in France 
 that is not a direct coiiseciucnce of this capital fact, 
 which has llioroiishly changed the whole condilion 
 of life in that couiilry. Like all that is ureal, heroic, 
 bold, like everylhiii'; which exceeds ihe common 
 measure of human slreiii;lli. Ihe Fri-nch Uevolulion 
 will continue to he for centuries the siihject about 
 which the world will talk, upon which thev will 
 divid<', which will be the occasion of their fricud- 
 shi|is anil their halrcds, which will fiirnisli the --ub- 
 iect of dramas ami novels. In one sense, the French 
 Uevolulion is theijlory of France, the French epopee, 
 par excellence; but. almost always, nations who 
 have in their history an extraordinary event, expiate 
 it by lonn sutTeriii};, and often by the hiss of their 
 national existence. It was thus with .Imhea. with 
 Greece, and witli It;dy. For hiivimr cnated thinirs 
 which are unii|ue. by which the world lives and 
 thrives, these countries have parsed throUi;h cenlu- 
 ries of hunnliation and natiouid death. National 
 life is somelhini; limited, mediocre, confined. To 
 do what is extraordinary, of universal interest, these 
 narrow trammels must be rent asunder ; but in 
 reuding them the nation itself is rent ; for the nation 
 is but an assembl;ii;i^ of prejuilices and statical. 
 ary ideas which mankind as a wlioh' would re- 
 fuse to accept. The nations which created religion. 
 art, science, empire, the church, the papacy (all 
 things universal ami not national), were more than 
 nations; but at the same time less than nations in 
 the sense that they were the victims of their work. 
 We think that the Uevolulion will have for France 
 analogous con.<eiiuences, but less durable, because 
 the work of France was less great and universal 
 than the work of .Jmhea, Greece, and Italy. The 
 exact parallel of the present situation of that country 
 seems to be that of Germany in the seventeenth ceri- 
 tiirj'. In the sixteenth century, Germany aecom- 
 pU.slied for mankind a work of the first order — the 
 Reformation. She expiated it in Ihe seventeenth 
 by !"i extreme ]iolilic!d abasement. It is probable 
 that the ninetecnlh century will in like maimer lie 
 considereil in the history of France as the expiation 
 of the Uevolulion. Neither nations nor individuals 
 can with impunity deviate from Ihe middle course, 
 of feasibility and practical good sense. 
 
 If the Uevolulion has L,iven to France a poetic 
 and romantic position of the first order, it is certain, 
 on the other hand. that, in view nuTcly of the re- 
 quirements of ordinary statesmiinship. it has led her 
 into a strange p;itli. The end which France sought 
 to reach by the Uevolulion was that which all 
 modem nations pursue: a frame of society just, 
 honest, humane, guaranteeing the rights and the 
 liberty of all wiili the least possible sacrilicc of the 
 rights and the lilierty of each. Fnmce is to-day, after 
 shedding riviTs of blood, still very far from this end; 
 whiK- Kngland. which h;is not proceeded liy the way 
 of revolutions, has almost reached it. France, in 
 other words. otTers the strange spectacle of a 
 country tardily striving to come up with the nations 
 she once scorned as laggards, and learning in the 
 school of the peoples to whom she had claimed to 
 ^ive lessons,— painfully striving to accomplish by 
 
 I imitation the work In which tihu fancied Kho dU. 
 playeil a high di-gree of originality. The cauw- of 
 this hisloric Bingularily is very xiiiipli-. In i.;,ile of 
 the extraordinary arilor w hicli aiiiiiiateil Jier, France, 
 at the end of tin- eighli-i iilli century, wan very 
 ignorant of the conditions upon whieh it In itonnihlu 
 for a nation and mankind itnelf to i-xinl. lli-r 
 prodigious uiiderlaking implied ninny errorit : itlic 
 utterly miHiinderslood the laws of modern IiImtIv. 
 Whether we regret it or rejoice at at, modern 
 liberty is by no meanH the liberty of anti'piity, nor 
 that of the republics of the .Middle Acei.. It in 'much 
 more real, but much le.ss brilliant. Thucyilirlen and 
 Machiavelli would not in tin- leant iindemtand it; 
 an<l yet a subject of (^ur-en Victoria in u Ihoiinunil 
 times more free than was ever any citizen of Sparta, 
 of .Mheiis. of Venice, or of Florence. No more of 
 those feverish republican agitations full of granileur 
 and danger ; no more of those cities tilled with a re. 
 lined, active, and aristocratic population; but in 
 their stead, great inert masses, where intelligence l» 
 conhned to the few. but which give a powerful help 
 to civilization, in putting at the service of Ihe State, 
 by means of taxation and the conscription, a mar- 
 villous treasure of abnegation,, docility, and gooil- 
 
 I will. Of this form of social life, which is assuredly 
 that which least consumes a nation and best pre. 
 serves its strength, England has given us the model. 
 England has arrived at Ihe most liberal form of 
 government which the world has yet known, solely 
 by the development of the institutions she pjissessed 
 in the Midille Ages, and not by revolutions. Liberty 
 in Engliind is not dirived from Croniwell, nor from 
 the republicans of l()4!l. It is the result of hi-r en- 
 tire history; it springs from her ecpial resjU'Ct for 
 the rights of the King, the rights of the nobility, the 
 rights of the comm<ms, and of corporations of every 
 kind. France followed the opposite course. The 
 King had long since made a clean swe.-p of the 
 rights of nobh-s and commons, — the nation made a 
 clean swec]) of the riglits of the King. She- pro- 
 ceeded pliilosiipbically in a matter where she should 
 have proceeded historically; she thought liberty 
 was to be established by the sovereignty of the 
 people and in the name of a central authority, 
 whereas liberty is only to be won by successive 
 petty, local con(|uests, by slow refonns. England, 
 who does not pride herself upon any philosophy ; 
 England, who has never broken with her tniditions, 
 except in a single moment of temporary aberration, 
 followed by a prompt repentance; England, who. 
 instead of the absolute dogma of the sovereignty of 
 the people, admits cmly the more moderate principle 
 that there can be no government without the people 
 nor against the jjcople — England is to-day a 
 thousand times freer than France, who once so 
 proudly raised the philosophic banner of the rights 
 of man. The truth is. Iliat |)opular sovereignty is 
 not the foimilation of constitutional government. \ 
 State so established, after the Frencli fashion, is too 
 stronsr; while far from guaranteeing all libiTlies, it 
 absorbs all of them ; and its form is either the pop- 
 ular convention, or else despotism. The natural 
 result of the Revolution could not. after all. have 
 liccn anvthing very different from the t'onsulaty and 
 the Empire : the natural result of ?ucli a conception 
 of society could not have been anything else than a 
 system of administration, a net-work of prefects, a 
 narrow civil code, a machine for squeezing the na- 
 tion, a swaddlinsband in which it was impossible 
 for it to live and irrow. Nothing is more unjust than 
 the hatred with which the French nidical school re- 
 sard the work of Napoleon. The work of Napoleon, 
 if we except some errors which were jHTsoaal to that 
 extraordinarv man. is. in line, nolhins more than 
 the revolutionary- programme realized in its 
 possible parts. IIa:i .Napoleon never existed, the 
 final constitution of the Republic would not have 
 differed essentially from the constitution of the year 
 VIII. .V very false idea, in many respects, of hu.
 
 REVOLUTION. 
 
 678 
 
 EEVOIHTION. 
 
 man society is in fact at the bottom of all French re- 
 volutionary attempts. The original error was at first 
 hidden under the magnificent outburst of enthus- 
 iasm for liberty and tlie right which filled the first 
 years of the Kevolution: but this fine enthusiasm 
 "once spent, tliere remained a social theory which 
 was dominant under the Directory, the Consulate, 
 and the Empire, and marked its impress deep upon 
 all the creative efforts of the time. According to 
 this tlieory, which we may well qualify as material- 
 ism in politics, society has nothing of a sacred or 
 religious character. It has only one end, which is, 
 thai:' the individuals composing it may enjoy tlie 
 greatest possible sum of well-being, without concern- 
 mg themselves about the ideal destiny of mankind. 
 Why talk about elevating and ennobling the human 
 conscience ? The onh' question is how to satisfy tlie 
 greatest mmiber. to assiire to all a sort of happiness, 
 vulgar and relative only it must assuredly be, for a 
 generous mind would disdain such happiness, and 
 would revolt against the social system wliieh aimed 
 to secure it. In view of an enlightened philosophy, 
 society is a great providential fact : it is established. 
 not by man, but by nature itself, in order that intel- 
 lectual and moral life may be developed on the sur- 
 face of our planet. There is no such thing in polit- 
 ical philosophy as man isolated from all companion- 
 ship. Human society, the mother of every ideal, is 
 the direct product of the supreme will, which 
 has decreed that the good, the true, the beautiful, 
 shall have their contemplators in the universe. This 
 transcendent function of humanity is not performed 
 by means of the simple coe.\istenee of individuals. 
 Society is a hierarchy. Every individual composing 
 it is noble and sacred, every being (even the animal) 
 has its rights; but all are not equal; all are members of 
 a vast body, parts of an immense organism, which is 
 accomplishing a divine work. The negation of this 
 divine work i^ the error into which Frencli democra- 
 cy easily falls. Considering the only object of soci- 
 ety to be the satisfaction of the individual, they are 
 led to disregard the rights of ideas, the siqiremacy of 
 mind. Nof comprehending, moreover, the inequal- 
 ity of races, because ethnographical differences have 
 in fact disappeared within her limits from time hn- 
 raemorial, France has learned to conceive of social 
 perfection as a kind of universal mediocrity. 
 
 If man did not assume the right of making the 
 animal kingdom subordinate to his needs, human 
 life woukl become impossible. It would be scarce- 
 ly more possible were we to hold to the abstract con- 
 ception which inaKes us regard all men as bringing 
 with them into the world equal rights to wealth and 
 social rank. Such a state of things, though just in 
 appearance, would be the end of all virtue ; there 
 would be, inevitably, war and hatred between the 
 two sexes, since nature has created here, in tlie very 
 heart cf the human species, an undeniable difference 
 in the part to be played by each. TIk' well-to-do 
 citizen tliinks it right that, after destroying royalty 
 and hereditary nobility, we should slopat liereditary | 
 w'ealtli. The working man thinks it right that, hav- j 
 ing abolislied liereditary wealth, we should stop at 
 the inequality of the sexes, ami even, if he be a per- j 
 son of some sense, at the inequality of strength and 
 capacity. The most ardent Utopian, having sup- 
 pressed, in imagination, all ineijualily aminig men, 
 still admits imin's right to make use of ;uiimals ac- 
 corilinL' to his needs. Anil yet, it is no more just 
 that one man should be born rich, than it is tliat an- 
 other should be born wit li a social distinction; nei- 
 ther the one nor the other has earned his jiosition by 
 his own lalior. Nobility, it is Jilwavs argued, has 
 its origin in merit ; and as it is perfectly clear that 
 merit is not hereditary.it is easy to show lliiit heredi- 
 tary nobility is an absurdity. The fallacy of this 
 reasoning consists in the itverlasting i-rror of making 
 the state the arbiter of a sort of distriliutive justice. 
 The object of rank, regarded as an institution of pul)- 
 lie utility, was not to reward, but to stimulate merit. 
 
 to render certain kinds of merit possible, and even 
 easy. Had it no other effect than to show that jus- 
 tice is not to be looked for in the official constitution 
 of society, it would not be altogether useless. The 
 device "To the most worthy," rarely applies in pol- 
 itics. 
 
 The middle class is somewhat self deceived, there- 
 fore, in thinking to establish society on a just basis, 
 by means of its system of competitive examinations, 
 special schools, and regular promotion. A man of 
 the people can easily demonstrate that a child born 
 of poor parents is excluded from these competiti^s, 
 and he will maintain that perfect justice will not be 
 done until all are placed from their birth in identic- 
 ally the same conditions. In other words, if the no- 
 tion of distributive justice for each individual be rig- 
 orously carried out, no organized society is possible. 
 A nation which shoulil follow out such a programme 
 would condemn itself to incurable weakness. Sup- 
 pressing the right of inheritance and thereby destroy- 
 ing the family, or leaving it optional, it would soon 
 be got the better of, either by those portions of its 
 own people who still adhered to the old order of 
 things, or by foreign nations who still retained these 
 ancient principles. The race which triumphs is al- 
 waj's that in which the family and property are most 
 strongly' organized. Humanity is a mysterious lad- 
 der, a series of resulting forces proceeding one from 
 the other. The manv laborious generations of very 
 hard working common people and peasants render 
 possible the existence of a well-to-do and frugal mid- 
 dle class, which in its turn renders possible tlie man 
 exempt from material labor, and devoted wholly to 
 matters of universal interest. Each in his station is 
 the guardian of traditional usages which are of im- 
 portance to the progress of civilization. There is 
 but one moralit}', there is but one knowledge, there 
 is only one education. There is a single intellectual 
 and moral whole, one glorious work of the htiman 
 mind to which all. except the egoist, contribute, 
 however small a part, and in which, in different de- 
 grees, all share. AVe ignore human nature unless, 
 we admit that whole classes of men must live bj" the 
 glorv and the enjoyments of others. The democrat 
 regards as a dupe the peasant of the old regime, who 
 works for his noble masters, loves them, and rejoices 
 in the high estate maintained by others at the ex- 
 pense of his own toil. Doubtless all this is absurd, 
 where life is narrow and confined, where everything 
 is done within closed doors, as in our time. In the 
 present state of society, the advantages that one man 
 has over another have become things personal and 
 exclusive: to enjoy the pleasure or the rank of an- 
 other seems mere foolishness; but it has not alwaj's 
 been so. When Gubbio or Assisi saw the wedding 
 cavalcade of its yoimg Lord file past, no one was 
 jealous. Then all shared the life of all: the poor 
 man enjoyed the wealth of the rich man. the monk 
 the pleasures of the worldling, the worldling the 
 prayers of the monk; for :ill. there was art, poetry, 
 religion. Can the cold considerations of the econo- 
 mist supply the place of all this? Will any such 
 considerations suffice to liridle the arrogance of a 
 democracy confident in its strength, and which, not 
 having been stopped by the fact of royalty, is very 
 likely not to be stoiiped by the fact of properly? 
 Will there be voices eloi|uenl enough to make youths 
 of eigliteen accept the reasoning of the aged, to 
 persuade whole classes — young, ardent, believing in 
 pleasure, and upon whom enjoyment has not yet 
 palled— that it is not possible for all to enjoy, for 
 all to be well-bred, delicate, virtuous even, in a re- 
 fined sense, but that there must of necessity be 
 learned, well-bred, refined, virtuous people of leis- 
 ure, in whom and by whom the rest have tlieir enjoy- 
 ment and their taste of 1 lie II Ic.'d? K vents will show. 
 The superiority of the church, and tlie strength which 
 1 still assures lier a future, lies in the fact that she 
 alone understands this, and makes others under- 
 stand it. The cliurcli well knows that the best men
 
 KEVOLUTION. 
 
 r,7U 
 
 HEVOLDTIOH. 
 
 are often the vietims of llie 8iip<,Tioriiy*t)f i lif fso-callt'd 
 
 hii^licr cliiHscs : lull hIic Unows iUho tliiit iialiiri! Iiiik 
 iiili'iidrd thai, hiiiiiiin lilr slidiilil liiivr iiiiiny hIi|);<'S, 
 Slic kiinwsanil slic ciinfcsMcs llial il is Ilic if;riirrain'i- 
 of inaiiy thai makes piissihh' Ihr ('(hicaliuii of (iiic ; 
 Ihat it IS tlu; tiiil of iiiaiiy lliat iicrinils llii' iiohli' life 
 of a siiiall iiiiiiiIkt: but sh<- doi'S not call liu'sc pri- 
 vilcgrd, nor Ihosc wronjicil, for llio work iiiaiikiiid 
 has to do is, in her eyes, one and indivisililc. Ahro- 
 (ialc Ihis ijrcat law, assiuii lo carh iiidiviijuai llic 
 saiiic rank, willi ('(iiial ri^iils. wilh no Ijoiiiid of siib- 
 ordiiiiilioii li> a coiiiMmii lask ; you havi> ciioisiii, 
 iiu'iliocrily, isolation, liardiicss of heart, an impossi- 
 bility of true livini;, somelhini; like the life of our 
 (lay, the saddest life ever lived, even for the man of 
 the people. Lookinj; only at the riirhls of individ- 
 uals, it is unjust that one man should be sacriliced 
 to anolher man; but it is not unjust that all should 
 be brou;;lil iiilo niibjec'lion lo Hie one t;ri'at purpose 
 which mankind is workini; out. It is for relii;ion to 
 explain lliese mysteries, and to olVer in Ihe ideal 
 world superabundant coiisolalions for all the sacri- 
 fices made here below. 
 
 Tlii.s is what the Uevolulion, afler it had lost llie 
 {jraud and sacred eiilliiisiasm of its earlier days, did 
 not sullicicnlly understand. Tlie Kevolution became 
 finally irreliLCious and atheistic. The society men 
 dreamed of in those sad days following; llie fever lit 
 when they were strivini; to collect their scattered 
 senses, was a sort of regiment composed of material- 
 ists, and in which disci|)line held the jilacc of virtue. 
 The wholly nepilive basis which the hard and un- 
 imajjinative men of Ihat day assii;ned to Fnnch so- 
 ciety I'un only produce a surly and ill-mannered peo- 
 ple: their code, the <ilVsprini; of <listrusl, l.iys down 
 as a lirst princijilc that the value of evcrytliini!; may 
 be estimated in money, that is to say in plca.sure. 
 The. whole moral theory of these so-calli'd founders 
 of our laws may be summed up in jealousy. Xow 
 jealou.^y is the foundation of ecjuality, but not of 
 liberty; puttinij man constantly on his guard against 
 the eneroaehinents of his neighbors, it renders cour- 
 tesy between the several eliisses impossible. There 
 can be no society without ;ilVection, without tradi- 
 tions, without respect, without mutual amenity. 
 With its false notion of virtue which it confounds 
 with the stern vindication of what each one regards 
 as his right, the democratic school fails to see that a 
 nation's great virtue consists in submitting to tradi- 
 tional inecpialities. For this school the most virtu- 
 ous nice is not the race which practices sclf-sacritice. 
 devotion to duly, idealism in all ils forms, but the 
 most turbulent, that which makes the most revo- 
 lutions. The most intilligent democrats are much 
 surprised when they are Told that there really are 
 virtuous races still in the world— the I^itliuanians, 
 for example, the Ditmarschers, tlu' Pomeranians — 
 races that are still feud;il. full of vigorous reserved 
 strength, uiiderstamling duly like Ivant, and for 
 whom Ihe word revolution has no meaning. The 
 first result of this ill-natured and superlicial philoso- 
 phy, too soon substituted for that of the .Montes- 
 quicus and the Turgots, was the suppression of roy- 
 alty. To minds imbued wilh a materialistic philos- 
 ophy, royalty necessarily seemed an anomaly. Very 
 fewpersons," in 1792, understood that the continu- 
 ance of good things requires to be guarded by insti- 
 tutions which are. if you please, a privilege for some 
 but which are organs of national life, without which 
 certain needs must necessarily sulfer. These little 
 fortresses, in which were deposited for siife-keepiug 
 treasures belonging to society, seemed feudal castles. 
 All the time-honored subordinations of rank, all his- 
 toric covenants, all symbols were repudiated. Royal- 
 ty was the lirsl of these covcn;uils, a covenant dating 
 liaek a thousand yi-.irs, ;i symbol which the puerile 
 phiU)sophy of history, then in vogue. could notcom- 
 preluuul. No nation has ever created a legend more 
 complete than that of this grand C'apetiau monarchy, 
 a sort of religion, born ;it 8t. Deuis, consecrated at 
 
 KheiniR by the anwmbly of bUiiop*. having Um rlghu. 
 
 Its lIliirKy, lis holy iiiiipiilla. lln orillninnie. 
 
 'I'o every nationidiiy there Ih ii corrfH|ioniliti|; 
 dyiiusty, in which are incurnated the |;eiiiiiii and the 
 interests of Hie nation ; a iialioirH coiiHcioiisiich'- in 
 never fixed anil linn unlit il has coiilriicleil un iiidiH. 
 soluble alliance wilh a family which bindH ilhilf by 
 the I'oiitruct to have no inlerenl dinllnct from ihat o'f 
 
 , the nation. Never was Ih'.s idenl ideal ion mi per/eel 
 as between France and Ihe hoiisi- of f'apet. Il wb» 
 more than a inoimrcliy, it was a prii-sifiood: 1'riei.t 
 and King, like DavirL the KiuL' •<{ France wears Ihe 
 cope and liohls the sword, liod i-iiligbiens him in 
 his jiidgmeiils. The King of KnL'land troubles him- 
 
 , self lillle about uislice— he defends his right auainsl 
 
 . his Barons ; and the Kmperorof (iermany cares hiill 
 less — he is foreverinore hiinling among Iiih TvroleiM- 
 
 I niounlaiiis. the round world, meanwhile, rolfing on 
 as it may ; but the King of France '. he is just ; sur- 
 rounded by his valiant men ami his solemn clerks, 
 wielding his hand of juslier-. he is like .Solomon. 
 His coronation, imitated from that of Ihe kings of Is. 
 rael, was something so strange and unique. France 
 had instituted an eiglilh sacnim.'nl, adminislered 
 only at Hlieims,— Ihe sacrament of royalty. The 
 consecrated King performs miracles; he' is invested 
 with an "order"; he is an ecclesiaslical |x-rsonage 
 of till' lirsl rank. To the Pope, who siiminons him 
 lo answer in the name of Goil, he replies, pointing 
 to his sacred unction, " I. too, am of God." lie 
 allows himself unparalleled liberlies with Ihe suc- 
 cessor of St. Peter : once he causes him lo be buf- 
 feted and declared a heretic ; at anolher lime he 
 threatens to have him burned alive; backed by hiK 
 experienced doctors of the (sorbonnc, he reprimanihi 
 him, he deposes him. His most perfect type, not- 
 withstanding, is a canoni/.ed saint. Saint lloiiis, .so 
 pure, so humble, so simple and so strong. He has 
 liis mystic adorers; the good Jean Dare makes no 
 distinction between him and St.. Michael orSl.C'alh- 
 erine; this jxior girl literally lived upon the religion 
 of Kheiins. Incomparable legend I sacred fable! Ami 
 yet the vulgar knife designed for striking off the 
 lieads of criminals was lifted against it I The mur- 
 der of the 21st of January, is, from the idealist's 
 point of view, the most hideous act of materialism, 
 the most shameful avowal of ingratiliide and base- 
 ness, of ignoble meanness and forgetfulness of llie 
 past, that was ever made. 
 
 Do we mean lo say that the old dynasty, whose 
 very memory the newly-organized societv .sought lo 
 obliterate wilh that peculiar rancor wliicii is only 
 felt by the parvenu toward the great noble to whom 
 he owes everything — do we mean to say that ;liis 
 ancient dynasty was not guilty of .serious errors? 
 Certainly it was, and if we were now wrilinir a ge- 
 neral philosophy of French history, we should show 
 that the King. Ihe nobles, the clergy, the parliamenl.s, 
 the cities, the universities of ancient France, had all 
 of them failed in their duly, and Ihat the revolution, 
 isls of 17'J3 merely set their seal lo a series of faults, 
 whose consequences still weigh heavily. Greatness 
 must always lie expiated. France had conceived of 
 
 I her monarihy as somelhiug unlimited. A King after 
 the English fashion, a sort of sladtholder. paid and 
 armed to defend the nation and maintain certain 
 rights, was for her an absunlity. Fmm the l:)ih 
 century, the King of Kngland, constantly at strife 
 with his subjects, and hampered by charters, is lo 
 French poets an object of derision : he is not pow- 
 erful enough. The French Jlonarchy was loo sa- 
 cred a thing: theanointed of the Lord is not lo be 
 controlled. Bossuel was logical in making the the- 
 ory of the King <if Fnince scpiare with Uie Holy 
 Scriptures. Had the King of England pos,scssed ihi.s 
 tincture of mysticism, the barons and commons 
 would not have succeeded in checkmating him. The 
 
 I French Monarchy, lo produce that lirilliant meteor, 
 the reign of Louis XIV., absorlied all the powers of 
 
 the nation. When once the Slate had been constituu
 
 KEVOLUTION. 
 
 680 
 
 KEVOLUTION, 
 
 cd into this powerful unit)', un ler the hand of one 
 ' man, it was incvital)le Unit France should look upon 
 herself as being what the great King had made her, — 
 an all-powerf>d central authority, wilh liberties de- 
 stroyed; and, regarding the King as a superfetation, 
 should treat him like the mold which becomes use- 
 less when once the statue is cast. Thus Richelieu 
 and Louis XIV, were the great revolutionists, the 
 true founders of the Republic. The exact pendant 
 to the colossal royalty of Louis XIV. is the Republic 
 of 1793, with its frightful concentration of power, an 
 unheard-of monster, the like of which had never 
 been seen. Examples of republics are not rare in 
 history; but these republics are cities, or small con- 
 federated states. A centralized republic of thirty 
 millions of souls is absolutelj' without precedent. 
 Given up for four or five years to the vacillations of 
 drunken men, like a Great Eastern in danger of ship- 
 wreck, the enormous machine sank into its natural 
 place, into the hands of a powerful despot, who, at 
 first, with prodigious skill, succeeded in organizing 
 the new movement, but -who ended like all despots. 
 Become insane with priile, he brought upon the 
 country, which had put itself at his mercy, the most 
 cruel humiliation that a nation can endure, and 
 brought about the return of that dynasty which 
 France had expelled with the most degrading in- 
 sults. 
 
 The analogy of such a course of events with 
 wdiat took place in England in the seventeenth 
 cent urj' is easily perceived. Every one was struck 
 by it in 1830, when a national movement substituted 
 for the legitimate branch of the Bourbons, a collat- 
 eral branch more disposed to recognize the new 
 needs. Louis Philippe must have seemed a William 
 III., and it was natural to hope that the final result 
 of so many convulsions would be the peaceable es- 
 tablishment of coustitutional government in France. 
 With this consoling thought, a sort of peace, a little 
 quiet and oblivion of the past, stole over the poor, 
 troubled Frencli mind ; there was a general amnes- 
 ty, even for follies and crimes. It was a great mis- 
 take ; a surprise, the most inconceival)le known in 
 history, was successful : a band of mad-caps whom 
 a constable's staff should have sufliced to restrain, 
 overturned a dynasty upon which the sensible part 
 of the nation had based all their political faith and 
 all tiieir hopes. An hour's want of reflection on 
 the one hand, and an hour of weakness on the other, 
 sufficed to sweep away a theory conceived by the 
 best minds, with, apparently, the most tempting 
 chances of success. Why this singular disaster? 
 Why did not what happened in England also hap- 
 pen in France? Why was not Louis Philippe a 
 William III., the glorious founder of a new era in 
 the history of the country ? Will it be said that it 
 was the fault of Louis Pliilippe ? That would be 
 unjust. Louis Philippe made mistakes ; but then 
 all governments must be permitted to make tliem. 
 Whoever should undertake the conduct of human 
 afTairs on condition of being infallible and impecca- 
 ble, would not reign a day. At all events, if Louis 
 Philippe deserved to be dethroned, William III. de- 
 served it much more. , What Louis l'hilii>])e was 
 chiefly reproached with — uni)o]iularily, inaliility to 
 make himself loved, a taste for ])ersonal jjower, iu- 
 dilferenceto external i)omp, rela|)ses toward the le- 
 gitimist i]arty to the detriment of the jiarty which 
 had ma(ie him King; attempts tii reestablish the 
 royal prerogative -might h:ivc l)i'eii still more 
 strongly urged against William III. Why, then, 
 were the results so different? Doulitless it was 
 owing to the difference of time and country. Events, 
 historically important, nuike lake place anioug a 
 serious and heavy people, Arm believers in lieredit- 
 ary right, and who have an invincible repuguiince 
 to driving their sovereign to <'Xtremitics, which 
 wovdd l>e impossil)le at an ejioeh of intellectual 
 levity and reasoning folly. Besides, the repidtlican 
 movement of 1649 was inlinitely less deep than that 
 
 of 1792. The English movement of 1049 did not go 
 so far as to establish an niiperia! authority. Crom- 
 well was no Napoleon. Finally, the f^nglish repub- 
 lican party hail no second generation. Crushed 
 under the restoration of the I'^tuarts, decimated l)y 
 persecution or taking refuge in America, it ceased 
 to have any considerable influence upon public 
 afl'airs in England. In the eighteenth century, 
 England seems to have made a business of expiat- 
 ing, by a sort of exaggerated loyalty and orthodoxy, 
 her momentary lapses in the middle of the sixteenth. 
 More than a hiuidred and fifty years had to pass 
 away before the death of Charles I. ceased to weigh 
 upcm politics, and men could venture to think 
 freely, without feeling obliged to affect an un- 
 bounded attachment to legitimacy. Things would 
 have taken nearly the same course in France if the 
 royalist reaction of 1796 and 1797 had carried the 
 day. The Restoration would then have been ac- 
 complished much more frankly, and the Republic 
 would have been in the history of France only 
 what it is in that of England, an incident witb.iut 
 consequences. Napoleon, by his genius, aided by 
 the marvelous resources of France, saved the 
 Revolution, gave it a form, an organization, an im- 
 precedented military prestige. The weak and tmin- 
 telligent restoration of 1814 could by no means up- 
 root an idea which had been deeply seated in the na- 
 tional mind, and which had enlisted the sympatlues 
 of a whole, energetic generation. France, under the 
 Restoration, and under Louis Philippe, continued to 
 live on the memories of the Empire and the Republic. 
 Whilst in England, from the date of the restoration 
 of Charles II., and after 1688, the republic was the 
 object of unceasing execration, and a man was ill- 
 thought of in society who spoke of Charles I. with- 
 out calling him the martyr King, or of Cromwell with- 
 out adiling the epithet usurper— in France it became 
 the rule to write lustories of the Revolution in a strain 
 of apology and admiration. It was unfortunate that 
 the father of the new King had taken a considerable 
 part in the Revolution ; people accustomed them- 
 selves to consider the new dynasty as a compromise 
 with the Revolution, not as the heir by substitution 
 of a lawful inheritance. A new republican party, 
 rallying aroiuid a few old patriarchs, survivors of 
 1793, came into existence. This party, which had 
 played an important part in July, 1830, but since 
 then had failed to give prevalence to its ab.solute 
 theoretical ideas, made incessant attacks upon the 
 new government. The change in England, in 1088, 
 was not in the least revolutionary, in the sense in 
 which we understand the word : the change was not 
 brought about In- the people; it violated no right, 
 unless it were that of tlie tletI:ioncd king. With the 
 French, on the contrary, 1830 unchained the forces 
 of anarchy, and deeply Irumiliatcd the legitimist party. 
 That i)arty, comprising, in many respects, the most 
 solid and the most mora! portions of the community, 
 made cruel war upon tlie new dynasty, either by 
 keeping altogether aloof from it, thus preventing its 
 being settled upon the sole basis upon whi<'h a dynas- 
 ty is founded — the solidly conservative element ; or 
 else by its connivance with the republican rarty. 
 Thus the government of the house of Orleans failed 
 to obtain a firm foundation ; a breath overturned it. 
 Everytliing iiai! been pardoned to Williiun III., 
 nothing was pardoned to Louis Philippe. The mon- 
 archical jirinciple was strong enough in England to 
 undergo i\ transfe.rmaiion : it «;is not so in Fnnice. 
 (Jertainly if tlie republic an ]i:irly had hiid in England, 
 under William 111., the import;uice which it had in 
 France under Louis Philippe — if that \mr[y had had 
 the support of tlie Stuart faction — the constitutional 
 establishment of England woidd have been short- 
 lived. Here p^ngland protiteil by the immense ad- 
 vantage she Inis in her ;iptitinle for colonizaticm. 
 .America Wiis the waste-weir of the repidilieaii party: 
 without that, this party would iiave remained as a. 
 virus in the mother country, and would have pre-
 
 EEVOLUTION. 
 
 081 
 
 EEVOLOTIOR 
 
 vented tlic cstablisliincnt of ctonslitiiliDiml novurn- 
 mcnl, Ni)lliintj Hint it stroiii; ami siiiciTe is lost in 
 tlie world. TIk'hc rc|)iilili(iin c-xilcM were the fill liiTs 
 of the men who, in the laller part of the eif^hli-enlh 
 century, earrieil on the War of Independence. The 
 rcvolnlionarv elenwnt in Knijland, inslcad of heiin^a 
 dixHolvi'nl, thus Ijecarnc erralive; Knirlish radieal- 
 isni, instead of tearin'.' tlie mother eonntry in pie<'es, 
 produced America. If France had been a eolonl/,- 
 in;;, insteail of a military nation ; if thi' hold ajid en- 
 lerprisin;; element, which in other I'onnlries fur- 
 nishes colonists, were with thi- Kri'iich capable of 
 anythini; besides cons])iracies and tiirhtini; for uli- 
 stract |)rinciples we should have had no .\apoleon: 
 the republican party, expelled by tbi> n-action, would 
 have eniiijralrd about the year ITIIM, and would h.ave 
 founded, far away, a new France, which, in ac- 
 cordance with the law of colonies, would now iloid)!- 
 less be an independent republic. 
 
 A cross error of historical philosophv contributed 
 to warp the national judi;ment upon this irruve ipicM- 
 tion of the forms of tjovernment ; it was this very 
 exainjile of .\merica The reimblican school were 
 forever citini; this example as ^ood and easy to fol- 
 low. Nolhini; could be more superticiiil. That 
 colonies accustomed to ^'overn themselves in an in- 
 dependent fashion should break the ties which bind 
 them to the mother country, and these lies l)roken, 
 slionld dispense with royalty and provide for their 
 common safety l)y a federative pact, there is nothint; 
 in this but what is natural. For a colony to sever 
 itself from the throne in this way, as a cuttini; is 
 severed from a tree, carryiiii; its own jri'rm of life 
 with it, is in accordance with the immutable princi- 
 ples of colonization principles which are amonj; 
 the conditions of human prosrress, of that of the .\r- 
 yan race in particular. Virginia and Carolina were 
 republics before the war of independence. That 
 war chansjed in no respect the internal constitution 
 of the States; instead it only cut the coril, now 
 grown irksome, which bound them to Europe, and 
 substituted for it a federal union. Here was no 
 revolutionary work. There was at the bottom of 
 this great movement an eniinenlly conservative con- 
 ception of right, an aristocratic and law-abiding 
 spirit of provincial liberty. In like manner, when- 
 ever the slight tie which binds Canada and Australia 
 to England shall be l)roken, those countries, accus- 
 tomeil to govern Ihemselves, will continue their in- 
 dependent existence almost without peiceiving the 
 change. If France had undertaken in earnest the 
 colonization of Algeria, .Vlgeria woulil have had a 
 chance of becoming a republic sooner than France. 
 Colonies, formed of ])ersons who tind themselves 
 cramped in their native land, and who seek a greater 
 liberty than they have at honu', are always nearer a 
 rep\d)lic than tlie mother country, tied by her old 
 habits and her ancient prejudices. Thus, there has 
 continued to exist in i-'rance a party which does not 
 permit the development of constitutional royalty, the 
 radical republican jiarly. The sitmition of France 
 was very dilTerent from that of England: side by side 
 with the Kight. the Left, and the Center, there was 
 an irreconcilable jiarty, utterly refusing to accept the 
 existing government: not saying to the govenuneni, 
 "Do such a thing iind we are with you;" but giving 
 it to understand: "Whatever you do, we shall be 
 against you." The republic is in a sense the tinal 
 goal of every human soci( ly: but we can conceive of 
 two very different methods of reaching it. Toestab- 
 !ish the republic with ahighhanil.by destroying every 
 obstacle, is the dream of ardent ndnds. There is an- 
 other way. less violent an<l more sure; to preserve the 
 old rov;d families ;is precious mimumenls .and souve- 
 nirs of the past, is not merely the foolish fancy of an 
 antiquary; dynasties thus preserved become in cer- 
 tain critical mimieiits extremely convenient wheels 
 in the machinery of constitution;d government. 
 Will the countries which, like England, have foilow- 
 cJ this course, ever attain to the perfect republic, 
 
 with no hereditary dynasty, ami with universal Huf- 
 frage? As well ask if (he hyperbola ever toucheii it« 
 asym|)loteM. What matters it, nince it comet) BO 
 ni'ar that the distance is inapprerialile to the eye? 
 This is what the French republican party d<M-H not 
 understand. For tin- form of a ri'pubiic ji sacritlccti 
 thesubstanci . Kallier than follow a high road al- 
 ready laiii out. witii, to III' sure, some windinxs. it 
 prefers to plunge over precipices and through hogs. 
 Uarely do we see so little political tact and so lillli! 
 discernment joined to so much honesty. The year 
 1H48 laiil bare the ulcer, and eHtablished to the salin- 
 faclion of every disciplined mind the fiiniiamental 
 principle of the philoso|ihy of French hislory. The 
 n-voliilion of 1H4M was not an elTeci without a cause 
 'such an assertion would Ix- absurd;: it wasan effect 
 entirely out of jiroporlion to its apparent cause. 
 The siiock was nothing, the ruin was irnmen.m'. 
 ThiTe happened in 1H4M what would have happenod 
 in England, if William III. had been swept away by 
 one of those (its of strong dissatisfaction which hm 
 government excited. In that case the lii.story of Eng- 
 land would have been turned upside down. In Eng- 
 land, the people'sattachmeni to legiliiiiacy, and their 
 dread of tiie republic, were sntticiently stroUL' to en- 
 able the new ilynasty to get over momentary difH- 
 culties. In France, on the other hanil, the moral de 
 gem-racy of the nation, its want of faith in royally, 
 together with the very great energy of the repuhlicun 
 party, sutVued to overturn a throne which had but 
 a ruinous foundation. Then it was that the disa«- 
 trous situation in which Frame has remained ever 
 siruc the Revoliitinn became apparent. If t!ie Kevo- 
 lution and the Uepublic had taken root less deeply 
 in France, the house of Orleans, and with it parlia- 
 mentiiry government, would have been securely 
 consolidated : had the republican idea been domi- 
 nant, it would, after divers alternations of action 
 and reaction, Inive carried the country, and the Kc- 
 iniblic woulil have been founded. Seilher the one 
 nor the other (if these two .-suppositions were realized. 
 The republican spirit was strong enough to prevent 
 the iiermanent estiiblishmeut of eonstitutioniii roy- 
 ally: it was not strong enough to establish the Ue- 
 public. Hence, a false and singular position, and 
 one calculated to jirepare the way for a melancholy 
 downfall. What happened in 1H4S niiijht happen 
 many times again ; let us endeavor to discover the 
 secret law, the hidden reason of this. 
 
 When we see a man die of a cold, we conclude. 
 not that a cold is a mortal malady, but that the man 
 was consumptive. The disease which occasioned 
 the death of the government of .luly was in like 
 manner so slight, that we must admit the patient's 
 constitution to have been of the frailest. The sJiglit 
 agitation atiout the banquets was one of thosewliich 
 a government ought to be able to support, if it liave 
 any cajiacity of life in it. Why, with every appear- 
 ance of health, was the government of July so 
 feeble? It was because it had not that which gives 
 to a government good lungs, a .sound heart, and a 
 healthy stomach ; we mean the serious adherence 
 of lbe"influential portions of the community. The 
 thoroughly humane feeling which restraineil Louis 
 I'hilippe from giving battle, while its indulgence im- 
 plies a distrust of his own right, does not snllice to 
 explain his fall. The republican party which effected 
 'he revolution was an impercejitible minority. In 
 a country where the government was less central- 
 ized, and where opinions were less divided, the ma- 
 jority would Inive resisted ; but the provinces had as 
 vet lio idea of opposing a movement emanating from 
 I'aris: besides, if the faction which took jiart in the 
 
 : movement of the 24th of February. Ih+S. was insig- 
 nificant, the nui.iber of those who might have de- 
 fended the vanquished dynasty was not great. The 
 legitimist party were the victors, and without build- 
 ing barricades", had, on that day, their revenge. The 
 Orleans dynasty, in spiteof ilsthorough U|)rightness. 
 
 I and its rare honesty, had not knovv'n ho .v to speak to
 
 BEVOLUTION. 
 
 682 
 
 EEVOLUTION. 
 
 the lieart of the nation, nor to make itself loved. In 
 presence of this revolutiou thus brought about bj' a 
 turbulent uiinority, what was France to do? A 
 country which has no unanimously accepted liynasty 
 is always a little awkward and embarrassed in its 
 movements. France yielded : she accepted the Re- 
 public insincerely, not believing in it, and fully de- 
 cided to be false to it. The opportiuiity was not 
 wanting. Tlie vote of the 10th of December was a 
 plain repudiation of the Republic. The party which 
 made the revolution of February was subjected to the 
 law of retaliation. If we nuiy be allowed to use a 
 vulgar expression, they had played France a very 
 scurvy trick ; France played them a scurvy trick 
 in return. She was much like some honest citizen 
 whom the most mischievious boys should lay hold of 
 on any day of great riot, and should clap the red 
 cap of liberty upon his head ; anil the wortliy man 
 would let them do as they pleased for the sake of 
 peace, but would probably cherish some resentment. 
 The surprise of the ballot responded to the surprise 
 of the uprising. Assuredly, the conduct of France 
 would have been more dignified and more loyal, if, 
 on the announcement of the revolutiou. she had 
 openly resisted, politely arrested the functionaries of 
 tlie provisional government at the very outset, and 
 ccnvoked in all the departments some sort of gene- 
 ral council which would have re-estalilished the mon- 
 archy. But several reasons, too readily ajiparent to 
 be m much need of explanation, rendered this course 
 impossible at that time. Besides, a nation which 
 has been granted universal suffrage always becomes 
 soniL'what given to dissembling. It has in its hands 
 an all-powerful weapon, which renders civU wars 
 needless. When we are snre that the enemy will be 
 obliged to pass through a defile of which we are the 
 masters, and where he will be forced to receive our 
 Ijre without returning it, we do not go out of our 
 way to attack him. France waited, and, in Decem- 
 ber, 1848, inflicted a disastrous repulse on the re- 
 publican part}'. If February had proved that France 
 was not much attached to the constitutional mon- 
 archy of the house of Orleans, the vote of the 10th 
 of December proved that she cared no more for the 
 Republic. The political weakness of this great 
 country was shown in the strongest light. What shall 
 we say of what happened afterward? We do not like 
 cull ps d'etat any more than we do revolutions; we 
 do not like revolutions, for the very reason that they 
 always lead to miips d'etnt. We cannot, however 
 plausible it may appear, admit the fundamental pre- 
 tension of the party of 1848. That party in the 
 name of we know not what divine right, arrogates to 
 itself a power which it accords to no other, claim- 
 ing to have made itself so absolutely the master of 
 France that the illegalities committed in order to 
 break the fetters with which it had bound the coun- 
 try, ought to be considered as crimes, whilst its own 
 revolution of February is only a glorious deed. This 
 is inadmissible. Qu/'s, tulerit GnirrJuis di xtditfcnr 
 (jiveretite-i ? lie who uses the sword shall perish by 
 'he sword. If the muskets aimed at M. Sauzet and 
 »he Duchess of Orleans, ou the 24th of February,1848. 
 were umocent, the l)ayonets which invaded the 
 chamber on the 2d of December, 1851, were not 
 .guilty. In our view, each of these acts of violence 
 was a dagger-stroke ainu'dat the country - a wound 
 reaching to the most vital parts of her constitution. 
 one step further into a laliyrinth that has no issue. 
 The Emperor Napoleon III., and the little group 
 of men who shared his confidence, brought to the 
 government of France a programme whicli, though 
 not founded upon history, was not wanting in 
 originality: namely, to revive the traditions of the 
 Kmpire, turn to account its gloriims legend, still so 
 Avell iireservcd among the people, give voic<' to the 
 jiopular sentiment on this subject by means of 
 universal sutlrage, obtain by this suffrage a di'Iega- 
 lion of powers binding on the future and establishing 
 hereditary right, and, in accordance with a cherished 
 
 idea of the French nation, call for a dynastic election ; 
 
 at home, the personal government ot the Emperor, 
 with a show of parliameutary government skillfully 
 reduced to a nullity ; abroad, a brilliant and active 
 policy, restormg gradually to France by war and 
 diplomacy, the place in the front among the nations 
 of Europe, which she held sixty years ago, and which 
 she lost in 1814. France, for seventeen years, has 
 allowed this experiment to be tried, with a patience 
 which might be called exemplary, if it were ever 
 good for a natiim to carry forbearance too far whea 
 her destinies are at stake. IIow has the experiment 
 succeeded? What have been its results? Can. 
 it lie said, in the first place, that the new Napoleonic 
 house has been founded ; that is to say, has it rallied 
 around it those sentiments of affection and persomd 
 devotion which alone give strength to a dynasty? 
 We nuist not deceive ourselves in this matter. Self- 
 ishness, scepticism, indifference toward its rulers, 
 the persuasion that no gratitude is due to them, have 
 totally withered the heart of the nation. The ques- 
 tion has become one of self-interest. The wealth of 
 the community having greatly increased, if the 
 question were jjroposed in these terras : revoiution — 
 nij rivohitiijn, the second jjroposition would obtain 
 an immense majority ; but often a country which 
 has no desire for a revolution does all that is needed 
 to produce one. At all events those sentiment.s of 
 tender affection and fidelity with which the nation 
 once regarded her kings, are no longer to be thought 
 of. The persons having for the Napoleonic dyna.sty 
 the same sentiments that a royalist of the Restoration 
 had for the royal family, might easily be counted. 
 There are almost no Napoleonic legitimists ; this 
 is a fact with which the government cannot be too 
 deeply impressed. That part of the programme of 
 the Emperor Napoleon III. which relates to the 
 military glory and the preponderant position of 
 France, was not without grandeur ; and those who, 
 looking to the general interests of civilization, are 
 grateful to the Emperor for the war of the Crimea 
 and that of Italy, cannot judge with severity the 
 whole foreign polic\' of the second empire: but it is 
 clear that France as a nation, is '.ly no means in 
 harmony with such views. If it were possible to 
 submit it to the universal suffrage, the plebiscite, 
 III) wiir, would obtain a much greater majority even 
 than no reciAutinn. The France of to-day is, beyond 
 all doubt, no more heroic than she is sentimental, 
 The preponderance of one European nation over the 
 rest has, moreover, become impossible in the pres- 
 ent state of society. The threatening intentions im- 
 prudently expressed on the French side of the Rhine 
 (audit is not the government which has been in this 
 respect the most culpable, or the most wanting in 
 tact) have kindled a feeling among the Germanic 
 nations, which will subside the moment they shall 
 be reassured with regard to the ambition they may 
 have attributed to the French. From tliat moment, 
 tlie iutiueuce iif I'russia iu tlie Grrmaiiic body will 
 cease— an influence which has no other plea for its 
 existence than the fear of France. From that mo- 
 ment, also, will probably cease the ilesire for politi- 
 cal unity, — a desire so little in conformity with the 
 Germanic spirit, and which has never been among 
 the Germans anything but an impatiently tolerated 
 defensive measure against a strongly organized 
 neiglibor. Tlii^ cliange of this single point in the ori- 
 ginal plan of the Emperor Napoleon 111. would 
 suffice to modify everylbiug coimccted with the in- 
 ternal government of the "country. The Emperor 
 Napoleon III., never even imagined that he could 
 carry on the government without an elective cham- 
 ber; he sincerely hoped that he might for a long 
 time, if not lurmaiienliy. control the elections. It 
 wasa .scbcmc wbicli Cduld only be realized by the 
 aid of coiistaul w;us and coiisl:iut victories. I'er- 
 sonal government e!iii only be maintained on 
 condition of beiim; always and everywhere glor- 
 ious and successful. How could it be expected.
 
 REVOLUTION. 
 
 f;«8 
 
 HEVOLUTIOH. 
 
 unlcsB tho roimtn' were kept conHtiinllv diiz/.k-d 
 l)y a miirUcil prosperity. Hint il would n;o on 
 forc'ViT ciiHlinir into llic liallnl-linv llir voli: wliifli 
 llio iKlmiiiitilniliiiii pill iiilci ilHliiuiily II was iiiov- 
 ilable llml, <imi' iliiy or uiioUicr, Kraiicc would wish 
 to use Hut powerful weapon that had beiMi left in her 
 liands, an<l that she should lake a responsilih' part in 
 her alTairs. In polilies, we caniiot loiii; play with 
 appearances. Il was to lie expected llial the seiii- 
 hlaiice of parliaiiieiilary jcoveriiiueiit which the Erii- 
 jieror Napoleon 111. had alwavs kept up, would lie. 
 come a serious reality. The eleelioiis of lH(!i) trans- 
 ferred this sujiposition into the domain of eslah- 
 lislied facts. The elections of .May and .lune. IHlii), 
 showed that the law of French society cannot he 
 that of Roman Casarisni. Koman Ca'sarisin was 
 eipially in the beirinniiii; a despotism, surrounded by 
 republican lietions ; tint despotism destroyed the 
 fictions ; with France on the contrary, the representa- 
 tive fictions destroyed the despotism. This did not 
 occur under the first empire, because the mode of 
 elect ini; the leirislative body was then completely 
 illusorj'. Nothing; proves more clearly than the 
 events of those mouths of ls(;i) how surely the ideal of 
 government orii^inatcd by Knf;land imposes itself, of 
 necessity, upon every state. It is often said that 
 France is not fitted for such a;;overnment. France 
 has certainly shown that she lliinksotlierwi.se; at all 
 events, if that were true, we should say there is no 
 hope for France. .V liberal form of Lrovernment is 
 an absolute mcessity for every modern nation. Those 
 wliielieannot accommodate themselves toil, will ])er- 
 isb. In the lirsl place, the liberal regime will ;_'ive 
 to the nations which have adopti'd it an immense 
 superiority overlhose which cannot adapt themselves 
 to it. A nation which is not (|ualitied for liberty of 
 the press, nor for the liberty of holdiuir meetings, 
 nor for political liberty, will certainly be surpassed 
 and van(|uisbed by the nations which are fit to be 
 trusted with these liberties. These last will always 
 lie belter uniformed, better taught, more thought- 
 ful, better governed. 
 
 There is still another reason why, if France be 
 condemned to the fatal alternative of anarchy, or 
 despotism, her destruction is inevitable. There is 
 no issue from anarchy e.\ee]i1 through a great mili- 
 tary state, which, besides ruining and exiiausting 
 till' nation, c.-in only maintain its ascendancy on con- 
 dition of being constantlv victorious abroad. The 
 rule of military restraint at home leads inevitably to 
 foreign war. A vanquished and humiliated army 
 cannot exercise that restraint energelically. Now, 
 in the presente state of Europe, a nation which is 
 systematically obliged to engage in foreign wars, is 
 a nali<in lost. Such a nation will be constantly 
 provoking against itself coalitions and invasions. 
 This is why the unstable condition of the internal 
 government of France was for her an external danger, 
 and made her a warlike nation, notwithstanding 
 that the general sentiment of her people is very pa- 
 cific. The eiiuilibrium of Eurojie recjuires that all 
 the nations of the continent should have nearly the 
 same political constitution. An ef'rt'us inter mhrim 
 cannot be allowed to disturb this harmony. Thus, 
 from whatever point we set out. we arrive at this 
 conclusion, that France must enter without delay 
 uuon the path of representative government. A 
 preliminary question naturally suggests itself here : 
 Will the Emperor resign himself to thischange? Will 
 he so far modify a programme which is for him. not 
 a mere ambitious calculation, but a faith, an enthu- 
 siasm, the religious belief which explains his whole 
 life? .\fter having cherished, to the verge of fauati- 
 cLsm, an ideal which alone he holds to be noble and 
 grand, but which France has rejected, will he not 
 feel an invincible di.sgiist for that government of 
 peace, of economy, of small ministerial battles, which 
 has always appeared to him the iiersonificatiim of 
 decadence, and which is associated in his mind with 
 the memory of a dynasty held by him in small es- 
 
 teem ? Will lie venture oiitHide of tliul «ircle of 
 Hccond-ratr- coiinsellorK anil miniHtrm in which he 
 seems to take delight? (,'an ii wivereign, invested 
 by the popular vole with the plenitude of po[iulur 
 rights, be a parliamentary iiiomircii i' Ih not the 
 plibindtf n rejection of consliliilioiial monurchy ? IloH 
 such a governmiMit ever resulted from a '■"«/» iCilntf 
 Can it coexist with universal siiirrage ? The respect 
 due to the person of the sovereign prohibils the ex- 
 amination of these questions. ConHiderHtiors of 
 race and blood, which were formerly decisive in hitt- 
 tory, have lost much of their force. HiibslitiitiooH 
 which would have been impossible under Hie ancient 
 may have liecome possible. Family characterislicB, 
 which were formerly iiillexible, so llial a Uoiirhon, 
 for example, was only suited to play a ]iarticular 
 part, are now su.sceplilile of much modification. 
 The historic mle and the race are no longer insi-par- 
 able things. Tli.it an heir of .Napoleon I. should 
 aceomplisii a work antagonistic lo .Napoleon I. is not 
 a thing absolutely inadmissible. Public opinion lias 
 become so thoroughly the sovr-reign master that 
 names and men are only what it makes them, The 
 a priiiri objections raised by certain persons ai^ain.st 
 the possibility of a constitutional future with the 
 Bonaparte family are consequently not decisive. The 
 Capet family, which became well and truly the re- 
 presentative of French nationality, and of the third 
 estate (tiers Hat), was in the beginning ullra-(jer- 
 manic, ullra-feudal. As architecture forms u style 
 out of faults and the mistakes of inexperience, so a 
 nation may. if it pleases, turn to advantage its own 
 misdeeds. We enjoy the benefits of royalty, though 
 royalty was established iiy a series of crimes: we 
 profit by the results of the Hevolution, though the 
 Uevolution was a tissue of atrocities. It is a sad 
 law of human life that we become wise only when 
 we are worn out. We have been too ditlicull to 
 please, we have rejected excellence: we rest satis- 
 fied with mediocrity through fi-ar of something 
 worse. The coquette who has refused the most bril- 
 liant offers of marriage often ends by accepting the 
 most commonplace. Those who have dreamed of a 
 republic without republicans, please themselves in 
 like manner with imagining a reign of the Bona- 
 
 ! parte family without ftonajiartists- a condition of 
 things in wiiich thiit family, freed from the <-ompro- 
 mising companionship of those who enthusiastically 
 prepared the way for its second accession, would 
 find its best supporters, its safest counsellors, among 
 tho.se who have not helped to make it what it is, but 
 have accepted it, as a thing desired by F'rance, and 
 as capable of opening some issue out of the strange 
 |ierplexit)' into whicii fate has led. It is very true 
 that there is no example of a constitutional dynasty 
 resulting from a o>iip (Vit'it. The Viscontis. the 
 Sforzas, tyrants born of republican discords, are not 
 the stuff of which legitimate monarchies are made. 
 Such monarchies are founded only by the peculiar 
 sternness and hauteur of the Germanic race in bar- 
 barous and ignorant ages, when oblivion is possible, 
 
 ' and when mankind lives in that mysterious darkness 
 which is the foundation of respect.' FaUt nam in. 
 renient. . . . The strange defiance which France 
 has shown to all the laws of historj- compels us to 
 great reserve in such inductions. Let us go higher; 
 and, neglecting whatever the accident of to-morrow- 
 may disconcert, let us inquire what reasons exist in 
 
 I the nation why one should have a constitutional 
 monarchy, what grounds there are for hoping for its 
 success, what fears may be entertained in regard to 
 its permanent establishment. 
 
 We have seen that the peculiar feature of France, 
 a feature which widely separates her from England 
 
 . and the other European stales (Italy and Spain. up to 
 
 . a certain point excepted), is, that the' republican party 
 constitutes a considerable element of herjxipulation. 
 This partv. which was strong enough to overturn 
 Louis Pliilijipe, and lo impose its theory on the 
 
 ; country for a few months, was, after the Sd of I)e-
 
 BEVOLUTION. 
 
 684 
 
 HEVOLUTION. 
 
 cember, the object of a sort of proscription. Has it 
 consequently disappeared ? No, indeed I The pro- 
 gress it has made in these hist thirty years lias been 
 very perceptible. Not only has it kept possession of 
 the majority in Paris and the large cities, but it has 
 gained whole districts of country besides ; the entire 
 circuit of the environs of Paris now belongs to it. The 
 democratic spirit, such as we know it in Paris, with 
 its rigidity, its dogmatic tone, the deceptive simplic- 
 ity of its ideas, its petty suspicions, its ingratitude, 
 has conquered certain rural cantons in a surprising 
 manner. In many a village the relations of farmers 
 and farm servants are exactly those of workmen and 
 employers in a manufacturing town ; peasants will 
 talk their surly, radical, jealous politics to you with 
 jis much assurance as the workmen of Belleville, or 
 of the Faubourg Saint Antoine. The idea of equal 
 rights for all, a way of considering the government 
 as a mere public service which is paid for, and 
 to which neither respect nor gratitude is due, 
 a sort of American impertinence, the pretension 
 to be as wise as the best statesmen, and to reduce 
 politics to the mere consultation of the wishes of 
 the majority — such is the spirit which gains ground 
 more and more, even in the country^ WilT, how- 
 ever, the repulilican party ever succeed in becorning 
 the majorit)', and in securing the triumph of Ameri- 
 can institiitions in France? It is essential to that 
 party to be always in the minority. If they were 
 finally to effect a social revolution, they might 
 create new classes, but these classes would become 
 monarchical the moment thej' became wealthy. 
 The most pressing interests of France, the character 
 of her mind, her good qualities and her defects, 
 make royalty a necessity to her. Tlie very moment 
 a radical party shall have overturned a monarchy, 
 the journalists, the literary men, the artists, the men 
 of intellect, the men of the world, the women, will 
 conspire together to establish another: for the mim- 
 arch)' corresponds to the deeply -felt needs of the 
 nation. Our amiability alone suffices to make us 
 bad republicans. Tlie charming exaggerations of 
 tlie old French politeness, the courtesy which 
 '•places us at the feef'of those with whom we have in- 
 tercourse, is the very opposite of that stiff, rough, 
 dry manner which the ever-present consciousness of 
 his rights gives to the democrat. France excels 
 only in the exquisite ; she loves only what is ele- 
 gant ; she can only l)e aristocratic. They are a race 
 of gentlemen ; tlieir ideal has been created by gen- 
 tlemen, not, like that of America, by honest citi- 
 zens and serious men of business. People habituated 
 to such things as tliese are only satisfied with a 
 high-bred society, a court and princes of the blood. 
 To hope that great and fine French works will con- 
 tinue to be produced in a democratic community 
 (dans un monde hmirgenU) wlierc no inequality is ad- 
 mitted but that of wealth, is a delusion. The gener- 
 ous and imaginative people who expen<l the most 
 fervor upon the republican Utopia are the very 
 persons who would be the least able to accommodate 
 themselves to such a state of society. They who 
 pursue so eagerly the American ideal forget that the 
 American race lias not a very brilliant past : that it has 
 never had a nobility ; tliat it is occiitiied exclusivelv 
 in business and the pursuit of wcaltli. Our ideal 
 can only be realized under a government shedding 
 .splendor upon all that approaches it, and creating 
 distinctions outside of weallli. A society where a 
 man's merit and his superiority over another can 
 onlj' be shown in industrial iiursuits and in com- 
 merce, is anti|)atlietic ; not that industrial pursuits 
 and commerce do not seem to us lioiioralilc, but 
 liecauHe we sec plainly tliat tlie best Ihimrs (for ex- 
 ample, the functions of pri<'st, magistrale. scholnr, 
 artist, and man of letters) are the inverse of the 
 commercial and industrial spirit ; for the first duty 
 of tho.se who undertake these functions is not to 
 seek to enrich themselves, and never to consider the 
 commercial value of what they do. The republican 
 
 party may therefore prevent the establishment of any 
 liberal government whatsoever, for it will always 
 have it in its power, by inciting seditions, to 
 force any government to arm itself with repressive 
 laws, to restrict the liberties of the people, and to 
 strengthen the military element. Whether it be 
 capable of establishing itself, is doubtful. The 
 hatred between it and the peaceable portion of the 
 community will continue to grow more and more 
 envenomed, for more and more it will .seem to the 
 whole country to be a perpetual marplot. It will 
 succeed, we fear, only in provoking a kind of peri- 
 odical crisis, followed by violent expulsions, which 
 the conservative party will maintain to be ijurifica- 
 tions, but will in truth be debilitations, and whicli 
 will, in any case, wear upon the constitution of 
 France in a deplorable manner. In these convulsive 
 vomitings, excellent elements, essential to the life of 
 a nation, will be thrown out, together with the im- 
 pure elements. As it happened after 1848, liberal 
 ideas will suffer from their inevitable association 
 with a party which, being full of generous illusions, 
 has great attractions for youthful imaginations, and 
 which, besides, holds a great part of its programme in 
 common with the litjeral school. It is to I)e feared that 
 long-standing habits of miu<l, a certain rigidity, a 
 great deal of routine, and the custom of judging 
 everything by the Parisian standard (a custom easy 
 to be understood in a party which was at the outset 
 essentially Parisian), will lead that party to believe 
 that revolutions like those of 183U and 1848 may be 
 repeated. Nothing could be more fatal. The time 
 for Parisian revolutions is over. We found this 
 opinion less upon the material changes which have 
 taken place in Paris, than upon two causes whicli, it 
 seems to us, will have an enormous influence upon 
 tlie destinies of the future. 
 
 One is the establishment of universal suffrage. A 
 people in possession of this suffrage will allow no 
 revolutions to be made by its capital. If a revolu- 
 tion should take place in Paris (a thing which is for- 
 tunately impossible), we are persuaded tliat the de- 
 partments would not accept '\t\ that barricades would 
 rise across the railways to stay the spread of the 
 conflagration, and to prevent provisions from reach- 
 ing the capital ; and that the disturbance at Paris, 
 soon reduced to starvation, would be but short liv- 
 ed. The emancipation of the provinces lias made 
 great progress since 1848. Another fact, moreover, 
 ought to be taken into great consideration. The 
 whole philosoph)' of history is governed by the ques- 
 tion of armament. Nothing has so much contribut- 
 ed to the triumph of the modern spirit as the inven- 
 tion of gun powder. Artillery has destroyed chival- 
 ry and feudalism, given strength to monarclis and to 
 States, definitivelj- checkmated barbarism, rendered 
 impossible those strange cyclones of the Tartar 
 hordes, which, gathering in the heart of Asia, came 
 shaking Europe to its foundations, and terrifj-ing the 
 Christian world. The nice application of science to 
 the art of war in our day will lead to revolutions al- 
 most as grave. War will become more and more a 
 scientific and mechanical problem : the richest, the 
 most scientific, the iiKist ingenious nation will have 
 the advantage. If we examine the effects of this 
 change upon the inl.'rnal affairs of Slates, it is clear 
 that ihe application, on a large scale, of science to 
 arniaments will be to tlie sole profit of governments. 
 The etfect of artillery was to destroy, one after the 
 other, all feudal castles ; one discharge of some im- 
 proved engine will stop a revolution. At epodis 
 wlien arms are imperfect, a citizen is almost the 
 equal of a soldier; but as soon as the aggressive ])ro- 
 ccss becomes a liarncil matter, riMiuiring exact in- 
 ; struments and dciiiaiiding a spe<ial education, the 
 j solilier has an immense superiority over the unarm- 
 ed multitude. There is every reason, therefore, to 
 beriev<' tliat revolutions Ijegun liy citizens, will hence- 
 forth be crushed in the bud. Tlie Jesuits, with their 
 usual .sagacity, understand this, as is seen by their
 
 KEVOLUTION. 
 
 68, 
 
 REVOLUTION. 
 
 cctdiif; iKisHcsHion of the iivcnwcH li> llic Sriiool of 
 Hi. Cyriind lo llic I'dlylcchnic Si'liool. Tlicy fore- 
 Hectlic future of iIkihc who know liow lo "liandle 
 dcx'Icroiis wciipons mill (lis<'i|ilirii'(l forciH. iiiul llii'v 
 perceive, very cleiirly, lliiit the Hdvniilii^e in this re- 
 spect is with the ohl aristocracy, less ahsorhed than 
 the citizen class by industrial pursuits, or by lucra- 
 tive civil positions, and therefore inori^ capable of 
 abnetcation. France, then, seems destini'd for a lonj; 
 time still to escape the republic, even if the ri'pub- 
 lican party should have the numerical majority. 
 There is in the nation a constantly increasini; mass 
 of people destitute of any relinious ideal, ancj ri'jecl- 
 ini; every social principle superior lo the will of Ihi- 
 inilividual. The remaining mass, not vet convened 
 to these egotistical views, is daily diminished, by 
 means of the primary school, and by the u.sc of uni- 
 versal sulTrag<' ; but against this rising tide of ag- 
 gressive ideas, which, lieing young anil inexper- 
 ienced, make no account of dilliciilties higher in- 
 terestsand needs array themselves, and demand thai 
 society b(^ organized and directed by a principle of 
 reason and knowledge distinct from the will of the 
 individual. The democrat ever imagines that the 
 mind of the nation is clearly made up; he does 
 not allow that there can jiossibly li<' anything in the 
 least obscun', hesituliiig, or contradictory in pub- 
 lic opinion; tucount lli<' votes and lo do the will of the 
 majority, seem to him very simple things ; but these 
 are delusions. For a long time to come, public 
 opinion will have to be guessed at, foreseen, supposed, 
 and, up lo a certain point, guided. Hence, llicre are 
 inimarchical interests which, the moment a republi<; 
 is established, become formidable, even in the opinion 
 of those who have set up, or allowed others to set 
 up, the republic. 'J'lie movemeni which is going on 
 in the popular classes, tending to give to each in- J 
 dividual a more and more precise consciou.sness of 
 Ills rights, is a fact so evident that it would be sheer 
 madness to wish lo oppose it. The true policy is to 
 provide for it, and to accommodate ourselves to it. ; 
 The men of science have never sought means to arrest 
 the tide : they have done better ; they have so well 
 determined the laws of this phenomenon, that 
 the navigator knows, from minute lo minute, the stale 
 of the sea, and protits greatly by it. To prevent the 
 rising tide from carrying away the necessary embank- 
 ments, and causing, as it retires, fatal reactions, is the 
 essential thing. Xow.jvidging from ajijiearances, this 
 is just what w ill happen, so long as tlie French democ- 
 racy shall be led by that acrimonious, (|uarrelsome, 
 conceited Jacobism which agitates the country, some- 
 limes, even, gives it ;ni impulse, but will never guide 
 it to a settled constitution. That party may make a 
 , revolution, but it will not reignmore thantwo months 
 afterward. Even if it should succeed in obtaining a 
 majority of votes, which is not very probable, it 
 would still establish not liing,for the element sat its dis- 
 posal, though e.\cellent for purposes of agitation, are 
 unstable, easily disunited, and totally incapable of 
 furuishing the solid materials of a construction. Its 
 strength, though great, is partly a strength of cir- 
 cumstance. It has happened to us a dozen limes, 
 during an electoral campaign, to hear the following 
 dialogue: '-We are not satisfied with the govern- 
 mentT it costs too niucli; it governs for Ihe benefit 
 of those who do not think as we ilo : we shall vote 
 for tile most radical opposition candidate." ■'Then 
 you are revolutionists J " "Not at all ; we only want 
 to make an impression on the government; to force 
 it lo cliange its course ; to hold it vigorously in 
 check." "But if Ihe chamber is composed of revo- 
 lutionists, the government is ujjset." "No; there 
 will only be twenty or thirty of them ; and then the 
 ijovernmeut is so strong '. It has the chassepols I " 
 ^his naive reasoning sliows how much Ihe railical 
 party deceives itself when it imagines that the coun- 
 try desires it for its own sake. A great part of the 
 country uses it as a rod with which to chastise the 
 established authorities, not as a stall upon which to 
 
 urged it on, lliem- 
 
 I lean. "They elecl us, llierefore they like u»," would 
 
 1 be, on the part of the honorable meinberH of the go- 
 
 ; called a<lvanr'ed oppiMilion, the most dungeroUM of 
 conclusioiiH. They are ilected in orrler lo give Uio 
 govermiienl a h'sson, and with Hie conviction that 
 Ihe governnii'nt i?. strong enough lo bear the leHMon. 
 
 I ISiil when this shall no longer be the caHc, when it 
 shall be perceived tliikl the existence of Uic govurn- 
 
 1 menl has been endangered, there will be u coiintiT 
 iiiovement ; so that the radical parly Is Hiibjecl lo 
 this strange law, that its hour of victory is llie be- 
 ginning of its defeat. Its Iriumtih is its end : often 
 
 j those who have voted for ii. ami 
 
 I selves applaud its proscription. 
 
 The mainlcnance of order has, in fact, become in 
 European commiinllies so imperiruis a condition, 
 that long civil wars are irnpoMsible. The example 
 is often (|iioled of those famous Greek and Italian 
 republics which created an iMlmirable civllizaiion in 
 till' midst of a political stale, very analogous to Ihe 
 Ueign of Terror; but no conclusions can thence be 
 drawn applicable lo a society like ours, whose ma- 
 chinery is much more complicated. Spain, the 
 Spanish republics of America, even Italy, can en- 
 dure a greater degiee of anarchy than Franv, be- 
 cause these are countries where life is easier, wliere 
 there are fewer sources of wealth, where material 
 interests and credit have lieen less developed. The 
 Keign of Terror at Ihe end of the last century was 
 Ihe suspension of life. In our day it would be still 
 worse. As a being of simple structure can exist 
 under many very dilTerent conditions, whilst animals 
 finely organized, like man, have such restricted 
 limits that slight changes in their habits produce 
 death, so our complicated civilizations cannot sup- 
 (lort crises. They have, if we may say s(j, a delicate 
 lemperament ; a degree, more or less, kills them. 
 A week of anarchy would cause incalculable losses; 
 at the end of a monlh, perhaps, the railway trains 
 would cease running. We have created mechanisms 
 of infinite precisions, lool.s and engines whose mo- 
 tive jiowcr is confidence, and which all presuppose 
 a protound public tranquilily, a government firmly 
 established and at the same time thoroughly con- 
 trolled. We know that in the United States matters 
 are managed otherwise; there, a degree of disorder 
 is endured, which would in France excite cries of 
 alarm. This comes from the fact that the constitu- 
 tional foundations of the United Stales are never really 
 in danger. These lillle-governed American States 
 resemble those European countries where the dy- 
 n;isly is not brought in question. They respect the 
 law and the constiUition, which lo them represent 
 Ihe European doctrine of legitimacy. To compare 
 countries like ours, having socialistic tendencies, and 
 where so many people look lo a revolution as to a 
 means of improving their condition, with such 
 Slates as these, completely exempt from socialism, 
 an<l where men, wholly occupied with their private 
 affairs, ask very little protection from the govern- 
 ment, is the greatest mistake in philosophical his- 
 tory that can be committed. 
 
 The need of order fell by old European societies, 
 coinciding with the improvements in arms. wUI, on 
 the whole, give lo Ihe governments as much strength 
 as they are daily losing through the progress of 
 revolutionary icieas. Like religion, the cause ot 
 order w ill have its fanatics. Modern societies have 
 this peculiarity, that they are extremely placable so 
 
 1 long as their existence is not in danger, but become 
 pitiless so soon as they begin lo have doublsof their 
 
 I own stability. A community that has been fright- 
 
 I eued is like a man that has been frightened : it has 
 lost somelhing of its moral courage. The means 
 employed liy the Catholic Church in the 13lhaud in 
 Ihe Uith centuries, to defend its threatened exist- 
 
 I ence, will be resorted to by modern society under 
 more expeditious and less cruel, but not less ter- 
 rible, forms. If Ihe old dynasties be powerless here, 
 
 1 or if, as is probable, they refuse to accept power un-
 
 KEVOLUTION. 
 
 G8<^ 
 
 REVOLTJTIOM. 
 
 der conditions unworthy of them, recourse will be had 
 to the Italian ^(wv'crs and podei>tas of the Middle Ages, 
 to whom will be entrusted the entire business of 
 reconstructing society in accordance with a bloody 
 programme drawn up beforehand. Chance dicta- 
 tors, analogous to the Generals of Spanish America, 
 will alone undertake such tasks. As, however, the 
 European races have a fund of fidelity which they 
 never part with, and as, moreover, there will remain 
 for a long time to come survivors of the ancient dy- 
 nasties, there will probably be a return to legitimacy 
 after each of these cruel dictatorships. More than 
 once again in the future, the traditional rulers will 
 ■be entreated to resume their task, and to restore, at 
 ■whatever cost, to the nations which of old made 
 covenants with their ancestors, a little peace, good 
 faith, and honor. Perhaps tliev will require much 
 solicitation, and will make conditions about which 
 there will be no dispute. In view of certain occur- 
 rences like those which have recently taken place in 
 Greece, in Mexico, and in Spain, the democratic 
 party sometimes says, with a smile, "There are no 
 more kings to be found " A return of barbarians, 
 that is to saj', a new triumph of the least intelligent 
 and ^east civilized portions of mankind over the 
 more intelligent and more civilized, seems at the 
 first glance impossible. Let us have a clear under- 
 standing upon this point. There still exists in the 
 world a reservoir of barbaric forces, almost wholly 
 under the control of Russia. So long as the civilized 
 nations retain their powerful organization, the part 
 which this barbarism has to play is reduced almost 
 to nothing; but if (which Heaven forbid .') the leprosy 
 of egoism and anarchy should cause the destruction 
 of the Western States, barbarism would assuredly 
 resume its proper function, which is to restore the 
 manhood of corrupt civilizations; to bring about a 
 Tivifying return to instinct, when reflection has put 
 an end to subordination; to show that the spirit 
 which leads men to devote them.selves freely to 
 death, through fidelity to a chief (a thing which the 
 democrat holds to be base and foolish), is that which 
 makes a people strong, and gives them the earth for 
 a possession. We must not, therefore, shut our eyes 
 to the truth that the democratic theories, carried out 
 to their furthest limit, would result in utter weak- 
 ness. A nation which .should follow this plan, re- 
 pudiating all idea of glory, of social eclat, of individ- 
 ual superiority — having for its sole object the con- 
 tentment of the materialistic desires of the masses — 
 that is to say, aiming only to procure the satisfaction 
 of the greatest number, would lay itself completely 
 open to conquest, and endanger its verj' existence. 
 How shall we prevent these sad results, which we 
 have sought to point out as possibilities, and not as 
 things distinctly feared ? By the reactionary plan ? 
 By restraining, extinguishing, crushing, governing 
 more and more ? No, a thousand times no ! That 
 policy has been the origin of the whole evil; it would 
 be the means of utter ruin. The liberal programme 
 is at the same time the truly conservative plan. Be- 
 yond all doubt a constitutional monarchy, limited 
 and controlled ; decentralization; less government; 
 an exceedingly strong organization of the commuue, 
 the canton, and the department ; a strong impulse 
 given to individual activity in art, intellect, science, 
 trade, manufactures and colonization ; a policy de- 
 cidedly pacific; an abandonment of all projects of 
 territorial aggrandizement in Europe ; the devel- 
 opment of a good system of primary instruction, and 
 of a superior instruction, capable of giving to the 
 morals of the educated class the basis of a sound 
 philosophy; the formation of an upper legislative 
 chamber, clioscn by many Viirious modes of clectitm, 
 and providing, together wilh tlie simjile numerical 
 representation of all the citizens, for the representa- 
 tion of divers interests, functions, specialties and 
 aptitudes ; in social questions, government neutrali- 
 ty ; entire liberty of association; gradual separation 
 of church and state, an all-important condition in the 
 
 opinion of the religious world ; — such is the dream 
 of those who seek by the aid of calm reflection, un- 
 blinded by an intemperate patriotism, a practicable 
 pathway. In some respects, this is a policy of peni- 
 tence, implying the confession that, for the moment, 
 it concerns us less to continue the Revolution than 
 to correct it. It often seems that France is passing 
 through a period of fasting, a sort of political regi- 
 men, during which the attitude which best becomes 
 Frenchmen is that of the sensible man who is ex- 
 piating the errors of his youth; or rather that of the 
 mistaken traveller, finally obliged to take the long 
 way round the hill he had at first attempted to scale. 
 Revolutions, like civil wars, are strengthening, if 
 we come out of them : they kill if they last. 
 
 In general, the mistake of the French liberal party 
 is in not understanding that every political construc- 
 tion should have a conservative basis. In England 
 parliamentary government was not possible until 
 after the exclusion of the radical party, an exclusion 
 which was effected with a sort of frenzy of legiti- 
 macy. Nothing is assured in politics until the heavy 
 and solid parts of tlie nation, which are its ballast, 
 have been enlisted in the cause of progress. The 
 liberal party of 1830 were too ready to believe they 
 could carry their purpose by main force, in direct 
 opposition to the legitimists. The estrangement or 
 the hostility of the latter party is still the great mis- 
 fortune of France. Withdrawn from common life, 
 the legitimate aristocracy refuses to society what 
 it justly owes — patronage, examples and lessons 
 of noble living, of grave and dignified maimers. 
 The vulgarity, the total want of education, the 
 great ignorance of the art of living, the ennui, 
 the absence of resi>ect, and the puerile parsimony of 
 provincial life, which prevail in France, are all owing 
 to the fact that those who ought to furnisli the coun- 
 try with the type of the gentleman, fulfilling public 
 duties with universally recognized authority, fly 
 from society, and more and more give themselves 
 up to a solitary and retired life. The legitimist party 
 is in one sense the indispensable substructure of 
 every political foundation amongst the French ; 
 even the United States have, after their manner, 
 this essential basis of all society, in their religious 
 souvenirs, heroic in their way, and in that class of 
 moral, high-toned, grave, and weighty citizens who 
 are the stonds with which the edifice of tlie State is 
 built. The rest is but sand; nothing durable is made 
 of it, whatever talent, whatever warmth of heart, 
 _even, is brought to the work. This provincial party 
 which is day by day becoming conscious of its 
 strength, what does it think? what does it wish? 
 Never were views more clearly defined. This party 
 is liberal, not revolutionarj-; constitutional, not re- 
 publican; it wishes the control of authority, not its 
 destruction; the end of personal government, not 
 the overthrow of the dynasty. We do not doubt 
 that if, in time past, the governnipnt had taken a 
 positive stand, had given up the system of official 
 candidates, the artificial subdivision of districts 
 (circonscriptions), and allowed the electi(ms to be 
 made spontaneously by tlie nation, the result would 
 have been to return a clianiber decidedly imbued 
 with these principles, and which, being considered 
 by the nation as representing its wishes, would 
 have had sufflcicnt strength to get safely over 
 the most difficult crises. The day will inevitably 
 come when it will be as hard to understand why 
 the Emperor Napoleon III. did not seize this means 
 of obtaining from the country a second sigiiiiture to 
 his marriage contract with the slate, and of divid- 
 ing with tiie nation the responsibility of ii doubtful 
 future, as it is to compreliciid why Ijouis Philippe 
 did not see in the co-operation of men of capacity a 
 tncans of enlarging the bases of his dynasty. The 
 provinces, in fact, take the elections much more 
 sc^riously than Paris. Having no political life ex- 
 cept once in every six years, they give to the elec- 
 tions an importance which Paris, with her habitual
 
 REVOLUTION. 
 
 687 
 
 EEVOLUTION, 
 
 levity, (Iocs not aorord to tlirm. I'ari.n, only intent 
 on inakini; liiT nidical protest, hcch in tlir' rIcrtionH, 
 not a clioicir of uravc dclcnatcH, Imt an o|i|Mirtiniily 
 for ironical nianifcstations. 'I'lir proviiircH do 
 not understand siicli tincssin;;; tlicir ilcpiilii-H are 
 really lladr representatives, anil lliey tirndy adiir-nr 
 to them. A cliandier freely eleeteil willioiit inli-r- 
 fcrence from tlii^ adininislralion, woidd it liav(^ been 
 dangerous for the dynasty? Would the radieal o|)po- 
 sition have been represented in it liy an increased 
 nuniher of deputies? \V(' think just the contrary. 
 In a i;reat lunuher of cases tlu' election of lioslile, or 
 even abusive caudidales, has bi'cn a sort of protest 
 against the olliciul or ol)si'(piious candidate. The 
 system of olllcial candidates completely disturbs the 
 working of elections and impairs their Iruslworlhi- 
 ness. not only by the direct pressun; (^\erte(l by tin- 
 adminislralion in favor of its own candidates, but 
 especially l)y the falser position in which it places 
 the independent voter. The aim of the latter is, 
 in jjeneral. no longer to surely choose the candidate 
 who best represents his various opinions, or whom 
 h(^ Ihinks the most callable of servinif the country, 
 but lo set well aside, at whatever cost, the official 
 candidate. C'onseipiently, no more shades of opin- 
 ion, no more personal preferences. Since extreme 
 opinions tind an assured favor with the mass, 
 with whom bold assertions and noisy declanuition 
 have ijreater force than more moderate views; and 
 as the dcmocralii' party has also the control of a 
 genuine fanaticism, and an organization which no 
 other party has— the liberals fall in with the 
 current, and adojit, in spite of their repujnance, the 
 radical candidate. It is a very wide-spread error in 
 France, to think that we must ask more to obtain 
 less; and that the radieal opposition is the instru- 
 ment of progress, the iin])elling force of the govern- 
 ment. This is lru(^ of the modende oi)posilion, but 
 not of the radieal party, which is an obstacle to 
 progress, an impediment to concessions, owing to the 
 terror it inspires and the repressive measures it oc- 
 casions. Now, more than ever, the aim of politics 
 should be, not to solve questions, but to leave them 
 to time. The life of nations, like that of individuals, 
 is a compromise between conlradictions. Of how 
 many things we nuisl siiy. thiit we cannot live witli 
 them or without them, and yet we still live! Prince 
 Napoleon wittily saiil. a few years since, to those 
 who would postpone the enjoyment of liberty till 
 there are no longer in France either rival dynasties 
 or a revohitionary party : "You will wait a long 
 time." History will not blame the policy of those 
 who, in such a state of things, shall resign tliem- 
 selves to live l)y expeilients. Su|)pose that a mem- 
 ber of the <lder or of the younger branch of the 
 Bourbon fanuly should one day reign in France, it 
 will not be because a majority of the French nation 
 have become legitimists or Orleanists. but because a 
 turn in fortune's wheel has made some nu'mber of 
 the house ;)f Bourbon the useful man of the moment. 
 Fr;inee has allowed her dynastic attachments so 
 completely to die out, that even legilim.ac_v could 
 only be restored V)y accident, and with a transitory 
 title. The positivism to-day has so done away with 
 all metaphysics, that one of the narrowest of ideas is 
 gaining credence; namely, that the more recent a 
 popular vote is, the greater its force ; so that, after 
 the lapse of some tifleen years, this strange kind of 
 reasoning is lield : "The geniTalion which voted 
 such a ph'biscite has in jiart died ; the vote has lost 
 its validity , and needs to be renewed." This is con- 
 trary to the idea of the Jliddle Ages, according to 
 which, the older an agreement the more binding it 
 was. It is in one sense the negation of the national 
 principle : for the national principle, like religion, 
 supposes compacts independent of the will of the in- 
 dividual, compacts transmitted and received from 
 father to son as a heritage. By refusing to the na- 
 tion the power to bind the future, all contracts are 
 reduced lo life, or rather, we should say, to time 
 
 conlracis; thi- more ardent republicann would, wo 
 think, like them even to lie aiuiual, at leUHt until 
 they get what they call direct government, when 
 the national will woidil br- no more than the caprice 
 of an hour. With suirh polilical notions, what lie- 
 comes of the inti-grity of the nation? How deny 
 the rijiht lo the sueeession when all is inaiic lo de- 
 pend upon the material fact of the momentary will 
 of the cili/.eiis ? Tliir truth is, tliat a nation is some- 
 thing different from the collection of units of which 
 it is composed ; that it cannot lie in any measure 
 dependent upon a mere vole ; that it is, in its way. 
 an idia, iin ab--lract thing, superior to the will of 
 individuals. Nor can the art of governing be re- 
 duced to a simple consultation of universal suffrage, 
 that is to say, lo the ascertaining ami exe(;uling 
 what the greater number considers lo be for its in- 
 terest. This nniterialistic conception ronlains at 
 bottom an a|ipeal to strife. In proclaiming its<df the 
 vHimii ratio, universal suffrage starts from the idea 
 that a majority in nundiers is an imlication of 
 str(;nglh. and that if the minority does not give way 
 to the views of the majority, they will run every 
 risk of being beaten. But this reasoning is not exact, 
 for the minority' may be more energetic and belter 
 versed in the numagement of arms than the major- 
 ity. "W'e are twenty. y<iu are one," says universal 
 siifTrage ; "yield, or we will force you lo it I" "Voii 
 are twenty, but I am in the right; and, though but 
 one, I can force you to yield," will reply the armed 
 man. Fataviam invenitnt ! Happy he who, like 
 Boethius, can, amid the ruins of a world, write his 
 ConnolaUon, of I'hiloxnjihy. The future of France is 
 a mystery which balfles all sagacilj. Other count- 
 1 ries. indeefl, are occupied with grave problems : Eng- 
 I land, with a calm which we cannot sufficiently ad- 
 mire, is solving bold questions which with us are 
 thought to be ihe exclusive province of ulopianism: 
 but the discussion is everywhere circumscribed — 
 everywhere there are closed lists, laws of combat, 
 heralds and judges. In France, the constitution it- 
 self, the form and even to a certain extent the verj- 
 existence of society, arc continually at stake. Can 
 any country liear up under such a state of things? 
 We are reassured by the reflection that a great nation 
 is, like the human body, a machine most adndrably 
 constructed, carefully weighted and balanced ; al.so 
 that it creates for itself the organs it needs; and that, 
 if it has lost them, it supplies itself with new ones. 
 It may be, that in our revolulionar\- ardor we have 
 carried amputation too far: that, thinking only to 
 drive away diseased superfluities, we have touched 
 some organ es.sential to life, so that the patient's 
 obstinacy in not recovering nniy arise from some 
 lesion we have made in his vital parts. This is a 
 reason for being more cautious in future, and for 
 allowing the patient, robust after all. though dan- 
 gerously ill, to heal his internal wounds, and return 
 to the normal conditions of life. But let us make 
 haste to admit that faults as brilliant as those of 
 France have their redeeming side. France has not 
 lost the scepter of intellect, of taste, of refined art, of 
 atticism; for a long time to c(mu' she will still engage 
 the attention of Mu- civilized worlil, and will be lo 
 the public of Europe the subject of bets and wagers. 
 The affairs of France are of such a nature that for- 
 eigners become interested in them and quarrel 
 at7out them, as much and often more than Ihey do 
 with regard to the affairs of their own countries. 
 The most troublesome thing about her polilical con- 
 dition is the element of the unforeseen; but the un- 
 foreseen has two aspects: by the side of the bad 
 chances are the good ones, and we should be by no 
 means surprised if, after a series of sad misfortunes, 
 France were to enjoy years of singular splendor. 11, 
 weary at last of astonishing the world, she would 
 make up her mind to a sort of political appease- 
 ment, what an ample and glorious compensation she 
 might tind in the paths of private enterpris*-. How 
 she might rival England in the peaceful conquest of
 
 KEVOLUTIONAKT TRIBUNAL. 
 
 688 
 
 EEVOLVER. 
 
 the globe, and in the subjection of all inferior races 
 to the sway of her civilization! France is very capa- 
 ble of everything except mediocrity. Wharever slie 
 suffers, she suffers it. after all. for having attempt- 
 ed too great impossibilities. Whatever miofortuue 
 the future may reserve for her, and were her fate 
 one day to excite the pity of the world, the world 
 will not forget that she tried bold experiments by 
 which all prntit ; that she loved justice to the verge 
 of folly; and that her crime, if of crime she be guilty, 
 was to have believed, with a generous imprudence, 
 in an ideal incompatible with human infirmities. 
 
 REVOLUTIONARY TRIBUNAL.— The name special- 
 ly given to the infamous Court of Judgment— the 
 mo^t extreme republican will scarcely affirm that it 
 was a Court of Justice— instituted by the French Con- 
 vention in March, 1793, on a motion made by Danlon, 
 who considered that such a Court had become neces- 
 sary, inasmuch as the recent disasters that had be- 
 fallen the national armies on the frontiers had led to 
 dangerous conspiracies against the Revolutionary 
 Government. Its members were chosen from tlie 
 various Departments, and their appointment was 
 ratified by the Convention. Their function was to sit 
 in judgment on all persons accused of crimes against 
 the State, and from their sentence, delivered with 
 appalling promptitude, there was no appeal. Dur- 
 ing the ■' Reign of Terror," when Fouquier-Tinville 
 was "Public Accuser," it acquired a horrible noto- 
 riety, abolishing soon almost all forms of justice, 
 neither hearing witnesses on behalf of the accused, 
 nor allowing him an opportunity of defense, but 
 blindly executii^ the orders of the " Committee of 
 Pulilic Safety," which was merely a tool iu tlie hands 
 of Robespierre. In the Provinces, similar Tribunals, 
 under the name of " Revolutionary Committees," 
 were establislied.the Commissaries General of which, 
 as, for instance. Carrier, shot or drowned Smpectn in 
 crowds. 
 
 REVOLVER.— A weapon which, by means of a re- 
 volving breech or revolving barrels, can be made 
 to fire more than once without reloading. The in- 
 
 tion of a revolving chamber or breech, pierced with 
 several cylindrical apertures to receive the charges. 
 Being made to revolve, eachmotion brought a cham- 
 ber into line with the one barrel, common to all, where- 
 upon the weapon was ready for use. Numerous 
 patents for this principle have been taken out, in- 
 cluding one by tlie celebrated Marquis of Worcester 
 in 1661. Various improvements were made, especially 
 in the mode of causing revolution, an American, by 
 the name oT Elisha H. tollier.patenting such a weap- 
 on iu the United States and England about 1818. 
 In 183.5 Colonel Samuel Colt brought to a conclusion 
 experiments of some years' standing, and patented 
 his world-renowned Colt's revolver, which was a 
 great advance on all previous attempts, and is sub- 
 stantially still in use. Colt's revolver consists of one 
 ritlcd barrel of considerable strengtli, and a massive 
 chamber perfoiated with six or seven barrels, which 
 are brought into a line with the barrel by action of 
 the trigger. Eaclr chamber has its nipple for a cap, 
 which is brought under the hammer by the motion 
 which brings the chaml)er or breech-jjiece round. In 
 the most recent form of this revolver, the capped 
 nipple disappears, the cap being contained within 
 tlie cartridge. The hammer is discharged by the 
 trigger, anil acts nearly horizontally in a forward di- 
 rection. Under the pistol is a fixed lever-ramrod, 
 which is used in loading the chambers. Besides all 
 this, by withdrawing a bolt, which can be done in a 
 moment, the entire breech-piece can be taken out, 
 and replaced by another ready charged, so that by 
 carrying a spare breech-piece, a person ma}- fire 
 twelve shots iu less time than another could fire" three 
 if he had to load between the sliots. Colt's revolvers 
 are now extensively used in the naval and military 
 services of America and Europe. 
 
 The principal rivals of Colt's revolver have been the 
 Deiine and Adams, and Smith and Wesson revolvers, 
 although man}- more of various sorts have been pat- 
 ented in the interval. The Deane differed iu that it 
 could be fired by merely pulling the trigger without 
 also raising the hammer with the finger, as in Colt's; 
 
 vention is very far from new, specimens, with even 
 the present system of rotation, being still in existence, 
 whicli were manufactured at the beginning of the 
 ITtli century. Probably the first revolver to suggest 
 itself was one in which several barrels were mounted 
 on an axis, and made to revolve by the action of the 
 trigger, so that their powder-pans came successively 
 under the action of the lock. This principle was 
 never entirely abandoned, and in the reign of George 
 IV. was produced a pistol called the "Marietle," 
 whieli liad from four to twenty-four small barrels 
 bored in a solid mass of metal, made to revolve as the 
 trigger was drawn back. At close quarters, such a 
 jiistol would doulitless have been useful ; but its 
 great weight and cumbrous mecliauism rendered aim 
 extremely unsteady. Contemporaneously from the 
 first with the revolving barrels, went forth the forma- 
 
 I but this was found to be so dangerous iu practice tli.at 
 ' the inventors scmii sulistituti'il an arrangement under 
 which it could lio fired either by the trigger or Iiy 
 I ralkiiur the hammer; and lastly, tliey introduced the 
 great improvement of a spur behind the trigger, 
 which must be pressed by the middle finger, while 
 the forefinger discharges the piece througli the trig- 
 ger. The drawing represents the American Arms 
 Co.'s extracting revolver, using Smilli and Wesson's 
 cartridges, caliber 38. This revolver is very simple, 
 performing ils ollice i,' a satisfactory manner, with 
 little liability of getting out of order, and is easily 
 taken apart by the most unskillful. Its operation is 
 as follows; After firing the cartriilges. open the arm 
 as ill Smith 6c Wesson's, and, by turning it over, a 
 quick niovemi tit will throw out the empty shells; or, 
 turning it half-way over and pulling the extractor
 
 REVOLVING GEAR. 
 
 CW 
 
 RICE TROWEL BAYONET. 
 
 rinn (jiiickly Imck with the lin);crs, llic bIicIIm fall 
 iiilo the Imiiil or on the (iroiind. The revolver prin- 
 ciple has also been HiireeHsfdlly applieil to llie niiiri- 
 ufiieliire of a kind of revcjlvin^c nuns for small pro- 
 jt'Oliles, wliieli are really aiinrefjales of Hniall-arnis. 
 TIk^ Gallinijc i^un, a revr)lver of this class, in wliieli 
 the several hiirrels turned round a eoninion axis, was 
 iiseil dnrint; the Ameriean civil war. Hut the? best 
 known f;un of this description is the French initrfiil- 
 liimr t)r initraillfiir, of which so much was heard 
 diirins the Fraiicn-Gernnin war. That most coni- 
 inoidy used hail a iiroiij) of ll'i barrels, snrroiinded 
 by a bronze shealhintr, and movable breeih-pieee; it 
 was tired by means of a crooked handle or winch at 
 the riijht-hand side. The rani;e of sncli j;ii!is in a 
 level plain is not great; but anionf? forliticatidiis, or 
 In a narrow valley, they may be u.^ed with very 
 deadly etreet. See f'olt litvi/lrer, Ilntclikim Jlevidviug 
 Can unit, Hmihu/tiiii J{(viih(r, Hrh(ififld-8mitJi & Wen. 
 mm llerolvi r.nnd Smith rf- WismJii liivolrer. 
 
 REVOLVING GEAR. The mechanism or pearinp, 
 in machine ijuns, by which the shaft is revolved. It 
 consists of a tuotbed whc'cl, fastened to the shaft, 
 and worked by an endless screw, on a small a.\le, 
 which pa.sscs transversely thronfj;h the case at rii^ht 
 angles to the shaft, and is fnrnished outside the case 
 with a hand-crank: and thus the Inek-eylinder, 
 carrier, and barrels are revolved. Sec Odtting dun, 
 anil 'I'rnr, rshici-qi ar. 
 
 REVOLVING GUN. A breech-loading machine de- 
 vised for fog-signaling, to avoid the labor of spong- 
 ing and ramming home, as in the common guns 
 formerly used for that pnrpo.se. The fore part con- 
 sists of a barrel open at both ends ; the breech front 
 abuts in a close-fitting joint against the mouth of a 
 chamber, formed in a horizontal wheel containing 
 five chambers. A passage communicates through 
 the top of the breech-carrier with the rear of the 
 chamber next to the barrel. This [lassage is so ar- 
 ranged by means of a catch-spring that the com- 
 munication is interrupted, except when a chamber 
 is exactly fitted to the barrel, and then only can the 
 gun be fired. This gun is not adai)ted to warfare, 
 being constructed merely to fire blank cartridge. 
 The wi'ii;ht of the gun is li.'i cwt. 
 
 REVOLVING TARGET.— A very cheap and simple 
 construction designed by General George W. Win- 
 gate, am! used to some extent by the Tnited Stales 
 Army. To construct this target a pit is first dug 
 about 15 feet long, 8 feet deep, and (i feet wide for 
 targets of the third class, and of proportionate dimen- 
 sions for targets of the second and first classes. .V 
 stout upright post is placed in the ground and firmly 
 braced, its upper end being level with the top of the 
 pit. An iron pin, at the suitable height, projects 
 
 I the Victoria Cfohh. Of the latter is the (joorl Ser- 
 vice I'ension. This reward is an annuity generally 
 of ClOO, and is granted to (ieneral or Field Odiceni 
 j who have passed a dislinguiKlied ndlilary career 
 either in the field or in good service to Ihr- Stale. U 
 can be enjoyed by the recipient, in aildition lo hbj 
 regular pension, inilil he sncci-edH to the Colonel's 
 allowance. In the Indian Army, an ofllcer receiving 
 an enhanced pension, in addition to his regular pen- 
 sion, would not be allowed to retain the ri-wanl for 
 distinguished service if the aggregate sums reciiveil 
 by him exceeded tl.OOl) a year. UleriloriouH Non- 
 commissioned Olllcers receive the fiood-conducl \\v. 
 wards in the shape of annuities of xlO, X.\Tt, orX20 
 each. 
 
 RHANA SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— The singu- 
 lar features of this system point out the absurdity of 
 abstract calculationsapplied to the <irl nffi'rtificaiiim. 
 The bow and arrow, the sword, shield, and lance 
 are cunibined in this outline. 
 
 RIBADOQUIN.— An ancient 1 or Ij pounder gun. 
 Also a pnwiTfiil iToss-liow for Ihrownig darts. 
 
 RIBANDS. Scantlings of wood about lO feet long 
 and 4 inches square, and used in rack-lashing gun 
 platforms to keep the platform secure; they are also 
 used for mortar platforms. Two ribands accompany 
 each platform. 
 
 RIBAUD — A soldier of the Foot-Guards of Philip 
 Augustus of France ; afterwards this term was ap- 
 plied onl}- to the most infamous characters, /{i/au- 
 (laiUe was a term of reproach formerly applied to 
 cowardly soldiers. Philip of Valois thus called his 
 Genoese mercenaries, who he thought had betrayed 
 him. 
 
 RIBAUDEQUIN— 1. Acliariol bristling with spears, 
 used iu tlic fourteenth centurj' for the defense of 
 camps, having small cannon fixed on the framework 
 of tiie car. liihuudequinH were usually placed ou 
 two-wheeled carriages and used as a clieck against 
 a cavalry charge. 2. The name given to organ gun*, 
 which consisted of a number of tubes placed in a 
 row like those of an organ, evidently the forerunners 
 of the modem m'tniilUvrn. 'i. A warlike machine 
 in the form of a bow, containing 10 or 1.5 feet in its 
 curve. It was fixed upon the wall of a fortified 
 town, for the purpose of casting out a prodigious 
 javelin, which sometimis killed several men at once. 
 
 RIBBON. — In Heraldry a diminutive of the ordi- 
 nary called the bend, of which it is one-eighth in 
 width. 
 
 RIBBON COCKADES.— In the Hritish ser\ice. the 
 cockailis wliirli are given to recruits, and are com- 
 monlv calleil the >'"/.»;■.«. 
 
 RICE TROWEL BAYONET. This bayonet, the in- 
 vention of t'olonel Edmund Kice, United States Ar- 
 
 from this upright post, and serves as the axis upon 
 which the target revolves. Two targets are con- 
 nected by a cross-piece, through the center of which 
 the pin or pivot passes. When the upper or exposed 
 target is hit, the marker raises a disc denoting the 
 value of the shot, and places it for a moment over 
 the point struck ; he then pushes the other target 
 laterally and up to the perpendicular, patches the 
 bullet-bole just made, and stands ready to repeat as 
 soon as the target then up is hit. 
 
 REWARD. — .'V recompense given for good service. 
 Kewards are either honorary ox peruniary. Of the 
 former, titles, orders, and crosses are conferred on 
 otbcers and men as marks of distinction for gallantry 
 and good condvict and services rendered to the coim- 
 try. The most recent reward for military merit is 
 
 my, consists of the ordinary musket-bayonet, the 
 blade of which is shortened and welded to a thin 
 curved triangular plate of steel. It is intended tobe 
 tised as a trowel for intrenching purposes, being then 
 detached from the musket ; the loop connecting the 
 shank and base of the blade serves as a stiffening 
 brace, and also to guard the fingers from abrasion in 
 the act of digging. -V similar blade can be affixed to 
 the ordinary sword-bayonet handle, which, though 
 heavier than that first described, affords a more con- 
 venient grasp to the hand. 
 
 The soldier should never be separated from an in- 
 trenching tool of some description. Many are the 
 instances recorded where it was impossible to for- 
 ward the intrinrhing tmh to the front until after the 
 exigency for their use had passed and the men were
 
 KICOCHET. 
 
 G90 
 
 HIDING SCHOOL. 
 
 compelled to use tin plates, tin cans, fragments of 
 canteens, knives, sticks, etc., in order to get tempo- 
 rary shelter from the enemy's most galling fire. 
 
 The writer is a firm advocate of the trowel brii/onet, 
 having given it numerous practical tests on tlie West- 
 ern Prairies in engagements with hostile Indians, 
 and when it was necessary to make cover while open 
 to the tire of sharp-shooters. 
 
 General Miles indorses its usefulness as follows : 
 " I am fully satisfied that its utility and value are as 
 well established as that of any article carried by the 
 soldier ; that it would increase the efBcienc,v of any 
 army ; and that it should be universally adopted by 
 the entire army. If the opinion of officers command- 
 ing troops in the field is considered of value, I believe 
 that opinion is decidedly in favor of its adoption." 
 
 The art of utilizing cover is of importance, and the 
 soldier who carries in compact form the means of 
 erecting cover at will, possesses advantages over an 
 enemy not so provided ; and if the instrument used 
 for this purpose is also available as an offensive wea- 
 pon, his advantage becomes still more apparent. 
 
 In future operationsof armies, hasty field entrench- 
 ments must play a most important part. The best 
 authorities, from Napoleon I. down to the most sci- 
 entific soldier of this day, all agree in the opinion 
 that each soldier should carr}- his own intrenching 
 tool. By giving each soldier a trowel-bayonet, he is 
 supplied with a light, strong, and serviceable intrench- 
 ing tool ; no addition is made to the weight he is 
 obliged to carry ; and he is provided with a weapon 
 as formidable as the triangular or sword bayonet. 
 
 The trowel hnyonet requires the digger to work on 
 his knees. This is but a slight drawi)ack when the 
 work is of short duration, and it is even an advantage 
 
 times, produces most disastrous and demoralizing 
 effects on masses of cavalry and infantry, whom it 
 hews down in long lines. Spherical projectiles are 
 more certain of ricochet than those of elongated 
 form ; with the latter the first graze usually causes 
 them to tumble, after which their motion is both 
 feeble and erratic. The pieces principally emploj-ed 
 for ricochet firing are the 8-inch howitzer and the 8 
 and 10 inch siege mortars. The first two may be 
 used when the angle of fall is less than ten degrees. 
 
 KIDEAU. — A rising ground or eminence, command- 
 ing a plain, sometimes almost parallel to the works 
 of a place. It is a great disadvantage to have rideaus 
 near a fortification, which terminate on the counter- 
 scarp, especially when the enemy fire from afar ; 
 they not only command the place, but facilitate the 
 enemy's approaches. • 
 
 RIDER. — In artillery carriages, a piece of wood, 
 which has more height than breadth; the length 
 being equal to that of the body of the a.xle-tree, up- 
 on which the side-pieces rest in a four-wheel car- 
 riage. such as the ammunition wagon, block-carriage, 
 and sling-wagon. 
 
 RIDGE. — In fortification, the highest part of the 
 glacis proceeding from tlie salient angle of the cov- 
 ered-wav. 
 
 RIDING ESTABLISHMENT.— The School at Wool- 
 wich, established for the instruction of the men of 
 the artillery in riding. It was formed on the organ- 
 ization of the horse artillery under the Duke of Rich- 
 mond, when Master General. It continued, as a mix- 
 ed department, with the Koyal Artillery until the year 
 1809, when it was made into a separate and distinct 
 establishment. It consists of 7 officers, 218 men, and 
 144 horses. 
 
 AT WORK. 
 
 ■when it is being carried out under the enemy's fire, 
 as a man offers in this position a smaller mark for 
 bullets and shrapnel. 
 
 Although but little used to earth-works, infantry 
 soldiers wull soon attain a great rapidity of execution, 
 for it will be to their interest to get quickly under 
 cover. See Clitz Intreiiching-tool and Farrow Knife- 
 trowel and Tent-peg. 
 
 RICOCHET. — In gunnery, the boimding of a shot 
 along the ground, whicli takes place when a gun is 
 flred'low. Ricochet firing is found extremely use- 
 ful both in its actual and moral effect in clearing the 
 face of a ravelin, bastion, or other rather long line 
 of fortification. If well directed the ricochet shot 
 bounding along will dismount guns, scatter the gun- 
 
 fr^n 
 
 "allldft <f 
 
 JHujpt 
 
 V ,J5hihiUftf 
 
 .V^ SMrtMnlt. 
 
 -y'^ 
 
 Head c 
 
 ...*^'1 
 
 Talthljit 
 
 ners, and greatly intimidate the garrison. Vauban 
 first introduced ricochet firing at the siege of Plulips- 
 burg in 1G88. The defense against tiiis sort of at- 
 tack consists in earthen traverses along the threat- 
 ened line, or in a bonnet at the point of parajict 
 nearest the enemy. In the field, ricochet, where the 
 shot or shell is made to bound forward at least ten 
 
 RIDING-MASTER.— In the British service, an offi- 
 cer in the cavalry, military train, and artillery, whose 
 duty it is to instruct the officers and men in the man- 
 agement of their horses. He is most commonly se- 
 lected from the ranks ; his pay is 9s. a day. rising by 
 length of service to IDs. fid. and 13s.; besides which 
 he receives £7 per troop per annum for riding-house 
 expenses ; and he is believed to make some profit out 
 of this allowance. The Riding-master has the re- 
 lative rank of Lieutenant, and, after an aggregate 
 service of 30 j'ears, including at least 1.5 years as 
 Riding-master, he has the right to retire on 10s. a 
 dav, with the honorary rank of Captain. See Rough 
 Rider. 
 RIDING-SCHOOL.— To perfect the troopers in man- 
 aging tlieir horses and in tising their arms, 
 they are exercised in running at tlie lomln 
 an(l riiig.t. This is done in the riding- 
 school. For this exercise, four posts — two, 
 ."i feet inches high, and two, 2 feet in- 
 ches high — ca'led head-posts, are used; 
 also, two posts called rinrj-posts, so made 
 that the upper part, which sujiports a 
 horizontal arm. maybe raised and lowered; 
 from the arm which extends over thecenter 
 of the track is sus])en(liMl ;in iron ring4in. 
 in diameter, so arranged that it. can be easily 
 carried away with the saber. These posts are placed 
 along the sides of the track, on the inside, in tlu' fol- 
 lowing order : twenty j'ards from one end a tall head- 
 post, two yards from the track; forty yards farther, 
 a ring-post ; twenty yards farther and twenty yards 
 from the other end, <ine yard from tlietrack, a short 
 head-post. The posts arc arranged ou the other 
 
 ~^^ 
 
 yj
 
 JIIDINO THE WOODEN H0B8E. 
 
 GOl 
 
 BI7LE ABSOCIATIOHB. 
 
 side of the track in a similar manner, Uic tall poHt 
 bcitig opposite llio first short post, and IIk^ short 
 post opposite tli(! Ilrst tall post. Oneach of the four 
 iieail-posts, anil on lint fironnd on each si<lc, half- 
 way hctwi'cii the tall lirad-post and tlit; rinj;.post, 
 onr yard from Ihi: track, is placed a canvass or 
 leather /»'(((/ stiilTed wilh hay. 
 
 Each troojjer, when he conies near the first tall 
 head-post, brings down his pistol, fires at the head 
 with blank cartridge, and continuing on the track, 
 returns pistol draws .saber, taking the position of 
 guard, and, when on the opposite side of the school, 
 takes the head on the tail post \>y a ri(//di)T fmnt 
 cut ; the head on the ground ar/ohtst infiiiUry, right 
 cut ; i\w, ring at Hern: point, and the head on the 
 short post, aynin«t i/ifiintr//. right point. The heads 
 may be also taken by executing rigid point, and in 
 guartt point, at the head on the tall post ; againxt 
 infantry rigid point at the head on the ground ; and 
 against infmdry front point at the head on the short 
 post. After the troopers become skillfid in the use 
 of their sabers to (h(; right, the exercises maybe re- 
 peated to the left; then with stirrups crossed, and 
 finally with the hor.ses bare back. Hurdles and 
 bars may also be jiluccd on the track. See Jlome- 
 mannhip. 
 
 BIDING THE WOODEN H0B8E.- A punishment 
 formerly resorted to, not only in the IJritish Army, 
 but in the armies of other nations. The horse is 
 described as made of plank, roughly nailed together, 
 forming a sharp ridge to rei)re3ent the back of the 
 horse ; it was then supported by posts to .serve as 
 the legs of the animal, about '! or 7 feet lon^, the 
 whole being placed on a movable truck. AV hen a 
 soldier or soldiers had to undergo punishment, they 
 were placed on this horse, with their hands tied be- 
 hind their back, and freipiently muskets were tied 
 to their legs, to prevent the horse, as was humorous- 
 ly observed, from kicking off. 
 
 BIFLE ASSOCIATIONS, (jeneral inslrncfions for 
 the formation of rifle associations in different locali- 
 ties, together with a form of by-laws, will be found 
 annexed to the Aimual lieport of the National Rifle 
 Association for tiie years 1874 and 187.'). Those Asso- 
 ciations should confine their attenticm, in the main, to 
 practice with military rifles, not only on account of 
 the advantages to l)e obtained from training the Na- 
 tional Guard and the public to the use of military 
 weapons, but because the number of those using 
 long-range rifles will of necessity be limited. It will 
 be found advantageous for such association to em- 
 ploy markers liy the month, and for the members 
 using them to be charged a certain sum an hour. 
 When not occupied in marking these men can be 
 used in improving the range. Boys shotdd never be 
 allowed to serve as markers. Care should be exercis- 
 ed in the selection of score-keepers in matches. Un- 
 less reliable men are employetl. the danger of incor- 
 rect scoring, through fraud or carelessness, will be 
 very great, and accidents are apt to occur. Volunteer 
 scorers may be reli?d on for a short match, but not 
 for a meeting lasting several daj's. In all competi- 
 tions, the prizes should be more numerous than valu- 
 able, and a number provided from which previous 
 winners of prizes should be excluded. In this way 
 young shots may be encouraged, and the danger of 
 having all the prizes carried oft by a few men avoid- 
 ed. In matches each man, upon entering, should re- 
 ceive a register ticket, 'iy^i inches. The tickets for 
 the different matches, as well as fordilTerent distanc- 
 es in the same match, are designated by different 
 colors. Each one should be numbered and contain 
 blanks for the name of the marksman, the target, and 
 hour at which he is to shoot, and his score, having a 
 coupon attached containing sinular blanks. The as- 
 signments of the targets should be made by lot. after 
 alf the entries are received, and be at once posted 
 upon the bulletin board (which should be placed in 
 a central position), directing numbers so and so to 
 shoot at such and such targets. Teams should be 
 
 kept together. (.'ompetitorHshotdd then proceed to 
 the turgclH to which they find they arc assigned, and 
 hand tiieir tickets to the «core-keepern, who Hhould 
 ])lace them in a tin frame holiling ten. Tlie men 
 should be called up in twos (^except in long-range 
 competitions, when they fire in succession;, who lire 
 alternately till Ihey have fired their. sighting and scor- 
 ing shots. Ah each man's shot is Hignulled, the scorer 
 should call his name and the value of the shot, as 
 " IJrown — four," at the same lime entering it upon 
 his ticket. When the score is completed, lie should 
 add it up, and announce the aggregate — "Smith — 
 ten," etc.— and tear off the coupon f whicli Isadupli- 
 cate of th(; tiekel, and give it to the man), retaining 
 the tieki't, which he should hanil to tlie.Superintenfl- 
 ent, who should take it into headipiarters. Any al- 
 teration on the ticket should always be re()uired to 
 be initialed. Any man delayinfj the match should In: 
 pas.sed, and any one acting discreditably di.sijuali- 
 tied from comjieting in other matches. The latter 
 regulation should be rigidly enforced in all eases. 
 Communications with the competitors, during 
 a match, should be by notices posted upon the 
 bulletin board. This they should be required to 
 watch, and their neglect to do .so never be accepted 
 as an excuse. In order to secure an equality, target 
 rifles, unless handicapped, should not be permitted 
 in military matches. Interesting matches are fre- 
 quently maile by permitting them to be u.sed at 
 longer distances, as at 800 yards as against military 
 rifles at .500 yards. Special military rifles, with 
 small bores and heavy charges, should be discrimi- 
 nated against in a similar manner. The best way to 
 sort out the tickets is to have a board provided witli 
 nails, each of which is numbered from the highest 
 possible score downwards. By having each ticket 
 punched with a hole the size of the nail, it can be 
 placed upon the one bearing a number correspond- 
 ing to the score entered on it. and all confusion in 
 arranging them avoided. The entries for each 
 match should be kept in a separate book. If not, 
 delay and inconvenience will be inevitable, as they 
 have of necessity constantly to be referred to. The 
 general arrangements for a match should be placed 
 in the hands of the Executive Committee or Otlicer, 
 who should attend to all details. They should care- 
 fully watch both markers and scorers. The knowl- 
 edge that this is being done will do much to prevent 
 carelessness in the marking. Protests and com- 
 plaints not having a substantial foundation should 
 be discouraged. All protests should be heard and 
 j decided upon the spot, whenever practicable. If 
 delayed, it is difficult to ascertain the facts in regard 
 to them. While every endeavor should be made to 
 insure fairness in making a decision, when once 
 made it should be firmly adhered to. The greatest 
 benefit in developing good shots and building up an 
 interest in rifle practfce will be found to result from 
 badges offered for competition monthly, not to be- 
 come the property of the winner until won a certain 
 number of times." The longer the struggle for these, 
 badges continues the more "their possession is valued 
 I The securing of a proper range is the main obstacle 
 I with which anew rifle association has to contend. 
 I The land should be purchased, if practicable; it not, 
 I it may be leased. Its location is most important. 
 If not easy of access, it will not be successful. Be- 
 yond the erection of the necessary butts and targets, 
 no buildings, with the exception of a small store- 
 house, are necessary. If, however, a building should 
 be provided for the residence of the range-keeper 
 and the storing of the rifles, etc., of the members, 
 it will form a great convenience. The question of 
 laying out the range and the targets should be 
 .f idly understood. If iron targets are used, twelve 
 ' will be suflicient for an ordinary range. This will 
 allow three third-class targets and two second-class, 
 to be used together, and permit of their being con- 
 verted into two first-class targets, for long-range 
 matches. These can be put up in different manner
 
 KtFLE CANISTER. 
 
 692 
 
 RIFLE CANNON. 
 
 upon diilerenl days, so as to permit the members to 
 practice at any distance by coming at a certain time. 
 Whether the targets should be placed in pairs or 
 upon a line depends upon the ground, and also how 
 it is to be used. If the range is to be used for mili- 
 tary class-firing, the targets should be so placed as 
 to allow of their being used simultaneously at the 
 same distances, without one firing party being in 
 front of anotlier. For other practice the firiug'par- 
 ties may be placed in front of one another, provided 
 an interval of at least l.'iO feet is preserved. 
 
 A moving target adds interest to the range. At 
 Wimbledon it consists of a running deer; at To- 
 ronto of a running man. In both cases the target 
 is of iron, and runs upon a railway about 60 feet 
 long, and rising at each end about 5 feet. The 
 markers are placed behind a shot-proof butt at each 
 end, and start the figure at a signal from the firing- 
 point. The descent gives it a speed of about .5 
 miles an hour, and it must be hit while moving. To 
 shoot at a mark of this description with success re- 
 quires the best qualities of a rifleman, and much ex- 
 perience. See National Riltj; Annociathn. 
 
 RrFLE-CANISTER.— These are 
 very similar in general appear- 
 ance to those used in smooth- 
 bore cannon. As shown in the 
 drawing, the case is of sheet-iron 
 or tin, with fringed ends which 
 are turned over and soldered or 
 riveted to iron or zinc discs. The 
 balls are of iron or zinc packed in 
 rozin or coal-dust, sometimes in 
 discs of wood. The}- are fitted 
 with solder studs or rings of lead 
 on the outside to take the rifling, 
 or with an expanding cup. See Canister-shot, Case- 
 sluit. and Projertiles. 
 
 RIFLE-CANNON.— The general adoption of rifled 
 small-arms necessitated the introduction of rifled 
 cannon. It is plain that the principle has application 
 to all sizes of projectiles, and would therefore be 
 used for the heaviest ordnance as well as for the 
 smallest. Contemporaneous attempts so to adapt it 
 have not been wanting, but they are in many cases 
 isolated in point of time and connection. Tlie first 
 persevering and rational efforts to apply the rifle 
 principle to cannon were initiated some twenty jears 
 since; and the names of Wahrendorff, Cavalli. Lan- 
 caster, and others, are identified with the first efforts 
 to overcome the difficulties — of no ordinary char- 
 acter — that beset the question. Tlie yielding nature 
 of lead renders the application of the rifle principle 
 of easy accomplishment in the case of small-arms; 
 but such is not the case with rifle-cannon, where 
 the projectiles are made of iron. The application of 
 this principle to cannon also r^'quired.an increase of 
 strength in the piece. The greater the weight and 
 the length of a projectile, the greater is the opposi- 
 tion from inertia and friction which it offers in the 
 bore to the expansion of the ignited charge, andthis 
 opposition is considerably augmented if the projec- 
 tile is constrained to travel tlirough tlie bore in a 
 spiral course. Hence it is not diflicult to conqire- 
 liend why a rilled gun must be of a slroiurer.tcuigliiT, 
 and more elastic material than is necessary for a 
 smooth-bore gun in which the s]ilierical jirojcctile 
 yields promptly to the first impulse of the powder-g:is 
 to which it presents half its surface, and bounds 
 freely forward through the bore, almost unimpeded 
 byfrictiim; while the strain on tliegun is immensely 
 relieved bythe comparatively great windage. Again, 
 as the explosive power of a c:irtridge. and the in- 
 ertia and friction of a ]irojectile, iiirrease as the 
 cubes of their respective weights, while the surface 
 of the chamber and the base of the projectile against 
 which the powder-gas acts increases only as the 
 squares, it follows that the larger the charge and 
 the heavier the projectile, the harder and .stronger 
 must be llie inner barrel. 
 
 The progress of the art of war depends essentially 
 upon that of the sciences and "manufactures, for the 
 manner of fighting depends upon the character of 
 the arms which we possess. These will be more 
 effective, as their mode of construction is more per- 
 fect, and as the means employed in their manufac- 
 ture produce greater strength and precision. This 
 is particularly the case with reference to cannon, in 
 evidence of which we have only to call to mind the 
 great revolution in warfare wliich has taken place 
 since tlieir introduction, and which is continually 
 taking place as the means of perfecting cannon in- 
 crease. It is only in recent years that our knowl- 
 edge of the metallurgy of iron, and also our ability 
 to manufacture and handle, with any degree of .skill, 
 large masses of that metal, have rendered possible 
 the fabrication of the enormous pieces of the present 
 day. But now the great improvements which have 
 been introduced in the manufacture of iron, in the 
 fabrication of cannon, and in the facilities for the 
 transportation and handling of heavy guns, render 
 possible the success of cannon of mammoth propor- 
 tions. In designing rifle-cannon, the pratticability 
 of manufacture and the durabilitj- of structure must 
 be ascertained. The weight, caliber, length, sys- 
 tem of rifling, weight and shape of projectile, etc., 
 etc., must be all scientifically calculated so as to in- 
 sure excellence in range, accuracy, and penetration; 
 and then each and all of these constructional details 
 are liable to alteration, should the thorough trial of 
 a specimen gun render any amendment advisable. 
 The first comprehensive experiment with rifled can- 
 non appears, from all accounts, to have been made in 
 Russia, about 1836, on the invention of a Belgian, 
 but did not prove successful. In 1845, Cavalli, a 
 Sardinian officer, experimented with a breech-load- 
 ing cannon which was rifled witli two grooves, for a 
 plain iron projectile, adapted to fit them. In the 
 next year, Wahrendorff. of Sweden, fitted heavy 
 projectiles to take the rifling by affixing lead to their 
 elongated sides by means of grooves cut in them. 
 And not long after this, Timmerhaus, of Belgium, 
 invented an expanding mbot, which, being fitted to 
 the base of the projectile, was forced into the rifle- 
 grooves, and thus gave rotation. In these early ex- 
 periments we find the germs of the leading systems of 
 the present day. The solid projectile, fitted to en- 
 ter the grooves of the gun; the compression of a soft 
 covering on the projectile bj' the lands of the gun ; 
 and the expansion of the rear of the projectile by the 
 pressure of the powder to fill the grooves of the gun. 
 
 The object of rifiing a gun is io increase its accu- 
 racy of fire, and. by enabling elongated to be substi- 
 tuted for spherical projectiles, to obtain from it 
 longer ranges. Kifling diminishes the deviations of 
 ordinary projectiles, due to the following causes : 
 1st. Want of uniformity in figure and weight around 
 the longitudinal axis of the projectile. passing through 
 the center of gravity. 
 
 2d. Positioii of the center of gravitj', before or 
 behind the center of figure. 3d. Resistance of the 
 air. I. By rotating the projectile around its longi- 
 tudinal a.\is, the direction of these deviations is so 
 rapidly shifted from side to side, that the projectile 
 lias ni) time to go far out of its course either way. 
 II. The velocity of this rotation is such as to make 
 the axis stable on leaving the bore, and to counteract 
 i\\v. pressure of the air tending to turn the projectile 
 over, or render it unsteady in flight. III. A given 
 weight of ])rojectile can be put into such a form as 
 to opiMise the least practicalile cross-sectional area 
 to the air, and thus to receive the least practicable 
 retardation of velocity. Certain |ieculiar advantages 
 follow from the rotation of the projeclili-, causing it 
 to ]iresent the same part to the front throughout its 
 flight. It becomes jiossible to make a much simpler 
 percussion-fuse, because it is only necessary to prov- 
 ide for action in one direction in place of every pos- 
 sible direction. Shells reipiired to act towards the 
 front in any peculiar way have their bursting-charge
 
 KIFLED HOWITZSftS. 
 
 693 
 
 BIFLED H0WITZZE8 
 
 and rnotiil i)la(:(r(l willi a virw In this object. 80, 
 ai^iiin, llu; cciiUt of i^riivity irmv hi: brought to (iny 
 (Icsiicd part or tin; slirll, ami this is an iinporlanl 
 feature in th(^ coiistrui'tioii of projectih'S. Kitbn); 
 gives tlie power of altering I he form of projectiles at 
 will. TluOieail inay III' made of any desire<l Hha|)e 
 for penetration or llij;ht. The projeitile may i)e 
 elon;jate(l ho as to j;ive a diininislieil surface for any 
 resistinj^ medium to act ui)on; thus in lli^dit, vi'locily 
 is kept up and the ratine extended, or on impact 
 (greater penelralinri is oljtaini'd. \V'ei;;ht for weii^-ht, 
 the sainir eirecl may j;enerally lie produced with an 
 elonjiated projectile liy usini; a smaller charge! of 
 powder than with a spherical one. It follows from the 
 }lis;ht of an eloimaleil projectile meelintj with li'ss 
 resistance from the air, and Ueepiii;; up its velocity 
 better, that at all but very slinrt ranges the trajecto- 
 ry is Hatter; hence the probability of hittini; an or- 
 dinary object is ijrcater. The power to vary the 
 lenL;lh of the eloni;ati'd ])rojeetile enables nil those 
 for the same mm to be made of the same weight, 
 and hence to reipnre the same elevations with the 
 same charge of ]io\vdcr. Or it is |i<issilile to make a 
 projectile specially heavy if rcquireil. This obvious- 
 ly cannot be the case with spherical projectiles, which 
 nmst be of the same size. The chief disadvantages 
 are, bad ricochet, increased complication, and ex- 
 pense of manufacture, liability to injury arising from 
 the necessity of soft studs, expaniling rings, or a soft 
 lead coal; increased strain on the gun, besides great- 
 er probability of jamming and injury to the bore, 
 uncertainty of time-fuses. 
 
 EIFLEDHOWITZEES.— In consideraiion of the sat- 
 isfactory results obtained with the 3.07-incli Moffatt 
 breech-loading lield-picce, and also of the evident 
 advantages to be secured by the substitution of a 
 breech-loading rilled howitzer for the 8-inch muz- 
 zle-loading smooth-bore howitzer, of at least equal 
 power to the latter gun- -for Hank defense and siege 
 purposes — a result believed to be attainable with tliis 
 system by a 6-inch caliber, it was decided to con- 
 struct such a howitzer on the MolTiitt plan for experi- 
 ments and tests, the slight changes in construction 
 resulting either from some observed imperfection in 
 the working of the mechanism in the tield-piece or 
 from the employment of adilTerent nature of ammu- 
 nition in the howitzer. A brief description here will 
 therefore suflice. The howitzer consists of a steel 
 body, to which is adapted the MofTatt breech-mech- 
 anism, a conical breech-plug closing the bottom of 
 the bore through the agency of a strap or yoke, which 
 locks into lugs on the sides of the brcechfor the sup- 
 port necessary to resist the shock of discharge, and 
 
 which is attached to the trunnions aH an uxIh of mo- 
 tion. 'I'he chamber is opi-ned by tilting up the breech 
 of the howitzer with a lever, whereby the block falls 
 back upon th(^ strap and uncovers thebori'. Inpliu:e 
 of a li'ather strap to insure the opening of the bnech, 
 a held is attached to the hinge of the lireech-block, 
 which, comingin contact with the strap as the breech 
 is raised, throws down the block, and by the same 
 movement turns with the hinge so as to ilear the 
 strap. 'I'he locking-boll is bored through a.xially for 
 the reception of a liring-pin. with which to explode 
 the charge when primed metallic cartridges are em- 
 jiloyed. An ordinary vent is also jirovided by meanfl 
 of which the charge can be ignited by a friction- 
 |iriiner. Th(' gnn-boily was made from a steel block 
 furnished by Thomas Kirlh A Sons, of Khetlleld, 
 England. It was cast in an ingot, forged to dimen- 
 sions, and bored by them to within one-ipiarter inch 
 of its tinished diameter. The steel contained about 
 0.04 of 1 per cent, of larbon. The breech-strap and 
 block were made in iioston, and were of low gteel, 
 containing 0.44 of 1 per cent, of carbon. 
 
 The following are the principal dimensions of tho 
 gun : 
 
 Diameter of bore across lands inches. 
 
 Diameter of bore through chamber... 0. 2 inches. 
 Diameter of breech-block cavity at 
 
 seat of gas-check 6. 8 inches. 
 
 Diameter of breech-block cavity at 
 
 outer edge 8. ■'> inches. 
 
 Exterior diameter of piece at muzzle 12 inches. 
 
 Maximum diameter 10 inches. 
 
 Diameter of trunnions .'>.8T.5 inches. 
 
 Diameter of riinbases 8. inches. 
 
 Distance betwcen-rimbascs 10 inches. 
 
 Diameter of loop (over ) vertical 5. 875 inches. 
 
 trunnions) in breech- - 
 
 straps ) horizontal. 6. 075 inches. 
 
 Length of gun body 78 inches. 
 
 Total length of gun 88 inches. 
 
 Length of bore 09. 625 inches. 
 
 Length of ritled portion of bore 64. 62.') inches. 
 
 Length of bevel joining lands to 
 
 chamber 1 inch. 
 
 Pitch of rilling, uniform, one turn in 30 feet. 
 Number of grooves and lands, each 17 
 
 Width of lands 0. 50 inch. 
 
 Width of grooves 0. 6088 inch. 
 
 Depth of grooves 0. 075 inch. 
 
 Length of trunnions 5. H75 inch. 
 
 The principal Ktiropean Artilleries have produced 
 rifled howitzers and mortars throwing shells of 80 
 kilos, with sufficient accuracy to render them fomii- 
 
 Elements. 
 
 Nature of the metal of the piece . 
 
 France. 
 
 Howitzer of 22 
 c. m. 
 
 Method of loading 
 
 Caliber of the bore millimeters 
 
 Length of ritled portion (iu calibers) 
 
 Number of grooves 
 
 Twist (in calibers,) about 
 
 Inclination of the grooves to the genera- 
 trices of the liore 
 
 Weight of the piece kilos 
 
 Weight of the loaded shell 
 
 Weight of the interior charge of shell — 
 
 Maximum firins-charge 
 
 Ratio of the weight of the maximum charge 
 to the weight of the projectile 
 
 Ratio of the weight of the projectile to the 
 weight of the piece 
 
 Maximiim initial velocity meters 
 
 jyiaximum range do 
 
 Cast iron, 
 banded. 
 
 Muzzle 
 
 223.3 
 
 9.8 
 
 3 
 
 England. 
 
 Howitzer ot 8 
 inch. 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Mortar of 21 
 c. m. 
 
 Mortar of 8 
 po. 
 
 0° to 6" 
 
 3,700 
 
 79.8 
 
 4.0 
 
 6.0 
 
 ItolS 
 
 1 to 16 
 
 257 
 
 5,220 
 
 Wrought iron Bronze 
 with steel tube 
 
 Muzzle Breech 
 
 203.2 
 
 4.4 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 1« 6' 31 
 2,350 
 81.4 
 
 5.9 
 
 4.53 
 
 . Cast iron. 
 Breech. 
 
 1 to 18 
 
 1 to I 
 
 209.3 
 5.5 
 30 
 25 
 
 3,025 
 
 80.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 3.5 
 
 4,4801 
 
 1 to33 
 
 1 to 38 
 
 215i 
 
 4.000, 
 
 209.3 
 4.1 
 30 
 60 
 
 '3° 1' 16" 
 
 4,6.55 
 
 87.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 5.6 
 
 1 to 13 
 
 1 to .53 
 
 4.500
 
 EUXED MUSKET. 
 
 694 
 
 EIFLE-PIT. 
 
 dable to covered arches or blinds, such as exists at 
 present. 
 
 On page 693 are some elements for a comparison of 
 these different pieces. 
 
 It will be seen from this table that the French how- 
 itzer and the Austrian mortar of 8 po. permit of the 
 attainment of the greatest ranges, but also that their 
 weights are very considerable ; the Austrian mortar, 
 particularly, appears to have an exaggerated weight 
 relativcl}' to the effects attainable with it ; it is possi- 
 ble b}' the system of banding to reduce this weight, 
 "say, at least 800 kilos., and to give the piece a great- 
 er length of bore, which would permit the use of 
 larger charges and of a more progressive powder, b_v 
 means of which ranges of 5,000 meters should be ob- 
 tained. 
 
 In order to compare the accuracy of fire, we have 
 calculated the ration of R and q of the mean devia- 
 tions, longitudinal aud lateral, to the ranges. The 
 
 is rifled. In 1855, Austria adopted for her infantry 
 of the line, the riJUd musket, with a barrel 37 inches 
 long, and having four wide grooves equal to the 
 \ laud, making one turn in 83 inclies. See Bifle. 
 
 RIFLEMEN.— Troops armed with rifles, and em- 
 , ployed more or less as sharpshooters. The name has 
 I nearly lost all meaning, for the whole infantry are 
 now rillemen ; but as late as 1854, the riflemen were 
 quite the exception, the army generally having the 
 smooth-bore " Brown Bess." There were at that 
 time only two English line regiments of Rifles, with 
 two colonial regiments of infantrj-, and one Hotten- 
 tot regiment of mounted infantry. The establish- 
 ment of Rifle regiments was suggested to the British 
 by the Americans and French, from the sharp-shoot- 
 ers of which nations the British armies suffered 
 severely. During the French war, the 60th and 95th 
 Regiments were armed as riflemen, taught light in- 
 fantry drill, and clothed in dark green, to be as in- 
 
 Piece. 
 
 30". 
 
 40". 
 
 45°. 
 
 60°. 
 
 
 R 
 
 ? 
 
 R 
 
 ? 
 
 R 
 
 Q 
 
 R 
 
 Q 
 
 French howitzer of 
 
 22 c. m. 
 English howitzer of 
 
 S'inches.* 
 
 sV to jV 
 
 A to tU 
 Tie to ,ii 
 TTff to Jj 
 
 ,', to . 1, 
 
 sis to jnis 
 
 5T5 to yj'55 
 
 1 tn 1 
 
 575 ^O 55,if 
 
 55B '0 T?S5 
 
 »i^ to '^ 
 
 i\ to jV 
 
 jV to jJjT 
 
 m to ^U 
 ik to ttVs 
 
 TBiT to sir 
 
 T.b to i^ 
 
 s's to ^ 
 
 ttVs to T^ 
 YSC to „V7 
 lis to j^ 
 
 A- to 
 
 TbTF 
 
 ^to 
 
 rixto 
 
 21 c. m. 
 
 
 
 8po. 
 AustriJin niorttir of 
 
 
 
 
 6ipo. 
 
 
 
 
 
 'A 20", R=3V to 5^t; g=^ to -^J^. 
 
 above table indicates the limits between which these 
 ratios vary for the different angles of fire, in^propor- 
 tion as the range iucreases. 
 
 It will be seen, from a study of the figures in this ta- 
 ble, that the French howitzerlias above all a notable 
 inferiority in point of accuracy of range. The Prus- 
 sian mortar has a sensible superiority over the Aus- 
 trian mortar in point of accuracy of range; but tlie 
 accuracy in direction of the Austrian mortar is very 
 much greater than the Prussian. Tliis latter fact 
 would tend to jjrovc that the Prussians, notwitli- 
 standing tlie modifications successfully introduced 
 in the plan of their siiell, have not yet succeeded in 
 giving to it a stal)ility upon its trajectory compara- 
 ble to that of tlie Austrian shell. In respect to this, 
 however, it should be observed that the inclination 
 of the rifling in the Prussian mortar is 7°, while m 
 the Austrian mortar the inclination is only 3'': it is 
 generally admitted in France that the inclination of 
 the rifling for large pieces sliould but little exceed 4". 
 
 In respect to the effects of fire, tlie difference of 
 weights of ijrojectiles thrown by the pieces examined 
 is too small to give rise to llie supposition that there 
 would be any appreciable difference iu tlie effects of 
 penetration for tlie same angles of fire and the same 
 ranges; in point of the effects of explosion, tlie Eng- 
 lish shell, owing to its greater bursting charge, 
 ought to be the most powerful. 
 
 Prom wliat precedes it is to be concluded that the 
 French howitzer, which was remarkable enough at 
 the time of its adoption, has not to-day a sulhciently 
 accurate fire to warrant its introduction in;,o siege- 
 trains; for tlif; armament of places, anil the jirovis- 
 ional armament of coast-batteries, it may [lossibly 
 do good service, because, in these two eases, the ef- 
 fects of isolated shots may be very formidable, not- 
 withstanding that, in order to obtain serious effects 
 against the very solidly construeled shelters of a 
 place, it is necessary to groujithe shots ujion a small 
 surface. See IlmmUer, AfuffaU (hin, and Ordnance. 
 
 RIFLED MUSKET.— A musket of which tlie bore 
 
 visible as possible. The 95th became the Rifle bri- 
 gade. Experiment has since shown that gra3' is less 
 conspicuous than green as a uniform — hence it was at 
 first adopted by many volunteer corps. 
 RIFLE-PIT— A hasty intrenchmtnt, large enough 
 
 •mkm!^ 
 
 BHELTEn-riT H)K SKIUMISIIERH.
 
 RIFLE PRACTICE. 
 
 605 
 
 HITLE PRACTICE. 
 
 to conceal a Bliarp-sliootir or HkirmiMlicr, iind by a 
 srnnll cover in front cniililcr him to iixc his nnns. A 
 very sliijlit cartlicn |iiini|ii't in milllciciit to prolccl 
 men, in n ;;rciit Miiiisurc, from the cII'icIh of Khnip- 
 ncl mill rifle Imllilx, be«i(leg Hcreeninn them from 
 view, wliieli, in itself, is of greiit iulviintiii;e. From 1 
 recent experimenis it hiiH been iiscertailieil tlmt the 
 jM'iietnition of rille l):ills into newly exciiviiteil eiirth 
 is iilioiit ten inches lit 'JOO yiinls, and only twenty 
 inches at 11 ninne of 10 yiirils. The (liiifrnim shows 
 the ilimensions of the pit and |)ariipet that have 
 prove<l in practice to be very (lesirahle. After u 
 little practice, eiicli skirmisher will soon ascertain 
 tlie exact f<irm of jiit that suits him. The de|)lh nei'd 
 not be nniffirm, but should be about ten inches where 
 the mini's body will be. and about live or six inches 
 in the other parts. In most instances the men will 
 only have to improve natural cover. If lime admits, 
 the piirapet may be made thicker and the trench 
 deeper, and widened so as to pive an abundance of 
 room. The natural cover shonlil always lie taken 
 advantage of when jjossiblc. See Ilanty Intrencli- 
 mi ntn and Slultrr-tn ih-Iuh. 
 
 RIFLE PRACTICE. While initial velocities and 
 ]iressures are determined separately or conjointly by 
 their special iL|ipiiratus, nearly all other (pialities of 
 till' ammunition are iisi'crtained, directly or incident- 
 ally, from ritle practice at various ranges, with suit- 
 able rests and other appliances. The target ground 
 and fixtures at the Frankford .\rsenal possessing some 
 peculiar features, a very brief description of their ar- 
 rangement and u.se is appended. 
 
 The structures pertaining to Ihcgrotmd consist of 
 onv firing huuxe, two Ud'yvt housenw\\\\ their screens, 
 
 in the " Record DooU of ExperimentH." A telegraph 
 key and sounder jilaced at the hide of the recorder 
 place him in direct <-oininunieation with the firing 
 parly. Tlw taructs an- of the usual construction, the 
 angle of di'presHi<in of their centerH being only Hcven 
 feet for the live hundred yards, and twenty-one feet 
 for iUf tliri'c Imndred yard one, as vicwe<f from the 
 firing house. These arrangements luivebeen in oper- 
 ation for somi' years, and tli<; work of recoriling a<;- 
 eom|)lished by their means isdone acciiralely, safely, 
 and with a rapidilv limited only by outside consider, 
 ations. The desiderata of a fixeil ri'st arc Blrength, 
 solidity, capacity of ailaptation to various models of 
 snuill-arms, a facility in securing the arm (irmly in 
 jxisition, without any undui; strain upon any of itH 
 parts, an easy but steady recoil, and rapurily for 
 nice pointing and adjustment. 'I'lie principal fixed 
 rest at this Arsenal is a good attempt to embody 
 these qualifications in the following manner: The 
 support consists of a heavy freestone blo<k resting 
 tipon a brick pier, and carrying (he cast-iron bed 
 j plate of tlie rest as a cap covering its top and a por- 
 tionof its sides. In this Ijed-plate is sunk the pintle 
 which carries the trunnions u[ion which the r/i/umit 
 as irell (IK the tirp-i-niriitf/e move in a vertical plane. 
 The chassis controls the recoiling top-carriage by ac- 
 curately planed and scraped guides, whose surfaces 
 have bearings upon its sides for a length of thirty- 
 two inches : and, owing to the center of vertical mo- 
 tion being beneath, the recoil is always parallel to the 
 axis of the piece at every elevation. The top-car- 
 riage contains the arrangements for directly support- 
 ing the piece, and these are so constructed as to dis- 
 pense with direct screw pressure upon any portion 
 
 and two cast-iron targets at distances of three hun- 
 dred and five hundred yards from the firing house, 
 and of dimensions 12' x 12' and l.Tx 13' respectively. 
 The firing house is provided with an improved fixid 
 n.-'t on brick pier, together with arrangement;; for 
 firing from the shoulder and rest, recoil apparatus, 
 etc. It is also supplied with armorers' bench and 
 tools, desk, scales, clinometer, levels, telescope, etc., 
 together with the usual instruments for determining 
 the state of Ibe atmosphere. The target bouses wifji 
 their screens are situated one in front of each target, 
 at a distance from it of fifty feel and to the left of the 
 plane of fire. They face their respective targets, 
 and each lias arrangements for a camera lens, which, 
 by means of a mirror, throws an image of the target, 
 reduced to one-twelfth, on the surface of the table, at 
 which sits the target recorder. Lithograplied target 
 diagrams to scale, one of which, duly dated and 
 niHiiViered, is placed upon t"ie talile at the com- 
 mencement of each series of twenty shots, enable the 
 recorder to mark the position of each shot as it 
 strikes, thus avoiding the delay ami some degree of 
 risk incident to the usual method of recording. 
 These diagrams, moreover, duly signed and num- 
 bered, are filed as vouchers to their respective pages 
 
 ; of it. The points of support, in addition to the butt- 
 stop, are as usual two, one near the bult and the 
 other at about thirty inches in front; at neither 
 l)oint. liowever, is any side screw clamp allowed to 
 act directly upon the arm. At the rear the stock 
 rests in a V while an inverted \ descends upon its 
 upper surface and secures it laterally as well as ver- 
 
 ! tically by the pressure of a spring whose tension can 
 be increased at pleasure. Meanwhile the thrust- 
 block in rear of the butt plate — a solid brass seg- 
 ment moving vertically in a corresponding segment- 
 al bed— adjusts itself to the points of contact with 
 the butt plate The front support is also a V into 
 which the barrel is pressed by the polished surface 
 of a flat leaf spring above, which latter can. like the 
 spring at the rear support, have its tension increased 
 ui> to the limits of the strength of the rest. 
 
 The advantages of this arrangement are perfectly 
 symmetrical character of the svipport afforded to the 
 piece : the coincidence of the plane of sight with the 
 plane of fire secured, without adjustment, as a mere 
 consequence of the style of support ; the absence of 
 all distortion or buckling of the piece by local strains, 
 or restraint of its longitudinal reaction, and the fact 
 that the arm can be readily secured or released from
 
 EIFLE PRACTICE. 
 
 696 
 
 BIFLE FKACXICE. 
 
 the rest, since, when tlie tension of tlic restraining 
 springs is once adjusted, the piece can be removed or 
 returned and securelj- clamped, almost with a mere 
 click, and will be found sighted upon precisely tlie 
 point last aimed at. All bearing surfaces, journals, 
 elevating and traversing screws, etc., about the ma- 
 chine are massive, far bej-ond the requirements of 
 mere strength, and sufficiently highly finished to give 
 great smoothness and steadiness to all adjustments; 
 as is evidenced by the fact that alterations to the tenth 
 of a minute can be made and read with ease and cer- 
 tainty in an_v direction by two independent means, 
 the vernier and the micrometer screws. In adjusting 
 
 tlie lines for the siglits of small arms, both means are 
 always used, and a discrepancy of more than O'.l be- 
 tween them would demand a repetition of the trial. 
 With the fixed rest and targets as described, all ques- 
 tions regarding accuracy and uniformity of flight of 
 projectiles, can be determined by the usual method 
 of co-ordinates and centers of impact. The subject 
 of investigation may be the performance of a known 
 arm with a new ammunition, or a known ammuni- 
 tion with a modified arm. A new arm with its own 
 special ammunition may, too, be under trial a? a 
 whole system, but, in any case, the average trajec- 
 tory, and the degree of closeness and unifonnity with 
 which the practice adheres to that average trajectory, 
 can be determined. 
 
 Rifle practice constitutes a branch of military in- 
 struction peculiarly fitted for the National Guard, 
 and in which they will always e.\cel. The '•po.iitinn " 
 and " aimirifi drill" which constitute the foundation 
 <)f the system, can be acquired in their armories, and 
 even at "their homes, while the higli state of intelli- 
 gence existing aniong tlii'm I'nables them lo soon ap- 
 ply upon the range th<' instruction they have re- 
 ceived. Kille practice is to a great extent a matter 
 of judgment, particularly at the longer ranges, and 
 the more intelligent men are, the better they will 
 «hoot. Tims both In England and Canada the vol- 
 imteers have been found to shoot better than the 
 regulars. In addition to the vast Increase In mllilary 
 efficiency resulting from liecomiug good shots, it has 
 been found that rifle practice has proved to be one 
 of the most agreeable portions of military Instruc- 
 tion. The lionorat)le reputation of beinc a "crack 
 shot," and the knowledge that the desired skill is 
 solely dependent upon individual exertions, has done 
 
 much to interest the National Guard in the subject, 
 and has induced many to join its ranks. 
 
 While every inducement should be made to attract 
 and develop good individual shots, so as to con.sti- 
 tule a good regimental "team," and for this purpose 
 individual emulation should be encouraged in every 
 way, yet regimental commanders must bear in mind 
 that the true object to be attained is to secure the gene- 
 ml efficiency of the rank and file as riflemen. More 
 credit should attach to an organization making high 
 average shooting than to one having a champion 
 team, and all influences possible should be exercised 
 in that direction. Nor will this course interfere with 
 the selection of a good team. Nothing has been more 
 clearly demonstrated at Creedmoor than that shoot- 
 ing is a matter of educaticra.and it will be found that 
 a Thorough course of instruction will not only make 
 the regiment eflicient as a whole, but invariably de- 
 velop a number of "crack " shots from among those 
 who supposed themselves to be without the qualifi- 
 cations requisite for a "Marksman," and the more 
 "Marksmen" the better tlie chances for a strong 
 •'team." 
 
 Candle practice is specially to be recommended for 
 tlie National Guard. It gives almost the same re- 
 sults as armory target practice, and, as it may be 
 performed simultaneously by an entire company, 
 the saving of time is a great desideratum. Calculat- 
 ing on a basis of one shot a minute, T> shots by 30 men 
 at a single target require two hours and a half, while 
 at candles they could all be fired in ten minutes. In 
 this practice, a gas pipe with small jets is preferable 
 to candles. Some regiments place a miniature tin 
 target in front of the lights aimed at, having the 
 bull's-eye cut out, the flame appearing just behind 
 its center, so that a "bull's-eye" extinguishes it. 
 When candles are used, it is an advantage to insert 
 them in a tube with a spiral spring, so as to always 
 keep the flame in one position, as in a carriage lamp. 
 Some regiments have a bench like a carpenter's horse 
 to place "the candles on, so as to admit of their being 
 moved to ditTerent parts of the room to suit the 
 liglit. In this practice the primer used on the regu- 
 lar cartridge does not contain sufficient fulminate to 
 extinguish the flame at a distance of three feet with 
 certainty. In order to meet this defect, special prim- 
 ers can and should be always obtained containing an 
 extra quantity of fulminate Better effects are also 
 found to result from enlarging the aperture into the 
 cartridg;e. The shells made by the Union Metallic Car- 
 tridge Company are unsuited to this practice. The 
 cone-shaped anvil used in them blows out, when used 
 without powder, at the second discharge, spoiling 
 the shell, and thus making the practice expensive. 
 Neither the Remington shell nor that made by the 
 United States Cartridge Company is liable to" this 
 objection, and in both, the opening for the fulminate 
 can be enlarged. As a piece of the cap is frequent- 
 ly forced through the barrel by the explosion of the 
 primer, care must be taken in this practice never 
 to aim in any direction where injury could be caused 
 by it. The main drill of the National tiuard (in the 
 cities at least) must take place at their armories, and 
 practice at the range be but occasional, "not to 
 learn, but to test what has been learned:" Officers 
 should, therefore, devote all the available time to 
 the sighting, position, arid inming drill, which form 
 the foundation for the whole system. As these are 
 apt to prove monotonous, candle jiractlce should 
 be frequently indulged In. this jxirtion of the drill 
 being always interesting lo the men. It is, there- 
 fore, recommended that the men .should be jirac- 
 tlced in firing .'it candles at the conclusion of each 
 aiming drill. With mm of the Intelligence of those 
 composing the National (iuard, the iniiirovement 
 that will lie found to result from a llllle careful 
 jiractice of this des<-rli)tlon will be found surpris- 
 ing; and a comiiany that at the lieglnning could not 
 extinguish more than two or three candles at a vol- 
 ley, in two or three months will put out nine out of
 
 SIFLE RANGE 
 
 (m 
 
 BIFLE RANGE 
 
 ten; and it. i« frc(|ii(nll_v ohmTvid llmt IIkihc who 
 liiivc luul till- Irust iircvioiiH i)riiclici' us Hporliiini-n 
 will prove the best shots. This (<iimllej priiclic^e 
 will iilso prove viilimhle as a Hiihslitiite for ball 
 prarlice in jiiiliiini; the elllcicney of the men in those 
 cases where the latter eainiot lie had : anil none 
 shoulil lie ]ira(:ti<-eil in target tiring who liave not 
 avera;;eil extinguishing five out of ten cundleHat a 
 previous drill. 
 
 There is no portion of rifle praetiee more imi>ort- 
 ant than understanding how to estinnile <lislanee, 
 but lhei|iiestion of how such a knowjedgi' shall lie 
 aeijnirc-cl and imparled, forms a verv dillienlt pro- 
 l)lem for an iiiruir of llie National Guard. In the 
 country, faeililiis tor the jiurpose can lie easily ol)- 
 tained:lMil in llii' cities, otliors, in addition to re- 
 quiring their men, when upon the range and not 
 tiring, to jjractice in this cvercise nnist urge tllem to 
 accustom themselves to judge distances the best 
 way they can. inijiressing upon them that, no matter 
 how accurate marksmen they may l)e at a li.xed tar- 
 get, they are worthless if lliey cannot calculi.te the 
 distance of an enemy. In estimating distances, the 
 following suggestions nniy be vahialile : At M) yards 
 the oliserver can name any one of his comrades read- 
 ily, as tlie age, comi)lexion. height, and figure can 
 be determined at llial distance. At UIO yards he 
 slioukl notice those parts which are clearly visible, 
 and liis attentioii drawn to the indistinctness of 
 other portions. Tlie lineaments of the face are no 
 longer visible, thel)Uttons down tln' front of the coat 
 appears one continuous line. The movements of the 
 men individually, and the form and colorof the uni- 
 form, are. however, perfectly visible. At 225 yards, 
 the colors of the uniform, cartridge-bo.xes, etc., are 
 still visible ; l)ut the face now rcsemljles a light-col- 
 ored liall under the cap. At about 2"il) yards he can 
 distinguish only the dilTercnt parts of the body an<l 
 the riiie. At aliout 4")ll yards, the direction of the 
 line of nuirch and the movement of tin' rilles can be 
 detected, and in cavalry tlie helmet, cuirass, bright 
 colors of the uniform, etc. At (idll yards the head 
 looks like a small roimd ball, and the shoulders 
 sloped otf. At 700 or 800 yards the body has a 
 dwindled appearance, but the legs of men in motion 
 or extended arms are still distinguishalile. At t'OO 
 and 1000 yards the separate tiles and direction of 
 march are still apparent. At 1200 yards infantry 
 can be distinguished from cavalry. At 2000 yards a 
 man, or even a horse, looks like a meres|)eck ordol. 
 
 Individual jiractiee should be I'ncouraged by all 
 officers and particularly in the case of the Kational 
 Guard, to wliom every inducement should be made 
 to visit any available range for private practice. To 
 prevent accidents ami ensure the enforcement of the 
 prescrilied ruh's. every man slKuild be re(|uired to 
 enter his name on arriving at the range ; those men 
 ■who are the tirst to arrive shoulil have the right tc- 
 determine the distance at which they wish to tire. 
 As the men arrive, they will form themselves into 
 squads, each S(|uad electing a Captain, who wil keep 
 the score and enforce the rules of the range. All 
 arriving subsequently are to obey his orders. If no 
 markersor look-out men are employed, each Captain 
 must make a detail from his s(|uad lor such purposes. 
 and see that those detailed are properly rj'lieved. 
 The firing is to be conducted according to the prin- 
 ciples above laid down, and every shot fired in rear 
 of the firing point, whether accidentally or other- 
 wise, unless firi'd into the pit provided for the piir- 
 po.se. shall be entered as a miss. The men last at 
 the ground must see that the danger Hag is hauli-d 
 down, and the aiipurlenances belonging to the range 
 replaced where they belong, or retunn-d to the keep- 
 er. Practice upon the range is only intended to find 
 out and apply what has been learned at drill, and ac- 
 quire a practical knowledge of elevations and the al- 
 lowances required for wind and weather. In all 
 ca.scs, therefore, extreme delibiration should be 
 used. No advantage is gained by firing more than 
 
 ten shots at a distance; and the liubit Ixtf^inncn* 
 liave of i^xpeii'ling all the ammunition they can pro- 
 cure us fast as possible, is a jKisilive uelriinent. 
 Kacli shot should be tired with u dellnite purfKiiu;, 
 anri ilsresidts noted and renn-inbered. The Captain 
 of each K(|Uad, or rif a team, should give special at- 
 tc-ntion to this subjici, as not only will tin' expense 
 of the [iractice he greatly reducerl, but the quality 
 of the shooting greatly improveil. Tliere is notliing 
 which prevents wild and hap-lia/.ard shooting ancl 
 develops those (pialitieH of coolness, forethought, 
 and judgment, which make a reliable shot, than lu 
 be kept on a short allowance fif ammunition. Kee 
 Miirfi'xifi '/ /' nil I p. 
 
 RIFLE RANGE.— The first point to consider in re- 
 gard to a range is its safety, and too much pains can- 
 not be taken in the selection of the ground in order 
 to protc'ct till- public from dangi-r, as wellas to prev- 
 ent unnecessary expense in the errecting of butts, 
 etc. While it is impossible to lay down precise 
 rules for every feature of a country, the following 
 suggestions will be found siiflicient under ordinary 
 circumstances : No ground is to be selected wliicli 
 doi's not alford a range of at least '.W) yards, and it 
 is most important that the grounil behind the targets 
 should be thoroughly commanded from certain 
 points sufficiently clear of the line of fire to insure 
 safety to the look-out men who are to be placed 
 there in order that the fire may be easily stopped 
 when necessary : hence a range down hill is gener- 
 ally to be preferred, as being more easily command- 
 ed to one uphill. The targets upon a range should, 
 where the ground permits, be estalilished by pairs, 
 with an interval not less than ten yards between each 
 target, and with a margin of at least 40 yards at the 
 sides; the minimum breadth of ground for a pair of 
 targets should be 00 yards, and all the targets should 
 be on the same line. When, however, the number 
 to be exercised in rifle practice is large, and the 
 breadth of ground limited, a number of targets may 
 lie established, with an interval of ten yards be- 
 tween each, to be used as if for a jiair, a margin be- 
 ing left at the sides of the outer targets of at least. 
 40 yards. In these cases the number of each target 
 should be conspicuously placed upon the butt in rear 
 of it so as to be plainly seen from the firing-point, and 
 the firing should be stopped at all the targets when- 
 ever Ihedanger signal is shown at any target within 
 40 yards. The breadth of ground in rear of the tar- 
 get at each side of the outer ranges, should gradual- 
 ly increase from 40 to 80 yards, in those ca.ses when 
 the ranges are parallel; but when they converge 
 towards the targets, the breadth may or may not be 
 required, according to the degree to which the ranges 
 are made to converge. The distances at the targets 
 must never be less than ten yards between ranges in 
 pairs, and eighty yards beiween pairs of ranges, 
 whether thev are" laid out parallel to each other or 
 converge towards the targets. If no butts are erected. 
 and the ground is level, the space behind the targets 
 should be about 1. 300 yards. A less distance may. 
 however, answer, if butts are erected, or if a steep 
 hill rises in rear of the targets. Before steps are 
 taken to procure grounds for ranges, it is essential to 
 secure the right to fire over the land behind the tar- 
 gets to the extent required, should it not be desira- 
 lile to purchase it. Generally this distance cannot be 
 obtained, and a butt must be erected in rear of the 
 tar-rets, to arrest stray shots. The height of this 
 must ditTer according to the nature of the back- 
 cround. If the ranee be on a plain. the regulation size 
 of the butts is fronrSo to 40 feet high, provided the 
 distance behind the target is less than 1.500 yards. 
 Under ordinarj- circumtances, however, the height 
 of the but', need not be more than 20 feet, and when 
 firing toward water a butt of 12 feel in height will be 
 sufficient. t)n some ground there are found natural 
 butts for the tarirets to rest against. To be of use in 
 stopping strav bullets and thereby insure the .safety 
 of the public, the hill should incline 45 decrees.
 
 EIFLE RANGE. 
 
 698 
 
 EIFLE RANGE. 
 
 at least ; if a smaller angle than this, it would, in- 
 stead of acting as a stop, incur the chance of a rico- 
 chet, and therefore be unsafe. A few furrows from 
 a plough will frequentlj' lessen the chances of rico- 
 chets. The length of the hutt for a pair of targets 
 should not be less tlian 45 feet, measured along the 
 top. They are far inferior to natural obstacles^ and 
 are expensive to erect and keep in repair. The 
 number of each target should be placed on the butt 
 directly over it in large figures, so as to be conspicu- 
 ous from the firing-points. Where there are a num- 
 ber of targets these numbers should be painted red 
 and black alternately. At long ranges Roman lig- 
 ures, made by laying rails on the butt, are more 
 easily discerned than numerals. In crowded locali- 
 ties, where the range is short, and the danger of in- 
 jury to the public great, a series of shields or screens 
 may be thrown across the practice ground at different 
 distances containing apertures of such a height and 
 width as to permit the passage of all properly di- 
 rected bullets, and to arrest random shots. These 
 are sometimes high arches of cast-iron, and some- 
 times upright barriers of stout plank. Two or three 
 sheds with plank roofs, made to slope toirards the 
 target, form a cheap and convenient screen, pro- 
 vided the ground between them is furrowed so as to 
 prevent the ricocheting of the bullets which strike 
 the sheds and glance downwards. In tlie longer 
 ranges, these shields are objectionable, not only 
 because the high trajectory of the bullet makes it 
 difficult to place them properly, but because they 
 confine the firing to a single distance, and render 
 the appearance of the target as visible through the 
 apertures so different from what it presents m the 
 " open" as to deprive those using them of many of 
 the advantages that should be derived from target 
 practice, and particularly from acquiring a practical 
 knbwledge of distance. If care be taken that none 
 be allowed to practice with ball who have not been 
 through a course of "position and aiming drill," the 
 danger of random firing will be reduced to a mini- 
 mum, and the prescribed butt be found amplv sutfi- 
 cient for all practical purposes. Every range is to 
 be carefully and accurately measured, and the dis- 
 tances defined by a line of small pegs, at intervals of 
 50 yards, commencing at 100 yards from the target, 
 and continuing to 900 yards, or to the extent of "the 
 ground, if under that distance. These pegs also 
 serve as guides to prevent firing on a wrong target — 
 a fruitful source of accidents. To avoid tlie sun, 
 the targets must be placed at the northern end of 
 the range; or if that is not practicable, at the eastern. 
 In using the ranges the firing parties commence 
 their practice close to the targets and gradually re- 
 tire. Consequently, as there is not likely to be as 
 much practice at the extremelj' long ranges as at the 
 sliorter ones, a piece of ground, of a triangular 
 shape may be selected for an extensive range, the 
 targets being placed at the broadest part, and the 
 firing-points being reduced as the distance is in- 
 creased. Several l^ag-staffs should be placed in such 
 positions upon the range as to make the danger sig- 
 nal so conspicuous when hoisted upon them as to 
 give notice to all passers-by that firing is going on. 
 Smaller flag-staffs should also be provided at each 
 lookout station. In addition to tfiese fiag-staffs, a 
 suitalile danger flag should also l)e provided for 
 each firing-point, to be elevated in answer to the 
 danger signal, as hereafter explained. Several flags 
 should be ercctc^l above the top of tlie bank in rear 
 of the targets during the practice, togetlier witii one 
 amid way upon the range, tosliow the direct ion of tlie 
 wind. A wooden socket should be set in the ground 
 in front of eacli target, in which the marker sliould 
 place tlie staff of his danger flag when o1)li<r((l lo 
 leave liis mantelet for any cause. This should lie 
 set at an angle so as to display the flag clearly. 
 The following is a list of the articles re()iiired for 
 
 firactice upon the range by a single regiment : 
 ron targets, C feet by 3 feet, complete 8 
 
 Flags (when used), Red, 6 feet square (or flag- 
 staff) 1 
 
 Flags (when used), Red, 3 feet Viy 4 feet (danger) 4 
 " Red and white.2A feet square 4 
 
 " Dark blue, 2i feet square.... 4 
 
 White, 2i feet square 4 
 
 Poles — lance, 10 feet long...." 23 
 
 Discs (when used), Red flag, danger and for flag 
 
 staff (as above 7. 3 
 
 Discs (when used). Black and white disc, 18- 
 inch diameter, 3d class, 9-inch 4 
 
 Discs (when used). Red disc, 2d class, 28-inch in 
 
 diameter; 3d class, 8-inch 4 
 
 Discs (when used). White disc, 2d class, 18-ineh 
 
 in diameter; 3d class, 9 inch 4 
 
 Discs (when used). Black disc, 2d class, 18 inch 
 
 in diameter, 3d class, 9 inch 4 
 
 Poles," Ij-inch. ff r 3d class; for outer, 12 feet 6- 
 inch; center, 10 feet 6-inch; bull's-eye, 8 feet 
 
 8-inch 33 
 
 Poles, 1-inch, for 3d class ; for outer, 8 feet 6- 
 
 inch; center, 7 feet 6-inch; bull's eye, 6 feet... 32 
 900 3'ards Gunter's chain or cord, labeled every 
 5 yards, and numbered from 1 to 900, divided 
 
 into 18 equal parts 1 
 
 Pins of stout wire, 13 inches long 18 
 
 Stadometer complete, with 20 yards of chain, 
 
 cross-staff and tripod for stand 1 
 
 Tripod rests 2 
 
 Sand-bags, bushel 2 
 
 Large brushes for coloring targets, 1 lb 4 
 
 Small brushes for coloring target (sash tools)... 4 
 Whiting, fine, without lumps (annually).... 1 cwt. 
 
 Lampblack 15 lbs. 
 
 Glue, to make size 42 lbs. 
 
 In practice at a range by military organizations it 
 is indispensable that the regulations for practice 
 should be carefully prepared and strictly enforced. 
 Safety, accuracy in marking, and, above all, the 
 avoidance of delays (a point to which particular at- 
 tention must be paid) can alone be secured by hav- 
 ing all officers thoroughly familiar with the pre- 
 scribed regulations The regimental Inspector of 
 Rifle Practice or (in default of such an officer) an 
 officer specially detailed for the purpose, should be 
 cliarged with the entire management of the targets, 
 markers, and scorers, and should be held responsible 
 for all delays or errors on the ground. He will also 
 assist the squad commanders in instructing and cor- 
 recting the practice of their men. Before the firing 
 commences, the markers and look-out men should be 
 posted, and a large red flag hoisted upon the flag- 
 staff in the range. These men, when not attached 
 to the range, should be detailed beforehand, and 
 marched to their positions as soon as their party 
 reaches the ground. If a guard is required, it 
 should be posted in the same manner. Proper re- 
 liefs should also be provided from men who have 
 completed their practice in time to allow those on 
 duty to shoot. Printed orders should be furnished 
 to both officers, markers, and look-out men, at the 
 time they are detailed, in the following form, and 
 care be taken that such orders are understOf)d. 
 
 Orders for the Senior Officer at earli firing-point — 
 Not to allow any practice to take place until the 
 large red flag is hoisted on the main signal staff, and 
 the sentries or look-out men iire posted, to prevent 
 all persons whatever from attempting to cross the 
 range and give notice of danger. To inspect the 
 markers and register-keepers before they take their 
 places, and see that they are provideil with all re- 
 quisites, and properly instructed. To see that the 
 markers and sentries are properly instructed in time, 
 and that they are afforded an (ii)portiniity of firing. 
 To see lint the men do not load exeejit at the firing 
 point, and then thai Ihey keeji at a " rendi/" until 
 they luive fired. In all imporlant eonqx-tilioiis. lo 
 see that each man's trigger is tested at least once 
 during the practice. To see that the squads firing 
 are iiro])erly ecjualized. Not to allow a man to fire
 
 BlfLE BANOE. 
 
 090 
 
 RIFLE SHK&FHEL. 
 
 iiiitil llic hIioI (if the previous man fHhould it Hirike 
 llie l,ari;ct) Iiuh been sif;niili-il. To order llie " ('mm' 
 firing" to bo MOiiiided, mid the " iljiiif/i-r" llii)^ to be 
 lioisted 111 the )iriii;;-|)<)int, imiiie(iiiitely the red 
 flag is mined from llie iimrUir'H butt, or any 
 perHon or aiiiui'd apiieariiif; Iji front of the llrinf^ 
 l)arly, and "« no ricci/iiiit to allow any liriiif; to pro. 
 eeed so loni; as llie danijer llaj; is up at llie marker's 
 butl. When this ilai; is lowered, to order tlii' 
 " ('omiiie/iir Jiriii;/" U> he sounded, and the " tlan- 
 ; gifr" flai; at the lirinji-point to be dropped. On the 
 'ranges situated in pairs, to see that the |)arlies fire 
 by classes at the same (iistaiiees. and not one eln.ss 
 in front of another. When the " CxiKe Jiving" 
 sounils to see that tlie ii'.ini; at all the targets wlui'h 
 are within oni' hu:id:ed feet of the target at which 
 the " dangfr" liai; is displayed is discontinue<l imtil 
 sucli ''(lunger" Hag n lowered, and the '■ Cnininrnre 
 firing" is again sounded. To l)e most parlieular in 
 cautioning his men that tliey will l)e almost certain 
 to injure tlie niarkiT if Ihey should lire on a wrong 
 target and the trap be open, ami whenever a man 
 tires on a target dilferent from that to which he is 
 assigned, to debar hiui from further iiractice and 
 report liitn to the commanding <illieer. T.) see that 
 all persons who desire to watch the practice stand 
 to the rear and clear of the iiarty, and on no account 
 to allow any noise or talking among the nun, whose 
 attention should be tixed on the practice. To be 
 most particular that the men keep their jilaces in j 
 the ranks while the ]iractice is proceeding, to allow 
 no irregularity, and to be ah'rt to prevent accidents. 
 To see that the jiroper discs are used by the markers. 1 
 To use his best endeavors to prevent tlelays, and 
 forward the progress of the firing. 
 
 Orders f<rr till Markerii. — To see, on taking their 
 places, that they are properly supplied witli flags or 
 discs, brushes, paint, etc., aiul when ready to wave 
 their red Hag and withdraw it. To see that the fol- 
 lowing Hags or discs are raised to signal the position 
 of the shots wddch strike the target, and the "rirucliet 
 and danger" or "Cense fire." 1. Ulack disc or white 
 flag — outer. 2. White disc with black cross, or 
 similar flag — inner. 3. Red diseor<lark blue Hag — 
 center. 4. White disc, or red and white Hag — bull's- 
 eye. 5. Red Hag waved horizontally twice to and 
 fro in front of the target — ricochet. 6. Ked Hag — 
 danger, and cease firing. To see that the signal 
 flags are invariably waved when the wind blows 
 directly up or down the range; and (where flags 
 only are used) whenever a shot strikes the target to 
 the right of the center, that the flag denoting its 
 value is inclined to the right, and rire rersa ; also, 
 when a shot strikes the target high, that the flag is 
 ■ high as possible, and upright ; and when low, that 
 it is raised oidy high enough to be easily visible 
 above the butt; and when using the disc that it is 
 placed immedi:itely in front of tlie hit on the target. 
 To see that the ••dnnger" flag is hoisted whenever 
 it is necessary to cease firing, to re-color the target, 
 or for any other purpose ; and to allow no one an 
 anyu'cimnt ir/uitetvr. lo leave tlu- marker's butt until 
 the " Cense fire" lias been sounded, or the "danger" 
 flag has been raised at the tiring-points in anmrer to 
 the " danger" signal ; also to see that the red flag is 
 kept up (and waved so as to attract attention) so 
 long as the markers are out of the butl, or any per- 
 son is in the line of range. To see that the "dan- 
 ger" flag is lowered directly the range is clear. To 
 allow no person to enter the marker's butt, except 
 those on duty, without an order from the senior 
 officer on the range, nor to allow ;uiy one to enter 
 or leave the butt except by the regular path. To 
 check all talking or any disturbance in the marker's 
 butt. To .see that the "dnngrr" flag is hoisted 
 and shaken about immediately; any of the look-out 
 men either hoists his flag or gives notice that per- 
 sons or boats are within the line of fire, and that it is 
 kept up until the range is clear, and the look-out 
 man lowers his flag. When the firing is at loni; 
 
 range, to see that all personH in the marker's butt 
 stand as elose as poHsiiile to the slope most dihtunt 
 from the target, lo avoid tlieehunce of being struck 
 by the bullets when falling. At the (IrHl hignal to 
 "Ceniie firing" to put out the "ihingiT" flag, but not 
 leave the butt. At the seconil signal, lo place their 
 Hags, etc., in the proper place, fall in. ami return to 
 their command. 'I'o report all ihimui:e done, or re- 
 pairs necessary for firing discs, flairs, etc. 
 
 Ordtrs fur l/iiik-aiil Sentry.- To lf>ok out cvltv- 
 fully, and the instant any person or aniniul apfx-ur* 
 
 at going low ard.s . . . .or along 
 
 the shore (when firing seaward;, coming from 
 
 , to hoist the red Hag and call out lo the 
 
 non-commissioned olHcers in the marker's l)Utt. in a 
 loud voice, ••Danoeb," and lo keep his flag Hying 
 until the said person has passed lo the .... 
 (according to the direction in which lie is proceed- 
 ing). The same precaution to be obs<Tve(l in respect 
 to boats passing close in-shore in the line of range. 
 To give notice to all persons who may be about lo 
 pass the range that they are in danger while the fir- 
 ing is going on, and to signal them back. In llio 
 performance of his duty (more parliciilarly during 
 the execution of the platoon and skirmishing prac- 
 tices), to keep as low as possible to avoid the risk of 
 being hit by a ricochet shot. To return to his com- 
 mand at the second signal of "(.'ease firing." as pre- 
 scribed for the markers. The marker in 'he Imlts, 
 if not a marker belonging to the range, should invar- 
 iably lie a non-commissioned officer of a different 
 cnnpnny from tliat engaged in firing, and is responsi- 
 ble tliat the correct signals are given to the several 
 shots which strike the target. The firing parliea 
 should not consist of more than twenty men each, 
 and onlv one scpiad shouhl be allowed to practice at 
 a time for each target available. Sucli detailed ar- 
 rangements should he made as will insure the vari- 
 ous squads being at the firing-points by the time 
 those firing have finished their practice, and in this 
 way prevent delay. When exercising by classes, if 
 there be a choice of time for practice, the senior clasa 
 is always to have the advantage. The men's names 
 are to be entered in a blank return before going to 
 the praetice-uround. in the order in which they stand 
 in the ranks." Oue blank will answer for the sipiad 
 assigned to each target to record the performances 
 at two distances. IJuring the practice, an officer or 
 non-commissioned officer is to keep the register, and 
 will, as each shot is signaled, call out its value and 
 the name of the firer. Any objection to the marking 
 must be made before the second shot is fired. All 
 entries during ccmipetitions or practice for final clas- 
 sification should be miide in iiik on the practice- 
 ground ; should any alteration become necessary, a 
 fine line is to be drawn through the figure or letter, 
 and the correction made adjoining it, the initials of 
 the company officer keepimr the register being im- 
 mediately attached to it (tiiim. 3 ; A. L.). to verify 
 the circumstances. Inattention to this regulation, 
 or an erasure (which is prohibited), should invali- 
 date the register. This rule should be adhered to in 
 all cases to prevent comphiiiits. See Jiifie Practice. 
 EIFLE SHRAPNEL.— The shrapnel 
 for the 3-inch B. L., rifle, shown ia 
 the drawius, are filled in the same 
 manner as" the spherical shrapnel. 
 The fuse-hole has a composition 
 boucliing bv which it is distinguish- 
 ed from the shell of the same gun 
 which has no bouching. 
 
 In the Boxer shrapnel for the rifled 
 ordnance of the English sen-ice, the 
 essential features of a shrapnel-shell 
 are embodied. This shell has a 
 cylindrical iron body, with a cham- 
 ber at the bottom, and four longi- 
 tudinal grooves inside lo fsicilitate 
 bre;ikin2 up ; it is cast without any 
 hrapi.,1. iiead. X tin ca« for the bursting-
 
 EnXING. 
 
 700 
 
 EIGHT SHOULDER ARM? 
 
 charge fits into the chamber <>n the shoulder of which 
 rests a wrousht-iron disk. The shell is lined with 
 piiper, and filled with balls eml)ediie<l in rosin. A 
 wrought-iron tube passes down the middle of the 
 shell and through a hole in the center of the iron 
 disk, to lead the flame from the fuse to the bursting 
 charge. A hard disk is placed over the top of the 
 bullets. The wooden head is ogival in form, and 
 made of elm covered with thiu wrought-iron, which 
 is riveted to the shell. Tliis head contains a socket 
 and bouching fertile fuse. See Cane-shut, Projectiles, 
 and Shrapnel. 
 
 RIFLING. — This operation is performed by means 
 of the rifling machine. The machine is horizontal, 
 and the gun to be rifled is fixed in front of it and in 
 line with the rifling bar, to which a stout head car- 
 rying the cutter is fi.xed. Only a single groove is cut 
 at a time, and that as the cutter is coming down, the 
 bore bringing the chips of metal before it. All the 
 grooves in the gun are first cut out roiighly in suc- 
 cession, and then finely. The distance between the 
 grooves is regulated liy a disk fixed to the breech of 
 the gun, having its periphery equally divided by as 
 many notches as there are to be grooves. The gun 
 is fixed each time by a pawl, and when a new groove 
 has to be cut is turned round to the next notch. The 
 gun remains stationary while the head carrying the 
 cutter works up and down the bore, so it is neces- 
 sary to make the bar to which the head is attjiched 
 turn round more or less at the same time that it ad- 
 vances and returns, otherwise we should merely 
 have a straight groove cut along the bore, instead of 
 the spiral we require to give rolaticm to the projec- 
 tile. The gun-metal in which the cutter is fixed 
 fits the bore accurately by means of burnishers. It 
 is fastened to a stout hollow iron bar termed the ri- 
 fling bar. This bar is fixed to a saddle capable of 
 sliding backward and forward on an endless screw. 
 
 The movement of the .slide to which the outer end 
 
 of the rod is attached (and consequently of tlie cut- 
 ting tool) is regulated bj' another copying arrange- 
 ment on the other side of the machine. This ar- 
 rangement consists of two horizontal bars, one high- 
 er than the other, along which travels a weighted 
 lever attached to a pinion which works the slide. 
 When the rifling head is passing down the bore, this 
 weighted lever travels along the upper bar: but when 
 the machine is reversed, the lever is prevented by a 
 small movable piece from returning on the same bar, 
 so that the weight falls over on tjie lower one, and 
 in doing so draws back the slide and spindle and 
 forces the tool out. By varying the form of the up- 
 per surface of this lower bar the depth of the vari- 
 
 1 ous parts of the groove can be regulated and altered 
 as required. 
 
 I The drawing shows a light machine used in armor- 
 ies for rifling gun-barrels with a uniform twist, from 
 one turn in 30 inches to one in 36 inches. The cut- 
 ter-rod carries from one to three cutters, as the ri- 
 fling is four, five, or six to the circumference. An 
 adjustable feed-stop gauges the depth of the rifling, 
 and the racks, which are of steel, are double, to take 
 up all back-lash, so that the cutters cannot ride on 
 the lauds. An oil-pump feeds automatically at 
 each end of the stroke. The carriage is gibbed on 
 the outside of the long slide, allowing free'access to 
 its working parts. Weight, 1,600 pounds. This 
 machine rities by the filing process, which is more 
 correct than the planing process, and will turn out 
 about one gun-barrel an hour. See Orooves,a.uA Sys- 
 tem I if Ri'tiilin. 
 
 I RIGHT SHOULDER ARMS.— A position in the Manual 
 
 ! of Arms, executed as follows : Being at a carry, the 
 Instructor commands: \. Right shemlder, 2. Arms. 
 Raise the piece vertically with the right hand : grasp 
 
 I it with the left at the lower band, an"d raise this hand 
 
 Although the rifling bar is fixed to the saddle and 
 moves with it, it can revolve independently of it ; 
 and toward the end farthest from the gun is' fixed a 
 pinion which gears into a rack sliding in the saddle 
 at right angles to the l)ar itself. The outer end of 
 this rack is fitted with two small rollers or friction 
 wheels which run along a copying bar fixed to one 
 side of the rifling machine. This copying bar is in- 
 clined at accrl;iin ;uiglc lo the side of the machine, 
 and the greater tliis ;inglc, the more the rack is pull- 
 ed out by the friction rollers, and the greater the 
 twist given to tlie rilling bar and so to the grooves 
 in the gun. The angle can be altered if reiiuired : 
 and we can also takeaway the straight copying liiir 
 and use a curved one, as is done when a gun is to lie 
 rilled witli increasing twist. By thus changing the 
 cojiying bars, or their jiositiou, we can use -a single 
 machine for any descriplion of rillinu'. The ewlliug 
 tool itself is of steel and works in and out (jf the 
 head, being drawn in or forced out by means of a 
 ■cam attached to one end of an iron rod jjassing 
 through the hollow rilling bar. 
 
 till it is at the height of the chin ; at the same time 
 endjracethe butt with the right hand, the toe between 
 the first two fingers, the other fingers under the plate. 
 (Two.) Raise the piece and place it on the right 
 shoulder, the lock-plate up, the muzzle elevated and 
 inclined to the left; so that, viewed from the front, 
 the line of the stock from the toe to the guard, shall 
 appear parallel to the row of luittons ; slip the left 
 h;ind down to the lock-plate. (Three.) Drop the left 
 hand by the side. 1. Curri/. 2. Arms. Carry the 
 butt slightly to the left, and lower the piece with the 
 right hand; grasp it with the left at the lower band, 
 the hand at the height of the chin, the barrel to the 
 rear, and vertical. (Two). Resume the carry with 
 the right hand. (Three). Drop the left hand by the 
 side. Being at a support, to eomi' to a right shoul- 
 der, the Instructor commands : 1. /I'iffht shoiililir, 3. 
 Arms, (iriisp the piece with the right hand at the 
 sm:dl of tlie slock, iiud carry it in frcmt of tlie center 
 of the body, grasjiing it with the left h:ind at the 
 lower l);ind, tlie h;nidat the height of the chin. (Two). 
 Carry and phiee the piece on the right shoulder, the
 
 RIGID DYNAMICS. 
 
 701 
 
 KIOT. 
 
 liick-pliili' up, till' rif;lil, Imiicl cintjnicint; tli<^ buU ; 
 hlip llic left Imnd to I lie liick-pliilc. (TiiiiKF.). Driip 
 the Irfl, liMiiil liv llir niilc. Sci- Mil ii.iiiil iif A nii.i, l''ir/. !l. 
 
 RIUID DYNAMICS. Tlial pcirlimi of'lhrnrcliciii dy- 
 liiunirs whicli, bused iiii llic tlicdry i>f H"' free iirid 
 loiiHtraijii'd iiiolidii of jiiiiiUx, iipplirH llic priiicipU'H 
 llii'iici' (IimIucimI to nnyntiin of po'mis rigidly coiinrcl- 
 I'd, so ii.s lo licar lliroiijjlioul llic whole coiilinimncc 
 of their inotiou the Hiuiic iiiviiriiiblc position with rc- 
 hition lo ciK'li otiiir; in oilier words, as no tiody in 
 niitnrc can l)c considered as a^ point, Init is truly a 
 sysli'iii of poinis, ri^'id dynamics has for its aim to 
 apply Hie iihslract llu'ory of dynamics lo the cases 
 actually occurrini; in nature. For a Ion;; time prob- 
 lems of this sort were not resolved Ijy any !;enerul 
 and ade(|uat(? method, but each class was worked 
 <nil accordinj; to a method especially applicalile to 
 its particular circumstances. The i;reat [general prin- 
 ciple discovered by the French jfc'omctcr, commonly 
 known as IPAlnnhcrVK J'n'nri/ile, which applies 
 t'()ually to all such problems, and removes the neces- 
 sity for s|ieci."i!ly invcstiiratiii!; each pari iculiir case, 
 was an ineslimable boon to mechanical scien(X'. It 
 is thus slaliul in his 7'riiile dii /)i/iiamifjiu: In what- 
 ever manner a nninber of bodies cliant;e their mo- 
 tions, if we suppose that the motion which each body 
 would have in the following moment, if it were per- 
 fectly free, is decomposed into two others, one of 
 which is the motion which it rcnUi/ lakes in conse- 
 quence of their mutual actions, then the other com- 
 ponent will be such, that if each body were impress- 
 ed by a force which would produce it alone, the 
 whole system would be in ciiuilibrinm. In this way 
 every dynamical jiroblem can be compelled to furnish 
 an e(|ualion of ei(uilibrium, an<l so lie chanfred into 
 n itroblcm of .itafii-f, and thus the solution of a diffi- 
 cult and complex problem is effected by means of 
 the resolution of a much easier one. D'Alembert ap- 
 plied his principle to various problems <m the mo- 
 tions and actions of fluids, the i)reeefision of the eqiu- 
 no.xes, etc.; and 8ubse(iuently, in a modified form, 
 the same general property was made the basis of a 
 complete system of dynan;ics. by La Granite, in his 
 Mefitnique Aii'ih/liqiie. 
 
 RIGODON.- Formerly a beat of drum while men 
 who were shelled (a French punishment, the sc^verest 
 next lo death) were paraded up and down the ranks 
 previous to their being sent to their destination. 
 
 RIMBASE. — 1. A short cylinderat the junction of a 
 trit/iniiiii with tlie gun. Tlie ends of the rimbases, or 
 the !<h(mlders of the trunnions, are planes perpendi- 
 cular to the axis of the trunnions. Rimbases are 
 for the purpose of strengthening the trunnions at 
 their junction with the jiieee, and by forming ! 
 .shoulders, to prevent the |)ieee from moving side- 
 ways in tlie trunnion-beds. 2. The shoulder on the 
 stock of a musket against which the breech of the 
 barrel rests. 
 
 RIMER. — An old n.ime for a jialisade in fortifica- 
 tion 
 
 RIM-FIRE CARTRIDGE.— A metallic cartridge in 
 which the fulminate is placed in the rim surround- 
 ing the head. This rim being struck at any point, 
 explodes the powder. Formerly much used in 
 pistols and magazine-guns. These cartridges are not 
 rfloaiUr.i. 
 
 RIMPLER SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— In this ^ 
 system it is projioscd to replace the curtain l)y a 
 bastion that may Hank the collateral works and be 
 defended by them, to cover the garrison under case- 
 mates, and prepare an interior as well as exterior 
 defense. This system contains excellent ideas. ' 
 The besieger must carry two ravelins before reach- 
 ing the counterscarp: then he must attack the 
 fausse-braye, the bastion, its retrenchment, and fur- 
 thermore drive the defenders from the casemates. 
 The ditches and outworks are powerfully flanked, 
 and the retrenchments of flu: bastions are excellent. 
 This fortification is not practicable on account of , 
 the great space it occupies, of the large garrison it ; 
 
 re(piires. and the ininiense outlay it wiiiild ueceitgi. 
 tale. 
 
 RINGED ARMOR. Armor of the Middle A(?c», 
 c(jmposed of Hal rings sewed side by side onipjillM 
 liui'ii or lealher. See Anmrr. 
 
 RING GAGE.- A circular steel gage iisi'd in inspect- 
 ing kIupI and shells. Tlii'V are made of two sizes for 
 each caliber, the larger being a triflir more and the 
 smaller a trifle less in diameter than the true caliber 
 of the proji'<-tile. All shot received must pusit 
 through tlie larger gage, but are rejected if they 
 pass tliroui.'li the smaller. 
 
 RING WADS. Wads consisting of a ring of rope- 
 yarn, with two pieces of strong twine lied across it 
 at riirht angles to eacb other. See (Jrnmmrt WiuU. 
 
 RIOT. —The legal name of an olTense which con- 
 sists in the assembling of three or more persons for 
 an illegal purpose, or for the carrying out of a legal 
 purpose in an illegal manner. Kiols often com- 
 mence in some supposed private wnmg. Some de- 
 gree of violence is incidental to a riot, and a degree 
 of intimidation to the neighborhood. A riot cannot 
 take place unless at least three persons act in con- 
 cert. When a riot becomes formidable, it is usual 
 for tlic authorities to take active measures to dis- 
 perse it. Thus, in England, any Justice of the 
 Peace may command the persons as.sembled to dis- 
 perse peaceably by a form of worils calied Heading 
 the Riot Act, which is as follows: " tjiir Sovereign 
 Lady the Queen chargeth and commandetli all 
 persons being assembled immediately to disperse 
 themselves, and peaceably to depart to their habi- 
 tations, or to their lawful business, upon the 
 pains contained in an Act of King George for pre- 
 venting tumults and riotous assemblies — God save 
 the CJueen." If the rioters, after this formal proda- 
 mation, remain more than one hour afterward, 
 they are guilty of felony, and may be seized and 
 carried before a Justice. Sometimes it is ditlicult 
 to distinguish between an illegal assembly and one 
 which is legal, though noisy and tumultuous, and the 
 opinion of the Justice of the Peace is not conclu- 
 sive as to its illegality. Sometimes the Riot Act is 
 read more than once during the disturbance, in 
 which case the second or tliird reading does not 
 supersede the first. 
 
 The great and overwhelming interest exhibited by 
 the people of the United States in the lale terrible 
 railroad and labor riots in various parts of the coun- 
 try will cause us to extend the limits of this article. 
 At a period of profound (piiet and repose, the entire 
 country was startled by the simultaneous seizure by 
 lawless men of the four great trunk lines between 
 the Atlantic Seabord and the Western States. In a 
 single day the whole internal trade of the Union was 
 suspended. Millions of dollars of capital were pa- 
 ralyzed, thousands of enterprises were confronted 
 with ruin, and the whole of this great country was 
 threatened with a crisis such as it had never expe- 
 rienced before. Instantly the whole military power 
 of tlie general government and the great States im- 
 mediately involved in the trouble was called upon 
 to give protection to the endangered commerce of 
 the land. The peaceful country resounded with the 
 tramp of armed men hastening to assert the majesty 
 of the law, on the one side: and with the rush of in- 
 furiated mobs, on the other side, gathering to resist 
 the execution of the statutes of the land, and to over- 
 turn the very foundations of society. Almost with- 
 out warning the American people were brought face 
 to face with a conflict which for a while threatened 
 their very existence as a nation. The excitement 
 grew steadily, and for a time mob law was supreme. 
 From all points came reports of hiwlcss violence, of 
 pillage, arson and murder. The worst elements of 
 the Old World, that had been driven out of Europe, 
 suddenly appeared, and proclaiming their terrible 
 doctrines of destruction and nipine, endeavored to 
 revive in this prosperous and peaceful hind the hor- 
 rors of the Parisian Commune. The danger was
 
 BIOT. 
 
 702 
 
 EIOT. 
 
 terrible and real, and for a moment the American 
 people stood appalled, not knowing how far the re- 
 volt might extend, or what character it might as- 
 sume. Never since the daj-s of the Civil War liad the 
 nation been so profoundly moved, or so painfully 
 apprehensive. On all sides the determination was 
 made plain that the outbreak must be put down; the 
 laws must resume their sway ; and the future of this 
 great country must not be perilled by mob violence. 
 No man could tell how soon his honie would be the 
 mark of the rioter's torch, or his dear ones be at the 
 mercy of an infuriated mob, and this thought 
 brought hundreds of thousands to the support" of 
 the representatives of law and order. At the call of 
 the civil authorities armed men came from all quar- 
 ters, and it was soon apparent even to the most des- 
 perate rioters that the people were determined to 
 preserve their institutions and property from vio- 
 lence at an_v cost. This formidable uprising of the 
 people had the happiest effect, and the revolt suc- 
 cumbed before it. The disturbers of the peace slunk 
 away, or were arrested, and the supremacy of the 
 law re-established. The very originators" of the 
 strikes, horrified at the capture and distortion of 
 their movement by the mob of lawless ruffians, in 
 many instances, gave their assistance to the autho- 
 rities in restoring order. The New York riots will 
 be here noticed at length, as also the action of the 
 general government. We are endebted to the Bis- 
 tiyry of the Great EinU, by Edward Winslow Martin, 
 for the substance of this 'account. 
 
 Late on the evening of the 19th of July, 1877, a 
 meeting of firemen and brakemen employed on the 
 Erie Railroad was held at HornellsvDle, New York, 
 at the close of which a message was sent to the Su- 
 perintendent of the Erie Railroad, giving him notice 
 that the men of the Western, Susquehanna, and Buf- 
 falo divisions had resolved to quit work at one o'clock 
 the next morning. The Superintendent proceeded at 
 once to Hornellsville, where he found that the strikers 
 had stopped work, and had taken measures to pre- 
 vent all passenger and freight trains from leaving or 
 passing through that place, east or west. Simultan- 
 eously, the firemen, brakemen, and switchmen at 
 Salamanca, on the Western division, quit work, and 
 when the Superintendent of that division, who had 
 started out from Dunkirk for Hornellsville by a special 
 train, arrived at Salamanca, his engine was cut loose 
 from the train and put into the engine-house, and the 
 strikers informed him that no engine or train would 
 be permitted to pass Salamanca. At Andover station, 
 on the Western division, one of the striking firemen 
 took engine No. 22, and went out on the road with- 
 out orders or permission from the Company, and on 
 the time of trains, intending, he said, to eo to Hor- 
 nellsville, Up to four o'clock in the afternoon of the 
 20th the strikers had given the Company no reasons 
 for their strike. At that hour their Committee handed 
 Superintendent Wright a document containing the 
 following demands, on behalf of the firemen, brake- 
 men, switchmen and truckmen : That all of the men 
 discharged for taking part in anv meeting or going 
 as a Committee to New York shall'be reinstated. The 
 brakemen to receive .f 2 a day, the switchmen if 2, the 
 head switchmen #2.2.'), truckmen in yard *1 .."jO, truck- 
 men on section -tl .40, and pay no rentals on Com- 
 pany's grounds except as by agreement. The firemen 
 to have same pay, or rates of pay, as they received 
 prior to July 1st, 1877, and monthly passes to be con- 
 tinued as l)efore, and passes to be issued to brake- 
 men and switchmen. These demands were at once 
 communicated to the Receiver at New York. By 
 their action in seizing the Erie Itailroad an<l stoppin'sr 
 its business by force, the strikers not only violated 
 the laws of the State of New York, but wctc guilty 
 of resistance to the orders of the Supreme Court of 
 the State, tlie Erie Railroad at tliis time being man- 
 aged by a Receiver appointed by the Court. The 
 •otticials of the Erie Uailroad promptly made arrange- 
 ments to have through passengers and baggage trans- 
 
 ported by the New York Central Railroad, and at 
 the .same time reported the seizure of their road to 
 the Governor of New York, and asked tlie protection 
 of the State. The Governor thereupon issued the 
 following proclamation ; 
 
 Whereas, the Receiver appointed b_v the Supreme 
 Court of this State to take all care of the management 
 of the Erie Railway and its properties has made 
 known to me that a conspiracy has been formed to 
 prevent his discharging his duty as such Receiver 
 under the orders of yie said Court ; that the business 
 of said road anil the running of trains have been in- 
 terrupted by violence which the civil authorities are 
 unable to suppress; and, whereas, the honor and 
 good faith of tiae State require that it should protect 
 the said Court and its officers in the'execution of its 
 order: Now, therefore. I, Lucius Robinson, Gov- 
 ernor of the State of New York, by virtue of the 
 authority imposed upon me by the constitution and 
 the laws, command all persons engaged in such ira- 
 lawful acts to desist therefrom ; and I call upon all 
 good citizens and upon all the authorities, civil and 
 military, to aid in suppressing the same and in pre- 
 venting breaches of the peace. The law recognizes 
 and protects the right of all men to refuse to work 
 except upon terms satisfactory to themselves, but it 
 does not permit them to prevent other men from 
 working who desire to do so. LTnless the State is to 
 be given up to anarchy, and its Courts and laws are 
 to l3e defied with impunity, its whole power must be 
 exerted to suppress violence, maintain order and pro- 
 tect its citizens in their right to work, and the busi- 
 ness of the country from lawless interruption w-ithin 
 our borders. It is no longer a question of wages, 
 but of the supremacy of the law, which protects alike 
 the lives, the liberty, the property and the rights of 
 all classes of citizens. To the maintenance of that 
 supremacy the whole power of the State will be in- 
 voked if necessary. 
 
 Orders were despatched from Albany to the 23d 
 (of Brooklyn) and the 74th (of Buffalo) Regiments 
 of the National Guard of the State of New York to pro- 
 ceed at once to Hornellsville to sustain the authorities. 
 Later on the 54th Regiment, from Rochester, was or- 
 dered to the same place. The companies of the 54th 
 were the first to reach Hornellsville. They arrived 
 at that place on the evening of the 21st, about four or 
 five hundred strong. The crowd of railroad men sur- 
 rounding the trains upon their arrival immediately 
 began shaking hands with acquaintances and gave 
 the soldiers a warm welcome, carrying pails of water 
 along the train. By nine o'clock the Company's 
 grounds surrounding the depot and railroad shops 
 were in full possession of the military authorities. 
 Two pieces of artillery were put in position at the 
 rear of the Company's shops, and guards were sta- 
 tioned around the northern half of the yard, on which 
 the shops and depot are located. As the Company 
 did not attempt to start out a train, there was no de- 
 monstration made by the men engaged in the strike, 
 and good order and quiet prevailed throughout the 
 town. The Committee representing the men at the 
 beginning of the strike served a notice on all the 
 liquor dealers forbidding them to sell liquor to rail- 
 road men. The President of the village also issued 
 a proclamation to the same effect. This, together 
 with the faA that a large number of railroad men 
 signed the Murphy temperance pledge in the preced- 
 ing spring, is believed to account for the quiet exist- 
 ing under such exciting circumstances. No marked 
 demonstration was nuide by the men until twenty 
 minutes past nine on the morning of the 22d. The 
 strikers had informed the railro:ul ollicials that they 
 would not interfere with the mails, but that no pass- 
 enger or freight trains should pass over the road. 
 Oil the morning of the 22d, the railroad officials, near- 
 ly all of whom had gathered at Hornellsville, deter- 
 mined to attempt to run a passenger train westward 
 from Hornellsville. An engine with a postal car at- 
 tached was coupled to two passenger coaches. The
 
 RIOT. 
 
 70:5 
 
 BIOT. 
 
 lalt(:r wore iicciiiiiiMl liv llic Sii|icriiitcnili-iil of tin; 
 Wcslorn ilivisioii, a sipmil of Mol(licrn and I wo or llire« 
 paHsengcrs. HoldicrH wen; slaUoncd on the platform 
 of each car, two wore also poHlfd on lliir i ii).'iii((r'H 
 cal). Tlic train then Hiarlcil from the yard ;;iiardcd 
 for Homc distanci' l>y soldiiis stationed on both sides 
 of the tracli. At ( 'ass street crossint;, a sliort dislanie 
 beyond, a nuin alleni|)ted to board one of the cars, 
 but he was driven back liy the soldiers. Kroin this 
 post, for u distance of aliout llfty rods, to West 
 street ('rossini;, tlie trade was covered willi soft soap. 
 The driviiiij; wlieels liejian to slip, and the engineer 
 threw sand on the track, but this was insnflicii'iil to 
 give a headway of over live miles an hour. When 
 the train r<'achcd West street crossing, about two 
 hundred of the men were assembled. Here railroad 
 torpedoes were thrown under the driving wheels of 
 thci'iigine, but still the train moved on. Men seenK^d 
 to be r<'acliing the groinid from all fjuarlers and by 
 hundreds ran alongside the train. Suddenly i( parted 
 between the baggage car and passeugi-r c'oach, and 
 as the men .saw th<' victory was thc'irs, with a shout, 
 they took possession of two of the coaches as they 
 came to a standstill and rendered the brakes useless. 
 The soldiers and passengers were ordered out of tlie 
 cars and obeyed, while the men, with cheers, shoved 
 the cars back into the yard, andthi' soldiers marched 
 back to the depot. The engine and postal car went 
 on toward Dunkirk. Half an'hour later thecompyny 
 .started out train No. 7 on the liulValo division, also 
 guarded by soldiers. As the engine and tender 
 switched olT on tlie HulTalo track, the engine was 
 boarded by the men. Some pushed the soldiers' guus 
 aside and climbed up to the tender; others jumped 
 on the pilot and went over the top of the engine to 
 the cab, when tliey ordered the fireman, who was an 
 extra man, to get off. After a short parley he was 
 taken from the engine, and the Engineer ran the 
 train back into the yard, the men cheering as before. 
 The crowd of seven or eight himilred men smldeuly 
 melted away, and during the remainder of the day 
 there was no disturbance, as the Railroad Company 
 made no further efforts to run their trains. The 
 strikers were very determined, and were prepared 
 for a desperate resistance to the civil and nnlitary 
 forces. Tiiey had a camp in the woods near Hor- 
 ncUsville, and were well supplied with small-arms 
 and amnuniition, besides having two pieces of can- 
 non. They were well organized, and their movements 
 were well directerl. 
 
 The tirst detachment of the 33d regiment, nearly 
 400 strong, reached Horiu'llsville on the '23(1. This 
 brought the military force at that place to a strength 
 of airout 1,200 men. The rioters numbered about 
 2,000 men. About noon on the 2:5(1. a Committee of 
 strikers waited on the railway ollicials to state their 
 grievances. The Chairman of the Committee nnide 
 a general statement of the causes which forced the 
 men to strike, and said they had received orders not 
 to commit depredation. They proposed to stop the 
 trains, but not to do violence. He then submitted 
 llie following, as the terms which he thought the 
 nu'U woulii accept and go lo work. The wages de- 
 manded are just about the same as the Company 
 now pay under the ten per cent, reduction. The 
 brakemeu are willing to go to work at the ten per 
 cent, reduction, provided the train men are paid for 
 any overtime that they may make in being ordered 
 out and being abandoned ; also any overtime which 
 Ihcv may make while being delayed upon the road, 
 to ije paid for at the same rate per day : overrate per 
 day to be f 1.80. The trackmen in" the llomells- 
 ville yard to receive ?!l..50 per day, and be paid for 
 overtime at the same rate ; the trackmen on sections 
 outside of the yard to receive ^1.40 per day. and to 
 pay no rentals for their houses, except as they may 
 agree with the Company. The switciuiieu to accept 
 the ten per cent. red\iction, on consideration that 
 ten hours shall constitute a day's work, and all over- 
 time to be paid for at the same rate per hour — -Sl.SO 
 
 and §2.0.5 per day. The (Innien to accept the ten 
 pi'r cent, reduction on consiileration that their iev. 
 eral pay shall be *I.(IO, )i}\.<.fi. iy2.08 unil i'2,14, and 
 that all liremcn shidl be pronioti'd aci.onling to aire. 
 Coal-passers lo be paid the same as bifore. The 
 Superintrjidciit said he was glad to we them make 
 an elldrt for |jea<e, but assured them that liic I{e- 
 ceiver would not go to work upon other terms than 
 he had annoimced ; that the Company could nrjt ac- 
 cede to the demands jiresented. "I'iie Coinmitlec 
 then asked if tlieConuuitteeinen, who had been dis- 
 charged, would be restoriMl to their former places if 
 the men wirit lo w(jrk. The Ahsistunt Keceiver re- 
 plied that Ihiy would not. The Committee then re- 
 tired, being escorted through the lini-s. Later in the 
 day the following notice was re(-eived and promptly 
 I)ublished : 
 
 The Receiver fully appreciates the fidelity of IiU 
 otUcers, agents, and men who have remamed true 
 lo their duty in the jiresent emerg(ncy. anrl such 
 fidelity will not fail t(j be properly rec-ognized. No 
 compromise will be made with, and no concession 
 will be made to, those misguiiled men who are. have 
 been, or may be false to their trust, and violaters of 
 the law. And all persons are wanied that no one 
 has the right to represent or speak for the Receiver, 
 except his regular oflicers. Any other person prc- 
 tendinirto do so is an impostor. The Receiver is 
 indu.ed to believe that the large majority of the em- 
 ployes now neglecting their duly are acting under 
 thecoercion and terror of lawless and ilesperate 
 men, mo.st of whom are strangers, and have never 
 been in his service. All well-disposed employes 
 will be protected. 
 
 From Ilornellsville the disturbance spreatl rapi<lly 
 along the line of the Krie Railway. Port .lervis, 
 Cornintr, Painted Post. Ruffalo, and other points 
 were affected, and the Erie brakemen and firemen at 
 all these places joined the strike and slopped the 
 running of the trains. At IJulfalo the strikers were 
 exceedingly violent. Karly in the afternoon of the 
 23d, an ass"ault was made by nearly two thousand 
 rioters on about two hundred soldiers who were 
 guarding the Lake Shore round house. The mili- 
 tary were obliged to leave the building, which was 
 now barricade! by the mob, who had placed cars in 
 position as defence against an attack. The Colonel 
 of the 6.5th Regiment, with about thirty men and 
 three officers, proceeded to the round house to retake 
 it from the mob. They were nut with yells of der- 
 ision from the crowd, and. under a shower of stones, 
 were obliged to retreat at the double-ipiick. and 
 force their way through the yelling crowd at the 
 point of the bayonet, some of ilie soldiers being bad- 
 ly cut on the hands with knives, and also clubbed. 
 Four of the soldiers lost their muskets, which, how- 
 ever, were afterward recovered. The Colonel was 
 badly clubbed, twice knocked down, forced across 
 the canal, and obliged to take refuge in the Lake 
 Shore paint shop. "The Krie strikers did not confine 
 their lawlessness to their own road, but invaded the 
 shops of the Lake Shore and New York Central 
 roads, and forced the men to stop work, and pre- 
 vented the movements of all freight and stock trains 
 in the depot yard. The Lake Shore men joined in 
 the strike, as" we shall see. but the men of the New 
 York Central road showed no disposition to do so. 
 A meet inn of citizens was didy summoned by the 
 Mayor of'KiifTalo, but it was slimly attended, and 
 was captured bv the strikers, whereupon it was ad- 
 journed by the "Mayor. In the meantime the second 
 detachment of the" 23d Regiment left Brooklyn on 
 the afternoon of the 23d of July, and reached Elmi- 
 ra shortly after seven o'clock on the morning of the 
 24tli. At this point the Commander was warned 
 that the strikers along the road would endeavor to 
 stop the prosress of the train, and accordingly sta- 
 tioned siuards on the engine and tender, and on the 
 platforms of the cars. These men were ordered not 
 to fire without cause, but to see that the train was
 
 KIOT. 
 
 704 
 
 EIOT. 
 
 not interfered with. Tlie train left Elmira at 9 o'clock, 
 and reached Coming at 10.. 23 a. m, Several rioters 
 attempted to board the train, but were quiciily forced 
 off by the guards. About one hundred of them 
 gathered around the train, gesticulating and 
 liooting, but making no further demonstraUou of 
 violence. As the train moved past the depot, the 
 rioters rushed ahead, and turned the switch. The 
 engine was moving so slowly, however, that the 
 train was at once stopped. The mob now hastened 
 up the track and blockaded it by overturning a bag- 
 gage car upon it. Several locomotives were also in- 
 jured. The fireman of the troop train now deserted 
 his engine and joined the mob. The track was torn 
 up for a short distance by the rioters, and the ad- 
 vance of the troop train was effectually stopped. 
 At several points liigUer up the road the track was 
 torn up, and cars were overturned. A construction 
 party was at once organized, and, under the protec- 
 tion of the troops, the track was relaidandthe over- 
 turned cars righted. The train moved on slowly, 
 at the rate of about one mile per hour, in order to 
 protect the working parties, and reached Pain'- 
 ed Post about four o'clock in the afternoon. The 
 strikers were at this time about two miles ahead of 
 the train, and were damaging the road as fast as was 
 possible. Every etiort was made to repair the track 
 and enable the troops to come up with the rioters. 
 So successful were these efforts, that at half-past 
 four the troops were within half a mile of the rioters. 
 A strong detachment was immediateh' thrown out, 
 which, moving rapidly ahead of the train, soon came 
 up with the rioters as they were engaged in tearing 
 up the rails. At the sight of the troops the strikers 
 fled to the woods. The damage to the track was at 
 once repaired, and the train passed on to Addison. 
 From this jjlace no farther trouble was experienced 
 until a point half a mile below IlornellsviUe was 
 reached. Here the engine, tender and baggage car 
 were thrown from the track b}- a loosened rail. In 
 consequence of the presence of so strong a military 
 force at Hornellsville, there was no disturbance at 
 that place on the 24th. The leader of the strikers, 
 was arrested anil held by the civil authorities. No 
 effort was made to rescue him. All through the 34th 
 there was great excitement at Buffalo, but there was 
 no outbreak. About 600 militia and two batteries 
 of artillery, besides 300 policemen, were held in 
 readiness to move upon the mob at any moment. 
 On the night of the 24th an attempt was made to fire 
 the bridge of the Erie Railroad over the Neversink 
 river, at Port Jervis. Precautionary measures were 
 taken by the Company at the commencement of the 
 disturbances, an increased number of watchmen 
 being stationed at tliis l)ridge. This fact undoubt- 
 edly saved it from destruction, as the next morning 
 a five gallon can of kerosene oil was discovered un- 
 der the bridge, placed in such a position that its ig- 
 nition would have carried the flames to the wood- 
 work of the bridge. It is supposed that the incen- 
 diaries became alanned before the completion of 
 their arrangements, and thinking that they were dis- 
 coven'd, fled, leaving the oil Ix^liind them. The 
 guards at that point were iiun-ased to prevent fur- 
 ther troul)le. 
 
 The Governor issued the following pmclamation : 
 ■' I deem it my duty to invite the special attention of 
 all the citizens of litis State, and especially of such 
 pers<ras as are now attempting to interfere by unlaw- 
 ful means with the running of railway trains, to the 
 following act passed by tiie Legislature at its last 
 session: ('hai)ter 2*'il. An act to I'lmish Trespassing 
 <m Railroads, passed May lutli, 1W77; The people of 
 the Stale of N'ew York represented in Senate and As- 
 semljly do enact as follows : Section 1. — Any person 
 who shall wilfully place any obstruction upon any 
 railroad, or loosen, tear up or remove any part of a 
 railroad, or displace, tamper or in any way interfere 
 with any switches, frogs, rail, track, or other part 
 of any railroad, so as to endanger the safety of any 
 
 train, or who shall wilfully throw any stone or other 
 missile at any train or any railroad, shall, upon con- 
 vi('tiou thereof, be punished by imprisonment in a 
 State prison, not exceeding ten years, or be liable to 
 a tine not exceeding #1.000, or by both such fine and 
 imprisonment. Sec. 2. — This act shall lake effect 
 immediateh'. I warn all persons engaged in the viol- 
 ation of the above law to desist therefrom, and I call 
 upon all sheriffs, magistrates, district attorneys and 
 other civil oflicers, and upon all good offlcers to aid 
 in the enforcement of the said law, and of the pun- 
 ishment of all who are guilty of its violation, and I 
 hereby offer a reward of fSOO, to be paid upon the 
 arrest and conviction of each and evcrj' person who 
 shall be guilty of a violation of the said act. The 
 failure or omission of any sheriff, district attorney, 
 or other civil officer to take the most active steps in 
 his power to enforce the provisions of this act will 
 be considered sufficient cause for his removal." This 
 proclamation had a happy effect in all parts of the 
 State, and especially upon the line of the Erie Rail- 
 road. The offer of a reward wan certain to sow dis- 
 cord in the ranks of the rioters, and convert some of 
 them into informers. 
 
 Feeling themselves strong enough to enforce the 
 law, the civil authorities at Hornellsville now deter- 
 mined to open the Erie Railroad to traffic, and to 
 arrest the more prominent of the rioters. It was de- 
 cided to enforce the law, even should a conflict with 
 the rioters be necessary ; and the 20th of July was 
 fixed as the day on which the effort was to be made. 
 In the meantime several p-ominent gentlemen of the 
 place exerted themselves to bring about a settlement 
 and avert the necessity of using force. Warrants 
 were issued for the arrest of over one hundred of the 
 rioters, and the 23d Regiment was assigned the duty 
 of supporting the civil officers in making these ar- 
 rests. Orders were issued for the regiment to be 
 ready to move at six o'clock a. m. on the 26th. The 
 Galling guns were prepared for immediate use, and 
 the regiment fully cotmted upon a sharp conflict 
 with tile mob. Tiie railroad officials had « number 
 of detectives among the rioters, and every movement 
 of the strikers was known, as well as the location of 
 their various camps. Few of the rioters were seen 
 in Hornellsville, or in the immediate vicinity of their 
 camps, but at a given signal they could have assem- 
 bled at least 900"men. On a hillside overlooking the 
 military and railroad head-quarters their outposts 
 could be distinctly seen b.v day, and at night scores 
 of moving lanterns gave evidence of their vigilance 
 and activity. In different portions of the woods, and 
 not remote from the line of the road, they had over 
 half a dozen camps, which had been provisioned 
 by plundering the freiglit cars in the depot yard at 
 the l)egiuning of the strike. The strikers' camps 
 would have been surrounded early on the morning 
 of the 26th, but during the night of the 2.">th a settle- 
 ment was effected between the railroad officials and 
 the rioters. 
 
 An effort was made by the strikers on the Erie Rail- 
 road to bring on a strike on the Lake Shore Railroad, 
 which extends from Buffalo to Toledo, and forms a 
 part of the New York Central's liiu> to Chicago. The 
 disturbance began at Buffalo, where the Lake Shore 
 men struck on the 22d, and prevented the passage 
 of freight trains. At Erie, Pennsylvania, and oilier 
 points along the road, the train men joined the strike, 
 and stopped the trains, but no further violence was 
 attempted. No trains were allowed to run on the 
 line between liiiffalo ami Eric, it having lieen deter- 
 mined not to imd(rtuk<> tii run any trains until the 
 strikers ceased their hUerference with the road. The 
 Atlantic exjiress from Chicago n^ached Erie at eleven 
 o'clock on tlie morning of the 24tli of .July. It con- 
 sisted of four fast nuiil cars, with heavy mails, two 
 baggage cars, and four well-filled passenger cars. In 
 accordance with orders from the President the train 
 was run upon a sidetrack and declared abandoned. 
 The jjassengers were much incensed, and tried to
 
 BIOT. 
 
 lor, 
 
 RIOT. 
 
 iirgL' Ihc Hlrikcrs (o run the Iniirj lliniiij;!! In liiiiriilo. 
 The Htrikcrs piirtiitlly (Miimciilcd, (ircil up an rii;^iiic 
 and HlliU'licd il to llii' Iniln. Tlir Siipcrinli'iidctil of 
 Uk; IJtill'iilo division tclcj^'riiplicd to prrvcril llic- strik- 
 cTH from tiikinf; oul tlic Iniin. A niciMin); of the 
 strikers was li<Od at tlie depot at three o'clock in the 
 aflertuion. 'Pile mayor, sherilf, and a posse of police' 
 were (111 liand to preserve order. The mayor advised j 
 the men to let tlie train alone and not to interfere 
 with the ('om|)any's orders. The chief of the strik- 
 ers also advised the same course. The enjrine was 
 then taken oir, run into the rounil house, and the i 
 train was left on the sidinir. It contaiueil ahoul one | 
 hundred tlirouijli passengers for New York, and ; 
 (he cars for the time were converted into a hotel. 
 Ahoul half-past six o'clock theChicairo and St. I.ouis 
 e.\press came in from ('hicai;o, anil, like its prede- 
 cessorwas run upon a side track and alian<loneil. The 
 trains were held at Erie until the niorningof the'2(ith, 
 when, it beimr certain that the strike was at an end, 
 they were ordered to proceed to UulTalo. From this 
 t4me the trains wen^ run reijuhirly over the Lake 
 Shore road. It was believed that the slriki' would 
 certainly extend to New York city. That citvistlie 
 eastern leriiumis of the New York Central iV lludson 
 Uiver Railroad, and there the C'on\pany have vast in- 
 terests at stake and sjive employment to several thou- 
 sand men. The city of Mew Y'ork is peculiarly cir- 
 cumstanced. It contains a larjic class of |)rofessionai 
 criminals, and a larijer nndtitudeof idle and reck- 
 less men. In addition to these, there are many men 
 of foreijin birth, who, while pursuiiiir some means of 
 sujiport. are thoroughly imbucil with comnninistie 
 ideas, and are ready at any tinu' to make war upon 
 the existing state of society. Tlx'sc classes make uj) a 
 fornndable section of the population of New York. 
 It was feared that should the strike extend to New 
 York, these classes would make it a pretext for riot 
 and violen(-e. Ni-w York beinu; the wealthiest city 
 of the Union, and one of the ureal tinancial centers 
 of the world, always oilers iuduccuu-iils to a mob of 
 desperate characters to enfj:a^<' in an outbreak in the 
 hope of plunder. The liard times from which the 
 whole country w-as sufferini; bad ])ressed very heavi- 
 ly ujioii the workimrmen of New York. Many were 
 out of work, an<l all were more' or less discontented. 
 In case of an outbreak it was certain that the rioters 
 would be larsiely reinforced from this class. 
 
 The leaders of th<' eor.unuuistic societies of New 
 York, which associations are made up almost en- 
 tirely of foreijrners who have in many eases been 
 members of similar organizations in Europe, regard- 
 ed the exciting period as a lilting time to test the 
 strength of the popular sympathy with them. They 
 determined to hold a public meeting ostensibly for 
 the purpose of expressing sympathy with the work- 
 ini;nu'U engaged in the strikes, but really to test 
 their strength in New York, and see if they could 
 connuand suflicient outside aid to enable them to 
 bring on an outbreak. The permission of the au- 
 thorities being necessary to enable them to hold 
 such a meeting, they applied to the Police Conunis- 
 sion for leave to hold their meeting in Tompkins 
 S(imvrc. Their reipiest was promptly granted, and 
 a call was issued for a mass-meeting of the Trades 
 I'nions at Tompkins Scpiare on the night of Wed- 
 nesday, '2r)lb of .July, to express .sympathy with the 
 men engaged in the strikes in other parts of thecimu- 
 Iry. The true character of the proposed meeting 
 was well understood throughout the I'liioii, and con- 
 siderable surprise was niMiifested at the course of 
 the New York authorities in allowing thenweting to 
 be held. The Police C'ouunissioners were convinced, 
 liowever, that to prevent tlu' meeting would be to 
 increase whatever excitement and discontent nught 
 exist among the laboring classes, and that the best 
 way to deprivethe Communists of tlair intiuence 
 was to permit them to hohl their mi'eling and 
 show tbeir designs. They felt contideiu that the 
 great mass of tbe workmen of New Y'ork were not • 
 
 ill Hympathy with any eoiiimunlHlic hcheineH, and 
 that they would In- arienaled from llieiii to u still 
 greater extent by thi-ir public procluiinition. They, 
 therefore, di'ciileil to allow the mer-ling at 'l°oiii|ikinH 
 Square. .At the same timeil was rcMolved t« liuveu 
 Hirong, well-armed force of police ul liund to piil 
 down any attempt at an outbreak, and to be reaily to 
 support such action with thi' intire |)olice tnric and 
 the military. The commissioners fi-ll fully conlidenl 
 of their ability to deal with the moli, and iiieunl to 
 show them that the city aiilhorilies were not afraid 
 of them. 
 
 The meeting was lield at the appointed time, and 
 was watelieil with tin- keenest anxiety by the whole 
 country. .Ml felt that it would decide whether there 
 would be a general communistic revolt, willi \ln ac- 
 companiments of blooilsheil, pillage, anil arson, or 
 whether the authorities were strong enough to en- 
 force the laws. If thir mob got the upper hand in 
 New York, it was generally said, the terrible resullH 
 would spread to the whoh; country; if the authori- 
 ties could prevent an outbreak, the insurrection 
 would receive its death blow. 
 
 The following resolutions were read to the meet- 
 ing: 
 
 Kemilvfd, That the workingmen's parly of the city 
 and county of New Y'ork tender their heartfelt sym- 
 pathies to the railroad men now (m strike in differ- 
 ent localities in the country. 
 
 /ifKolvril, That we consider all legalized chartered 
 corporations, such as railroad. banking, minim;, man- 
 ufacturing, gas. etc.. under the iire.seut system of op- 
 eration, as the most despotic and heartless enemies 
 of the working classes. 
 
 lieHolnd, That their acts of tyranny and ojipress- 
 ion have been the cause of demoralizing thousands 
 of honest workingmen, thereby driving them to acts 
 of madness; desperation and crime that they would 
 not otherwise have been guilty of had tliey been just- 
 ly dealt by. 
 
 Hesdlreil, That as these chartered companies have 
 been the primal cause of their employes' miseries and 
 of their eonsequenees, we hold them morally respon- 
 sible for all acts of violence that ])roceeil from and 
 are the Icgitinnite residts of their tyranny and op- 
 pression. 
 
 liemlved. That we view with alarm the growing in- 
 fluence and power of these corporations over the leg- 
 islation of the State and nation, and believe if that 
 intiuence continues, the executive, judicial, and leg- 
 islative branches of the government will become to- 
 tally demoralized, the rights of the masses destroyed, 
 and, instead of the voice of the people, the power of 
 the almighty dollar will become absolute and su- 
 preme. 
 
 lie-vilred. That we do earnestly request and advise 
 all the working classes throughout the country to 
 unite as speedily as possible for the purpose of form- 
 ing a political party, based on the natural rights of 
 labor. Let us nuike common cause against a com- 
 mon enemy. 
 
 RemAi-ed'. That nothing short of a political revolu- 
 tion through the ballot box on the jiarl of the work- 
 ing classes will remedy the evils imder which they 
 suffer. 
 
 Rexolvfd. That it is the purpose of the working- 
 men's party to confiscate through legislation, the 
 imjustly gotten wealth of these legalized and char- 
 tered corporation thieves that are backed by the Shy- 
 locks and moneyed syndicates of Europe and of this 
 country. 
 
 Riwlred. That we love law and order, peace and 
 tranquility, justice and righteousness above all elst, 
 and deprecate anythmg and everything that will 
 pervert them, and" that we are ever ready togiveour 
 lives in defense of the inherent rights of man. 
 
 The following address was made to the President 
 of the United States : \Ve, the workingmen of the 
 city of New-York, in mass-meeting assembled, act- 
 ing from a sense of duty, and prompted by true
 
 HIOT. 
 
 70« 
 
 BIOI. 
 
 feelings of humanity and a sincere desire for ])eace 
 and liarmony in society, do earnestly and respectfully 
 call your attention to the serious condition of affairs 
 now existing, and which have existed for some time 
 past between the operatives and the officials of the 
 mining and railroad corporations in several States of 
 the Union. The crimson tide of the life-blood of 
 citizens, soldiers, and hardy workmen have already 
 mingled in sanguinary strife. The heavens have 
 been lit up with the lurid glare of incendiary fires 
 that have reduced to ashes millions of property. 
 Men have fallen beneath deadly blows dealt by un- 
 seen and unknown hands, \uitil it seems as if evil 
 days had fallen upon us as a nation. Three millions 
 of the bone and sinew of tlie country converted into 
 wandering vagabonds, and a large portion of those 
 employed on the verge of starvation. Do tliese evils 
 that have assumed such magnitude and proportions 
 as to necessitate the issuance of a proclamation on 
 your part to preserve the peace, come within the 
 scope or jurisdiction of national legislation ? What- 
 ever may be the cause of these evils, the only remedy 
 applied so far as been the hangman's rope an<l the 
 soldier's bullet. Think you, Mr. President. these are 
 etTectual and permanent remedies that will insure 
 henceforth peace and good order in society? We 
 think not. Whatever cause produces these antago- 
 nistic relations between employer and employe must 
 be sought out and removed. We address you, Mr. 
 President, because you are one having great power 
 and authority conferred upon you by tlie Constitu- 
 t.on. You are Commander-in Chief of the armed 
 forces of these United States, and during the recess 
 of Congress thej' are at your absolute ilisposition. 
 Need we suggest to you the wisdom of extreme cau- 
 tion in the exercise of your national military power, 
 lest the breach of the peace be widened, class feeling 
 intensified, and public safety more endangered? We 
 think, Jlr. President, that the situation of affairs is 
 of such an important and alarming character that 
 they justify' on your part the immediate calling of 
 an extra session of Congress. These terrible occur- 
 rences and disturbances between the employers and 
 employes of mining and railroad companies that 
 have "startled and shocked the coiumuuily of late 
 involve, as you well know, what is termed the rela- 
 tions between labor and capital. Many are of the 
 opinion that any interference or action on the part 
 of the government to adjust these relations are con- 
 trary and inimical to the genius and spirit of modern 
 civilization and republican institutions; that the func- 
 tion of the government is simply to prevent any 
 violent collisions in society resulting from the an- 
 tagonistic relations of these two elements performing 
 such important functions in the affairs of human 
 society, and that throughout the history of the world 
 so tar have been eternally at sword's points with each 
 other. Those who take this view of tlie matter 
 seem to overlook the great fact that legislation has 
 always deidt with at least one of these factors — 
 namely, capital; and has almost entirely ignored the 
 other— namely, labor: which is, in our ojiinion. the 
 primal cause "of the present difficulties. Had legisla- 
 tion afforded the same opportunities and guaniuteed 
 tlie same riglils anil privileges to labor thai it has to 
 <;ai)ital these evil (la_ys would not have befallen us. 
 When railroad kings can build palaces to live in, 
 costing millions, and others die bequeathing hun- 
 dreds of millions to their cliililren, and boast while 
 living that they never Iroiililed themselves about the 
 election of representatives, but bought them uji after 
 they were elected, and u.sed them as a means to en- 
 rich tliemselv<-s at tlii' exiiense of their employes and 
 the general public, it seems about time to ccnisider 
 whelheror not legislation cannot confer some justice 
 anil rights upon labor as well as privileges to capital. 
 We have always considered that law should be the 
 .Hvnonym of justice. lias not Congress the power 
 u"nder"th(^( Constitution to govern and control. for llie 
 bi'iiefitof the whole people, the liiL'-liways and water 
 
 courses of the nations and regulate its internal com- 
 merce and trade ? Is there any constitutional law 
 that prohibits the State or general government from 
 controlling or supervising the mineral resources of 
 the nation? Shoulil not, also, the telegraph system 
 be connected with our postal department? and last, 
 but not least, a governmental monetary system esta- 
 blished that would supersede the present individual 
 corporate banking institutions that are nothing more 
 nor less than parasites on the body politic. All of 
 these chartered institutions exist by a system of di- 
 vidends or profits that proceed directly from the 
 laboring classes. In their efforts to make those 
 dividends the blood and marrow are extracted from 
 labor, until finally, maddened and desperate b}- the 
 exacting tyranny of capital, rendered ignorant and 
 brutish by jjoverty, it resorts to brute force and 
 violence to redress its wrongs. It cannot be expected 
 th.at men acting^ under the impetus of starv.atioii 
 should act wisel)' or well, or adhere to moral prin- 
 ciple. The very individuals who are most loud in 
 their denunciation of tr:e acts of the stiikers, placed 
 in their situation, might do, possibly, if they had the 
 courage, far worse. We, as a class, view with alarm 
 the growth and power of these gigantic cor))ora- 
 tions. Wielding thousands of millions of dollars' 
 capital as a power they are fast demoralizing and 
 corrupting the executive, judicial and legislative 
 branches of the governments of both State and na- 
 tion; and the rights of labor and the liberties of the 
 common people, if we continue on in this course, 
 will soon be swept away (and here let us state that 
 a member of your Cabinet, has recommended as a 
 measure of political reform in this State the restric- 
 tion of suffrage on the basis of a moneyed qualifica- 
 tion, thereby offering a direct insult to every work- 
 Ingman in this State); and when they are gone the 
 revt)lution commences and the emancipation of the 
 white wages slaves of the North will cost the Keijii- 
 blic more blood and treasure than ever the emancipa- 
 tion of the black chattel slaves of t)ie South did, and 
 God knows that cost enough. We look to you, Mr. 
 President, to be vigilant in respect of onr interests and 
 welfare, for the prosperity and perpetuity of this 
 nation rests upon the principle of justice to labor. 
 Class legislation is the ruin and eventual downtall of 
 any nation. 
 
 After reading these resolutions and the address the 
 following speech was made in support of the same : 
 We are here to-night to oropose a remedy for strikes 
 and hard times. Our remedy is that government 
 shall become the superintendent of education, pro- 
 perty and trade, and the employer of the people on 
 the basis of equal rights, opportunities and equitable 
 compensation. Our motto is. "No Rich, No Poor." 
 The age in wh;ch we live is pregnant with great jio- 
 litical and social problems which are forcing them- 
 selves upon us for solution, and as we are more fav- 
 orably circumstanced tlum other nations the duty 
 rests with us of experimenting in the science of so- 
 ciology until the hallowed object of perfecting hu- 
 man government is accomplished. Though thus far 
 our efforts have not been crowned with the degree 
 of success that was anticipated and formidable ob.s- 
 tacles still remain to be overcome, let us not relax 
 but rather redouble our efforts to stay the swelling 
 tide of corruption and strife and to inaugurate. an 
 era of virtue and peace. The gigantic projiortions 
 of peculation and fraud develo])ing in political cir- 
 cles and the incre.a.se of crime and inequality through- 
 out the land are morlifyiiig to us as a peo]ile. and, 
 as the scheming speeiilalors and legal i/.edinoiiopolists 
 are growing richer and the useful classes poor, a 
 crisis will soon be reached most fearful to contem- 
 plate, unless measures .are sjieeilily devised to arrest 
 the evil. 
 
 We live u|)ou a laml llouiii^^ willi Ihe milk and 
 honey of human subsistence, yet gaunt poverly 
 swee|)s over society, s|)reailing distress, crime and 
 ]iri'tnalure death. iMamiiiolh storehouses are lilleil
 
 BIOT. 
 
 707 
 
 HIOT. 
 
 to roplrlion vvitli llie produoti of irnliislry, while 
 tlioiisiiiiils of produciTM ftiiiiiHli for wiiiil. of hrciul. 
 DtiiMC forcHlsand rank uriiHB cover iiiillioim of fertile 
 acres, wliile lioiiselesH. hoiiielcHS. anxious laborers 
 loiter in tlie market, bei^nini^ for the privilege to l<iil. 
 'riie ili'velopnii'iil of labor-saving' inachiiiery niarvel- 
 lonsiy increases the power to ]iro(liiec wealth, which 
 shoiihl lii^litcn the bnrileii of th(r workmen and ad- 
 vance the prosperity of society ; whiTcas it is swerv- 
 ed from ainii' ami healthy course and enters into 
 harmful comi)etition with Uiohc whose livini; de- 
 pends ujjon a demand for their labor. Thoi:^'-h the 
 earth teems with aimual harvests and the hanils of 
 labor produce aji aliuiahuu'c of ev<Ty convenience 
 and liiXury of life, yet, under the baneful inlluenee 
 of a defective system ol L;overnment. wliich fails to 
 protect its citizens in the enjoyment of their equal 
 and natural riiflit to the soil, and mider an Ishnniel- 
 itisli system of commerce and industry, which re- 
 gards land, a.s well as products, as an arti(-le of traf- 
 fic anil monopoly, society is divided into landlords 
 and tenants, capitalists and laborers, ri<'h and poor, 
 and conditions of anxiety and antai^onism are <'n- 
 gendered which poison every sphere of social life. 
 After a careful investigation of the causes of ])olitic. 
 al and social evils we are constrained to believi' that 
 tiny are the lejiitimato effects of an anti-democralie 
 feature in our iiovernment and of an antagonistic 
 system of industry and commerce. Therefore, to ex- 
 pe<'t a prosperous condition of affairs by a mere 
 (•hanire of otlicers, th(^ exposure of fraud or the de- 
 nunciation of crime, while the present system re- 
 mains unchanged, is to expect results contrary to 
 the nature of things, for the opportimilies open to 
 our iiublic ollii'ers to acquire w ealth by an abuse of 
 the power reposed in them and the fabulous for- 
 timis often realized through legalized methods of 
 fraud prove too great a temptation for frail human 
 nature lo resist. Therefore, when a reform has to 
 be inidertaken (to be successful) it must be sup- 
 ported by the whole people that feel oppressed : and 
 as they are largely in the majority, they have the 
 power to speedily and jieacefully change the form of 
 government under which we live. The necessity of 
 a thorough change is manifest, and innuerous are 
 the i)lans proposed and the efforts made to mitigate 
 the evils complained of : but mitigation is not enough. 
 We believe the tinu' has passed for fragmentary pro- 
 positions of reform to awaken any considerable de- 
 gree of enthusiasm in the people or to be of any per- 
 manent value to society if accomplished. Though 
 the efforts to extend the right of suffrage, the form- 
 ation of trade societies, protective imions, strikes 
 for more ecpiitable terms of time and wages, etc., 
 are praiseworthy manifestations of the right spirit. 
 and have been and still are valuable as a means of 
 education ; yet to arrest the further growth of fraud 
 and remove the giant evils there is need of a more 
 compreliensive sclienu' than any hitherto proposed, 
 one that shall con.serve the best interests of every 
 \iseful class and calling, and unite their scattered 
 forces in one consolidated army of progress. To re- 
 alize the necessary reform and ]ilace the future de- 
 velopments of society upon a harmonizing upward 
 grade, the governnu'Ut and industry of the country 
 should be reconstructed upon the principles of nat- 
 ural right, political equality and mutual i>rotection, 
 and there are two methods by which this may be ac- 
 (■omplished. The most speedy one is by political ac- 
 ti(m, and the other is by the orsranization of labor 
 ^ on the basis of nmtual interest. AVe live under gov- 
 ernnu'nts that nuiy be peacefidly so amended by po- 
 litical action as to secure the sovereignty of the 
 people, and the subordination of tlu'ir legislative and 
 executive oflicers, making them just in principle, 
 wise in policy, and honest in administration. But 
 the present constitutions excUnle a majority of citi- 
 zens from a voice at the polls. and set aside the car- 
 dinal principle of jioptdar sovereignty by clothing 
 the legislators with authority to enact laws, grant 
 
 I privileges, and appropriate public property w ithoiil 
 I Hubmilting their acts lo the people for ratilicalion 
 I Clechnically the referendum;. Kiirlher, lujting un- 
 I der their authority, the olIlcirH lo wliorn their ad- 
 miiuslralion has been committed have issui-d de- 
 preciated curn'ney, havir chartereil banks and li;gal. 
 izcd interest on money, and thereby imjtoHed upon 
 society the most oporessive syslem of ariHtocracy 
 fexcept that of the land; that 'ever afllicted the ci- 
 ! vilized world, Therefore the govermneniK are un- 
 j just in principle, unwise, partial anil oppressive in 
 legislation, and complex, extravagant, and subject 
 to fraud in execution. 'I'herefore, we present the 
 following propositions of refrjrm for the considrra- 
 lion of Ihe people of this country, believing llieni lo 
 be true, and Iheir adojition uoccssary for our pros- 
 perity as a nation : 
 
 I'ii-Ht. All members of the human family are en- 
 titled by nature to use sutllcient of the common r|e- 
 nu'iilsdand, water, air and light; to maintain their 
 existence and properly develop their being. 
 
 Ki'rvnd. Land being an inalienable natural right 
 (to which all men are alike entitled;, anil not pro- 
 perly, should be supervised by government for Ihe 
 use of its ciliziMis upon the basis of equality. 
 
 Third. The imconsumed properly and other ad- 
 vantages resulting from Ihe experience of the jjast 
 should tje a common inheritauce lo the living gen- 
 eration. 
 
 Finirtli. The currency of a nation should be i.s- 
 sued by govenuuent only, be a legal lender and bear 
 no interesi, thereby protecting the people from the 
 snares and frauds of gambling nionev-changers. 
 
 Fifth. As all just governments derive their po- 
 wers from the consent of the governed, the right of 
 suffrage should be secured to every citizen of mat- 
 ure age. without regard to sex or condition. 
 
 Sixth. To sweep away Ihe present nndtiludinous 
 and vexatious laws, and to introduce a more simple 
 code, more easy to imderstand and ob.serve -. also lo 
 protect society against usurpation a:id peculation by 
 l)td)lic officials, and help to educate the people in 
 political science, the government should be demo- 
 cratic. Though legislation may be done by repre- 
 sentatives, the peo])le should reserve the sovereign 
 right to ratify or reject the ads of their public ser- 
 vants, and to iirotect Ihe personal rights of Ihe indi- 
 vidual against any luiiluc legislation in respect to 
 freedom of speech, religious belief, habits of dress 
 and diet, and the like. 
 
 Hi-rtnth. So long as the existence of an army or 
 navy may be deemed necessary, Ihey should be re- 
 modiUeil to correspond w ilh the principles of equal 
 pay and rations; and opportunities should be af- 
 forded to rise from Ihe ranks lo Ihe command, and 
 from the forecastle to the quarter deck. 
 
 Kighth. To avoid Ihe evU consc(|uences of oSicial 
 patronage and party bias, all oflicers should receive 
 their commissions direct from Ihe people, while 
 clerks, mechanics and other operatives should be 
 taken from the list of competent applicants, as their 
 names stand recorded, or be drawn, as the names of 
 jurors are draw n, from Ihe wheel. 
 
 Xiiit/i. To secure the greatest advantages of econ- 
 omy and convenience resullin!' from the improve- 
 ments of the aiie, and to guard against the cupidity 
 of contractors, the fraudulent principle of interest 
 on money, the impositions of the banking system, 
 and Ihe extortions practiced by railroads, gas com- 
 panies and other organized monopolies, the system 
 of contracting public work should be abolished, and 
 all public improvements, such as post roads, rail- 
 roads, gas works, waterworks, mining operations, 
 canals, post offices, telegraphs, expresses, etc.. 
 should be public property and be conducted by gov- 
 ernment, at reasonable rates, for the interest of so- 
 ciety- 
 
 Tenth. To advance material science, develop the 
 resources of Ihe country, and proiect the useful 
 classes agaiusi ihe avarice of capilalists or the de-
 
 RIOT. 
 
 ro« 
 
 KIOT. 
 
 rangements of trade, the various branches of useful 
 
 industry sliould be instituted by the government upon 
 equitable priucipk-s, as to time and compeusatinn, 
 and tliereby furnish employment to those who might 
 otherwise be idle aud suffer the pangs of poverty, or 
 be tempted to crime. 
 
 Ekventh. To provide for the proper education of 
 the people, schools, colleges and institutions of 
 science should be supported by the government, and 
 be free to all ; and to enable the people to convene 
 frequently to consider subjects of public interest, 
 and review the acts and propositions of tlieir public 
 servants, the primary or public school houses should 
 be open at least two evenings in each week for the 
 use of the people. 
 
 Twelfth. The greatest degree of benefit to be real- 
 ized from combined effort will flow from the most 
 comprehensive union of interests, upon the principle 
 of equality; to attain which, government must ulti- 
 mately absorb and direct everj' department uf use, 
 extending to the citizens equal opportunities, equal 
 compensation for services performed, and equal pro- 
 tection in seasons of sickness, disal)ility and old age. 
 Accordingly, let us hasten the realization of a just 
 and wise system of government, established upon 
 the principles above stated. 
 
 Fairly computed, there were probably less than 
 ten thousand persons on tiie ground. Nearest the 
 stand were the internationalists and societymen; 
 ne.xt to them a row three or four deep of mere listen- 
 ers; and on the rim an ever-moving congregation of 
 idlers, who only served the purpose of deluding one j 
 into the belief that it was a great throng. The crowd [ 
 was generally tame and apparently aimless. It lacked 
 enthusiasm. The speakers tlietnselves seemed to feel i 
 the want of sympathy that is ordiuarilj' expressed in 
 hearty cheers, and were content with the nuld hur- 
 rahs of the few malcontents who surrounded the 
 platforms. The railway men did not put in an aji- 
 pearance, or if so, in such small numbers that their ; 
 presence was not notable, while of societies the rep- 
 resentation was small and without organization, j 
 In fact, judging from the comments of the more in- | 
 telligent, the occasion was regarded as one which , 
 had been created for the benefit of a few dema- 
 gogues and ward politicians, rather than for the illus- 
 tration of any broad principle. From the Ijegiuning 
 to tlie end of the meeting there was not the slightest i 
 exliiliition of a dangerous purpose on the part of tlie 
 gatliering, aud incendiary reni;irks. wliether in Eng- 
 lish or German, fell upon tlie ear still-liorn. Tlie 
 orators had apparently lost heart. The stands were 
 thronged witli noisy boys, and there was an utter 
 want of the vim and snap tliat cliaracterizes an or- 
 dinary political meeting. Perhaps all this result was ; 
 due to the fact known to ever\' person on tlie ground, j 
 that while not a policeman showed his uniform in ■ 
 the crowd, or invited the sliglitest antagonism, five 
 hundred sturdy men, armed to the teeth, were with- 
 in e;irslK)t, re;idy to sweep down on tlie instant at 
 any point where a disturbance might occur, and 
 nearly a tlious;ind more were inreserve, waiting with 
 ready hands to preserve peace and maintain the fair 
 name of the metropolis. Certain it is, that the so- 
 called " dangerous class" of New York, if they were 
 present, never in (heir history witnessed sucli a mas- 
 terly preparatiou'to |)unisli, ;ind, if necessary, crush 
 them, as was tlieu sliowu. The action of tlie police 
 force was simply supcrl). The men seemed to rise 
 out of the ground, and wlien the meeting dissolved, 
 and the four calcium burners thjit had been used to 
 light tlie square were e.xtinguislied, the long blue 
 line that reacluid across the square, and steadily 
 pressed before it tliose wlio loitereil. told the slorj- 
 in five minutes that communism in New York w;is a 
 liasco and a fraud. The ulmnst good n;ilure pre- 
 vailed, tlie sidewalks of the squares rang willi the 
 cries of hucksters, women and children lined the 
 Btc^ps of the adjacent houses, or innocently eiiiowed 
 their way among the multitude, and faces generally 
 
 wore anything but the expression of excitement or 
 
 anxiety which might be expected to attach to the oc- 
 casion. Uf the eight or ten lliousand thus assembled, 
 probabl}- not more than three tliousand were active- 
 ly identified with the trades unions and international 
 societies, and manj- of the former openly expressed 
 their condemnation of the attempt of a few men to 
 create further trouble and distress at this time. The 
 Inilk of the crowd was composed of people who curi- 
 ously desired to see what .was going on, and took 
 good care to be sufficiently near the highways to 
 make an early exit in case of a demonstration by po- 
 lice or military. 
 
 The intervention of the military power of the Fed- 
 eral government in behalf of the endangered railroad 
 property of the country was a phase of the great out- 
 break which was certainly not contemplated by tlie 
 strikers in commencing their movement. When the 
 Governor of West Virginia called upon the President 
 for assistance, there was a feeling of general surprise 
 throughout the country; aud when it was learned 
 that the force sent in answer to his call numbered 
 but a few hundred men, it was feared by many that 
 it was not in the power of [the general government 
 to deal with such a movement as vigorously as it de- 
 manded, inasmuch as the army was too small and 
 was scattered over so wide an extent of country. In 
 addition to this, the«use of the Federal army in the 
 affairs of the States under the previous administra- 
 tion had so shocked the best sentiment of the coun- 
 try that many persons feared the employment of the 
 army in the present instance would lead to results 
 equally deplorable. The course of the President and 
 his advisers proved in the main entirely satisfactorj' 
 to the country, and demonstrated tliiit the constitu- 
 tional use of the army is in no way dangerous to the 
 independence or reserved rights of any of the States; 
 and the firmness and moderation which marked the 
 action of the government called forth praise from all 
 |)arties. The task before the President was a very 
 delicate one; he was to fulfill his constitutional duty 
 of protecting the States against internal disorders 
 which they eoulil not suppress, and he was at the 
 same time to treat the disturbance as a matter strict- 
 ly witliin the jurisdiction of the State, or in other 
 words he was not to take the enforcement of the 
 laws out of the hands of the State authorities, but 
 was merely to sustain them in their efforts to sup- 
 press the disorder; and to do this he must place the 
 Federal troops under the orders of the Governor of 
 the State into which tliej' were sent, and must still 
 retain the general direction of them. In other 
 words, the Federal troops were to be so many police- 
 men loaned to the States to enable them to execute 
 their laws. Happily for the whole country, the 
 President was fully imbued with this view of his 
 duty in the matter, and his course was in accordance 
 with it. 
 
 The presence of the United States troojis had every 
 where the happiest effect. Though the detachments 
 sent to the various points of danger were small, they 
 were everywhere respected, and feared by the rioters. 
 Their discipline and steadiness made it certain that 
 tliey would obey orders literally and promptly, and 
 the eharaeter and experience of the officers were a 
 guarantee (li;it while they would de;il with the dis- 
 turbance witla forlicaranee and inodenilidii. they 
 woulil also put diiwn resistance to them promptly 
 and wilii vigor if c;illed upon to act. Wlierever the 
 regulars appeared, the rioters slunk awiiy; not a hand 
 w;is raised against them; and their service was eon- 
 fined entirely to guard duty. The forces at the dis- 
 ])osal of file government was, as hasliecn said, small 
 and was si^allered over the wiiole country. It be- 
 came necessary to eonci'iilnile iis strong a force as 
 possible in llie Stales of \Vcsl N'irginiii, ,M;iryl;iiiil au<l 
 I'ennsylviinia, and at the e;ii'liest moment. For this 
 purpose detachments were brought f;'om the Atlan- 
 tic coast ports, and the troops that had been station- 
 ed in the Southern Stales by President Grant for
 
 BIOT. 
 
 709 
 
 HIOT. 
 
 poliliciil piirpoHcH wire movi'd iiDrlliwiird Id tlir- 
 HcciH- of (lHni;<T. The ])(ilicy of (lie uoviTiiiiicnt wiis 
 to iicl witli ciiiitioii. lull also willi viitnr iiml prompt 
 ncHH. Tliis line of (•(iiiilucl wan Hiriclly ailliiTcd Irj. 
 The troops licliavi-d willi adiniralilc lirimii'ss. payiii); 
 MO atti'iilloM to llic jeers ami iiisulls of llie rioters, 
 and avoidiiii; in every way ifivini,' provoeulioii to the 
 inol). DiiriiiL; tlie wliole distiirbanee, the Hijjiial 
 Corps of the army nndered important service, in 
 forwaniini; to tlie war(k[)arlment news of the events 
 at their respective |)osls. 'Vhv despatches of the 
 siirnal olVicers w<Te rei;iilarly laid hefore the Cahiiiet, 
 and were always found free from e.\ay;t;eralion an<i 
 tliorou^rlily reliable. The i;overnineiil eaine to du- 
 penil npon them as its mostaccnrate souro<M)f infor- 
 nnilion. 
 
 The North. Aiiirrinin RivlfW for Septeiiilier to ()c- 
 tol)er, 1877, contained two articles relatini; to the 
 strike, which are of so much interest lo those inter- 
 ested ill the question that we i^ive the substance of 
 them hero: The tirst is from the pen of ('ohmel 
 Thomas A. Scolt, the I'resiilenI of llie I'ennsylvania 
 liailroad. ("olonel fScoll, after recitinir the history 
 of the IroublcM, and statini; the necessities of tlie rail i 
 road companies, mak<'s the foUowini; deductions: ' 
 This insurrection, which e.xtemled llirouj;h fourleen 
 Slates, and in many cases successfully delie<l the lo- 
 cal aiilliorities, presents a state of facts almost as se- 
 rious as that which prevailed at lh(^ oullircak of the 
 Civil War. I'nless ourownex()crienee is lo dilTcr en- 
 tirely from ilher counlries - and it is iiol easy to see 
 why it should, wi'.h Ihi- increasinir i)opulation of our 
 larjje Cities and business centers, and the inevilabic 
 assemblafj;e at su<li points of the vicious and evil-ilis- 
 jjosed — the late Iroidiles may be l)ut a prelude to 
 oilier manifestations (.f mob violence, with this add- 
 ed peril, thill now. forlhclirsi lime in AiiK'rican his- 
 tory, has an oriraiii/.ed mob learned ils power to ler- 1 
 rorize the law abidiiii; citizens of ureal communities. 
 With our recent experience before us. it is believed 
 I hat no lliousrhlful man can ariiiK' in favor of delay 
 by the proper authorities in dealiiii; with I.iwlessand 
 riotous asseinblai;es. Delay sini]ily leads lo destruc- 
 tion of properly, and may lead in the eml to the de- 1 
 siruclion of life. The force used to repress such as- 
 semblasies sliould be iis prompt in ils manifestation 
 ns Ihe evil with which it deals. The interests con- 
 cerned are too jirave to adniil of delay. The rais- 
 ing of the black thii; and the sloppaiie of all ves- 
 sels on the Great Lakes and on the Mississippi and 
 Ohio rivers would not proiluce one tithe of the dam- 
 age to the whole country that lias resulted from the 
 recent stoppage of the great trunk lines. The burn- 
 ing of the vessels and their <'argoes on these waters 
 would raise a slorin of wrath which no mob would 
 dare to face, ami would be visiled by the United 
 States government, under existing laws with most 
 exemplary fiunishment. But what distinction can 
 be establisbed betw-een such a crime and the hide- 
 ous deslrucliou at I'illsburgli of over one thousand 
 eight hundred cars laden with the products of the 
 various States, together with the engines ready to 
 move them to their deslinatinn, and Ihe station 
 buildings and machine shops that were absolutely 
 ossenlial lo their jiroper care and movement, and 
 which, with oilier like doings, resulted in the stop- 
 page of all commerce and business relations lie- 
 twecn the States not only on one highway, but on 
 many important lines, through the <(>ncerted action 
 of the mob and its leaiiers? In the city of Pills- 
 burgh much human life and many ))rivate dwellings 
 and other properly were sacriliceil as the result of 
 mob violence; indeed, it is almost a m;irvel that a 
 large portion of that city was not destroyed by tire. 
 Only the prevailing direction of the wind averted 
 greater and more general disaster. 1 
 
 The authority of Ihe United Stales, now potent to I 
 protect commerce moving upon the w.-ilers. should 
 be eiiu;illy potent when the same comnuTce is ex- 
 posed to greater peri! upon land. This brings us i 
 
 then, to Ihe practical ipicHtion: In what Hhajie can 
 Ibis protection be put ho as to be exienrh-d most i-(I|- 
 cieiilly and willi the least ileliiy y The priwnt re^ru- 
 lalioim all favor, uninlenlionully, the rioters iiiifl the 
 mob. Ill Ihe lirsl jiliice the .Mayor of a city liiiiHt ex- 
 haust his power, Ihe Sheritr of the c( iinty must cti. 
 say his stnnglh : then, while precious time \h ex- 
 pending—for a mob constanlly allracts dungeroijH 
 elemenlH unil grows with impiinily and succcmk- the 
 (Jovernor of tlie Klute must lie calleil upon by the 
 HherilT of u county. If the Stale happens lo have 
 an (•lT<'Clive military organi/alion, wliich ut the 
 present lime is Ihe case in perhaps not more than 
 live out of thirty-seven Stales of the Union, the (jov- 
 ernor can call out Ihe military forces and siippresH 
 the riot. If Ihe Slate has no such organization, or 
 If till- military forces of the Slate provi; iiiailiipialc 
 to the emergency, Hie Governor is paraly/.er!, unil 
 miisl call upon the United Stales for assistance. If 
 the authorities of any Stale should, for any cause, 
 fail lo refuse lo call upon the United Stales govem- 
 iiicnl. what possible remedy or protection is left to 
 life and projierly within the limits of that common- 
 wealth ? 
 
 It can readily be seen what frightful possibilities of 
 mischief are alTorded by Ihe necessarily long inter- 
 val which must elapse in the present state of laws 
 before the Federal aulhority can intervene in cases 
 where its intervention is most imperative. In fact, 
 as our recent experience has shown, the f)nly roads 
 which could procure prompt iiroteclion and immun- 
 ity from inlerference were those whose niisforliines 
 had made them bankrupt, and placed them in the 
 direct custody of receivers appointed by the Unit- 
 ed Slates Courts. To the aid of these roads the 
 United Slates .Marshal could call the United States 
 troops, and no rioter dared to resist the power 
 represented by the small but admiralily disciplin- 
 ed delachiiienis ([uarlered near the scenes of re- 
 cent troubles. It will hardly be contended that the 
 railway companies must become bankrupt in order 
 to make secure the unintcrrupleil movement of traf- 
 fic over their lines, or to entitle them to the efficient 
 jiroteclion of the United Slates government. If a 
 bondholder or other creditor is entitled to the protec- 
 •ion of the Federal courts to prevent the threatened 
 iinp:iirment of the value of a projirrty through legal 
 jiroceedings, he cerlainly should not be left without 
 remedy against lawless violence which has actually 
 destroyed the security for his investment, and has. 
 as at I'ittsburgh. converted millions of dollars into 
 scrap iron and ashes. The laws which give the Fed- 
 eral courts the summary process of injunction to re- 
 strain so comparatively trilling a wrong as an in- 
 fringement of a palent-right, certainly must have 
 been inlended or ought to give the United Statesau- 
 thorily to prevent a wrong doing, which not only de- 
 stroys a particular road, but also paralyzes the entire 
 commerce of the country and wastes the national 
 wealth. It is demonstrable that during the recent 
 disturbances the government of the I nited Slates 
 was itself a direct loser, and through the goveni- 
 mcnt tlie tax-payers of the whole couutrj* to a verj' 
 large amount, by the diminution of Ihe national re- 
 venues arising from the iuterrupliim of business and 
 Ihe interference with many of the operations on 
 which iIk' internal taxes of the country are levied, as 
 well as by the diminution cf the customs revenues as 
 all the imports durimi this period, instead of being 
 forwarded lo their destinations, were necessarily 
 placed in store, of course without payment of any 
 duly to the government for the lime bein:i. Sup- 
 pose that this slate of things had continued for six- 
 ty days, would not the United Stales government 
 liave "been deprived of nearly all the revenues on 
 which it relies to meet ils current obligations? 
 
 Certainly it cannot have been contemplated in Ihe 
 formation i)f our government that the United States 
 ;iiitliorities should submit to see the transportation 
 of Ihe mails, covering the enormous tinancial and
 
 EIOT. 
 
 710 
 
 BIOI. 
 
 business transactions of the whole country, and the 
 movement of supplies required for its own various 
 departments, made dependent upon tlie grace and 
 favor of rioters, whose misconduct in almost any 
 other form would have secured their inunediate ar- 
 rest and condign punishment. During the recent 
 riots the movement of United States troops was im- 
 peded at several points, and large quantities of am- 
 munition and other Federal stores on their way to 
 the Pacitic coast were forcibly detained for days. 
 Tlie 0])erations of the national government in some 
 _ parts of the country were as completely blocked as 
 'in the early days of the Civil War. There certainly 
 .should be a protection against sucli dangers, and a 
 remedy for such wrongs. If the government of the 
 United States is to exercise its power of protection 
 or of remedy, it perhaps can do so only througli an 
 adequate exhibition of the military force thaf may 
 be given it for such purposes by Congress. The im- 
 portant question is to ascertain in what way the gov- 
 ernment can so exhibit its military force as to secure 
 the utmost possible efficiency in the enforcement of 
 law and order, without jarring or disturbing the 
 general framework of our institutions and our laws. 
 It seems to be indispensable, in the light of recent 
 events, that whatever force is to be used In- the gov- 
 ernment in such emergencies should be so distributed 
 and controlled that it may be concentrated upon any 
 point or points that maj' be threatened within a few 
 hours of any outbreak. Several companies of regu- 
 lar troops that were quartered at Baltimore, Phila- 
 delphia, Pittsburgh, Reading, Scranton, Louisville, 
 Chicago, and other places, during the recent riots, 
 had to be transported for such distances that, if they 
 liad been compelled to march instead of moving by 
 rail, they would have been powerless to avert mis- 
 chief. It was only by the fear or favor of the rioters 
 that the United States were able to concentrate their 
 forces where they did. In some cases formal resolu- 
 tions were passed by the strikers that no troops 
 should be allowed to pass over the lines. In Jersey 
 City a mob endeavored to prevent the departure of 
 a United States battery and the troops connected 
 therewith. On the Erie Railway, between Cornell 
 and Hornellsville, a few lawless men, b_y tearing up 
 tracks, destroying bridges, and tampering with 
 switches, were able seriously to retard the military 
 forces of tlie State, which were there under the orders 
 of the Governor to re-establish law and order. What 
 is needed, [iierefore. would clearly seem to be that 
 proper forces should be so disposed at prominent 
 points— large cities and other great business centers, 
 in many of which the government has arsenals, cus- 
 tom-houses, mints, navy yards, and other property 
 of its own to protect — that their movements can be 
 combined rapidly and the}' be directedagainst points | 
 of danger. so as to be able to act eftectively and witli 
 decision before violence can become triumphant. 
 
 With the experience of other cmmtries to warn | 
 anil guide us, and especially with the exiierience of i 
 Knglanil, where the rights of the peo]ile have for ages 
 been guarded and asserted as jealously as they always 
 have been an<l should be among ourselves, we shall 
 have only ourselves to blame if, through apatliy.denia- 
 gogisin, or weakness we leave ourselves uii])repared 
 to meet an issue whicli, from all the evidences of 
 tlie times, is only too likely again lobe forced upon 
 us. With the apjiroach of winter, and the loss of 
 out-door employment which severe weal her, even in 
 the most prosperous times, entails, the country will 
 have to deal not only with the deserving among the 
 unemployed, who can be reached and hel])ed through 
 local organizations, but with vast mmdjcrs of idle, 
 dangerous and, in many cases, desperate men, who 
 liave been allowed unforlimately to calcli a glimpse 
 of their possilile power for mischief. Such uien, un- 
 less confronted !>}' a tliorr)Ugh organi/.alinn in the 
 chics States and other coiiununities, backed by tli<\ 
 power of the Federal goveriunent and an lunnistak- 
 able |)Mblie opinion, will ii<-ed but little urging to 
 
 renew the scenes which have already brought such 
 disgrace upon the American name. It surely may 
 be hoped that at the approaching session of Congress 
 the earnest, unprejiuliceil an<l patriotic men of both 
 houses will discuss this grave subject independently 
 of party lines, and with the imited resolve to secure 
 equity to all interests, and to take all necessary meas- 
 ures to secure protection to life and property and 
 impartial enforcement of the laws, including the 
 guarantee to every man of the right to work for such 
 compensation as he may agree upon with other men, 
 free from interference or intimidation. The able- 
 lawyers of the Senate and House will perhaps frame 
 a law which will give to the owners of every higli- 
 way carrying inter-State commerce, whether by land 
 or water, in which citizens of different States are in- 
 terested,or carrying the United States mails or other 
 government property, the right to appear by petition 
 properly verified before the tribunal of the United 
 States, in order to show that the movement of such 
 traffic has been interfered with by unlawful combina- 
 tions, by threats or by violence, and which, upon 
 such showing, will give these tribunals the right, 
 when necessary to call upon the United States, in 
 the form now authorized bj' law to enforce their pro- 
 cess by arresting the rioters and the suppression of 
 ! all such unlawful combinations. 
 [ The magnitude of the evil to be met and dealt 
 with can hardh' be overstated. The remedy to be 
 I provided should be equally prompt and effective. 
 1 It must be discussed and adopted in the interest 
 I of the wliole country, and not of any particular 
 I class ; for the interests of all classes of our citi- 
 zens are the same in the maintenance of domestic 
 peace and civil order. But to no one class in the 
 community is an absolute assurance of peace so im- 
 portant as to the men who have no capital but their 
 labor. When the accumulations of labor are put 
 in peril by lawlessness, capital may always protect 
 itself by suspending the enterprises which give la"bor 
 its value and insure its reward. Anarchy not only 
 deprives the laboring man of his present subsistence, 
 but puts in jeopardy all his hopes of improvement 
 for his own future and the future of his family. 
 
 The second article referred to is entitled "Fair 
 Wages," and is signed "A Striker." and contends 
 that the rights and value of labor, which were ac- 
 knowledged here forty years ago because the coimtry 
 wanted hands, now turns the laboring men's earn- 
 ings against them, and the country's prosperity be- 
 comes their disaster. The writer concludes as follows: 
 Let us put this matter in a iilain way, as we imder- 
 stanil it, and use round num.bers, instead of fractions, 
 as we have to deal with hundreds of millions, divid- 
 ing the subject into sections. 
 
 " Firxt. In the United States the amount of capi- 
 tal invested in railwav propertv last year was l|4,- 
 470,000,(1(10, made iqi o'f *2.2.")O,000,0O0 capital stock, 
 and .t3, 220,000, 000 bonded debt. The gross earn- 
 ings were !f!,")00,000,0(JO. or about eight and a half 
 per cent on the capital. The running expenses (of 
 which the bulk was for labor) were *;ilO,()00,000, 
 leaving .f IH.'S.OOO.OOO as interest to the caiiitalist, or 
 barely four per cent, on his investment. Labor is 
 admiiled into this enterprise a.^ a preferential credi- 
 tor, to lie ])aid out of the gross earnings before the 
 most preferred mortgagee or bondhnldiT receives a 
 dollar. For, as capital could nut build the roads 
 nor c(|uip Ihem without labor, so the enterprise, 
 when complete, cannot be rim without labor. Cap- 
 ital, Iherefore, takes a back seat when it comes to 
 the push, and acknowledges not only that labor has 
 the largest interest in the concern, but takes the first 
 frnils. I take the railroad as a sample out of all en- 
 terprises, and if we could gel at ligures. there is no 
 doubt it is a fair s.'uiiple of the crowd. If, then, 
 lalxir is the more important and essential factor in 
 the result, when it comes to the (|ueslion which of 
 the two ■hall suffer in moments of general distress — 
 the capitalist in his pocket or the laborer in his
 
 RIOT 
 
 711 
 
 ElOT. 
 
 Ii<;lly — wclliiiik lln- Hiiswcr has liciii alrciidy si'llliil 
 by the rij^htH assuiiiiMl liy one and a(knowh'd};cil by 
 Ihr (ilhcr. 
 
 HicoiiiL It iH Miaiiifi slly iiiijiint thai the working- 
 man Bhoiild l)c Miihjccicd 1(1 under wajjeK in l)a(l 
 limes, if lie lias not tlie e(|iiival('nt of over wajjes in 
 i;(i(id times. If railroad e<jm|iaiiii'S in eniieiTt with 
 IIk^ laliorinij ehiss liad cslalilisheil a tarilV nf lahur, 
 and paid a lioniis (Ui \va;;es at every dislrihiilioM of 
 diviiiiiids, that bonus lieinj; in proportion to the 
 profits of tlie road, so lliat caeli man becomes a 
 sliareliolder in his very small way, then he would 
 hav(! submitted to bear his share of distri'ss when all 
 wcro called on to share trouble, but toslmre it eijual- 
 ly and alike. 
 
 Third. When folks say that labor and capital must 
 find, by the laws of demand .iiid supply. Iheir nal iral 
 relations to each other in all commercial enlerpris<'S, 
 and neither one has any riithls it can enforce on the 
 oth(^r, they take for granted that the labor ■nnirket' is 
 like the produce market — liable to natural lluclmi- 
 tions. If that were so, w(^ should not complain. 
 But it is not. The labor market has l'oI to be like 
 (he slock and share market a few larire capilalisis 
 control it and makc> what prices they please. This 
 sort of fiame may ruin the gamblers in stocks and in- 
 jure those who invest, but the troul)le is conlincd 
 mostly to those who can afford it. Hut not so when 
 the same practice operates in the labor market. 
 The capitalist nuist not fjamblc willi the bread of the 
 workiuf^man. or if he does, let him reijanl where 
 that speculation led France one hundred years airo, 
 when I hi' tinancicrs made a corner in Hour, and the 
 pconle broke the rini; with the a.\e of the i;uilloline. 
 Jicnirt/i. When the railway <'ompanies obtained 
 privilej^es and riuhls over jirivate property, anil bo 
 camc, by force of law. the great landowners of the 
 State, holdinjr its movable property as well, and con. 
 trollini; every avenue and department of business. 
 public and private, they liecanK'|)owcrful monopolies. 
 The .Slate endowed them with powers to frame '.dws 
 of their own. and deprived citizens of their property, 
 means, facilities of transport, to vest it all in their 
 corporations. Thus endowed, they cannot pretend 
 they are no more than ordinary commercial enter- 
 prises. They are resjionsible to the State for the 
 result of Ihelr operations if they disturb fatally the 
 order of our concerns. They are not inilcpeiident. 
 The Stale has claims upon them it has not on pri- 
 vate concerns. They may not accept liabilities and 
 then decline responsibility. It behooves the State to 
 decide what the people are entitled to in return for 
 all they have conceded to tlu'se companies, and to 
 enforce such cl.-iims. 
 
 ' FijVi. The En;4lisli Parliament leunslated on the 
 (piestion of the luunber of h<uirs a w<irkini;man 
 should labor. It limits them to so many. It Ici^islales 
 for his health and sujiply of lii;ht and water. In all 
 these matters the caiiitalist has an interest. (He 
 docs as much for his horse.) Hut when it comes to 
 the question of a proper amount of food and clotli- 
 inir, of warmth and shelter, the sovernment declines 
 to interfere. It leaves the (|uestion of fair wattes to 
 lie adjusled between employer and employed.'' 
 
 Commenting u|)(m these articles. 7'/ir I'liibiililphin 
 Villus pertinently said: "The chief importance of 
 these two articles lies in the fact that they are writ- 
 ten by men who represent what are supposed to be 
 the two most opposite views of the labor <|ueslion. 
 One is the leading railroad nnm of the country, the 
 head of the great corporation which had to stand 
 the brunt of the recent outbreak of violence. The 
 other, though unknown to fame, is evidently a fair 
 representative of the restless, discontented spirit 
 that actuated that outbreak, and though he cautiou.s 
 
 presents, nl the editor's requcHl, Pome practical 
 thoughts Kiiggi'ftled by his own obHervulion and ex- 
 perii-nce during the rei'ent troubles, uiirl lliese very 
 nulurallv rilale to the preservulion of order and the 
 prevention of riolouH oiitbreakM, rather (ban lo tin; 
 causes of remedies of any e.icistiiig trouble. The 
 ' striker,' on the oihr-r hand, has nothing to say or to 
 suggest except that nun areenlillid to • fair wiiges,' 
 and if the capitalist attempt to 'gamble with tho 
 breail of the workingnian,' he must ' regard where 
 that speculation led Krance one hundred yearH ago.' 
 Unfortunately the capitalist, as the railroad man for 
 example, has had loo niiicli reason lately lo 'regard' 
 this piece of history , which he has seen repealing itBtlf 
 under his own eyes, and it is a lillle disappoinlinir to 
 find that our representative strikiT has no very defi- 
 nite suggestions to olfir as lo how ' fair wages' are 
 to li" .secureil at a time when capital is making no 
 profit at all." 
 
 Mr. Scott's reflectionH upon the gtrikcH arPHuchaH 
 would be natural lo any man who had been com- 
 pelled to sil still and see the properly under his 
 charge destroyi'd in the absence of any adequate 
 ])Owcr to protect it ; who had wilnesseil the failure 
 of the local and even of the Stale aiilliorities, and the 
 faliil delays of a system that was never designed for 
 such an emergency, and who felt Ihe interests in- 
 trusted to him secure only when the strong arm of 
 the Federal government was at last stretched out Ir) 
 l)roteet them. Naturally and justifiably. Mr. Scott 
 would strengthen those defences of law and order 
 whi<li his own experience has found most trust- 
 worthy. He woidii rely upon the Federal power to 
 protect the commerce between the Stales, and would 
 provide for the prompt and speedy exercise of this 
 power in every great emergency. AVe doubt if the 
 country will follow him in this, or be willinji; to re- 
 lieve the local authorities from the responsibility for 
 the protection of property and the preservation of 
 order within their jurisdiction. 
 
 There is one thing, however, in Mr. Scolt's paper 
 which all classes will readily recognize, sind tliat is 
 the entire contidence which he displays in the honor 
 and intelligence of American workingmen and his 
 practical belief in the community of interest between 
 employers and employed. -\ railroad presiilent re- 
 presents both the owners and operators of the road, 
 and it concerns the one class quite as much as the 
 other that the business of Ihe road shall be .safely 
 carried on. It is probable that he would not even 
 dissent from the 'striker's' propos-tion. that when 
 it comes to a question of which shall siifTer in mo- 
 ments of general distress the demands of labor come 
 first, since this has been practically acknowledged 
 by everybody, and countless capitalists have done 
 withoul their earnings within the last year that la- 
 borers might have bread. So. too, with the only 
 I)ractical suggestion which the -V</r<A Americaii'n 
 'striker' lias to make, that workingmen.if they arc to 
 be subject to under wages in bad '.inies. should have 
 the equivalent of over wages in good times, since 
 that is also generally acknowledged and in a limited 
 sense has been generally acted cm. If any system of di- 
 viding a proportion of Ihe jirotits among employes 
 would secure contentnu'ut and universal happiness, 
 there is little doubt that em plovers would gladly adf>])t 
 It and would find it profitalile : only such a system is 
 much more easily suggested than fully elaborated 
 and carried into elTecl. The first thing that we 
 need is to learn to discuss these subjects temperate- 
 ly, and in a spirit of mutual trust, and it is a good 
 ign that tlie mosi conservative and eminently re- 
 spectable periodical in the countrj- has undertaken 
 to direct the discussion into a profilable channel. It 
 may be only an acci<ient that the representative em- 
 
 ly deprecates a resort to violence be leaves no doubt ployer approaches the subject in a more catholic 
 as to where his sympathies were. And yet neither spirit than the representative striker, but itshowsat 
 of these representative men really discusses the ques- least that the leading men of the country are willing 
 tlons involved with any thoroughness. Mr. Scott, to meet the issues of the day and anxious to solve 
 indeed, makes no pretence of doing so. He merely . them for the good of all alike."
 
 RIOT. 
 
 712 
 
 BIOT. 
 
 While the troubles we have detailed were in pro- 
 gress in the Slate of New York, many other States 
 and localities tliroughout the United States were 
 already or rapidly becoming involved in disturbances 
 in many eases more violent and deplorable. About 
 the middle of July, 1877, the Baltimore & Ohio 
 Railroad Company made a reduction of ten per cent, 
 in the pa^- of its employes. The pay of all the em- 
 ployed, of whatever grade, was equally diminished, 
 no invidious distinctions being made. All accepted 
 the change quietly except the firemen and the men 
 who run the freight trains. The lirst-class firemen 
 on this road had been receiving #1.75 per daj'; the 
 reduction brought their wages to $1.58. The firemen 
 of the second class were reduced from ijil..50 to f 1.35 
 per day. These men refused to accept the reduction, 
 and stopped work. As soon as, tliis became known, 
 numerous applications were made to the company, 
 by men out of work, for employment in the places 
 of the men wlio had •' struck." The company, hav- 
 ing the large unemployed class along its line to 
 clioose from, had no difliculty in filling the places of 
 the strikers, generally with experienced firemen who 
 were eagerly seeking employment. Here the matter 
 raiglit have rested had tlie sober good sense; of the 
 strikers come to their aid. They had refused to work 
 for the wages offered by the Baltimore & Ohio Com- 
 pany, and had abandoned their post. In so doing 
 they had exercised an undisputed right. Having 
 left" the service of the company, they should have 
 recognised the fact that they had no longer any in- 
 terest in its action, and should have sought employ- 
 ment elsewliere. Unfortunately for themselves and 
 for the whole country they chose a different line of 
 conduct, and one winch changed the sympathy whicli 
 the country had felt for them in their privations to 
 the sternest condenmation of tlieir lawlessness. The 
 leaders of the strikers now resolved to compel the 
 railroad company to recall the order for the reduc- 
 tion of wages. T'iiey believed that they could accom- 
 plish this by taking forcilile possession of the road at 
 certain points, and preventing the passage of all 
 freight trains until the company should be driven, 
 by the lo.ss of its liusiness. into an acceptance of 
 their demand for a return to the old wages. They 
 did not seem to be aware that by seizing the prop- 
 erty of their late employers, and stopping the busi- 
 ness of the road, they were assuming the character 
 of criminals and committing offenses against the 
 laws of the land of so grave a naturethattlie author- 
 ities would be compelled to crush them by force. 
 
 On the morning of the 16th of July, about forty 
 firemen and brakemen of freight trains on the Bal- 
 timore & Oliio Kailroad.in Baltimore, refused to ac- 
 <,ept the reduction in their wages, which was to go 
 mto effect that day, and stopped work. The strikers 
 assembled at Camden Junction, about three miles 
 from Baltimore, and stopped a freight train, per- 
 suading the fireman to leave liis engine, and refu.s- 
 ing to alhiw another to take his place. At the re- 
 qiie.st of the railroad otlicials, the city authorities 
 sent a police force to the spot and dispersed the 
 strikers. The trains were then run during the day 
 without further delay. This, however, was but the 
 beginning of the trouble. The news spread rapidly 
 along the road, ami the disalTeclion soon ri'achcd 
 .Mariinsburg. in West Virginiii, ('Mmlierland. in .Ma- 
 ryland, and Kcyser, (irafton. and Wliecling, in West 
 Virginia, the most iniixirtant i)iiints on the line of 
 the road, the lai t named place being its western 
 terminus. At Martinsburg tlie ]5altimore it Oliio 
 Company liave large shops, and there is always a 
 large concentration of the rolling stock and em- 
 ployes of the road there. As soon as the news was 
 received from Baltimore the firemen ami the brake 
 men stop])i'd worli and tookjiart in the strike. They 
 numbered about one hundred men. They assenilil- 
 ed about thi' depot, .seized tlie roail and the engines, 
 and compi'lled the men who were willing to work 
 to leave their places. No frclirht trains were allow. 
 
 ed by the strikers to mo"e either way, and all ar- 
 
 ' riving at Martinsburg were compelled to halt; the 
 engines were uncoui)led and run on to the side 
 tracks, and the firemen and train hands joined the 
 strikers. The railroad officials, finding themselves 
 powerless, applied to the Mayor and city authorities 
 for protection. Tlie strikers were ordered Ijy the 
 Maj-oi' to disperse and cease their unlawful interfer- 
 ence with tlie property of the railroad company, but 
 refused to obey the command, which the ottieials 
 were unable to enforce. 
 
 The Governor of West Virginia called for assist-' 
 ance, and the President directed the Secretary of 
 War to send a sufficient force at once to Martins- 
 burg. At the same time he issued the following pro- 
 clamation to the rioters: W^eredK. It is provided in 
 tlie Constitution of the United States that the United 
 States shall protect every State in this Union on ap- 
 plication of the Legislature, or of the Executive when 
 the Legislature cannot be convened, against domes- 
 tic violence; and W/iemiJi. The Governor of the 
 State of West Virginia has represented that domes- 
 tic violence exists in said State at Martinsburg, and 
 at various other points along the line of the Balti- 
 more & Ohio Railroad, in .said State, which the au- 
 thorities of said State are unable to suppress; and, 
 W/ierefi-1. By laws in jiursnance of the above it is pro- 
 vided (in tlie laws of the United States) that in all 
 cases of insurrection in any State, or of obstruction 
 to the laws thereof, it shall be lawful for the Presi- 
 dent of the United States, on application of the Leg- 
 islature of such State, or of the Executive when the 
 Legislature cannot be convened, to call forth the 
 miHtia of any other State or States or to employ such 
 ]iart of the laud and naval force as may be necessary 
 for the purpose of suppressing such insurrection or 
 causing the laws to be duly executed; and, W/ierr- 
 (1,1. The Legislature of said State is not now in session 
 and cannot be convened in time to meet the present 
 emergency; and the Executive of said State, under 
 section 4 of Article IV. of the Constitution of the 
 United States and the laws passed in pursuance 
 thereof, has made application to me in the premises 
 for sncli iiart of the military force of the United 
 States as may be necessary and adequate to protect 
 said State and the citizens thereof against domestic 
 violence, and to enforce the due execution of the 
 laws; and, W/itreax. It is required that whenever it 
 may be necessary in the judgment of the President to 
 use the military force for the jiurpose aforesaid, he 
 shiill forthwith, by proclamation, command such in- 
 surgents to disperse and retire peaceably to their re- 
 spective homes within a limited time: Now. there- 
 fore, I, Rutherford B. Ilayes, President of the L'nit- 
 ed States, do hereb}' make proclamation and com- 
 mand all persons engaged in said unlawful and in- 
 surrectionary proceedings to disperse and retire 
 peaceably to tlieir respective abodes on or before 
 twelve o'clock noon on the 19th day of July instant, 
 and hereafter abandon said- combinations and sub- 
 mit themselves to the laws and constituted authori- 
 ties of said State, and I invoke the aid and co-opera- 
 tion of all good citizens thereof to uphold the laws 
 and jireservethe public peace. In witness whereof, 
 I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of 
 the United States to be allixed. 
 
 Disall'ection coniiniu'd to spread along the road. 
 The p;issenger and nuiil lr;uiis had not been interfer- 
 <'d with thus f:ir. but the strikers iit Cumberland, 
 Keyser, (Jrafton, and other points, were firm in their 
 iletermination that no freight trains should be run. At 
 Keyser, on tlie night of the l'.lth,;i meeting of work- 
 men was held, at which the following resolutions 
 were adopted ; liinolcid, Tli;it we, the men of the 
 Third Division, will aliiile by the decision of our 
 hrolliiT divisions in regard to wages in the future, 
 ;ind that \vi' will slay by them in the present trouble 
 until such decision is arriveil at. as we have been 
 oppressed by our superior oflicers beyond endur- 
 ance. Hi'xiiUeii. That we, the men of I hi' Tliinl I)i-
 
 BIOT. 
 
 71» 
 
 HIOT 
 
 viHioii, Imvi' Ki)l)fr!v iind riilnily c'lnHidcrcd the step | (lie (tdvcnmr of I'cnnHvlviiniii omiBcd ihr fullowine 
 we Imvc taken, iiiiit ilicliirc thill 111 llic [iriscnl Htuti' tclc;;rHiii Id hi- fiirwiirdrd from IlurrixhiirK to the 
 of waives which the (M)iii|iaiiy have iiiipo.icd upon us, i I'rcsiihiil of the- I'liilcd .SIuIch ; 
 
 we caiiiiot live and provide our wivis and children OoincHlic vioh-iicee.xislH witliin theBtatv of Pcmi- 
 wilh Die iiece.ssaries of life, and Ihal wc- only ask for ! sylvania in the Cily of J'itlhhiir^rh and uloni; the liui- 
 waives Dial will inal)le lis lo provide such ni'f;eHsa- 1 of llii' I'ennsylvania Kaiiroad. iinri oilier ruilrourlH in 
 ries. AV.wfew/, That wc uphold the other diviHJonH H«id .Stale, which the aiilhoriliis are unable to Hiip. 
 in llie step they have taken in regard to the prcHcnt pri'SH.aml Ihe /.ejiislalure of i'eniihylvania cannot In- 
 fouhle. convened in lime lo nieel the emerjjency, I have. 
 
 At ('iiiiiljcrlaiid iiiallers were especially had. There, therefore, to retpiest that in conformity to the Cau- 
 as at Ihe oilier poiiilsoii the line, Ihe orijrinal strikers sliliition the government of thi' I'niled Slates shall 
 had lieeii joined liy lari^i^ nuniliirs of idle anddisrep- furnish me with mililary forie suMlcient tOHiipprenR 
 utalile persons, who were iittracled liy the hope of disorder, and to protect 'lersoiis and nrooertv airuinHt 
 
 .1.... 'PI 1. tl ,:, 1 i'...l.i .1... .1 . .1 ;-. ..:.!...... ' "^ * 
 
 plunder. The iiioli, thus coiistiliited, held the de|iot 
 and yards and set the cily authorities at dcliiiiice. As 
 the trains siiit out from .Marliiishiirjr reached {'uni- 
 berland, tlii^y were stopped hj' the rioters, and the 
 engineers and liremen were fon^'d lo aliandon their 
 
 domestic violence. 
 
 Tlie President at once complied with tliiK demand, 
 anil issued the following proclamation : 
 
 WlurmH, It is provideil in the Constilulion of the 
 United States thai the United Slates shall protect 
 
 posts. Thus the blockade, which had been broken every Stale in this Union on application of the I.ejrii)- 
 at Martinsbiire; by Ihe Federal troops, was establish- i lature, or of the K.\ecntive when the Lepislalure can- 
 
 ed with e,|uiil rin'or at ('uiiiberliimi. .\t \\'lieelinf.', 
 the western terniiniis of the main line of the Haiti- 
 more it Ohio l{ailriiail,llie excilcinenl was very ijreat. 
 The men employed there stopped work, and joined 
 in the striki', but iitteiiipted no violence. The com- 
 pany attempted lo till the places of the strikers with 
 a jiarly of men from Sleubenville. Ohio, but the new 
 comers were warned olV by the strikers, who threat- 
 ened them with assassination if they went lo work. 
 The state of affairs aliiiiir the line of the lialtimoreA 
 Ohio liailroad had now become .^o IhreatcninL' that 
 the force of regulars was largely augmented. The 
 
 not be convened against domestic violence ; and, 
 Wliirt'dx, The (iovernorof Ihe.Stale of I'ennsylvaniu 
 has represented that domestic violence e.xislsin said 
 Stale which Iheaulliorilies of said State are unable to 
 suppress: and. WIiii-kik, the laws of the United Slates 
 reiiuire that in all r-ases of insurrection in any Slate, 
 or of obslruclion lotlie laws thereof, whenever in the 
 judgmentof the I'residenl it becomes necessary to use 
 the military forces to suppress such insnrreelion or 
 olistructit.n lo Ihe laws he shall forlliwith by procla- 
 mation cniiiiiiaiid such insurgents to disperse and re- 
 tire peaceablv lo their respective abodes within a lim- 
 
 troublcs continued to increase, and brought on the ited time : l^ow, thirefore. I. Hulherford B. Ilaye.s, 
 Baltimore riots. | President of the United Stales, do hereby admonish 
 
 One of the Halt-more papers, cfimnienting u|)oii the i all good citizens of Ihe United Slates and all persons 
 character of tlie mob in that city, said; "The num- within the terrilory and jurisdiction of the United 
 ber of railroad cruployes engagi-d in the rioting here Slates against aid ing.countenancins:, abetting, ortak- 
 has from the lirst not exceeded ITiO; liul at the outset ing part in such unlawful jiroceedings, and 1 do here- 
 of the affair they were joined by thousands of labor- j by warn all persons engaged in or connected with the 
 ers and mechanics out of employiiieiil, and by llic ' said domestic violence and obstriK-tion of the laws 
 entire criminal masses of the city, eager foran occa- to disperse and retire peaceably to their respective 
 
 sion to plunder. A large number of men besides 
 these,in various occupations, who have suffered a re- 
 duction of wages of late, are in a sullen temper with 
 their emjiloyers and with cji))italists generally. They 
 imagini' that they have been wronged, and weleonie 
 what they lliink is an atlenipt of the railroad men to 
 right a similar wrong. Some have actively aided tlic 
 rioters, and nearly all have fermented the movement 
 by reckless and iiitlaminatory talk. The commiinistic 
 ciiaracter of the riots is shown by every incident. 
 The mob which assailed the 6th Regiment. Friday 
 night, was not composed of railroad men, but was 
 a niiscellancous assemlilage of laborers. The crowd 
 Unit stoned the United States troops to-day probably 
 I'.ad not a single striker in its mi.lsl. So of the gangs 
 gathered up by tiie police in the nunienms combats 
 around t'anulen station last night. Some were thieves 
 
 aliodes on or before twelve o'clock noon on the 24th 
 day of July instant. In testimony whereof, I have 
 hereunto set my lianil and caused the .seal of the Unit- 
 ed Slates lo be affixed. 
 
 At the same lime I'residenl Hayes ordered General 
 Hancock tojiroceed lo Philadelphia with such troops 
 as could be spared from Baltimore, and orders were 
 despatched to the Kaslern posts to reinforce General 
 Hancock at Philadelphia with everj- available man. 
 < )n the same day orders were issued" by the Governor 
 of Pennsylvania placing the entire militia force of the 
 State under arms. In the meantime the strike spread 
 rapidly alonir the line of the Pennsylvania Railroad, 
 from Pillsburgh eastward. At eleven o'clock on 
 Saturday, .luly 21sl, Ihe train men of Ihe Pennsylva- 
 nia Uailroad at Altoona struck, and taking posses- 
 sion of the road and shops at that point, refused to 
 and rowdies, and others were workingmen, usually '' allow the passage of freight trains. They were join- 
 well-behaved, but now crazed by Ihe excitement of ed by a large number of tramps and loafers from the 
 
 the outbreak. It is a notable fact that most of Ihe 
 men who yelled " bread" in the. crowd that surged 
 against the lines of tlie |iolice and the soldiers last 
 night had evidently money enough to buy whiskey, 
 for they were half-drunk. Some of the strikers af- 
 firm that they and their friends were taking no part 
 in the lawless acts, and that the movement has pass- 
 ed altogether out of their hands. The prejudice 
 against the Baltimore & Ohio railroad among the 
 working classes, and to some extent among people 
 in Ihe Iiisrher walks of life. furnished at the beginning 
 a strong fund of symiialliy to sustaiii the strike. It 
 was currently believed that the policy of the compa- 
 ny has been to starve its men in order lo keep up its 
 ten per cent, dividends. There is no doubt that this 
 prejudice was Ihe real tiasis of the oulbreak. Des- 
 |)erate men took advantage of it to defy Ihe law, re- 
 iyini; upon popular support." 
 
 The troubles were not lo be confined to the States 
 of iMarylaud and West Virginia. About this time 
 
 city, and towards nightfall numbered .several thou- 
 sand men. No disturbance was attempted on Satur- 
 day. On Sunday the 22d, the news from Pillsburgh 
 was received and created great excitement. The 
 rioters declared that no more troops should pass Al- 
 toona on their way to Pittsburgh: and when it wa,s 
 announced, early on Sunday morning, that a lietach- 
 ment of 2.')0 men under Generals Beaver and Lyie. 
 were ncaring the city, the strikers prepared to slop 
 them 
 
 The train bearing the troops entered Altoona slow- 
 ly and cautiously. .\.s it reached Ihe depot the en- 
 gine was taken off. in order that a heavier ensine 
 might be connected with the train for the purpose 
 of taking it over the mountain west of Altoona. "The 
 mountain engine was backed out of the roundhouse, 
 but as it appeared, the rioters, who had surrounded 
 the depot to the number of at least 3,000 men. and 
 who were terrilily excited, took possession of the 
 engine and riiurr-d ii lo tlic round bouse. General
 
 EIOT. 
 
 714 
 
 RIOT. 
 
 Beaver tlien ordered his men to march down and 
 bring; the engine out agiain. tmt iijion rearliinm the 
 round liouse tliey were surr.iuiuli-d liy tlic mob, and 
 finally surrendered tlieir arms. Israel ically,t lien, Gen- 
 eral Beaver was left without any command, e.\cept 
 the men under General Lvle and Colonel fSnowden, 
 about 100 all told, and ali Pliiladelphiaus. Tiicse 
 troops remained at the depot in a broilinii' sun for 
 an hour and a half, and were then ordered down the 
 track to break into tlie round house in order to get 
 the motive power to take the train over the mount- 
 ains. The mob had increased by this time to fully 
 5,000 excited and violent men. Tliis round house is 
 situated on the side of a cut, and between two liridges 
 which x^ross the road. The troops passed under the 
 western bridge, eastward from the round house, the 
 hillside on the right being dense with rioters, the 
 houses on the left being occupied liy strikers, and a 
 mob tilling the two bridges. The men were armed, 
 some with the muskets surrendered Uy the Clearfield 
 militia. About twenty of the strikers were guarding 
 tlie gate of the round house, antl when the troops 
 had been marched up prepared to force the gate, the 
 mob showered upon them every vile epithet, threat, 
 and insult that could be invented, and gave them 
 every reason to apprehentl that anj' attempt to open 
 the gate by them would be the signal for an instan- 
 taneous and terrible assault. 
 
 The rioters crowdeil up against the troops, stand- 
 ing shoulder to shoulder with them, shaking their 
 tists in the faces of the men, and throwing stones, 
 some of which wounded a number of the W eccacoe 
 Legion. The rioters — those who were armed — stood 
 with vin<lictive looks, their right hands resting upon 
 their hips or thrust in their breasts, as if ])repareil to 
 shoot at the slightest provocation, ifaving received 
 information that the piston-rod of the locomotive 
 liad been removed, and the tires drawn from the 
 furnace, it was concluded not to essay the eft'ort of 
 taking out an engine; that was useless, and to incur 
 a foolish sacrifice of life. The troops would have 
 been at a great disadvantage, and had a conflict 
 taken place, would have been severely handled. 
 They withdrew from the vicinity of the round house 
 when the condition of the locomotive was ascer- 
 tained. 
 
 A body of strikers then offered the troops a spe- 
 cial train to the east, if they would promisi' to leave. 
 This was declined, however. Colonel Snowden find- 
 ing, upon inquiry, that it was impossible to go west 
 on account of obstructions to the road and inability 
 to secure an engine, determined upon a feint, b}' 
 going east, as if to Philadelphia, and upon reaching 
 Huntingdon to go south and endeavor to make Pitts- 
 burgh from that direction, or await the arrival of 
 reinforcements. Upon nearing Huntingdon. Colonel 
 Snowden received a dispatch stating that llie rioters 
 had assembled there in force, and that tlie train on 
 the road to Bedford had been overturncnl and the 
 road completely blockaded. 
 
 Colonel Snowden llien telegraphed to the superin- 
 tendent of the Harrisburg division whether the troop 
 could get to that city, and flie reply came that trans- 
 portation could not be furnished to that point on 
 account of the condition of Ihe mob assembled in 
 the depot, and determined not to allow the troop to 
 return. This mob. he was assured, numbered M.lHll) 
 strong, and was vowing revenge against the troops, 
 because, as was reported, they believed I hem all 
 pe('uniarily interested in the Pennsylvania Railroad. 
 In order to avoid any deslriiction to railroad pro])- 
 erty, which the superintendent thought would sure- 
 ly ensiii' if the troops came to Ihe city, lie refused (o 
 give thein transportation. The (•omniand then tra- 
 veled east, and (Iroppedoff at Bailey's Stalion. about 
 twenty-tliree miles west of tlie State capital, and 
 waited there for the 7.-'iO accommodation train (,Mon 
 day morning) to proceed to Kockville. On the train 
 they were joined by a number of (ienera! I.yle's men. 
 who had returned from .Vltooiia. the General remain- 
 
 ing at that place, where lie was ordered to await 
 further orders. It woiil'' have been perfect folly 
 for the troops to remain at that place a moment 
 later than they did, owing to the inilamed ccmdition 
 of the strikers. It was upon a calm review of the 
 situation that Colonel Snowden took the responsi- 
 bility of coming eastward, after all his efforts to get 
 to Pittsburgh had failed. 
 
 At Bailey's Station the men had no breakfast, and 
 were in poor condition when they got to Kockville. 
 Here the Philadelphia troops sejiarated from the 
 other soldiers on the train, and marching down tiie 
 track, apparently making for the Harrisburg depot, 
 but after tramjiing for a mile or so. they took the 
 road to Englestown. It was necessary to keep the 
 purpose of this movement a secret, even from the 
 
 ' other soldiers who had determined to go direct to 
 town. Some of the rioters soon learned that these 
 troops had left the track, and it was surmised they 
 had taken Ihe Northern Central road, and were go- 
 ing by the city in that direction, and endeavored to 
 intercept them. 
 
 The other troops took the track, and were cap. 
 tured. as we shall see farther on. In the meantime, 
 however. Colonel Snowden, with all his men, and 
 all their accoutrements and clothing, even to their 
 heavy overcoats, took the Englestown road, and 
 made a long circuit of about twelve miles to Pro- 
 gress, a village about two miles northeast of Harris- 
 burg, and thence in a direct line marched to the 
 State arsenal, thus completely deceiving the rioters, 
 who had formed their plans with great care to cap- 
 ture the troops. who executed their movement with- 
 
 I out the loss of a single article belonging to the com- 
 mand, and reached the arsenal about lave o'clock on 
 Monday afternoon. From this time until the ar- 
 rival of the Governor and the State forces, on their 
 way to Pittsburgh, the situation at Altoona remained 
 imehanged. The rioters held possession of the road, 
 allowing no freight trains to pass, but making no 
 effort to interfere with the passenger trains. The 
 strikers at Harrisburg began their operations on the 
 morning of Sunday. July 2yd. About ten o'clock 
 several railroaders, encouraged by a large number 
 of persons. went to the locomotives of several freight 
 trains, and demanded that the engineers and firemen 
 should leave their engines. The demand was readily 
 complied with, and as the railroad men descended 
 from their engines they were greeted with loud 
 cheers from their friends. There had been indications 
 on Saturday night of a strike along the middle div- 
 ision, but tlie railroad authorities were unwilling to 
 believe that trouble w-ould take place. The inter- 
 ference with a freight train and the hooting and 
 stoning out of soldiers who passed through for Pitts- 
 burgh from Philadelphia were attributed to irre- 
 sponsible outsiders by them, but all their hopes were 
 dispelled on Sunday morning at ten o'clock, when, 
 at the command of several apparent strangers, the 
 engineers and firemen of several freight trains de- 
 scended from their locomotives after having housed 
 them. All the freight trains were deserted. The 
 round houses in the ujjper portion of the city con- 
 tained about forty locomotives, and over twelve hun- 
 dred ears were standing on the sidings in the .same 
 vicinily. The strike was general on Ihe middh' divi- 
 sion, between twelve and fifteen liuiidred being af- 
 fected by it. Of these four or five hundred were 
 employed in Harrisburg, most of them in the Penn- 
 sylvania round houses. A crowd collected at the 
 Pennsylvania depot early on Sunday morning, and 
 by two o'clock in the afternoon it had swollen to 
 several thousands. Many of I hem congregated out 
 of idle curiosity, but a consideralile number were iit- 
 tracted by a determiiiatioii to iiilerfere with tliejiass- 
 age through the city uf several hundred I'liihidelpliia 
 soldiers destined for I'iltsburgli. It wasalso hcljeved 
 that among tlu' military would be several companies 
 of negroes, and ag.'iinst them numerous dire threats 
 were made. The aiiinniiiil ion for the exjiected
 
 BIOT. 
 
 RIOT. 
 
 while Iroops liiiil ticon jjol in niidiiicst iit the Sliilc 
 iirsi'iiitl. lull it wiiM (Icciiicd pniiicril, conHidcriu); llic 
 cxriiciiiciil at AllDoiia imil in llic cily. lo coiiiilcr- 
 iiumil llic iirilir. ami llir aiiiiiiiiriilidii wan rcliirnrd 
 lo tlic urwcnai. Had any of llic iiiilllary arrived, il 
 is liiiilily proliahlc tliey would liave encoiintered 
 consideratiiedilticully in passinnlliroiiifli tin- <-ily. llic 
 ringleaders in the strilic havinj^exprcHsed dclertninu- 
 (ion lo throw all possihlc obstacles in their way. 
 
 .V riicctin;; of llirce or four thousand peopli-. many 
 of llicMi railroaders, was addressed on a eoniiiion. a 
 ' few liundrcd yards iihovi' the depot, liy a man named 
 Torhelt, who juslilicd Ihe strikers in llicir course 
 and predicted llieir triumpliaiil sucicss. |[c coun- 
 selled them not to destroy railroad or otherproperly. 
 lie intimated Ihat if atlal'kcd liy troops lliey hada 
 perfect ri^'lil, in self-defence, lo strike back, as their 
 brethren bail done in Ihe affray at Pillsbiirjrh. Tor- 
 bett spoke from Ihe lop of a box-cur, and when he 
 referrcil to the niililary he was loudly cheered. .\f- 
 ter the incelini; the crowd surged toward the depot. 
 About eijiht o'clock the day express east, detained 
 nearly live hours by the car tire at I'iltsburgh, ar- 
 rived. 
 
 The crowd sialhered about the train, and .several 
 persons detaciied the eni;ine several limes, when the 
 railroiul officials ordered the cni;iiie to be taken to 
 the round house. 'I'lic passeni;ers were compelled to 
 lie.overat Harrisburir. Dnthe Irain were about a doz- 
 en soldiers, who had ujrown tired of the service w liich 
 they had rendered at Altoona. (Juite a number of 
 them were sick ; and one of them, named IJallen5rer,a 
 perfumer, of I^liiladelpliia. who hail been siinstruck, 
 was taken to Ihe llarrisbiirg hospital for treat- 
 ment. 
 
 The principal arsenal of the .State of Pennsylvania, 
 eontainiii!; a larire supply of arms anil ammunition 
 of all kinds, is located al Ilarrisbursr. The ammuni- 
 tion for the troops <alleil into service ijy the (Jov- 
 enior was beini; prei)ared there. In view of the 
 threatening condition of affairs, it was deemed best 
 to station a sruard of city troops at the arsenal. 
 This was done on Sunday, ami the force was increased 
 durins the next day or two as rapidly as possible. 
 liy direction of the Slate authorilies seven cannon. 
 occupying a position in the Capitol grounds, were 
 spiked, on Siniday afternoon, as a precautionary 
 measure 
 
 During the day the Mayor of Harrisburg issued a 
 proclaraatinn. calling upon Ihe people to desist from 
 gathering in crowds on the streets, and to remain 
 (luiet until an amicable settlement of the troubles 
 could be liad . ami requested Ihe saloon-keepers to 
 olose their houses during the excileinenl. The pro- 
 clamation was unheeded, and Ihe Mayor attempted 
 to address the mob later in the day, at Ihe depot, he 
 was rudely hustled aside. During Sunday and Jlon- 
 day the rioters had everything their own way at Har- 
 risburg. The police force of that city numbered 
 twenty men, and was too small lo offer the .slightest 
 resistance to the mob. Xo violence was done by 
 the strikers lo properly, because no resistance was 
 offered to the will of the mob. The railroad offi- 
 cials promptly withdrew their trains where opposi- 
 tion to their running was displayed by the mob, and 
 no effort was made to risk the company's property. 
 The workmen in several of the large industrial es- 
 tablishments in Ihe city stoi)peil work and joined 
 th<^ strikers, who were also reinforced largely by 
 Ihe roughs and disreputable classes of the town. 
 During the nighl in iitempt was made to throw a 
 train from the track as it was coming into Harris- 
 burg by the Reading Hailroad, with several com- , 
 panics of State troops, but the effort very fortunately 
 failed. ■ I 
 
 On the 'i'2(]. the train men at Columbia. 103 miles 
 west of Philadelphia, and an important point on Ihe 
 eastern division of the IVnnsylvania road, joined the 
 strike. All engines were housetl.and no freight trains 
 were permitted to move cither way. During the day 
 
 several atleiiiplH were made to gel engincK out of the 
 round lioiiHc, of which Ihe slrikerH held pOHHcMKion. 
 but Ihe rioters boarded Ihe enginei-. ordered the I'n- 
 gineers and llremen off, and ran the locomotives back 
 iiilo the liousi'. The excilenient wa" very great and 
 increased daily. Ihe strikers, as ii^ual, being joined by 
 all the disreputable and danirerouH charaiiers of the 
 place. On Ihe afternoon of llie 24lh the rioters com- 
 pelled a force of track men to suspend work, taking 
 their picks and shovels from Iliem, and inurcliing tliem 
 inio Ihe town like- prisoners. They rleclared that if 
 I hey were; inlerfe.-ed wilh, or if Iroops were sent lo 
 Columbia, Ihey would lire Ihe railroad buildings anil 
 trains. The authorilies were powerless to deal with 
 the trouble, and no effort was made lo diH|>erse llie 
 riolers,w ho remained in possession of the coinpany'H 
 property iinlil I he appearance of the (lovirnor bucked 
 by a strong military force, induced Iheni to cease 
 their violence and reliirn lo their diily. Philadelpliiu, 
 as has been said, is one of Ihe most Importjinl poinls 
 on the Pennsylvania Kuilroud. It is also Ihe second 
 cily of the I'nion, with respect to poi>nlution, and 
 the chief maniifacluriiu; cily of the new world. .Sev- 
 eral lines of railroad center lliere, and thousands of 
 workingmen lind employment in the various induH- 
 trial estublishmenls. Like all large r-ilies Philudel- 
 phiu contains a large class of vui;ruiils anil criniinuls, 
 who would he exceedingly Iroublesome to manage in 
 case of a riot of any degree of iniporlance. Il was 
 certain that Ihe strike on the Pennsylvania Kuilroud 
 would extend to Philadelphia, and liy no means sure 
 that the employes of the other roads entering llie 
 cily would not follow the example of the I'ennsyl- 
 vania men. It was therefore of the highest import- 
 ance that measures should be taken at once lo pre- 
 vent the strike from assuming Ihe character of a riot. 
 .\s has been related, the President of Ihe Pennsyl- 
 vania Hailroad. promptly called upon the city authori- 
 ties for prolcclion for Ihe company's property in the 
 city of Philadelphia, and the .Mayor responded to Ihis 
 request by detailing a force of LIO policemen, for 
 duly in the vicinity of the depot and yards of the 
 Pennsylvania Company at West Philadelphia. The 
 cily military comjianies were sent to Pittsburgh on 
 Friday, llie 201b, and from Ihat time the duly of pro- 
 tecting all the vast interests aKslake in Philadelphia 
 devolved upon the flavor and police force. 
 
 Philadelphia was profoundly excileil by the lews 
 from Pittsburg on the "iid. Until a late hour of the 
 night, the streets were thronged with persons eager 
 to learn the news from the scene of trouble. For the 
 tirst time since the close of the civil war, the after- 
 noon papers issued Sunday editions, wliiili were 
 quickly bought up, and read with the most painful 
 interest. It was understood that Ihe train men at 
 the West Philadelphia yards would join in the stri- 
 ke, and there was a very general fear on the part of 
 Ihe citizens that the strikers would be thrown aside. 
 as they had been at Pittsburgh, by the mob. and that 
 Philadelphia might be the scene of a terrible out- 
 break. Such, indeed, would have been the case but 
 for the ailmirable conduct of the Mayor and his sub- 
 ordinates, and the gallantry of the police force. 
 
 Upon the receii)t of the news of the fighting and 
 conliagration at Pittsburgh, the Mayor, who had 
 established his head-quarfers at the West Philaael- 
 phia depot, issued the following proclamation to the 
 peojile of Philadelphia : 
 
 11 /i(/¥'M, Violence, tumult, and riot exist iu vari- 
 ous portions of this Commonwealth, to the great 
 injury of domestic industry and trade, and to the 
 discredit of the fair name anil fame of American 
 institutions and her form of government, the perfec- 
 ticm of which we last year celebnited in this the city 
 of the Republic's birtli; and, M'/irrr'in. It is i..f the 
 highest importance Ihat the great name which Phil- 
 adelphia has made for herself amoai; Ihe nations of 
 the earth during the Centennial year shall Ik- pre- 
 served, and that she shall be spared the horrible 
 scenes enacted in our sister cities : Now, therefore.
 
 HIOT. 
 
 716 
 
 EIOT. 
 
 I, William S. Stokley, in the uanif of the Cdraniou- 
 wealth of Pennsylvania, and bj- virtue of the autho- 
 rity vested in me by law, do appeal to all citizens. 
 of ever_y occupation and calling, to render it unneces- 
 sary that, in the performance of my duty, I should 
 be called upon to suppress outbreak and violence, 
 which I assuredl}' will do if the occasion requires it, 
 and hand over the offenders to condijrn punislmu-nt. 
 And I make this appeal in the firm belief that the 
 citizens of Philadelphia appreciate, as I do, the im- 
 portance of maintaining peace and good-will among 
 all classes of society, and I hereby pledge myself to 
 give a patient hearing, and to do impartial justice, 
 as I best know how. to all persons who desire it. Let 
 all the people resume and continue their lawful oc- 
 cupations, and avoid assembling and organizing 
 together for discussion or otherwise at the present 
 time. This is the surest and best means of preserv- 
 ing the honor and fair name of the City of Brotherly 
 Love. 
 
 The Pennsylvania Railroad was not the only suffer- 
 er from the strike in Pennsylvania. The roads ex- 
 tending through the coal regions soon became in- 
 volved in it. The first outbreak in thissection of the 
 State occurred on the night of tlie 22d of July. The 
 militia had begun to assemble in obedience to the 
 orders of the Governor, and some companies had 
 started for Harrisburg, at wliich place they were or- 
 dered to report. To prevent them from reaching 
 their destination a party of rioters, on the night of 
 the 32d, set fire to the Lebanon Valley Railroad 
 bridge over the Schuylkill at Reading. The bridge 
 was entirely consumed and the direct communica- 
 tion between Reading and Harrisburg broken. Tlie 
 loss to tlie Reading Railroad Company b_y the des- 
 truction of this bridge was $1.50. 000. " Oii the 33d 
 there was great excitement at Reading, and during 
 the day the city was in a state of riot and disorder. 
 The railroad men formed but a part of the disorderly 
 throngs ; the greater ijart of these crowds consisted 
 of loafers, disreputable characters, and tramps. 
 
 The General Manager of the Reading Railroad ap- 
 pealed to the Sheriff to call out his posse to protect 
 the railroad and the company's property. This the 
 Sheriff declined to do. Little or nothing was done 
 by the city authorities to check tlu- disorder, and 
 during the day the rioters had their own way. About 
 nightfall a detachment of tlie 4th Regiment from Al- 
 lentown arrived at Reading. The tracks l)eiug torn 
 up, the soldiers were obliged to leave the cars and 
 march to tiie depot. The main line of the Philadel- 
 phia & Reading road passes through Reading on 
 Seventh Street. Penn Street is the main highway, 
 running in an opposite direction from, and crossing 
 Seventii Street at right angles. From Penn Street 
 iiortlnvard, for two s(|uares, two lines of track are 
 laid leading to *,he new depot. These are laid through 
 a deep cm with a heavy stone wall twenty feet high 
 on each side. From the moment of leaving the cars, 
 the troops had been threatened by a furious mob. 
 The officer in command, in view of the threatening 
 demonstrations of the mob, decided that it would be 
 better to march to the de])(it Ihnmgh the (lee]i cut, 
 the steep sides of which would afford heller ])roler- 
 tion to his fiaiiks than could be hail in the open 
 Mtreet. He therefore directed his inarch towards the 
 cut, but the soldiers had scarcely entered it before 
 they were greeted with a terrible volley of stones 
 from the sides of the cut. where the greatest crowds 
 had assembled. 
 
 Pistol shots were also fired at the troops. Upon 
 reaching Penn Street the regiment was allaeked liy 
 another mob and lost patienei'. One of llw^ men, 
 without orders, discharged his piece, and inimediale- 
 ly the regiment (ired a volley into the mob. Hj- this 
 diseliarge ten persons were killed and forty wound- 
 ed. Many of these were innocent bystanders, as is 
 generally the case. The mob scalhTed and fled in 
 terror, and the troops marchr'd iiilo the depot, in 
 which they took up Iheir i|iiarlers. Guards vveri' 
 
 stationed about the building, and citizens were not 
 permitted to enter it. Tlie firing upon the mob by 
 the 4tli Regiment produced the greatest excitement 
 in Reading, and the death and injury of so large a 
 number of innocent persons intensified this feeling. 
 The troops were .severely denounced by the citizens, 
 many of whom joined the mob, and were loud in 
 ! their threats of vengeance, committing in their un- 
 reasoning anger the mistake for which the people of 
 Pittsburgh paid so terribly. Still, as it was neces- 
 sary to take prompt measures to check the mob, the 
 city authorities, who were joined bj' a detachment 
 of armed citizens and a number of the Reading Rail- 
 road Coal and Iron Police, commenced on the 24th 
 to assert the authorily of the law, and to put down 
 the outbreak. During the afternoon the police offi- 
 cials were informed where the strikers had stored a 
 portion of their ammunition, and the Chief of Police 
 with a small detail of officers, proceeded to an unfre- 
 quented basement in a quiet part of the city, forced 
 an entrance, and succeeded in capturing two large 
 boxes of old-fashioned muskets that the strikers had 
 procured from the relics of an old military company. 
 The young man who had informed the police of the 
 whereabouts of the muskets narrowly escaped death 
 at the hands of an infuriated mob. The strikers ad- 
 mitted that they had plenty of arms, and the offi- 
 cials were ready to believe the boast. It was decid- 
 ed by the authorities, in consideration of the threats 
 of the mob against the troops who had taken part 
 in the firing of the previous night, to send them a- 
 way from Reading, as the best means of avoiding 
 further trouble. It was hoped that tlieir places 
 could be filled by several companies of tlie IGth liegj- 
 meut from Conshohocken and Norristown, which 
 reached Reading about ten o'clock on Tuesdaj- morn- 
 ing. These troops left the cars about five miles be- 
 low Reading, and marched into the city, taking up 
 their quarters at the depot where they joined the 
 4th Regiment, 
 
 Tlie.se new soldiers, having heard of the killing of 
 the ten citizens, conferred with the representative^ of 
 the strikers, and it was not long before many of the 
 Conshohocken military freely expressed themselves 
 as being ready and willing to throw down their arms 
 or give them to the rioters. One soldier remarked, 
 "We are workingmen and we don't fight against 
 workingmeu. We want bread at home, but we don't 
 want to rob our fellow-wo'rkingmen for it. Xo, sir; 
 we came up here to protect property, but not to 
 murder the poor men of Reading." Shortly after 
 this many of these soldiers, arm-in-arm with the rail- 
 roaders, were going about the back streets in a jolly 
 state of into.xication. As -they staggered along they 
 made many threats of violence, and the citizens be- 
 came intensely ;ilarnied at lliesituatiou. Peoplecom- 
 iug in fnm the country reported several of the roads 
 lined with the soldiers, without their guns, walking 
 home, in the absence of suitable railroad transporta- 
 tion. In other words, they were deserting. All these 
 I iiings helped to fan the fianie of prejudice and excite- 
 ment again.st the military that first arrived and then fir- 
 ed into the crowd. By half-jiast three o'clock in the 
 afternoon the rioters had won over so many of the 
 Cousl-.ohockcii lroo])s, and these weri'so (i]irn in tlieir 
 expressions of hostility to the 4th Regiment and of 
 sympathy with the mob, that tl»ere was danger of a 
 conllict iietween the two divisions of troops. To 
 avert this danger, the authoritiesiletermined to send 
 both divisions out of the city at once. Accordingly, 
 at four o'clock, they vacated their (|uarlers at the 
 dejiot, and marched out of Reading by different 
 routes to their homes. Reading was now entirely 
 depi-ndeiil upon the efforts of the local authorilies. 
 About nightfall a force of about 300 regular troops, 
 with four pieces of artillery, who liad been disem- 
 barked on the outskirts of the city, marched into 
 Reading, Four companies jinx-eeded to the <lepot, 
 where they were (piartered. anil a battery of artillery 
 oci'upied a comiiiaiiilinLr eminence on the southern
 
 BIOI. 
 
 I 
 
 EIOT. 
 
 H«:ti(in of the fily and went into cimip. The mob 
 looked on in silciicit, not daruif^ lo iilti.Tii word of 
 insult. On llic 'J'ltli, tliir iiulliorilicH feeling slroHi; 
 enough, (lelennim-il to begin tlie work of reimiriiig 
 Ib(^ rniIroHil lru('i<siind arresting liie leadi'rn of llie 
 riol. The piiliee olheials were astir at early dawn, 
 and a )ihil(iiiii of thirty men, eaeh of theiiianneil with 
 n Si)eiieer rille, acconipanied them. This detachment 
 ifornied a guard for at hasi a llioUHaiid men who 
 were early ut worl< in repairing the IrackH torn up 
 by the mob. Tliis was .sueeessfnlly aeconiplished, 
 5nd by ten o'chx-lv all llirougli trains from lidewaler 
 to the eoal li<'lds were running without molestation. 
 Before twelve o'clock informal ion was sworn to, 
 imi)licaling about one hiuidred and tifty men as be- 
 ing concerned in acts of incendiarism, intimidation, 
 and riot. Arrests were steadily being made, and as 
 fast as the ollkials brought their prisoiuTs in, they 
 were either taken to jail at once or admilled lu bail. 
 Hut one of the acrc'used was able to furnish security. 
 It was generally (conceded thai sonu'one well-inf(Uni- 
 ed as lo the plans and jiersonalily (jf the rioters had 
 given the information upon which these arrests were ! 
 made. 'I'he prisoners were pale, nervous and trem- 1 
 bling when brought to th<^ station. They were ar- 
 rested in various saloous and on street corners, and 
 in other haunts of disrc(>ntable people. They were 
 plac(td in a closely covered van and hnrrried oil to 
 jail in (h'faidl of bail, followed by a large crowd. 
 These arrests were made very (piietly, for the pur- 
 pose of maintaining [Hace and order, and preventing 
 excitement. | 
 
 For some days Heading was uneasy and excited, i 
 and arrests continued to be made by the police; but 
 no further outbreak occurred, and the city gradmd- 
 ly settled down into its accustomed quiet. On tlu^ 
 7th of August, the Coroner's jurv, which had been 
 siinunoned a day or two after the conflict willi the ' 
 mob to consi<ler the caus(' of the death of the kil- j 
 led on that occasion, rendered the following verdict, 
 in which subslaulial justice is done to the troops: 
 
 First. The said persons came to their death by 
 a firing of the military upon the rioters. 
 
 Seciind. Thai, the soldiers composing a portion 
 of the 4th Regiment, Pa. N. G., numbering about 
 two hundred nu^n, while inarching through the rail- 
 road (-ut along Seventh Street, were continually as- 
 sailed with stones and brickbats from the tiuu' they 
 entered the cut at Walnut Street bridge imlil they 
 approached IVnu Street, a distance of two S(iuares, 
 the assault becoming severer the further lliey moved, 
 and being accompanied with pistol shots after lliey 
 had rcjiched Washington Street bridge ; that during 
 said march many of the soldiers were badly wound- 
 ed by the missiles, some of them being knocked 
 down two orthree times, ^iotwhhstanilingan order 
 from the comnuuidiug officer not to lire, a single 
 shot from one of the military was a signal for others 
 to tire, which soon became general. It would be ex- 
 pecting loo much of human nature, especially on the 
 part of initrained soldiers, to expect them not to 
 tire under the fearful peril in which they were plac- 
 ed, and when once lh<- liring conunenced. the vol- 
 leys of stoni' and pistol shots continuing, and being 
 especially diri'Cteii against their ranks, the in(piest 
 c-muot censure them for the manner m which they 
 acted. 
 
 Third. Plial the military were here as the repre- 
 sentatives of public order, under directions of Major- 
 Geucral Bolton, who was doubtless act ingiuider the 
 State civil authorily. said orders having been duly 
 <-omnumicalcd lo (Jencral Uceder, couunanding the 
 4th Kegimcnt. who was instructed lo report to the 
 SherifT, Mayor or railroad ollicials. Having been 
 met before reaching Iteadiug by several olficers of 
 the railroad company, who informed him that tin- 
 railroad depot was in possession of the mob. he left 
 the cars, with c(unniund. at a short distance above 
 the depot, and marched down the railroad to the dc. 
 pot. Upon reaching the depot and linding it in pos 
 
 Hession of the Coal and Iron police, but rneeling 
 neilliiT the SherilT nor the .Mayor fllie latter ollleial 
 being out of tin- cily;, he was reipieHteil by an odl- 
 cial of tint railroarl f:oinpany lo move in the direction 
 of I'enn Street to ri'lease a passenger train then in lh<: 
 hands of Ihe m<ib, and while coni|ilying wilh tlilH 
 rei|uest the liring of tin- military look place. It iIiiih 
 appears that under the evirlince, so far as it has Iji-en 
 laid before the ln(|uesl, that (Jeneral Iteeder, with 
 his eomnnind, was atrting within his inslructionti, 
 and if anj' blame is lo \h: attached lo the action of 
 the military, it nniHl be borne by the miperior ofUccr 
 in command. 
 
 Fi'iirUi. Thai wliile Ihe tleaths were irnniediute- 
 ly owing to the (iring of I hi' soliliers. who were at 
 the proper place, under proper authorily. where llie 
 disorder was raging, yet tlie responsibility for the 
 terrible tragedy of Monday night is directly attribut- 
 able to those who composed the lawless body as- 
 sendileil near the corner of Seventh and IVnn StreelH, 
 who were instigating Ihe riotous proceedings. While 
 many were presc-nt not an inciting lo riot, but out of 
 idli- curiosilv, they, nevertheless, by their j)resence 
 gave aid and <onlidence to the mob spirit whf> ini- 
 tiated the disturbance. The latter are the persons 
 primarily responsible for all Ihe subsequent trouble 
 and bloodshed, and, if delected and arrested, should 
 be held to the Beverest accountability. 
 
 FIflli. The absence of the Mayor from the city 
 nniy be a sufficient excuse for the inactivity of the 
 city authorities at Ihe time. 
 
 Sixth. While on the one hand the ICBlimony clear- 
 ly shows that the Chief of Police was faithful in the 
 (iischarge of his olficial duty, it is a matter of regret 
 lo the incpicst that the testimony does not crpially 
 commend the Sheriff in the discharge ofhisdutv; on 
 the contrar}', though telegraphed for early on Mon- 
 day morning, 33d July, and having reached the city 
 by special train, provided by the railroad company, 
 ai five o'clock .\. m., he nevertheless made no at- 
 tempt to provide for the preservation of the public 
 peace, although earnestly appealed lo and urged to 
 organize a posse by a nund)er of citizens during the 
 day. Itis well known that during the wholeof Mon- 
 day the city was imder the power and in the con- 
 trol of Ihe mob. whose progress was hourly gather- 
 ing strength, and that therefore at noon Messrs. 
 Woollen and Jliller offered to furnish a sufficient 
 ninnber of men, with arms and ammunition, lo con- 
 stitute a posse comitatus, and suppress the riot if the 
 Sheriff would give the authority for so doing. This 
 offer was declined by the SherifT, who signilicanlly 
 remarked that the mob also had arms. All that the 
 SherilT of ISerks county did in this fearful emergency, 
 after wasting the whole day in his office doing no- 
 thing at all, was lo issue his proclamation, after five 
 o'chick in the evening, calling upon citizens to re- 
 main at home. In conclusion thereof, or in accord- 
 dance with evidence presented, the inquest believes 
 that the Sheriff, having neglected and refused lo 
 perform what was his obvious duty, is in a measure 
 responsible for the events which followed. 
 
 From Heading the strike spread rapidly into the 
 mining regions of Pennsylvania. Attempts were 
 I7iade by the miners at Pottsville and Shamokin.in the 
 Schuylkill district, lo bring on riots on the 24th and 
 25th. "but were failures. At Shamokin the rioters were 
 fired upon by t he burgess and his posse.and dispersed. 
 The citizens gave an unswerving support to the au- 
 thorities, and the danger was averted. -\t Mauch 
 Chunk an etTorl w;is nuide to indvice the firemen and 
 brakemen on the I.ehigh it Susquehanna Railroad to 
 join in the strike, but the majority of the men refused 
 to leave their work. The Lehigh Valley Railroad 
 men joined the strike on the 2.ith, and there was con- 
 siderable excitement at Bethlehem. The trains were 
 stopped, and Ihe engineers and firemen forced to 
 abaiulon their loconTotivcs. On the same day the 
 brakemen and firemi'U on ihe eastern division of this 
 road, extendinsr from Eastonlo Mauch Chunk. struck.
 
 HIOT. 
 
 718 
 
 EIOT. 
 
 and blockaded the road. The Leliigh Valley men at 
 Kaston joined the strike during tlu' night, and those 
 at Wilkesbarre took simihir action about the same 
 time. This placed the entire line of the Lehigh Val- 
 ley Railroad in the hands of .strikers. Airfreight 
 trains were stopped, and the strikers announced that 
 while they would allow the company to carry the 
 mails over its line, no passenger trains would be per- 
 mitted to run. The railroad officials then gave or- 
 ders to .stop all trains, and to make no attempt to 
 carry the mails. Bethlehem and Wilkesbarre were 
 the centers of the trouble. The principal excitement 
 vas at the latter place. On the night of the 25th all 
 the passenger trains were stopped at Wilkesbarre, 
 but on the morning of the 2(ith some of them were 
 permitted to depart, in order that the men emploj-ed 
 on them might reach their homes. The strikers con- 
 tinued to hold the road imtil the last of July. Tiie 
 company then determined to run their trains" in spite 
 of tlie strikers, and on tlie 31st succeeded in getting 
 a train through from Bethlehem to Mauch Chunk. 
 They announced to their employes that their aban- 
 donment of their posts ^ds virtually a withdrawal 
 from the service of the company, and that their places 
 would be supplied with new men. This was done in 
 a great measure. Application was made to the (to%-- 
 ernor for assistance, and a force of State militia and 
 r(!gulars was ordered to protect the road. The strikers 
 declared their intention to stop the trains, and on the 
 1st of August, the day appointed for the resumption 
 of traffic, a large crowd assembled at the depot at 
 Wilkesbarre, resolved that no trains should pass that 
 point. 
 
 Scranton, the most important point in the coal re- 
 gion, was profoundly agitated from the tirst of the 
 troubles. On the afternoon of the 24th the strike , 
 was begun by the employes of the Lackawanna Iron i 
 and Coal Company. As soon as the gong sounded I 
 at noon, the men, to the mmiber of about 1,500, - 
 stopped work and struck, and all operations ceased 
 in the rolling-mills, foundries and steel works. The \ 
 strike was tirst declared in the old rolling-mill, at a 
 given signal, and the men retired from the building, 
 leaving the red-hot bars in the rolls, and the tires 
 glowing in the furnaces. They then proceeded in 
 procession to the company's steelworks, where work 
 was immediately suspended, and the employes join- 
 ing the strikers, the entire party marched to the foim- 
 dries and shops, where similar scenes were enacted. 
 The men said that it was impossible for them to live 
 on the wages the.y had been.receiving, and on the l.'ith 
 of the mouth their jjay was cut down ten per cent. 
 more. A meeting was held in the afternoon, and it 
 was resolved to demand a restoration of the last ten 
 per cent, reduction. On the night of the 23d, the 
 men employed at the Meadow Brook Mines in the 
 suburli of Scranton, struck for higher pay, about 300 
 of them turning out. At six o'clock on "the evening 
 of the 24th the firemen in the employ of the Dela- 
 ware, [^ackawanna <fc Western and the Delaware & 
 IIuds(m Companies struck work. As soon as the 
 bell in the round hou.se denoted the hour of six, the 
 men conveyed their engines into the yard, drew the 
 tires from them, and left them in good order. A 
 coal Iniin wliicli left Scranton at five o'clock was re- 
 turned, and placed side by side with aliout twenty 
 otluT trains laden with bhick diamonds in tlie yard. 
 The firemen retired from tin ir work peaceably, and 
 in the course of conver.sations field with several of 
 them, they declared that tliey would protect life and 
 proi)erty with their lives if need be. Sii])erinlendeiit 
 .Maiiville answered the men in the employ of tlie Del- 
 aware it Hudson Company in the afternoon to the 
 efTect that the company would make no concession, 
 and the firemen on that line struck simultaneously 
 with those on Die Delaware, Lackawanna A, West- 
 em road. The men took all the passenger trains to 
 their destinations, and as soon us they arrived at the 
 depot the fires were drawn and the engines jylaced in 
 the yards, It was announced by the railroad olti- 
 
 cials that no freight, coal or passenger train would 
 run until the difficulty was settled. The strike was 
 solely on the part of the firemen, and the engineers, 
 conductors and brakemen were not concerned in it. 
 Tlie eflfect of the strike on the road was to prevent 
 all shipments of coal, and to make the mines through- 
 out the Lackawanna valley idle. 
 
 In view of the excitement prevailing in the city, 
 tlie Mayor of Scranton, on the 24th, issued the follow- 
 ing proclamation: 
 
 In view of the excitement throughout the country 
 occasioned by the labor troubles and the lamentable 
 loss of life and propertj' in our own and other States, 
 it becomes the duty of all good citizens to use their 
 best efforts to preserve peace and uphold the law. 
 Recognising, as ever}' one must the unfortunate con- 
 dition of the business, and financial interests of all 
 classes of the community, and especially the hardship 
 and suffering of the laboring men. we must 3et unite 
 in maintaining to the fullest extent the majesty of the 
 I law and tlie protection of life and propert}-. I there- 
 fore earnestly tirge all good citizens, and especially 
 the workingmeu themselves, to abstain from all ex- 
 , cited discussion of thepromiuent question of the day. 
 Tlie laboring men of our city are vitally interested 
 ] in the preservation of peace and good order and the 
 ' prevention of any possible destruction of property. I 
 trust the leading men among the workingmen fully 
 ' realize that the interests of the whole cit}- are their 
 interests, and that any riot or destruction of life or 
 property can work only injury to all classes and to the 
 good name of our city. Every taxpayer will realize 
 that any destruction of property will have to be paid 
 for by the cit}', and would by so much increase the 
 burden of taxation. In one day Pittsburgh has put 
 upon herself a load tliat her taxpayers will struggle 
 under for years. In conclusion, I again earnestlj" urge 
 upon men of all classes in our city the necessity of 
 sober, careful thought and the criminal folly of any 
 precipitate action. 
 
 The excitement continued to increase, and, on the 
 2.'5th thousands of miners flocked into Scranton, 
 swelling the crowds about the depot, and adding to 
 the danger. The strikers declared that they would 
 allow the mails to pass immolested.but would suffer 
 no passenger cars to go through. The excitement in- 
 creased to fever heat when tlie moriiiug mail train 
 from Binghampton, for New York, arrived at 9.50. 
 The strikers were indignant to find that an express 
 car and three passenger coaches were attached, to- 
 gether with the mail car. Exciting demonstrations 
 were made at the various stations along the line, and 
 at Great Beud.forty miles north of Scranton. a crowd 
 of five hundred sought to detach the passenger cars, 
 but were deterred by the engineers. On arriving at 
 the suburbs ot Scranton, the train was boarded Ijj- a 
 number of the strikers, who, as soon as it reached 
 within a few yards of the depot, cut otT the passen- 
 ger and express cars, and permitted the mail to pass 
 At the depot an excited crowd boarded the train, and 
 the postmaster was about to put on the mails when 
 informed by the railroad officials that the train would 
 go no further unless the passenger cars were allow- 
 ed to run. This decision caused much indignation 
 among the strikers, and several uttered loud threats 
 of seizing the engine and running the mail to New 
 York. but wiser counsels prevailed, and a meeting was 
 forthwith held on the platform, when it was resolv- 
 ed to t<'legrapb the Governor and I'ostmaster-Gen- 
 eral, ajiprising them of the state of affairs, and dis- 
 claiming all responsibility on the part of the men for 
 the detention of the mails, wliich were carried back 
 to the post-office. The reply was awaited with anx- 
 iety, and the telegraph office and deixit were crowd 
 eil till noon, when a Hag was Hung from a window 
 of the lieu(iquart<'rs of the strikers. It was a call for 
 a meeting, and there was a rush for the liallatonce, 
 none but firemen and brakemen being admitted. A 
 despatch from llu' Governor wag read amid cheers, 
 stating that he had instructed tfie Superintendent to
 
 RIOT 
 
 710 
 
 RIOT 
 
 allow IIk' mails to run llir(iiii;li. The men fliiii prc- 
 purcd a slalitinciil fnr pwblicalion in the local papers, 
 Rctlili;^ forlli their j^rievuiices and the eausefor Iheir 
 l)r('S(iit action. 'I'hcy also ailopled a petition, askin;; 
 the saloon-keepers to close their places of husinesH. 
 On the same day the l)rakeincn joined thelln'inen in 
 the sirike. Thi' exeilcnient was increased (lMrini;lhc 
 day hy 'he aclion <il' Ihi- miners, who represi'nle<l no 
 loss than forty Ihonsanil men in tli(' S<ranlon dis- 
 trict, asking an increase of twenty-live per ciMit. on 
 their wages. A committee of six waited on the (Jen- 
 cral Coal Sii])erintenilent, and presented a Hcries of 
 resolutions, selliiii; forth the fact thai the men had 
 endured repealed reductions until llieir waL'Cs had 
 reacheil a starvaliou shnid.'ird. and that Ihry ilid nol 
 ]iro|)ose to endur<' il .'Uiy longer. 'I'liey furllier staled 
 that if the men on the railroail relurniMl to work. I hey 
 would hold out until such lime as Iheir wages were 
 advanced. The Superinlendi-iil infornu-d Ihem that 
 he would forward Iheir pelilion lo the company, and 
 would have an answer for Ihem on Friday. The men 
 then called a mass-nu'cting in the woods, in the suh- 
 tirhs, for the aflernoon of the :2<ith. 
 
 The sirike of !hi' miners inlroduccd a new and 
 dangerous element into the trouhles. The miners, 
 not satisfied with quitting work, refused to allow 
 the pumps of the mines to be worked. The men 
 who allempled lo run the pumps, the work of which 
 was neeessiiry to keep the mines from flooding. 
 were driven away l)y the strikers, and Ihi' engines 
 were "shut down." The water was thus allowed 
 to gain steadily ui>on the mines. Hooding Ihem. and 
 injuring them lo I he extent of many thousand dol- 
 lars. This wilfid destruction of the |)roperly of Iheir 
 employers by the miners was simply suicidal. A des- 
 patch from Scranlon. on the 2!llh of .July, thus sum- 
 ine(! up the slali- of affairs : "The entire F-;ickawan- 
 lia region is iille. Week before last this region sent 
 ncarlv loO.ODO tons of coal to market, [..-isl week il 
 dill not senil a liihe of thai (|uanlily, and ne.\l w<<k 
 it will nol send any. The nuners of the Delaware 
 & Iludsun Canal Company (|uit work yesterdaj- 
 inorning, and those of the I'ennsylvania Coal Com- 
 piiiiy are in enforced idleiu'ss on account of the dr>s- 
 truelion of a head-house and bridge on Iheir gravity 
 railroad. The head-house, which was situated in 
 the woods east of this city, was burned down .■it 
 three o'clock this morningby a mob which surprised 
 the wali-hman. and lied him with ro]>es to a neigh- 
 boring tree. They saturaled the wood-work of the 
 head-house, and then set il olT with a match. Il 
 made a fierce blaze, which wns plainly visible here. 
 Destruction of the head-house cau.ses a eouii>lete 
 stoppage from Ilawley to Pittstou. It wa:i not the 
 work of the company's employes, but of outside 
 persons, who look that mode of forcing the strike 
 upon them. The Heimsylvaniii Coal Company have 
 recently been working on full time at Iheir mines, 
 and the best of feeling exists between themselves 
 and their workmen. The laltcrare indignant al the 
 dastardly act, and the prospects are that the burned 
 property will nol be replaced until the dispute be- 
 tween labor and capital is Mindly sellled. 
 
 The walchnuin who was driven from the head- 
 house stales I hat the place was .set on fire by no few- 
 er than a hundred men, who danced about the blaze 
 like demons, and shouted in fiendish exultation while 
 the work of destruction was going on. Superintend- 
 ent Smith states that the act will make the compa- 
 ny's nnnes idle for an indefinite period. They were 
 working on full time, and shipiiing liO.OOD tons a 
 week. The men in the company's employ had made 
 no demand for an increase of wages, and the burning 
 of the head-house is the work of outsiders, who want- 
 ed to force them into a strike. Xol a mine in the 
 valley is at work, and the most of them are tilling 
 fa.sl with water. An idea of the importance of flood- 
 ing a mine can be oblaini'd from the fact that in ISfi.'i 
 the Diamond Colliery was idle three days for the re- 
 pair of its macirmery, and it took eight months, and 
 
 cost ■'j'HO.OOO, to ])iunp out Ihi' water thai accumulat- 
 ed iti thai timi'. The .Mayor and company's olllciulx 
 will make antfTort l«-tnorrowto set the mine pumiw 
 to work. The sit nation here is ubHolutely painful, 
 and there is no knowing what moment un outbreak 
 will occur. 
 
 The .'\Iayf)r was very active in his cfTorls lo brin^ 
 about an ailjuslment of tlir' troubles, and succeeded 
 al length in inducing the miners in llie neighborliood 
 of Scranlon lo allow tin^ pumps to be run by t)i(r 
 bosses, clerks, and civil I'ngineers in the employ of 
 the coal (companies. This coni-ession gav<r great of- 
 fense to the strikers in the lower pari of the (county, 
 and delegations were sent to Hie Scranlon ininerH lo 
 |)Ul a stop lo Ihe practise. Klforls were made to Ket- 
 tle the sirike on the Delaware. Lackawanna iV W'enl- 
 ern ISailroad. and with success. On the :iOtli of .July 
 Ihe mi-n gave up the struggle, and returned lo work 
 at the old wages. ThisKurrendi-r was brought about 
 by the action of the .Mayor, who sent for llie execu- 
 tive comuultee, whom he informed that travel would 
 have to l)e resumed over the road Ihe next morning, 
 even if the presence of tlu' troo])s were necessary to 
 such a result. Aciordingly Ihe men called a meet- 
 ing at one o'clock, when a decision was had in favor 
 of returning lo work by a vot<' of H'i to 0. Tlie com- 
 mittee then proceeded to inform the Superintindent 
 of the decision arriviil al. the only terms askeil Ixing 
 that no one taking an active pari in the sirike should 
 be proseculed. This heconsenled to. and in half an 
 hour later a passenger train started from this cily for 
 Northumberland. Il was greeted l)y c;-owdsat every 
 station along Ihe line, but no demonslralions were 
 made. A despatch was forwarded lo liinghampton 
 to start No. 4 train from there to New York, and il 
 passed through Scranlon uninlerru|ited al six o'clock. 
 Passenger and freight trallic was now fairly estab- 
 lished all along the line, and Ihe bubble of the Dela- 
 ware. [>ackawanna iV Western Hailroad strike had 
 burst. The railroad men were bitterly denounced 
 for their surrender by Ihe miners, whe numbered be- 
 tween 20.000 and HO.OOO men in the Lackawanna 
 valley. The miners avowed their intetlion to con- 
 tinue the strike until Iheir terms were accepted by 
 fhe coal companies. They became more and more 
 turbidenl every day, and it at last became evident 
 lo theJIayor of Siranton that Ihe presence of troops 
 al that city was necessary. The Governor wag in- 
 formed of the stale of affairs, and decided lo go lo 
 the assistance of Scranlon with a force of Slate mili- 
 tia and regulars. 
 
 S<ranton ccjnfinued to be troubled with the excite- 
 ment arising from the miners' riot. In spite of the 
 powerful proledion alfordcil by the troops, the w ork- 
 men returned lo Iheir duties in the various indust- 
 rial estalilishmenis slowly, lieing rendered afraid lo 
 go to work by the threats of the miners who still re- 
 mained idle. ' A letter from Scranlon. written Aug- 
 ust 7th. said : The miners of this region manifest a 
 most determined attitude, and from present pros- 
 pects, it is safe to say. will prolong the strike in tlie 
 Lackawanna and Wyoming valleys for six months, 
 if no selllemeni is made. An important meeting of 
 delegates from every mine in Luzeriu- (Vainly willbe 
 held here to-morrow to ajipoint a general Executive 
 Committee, and adopt a programme for Ihe purpos*- 
 of securing perfect unity of action, -so that the men 
 at all tlie mines will resume work simultaneou.sly 
 whenever the time for resumption has come. A 
 mammoth store was opened here to-day liy the Jlin- 
 cr's E.xecutive Committee to relieve the immediate 
 necessitiesof their number who are in distress, and it 
 was speedily filled with provisions. Busine.«s men 
 placed a dozen teamsat their disposal, free of charge, 
 for the purpose of receiving and distributing sup- 
 plies, and the scene about the store was animated in 
 the extreme. Farmers in the surroimding countrj' 
 have made them donations of potato patches, and 
 many of the miners have gone oft in irangs to do work 
 in the country and receive pay in provisions.
 
 RIOT. 
 
 720 
 
 HIOT. 
 
 The disaffection in the coal regions continued to 
 increase, and assumed its most formidable propor- 
 tions after tlie railroad troubles liad beeu satisfacto- 
 rily adjusted. By the middle of August nearly all 
 the mines in tlie Lehigh, Schuylkill, Lackawanua, 
 and other mining districts were idle, and more than 
 sixty thousand men were out of work. The miners 
 presented a general grievance, declaring that their 
 wages were too low to enable them to live, and de- 
 manded an increase of from ten to twenty per cent. 
 Though there were man)' isolated acts of violence 
 committed in the coal regions, there was no general 
 outbreak. 
 
 The New York Division of the Pennsylvania Rail- 
 road, the Central Railroad of New Jersey, the Erie 
 Railroad, the Lehigh Valley Railroad, and the Jlorris 
 and Essex Division of the Delaware, Lackawanua 
 and Western Railroad, terminate at Jersey City 
 and Hoboken. opposite New York. As the strike 
 had affected all these roails to a greater or less de- 
 gree, it was feared that it would break out in Jer.scy 
 City. Tha tplace contains a large popvdatiou of 
 railroad men. and a much larger number of persons 
 in the lowest walks of life who are always ripe for 
 an outbreak. Lying just across the river from New 
 York, a mob in Jersey City would be rapidly rein- 
 forced by tlie dangerous element of the metropolis. 
 Tlie authorities were resolved to lie ready for tlie 
 danger if it should come, and to meet it promptly and 
 tirmly. The strike on the western lines and the out- 
 break in Pittsburgh produced great uneasiness and 
 e.xcitemeut on tlie New Jersey roads, and the Go- 
 vernor was iuformed by many of the railroad officials 
 that it might be necessary for them to ask the pro- 
 tection of the State for their property. The officers 
 of the Pennsylvania road were especially apiirehen- 
 sive, as the trouble on their main line had beeu so 
 great. Trouble fi'om employes was not dreaded so 
 muclias from the turbulent populace. An intlux of 
 ruffians from New York was feared, and the char- 
 acter of such reinforcements to the mob justified the 
 gravest apprehensions. During the night of the 
 23d, and the small lionrs of JMimday morning, the 
 Governor was in receipt of des])atches from various 
 pomts along the company's line, indicating approach- 
 ing trouble at Trenton or Newark. These were 
 afterwards learned to be premature, but they induced 
 the Governor to issue orders to the various military 
 commands of the State to assemble at their armories 
 ready for service. By daylight the 4th Regiment 
 liad gathered, fully equipped, at their armory, ad- 
 joining the Cit3' llall. Newark Avenue. Jersey City, 
 and iu halls close bv. The 7th. :i00 men, was at 
 Trenton ; the 9th, 3o0 men, at Iloboken. The 1st 
 and 5th of Newark, 800 men, were at Newark. 
 Forty rounds of ammunition were supplied to each 
 man. General Jlott, in charge of the brigade, had 
 his headquarters at Trenton, and was iu constant 
 cominunicafion with Jersey City. When morning 
 had fully come, it was fell ilial alllmugh Ihe militia 
 had iicissibly beeu called out rather hastily, yel il was 
 not to be regretted. Jersey City's element of 
 " roughs" seemed to have increased during the night. 
 The men, who had come from unknown quarters, 
 lounged near saloons aud talked constantly about 
 tli(^ sirike. No threat was made, but cili/.ens gener- 
 ally grew uneasy as the day advanced. 
 
 Tlie lirst shadow of actual trouble was at nine 
 o'clock, when one of Ihe employes called u|)ou the 
 Siiperintendeiit, aud said he was authorized lo in- 
 form him thai the liremeu would strike about noon. 
 The Superiulendeut expressed a wish that a com- 
 mittee of the men should wait ujiou him, anil acom- 
 miltee of six did so. He argued wilh them that 
 enough li.ad already occurred to setlle whalever ques- 
 tions had causi'd thi' sirike. anil Ilia! any furlhcr 
 action of employe's was not needed iu that direi'liou. 
 If they left their (engines, Ihe mob in New Yin'k and 
 Jersey City would avail Ihemselves of Ihe op])or- 
 tunity lo enact here the terrible scenes of Pillsburgh 
 
 and Baltimore; for all of wliich they would be 
 primarily responsible. His talk had great influence. 
 The men resolved not to strike, but lo coulinue work 
 unless assailed by the populace. A meeting that 
 had been called for eleven o'clock was not held, and 
 the Superintendent, congratulating himself upon 
 having such sensible men. felt assured that if he 
 could prevent any demonstration from outsiders, lie 
 had attaiued his end. Towards noon and later the 
 arrival of regular troops on their way to Philadel- 
 phia became known. A battery of"light artillery 
 with four tield-pieces arrived from Fort Hamilton 
 and passed down the freight-yard to be loaded upon 
 the flats. This display made the loungers on the 
 corners and in the vicinity of the yards imagine that 
 precautionary measures on a gigantic scale were 
 taking place. They began to feel their unimport- 
 ance aud grew more excited. There were perhaps 
 700 or 800 of these unpleasant persons at different 
 railway crossings and at open places. The liquor, 
 that the times are never hard enough to prevent them 
 from obtaining, began to take effect, and they cursed 
 the troops right bravely. Aud then they retired to 
 the saloons for reinforcements. It had "been the in- 
 tention of the Chief of Police to close the rum-shops, 
 but the order did not ajipear to be put into effect. 
 About four p. M. everybody was very nervous, not 
 excepting the authorities at police head-quarters. 
 There they fell to work drafting a proclamation. 
 While that literary business was in progress, the 
 light artillery was" made ready to start They oc- 
 cupied four flats with their guns, five cattle-cars with 
 the necessary number of horses, and two or three 
 passenger coaches with the men. To these cars 
 were added another coach, and a baggage car con- 
 tained forty-seven of the regular troops that liad ar- 
 rived between one and two from New London, Con- 
 necticut. They landed at the Adams Express dock, 
 which is retired and not withiii the ken of persons in 
 the freiglit-yard. The engine that was to take the 
 train stood iu the .yard, and some rough men gatli- 
 ered around threatening to shoot the engineer and 
 conductors if they moved the train of troops. These 
 officials naturally were frightened, and when it be- 
 came generally known that threats had been made, 
 all sorts of fears were expressed. A posse of seventy- 
 live police were immediately brought out, and they 
 pushed from the track a crowd, possibly of 1,500 
 men and boys. The men who had threatened the 
 engineer disappeared. The train of troops was fin- 
 ally ready, and the Superiutenilent said it should go. 
 The engineer still hesitated. No other engineer 
 would consent to take his place. The others said 
 they were not calleil upon lo do any man's work ex- 
 cept their own. At length the engineer consente<l 
 to take charge of his engine if the Superintendent 
 would accompany him. The Superintendent did 
 not hesitate a moment. The Millstone way passen- 
 ger train was also just ready to start. Two tracks 
 were cleared, and wilh this passenger train between 
 it and the mob, the military train left the station. 
 The engineer was iu his place. The two trains mov- 
 ed slowly down the track, side by side, faster and 
 faster. Finally, while everyone was expectiug trou- 
 ble, the military train shot quickly ahead, and the 
 danger was over. The Superintendent came back to 
 his post and arranged for llie further transpcirlatioii 
 of troops. At six o'clock tweuly-seveu sailors from 
 the United States steamer Colorado embarked for 
 the Navy Yard at Philadelphia. They .started on an 
 hour and a half's notice. Their de])arlure excited 
 no demonstration. More troops arrived at lialf-past 
 six from Newjiorl. They comprised leu officers and 
 147 men of Batteries Iv, B, E, and F. Tliey tilled 
 four coaches, and started at half past eight with a 
 l)r(>lecliou train on their exposed side. The train 
 accomiiaiiied them only a short distance. At nine 
 o'clock three batteries from Boston, uumberingabout 
 as many nieii as the Newiiort detaehmeul, arrived 
 anil ilciiarled willioul the least disturbance. At six
 
 BIOT. 
 
 aioT. 
 
 o'clock in tlip afternoon llic Governor inHiicd the fol. 
 
 lowing proclanmlion : To tlio jicoplr of the Sliilf: of 
 New .Iii'icy : III I In' pifMcul stale of llie iiiililic iiiinil 
 I warn all citizens to keep at lliiir lioiiiesanil plares 
 of liiisiiiess, avoiiliii^ all t;atlii'rinL's in llie sireel, ho 
 as to jj^'iw no eiieourimeiiieiil liy their presence to 
 evil-ilisposerl persons. Let every ^ood citizen now. 
 by word, act and sentiment, aiil tli(^ iiiilliorilies in 
 securinj; perfect peace. SlieriIVs iinil olllcirs of cities 
 arc particularly riMiuested to exert all their powers 
 in a calm, judicious, hut elTccliial way to protect 
 life and jiroperly from all lawli'ssness,"aiid therehy 
 Have the counties and cities from any lialiility under 
 the staliile for destruclion of properly liv mojis. 'I'he 
 v.'holc power of the Stale will he used for tin- main- 
 tenance of the laws. I caution ('very person dispos- 
 ed to distub the ponce to desist at on<e, and thereby 
 prevent any necessity for the use of the State force, 
 (xivcn under my hanil,at tlii^ City of Trenton, on this 
 2:td day of .Inly, a. d. IH77. 
 
 Meanwhile all schedule trains had started on time, 
 with many throuich piis.sengers. The incomiiiLT trains 
 were somewhat late, liavini; been ditained at I'hiladel- 
 pliia. All evening trains were Hhifted and shunted 
 in the company's yards, the police keeping np their 
 line from the station to Hailroail Avenue. About nine 
 o'clock some freight cars and way pa.sseiiger trains 
 were stoned while passing through thehi'avy cut. two 
 miles from the station. A s(piad of police went out 
 to the gap, and remained on guard until relieved by 
 militia. Detachments of State troops were brought 
 from Trent on during the afternoon, and posted at the 
 bridge over the Haritan, at New nruiiswick, and the 
 bridge over the Hackensack, between Newark and 
 Jersey City. These important bridges werestronglv 
 guarded throughout the period of the disturbance. 
 During Ihenigiit the shops of the I'ennsylvania Kail- 
 road in the Hackensack meadows were guarded by 
 fifty inen. Tlie ne.vt day this guard was relieved by 
 the ."ith Veteran Regiment of Newark. At Newark. 
 New Brunswick ami Trenton there was considerable 
 excitement, but no effort was nuide to bring on a 
 strike. The passenger trains were run as usual, and 
 the freight trains, wliicli wen' discontinued in con- 
 sequence of the troubles at l'hiladil|ihia, and other 
 points on the main liiu' of the road, were resumed 
 as sonii as the route beyond I'hiladelphia was clear. 
 I5y tli<^ night of the ■24tli, the danger on the Pennsyl- 
 vania road was over; there had been no strike of the 
 employi5s, and the mob had found the civil anil mili- 
 tary forces so strong that they wisely decided not to 
 attempt an oiithn'ak. On the evening of the '2Mli. 
 the liremeii and lirakemen of the .Morris ifc Essex di- 
 vision of the Delaware, Lackawanna it Western 
 Railroad joined the strike, which, as we have re- 
 lated elsewhere, had already begun on the main line 
 of this road in Pennsylvania. The men were ipiiet 
 and orderly, and attempted no violence. There was 
 not n\uch life in the strike, and on the ITtli the men 
 a' the eastern end of the line agreed to resume work 
 at their former wages, trusting to the company to in- 
 crease their pay as the times improved. This offer 
 was accejited. and the strike tinally came to an end. 
 The trainmen of this road at Philiipsburg, opposite 
 Kaslon, I'ennsylvania. did not unit(: in 1his settle- 
 ment until some days later. The next road to join 
 in the strike was the New Jersey Central. The train- 
 men on this road struck on the '..'."ith.and stopped the 
 running of the freight trains. The principal (iisturb- 
 ance was at Philii])sbiirg. opposite Easton. The 
 New Jersey Central men there innted with the em- 
 ployes of the Jforris & E.s.scx road, and with them 
 put a slop to the business of both roads. On both 
 roads the strikers refused to allow the running of 
 passenger trains. They staled that the mails might 
 be carrieil <iver the lines in the postal cars, but no | 
 other cars should be run. The authorities of both 
 roads thereupon refused to send out any trains until 
 their roads were freed from the interference of the 
 rioters. Tlunish all the strikers refrained from anv 
 
 further violence than tlic Hto|)ping of the trainM, and 
 announced their intention of protecting tin- prop, 
 erty of their roads, it was nneertain how long thin 
 slate of allairs would coniiniie, ami was of the lii'.'li- 
 est importance thai the railroad blockade should bi; 
 ended at the earliest practicabli- moment. Accord- 
 iiigly a strong force of troops, under IJrigadii-r (>en- 
 eral Sewell, was sent to Pliillipsbiirg. This force 
 consisted of the 1st. .'itii. (ilh, and "tli Ni-w Jersey 
 Regiments and the Iloboken Biilti-rv. The troops 
 reaihed Phillipsburir on the 'iHlli of.fuly, unrlat once 
 look possession of the railroad propirly there. A 
 feeble effort was made to privent tlii' railroad olll- 
 cials from resuming the running of the trains, but 
 was promptly put down. The prr-si'iice of the troops, 
 and tli<! tietermined attitude of the aiilliorities con- 
 vinced the strikers that their efforts at resistance to 
 the laws W(Mild be in vain. On the night of the 2>lth 
 till' .Morris &, Essex men ceased their interference 
 with their road, and early the next week returned to 
 work. The strikirs on the eastern emi of the .New 
 Jersi-y Central Railroad returned to diily about the 
 2Hih "of July. They had little sympathy with the 
 outbreak at Phillipsbnrg. Heing thus i.solaled. and 
 overawed by the military, the strikers at Phillip.H- 
 burg returned to duty about the 1st of August. 'I he 
 troops were kept on duty for some days longer as u 
 matter of precaution, but no further trouble was ex- 
 perienced in New Jersey. 
 
 Th(' excitement spread rapidly westward, and fol- 
 lowing the line of the Haltimore ifc (Jliio Railroad, 
 soon reached the State of Ohio. At Newark, about 
 thirty miles from C'ohnnbus, the Baltimore <S: Ohio 
 Railroad crosses the Pittsburgh. Cincinnati ic St. 
 Louis, or, as it is more connnonly called, the Pan 
 Handle Railroad. Newark is a city of considerable 
 im|iortanee, and one of the )irincipal railroad centers 
 of the State. On the IHth of July the brakemen and 
 liremen of the Hallimore & Ohio Railroail at Newark 
 struck work, and refused to allow the freight trains 
 of the road to pass the point. All arriving trains 
 were stopped, the engines uncoupled from the cars, 
 the tires put out, and the engineers and firemen forc- 
 ed to abandon their posts. The strikers were quiet 
 and orderly at first. the only violence being the throw, 
 ing of a man from a camel-back engine for attempt- 
 ing to start the fires. The Sheriff of Licking county 
 repaired to the depot, and, after reading the Riot Act, 
 ordered the strikers to disperse. They refused to 
 comply with his demand, and he reported the dis- 
 turbance to the Governor of Ohio, and asked for a 
 militarj- force to enable him to preserve order. The 
 (Jovernor directed a regiment to repair to Newark 
 to assist the ShcrilT, and issued a proclamation com- 
 mandins the strikers to desist from personal intim- 
 idation and interference with property. The troops 
 reached Newark during the night of the 21st, and by 
 the next morning were on duty at the railway depot 
 and yards. The militia soon made it evident lliat 
 they were in sympathy with the railroad strikers, so 
 that it was by' no means certain that they could be 
 depended ujion in ease of emergency. The men of 
 the Pan Handle road now joined inllie strike, that 
 road having become involved at Pittsburgh and at 
 its western end; and during the 22d a large number 
 of them reached Newark from Dennison. The min- 
 ersfrom the coal and iron regions near Newark were 
 in active sympathy with the strikers, and assured 
 them of assistance whenever called upon. For the 
 time the strikers attempted no violence at Newark, but 
 contented themselves with blockading the railroads. 
 A Committee was sent by the N<'w;irk strikers to 
 Cohnnbus. to induce the railroad men at that point 
 to join in tlie strike. Meetings of the brakemen and 
 firemen of the Baltimore & Ohio and Pan Handle 
 roads were held on the night of the 22d at Colum- 
 bus, and resolutions were adopted demanding a re- 
 storation of the old rates of pay. The strikers at 
 once left their work to await the answers of their 
 respective companies. Their demands were refused,
 
 RIOT. 
 
 722 
 
 RIOT. 
 
 and on the morning of the 23d a meeting was held 
 at tlie Union depot for the purpose of enforcing the 
 strike A large gang of men gathered ahoiit tlie de- 
 pot and yiirds early in tlie day, but it was observed 
 that but few railroad men were among the crowd. 
 The main body was made up of idlers. curiosit\' seek- 
 ers, and a set of roughs and non-railroaders, who 
 seemed to have suddenly come to tlie front. From 
 the depot tlie mob hastened into tlie city, resolved 
 to force the eniplo3es in the private establisliments of 
 Columbus to quit work. The rioters numbered be- 
 tween two liuudred and three hundred men. The 
 first place visited was a rolling-mill on the banks of 
 the (jlentangy. The employes were ordered to cease 
 work. As there was a general disposition among the 
 mill men to join tlie strikers, they easil_y obtained a 
 promise that the mill would shut down as soon as 
 the heat on hand w-as tinished.whicli was done. The 
 mob then went to the Sniitli Pipe Works, farther 
 north, and commanded an immediate suspension. 
 Some were in favor even of letting the metal in heat- 
 ing out of the cupola. There was a charge of five 
 tons nearly read}' to pour out, and had the tlireat 
 been carried out, the hot metal would liave tired tlie 
 building and destroj-ed tlie fine property. Tiie Super- 
 intendent sensible' told the mob he would shut down 
 as soon as the heat was off. Tlie crowd then left. 
 Before night ever}' establisliment containing an en- 
 gine, on the west side of the river, had been closed 
 up. 
 
 The officials of most of the roads voluntarily clos- 
 ed tlie railway shops for the time, llius depriving the 
 mob of the opportunity of compelling tlicni to close. 
 The tlirougli lines declined to receive freight, and 
 freight houses were generally closed up. Brakemen 
 and switchmen declared that they had nothing to do 
 witli tlie raids on private establishments, aud did not 
 approve them : but few railroad men were seen in 
 the mob. Tlie Mayor of Columbus, on the afternoon 
 of the 23d, issued a proclamation calling on the riot- 
 ers to disperse and cease tlieir.interference with pri- 
 vate property. Several hundred special policemen 
 were sworn in. The railroad authorities decided to 
 make no efforts to run their trains until the strike 
 had been put down by the civil authorities, and thus 
 to give no provocation to tlie nioli. The ])roiiiptness 
 with which the citizens enrolled themselves in the 
 special police force and the determination exhibited 
 hy the State and cit}- authorities to put down mob 
 violence at an}' cost, greatly demoralized the rioters. 
 On the morning of the 24th nearly all the manufac- 
 turing estalilishments that were forcibly closed on 
 the previous day were reopened, llie operatives re- 
 turning to work on lieing assured of iirotection. 
 Columbus was excited, but <|uiet Ihroughout the day. 
 On the 25th, the Governor issued (he following pro- 
 <:laniation : Owing to troulile existing between rail- 
 road companies and their employes great excitement 
 exists throughout the Stale. Of tills unfortunate 
 state of affairs lawless and disrepulable ]iersiins are 
 taking advanlag<' and endangering life and prop<'rty. 
 The cis'il aulhorities. State, county and muuiiipal, 
 as well as military, must and will everywhere exert 
 their |)ower to enforce the law in every respect. The 
 good name of our people ilemands that this shall be 
 done, and in no other way can the order whicli is 
 absolutely necessary to pulilic and private safely be 
 maintained to avert all danger, and in order lo suc- 
 cessfully nieel all resistance to llie thorough execu- 
 tion of law I hereby call on law-abiding men of all 
 our cities, towns and villages to tender their services 
 to their respective civil auilioritics, and, under their 
 direction and control, organize themselves into a 
 volunteer police force sufficiently strong to overawe 
 the lawless elements. I coiili(iently exiiect all good 
 men will res])oiid promptlv and checrfnllv to this 
 «all. 
 
 Every effort was made to place the military force 
 of the state in u condition for service, and the deter- 
 ininalion of the people of Columbus lo allow iionion- 
 
 mob violence was too plain to be mistaken by the 
 
 rioters. No further disturbance occurred, and for 
 days matters remained unchanged. The failure of 
 the strikes at otlier points disheartened the strikers, 
 and they made no resistance to the running of the 
 trains on their roads. By the 2nd of August both 
 the Baltimore & Ohio and Pan Handle roads had re- 
 sumed their freight tratlic. When it was certain that 
 the strike was dead, the troops were withdrawn from 
 Newark, and the Columbus companies were dismiss- 
 ed. Other parts of the State were affected by the 
 outbreak. Zanesville, on the line of the Baltimore 
 tfc Ohio Hailroad, was one of the first to be plunged 
 into the excitement. The train hands took part in 
 tlie strike about the time it was begun at Newark; 
 and on the morning of the 23d a mob of about two 
 thousand men assembled in front of a new hotel in 
 process of erection, and onlered the men at work on 
 the building to slop. The demand was at once com- 
 plied with, and the moIi then visited in succession 
 the various manufacturing establishments of the 
 town, and compelled the workmen to abandon their 
 posts, thiis forcing over fifty establishments into idle- 
 ness. The rioters also compelled the street railway 
 company to discontinue the running of their cars. 
 No greater violence was attempted, but the proceed- 
 ings of the rioters thoroughly alarmed the citizens, 
 and a vigilance committee, composed of about one 
 thousand of the most reliable citizens of Zanesville, 
 was organized and aruicil. They were placed on 
 duty on the afternoon of the 23d, and at once began 
 the arrest of such rioters as could be secured. Under 
 their protection the street cars resumed their trips 
 about three o'clock in the afternoon, and the mob 
 slunk away. From this time Zanesville was quiet. 
 The strike on the railroad was adjusted between the 
 Baltimore AOhio Company and its employes, and 
 the mob did not venture again to raise its head. 
 
 Cleveland, on Lake Erie, is an important railroad 
 point. The Lake Shore & Jlichigan Soutliern Divi- 
 sion of the New York Central Bailroad passes through 
 it. This road engaged in the strike at an early peri- 
 od, the troubles along its line beginning at Buffalo. 
 The strike (luickly spread to Cleveland. On the 
 morning of tlie 23d of July the men in the Lake 
 Shore i Jlichigau Southern shops, to the number of 
 2.50 or 30U, quit work, held a meeting, and addressed 
 a communication to the Superintendent, embodying 
 the following demands : 
 
 F/rit — An increase of twenty pvr cent, on wages 
 received July 1st, and that such advance date from 
 July 1st. 
 
 iierond — That assurances be given by the compaii}' 
 that no employe shall suffer on account of his par- 
 ticipation in the strike. 
 
 A Committee waited on the Superintendent, and 
 were informed tliat he could give no answer until the 
 matter was laid before President Vanderbilt, and 
 that he would forward it immediately, liefore leav- 
 ing, the Committee assured him that no property 
 should be destroyed, but that the men were deter- 
 luiiied that no work should be done in the shops un- 
 til the demand was acceded to. Thesemen liad been 
 receiving from nineteen to twenty-one cents per liour, 
 according to skill, and were running on ten hours 
 time. 
 
 The next move was by the hands in the freight de- 
 pot of the Lake Shore road to the number of 225. 
 Their demand was that the company should jiay 
 them *1.5(» a day for ten hours work and .^2 for the 
 same amount of work on Sunday; that I hey be paid 
 in jiroporlion for overwork ; that they be paid for 
 the time lost by the strike, and tliat they receive 
 their pay by tlie 15th of <ach month. These propo- 
 sitions were also forvv;irde(l to New York by the Su- 
 perintendent. During the afternoon n meeting was 
 held by the shop and fniglit men for tin- ]iurpose of 
 concerting action iiniong themselves aiul with the 
 train men already out at Collinwood. A Committee 
 of tell was si'h'Cted In ( nnfc'r w illi the brakemen and
 
 ElOT. 
 
 723 
 
 UIOT. 
 
 liicincii anil with oUiors who mif;lil, lin mi a Htrikw. 
 'Pile imc'tinj; wiiH orderly tlir(>ii).'lii>iil. and wlnii a 
 polilical Hpcaker of frrcciiliack and liilmr reform len- 
 clencies was noticed in the nMini.llie I'reHident arone 
 and said that they wanted nothiiiic from the politi- 
 cians, as th(t men were perfectly able to utteiwl to 
 their own Imsiness. Collinwooil, a short distance 
 from Cleveland, was the point where the I^ake Shore, 
 trains were held. All was (piiet tlwre on the 2i)d, 
 only an o<rcasional jiony ciiiiinebeinjrallowed to move 
 aloiii; the traitk. The strikers preserved order and 
 obliijed others to do so. 'Phey compelled all the sa- 
 loons to close, and ))i-rmitled none of their men to 
 indiilv:e in Hc|uor. 'Plie side tracks were crowdi-d 
 with freiijlit curs and tlie round honsi' was full of en- 
 gines. .\ l.'M'iie lUiMilier of slock cars liad been un- 
 loaded, the sheep bcini; driven into the country. 
 The lioirs were hauled to the yards near by, where a 
 hundred dicil from lai'k of water, (battle were driv- 
 en on to I'ainesville, where the company could care 
 for lliein. The men in the machine sho))s, with the 
 train men of the ('levcliiiid. ('oluiiilius, CiiKiniuiti & 
 Inilianapolis Hailroad, went out on strike on the 2'M, 
 as they were refused tlut increas<' of twenty jicr cent, 
 which they demanded on Saturday. At noon the 
 shop men held a mceliu;; nt their sho])s to receive 
 any communication from the company in response 
 to their demand and the establishment of a regular 
 pay-da}'. None coining, they decided to strike, and 
 when leaving were mei. by tlieir President, who ad- 
 dressed them, lie expressed reirrct at haviiiL' liecn 
 .so long delayed at his otli<-e, and then ex|iliiincd that, 
 as President of the company, he owed a mutual ob- 
 ligation to stockholders and employes, and that em- 
 barrassment must necessarily arise in adjusting mat- 
 ters so as to fultil his duties to both, lie blamed the 
 ditliculty on too much cutting of rates, and said that 
 no one had done more toward a jjoolingof rates than 
 he. A consultation was then lu'ld at which a com- 
 promise was made, the men receiving an advance of 
 ten percent, on and after .Vugusl Ist, and working 
 ten hours instead of eight hours; they, on their part, 
 agreed to go back to work the n<'Xt morning. The 
 advance was to be general, benetitting the train men 
 also. An effort was made by the Kake Shore men to 
 induce the employes of the Atlantic & Great West- 
 ern road to join in the strike, but the latter had the 
 independence to refuse, stating that their relations 
 with their company were satisfactory. 
 
 A letter from Collinwood, on the 24th, thus 
 describes the state of affairs there: "Everything 
 presents the apiiearance of a Sunday in a New Kng- 
 land village at Collinwood, the little station where 
 the Lake Shore round house and shops are located. 
 There are no crowds, no threats — simply the men 
 sitting around in small groups, arrayed in their ho- 
 liday attire, talking over the situation. The men 
 have bi'cii anxious of late to have the remaining cat- 
 tle cars unloaded, but the yard-master of the Erie 
 division has seemed to be very slow in doing this. 
 They say that it is cruel to let the animals suffer. 
 .\bo"ut five hundred and lifty cattle have already been 
 driven to Painesville, and others will probably follow. 
 A very large number of the animals have died. One 
 car ccintaiuiug 1.000 fowls gives forth an almost in- 
 tolerable stench. The dead hogs are being carted 
 away to the soap factories, and many of them buried 
 to avoiil the plague that must soon follow if the 
 dead animal matter is not removed. Great trouble 
 arises from iusufflcient means of watering the cattle, 
 and scores of them are constantly dying of thirst. 
 There is. of course, much feeling against some of 
 the otlicials of the road, the men saying that if the 
 ollicers liad treated them properly they would not 
 have complained of the reduction. At the first meet- 
 ing, held at ten a. m.. the prospects of their propo- 
 sitions being acceded to were fully discussed. The 
 sum of what was expressed was that President Van 
 (ierbill cannot exercise his power here as he could in 
 a monarchy. This is a republic, and the poor man 
 
 hIiuU have IiIh rights and IiIh family muHt be «up> 
 portiil. Kurtbermore, there will be no trouble ut 
 Collinwood, no fights rir arson if llie militia is ke|it 
 buck ; but tli(^ moment the militia is used in the huj)- 
 port of monopoly then the luliorer will no longer 
 keep quilt. 'I'here is much feeling among the men 
 over the i|Ui'Stioii of passes Oni' man said ; "Siip- 
 i)ose 1 am (ordered to run my train down to ('lev<v 
 land; I get for this sixte<'n cents ; but I iniiHt return 
 liere to report to my superior, and for that I must 
 pay my fare of tweiily-tive cents." jle fell that tliis 
 was an nnbeanible outrage, Another grave com- 
 plaint lies in the fact that the men are only paid 
 while in actual service. For instance, if a man run8 
 from Collinwood to Toledo, which would lake a 
 little nK)re than a day, he w>iulil be paid for that; 
 but hi' is liable to lie off there for lUrro days without 
 pay, although re((uired lo be ready to report for 
 duty at any nioment. In this way tlic small pay 
 earned is entirely absorbed." Matters continiiefl in 
 this state until tlie last of July, when the strikes on 
 the other roads having been settled, and it having 
 become plain to the men that they could not curry 
 their point, they ceased tlieir interference with the 
 movements of the road, and siirnitied to the General 
 Superirtendent their willingness to return lo work 
 at the reduced wages. The Superintendent agreed 
 lo correct some locul abuses in regard lo e.xtru pay 
 and the granting of passes, and repeated to the Luke 
 Shore men the promise to increase wages when the 
 business of the road should justify sueii a slej). By 
 the 3il of August, business was entirely resumed by 
 the Lake Shore road. 
 
 There was considerable excitement also at Cincin- 
 nati. On the 23d of July the trainmen on the Ohio 
 ifc Jlississippi Hailroad joined in the strike, and pre- 
 vented the passage of trains. The employes of the 
 Cincinnati. Hamilton & Dayton Hailroad having been 
 informed that their wages" would be reduced ten per 
 cent, on the 33d, protested against the proposed re- 
 iluction, and announced their intention to strike if 
 it should be enforced. The authorities of this road 
 thereupon reconsidered their decision, and the wages 
 remained unchanged. This determination was an- 
 nounced to the men on the night of the 22tl, and con- 
 sequently they took no part in the strike. Cincin- 
 nati was greatly aroused. Mas.s-meetings were held 
 ill the market places on the afternoon of the ■22d, 
 and were generally attended by men who had no in- 
 terests in the railroads entering Cincinnati. They 
 were addressed liy speakers of the communist stamp 
 and the excitement was fanned lo a high pit<-h. 
 Cincinnati contains a large population of idle and 
 vicious persons, who are always ready to join in an 
 outbreak. A large part of the militia force of the 
 city had been sent to Newark to hold the rioters 
 there in check, and the preservation of order de- 
 pended mainly upon the police and the better class 
 of citizens. The morning of the 23d of July found 
 Cincinnati in a feverish and dangerous state The 
 rioters, who comprised the worst elements of the 
 place, had taken courage from the fact that Ihey 
 had not neen interfered with, and had increased so 
 rajndlvthat they now compriseila large and formid- 
 able force. By the afternoon they had beconie 
 threatening, and" had completely wrested the strike 
 from the liands of the railroad men. Early in the 
 afternoon a crowd of perhaps fifteen hundred, com- 
 posed mostly of boys from thirteen to twenty-one 
 years of age! and backed up by sullen, vicious-look- 
 ing men. with their bands behind their backs, sur- 
 rounded the Cincinnati. Hamilton & Dayton Depot. 
 As the half-past two train was about to leave, a boy 
 of not more than eighteen sprang upon the engine, 
 which had not vet been coupled to the train, and 
 pulled the throttle. The engineer, who was near 
 by, jumped on the engine in time losave it from de- 
 struction. The crowd then demanded that he should 
 come down, but he stooil by his post until an order 
 came from the President to" run the engine into the
 
 BIOT. 
 
 724 
 
 BIOT. 
 
 round house and abandon all trains for the day. The 
 mob headed by two or three villainous-looking men, 
 then started for the macliiue and repair shops of the 
 company to force the employes to quit work. At 
 the rail shop they were met b_v an officer of the road, 
 who asked them if they were railroad men or strikers. 
 They answered, •'Xo," but they wanted those shops 
 closed up. The workmen at last jielded. against 
 their will, and left the shop. The crowd then went 
 through the yard, taking each shop in succession, 
 and compelling the men to quit work. This was 
 tlie nature of the strike on the Cincinnati, Hamilton 
 it Dayton road. The company's emploj'es declared 
 that if they had been permitted tliey would them- 
 selves have driven back the mob and started the 
 trains. A letter from Cincinnati said : "Loud con- 
 demnation is heard on all hands of the inactivity of 
 tlie police, who have, so far stood by and watched 
 tlie progress of the rioters without lifting a hand. 
 The entire militia force of the city is two lumdred 
 miles away, and it is beginning to be felt that the 
 only protection of life and property is to be found in 
 vigilance committees and individual efforts by citi- 
 zens. The demand for muskets and revolvers has 
 been so great as to completely e.xhaust the stoi-k of 
 tlie gun stores. It is noticed that these arms are 
 bought by the respectable part of the comnuicity. 
 Bankers are beginning to fear raids upon their vaults, 
 and anxiety is felt by the officials of the United States 
 sub-treasur_v, where several millions in currency are 
 locked up in old safes. Threats have been made by 
 the communists that they will burn tlie great niauu- 
 f.ncturiug establishments, and no one would be sur- 
 prised if they were carried into execution. There 
 are men in this cit_y wlio were engaged in the pillage 
 and arson at Pittsburgh, and the_v do not liesitate to 
 say that they came here on the same mission. This 
 afternoon the Mayor delivered a speech to the 
 thieves and rapscallions at the Cincinnati, Ham- 
 ilton & Dayton depot, entreating them not to burn 
 and destroy. "What good would it do you," he ask- 
 ed, "to set fire to buildings?" "It would show that 
 we are men," answered a voice in the crowd. 
 
 The early evening trains on the Indianapolis, Cin- 
 cinnati & Lafayette road were stopped liy uncoupling 
 the cars as fast as the engineers attempted to pull them 
 out. Thousands of men doing business in the city and 
 living in the distant suburbs have no means of getting 
 home to their families to-night. If the present condi- 
 tion of affairs continues, the old stage-coach will be 
 lirouglit into requisition for transporting inails and 
 ])as>eugers. Business is almost entirely suspended, it 
 being impossible to move goods in any direction." 
 
 At niglitfall on the 23d Cincinnati was almost at 
 the mercy of the mob. During the night a party of 
 thieves and tramps, having no connection with the 
 railroad strike, set tire to the bridge of the Ohio & 
 Mississippi Railroad over Mill Creek. The alarm was 
 quickly given, and the fire was \>mI out. The rioters 
 who had been engaged in tlie effort to burn the bridge 
 then witlidrew to a point on the river sufficiently re- 
 mote to secure them from the iiilerference of the po- 
 lice, and passed the night lliere. At early daw'n on 
 tlie 2-ltli they seized all tlie milk and market wagons 
 coming into tlie city bj' that road, and gutted theni. 
 The danger wliich threatened Cincinnati on tlie morn- 
 iug of tlie 2-lth was very great, and aroused the au- 
 thorities to the necessity of taking more vigorous ac- 
 tion than they had _yet tliought necessar}'. The olh- 
 ccrs of the various railroads running from Cincinnati, 
 with the exception of the Ohio & Mississippi road, 
 which was still engaged in the strike, determined to 
 run their trains in spite of the mob, and accordingly 
 armed tlieir employes with revolvers and coii]>ling 
 piu^. A nuiiibirof these armed eini)loy('s were |)l:iced 
 on ea(rli train, and whenever a gang of roughs under- 
 took to interfen^ with the running of thi' trains, they 
 were mi!t by the determined employes, who informed 
 them that they could not succeed in their objects 
 witlioul lighting. Tlie rioters did not choose to light, 
 
 and the trains were unmolested. The men of the 
 Ohio & Mississippi road refused to join the rioters in 
 plundering, and by this refusal grt-atly disheartened 
 the mob. A meeting of the Police Commissioners 
 was held in the morning, and a call was made upon 
 the citizens to volunteer as special policemen. Large 
 numbers of citizens responded to the call, and on 
 every side a stern determination was manifested to 
 make short work of the mob should the necessity for 
 a conflict arise. The rioters were overawe<l by" this 
 determination on the part of the citizens, and gradu- 
 ally slunk away. By the night of the 24tli tlie dan- 
 ger in Cincinnati was practically over. The city con- 
 tinued in a feverish state for several days longt-r, but 
 no further trouble was experienced. A number of 
 arrests of rioters were made by the police, and the 
 mob was shown that the sternest measures would be 
 used against it. 
 
 The strike on the Pittsburgh, Port Wayne & Chi- 
 cago road, which, began at Allegheny City, Pennsyl- 
 vania, rapidly extended westward. At eight o'clock, 
 on the night of the 21st of July, the trainmen of this 
 company at Fort Wayne joined in the strike. The 
 freight train, which should have left Fort Wayne for 
 Chicago at eight o'clock, was made up, but the" brake- 
 men and firemen refused to go on dut}-. The engin- 
 eer and conductor declined to take the train out 
 without any crew, and the officials were unable to 
 obtain substitutes for the strikers. Every employe' 
 of the company peremptorily refused to take their 
 places. In a very ghort time a crowd of several hun- 
 dred men had gathered at the railway station and 
 proceeded at once to spike the switches. Squads 
 were detailed to guard the main and side tracks ex- 
 tending through the city, to prevent the passage of 
 trains. News of the strike spread rapidly, and soon 
 the crowd swelled to several thousand." The em- 
 ployes of the Wabash and other railways appeared 
 in force, and encouraged the strikers to persist, off- 
 ering to render any assistance required. The ex- 
 citement was quickly at fever heat, and the officials 
 announced to the strikers their determination to run 
 trains out at all hazards, and the men declared that 
 no train should be moved from the city by any pow- 
 er less formidable than the United States troops, un- 
 til the order ma'iiing the ten per cent, reduction in 
 wages was rescinded. Some of the general officers 
 of the road attempted to turn the switches, but were 
 driven away without accomplisliing anything. They 
 got on an engine and made repeated efforts to take 
 the train out of the yards, but were forced to desist. 
 One engine wiper, who volunteered to serve as fire- 
 man, was taken off the engine by the strikers and 
 subjected to rough usage. Master Mechanic, Super- 
 intendents and JNIasters oi Transportation were also 
 compelled to dismount from the locomotive. The 
 police made several ineffectual efforts to scatter the 
 mob, and at two o'clock, on the morning of thc22d, 
 the Mayor read a proclamation ordering the crowd 
 to disperse and refrain from disorderly conduct and 
 obstruction of traffic. He was hissed down. The 
 proclamation was printed and circulated among the 
 strikers, who paid no attention to it. 
 
 On the morning of the 23d of July the aspect of 
 affairs at Fort Wayne was very threatening. About 
 eight o'clock a large force of strikers visited the ex- 
 tensive shops of Pittsburgh. Fort Wiiyncaiid Chicago 
 Railway, where 1,000 men are enqiloyed, and insist- 
 ed that they should be closed uji. The men said 
 they would not sto]) work until tlie_v received orders 
 froin the offieitds, but they were threatened witli 
 force and succumbed. The shops were at once closed 
 up, and the fires put out. Committees then went 
 east and west on liaud curs, and iiulueed the section 
 and trackmen for a considerable distance to stop 
 work. These men came to the city in the afternoon, 
 and a<liled a very ugly element to the crowd already 
 assembU'il. A rumor prevailed Hint all the railroad 
 shops and manufactories in the city would be com- 
 pelled to shut down, but they ran all day as usual
 
 HIOT. 
 
 iZ.i 
 
 KIOT. 
 
 williimt intprfpronco. In the fiflcrnnon the slrikfTH 
 lu^lil II luru^c iricrtiii;;, iiiiil iiiiiilc cxorliil.-iiil. ilcinaiiilH 
 of llic ruilnmil cflliiuls. HialiiiLC llml Ihi'V wmilil iinl 
 rcsuiiu! workunlil the force wiisrc|il.i(i-(l as it rxisl- 
 cd prior to .Iiiiir I si, botli as to iiiiinlirr and rate of 
 wilf^f'S, 1111(1 insisliii'^ upon Ilic almniloniiiciil of all 
 <;lassi(icati()iis in tlicrank and pay of cni^'inccrs. They 
 also a<lopt('d an address to tlie strikers, wlii<-li was 
 printed and eiriMJaleii, and liad u jrood ('(reel. Tlie 
 address was as follows: 
 
 Stbikerh — News from ['iltshiirijli ami otlier rail- 
 road points of terrible saeriliees of life and properly 
 is aoniethini; thai should be justly eoiisiilered hy you 
 all. The latest despatches show thai a very small 
 percentai^e of strikers aretakiiiL' an active part in I In; 
 itrealiiml lirrible rleslniclioii of Hie company's prop- 
 erly, lint thai il is mostly done by oiitsi<lers,wlio, by 
 such acts, believe themselves practically cxpressini; 
 the wishes of the strikers. Vour friends and co-la- 
 borers hereby <lesire to express the earnest hopiMind 
 will give their assistance, that you will, should any 
 such thiiii; occur here, endeavor, by every means in 
 your power, to jirolect the pro|ierly of the comjiany 
 in this city. Y<mi are perfectly able to briiiL' iibout a 
 compromise w ilhoiit violence, or sulTer others to de- 
 stroy the property of the company. 'I'o destroy jirop- 
 erty will positively not remedy the malter. but, on the 
 contrary, cause a slow restoration of better times. 
 Do your work justly, honorably, quietly and thoui;ht- 
 fully, and allow no disinterested persons to meddle 
 wdth the properties you helped to create, and which 
 stand as everlastimi monuments to your skill, perse- 
 verance and eneriry. Do as you would b<' done by, 
 and <lo not acl in too irrcat haste. If the comjiany 
 has lieen unjust in its demands upon you, settle it as 
 peaceably as you can without allowini; the destruc- 
 tion of railroad institutions, that — to a very great ex- 
 tent — constitute the future prosperity, life, comfort 
 and pride of our city. 
 
 The City Council met in special session durim; the 
 afternoon, and issued a call to the strikers to dis- 
 perse. An extra police force of 20lt men was ordered 
 to be sworn in at once, which was done, and tln' 
 Mayor was directed to close all the drinkimr saloons 
 of the city. The strikers remaineil tirin. They took 
 possession of the depots, yards and shops of the com- 
 pany, and )irevented the passaire of all freii;ht trains. 
 At the same time they made arransiemenls to guard 
 the company's properly from injury or destruction. 
 Up to this time llie Piilsburirh, Fort Wayne & Chi- 
 cago Railroad was the only road entering Fort 
 Wayne which was atfected by the strike. On the 
 24lli, however, the train men on the Wabash and the 
 ■ Grand Hapids it Indiana Railroads demanded an in- 
 crease of ten per cent, in their wages, and notified 
 the olficers of Iheir respective roads that they would 
 strike if their deni'inds were not complied with, j 
 During the night of the '24th, Fori Wayne was ably 
 guarded by large bodies of armed men, who were 
 kept on duty to iirolect the railway shops, rolling 
 stock and private manufactories. The strikers furn- 
 ished guards wherever desired, and rendered all the 
 protection to properly which was necessary. At a 
 late hour two gangs of drunken tramps, numbering 
 from tifty to a hundred each, gathered at the stock j 
 yards and railway bridge across the St. JIary's 
 river and made vicious demonstrations and ugly | 
 threats. The strikers, upon being apprised of this, I 
 sent squads of men on hand cars to disperse the 
 mob, which they ilid most efTei-tually, driving all ! 
 of the tramps some distance beyond the eily limils. 
 The men were kept going on the hand cars all night 
 to prevent the g;ilhering of any more such assem- 
 blages. During the evening a large mob of si'clion 
 a'.iii track men from the Western division of the 
 road, many of them under the intluence of liquor, 
 seized a number of band cars and enlered (^ibimliia 
 City, where the I'ittsburgh & Fort Wayne Company 
 was buiding a new depot, and compelled the men 
 employed therein to slop work. Tlu^se liaiuls drank 
 
 frpoly and noon becanie very rioloiid. They 8l«rtcd 
 
 for till' city on hand cars, iiiakin)^ Ihreutu of vio- 
 lence and inceniliarism. A force of Htrikern, lenrn- 
 ing of the thn^ateneil invasion, took un engine and 
 coach anil went out and met the mob. 1'lie Htri- 
 kers were well armed, and they <'onipelled the 
 drunken rabble to turn back and iilmiidoii their in- 
 tended invasion of Fort Wayne. The slrikes in tliiH 
 as ill oilier instances were uniformly on the side of 
 good order, and saved the city from the Hcrioiis dan- 
 gers which menacerl it. Passenger trains were Htill 
 running on the I'ittsburgh. Fort Wayne J: Chicago 
 Kailway and wi-re not molested. On the night of 
 the 21tli the strikers nolilied all of their niiiiibcr 
 who desirerl to come from Crestline to Fort Wayne 
 to get on till; passenger trains, and if the condticiors 
 insisted upon collecting fare they were instructed 
 to lake jiossession of the train and run il to hiiit 
 themselves. Their fare was remitted, however, by 
 the conductors, and all dilliculty was lliu.s avoided. 
 The officers of the I'ittsburgh, Fort Wayne <k Clii- 
 (■ago Railroad made no attemiit to move the traioH 
 f>f their road. They appealed to the Governors of 
 the States through which their line ran for protec- 
 tion, and ordererl Ihe discontinuance of all trainH. 
 The strikers thereupon look po.s.se.ssion of the road, 
 anil those a* Allegheny City and Fort Wayne, acting 
 in concert, ran the passenger trains with considera- 
 ble regularity. On Ihe night of the a-Otli a secret 
 meeting of the strikers was held at Fort Wayne, 
 which, among other things, delerinineil to take 
 formal possession of the road, and run it to suit 
 themselves. The strikers selected liiree of their own 
 number to till Ihe i)o<itions held liy the Su|ii-rinten- 
 dent. Master .Mechanic and .Master of Transporta- 
 tion. These otlicials soon learned that il was the 
 intention of the strikers to take possession of llieir 
 olflces and eontrol the telegraph wires, and deter- 
 mined to hold their olfices against any attempt to 
 oust them. They obtained from the city authorities 
 a strong guanl of police for Iheir ollices, and made 
 their iire]iaralions for resistance. The strikers, upon 
 hearing of these ]ireparalions, wisely decided not 
 to attempt the seizure of the offices, which would sure- 
 ly bring them in contlicl with the civil authorities. 
 They had practical (lossession of the road, and the 
 seizure of the ottiees mentioned would have given 
 them no real advantage. On the morning of the 26th 
 a Committee <if the Pittsburgh A: Fort Wayne strikers 
 left for Pittsburgh to confer with the railroad officers^ 
 having rcceved an invitation to do so. They were 
 joined at Crestline, Alliance and other stations by 
 Committees from those points bound on a similar 
 errand. On the same day a Commillee of twenly- 
 Iwo train men of the Wabash Railroad, which had 
 been sent to Toledo to confer with the officers of 
 that road, returned to Fort Wayne. A meeting of 
 the Wabash employes was at once called, and the 
 committee slated the results of their conference. 
 They reported a very satisfactory inler\Mew with the 
 President of the road, who had agreed to redress 
 their real grievances and to advance their pay when- 
 ever the business of the Company would admit. The 
 meeting was very stormy, one element desiring to 
 go to extremes. Heller counsels (inally prevailed, 
 and at noon the meeting adjourned, having decided 
 to abandon the strike it the employes at other por- 
 tions of the line would do Ihe same. X Committee 
 was appointed to go to Lafayette and Logansport 
 to urge the cessation of the strike, but this was not 
 necessarj-, as the men at those places telegraphed 
 that they liad decided to resume work as soon as 
 the Company desired them to do so. 
 
 The collapse of the strike on the Wabash Railroad 
 caused a perceptible discouragement of the Pittsburgh 
 & Fort Wayne strikers, and they were from this time 
 somewhat less detiant than before, though they de- 
 clared themselves contidcut of bringing the company 
 to their terms. The sentiment of the people, who 
 were put to great inconvenience by the embargo OQ
 
 SIOT. 
 
 726 
 
 BIOT. 
 
 freight traffic anci on travel, was turning sprcdily 
 against tbu strikers. On the night of tlie 2Uth the 
 citizens of Fort Wayne held a meeting, ami pledged 
 their support to the authorities in their efforts to put 
 down the strike and place the railroad company in 
 possession of their property. The Committee ap- 
 pointed by the Fort Wayne strikers proceeded to 
 Pittsburgh, and had an interview with the officials of 
 the road. The result was a refusal by the Company 
 to grant the demands of the strikers, and a resolve 
 on the part of the strikers to continue their move- 
 ment. Un the afternoon of the2'.)lh an effort was made 
 • by the officers of the road to start a train from Fort 
 Wayne. ^Vn engine was run from the rotmtl house in- 
 to the yard, but the strikers gathered en masse, and 
 took the engine back, having forced the engineer 
 and firemen from their posts. The city authorities 
 now demauiled that the strikers should cease their 
 interference with the railroad, but met with a stub- 
 born refusal. Not being strong enough to enforce 
 the law, a call was made upon the Governor of Indi- 
 ana for troops. As has been related, the strike on 
 the Fort Wayne road at Allegheny Cit}', Pennsylva- 
 nia, ended on the arrival of the Governor at Pitts- 
 burgh with troops. Seeing that they were powerless 
 to resist tlie force brought by tlie Governor, the Al- 
 legheny strikers surrendered to the Company and 
 ceased their interference with the railroad. This 
 surrender greatly disheartened the strikers at Fort 
 Wayne and at other points on the road. Towards 
 the last of Jul}' many of the men began to withdraw 
 from the strike, which tliey now saw was hopeless, 
 and these desertions still further disheartened their 
 comrades. On the 3d of August the Sheriff notified 
 the men that troops were on tlieir w-ay to Fort 
 Wayne, and that the blockade of the railroad would 
 be raised the next day regardless of consequences. 
 He advLsed them not to provoke a conflict in which 
 their defeat was certain. A meeting of the strikers 
 was then held, and the men decided that they wcndd 
 return to work, provided that the Superintendent 
 would promise that no man should be removed for 
 taking part in tlie strike, and that he would use his 
 personal inlluence with the Board of Directors to 
 have all the grievances of the strikers redressed. He 
 readily gave these pledges, and the men thereupon 
 abandoned tlie strike and reported for duty. From 
 this time there was no furtlier trouble on the F'ort 
 Wayne road. Other points of Indiana were also 
 mucli e.xcited bytheslrike. The Ohio it Mississippi 
 Railroad runs across the southern part of Indiana. 
 The strike extended rapidly along this road from 
 Cincinnati towards St. Louis. On the 3'2d of July 
 freight trains were stopped at Vincennes on this road, 
 but passenger trains were not interfered with. No 
 violence was resorted to by tlie men on this line, and 
 after holding out for several days, the strikers, dis- 
 heartened liy the failure of the movement in other 
 parts of the country, surrendc red to the ('omiiaiiy, 
 and returned to duty. (Ju the 2odthe train men and 
 shop men on the Vandalia Railroad struck at Terre 
 Haute and other points along the road. The ma- 
 chine-shops at Terre Haute, employing about six 
 hundred men, were closed. The strikers were ((uiet 
 and orderly, and passed resolutions declaring that 
 they would abstain from drinking intoxicating li- 
 quors during the strike. One of the principal cen- 
 ters of excitement was Indianapolis, tlie capital of 
 the State. The strike began there on the arid, and 
 embraced all the lines entering the city. The freight 
 trains were stopped, and on some of the roads only 
 the mail and express ears were allowed to be taken 
 over the line. The Iiiiliaiiiipolis and St. Louis men 
 stopped work on the li'M. and compelled all freight 
 trains along the eiilire route to lie over. 
 
 On the 2<;tli of July the tiovernorof Indiana issued 
 the following proclamation: .Many disaffected em- 
 ployes of the railroad companies doing business in 
 this State liave renounced their employments be- 
 cause of alleged grievances and have conspired to 
 
 enforce tlieir demands by detaining trains of their 
 late employers, seizing and conlri)lliuL' their [iroper- 
 ty intimidating their managers, prohibiting by vio- 
 lence their attempts to coniluet their business, and 
 driving awa}' passengers and freight offered for 
 transportation. The peace of the community is se- 
 siously disturbed. By these lawless acts every class 
 of society is made to suffer. The conduct and hap- 
 piness of many families not pani<'s to the grievances 
 are sacrificed. A controversy which belongs to our 
 courts or to the province of peaceful arbitration 
 or negotiation is made the excuse for an obstruction 
 of trade and travel over chartered highways within 
 our State ; the commerce of the entire country is in- 
 terfered with, and the reputation of our communi- 
 ty threatened with dishonor among our neighbors. 
 This disregard of law and the rights and privileges 
 of our citizens and of those of sister States cannot 
 be tolerated. The machinery provided bj'law for 
 the adjustment of private grievances must be used 
 as tlie only resort against debtors, individual or cor- 
 porate. The process of tlie Courts is deemed suffi- 
 cient for the enforcem^ent of civil remedies as well as 
 the penalties of the criminal code, and must be exe- 
 cuted equally in each case. To the end that the ex- 
 isting combination be dissolved and destroyed in its 
 lawless form I invoke the iiid of all law-abiding citi- 
 zens of our State. I ask that they denounce and 
 condemn this infraction of public order and endeav- 
 or to dissuade these offenders against the peace and 
 dignity of our State from further acts of lawlessness. 
 To the judiciary I appeal for the prompt and rigid 
 administration of justice in proceedings of this na- 
 ture. To the Sheriff of the several counties I com- 
 mend a careful study of the duties imposed upon 
 them by the statute which they have sworn to dis- 
 charge. I admonish each to use the full power of 
 his county in his preservation of order and the sup- 
 pression of breaches of the peace, assuring them of 
 my liearty co-operation, with the power of the State 
 at' my command, when satisfied that occasion re- 
 quires its exercise. To those who have arrayed 
 themselves against government and are subverting 
 law and order and Uie best interests of society, by 
 the waste and destruction of property, the derange- 
 ments of trains and the ruin of all classes of labor, 
 I appeal for an immediate abandonment of their un- 
 wise and unlawful confederation. I convey to them 
 the voice of the law. which they cannot afford to 
 disregard. I trust that this admonition may be so 
 promptly heeded that a resort to extreme measures 
 will be unnecessary, and that the authority of the 
 law and the dignity of the State, against which they 
 have so grievously offended, may be restored and 
 duly respected liereafter. 
 
 The Indiana Central, Lafayette & Illinois, and 
 Bloomington & Western Railri"«ads were being oper- 
 ated at the time of the strike by receivers appointed 
 by the United States Circuit Court. The Judge or- 
 dered the United States Marshal to protect these 
 roads against the interference of the srtikers, and it 
 was announced that the force of United States troops 
 quartered in Indianapolis would be used, if neces- 
 sary, to enforce the orders of the Court. The ne- 
 cessity for emiiloying force never arose, however. 
 The failure of the strikers in other jiarts of the coun- 
 try, and the manifest determination of the citizens 
 to n])h"ld the authorities in their repressive meas- 
 ures, disheartened the strikers. Throughout the 
 whole movement all the strikers refrained from vio- 
 lence, and so avoide<l a conllict wilhthc' civil author- 
 ities. After holding out for a fi'W days they la^gan 
 to show signs of weakness, and gradually surrt'uder- 
 ed to their respective conipaniis. By the 1st of Au- 
 gust, the lr(^ullle was over, and Indiana was at peaci; 
 again. The roads had resumed their business, and 
 no further interruption with them was experienced. 
 
 {;hicago was ((uickly affected by tlie strike. The 
 city contains a large and well-organized party of so- 
 cialists and communists, who on several occasions
 
 RIOT. 
 
 727 
 
 KIOT. 
 
 hull niaiiifcHlcil uii iiiinily (liNpiihilidii iiiiil ii dcliT- 
 niiiialioii Id liiiiin' uii ii rinl wliciicvcr iifuviiriililc op. 
 |)i)i'liniily sliipiilil orciir. Kor miumi' vvcrUs iirrviniis 
 to the riiilriiiiil Hirikc llirsr iiirn liiiil liciii picpiiriiii; 
 for II |Hililic iMcrliii;^, iillcr uliicli llirv iiilriiili'il In 
 , niiircli 111 proccHHion lo llic (lily Hull iilid iIimmiiikI of 
 the (U)iiiiii(m Coiiiicil Ilir collcclioii of Ijii- hiick luxes 
 (liK! the cily, iiiid the eiiiplnyinciil of nil the iinoe- 
 cuplcd liiliniers liy I he iiiiiiiiiipiil itiilhorilieH. The 
 eerliiiiily of I he niilroiid sliiUe nnehint; Cliiiuiro L'live 
 the eoiniiiiiiilsls very i;ii-al eiicoiini;,rirMeiil . Meel- 
 iu};s were held ill viirioiis parts of the eily, on the 
 33d of July, and were loiiseii to fever lieiil liy the 
 news of tli(^ lerril)l<M)iilliii'ak at I'itlshur^li. The 
 eomiiiiiiiists seemed to seent, in the ;;eiieriil iineusi- 
 ness that ])reviuled, their opportunity for pliiinrini; 
 the lieuiilifiil Lake City into aiiarehy ami ruin. The 
 Workin^jiiien's I'arly. a eoiiiMiiinist orL'anizalion, is- 
 sued Ihe folliiwiii;; addres.ses to the vvorkini;iiieii of 
 the United Stales : 
 
 C!oMHAi)i;s : In the desperate. striiiDlle for e.vist- 
 ence now lieinj; iiiaintained liy the workingnicn of 
 the jrreat railroads throufihoiu the land, we e.xpect 
 that every inemher will render all possilile moral 
 and Kiibst:iiitiiil assistance to our lirelhren, and sup- 
 port all reasonable measures which may he found 
 necessary to them. 
 
 CoMiiADKs:- Wecall your attention to the following 
 ()ueslions. lielie villi; that Ihe measures su^'irested wili, 
 if adopted, solve the diHieulty now pendini; on all 
 the i^real railroad lines of the land : t'i/Kt. J^roper 
 steps should be taken by the national i;overnmeut to 
 enalile it to take ])ossession of and operate all the 
 railroads anil ti'leirraph lines in the country, as is 
 now done in all the more advaiiceil countries of 
 Euro])c. thus destroying' the present and most power- 
 ful monopoly of inodern limes. Sinuiil. The es- 
 tablishment in every State, and by the national i;ov- 
 ernment, of an eight hour work day— Ihus emiiloy- 
 ing all the idle workmen wherever increasing num- 
 bers, ccmstantly added to by the rigid introduction 
 of labor-saving machinery, is a constunt menace to 
 all those fortunati' enough to have employment, and 
 must invariably reduce wages to a rati' consistent 
 with the staiKlard of living. The most ignorant and 
 iinedncaled workers whose labor can lie utilized. 
 
 It was hoped l>y the communist leaders that these 
 document;-, would bring them large reinforcements 
 from the genuine working classes. Throuirhout the 
 22d of .luly great uneasiness and un.xiety prevailed 
 among the citizens of Chicago. .\11 were apprehen- 
 sive of Ihe etTect of the excitement iiiion th<' poorer 
 classes of the cily, many of whom were sympathiz- 
 ers with the communists. The Mayor remarked that 
 he did not fear the Irish or (Jermaiis, but the large 
 class of lialf-savageI5(>lieniiaiis who inhabit the lum- 
 ber district of the city, along the south branch of the 
 river. These men work for lifty cents a day, arc 
 thoroughly imbued with coinmiinislic ideas, and are 
 ripe for anything. Meetings were held during the 
 day by Michigan Soutlierii. Kock Island, Chicago & 
 Northwestern, and Milwaukee it St. Paul Railroad 
 ineii, but their proceedings were kept secret. "No 
 one knows what took place," says a letter from Chi- 
 cago, "but from expressions gleaned among the men 
 to-day, it seems that they passed resolutions of sym- 
 pathy for their striking bretliren Kast. The excite- 
 ment continued during Ihe "Jiid. The streets were 
 thronged with people hurrying from point to point 
 in search of news, and s])readiiig the most alarming 
 rumors. The railroad men appeared to b<' the most 
 (juiet class. The citizens had little fear of them, 
 their dread as on the previousday. beinge.xcited by 
 the commuiiists. The city autbnrities. in the mean- 
 time, w<Te ((uietly but rajiidly preparing to deal with 
 the mob. It was decideil, if a cunlliel did come, to 
 put down the outbreak at once and w itli vigor. Mus- 
 kets were sent to the various statioii-bonsi s for the 
 use of the police, and three jiieces of cannon were 
 lilaced in charge of an artillery company organized 
 
 for the purpose. The mililiii reginients of Ihe lily 
 were ordered nii<ler ariiiH by the (Jovernor, and 
 were directi'd to iissiKt Ihe iniiiiicipal iiuthorilicH 
 whiiiever called upon. 
 
 On the night of lhe2:id,ii MiiiHs-ineeling of Mie 
 " Uruiul Army of Starvation," um they styled ihein- 
 ! selves, was held in .Market Street. Ten thoiii-uiid 
 persoiiH were jjreseiit. At eight o'(-loek the crowd 
 began to gftlier, aii<l a lillle later the loretiliglil pro- 
 cessions from the various divisions of Ihe eily arriv- 
 ed, amid the deafening iheers of Ihe crowd. Slaiirl» 
 wiTc at once iin])roviserl and s|)eakirs Kiipplii'd in 
 ' tjuick HiHcession. Six men acldre>.ed the crowil al 
 once in Knglisli and tJermaii. and in the iiio.l iiilJain- 
 niatory language. The speakers tipenly appealed to 
 Ihe multitude to rise and follow tlieexani|ile of llieir 
 lirethrin in Ihe Kast. Said one of the men : " We, 
 laboring men, have eoinmou cause with the railroad 
 strikers at I'iltsbiirgli. and we must rise up in our 
 might, and li^lit for our rights. J5elter a thousand 
 of us be shot down in the streets than len thousand 
 die of starvation." The meeting broke up al half- 
 past eleven, afler resolving to meet at the .same place 
 the next morning at len o'clock, to sign the platform 
 of the Laborers' League. They letl withoiil flisorder, 
 carrying Iheir lianner liearing such inscriptions as 
 "We waul Work, Not Charity:" "Life by Work, 
 or Death by i'ight." It was evident, on llie'nighl of 
 the 23(1, that the dissatisfaction of Ihe railroad men 
 was approaching a crisis. On the morning of llie 
 24th of .July, it culminated in a general open strike 
 of the railroad hands. Karly in the morning the em- 
 ployes of the Michigan C<-nlraI Railroad sent a Com- 
 mittee to the ollicers of that road and demanded the 
 restoration of Iheir fornuT wages. The General Su- 
 perinleiiilciit refused to accede to Iheir demand, 
 and the Committee withdrew. The employes of the 
 road at once stopped work and joined the strike. 
 The Company made no etfort to send out any trains 
 during the day. and conseipiently there was no di.s- 
 turbanec. At nine o'clock the freight men on the 
 Illinois Central, who work in and around the yards, 
 quietly slopped work. They were the switchmen 
 and helpers who make up the trains, numbering 
 about twenty-tive : the laborers wli«) handle freight 
 in the freight houses, nuinberiug about one hundred, 
 and the men who jiick, assort, and Blore the freight 
 in the cars, numbering about forty. They were in- 
 cited to strikt by a delegation from the Michigan 
 Central, and by the general feeling of dissatisfaction 
 at the reduction of pay w liicli pervaded every class 
 of railroad employes. The strike was orderly, and 
 the men exhibited no ill disposition, save in excep- 
 tional ca.ses. The first action taken by the freight men 
 was the informal appointment. by general consent, of 
 a delegation of four from the switchmen and irain- 
 makers to call upon the Master of Transportation, 
 and ascertain whether the wages could not lie restor- 
 ed. He received them pleasantly, and talked to them 
 fairly and si|uarely. The men acted reasonably and 
 like men. They said that they represenleil only Ihe 
 switchmen. On .July 1st a special reduction, not ex- 
 tending to other employes, had been made in their 
 pay. and they felt that injustice had been done in 
 making tliem specially subject to a decrease in sahiry . 
 They had been called upon to join in Ihe guieral 
 strike, and they now wanted to know whellieT. be- 
 fore doing so, a restoration might not be |iromised. 
 If not. they would have no reason to give Ihe other 
 strikers for not joining them, and so would be forced 
 into Ihe revolt. The delegation elainie<l thai these 
 reductions had been made only on Ihe men they re- 
 presented, and this they considered unfair. It was 
 explained that it was a mistaken idea that uneipial 
 reduction had been made by skipping certain depari- 
 meuts. leaving them umiislurbed. Of course, if the 
 men wished to strike, he could not prevent it, and, 
 though lie deploreii such an action and hoped they 
 would try to prevent it. and preserve the harmony 
 which had al ways existed, yet. if they did stop w ork.
 
 BiOI. 
 
 728 
 
 RIOT. 
 
 he would shut up the freiglU houses at once. The 
 Committee left ilissatistied, however, and went out 
 and reported to the men, who started immediately 
 to so to the Michigan Southern yards to consult with 
 the men there. The result was the visit of another 
 delegation to the officials, which was more unsatis- 
 factorj- than the first. 
 
 The crowd, composed of som? 500 Michigan Cen- 
 tral and Illinois Central men, then started in proces- 
 sion to visit the other yards and enforce a strike. 
 The}' proceeded first to the Baltimore & Ohio.wlu're 
 the men fell in readily and without much persuasion. 
 The crowd of howling men and boys then marched 
 to the Rock Island j-ard, between Fifteenth and Six- 
 teenth Streets, where they took the men off their en- 
 gines and told them they must quit. The mob shut 
 the water off the tanks, and when everything was 
 fixed to suit them, thej- started for the Chicago, Bur- 
 lington it Quincy . Here the men did not offer the most 
 feeble resistance, but left tlieir engines and switches 
 at the word of command from the mob. The agent 
 of the Rock Island freight house shut the doors at 
 their approach, but was soon compelled to open 
 them again. The crowd visited the Chicago & Alton 
 freight depot, but were met b}' the men of that road 
 who had (juit the Company, having stopped the traf- 
 fic, both passenger aod freight. 
 
 The numerous outrages of the mob warned the civ- 
 il authorities to be on the alert, and every effort was 
 made to prepare for an emergencj-. The First and 
 Second N'olunteer Regiments and the Ellsworth Zou- 
 aves were held in readiness at their armories; the 
 Grand Army of the Republic prepared to turn out 
 with full ranks whenever called upon ; and a large 
 number of special policemen were sworn in and arm- 
 ed. The ]\Iayor issued the following proclamation: 
 
 W/iereax, The railroad troubles and strikes which 
 have taken place in several of the large cities in the 
 country have, in most cases, been attended with in- 
 cendiarism and plunder; and, whereas, some of the 
 employes of a few of the railroads in this city have 
 struck for an advance of wages, and have been join- 
 ed by the operatives in some of our factories; and, 
 whereas, it is feared that the bad and vicious elcnu-nt 
 in this comnumity will seize this as a favorable op- 
 jiortunity to destroy propert}- and commit plunder ; 
 tlierefore, I, by the authority vested in me as JIayor 
 of the city of Chicago, call on all good citizens to aid 
 in enforcing the laws and ordinances, and in sup- 
 pressing riot and oilier disorderly conduct. To this 
 end I request that the citizens organize patrols in 
 their respective ueighborlioods, and keep their wo- 
 men and children oil the jjulilic highways. Proud 
 of the deserved reputation of all classes of our peo- 
 ])le as law-abiding citizens, I trust and believe no 
 act will be suffered or permitted by any of them now 
 which would disgrace us in our own estimation and 
 that of the country at large. The workingmen must 
 remember that all industries are suffering from fi- 
 nancial dejiression throughout the countryrand that 
 acts of violence. inste:id of tending to rectify tln-ir 
 wrongs, will tend to deprive them of all sympathy. 
 The city government has made ample preparation to 
 protect the lives and properly of all citizens, and any 
 lawless acts will be promptly detected and punished. 
 
 This was followed by a second, closing the li<iuor 
 saloons of the city, as f jllows: 
 
 W/ifriti«, The public mind is unduly excited owing 
 to rumors of strikes. ;iii(l ilic fact tliiit some excited 
 and bad men are e(iML'rei.Mtjiig and endeavoring to 
 j)rom(jte confusiim and disorder, and deeming it for 
 the best interests of onr citizens of all classes that no 
 <-ansc be given or permitted to infhience passions or 
 l>rejudices ; therefore, by virtue of the jmwer and 
 authority vested in me asjMayor of the city of Chica- 
 go, I hereby order thai all saio<ins in the city be clos- 
 ed, and that nolir(Mor br solil by any licensed saloon 
 keeper or others from and after six" o'clock p.m. of 
 this date until further r.olice, under pemdtv of the 
 law and forfeiture of license. All patroln'ien and 
 
 policemen are hereliy instructed to see that this or- 
 der is promptly and vigonuisiy enforced. 
 
 On the same day, the Governor of Illinois issued a 
 proclamation, in which, after reciting that troubles 
 were occurring in certain States, he called upon the 
 people to aid in maintaining the peace; enjoined vigi- 
 lance upon Mayors, Sheriffs and others in authority 
 in suppressing violence, and declared all these ques- 
 tions must be regulated by ballots instead of mobs. 
 The merchants of the city also armed their employes 
 and made preparations to defend their establish- 
 ments against the mob. '■ The strike," said a t'hica- 
 go letter, written on the 2.5th," has brought business 
 at the banks to a complete standstill. The Express 
 Companies are unable to receive currency for ship- 
 ment, hence the city banks are unable to respond to 
 the calls of country institutions for funds. The im- 
 possibility of obtaining currency from New York is 
 also inconvenient, and places some of the banks who 
 had previously telegraphed there for funds to be 
 forwarded by express, in an awkward position. Ex- 
 change is virtually unsalable from the fact that it is 
 deemed iiseless to remit East with the expectation 
 that it will go through. 
 
 The police and the mobs have met face to face 
 about one dozen times. On Twenty-second Street, 
 which penetrates the lumber districts, two skir- 
 mishes occurred. The police were attacked with 
 stones, clubs, and missiles of all kinds, but they did 
 not lose their temper nor their patience, and blood- 
 shed was avoided. They have been provoked to the 
 very verge of madness several times during the day; 
 many of them have been hurt severely with clubs 
 and stones, l)ut they have obeyed orders and behav- 
 ed admirably. At noon on the 25th, the aspect of 
 affairs seemed so threatening, and the size of the 
 communist mob appeared to be increasing so rapid- 
 ly, that the Mayor issued a proclamation asking all 
 gt'Od citizens to organize themselves into safety 
 guards in their respective wards, called upon all to 
 respect the laws, and asked aid and encouragement 
 for the military companies then under arms. This 
 was followed soon after by an address signed by the 
 Mayor and a number of the leading merchants, bank- 
 ers and journalists of the cit\-, calling for a grand 
 mas.s-meeting at the Tabernacle at half-past three 
 p. M. At this meeting there were fully sixty thou- 
 sand business men present, and a resolution was 
 adopted approving the course of the authorities, and 
 standing by them in their efforts to preserve the 
 peace. A special meeting of the City Council was 
 also held, and a resolution was adopted giving the 
 Mayor plenary powers. The merchants held meet- 
 ings in different jiarts of the city at night, for the 
 purpose of eft'ecting an organization. The strength 
 of the mob was variously estimated at from 25,000 to 
 40,000 men. I)\iring the night they caused serious 
 trouble. A mob gathered at the Chicago, Burling- 
 ton it Quincy round house soon after dark, and be- 
 gan to put out the fire in the engines. For nearly an 
 hour they stoned tile liuilding and crowded around 
 the yards, when all at once a squad of police that 
 had been summoned rushed up and were met by a 
 volley of stones. The officers drew their revolvers 
 and "fired on the mob, which retreated at the first 
 fire. Three men fell ; one was carried away by the 
 mob. It is said that sixteen were wounded by the 
 firing, which lasted ten minutes. 'I'he olficers at 
 length exliausled their cartridges and ehargeil upon 
 the crowd with their clubs, when they retreated. 
 Soon after llu' scpiad retired the rabble returned and 
 stoppedtheslreet carsou the Ilalstead Street viadtict. 
 stoning the inmates imtil they alighted. One car was 
 torn to pieces, and the others taken to the stables. 
 The rioters next broUe inio a gun shop, comjiletely 
 gulled i I, taking away fifty breeeh-loadiug shotguns, 
 one hundred and lil'ly revolvers, and several kegs of 
 gunpowder. They "then passed off south toward 
 Bridgeport, and gave no further trouble during the 
 (lav.
 
 SIOT. 
 
 721) 
 
 RIOT 
 
 Durinj; llic iifliTiiooii. ii slrcni;; force nf rri;iilar 
 lro(ij)M arrivi'il from (Iliicuuo from llic fur WikI. TIh' 
 prospcft wiiM Mf) lliniilcniiii^ Hint il wuH deciiicd bcHt 
 to linlil llicm III ('liic;ii;o. 
 
 ('liicUL'o WHS profoiimlly excited on the inorninf; 
 of tlic 2(U\\ of .Inly. 1111(1 il WHS ;;ciicriilly fell llial liii- 
 diiy woiil<l iiol puss willioiit 11 serious coiillici Willi 
 the mol). Tlii^ rioUrrs called llieiiisclves workiri;;;- 
 inen, but llwy were frenerally loafers and liiiinnierH 
 who never did an lionesl day's work. The leaders 
 were comiiiiiiiisls. Hut few honest workin'^nien were 
 found in the crowd, anil the railroad men could 
 scarcely lie seen in il. Atioiil nine o'clock in the 
 nioriiiiii; a nicelini; of self-styled workin^mcn, main- 
 ly made u]) of roughs and loaf<Ts, was c.invencd at 
 Turner Hall, within a block and a half of the police 
 station. Nobody seemed to know what was jjoini; 
 on, but it was understood that eerlain carpenters and 
 oabiiiel makers, represcnlinf;, or claiiniiii; to reprc- 
 senl. their respeclive tradi'H, were irathered thiTc for 
 Conference. The mob bei;an to i;alher, and siirfjed 
 U]) and down on the sidewalk and in the slreel. a 
 howlini;, yelping mob of irresponsible idiots. They 
 talked of what they were goiiii; lo do. and how they 
 hud i;otleii tliiim;s all their own way. every lani;iia;;e 
 except Cliinescbeini; iiseil. The communistic element 
 was largely reprcj'ented, many of the lowest class of [ 
 I'oles and IJohemians beini; on lianil. About ten [ 
 o'clock a body of-.lweiity-live policemen np|»'ared on 
 the scene. .Vs they neared the surj|;in!; crowd, the 
 hootiivj; and yellinj; became terrific, and the mob 
 began to pell the officers with bricks, stones, and 
 other missiles. The police stood the attack cjuietly 
 for a few minutes; but this encourairinj; the mob to 
 greater violence, a charjie was ordered, and the men 
 turned upon their assailants, hiltin}; ri<;lil and left 
 with their clubs, and hitlini; lo hurt. Outside the po. 
 lice station was another detachment of olticers, nuin- 
 bering about a score, who speedily came to the as- 
 sistance of their comrades. There was a very lively 
 tight for a few minutes, but discipline and organiza- 
 tion jiroved too much for the rioters, who were soon 
 put to rout. The police. Imvini; disposed of the out- 
 aiders, forced their way into tlii! Imll. In the second 
 story they foiiml a panic-strii-ken mob of perhaps 
 one hundred and lifly. who, in Ihcir frantic etiorts 
 to escape, ran hilher and thither like rats in a pit. 
 Many jumped from the windows, and so gained the 
 street, but some seized chairs and other pieces of 
 furniture, with which they attempted to defend them- 
 selves. A good many were hurt during these oper- 
 ations, but none fatally, and only one of the special 
 police received any ilamage. lie was led back to 
 the station, where it was found Ihal, aside from a 
 cut on the head, of no great depth, he was all rii;lit. 
 and lie remained on station duty during the clay. 
 The crowd spread it.self over the neighborhood, many 
 of the rioters having received a lesson which will 
 lead them lo respect the police a trille more in the 
 future. While ine rioting about Turner I lull was in 
 progress, a crowd of boys and roughs gathered about 
 the llalstead Street viaduct. The street cars were 
 stopped, ami for some time il appeared as if the 
 roughs were to have everything their own way. A 
 detachment of twenty-five policemen sent to disperse 
 them was received with stones and revolvers. The 
 police returned the fire with goo<l elTect, knocking 
 over several of the rioters with their bullets. But 
 the crowd, tieing constantly swelled by reinforce- 
 ments, niainlainedtheir ground. Stones were thrown 
 at the police from the roofs of hou.ses andfroin alley- 
 ways. Having exhausted their ammunition, the of- 
 ficers at length retired, the mob following, hooting, 
 yelling, anil throwing stones. On meeting with a 
 detaciiment sent to reinforce them, the police turned, 
 and made a vigorous charge on the rioters, and 
 scattered them in all directions. 
 
 This defeat by no means disheartened the mob, 
 and thev gathered again at the llalstead Street via- 
 duct. \i\ eleven o'clock thev numbered fully ten 
 
 IlioUHMnd men and boys. The undecided peaceful- 
 nesH of the horde had vanished; llieir niimberHM-ein- 
 ed to inspire Ihem with the valor of savugcH ; and il 
 was evidenl Ihal they wiTc bent oil violi'iice, and 
 would hesitate al nothing. The norlii approach to 
 the llalstead .Street viaduct, and the •Iriiclure ilself, 
 were black with the mass of rioters. 'I"lie aspect of 
 1 aflairs was ho Ihrealeniiig that a strong body of po- 
 lice was sent lo the viaduct witli ordern to dispefHt- 
 the mob. The inoiner.l I he rioters beheld the ap- 
 proach of the polici', who marched from the Ilarri- 
 son Street station, thi-y broke indiscriiiiinalely and 
 lied lo the other siile of the viaduct, houlini: like 
 fiends. The police broke into a run, and piirsiie<l 
 them, tiring as they ran. A countercharge was made 
 by the rioters in an alletnpt lo pass the polici' on the 
 viaduct, in order that there might he a force of ilen- 
 peradoes on each side of the beleaguered |)eace dc. 
 tenders. The scheme was promptly atid credilably 
 frustrated by a free use of the baton and a display 
 of pistols, from which blank carl ridges were lireil. 
 The mob then i>ilched itself headlong down the de- 
 scent across Sixteenth Slreel, and a similar crowd 
 went east, in the direction of the Chicago, liurling- 
 ton it (Juincy freight houses. There was a brief 
 moment of inactivity; during which the police form- 
 ed in line and ]>repared for a charge. 1 his was the 
 signal for a shower of stones, pistol shots and other 
 missiles. For a little time the wildest disorder pre- 
 vailed, and il was evident that the police were just 
 a little alarmed, as well they might have been, at the 
 overwhelming force arrayed against them. For half 
 an hour the discharge of weapons was kept up at 
 short intervals, in reply to stones that were being 
 continually ])elted down from all sides. With every 
 moment otiielay, during which the rioters were un- 
 harmed, the belief grew in their minds that the po- 
 lice were not firing bullets, and they began surging 
 near a central focus. Several times did a few of the 
 more daring attempt to break in upon the police, 
 and each time they were successfully repulsed. The 
 police had now but a few roundsof ammiiniiion left, 
 and it was evident they could not stand their ground 
 much longer unless reinforcements <anie. Seeing 
 that the rioters were airain closing in on his men. as 
 if they knew they could not fire many more times, 
 the Sergeant gave the order to his men to fire off 
 rapidly all the charges they had left, and at the same 
 time to withdraw across the viaduct towards the sta- 
 tion. The order was obeyed, and the police having 
 exhausted their ammunition, formed in line, and 
 started back across the viaduct. The tremendous 
 crowd of maddened roughs at once started in hot 
 pursuit, throwing volley after volley of stones, which 
 fortunately failed to do any damage. The police at- 
 tempted to auaril their retreat at first, but soon 
 found it absolutely imiiossible, and they turned and 
 fled. The chase for life and death was one of the 
 wildest excitement. The vast throng hung closely 
 upon the heels of the jiolice, and did not cease to 
 jiursue till the latter arrived at Fifieenth Street. The 
 position of the police was now critical in the extreme. 
 The rioters were pressing them hard, and unless as- 
 sistance should come il was jilain they would never 
 reach the station. At this moment, however, a cheer 
 was heard, and a body of veteran cavalry dashed in- 
 to the street and rode rapidly at the rioters. This 
 force was followed by sevend large wagons, bearing 
 reinforcements of police. These came up on a run. 
 and the men dismounted and joined their comrades, 
 who had made so gallant a stand against the mob. 
 When the rioters saw the cavalrj- and reinforcements 
 of police, they turned to retreat. Then began the 
 most destructive scene of the morning. As they ran 
 the police began firing. One of the mob was shot 
 throu!rh the brain and instantly killed; another was 
 killed by a projectile hurled by one of his own par- 
 ly. The police used their clubs effectively, sparing 
 lio one. The police made no attempt to cross the 
 viaduct a second time, hut stopped a little northward.
 
 EIOT. 
 
 7;w 
 
 KIOT. 
 
 Tlie cavalrj- pushed on over the bridsi- and drove 
 back the rioters. During the remainder of the day 
 the cavalry were kept on duty in the vicinity of Ilal- 
 stead Street, breaking up crowds wherever tliey 
 would collect, and capturing rioters, over o:ie hun- 
 dred of whom were sent to the station houses. About 
 eleven o'clock orders were received by the Second 
 Illinois Regiment to proceed at once to the scene of 
 disturbance. The men were instantly gotten under 
 arms, and the regiment set out on the double quick 
 for Halstead Street, accompanied by two pieces of 
 artillerv. 
 
 During the day additional companies of regular 
 troops arrived. The regulars were posted at vari- 
 ous Tjoints in the city which were believed to be in 
 ihinger. The Second Illinois Regiment was kept on 
 duty at the Halstead Street viaduct, and the First 
 Regiment was stationed close by. Parties of cavalry 
 and police patrolled the city during the day, making 
 many arrests. The rioters did not dare to gather 
 in force again, but small crowds constantly asseinbl- 
 ed on the streets as fast as broken up, and while no 
 effort was made to oppose the troops with force, the 
 rioters vented their rage by cursing them roundly. 
 Several minor encounters took place between the 
 police and the mob during the afternoon, but no gen- 
 eral outbreak was attemjited. The rioters were still 
 noisy and loud in their threats, but they were too 
 thoroughly cowed by the determined attitude of the 
 military and police to attempt a renewal of their ef- 
 forts of the morning. 
 
 The night of the 26th passed away without furth- 
 er disturtjance, the city being held "bv the regulars, 
 the volunteers and the police. The rioters were fev- 
 erish and restless, but avoided a conflict. They liad 
 lost their courage, and were afraid to meet the force 
 opposed to them. On the morning of the 27th a 
 crowd was reported to be gathering in the quarter 
 known as "Bridgeport." Three cavalry companies 
 and two companies of the Second Regiment were 
 ordered to the spot. The Board of Trade cavalry 
 and Colonel Agramonte's veterans, some three lum- 
 drcil strong, repaired to the scene, supported by the 
 infantry. The mob was dispersed without difflcul- 
 ty. Tiie Halstead Street viaduct, the scene of the 
 disturbance on the previous day, was held by the Sec- 
 ond Regiment. The cavalry patrolled the western 
 part of the city throughoui the day. The mob was 
 sullen and cross, but it was beaten, and the danger 
 was at an end. The ])olice and the cavalry had or- 
 ders not to allow people to gather in crowds in the 
 streets, and this order was rigidly enforced. The 
 Mayor issued the followimr proclamation : 
 
 The city authorities having dispersed all lawless- 
 ness in the city, and law and order being restored, I 
 now urge and request all business men and employ- 
 ers generall}' to resume work, and give as much em- 
 ployment to their workmen as possible. I consider 
 this the first duty of our business conanuuity. I am 
 now amply able to protect them and their workmen, 
 fjet every one resume operations, and report any in- 
 terference at police head-ciuarters. Citizens' organ- 
 izations must continue in force, and on no account 
 relax their vigilance, as the cause of trouble is not 
 local and not 3et removed. All such organizations 
 should form themselves into |)crmanent bodies, 
 continue on duty and re])ort regularly as heretofore. 
 
 From this time the cxcitcinenl in Chicago gradti- 
 ally sul)sidcd. The conunuuisl lea<lers and their des- 
 perate followers saw that they were no tnatch for the 
 force at the conunand of the authorities, and were 
 terrilied by the wholesale arrests of their conu'ades. 
 They sliuik out of siglit, and in aday ortwo Chicago 
 was enjoying its normal repose. Th<' railroad men, 
 disliearleneil by the f.-iilure of thi' strikes on oilier 
 I)arls of their roads, surrendered to their n^ipective 
 companies, and relurned to (hity at the old wa^es. 
 
 fuller parts of Illinois shared in the general cx- 
 i^ilement, but no serious conttict occurred, nor was 
 any great damage done outside of Chicago. At I'e- 
 
 oria a mob seized several of the railroads entering 
 the city, and attempted to stop the running fif the 
 trains. The local authorities took prompt measures 
 to put down the outbreak, and the volunteer compa- 
 nies of the town were onic red out to assist the police. 
 On the 2(ith of Julj- the police made a gallant charge 
 on the mob, and arrested three of the principal lead- 
 ers. The prisoners were taken to the jail, and the 
 mob followed with the intention of rescuing them. 
 The military at once rejjaired to the jail, and forced 
 back tlie mob at the point of the bayonet. The mob, 
 deprived of its leaders, was powerless, and though 
 threats were freely inilulged in, no further violence 
 was attempted. On the 27th of July the Governor 
 of Illinois issued the following proclamation : 
 
 Wlifrecm, Certain persons active in the violation of 
 In.w have assumed to interfere with and prevent the 
 movement of railroad trains in this State, and have 
 sought to intinndate honest workingmen entraged in 
 the avocations by which they earn their daily bread, 
 and to compel them to cease from their labor ; and 
 
 Whereas, This condition of affairs continues, and 
 is intolerable, entailing as it does disastrous conse- 
 quences, the nature and extent of which it is impos- 
 sible to foresee; Thu-e/'H-c. I, Shelby M. Cullom, Gov- 
 ernor of Illinois, acting under and by the authority 
 of the laws of this State, do command all such riot- 
 ous and disorderly persons to desist and return to 
 their homes, and do call upon all Sheriffs, Mayors, 
 and otlier officers charged with the execution of the 
 laws to break up all conspiracies against the rights 
 of property and of persons, and to that end to em- 
 ploy every lawful means in their power, and do en- 
 join upon all good citizens to assist in bringing about 
 the restoration of order, the resumption of Imsiness, 
 the moving of trains, and the revival of manufactures. 
 I further give notice that the entire military force at 
 my disposal as Commander-in-Chief of the nnlitia 
 will be employed for the support of the civil author- 
 ities in this endeavor, and that orders will be given 
 to the troops to use whatever amount of force may 
 be necessary to compel obedience to the laws. In 
 testimony whereof I have hereunto set my hand and 
 caused the great seal of the State to be affixed. 
 
 There were slight disturbances at Decatur, Effing- 
 ham, Galesburg, Joliet, and Carboudale. but no out- 
 break. Braidwood, an important place in the mining 
 regions, was profoundly excited by a strike of the 
 miners, but no trouble was experienced. At East St. 
 Louis, on the Illinois shore of the Mississippi River, 
 opi)osite the city of St. Louis, there was quite a for- 
 midable strike, and the State authorities were com- 
 pelled to break it up by a c(mcentration of the State 
 troops. 
 
 The city of St. Louis is the terminus of a number 
 of important railway lines. The Mississippi is here 
 spanned by a magnificent iron bridge which gives St. 
 Louis direct connection with the States lying east of 
 the great river. The eastern end of the bridge is at 
 East St. Louis, in tlie State of Illinois. Here the 
 shops and round houses of the various railroads us- 
 ing the bridge are located. East St. Louis is thus a 
 very important railroad point, and being so closely 
 connected with its greater neighbor over the river, 
 the strikes on the two sides of the river were really 
 one movement, and must be Irealed as such. On 
 the 22d of July, signs of excitement and disaffection 
 began to show thi'inselves at East St. Louis, A se- 
 cret meeting of the railroad men was held in the after- 
 noon, at which it was resolved to make a formal de- 
 mand upon the various lines centering at St. Louis 
 for an increase of wages, and to inaugurate a gener- 
 al strike, should the demand be refused. After the 
 .adjournment of the secret meeting, an out-doormeet- 
 ing was organized, in which about two hundred 
 members of the French, (iernian, Bohemian, and 
 English sections of the workingmen's party of the 
 United States from St. Louis participated. Their 
 coming was greeted with cheers and much enthusi- 
 asm. Several speeches were made by the leaders of
 
 EIOT. 
 
 HIOT. 
 
 this H<( lidii, in wliicli Ihcy offerfid Bympathy for the 
 strikers, 1111(1 plcdj^cil tliciiisclvis lo Hlaii(rt)y llicm 
 ill tlicir Mtnmiilr. Il was sliilcil from I In- hIiukI Unit 
 there' would be aiiollier iiieetiii'^ lit nif^lit, eiiiiiposi-d 
 siriclly of riiilroiid iiieii, lit which a declaration of 
 their purpose, mid what aelioii they proposed lo 
 take, would he made. 'I'lic' section <pf the workiiiff- 
 iiieu's party heforif referred lo held a ineeliiiujat Tiir- 
 iii-r's llall ill the afternoon, and after several speech- 
 es on the labor qyeslion in jceneral, and IIk^ present 
 situation in particular, they unaniniuuHly udoptedllic 
 ' foMowiiiu: resolutions : 
 
 IK//</VY/«, The workiiiL'iiien of the dllTiTciit rail- 
 roiids in this country are risini; iii iiuiKKf lo demand 
 their just rii;hls ; and, U7/av((,v, The rniled Stales 
 (ioveriiiiielit has allied itself on llie side of capital 
 and against labor; therefore, ItiKiitnil. That we, the 
 workiii;;nicn's ])arly of the United Slates, hearlily 
 sympatliize witii the employes of all the railroads of 
 the country who are altemptiiit; lo secure just and 
 eqiiilalilc reward for llieir labor. /ifWcfrf, That we 
 will stand by them in this most riirhteoiis strujigle 
 of labor against robbery and <ippressioii, through 
 i^ood and evil report, to the end of the slrujiglc. 
 
 The demand agreed upon by the meeting of ruil- 
 roail men was made upon the various C'omiainies (in 
 the night of the 3'2d. but was refused. At midnight 
 a general strike was begun on all the roads at East 
 St. Louis. On Ihe morning of the 'i'.hX it was an- 
 nounced by the strikers that iiassenger and mail 
 ears might be run on the eastern roads, but lliat no 
 freight Irains would be permilled to pass. The men 
 were (piiet and orderly, but determined. The ('om- 
 panies generally accepted the situation, and made 
 no effort to run their freight trains. The men of 
 Ihe Toledo tfc Wabash road had nol had their wages 
 reduced, and declared that, though lliey had no 
 irrievance against llieir Company, they struck out of 
 fellowship for the employi's of the other roads. An 
 elTorl was made during I lie morning to start afreight 
 train on the Chicago it Alton road, but the sirikers 
 slopped it and took il back into the yard. Every- 
 thing was very (piiet in the I'nion depot, and in the 
 yards of the Union Itailway tt Transit Comi)any of 
 St. Uoiiis during the moriiing. One slock train was 
 allowed lo cross the bridge, but none \ver(^ permit- 
 ted to puss after twelve o'clock. The employi'S of 
 the Transit Company, who do duly in KasI SI . l.nuis, 
 tifteen in number, struck with the tiremen and brake- 
 men of the railroad, TheempIo_ves of the Company 
 on the St. Louis side of the river, whose duties are 
 ]ierformed at and in the vicinity of Ihe Union depot 
 in moving trains in the yard, through Ihe tunnel, 
 and across the bridge, did not formally strike, Iiut 
 they were idle for Ihe reason that there was nothing 
 for them to do, as the strikers across the river would 
 not permit the freight trains lo pa.ss. Tlie Transit 
 Company rescinded their order for a reduction of ten 
 per cent, on wages, and notified their employt^s lo 
 that effect, but the latter look no notice of it. Dur- 
 ing all. the trains on the Missouri. PacilicA St. Louis, 
 Kansas City iV Northern roads went out and came 
 in as usual, there lieing no strike on tlio.se roads 
 vet, r,or had the employe's manifested any disposi- 
 tion to take action in the matter. The St. Louis, 
 Iron Mountain it Southern Railroad lUies not con- 
 ucet with the Union depot, 1ml has i's own depot in 
 the southern part of the city. Kverylhing was ([uiet 
 on that road, and liusiness was progressing in the 
 regular way. The strikers in Kast St. Louis gave a 
 special permit to the Xational Stock yard people to 
 use their own locomolives to haul feed to the yards 
 for the stock there. They also permitted Ihe Union 
 Railway <.t Transit Company to select ten men to 
 switch passenger trains coining to the Relay depot at 
 East St. Lmiis, and (iestine(i for the city. On the 
 inorning of the 24lh, Ihe East St. Louis strikers, en- 
 couraged by having been unmolesled by the civil au- 
 thorities, changed their plan of operation and re- 
 fused lo allow the ruuning of passenger trains. Upon 
 
 1 the arrival of theeftHlern bound I ruin on the Vandalia 
 road at Ihi' Relay house al Ivasi St. I,oiii», an i-(Tort 
 was made lo impede its progresn. After the short 
 halt there, which is ciiHloniury with all trains, and 
 when the train was just getting in niollon, a striker 
 drew the coupling pin behind liie mail carand called 
 mil roiiirlily to the eondiiclor, "(jo on with your 
 ! Unileii Slates mail ; we've got nolhing lo complain 
 [ of against the Government." This raxh act and de- 
 claration was greeted with loud shouts by the (Ive 
 j hundred strikers. The eondiiclor sleppi'd out on tlie 
 I platform of a car and appealed lo the niob lo replace 
 the coupling pin and perniil liiiii lo proceed. lie 
 said, •• I have one hiiiidred and Iweiily-llve passen- 
 gi>rs on board, and Ihey have paid their passage to 
 eastern points on the faith of your promise lliat you 
 would not interfere with passenger Iravel. You are 
 in honor bound lo let them pass," (Cries of "Thai's 
 .so." " Let them go," etc.] " Il's a mean, <onleiiipl- 
 ible trick," said the plucky conductor, " and if you 
 persist in il, il proves that you are nol honorable 
 men." The appeal of the conductor created a dis- 
 sension in the ranks of the strikers, many of llieiii 
 contending that Ihe train should be allowed lo pro- 
 ceed, and others declaring il should not. Nearly an 
 hour was spent in wrangling among the men. and if- 
 nally the Comniitlee in charge decided to let the train 
 go, and it is unnecessary lo say il wi'nt very rapidly. 
 In the meanlime there was great e.\citeiiient among 
 the passengers inside, and two or throe of the ladies 
 fainted, one of them, an invalid, being slill uncon- 
 scious when the train took its departure. When the 
 mail train on the Cairo narrow gauge road arrived 
 at the Relay house Ihe passenger car was deluclied 
 from the mail coach, and the eomhictor proceeded 
 without his passengers. In the meantime the lead- 
 ers telegraphed across the river to their representa- 
 tives in the city nol to allow any more passenger 
 trains to pull out from Ihe Union depot. Al eleven 
 o'clock, twenty-five strikers, boarded an engine and 
 tender, steamed througli the tunnel, and dashed into 
 the Union depot. This was the first appearance of 
 the strikers in the limits of St. Louis proper, and 
 their arrival caused a great sensation in that hitherto 
 quiet neighborhood. They quickly alighted from 
 the engine that had borne them over, and, with a 
 shout, proceeded across the depot siieds, where thev 
 seized two engines belonging to the -Missouri road, 
 and, mounting the engines, steamed rapidly up the 
 track a mile and a half to the machine shops of that 
 company. The workmen in the employ of the Mis- 
 souri Pacific Railroad at the machine shops, num- 
 bering two luindred and fifty, had been advi.sed by 
 the strikers that they would la- visited during the 
 day, and when the strikers arrived, Ihey received 
 them cordially, though they continued tiieir work; 
 and in answer to the question whether they were 
 willing to strike, replied that the Pacific Com- 
 pany "had partially acceded lo their demands, and 
 they thought they should continue at work. " Bm 
 yoii must help us out," replied the leader of the 
 strikers, "and in order lo do this you must quit 
 work." -V hmg conference between the strikers and 
 workmen ensued, and. al the end of half an hour, 
 the former, despairing of success in inducing the lat- 
 ter to strike, withdrew. A number of policemen 
 stationed at the machine shops attempted to prevent 
 Ihe entrance of the strikers into the shops, but their 
 efforts were fruitless. From here the strikers re- 
 turned to the Union depot, and at I wo o'clock, when 
 the Belleville passenger accommodation train on the 
 Cairo road was about lo start out, one of. the lead- 
 ing strikers, stepped aboard the engine and whis- 
 pered to the enirincer, who. with tlie firemen imnn - 
 diately left their posts, and the strikers announced 
 that tiie train would not be permitted to leave the de- 
 pot. Officers of Ihe road expostulated, but for over 
 two hours the strikers were firm in their refusal to 
 grant the request. At the end of that lime the tniin 
 was allowed to go. A large force of police were on
 
 RIOT. 
 
 732 
 
 EIOT. 
 
 hand, but did not undertake to interfere with tlie 
 striliers. Tlirce or four tliousand pjople, composed of 
 discontenled and unemployed laboring men, gathered 
 under the depot sheds, and much incendiary talk 
 was engaged in. 
 
 As a result of these riotous demonstrations the po- 
 lice cleared the saloons in the neighborhood, and or- 
 dered them to be kept closed. About four o'clock 
 another engine, with the flat cars loaded with 400 
 strikers from the eastern shore, arrived at the depot, 
 and were received witli loud cheers by the crowd. 
 The strikers disembarked, formed in line. and. with 
 the music of the fife and drum, marched in the di- 
 rection of the Pacific machine shops. At every 
 street crossing the procession was joined by numbers 
 of sympathizers, and by the time the siiops were 
 reached there were 2,000 men in march. Arrived at 
 the sliO]is. they found that the shopmen, being ad- 
 vised of the approach of the strikers, had already 
 quit work, and were on the platform ready to receive 
 the strikers. A representative machinist received 
 the visitors and made a speech to them, saying the 
 shopmen had concluded not to strike, but to quit 
 work in deference to the demands of the strikers. 
 They had no cause of complaint against their em- 
 ploj'ers, but would not return to work imtil the 
 strikers had secured a redress of their wrongs. 
 
 From this place the strikers marched to the North 
 Missouri Railroad track on the levee, where they 
 took possession of an engine and ten flat cars, and 
 boarding them proceeded to the round house of that 
 company in the northern part of the city, where they 
 were met by the employes of the company. A con- 
 ference was held, and as a result theemploytls agreed 
 that no more freight trains sliould be allowed to go 
 out on the road from St. Louis. The strikers re- 
 turned to the Union depot at six o'clock. 
 
 The arrival of the troops had no perceptible effect 
 in cooling the ardor of the strikers, the leaders de- 
 claring that they would avoid collision with the 
 troops, but were determined to cany their point at 
 every risk. By nightfall nearly all the strikers had 
 deserted the eastern side of the river, and were con- 
 gregated at the Union depot, where they passed the 
 night. During the day there was great popular ex- 
 citement throughout the city, and the strike was the 
 absorb. ng theme of conversation. A serious feeling 
 of apprehension was abroad among the people, and 
 a general belief prevailed that the crisis was bound 
 to result in blood and devastation. Tlie city author- 
 ities had been very jjassive since the beginning of 
 the strike, and their attitude excited much indignant 
 comment at the time. It was based upon the fact 
 that there were not 1,000 stand of arms in St. Louis 
 at the disposal of the authorities, and it was deemed i 
 best not to undertake to interfere with the mob until 
 it could be done in an effective manner. In the 
 meantime every exertion was made by the munici- 
 pal authorities, in concert with a number of pronun- 
 ent citizens, to obtain arms and ammunition for a 
 force of five tliousand men. On the night of the 
 24th the Internationalist, or Communist leaders, who 
 have a large following in St. Louis, held meetings 
 in several parts of the city, which were attended by 
 monster audiences. The most incendiary sjieeclics 
 were made and threats of burning llie huildinsis of 
 the newspapers, wliich had criliciscil Ihciu oidy. were 
 indulged in. Processions of e.M-ilcd men marched 
 through the streets yelling and making other noisy 
 demonstraticms. A large proportion of the city p(). 
 lice force had been withdrawn from the regular 
 beats and held in readiness at tlie points of danger. 
 The morning of the a.")th found tlie city greatly e.\- 
 eited. About nine o'clock a crowd of 1.000 men as- 
 Hcmbled in Lucas' market place arounil a stand erect- 
 ed by tlie workingmen's party, while two or three 
 thousand spectators gathered in the vicinity. The 
 crowd was made up mostly of wire-wnrkers who 
 had struck, and strikers from other manufacturing 
 establishments. At ten o'clock thev formed in col- 
 
 umn and marched past the City Hall to Turner Hall, 
 where the executive committee of the workingmen's 
 party was in session. Half an hour later a body of 
 500, made up chiefly of negroes, was sent to the 
 levee, and inarched its entire length for the purpose 
 of inducing the roustabouts to join them. The strik- 
 ers said they were to receive explicit orders from 
 hour to hour, and expected to stop aU manufactur- 
 ing establishments before night. * 
 
 A crowd of 2, .500 people gathered at the Union 
 depot, but nothing of importance occurred there. 
 The only passenger train which passed over the 
 bridge during the morning was the Toledo, Wabash 
 tt Western, the strikers making an exception in favor 
 of that road because of its position toward the em- 
 ployes in the past. On all the other roads onlj' the 
 postal cars were allowed to leave. The Chicago & 
 Alton people refused to be dictated to, and at the reg- 
 ular hour sent out their postal car and baggage car 
 and one passenger coach. The train reached East 
 St. Louis, but the strikers refused to allow any but 
 the engine and postal car to proceed. -This dis- 
 crim.ination was declined, and the whole train was 
 backed over to the depot on the city side. The 
 Missouri Pacific machine shops and freight depots 
 and yards were closed, and none of the men were at 
 work. They told the officers of the road that they 
 were satisfied to work, but that it would only pre- 
 cipitate an attack and general trouble with the strik- 
 ers. The position of the men was approved by the 
 company, and the shops and depots closed by mutu- 
 al consent. The company sent out three or four 
 freight trains between one and five o'clock in the 
 morning, but decided not to start an}' more for the 
 present. 
 
 A large delegation of strikers from the city visited 
 Chelteuliam, four miles west of the city, during the 
 morning, and ordered the men out of the smelting 
 and fire clay works. They offered their employers 
 to continue at work if protected, and a request was 
 sent to police head-quarters for a detail of police, 
 but it was refused. The police force was on duty 
 at station houses, and the city was almost entirely 
 unpatrolled. The force was kept in reserve, to be 
 useil only when the strikers should resort to vio- 
 lence or a mob should be formed. Another urgent 
 request for a detail was received from officers of the 
 Union Street Railway, an important line, which runs 
 from Fourth and Locust Streets to the Fair Grounds. 
 The employes notified the company that unless the 
 recent cut of ten per cent, was restored, they would 
 strike at twelve o'clock and stop the cars. Fears 
 were entertained for the safety of property. The 
 police were instructed to be in readiness to march 
 to the stables upon the commission of any overt act, 
 but not before. 
 
 A " Citizen Organization for the Protection of 
 Property " was organized at the Four Courts. Meet- 
 ings were held by citizens in various parts of the 
 e\U , and companies were also formed and officered. 
 These at once reported for duty, and by nightfall 
 the organizaticm numbered ISM armed men. A 
 company of fifty men was organized for gun-boat 
 service, "and placed on the city harbor steamer, with 
 order to patrol the river. The work of organization 
 was carried on rapidly, and by noon the next day 
 10.(100 cilizeiis had enrolled "themselves. At ten 
 o'clock on tlie nioniiiig of llie 2(itli a procession of 
 2.000 men, consisting partly of workingmen who 
 luul joined the strikers, but mostly of loafers and 
 idlers, marched from Lucas JIarkei to (he manufac- 
 turing district north of Wasliington Avenue. They 
 first visited lieh-hers' sugar refinery. where some 400 
 employes were forced to (|uit work on the <lay be- 
 fore, and finding the doors closed, broke them open, 
 rushed in. extinguished the fires in the furnaces and 
 displaced tlie machinery, so the employes {■ould not 
 return to work, as they had announced their iuten- 
 lion of doing. Many of the workingmen protested 
 against injurim; or "destroyiiej: iiroperly aud abau
 
 EIOT. 
 
 7'c) 
 
 BIOT. 
 
 chined llic prorcssion ; but the iiioli continued ilf 
 rimieli, visilinn iil)iiut forty dilTereiit fiielorieH luid 
 ll(jiir and pluMinn mills, ((irMiiilliiii; llie eniployi'H, 
 ii;;grei;iilinii: iieiiily on<- llidusiuid, lo ipiit their work 
 and elose the ilcKirs, iUtliiiui;h llii' eniployc't in iiiiiny 
 cuseH eiirnestly prciti'sli'd iii;aiiist heinj; inlerfcred 
 with. .Several jilaniiig mills wcn-amon^ tiieeslaliliHli- 
 ineuts closeil l)y tlio liiob. No resper't of ikthohh 
 WHS shown, women and j;irls bein^ Irc'ated in the 
 name manner as tlie men. All were forecd to «top 
 work whether they were willinj; or pot. Tlie opera- 
 tions of the moh were fienerally oiiiform. 
 
 A mob of nei^roes proeeetieil to tjii* levee, and forc- 
 ed llic ollieersof all the sleamboat compunic'S and in- 
 dependent steamers represent'^d there tosiirii pled^ics 
 to increase (he waives of all clu.sses of steamboat and 
 levee laborers. Their (h'un'nds were of the most e.\- 
 tortionati' character, lie; increase insisted upon ranj;- 
 inj; from sixty to one mnulred pe- cent. They were 
 very peremptory, I'lid .vould not allow a boat lo leave 
 the wharf unti' iiiciv demands were complied with. 
 The rioters, •,vcrv very insolent and deliant lhroiij.diout 
 the d.-iy, and announced Ihcir intention lo close every 
 workshop and place of mamdaclure in St. Louis. 
 As was to liave b<'en expected, the ncfirocs were by 
 far the most turbulent and uimiananeable of the riot- 
 ers. But little business was transacted in the city. 
 Many of the stores were closed, and tlie work of 
 arminir and drilliiii; the citizens' force at the Four 
 Courts was carried on raiiidly. The HherilT also or- 
 ganized and armed a posse of '2,0(10 men. The Gov- 
 ernor arrived in the city (hiring the morning and 
 fave his aid to the work of suppressing the disorder, 
 lie armiiis; ami drillim; of lh(r citizens was carried 
 on actively all morning at the Four Covirts building. 
 No outward demonstration wa.s mad<' up to noon 
 save that lieavy guards were on patrol duty in front 
 of the building. Two large brass ticld-pieces loaded 
 with shrapnel, and with horses attached and ready to 
 move at a moment's notice, were kept in wailing iu 
 tlie yard of (he jail in charge of a company of sixty 
 men. About half-past ti'U o'clock a large crowd 
 niarcliing in procession arrived in front of the Four 
 Courts building. The rioters broke ranks at once, 
 ,aiul surging up to the paveiiu'iit pressed liard upon 
 tlie guards, who were doing duty on (he side-walk. 
 The guards were immediately reinforced by details 
 from within, and the companies were formed to re- 
 sist an attack. A detachment of police left (be build- 
 ing at a run, charged the rioters, drove them back a 
 short distance, and arrested two of their leaders. A 
 few stones were tlirown. but the mob made no effort 
 at resistance. As the police withdrew, the mob 
 pressed up close to the side-walks again, and jeered 
 anil taunted the military force in the most insulting 
 manner, daring them to fire and commence a tight. 
 The police pressed the crowd back again, and it with- 
 drew for a square without resistance. A number of 
 noisy and unruly men were arrested by the police 
 and conflued in the jail. No liisturbance occurred 
 during the day. In the afternoon the Governor of 
 Missouri issued a proclaniatiou calling upon the 
 rioters to cease their disorderly conduct and inter- 
 ference with private jiroperly, and to disperse. By 
 the morning of the 27th tlie city authorities felt them- 
 selves strong enough lo put down the mob. and de- 
 termined lo check the disturbance. The rioters, up 
 to this ])erioil, bad been encouraged by the failure 
 of the |)olice to stop their lawlessness, and many of 
 them were convinced that neither the Mayor, the 
 police, nor the citizens' force woulil dare provoke a 
 conflict with tliem. They were now to learn their 
 error. At an early hour on the 2Tth the mob began 
 to gather at Schuler's Hall, and by two o'clock up- 
 wards of two thousand men were congregated in the 
 immediate vicinity, waiting to obey the orders of 
 their so.called executive eommitlee. the body spe- 
 cially delegated to direct the movements of tin crowd. 
 Tlie'last proclamation of the Mayor and that of the 
 State Goverumeul commanding them to disperse and 
 
 return to thi'ir liomcH or else take the conHefjiifnceB, 
 was freely (circulated among them, but a general 
 spirit of deliance prevailed, and liold Ihreats of arm- 
 eil resistance was made on all hands. Inside the hall 
 the executive eommille(- were in Hessioii with closed 
 doors, and tller(^ too. the Hcntiment expressed wa» 
 that any attempl on the part of |iolice or iiiililiu to 
 drive them away should be resisted to the laHt. Verb- 
 al orders were circulated among tin- mob lo stand 
 linn and that an arine(l force would iK.l dare to mo- 
 'est them. Thismeeling being reported to the Mayor, 
 il was resolved by the city authorides (o break it up 
 and arrest the hfaders. I'or (his purpose lif(y iiioiint- 
 ed police, twenty-tivif armed with miiskels, and about 
 the same number with the usual club and pistol, 
 were ordered to proceed lo the hall and makethear- 
 resls. That there should be no failure, five hundred 
 of the Cilizens' (Jiiard and two compiinieH of the Na- 
 tional (juanl, with one piece of arliliery, were order- 
 ed to accompany and support the police should the 
 crowd offer any resistance, or attempt to rescue the 
 prisoners. This force left Four Courts at 2.90 f. m. 
 About three o'clock the military force, headed by 
 the mounted police, appeared coming up Fifdi Slreet. 
 TUr. c(jlumn hailed within a s(piare of the crowd, and 
 drew up in line across the street, ready for a charge, 
 while (he |)iece of artillery was prepared for action. 
 The military advanced no further, but the order was 
 i;iven to tin" police to charge the crowd and seize the 
 hall. About ouc-lialf of the police swept down on the 
 mob at a gallop, .scattering the rioters right and left, 
 driving fully three thousand men befont them. They 
 drew tlieir pistols and charged (jn the crowd, riding 
 their horses along the sidewalks, using tlieir rev(j|v. 
 ers as clubs while the least hesitancy to move on oc- 
 curred. In live minutes the slreet was cleared, and 
 not a rioter was lo be seen in (he vicinity of Schil- 
 ler's Hall save those in custody. In the meantime the 
 oilier part of the police force, had advanced to the 
 foot of the stairs leading to the above hall. The 
 whole squad went up, and two minutes later they 
 brought down about seventy men whom they found 
 in the hall, and placed them between lines of police, 
 armed witb muskets, and the whole thing was over. 
 Every one iu the upper [larl of the buiUJing was ar- 
 rested. One man altempled resistance, but a blow 
 over the head from a club subdued him very quickly. 
 Having secured their prisoners, the police and mili- 
 tary marched back to the Four Courts, and were 
 •rreeted along the route with cheers from the citizens. 
 After the departure of the police, a few of the mob 
 returned and indulged in bitter denunciations of 
 their leaders for deserting them, but it was evident 
 that the backbone of the riotous assemblage was 
 completely broken, and that they would not likely 
 have such another large gathering. Another victory 
 was won bv the authorities earlier in the day. When 
 the 27tli (jpeiied, the Union depot was held by a 
 force of strikers. The civil authorities resolved to 
 put an end to this stale of affairs, and at eleven 
 o'clock a battalion of four hundred men was des- 
 patched from the Four Courts lo the Union depot, 
 with orders to lake possession of and occupy that 
 building and drive out the strikers. The arrival of 
 the military was a surprise to the strikers, who held 
 (he depot in large force. About half-past eleven the 
 baltaliou marched in with loaded rifles and fixed 
 bavoneta. Without the loss of a moment the order 
 wiis given to clear the building and yards, and the 
 troop's executed it with a will, driving out the strik- 
 ers with the bayonet. The movements of the troops 
 were greeted with cheers and yells. The depot and 
 yards'beiug .secured, the authoVities announced thai 
 iio more interference with trains would be permitted 
 in St. Louis. Encourased by the promise of protec- 
 tion, some of the roads on tiie west side of the Jlis- 
 sissippi resumed their freight traflic on the 27th, and 
 the rest prepared to do so in the next day or two. 
 The cilv authorities also announced their readiness to 
 furnish armed suards for such shops and manufac-
 
 HIOT 
 
 734 
 
 EIOT. 
 
 turing establishments as desired to resume work. 
 Three meetings were called by the Executive Com- 
 mittee of the workingmen's party, in various parts 
 of the city, on the night of the 27th, but two of them 
 were total failures, the speakers not appearing, and 
 the small crowds which gathered at the appointed 
 places soon dispersing. The third meeting brought 
 together quite a large crowd, but before the meetmg 
 opened the crowd was dispersed by a force of five 
 hundred policemen. The mob wasnow thoroughly 
 cowed, and the danger was over. The 38th of July 
 passed away quietly in St. Louis, there being no dis- 
 turbance of any kind. A number of the leaders of 
 the outbreak were arrested and imprisoned : their 
 followers made no attempt to rescue them, having 
 no desire to meet the five thousand armed citizens, 
 the regulars, and the police who now stood ready to 
 crush any uprising. On the 38th, nearly all the roads 
 on the St. Louisside of the Mississippi resumed their 
 freight business. Sunday, the 39th, passed away 
 tranquilly, and by Monday the danger was at an end 
 in St. Louis, and the business of the city had resum- 
 ed its accustomed course. The expulsion of the strik- 
 ers from the Union depot on the 37th coufined the 
 strike to East St. Louis. The strikers cougregated 
 there in considerable force, and, being very bitter 
 over their defeat in the city, declared that they 
 would maintain the blockade on the Illinois shore 
 with even greater vigor. They were not to succeed, 
 however. The Ohio & Mississippi, and the St. Louis 
 & Southeastern Railroads were being operated by 
 receivers appointed by the United States Court. The 
 Court ordered the United States Marshal to prevent 
 the strikers from interfering with these roads. The 
 strikers resisted, and the Marshal, being unable to 
 execute the orders of the Court, asked for troops to 
 assist him. Ills appeal was granted, and orders were 
 sent from Washington granting the Marshal all neces- 
 sary military assistance. 
 
 The City of San Francisco contains a large Chinese 
 population. Between these and certain portions of 
 the white inhabitants there has always been a bit- 
 ter enmity. The working classes are especially hos- 
 tile to the Chinese, as they regard them as rivals in 
 the labor market; but the bitterest enemies of the 
 Mongolians are the "Hoodlums." or the idle loafers, 
 street loungers, and "bummers," of the city. Many 
 riots have occurred between the Chinese and their 
 enemies in San Francisco, and not long since it was 
 seriously proposed bj' the whites to organize a delib- 
 erate movement for the purpose of compelling the 
 Chinese to leave the entire State of California. It 
 was well understood in San Francisco that this feel- 
 ing of hatred to the Chinese only lacked a-favorable 
 opportunity to break out into open hostility. The 
 news of the labor troubles in the Eastern and West- 
 ern States was received wilh profound interest in 
 San Francisco, especialh' by the working classes. 
 On the evening of the 33(1 a workmen's meeting was 
 held, and was attended l)y about 10,000 persons. 
 The.se riots were in no way connected with the rail- 
 road riots east of the Ro<'ky Mountains. They were 
 a brutal and unprovoked outbreak of the worst ele- 
 Micnls of Ihc city, and were caused l)v nothing l)uta 
 love of violence and disorder on the part of those 
 who engaged in them. As they occurred sinudtane- 
 ously with the railroad troubles in the East, they 
 are generally classed with them: and for this reason 
 have been noticed here. 
 
 The anthracite coal regions of Pennsylvania," gen- 
 erally recognized as the ' northern,' • middle.' and 
 ■ soiuhern ' coal basins, arc comprised within or 
 bounded by a line of mountain, which, foriniui; it- 
 self some distance eastward from .Mau(.li Cliuiik, 
 takes, un<ierthe name of the ' Second Mountain,' a 
 southwesterly course to the Susquehanna Kivcr, 
 leaving the towns of ^lan<h Cluink, Tama(|ua, I'otts- 
 ville, and Trenionl to the north ; thence in a north- 
 easterly course, as the " I'eters Mountain," to a point 
 nearly southwest from Tower City; thence nortli- 
 
 wcstwardly, as ' Berrie's Mountain,' again crossing 
 the Susquehanna ; thence southwestwardly to Tay- 
 lorsville, as the ' Mahantongo Mountain '; thence 
 not h west wardly again in the direction of the Susque- 
 hanna, as the ' Line Mountain'; thence bearing in a 
 southeasterly direction, as the ' Little Mountain,' 
 leaving Sliamokin, Ashland, Shenandoah, and Ma- 
 hanoy City to the south, to a point in Union Town- 
 ship, Schu3lkill County. Here the mountain runs 
 almost due north for some miles, as the ' Catawissa 
 Mountain,' when its course is again changed to south- 
 easterly, as the ' Nescopeck Mountain'; thence north 
 and northwest, as the ' Wyoming Mountain ;' and 
 thence again in an easterly direction, running north 
 of Wilkesbarre and Scrantou, as the ' Shickshinny 
 Mountain.' Within the area inclosed by this moun- 
 tain lies all the at present discovered anthracite coal 
 of Penn.sylvania. It embraces not only the large ba- 
 sins before named, but also a number of compara- 
 tivel}' small detached coal fields. . . . Within this 
 area are enclosed the coal producing portions of 
 Carbon, Schuylkill, Bauphin, Korthumberland, Col- 
 umbia, and Luzerne C'ounties, and it is to a great ex- 
 tent occupied by a series of majestic mountains, the 
 Sharj), tlie Broad, the Big Maiiano}', the Little Ma- 
 hanoy, the Locust, the Green, the Macaule}', and 
 others." Dauphin and Columbia are agricultural as 
 well as mining counties, but the others are strictly 
 mining counties. By the census of 1870, the popu- 
 lation of the purely mining counties was as follows : 
 Carbon, 38,144; Schuylkill, 116,4.38; Northumber- 
 lainl. 41,444 ; Luzerne, 160,75.'). Since the census of 
 1870 the population of these counties has largely in- 
 creased. 
 
 The business of mining coal has drawn large bod- 
 ies of men to these counties, and has gathered them 
 at fixed points, in cities, towns, and large mining set- 
 tlements. The amount of arable land being small, on 
 account of the moimtainous character of the country, 
 but a limited portion of the area is under cultivation. 
 The natural formation of the coimtry is very favora- 
 ble to lawlessness. A walk of a few minutes from 
 an}' of the towns, in almost any direction, leads to 
 glens and haunts where one might hide in safety for 
 months from the police. 
 
 Not onh' is the singular feature presented of near- 
 ly the whole population of the coal regions living 
 in cities, towns and small settlements, often called 
 " patciies," but the character and habits of the popu- 
 lation in the several settlements differ widely from 
 each other. Scranton. Wilkesbarre, !Mauch Chunk, 
 Pottsville, and Tamaqua are all business centers, 
 wherein are located banks, manufacturing establish- 
 ments, the general offices of railroads and coal com- 
 panies, large stores, and where, to a great extent, 
 the wealth of the region naturally clusters. The ci- 
 ties and towns are not only business centers, but of- 
 fer additional inducements, social, educational, and 
 religious, to the coal operatorand those whose means 
 enable them to retire from business, in the selection 
 of a place of residence. As a consequence, they have 
 lost, in a great degree, the distinctive character of 
 mining settlements, and dilTer, perhaps, from other 
 places of equal size throughout the country only in 
 Ix'iiig more cosmopolitan ; this arising from the 
 wide range embraced by their business operations, 
 and the varied character of the inhabitants. Towns 
 such as Ashland, Slieuandoah, Mahanoy ('ity, Mi- 
 ner.sville, St. Clair, Hazletou, Pittston, Plymouth, 
 and many others of large jjopulation, to a cer- 
 tain degree partake of the character of business 
 and social centers, but the mining classes, being 
 liirgely in the majority, regulate and altogether con- 
 trol them. Besi(l<'s these two classes of towns there 
 are a great number of 'patches' or settlements, whose 
 population is entirely coinjiosed of miners and labor- 
 ers and those whose business is directly or indirectly 
 connected with the mines. While the admixture of 
 the foreign element pervades every part of the region, 
 in larite cities and (owns native born <iti/,ens of the
 
 EIOT 
 
 735 
 
 RIOT. 
 
 Unitcfl Stales liold control, but ut tlie coHierj' towns 
 the; power of tlic forei!,Micr Ih iiliHolule. lu tlii'He ItiHt 
 »lill fiirlh<>r diviHions are made, some l)<'iii(^ idinoHt 
 exclusively composed of Irisliiiieii, with unlives of 
 Qiie<'iis and oilier eoiiulies, Ireland, larijely ill the 
 inajorily. In such towns nut (inly have the nninners, 
 ensliinis ami inoilrs of th<iiii:hl df the Irish people 
 been Inuisplanled, hnl evc-n llic local prejudices in- 
 cident to cerlaiii localities in thai lieniiliful l)Ut in 
 many respects nnforlnnate land. Coinin;; here fresh 
 from the contest with the laiidloril and land aj;''"' "> 
 Ireland, with no sorroniidini; inthiences to leach 
 them their error, they transfer a prejiidicir whi<'li 
 has urouii with their s;rowlh anil streii::tlieiied willi 
 their strennth,to the coal operator and the boss from 
 whom they derive their siilisislencc.and under whose 
 dirc<'lion they work. Tauuhl from infancy to bi-lieve 
 that as auainsi them capital is never used <'.\cept as 
 an instrument of oppression, under the influence, 
 sometimes, of real wroni;s, but more fre(iuen;ly 
 under a mistaken belief of encroachnicnt upon their 
 rij;htH,a spirit, of resistance is aroused, which wicked 
 anil (lesii;ninn wretches have ho used and controlled 
 as to render the undeti'cted commission of horrid 
 crimes not only easy, but, to a certain extent, syin- 
 pathiz<'d with. That the above is no jusiilicaiion 
 for such a state of alTairs is true; neviTlheless, it 
 I'xplains, or lends toexplain, the ])ossiliility of its ex- 
 istence. Such is the region thai has become notori- 
 ous llirou|Tliout the Union as the country of the 
 Mollie Maguires and the scene of their terrible 
 crimes. 
 
 The order of the "Mollie Masiiiircs" is of forciffn 
 birth, and was imporled into this country from Ire- 
 laud. It was organized there by the Irish peasantry 
 as a means of opposins^ a combined resistance to the 
 exactiims of the landlords. HroiiLjhl lo this country I 
 by the emii;rants who found work in the coal rei;ioiis 
 of Pemisylvania, it beiame an <ir;ranization which 
 souirht to control the relations of tlieininers towards 
 their employers and to eoiu|iel the latter to submit 
 to any demand the former minht impose upon them. 
 The " Ancient Order of Hibernians" is a lari^e and 
 powerful Irish society extendini; Ihrouiihout the 
 United States. Its objects are iirofessedly benevo- 
 lent. It is re^jularly incorporated under the laws of 
 the various Stales in which it exists. Outside of the 
 coal regions of Pennsylvania, there is no |)osilive 
 proof that the society is at all criminal in its char- 
 acter. The worst cjiarije that has been l)rouglit 
 against it is that it supported and continued its re- 
 lations with IheJIollie .Maijuires after their exposure, 
 and raised a larije sum by assessments upon its mem- 
 bers throusrhoul the I'nion to defray llie expenses of 
 the defen.se of the Mollies chari^ed wilh crime in the 
 coal regions. The order is secret, and wields an im- 
 meiisi^ influence over its members. Its members are 
 Homan Catholics, uolwilhstandimi the fact that it 
 has been nomiiuitiiit condemned by the Holy »^ee. 
 and is under the ban of the Church, The Mollie 
 Masjuires were all members of Ihe Ancient Order of 
 lliliernians. In the coal fields of Pennsylvania, 
 they controlled the Order, and jrave tfieir society's 
 naiiie to it. Hence we shall speak of theorder simply 
 as the Mollie .Mai^uires. The principal work of the 
 order in Irclaiiil was the shooting of the agents of 
 the Irish landlords. It is said lo have received its 
 name from a ferocious Irishwoman who particular- 
 ly distinguished herself in this work. The Mollies 
 appi'ared in Pennsylvania as early as Ihe year isr)4, 
 when it became evident lo Ihe authorities that a criin- 
 iual organization existed in Ihe counties of Schuylkill 
 and Carl)on. The members of this organization were 
 popularly lermeil "Huckshols." They gave consid- 
 erable trouble to Ihe authorities, Imt were not con- 
 sidered especially dangerous during the next five or 
 six years. The great demand for coal which the 
 stimulus of flu- Civil War produei'd. and which set 
 in about the year 186-2. drew an immense population , 
 to the Pennsylvauia coal liclds, and as a verj' large i 
 
 proportion of the newcomcrfi were IrlflhDicn, the 
 
 Htrengtli and powr^rof Ihe Mollie MiiKuires incrcmt- 
 ed with the growth rif Ihe population. The exiHt- 
 ence of the order was known, but, as its niemberH, 
 when (pnstioned. stoutly denied their connection 
 with it and preserved the most rigid H<:crecy resijcct- 
 ing its transaclionh. nothing was known witli cer- 
 tainty by the authorities. 
 
 In the summer of iMO'i the (Irst draft for the pur- 
 pose of tilling up the ranks of the United Slates Ar- 
 my was ordereil. Active iireparatians were made 
 by the .Mollies |in Schuylkill and ('arljon Counties to 
 pri'vent the enrolment. In both counties the enrol- 
 miiil was eirccted, however. This led to nunierouH 
 threats on Ihe part of the .Mollies, and in Carbon 
 Counly lo much violence. .Men connected with the 
 draft, or representing the capitalists operating the 
 mines were assaulled. beaten and murdered, and 
 houses were burned by unknown parlies. The au- 
 thorities seemed powerless lo detect or punish the 
 ])erpefralors of these outrages, and tin: country was 
 jiluniied into a slate of terror. Xofices were served 
 upon leading coal operators lo suspend operationH 
 until after thedisconlinuance of the draft. and bosses 
 and miners were warned that if they went lo work, 
 they would do so at the peril of their lives. Upon 
 one occasion in the summer of IHtilt, a large body of 
 arme<l Mollies entered the town of .Mauch Chunk, 
 overawed the citizens, seized the jail, and released 
 a nunda-r of Ihe prisomrs. From this lime on to 
 INtiT, mori- than tifly nnirders were committed in 
 Schuylkill Counly. Of these, twenty-seven, or more 
 than one-half, were conunitled by unknown persons, 
 and may be safely set rlown to the .Mollie Magnires. 
 The chief stronghold of this order, liowever. waa 
 Carbon Counly. where they had matters very much 
 their own way. During all this while none of the 
 ^lollies had been convicted of Ihe crimes they liad 
 committed. Arrests of suspected parlies had been 
 made, and they had been brought lo trial in some 
 instances : but the Stale had been unable lo convict 
 them. The friends of the jirisoners were always on 
 hand, ready lo swear to anything necessary to se- 
 cure their acipiillal. Whenever a inendier of the or- 
 der was tried for an offense, a convenient alibi was 
 .set u]) and sustained by as many witnesses as were 
 thought necessary. .Vn acquittal was liuis readily 
 secured, and I he law was rendered powerless to pun- 
 ish the guilty parties. Large rewards were offered 
 l)y the civil aulhorities and the coal-mining com- 
 panies, and strenuous efforts were made to l)ring the 
 murderers to justice, but up to 1871. no Mollie had 
 ever lieen convicted of niurilerin Ihe first degree. So 
 stroui: had the Mollies become, especially in Schuj'l- 
 kill and Carbon counties, that lliev did not believe 
 the authorities could punish Ihem, and regarded 
 themselves as at liberty to carry out their pfan-s as 
 they liked. 
 
 As has been said, the authorities of the counties 
 embraced in Ihe coal regions were convinced that the 
 reign of lawlessness in their midst was due to a pow- 
 erful secret organization of Irishmen, and they had 
 learned that it was known as the Mollie .Maguires, 
 but bevond this they could discover nothing. De- 
 tectives had been set to work to ferret out Ihe mys- 
 terious order.but had been baffled and forced to give 
 up their elTorls in despair. The Mollies, secure in 
 the mvstery wilh which they enshrouded themselves, 
 continued their horrid work, and laughed at the au- 
 thorities. Meanwhile Ihe respectable inhabitants of 
 the coal regions lived in a slate of constant terror. 
 >so man could tell when his life ndght be taken or 
 his property destroyed by the terrible order, which 
 struck its blows in the dark and without assigning 
 any reason for them. So strong had the Mollies be- 
 come, that they even ventured lo take possession of 
 the very machinery of Ihe law by causing thenisi'lves 
 lo be elected lo pulilic offices in Ihe counties of 
 Schuylkill and Carbon. Having gained possession 
 of the otiices tliey proceeded to manipulate the pub-
 
 RIOT. 
 
 73 G 
 
 RIOT. 
 
 lie funds in the interests of their orsjanization. They 
 became a potent influence in State politics, and Jolm 
 Kelxoe. county delegate for the Schuylkill branch of 
 the Ancient Order of Hibernians, openly boasted of 
 his ability to extend the influence of the society into 
 national politics. Mollies were repeatedly elected as 
 county commissioners and school directors. In one 
 instance a member of the society was sent to the leg- 
 islature, and one of their members ran for an assoc- 
 iate justiceship, but was fortunately beaten at the 
 polls. So powerful did the Jlollies become in the coal 
 regions, and so general was the feeling of terror and 
 insecurity which they aroused, that the prosperity 
 of that section began to be seriously affected. It was 
 seen that the immense interests centered there were 
 at the mercy of a mob of lawless ruffians, and that 
 if these men were permitted to extend their power, 
 capital and respectable industry of all kinds would 
 be driven from the coal-fields. It was therefore re- 
 solved by certain parties deeply interested in the 
 welfare of the coal counties that the Mollie Maguires 
 should be exposed and brought to justice. 
 
 The Ancient Order of Hibernians exists in Great 
 Britain and Ireland, as well as in the United States. 
 It is controlled in this country and abroad by a Di- 
 rectory, known as the " Board of Erin," selected 
 from members in England, Ireland, and Scotland. 
 These regulate and give out the signs and passwords 
 of the order, which are changed every three months. 
 The headquarters of the order in the United States 
 are at New York. The national officers are elected 
 by the State officers, and consist of the National 
 Delegate, Naticmal Secretary, National Treasurer, 
 and President of the Board of the City and County 
 of New York. Each State has its own officers. The 
 headquarters of the order in Pennsylvania are at 
 Pittsburgh. The officers consist of a State Delegate, 
 State Treasurer, and State Secretary. They are 
 elected b}' the County officers, whrf also consist of a 
 County Delegate, County Treasurer, and County- 
 Secretarj*. The county officers are elected by county 
 conventions, which are made up by the officers of 
 the various divisions. The division officers are the 
 Division Master or Body-master, Secretary and Trea- 
 surer, and are elected by the members of their re- 
 spective divisions. No man can be a member of the 
 order but an Irishman or the son of an Irishman, and 
 a Roman Catholic. It is stated that there are over 
 six thousand divisions or lodges in the United States 
 and that the inembership of the order is over one 
 hundred thousand. From this large body of men. 
 with the exception of a portion of a division (No. 3) 
 in Philadelphia, not one word of condemnation of 
 the Mollie Maguires of the coal regions has been 
 heard. On the contrary, every effort has been niaile 
 and money has been liberally subscribed to enable 
 them to escape justice. 
 
 The signs and passwords of the Order show its 
 foreign character and sympatliies. They are chang- 
 ed every three months. In addition to the signs and 
 passwords given in the account of McKejina's init- 
 iation, the following were furnished by him in his 
 evidence Ijefore the Courts at the trials of the Jlollies: 
 jMay 18th, 1874: Password.— "That the trouble of 
 the country may soon be at an end." Anxire?: — "And 
 likewise the men who will not her defend." Quar- 
 RELLiNQ Toast. — " You should not dispute with a 
 friend." Annu-er. — "Not if I am not provoked." 
 NioHT Password. — " Long nights are unpleasant." 
 Answer. — " I hope they will be at an end." Sign. 
 — The front finger and thumb of the right hand to 
 touch lh(^ iu'ck-ti(^ or top button of the sliirl. An- 
 mrrr. — Kighl hand to rul) across forehead touching 
 hair, .\ugusl lOlli. 1H74 : Password. — " Wha! do 
 you think of the .Mayo election? I think llie fair 
 West hasmad(^ abad selection." Anxirer. — "Whom 
 do you think will <luly betray?" Quakrei.lino 
 Toast. — " Don't get y(uir temper so high." Answer. 
 — " Not with a fricMid." Sion. — Putting the thumb 
 of right hami into the pocket of llie])antaloons. An- 
 
 swer. — Putting the thumb of left hand on lower lip. 
 Jan.11,187.'),PA.sswoBD: QueUiuu. — "Gladstone's pol- 
 icy must be put down : He is the s)ipport of the Brit- 
 ish crown." Answer. — "But our Catholic lords will 
 not support his plan. For tine to their church they 
 will finnly stand." Quarrelling Toast ; Qiie.itiun. — 
 "Don't give way to anger." Answer. — " I will obey a 
 friend." Night Password : Qti-estian. — "The nights 
 are getting shorter." Answer. — "They will soon be 
 at their shortest." Bodv-Mastee's Toast. — "Letev- 
 ery Irish peasant Espousing Erin's cause. In college 
 green They may be seen Tliere making Irish laws." 
 Sign. — Nail of the right thumb across the bridge of 
 the nose. Answer^—Ti-p of the fore-finger of the 
 left hand to the chin. May 4th, 1875: Password: 
 Question. — "What is your opinion of the Tipperary 
 election? I think England broke her constitution by 
 Mitchell's rejection." Aiiswer. — "But didn't O'C'on- 
 nell resign his oath and seat? Yes, and by a<ritatiou 
 gained the emancipation." Quarrelling Toast : 
 (Question. — "Keep j-our temper cool." Answer. — 
 "I will not raise it to a friend." Body-Masteb's 
 Toast. — "Here's that every Irishman may stand to 
 his cause. And subdue the British government and 
 its coercion laws." Sign. — The fore-linger of the 
 right hand in the left sleeve of the coat. 'Answer. — 
 The thumb of the left hand in the left side vest-pock- 
 et. November 4th, 1875 : Password. — "Here's health 
 to every Irishman That lives in Ireland, To assem- 
 ble round in Dublin Town Inmemorj' of Great Dan." 
 Answer. — "When born he found our country in 
 chains aucl slavery ; He labored hard to set her free, 
 But now he's in the clay." Quarrelling Toast ; 
 Question. — "\o\\ seem to be getting vexed." Ans- 
 wer. — "Not with you, sir." Night Password : Ques- 
 tion. — "These nights are fine." Answer. "Yes; we 
 shall have a fine harvest." Sign. — Tip of the fore- 
 finger of the right hand to the hole of the right ear. 
 Ans^mr. — Tip of the fore-tinger of tlie left hand to 
 the hole of the left ear. January 22d, 1876 : Pass- 
 word : Question. — "Home rule in Ulster is making 
 great progress." Answer. — "Yes, if every Irishman 
 would support the cause." Qjiestion. — "1 wonder if 
 Irelaudcau gain tenant right?" Answer. — "Yes, if 
 supported by the Irisli members." Night Pass- 
 word: Question. — •'Moonlight is pleasant." Answer. 
 — "Yes, so is freedom." Quakrelling Toast : Qu»!- 
 t/on. — "Be calm, sir." Answer. — "I am never too 
 boisterous." Body-Mastek's Toast. — "Here's to ev- 
 ery Irishman that crossed the Atlantic wave, That 
 they may return with heart and hiaid their native 
 land to save." 
 
 Members of the Order are confined to the divisions 
 to which tliej' belong, and have no right to attend 
 the meetings of other divisions. This is a check up- 
 on the spread of dangerous information. A mem- 
 ber in good standing may change his division, but 
 for such a purpose a card of rt'comnicndation from 
 the Body-Master of his late division is necessary. 
 Shoidd it be proposed to use the card out of the 
 county, the county delegate places upon it his pri- 
 vate mark. The card may be presented to either a 
 Body-Master or a County Delegate; if the former, 
 tlucardis forwarded to the County Delegate for the 
 verification of his private nuirk. In leaving the 
 Stale, a travelling card, which also bears the County 
 Delegate's private mark, is used. The use of the 
 Body-,Master's toast, which is given to those officers 
 alone, is to eiRible them to recognize each other. 
 The (juarrelling toast is used to jirevent broils among 
 the members. If a blow is sinu'k after it is given, 
 the offender is liable to expulsion from the order. 
 Among the Mollie Magidres there is a thoroughly 
 arra?iged system for the couunission of crimes. A 
 mend)er having made complaint of cert;iin parties 
 who hiive offended him, lU' who ;ire considered dan- 
 gerous to the order, the mailer is referred to the 
 Body-Master, or a meeting of the division, or to a 
 mei'iing of the Body-Masters of all the divisions and 
 other leading men of the Order.
 
 SIOI. 
 
 737 
 
 RIOT. 
 
 Murder is the mom common of all forms of niin- 
 iHlimcnl Willi the Mollies. " Demi men li'll no liileH," 
 is the well l.nown ]iriiiei|i!e of llie OrilcT. It is (|iiile 
 enoUKli for n niiiri to iMiiir I lie ilislike of one single 
 iiilliieiili;il meiiilier of I lie Order to forfeit his own life, 
 'riie miinler is i,reneially eoniniitlecl in some lonely 
 pliiee, tind wilh nil the iii;i{nivaled feiitiires of iissiis- 
 siniition. Tlioii^li the (oiKlnet of the murderers is in 
 the liiLj'iest (lef;ree cowiirdly, they ure re;;iirde(l ii.s 
 luToes hy the Mollies, and liir^'e rewards Imve been 
 imid by Ihe society for the killing' of iiurlicularly ob- 
 noxious individuals. SliouM a memlic-r comniit a 
 niurdi-r or a loliliery on his individual aecounl. the 
 act is endorsed hy Ihe .Soeiely, and its whole inlln- 
 encu is used lo screen and protect the crinunal. 
 When a inemlxT is arrested for a crime, the others 
 are assessed in a certain sum for the purposi? of 
 raising money to employ counsel lo defend liim. 
 The next sle]) is to liiid witnesses enouj;li to estab- 
 lish an "alilii." I'erjiiry in sucha i^asebeinn count- 
 ed a virtue liy the .Mollies, the witnesses are always 
 forthcomiiiL!;. Kvideiiee of any kind that is wanted. 
 <-an be promiilly fiirnislied hy the Order. Such is 
 the Order of the Mollie Mairuires, and such are its 
 leadini; features. Thouirh its mendiers claim to be 
 Koman Catholics, the Order has been anathemati/.ed 
 by the Koman Catholic Church. The Cliunli. how- 
 ever, has so far failed to intluence its members. 
 The Order flourishes in spite of the clersiy. and while 
 professing the utmost ditvolion to tlie C'hurcli, eu- 
 conrages crime and wickedness. 
 
 The followinii formations for Street Jiiot /)K<.y, pre- 
 pared for the National Guard of New York, l)y Gen- 
 <Tal Win. II. Hrownell, have secured most flattering 
 recognition from all (|uarlers. It must be acknowl- 
 edged that to provide a jilan which would be eflec- 
 tive under <iH circumstances for the (|uelling of riots 
 is simply impossible, as every occasion may present 
 ditferent features, so that the means to employ must 
 be left to the occasi.in; for instance, were rioters in 
 possession of buildings and had the advantage of 
 shelter from roofs, windows, doorways, etc., or had 
 barri<'ade3 of all conceivable kinds, each occasion 
 ■would present new conibinalions, and only the cool 
 judgement of the ofticer conimanding coulil provide 
 methods to successfully cope with the enemy. While 
 all of these diflicidties are recognized respecting all 
 fitrtifiid iiKilix, we are not ])revented from providing 
 plans to disperse riotous iiio/a in the streets, and it is 
 for this ])urpose these formations are presented. A 
 large proportion of all riotous mobs consists of jaTiiile 
 who are present simply through curiosity, with no 
 desire to commit a t)rea(rli of the peace, yet before 
 they are aware i>f it are identitied as rioters, and giv- 
 ing countenance lo the outbreak with their pres- 
 cnco. and it is presumi'd are willing enough ») start 
 for home, if they can lie freed from the mob, parti- 
 cularly after a demonstration from Ihe troops. It 
 ■will be observed that provisions are made, in the 
 movements here providi'd, to secure this niostdesir- 
 alile oliject, as opportunities an; olTered at every 
 intersecting street. Moderation that will cause riot- 
 ous mobs to secure the slightest conlidence. or an 
 impression that there is hesitation on the part of the 
 troops, cannot be afforded, hence movements should 
 show decision, be promptly executed, and rid of all 
 forms that will cause tlelays. rather depending upon 
 force of habit secured through close application in 
 the drill room. The movemenls are siiiijily combi- 
 nations from Upton's nilcji, and may be readily exe- 
 cuted. 
 
 The assembly for riot duty should be with service 
 tmiform. overcoats, ii not worn, slung in horse collar ; 
 form over left shoulder, the tie under and to Ihe rear ' 
 of the right arm pit, canteens wilh wati'r, and haver- 
 sacks with rations, if possible— knapsacks lo be 
 taken if ordered lo a distant point. A sm;.!! detach- [ 
 ment of reliable men, in charge of an experienced j 
 oflicer, should be left in Ihe armory for its prolec- ] 
 tion. He'cruits and others, not having lliu rcqui- . 
 
 ; site inslnictionH for street work, Khoiild be left wilh 
 this detachment where, under the tuition of l|j<: ex- 
 perienci'd men, they may be laiight to aHhisl malo 
 j rially in the defense of the building, should it be 
 attacked. Field music iaiis should bi- taken wilh the 
 regiment for employ ment, if necihsary, as un amliu- 
 lance corjis. Tin: regiment should 1m' e(juali/ed into 
 un even niiinber of companies, bayonets MximI. Be- 
 fore leuvimr Ihe armory details of murkhinen will be 
 made, sulllcient in number lo provide each company 
 wilh at least four lo act as tharjtslioot/rs ; Ihey will 
 march, if their company is in ccilumn of fcmrs, just 
 oiilsidi- of line of file closers, and if in line, in rear 
 of tile- closers. It is not unusual to have large: c:rowdB 
 in front C)f an armory on the ordinary oceusions of 
 " marching out," and it is reasonable to suppcjsc 
 that under Ihe circumstanceH cjf '• Uiol Call" still 
 greater numbers will congregate. While these 
 crowds may be entirely friendly, the experienc-e ot 
 many, and the duly of the- Commandant, demand 
 that every iirecaiition be taken lo provide: for any 
 emergency, and it is this that prompts the first for- 
 mation upon leaving the armory. 
 
 I'rovisioiiforiiniiiiries tucittdoi, streets hating ii lint 
 of hHiklin;/s on both sidts. Armories located on cor- 
 ners usually have the' main entrance on a wide street, 
 and are provided wilh an exit on the side street, 
 which is more nairow; under these circiimstaneeg, 
 it would be preferable- to use- the exit on the street 
 that will oblige the crowd to present the smallest 
 front during the formation. 
 
 If Ihe march is to be toward the left of the exit, 
 form the first and fifth (or fourth, if cjnly eight com- 
 panies) divisions. As the doorway may not be wide 
 enough fur two columns of fours to pass, both divi- 
 sions should be faced to the right ; the first division, 
 with the Captain, file closers and sharpshooters, on 
 the right of the column ; the liflh division, wilh tlii- 
 Captain, tile closers and sharpshooters, on the left of 
 thecolumn. At the command, 1, Fonraril; 2. Marcli : 
 given by the Colonel, both divisions march l>y Un- 
 flank, in parallel columns, the fifth division on the 
 right, across the street to the fence, or building-line, 
 when the Chief of the first division commands: 1. 
 First dieisiou: 2, Bi/ the If J'l flunk ; 3, Makc:h. The 
 Chief of the fifth division commands: 1, Fifth divi- 
 sion ; 2, liy the right flnnk ; :i, Makch. The first 
 division conlinues the march, driving the crowd en- 
 tirely from the street and sidewalks, and halls in.side 
 the building-line of the first cross-street. The fifth 
 division is marched company distance to the rear 
 and halted ; or, if near a crossing street, inside the 
 buildiug-liue. The other divisions move out success- 
 ively in columns of fours, right in front, and form 
 line by " fours left," in Irac-e of the first division, 
 each at company distance. All divisicms having be- 
 come part of the column. Ihe fifth division wiM be 
 faced about, oflicers. file closers and sharpshooters 
 in front, and moved up to company distance. 
 
 If Hie march is to be to Ihe right of Ihe exit, the 
 first and fifth divisions march out by the left Hank, 
 wilh the first division on the right, and. after reach- 
 ing building-line, the first division executes " I'l/ the 
 right flunk, nmrrli," aru\ proceeds as previously ex- 
 plained : the fifth division, " hy the Uftflnnk, iimrrh," 
 and hailed afler marching company distance, or to 
 the building-line. The oilier divisions march onl suc- 
 cessively in column of fours, left in front, and form 
 line by "• fours right." in the trace of lirst division, 
 Ihe fifth division facing about, and all closing up to 
 company distance. 
 
 If Ihe exit is near a comer to the left, and Ihe 
 march is to be to the left, the first and fifth divisions 
 are marched out: the first division is halted just in- 
 side the building-line, and the fifth division is 
 marched a suflicient distance to the rear lo admit 
 die interior divisions in Ihe column, which march 
 out as follows: column of fours, right in front; the 
 fourth goes out first and fonns line by "fours right," 
 and when near the lifth "fours right about ' ; llie
 
 RIOT. 
 
 738 
 
 RIOT. 
 
 second and third march out successively and form 
 in rear of the first, when the fifth division faces about 
 and all close to company distance. 
 
 If the exit is near a corner to the right, and the 
 march is to be to the right, the first and fifth divi- 
 sions are formed and marched out ; tlie first division 
 forms line " hy the riglit flank, march." and marches 
 company distance, or tothebuildiug-line, and hailed ; 
 the fifth division forms line " In/ the left flank, mairh." 
 and marches to the rear a sufiicient distance to admit 
 the interior divisions, which march out in columns 
 of fours, left in front, in the following order : the 
 fourth, forming line by '• foum left." and when near 
 the fifth division executing '•fnunt left about; the 
 second and third then follow, forming line by "ftn/rs 
 right" in rear of first division, when tlie fifth divisicm 
 faces about and all close to company distance. 
 
 Marching to the place of disturbance in flanked 
 column iirder. Being (m the street in column of 
 divisions, right in front, the Colonel commands: 1, 
 Flanked column order; 3, March. At tlie first com- 
 mand Chief of first division commands : 1, Firxt di- 
 vision ; 2, Standfast. Chief of fifth division: 1, 
 Forward; 2, Guide right. Captains of third, fifth, 
 and seventh companies command such company : 1, 
 Rightforirnrd, fours right. Captains of fourtli, sixth, 
 and eighth companies command such compam* : 1, 
 Left forward, fours left. The command •• Alarch" 
 is repeated by all Captains of interior divisions and 
 chief of fifth division. The companies of the interior 
 divisions form the columns as ordered, file closers 
 darting through the intervals between fours, and 
 sharpsliooters passing around tlie rear (in double 
 
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 lime), to the siilc of the guide. The several eoni- 
 panies close up until Ihey are united in column of 
 fours, the head of eaeli flank cohunn marcl'.ing in 
 trace of tlic flank fours of the hading division. The 
 rear division is niiir<-he(l up until the think fours 
 unite with the rear of the columns. The h f t guides 
 of the right <-ompanies of the first and fifth divisions 
 <Mver tlie right guides of the left conip:inii-s, wlio 
 
 shall be the guides of the divisions, and the dress- 
 ing, if necessary, shall be on the center. All officers, 
 musicians, colors, signalmen, etc., will be placed in 
 the interior of the column. The Colonel wherever 
 lie deems his presence necessar}'. Lieutenant-colonel 
 between third and fourth companies, to supervise 
 right wing. AFajor between seventh and eighth (or 
 fifth and sixtli, if eight companies), to supervise 
 left wing. Staff, non-commissioned staff, and colors, 
 in the center of the oblong. One drummer or trum- 
 IH'tcr (the latterpreferrcd) between third and fourth, 
 and one between fifth and sixtli companies. Chief 
 of first division in rear of line of sharpsliooters. 
 Chief of rear division in front of line of sharpshooters. 
 If the place of disturbance is at a distance and haste 
 is demanded, it would probably be unnecessary to 
 drive people from the sidewalks, until the trouble- 
 some district is reached ; therefore, to facilitate the 
 march, the column may be narrowed as follows. It 
 can be, at any time, widened, as shown further on. 
 Th.; formation liaving been perfected and the " /''or- 
 icard. March " commanded, the Colonel directs the 
 chief of the first division to order a sufficient number 
 of tours from right and left to rear (equal number 
 from each flank) to enable the front to march with 
 flanks inside of the curb-line. The head of the flank 
 columns will unite in column with the rear fours of 
 the first division, and conform to their movements. 
 The Commandant of the rear division will order a 
 sufficient numlier of fours from right and left to the 
 front (executing it according to principles of " right 
 and left forward, fours right and left ") to unite with 
 the rears of the flank columns. Whenever the 
 column is halted, the rear division will be faced to 
 the rear by eomniand of its chief {sucji di vision abotit 
 face), and will be faced to the front at the command 
 foricard to the column. Should tlie column be attacked 
 it can be halted, and the Colonel may command : 1, 
 Flank companies; 2, Fiwrs right and left; 3, Makch. 
 4, Flank c//mpanies; .5. Halt. The last command 
 being given as line is formed. Fours thrown to the 
 rear and front, forming line with the flank columns. 
 The rear division will face to the rear, as previously 
 explained. First Sergeants of flank companies will 
 be in tlie line and covered b}' the Second Sergeant 
 of next company. 
 
 If at any time it maybe necessary to entirely drive 
 the crowd from the streets and sidewalks, the Col- 
 onel will command: 1, \stdivisiiin; 2. Rear fours front 
 into line. 3, March. At the command nairch, flank 
 colli mil companies will conform to the iriercased front 
 heads of the columns marching in rear of the flank 
 fours on the sidewalk and rear (livision completing its 
 front, with the fours previously tlirown to the front. 
 If onlv one four has been thrown to the front from 
 each flank, the division line will unite with them, as 
 tile flank fours must march in trace of the rear of the 
 flank columns. If more than one four was thrown 
 to the front from each flank, at the command to 
 widen the rear division marches forwaril, and, as the 
 line is even with its leading flank fours (Ihey having 
 obliqued with the flank columns) the Chief commands 
 Flank fours; 2. Left and rigid front into line; 3, 
 March, when they execute the command on the lead- 
 ing fours and unite with the division line. 
 
 To form flanked coIuimu nrder from column of 
 companies, riglit in front, the Colonel conimands: 1, 
 Flanked cidiinin oriU r ; 3. Form flrst and fifth {or 
 fourth, if eight companies) divisions: ;!, JIabch. At 
 second lomni.and.Ciiiitains of first and ninth (or sev- 
 enth, if eight companies), command : such company 
 right ohliiine. Captains of second and tvnth(or eighth, 
 if eight companies), eomuniud : xuch conipiiniis left 
 obliijue. Ca]itains of odd numbered interior conqia- 
 nies, third, fifth and si'veiith, command: such company 
 right forward : fours right. Cajitains of even iiuni- 
 lared interior comiianies, fourth, sixth and eighth, 
 eominand : such company left forward, fours left. The 
 third command " march." is repealed by all thectip- 
 tains Wliiii tlu' left of llie tir^t company reaches
 
 RIOT. 
 
 7;'.o 
 
 RIOT. 
 
 the cpntcr of the street, it will be miirclicil forward, 
 anil halted when it lian advanced cdinpany distance. 
 When I lie rJLdit of llie scconil I'oiiipaMy n-ai'hi'H the 
 eenler of the' slrcc-l. it is niarclicd forward, and halt- 
 ed when uniliun willi thi^ lirst company. the' left frniili; 
 of Ihe lirst company Hlepi)inf; lo the rear of llierifjlit 
 guide of the Hcconli, who shall he thi' t;uide of the 
 
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 ed iiKMjIumiis of fr,iirs.rij;hl in froiii.even iiuiiilM-reil 
 conipanii-K left in front, and inarch out u« followH : 
 third and fourth, llflh and sixth, scventli and eighth, 
 iiinlh and lentli ; oilrl numhererl companies in col- 
 unui of fours, uniting with the ri^'ht Hank f'lur of 
 Ihe tlrsl division, even mnnhered unilin;; with the 
 left Ihink four. When Ihe ninth and Icnih compa- 
 nies huv(t clcarcil the Imildirn; and united with the 
 Hank columns, they will e.\r-cute ri;;lit and left front 
 into line respeclivi'ly, thus forminj; the rear divisiim 
 iin<l complitin); the "formation. The eolunui can be 
 narrowed as previously explained. In clmmrinj,' di- 
 rection cure must be observed to have Ihe men on 
 the pivot side of the column shorten step luilil they 
 have passed the chani;ini; point, so as not lo advance 
 more rapidly than Ihe marchi.-ic Hank. The com- 
 mand for chani;ini; would be .-imply. 1, "Column 
 right (or left;;" 2, " March," the leading division ex- 
 ecuting a wheel. 
 
 The assaulting; or fighting formation is tenned 
 St>reH-rMoriltr. This formation is simply a column 
 of divisions. formed f'li'in "ri,lumu nffiivrn." ••rnliimn 
 (iJ'rjnnpanii'K" or Ihr ■' JliinhidciiliiviH nriUr." the com- 
 mand for forming divisions being prefixed with 
 '•Htreit-r!<it "i-dir." To form from " Hanked colunui 
 order," tlu' Colonel commands: 1, Streft-riot m-der ; 
 2, Flank nimpauien lift and riff/tt. fr'til inUi Hue ; 3, 
 Mabch. At second command, the Chief of 1st division 
 commands: 1, Int divinion ; 2, I-'m-irnrd ; 3. (Iiiulr 
 center. Cldef of rear division commands:!. Stifh 
 dwinion; a, Formird; 3, OuidteruUr. Caplam.s of 
 right Hank companies command: X.Snch fjinpiiny; 
 2, l,>ft front in>A, Une. Captains of the left flank 
 companies command: 1, Siirh company ; 2, H'glil 
 front into liiw. At command " innrr/i," repealed by 
 all Commandants, 1st division will inarch division 
 distance and hall. 
 
 division, and the dressing, if necessary, shall be on 
 the center. As soon as Ihe division is formed, its 
 chief will order a sufticieut number of fours from 
 right and left to rear (equal numl)er from each flank), 
 to enal)le tiu- division front to march with Hanks in- 
 side of the curb. The interior companies will form 
 the column, as ordered, file closers darting through 
 the fours, and sharpshooters passing around the rear 
 to the side of the guide (in double iimei; the several 
 companies closing up until they are united in columns 
 of fours, the head of each column marching in trace 
 of the fours thrown to the rear of the 1st division. 
 The rear division will be formed on the same princi- 
 ple as explaini'd for tlie first, excejiting that Ihe file 
 closers and sharpshooters will place themselves in 
 front, and fours from right and left be thrown to the 
 front, executing "right and left forward. fours right 
 and left," and conform to the column ahead, the di- 
 vision uuirrhing forward and completing the "Hank- 
 ed column order." 
 
 When the exit of an armory faces a large open 
 space, the flanked column order may be formed as 
 follows ; First comp;niy being in column of files 
 (double rank), right in front : second company on 
 the left of the first, in column of tiles (double rank), 
 left in front - both march out in parallel eolunuis. 
 When Ihe he:id of cohunns are clear of the doorway 
 the first comi)any executes column right and Ihe sec- 
 ond company column left: as the rears have execut- 
 ed the cliange. the first comiiany forms line by the 
 left Hank, the second company by the rigiil Hank, 
 thus forming the first division and moving forward. 
 In mcautime the odd numbered companies are form- 
 
 
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 Flank companies will execute front into line, from 
 a halt, as explained in Tactics (\w quick lime), cor- 
 responding companies uniting and forming the in-
 
 HIOT. 
 
 740 
 
 EIOT. 
 
 terior divisions, file closers darting through the in- 
 tervals, and sharpshooters passing, in double time, 
 around either tlank. Rear division is marched for- 
 ward, company distance, and halted. When divi- 
 sions are formed lithcr fmrn '•enlumn of f<tnr«." 
 " n>mpinii'ix," i/r ■'column ordrr." tlie right guide of 
 each left company will remain on tlie right of his com- 
 pany, and will be covered by the left guide of the 
 right company; tlie guide of divisions will be center. 
 Right and left guides of divisions will place them- 
 selves in rear of , tlie extreme flanli files of tlieir re- 
 spective companies, all olHcers and file closers in rear 
 of the division, and chiefs of divisions, excepting the 
 rear division, in rear of the center of their respective 
 divisions. Sliarpshooters, as the column of divisions 
 is formed, will be placed in column (as in column of 
 sliirmishers), witb equal intervals between the flanks 
 of divisions, excepting those belonging to rear divi- 
 sion, who will continue tomarchin front of that di- 
 vision. Colonel wherever he maj' deem his presence 
 necessary. Lieutenant Colonel to be between 1st. 
 and 2nd. division. Major between 4th and 5th for 3d 
 and 4th should there be four divisions). Staff, non- 
 commissioned staff, music, and colors, between 2(1 
 and 3d, or 3d and 4th divisions. In this formation 
 distances between divisions may be hicrensed or de- 
 rrea^ed, either uniformly or not, as circumstances 
 may demand. Sharpsliooters, in either case, regu 
 lating tlie length of their intervals. In case of ob- 
 struction to tlie advance during action, interior divi- 
 sions may be put under cover if available, althougli 
 tlie front and rear should each have a division at Band 
 for support or relief, as may be necessary. Being 
 formed in street riot order, the column can be moved 
 either to front or rear, by simply facing to the rear 
 or front, as may be desired. Should fronts not be 
 wide enougli to cover sidewalks, they ma}' be in- 
 creased witli rear rank men on each flank. If an 
 avenue of unusual width is entered, the front and 
 rear divisions maybe reinforced by men from the in- 
 terior divisions. To a ford free pa-imge from front to 
 rear for officers or messengers, for quick communi- 
 cation, all divisions, when formed in street riot order 
 excepting 1st and rear, will cause one four to break 
 to the rear from tlie left of right company, the left 
 guide of sucli company (who lias covered tlie guide 
 of the division) placing himself on the left of front 
 rank, and preserving tlie interval necessary for the 
 four. When a divmon efanen to be a renr division, of- 
 ficers, file clo.sers, and sharpshooters pass through 
 the intervals created in the center, and place tlieni- 
 selves in tlieir proper places in the rear. 
 
 If moving forward, and driving tlie mob. numbers 
 of it will naturally break right and left through the 
 intersecting streets, either for the purpose of attack- 
 ing the flanks, tir to escape the effects of severe mea- 
 sures from thetroops; in either casethe flanks, while 
 passing, should be covered, and for this purpose is 
 jirovided the following iinportiint viott ment: 
 
 A K tin hitermcthuf xtn it\sa j iproachcc 1 1 he command 
 is given: 1, Xst ri?id 2il dirixonis.'i, Anns: 3. I'ort. At 
 tliis command should the mob be large and aggres- 
 .sive. the second division, the rear four being ordered, 
 "front into line" (all officers in front jiassini; lliroiiffli 
 the interval before closing it), tlie left guide taking 
 his place as previously explained, may be moved up 
 (piickly to within a few yards of the 1st. As the 
 street is reached the comniaiKl is given: 1. l.v^ diri- 
 Ki'on; 2. CotiijiiinirH ritjlit find lift turn: 3. Mauch; 
 just as the building line is reached, each ('a|itaiu giv- 
 ing tlie proper command to liis company. Tliis being 
 the quickest change of direction for afroiit, anil 
 being done promptly and resolutely, resolves itself 
 into a rush on the mob. The "tuins" being com- 
 pleted, coiiip;uiies are halted just inside the line of 
 liuildings. Should llie fronts nol be sulllcient to 
 coiniiujiid th<' street turned into, they will lie widen- 
 ed immediately with rear rank men, to extenil the I 
 line. Sharjishooters of the turned companies will se. ' 
 cure positions (with cover, if possilile) where Ihey' 
 
 [ may command a clear view of the mob cut off, and 
 ' select the leaders, so that should firing be ordered 
 1 they can pick off the most active rioters. During 
 \ the execution of the turns the column is still advanc- 
 ing, and forcing the main Iiody of the mob ahead of 
 it. The 2d division now having Iiecome the 1st (and 
 all other divisions having changed their numerical 
 j designation), and must execute tlie same as explained 
 I above, at the next street, again dividing the mob, 
 and so at each street presenting new and fresh fronts, 
 without unnecessary exposure; in fact each change 
 being in itself stdirert attack on tliree siden. The first 
 division must not, under any circumstances, ap- 
 proacli the turning points in face of a crowd, until 
 the second division is close at hand to take its place 
 as the leading division. As the rear of the column 
 passes, the turned flank companies will hefac^d to 
 left and right, execute column left and right, and form- 
 ed to the front as the rear dirision, file closers and 
 sharpshooters placing themselves in front, thus com- 
 pleting again the formation and shutting out the 
 mob. Should the moh in. the rear be violent, as the col- 
 umn has passed, the renr division of the main column 
 will be halted, faced about, ami cover the fonnation 
 of the flank companies, which will form division be- 
 tween the one halted and the main column. 
 
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 OF FLANIvf 
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 Riot Order." 
 
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 Should it be deemed necessary at any tinii' to re- 
 lieve the first, or:iny division, even in the middle of 
 a block, the same syslem can lie enijiloyed as ex- 
 plained for passing an intersecting street. It is ad- 
 milled that some ex|)osure must exist. With the 
 formation in "street riot order" it would be com- 
 paratively slight, as tlie interior divisions, should 
 the resisl'ance be severe, c««W Ac moved, back to full 
 distance or more if desired, so that missiles thrown 
 at the 1st division would not be apt tn re;ich tlie 2d. 
 It is not necessary that wheeling distances be pre- 
 served. iSiiilT ollicers, c(ilor<, anil nuisic will pass 
 tlirough the intervals iirovided in the center of the 
 division, whenever the division thev are in front of
 
 HIOT. 
 
 BIOT. 
 
 is iiliout lo bcromc the 2il ilivisimi. If, an in frc. pirliitprt, (•iiiiscfli-iiioriili/.iiliiiii. For thin vcrjTciuion. 
 
 qiK-iilly llii' cfiHi', nil iiit(rsc(tiiii,'slrccl ildcsiiol (Tohh IIic knowjcilni- llial HlmrpKljootfrH w<T<r with the cit\. 
 
 ii'iiii. would Ijciipl to scciirtr from Iho \i-Mi\vm i>f 
 MioliH 11 iiio.Ht profound rcKpi-ct for tin- troojm ihiry 
 
 thr- <iiii' Ihul Ihc coliiiiiii Ih on. Iiolli cornpiiIlicH turn 
 (rinlit iind left ) llii' same us cxpluiiicd for a croHHinj; 
 hired, us Ihc inhj;rily of tlicdivision slioulil lie pre- 
 siTVcd. Advanclni; in "sircci riol ordrr," shoulil it 
 l)c ncci'ssary lo ilianu'i- dircclion for iuslun(,(^ turn- 
 inj; a ('ookt inio anolliiT si red — //' <« llieright, the 
 second division will lie inov<Ml upeloHC to thi- (Irtt, 
 Ihc riirlil company of Ihc lirsl division will r-ontinne 
 llu' march forward; as Ihc chan^in^; point is reach- 
 cil the rear rank will exiend lollii' Icfl : Ihc- lefl <'om. 
 pany c.vecnlcs Ihc lefl I urn. Ihc second division fliolh 
 companies) rii;lit turn, as I he linildiriij-linc is reach- 
 cd, and conlinnes Ihc nnircli, IkjHi companies of Ihc 
 (irst division hallin;; al Ihc liuildinu-linc. wlicn liie 
 colunm has passed, they face lo the rinht, march to 
 tlic riirhl and form "hy Ihc left Hank" as rear <livi- 
 sion. If the chaiiiic is to he tn the left, the lefl com- 
 pany of IIm' lirsl division adv.-mccs and ils rear rank 
 exh'Iids to the riirhl. the riirht company execulinij 
 the riirhl liirn, Ihc si-cond <livision cxeeutini; the left 
 turn and contimiinic Ihc march. IJolh Hank com- 
 panies, as the colnmn passes, execute left face, 
 march to the left and form "by the rijclit flank" as 
 the rear division. All divisions in rear of the second 
 execute the "turn" at the chaniriui; ])oint. While ad- 
 vancini; in street rior order, should a lanrc openinL' 
 bercaehed, such as a square, or park, llie llanked 
 colinnn order nuiy be used, or sui-h formations pro- 
 vided by Tactics for field work, as Ihc circumstances 
 uniy demand. While double rank formation is re- 
 commended, these movementu can be executed in 
 simile rank, if necessary owinj; to lack of ilumbers. 
 Should the rei;imenl eipnilizc with companies of siif- 
 licicnl size, the same principles can be used with 
 ])latoons and companies as explained for companies 
 and divisions. If it nuiy be desirable to divide the 
 force, for the purpose of llankini; barricades, ntarch- 
 inj; in parallel streets or detacliinir companies for 
 special duly, three divisions (or com])anies, if lari;e 
 enough) are suliicient for "street riot order." 
 
 Firingn are left to the judgment of the officer 
 eommandini:. but irrcat caution is advised in clearly 
 indicalim; tlie front that is lo fire. It is sucirestcfl 
 that one trumpeter or drummer in each wini; be 
 used, to indicate cease firinir. If a drummer, a 
 
 arc resist inj^. 
 
 Shoulil Arlillerv lie em]iloyed with the re>riinenl, 
 the sections will be placed bet ween the Ist and 2<1 
 diviKionH, and 4lli and rdh, or :tdanil4lh Cif four 
 divisions), and, if not lo be en(.'ai;e(l, will, as un in- 
 tersectiii); street is approached, hr- halted until the 
 2d division has passed and reformed, as explained in 
 Tactics for thir passaj^i- of obstacles. When the 
 companies who have executed the "turn" have re. 
 formed as rear divisions, the same rnovenienl will 
 be executed by the division in rear of the rear see. 
 lions. Shoulil il become necessary to usethcjFUDH, 
 owini; to a hca\'y onslauL'hl of the nioli, primiptnt** 
 will be of Ihc utmost imporlanci-, and from which, 
 ever front tin- L'uns arc to be servetl, sufficient fourH 
 will lie moved lo rear to enable the puns to lie run 
 I out on the line. While it is of course desirabli- to 
 move the fours l>a(k. in order, the ureal objeci is to 
 tret them back ivivifiliaUly . and to accomplish Ibis, 
 captains will direct in such manner as will be ihe 
 most practicable for Iheoccasion, The fronts remain 
 prolectinj; the jruns, and firinir if deemed necessary. 
 By these formations it may be seen that several 
 advanlaires arc secured, for instance: 1. A precau. 
 liouary formation in leaving the armory. 2. A col- 
 unm consislimj of an oldonjr, marehinfr insicle the 
 curb, ready for any emergency, and which can be 
 widened so as to entirely clear the street. ;i The 
 turns while in street riot order, affording protection 
 to the flanks while passing. 4. The rc])cated changes 
 of fronts caused by Ihe leading division of the col- 
 umn being used to cover the flanks at intersecting 
 slri'cts, Ihc 2d divisjun as it passes becoming the 
 first, and so on to Ihe end, one company or ilivision 
 is not reipiircd to bear the whole brunt of the resist- 
 ance as Ihe changes occur as often as it becomes 
 necessary, to protect the flanks. .'5. Frequent sepa- 
 ration of Ihe mol). Hcspccling this feature, it nuiy 
 be claimed that Ihe turbulent element cut off wouhl 
 soon unite again willi the main Ijody ; very po.ssible. 
 but il must be borne in mind that the most acliveof 
 the rioters would lie inlhi- front, and to separate any 
 from their fellows (even if but temporary;, would be 
 
 short shari) roll should be given. .-I* the din in a | of vast assistance in quelling the riot, besides afTord- 
 
 Ktrertjinlit would prevent to a great extent, commands 
 being heard clearly, the Commandant may employ 
 his stall officers to eommiiniaite mmindiitU directly to 
 officers, when the noise is great. The fjeuteunnt 
 Colonel nnii yfnjor will ea^•h he provideil with a non- 
 commissioned staff officer.to cnal>le them to prompt- 
 ly report anything of importance; in this connection 
 it will be remcmiiercd that intervals to pass through 
 are provided in the colunm for this purpose. The 
 usual manner of directing dressings must be omitted 
 in Ihe face of an angry mob, and the habit secured 
 in company drills of perfecting alignments l)e de- 
 pended upon, the dressing in column being always 
 toward the center. 
 
 Sharpshooters should be generally supervised by 
 the Inspector of Rifle Practice, who should be es- 
 pecially detailed for that purpose. When the col- 
 umn is in •'street riot" orrfer, sharpshooters will be 
 constantly on the alert, and if the district is danger- 
 ous, watch the windows and roofs of houses on the 
 side opposite their flanks, and should a hall occur, 
 will immediately seize any prominence that will af- 
 ford them view of the moh, those of the Isl and 2d di- 
 . visions watching the front, and those of the rear 
 division watching the rear, but must not lire until 
 individually ordered, unless they have special or gen- 
 eral instruction to the contrary. Of courseduring a 
 general engiigement witli rioters, they could be in- 
 structed to pick off any who are no'iceil as assail- 
 ants, l^idcrscf mobn are usually shrewd enough to 
 know the importance of disposing of commanding 
 otJicers of troops, and thereby, in soini- instances, 
 
 ing a means of escape for many innocent people. 6. 
 The piece being at arms port, is clutched firmly 
 with l)oth hands, can be used as a powerful pushing 
 lever, at the same time be ready for charge bayoneti 
 orfiring, or to use the butt as explained in the bayo- 
 net exercise. 7. A continuous advance on the main 
 body of the mob. H. The simplicity of the " ttreet 
 Tint order" as it can be formed from -flanhtd column 
 order," eobimn of fovrs, rolnmn of enmptmie*, or a/U 
 uniu of dirixi-mf, etc., etc. '^. Artillery can be em- 
 ployed without changing the formaticm. In a street 
 of ordinary width a regiment with five divisions can 
 hold four city tilocks at one time. and. if companies 
 are large enough to operate with platoon foniiation, 
 nine blocks can be held. 
 
 In providing these formations it is not supposed 
 that an advance will be an unbroken march: it is 
 therefore very important for all officers to watch the 
 movements of the column tmd guard against confu- 
 sion that might follow a sudden che<-k. Command- 
 ing (Itlicers should exercise extreme caution in en- 
 tering dangerous districts, and not expose their men 
 nee<licssly to the dangers of fortified defiles, a.s 
 streets with buildings on both sides might be such in 
 efTect, These formal ions are simply tactical: methods 
 for tlie erection ordestruction of barricades, defend- 
 ing or assaulting of foriifieil buildings, attack or 
 defense in general of fortified places, and matters 
 incidental tiierelo, should be subjects for private 
 instruction and discussion, as publicity might tend 
 to neutralize the effect of any measure that might be 
 employed.
 
 RISBAN. 
 
 742 
 
 ErVETING-MACHINES. 
 
 EISBAN. — In fortification, any flat piece of ground 
 upon wbicli a fort is constructcil for the defense and 
 security of a port or harbor. It likewise means the 
 fort itself. 
 
 RISBEEME.— A work composed of fascines, such 
 as is sometimes constructed at the bottom of a town- 
 wall. A sort of glacis of fascine-work used in jet- 
 ties, the sides of which, towards the sea, are so 
 formed as to withstand its violence. 
 
 EISING. — In Heraldry, a term applied to a bird 
 when represented opeuinir his wings as if about to 
 take fliL'lit. 
 • RISING FEOM THE EANKS.— To pass through 
 the successive stages in the ranks until a Non-com- 
 missioned Officer attains the rank of a Commissioned 
 Officer. Each Non-commissioned Officer rising from 
 the ranks in the i^nglisli Arun- receives, on getting 
 his commission, a grant of £i.50 in the cavalry, and 
 of £100 in the infantry, to enable him to purchase 
 his outfit. 
 
 RIVET. — A metal pin for connecting two plates of 
 metal or other material together. The rivet is put 
 through holes in both plates, and the projecting ends 
 are then beaten down so as to represent the head of 
 a nail on each side, and thus hold the plates in close 
 contact. Rivets are of most essential importance in 
 armor making, and in building iron ships. They 
 are often put through the holes and beaten down 
 while red-hot, in order that the coniractlon of the 
 rivet as it cools, may produce more intimate contact 
 of the plates. The principle of the riveting-machine 
 is simply the bringing a powerfid lever to bear upon 
 the head of the rivet, so that the smith can hammer 
 upon the other and softened end without displacing 
 it. See Riritiiifi-iniiehines. 
 
 EIVETINGFOEGE.— A variety of forge much used 
 in arsenals and foimding shops. The drawing shows 
 a portable riveting-forge, having a pot rotatable by 
 
 gearing, and having three doors, so as to employ 
 three operatives; it contains a grate-like basket, 
 which allows the blast from the tuyere to pass 
 through. At the bottom of the basket is a grate and 
 a comb-raker, operated from the outside. Beneath 
 
 the grate is the tuyere box. A fan is provided for 
 creating a blast. 
 
 Various devices have been resorted to for trans- 
 mitting power to the fan used on portable forges. 
 All the standard Keystone forges have wlial is here 
 
 shown and known as the " Square-Linked Malleabh- 
 Iron Chain," which is very satisfactory in operation. 
 It is more durable than cog gear and more reliable 
 than fricti(m pulleys. It is positive in its action, and 
 from its construction it cannot slip, and may, there- 
 fore, be run slack, with much less friction upon the 
 journals and bearings. As it neither stretches nor 
 contracts by heat or dampness, it is always the same 
 in all kinds of exposure. To use the chain, place it 
 upon the wheel, with the open hook of the link out. 
 To hook or imhook a link, make an angle, as repre- 
 sented in the drawing, and slide the link out by a 
 side motion : the two depressions on the side of the 
 link are for this jnirpose. 
 
 EIVETING-MACHINES.— As manufacturers in the 
 United States of Mr. Ralph H. Tweddell's various 
 Hydraulic Machines for riveting, so extensively 
 used in England, Messrs. "William Sellers & Co.. 
 have largely increased the applications of his inven- 
 tion in riveting armor-plates, etc., as well as im- 
 proved the machines. The improvements in their 
 steam riveting machines have been in the direction 
 of greater strengtli and increased durability, and 
 the application of the best features of the hydraul- 
 ic system to the steam system. That is to say, 
 they now make the steam "riveters do their work by 
 pressure, and not by impact or blow. Where the 
 boiler pressure can be varied to suit the size of the 
 rivets being driven, and can be maintained at a 
 uniform pressure during the entire w^ork, the steam 
 riveter will be in all respects as effective as the 
 hydraulic in stationary machines. 
 
 The attractive feature of tlie hydraulic system is, 
 that the pressure to be applied in each case is 
 gauged at the accimuilator by an adjustment of the 
 "weights, which determine the pressure per square 
 inch on the ram of the machine. If the water be 
 admitted to the machine from the accumulator 
 slowly, the pressure on the ram will be that in the 
 accuinulator as determined by the weights, and if 
 the valve is opened quickly, so as to admit a very 
 free flow of water and a consequent rapid fall of 
 the accumulator, there may be an increase of the 
 pressure over that due to the weight from the im- 
 petus of the falling load on the accumulator, but 
 not amounting to aiiy injurious increase. 
 
 The very nuich higher pressure per square inch 
 at which hydraulic machines are run, as compared 
 to either steam or imeumatic machines, makes the 
 cylinder smaller, and consequently the machines are 
 less cumbersome with equal power, a matter of very 
 great importance with portable riveting machines, 
 and of some moment in many kinds of stationary 
 riveting machines. The hydraulic riveting machine 
 can be"^ used wherevr power by belt is obtainable, 
 and the pumps and accumulator may by placed at 
 any point most convenient for the application of the 
 power, their distance from the riveting machine in- 
 volving no serious loss in efticieucy. 
 
 Very extended experience with the hydraulic ri- 
 veting machine system in its various forms has led 
 to make"alterations in the steam-system of 
 riveting lo bring it to the same standard of 
 excelh-nce. So long as it was believed thai 
 lilows were needed lo do good riveting^ by 
 power, the imiirovemenls in the machines 
 were in Ihe ilireclioii of making themstron- 
 ger and better able to willistand the severe 
 shocks which sooner or later break down 
 all such structures. Hydraulic riveting de- 
 monst rated not only I hat tlic work could be 
 as wi'll done witlio"ul a blow, but that it 
 <'ould be li(tl< r (l"iir iriUniitt a l.lnir. and that 
 the riveted material was stronger when so 
 secure<t than when subjected to the more severe 
 treatment under impact. Many exiierimcnts with 
 steam riveting macliiiies led to the adoption of a 
 system of very small steam-pipe connections from 
 tile boiler to the riveter, coupled with an increase.
 
 BIVETINO PLATES. 
 
 i: 
 
 HIVEH8. 
 
 in the diaiMcl<r nf \\iv riveting rylindur and tlic, UHC 
 i>f H very liii^jc vnlvc on llic iiiacliiix' (o permit a free 
 lldw (jf sleiiiii ill exliiuisliiij: mid etlVel in;; the draw- 
 baek witli llie cliurirc used in driving; llie rivel. 'I'liis 
 iniproviiienl lias liioiinlit liieHleaiii rivelin;; plant up ! 
 to the liesi (•(indilidiis (if liydniiilie riveting, ho far 
 as .Htatioiiary iiiiuliiiies are eiiiKeriied. willi tlie one 
 Hini^le exeeplion that (lie reijiilarily of the Hteani 
 pressure Is slill left to llie discri'lioii of llie persons 
 empl<;ved in doiiiu: llie work. When a separate boil- 
 er is eiiipl'ved lo run the rivelir no (jreal Iroiilile is 
 found in a close reirulalion of the sti^ani, and Hie 
 sleam rivelin;; system is very satisfaetory. 
 
 The drawiiii; shows what is known as the Klaslie 
 JSlow l{iveliiii;-maehine, and much used in arsenals 
 
 The machine in imed In Ave hi/x-h, for heading will 
 
 rivets of . 
 
 ;, and 1 ineh diameter respecilvelv. 
 
 for a ijreat variety of the lighter work. The most 
 remaniable feature of the maeliine is the peculiar 
 elastic blow, the force of which can be varied at the 
 will of the operator, from a slight to a heavy blow, 
 by more or less pressure applied to the treadle, and 
 without moving the work in any manner. 
 
 A self-acting device attached to the maeliine stops 
 instantly the lilow of the hammer, allowing the opera- 
 tor to withdraw his work. An adjusiable anvil 
 allows vises or other suitable contrivances to be at- 
 tached, for holding work of dilTerent shapes and 
 thicknesses, and an e.xtra treadle (shown in engrav- 
 ing) is furnished with each machine, to allow these 
 vises to be operated by the foot if desired. 
 
 The work, while in the machine, is stationary, 
 thus insuring the hammer always striking on the 
 rivet and heading it equally. Hotli !:ands of the 
 operator being free, he is able to liandh- the work 
 with ease and rapidity. The haniiner being rotated 
 while the blows are given, the work can be riveted 
 flush, or with a smooth, rounded hea I, as desired. 
 
 RIVETING FLATEB. In gun-carriages. Hie sniull, 
 S(|Uari', thin pieces of iron, through which the endH 
 of tbe bolls pass, and are riveted upon them. 
 
 BIVEBS. Ifivers traversing the theater of war 
 occupied by hostile artnies have a marked iniliience 
 on the operations of each. Whenever they an- lobe 
 crossed in the priseneeof an enemy, either in ad- 
 vancing or retiring, the use of artillery and of Ihld- 
 works bcfionies of great importance; this, for the 
 reason that the operation of crossing necessarily con- 
 sumes considerable time, during whicli tlie urtny iB 
 
 divided— astraddle, as it were, the stream- and re- 
 quires the aid of that arm whicli, from a (i.ved 
 po.sition, possesses the power of covering at long 
 nmge the movements of other troops. The place of 
 crossing, whether bridge, ferry, or ford, is simply a 
 defilethrougb whicli the army has to pass, anil which 
 must l)e completely covered from the tire of theene- 
 my, who must not be permitted to establish batteries 
 within range of the crossing. This is tiest effected 
 by covering every point accessible to him with the 
 (ire of artillery. 
 
 A river in front of an army operating on the de- 
 fensive, stands lo it, somewhat, as a wet ditch dftes 
 to a fortilication, and should be so guarded as to 
 make the cro.ssing of it a difticult. if not a hazardous, 
 operation to an advancing enemy. Points at which 
 the communications of a country converge are those 
 most advantageous for an enemy to .select for cross- 
 ing. These should be secured by strong inclosed 
 works, armed with artillery of such power as to 
 cau.se liim to make a long detour and to adopt a less 
 advantageous point. If the stream is navigatde, 
 such wo^ks form a i)lace of refuge for the craft that 
 ply on it, and which, falling into the hands of the 
 enemy, would furnish him with means of crossing 
 and assist him in carrying on his operations. The 
 size of the work will, lo a great degree, depend upon 
 the force that can be detached from the main body for 
 garrisoning it ; but, generally, a well-constructed 
 work containing a thousand men, adequately sup- 
 plied with artillery, will i)rove a formidalile olistacle 
 to the crossing army. Points thus established should 
 not be so numerous as to cripple the etliciency 
 of the defending army by dispersion. They should 
 be rather in the nature of bases for temporarj- points 
 of observation along the river, secure against cap- 
 ture by ww/i (/c »('(/«, and threatening lo the flanks 
 and rear of the crossing army. 
 
 A bridge is protected Iiy a tfte-df-punt, the nature 
 
 I and extent of which will depend upon the character 
 of the attack to be expected, .\gainsl mere raiding 
 parties, a mere redan or lunette will aui]dy suffice 
 Two or three pieces of artillerj- may be put in it. but 
 it is preferable to locate batteries, on the opposite 
 side of the river, to Hank the redan and cross their 
 tire in front of it. Against a large force well sup- 
 plied with artillery, a Unr of works must be thrown 
 up and well armed with artillery, for the purposeof 
 keeping him beyond artillery range from the bridge. 
 Batteries of heavy pieces are placed, to flank the 
 line. 
 The operation of crossing a river by an anny in 
 
 I presence of a vigilant enemy, is one of great delicacy, 
 as it necessarilv consumes considerable time, during 
 which it is more or less divided and 'subject lo every 
 disadvanlase. Judicious use of artillerj- is of the
 
 RIZAMEDAK. 
 
 744 
 
 ROADS. 
 
 first importance. The first thing to be done is to ' 
 o-ain a footing on the opposite side. This is usually 
 accomplislied by stratagem or by surprise. Before 
 a large opposing force can arrive, batteries must be 
 established on the side from which the crossing is 
 made to cover with their tire a large area of ground 
 opposite. Every available piece must be put in, and 
 the enemy kept back until bridges can be laid and a 
 strong line of infautrj' passed over and intrenched. 
 Siege guns, owing to their great range and power, 
 are the best adapted for this service. The batteries 
 should be extended tip and down the stream for 
 three or more miles on each side of the crossing- 
 place; this, for the main purpose of enrtlading thi' 
 flanks of the enemy and preventing him from bring- 
 ing his artillery to bear upon the crossing. The 
 place for crossing should be selected, as far as prac- 
 ticable, with a view to advantageotis positions for 
 batteries. The convex side of a curve with hills 
 dominating the opposite side gives every advantage. 
 This secures a cross-tire upon the opposite peninsula, 
 under cover of which the infantry line and light field 
 batteries can be thrown forward to a distance of two 
 or three thousand j-ards and established in an in- 
 trenched line as represented in the drawing. 
 
 If the enemj- has gun-boats on the river, especially 
 if they are iroii-clads, provision against them must 
 be made by laying across the channel lines of sub- 
 marine mines, with heavy batteries established for 
 their protection. These batteries must be strongly 
 intrenched. The operation of crossing a river by an 
 armv pressed in rear by another, is the reverse of 
 that Just described. When practicable, the concave 
 side of a bend is selected, across which a line of tem- 
 porary intrenchments is constructed r batteries are 
 established on the opposite side, and the army with- 
 drawn under protection of their fire. The batteries 
 should cover themselves with gun-pits, and give 
 special attention to sucli artillery as the enemy may 
 bring forward for the purpose of reaching the place 
 iif crossing. See Bridges. 
 
 RIZAMEDAK. — In the East Indies, an ofiicer com- 
 manding a small body of horse. 
 
 ROADS.— When it is proposed to construct a line 
 of road, extending between two places, the officer 
 upon w-hora such duty devolves, first makes himself 
 well acquainted with the surface of the country 
 lying between the two places; he is then to select 
 what he thinks, all circumstances being taken into 
 consideration, the best general route for the proposed 
 road. But previously to laying it out with accuracy, 
 it is necessary to make an instrumental survey of the 
 countr}', along the route thus selected ; taking the 
 levels from point to point throughout the whole dis- 
 tance, and makir.g borings in all places where exca- 
 vations are required, to determine the strata through 
 which such cuttings are to be carried, and the requisite 
 inclinations of the slopes or slanting sides as well of 
 the cuttings as of the embankments to be formed by 
 the material thus obtained. It is al.so re(iuisite, in 
 the selection of the route for the i)roposeil road, to 
 have regard to the supply of materials, not only for 
 first constructing it. but for niaint;iining it in repair. 
 The results of sucli an investigation shoulil l)e reduced 
 to pli'n and section ; the plan of the road lieing on a 
 scale not less than (iti yards to an inch, and the sec- 
 lion not less than SO feet to an inch. The loss of 
 J/rdctivi- power and conseciuent danger produced by 
 .steep acclivities, render it neci'ssary that a jiroper 
 :ind c;irefully determiiu-d limitation should be im- 
 posed on the iicclivilies or in<'liiiati()ns on every line 
 of roail. As, however, in most, instiuuies, this re- 
 •duction of hills in a country where much ine(|uarMy 
 of surface exists, is attended with great labor and 
 cxp,;nse, greater rates of inclination must be allowed 
 to hills or roads where the traffic is not sulHcient to 
 repiy the expense of excavations. A dead level, 
 even where it can be obtained, is not the best course 
 for a road: a certain inclination of the surface facili- 
 lates the drainage, and keeps the road in a dry state. 
 
 There is one certain iudinatiou or acclivity, which 
 causes, at a uniform speed, the traces to slacken, and 
 the carriages press on the horses, unless a drag or 
 brake is used; the limiting inclination within which 
 this effect does not take place is called the angle nf 
 repiiKe. On all acclivities less steep than the angle 
 of repose, a certain amovmt of tractive force is nec- 
 essary in the descent, as well as in the ascent; and 
 the mean of the two drawing forces, ascending and 
 descending, is equal to the force along a level road. 
 The exact course of the road, and the degree of its 
 acclivities being determined, the next thing to be 
 considered is the formation of its surface. The 
 (pialities which ought to be imparted to it, are two- 
 fold: first, it should be smooth: secondly, it should 
 be hard; and the goodness of the road will be exactly 
 in proportion as these qualities can be imparted to 
 it, and permanently maintained upon it. The means 
 resorted to accomplish these objects are: 1. Grarel 
 Jliiailx. A coating of four inches of gravel shoidd be 
 spread over the road bed, and vehicles allowed to 
 pass over it, till it becomes tolerably firm — men be- 
 ing required to rake in the ruts as fast as they ap- 
 pear: a second coating of S or 4 inches of gravel 
 should be then added and treated like the first, and 
 finally a third coating. 2. Brnkeii .Stone liondn. or 
 JIcAdam roads. French engineers value uniformity 
 in size of the broken stone less than McAdam. They 
 use all sizes from U inches to dust. McAdam coii- 
 siders from T to 10 inches of depth of stone on the 
 road sufficient for any purpose. He earnestly ad- 
 vocates the principle, that the whole science of road- 
 making consists, in most cases, in making a solid 
 dry path on the natural soil, and then keeping it dry 
 by a durable water-proof coating. 3. Broken stone 
 roads with a paved bottom or foundation, or Tilfurd 
 Roiidi ; a road thus constructed will, in most cases, 
 cost less than one entirely of broken stone. 4. Hoeidx 
 of Wood. The abundance, and consequent cheapness 
 of wood renders its eiuployment in road-making of 
 great value. It has been used in the form of logs, of 
 charcoal, of planks, and also of blocks. When a road 
 passes over soft, swampy ground it is often made pas- 
 sable by felling straight young trees, and laying them 
 side bj- side across the road at right angles, or very 
 nearly so, to its length. This is the primitive and 
 very well known corduroy road. A very good road 
 has been lately made through a swampy forest, by 
 felling and burning the timber, and covering the sur- 
 face with charcoal thus prepared. Timber from 6 
 to 18 inches through is cut 24 feet long, and piled up 
 lengthwise in the center of the road about five feet 
 high, and then <'Overe(l with straw and earth in the 
 manner of coal pits. The eartii required leaves two 
 good ditches, and flu- tiud>er, though not split, is 
 easily charred; and when charred the earth is re 
 moved to the side of the ditches, and the coal raked 
 down to a width of l.*) feet, leaving it two feet thick 
 at the center and one at the sides. 5. I'lank Iioiid.t. 
 Two parallel rows of small sticks of timber (called 
 sleepers) are imbedded in the road three or four feet 
 apart. Planks, 8 feet long and 3 or 4 inches thick, 
 are laid on these sleepers across them. Aside track 
 of earth to turn out ujion is carefully graded. Deep 
 ditches are dug on each side to insure perfect drain- 
 ajje; and thus we have tlu plank road. (!. A'w^/.s (// 
 hartli. These roads are deficient in the important 
 reipiisites of smoothness and hardness, but they are 
 the only ri)ads usually made in the fiekl to carry on 
 militiiry operations. Their slia|ie, when well made. is 
 properly formeil wit b a slope of but 1 in 20 e;icli w;iy 
 i'riim llie center. Its drainage should be niiule thor- 
 ough by deep and capacious ditches, sloping not 
 less than 1 in 12,5. Trees should be removed from 
 the borders of the road, so as not to intercept the 
 sun and wind. The labor expended upon it. will, 
 however, de|)end upon circumstances. Every hole 
 or rut in the road should, however, be at once filled 
 up with good materials, for the wheels fall into them 
 like hammers, deepening them at each stroke, and
 
 HOBERTS GUN. 
 
 BOCK DHIIX, 
 
 lliiis in<rcasiiiK llic (li-HlrnclivK elTi'fl of IIk- rominj; 
 wlii<l. The (TDSS-scclion of a road cnibniccs: 1. 
 T/if iriilth iij'tlif riHiil frnrii HI], to :i(» ficl, arcuriliiii; 
 to ils iiii|i<irlan<c, anil llic aiiiKunl <if Irnvcl iipuii it. 
 2. Tlw Hhiiiif of till' rntiil-hid '\'\w bent Hliapc of tlir; 
 tniMMVcrsc profile for a road on level f;ri>iiii(l Ih two 
 iiii'liiied ]ilanes nieetinj; in the center of rou<l, and 
 liavin;; their allele sliirhtly rounded. On n Hteephill, 
 the transverse prcjtile slionld he a siniile slope inclin- 
 inj; inwards to the fuee of the' hill. li. h'niitpiiDin.iti-. 
 4. Ditrlii" 'Pile ditches shcjidd, if possiljic. lead into 
 the natural water-courses of the country. T). I'ln 
 Hidi'diiiii'mift'if nitlin!i:< itml IHIiiir/K These viiry with 
 the nature of llic soil. 
 
 ROBERTS GUN. .\ luce.h.loadin;; rillc havini; a 
 ti.M'd ehanilier closed by a iiiovahic l>rcech-block, 
 which rotates about a horizontal a.visat 'M)" to thea.vis 
 of the barrel, lyiiii; above Ihea.xis i>f the barrel ami in 
 rear, bcini; nii>veil from above. The pieci' is opened 
 by raisiiina hooked eatch-lcvc-r, at theen<l of the tan;; 
 ot the breecb-block, out of its notch in llx' tani; of 
 the receiver. This depresses Iheforwanl end of the 
 block so as In e.^iMisethe chamber. The reaction of 
 the breech-lilock spriiu; lying uudcrueatli the block 
 
 throws up the front of the block sutliciently to keep 
 the cartridge from fallinix out of the chamber before 
 the breech is fullv closed. The closing is done by 
 
 rctiirniMK the lever to ilH place, or aiilomutically liy 
 ' r-ockin;r Ihi- piece. The back of the lianinier in tin; 
 latter case presses a^'ainsl tin- enil of the slot in the 
 tan^ of the liri'ecb-block in w hich it plays, and ho 
 raJHCH the front r,f the block into place. ' The piece 
 is locked by the poHJIion of llie breech-block, whicli 
 is also kept in place tiy the enj^a^inn "f "k- liook of 
 I the catch-lever with u correspondini; notch in the 
 taiiL' of the rcceivir. K.vlraction and ejection uc<i 
 accompanied by a bi'til liver pivoted to the side of 
 the receiver bilow the chamber, and sinick by the 
 breeih-bloik face in its descent. 
 
 B0BERT80N RIFLE. A breei-h-joadiiiK Hmall-ami 
 havini; a ti.veil chamber closed by a movable tireeeli- 
 block, which rotates alamt a hori/.ontal axis at 00" 
 to the a.xis of the barrel, lyin^ below the axis of tUe 
 barrel and in front- bein;; moved from below by a 
 lever. By depressini; the lever the block is pulled 
 down by a link connecting the two. By reversing 
 the lever the bimk is raised into place against the 
 end of the barrel, and is locked by the middle joint 
 of the linked condiination rising above the line join- 
 ing tlie other two, and causing the strain upon the 
 block from the discharge to tend loward.s brin^injr 
 the lever more closely into place. Kxtraclion and 
 ejection are aecomplishcd by a small slrai!;ht lever, 
 swinging on a center below that of the block, and 
 struck by the block, during the opening, near its cen- 
 ter of motion. 
 
 ROBILLARD SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. -Thi.s 
 system has bieu ralli d the ■• system of demolition." 
 The enceinte resembles that of Vauban. The out- 
 works consist of ravelins, counterguards. and Heches. 
 The Icrrepleins of all these works are intersected by 
 ditches, which arc covered either by masonry or by 
 wooden frames and earth, so that when the be- 
 sieger has hreacbed a work, the defenders obtain at 
 once a retrenchment by removing that masonry or 
 wood by the mine. 
 
 ROBINET.- An aniient military machine for throw- 
 ing dart^ and stones. 
 
 SOCK DEILL.- The two most important improve- 
 ments iu modern rock-drilling a])paratus consists in 
 the use of compressed air as a motor, and the em- 
 ployment of diamond ))oints. The former is now 
 universally us< d in operations on a large scale, and 
 is extensively emiikiyeil in coal-mining, serving to 
 ventilate the shaft besides performing tlie functions 
 of a motor. The driKiug-nutchines to which it is 
 applied are various, very great im|irovemenls having 
 bdii madewitliin the past few years, previous to 
 wiiich time the old systems of turniiii; the drill, and 
 boring or pounding by hand, held undisputed swav. 
 The drawing illiislratis the Band Hock Drill, which 
 behmgs to the class known as " .striking drills." in 
 w liich the drill steel is an extension of "the piston- 
 rod. The cylinder slides inashell or guide, whicli is 
 iu turn nu)unted upon a tripod with a uni- 
 versal joint. The lyliiuler is fed toward 
 the rock as fast as the steel penetrates il. 
 The tripod legs arc adjustable, and can 
 be placed lu any position desirable. The 
 weights are removable. The positive valve 
 movement insures certain operation when 
 steam or air is admitted, withiuit depend- 
 ing upon close tils or clean parts. It al- 
 lows of a variation in design between the 
 up and the down stroke, thus economizing 
 steam and increasing the working capacity 
 of the machine. By a patented feature, 
 the valve is moved in the same direction 
 with the piston. The rotating bar is made 
 full size where it enters the ratchet, and, 
 unlike the other forms, :t does not brejik. 
 The piston-rod and chuck, or drill-holder, 
 is made rather small and solid outside of 
 the cylinder, whereby a much greater lift- 
 ing power 's attained than is ever possible in any 
 otiu'r machines of the same diameter of cylindeir. 
 The split crank-nut. feed-nut. and adjustabie-slides
 
 BOCK DRILL. 
 
 746 
 
 ROCK DRILI,, 
 
 RAND'S LITTLE GIANT ROCK DRILL, 
 
 Mcuiilcd iPii 'I'limic I "T DrilliiiL; I niumiv
 
 ROCKET GAUGES. 
 
 ROCKETS. 
 
 provide for liiUiiif; up wear iis fuHt iih it occiirn. Tlic iln lii'ud jh hiiriiioiiiiU'd l<v ii '"Uil ,luit ; if i-xplonioii 
 llirolllc or slop cock, employed in llic Uiiiid drill Ik | and iiici-iidiiiry i-irccl. \<y aolitlUir uphrrintl oiJu^jihil. 
 pliiccd ill llic siciiiii clicsl, where il cariiiol hv loHt or to wliicli is iilluclieil u fiiMc, wliicii is wl on (Ire when 
 injured in liundliii!;, us i.< the ciise where a common il i.t reuelied liy the llamr- of the hnrnin^; eompohi- 
 enlve .illiiched lo the liiwe is nued. The linhlniiif; lion. The hawe Ih perforuli'd Ijy one or more reitU 
 coiipliiii;- provides for inslanlaneoiis conneelioii of for the escape of the (,'iis ^.'eneraled within, and 
 the hose williriiil, llie use of wrencii or spanner ; il j .sometimes w ilh a screw-liole to which u. )?uidi:-slick 
 does uot leak, and lias no gnsketu Ihul can drop out. I in luHlened. The diHposilion of the difltrt-ul purt» 
 
 Tli(t full !>«;;(• enuravino; opposite shows this drill 
 mounted so !liat several holes can be drilled each 
 side of the column wilhout takini; down the drill or 
 movin-j; the column. The arm is made so that by 
 loosening one nut it can be swung around to any 
 position, or il can be raised or lowered on the col- 
 umn. The Kand air-compressors, used with this 
 drill are of Ihc liorizoiilal liuplex lypi', with air and 
 steaiii cylinders in line. This arrangement makes a 
 machine that is very uceessilile. that is correctly de- 
 signed, and readily available as an engine as well as 
 a compressor, anil that lias its framing so dispo.sed 
 as to take the strains in direct lines. The engine is 
 tilled with the Meyer valve gear, the cul-olT being 
 adjusted by a hand wheel, while the machine is in 
 molion.the point of cul-olf being shown by a |)ointi'r 
 moving over a graduated scale. The machine is run 
 with a wiile-oiHii throttle, and is controlled entirely 
 by the cut-olf. At the same time an ordinary ball- 
 governor protects the machine from running away 
 in case of breakage of the air pipes, or sudden loss of 
 pressure from any cause — a not infreipient occur- 
 rence. .Vltaclied to the ball-governor is a pressure 
 governor, whose object istoslacken speed whenever 
 the air pressure reacnes the ma.xinium desired 
 usually li.'i lbs. persq. in. The main frames are of 
 the Corliss pattern, ami very heavy. The air and 
 steam cylinders are tied together by » heavy cast- 
 iron sole-plate and tie-rod, whieh take t!ie .strain in 
 direct lines. The bi-arings are of brass, very large, and 
 titled for taking vij) wear. The cranks artvof wrought 
 iron, the crank pins and cross head pins of steel. 
 The lly wheel is very heavy, in order to give smooth 
 molion when il is desired to run one side at a time. 
 The method of absorbing the heat of compression is 
 believed to be the most perfect in use. Injection of 
 water into the cylinder is not feasible in cold cli- 
 mates, owing to the freezing of the water in the air 
 pipes. -Vt the same time the ordinary cast-iron jack- 
 ets for circulaling water around Ihc cylindiT merely 
 snrve to keep Ihc melallic parts of tbemacliinc from 
 becoming overliealed. and have but an insigniticant 
 effec-t in cooling the air. In Ibis compressor the air- 
 cylinder is made of hard brass, owing to the better 
 conductivity of this material, and as thin as it can be 
 made with safely: the cyliiuler beads are hollow and 
 have water circulating Ihrougli lliein.. '11111 linally the 
 piston and pislon-rod are hollow, and liy means of 
 a telescopic arrangemiiil of tubing al tlii' back end 
 of the air-cylinder, are kept supplied with cold water. 
 The piston packing consists of four composit i(m rings 
 arranged in pairs at each end of the piston. Before 
 escaping, the water of the jiiston cirenlalion is made 
 to pass between these rings, completely around the 
 piston in contact with the inside cylinder walls. 
 
 ROCKET GAUGES. Brass rings, which are employ- 
 ed 10 a-crrlaiii wlielher the cas<- is exteriorly of the 
 proper dimensions. ' 
 
 ROCKETS. — Projectiles .set in motion by forces re- 
 siding within themselves, and performing the two- 
 fold functions of pieces and projectiles. A rocket 
 is essentially composed of a strong case of paper or 
 wrought iron, enclosing a composition of nitrr. c/mr- 
 i-'>iilt\m\xiilj>liiir — I he same asgiin])owder. except that 
 tim ingredients are proporliomd for a slower rati' of 
 combustion. If penetration and range be re(|uircd. 
 
 will he readily understood by reference lo the draw- 
 ing which represents u section throiigli llie loniruxig 
 of a Congreve rockcl. 
 
 The rocket is set in motion by the reaction of a 
 rapid stream of gas escaping through its vents. If 
 it hesurrounded by a resisting medium, the atnios- 
 phere, for instance.,lhe i>arliclesof gas, as they issue 
 from the vein, will impinge against and set in inotion 
 certain particles of air, and the force e.xpendr'd on 
 Ihe inertia of these ))articles will react and greallv 
 increase the propelling force of the rocket. Il fol- 
 lows, therefore, that, though a rocket will niove 
 with very great ease /■« Tiiciio, its propelling force 
 will be increased by Ihe presence of a resisting me- 
 dium. WhetheT till' ellect will lie I o accelerate the 
 rocket depends upon Ihe relation bitween the resis. 
 tance w liicii Ihe midinin olTers to ihc motion of the 
 gas. and that which il oilers to Ihe motion of the 
 rocket. .\s the rate of combuslion of the composi- 
 tion is independent of the pressure of the gas in Ihe 
 bore, it follows, Ihat if Ihe size of the vent be con- 
 tracted, the flow of the gas throuirh ilwill be accele- 
 rated. The slreiiL'lh of the case, and the friction of 
 Ihe gas, which increases as the vent diminishes, 
 alone limit the reduclion of Ihe size of the vent. 
 For vents of the same size, but of diJTerenl shapes, 
 : that one which allows the gas lo escape most free- 
 ly, will be most favorable to the flight of Ihe rocket. 
 A conical form of vent, with the larger orilice ne.\t 
 to the bore, will allow the gas to escape more rapidly 
 than one of cylindrical form. 
 
 As the composition of a rocket bums in parallel 
 layers of uniform thickness, the amount of gas gen- 
 erated in any given time, or the velocity ot its e.xit 
 from the case, ilepends on the extent of the intlamcd 
 surface. Experience shows that to obtain the re- 
 (piired surface of intlammatiou. it is necessary to 
 form a very long cavity in the nniss of the composi- 
 tion. This cavity is generally called the /ji>re. In 
 small rockets, the bore is as a general thing formed 
 by driving the composition around a spindle whicii 
 is afterward withdrawn ; but in the larger ones. Ihe 
 composition is driven into the case in a solid mass 
 by a jiowerfnl hydrostatic press, and then bored out 
 with a bit. In all rockets the bore should be con- 
 centric with the case: its shape should be made 
 conical to facilitate the drawing out of the spimlle, 
 and to diminish the strain on tlie case near its head, 
 by reducing the amount of surface where the pres- 
 sure on the unit of surface is greatest. 
 
 Suppose the rocket in the stale of rest, and the 
 composition ignited: the tlame immediately spreads 
 over the surface of the bore, forming the gas, which 
 issues from the vent. The escape is slow in Ihe 
 first moments, as the density of Ihe gas is so slight; 
 but as the surface of the intiammalion is large com- 
 pared lo the size of the vent, the gas accumulates 
 rapidly, and its density isconlinually increased until 
 the velocity of Ihe escaiie is (piite sufficient lo over- 
 come all of the several resistances which Ihe rocket 
 always offers to molion. These resistances are, in- 
 ertia, friction, the component of weight in Ihe direc- 
 tion of motion, and, alter motion lakes place, the 
 resistance of Ihe air. The constant pressure on the 
 bead of the bore accelerates Ihe motion of the rocket 
 iiniil llii resistance of Ihe air equals the propelling
 
 EOCKETS. 
 
 748 
 
 EOCKETS. 
 
 force; after tins, it viiW remain constant until the 
 burning surface is sensibly diininished. When the 
 gas ceases to flow, the rocket loses its distinctive 
 character, and becomes, so far as its movement is 
 concerned, an ordiuar)- projectile. The increase in 
 the surface of combustion wherebj' more gas is de- 
 veloped in the same time, and the diminution in the 
 weiglit of all the remaining composition, cause the 
 point of maximum velocity to be reached with in- 
 creased rapidity. If the weight of the rocket be 
 increased, tlie instant of maximum velocity' will be 
 prolonged, but the amount will remam the same. A 
 change in the form of the rocket wliich increases the 
 resistance of the air. will have the effect to diminish 
 the maximum velocity. The maximum velocity of 
 French rockets, and the distances at which they are 
 attained, are given in the following table : — 
 
 Caliber. Distance. Maxm. Velocity. 
 
 2i inches. 121 yds. 378 vds. 
 
 8i •• ' 139 ■' 364 " •• 
 
 According to the calculations of Piobert, for small 
 rockets it takes about J second for the gas to attain 
 its maximum velocity of 837 yards. 
 
 It is readily seen that the propelling force of a 
 rocket changes its direction with the axis along 
 which it acts; it follows, therefore, that without 
 some means of giving stability to this axis, the path 
 described will be very irregular, and so much so, at 
 times, as to fold upon itself: and instances have been 
 known where these projectiles have returned to the 
 point whence they started. An example of this ir- 
 regular motion may be seen in "serpents," a species 
 of small rockets witho\it guide-sticks. Tlie two 
 means now used to give steadiness to tlie flight of a 
 rocket are, roUition, as in the case of a rifle-ball, and 
 the rcfistance of the n/'r. as in an arrow . 
 
 The first is exemplified in Hale's rocket, where ro- 
 tation is produced around the long axis by the escape 
 of the gas through live small vents situated obliquely 
 to it. In his first arrangement, the inventor placed 
 the small vents in the base, completely surroimding 
 the large central vent, so that the resultant of the 
 tangential forces acted around the posterior extrem- 
 ity "of the axis of rotation. In 185.5, this arrange- 
 ment was changed by reducing the number of the 
 small vents to three, and placing tliem at the base of 
 the head of the rocket. The rocket thus modified is 
 the one uow used by the United States Government 
 for war purposes. 
 
 A Congreve rocket is guided by a long wooden 
 stick attached to its base. If any cause act to turn 
 it from its proper direction, it will be opposed by re- 
 sistances equal to its tnoment of inertia aud the lateral 
 action of the air against the stick. The effect of these 
 resistances will be increased by placing the center of 
 gravity near the liead of the rocket, and by increas- 
 ing the surface of the .stick. In itignnl rockets, where 
 the case is made of paper, the stick is attached to 
 the side by wrapping around twine ; and there is but 
 one large vent, whicli is in the center of the case. In 
 •ww-rockets the stick is attached to the <'enter of the 
 base, and tlie large central vent is replaced by seve- 
 ral smaller ones located near its circumference. 
 The former arrangement is not so favoraI)le to accur- 
 acy as tlie latter, inasmuch as rotiilioii will be pro- 
 diu-eil if the force of propulsion and the resistance of 
 the ;iir do not act in thes:imc line. Ucukels are gfn- 
 vTiiWwtirrd frinn tiilicx (tr f/"ft{ !■>■ : but sliould nccasion 
 re(|uire it, 1 bey may be lired directly from the ground, 
 care being taken to raise the forward end by prop- 
 ping it uj) with a stick or stone. As the motion is 
 slow in the first moments fif its flight, it is more liable 
 to be deviated from lis pri)])er dircclioii at Ibis time 
 than any other: for this re:isiiii the ccinrlueling tube 
 Shf>uld fie as long as practicable, say from live to ten 
 feel. Take lli:it ])(irlion of llie trajectory where the 
 velocity is unifiirni. The weight of the rocket ap- 
 plied at its center of gravity, and acting in a verlical 
 direction, and the pro|ieHing force acting in the di 
 reclioii (if. its lengtli, are two forces the oblicpie rr. 
 
 sultant of which moves the rocket parallel to itself ; 
 but the resistance of the air is oblique to this direc- 
 tion: and acting at the center of figure, a point situ- 
 ated between the center of gravity and extremity of 
 the guide-stick, produces a rotation which raises the 
 stick, and thereby changes the direction in which the 
 gas acts. As these forces are constantly acting, it 
 follows that each element of the trajectory has less 
 inclination to the horizon than the element of an 
 (irdin;iry trajectory in which the velocity is regarded 
 its equal. When the velocity is not anifvrm, the 
 ! position of the center of gravity has a certain not- 
 iceable influence over the form of the trajectory. 
 To understand this, it is necessary to consider that 
 the component of the resistance of the air which acts 
 on the head of the rocket is greater than that which 
 acts on the side of the stick. It is also necessary to 
 consider that the pressure of the inflamed gas acts 
 in a direction opposite to the resistance of ihe air, 
 that is to say, from the rear to the front, and that the 
 center of gravity is near the rear extremity of the 
 case. 
 
 At the beginning of the trajectory, when the mo- 
 tion of the rocket is accelerated, its inertia is op- 
 posed to motion, and being applied at the center of 
 gravity, which is in rear of the vent, the point of 
 application of the moving force, it acts to prevent 
 the rocket from turning over in its flight. But when 
 the composition is consumed, the center of gravity 
 is thrown further to the rear, aud the velocifj' of the 
 rocket is retarded, the inertia acts in the opposite 
 direction, and the effect will then be, if the center 
 of gravity or inertia is suiHciently far to the rear, to 
 cause it to turn over in the direction of its length. 
 If the rocket be directed toward the earth, this turn- 
 ing over will be counteracted by the acceleration of 
 velocity due to the weight, and the form of the tra- 
 jectory will be preserved. 
 
 When the wind acts obliquely to the plane of fire, 
 its component perpendicular to this plane, acting at 
 the center of figure, will cause the rocket to rotate 
 around its center of gravity. As the center of figure 
 is situated in rear of the center of gravity, the point 
 will be thrown toward the wind, and the propelling 
 force acting always in the dire'ction of the axis, the 
 rocket will be urged toward the direction of the 
 wind. To make an allowance for the wind, in firing 
 rockets, they should be pointed toward the opposite 
 side from which the wind comes, or with the wind 
 instead of against it. If the wind act in the plane 
 of fire from front to rear, it will have the effect to 
 depress the point, and with it the elements of the 
 trajector}- in the ascending branch, and elevate them 
 in the descending lirancli ; as the latter is shorter 
 than the former, the effect of a front wind will be 
 to diminish the range. The converse will be true 
 for a rear wind. 
 
 Rockets were used in India and China for war 
 purposes before the discovery of gunpowder ; some 
 writers fix the date of their invention about the close 
 of the ninth century. Their inferio"' force and accu- 
 racy limited the sphere of their operations to incendi- 
 arypurposes, until the year 1804. when Sir "William 
 C'ongreve turned his atlenlion to their improvement. 
 This officer sulistiluled sheet-iron cases for those 
 formed of pajier, which iiKibled him to use ;i more- 
 powi'rful conipiisition : lie iilso made the guide-sliick' 
 shorler and lighter, :uid removed a source of iuac-' 
 curacy of flight by attaching the stick to the center 
 of the" base instead of fixing it to the side of the case 
 as liefore. He also stales that he was enabled by 
 his improvements to increase the ramje of (i-pdr. 
 rockets fnini (illO lo 2,000 yards. Under his direc- 
 li(>n llwy were ]irepared, and used successfully at 
 llie sieiic of lioulogue and Ihe battle of Leipsie. At 
 Ihe lalier jihicethey were served by a special corps. 
 The advantages clainu'd for rockets over cannon are, 
 unlimited si/e of projectile : iiorlaliilily; freedom 
 from recoil: rajiidily of discharge; and Ihe terror 
 i which lliiir iiiiisc- ami liery trail produce on mouiil
 
 ROCKET THOUGH. 
 
 74iJ 
 
 HODLICH LITTER. 
 
 cil 1r<)<i|)s. 'Pile MMiiicniiis conililiiiiis In lie fiiinilcrl 
 in llicir CDnHtnu'liiiii in orilcr In olitaiii iic<Minu!y of 
 Hii;lil, and the iim-crliiinl y of iinsirviiif; the ((itiipn- 
 Miliiili uniMJuriMl for n Iciitclli of liriir, iirc ililticiillii-s 
 iiol yfl I'litircl}' oviTcunic, and whiclj have iniK'li 
 restricU'd llicir iiscfulncKH for f;cmrnl iiiililary pur- 
 poses. Sec //ii/r W'lir llnrlt-rt, l.ifr-Hiiniini UnrhrU, and 
 M(l,-il„ll(tl(rH II, ll, ll<„-l.;l. 
 
 ROCKET TROUGH. A small niikcl witli a Ijciiii- 
 .Hplicriiid licad of wood, whicli is frii|ni'rilly rinploy- 
 cd fur liriiin mines. To use il, a wooden troiii;li, 
 willi a smooth inliTior, must he plaeed from llie 
 cliariic to the point where the roeki't is lo star! ; tin 
 lubes have been reioinmended, but are found not to 
 answer. The rocket is then plaeed in llu; end of 
 the trough, the ([uiek-niatch with which il is pro- 
 
 vided is lighted, and the rocket starts with very 
 great velocity, penetrates the charge, and fires it. 
 
 When the rocket has to pass elbows, or when il is 
 desired to lire s<'veral mines al the same moment, a 
 rocket is placed at each turn of the trough, with its 
 ((uick-match secured around a nail ; the first rocket 
 arriving at the i)oinl where the other is placed, tires 
 il. In order the better to in.sure the first rocket tiring 
 these<'ond, a quantity of powder (j ounce) should be 
 scattered about the match of the latter, protected by 
 a wedged-shape<l slip of deal, nailed to the bottom 
 of tile trough ; the rocket meeting this passes over 
 the powder, which its rapid motion would otherwise 
 disperse. 
 
 A rocket may be made to easily turn in a circular 
 trough, when the radius of thai part is not less than 
 twice the length of the rocket. In order to prevent 
 tlie smoke of tlii^ charge penetrating the gallery 
 through the trough, one or two small iron traps 
 may be placed in the trougli, wliich, being raised 
 by the rocket, fall again by their own weight, and 
 cut olT all comiuunication between the gallery and 
 the charge. 
 
 A rocket six inches long will travel 100 yards at 
 Ipast, and its velocity is so great, that two rockets 
 tired at the same moment, to run very dilTereul dis- 
 tances, leave no perceptible interval in the times of 
 their arrival. This properly of rockets renders it 
 easy to proportion the trains of mines to lie tired sim- 
 ullaueously, whicli, with the powder-liose, requires 
 great nicety. 
 
 The ordinary rocket for this service contains J of 
 an ounce of a compositir'U formed f of fine powder, 
 I of saltpeter, and ! of charcoal dust. These ingre- 
 dients should be very carefully mi.xcd. to make the 
 rocket burn uniformly. Its usual diameter is near- 
 ly J of an inch, and entire weight aliout 1^ ounce. 
 Rockets may be made much smaller when required. 
 See Il(i.r-triifi and Mi'itk. 
 
 ROCKET WAGON. A conveyance ditlering from 
 the (jrdinary I'uld ammunition wagon in the boxes 
 being made deep enough lo receive about 2.5 Hale's 
 rockets, resting vertically in each box, and in having 
 no center boxes. 
 
 ROCK FIRE.— A composition which burns slowly, 
 is difficult to extinguish, and is used to set tire lo 
 buildings, ships, etc. That wliich is put into shells 
 is cast in cylindrical cases of paper having a prim- 
 ing in their axes. The composition consists of nm'ii. 
 3 purls; mlph'ir. 4; niter. 10; regulux of antimony. 
 
 I ; viiill'>n-tttttiiir, 1 ; turiHiitiuf, 1. To prepare rock- 
 lire, pulverize the Hiilphur. niter, and anllinony sep. 
 aralely ; mix tliirm well with Ihe hands, anil iiuhh 
 Ihem through sii-ve No. 2 ; melt the tallow lirsi, 
 then Ihe, rosin, slirring the mixture with Hputulas ; 
 add the lurpenline, and next the oilier materiulH in 
 small ipiantilies ut a time, stirring the wholi; con- 
 stantly with largr- spatulas. I,el one portion of the 
 composition bi- mellid before more ih added, and 
 work with great precaution to pri'vent it from taking 
 lire. When Ihe comfiohitioii li'-eomeH of a brown 
 color, and while vapors are rjisi'iigaged, liii'. (Ire is 
 p<:rmilled lo go down ; and when the composition i» 
 sufllcienlly fluid the cases are (llled with the ladle 
 not more than Ihree-fourths full. 
 
 The cases are made of rocki^t-paper in Hie iiiaii- 
 ner de.scriberl for [lort-fire cases. The priming lubes 
 are made of cartridge-paper, pasted after tlie lirsl 
 turn, and rolled hard. The cas«'S are arranged in a 
 frame, Ihe lower end of each inserted in a sorrket, 
 in the center of which is a spindle to support the 
 priming tube. TIk' upper ends of the cases are 
 lield in place by short cylindrical spouts attached to 
 the lower side <if a reservoir wdiicli rests on the lop 
 of Ihe frame. The coinposiiicm is poured into tli< 
 reservoir, and Ihe frame is gently shaken lo settle 
 the composition in Ihe casi's uiilil they are tilled. 
 When the composition has become .solid, the cylin- 
 ders are taken out of the frame and trimmed; Hie 
 priming tubes anr charged with composition No. 1 
 for mortar-fuses, driven the same as niortar-fii.sfs: 
 the ends of the cylinders are last dipped in mealed 
 powder. When rock-fire cannot be had lo put into 
 shells, the papier cases may be tilled with ]>ort-lire 
 composition, driven as usual; or pieces of port-tire 
 may be inserted in the shells. See (JompudliunH and 
 Fivfitarka. 
 
 ROC|C MOKTARS.^ Excavations resembling the in- 
 terior of murlars, formed out of solid rocks, of which 
 there are several in the Island of Malta, executed 
 upon a large scale for the defense of the harbors, 
 etc. The following interesting experiments have 
 been made on two of these mortars situated in St. 
 .Julian's and St. George's Bays. Isl. At St. Julian's, 
 140 pounds of powder was inclosed in a .sort of cask 
 prei)arcd lo tit the chamber of the mortar, and being 
 lodged there, a large cane tube filled w illi <)uickmalch 
 was applied lo a groove cut along the upper surface 
 of the bore to receive it, and a bottom of wood cov- 
 ered the chamber. The stones were then piled, by 
 four men, within the mortar a? they were brought 
 to it in baskets containing about 120 pounds each ; 
 a dozen stones, weighing from 120 to MO pounds each, 
 were first put in, then fifty baskets of other stones. 
 from (JO to 30 pounds, then fifty more, of 20 to H 
 pounds each, amounting in the whole to upward of 
 10 tons. This operation being completed, a piece of 
 portfire was fixed lo Ihe end of the tube at the mouth, 
 which communicated through a hole in the cask to 
 the powder. In this manner it was fired as is usual 
 in proving ordnance, and ranged about 700 yards. 
 2d. The same mortar was loaded with ISO pounds of 
 powder and about ten tons of stones ; the}- spread 
 ccmsiderably more than the first time, but did not 
 range quite so far. The explosion this time cracked 
 the mortar in a direction nearly vertical, leaving a 
 fissure in the rock about one-twelfth of an inch wide, 
 ten feet in the rear and four feet in front. 3d. The 
 other mortar of similar dimensions was tired with a 
 charge rather larger than the first of these, but the 
 effect was not quite so considerable : from whence: 
 it is concluded that the first proportion should not be 
 exceeded, especially if after repeated. The stones 
 used in these experiments were chiefly fragments of 
 ihe rock, which, having been exposed lo the air, 
 were become something harder, and did not sutler 
 so much as might be expected from such \-iolcnt ex- 
 plosions, wbicii in some degree resembled the tre- 
 mendous discliar;ri- of a volcano. 
 
 HODLICH LITTER.— A large litter for two or more
 
 HODMAN CUTTEE. 
 
 750 
 
 BODMAN GtH. 
 
 vvoimded meu, suspended between two oxen. The 
 drawing shows the manner of its construetiou and 
 use. It is too large and unwieldy to be of prnc- 
 
 tbeory was established, and his new mode of casting 
 was ado])ted by the War Department. As a result 
 of General Rodman's theory, he claimed that he 
 
 tical or any general application : and. moreover, the 
 movements of all oxen are very slow, and this un- 
 fits tliem for purposes of militarv transport. See 
 Litta-. 
 
 SODMAN CUTTER.— An instrument used for mak- 
 ing indentations in castings. The indenting part of 
 the tool is in the form of a pyramid, having a rhom- 
 bus for its base, the diagonals of which are respect- 
 ively one inch and two-tentlis of an inch : the height 
 of the pyramid one-tenth of an inch. In late ex- 
 periments the form of the pyramid has been changed 
 and improved somewhat by causing it to make a 
 longer line, and mark minute differences more ac- 
 curately. The volume of an indentation made with 
 this tool is taken as the measure of the work re- 
 quired to produce it, and is inversely proportional 
 to the hardness of the specimen, that is (denoting 
 
 k 
 by // the hardness of any specimen), /?=-....(!) 
 
 k denoting any convenient constant, and t' the vol- 
 ume of the indentation corresponding to H. 
 
 It has been found b}' experiment that a pressure 
 of 10,000 on the base of the pjTamid makes an in- 
 dentation, in the softest metals used in guns, about 
 nine-tenths of an inch long. The maximum inden- 
 tation, one inch in length, of the instrument is there- 
 fore assumed as the unit of hardness; and denoting 
 by V the volume corresponding to an indentation 
 one inch in length, we obtain from equation (1). 
 K 
 1 = — , or A'= V; 
 
 V 
 and, in general, 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 or, putting I = tlie numl)er of tenths of an inch in 
 the length of anv given indentation, 
 V 1000 
 
 // = - = : 
 
 V I' 
 
 since pyramids are to each other as the cubes of any 
 similar dimensions. 
 
 A pressure of less than 10.000 will probably be 
 found better suited to the purpose, with the im- 
 proved tools. A better standard of comparison may 
 be found in some metal of an uniform density and 
 hardness, easily obtainable in all places. The silver 
 coin of the country will best fulfill these conditions. 
 The volume of the cavity made in this, by the adopt- 
 ed unit of pressure, may be assumed as the unit of 
 hardness; and this, divided by the volume of the 
 cavity in any sample tested, will denote the hardness 
 of that sample as compared with that of silver coin. 
 See f'/rritUir ('utter. 
 
 RODUAN GUN.- Tlie principal difficulty formerly 
 experienced in manufacturing very large cast-iron 
 cannon was the injurious strains produced by cool- 
 ing the casting from the exterior. As far back as 
 Ww year 1H44, (ieneral Hodman, of the Ordnance 
 Department, sought to discover the means to over- 
 come this difficulty. After much observation and 
 study, he developed his theory of the strains pro- 
 duced by cooling a casting like that of a cannon, 
 and as a remedy for them he proposed that canntm 
 should be cast on a hollow core, and cooled by a 
 stream of water, or air. i)assing through it, Afler 
 an elaborate series of experiments the truth of liis 
 
 could cast cuuuou of any practicable size, and asked 
 that a 15-inch cast-iron gun might be made. This 
 was done in 18r>0, and the gun was successfully test- 
 ed shortly afterwards. General Rodman then pro- 
 jected a 20-inch gun, which was made at the Fort 
 Pitt Foundry in i863, under his directions. 
 
 Formerly it was customary to use but one kind or 
 size of grain of powder for all cannon, whatever 
 their siz^e. General Rodman proposed for his large 
 cannon that there should be a proportional increase 
 in the size of the grain, expecting thereby to get as 
 high a velocity for the projectile without a corres- 
 jionding increase in the strain on the breech or weak 
 part of the piece : this led to the introduction of our 
 present mammoth powder. He also thought that 
 the powder which would produce the least strain on 
 the gun, giving certain initial velocity to the pro- 
 jectile, would be that which should develop its gas 
 as the space behind the projectile increased ; or in 
 other words, that the powder should burn on an in- 
 creasing instead of a decreasing surface. With this 
 object in view he proposed to compress the sub- 
 stance of the powder into short hexagonal prisms, 
 which could be easily fitted together without loss of 
 space. These prisms were perforated with longitu- 
 dinal holes, from which the comljustion of the pow- 
 der spread. While this idea has to a certain extent 
 been confirmed by experiment, this powder has not 
 been officially adopted in this country ; it is under- 
 stood that it "has been to a certain extent in Russia 
 for service in heavy rifle-guns. 
 
 The several operations in the manufacture of this 
 gun are molding, easting, eooUng. andfinf-shing. These 
 are noticed in detail under the separate headings. 
 When these several operations have been complied 
 with, a ring, about three inches thick, is taken off 
 the gun-head parallel to the face of the muzzle, and 
 as near thereto as is practicable. This ring is not 
 reamed out or turned upon the exterior, but is a sec- 
 tion of the rough casting. When two rings are taken 
 from the same liead, the one nearer to the muzzle is 
 marked number 1, the other number '2. In the 15- 
 inch gun the distance of ring No. 1 from the face of 
 the muzzle measured to the center of the ring is 3.7 
 inches; and of ring No. 3, 7.5 inches. In a iO-inch 
 gun the distance of No. 1 is three inches ; of No. 2, 
 (if inches. Each ring is cut through by planing a 
 groove 0.5 inch wide from the exterior to the core 
 
 until the initial strain breaks the unplaned part, and 
 the ring springs open. The width of the groove at 
 the exterior is now measured, and its increase over 
 0,5 inch divided by the original circumference of 
 the ring will l)e the extension per inch oftlic nu'lal 
 on till' exterior, Tliis extension per in''h is then 
 conipareil with tlie extension per inch obtained l)y 
 actual experiment witlia specimen of the same iron,
 
 BODMAN OUK. 
 
 751 
 
 RODMAN (fON. 
 
 uiid llie corrcspoiiilinjj HtrcHB roriiiiied lo |irii(lii(:e it 
 will lie the initial Iriisioii. 
 
 For ixiiinpic, the rinu; from a l.'i-iiieli (run lii'ad is, 
 Wiy. 'i^* illellcs ill ilillllieler ; the willtll of llie LTOOVe 
 before the liiirsliiiLr of tlKMing in 0..") ineli, unilufter- 
 warils II. Cm iiicli, slin\vi:;i^ a total e.vtC'Union on tlie 
 exterior of O.lij iiieli, llieu 
 
 0.15 O.l.'i 
 
 — = = .IK1127 
 
 T 38 1 li).;W 
 for the extension per incli of inelal on the exterior. 
 Upon exaniinalioii of the tests of lliis iiielul we tiiiil 
 Hie stress eorrespoiidini: lo this exleiision per inch lo 
 be yo.OOl} pounds per scpmre inch, wlii(-]i will lie Hie 
 initial tension of llie rinu, siipposin^r the iron lo pos- 
 sess the same teiiaeity and elaslieily. and that llie 
 l)reakinu;of llie rinsjenlirely relievi'd it of si rain. which 
 it cannot prolialily do. To illustrate the elVe<-l of this 
 initial strain upon Hie strength of the ^iiii, let us 
 suppose that the initial slniiii of extension upon the 
 exterior of a nun one ( iililier thick and of which 
 the teiiaeily of iron is :il).(H)(l pounds |ier si|uareincli 
 —is l.'i.DKit ])oiinds per s(|uare inch, the ir.ctal at the 
 surface of the bore will he subjected lo a compres- 
 sive strain of l."),IK)l) ]>oun(ls per s<iuare inch. 
 
 Now if we suppose the tansenlial strain due to the 
 acti<m of a central force, such as liri'd gunpowder, , 
 to decrease directly as llie distance from the axis of 
 the bore iiicn^ases, and that an inlerior force just 
 sullicient to relieve the iiielal at the surface of the 
 bore from compression has been applied, then will 
 the exterior of the liun be hrouijhl to a strain of ex- j 
 tension of an, (Mill pounds per square iiu'h. Now in- 1 
 crease the interior pressure of gas iiiilil the metal at 
 the surface of the bore is under a tensile strain of 
 :fO,OOI) pounds per square incli, and the tensile strain 
 of the nielal on the exterior of Hie gun will be in- 
 creased to ;iil.llO0 pounds per square inch also, and 
 the whole thickness of Hie walls of the gun would 
 be brought to the breaking strain al the same instant, 
 which is the object of initial strain, liiit in practice 
 we know that t\\v strain ilue to a <cnlral force di- 
 minishes in a liigiier ratio than directly as the dis- 
 tance from Hie axis, and this would riM|uire an increase 
 of initial strain in order to bring the' outer portions 
 of metal to the breaking point at the same lime, while 
 on the oilier liaiiil Hie fact that a given increa.se of I 
 load or strain will produce a much greater extension t 
 when applied to a specimen near to its lireaking strain 
 than when applied to the same specimen when [ 
 strained within, or even considerably above Hie limits 
 of its permanent elasticity, causes Hie maximum re- 
 sistance of a L'un, having too little initial strain, to 
 apiiroacli more nearly than it woiilil otherwise do lo 
 what its maximum resistance would be with a proper 
 initial strain. 
 
 The law of diminution of tangential strain from 
 the hoTo outward in a gun is not and cannot he ac- 
 curately known, nor, therefore, can the exactly pro- 
 per initial strain be determined. But. as the fore- 
 going reasoning shows, after the initial strain shall 
 
 of the bore, it may vurj' conHidcrably above tliul 
 point willioiil alTecting to nnv conKiflerahle degree 
 Hie niaximiim rehislance of ifie gun ; and we there- 
 fore know that we are safe in fixing Hie inilial Hiruin 
 at, or a little above, that which the law of iliiiiinii- 
 lion of strain as the distance from the axis increaHeit, 
 would give. 
 
 The initial lension-rliigs for Uodiiiaii guns, on being 
 planed through, shoiihl open on the exterior 0.2-'> 
 inch for aO-inch guns; 0.17 inch for 12-incli ri(le» ; 
 0.15 inch for 10-incli rifles. 'I"he properties of Iron 
 employed and Hie rale of cooling should be bo regii- 
 laledasto |iroduce these fipenin;;H. If the rings do 
 not open siiltiriciilly, add more walerand fire longer, 
 which will insure a higliertension. If Hie rings open 
 loo much diminisli the (piantity of water and the 
 lenglli of time Hie fire is kept up in Hie pit. The 
 gun should not in aiij' case be '• steamed"; but, if 
 necessary, Hicr water may li-avc the r-aslinir al 200" 
 or 205". The more rapid Hie cooling Hie higher the 
 iron, and Hie more rapidly the inlerior is cooled over 
 Hk; exterior the grealir the tension. If a higher den- 
 sity <if the metal is reipiired a less fire will be reipiired 
 in the pit. Cold iron should not he jiiit into a noul 
 of melted iron. If the iron is not high, it should lie 
 kept in fusion and evenly stirred till a .satisfactory 
 result is oblained. In planing Hiroiigh the rings for 
 inilial tension they should be so rlamjied in the 
 jilaning-mailiiiie that one-half should be free to spring 
 open when Hie thickness is so far reduced by planing 
 that the inilial strain will iircak Hie metal thus left. 
 In other words, the planing should be continued till 
 the ring parts. The thickness of the metal broken 
 should he ac(;urately measured, as also the amount 
 of opening in its exterior. For 10-inch guns the 
 tlii<;kncss of the broken part of the ring should be 
 about one-tenth of the whole Hiickness of the ring. 
 Should it he less, more water and a longer continued 
 tire in lh<- pit will correct Hie defect. The amount 
 of initial tension on the exterior, which General Hod- 
 man thought should obtain in a properly constructed 
 gun, was about one-half the uliiniate tenacity of the 
 metal. Bloomtield gun-iron, when emjiloyed in 
 211-incli guns, should b<' so far decarbonized as to 
 have a density of 7.24 to 7.20. with a tenacity of 
 H2. 000 pounds. When employed in 12-ineh rifles it 
 should have a density of from 7.21! to 7. 28. with a ten- 
 acity of ;i2,000 pounils. When employed for 12-ineh 
 shot to be chilled at the point it should have a den- 
 sity of from 7.32 to 7.3.'5. Hichniond gun-iron, when 
 for 10-inch rilies, should have a density of from 7.2H 
 lo 7.:io. with a tenacity of 32.000 pounds. 
 
 In the manufacture of 4. .5-inch siege rifles the afi- 
 pli<alion of the water-cooling process is impracticable, 
 owing to the great length and small size of the bore. 
 These guns are, therefore, cooled from the exterior. 
 The best quality of gun-iron should be employed in 
 these guns, with a density not to exceed 7.25, say 
 from 7.22 to 7.25. The guns should be cooled slowly 
 in covered pits. The following are some of the par- 
 ticulars and charsies of Rodman trims : 
 
 Name of tiiiii. 
 
 1 
 
 1-3 
 
 ■s . 
 
 am 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 Weight. 
 
 Service Charge. 
 
 IN 
 
 
 Smooth Bores. 
 
 In. 
 
 243.5 
 
 In. 
 210. 
 
 In. 
 04. 
 
 48. 
 
 41.6 
 
 32. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 15200 
 
 Lbs. 1 Lbs. 
 
 100 
 
 Lbs. Lbs 
 
 10><0 
 
 l.~>-inch <Ui 
 
 190. 105. 
 177. li ' 155.94 
 130. Ill') 11).")..") 
 
 49100 50 mammoth. 17 
 
 ' 1?-' *«• 
 
 13-iiicli do 
 
 10-iiicli do 
 
 32731 30 cannon. 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 ( 42.) 1 
 
 ^ 280, -^ 
 127 1 100 
 
 S-incli do 
 
 123.5 110. 
 
 (1» tor shot. ( 
 2.5. i; «405 10 
 
 68 48 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 be eijual to that estimated on the hypothesis that 1 See Caittiiig. Cnxt-inm (fiitiji, C<H)ling. Finithing, 
 this strain is inversely as the distance from Hie axis | Molding, Ordnaitre, and Sfo-roant ArtUlery.
 
 BODMAN FKESSUSE PLUG. 
 
 752 
 
 BOONIAT LINE. 
 
 RODMAN PRESSURE PLUG.— An invention used 
 
 ■vvlu'U it is (If.sired to ascertain tlie pressure per 
 square inch exerted by tlie powder on tlie surface of 
 the bore of a piece. To apply this instrument, it is 
 fir.st taken apart by unscrewing the cap and removinsr 
 tlie piston and disc containing the knife. The whole 
 is then thoroughly oiled with sperm oil. This done, 
 place a copper disc in the plug, and after it the di.sc 
 containing the knife, the latter being did down so 
 as not to cut the copper disc. Next pass the piston 
 into the hole in the stem of the cap, and screw the 
 cap into its place. For this operation the plug is 
 held horizontally in a vise. A small copper gas- 
 check is then inserted into the hole on top of the pis- 
 ton; a wooden drift is used to set the gas-check firm- 
 ly in its place, and a small wad of cotton-waste is in- 
 serted over the gas-check; the plug is now put into 
 the empty cartridge-bag, with its grooved end at the 
 bottom and center of the bag, and the bag tied 
 tirnih' to it from the outside, with twine passing 
 around the grooves on the bottom of the plug. The 
 powder is next put in, care being taken to distribute 
 it evenly aroimd the plug. The bag is tied close to 
 the powder so as to make the cartridge firm and 
 compact. When inserting the cartridge into the gun, 
 care is taken that the plug, when at the bottom of 
 the bore, is, as nearly as possible, in the axis of the 
 piece. After the discharge, the plug is removed from 
 the bore by a rake made for the purpose; the cap is 
 unscrewed, the copper disc is removed, and, after 
 being wiped, the cut made upon it by the knife is 
 measured, from end to end, with a pair of dividers. 
 The dividers are then applied to the scale and passed 
 down the two long lines tmtil they intersect a cross 
 line the length of which corresponds to the width of 
 the dividers; the figures at this point indicate the 
 number of pounds pressure to the square inch. 
 Pressure plugs are cjf three sizes: one for the 12-inch 
 rifle and 13-inch and 1.5-inch smooth-bores; one for 
 the 100-pouuder Parrott ritle and 8-inch and 10-inch 
 smooth-bores; and one for smaller calibers. 
 
 RODMAN TESTING-MACHINE.— A macliine used 
 to determine the capacity of any metal to resist a 
 tensile, tranm^en<f, t.'>rdj>nal, or crushing forcv. It is 
 also used to obtain the indenting force. By a com- 
 bination of levers and cog-wheels, the action of the 
 power employed is greaUy augmented and trans- 
 mitted to the specimen under trial. The machine 
 consists essentially of a system of three levers, A C, 
 
 of strain than 1,000 pnMuds are noted on the small 
 lever, which is provided witli a sliding weight, and 
 graduated from zero to ten, each number represen'- 
 mg an additional hundred pounds. Or the first de- 
 nomination there are ten weights, representing a 
 strain of 10.000 pounds, and of the second, there are 
 nine weights, representinga strain of 90,000 pounds. 
 The aggregate strains of all the weights, or the ca- 
 pacity of the machine, being 100,000 pounds. 
 
 The errors incidental to the use of this machine 
 are due to three causes: 1st. Weight of its differ- 
 ent movable parts, 2d. Motion of the centers of 
 gravity of the levers towards or from their fulcrums. 
 i5d. Friction. 
 
 7'/»'./;>.''i cause of error is avoided in practice by 
 means of the adjusting weights already described. 
 The system is brought into perfect equilibrium, so 
 that any increase of W will be balanced by a pro- 
 portionate increase of P. 
 
 The gemiid cause of error is comparatively unim- 
 portant, because the levers A C and A' C" are so ad- 
 justed as never to make a large angle with a hori- 
 zontal line passing through the fulcrum, and in the 
 case of the lever A" C", which makes a larger angle, 
 the shape is such as to bring the center of gravity 
 very near the center of motion. Let D denote the 
 distance through which the center of gravity moves; 
 a denote the distance of the center of gravity from 
 the center of motion ; L denote the angle described 
 by the lever during the breaking of a specimen. In 
 general the levers are so adjusted that the line con- 
 necting the centers of gravity and of motion is hori- 
 zontal whefi the movement of the lever is half com- 
 pleted. . • . T> ^ a versine i L. It is evident that 
 one or both of these factors is very small in each 
 case. 
 
 T/ie third cause of error is made as small as pos- 
 sible by the use of knife-edges and steel-plates, and 
 is practically inconsiderable. 
 
 The determination of the absolute breaking and 
 other strains involve the elimination of errors iiue to 
 friction, etc., but for obtaining the comparative 
 strength of specimens, the machine is all tliat can 
 be desired. See Testing-mae/tities. 
 
 ROGNIAT LINE.— A system of defense has been 
 proposeil by General Rogniat, the spirit of the ar- 
 rangement of which partakes botli of the bastioned 
 ImeWith double flanks, and of the line with inter- 
 vals. Points of 250 yards apart are taken for the 
 
 250 y<l 
 
 A' C", and A" C", The position of the fulcrum in 
 each of these cases is denoted by F F' and F", re- 
 spectively. The power is applted at P, and the posi- 
 tion of the weights is denoted by W. Tlie levers are 
 connected bv rigid rods. The mechanical advantaire 
 of the levers AC is 10 to 1 ; that of A' C is 20 to'l, 
 and that of A" C" is 10 to 1. We have, therefore, 
 bv the formula for compound levers, 
 W 10 20 10 
 
 — == — X — X— =2000, A weight of (jiie 
 Pill ' [ 
 
 pound, thrrefore, applied to the platforms of the sus- i 
 pending rod on the same lever, exerts a force of 200 | 
 pounds on the straps connecting with the main lever, 
 and of 2,000 pounds at the jioint where the strain 
 ads upon the .sam])le. I 
 
 The weights used are of two denominations, viz, 
 half-pounds ;ind !ivc pounds, represent in;,' respec- 
 l,ively 1,000 and 10,000 pounds. Smaller increments 
 
 salients of the lunettes; their faces and the flanks 
 are placed in defensive relations; and lietween them 
 a redan, with a pan-coupee, is placed to flank the 
 faces, without intercepting the fire of the flanks ; a 
 straight curtain is carried from the redan, aiid leaves 
 an interviil of ten yards between it and the flanks of 
 the lunettes for sorties. With regard to tlie pro- 
 files, the lunettes receive the minimum |irofile lioth 
 for tlie li;inipet ami ditch. The reihiiis are simple 
 e|)auleiiieiits to cover caiiiioii fired in barbette : and 
 the curtains consist of a trench witli the earth tlirown 
 in front to form a parapet, which is so arranued that 
 the infantry may uiari'li from the treneli In order of 
 liiittle over it. 
 
 The advantages claimed for this system are, Jirst, 
 the short time re(|iiireil to form the works, by w'liich 
 an iirmy may intrench its lield of li;itlle in (inV night; 
 .vcnitd. the lunettes form the lirst line of the (in|('r of 
 battle, and contain only infantry, and the battericb
 
 ROGUE'S MARCH. 
 
 IWA 
 
 ROLL OF A DRtm. 
 
 lire pliiccil ill lli(! rc(luiis,wli<rc llicy iirr mure Hciurc, 
 prolifl the liiiK'llc'S, 1111(1 willidriiw the tlri' i)f tlic 
 ftK-iiiy's artillery from llic Imiclli's ; M/;y/, llic fur- 
 tains lire well (hfcmlcil liy iiifiiiitry, wlm ciiii Hiilly 
 from lliciii 111 11 iiiniiiciil'.H wiiniiiiLr, iiii<l aiili-d hy llic- 
 lifjlil arlillrry and <avalry, wliii di'lK.inlic lliroiiL'li 
 llic iiilcTvaU lii'twciii llic ciirhiiiis anil liiiicllcs, anil 
 aUarU till' I'liciny in llanU. If llic Hanks of his posi- 
 liiin arc mil Hcciircd liy nalunil iilisliiclcs, (icn. UiiK- 
 iiial, proposes to throw up tow.irds the r<'ar a hItoii;; 
 Htpiare redmilit on eaeli llank. and to place a heavy 
 battery in the inierval liclwcciilhe rcdoulil ami the 
 adjacent luneilc. 
 
 Lines with inlcrvals arc peculiarly adapted to viry 
 well disciplined and active troops. The works 
 thrown in advance consliliite the lirst line of '.lie 
 order of lialllc, iiniiinsl which the lirst shock of the 
 eiicniy is partially thrown away, and he dare not 
 attempt to niiilcet I hem, for an endeavor to pene. 
 Irate I hrouirh the intervals would expose his Hanks 
 to a close and deadly cross-lire. If the enemy is 
 repulsed, the main body of the army, wliicli is 
 drawn up in rear of the works immediately assumes 
 Ihcotrcnsive, and. by a vi!;orous advance movement, 
 cliarj^cs the eiK'iiiy in turn, relying on the works to 
 <Mver lis retreat if driven hack. In every combina- 
 tion of this nature the flanks are the weak points; 
 they should rest, if practicable, on some unassailable 
 point, as a marsh, river, etc.; otherwise very strong 
 works should be thrown up for protection. See 
 
 ROGUE'S UARCH. Derisive music performed in 
 
 drivini; away a person under popular iiidi!j;nHtioii, 
 or when a soldier is druinined out of a re;;iment. 
 
 ROI D'ARMES.- Kini,'-at-Arms. an oltiier formerly 
 of i;reat authority in armies; he directed the Heralds, 
 pn sided at their chapters, and had the jurisdiction 
 of armories. 
 
 ROLL CALL. In military life it is necessary, for 
 the sake of discipline, audio prevent soldiers from 
 wanderini; about indiscriniinately at all hours, as 
 well as for the purpose of having them available at 
 any moment in case their services are re(piired, that 
 the men of a resiment, company, or detaclimcnt 
 should be present to answer their names during cer- 
 tain H.vi'd periods of the day, or at any time the 
 t'ommandini; OtHcer may think advisable. This act 
 is termed It'dl-ralt. In the I'nited States, there are 
 daily at least three roll-calls, viz., at riveiili', rUrent, 
 and tat.toi'. They are made on the company parades 
 by the 1st Sergeants, mperinUiuhd hy <i CiniimiK-fidiied 
 Offlcer of the company. At all established toll-calls, 
 e.\<'ept dress-parade, after the companies are dis- 
 niis.sed, each olficer supcrintendinsj ihecompany roll- 
 call reports, to the Ailjutanl or other otticcr dcsii;- 
 nated, the result of tiie roll-call; the Adjuliint or 
 officer designated reports the result of the roll-call 
 to the C'ommandinjr Officer. Immediately after rec- 
 eitle roll-call (after stable-duty in the cavalry), the 
 tents or quarters, and the space around tliem. are 
 put in order by the men of the companies, superin- 
 teii led by the elii<'fs of s(|uads, and the guard-house 
 or icuard-lcnl bv the giiiird or ])ris(iners. 
 
 ROLLER HANDSPIKE.— .Vn imiilement for work- 
 ing the ecceutric rollers of casemate carriages, and 
 is made of round iron tapering to tit the mortise in 
 the eccentric. It may be made .single like a truck 
 handspike, or with two branches to tit in both mor- 
 tises of llic roller at the same time. 
 
 ROLLERS.— Solid cylinders of wood, used in mount- 
 ing guns upon their carriages, or shifting them from 
 one carriage to anotlirr. and in moving them oj; the 
 grouml. Their dimensions vary with the service for 
 which they are intended. When a gun is moved on rol- 
 lers, they must be horizontal, and handspikes should 
 be applied to guard against >>.ccident. when the gun 
 has a tendency to roll olT. The rollers must be phwed 
 at right angles to the direction in which they are in- 
 temied to move, projecting eipiallv on each side of the 
 axis of the gun. The gun upon rollers maybe moved. 
 
 eillier by hauling upon it with ropes, or by iiieunnof 
 Icverw. Whi'n a gun is moved on rollers, it pan»eH 
 over twice llie iliHiance passed by tlie rollers them- 
 selves. The term "roller" is also applied to a imuh- 
 sive roller of iron, weighing about 4J Ions, liuviii); 
 faces IM inches broad, which are userf in the incor- 
 poration of L'linpowder. 
 ' ROLLING BOARD. A smoolli piece of plunk, willi 
 ' a strap lacked over I he upper side near the end under 
 which the hand in placed in using it. It is employed 
 I in makim; the cases of port-(ires and the like. 
 I ROLLING FIRE. 1 . A discharge of musketry by 
 sipldiers ill Mm , in quick Huccevsion,aiid in the order 
 I in which they stand. 2. \ lire where the axis of the 
 • piece is parallel, or nearly so. with the ground or 
 water, and the projectile reboiind.s over the snrfatre 
 in a succession of ricocliels. 
 
 ROLLING-HITCH. In cordaL'c, auseful hitch form- 
 ed as follows : Pass the end of a rope round u piece 'if 
 limber— take it round a second lime riding the stand- 
 ing part then carry it across and up throuf;li the 
 bight. See <'nrilit(/e. 
 
 ROLLING MILL. One of the most important of 
 modern ins ii|iio:is for the working of metals. It 
 was first iiilroduccd practically by Mr. ('orb in 17H4, 
 and since then has gradually become more and more 
 useful, as its capabilities have been developed. The 
 rolls may be engraved so as to impress a pattern 
 on the bar as it passes through ; this is done by the 
 brass-workers to a great extent : and tiilies of brass, 
 cojiper, tin, etc., are also operalcd on in a similar 
 way, a mandrel or rod of iron being lilted inside the 
 tube, to sustain the pressure of the rollers. 
 
 In its simplest form a rolling-mill consists of two 
 cast-iron cylinders placed with their axes horizon- 
 tally one above the other, as shown in the drawing, 
 and connected by spur-gearing so as to revolve at 
 the .same velocity. The surface of the rolls may be 
 eilh<r smooth, as is the case in the plate-mills, or 
 grooved into various jiattcrns, as in those used for 
 tiie production of merchant bars. The reduction in 
 the size of the bloom in effected by regulating the 
 
 vertical distance between the two rolls, by the mac 
 of grooves diminishing regularly in size, or by a 
 combination of both methods. 
 
 As the direction of rotation of the rolls is constant 
 under ordinary circumstances, it is nccessarf, after 
 the bar has pas.sed tlirciiigh one groove, to return it 
 by lifting it over the top roll, in order to bring it in 
 position to pass through the next smaller one, and so 
 on in succession. This maj' be easily done with 
 blooms of small size, but is attended with considera- 
 ble difficulty when it is required to handle large 
 masses of iron, and in any casegives rise lo a certain 
 loss of time and conseipient waste of iron by scaling, 
 from exposure to the atmosphere in a highly heated 
 condition for a longer time than is absolutely re- 
 quired. Very heavy mills, such as are used for 
 armor-plates, retjuire to be reversed at each passage 
 of the pile, the distance between the rolls being (li- 
 minished each time. See Imn. 
 
 ROLL OF A DRUM. — The continuous and uniform
 
 BOLL 0? ABM3. 
 
 754 
 
 SOMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 beat of the drum for a certain time. What is known 
 as tlie umg-riiU is a lieat by which troops were former- 
 ly assembled at any particular spot of rendezvous or 
 parade. 
 
 fiOLL OF ARMS.— A heraldic record of arms, either 
 verbally l)laz(>nid or illuminated, or both, on a long 
 strip of vellum, rolled up. instead of being folded 
 into leaves. Rolls of arms are the most important 
 and most authentic materials for the history of early 
 Heraldry. In England they go back to the reign of 
 Henrj- III., the oldest being a copy of a roll of that 
 reign, containing a list of "the arins borne by the 
 Sovereign, the Princes of the Blood, and the princi- 
 pal Barons and Knights between 1216 and 1373, ver- 
 bally blazoned without drawings. The original has 
 been lost, but the copy, which, having been made 
 by Glover. Somerset Herald, in 1586, is called "Glov- 
 er's Roll," is in the English College of Arms. This 
 roll exhibits Heraldry as at that early period already 
 consolidated into a system. In the British Miiseum 
 is a copy of another roll of the middle of the ISth 
 century, containing 700 coats tricked, that is, drawn 
 in pen and ink. The Jivll nf Ctifrhirenxk is a heraldic 
 j3oem in Norman-French, reciting the names and 
 Arms of the Knights present at the siege of C'aerlave- 
 rock in 1300. It has been published with notes by 
 SirN. II. Nicolas. Copies exist of rolls of the Knights 
 who wire with Edward I. at the Battle of Falkirk. 
 
 KOMAN CANDLE.— A long and strong tube charg- 
 i"! with stars, which are thrown out successively by 
 a charge of powder placed under each star. The 
 ends of gvmliarrels, 20 inches long, are used for 
 cases. When jiaper cases are used, make them about 
 .65 to .7incli interior diameter, and 1-inch exterior 
 diameter: roll them like port-lire cases. Three drifts 
 of different lengths are used; they are made of hick- 
 ory or other hard wood, with brass tips on the lower 
 ends. 
 
 Put in tlie case a ladleful of clay, and drive it with 
 ten blows of the mallet; then a hidleful of composi- 
 tion, which is driven in the same way; next a charg- 
 er of powder and a star, which is gently pressed 
 down, then another ladleful of composition, a second 
 charger of powder, and anotlier star, driving the 
 composition and pressing down tlie star gently ; con- 
 tinue until the ten stars are in. and add^i half ladle- 
 ful of composition. Prime the candle with a strand 
 of quick-match (i inches long, held in place against 
 the side of the case by a little coin])osition driven in 
 on its ends. Cover the end of thec;indle witli a strip 
 of paper pasted on. Roman candles are inserted in 
 lioles boreil in frames, or tied with wire or twine in 
 the direction in which they are to tlirow their stars. 
 The stars used for Roman candles liave a hole through 
 their axes coriiiuunicating the fire to the charge l)e- 
 hiw, wliich thnnv> it out. See FirnriirlL.i. 
 
 ROMAN LEGIONS.— To a truly illustrious French- 
 man, whose reverses as a minister can never obscure 
 his acliievements in the world of letters, we are in- 
 debted for tlie most profound and most ekxiucnt es- 
 timate that we possess of the im]iortance of the Ger- 
 manic element in European civihziition, ;ind of the 
 extent to which the huuiaii r;icc is indebted tothose 
 brave warriors wlio long were tlie uiicoii(|uered an- 
 tagonists. and linally became t hi' coiKiuerors of impcri- 
 ul Rome. .M;iiiy very eventful years liave passed 
 3iway since ,M. (Juizot delivered from the chair of 
 modern history at Paris hiscourse of lectures on the 
 history of Civilization in Europe. During those years 
 the s]iiril of earnest iiii|uiry into the germs and pri- 
 mary iIevelo]iiiienls of existing iiistiiulioiis has be- 
 come more and more active and uiiiversiil, and the 
 merited celebrity of .M. Guizol's work li;is propor- 
 tionately increased. Its admirable ;iiialysis of tlie I 
 (■oinplex ])olit:cal and social organizations of which 
 the modern civilized world is made up, must have 
 led thousands to trace with keener interest the great 
 ••rises of times past, by which the cliaraeteristics of 
 llie present were determined. The narrative of one 
 ^.'f lliese great crises, of the i poi-h .\. I), '.l. when 
 
 Germany took up arms for her independence against 
 Roman invasion, has for England this one attraction 
 — that it forms part of her national history. Had 
 Arminius been supine or unsuccessful, her Germanic 
 ancestors would have been enslaved or exterminated 
 in their original seats along the Eyder and the 
 Elbe. Great Britain would never have borne the 
 name of England, and the mighty English nation, 
 whose race and language are now overrunning the 
 earth, from one end to the other, would have been 
 utterly cut off from existence. Arnold may. indeed, 
 go toofarinsaj'ing that they are wholly unconnected 
 in race with the Romans and Britons, who inhabited 
 that country before the invasion of the Saxons; and 
 that, "nationally speaking, the history ofCtesar's in- 
 vasion has no more to do with them than the natural 
 history of the imimals which then inhabited the 
 forests." There seems ample evidence to prove that 
 the Romanized Celts whom her Teutonic forefathers 
 found there influenced materially the char;icler of 
 that nation. But the main stream of her people 
 was and is Germanic. The English language amply 
 proves this. Arminius is more truly one of Britain's 
 national heroes than Caractacus; and it was his own 
 primeval fatherland that the brave German rescued 
 when he slaughtered the Roman legions eighteen 
 centuries ago, in the marshy glens between the Lippe, 
 and the Ems. 
 
 Dark and disheartening, even to neroic spirits, 
 must have seemed the prospects of Germany when 
 Arminius planned the general rising of his country- 
 men against Rome. llalf the land was occupied 
 by Roman garrisons ; and. what was worse, many 
 of the Germans seemed patiently acquiescent in their 
 state of bondage. The braver portion, whose pa- 
 triotism could be relied on, was ill armed and un- 
 disciplined, while the enemy's troops consisted of 
 veterans in the highest state of equipment and train- 
 ing, familiarized with victory, and commanded by 
 otticers of proved skill and valor. The resourcesi 
 of Rome seemed boundless ; hertenacitj-of purpo.se 
 was believed to be invincible. There was no hope 
 of foreign svmpatliy or aid ; for "the self-governing 
 powers that had tilled the Old World had bent one 
 after another before the rising iiower of Rome, and 
 had vanished. The earth seemed left void of inde- 
 pendent nations. 
 
 The German chieftain knew very well the gigantic 
 power of the o])iiressor. Arminius was no nuie sav- 
 age, fighting out of mere animal instinct, or in igno- 
 rance of the might of his adversary. He was familiar 
 with the Roman language and civilization; he had 
 served in the Roman armies ; he had been admitted 
 to the Roman 'itizenship and raised to the rank of 
 the equestrian order. It was part of the subtle po- 
 licy of Rome to confer rank and privileges on the 
 youth of the leading families in llie nations which 
 she wished to en.slave. Among other young German 
 chieftains, Arminius and his brother, who were the 
 heads of the noblest house in the tribe of the Cher- 
 usci. had been s?lected as tit objects for the exercise 
 of this insidious system. Roman refinements and 
 dignities suececdecl in denationalizing the brother, 
 who assumed the Roni:iii name of Flavins, and ad- 
 hered to Roiur throiigliout .'ill hiT wars against his 
 country. .Vrminius leiiKiined uiiboughl by honors 
 or wealth, iincorrupled by refinement or luxury. He 
 aspired to ;inil obtained from Roman enmity a higher 
 title than ever could have been given him by Roman 
 favor. It is in the Ji.'ige of Rome's greatest historian 
 that liis n;inie has come down to us with the ))roud 
 ;idilition of " I,ilier;ilor li;nid ilubie Germiiiiiie ". 
 Ottcii miisl tlie young cliieftaiii, while iiieililaling 
 the exploit which h;is thus iniiiiort;dized him, have 
 anxiously revolved in his miuil the fiite of the many 
 great men who had been crushed in the attempt 
 which he was about to renew— the attempt to stay 
 the chariot-wheels of triumpbiint Koine. Could he 
 hope to succeed where Hannibal and .Mitliradates 
 li;id perislied y Wliiil had lieeii llic doom nl \'iri:i-
 
 II
 
 ROHAK LEGIONS. 
 
 (.}.} 
 
 ROMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 thus? iind wliul wiirninir ii!j;iiiii»l viiiii viilor wa.s writ- i 
 Icn on the (Ic.toliilc site wlirii- NiiiiiiUiliii diici' Imd | 
 flourished? Nor was a cauiion wanliii!; in hcciich ; 
 Mcarir liomc and more rcccnl limes. 'I'lii' <laids liad 
 fruillrsslv slruirixlrd for ciL'liI years airainHl Ca'sar; 
 an<l the nallaiil X'crcinirclorix, wlio in l!ic last year 
 of llic war liad roii-rd all Ids coijiilryiMcn to insur- 
 rection, who had cut oil' Roman detaehmenls, and 
 brouiihl Ca'sar himself lo Ihe e.Mrenie of peril at 
 Ali'sia he. too, had linally snecundied.and hail heen 
 led eaplive in Ca'sar's triMmi)h. and had then been 
 butchered in cold blood in a Roman dungeon. 
 
 It was lru<' thai Home was no jouL'er Ihe srt'Ht 
 military republic wlucli for so many au'cs had shat- 
 tered liie l<ini:doms of the world. Her system of 
 siovernmcnl was chaniicil : and afler a century of 
 rcvolulion and civil war. she had placed herself un- 
 der IIk' despotism of a single ruler. Rut the disci- 
 pline of her Iroopswas yet unimpaired, and her war- 
 like spirit seemed unabalcd. Thi' lirst year of the 
 empire hail been siLCnalizcd by conqucsls as valuable 
 as any niiincd by {he republic in a corrcspondini^ j 
 jierioil. It is u jireal fallacy. Ihoui^h apparently 
 sandioncd l>y i^rcat authorilies. to sujipose that the 
 foreign policy pursued by Aui;uslus was pacific-; he 
 certainly reeoinmended such a policy to his succes- j 
 sors (iiieertnm iiiitii an per iiirididiii. Tac, Ann., i., j 
 II). but he him.sclf. until .Vrminius broke his spirit, 
 had followed a very dilTcrent course. Resides his 
 ISpanish Wiirs. his (Jenerals, in a series of t;enerally 
 aiiiire.ssivc cam]iaii;ns, had extended the Roman 
 friinlier from the Alps to the Danube, and had re- ^ 
 duced into sidijei'tion the lari;e and important coun- 
 tries that now form the territories of all Austria 
 south of dial river, and of Kasl Switzerland. Lower j 
 Wirlemlicrsi. Ravaria. the Valtelline, and the Tyrol. 
 While the proL^ress of the Roman arms thus pressed 
 the Oermans from Ihe south, still more formidalilc 
 inroads had been made by the imperial lei.nons on 
 the west. Roman armies, nioviuir from the ])rovince 
 of Uaul, established a chain of fortresses alonj; Ihe 
 right as well as the left bank of the Rhine, and. in a 
 series of victorious cumpaiffns. advanced lheirea!j;les 
 us far as the Elbe, which now seenu'd added to the 
 list of vassal rivers, to the Nile, the Rhine, the 
 Klione. the Danube, the Taijus. the Seine, and many 
 more, that acknowlediied the supremacy of the 
 Tiber. Roman licets also, sailini; from the harbors 
 of Gavil alonii (he (Jerman coasts and up the estua- 1 
 rius, co-operated with the land-forces of the empire, 
 and seemed to display even more decisively than her 
 armies, her overwheliniiii; superiority over the rude 
 Germanic tribes. Throuiihout the territory thus 
 invaded, the Romans had, with their iisual mililary 
 skilK eslablislied fortitied posts: and a powerful army 
 of occupation was kept on foot ready lo move ins- 
 tantly on any spot where any po|iular outbreak miijhl 
 be attempted. 
 
 Vast, however, and admirably orirani/.ed as the 
 fabri<^ of Roman power appeared on the frontiers 
 andinthe provinces, there was rottenness ai the core. 
 In Rome's unceasiua; hostilities with foreiirn foes, 
 and still more in her Ions; series of de.solalinv: civil 
 wars the free middle classes of Italy hail almost 
 wholly disappeared. Above the posilion which they 
 had occupied, an oliiiarchy of wealth had reared 
 itself; beneiith that position, a dejrraded mass of pov- j 
 erty and misery was fermentini;. Slaves, the chance 
 sweepiuirs of every eoni|uered country, shoals of 
 Africans. Sardinians. Asiatics, Illyrians, and others, 
 made up the bulk of the populiilion of the Ilidian 
 peninsula. The foidest prolliixacy of niiinners was 
 general in all nuiks. In universal we;iriness of rc-vo- 
 liition and civil war. and in consciousness of being 
 too debased for self-government, the nation had sub- 
 niilled itself to the absolute authority of Augustus 
 Adulation was now the chief function of the senate; 
 and the gifis of genius and accomplishments of art 
 were devoted to the elabonilion of eloi|uenlly false 
 panegyrics upon the prince ami his favorite cour- 
 
 tiers. With billir indiginition must Ihe (iermnn 
 chieftuin have beheld all this and coiitrasled willi il 
 Ihe roiigii worth ijf his own (countrymen ; their brii- 
 very, their lldelity lo their word, their manly inde- 
 pendence of spirit, their love of their national free 
 inslilulioiis, and their loalhi:!g of every pollulioii 
 and meanness. Abovi; all, li<r must have thought of 
 Ihe domeslic virtues that hallowed a (irriiian home; 
 of the respect lliere shown lo Ihe fi-male cliaructcr, 
 and of the pure alTection by which llial respect waB 
 repaid. His soul must have burned within liiin ut 
 Ihe contemplation of such a race j'icldinj^ l(i tlicse 
 debased Italians. 
 
 Slill, lo persuade Ihe Germans lo combine, in spile 
 of Iheir frei|Uenl feuds among Ihemselves, in one 
 sudden outbreak against Rome ; lo keep Ihe scheme 
 concealed from the Roimms until the hour for action 
 arrived ; and then, wilhout possessing a single walled 
 town, without military stores, without training lo 
 teach his insurgent countryini'n to defeat veieran ar- 
 mies and storm forliHcalions, seemed so periloiiK an 
 enterprise, that probably Arminius would have re- 
 ceded from il biid not a stronger feeling even than 
 patriotism urged him on. Among Ihe Germans of 
 high rank who had most readily submitled lo Hie 
 invaders, ynd become zealous partisans of Roman 
 authority, was a chieftain named Segesles. Ilin 
 daughter. Thu.snelda, was pre-eminent among the 
 noble maidens of Germany. Arminius had sought 
 her li;uid in marriage; but Segesles, who probably 
 diseernid the younj' chief's disalTeclion to Rome. 
 forbade his suit, and strove to precbide all coinnni- 
 nic;ilion between him and his daughter. Tliusnelda, 
 however, symiialhized far more with the heroic spirit 
 of her lover than with the lime-serving policy of lier 
 father. An elopement b:irtled Ihe precautions of Se- 
 gesles. who. disappointed in his hop,.' of preventing 
 the marriage, accused Arndnius before Ihe Ronuin 
 (iovernor of having carried olT his d;iughler, and of 
 phmning treason against Rome. Thus assailed, and 
 dreading to see his bride torn from him by the ofti- 
 cials of the foreign oppressor, Arminius delayed no 
 longer, but bent all his energies to organize and exe- 
 cute a general iusurreclion of Ihe greiit mass of his 
 countrymen who hitherto had submitted in sullen 
 hatred to the Roman dominion. 
 
 A change of Governors h;Lil recently taken place 
 w hicli, while it inateri;dly fiivored the ultnuale suc- 
 cess of Ihe insurgents, served, by Ihe immediate ag- 
 gravation of the Koman oppressions which il pro- 
 duced, to make the native po])ulatioii more univers- 
 ally eager to take arms. Tiberius, who was after- 
 ward Emperor, had recently been recalled from Ihe 
 conuuiind in Germany, and sent into I'annonia to put 
 down a dangerous revolt which had broken out a- 
 iTidnsI the Romans in lluit i>rovince. The German 
 patriots were thus delivereil from Ihe stern supervi- 
 sion of one of Ihe most suspicious of mankind, and 
 were also relieved front having lo conlentl again.st 
 Ihe high military talents of a veteran commander, 
 who thoroughly understood their national character, 
 and also the nature of the country, which he him- 
 self had priiicii)idly subdued. In the room of Tiber- 
 ius, Augustus sent into Germany, Q"'"'''''"" Varus, 
 who had lately returned from the proconsidale of 
 Syria. Varus was a lr\ie representative of Ihe higher 
 classes of the Romans, among whom a general taste 
 for literature, a keen susceplibilily lo all inlellecnial 
 gratifications, a minute acquaintance with the prin- 
 ciples and practice of their own ii;itional juris|)ru- 
 dence, a careful training in the schools of the rhel- 
 oriciiuis and a fondness for cither jiartaking in or 
 wa'ching the intellectual strife of forensic oratory, 
 had become generally diffused, wilhout, however, 
 having humanized the old Roman spirit of cruel in- 
 difference for human feelings and human sufTerinsn', 
 and without acting as the least checks on nnprinc i- 
 pled avarice and ambition, or on habitual and gro.'S 
 protiigaey. Accuslomed lo govern tlie depraved 
 and ilehased natives of Svria. a rmmlrv « here enur-
 
 ROM 4N LEGIONS. 
 
 /.3 
 
 6 
 
 EOMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 age in man and virtut in woman liad for centuries 
 been unknown, Varus thoaght that he might gratify 
 his licentious and rapacious passions witli equal im- 
 punity among the high-minded sous and pure-spirit- 
 ed daughters of Germany. When the General of an 
 army sets the example of outrages of this description, 
 he is soon faithfullj' imitated by his officers, and sur- 
 passed by his still more brutal soldiery. The Rom- 
 ans now habitually indulged in those violations of 
 the sanctity of the domestic shrine, and those insults 
 upon honor and modesty, by which far less gallant 
 spirits than those of our Teutonic ancestors have 
 often been maddened into insurrection. 
 
 Arminius found among the other German Chiefs 
 many who sympathized with him in Ijis indignation 
 at their country's abasement, and many whom pri- 
 vate wrongs had stung yet more deeply. There was 
 little difficulty in collecting bold leaders for an at- 
 tack on the oppressors, and little fear of the jiopula- 
 tion not rising readily at those leaders' call. But to 
 declare open war against Rome, and to encounter 
 Varus's army in a pitched battle, would have been 
 merely rushing upon certain destruction. Varus 
 had three legions under him. a force which, after al- 
 lowing for d<'tachments, cannot be estimated at less 
 than fourteen thousand Roman infantry. He had 
 also eight or nine hundred Roman cavalry, and at 
 least an equal number of horse and foot sent from 
 the allied states, or raised among those provincials 
 who had not received the Roman franchise. It was 
 not merely the number, but the quality of this force 
 that made them formidable ; and, however contempt- 
 ible Varus might be as a General. Arminius well 
 knew how admirably the Roman armies were organ- 
 ized and officered, and how ijcrfectly the legionaries 
 understood every maneuver and every duty which 
 the varying emergencies of a stricken field might re- 
 quire. Stratagem was, therefore, indispensable ; 
 and it ^vas necessary to blind Varus to their schemes 
 until a f.ivorable opportunity should arrive for strik- 
 ing a decisive blow. 
 
 For this purpose, the German confeiierates fre- 
 quented the headquarters of Varus, which seem to 
 have been near the center of the modern country of 
 Westplialia, where the Roman General conducted him- 
 self with all the arrogant security of the governor of 
 a perfectly submissive province. There Varus grati- 
 fied at once his vanity, his rhetorical tastes, and his 
 avarice, by holding courts, to which he summoned 
 the Germans for the settlement of all their disptites, 
 while a bar of Roman advocates attended to argue 
 the cases before the tribunal of Varus, who did not 
 omit the oijportunity of e.vacting court-fees and ac- 
 cepting bribes. Varus trusted implicitly to tlie re- 
 spect which the Germans pretended to pay to his 
 abilities as a .iudge, and to the interest which they 
 affected to take in the forensic eloquence cf their 
 conquerors. .Meanwhile, a succession of heavy rains 
 reuilered the country more difficult for the operations 
 of regular troops, and Arminius, seeing that tlie in- 
 fatuation of Varus was complete, secretly directed 
 tlie tribes noar the Weser and the Ems to take up 
 arms in open revolt against the Romans. This was 
 represented to Varus as an occasion which required 
 his prompt, attendance at the spot ; but he was kept 
 in studied ignorance of its being part of a concerted 
 national rising; and he still looked on Arnnnius as 
 his submissive vassal, whose aid he might rely on in 
 facilil.-iting the man-li of bis troo|)sag.'iiusl the rebels, i 
 an<l iue.\tinguishiugthe local disturbance. lie there- 
 fore set his army in motion, and marched eastward 
 in a line parallel to thecourseof the Lippe. For some 
 distance his r()\itc lay along a level plain; but on ar- 
 riving at the tract between the curve of the niiper 
 part of that stream and the sources of tin- Kius, the 
 country assumes a very dilTerciit character; luid here, 
 in the territory of the modern little principality of 
 Lippe, it was that Arminius had fixed the scene of 
 ills enterprise. A woody and hilly region intervenes 
 between the heads of the two rivers, and forms the 
 
 watershed of their streams. This region still retains 
 the name (Teutoberger = Teutobergicnsis .saltus) 
 which it bore in the days of Arminius. The nature 
 of the ground has probably also remained unaltered. 
 The eastern part of it, round Detmold, the modern 
 capital of the principality of Lippe, is described by a 
 modern German scholar. Dr. Platte, as being a " ta- 
 bleland intersected by numerous deep and narrow 
 valleys, which in some places form small plains, sur- 
 rounded by steep mountains and rocks, and only ac- 
 cessible by narrow defiles. All the valleys are trav- 
 ersed by rapid streams, shallow in the "dry season, 
 but subject to sudden swellings in autumn and win- 
 ter. The vast forests which cover the summits and 
 slopes of the hil\s consist chiefly of oak ; there is little 
 underwood, and both men and horse would move 
 with ease in the forests if the ground were not broken 
 bygullys.or rendered impracticable by fallen trees." 
 This is the district to which Varus is supposed to 
 have marched: and Dr. Platte adds, that " the names 
 of several localities on and near that spot seem to in- 
 dicate that a great battle has once been fought there. 
 We find the names ■ das Winnefeld ' (the field of vic- 
 tory), 'die KnochenlKihn' (the bone-lane), 'die Knoch- 
 enleke' (the bone-brook), ' der Mordkessel' (the ket- 
 tle of slaughter), and others." 
 
 Contrary to the usual strict principles of Roman 
 discipline. Varus had suffered his army to be accom- 
 panied and impeded by an inunense train of baggage- 
 wagons and by a rabble of camp followers, as if his 
 troops had been merely changing their quarters in a 
 friendly country. When the long army ipiitted the 
 firm level ground, and began to wind its way among 
 the woods, tlie marshes, and the ravines, the diffi- 
 culties of the march, even without the intervention 
 of an armeil foe, became fearfully apparent. In many 
 places, the soil, sodden with rain, was impracticable 
 for cavalrj', and even for infantry, until trees had 
 been felled, and a rude causeway formed through 
 the morass. The duties of the engineer were faniil- 
 iar to all who served in the Roman armies. But the 
 crowd and confusion of the columns embarrassed 
 the working parties of the soldier}', and in the midst 
 of their toil and disorder the word was suddenly 
 passed thrtmgh their ranks that the rear guard was 
 attacked by tlie barbarians. Varus resolved on press- 
 ing forward; but a heavy discharge of missiles from 
 the woods on either Hank taught him how serious 
 was the peril, and he saw his best men falling round 
 him without the opportunity of retaliation; for his 
 light-armed au.\iliaries,wlio were principally of Ger- 
 manic race, now rapidly deserted, and it was impos- 
 sible to deploy the legionaries on such liroken ground 
 for a charge against the enemy. Choosing one. df the 
 most open and firm spots which tliey could force 
 their way to, the Romans halted for the night ; and, 
 faithful to their national discipline and tactics, form- 
 ed their camp amid the harassing attacks of the rap- 
 idly thronging foes, with elaborate toil and system- 
 atic skill, the traces of which are impressed perma- 
 nently on the soil of so many European countries, at- 
 testing the presence in the olden time of the imperial 
 eagles. 
 
 On the morrow the Romans renewed- their march, 
 the veteran officers who served under Varus now 
 proliably directing the operations. and hoping io find 
 the Germans drawn up to meet them, in which case 
 they relied on their own superior discipline and tac- 
 tics f<irsueli a victory as sbouhl reassure the suprem- 
 acy of Jtome. But .\riiiinius was far too sage a com- 
 mander to lead on his followi'rs.wilh tlu'lr unwieldy 
 broadswords ami inefficient defensive armor, against 
 the Roman legionaries, fully armed with helmet, 
 cuirass, greaves, and shield, wlio were skilled to com- 
 mence the {■onllict with a murderous volley of javel- 
 ins, hurled upon the f,)e wiien a few yards distant, 
 and then, with their short cut-and-thrusl swords, to 
 hew their way llirougb all opiiosil ion. preserving the 
 utmost stea<liricss and <'oolncss, anil obeying eacli 
 w<ird of comma lid in the Ml idsl of strife and slaughter
 
 ROMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 757 
 
 ROMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 Willi till; Hiinii- precision mid iiliTlncsH as if upon pa- 
 rade. Ariiiiiiiiis swlTcnd llic Itomaiis lo iiiarcli oiil 
 from llicir ( iimp, to form llrst in line for aclioii. ami 
 llicn ill <'oliiinii for iiiarcliiiiLr.willioiil tlirsliow <ifop. 
 p<isilioii. Kor S(jMic (lislam-c Varus was allowi'il lo 
 move on. only liarassnl liy sUlHiI sl<irmislics,liiil strii;;- 
 Slinj; vvilli ilillicully throiifrh the broken !j;roiin(l. the 
 toil and ilislress of liis men lieiiii,' aunravaled liy 
 heavy torrents of rain, which liiirsi upon the devoted 
 li'Hions, as if the aiii^ry ltimIs of (lermany were pour- 
 iiii; out the vials of their wnilh upon the invaders. 
 After some little lime their van approached a ridire 
 of hiL;h woody i^rouiid, which is one of tlii' oll'shoots 
 of the ureal llercyniaii forcsl.aiid is situated lie- 
 Iween the iiiodern villa?;es of Driliuri; and iiicli'fclil. 
 Arinmius had caused barricades of hewn trees to he 
 formed here, so as to add to tli<' naliiral diltleultles 
 of the passaire. Kalisiue and discouraL'ement now 
 benan to betray iheniselves in the l{omaii ranUs. 
 Their line liecame less steady: liauLraLce-waiions were 
 abandoned from the impossibility of forcing; them 
 aloiij; ; and, as Ibis li:ippened.maiiy soldiers left their 
 riinUs and crowded round the wa^^ons to s<'cure the 
 most valuable portions of their property ; each was 
 busy about his own afl'airs, and jiurposely slow in 
 liearinj; the word of coniinand from his olticers. .\r- 
 niinius now fjave the siiriial for a ijeneral attaeU. 
 The tierce sliouls of the (Jermans pealeil throiiLrli I he 
 ijloom of the forests, and in Ihronu'ini;' mulliludcs 
 they assailed the ranks of the invaders, pouriiii; in 
 clouds of darts on the encumbered leiiionaricH, as 
 they slrusiirled n|) the ijleiis or tloiindered in the mor- 
 asses, and watchini; every opporliinily of charnin^ 
 tliroui^h the intervals of the disjoinled column, and 
 so cuitius; ofT the communication between its sever- 
 al brigades. Ariniiiius. with a chosen band of per- 
 sonal retainers rounil him, cheered on his eounlry- 
 men b}' voice ami example, lie and bis men aimed 
 their weapons particularly at the horses of the Ro- 
 man cavalry. The wounded animals, slipping about 
 in Ihc mire and llieir own blood, threw their riders 
 and pluniicd amoim; the ranks of the lejrions, disord- 
 ering; all around tlieiii. N'ariis now ordered the troops 
 to be eounlermarclied, in the hope of reachini; Ihc 
 nearest Roman narrison on the Lippe. Rut ret real 
 ni>w was as inii>racticable .-is advance: and the fallim; 
 back of the Konians only ain;niented the courage of 
 their assailants, and caused tiercer and more frecpient 
 charges on the Hanks of the disliei'rtened army. The 
 Roman oflicer who commanded the cavalry, Numo- 
 nius Vala, rode olT with his si|iiadrons in the vain 
 hope of escapinj; by thus abandonini; his comrades. 
 Unable to keep toi^ether or force tlieir way across j 
 the woods and swamps. the horsemen were overpow- ' 
 ered in detail, and shiuirbtered to IIk' last man. The ; 
 Uoinan infantry still held together and resisted, but j 
 more throiiiih ilie instinct oif discipline and bravery 
 than from any hope of success or escape. Varus, • 
 after heiii!; severely wounded in a charse of llir (ter- 
 nians aiiainst his part of the rolnmn, coniniitted sui- 
 cide to avoiil fallini; into the hands of those whom 
 he had exasiierated by bis oppressions. One o' the 
 I/ieiitenant-j;enerais of the army fell tisihtiiiu;: the oth- ] 
 er surrendered to the enemy. Rut mercy io a fallen 1 
 foe hail never been a Konian virtue. and those amon;; 
 her leijions who now laid down their arms in hope 
 of ([uarter. drank deei> of the cup of siilTerin^ which 
 Rome luid held to the li]is of ni:iny a brave but un- 
 fortunate enemy. The infuriated (lernians slauixh- 
 lered their oppressors wilh deliberate ferocity, and 
 those prisoners who were not hewn to pieces on the 
 spot were only preserved to perish by a more cruel 
 death in cold lilood. 
 
 Tlu' bulk of the Roman army fought steadily ami 
 stubbornly, fre<iuently repellin;.; the masses of the 
 assailants, but gradually losing the compactness of 
 their array, and becoming we:iker and weaker be- 
 neath the incessant shower of darts :md the reiterat- 
 ed assaults of the vigorous and nnencumliered (ler- 
 nians. At last, in a series of ilesperate attacks, the 
 
 column was pierced Ihrougli and through, two of 
 the eagles caiilured, and the Rorii.an host, which on 
 Ihc yislir morniuL' had marched forih in Hiich pride 
 anil might, now broken up into cimfimed fragmentB, 
 either fell lightini: beneath the overpowering num- 
 bers of theenemv, or perished in the swumpn and 
 woods in unavailing eirorls at Highl. Few, vi-ry few, 
 ever wiw again the left bank of Ihc Khine. (>m- bo- 
 dy of veterans, arraying tlieriiKelvcH in u ring on a 
 little mound, beat olf every charge of tlie OerniauH, 
 .■inil prolonged their honorable resistance to the clone 
 of that dreadful day. The traces of a feeble altempt 
 at forming ;i ililch and mound attesti-d in after ycafH 
 Hie spot where the last of the Ifoman.s passed 'their 
 night of sullering and despair. Rut on the morrow, 
 this -emiiant also. worn out wilh hiingi-r. wounds. unci 
 toil, was charged by tlu; victorious Germans. and citli. 
 erniassacri-dontheHpot, or ofTered up in fearful rites 
 at the altars of tht; deities of the old mythology of 
 the Norlli. A gorge in the mountain ridire, tliroiigli 
 which runs the modern road between I'aderborn and 
 I'yrmonl. leads from Ihespot where the heat of the 
 battle raged lollie Exstersteine, a cluster of bold 
 and grotesque rocks of sandstone, near wliicli i.s a 
 small sheet of water, overshadowed by a grove of 
 aged trees. According to local tradition, Iliis was 
 one of the sacred groves of the ancient Gernian.s, 
 and it was here tb;it the Roman captives were slain 
 in sacrilici; by the victorious warriors of Arrninius. 
 Never was victory more decisive, never was the 
 liberation of an ojipressed people more instantaneous 
 and coniplele. Throughout (iermuny the Roman 
 garrisons were assailed and cut off : imd, witliin a 
 few weeks after Varus had fallen, the German .soil 
 was freed from the foot of an invader. 
 
 .\t Rome the tidings of the liattle were received 
 with an agony of terror, the reports of which we 
 should deem exaggerated, did they not comi- from 
 l{oman historians themselves. They not only tell 
 emphalically liow great was the awe which the 
 Romans felt of the prowess of the Germans, if their 
 various tribes could be brought to unite for a com- 
 mon i>iirpose, but also they reveal how weakened 
 and debased the population of Italy had become. 
 Dion Cassiiis says (lib. Ivi.. SCI 2:i). ""Then Augus- 
 tus, when be beard the calamity of Varus, rent his 
 garment, and was in great attiiclion for the troops 
 he had lost, and for terror respecting the Germans 
 and thetJaiils. And his chief alarm was, that he 
 expecled them to push on against Italy and Rome; 
 and thire remained no Roman youth fit for military 
 duty that were worth speaking of, and the allied 
 populations that were at all serviceable had been 
 wusleil away. Yet be prepared for the emergencv 
 as well as his means allowed, and when none of the 
 cili/ins of military age were willing to enlist, he 
 made them cast lots, and punished by contisoation 
 of goods and disfranchisement every fifth man 
 among those under thirty-five, and every tenth man 
 of those above that age. At last, when he found 
 that not even thus could he make many come for- 
 ward, he put some of them to death. So he made a 
 conscription of discharged veterans and of eman- 
 ci|>aled slaves, and, collecting as large a force as he 
 could, sent it, under Tiberius, with all speed into 
 Germany." 
 
 Dion mentions, also, a number of terrific portents 
 that were believed to have occurred at the time, and 
 the narration of w hich is not immaterial, as it shows 
 the slate of the public mind, when such thius^s were 
 so believed in and so interpreted. The suniniit of 
 the Alps were said to have fallen, and three columns 
 of tire lo have bla/ed up ''rom them. In the Campus 
 Martins, the temple of Ihc war-god. from whom the 
 founder of Rome bad sprung, was struck bv a 
 thunder-bolt. The nightly heavens glowed sevend 
 times, as if on tire. JIany comets blazed forth to- 
 gether ; and tiery meteors, shaped like spears, had 
 shot from the northern ipiarter of the skvdown into 
 the Roman camps. It wa.s said, too, that a statue
 
 nOMAN LE&IONS. 
 
 758 
 
 SOMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 of Victory wliich had stood at a place on the frontier, 
 pointing tlie way toward Germany, Iiad of its own 
 accord turned round, and now pointed to Italy. 
 These and other prodigies were believed by the :nul- 
 titude to accompany the slaughter of Varus's legions, 
 and to manifest the anger of the gods against Rome. 
 Augnstus himself was not free from superstition; 
 but on this occasion no supernatural terrors were 
 needed to increase the alarm and grief that he felt, 
 and which made him, even months after the news of 
 the battle had arrived, often beat his head against 
 the wall, and exclaim, "Quintilius Varus, give me 
 • back ray legions." We learn this from his biographer 
 Suetonius; and, indeed, every ancient writer who 
 alludesto the overlhrnw of Varusattests the import- 
 ance of the blow ,'igainsl the Rom;in power, and the 
 bitterness with which it was felt. The Germans did 
 not pursvie their victory beyond their own territory; 
 but that victory secured at once and forever the in- 
 dependence of the Teutonic race. Ronie sent, in- 
 deed, her legions again into Germany, to parade a 
 temporary superiority, but all hopes of )iernianent 
 conquests were abandoned by Augustus and his suc- 
 cessors. The strong blow which Arminius had struck 
 never was forgotten. Roman fear disguised itself 
 under the specious title of moderation, and the Rhine 
 became the acknowledged boundary of the two na- 
 tions until the tifth century of the present era wlien 
 t'le Germans became the assailants, and c;irved v.ith 
 their conquering swords the provinces of imperial 
 Rome into the kingdoms of modern Europe. 
 
 It will be interesting in this connection to append 
 a brief account of that civil war in which C'»sar and 
 Pompey contended for the mastery over Rome and 
 the Republic. In his first Commentary Gesar record- 
 ed his campaigns in Gaul, — campaigns in which he 
 reduced tribes which were, if not hostile, at any 
 rate foreign, and by his success in which he carried 
 on and maintained the potency, traditions and pur- 
 port of the Roman Republic. I^ was the ambition 
 of the Roman to be master of the known world. In 
 his ideas no more of the world was really known 
 than had become Roman, and any extension to the 
 limits of this world could only be made by the addi- 
 tion of so-called barbarous trilies to the number of 
 Roman subjects. In reducing (iaul, therefore, and 
 in tighting with the Germans, ;ind going over to 
 Britain, Ciesar was doing that wliicii all good Ro- 
 mans wished to see done, and was rivaling in the 
 West the great deeds which Pompey had accom- 
 plished in the East. In his second Commentary lie 
 is forced to deal with a subject whicli must have 
 been less gratifying to Roman readers. He relates 
 to us the victories which he won with Roman le- 
 gions over other legions equalh' Roman, and by 
 which he succeeded in destroying the liberty of the 
 Keiuiblic. It must be acknowledged on Ctesar's be- 
 half that in truth liberty had fallen in Rome before 
 Ca'sar's time. Power had produced wealth, and 
 wealth had produced corruption. The tribes of 
 Rome were bought and sold at the various elections, 
 and a few great ojigiirclis. cither of tliis faction or of 
 Ihal, divided ;tmong thcnisclvcs llie pliiccs of trust 
 iind honor aM<l jiower, and did so witli hauils ever 
 oi)enfor the gnispiug of public wealth. \n honest 
 man with clean hands and a con.scicnce, with scru- 
 I)les and a love of country, became unfitted for ))ub- 
 iic <'mployment. Cato in these days w:is simply ri- 
 diculous; and even Cicero, though he was a" trim- 
 mer, was much too honest for llie times, Laws were 
 vvrcsted from their purposes, and the very 'I'riliuncs 
 of the people had become the worst of tyraiils. It 
 was necessary, p,-rhaps, tlial I here shoulii be a mas- 
 ter ; — .so at least (^lesiir iliouglit. He had, no doidjt, 
 Heen this necessity duriiig-all these years of fighting 
 in Gaul, and had resolved that he would not jx; less 
 than First in the new order of Ihings. So he crossed 
 Ilie [{ubicou. 
 
 The reader of this second Commentary will find it 
 less alluring than the first. There is less in it of adven- 
 
 ture, less of new strange life, and less of that sound, 
 healthy, joyous feeling which sprang from a thor- 
 ough conviction on Caesar's part that in crushing the 
 Gauls he was doing a thoroughly good thing. To 
 us, and our way of thinking, his doings 'in Gaul 
 were stained with terrible cruelty. To him and to 
 his Romans they were foul with no such stain. How 
 other Roman conquerors acted to other conquered 
 ])('ople we may learn from the fact, that Caesar ob- 
 tained a character for great mercy by his forbearance 
 in Gaul. He always writes as though he were free 
 ir-'im any sting of conscience, as he tells us of the 
 punishments which policy called on liim to inflict. 
 But as he writes of these civil wars, there is an ab- 
 sence of tliis feeling of perfect self-satisfaction, and 
 at the same time he is much less cruel. Hecatombs 
 of Gauls, whether men or women, or children, he 
 could see burned or drowned or starved, mutilated 
 or tortured, without a shudder. He could give the 
 command for such operations with less remorse than 
 we feel when we order the destruction of a litter of 
 undesirable puppies. But he could not bring him- 
 self to slay Roman legionaries, even in fair figliting, 
 with anything like self-satisfaciion. In this he was 
 either soft-hearted or had a more thorough feeling of 
 country than generals or soldiers who have fought in 
 civil contests since his time have shown. In the 
 Wars of the Roses and in those of Cromwell we rec- 
 ognize no such feeling. The American Generals 
 were not so restrained. But Cscsar seems to have 
 valued a Roman legionary more than a tribe of 
 Gauls. 
 
 Nevertheless he crossed the Rubicon. We have 
 all heard of his crossing of the Rubicon, but Ca;sar 
 says nothing about it. The Rubicon was a little 
 river, now almost if not altogether unknown, running 
 into the Adriatic between Ravenna and .\riminum — 
 Rimini, — and driving the provinces of so-called Cis- 
 alpine Gaul from the territory under the immediate 
 rule of the magistracy of Rome. Caesar was, so to 
 say, at home north of the Rubicon, He was in his 
 own province, and had all things vmder his com- 
 mand. But he was forbidden by the laws even to en- 
 ter the territory of Rome proper while in the command 
 of a Roman province : and therefore, in crossing the 
 Rubicon, he disobeyed the laws, and put himself in 
 opposition to the constituted authorities of the city. 
 It does not appear, however, that very much was 
 thought of this, or that the passage of the river was 
 in truth taken as the special sign of Ca>sar's purpose, 
 or as a deed that was irrevocable in its consetiuenc- 
 es. There are various pretty stories of C;esar's 
 hesitation as he stood on the brink of the river, 
 doubting whether he would plunge the world into 
 civil war. AVe are told how a spirit iippeared to 
 him and led him across the river with martial mu- 
 sic, and how Ciesar, declaring that the die was cast, 
 went on and crossed the fatal stream. But all this 
 was fable, invented ou Caesar's behalf by Romans 
 who came after Ciesar. Cicsar's purpose was, no 
 doubt, well understood when he brought one of his 
 legions down into that corner of bis province, but 
 oilers to treat with him on friendly terms were made 
 by Pompi'y and his party after he had established 
 himself on tlie Roman siile of the river. 
 
 When the civil war began, Ca\sar had still, ac- 
 cording to the assigmuent iiiiidc 1o him, two years 
 and a half left of liis allofed iicriod of government 
 in the llircc provinces; but his victories and his 
 power had been w;itche<l with anxious eyes from 
 Rcmie and the Senate h;id atfcmpled to decree that 
 be should be rec:illed. I'oiiiiiey w;is no longer Cie- 
 Siir's friend, nor did Ciesar expect liis friendship. 
 Ponqiey, who had lately Jilayed his cards but badly, 
 and mi'ist have felt tlui't he tuid jih.yed them badly, 
 had bei'ii freed from bis boiidiige to Ca'sar by the 
 death of Crassiis, the third triumvir, by (he death of 
 .Iiilia, Ca'sar's daughter, ;ind by llie course of lliings 
 in Rome. Il had been an uiiualund alliance ar- 
 ranged by Ca'sar with the sole view of cliiipim;- his
 
 BOMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 750 
 
 ROMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 riviil'H vviriKH. 'I'lic fipi-iiiars ol I'cjiii|]( y li^i'l liillicr- 
 to been HO l)l'iv;lil, Hiiil lie n\>i> Imd mi-iihiI I" lii' 
 (llviiic. Wliili' slill a hiiy. Ijr Mail I'liiiiiiiaiiili'il anil 
 <:i)ii(jii(nMl. women liml irlninl liiin. iiml >iolilicr.s 
 liiiil worslii|>|)('(l liini. Snilu Intil callcil liiin tlic 
 Orcal: and. as we arc tolil. Iiail raiscil his lial lu 
 liini in token of liorior. He hail lieen alloweil IIk' 
 j^lory of a Iriuinph while yel ayonlh. anil had Hi- 
 iini|iheil u .second liriielieforc he hud n uchiil middle 
 life, lie had triimi|iheil a'.:aiM a third time, and the 
 three Irinmplis had heeji won in the three qnarlers 
 of the n'lolie. In all thin'.:s he had lieen siieeessfnl, 
 and in all tilings happy, lie had driven (he swarm- 
 in;; pirates from every harhor in the .Mediterranean, 
 and had tilled Komi- with corn, lie had retnrneil 
 a eon(|neror with his le'j;ions from the Kasl. and had 
 dared tii dishand them, that he mi^dil livea;;ain as a 
 private cit.i/en. And afterlhat, wiii-n it was llionL;hl 
 necessary that the cityshonid be saved, in her need, 
 from the factions of her own citizens, he had been 
 made soh^ C'onsnI. Il is easier now In nnderstand 
 the character of I'ompey than the ))()si(ion which, 
 by his unvaried successes, he had made for himself 
 in the minds both of the nobles and of the people. 
 Even up to this time, even after Ciesar's wars in 
 (}aul, there was somethinu: of divinity hamrim; about 
 Pompev, in which the liomans of the city trusted. 
 He hail been imperious, but calm in manner and 
 self-possessed allowini; no one to !)e his equal, but 
 not impatient in making; sfooil his claims- i;ranil, 
 handsome, lavish when policy required it, rapacious 
 when much needed, never self-induli;ent, heartless, 
 false, politic, andiilious, very brave, ami a Roman 
 to tlic backbone, lint hehadthis failing;, this weak- 
 ness;- -when the time for the last striiimie came, he 
 (lid not quite know wdial il was that he desired to do; 
 he did not clearly see his future. The thin,u;s to he 
 done were so ^ri'eal, that he had not ceased to doubt ] 
 conccrninL: them when Ihe moment came in which i 
 doubt was fatal, t'a'sar saw it all, and never doubt- 
 ed. Tliat little tale of Cu'sar standing' on the bridije 
 over the Rubicon iHinderiULi; iis to liis future course, 
 - divided between obedience and rebellion,- it is 
 very pretty. But there was no such pondering;, 
 and no such division. Ciesar knew very well wh;it 
 he meant and what he wanted. 
 
 Cii'sar is full of his wrongs as he be^^ins his sec- 
 ond n;irr;itive. lie tells us how his own friends are 
 silenced in the Senitte and in the city : how his ene- 
 mies, Seipio, Cato, and I.entulus the ( onsul, iirevail; 
 how no one is allowed to say a word for him. "I'om- 
 pey himself," he s;iys, "ur^;ed on by the enemies of 
 Caesar, and because he was unwiUinir that any one 
 should equ;d himself in honor, had turned himself 
 altogether from t'iesar's friendship, and Inul gone 
 back to the fellowship of their common enemies, — 
 enemies whom he himself h:id created for Ciesiir dur- 
 ini; Ihe time of their :illiance. At the same time 
 <-onscious of the scandal of these two le;;ions which 
 he h:ul slopped on their destined ro;td to Asia and 
 Syri;i and taken into his own luinil. he w:is anxious 
 that the ipiestion should hi' referred to arms." Those 
 two legions are very grievous to C'ii'sar. One wa.' 
 the legion which, as we remember, I'ompey had 
 given U]) to friendsliip, — and the Republic. When, 
 in the beginning of these contests between the two 
 riv;ds. the Senate had decided ou we;diening each 
 by ilem;uuling from each ;i legion. I'ompey had 
 asked (';e>ar for the restitution of th:it which he had 
 so kindly lent. (';esar,too proud to refuse payment 
 of Ihe debt, had sent tliat to his former friend, and 1 
 had also sent another legion, as demanded to the 
 Sen;ite. They were reipiircil nominally for service 
 in the East, and now were in the h:uids of him who 
 had been tVesar's f.iend but h;nl become his enemy. 
 It is no wonder that C;es;ir t;dks of the infamy or ; 
 scandal of the two legions ! lie repeats his com-' 
 plaint as to the two legions again and again. 
 
 In the month of .January Cesiir was at Ravenna, 1 
 just north of the Rubicon, and in his own province. 
 
 , MeKHUjjeH paHM belwecri him and the Scnalf, and lie 
 |)ropoHeH his l<;rMis. Tiie Senate also proposcK jtH 
 terms. lie must lay down his arms, or he will Im- 
 csteenn-d an iriemy by ''"' If'public. All Home in 
 diHiurbed. The account Ih CitHur'n accoiiiil but wi- 
 imagine that Home was diMlMrlii-d. "Kohliers an- 
 reeruiled over all Italy ; arms are ilenuinded, laxcH 
 are levied on llii' mimicipalilies, and money is biken 
 from the sarred shrines; all laws divine and human 
 are disregarded." Thin (lesar complains to his 
 soldiers his wrori'/s. and Ihe crimis of I'om|M-y. lie 
 tells them how they. und< r his guidance, have been 
 victorious, how nniler him they have "paci(ir-d" all 
 (bail and (iermany. and he calls upon them lode, 
 fend him who has enabled them to r|o such great 
 tilings. He has but one legion with him, but timt 
 legion declires Unit it will obey him, - him ami Ihe 
 Tribunes of the people, some of whom, acting on 
 Ca'sar's side. have rome over from Rome to Ravenna. 
 We (;an ap|)reciate Ihe spirit of this allusion to the 
 Tribunes, so that there may seem to be still soim- 
 link between Ca'sar and the civic authorilies. Wlien 
 the soldiers have expressed Iheir goodwill, he goe.s 
 to Arimimwn. and so the Rubicon is passed. 
 
 There are still more messages. (';esar exprt-».ses 
 himself as greatly irrievcdthal he should be snbj.-cted 
 I to so nnuh suspense, nevertheless he is willing to 
 sufl'er anything for the Repulilic ; -''omnia pali rei- 
 publicjt'Causa." Only let I'ompey go to his jjrovince, 
 let the legions in iind about Home be disbanded, let 
 all the old forms of free government be restored, 
 and panic be abolished, and then, — when that i.s 
 done,— all dillieulties may be settled in u few min- 
 utes' talking. The Consuls ;niil I'ompey send back 
 word thill if (':esar will go b;iek into Uatd and rlis- 
 miss his army, I'ompey shiill go at once to Spain. 
 But Pompev and the Cimsuls with their troops will 
 not stir till C'lesar shall have given security for his 
 departure. Each demands that the other shall first 
 alKindon his position. Of course all these nu-ssages 
 mean nothing. C'lesar. eom|ilaining bitterly of in- 
 justice, sends a portion of his sm;ill :iriny still farther 
 into the Roman territory. Marc Antony goes to 
 Arezzo with five cohorts, and C'lcsar occupies three 
 other cities with a cohort each. The marvel is that 
 he was not attacked and driven back by Pompey. 
 We may probably lonclude that the soldiers. though 
 under the command of I'ompey. were not trustworthy 
 as against Cicsar. As C'lpsar regrets his two legions, 
 so no doubt do the two legions regret their com- 
 mander. At any rate. the consular forces with I'om- 
 pey and the Consuls and a host of Senators retreat 
 southwards to Brundnsium. — Brindisi, — intending 
 lo leave Italy by the port which we shall use before 
 long when we go eastwards. 
 
 During this retreat, the first blood in the civil war 
 is spilt at Corfinium. a town whiih if it now stood 
 at all. would stand in the Abbruzzi. Ciesjir there 
 is victor in a small engagement, and obtains po.s- 
 session of the town. The Pompeian officers whom he 
 finds there he sends away, and allows them even to 
 carry with them money which he believes lo have 
 been taken from the public treasury. Throughout 
 his route southward the soldiers of Pompey, who 
 had heretofore lieen his soldiers, — retnni lo him, 
 I'ompey and the Consuls still retreat, anil slill Ciisar 
 follows them, though Pompey had boasted, when 
 first warned to bew;ire of C;i>sar, that he had only 
 to stamp upon Italian soil and legions would arisi- 
 from the earth ready to obey him. He knows, how- 
 ever, that away from Rome, in her provinces, in 
 Macedonia and .Vchaia, in Asia and Cilicia, in Sici- 
 ly, Sardinia, and Africa, iu Mauritania and the two 
 Spains, there are Roman legions which as yet know- 
 no Ca'sar. Il may be belter for Pompey thai he 
 should stamp his fool somewhere oul of Italy. At 
 any rate he sends the obedient Consuls and his al- 
 leudant Senators over to Dyrracbium in lUyria with 
 a part of his army, and follows with the remainder 
 as soon as Csi'sjif is at his heels. Civsar makes an
 
 KOMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 7(;o 
 
 ROMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 efEort to intercept him and his fleet, but in that he 
 fails. Thus Pompey deserts Rome and Italy, — and 
 never again sees the imperial city or the fair laud. 
 
 Csesar explains to us why he does not follow his 
 enemy and endeavor at once to put an end to the 
 struggle. Pompey is jirovideil with shipping and he 
 is not; and he is aware that the force of Home lies 
 in her provinces. Jloreover, Rome maj' Ije starved 
 hj- Pompey, unless he, Ca;sar, can take care that 
 the corn-growing countries, which are the granaries 
 of Rome, are left free for the use of the city. He 
 must make sure of tlie two Gauls, and of Sardinia, 
 and of Sicily, of Africa too, if it may be possible. 
 He must win to his cause the two Spains, of which 
 at least the northern province was at present devot- 
 ed to Pompey. He sends one Lieutenant to Sardinia 
 with a legion, another to Sicily with three legions, 
 
 -and from Sicily over into Africa. These provinces 
 have been allotted to partisans of Pompey ; but C'a'- 
 sar is successful with them all. To Cato, the virtu- 
 ous man, had been assigned the government of Sici- 
 ly; but Cato flnds no Pompeian army read,\ for his 
 use, and, complaining bitterly that he has been de- 
 ceived and betrayed by the headof his faction, runs 
 away, and leaves his province to Ciesar's officers. 
 Caesar determines that he himself will carry the war 
 into Spain. But he found it necessary first to go to 
 Rome, and Csesar, in his account of what he did 
 there, hardh- tells us the whole truth. We quite go 
 along with him when he explains to us that, having 
 collected what sort of a Senate he could, — for Pom- 
 pey had taken away with him such Senators as he 
 could induce to follow him, — and having proposed 
 to this meagre Senate that ambassadors sliould be 
 sent to Pompey, the Senate accepted his suggestion; 
 but that nobody could be induced to go on such an 
 errand. Pompej- had already declared that all who 
 remained in Rome were his enemies. And it may 
 probably be true that Coesar, as he says, lound a 
 certain Tribune of the people at Rome who opposed 
 him in all that he was doing, though we should ima- 
 gine that the opposition was not violent. But his 
 real object in going to Rome was to lay hand on the 
 treasure of the Republic. — the sanetius a'rarium, — 
 which was kept in the temple of Saturn for special 
 emergencies of State. That he sliould have taken 
 this we do not wonder : but we ilo wonder that he 
 should have taken the trouble to say that he did 
 not do so. He professes that he was so hindered by 
 that vexatious Tribune, that he could not accomplish 
 the purposes for which he had come. But he cer- 
 laiidy did take the monev, and we cannot doubt but 
 that he went to Rome especially to iret it. Ca'sar, 
 on his way to Spain, goes to Marseilles which, un- 
 der the name of Massilia, was at this time, as it is 
 now, the most thriving mercantile port on the Med- 
 iterranean. It belonged to the province of Furth- 
 er Gaul, but it was in fact a colony of Greek traders. 
 Its possession was now necessary to C'a-sar. The 
 magistrates of the town, when called upon for their 
 adhesion, gave a most sensible answer. They pro- 
 test that they arc very fond of Ca-sar, ;ind very fond 
 of Pompey. They don't understand all these affairs 
 of Rome, and regret that two such excellent men 
 should (juarrel. In the mean time they prefer to 
 liold tlieir own town. (!sesar speaks of this decision 
 as an injury to himself, and is instigated by such 
 wrongs against him to besiege the city, which he 
 does botli by land and sea, leaving olIicer> there for 
 the purpose, and going on himself to Spain. 
 
 At this time all Spain was held by tliree ollieers. 
 devoted to t)ie <'ause of Pompey, tliougli, from wliat 
 has gone before, it is clear that. Ca'sar fears notliing 
 from the south. Afranius <'onnnanded in the nortli 
 and east, holding the southern spiir^ of the Pyre- 
 nees. Petrcius, who was stationed in l.usitania, 
 in the southwest, according to llie agreement, luir- 
 ries up to the assistance of Afranius as soon as 
 Oitsar approaches. The Ponipeian and Ca'sarean 
 armies are brought into close quarters in the neigh- 
 
 borhood of Ilerda(Lerida), on the little river Sicoris, 
 I or Segre, which runs into the Kbro. They are near 
 j the mountains here, and the nature of the fighting is 
 I controlled by the rapidity and size of the rivers, and 
 I the inequality of the ground. Ca-sar describes the 
 I canijiaign with great minuteness, imparting to it a 
 wonderfid interest b}' the clearness of his narrative. 
 Afranius and Petreius hold the town of Ilerda, which 
 i is full of provisions. CiBsar is very nnich pressed 
 I by want, as the corn and grass have not yet grown, 
 and the country supplies ot the former year are al- 
 j most exhausted. So great are his difficulties, tliat 
 tidings reach Rome that Afranius has conquered him. 
 Hearing this, many who were still clinging to the 
 city, doubtful as to the side they would take, go 
 j away to I^ompey. But Csesar at lasts manages to 
 make Ilerda too hot for the Pompeian Generals. He 
 takes his army over one river in coracles, such as he 
 had seen in Britain; he turns the course of another; 
 fords a third, breaking the course of the stream by 
 the bulk ot his horses; and bridges a fourth. Afra- 
 nius and Petreius find that they must leave Ilerda, 
 and escape over the Ebro among the half-barbarous 
 ' tribe further soutli, and make their way, if possible, 
 among the Celtibri, — getting out of Aragon into Ca-s- 
 tile, as the division was made in after-ages. Caesar 
 I gives us as one reason for this intended niarcu on 
 the part ot his enemies, that Pompej' was well known 
 by tliese tribes, but that the name of CaHsar was a 
 name as yet obscure to the barbarians. It was not, 
 however, easy for Afranius to pass over the Ebro 
 without Ca>sar's leave, and Caesar will by no means 
 give him leave. He intercepts the Pompeiaus, and 
 now turns upon them that terrible engine of want 
 from which he had suffered so much. He continues 
 so to drive them about, still north of the Ebro, that 
 they can get at no water; and at last they are com- 
 pelled to surrender. During the latter days of this 
 contest the Afranians, as thej- are called — Roman le- 
 gionaries, as are the soldiers of Ca'sar — fraternize 
 with their brethren in Caesar's camp, and there is 
 something of free intercourse between the two Ro- 
 man armies. The upshot is that the soldiers of Afra- 
 nius resolve to give tliemselves up to Casar, bar- 
 gaining, however, that their own (ienerals shall be 
 secure. Afranius is willing enimgh; lint his brother- 
 general, Petreius, with more of the Roman at heart, 
 will not hear of it. We shall hear hereafter the 
 strange fate of this Petreius. He stops the conspir- 
 acy with energy, and forces from his own men, anil 
 even from Afranius, an oath against surrender. He 
 orders that all Casars's soldiers found in their camp 
 shall be killed, and, as Casar tells us, brings back 
 the affair to the old form of war. But it is all of no 
 avail. The Afranians are so driven by the want of 
 water, that the two Generals are at last compelled to 
 capitulate and lay down their arms. Five words 
 which are used by Ca'sar in the description of this 
 affair give us a strong instance of his conciseness in 
 the use of words, and of the capab lity for couci.se- 
 ness whicli the Latin language ;itfords. " Preme- 
 baiitur Afraiiiaiii pabnlatioiie. aciualiantnr a^gra." 
 "Tlie soldiers of Afranius w<'re much distressed in 
 the matter of forage, and could obtain water only 
 witli great difiicuhy." These twenty words trans- 
 late tliose five which Casar uses, perliiips with fair 
 accnracy; but many more than twenty would pro- 
 bably have been used by any English historian in 
 dciiiiiig with the same facts. 
 
 Ca'sar treats his conipatriofs with tlie iiliiiost gen- 
 erosity. So many con(|Uered (^luls he would have 
 sold as slaves, slaughtering their leaders, or lu" would 
 have cut off their liands, or have driven them down 
 upon the river and have allowed (hem to perish in 
 tlie waters. But his coiiipiercd foes are Roman sol- 
 diers, anil he simply <lemands lh;it the iirniy of Afra- 
 nius shall be disbanded, :iMd that the leaders of it 
 shall go, whither they please. 1 le makes tlieui a 
 sja'cch in which he explains liow badly they huvr 
 treated him. Nevertheless he will hurt no one. He
 
 BOUAN LKOTONS. 
 
 •(;i 
 
 BOMAN LE0I0N8. 
 
 lias 1>oni<' il all, luiil will lii-ar il, palli-ntly. I.rl llii' ^ 
 OriKTals only li'avi- llic I'mvivcc, anil li-l lln- army j 
 whirli llicy liavi' led hr ilisliaiiili'd. lie will iiiil 
 keep a SdliliiT who dues mil wIkIi Id slay willi liiin, 
 ami will even |)ay lliosc wlioiii Afraiiiiis liaH hccii iiii- j 
 alilr III pay (ml "f liis own fumls. 'I'Iiiihc wIid have 
 lioiiscs and lam! ii! Spain may n-main llicrc. 'I'liosc 
 who liavr none Iw will lirsl fcrd. ami afterwards 
 take l>ack, if mil to Ilaly. iil any rale to tlir liordc-rs 
 of Italy. Till' properly w liieli lii.s own .soldiers have 
 taken from them in the ehanees of war shall he re- 
 tnriH'd to them, and he onl of his own pocket will 
 compensate Insown men. He performs his promise, 
 and takes all tho.se who do not <'lioo.sc to reniaii, to 
 th(' haidcs of the Var. which divides the Province 
 from Ilaly, and there sets them down, full, midonhl, ] 
 of uratilnde to their conqueror. Never was there 
 such clemency, or we may say, lielter ]iiiliev| Ca'- 
 sar's whole <'ampaii;n in Spain had oeenpiid him 
 oidy forty days. In I he mean time Decimus lirntiis, 
 to whom we remember that Ca'sar had ijiven the 
 command of the ships which he prepared a':;ainst the 
 Veneti in the west of Haul, and who was hereafter 
 to he one of those who slew him in the Capitol, ob- 
 tains a naval victory over IIk' mncli mori' miniiToiis 
 Heel of the .Massilians. They hail prepared seven- 
 teen bii; ships, "naves lonija' " they are calli'd by 
 Ca'sar, — and of these Hrntus either destroys or lakes 
 nine. In his ne.\t book (tesar proceeds to tell us 
 how thin;;s went on at .Marseilles both by sea and 
 land aftiT tliis atTair. 
 
 In his chronicle of the (iallic war, Ca'sar in each 
 book completed the narrative of a year's cam])ais;n. 
 In treatiiis;; of the civii war he devotes the ;ir^t and 
 second books to the doiji;;s of one year. There are 
 tliri'c distinct c|)isodes of the year's campaign narrat- 
 ed in the second ; -the taking of .Marseilles, the siib- 
 jiigalion of the southern pidvince of Spain. — if that 
 can be .said to be subjugated which gave it.self very 
 readily, — and the destruction of a Homan army in 
 Africa under the hands of a barb:irian king. But of 
 all Ca'sar's writings it is perhaps the least interesting, 
 as il tells us but lilth' ol what C.'esar did himself,- - 
 and in fact contains chietly C.'csar's records of the do- 
 ings of his Kieutenanis by sea and land. He la'gins 
 by telling us of the enormous exertions made both by 
 the besiegers and by the besi<'ged at .Massilia which 
 town was now Inld by Domitius on tiie part of Pom- 
 pey, — to suiiplement whom at sea a certain Nasidius 
 « as sent wil h a large licet. Young lirutus, as will be 
 renu'inbered, was attacking the harbor on behalf of 
 Ciesar, an<l had alreaily obtained a victory over the 
 Massilians before Nasidius came up ; and Trebonius, 
 also on the i)art of Ca'sar, was besieging the town 
 from the land. This Decimus Brutus was one of those 
 conspirators who afterwards conspired against Ciesar 
 and slew him, — and Trebonius was another of the 
 number. The wise Oreeks of the city,- more wise 
 than fortunate, however, had explained to Ca'sar 
 when he lirsl expressed his wish to have the town on 
 his side, that really to them there was no diU'erence 
 between Pompey and Cjesar,iiotli of whom they loved 
 with all their hearts, — but they had been oompelled 
 to l)ecome partisans of I'ompey, the I'ompeian Gen- 
 eral, Domitius, being the lirst to enter their town: 
 and now they find themselves obliged to tight as 
 l'om|)eians in defence of their wealth and their homes. 
 Thus driven by necessity, they light well and do their 
 very best to favor the side wiucli we must hencefor- 
 ward call that of the Kciiublic as against an autocrat: 
 — for, di.ving this siege of .Marseilles. Ciesar had been 
 appointed liafator, ami a law to that elTect had been 
 passed at Home, where the j)assing of such a law was 
 no doubt easy enough in the absence of I'ompey, of 
 the Consi;ls. and of all tlie Senators who were Pom- 
 pey's friends. 
 
 The .Mas.silians had now chosen their side.and they 
 do their very best. We are told that the Ca'sarean 
 troops, from the very high groimd on which Trebon- 
 ius had placed his camp. <-oidil look (low n into the 
 
 town, und Hce " liow all tin; youth who had been left 
 ill thr- city, anil all tin; elders with their children and 
 wives, aiid the sentinels of the cilv, eitliiT strelt-hed 
 their hands to heaven from the wafis, or, entering tin- 
 temples of the ininiorlid gods, unil throwing tlieiii 
 selves before I heir sacn-d innigeH.prayedlhut IhcJir'uv- 
 enly powers would give them victory. Nor was tlirre 
 one among them w ho did not believe that on IhereHuIt 
 of that day depended all that they lia<l," namely, 
 liberty, property and life; for I he .Massilians.doiibtlesH, 
 had hear<l of Avari< iiir., of .\lesia. and of L'.xellodu- 
 luim. •• Whi'ti the battle was begun," siiys Ca'sar, 
 "the .Massilians failed not in valor; but. inindfid of 
 the lessons they had just received from their lownH- 
 men, fought with thi' belief that the pri'sent was tlieir 
 only opportututy of doing aughl for their own pres- 
 ervation ; and I hat to those who should fall in buttle, 
 loss of life wiiuld only comi' a little sooiht than to 
 the others, w ho wouhl have to undergo llie same fate, 
 shoidd the city li<' taken." Cesar, as he wrol<' this, 
 doubtless thought of what he had done in (iaul when 
 policy demanded from him an exireiiiily of crm-Ily • 
 and.so writing, he enhanci'i I the clemency with which, 
 as he is about to tell us. he afterwards treated the Mas- 
 silians. When the time came it did not suit him to 
 depo])ulatea rich town, the trade of whose merchant.s 
 wasbenelicial both to U<imeand to the j'rovinci'. He 
 is about to tell us of his mercy, and therefore explains 
 to us beforehand how little was mercy expecleil from 
 him. We feel that every line he writes is weighed, 
 though the time for such weighing must have' been 
 very short with one wliosi- bands were so fidl as were 
 always the hands of Ca'sar. 
 
 Nasidius, whom we mtiy call Pompey's Admiral, 
 was of no use at all. The -NlassiKans. tempted by his 
 coming, attack bravely the ship which hears the Hag 
 of young Brutus; l)ut young Brutus is too quick for 
 Ihem, an<l the imhappy Massilians run two of their 
 biggest vessels against each other in their endeavor 
 to pin that of the Ca'sarean Admirid between them. 
 The JIassilian Heel is utterly dispersed. Five are 
 stmk. four are taken: one gets oil' with Na^idius. who 
 runs away, making no elTort to light ; who has been 
 sent there,— so Casiir hints, by Pompey, not togive 
 assistance, but only to preteml to give assistance. 
 One ship gets back into the harbor with the sad tid- 
 ings; and the JIassilians — despairing only for a mo- 
 ment at the lirst blush of the bad news— determine 
 that their walls may still be defended. The town 
 was very well supplied with such things as were need- 
 <'d for liefence. the peoph' bi-ing a provident people, 
 w ell instructed and civilized. with meausat theirconi- 
 maud. We are told of great poles twelve feet long, 
 with sharp iron lieads to them, which the l)esiegers 
 could throw with such force from the engines on their 
 walls as to drive them through four tiers of the wicked 
 crates or stationaiy shields which the Casareans built 
 up for their protect ion. — believing that no force could 
 drive a weapon through them. As we reail of this 
 we cannot but think'nf Armstrong and Whitfield 
 guns. and iron plates, and granite batteries, and earth- 
 works. These terrible darts, thrown from " balislji'." 
 are very sore upon the Ca'sarcans ; Ihiv therefore 
 contrive an inunense tower, so high that it cannot be 
 reached liy any weapon, so built that no wood or ma- 
 terial subject io fire shall be on t'r.e outside.— which 
 they erect story by story, of very great strength. And 
 as they raise this stepby step, each story is secured 
 against fire and against the enemy. The reader, — 
 prol)ably not an engineer himself.- is disposed to 
 think as' he strugglesthrough this minute description 
 of the erection which Ca'sar gives, and emleavors to 
 realize the way in which it is done, that Casar must 
 himself liave served speciidly as an engineer. Hut in 
 truth'iie was not at this siege himself, and had noth- 
 ing to do with the planning of the tower, and must 
 intliis instance at least have got a written description 
 from his ofiicer,— as he probably did before when he 
 built the memorable bridge over the Hhine. .Vnd 
 when the tower is finished, tlicv make a long covered-
 
 SOMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 762 
 
 ROMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 way or shed, — musculum or muscle Cassar calls it ; 
 and with this they form for themselves a passage 
 from the big tower to a special point in the walls of 
 the town. This muscle is so strong with its sloping 
 roof that nothing thrown upon it will lirealv or burn 
 it. The JIassilians try tubs of flaming pilch, and 
 great fragments of rock ; but these siinply slip to the 
 grovmd.and are pulled away with long poles and forks. 
 And the CiEsareaus. from the height of their great 
 tower, have so terrible an advantage ! The Massil- 
 ians cannot defend their wall, and a breach is made, 
 or almost made. 
 
 The Massilians can do no more. The very gods 
 are against them. So they put on tlie habit of sup- 
 plicants, and go forth to tlie conquerors. The}' will 
 give their city to Cfesar. Ciesar is expected. Will 
 Trebonius be so very good as to wait until CsBsar 
 comes? If Trebonius should proceed with liis 
 work so that the soldiers should absolutely get into 
 the town, then — Trebonius knows very well wliat 
 would happen tlieu. A little delay cannot hurt. 
 Nothing sliall be done till Caesar comes. As it hap- 
 pens, C'a-sar has alreaily especially ordered that the 
 city shall be spared ; and a kind of truce is made, 
 to endure till Ciesar sliall come and take possession. 
 Trebonius lias a difficulty in keeping his soldiers 
 from the jilunder : but he does restrain them, and 
 besiegers and besieged are at rest, and wait for 
 Ca'sar. But these 5lassilians are a crafty people. 
 Tlie Ca;sarean soldiers, having agreed to wait, take 
 it easily, and simply amuse themselves in these days 
 of waiting. When they are quite off their guard, and 
 a liigh wind favors th^ scheme, the Massilians rush 
 out and succeed in burning the tower, and the 
 muscle, and the rampart, and the sheds, and all the 
 implements. Even though the tower was built with 
 brick, it burns freely — so great is tlie wind. Then 
 Trebonius goes to work, and does it all again. Because 
 there is no more wood left round about the camp, 
 he makes a rampart of a new kind — hitherto unheard 
 of — with bricks. Doubtless the Cesarean soldiers 
 had tirst to make the bricks, and we can imagine 
 what were their feelings in reference to the jlas- 
 silians. But however that may be, they worked so 
 well and so hard that the Massilians soon see that 
 their late success is of no avail. Nothing is left to 
 them. Neither perfidy nor valor can avail them, 
 and now again they give themselves up. They are 
 starved and suffering from pestilence, their fortifica- 
 'tions are destroyed, they have no hope of aid from 
 without — and now they give tliemselves up — intend- 
 ing no fraud, •■rexe dedere sine frimde O'listituunt." 
 Domitius, who is the Pompeian General, manages to 
 escape in a ship. He starts with three sliips, but 
 the one in which he himself sails alone escapes the 
 hands of "young" Brutus, Surely now will Mar- 
 seilles be treated with worse treatment than that 
 which fell on the Gaulish cities. Bnt such is by no 
 means C'a'sar's will. Caesar takes their pulilic trea- 
 sure and their ships, and reminding them that he 
 spares I hem rather for their name and old char- 
 acter than for any merits of theirs shown towards 
 him, leaves two legions among them, luid goes to 
 Home. At Avaricum, when the (iaiils had fought 
 to defend their own liberties, he had destroyed 
 everybody ; — at Alesia he had decreed the death 
 of every inhabitant when they had simply asked him | 
 leave to pass through his camp:- at U.xellodununi 
 he had cut off Ihe hands and poked out the eyes of 
 Gauls who liail dared to tight for their country. 
 But the (iauls were barbarians wlmm it was neces- 
 sary that Ciesar should pacify. The .Massilians were 
 Greeks, and a civilized people — and might be very 
 useful. 
 
 Hefore coming on to Marseilles there had been a 
 little more for (^'icsar to do in Spain, where, as has 
 been jireviously narrated, he Imd just compelled 
 Afranius and I'etreius to lay down their iinns :iii{l 
 disband their legions. .loiried with them liad been 
 a third Pompeian General, one Varro — a trulv dis- 1 
 
 I tinguished man, though not, perhaps, a very great 
 General — of whom Oiesar tells us that with his 
 Roman policy he veered between Pompeian and 
 
 t'a'sarean tactics till, unfortunately for himself, he 
 declared for Ponipey and the wrong side, wiien he 
 heard that Afranius Wiis having his own way in the 
 i neighborhood of Lerida. But Varro is in the south 
 of Spain, in Andalusia — or Ba-tica, as it was then 
 called — and in this southern province of Spain it 
 seems that CiEsar's cause was more popular than 
 that of Ponipey. Ca'sar, at any rate, has but little 
 difficulty with Varro. The Pompeian officer is 
 desertecl by his legions, and gives himself up very 
 quickly. Ciesar does not care to tell us what he did 
 with Varro, but we know that he treated his brotlier 
 Roman with the utmost courtesy. Varro was a 
 very learned man, and a friend of Cicero's, and one 
 who wrote books, and was a credit to Rome as a 
 man of letters if not as a General. We are told that 
 he wrote 490 volumes, and that he lived to be 
 eighty-eight — a fate very uncommon with Romans 
 wiio meddled with jiublic iiffairs in these diiys. 
 Ciesar made everything smooth in the south of 
 Spain, restoring the money and treasures which 
 Varro had taken from the towns, and giving thanks 
 to everybody. Then he went on over the Pyrenees 
 to Marseilles, and maile things smooth there. 
 
 But in the mean time things were not at all smootll 
 in Africa. The iiiime of Africa was at this time giv- 
 en to a small province belonging to the Republic, ly- 
 ing to the east of Nnmidia, in which Carthage had 
 stood when Carthiige was a city, containing that pro- 
 montory which juts out toward Sicily, and having 
 Utica as its Roman capital. It has been already 
 said that when Ciesar determined to gain possession 
 of certain provinces of the Republic before he fol- 
 lowed Pompej' across the Adriiitic, he sent a Lieuten- 
 ant with three legions into Sicily, desiring him to go 
 on to Africa as soon as things should have been ar- 
 ranged in the i.sland after the Csesarean fashion. The 
 Sicilian nnitter is not very troublesome, as Cato, the 
 virtuous man, in whose hands the government of the 
 island had been intrusted on liehalf of the Republic, 
 leaves it on the arrival of the Ciesarean legions, com- 
 plaining bitterly of Pompev's conduct. Then CiV- 
 sar's Lieutenant goesover to Africa with two legions, 
 as commanded, proposing to his army the expulsion 
 of one Attius Varus, who had, according to Cicsar's 
 story, taken irregular possession of the province, 
 keeping it on behalf of Ponipey, liut not allowing 
 the Governor appointed by the Repulilic so much as 
 to put his foot on the .shore. This Lieutenant was a 
 greiit favt)rite of Ciesar, by naiue Curio, who had 
 been elected Tribune of the people just when the Sen- 
 ate was making its attempt to recall Ciesar from his 
 command in Gaul. In that emergency, Curio as Tri- 
 bune bad been of service to Ctesar, and Ctesar loved 
 the young man. He was one of tlio.se who, though 
 noble by birtli. hiid flung themselves among the peo- 
 ple, as Catiline hiid done and Clodius, — unsteady, 
 turbulent, unseruiiulmis. vicious, needy, fond of 
 pleasure, riipiicinus. but well educiilcii, bnive and 
 clever. Ciesar liimself hiid been such a man in his 
 j'outh. and could easily forgive such faults in the 
 character of one who, in addition to such virtues as 
 have been named, possessed that farther and great- 
 er virtue of loving Ca>sar. Cicsiir expected great 
 tilings fi'iim Curio, and trusted him thoroughly. Cur- 
 io, with niiiiiy ships iiinl his two legions, hinds ill Af- 
 ricii, and prepares to win the province for his great 
 friend. lie does obtain some littli' advantage, so 
 thiit he is called ••Iniperator" by his soldiers, — a 
 name not given to a General till he has been victor- 
 ious in the field ; but it seems clear, from Ciesar's 
 telling of the story, tliiit Curio's own officers and 
 own soldiers distrusted liiin, and were doublfiil 
 whi'lher they would follow him, or would taUe pos- 
 session of the ships iiiid return to Sicily ; —or would 
 go over to . Villus \iinis, who h;id been their Com- 
 inaiider ill Italy before Ihev hiid deserleil from I'oni-
 
 ROMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 7(1 
 
 ROMAN LEGIONS 
 
 pey (() Cii'siir. A foiinnil of wur is held, and lliiTC 
 IS iimcli iloiiM. It is not only or cliiclly of Atliiis 
 Varus lliclr Uoniaii cnrniy, Hull lliry an- afraid: 
 but tlirrc is .lulia iu llicir iici^jrljliorliood, the Itirij; of 
 Numidia, who will ccrtaiidy tii;lil for N'ariis and a- 
 gaiiisl Curio. IIi' is I'oinpc y's dcilarccl friend, and 
 i'(lMally declared as (lesar's foe. lie lias, loo, special 
 grounds of (luiirre! ai;ainst Curio liiniself ; and if lie 
 comes in person with his army,- lirini;ini; such an 
 army as he can lirinj; if he pleases, — it will certainly 
 . go badly with Curio, should Curio be distanl from 
 ' his earn]). Tiu'ii Curio, not content with his cipiineil 
 of war. and iinxious that his soldiers should support 
 him ill his desire to liuhl, makes a speech to the le- 
 gionaries. We must reniember. of <'oiirse, that Ciu- 
 Hiir gives us the words of this spe<'cli, and that 
 CsBsar must himself have put the words together. 
 
 It is begmi in the third person. He,— that is Curio, 
 — t(01s the null how ii.seful they were to Ca'sar at 
 Cortiiiium, the town at which tiiey went over from 
 Pcmipey to Ca'sar. Hut in the second Hentence he 
 breaks into the lirsl person and puts the very words 
 into Curio's iiioutb. •• Kor you and your services," 
 ho says, "were copied liy all the towns; nor is it 
 without cause that Ca'sar thinks kindly of yon, and 
 th ' I'ompeians unkindly. For I'onipey, having lost 
 no battle, but driven by the result of your deed, lied 
 from Italy. Me. whom Ca-sar holds most dear, and 
 Sifiily and Africa without which hecannol hold Uotiie 
 and Italy, Ca'sarhas intrusted to your honor. There 
 are some who advise you to ilesiTt me, for what 
 can be more desirabh- to such men than that they at 
 the same time should circumvent me, and fasten upon 
 you a foul Clinic ? .... Hut you, — have you 
 not lieard of the things done by Ca'sar in Spain, 
 two armies beaten. two ttenerals conipiered. two )>ro- 
 vinces gained, and all tliis done in forty days from 
 that on which Ca'sar lirst saw his eiH'Uiy / Can those 
 who, uninjured, were unable to stand against him. 
 resist him ninv when they are coiupiered ? And you, 
 who followed Ca'sar when victory on his side was 
 uncertain, now that fortune lias declared herself,will 
 you go over to the ccmquered side when you are 
 about to realize the reward of your zeal y . . . . 
 But, perhaps I hough you love Ca'sar, you distrust me. 
 I will not say much of my own deserts towards yon, 
 —which are iiiileed U'ss as yet than I had wislied or 
 you had expected." Then, iiaving thus declared that 
 he will not speak of himself, he does venture to say 
 a few words on the subject. "But why should I 
 pass ovcrmy own work, and the result that has been 
 as yet achieved, and my own fortune in war? Is it 
 displeasing to you that I brought over the whole ar- 
 my, safe, without losing a ship? That, as I came, at 
 my tirst ouslauglit, 1 should have dispersed the licet 
 of the enemy ? That, in two days, I should have 
 been twice viclorious with my cavalry : that I should 
 have cut out two hundred transports from the ene- 
 my's harbor; Unit I should have so haras.sed the ene- 
 my that neither by hind nor sea could they get food to 
 supply their w;iiits/ Will it please you "to repudiate 
 such fortune ;inil such guidance, and to connect 
 yourself with tlie ilisgrace at Cortiniiini. the tliglil 
 from Italy," iiiimely, Pompey's flight to Dyrrach- 
 ium, — ■■ the siirremierof Spain, an<l the evils of this 
 African war? I indeed havewisheil to be called Ca-- 
 .sar's soldier, and you have called me your Imperator. 
 If it repents you of having done so, I give you back 
 the compliment, (iive me back my own name, lest 
 it seem that in scorn you have called me by tliat title 
 of honor." This is very spirited ; and the merely rhe- 
 torical assertion by C;esar tli;it Curio thus spoke to 
 his soldiers is in itself interesting, as showimr us the 
 way 111 which the legionaries were treated by their 
 Commanders, and in which the greatest General, of 
 that or of any age. thought it natural tlnil a leader 
 should address his troops. It is of value, also, as 
 showiui; the ditliculty of keeping any legion true to 
 either side in ;i civil w:ir, in which, on either siile. 
 the men must tight for a Commander thev had learned 
 
 to respi'ct, and iigaiiisl aCominander Ihi'y respecK-d, 
 
 the Commander in each caw being a Roman Im- 
 perator. Curio, too, as we know, was a man who 
 on such jin occasion would use words. Hut that In- 
 used till' words here put into his mouth, orany w.ird« 
 like them, is very improbable. ( ii'sar was an.vloiiH 
 to make the bisl apology he coiihl for the gallant 
 young friend who had perished in his cause, ami has 
 Khown his love by makiiii; tin- man he loverl memor- 
 able to all posterity. 
 
 Hut before the dark hour eoiiies upon him tlir 
 young man has a gleam of success, which hail he 
 really spoken the words put into his moiilli by Ciesar, 
 would have si-emed to justify them. He attacks the 
 army of his fellow -Konian, \arus, and beats it, driv- 
 ing it bark into I'tica. lie then resolves to besiege 
 the town, and Ciesar implies that he would have been 
 successful through tlieCa'sarean sympathies of the 
 townsmen,- had it not been for the apiiroach of the 
 terrible .Jiiba. Then comes a rumor which reaches 
 Curio, :inil which reaches \ariis loo inside the 
 town, that the Numidian King is hurrying to the 
 scene with all his forces. IIi' has tinisheil another 
 atTair that he had on hand, and can now look to his 
 Homan friends,- and to his Homaii enemies. .Iiiba 
 craftily sends forward his I'ra-feet, or Lieutenant, 
 Sabura, with a small force of cavalry, and Curio is 
 led to imagine that .liiba has not come, and that 
 Sabura has been sent with scanty aid to the relief of 
 Varus. Surely he can give a good account of Sabura 
 and tlnil small body of Numidian horsemen. We 
 see from the very hrst that Curio is doomed. Ciesar, 
 in a few touching words, makes his apolegy. "The 
 young man's youth had much to do with it, and his 
 high spirit ; his former success too, and his own 
 faith in his own gooii fortune." There is no word 
 of reproach. Curio makes another speech to his 
 soldiers. "Hasten to your jirey." he says, "hasten 
 to your glory!" They do hasten. — after such a 
 fashion that when the foremost of them reached 
 Sabura's troops, the hiudermost of them are scattered 
 far back on the road. They are cut to pieces by 
 Julia. Curio is invited by one of his officers to es- 
 cape back to his tent. Hut Cu'sar tells us that Curio 
 in that last moment replied that having lost th« 
 army with which Ca'sar had trusteii him, he would 
 never again look Casar in the face. That he did 
 say some such words as these, and that they were 
 repeated by that ollicer to Ca'sar, is probable enough. 
 " So tigliting he is slain :"— and there is an end of 
 the man whom Ciesar loved. 
 
 What then li;ippeued was very sad for a Roman 
 army. Many hurry down to the ships at the sea ; 
 but there is so uuicii terror, so iiiucli confusion, and 
 things are so badly done, that but very few get over 
 to Sicily. The remainder endeavor to give diem- 
 selves up to Varus ; after doing which, could they 
 have done it, their position would not have been very 
 bad. A Homan surrendering to a Roman would, at 
 the worst, but tind that he was compelled to change 
 his party. Hut .luba conies up and claims them as 
 his prey", and Varus does not dare to oppose the bar- 
 b;irian king. .luba kills the most of them, but sends 
 a few, whom he thinks may serve his purpose and 
 add to his glory. b:ick to his own kingdom. In doing 
 which Jubii bi'iiaved no worse than Ciesar habitually 
 behaved in Gaul; but Civsar always writes as though 
 not <mly a Homan must regard a Roman as more 
 than a man, but as though also all others must so 
 reirard Honians. .\nd by making such assertions in 
 thiir own lichalf, Honians were so regarded. We 
 are then told that the barbarian Kingof rsumidia rode 
 into I'tica triumphant, wilii Roman senators in his 
 train ; and the names of two sjiecial Roman Senators 
 Ciesar sends down to posterity as having been among 
 that base number. As far as we can spare them, 
 they shall be spared. 
 
 ("ii'sar besrins the last book of his last Commentary 
 by telling us that this was the year in which he(Ca"- 
 s;"ir was by the law permitted to name a Consul. He
 
 BOHAN LEGIOirS. 
 
 764 
 
 BOMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 names Publius Servilius to act in conjunction with 
 himself. Tlie ineauing of this is, that, as Csesar 
 had been crtatefl Dictator. Pompcy liaving taken 
 witli him into Illyria the Consuls of the previous 
 year, Ca?sar was now the only magistrate under 
 whose authority a Consul could be elected. No doubt 
 he did choose the man. but the election was supposed 
 to have been made in accordance with the form of 
 the Republic. lie remained at Rome as Dictator for 
 eleven days, during which he made various laws, of 
 which the chief object was to lessen the insecurity 
 caused bj' the disruption of the ordinary course of 
 things; and then he went down to Brindisi on the 
 track nf Ponipey. He had twelve legions with him, I 
 but he was badly off for ships in which to transport 1 
 them: and hoownsthat the healtli oftliemen is bad, 
 an autumn in the south of Italy having been severe 
 on men accustomed to the healthy climate of Gaid and 
 the north of Spain. Pompey, he tells us, had had a 
 whole year to prepare his army. — a whole year, 
 without warfare, and had collected men and sliips : 
 and money, and all that support which assent gives, ; 
 from Asia and the Cyclades, from Corcyra, Athens, 
 Bitliynia, Cilicia, PhaMiicia, Egypt, and the free 
 states of Achaia. He had with him nine Roman 
 legions, and is expecting two more with his father- 
 in-law Scipio out of Syria. He has three thousand i 
 archers from Crete, from Sparta, and from Pontus; ' 
 he has twelve hundred slingers, and he has seven 
 thousand cavalry from Galatia, Cappadocia, and 
 Thrace. A valorous Prince from Macedonia had 
 brought him two hundred men, all moimted. Five 
 hundred of Galatian and German cavalry, who had 
 been left to overawe Ptolemy in Eg_ypt, are brought 
 to Pompey by the filial care of yoimg Cnicus. lie 
 too had armed eight hundred of their own family 
 retainers, and had brought them armed. Autiochus 
 of Commagena sends liim two luindred moimted 
 archers, — mercenaries, however, not sent without 
 promise of high payment. Dardaui, — men from the 
 land of old Troy, Bessi, from the banks of the lle- 
 brus, Thessaliaus and Macedonians, have all been 
 crowded together under Pompey's standard. We 
 feel that Ca'sar's mouth waters as he recounts them. 
 But we feel also that he is preparing for the triumpli- 
 ant record in which he is aljout to tell us that all 
 these swarms diil he scatter to the winds of heaven 
 with the handful of Roman legionaries which he at 
 last succeeded in landing on the shores of Illyria. 
 Pompey has also collected from all parts ■' frumenti 
 vim maximam" — "a great power of corn indeed." as 
 an Irishman would say, translating the words lite- 
 rally. And he has covered the seas with his ships, 
 so as to hinder Cajsar from coming out of Italy. He 
 has eight Vice-admirals to command his various 
 fleets, — allot whom Ciesar names; and overthem all 
 as Admiral-in-Chief, is Bibulus.who was joint-consul 
 with CiEsar before C;esar went to (Taul, and who 
 was so harassed during his Consulship by the Ca^sar- 
 eans that he shut himself up in his house, and allowed 
 Ciusar to rule as sole Consul. Now he is about to 
 take his revenge ; but the vengeance of such an one 
 as Bibulus <;annot reach Ciesar. 
 
 (';esar having led his legions to Brindisi, makes 
 tliem a speech which alnmsl beats in impudence 
 anything that he ever s;iid or did. lie tells them that 
 as they have now nearl_y finished all bis work for him, 
 — they have only yet to lay low the Republic with 
 Pompey the Great, and all the forces of tlie Ki'])Mb- 
 lic — to which, however, have to be adde(l King 
 Ptolemy in Egyjit, King Pliarnaces in Asia, luid 
 King Juba ill Numidia; they had better leave be- 
 hind them at lirindisi all their liltle iirojierty, the 
 spoils of former wars, so lli;it tliey may jiack the 
 tighter in the boats in which he means to seiel them 
 across to Illyria,— if only they can es<-ape the nier- 
 oies of ex-Consul Admiral Bibulus. There is no 
 suggestion that at any future lime they will receiver 
 their jiroperty. For their future hopes tln^y are to 
 trust entirely to (.;a;sar'H gi'iierosity. Willi (iiie shout 
 
 they declare their readiness to obey him. He takes 
 over seven legions, escaping the dangers of those 
 "rocks of evil fame," the Acroceraunia of which 
 Horace tells us. — and escaping Bibulus also, who 
 seems to have shut himself up in his ship as he did 
 before in his house during the Consulship. Caesar 
 seems to have made the passage with the conviction 
 that had he fallen into the hands of Bibulus every- 
 thing would have been lost. And with ordinary 
 precaution and diligence im the part of Bibulus such 
 would have been eventually the result. Yet he 
 makes the attempt — trusting to the Fortune of Ca;sar 
 — and he succeeds. He lands at a jilace which he 
 I calls Palieste on the coast of Epirus, considerably to 
 1 the south of Dyrrachium, in Ill_\Tia. AtDyrrachium 
 Pompey had landed the 3ear before, and there is now 
 stored that wealth of ])rovision of which Ca?sar has 
 spoken. But Bibulus at last determines to be active, 
 and he does manage to fall upon the empty vessels 
 which Ciesar sends back to fetch the remainder of 
 : his army. " Having come upon thirty of them, he 
 ; falls upon them with all the wrath occasioned by his 
 own want of circumspection and grief, and burns 
 them. And in the same tire he kills the sailors and 
 the masters of the vessels — hoping to deter others." 
 Ca'sar tells us, " bj' the severity of the punishment." 
 \ After that we are not sorry to hear that he potters 
 ■ about on the seas very busy, but still incapable, and 
 that he dies, as it seems, of a broken heart. He does 
 indeed, catch one ship afterwards — not laden with sol- 
 diers, but coming on a private venture, with child- 
 ren, servants, and suchlike, dependants and follow- 
 ers of Ciesar's camp. All these, including the child- 
 ren. Bibulus slaughters, down to the smallest child. 
 We have, however, to remember that the story is 
 told b}' C'fBsar. and that Caesar did not love Bibulus. 
 Marc Antony has been left at Brindisi in command 
 of the legions which C;esar could not bring across at 
 his first trip for want of sufficient ship-room, and is 
 pressed very miich by Caesar to make the passage. 
 There are attempts at treaties made, but as we read 
 the account we feel that Caesar is only obtaining the 
 delay which is necessary to him till he shall have 
 been joined by Antony. We are told how by this 
 time the camps of Ca'sar and Pompey have been 
 brought so near together that they are separated only 
 by the River Apsus — for Caesar had moved north- 
 wards towards Pompey's stronghold. And the sol- 
 diers talked together across the stream: "nor, the 
 while, was any weapon thrown — by compact between 
 those who talked." Then Civsar sends Vatiuius, as his 
 ambassador, down to the river to talk of peace ; and 
 Vatiuius demands with a loud voice "whether it 
 should not be allowed to citizens to send legates to citi- 
 zens, to treat of ]ieace- a thing that has been allowed 
 even to deserters from the wilds of the Pyrenees and to 
 robbers — especially with so excellent an object as to 
 hinder citizens from fighting with citizens." This 
 seems so reasonable, that a da_v is named, and Labi- 
 entis— who has deserted from tVesar and become 
 Pompeian — comes to treat on one side of the river, 
 and Vatiuius on the other. But — so Cicsar tells the 
 story himself— the Caesarean soldiers throw their 
 wj'apons at their old General. They probably cannot 
 endure the voice iir sightof one whom they regard as 
 a reni'gade. Eabienus escapes under the protection 
 of those who are with him — but he is full of wrath 
 against Cjvsar. "After this," sa}'s lie, " let us cease to 
 speak of treaties, for there can be no peace for us till 
 f'a'sar's head has been brought to us." But the col- 
 loquies over the little stream no doubt answered Cie- 
 sar's purpose. 
 
 Ca'sar is very anxious to get his legions over from 
 Italy . and even scolds Aiitcmy for not liringiiig llieiii. 
 There is a story- whi<'h heddcsiKil tell himself - Ihat 
 he put himself into a small boat. inti'Uding to <-ross 
 over to Briedisi in astorm, to hurry in;itters, and that 
 he encouraged llie awestruck master of the boatby re- 
 minding him that he would carry " Ca'sar anil his 
 fortunes." Thi' stnrv goes on to sav that the sailors
 
 BOHAN LEGIONS. 
 
 I D.) 
 
 ROMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 altoiiiptcd tlur trip, liul wen- driven Imck hy llir li-m- 
 pi'Sl. Al liisl llicn' spriiifjH up u hoiiIIi vvIikI, mill An- 
 tony veiil.urcs with iiis lloliUii, iilllii)M';li the war- 
 Hliip-i of I'oinpcy Htill llolil llii' hiu, and (jiiiird tlic II- 
 Ivrian coast. Uiil Cn'sar's (Icncral is hNccis>fid, and 
 llic second liall of I he Ca'sarean army iscarrieil norlli- 
 ward tiy favoririij hree/es towards Ihc shore in the 
 very si;;lit of I'onipey and liis soldiers al Dyrrachinin. 
 Two ships, however, laj; hehind. and fall into the 
 hands of one Olacilius, an olUcer hejonjtini; to I'oin- 
 pcy. 'I'lic two ships, one full of recruits and the other 
 of veterans. auree to surrender, ( )tacilius liavinj; sworn 
 Ilia! he will not hurt tiie men. " lli-rc you may hoc," 
 nays Caesar, "how much safely to men there is in 
 presence of mind." The recruits do as they have un- 
 dertaken, and ;,'ive themselves U|) ; w lieriMipon Ota.- 
 «:ilius, alto;retlK'r (lisre;;ardiiin his oath, like a true 
 Konian, kills every man of them. Hut the veterans, 
 (lisreuardini; I heir word also, and kni>wini; no doubt 
 to a fraction the worth of the word of ()la<ilius, run 
 their shii) ashore in the niirht, and, willi much ti^lit- 
 inLT. i;et safe to Antony. ( 'a'sar implies that the re- 
 cruits I'vcn would have known belter had they not 
 been sea-sick : liul that even bili;e-water and bad 
 weather combined had faili'd to touch the ancient 
 courage of the veteran legionaries. They were still 
 jjnod men — " item conlli<tali et tempestatis ft senti- 
 iiH- viliis." 
 
 We are then told liow Mclflliis Scipio, coming out 
 of Syria with his legions into Macedonia almost suc- 
 ■ ceeds in robbiiii; the temple of Diana of Kphesus on 
 his way. lie ,i;ets t<]i;elher a body of Senators, wdio 
 arc to give evidence that he counts the money fairly 
 as hi! takes it out of the temiJe. Hut letters come 
 from Pompey just as he is in the act, and he does 
 not dare to delay his journey even to complete so 
 pleasant a transaction. He comes to iiieel I'omjjey 
 and to share his command at th<' i;r<'at battle that 
 must soon be fouiiht. We hear. loo. how (Jiesar 
 sends his l.ieulenanls into Thessaly and -Ktolia and 
 Macedonia, to try what friends he has there, to lake 
 cities, and to get food. He is now in a land which 
 lias seemed specially to belong to Poni])ey; but even 
 here they have heard of Ca'sar, and the Gre<'ks arc 
 simply an.vious to be friends with the strongest Uo- 
 man of Ihc day. They have to jud!:e which will win, 
 and to ailliere to him. For the poor (reeks there is 
 miK'h dilliculty in forming a judgment. Pri'seutly 
 we shall see the way in » hich (';esar gives a lesson 
 on that subject to the citizens of Goinphi. In the 
 mean lime he joins his own forces to those lately 
 brought by Antony out of Italy, and resolves that he 
 will force Pompey to a tight. 
 
 We may divide the remainder of his last book of 
 the second Commentary into two episodes. — the first 
 beinii tlie story of what occurreil within the lines at 
 P(^lra. and the se<i)nd the account of the crowning 
 battle of Phar.salia. In the first Pompey was the vic- 
 tor, — but the victory, great as il was, has won from 
 the world very little notice. In the second, as all 
 the world knows, Ca'sar was triumphant and hence- 
 forward dominant. And yet Ihe alTairal Petra should 
 have made a Pharsalia unnecessary, and indei'd im- 
 possil)le. Two reasons have conspired to make Pom- 
 pey's complete success at Peira unimportant in the 
 world's esteem. This Commentary was written not 
 by Pompey. but by Ca'sar; and, then, unfortunately 
 for Pompey. Pharsalia was allowed to follow Petra. 
 It is not very easy to unravel Caesar's story of the 
 doinirs of the two" armies at Petra. Nor. were this 
 ever so casv a task, would our limits or Ihe purport of 
 this volunie allow us to al tempt to give that narra- 
 tive in full to our readers. ( ;esar had managed to 
 join the legions which he had himself brought from 
 Italy with those which had crossed afterwards with 
 Antony, and was now anxious for a battle. His men. 
 thouiiii fewer in number than they who 'followed 
 Pompey. were lit for tighting. and knew all the work 
 of soldierlUiT. Pompi-y's men were for the most part 
 beginners; — but Ihey were learning, and every week 
 
 added to their expr-rii'iiite was a wei-k in l'oni|>i;y'« 
 favor. With hope of forcing a battle, Ciesur inuiiuf;- 
 ed to get his army between Dyrrachiuni, in which 
 were kept all Poinpey's stores and wealth of war.and 
 the army of his opponent, so that Pompey. as regard- 
 1(1 any :ipproach by land was shut off from iJyrra- 
 <:hium. IJiit the sea was open to him. His fleet was 
 everywhere on the coast, while Ciesar had not a ship 
 that could dare to show its bow upon the waters. 
 
 There was a sleep rocky promontory some few 
 miles north >)f Dyrriichiiim, from wdienc<! there was 
 easy access to the sea, c:dled I'etra, or Ihe rock. At 
 this point Pompey could touch Ihe sea. but l)itwecii 
 Petra and Dyrraciiiiini Ciesarheld Ihe country. Here, 
 on this rock, taking in for the use of his army a cer- 
 tain somewhat w ide ainoiint of pasturage at the foot 
 of the rock, l'om|)ey placed his army, and made in- 
 trenchmcnlsall round from sea to sea, fortifying him- 
 self as all Homan (ieni-rals knew how to do, with u 
 bank and ililcli and twenty-four turrets and earth- 
 works tlnil would make the place absolutely impreir- 
 nable. Tli<- length of his linis was (ifleen Koinan 
 miles, — moretlain thirteen Knglish miles, - so that 
 within his works he might have as much space an 
 possible to give him grass for his horses. So placed, 
 he had all tiie world al his back to feed him. Not 
 only could he get at that wealth of stores which be 
 had amassed at Dyrrachium. and wliirh were safe 
 from CiCsar, but the coasts of (Greece, and Asia, and 
 Egvpl were open to bis ships. Two things only were 
 wanting to him.—sullicient grass for his horses, and 
 water. The lllyrian country at his back was one so 
 unproductive, being rough and mountainous. that the 
 inlndiitants tliem.selves were in ordinary times fed 
 upon imported corn. And Pompey, foreseemg some- 
 thiiii; of what might happi'U.had taken care to emp- 
 ty tiie slore-houses and to leave the town behind 
 liim destitute and impoverished. Nevertlieless Cu;- 
 s;ir. Inivim: got the body of his enemy, as il were, 
 imprisoned at Petra. was delermineti to keep big 
 prisoner fast. So round and in fnmlof Pompev'slines, 
 he also m;ide other lines from sea to sea. lie began 
 by erectini: turrets and placing small detachments on 
 the little hills outside Poinpey's lines, so as to pre- 
 vent his enemy from getting the grass. Then he join- 
 ed these towers by lines, ami in this way surrouniled 
 the other lines, — thinking that so Pompey would 
 not be able to send out his horsemen for forage; and 
 again, that the horses inside at Petrn might gradual- 
 ly be starved ; and again "that the rei)Utation," — 
 " auctoritatem," — " which in the estimation of for- 
 eisn nations belonged chielly to Pompey in this war. 
 would be lessened when the story should have been 
 told over the world that Pompey "had been besieged 
 bv Ciesar, and did not dare to tight." 
 
 "We are. iierhaps, too much disposed to think— 
 ' reading our history cursorily— that Ca;sar at this 
 I time "was evervbody, and that Pompey was 
 ' hardly worthy to" be his foe. Such passages in the 
 ' Commentary "as that above translated— they are not 
 many, but a few suffice— show that this idea is er- 
 roneous. Up to this period in their joint courses 
 Pompev had been the ;rreater man : Ciesar bad done 
 very niuch. but Pompey had done more— and now 
 he had on his side almost all that was wealthy and 
 respectable in Rome. He led the Conservative 
 parlv. and was still confident that be bad only to 
 bide his time, and that Ca-sar must fall before bira. 
 ' Ciesar and Cicsareaiis were to bini as the spirits of 
 the devolution were in France to Louis XVI., to 
 Charles X.. and to I.ouis-Philippe. before they had 
 made their powers credible and formidable : as the 
 Keform Hill and Catholic Emancipation were to 
 such men iis George IV. and Lord Eldon. while yet 
 I they could be opposed and postponed. It was im- 
 pos"sible to Pompey that the sweepings of Rome, 
 . even with Ciesar and Ctesar's army to help them, 
 should at least prevail over himself and over the 
 Roman Senate. "He was said at that time." we are 
 a"-aiu uanslaliug Ctesar's words, "to have declared
 
 ROMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 766 
 
 ROKAN LEGIONS. 
 
 with boasts among liis owd people, that he would 
 not himself deny that as a general he should be coa- 
 sidered worthless if Caesar's legions should now ex- 
 tricate themselves from the position in which they 
 had rashly entangled themselves without very great 
 loss" — ••mdiimiiclHrimfiito" — loss that would amount 
 wellnigh to destruction. And he was all but right 
 in what he said. There was a great deal of fighting 
 for the plots of grass and different bits of vantage- 
 ground — fighting which nuist have taken place al- 
 most between the two lines. But Caesar suffered 
 under this disadvantage, that his works, being much 
 the longest, required the greatest number of men to 
 erect them and prolong them and keep, them in 
 order : whereas Porapey, who in this respect had 
 the least to do. having the inner line, was provided 
 with much the greater number of men to do it. 
 Caesar's men, being veterans, had always the ad- 
 vantage in the actual lighting; but in the mean 
 time Pompey's untried solders were obtaining that 
 experience which was so much needed b}' them. 
 Nevertheless Pompej' suffered very much. They 
 could not get water <m the rock, and when he at- 
 tempted to sink wells, C'lesar so perverted the 
 water-courses that the wells gave no water. C;esar 
 tells us that he even dammed up the streams, mak- 
 ing little lakes to hold it, so tliat it should not trickle 
 down in its undergroimd courses to the comfort of 
 his enemies; hut vve should have thought that anj' 
 reservoirs so made must soon have overflown them- 
 selves, and have been useless for the intended pur- 
 pose. In the mean time Ca;siir's men had no bread 
 but wdiat was made of a certain wild cabbage — 
 ■■chara" — whicli grew there, which they kneaded up 
 with milk, and lived upon it cheerfufly, though it 
 was not very palatable. To show the Pompeians 
 the sort of fare with which real veterans could be 
 content to break their fasts, they threw loaves of 
 this composition across the lines, for they were 
 close together and could talk to each other, and the i 
 Pompeians did not hesitate to twit their enemies 
 with their want of provisions. But the Cesareans 
 had plenty of water— and plent3' of meat : and 
 thej' assure Ca-sar that they would rather eat the 
 bark off the trees than allow the Pompeians to 
 escape them. 
 
 But there was always this for Cffisar to fear — that 
 Pompey shotdd land a dctachtuent behind his lines 
 and attack him at the hack. To lander this Caesar 
 made another intreuchmeut, with ditch and bank, 
 running at right angles from the shore, and was 
 intending to join this to his main work by a 
 transverse line of fortifications running along that 
 short portion of the coast which lay between his 
 first lines and the second, when tliere came upcm 
 him the disaster which nearly destroyed him. 
 While he was digging his trenches and building his 
 turrets the fighting was so freq\u-nt that, as Caesar 
 tells us, on one day there were six battles. Pompey 
 lost two thousand legionaries, wliile CiEsar lost no 
 more than twenty ; but every Ca'sarean engaged in 
 a certain turret was woundefl ; and four officers 
 lost their eyes. CiEsar estimates that thirty thous- 
 and arrows' were thrown upon the men defending 
 this tower, and tells us of one Sca'va, .'in oHi<'cr, who 
 had two hundred an<l thirty lioles made by these 
 arrows in his own shield. We can onl}- surmise 
 that it must have been a very big sliield, and that 
 there must have been nuich trouble in counting tlu/ 
 holes. Ca'sar, however, was so mucJi pleased that 
 he nave Hcicva a large sum of money- something 
 over i'500, and, allowing liim to skip over six inter- 
 mediate ranks, made him at once first centurion— or 
 I'riiiiipilus of the legion. We remember no other 
 record of such quick promotion- in prose. There 
 is, indeed, the well-known case of a common sailor 
 w.ho did a gallant action aiul was made First-Lieu- 
 teuant on the spot ; but that is told in ver.se, and I lie 
 common sailor was a lady. 
 
 Two perfidious (lauls to whom Ciesar had l)icn 
 
 very kind, but whom he had been obliged to check 
 on accmmt of certain gross pecidations of which 
 they had been guilt)-, though, as he tells us, he had 
 not time to punish them, went over to Pompey, and 
 told Pompey all the secrets of C'a'sar's ditches, and 
 forts, anil mounds — finished and unfinished. Before 
 that, Ca'sar assures us, not a single man of his had 
 gone over to the eneni}', though many of the enemy 
 had come to him. But these perfidious Gauls did a 
 world of mischief. Pompey, hearing how far Ctesar 
 was from having his works along the sea-shore 
 finished, got together a huge fleet of boats, and suc- 
 ceeded at night in throwing a large body of his men 
 ashore between Ca;sar's two lines, thus dividing 
 Caesar's two forces, and coming upon them in their 
 weakest point. Caesar admits that there was a 
 panic in his lines, and that the slaughter of his men 
 was very great. It seems that the very size of his 
 own works produced the ruin wliich befell them, for 
 the different parts of them were divided one from 
 another, so that the men in one position could not 
 succor those in another. The affair ended in the 
 total route of the Csesarean army. Ca'sar actually 
 fled, and had Pompey followed him we must sup- 
 pose that then there must be an eu'.l of Ca-sar. He 
 acknowledges that in the two battles fought on that 
 day he lost 960 legionaries, 32 officers, and 32 
 standards. And then Cai'sar tefls us a story of 
 Labienus, who had been his most trusted Lieutenant 
 in the Gallic wars, but who had now gone over to 
 Pompey, not choosing to fight against the Kepublic. ' 
 Labienus demanded of Pompey the C'lcsarean 
 captives, and caused ♦hem all to be slaughtered, 
 asking them with scorn whether veterans such as 
 they were accustomed to run away. Ca?sar is very 
 angry with Labienus ; but Labienus might have de- 
 fended himself by saying that the slaughter of pris- 
 oners of war was a custom he had learned in Gaul. 
 As for those words of scorn. Cresar could hardly 
 have heard them with his own ears, and we can un- 
 derstand that he should take delight in saying hard 
 things of Labienus. 
 
 Pompey was at once proclaimed Imperator. And 
 Pompey used the name, though the victory had, alas! 
 been gained over his own fellow-countrymen. " So 
 great was the effect of all this on the spirits and con- 
 fidence of the Pompeians, that they thought no more 
 of the carrying on of the war, but only of the victory 
 they had gained." And then Caesar throws scorn 
 upon the Pompeians. making his own apology in the 
 same words. "They did not care to remember that 
 the small number of our soldiers was the cause of 
 thei-r trimnph. or that the uneveuuess of the ground 
 and narrowness of the defiles had anything to do 
 with it: or the occupation of our lines, and the panic 
 of our men between their double fortifications, or 
 our army cut into two parts, so that one part coidd 
 not help'the other. Nor did tliey adil to Ihisthe fact 
 that (jur men, pressed as they wert, could not en- 
 gage themselves in a fair conflict, and that they in- 
 deed suffered more from their own numbers, ami 
 from the narrowness of the ravines, than from the 
 enemy. Nor were the ordinary chances of war 
 brought to mind, — how small matters, such as some 
 unfoimiled suspicion, a sudden panic, a remendiered 
 superslilion. may create great misfurlune; nor liow 
 often the fault of a General, or the mistake of an of- 
 ficer may liring injury upon an army. But they 
 spread allroad the report of the vict<jry of that day 
 throughout all the world, sending forth letters and 
 tales as though they had conquered solely by their 
 own valor, niir was 'it possible Ihal there should after 
 this be a reverse of llu'ir circumstances." Such was 
 the alTair of P<'lra, by which the relative position in 
 the worUl-liislory of' Ca'sar and Pompey was very 
 nearly made the reverse of what it is. 
 
 Ca-sar How acknowledges that he is driven to 
 change the whole ))lan of iiis campaign. lie ad- 
 dresses a siieecli to his nu-n, and exi)lains lo them 
 Ihal Ibis defeat, like Ihal of Gergovia, may lead to
 
 ROMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 7<i7 
 
 ROHAN LLGI0H8. 
 
 Ilicir fill Nil- succpss. The virtory ill Alfsiii liiid 
 »|iriiii;; fmin the (Icfcul of (!iT(;i)viii. Ih'Chumc the 
 (iiiuls hull been iiKlucnl Id lii;lil; iiiiil fniiii llic rr- 
 vcrscH ciiiliircil williiii the liiicH of I'clrii iniL'lil <'i)inc' 
 III!' siiiiic fdrtunc; fijr suicly now liii'iiriiiy of I'otm- 
 pcy would iiol frar a Imlllc. Sonic few ofllirrs lie 
 pimislii's 1111(1 ili'LTiidrs. His own words ri/spi'Clinj; 
 ills army iiflcr llirir drfnil lire very loiicliiuj;. " Ho 
 i;rral ii ^rirf hail iiMiic from Ihis disaster iipnn tlie 
 whole army, and soslronfia desire of rei)airiiiu ils 
 disgrace, thai no one now desired the plaee of Tri- 
 laiiie or Cenlurion in his lei;ion; iiiid all, tiy way of 
 self-imposed piiiiislimenl. siihjecled Iheinselves lo iii- 
 (•renseii toil; and every mall liiirned willi a desire to 
 light. Some from llie hii,dier ranks were so stirred 
 by ('ivsar's speech, thai lliey llioiiirht that they 
 .should stand their ground where they were and light 
 where they slood," Uiit Ca'sar was loo good a Gen- 
 eral for that. Jlc moves on Inwards the south-easl, 
 and ill rclrcatiinigels the heller of I'ompey, wlio fol- 
 lows him with only half a licarl. .\flcr a short wiiile 
 I'ompcy gives up llie pursuit. His fallier-inlaw, 
 Seipio, has broiighl a great army from the east, and is 
 in 'rhessalv. As we read Ihis we ciinnol fail lo remem- 
 ber how short a time since it was thai Casar himself 
 was I'ompcy's falher-in-law, and that I'ompey was 
 Cifsai's friend because, willi too uxorious a love, he 
 clung to.Iulia, his yoiin<; wife. Ponipey now goes 
 eastward lo unite his arinylo that of Seipio. and Ca'- 
 sar. niaUing his way iiilo Thessaly by a more hoiuIi- 
 ern roiile, joins cerlain forces under his Ijieutenanl 
 Calviniis, who had been watching Seipio, and who 
 barely escaped falling into I'ompcy's hands before 
 he could reach C'lesar. Mill wherever fortune or 
 elianee could iiilcrfere, the Gods were alwaj's kind 
 lo Ca'sar. 
 
 Then ("a'sar tells us of his IrealinenI of two towns 
 in 'riiessaly, ( oimplii, and Metropolis, rnliickily for 
 the poor (tomiihiaiis. Ca'sar reaches (ioiiiplii iirsl. 
 Now the fame of I'ompey's victory at I'eira had been 
 spread abroad: and the ({oiiiphians. who, to give 
 them their due, — would have been just as willing to 
 favor Ca'sar as l^ompey, and who only wanted to be 
 on the winning side Ihal Ihey miglil hold their little 
 own in safi'ty, believed that things were ixoing badly 
 with C'u'sar. They therefore shut their gates against 
 Ca'sar, and sent olT messengers to l'onii)ey. They 
 can liold iheir town against Ca'sar for a little while, 
 bill I'ompey must come quickly to their aid. Poni- 
 pey comes by no means nuick enough, and the Gom- 
 phiaiis' capacity to hold I heir own is very short-lived. 
 Al aboul three o'clock in the afternoon Ciesar begins 
 to besiege the town, and before sunset he has taken 
 il, and given il lo be sacked by his soldiers. The 
 men of .Metropolis were also going lo shut their 
 gates, but luckily they hear just in time what had 
 happened at Gomphi, and open them instead. 
 Whereupon Civsar showers protection uiion Metro- 
 polis; and all the other towns of Thessaly, hearing 
 what had lieen done, also learn what (^a-sar's favor 
 means. 
 
 I'ompey, having joined his army to that of Seipio, 
 shares all his honors willi his father-in-law. When 
 we hear Ibis we know thai I'ompey's position was not 
 eoniforlable. and that he was under constraint. He 
 was a man who would share his honor with no one 
 unless driven to do so. .Vnd indeed his coniiiian<l 
 at present was not a pleasant one. It was much for 
 a Hoinaii eomniander lo have with him the Himian 
 Senale, but the Seiialors so placed would be ii]it to be 
 less obedient than trained soldiers. They even aecu.se 
 him of keeping them in Thessaly because he likes to 
 lord it over such followers. Hut they were, neverthe- 
 less, all certain thai Ca'sar was about to be destroyed: 
 and, even in Pom])ey's camp, they iiuarrel over the 
 rewards of victory which they think thai they will 
 enjoy at Home when Iheir oligarchy shall have" been 
 re-esiabiished by Ponipey's arms. 
 
 IJefore the great day arrives Laliienus again ap- 
 pears on the .scene: and Ca'sar puts into his mouth a 
 
 ! speech whirli heof eoiirHc inlendh us lo compare with 
 lUieresiill of lliecoMiiiig battle. " Do not think, O 
 I'ompey, thai Ibis is the army whieli coiiipiers (jiiiil 
 and liermany," where l>abieiiiis himself was se- 
 cond ill comiiiand under Ciesar. "I was present al 
 all those balllc'-.and speak ofatliint: which I know. 
 A very small party of Ihal army rriiiains. .Many 
 I have perished.- as a inatler of r-oiirse In ho many 
 I bailies. The autumn pestilence killi'd iiianv in llaly. 
 .Many have gone home. Many have been iefl on the 
 olhershore. Have you not heard from cnir own 
 friends who remained behind sick. Ihal these eohorls 
 .)f Ciesar's were made up al I'rindisi ■'"• made up bill 
 llie other day, I,abieiiiis implies. " This army, in- 
 deed has been renewed from levies in the two fiaiils; 
 I bill all that il had of slrenglh perished in those two 
 buttles al Dyrraehiiim :"- in the eoiilesls, thai is, 
 within the lines of I'elra. Iponthis I, abieniis swears 
 thai he will not sleej) under canvas again until he 
 slee|)s as victor over Ciesar: and Potnpey swears the 
 .same, and everybody swears. Then Ihey all go 
 away full of I he comini; victory. We daresay I here 
 was a great deal of false conlidenee : but as for the 
 words wliieh Ciesar i)uls into lb<' mouth of Labieniis. 
 we know well how niueli cause Ciesar had to dislike 
 Labienus, and we doubt whether they were ever 
 spoken. At lenglh the battle-tield is elio.sen.— near 
 the town of Pharsaliis, on the banks of the river 
 Knipeiis in Thessaly. The bailie has acijiiired world- 
 wide fame as that of Pliarsalia. which we have been 
 taught to regard as the name of the plain on whieli 
 it was fought. Neither of these names occur in the 
 'Commentary, nor does that of the river: and the 
 actual spot on which the great contest took place 
 seems to be a nialter t)f doubt even now. The 
 ground is Turkish soil.— near lo the inounlains which 
 scivirate modern (ireece from Turkey and is not 
 well adapted for llie researches of hislorical travelers. 
 C:esar h;id been keeping bis men on Ihe march clo.se 
 to Pompey. till I'ompey found that he could no long- 
 er abstain from tighting. Then came Labienus witli 
 his vaunts, and his oath. — and al length the day and 
 the field were chosen. Ca'sar at any rale was ready. 
 \\ Ihis time Ca':;ar was lifty-lwo years old, and 
 I'ompey was live years his elder. 
 
 Ca'sar tells us ihat I'ompey had 110 cohorts, or 
 eleven legions. Had the legions been full, Pom- 
 pey's army would have contained (;ri.(K)0 legionaries; 
 but Ca'sar slates their numberat 4.").f)00 or something 
 over two-thirds of the full number. He does not 
 forget to tell us once again that among these eleven 
 were the two legions which he had given up in obe- 
 dience to Ihe demand of Ihe Senale. Pompey him- 
 self, with these two very legions. pla<-ed himself on 
 the left away from the river: and there also were all 
 his auxiliaries,— not counted with Ihe legionaries. — 
 sliniiers, archers, and cavidry. Seipio commanded 
 in tile centre with the legions he had brought out of 
 Syria. So Ciesar tells ns. We learn from other 
 sources that Lentuliis connuaniled I'ompey's right 
 '' will'/. Ivins on the river— ami Domitius, whom we 
 ' remember as tryins; lo hold .Marseilles against young 
 Brutus and Trebonius. Ihe left. Ca'sar had 80 eo- 
 horts. or eisht legions, which should have number- 
 ■ ed 4H.0O0 men had his legions been full— but. as he 
 ; tells us. he led but ^'.J.nno legionaries, so that his 
 ranks were deticieni by more than a half. As was 
 his custom, he had his tenth legion lo the right, 
 away from the river. The ninth, terribly thinned 
 by what had befallen il within the lines al Pelra. 
 joined to the eleventh, lay next the river, fomiing 
 part of Civsar's left wing. Antony commanded the 
 left wiug. Domitius Calvinus, whom Ciesar .some- 
 times calls bvone name and sometimes by Ihe other, 
 the centre.— "and Sulla the right. Ca'.sar placed him- 
 self to the right, with his tenth legion, opposite lo 
 Pompey. .\s f:ir as we can learn, there was but 
 little in" the nature of Ihe ground to aid either of 
 Ihem: — and so the tight began. 
 
 There is not much complication, and perhaps no
 
 ROMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 r(i8 
 
 SOMAN LEGIONS. 
 
 great interest, in the account of the actual battle as 
 it is given by Ca;sar. C.Tsar makes a speech to his 
 army, which was, as we have already learned, and 
 as he tells us now, the accustomed thing to do. No 
 falser speech wa.'j ever made by man, if he sjjoke the 
 words which he himself reports. He tirst of all re- 
 minds them how they themselves are witnesses that 
 he has done his best to insure peace : — and then he 
 calls to their memory certain mock treaties as to 
 peace ; in which, when seekingly delay, he had pre- 
 tended to engage himself and his enemy. lie had 
 never wasted, he told them, the blood of his soldiers, 
 nor did he desire to deprive the Republic of either 
 army — ''alterutro exercitu" — of Pompey's army or 
 of his own. They were both Roman, and far be it 
 from him to destroy aught belonging to the Repub- 
 lic. We must acknowledge that Cfesar was always 
 chary of Roman life and Roman blood. He would 
 spare it when it could be spared ; but he could spill 
 it like water when the spilling of it was necessary to 
 his end. He was very politic : but as for tenderness, 
 — neither be nor any Roman knew what it was. 
 Then there is a story of one C'rastinus, who declares 
 that whether dead or alive he will please Coesar. 
 He throws the Jirst weapon against the enemy and 
 does please C'ii'sar. But he has to please by his 
 death, for he is killed in his effort. Pompey orders 
 that his first rank shall not leave its order to advance, 
 but shall receive the shock of Cresar's attack. Cie- 
 sar points out to us that he is wrong in tills, because 
 tlie very excitement of a first attack gives increased 
 energy and strength to the men. Coesar's legionar- 
 ies are told to attack, and they rush over the space 
 intervening between the lirst ranks to do so. But 
 they are so well trained that they pause and catch 
 their breath before they throw their weapons. Then 
 they throw their piles and draw their sworils, and 
 the ranks of the two armies are close pitted against 
 each other. But Poiupey had thought that he could 
 win the battle, almost without calling on his legion- 
 aries for any exertion, b\- tlie simple strategic move- 
 ment of his numerous cavalry and auxiliaries. He 
 outnumbered t'icsar altogether, but in these arms he 
 could overwhelm him with a cloud of horsemen and 
 of archers. But Csesar also had known of these 
 clouds. He fought now as alwavs witli a triple rank 
 of legionaries, — but behind his third rank, — or rath- 
 er somewhat to their right shoulder, — he liad drawn 
 up a choice body of men picked from his third line, 
 — a fourth line as it were, — wliose business it was to 
 stand against Pompe3''s clouds when the attempt 
 sliould be made by these clouds upon their right 
 Hank. Ca?sar's small body of cavalry did give way 
 before the Pompeian clouds, and the horsemen and 
 tlie archers and the slingers swept round upon C'a'- 
 sar's flank. But they swept round upon destruc- 
 tion. Ciiesar gave the word to that fourtli line of 
 [ticked men. "Illi — they," says Ca'sar, "ran for- 
 ward with the greatest rapidity, and with their stand- 
 ards in advance attacked the cavalry of I^<mipey 
 with such violence that none of them could stand 
 their groimd ; — so that all not only were forced from 
 the ground, liut being at once driven in panic, they 
 souglit tlie shelter of the highest mountains near 
 Ihem. And wlien they were thus removed, all llie 
 archers and the slingers, desohite and unarmed, willi- j 
 out any one to take care of them, were killed in 
 heaps." Sucli is Ciesar s account of Pompey's great 
 attack of cavalry which was? to win the liattle with- 
 out giving trouble to tlie legions. 
 
 Ci«sar acknowledges that Pompey's legionaries 
 drew their swords bravely and began their sliiire of 
 the fighting well. Tlieii at once lie tells us of the 
 failure on the part of the cavalry and of the slaughter 
 of the poor auxiliary slingers, and in the very next 
 sentence give us to understand that tlie battles was 
 won. Though Pompey's legions were so much more 
 numerous than those of Ca'sar, we were told that 
 <Jiesar's tliird line attacked tlie Pom])eiiin legionaries 
 when Ihev were •defessi"— worn out. The few co- 
 
 horts of picked men who in such marvelous manner 
 had dispersed Pompey's clouds, following on their 
 success, turned the flank of Pompey's legions and 
 carried the day. That it was all as Cajsar says there 
 can be little doubt. That he won the battle there 
 can, we presume, be no doubt. Pompey at once 
 flew to his camp and endeavored to defend it. But 
 such defense was impossible, and Pompey was driven 
 to seek succor in flight. He found a horse and a 
 few companions, and did not stop till he was on the 
 sea-shore. Then he got on board a provision-vessel, 
 and was heard to complain that he had been betrayed 
 b_y those very men from whose hands he had ex- 
 pected victory. We are told with much picturesque 
 effect how Caesar's men, hungry, accustomed to en- 
 durance, patient in all their want, found Pompey's 
 camp prepared for victory, and decked in luxurious 
 preparation for the senatorial victors. Couches were 
 strewn, and plate was put out, and tables prepared, 
 and the tents of these happy ones were adorned 
 with fresh ivj-. Tlie senatorial happy ones have but 
 a bad time of it, either perishing in their flight, or 
 escaping into the desert solitudes of the mountains. 
 Ca'sar follows up his conquest, antl on the day after 
 the battle compels the great body of the fugitives to 
 surrender at discretion. He surrounds them on the 
 top of a hill and shuts them out from water, and 
 they do surrender at discretion. With stretched-out 
 hands, prone ujion the earth, tliese late conquerors, 
 the cream of the Roman power, who had so lately 
 sworn to conquer ere they slept, weeping, beg for 
 mercy. Coesar, having said a few words to them 
 of his clemenc}', gave them their lives. He recom- 
 mends them to the care of his own men, and desires 
 that they may neither be slaughtered nor robb--d. 
 Caesar says he lost only 200 soldiers in that battle — 
 and among them 80 officers, all brave men. That 
 gallant C'rastinus was among the 30. Of Pompey's 
 army 15,000 had been killed, and 34,000 had sur- 
 rendered ! 180 standards and it eagles were taken 
 and brought to Caesar. Tlie numbers seem to us 
 to be almost incredible, whether we look at those 
 given to us in regard to the conqueror or the con- 
 quered. Caesar's account, however, of that day's 
 work has hitherto been taken as authoratative.aud it 
 is too late now to question it. After this fashion 
 was the battle of Pharsalia won, and ihe so-called 
 Roman Republic brought to an end. 
 
 But Caesar by no means tiiouglit that this work was 
 done ; — nor indeed was it nearly dime. R was now 
 clearly his first duty to pursue Pompey, — whom, 
 should he escape, the outside provinces .and distant 
 allies of the Republic would soon supply with an- 
 other army. " Ca'sar thought that Pompey was to 
 be pursvied to the neglecting of all other things." In 
 Ihe mean time Pompey, who seems to have been 
 panic-struck by his misfortune, fled with a few 
 friends down the ^gean Sea, picked his young wife 
 up at an island as he went. and made his way to Egypt. 
 The story of his murder bytho.se who had the young 
 King of Egypt in their keeping is well-known and 
 need not detain us. Ca'sar tells it very shortlj'. 
 Pompey sends to young Plolemy for succor and as- 
 sistance, trusting to past frieiKisliip between himself 
 Mild the young King's father. Plolemv is intlie hands 
 <if eunuchs, adventurers, and eut-lhroat soldiers, 
 and has no voice of his own in the matter. But these 
 rutflans think it well to have Pompey outof tlieway, 
 and therefore they murdi'r him. Achillas, a royal 
 satrap, and Seiilimius, a Roman soldier, go out to 
 Pompey's vessel, as messengers from the King, and 
 induce them to coiiie down inlolheir boat. Then, in 
 the very sight of his wife, he is slaughtered, and his 
 head is carried away as iiroof of tlie deed. ISucli was 
 the end of Pompey, for whom no fortune had .seemed 
 to )»• too great, till ('a'siir came uiion the scene. We 
 are told by the Roman jioel, Euean. who took the 
 battle of Pharsalia as h';' dillieult theme, that Ca-sar 
 could bear no superior, and I'oiiipey no e()ual. The 
 poet probably wished to make the latter the more
 
 BOaiANS. 
 
 700 
 
 KOHAN WA£S. 
 
 miifrnaiiiniouK Iiy the ('(imiiariHdii. To lis, as w<! fx- 
 lUiiinclhi- clmniflcr of the Uv(i(ici](TiilH, ( 'ii'Hiir kwiiih 
 nt least tin i<'al(iiiH of power at* his son-in-law, und 
 ciTlainlv was I lie more sncccssfiil of tlic (wo in cx- 
 cluclinf; all otiicrs from a slian; in the powi-r wliicli 
 lie covctcil. Honipcy in tiii' triumvirate admitteil his 
 junior to more, as he must have fell it, than e(|nal 
 power: Coe.sar in the triuinvirale simply madc^ a 
 Stepping-stone of the great man who was his elder. 
 Pompi'y (itThessaly was forced to divide at least the 
 nnnieof his i)ower with Seipio, his last fath<-r-ir.-law : 
 but Ciesar never gave a shred of his mantle to be 
 Worn by another soldier. 
 
 In speaUing,howi'vi-r, of the eharaeler of Fompey, 
 and in eomparing it with thai of his greater rival. "it 
 may probalily be said of him that in all his contests, 
 both military and political, lie was governed by a 
 love of olil Home, and of (lie Republic as the great- 
 est national institution which tiic world has ever 
 known, and by a feeling wliicli we call patriotism, 
 and of which (':esar was, - perhaps, we may .say, too 
 great to be capable. Fompey desired to lead, Init to 
 lead the beloved Kepulilie. Ciesar, earing nothing 
 for the things of old, with no reverence for the past, 
 utterly destitute of that tenderness for our former 
 footsteps which makes so many of us cling with 
 pa.ssionate fondness to convicled errors, dcsiri'd to 
 create out of the ilust of the Hepublir-, — which fate 
 and his genius allowed him to recast as he would,-- 
 eomcthing which should be better and truer than 
 the Hepublio. 
 
 The last seven chapters of the third book of this 
 Commentary form a commencement of the record of 
 the Alexandrine war, — which, beyond those seven 
 chapters. Ca'sar himself did not write. That he should 
 have written any Commentary amidst the necessary 
 toils of war, and the perhaps more pressing emerg- 
 encies of his jjolitical condition, is one of the mar- 
 vels of human power. He tells us now, that having 
 delayed but a few days iuAsia, lie fc;llo\ved I'ompey 
 ♦irst to Cyprus and then to Kgyjil, taking with him 
 •IS his entire army three thousand two liundredmen. 
 " The rest, worn out with wounds, and battles, and 
 toil, and the greatness of tli(^ journey, could not fol- 
 low him." But he directed thai legions should be 
 made up for him from the remnants of I'ompcy's 
 broken army, and, with a godlike trust in the obe- 
 dience of absent vassals, he went on to Kgypt. He 
 tells us that he was kept in Alexandria by Etesian 
 winds. But we know also that Cleopatra came to 
 hiin at Alexandria, requiring his services in her con- 
 test for the crown of Kgy|it; and knowing at what 
 price she bought them, we doubt the persistent mal- 
 ignity of the Etesian w inds. Had Cleopatra been a 
 swarthy Nubian, as some have portrayed her. Ciesar, 
 we think, would have left Alexandria though the 
 Etesian winds had blown in his very teeth. All winds 
 filled Cicsar's sails. Ctesar gets possession of Cleo- 
 patra's brother Ptolemy, who, in accordance with 
 their father's will, was to have reigned in conjunc- 
 tion with Ins sister, and the -Vlexandrians rise against 
 him in great force. He elays Photiuus, the servant 
 of King Ptolemy, has his own ambassador slain, 
 and burns the royal fleet of Egypt,— burning with it, 
 unfortunately, the greater part of the royal library. 
 '■ These things were the beginning of the Alexand- 
 rine war." 'fhese are the last words of Ciesar's last 
 Commentary. See Ho/iian WurK. 
 
 EOMANS.— Before the establishment of the mess [ 
 al the Horse Gtiards, which was formerly paid out 
 of the King's privy purse, and subsequently charged 
 in the extraorilinaries of the army, the Captain of 
 the Guard at St. James's kept a table for the sub- 
 alterns attached to that duty. In order to enable 
 the Captains to support these expenses, a certain 
 number of men were allowed to work in the metro- 
 polis, on condition that they left tiicir pay in the 
 hands of tiieir Ollicers: these men were called lio- 
 
 BOUAN WALL.— Traces are found in Great Bri- 
 
 tain of four great walls built by the Komun Con- 
 (pierors. Two were liuilt by Agricola, the first in 
 A. I). 7!), and the second in A. u. Hi, extending from 
 the Erilh r,f Kirth to Ihi- Frith of Clyde. As thifi 
 proved i.isiilllcient to keept Imck the northern barbar- 
 ians, Ha<lrian in a. i>. I'iO llnislieil the most famous 
 of all the walls, from the Solway to Newcastle on 
 Tyne. Tills was (IH Entrlish miles in length. In a. r>. 
 200 SeveriiH built another wall a few yards above 
 that of Hailrian. which was guarded by 10,000 
 men. 
 
 ROMAN WARS. In the infancy of Home, she had 
 many wars but few conquests in her matiirily she 
 had few wars and many conquests. When the pow- 
 er of Carthage faileil, Itrnne no longer had a rival : 
 her wars, or rather invasions, after that event, were 
 generally of her own seeking ; and they were many. 
 Pome was nosooner able tosay, "Cartilage must be 
 destroyed." ihaii.in her heart, sliealso .said, tlif nnjiire 
 of Alcxiiitihr nhiill he miiu . First .Macedonia fell lier 
 grasp, and Perseus was hurled from the throne of 
 Philip anil .\lexaiider, at which time siie graciously 
 gave the Greeks their liberty, /. c. gave them law. 
 
 Attains, King of Fergamus, dying about this time, 
 left his kingdom to tlie Pomans, by will : or, in 
 other words, seeing the world sink beneath tlieir 
 power, he preferred giving them a bloodless victory, 
 and cloaked an ignoble dereliction rif right under the 
 specious name of a voluntary donation. Anlioehus, 
 the great King of Assyria, was destined next to fall 
 before them. He was at this period the most power- 
 ful and o|)ulent prince of all Alexamler's siiccefsors; 
 and had he accepted the adviceand aid of Hannibal, 
 there would have been at least a chance for his es- 
 caping the all-grasping power of Pome. But he, 
 fearing lest, if anything should lie done. Hannibal 
 would have all the credit, was careful to go directly 
 contrary to the advice of that (ieneral. The Po- 
 nians defeated him almost without loss of blood — 
 stripping him of great part of his dominions — tri- 
 umphed over him — extorted from him an immense 
 tribute, and left him only enough to grace the Iri- 
 uniph of another campaign. Two other great civics 
 shared the fate of Carthage, and nearly at the same 
 time: Corinth, one of the m blest cities of Greece, 
 was tittcrly destroyed by Mummius, the Consul, for 
 ofTcring some indignity to the Homan embassadors 
 — and Numantia, the capital of Spain. Thiscity after 
 sustaining a siege of fourteen years, was reduced 
 by Sclpio. The inhabitants, being unable to hold out 
 any longer, fired the city over their own heads, and all 
 pirislied in the flames ; and Spain became a Homan 
 province. 
 
 The corruption of the senate, and the sedition and 
 fall of the Gracchi, together with various distur- 
 bances next arise to view in tracing the history of 
 Pome. Then follow the reduction of Nuniidia, and 
 the civil wars in the republic, excited by the ambi- 
 tion of Marius and Sylla. w liicli terminated in the 
 perpetual dictatorship of the latter. But it will not 
 comport with our present design to enter into a de- 
 tail of these particular events. Pome was perhaps 
 never more powerful or happy than in the days of 
 Scipio Africanus, or about the times of the Punic 
 wars. She then experienced great misfortunes and 
 calamities; but those untoward events, instead of 
 weakening or exhausting her. called forth, nay, even 
 created new energies. From the invasion of Hanni- 
 bal, she rose invincible: and while that consummate 
 warrior held his ground in Italy, she sent armies into 
 Spain. Africa. Greece and Macedon. A great part 
 of those immense region^ which Alexander subdued, 
 soon shared the fate of the empire of Carthage : and 
 in tho.se days, with the Pomans, to proclaim war 
 was to insure a triumph — and to invade was to con- 
 quer. 
 
 W lien we look for a period in the Poman historj-, 
 in which there is the greatest union of power, wis- 
 dom, virtue and happiness, it will doubtless be found 
 not far from the times of which we are now speak-
 
 KOMAN WARS. 
 
 770 
 
 ROMAN WARS. 
 
 ing. The Hoinans, in earlier times of tlie repiililic, 
 ■were more virtuous and patriotic tlian now — but 
 tlien tliej' were weal\: iu tlie Augustan age they were 
 certainly more enligiitened, scientific and polished 
 — but then (hey were less brave ; or it not less brave, 
 their virtue was forever gone, and with it, tlie found- 
 ation of tlieir prosperity and happiness. Tlie con- 
 quest of Africa, Asia, and Greece at once poured in- 
 to the coffers of Rome immense, incalculable riches. 
 On this almost boundless tide of prosperitv a set of 
 men were soon seen floating, of a very different char- 
 acter from C'iucinnatus. Fabricius and Regulus. To 
 the most desperate bravery they united unbounded 
 ambition ; and to the strongest expression of regard 
 to their country they united a total want of princi- 
 ple. The wealth of tlic world like a mighty river, 
 jioured into Rome ; and many individuals acquired 
 fortunes which transcended royal magnificence. 
 
 The elevation of Rome to such an astonisliing 
 height of power and splendor, drew to her men of 
 parts, of taste, of ambition and enterprise — and in 
 short, men of every description, and almost every 
 nation. The descendants of the ancient Romans 
 soon became few in comparison with the immense 
 multitude, who by some means or other, acquired 
 citizeusliip, or obtained a residence in Italy ; and 
 Rome herself experienced as great a change as the 
 nations she conquered : for while she drew the arts, 
 elegance and science from Greece, she drew wealth, 
 luxury, eflfeminacy, and corruption from Asia and 
 Africa, and she drew a swarm of hungry fortune 
 hunters from everj- corner of the eartli, who pene- 
 trated her inmost recesses — outnumbered and over- 
 whelmed her ancient people — in short, conquered 
 their conquerors, corrupted their morals, and put a 
 final period to their liberties. 
 
 The civil wars of Rome which soon follow the peri- 
 od of whicli we have been speaking, unfold to the 
 reader a spectacle equalh' dreadful and disgusting. 
 Many persons who had witnessed the destruction 
 of Carthage were still alive, and saw all Italy deluged 
 in blood by Marius and Sylla. From the destruc- 
 tion of Carthage to the perpetual dictatorship of 
 Sj'lla, was a little rising of seventy years. During 
 the latter part of this jieriod, Lucius Sylla, envying 
 the power and glory of Caius JMarius, involved the 
 republic in a most bloody, disgraceful, and destruc- 
 tive war. After various turns which their affairs took 
 in the progress of this eventful struggle — after they 
 had destroyed half a million of men, including the 
 best part of the Roman people — had humbled Rome 
 and Ital}- — had shed the noblest blood, and pros- 
 trated the dignity of the republic, Sylla, an execra- 
 ble monster of cruelty, tyranny and ambition, was 
 able to triumph over virtue, liberty and justice. He 
 seated himself quietly in the exercise of despotic 
 power, and became jierpetual dictator. Rome never 
 saw another moment of freedom. 
 
 The Romans, in the times of Scipio, may be com- 
 jjared with the Greeks iu the time of Themistocles, 
 and the' triunipli of (ireece over Persia, with that of 
 Rome over t'artliage. In both cases, the conquerors 
 were corrupted by wealth, and inebriated by luxury. 
 We miglit go further and say, that the Peloponnc- 
 siaii war, which succeeded the elevation of Greece, 
 and laid the foundation of her ruin, resembled the 
 civil wars of Rome, begun b.y Marius and Sylla — 
 carried on byCu'sarand Pomjiey, and terminated by 
 Augustus. But the lirmiiess of the Roman charac- 
 ter— the uaturi' iif their civil policy, aiidlbc immense 
 extent of their conquests, enabled them still to be 
 powerful, in spite of all their corruptions : and bad 
 the}' been otherwise, there seemed to be no nation 
 near them who could have derived advantage from 
 tlieir weakness. They seem to have been raised iq) and 
 endowed with universal dominion, that they miicbt 
 evidence to the world liow far a ualioii can he liap- 
 py, and how long she can exist wilhout virtue or 
 freedom. 
 
 The ambition of the demagogues as well as of the 
 
 despots and tyrants of Rome, in one essential arti- 
 cle, led tbem to promote the true and just policy of 
 the empire : that was to attach the provinces as 
 strongly as possible to the interest of Rome — to dis- 
 solve them down to one common mass -to preserve 
 their extensive territories entire — to cement them 
 together b}' various alliances, and to preserve the 
 empire undivided. The strength of empires consists 
 in their union. The Greeks wanting this, soon fail- 
 ed ; and, in our own times, Poland, which ought, 
 from her numerous advantages, to have been one of 
 the most ])Owerful kingdoms in the world, has ex- 
 hibited a deplorable spectacle of weakness and mise- 
 ry, by means of her internal divisions. Our own 
 country had well nigh been swallowed in the same 
 gulf. 
 
 The Roman community, launched at once on such 
 a sea of luxury, wealth, and glory, was variously 
 affected. While all were struggling for eminence 
 and power, it fortunately happened that the reins of 
 government fell into strong and energetic hands. Of 
 this description, generally .speaking, were most of 
 the first competitors, and of the triumvirates. The 
 softening power of luxury — the sudden inundation 
 of Grecian elegance and refinement, and tlie eleva- 
 tion of conscious greatness and empire, combined 
 with her native gravity in forming the genius of 
 Rome. About this period, it began to bud ; soon af- 
 ter this was its fairest bloom and richest maturity. 
 If the genius of Rome was of a heavier mould than 
 that of Greece, it possessed a more commanding 
 gravity; if it had less fire, it was more tranquil, ma- 
 jestic, and solemn; and more hearts will vibrate with 
 pleasure to the plaintive and elegant notes of the 
 Roman, than to the electric fulininations of the Gre- 
 cian muse. 
 
 In the year 680 from the building of the city, the 
 republic was freed from tlie tyranny of Sylla, by the 
 death of that odious tyrant. But two men, of far 
 more extensive views and refined ambition than ei- 
 ther Jlarius or S3dla, were alread_y prepared to run 
 the same race. Cneus Pompey, bad, by various arts, 
 as well as by great abilities, become the most popu- 
 lar man in Rome, and was considered as the great- 
 est commander in the Repulilic. Crassus possessed 
 that authority and infiuence which great eloquence 
 and immense wealth, combining with all the wiles of 
 ambition, could procure him. He was the richest 
 man in Rome. While Pompey. who warmly es- 
 poused the Marian faction, strove to gain the favor 
 of the people by abrogating man}' of the tyrannical 
 laws of Sylla, Crassus employed his amazing wealth 
 in donations, distributions of corn among the poor, 
 in public feasts and entertainments .; and it is said 
 that he supported, at his own private expense, the 
 greatest part of the citizens for several months — ex- 
 nenditures sufficient to have exhausted the treasures 
 of the greatest princes. In the progress of their con- 
 test for power, their animosities broke forth on every 
 occasi(m. in opposition more or less direct, and by 
 means more or less violent. 
 
 At this period, while the destinies of Rome seemed 
 to biing in doubtful suspense, three characters ap- 
 peared of very differei't complexions, but equally ex- 
 traordinary, "equally to be remembered, but with 
 very dilTcrent sensations, in posterity ; — Catiline, Cic- 
 ero, and Ca'sar. One of these men procured for 
 himself immortal fame by his atrocious villainy, one 
 by his unrivalled eloi|uence, and one by liis ambition, 
 bniyery, and good fortune. .luliusCa'sar in;iy lie re- 
 garded .-is the greatest of the Roman coiiim;inders. 
 In him the military genius of Rome disjilayed its ut- 
 most strength ami iierfectiou; but, as yet. lie was 
 not known in that grouj) of great clianu'lers and per. 
 soilages, who, now iiillamcd with ambition, were 
 jirejiaring to carve ;mi(1 divide the world among tbem. 
 Lucius Catiline is alh^wed by all writers to have pos- 
 sessed every (|ualily of a great man but integrity and 
 virlue ; instead of which he liehl {'very priiK'iple. 
 and practised every vice which could form a most
 
 ROHAN WARS. 
 
 771 
 
 ROHAN WARS. 
 
 iiifiimouH, iitriK'ioiis iinil lUiuiiiloiicil villiiin. I'ohwhh- 
 (•(1 of II body mid mind ((iiiiilly slroii;^ mid viijoroiiH, 
 ho was l)ol(l, ciitcriirisiim, and iiidiiMlrioiis. IIcIk-h- 
 itatcd al no <Tiiclly lo i^ralify liin revenue — lie uh- 
 Hlaincd from no crinic wliicli could suliscrvc Ids 
 pleasures- he valued no labor or peril lo i;ralify Ids 
 ainhilion. Caliline pereeiviiii; hiniselT nol, anionj; 
 tlie most favored rivals who w<'re eoiirlliij; llii' nds- 
 tress of the world, determined on ^etlini; her into 
 his |)ossessiori by violence. His end was the saniir 
 as tin irs, hut his means were more unwarranlable. 
 He plann(Hl and orijanized one of lh(^ deepest, most 
 extensive- and darini; conspiracies recorded in bis- 
 tory. The leadim; objec-tsof his conspiracy were, to 
 put out of I he way by one fxencral massacre, all who 
 would he liliely to oppose his measures to ])illai;e 
 the city of |{ome — to seize all public treasures, ar- 
 senals and stores to establish a despotic ;;oveni- 
 nient to revohilionize the whole republic, and to ac- 
 complish all these measures by an armed force. 
 
 This sam;uinary ]ilot was detected and crushed by 
 Oicero, the j;reat and justly celebrated orator of 
 Uome. The accomplices of Caliline were seized and 
 put to death ; and Catiline himself, who had as- 
 sembled an army of I welve thousand men, was en- 
 counlered, defealed and slain. But if Home esea|)ed 
 this threaleiuni; sulf, it was that she miL;hl fall into 
 a snare, apparently less dreadful, but eipnilly strong 
 and conclusive as to her fate. Iler days of virtue 
 and j;!ory weri^ past; benceforlh she was to be ruled 
 wit ha rod of iron. The dissensions of Pompey and 
 Crassus were (pneled by the mediation of Ca'sar, who 
 stepped in between them, outwitted them both, and 
 became the head of the lirst triumvirate. Ilavini; 
 amicably ai^reed to govern in copartnership, Pom- 
 pey chose Spain, Crassus chose the rich and bi.xur- 
 io\is provinces of Asia, and lo C.esar was allotted the 
 powerful and warlike nation of (Jaid, as yet uncon- 
 (piered. What was 1 he result ? Pomjiev basked for 
 a moment in the sjilendors of Rome, and his fame was 
 trumpeted by th(M'lo(iuence of Cicero. Crassus was 
 8lain by the Parthians. endeavoring; to enlaricc his 
 territories, anil C;esar conquered the Uauls \n'i t/iuiix- 
 ajut> battle:!. Pompey could not bear an eipnd, nor 
 CiBsar a superior. They were mutually jealous- 
 they differed — they prepared for war. The Semite 
 ami nobility of Rome, and pride and strenulh of It- 
 aly sided with Pompey : Ca'sar relies wholly on those 
 veteran legions with whom he had subdued the 
 fierce and martial tribes of (Jaul and (Tcrmany. >('o 
 civil war ever equalled this. It was a melancholy 
 sight to see Uome i;iven up to tyranny and blood — 
 to see that august and venerable republic for ever a- 
 bandoned to her evil genius. These were not the 
 feeble bickerings of |)etty controversy ; JIarius and 
 Sylla, the leaders of the former civil broils, bore lit- 
 tle comparison with C.-esarat the head of his legions, 
 or with the great Pompey, who could almost raise 
 armies out of the earth by the stomp nf Ih'k ftiot. 
 
 This eventful struggle was at length closed by the 
 battle of Pharsalia, rendered truly famous by the 
 grand object for which they fought — the greatness 
 of the force employed on either siile, and the tran- 
 scendent reputation of both commanders. The Rom- 
 an ICmpire was the prize ; and liolh the armies and 
 the Generals were the best the world could alford. 
 Pompey was utterly defeated, and many of his army, 
 won over by the magnanimous clemency and gener- 
 osity of Ca'sar, were content to change sides. The 
 conduct of Pompey in this battle, which was to de- 
 cide his fate, has ever been considered as strange and 
 unaccountable. So far from displaying that courage, 
 intn'pidity, and fortitude, and those powers of com- 
 mand which he was supposed to jiossess, that, from 
 the very tirst onset, he appeared like a man frighten- 
 ed out of his senses: he scarcely attempted to rally 
 his men — was among the foremost that lle<l, and nev- 
 er made another effort to retrieve his cause. From 
 facts so glaring, we are almost induced to believe that 
 much of Poinpey's greatness, as a soldiei and com- 
 
 Mumder, (u>nHiHted in llie elegant drawirif^R of Cicero, 
 and other purliul writers. The true lest of bravery, 
 skill, and fortitude, ih to Hec them disjilayed wlien 
 they are most necessary — to Hee tliein shine in dan- 
 ger, surmount dilllciilly.and triumph over adversity. 
 Vet no one can doubt that I'ompiy was a man of 
 great and spli-ndid talents : but who could eipial 
 Ciesar? — A man superemimnt in the wliole range f)f 
 spiritual enrlowmciils. Nature seemed to scant Idni 
 in nothing. Among |)liiloHOpliers, mathematicians, 
 |)oets, and orators, he could shine. |[e could plan 
 and e.\e(-ut( — be ooidd negotiate or light — he coiild 
 Rain and improve an advantage. For seven years in 
 his (iailie wars, his lif(- was a continual Heries of fa- 
 tigues and dear-bought victories : anil no General, 
 but one as great as Ciesar, f:oulil have encounlered 
 him without apprehension and dismay. 
 
 'I'he battle of Pharsalia was foiiLdit 52 years before 
 Christ, and 7b2 from the building of the city. I'om- 
 |)ey lli'd an uiduiiijn' ixile into ICgypt, and was there 
 miserably murdered by the command of Ploleniy. 
 Thus the reins of government fell into the hands of 
 Cicsar, and he was left undisputed master of the 
 world. The clemency of Ctesar on this occasion was 
 as illustrious as his victories had been. He entered 
 into no measures against many persons, who, under 
 professions of neutrality, had evidently sided with 
 Pompey. He did nothing which bore any resem- 
 blance to the horrid proscriptions of Marius and Syl- 
 la. He endeavored, in most instances, to forget and 
 forgive. liut the reign and triumph of Julius Citsar 
 was short. He soon fell a saeriliee to that spirit of 
 freedom and indel)endenre which had raised bis 
 I'ountry to her exalted rank: for though the demons 
 of discord, and)ition, and party rage, had now for 
 a long i)eriod, aimed all their shafts at good and vir- 
 tuous men— though torrents of the richest blood had 
 Howed incessantly for many years, yet some men 
 were still left whose constancy and virtue ever 
 stemmed the strong current of the times. Cato and 
 Cicero were still alive, whose stem virtues and com- 
 manding eloiiueneecontimied to remind the Homans 
 of their better days. From the battle of Pharsalia 
 to the death of Csesar was eight years. During this 
 period he went on and prospered. By a rapid series 
 of journeys and expeditions he saw, awed and sub- 
 jugated all places and all opposition. His arm per- 
 vaded, his vigilance detected, his spirit animated, 
 his generosity won. and his power crushed in all di- 
 rections. His great and active genius seemed uni- 
 versally to bear down all before him; but in reality 
 not all ; a plot at length was laid, as it were in his 
 own bosom, which hurled him in a moment from 
 the high summit whither he had climbed. 
 
 Brutus and Cassius, at the head of about si.xty 
 Senators, entered into a conspiracy to take liim oft 
 by assassination. Their object was to arrest the pro- 
 gress of despotic power, to restore the authority 
 of the senate, and the ancient forms of the republic; 
 an object lauihdile in itself, but, alas, how far from 
 being practicable! Their plot was deeply laid, but 
 seems to have been carried into effect not without 
 a wonderful concurrence of accident, or rather of 
 providence. Whilst Ca'sar was on his way to the 
 senate house, where he was to perish, a slave, it is 
 said, who had discovered the conspiracy, pressed 
 forward in the crowd to apprise him of his danger, 
 but could not gel to him for the press. Another 
 person put into bis hands a paper, which would 
 have saved him, containing an account of the con- 
 spiracy; this he handed to his secretary without 
 breakinir the seal. After he was sealed in the sen- 
 ate house, the conspirators approached and ile- 
 spalcbed him with their daggers without resistance, 
 and retired lo the capitoi.'where they put them- 
 selves in a state of defence. Thus fell ihe first and 
 doubtless the greatest of the Ctesjirs. in Ihe ■'iClh year 
 of his ase. anil in the 8th of his sole administration. 
 No Roman ever achieved more arduous enterprises 
 than he. He rose to supreme power, in opposition
 
 ROMAN WARS. 
 
 I i . 
 
 ROMAN WARS. 
 
 to men of great abilities and of much greater re- 
 sources than himself. Whatever standing he ac- 
 ([uired, lie maintained, and his enemies could only 
 destroy him by treachery, under the mask of friend- 
 ship. Rome did not owe to Caesar the loss of her 
 liberties ; they were lost before he was born. He 
 was allured to seize the dazzling prize, which to all 
 observers, had evidently become the sport of fortune, 
 and was liable to be grasped by him who was bold- 
 est and most lucky. Had Pompey prevailed over 
 Cfesar, it is highly doubtful whether Rome would 
 have experienced a happier destiny. 
 
 The fall of C'sesar seemed only to accelerate the 
 establishment of imperial government. Octavius,tlie 
 grand nephew of Ciesar, and heir, by will, to hia 
 ifortunes and name, was soon at the head of a new 
 triumvirate, viz. Jiimself, Mark Antony, and Lepi- 
 dus. This new triumvirate, proclaiming themselves 
 the avengers of Ciesar, now hastened to make war 
 upon the" conspirators, whose army was headed by 
 Brutus and Cassius. Had the Roman people de- 
 sired their ancient liberty, which they certainly 
 would had they understood the import of the word, 
 or had the}' entertained any just notions of freedom, 
 the}' now enjoyed an opportunity of regaining it : 
 but so far from that, the triumvirate were able to 
 excite the popular indignation against the conspira- 
 tors, and in fact, gained the people over, to their 
 cause. The standard of liberty was deserted, and 
 the wretched infatuated people were now employed 
 in rivetting those chains which were never more to 
 be broken. The conspirators were crushed with 
 little trouble ; and in shedding the blood of the last 
 patriots of Rome, the sublime Cicero fell a victim to 
 the merciless rage of .\ntony, and the base and cruel 
 policy of Octavius. It sooii appeared that the tri- 
 umvirs had comliined with no other view than as a 
 present expedient, which was to be laid aside when 
 occasion should offer. Accordingly Lepidus was very 
 quickly rejected, and as he was neither a soldier nor 
 a statesman, he had no means of redress. Antony 
 and Octavius presently differed, and once more mar- 
 shalled the forces of that mighty people under their 
 hostile standards. Their quarrel was decided at the 
 battle of Actiuni. A sliort time after which, Antony 
 expired in Egypt, aii<l left Octavius without a com- 
 petitor. 
 
 In the 30th year before Christ, and T24th from the 
 building of Rome, commenced the imperial reign of 
 Octavius, imder the titles, of Emperor and Augus- 
 tus. Rome now became an empire in the more strict 
 and proper sense of the word; and notwithstanding 
 the degeneracy of the Roman people, it continued 
 for several centuries to be the most powerful empire 
 in the ancient world. The connnotions and wars — 
 the luxury and wealth — the corruptions and loss of 
 public virtue among the Romans, did not extinguish 
 but rather called forth and perfected their genius 
 for literature. The sciences were assiduously cul- 
 tivated, and men of learning received tlie warmest 
 patronage and the auiplc!st encouragement from those 
 great and opulent men whose wealth was immense, 
 and whose tratHc was in states and kingdoms : in- 
 deed, many of those great men wctc themselves the 
 favorites of tlie muses. They studied the liberal sci- 
 ences and <'legant arts with a diligence scarcely 
 known in modern times. Scipio Africanus. accord- 
 ing to the tesliiiuiny of Cicero, was as eminent for 
 mental improvement, as he was in the art of war. 
 Cato was a man of great learning and wisdom : and 
 those great men who composed the two triumvir- 
 ates, especially the first, were highly accomplished 
 in the liberal sciences. 
 
 Wlien we consider that Cicero was a profession- 
 al man - that fur a course of years, many of the most 
 iiTiporl.'int causes in the vast republic were ably man- 
 aged liy him- that he was a statesman and a great 
 leader in llie politics of his time — that lie was, at 
 times, a civil magistrate, a soldier, and a governor, 
 and patron of provinces, we may truly be astonish- 
 
 ed at the extent and success of his studies. His vo- 
 luminous writings which have come down to us, and 
 which form the most perfect standard of classic ex- 
 cellence, leave us in doubt which to set foremost, 
 whether the .strength of his understanding, or the 
 powers of his imagination — or which we shall ad- 
 mire most, his genius or industry. It is no partial 
 admiraticm by which those writings are preserved : 
 the united voice of all enlightened nations have de- 
 clared their merit, and judged them worthy of im- 
 mortality. The same may be said of the writings of 
 Virgil, and Horace, and many others. But the ap- 
 probation of men of taste and learning, in all nations 
 has set the literary productions of the Augustan 
 age above all panegyric. They will be read and ad- 
 mired so long as works of genius and taste are held 
 in estimation. The Roman empire now appeared 
 in its utmost splendor. Though less virtuous and 
 happy, and probably less powerful than in former 
 periods, yet the concentrated wealth of the world, 
 the external pomp of so vast a monarchy, threw 
 round her a dazzling glory which the most distant 
 nations beheld with admiration and dread. Embas- 
 sadors from remote kingdoms daily arrived to do 
 homage, to court alliance, or solicit protection. 
 
 Augustus held the reins of government : there was 
 no competitor — no rival. The people long fatigued 
 with war, were very glad to enjoy peace, though un- 
 der the reign of a despot. There was no Brutus nor 
 Cassius to conspire or to .assassinate. Cato was no 
 more; and Cicero, one of the last hmiinaries of Rome, 
 had been murdered, and his head and hands cut off 
 and fixed upon the tribunal, where the thunders of 
 his eloquence had so often struck terror to the hearts 
 of tyrants. The spirit which animated the Romans 
 in the days of Fabricius was gone for ever; liberty 
 had taken her flight from the earth, or had retired 
 to the sequestered bower of the .savage, while gorge- 
 ous pride lifted her head to heaven, and trampled on 
 innocence, equity, and law. Augustus was an art- 
 ful, insidious tyrant : whilst one of the triumvirate, 
 he had been careful to destroy all the virtuous men 
 who had escaped the bloody proscriptions, the civil 
 wars, and the violent commotions which were before 
 his time. When his power was confirmed, he en- 
 deavored to fascinate the people — to lull them into 
 security — to inebriate them with luxury — to dazzle 
 them with his pomp and glory, and by all possible 
 means to extinguish in them the true Roman spirit, 
 and so to quality and sweeten .slavery itself, as to 
 cimse them to drink it down with a pleasing relish: 
 he succeeded; for never was a people so changed in 
 temper, habit, mode of thinking, and national char- 
 acter. But detraction itself cannot deny that Au- 
 gustus was a General, a Statesman, and a very great 
 inan. Though void of the magnanimous spirit of 
 Cincinnatus, "Brutus, and Regvdus, yel he affected to 
 revere the character of the ancient Rom;ins, and 
 seemed desirous tliat a semblance of freedom should 
 still miirk the character of his countrymen. Wlien 
 he saw himself in the undisturbed possession of em- 
 pire, the severities of his administration relaxed, and 
 he held the reins of government with lenity, dignity 
 and wisdom. Fewmonarchs have enjoyed a longer 
 or more prosperous reign. Ills genius was less war- 
 like than lliiit of .lulius Ca>sar; yet in the course of 
 his reign, he h;iil v;irious opportunities of showing 
 himself cajiiUile of comm;ouling armies and of di- 
 recting very exlunsive milit;iry operations. But his 
 greatness was of the 1r:uiquil and pacific kind, and 
 he showed little ambilion to enlarge his dominions. 
 Tlie reign of Auguslus was active, energelic, and 
 loni;. It was his lioast thai he found Rome built 
 of brick, but that he U'ft it liuill of marlile. 
 
 The R(un:in empire, during ;i period of 21(1 years 
 from the iireession of Auguslus In lli;il of Conuuo- 
 dus, conliLiiied Die middle and souUiern parts of 
 Eurojie, the norlhirn |);irls of Africa, and the west- 
 ern jiarts of Asi;i. In llie directions and advice of 
 Augustus to his succe.s.sor, it w;is warmly reuom-
 
 BOUAM WAKS. 
 
 773 
 
 fiOHAN WABB. 
 
 ni('ii(l<'(l lliiii llic c'liipiri' sliuiild ikiI Iji' riilnr>;r-(l ; nr- 
 ciinliiiijly, Ilic weak iinii ilViMiirjiilc IOjii|nT<)r!« liad 
 III! iiiclinatiiiii iior :il>ilily lo ilo il, iinil llic valiant 
 and warlilii- nciicnilly fmiiiil liMsiMC'-s i'niiii;;li in dc- 
 fcndiriLC wlial llu'v alrcuily Imd ; while llic wise and 
 prndinl ucrc Hciisilily inl|)rl■^sl■d willi the prnprii'lv 
 (if llii'advicp of Anj;nstus. 'Plir' I'Mipirc' was, indi'i'd, 
 of vaMl cxlcnt : and if wr casl our cyrs upon a nnip, 
 we sliall dircclly sec that it lonipridicniliMl, us an 
 rlcnant hisliirian rcniarkH, " llii' fairr.sl part of tlic 
 carlli. and llir most civili/.cd purlion of mankind." 
 Dnrini; this iicriod, howi'vcr, very <'iinsid(Tal)h' ad- 
 dilions were made to Ihc rmpirc. ajid wi' hclii'vc, 
 moiT or IrsH in Ihc Hirer (piarlrr-i of llic;;lolic. In 
 Europe, the (iallic and (Jerman provinces were en- 
 lari;ed, the island of (ireal Urilain was suhdued, and 
 Hcvi'ral lari^iM'onnlrics on this side and licyond the 
 Danulic, as Illyriiim, Dacia, I'annonia. Ac. The Km- 
 pcror 'Trajan, in order to proseiule lli<; war with the 
 l)a<-iain, creeled a sln]iendoiis liriilirc across the 
 Daniilic ; the ruins of which remain lo this day, and 
 alTord a sublime spc<'imen of ancicnl archilcotiire. 
 
 The cruelly, depravitv. folly, and eiiorinoiis vices 
 of tlu^ Kniperors generally form a striking feature in 
 this period. They seem lo have been iitlerly losi to 
 all sense of justice, honor or duty. Had they fol- 
 lowed the examples ipf .lulius or Auijiislns ('ii-sar, the 
 Romans would scarcely have had reason to rcijret 
 Ihc eslablLshmcnl of a form of {rovernmeni which 
 rescued them from deplorable wars and wastini; rcv- 
 oliilions, urj^ed on by the raije of various powerful 
 parties succeeding one another. Indeed, it is siir- 
 prisins; that the illiislrious examples of those great 
 men should be deserted immcdial<'ly, an<i so soon 
 forsioltcn ; and it can be accounted for in no other 
 way than by supposini; that the reins of jjovcrnment 
 fell into the weakest and vilest of hands. When we 
 consider the advantages the lirst Einjierors of Home 
 possessed, it can scarcely be doublcil that many of 
 them were the lowest, the most detestalile and aban- 
 doned villains that ever swayed a scejjtre. The Kinsis 
 of the Ottoman Turks, thoiijrli barbarous and bloody 
 tyrants, were almost without ii slain in comparison 
 ■with tliosc •■ harpyfootcd furies." The Henrys and 
 Edwards of Emrland : the Loinscs of France; the 
 Gothic, and Chinese monarclis were sa^es, philoso- 
 phers, philanthropists, andsaiiils, in comparison with 
 them; nor can we read tlie history of Rome without 
 wondcrin;; how it was possible for that once power- 
 ful and majinaiiimous jicojile to be so sunk and de- 
 praved as io endure the tyranny of such monsters, 
 instead of hurlim; tliem with iiidi;;nanl scorn from 
 the throne which they so deeply disjjraced. 
 
 If the fate of Poland, in our own times, stands as 
 a beacon cxhibilins; a dreadful testimony to the na- 
 tions of the earlli of the cfTects of bad i;overnment ; 
 we may certainly derive a still stronijer testimony 
 from this period of the Roman history. The wars of 
 Marius anil Sylla, of Ca-sar and Pompey, and of Au- 
 gustus and Aniony. had deiiKinstraled the power of 
 individuals to enslave the Stale. Those wa.'s had al- 
 most exterminated the ancient Romans — I hey had 
 extinguished almost all the srt'iit imd eminent fami- 
 lies, and fpiite all the great men who dared to speak 
 and act like Romans. At the same time an immense 
 multitude of foreijiners from all parts of the world 
 poured into Rome; and the army, which always 
 governcil Rome, was composed of a mercenary ra- 
 pacious crew, as void of pulilic spirit as of all sense 
 ef justice and honor. An empire governed by a 
 Prince as prolligale and abandoned as weak and ig- 
 norant, and who was merely the tool of a mutinous, 
 ill-disciplined, ami vicious soldiery, must certainly 
 experience the worst of governments ; and must feel 
 their worst effects: accordingly, the lustre of Rome 
 faded — her power decayed — her virl ue jind happiness 
 were for ever lost, and she was abandoned to every 
 evil and calamity. 
 
 From various internal causes, the strength of the 
 Koiuau empire declined greatly during the two lirst 
 
 centuries of the ('liristian Era; she \va» not only ab- 
 Koliitely but comparatively weaker. .Many of the 
 Asiatic provinces Merined only to observe a nominal 
 subjection; ami the l'arlbia:iH. cHpecially in tliut 
 rpiartiT, gained slrcni^th, ronc and Iriiiniphed, and sift 
 Rome at deliance. 'I"lie nalioiiH of (iaiil and fiiTmu- 
 ny grew strong, and often showed signs of revolt, 
 and even miliealions llial they were one day to truiii- 
 ple upon the asliis of their coni|UiTorH. 
 
 The Romans soon gave inelunclioly proofs of Ihi; 
 
 j decay of learning, as well as of civility and polile. 
 
 ' ness. We liavi' spoken of llie rjiplnrable fate of (-'i- 
 cero. Augustus, under Ihc infamous prc>tenc;e of ap- 
 peasing liie resentment of .Mark Aniony, had murd- 
 ered and mangled the great man. The crafty lyrunt 
 well knew how necessary it was for liitn to silence 
 thalelo(pn-nce which must have shaken his throne, 
 and to exierminale that \irliie which rnust have 
 thrown continual embarrassments in the way of liin 
 ambitious schemes. Macenas, the great friend of 
 Virgil and Horace, still lived; but be only lived as a 
 llatteriT, to form new modes tif ailulatirju, and to act 
 the i,Tin'.;ing parasite. In the course of the reign of 
 the twelve Ciesars, the Roman horizon, which had 
 been once illuminated with cjne immense constella- 
 tion of poets, orators, philosophers, statesmen, he- 
 roes, and sages, was left in dreary darkness. And if 
 we descend to the reign of Conimodus, we shall see 
 few lights on Ihal once splendid horizon, l(Ut such 
 as most resembled the horrid ;:lare of tarlarean tires. 
 Vcl the names of .Seneca, Lucian, I'liny, Josephiis, 
 Quinlilian, Tacitus, Juvenal, I'lutarch, .Justin, and 
 (Jalen, were s(;attered down this tract of lime ; long 
 after which Longinus tiourished; and Marcus Aure- 
 lius, the Kniperor, was a great philosopher, and an 
 ornament of the rejiublic of letters. 
 
 The nature and fnrin of the Roman legion, a mili- 
 tary eslablishmeiit and grand inslriiinent of the Ro- 
 man i>ower, by which Rome coni|ueri'd and govern- 
 ed the world had been improved through every pe- 
 riod of the republic, and greatly so by .lulius Ca-sar, 
 as well as by some of his successors. The main 
 strength of the legion consisted in a body of infant- 
 ry, divided into ten cohorts and fifty-five companies, 
 which comp;inies were more or less full. Kacli co- 
 hort was commanded by a Prefect or Tribune, and 
 each company by a Centurion. The first cohort, 
 which always claimed the post of honor and carried 
 the eagle, contained 1,10.5 soldiers, the most approv- 
 ed for bravery and fidelity. The remaining cohorts 
 consisted each of .W.") ; and the infantry of a legion, 
 in its most improved stale, amounted to 6,100 men. 
 Theirarins, which were uniform, consisted of a helmet 
 with a lofty crest, a breastplate or coal of mail, 
 greaves on their legs, and on their left arm a con- 
 cave Ijuckler, of an oval form, four feet in length 
 and two and a half in breadth. The buckler was 
 formed of light wood, covered with bull's hide and 
 strengthened with plates of brass. Thvpiliim. a long 
 and heavy spear, was the most efTeclive of the Ro- 
 man we;ipons. Wilh this they tisually conquered, 
 ll was ;ibout six feet long, and terminated in a trian- 
 gular point of steel eighteen inches in length. This 
 drciidful javelin, when " launched from the vigor of 
 a Roman arm," often pierced helmets, breast plates, 
 and bucklers; nor was there anv cavaln.- that 
 chose to venture within its reach. AVhi'n the pilum 
 was thrown, which was commonly within the dis- 
 tance of ten or even six yards, the soldier drew his 
 sworil and closeil wilh the enemy. The sword was 
 a two-edged, short, well-tempered blade, fitted to 
 strike or push, the latter of which the Romans were 
 instructed to prefer. 
 The legion, in l>attle array, stood eight deep, pre- 
 
 i serving the distance of three feet between both the 
 
 ; ranks and files: so that each one had a sntlicient 
 space lo move and wield his arms in; and this loose 
 
 I order gave great celerity to their movements. It is 
 remarked, perhaps justly, by Mr. Gibbon, that the 
 
 I strength of the phalanx was unable to contend with
 
 BOUAN WARS. 
 
 774 
 
 SOMAN WABS. 
 
 the activity Of the legion. But could the phalanx 
 of Alexander have contended with the Itgion of Ju- 
 lius Caesar, each under the eye and animated by the 
 spirit of those great commanders, a difEereut con- 
 clusion perhaps'might be drawn. A body of cavalry, 
 consisting of ten troops or squadrons, was an essen- 
 tial appendage of each legion. The lirst troop of 
 horse was the companion of the tirst cohort and con- 
 sisted of 132 men. The other nine consisted each 
 of 66 men, and were attached to the remaining nine 
 cohorts. The cavalry of a complete legion amount- 
 ed to T26 men. Their defensive arms were, a hel- 
 met, a very oblong shield, light boots, and a coat of 
 mail. Their effective weapons were a javelin and a 
 long broadsword. Thus the regular infantry and 
 cavalry of a legion amounted to 6.826 men : besides 
 which, severallight armed troops, called auxiliaries, 
 where attached "to it, which, together with all the 
 various attendants for baggage, &c, swelled each le- 
 gion to upwards of 12,000 men. To every legion 
 were assigned ten engines of the larger size, and fif- 
 ty-live of the smaller, for throwing large stones and 
 heavy darts. The force of these engines was such 
 as to produce astonishing effects on walls and tow- 
 ers, and they are thought by some writers of note to 
 have been Tittle inferior in utility to cannon. The 
 camp of two complete legions usual!}' occupied an 
 exact square of nearly 700 yards on each side. This 
 spot was levelled by the pioneers, and the tents were 
 then pitched in the" form of regular, broad streets — 
 the prajtorium or General's qiuirters in the center. 
 The whole square was then surrounded by a rampart 
 12 feet high, compactly formed of wood and earth, 
 and also inclosed by a ditch 12 feet broad and deep. 
 When this camp was to be left, it is incredible how 
 soon the legions would be in motion. Their tents 
 being struck and packed, each legionary loaded him- 
 self with his arms, kitchen furniture and provisions, 
 sometimes for many days ; and, wit^ this weight, 
 which says Mr. Gibbon, w-ould oppress the delicacy of 
 a n:odern soldier, they would march, by a regular 
 steo, 20 miles in six hours. 
 
 The military discipline of the Romans was exceed- 
 ingly strict. They were accustomed to various 
 athletic exercises ; and their armor in running and 
 leaping, was scarcely considered as an incumbrance. 
 Such were some of Ihe military arrangements of the 
 Romans ; and, in order to form some idea of their 
 armed force, it may be observed, that tlie peace es- 
 tablishment of Adrian and his successors consisted 
 of thirty of these formidable legions, which were 
 usually stationed on the banks of large rivers, and 
 along the frontiers of their extensive dominions. The 
 author just cited says, that under the Emperors, the 
 legions were more or less permanently stationed, as 
 follows, viz. three legions in Britain — sixteen on the 
 Rhine and Danube, where it was early discovered 
 that most force was necessary — eight on the Euph- 
 rates — and in Egypt, Africa, and Spain, a single le- 
 gion was sufficient for each. Besides all these, a 
 powerful armed force was always stationed in Italy, 
 to watch over the safety of the capital, and of the 
 Emi)eror. These were called city cohorts and pr;e- 
 torian guards; and we shall see hereafter, that these 
 troops were principally instrumental in the ruin of 
 the empire. 
 
 From theiall of the Roman empire, a period of 
 darkness ensued, ecjually dreadful for its length and 
 for the number and greatness of its calamities \!,>i>n 
 mankind. To trace the history of those times, is like 
 making a progress through chaos, amidst upper, 
 nellicr, and surroiuidiiig (iiirkness. We willlirsl no- 
 tice th<' fortunes (jf Conslanlinople, conunonly call- 
 ed the Eastern, and in late periods of history, the 
 Greek empire. The successorsof Constantine.whoni, 
 in this article, it will be impossible for us even to 
 name, were more fortimate in tlie east than in the 
 west. The nuinl)erless swarni'J of barbarians, wliii li, 
 in these tinu's, poured down from tlie north of lOii- 
 rope, generally directed their course more westward- 
 
 ly and inundated France, Spain, Italy, and even Af- 
 rica. The empire of Constantinople was various in 
 its extent ; sometimes its territories were very ex- 
 tensive, and at others were limited almost to the city 
 walls. But this city was destined to enjoy a great 
 and almost peculiar felicity. It stood unrifled and 
 imimpaired through all the storms and revolutions of 
 the dark ages. It was never taken bj' the barbarians 
 of the north, nor of the east. It was even fortunate 
 enough to escape the rage of civil war, and to sur- 
 vive for many ages to triumph over the vices of its 
 degenerate inhabitants : till, at length, it was taken 
 by Mahomet II., Emperor of the Turks, in the year 
 14.53, — 977 years after the conquest of Rome by the 
 Goths. During tliis long period, the reader will find 
 few things in the histor}- of Constantinople worthy 
 of very particular notice. That empire neither 
 abounded in heroes, philosophers, poets, orators, nor 
 historians. Yet the preservation of that one city to 
 so late a period, was certainly an importan link in 
 the chain of events whicli restored the arts and sci 
 ences. The writers of the Middle Ages, and especial, 
 ly tlie Crusaders, speak in the highest terms of the 
 greatness and splendor of Constantinople. Her final 
 subjugation to the Turks appears to have been a just 
 judgment of Providence upon her, since, though 
 bearing the Christian name, she almost uniformly 
 carried a hostile front to all Christian powers — made 
 more wars upon them, and exercised more animosity 
 towards them, than she did towards Pagans and 3Ia- 
 hometans. If we except Constantinople, the whole 
 of Europe, from the fall of Rome to the establish- 
 ment of Charlemagne, resembled a troubled ocean. 
 The most splendid cities, the most populous coun- 
 tries, and the most delightful regions of the earth, 
 were harassed and overwhelmed with ruin and des- 
 olation. We naturally tirst turn our eyes toward 
 Italy, whose wretcheil inhabitants were the severest 
 sufferers of all. The historians of those times say 
 that their sufferings exceeded all conception — that 
 neither pens nor pencils can describe the barliarity, 
 the rage, and the violence of their savage conquer- 
 ors. All their effects were converted into plunder ; 
 their men of every age and character were put to the 
 sword or dragged into slavery; their women subject- 
 ed to the most brutal violence, and their cities and 
 villages wrapped in flames. 
 
 We can give the reader no juster idea of the mis- 
 eries of Rome, than by noticing to him, that during 
 this period, that devoted city was besieged and tak- 
 en by storm five times in the space of twenty years. 
 Tho.se northern invaders, after having conquered 
 and in a measure destroyed the niiwarlike inhabit- 
 ants of the Roman provinces, fell with a fury upon 
 one another, and several gloomy centuries were 
 wiisted away in the horrors of the most bloody and 
 desolating war. The Mediterranean Sea did not se- 
 cure the northern shores of Africa from those terri- 
 ble invasions. An immense horde of Vandals found 
 their way thither and settled in those fruitful coun- 
 tries. But their settlement. so far from taking a regu- 
 lar, consistent and pacific form, remained a perpetu- 
 al scourge, and accomiilishcd the utter ruin of those 
 once opulent regions. .'\Iaiikliul in those unha]ipy 
 times, seemed iitterl_v lost to all mental improvement 
 as well as to all sense of humanity. For several ages 
 the whole iiuman race scarcely iiroduced one orna- 
 ment, or could boast of one illustrious character to 
 illiMiiini' the universal gloom, or to cast a partial beam 
 •if liglit tlirougli the intellectual chaos: so far from 
 it, that those days were sjiciit in destroying the no. 
 blest works of art and genius. A diligeiii search was 
 maile for the most vahiable productions of aiiti(|ui- 
 t}', not to preserve and treasure iiji, but to deinoHsh, 
 to burn, and to destroy. Nor did barbarians alone 
 pursue Ihe work of deslri.etiou; the superstitions of 
 the apostate Christian Church, in too many instan- 
 ces, lent their aid to that infernal work. In this cur- 
 sory survey, it would be impossible to notice Ihe 
 ; sliglit shades of diflerenecin the situation of the nu-
 
 ROMAN WAE8. 
 
 n.) 
 
 aOUAN WARS. 
 
 iniioiis proviiiccH of I lie IJofimn cnipirc. And hk 
 these liiiK^M produced no liisloriiitiK. il would lie iir- 
 rof;iuK;(^ to iitteinpl to tell llie render what, wiiB VC"- 
 iiii? oii.geueriiijy spciiUintj.iii the eaHlern purls of the 
 world. We could siiy lillle more lliaii lliat llie em- 
 pire of Cliiua stood lirm iu its streii;;!!!. luiviii^ ul- 
 reiidy llourislied for niuuy ii};es. Iiidiii mid I'ersiii 
 liiive l>eeii subject to chamres, divisions and revolu- 
 tions from timi^ iuunc^morial— especially the former; 
 and the (tre<lv writers are, [x-rhaps, the only hislori- 
 ans who ever wrot(t correctly llic Persian history. I' 
 was but partially known before, and has been far 
 less so, since the AuL^ustan aL'<'. The north of ICil- 
 rope was only known by the inenMlible swarms of 
 barbarians which issueil from it, anil overwhelmecl 
 the civilized world. (.)f the history of Arabia we 
 shall soon have occasion to speak ; and conccridn^ 
 the immense interior of Asia, commoidy called 'I'ar- 
 tary, the best of modern i;eoij;raphers are yet uhuosl 
 wholly ifrnoraiil.HS also of the nuddle rcfiions of Af- 
 rica, The Island of (Ireat Mritain has been known in 
 history since the time of its coi!i|Uesl by ,lulius Cw- 
 sar. The IJritous made a formidabli' resistance to 
 Ills arms, and were never but partially conquered. 
 When the Roman empire fell, that island shared in 
 the {general calamities. The ]}ritish called over to 
 their aid the Saxons, a nation from (iermany, to as- 
 sist them asjainst the fury of the I'icts and Scots, by 
 wlioni they were invaded. The Sa.xons, led l)y llen- 
 i;ist and llorsa,two |iowcrfnl chieftains readily obey- 
 ed the call, and, ai-i-ordini; to the fashion of the 
 ajje. came over in such luunbers, as not onl^- to re- 
 pel the IMcts anil Seots.but to conquer and enslave 
 the Hritons themselves. Thev therefore settled in 
 the southern part of the island, and at lens^lh erected 
 themselves into seven petty but indeiiendent king- 
 doms, commonly c:dled the Saxon heptarchy. These 
 were at len;;th united into one n;overnment by Ej;- 
 bert, who, about the year HdO, reii^ned over them all 
 and founded the Eni^lish monarchy. This brings the 
 English history to the close of the period whii'h was 
 to be the subject of the present article. Arabia forms 
 the southwest corner of .Vsia, It is a tract of coun- 
 try considerably more than a thousand nules square, 
 and is peninsulated by the Persian (iulf on the cast, 
 and the Red Sea on tlie west of it. This jjreat coun- 
 try is supposed to have been peopled orii^inally by 
 the family of Islmiacl the son of Abraham. Of Ish- 
 niael it was foretold, that he should be an archcr,and 
 that his hand should be aijainst every man, and ev- 
 ery man's hand aijainst him. This prediction seems 
 to have been ftilly accomplished in his po.sterity. 
 The Arabs have ever been excellent horsemen and 
 archers, formidable with the bow and tlie lance, and 
 tlwy have been wild men, and have dwelt in the des- 
 ert, A siiii^ular circumstance in their history is, that 
 they have never been compiered or subjujiated by 
 any n.ation, althouiih it has been attempted succes- 
 sively by the Chaldeans, the Persians, the Romans, 
 and in late ages, l)y the Turks. In the beirinning of 
 the seventh century, a tire Ijroke out in Arabia, which 
 for a while, threatened to involve in its tl,-imcs all 
 Europe and Asia. It is n'uiarkcd by an able histori- 
 an, as a wonderful synclu'onism, that the very same 
 year in which the Uonian pontilV was proclaimed uni- 
 versal bishop, Mahomet, the grand impostor, forged 
 the Alcoran in a cave of Jlecca. The usurpations 
 of the Komisli church were complete — the beast was 
 at its full growth, and was then ready to begin his 
 reign. It wovdd thence seem ])robable, th,'it the beast 
 and the false prophet began and will end their career 
 nearly together. 
 
 It is a matter of doid)t, whether the great exploits 
 and astonishing elevation of some men. are to be set 
 down to the account of their extraordinary natural 
 endowments, or to a favorable coincidence of events 
 in the world aroiuid them. Mahomet, from an ob- 
 scure parentage, birth and education. rose to a height, 
 and with a rapidity, almi>st without a parallel. From 
 the occupation of a tradesman he retired to a cave 
 
 In Mecca, where he pretended he had frequent in- 
 terviews with an angel, by whose assistaMce and di- 
 rection he wrote the Kofun on the plate bones of 
 cunielH, He at li'iigth insiied from the cuvi-, and 
 began to publish his mission lollie [leople of .Mecca. 
 .\ storm was soon raisid a^'aiiist him there, and he 
 lied from Mecca to .Mediiiu, in Arabia. This IliKht 
 the Alahomelans call the /nr/nru. and regard il aH 
 their grand enoc'', US w<r do the birth of ( hri.Hl. The 
 followers of >Ia..oiiira soon lieiame niiinerouH— In; 
 subdued or rather revolutionized his native eoiinlry, 
 and, in a short time, all the neighboring coiinlrieK. 
 His religion spread with his arms, and wuK embruc- 
 id wherever he conquered. 
 
 The Saracens, as .Mahomet's followers were called, 
 after his death still pursued their conqueHts ; and, in 
 a very short time, all the west of Asia, the north of 
 Africa, and the .south of Europe were overrun by 
 this dreadful inundation ; which, if possible, wa» 
 more sanguinary and exterminating than that of the 
 (Joths and \andals. A linal slop however, was put 
 to the progress of the Saracens in Europe bv (harlcH 
 -Martel, who defeated them with gre.it slaiii/hler mar 
 the Pyrenees, killing, it is said ;I70,(K)0 of them in 
 one day. This batllit was fought in the year 7:i4. 
 
 Mahomet declared himself to hi; the" prophet of 
 God, sent into the world to enlighten and reform 
 mankind ; and that he was clothed with greater light 
 and powers than either .Moses or Christ. Ilis doc- 
 trines and morality were drawn from such source* 
 as would best suit the prejudices, and obl:iin cur- 
 rency among the iialinnH « horn he conquered. They 
 were extracted from the .lewisli and Christian Scrip- 
 tures—from oriental traditions— from the legendary 
 trash of the rabbles, and indeed, from the inventive 
 genius of Mahomet himself, whose knowledge of 
 mankind enabled him to foresee how the}' miidit 
 easiest hi' led and governed. He taught the unity of 
 (iod, and the universality of his providence, or rath- 
 er, in the strictestesensc."the doctrines of the fatalist. 
 
 His selu'me of morality allowed the full indul- 
 gence of the i)assions, being exactly suited to the 
 most depraved mind ; and he so managed the affairs 
 of a future state, that they could have no influence 
 in favor of virtue or in opposition to vice. 
 
 It was not without reason, that he relied on the 
 natural disposition of men for the ultimate success 
 of his doctrines, but his main arguments, for their 
 propagation, were lire and sword. 
 
 The kingdoms of Europe in general, as to their 
 extent and boundaries, .seem to liave been parcelled 
 out by accident, or more jiropcrly by nature. Spain 
 is marked out by oceans and mountains— France by 
 oceans, mountains, and rivers— Germanv and Italy 
 in like manner. .\s early as the period" under con- 
 sideration, sonic remote vestages may be discovered 
 of the present Euroi)ean establishments. Early in 
 the sixth century, Clovis laid the foundation of"the 
 French monarchy ; at which time the rage of emi- 
 gration by nations had generally subsided, either 
 becuuscthe wilds of Europe hail poured forth all 
 their daring si)irits,or because a general repletion of 
 the southern provinces had rendered a kind of retlux 
 necessary. Xo part of Europe had oftener been 
 traversed and ransacked than France: but as they 
 found less plunder there, they generally pushed for- 
 ward to othereonntrics. The Franks at" lensth made 
 a settlement there, after having driven out and des- 
 troyed several Gothic nations, who had previously 
 dispossessed the Romans and ancient Gauls. Froiii 
 the Franks the country is supposed to have obtained 
 the name of France. The Franks, after maintain- 
 ing long and bloody wars with subsequent invaders 
 for several ages, at length found themselves united 
 by a more regular form of government under Clovis, 
 who is reckoned the founder of the first dj-nastr of 
 French monarchs. 
 
 During the period now before -is. the f.ace of Eu- 
 rope was changed. as we have already stated, bv the 
 Gothic ;.ud Saracen eruptions. The lirst care of
 
 BOMAN WARS. 
 
 77C 
 
 BOUAN WARS. 
 
 these barbarous invaders was to destroy and for- 
 ever to obliterate the inhabitants, the institutions, 
 tlie manners and customs of the countries wliicli 
 they subdued. A far more difficult task than 
 this was to maintain their acquisitions agaiust 
 subsequent invaders : for the north of Europe, like 
 an immense storehouse of nations, poured forth in- 
 numerable hordes, in rapid succession. These were 
 equally hostile to each other, and knew nothing but 
 to make war — to kill and ravage wherever they came. 
 Wiietlier it was owing, liowever, to the softening 
 influence of mild climates, combined with the scat- 
 tered rays of science, humanitj-. and order which 
 had escaped the overwhelming tlood of darkness: 
 or whether to the imperceptible influence of various 
 unknown causes upon individuals — the people in the 
 south and west of Europe, instead of sinking into a 
 savage state, l)egan, in the sixth ccntur}', to assume 
 a regular form of government, which, though bad in 
 itself, yet, imder the influence of a natural course of 
 causes idt imately led on to the present state of Europe. 
 The nurthern barbarians entertained a high sense 
 of freedom, and each of them considered himself as 
 entitleii to a lil)eral .share of whatever his trilie should 
 conquer. Each great chieftain, therefore, granted 
 out and divided the conquered lands to the high of- 
 ficers ue.\t himself, and they subdivided the same 
 among their followers or vassals ; tmder this ex- 
 press condition, that each man should do militarj' 
 service a certain part of his time to his immeiiiate 
 lord, and that each lord or great vassal of the court 
 should also di militarj- service to the Grand Chieftain 
 or King. This division of property which prevailed 
 in every part of Europe, was grounded wliolly on 
 military policy ; it became, in fact, the only organ- 
 ized system of defense for several centuries, and has 
 obtained the name of \\\e feudal xy^tem . This system 
 of property, government, and war, although it must 
 be regarded as a happy change from a direful plunge 
 of the human species into anarchy, and all the deg- 
 radations of a savage state. _vet was radically defective 
 and certainly conduced to protract the ages of dark- 
 ness. Still, however, it left room for the slow oper- 
 ation of causes which would naturally correct, im- 
 prove, and elevate the human mind ; and which 
 would at length originate other causes, far more ef- 
 ficient and rapid iu rending the veil of darkness. and 
 once more ushering the nations into the light of 
 science and civility. Tlmse who would see this sub- 
 ject handled with great elegance and perspicuity, 
 may find it in the first volume of Dr. Robertson's 
 History of Charles V. AVe shall here only observe 
 that the exorbitant power of the middle order was 
 the grand defect of the feudal systetn. The great 
 lords held the power of life and death over their own 
 subjects: and also the right of making war in their 
 own defense. Of course, if with such an extent of 
 prerogative, the}' confederated, they always out- 
 weighed the King — if they were at war with each 
 other, which was often the case, the King had no 
 control over them, because it wasimpossihle for him 
 to raise or command an army witlioiit their assist- 
 ance. On the one hand, tlierefore. the liands of tlie 
 mcmarch were lied : and. the other, the lowest order 
 were little better than abjei'l shives to their immedi- 
 ate governors. The feuilal governments were at no 
 great remove from the very worst of oligarchies. 
 The want of Dower in the prince, and the force of 
 the nation so divided, rendering them weak against 
 invasion. This weakness was increased by the jeal- 
 ousies and turbulence of the great lords, who fre- 
 quently occ:isioned civil wars. and at length reduced 
 them to a slate of anarchy, frfun which Ihev coiilii 
 only be recovered and reunited by union, and ii 
 strong sense of ctoinnion diinger. 
 
 In the midst of the fluctuating wiives of war, revo- 
 lution, and iinarchy, the ]iowerfiil genius of Charle- 
 magne erected anew empire in Euroiie; which, for a 
 moment bid fair to cut sliorl the reign of darkness, 
 and re-establish those iiistilulioiis which im])rove and 
 
 adorn society. His dominion comprehended tho 
 fairest parts of Europe; France, Germany and Italy. 
 This event took place in the beginning of the ninth 
 century. But as nothing can be more uninteresting 
 than the sterile histories of the wars and revolutions 
 of the dark ages, so, even wliat is known of the 
 battles, the sieges, the victories, the conquests, the 
 elevation, and the grandeur of Charlemagne, will 
 be little more improving to tlie reader of history, 
 than to tell him that Charlemagne was a soldier of 
 fortune — that he fought bravely, and was generally 
 victorious; in a word, that he established a huge em- 
 pire, consisting of a heterogeneous mass of crude 
 materials — incongruous, disjointed members, and 
 which he governed for several years not by anj- reg- 
 ular plan of civil polic}-, which the nations were 
 then as incajiable of receiving as of organizing, but 
 hy a strong military arm, which he wielded with 
 dexterity and success ; and that, when he expired, 
 Ills empire fell into pieces. In justice, however, to 
 this great monarch, it must be noticed that he was 
 far from resembling the fierce, cruel, and barbarous 
 chieftains of the Goths or Saracens. Instead of de- 
 serving the title of Attila, the senurge of God, and 
 the ternrrofmen, he is justly celebrated for cultivat- 
 ing the arts of peace — for encouraging men of learn- 
 ing and wisdom, and for promoting various import- 
 ant civil institutions. Perhaps, Init for him, Europe 
 had still remained under the cloud of Gothic ignor- 
 ance. He merits an honorable rank among those 
 great and powerful minds, which evinced the possi- 
 bility of checking the strong current of the times; 
 and, could he have lived and reigned for a century, 
 he might have raised Europe from her degraded 
 state. But time, and a long series of events, could 
 onl}' mature those seeds of order and virtue, which 
 under his administration began to vegetate, but 
 which, in a manner, disappeared with him. and left 
 the world in still palpable darkness. 
 
 During the 283 years following the reign of Coni- 
 modus, and up to ihe extinction of the Western Em- 
 pire uuder Augtistulus, there is little else to contem- 
 plate but the most deadly disorders, the most agon- 
 izing struggles, and the deepest and most ostensible 
 deca}'. IJut an empire containing a hundred and 
 twenty millions of jieople — founded in power, wealth 
 and policy — strengthened by every auxiliary of hu- 
 man greatness — triumphing over all enemies, and 
 elevated almost beyond the reach of invasion, could 
 only perish Ijy tlie gradual progress of internal dis- 
 order. The misfortunes of Rome sprung from her 
 own bosom, and it can scarcely be said that she had 
 enemies, till she had formed and trained them to the 
 arts of war. In the ISOth year of the Christian era, 
 Commodus ascended the throne. No reign was more 
 inauspicious than his, nor is the memory of any prince 
 more deeply covered with infamy. He formed a per- 
 fect contrast to his illustrious father, INIarcus Aure- 
 lius. It would be impossible in this compend to 
 draw a character more black, detestable and deprav- 
 ed than that of Commodus. A detail of his vices 
 would occupy more space than we can allow to the 
 whole subiect of tliis article. We can .'iay but lit- 
 tle more than that, during his reign, the administra- 
 tion of government was totally abaudcmed, and the 
 numerous projis of a falling empire, which had ex- 
 isted a century before this, were now no more. At 
 the seat of government there was nothing but lux- 
 ury, riot and murder. In the iirovinces, extreme 
 disorder, ra|iacity, misery and revolt ]irevailed. On 
 the frontiers, tlic burning of cities and the blood of 
 thous.'Uids marked the footste])Sof inv.Msion. In Il;ily, 
 disalfeclioiKcoiispirac}-, jealousy, terror, detestation, 
 revenge, fury and despair, surrounded Ihe Ihroiu — 
 tilled the capital inspired every heart, and painted 
 destruction on every face. In the army there was 
 licentiousness, outrage, mutiny and desertion. The 
 soldiers, in multitudes, forsook their standards, and 
 in numberless and fierce banditti, infested llie high- 
 ways. The redress of wrongs and the recovery of
 
 ROMAN WA£S. 
 
 777 
 
 EOU&M WAB8. 
 
 riKli'f t'xpirod willi civil juslifc ; iukI while llic crii- 
 pirc felt those slvdim Imt viiiii slriin^les, which were 
 occaMionecl liy I hi' rciu'linn of Iwr niihinil I'drcc, her uii 
 ion, power, and Miililiiry ri'piiliilioM viiiiishcil.iiiiil h'ft 
 hiT iiM iriimeiis<' clmoM of (liscordaiil principles. An 
 illiislrioiH pareiilaj^e i^tiVf hit;h expeelalioiis of Com- 
 liiodiis, lull his (Miiidiict soon lianished all liope.l. lie 
 <'xlMhile(l cruellies al which even Nero would have 
 shuddered, and lie was even more elTeininale Ihan 
 Sardanapalus. It seems a pity, for the honor of hu- 
 manity, that the name of so infamous a monster 
 should have been ))reserved. His feeble am! lii'cnti- 
 ous rciiin produced calaiinties to his country, after 
 his vices had destroyed him, and he was no more. Jle 
 was no sooner laUen oil' by a conspiracy, conducted 
 bv his favorite mistress, than the ehniee of the army 
 aiid senate clothed with the imperial pin'plc, llelve- 
 tius I'erlinax. lie was aliove 111) years of aire -had 
 served under tlu^ illustrious Anionines — and was al- 
 vfays noted eipially for bravery and wisdom, lie 
 bad risen from a private soldier, IhroUijh all the 
 irrades of military honor to thai of ;)nelorian prefect. 
 With modesty and reluctance hv assumed the <lia- 
 <lom, which he was ileslincd to wear and to s;ra('e 
 only lorn; enough to ilenionslrate his merit, and to 
 enroll his name amongst the most excfllent ot the 
 Uoman Emperors. 
 
 If the degenerate Uomans discovered their mis- 
 lalie. in elevating to the throne a man wdiose adminis- 
 tration v.'as utterly repugnant to their wishes, he 
 much sooner discovered his, in thiid<ing it possible 
 to renovate the empire, now going rapidly into an 
 irrecoverable decline. The ijoman armies, which 
 under the Scipios had subdued Africa and Asia — 
 which underCifsar had exlendc<l the cmi)ire beyond 
 the Danube, and which under 'rrajan had con(|uered 
 beyond the Kujihratcs. were now the scorn and ridi- 
 <'ule of the barbarians. 'I'hrough a tntid want of 
 discipline, all suliordinatiou was lost — all niilitary 
 spirit: nothing remained but discord, sedition and 
 outrage, rerlinax commeiuc<i an adnunistration vig- 
 orous, systematic and comprehensive. The em|)ire, 
 through her wide regions felt his power, and saw 
 and revered the equity that marked all his move- 
 ments. It was soon perceived that I'ertinax would 
 aim to suppress those irr.-gularities and restore tie 
 discipline of thearmy to its ancient severity — that he 
 would revive the institutions of civil justice, and re- 
 trieve the fallen (iignity of th<' Roman name. Hut 
 ala.< ! his noble intentions and excellent schemes 
 could not be elTectuated by mortal prowess : the na- 
 tion was too far gone — too deeply sunk in vice and 
 luxury. The palace, the court, and the capital were 
 tilled and surrounded with a swarm of execrable 
 villains, whom the vices of Commodus had rendered 
 necessary — w hom his weakness had cpdioldencd, and 
 the corruption of the times had furnished in abund- 
 .*\uce. His first care was to displace these — to exalt 
 men to power who were worthy to rule, ami to re- 
 strain and punish the insolence of the prietoriau 
 guards. 
 
 He had just entered on this salutary but arduous 
 work, when he was informed, one day, that a muti- 
 ny was raising in thearmy. He liad only time to 
 walk to the gate of his palace, when he perceived a 
 large body of soldiers rapidly advancing with angry 
 clamors and menacing imprecations. .\s they drew 
 near, he stood his ground and with a firm dignity de- 
 mandeil their business. Without making any rejily. 
 a Scythian soldier struck him dead al a lilow. His 
 head was severed frcun his body and carried on a 
 pole to the camp: wliere immediately after the em- 
 pire was otTered at public sale to the highest bidder. 
 It was bid olT by a sordid wretch, who ass\imed the 
 purple, liut who, in a few days. sutTcred all the se- 
 verities of the fate of I'ertinax. witliout any of the 
 pity and regret which will follow the nuMuory of that 
 great man io the latest posterity. It is a matter of 
 regret that so little is known of Pertinax. th;it so few 
 circuinstauces have escaped oblivion, which would 
 
 more dearly elueidate his private character: and 
 especially, that .so short a lime was allowed him for 
 ilisplaying thc' energy of conunand. the wisdom ot 
 legislation, and tlie greatness of man. HislorianH, 
 however, unite in allowing him to rank with the 
 most worthy men who ever governed Home. Ilm 
 energy was" guiiled by justice his authority was 
 tempered with swei-lness, and all his Huperemiiient 
 (pndities combined to form a character Iridv great 
 and amiable. Were it safe, however at this (lislance 
 of time, one might conjecture that hi' was too severe 
 and hastv In his first e-isaysof reformation. Had he, 
 by some politic and impenetrable movement contriv- 
 ed to separate and remove to a distance his lici'Mli- 
 ous soldiery, till he could have levied and diHcii)lin- 
 ed an army to his miia. perhaps he might have en- 
 joyed a loiiger and more fortunate reign. iJut what 
 power can renovate a nation totally elli iniiuite and 
 corrupt 1 I'ertinax, by his abililiis and address, aH- 
 cended from the lowest to the highest rank anions 
 men. His reverses were so mimerous, great and 
 suilden. that historians have given him the peculiar 
 appellation of the Ifiiiiix //nil 'if f'rlnne. 
 
 i'Voni the death of l'(rlinax till that of Au;;ustulu8, 
 the last of the Koman Kmperors of the West, wa» 
 '282 years, during which time no less tlian lifly-six 
 Emperors swayed the see))tre in succession. Their 
 nanu's it is not nc-cess;iry to ricord : anil for an 
 account of their vices (for little more is ri'corded 
 of themj. the reader must be referred to the history 
 of the decline of the Koman empire: on which part 
 of history. Gibbon is the ablest and most elegant 
 writer in our language. The artful and insi'Mous en- 
 deavors of that writer to subvert Christianity, and 
 to substitute, no one knows what, in its place, are 
 obvious to every reader : yet his merit as a writer 
 cannot be ipiestioned : anil although his opposition 
 to Christianity lietrayed him into many gross absurd- 
 ities suited to" the complexion of his prejudices, yet 
 his history of the decline and fall of the Koman em- 
 pire is one of the noblest of historical productions. 
 So much has been already said conceriung the de- 
 cline of the Roman empire that the reader may be 
 surprised wIk'U he luiderstandstluit it stood upwards 
 of two centuries after this period. lint that empire 
 could onlv die a lingering death. West of it lay the 
 Atlantic Ocean, south lay Africa, which, since the 
 fall of Carthage, was without power, east lay A.sia, 
 dissolved iu luxury, always ready to be conquered, 
 as soon as attacked, and enslaved as soon as invad- 
 ed : and so far from subduing Rome that they were 
 even too effeminate to maintain a form of govem- 
 u'.ent over themselves. 
 
 The barbarous nations which lay nor*h of the .>m. 
 pire were indeed numerous and warlike: but they 
 could not subdue the Romans, till they had learned 
 of them the art of war. And the power of Rome, 
 under the Emperors, lay chieliy in the uothern prov- 
 inces, where it was most needed. As we have al- 
 ready said, sixteen or twenty legions generally lay 
 I bordering on the IChine and Danube. The barba- 
 I rians, in these times, were generally poorly clothed 
 and fed. and had few arms! as well as little knowl- 
 edge of the ;irt of war. Their invasions were like 
 those of a hungry lion, whom fierce appetite impels 
 to rush on the point of the spear, in order to seize its 
 ' prey; and their chief ditiiculty was want of union. 
 Their tribes were composed of warlike, fierce, im- 
 p.-tuous spirits; but they were unsettled, barbarous, 
 roviuir. independent, aiid jealous of the power of 
 their chiefs, as well as tenacious of the honor of 
 their tribes. Yet the nations composing the north- 
 ern hive could not but experience a gradual improve- 
 ment. Their proximity to a great and enlightened 
 people, with whom they were at perpetual war— 
 their strength of body— their intellectual vigor, and 
 their ambition to acquire tho.se arts which had so 
 long rendered the Romans invincible, must, in time, 
 hiivv produced their natural and unavoidable effects. 
 In the barbarian armies and coimlries there must
 
 SOMAN WAB8. 
 
 778 
 
 BOHAN WABS. 
 
 have been a multitude of Honians: niuubers having 
 fled from justice, or induced to rove, from disgust 
 at their own capricious and tyrannical government, 
 would naturally seek an asylum in the wilds of Eu- 
 rope, and among a more free and equitable people. 
 Numbers being detained there would, at length 
 yield to necessity, and voluntarily remain in a land, 
 whither they had been dragged as captives, assimil- 
 ating by ilegrees to its cu.stoms and habits. 
 
 The Gauls and Germans, from the period now be- 
 fore us, composed the strength of the Koman armies: 
 and great numbers of these nations, whom we shall 
 indiscriminately call the Goths, and Vandals, and 
 Huns, were now admitted into the Roman service, 
 either as legionaries or auxiliaries. Some of them 
 were promoted to the highest stations, both civil and 
 military, and even wore the imperial diadem and 
 purple. Many of these, either never had, or else lost 
 all attachment to Rome; and rejoining their countrj'- 
 men, carried and diffused among them the arts of 
 war, and advantages of disciplined valor. From the 
 reign of Commodus to the extinction of the Western 
 Empire, history presents one uniform scene of dis- 
 order, vice and misery. We have almost constantly 
 before our eyes, a great empire going rapidly to de- 
 struction under the influence of bad government. A 
 very few of the Emperors, however, during this 
 dreary period, were both able statesmen and com- 
 manders. Had it been their fortune to have reigned 
 in happier times, and over a more virtuous people, 
 their administrations would have done more import- 
 ant service to mankind. But their best measures 
 and greatest exertions, seemed only to have the ef- 
 fect of medicines given to the sick after his disease 
 has become incurable; they might a little procras- 
 tinate, but could not prevent the moment of dissolu- 
 tion. About the year of Christ 267, the Emperor 
 Valerian was taken prisoner by the Persians, when 
 no less than thirt}' persons in various parts of the 
 empire assumed the imperial purple, with the titles 
 of CiBsar and Augustus; and each of thein endeavor- 
 ed to support his claims and titles b}' the sword. 
 There can be no stronger proof than tliis of the ex- 
 treme wretchedness of those times. All was tuuuilt, 
 war, distrust, cruelty and the most bloody revolu- 
 tions. But there are two circumstances in the pe- 
 riod of history now before us. which merit the par- 
 ticular attention of the reader, viz. the establislmient 
 of the Christian Religion throughout the empire. Ijy 
 means of the conversion of the Emperor Constantine. 
 surnamed the Great; and his removal of the seat of 
 government from Rome to the ancient city of By- 
 zantium, which he rebuilt and called Constantinople, 
 or the Citu i>f ('nnxtuntine. We have already notice<l 
 the rapid spread of the Christian Religion". In the 
 days of Constantine it had penetrateil almost every 
 part of the empire. No sooner, therefore, did that 
 prince declare in favor of it, than it became tlie re- 
 ligion of the court, the capital, and soon of the em- 
 pire itself. This was tridy an amazing change, and 
 forms one of the most memorable icras in eeclesias- 
 tical liistorv; a meek and humble religion uid<nown 
 to the world, or if known, (les])ised ;ind ])crsecuted, 
 set on foot by a few oljscurc persons in .ludea, and 
 propagated only by tlie force of rational conviction, 
 spread and prevailed against all opposition over- 
 turned the altars and silenced the oracles of the 
 heathen; and at last, through hosts of prejudices for- 
 tified by anti(iuify, and sanctioned by universal cf.s- 
 tom. madi^ its way to the throne of the C'a;sars. It 
 was like a "stone cut out of a mountain without 
 hands, ix-coniing a great mountain and tilling the 
 whole earth." There are various accounts given, 
 and various opinions formed, concerningthe conver- 
 sion of t'onstanline. Whether his minil was swayed 
 by the power of truth, or by temporal, ])olitie;d and 
 interested motives, is not easy to determine. It is 
 related anil believed by some that his conversion ' 
 was miraculous. They say that he saw in tlu' heav- : 
 ens the sign of the cross, with this inscription in ni- ' 
 
 diant letters. By this conquer, and that upon this 
 he immediately embraced Christianity. His life 
 I and conduct were by no means eminent for christian 
 virtue, nor was he wholly free from crimes of the 
 deepest die. 
 
 From this period the Christian Church was loaded 
 with lionor, wealth and power ; nor did her virtues 
 ever sustain a severer trial. The chief dignitaries 
 of the empire could scarcely do less than imitate their 
 master, and Christianity soon became a necessary 
 qualification for public office. The church now no 
 longer apper.red in her ancient simplicit)' and purity; 
 lords and princes were among her converts, and she 
 was dressed in robes of state. Her ceremonies were 
 increased — her forms of worship were loaded with 
 pomp and splendor — her doctrines were intermingled 
 with the senseless jargon of a philosopliy eijually 
 absurd and vain; and the way seemed prepared, not 
 only for the decay of Christiim doctrine and moral- 
 ity, but of every science which distinguishes civiliz- 
 ed from savage nations. After various wars and 
 competitions, Constantine, in the year of Christ. 320, 
 became sole master of the Roman empire. He cer- 
 tainly did whatever could be done, by an accom- 
 plished General and statesman, towards restoring the 
 empire to its ancient glory. But, alas ! he did not 
 reign over the ancient Romans. His people had 
 been often defeated, humbled, enslaved, and tram- 
 pled in the dust. The true Roman spirit was long 
 since utterlv extinguished ; and, as we had occasion 
 to observe. Italj' itself was filled with a mighty 
 heterogeneous mass of population, of no fixed char- 
 acter. His strong genius for a moment sustained, 
 but could not ultimately save, the falling fabric. The 
 ambition of Constantine gave a more fatal blow to 
 the Roman empire than even the vices of Commodus. 
 To secure to himself aglory equal with that of Rom- 
 ulus, he formed the resolution of changing the seat 
 of empire. Tlie place upon Avhirh he pitched as a 
 new capital, and which shoidd immortalize his name 
 was indeed well chosen. The ancient city of Byzan- 
 tium enjoyed the finest port in the world, on the 
 straits of Bosphorus, which communicate with those 
 inland seas, whose shores are formed by the most 
 opulent and delightfid countries in Europe and Asia. 
 Thither Constantine caused the wealth of the empire 
 to be conveyed, and directly a new and splendid 
 city arose which was able to rival ancient Rome. 
 Tliat proud capital, so long the mistress of empire 
 suddenl}' became but a s:itellite, and was forsaken 
 by honor, wealth, and glory ; since the Emperor, and 
 ail who were devoted to his interest, used every pos- 
 sible means to exalt the new seat of empire. 
 
 This wound was deadly and incurable. It proved 
 fatal not only to one city, but to the western empire. 
 Rome was utterly abandoned by Constantine. nor 
 was it much alleviated under his successors, among 
 whom a permanent division of the empire taking 
 place, Rome and Italy fell under the government of 
 a series of weak, miserable, short-lived tyrants who 
 rose by conspiracy and fell by murder in rapid suc- 
 cession; till, in the 4T(!th -year of the Christian Era, 
 Augustulus, the last of the Roman Emperors, was 
 con(|uered and dethroned by Odoacer. King of the 
 lleruli, who. at tlie head of an immense army of 
 barbarians, overran all Italy, iiiid put a period to the 
 western empire. Thus ended Rome, after having 
 stood 122!) years ; and when we consider the lengtli 
 of her duration, her character, and the nature and 
 extent of her resources, we shall not hesitate to pro- 
 nounce her the most ])ow(Tful and iiii|iorlant city 
 wliieli ever existed, and as standing ;it the lie;id of 
 the first rank of citi<'S. But if this remark is true of 
 Rome in tlii! times of \vhi(;h we are now siieaking, it 
 will serve to awaken our admiration, when we con- 
 sider that R(une survived even this shock ; and, as 
 tliongh destined to bear rule, from being the head of 
 a powerful em]iire, she so on became the head of an 
 ecclesiastical institution not less powerfnl; she spread 
 her wings over all Europe.
 
 HOMPU. 
 
 770 
 
 HOPE. 
 
 liotnpu. 
 
 ROMPU.- Ill H(riililr.v,iiliriiiii|)- 
 |ilii (I In a clicvriin wlii'ii llic iipprr 
 [):irl is Uikcii olV, am! remuiuH above 
 il in till' lii'lil. 
 
 HONCONE.— The name givrTi by 
 siiMic :iiilliiirs to till' rmiHinr, u kind 
 cif |p:nli/,:iii. 
 
 RONDACHE. In luicicnt warfare, 
 a rirciilar sliiclil <iiiTic(l by foot- 
 Boldiurs lo pmlccl, I hi' upper piii'l of Ibc person, bav- 
 in}; a slit in I be upper pari for seeinf; tbroii;;b. and 
 another at the side for Ibe point of the sword lo puss 
 tbroiii^b. 
 
 RONDEL. In forliliealion, a round tower, some. 
 times <'re(lci| at tiie foot of a basljon. 
 
 RONDELLE. A small round shield wliieli was 
 formerly used iiy ligbl-armed infantry. Il was about 
 1| feet in leni^tli. A Itniuhllitr was an Areber or 
 Pikeman who carried the ronthUe. 
 
 RONFLEURS. Frederick the Great applied this 
 name to s<iiue 12. pounders of 22 calibers, weii.diin}; 
 ;i2,0{) pounds, wbieli, before the batlli' of I.eulhen, 
 lu^ had drawn from the neiyhliorini; f<irlress of (jlo- 
 l^an. The eli.'iriie for the LTun was .T ))ounds. 
 ' ROOKER AMBULANCE SADDLE. An ordinary ca- 
 valry saiUile, having an attachment consistim; of 
 two upright bars cut and hinged in the middle, a 
 cross-bar at the toji of the u|)riirbls to support the 
 bead, a canvas back, and two strong lealher straps 
 with buckles, so arrange<l as to support the apparatus 
 
 to 1)6 more or less inclined, to suit the rider. Wlien 
 the upright bars are placed iu the canvas, they need 
 
 not again be taken out, but may be folded at the 
 b.inges, and, with the straps inside, may be rolled 
 
 into a coinpael bundle and allai^jied bv Ibe coal- 
 straps to the canlle. Thi^ weight rif llie aUachnient 
 
 I is about 1 J pounds. 
 
 When inteniled to be iiKcd il may bo thiiB ad- 
 justi-d : I'nstrap il from Ibe canlle and place the 
 
 , sick or wounib'd man iti the saddle: insert the iron 
 keys in ibe lower ends of the uprigbis in the (rye- 
 bolls, espedally atlaclied to the saddle for Ibis pur- 
 pose, on each side, near the base »{ the canlle; put 
 on the cross-bar and key il ; hook the straps to tlie 
 eyelets in the upper parts of the uprights, having 
 llrst buckled the lower ends of the straps into the 
 staphs in front of the pommel ; then by the middle 
 buckles elevate or depri'ss tin- bead, lis maybe re- 
 qinred. An iindirella m.iy be readily atlacbed, 
 though not an essential part of the apparatus. The 
 form or arrangement of this contrivance is sliown 
 in the drawing. All hough it possesses mi-rit and 
 would at timi'S be of servicr', it has never been ex- 
 tiiisively nse<l tiicaiise of increasing Ibe weight and 
 mimlKT of articles a soldier has to carry. 
 
 ROPE. Hopes are generally made of vegetable 
 libres, and dilTer onlv from twine in their inucli 
 greater thickness. I'lie libre most commonly used 
 ishenip; but large quantities of plantain fibre. called 
 manila hemp, made from the leaf-stalks of ikiimi 
 ti'Ttilin, are also employed, especially for llie large 
 ropes used for various purposes f>n board ships. 
 HojH'S consist of many thicknesses of yarn, whiili 
 is spun by band in various places called rope. walks. 
 The spinner has a large bundle of the libre loosely 
 gathered around bis waist, from which be pulls out 
 a few fibres, and attaches them to a hook iu the 
 turning-wheel or whirl, which is stationary, and im 
 worked by an assistant. Experience teaches him 
 what number of fibres to draw out. and how to 
 twist them so as to bold tirndy on to the hook. He 
 then walks slowly backward down the rope-ground, 
 gradually drawing out or regulating the pulling 
 out of the fibres so as to make an equal yani. which 
 receives the neces.sary twist from the whirl. When 
 he has got to the end of the walk, another spinner 
 takes the yarn from th<' hook of the whirl, and tixes 
 it to a reel, which is then set in motion, and be 
 attaches a second portion of hemp Irom his own 
 supply to the hook, and iiroceeds down the walk as 
 the previous one had done. In the meantime, the 
 first spinner gradually walks up tlie ground, care- 
 fully guiding his length of yarn as it is wound on the 
 reel. When he readies the reel it stops, and he 
 waits until the see<ind spinner's length is completed. 
 He then in his turn takes it off the hook, and twists 
 it on to ills own : and the reel being again started, 
 receives the additional length from the .second man, 
 and so on until the full length reipiired is made up. 
 The next oper.it ion is called irfirpiiig, and consists 
 in stretching out the number of yams required for 
 a rope. These are all slightly twisted again separ- 
 ately, and stretched to an e(pial length. Then, if 
 they are intended for tarred ropes, each yam is 
 drawn separately, either lemrthwise or in a hank. 
 through a kettle of hot tar. ^rhe superHuous tar is 
 removed by drawing it through a hole lined with 
 oakum. In the next process, called Uiying, two or 
 more yarns are attached to hooks on a whirl, so that 
 whenit is turned they will be twisted together the 
 contrary way of the original twist they received in 
 the first spinning. When this is done It is called a 
 strand. Then as many of these strands as arc re- 
 quired for the rope arestretched at full length, and 
 are attached at each end to whirls. One of the 
 whirls has but one hook, to which all the strands 
 are attached ; the other has as many hooks as there 
 are strands. one always being central, and a strand is 
 attached to it. The whirls are then put iu motion, 
 but in opposite directions, and this causes the outer 
 strands to be laid with great regularity and firmness 
 around the central oni'. Such is the ordinary pro- 
 cess of rope-making ; but machines have bei'n in- 
 vented which produce ropes with such mathematical
 
 BOSASD SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. 
 
 780 
 
 KOSETTES. 
 
 precision tliat the strength of the rope may be cal- 
 culated with gre.it exactness. Captain Huddart has 
 the merit of effecting these improvements; and 
 verj- few applications of mechanism are more beau- 
 tiful in their details than those which he has worked 
 out. They, however, do not alter the principle of 
 the manufacture. Within the lai-t few years a great 
 improvement has been patented by Mr. Edward 
 Sang of Edinburgh, and is now in profitable use in 
 the large establishment of the Efliuburgh and Leith 
 Ropery Company. It consists of a machine wliich 
 spins the yarn from material supplied as before by 
 hand, but it does away with the long walk, and can 
 be used in a small room. 
 
 Large ropes are either what is called cable-laid or 
 Jinirser-laid. The former consists of three large 
 strands, each made up of three smaller strands. A 
 cable-laid rope of eight inches circumference ismade 
 up in this way of nine strands, each containing 37 
 original yarns, or altogether 333 yams. A hawser- 
 laid rope consists of o'nly three strands, each con- 
 taining a sufficient number of yarns to make up 
 the required thickness. The numerous lives and 
 the vast property depending on the efficiency of the 
 ropes employed in shipjung have caused " a great 
 amount of ingenuity and care to be brought to "bear 
 on the manufacture. One very great improvement 
 of modern times has been the 'introduction of wire 
 ropes, which are now e.xteusivelv used in rigging 
 ships, and for other purposes. They are generally 
 made of iron wire, sometimes but riot always gal- 
 vanized. The twisting is effected in the same waj' 
 as that in which the strands of a hempen rope are 
 laid together. 
 
 The following tiible shows the weight which man- 
 ila rope in daily >ise will sustain, simijly and when j 
 rove in tackles. Hemp rope is about one-third 
 stronger. Due allowance has been made for loss of 
 .strength by wear and tear. Look for the weight to 
 be raised, or the next larger, in the column headed 
 with the number of sheaves in the purchase of tackle. 
 The circumference of the rope required will be found 
 on the same line in the left-hand column. 
 
 will bear without breaking, multiply tite sqiiare of 
 the circumfereiiex by the tabular iiU7nbm-, 
 
 2 
 I 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 S o 
 
 O M 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 White. 
 
 Tarred. 
 
 3- 
 
 strand 
 
 4- 
 strand 
 
 3- 1 4- 
 strand strand 
 
 Hemp -^ 
 
 Manila - 
 
 ( 
 
 Inches. 
 
 2.5 to 6 
 6 to 8 
 2.5 to 6 
 G to 12 
 
 1140 
 
 1090 
 
 810 
 
 7G0 
 
 1330 
 1200 
 
 mo 
 
 835 
 
 850 
 825 
 
 1000 
 940 
 
 i 
 
 
 Single. 
 
 Number of Sheaves in Purchase. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o is 
 
 5 
 
 1.... 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 540 
 
 1,080 
 
 1,3.50 
 
 1,485 
 
 1,620 
 
 1,755 
 
 1-... 
 
 844 
 
 1,688 
 
 2,110 
 
 2,321 
 
 2,,532 
 
 2,743 
 
 if" 
 
 1,215 
 
 2,430 
 
 3,038 
 
 3,342 
 
 3,645 
 
 3.949 
 
 \i... 
 
 l,(i,54 
 
 3,308 
 
 4,135 
 
 4.559 
 
 4,962 
 
 5,376 
 
 2.... 
 
 2,160 
 
 4,320 
 
 5,400 
 
 5,940 
 
 6,4«0 
 
 7,020 
 
 ar... 
 
 21... 
 
 2,734 
 
 5,468 
 
 5,835 
 
 6,519 
 
 8,202 
 
 8,8861 
 
 3,375 
 
 6,750 
 
 8,438 
 
 9,282 
 
 10,125 
 
 10,969l 
 
 n... 
 
 4,084 
 
 8,168 
 
 10,210 
 
 11,231 
 
 12 252 
 
 13, 273! 
 
 3.... 
 
 4,860 
 
 9,720 
 
 12,1.50 
 
 13.365 
 
 14,580 
 
 15,795! 
 
 3f.. 
 ;3|... 
 
 5,704 
 
 11,408 
 
 14,360 
 
 15,68fi 
 
 17 112 
 
 18,538 
 
 G,4I5 
 
 12,830 
 
 16,018 
 
 17,657 
 
 19,245 
 
 20,854' 
 
 33... 
 
 7,.594 
 
 15,188 
 
 18,985 
 
 20,884 
 
 22,782 
 
 24,681; 
 
 4.... 
 
 8,040 
 
 17,280 
 
 21,601) 
 
 23,760 
 
 25,920 
 
 28,080' 
 
 4-... 
 4... 
 
 9,753 
 
 19,516 
 
 21,393 
 
 26,H31 
 
 29,2,59 
 
 31,697 
 
 10,935 
 
 21,870 
 
 27,338 
 
 30,072 
 
 32,795 
 
 35.529 
 
 4:... 
 
 12,184 
 
 24,368 
 
 30,460 
 
 33,. 506 
 
 36,5.52 
 
 39,598 
 
 5.... 
 
 13,. 100 
 
 •27,000 
 
 33,750 
 
 37,125 
 
 40,500 
 
 43,875 
 
 5i... 
 5 ... 
 
 14,881 
 
 29,768 
 
 37,210 
 
 40,931 
 
 44,652 
 
 48,373 
 
 16,335 
 
 32, 070 
 
 41,838 
 
 45,922 
 
 49,005 
 
 53,089 
 
 5 ... 
 
 17,954 
 
 35,908 
 
 44,885 
 
 49,373 
 
 53,862 
 
 58,3.50 
 
 6 ... 
 
 18,2r.2 
 
 36,.504' 45,630 
 
 .50,193 .55,756 
 
 60,319 
 
 61... 
 
 fs\... 
 
 19,H05 
 
 39,(nO| 49,51 3L54, 465'. 59,415 
 
 64.367 
 
 21,421 
 
 42,8121 ,53,.5,53 ns.'.lllH (14,263 
 
 69,018 
 
 GJ... 
 
 23,11)0 
 
 46,200; 57,750 i\:\S<2r,' 09, 300 
 
 75,075 
 
 7.... 
 
 24,843 
 
 49,7861 62,208 CH,! l«i 74,.529 
 
 80,740 
 
 8.... 
 
 32,448 
 
 64,890 81,1211 89,232107,341 
 
 105,1.5(1 
 
 To ascertain the strain in pounds which a ro 
 
 For ropes in daily use, the unit should be dimin- 
 ished one-third to meet the reduction in strength by 
 wear and exposure. A safe general rule for all ropes 
 is this : One-fourth the square of the circumference 
 gives the breaking weight in tons of 2000 lbs. When 
 using tackles, multiply the weight thus found by 
 one-half the number of sheaves in the blocks. Strapg 
 are applied by passing them around the object, put- 
 ting one bight through the other, and hooking to 
 this; or, afler putting it through, winding all'the 
 strap around the rope or spar, and hooking to both 
 bights. 
 
 Ropes should be placed in the U])per stories of 
 buildings, coiled up and labeled : large ropes on 
 skids, allowing free circulation of air ; small ropes 
 hung up to the joists, on pins or hooks. Ropes 
 should not be coiled until perfectl)' dry ; they should 
 be uncoiled every year, and stretched out for s('veral 
 days in the dry reason. Ropes long in store lose 
 their strength. See Bh>i-I,-s. Cordar/ . ami Tnciclix. 
 
 EOSAKD SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— In this .sj's- 
 tem, the bastions and ravelins are retrenched, and 
 the flanks are formed of good casemates, which se- 
 cure the defense of the main ditch. The tenaillons 
 and counter-guards, however,do not sufficiently cover 
 the bastion and ravelin. The first covered-way has 
 retrenched places of arms, and the second is defend- 
 ed by lunettes, which communicate with the place 
 by means of g:illeries. The great defect of the sys- 
 tem is the possibility of reaching the enceinte from 
 the covered-way of the ravelm. 
 
 ROSE. — The heraldic rose is drawn in a conven- 
 tional form, as in the drawing,and never with a stalk, 
 except when expressly directed by the words of 
 blazon. Being sometimes argent and somctimts 
 gules, it cannot be designated proper : but when 
 blazoned " barbed and seeded proper," it is meant 
 that the barbs are to be green, and the 
 seeds gold or yellow. The rose gules 
 was the badge of the Plantaaenets of 
 the House of Lancaster, and the rose 
 argent of that of York. The York rose 
 was sometimes surrounded with rays 
 as of the sun, termed ruse en soleil. As 
 a mark of cadency, the rose has been used as the 
 difference of the seventh son, 
 
 ROSE ENGINE.— A peculiar kind of turning lathe 
 having special chucks for the production of those 
 jiatterns of curved lines called by tlie French m.iittfs, 
 from I he slight resemblance which the}' bear to a 
 fidl-blown rose, and hence the term rnse-eiigini'. The 
 rose-engine lallie differs from the common lathe in 
 this, that the center of tlie circle in which the work 
 revolves is not a lixed point, but is made to oscil- 
 late with a slight motion whilelhe work is revolving 
 U])on it, the tool being all llu' time stationary, and 
 hence the figure will l)e "out of round," as the turn- 
 ers call it, or will deviate from the circular figure as 
 nuicli and as often as the motion is given to the cen- 
 ter. 
 
 ROSETTES.- Two small bunches of ribbons, that 
 wcri' altaclied to the loops by which the gorget of an 
 (illicer was .suspended ou his chest. 
 
 Eose.
 
 BOSIN. 
 
 781 
 
 ROSTHORN OUN METAi. 
 
 E08IN. — An cxiidiitioii from trccH bclonfjirif; to the 
 r()nif<Tii' or lirlrilii-, iinil l\w rcKiiliic left in the still, 
 lifter tin- oil or spirit of turpcnlini' 1ms been ilislillcd. 
 It is very conihiislililc, iiikI is used in li'^lil-liiill and 
 curcass i'otii|)<isilioM. 
 
 ROSS SCHINDER. A name Riven to foot-soldierH 
 wild svcre in the li;ihil of usinjj tlie <//»«7v«/!or glaite- 
 (/inKniii to liiiMisiririLC llie knights' horses. 
 
 ROSTER ROLLSTER, A tixeil order preHcrvcd in 
 inililiiry clepiirtinents iis the rotation in which indi- 
 viduals, eornjianies, or lar;;er bodies are Vailed on to 
 serve. In Kiii;land, rei;inieiits proceed on fi>rei;;n 
 service accord inj; In the rosier. In the I'ni led States, 
 the followinii roles in reiiard ti> the rosier apply to 
 Hervice both in K^iri'ison and in the lield : All deliiils 
 of servicer should he by roster, but, oHieers or en- 
 listed men, when detailisl, must serve whether ros- 
 ter be kept, or not ; havini; performed the service, 
 thi'y niay appeal to superior authority if they deem 
 themselves a;;irrieve<l. The iluti<s pc'rfornieil bv de- 
 tail are of three classes: T\w JirHt i'^'.i.s comprises 
 
 tain commaniliiid a hallalion lemiiorarily Ih exeiiipl 
 from detail, and duly falling to him pasHfH. Lit-ut- 
 enunl Colonels and .Slajors are on one roster. Tlir;y 
 may \w detailed for ilulies of the llrst and hCfiond 
 cIiiHseH, when the iiiiporlance of the ;;uardH and dc- 
 tacliinenls rei|iiires it. Their rosier is kept at ilivi- 
 Hion and bri);;adc lieail(|iiarlerB. In llif: company, 
 Ht-rgeants, corporals, ami privates form distinct roH- 
 tors. OIHcerH, Don-commissioned olllcers, and sold- 
 iers take duties of the llrst dasH in the (jrrier stateil, 
 viz, thi^ llrst, for the detail, takes the f;rand ^uardH : 
 the next, the interior Kiiurds ; thit last, the police 
 Unard : and the .same rule in regard to the details and 
 duties of the second class. In the details for the 
 third class, the senior ollicer takes the larKCht par- 
 ty. The party tirst for detail lakes the service out 
 of camp. 
 
 When the ofticer whose tour it is, is not able to 
 take it, or is not present at the hour of marching, 
 the next after him takes il. When a iruard has passed 
 the ch:nn of ■ .niiiicl- i.r :iii iutrrinr ^'uard has rcacli- 
 
 Koturv iSri(i<;e franc. 
 
 1st. arrand uiiani'* and outposts: 2d. interior guards, 
 as of magazine, hospital, etc.; 8d, orderlies ; 4tli, 
 police guards. The an aiul cla^s comprises— 1st. de- 
 tachments to protect laborers on military works, as 
 field-works, communications, etc.; 2d, working part- 
 ies on such works; ;<d, detachments to protect fat- 
 igues. The third Hush comprises General C'ourts- 
 Ulartial, and all fatigues, without arms, in or out of 
 the camp. In the C'av;ilrv, stable-guards form a 
 separate roster, and count before fatigue. 
 
 The rosters are distinct for each class. Ollicers 
 are named on them in the order of rank. The de- 
 tails are taken in succession in the order of the ros- 
 ter, beginning at the head. Lieutenants form one i 
 roster, and 1st and Od Lieutenants are entered on it 
 alternately. The senior Isl Lieutenant is the first on 
 the roster: the senior 2d LienteiKint is the second, '■ 
 etc. The Captains form one roster, and are exempt 
 from fatigues, except to superiuleud issues. A Cap- 
 
 ed its post, the otlicer whose tour it was cannot then 
 take it. Me lakes the tour of the officer who has 
 taken his. When an officer is prevented by sickness 
 from taking his tour, he becomes first for detail on 
 being restored to duty, the general rule being that the 
 officer longest off duty is the first for detail. These 
 rules apply equally to non-commissioned officers and 
 soldiers. Duties of the first and second classes are 
 credited on the roster when the guards or detach- 
 ments have passed the chain of sentinels, or an inter- 
 ior guard has reached its post : fatigue duties when 
 the parties h;ivt< passed the chain or begun the duties 
 in camp. Every officer, non-coraraissioncd officer, 
 or soldier, on duty of the tirst class, or who is of the 
 next detail for such duty, takes, when relieved, the 
 duty of the second or third class that has fallen to 
 him during that time, unless he has marched forde- 
 tachunni of more th;in twenlv-foiir hours. 
 ROSTHORN GUN METAL.— An alloy composed of
 
 SOTABY BRIDGE CBANE. 
 
 782 
 
 EOTAET PLANING MACHINE. 
 
 55.04 parts copper ; 42.3(5 zinc; 1.77 iron; and 0.83 
 tin; or, according to anotlicr analysis, .57. ()3 copper; 
 40.-2'3 tin : 1M ir^m ; :m,\ 0.15 tin" 
 
 ROTARY BRIDGE CRANE.— A novel form of rotary 
 crane po.-^sessing mam* advantages for certain kinds 
 of work in foundries. It consists of a mast and jib, 
 as in an ordinary jib crane, but is provided with a 
 circular overhead track carrying the outer end of 
 the jib, or the rotary bridge, so that the latter may 
 easily have a much greater length th.an the jib of aii 
 ordinary jib crane, and so that all diagonal braces 
 are dispensed with and the entire space under the 
 bridge left unobstructed. Cranes of this construc- 
 tion are built of capacities from 3 to 12 tons for op- 
 eration by hand, and of any desired capacity for 
 operation b}' power. 
 
 The engraving^ on page 781 shows the manner of its 
 arrangement. The frame consists of wrought-iron 
 
 Cranes of Ibis t3'pe can be adapted to heavy and 
 light work of all kinds, especially- in foundries, erect- 
 ing shops, etc. When arranged for operation by 
 power their capacity can be indefinitely extended. 
 They are particularly applicable to existing build- 
 ings the shape of which does not adapt them to Ihe 
 application of traveling-cranes, and in which the 
 construction does not adequately provide for the 
 strains which would residt from the use of the jib 
 cranes. (See Jln'dyc ('rnnr, Cranes, sinAJib Crane. 
 
 ROTARY PLANING-MACHINE.— This time and 
 labor-saving machine, so constantly employed in the 
 armory. is a comparatively recent invention. Its con- 
 struction, and method of attachment and operation, 
 are easily understood after an examination of the 
 drawing herewith, representing the machine as 
 made by Messrs. Manning, Maxwell & Moore, New 
 York. The machine is especially adapted to facing 
 
 channel beams, the mast and the bridge each being 
 composed of two such channel irons. The operating 
 mechanism, for the operation b}' hand, is contained 
 wholly within the two housings at the foot of the 
 mast, and its construction and action are identical 
 with those of the jib crane, to which a reference is 
 made for further particulars. The same mechanism 
 is also utilized for hoisting and lowering at several 
 speeds, and for causing travel of the trolley in either 
 direction upon the bridge. Rotation is effected by 
 simply pushing or pulling the suspended load, ex"- 
 cept in cranes of largj size, which are provided with 
 a power mechanism for this purpose. The construc- 
 tion of the upper bearing of the crane, by which the 
 head of the mast is carried, is such as to avoid any 
 severe lateral strains upon the roof, the weight being 
 carried, at one end of the bridge, by the mast, and 
 at the other by the circular track which issujiported 
 from the ground by suitable posts. 
 
 This type of crane affords all the conveniences of 
 the ordinary jib crane, while avoiding the limitation 
 in the vertical movement of the load imposed by the 
 diagonal braces of the latter. It also avoids the se- 
 vere lateral strains upon the building which result 
 from the use of jib cranes, and thus dispenses with 
 the heavy walls or bracing necessary, where jib 
 cranes are employed, to aft'ord the proper support of 
 the upper end of the mast of such cranes. The jiosts 
 supporting the circular track can easily be so placed 
 as to cause little if any obstruction upon the floor, or, 
 if the roof 1)(! stiff' enough, tlie track maybe hung 
 dire(;tly frotn it without resorting to special jxists. 
 The bridge, being supported at both ends, can con- 
 veniently have much greater span than the Jil) of a 
 jib crane, the outer end of which is necessarily over- 
 hung. With rotiiry bridge cranes of ordinary ca- 
 pacity a span of 50 feet is entirely feasible, and in 
 this way the crane can lie made to cover a circidar 
 floor 100 feet in diameter. 
 
 off valve seats, etc. It has two horizontal discs, the 
 upper secured by radial arras, adjusted to suit the 
 position of the studs in the valve seat ; the lower, 
 cairying the cutter and its slide, revolves freely 
 against the upper, and is held in its place by a king 
 bolt passing through its center. This lower plate is 
 also secured b)- a circulargib upon its circumference, 
 which admits of taking up the wear. It is an annu- 
 lar gear, having teeth cut on its inner periphery, 
 from which it receives its rotary motion by means 
 of its connection with the bevel gear anci crank. 
 The crank may be replaced by a puile_y if power be 
 convenient. The double bevel shaft acts like a back 
 gear and admits of a change of speed. Either bevel 
 is thrown into gear at pleasure by the movement of 
 a pin in a slot operated by the hand wheel. If the 
 outer bevel is in action, it gears directly into the 
 lower plate ; if the inner bevel, it is slow geared to 
 the outer, and that to the plate. The revolving 
 lower plate is fitted with a V slide and the tool post, 
 anti is fed by a screw and star wheel, arranged to 
 give a large variation in the feed, from roughing to 
 finishing, etc. The cutter is conveniently fed down 
 by the operation of a nut on the cutter spindle acting 
 against the tool post. The radial arms which secure 
 this machine to the studs are so finished with slots as 
 to give a wide range of adjustment. The nuts and 
 their bearings, in the washers which jam the radial 
 arms, nrv curved to admit of their being firndy 
 secured witliout springing the miichine, even though 
 the studs should be a little out of line. In case the 
 stud holes in a small valve seiit should come inside 
 the plates, four other radial arms are furnished with 
 the machine, fitted with a T slot, and witli a hole at 
 the other end corresponding to the hole for Ihe old 
 stud, thnsairording facilities for extreme cases. 
 
 The points <'laimcd for this tool are the great, .sa- 
 ving in time and l;dior over old methods; also ii sav- 
 ing in files, and the fact that the job may be done
 
 BOTATION. 
 
 m.'j 
 
 BOTATIOK. 
 
 arrnratrly, u« llii' pliiirs may Ik; nfX IriK; with the; 
 liiivvoni parts of llic viilvr siMit, anil, coiiMriinciilly, 
 the nrw face will lie likewise true. Il is readily seen 
 thai llie work (Nine is exactly in line w'tli llie travel 
 of the valve stein, thereby preventing' the yoke from 
 Blipi)in); uj) ami down tin; valvo, as w<-ll as all extra 
 friction on the valve stem. No more nniterial need 
 be n'nioved than is absolutely nc^cessary to true up, 
 thus saviiif; the seat. The work is doni; by a contin- 
 uous cut, and the loss of time from the return motion 
 of the onlinary planer avoidiil. 'I'liere is also no 
 hreakinj; out of the edires. The savin;; <lainu'd hy 
 tluMnakers over the old methods is from 75 to 80 
 JKT cent., and lOl) per cent, in tiles, as none need he 
 used. After the seat is planed, the' machine can he 
 lifted olT and placed on a table which is supplied 
 with stationary adjusting colunms ard chuck for 
 holdini; the valve, when the Kali'f is ]ilaneil. In many 
 instances, when the work is done in round houses, 
 the table is essential to a more perfect an<l satisfa<'- 
 tory job. Il is estimated that an ordinary locomo- 
 tive valve seat can be thoroughly trued u|) in two 
 liours. These machines are strong and well titled 
 lip, are easily handled, and will be found an excellent 
 tool in every respect. They are principally made in 
 three sizes, IH, 22, and '21) inches. 
 
 The following drauini; rejiresents a machine spe- 
 cially designed for faciiii; plain surfaces, in iron 
 work,wlier<' large luunbersof pieces of the same kind 
 are used; ou this class of work it is without doubt 
 
 1 riafre weri' runnin); from Kast to WcBt alon^f a par- 
 i allel of lalituilc, so as lo co;nplel(- the circuit in 34 
 , liours, he would he at rest relative to the eurth'H 
 axis. If, therefore, we wish to talk of tilmiluU mo- 
 tion, it must be measured rilnlirr to rixKi> poinlH or 
 directioiiH ; and in the violation of this ohvioiis con- 
 dition lies tlic error most comiiionly met with. TliUB, 
 to show that the earth rotates about its axis, we mu^ 
 observe its motion relatively to the line joining it 
 with the moon; and we observe that the moon 
 comes to the meridian at intervals of ^roughly; 2.'! 
 hours. Does the earth rotate in 'i'> hours? We know 
 that it does not, and the error consistH in treating as 
 an ahmlnle rotation, a rotation measured relative to 
 a line — that joining the earth and moon- which U 
 itself turning. If we lake the iiiterval.s of the Kiin'8 
 crossing the meridian, we lind 21 hours — a miicll 
 <;loser approximation: liut still not exact, liecaiiHC 
 our line of referinei — that joining the earth and sun 
 - is slowly turning. Would we have an absolute 
 measure, we must choose a fixfd line, or one ho near- 
 ly fixed that its motion will he absolutely insensible. 
 J^uch is the line joining any llxeil star with the earth, 
 and the time of the earth's iiluiiiliitf rotation about itH 
 axis is 2;!li •'•IJni 4.00' -the interval between culmi- 
 nations of the same fixed star. The dilTerence be- 
 tween absolute and relative rotation in any planet 
 gives rise to the dilference between {UcKi'lrrfil and 
 the miliir day: and the jilanet's j'ear contains just 
 "«e more of the former than of the latter. Kow, 
 
 superior to any reciprm-iiling planer tli;ii e;ni he 
 made; in many cases the finished work can be re- 
 moved and replaced l)y new work while the ma- 
 chine is still fining at the opposite end. There are 
 2S cutters, in the 2")-iucb. machine shown, secured 
 in a heavy plate wheel. b;inded with wrought iron 
 and driven by worm and worm-wheel: tiiis ]il;ile 
 wheel liiis a heavy steel spindle, and is carried in 
 a traveling head on the bed jihite, the work remain- 
 ing stationary. It has an automatic variable feed, 
 and the head is moved back by an independent 
 coimtershaft. This machine will face a surface 'iH 
 inches high and 11 feet long. The IS-inch machine j 
 lias 22 cutters, and will face a surface l.S inches 
 high and 8 feet long. The ;i2-inch machine has 36 1 
 cutters, and will fiiee a surface 32 inches high and \ 
 14 feet long. The weights of the machines are 
 I'i.llK), SOiin! and 1!122.") pounds respectively. I 
 
 ROTATION. -There is. perhaps, no elementary idea i 
 which lias been the subject of so much popular mis- 1 
 conception as that of rot;ition. This is probably due 
 to the vagueness of the definitions commonly given. 
 All motion that we c;in observe is rilntiir; for in- 
 stance, any lixed oljjcct on the earth's surface has a 
 certain motion rHutnv to the earth's axis, in conse- 
 quence of the diurnal rotation ; the earth itself has 
 a certain motion nintire to the sun, in consequence 
 of its annual revolution : the sun has a certain mo- 
 tion ?■</'(<'>(' to the so-called fixed stars; and it is 
 ]iossible that the whole stelhir sy.stem may have a 
 motion ir'ntiiv to something in space beyond its 
 boundaries. Now, the motion of an object on the 
 earth's surface dilTers according to the way it is 
 measured: a passenger sitting in ii railway carriage 
 is at rest if his motion irkitirc to the carriage be con- 
 sidered ; he has the same motion as the carriage if 
 It be measured rWaii'Bf to the rails: and if the car- 
 
 sujipnse for a mnniiiit lli;it tin' iiirlh were to 
 revolve only ^]j, iiart as fast as il now does, there 
 would be '/lie xidfreal day in the year, and there 
 would be no solar day at all— in other words, there 
 would be no rotation of the earth with reference to 
 the line joining it with the sun : that is. the earth 
 would turn always the same side to the sun : yet il 
 would be (ihmliitdi/ rotating about its axis once in a 
 year. This is the case which we observe in the 
 moon's motion relative to the earth, and we see at 
 once that the moon must rotate ahmUtUly — that is, 
 with reference to fixed directions in space — in the 
 exact time in which she completes one revolution 
 about the earth. Tlio.se who say the moon does not 
 rotate ou her axis make preciselv the .same mistake 
 as those who fancied that the earth is immovable, 
 and that moon, sun, and stars revolve about it every 
 day. There is a physical cause for this peculiarity 
 in "the moon's motion, which leads to very important 
 consequences with reference to the future of the 
 solar system. 
 
 Several elemiiilary theorems regarding rotation 
 may now be enuneiatcd ; but the proofs, though very 
 simple, will be given merely in outline. Any dis- 
 l>lacement f/'/intovr given to a plane figure in its own 
 ])lane — as to a sheet of paper lying on a table— is 
 equivalent to a single rotatiim about a definite axis. 
 Let A, B lie any two points of the figure, and let 
 them lie displaced to A'. H' respectively. .Join AA', 
 BB'. and bisect them in <i and A by perpendiculars 
 meeting in O. Then, it is easy to show that (1.) 
 OA'=(").V. (>H' = OB, and therefore O is the *i;n« 
 point of the plane figure in its first and second posi- 
 tions. (2.) AO.\.' = BOH': and this is therefore the 
 angle through which the whole has turned about 
 the p'>int ()." If .V.V and BIV are parallel, this con- 
 struction fails ; but in this case, if -VB and A'B' do
 
 HOTATION OF PKOJECTILES. 
 
 (84 
 
 BOTATION OF FROJECTILEB. 
 
 not intersect, the motion is simply one of translation: 
 if tliey do intersect, the point of intersection is the 
 axis. Any number of successive rotations about dif- 
 ferent points constitute, of course, a displacement, 
 
 and are therefore reducible to one rotation. Two 
 equal and opposite rotations about different points 
 give rise to a mere translation. The first two of these 
 propositions are true of figures ou a spliere as well 
 as on a plane surface ; for the figure above lias only 
 to be drawn with great circles instead of straight 
 lines, and the proof applies letter for letter. Only, 
 here, the first case of e.xception cannot occur, be- 
 catise two great circles mu.it intersect. Hence it 
 follows that if the center of a sphere be fi.xed, any 
 ilisplacement whatever is equivalent to a rotation 
 about some axis ; that is, after any motion whatever 
 of a rigid body, one point of which is fixed, there is 
 always one line of particles which remains undis- 
 turbed. Hence rotations about anj- number of axes 
 passing through the same fixed point may be com- 
 pounded into one : and, generally, any motion what- 
 ever of a rigid body may be decomposed into two. 
 one of which is a motion of translation of some 
 chosen point, aud the other rotation about some axis 
 through that point. Tims, in the case of the moon, 
 ■we have a motion of translation of its center in its 
 orbit, and one of rotation about its axis : or we may 
 combine them into a single rotation in the period of 
 a lunar month about a fixed axis passing through the 
 earth's center. Again, any'displacement. of aplanc 
 figure in its plane, or of a spherical figure on a sphere, 
 may be produced by the rolling of a curve fixed in 
 the figure upon another fixed on the plane or sphere. 
 Hence, the most general motion of a body with re- 
 ference to one point, consists in the rolling of a cone 
 fixed in the body upon another fi.xed in s^^aee, their 
 vertices being at the chosen point. To this, when 
 the cones in question are right circular cones, belong 
 the precession and nutntion of the earth and of a top, 
 the evolutions of an ill-thrown quoit, etc. Sec i^o- 
 tatiiin <-/' I'fi'jiiiilm. 
 
 ROTATION OF PROJECTILES.— The principal cause 
 of the deviation of a projectile is its rotation com- 
 bined with the resistance of the air. It is proposed, 
 in the first jjlace, to show how rotation may be pro- 
 duced, and in the second, to show how" rotation 
 combined with the resistance of the air, produces 
 deviation. 
 
 If the projectile be spherical and homogeneous, 
 rotation is produced by the bounding or balloting of 
 tlie ball in the liore, arising from th^ windage. In 
 this case the axis of rotation is horizonlal, and 
 passes through the center of the ball; Ihe direction 
 of rotation depends on the side of the projectile 
 which strikes tlie surface of the bore last ; if it'strike 
 on lli<! upjK-r siilc, the front surface of the projectile 
 will move upward ; if on the lower side, this siirface 
 will move downward. The velocity of rotation 
 from this cause depends on the windage, or depth 
 of the indentations in the bore, the charge being the 
 same. It has been found to be, for ordinary wind- 
 age, about 30 feet for a 24 pdr. shell fired" with 2{ 
 lbs. of powder. 
 
 If from the structure of the ball, or from some de- 
 fect of manufacture, Ihe center of gravity do not 
 coincide with the (■(•nler(jf figure, rotation gcncrallv 
 takes place around the center of gravil}-. This arises 
 
 from the fact that the resultant of the charge acts at 
 the center of figure, while inertia, or resistance to 
 motion, acts at the center of gravity, and is perpen- 
 dicular to a plane containing the resultant of the 
 charge and tlie centers of figure and gravity. For 
 the same charge, the velocity of rotation is pro- 
 portional to the lever arm, or perpendicular, let fall 
 from the center of gravity to the resultant of the 
 charge. Knowing the position of the center of 
 gravity of the ball in the bore, it is easy to foretell the 
 direction and velocity of rotation. In general terms, 
 the front surface of the projectile moves toward 
 the side of the bore on which the center of grav- 
 ity is situated, and tlie velocity of rotation is great- 
 est when the line joining the centers of gravity and 
 figure is perpendicular to the axis of the bore. 
 
 The effect of rotation in producing deviation of 
 projectiles may be studied under two heads: 1st. 
 When the projectile is spherical and concentric. 2d. 
 When it is spherical and eccentric. 
 
 The simplest case is that of a homogeneous spheri- 
 cal projectile, rotating around a vertical axis passing 
 througli the center of gravity. 
 
 Let ^1 B (! I>, in Fig. 1, represent the great circle 
 cut out of the sphere perpendicular to the axis of 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 rotation, and suppose rotation to take place in the 
 direction A C B. aud the motion of translation in 
 the direction ^1 B; it is evident that each point of 
 the circle moves in the direction A B, whh a velocity 
 which is equal to the velocity of translation, plus or 
 minus the component of its velocity of rotation in 
 the direction of the axis A B, which is equal to the 
 projection of the arc over which the point moves in 
 a unit of time ou the line -1 B. The points C and 
 D have the greatest velocity in the direction of this 
 line, .! B, and the points ,1 and B the least. All 
 the points in the semi-circle .1 C B rotate in a for- 
 ward direction, and the components of their veloci- 
 ties of rotation must be added to that of translation; 
 while the points in the serai-circle B D A move back- 
 ward in rotation, and the components of their veloci- 
 ties must be subtracted from it. A body moving in 
 the air draws with it a film of the particles which 
 surround it, and these particles set in motion the ad- 
 jacent iiarticles, and so on from one layer to another; 
 the number of particles set in motion and their reac- 
 tion <m the surface of the projectile, depend on the 
 velocity of the moving surface; now it has been 
 shownlhat the surface -4 C B moves with a greater 
 velocity than the opposite side, the reaction, or pres- 
 sure upon it, must be greater than upon the latter, 
 and the projectile will be urged in the direction D. 
 In Fig. 2, let ^l (' I! 1> represent the great circle 
 cut out of an eccentric projectile perpendicular to 
 
 Fig. a. 
 
 the axis of rotation, and containing the center of 
 figure O, and the center of gravity (")'. Suppose the
 
 ilOTTBERO SYSTEM OF FOBTIFICATION. 
 
 785 
 
 HOUND BULLET. 
 
 uiotioiiH of rotntion and' tntiisliilioii III [nkv place ui* 
 ill tlio prt'ccdiiif; ciisc', il follows llial llwsaiiif cause 
 will opcraUr in lliis, as in the pnccdjnf; case, lo de- 
 vialc llic j)rojcclilr in the direction ''-/V.-Jiiit there 
 is another and more powerful cause operalinir to di'- 
 viate the ))rojeelilc' In the same ilireelion, and Ihal 
 is, the nrcal<'r pressure' on IIk; side .1 <' /I arisin;^ 
 from the greater surfaces olTercrl to the air in <'onse- 
 (pience of the eccentrieily . These phenomena nniy lie 
 easily illustrated hy the very simple and ingenious 
 apparatus devised by I'rof. ,\la[;iius, of Merlin. I,et 
 (\ in Kii;. ;i, represent a li;;ld brass eylinil<T, deli- 
 cal(^ly suspended in a riiii;, and made to revolve 
 very rapiiUy around its vertical a\N, by mi-ans of u 
 
 '0 
 
 .-n 
 
 striii!!;, after the maimer of a to]); let tliis riiii; be 
 Buspended at the extremity of a wooden lever Ji', 
 which, in turn, is suspended by a delicate wire from 
 the ceiliiii;, so that il may rotate freely in a horizon- 
 tal direction; let /' be a counterpoise, and A' the 
 (iireclion of a slroni; current of air blowing; upipn 
 the cylinder from a fan-blower. It is invariably 
 found, that tlie a.\Ls of the cylinder will move in tlie 
 opposite direction from the side which is movinj; 
 toward the current of air from the blower (see direc- 
 tion of the arrows); but if there be no rotation of (he 
 c.vlinder the axis will remain st;ition;iry. 
 
 The follo\viu£r conclusions ;ir<' olivious: — If a pro- 
 jectile be spherical and concentric, rotation takes 
 place from contact with the surface of the bore 
 aroimd a liorizcmtal axis, and the elTcct will bo to 
 shorten or lengthen the range, as the motion of the 
 front surface is downward or upward. 
 
 If the projectile be eccentric, the moti<in of the 
 front surface is generally toward tlie side on which 
 the center of gravity is situated, and the deviation 
 takes place in this direction. 
 
 The extent of the deviation for tlie same charge, 
 depends on the position of the center of gravity; the 
 horizontal deviation being the greatest when the 
 centers of gravity and tigure are in a liorizontal 
 plane, and the line which joins them is at right 
 angles to the axis of the piece : tlie vertical devia- 
 tion will be the greatest when these centers are in a 
 vertical plane, and wdicii the line which joins them 
 is at right angles to the axis of the piece. If the axis 
 of rotation coincide with the tangent to the trajec- 
 tory throughout the lliglit. all points of the surface 
 have the same velocity in the direction of the motion 
 of translation, ami there will be no-deviation. This 
 explains why it is that a ritle-projectile will move 
 through the air more accurately than a projectile 
 from a smooth-bored gun. See Diriiitiim, Initial 
 Vehcity of lintali'in, li'iliitinn, and Vthflty of lio- 
 iation . 
 
 EOTTBEKG SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATIOK.— This en- 
 ceinte consists of a bell of isolated forts and cava- 
 liers, the rampart of which is caseniated. A case- 
 mated wall, situated in the ditch at the salient of the 
 bastion adjoining the cavalier, serves to Hank that 
 work. The exterior fronts of the forts are covered 
 by a couvre-face formed of a double covered-way; 
 the inner one serving as reduit is secured against 
 entilade l>y a caseniated bonnet. The ditch, which 
 is partially wet, receives its defense from the c;iva- 
 lier and the flanks of the bastions. The r:ivelin and 
 its reduit are caseniated ; but the casemates of the 
 gorge of the reduit are opened to the rear to be ex- 
 posed to the view of the place, whilst the ditch be- 
 fore the faces is defended by a reverse gallery con- 
 
 Htnicled at the salient of the ravelin. On tlie cupi- 
 lalH of the forts are easemated flechcH with a cover- 
 ed-way capable of mainlainlng a protriu:ted rli'fenHC. 
 The loss of one fort does nril entail the fall of the 
 others. 
 
 ROTTEN STONE A mineral consiiting cln<(ly of 
 alundna, with about 10 percent of carlionaceouB 
 matter, and a little silica. It Ih Niipponed to be 
 formed by decoin|)osition of sliale. It is found in 
 iJerbyshirc, Kngland, in Wales, and near Albany, ih 
 the .State of New York. It is brown ; either grayish, 
 reddish, or bhurkish. It Is soft, and easily scraped 
 to powder, and is well-known lo soldiers, being much 
 used for cli-aning anil polishing brass and other 
 metals. 
 
 EOUOE CROIX.' One of the pursuivants attaching 
 to the heraldic establishment of Kngland, generally 
 allowed lo be the most ancient, Ihoiigh the period of 
 institution is uncertain. The title is derived from 
 the Red Cross of St. (Jeorge, the Patron Saint of 
 ICmxhinil. 
 
 ROUGE DRAGON.- The title of a pursnivancy 
 founded by Henry VII. on the day before his coro- 
 nation. The name is taken from the supposed En- 
 sign of Cadwaladyr, the last King of tin- ISritons, an- 
 cestor of that Monarch. The red ilragon was also 
 sometimes used bv Henry VII. as a supporter. 
 
 ROUGHING. ~A" mode of treating horse-shoes dur- 
 iii'r --liiipiiy weather, when ice is lying on the ground. 
 The ohi mode of carrying out this operation is con- 
 sidered an inconvenient and exceedingly injurious 
 plan. A new method of roughing is recomiiiended 
 be Mr.George Fleming, a Veterinary Surgeon of the 
 Hoyal Engineers, which consists in the fnsertion of 
 a small, pointed, scpiare plug of steel, measuring 
 from 1 to 3 inches fnearly always the former) at the 
 heel, and. if desirable, at the toe also of each shoe, 
 in a simple square hole punched at these points. 
 The result is stated to be most satisfactory, horses 
 being enabled, in the most frosty state of tlie roads, 
 to do their work as in ordinary weather. The army 
 horses at Chatham were so roughed during the win- 
 ter of IKTri, and nothing could have been moresati.s- 
 factor)'. 
 
 The term roiig/iing is also ajiplied to the action of 
 a rasp on a fuse, to make it bite in the fuse-hole. 
 
 ROUGH RIDER. -In the artillery or cavalry, an In- 
 strurlnrof equitation, and assistant to the Hiding- 
 master. One is allowed to each troop or battery. 
 
 ROULEAUX.— Round bundles of fascines, wiiicli 
 are tied together. They serve to cover men when 
 the works are pushed close to a besieged town, or to 
 mask the head of a work. 
 
 ROULETTE. — An instrument used in engraving. 
 mechanical drawing, and plotting, for makingdotted 
 lines. It has a wheel and points, which, for use on 
 paper, is dipped into India-ink, so that the points 
 impress a series of black dots or marks as the instru- 
 ment passes over the paper. Different patterns of 
 dots are used for national, state, county, and town- 
 ship lines, canals, roads, railways, etc. Sec Dotting. 
 pill. 
 
 ROUND. - In artillery, a roimd of ammunition " 
 comprehends the charge of powder, the projectile, 
 and the priming or friction tube. To fire one or mora 
 rounds is to discharge each gun in succession from 
 a battery or a portion of it. until the turn comes 
 round for the first gun to lire again. Light artilleiy 
 can come into action and tire one rountl in "28 sec- 
 onds, timing from the order " .Vction front," to the 
 discharge of the piece; and in 1.5 seconds if the 
 first cartridge and shot be carried in a box on the 
 giin axle-tree. 
 
 ROUND-BAR. — In ordnance, a nielallic cylinder, 
 which has licen reduced from a larger cylinder by 
 rollim; friction. 
 
 ROUND BULLET.— The object of small-arms is to 
 attain animate objects ; their projectiles are, there- 
 fore, made of lead, and are generally known as buL 
 lets. They are both round and oblong ; but in con.
 
 KOUNDEL. 
 
 780 
 
 EODTE STEP. 
 
 sequence of the great improvements that were made 
 of late, in adapting the principle of the rifle to small- 
 arms, the oblong ball is now very gcucrallj- used in 
 all military services, the round bullet being chiefly 
 retained for use in case-shot. 
 
 Round bullets are denominated by the number 
 contained iu a pound ; this method is often used to 
 express the caliber of small-arms : as, for instance, 
 •the caliber of the old musket was 17 to the pound, 
 and the rifle was 33. In 1856, these two calibers 
 were replaced by one 24 to the pound, that of the 
 new rifle-musket. The number is sometimes prefixed 
 to the word gauge in which case the rifle-mnsket 
 would be calleda 'Ugauge gun. This mode, however, 
 is principally used to designate sporting-arms. 
 
 The oblong bullet is denominated by its diameter 
 and weight : for instance, the new rifle-musket ball 
 lias a diameter of C'SS in., and it weighs540 grains. 
 See Bullet. Oblong Bullet, and Projectiles. 
 
 BOUNSEL. — 1. A disk of iron having a central 
 aperture, through which an assembling-bolt passes. 
 It serves to separate the stock and cheeks. 2. A 
 shield used by the Norman soldiers. 3. A semi- 
 circular bastion in early fortification as introduced by 
 Albert Dlirer. This bastion was about 300 feet in 
 diameter and contained roomy casemates for the 
 troops. Also written Bouiidelie. 
 
 HOHNDHEADS.— A name given by the adherents 
 of Charles I., during the Engli.sh civil war, to the 
 Puritans, or friends of the Parliament, who distin- 
 guished themselves bj' having their 
 
 I 1 hair closel_y cut, while the CaValiers 
 
 I (^ C~^ I wore theirs in Ion? ringlets. 
 y<^ ^^j EOUNDLE— ROUNDLET.— In Herald- 
 \ /'^ / ry, a general name given to charges 
 of a circular form, which, iu English 
 Heraldry, have more s|)ecial names 
 indicative of their tinctures theroun- 
 Eoundlet die or being, for example, called a 
 bezant : and the roimdle gules, a torteaux. 
 
 ROUND POWDER.— In case of emergency, and 
 wlun powder cannot be procured from the mills, it 
 ma3' be made, in a simple and expeditious manner, 
 as follows : Fix a powder-barrel on a shaft passing 
 through its two heads, the barrel having ledges on 
 the inside ; to prevent leakage, cover it with a close 
 canvas glued on, and put the hoops over the canvas. 
 Put into the barrel 10 lbs. of sulphur in lumps, and 
 10 lbs. of charcoal, with 60 lbs. of zinc balls or of 
 small shot (down to No. 4, 0.014 in. in diameter 
 nearly) ; turn it, by hand or otherwise, 30 revolu- 
 tions in a minute. To 10 lbs. of tliis mixture thus 
 pulverized, add 30 lbs. of nitre, and work it two 
 hours with the balls; water the 40 lbs. of composi- 
 tion with 2 quarts of water, mixing it equally with 
 the hands, and granulate with the graining-sieve. 
 The grains thus made, not being pres.sed, are too soft. 
 To make them hard, put them into a barrel having 
 5 or 6 ledges projecting about 0.4 in. inside ; give it 
 at first 8 revolutions in a mimile, increasing gradual- 
 ly to 30. The compression will be proportionate to 
 the charge in tlie liarrel, which sliould not, however, 
 be more than half fidl ; continue tliisoiieraliin until 
 llie density is such that a cubic foot of the powder 
 .shall weigh S,5r) oz., the mean density of round pow- 
 der ; strike on the staves of the barrel from time to 
 time, to prevent the adhesion of the powder. Sift 
 the grains and dry the powder as usual. That which 
 is too fine or loo coarse is returned lo tlie pulveriziii"-- 
 barrcl. This powder is round, and the grain is sufil- 
 oiently hard on the surface, but the interior is soft, 
 which makes it unlit for keeping, and may cause it 
 to burn slowly. This defect may be reinedied by 
 making the grains at tir.sl very small, and liy rolling 
 tliem on a sheet or in a barrel, watering tliem froiii 
 lime lo time, and adding pulverized cumposilion in 
 small projiortions; in this way, the grains will be 
 formed liy successive layers; they are then scparat- 
 <-d according to size, glazed and "dried, ll appears 
 from experiments tliat the aimple incorporation of the | 
 
 materials makes a powder which gives nearly as high 
 ranges with cannon as grained powder. The incor- 
 porated dust from the rolling-barrel may be used in 
 case of necessity. See Gunpmodtr. 
 
 ROUND ROBIN. — A name given to a protest or re- 
 monstrance signed by a number of. persons in a cir- 
 cular form, so that no one shall be obliged to head 
 the list. The Round Robin originated" in Prance, 
 and the name is derived from the words rond, round, 
 and ruhan, a ribbon. 
 
 ROUNDS. — An OSicer, or Non-commissioned Of- 
 ficer who. attended by one or more men, visits the 
 sentinels on post, in order to ascertain whether they 
 are vigilanl. The design of rounds is not only to 
 visit the guards, and keep the sentinels alert," but 
 likewise to discover what passes in the outworks, 
 and beyond them. See Grand BoundH and Visiting 
 Bounds. 
 
 ROUND-WIRE.— In ordnance, a metallic cylinder 
 which has been reduced from a larger cylinder by 
 rubbing friction. 
 
 ROUT. — To put to ro^tt is to defeat and throw into 
 confusion. It is not a retreat in good order, but 
 also implies dispeision. 
 
 ROUTE. — An open road ; the course of march of 
 troops. Instruction for the march of detachments, 
 specif3'ing daily marches, the means of supply, are 
 given from the headquarters of an army in the deld, 
 and are called marching routes. 
 
 ROUTE MARCHES.— Three marches are used in 
 peace to conduct a body of troops from one station 
 to another. They are used in war for the purpose 
 Of assembling the fractions of an armj- on its base of 
 operations, of conducting troops through a district 
 or country where there is no enemj-, etc. The liealth, 
 comfort and convenience of the troops are the prin- 
 cipal things to be considered in arranging the details 
 of their execution. When the body of troops to be 
 moved is large it should be subdivided into smaller 
 bodies, and These detachments are sent by different 
 roads. Caution must be taken to prevent the cross- 
 ing of the columns on the march, as one would 
 then have to wait to allow the other to pass, and the 
 delay caused to the waiting column would be irk- 
 some in the extreme. Since, in executing marches 
 of this kind, there is no danger to be expected from 
 an enemy, the precautions taken in the other kinds 
 of marches to guard against attack may be omitted. 
 Route marches are designated as ordinary, forced 
 and mil, according to the manner in which they 
 are made. The ordinary route march does not ex- 
 ceed 30 miles per day. Forced marches are extre- 
 mely exhausting upon the troops and should not 
 exceed 30 miles per day. They should only be re- 
 sorted to in time of peace under pressing circum- 
 stances. They are much used in war, when a rapid 
 concentration of troops is to be made, or when a 
 strategical combination is to be effected. Railroads 
 have become in recent years the great factor in ra- 
 pid and cheap means of moving troops, and are of 
 especial service when the time given to the troops to 
 reach their destination is short, and the distance is 
 great. The marches made by the several corps of 
 the French army in 1805, by which this army was 
 assembled upon" the Rhine is an example in point. 
 Napoleon issued his orders for the corps to move on 
 three diftereni routes, each of the seven corps being 
 divided into three divisions, following each olheron 
 three successive days. The ;irrangements were per- 
 fect : all crossings of columns were avoided; the 
 marches for each day were of proper length : the 
 great natural routes were followed, and the <letach- 
 mcnts arrived in succession and without interference 
 at their destination. See Marches. 
 
 ROUTE STEP.— A style of march, whereby the men 
 ciirry their ;iriiis at will, keeping the muzzles eleva- 
 te<l ; they are not re(|uircd to preserve silence, or to 
 keep the step, but each man covers the tile in his 
 front. The column of fours is the habitual coliunn 
 of route. The route step is at the rate of from two
 
 aOUTINE. 
 
 78; 
 
 EOWEL. 
 
 miloa anrl a half to tlirue inilos \>v.r lioiir. The col- 
 UMiii ijf fourH liciii;^ ill iniircli, to iimrcli in llic^ I'liule 
 *<'y',tlic ('aplaiii coiiiiiiaiKis: 1. Jiaiitr ule/i, 2. Mauoh. 
 Al I lie rominaiul mri?x/i, tli(^ men carry tlicir arms at 
 will, kccpiiij!; till! inuzzlcH elevated ; they are iiot re- 
 quired to preserve silenee, or to keep the step, liut 
 each liiiaii covers the file in his front. The ranks 
 preserve the dislaiiee of thirty-two inches from each 
 oilier. To resume the cadeiieeil sic]), llie ("ai)lain 
 coiiimiiiids : 1 . < 'i/iii /la/ii/, 2. AvTv.firios At I lie se- 
 cond eiimmaiid, the arms an^ liroiinht to the rif;ht 
 shoiililer, and the cadenced step is resumed. The 
 company mareliiiif; in line may also march in the 
 route step, the rear rank falliiif; hack to thirty-two 
 inches. The company in route stej) changes direc- 
 tion by the same commands as when in the caden- 
 ced step. 
 
 ROUTINE.— Capacity or the faculty of arrang- 
 ini; ; a certain method rather acquired liy habit and 
 practice than by study and rule. It sii^nilies also a 
 (leneral custom or usaije, established by habit, and 
 followed mechanicallv. 
 
 macliinc for arsenal use. The Kpindle in of Hteel 
 fitted to a steel tube with which it revolves, and in 
 which it slides longitudinally. The wear is thus 
 confined to the tuhe wliere it "is easily taken up by 
 means jirovided for the purpose, and the trouble 
 experienced with machines where the npindle slides 
 in the same lieariu'zs in which it revolves is wholly 
 avoided. 'I'lie spindle head is carried on a luver con- 
 necled by a universal joint to a swinging arm. A.s 
 this arm is strongly webbed and is provided with a 
 long bearing on the outside of the sleeve forming 
 the ujipi-r bearing for the vertical shaft al the corner 
 of the machine, additional supports are dispensed 
 with, and the tables is left clear for the reception of 
 large work. Through the agency of arm and lever 
 the cutter can be easily brought to any part of the 
 work. lioth the sjiindh; head and the stud carrying 
 the intermediate piillej' are movalde, to enable them 
 to be shifted to take up the slack of the belt. The 
 spindle has a vertical adjustment of 1| inches, and 
 the clamps are made double faced and reversible. 
 Either a spring rest for keeping the cutter from the 
 
 BOOTING MACHINE.- A shaping-machine which 
 works by means of a router-cutter, adjustable itself 
 and revolving above a bed with universal horizontal 
 adjustment, so as to permit the cutler to follow along 
 a traced line, and thus cut to a shape, or groove to 
 a depth, the work upon the table. It is adapted 
 for work in metal or stone ; in the latter case, black 
 diamonds are used. Paneling in relief or intaglio, 
 raised or sunken carving, circular slotting, slotting, 
 key-seating, beveling, and bordering may be done 
 upon it. 
 
 Tlic drawing shows a very convenient routing- 
 
 work until the lever is depressed, or a .solid rest, aa 
 shown iu the drawing, niaj' be used, but the solid 
 rest is safer and more convenient. The table will 
 take on a plate 24x32 inches which can be comple- 
 tcly routed without being shifted more than once. 
 Six cutters, from -j's to 4 inch in diameter, and a tool 
 box fitting the side of the body accompany each 
 machine. An attachment for cutting straight lines 
 is also used. The speed is 7,000 to 87000 revolutions 
 per minute. 
 
 KOWEL. — The pointed part of a riding spur, made 
 in a circular form, with rays or points like a star.
 
 KOTAL. 
 
 788 
 
 ROYAL GUNPOWDER FACTORY. 
 
 ROYAL. — 1 A small mortar wbicb carries a shell 
 Tvhose diameter is 5.5 inches. It is mounted on a 
 bed like other mortars. 2. In England, one of the 
 soldiers of the first regiment of foot, called the 
 Royal, and supposed to be the oldest regular corps 
 in Europe. 
 
 ROYAL ARTILLERY INSTITUTION.— An establish- 
 ment organized at Wuolwicli in the year 1888. The 
 building was erected at government expense, and is 
 supported partly b}' subscriptions from the officers 
 of the regiment and parth' by government. It con- 
 tains a museum, lecture-room, laljoratory, theatre, 
 and printing press. Reports, verbatim, of all lectures 
 which have been delivered are issued periodically to 
 all its members. It is a repository for the sale of 
 militarv books, stationery, etc. 
 
 ROYAL CORPS OF ENGINEERS.— A component 
 portion of the Army of the British Empire. A si- 
 milar Corps exists in all regular armies. It is the 
 scientific and constructive branch, intrusted with 
 the making and defending of all military wi>rk,i, and 
 the attack and conquest of similar works belonging 
 to an enemy. It is true that civilians are often em- 
 ployed to construct the buildings themselves, at a 
 stated price : but the Military Engineers make the 
 plans, and are responsible to the country for their ef- 
 ficiency. For a number of years past, contractors 
 have been at work on fortifications at Portsmouth 
 and in other parts of the kingdom, but on plans and 
 under orders for which the Engineer Department of 
 the Government is responsible. 
 
 The Royal Engineers of the United Kingdom 
 form one Regiment or Corps. The officers, in time 
 of peace, are scattered all over the world. There is 
 no half-pay, except on per ma Tie /it retirement; and 
 no unemployed list. They have much wear and tear 
 of earlier age than other officers. Their regular pay 
 corresponds to the active pay of other officers of 
 the same rank : but thej' exclusively receive in ad- 
 dition extra pay, atnounting to one-half their ordin- 
 ary pay wlien on dut_y at home, and equaling their 
 ordinary pay when emplo}'ed abroad or in the Lon- 
 don district. There is an establishment of Engineers 
 in each military command, to conduct and superin- 
 tend all the military buildings and works. The en- 
 tire force is imder a particular Department of the 
 War Office, that of the Inspector General of fortifi- 
 cations. Until the year 17(i3, the duties of Jlilitary 
 Engineers were discharged by officers taken from the 
 regular army. In tliat year, however, the Corps of 
 Engineers was formed, greatly to the advantage of 
 the military service. In 1783, it was made a Hayal 
 Corps, and a distinctive uniform adopted. Several 
 companies of artificers were, in 1812, converted into 
 sappers and miners, and placed under the Engin- 
 eers. 
 
 The non-commissioned officers and privates of 
 this valuable Corps arc all workmen who have learn- 
 ed some mechanical trade ; hence their skill in all 
 constructive operations. The Ordnance Survej' has 
 been intrusted to tlie Corps. For many purposes the 
 mi'uare Uiit,\\H-y attend to special and peculiar work; 
 and at such times their emohniirni is always increas- 
 ed. They often buy their discliarge, in order to go 
 into civil employments, wlien the prospects are very 
 good. The men enlist for 12 years, with power to 
 re-engage (if wanted) for nine more ; but tliey can 
 purchase their discliarge at any lime. They have to 
 pay more for their discharge th:in other Corps in tlie 
 army, having r(^ceived more instruction at the na- 
 tional expense. Officers iiilcnded for tli<' Kngineers 
 enter the Koyal Militarj- Academy ascaiU'ts liy open 
 competition, and psiss out from time to time for com- 
 missions. When in the Corjis, promotion is by se- 
 niority, the purchase system having never been in- 
 troduced. Tlie head-(|uarlers are at Chatham, where 
 there an; Engineer I'arracks. The Corps is groujxd 
 into battalions an<l companies. Tlien; are 432 olli- 
 cers of Royal Engineers serving in India, their sub- 
 ordinates "being natives. See Corpn of Engineira. 
 
 ROYAL ENGINEER INSTITUTION.— A similar In- 
 stitution to tliat established by the royal artillery at 
 Woolwich, but of older date (1813), and formed at 
 Chatham. It contains a library of 12,000 volumes, 
 and publishes yearly a volume of professional papers, 
 with the view of conveying, to all members of the In- 
 stitute, the knowledge and e.xperience acquired by 
 each officer of the corps. It publishes besides a 
 small monthly paper, printed at the expense of the 
 Institution. 
 
 ROYAL GUN FACTORIES.— Government establish- 
 ments at Woolwicli for the construction of great 
 guns for the use of the British Army and Navy. For 
 a very long period there had been at Woolwich a 
 small factory for the manufacture of brass cannon, 
 but guns of cast-iron were obtained from private 
 foundries by contract. At last it was determined 
 that Government should become in part its own gun- 
 founder, and extensive work-shops were erected in 
 1855—6. The adoption of the Armstrong wrought- 
 iron gun into general use in the service, in 1859, ar- 
 rested the further making of cast-iron guns, and oc- 
 casioned again a great expenditure in the erection of 
 shops and "costly machinerj', which have since been 
 adapted to otlier systems of wrought-iron ordnance 
 adopted into the service imder the name of " Wool- 
 wich." The factories may now fairly be regarded as 
 among the most remarkable sights in the Kingdom. 
 In each department, whatever the process, it is re- 
 jjeated over and over again, till long parallellines of 
 similar mills are seen, each busily fashioning a separate 
 gun. Iron at red-heat is first wound round a solid 
 core (representing the bore of the future gun), as tape 
 might be round a pencil; and then by the action of 
 successive blows from a steam-hammer (there is one 
 of 100-tons), the strips are welded into a compact 
 cylinder t>f wrought-iron of extreme density. This 
 cj'linder, after undergoing several heatings, and also 
 poundings with the steam-hammer, is encompassed 
 with wrought-iron rings of immense strength, which 
 are shrunk on, and then transmitted to the boring 
 mill. Here the proper caliber is imparted to it; 
 in another department, the bore is rifled; in anoth- 
 er, the outside of the gun is carefuUj^ turned; and 
 in yet another, the whole is polished and browned. 
 A gun is several weeks in its passage through these 
 many processes. By the ingenuity of Sir William 
 Armstrong, the Superintendent, and Dr. John An- 
 derson, his able assistant, every part of the difficult 
 manufacture has been reduced to a question of ma- 
 chinery. Many thousand guns have to this time 
 been turned out complete of which upwards of 7.000 
 are now available for military and naval use. The 
 cost of the guns as now made is, on an average, as 
 follows; 12-pounder, £82; 20-pounder, £124; 40- 
 pounder, £206; 70-pounder. £375; 35-ton gun, £2,156. 
 The Royal Gun Factory at Woolwich was estimated 
 to cost for 1878—9 the sum of £203,948, of which £5, 
 242 were for management; £78,650 for the wages of 
 artificers and laborers; £12.671 for buildings and 
 m;ichinery: and £104,190 for stores to be consimied 
 in llieiniiiuifactureof guns. Muchof tlie machinery 
 now used in the manufacture of guns was originally 
 developed at the engineering and founding estab- 
 lislimeiit of SirWilliam Armstrong & Co., at Elswick, 
 wliii'li was for some time used as an auxiliary and 
 supiilement to the gun factory in Woolwich Arsenal, 
 the guns being turned out at a contract price, paya- 
 ble after tliey had passed a rigid inspection. The 
 coniiectiDn between the Government and the Elswick 
 linn r(:iM(l in 1S(;3. See (Imi-tnakimi. 
 
 ROYAL GUNPOWDER FACTORY.— Tlie establish- 
 ment at Waltliam Abbey, in which much of the gun- 
 powder required for the British Army and Navy is 
 made. It is built on all the newest and most ap- 
 l)roved princiiiles to insiu'e safety, economy, and 
 efficiency; but even here accidents occasionally Iiap- 
 jicn in this dangerous manufacture, and roofs and 
 sides, purposely left loose so as to oiler but little 
 resistance, are scattered to the winds. Between the
 
 ROYAL LABORATOKY. 
 
 rno 
 
 HOYAL MARINE AETILLEHT. 
 
 different mills mud-banks ani raised, and fjroves of 
 trcf'S lliirkly pliintr'il, to lessen the eoneiission, and, 
 
 us far !IM possihlr, jitiiit Ilie eatiistrophe wlieii one 
 lioiise is iinforttiiiiitely exploded. A series of raised 
 canals, at the same lime, is ready to flood the whole 
 pla(^e, or to alTord a i)rerarioiis shelter to the men 
 eni|)loved, if time be available to maki' use of it. 
 The efiar};(^ forlhis factory for lH7H-7i) was Xl(t4.4:!l), 
 of wliieli L2l),lt'.y2 were for iiiaiiaLreiniiit and waives, 
 Xl!»,()!l(i for buililiiij;s, and t'-ll,7IJ4 for raw material. 
 'I'hcre are about 2(H) worUiiien. When the (gunpow- 
 der is made, it is sent down the Lea, to the maga- 
 zines at Woolwich and I'urlleet. 
 
 ROYAL LABORATORY. An exlensive militarvman- 
 ufacturini; diparlMKnl in Woolwich Arsenal. Al- 
 thiniilh it has existed for many years, it was only in 
 In.'"),') that the present very larire establishment was 
 orfi;aniz<'d. Here are foundries for the caslini; of 
 shot, shell, i;rape. I'tc: apparatus for the manufacture 
 of iiercnssioii-ca])s, which are formed- hundreds at 
 a tinu' — out of the copper sheet; presses where rifle- 
 bullets are squeezed into shape ; fuses in all stajres of 
 manufacture and a thousand other instances of com- 
 bined inL'enuity and power. Conspicuous amont; 
 the mecbanism nuiy be mentioned the makins <if 
 paper for carlridi^es, and subsciiuently themakinff 
 and tillin;; of the cartridires themselvi'S. (lovern- 
 ment liberally grants permission (throuiih the War 
 Otiice) to inspect the fa<'tory. The cost of the Lab- 
 oratory varies considerably, aecordini; to the accu- 
 nmlation of stores. In addition to the Royal Labor- 
 atory, there are also Laboratories — though on a com- 
 paratively small scale— at Portsmouth and Devon- 
 ]iort. See l,n>«>r<it'>rti, 
 
 ROYAL LABORATORY FUSE.- This fuse consists of 
 the followiui; parts : A, the l)rass stock or body; B, 
 the brass screw-plug closing rear end of fuse; (', the 
 lead pbniger: I), the brass thimble; E, the brass safe- 
 ty-wire: and P, the fulmin;ite. The body has a solid 
 liead, having on the outside a sijuare recess for fuse 
 wrench. and on the inside a shar]) jiin projecting from 
 the center. The screw-plug, H, Inis a hole tlirougli i 
 its center which is covered by a thin disk of brass 
 secured on by solder ; two small recesses in the bot- 
 
 tom of the plug facilitate its insertion with a wrench. 
 The lead plunger, C, lias also a central hole through 
 it, in the front end of which is placed the fulminate 
 cap; the plunger h;is also two slight projections 
 from its sid<'S >i|ion which rests the l)ra.ss thimble. 1^. 
 Uunning through holes in the heads of fuse body 
 and thind)le,and to one siiie of center and resting on 
 top of the plunger, is the twisted safety-wire, E. In 
 order to prevent the easy withdrawal of the safety- 
 wire a suuUl hole is bored into one sid(^ of fuse body 
 and down to tlu^ bole through which the wire is in- 
 serted, and into this is poured melted lead. A strong 
 cord facilitates the extraction of the wire before tir- 
 ing. Inserted in a loaded shell with the s;ifety-wire 
 removed. and meeting with a resisting object inflight, 
 the plunger is thrown forward sheering off tlie shoul- 
 ders; the fubninate striking the pin is ignited, the 
 brass disk closing hole through screw plug is l)lown 
 out, and the l)ursting-ch;irge of shell i;:nited. See 
 Vuxf. 
 
 ROYAL MARIUE ARTILLERY AND LIGHT INFAN 
 TRY.- 1. Alimitednumljerof candidates will be nom- 
 inated to compete for admission into the Koyjd Na- 
 val College. Greenwich, as probationary Lieutenants 
 in tlie Uoyal Marines. 
 
 LI. Theexamiuation will be conducted liv the Civil 
 
 Service CommisHionerH, and will be held once a year 
 commencing on the second Wr-dnesday in AngiiRt. 
 
 III. No candidate will b<' i-ligible who is under lOA 
 or above 18 years of age <jn the tut of f>ctober fol- 
 lowing the exandnalion. 
 
 IV. Public notice will be given in May of each 
 year of the mindn'r of vacancies, and of the nundjcr 
 of caiulidates to be nomimited to compete for them. 
 
 V. A candidati' who (|ualiticB, but is not siiccrrsH- 
 ful in the idiiipetilion, will be allowed to compete 
 again at the next examiiiftlion if iKjt over age; but a 
 candidate -vhofidls to qualifv will not be admitted to 
 compete again ; and nocan(fidale wid be allowed to 
 comi)ete more than twice. 
 
 VI. Every candidate will be required to be at least 
 .T f<'et T) inches in lieiLdit and to pass the m<'dical ex- 
 amiiialiou aceoriling to tlie prescribed regulation, un- 
 der the direeti(]U of the .Medical Director (Jeneral of 
 the N;ivy. !!<■ nnist be in good heidth, and free from 
 any physical defect of body, impediment of speech, 
 defect of sight or hearing, and also from any predis- 
 position to constitutional or liereditary disease, or 
 wciikness of any kind, and must l)e in all respects 
 well developed, and active in proportion to his age. 
 Any ciindidate rejected at the medical examination 
 will, subject to the;qiproval of the Board, be finally 
 excluded from the Uoyal .Marines. 
 
 VII. Each candi<late, before the examination, will 
 berecpiired to produce the following certificates, viz. : 
 (1) A registrar's certificate of birtli, or declaration 
 thereof made before a magistrate. (2) A certificate 
 of good conduct for the twoyciirs previous from the 
 masters of the schools at which be may have been 
 educ;ited ; or, if educated at home, frimi his tutors, 
 or the clergy m;in of the parish in which he has re- 
 sided for that period. (3) A certificate of good health 
 and physical devek)pment from the Medical Director 
 General. (4) A certificate of height. 
 
 VIII. A candidate will be retpiired to pass a pre- 
 liminary examination in the following subjects, the 
 maximum nundier of marks obtainable for each be- 
 ing as stated : — 
 
 1. Writing English from dictation Marks. 
 
 correctly in a good legible hand 
 
 No marks allowed. 
 3. Arithmetic 300 
 
 3. Alget)ra (including quadratic 
 equations and tlie three i)rogres- 
 sions) .500 
 
 4. Geometry (up to the standard of 
 the sixth book of Euclid's Ele- 
 ments) 600 
 
 5. Plane trigonometry (including 
 definitions, fundamental form- 
 uliP, and the solution of plane 
 triangles) GOO 
 
 IX. The further examination will be proceeded 
 witli immediatclj' on the conclusion of the prelimi- 
 nary examination. Candidates who fail in tlie pre- 
 limiuary examination will be informed of their failure 
 as soon as possilMc, and the}' will then be released 
 from further attendance. 
 
 X. The subjects of the further examination and 
 the m;iximum of marks obtainable for each subject 
 will be as follows: 
 
 1. Applied mathematics (viz., Maximum 
 
 elementary statics, dy- Marks, 
 namics. and hydrostat- 
 ics) .'. 1000 
 
 2. Physics (viz. sound, light, 
 
 heat, magnetism, and 
 electricitv.'. 1000 
 
 3. Chemistrv." 600 
 
 4. Latin....: 1500 
 
 5. Greek 1000 
 
 6. English lan;ruage and com- 
 
 position..'. 1000 
 
 7. History, ancient and mod- 
 
 ern.With geography 1000 
 
 8. French .". 1000
 
 BOYAL MARINES 
 
 790 
 
 HOYAL MIXITAEY ACADEMY. 
 
 9. German, Spanish, or Ital- 
 ian KHXI 
 
 (Freehand 400 
 
 I Geometrical.... 400 
 
 10. Drawing 
 
 oaoo 
 
 XI. A candidate may be examined in as many of 
 the above subjects as he cliooses. A certain number, 
 corresponding to a merely elementary knowledire. will 
 be deducted from the marks gained by a candidate 
 in each subject, except drawing and applied mathe- 
 matics. 
 
 XII. To qualify, a candidate must pass to the sat- 
 isfaction of the Civil Service Commissioners in the 
 subjects specified in Par. VIII., and in two at least of 
 the subjects of the further examination. He must 
 also obtain such an aggregate of marks as shall indi- 
 cate, in the judgment of the Commissioners, a com- 
 petent amount of general proficiency. 
 
 XIII. The successful candidates will be appointed 
 Lieutenants on probation. Tliey will proceed to the 
 Royal Naval College at Greenwich at tlie commence- 
 ment of the season following the examination, viz. 
 on the 1st of October. 
 
 XIV. At the end of the first session they will be ex- 
 amined, and commissions in the Light Infantry will 
 be granted to all who shall pass a satisfactory exami- 
 nation. The dates of the commissions so granted will 
 depend upon the number of marks obtained. Those 
 who do not pass satisfactorily will be finally excluded 
 from the Royal Marines. 
 
 XV. From those who pass highest at this exami- 
 nation, officers will be selected to qualify themselves 
 to fill vacancies in the Royal Marine Artillery. 
 
 XVI. Tlie ofticers thus selected will remain at the 
 College a second session, at the end of which they will 
 be examined, and, if they pass satisfactorily, will re- 
 ceive commissions in the Artillery. 
 
 XVII. Officers who fail to obtain commissions in 
 the Artillery may retain their rank as Lieutenants in 
 the Light Infantry. 
 
 XVill. Artillery and infaiitry officers will be posted 
 on the list of their respective corps in the order in 
 which they pass their final examination at G;-eeuwich. 
 
 XIX. Oflicers of the Royal Marines on probation 
 will receive 5s. 3d. a day. Those who are permitted 
 to remain a second session to qualif}- for the artillery 
 will be allowed Is. 6d. a day mess allowance during 
 that session. 
 
 XX. ORicers, on passing out, will join their re- 
 spective divisions, and be instructed in their drill and 
 military duties for service ashore and afloat. 
 
 XXI. Each successful candidate at the examina- 
 tion for entrv must deposit the sum of £80 with the 
 AccountantGeneral of the Navy before he can be ap- 
 pointed Lieutenant on probation for the Rojal Ma- 
 rines, to provide for his equipment at the Royal Naval 
 College and on joining his division. 
 
 XXII. The uniform for officers on probation will 
 be a blue patrol jacket, blue working jacket, mess 
 jacket, un(iress trowsers, sword, and forage cap. 
 
 flOYAL MARINES.— A body of men raised for ser- 
 vice as soldiers, either on shore or on board ship, 
 and jjlaced under the control of the Board of Ad- 
 miralty. The whole regiment is never afloat, only 
 portions of it, the rest being statif)aed at some of the 
 naval seajiort towns. The Itoyal Marines were first 
 raised in 1()U4, and have been considerably strength- 
 ened sinc(! the commencement of this century. Tliey 
 rank, when acting with the troojis of the line, be- 
 tween tlie4;tth and rjOth regiments. The Itoyal Ma- 
 rines arc a non-purchaser corps, and the ollieers, as 
 in the artillery and engineers, rise by seniority. The 
 corps now possesses a marine forcu' of arlillcry, con- 
 sisting of 13 companies, which is a most cll'ective 
 and valual)le body of men. The head-(|uarters of 
 the Royal .Marine Artillery are at East ney. near Ports- 
 moiilh. Many of the chief garrisons in the .south 
 of England have divisifms of the Marines quartered 
 in them, such as Woolwich, Chatham. Portsniciutli, 
 
 Plymouth. The strength of the corps amounts to 
 14,000 men and 287 officers. See Marines. 
 
 ROYAL MILITARY ACADEMY. — 1. The Royal 
 ^Military Academy at Woolwich is maintained for 
 the purpose of affording a preparatory education to 
 candidates for the Royal Artillery and Royal Engin- 
 eers ; this education will be chiefly technical, and 
 will in no obligatory subject be carried bej'ond the 
 point useful to both corps alike. 
 
 Regukitions fvr Admission, eto. 
 
 2. Admission to the Royal Military Academy a3 
 cadets will be granted to the successful candidates 
 at an open competitive examination. The examina- 
 tions will be conducted by the Civil Service Com- 
 missioners, and held twice a year,December and July. 
 
 3. Notice will be given from time to time of the 
 day and place of the examinations, and ot the vacan- 
 cies to be competed for at eacli examination. 
 
 4. The limits of age will be from sixteen to eight- 
 een, the candidates being required to be within those 
 limits on the 1st day of the January next following 
 for the winter examination, and on the 1st of July for 
 the summer examination. 
 
 5. Candidates for admission to the December or 
 July examination must send to the Military Secretary, 
 not less than one month before the 1st December or 
 1st July respectively, an application to be examined, 
 accompanied by the follo\ving papers : — (n) An ex- 
 tract from the register of his birth, or in default, a 
 declaration made by one of his parents or guardians 
 before a magistrate, giving his exact age. (b) A 
 certificate of good moral character, signed by a 
 clergyman of the parish in which he has recently re- 
 sided, or by the tutor or head of the school or college 
 at which he has received his education for at least the 
 two preceding years,or some other satisfactory proof 
 of good moral character. 
 
 6. When a candidate who has once been examined 
 applies to be examined again, he will only be required 
 to forward a certificate as to moral character for the 
 interval between the two examinations. 
 
 7. The number of trials allowed will not exceed 
 three. 
 
 8. All candidates will be inspected by a Medical 
 Board ; and no candidate will be allowed to proceed 
 to examination by the Civil Service Commissioners 
 unless certified by the Board to b« free from bodily 
 defects or ailments, and in all respects, as to height 
 and physical qualities, fit for her Majesty's service. 
 Cases of exceptional shortness of stature will be re- 
 ferred to the War Office for special consideration. 
 
 9. A candidate will be required to satisfy the Civil 
 Service Commissioners in the following subjects : — 
 (1) Mathematics, viz. (a) arithmetic, and the use of 
 common logarithms ; (h) algebra, including equa- 
 tions, progressions, pennutationsand combinations, 
 and the binomial theorem ; {e) geometry, up to the 
 standard of the sixth book of Euclid ; (rf) plane trig- 
 onometry, including the solution of triangles. (2) 
 French, German or some other modern language, 
 the examination being limited to translation from 
 the language and granunatical questions. (3) Writ- 
 ing English correctly and in a good legible hand, 
 from dictation, and English conqiosition. (4) The 
 elements of geometrical drawing, including the con- 
 struction of plane scales and the use of sinqile mathe- 
 matical instruments. (5) Geography. A thorough 
 knowledge of each of the four branches of mathe- 
 matics will be required. The Commissioners may, 
 however, if they think fit, dispense with this prelim- 
 inary examination, except as regards mathematics, 
 English composition, and geometrical drawing, in 
 the case of any candidate wlio has satisfied them on 
 a previous occasion, 
 
 10. No marks, will be allotted for the above pre- 
 liminary examination excepting for mathematics 
 (2000), "for English composition (.500), and for geo- 
 metrical drawing (300). 
 
 11. The "ftirtiier examination" will be proceeded 
 with immediately on the conclusion of the "prelim-
 
 BOTAL MILITAHT ACADEMT. 
 
 7ft 1 
 
 SOTAL MILITARY ACADEKT. 
 
 iimry cxiuiiiiiiilion." Ciiriilidiilcs wlin fail in the jirr- 
 liiniiiary I'xainiMiilinii will be iiiforiiiril of iIk ir fiiil- 
 iire as soDiias possible. and tin y will llicii be njlC'ttHCil 
 from further atleiKiaiiee. 
 
 13. The sul)jects of tlie fiirlher exaniinalioii and 
 the niaxiiniiin niiinber of iiiarUs oblainable for eaeh 
 subject will be as follows : 
 
 Shirks. 
 (1) Mathematics, viz. further i|iiestioMs and 
 problems on thesubjcels of I he iiualifyin); 
 examination, and the elements of the fol- 
 lowini; sul)jeels : theory of ei|uations; an- 
 alytical geometry; conic sections; solid 
 geometry ; diirerentinl and integral calcu- 
 lus; statics; and dynamics 4000 
 
 (3) Knitlish : KuicHsh literature, lindted to 
 specilied authors; and Eni;lish history, 
 limited to certain li.xed periods ; the au- 
 thors and periods bemg iiotilieil before- 
 hand 2000 
 
 ,Qs ,„ . . ( Latin 2000 
 
 (3) Classics, VIZ. .^ ^,^^.,.^ 2000 
 
 (4) French, the examination to be partly col- 
 lofjuial 2000 
 
 (J>) tiernian.the 'examination to be partly col- 
 loquial 2000 
 
 (6) Anyone of the following langnaffcs at the 
 option of the candidate, viz. Italian, Rus- 
 sian, Si>Hnish,or llindostanee : the exam- 
 ination to l)e partly colloquial 2000 
 
 (7) Experimental sciences. viz. (u) chemistry 
 and heat ; or {!/) electricity and magnet- 
 ism 2000 
 
 (8) (ieneral and physical geography and geol- 
 ogy ■ 2000 
 
 (9) Drawing, free-hand 1000 
 
 Of these nine subjects, candidates will not be al- 
 lowed to take up more than four, exclusive of draw- 
 ing. In all the sidijects, a very great importance 
 ■wfll be attached to the accuracy in numerical re- 
 sults. 
 
 13. A certain number will be deducted from the 
 marks gained by a candidate in each subject, except 
 mathematics ; and the remainders will be added to 
 the marks gained by the candidate in the prelimi- 
 nary examination in mathematics, English compo- 
 sition, and geometrical drawing. The resulting total 
 will determine the candidates place in the competi- 
 tive list; the successful candidates being those who 
 stand first on the list up to the ntmiber of vacancies 
 competed for. 
 
 Optional Examination in Mathematicn. — Detailed 
 Syllabux. 
 
 14. Further questions and problems on the sub- 
 jects of the qualifying examination. The theory of 
 equations: (irst ]>rinciples. Analytical gcometr}': 
 problems on straight line and circle. Conic sections; 
 elementary properties, w ith easy problems, both on 
 the analytical and gecmietrical methods. Solid geom- 
 etry : first pricniples, with easy exercises. Differen- 
 tial calculus. Differentiation of functions of one in- 
 dependent variable. Taylor's and Maclaurin's theo- 
 rems: applications. Maxima and minimaof functions 
 of one independent variable. Method of iurtnitesi- 
 nials : first principles, with easy applications. Tan- 
 gents and normals to curves. Points of inflexion. 
 Curvature of curves. Involutes and cvolutes. Inte- 
 gral calculus. Elementary integrations. Integration 
 considered as summation. Rectification and quadra- 
 ture of plane curves. Statics; equilibrium of forces 
 and couples iuone plane. Friction: center of gravity; 
 mechani<'al powers. Problems on elenu-ntary statics: 
 the graphical or geometrical method of treating such 
 problems sliould be studied as well as the analytical. 
 No applications of the differential calculus to statics 
 will be re(iuired. Dynamics : elenunlary principles : 
 projectiles; motion of a heavy particle on a snumth 
 curve; centrifugal force ; simple pendulum. Prob- 
 
 lems and exercises. No applications of the dliTercntiai 
 calculus will be recjuired. 
 
 TerriiH af I'liijment. 
 
 l.'i. The terms of payment for carletfl at the Royal 
 Military Academy are regulated by the followini^ 
 articles of hrr -Majesty's warrant of the 27lli Decem- 
 ber. IH70, for the pay atid promotion of the Army: 
 
 I'di/iiiiidjirr (■(Kiel. — The paym<:nt to be contributed 
 on behalf of a cailet shall be as follows, and shall be 
 pai<l half-yearly in advance : — 
 
 Annually. 
 £ 
 
 Queen's cadets (if any) Nil. 
 
 ioT the son of an olHcer of the Army or Navy 
 who has died in the service, and whose fam- 
 ily is left in pecuniary distress (subject to 
 
 the approval of the Secretary of Slate; 20 
 
 For the son of an ollicer below the rank of Col- 
 onel or Regimental Field (Jllicer in theArmy, 
 and Captain orCommander in theNavy,or an 
 Instructor at the Royal Jlililary College or 
 
 Staff College 40 
 
 For the son of a Colonel or Regimental Field-ofli- 
 cer in the Army, or of a Ca|>tain or Command- 
 er in the Navy, or of a Professor at the Royal 
 Military Academy, or Royal Military College, 
 
 or Staff College 60 
 
 For the son of a General-officer who is not Col- 
 onel of a Regiment, or of a Vice or Rear-ad- 
 miral 70 
 
 For the son of an Admiral or of a General-officer 
 who is Colonel of ;i Regiment or in receipt of 
 
 Indian Colonel's allowances 80 
 
 For the son of a private gentleman 12.'5 
 
 Sralc of payment, Iwtr nmrputcd. — In determining the 
 
 rate of payment — 
 «. A General-officer on the half-pay of his last regi- 
 nuutal commission shall pay in accordance 
 with such regimental :ank. 
 
 b. Officers who have sold their commissions shall be 
 
 regarded as private gc iitlemen. 
 
 c. Officers on retired full or half-pay after 2-5 j'ears' 
 
 service, or officers of less than 2.5 years' ser- 
 vice, if placed on half-piiy by reduction of es- 
 tablishment, or on account of ill health, shall 
 pay in accordance with their last substantive 
 regimental rank. The cases of officers volun- 
 tarily retiring to half-pay before completing 
 2-5 years' service shall be specially considered. 
 
 d. Officers of the departments of the Army and Navy 
 
 according to their relative rank, of the perma- 
 neut staff of the militia, adjutants of the vol- 
 imteer force, as well as Indian military and 
 naval officers, shall be treated on the same 
 terms as military or n:ival officers. 
 
 e. The sons of deceased oftic crs shall be contributed 
 
 for in accordance with the foregoing regula- 
 tions in regard to the rank or classification of 
 their fathers. 
 
 Sickne«« and rustication. — If a cadet be absent a 
 whole term in c(msequence of sickness or rustication, 
 a payment of £10 shall be req\nred for the privilege 
 of his name being kept on the rolls of the establish- 
 ment, and for a vacancy beinir guaranteed at the com- 
 mencement of the next term. 
 
 Orphans. — In the case of a cadet who is an orphan, 
 whose annual contribution is only £20. the amount 
 to be paid when absence extends over a whole term 
 shall be determined by the Secretary of State. 
 
 Sick/w/i«. — If a cadet be absent from sickness dur- 
 ing a portion of the term, his pay shall continue to 
 be issued and credit<d to his account, but no refund 
 of tlic contribution shall be permitted. 
 
 Jhmticatlon. — If a cadet be rusticated or removed 
 during a term, his daily pay shall cease from the date 
 on which he is sent away, and the contributioa made 
 for the half-year shall be forfeited. 
 
 ^'".V "fcaJet.^The pay of a cadet shall be 3s. a day. 
 It is issued to cover the expenses of regimental doth-
 
 KOTAL MILITARY ACADEMY. 
 
 792 
 
 ROYAL MILITARY ACADEMY. 
 
 ing, messing, washing, and otlier contingencies; All 
 
 other necessary expenses of this nature, as well as 
 weekly pocket money, postage of letters, bootmakers' 
 and tailor.s' bills for repairs, etc., which cannot be 
 covered by his pa}-, shall be chargeable to his parent 
 or guardian in addition to the regulated contribution. 
 Extra payiitents for radets. — Each cadet on first 
 joining shall be required to pay, in addition to the 
 regulated contribution, a sum of A'25 t6 cover the 
 expenses of uniform, books, etc., aud to bring with 
 him the articles of clothing of which he will receive 
 notice, aud wliicli must aifterward be kept up at his 
 own expense. He shall also be required to pay the 
 regidated contribution in advance, for each half-year 
 of the time during wliich he remains imder instruc- 
 tion, and a deposit of £5 on account, for contingent 
 expen.scs, which latter sum he shall be required to 
 make up on returning to tlie Royal Militarj- Academy 
 after eacli vacation, to cover any expense that may 
 be incurred on his account during the ensuing halt- 
 year. 
 
 Government and Organization. 
 
 16. The Field 3Iarshal Commandiug-in-Chief will 
 be the President of the Royal Jlilitary Academy. 
 
 17. An independent inspection by a Board of Visi- 
 tors, appointed by the Secretary of State for War, and 
 reporting to him, will be made once a year. Such Visi- 
 tors will not be a permanent body, but will not all be 
 changed at the same time. Tlie report of this Board 
 will be presented to Parliament. 
 
 18. The Academy will be under the control of a Gov- 
 ernor, a military man, selected with special refer- 
 ence to his qualifications for superintending both in- 
 struction and discipline, and ajipointed bj' and re- 
 sponsible to tlie Secretary of State for War, through 
 the Field Marshal Cominaudiug-in-Chief. 
 
 19. The Governor, by virtue of Ins office, will have 
 local rank superior to that of any of the officers em- 
 ployed under him. 
 
 20. The tenure of the appointment is regulated by 
 the following article of the royal warrant of tlie 27th 
 December, 1870: — The appointment of Governor of 
 the Royal Military Academj' .... shall be for 
 seven years, with power of re-appointment; but shall 
 in all cases terminate after fourteen years, or at the 
 age of sixty. 
 
 21. The Governor, with tlic approval of tlie Sec- 
 retary of State for War, will liave the power of ap- 
 pointing and removing the Professors and Instruc- 
 tors. 
 
 22. The organization will be on a military basis. 
 
 23. The Governor will be solely responsible for 
 discipline and for the general superintendence of the 
 studies, 
 
 24. He will be assisted in the arrangements of 
 the studies by the Academy Board, composed of the 
 Professorsor Senior Instructors of the different bran- 
 ches. The head of each liranch will have the gener- 
 al power of supervision and inspection over the stu- 
 dies of Ids department, witli the duty of reporting on 
 lliem to the Governor. 
 
 25. The Governor will from time to time assemble 
 and confer witli all tlie Professors and Instructors of 
 eacli separate braiu'li on matters relating to it. 
 
 2(j. The Governor will be assisted by a Staff-offi- 
 cer, not imder the rank of ('{iptaiii. who will be sec- 
 retary ami treasurer, and liave charge of tlie records 
 correspondence and accounts of the establishment, 
 and make all local payments connected therewith, 
 and receive the contriliutions for the cadets. This 
 appointment will be for seven years, with power of 
 re-api)oiiitnieiit. 
 
 27. Tlie cadets will form one company under a 
 Captain, assisted by four Lieutenants, charged with 
 the discipline out of stiiili<-s and the drill, one of 
 whom will be Adjutant and (Quartermaster. 
 
 28. Tlie Professors and Instructors may be either 
 military men or civilians. 
 
 211. The Professors and Instniclors will have cer- 
 tain limited powers of piinisliiiienl, withinaiul with- 
 
 out the halls of study.at the discretion of the Gover- 
 nor, to whom they will report all punishments which 
 tliey may inHict. 
 
 80. The Chaplain will be specially appointed by 
 the Secretary of State, and will give instruction in 
 classics. 
 
 31. The tenure of offlce of the Professors and In- 
 structors is regulated by the following article of the 
 royal warrant of 27th December 1870: — The Pro- 
 fessors and Instructors at the Royal Military Acad- 
 emy shall be appointed for six years, with power of 
 re-appointment. Tlieir term of office shall not con- 
 tinue after the age of fifty-five, unless an extension 
 be specially recommended by the Governor and ap- 
 proved by the Secretary of State. 
 
 32. No Professor or Instructor will be permitted 
 to give private instruction to a cadet, either during 
 the vacation or at any other time, or be allowed to 
 prepare candidates for admission to the Academy. 
 
 33. The Governor will liave the absolute power of 
 rustication and removal, and also of sentencing a 
 cadet for misconduct to lo.=!e places in the list of 
 successful candidates for commissions ; when expul- 
 sion is necessary, the case will be referred to the Sec- 
 retary of State through the Field Marshal Command- 
 ing-in-Chief. 
 
 34. Tlie name of an}' cadet expelled for misconduct 
 will be recorded in the office of the Field Marshal 
 Commanding-in-C'liief, and will be made known to 
 the First Lord of the Admiralty, and to the Secretary 
 of State for India, in order to prevent his being ad- 
 mitted into her Majesty's naval, military, or Indian 
 service. 
 
 35. A sword will be given at each final examina- 
 tion as a special reward for excellence in conduct. 
 
 36. The Governor will cause registers to be kept of 
 all serious punishments awarded, and of the offences 
 which have caused them. 
 
 37. He will inspect accounts of every description 
 connected with the Academy, and certify those 
 which require it. 
 
 Ciiiirse of Instruction. 
 
 38. The length of the course of instruction will be 
 two years and a half. 
 
 39. If any cadet fail to come up to the required 
 standard at two examinations, or be found unable to 
 qualify in his studies for a commission within three 
 years, to be counted from the commencement of the 
 term in which he first joins, or to acquire a sufficient 
 proficiency in military exercises, lie will be removed. 
 No extension of tlie above period of three 3'ears will 
 be granted on account of absence from any cause 
 excepting illness. Cases of protracted absence on ac- 
 count of illness will be specially referred for decision 
 to the Secretary of State for War through the Field 
 ]Marslial Commanding-in-Chief. 
 
 40. Tlie following sulijects will form the course of 
 obligatory studies: — (1) Mathematics, including a 
 thorough knowledge of phme trigonometry; practi- 
 cal mechanics, with the application of uKithematics 
 to machinery. (2) Fortification, field and ]iermanent; 
 such a cour.sc as is suitable to cadets (lualifying for the 
 Artillery, and tiie requisite amount of geometrical 
 drawing. (3) Artillery; such a course as is suitable 
 to cadets qu;ilifyiiig for the Engineers. (4) Military 
 dniwiug, willi iield sketching aud reconnaissance. 
 (Ti) ^Military history and geography. (0) P'rcneh or 
 (term;iii, at the student's choice. (7) Elementaiy 
 chemistry and iiliysics. (8) Drills and exercises. 
 
 41. Ill addition to the obligator}' course, every 
 cadet will be allowed, at his option, to take up cer- 
 tain volunt:iry subjects, viz.:— (1) Higher niatliema- 
 lics. (2) Higher portions of fortification. (3; Any 
 of the following liiiiguagi's : — German or French, 
 Itali;iii, KiiHsian, Spanish, or lliiidostanee. (4) Free- 
 hand, figure, and landscape dr;iwing. (5) Higher 
 chemistry. (0) Latin and (7) Greek ; instructiims in 
 these subjects to he given by the Chaplain. 
 
 42. Marks will be assigned to the obligatory sub-
 
 EOTAL MTIITART ASYLUM 
 
 o:'. 
 
 ROYAL MILITAEY COLLEGE AT 8ANDHTJE8T. 
 
 ieots of instruotioii in Uu: followiiiK proportions: — 
 MiilhemuticH nnd mcclmiiics, 7 ; forlificiitioii, 7; art- 
 illery, 5; iiiililiiry driuviiin and rcconnaissaMci', (! ; 
 military history, etc., li ; oni^ inoilcrn lan;;uan(^ 
 French or (irrinan, 3; elementary chitnislry anil 
 physics, 2 ; drills and exercises — mainial, platoon, 
 and company drill, ^ : <;ymnustics, A ; riding and 
 Bword exercises, ^ ; artillery, 3; lolal liA. 
 
 43. Tlie volunlary sulijects shall lie valued as fol- 
 lows :- lli'.;lier ni:ilh<iiiiilics, T) : higher fori ilicatioii, 
 H; Latin. 3; (!reeU, 3; any of the following lan- 
 gnages - French or (iernian, Italian, Rnssian, Span- 
 ish, or llindoslanee, 3: fri'chanil, ligurc, ami land- 
 scape drawing, 3; higher chemistry, 2. 
 
 44. No ohligalory subject shall gain a cadet any 
 marks unless he obtain a minimum of one-lmlf the 
 marks in it. 
 
 45. Xn cadet will be ensured a commission unless 
 he qualify by olilaining at least oue-lialf marks in 
 the obligalory course in mathematics anil mechanics, 
 fortiticalion, and artillery, and one-half of the total 
 aggregate of the marks allotted to all tlu^ obligalory 
 subjects. 
 
 4(i. No voluntary subje<-t shall gain a cadet any 
 marks unless he obtain a unnimimi of at least one- 
 third of the marks assigned to that ])ortion of it in 
 which he is examined. The marks gained in tlie 
 volunlary subjects will be added to those obtained in 
 the obligalory subjects to make a second total, ac- 
 cording to wliich cadets shall be finally jilaced. 
 
 47. The periodical cxandnations will be entirely 
 co7iducted by examiners independent of the Academy 
 the wliole of the marks except those reserved for 
 note-books and drawing being allotted according to 
 their results. 
 
 Staff of till' FMnbllshnunt, 
 
 48. The following will be the Staff of the establish- 
 ment : — (lovernor. Secretary and Treasurer, Captain 
 commanding company, ;! r^ieutenanls. Adjutant and 
 (Quartermaster, ;\Iedical ( )lticer,Chai)laiii,4 Professors 
 and Instructors of mathematics and mechanics, 4 Pro- 
 fessors and Instructors of forlitication and geometri- 
 cal drawing, 3 Professors and Instructors of artillery, 
 4 Professors and Instructors of military drawing, etc., 
 and I'rofessor and Instructor of militarj- history and 
 geography, 2 Professors and Instructors of French 
 and (Jerman,! Professor and Instructor of tigure and 
 landscape drawing,and 1 Professorand Instructor of 
 chemistry. 
 
 49. The pay and allowances of the ofliccrs are 
 regulated by Ihe following articles of her Majesty's 
 warrant of the 37th December 1870: — The pay of the 
 otlicers of the Royal Military Academy shall be as 
 follows: — 
 
 Governor, A'l. WO yearly, inclusive of all allowances 
 except quarters, and in addition to his unattached 
 pay as a General-officer or his pay as Colonel Com- 
 mandant of royal artillery or royal engineers, in the 
 event of his holding such rank; Secretary anilTreasur- 
 cr, not of lower rank than Captain, £400 ye;irly,inch: 
 sivc of all allowances except quarters, and in addi- 
 tion to regimental pay: Captain of eomi)any, 12s. 
 daily, and regimental pay (also forage allowance for 
 one horse, quarters, fuel, and light, and 2 soldier 
 servants) : Lieutenants, each 4s. daily, and regimenlal 
 pay (also quarters, fuel, ami light, and 1 soldier 
 servant): .\djutant and (.Quartermaster, 5s. ihuly.and 
 regimenlal pay as Lieutenant (;dso quarters, fuel, and 
 light, forage allowance for 1 horse, and 3 soldier 
 servants); Surgeon, according to his rank in the Army 
 ^lediial Deimrtment: Cli;ipliun and Classical Instruc- 
 tor, i'400 ye;irly, and quarters, fuel, and light : Pro- 
 fessor of nuUhematics, if a civili;in, t'550 to £700 
 yearly, by a lricimi:d increase of £50; Professor of j 
 inathematics, if ;in officer, £5.50 yearly, without in- 1 
 crease; Instructors of matheuKitics, if"civilians.£350 
 to £500 each yearly, by a triennial increase of £50; 
 Instructors of mathematics, if ollicers, £450 yearly, I 
 without increase; Professor of fortilicatioii, £.550 [ 
 yearly; Instructors of fortification and geometrical ^ 
 
 drawing, each X4.50 ; Professor of artillery, jCiSO; 
 Ilislnictors of artillery, £450; Professor of military 
 drawing, £.550 ; Inslriiclorsof military drawing, each, 
 X'4.50; Professor of military history, £500 ; Professor 
 of French, £350; Professor of German, £;J50; Pro- 
 fessor of lanilscapi^ drawing, £^50 ; and Professor ot 
 chemistry, £400. ) 
 
 The above scale of pay (and allowanccH) Hliall in- 
 clude all rennmeralion of every kind except any ad- 
 ditional piiy. beyond hisordiiiarv regimenlal pay, to 
 which an iilticer may be entilliil by brevet rank or 
 as a reward for distinguished service in the tield, 
 and no |)erson heriiifler to be appointed to any of the 
 above appointments shall be entitled to pension 
 or su])erannuation allowance for services in such ap- 
 point mint. 
 
 50. The appointments of Military Professors and 
 Instructors are open to officers of all ranks. 
 
 51. No perse in whatever belonging to the Ko>al 
 .Military Academy is to receive a present from any 
 cadet, or from the relations or friends of any cadet. 
 
 53. Commissions as Lieutenants in the royal artil- 
 lery or roval engineers will be confcrrefl iijjon can- 
 didates who qualify in accordance with Pars. 39 to 
 45. 
 
 .53. The commissions of such Lieutenants as are 
 recommended by the Governor of the Academj', and 
 afterwards pass through their practical course at 
 Woolwich and Chatham in a satisfactory manner, 
 will be ;inlcd:ilid (i months. 
 
 ROYAL MILITARY ASYLUM.— An Educational Go- 
 vernment Institution at Chelsea, near, but wholly 
 distinct from, tlie Royal Hospital for jiensioned sol- 
 diers. Its object is Ihe suitable education for trade, 
 etc., of .500 male children — generally orphans — of 
 IJritish soldiers. For these there area model school 
 and an infant school, and the boys have a complete 
 militarj- organization, with scarlet uniform, band, 
 etc. As a res\ilt of their training, a large proportion 
 of the pupils ultimately volunteer into the -Army. 
 The School was originally established in 1803 by the 
 late Duke of York, whence it is still commonly known 
 as the "Duke of York's School." Originally a simi- 
 lar school for soldiers' daughters was included but 
 was not found to answer, and has been discontinued. 
 Attached to the School is a trainii.g establishment 
 for military schoolmasters, known as the Normal 
 School. The total cost of the whole Institution is 
 about £1 1,-500 per annum. 
 
 ROYAL MILITARY COLLEGE AT SANDHURST. - 
 
 1. The Koviil ^Military College is m:iintained for 
 the purpose of affording a special military education 
 to Sub-lieutenants of cavalry and infantry recently 
 appointed, and to successful candidates in the com- 
 petitive examinations for commissions. 
 
 3. The number of Sub-lieutenants admitted to the 
 ( 'oUege will vary according to the requirements of the 
 service. 
 
 3. The dates of admission will be the 10th of Feb- 
 ruary and lOtli of September in each year. 
 
 4. The College terms will bi — (") from the 10th of 
 Februarj' to the 30th of July, with suspension of 
 stmly during a fortnight at Easter : (Ii) from the 10th 
 of September to the 15tli of December. The inter- 
 mediate periods will constitute the vacations. 
 
 5. The Commander-in-Chief will be the President 
 of the Koyul Military College. 
 
 f'l. The College will be under the command of a 
 Governor, who will be solely responsible for discipline 
 and for the general superintendence of the studies. 
 
 7. He will be assisted in the arrangement of the 
 studies by a Board, composed of the Professors or 
 Senior Instructors of the different branches. The head 
 of each branch will have the general power of super- 
 vision and inspection over the studies in his depart- 
 ment, with the duty of reporting on them to the Gov- 
 ernor. 
 
 8. The Governor will be assisted by a Staff-officer, 
 who will be responsible in his temporary absence for 
 the charge of the establishment. This officer will
 
 BOYAL MILITAEY COLLEGE. 
 
 794 
 
 EOYAL MILITAEY COLLEGE. 
 
 have the custody of the records and the correspond- 
 ence of the College, and will give the Governor such 
 assistance as he may require. 
 
 9. The Quartermaster will perform the duties of 
 Acting Commissary. 
 
 10. The Sub-lieutenants, being commissioned offi- 
 cers, are imder the Mutiny Act and Articles of War. 
 and must conform to her Majesty's regulations in all 
 respects. While resident at the "College, they will be 
 subject to such rules and regulations as are, or raa\' 
 be from time to time, established for the maintenance 
 of good order and discipline. 
 
 11. The Governor will have the power of removing 
 for a period not beyond the corresponding period in 
 the next term anj' Sub-lieutenant guihy of insuljor- 
 dinate or ungentlemanlike conduct, or of repeated 
 acts of irregularity, and will report the circumstances 
 to his Royal Highness, the Field Marshal Command- 
 ing-in-Chief. 
 
 12. Sub-lieutenants reported for habitual inatten- 
 tion to their studies, or failing to pass satisfactorily 
 through the probationary examination at the end of 
 their iirst term, will be speciall}- brought imder the 
 notice of his Royal Highness, with a view to their 
 oases being considered fis to the necessity of removal 
 from the College. 
 
 13. In cases requiring more serious notice, a stu- 
 dent if commissioned, will be liable, on the report of 
 the Governor to his Royal Highness, to be removed 
 from the service, or, if not commissioned, to be re- 
 moved from the list of candidates awaiting their com- 
 missions. 
 
 14. Sub-lieutenants who misconduct themselves 
 during their residence at the College will be liable to 
 the forfeiture of the antedate to which they would 
 otherwise be entitled in accordance with Par. 38. The}' 
 will also, if temporarily removed from the College for 
 misconduct, be liable, under the provisions of the 
 royal warrant of the 1.5th of February, 1875, to the 
 forfeiture of pay for such period as the Secretary of 
 State may direct. 
 
 15. The Sub-lieutenants will be distributed in di- 
 visions of not less than 25, each division being under 
 the immediate charge of one of the Professors or In- 
 structors selected by the Governor. 
 
 IG. The officers of divisions will be the channel of 
 communication on all subjects between the Sub-lieu- 
 tenants and the Governor. They will mess with their 
 divisions, anil will exercise a general superintendence 
 over them, for which they will be responsible to the 
 Governor. 
 
 17. During the hours of study the Sub-lieutenants 
 will be under the charge of the Professors and Instruc- 
 tors, to whose orders they will be required to pay im- 
 plicit obedience. 
 
 IM. Sub-lieutenants will salute the Governor and As- 
 sistant to the Governor on all occasions, whether in or 
 out of uniform, and the Professors and Instructors 
 when on duty, on parade, or when imder instruction. 
 
 19. The Sub-lieutenants will be required to appear 
 at all times in imiform, excejit when on leave of ab- 
 sence, or otherwise exempted by the Governor. 
 
 20. Tlie study undress may be worn at all times 
 when Sulj-licutcnaiits arc under instruction, with the 
 exception of riding or ]iarade, when they will wear 
 their undress uniform. The forage cap will be worn 
 with the study imdress. 
 
 21. The cour.se of instruction for each Sub-lieuten- 
 ant wUl last during two terms. The following will 
 be the subjects of study: — (n) Queen's Regulations 
 and Orilers for the Army, regimental interior econo- 
 my, accoiuits, and corresiKindence ; (//) military law; 
 (r) the elements of tactics ; (d) field fortification, and 
 the elements of permanent fortification: (e) military 
 topography and reconnaissance; (/) infantr}' and field 
 artilU'ry drill, riding, and gynmastics. 
 
 22. A{ theendbf the course the Sub-lieutenants will 
 be re(|uired to jjass an examination in the field ami on 
 paper, and those who pass the examination will be 
 gazetted to regiments in which there may be vacan- 
 
 cies for Sub-lieutenants, with a view to their complet- 
 ing the period of service required before they can be 
 promoted to the rank of Lieutenant. 
 
 23. Ou the pass list of the examination prescribed 
 in the foregoing paragraph. Sub-lieutenants will be 
 placed in one of the three classes, according to their 
 proficienc}', as shown at the examination. 
 
 24. The examination will be qualifj-ing, not com- 
 petitive, and the candidates will be arranged alpha- 
 betically in each class. 
 
 25. The standard of qualifications for the respective 
 classes will be decided upon from time to time by the 
 Secretary of State for War, and announced to the 
 Sub-lieutenants at the commencement of their course. 
 
 26. Marks will be allotted to the subjects in tlie 
 following proportions: — Queen's Regulations, etc., 
 U: military law, 2; elements of tactk-s, 3; fortifica- 
 tion, 3; military topography and reconnaissance, 3. 
 
 27. In tactics, fortification, and military topog- 
 raphy and reconnaissance, one-fourth of the marks 
 will be reserved for notes and drawings done during 
 the course. 
 
 28. In accordance with the power vested in the Sec- 
 retary of State by Art. 3 of the royal warrant of the 
 30th October, 1871, he has decided that the Lieuten- 
 ants' commissions of oflicers who pass in the 1st class 
 will be antedated two years ; and those of officers 
 who pass in the 2d class, 12 months. No antedate 
 will be granted to officers who pass in the third class. 
 
 29. Every antedate will date back from two years 
 subsequent to the date of the original commission as 
 Sub-lieutenant. No commission as Lieutenant will be 
 granted until the oflicer has served two years as Sub- 
 lieutenant. 
 
 30. Under the provisions of that portion of Art. 3 
 of the royal warrant of the 30th of October, 1871, 
 which is amended by the royal warrant of the 30th 
 of January, 1875, Sub-lieutenants may be removed 
 from the service if they fail to pass the examination 
 at the Royal Military College within two years from 
 the date of their commissions as Sub-lieutenants. 
 They will be allowed to be re-examined once, at the 
 ililitary College, provided two years from the date 
 of their commissions as Sub-lieutenants shall not have 
 expired. 
 
 31. In order to ensure due diligence during the 
 whole period of residence, there will be a probation- 
 ary examination at the end of the first term in the 
 work of the term. No Sub-lieutenant will lie per- 
 mitted to reside for more than one year at the College, 
 except in cases of protracted illness, or long absence 
 from any unavoidable cause, or liis being prevented 
 from imavoidable cause from undergoing the final 
 examination. 
 
 32. The mess-rooms, ante-rooms, and quarters of 
 the Sub-lieutenants are furnished in all essentials by 
 the goverument : plate, linen, and china, and every 
 article of mess equipment, are supplied by the go- 
 vernment, and no contributions on those accounts- 
 will be required from Sub-lieutenants. 
 
 33. The messes will be conducted in every re- 
 spect like a regimental mess, with strict regard to 
 economy. 
 
 34. All unmarried officers of the College will be 
 rcciuired to nu'ss with the Sub-lieutenants. Tho.se 
 officers who are married will mess with the Sub- 
 lieutenants if re(iuired to do so by the Governor. 
 
 35. Sub-lieutenants will provide themselves, be- 
 fore the)' join the ('ollege, with the prescrilied imi- 
 form, ;uid with thebooksand instnmu'nts required for 
 their instruction. 
 
 3(!. Svib-lieutenants will pay for their messing and 
 washing. The amount iliu' from each officer for his 
 messing and washing will be paid by him monthly 
 to the Paymaster of the College. 
 
 37. AH Sub-lieutenants will be required to contri- 
 bute a certain sum monthly to meet the expenses of 
 a s))((ial laundry wliich has been found to be re- 
 (piisite. 
 
 38. No person whatever belonging to the Royal
 
 BOYAL REGIMENT OF ARTILLERY. 
 
 705 
 
 ROYAL SHALL ARMS. 
 
 Military College will receive a present from any Sub- 
 
 HiMilciiaiil.iir from Uic rolitlioiiM or fricndH of uny 
 Sub li<'utfri:iiil . 
 
 ROYAL REGIMENT OF ARTILLERY. A Imlliilion 
 usually loMipriscs K (•(]iii|iaiiii-s. .\1 a time when 
 the niimlicr was IK, (101). the re;,nmenl, comiiriHed 11!) 
 fompunies iinil troops, averai;inij; somewhat over IfiO 
 men eaeli. At other times, the eompanies have va- 
 ried from l;i(t to 21111 uien each. The eompanies and 
 haltalions of fool-arlihery are desif:uat<'d by ordinid 
 luunbers, such as 'lilh eom|)any, 12th Ipallalinn ; ' the 
 troops of liorse-arlillcry are desJLCMaleil Ijy letters, 
 such as ' I) troop.' There are nominally, ri olliecrs 
 for each eoiniiany and troop ; hut .some of these are 
 usually alisenl on staff or briirade duties. In battles 
 and sieves, a brignde of this artillery usually consists 
 of either two or thn'c companies, attached to a di- 
 vision of the regular army. Kach company with 
 its quota of ij;uns and stores of all kinds, constilules 
 a,fieU-baUirii; and each troojj with its(iuota, consti- 
 tutes u UorKC-hiitlery. It has been pro|)osed to aban- 
 don the terms dimpaiinunAlriiiip altoij;elhtr, as bein;j; 
 properly apjilicable only to infantry and cavalry, and 
 to use only the term hulU'rij: but this change has not 
 yet taken jjlace. Anionf? the oHicers of the Royal 
 Artillery, there are no Majors, Ensifrns, or Cornets; 
 e(|uivalenl services are rendered by officers other- 
 wise desii^naled. The men are chiefly classified as 
 gunners and ilrivers. 
 
 The Army Estimates for 185!) lit) will afford pretty 
 correct information concerning the present state of 
 the Royal Artillery. 
 
 Royal Foot Artillery. 
 
 Conimi.ssioned Officers, 918 
 
 Non-connnieeioned Officers, 1,785 
 
 Kank and File 23,351 
 
 lioyal /lorKC Artillery. 
 
 Commissifined Officers, 78 
 
 Non-commissioned Officers, 148 
 
 Rank and File 3,120 
 
 Total, 27,400 
 Of this number, 8707 are placed at the disposal of 
 the East Indies, to be jiaid for out of Indian reve- 
 nues. There were also voted 5:i()8 horses for the 
 foot-artillerv, and IHSO for the horse. 
 
 BOYAL SCOTS.— The regimental title given to the 
 1st Regiment of Foot. It is supposed to be the old- 
 est regular corps in Europe; the men originally came 
 from Scotland, and entered the French army, but 
 afterwards returned to England in l(i33, during tiie 
 reign of Ch;irles 1., and then received the title of 
 Royal Kei;iment of Foot. 
 
 ROYAL SMALL ARMS.— The following arms, etc., 
 are manufactured at the Uoyal Snudl-arms Factory : 
 1. JIartini-lIeur}' rifles and carbines. 2. Triangular 
 bayonets. 3. 8word-bayonets of various patterns. 
 4. The Enfield breech-loading revolver. 5. Lances. 
 6. Leather scabbards for triangular and sword bay- 
 onets. The details of the .Marlini-IIenry system and 
 the principal features of the Enfield revolver have 
 been set forth in tin- articles Martini-Henry Rifie and 
 Enfield Breech-loading Revolver. Inasmuch as 
 these arms differ in many points of fabrication from 
 the usual jirocesses and operations employed in 
 manufacturing small-arms, we herewith give a de- 
 tailed description of the fabri<:ation of the Martini- 
 Itenry rilie : 
 
 The barrel is made of soft or mild steel prepared 
 by the " Siemens-Martin" process, this metal hav- 
 ing been found to be of a very imiform nature. The 
 barrel bars or molds are obtained by contract in 
 lengths of 15 inches, the diameter for rifle bars be- 
 ing li inch. The barrel bar is heated to a white 
 heat and passed through the barrel rolling-mill, 
 ■which consists of ten pairs of rolls arranged alter- 
 nately horizontally and vertically, when it is drawn 
 out in one heat to the full length recpiired (about 36 
 inches), taper in form, and solid. It is next passed 
 to the Ryder forgins; nuichine, where the '• Knox 
 
 form" is forged on the breech end and the barrel 
 cut to length, then passed through a Htraijjhtening 
 muchine, I'xamined for straightiiess, and viewed a« 
 finished forged. The ends of the barrel are clamp- 
 milled for size and length, anrl then ilrilled up about 
 li inch at each end, the diamelerof the holes drilli-d 
 being 0.430 inch. This operation is called " enter- 
 ing the bore," and is very carefully tested to uce that 
 
 The 
 
 Fit,'. 1, 
 
 the starting of the bore is true and correct, 
 barrels are now ready for drilling. 
 
 The barrels while being drilled are placed verti- 
 cally in a machine. Fig. 1. where they revolve with 
 a speed of 300 revolutions per minute, the holes al- 
 ready made at each end acting as guides for the set 
 of three drills used in this operation. The method 
 of using these drills insures a long hole of small di- 
 ameter being drilled perfectly true, and until this 
 method was tried and adopted this was found to 
 be a most difticidt task: The ilrills consist of, first, 
 " the core-drill," for roughly cutting away the met- 
 al. This is run in half an inch, when the barrel is 
 taken out and emptied of swarf or cuttings by plac- 
 ing it (H'er a jet-pipe, wlien a strong stream of wash- 
 ing liquor thoroughly clears out the bore. Another 
 half inch is drilled in the same manner, and the bore 
 again washed out. The second drill or half-round bit 
 is now used. This drill is 0.130 inch iu diameter. and 
 having only a cut of 0.05 inch to make in clearing the 
 hole. is run down the one inch the core-drill has clear- 
 ed without any risk of deviating from the truth. The 
 barrel is then again washed on! and No. 3 drill made 
 use of. This has a slock fitting the hole already 
 bored, and ending in a small -{',,, inch drill, which, be- 
 ing supported by the stock, (Irills away the center 
 perfectly true with the a.xis of rotation, ready for 
 the ■' core " or " roughing drill " to start again. If 
 this system is rigidly carried out inch by inch it is 
 possible to drill a hole three or four feet deep with 
 an error of less than 0.005 inch. A set of drills con- 
 sists of these three just described, and three sets of 
 ditTerent lengths are used. When one-half of the 
 barrel has been drilled, it is turned end for end. and 
 the operation repeated until the lioles meet in the 
 center. This system of drilling originated at the 
 Royal Small-arms Factory, and is not in extensive 
 use elsewhere. 
 
 After drilling, the hole is broached out with long 
 square bits, on one side of which a strip of oak is 
 placed. Long strips of writing paper are evenly 
 placed between the strip and bit, one upon another, 
 and the bit is run tlirous:h the barrel until the hole
 
 BOTAL SKAI.L-ARMS. 
 
 796 
 
 EOYAL SMALt-AEMS. 
 
 is broached out to tlie required diameter. Tliis op- 
 eration is more of a buruisliing character than a cut- 
 ting one, producing a fine, clear, polished surface, 
 down which a shade is readily thrown by holding 
 the barrel at the proper angle to the light. As shad- 
 ows thrown off straight surfaces are projected in 
 straight lines on any true surface on which they are 
 thrown, the eye cau be taught by practice to detect 
 any inaccuracy in the bore of a barrel by the appear- 
 ance of the edges of the shadow thrown ilown it. In 
 order to insure absolute certainty that no barrel 
 should be passed on for the exterior to be turned 
 which had not the bore perfectly true, the following 
 mechanical test has been devised, viz : A steel rod 
 is stretched taut between two horizontally fixed 
 head-stocks, having a collar in the center and at one 
 end, which tit the bore Ioosel}',so that the barrel can 
 freely revolve on the rod. If the bore is straight, the 
 end of the barrel where there is no collar on the rod 
 will run perfectly true; but if not straight, it will re- 
 volve eccentrically, and its motion is easily detected 
 by any unskilled person. Every barrel is passetl 
 through this test before the e.xterior is commenced 
 upon. The bore is also tested for size by the col- 
 lars on the rod. 
 
 The next operation is to support and hold the bore 
 true while the outside is turned perfectly concentric 
 with it. After a number of experiments to find out 
 a means of fixing a true turned hush or collar on a 
 rough exterior, the present metliod of running sul- 
 phur in a liquid state between the barrel and bush 
 was adopted. By this means the exterior of a barrel 
 can be turned perfectly true with the bore without 
 injury to the inside. The barrel is placed vertically, 
 when two plugs, whose centers coincide with tlie axis 
 of the barrel are placed in the breech and nuizzle ; 
 the bush is then held over it anil melted sulphur is 
 poured in between barrel and bush. This gives a 
 "bearing for the outside perfectly true with the bore. 
 The barrel is next rough-tunieil, tinished-turned, 
 draw-polished, gauged, chambered for proof, and 
 screw-thread cut in breech end, to take the " hutts " 
 •used to close the breech during first proof. This 
 system of turning a barrel enables its exterior to be 
 brought to a definite size, and is greatly superior to 
 the old method of grinding barrels on a large stone 
 and afterwards striking tliem up. The barrels now 
 undergo the first-proof test which is necessary in 
 order to detect inferior quality of metal and flaws 
 which do not appear on either the exterior or inter- 
 ior surfaces. The first-proof charge is 7^ drams of 
 
 sawn to length and brazed on. The barrel is now 
 linislied-bored and set, and is then ready for rifling. 
 
 The rifling is done with a cutter having a head of 
 suitable form for the rifling required. This is fitted 
 into a groove cut in a box about eight inches in 
 length and fitting the bore. It is drawn through the 
 barrel by a rod fastened to one end of the cutter box, 
 the other end of the rod being coupled into the spin- 
 dle of the head-stock or traversing saddle. On the 
 spindle is a pinion geared into a sliding rack carried 
 by the same saddle. The end of the rack is fitted to 
 slide backward and forward along a fixed bar, which 
 can be set at any angle necessary to rotate the spin- 
 dle and cutter box to the amount of spiral required. 
 From four to five cuts are needed for each groove, 
 and tlie cutter is fed up by a screw tapped into the 
 end of the cutter box, to which a r(3d is attached, 
 which works through the center boss of a hand 
 wheel. A spiral groove is cut along this rod, in which 
 a feather fixed in the boss of the hand wheel slides, 
 enabling tlie feed-screw to be screwed in or out by 
 the hand wheel as required. An index is connected 
 with the hand wheel, enabling the operator to read 
 off the depth of cut. The barrel is fixed in a rotat- 
 ing chuck, which is divided so that any number of 
 grooves required can be cut inside the bore. The 
 rifling is of uniform twist of 1 in 23 inches, or one 
 and a half turns in the length of bore (3.S inches). 
 The form of rifling is that known as the "Henry rifl- 
 ing;" the grooves are seven in numbr, and are 0.007 
 inch in depth. 
 
 The barrel is suspended inside a hollow rotating 
 spindle by a plug inside the muzzle end, ruuning on 
 a plug fixed in headstock at tlie breecli end. A guide- 
 screw is securely fixed on the rotating spindle, and 
 carries a nut fixed to traversing tool-holder, which 
 holds a peculiar form of chasing tool. The teeth for 
 cutting the screw-thread on the breech end are on 
 the under side, so that, being set over the top of the 
 rotating barrel, it can be lifted in and out of the 
 thread which is beiug cut, in the shortest possible 
 lime and distance, without chopping the thread. 
 The screw being entirely finished, the barrel is then 
 driven from it, while the breech end of it is cham- 
 bered up for the cartridge. The entire operation 
 of boring and reaming is performed in the lathe re- 
 presented in Fig. 2. The barrel is now breeched up 
 to body, the action assembled for proof, and the 
 rifle undergoes the second-proof test. The second' 
 proof charge consists of 5 drams of powder, a bullet 
 weighing 715 grains, and a cork made half an inch 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 powder, a lead plug of 7\n grains, and over the lat- 
 ter a cork wad lialf an incli in thickness. Twenty 
 barrels are proviul at the same time in a cast-iron 
 proof batter}-. 
 
 The seat for the fnmt sight is next cross-milled 
 end dove-tailed, and the steel for the front sight is 
 
 in thickness. The biirnls are proved in a proof 
 battery something similar to that used for the first 
 proof. 
 
 The back sight-bed is soldered on to the barrel, 
 and also secured in its place by two screws. Both 
 the back sight and front sight are ()ilJu.st<.-J "m-\ rag-
 
 UOTAL SMALL ABHS. 
 
 71)7 
 
 BOTAL SHALL ABHS. 
 
 ulalnd from the axis of the bore, and when vicwinj; 
 tlic liiirrcls for Hi;;litin;; the jircutest care Ih tukeii to 
 see that Ijoth Hijilils arc exactly in iKwilioii. The 
 body and harnl arc lirowncd separately, the follow- 
 ing beini; I lie l)r(>\vniiii; mixture at present in use: 
 
 Spirits of wine 5 ounces. 
 
 Spirits of nitre 8 " 
 
 Tincture of steel 8 " 
 
 Nitric acid 4 " 
 
 Sulplnirict acid ;( " 
 
 Blue vitriol 4 " 
 
 Water 1 (jallon. 
 
 The proei'ss is as follows: The barrels and bodies 
 are tirst scalded in a solution of soda for twenty mi- 
 nutes and are then waslied in a clean water. The 
 browninj; mixture is applied, and they are placed in 
 a damp heat for about one and a half hours, when 
 they are scalded atcain, and wdien coo! the rust is 
 scratched off. This process is repeated four times, 
 and then the barrels are cleaned off and oiled. The 
 whole operation of browning leqnires about eight 
 hours. 
 
 The body which is to contain the l)reech action is 
 made from a specially lough chiss of mild steel. Hars 
 of this metal, 4 or 5 feet in length and 2 inches by U 
 inch in section, are obtained by contract. The body 
 is blocked direct off the end of the bar by five blows 
 under a IH-cwt. steam-hammer. The lirst blow gives 
 a rough tigure, and measuresolT lhei|uantity of metal 
 required. The second blow fullers in the sides of the 
 body, to displace the metal when working the hole 
 through it. The third blow, b3- means of a cliisel in 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 the upper die. splits tlie metal in the center, driving 
 out the sides of the body to till the die, and leaving 
 the impression of the hole to be made througli the 
 body full size at the top. The fourt!; blow drives a 
 full-sized drift, i)laced in the hole jnst maih' by the 
 chisel, clean through, shearing down the sides, and 
 driving tlirough the small pieei' left at the bottom of 
 the hole. The hole made tlirough the body is now 3 
 inches by J ineli by 3',' inches, and the metal wasted is 
 only 3i 07.. in weight. The fifth blow cuts ;he body off 
 the bar. A mandrel is now driven in the hole, and a 
 blow is struck upon the ends to S(|uare them tip, when 
 the body is ready for stamping. The boiiy is reheated 
 and a cold steel mandrel driven into it, when it is at 
 once placed under a powerful steam-hammer. On tlie 
 anvil of thi.s hammer is the lower die of a pair, the im- 
 pression cut in the pair of dies being that of the fin- 
 ished size of forged body. One heavy and suilden 
 blow is given, with force suflicient to make the metal 
 flow into every corner of the impression. If this is 
 not done at the first blow, it cannot with safety be 
 attempted by a second blow without reheating, as the 
 
 surplus metal (lows over between the faces of the dies 
 
 in the form of a thin lin, cliilled and black, and this 
 A-oidd swallow up itself the force of u second blow 
 and perhajis split one of the dies. Tlie body is next 
 annealed, scali- pickled off, fin-trimmed, and passed 
 as " finished forged." 
 
 The hole in the liody is first drifled out by means 
 of long slightly tapered drifts, wliicli are drawn 
 through if, and the liole produced in tins man- 
 ner is used as a starting point for all tlie sub.se- 
 quent operations, .\fter drifting, four bodies are 
 Iilaced on a revolving cross-shaped fixing, the arms 
 of which exactly fit the holes in the bodies, while a 
 transverse slide carrying two tooMiolders, one on 
 each side, turns up both sides of the four bodies at 
 one operation. This operation leaves the sides of 
 the body equal in thickness and true willi tiie center 
 hole. Twelve bodies are next fixed on a revolving 
 head, and tlie barrel ends are all cut square and 
 true, the sto(-k ends being treated in the same man- 
 ner. The hole for the barrel is then drilled, tappeil, 
 and the burr thrown up by the tapping is smoothed 
 down. The face is eased, so that when a gauge is 
 screwed in it stands exactly true. The body is now 
 placed in a drilling jeg, and the adjusted face is 
 screwed tight up against a rib in the jeg, while the 
 six axis holes of various sizes are drilled, three in 
 each side. The drills run througli hardened steel 
 bushes fixed in the sides of the drilling jeg. These 
 axis holes, after being tested for ae<'uracy, become, 
 in c(mjunction with the large hole in the body, the 
 base points for the remaining operations. 
 
 A number of drilling-maciiines now operate to cut 
 away the metal so as to form the socket to receive 
 the stock butt. The hole is drilled and tapped to 
 receive the screw end of the stock-bolt, which se- 
 cures the butt in the socket. Pins in the axis holes 
 in the left side of the body, hold it while the knuckle 
 seat for breech-block is roughly cut out and the seat 
 milled out square and true. A number of minor 
 'milling, drilling, and tapping operations bring the 
 body into the siiape and figure recpiired, and it is 
 then S(-rewed on, or " breeched up." to the barrel. 
 The barrel is now placed vertically with the end of 
 the chamber resting on the collar "of a plug, which 
 enters and exactly fits the chamber, and the face of 
 the barrel is drawn very tightly down on this col- 
 lar by means of plugs pushed through axis holes in 
 the body. Small mills are now run on a spindle 
 tlirough the block axis-hole and finish cutting out 
 the knuckle seat of the block to a positive length 
 from the face of the barrel. This length between the 
 knuckle seat of the block and the face of the barrel 
 is rigidly maintained, so as to insure that any block 
 will interchange or fit in any body. In order to in- 
 sure that this may be the case, "each breeched-up 
 barrel and body is accurately gauged with hardened 
 steel gauge-blocks. Care is alsolaken to see that 
 the striker hole, in the faceof the gauge-block, coin- 
 cides with the axis of the bore of barrel to insure the 
 cap of thecartridge beingstnick in the center. The 
 barrel and body are now passed on for assembling 
 the action for second proof. 
 
 A particular form of emery wheel, called a "rim 
 wheel," is employed for finishing up some of the com- 
 ponents. Its use has enabled unskilled labor to take 
 the place of a high class of skilled workmen, and the 
 work is better finished. For instance, the slot of the 
 back-siglit leaf is first drifted to its true size. By 
 this it is held in a fixing attached to a vertical axis, 
 and both edges with cap attached can be passed a- 
 cross the face of the rim wheel, maintaining it per- 
 fectly true, and grinding the edges of the leaf and 
 cap parallel to each other. The sides are done in the 
 .same manner. Having given a description of the 
 processes of manufacture for the barrel, and body, 
 it will be unnecessary to describe the manufacture of 
 the other components. The method pursued in the 
 manufacture of all is precisely that followed in the 
 case of the body. All the parts are first of aU forged
 
 ROTAL SMALL ARMS. 
 
 798 
 
 ROYAL "WARRANT. 
 
 in dies, tlie fin is trimmed off, they are piclded to re- 
 move scale, and then undergo numerous milling, 
 drilling, and other machine operations until they are 
 brought to the correct figure, when thej' are viewed, 
 gauged, and either case-hardened, browned, blued, 
 hardened, and tempered, etc., as the case may be. 
 The barrels of carbines and pistols are treated in the 
 same manner as the rifle barrel. In order to insure 
 an absolute interchangeabilitj' of the various parts 
 the most exact system of gauging is a necessity, and 
 the strict view which is enforced prevents the possi- 
 bility of any defective parts being assembled in an 
 arm. 
 
 The blade of the triangular bayonet is made of 
 tool or sharp steel, the socket of mild steel, the lock- 
 ing ring of wrought iron, and the locking-ring screw 
 of steel. The blade and socket are welded together ; 
 the blade is tapered imder a Ryder hammer, and then 
 rolled out in segmental rolls to the required length 
 
 and a triangular figure. The socket is stamped to 
 size and then goes through several machine opera- 
 tions, such as drilling, milling, slotting, etc. The 
 blade is hardened and tempered, groimd and pol- 
 ished, the socket being browned. The locking-ring 
 is well blued, and its screw is case-hardened. The 
 breech-block, lever, butt-plate, and iron screws are 
 case-hardened. This is done by carefully packing 
 them in iron boxes, in which they are surrounded 
 with bone cuttings or animal charcoal. An iron 
 plate is laid on the top of the box, and it is placed in 
 a furnace and raised to a red heat. Tiie length of 
 time that the various articles are left iu the furnace 
 depends on the amount of case-hardening required ; 
 and when removed from the furnace they are chilled 
 in a lank of cold water. They are then cleaned, oiled, 
 and examined by gauges to ascertain whelher the 
 case-hardening has altered tlieir form. The follow- 
 ing components are hardened by heing raised to a 
 certain temperature and tlien cooled in oil. They 
 arc afterwards tempered by "blazing," that is by 
 heating them again until the oil or suet with which 
 they have been covered bursts into a flame : Strik- 
 er, main-spring, indicator, extractor, sight-spring, 
 catch-block spring, trigger-spring, block-axis pin, ex- 
 tractor-axis, sight-slide, and steel screws, etc. The 
 following components are l)lued ; Up]>er and lower 
 bands, upper and lower hand-pins, guard and tjand 
 swivels, fore-end hook-screws, sight-leaf, lever catch- 
 block and pin, guard, nose-cap, the rod-holder, etc. 
 They arc polished, cleaned with lime to remove all 
 grease, and are then covered with powdered char- 
 
 coal and raised to a temperature of about 550° Fah- 
 renheit. 
 
 A milling-machine and a screw-head slotter com- 
 bined, arranged for taking the short milling cuts, is 
 shown in Fig. 3. The box-shaped head is placed on 
 a planed iron table, which is surrounded by a groove 
 to catch oil and chips. The cross slide is adjusted 
 by a screw that projects in front, and squared by a 
 wrench. The sliding-table is operated for a hand 
 lever and the motion is gauged by an adjustable 
 stop behind. A vertical movement is commimicat- 
 
 Fig.5. 
 
 ed to the knee slide by means of a rack and gear, 
 operated by a hand lever in front, as shown in the 
 drawing. For slotting screws, a sliding vise is fur- 
 nished, so arranged that the front or movable jaw 
 tightens on the screw to be slotted by means of 
 two springs under the jaw. The jaw is linked so 
 that it is operated wholly by the hand lever which 
 feeds the vise. With the machine with the lever 
 vertical motion, screws can also be fed up under the 
 saw which greatly increases its capacity. Counter- 
 shaft has adjustable self-oiling hangers. Fig. 4, re- 
 presents the usual form of slotting-machine, supplied 
 with slotting-bar counter-balances, so as to run with- 
 out jarring. It is driven by a variable crank, with 
 quick, return motion ; has bearing for slotting-bar 
 adjustable vertically, to suit the diilerent heights of 
 work ; has compound tables, with circular plate and 
 centering stud ; and the feed is self-acting, so as to 
 be perfectly balanced. Fig. 5, represents the screw 
 polishing machine, with bearings so inclosed as to 
 entirely prevent the admission of the emery used for 
 polishing the work. This is the peculiar property 
 of this machine, and being specially adapted for 
 polishing small parts of arms, etc., such as screws, 
 studs, nuts, collars, etc., which are usually finished 
 with oil and emery, its durability is thus secured. 
 The counter-sliaft of this machine has a speed of 450 
 turns per minute. The machines here described 
 together with those illustrated and discussed in the 
 article— Fabrication of fiee-abms — will assist the 
 reader in gaining a knowledge of light gun machin- 
 ery. See^Eiifieid Breech-loading Jicvolver, Fabrica- 
 tion of Fire-arms, Martini-IIenry Hifle, and Small, 
 arms. 
 
 ROYAL WARRANT.— An act of the Sovereign, au- 
 thorising, for military purposes, the Secretary of 
 State for War to issueUules and Regulations for the 
 guidance of the several Departments of the Army. 
 Royal warrants, where the Army is concerned, relate 
 to all matters touching the soldier, his pay, clothing,
 
 BUBBERS. 
 
 799 
 
 EUBEN AND FORNEROD FUSES. 
 
 travelling, food, etc., and are is>iued from lime to 
 tirni', 1)y llie War OfHoe, in Armj^ Circulars, for the 
 observance of all ciineerned. 
 
 RUBBERS. — SlriiMix heavy fili'S, p'nerally made of 
 an inrcricir kind of Hteel; lliey measure from 1^ to IH 
 iiuOies Ion;;, from :,' inch to 2 inches 0]i every side, 
 and are made very convex or fish-bellied. Ilubbers 
 are only for coars<> manufa<'turintr jiurposes, when 
 tlw object is rather to briijliten llie surface of the 
 work than to give it any speeilie form. See File. 
 
 BUBBLE. — A common kind of masonry, in wliieli 
 tlic slo]ii-s are irregular in si/e and shape. Walls 
 faced wilb ashlar are generally packed with rubble 
 at Ibe back. Uublile is of various kinds, according 
 to the amounl of dressing given to the stones. Com- 
 mon rubble is liuilt with stones left almost as they 
 come from the quarry. Hammer-dressed lubble, 
 is .so called when the stones are squared with the 
 mason's hammer; coursed rubble, when the stones 
 are squared and eipial in heiibt. etc. 
 
 RUBEN AND FORNEROD COMBINATION FUSES. 
 — These two Swiss fuses are alike in principle, and 
 differ only in that the larger one has two tiers of 
 burning composition and is capable of burning 20 
 seconds, twice the length of time — as a time-fu.se — 
 that the smaller one can burn. The fuses consist of 
 three principal parts, the body, A, the inertia igniter, 
 B, and the pereussion-fuse attaelunent, C. A and B 
 constitute the lime-fuse. The former is made of an 
 alloy of ecjual parts of lead and tin, while, I?, andC, 
 are of brass. The body. A, is provided on its e.xterior 
 with a screw-thread by means of which it is con- 
 nected with Hie shell; the central cylindrical part 
 is also provided with a screw-thread, into which tits 
 the assembling screw of igniter, B, which binds all 
 the different parts of the time-fuse together. 
 
 Tlie bod}- A of the larger fuse (Fig. 1,) is com- 
 posed of three parts, </, //, c; the upper part (i, or the 
 
 t'egulator, is a ring of truncated form ; it has a prim- 
 ing chamber, andaenanncl cm its under side, inclos- 
 ing compressed mealed jiowder. The chamber opens 
 e.xtcrnally npon a thin part of the wall and internally 
 upon the core. Tlie channel is covered by a disk of 
 foil. The rim of the regulator is divided into 50 eqmd 
 parts, each one representing one-tifth of a second. 
 The part, h, has also a cham!)er;ind similar channel of 
 compressed mealed powder; the<'hainber opening on 
 top for communiciition witii the cb;innel of a, and on 
 the outside for escape of gas, the outside opeinng being 
 covered with wa.x. Between, a. and, b, and glued to 
 the top of, b. is a washer of thick cloth, wilb a small 
 hole through it just over opening to chandjer of, h. 
 The lower part, c, has on its under siile a circular 
 channel of ritle-powder covered by a perforated <lisk 
 of copjier— a piece of gauze separates the powder and 
 copper ring; a vertical channel tilled with rilie pow- 
 der allows a communication between powder in, /', 
 and the ritie powder in, c ; separating, b, and, c. and 
 glued to the top of latter, is a washer of cloth exact- 
 ly similar to one separating, (/, and, b. The outside 
 rim of this piece is also graduated into -50 equal parts, 
 each one reading one-fifth of a sec(md. 
 
 The igniter. B, consists of the parts, d, e, f. and 
 g; the stock, rf, has a cylindrical cavity, at the center 
 of the bottom of which projects a shar|) pin-point; 
 
 fotir radial holes at bottom of cavity allows the gas 
 from igniter to escape and spri'ad into a circiilar 
 groove around the outside of the slock ; a brass 
 washer separates the hexagonal rim of the head of 
 the slock from the regulator or part, «, of lh<; body. 
 At the bottom of the stock there is a cyliniirical 
 projecting cup filled with the same composition as 
 that in the igniter, and also covered with a solution 
 of rubber. The cylindrical plunger, <■, has in the 
 center of its ba.se a recess which contains the fulmi- 
 nate priming, whieli is Ijelieved to be made of five 
 parts chloralc of potassa, one of sulphide of antimo- 
 ny, and one of powdered glass, all coated with a 
 solution of rubber; the crown-shaped spring, /", is 
 stamped out of a thin pieceof steel; it has four spring 
 leaves; the bottom of the spring is shaped to fit tlie 
 base of the [ilunger and to expose the fulminate in 
 plunger: the screw-cap, y, clo.ses the lop of the stock, 
 d; a hole tlirough its center allows the cylindrical 
 projection on top of plunger to pass through and 
 centers the plunger in spring and cj'lindrical cavity 
 of stock. 
 
 The percussion atlaclimenl, (!, consists of five 
 parts, A, k, vi, n, o; the hollow cylindrical stock /( has 
 a solid bottom, pierced with a small central hole for 
 passage of gas from the fulminating composition 
 into the shell ; this hole is closed by u piece of fine 
 netting, or gauze, to prevent the powder in the shell 
 from penetrating fuse-slock or bodj- ; a shoulder 
 turned on its exterior fixes its iiositinn in the fuse- 
 hole of shell; the cylindrical plunger, k, has through 
 its axis a longitudinal channel, at the head of which 
 is secured a sharp steel projecting point ; forward 
 movement of the pbmger, except upon impact in 
 flight, is prevented by a steel crown-shaped spring, 
 m, similar to the one l;eretofore described. A hollow 
 cylinder, n, centers the plunger and is long enough 
 to permit the pin point to reach and pierce the ful- 
 minate on impact; the slock is closed by a brass ring, 
 w, resting on a shoulder turned in lop of stock. 
 
 The action of the combination is as follows : Upon 
 the infiammalion of the charge, the plunger is thrown 
 back, the spring being compressed, and the plun- 
 ger, with its fulminate, strikes the metallic point ; 
 the gas due to the consequent ignition passes througli 
 the openings in the wall of the lube, spreads into 
 the circular groove around the outside of the tube, 
 ignites the priming of the burning column, and thus 
 causes the inflammation of the section of this column 
 in contact with it ; intlammalion spreads along the 
 
 burning prism, and. reaching its origin, is communi- 
 cated to the second tier (if fuse is set for more than 
 10 seconds), and so on to the chamber and recess of 
 rifled powder which communicates with the powder 
 in shell. The combustion of the priming of com- 
 pressed powder produces sutficient heat to melt the 
 thickness of metal which closes the priming-cham- 
 ber, and thus affords a broad outlet to the gas from 
 the burning column. From experiments made in
 
 KUB IRON. 
 
 800 
 
 ETTMSET GUN. 
 
 Switzerland, it is believed these fuses offer entire 
 security against premature ignition, the shells being 
 given the most violent shocks which could be re- 
 ceived in transportation, loading, or unloading. The 
 ignition is very certain, even wUh reduced charges. 
 
 Should the fuse strike any resisting object before 
 the burning composition has reached the point tc 
 wliich the time-fuse was set, the plunger or percus- 
 sion attachment, C, is thrown forward, the spring 
 being compressed, and the pin point pierces the ful- 
 minate at base of igniter, B, and the gas resulting 
 has direct access to bursting charge of the shell. 
 
 The smaller fuse shown in Fig. 2, has the same 
 general features as the larger ; it differs from it in 
 that it has but one layer of composition, which burns 
 10 seconds. The body. A, is in two parts only : the 
 regulator a with its circular groove of compressed 
 mealed powder has on its outside rim 50 equal div- 
 isions representing fifths of seconds. The lower 
 part of the, b, covers the jjercussion attachment, C, 
 and has running vertically through one side a hole 
 filled with rifle-powder ; this is the channel of com- 
 munication between burning composition of time- 
 fuse and bursting charge of shell. The conical out- 
 side surface of the igniter, B, is roughened to facili- 
 tate turning of the assembling screw which binds the 
 different parts of the fuse ; bj' loosening and tight- 
 ening this screw the regulator is set to the required 
 time. The different parts of this fuse function as 
 those of the larger fuse. See Ftixe. 
 
 KUB-IEON. — A plate on a carriage or wagon-bed, 
 against which the fore-wheel rubs when turning short, 
 is called a wheet-guard plate in a field artillery-car- 
 riage; one is placed on each side of the stock. 
 
 EUFFLE. — A low vibrating sound, which is beat 
 upon the drum, but not so loud as a roll. It is gen- 
 erallj- performed in paying militarj- compliments to 
 general ofiicers, and at militarv funerals. 
 
 EULE BEITANNIA.— One of the national anthems 
 of Great Britain, which has been described by South- 
 ey as " The political hymn of this country as long as 
 she maintains her political power." Its original ap- 
 pearance was in a mask entitled Alfred, the words by 
 James Thompson, the poet, and David Mallet, anil 
 the music by Dr. Arne, which was performed for the 
 first time on Aug. 1, 1740, before Frederick, Prince 
 of Wales, at his residence at Cliefden. The words of 
 the ode are believed to be the composition of Mallet. 
 Alfred -wm altered by Mallet in 1751, when three 
 stanzas of Mule Britannia were omitted, and three 
 others, by Lord Boliugbroke, substituted for them ; 
 but it is the ode in its original form that has taken 
 root. 
 
 EULE NISI.— In the English and Irish courts of 
 law, is a technical term denoting the first step in an 
 interlocutory application to the Court, sucli as an ap- 
 plication for a new trial. The usual course is for the 
 party who takes the initiative to move, ex jmrte, for 
 a Rule Nisi, i. e.,an order of the court that something 
 shall be done, unkss the opposite party, within a cer- 
 tain time, usually three or six days, show cause, i.e., 
 some good reason why the thing proposed should not 
 be done. AVlien tlie party ol)tains a rule nisi, he sends 
 a copy of it to the other parly, who must then, at the 
 time appointed, show cause, and if the cause is deemed 
 sufficient, the rule is discharged, i. e., the application 
 is refused ; if the cause is insufficient, tlie rule is 
 made absolute, i. e., the opposite party is boimd to 
 do the thing asked, otherwise he will be lialile lo 
 some disadvantage or to imprisonment according lo 
 the nature of tlie subject matter. 
 
 EULES OF FIRE. -Those for ordnance which fire 
 borizontall}', result from the knowledge of the mean 
 ti-ajectort/. which, like the mean trajectory of the mus- 
 ket, comprises all the causes of error which can mod- 
 if}' the fire ; Iiut the trajectory of artillery ])rojectiles 
 being more constant in its form, the results are more 
 accurate, a consequence of the fact that as the cali- 
 ber of the arm incrr'ases, each ])arti<ular trajectory 
 npproaclies more nearly the aaiin trajeetnri/. 
 
 When canister is fired, the balls, having broken the 
 case, escape in the form of a cone, and striking against 
 each other, and against the sides of the piece, di- 
 verge more or less according to the distance ; but the 
 greater part of the balls are "found to be near the cen- 
 ter, and the rulenoffire are still based upon the know- 
 ledsreof the mean trajectory. 
 
 EUMP PAELIAMENT.— In order to bring about 
 the condemnation of Charles I., Oliver Cromwell, on 
 Dec. 6, 11)48, sent two regiments, .under the com- 
 mand of Colonel Pride, to coerce the House of Com- 
 mons. Forty-one members of the " Long Parlia- 
 ment" who were favorable to accommodation were 
 imprisoned in a lower room of the house, IGO were 
 ordered to go home, and only 60 of the most violent 
 of the Independents were admitted. The clearance 
 was calletl J'rifle'.i Purge, and the ))rivileged mem- 
 bers ever afterward passed by the name of the 
 Rump, forming, as it were, the fag-end of the "Long 
 Parliament". This assembly, in conjunction with 
 the army, brought about the arraignment, trial, and 
 condemnatian of Charles I. Five years later the 
 "Rump Parliament," forgetting that it was but the 
 creature of the armj', attempred to make a stand 
 against certain demands on the part of the soldiers. 
 The result was that Cromw-ell filled the House with 
 armed men; the speaker was pulled out of tlie chair, 
 the mace taken from the table, the room cleared, 
 the door locked, and the Parliament declared to be 
 dissolved. Supreme in the three Kingdoms, Crom- 
 well convoked an assembly which assumed the title 
 of Parliament, and actjuired from the name of one 
 of its most prominent members, a leather-seller, 
 called Praisegod Barebones, the name of the Bare- 
 hoties Parliament. The Barebones Parliament, after 
 subsisting five months, was dissolved, and Cromwell, 
 raised to the dignity of Protector, convoked two 
 Parliaments, and dissolved them for refusing to 
 sanction his measures. On Oliver Cromwell's death, 
 and Richard's succession to the Protectorate, the 
 military ^Malcontents, coalescing with the Indepen- 
 dents in Richard's Parliament, declared the expul- 
 sion of the Rump illegal, and restored that Assembly 
 to its functions. With the revival of the Rump, its 
 quarrel with the army revived ; and the troops, again 
 surrounding Westminster Hall, expelled it on Oct. 30, 
 
 1659, a provisional government of officers assuming 
 the direction of affairs. But the general dissatisfac- 
 tion having led to a coalition between the Presbyte- 
 rians and Royalists, the army, unable to carry on the 
 government, was reduced to the necessity of once 
 more restoring the Rump, which had been twice 
 ign'ominiously expelled. The advance of Monk, 
 however, with the urmy of Scotland led to a general 
 crj- throughout the countrj* for a Free Parliament. 
 A number of the members who had been excluded 
 h}' Pride's Purge reappearing in the House, placed 
 the Independents in the minority ; and on Mar. 16, 
 
 1660, the despised and derided Rump at last solemn- 
 ly decreed its own dissolution. Tlie most prominent 
 members of the Rump Parliament were Vane and 
 Ilazleriff. 
 
 EUMSEY GUN. — A breech-loading rifle having a 
 fixed chamber closed by a movable breech-block, 
 which slides in the line of the b:irrel by indirect ac- 
 tion, being moved by levers from below. Tlie arm 
 resembles in its general features the Winchester. 
 Its peculiarity consists in having two magazine- 
 tubes, one on each side of the barrel and beneath it. 
 From these the cartridges are fed alternately into the 
 corresponding carriers,whicli are moved up and down 
 by levers operiiled liy a slidiiig-rod. This rod is 
 drawn to and from the ojicrator by two thumb- 
 pieces, one of which, for the right hand, is within 
 Die trigger-guard, and the other lies along the barrel 
 in a ])osition readily accessilile by the fingers of the 
 left hand when supporting the piece in the natural po- 
 sition of tiring. The niech;iiiisiii for communicating 
 '.his reciprocal motion to the carrier levers, consists 
 mainlv of an oscillating lever hing between the other
 
 RUN. 
 
 801 
 
 K088ELL INTEEHUPTEE. 
 
 two, iiriil ils cciiiriccUonH in tlio formof sprinj^s, Htopg, 
 and pins, wliicli an: (li'siKncil for directing tlic stroke 
 on cacli (if ilM sides allcrnnli-ly. 
 
 RUN. -Tlic greatist drtirce of swifliiess in niareli- 
 in|^. It is e.\<'(;iiti'(l tin llic same principles as the 
 il(/iil>l<-(/iiii'k, Ijnt Willi ^^reater Hpc'cd. In I'inf^land. 
 tlie Hanniiig Drill forms part ot llie Irainini; of ii 
 soldier. It comes under tlie lieud of ;;ynuiastic 
 training;, »nd is ordered to lie carried out ni all in- 
 fantry reiriments. Tlie object of it is to make the 
 men supple, active, and capalile of bearini; fati;;ne. 
 On allcrnate days the men run with arms and accou- 
 termenls. 
 
 RUNNING FIGHT.— A ballli' in which one party 
 flees and (lie niher pursues, but tlie parly lleeing 
 keeps up t lie <-inilest. 
 
 RUNNING FIRE.— A constant lire of musketry or 
 cannon. 
 
 RUNNING FUSE. 'I'lie runninfj-fuses most used 
 are those known in lOiiiilauil as liirkfnnVH fit«i\ and 
 in this eoimlry as Sufi li/-fiini' and 'hiij'n fnxe. The 
 common fuse ordinarily used in blastinj; with pow- 
 der is of this kind, ll consists essenliallj' of a col- 
 umn of line i^imiiowder enclo.sed in llax, hemp, or 
 cotton, and made up willi dilTerent coverinirs accord- 
 ing to till,' use lo which it is applied. When intend- 
 ed fot immciliale use on li^lil work in dry ground, 
 it is unprotecled by additioniilcoverinc;s. When in- 
 tended lor use in wet unround or under water, it is 
 covered with varnished tape or gulla-perclm. 
 
 These fuses cause ii;nilion by conveying flame to 
 the charge to be exploded. They are somewhat un- 
 certain in their rate of burning, but average about 
 one yard in a minute. The ordinary varieties must 
 be kept in a cool, dry ])lace, and preserved from con- 
 tact with grease or oil. The gulla-perelia-covered 
 varieties are liable lo become injnn d by keeping. 
 from the deterioration of the gutta-percha. Before 
 using, care must be taken that cracking of the gut- 
 ta-percha has not occurred. They .should be able to 
 resist water for tweiilv-fonr hours. See i'Vvf. 
 
 RUNNING THE GAUNTLET.— A punishment for- 
 merly enforced in the ICnglish Navy, and which was 
 intlicted also on soldiers. The mode of procedure 
 was as follows. When a soldier was senlenced to 
 run till' fffi'iiUlit, the regiment was paraded in two 
 ranks, facing one another, eaiMi soldier having a 
 switch in his hand, and as the criminal ran between 
 the ranks naked from the waist upwards, he was 
 lashed l)y the soldiers. While he ran the drum beat 
 at each end of the ranks. Sometimes he ran three, 
 five, or seven times, according to the nature of the 
 offence. Ilappilj' such a barbarous pimishment no 
 longer dissraces that Army or Navy. 
 
 RUPTURE OF SHELLS.— When tliV charge of pow- 
 der contained in a shell is intianied, the gases devel- 
 oped expand into the cavity, the expau,sive force 
 increasing and producing rupture when sufficient to 
 overcome the tenacity of the metal. Kuplure will 
 take place in the direction of least resistance, or fol- 
 lowing the least thickness of metal. If the shell be 
 spherical and homogeneous, and the cavity also be 
 spherical and concentric with the exterior, the .sur- 
 face of rupture must be composed of lines normal to 
 both the interior and exterior surfaces of the shell. 
 
 Let Ii be the radius of the exterior, and ;• the ra- 
 dius of the interior surface ; 7', the tenacity of the 
 metal I'omposing the shell, and p. the pressure of 
 the gases on a unit of surface required to overcome 
 the tenacity of the metal. 
 
 Let (' be the radius of the circle in which the sur- 
 face of rupture intersects the interior surface of the 
 shell, or the interior circle nf rupture. The elTective 
 pressure exerted on the area of this circle to produce 
 rupture is equal to the sum of the components of all 
 the normal pressures, acting on the spherical seg- 
 ment of which it is the base, taken iHTpendicularTy 
 to the plane of this circle; therefore .t/iT- is the pres- 
 sure of the gases which tends to break the sphere. 
 
 Under this supposition, ruplure .should follow the 
 
 surface of the frustum of a cone of which this circle 
 
 is the smaller base. The surface of this frustum is 
 e<)ual to the dillerence of the surfaces of two cones 
 wliosi: common apex is at the center of the sphere. 
 The base of the smallrr is 'iiit', and its slant height 
 ;•; ils surface is therefore equal to nC'r. The surface 
 of the larger cone, whose generatrix is the radius of 
 the exterior sphere, being to the smaller as Jl' is to 
 
 r'-, will be nCr ; and IheirdifTerence, or the area 
 
 r» 
 of the surface of rnplnre, will ihen erpial 
 
 "■<v-')- 
 
 If the pressure of the gases acted normally to the 
 surface of ruplure, or in the direction of the tenacity, 
 this surface multiplied by 7' would give the total re- 
 sistance, to which the pressure of tin; gases should 
 be e<iual: 1ml it acts obliquely, and lo produce ru[)- 
 tureshoidd be increased by aquanlily wlii. h depends 
 upon the angle which the jiressure makes with the 
 normal. Denoting this quantity by d, we shall have 
 the relation. 
 
 pnC' = TnCi 
 
 p^T- 
 
 GO 
 
 d 
 
 + — 
 
 In this expression, the value of rf is unknown, and 
 cannot be practically determined, but it evidently di- 
 minishes as the direction of the pressure approaches 
 the normal to the surface of rupture, and when they 
 coincide, d becomes 0. At the same time 6'increa.ses, 
 and the value of p diminishes, until r'becomes equal 
 to r. its maximum value. Therefore, the section of 
 easiest rupture of a hollow sphere [lasscs through a 
 great circle, and the pressure which is in KpiHHirio 
 with the tenacity of the metal, will be given by mak- 
 ing i"=r, and (?=0, in the foregoing formula, which 
 will then become, 
 
 p=T 
 
 o>io-y 
 
 When the pressure is less than this value of p, the 
 shell w ill resist rupture; when greater than this value, 
 rupture will take place. 
 
 The required pressure being known, the correspond- 
 Ing density will result from Noble's formula, 
 
 p=14.63 ; 
 
 \—ad 
 
 this density multiplied by the weight of water that 
 will till the cavity gives the weight of the bursting 
 charge. See Priijeciila* and S/ielh. 
 
 RUSE.— A trick or stratagem. The success of a 
 ruse depends mainly on the Commander's knowledge 
 of human nature in general, and of his opponent's 
 character in particular. Its object is to deceive the 
 enemy as to your designs. If you desire a general 
 action, spread reports of the weakness of your army 
 and appear to avoid one. If the contrary, put on a 
 bold face, aiel appear desirous to engage. The em- 
 plovment of ruse or stratagem is particularly appli- 
 cable to operations having for their object the forc- 
 ing of any long line whicii it is impossible for anen- 
 cnTy to giiard at all points, such as mountain ranges, 
 rivers, entrenched lines, etc. 
 
 RUSSELL INTERRUPTER.— -\n electrical interrupt- 
 er devised bv I.ieul . .V. II. Knssell. Ordnance Corps. L'. 
 S. Army, for the Schullz chronoscope. The change 
 consists" in replacing the detached mercury inter- 
 rupter now in use by alight metallic spring, which is 
 pressed against the tumii'g-fork on the inner side of
 
 BUSSELL MAGAZINE. 
 
 802 
 
 EUSSELL MAGAZINE GUN. 
 
 one prong, making the fork its own interrupter when 
 the electrical current is passed through it. Tlie 
 drawins; shows the new device. B, is a brass plate 
 which is fastened to tlie table by the screw, d, work- 
 ing through the slot, g, into the base of the clamp. 
 This screw shoidd have a milled head, as at,d'. Riv- 
 eted or screwed to the plate B is an elastic strip, e, 
 fitted with a screw, or simply with projections as at, /' 
 to hold the spring, s. A screw, t, works through the 
 plate, B, agaiust the strip, e, thereby raising or low- 
 ering the end of the latter. By this means tlie spring, 
 ,«, for which a piece of watch-spring may be used, 
 can be pressed against the platinum point, p, fixed on 
 the inner side of the counterpoise, »(, of the tuning- 
 fork. The fork and the spring are connected with 
 the opposite poles of a galvanic batterv, and the cur- 
 rent is made and broken at, ;), by the vibration of 
 
 the fork. For adjustment the plate, B, is slipped 
 under the table and fostened by the screw, d, so that 
 the spring, n, is just out of contact witli the point,/). 
 The wires being adjusted, the circuit is completed 
 at, p, by a turn of the screw, t, and the electro-mag- 
 nets becoming magnetized draw the prongs apart. 
 
 BUSSELL MAGAZINE.— This magazine, devised for 
 the Hotchkiss gun, is intended to provide for one 
 continuous supply of the cartridges by the insertion 
 of tin boxes containing five cartridges each in the 
 channel of the butt-stock. Each box contains a 
 spring, which assists gravity in producing a rapid 
 descent of the cartridges, The feeding apparatus 
 is a combination of a ratchet and spiral spring. To 
 the inside of the magazine-tube springs are secured 
 by solder. The oppo ite side of the tube is slotted 
 for the reception of the sliding-bar or ratchet, to 
 which springs are attached in a similar manner. Piv- 
 oted to the bar is an arm at the front of which is a 
 projection, over which hooks a corresponding pro- 
 jection on the breech-bolt. When the breech-bolt 
 is withdrawn the arm and ratchet are compelled to 
 move with it until the projection rides under a bev- 
 eled shoulder at the end of the groove in which it 
 .slides, when the arm is released and the magazine- 
 spring returns it and the ratchet to their first posi- 
 tion. It will thus be seen that the ratchet is moved 
 automatically, being drawn back by the bolt and re- 
 turned by the magazine-spring. AVhen the ratchet 
 is withdrawn each spring connected with it passes 
 beliind the head of the cartridge next in rear of it ; 
 when returned the cartridges are carried forward, 
 the 2d replacing the 1st, which will have entered the 
 chamber, the 3d the 2d, and so on. The magazine 
 carries !) cartridsres. 
 
 EUSSELL MAGAZINE-GUN.— This gim devised by 
 Lieut. \. II. Russell, Ordnance Corps, U. S. A., 
 contains many features of novelty. The breech- 
 closing bolt operates by a handle preferably at the 
 side of the arm as in other bolt guns, but instead of 
 a partial rotation of the bolt in locking and imlock- 
 iug, the force applied to the handle is at all times 
 in a direction nearly parallel with the bore of the 
 barrel. The locking is effected bj- a cross-shaft in 
 
 This l)reaks contact at. p; the prong flies back and 
 ccmtinues to vibrate, the contact being made and 
 l)rc)keu at every vibration .V battery of four 15un- 
 sen's cells works the intcrru])ter. The advantages 
 of this device over the ohl interrupterare as follows: 
 
 1. The adjustments are exceedingly simple, and they 
 retpiire but little time, while witli the delaelicd mer- 
 cury interrupter they are very delicate and dillicult. 
 
 2. The manipulation is very simple and rapid, a mere 
 turn of the screw producing vibration, '.i. The \ise 
 of tlie mercury cup is entirely avoided. 4. Extra 
 electro-magnets for the interrupter .are dispensed 
 with, and ihe strength of the battery can be greatly 
 re(hiced. 5. The arrangement is cheap and simple, 
 and not easily deranged This interrujiter has been 
 in constant use for several years, and it has been 
 practically and successfully tested with tlie machine. 
 
 the bolt a little longer than the diameter of the 
 bolt, having cam-shaped ends which extend into 
 seats ill the receiver. In opining the lireech these 
 cam projections are turned by Ihe tirst movement 
 of the handle, which is a (livulal movement, until 
 the bolt is unlocked, when a lurtlicr backward move- 
 ment of the handle gives a powcrfid cam action to 
 start the cart ridge, and at tlw same time slightly starts 
 the firing-|)iu backward. The tinal closing move- 
 ment has the same powerful action to seat the cart- 
 ridge in its chamber. The magazine feeds the cart- 
 ridge sidewise, eilhcr up through the bcittcim of tlie 
 receiver, as in the I.ec gun, or at the side of the re- 
 ceiver, and in the latter case a swinging pusher 
 forces the upper one of the column of carlrlilges 
 sidewise into the receiver in front of the bolt. Lieut. 
 Hussell has invented n very simple metallic feed case.

 
 IIUBSELL PRISM RANGE FINDER. 
 
 803 
 
 RUSSIAN ARHT. 
 
 constructed of a single piece of bent sheet metnl, 
 wliich will contain just enuiifili ciirlriclircH to Mil the 
 nmga/iue of this |j;un, from wliich the iiiii};ii/,ine ciin 
 be recharged us ra|)iilly as a siiifjlc carlrid;:;!' couhi 
 be placed in the receiver. These feed eases are little 
 if any more cosily than paper Ixixes, and are to l)e 
 thrown .lU'ay when einiily. ('apt. liiverinore, C 8. 
 A., has joiiilly with l.icwi. lliissell, made improve- 
 ments in maj;a/.ine arms, and has also invented a 
 series of l)reech movements for small-arms. Sec 
 
 MiKldZilK-qilll . 
 
 RUSSELL PRISM RANGE FINDER.— This instru- 
 ment is sIkiwm in [lerspeetive in Fii;. 1- A is the 
 prism, I! Ilic franu'; «, //, r, rf, and c arc the apertures 
 for ohscrvatidiis ; I, I, I, Uu: clamps which retain the 
 prism in place ; and m is Ihc rini; to which the slrini; 
 may l)e attached. Near each apertun^ is shown an 
 arrow-mark to indicate approximately the direction 
 in which the observer should look into the prism. 
 The aperture at ii has two of these marks, the rit;ht- 
 hand otu' for use in connection with the aperture h 
 and the left-hand one with the ajjcrture c. The 
 aperture e is used iu connection with rf, 6 with a, and 
 
 Kiu. 1. 
 
 c also with a. A square, nuirked on the surface 
 between the apertures (/ and i\ indicates that they 
 correspiuid to a ri^ht angle, and the acute-an};cle mark 
 between the apertures c and a indicates their use to<;e- 
 ther for laying oil anacute angle. The apertures a and 
 i are used together for laying olT an obtuse angle. No 
 ! andle is provided but the instrument is to l)e grasp- 
 ed by tlie sides between Ihe thunil) and forefinger, 
 usually of the hand oi)positc the object seen liy re- 
 tlecticm. The tip of the tiuger shoidd usually cover 
 the aperture opposite to the one into which the ol)- 
 server is looking, in order to cut ofT colored rays 
 wliich might interfere with clear vision. For ins- 
 
 tance, while looking through n and obtaining the 
 reflection through />. the observer should cover 
 e; and while obtaiuing the retiection tlirough <■ he 
 should cover d ; while looking into d he should cov- 
 er ((, &c. The proper inuvge to be selected is easily 
 found, as it remains steady, while other images 
 which nuiy be seen move very quickly when tlie 
 prism is turned horizontally. The iirinciples of re- 
 flection are the same as for the Weldon prism. 
 
 Three triangular prisms might be substituted for 
 the one six-sided prism, and witli this arrangement 
 the method of observation might be learned rather 
 more readily, as there would be no need of covering 
 up the apertures, wliilc the held of view would be 
 somewhat enlarged. Fig. 3, shows such an arrange- 
 ment : A, 15, and C are triangular prisms made on 
 the Weldon principle — A for a right angle, B and C 
 for acute and obtuse supplementary angles respecti- 
 vely. The frame D supports the three prisms. It 
 is doubtfid, however, if any real or very great ad- 
 vantage would here obtain over the six-sided single- 
 prism form. Sec JVolan JRanffe-Jind^;r, Pratt- Rn'ngi'- 
 jindcr, Telemeter, Watkin liange-finder , and Weldon 
 Rwige-finder. 
 
 RUSSENSTEIH SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— This 
 
 Hystiin closely follows I'ugan. Only the bastiong 
 are very siniple. Strong revetments are given to the 
 escarps. 
 
 RUSSET LEATHER. When new, njsset leather 
 equipments would be striking, but probably would 
 not ai-eord well with Ihe plaiimess of our urm^ uni- 
 forms. They would be rallier conspicuous in the 
 held and easily discolored, presenting an appearance 
 the reverse of military spruceness. When repairs 
 are made the new parts would form a striking con- 
 trast to the older ones — since there is no blacking in 
 this case to render them uniform in color. When 
 new, russet leather would furnish hamlsome horse 
 ei|uipmiiils, but the stains inciilent iijion the sweat- 
 ing of the animal, rain, and the spattering of mud 
 could not be easily elfaced. Any endeavors to clean 
 such harness would jjrobably result in leaving areas 
 of a murky reddish-brown color. 
 
 The (|ucstion of whether the Army should be sup- 
 ))li<Ml with oak or hendock-tanncd leather has been 
 agitated from time to time during and since the war. 
 The government still clings to oak. and nearly all its 
 specitications call for oak-tanned leather, cotwilh- 
 standing the fact that the greater part of the leather 
 used during the war was bad hemlock, rendered 
 more worthless by attempts to make it imitate oak 
 leather. \ large portion of the leather sold to the 
 government since the war has doubtless been hem- 
 lock. Of late years Ihe methods of tanning with 
 hemlock bark have improved with astonishing rap- 
 idity, and now it is the chief material used. Dur- 
 ing the past few years hemlock leather has risen 
 greatly iu the estimation of consumers. Tlierecan 
 be no doubt that as now made it is a valuable 
 product. 
 
 There are few Army olflcers who know anything 
 about leather, and it is not possible for Army Inspect- 
 ors, no maU('r how great their egotism may be, to 
 detect imitations that defy the skill of expert tanners 
 themselves. Lieutenant b. ,\. Lyle, U. S. Army, in 
 a report made in 1877, urged that a mixed commis- 
 sion of Army otticers, civil or mechanical engineers, 
 and practical tanners be appointed by tlie govern- 
 ment to make a scientilic investigation into the rel- 
 ative merits of the several tannages and to determine 
 definitely, if possible, for what purposes the differ- 
 ent tannages could be advantageously used. These 
 points should be settled in time of peace, when there 
 is no pressing need for large supplies. See }Iarne»n 
 and Ltnther. 
 
 RUSSIAN ARMY. -One of the chief Continental Ar- 
 mies of Eurojic, Early iu 1H70, a new Bill was sub- 
 niitteJ to the Emperor and Ihe Imperial Council for 
 the reorganization of the Russian Ami)', and by an 
 Ukase dated November 16 of the same year, it be- 
 came Ihe mililarj' law of the country. This Hill laj'3 
 down, as a first principle, that the defense of the 
 Russian territory is a sacred duly incumbent on 
 every Russian subject without distinction of class or 
 position. Military service is therefore obligatory, 
 and substitutes are not admitted into Ihe ranks of 
 the army. All young men who have attained the 
 age of 20 are liable to be drawn as Conscripts. A 
 drawing by lot lakes place to decide who shall re- 
 main ai home, after undergoing six week's training. 
 These men, for 6 consecutive years, form part of the 
 reserve. The duration of military service is fixed at 
 15 years, divided as follows: Four years under the 
 Colors; two on Fourloiigli : nine in the Reserve, with 
 the exception of Ihe Horse Artillery. Cavalry, and 
 Frontier (iuards. The defence of Ihe country is pro- 
 vided for by regular Iroops or Land Forces and Na- 
 tional Legions." The Land Fiyrces are composed of 
 — 1. The active army, completed by the annual Con- 
 tingents: 2. The Reserves, composed of time-e.\- 
 pired soldiers, called into the ranks in lime of war ; 
 Z. The (Cossacks : 4. Specially organized troops. 
 The National Legions are composed of all the men 
 not included in the regular army, but capable of
 
 EUSSIAN AKMY. 
 
 804 
 
 KUSSIAN AHMT. 
 
 bearing arms, from the age of 20 inclusive up to that 
 of 40. They are divided into two classes: — 1. Men 
 destined to fill up the vacancies in the ranks of the 
 army, or to complete the Reserve in case of paucity 
 of numbers : 2. Men forming the Depots of the Le- 
 gions. There are besides two classes of volunteers 
 admitted into the army : young men who have com- 
 pleted their education in public shools, and those 
 who have formed or still form part of the Legions. 
 The former are bound to serve in the active army for 
 3 or 6 months or 2 years, according to their educa- 
 tion and proficiency. Tliose who have, on drawing 
 for the conscription, been exempted from joining 
 the Colors are incorporated in the National Legions, 
 and are compelled to go through an annual course 
 of training. Other classes of individuals may also 
 be exempted from service in the active army, such, 
 for instance,as fathers of families: but they arc liable 
 to be called out in case of an insutflcient supply of 
 Conscripts. 
 
 Russia has a male population of 3G millions, and 
 the number of young men who annually attain the 
 age for being drawn in the conscription is set down 
 at 600,000. Estimating the mortalitj' of the men 
 under 4 per cent., and those not on active duty at 
 2 per cent, the defensive forces of Russia have been 
 computed as follows: — 
 
 
 
 
 Legionaries. 
 
 
 Active 
 Army. 
 
 Reserve. 
 
 
 
 Age. 
 
 1st 
 
 2nd 
 
 
 
 
 Series. 
 
 Series. 
 
 21 
 
 200.000 
 
 
 200,000 
 
 
 32 
 
 193,000 
 
 
 196,000 
 
 
 23 
 
 184.000 
 
 
 192,000 
 
 
 24 
 
 177,000 
 
 
 188,000 
 
 
 25 
 
 170.000 
 
 
 184,000 
 
 
 26 
 
 163.000 
 
 
 180,000 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 157,000 
 
 
 17().000 
 
 28 
 
 
 l.M.OOO 
 
 
 172,000 
 
 29 
 
 
 ir)i,ooo 
 
 
 169,000 
 
 30 
 
 
 148,000 
 
 
 166.000 
 
 31 
 
 
 145,000 
 
 
 163.000 
 
 32 
 
 
 142.000 
 
 
 160,000 
 
 33 
 
 
 139,000 
 
 
 157,000 
 
 34 
 
 
 136,000 
 
 
 154,000 
 
 35 
 
 
 133,000 
 
 
 151,000 
 
 36 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 275,000 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 
 209,000 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 
 263,000 
 
 Making, without counting the time-e.vpired soldiers, 
 5,806,000 men. The active army, it will be seen, is 
 set down at 1 ,086,000 men. In lime of peace, how- 
 ever, this number is not kept under arms, for al- 
 though in special branches the duration of the ser- 
 vice is fixed at 7 years, the Infantry is generally dis- 
 chiirged during the last 2 years of service ; so that 
 the army may really be set down at 700.000 men un- 
 der the colors, and 300,000 more on furlough. As 
 an adjunct to this army of 1.000,000 of men, the 
 first class of legionaries comprises 1.1 10,000 men, all 
 of whom may be called upon to fill up tlie ranks. 
 The reserve is composed of 1,305.000 men, and by 
 the time this part of the law comes in force, they 
 will be all good, solid troops, having; |)assed Ihroiisli 
 the ranks of the army. Th<' si<cind class of Ici^ion- 
 iiries, as shown in the above table, is comj)osed of 
 2,275,000 men, all of whom will he. trained to the 
 iu« of arms when drawn by the conscription, and 
 tJiey will count amongst them nearly half a million 
 of lime e.vpired troops. The Russian peace footing 
 is estiinjiled to li;ivi- been incrciLsed by about .'"lO.OOO 
 men ill 1875. The troops reinforced are cliielly Die 
 Cavalry and lIors(^ Artillery, who have been put on 
 a permanent w;ir ff)Oling. and, being mostly station- 
 ed along railway lines in the western provinces, are 
 leady for immediate action in the field. 
 
 The Russian Territorj' is divided into 14 military 
 districts; the country occupied by the Cossacks of 
 the Don forms a separate district, with a special or- 
 ganization. The jiermaneut army is divided into 
 47 divisions of infantry, 7 brigades of rifles, 10 divi- 
 sions of cavalry, .50 brigades of field artillery, 26 bat- 
 teries of horse artillery, 5 brigades of engineers ; the 
 numerical strength of the whole active army may 
 be put down in peace time at 33.043 oflicers and 
 735,539 men, and in time of war at 43,3.55 officers 
 and 1,358,672 men. The infantry is compased of 12 
 regiments of the guard, 16 regiments of grenadiers, 
 4 Caucasian regiments, 4 battalions of rifles of the 
 guard. 20 of rifles of the line, 4 Caucasian and 4 
 Turkestan rifles, and 148 regiments of infantry, giv- 
 ing a total of 196 regiments of the line. These are 
 massed into 3 divisions of infantry of the guard, 4 
 of grenadiers, 40 of infantry, and 7 brigades of rifles. 
 The division in the Russian army is the highest unit, 
 there being no Corpx d'nrmee except in the guards. 
 Each divisi-m of infantry is composed of 2 brigades, 
 each brigade of 2 regiments of 3 battalions each, 
 with the exception of the 2 brigades of the 4 Caucas- 
 ian divisions, wliich have 3 regiments. Each bat- 
 talion is composed of 4 companies. The cavalry is 
 divided into active cavalry and reserve squadrons. 
 The active cavalry comprises 10 regiments of the 
 guard, 77 of the line (including 21 of Cossacks), and 
 4 of Caucasian troops. The guards are composed 
 of 4 regiments of cuirassiers, 2 of lancers, 2 of hus- 
 sars, 1 of grenadiers, and 1 of Cossacks. The Rus- 
 sian cavafry is divided into 20 divisions, viz. 4 of 
 the guards (3 mixed and 1 division of Cossacks^, 14 
 of the line, and 2 of Caucasian cavalry. Each divi- 
 sion comprises 4 regiments divided into 2 bri- 
 gades : 1 of lancers, 1 of dragoons, 1 of hussars, 
 and 1 of Cossacks ; each regiment having the same 
 number. Thus the 1st division contains the 1st hus- 
 sars, the 1st lancers, etc. Each brigade of cavalry of 
 the guard has 2 regiments ; the 2nd division has 3 
 brigades. Each regiment has 4 squadrons, with a 
 strength of 224 combatants. 
 
 The reserve squadrons, -whose duty in time of 
 peace is to train horses and provide their regiments 
 with them, will in time of war fill the vacancies pro- 
 duced by the campaign. 
 
 The field artillery is composed as follows : 
 
 Bnttwice of 9-prs 141 witli 1128 guns and .3.3&4 wagons. 
 
 UiUtrries of 4 (irs 94 " 752 '■ " \^M 
 
 Batteries of luiti-ailleiirs .. 47 " 376 " '* 762 *' 
 
 Giving n tot.il of . . 282 " 225B " " 561)0 
 Each brigade of foot artillery is composed of 6 
 batteries (3 batteries of 9-prs., 3 of 4-prs. and 1 of 
 mitrailleurs). The horse artillery of the regular ar- 
 my is composed of 21 batteries and 5 batteries of the 
 guard, 2 depot and 1 instruction batteries; each bat- 
 ter_y is formed of 6 guns. The organization of these 
 batteries into brigades has been changed with the 
 exception of those of the guard,which are still form- 
 ed iiilo 1 brigade. Throughout the rest of the army, 
 2 batteries are attached to each division of cavalry, 
 anil come under the immediate command of the Di- 
 visional Coiiimander. These will, however, he soon 
 increased to 6 batteries of the guard {1 (Jossack), and 
 28 batteries of ordinarj' horse artillery (7 Cossack), 
 of 8 guns each. There will be besides 14 Cos.sack 
 batteries in reserve. The 5 bri>;ades of engineers 
 comprise 1 battalion of sappers of the guard, 1 of 
 grenadiers, and 9 of sapjiers and miners, total, 11 
 battalions; 6 half-battalions of pontoon train. There 
 were at the time of the reorganizalion of the army 3 
 classes of troops which did not belong to the active 
 army : (1) the Lacal or Sctleiitdry '/'rccp.i (35 battal- 
 ions of garrison infantry, and 18 battalions of infant- 
 ry of the line); (2) the Interior Service Troops (71 
 batlalionsj; and (3) the Reserve Troops (73 Hat- 
 lalions of the line, 10 of rifles. 5('> s(|iia(lvon9 of 
 cavalry, 6 brigades of artillery, and 1 liattiilioiis o( 
 sappers). In ilie military districts of Russia in Asia, 
 the inesent organization has been maintained for the
 
 HUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 805 
 
 BUSSIAN ABHT. 
 
 Jooal trnop«; l)iil in (IkmiIImt diHlriclHllicy liiivobfcn 
 rci)rfjimi/cil, iiiiil fi)rrn now '.ill rci,'irMinlM of 1 coni- 
 piinics ciicli of j^iirrisun inf;inliT. iin<l I'.l'.l liiilliilioiiH 
 of ilrpol, troops. Wlirn I lie urniy is niohili^ril. Ilii' 
 HlTcnj^lli of tiic (icpol l);iUalions is raised to IIIOK men 
 viw.U by means of tlie ni<ii of tlie 1st class of tlie mi- 
 litia. On war brealtini; out, llie '2n(l class of the mi- 
 litia will l)e formed into 11)4 infantry hattidions of 4 
 companies each anil with a nominal str.'iii;th of 10(10 
 men. The duty of these battalions will he (o keep 
 up the comnnniicati'"is and i;uard the rear of the 
 army in the lield and to irarrison the towns. The 
 CoHsiu'k I ri'i'ps [iri- divided into regiments and .'iftni'tif 
 (sections of 100 men); the strenijth of each reninii'nt 
 varies accordini; to the luiinber of .i"(»m» called out. 
 The whole male population is <)blij;e(l to serve. By 
 an order issued in 1H72, the Cossacks have been 
 formed into a body of men perfectly ortcanized in 
 time of peace, easily asjendiled and added to the 
 <'avalry divisions in time of war. I'nder the new ar- 
 lautrenicnls they will supply (V2 rcfjimenls and )1'2 
 batteries in time of war. In peace time they have 
 21 reijimcnts and H horse batteries under arms. The 
 strensith of the Oossat^ks lies between ."lO.OOO and ^>~),- 
 000 men, with a reserve of HO, 000 more. 
 
 The supreme command of the Uiissian army is 
 vested in the Kmperor, with a War Ministry under 
 liini. This iMiuistry is divided into /iiimn/j-. includ- 
 ini; a war council of iiermanent committiis, who 
 deal with all the technical ipiestions ajipertaining to 
 the (lilTcrenl branches of the .service. The mode in 
 Russia of ollicerinij the army docs not difTer much 
 from that of other ('ontinental Armies. The young 
 men who decide on a military career proceed at the 
 ajre of 10 to one of the military schools, whence, at 
 t lie age of 10 or 20, having jiasscd an examination, 
 they obtain an ensigncy, and then follow the various 
 jjrailcs without furilier examination. A second cap- 
 tainc)' is reached in about 8 years' service, and then 
 merit can gain the epaulettes of a (Jeneral in a very 
 short time. Candidates for the StalT have to pass 
 through the Nicholas Staff Academy. The Russian 
 infantry is armed with 15erdan breech-loading ritle. 
 
 The cavalry of the Russian army consists of two 
 divisions of cavalry of the Guard, seven of the Line, 
 
 Authorized WarE.stablislunent of a Russian Cavalry 
 Regiment. 
 
 Officer Commanding 
 
 Lieut enant Colonels 
 
 Regimental Adjutant 
 
 " Paymaster 
 
 " Quartermaster 
 
 " Instructor at Arms 
 
 Officer commanding Non-Combatanls 
 
 Trumpet Major 
 
 Senior Surgeon 
 
 Junior Surgeon 
 
 Veterinary Surgeon 
 
 Chaplain 
 
 Stpiadron Commander 
 
 ('aptain 
 
 StalT Captain 
 
 Lieutenants 
 
 Cornets 
 
 Regi- 
 ment. 
 
 Senior Sergeants Major 4 
 
 Cadets . 
 
 Junior Sergeants JIajor 
 
 Non-commissioned Officers. 
 
 Trumpeters 
 
 Privates 
 
 Officers' Servants 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 56 
 
 16 
 
 676 
 
 841 
 
 Squad- 
 ron. 
 
 4 
 14 
 
 4 
 68 
 
 7 
 
 207 
 
 and one of the OaiiraRiis; the first diviHJon of the 
 (iiiard contains sevin regiments, that of the Cau- 
 casus four, all other six regimiiits. Kach is eoin- 
 posefl of four sipiadrons; thus there anr ."iO regimentH, 
 or 2;i4 sipiailrons, of regular cavalry in tli<; army. 
 With the r\\ception of those of the (iuard and of the 
 ('aucasus, each division consists of two regimenln 
 of dragoons, tw<i of lancrTs, and two of hussars. All 
 dragoons, and the rear rank in hussar anil lancer 
 regiments, are armeil with lierdan's breecli-loadinc 
 carbine. Cuirassiers, hussars and lanirers, and all 
 non-commissioned ollicers, with Smith and Wesson's 
 breech-loading revolver. Dragoons are armed with 
 a long rille of the Krinker converted pattern— even- 
 tually they will be served out with l)erdan's--tliey 
 carry ;J3 roimds each. All mounted troops wear a 
 sabre, varying in sliaiie and weight for the ditlerent 
 branches. Tliere are two est.ablishincnts for cavalry, 
 namely, the War, and llu' Peace; in the f(jiiui;r there 
 are l^H men [ler S(pia<lron, in the latter 112 men. 
 
 The generally recognised constitution of a brigade 
 of artillery is four battalions of eight guns each. To 
 each division of infantry there is attachecl a brigade, 
 consisting of two O.iiounders and two 4-pounder.s. 
 The (Irenadicr Artilli ry Brigade of tin- Caucasus has 
 three mountain batteries in addition, and l!)th, 20tli, ' 
 and 21st Causasian Divisions have an extra 4-poun- 
 der attached to them. The Horse Artillery 15rigade 
 of the Guard consists of five 4-i)Oun(ler batteries. 
 The other seven Horse Brigades have but two bat- 
 teries of the same caliber: there are thus- 
 
 48 Batteries, Titled il-pounders, 
 
 10,'} '• " ... ... 4-pounders, 
 
 4 " ■■ ... ... .'i-i)ounders, 
 
 18 Horse Batteries, rilled ... 4-pounders, 
 and it is intend<'d to raise .OO mitrailleuse batteries. 
 The guns are mostly bronze, Krujip's breech-loaders, 
 the weight of the 4-pounders being (jj cwt., of the 9- 
 pounders, 12j. The smaller gun (carries 130, the 
 larger 120 rounds of amnninilion. Tlie fuses are 
 mostly percussion; the lime-fuse is, however, being 
 rapidly introduced into the service. The larger gun 
 is frequenth' used as a siege piece, its projectile 
 weighing 30 lbs. All non-commissioned oflicers and 
 gunners are armed with short dragoon sword and 
 breech-loading revolver, for which they carry 12 
 rounds in a small pouch. 
 
 The Corps of Engineers in the Russian army con- 
 sists of "Sappers and Miners" and "Poutouiers ;" 
 the former include engineer field |iarks, siege parks, 
 telegraph parks, whilst the latter merely the bridging 
 corps. There are 11 battalions of sappers, and six 
 half-battalions of poutouiers ; each of these latter 
 carries sufficient pontoon boats to make a bridge 700 
 feet in length. As in the infantry, so in the sappers, 
 each battalion is composed of four comiianies ; the 
 peace and war establishment being entirely distinct. 
 The Infantry of the Russian army consists of three 
 divisions of Guards, four of Grenadiers, 41 of the 
 Line, and seven brigades of RiHcs ; each division is 
 composed of four regiments, those of the Guards 
 numbered according to their division, those of the 
 Grenadiers from 1 to 1(5, whilst those of the Line run 
 from 1 to 11)4 : the regiments of regular Ritlcs are 
 sfj'led numerically from 1 to 20: the brigades of 
 Turkestan and the Caucasus have territori;d desig- 
 nations. Each regiment is coniposeil of three bat- 
 talions except in the case of those from 73 to 84 in- 
 clusive, which have four battalions. These are 
 again subdivided into tive companies, four of the 
 Line, one of Rifles — these latter companies, on serv- 
 ice, are amalgamated and form an extra battalion 
 styled the Combined liitle Battalion. Battalions 
 have four separate establishments, viz.: — 1. The 
 War Establishment. 2. The Increased Peace Estab- 
 lishment. 3. The Peace Establishment. 4. The 
 Cadre Establishment. The total strength of the 
 Russian Infantry is 188 regiments, consisting of 580 
 battalions, with 32 rifle battalions in addition, mak- 
 ing a total of G12 battalions of the regular army; but
 
 BUSSIAN AEMT. 
 
 806 
 
 EUSSIAN AKMT, 
 
 t^CO CO »f>- t^ 
 
 p;- ^ ^ t-d "^ 
 
 Is' ijia 
 
 T P CO 
 
 (-* h-* h-* H-^ M 
 
 to (OK) WW 
 
 w w to to to 
 
 to to to to to 
 
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 C5 I— ' C5 05 CS 
 
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 rf^ rf^ »**■ rf*- l^ 
 
 too &3 to W 
 
 0^ O^ C9 A C3 
 
 to OS 02 to CO 
 O O O 4^ >-* 
 CO H- 1^^ CO rf^ 
 
 Lieutenant Colonel. 
 
 Captain. 
 
 Lieutenant. 
 
 Sub-Lieutenant. 
 
 Sergeant Major. 
 
 Cadet. 
 
 Senior Non.-com. Officer. 
 
 Junior Non.-com. Officer. 
 
 Bombardier. 
 
 Laboratory Men. 
 
 Gunners. 
 
 Trumpeters. 
 
 Drivers. 
 
 Officers' Servants. 
 
 Riding. 
 
 Artillery. 
 
 H- N- to ^ CO 
 .^ to H- C5 to 
 O (f- it'O*. 
 
 GOOD 00 00 00 
 
 >: :2 
 
 GO* i^ o a 
 
 (o: bststs 
 
 ii^: oii;^!^ 
 
 Train. 
 
 Total. 
 
 O 
 
 c 
 a 
 
 Ammunition. 
 
 Provision. 
 
 Park. 
 
 Sanitary. 
 
 Others. 
 
 Ammunition Boxes. 
 
 9^ 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 W 
 
 there are also 48 frontier battalions of irregular troops. 
 Eventually the whole of tlie infantry will be armed 
 with the Berdan rifle, which as yet, however, has 
 only been served out to the division of the Guard, and 
 Grenadier division, and Rifle battalions. The Krin- 
 ka and Earle rifles now are the principal weapons in 
 use. Every soldier carries, in two pouches, OO 
 rounds. Forty rounds in addition are carried by 
 the regimental train, and 60 more by the army re- 
 serve train. Non-commissioned officers of line bat- 
 
 Authorized Establishment of a Battalion of Sappers 
 and Miners. 
 
 Colonel Commanding 
 
 Lieutenant Colonel 
 
 Battalion Adjutant 
 
 " Paymaster 
 
 " Quartermaster. 
 
 Instructor in Arms 
 
 Administrative Officers... 
 
 Battalion Drummer 
 
 Bugler 
 
 Senior Surgeon 
 
 Junior " 
 
 Captains 
 
 Suljalterns 
 
 Cadets 
 
 Sergeants Major 
 
 Senior Non-com. Officers 
 Junior " " 
 
 Sappers and Miners 
 
 Drummers 
 
 Buglers 
 
 Officers' Servants 
 
 Battalion. 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 '1 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 56 
 
 832 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 988 
 
 Company. 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 1 
 1 
 4 
 14 
 208 
 3 
 3 
 5 
 
 244 
 
 talions, and all ranks in the Guard and Grenadier 
 divisions, carry a short, two-edged sword in addi- 
 tion to the bayonet, which is invariably fixed when 
 troops are on the move. 
 
 In addition to the above the men receive a " mess 
 allowance," varying in amount, but averaging about 
 l]d. per diem, and the following rations free— Flour, 
 21bs.; barley, :Jlb.; salt, \ oz. 
 
 Authorized War Establishment of a Half Battalion 
 of Pontoniers. 
 
 Colonel Commanding 
 
 Battalion Adjutant 
 
 " Paym'ster &Q'rm'.ster 
 
 " Drummer 
 
 Bugler 
 
 Senior Surgeon 
 
 V<'tcrniary Surgeon 
 
 Ca))tains 
 
 liidii tenants 
 
 Sub-Lieutenants 
 
 Ensigns 
 
 Sergeants Major 
 
 Senior Non-com. Officers 
 
 Junior " " 
 
 Pontoniers 
 
 Drivers 
 
 Drummers 
 
 Buglers 
 
 Officer's Servants 
 
 Half 
 Battalion. 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 2H 
 
 240 
 
 130 
 
 (> 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 435 
 
 Company. 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 5 
 14 
 120 
 
 m 
 
 3 
 3 
 4 
 
 214
 
 BUSSIAN AEMT. 
 
 HO', 
 
 KUSSIAN ABUT. 
 
 3S 
 
 
 S » 4 -• D 
 
 Sin 
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 3 9 
 
 
 
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 OCTi-^QDOd: ODCTtf^Ca^OD 
 
 »u ci c.*T Ci o -] ^ (O ~i w !:c i*: 
 
 00 ►- ** CC' rf^ -.1 CO O 00 00 -1 
 
 o»Ocni-^ODO&aoc;ir<k.c^^< 
 
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 c 
 
 O 
 5 
 
 00 00 CO "-* . rf*. . 00 C5 en »t. tK 
 
 to -^ tC 00 • I— . to ►-» X CI - 
 
 «-» : t-k •-* M CO ** 
 
 -500oo?DH-i. ^ 00 oi c;t 1^ K 
 
 i^ro^tooo: —'toi-'OOiT- 
 
 c: c;i o —* X -J C5 
 
 CDC&tC^tOODl-'tOc^aDOc 
 
 o 
 
 h^ CO U CO 
 
 » •- — — f^ 
 CO en C71 en 
 
 
 o > 
 z a 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 td 
 
 ft 
 
 
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 a 
 
 ii 
 
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 =r 
 
 B 
 
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 |- 
 
 £.1 
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 ocs'j'^a 
 
 ocra 
 
 = p£ K 
 
 ■^ o 
 
 
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 t3 
 
 '4^'t, 
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 c 3 
 
 2 3 
 
 •• 3 
 
 
 
 
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 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 =» 
 
 t9 O 
 
 aoooiC'' w: 
 
 give a 
 
 182H 2'.). To tin- iiiililury Hliidcnl, it will \>i: a proof 
 Unit it (Iocs not (III ill iIichc <l:iyM uf tin- bri'ccli-JMiidcr 
 anil till' »i)ailr to rrlii-arHc llir tailiiH of our fiilhiTg; 
 anil lliiil. uftir all as Napoleon |>illiily (•xi)rcss(;<l it, 
 "(Joil f;ivorMllii- liiavicHt hallalions." In l)i-(-cnil)ir, 
 IH27. Russia linn l)iin(;at war with I'rr-ia, tin- find 
 l)i-lwi-(ii till- SiilTan and till' Czar that liail bcniHlum- 
 birrini; for inanv vrars brolii- out. Hastily conclud- 
 ini; a praii- witlilln- Sliali on llii-(l;li Krbruup', Pa»- 
 kiewil«-li, Governor (ii-ncral and Cimiinanili-r-in-Cliii-f 
 of till) Cancasns, <,-iiinincn<-ril prrparalions for the 
 siil)jii;;ation of Arnifnia. Irri-spi-clivc of tint natural 
 wisli to rxti-nd lirr coiKiiKstH roinplclrly round tlie 
 Black Sra, a campaiL'n in Analolia nicissarily must 
 forma portion of llii- plan of any war wa(r<;d b(> 
 tween tlii' Porte and Knssia. Tlir vast ri;sonrcf8 
 Turkey possesses in her Asialii' provinies enable the 
 Sultan to reeruit his forces lo an almost unlimited 
 extent from the hardy mountaineers of Armenja, 
 eonseipienlly the aim andolijeet of the Hnssian War 
 Jlinister is, by decisively allackini; the Ottoman .m 
 this side, to hinder men from beinir despatched lo 
 I'^urope to swell the armies there. The forces at the 
 disposal of Faskiewitch for his o|ieralions amounted 
 at this time tn.'jl battalions of infantry, 11 si|uadron» 
 of cavalry, IT rei;iinents of Cossacks, 12^ balterieB 
 of artillery, numberinj!; l.')4 guns. The policy of 
 Persia, in spite of the recent peace, was still unde- 
 fined, anil it was thouiiht more than jirobable she 
 would lake advantaire of the fad of Prussia's compli- 
 cations, and once more declare war. She had only 
 just ceded to the Czar two rich provinces, and paid 
 a very heavy war contribution, so Paskicwitcli 
 deemed it advisable to be quite prepared for her en- 
 terins; into an alliance offensive and defensive with 
 j tue Turk. To guard against any coalition of troops, 
 the Russian General organised a corps under Pank- 
 ratielT, consisting of six battalions, two regiments of 
 Cossacks, and sixteen guns, which he posted at 
 Khoi, in Persian territory, be it minded. Another 
 evil has to be guarded against in all wars between 
 Russia and Turkey, and that is insurrection in the 
 Caucasian provinces. They were, it was known, 
 ripe for revolt, and it was rumored Mahoinedan 
 emissaries had been travelling through the Abkha- 
 sian and Mingreliaii country, endeavoring to incite 
 the people 'o rise. To guard against this, Faskie- 
 witch occupied the Caucasian country with fifteen 
 battalions, three squadrons of cavaliy, forty-two 
 guns, and four regiments of Cossacks. Thus there 
 were left for the expeditionary army— 30 battalions, 
 8 squadrons of cavalry, 11 regiments of Cossacks, 
 9(5 guns. The ports of Poll and Uatouni were, as 
 for many years they had been, the object of Russia's 
 desire ; consequently, Paskicwitcli detailed one col- 
 umn to act on the shores of the Black Sea whilst, 
 with the remainder of his army, he determined to 
 operate in two columns : the main or central one ad- 
 vancing bv the Allaghoz chain was to reduce the 
 frontier towns of Ak'halzik, Akhalkalaki, Hertwitz, 
 Kars, and Ardahan : whilst the left corps, jiushing 
 across the Ararat range, was to subjugate the pro- 
 vince of Bavazid. ami guard the (lank against the 
 attacks of the Kurds, who, it was known, attracted 
 by " loot," would swoop down from Van and Moosh. 
 In fact, tlic corps operating on Poti and on Bayazid 
 were acting as win ;s of the main army advancing 
 into Armenia. The right, or Batoum army, was 
 placed uniler the command of Major (ieneral Hesse, 
 and consisted of —8 battalions of infantry, 14 field 
 guns, 1 resiiment of Cossacks. 
 
 The leftT or Bayazid column, was under the order 
 of Tchavachavadzi, the reigning prince of the Abk- 
 basians, and numbered- 3 battalions of infantry, 8 
 field pieces, 1 regiment of Cossacks. Whilst at Kat- 
 schevan keeping open free communication between 
 the left wing and main army were posted 2 batta- 
 lions. Paskicwitcli himself commanded the main 
 column, which v.as to be massed in the neighbor-
 
 KOSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 808 
 
 BUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 Pay of Non-commissioned Officers and Men. 
 
 Sergeant Major 
 
 Senior Non-commissioned Officer 
 Junior Non-commissioned Officer 
 Bombardier and Lance Corporal.. 
 Private, Drummer, and Busrler... 
 
 GCABD. 
 
 Annual 
 Pay. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 5 15 11 
 3 15 7 
 2 14 8 
 1 9 
 13 Oi 
 
 Daily Pay, 
 
 £ .«. d. 
 
 3f 
 
 IJ 
 
 15 
 
 OJ 
 
 Of 
 
 Line. 
 
 Annual 
 Pay. 
 
 £ ». d. 
 
 .8 17 3 
 
 14 9 
 
 13 3 
 
 9 2 
 
 8 8 
 
 Daily Pay. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 2J 
 
 Oi 
 
 0^ 
 
 0^ 
 
 OJ 
 
 Autlsorized Establishment of Infantry Regiment, Battalion, and Company of the Russian Army. 
 
 Regiment. 
 
 Battalion. 
 
 Company. 
 
 Regimental Stuff. 
 
 Major General 
 
 Field Officer for Interior Economy 
 
 Executive Field Officer 
 
 Regimental Adjutants 
 
 Paymaster 
 
 Quartermaster 
 
 Instructor in Arms 
 
 Officer in command of Non-combatants 
 
 Regimental Dru mmer 
 
 '■ Bugler 
 
 Senior Surgeon 
 
 Junior Surgeons 
 
 Chaplains 
 
 BattaU'in. Stnff. 
 
 Colonels 
 
 Battalion Adjutants 
 
 ' ' Drummers 
 
 " Buglers 
 
 Captains 
 
 Lieutenants 
 
 Sub-Lieutenants 
 
 Ensigns 
 
 Cadets 
 
 Sergeants Major < 
 
 Senior Non-commissioned Officers 
 
 Junior ' " 
 
 Corporals 
 
 Privates 
 
 Druniniers 
 
 Buglers 
 
 Officers' Servants 
 
 N.B. — Each Company is provided with the following tools : — 12 hatchets, 6 shovels, 3 picks, 3 axes, 1 
 
 scythe. 
 
 1 
 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 
 ... 
 
 4 
 
 
 ... 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 4 • 
 
 1 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 . . 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 80 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 240 
 
 60 
 
 13 
 
 400 
 
 100 
 
 30 
 
 2,960 
 
 740 
 
 148 
 
 fiO 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 60 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 80 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 4.034 
 
 1,004 
 
 200 
 
 hood of Goomri, and amounted to 18 battalions of 
 infantry, 9 squadrons of cavalry, 7 regiments of Cos- 
 sacks, 56 field guns. The Russian conniiander felt 
 that his forces were too weak for liiiu to hope to re- 
 duce Erzeroimi in one campaign, for prior to an ad- 
 vance across tlu^ Soglianly range, it would be neces- 
 sary to seize all the fortiiicd jilaccs, many of them 
 very strongly garrisoned, in the ])rovinees of Kars, 
 of Akhalzik, and of Bayazid. lie therefore deter- 
 mined to devot(! his whole time to subjugate these 
 districts, leaving the conquest of Armenia to the fol- 
 lowing year. Tlierc were many reasons in favor of 
 Ooomri being chosen as the base of operations in 
 Armenia. In tlu^ first ])laee, the ground between it 
 and Kars was ojjcn, and feasilile for the movements 
 of large bodies of troops ; in the second place, it en- 
 
 abled a blow to be struck at one of the main Turk- 
 ish fortresses, without exposing the Russian frontier 
 to the danger of an attack ; and tliirdly, it threaten- 
 ed the liaiiU of any army advancing by the Soglianly 
 range to the relief of Ardahan or Akhalzik. There 
 were other minor reasons, too, which led to the sel- 
 ection of (ioomri: it was in a central position, and 
 easily furnished with supplies; the siege train, quar- 
 tered at Erivan, could more easily be moved by this 
 road tlinii any other; and lastly, the subjugation of 
 Kars gave thi' Russians possession of the largo val- 
 ley watered by the Kars ami Arpa rivers, with an 
 abimdance of grain and forage. Then, as now, the 
 Ottoman organisation was ill lulajited for olTensive 
 warfare, and it never seemed to have struck Paskie- 
 witeh that the Turks could plan a counter-stroke.
 
 BUSSIAN ARHT. 
 
 SO!) 
 
 RUSSIAN ARHT. 
 
 Prior to commencing operationB, the Riinman Com- croBflcd the Ari)ii'IVIini,(;arryinK witli him in Iuh vhbI 
 maiKicr-iii-CMiicf Ihrcw furwanl ii (IctiichriicMl iiiiilcr I (:')imriiHsaria1 Iniiri forty davH' provJHlonH. He halted 
 
 ..t .1 , 'I'M, 1. ..;.... *;.. 'i' i,:..i. « :, i *i.-. 
 
 Majdi' Oi'iicral l*(i|i(ilT In Siiiiiin, In ;.'iiaril lljc ilclilcs 
 of j{(.ril|iiiii. 'I'liis fririi' niiiiilicn-d :i luillalidiis, COM 
 (.'()MMai:Us, A ;;uiiH, luiil fdruiid a cniiMccliii'j; link with 
 Hesse's Iroops oil llic l!ali>iiiii line. 'I'lins on the 
 I21I1 of .hiiie, all preparations lieiiii; eoniplele, Pask- 
 iewili'li massed his Iroops at Oooiiiri, wliieli now 
 consisled of bill 15 lialtalions of infantry, 8 s(pmd- 
 rons of cavalry, (i regiineiitM of (Jossaeks, 5'.i i;uns. 
 
 that day at 'rikliiiiss, in 'I urkish territory, and the 
 next iiiorniii'.' moved to Maskni, eneoiinleriii)j; slifjht 
 opposilioii from a small parly of 'I'urkisli horse. A 
 brief reeoniiaissanee of the forlrc-ss nf Kars induced 
 the KuMsian General to d<:termine on atlackin;^ Kara 
 on the southern face, the northern and eastern being 
 too preeipilous to admit of assault, or, of the con- 
 struction of regular siege works. Moreover, the oc- 
 
 DlHTMliUTION OK liUBHIAN AkMY, 12th luNE, 1825. 
 
 Designation of Coliiiiin. 
 
 Inf. 
 
 Cav. 
 
 Guns. 
 
 Major Oonernl llesse. l?lack Sea Coliimii 
 
 Major ( iiiici'.al I'opol'f. Kordjom l^'lankiiiLT Column 
 
 Oeucral I'askii'wilcli. Ceiilrul or .Main ( olumii. 
 Chief of the .Stall (Jenera! Von Sackeii. 
 (Juarlerniaster Oeiieral ('(rlonel Valkliovski. 
 
 1st IJrigade InfaiiliT. .Major (Jeiieral MouravielT 
 
 2d " " " " HerLtiiiaiin 
 
 3d " •• '■ " KorolkolV 
 
 Cavalry Brigade;, Colonel Uarev.sky 
 
 Artillery " (ieneral Gillensc'hmidel 
 
 Major (Jriicral I'riiiee 'rehavacliavad/i. Left or .Armenian Column .... 
 
 General Merlini. l,eft Central or Naisehcvan 
 
 General Pankratiefl. Corps of Observation on I'ersian Frontier 
 
 4,541 
 1,180 
 
 2,511 
 2..562 
 3,488 
 
 2,151 
 1,730 
 3,091 
 
 402 
 
 008 
 
 3,340 
 
 330 
 
 47 
 
 715 
 
 14 
 4 
 
 70 
 8 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 Total 
 
 20,854 
 
 5,514 
 
 114 
 
 , Great pains were taken to arrange a good com- 
 missariat estatilishnienl. the organization of which 
 the ('oiumander-in-Cliief himself took in hand; and 
 in May he had already suceeeile<l in collecting at 
 Goomri — tiovernment wagons. 530 ; liired arabas, 
 540; pack animals, '.J, 1250 ; whilst in the vast store- 
 houses at (Joomri and in its immediate vicinity, he 
 had stored for transport 1'..'.0(I0 sacks of bi.scuits, 
 1 ,0011 sacks of li;Lrlev, four thousand sacks of wheat, 
 4,000 casks of salt "meat. 1,1110 gallons of brandy. 
 More than 3,0U0 men were hired to assist in the 
 commissariat train ; an exlreniely liberal scale of 
 wages, coupled with tirm supervision, ensured good 
 work. Field hospitals were established, one at 
 Goomri for 300 ; one at Tsalki for 200 sick. An 
 ambulance train for the movable columns was or- 
 ganized, miinbering sixty-six siieciiilly-constructed 
 foiiri/i'tis; there were two companies of trained hos- 
 pital orderlies to aid the surgeons in their work, 
 whilst a large corps of litter-bearers were also organ- 
 ized. Let us now turn to the Turkish Army, of 
 which, we regret to say, we can find no such detailed 
 Recount as of the Kussian, The most strenuous ex- 
 ertions were made, not only to strengthen the garri- 
 sons of all the fortresses, but also to organize an 
 army for olTcusive operations. For this purpose — 
 during the early spring — the chief of the ICaraka- 
 paks reeonnoitereci the whole course of the Arpa 
 River, as well as the passi's through the Hordjom 
 range, all of which were held liy strong detachments 
 of irregular troops. Akhalkiilaki was held by 1,000 
 Liizi volunteers; Ardahan was occupied by ujiwards 
 of 2,000 regulxr soldiers: Akhalzik was reinforced 
 by a large detachment of cavalrx : and Kars, consid- 
 ered the key of Armenia, besides being furnished 
 with a garrison of l.">,000 infantry to man the walls, 
 was further strengthened by a brigade of :i,000 cav- 
 alry, with fourteen tield suns. Van was sjarriscmed 
 by'l5,000 men; Hayazid by 1,001); whifst a corps 
 of 40,000 was being organized by llalib Paslni with 
 which to take the ofTcnsive. The religious feeling 
 of the multitude being workeil u]) by the Jloolalis. 
 recruits came forwiird in great numbers, and it seem- 
 ed evident that the Porte would be able to crush the 
 Russian forces by slu'cr dint of numbers. On the 
 14lh of .lune. I'.iskii'witch, advancing from (ioomri. 
 
 cupation of ground on the south-cast face cuts off 
 communication more completely with Krzeroum. 
 Conse(|ueutlv, on the ITtli, Paskiewitcli moved via 
 Azatkui to .Aiagardjik, where he halted for the night, 
 and the following day advanced to Kitcik-kui ; but 
 during this inarch his Hank was exposed to attack, 
 and the Turkish commander was not slow to take 
 advantage of the opportunity pie.scnted him: he 
 made a vigorous sortie, which for some time promised 
 success; but the conduct of his irreguhir Kurds and 
 Karakapaks threw the main force into confusion, 
 and he was eventually compelled to ret ire with heavy 
 loss, the casualties amongst the Russians amounting 
 to twelve killed and thirty-nine wounded. On the 
 20th of June the siege park reached Paskiewitch, 
 and enabled him to commence his offensive oi)era- 
 tions against the city. At the same time he was 
 aware that Kiossa Jlahomecl Pasha was advancing 
 in all li;iste to relieve the fortress, so he threw up 
 smne tield works on the b;iiiks of the Kars river to 
 guard his left tiank. On the 22nd of June, covering 
 the work by a feigned attack on the citadel, Paskie- 
 witch opened his first parallel, and on the 23rd as- 
 Siiulted the place on the south and south-western 
 faces with numerous columns. At H a. m. he was in 
 possession of the enceinte, when the Paslui surren- 
 dered the citadel with 151 guns, and ll.OllOmen be- 
 came prisoners of war. Kiossa Mahomed Pasha, 
 hearing of the fall of Kars. abandoned his intention 
 of crossing the Soghanly. and moved north towards 
 Hooukiar-Dooz. Paskiewitch now determined to 
 capture Akhalkalaki. Fortius i)urposehe left Kars, 
 with a stronir garrismi. under General Bergmann, 
 and on the ITtli of July, moving to Zaim, and thence, 
 by the eastern shore of L;ike Tehildar, lo Ghegli 
 liagli. On the 22nd. he sent Colonel Abukoff 'i) the 
 commander of the fortress of .\khalkalaki with a 
 flag of truce, to demand the svirrcndcr of the place. 
 This was tired on. and that officer killed. On the 
 24th, Paskiewitch assaulted the town and captured 
 it, with fourteen guns and 300 men. The Russian 
 soldiers, infuri;iteil at the conduct of the Turks for 
 having fij-ed on their flag of truce, slew upwards of 
 OtM) men. Without losing a moment of time, the 
 Russian General detached The chief of his staff.Gen- 
 eral Sacken. lo Ilertweiz. which surrendered with-
 
 BUSSIAN ARMY. 
 
 810 
 
 RUSSIAN ASMT. 
 
 out firing a sliot. Tliirteen guns and 3(10 men fell 
 with tlie place. General Hesse, in the meantime, 
 with the right column, had captured Poti, with forty- 
 three guns, thirteen standards, and 2,000 men. By 
 the capture of Aklialkalaki and Kars the routes by 
 the Bordjom mountains and Arpa-Tchai were now 
 opened to the Kussiaus; and on tlie 30th of July the 
 much needed reinforcements reached Paskievvitch 
 from Tsalki aud (xonmri. On the 1st of August, the 
 Russian Commander learned that the(_)smanli forces 
 had reached Ardahan and were moving forward 
 intending to attack him. The Russians, nothing 
 loath to accept battle, advanced towards Akhai- 
 zik, reaching Koltchi-kui on the 3d iust. On the .oth, 
 he attacked the troops and drove them back, but Ki- 
 ossa Mahomed Pasha was able to effect his junction 
 with the garrison of Akhalzik, wliere now were en- 
 camped 30,000 men. On the nintli, after a hard bat- 
 tle, in which the Russians were victorious, the Turks 
 abandoned their guns and fled towards Ardahan. On 
 the 10th, Paskiewitch commenced the siege of Akhal- 
 zik. and by the 12th had completed the investment 
 of the place. On the 15th, breach-batteries were 
 opened, and on the IGth of August, after a desperate 
 fight, the place was captured. The garrison fought 
 with the most determined valor, and it is computed 
 that upwards of 5,000 men were slain in the defence. 
 Out of 400 artillerymen wlio manned the guns on its 
 walls, but 50 were left to tell the tale. Thirteen hun- 
 dred Lazis out of a body of 1,800 recently raised were 
 slain. Sixty-seven guns, and tifty-two standards, 
 were captured ; the Russian loss being onl}- 12)S killed 
 and 405 wotmded. In consequence of the heroism 
 displayed by the defence, Paskiewitch permitted the 
 garrison of the citailel to march out with all the hon- 
 ors of war. On the 18th the Russian Marshal deter- 
 mined to reduce Aitzkui, and despatched Colonel 
 Vidbelski, witli five companies and si-x guns, to efl'ect 
 this. The place surrendered, with twenty-four pieces 
 of artillery, without attempting a defence. 
 
 In the meantime orders had been sent toBergmann, 
 in Kars, to move on Ardahan, and the Commander-in- 
 Cliief, on the 18th iust., directed Mouravicff to march 
 for the same place. This officer, however, learned 
 on his road there tliat tlie fortress had capitulated to 
 Bergmann on the IGth inst. The left column in the 
 meantime had been equally successful. Having sub- 
 jugated the whole province of Bayazid, with tlie ex- 
 ception of the citadel, which was left masked. Prince 
 Tcliavachavadzi had marched as far as Toprak Kale. 
 He had been reinforced by two battalions and four 
 guns from Khoi, and Bergmann had also sent a force 
 down from Kars to keep open commuuication with 
 him. On the 20th September, the Prince, finding 
 that Ills flank was threatened by the Pasha of ]\Ioosh, 
 at tlie head of a large body of Kurds, determined to 
 recapture Bayazid, and hold it. For this purpose he 
 returned, and attacked a body of 3,000 Kurds, who 
 were covering the place, when the garrison fled, and 
 witli tlie loss of but ten men Bayazid, with liis twelve 
 guns, and three standards, fell into the hands of the 
 Russians. 
 
 Early in September, the Prince, having made all ar- 
 rangements for Ihe government of the province, ad- 
 vanc<'<l into Alasligird ])laiii, seized llie fort of Top- 
 rak Kale which was occupied by Kurds during his 
 absence, and liusied himself with collecting supplies 
 on the fertile district. 
 
 On the lOtli inst., tlie Paslia of Moosli having ad- 
 vanced to (Jrakon; the Prince delermined to attack 
 him, and on Ihc folltjvving day dcfealeil him, witli a 
 lossof liOOiuen.hisowii casuallies aiuouiiliiiglo sixty- 
 seven. On tlic 2Hlli,linding that the I'asha of Van was 
 rousing all the Kurds in tliedistrict, and fearing thai 
 his coiiiiuunicalions might be cut off, he retired on 
 Bayazid. Winter now setting in, Paskiewilch felt 
 llial liis forces were far too weak toatleinpt the sub- 
 jugation of lOrzeroum in one campaign. Me there- 
 fore left strong garri.sons in tlie princijial towns, and 
 returned with the main portion of his armv to Rus- 
 
 sian territory. General Berbutoff was left in com- 
 mand at Akhalzik with 2,300 infantry. 32(5 cavalry, 
 and four guns. Bergmann was left"at Kars with 
 2,400 infantry, and 280 cavalry, and twelve guns ; 
 whilst Pankratielf occupied Bayazid aud the neigh- 
 boring towns with 8,000 men, 376 cavalry, and 
 eighteen guns. Thus, with a force of 20,0()0"infant- 
 ry, 5,000 cavalry, and ninety-six guns, Paskiewitch 
 had completely conquered the provinces of Kars, 
 Akhalzik, Bayazid, anil Poti in the short space of 
 five months, had captured three fortresses antl sev. 
 eral fortified towns, 313 guns, and 8,(J00 prisoners 
 graced the Russian General's triumph, whilst his own 
 casualties only amounted to 3,200 killed and wound- 
 ed. As may be imagined, the greatest consterna- 
 tion reigned at Constantinople. (Jn learning of the 
 reverses in Armenia, the Generals in command were 
 immediately disgraced, and two new officers who 
 were in favor at court were sent to supersede them. 
 Every effort was made to raise the army in Anato- 
 lia. Envoys were sent to Persia to endeavor to 
 draw her into the war, and emissaries were de- 
 spatched to Abkhasia, Gliuriel, and Mingrelia, to stir 
 up revolt there. 
 
 The plan of the new Turkish Generals, Salegh and 
 Hakkl Pashas was as follows. An army of 80,000 
 men and 6(5 guns was to be massed at Erzeroum, 
 and advanced ria the Soghauly range on Kars; whilst 
 a second army of 50,000 men and 50 guns was to be 
 massed on Van to act on the Russian flank. 
 
 In February, Paskiewitch heard that the Turks 
 were advancing on Akhalzik, and he at once de- 
 tached Mouraviefl to Surani with six battalions and 
 eighteen guns to cover that fortress, whilst General 
 Hesse was directed to suppress the insurrection in 
 Ghuriel as promptly as possible. 
 
 On the 28th of February, Osman Bey entered the 
 city of Akhalzik. The garrison retired into the cita- 
 del, and there succeeded in keeping him at bay. 
 The Turks, with tlieir usual ferocity, commenced" a 
 .system of carnage, and, as at Bayazid in these latter 
 days, so at Akhalzik in 1829, every Christian mhabi- 
 tant was slain. 
 
 Mouravicff in the meantime pushed forward with 
 vigor to relieve the place, and on the 28tli attacked the 
 Turks, defeated them with a loss of 3,000 men, and 
 relieved the garrison. 
 
 Hesse, after some sharp skirmishes in wliich his 
 casualties amounted to 187 men, succeeded in sup- 
 pressing the rebellion in Ghuriel. The snow having 
 cleared away, and the roads being tolerably practi- 
 cable for troops, in April Paskiewitch determined to 
 renew his operations for the subjugation of Erze- 
 roum. Paukratieff. at Bayazid, was directed to 
 proceed with four battalions and twelve guns to 
 Katchewenk on the Arpa-Tchai, wliilst Paskiewitch, 
 on the 19th of May having settled the difficulty with 
 Persia, rejoined head-quarters at Aklialkalaki, and 
 none too soon, for he here learned that the Turks had 
 15,000 men near Ardahan, marching to the relief of 
 tliat fortress, whilst 50.000 men were at Hassan 
 Kale, on the western slopes of the Soghanly Dagli. 
 On I he 25th May, Pankratieff was directed to march on 
 Karadjuran, near Kars, to cover that fortress Paskie- 
 witch at the same time ])uslied forward to Beglili 
 Ahmed. Salegh Paslia had now reached the Sogh- 
 anly. Finding that tlie majority of the Russians 
 were at Kars, he determined to move towards 
 Akhalzik, jMoiiravieff was sent to counteract this 
 moveiuenl to Tsurskab ; and on the 2d of .June this 
 General attacked the Turkish forces, defeated Ihem, 
 and look one ^un ami 1,201' iirisouers. The Osmanli 
 being llius checked in tlieir advance on the northern 
 road, I'askicwitch felt free to concentrate all liis 
 troops and advance on Erzeroum. This movement 
 was carried out in three columns, the right under 
 the coiiimand of MouravielT, Ihe left under Ihc com- 
 mand of PaiikralielT, and Ihc Ihird under the Com- 
 mander-in-Chief; the I wo roads leading from Kars and 
 Krzenium iliverge at Kol:uili and meet iigain at
 
 BUSSIAN BERDAN RIFLE. 
 
 811 
 
 BDSSIAN GOVERNMERT. 
 
 Kuipri Kiii, tlin fir.it or soulliornniosl rf)ii(l passinp 
 tliroiij^li Hani ICniiiysli, MclliiloDZ, ami KlioraHHiiii, 
 ■vvliilsl tlie scconil or iKirllicriimusI ruad paHHcH by 
 Deli MuKHa, Kara Ori^lian, ami Zi'wiii. Silcj^Ii 
 Pufllia, al tlic licad of tin- iiiaiii Inxiy of tlic Tiirl^isli 
 army, l)arrc(l tlic iiorlliirninost roail on llii- Zcwin 
 Dooz ; wliilst Hal<l<i I'aMlia. willi 1,. '!(»() infantry, 
 7,001) cavalry, and sixteen iiuiis. took up the en- 
 treucliiMl position on IIk! Mellidoo/ phileuii. Just 
 where llic mail ascends from llie Sara Kamysli de. 
 file, a kn<jll in Die eenlre of (lie plateau commamls 
 all the roads, and this was slroniily inlrenelied hy 
 the Turks. On the lllh of Juni', I'askievvileh, who 
 determined (o advance by {he northern road, sent 
 forward strf>n!; parlies of cavalry to patrol the Sara 
 Kamysh delile, and thus draw olf allenlion from his 
 main attack. linrlsolV. with ;J.(lO infantry, was now 
 sent into the delile, whilst the Commander-in-Chief, 
 with 14,0(10 men ami liflv t;nns, moved towards the 
 Tchakir Itaha. On the l":iih of .June, liurlsoll made 
 a threatened attack on llakki I'asha's camp. Fear- 
 ing assault, this (Jencral drew in all the oul])osts, and 
 tliU8 the Russian Conunander-in-Clilef was enabled 
 to cross the Sof^hanly Kanije without lirini; a shot. 
 On th(^ ITtli iiist.. however, Osnian I'aslia, with 
 1,200 men, was detached to Bardez to recoimoilre. 
 and on the ITth he was attacked by MonravietT and 
 driven back, not on his own army, but on .Saleiili 
 Pasha's forces atZewin. Further concealment now 
 was useless, and I'askiewitch delermined to attack 
 the Turkish Commander-in-Chief, who was posted 
 on the Zewin plateau with 40,000 men. PankratietT 
 was sent to the left bank of the Chansu to jjrevent 
 Ilakki I'asha fallini; back and joinini? his chief, 
 and liurtsolf was warned 1o attack the .Mellidooz 
 position directly the Turks showed a disposition to 
 abandon it. On the l!)th, I'askiewitch, passinj^ 
 Kauli, descended towards Zowin ; Salei;h Pasha ad- 
 vanced to meet him, but was driven back into his 
 entreiiclicd positiim, which was immediately at- 
 tacked by the Russians, who drove the Turks ofT in 
 complete disorder, captured .''lOO prisoners and twelve 
 guns. The following day, Paskiewitch, leaviii}; a 
 lorc<' at Zewin. and crossing the Chansu, ascended 
 the Kara Orphan to attack llakki Pasha at Melli- 
 dooz. After a sharp fiiiht. the Turks were defeated, 
 the commander and tifteen guns being taken. 
 
 Being aware that promptitude conslituti's half the 
 battle in lighting wiih Oriental nations, Pa>kicwit<-h 
 set oil in pursuit of the Turks, and on the 2;id 
 iust. reached Kuipri Kui, whicli he found to have 
 been abandoned. He at once placed himself at the 
 head of a Hying column of cavalry, eighteen horse- 
 artillery guns, and dasiied on Hassan Kale. So 
 close was the pursuit, that Selegh Pasha had onlj' 
 jtist time to escape from the place,' leaving twenty- 
 nine guns in the hands of the Russians. On the 24th 
 the whole of the Russian army concentrated at 
 Hassan Kale, and a pdrleiiuiUnirt was sent in to the 
 Governor of Krzeroum, demanding its surrender. 
 This was refused ; so on the 25th Paskiewitch ad- 
 vanced to the Nabitchai stream, and on the 27th 
 seized the Devi Boyun heights unmolested. On the 
 2Sth the city surrendered, a slight skirmish taking 
 place between the e.xcited soldiery in the citadel and 
 the Russian troops as they entered the town, l.')0 
 guns, four Pashas, ami about eight thousand pris- 
 oners falling into the hands of the Russian General. 
 Thus, in five short weeks from the commencement 
 of the campaign, Paskiewitch had been enabled to 
 effect his object. He subsecpiently moved towards 
 Trehizond, and occupied Baiboort. Insurrections 
 among the Laziz, however, broke out, and this, 
 coupled with the badness of the roads, prevented him 
 advancing further than Gumish Khane. In August 
 the Treaty of Adrianople having been duly signed, 
 the Russians evacuatecl all the conquered provinces 
 with the exception of Akhalzik. AkIaUkalaki. and 
 Kars. 
 
 The frontier line was laid down afresh, and oas re- 
 
 mained tmaltfred nince those da^'s. In the war of 
 IH.W, Kars ca|)itulated to .MouravietT, Paskiewiteh'B 
 LieutiMiant ; but b}- the Treaty of I'aris, in IN.W, it 
 was again ceded to the Turks. It is not our pro. 
 vinci- to speculate on the fuluri; of Armenia, but we 
 doubt if an instaiu-e has occurred in the history of 
 any nation, of a |irovince, twice conipiered at tlie 
 point of the sword, having been twice ceded by a 
 stroke- of Ihr- pen. 
 
 BUSSIAN BEBDAN BIFLE. A breech-loading 
 small-arm having a li.xed chamber closed by a mov- 
 able breech-block, which rotates about a horizontal 
 axis at '.10'^ to the axis of the barril, lying above the 
 axis<jf the barrel, and in front. The piece is opened 
 by drawing back the locking-bolt to ils full extent, 
 tiierehy coiking the piece, and then throwing Ihe 
 breech-block upward and forward by the handle on 
 its side. Itisclosi'd by shutting the hreecli-block, 
 and is locked by the friction of the rear face of the 
 breech-block against the recoil-should('r on the lock- 
 ing-bolt guide, against whiih the longitudinal motion 
 of the hinge-stra]) slide, to which Ihe block is at- 
 tached, allows it bodily to slide under Ihe intluence 
 of the discharge. It is also held in pla( e by llur en- 
 trance of Ihe locking-boll into lh(^ counler-hore of 
 Ihe liring-pin hole when the piece is tired. In draw- 
 ing back the hjcking-holt to open the piec-e it com- 
 presses the spiral mainspring which surrounds it, 
 and riding over the point of I lie .spring-sear is caught 
 by it and retaineil against the tension of the main- 
 sjiriug when the sui)porl of the hand is withdrawn. 
 When releiused through the trigger in Ihe usual way 
 it is impelled against the tiring-pin, and so <lischarg- 
 es the piece, Extraction is accomplished by an ex- 
 tractor swinging on the joint-.screw and struck above 
 ilseeuterof motion by the forward end of the breech- 
 block near the completion of its movement in open- 
 ing. Ejcf-tion is caused by accelerating the move- 
 ment of the extractor by the ejector-spring, one end 
 of wi.ichliasa solid bearing on the hinge-strap slide, 
 and Ihe other resting on the extractor above the cen- 
 ter |uf motion; as the shell pas.ses (jnt it is detiected 
 by the beveled surface of the ejector-stud, and is 
 thrown clear of the jiiece. 
 
 BUSSIAN BRIDGE. -The Rtissians use in their 
 bridge equipages a very light kinil of ponton formed 
 of a frame-work covered with canvas. The frame 
 is composed of two side-frames, constructed of 4" 
 scantling. These two frames are connected below 
 by movalile transoms, with tenons at each end which 
 tit into mortises in the bollom sills, and above by 
 two transoms, one at each end, whicli are laid on the 
 top string-pieces, about 2 feet froju tiie ends, and 
 lashed to them. The canvas cover is stretched over 
 the bottom, sides, and ends, brought over the ends, 
 and lashed to the top transoms. It is secured along 
 the sides of the top string-pieces by small nails, pa.s.s- 
 ing through eyelet holes along the edges of the cloth. 
 It is 10|' wide, 30' long in the middle, 23' long along 
 theedges,and is painted black on both sides. A plank 
 is laid along the bottom for the pontoneers to stand 
 on. and the cables are attached to the top transoms. 
 There are special supports for the hand-ropes. The 
 Hirayti trestle and abutments are used with these 
 pontons. 
 
 BUSSIAN FUSE. — This fuse consists of a fuse-plug 
 made of a mixture of lead and tin, conical in shape, 
 the head of which projects beyond the external sur- 
 face of the shell, and of a paper fuse, filled with fine 
 powder rammed hard, which is introduced into the 
 fuse-plug just before firing. There are two sets of 
 these fuses, and three lengths in each, which bum 
 in the first set, 25", 4", and 5", and in the second 
 'i\' , 4y',and 5i". 
 
 These were the fuses used by the Russians in the 
 Crimea, since which a new system has been adopt- 
 ed, in which the fuse-plug is made of papier miiche, 
 and till' fiisi'-lulie of lead. 
 
 I BUSSIAN GOVEENMENT.— With the abolition of 
 j serfdom, Old Russia disappeared for ever, and New
 
 StJSSIAH GOVERNMENT. 
 
 811^ 
 
 EUSSIAN GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Russia arose from its grave. Tlie old distinction of 
 classes into nobles and bondsmen was merged into 
 that beautiful weapon of constitutional despotism, 
 known on the Continent as universal compulsory ser- 
 vice in the army. Henceforth, instead of fishting 
 for their King, Emperor, or Czar, the people of such 
 happy lands now tight for their country only. It is 
 true, the common pnpuiace is so blinded by its pre- 
 judices, that it is apt not to understand the differ- 
 ence as long as the country is under the immediate 
 and irresponsible control of its whilom Sovereign; 
 and Russia forms no exception to this rule. Conse- 
 quently, thougli the form has somewhat changed, 
 the material remains the same; and where it has al- 
 tered it has been sagaciously made use of to fit into 
 the new order of things, and to form an integral por- 
 tion of the new sj'stem. Tluis the result of abolisli- 
 ing serfage was the creation of a fresli national feel- 
 ing; the ex-bondsmen felt tliat lie liad a stalic iu his 
 newly-acquired soil; whilst, on the other hand, the 
 noble felt that a new danger was threatening him by 
 the growth of this national consciousness and the 
 growing conviction in tlie ex-serf that he really was 
 a unit in the empire, and that man}' units piled up 
 on the top of the other, amounted to a very consid- 
 erable sum, and no mean force if united iu action. 
 To counterbalance these ideas it was necessary to 
 shape certain grooves for the new national feeling to 
 run in. Thus three principal channels were fashioned. 
 1. Compulsory jnilitary service. 2. The institution 
 of communal self-government. 3. The reunion of 
 the Schismatics and other dissidents under the pater- 
 nal care of the Orthodox Greek Church, as repre- 
 sented by the Holy Synod, as represented by the 
 Czar, wlio in turn represents the Diety himself, 
 in Russia. These grooves having been duly fashion- 
 ed, the next thing to be done was to furnish a reser- 
 voir for them to run into — a vast reservoir that would 
 contain the national food for long years to come, and 
 prevent its overflowing the channels cut for it, and 
 causing serious damage at home. This great goal 
 was set up in the shape of Panslavism ; the object of 
 Panslavism being the reunion of all the various Slav 
 races in Austria, in Prussia, and in Turkey, under 
 the sceptre of liim who rules at St. Petersburg. The 
 attention of the freshlj'-made freeman was tlius to be 
 diverted from home matters to foreign affairs, and 
 his black bread spread with the butter of glcy abroad 
 rather than with the fat of the land at home,for which 
 it appears that the noble has a remarkable fancy. Of 
 the working of this new system, of the bad that 
 exists, and the good that is latent in the communal 
 system ; of the atrocities of the Ilolj- Synod ; of the 
 burden the armj's imposes upon the nation, we shall 
 speak in the proper place. The above rapid sketch 
 is simply designed to give in a few words the char- 
 acter of the change that has come over Russia, and 
 made her again an enemy and a slauding menace to 
 the peace of Europe, and the cause of liberty, com- 
 merce, and progress. And if, as Goethe says, " The 
 gods against ignorance battle in vain," it may well be 
 imagined what a very formidable task Europe has ! 
 before her, when she shall be called upon to wage } 
 war against the bottomless ignorance of eighty mil- 1 
 lion souls, all well armed with breech-loaders and 
 Krupp guns. Under such circumstances, it may 
 well l)e asked why Europe shoulil siilmiit to a coii- 
 liiiiial threat in order to enable a jMiiscovite nobility 
 to preserve their station against those jiriiiciples of 
 individual liberty and local self-government they are 
 80 proud of pointing to as the lever that is to raise 
 Slavonic Russia on t iie ruins of an elTele western civ- 
 ilization, and to regenerate the slugLrish lilood of 
 worn-out ICiirope? In short, wiiy slioidd lOuropeaU 
 low the Russian U'aders and rulers to impede the; 
 development of liberty at home, by imposing a ty- \ 
 Tannic rule on rac(\s abroad, under tlie catch-penny 
 title of national glory ? Is the country too small anil 
 too poor to support its teeming ixipiilalion ? Is it a 
 kind of magnitied Montenegro, that must perforce 
 
 extend its boundaries to feed its .starving population? 
 If so, there would, perhaps, be some excuse for its 
 periodical attacks on somebody or other — on the 
 Khan of Khiva yesterday, the Sultan of Turkey to- 
 day, and probably the Shah of Persia to-morrow. 
 But we find exactly the contrary to be the case; for 
 whilst Europeans count their inliabitants to the 
 square mile in some cases by thousands, and inamost 
 cases by the hundred, we find in Russia a population 
 of about ten to the square mile. Let any one try to 
 stretch his imagination to the wonderful extent of 
 fancying himself in the possession of 309,760 square 
 yards of soil — or the use of it — and he will have an 
 accurate idea of the position of the Russian in his 
 native laud. Is there any biped, be lie white, yel- 
 low, or black, belonging to the working ciasses — to 
 the classes to whom labor is a necessity— who would 
 not be satisfied with such a possession, or at any 
 rate be content to increase it by legitimate means, 
 and thus in possession of material independence, 
 would not also be in possession of his moral indepen- 
 dence, and defy the intrigues of those who will not 
 work themselves, but buyup streams of living blood 
 and liushels of money in exchange for a few tinsel 
 tatters of impalpable, evanescent glory? 
 
 The reply is self-evident ; so self-evident that the 
 Russian government has never propounded the ques- 
 tion, and works upon a system by which tliey hope 
 it will never Ije proposed. What this system is we 
 now propose showing, for it is the most important 
 element foreign nations have to consider in their re- 
 lations with Russia. It is the government that does 
 everj'thing, without consulting the people. There 
 is no appeal to the nation. What the Czar and his 
 Nobles decree has to be performed, and is performed 
 in the same unreasoning, slavish spirit of obedience, 
 which the liberation of the serfs has in no way chang- 
 ed. In dealing with Russia, we have to deal with a 
 craft)', unprincipled. Asiatic government, and a mass 
 of ignorance in all things that concern the Russian's 
 relations with foreign nations and ideas. Not that 
 then' are not communities upon communities who 
 cultivate the soil iu peace, and successfully ; whose 
 villages are all that could be desired from an agri- 
 cultural and social point of vie'.v. Of these there are 
 many ; and there is an amount of good nature and 
 common sense in the Russian peasant that only needs 
 time and opportunity for develojjment to make him 
 one of the most peaceable and industrious of men. 
 But just for this very reason, heenuse lie has the capa- 
 city for attaining material and moral independence, 
 the vast army of drones do all they can to stifle these 
 good qualities ia a mass of bigotry, ignorance, and 
 superstition. Be it well understood — what we find 
 to protest against is not the mere existence of the 
 people of Russia, but of the Russian government, 
 which is a great deal worse than the Turkish rule, 
 and for the simple reason that the Russian gov- 
 ernmeut h:is not the same excuse which the Turkish 
 has, of being a weak government that has fallen in- 
 to the hands of the Jews and <;reeks. The Russians 
 discovered that the Crimean war had opened the 
 eyes of the people to the fact, that Russia was not 
 altogether the blessed ji.'iradise her rulers tried to 
 make them believe, and that an entire re-constitution 
 of the government system was necessarj' to satisfy 
 the glowing discontent. How to do this and yet al- 
 ter nothing ; how to give liberty and yet at the same 
 time to curtail it, was no easy task. But it was ac- 
 complished. The Czar, whose official title is Auto- 
 crat— Self-ruler — of all the Russias, is the fountain- 
 head of all legislation. Ail laws proceed from him; 
 he alone makes them ; he alone can unmake them. 
 This is done as follows: — All decrees of the Czar 
 published by the Senate are Laws; :ill decrees pub- 
 lished by other departments of the State arc only 
 to be regarded as decrees ; and theoretically, diso- 
 bedieuee to these decrees, or ukases, can only be 
 liunished when such punishment can be legally jus- 
 litied, and it is proved th:it the ukase in (juestion was
 
 BUSSLAN GOVERNMENT. 
 
 s 1 :', 
 
 BUBSIAN OOVERRICEHT. 
 
 known to the culprit. As a mutter of fuel, there in, 
 priuli<'iillv', no distinction hclvvccn llic two. Ad- 
 niinislriilivc uliasc, ur iiii|iciiiil Kciiiilnriiil liiw. Ihcy 
 hotli itinount to Ihcauniu tiling;, uuu ci-nlcr in tin- ir- 
 rcsponsihle C/.tiT. 
 
 Tlie executive power is also in tlie lumdH of tlic 
 Czar, and all departments act in his name. The 
 Minister of I'olic'e, for instance, is respfnisihht to no 
 one liul the C'/.ar. A man disappears; and in(|iiirics 
 sJKiw that he has lici'n arirslcd hy the p(iH<'c ; there 
 tile mall.r eniis, and it di'peiiils entirely npnn tlie 
 
 Eoliei' (ir the C/.ar uhether or not he <-ver reappears, 
 ife under sn(-h cir(-nmslances would he unsupport- 
 able, were it not that the coininuni'S retain a speeii'S 
 of self-government that invests them with n show of 
 liberty. Of the natiin^ of such liherly sulllec^ it to 
 say that the system is Imsed on the principle, not of 
 a division of ])ropiTly, as the SucialistH try to make 
 out. hut upon the ilivisiiin of the use of the soil, 
 which is a very (liiyer<'nt matter alto{;ether. It is, in 
 short, a system that fully employs the s|)ar.^ linu-and 
 a.11 the spare hrains of the peasantry to carry out, 
 and prevents tiieni from agitatini; for that represen- 
 tation of the people in the councils of the nation, 
 wiich is the first step to liberty. To keep the pea- 
 santry in this cir<'umscrihed oasis of local liherly in 
 the commune, or !i)ir, and prevent their imion with 
 each otiier in the cause of universal and j;eneral li- 
 berty, is, of course, the chief object and !iim of the 
 nobility. Compulsory service is one of these means. 
 The church altords another. To brim; all the vari- 
 ous sects of Russia under the control of the ])arish 
 priest and Holy Synod, who can command tlie a.s- 
 sistauce of the civil authorities and of the military 
 authorities, is the ureat object, for the iirompt allain- 
 ment of wliich such measures have been taken as 
 those that furnished the material for the lilue Book 
 publislied recently by the British Government. An 
 imperial ukase was published in 1M71, subjectinij all 
 the hetenxlox, or disscutinff, churches to the autho- 
 rity of the Holy Synod. This is eipiivalent to an act 
 of parliament, in Enj;land, placing all the Noncon- 
 formists, Catholics and Jews under the administra- 
 tion and authority of the Church of England. Thus 
 the Uniates wen^ ordered to conform in all respects 
 to the habits of the Orthodox clergy — to alter their 
 churches in conformity with the system adopted by 
 the Orthodox church. Priests who complied with 
 these instructions were to be compensated for any 
 pecainiary losses ; disobedient |)riests to be transfer- 
 red to some other place, or banished. An incpiisi- 
 torial eanimission sat in permanence at Siedlce, be- 
 fore which the clergy were summoned from time to 
 time, and examined as to their conduct. These 
 measures were energetically enforced, but met with 
 great resisUmce, especially on the ptirt of the inhabit- 
 ants of Chelm, I.ublin, Popil, and Siedlce. On hear- 
 ing of this. Count Tolstoi gave strict orders that the 
 necessary measures were to be enforced with the ut- 
 most rigor, and no benches, organs, rosaries, mass- 
 bells, etc., to be allowed in the churches under any 
 pretense whatever. Most of the clergy yielded : the 
 peasantry, however, refused to obey the tyrannical 
 order, and many conflicts, resulting in loss of life, 
 occurrwl in many places. At Jlyncievicz, the peas- 
 ants defended their church by force, but were de- 
 fealtul by the Cossacks, and every one of the congre- 
 gation summoned to sign forthwith a declaration of 
 Lis conversion to the Orthodox church. On their re- 
 fusing, every man received tifty strokes of the knout, 
 every woman twenty-five, and every child, irrespec- 
 tive of age or sex, ten blows. One woman, who was 
 especially energetic in her refusal, received more 
 than one hundred blows, and is dcfcrihed as liavini; 
 lier tl»'sh completely mashed. These brutalities were 
 taking place just at the same time of the wedding of 
 the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh, and created so 
 painful a feeling at St. Petersbnrgh that they were 
 suspended for a time. In fact, so great \ras the in- 
 dignation aroused amongst the foreigu commimity, 
 
 that it was openly wondered at that an ICnglish prince 
 could ally him.self with a power guilty of such atro- 
 cities : and it is said, on apparently gofid authority, 
 t hat till- coolness hi'tween t he I )uke of Edinhi'.rgh and 
 the Russian royal family is due to a very energetic 
 expression of opinion by the Duke on the subject. 
 This was in .January, 1x74. In February the atroci- 
 ties recoinmi-nceil ; villages were occupied bytro')ps 
 of Cossaiks who jilundered llii: wretched peasants, 
 and ■'hunted them down" when they took refuge 
 and bivoua(rked in the forests. Pines to a large 
 amount were imposed upon the congregation, their 
 crops lrani|)led down, and, in one case, six hundred 
 married men banishid to Cherson (on the 14th of 
 Peliruary, lH7(i), andem|)loyed in hard labor — stone- 
 breaking all day long, whilst their wives and fami- 
 lies remained at home, with .a number of Cossacks 
 iiuarlereil upon them. I'nder such circumstances, 
 it is not surprising to read, in ('ount Tolstoi's report 
 (lS77),that no less than a:i7,l)(J0 Russian subjects .saw 
 the error of their ways in 1870, and were converted 
 to the Orthodox faith. 
 
 Having thus undergone a preliminary preparation 
 for their subsequi^nt complete subji:ction to the au- 
 tocrat government, which is supposed to represent 
 paternal solicitude .•iiid authority, the Russian is then 
 |)ut into the drilling machine provided hy the mili- 
 tary system, and which ever afterwards holds him 
 in its ij'on grasp. When the man who stole a loaf 
 excused the act by saying he must live, the Magis- 
 trate appropriately repliecl that he did not see the 
 necessity at all. On tlu' same principle, the existence 
 of the Russian is only regarded as a necessity in so 
 far as he forms an element in the army which keeps 
 the goverununt and its friends on its legs. Con- 
 secpiently it is necessary that the army shcmld be 
 subjected to the strictest discipline, and be as per- 
 fect as possible. A sketch of the machine is there- 
 fore necessary to understand the working of the sys- 
 tem. See Jiuxmin Ariiiy. 
 
 There is, uiuiuestionably, a falling-ofT in the rigid 
 bearing, in the smart performance of movements 
 that used formerly to be a characteristic feature of 
 Russian infantry. There is. perhaps, a little too much 
 of the french laisser^ilier; and as regards the drill for 
 act ion in loose order,it is performed without either the 
 precision or dash of the Prussian or Austrian armies. 
 Itespecting the cavalry, all that can be said is, that 
 the addition of the Cossacks has deprived it, to some 
 extent, of its gallant and soldierly bearing. The reg- 
 ulars have learnt from the Cossacks their bad hab- 
 its. The teams of the artillery are excellent, and 
 the movements rapid. There is, however, a great 
 dearth of men able to lay a gun. The distinction 
 between divisional and corps artillery appears to be 
 unknown.— The most important element in an army 
 is its ofticers; and here great changes have been ef- 
 fected of late years. Formerly, a great many ofli- 
 cers got a commission through mere favor ; but this 
 abuse has been reformed by the able War Minister, 
 General Milutine. No man can now obtain a com- 
 mission without undergoing a strict examination. 
 To promote the means of military education. Gen- 
 eral Milutine 'Created -'Junker," or, as we should 
 say, Cadet Schools. These schools, since their crea- 
 tion, have turned out upwards of 10,000 candidates 
 for commissions, and 2,000 cadets duly qualified for 
 commissions now pass through tliein every year; 
 they remain at the disposition ot the State, and get 
 appointments as vacancies occur. In spite of many 
 praiseworthy efforts to raise it, the intellectual level 
 of the oflicefs is not high ; but they know the rou- 
 tine of their business "thoroughly well, and are re- 
 garded generall}- with respect and affection by their 
 men. As to the question, ■'Has Russia a Generall'" 
 it would be difficult to answer it. The march to 
 Khiva, and the more recent campaign in Central 
 Asia, has not revealeil the existence of any man of 
 genius in the Russian ranks. 
 
 In time of peace the Russian infantrj' has no ready-
 
 EUSSIAN GOVERNMENT. 
 
 SI 4 
 
 RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT. 
 
 formed reserve, with the exception of the skeletr>n of 
 a battalion of the Reserve Kejiiiiient of the Guard, 
 which has to be created iu time of war. There is 
 something quite peculiar about this regiment which 
 requires little detail to be made intelligible. When 
 the decree is issued for the mobilisation of the armv, 
 it becomes necessary to create 16i battalions of re- 
 serves — that is to say, one battalion for each infantrj- 
 regime'^t, witli the exception of the Guards and the 
 Grenadiers. This latter is the sole four-battalion re- 
 serve regiment to be created in case of war : it con- 
 sists of twelve line companies and four companies of 
 Rifles, the reserve battalions having no Ritle compa- 
 nies. Up to the present time, there exists no ma- 
 chinery in the Russian service for the formation of 
 infantry reserves in peace-time : all that is provided 
 is, that, in tlie event of the formation of a reserve 
 Tieing deemed aiivisable, a Field-ofticer, and four 
 officers of lower rank, together with a Quartermas- 
 ter and two clerks belonging to the active or lo- 
 cal troops, should be transferred to these reserve 
 battalions. An intention, however, is entertained 
 of drawing up the cadres thoroughly on paper in 
 time of peace ; but as there are realTy no cadres at the 
 command of the government , the question yet remains 
 unsettled. The strengtli of the reserve battalions of 
 the line and the Guards is estimated at 960 men. To 
 pr(.)vide the requisite reserves in the event of mobil- 
 isation would require 168 battalions, and an effective 
 of 168,000 men. When the mobilisation is decreed, 
 193 depot battalions are created for the supply of 
 men to the line, and nine depot battalions for the 
 Rifles. But a mobilization in Russia is a matter of 
 no very small difficulty, on account of the extent 
 and scanty population of the territoiy, as well as 
 the scarcity of eommimicatiou, and the precautions 
 which require to be taken against the populatiim in 
 Poland and other provinces. The country, indeed, 
 is divided into a certain number of recruiting dis- 
 tricts : but as the corps belonging to these districts 
 are generally quartered elsewere, when the order for 
 mobilisation goes forth, there is a chmsez-croinfz of 
 men and horses all over the empire. As regards the 
 artillery, its mobilisation requires a supplement of 
 40,000 horses. Under the most favorable circum- 
 stances, the mobilisation of the Russian army cannot 
 be effected under from five to six weeks. Such, in 
 few words, is the character of official Russia. But 
 there is another Russia — the Russia of the masses, — 
 unofficial Russia, which slowly, but surely, is mo- 
 difying and influencing the government and its prin- 
 ciples; so that, even in the army, there is a marked 
 difference between the old generation and the 
 younger, that is much in favor of the latter. 
 
 Down to the time of the Crimean war, Russia was 
 an earthly rparadise for all diplomatists of the old 
 school. Enjoying great social consideration, and 
 living in an almost constant round of splendid festi- 
 vities, they had only very light and very simple du- 
 ties to jierform. Thej' never required to under- 
 take such complicated operations as calculating the 
 strength of political parties or the force of public 
 opinion. All the springs of government were lo be 
 found within a radius of a mile from the Winter Pal- 
 ace; and beyond this small enchanted circle there 
 was nothing for a diplomatist to observe. The Czar 
 and his Ministers worked the great machine as they 
 pleased, free from control and extraneous advice, 
 and the nation confined itself to uii(|uestioning obe- 
 dience. If any voice did happen to rise from the 
 crowd, it was very soon silenced. Once, in a mo- 
 ment of heroic self-forgetfulness, a rash newspajier 
 editor ventured timidly to hint that some new seats 
 in tlie imperial garden were not (|uile iu perfect 
 taste; l)Ut the all-seeing eye of the press-censor was 
 upon him, and he was severely puiiislicil for ventur- 
 ing to criticise seats that had i)een fcjrtunate enougli 
 to obtain the imperial ajiproval ! These halcyon days 
 for old-fashioned diplomatists and statesmen of liie 
 Metlernich type are now beginning to be numbered 
 
 amongst the things of the past. The Czar, though 
 still as autocratic as ever in the legal sense of the 
 term, no longer drives the macliine by his own un- 
 aided energy. There are still, it is true, no regular- 
 ly constituted political parties, no National Assem- 
 bly; but the great silent inert mass, composed of 
 eighty millions of human beings, has begun to show, 
 here and there symptoms of human intelligence and 
 human will, and the government is no longer at lib- 
 erty to act entirely as it pleases. Russia has now, in 
 fact, many of the blessings which belong to advanc- 
 ed pulitical development, and which complicate enor- 
 mously the art of government. There is a press which, 
 though liable to be gagged occasionally, criticises 
 things much more important than rustic seats in im- 
 perial gardens ; and a public which, though enthusi- 
 astically loyal to the head of the State, insists some- 
 times on having opinions of its own. There was a 
 Slavonic Committee which supplied the Servians with 
 a Commander-in-Chief, and sent several thousand vol- 
 unteers to fight the Turks ; and there are even secret 
 societies which aim at overthrowing the government 
 and inaugurating a Socialistic millennium. In a 
 word, this is the unofficial Russia, which exercises a 
 certain influence on the government, and which must 
 therefore be taken into consideration by diplomatists 
 and statesmen in their endeavors to forecast the poli- 
 cy of the country. 
 
 Between St. Petersburg and Moscow their exists 
 an antagonism of long standing. Ever since its 
 foundation, St. Petersburg hai striven to be a Euro- 
 pean city and to adopt all the products of West- 
 European civilization. Moscow, on the contrary, 
 strives to be distinctively Russian, and affects to look 
 down on her younger rival as a half-caste jtnrrenu. 
 Abandoned by the imperial family anil the heads of 
 administration, she glories in her ancient monuments 
 and her ancient spirit, and boasts that she still holds 
 the first place in the veneration and love of the Rus- 
 sian people. All Moscovites are more or less imbued 
 with this Platonic hostility to the capital on the Neva, 
 and love to reproach its inhabitants — the Ministers 
 and other official dignitaries not excepted — with 
 gross ignorance of Russia and the true Russian char- 
 acter, but when they come to discuss the present 
 and future of their country, they are by no means 
 unanimous. We easily distinguish amongst them 
 two groups or Cdteries. holding peculiar view^s, which 
 distinguish them from each other. The one is 
 composed of the Slavophils, the other ma)' be called 
 the iloscovites proper. These groups are often con- 
 founded, and the confusion is excusable, for many 
 worthy Moscovites themselves do not clearly distin- 
 guish between the two and consider that they belong 
 to both: but in reality there is a decided distinction, 
 for the leaders are by no means at one, and do not 
 generally entertain very friendly relations. The 
 chief difference may be briefly stated. The Slavo- 
 phils are the representatives of the old Rtissian or- 
 thodox spirit. They idealize and admire ancient Rus- 
 sia condemn the sweeijing reforms of Peter the Great, 
 and the foreign principles of administration in vogue 
 since his time, profess an inordinate admiration for 
 the uneducated, uncorrupted peasantry, aspire to 
 the creation of a specifically Russian culture on the 
 basis of the Slavonic character and Eastern ortho- 
 doxy, are deeply imbued with Slavonic patriotism, 
 and hope to see someday a great Slavonic federation 
 or P.-mslavunic empire. VVith regard to questions 
 of honu> policy, tiny are adherents of the Jlir, or 
 Rural Conuuune, w'ith its periodical reallotment of 
 the sand, advocate the fostering of native industries 
 by means of ))rotective t;irilTs. desire the elimiuation 
 of the German element and (ierman infiuence from 
 the adminislratiiin, and would liketo sec the church 
 emancipated from tin- supiTvision and control of the 
 State. The party of the Moscovites proper isatonce 
 more modern iu its conceptions and more modest in 
 its aims. Tliough (h^sirinir equally to see the Ger- 
 man influence eliminated from the administration,
 
 RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT. 
 
 «li 
 
 RUSSIAN OOVEENMEHT. 
 
 it hiiM no fc^elinf; of liostility to I'ctcr tlu' Great iiiul 
 Wf.Mtcrii ciilliirc, iukI no scntinicnliil love of nncii'nl 
 liuMsia. Il lliinks tliMl Uiis;'iiL <jii'_'ljt li> <iil<>|it all 
 miinncrof civili/atioii ami ctili^^lilrninciil from Wi-M- 
 crn Kuropc, and hIiows no syniputhv willi inslilii- 
 tions Hiniply Ijccausc llicy arc specially Hiissian. On 
 the contrary, it lioliU that the social ami polilical <lc. 
 velo])nicnt of tlic coiinlry must be fiimlami'iilally the 
 same as I hat of the West- European nalions. ami hails 
 with (Iclifjhl all reforms concciveil in llic Wesl-Kiiro- 
 pean spirit. Whilst the Slavophils believe Ihai Ihi' 
 mission of Russia is lo develop eerlain very abslruse 
 prin<'ii)U'S whieli are supposed lo be hidden in Ihe 
 Slavonic natur<- and in (ireek orlhodoxy, this parly 
 — less dreamy and wiser in its generation tlilnKthat 
 Kiissia shoulddevelop her instilnlions by the li^ht of 
 modern experience, and extend her political ilillu- 
 ence 1)V the same means as other nalions. 
 
 In ordinary limes the iiitlueiiee of the MoscoviU; 
 Hl)irit, as representi'd by Ihese two parties, is very 
 Hmall. The I'elersliurnians look upon il with kindly 
 con<lescensions as an amiable provincialism, and 
 Koine Hussians are rather prbud of it, as thiy arc of 
 the old picturesque bnildinjis of Ihe Ivr<-inlin ; but 
 it has little practical siijnificanee. The Slavophils, 
 with their mystical i)rinci|)les, which have an inter- 
 <'st for those who study the philosophy of history 
 rather than for ])raelical admiinstral<irs stand apart 
 from the busy crowd in a region of pbihisophieal ab- 
 straction. If they indulge in ain' practical activity, 
 it takes the form of educatiuj^ younij Bulgarians or 
 sending ecdcsiaslical vestments and sacred vessels 
 to the Slavs of Turkey and Austria. All this, how- 
 evcr,i3 changed when certain political coinplicalions 
 arise. As soon as Ihe Eastern (jnestion is raised, 
 and Russia finds herself iuanlaijonism with Western 
 Europe, Moscow always comes prominently to Ihe 
 front, as the representative of Holy Itnssia and of the 
 j;enuine national spirit. Words which at ordinary 
 seasons would only provoke a smile are now listened 
 to with attention and respect. For the moment the 
 two sections of Jlosrovitc society condiine. The 
 Slavophils declare that the time has come for eman- 
 cipating Ihe Slavonic brethren, and protecting them 
 against the insidious inlluenccsof Western Europe; 
 whilst the more moderate parly urge Uie government 
 to uphold the honor of the countrj', and maintain 
 legitimate Uussian intluence in the Slavonic world. 
 In view of the national danger, the goverinnent well 
 thinks it necessary to know the real sentiments of 
 the people, and considers that .Moscow is Ihe truest 
 representative of these sentiments. The C'/ar visits 
 the ancient capital, and the inhabitants show him 
 unbounded devotion— humbly urging him, in more 
 or less disguised language, to impregnate himself 
 with the genuine national spirit, to close his ears to 
 theseductive voice of foreign counsellors, and to act as 
 a Czar who can rely implicitly on the boundless devo- 
 tion and self-sacrilice of his loyal subjects. Though 
 Ills Majesty may be a man of cool head and miim- 
 piilsive character, he cannot remain wholly imper- 
 vious to the patriotic excitement. It wasduring one 
 of those visits that Alexander II. pronounced the 
 famous speech, in which he pledged himself to act 
 independently, if thepov.-ers would nol act with him, 
 i^>T the protection of Ihe Christians in Turkey. 
 
 Thus we see, though autocracy is still unshaken 
 in Russia, that section of unoHieial Russia which is 
 represented by SIoscow exercises a certain inflnence 
 on the imperial government, and consequently its 
 views and aims arc worthy of attention. Now the 
 bulwark of luiofficial Russia -of Ihe masses — is nn- 
 doubtedly the Zemstvo. It is impossible lo trans- 
 late this word Zemstvo by any other jihrase than 
 local governmcnl. Hul Ihe very exisleitce of such 
 an institution, hedged in as it is, and as we have al- 
 ready seen, by Ihe goverimient and its autocratic 
 principles, is in itself a most remarkable feature: and 
 it is from this institution that the future, not only of 
 Russia, but of all tiie Slavonic races, is expected lo 
 
 blossom forth in a perfection ho fur distant that it 
 must he regarded as Utopian- at any rate, as far as 
 Europe- is concernr-d, as il presupposes the possesBion 
 of an abundance of grounil that does not exist in 
 Kuropc In sulllcient quant ily to allow of each indi- 
 vidual holding his own acres, wlietlier personally or 
 coniinunally. 
 
 'I'he Zemstvo was instituted in 1804. There is a 
 provincial Zemstvo and a district Zemstvo. Each dis- 
 Iricl Zeuislvo consists of a Zemstvo As.sendjly and a 
 Zemstvo Kxecutive. The Assembly consists of the 
 landowners of Ihe dislrici and members chosen by 
 Ihe municipal and country communities. Keither 
 the (iovenifir nor Yice-Governor rif the district can 
 he a member of Ihe Zemstvo. Nor can any member 
 of the government nor lawyers be circled. The term 
 of otHce is three years. The Execnlive is cho.sen by 
 the ,\ssembly, and consists of a I'residenl and two 
 Assistants, who are ])aid by Ihe Assembly. The Ex- 
 ecnlive thus has lo carry out the orders of Ihe A.s- 
 sembly, and depends upon il entirely. The provin- 
 cial Zemstvo is coustiluled in a precisely similar 
 manncr.divided into an Assend)ly and an Executive. 
 Both Zemstvos meet once a year. 
 
 By this means the govt nnneni has transferred a 
 great burden from its own shoulders lo those of Ihe 
 people, which has accordingly no small sum to pay 
 for the privilege. The people are placed in a condi- 
 tionlhereby— and it i.-. part of their duty— to provide 
 for their material and moral progress ; but at the 
 same time, in making these concessions, the govern- 
 ment has not ceded (me jot of its own rights. The 
 Zemstvo may build hospitals, appoint surgeons and 
 doctors, construct roads, and open schools, all at its 
 own expense. But further than this it cannot go. 
 On the policy of the central government, it has but 
 the smallest", if indeed any. intluence.' Still, as we 
 said before, the development of Ihe Zemstvo is the 
 only hope the Russian has of progressing ; and, 
 though slowly, it is doing its work. Thus there was 
 a debate recently in one of the Ural Zemstvos, when 
 a ])roposal was brought forward by a Colonel Stein- 
 feldl, to award an increase to the school funds of 
 I.'),()00 roubles. The proposal was supported by one 
 peasant only, and that peasant an ex-serf. He said 
 — "It has been fully proved that, with the education 
 of the laborer, his wealth also increases. Even for 
 this reas(m alone, it would be the dut)' of Ihe Zemst- 
 vo to promote the cause of education by all the 
 means in its power. Those who say that the exist- 
 ing town schools suffice, and that we have no need 
 of primary village schools, forget that the case is the 
 same for us as with the bujfel lure in the ante-cham- 
 ber. It is open to all : quite true ! But, il does not 
 suit our pockets. We do not want champagne and 
 Strasburg pies." But, in spile of the sturdy ])easant'8 
 good common sense, the proposition was almost 
 unanimously rejected. Nor are such matters con- 
 lined to theremote districts of Ihe Ural. The Zemst- 
 vo of Odessa, for instance, can only boast of thirteen 
 schools, with .'JOO ptipils upon which it expends a 
 sum of 0,000 to 7,000 roubles; whilst the sale of play- 
 ing-cards, which is a monopoly of the Zemstvo, 
 brought in a net prolii, of IW.OUO "roubles. But then 
 gambling is a vice lo which the Russians, especially 
 the higher classes, are noloriou.sly addicted, more 
 so than in any other country. Slill it is satisfactory 
 to lind even one peasant endeavoring to promote the 
 cause of education. Some of the seed has fallen on 
 good groiuid. On the other hand, nothing exem- 
 plifies the spirit in which the government instituted 
 and regards the Zemstvo so much as the fact, that 
 when several Zemstvos endeavored to introduce 
 compulsory education, the home ministry placed its 
 veto on Ihe proposal, saying — "All compulsion pre- 
 vents, but does not forward, the development of the 
 good !"' 
 
 Of tlie country which i.i thus governed, we find 
 tliat European Russia comprises 2,261,657 sq. miles, 
 with a poiiulaticm of 78,281,447; Asiatic Russia,
 
 BUSSIAN GUN. 
 
 81(i 
 
 EUSSIAN LIFE SAVING HOCKST. 
 
 6,170,883 sq. miles, with a population of 7,229,495 : 
 forming a total of 8,432,549 sq. miles, with a popula- 
 tion of 85,510,942. Gifted with an almost boundless 
 territory, with enormous tracts of laud yet unreclaim- 
 ed from the primitive wilderness, with mines which 
 yield prolific stores of wealth, what a power of e.\- 
 pansion such a population must necessarily po.ssess ! 
 What will that population be within a century? 
 What, even in the year 1900 ? Evidently an enor- 
 mous, perhaps irresistible, power for good or for 
 evil. A solid foundation for European despotism, 
 or a glorious aid to that rationally free and constitu- 
 tional government which appears to he so safe and 
 wise in action. Russia may abandon a policy which 
 exhausts the energies of the people, in adding to its 
 already overgrown dominions countries it cannot 
 benefit by ; but its present Czar does not seem to 
 have forgotten the ambitious lessons of Peter and 
 Catherine, whilst directing his attention to promot- 
 ing the prosperity of the vast empire he possesses. 
 Russia, with all her craft and crime, has yet been 
 the pioneer of civilization in the sterile and savage 
 north: it is now time that she should rest in her daz- 
 zling and feverish progress, and, turning back her 
 eyes on the lands and peoples she has subdued, de- 
 vote herself to cultivating the one, and elevating 
 the other. Her nobles and officers are among the 
 most polished gentlemen of Europe: but her people 
 are yet scarcely more than semi- Asiatic hordes, deep- 
 ly plunged in barbarism and superstition, and almost 
 as much an anomaly in Europe as the Turks. In 
 political, as well as in social progress, it may be cer- 
 tainly pronounced that " The bells of time are ring- 
 ing changes fast." 
 
 The present age is one of transition for Russia. She 
 cannot continue into the future that which she was 
 in the past. Nature cries aloud, in tones of com- 
 manding eloquence, to empires as well as to men — 
 "Advance, or perish !" The statesmen of Russia are 
 too wise to remain insensible to an injunction which 
 is as unalterable as destiny, as " unshunnable as 
 death." Shoulil their successors be blind to the 
 great problem which will stand before them for so- 
 lution, the works of an empire's progress and re- 
 demption will be done in other ways. Czardom is 
 not necessarily eternal; and revolution may accom- 
 plish what the slow and silent progress of genial re- 
 forms could not effect. In spite of political statistics 
 and ominous inferences, we have great hope for the 
 future of Russia. The young giant is wilful and 
 sullen, but we think he is growing wiser, though it 
 mav not appear so at the present momeut. 
 
 RUSSIAN GUN.— The Russian artillery may be said 
 til lie in a transition state, experiments being contin- 
 ually carried on if not to change its materiel, lo modi- 
 fy the present ordnance so as to allow that branch 
 of the arm}' at least to bear comparison with that 
 adopted or on the jioint of being adopted by other 
 armies. The guns of tlie Russian artillery are 4-pr. 
 and 9-pr. B. L. R. guns for the most part of bronze. 
 The4-pr.,of 3.3 inch caliber tires a projectile weigh- 
 ing 121bs. The 9-pr. gun which forms Ihree-liflhs 
 of its actual armament, fires a shell weighing 24 lbs. 
 with a charge of 2.09 lbs., and possesses an initial 
 velocity of lOGO feet only. Expcrinunts have been 
 made of late with steel ginis of the Krupp system, 
 as well as with the 9-pr, modified. Tlie improve- 
 ment made in that gun b.v means of easting the meUd 
 in metallic molds and then chilling it, have enabled 
 it to obtain an initial velocity of i;!09 feet. It dilTers 
 slightly from the old 9-pr., the dimensioDs of tlu' 
 chambers being made to allow the use of a charge 
 of 7.23 lbs. of powder. The projectile is provided 
 with 2 belts of copper in lieu of a leaden coat. In 
 order to obtain a Hatter trajectory in long ranges, a 
 trunctated shol-lioltom similar to one proposed by 
 Whitworth has been tried. The weight of tlie gun 
 and that of the projectile are the same as in the old 
 9-pr. See llunniitu Wllinq. 
 
 BUSSIAN LITE SAVING EOCKIT,— The Kussian 
 
 Life-saving Rocket is made of sheet iron, about one- 
 tenth (0".l.) of an inch in thickness. The body is a 
 cylindrical tube, closed at the front end by a metallic 
 head,licld in position by four short screws. The rear 
 end is closed by a diaphragm, which is perforated 
 by six vents or fuse holes, equidistant circumferen- 
 tially, whose centers are on the circumference of a 
 circle concentric with the diaphragm. An axial hole 
 in the diaphragm has a female screw thread cut on 
 Its interior surface to engage the male thread on the 
 rocket stick. The body is fastened to the perforated 
 disk by crimping and by short iron pins. The cylin- 
 der is filled with rocket composition. The body of 
 the stick is made of light wood, cylindrical near the 
 b:ise and tapering to the front, forming the frustum 
 of a cone. The front end of the stick, which screws 
 into the rocket, is made of WTought iron, hollow 
 at its base for the insertionof the wooden body. The 
 latter is held in place bj' screws. The rear end of 
 the body is rounded, and on one side carries a strong 
 iron hook, about five (5") inches in length, with its 
 point turned towards the front, and curved slightly 
 outwards from'the axis of the stick. A curved steel 
 spring is placed between the point of the hook and 
 the shank strap to prevent the egress of the ring of 
 the rocket chain after firing. This hook is bolted 
 to the wooden body of the rocket stick. When pre- 
 pared for packing, the rocket sticks are screwed in- 
 to the rockets and the fuse holes or vents are cov- 
 ered by disks of water-proof tarred cloth. The dia- 
 meter of the disk is enough larger than that of the 
 rocket to admit of its being folded over the end of 
 the rocket and secured by several turns of twine, 
 tied tightly around it. The whole rocket, except 
 the wooden body, is then treated with a coat of black 
 paint. The cap or disk must be cut away before fir- 
 ing, in order to expose the fuse holes. 
 
 The principal dimensions and weights are as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Centi- 
 
 Inches, meters. 
 
 (Length .... 25.25 64.12 
 
 Rocket body -j Exterior diameter . 3.2 8.13 
 
 (interior diameter . 3.0 7.63 
 
 Total length of rocket .... 27.3 69.08 
 
 Total lenglh of rocket stick . . . 29.3 74.10 
 
 Total length of rocket and stick . 55.5 140.97 
 
 Length filled with composition . 23.1 58.67 
 
 Maximum diameter of stick , . 2.8 7.11 
 
 Diameter of vents or fuse holes . 0.6 1.52 
 
 Number of vents, six 
 
 Poiuids. Kilos. 
 Average weight of rocket and stick 25,5 11.56 
 
 The rocket stand is a rectangular tube of sheet- 
 iron mounted upon a wooden tripod. The cross- 
 section of the tube is square with one of its diagonals 
 situated in a vertical jilane when the stand is in posi- 
 tion for use. This hollow parallelopipedonal tube 
 is formed from a single piece of sheet-iron. The 
 longitudinal faces forming the lower edge do not 
 join to complete the regular figure, except for two 
 (2"j inches at the lower end, but are bent outwards 
 from each other, forming two parallel flanges. These 
 flanges are 1".7 wide, and have a sjiace half an inch 
 wide between them throughout their length, which 
 serves as a channel for the grappling hook on the 
 under side of the rocket-stick to slide in when the 
 rocket is tired. It is also necessary for the .same 
 purpose in placing the rocket in position l)efore fir- 
 ing. The rear end of the scpiarc lube is bound and 
 I strengthened by a band of strap iron 2" wide and 
 one-tenth (1)",1) of an inch thick. The fror.t end of 
 the tube is reinforced in a similar manner, but with 
 this dilTerenee: Theliand al its lower edge has a cyl- 
 indrical lube r'.~ in diameter, ])rojeeling to the front 
 3". 3, for the jiuriiose of holding the ring of the rock- 
 et chain. This short tube euiliraces tlie front ends 
 of the flanges of the body, and has a longitudinal 
 slot, corresponding in width to the space between tlio 
 flanges along its upper surface lo permit the passage
 
 HU8SIAN PRINCIPALITIES. 
 
 817 
 
 RUSSIAN PRINCIPALITIES. 
 
 of the rocket hook. A rcctangiilnr notch I'M dicp 
 is cut hi the hiwcr Hhh^ to uccdimiiiKhilc thr upiii-r 
 link iif thij niclict chiiiii whrii Ihi' riri;; isphici'il nvrr 
 lh<' priijrctiiii; luhc Nciir Ihi' iiiiihlli' of the lorif^i- 
 tiidhiiil hiiltom lhiii!;(M)ii the rif^hl-hiinil Hi(hM;f the 
 hudy liiliir is iitlachi'il ii rccliuinuhir lin ss plati', 10" 
 l<)ii;jC and 1".(> \vi(h', wilh a hii; and cyc-hoh' projcct- 
 in>;fnini its utulcr cdijc near tin- iiii(hll<-. 'l'!:roiiKli 
 this cyi'-hoic pa-isi'H Ihc linri/Dnlal axis. In a cor- 
 rcspdndiiiu; pn.silidii (jii tljc left side is a scinic'irciilar 
 liniss philc atlaclicd In the (jihcr llaii^rc. The arc of 
 tliis pluti' is j;ia(hiul('d Into lU'firccs, in order to indi- 
 cate tlie elevation of the axis of the main tiihc. A 
 \ng anil eye-hole at Ihc <cnler of this arc adniils of 
 the ins<rlioii of the horizontal axis. A slotted brass 
 snpport with holes |iiereed through the upper ends 
 of tlu! vertical arms sustains thir hori/,on<al axis thai 
 carrii'S thc^ rocket tube and its ijradnaled arc. A 
 clamp screw jiasses throuijli this support from Ihc 
 rii;hl side an<i clamps tlu! arc in any fiiven position. 
 All motion in altilndc within the limits of the scale 
 is govcrneil by Ihis screw. The lower end of the 
 support terminates in a cylindrical tenon 3". 3 in 
 lcni;th and 1 ".3 in diameter, which Ills in a corrcs- 
 pondinL' hole in Ihe lrip<id head. Two ellipli<al 
 openiii;j;s ojiposite lo eacli oilier, are made in the u|)- 
 I)er sides of the tube for Ihe inserlion of the port-tire 
 to ijfnitc Ihc rocket coni|)osition. 
 The following are the principal dimensions, weights, 
 etc., of the stand: 
 
 Inches. Centimeters. 
 Total length of rocket-tnbc 53.3 13.5.38 
 
 Cross-section, s-iuare. ' Kx'*'"'"-- • ^-jl 10.93 
 
 ' ' (Interior. . . 4.1 10.41 
 
 Weight of rocket stand :il».0 IT.O'J 
 
 Weight of rocket chain 4.lJ3.'i 3.17 
 
 Weight of port lire handle 0.5(i3r) 0.35 
 
 Total weight without iiacking box .44.187.5= 30.13 
 
 Weight of coil of rocket line" f,3.0 38.13 
 
 A port-lire holder or tiring staff accompanies the 
 
 extended, and the Btand placed at th<! firing point. 
 Th(! index being clanincd at zero on the graiMiutfil 
 arc, lh<: tripod is levi-led by th<- eye- by making the 
 axis of Utr rocket tube horizontal. This can only be 
 done approximately; then loosen the lower clamp 
 screw and swing the stand around until it points in 
 the desired diri'dion. Clamp tlie vertical spindle 
 and by turning Ihc u|ipi-r clamp screw to the left the 
 required clevalhm may br' given; after which the 
 screw must be liglileiied. in order to retain the 
 tub(! in plac'c. Take a rocket from its box, tear of! 
 the cap over the vents, insert th(! rocket, hafc first 
 into the rectangular tub(! with the hook on the stick 
 gliillng down between the Hangr-s on Ihe lower side 
 of the lube. When the hook strikes the band at the 
 lower end of the rocket tube, the rorkel is in posi- 
 tion for tiring. Place tin; fakes or the faking box in 
 front of the stand, put the ring af l\u- chain over the 
 cylindrical tulmlar projection on Ihc front end of Ihe 
 stand, lelliiig the chain atlached to the line hang be- 
 low. Stand clear of the line, and, wilh a port-fire 
 inserted In the holder, advance and Ignite the rocket 
 by thrusling Ihc portfire gently through one of the 
 elliiitical openings in Ihc rocket tube. Care must be 
 taken not lo dislnrb the aim. An Instant after the 
 compositiou in Ihc base of Ihe nickct is ignited, the 
 latter leaps forward guided by the rocket tube, and 
 as it leaves Ihe lube the hook engages the ring of the 
 chain atlached to Ihe line and carries out the chain 
 and line. The chain should be fastened to the line 
 before wanted for use. ,See Liff-Kfiving liocketx. 
 
 RUSSIAN PRINCIPALITIES.- The period that ex- 
 tends from icu hundred and lifty-fonr, the year of 
 Iarosl:if's dialli. lo twelve hundred and twenty-four 
 the year (^f the lirsi appearance of the Tatars, yr, to 
 take the French chronology, from the reign of Henry 
 the First to the death of Philip .Vngustus, is one of 
 the most confused and troubled in Kussian history. 
 As the barbarian custom of division continued to 
 prevail over the Byzantine ideal of political unity, 
 
 rocket st.ind. It is a simple wooden handle with a 
 hcnl head of brass. The brass head is hollow and is 
 slilled on the sides so as to form a rude clamp. The 
 port-tire is inserted in tlu' splil end of the head an<l 
 then ignited in the usual iminner. The rocket-chain 
 is a hand-ma<le iron cluun, six feet in length, ter- 
 minated at one end by a ring two inches in diameter. 
 The ring is placed over the tubular projection on the 
 front end of the rocket stand in tiring. The other 
 end of the chain is fastened to the end of the rocket 
 line. The rocket line is a loosely-twisted hemp-line 
 about Ihc size of the No. 8 or No. .service lines. 
 The following is the method of using:— The rock- 
 et stand is taken from the box, the legs of the tripod 
 
 the n:itional territory was ca«?elessly partitioned. 
 The princely anarchy of Eastern Europe ha.« lis par- 
 allel in the feudal anarchy of the West. M. Pogodin 
 reckons during this period sixty-four principalities 
 which had an existrnce more or less prolonged, two 
 hundred and ninety-three princes who disputed the 
 throne of Kief and other domains, and eighty-three 
 civil wars, in some of which the whole country was 
 engaged. There were, besides, foreign wars to 
 augment this enormous mass of historical facts. 
 Against the Polovtsui alone the chroniclers mentioa 
 eighteen campaigns, while these barliarians made 
 no less than forty-six invasions of Russia. It is 
 impossible to follow the national chroniclers in the
 
 RUSSIAN PKINCIPALITIES. 
 
 818 
 
 RUSSIAN PKINCIPALITIES. 
 
 minute details of their aniials ; we will only treat of 
 the principalities which lasted some time, and of the 
 facts which were most important. The ancient 
 names of the Slav tribes have everywliere disap- 
 peared, or remain only in the names of some of the 
 to wns.for example tliat of the Polotchane in Polotsk, 
 and that of the Severiani? in Novgorod-Severski. 
 The elements of which Russia was now composed 
 were no longer tribes, but principalities. We hear 
 no more of the Krivitchi or tlie Drevliane, but of the 
 principalities of Smolensk and Volhyuia. These 
 ' little states were perpetually dismembered at each 
 new partition between the sons of a prince, and then 
 ■were reconstituted to be divided anew into appan- 
 ages. Notwithstanding all these vicissitudes, some 
 of them maintained a steady existence, correspond- 
 ing to certain topographical or ethnographical con- 
 ditions- Without speaking of the distant principal- 
 ity of Tmutorakan, situated at the foot of the Cau- 
 casus in the center of Turkish and Circassian tribes, 
 and reckoning eight successive princes, tlie follow- 
 ing are the great divisions of Russia from the eleventh 
 to the thirteenth ccntur)- : — 
 
 The principalit}- of Smolensk occupied the impor- 
 tant lerritorj' which is, as it were, the central point 
 in the moimtain .system of Russia. It compreliends 
 the ancient forest of Okof, where three of the largest 
 Russian rivers, the Volga, the Dnieper, and the 
 Dwina, take tlieir rise. Hence the political import- 
 ance of Smolensk, attested b}' all the wars to gain 
 possession of it ; hence also, its commercial prosper. 
 ity. It is noticeable that all its towns were built on 
 one or other of these three great rivers ; therefore 
 the entire commerce of ancient Russia passed 
 tlirough its hands. Besides Smolensk we must men- 
 tion Mojaisk. Viasma, and Toropets. which "was the 
 capital of a secondary principality, the property of 
 two celebrated princes, Mstislaf the Brave anil Mstis- 
 laf the Bold. The principality of Kief was Jiti». 
 Russia in the strict sense of the word. Its situation 
 on the Dnieper, tlie neighborhood of the Greek Em- 
 pire, the fertility of the Black Land, long secured 
 to this state the supremacy over the Russian prin- 
 cipalities. On the south it bordered directly on the 
 nomads of the steppe, against whom her princes 
 were forced to raise a barrier of frontier towns. 
 The}' often took these barbarians into their pay, 
 g;ranted them lands, and constituted them into mili- 
 tary colonies. The principality of Pereiaslavl was a 
 dependence of Kief; Vuishegorod, Bielgorod, Tri- 
 poli. Torshok, were at times erected into principal- 
 ities for princes of the same famih. On the tribu- 
 taries of tlie riglit bank of the Dnieper, notably the 
 Soja.tlie Desna, and the Sei'm, extended the twoprin- 
 <'ipalities of Tchernigof,with Starodub anil Lubetch; 
 and also of Novgorod-Severski, witli Putivl, Kursk, 
 and Briansk. Tlie principality of Tchernigof. which 
 reached towards tlie I'pper Oka, had therefore one 
 foot in the basin of the Volga ; its princes, the Olgo- 
 vitclii, were tlie most formidable rivals of Kief. The 
 jirinces of Severski were always engaged in war 
 with tlie Polovtsiii, their neighbors on the south. It 
 was a princeof .Severski wlio-se exploits against these 
 barbarians formed the subject of a sort of epic poem, 
 called till; Song of Igor, or the Account of Igor's 
 Expedition. 
 
 Another principality, whose very existence con- 
 sisted in (•■idless war against thi; nomads, was the 
 doiilili' princi]iality of |{iii/au and .Murorii. Ilir priii 
 cipal towns of whicli were |{ia/aii, Miiroiii. J'ereias- 
 lavl-Ria/.anski, situated on tlie (_)ka, Kolomna at the 
 junction of the Jloskova with the Oka, and I'roiisk 
 on the Prona. The Ijiper Don formed its western 
 boundary. This principality was ))laced in the very 
 lieart of till- .'\Iuromi;ins and .Meslililiciaki, Finnish 
 tribes. The reputation of itsinlialiitaiits. who were 
 reckoned extremely warlike in their iharaelir, and 
 rough and brutal in their maimers, was no doubt 
 partly the result of the mixture of the Kussiaii race 
 with the ancient iuliabitants of tlie country, and of 
 
 their perpetual and bloody struggle with the nomad 
 tribes. The double principalities of Suzdal, with 
 their towns of Suzdal, Roslof. lurief-Polski on the 
 Kolosha, Vladimir on the Kliazma, laroslavl, and 
 Pereiaslavl-Zalieski, were situated on the Volga and 
 the Oka amimgst the thickest of northern forests, and 
 in the middle of the Finnish tribes of Muromians, 
 3Ieria, Vesui, and Tcheremisa. Although placed at 
 the farthest extremity of the Russian world, Suzdal 
 exercised, an important influence over it. We shall 
 find its princes now establishing a certain political 
 authority over Novgorod and the Russia of t he La kes, 
 the result of a double economic dependence ; now 
 intervening victoriously in the quarrels of the Russia 
 of the Dnieper. The Suzdalians were rough and 
 warlike, like the Riazanese. Already we can distin- 
 guish among these two people the characteristics of 
 a new nationality. That which divides them from the 
 Kievansand the men of Novgorod-Severski, occupied 
 like themselves in the great war with the barbarians, 
 is the fact that the Russians of the Dnieper some- 
 times mingled their blood with that of their enemies 
 and becamed fused with the nomad, essentially mo- 
 bile Turkish races, whilst the Russians of the Oka 
 and the Volga united with the Finnish tribes, who 
 were agricultural and essentially sedentary. This 
 distinction lietween the two foreign elements that 
 entered the Slav blood has doubtless contributed to 
 the difference in the characters of the two branches 
 of the Russian race. From the eleventh to the 
 thirteenth century, in passing from the basin of the 
 Dnieper to the basin of the Volga, we can already 
 watch the formation of Great and Little Russia. 
 
 The principalities of Kief, Tchernigof, Novgorod- 
 Severski, Riazan, Murom, and Suzdal, situated on 
 the side of the steppe with its devastating hordes, 
 formed the frontier states of Russia. The same part 
 to play on the northwest, opposite the Lithuanians, 
 Letts, and Tchudi, fell to the principality of Polotsk 
 which occupied the basin of the Dwina ; and to the 
 republican principalities of Novgorod and Pskof on 
 the Lakes Ilmen and Peipus. To the principality of 
 Polotsk, that of Jliusk was attached which lay in 
 the basin of the Dnieper. The possession of Jlinsk was 
 often disputed by the Grand Princes of Kief. To 
 Novgorod belonged the towns of Torjok, Volok- 
 Lamski, Izborsk, and Veliki-Luki, which were at 
 times capitals of particular states. Southeast Russia 
 comprehended : Volhynia, in the fan-shaped distri- 
 bution of rivers formed by the Pripet and its tribu- 
 taries, with \nadimir-iu-Volhynia, Lutsk, Turof. Brest 
 and even Lublin, which is certainl}- Polish ; Gallicia 
 proper, or Red Russia, in the basins of the San, the 
 Dniester, and the Pripet, whose ancient inliabitants, 
 the White Kroats, seem to have sprung from the 
 stock of the Danubian Slavs. Her.chief towns were 
 Galitch. founded by Vladimirko about eleven hun- 
 dred and forty-four, Pereniuisl, Terebovl, and Zveui- 
 gorod. Tlie neighborhood of Hungary and Poland 
 gave a special character to these principalities, as 
 well as a more advanced civilizution. The epic songs 
 speak of Gallicia, the native land of the hero Diuk 
 Stepanovitch, as a fabulously rich country. The 
 Account of Igor's Expedition gives us a high idea of 
 the power of these princes. " laroslaf Osmomuisl 
 of (iallicia I " cried the poet to one of them, " thou 
 art seated very high on thy throne of wrought gold; 
 with thy regiments of iron Ihou suslaiiiest the Car- 
 jialhiaiis : thou closest the gates of tlir Danube ; tlioii 
 iiarrest the way to the King of Hungary; thou open- 
 est at thy will the gates of Kief, and with thine ar- 
 rows thou strikestfnnn afar! " 
 
 The disposition of these lifteen or sixteen princi- 
 palities confirms all that we liave said about the es- 
 sential unity of the conliguralion of the Russian soil. 
 Not one of the river basins forms an isolated and 
 closed region. Tliere is no line of heights to estab- 
 lish liarriers bet ween tliem or polilic;il froiitii'i's. The 
 greater niiiiiber of the Russian piineipalities belong 
 io the Ijasin of the Dnieper, but extend everywhere
 
 KU88IAN PHINCIPALITIE8. 
 
 819 
 
 RUSSIAN FBINCIFALITIE8. 
 
 beyond itn limits. Tim prinripalily nf Kiff, with 
 iVrciasliivl, in uciirly the (jrily one i(iiM))lrlcly t-oii- 
 liiicd within il ; Imt Volliyiiiii puis llic Ijiisiii of \lw 
 Duicpcr ill (■<)nimiiiii(iilii>ii willi llinHcof I lie Bu;iiiiiil 
 tlic VIhIuIu, I'olotnk Willi the liiisiiix of llic Dnieper 
 und llie Dwina, Novnorod-Severski willi the liusin of 
 the Don, TehiTnij;of and Snioleiisk with llie hiisin of 
 the Volj^ii. WahTconrses everywhere eslal)li>hed 
 coininunicatioiiM hetwein Ihe priiieipalilies. Already 
 Itussia, Ihownh liroki'ii U|i into appiuia;;es, had the 
 germH of a jjreat united empire. The Hliu;ht eohesion 
 of nearly uU the Hiales, and their frei|uenl disinein- 
 bermenls. jirevented them from ever lieeominj; the 
 homes of real nationalities. The prineipalilies of 
 Smolensk, Tehernii;of, and Uiazan liave never jhis- 
 sessed as delinite an historic existence as the duchy 
 of Hreta^'iie or the county of Toulouse in France, or 
 the duchies of fSii.vony, iSuahia, aii<l IJavaria in Ger- 
 many. 
 
 The interests of the prinees, their desire to create 
 appana^jes for each of their children, caused a fresh 
 division of the Kussiiin territory at the death of every 
 sovereign. There was, however, a certain cohesion 
 in the midst of all these vicissitudes. 'I'herc was a 
 nnily of race and lansuajre, the more sensible, not- 
 witllslandinjj; all dialectic dilTerences, bcQause the 
 Russian i)eople was surrounded everywhere, except 
 at the southwest, by entirely strange races, Lithuan- 
 ians, Tchudi, Finns, Turks, Magyars. There was a 
 unity of religion : Hk; Hussians (iilTered from near!}' 
 all tiieir neiiihlHirs, for in contrast with the Western 
 Slavs, l'olis,Teh<-ki, and Moravians, they rejiresent- 
 ed a particular form of C'hristianit}', not ownini; any 
 tie to l{ome, and rejecting I.atiu as the language of 
 the Church. There was tlie nnily of liistorical devel- 
 opment, as up to that time the Kusso-Slavs had all 
 followe<l the same road, had accepted Greek civili- 
 zation, submitted to the Variagi, pursued certain 
 great enterprises in common. — such as the expedi- 
 tions against Hy/aiitiuin aii<l the war with the no- 
 mads. Finally there was jiolitical unity, since after 
 all, in Gallicia as in Novgorod, on the t)iiieper as in 
 the forests of Suzdal, it was the same family that 
 tilled the thrones. All these princes descended from 
 Kurik, Saint Vladimir, and laroslaf the (ireat. The 
 fact that the wars that laid waste the country were 
 civil wars, was a new proof of this unity. The dif- 
 ferent parts of Russia could not consider themselves 
 strangers one to the other, when they saw thcFrinces 
 of Tchernigof and Suzdal taking up arms to prove 
 which of them was the eldest, and which consequ- 
 ently had mo?t right to the title of Grand I'rinceand 
 the throne of Kief. There were descendants of Uurik 
 wdio governed, successively, the remotest States of 
 Russia, and who, after having reigned at Tmntora- 
 kan on the Straits of lenikale, at Novgorod the 
 Great, at Toropets, in the country of Smolensk, end- 
 ed by establishing their right to reign at Kief. In 
 spite of the division into appanages. Kief continued 
 to be the center of Russia, Il was there that Oleg 
 and Igor had reigned, that Vladimir luul baptized 
 his peojile, and laroslaf had established the metrop- 
 olis of the faith, of arts, and of national civilization. 
 It is not surprising that it should have been more 
 tiercely disputed tliau all the other Russian cities. 
 Russia had in:'.iiy princes ; but she had only one 
 Grand Prince, — the one that reigned at Kief. lie had 
 a recognized supremacy over the others which he 
 owed not onlj' to the importance of his capital, but 
 to his position as eldest of the royal family. Kief, 
 the mother of all cities, was always to belong !o the 
 eldest of the descendants of litirik ; this was the con- 
 sequence of the patriarchal svstem of the Slavs, as 
 was the custom of division. \Vhen the Grand Prince 
 of Kief died, his son was not his rightful heir ; but 
 Uis uncle or brother,or whichever of the Princes was 
 the eldest. Then the whole of Russia, from the 
 Baltic to the Black Sea, held itself in readiness to 
 .support the claims of this or that candidate. It was 
 the same with the other principalities, where the 
 
 posse.ssors fif dilTerent appanageH aspired to reign in 
 the metropolis of the reirion. The civil wars, then, 
 theniHelves strenglhenid the sentiment of the l{im. 
 siaii unity. What were they, after all, but family 
 (pi.'irri'ls ? 
 
 'I'hi' persistent conflict liet ween the Byzantine law, 
 by w hich the son inherited the jiossi-ssions of the 
 father, and the olil national laws of the Slavs which 
 caused them to ]>ass to the eldirst of all th<- family, 
 was an inexhaustible source of civil wars. Kven had 
 the law Ix'cn perfectly clear, the jirinccs were not al- 
 ways dis|)osed to recognize it. Thus, although the 
 eldest of laroslaPs s'lns had in his favor the formal 
 will of his father, giving him the throne of Kief, and 
 though laroslaf on his di-ath-beil had desired his other 
 sons to resj)ect their elder brother as they hail done 
 their parent, and look on him as their father, Isias- 
 hif at once found his l)rother Sviatoslaf ready to take 
 up arms and overturn his throne. He was obliged 
 in ten hundre<laiid seventv-three to seek refuge at 
 the Court of Henry the l'"ourtli of Germany, who 
 sent an embassy to Kief, commanding Sviatoslaf to 
 restore the throne to Isiaslaf. Sviatoslaf rec<-iverl 
 the (Jerman envoys with such courtesy, made them 
 such a display of his treasures and riches, that, ilaz- 
 zled by the gold, they adopted a pacific policy. Hen- 
 rj' tilt" Fourth himself, disarmed by the liberalities 
 of the Russian Prince, spoke no more of chastising 
 the usurper. Isiaslaf did not return to Kief till af- 
 ter the deaili of his rival in ten hundred and seventy. 
 six. When his own death took ])lace. in ten hundred 
 and seventy-eight, his son Sviatopolk did not suc- 
 ceed him immediately. It was necessarj- that all 
 the heirs of laroslaf should be exhausted. Vsevolod, 
 a brother of Isiaslaf, whose daughter married the 
 Emperor Henry the Fourth or Henrj- the Fifth — it 
 is not quite certain which — reigned for fifteen years, 
 from ten hundred and seventy-eight until ten hun- 
 dred and ninety-three. In accordance with the same 
 principle, it was not the son of Vsevolod, Vladimir 
 Monomakh, who succeeded his father : but after the 
 j crown had been worn b_v a new generation of princes, 
 ! it returned to the blood of Isiaslaf. Vladimir Mono- 
 j makh made no opposition to the claims of Sviato- 
 polk Isiaslavitch. "His father was older than mine," 
 ' he said, "and reigned first in Kief," so he quitted 
 I the principality which he had governed with his fa- 
 ! thcr, and valiantly defended against the barbarians. 
 1 But every one was not so respectful to the Dational 
 I law as Vladimir Monomakh. 
 
 ] Two terrible civil wars desolated Russia in the 
 reign of the Grand Prince Sviatopolk, between ten 
 hundred and ninety-three and eleven hundred and 
 thirteen: one about the principality of Tchernigof, 
 the other about Volhynia and Red Russia. Sviatos- 
 laf had enjoyed Tchernigof as his share, to which 
 Tmutorakan in the Taurid, Shironi and Riazan in 
 the Finn country, were annexed. Isiaslaf and Vse- 
 volod, Grand Princes of Kief, had despoiled the sons 
 of Sviatoslaf, their brotlier, depriving them of the 
 rich territory of Tchernigof. and only leaving them 
 Tmutorakan and the Finnish country. Even Vladi- 
 mir Jlonomakh, whom we have seen so disinterested, 
 had accepted a share of the spoil. The injured 
 princes were not people to bear this meekly, especi- 
 ally the elder, Oleg Sviatoslavitch, one of the most 
 energetic men of the eleventh century. He called 
 the terrible Polovtsui to his aid, and subjected Rus- 
 sia to frightful ravages. Vladimir Monomakh was 
 moved by these misfortunes : he wrote a touching 
 letter to Oleg, expressing liis sorrow for having ac- 
 cepted Tchernigof. .^t his instigation a Congress of 
 Princes met at Lutbetcli.on the Dnieper, in ten hun- 
 dred and ninety -seven. Seated on the same carpet, 
 they resolved to put an end to the civil wars that 
 handed the country as a prey to the barbarians. Oleg 
 recovered Tchernigof. and promised to unite with 
 the Grand Prince of Kief and Vladimir Monomakh 
 against the Polovtsui. The treaty was ratified by 
 the oath of each prince, who kissed the cross and
 
 BBSSIAN PHINCIPALITIES. 
 
 820 
 
 RUSSIAN PKINCIPALITIES. 
 
 swore, "that henceforth the Russian hmd shall be 
 considered as the country of all ; and wlioso shall 
 dare to arm himself against liis brother becomes our 
 common enemy." 
 
 In VoUiynia the prince, David, was at war with 
 his nephews, Yasilko and Volodar. The Congress 
 of Lubetch had divided the disputed territories be- 
 tween tliem, but scarcely was the treaty ratified 
 than David went to the Grand Prince Sviatopnlk and 
 persuaded Inm that Yasilko had a desiirn on his life. 
 With tlie lislit faith liahitual to the men of that date, 
 the Grand Prince joined David in framing a ])lot to 
 attract Yasilko to Kief on tlie occasion of a religious 
 festival. Wlien he arrived he was loaded with 
 chains, and the Grand Prince convoked the boyars 
 and citizens of Kief, to denounce the projects of Ya- 
 silko. "Prince," replied tlie boyars, nuich embar- 
 rassed, "thy tranquility is dear to us. Yasilko 
 merits death, if it is true that he is tliine enemy: but 
 if lie is calumniated by David, God will avenge on 
 David the blood of the innocent." Thereon the 
 Grand I'rince delivered Yasilko to his enemy David 
 who put out his eyes. The other descendants of 
 Taroslaf the First were indignant at this crime. 
 Yladimir Monomakh united with Oleg of Tcherni- 
 gof, his ancient enemy, and marched against Sviato- 
 polk. The people and clergy of Kief succeeded in 
 preventing a civil war between the Grand Prince 
 and the confederates of Lubetch. Sviatopolk was 
 forced to disavow David, and swear to join the 
 avengers of Yasilko. David defended himself with 
 vigor, and summoned to his help, tirst the Poles, 
 and then the Hungarians. At last a new congress 
 was assembled at Yititchevo in the year eleven hun- 
 dred, on the left bank of the Dnieper, a town of 
 which a deserted ruin is all that now remains. As 
 a punishment for his crime, David was deprived of 
 his principality of Yladimir in Yolhynia, and had to 
 content himself with four small towns. After the 
 new settlement of this afEair,Mouomakh led the other 
 princes against the Polovtsui, and inflicted on them 
 a bloody defeat; seventeen of their khans remained 
 on the field of battle. One khan who was made 
 prisoner offered a ransom to Monomakh; hut the 
 prince showed how deeply he felt the injuries of the 
 Christians, — he refused the gold, and cut the brig, 
 and chief in pieces. 
 
 When Sviatopolk died, the Kievans unanimous- 
 ly declared they would have no Grand I*rince but 
 Vladimir Monomakh. Vladimir declined the hon- 
 or, alleging the claims of Oleg and his brothers to 
 the throne of Kief. During these negotiations a 
 sedition broke out in the city, and the Jews, whom 
 Sviatopolk liad made the instruments of his fiscal 
 exactions, were pillaged. Monomakh was forced to 
 yield to the prayers of the citizens. During his 
 reign, from eleven hundred and thirteen until eleven 
 hundred and twenty-five, he obtained great successes 
 against the Polovtsui, iind Petchcnegi. the Torki, 
 the Tcherkesui, and otlier nomads. lie gave an 
 asylum lo the remains of the Kliazarui, who built on 
 the Oster, not far from Tchernigof, the town of Bel- 
 ovega. The ruins of this city that remain to-day 
 prove that this Finnish people, eminently capable of 
 culture, and already civilized by the Greeks, were 
 furtlier advanced in the arts of cciustruetionand for- 
 tirK-aion than even the Russians themselves. Ac- 
 cording to one tradition, Momimakh also made war 
 on tlie ICmperor Alexis C'omnciius, a Kiissian army 
 invaded Tlirace, and the Hisliop of Eiihesus is saiii 
 to have brought gifts to Kief, among others a cup 
 of carnelian tiiat iiad belonged to Augustus, besides 
 a crown and a throne, still preserved in the Museum 
 at Moscow, under the name of the crown .and tlirone 
 of Monomakli. It is now known that they never be- 
 longed to Yladimir, but it was the policy of liis de- 
 scendants, tli(^ Tsars of Moscow, lo proj)iigale this 
 legend. It was of consecpience to them to i)rov(^ 
 that these tokens of their jiower were traceable to 
 their Kievan ancestor, and that the Russian Mono- 
 
 makh, grandson of the Greek Monomachus, had 
 been solemnly crowned by the Bishop of Ephesus 
 as Sovereign of Russia. The Grand Prince made 
 his authority felt in other parts of Russia. A Prince 
 of Minsk, who had the temerity to kindle a civil 
 war, was promptly dethroned, and died in captivity 
 at Kief. The Novgorodians saw many of their boy- 
 ars kept as hostages, or else exiled. The Prince of 
 Yladimir in Yolhynia was deposed, and his states- 
 given to a son of the Grand Prince. 
 
 Monomakh has left us a curious paper of instruc- 
 tions that he compiled for his sons, and in which he 
 gives them much good advice, enforced by e.\ami)le3 
 drawn from his own life. "It is neither fasting, nor 
 solitude, nor the monastic life, that will procure you 
 the life eternal, — it is well-doing. Do not forget the- 
 poor, but nourish them. Do not bury your riches, 
 in the bosom of the earth, for that is contrary to the 
 precepts of Christianity. Be a father to the orphans, 
 
 j.udge the cause of widows v-ourself Put to- 
 
 death no one, be he innocent or guilty, for nothing- 
 is more sacred than the soul of a Christian 
 
 Love your wives, but beware lest they get the 
 power over you. When you have learnt anything 
 useful, try to preserve it in your memory, and strive- 
 ceaselessly to get knowledge. Without ever leaving 
 his palace, my father spoke five languages, a thing 
 that foreigners admire in us I have made al- 
 together twenty -three campaigns without counting 
 those of minor importance. I have concluded nine- 
 teen treaties of peace with the Polovtsui, taken at 
 least a hundred of their princes prisoners, and after- 
 wards restored them to liberty : besides more than 
 two hundred whom I threw into the rivers. No one 
 has travelled more rapidly that I. If Heft Tcherni- 
 gof very early in the morning, I arrived at Kief be- 
 fore vespers. Sometimes in the middle of the thick- 
 est forest I caught wild horses myself, and bound 
 them together with my own hands. How many 
 times I have been thrown from the saddle by bulTa- 
 loes, struck by the horns of the deer, trampled un- 
 der foot by the elands ! A furious boar once tore my 
 sword from my belt ; my saddle was rent by a bear, 
 which threw my horse down under me ! How many 
 falls I had from my horse in my youth, when, heed- 
 less of danger, I broke my head, I wounded my 
 arms and legs ! But the Lord watched over me !"' 
 Yladimir completed the establishment of the Slav 
 race in Suzdal, and founded a city on the Kliazma 
 that bore his name, and that was destined to play a 
 great part. Such, in the beginning of the twelfth 
 century, when Louis the Si.\th was fighting with his. 
 barons" of the Isle de France, was the ideal of a 
 Grand Prince of Russia. 
 
 Of the sons of Yladimir Monomakh, luri Dolgoru- 
 ki became the father of the princes of Suzdal and 
 Moscow, and Mstislaf the father of the princes of 
 Galitch and Kief. The.se two branches were ofteu ■ 
 at enniitv, and it was their rivalry that struck the- 
 final blow at the prosperity of Kief. AVhen Isiaslaf, 
 son of Jlstislaf, was called to tlie throne in eleven 
 hundred and forty-six by the inhabitants of the cap- 
 ital, his uncle, luriDolgornki, put forward his rights^ 
 as the eldest of the family. Kief, which had been 
 already many times taken and retaken in the strife 
 between the'deseendants of Oleg of Tchernigof and 
 the descendants of Vladimir Mcmomakh, was fated 
 to be disputed anew between the uncle and the ne- 
 jiliew. It was almost a war between the Old and 
 A'ew Russia, the Russia of the Dnieper and that of 
 the Volga. The princes of Suzilal, who dwelt afar 
 in the forests in the northw<'st, establishing their rule 
 over the remnants of the Finnish races, were to be- 
 come greater >ind greater strangers to Kievan Rus- 
 sia, if they still 'coveted the""molher of Rus- 
 sian cities," "because the title of Grand Prince was 
 attached to it. they at least began to obey and to ven- 
 erate it less than the other princes, 
 
 luri Dolgoruki found an ally against Isiaslaf in 
 one of the Olgovitchi, Sviatos"laf,"who thirsted to
 
 SUSSIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 S-_>| 
 
 RUSSIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 avptii;!' Ills lifdiliir Ii^or, (Iptliroiu'il iiml kept prmon- 
 cr ill Kief li.v llir (iriiiid I'riiici'. The KirviiiiH licsi- | 
 l'ilc<l 111 sii|i|iiirl tlir sovirrii;ii IIh'V IiihI clinsi-ii; llicy 
 Imtcil llir lll'.;nvil(lli. lllll III lilrir lllliicllllirlll III llir 
 1)1 1 (if .Moiiiiinnlili llicv rcsprclril Ills sun mill his 
 
 friinil-sDii i'i|iiiilly. "NVc iirc rnidy" lliry ^-niil 'i> 
 siiisliif, "wr mil iiiir cliililn-ii, lo iimUc war mi llii' 
 80I1M (if Oli'ir. Hill I mi is your iiiicic, iinil ciiii we 
 (liirc to raise our liaiiils a'.'iiiiist llio Him (if Moiki. 
 liiaUli ?" Aflcr llic war had laslfil some tiiiii-, a de- 
 cisive liallle wasfdinrhl. Al the liattle (pf I'creias- 
 lavl Isiashif was cuiiiiiletely dcfcaled, and Imik re- 
 fiii;c. Willi twii aKcndanls. in Kief. The iiilialiilmils, 
 wild had lnsl many cilizins in this war. declared Ihey 
 were iiiiiilile Id sliiiid a s'.cLre. The (Iraiid I'rincc 
 then alianddiied his capilal Id Iiiri ndli^nniki. anil 
 retired In Vladimir in Vdlliynia, wlienc hedemaiid- 
 <m1 help fnim his lirnlhcr in-law, the Kini; (if Hiin- 
 fiary. midllie l<iiii;s(if I'lilaiid and Hiihemia. With 
 these rciiifdrceineiits lie surprised Kief, and nearly- 
 liiiide his uncle |>risdiier. Inderslmidinir that the 
 lialidiial law wasaiiainsl him, he (ip]idsed eldeslwith 
 eldesi, and declared himself llie partisan (if uiidther 
 son of Mdiidiiiakh.llie dlil Viatcheslaf, Prince (if Tu- 
 rof. He was ])riiclaimed (irand I'rince of Kief.iiddpt- 
 cil his nephew Isiaslaf as his heir, and diirini; his 
 reii^n, fnim eleven hiiiiilred and tifty to eleven hun- 
 dred and tifly-fciur, i^iivc sidendid fetes to the Hiis- 
 sians mid lliiiiijariiiiis. Iiiri returned to the chars^e, 
 ami was lieatcn under the walls of Kief. Kaeli (if 
 these princes had taken tiai-barians into his jiay: Iii- 
 ri, the Poldvtsiii; Isiaslaf, the ISIiick Caps, that is, the 
 Torki the I'i'lchenei;i, and the Berendians. 
 
 The olistinate Prince of Suzdal did not allow him- 
 self to be discourai;e(l by this check. The old Via- 
 tcheslaf. wild (inly desired ]ieacp and (piiet. in vain 
 addressed him letters, setliiv;; furlli liis ritrhts as the 
 eldest. "I had already a beard when ymi eiitcred 
 the wdrld." he said. luri proved himself intract- 
 able, and went inlii (iailicia to elTect a jiinclidii with 
 his ally. Vladimirkd, Prince of Galitch. This Vladimir- 
 ko had violated the oath he had taken and cdiitirm- 
 ed by kissini; the cross. When they rcpniachcd him, 
 be said, willi a sneer, "It was such a lillle cross!" 
 To prevent this dani;erous co-operation. Isiaslaf. with- 
 out waitim; the expected arrival of the Iliiiijjariaiis, 
 bcfian the pursuit of luri, and came up with liim on 
 the borders of the Hut, a small tributary of the Dnie- 
 per. A bloody battle was fousht. where he liimself 
 was woundeil and thrown from his lior.se, but the 
 Sii/.daliaiis and their allies the Polovtsui were com- 
 pletely defeated ill eleven hundred and titty-one. 
 Isiaslaf survived this victorv only three years. Af- 
 ter his death and that of Viatcheslaf, Kief passed 
 from hand tolcuid. luri (inally reached the supreme 
 object of his desires. He made his entry into the cap- 
 ital in eleven hundred and tifly-tive, and had the 
 consoliilidn of dyiii;; Grand Prince of Kief, at the 
 inonienl that a leaL'ue was beinir formed for his ex- 
 pulsion, in eleven hundred and tifty-seveii. "I thank 
 thee, irreat (iod," cried one of the confederates on 
 Icarniiii; the news, "for haviiiff spared us, by the 
 sudden death of our enemy, the obligation of slied- 
 tlins; liisblood !" The confederates entered the town." 
 one of them assumed the title of Grand Prince, the 
 others divided his territories. Ilenceforlh there ex- 
 isted no jrrand principality. pro|)erly speaking and 
 witli the growing power of .'>iizdal. Kief ceased to be 
 the cajiilal of Hussia. A final disaster was still re- 
 served fdr it. 
 
 In eleven hundred and sixty-nine Andrei Hogo- 
 liubski, son of luri Dolgoruki, and Prince of Suz- 
 dal, being disatTected to Mstislaf, Prince of Kief, 
 formed against him a coalition of eleven princes. He 
 <>oiilide(l lo his son Jlstislaf and his voievod Boris 
 an iiiimcnse army of Uostovians, Vladimirians, and 
 Suzdaliaiis to march against Kief. This time the 
 Hussia of the forests triumphed over the Russia of 
 the steppes, and after a three days' siege Kief was 
 4akeu by assault. "This mother of Russian cities," 
 
 HayH KurnmHin, "had hcen many tiincB bt-Biegcd and 
 o|)preHsed. She bud often opened lier Golden (iutc 
 to her eneinicH, but none had ever yet entered by 
 forie. To their clernal shame, the victors forgot 
 thai Ihi'V loo were Hiissians I During three duyg 
 not only the bouses, but the iiionasterieH, cliiirche», 
 and even the teiiiplcM of Saint Sophia and the Titi'C, 
 werif givi'U over lo pillage. The precious jiiiiigeB, 
 the prieslly ornaments, the books, and the hells, all 
 were taken away." 
 
 From lliis lime llic lot of the capital of Saint Vla- 
 dimir, pillaged and dishonored by his dcseendanls, 
 ceases lo have a general iiilercsl for I{ussia. l.ike 
 oilier parts of Slavoiii.'!. il has ils princes, but the 
 beads of I he reigning families of Smolensk, Tclier- 
 nigof. and Galitch assume I he once iiniijiie title of 
 (iraiid Prince. The center of Russia is changed. It 
 is now ill the Imsin of the Volga, at Suzdal. Many 
 causes conspired lo render the disaster of eleven 
 liiindred and sixty-nine irnniediable. The chroniit 
 civil wars of this part of Russia, and the miilliludes 
 mid growing power of the nomad hordes, rendered 
 the banks of the Dnieper uninhabitable. In twelve 
 hundred and three Kief was again sacked by the Po- 
 lovtsui, whom tlii^ Olgovitchi of Tchernigof had 
 taken into thi-ir pay. On this soil, incessantly the 
 prey of war and in asion, it was impossible to found 
 a lasting order iJi lliings; il was iinpossilile that a 
 regular system of government should be established. 
 - that <-ivilizatidn slioiild develop and maintain it- 
 self. Less richly enddwed by nature, and less civil- 
 ized, the Russia of the forests was at least more 
 Iraniiuil. It was there that a grand principality was 
 formed, called to fiillil high destinies, but which, un- 
 liap|)ily, was lo be sejiaraleil for three hundred years, 
 by the soiilhern steppes and the nomads who dwelt 
 there, from the lilaek Sea: that is, from Byzaniine 
 and Western civilization. See Rnnximi liepuldicn. 
 
 RUSSIAN REPUBLICS.- Novgorod has been, from 
 the most remole aiilii|uity, the political center of 
 the Russia of the northwest. The origin of the 
 Slavs of the Ilinen, who laid the foundations of it, is 
 still uncertain. Some learned Russians, such as j\I. 
 Kostomai'of, suppose them to belong to the Slavs of 
 llie south, others to the Slavs of the Baltic: others, 
 again, like .M. Bielaef and M. Ilovaiski, make them 
 a branch of the Kriviich or Smolensk Slavs. We 
 find the Novgorodians, at the opening of Russian 
 history, at the head of the confederal ion of tribes 
 which first expelled and then recalled the Variagi to 
 reign over Russia. Novgorod, from very ancient 
 times, was divided into two jxirts, separated liy the 
 course of the Volkliof, which rises in Lake Ilnicn and 
 falls into the Ladoga. On the right bank was the 
 side of SI. Sophia, where laroslaf the Great built his 
 (•(debrated cathedral; where the Novgorod kreiiil 
 was situated, enclosing both the palaces of the Arch- 
 bisliop and the Prince; and where the famous Rus- 
 sian monument was consecrated in eighteen hundred 
 and sixty-two. On tlic left bank is the side of com- 
 merce, with its Court of laroslaf : the bridge which 
 joins the two halves of the city is celebrated in the an- 
 nals of Novgorod. The side of Saint Sophia includes 
 the Nerevsky or Nerevian quarter, as well as those 
 of Zagorodni, or the suburbs, and of the pollers. 
 The side of commerce comprised the quarters of 
 the carpenters and Slavs. Ancient documents also 
 speak of a Prussian or Lithuanian quarter. Some of 
 these names seem to indicate that many races have 
 concurred, as in ancient Rome, to form the city of 
 Novgorod. Gilbert of Lannov.who visited the repub- 
 lic about fourteen hundred and Ihirleen, has left us 
 this description of il : " Novgorod is a prodigious- 
 ly large town, situated in a beautiful plain, in the 
 midst of vast forests. The soil is low, subject to in- 
 undations, marshy in places. The town is surround- 
 ed by imperfect ramparts, formed of gabions; the 
 towers are of stone." Portions of these ramparta 
 still exist, and allow us to form an idea of the im- 
 mense extent of the ancient city. The kreml forma
 
 BUSSIAN EEPTTBLICS. 
 
 822 
 
 RUSSIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 its acropolis. The cathedral has preserved its fres- 
 coes of the twelfth ceuturj-; the pillars painted with 
 images of saints on a golden ground : the imposing 
 figure of Christ on the cupola; the banner of tlie 
 Virgin, which was to revive the courage of the be- 
 sieged, on tlie ramparts ; the tomb of "St. Vladimir 
 laroslavilch, of tlie Archbishop Xikita. by whose 
 praj'ers a tire was extinguished, of Mstislaf tlie 
 Brave, the devoted defender of Novgorod, and of 
 many other saints and illustrious people. Without 
 counting the tributary cities of Kovgorod, such as 
 Pskof, Ladoga, Izborsk, Veliki-Luki, Staraia-Rusa, 
 or Old Russia, Torjok, Biejitchi, its primitive terri- 
 torj' was divided into five counties, which included 
 the land to the soutli of the lakes Ladoga and Onega. 
 Its conquests formed five bailiwicks or cantons, oc- 
 cupying the whole of Northern Russia, and extend- 
 ing as far as Siberia. These bailiwicks were tli3 
 Zavolotchi^, or the land lying beyond the canton, be- 
 tween the Onega and the Mezen : Russian Lapland : 
 Perniia. on the Upper Kama ; Petciiora, on the river 
 of the same name : and lugria, on the other side of 
 the Ural Mountains To these we must add Ingria, 
 Karelia.and part of Livonia and Esthonia. 
 
 Novgorod, which had sumuiDned the Variag 
 Princes, was too powerful, with one hundred thou- 
 sand inhabitants and three hundred thousand sub- 
 jects, to allow itself to be tyrannized over. An an- 
 cient tradition speaks vaguely of a revolt against 
 Rurik the Old under the hero Vadim. Sviatoslaf, 
 the conqueror of the Bulgaria of the Danube, under- 
 took to govern it b}' mere agents, but Novgorod in- 
 sisted on having one of his sous for its prince. "If 
 you do not come to reign over us," said the citizens, 
 "we shall know how to tind ourselves other princes." 
 laroslaf the Great, as a reward for their devotion, 
 accorded them immense privileges, of which no rec- 
 ord can be found, but which are constantly invoked 
 by the Novgorodians, as were the true or false char- 
 ters of Charles the Great by the German cities. These 
 republicans could not exist without a prince, but they 
 rarely kept one long. The assembly of the citizeu.s. 
 the vetche, convoked by the bell in the Court of la- 
 roslaf, was the real sovereign. The republic called 
 itself "My Lord Novgorodlhe Great." "Who can 
 equal God and the great Novgorod ?" was a nopular 
 saying. From the distance of the city from the 
 Russia of the Dnieper, and its position towards the 
 Baltic and AVestern Europe, it took little part in the 
 civil wars of which Kief was the object and the cen- 
 ter. The Novgorodians profited by this in a certain 
 sense; for, in the midst of the strifes of princes and 
 ol frequent changes in the gr;ind principality, no sov- 
 ereign was strong enough to give them a nia.ster. 
 They could choose between princes of the rival fa- 
 milies. It could impose conditions on him whom 
 they chose to reign over them. It discontented with 
 his management, they expelled the prince and his 
 band of autrustions. According to the accustomed 
 formula, "they made a reverence, and showed him 
 the way" to leave Novgorod. Sometimes, to hin- 
 der his evil designs, tliey kept him prisoner in the 
 Archbishop's palace, and it Wiis left to his successor 
 to set him iit lilierly. Often a revolution was ;ie- 
 compauied by a general pillage of the ]iarlis;uis of 
 the fallen prince, an<l they were even drowned in 
 the Volkhof. A Grand Prince of Kief, Svialojiolk 
 wished to force his son on them. "Send him here." 
 said the Novgorodians, "if he has a spare head." 
 The princes themselves contribnied to the frequent 
 changes of reign. They felt themselves only half- 
 rulers in Novgorod, so they accepted any oilier 
 appanage with joy. Tims, in eleven hundred and 
 thirty-two, Vsevolod Gabriel abandoned Novgorod 
 tc reign at Pereiaslavl. When hishojiesof Kief were 
 crushed, and he wished to return to Novgonxl, the 
 citizens rejected him. "You forgot your oath to die 
 with ns, you have sought anotjier principality; go 
 were you' will." Presently they thought betler"of it, 
 and took him back. Poiir years afterwartls he was 
 
 again obliged to fly. In a great vetche'. to which 
 the citizens of Pskof and Ladoga were summoned, 
 the^- solemnly condemned the exile, after reading 
 the heads of very characteristic accusations : "He 
 took no care of the poorer people; lie desired to es- 
 tablish himself at Pereiaslavl; at the battle of Mount 
 Idanof. against the men of Suzdal, he and his druji- 
 na were the first to leave the battle-field ; he was 
 fickle in the quarrels of the priucs, sometimes unit- 
 ing with the Prince of Tchernigof, sometimes with 
 the opposite party." 
 
 The power of a Prince of Novgorod rested not on 
 ly on his drujina, which always followed his for- 
 tunes, and on his family relations with this or that, 
 powerful principality, but also on a party formed 
 for him in the heart of the republic. It was when 
 the opposing party grew too strong that he was de- 
 throned, and popular vengeance exercised on his 
 adherents. Novgorod being above all a great com- 
 mercial city, its divisions were frequently caused by 
 diverging economic interests. Among the citizens, 
 some were occupied in trade witli the Volga and the 
 East, others with the Dnieper and Greece. The 
 former naturally sought the alliance of the Princes 
 of Suzdal, masters of the great Oriental artery : the 
 latter that of the Princes of Kief or Tchernigof, 
 masters of the road to the south. Each of the two 
 parties tried to establish a prince of the family 
 whose protection they sought. If he fell, yet suc- 
 ceeded in escaping from the town, he would try to 
 regain his throne by the arms of his family, or to 
 install himself and his drujina either at Pskof, like 
 Vsevolod-Gabriel, who became prince of that town, 
 or at Torjok, like laroslaf of Suzdal, and thence he 
 would blockade and starve the great city. The 
 Prince of Suzdal was soon the most formidable neigli- 
 bor of Novgorod. We have seen that Andrei Bogo- 
 liuli.ski sent an army against it, then that his nephew 
 laroslaf besieged his ancient subjects till Mstislaf 
 the Bold freed them by the battle of Lipetsk in 
 twelve hundred and sixteen. He was the son of 
 Mstislaf the Brave, who had defended them againsi; 
 Vsevolod Big-Nest, and against Suzdal and the Tchu- 
 di. The remains of "the Brave" rest at Saint So- 
 phia, in a lironze sarcophagus. His son, "the Bold," 
 was of far too restless a nature to die also at Nov- 
 gorod. He reduced the principality to order, and 
 Flien assembled the citizens in the court of laros- 
 laf and said to them, "I salute Saint Sophia, the 
 tomb of my father, and you, Novgorodians. I am 
 going to recon([uer Galitch from the strangers, but 
 I shall never forget you. I hope I may lie by the 
 tomb of my father, in Saint Sophia." The Novgoro- 
 dians in vain entreated him to sta_v. This was in 
 twelve hundred and eighteen. We have seen him 
 use his last armies in the troubles of the southeast, 
 and die Prince of Galitch. 
 
 After his departure the republic summoned his 
 nephew, Sviatoslaf to the throne ; but he could not 
 come to terms with the magistrates and a populace 
 equally turbulent. The posadnik, Tverdislaf. caused 
 one of tlie boyars of Novgorod to be arrested. This 
 was the signal for a general rising; some took the 
 part of the boyar, others tliat of the posadnik. 
 During eight days the bell of the krenil sounded. Fi- 
 nally both factions buckled on their cuirasses and 
 drew their swords. Tverdislaf raised his eyes to 
 Saint Sophia, and cried, "I sliiill fall first in the bat- 
 tle, or God will justify me by giving the victory to 
 my brothers." Ten men only perished in this skir- 
 mish, and then |ieaee W!is re.establish<'d. The prince, 
 who jiceused Tverdislaf of being llie cause of the 
 trouble, demanded IhiLt he sliduld be deposed. The 
 vetche inquired what crime he had committed. 
 "None," replied the prince, "but it is my will." "I 
 am satisfied," exclamed the posadnik, "as they do 
 not accuse me of any fault; as to you, my brotliers, 
 you can dispose alike of posadniki and princes." 
 The assembly then gave their deeisiim. "Prince, as 
 you do not accuse tlie posadnik of any fault, remem-
 
 B088IAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 823 
 
 HnSSIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 bcT that Jim Iiiivc sworn Id dcpimc no inu^fiHlratc 
 willioiil trial. Ill' will remain our posailnik, we 
 will not deliver him to V""-" *•" this Svialoslaf 
 (|uitte(l Novirorod, in twelve hundred and nineteen. 
 lie was rei)lae<-d liy VKevolod, one of his hrotliers, 
 who was e.vpelleil two yearn latir. 'llw Sn/ilalian 
 parly having made some pro'_'ress, they recalled Ihe 
 same laroslaf who was oealen al l.ipilsk, liiit Ihi' 
 I'rineesof Su/.dal were loo ahsolnle iji Iheir ideas to 
 bo able to aijree with the Novjrorodians. laroslaf 
 was ajjain pnt to flifiht, and replaced by Vsevolod 
 of Smolensk, who was expelleil in his turn. The 
 Granil I'rinee of Sn/.dal now interposed, li'vied a 
 conlribniion on Novf;orod, and a ])rinee of Teherni- 
 fjof was imposeil on them, who liastened in twelve 
 hundred and twenty-live to relnrn to the south of 
 HiiHsia. In seven years the Nov;rorodians hail livi^ 
 times changed Iheir rulers. laroslaf himself eame 
 back for a third and even a fourth time. A famine 
 HO much reduced the Novfjorodians that forty-two 
 thousand corpses were buried in two cenieleries 
 alone. These jiroud citizens implored stran{;ers to 
 take them as slaves for the price of a morsel of 
 bread. The same year a tire destroyed the whole 
 of oneipiarter of Novirorod. The ciilamities subdued 
 their turbulence. laroslaf succeeded in j;overniiij; 
 them despotically till he was called to fill Ihe throne 
 of the Grand Prince in twelve himdred and thirty- 
 si.i. lie left them, as their jirince, his son, Alt.x- 
 ander Xevski. 
 
 From the fact that no dynasty of princes could es- 
 tablish itself at Novgorod, that no princely band 
 could take a ))lace among the native aristocracy, it 
 follows that the republic kept its ancient liberties 
 and customs intact under the short reigns of its 
 rulers. In all Russian cities, it is true, the country 
 existed side by side with the I'rinee and boyars, the 
 assembly of c-ilizens side by side with the I'rince's 
 men, and the native militia side by side with the 
 foreign drujiua : but at Novgorod the country, tlie 
 vctche, and the inunici|)al militia had retaineil more 
 vigor than elsewhere. The town was more power- 
 ful than the Prince, who reigned by virtue of a con- 
 stitution, traces of which may be observed, no doubt, 
 in other regions of Russia, but which is found in its 
 original form at Novgorod alone. Each new nuin- 
 arch was compelled to take an oath, by winch he 
 bound himself to observe the biws and jirivileges of 
 laroslaf the (ireat. This constitution, like llu' iKH-td 
 eoiirentd of Poland, signified distrust, and was in- 
 tended to limit the power of the Prince and his men. 
 The revenues to which he had a right, and which 
 formed his civil list, were carefully limited, as also 
 w:ere his judicial and political functions. He levied 
 tribute on certain cantons, and was entitled to the 
 commutation for crimes as well as to certain lines. 
 In some bailiwicks he had his lieutenant, and Nov- 
 gorod had its own. He could not execute justice 
 without help of the posaduik, nor reverse any judg- 
 ment: nor, above all. take the suit beyond Novgo- 
 rod. This was what the Novgorodians feared most, 
 and with reason. The day when the people of Nov- 
 gorod bethought themselves of appealing to the tri- 
 bunal of the Grand Prince of Moscow was fatal "o 
 the indepeuileuce of the republic. In the coiillirts 
 between the men of the prince and those of Ihe city, 
 a mixed court delivered judgment. The Prince, no 
 more than his men, could acquire villages in the 
 territory of Novgorod, nor create colonies. lie was 
 forbidden to hunt in the woods of Staraia Kusa ex- 
 cept in the autumn, and had to rea]) his harvests at 
 a specified season. Though they thus mistrusted 
 their Prince, Ihe Novgorodians hail need of him to 
 moderate the ancient i^lav anarchy. As in the days 
 of Hurik. "family armed itself against family, and 
 there was no justice." In Novgorod the verdu^ had 
 more extensive powers, and acted more regularly 
 than in the other Russian cities. It was the vetche 
 which nonunated and expelled princes, imprisoned 
 llicm in the arcbiepiscopal palace, and formallv ac- 
 
 cused them ; elected and deposed the ArchbishopH, 
 decided peace and war, }(irlged the Stale criminulH. 
 According to Ihe old Slav custom, preserved in Po- 
 land lill the fall of Ihe republic, the decisions were 
 always niuih-, not by a majority, but by unanimity 
 of voices. It was a kinil of lil,irtnii rilo. The niii- 
 Jorilv had the ri'soune of drowning the minority ia 
 the Volkhof. Tlie Prince as well as Ihe posadnik, 
 the boyars as well as the people, had the right of 
 convoking the vetihe. It met sometimes in the 
 ('ourt of laroslaf, sometimes in Saint Sophia's. As 
 Poland had its confederations, its " diets under the 
 shiild." Novgorod occasionally saw on tin- banks of 
 Ihe Volkhof two rival and hostile assernbliis, which 
 often came to bl.ows on the bridge. Hefore being 
 submitted to the general assembly, the tjuestions 
 were sometimes delibirati'd in a snialler council, 
 composed of notable citizens, of acting or past ma- 
 gistrates. 
 
 The chief Novgorodian magistrates were, first, the 
 posadnik, called by contemporary German vvTiters 
 the burgomaster, who was changeil nearly us oftea 
 as the Piince. Thi' (xisadnik was chosen from some 
 of th<' inlluenlial families, one of which alone gave 
 a dozen (josadniki to Novgorod. The first magis- 
 trate was charged to defend civic privileges, and 
 shared with the Prince the judicial power and the 
 right of distributing the ta.xes. lie governed the 
 city, commanded its army, directed its diplomacj', 
 sealed the acts with its seal. The second officer was 
 the tiiiMiUki, who was a military chief.a Colonel who 
 had the Captains of the town ndlitia under his orders, 
 lie had a special tribunal, and seems to have been 
 specially intrusted with the defence of the rights of 
 the people, thus recalling the R(jman Tribunes. And 
 besides the Captains there was a uliirmUi, a sort of 
 district ]Mayor, for each ((uarter of the town. 
 
 The chirf document of Ihe Novgorodian law is 
 the Lttter nf ,hi!<tice, of which the delinite publica- 
 tion may be placed at fourteen hundred and seventy- 
 one. It" contains the same principles as the Code of 
 laroslaf the Great. As in all the early Germanic 
 and Scandinavian laws, we find the right of private 
 revenge, the fixed price of blood, the "boot," or 
 fine for injury inflicted, the oath adnutted as evi- 
 dence, the judgment of God, the judicial duel, 
 which was still resorted to by Novgorod even after 
 its decadence, in the sixteenth century. We also 
 find records of corporal iiiniishments. The thiet 
 was to be branded ; on the second relapse into crime, 
 he was to be hung. Territorial property acquires a 
 greater importance, and, a sure evidence of JIusco- 
 vite influence, a second court of appeal is admitted, 
 — Ihe appeal to the tribunal of the Grand Prince. 
 
 From a social point of view, the constitution of 
 Novgorod presents other analogies with the consti- 
 tution of Poland. Great inequality then existed be- 
 tween the different classes of society. An aristoc- 
 racy of boyars had ulliinately formed itself, whose 
 internal quarrels agitated the town. Below the 
 boyars came the dii'ti hnyarskie, a kind of inferior 
 nobility ; then the <lifTerent classes of citizens, the 
 merchantmen, the black peirple, and the pea.sants. 
 The merchants formed an association of their own, 
 a sort of guild, romid the Church of .Saint John. 
 Jlilitary societies also existed, bands of independent 
 adventurers or followers of some boyar who, im- 
 pelled by hunger or a restless spirit, sought adven- 
 tures afar on the great rivers of Northern Russia, 
 pillaging alike friends and enemies, or establishing 
 military colonies in the midst of Tchud or Finnish 
 tribes. 
 
 The soil of Novgorod was sandy, marshy, and un- 
 productive : hence the famines and pestilences that 
 so often depopulated the country. Novgorod was 
 forced to extend itself in order to live ; it became 
 therefore a connuercial and colonizing city. In the 
 tenth century Konstanlin relates how the Slavs left 
 Nemoirard. or Noviroroil, descended the Dnieper by 
 Miliuisca, or Smolensk, Teliutza, orLubetch, Teller-
 
 KTJSSIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 824 
 
 E0SSIAN EEPUBLICS. 
 
 nigof, Vuishcgorod, Kief, anrl Yititchevo ; crossed 
 the Cataracts of tlie Dnic]XT. passed the naval sta- 
 tions of Saiut Gregory and Saint Etherius, at the 
 mouth of tlie river, aud spread themselves over all 
 the shores of the Greek Empire. The Oriental coins 
 and jewels found in the barrows of the Ilmcn show 
 that the Novgorodians had an early and extensive 
 commerce with the East. We see them exchange 
 iron and weapons for the precious metals found by 
 the lugrians in the mines of the Urals. They tra.leil 
 with the Baltic Slavs ; and whea tlie latter lost their 
 indepen<leuce. and a Hourishiug center, Wisbj', was 
 formed in tlie Isle of Gotlilaud, Novgorod turned to 
 this side also. In the twelfth century there was a 
 Gothic market and a Variag Church at Novgorod, 
 and a Novgorodian Church in Gothland. When the 
 Germans began to dispute the commerce of the Bal- 
 tic with the Scandinavians, Novgorod became the 
 seat of a German market, which finally alisorbed 
 the Gothic one. When the Hause League became 
 the mistress of the North, we find the Germans es- 
 tablished not only at Novgorod, but at Pskof aud 
 Ladoga, at all the outlets of the network of Novgo- 
 rodian lakes. There they obtained considerable 
 privileges, even the right to acquire pasture-land. 
 They were masters, aud at home in tlieir fortified 
 markets, In their stockade of thick planks, where no 
 Russian had the right to penetrate without their 
 leave. This German trading companj- was governed 
 hy the most narrow and exclusive ideas. No Rus- 
 sian was allowed to belong to the company, nor to 
 carry the wares of a Gernian,an Englishman, a Wal- 
 loon, or a Fleming. The company authorized a 
 wholesale commerce only, and, to maintain its goods 
 at a high price, it forbade imports beyond a certain 
 amount. ■' In a word," says a German writer, Kie- 
 senkampf, in " Der Deutsche Hof," "during three 
 centuries the Ilanse League held a monopoly of all 
 the external commerce of Northern Russia. If we 
 inquire what profit or loss it brought this country, 
 we must recognize that, thanks to it, Novgorod and 
 Pskof were deprived of a free commerce witli the 
 West. Ru.ssia, in order to satisfy the first wants of 
 civilization, fell into a state of complete indepen- 
 dence. It was aliandoned to the good pleasure aud 
 pitiless egotism of the German merchants." 
 
 The ecclesiastical constitution of Novgorod jire- 
 sents a special character. In the rest of Russia the 
 clergy was Russian orthodox. At Novgorod it was 
 Noygorodian before e\'erything. It was only in 
 the twelfth century lliat the Slavs of Ilnien.who had 
 been the last to be converted, could have an Arch- 
 bishop that was neither Greek nor Kievan, but of 
 their own race. From that time the Archbishop was 
 elected by the citizens, by the vetche. Without 
 ■waiting to be invested by the metropolitan bishop 
 at Kief, he was at once installed in his episcopal 
 palace. He was one of the great personages, the 
 first dignitary of tlie republic. In public acts his 
 name was placed before the others. " With the 
 blessing of Archbishop Moses," says one letter- 
 patent, " posadnik Daniel and tuisatski Abraham 
 salute you." He had a superiority over the Prince 
 on the ground of being a native of the country, 
 whilst the descendant of Rurik was a foreigner. In 
 return, the revenues of the Archbishop, the treasures 
 of Saint S<i|)liia, were at the service of the republic. 
 In the fourteenth century we find an Archbishop 
 building at his own expense a kreml of stone. In 
 the fifteenth century the riches of the cathedral were 
 employed to ransom the Russian jirisoners captured 
 by the Litliiianians. The ('luirch of Novgorod was 
 essentially a national cliurcli; the ecclesiastics louk 
 ])arl in the temporal alTairs, the laity in tlie spiritual. 
 In the fiiiirteenth century the vetche put to death the 
 heretical Ktn'f/i/lniki, proscribed ancient superstitions, 
 and burnt the sorcerers. As the citizens of Novgo- 
 rod nominated their Archbishop, Ihey could also de- 
 pose him. The orthodox religion extended with the 
 Novgorod colonization among the Fiimish tribes. 
 
 In opposition to the Finns, the interests of the Church 
 and the republic were identical. It was religion that 
 contributed to the splendor of the city, and that 
 specially profited by its wealth. Novgorod was full 
 of churches and monasteries, founded by the pietj' 
 of private individuals. Novgorod, which had shaken 
 off the political supremacy of Kief, wished also to 
 free itself from its religious domination. and no longer 
 to be obliged to seek on the Dnieper the investiture 
 of its Archbishop, but to make him an independent 
 metropolitan. It failed. When Moscow became of 
 importance, she threatened not only the political, 
 but the religious supremacy of Novgorod. Religion 
 was, in the hands of the Muscovitc"Princes, an in- 
 strument of government. The Novgorodian prelate 
 always made common cause with his fellow-citizens, 
 and endured with them tlieir master's bursts of ansjer. 
 
 The literature of Novgorod was as national as the 
 Church herself. The pious chronicles of the Nov- 
 gorodian convents shared all the quarrels and all the 
 passions of their fellow-citizens. "Eventheir style." 
 says jM. Bestujef, "reflects vividly the active, busi- 
 ness-like character of the Novgorodians. It is short, 
 and sparing of words ; but their narratives embrace 
 more completely than those of other Russian coun- 
 tries all the jihases of actual life. They are the his- 
 torians, not merely of the princes, and boj'ars, but 
 of the whole city. The lives of the saints 'are the 
 lives of Novgorodian saints; the miracles they relate 
 are to the glory of the city. They tell for e.\ami)le, 
 that Christ appeared to the artist charged with the 
 paintings under the dome of Saint Sopliia. aud said 
 to him: • Do not represent me with my hand ex- 
 tended for blessing, but with my hand closed, be- 
 cause in it I hold Novgorod, and when it is opened 
 it will be the end of the city.' " Tlie tale of the 
 panic excited among the soldiers of Andrei Bogo- 
 liubski by the image of the Virgin wounded by a 
 Suzdaliau ai»row was spread abroad. Novgorod has 
 its own C3'cle of epic songs. Its heroes are not 
 those of the Kievan poems. There is Yasili Buslae- 
 vitcli ; the bold boyar.who with his faithful drujina 
 stood up to his knees in blood on the bridge of Volk- 
 hof, holdim; in check all the muzhiki of Novgorod, 
 whom he had defied to combat. Vasili Buslaevitch 
 is the true type of these proud adventurers, who 
 knew neither friend nor enemy, — a true Novgorodian 
 oligarch, a hero of civil war. Still more popular 
 wasSadko, the rich merchant.a kind of Novgorodian 
 Sindbad or Ulysses, a worth}' representative of a 
 pe<iple of merchants and adventurers, who sought 
 his fortune on the waves. A tempest rose, and men 
 drew lots to decide who should be sacrificed to the 
 wrath of the gods. Sadko threw a little wooden 
 ring into the water, the others Hung in iron rings : 
 O prodigy ! the others swam, his sank. He obeyed 
 his destiny, and threw himself into the waves, but 
 he was received in thi' palace of the king nf the sea, 
 who tested him in various ways and wished lii'ii to 
 marry his daughter. Then suddenly Saiiko found 
 himself on the sliore witli great treasures, but what 
 were these compared to the treasures of the city ? 
 "They see that I am a rich merchant of Novgorod, 
 but Novgorod is still richer than I." 
 
 Of all the towns subject to Novgorod. Pskof was 
 the most important. On the pcunt formed by the 
 junction of the Pskuva and the Velikaia rises its 
 kreml, with its crumbling ramparts, its ruined gates 
 and towers. These once famous Wiills are to-day a 
 mass of ruins, and the street-boys amuse themselves 
 by tiirowing stones in the Pskova to frighten the 
 laundresses. Pskof is only a poor little place with 
 ten thousand souls. Scarcely anything remains of 
 its past s])leudor save the Cathedral of I lie Trinity at 
 one end of the kreml. There r<'sl in metal coifins 
 the bones of the best-loved iiriuees, Vsevolod-Ga- 
 briel and Dovinont, a converted Lithuanian who came 
 in the thirteenth century to defend the rei-ublic 
 against his own compatriots. The old town still 
 has maiiv churches and uionas'ei'ies: the distant view
 
 SUB8I&N BEFUBLIC8. 
 
 82r 
 
 RUSSIAN REPUBUCS.- 
 
 of it is t)ciiulifiil.nnil on fcMi'rliiy.s tlicdcml city s<'<'Iiih 
 to uwiikc at till' cliiincs <if iln iiinuiuiniblc bi'lls, 
 ■which rini; iih merrily lis in I he ihiys (if ils nlorinuH 
 piist. N<'sliir iiiiiUi'S IVkiil' III ' iiiilivc liiiiil of Saint 
 ()l^a. lis wliolc hislorv is siiniiiii'il up in lliosc two 
 fads: first, till' slniiji^lc ai.r;iiiisl Ihr 'I'chiiili, anil, 
 later, a;jainsl the (ierniansol Livonia; seroiiil, ils 
 elTorls to Ihcdiih' free from Novf;oroil. The iiiili'- 
 IH'iKleiiec of the city was ultimately sec^ireil by its 
 wealth anil eoiiiinerce. 'I'lie lirst I'rinee who ruled 
 it as a se|iara1e State, Vsevoloil-tJaliriel. win expell- 
 0(1 by his siilijeets, and therefore was welcomed with 
 the jirealer eai.'erness by the I'skoviaiis. When the 
 Rnzdalian party ruled at Nov!;oroil, it was ^r,.nerally 
 the conlraiy party that Iriiimphed in I'skof. Alioiit 
 twelve himdred and loiirlecii the little republic coii- 
 trncted an olTensive and ilefcnsive alliance with the 
 G(?rinans ; I'skof undertook to help lliem ai;ainsl the 
 Lithuanians, and they were to support I'skof aj;ainst 
 Kov^orod. Tlii-i was iilayini; rather a dangerous 
 game. In twelve Inindred ami forty, one Tverdillo 
 delivered the city up toihe 1/ivonians. and it was not 
 set free till twelve Inindred and forly-two. From 
 this moment I'skof reased lo mix in the civil wars 
 of Novijorod. It bad cnous;li lo do with its own af- 
 fairs and its striisiirle against the (lermans. Swedes 
 and lathuanians. It also elaiine(l the title "My Lord 
 I'skof Ihe (treat:" but il was only in thirtel'ii hun- 
 dred and fiirty-eii;lit that the Novirorodians, nccdiiii; 
 its help iiiiainst Nlaiinus, Kins^ of Sweden, formally 
 recoi;ni/ed its independence, by the treaty of Hol- 
 slof, and concluded a bond of fraternal friendshi]). 
 Novgorod became Ihe elder brother, and I'skof the. 
 younger. The or',;!\nization of I'skof is almost that 
 of its ancient metropolis. We ajjain find the Prince, 
 Ihe Vetelh', the division into (|uarters, up lo the 
 number of six, e;icli one having; its Mayor. 
 
 In llie twelfth century !i new Novjjorodian colony 
 was founded between Ihe Kama and the Viatka, 
 wdiich remained a republic \intil the lifteentli century. 
 "This distant eoiintry," says INI. liestujef-Hiimun, 
 "is still (piile Novj;orodian. When the traveller has 
 jjas.sed the Viatka, he meets with a peculiar mode of 
 const ructini; Ihe huls. There are no lonjrer whole 
 lines of hovels joined one to the other, as on this 
 side of the river, but there is a hii;h house, where 
 the court, rooms, and olliecs are surrounded liy a 
 rampart of ])alcs.and united under Ihe same roof; in 
 a word, it is a Novgorodian house. You hear the 
 Novgorodian dialect: you see the Novgorodian cap. 
 It isthe Novgorod colonization still livinj;." In eleven 
 hundred and seventy-foursome a Iventiircrs from (he 
 lireat l{epublie came from the Kama *o the Viatkji, 
 ■and advanced from cast to west, and founded a col- 
 ony on this river, which is to-day the villiige of Ni- 
 kulitsuin. Another band defealed Ihe Tcheremisa. 
 and on their territory raised Ko.-.hkarof, at present 
 called Kotelnilch. Then the two bands reunited. 
 and penetrated into the Votiak country. On (he 
 riirht liank of (he Viatka, on Ihe summit of a hi,!;li 
 mountain, they perceived a cily surrounded l)v a 
 rampart and a ditch, which contained one of (lie 
 sanctuaries of the people. As pious as Ihe com- 
 panions of Cortez and I'izarro, tlie Hussian adven- 
 turers prepared themselves for the assault by a fast 
 of several days, then invoked Saints I5oris and Gleb, 
 and captured the town. Ne.\t, at (he mouth of (he 
 Kliluinovitsa, in (he Vialkii, not very far ofT, they 
 Imill (he ci(y of Khluinof, which became, under (he 
 name of Via(k;i, the ("ipil;d of all the colonies. It 
 had no walls, but the houses, built close together, 
 formed an unbroken rampart against the enemy, a 
 wall and defence. At the news of this siicces.s, other 
 colonists Hocked from Novgorod and (he forests of 
 the north, and founded other centers of population. 
 These bold pioneers had more lli;inonce to reunite, 
 .-iomeiimes against the aboriginal Finns or the Tatar 
 invaders, sometimes against the jiretensions of Nov- 
 gorod, or Ihe Orand Prince of Moscow. We tind 
 among tliem, as in the metropolis, boyars, mercliauts , 
 
 and citizens. They had voievodiii or atamans for 
 their military chiefs. 'I'lieir spirit of religious ind(^- 
 pendcnee eipialled their political inde|ieiideiice. Jo- 
 nas. .Metropolitan of .Mosi ow, writes angrily about 
 the indoeiliiy of I heir clergy, and avenges himself 
 by blaming lliiir morals. "Voiir spiritual sons," \n: 
 writes to Ihe priests of Viatka, "live contrary lo tin; 
 law. They hav(! live, Hix,«or even Beveii wives. And 
 you dare lo blesi* these marriages." 
 
 In this conneclion. we will liriiMy review llie li;it- 
 tles of Ihe Kalka, of Kiazan, of Kolomna, and of the 
 Sit, and the inlliience of the Tatars on Hussian do 
 velopmi 111. I'p lo this lime Ihe history of Hiissia 
 has presented some analogy with that of the West. 
 Slavonia, like (!aul, had received Homan civiliza- 
 tion and Christianily from the South. The North- 
 men bad brought it an organization which n callH 
 that of the Cermans; and it had enjoyed a certain 
 sendilancc of unity under laroslaf, like I he West un- 
 der (Miarles Ihe (Ireat, while it was afterwards dis- 
 membercd and divided like prance in feudal times, 
 lint in llie tliirlcenlh century Kiissia suffercil an un- 
 precedented misfortune ; it was invaded and subju- 
 gated by Asiatic hordes. This fatal event contribut- 
 ed fpiite as much as the disadvantage of the soil and 
 the climale lo retarc' ils development by many centu- 
 ries. "Nadire," as M. Soloviof .says, "has beenastcp- 
 modier (o Hiissia"; fa(e was anodier step-modicr. 
 
 "In (hose (imes," say the Hussian chroniclers, 
 "(here came upon us for our sins, unknown nation.s. 
 No one could tell Iheir origin, whence they came, 
 whiit religion (hey professed. God alone knew why 
 they were, God and jierhajis wise men learned in 
 books." When we think of (he horror of Ihe whole 
 of Europe at Ihe arrival of Ihe Mongols, and (he an- 
 guish of a Frederick, of a Saint Louis, an Innocent 
 the Fourth, we may imagine the terror of the Uus- 
 sians. They bore tiie lirst shock of (hose mys(erioii.s 
 foemen. who were, so the people whispered. Gog 
 and Magog, who, according to Joinville, "were to 
 come at the end of the world, when jVnlicbrist is to 
 destroy everything." The Ta-ta, or Tatars, seem 
 to have been a tribe of the great Mongol race, living 
 at Ihe fool of the Altai, wi.o in spite of Iheir long- 
 continued discords freqiiindy found means to lay 
 was(e China by (heir invasions. The por(rai( drawn 
 of (hem recalls in many ways (hose already traced 
 by Chinese, Ladn, and Greek audiors, of tlie Huns, 
 the Avars, and other nomad peoples of former inva- 
 sions. "The Ta-(zis, or (he Das," says a Chinese 
 wri(er of (he (liir(een(h century, "occupy themselves 
 exclusively with their flocks ; they g(j wandering 
 ceaselessly from pasture to pasture, from river to 
 river. They are ignorant of the nature of a town 
 or a wall. They are unac(juainted with writing and 
 books : their treaties are concluded orally. From 
 infancy they are accustomed to ride, to iiim their 
 arrows at rats and liirds, and thus acqinre the c(mr- 
 age essential lo their life of wars and rapine. They 
 have neither religious ceremonies nor judicial insti- 
 tutions. From the Prince to (he lowest among the 
 people all feed upon (he Hesh of the animal.s the 
 skins of which they use for clothing. The strongest 
 among them have (he larges( and fadest morsels at 
 feasts; Ihe old men are put olT with the frasrments 
 that are left. They respect nothing but .strength and 
 bravery : age and weakness they despise. 'W'lienthe 
 father dies, the son marries bis youngest wives." A 
 Mussulman writer adds, that ihey "adore the sun, 
 and practise polygamy and the community of wives. 
 This pastoral people did no( (ake an in(ercst in any 
 phenomenon of na(ure except the growth of grass. 
 The names (hey gave (o their months were susrgest- 
 ed by (he dilTerent aspects of (he prairie. Born iiorse- 
 men, they had no infantry in war. They were ig- 
 norant of the art of sieges. "But," says "a Chinese 
 author, "when th(\v wish to take a town, they fall 
 on the suburban villages. Each leader seizes ten 
 men. and every prisoner is forced to carry a ceilain 
 ciuantity of wood, stones, and other materials. The
 
 BTTSSIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 826 
 
 RUSSIAN BEPUBLICS. 
 
 use these for filling up fosses, or digging trendies. 
 In the capture of a town the loss of ten thousanti 
 men was thought nothing. No place could resist 
 them. After a siege all the population was massacr- 
 ed, without distinction of old or young, rich or 
 poor, lieautiful or ugly, those who resisted or those 
 who j'ielded; no distinguished person escaped death, 
 if a defence was attempted. " It was these rough 
 tribes that Temutchin, or Genghis Khan, who ruled 
 from eleven hundred and fifty-four until twelve hun- 
 dred and twenty-seven, succeeded in imiting into 
 one nation after forty years of obscure struggles. 
 Then in a general congress of their princes he "pro- 
 claimed himself Emperor, and declared that, as there 
 was only one sun in heaven, there ought to be only 
 one Emperor on the earth. At the headOf their forces 
 he conquered Mantchuria, the kiugdoni of Tanirut, 
 Northern China, Turkestan, and Great Bokhara, 
 which never recovered from this disaster, and the 
 plains of Western Asia as far as the Crimea. When 
 he died, he left to be divided between his four sons 
 the largest empire that ever existed. It was during 
 his conquest of Bokhara that his Lieutenant Tchep 
 and Subudai-bagadur subdued in their passage a 
 multitude of Turkish peoples, passed the Caspian by 
 its southern shore, invaded Georgia and the Caucas- 
 us, and in the southern steppes'of Russia came in 
 contact with the Polovtsui. 
 
 The hereditary enemies of the Russians proper, 
 the Polovtsui, asked the Christian Princes for help 
 against these Mongols and Turks, who were their 
 brothers by a common origin. "They have taken 
 our country," said they to the descendants of Saint 
 Vladimir: "to-morrow they will take yours." Jlstis- 
 laf the Bold, then Prince of Galitch,"persuaded all 
 the dynasties of Southern Russia to take up arms 
 against the Tatars ; his nephew Daniel, Prince of 
 VoUiyn^a, AFstislaf I{omauovitch, Grand Prince of 
 Kief. Oleg of Kursk, Mstislaf of Tchernigof, Vladi- 
 mir of Smolensk, Vsevolod, for a short time Prince 
 of Novgorod, responded to his appeal. To cement 
 Ids alliance with the Russians, Basti, khan of the 
 Polovtsui, embraced orthodoxy. The Russian ar- 
 my had already arrived on the Lower Dnieper, when 
 the Tatar ambassadors made their appearance. "We 
 have come by God's command against our slaves and 
 grooms, the accursed Polovtsui. Be at peace with 
 US; we have no ([uarrel with you." The Russians 
 with the promptitude and thouglitles.suess 1i;at eliar- 
 aoterized the men of that timc'jiut the amliassadors 
 to death. Tliey then went farther into the steppe, 
 and encountered the Asiatic hordes on the Kalka, a 
 small river ruuning into the Sea of Azof. Tlie Ru.s- 
 sian cliivalry on this memorable day showed the 
 sam • ilisorder and the same ill-advised eagerness as 
 tlie French cliivalry at the opeidni; of the Enfflish 
 wars. Mstislaf the 'Bold, Daniel of Galitch, and Oleg 
 of Kursk were the first to rush into the midst of the 
 infidels, wilhoul waiting for the Princes of Kief, and 
 even without givir.g Iheni warning, in order to gain 
 for themselves the jionors of victory. In the middle 
 of the combat the Polovtsui were s'eized with a pan- 
 ic and fell l)uck on the Russian ranks, thus throw- 
 ing them iiitci dis^'riler. The rout became general, 
 and the leaders spurred on their steeds in luspes of 
 reaching the Dnieper. 
 
 Six princes and seventy of the chief boyars, or 
 voievodui, remained on the field of battle. It was 
 tlie Crecy "and Poitiers of the Russian chivalry. 
 Hardly a tenth of the army escaped; the Kievaiis 
 alone left ten tliousand dciul". The (Irand Prince of 
 Kief, liowever, Mslishif Uomanovilch, still occupied 
 a fortified camp on flic biuiks of the Ivalka. Aban- 
 doned by file rest of the iirmy, he tried to definil 
 liimself. The Tatars offered fo'make terms; he iiii;;ht 
 retire on paymeiil of a ransom for himself and Tiis 
 drujina. He capitulated, and tlie conditions were 
 broken. His u'liard was massacred, and he and his 
 two sons-in-law were slilled under |ilaiiks. The Ta- 
 tars held their festivals over the iuanimate bodies in i 
 
 twelve liundred and twenty-four. After this thun- 
 derbolt, which struck terror into the whole of Rus- 
 sia. the Tatars paused and returned to the East. No- 
 thing more was heard of them. Thirteen years pass- 
 ed, during which the princes reverted to their per- 
 petual discords. Those in the northeast had given 
 no help to the Russians of the Dnieper; perhaps 
 the Grand Prince, luri flic Second of Suzdal, may 
 have rejoiced over the humiliation of the Kievans 
 and Gallicians. The Mongols were forgotten; the 
 chronicles, however, are filled with fatal presages 
 in the midst of scarcit}', famine and pestilence, of 
 incendiaries in the towns and calamities of all sorts, 
 they remark on the comet of twelve hundred and 
 twenty-four, the earthquake and eclipse of tlie sun 
 of twelve hundred and thirty. 
 
 The Tatars were busy finishing the conquest of 
 China, but presently one of the sous of Genghis, Ugu- 
 dei or Oktai, sent his nephew Batui to the West. "As 
 the reflux of the Polovtsui liad announced the inva- 
 siou of tweh-e hundred and twentv-four, that of the 
 Saxin nomads, a tribe akin to the Ivhirghiz.who took 
 refuge on the lands of the Bulgariaus of the Volga, 
 warned men of a new irruption of the Tatars, and 
 indicated its direction. It was no longer Soutli Rus- 
 sia, but Suzdalian Russia that was threatened. In 
 twelve hundred and thirty-seven Batui conquered 
 the Great City, capital of the half-civilized Bulgarui, 
 who were, like the Polovtsui, ancient enemies of 
 Russia,and who were to be included in its ruin. Bol- 
 gary was given up to the flames, and its inhabitants 
 were put to the sword. The Tat;irs next plunged 
 into the deep forests of the Volga, and sent a sorcer- 
 er and two officers as envoys to "the Princes of Ria- 
 zan. The three princes of Riazan, those of Pronsk, 
 Ivolomna, Moscow, and !Murom advanced to meet 
 them. " If j-ou want peace," said the Tatars, "give 
 us the tenth of your goods." " When we are dead," 
 replied the Russian Princes, "3-011 can have the 
 whole." Though abandoned by the princes of Tcher- 
 nigof and the Grand Prince luri the Second, of 
 whom they had implored help, the dynasty of Ria- 
 zan accepted the unequal struggle. They were com- 
 pletely crushed; nearly all their princes remained on 
 the field of battle. Legend has embellished their fate. 
 It is told how Feoihu- preferred to die rather than 
 see his young wife, Euphrasia, the spoil of Batui, and 
 how, on learning his fate, she threw herself and her 
 son from the window of her cbainlier. Oleg the 
 Handsome, found .still alive im the battle-field, repell- 
 ed the caresses, the attention, and religion of the 
 khan, and was cut in pieces. Riazan was immedi- 
 ately taken by assault, sacked, and burned. All the 
 towns of the principality suffered the same fate. It 
 was now the turn of tlie Grand Prince, for the Rus- 
 sia of the northeast had not even the honor of falling 
 in a grcid. battle like the Russia of the southwest, 
 uniled for once against the common enemy. Tlie 
 Suzdalian army, commanded by a son of luri the Sec- 
 ond, was beaten on the day of Kolomna, on the Oka. 
 The Tatars burned Moscow, then besieged Vladi- 
 mir on the Kliazma, which luri the Second had 
 abandoned to seek for hel]) in the North. His two 
 sons were charged wilh the defence of the capital. 
 Princes iind boyars. feeling there was no alternative 
 but death or servitude, ])re])arcd to die. The prin 
 cesses and all the nobles i)raye{l Bishop Metroplianes 
 to give them tli(Uonsure; and when tlu' Tiitars rush- 
 ed into the town by all its gates, the ViUi(|uislied re- 
 tired info the cathedral, where they perished, men 
 and women, in a general confiagniliim. Suzd;d,Ros- 
 tof, laroslavl, fourleen towns, a multitude of vill;iges 
 ill the (iniiid Principality, were all given over to the 
 flames in iwelve i:undnMl and f bii-ty-eight. The 
 Tiilars then went to seek the Graii<l I'rince, who 
 was encamped on the Sit, almost on tjie frontier of 
 the possessions of Novgorod. luri the Second could 
 neither avenge bis peojile nor liis family. After the 
 battle the Bisho]) of Uostof found his headless corjise. 
 His nephew Vasilko, who was taken prisoner, was
 
 SUSBIAH REPUBLICS. 
 
 827 
 
 BUS8IAN BEPUBLIC8. 
 
 Blabbed for refusing to nerve lialiii. 'I'hi' immense 
 Talararmy, after jiaviii;; saekeil Tver, loiik 'I'orjoli; 
 tliere " liie Kwssiaii lieails fell lienealii the sw<inl of 
 the 'Palarn as grass Ix'iiealb llie seyllie." Tlie lerri- 
 torv of Novgoniil was iiivaileil; the great re|>\iblic 
 treinl)leil,l)ilt tile ileep forests and llie swollen rivers 
 delayed IJaliii. The invailiiig Hood reachc'd the Cross 
 of lgii;Miiis, ahoiil Hfly miles from Novgorod. Ilieii 
 reltinied lo the Soiilhi'ast. On the way the small 
 town of l\o/<'lsU. near Is'ahiga. checked the Tatars 
 for so long and inllicled on them so nuich loss, that 
 it was called by llieni the wicked town. lis popula- 
 tion was exterminated, and the prince, Vasili, still a 
 child, was " drowned in blood." 
 
 The two following years were spent by the Tatars 
 in ravaging Southern Kurojje. Tliey burnt I'ereias- 
 hif, and Tchernigof, defended with rlesperation by 
 its princes. Next .Malign, grandson of (iengiiis 
 Khan, inarched against the famous town of Kief, 
 whose name resoundi'd through llic east and in the 
 books of iIm' Aral) writers, l>'rom the left bank of 
 the Dnieper the barbarian admired the great city on 
 the heights of tin' right bank, lowering over the wide 
 river with its white walls and lowers adorned hy |{y- 
 zantine artists, and innumeralilechurches wilhcu|io- 
 las of gold and silvvr. .Mangii olVered Ihc Kicvans 
 terms of surrender; the fate of Hiazan. of Tcherni- j 
 gof, of Vladimir, the capitals of powerful states, an- 
 nounced to tliem the lot that awaited them in case 
 of refusal, yet the Kicvans dan'd to massacre the en- 
 voys of the klian. Mikhail, their (irand I'rincc. lied: 
 his rival, Daniel of (ialilch, did not care to remain. 
 On hearing the report of Mangu, lialui came to as. 
 sault liief with the bulk of Ids army. Tiie grinding 
 ol the wooden chariots, the bcllowings of the bulVa- 
 loes, the cries of the camels, the neighing of the 
 horses, the bowlings of the Tatars, rendered it im- 
 possible, says the amialist, to hear your own voice 
 m the town". The Tatars assailed the I'olisli (iate. 
 and knocked down the walls with a battering-ram. 
 "The Kicvans. supported by the l)rave Dmitri, a 
 Gallician boyar, defended the fallen ramparts till the 
 end ot the day, then retreated lo the Church of the 
 Tithe, which they surrounded l)y a palisade. The 
 last defenders of Kief found themselves gronped a- 
 round llie tondiof larosl.'if. Next day they perislied. 
 The khan gave the boyar his life, but Mhc Mother 
 ol Russian cities' was sacked. This tliird iiillage, 
 which took jilace in twelve hundred and forty, was 
 the most terrilile, Even the tombs were not respect- 
 ed. All that remains of the Church of the Tithe is 
 1) tew fragments of mosaic in the^Iuseum at Kief. 
 Saint Sophia and the Jlonastery of the Catacombs 
 Wert delivered up to be plundered." Volbynia and 
 Gallieia still reniaiiu'd, bnt their princes could not 
 defend them, and Unssia found itself, with the ex- 
 ception of Novgorod anil the northwest country, un- 
 der the Tatar yoke. The princes had lied or were 
 dead; lunidreds of thousands of Knssians were drag- 
 ged into captivity. Men saw the wives of boyars, 
 •' who had never known work, who a short time ago 
 had been clothed in rich garments, adorned with jew- 
 els and collars of gold, surrounded with slaves, now 
 reduced lobe the slaves of barbarians and their wives, 
 turning the wheel of the mill, and ])reparing their 
 coarse food." 
 
 If we look for the causes which rendered the de- 
 feat of the brave Russian nation so complete, we 
 
 may, with Karamsin, indicate the following: 
 
 Though the Tatars were not more advanced, from 
 a military point of view, than the Unssians, who had 
 made war in (Ireece and in tlie West against the 
 most warlike and civilized people of Kurope. yet tiiey 
 had iin enormous su|)eriorily of numbers. Matiii 
 probably had with him live hundred llnaisand war- 
 riors. This immense army moved like one man: it 
 could successively aimihihite the small arniies of the 
 princes, or the ndlitiaof the towns, which presented 
 themselves one at a time to its blows. The Tatars 
 had found Russia divided against itself. Jiven 
 
 though Russia hail wished lo form a confederation, 
 the sudden irruption of an army entirely composed 
 of horsi'iiiiMi did not leave it time. In the tribes 
 ruled by lialui every man vsax u soldier: in RiisHia 
 the nobles and citizen'- alonr' liorearinM; tlie peasant)), 
 who formed Ihc bulk of the population, allowed 
 Ihemselvesto be stalibed or bound without resist- 
 ance. It was not by a weak nation llial Russia WUB 
 <oiii|uered. The 'I'alar-.Mongols, under (lenghiH 
 Khan, bad lilled the Kiist with the glory of their 
 name, and subdued nearly all Asia. I'liey arriverl, 
 proud of llnir exploits, aninialed by the recollection 
 of a hundri'd victories, and reinforced by the num- 
 erous peoples they had vani|iiislicd, and hurried with 
 them to the West. \\ hen the Princes of Calitch. of 
 Volbynia. and fif Kief arrived as fugitives in Po- 
 land and lliingiiry. Kurope wiis terror-stricken. The 
 I'ope, whose support had been claimed by the Prince 
 of (ialilch, summoned Christendom to arms. Louis 
 the Ninth pr<'])ared for a crusade. Frederick the 
 Second, as l';mperor, wrote to the sovereigns of the 
 West: " This is the moment to open the eyes of body 
 and sold, now that the brave |iriiices on whom we 
 reckoned are dead or in shivery." The Tatars in- 
 vaded llnngary. gave battle to the Poles in Liegnitz 
 in Silesia, bad their progress a long while arrested 
 by the courageous defense of Olmulz in Moravia, by 
 the Tchek voievod, laroslaf, and stopped finally, 
 learning that a larg(^ army, commanded by the King 
 of Bohemi;i and the Diikcsof Austriaand Karintbia, 
 was approaching. The news of the death of Oktai, 
 second Knqieror of all the Tatars, in C'himi, recalled 
 lialui from the West, and during tin- long march 
 from Germany his army necessarily diminished in 
 number. The Tatars were no longer in the vast 
 jilains of Asia and Eastern Europe, but in a. broken 
 liilly country, bristling with fortresses, defended b)' 
 a population more dense and a chivaln,- more num- 
 erous tlam those of Russia, To sum up. all the fury 
 of the .Mongol teni]iest spent itself on the Slavonic 
 race. It was the Russians who fought at the Kalka, 
 at Kolomna, at the Sit; the Poles and Silesians at 
 liiegnitz; the Bohemians and Moravians at Olmutz. 
 The Germans suffered nothnig from the invasion of 
 the Mongols but the fear of it. It exhausted itself 
 principally on tbo.se plains of Russia which seem a 
 continuation of the steppes of Asia. Only in Rus- 
 sian history did the invasion produce great results. 
 About Ihe same lime Balui built on f)iie ol the arms 
 of the Lower Volga a city c:illed Sarai, orihe Castle, 
 which became thi' capital of a powerful Tatar Em- 
 pire, tlicGolden Horde, extending from the I'ral and 
 Caspian to the mouth of the Danube. The Golden 
 Horde was formed not only of Tatar-Mongols, or 
 Nogais, who evi-n now survive in the Northern Cri- 
 mea, bnt ])ar',iciilarly of the remains of ancient no- 
 mads, such as Ihe Petchenegi and Pok'Vtsui. whrj.se 
 descendants si'cm lo be the present Kalmucks and 
 Bashkirs; of Turkish tribes tending to be sedentary, 
 like the Tatars of Astrakhan in the present day; 
 and of the Finnish ]io|)iilations already established in 
 the country, and which mixed with the invaders. 
 Oktai, Kuiuk, and .Mangu, the first three successors 
 of Genghis Khan, elected by all the Mongol Princes, 
 took the title of Great Khans, and the (iolden Horde 
 recognized their :iulliorily; but under his fourth suc- 
 cessor. Khubulai. who usurped the throne and es- 
 tablished himself in China, this bond of vassalage 
 was broken. The Gohlen Horde became an inde- 
 pendent state in twelve hundred and sixty. Tnited 
 and poweri'ul under the terrible Batui. who died in 
 twelve hundred and fifty-tive. it fell to pieces under 
 l\is successors; but in the fourteenth centur_v the 
 Khan I'zbek reunited it anew, and gave the Horde a 
 i second period of prosperity. The Tatars, who 
 1 were jiagans when they entered Russia, embraced 
 the failli of Islam about twelve hundred and seven- 
 ty-two. anil became its most formidable apostles. 
 
 laroslaf. after his defeat at Lipetsk, entered Suz- 
 dal on the tragic death of his brother, the Grand
 
 BUSSI&N REPUBLICS. 
 
 828 
 
 RUSSIAN R£FUBLICS. 
 
 Prince luri the Second, in twelve hundred and thir- 
 tj'-eiglit, and found his inheritance in the most de- 
 plorable condition. The towns and villages were 
 burnt, the country and roads covered with unburied 
 corpses ; the survivors were hiding in the woods. 
 He recalled the fugitives and began to rebuild. Ba- 
 tui, who had completed the devastation of South 
 Russia, summoned laroslaf to do him homage at 
 Sarai, on the Volga. laroslaf was received tliere 
 withdistinclion. Batui confirmed his title of Grand 
 Prince, but invited him to go in person to the Great 
 Khan, supreme chief of the Mongol nation, wlio 
 lived on the banks of the river Sakhalian, or Amur. 
 To do this was to cross the whole of Russia and 
 Asia. laroslaf bent Ills knees to the new master of 
 the world, Oktai, succeeded in refuting the accusa- 
 tions brought against him bj' a Russian boyar, and 
 obtained a new confirmation of his title. On his re- 
 turn, in twelve hundred and fortv-fi.x, he died in tlie 
 <lesert of exhaustion, and his faithful servants brought 
 his body back to Vladimir. His son Andrei succeed- 
 ed him at Suzdal, and ruled until twelve hundred 
 and fifty-two. His other son, Alexander, reigned at 
 Novgorod the (Jreat. Alexander was as brave as he 
 was intelligent. He was the hero of the North, and 
 yet he forced himself to accept the necessary humili- 
 ations of his terrible situation. In his youth we see 
 him fighting witli all the enemies of Novgorod, Li- 
 vonian kniglits and Tchudi, Swedes and Finns. The 
 Novgorodians found themselves at issue with the 
 Scandinavians on the subject of their possessions on 
 the Neva and the Gulf of Finland. As they had 
 lielped till' natives to resist the Latin faith. King 
 John obtained the promise of Gregory the Ninth that 
 a crusade, with plenary indulgences, should be preach- 
 ed against the Great Republic and its proteges, the 
 pagans of the Baltic. His son-in-law. Birger, with 
 an army of Scandinavians, Finns, and Western Crus- 
 aders, look the command of the forces, and sent 
 word to the Prince of Novgorod, "Defend yourself, 
 if you can: and know that I am already- in your prov- 
 inces." The Russians on their side, feeling that 
 thej" were fighting for orthodoxy, opposed the Latin 
 crusade with a Greek one. Alexander humbled him- 
 self in Saint Sopliia, received the benediction of the 
 Archbishop Spiridion, and addressed an energetic 
 harangue to Ins warriors. He had no time to await 
 reinforcemenis from Suzdal. He attacked the Swed- 
 ish camp, which was situated on the Ijora, one of 
 the southern iifHuents of the Neva, which had given 
 its name to Ingria. Alexander won a brilliant vic- 
 tory, which gained him his surname of Nevski. and 
 the honor of becoming one of the patrons of Saint 
 Petersburg under Peter the Great, the second con- 
 queror of the Swedes. By the orders of his great 
 successor, his bones repose in the Monastery of Alex- 
 ander Nevski. Tlie battle of the Neva was preserved 
 in a dramatic legend. An Ingriau chief told Alex- 
 ander liow, on the eve of the combat, he had seen a 
 mysterious bari.|ue, manned b}' two warriors with 
 shining Ijrows, glide tlirough the night. They were 
 Boris and (!lei). who came to the rescue of their 
 young kinsman. Other accounts liave preserved to 
 us the individual exploits of tlie Russian heroes — 
 <Tabriel,Skuilaf of Novgorod, .lames of l'olotsk,Sabas, 
 who threw down the ieiil of Birger. and Alexander 
 Nevski himself, who with a stroke of tlie lance "im- 
 lirinted his seal on his face." Notwithstanding the 
 triumph of such a service, Alexander and tlie Nov- 
 gorodians could not agree; a short time after he re- 
 tired to Pereiaslavl-Zalicski. The proud repulilieaus 
 soon had reason to regret tlie exih' of lliis seeoml 
 Camilliis. The Order of the Swordbearers, the in- 
 defatigable enemy of orthodoxy, took J'skof, Iheir 
 alley: th(^ Germans imposed tribiile on the VojaiK', 
 vassals of Novgorod, constructed the fortress of Ko- 
 porie on the territory of the Neva, look the Ilussian 
 town of Tessof In Ksthonia, and iilllaged the mer- 
 <-liants of Novgorod wilhin seventeen luiles of their 
 ramparts. During this time IIk' Tchudi imd the 
 
 Lithuanians captured the peasant?, and the cattle of 
 tiie citizens. At last Alexander allowed himself to 
 be touched bj' the prayers of the Archbishop and th<; 
 people,assembled an army, expelled the Germans from 
 Koporie, and next from Pskof, hung as traitors the 
 captive Vojane and Tchudi, and put to death six 
 knights wlio fell into his hands. This war between 
 the two races and two religions was cruel and piti- 
 less. The law of nations was hardly recognized, 
 More than once Germans and Russians slew the am- 
 bassadors of the other side. Alexander Nevski fin- 
 ally gave battle to the Livonian knights on the ice of 
 Lake Peipus, killed four hundred of them, took fifty 
 prisoners, and exterminated a multitude of Tchudi. 
 Such was the Battle of the Ice, which took place in 
 twelve hundred and forty-two. He returned in tri- 
 umph to Novgorod, dragging with him his jjrisoners 
 loaded with irons. Tiie Grand Master expected to 
 see Alexander at the gates of Riga, and implored 
 help of Denmark. The Prince of Novgorod, satisfied 
 with having delivered Pskof, concluded peace, re- 
 covered certain districts, and consented to the ex- 
 change of prisoners. At this time Innocent the 
 Fourth, deceived by false information, aildressed a 
 bull to Alexander, as a devoted son of the Church, 
 assuring him that his father laroslaf, while dying 
 among the Horde, had desired to submit himself to 
 the throne of Saint Peter. Two Cardinals brought 
 him tills letter from the Pope in twelve hundred and 
 fifty-one. 
 
 It is this liero of the Neva and Lake Peipus, this 
 vanquisher of the Scandinavians and the Livonian 
 knights, that we are presently to see grovelling at 
 the feet of a barbarian. Alexander Nevski perceived 
 that in presence of this immense and brutal force of 
 the Mongols, all resistance was madness, all pride 
 ruin. To brave them was to complete the overthrow 
 oi Russia. His conduct maj' not have been chival- 
 rous, but it was wise and humane. Alexander dis- 
 dained to play the hero at the expense of his people, 
 like his brother Andrei of Suzdal, who was immedi- 
 ately obliged to fly, abandoning his country to the 
 vengeance of the Tatars. The Prince of Novgorod 
 was the only prince in Russia who had kept his in- 
 dependence, but he knew Batui's hands could ex- 
 tend as far as the Ilmen. "God has subjected many 
 peoples to me," wrote the barbarian to him : "will 
 you alone refuse to recognize my power ? If you 
 wish to keep your land come to me : you will see 
 the splendor and glor}- of my swa}'." Then Alex- 
 ander went to Sarai with his brother Andrei, who 
 was disputing the Grand Principality of Vladimir 
 with his uncle, Sviatoslaf. Batui declared that fame 
 had not exaggerated the merit of Alexander, that he 
 far excelled the common run of Russian Princes. 
 He enjoined the two brothers to show themselves, 
 like Iheir father laroslaf, at the Great Horde ; they 
 returned from it in twelve hundred and fifty seven. 
 Kuiuk had confirmed the one in the po.ssession of 
 Vladimir, and tlie other in that of Novgorod, a<Iding 
 to it all South Russia and Kief. The year twelve 
 hundred and sixty jtut Alexander's patience and also 
 his politic obedience to the Tatars to the proof. 
 Ulavtclii, to whom llie Khnii Birkai had confided 
 llie all'airs of ;ill Russia, deniimdid that N<ivgorod 
 should submit lo llie census and pay tribute, ll was 
 the hero of the Neva who was charged with the 
 huniilialing and dangerous mission of persuading 
 Novgorod, When the posadnik expressed in the 
 vetciu? the opinion that it was necessary to submit 
 to the slrongesl, the jieople nosed a terrible cry and 
 j munlered him. Vasili hiiiisi'If. Alexinider's son, de- 
 1 elared against a f:ither "who brought servitude to 
 t free men," ;uid rdiied lo the Pskovians. It needed 
 a soul of iron temper to resist the universal disa|)- 
 probation ami counsel the Novgorodians to tliecom- 
 ; mission of the cowardly though necessary act . Alex- 
 ander arrested his son, and |iuiiislied with death or 
 I mutilation the boyars wlio had led him into the rc- 
 1 volt. The velehe decided lo refuse the tribute, and
 
 RUSSIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 829 
 
 RUSSIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 Bent buck tlie Mongol ambassador» with prpHcnts. 
 However, nil tlieriiiiiDr of I lie iipprdiicli of I he 'I'aliirx, 
 llicv repi'Mlcilaiiil Ali-.\:inilir coulil ;iririniiiicc to llii^ 
 eiieiiiy llial NoVfj;ijroil Mjljiiiilliil lo tlic- cciisiis. IJiil 
 when they saw tlie ollieer of th(^ Uhan at work, the 
 
 ftopiihilion rev.illed at;aiii, and the I'rince was ol)- 
 i;^e(l to keep };uar(l on tlie ollicer.s iiii;ht and (hiy. 
 In v.'dn the hoyars advised the eiti/.eiis lo j;ive in : 
 usseiiihlcd around Saint Sophia, the pi-npie <li-elared 
 Ihey would die for lilurly and honor. Alexan<ler 
 tlieii IhrealcTiril lo (|iiil llie eily wiih his men, and 
 abandon il lo the full veni;( anee nf tin' khan. This 
 menace eonipiered the pride cif th<- Nov;;orodians. 
 The Mongols anil their agents were allowed to jjo, 
 register in hiimi, from honse to honse in the humili- 
 ated and silent city to make the list of the in habit finis. 
 "The hoyars," says Karanisin, "might si ill he vain 
 of their rank and their rielies.lmt the simple <'ili/,ens 
 had lost with their national honor their most precious 
 possession." 
 
 In Suzdal also Alexander found liimself in the 
 presence of insolent victors and exasperatixl siilijects. 
 in twelve hundred and sixty-two the inhabitants of 
 Vladimir, of Suzdal, and of Kostof all arose against 
 the collectors of the Tatar inipnsl. The people of 
 laroslavl slew one renegade named Zozim a former 
 monk, who had become a .Moslem fanatic. Terribh^ 
 reprisals wi're sure to follow. Alexander set out 
 with presents for tlie Horde at the risk of leaving his 
 head there. He had likewise to excuse himself for 
 having refused tlie Mongols a body of the auxiliary 
 Russians, wishing at least to spare the blood and the 
 religious scruples of his subjects. It is a remarkable 
 factUiat, over the most piofonnd humiliations of 
 the Kussian nationality, Ihi^ contenipHrary history 
 always throws a ray of glory. At the moment that 
 Alexiuider w-ent to prostrate himself at Sarai, tiie 
 Su/.dalian army, united to that of Novgorod, and 
 eonuniuided by his son Dmitri, defeated the Livon- 
 ian knights, and look Dorpat by assault. The Khan 
 Bp.rluii gave Alexander a kind greeting, accepted his 
 explanations, dispensed with the promise<l contin- 
 gent, but kept him for a year near his Coiirl. Alex- 
 luuler's health broke down; on his return he died 
 before reaching Vladimir. When the news arrived 
 at his Capital, the Metropolitan Kirill, who was tin- 
 jsbing tile liturgy, turned towards the faithful, and 
 said : "Learn, my dear children, that the Sun of 
 Russia 18 set." "We are lost," cried the people, 
 brmUiing forth into sobs. Alexander by this policy 
 of resignation, which his chivalrous heroism does 
 not iHTinit us to despise, had secured some repose 
 for exhausted Russia. By his victories over his 
 enemies of the West he had given it some glory, 
 and hindered it from despairing under the most 
 crushing tyranny, material and moral, which a Eu- 
 ropean people had ever siilTered. 
 
 The Mongol khans, after having devastated and 
 abased Russia, did not introduce any direct political 
 change. They left to each coun'ry its laws, its courts 
 of justice, its natural chiefs. The house of Andrei 
 Bogoliuliski continued to reign in Suzdal, that of 
 Daniel Homanovilch in Galitch and Volhynia, the 
 Olgovitchi in Tcliernigof, and the descendants of 
 Rogvolod the Variag at Polotsk. Novgorod might 
 continue to expel and recall its priiKcs, and the dy- 
 nasties of the South to dispute the throne of Kief. 
 The Russian states found themselves under the 
 Mongol yoke, in much the same situation as that of 
 the (.'hrislians of the Greco-Slav peninsula three cen- 
 turies later, under the Ottomans. The Russians 
 remained in possession of all their lands, which their 
 nomad concpierors. encamped <ni the steppes of the 
 East and South, disdained. They were like their 
 Danubian kinsmen, a sort of rayahs. over whom the 
 authority of the khans was exerted with more or 
 le.ss rigor, but whom their conquerors never tried 
 in any. way to Tatarize. Let us see in w hat consisted 
 ed the oliligations of the vanquished, and their rela- 
 tions with their conquerorsjduriug the Mongol yoke. 
 
 The Riisnian Princes were forced to visit the Horde 
 either as evidence of their HiibiiiiKsion, or to give the 
 khan opporlunity of judging tlii'ir ilispiites. We 
 have seiii how they iiail to go, not only to (he khaii 
 of the (loldin Horde, but often also to the Grand 
 Khan at the extremity of .Asia, rui the borders of the 
 Sakli.iliaii or Amur. They met there Ibi- chiefH of 
 the Mongol, Tatar, Thibetan, and Hokharian liordcB, 
 iiikI sometimes llie ambassador of tlieCaliph of Bag- 
 dad, of Ihc I 'ope, or of the King of F.'-aiici-. rin; Grand 
 Khans tried tr) play oil' against each oilier lliese uin- 
 bassadois, who were aslounded to meet at lii» Court. 
 Malign Khan ilesired Saint Louis to recognize him 
 as the master of the world, "for," said he. "whcB 
 the universe has saluted me as sovereign, a happy 
 traiKpiillity will reign on the earth." In the case of 
 refusal, "neither deep seas nor inaccessible moun- 
 tains" wouhl place the King of Prance beyond the 
 power of his wrath. To Ihi^ princes of Asia an<l Itus- 
 sia he displayed the presents of the King of France, 
 alVecling lo consider Ihem as tributes and signs of 
 submission. "We will send for him to confound 
 you," he said to theiii. and Joinville assures us that 
 this threat, and "the fear of the King of France," 
 decided many lo throw themselves (Jii his mercy. 
 This journey to the Grand Horde was terrible. The 
 road went tliroiigh deserts; or countries once rich, 
 but changed by the Tatars into vast wastes. Few 
 who went returned. I'lanus Carpinus, envoy of In- 
 nocent the Fourth, saw in the steppes of the Kirghiz 
 the dry bones of the hoyars of tlie unhappy laros- 
 laf, who had dieil of thiVsl in the sand. Planus C'ar- 
 jiinus thus describes the H:ilui's Court on the Volga: 
 "It is crowded and brilliant. His army consists of 
 six hundred lliousand men, one hundred and fifty 
 thousand of wliom are Tatars, and four hundn d and 
 lifty thousand strangers. Christians as well as infi- 
 dels. On Gc od Friday we were conducted to his 
 tent, between two tires, becau.ie the Tatars pretend 
 that a fire purifies everything, and robs even poison 
 of its danger. We had lo make many prostrations, 
 and enter'the tent without loiiching the threshold, 
 lialiii was in his throne with one of his wives; his 
 brothers, his children, and the Tatar lords were seat- 
 ed on benches ; the rest of the assembly were on the 
 ground, the men on the right, the women on the 
 left.... The klian and the lords of the Court emptied 
 from time to lime cups of gold and silver, while the 
 musicians made the air ring with their melodies. 
 l!;itiii has a bright complexion; he isalTable with his 
 men. but inspires general terror." The Court of the 
 (irand Khan was still more magnificent. Planus Car- 
 pinus found there a Russian named Kum, who was 
 the f;ivorite and special goldsmilh of Gaiuk or Kuuik, 
 anil Rul)ruqius discovered a Parisian goldsmilh, nam- 
 ed Guillaume. Much money was needed for success 
 either at the Court of the Grand Khan or of Batui. 
 Presents had to be distributed to the Tatar Princes, 
 to the favorites above all, to the wives and the mother 
 of the khan. .Vl this terrible tribunal the Russian 
 Princes had to struggle with intrigues and corrup- 
 tion; the heads of the" pleaders were often the slakes 
 of these dreadful trials. The most dangerous ene- 
 mies they encountered at the Tatar Court were not 
 the barbarians, but the Russians, their rivals. The 
 history of the Russian Princes at the Horde of Sa- 
 rai in "twelve hundred and forty-six, and Mikhail of 
 Tver in thirteen hundred and nineteen, the one as- 
 sassinated by the renegade Doman, Ihe other by the 
 renegade Romaneis, at the instigation and under the 
 eyes'of the Grand Prince of Moscow. 
 " The conquered people were obliged to pay a capi- 
 tation lax, which weisrlii-d as heavily on Ihe poor as 
 on the rich. The tribute was paid "either in money 
 or in furs; those who were unable lo furnish it be- 
 came slaves. The khans Inid for some lime farmed 
 out this revenue lo some Khiva merchants, who col- 
 I lected it with the utmost rigor, and whom they pro- 
 tected by appointing superior agents called batka/ii, 
 I with strong guardsto support them. The excesses
 
 BUSSIAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 830 
 
 KUSSIAN KEPCBLICS. 
 
 of these tax-gatherers excited many revolts: in twelve 
 hundred and sixtj'-two, that of Suzdal; in twelve 
 hundred and eighty -four, that of Kiirsk; in thirteen 
 hundred and eighteen, that of Kolomna; in thirteen 
 hundred and twentj'-seveu, that of Tver, where the 
 inhabitants slew tlie haskak Shevkal, and brought 
 upon themselves frightful reprisals. Later, the Princes 
 of Moscow themselves farmed not only tlie tax from 
 their own subjects, but also from neighboring coun- 
 tries. Tliev became the farmers-general of the in- 
 vaders. Tills was the origin of both their riches and 
 their power. 
 
 Besides the tribute, the Russians had to furnish to 
 their master the blood-tax, a military contingent. 
 Already at the time of the Huns and Avars, we have 
 seen Slavs and Goths accompanying tlie Asiatic 
 hordes, forming their vanguards, and being as it 
 were the hounds of Baian. In the thirteentli cen- 
 tury the Kussiau Princes furnislied to the Tatars 
 select troops, especially a solid infantry, and march- 
 ed in their armies each at the head of his drujiua. 
 It was thus that in twelve hundred and seventy-six 
 Boris of Rostof, Gleb of Bielozersk, Feodor of laro- 
 slavl, and Andrei of Gorodets followed Mangu Khan 
 in a war against the tribes of tlie Caucasus, and 
 sacked Dediakof in Daghestau, the capital of the 
 lasui. The Mongols scrupulously reserved to them 
 their part of the booty. The same Russian Princes 
 took part in an expedition against an adventurer 
 named Lachan by the Greek historians, formerly a 
 keeper of pigs, who had raised Bulgaria. The "de- 
 scendants of Monomakh behaved still more dishon- 
 orably in the trouble^ in the interior of Russia. They 
 excited the Mongols against tlieir countrymen and 
 aided the invaders. Prince Andrei, son" of ifUex- 
 ander Nevski, in twelve hundred and eighty-one, in 
 ■concert with the Tatars, pillaged the provinces of 
 Vladimir, Suzdal, Murom. Moscow, and Pereiaslavl, 
 which be was disputing witli Dmitri, his elder broth- 
 ■er. He helped the barbarians to profane churches 
 and convents. In thirteen hundred and twenty-sev- 
 en it was the Prmces of Moscow and Suzdal who 
 directed the military execution against Tver. In 
 twelve hundred and eighty-four two of the Olgovitclii 
 reigned in the land of Kursk; one of them, Oleg, put 
 the other to death in the name of tlie khan. Servi- 
 tude had so much abased all characters, that even 
 the annalists share the general degradation. They 
 blame, not Oleg the murderer, but Sviatoslaf the vic- 
 tim. Was it not his unbridled conduct that caused 
 the anger of the klian ? No prince could ascend the 
 throne without having received the investiture and 
 the iarluik, or letters";patent, from the khan. Tlie 
 proud Novgorodians themselves rejected Mikhail, 
 their Prince, saying, "It is true that we have chosen 
 Mikhail, but on the condition that he sliould show 
 us the iarluik." No Russian State dared to make 
 war without being authorized by the klian. In 
 twelve hundred and sixty-nine the Novgorodians 
 asked leave to march against Revel. In thirteen 
 hundred and three, in an assembly of princes, and 
 in the presence of the Metropolitan Maximus, a de- 
 cree of the Khan Tokhta was read, enjoining tlie 
 princes to put an end to their dissensions, and to 
 content themselves with their apjianages, it being 
 the will of the Grand Klian that the Grand Princi- 
 pality should enjoy peace. "When the Jlonsrol am- 
 bassadors brought a letter from their sovereign, the 
 Russian Princes were oliliged to meet them on foot, 
 prostrate themselves, spread precious cariiets under 
 their feet, present them with a cuii tilled with gold 
 pieces, and listen, kneeling, while the iarluik was be- 
 ing read. 
 
 Even when tlic Tatars had conquered the Russians, 
 they respected their bravery. Matrimonial alliances 
 were contracted between their princes. Aboul twelve 
 hundred and seventy-two (Jleli, Prince of IJii'lozersk, 
 took a wife out of the khan's family, which already 
 professed Clirislianity, and Feodor of Riazau became 
 the son-in-law of the khan of tlie Nogais, who as- 
 
 signed to the young couple a palace -in Sarai. In 
 thirteen hundred and eighteen the Grand Prince luri 
 married a sister of Uzbek Khan, Koutchaka, wlio 
 was baptized by the name of Agatha. Towards the 
 end of the fourteenth century the Tatars were no 
 longer the rude shepherds of the steppes. Mingled 
 with sedentary and more cultivated races, they re- 
 built fresh cities on the ruins of those they had de- 
 stroyed : Kruim in the Crimea, Kazan, Astrakhan, 
 and Sarai. They had acquired a taste for luxury 
 and magnificence, honored the national poets who 
 sang their exploits, piqued themselves on their chiv- 
 alry and even on their gallantry. Notwithstanding 
 the difference of religion, a reconciliation was taking 
 place between the aristocracy of the two countries, 
 between the Russian and the Tatar Princes. The 
 Russian historians are not entirely agreed as to the 
 nature and degree of influence exerted by the Mon- 
 gol yoke on the Russian development. Karamsin 
 and M. Kostomarof believe it to have been consider- 
 able. "Perhaps," says the former, "our national 
 character still presents some blots which are derived 
 from the Mongol barbarism." M. Soloviof, on the 
 contrary, affirms that the Tatars hardly intlueuced it 
 more than the Petchcuegi or Polovtsui. 31. Bestu- 
 jef-Riumin estimates the influence to have been spe- 
 cially exerted on the financial administration and 
 military organization. On one side the Tatars es- 
 tablished the capitation-tax, which has remained in 
 the financial system of Russia ; on the other, the con- 
 quered race had a natural tendency toadopt the mil- 
 itary system of the victors. The Russian or Mon- 
 gol Princes formed a caste of soldiers henceforth 
 quite distinct from Western chivalry, to which the 
 Russian heroes of the twelfth century belonged. 
 The warriors of Daniel of Galitch, it is said, astound- 
 ed the Poles and Hungarians by the Oriental char- 
 acter of their equipment. Short stirrups, very high 
 saddles, a long caftan, or floating dress, a sort of 
 turban surmounted by an aigret, sabers and poniards 
 in their belts, a bow and arrows, — such was the mili- 
 tary costume of a Russian Prince of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. On the other side, many of the peculiarities in 
 which the Mongol influence is thought traceable may 
 be attributed as well or better to purely Slav tradi- 
 tions, or imitations of Byzantine manners. If the 
 Muscovite Princes inclined to autocracj', it was not 
 that they formed themselves on the model of the 
 Grand Khans, but that they naturally adopted im- 
 perial ideas of absolutism imported from Constanti- 
 nople. It is always the Roman Emperor of Tsar, 
 grad, and not the leader of Asiatic shepherds, who is 
 their typical monarch. If from this time the Rus- 
 sian penal law makes more frequent use of the pain 
 of death and corporal punishment, it is not only the 
 result of imitation of the Tatars, but of the ever, 
 growing influence of Byzantine laws, and the pro- 
 gressive triumph of their principles over those of the 
 ancient Code of laroslaf. Now these laws so very 
 easily admitted torture, flogging, mutilation, and 
 the stake, that there is no need to explain anything 
 by Mongol usages. The habit of prostration, that of 
 beating the forehead, of affecting a servile submis-- 
 sion, is certainly Oriental, but it is also Byzantine. 
 The seclusion of women was common in ancient 
 Russia, the customs of which were moulded by 
 Greek missionaries, and tlie Russian terem was de- 
 rived from the Hellenic plan of women's quarters, 
 rather than from the Oriental harem; all the more 
 because the Tatar women, before the conversion of 
 the Jlongols to I>hiinism, do not ajijiear to have been 
 secluded. If the Russians of the seventeenlh century 
 seem strange to us in their long robes and Oriental 
 fashions, we must remember that the French and 
 Italians of the (ifleenlh century, dressed by Venetian 
 merchants, dis|)layed the same taste. But in France 
 fashions made advances, while in Russia, isolated 
 from the rest of Kurope, they remained stationary. 
 
 From a social point of view, two Russian expres- 
 sions seem to date from the Tatar invasion : tchernuL
 
 BUSSIAN RIFLING. 
 
 831 
 
 BUBT. 
 
 or the black prnplo, to dopmnilto Ihr lowor orders 
 a.ni\ k nut idiii II. , sifiiiifyiiif^ tiic pciisiint, Uial is, tin 
 typiciil ('liriHtiun, who wus always a si ranker to Hit- 
 Moiifjnl ciistoiiis adopted for a smirl time oy the ar- 
 istoeracy. As to the ainouiil of Moiifjol or Tatar 
 blood mixed with the blood of the Hiissians, it must 
 have belli very small : the aristoeraey of the two 
 K'nuiUries may have eoiilraeted iiiarriai^es, a eerlaiii 
 lUiiuber of Tatar I'riiiees may have bectome Russian 
 Princes by their conversion to orthodoxy, but the 
 two races, as ii whole, remained straii<;ers. Even to- 
 day, while the native Finns conliiiu<Mo be Kussilied, 
 the Tatar cantons, even thoiij;h converted to Chris- 
 tianily, an^ still Tatar. If the Monjfol yoke iiilhi- 
 cnceil ICiissian development, it is very indirectly. 
 By separatini; Russia from the West, by inakiii'^ it a 
 political dependency of Asia, it perpetuated in the 
 country that Byzantine half-civili/alion wlmse infe- 
 riority to European civilization became daily more 
 obvious. If the Russians of the seventeenth centu- 
 ry differ so much from Western nations, it is above 
 all because the}' have remained at the jKiint whence 
 ull set out. Ai;ain. the Tatar ciiii(|uest also favored 
 imlirectly the estalilisliinent of absolute jiower. The 
 IMuscovite I'riiices, respdiisiblc to the kahii for the 
 public tranipiility and the collection of the Uix, be- 
 ing-all the while watched andsupported by the baska- 
 ki, could the more easily annihilate the independ- 
 ence of the towns, the resistance of the suliordinate 
 princes, the turbulence of the boyars, and tin- priv- 
 ileges of the free peasants. The (iraiid Prince of 
 Moscow had no consideration for his subjects be- 
 cause no man had any consideration for him, and 
 because his life was always at stake. The .Mongol 
 tyranny bore with a terrible weight upon all tlie 
 Hussian hierarchy, and subjected more closely the 
 nobles to the princes and the peasants to the nobles. 
 "The Princes of Moscow," says Karamsin, "took 
 the humble title of servants of the khans, and it was 
 by this means that they became powerful moiiarchs." 
 No doubt under any circiiinstances the Russian prin- 
 cipalities would have ended by losing themselves in 
 tlie same dominion, but Russian unity would have 
 been made like French unity, without the entire de- 
 struction of local autonomies, the privileges of the 
 towns, and the rights of the subjects, it was the 
 crushing weight of the Mongol domination that sti- 
 fled all the germs of political liberty. \Ve may say, 
 with .Mr. Wallace, tliat " the first Tsars of Muscovy 
 were the jiolitical descendants, not of Russian Princes, 
 but of Tatar khans." The third indirect result of 
 the conquest was the giowtli of the power and riches 
 of the Church. In spite of the saintly legends about 
 the martyrdom of certain princes, the Tatars were a 
 tolerant nation. Rubnniuis saw in the presence of 
 the (Jrand Khan .Mangii. Nestorians, Mussulmans, 
 and Shamans celebrating their own particular form 
 of worship. Kuiuk had a Christian chapel near his 
 palace ; Ivhubilai regularly took part in the feast of 
 Easter. In twelve hundred and .sixty-one the Khan 
 of Sariii authorized the erection of a church and an 
 orthodox bishopric in his Capital. The Mongols ha<l 
 no sectarian haired against liisliops andjiriests. 
 AVith a sure political instinct, tlu^ Tatars, very like the 
 Sultans of Stanibul. understood that all these men 
 could excite or ca'.m the people. After the lirst fiirv 
 of the conciuest was passed, they applied themselves 
 to gaining them over. They excepted priests and 
 monks from the capitation-tax ; they received them 
 well at the Horde, and gave pardons at their inter- 
 cession. They settled disputes of orthodox prelates, 
 and established peace in ilieCliurch as well as in the 
 State. In thirteen hundred and thirteen the Khan 
 Uzbek, at the prayer of Peter. .Metropolitan of Mos- 
 cow, confirmed the privileges of the Church, and for- 
 bade that it should be deprived of its possessions, 
 " for," says the edict, "these possessions are sacred, 
 because they belong to men whose prayers preserve 
 our lives and slrengtluii our armies." The riirht of 
 justice was formally graiiteil to the Clinrcli. Sacri- 
 
 lege was iiunished by death. The conventH also In- 
 creased in numbers and riches. Tliey tilled enor- 
 mously: were tlii'y not the safest asylumH? Tlicip 
 peasants and servants multiplied : was not the pro- 
 tection of the Church the surest ? Gifts of land were 
 showered on them, as in France in the year ten liun- 
 dred. It was thus that the great ecclesiastical patri- 
 mony of Russia was founded, a wealthy reserve of 
 revenues and capital, on which more than once in 
 national crises the Russian sovereigns were glad to 
 draw. The Cliiircli, which, even in its weakness, 
 had Hteadil}' tended to unity and autocracy, was to 
 place; at the service of the crown a power which had 
 become enormous. The Metropolitans of Moscow 
 were almost always the faithful allies of the Grand 
 Princes. Sei' Itimninn Army, JtnuHiau Ot/ternmeni, 
 and ItiinHi'dii I'riiiriiiitlitii'H. 
 
 RUSSIAN RIFLING.- The Russians have adopted 
 the French ritiing for heavy ordnance. They have, 
 however, had rilled several of their smaller fortress- 
 guns with six grooves, and their field-pieces have 
 been ritlcd in a similar manner ; but, instead of plac- 
 ing the stmls in pairs, and having twelve of them, 
 they use only six placed alternately. Their rifling 
 has an equal twist, and the grooves are slightly nar- 
 rowed at the bottom. In the lield-pieces they are 
 sloped otr. on one side to allow the projectile, the 
 bearings of which are also sloped off, to wedge it- 
 self tightly ; but these slight modifications pos.sess 
 no advantage over the fittings adopted for the French 
 .service. 
 
 Jlore recently the Russians have adopted both the 
 ceniering and the compressing systems of rifling with 
 their steel ordnance. 
 
 BUST. — Oxide of iron, which forms on the surface 
 of iron from exposure to atmospheric influence or 
 contact with acid. The following fonnsagood pre- 
 servative against rust, and is a good composition for 
 guns when packed in boxes for transit, viz., one part 
 while lead, seven jiarts tallow. 
 
 Among metal-workers and particularly among the 
 skilled artisans engaged in the production of small- 
 arms the perfection of a cheap, simple and. at the 
 same time, reliable, process of coating the smaller 
 parts — as for instance, in the guns, the functional 
 pieces of the systems — for the prevention of rust, 
 has been the subject of study and experiment for 
 very many years. When it is considered that so in- 
 considerable a WarKstablishment asthatof the Unit- 
 ed States demands the manufacture of some 30,000 
 Springfield rifles ;>< r annum to keep up the reason- 
 able complement in reserve, and that private manu- 
 factures year by year average an aggregate of ten 
 times that number of military and sporting arms, 
 the value of the sugMstcd improvement is most sen- 
 siblj- appreciated. The essays which have been made 
 in tills country and Europe, in the direction of pro- 
 tecting steel and iron against the corroding effects 
 of air and moisture, have involved experiments with 
 paints, varnishes, glazes, enamels, galvanizing, elec- 
 tro-depositing, and finalh', the magnetic-oxide coat- 
 ing process, which up to the present time seems to 
 cliiim the best results. This last named process was 
 the discover)-, some ten years back, of Prof. Barff, 
 and is generally termed the " Barff-ina;." The Barfl 
 theory suljjects the parts to be treated to the action 
 of super-heated steam, in a retort or chamber, until 
 such a temperature is reached as will assure the ox- 
 ydization demanded. The discovery is now con- 
 trolled by the Bower-Barff Co., an English organiza- 
 tion which has an agency in the United States. Be- 
 sides the Bower-Barff there iiave been two or three 
 processes, in the direction of anti-rust coating by 
 oxide, practically developed in this countrj-, bul, we 
 understand, without satisfactory results. Though 
 there is no quest ion of the value of theBarff-ing pro- 
 cess as applied to large bodies of iron and steel, its 
 diflieulties and uncertainties in treating small pieces, 
 like the action and the limb-work of gun systems, 
 have thus far, we believe, deterred the manufacturers
 
 BU8TS£. 
 
 832 
 
 BY8WICE. 
 
 from its adoption. Tlie interchangeable theory of 
 small-arms production demands a mathematically 
 correct and uniform preservation of the contour, 
 proportion and volume of each part, and such possi- 
 ble incidents as the erection of scale on the metal, 
 the distortion of lines, or the expansion or shrinkage 
 of volume, through too great heat or inexpert hand- 
 ling, are of course not to be entertained. For .some 
 months past it has been not altogether a secret in 
 ordnance circles that the very vexatious problem of 
 coating gun parts with oxide, in such manner as to 
 assure not onlj' au excellent color but entire protec- 
 tion against corrosive influences, has been solved 
 through the verj' intelliiient and patient experiment- 
 ing of Colonel A. R. liiilhiiLiton, Commandant of the 
 National Armory at Spriugtield. 
 
 The information in our possession at present as 
 to Colonel Buttington's process, from the Army and 
 Navy Jiiurnal. is derived from a correspondent who 
 has been for many years a manufacturer of machine 
 plant and special tools for gun-making and an ex- 
 pert in the selection and treatment of metals. We 
 learn that the experiments, which have proceeded 
 by slow degrees from the plane of investigation to 
 that of practical application, have been of long con- 
 tinuance, and that the testing has been of a charac- 
 ter exceptionally severe and thorough. In pursuing 
 his experiments Colonel Buffiugtou has always kept 
 in view the practical rather ^liau the theoretical, 
 and the result of his work is the formulated .system 
 of an industrial expert rather than the more ambi- 
 tious but less available scheme of a consulting en- 
 gineer. " Every one skilled in the art of ash or 
 baked bluing processes and the time and care re- 
 quired for the acid process of barrel browning," 
 says the correspondent, "will be pleased to learn that 
 by immersing and keeping the parts in such a con- 
 dition for si.\ minutes, in a bath of saltpeter, 10 
 parts, and of black oxide of manganese. 1 part, heat- 
 ed to about 600 degrees Far., a beautiful blue black 
 color will be secured which will wear equal to, if 
 not better thau, the best acid process." The opera- 
 tion requires no skilled labor, a cast-iron pot deep 
 enough to cover the parts to be treated, arranged in 
 such manner that a uniform heat can be maintained, 
 being the only apparatus needed. At the National 
 Armory, they are using this process for all the gun- 
 parts formerly blued — such as butt-plates, trigger- 
 guards, bands, tips, etc. They are also treating the 
 bayonets, aud are about to try the process with the 
 
 barrels. Especially notable is the fact that this pro- 
 cess will not prejudicially affect the spring temper, 
 and will draw case-hardened parts, requiring tough- 
 ness, to the proper spring teniper. The economical 
 advantage is thus differentiated between the old 
 process and the new — the old barrel browning by 
 acid requires at least four and better six days time, 
 while the new process consumes six minutes — the 
 former demaudiug an expert and the latter a laborer. 
 The Barffing process, as is well known, takes from 
 ten to fourteen hours, with the constant liability of 
 doing a positive or permanent damage to pieces thus 
 treated. 
 
 It will be seen from the foregoing that, though 
 Colonel Buttington's process is applicable both for 
 browning and anti-corrosive purposes, it has not yet 
 been applied to the parts of the action, other than 
 the springs. The very economical results of the new 
 process are thus far most pronounced, the saving of 
 time and labor being considerable. We now look 
 for a trial of the anti-rust virtues or the process upon 
 the holt-action and lindj-work of the several repeat- 
 ing rifles. Should Colonel BiifBngton have merely 
 succeeded in substituting a new formula for the old 
 uncertain bluing and browning processes, he will 
 have scored a success; if he has at last hit upon a 
 real anti-rust treatment he has gained a victorj'. 
 
 EBSTEE.— In Heraldry, one of the sub- 
 ordinaries, consisting of a lozenge with 
 0\ a circular opening pferced in its center. 
 \ Ancient armor w as i-ometimes composed 
 / of ruslres sewed on cloth. 
 
 rUSTEED AEMOK.— Armor of the Mid- 
 dle Ages, composed of flat oval rings sew- 
 ed on quilted leather or linen and over- 
 lapping each other half way. 
 EYSWICK.— The Peace of Ryswick was a treaty 
 concluded in 1097 at Ryswick, a Dutch village be- 
 tween Delft aud the Hague, which was signed by 
 France, England, and Spain on Sept. 20, anil by Ger- 
 many on Oct. 30. It put an end to the sanguinary 
 contest in which England had been engaged with 
 France. It has been often said that the only equiv- 
 alent then received by England for all the treasure 
 she had transmitted to the Continent, and for all the 
 blood which had been shed there, was an acknowl- 
 edgment of William's title by the King of France; 
 but it must not be forgot how much the Allies were 
 benefited by the check given to the gigantic power 
 and overweeuiug ambition of France. 
 
 Unstie. 
 
 END OF VOL. II.
 
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