(Hi i i^, >< Xi ,^\^[l)(JIVERy/A vVlOSiWCElfj> ■< _ _ J o -^tllBRARYQ^- ^^tllBRARY(9/c ^WEUNIVERy/A ^OJUVJ-JO"*^ -, . ^ o ,-\WEl)N'IVERy/A ^ >- ^^ ^lOS-ANCElfj-^ il^i <CJ13DNVS01'^ .vi;OFCAllF0% ^OF-CAllFOff^ >&Aavaan# ^OAavaan-^^ .5J\EUNIVERy/A <rjl3DWS01^ n ^HIBRARYQr^ ^l %OJ1TO-J0>' '^iOjuvjju-^ ^^WEUNIVERy/A. ^Uj •< 1^1 IG IX. %a3AiNajuv ^;^tllBRARYQ^^ ^.JOJIIVDJO'^ LOSANCElfj> ^.OFCAllFOff^ ?i \r \< A ^OFCAIIFOP;^ ^. ^iVAaviiaiiiV'' 4i; ^; '% ^OFCAllFOff^ ^<?Aava8iii^ I"! --"^ <$; .v,lOSANCEl£rx ^ B .vAT-IIRRARY/i/. sXfllRRARY^?/ ^ c ^.i/0 ,5MfUNIVER% ^10 o .vin^AfJCFlfr.x I'll P^ .<.nfTAiiFnpv. t- £r> IIS'^ .,nprAiiFO/?^ .^WEUNIVERJ/A ^vlO ■< %a i}. ^WE■UNIVERy/A ANCElfj>, ..MNah^' ii'JNYS01^^~ '^/jaJAINil-JU~^' ^^tLIBRARY(V <^tllBRARYG/r 5yEUNIVERSyA. mi rm tlff^ ■ S = '^■fJlj'Jf.V M) ^30 ■; -ilJAI.N.l JIW ^^tllBRARYO/ ^tllBRARYOc^ ^iOJUVJ-JO"^ ^iOJUVDJO"^ ,\\^F IINIVFRJ/A ,v»vlOSA)Jr,flf' 1^ > "^/^aiAiNftnv^^ v^ ■mUPYO/: ^-^ a r: a A.OFCA1IFO% .4.0FCA1IF0%, ^o^avaaiii^ ^c'AavaaiB^'^ V/^, ^v>;lOS-AHCflfj)> i^ "^/^a^AINfllWV^ s-OFC ^FCAIIFOff^ 3 •i .^\«•UNIVERy/A. ^lOSANCFlfju <5 — ^ ^ ^^illBRARYQ^ ^^UIBRARY^/ %OJI1V3JO>' '^OJIIVDJO'^ ^^WEUNIVERy/^ ^lOSMEir '^J'ilJDNVSOl^ v/ja3AIN(l]AV i^OFCAllFOP^ ^OF-CAIIFOR^ .^WEUNIVERr •JJUJ.'WiUl' i ICV- ^>MIIBRARYG^ S 1 li— ' ^ ^I'UBRARYOc, .5,yFPIVfRy/^ '^d/OJITVDJO'^ ^.i/OJIlVDJO'^ ^lOSANCElfj> o '*^/585AIN(llWV ^vM-llBRARYQ^ a 3 ^•OFCAIIFO/?^ ^OFCAllFOff^ 5- .^^ ' ^ ti' ^<?Aavaan# ^<?Aavaan-^'^ .^MEUN1VER% "^J-Jlr.. CO I :i?^ OF-CAllFOff>' AWEUNIVERJ/A ■^CJIJDNVSOI^ ^■lOSANCElfj-^ , -< %a3AINIl-3WV^ ^vMllBRARY<v ^vM-llBRARYQ<- ^tfOJUVJ-JO"^ ^^ V: AWEUNIVERy/A l^ jdiAlNiljWv" ,\WEl)NIVERy/A <rjl]DNVSOl^ ^lOSAN'CElfj-^ %a3AINfl-3WV^ ^OFCAIIFOR^ ^OfCAllfOff/Jlj;. 5 P=. .^WEUNIVERy/A |L5 ^OAavaan-# '^<?Aavaan# '^jjujsvsui-'"^ 'V/sa^Aisiunv' ^\tllBRARY(9^, ^^tllBRARYQA, AWE UNIVERS/a ,vvlOSANCElfj> 11 irs I i; V - / ■■ '/, A IlillilUIJ ^ {{W < ((ild.'IIK FAEEOWS llLITAEY ENCYCLOPEDIA A DICTIONAIIV OF MILITARY KNOWLEDGE WITH MAPS AND ABOUT THREE THOUSAND WOOD ENGRAVINGS BY EDWARD S. FARROW, U. S. Army, LATE ASSISTANT INSTRUCTOR OF TACTICS AT THE UNITED STATES MILITARY ACADEMY, ■m:ST POINT. NEW YORK "■^Vhat Is obvious Is not always known, and what Is known Is not alwaj's present."— JOHSSOX. COMPLETE IN THREE VOLUMES. VOLUME II. NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR, 240 BROADWAY. 1885. Entered, according to Act of Congress, In the year 1884, Bt EDWARD S. FARKOW, Assistant IssTRrcTOB op Tactics at West Point, In the oflSce of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. DEDICATED TO THE NATIONAL GUARDS OF AMERICA %\\ Appreciation of tl)civ (gutcvprisc nnb llnlor AND AS A TRIBUTE OF HOMAGE TO GALLANT SOLDIERS. PREFATOliY NOTICE. TiiK tlosigu of this work is tliat of a LimtART of Military Kxowxkdge for the People — not a mere collection of elaborate treatises in alplKilntical (n-iicr, Imt a work to he readily consulted as a Dictionary on every military subject on which jicople generally require some distinct information — no article being longer than is absolutely necessary. The several topics are not handled with a view to the technical instruction of those who have to make a special study of particular branches of military knowledge or art. The information given may bo characterized in many instances as non-professional, embracing those points of the several subjects which every intelligent man or woman may have occa- sion to speak or think about. At the same time every effort is made that the statements, so far as they go, shall be precise and scientifically accurate. Although about 30,000 subjects have been compiled from the various publications and records of the War Department, Foreign War Offices, and Military Works of reference, more than 5000 original articles have been prepared ])y specialists in America and abroad. While the Tactics, Ordnance, Gun Machinery, Implements, and Equipments of all ages and of all military powers have been fully described and illustrated under appropriate head- ings, a complete system of cross-references enables the military student to quickly locate several hundred articles pertaining to the general subject under investigation. Thus, under the article Magazine Gun will be found the following references: Boch, Buffi,ngton, Bullard, Burf/css, Burton, Chafee-liee,ee, Clemmons, Colt, Dean, Elliott, Franklin, Hunt, Lee, Letcis-liiee, Miller, Reminx/ton, Russell, Spencer-Lee, Sprinejfidd-Jones, Tiesing, Trabue, Whitney, and Winchester Magazine Guns. Under each of these articles are refer- ences to articles describing and illustrating all other arms of the respective classes. The Compiler has made special effort to set forth in detail the numerous decisions, rendered by the War Department and Tactical Department at West Point, on the tactical points raised and submitted from time to time by- the Officers of the Army and National Guard. The descriptions and illustrations of more than 500 varieties of Gun Machinery, Steam Hammers, Cranes, etc., constitute a novel feature of the work to be appreciated by those wishing to investigate the subjects of construction, testing, etc. The origin.al plan has been strictly adhered to throughout; and if, as the work pro- ceeded, there has been any change in the method or quality of the execution, it may at least be affirmed that the change has not been for the worse. After some experience, it C PREFATORY NOTICE. became easier to find the person specially qualified to write a particular kind of article, and thus the circle of contributors became widened, and the distribution of the work moi-e special ized. It was also seen to be desirable, in regard to certain classes of subjects, to admit a rather amjjler selection of heads. This has been effected without increasing the scale of the work, not so much by less full treatment of the subjects, as by increased care in con- densing the statements and .omitting everything superfluous. A great quantity of matter l^ertaining to Foreign Armies has been introduced in this work, so as to enable the military student to compare the organization, arms, etc., of all armies with those of his own service. The Encyclopedia contains also descriptions of ancient armor, and of arms, lately in use, which have become obsolete, as it may be of some interest to follow the changes which have taken place in the mode and means of fighting from the earliest period down to the present time. The insertion of veterinary terms and of remedies for the common com- plaints of horses will be found useful under conditions where a Veterinary Surgeon is not available, as is often the case in detached parties of Cavalry. A description of all tools and machines found commonly in workshops may prove acceptable to Departmental Officers on their first joining Government Manufacturing Establishments. Of the Sciences, the least adapted to encyclopedic treatment is Mathematics. All terms of common occurrence in Gunnery, Reconnoissance, etc., however, have been intro- duced, and a brief exposition of the subjects given, as far as could be done in an elemen. tary way. Natural Philosophy has received ample attention, and all the leading doctrines and facts of general interest will be found under their a])propriate heads, treated in a popular way, and divested as far as possible of the technicalities of mathematics. Chem- istry, some knowledge of which is becoming daily more indispensable in all departments of military life, receives a comparatively large space. Prominence has been given to those points of the subject that have either a direct practical militarj' bearing or a special scien- tific interest. During the progress of the work, several changes in th-5 nomenclature and notation of the Science have come into general use; these have been duly noted under the appropriate headings. The new and far-reaching doctrines of the Correlation of Forces and the Conservation of Energy have produced vast changes in the nomenclature and classification of the various sections of Military Physics; while the more complete investi- gations into the phenomena and laws of light, heat, motion, and electricity have created virtually new sections, which must find a place in any adequ.ate survey of scientific prog- ress. Mechanical invention has, indeed, so kept pace with the progress of Military Science and the Art of War, that in almost every department of Physics improved machines and processes have to be described, as well as new discoveries and altered points of view. The manufacture of gunpowder and high explosives is a signal instance of the extent to which in our day scientific discovery is indebted to appropriate machinery and instruments of observation and analysis. These' extensive changes in Physics involve corresponding changes in tlie method of their exposition. The scientific department of the work is consequently treated in .-ill its branches in the most effulgent manner, and over 1000 very- fine engravings are used for the purpose of illustration. True to its projected pl;in as a T^ihkart of Military Knowledge for the People, this Encyclopedia will be found to be especially rich in notices of miscellaneous military matters. Some of the subjects introduced might jierhaps be considered beneath the PUEFATOIIY NOTICE. dignity of a book aH])iriiig to a more Bevcrcly scientific eliaraeter; Init all of tliem are, if not instructive, at least curiouo or entertaining, and likely to occur in the course of reading or conversation. During the progress of the work, the Compiler has received numerous assurances from parents as to how higlily it was prized, even though only partly issued, l)y their sons at Military Schools, as a repertory of the kind of things they are constantly in search of and often puzzling tlieir elders about. This use of the Encyclopedia has been steadily kept in view; and it is gratifying to learn that it is found efficiently to serve the purpose intended. In conclusion, the Compiler asks the indulgence of Military Critics wherever errors or discrepancies have crept into tliis work, ;inil begs to acknowledge the valuable heli) ob- tained from the works of many authors, both military and scientific, through the courtesy of Messrs. John Wiley & Sons and Mr. D. Van Nostrand, publishers, and the assistance he has received from various friends. To General Stephen V. Benet, Chief of Ordnance, United States Army, he is especially indebted for courteous assistance 'in the preparation of the work. To economize in space and to avoid crowding up the text, the name of the author from whom information has been derived has not been inserted after each quotation; but a list of all works which have been consultedj" and from which extractions have been made, will be found at tlie commencement of each volume. It is intended, with the view of meeting the changes which are constantly taking place in the materiel of armies, new processes, military inventions, etc., to issue a Supplement at cuitable intervals, containing all alterations and additions. United States MrLiTARY Academy, West Point, Neic York, 1865 LIST OF WOEKS CONSULTED OR EXTRACTED FROxU Aide-Mijmoire de I'Offlcier d'fitat-Major. M. de Eouvre. Aide-Memoire to the Military Sciences. Almanach de Gotha, 1876. American Universal Cyclopedia. Ammunition, Treatise on, 1874. Published by Enghsh au- thority. Analytical Digest of the Military Laws of the U. S. Scott. Aperjus em quelques Details de la Guerre. Bugeaud. Ai'chives, German Military. Armies of Asia and Europe. Upton. Arms and Anuoiu". Boutell. Army and Navy Pension Laws. Mayo and Moulton. Army Cu-culars. Published by the Enghsh War OfiSce. Art and Science of War. Wheeler. Artillerist 's Handbook of Reference. Well and Dalton. Artillerist's Manual. Gibbon. Artillerist's Jlanual, 11th eiUtion. Griffiths. Artillery and Infantry. Kingsbury. Artillery, Dictionary of. Cotty. Artillery Exercises, Field, Changes in. in 1873. PMUpotts. ArtiUery Institution Papers. Artillery, Lectures on. Owen and Dames. Artillery, Modem. Owen. Artillery, Treatise on. Boxer. Art of War. Graham. Art of War. Joniini. Astronomical Atlas. Mihier. A Treatise on the Law of Evidence. Greenleat. Baker's Elements of Mechanism. Balfour's Encyclopedia of India. Battles of the Revolution, Carrington. Blue Books (Parliamentary). Bourne on the Steam Engine. Brande and Cox's Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art, 1875. Campaign in Germany, 1866. Prussian Staff. Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac. Swinton. Cape's Mathematics. Cavalry Manual. Ainslie. Chambers's Encyclopedia. Change of Materiel. Pubhshed by the English War Office. Chemistry as applied to the Arts and Manufactures. Mus- pratt. Chemistry, Handbook of. Abel and Bloxam. Chemistry, Manual of. O'Shaughiiessy. Classical Dictionary. Smith. Commentaries, with Notes. Blackstone. Conferences du Ministre de la Guerre (France). Conferences Mihtaires Beiges. Construction of Dwelling-houses. Consulate and the Empire. Thiers. Courts-Martial. De Hart. Courts-Martial. Macomb. Cross' and Hetzel's Military Laws of the United States. Cummer Steam Engine. Customs of Service for Non-commissioned Officers and Sol- diers of the Army. Kautz. Customs of Service lor Officers of the Army. Kautz. Defense of Military Outposts. Jebb. De la Tactique des Trois Armes; Infanterie, Cavalerie, Artil- lerie. Decker. Dictionary, Handy, of Military Terms. Knollys. Dictionary, Milit.iiry and Naval. Bum. Dictionary, Military and Naval. .lames. Dictionary of Art.s and Sciences. Francis. Dictionary of Arts, Manuf.icturcs, and Mines. Ure. Dictionary of Every Days Difficulties. Shilton. Dicionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Smith. Dictionary of Military Science. Campbell. Dictionary of Science, Literatiu-e, and Art. Brande. Dictionary of the Enghsh Language. Johnson. Dictionary of the English Language. Nuttall. Dictionaiy of the English Language. Smart. Dictionary of the United States Army. Gardner. Dictionary, Philosophical. Button, Dictioimaire Mihtaire Portatif. Le Grand. Dictionnaire Portatif et Kaisonne. Couturier. Die Lehre Vom Neueren Festtmgskrieg. Riistow. Dienst-Vorschrif ten der Konighch Preussischen Armee. "Von Helldorff. Digest of Decisions of Federal Comts. Peters. Digest of Laws of the United States. Dunlop. Digest of Laws of the United States. Gordon. Digest of Military Laws. Mordecai. Digest of Opmions of the Judge- Advocate General. Winthorp. Electro-BaUistic Machines. Ben^'t. Elementary Lectures on Military Law. Tulloch. Elementary Principles of Fortification. Hyde. Elements of International Law. Wbeaton. Elements of Mihtary Arts and Sciences. Halleck. Encyclopedia Britaimica 1 1875). Encyclopedic Militaire et Maritime. Field-book of the Revolution. Lossing. Field Exercise and Evolutions of the Army. Field Exercise (Enghsh), 1870. Field Fortification: a Manual of Mihtary Sketching and Re- connaissance. Pubhshed by English/ authority. Field Fortification. Macaulay. Field Fortifications. Mahan. Field Fortifications. 'Wheeler. Fortification and other Military Subjects as carried on at the Royal Mihtary Academy, Woolwich. Fortification. Ametti. Frederick the Great. Carlyle. French Revolution. Thiers. Friend of All. Green. Frontal Attack of Infantry. Laymann. Geographic Phisique. Historique et Mihtaire. Lava, Grand Mihtary Operations. Jomini. Great Campaigns. King. Grundzuge der Taktik der Drei Waffen, Infanterie, Kavallerie, und Artillerie. Brandt. Gunnery. Hyde. Gunpowder. Badeley, Anderson, Goodenough, Smith, and Morgan. Gurley on Mathematical and Surveying Instruments. Handbook for Field Service. Lefroy. Handbook for Mihtary Artificers. 1875. Armstrong. Handbook of Artillery. Roberts. Handbook of Natural Philosopliy. Lardner. Handbook of the Mechanical Arts. Bm-ns. Heather on Mathematical Instruments. Heavy ArtiUei*y Tactics. Tidball. Heerwesemmd Infantericdienst der Koniglich Preussischen Armee. Wity.l<.^ben. Histoire et Tactique des Trois Armes, et plus Particulidrement de TArtillarie de Campagne. Fav^'. History of tlie Dress of the British Soldier. Luard. History of the Peninsula War. Napier. History of the Rebellion. Tenney. Histxiry of the War in the Penmsula and in the South of France. Nopicr. I,isr OK WORKS CONSULTKl) Olt EXTOACTED FROM. 9 Holtzapfters TurninK and Mechanical Manipulation. How we any to (Jovcrn OiirKclvtJs. Fonljlunquu. Imiiiin and llunuun Titiiber.s. Skinnier. Inl'aiitry, Cavalry, and Arlillcry TacticB, United Statea Army. lustructions for Arniit-s. IJhIkjt. luKtructionH for Field Artillery. luHtructious in Military Engineering. Publislied by Engllflh authority. Infitructions in the Duties of Cavalry reconuoftring an Enemy, for tlie use ot Auxiliary Cavalry. Instruments, Mathematical, Meteoroloplcal. etc. Queen. Joniini's Treatise on (Jrainl Military opi.'rations, or a Critical and Military History of the Wars of Fredericlt the Great. Holahird. Journals of the Royal United Service Institution, Judge- Advocate and Recorder's Guide. Regan. Knight's Mechanical Dictionary. Kriegsfeuf^rwerkerei Zmn Gebraucli fiir die Konigljcb Preus- sische Artillerie. Batii. Kriegswiirterbuch. Loehr. Law Dictionary. Bouvier. Law of Nations. Vattel. LC'gislation et Administration Militfiires. Ouillot. Lessons of War from the (Jreat Masters. Soody. Life of Napoleon. Jomini. Life of the Duke of Marlborough. Coxe. Manual for Engineer Troops. Duaue. Manual for Rifle Practice. Wingate. Manual of English Artillery Exercises, 1875. Manual of Instructions for Testing the Defective Vision of Soldiers. Longmore. Manual of Mihtary Law. Pipon and Collier. Manuel complet il I'Usage des Candidats au Grade d'Offlcier d'lufanterie. Turhn. Manuel d'Admiuistration et de Complabilite il I'usage des Offlciers des Compagnies ou Escadron des Corps d'lufan- terie et de Cavalerie. Ruffin. Maunder's Treasury of Knowledge. Maxims of War. Najioleon. Mayhew on the Horsp. Mechanic's Magazine. M6moire sur divers Perfectionnements Militaires. Cavalli. Memoirs. Sherman. Method of Horsemanship. Baucher. Mihtair Conversations- Lexikon. Von der LUhe. Militaiy Bridges. CuUum. Military Bridges. Haupt. MiUtary Carriages. Close. Military Carriages. Treatise on. Kemmis. Military Catechism and Handbook. Walshe. Military Commission in Europe. McClellan. Military Dictionary. Duane. Military Dictionary. Scott. Military Engineering. Mahan. Mihtary Gymnastics. Farrow. Military Law and Court-Martial. Ben^t. Military Law Authorities. Hough. Military Law. Clode. MUitai-y Miscellany. Marshall. Mihtary Schools and Courses of Instruction in the Science and Art of War. Barnard. Military Sketching and Reconnaissance. Hutchison and Mac- Gregor. Military Telegraph during the Civil War in the U. S. Plum. Motion of Projectiles. Owen. Mountain Scouting. Farrow. Mutiny Act and Articles of "War. Naval and !\Iilit;iry Technical Dictionary of the French Lan- guage. Biu-ns. Naval Gininery. Douglas. Naval Ordnance and Gunnery. Cook. New Bayonet KxerclHe. Kelton. ( (peratious of War, yd and Sd editioDB. Hamley. OnUTH and (.'orresjiondence of General Wlnfleld 8cott, Con- gressional DfMMUiients, etc. Ordnance and Arm(.»r. Holiey. Ordnance and Gunnery. Benton. Ordnance and Naval Gunoery. Bimpflon. Outpost. Malian. Outposts. Ilandey. Pictorial Field-book of the War of 181^. I/)fi8iDg. Practical Treutiwe on Attack and Defense. Jebb, Precis of .Mtxiem Tactics. Home. Principles of Guimery. Sladen. Queen's Regulations, 187y. Regulations and Instructions for Encampmentfl (EngliBb). Report on the Transport of Sick and Wounded by Pack Ani- mals. Otis. Reports of the Cliief of Ordnance, U. S. Army, 1872-1884. lievue d'Ailillerie. Revue MiUtaire de Kfitranger (Paris). Rifle Exercises and Musketry Instructions. Rifle Firing. Laidley. Rifles and Rifle Practice. Wilcox. Royal Artillery, Hi.story of. Duncan. Rassian Campaigns in Turkey, 1877-78. Greene. Sandhurst Papers. Science, La. des Personnes de Cour, d'fipf-e et de Robe. Shifts and Exi>edients of Camp-Life. Lord and Baines. Short Notes on Field Batteries. Browne. Simmons on Courts-Martial. Small's Veterinary Taldet. Some Weapons of War. Bartlett, Spectateur Jlihtaire (Paris). Steam Engine. Burns. Strategy and Tactics. Dufom*. Studies in Tactics of Infantry. Von Scherff. Sur la Formation des Troupes pour le Combat. Jomini. Tableau Analytique. Jomini. Tactical Deductions from the War of 1H70-71. Boguslawski. Tactics and Strategy. Twemlow. Text-book for School of Musketry at Hythe. Text-book of Gunnery. Mackinlay. Text-book of the Construction and Manufacture of the Rifled Ordnance in the British Service. Stoney and Jones, The Administration and Organization of the British Army, with especial Reference to Supply and Finance. Fonbianque. The Armies of Europe. SIcClellan. The Art of Travel. Galton. The Duties of the General Staff. Von Scbellendorf. The Elements of Military Art and History. Duparcq. The Elements of Modem Tactics. Shaw. The Law relating to Officers in the Army. Prendergast. The Military Laws of the United States. CaUan. Theory of War. Macdougall. The Soldier's Pocket-book for Field Service. Wolseley. Tomlinson's Cyclopedia of the Useful Arts and Manufac- tures. Treatise on Cranes. Towne. Treatise on Fortification. Lendy. United States Army Regulations. United States Bridge Equipage. United States Revised Statutes. Voyle's Military Dictionary. Weale's Series. Weapons of War. Demmin. Webster's Dictionary. West Point; or. Information for those about to Enter the Academy. Farrow. Wilhelm's MiUtary Dictionary and Gazetteer. Worcester's Dictionary. Youatt on the Horse. Skinner. ABBREVIATIONS OF MODEEX TERMS, PHRASES AND TITLES EM- PLOYED IN FARROW'S MILITARY ENCYCLOPEDIA. A.A.S. {Academice Americance Socius.) Member of the American Academy. A.B. (Artium Baccalaurvus.) Bachelor of Arts. A.B.C.F.M. American Board of Com- missioners for Foreign Missions. Abp. Archbishop. A.C. {Ante Christum.) Before Christ. A. D. {Anno Domini.) In the year of our Lord. ^t. i^tatis.) Of age; aged. Al. Alabama. A.^f. {Artium Magister.) Master of Arts; {Ante Meridiem) Before noon; (^71710 Mundi) In the year of the world. An. (Anno.) In the year. Apr. April. A.R. {A7ino Regni.) In the year of the reign. Ai'k. Arkansas. A.U.C. {Anno Urbis Conditce.) In the year from the foundation of the city. Aug. August. Avoir. Avoirdupois. B. Book: (6.) Born. B.A. Bachelor of Arts. Bal. Balance. Bart. Baronet. Bbl. Barrel. B.C. Before Christ. B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law. B.D. Bachelor of Divinity. Bd. Bound. Bds. Bound in boards. Benj. Benjamin. Bk. Book. B.L. Bachelor of Laws; Breech-load- ing. B.L.R. Breech-loading rifled. Bp. Bishop. Brig. Gen. Brigadier-General. C.y or Cap. (Caput) Chapter. Cal. California. Cam., or Camb. Cambridge. Caps. Capitals. Capt. Captain. C.B. Companion of the Bath C.C.F. Court of Common Pleas. C.E. Civil Engineer. Ce7it. (Centum.) A hundred. C.J. Chief Justice. CO. Commanding officer. Co. Company. Col. Colonel; Colorado. Com. Commodore. Conn., or Ct. Connecticut. Cor. Corinthian. Cor. Sec. Corresponding Secretai*y. Crim. Con. Criminal Conversation; Adulterj'. Ct. Cent. Cts. Cents. Civt. Hundredweight. J)., or d. Penny, or pence. Dan. Daniel. D.A.Q M.G. Deputy Assistant Quarter- master-General. D C. District of Columbia. D. C. L. Doctor of Civil Law. D J). (Divinitatis Doctor.) Doctor of Divinity. Dea. Deacon. Dec. December. Del. Delaware. Dep. Deputy. Dept. Department. Deut. Deuteronomy. Deft.., or d/t. Defendant. Dint. District. Dist. Atiy. District Attorney. ditto, or do. The same. D.M. Doctor of Music. Dols. f$) Dollars. Doz. Dozen. Dr. Doctor: Debtor; Dram. D. V, {.Deo Volvntc.) God willing. Dwf. Penn}' weight. E. East. Ed. Edition; Editor. Edw. Edward. E.g., or e.g. (exempli graiia.) For ex- ample. Eliz. Elizabeth. E.N.E. East-North-East. Eph. Ephesians. Esq. Esquire. et. ul. (et alii.) And others. etc., or <^c. {et ccetera.) And so forth. et seq. iet seqneixtia.) And what follows. E.rod. Exodus. Expl. Explanation. Ez. Ezra. Ezek. Ezekiel. F<thr. Fahrenheit. Feb. February. E.G. Fine grain; Field-gnn. Fl., or Fl or. Florida. Fred. Frederic. F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society. F.a. Field- se IT ice. Ft. Foot, or feet. Fur. Furlong. Ga. Georgia. G.B. Great Britain. G.C. Gocd couduct. G.C.B. Grand Cross of the Bath. Gen. Giineral; Genesis. Geo. George; Georgia. Gov. Governor. Gov.-Gen. Governor-General. G.S. General service. G.S. W. General service wagon. H., or h. Hour. Hab. Habakkuk. H.B.M. His, or Her, Britannic Majesty. H. C. House of Commons. Heb. Hebrews. Hfid. Hogshead. H.L. House of Lords. H..U. His, or Her, Majesty. H.M.S. His, or Her, Majesty's Ship, or Service. Ho7i. Honorable. Hos. Hosea. H.R. House of Representatives. H.R.H. His, or Her, Royal Highness. Hund. Hundred. I., or Isl. Island. lb.. Ibid. (Ibidem.) In the same place. Id. (Idem.) The same. i.e. (id e.'it.) That is. I.H.S. (lesus Hominum Salvaior.) Jesus the Saviour of men. III. lUinois. In. Inches. Incog. (Incognito.) Unknown. Ind. Indiana. I.N. R.I. ilesiis Nozarpnns, Rex ludm- orum.) Jesus of Nazareth, Kingof the Jews. Inst. Instant (the current month). lo. Iowa. i.q. {idem quod.) The same as. Is. Isaiah. It. Itahcs, J. Justice: Judge. Jan. January. Jas. James. Jer. Jeremiah. Jno. John. Jona. Jonathan. Jos. Josepli. Jtish. Joshua. J.I*. Justice of the Peace. Jr., or Jun. Junior. Judg. Judges. Jul. July. Kan. Kaiwas. KB. Knight of the Bath: King's Bench. K.C.B. Knight Commander of the Bath. Ken., or A'//. Kentuekv. KG. Knight of tlie (Jart'T K.G.V. Knight of tlie Grand Cross. Ki. Kings. Knt., or Kt. Knight. L.. or lb. Pound (weight). L., I., or £. Pound sterling. La. Louisiana. Lat. Latitude. L.G. Large grain. L. I. Long Island. Lieut. Lieutenant. LL.B. Bachelor of Laws. LL.D. Doctor of Laws, L.L.R. Line of least resistance. L.S. Land service. M., or »i. Masculine. M.A. Master of Arts; Military Academy. MaJ. Major. Mar. March. Mass. Massachusetts. Matt. Matthew. MC. Member of Congress. M.D. Doctor of Medicine. Md. Maryland. Mdlle., or MUe. Mademoiselle. M.E. Mechanical Engineer. Me. Maine. Mem. Memorandum. Messrs. Gentlemen. Meth. Methodist. Mich. Michigan. Min., or inin. Minute, or minutes. Minn. Minnesota. Miss. IMississippi. M.L. Muzzle-loading. M.L.R. Muzzle-loading rifled. MM. Messieurs. Mme. Madame. Mo. Missouri; Month. Mons. Monsieur. Mos., or mos. Months. M.P. Member of Parliament. M.P.P. Member of Provincial Parlia- ment. Mr. Master, or blister. Mrs. Mistie.ss, or Missis. M.S. Sacred to the Memory. MSS. Manuscripts. Mt. Mount, or Mountain. M.T. Mountain train. Mus D. Doctor of Music. iV^., or Ji- North; Noun; Neuter. N.A. North America. Natli. Nathaniel N.B. New Brunswick; (Xota bene) Note well, or take notice. N.C. North Carolina; Non-commis- sioned. N.C.O. Non-commissioned Officer. N.E. North-East ; New England. Neb. Nebraska N.F. Newfoundland. N.H. New Hampshire. N.J. New Jersey. N.L. North Latitude. N.N.E. North North-East. N.N.W. North-North- West. No. ( Nuuiero.) Number. Non seq. (Non sequitur.) It does not follow. Nos. Numbers. Nov. November. N.P. Notary Public; New pattern. N.S. Nova Scotia; The New Style (since 17531. N.T. New Testament. N.W. Nortli-West. N.Y. New York. O. Ohio. Ob. (Ohiit) Died. 06., or Obdt. Obedient. Oct. October. O.F. Old I*attern. Or. Oregon. OS. Old Stvle. O.T. Old Testament. Ox/., or 0x071. (Oxonia.) Oxford. Oz. Ounce, or ounces. P., or p. Page; Kebble. FOUKIGN WOllUS AND PUKASES. 11 Pa., or Penn. Pennsylvania. Rev. Revelation; Reverend. Sun., OT Sund. Sunday. Purl. Piirliainent. R.F.a. Rule line i;raln. Supt. Superintendent Pd. Paid. R.li.F. Royal nim factory. S.tv. South- West. P.IC.I. rriiu.'n Kilwanl iRlaiid. A'./. Rhode Island. Ten., or Tenn. 'i'enncsMee. Percent. {Per cfiitum.) liy the hun- R L. Royal Labfn-atory. Tex. Texas. dred. R.L (J. Rllle larKe grain. Th., or Tlium. Thursday. Ph. II. (fhilomplUoi Doctor.) Doctor of R M..L Royal Military Academy. Then. Theodore. I'hilosopliv. RX. Royal Navy. Tr. Translation ; Trancpoiio; Treasurer; Phil. i'li]|i|i|iian8. Rom. (toman; Komans. Trustee. Phila. I'liiiadeipllla. Rom. Cath. Romjin Catholic. Tu., or Tufs. Tuesday. Pinx., or Pxt. U^ini-it.) Plaood after R.R. Railroad. Ull. i Ultimo.) Ijist, or Pertaining to the painter'8 name on pictures: as, Rl. Hon. Right Honorable. the last month. "Turnel* pxt.'' Rt. Rev. Right l^•verend. U.S. United States. Pk. Peck. S. South; Signor; Shilling. U.S.A. United States of America; Uni- PI. Pluial. .S'.^. .South America; Small arms. ted States Army. Plff. PlaintllT. iJ.A.A. Small-ur-m ammunition. V.S.M. United Slates Mail; United P..M. Postmaster; Past Master; (Post .S. .l/r. South Africa. States Marine. Meridiem) Atteniooii. Sal. Saturday. U.S. MA. United States Military Aca- P.M.il. Postmaster- (jcneral. S.Jt. Smooth-bore. demy, P.O. Post-oaice. H.C. South Cnrolhui; Scrap-carriage. U.S.y. United States Navy. pii. Pages. Sc, or Seulp. (.Srnlpsit.) Placed after U.S. V. United States Volunteers. P.P.C. {Pour Prendre Concj/.) Totalic the engravei-'» ?iame on a picture. U.T. Utah Territory. leave. Sell., or Schr. Schooner. V'a. Virginia. Pr., or P. l,Per.) By the. Sci7,orSc. (Scilicet.) To wit; namely. V.C Victoria Cross. Prett. President. Scrijit. Scripture. SK. South-East. Vice-PreH. Vice-Pi'esident. Prof. Professor. Vid. (Vide.) See. Pro tern. (Pro tempore.) For the time Sec. Secretary; Section. Vifi., or I'itic. Vi.scount. beinpf. Sen. Senate; Senator; Senior. I'lj. 1 Videlicet.) Namely; to vit. Pi-oe. Proverbs; l>rovilice. Sep.. or Sept. September. r.n. Verb neuter. Prox. (Proximo.) Next (the next month). Sery. .Sergeant. loc. Vocative. P.i>. (PoKt iicriplum ) Postcript. Ps. Psalm, or P.sttlms. Sere., or .Servt. Servant. I'ol. Volume. S.J. Society of Jesus. V.P. Vice-President. I't. Pint. S.J.C. Supreme Judicial Court. V.R. (I'ictoria Regina.) Queej Vic- Pub Doe. Public Documents. S. Lat. South Latitude. toria. Pu't. Penriy\veij;ht. Sid. Sailed. Vs. ( Verms ) Against. (J., or Oh. buery; Question; Queen. y./>. Queen s Bencli. Sm. Samuel. IV. Vermont. S.M.I. (Sa Majeste Imperiale.) Bis, or H' Week; West. y.C. Queen's Council. Her, Imperial Majesty. Wasli. Washington. (J.ED. (Qnotl Knit Demonstrandum.) .SO. Staff Officer. Wed. Wednesday. Which was to be demonstrated. S'oc. Society. W.I. West India; West Indies. f/Jl/. Quartei-master. Sq. Stjuare. W. Lon. West Longitude. i^.M.a. Quartermaster-General. Sq. ft. Square feet. Wm. William. Qr. Quarter (28 pounds) ; Farthing; Sq. in. Square inches. W.M. Worshipful Master. Quire. Sq. rn. Square miles. W.N.W. West-North- West. Qt. Quart; Quantity. Sr. Kir, or Senior. W.S. W. West-South- West. Qv. {Quod vide.) Which see. SS., or. IS. (Seilieet.) Namely. Wt. Weight. R. (Kex) K'wg; (Regina) Qui-en. 5..S'. Sea-service; Sunday school. Xmas. Christmas. B.A. Royal Academy, or Academician; S.S.E. SoiUh-Sontb-East. Y. Year. Rear- Admiral ; Right Ascension; S.S. ir. South-South- West. Yd. Yard. Royal Artillery. St. Saint; Street. Yr. Your. R.C.I). Royal Carriace Department. Stilt. Statute. Ztich. Zachary. R.E. Royal Engineers. S.T.n. (Social Theologia: Doctor.) Doc- Zeeh. Zecliariah. Rec. Sec. EecorUmg Secretary. tor of Divinity. Zeph. Zephaniah. FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES EMPLOYED IN FARROW'S MILITARY ENCYCLOPEDIA. Ah ante. (L.) Before; previously. A has. (Fr.) Down. Ah extra. (L.) From the outside Ab initio. (L ) From the beginning. Aborigine. (L.) From the origin. Ab ovo usque ad mala, (h.) From the egg to the apples; from first to last. Roman banquets began with eggs, and ended witli apples. Abnrbecondita. (L.) From the founda- tion of the city. .4 coi»p(c. (Fr.) On account. Adinjinitum. (L.) To infinity. Ad interim, (h.) In the menu while. Adlihiluin. (L.l At one's pleasure Ad nauseiim. (L.) To disgust; till dis- , gust is excited. Adpatres. (L.) To hisf.itbers: ic.dead. Ad refeiendum. (h.) Till further con- sideration. Ad valorem. (L.) According to; upon the value. Affaire d'amour. (Fr.) An intrigue; a love-affair Affaire d'honnenr. (Fr.') An affair of honor; i.e.. a duel A fortiori. (L i With stronger reason. A gu.ito. (Ital.) To o.ie's heart's con- tent. Alabonne heiire. (Fr.) In happy time; at a good horn*. A la Fran^aise. (Fr.) In the French manner. A la mode. (Fr.l In fashion : fashioniible. A PAnglaise. (Fr.) In the English man- ner. .4'/-,-^.>:co. ata'-'> In the open air. Alia.i (L.l Otherwise; e.!;..Jones,ahas the Count Johannes. 4libi 1 1 1 Elsewhere. A legal defense " by which the defendant attempts to show that he WIS absent at the time and from the place of the commission of the crime. AUons. (Fr.) Come on : let us go. Almamater. (Ij.) A nourishing mother. A name frequentlv applied by stu- dents to their college. A Vovlronep. (Fr.) To the uttermost; the last extremity. Alter eqo. ll..) A second self, Ahimniis. 11,.) A foster-child; a pupil. The graduates of .\niericau colleges are often calleil ahimni. Amende honorable. (Fr.) To make the amende honorable is to make a suit- able apology for and confession of one's offense. Amor pntricE. (L.) Love of country; patriotism. Amnnr propre. (Fr."! Self-esteem. ^nri'eii ri'qime. (Fr.) The olil govern- ment; the French monarchy before the Revolution. .-linio Domini. (L.) In the year of our Lord. Anno niundi. (L.) In the year of the world. Annus mirabillis. (L.) The wonderful year. Ante bellum. (L.) Before the war. Ante meridiem. (L.) Before noon. A posteriori. (L.) From the latter; the cause from the effect. A priori. (L.) From the former; the effect from the cause. A propo.i. (Fr.) Appositely; season- ably; in regard to. Arguiiientum ad hominem. (L.) An ar- gument to the man; i.e.. personal. Aiidi alteram partem. (L ) Hear the other part; both sides. An fait. (Fr.) Skilled; accomplished; competent. Au fond. (Fr.) To the bottom; thor- oughly. Ah reroir. (Fr.) Good-by, till we meet again. . , . ^ . Anto da fe. (Si>.) An act of faith; i.e., burning' heretics. Aux nrnie.«. (Fr.l To arms. A voire sante. (Fr.) To your health. Bas bleu. (Ft.) A bluestockmg; a ht- erary woman Benu 'ideal. (Fr.) Ideal beouty. The absolute beauty which exists only m the mind. Bean monde. (Fr.) The gay world; the wo'ld of fashion. 12 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. Bel esprit. (Fr.) A fine mind; wit. Ben trnvata. (Ital.j Well found; "a happy thought." Bete noir. (Fr.) A scarecrow; a bug- bear. Billet-doux. (Fr.) A love-letter; a '■ sweet'' note. Bizarre. (Fr.) Strange; eccentric; fan- ciful. Blase. (Fr.) One wlio has seen and enjoyed everj'thing. and upon whohi pleasure palls, is called Ithtsi'. BonA fide. vL.) In good faith; genuine; actual. Bon-grt\ mal-gre. (Fr.) With a good or ill grace; willy-nilly. Bonhomie. (Fr.) Simple, unaffected good -nature. Bon-jour. (Fr.) Good-day; good-morn- ing. Bon-mot. Fr.) A good word, i.e., a witty saying. CcBteris paribus. (L.) Other things being equal. Canaille. (Fr.) The rabble; the com- mon multitude, Carte blanche. (Fr.) Blank sheet of paper. To give a person carte blanche is to give him an unconditional dis- cretion. Casus belli. (L.) A case of war; an act which justifies war. Cedant arma togce. (L.) Let arms yield to the gown; i.e., military to civil power. Cela va san s dire. (Fr. ) That goes with- out saying: follows as a matter of course and neces.sarily. Cha Clin a son gout. (Fr.) Everyman to his taste. Chateaux en Espagne. (Fr.) Castles in Spain: air castles. Chef d'ceurre. (Fr.) A masterpiece ; an unequaled work. Che .sara, sard. (Ital.) What is to be, will be. Chevalier d'industrie. (Fr.) An adven- turer; one who lives by his wits. Chronique .scandaleiise. iFr.) A record of scandals. Cicerone. (Ital.) A person who acts as guide to sightseers. Comme il faut. (Fr.) Neatly; properly; rightly; in "good form." Compai/non de voyage. (Fr.) Compan- ion of one's travels. Compos mentis. (L ) Sane; of sound mind. Con amore. (Ital.) Earnestly; zeal- ously. Con spirito. (Ital.) In a spirited man- ner. Corps Diplomatique. (Fr.) The foreign ambassadors. Corpua delicti. (L.) The body of the offense. Coup d'etat. (Fr.) A bold stroke in pontics. Coup de grdce. (Fr.) A stroke of mercy; a finalblow. Coup de maiti. (Fr.) A bold, swift un- derstanding. Coup d'ceil. (Fr.) A swift glance of the eye. CoAte (lu'il coilte. (Fr.) Let it cost what it may. Cut bono. (L.) To what (for whose) good. Cum (p-ano sails. (L.) With a grain of salt; not unqualifiedly. Currente calanio. (L.) Kapidly and flu- ently. Da capo. (Ital.) From the beginning. De bonne grdce. (Fr.) Readily; with good will. Debut. (Fr.) One's first appearance in society, or on the stage. De facto. (L.) Actual; in fact. De gustibus 7ion est disjtutandum. (L.) There Is no disputing about tastes. De jure. (L.) Rightfully ; lawfully; law- ful. Di: mortuis nil nisi honum. (L.) Say no- thing but good of the dead. Denouement. (Fr.) The catastrophe of a plot. Dc.novo. (L.) Anew; over again; afresh. Df'O volentc. (L.) If it please God. Dernier ressort. (Fr.) The last resource. De trop. (Fr.) In the way; too much. Dieu et nion droit. (Fr.) God and my rlglit. Diitingue. (Fr.) Distinguished in man- ner. Distrait. (Fr.) I'reoccupied; absent- minded. Divide et impera. (L.) Divide and gov- ern. Dolce far niente. (Ital.i Sweetdo-noth- ing; luxurious idleness. Double entente. (Fr.) Double meaning; obscenity in disguise. (Often errone- ously written double entendre.) Douceur (Fr.) Sweetness; compensa- tion; a gratuity. , Dramatis personm. (L.) The characters of a drama. Dulce domum. (L.) Sweet home. Duni vivimus, vivamus. (L.) While we Jive, let us live; enjoy life to the full. Eclat. (Fr.) Splendor;'distiuction; bril- .liancy. Elan. (Fr.) A spring; fire; dash; im- petuosity. Embarras de richesses. (Fr.) Embarrass- ment of riches; excess of anything. Embonpoint. (Fr.) Phimpness of figure. Empressenient. (Fr.) Enthusiasm ; eager- ness. En famille. (Fr.) In family; by them- selves. Enfant qdte. (Fr.) A spoiled child. Enfant 'terrible. (Fr.) A terrible child; making ill-timed remarks. En grande toilette. (Fr.) In full dress; toilet. En masse. (Fr.) In a body. En rapport. (Fr.) In communication. En regli\ (Fr.) As itshould be; in rule. En revanche. (Fr. ) To make up for it. Ell route. (Fr.) On one's way. En suite. (Fr.) In company together. Entente cordiale. (Fr.) A cordial under- standing. Entourage. (Fr.) Surroundings; ad- juncts. Entre nous. (Fr.) Between ourselves. E pluribus unu7n. (L.) One of many. Motto of the United States. Ergo. (L.) Tlierefore. Esprit de corps. (Fr.) The spirit of the l)ody ; a feeling for the honor and inter- est of an organization. Esprit fort. (.Fr.) A skeptic; a free- thinker. Et ccetera. (L.) And the rest; etc. E.C cathedra. (L.) From thechair; with authorit}-. E.rcelsior. (L.) Higher. Exeunt onines. (L.) They all go out. Ex nihilo nihil fit. (L.) From nothing, nothing comes. Ex officio. (L.) By virtue of his ofifice. Ex parte. (L.) From a part; one-sided. Ex post facto. (L) After the deed is done. Ex tempore. (L.) Off-hand. Facile princeps. (L.) Easily the chief. Facilis est descensus Averni. vL.) The descent into hell is easy. Fait accomj}li. (Fr.) An accomplished fact. Faux pas. (Fr.) A false step; a mistake. Fecit. (L.) He, oj-she, made. This word is put after an artist's name on a pic- ture. Felo de se. (L.) A felon of himself; a sui- cide. Femme de chambre. (Fr.) A chamber- maid. Femmesole. (Fr.) An unmarried woman. Festiiia lente. (L.) Make haste slowly. Fete chawjK'tre. (Fr. ) A rural party ; a party in the open air. FeuiUeton. (Fr.) AsmalUeaf. The bot- toms of the pages in French news- papers are so called, being given up to light literature. Fiat justitia, runt co'liim. (L.^ Let jus- tice be done, though the lieavens fall. Finis coronal ojjus. (L.) The end crowns tlie work. Flagrante delicto. (1j.) In the act. Fugit hora. (L.) The bom- Mies. Oamin. (Fr.) A street-urchin. (jargon. (Fr.) A waiter. (iarde du corps. (Fr.) A body-guard. Garde mobile. (Fr.) Troops liable for general service. Gasconnade. (Fr.) Boasting; bragging. Oaucherie. (Fr.) Awkwardness; clumsi- ness. Gendarme. (Fr.) An armed policeman. Geniusloci. (L.I The genius of the place. Gentithomme. (Fr.) A gentleman; noble- man. Grans homo. (L.I The himian race. Gloria in excelsis. (L) Glory to God in the highest. Gloria Patri. (L.) Glory to the Father. Grand siicle. (Fr.) A great ceutm'y. Grossikrei^. (Fr.) Grossness; rudeness. Habeas corpus. (L.) You may have the body. Hauteur. (Fr.) Haughtiness: loftiness. Hicet ubique.ih.) Here and every Where. Hicjacit. (L.) Here lies. Hoinnie d'etat. (Fr.) A statesman. Honi soil qui mat II pense. (Fr.) Shame to liini who evil thinks. Horribile dictu. (L.) Horrible to say. Hors de combat. (Fr.) Out of condition to fight. Hotel de ville. (Fr.) A town-ball. Ibidem. (L.) In the same place. Ich dien. (Ger.) I serve. (3Iotto of the Prince of Wales.) Ici on parte Fran^ais. (Fr.) French spoken here. Idetn sonans. (L.) Sounding the same. Ide.'it. (L) That is; i.e. Ignis fatuus. (L.) A foolish fire; a delu- sion. Iqnobile vulgus. (L.) The ignoble crowd. Ig)iotum perignotius. (L.) The unknown by something more unknown. Imprimis. (L.) In the first place. In articulo mortis. (L.) At the point of death. Inde.v e.rimrgatorius. (L ) A purging in- dex: a list of works prohibited to be read. 7/1 embryo. (L.) In the rudiments. In esse. (L.) Actual: in existence. In extremis. (L.) At the point of death. In flagrante delicto. (L.) In the very act. Infra dignitatem. (L.) Beneath one's dignity. Infufuro. (L.) In the future. In hoc .^igno vinces. (L.) In this sign thou shalt conquer. In loco (L.) In place; on the spot. In medias res. (L.) In the middle of a subject. In pace. (L.) In peace. 1)1 perjjetuum. (L. t Forever. In projjrid jjersond. (L.) In one's own person. In re. (L.) In the thing: in the matter of. Inrem. (L.) Against the thing. In scEcnld saculorunij (L.) For ages of ages. Instanter. (L.) Instantly. In statu quo. (L.) In the state in wliich it was. Inter alia. (L.) Among other things. Inter nos. (L.) Between ourselves. Inter se. (L.) Among themselves. In toto. (L.) Entirely; wholly. In transitu. (L.) In the passage; on the way. In vino Veritas. (L.) In wine there is truth. Ipse dixit. (L.) He said it himself. Ipso facto. (L ) By the fact itself. Je ne sais quoi. (Fr.) I know not what. Jeu de mofs. (Fr.) A play upon words. Jour de fete. (Fr.) A saint's day; a fes- tival. Jubilante Deo. (L.) Be joyful to God. Jupiter tonans. (L.) Jupiter the thun- (lerer. Jure divino. (L.) By divine law. Jure huniano. (L.) By human law. Jus civile. (L) The civil law. Jus gentium. iL.) Tlie law of nations. Juste milieu. (Fr.) The golden mean. Labor omnia vincit. (L.) Labor con- quers all things. Laissezfaire. (Fr.) Let things alone. Lapsus lingucp. (L.) A slip of the tongue. Lares et penates. (L.) The household gods. La us Deo. (L.) Praise be to God. L'avrnir. (Fr.) The future. Lf beau monde. (Fr.) The world of fash- ion. L^se majeste. (Fr.) High treason. Lex loci. (L.) The law of the place. Lex scripta. (L.) The written law. Lex tahonis. (L.) The law of retalia- tion. Literatim. (L ) Letter for letter. Litterateur. (Fr.) A literary man. Locus si gi Hi. (L.) The place of the seal. Ma chere. (Fr ) My dear. Mafoi. (Fr.) My faith; upon my faith. Maqnum bonum. (L.) A great good. Ma'ison de ville. (Fr.) The town lunise. Mai tred hotel. (Fr.) A h.ms.' suward. Major domo. (Hal.) A cliit-f stuwaid. Maladiedn pays. (Fr.) llnnie sickness. Materiel. (F.) Opposed to personnel. Mater ftimitias. (L.) The mother of a family. FOUKION WOllUS ANIJ rilUASKS. 13 Mauvaise haute. (Fr.) HasIifuInePH. Maximum. (L.) Tlio ^'■''"■•••f^t puHslblu. Mi-Jndice. (L.) In my Jtalj^nient, Mt'iiicnti) m<iri (L.) Keiiieinber death. Mriiinnihilia. (L.) Thiugs dcaerviug to \ni ifiiifinhered. Aff*(.s .smut iiL corpore snno. (L.) A sound mind in n sound body. Mfxua tt tiinnt. (L.) Mine and thine. Miiabiie divtu. (L.) Wonderful to leil. Jdise en scene. (Fr.) Putting ou the stage. Modus operandi. (L.) The method of operating 3fo/i ami. (Fr.) Mv friend. Mot d'ordre. (Fr.) The password; coun- tersign. Multtim inparvo. CL.) Much in little. ^tmine atntradicenie. (L.J No ouu cou- trttdictlng. JVc pluH ultra. (L.) Nothing more be- yond; tlie utmost. Nil admirari. {L.) To wonder at no- thing. iV// dvsperandum. (L.) We must not de- spai r. I^il'imnil'avtrc. (Fr.) Neither the one nor tlie other. N^iinporte. (Fr.) Tt does not matter. Nisi jtfius. (L.) Unless before. Nohicsse nhlige. (P'r.) Nobility obliges; noble must act noblv. Nolens volrn.9. (L) Willy-nilly. Null me tangere. (L.) Don't touch me; hands off. Nolle prosequi. (L.) To abandon prose- cution. Nom de guerre. (Fr.) A war-name. Norn deplume. (Fr.) Pen-name; name assumed by an author. Non compos mentis. (L.) Not In one's right mind. Non est inventus. (L.) He has not been found. Non multn. .tt-d multuin. (L.) Not many things, but much. Nota bene. (L.) Mark well. Nous ai'o?w chanae tout cela. (Fr.) We have changed all that. Nousverrons. (Fr.) We shall see. Odium theologicum. (L.J Theological hatred. OIlii poilridit. (Pp ) A mixture. Omnid ri licit amor. (L.) Love conquers alt things. On dit. (Fr.) They say; people say. Onus probandi. (L.) The burden of proof. Oro pro nobis. (L.) Pray for us. O iempova! O mores,' (L.) Oh, the times! Oh, the manners! Otium cum dignitate. (L.) Ease with dignity. Outre. (Fr.) Extravagant; extreme. Par excellence. (Fr.) By way of emi- nence; in the highest degpee. Par hasard- (Fr. ) By chance. Parijiossu. (L.) With equal step. Parvenu. ^Fr.) An upstart; a rich snob. Pater familias. (L.) The father of a family. Pater patrice. (L.) The father of his country. Pax vobiscum. (L.) Peace be with you. Peccavi. (Ij ) I have sinned. Peiidente lite. (L.) Wliile the suit is pending. Per aji7ium. (L.) By the year. Per capita. (L.) By the head; on each person. Per contra. (L.) On the other hand. Per diem.. (L.) By the day; every day. Perse. (L,) By itself . Personnel. (Fr.) The staff; persons in any service. Petitio principii. (L.) Begging the ques- tion. Petite. (Fr.) Small; little. Pifce dcrdsiBtanre. (Fr.) A joint of meat, I'iirxit. (L,) He. or Mhe, painted It. I'is allrr. (Fv.) A hwl expedient. I'lrbs. (L ) The common neople, I'orta iiasritur.nonjit. (L.) A poet is Point of support. Ixjrn, not made J'oint dUippui. (Fr.) Posh'- com italuH. (L.) The power of the country; the force that may be sum- moned by the Sheriff. J'oHtr restantc. (Fr.j To be left till called for. I'ftst meridiem. (L.» Afternoon. I'oHt mortem. (L.j After deKth. Ptist ubitum. ih.) After death. I'imrparler. (Fr.) A conKulttttion. Pnur prendre conge. (Fr.) To take leave. Pri'cieuse. (Fr.) A bluestocking; a con- ceited woman. Preux chevalier. (Fr.) A gallant gentle- man. I'rinin donna. (ItJil.) The first lady; the printfipal female singer in an itaUau opei'u. Primd facie. (L.) On the first face; at first sight. Primus inter jmres. (L.) First among his peers. Fro bono publico. (L.) For the public good . I^oci'svrrbal. (Fr.) Verbal process; the taking of testimony in wriiing. f^ro et cou. (L.) For and against. Proformd. (L.) For the sake of form. Pro patrid. (L.) For one's country. JVo tempore. (L.) For the time. Puuica fides. (L.) Ptmic faith; i.e., treachery. Quantum sujficit. (L.) As much as is sufficient. Quelque choee. (Fr.) As if. buid nunc? (L.) What now? A gossip. Quid pro quo. (L.) An equivalent. Qui vice. (Fr.) Who goes there f Quod eraf demou.'itrandum. (L.) Which was to be demonstrated. Quondam. (L ) At one lime; once. Kara avis. (L) A rare bird. Rechauffe. (Fr.) Warmed over: stale. Recherche. (Fr.) Choice; elegant. Kedncteur. (Fr.) An editor. Redivivus. (L.) Restored to life. Reductio ad ab.^urdum. (L.) Reduction to an absurdity. Rentes. (Fr.J Public funds; national se- curities. Rcquiescat in pace. (L.) May he, or she. rest in peace. Resgesta'. (L.) Things done. liesurgam. (L.) I shall rise again. Rcvenous a nos m<ntfo}is. (Fr.i Let us return to our sheep; come back to the subject. Robe de chambre. (Fr.) A dressing-gown. Roue. (Fr.t A rake. Rouge et noir. (Fr.) Red and black (a game). Sanctum sanctorum. (L.) The holy of holies. Sangfroid. (Fr.) Cold blood; self-pos- session. Sans culottes. (Fr.) Without breeches ; red repiiblicans. Sartor resartus (L.) The tailor patched. Saure qui peut. (Fr.) Save himself who can. Savoir-faire. (Fr.) Knowing how to do things. Savoir-vivre. (Fr.) Knowledge of the world. Semper idem. {L.> Always the same. Semper paratus. (L.) Always prepared. Seqnitur. iL.i It follows. Seriatim. (L ) In order. Sic itur ad astra. (L.) Tlius men go to the stars. Sic semper tirrannis. (L.) Thus always with tyrants. The motto of Virginia. 8ic trnntHt gUtrta mundl. (L.) 80 pawieR the glory of the world. Similia HimitihuH curantur. (L.) Like in cured by like. Sine die. )L. i Without a day. Sine qua non. (L.) Without which, not; an indispeMKuble condition. ,S'ol diHiinl. (Fr.) Kelf-slyled, Spirituel. (Kr. 1 Witty. Status quo. (L.) The btate In which; the former state. Strt. (L.) I>et it stand. Suaiutcr in modo. fortiter in re. (L.) Oently in manner, bravely In action. Suh rosd. (L ) Under the row; secretly. Sui generis. iL.) Of its own kind. Summnm bonum. (L.) The supreme good. Talileau rirnnt. (Fr.) A living picture. T(d>lff d'hote. iVv. I A public ordinary; dinner at a fixed price. Tabula rasa. (L.j A smooth tablet; a blank. Tant mieux. (Fr.) So much the better. Tant pis. ( Fr.) So much the worse. Te l>eum laudamus. (L.j Thee, God, we praise. Tempora mutautur. et noa mutamur in itlia. (L.) Times change, and we change with them. Tempusfugit. (L.J Time flies. Terra Jinn a. (L.) Solid earth. Terra incognita. (L.) An unknown country. Tete-d-tete. (Fr.) Head to head; in pri- vate conversation. Tiers etat. (Fr.) The third estate; i.e., the commons. Totidem verbis. (L.) In just so many words. Tour deforce. (Fr.) A turn of strength. Tout ensemble. (Fr.) The whole taken together. Tout le monde. (Fr.) Everybody. Trottoir. (Fr.) The pavement. Tu quaque. Brute! (L.) Thou, too. Urutus. Vtii Itiiertas. ibi patria. (L.) WTiere lib- erty is. there is my country. Vbi .supra (L. ) As mentioned above. Ultima Thule. (L.) Uttermost Thule; tlie end of the earth. U.sque ad nauseaju. IL ) Till it was, or is. absolutely sickening. Utile dulci. (L.) The useful with the sweet. Ut infra. (L ) As below. Ut supra. IL. ) As above. I'ade mecum. (L.) Go with me; a com- panion. Vce victis. (L,) Woe to the vanquished. Vale. (L.) Farewell. Valet de chambre. (Fr.) A servant. Vent, vide, vici. (L.) I came, I saw, I conquered. Verbatim et literatim. (L.) Word for word; letter for letter. Verbum sat sapjenti. (L.) A word to the wise is sufficient. Vid. (L ) By way of. Vide. (L.) See. Videlicet. (L) Namely. Vincidum matrimonii. (L.) The bond of matrimony. Vis a vis. (Fr.) Face to face. Vis inertia". (L.) The force of inactivity. Vis viva. (L.) Living force. Vivd voce. (L.l By the living voice. Vive la bagatelle. (Fr.) Success to trifles. Vive la Reine. (Fr.) Long live the Queen. Vive VEmpereur. (Fr.) Long live the Emperor. Vive le Roi. (Yr.) Long live the King. Voild. (Fr.i See there: behold. Vox. et proeterea nihil. (L.) A voice, and nothing more. Voxpopuli. vox Dei. (L) The voice of the people is the voice of God. INDEX OF MATTERS NOT HAVING SPECIAL ARTICLES. At the close of Volume III. -will be found an Index of Subjects not having Special Articles. It has not been thought necessary to repeat in this Index the titles of the many thousand articles composing the body of the work. A person consulting the Encyclopedia is supposed, in the first instance, to look for the subject he is in quest of in its proper alphabetical place. If it is not to be found there, or by a cross-reference, by turning to the Index he is likely to get a reference to it under another name, or as coming in for notice in connection with some other subject. It frequently happens that subjects, having articles of their own, are further noticed under other heads; and where it seemed of importance, a reference is given in the Index to this additional information. The title of the article referred to is printed in italics; and when the article is of considerable length, the page is given in which the information is to be found. CONTINUED REVISION. The process of revising Farrow's Military Encyclopedia is constantly carried on, thus keeping up the information to the latest possible date. These revisions and additions will be supplied every few years in the shape of Supplements. A few blank pages are inserted at the close of each volume for the purpose of noting the reference to- the various articles in the Supplements, which would naturally find alphabetical arrangement in the respective volumes. LIST OF MAPS AND FULL PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME 11. PACK India, 90 Indians — Amebican, .......... 91 Indians — Mandans and Ceebokees. ......... 92 Lreland, ............ 126 LiATHE, ............. 178 Magnetism, ........... 249 MiNiNO, ............ 363 New Zealand, ........... 412 Palestine, ............ 472 Physics, . . . . . . . . ... . . 517 Prussia, ............ 600 Pullet, ............ 604 Queensland, ............ 621 Roman Empiee, ........... 7.54 Russia, ............ 803 HABEAS CORPUS. -A writ of Itdhens Corpus is an oriU'r ill wriliiii;. signed by the .ludu'c who urnnts the same, sealed with the seal of the Court of which he is Judge, and issued in the name of a (Sovereign j Power where it is granted, liy sueli a Court or a i Judge thereof liaving lawful authority to issue the' same, direeled to any one having a jierson in his cus- tody or under his restraint, couunaiiding liim to pro- duce sueli person at a certain lime and jihu'c. .'Uid to state the reason why he is held in custody or under restraint. A State Judge has no jurisiliction to issue a writ of Hubeas Corpim, or to continue proceedings under the writ when issued, for the discharge of a person held under the authority, or claim and color of the authority, of the United States, by an otlieer of that (tovernment. If upon the application for the writ it ajipears tliat tlie party alleged to be illegally restrained of liberty is held under the authority, or claim and color of the authority, of the United States, by an officer of that Government, the writ should be refused. If this fact do not thus appear \ the State Judge lias a right to intinire into the cause of imprisonment, and ascert,-dn by what authority the person is held within tlie limits of tlie State : and it is the duty of the JIarshal, or other officer having the custodj' of the prisoner, to give, by a proper return, information in this respect. But after he is fully ap- prised by the return that the (larty is held by an officer of the United States, under tlie authority, or claim , and color of the authority, of the Uuiteil States, he j can proceed no further. These principles applied to a case where a Hnhraa Cm-pus was issued by a Court . Commissioner of one of the Counties of Wisconsin to a recruiting officer of the United States, to bring before him a person who had enlisted as a soldier in the Army of the United States, and whose discharge i was sought on the alleged ground that he w^as a | minor imder the age of eighteen _years at the time of his enlistment, and that he enlisted without the con- sent of his father. The petition for the writ alleging that the prisoner had enlisted as a soldier and been mustered into military service of the Xational Gov- ernment, and was detained by the officer as such sol- i (lier — this Court held that the Court Commissioner bad no jurisdiction to issue the writ for the discharge of the prisoner, as it thus appeared that upon tlie petition that the prisoner was detained under claim and color of authority of the United States by an otTicer of that Government : and that if he was il- legally detained, it was for the courts or judicial offi- cers alone, to grant him release. Should a writ of Hahens Corpus be served upon an Army Officer by a Civil Magistrate or Court of any State, commanding him to produce an enlisted man, or show cause for his detention, the officer makes respectful return that the man is a duly enlisted soldier of the United States, and that the Supreme Court of the United States has decided in such case, that a Magistrate of a Court of a Slate has not jurisdiction. HABERGEON.— A short coat of mail, consisting of a jacket without .sleeves. In early times, the haber- geon was composed of chain mail : but in the four- teenth century, a baberijeon of ])late-arinor was worn over llie h:iulierk. See lliinhirh. HABILIMENTS OF WAR.— In ancient statutes, ar- mor, harness, utensils, et<'.. without widcli it was sup- posed lliere could be no abilitv to maintain a war. HACHE DARME.— A battle-axe with a narrow handle armed with a sharp blade in the form of a crescent, very much curved, terminating in two points approaching the handle on one side : the other side terminating in a point or hammer; when both sides were armed with a lilade it was called liimigne. HACHEE. — The ignominious punishment of carrj'- ing a saddle or dog, to which soldiers were formerly subjected in France. HACKAMORE.— A halter used by packers. It con- sists of a long leather or rope slraji and head-stall. It is used when leading the pack-animal, also to make the animal fast, usually to the ajiarejo, while prepar- ing to pack. On the march, the strap is wrapped around the animal's neck and made fast to the head- .stall. HACK BUSH-HAOK-BUSS.— A heavy hand can- non, with butt and serpentine lock. It behmgs to the second half of the fifteenth century. The match is no longer loose, but fi.xed to the serpentine, which springs liack by means of a trigger. This sort of canniui is about 40 inches in length, and it is usually provided with a hook, so that when it is placed on a wall, it cannot slip back. Without the hook it is sometimes called Arquebuse with Matchlock. See Hak, . HACQUETON.— A stuffed coat or cloak, generally of leather, mounted with metal, formerly worn in France by certain Knights of the King's Guards call- ed Gardes lie la Manclw. It came into use during the reign of Charles V., and was discarded during the Revolution of 17S9. HACQUET-WAGON.— A four-wheeled wagon used in the Prussian service to carry pontons. The under- frame of this carriage is built like that of a chariot, by which means it can turn without diffieultv. " HADDAN RIFLING.— This plan of centering'airainst the bore consists of 3 large and shallow elliptical grooves, which in the earlier forms were about 1-0 in. deep and took away nearly two-thirds of the surface of the bore. The projectile is rotated by 8 wings formed on the front of the shot, straight with its axis. In the earlier projectiles, the rear tapereil, anil had a. shoulder for a ring-wad to stop the windage. The later projectiles have merely a wooden sabot. As the HADLEY FIRING PIN. HAKK wings are on the front part of the projectile, the rifiina; is carried only to within one calilier of the powder- chamber, and hence is not a source of weakness at that point. HADLEY FIKING-PIN.— A simple device for using rim-tire cartridges in rifles adapted for central-flre ammunition. It was invented for and specially ap- plied to the JlaTOard rifle. This rifle is conflned to central-flre amni\inition in each and all of the calibers, excepting the 22 : but by this device rim-flre cart- ridges from 22 to 38 calilier may be used. The draw- ingshows the nature and simplicity of the invention. It consists of a cap attached to the breech-piece by Boszonneny. The total population is about 03,000, all Magyars, and f(jr the most part belonging to the Reformed Church. In 1870 this district was incor porated with portions of two adjoining districts into a new administrative division (called Ilaidvkfncimiitiit) with Debreczin for its capital. In course of the pre- sent century', the name Haiducks has Iiegim to lie ap- plied to the Macers of Hungarian Courts and the Hal berdiers of the -Hungarian Magnates: also to the Lackeys and other Attendants in German Courts. Also written Jl'/jduka, Ilnidnkn. and Hayduks. HAIL. — A term in military parlance, meaning to challenge, accost, or salute. A sentinel hails any one Hadley Firing-pin. two small screws, in which is a disk with a flring-pin projecting through the cap at such a point from the center as to strike the rim of the cartridge. This disk plays freely in the cap, and is driven forward by the tiring pin in the breech-piece. To use the central-flre cartridges it is only necessary to remove the cap, change firing-pins, and insert the latter. HAGBUT. — An arquebusc, of which the butt was bent or hooked, in order that it might be held more readily. Also written Ilagg and Haguebut. See JTark-hiixIi. HAGNER MAGAZINE.— General Hagner proposed that a projection lie formed on the under side of the stock, between the lower band and the guard, in which three cartridges might lie placed, with their heads to the rear. This magazine differs from the BenUm fixed Mngnzhie, merely in its location, and hcildini; tliree cartridges instead of five. HAIDUCKS.— Originally a designation of cattle- lierds in Hungary. Afterwards, the word came to signify a class of mercenary foot-soldiers ready to accept pay from any one who would employ their services, but displaying great gallantry on the field of battle. Tlic remarkable constancy wiih wliicli they stood by Bocskai throughout the War of the Ilevolu- tion. was rewarded by that Prince with a grant of a district as their own possession, and at the same time witli the privileges of nobility. This grant was made by a public decree of Dec. 13. ItSlt.'i, anil coiitirnicd by the Diet in KiKi. E.\ce]il tlie privilege of e.xeiniilion from ta.xes, which Charles III. took away, the llai- <!ucks enjoy all the rights of Nobles to the present day. Their residence, the Haiduck district, remains inde- pendent of the country authorities, and is luider the direct aiiiiiiiiistration of the National Goveriunent. The Haiduck district lies within tjii' country of North liiliar. Iietween tlie Theiss and Transylvania, has an area of about 51)4 .square miles and si.x principal Hai- duck towns. The capital of the district used to be approaching his post between taps and reveille with, " Who goes (or comes) there 'i " HAIR. — A spring or other contrivance in a rifle or pistol-lock, which, being unlocked by a slight pres- sure on the trigger, strikes the tmnbler-catch, and unlocks the tumbler. HAIR-CLOTH.— A species of cloth made of horse- hair, laid upon the floors of magazines and labora- tories to prevent accidents. It is usually made up in pieces 14 feet long and 11 feet wide, each weighing 36 pounds. HAIR TRIGGER.— A trigger so constructed as to discharge a flre-arm by a very slight pressure, as by the touch of a hair. It is connected with the tumbler- catch by a device called the Jfnir. One of the latest improvements in sporting-arms is the addition of a set, or liair-trigger. This differs from the ordinary hair-trigger, in that it can be used precisely as if this trigger was not on the gun. if, as in hunting, it is not wanted. For fine shooting, as in target practice, it is made available thus : After setting the hammer at full-cock, the trigger shotdd be pressed forward slightly, and it is thus set. If it is found too delicate, or not delicate enough, it can be adjusted to suit the wislies, liy turning a set screw in or out. This screw will be found by the side of the trigger. I HAKE. — An old term for a hand-gun, used in I ancient times, and usually fired on a rest by the manual ap|iIiciition of a match. When the weight of these instruineiUs was reduced, and a lock appended, so llial that they miglil be fired without a rest, they were called (•(ilhem. Hand-guns of this description are mentioned as having been first ti.sed at tlie Siege o* Arras, in 1414. An inquisiti<in taken at Hunter- ' combe, in Yorkshire, in laT."), the record being in the Chapter-house. Westminster, mentions the attack on Alaiior-liouse of lluntercombe by 40 men armed, among other W'Capons. with " gonnes " — sujiposed to be hand-gum,. HALBEBD. HALF HOOK. HALBEKD— HALBERT. — A wciipnii borne, up to the <-l(mc lit' III!' ri;;htc(iilli ciTitiiry. l)y nil sfri,'i';iiils of fool, urIilliTy, iiiiil II liiri Ill's, luiil by roin|iiuiii's of biil- brnlirrs ill Ibr viirious ri'niiiiriils. II ruiisislril of a Htn.il;^ wooili'ii sluifl jiboiit (1 fi-i-1 ill Irn;^lli, siir- nioimli'il by an inslniiiirnt miifli rcsriiiblini; a bill- book, (•onslniclcd alike for culliii;; anil llinisliiiij, Willi a eross-pieee of Hleel, less sliarp, for the jmrpose of piisliinj; ; one end of this oross-pieee was liirneil down as a liook. for use in (eariiii; down works aj;ainst wliii-b an allack is made. 'I'lie lionor of in- ventin}^ tlie halberd is contesled by Ibe Swiss and Danes, but probably eacli prodiieed sonielliini; re- si'inblini; it. Its iinine appears to be derived from the Teulonie hilil. batlli', and hnrd. axe. The iinlberd appears tirst in Eni;land about the time of I [enry VII., and maintained its position for upwards of two cen- turies. Now it is rarely seen except on certain cere- monial oeeasions. Old llalberil is a familiar term formerly used in the British Army, to sitjnify a jierson who liad gone tbrouiih the dilTerent j^railatioiis, and risen to the rank of a eomiuissioned oHieer. HALBERDE. -A term frei(uently ^iven to the tjuis- arw-, or to one of its moditieations, in the middle nLres. HALE WAR ROCKETS. —The L'eneral construc- lioii of the 1^ and )34-|ioiinders are the same, dilVerini; only in i;eneral dimensions and the num- ber of vents and curved shields or walls, the 12- poiindcr having 3 and the 2-1-pouniler 5. The rocket consists of four pieces. A head, conoi- dal in sliajie, of cast-iron, hollow for bursting, having a cylindrical hole in the base about ]i;incli diameter, wilh screw-threud for fuse; there is also a small hole in front, used for tilling slii'll with com- ; biistible material, closed Iiy a screw, liut into which can, if desirable, be fitted a nijiple and cap for igni- tion by percussion ; the head is turned down at the rear f inch .so as to enter the body of the case about Y^ inch, and to which it is secured by six pins or swivel ; to the chain is attached the life-line. Tliis rocket is tired from an ordinary V'-sliapeil trough, which may lie given any desired elevation. As the chain is hardly long enough to prevent llie l)uriiing oir of the rope by the gas escaping from the vcnlB, it is safest to wet about two fathoms of the rope next to the chain. See liackHn. HALF BASTION. A demi-bastion. In fortllication thai half ipf a basiion cut olT by the cai)ital, cou-sisting of one liasc and one front. HALF BATTA.- An extra allowance which was graiileil to Hie whole of the officers belonging to the Hrilish Ivist Indian Army, except liengal. when out of tin- Conipany's district in Province of Oiide. In the ui)i)er I'rovinces (hmhlfhiiWi was allowed. All above full was paid by the native Princes, as the troops stationed in that quarter are considered as Auxiliaries. See Jinttn. HALF-BLOCKS. — These areof the same dimensions as bbn'kn. except that the cross-section is usually 4 X K inches, in place of H inches square. They are used for the same ]iiirposes as wliole blocks ; but, when the distance through which the iiiece is to be rai.sed is only half of wliat it is when the whole block is used. HALF-CAPONNIERE. -In fortitication.acommimi- catioii ill a dry ditch wilh one side prepared for de- fense, liaviii'.' bill one panqiet and i;lacis. HALF CHESS.— A sliorl i7/<.y.i or platform board of a mililarv bridge. See I'ontiin. HALF COCK —T)ie jiosition of the cock of a gun when retaiiiid bv the tirst notch. See finck. HALF DISTANCE.— Half the regular interval or space betwiin troops drawn up in the ranks or standiiiic i-nliiiiin. HALF DOUBLE SAP.— This is an ordinary line of sa]) pushed forward in a position where it is neces- sary to give temporary cover on the reverse of the trench, from a slant tire by gabions tilled with sand- bags. The distance between the two rows of gabions in this case, is only 5 feet 6 inches, the single sajj- Hale W'rtr-rocket. screws. A cylindrical hudy of sheet-iron about ^ inch thick, with edges lapped, riveted, and brazed at the longitudinal joints. A thick iron disk or an- nular ring titled in and fixed by screws or pins closes the liase. A tail-piece of cast-iron containing the vents and shields or walls is screwed into the disk which closes the base. The vents themselves are conical, the apex pressing against the curved shields, each placed in the same relative position to one of the vents, keeps the rocket point foremost in its tiight, and gives the rotary motion on the turbine principle. The composition which is sei)a- rated from contact with the iron by pasteboard to prevent oxidation, consists of saltpeter, sulphur, and charcoal, in tlie propurlions of TO, 16, and 33, and is introduced into the case in successive pellets and pressed by hydraulic power; it is afterward bored out in a cone for about two-thirds of its length. The war-rockets are tired from a trough mounted on a stand, either singly or in groups of seven, by means of an ordinary friction-tube and lanyard. The Hale Life-Saving Kocket differs from the above only in that the head, instead of being of cast- iron, is of wood, and in the addition of a piece of chain about 3 feet long which is connected to the center of the bottom of the tail-piece by a double roller covering in front this interval from enfilading tire. See Sap. and Wing Traversm. HALF-FACE.— A movement, in the School of the Soldier, in order to take half the usual distance be- tween the right or left face and front, to give an oblique direction to the line, or to fill up a gap at the corner of a square. HALF-FILE LEADER.— The foremost of a rank entire. The Cliefde Demi file in France. HALF- FILES.— Half the given number of any body of men drawn up two deep. They are so called in cavalry, when the men rank off singly. i HALF-FULL SAP. — In siege operations, when the sappers have only a flank fire (coming in a direction nearly perpendicular to that of the sap) to fear, the sap-roller may be dispensed with. The first sapper then covers himself with the last-tilled gabion wjiilsl placing and filling the new one. This species of sap is called the half-full sap. HALF HITCH.— A form of hitch much used in mechanical maneuvers. It is made by passing the end of a rojie round its standing part, and bring- ing it up through the bight. See C'ardage and Kn^its. HALF-MERLON. — That solifl portion of a parapet which is at the right or left extremity of a battery. HALF MOON.— In fortification, aii outwork that has tw(i faces which form a salient angle, the gorge HALF-PAY. haloxtl™. of whicli resembles a crescent. It owes its original invention to the Duteli, who used it to cover the points of their bastions. This kind of fortitication is, however, defective, because it is weak on its flanks. Half-moons are now called ravelins, which species of work is constructed in front of the curtain. HALF-PAY. — An allowance given in the British Army and Navy to Commissioned Officers not act- ively employed in the rank to which half-pay has reference. It corresponds to the French denu'-solde, or pay of non-acUvite. It lias Ions been a disputed point whether lialf-pay is given to otHeers as a re- taining fee, to keep tliem at hand for the time when their services may be again required, or an award on account of services already rendered : but whatever the terms of the original grant, tliere can be little doubt that, under the present regulations, half-pay, except when distinctly named retired half- Officers. Yearly Pay of Officers in Active Service. Major-general Brigadier-general Colonel Lientenant-colonel Major Captain (mounted)... " (not mounted) 1st Lieut, (mounted).. " (not mounted). 2d Lieut, (mounted).. *■ mot mounted). Chaplain 1st 5 yrs. $7,500 5,500 3..W0 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,8«) 1,600 1,500 1,500 1,4m 1,.500 After 5 yrs. $3,830 3,300 2,750 2,200 l,9rtO 1.7150 1,650 1,6.50 1,.M0 l,6,iO After 10 yrs. $1,200 3.600 3,000 2,400 2,160 1,920 1,800 1,800 1,680 1,800 After 15 yrs. 3,900 3.2,50 2,600 2,340 2,080 1,950 1,950 1,820 1,950 After 20 vrs. $1,500 4,000 3..50O 2,800 2,520 2,240 2,100 2,100 1,960 2,100 Officers. Pay of Retired Officers 1st 5 yrs. After 5 yrs. After 10 yrs. After 15 yrs. After 20 yrs. $5,625 4,125 2,625 2,2.50 1,875 1,500 1,.3.50 1.200 1.125 1.125 1.050 1.350 Brigadier-general Co'onel Lieutenant colonel $2,887 2,475 2.062 1,6.50 1.485 1..320 1.237 1,237 1,155 1,485 $3.V5b' 2,700 2,250 1,800 1,620 1,440 1,350 1,250 1,260 1,620 '$3,375 2,925 2,4;W 1,950 1,755 1,560 1,462 1,462 1,365 1,755 '$3.'3'75 3,000 2,625 Captain (mounted) '■ (not mounted) let Lieut (mounted) " (not mounted) 2d Lieut. (n|ounted) " (not mounted) Chaplain 2,100 1,890 1,680 1,575 1,575 1,470 1,890 pay, is in the nature of a retaining fee. This allow- ance is on quite a ditterent footing in the Navy and Army. In the Royal Navy of Great Britain, olHcers are merely appointed to serve during the period a certain ship is in commission; when this expires, their employment ceases and they revert to a state of non-activity. As there are always many more Naval Officers than appointments for them to till, a considerable numlier arc at all times on the non- effective list. These are placed on half-pay until again called upon to serve ; the amount of such half-pay being usually about tiO ])er cent, of the full pay of each grade. Half-pay is thus in the Navy a recognized condition for all officers not immediately wanted afloat. In the British .Vrmy, the case is dif- ferent: there, an officer on johiing, is posted to a particular regiment, with whicli, in theory, he is supposed to serve until removed from it on attaining the rank of (ieueral. Consequently, no fund like the naval half-pay list is in any degree admitted. Army half-pay is of two natures — temporary am\ (so. cnWcd) permmunt half-pay. The former is limited to officers incapacitated by ciisual sickness, to those who are without occupaliim, in consequence of any redui'lion of the corps in which Ihey were serving, and to those serving in certain staff appoint nu'uts. Permanent half-jiay can be demanded by any nffieer who has served 30 years ; it is also given to Majors and Lieutenant-colonels who, after serving for 5 years with a regiment in those ranks, are not re-em- ployed. Since the abolition of purchase and sale of commissions, this last class may be expected, for the .sake of promotion in the lower ranks, to increase considerably. The cost of half-pay is already very great ; in 1877-78. it was £31.5,500 for the Army. Till lately, a large proportion of the recipients were officers placed on the list at the great reduction after the peace of 1815. There is a sfightlv different sys- tem or practice in the United States. There ia sometimes a distinction between officers on active duty and those awaiting orders. Officers on leave, beyond the time allowed by law. are put on half- pay ; and officers retired from active service receive three-fourths of their full pay. Th<' salaries, at present, from Major-general downwards are graded as in the above tables. See Pay. HALF- PIKE. — A short pike, formerly carried by infantry officers. See Spontoon. HALF-KOLLER.— This roller has the same dimen- sions as the long roller, but is round only on one side, square on the opposite side, and lias no groove. It is used resting on the square .side, when, instead of rolling the gun, the object is to have a firm sup- port on which the gun can have its ends alternately raised, as in mounting a gun on its carriage by means of blocks. HALF-SUNKEN BATTERY.— A battery having its interior space or terre-pleiu sunk some inclies below the natural surface, and its parapet composed of the earth thus obtained and that taken from a narrow- ditch in front. This description of battery admits of being more quickl}' constructed than any other, as the diggers can work both in front and rear at the same time. HALF-SWORD.— A figure within half the length of a sword : a close fiirht. HALF-WROUGHT MATERIALS.— In artillery, the several parts of gun-carriages in the rough, or partly shaped to the form required. Supplies of these materials are kept in every Arsenal, and are issued to batteries on indent. Each battery in the field in England, is allowed the following lialf-wroughts ; — Beam 1 Cheeks 2 Perch wagon 1 Splinter-bar 2 Shafts, spare 2, complete. Felloes 12 Spokes 24 But as a spare carriage is allowed, there is no ne- cessity to carry such ponderous articles as lieams, etc. ; the officer commanding a troop or battery will, therefore, use his discretion, according to the nature of the service on which lie may be going, as to half- wrought materials he will carry, any in excess of the number allowed being provided at his own expense. On leaving a station where there maj' be an Arsenal, he can. if lie thinks fit, return into store such half- wroughts as he may not wish to carry on the march, receiving from the Ordnance Officer a receipt, which will be his voucher for obtaining others free of charge at the next Arsenal. The above instructions have reference to the artillery in India, wherever tlie carriages are of the old pattern, viz., of wood. The new field-carriages lieing made of iron, the supply of lialf-wroughts as shown in the above list is not re- quired, except 'for the wheels and other woodea parts of Die carriage. HALLECRET.— Liglit armor iiiucli used in the six- leentli century liy the Swiss. It consisted of lireast- ])lale iind gussets, often reaching to the middle of the Ihi'jii. ini(i somelimes below the knees. HALOXYLIN. -The name of a new kind of ex]ilo- sive material <ir blasting-powder which has been in- vented in Styria bylwc) brothers, and is described as incapable of spontaneous ignition, and as quite free from smoke and noxious gases. It is composed of non-resinous sawilusl, charcoal, niter, and ferro- HALT. HAMMER CLOTH. cvnniilc of potnssiiim. iinil is twice the liulk of tjiin- povvilcr, hill Diif-imlf iiiorc powerful. For lilustiiii; jiriil riiijiirii; |iiir|)Oses it is cousidercil un preferable to n;inipoWller. HALT.— Mlerally, lo stop ; ii term well known to soldiers. It is the word of eoiniiiiind uiveii to ii body of men, or to a reixiinenl or an army, on the move, to diseoiiliniie its march. In the march of a body of soldiers halls an' very necessary for the com- fort of the men, lo enable them to rest themselves. On the usual daily march of a rejjiment in India, halts are made half-way. and colTcc is served out to the men. This is a very desirable arraiiL'^cmeiil. see- iuLT how earl)' a regiment commences its march in thai country. HALTER. — A litad-stall and strap by which an animal is hitched to a stan<'liion or maniter. The halter was anciently used, .-md is ohown in tlie sculp- tures of Nimroud. The army is represented in the act of crossing a riviT, and Ibe horses ar<' hallered behind the sterns of Ibi' boats, swinuning iu the wake. HALTING DAYS.- Till' days in the week usually allotted for repose, when troops are upon the inarch, and there is not any particular necessity for exertion or dispatch. HALYARDS. — The ropes used in hoisting and low- ering Hags. Signal halyards arc running cords of the best wliilc lieni]), (lassing through a pulley at the lop of the llag-slalT ; the Hags wbcMi attached lo them are rolled up. and then hoisted and expanded to the wind by a jerk when the ])roper moment arrives. HAMATA. — A tle.xible cuiras composed of metal cliains, .Mnd first worn by cavalry soldiers in the time of I'lilybius. See Oiiinmnnd Mtiil. HAMES. — Two pieces of iron encircling a horse's collar, cdimected at the bottom by an iron loop, and at Ihe top by a strap ami buckle. .\lla<-hed to the liamcs are iron luiis lo wliich the traces are linked. HAMMER.— 1. That part of a gun-lock which strikes tlie percussion-cap or tiring-pin. It works on a spring called the liiimmer-spring. i. The term is also applied to instruments in very general use for driving and drawing nails, beating out metals, etc. For many puri)oses, hammers are re- (juired of greater weight than man could wielil : and a great variety of power-hammers are used. These, for the most part, are masses of iron raised by steam or other power, and then allowed to fall by their own gravity upon the work. The helve or shingling luimme>\ tised for compressing the mass of iron drawn from lite puddling fur- nace, and the tilt-hammer, used iu the manufactur- ing of shear-steel, are important examples of such hammers. The first is a heavy l)ar of cast- iron about 10 feet long, weighing 3 or 4 tons and upwards, to which is attached a head of wrought- iron faced with steel, weighing nearly half a ton more. It works upon an a.xis at the end of the l)ar furthest from the head, and is raised by cams attached to a heavy wlieel set in motion by steam or water-power; these cams strike or "lick" a projection extending beyond the head, and thus raise it about 18 or 20 inches at the rale of TO to 100 times per minute. The tilt-hammer is similar, but much lighter, and is adapted for striking above 300 blows per minute. In order to obtain this velocity a short "tail" extends ■■A'ilh a downward inclination beyond the axis, and the cams strike tliis downwards, and thus lift the longer arm of the lever to which the head is at- tiuiied. These, when worked by steam, as they usually are in this country, are, of course, steam- hammers ; but when the term steam-hammer is used without qualification, it applies to another and more elaborate machine of very different construction, invented by ]\Ir. James Xasmyth in 1842. and sub- sequently modified and improved in some of its minor details. In this, the hammer is attached to the bottom of a heavv mass of iron, the "hammer- block," rapahle of rising and falling between upright bars or " guides "; this, again, is lixed lo the rod of a piston, which works in a cylinder ]>laced per- pendicularly over the hammer-block, hammer, and anvil. As Ihe [)islon rises in the cylinder, it lifts the attached mass, which is then allowed to fall from varying lieights, according to an adjustment whicli can be made by an attendant simply toinhing u handle. The adjustments are so perfect that il may be nuide to crush u mass of iron, anri at the next blow to crack a nut held in the fingers without damaging eilher kernel or fingers, or to crack tlie top of an <'gg in an egg-cup. as might be rlone with the bowl of a n|)oou. The mechanism by which this is effected is loo elaborate lo be described hero in detail. (Jne novel contrivance, vi/., the " latch," which reverses the action of the .steam valves at the precise moment required, is of remarkable ingenu- ity. See StiinnJiinnvier. "hammer cloth.— When the aparejo is placed on the back of a i)ack-iinimal, it is covered with a piece of canvas or matting, made to lit it. called tin- lIiDniiier-i-bith. Two pieces of hard wood, about 1 inch thick. 2 inches wide, 20 inches long, round on the outside and beveled to an edge at Ihe ends, are placed about (i inches from the end of the cloth. Leather caps are stitched over the ends rif the wood. To secure the hammer-cUith, aparejo anil Ihe blan- kets beneath it lo the animal, a wide girth. <alle(l a cincha or cinch, is used. It is made of hide or strong canvas, about feet long (a lillle too short to go around the nude's body over the aparejo), from 1,5 to 20 inches wide, and so folded as to bring tin; edges and stitching in the center. A .semi-circular piece of leather, provided with holes or a ring, is stitched on one end, and two loops of strong leather and a slider of hard wood on the other. The cinch is tightened by drawing the two ends together, by means of what is known as the latigo.strap — made of strong bridle-leather about feet long, an inch and one-half wide at one end and tapering to one- half inch at the other. When the strap is suflicienlly drawn, a loop is formed in the free end and the bow is pulled under the front and back lashings of the strap. To relax the cinch and set all free, it is only necessary to pull on the free end of the strap. For very small animals a short cinch fone end furnished with a ring and the other with a stick, bent into the shape of a hook), attached to a rope at the ring may be used. See Aparejo and Packing. HAMMEE-NAIL. 6 HAND-ABMS. HAMMER-NAIL.— The pin securing the cock to the jilate of the irun-lock. It is freqvie'ntly called the hx'k-nic'l. HAMMER -PIKE.— A long-shafted weapon, like the icar-fuimm^r. It was carried by the subalterns in charge of the flag under the First Empire (1804- 1814). HAMMER-SPRING.— The spring of a hammer in a gun-lork. Its parts are the play-side, the i<Uid-side. the turn, the flitwer. tlie xtnd, and the eye ; through the latter passes the rod of the spriug-pin. HAMMOCK. — A kind of bed suspended on land, between trees or posts ; on board ship, between hooks. Each soldier proceeding to sea on board a troop or transport-ship is entitled to have a hammock told off to him as a resting-place of a night. The hanmiock suspended forms a sort of bag capable of containing the soldier's mattress, his blankets, and himself, as soon as he has acquired the far from easy knack of climbing into it. The lunumocks are taken below at sunset, and hung in rows about 3 feet apart, in the men's portion ()f the ship. When done with in the morning, the bedding is carefully tied up within each, and the whole stowed in the hammock-netting, which is generally in the bulwarks of the waist. If the weather be not sufficiently dry, however, to allow of this, the hammocks are left lielow. Stowed thus in the netting, the hammocks form a strong barrier against small shot. HANAPIER. — The front part of a cuirass, or iron breast-plate worn by light-armed soldiers. Also written Hanepier. HAND. — 1. The small of a gun-stock. 2. A mea- sure four inches in length. The height of a liorse is comp\ited by so many bauds and inches. HAND -ARBALEST .—A portable balista used in ancient Greece, very much like the cross-bow of the Middle Ages. HAND-ARMS. —Hand-arms arc usually divided into three classes, depending on their mode of opera- tion. 1st. Thfustlng-i\Tms, which act by the point. 2d. Ontting-nTma, which act by the edge. 3d. Thrusting and Cutting-arms, which act cither way. The object of all hand-weapons is to penetrate, directly, the person of an enemy. They may be di- vided into three distinct parts, viz. : 1st. The point, or edge, which attains the object ; 2d. The body, or blade, which constitutes the mass of the weapon, and transmits the force of the hand to the object; and, 3d. The handle, or point of application of the motive force. The meclianical principles to which they may be referred, are lever and wedge. With a given force of the hand, acting against a given object, the penetration of a thrusting-weapon de- pends upon the power of the H-edge formed at its point. The effect will be modified, however, by the position of the axis of the wedge, for if it do not co- incide with the direction of the impelling force, tliere will be a component force which acts to turn the point to one side. The blade of a thrusting- weapon should, therefore, be straight, and should taper to a point. To guide it easily, the center .of gravity should be found in or near the handle ; this may be accomplished by grooving the blade, by making the handle heavy, or by adding a counter- poise to it. The principal thrusting-wcapons are the straiglit KWird, hinn, and li'iyinat. The straight swords as well as other swords, are composed of the Idude, thi' ' hilt, and the guard. The blade is divided into the point, the middle, the reinforce, the shovldfr, the tnng, or portion which is inserted into the handle, and the grunves, the number of which is equal to the number of faces, or, from two to four. The length of blade varies from 30 to 33 inches, the widlli is from I to ■; of an inch, an<l the weight I to \l ll)s. The hill is (lividi-d into the 1,-n'ih, and the gri)ie ; the gripe is generally ma<leof wood, covered with leather or sheel-brass, and wrapped with wire to give it roughness, and prevent it from slipping in the hand. The guard is composed of the rjirvid branch and cross- piece, and the plate, all joined in one piece. The object of the guard is to protect the hand, tlie plate to ward fiff the point, and the brancli, the edge of the enemy's sword. The irounds made by thrusting- swords, particularly those with three or four concave sides, are very dangerous, as they close up externally and suppurate internally. In experienced hands the straight sword is well adapted to encounter one of its kind, but it is too weak to parry the blows of a saber. It is now but little used in this country, ex- cept for ornamental purposes : the saber being pre- ferred as a service weapon, even for infantry officers. The lance, or pike, is composed of a sharp steel blade, fixed to the end of a long and slender handle of wood. The bleide is generalh- from 8 to 10 inches j long, and, in order that it may combine stiffness with lightness, is grooved after the manner of the common bayonet, leaving three orfoiir ridges. The , base of the blade has a socket, and two iron straps, ■ for securing it to the handle. Three small .staples are sometimes fastened to the handle, below the blade, for the purpose of attaching a, pennon, which serves as an ornament, and to frighten the enemy's horses. The handle is made of strong, light, well- seasoned wood. The lower end is protected with a tip of iron, and a leather loop is attached opposite the center of gravity, to enable the arm to carry and guide the lance. The total length of a lance varies from 8j to 11 feet, and the weight is about 4i lbs. On horseback, and when not in use, the lance may be carried in two ways : 1st. Bj' placing the lower end in a leather boot attached to the stirrup, and passing the right arm through the leather loop. 2d. By placing the lower end in the boot and strapping the handle to the pommel of the saddle. The first mode enables the horseman to take his lance with him when he dismounts, and is well sinted to liglit lances. The second mode is necessary to heavy lances. In the first shock of a cavalry charge, and in the pursuit of a flying enemy, the lance is a superior weapon to the saber, as it has a greater penetration, and attains its object at a greater dis- tance : but in the hand-to-hand conflict following a charge, the latter is superior to the former. Hence, it has been customary in certain services to arm a portion of both light and heavy cavalry with the lance. In the Russian service, the front rank of the cuirassiers, a species of heavy cavalry, is armed with the lance, and the rear rank with thehmg two-edged saber : and in nearly every Etiropean service, the lancers constitute an inqiortant part of the cavalry organizatiim. It is also a favorite weapon with the mounted Indians of this country. The bayonet is a pointed blade, attached to the end of the fire-arm, to ccmvcrt it into a pike. The mode of attachment should be such that the bayonet will not interfere with the loading, aiming, and firing of the piece : and it shotdd be so secure as not to be disengaged in conflict. The inusk(t-hayo. net is c<Hiii)osed of a blade, a socket, and a ela.tp. The blade of this bayonet is made of steel. 18 inches long, and, to give it lightness and stiffness, its three faces, are grooved in the direction of the length. The grooves arc technically called flutes. The blade is i joined to the socket by Die «(rt, which should be si rung, and free from all defects of workmanship. Tile s'ickit is made of \vroughl-iron, carefully bored oul to fit the barrel of the jiirce easily, and at the same time closely. It is secured by a stud (brazed on the barrel), wlu<'h fits into a crooked channel, or groore. cut in the socket, and by a movable ring called the cla-tp. Short artns such as carbines and musketoons are sometimes furnished with bayonets <if sullicieni length to enable lliese arms lo resist a charge of infantry or cavalry. .Sucli bay<inels are generally made in the form of a sword. The back of the handle has a groove which fits upon a stud on i the liarrel, and the eros.s-piecc of the handle is per- forated so as to encircle the muzzle-end of the HAND ARMS. / HAND ABM8. barrel 'Plu' biiyimct is prcvciilcd from slippint; ofV fixcil, niiiy be uscil «h a poiKnanl, for the personal bv a spriin' iiiK'li. The handle is made of a solid 'defense of I licr soldier. The bayoncd <-ontribiile» nie<c .)f l.n.ss, wilh a liole runninir Ihrou;;!. il for , very much lo the elllcieney of a military (ire-arm, the lanir of Ihe l)lade, which is secured by riveiin}; 1 particularly as il enables infantry to resist cavalry, down the poinl. The l)»ck of the blade "is turned i Too much attention cannot be paid in t.'a.hing toward the barrel, and the body is bent outward, I troops the use of this arm, and inspiring them with Fig. 1. that neither may interfere with Ihe hand in loadins. Its length is about 28 inches, and its breadth 1^ inches.' The sirdrd-hnyontt is too heavy to be car- ried habitually fixed to the barrel: ordinarily it is carried as a side-arm. for which purpose it is well adapted, as it has a curved eulliuLl-edire, as well as confidence in it. for it verj' often decides the fate of a battle. That edge of a cutting-arm will have the greatest penetration which opposes the fewest points to its object : a lilade with a convex edge, will, therefore. • have sreater penetration than a straight one. The a sharp point. The regulatiuu bayonet, when not effect of a cutting-blade will be moditied by the HANS ABMS. 8 HAND-ABKLS. manner it is applied to the surface of the object ; an oblique stroke, for iuslauce. will make a deeper cut than a direct one. If the edge of the sharpest blade be submitted to a microscope, it will present to the eye numerous asperities, which give it the appear- ance of the cutting-edge of a saw ; it is evident, therefore, that the motive force should act obliquely to the cutting-edge of the blade, as that enables it to rupture the layers of flesh upon which it acts, in de- glirtn of the Arabs, the shape of which is that of an elongated letter S. The facility of handling a saber, and the eileet of its blow, depend upon the relative positions of the lidiiiUe. the center of gnirity. the point iif contact, and the cmter of percussion. The nearer the center of gravity is to the point of contact, the more powerful will l)e the blow ; but the dif- liculty of handling increases with the distance of the center of gravity from the handle. As the force of tail, and without expending its force U]ion the elas- ticity of several layers at oiiec. which \vo\dil lie the case were it to act directly upon tlie objccl. When the curvature of a blade is convex on tlie cutting- side, the iiart near the point makes a deeper cut wh(ii it is pushed from the hand that moves it, as will l)e the case with the l)lows delivered in a charge of cavalry. On the contrary, a conrnrr cutting-edge, like th.-it of a sickle, acts most favorably when it is drawn toward the person using it ; such is the yatn- the blow is the iinportant consideration in a saber, anil the facility of hiindling in a tlirusling-sword, it is cusloiiiary to r.iake (he point of the lilaile heavier, and tlie handle lighlcr, in llie former than in the latter. In cerl'iin light cavalry sabers, the center of gravity is placed about three or four inches from the handle. In order that no part of the force be lost, the point of contact should coincide with the center of percussion; the position of the latter point, how- ever, depends upon the weight of the soldier's arm. HAND BABBOW. HAND OBENADE. if motion lakes i)la(i- iiimiMil llic shoulder, and it therefore varies in piirlieiilar cases. 'I'he |)riiiei|)al {•ultiiiL^- weapon is Ihe sah<T. The eutt.iiijj:-e(li;<- is ftenerally convex ; anil Ihe deijree of its cnrvatnre is the charaeleristie fi-alnre of th<' weapon. The nonienclatnre of Ihe salier is nearly Ihe same as for tlie sword, the principal dilTereni'c bc'in;.; in Ihe strueliire of the uuard, which is maile liLdiler or lieavier, as llie salier approximales Ihe character of a <Miltinv: or llirustinL!:-weapon. There are two kinds of sabers used in the Iniled Stales service, viz.: ihv riirii/n/ «ii/>i r. and the l'i/lil-iifl!ili'n/ mlii'r. The cniui/n/ sii/iir lieiii',' nscd, to a certain extent, for pointinj; as well as eutlini;. has only a moderate de- gree of curvature, a lon^ blade (Hti inches;, and a "basket-hilt" to protect the hand from the point of the eiH'iny's sword, and to carry Ihe center of j;rav- ity toward the handle. The irnard is coniposi'il of the front, iiiithllr. and Inich bninches. The icrijie is covered with calfskin, and bnnnd with wire. The liglit-iirtilli I'll H'llfr beinir used more particularly ff)r hand-to-hand contlicls. has a shorter CM inches') and more curved blade, and a lighter handle than the cavalry saber. The ;;nard is composed of a sins;le piece of brass, terminatin!; in a scroll. The blades of all sabres arc grooved, to sjive them lightness. In cerlain services it is customary to arm the heaviest cavalry, or cuirassiers, with swords which are capa- ble of coping with the liayonet or lance. The blades are long (from ;jti to 40 inehcsj, liglit, and straight, and they have a sharj) [loint, and a single cutting- edge. The hilt is heavy, and of the basket form. The only weapon of the thrusting and cutting class used in the United States service is the foot-artillery ,swi>rd, which resembles Ihe short Homan sword in its character. The blade has two I'ulting-edges, is liglitened toward Ihc' handle, and is 19 inches long. Tlie guard is a simple cross-piece, formed of the same piece as the handle, which is made of brass. Fiirures 1 and 'I represent a variety of hand-arms, as manufactured in Ihi' I'nited States. See Small-dnnn. HAND BARROW.— A wooden frame which is car- ried around liy Iwo men, instead of being rolled for- ward, like a wheel-barrow. Those empioyed in Ihe <>rilnani-e Department are very useful in the erec- tion of forlitications, as well as carrying shells and shot along the trenches. Tiie ends of the side-rails are rounded and form the handles. Hope netting pas.ses thnnigh lioles in the side-rails and joins them. The weight of this barrow is about 20 pounds. HAND BOARD. A board used in the laboratory in rolling pn'rt-tire cases and similar work. HAND CANNON. -.\ rudely made weapon of the fourteenth century. It was made-of wrought. iron, iin 1 fastened to a piece of rough wood, so that it could not be t)rought to Ihe shoulder. At first, the touch-hole was on top of the cannon, and had a covering plate on hing<'s to preserve it from damp. A little later the touch-hole was placed to the right of the cannon. See Ilnrl,h}iKli. HAND CART.— .\ light hand-truck used for the transpcirlalion of light stores from one part of a work to another. That for carrying powder, fuses, and such like articles has an arched lid-cover to keep ofl rain and prevent accidents from tire. The form mostly used in the United States service consists of a light body with shafts, nuiunted on two wheels. The shafts are joined together at the ends, and sup- ported immediately in front of the body by iron legs. It weighs ISO jiomids, and is very handy for the transportation of light stores in siege and garrison service. The drawing shows a very convenient cart, having two main fixed wheels and two heavy cast- ors. This form is much used in transporting the heavier stores about the Armorv and Arsenal. HANDCUFF.— A fetter to secure the hands togeth- er. IlanileulTs are maih' of iron, ring-shaped, with a lock attached, ami just large enough to keep on the wrists without hurting them. Men who have deserted the service are usually manacled in this iminner wiien being removed from one place to uii- olher. HAND CULVERIN. A small well-made cannon of Ihe llfleirilli reiilury. The nialch was fasteni'il to the weapiiM il;>eir, and was held by the Sfrjitntiii, a sort of small lin-liick. HAND FEED MILLING-MACHINE. -A machine much used in the Armory for the rapid manipulation of small work, in tlu' fabrication of fire-arms. etc. The machine is llie same as the automatic machine, <■(! Milliiii: maclinie. with the exception of the automatic-feed being re- ])laeed by the hand-feed, which is operated by a lever fastened to the pinion-shaff, giving a very direct mo- tion and (|nick return. Adjustable stops are placed on the table for regulating the motion. The machine Hand-cart. is usually funiished with a vise and a dividing-head, and is arranged for cutting gears anil jiinions either on centers or in a spring-chuck. The counter-shaft hangers are generally adjustable and self-oiling. See Milling. HANDFUL. — A term used figuratively, in a military sense, til denote a comparatively small mmiber ; as, ".\ handful of men." HAND GALLOP. — A very slow and easy Gallop, in which the haml ])resses the bridle to hinder increase of s[>eeil. HAND GRENADE.-.Hand-grenades consist of small cvliudrical-shaped shells, with conical ends, fitted with a plunger at the striking-end, and a directing- feather at the other. The plunger tits loosely info the cavity in the forward part of the shell, and is made to project two or three inches beyond its face, being retained in place by a light spring : it has at- tached to its outer end a circular piece of sheet-iron several inches in diameter. .Vt the bottom of tlie cavitv in which the ])Umger is placed a nipple is HAND LATHE. 10 HAHD-IEVEL. fixed, conimunicatmg with the bursting-charge, on Avliich is placed an ordinary pereussion-cap, whicli is exploded when the plunger is driven in violently, thereby igniting the charge. There are three sizes of grenades, 1, 3. and 5 pounds, and are intended to be thrown by the hand, and may be very effect- of the 13-inch engine-lathe. Hand-latlies swinging 13 inches, are of similar construction, with the excep- tion that the boxes are of the same material and st3'le as those of the 8-incli. The holes through the centers of the spindles are for 12-inch lathes, ,"j-inch dia- Countershafts should ivelv used in repelling attacks by boats or by persons well sheltered against others completel.y exposed. Ketchiun's liand-grenadc, which has lately been intr(jduced into the American service, is a small, oblong percussion shell, which explodes on striking a slightly resisting object. To prevent accidents, the "plunger," or piece of metal which communi- cates the shock to tlie percussion cap, is not inserted in its place imtil the moment before the grenade is to be thrown. See Grenade, Projectiles, and Ra/m- part-grennde. HAND LATHE.— A small lathe mounted on a bench or till lie and lurned by a hand-crank or by a bow. It is usually portable, and may be secured by a clamp to the bench. It is extensively used in the Armory in making the sm.all parts of small-arms. The draw- ing shows the Pratt and Whitney 8-inch hand-lathe, as employed in most gun-factories in the United States. The cone has fovir grades, for li-inch belt ; the spindle has extra large bearings, in gun-metal boxes, and has a hole through its center i|-inch in diameter. The boxes are seated in tapering recesses, and are s]ilit, so that any possible wear may be taken up by means of cap-nuts. The caii-nuts contain felt linings, to prevent the introduction of dust, or <if emery, when the lathe is used for polishing. A hand lever for actuating the foot-stock spindle is furnished, in addition to the hand-wheel and screw, or without hand-wheel iind screw. The lathe with 3()-inch bed, receives 12 inches between centers, and weighs, with the countcrsliafi, 340 lbs. Speeil of countershaft. with 7 by 2.1-inch tight and loose pulleys, 320 revolu- tions per minute. Larger lathes of this pattern are also used on the larger parts of small-arms. A 15- inch hanil-lathe has a cone carrying a 2|-inch belt. The head-spindle has large bearings, in cast-iron boxes lined with Babbit-metal of the best quality. The face-plate and centers interchange with those have speed as follows • For 12-incTi lathe, tight and loose pulleys 6 or 8 by %k inches, 200 to 250'revolu- tions per minute ; for LVinch lathe, tight and loose pulleys 8 or 13 by three inches, ITf) to 2.50 revolu- tions per minute. See Lathe. HAND-LEVEL.— A small and portable instrument for indicating a horizontal line, or determining the positicm as to borizontality of an object or surface to whicli it is applied. The drav%ing represents Locke's Iiand-Ievel. a very accurate and suitable' instrument for general reconnaissance-work. It consists of a brass tube about six inches long, having a small level on top and near the object end. there being also an opening in the tube beneath, through which the bubble can lie seen, as reflected by a glass jirisiii, immediatelv under the level. Both ends of the tul e HnncM.'vel are closed by plain glass settings to exclude the dust, and there is in the inner end of the sliding or eye- tube a semicircular convex lens, which serves to magnify the level-liubble, and cross-wire uiiderneath, wliile it allows the object to be clearly seen through 11ieo]ien lialf of the tulie. 'I'lie cross-wire is fastened to a little frame moving under the level-tube and ad- justed to its place by the small .screw, shown on the edge of the level case. The level of any object in line with the eye of the oliscrver is determined by sighting upon it through the tidie and bringing the air-liublile of the level into a position where it is bi- sected by the cross-wire. A short telescope is some HAND MALLET. 11 HAMS TBAV2UN0 CKANE. tiriii-H:i|i|ilic(l in place of the phi in iiliisHcnilH, thus cna- bliiiLC l<'vcls U> he laki'ii ill ij;ri-iilcr disliiiicc iiml with incrrMscd arcurac\'. See ('l/fi"iftitrr. and )' Lit'ii. HAND MALLET. -A vvorjilcii haMiincr with a han- dle. Id ilrivi' I'lises, (ir picki^lH, etc., in iiiakiii^ fas- cines III' naliion lialleries. HAND RUBBING. - 'Ph(^ inani|)iiliili(in which a horse'rt Icsih uiiderL;c) on th<! inarcii ami el.Mcwlicrc, chielly at f<'ediiii; time, and which shmild \n: con- tinued fur alii>ul Ull niinutcH at eai-li meal. HAND SLING CART. - A two-wheeled c,irriaK<' , made entirely of iron, except the pole, which is of Louk. The axlu-lrce ia arched to make it stronger, llftiul SliilK-cart. and connected with the pole by strong wrouiiht-iron straps and linices. In tlie rear of the axle a jirojec- tion is welded to receive the end of a stronir hook. The end of the iiole terminates in a ferrule and an eye. The eye serves the ])urpose of attaeliin;; to thi' carl, when neee<-;:ir\ , a liniheror a horse. 'I'lie liiaiii- raisinj; heavy weijrhts and in movinj; (funs into position for loading; and lirin;^. The <r«/niandspike for Held carriai;es is .IIJ inches in len;;lli ; the rnaii- KiiKiriiKj handspike for garrison and sea-coast ear- riaffcs ami for ]f^\\\* is f!() inches; for siejfir and other heavy work it is made 84 inches lonj; and 12 llis. weight; the kIukI liandspike is particularly useful in the service of mortars and casemate anil harhette carriages; tlie tnifk handspike for casemate car- riages, of wrought-iron ; the mllr handspike, for casemate carriages. It is made of iron, 1 imh round, the point conical, whole length IM inchi'S. HANDSPIKE RINGS. The tliiiiil.les (,n llie trail transoms nf ;;uii-. for the handspike, by which they are inaneu\ered. HAND TRAVELING CRANE.— The most satisfac- tory const ruction of this crane, us exhibited in the engraving, has the mechanism attached to one end of the bridge so that the operator is somewhat re- moved from the load, thus adapting it es]iecially to foundry use. The bridge is arranged to travel lengthwise upon the longitudinal tracks, and the trolley to move transversely upon the bridge, so that the entire rec'tangiilar space between the tracks is covered by the i-rane. Cranes of this design are liuilt of any desired capacity up to 10 tons, and of any span. The crab containing the operating me- chanism is permanently secured to the under side of tlie bridge at one end, and is located entirely below il, ...j lli:it llii- liriil'M' 1:111 111' |il:irrd clu-r to the n.infl Trav eter of the wheel is six feet. The hand sling-cart is designed for moving light weights and siege-pieces in the trenches by hand. The weight is raised by first attaching to it a sling, and then applying to the sl'ug the hook upon the rear of the a.xle, by raising the pole of the cart. The pole is used as a lever, the axle and wheels being the fulcrum. It may be nsed for any weights not exceeding 6.000 pounds. See (Inrrisnn Slhi(]-''<trt and Sling-cnrt. HANDSPIKE.— A wooden or iron lever, flattened at one end and tapering towards the other, used in plinir-criino. underside of roof or ceiling. The trolley travels upon tracks on top of the bridge, and its sides extend downward close to the bridge, with the chain sheaves contained between them, thus giving the maximum amount of hoist. The Weston tixed- cable system is employed to effect the squaring of the bridge and its lougiludinal motion upon the i overhead tracks. The travel of the trolley upon the bridge is effected by an independent mechanism, ojierated by an endless hand-chain from the floor I below, in a manner similar to that employed in the HANDLE. 12 UARBOE DEFENSES. jili cranes. Motion of the bridffc is also effected by an endless liand-chiiin or rope passinsr over another rope-wheel. Pnllin;:; one side of this chain causes the bridge to move in one direction, and pulling the other causes it to move in the opposite direction. At each end of the crab, or housing containing the operatmg mechanism, are similar rope-wheels, o- ver cach^of which passes an endless rope or chain. Pulling either of these in one direction causes hoist- in", and in the other, lowering. One is larger than the other, thus giving two speeds ; while, by pulling both simultaneously, an additional speed is obtained. The several motions of hoisting or lowering, and of moving the bridge or trolley, may each be effected independently or simultaneously. The hoistiiig-gear consists of cut steel worms en- gaging with cul worm-wheels, with provision for thorough lubrication. The main hoisting-chain is endles.s" and passes over pocketed chain-wheels, by wliich it is driven, the arrangment of parts being such as to distribute the wear equally throughout the entire length of this chain. A safety device, con- sisting of automatic friction-ratchets in combination with flie worm-shafts, is employed, so that the load is always self-sustained in any position and cannot ruji down. Lowering is effected by reversing the motion of the hoisting-chains. The location of the mechanism at one end of the bridge removes the operator from proximity to the load, which is, of course, desirable in handling ladles of hot metal, and in lifting large flasks, etc. While particularly de- signed for foundry use, this type of crane is equally siutable for use in forges and for many <3f the same purposes as other cranes. See Cranes, Power Tror- veUng-'-rnni', and Travel! ng-crnrif. HANDLE. —The portion of a tool, or implement, by which it is grasped. As—Mveoi a hammer or axe: the haft of a knife ; the hilt of a sword : the stock of a drill, bit, or gun: the nhaft of a spear, lance, or hiirpoon : the rniii/c of a winch or crab : the pommel of a saddle; the trigger of a gun-lock : and the dolphin of a gun. In bronze guns of the old construction hanifles were usually cast over the center of gravity of the piece, for convenience of handling and sling- ing. These were made in the shape of a fish, and hence were called dolphins. HANDLE ARMS.— In the earlier tactics, a word of comiuiind (when the men were at ordered arms), by whir'h tile soldier was directed to bring his right luiiid brisklv to the muzzle of his lire-lock. hanged! drawn, and QUAfiTEEED.— The de- scription of the capital sentence on a traitor, which consisted of drawing him on a hurdle to the place of | execution, and after hanging him dividing the body ; into quarters. This punishment was substituted, for the ancient more barbarous sentence of disem- boweling alive, but the Crown has power to reduce the sentence to simple lieheading. HANGER. — .V term applieil to a short broadsword, inrurvaled towards the ]ioint. The hanger^ was a Tiirkisli sword formerly worn by the Janissaries. HANG FIRE.—Tlie term is applied when a gun is slow in discharging itself, from the flame being checked in its passage to the charge, either from the vent lieing fouled or the charge being damp. The former c:in scarcely happen now, :is the friction tube <-oiivi-ys llic flame "to tlie cliarge with great certainty. HANTE. — The Frcixli name for an ornamental pikr, having a lianniT iittached. HAQUETON. -A padded or quilted tunic worn by arriiiil warriors in the Middle Ages. It was worn bi'iii;ith the mail and was slightly longer than the h'i>ih:'rk. HAR.— A syllable used in composition usually as a prilix, and signifying '//•/«//:- -occurring in various form-, as liore. Ii Tl ;in arrn\. HARANES gariaii Militia. HARASS. In th and here; as liarisvalt, leader of French designation of the Ilun- militarv. Iln' a'i of :nniovingand incessantly pursuing or lianging on to the rear and flanks of a retreating force, so as, if possible, to prevent its attaining its object, and perhaps over- coming the enemy altogether. Kotwithstandingtlic disadvantage which a retreating army has under these circumstances, history affords us examplea that if the retreat be conducted by an able Com- mander, he has it in his power, by his ingenuity and other military qualities, to avoid the enemy. 1)y get- ting into inaccessible places, or by so disposing of Ills troops as to make it hazardous for a pursuing army to follow him up. or any 'onger to endeavor to harass liini. HARBOR DEFENSES.- The entrance to a harbor may be considered, and is in fact, a defile, the de- fense of which follows the rules applicable to defiles generally. The means usually emjiloyed to prevent the passage of hostile ships ;ire diviiled into three classes, viz.: 1st. Forts and land-liatteries ; 2d. Sub- marine mines : 3d. Floating defenses. Whenever practicable, batteries sliould be well strung out in groups, the strength of which should increase as they are approached from the outside. This arrangement has a peculiarly discouraging effect on an enemy. The first batteries will at least damage him and cause confusion, thus weakening his attack on the stronger, and when his discomfiture finally takes place, the batteries already passed will prevent his return and insure his total destruction. The islands, headlands, and narrows usnall_y found at the en- trances of harbors will generally, to a greater or less degree, enable this arrangement to be carried out. Experience teaches that where the channel is unob- structed steam-vessels can run past shore batteries, however well the latter may lie served. But, on the other hand, where obstructions to their rapid transit exist, thej' have not the endurance and aggressive power to effect much damage to land defenses. In the smoke of battle and tideway of the channel they become immanageable, get agroimd, or collide with each other. It is a well-settled fact that a hostile fleet, by con- centrating its fire on an open work, may temporarily silence its guns. For this reason the accunnilation of guns in works exposed to such concentration should be avoided by distributing them in batteries, each containing but few pieces, due regard being had to their security from assault and capture by any force that may be landed for that purpose. The best arrangement is to place them in detached batteries of, say. 2, 4, or 6 pieces each, well secured from the enemy's fire by earthen ei^aulments and traverses. This arrangemert makes it' difficult for the enemy to discover the exact position of the guns, and every peculiarity of ground should be taken ad- vantage of to increase this difficulty. Whatever tends to make batteries ditlicult to see, and conse- quently to hit. is as much a protection as that which makes them capable of resisting a hit when made. G\uis thus dispersed have greater freedom of lateral range of fire, and do not interfere so much with each other l)_y reason of their smoke as wdien concen- trated—a matter of no little importance with heavy artillery, which emits such volumes as, in certain conditions of the atmos]ihere, to irrcatly interfere with accuracy of :iim. When batteries are extended, a larger ;ire:i will hv swept by their converging fire tliiui when the guns are assembled eii iiiOKxe. An ad- dition;U advantage conferred by distrilmting the gims is. that while obtaining concentrated fire on an im- portant or decisive )ioint. a similar fire cannot be directed in return. Tliis arrangement woidd. fur- thermore, tend to neutralize the power which a fleet nughl have of fornung or. a wide arc of a circle, and moving slowly under steam, so as to render the task of hitting the individual shijjs more dillicult, throw a converging fire upon the works on shore. In the design of such works, it is of primary im- portance that conjoint action of the various parts should be maintained; and to jirevent the individual HARBORING AN ENEMY. 13 HARD LABOR. Imltcrii'S from hciriir fnplurcd by cuvp ilr mam, Hniall inclosed carlli-works, liciivily Htockadcd to ri'Mist t'scaliidc, and riicli ariiicd vvilli lirld, nlrv^f, and iiia- cliinc LTiiiiH, and --iiiic niorlars, slioiddjic con-^triiclcd HO as to have ((iniplcMc I'ojriniand over all land ap- pniaclics. Tlwsc farlli-worku should contain the infantry supports. In this manner most of the exist- iuu; sea-coast forts may lie utilized, niakiiiLj of tliem protectin/j; works for exterior earliien batteries. The defenses of a liarbor should, in every instance, be capable of repiilsini; all attacks that the enemy is likely to make on lliem. The power and persistency of these attacks will depend upon the importaiu-e to him of the object to be ijained. f.ar^re and opulent cities, naval establishments, and ship-yards are anion!!; the lirst prizes sought for. The ajrfrressive power of modern navies is such us to make it quite impracticable to elVectually fiuard every harbor on an extended coast. It is.tlicrefore, belter toentirely abandon those that are unimportant to the enemy, for whatever use he may make of them, than by feebly jiuardini; tliem to invite his attacks and thus ali'ord luin thi' moral ellect and consolation of cheap victories, and to the coimtry the mortitication and disadvanta;;*' of defeat and loss of prestige. The number of troo]is ri'(|uired fortlie maiminffof a work erected for liarbor defense d<'i)ends chiefly npon the nature and amount of armament contained therein. Works of this nature are armed princi]ially ■with |iicces of the heaviest caliber, but. for reasons hereafter given, all kinds should generally lind place. The amount of armament <lepends upon the extent of the work and the part it is to phiy in the scheme of defense. Three full detachments are necessary for each piece. Knowing the number of jiieces in the work and the niimlicr of men rci|uired for the service of each, the entire strength required is ob- tained. Three relief detachments are necessary, for the reasons that the labor of manipulating and serv- ing heavy artillery is very great, and when a rapid and continuous Hrc is to lie maintained, strong fatigue parties are reiiuircd in carrying ammunition from the service magazines to the pieces : damages done i to the worlvs during tlie (lay havi^ to be rejiaired at i night, and casualties occurring, whether from the lire of the enemy or from accidents, must be pro- j videtl against, so tliat at any moment an eflieient de- tachment may be at every piece. xVs a general rule, liattcries shoulil not he encumbered by an attempt to include musketry defense within their limits. The place for this arm is on the Hanks of the batteries, and in strength sufficient to prevent an enterprising enemy from landing and assaulting the work, and from apjiroaching to keep down the fire of the guns while his vessels run liy it. However well it ma}- have answered with the old style of artillery to have the troops serving batteries charged, in addition, with musketry duty, it certainly is not advisable with the artillery of the present. Steam-propelled iron-clads, carrying guns of enormous power, range, and accuracy, demand the undivided attention in action of those using the only weapons eflfective against such adversaries. The labor of handUng and caring for the kind of artillery, ammunition, material, and machines now used, altogether with tlie construction, preservation, and repair of batter- ies, will require all the time and the whole attention of the troops serving guns in war. The care of in- fantry arms and equipments, together with the drills and parades incident thereto, have ,i tendency to draw awav the attention of officers and men and prevent them from keeping in an efficient state of readiness, the only safeguard that stands between an enemy and the oliject for which he may desire to enter a harbor. When a work containing batteries 1 for harlior defense is inclosed, the amount of mus- ketry necessary for it is determined by allowing two muskets for each lineal yard of parapet not occupied by the batteries. Artillery being the main feature in such works, the command should be vested in an | Artillery Ollicer. Wliire there are several forts and batteries guarding the entrance to a harbor or con- stituting a line of works, they should, for the pur- pose of adminstration and command, be united in groups, each group Ix-iiig under an .\rtillery Odicer of appropriate rank, and the whole combined and commanded by theSeniorOHicer of Artillery present. My this means tliorough co-operution is seeured throughout the entire system. In onler to avoid the weakening effect of divided responsiliility, sub- marine mines, when employed in conjunction with a fort for the defense of a channel, should be under the (control of the Commanilanl of the fort, who should select from his command the proper number of officers and men to be instructed in the method of working this branch of defense. No more troops than are necessary to carry out the foregoing rules should be crowderi into a work: otherwise, un- necessary casualties from the lire of the enemy will be added, stores consumed, and unhealthiness en- gendered; and, besides, in lime of war. when troops are not required in any one place, their ser- vices are generally needed elsewhere. The high standard of practical gunnery reiiuired of artillery demands a projiortional degree of intelligence and capacity for instruction in the individual soldier. Artillerymen should be selected with a special view to this, artisans and mechanics forming a large pro- portion. Steam-power and tlie apl>lication of labor and lime-saving niacliinery should, wherever prac- ticable, be introduced to assist in making the de- fensive abilily of fortified places more perfect. In conducting the defense of a work, too much im- portance should not be attached to the battering of it by an enemy ; for experience leaches that a place is formidalile, if resolutely defended, long after it has lost all semblance of the form and symmetry possessed by it when it came from tlie hands of the constructing engineer. See Jlifuixe. HARBORING AN ENEMY.— A crime prohibited in military law and severely punished under all circum- stances. The Articles of War provide that whoso- ever relieves the enemy with money, victuals, or ammunition, or knowingly harbors or protects an enemy, shall suffer death, or such other puuishment as a Court-Martial may direct. HARCARRAH. — In India, a messenger employed to carry letters, and otherwise intrusted with mat- ters of consequence that require secrecy and punctu- ality. They are very often Brahmins, who are well acquainted with the neighboring countries: they are sent to gain intelligence, and are used as guides in the field. HARD BREAD. — A component of the army ration, generally issued, instead of Hour, to troops while campaigning. When hard-bread is put in bo.xes, (the best packages for Jield transportation), they should be made of fully seasoned wood, of a kind to impart no taste or odor to the bread, and as far as practicable of single pieces. "When two pieces are used in making the same surface, they should be tongued and grooved together. A Ixix, 2()XlTx 11 inches, exterior measure, is an average bo.x for hard-bread, under the usual circunislanccs of land transportation. The ends of a bo.x of this size should be made of inch, and the remainder of five-eighths slutT. the package well strapped with green hickory or oljier suitable wood. Hard-bread, after t/icroi/g/i cooling and drying, should be pressed closely in its packages, each package containing a uniform weight iifbrerid. for the convenience of calculation. It can be re-dried in boxes without removal therefrom, by being exposed for about forty hours to a temperature of l-iO degrees Fahrenheit. Ilard-tnfk. Pib't-brend, and Sea-bread are common names of the article. See Rntiim . HARD LABOR.— A military punishment frequently awarded by C'ourls-JIartial. This punishment is now firmly established in the Unitid Kingdom; and by express statute, the power of adding bard-labor HARDNESS. 14 HARNESS. to tlie punishment of imprisonment, has been given in most oasen. l)Oth as to indictable otfenses and tlie more disscraeeful offenses whieli are punishable sum- marily. The kind of labor is prescribed by the rules of the jail or prison, where provision must l)e made of the proper materials for the purpose. Picking oakum, working the tread-mill, etc., form part of this labor ; and m general, the number of hours for such labor, unless in case of sickness, is ten hours dailv. HARDNESS.— Tlie hardness of a body is measured by its power of scratching other substances. Varia- tions in the degree of hardness presented by different crystalized bodies often furnish a valuable physical sign by which one mineral may be readily distin- guished from others closely resembling it. Mohs selected ten well-known minerals, each succeeding one being harder than the preceding one, and tluis formed the scale (if/iardne.iti. which has been generally adopted by subsequent Mineralogists. Each mineral in the following table is scratched by the one that follows it. and "consequently by all the subsequent ones, and tlie hardness of any mineral may be de- termined by reference to the types just selected, TliiLs, if a body neither scratches nor is scratched by feld.spiir, its hardness is said to be 6: if it sliould scratch felds^iar but not quartz, its hardness is be- tween 6 and 7— the degrees of hardness being numbered from 1 to 10. "The figures on the right indicate the number of known minerals of the same or nearly the same degree of hardness as the sub- stance opposite to which they stand : 8CALE OP HARDNESS OF MINERALS. 1. Tulc 2.3 6. Feldspar (cleavable) 26 2. Comp't gypsum, or r'k-salt 90 7. Limpid quartz 26 3. Cnlcspaficlenvable variety)'! 8. Topaz .5 4. Fluor-spar 5.3 9. Sapphire, or corundum.. 1 ri Apatite 43 10. Diamond 1 The cause of the varieties of hardness observed in different bodies is not known. The same substance — as. for example, a piece of steel — inaj-. under the influence of different circumstances, be so soft as to take impressions from a die, or may be nearly as hard as a diamond. Without a certain degree of hardness, the shape of the bore will be rapidly altered by the compressive force of the powder and jiro- jectile. and the accKracy and safety of the piece will be destroyed. In rifle cannon liardness is particularly necessary, to enable the spiral grooves to resist this action; at least, the surface of t!ie bore should be relatively harder than the projectile. Steel is gene- rally hardened by heating it until the scales of o.xide are loosened (heat to about a cherry-red), and plung- ing it into a liquid or placing it in contact with some cooling substance which suddenly chills the metal, rendering it liard and brittle. The degree of hard- ness will depend upon the heat and the rapidity of coolim;. HARE CARTRIDGE-BLOCK,— A block recessed for any cnnvcnieiil number of cartridges in one row. On one side is fixed a leather strap, between which and the Iilock, the left hand is to be passed, the back of the liand being next to the block and holding it in a convenient position for loading. For convenience the block is curved, and the surface next to the liand <'ovcreil with sheepskin. The cartridge-holes are bushed as in the Benton-block. This block is jier- jnanenl in its nature, and intended to form a part of the soldier's equipment. HARMOSTES.— .V City Governor or a Prefect ap- ])oinl(ii Ijy tile Spartans in the cities subjugated by tlieill. HARNESS. — t. The iron covering or dre.ss which a .soldier formerly wore, and wliicli was fastened to the body by strajjs and Imckles: the whole accou- terments, offensive and defensive. 3. The e(]uip- meiits of a draught-horse. The liest method of attaching liorses to a r'arriage is that which enables each one to perform a given amount of work with the leant fatit/ue ; or, in other words, no horse should be restrained by the efforts of another, and the di- rection of the traces should be most favorable for draught. Besides these conditions, artillerv-harne.ss should lie so constructed that it can be put on and taken olf promptly, by night as well as liy day, in all states of the weather, and in cases of danger, when the drivers would be liable to lose their pres- ence of mind. The fall of one horse should not in- terfere with another; a dead or a wounded horse should be easily replaced, whatever may be his posi- tion in the team. The absence of some of the horses, the unhitcliing or cutting of some of the traces should not arrest the movement of the car- riage. Finally, the drivers, who are mounted for tilt better command of their horses, should not be incommoded by the pole of the carriage. There are three general modes of attaching horses to artillery-carriages, and upon the employment of any one of which depends the construction of the harness. In the first method the wheel-horse is placed between two shafts, by which he guides and regulates the motion of the carriage. The horses may be arranged in single or doulile file. The former arrangement was much in vogue in artillery before the days of tirilieauval. but at present is only em- ployed iu the mountain service. This method has the merit of being well suited for drawing heavy loads over smooth roads, liut is not adapted to rajjid movements over ordinary roads, as much of the tractile force is lost b}' the continued change in the line of traction incident to long columns. The force thus lost is expended in a great measure on tlie shaft-horse, which bj' constant fatigue, is soon ren- dered unserviceable. In the English light artillery the horses are arranged in double file, tlie cj^' wheel- horse being placed in shafts. In the second method the horses are arranged in double file — a wheel-horse being placed on each side of the pole, which is attached to the first axle-tree. The pole is supported and kept steady by the pres- sure of the body of the carriage on the mreep-hnr, which projects in rear of the front axle-tree. The leading horses are attached to the ximng-tree which is fastened to the pole, and the 'wheel-iiorses are at- tached to a mmable splintfr-ltai; the center of whicli is in the axis of the pole. The object of making a splinter-bar movable is to equalize the drauglrt be- tween two horses, one of which works more freHy than the other. This system of attachment is used in most carriages of commerce, and so far as Uie draught alone is concerned, is superior lo all others. It is also used in all siege-carriages and baggage- wagons of the military service, except that iu tlie former the splinter-bar is fixed. In field-carriages of late jiattern the stceep-bar is omitted, to facilitate attaching and detaching the rear carriage in time of action ; aiul the pole is stip- ported by two yokes attached to the collars of tlie horses. The wheel-horses are attached to a fixed splinter-bar, which is strong and simple in its construction ; and the traces of the leading horses are attached directly to those in the rear, giving a continuous line of traction, communicating directly with the carriage. This method of attaching artil- lery-horses in line is extremely simple, and at the same lime it fulfils nearly all the conditions reipiisite for artillery harness. Its iirincijial defect, however, is that, from the want of a sweeii-bar the weight of the carriage-pole is borne on the necks of the wheel- horses, wiiicii is a serious inconvenience wheu ma- king long marches. Artillery luirness is composed of the Jund-ifiar. to guide and hold the horse; the sadille. for the trans- portation of the driver and his valise; the ilraiiglit- liarxcns. which enables the horse to move the <'ar- riage forward ; and the hrifrhiiig. which enables him lo hold it back, stoj) it, or move it to llie re;ir. The collar prevents the liorse's shoulders from bi-ing hurt by the two curved pieces of ircm called the liamen: to each hauie is fastened a short leather tug ending HARNESS. 15 HABNESS. iu ail iron rinc;, to wliioli the front trarc-fliaiii Im at- tadicd. Tlic loail is piillcil by slroiiL"; li'atliiT straps callcil trarrx, to tlir mil of wliicli cliaiiis ari' faslciicil ; till' front tracc-fliaiii pliys l>ack ami forth in the liii;. riiiLj, and makes the wheel-horse imlepeiideiil of the horses in front: tlie rear Iraee-ehaui lan lie len^rlli- eneil or shortened at will so as to adapt the harness to dilTereiit horses. The pole-yiikf is supported liy a chain allaehed to the hanie-clasp and to a rim; which slides aloni; the yoke; the branches of the pole-yoke are jointed to acollar near the end of the pole in snch a way th.-it they vm\ only play in a plane passinj; throniih the axis of the jinle: this device einiblesthc horse to kee|) the pole steady without constraiuiug Ids motion. j The hni'ching forms a part of the whet'l-liarnes.s only ; it coni])letely encirel<'S the horse, and is held j up in the rear by a strap passinir over the hijis. The ! traces of the wheel-horses are iisnally hitched to the j splinter-bar; the traces of the lead and swinir-hor.ses j are hitched to those of the horses in the rear, uivinsr a ciinlinuiius line of traction from horses tocarriau;e. Will n wheel-horses are hitched to a splinter-l)ar trace, there is always an equal beariuLr on both sides of the collar; this .saves their necks from a i^reat deal of chatim;, particularly hi changiug_direction. | for pole-straps. Off mddle (31), including hunk for reins, and i-ii liiir.Hti'fip Ci'i). \'iiliKe C<ty). duupUnij. riiii. Wliip, including uluck and /«*//. l^g-guurU, including l>"tly, uiutir-Htrap, Ug-ttrnps, and pl/ile. NuHf.-llllfJ. A storehouse for harness should be well ventilated - not too dry, liut free from ilanipness. The differ- ent arlicles should be arranged in bundles, according to kind and class, without touching the wall or each other. Harness should be examined four times a year, at least. The leather parts are brushed and greased with neatsfoot oil as often as condition re- ijiiircs : if they have a reddish hue. add a little lamp-black in the oil. The hair side of the leather should be wet with a sponge dipped in warm water, and the oil applied before the surface is drj'. Tlie iron parts which are not japanned should be covered with tallow. To Harness. — Each wheel-driver places on and buckles the collar of his off horse, smoothing the mane under the cnlhir and adjusting the collar to tlie shoulders ; folds and jiuts on the saddle-bliinket, and then resumes his post in front of his harness. (2) He seizes the saddle by the girth-straps, his hands close to the saddle; raises it from the peg; holds it over his head, arms half extended; approaclics the As the limber has no sweep-bar, the weight of the pole comes on the uecks of the whecl-horscs ; this defect is somewhat lessened when the limber-chest \ is loaded, its position over the axle being such as to [ decrease the weight at the end of the pole. , The following is the nomenclature of the harness, reference being made to Figs. 1 and 2 : Hnlter, composed of liead-stall and hitchi.ng-strap (1); the j head-stall includes, crown-piece (2), cheek-strap (3), ! hrnir-haml (4), nose-band (T>). ch/n-strap(6), throat- \ strap (7), and t'troat-lash (or throat-hand) (8). liridle, composed of hi ad-stall, curb-bit, and reins; the head- stall includes, '■;vjir;(-;»>(!c. cheek-strap, brmc-hand, and throat-lash; the cnib-bit is of iron and brass-plated; it includes mouth-piece, branches, cross-bar. curb-chain (or curb-strap), and curb-chain hook. Near saddle (9', including saddle-tree, .neat, saddle-.tkirts. stirrups, >\ni\ girth (\0): the saddle-tree consists of pommel, cantle, ;ind side-bars; the girth consists of two straps of uucipial length. Collar (11), including rim. Iielli/. pal, collar-straps, billets. Ilames (12), including branches, double-joint loops for trace-tugs, links for breast-straps, hame-rings, hame-climp, chain and toggle (13), safes (14), trace-tugs (l.")), tru.<isi ng-strnps (16), home-strap (17), and collar-strap (18). Traces (19) : front-trace chains (20) ; rear-trace chains (21) ; trace-loops; trare-togglei (22) ; belly-band; loin-strap (23). Crupper, including back-strap (24), bod.i/ (2,5), and dock (36). Breeching including breech-strap (2'). hip-strap (28), breast-strap (29), and sliding-loops (30) horse on the near side, and places the saddle in its proper position, taking care not to rumple or dis- place the blanket, and keeping the right arm extended over the horse's back to adjust the "girth and traces. (3) He goes to the front of the horse : passes the breast-strap cai'efully over the horse's head : adjusts the haraes to the collar: clasps them together at the b'^ttom, and tightens the hame-strap. (4) He goes to the near side of the horse ; lifts the breeching over the cantle : steps to the rear, and pulls it over the horse's croup: arranges the loin-strap : and ad- justs and buckles the crupper, taking care that no hairs remain lietween the crupper "and tail. (.5) He sees that the harness is properly arranged, buckles and tightens the girth, and then" buckles the belly-baud. (6) He bridles the horse and ties the coupling-rein to the manger. Lead and swing-drivers harness and unharness in the same manner as wheel- drivers, with such omissions as are required bv the difference in the harness. If there be uo stalile the liorses are taken at the picket-line, and the harness from the rack near the carriage to which it belongs. Each driver standi to horse as soon as he has liar- nessed. To iTuhar/ifss. — Each wheel-driver ties the coup- ling-rein fast to the manger: takes off the leg- guard, and hangs it up : unbridles his near horse, and hangs up the bridle. (2) He unbuckles and frees the crupper: raises the breeching from the croup, and lays it over the cantle. resting its middle HAHNESS-DRESSING. 16 HASKELL MULTI CHABGE CANNOH. on tlie seat, (3) He goes to the front of tlie horse, draws the breast-s^rap well forward through the links, loosens the hame-strap, unclasps the hani'es at the bottom; passes the breast-strap up over the horse's head, and laj'S it and the hamcs over the pommel. (4) He unbuckles the belly-band, and then the girth, takes off the saddle, places it properly on its peg or rack, and covers it with the blanket. (3) He then removes and puts up the collar and secures the horse hv the halter. HARNESS- DEESS'lNG.— A preparation for the care and protection of harness, and the leather parts of the accouterments. A variet}' of dressings are in common use, but the following (ingredients for two gallons of the compound) is mostly used in the ser- vice : 1 gallon of neat's-foot oil, 2 pounds of bay- Ijerry tallow, 2 pounds of beeswax, and 2 pounds of beef tallow. Put the above in a pan overamoile- rate tire and let them remain one hour until thorough- ly dissolved ; then add 2 quarts of castor oil and stir well until the mass comes to a boil so that the ingredients may become thoroughly mixed : after which add — 1 ounce of lamp-black and stir well for ten minutes ; then strain the liquid while hot through a cotton cloth to remove sediment of bees- wax, tallow, and lamp-black, and put aside to cool. Apply this mixture to saddles anil harness with a woolen cloth and leave until next day, when they shoidd be wiped off with a woolen cloth to remove the surpertiuous lamp-black. For "russet" or fair leather, use the same mixture without the lamp- black, HARNESS-PEGS.— In artillery staliles, harness- pegs for each pair of horses are arranged in the walls of the harness-room, also in the heel-posts of the stalls. The peg for the off harness is above the peg for the near harness; a small peg for the bridles is placed beneath the near harness-peg. The following arrangement is observed : Pommels of the saddles against the wall or heel-posts ; breeching hanging over the cantles ; breast-straps and hames over the pommels : traces, which are trussed, over the seat ; whip ou the hook of the off saddle ; collars lying horizontally ou the saddles, collar-straps against the heel-posts ; bridles and leg-guard hanging on their peg : the whole covered bylhe harness-sack properly secured. Tlie blankets are kept by the drivers in their quarters, but may be put away in the harness- room, or other safe place. A trace is trussed by passing the rear trace-chain through the trussing- strap, from rear to front, and securing the trace by drawing down the sliding-loop. HAROL, — An ludian term signifying the oflScer who commands the van of an army. It sometimes means the van-guard itself. HARFE. — A species of drawbridge used among the ancients, and deriving its name from the musi cal instrument. This bridge, which consisted of a wooden frame, and hung in perpendicular direction ! against the turrets that were used in those times to carrj' on the siege of a place, had a variety of ropes attached to it, and was let down upon tlie wall of a town by means of pulleys. The instant it fell, the soldiers left the turret, and rushed across the tempo- rary platform upon the rampart. HARPOON GUN. — Agun used for shooting whales. Il is frcqiK iitly eiiiplciyed to great advantage when necessary to throw lines across rivers and the like. It is very similar to the small swivel-guns, weighing with stock comiilete 75 lbs., 3 feet long in (lie iiarrel and of li inch bore. The charge is very siiiall, barely sufficient to project the arrow and line from the gun. HARPY, — A fabulous creature in Greek mytliology, considered as a minister of the vengeance of the gods. Various accounts are given of the numbers, and parentage of the harpies. Homer mentions but one, ilesioil enumerates two— Aello and Okypele, daugh- ters of Thaumas by the Oceanid Electra, fair-haired and winged maidens, very swift of llight. Three are sometimes recognized by later writers, who call them variously daughters of Poseidon or of Typhon, and describe them as hideous monsters with wings, of fierce and loathsome aspect, tlieir faces pale with hunger, living in an atmosphere of filth and stench, and contaminating everything that they approached. The most celebrated tradition regarding the harpies is connected with the blind Phiueus, whose meals they carried off as soon as they were spread for him; a plague from which he was" delivered by the Ar- gonauts, «u his engaging to join in their quest. The Boreads Zetes and Calais attacked the harpies, but spared their lives on their promising to cease from molesting Phineus. A harpy in Heraldry is repre- sented as a vulture, having the head and breast of a woman. HARQUEBTJSE. — An old fire-arm resemliling a mus- ket, whicli was supported on a rest by a hook of iron fastened to the barrel. Many of theYeomen of the Guard were armed with this weapon, on the first formation of that Corps in 148.5. The harquebuse being frequently fired from the chest, with the butt in a right line with the barrel, it was diflicult to bring the eye down low enough to take good aim ; but the Germans soon introduced an improvement by giving a hooked form to the Vnitt, which elevated the barrel. Soldiers armed with this weapon were desitrnatcd Haquebutters, and were common in the time" of Henry VIH. HARROW. — An obstacle, in fortification, formed by turning an ordinary harrow upside down with the teeth upward, and the frame buried. This imple- ment consists of a frame of a scjuare or rhombic form in which are fixed rows of teeth, or tine.-<. projecting downwards. The harrow is very ancient, having been in use beyond the dawn of history ; but as in earh' times only the lighter soils were cultivated, it often consisted of bushes, or branches of trees, which merely scratched the ground. Subsequently, we find .a wooden frame and wooden tines in use ; next, the wooden frame with iron tines, a form of the instru- ment very much used at the present day, and espe- cially in favor for light soil,-'. For heavy soils, the harrow constructed wholly of iron is most used, as it is heavier and does more execution ; and of this sort the zigzag form mac^e by Mr. Howard, of Bed- ford, is preferred. HARSEGAYE. — A kind of demi-lance, introduced a- bout 1114. It is now obsolete. HASKELL MDLTI CHARGE CANNON.— The Lyman accelerating-gun, patented in 1!S5T, is worked on the principle of giving to the projectile a gradually in- creasing velocity while in the bore of the gun. Bom- ford's method of measuring powder-pressures at different points in the chamber of a cannon dis- closed the fact that the great pressure on that part of the chamber occupied by the powder-charge rapidly diminished as the shot approached the muzzle, and that lateral pressures were not dangerously great on the gun after the shot was under way, unless some- thing happened to wedge the projectile. Lyman reasoned that if he could continue to in- crease the ]iowder-pressure he might make the muz- zle end of a gun as strong as the breech, and utilize the added strengtli to increase the velocity of a pro- jectile in regular ratio up to the very instant of its leaving the muzzle. He accomplished something in this direction with his earlier gun, which was a cast-iron piece with tubes branching from the bore at a point between the breech and the trunnions. The Lyman gun, as iuqiroved liy ■]. K. Haskell, is a cast-iron, ste<'I-liiied rille, having a miniber of pockets, each formed in a block <if steel, which is screwed into an enlargeiiu'iil of tlie easl-nielal body of the gun. Over each pocket there is a priming hole extending out through the upper portion of the gun. This hole is stopped by a bronze metal plug, which screws into place to close the hole entirely, making a smooth surface with the steel bore-tube when ilie plugs are screwed home. The steel pock- HAST ATI 17 HASTT INTRENCUUENTS. etH, :vs a f^ciicrrul tiling, liavfi clenning pings at thf npfn country, iirt- the rifle pits iiml tiiii< lies. Ilusly lintldiii. iiilrciii'ljMii'nts were niiicli usimI by bolli of Ihi- (;oii. Tlic piece is loadorl by |)lacing a projectile and linilin;; arniie« in tlii' littc war in' lli<t United iSlateM. cartridi,'e of slow-biirnin;; powder in the brcecli, and TJK'y were nsed so friMjnenlly, and found so elti- a charge of (juiek-biiniin^ powder in each of the cacioiis. that the men acquired the hal)it of inlrench- poc]<ets. The projectile tits the bore tightly, so that ing Iheir line ininii-dialcly upon halting after a day's no gas can leak past. When the breech-clmrgc- is ; march, if tlie enemy was near. No compulsion, no Haaki-ll Millti tired it starts the projectile at a moderate velocity, which is rapidly increased after the shot passes the ])ockels by tlie explosion of the |iowilcr in the pock- els, ignition being elleeteil from Ibe i)rimary charge. The gun in course of construction at the Scott Fomulry. Heading, Pa., now nearly completed, was made under Mr. Haskell's superintendence. The gun is (i inches bore, 2.'j feet long, and weighs '3.5 tons. The lining tube is 2i in<'lies thick to a ])oint forward of the front pocket; from there to the muz- zle it is 3 inches. There are four pockets in the gun, each intended for a eliarge of 28 pounds of ipiick powder. The breech charge will be about 18 pounds hexagonal powder. A projectile three cali- bers in length will weigh 101) lbs. — one of four (cali- bers. l.W lbs. ^Mr. Haskell expects to get an initial velocity of 3,(100 feet per second with pressure nowhere exceed- ing 80,000 i)ounds jier inch, and to obtain a penetra- tion eqtial to 24 inches of iron. In view of the result of past experiments there is little doubt that very good penetration wili be obtained, and if such veloc- ities can l)e had from the moderate pressures pro- posed by J[r. Haskell, any armor now in existence can be ]iierced by guns nuich lighter than tlie 11-ton monsters used in tlie Italian or liritish Navy. HASTATI.— Up to the lime of Marius, by whom the germ of the decadence of tlie military art among the Romans was sown, a Consular Army consisted of two Ltfgiims; and of two Wiiigx composed of social trpops. The legion was composed of infantry of the line, light infantry, and cavalry. The infantry of the line was divided into three classes. 1. The Hiixtnti. 2. Priiiripes. .S. Triiirii. These classes wore a very comjilete defensive armor ; they were all armed with the short straight Spanish sword; the J'iliim. a kind of javelin, about seven feet in length, used equally to hurl at a dist;in<e ;ind in hanif-to- hand engagements, was added to it for the twolirst ; and the Triarii carried the ]iike. HASTY INTRENCHMENTS.— Extemiiorized shel- ters which are quickly constructed from materials found upon the spot where the slielter is needed. In consequence of the efTectiveness of modern tire- arms a body of troops can not ret;iin a close forma- tion for a singhc ho\ir even, if in the presence and ex- p:ised to the tire of an enemy in force. The men ;ire forced to seek shelter, by lying down on the ground, or by crouching behind any slight inequality which niiiy exist in the surface, or behind some kind of screen which they may be ;ible to construct. The screen may be two or three logs rolled together: a he;ip offence rails, a slight mound of earth, or any- thing whatever its nature which will hide the soldier from the enemy's view. The simplest forms of /nuti/ intrenchmenU, in an ■elmrcc Cannon. ' orders, even, were necessary for the men to begin this work; the main dilficiilty was to make them delay enough to allow !i proper trace to be marked, ; by which they might be guided in the construction of their line. Instances are known, where the men, not having intrenching-tools, executed the trench with the bayonet or Hie tin cup. These shelter trenches, thus rudely constructed, were deepened and strengthened unlil they were able to resist field artillery, if the |)osition was to lie occupied for any I length of time. Slight as these defenses were during I the early stages of tlieir construction, thev formed, when defended by good troojis. an obstacle difficult to overcome; and they were captured only by ex- traordinary effort, accompanied by a great loss of life on the part of the attacking forces. " It will frequently happen that cover can be sjieed- ily obtained, and positions rendered defensible in a very short time, by taking advantage of the hedges, ditches ;ind walls, ■which niiiy be met with, or of the ob- stacles which may be presented by natural features of ■ the ground. No fixed rules for pro- ceeding under all the numerous cir- Fu;. i cumstances which may occur can be given, but the drawings will show what may be effected in certain cases, and indicate the character of the o])erat!ous u.sually required. Fig. 1. represents the ccmimon hedge and ditch turned into a breastwork to be de- fended from the hedge-side. If the hedge be thick and planted on a bank, as is generally the case, and especially if the ditch be tolerably deep and contain water, the breastwork will be rendered strong at the expense of little labor. A shallow trench should be excavated behind the hedge, iind the earth thrown up to raise the bank sutliciently to form a rough breastwork some 18 inches thickat the lop. Should the hedge be more than (i feet high, it should be cut to that height, having the branches interwoven with the lower part to strengthen it. A hedge to be defended from the ditch-side Fig. ".i, is ;i ready- f""' made trench and breastwork, and convenient work by a little scraping widening and levelling of the bottom of the ditch, and by the addition oif a banquette. See WalU. will become a if the sides and HATCHET 18 HAUBERK. HATCHET. — A small, light .sort of a.xe, with bevel edge on the left side, and a short handle. It is used by" soldiers for cutting wood to make fascines, ga- bions, pickets, etc. A brass slide and snap com- bined is slipped upon the belt, and has a snap on the outer side, from which the hatchet can be hung. There is also a safetj' attachment through which the handle is passed, making a convenient and secure way of carrying the implement. To take up the haUhet among the Indians is to declare war and com- mence hostilities. 7'(( A); ;-_y <//*■/»/<(!/;«'<, is to make peace. HATCHMENT.— 1. An ornament formerly much worn on tlie hilt of a sword. 2. The funeral escutch- eon placed in front of the house of the deceased, or in some other suitable place, setting forth his rank with otlier circumstances. It is in the shape of a lozenge, and in its cen- ^ ter are the arms of the deceased, single or quar- tered, as the case may be. The achievement of ji liai^hehr represents his arms in a shield com- plete, accompanied with helmet, crest, mantling, motto. and various other le.xternal ornaments tt> which he may be enti- tled, on n black ground. In the achievement of an unmarried lady, her HatdunEnt of Husband. arms are |)laced in a lozenge on a black groimd, but without external heraldic ornaments, except in the case of a peeress, when her supporters, robe of es- tate, and coronet are added. Tlie achievement of a husband whose wife sur- vives, impales his arms with his wife's in a shield with the external ornaments to which he is entitled, the ground of the hatchment being, under his side of tiie shield, black, and under his wife's, white. If the wife lie an heiress, her arms are not impaled, but carried in an escutcheon of pretense. The ex- ternal ornaments are appended, except the insignia of any order of knighthood having a circle or collar, with whicli heralds do not consider it proper for a knight to encircle his wife's arms. On this account the'achieveraent of a knight has two shields placed side by side, one containing the husband's arms only, encircled by the collar, ribbon, etc., of the order, the other containing those of hu.sband and wife; the ground is divided perpendicularly in the middle of the second shield, and painted black and white. When the wife is a peeress in her own right, there are also two shields — the dexter containing the arms of the husband, with the lady's arms on an escutcheon of pretense ensigned with lier coronet ; the sinister lozense-sliaped with the lady's alone, and each ac- companied with its i)roper external decorations. The ground is divided black and white in the middle of tlie dexter escutcheon. The arms of a wife whose husband survives are impaled witli her hus- ))and's arms in a shield, or, in the case of an heiress, borne on an escutcheon of ]iretense. There is no helmet, crest, or m<-intliug, b\it a ])c-ercss is entitled to her robe of estate. The groimd under tlie dexter side of the shield is white, and under tlie sinister, black. The achievement of a widower ditTers prin- ci|ially from that of a husband, in the ground being entirely black. The achievement of a widow dif- fer- frnm that of a wife, both in having the ground entirely black, and in the form of the eseulcheon, which ("except in the one case of an escutcheon of pretense), is lo/cuge-shaped. The anus are en- circled bj- a silver cordon or cordi'lii're. the symbol of widowhood. On the decease of tlie last of a family, a death's head surmounts the shield in place of a crest. The achievement of a reigning King or Queen, whether married or not, represents the royal arms complete on a ground entirely black. That of an Ari'hiiishop or Bishop has the insignia of his Sec impaled with his paternal arms, and the whole sur- mounted by a miter, and the ground is per pale ar. and sa. The Dean of a Cathedral or Collegiate Church and a King at Arms, also impale the arms of office with their family arras. In the achievement of the wife of a Prelate, there are two shields — the first containing the impaled arms of the See and the Bishop, surmounted by a miter ; and the second, the family arms of the Bishop with those of his wife. The ground is all white, except that part which is under the arms of the wife. The funeral escutcheon of Scotland, France, and Germany differs consider- ably from that in use in England ; it indicates not merelj- the deceased's right to a coat-of-arms, but his gentility of descent. The liatchment is much larger, consisting of a lozenge above 6 feet square ; and the arms of the deceased, which occupy the center, are surrounded by those of the 8 or IG families from whom he derived his descent, the paternal quarterings on the right side, and the maternal on the left. The deceased is not entitled to an achieve- mcait unless all these families had a right to bear arms. On the four corners are death's heads and the initials and title of the deceased, the black inter- stices are powdered with tears. See Hernldry. HAUBEKGIEK.— An individual who held a tenure by Kniglit's service, and was suliject to the feudal system which formerly existed in France, and by whicli he was obliged to accompany the Lord of the itsmor in that capacity whenever the latter went to war. lie was called Fief de Hniibert, and had the privilege of carrying a halbert. All vassals in ancient times served their Lords-paramont as Squires, Hau- bergiers, Lancemen, Bow-men, etc. HAUBEKE. — A long blouse-like garment, having short sleeves descending to the middle of the upper arm, which sometimes was formed of interwoven rings, or chain work, but more generallj- was con- structed of a stout woven fabric, upon which were fixed rows of iron rings or plates of metal, in their form either square, triangular, or circular. This mail-shirt was fitted tightly to the pers(m ; and at the bottom it was divided, so that the wearer when mounted might wrap one division of it round each thigh, or when on foot might have his limbs covered by the cleft extremities of liis hauberk without any impediment to his free movements. The hauberk i was used by the Saxons, as early as the eighth cen- tury, as defensive body armor, and called liy them the tunic of rings, but by the Normans the hiiuberk. Besides the hauberk of rings, there are some marked with transverse lines, so as to give the idea of being quilted, or stiched in chequers, or covered with small lozenge-shaped pieces of steel instead of rings, ; known about this period, .\.d. 1066-1087, by the name of mascled armor, from its resemblance to the , meshes of a net. Other descriptions of armor were in use, and in some instances hauberks appear to be composed of rings and mascles mixed : in others, the body is diamonded, and the cowl and arms cov- ered with rings. On referring to a work entitled I " The Conqueror and his Companions," by Jlr. J. K. Planche. Somerset herald, the hauberk as worn by William the Con(|ueroris thus spoken of : " In the Bayeux tapestry we behold him armed in his hau- berk, wliich was not the coat of chain-mail of the thirteenth century, liut the gerhighrd hi/rnk of the eleventh and twelfth, consisting of iron rings, not linked together and forming a garment of themselves, but sewn iir strongly fastened Hat upon a tunic of leather or i|uilted linen. Iiiickram. canvas, or some strong material desceiuliiig to the mid-leg, and which, being open in the skirts both liefnrc and behind for convenience in riding, gave it the ajipearance of a jacket with short breeches attached to it, if, indeed, such was not actually the case in some instances. The sleeves were loose, and reached only just below the elliow." The habergeon of plate-armor was generally worn over the hauberk. i^vt: Hiiturgrun and Plntf-nrtnor. BAUBIANI. 19 HAY. HAURIANT. — A term in licnuiiry appiicil to a fish placi'il ii|iriir|it !is if ti> refri'sli itself ]}\ MicUiiit; !iir. Gules, tlin-e lueies ^tlie iiiicieiit imiiie (if pikesj liiiiiiiiiMt in fess ari;eiil, the urms (if ii family iif tlie name of Lucy in Hertfordshire. pee Ifi riildry. HAUSSE.— A LTaduated piece at- taelied lip the barrel neartlie lireeeh, vhicli has a slidiiiir jiiece retained in its place by a thunili-screw, nr by the sprinj; of the (<li(h'r itself. 'Phis sliihT (uiirht to have an openinir Ihriiiiirh wliich the L,nin can l)c eoMvcniently ainie(l : lind is raised to such a heiiibt as we Ibiiik will i;ive tlie necessary elevation for the distance. The term coarse siiiht means a larf;e portion of the front sijfht, fts seen above the liotloni of the rear-siijht notch; find a tine sii;ht is when but a small portion i.< seen. The f.ft'ect of a coarse .si};ht is to increase the ranm- of the projectile. The hreirh-ni(/lit. the tiingint-ni-dlf. And the pendidnin-lnuinKe arc merely dilTerent forms of this device, the latter bavins; a liulb at the bottom which keeps it in a vertical position when the two wheels of the carriage are not on tlie same level. Tlie taiii;ent-scale has steps, correspondiivu in height to the graduati(ms on tlie breech-sight for guns of tlie same caliber and pattern ; and is only applied to the gun at the moment of sigliting. HAUSSE COL.— An ornamental phite similar to the goriret. It was formerly worn bv infantrv otticers. HAUTES-PAYES.— Soldiers formerly selected by Ihe Captains of companies to attend them personally, for which service they received something more than the common pay. Unute.pny became after- wards a term to signify the subsistence which any body of men superior io, or distinguished from the private soldier were allowed to receive. HAUT LE PIED.— A term used to distinguish such persons as were formerly employed in tlie French armies without having any permanent appointment. Ciitam!»H<irin{ hduU-li-pied were known in the artil- lery during the Monarcliy of France. They were usuallv under the (Quartermaster-general. HAVELOCK.— A light cloth covering for the head and neck, used bj- soldiers as a protection from sun- stroke. This covering derived its name from Huve- lock, a distinguished English General. HAVERSACK. — A bag of strong coarse linen, in which, on the march, each soldier carries his own bread and provisions. It is borne on the left side by ft strap passing over the right shoulder, and is only used in the tield and in cantonments. The haversack of the Roman soldier was an osier basket with a long neck; sometimes, as on the column of Trajau. a wallet carried on the spear. Its contents were salt meat, cheese, onions, and olives. It held sufficient for three days. The term haversack is also applied to the leather bag used in artillery to carry cartridges from the ammunition-chest to the piece in loading. HAVILDAR.— The highest rank of Non-commis- sioned Officer among native troops in India and Cey- lon. In the Hong-Kng Gun Lascars (a corps now disbanded), the Havildar received Is. 3d. per diem; but in India his pay is somewhat less. The Hnvil- d(ir-rii(ijiir is the Sergeant-major of each native regi- ment of infantry. HAVOCK. — A cry originally used in hunting, but afterward in war as the signal for indiscriminate slaughter. The term hamc is used in the sense of wide and general destruction, devastation, or waste, hence the orisin of hamrk-. HAWK.— the Hawk fre- quently occurs as a charge in Heraldry, and may be hilUd, jesxtd, and rnvcdtd. The hitirk\'< Ml, itself used as a separate charge, is at- tached to the leg of the bird BeU. Lure. by /('.v.if .1 or thongs of leather. Vnrreh are riuirs at- tached to the end of the jesses. The hairk'ir lure. also a heraldic charge, consists of two wings joined with the line, to the end of which is attached u ring. The line is sometimes /("(Or/ or knotted. HAWSER. A rope made of three strands : it is c(jiled u|i righl-handed, or what is termed '• with tlie sun." It is one (jf the ropes used in lifting ordiiunce. See Cordar/i ;ind llopi , HAXO BASTION SYSTEM.- The siege of this svslcrii of forlilicilioii i- calculated to last fifty davs and there are five distinct periods of breaching tiat"teries • 1" Against the reduit of the salient place of arms and the Kavelin. 2^ Against the reduit of the re- entering place of arms, the cou|iures and the reduit of ravelin. S" Against the bastionet and the counter- guard. 4^ Against the retrenchment. .5" Against Ihe bastion. Tlie front is H(iO vards long. The per- pendicular is only 40 yards, and the faces 72 yards. The Hanks are perpendicular to the lines of defense. The bastions contain interior retrenchments entirely .separated from the rear by a ditch. A chemin-dtH- nrndn surmounts the scarp of the enciente. The tenaille is not revetted, and it has flanks that can mount three guns. The main ditch is twentv yards wide. The ravelin is made verv salient; with a"case- mated traverse in capital, and C()upures cut across it-S faces. In rear is a reduit of the ordinarv outline, and behind is a casemated caponiere or bastionet, the roof of which carries ten guns. The counter- scarp of the main ditch is produced to within ten yards of this bastionet, and in front of it slants a glacis, which closes the ditch of the ravelin and tliat of the reduit. The bastionet sweeps the interior glacis and co-operates with the Hanks of the inner works to impede the construction of the counter- batteries. HAXO CASEMATE.— A work built inside the para- pet, arched and covered with ciirtli. opeuimr in the rear to the terreplein. The iruns are ])rotected from the enemy's tire, and can be entirelv hidden by mask- ing the embrasures. HAY.— A very important article of forage in most armies. The management of the natural^srasses of which most hay C(msists is somewhat different, and the process is seen to perfection in Middlesex' and various Counties about London. The sreat matter- too generally overlooked in Scotland-^is to preserve the color and Havor of the arass ; and this can only be done by keeping it constantlv turned, and havin(r It rapidly dried, if possible, without the deteriora'^ ting washing of repeated rains. ArtiHcial drvinc best attains this end. but is of course impracticable on a large scale. In the best style of Ensrlish hay- making, the grass, after being cut with a "scythe (ir machine, and as soon as the dew is off, is shaken and spread out liy means of forks or of-a teW/«j?-machine drawn by a horse. It is not allowed to lie lonn- ex- posed to the sun, hut before evenins, is drawn to- getlier by rakes into vind-nnr^, which, if there is any prospect of rain, are made up into small heaps or cocks. It is again spread out ne.\t mornin^'-, or on return of favorable weather; and when" the operations are e.vpedited by wind or sun, the bay will be ready for the rick by the second or third day. There is, however, much" difference in the time during which the hay requires to lie out; the bulk of the crop and the quality of the land must be es- liecially considered. 'When the srrasses are cut, as they should be when in blooni, and before their seeds ripen and their stems sret rough and hard they contain the greatest amount of moisture, and re- quire careful making, but produce a very nutritive and ]ialatable h;iy. As soon as thorou'dily dry it should lie put at once into the stack or rick."!i'iid well trodden down. A certain amount of heating improves the flavor, and renders the hay more pala" table to every sort of stock. When, as "is sometimes the case, it is imperfectly made, or picked up too soon, it gets over-heated, and becomes dark brown or black, its nutritive properties are diminished ; it is, moreover, apt to disagree with both horses and HAZAREE 20 HEADING-LATHE. cattle, and can only be profitalily used when mixed | witli straw and cut into cluitf . Hay put togetlier when damp from rain or dew dcjes not heat, as when it contains an undue amount of natural moisture, but speedily molds. When hay has been injured and weathereii by repeated rains, it may be rendered more palatable by scattering a little com- mon salt over the rick whilst it is being built. { Throughout Scotlaml eight or ten pounds of salt to the ton is very generally used alike for clover and grass hay. In the midland and southern districts of England" the best hay is generally got up in June; but^in Scotland, little is carried until the middle of ' July. When the crop is good, and everything done well, the cost of hand and horse labor expended upon the hay before it is safely ricked will approach 30s. per ton. The cro]5 averages from one to two tons per acre. Hay that has stood for seed is tougher and less nutritive than that cut earlier, for the sugar, gum. and glutten of the matured seed. have beeu ab- stracted from the stems, which are tlien apt to be little better than straw. HAZAREE. — An Indian term signifying the Com- mander of gun-men. It is derived from Jiraar, whieli. in its literal interpretation, signifies a thou- sand. HEAD. — In gunnery, the fore part of the cheeks of a gun or howitzer-carriage. The term htdd is em- ployed with other words, in varioits militaiy phrases as, the head nf a imrk. in fortification, or the front next to the enemy, and farthest from the place ; head iif an unity, or the front, whether drawn up in lines or on a march, in column, etc.; head nf a camp, or tlie ground before which an army is drawn up. The hradoi a double tenaille is the salient angle in the center and the two other sides which form the re- entering angles. HEADER. In a revetment, a brick, stone, or sod laid witli its eud outward. See Sad Revetment. HEADING. — 1 . The device of the sign.al-rocket ; such ;is a .■<tar-heading. or a huinice-headiiig. 2. In mining, tlie end of a drift or gallery; the line of an intended tunnel, especially one of relatively small size, which forms a gullet in which the workmen labor ; also a horizontal passage between the shifts or turns of the working parties. HEADING-LATHE.— A lathe used for turning down gun castiusxs, and for prepariui: them for the boring- machine. The cascabel-beariug. base of breech, and a section of the chase are all turned down to finished muzzle is introdticed and projects several inches l)eyond the face of the muzzle-ring, in which po.sitioD it is approximately centered, and held firmly in jjlace l)y adjustable screws in the chuck and muzzle-ring. The bretch is adjusted by placing a sharp pointed instrument in the rest, and bringmg it in c(mtacl with the surface of the casting liear the base-line, and while turning the gun — which is done by ma- chinery — the screws in the chuck are moved until coincidence of the line around the gun is obtained. At the muzzle a bar of iron is laid upon blocks, so tliat it shall be just inside the bore, and nearly in contact with its interior surface. As the gun turns, the distance between this point and the metal of the bore is observed, and equalized approximately, by the screws in the muzzle-ring bearing. A wooden disk turned to fit the bore accurately, bearing a string attached to its center, is then pushed to the bottom o,f the bore, and made to assume a position in a plane perpendicular to its axis. The string from the center of the disk is long enough to reach some distance outside the muzzle ; the outer end being made fast to an upright the same height as the inner end or center of disk ; the string is now hauled perfectly taut, and the gun again turned, a square lieing placed upon blocks about one foot in front of the muzzle, close to the string ; and as the gun revolves, the distance, if any, which the string deviates from the square, is o])served and corrected by again moving the screws in the muzzle-bearing. When properly centered, the string will remain in the same position in the square and be the same distance from the in- terior surface of the gun, throughout an entire revo- lution, showing that the axis of the gun and lathe coincide. With the hollow-cast gun it is necessary that it should be centered from the bore, as it some- times happens that its axis does not coincide with the axis of the casting, which is one reason for cast- ing them above the true size, to admit of being finished by the interior, or so that the axis of the cast bore shall coincide with that of the gun when turned. The gun being centered, the turning com- mences at the muzzle ; this is done by placing a tool in the rest, which is brought in contact with the surface at tlie desirad point, the metal being turned off as tlie gun revolves. The re»t. or support which holds the tool, is arranged to move in two directions, one towards the gun, or at right angles to the axis of the lathe, by which means the depth of cut is regu- lated, and the other in line parallel with the a.xis, Ilt'juliii dimensions wliile in this lathe, as the chase and inunded pari of the cascalic'l-knob form the bearings for the boring-lathe. The cut at th,' muzzle, or place where tlie ninkiiig-head is to be broken off. is also made in this lathe. Tli.; bearing in which this muz- zle-ring revolves is a heavy casting, the bottom of which fits into grooves in the rack, and can be moved to or from the chuck, being adajjtable to long or short gtins. To maki^ the ailjustnient in the lathe, the sun is lowered into place, the scpiare knob in rear of the cascabel fitting into tlie chuck, while the that is from muzzle to breech. The last movement is elTeeted by means of a/"/, the motion being given by a fork attached to cine of the trunnions, ami at every revolution of the gun the rest is made to ad- vance. The first cut is usually an inch deep, com- mencing at the muzzle where the sinking-head is to be cut "off and extending 30 inches towards the trunnions. The second and third cuts are com- menced at the same jioint as the firsi, and are about one and one-eighth iiie'ies deep; increasing as the tool advances in the cun. other cuts are made until HEADLESS SHELL EXTB&CTOB. 21 HEAUME. Tii'B. tin' inctal is rcdiicfd to llic flnisliiiiL' (Ii;iiiictir. Tlir cut 111 the imi/.y.lc, or llic |il;ici- where Hie "siiiUiiiL'- liciid" it tci lie lirokcii oil', is next iiiuile; its deplli is usually ididut seven inches, or to within tlirc'e or four inches of the ciist bore. The nun is nrtw taken from the liithe, and the '• sinkini^-heiid " hroken or wedijed oil', at wliicli time the appearance of the mclal at the fracture should licexaiuined as t<i color, form, and size of crystals, texture, and whether sharp to the touch : it is also necessary to ascertain its de- gree of hardness and how the metal works under the tools, ill the ditlereiit stages of its fabrication; all of which should lie duly noted and form ]iart of the record of the nun. See Fininliinri and Liithi'. HEADLESS SHELL EXTRACTOR. -'Phis implement, devised liy l.iiulcniint-cojonel A. U. liiitHnnt"'!. United States Army, for the SprinL'ticId rille and carbine, consists of two parts of teinpereil steel, the extractor proper, Fij;. 2, and small cyliiiilrical drift, Fi.n- •'• f'"' setting out the prfinns, carried screwed Into end. A, of extractor. Fiir. I shows them to- gether as they should be habitually kept and used for (ill extract ions from the linn of the rille. Tlie extractor proper is a hollow cylinder, ritled on the exterior to correspond with the ritlinir of the ritlc barrel, with four transverse grooves to the ik'pth of the ritlinir. Inside it is shaiied at the pronji-cnd to receive tlie point, (', of drift and permit a limited expansion; at the Other end it is tiipped for the Bcrew-lhread,l).of the drift. Three cuts longitudinally di- vide one end into 'A prongs, F. around which is ;i screw- tliread, 15, for takiiii: hold of the shell irh( ii in thi rhiiii,. her. The drift is ;i cylindri- CkI piece of three diameters : the head, E, thread D, am point, C. The head is suf hclently small to allow it to pass throiurli tbe bore; the cavity, G, in it pre- vents injury to tirinn-pin. The thread secures it to extractor. Tlie point, when driven lietween the prongs of extnictor as far as possible, sets them out enfflciently to remove a shell, but not far enough to touch the walls when passed into the empty chamber. The i)arts shoulil lie kept screwed toirether and never se|)arated for use, in niiy rime, until after ])ass- ins it iis a whole — solid (drift) end foremost throuirh the liore from the muzzle — and failing to remove the shell. Passin;: it thus — iisinn larsjer end of hammer to do so — will remfive any shell or part of shell in the bore, or sliirlitly protruding into it from the chaml)er. Failing to do so, nnscrew the drift ; in- pert the extractor, pronn end foremost, into the chamber; close the breech; pass the drift, ])oint foremost, into the bore at the muzzle ; follow it vvitli the hirner end of ranuner; drive it iiently " home " lietween tlie pronns of extractor; open the breech and drive out the shell. After the shell is out. the two ]«irts either separate or can lie separated by the finiters, and tlie shell removed from the extractor. The prouiTs beinsr in the mouth of the chaml)er. the point of drift invariably enters between them if the drift be passed thnuiLTh the bore as directed. In case of aecumuhited or liardened fouling or dirt in the bore, the extractor as a whole, as directed, may lie piissed through it with advautaire either as a pre- liminary to cleiuiinu or wiping, or to remove the cauw of swelled and burst barrels. In the latter case it should be used just before each shot when at the target, or :is often as convenient when himt- tns or in battle. See Sprinf/field Hifie. HEAD -QUARTERS.— A term senerally imderstood to me;in the residence of the t'omm;aider-in-('liief. whetluT in camp or elsewhere. It is also applicable to the place where the officer, commandinsrany in- dependent position or body of troops, resides ; hence. till' center of authority tir order. The headquarters of the whole British Army isat the Horse (Jiiiirds. where the Coinmaniler-iii-Chief has his permanent offlces. HEADSTALL. —Tliat part of the briille which en- comp;isse> ilie head; the bridle minus the bit anil rein ; the halter minus the hitchinfr-Htrap. HEAD STOCK.— Tiiat i.orlion of a lathe which con- tains the mandrel or l/ri- spindle on which the work is clunked or to which it is downed, in contradis- tinction to the <«//-stock which contains the (lend spindle. The livr-hciul as distinguished from the (/«;'/-head. HEARSAY EVIDENCE.— Evidence (.'iveii at second- hand, where Ihi witness states not what he himself saw or heard, but what somebody else said. TliiB evidence is, as a freneral rule, inadmissible. becaiiHe the axiom is, that the best evidence that can be had iiuist be produced, and therefore Ciich witness must be confined to stating what he knows of his own personal knowledge, or what he has Iciirncil by the aid of his own senses ; and as he is sworn to the truth, his truthfulness is tlius secured, as far as hu- man testimony can be so. If evidence were once admitted at second-hand, there would be no limit to its uncertainty, and there would be thus introduced vairue statements of absent persons, who. not bein;; 15^3 CT-1 1 Headless Hhell-extructor. sworn when they made them, are therefore incapa- 1)le of beinn punished if they speak falsely, and can not be cross-examined. Thouirh such is the sren- eral rule, yet there are a few exceptions which are unavoidable, owing to the nature of tlie thing. Thus, in proving pedigrees, the hearsay evidence of per- sons connected with the family, and those onlv, is admitted in Enghind ; Imt in Seoflanil it is admitted though tlie persons were not connected with the family. A remarkat)le exception also exists in the ease of dying declarations, i. e.. statements made Iiy persons mortally wounded and in the prospect of death ; but in England such evidence is only ad- mitted in criminal cases, on a charge of manslaughter or murder. In Scotland .such declarations are ad- mitted in all cases of violence, and though the party at the time did not lielieve he was dying. There is another exception to the non-admissiiiility of lie;irsay evidence allowed in Scotland, but not in EnLdami, viz., where the person wlio made the statement is dead, and therefore cannot be produced as a witness. In England there is no help for such a state of thing.s, and the statements of the dead person cannot be ad- mitted : but in Scotland, if there was no reason to suppose the contrary, it is presumed the dead wit- ness spoke the truth, and what he said may be sriven in evidence for what it is worth, both inclvil and crimin;d cases. HEAUUE. — A word derived from the German, which formerly signified ningtif, or helmet. The heaume has lieen sometimes called anions tlie French .vilnde. armet. and celntr from the Latin word which means engraved, on account of the different figures which were represented upon it. The heaume covered the whole of the face, except the eyes, which were protected by small iron liars laid cross- wise. It served as an armament or helmet in coats of arms and armorial bearings; it is still preserved HEAVE. 22 HELIOGEAPHY. iu Hcralilry, ami is a distinguishiujr mark of nobility. HEAVE. — A command given wlieu lifting heavj- weiglits or moving guns into position. Tlie hand- spikes being in position and manned, at the com- mand. henFe. all bear down or up on the handspike simultaneously. HEAVIES.— The common expression for European heavy cavalry. They receive tlieir name in contra- distinction to the light cavalry, from their equip- ment and weight being greater tlian the latter. In the British service there are 7 regiments of Hmi'iat. viz., the dragoon guards. The weight the horse of HenvUs has to carry is over 19 stone. See Heavy Troops. HEDGES. — A thin-set hedge cannot be placed in a good state of defense, and should tlierefore be de- stroj-ed, to prevent its interfering in any manner with the defense. At the best this defense will only serve as a screen, the hedge holding tlie earth up. A thick-set hedge, if over six and a lialf feet liigli, should be cut down to this height, and the cuttings be set into the hedge to back the earth better ; a small ditch is dug in front of the hedge, the earth from which serves to form a banquette and a slight parapet, which are thrown up against the hedge. If the liedge is less than six and a half feet high it is cut down to the height of four and a quarter feet ; a ditch or trench, about three feet wide at bottom. Section of Parapet behind a Hedge and a Ditch in front of it HEAVT-AEMED INFANTRY.— Among the early soldiery, sucli of the infantry as wore complete armor, and engage<l with broad shields and long spears. They were the flower and strength of the Grecian armies, and had the highest rank of military honor. See Infuntn). HEAVY MASCHING ORDER —An expression ap- plied to troops equipped for permanent field service with arms, accouterments, knapsacks, canteens, and haversacks. HEAVY METAL. — Large guns carrying balls of a lar^e size ; also, large balls for such gims. HEAVY ORDNANCE.— Ordnance of great weight and caliber. In the United States the term is re- stricted in the land service to sea-coast ordnance. See fJrflndiire. HEAVY TROOPS. — The troops which compose the three prhtcipiil (inns are generally subdivided into two classes, hffiry and light; partly arising from the nature of their weapons, and partly from their destination on the field of battle. This subdivision is less marked in the infantry than in that of the other arms ; for although in most foreign armies, a portion of the infantry carries a salier with the mus- ket, still this additional weapon is of rather question- able utility ; for the musket is the one which, under all circumstances of attack and defense, will be re- sorted to. All infantry now receive the same in- struction ; but whether a portion of it ought not to be reserved especially for the duties consigned to light troops, is still a disputed point. As the functions of heavy cavalry are to bear down all op- position, and present an impassable wall to the enemj''s efforts, its duties are confined to the battle- field ; there, placed in the reserve, it is held in hand \mtil the decisive moment arrives, when it is launched forth to deal a blow from which the enemy hopelessly struggles to recover, either to achieve victory, or to fend off utter defeat. To light cavalry are intrusted the imiiortanl duties of securing from surprise the flanks of the heavy ; to watch over the safety of liorse artillery, and to ])erform the services re(iuired of tliem by infantry divisions, and those of detachment service in general. The arlillery, which had for a long jieriod, and even still, preserves the cliaracter of eminent respectability, has of late years begun to infuse a <lash of dare-ilevil spirit of the cavalier into its ranks. If it has not yet taken to charging literally, it has. on some recent occasions in our service, shown a well-considered recklessness of obstacles and dangers, fully borne out by JMstly deserved sticcess. The distinction between liglit anil heavy in this arm arises, not only from the dif- ference of calilier in tlie jiieces, but also in a differ- ence of their tactical application. Section of a Hedge Defense with Trench in rear. and two feet deep, is dng behind the hedge, and the earth is thrown up against it. as in the last case. A width of two or three feet should be left between the trench and the earth thrown against the hedge to serve as a banquette. A simple ditch behind a hedge will often serve as a good cover for light troops without any other preparation. See Walls. HEEL. — That part of a thing corresponding in position to the human heel ; the lower back part, or part on which a thing rests. In a small-arm it is the corner of the butt which is upwards in the firing position. The heel of a sword is the uppermost part of the blade, next to the hilt. It is generally larger and more massive than the rest of the blade. HEEL-PIECE.— The armor for the heels ; also, the plate on the butt-end of a gun-stock. This is some- times called the heel-plate. HEGEMONY. — Leadership: preponderant influence or authority ; usually applied to the relations of a Govermment or State to its neighbors or confeder- ates. HEIRESS. — In Heraldry, a lady is accounted as an heiress if she has no lirothers who leave issue. The husband of an heiress is entitled to bear her arms in an escutcheon of pretense, 1. e., a small escutch- eon in the center of his paternal shield, and the children of an heiress may quarter her arms with their paternal coat. Neither practice is of very early introduction in Heraldry. See Marshaling of Arms. HELEFOLIS. — In the ancient art of war, a machine for battering down the walls of a] place besieged. Its invention is ascribed to Demetrius Poliorcetes. Diodorus Siculus says that each side of the helepolis was 4.50 cubits broad, and 90 in height ; that it had nine stages, or floors, and was carried on four striing solid wlieels, 8 cubits in diameter ; that it was armea with huge battering-rams, and had two roofs capable of supporting them; that in the lower stages there were different sorts of engines for casting stones, and in the middle they had large catapults for launching arrows. HELIOGRAPHY.— The name applied to the method of communicating between distant points in which visual signals are ol)tained by reflecting the rays of the Sim from a mirror or combination of mirrors in the reipiired direction. This method can be only employed to advantage in places where the sky is free from clouds and the almosplicrc dear for con- siderable )ieriods of lime, and the fact that an atiiios- ])heric change may in<lertiiitely delay the Iransmissioll of a message is an insu]ieralile objection to the es- tablishment of ])crmaiien1 lieliographic stations in most climates. In suitable localities, however, heli- ography possesses important advantages for military HELIOGHAPHY. 28 HELIOGHAPHY. siiiiialliiii; over cither mcdiodr*, llic principnl licinu the ]ii)rliiliility of llic iiiiimriiliio, llur f;rcal distimc-c t.i) which MicssiiK<'X ''lui hi; sent, wilhoiil rclriinsiiiis- sicin, and the fact, that, th(' sifjiialw arc visihh' t<i those only who are on tlie <lirect line of siL'nallini;. An intere-itini; and instrmtive ])aper entitled "The Elc'iiieuts of the lleli(jgrapli," hy Lieutcuaiit Fred- erick K. Ward, United States Army, has lieen pul)- lished in Signal Service- Notes, No. XI; and to this paper we are indebted for the substance of the fol- iowinr; discussion. A complete instrument consists essentially of 'two plane mirrors and a sightinji-rod, and, when a ' 'stand- Fig. ■!. ing flash " is used, a screen. Tlie mirrors are firmly supported, usually on a tripod, and are fitted with vertical and horizontal tangent-screws. By means of the tangent screws the mirrors can be turned on .their supports so as to face in any desired direction toward the sky. When a movable flash is used, one \ / ,/ Fig. .3. of the mirrors is so mounted that a motion of three or four degrees about its horizontal axis can be given it indeiiendently of the tangent-screw, so that the flash can be thrown on and otl' the receiving-station at will, and quickly. The screen, when used, is on a separate support, in order, when working, to avoid I any shaking of the mirrors. Both mirrors are used wlii'U tlur signalman facing the receiving-station lias the sun in his riar. When the sun is in his front, or ni'arly at his right or left, only oik; mirror is used Tlu' sight in L'-r<jd, as its name implies, is an auxiliary used with the tangent-screws, to put and keep the mirrors in such a position that the Hash can be thrown with certainty on the receiving-station. Till' principles involved in the heliogra|ih arc few anrl simpler: l.,et .S, Fig. 1. represent the sun, and .1 /i a ])lain mirror. C'imsider first the light from the sun incident on A /I at a single point, r. Only two outside rays are shown in tjie ligure. Since angles of inciilcnce and retlcction are always equal , the angle «' is eipial to tin' angle «, and it is apparent, without further explanation, that the converging cone of light from S, incident lan, becomes, after reflection, a diverging cone of precisely the same dimensions. \ sixctator anywhere within this diverging cone will see th(^ reflected light on looking toward c. The incident r'onc is aright cone with a circular liase; therefore a right secti<in of the rellected cone will lie a circle whatever may bt- the angle of incidence. The radius of the circle will be equal to the natural tangent of in, or the natural tangent of the sun's, semi-diameter to a radius eijual to the distance from (■ to the plane of the section. This will be apparent from Fig. 2. Now, suppose Ali to be a sipiare mirror, and con- sider next the four cones of light reflected from the four corners. The angle at the sun subtended l)y the diameter of the mirror would be inappreciable, therefore the axes of these four cones are sensibly parallel. The cones themselves evi<lently define the figure of illumination. Pass a plane perpendicular to the axes and they will pierce it in four points, de- fining a parallelogram, the sides of which will not exceed those of the mirror in length. The axes pro- ceed obliquely from the mirror, therefore the par- allelogram will be oblifjiie. This parallelogram is represented in full in Fig. 3. The cutting-plane makes a right .section ot the cone surrounding each axis, and we have already seen that this section is a circle having a radius equal to the natural tangent of the sun's semi-diameter to a radius equal to the distance from the cutting-plane to the apex of the cone on the mirror. With these radii describe cir- cles about the comer points, and join these circles by tangents. The resulting enclosed figure is a right sectiim of the solid of illumination. Now, since the axes of the four cones are parallel, the di- mensions of the parallelogram will be constant for all positions of the cutting-plane. The radii of the four circles increase with the distance from the mirror. The mean value of the semi-diameter of the sun is about 16 minutes, the natural tan- gent of-which to a radius of one mile is 24^ feet, very nearly. The mirrors used in helio- graphs are usually from 4 to G inches in di- ameter. Therefore at a distance of one mile, the circles will overlap and the figure of il- lumination will be sensibly a circle 49 feet in diameter. At a distance of 10 miles from the mirror to the cutting-plane, or from the send- ing to the receiving-station, the circle of il- lumination is 490 feet in diameter. And, gen- erally, the diameter of the flash at the receiv- ing-station, in feet, is equal to 49 multiplied by the distance lietween the stations in miles. As the diameter of the flash increases directly with the diflference lietween the stations, the adjustment of the instrument is no more diffi- cult for a very distant station than for one comparatively near, jirovided, of course, that there is some distinguishalile landmark to adjiisl by. In all patterns of the heliograph yet made the mir- ror is kept in adjustment bv means of what is called the "dark spot." To explain this, let AB. Fig. 4. rejircsent a glass mirror, fnmi which the silvering i has been removed from a small circle representee! HEUOGRAPHY. 24 H£LIOG£APHY. by cd. about the center of motion of the mirror. The center of the motion must lie in the plane of the silvered surface, and it is usually at the center of the mirror. Let/c/ aud prfjr, represent the cones Fig. 4. of light reflected from r and d, respectivelj'. Be- tween '■ and (' very little light is reflected, and a dark cone represented b}'''<rf is formed, the angle red beiui; equal to the diameter of the sun. To deduce a general expression for the length of the dark cone, let c e d. Pig. 5. represent the cone, and m € its axis, the length of which represent bj- L. From m draw m ii perpendicular to the reflecting surface. The angle i is equal to the mean angle of reflection or incidence. Let d represent the dia- meter of the unsilvered spot cd. and » the angle rfd, which is equal to the diameter of the sun. Then, j-_id, cos (i — h) ~ sin y TJeturniug to Fig. 4, it is evident that the axis of the dark cone is parallel to the axis of the cone of re- Fig. 5. fleeted light, therefore the direction of the reflected lisht is indicated by the dark cone. The sighting- rod has a small white disc at its ujjper end. Place the rod so that the center of the white disc shall be between e and c d on the axis of the dark cone as represented in Fig. 6. A dark spot will then be seen on the white disc. Leave the sighting-rod in this position. In about one minute the dark spot Fig. (;. ■will have moved to one side of the disc, because of the apparent motion of tlie sim. It can be returned to the center of tlie unsilvered spot througli the center of the white disc. SutHcient exactness in this iidjustmeni is not diflicull to attain, for, as already sliown, the circle of illumination at the receiving- station is quite large, and the flash is visible from liny point within. To open communication with a (<istiint station, the mirror being on its support, tlie sightiug-rod must l)e so placed that the centers of the unsilvered spot of the white disc, and of the receiving-station, shall be on the same straight line. This may be done by looking through the unsilvered spot at the station y, and placing the white disc to cover it. In prac- '-' tice, however, it is found easier to set the sight- ing-rod by looking into the mirror, so placing the y eye that the unsilvered spot exactly covers the , reflectioji of the distant station, and then, with- ^^ out moving the eye or the mirror, bringing the , sighting-rod into view by reflection, and so ad- '^ justing it that the reflection of its disc is also cov- ered by the unsilvered spot. Then, if the mirror is turned by its tangent-screws so as to throw the reflected sunlight past the sighting-rod in such a direction as to show the dark spot on the disc, the flash will be visible from the distant station. If the instrument gives a standing flash, the screen must now be placed st) as to hide or cut off the flash except when it is given to view by the operator working the screen. If the instrument gives a mov- able flasli, the mirror must be so turned that the dark spot will appear on the white disc when the key provided to work the mirror is pressed down. When the key is not pressed down, the dark spot will be on the sighting rod a little below the disc, and the flash will not then be visible. No particular value of the angle of incidence has yet been con- sidered. It is necessary to consider what would be the effect if the light from the sun should fall very obliquely upon the mirror. It has already been shown that the dimensions of the flash are sensibly independent of the angle of incidence. But the case is different as regards the strength of the flash, and on this the range of the instrument depends. As the obliquity increases, the mirror intercepts less and less light, the reflected flash becomes corre- sjiondingly weaker, and the maximum distance from which it can be seen distinctly, that is, the range of the instrument, is decreased : and further, the ex- pression for the length of the dark cone shows that the length decreases as the angle of incidence increases, becoming practically zero when the angle of incidence is nearly ninety degrees. The dark cone would then fail to reach the sighting-disc and tliere would be no longer any means for keeping the flash on the receiving-station. These difficulties are avoided by the use of a second mirror. Fig. 7 ilhis- trates how the two mirrors are made to serve the purpose. The figure needs no explanation. The mirror which faces the receiving-station is usually called the second mirror. The preliminary adjust- ment with two mirrors is very similar to that with one. In the explanation for the single mirror, men- ■ tion was made of cones of diverging reflected rays only. That there are also converging reflected raya will be evident by supposing the eye placed in front of the mirror and looking into it. There would then be visible an image of the sun (see Fig. 8). This imaginary sun takes the place of a real sim situated back of tlie first mirror on the straight line through the centers of the two mirrors. The first mirror gives the light to the second from a fixed direction ; therefore, after the ])reliminary adjustment of liotli mirrors is completed, the second should not be touched. The flash is kept on the distant station liy the tanirent-screws of tlie first mirror. With the sun at the zenith the angle of incidence would be about 4.1^. Should the angle of incidence willi a singli- mirror approach 60^, the second mirror would be broiiglit into use to decrease it. (iO" then may be assumed as the maxiniuin angle of incidence. Th(' maximum of tlie sun's semi-diameter is 1(>' and 18". The diameter of the unsilvered spot is usually about f,, of an inch. These values in the exjiression for //, give 10 and {■;, inches as the length ! of the dark cone. It follows that when the un- silvered spot is |Y, of an inch in diatiieter, llie ilistance from the center of the mirror to the sighting disc, or from the center of the first mirror to the center of HELIOSTAT. 25 HELIOSTAT. tlic sccdricl, must not exceed nine inches, in order Dial llierc simll idwiiys be ii dislinci <liirl< spot It u\:i\ lie of iMl( rest to dclcriiiini- llu- tiL'ure and size of jilimi- mirror re(|insilc to iiivi- the muxinium stnii'.'th of fliisli. liet A /I. Fij:. ». represent a plane mirror situated a sliort distance from tlie eye nt f Zfffntfvcrr'. loolviug at tile imailinary iuuiL^e of tlie sun. formed by retiectiou. Tlie imai^e will seem to cover a part of the surface of A I! represented by mn. With a very small anirle of incidence mn will be sensibly a circle from every point of which light is reflected to \ ^ Kig. S. the eye. That portion of the mirror e.vterior to mn reHectsuoli;:lit to the eye. and therefore adds nothing to the slreiigtli of the Hash. The diameter of mn evi- dently deijcuds upon tlie diameter of the sun and tlie distance from the mirror to the eye. The angle of incidence always has a sensible value, and there- fore 11(11 would be an ellipse, of whicli the shorter than the tiajj. The extreme range of the Hag with- out glasses IS not over two miles, and with a lele- scojie having a power of W diameters it cannot lie read more than twenty 'iiiles. At the latter distance it is only when the atmosphere is exceptionally clear that till- flag can be seen at all. The average speed ill the transmission of messages by Hag is about Ihrcc words per ininuti-, and the labor of swing- ing is by no means lii;ht. A man well jiraetieed in the use of the lieliograjih call send eight words per minute, and no manual labor is involved. It is more tiresome to receive from the heliograiih than from a Hag, because the concentration of attention required and the strain upon the eyes are greater. The latter trouble may be niucli lessened by the use of colori-d glasses, or better still, of a screen which will cut otV the glare of the sky and ground without obstructing anv of the ligiil from the distant instrument. The flash from a Held instrunient can be seen with the naked eye from 85 to TiO miles, and that from a larger in- strument having H or !) inch mirrors, could be seen 80 miles or more without glasses. Permanent sta- tions should be sujiplicd with both sizes. The dust of a command can lie distinguished .■it gri'at distances with glasses. The Hash being then thrown on the ad- vance, the command wOuld be almost sure to see it before having moved across and out of it. for at a distance of 80 miles it is nearly one-third of a mile wide. It would most certainly be seen by some one if the whole com- mand was instructed to be generally on the watch for such signals. With each command there should be. of course, a heliograph. By halting a short time the t'ommauding Officer might obtain information of the great- est value, and at the same time give for transmission to other commands or to lieadi|uarters such information as he niiglit possess. In a section where the natural features are favor- able, it is easy to see how a few per- manent stations could cover a large extent of terri- tory and keep several commands in communication with each other, enablin;: them to operate in cimcert and to accomplish wliat would otherwise have lieeii iinpossilile. See Iltliimtiit and Lmkiug-gUtxa Hlg- niiliiifi. HELIOSTAT. — Heliostat and heliotrope are names axis would be double the natural tangent of the sun's | applied to instruments used by surveyors for render- semi-diameter to a radius equal to the distance from the receiving to the sendiug-station. The longer axis would increase with tlie angle of incidence. From this it appears that, at a distance of. say, 10 mile-, a mirror 400 feet in diameter would be re- quired for the niaximum strength of Hash. But that would be impracticalile. and indeed it would never be desirable, for the Hasli from a 4-inch mirror has been seen with the naked eye at a distance of over 3.5 miles, and that from a 1.5-incli mirror has been seen with the aid of a small telescope at a distance accurately determined to lie 102 miles. The mirrors of a heliograph should he of glass. Metallic mirrors would be lianl to keep liright in service, and they are open to a still more serious objection. It is necessary that mirrors should be as nearly i^lane as possible. If of metal they would lie liable to liecome bent or indented. The injury might be so .slight as not to be ajiparent and still be ing the distant stations distinctly visible. This is sufficient to make it impossible to give a good Hash managed by placing a mirror at the distant station, to the receiving-station. (iliiss mirrors are free and adjusting it so that at a particular hour of the from these objections, and experience has shown that day (arranged beforehand), the light of the sun shall those of the small size needed are not likely to be be reflected from the mirror directly to the survey- broken. .\nd. too, in the field it would be easier or's station. The surveyor must make his obser- fo replace a glass mirror than one of metal. The vation at tlie instant he sees the glancing of the mir- heliograpli. by the reason of its greater range, is a ror, as the constant change of the sun's position in much more valuable iustruintp.t for Held signaling the heavens produces a corresponding change in the HELM. 26 HELM. direction of tlie rays reflected by tlie mirror. Gauss invented sucli an instrument about 1831, which is mucli used in America, for Geodetic Surveys, and is said to possess sucli power, tliat a mirror 1 incli square is visible eiglit miles off, in average sunny weather, and appears as a brilliant star at a distance of two miles ; while some heliotropes have been used so powerful as to be visible nearly 80 miles off. The term heliostat, applied by Captain Drummoud to an instrument invented by him for the same pur- pose, more properly belongs to an instrument invent- ed by S'Gravesande, consisting of an equatorial re- volving on its polar axis, so that the sim, when once accurately in the focus of the telescope, con- tinues steadily fixed there. Drunimond's heliostat is chiefly used" iu Britain. The drawing shows the instrument as made by Fauth & Co., United States, for the Coast and Geodetic Survey. The telescope body is an iron tube ; a wood screw with a joint is attached at the middle, so that the instrument can be screwed to anv tree or post. See Heliography . HELM. HELMET.— 1. In Heraldry, the represen- tation of a helmet over shields or coats of arms. From the early simple form known as the Norman, the helmet, at a later period, came to vary in shape use in Continental Heraldry. A Helmet is never placed over the arms of any woman except the Sov- ereign. 3. A covering of metal or leather to protect the head in warfare. The earlier Greek and Roman helmets, as shown in many extant sculptures, were surmounted by plumes, but unlike their modem suc- cessors, did not protect the face. During the Middle lU'lmct of the Middle Ai^ee. according to the degree of the person who wore it, and helmets were set over coats of arms to bear the crest, and indicate by their form the rank of the bearer. The part of the helmet which opens to show the face is called the vimr or beaver (to allow Fieltl Officers' Helmet with Plume. Ages, helmets were made of the finest steel, often in- laid with gold, and provided with liars and tiaps, to cover the face in action, and to allow of being opened at other times. As the employment of flre- arms became more general, helmets naturally lost their utility, especialTy as regarded the face. Those still remaining are in military matters limited for the most part to heavy cavalry, afford no protection to the face, and must be considered as rather for orna- ment than use. Firemen wear a heavy head-piece of leather and brass, to protect them as far as pos- sible from falling ruins at conflagrations. In India Line Officers' Ilelmet, U. S. Army. Privntes' Felt Helmet, U. S. Army. .Siniiiu.jr Ileliiiet, with spike. of drinking). Tlie followinir forms of helnu't are in use in Knglish Heraldry : 1. The helmet assigned to the King and Princes of the blood-royal, which is full-faced. com|)osed of gold lined with crimson, and has the vizor divided by six projecting bars. 2. The helmet of the nobility, of steel, with five bars of L'old. When placed on the 'shield, it is ex- liibitcd in profile. ;!. Kiiiglils and Baronets have the full-faced steel hcliiict with the vi/.or thrown Ijack and witliout bars. 4. The luliiiet of Ksi|iiircs, always represented in profile, of steel willi the vizor closed. These distinctions are of comparatively re- cent date. A much greater variety of helmets is in and other hot climates, helmets of white felt, with the additional screen of rolls of linen, are constantly worn by military men, to protect them from the rays of tlie sun. In the United States army, light helmets of the following descriptions are worn as a part of the full dress : IlelmeU for Field Officers— The body : of cork or otlicr suitable material, covered with black cloth, or of black felt, at the oiition of the wearer. Trim- mings : cord and tassels, top-iiiece and plume-socket, chain chin-strap and hooks, eagle wtth motto, crossed cannon, rifles, or sabers, all gilt, with the HELM GUN. 27 HEMP. nuiiibrr cif the regiment on the Bliic-ld in wliite: pluiiic of Iji'iHiilo-lmir, wliite for infantry, ycDiiw for ciivalry, and red for artillery. UiimiU fur uthcr Miiiiiitfd OJi'irn tind OJfi'-d'n of thr Sii/ndl <!itrpn— Same as aliovc e.vcept that the color of plume i.** oranije for Sii;;iial Corps. IhlmiU fur oljiir Offl'rri iif h^ii'it Troiipt — Same lis aliovc, exeept that the trimiiiiiiijs are as follows :--'rop.pieee spike, chain chin-strap with hooks and side Imltons. eaijle with motto, crossed ritles or cannon, all irill, with the iiiiiuber of the reiriment on tin; shield in ivliili'. Offi-irs' Siniuiifr HiIiiiiIh — IJ(jdy: of cork, covered with white facini; elolli : top-piece spike, chain chin- strap, and hooks all i^ilt. The helmet cords are attacheil to the left side of the helmet an<l come down to the left shoulder, where they are held loL;ellier by a slide; one cord then passes to the front and the other to the rear of the neck, crossini; upon the rii^hl shoulder and passinii; separately around to the front and rear of the rii^ht arm, where they arc ai^ain united and held toi^etlier by a slide under the arm ; the united cords then cross the l)re isl and are looped up to the upper button ou the left side of the coat. IltiiDfUfir (ill M'liiiited Tnx'ps — Body: of I)lack felt, with ieatlier chin-strap, hirije crossed cannons or sabers, letter of company and number of rei;i- meut, plain side buttons, top-piece and i>lume- socket, all brass ; horse-liair pbimes and cords, and ban 1 with rinss of the color of the arm of service. Helmetn fir nil Foot Trmipn — Of same pattern and material as for mounted troops, with leather chin- strap ; and plain side buttons, top-|iiece and spike, of })rass. Triiixinhujx — Commissary Serireants. a cres- cent of white metal ; Hospital Stewards, a wreath of brass, with letters U. S. in white metal ; Engineers. a castle, with letter of company ; Onlnance, a shell and Hame; Artillery, crossed cannons; Infantry, crossed ritles, and letter of company and ninnlier of regiment, all in brass. Cork helmets are supplied only to troops servinu; in extremely hot climates, in the first and third years of their enlistment, and these only in lien of the campaign hat. The necessity for such issue must in all cases be certified to by tiie Department Commander. See (HHipmu HniK. HELM -GUN. — A breech-loading small-arm, h;iving a fixed chamber closed by a movable barrel, whicli rotates about an axis p;ir;dlel to the axis of the barrel. The peculiar feature of this arm is the con- nection of the tuml)ler with a movable butt-phite. so arranged that by pressing the piece against the shoulder, in aiming, the hammer may be simul- taneously cocked. The cylinder also can be con- veniently removed from the side, and replaced by a loaded one, if desired. HELOTS. — The population of ancient Sparta was divided into four classes, the lowest of whicli was formed of serfs or slaves, called Helots (probably meaning i-nptieeii. from helein, to capture). These Helots are generally siipposed to have formed the original population of the country, and to have been reduced to bondage by their Dorian conquerors, the muubers, however, being swelled fr<im time to tinu- by the conquest of enemies. They tielonged to the State, which liad the power to set them at li!)erty ; Imt they toiled for individual proprietors, and were IiiiiiikI to the xoH. i.e.. they could not be sold away from the place of their labor. They were the tillers of the land (for which they paid a rent to their mas- ters), they served at the public meals, and were oc- cupied on the public works. In war tliey served as light troops, each free-born Spartan who bore heavy armor Iieing accompanieil to battle by a number of them, sometimes as many as seven. On rare occa- sipus they were used as heavy-armed soldiers. It is a matter of do\ibt whether after emancipation they could ever enjoy all the privileges of Spartan citi- zens. They were treated with much severity by their masters, and were subjected to degradation anil indignities. They wen; whippcil every year to kei'p them in mind of their si'rvile state; they were obliged to wear a distinctive dress fdolhesof sheep- skin, and a cap of dog's skin), anil to into.\icatn themselves, as a warning to the Spartan youth; and when multiplied to an alarming extent, lliey were often massacred with the most barbarous cruelty. On one occasion, 2000 of tlniu, who iuid behavi-d bravely in war, were encouraired to rome forward for emancipation, and were then most treacherously put to death. The Spartans organized, as fiften a.s necessity required it, Seerit Servlcf. <'umpiiuuit of young men, who went itbroad over the coimtry armed with daggers, and both by niL'ht and day assassinated the unfortunate Helots, selectini; as their special victims the strongest and most vigo- rous of the oj>presseil race. HELVE. — 1. A tilt-hammer, used for shingling the balls as they come from the ])uddling-funiace. 2. The wooden handle of entrenching tools, such as axes (felling and pick.) hatchets, kodalies, shovels, spades; also the handle of certain artificers' tools, axes, and slediri-hanuners. HELVETU.- .V Celtic people inhabiting, accord- ing to Ca'sar, the region between the mountains of .lura on the west, the Khone on the south, and the Hhine on the east and north, the region correspond- ing pretty closely with modern Switzerland. They had 12 towns and 400 villages. The great and fa- tal event in their history is their attempted irrup- tion into and conquest of Southern (Jaul. in which they were repulsed liyCiesar with frightful slaugh- ter. The story of this expedition is circumstantially narrated by the Roman Commander. They col- lected 3 months' provisions, burned their 12 cities, 400 villages, and all isolated dwellings, and made a general rendozvous by Lake_Leman in the spring of .58 B. c. Caesar hastened to Geneva, destroyed the bridge, raised two legions in Cisalpine (Jaul. and wlien the Helvetians sent delei;ates to demand a passage, delayed them until he had built a \v:dl along ijie Khone, 16 feet high and about lit Koman miles in length, flanked with redoubts. Having vainly at- tempted to pass this barrier, the Helvetii took an- other route, but were followed and defeated with a terriljle slaughter at Bibracte (modern Autun, in Burgundy), and the remnant obliged to return to their own country, where tliev became subject to the Romans. Of 308,000 who left their homes, in- cluding 92,000 fighting-men, only 110,000 returned. In the commotions which followed the death of Nero, the Helvetians met with another terrible ca- tastrophe. Remaining faithful to Oalba. they were fallen upon by Cacina. a General of Vitellius. who gave them to the rapacity of his legions. They were massacred by thousands, multitudes were sold into slavery, and their towns pillaged and burned, their Capital destroyed, and their Governor executed. From this time they scarcely appear as a distinct peo|)le. HEMERODEOMI.— In Grecian antiipiity, runners or couriers, who could hold out to run all day. In a coiuitry like Greece, where the roads were few and bad, the Hemerodromi were indispensable for the rapid diffusion of important news. Every Greek State made a point of training a number of these men who could travel great distances in an incredi- bly short space of time, and at every dangerous crisis they were stationed ou commanding points to observe and report at head-quarters what it was ne- cessary for the authorities to know. In the service of the Persian Kings, these men were called Angori, and the service Angerdoii. Among the Romans they were known as Crir.virtK. HEMP. — The fiber of certain plants grown both in Europe and India, known as the ( 'n imtifn's mtir/i and iiidloi. which have been pronounced identical plants. In various notices of Indian libers, we frequently meet with the word nuiiii as indicating a particular kind of hemp. Sometimes we find it called Indian HENCHMEN. 28 HEPTARCHY. hemp, aud we ma}' often .see hemp enumerated as one of the exports from India, at other times we may see either the same or another tilier mentioned by the name of brown hemp. Tliese various names are sometimes applied to tlic fiber of one or two diflferent plants, or are employed to distingidsh the tlber of three distinct plants, all of which are grown for their- fibers, and have been and mioht be exported from India; though onh' two of them are now usually to be foiinil among the exports from that couutr)-. Hence, to avoid ambiguity, it is necessary to notice the plants to which these several names are correctlj' applicable. The true hemp ( C'anmibix fuitien). gtinja of the natives, is everywhere ctdtivated in the plains of India, not on account of its libers, but for its in- toxicating leaves and their secretions. In the Hima- layas, however, the tiber is separated for economic purposes, aud was exported from India to England during the last war, and this has been the ease for many years. Tlie tiber of the xiinn or tmig {dotal, (ifiii jilncen) is often called Indian hemp, but incor- rectly. It is the kind most generally cultivated all over India on account of its fiber, and is that usually mentioned in the exports from Calcutta under the name of hemp, l)ut also as mnn. The plant nia_y be distinguished by its flowers being of a bright )-ellow color, aud of the form of the pe^i and of "the labur- num, while the leaves are entire and lanceolate. The tiber alluded to is very valuable for cordage, canvas, twine, etc. Madras aud Bombay both export large ([uautifies of hem]i. "" HENCHMEN.— The name given to the soldiers who guarded the King's jterson in the time of Henry VIII. The word, sigulfyiug a page or servant, is now obsolete or rare." HENKY KIFLE. — This magazine-gun is now gen- erally known as the Winchester. iT may be used as a single-loader or a repeater. As a repeater, the motion of the lever withdraws the spent shell of the previous charge, raises the hammer, recharges the gun, aud reloc'ks the l)reech mechanism. WUh single loading, the cartridge is placed in the carrier- block, anil a single motion puts it in order for firing. See Wincluxtr)- liiflr. HEPBURN REMINGTON RIFLE.— This rifle is de- signed especially ftir long-range target shooting, and for general n.se as a sportsman's aud hunter's rifle, being constructed with a special reference to the use of a reloading-shell. It has a solid breech-block are all made with pistol-grip stocks : which hereto- fore have been furnished only with the higher priced rifles, and are chambered for the straight 38 and 40 cal. aud 4?) eal. shells, using either a patched or cannelured liullet. The sectional drawing .shows the arm with the lireech closed. To take the gun apart ; Remove the iippfr-xrrew in the left-hand side, and the hreech-hlai-k may Ije taken out. To take out tlie /mtiimer. remove the next upper screw aud sli|) the hnmmer forward into the breech-block hole. To fake out the extractor, remove the forward .screw on left-hand side. The lever which operates the breech-lilock passes through the ri'Cker-nleew with a sqiuire stud, and is held in place by a set screw directly under the fure-ntdrk, whicli must be removed if it is ever desired to take off the lever. If necessary to remove the guard, it can be done by taking off the hutt-^tork, and taking out the i:ide-screir.s in" the usual way. The barrel should not be unscrewed from the frame, except by experienced liands and with proper appliances. When uecessarj' to unscrew ihe frame, the extractor should be taken out, and the breech-block and guard put back in place, l)efore putting on the wrench. If at any time the primer should be driven Ijack into tlie firing-pin hole, so as to make the breech open stiffly, it can be relieved by snapping the hammer against the firing-pin. The military long-range rifle has been adopted by the National Rifle Association, who recommend it to competitors for the American Team. It has a heavy barrel, with new sj'sfein of rifling, chambered for 3yV inch, 44 caliber, straight shell, using from 8.5 to 100 grains of powder aud wa- ter-proof patched bullet .530 and 550 grains of lead. See Re)iiingt(in Rifle. HEPPAH. — A New Zealand fort, or space sur- rounded with stout palisades. Also written Hippa. HEPTARCHY. — The name given to seven kmg- doms said to have been established by the Saxons in England. The common idea is, that these seven kingdoms were contemporaneous : but all that can be safely asserted is, that England, iu the time of the Saxous, was peopled by various tribes, of which the leading occupation was war ; and tliat some- times one was conquered, sometimes another. At no time was there a counterpoise of power among seven of them, so that they could be said to have a sepa- rate, much less an independent existence. Still, seven names do survive (some authorities adding an with direct rear support, side-lever action, and re- [ eighth). The king of the one that had the fortune bounding liauuner. so that the arm always stands [ to' be most powerful for the finu' lieing, was styled with the trigger iu the safety notch, thus rendering Bretwalda or Ruler of Uritaiu, but in most instances premature discliarge impossible, anil is believed to the power of this sujiposed Huler beyond the limits be the best in use for the iiurpose described. They ' of his own Tcrritorv must have been verv snudl. HERALD L'i) HEKALDRY. IJiiiliT Ei|;l)t'rt, Wcssex rose to ]n: »iii)n;iiif, ami virlimlly swiillowrd up tlu; otliors. HERALD. - An olMccr whose iluty consists in the reniiliiliiin of iirnioriiil hi'iiriiiirs, tlii> niarslmlliiii^ of professions, anil llie siiperinleiulence of piiblie cere- inoni<>s. In llic Miilillc A'^^es, lleralils were liiiilily lioniired, anil enjoyeil important privile)j;i)M ; their fiinelions also incluileil the liearini; of niessai^es. wliether of eourtesy or lU'tianee, lietween royal or knii;lilly persouai^es; tlie superinteiiilini; anil reijis- terin^■ of trials l)y battle tonrnanienls. jousts, anil all <!hivalrie e.vereises; the eonipulatioii of tlie slain after battle; anil the reciirilin'j; nf ihe valiant acts of the fallini; or survivini; innilialanls. The olliee of lleralil is prolialily as olil as the origin of eoat- iinnor. The prineipal heralilie ollieers are ilesii;nateil Kini;s-of-Arnis nr Kinijs-at-Arins. anil the novitiates or learners are slyled Pursuivants. lleralils were originally ereateil with niueh eeremony ; tliey are iiiiw api)ointeil by the Earl Marshal in Eni;lanil, anil by the Lyon Kinii; of-Arins in Senilaiul. There are now in Eniilaml tiiree Kinu,s-iif-Arins. nanieil by ! their otliees (iarter, Clareneieu.x. anil Xorroy : si.x | Heralds— Somerset, Chester, Windsor. Riehmonil. j Lancaster, and York : and four I'ursuivanis, Roujie Drai^an, Portcullis, Blue Mantle, and Houije ('roi.x. There have been at ilitTerent periods ollu-r Heralds, whose titles are now laid aside ; Heralds extraordi- nary have also sometimes been created, as Edmonson, by the title of Mowbray, in 1704. In Scotland, the princijial heraldic ntticer is Lyon Kinir-of-Arms ; and there were till lately six Heralds — Snowdoun, Alban\' Ross, Rothesay, "Marchmont, and Hay; and six Pursuivants — Unicorn, C'arrick, Kinlyre, Orniond, Dingwall, and Bute. Recently the jierinanent num- ber of Heralds ;ind Pursuivants in Scotland has been reduced to three of each. Ireland has one Kins;-of- Arms. Ulster; two Heralds. Cork and r)ul>lin ; and two Pursuivants, of whom the senior bears the title of Athlone, and the other is called the Pursuivant of St. Patrick. The official costume of a Herald t'on- i sists of an embroidered satin tal)ard or surcoat of | the royal arms, and a collar of SS. See Oollcge-nf- 1 -Ir/z/i. /v'nf/-i/t-A r/n.\ liud Pi/rsn/rtfttt. HERALDRY. — Heriddry is properly the knowledge ! .if the whole multifarious duties devolving on a Herald ; in the more restricted sense, in which we shall here consider it. it is the science of armorial bearini'S. After occupying for ages the attention of the learned, and forming an important branch of a princely education, the study of Heraldry fell, in latter limes, into neglect and disrepute, and was al)andoned to coach-painters and undertakers, a degradation owing in part to tlic endless tissue of follies and niystiticatious that hud been interwoven with it. -Modern criticism has rescued Heraldry from the pedantrii's and follies of the Heralds, and imparted to it a new interest, as a valuable aid to historical investigations. Though we have instances in remote times of nations and individuals dis- tinguishing themselves by particular emblems or ensigns, nothing that c;ui properly be called armo- rial bearings existed before the middle of tlie I'Jtli century. The shields of the French knights in the First Crusade presented a plain face of polished metal, nor is there any evidence of heraldic devices I having been in use in the Second Crusade in 1147. But the Anglo-Xornum poet Wace, who tiourisheil in the latter part of the twelfth century, mentions de- vices or cognizances as being in use among the Normans, " that no Nornum ndght perish by the hand of another, nor one Frenchman kill anolher"; and Wace is curiously corroliorated b\- the Hayeux tapestry of the twelfth century, where there are fig- ures of animals on the shields of the invaders, while the Saxon shields have only borders or crosses. The rude devices on these shields have nothing approach- ing to an armorial form or disposition, yet it is probable that systematic Heraldry sprang out of them, but it is ditiicult to sav when thev assumed that hereditary character which is essential to the idea of armorial bearings. Some sort of armorial insignia were depicted on the shields used in the Third Crusade, which took place in llH'.t; and in the same half-ci.-ntury originated the fleurs-de-lis of France and the lions of England. The Iransnnssion of arms from father to son seems to have been fully Recognized in the thirteenth century, and in the prac- tice then introduced of embroidering the family insig- nia on the sunroat worn over the hauberk or coat of mail, originated the expression mat 'if iirmx. Arms were similarly embroidered on the jupon, cyclas, and tabard, which succeeded the surcoat, ajjractice which survived till the time |of Henry VHI., when the tabard came to be entirely disused except by Heralds, who still continue to wear on their tabards the Royal Arms. It was by slow degrees that the usage of arms grew up into the sj-stematized form which it .-issinnes in Ihe w'orks of the established writers on I^Taldry. The principal existing data for tracin;; its |irogress are English rolls of arms yet extant of Ihe limes of Henry HI.. Edward I., and Edward HI. The earliest formal treatises dale no further back tli;in the end of Ihe fourteenth century, before which time the whole historical part of the subject had been obscured by a tissue of gratuitous fictions, which has misled most subsequent writers up to a very recent jieriod. The Professors of the science represent the Heraldry of the tenlh and four- teenth centuries as equally sharply defined with that of the fifteenth and sixteenth. The arms of William t he Conqueror ;ind his sons are desiTibed with .-ill their dilTerences; arms are ascribed to Ihe Saxon Kings of England, to Charlemagne, and even to half-mythical persons and heroes of classical times. It is" rather surprising to find this fictitious Heraldry understood and systematized early in the fourteenth century. The arms traditionally considered lo be those of Ed- ward the Confessor were sculptured in Westminster Abbey in the reign of Edward II. In the infancy of Heraldry, every knight assumed what arms he pleased, not consulting the Sovereign or King-at-Arms. Animals, plants, imaginary mon- sters, tinugs artificial, and objects familiar to Pil- grims, were all fixed on ; and whenever it was possi- ble, the object chosen was one whose name bore suf- ficient resemblance in sound to suggest the name or title of the bearer of it. There is reason to believe that early arms were generally iiiinex parkintex, though the allusion has in many cases ceased to be intelligible from the old name of the object iK-inii for- gotten. The charge fixed on was used with great latitude, singly or repeated, or in any way which the bearer cho.se. or the form of his shield suggested. But as coats of arms became more mimerous, con- fusion often arose from different knights adopting the same symbol : and thus confusion was increased by a practice which ere))! in of sovereigns or feudal chiefs allowing their arms, or part of them, to be l)orne as a mark of honor In'theirfollowers in battle. Hence ditt'erent coats of arms came in many instan- ces so closely to resemble each other that it was im- perative, for distinction's .sake, that the fancy of Ihe bearer shoidd be restrained, and regulations laid down regarding the numtier and position of the charges, and the attitudes of the animals represented. This necessity led in the course of time, to the sys- tematizing of Heraldry, a process which the rolls alluded to show us was going on gradually throngh- out the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. By The time that Heraldry was consolidated into a science, its true origin had been lost sight of, and the credulity and fertility of imagination of the Heralds led them to i.ivest the most common charges with mystical mean- ings, and to trace their original adoption to Ihe de- sire of commemorating the adventures or achieve- ments of the founders of the families who bore them. The legends ascribing an origin of this sort to the early armorial bearings have, in nearly all instances wherein it has been iiossitile to investigate them. HERALDRY. 30 HERALDRY. turned out to be fabrications. It was oclj- when Heraldry began to assume the dignitj' of a science that augmentations of a commemorative character were granted, one of the earliest known instances beina the heart added tothe coat of Douglas, in com- menroratiou of the good Sir James's pilgrimage with the heart of King Robert. After the science became thoroughlj' systematized, augmentations and new coats were often granted with the reference to the supposed sjTiibolical meanings of the charges. In England, the assumption of arms bj' private persons was first restrained by a proclamation of Henry V., which prohibited every one who had not l)ornearms at Agiucourt to assume them, except in virtue of in- heritance or a grant from the Crown. To enforce the observance of this rule. Heralds' visitations or pro- cessions through the countries were instituted, and continued from time to time till the reign of William and Mar}'. Jurisdiction in questions of arms is ex- ccnted by the Heralds' College iuEngland, the Lyou Court in Scotland, and the CoTlege-of-Arms in Ireland. No one within the United Kingdom is entitled to bear arms without a hereditary claim by descent, or a grant from the competent authorit}-; and the wrongful assumption of arms is an act for which the assumer may be subjected to penalties. The use of arms, whether rightfuUj' or wrtmgfuUy, subjects the bearer of them to an annual tax. It is illegal to use without authority not only a coat of arms, l_iut even a crest. Any figure or device placed on a heraldic wreath, is considered a crest in questions with the Heralds' College or Lyou Court, as well as in ques- tions with the Commissioners of Inland Revenue. It shows how deeply the passion for outward distinc- tion is implanted in human nature, when we find people in countries such as the Uuited States, where all differences of rank are theoretically repudiated, assuming heraldic devices, each man at his own hand. Besides individuals. Communities and States are en- titled to the use of arms, and Heralds have classified arms, in respect of the right to bear them, under the following ten heads: 1. Armsof dominion ; thearms borne by Sovereigns as annexed to their territories. 2. Arms of pretension, which Sovereigns havebome. who, though not in possession, claim a right to the territories ^o which the arms belong. Thus, Eng- lan 1 bore the arms of France from the time of Edward III. till 1801. 3. Arms of community; the arms of Bishops' Sees, Abbeys, Universities, Towns, and Corporations. 4. Arms of assumption; arms which one has a right to assume with the approba- tion of the Sovereign. Thus, it is said, the arras of a prisoner at war may be borne by his captor, and transmitted by him to his heirs. .5. Arms of patron- age ; added bj' Governors of Provinces, Lords of the Manor, Patrons of Benefices, etc., to their family arms, as a token of superiority, right, or jurisdiction. 6. Arms of succession, borne quartered with the family arms by those who inherit fiefs or manors, either by will, entail, or donation. Thus, the Dukes of Athole, as having been Lords of tlie Isle of Man. quarter the arms of that Island, and the Duke of Argyle quarters the arms of the Lordship of Lome. 7. Arms of alliance, taken up by the issue of heir- esses, to show their maternal descent. IS. Arms of adoption, borne by a stranger in blood, to fulfil the will of a testator. The last of a family may adupt a stranger to l)ear his name and arms ami possess his estate. Arms of ado|)lion can only be borne with permission of Sovereign or King-at-Arms. i). Arms of concession: augmentatiims granted by a Sove- • reign of part of his royal arms, as a mark of distinc- tion, a usage which, we have already observed, ob- tained in tlie earliest days of Heraldry; and hence the prevalence among armorial bearings of th<' lion, the tleur-de-jis, an'l the eagle, the bearings of the Soverci'.:ns of England anil Scollanil.of l''rane<'. and of Germany. 10. Paternal or hereilitary arms, trans- mitted by "the first possessor to his descendants. A coat of arms is composed of charges ilejiicted on an escutcheon representing the old knightly shield- The word escutcheon is derived froui the French ecunson, which signified a shield with armorial bear- ings, in contradistinction from ecu, a shield geuerallj'. The shields in use in England and France in the 11th and 13th centuries were "In shape not unlike a boy's kite, a form which seems to have been borrowed from tiie Sicilians ; but when tliej- became the recipients of armorial bearings, they were gradually flat- tened and shortenecl. From the time of Henry III., the escutcheon has Vieen most frequently repre- sented on seals as of something approaching to a triangular form, with the point downwards, the ex- ceptions being that the shield of a Fig. l. lady is lozenge-shaped, and a knight-banneret square. To facilitate description, the surface or field of the escutcheon has been divided into nine points, as in (Fig. 1), technically distinguished bv the following nanies: A, the dex'ter chief point ;" B, the middle chief; C. the sinister chief; D, the honor or collar point; E, thefess point; F, the nombril or naval point; G, the dexter base point ; H, the middle base; and I, the sinister base point. It will be ob- served that the dexter and sinister sides of the shield are so called from their position in relation not to the eye of the spectator, but of the suppo- sed bearer of the shield. Coats of arms are distinguished from one another, not only by the charges or objects borne on them, but by the color of these charges, and also of the field on which they are placed. The field may be of one color, or m"ore than one, divided by a "par- tion-line or lines varying in form. The first thing, then, to be mentioned in blazoning a shield — that is, describing it in technical languaire — is the color, or, as it is heraldically called, fhe «m(-«»/-f of the field. VCRF 'fURCURi; ERMINE VAIR' POItNl C f. Fig. i. Tinctures are either of metal, color strictly so called, or fur. The metals used in Heraldry are two — gold, termed w, and silver, urgent — represented iu paint-, ing by yellow and white. The colors are five — red, blue, black, green, and purple, known as gules, azure, mhle, vert, and purpure. Metals and colors are indicated in uncolored heraldic engravings by- points and hatched lines, an invention ascribed to Father Silvestro di Petrasaucta, an Italian Herald of the seventeenth century. 0;',(Fi!i. 2) is represented by points; for urgent, the field is ^eft plain. Gule.'< is denoted by perpendicidar, and nzure, by horizontal lines ; sable, by lines perpendicular and horizontal crossing each other ; rtrt. by liiagonal lines from dexter chief to sinister l)ase ; purpure. by diagonal lines from sinister chief to dexter base. The fur» were originally but two, erminei\ni\ mh-. The former is represented by black spots reseml)ling those of the fur of the animal called the ermine, on a white gro\ind. Vn'r. said to have ))een taken from the fur of a squirrel, bluish-gray on the back and white on the belly, is exjiressed by bliU' and wliite sliiclds, or bells in horizontal rows, the bases of the white resting on the bases of tlu' blue. If the vair is of any other colors than whiti- and blue, they must be specified. Various modifications of these furs were afterwards introduced, among others ermines, or HERALDRY. 31 HERALDRY. cTiiiiiU' with the ficlil sable iiml the spots iir;;cnt : enninitt'Jt, with a red hair on each si(k- of tin- l)la(;k spot; ptrii,, witli tlie titlil «al)li!, anil the spots or; ciiaiUer-vdir, or vair with tlie hells of one tincture I)laee(l l)asi- to base; and ]>"tiiit nji/Hti'r-p"tj'iU, vair with enit<'h-shaped fiirures inslc'ad of hells. It is an estahlislied rule of Heraldry lliat metal should not tie placed on metal, nor color on color; u rule more ri;;i<lly adhered to in EuLdish than in foreign Heraldry. We have one remarkal)le transgression of this in the arms of the kingdom of Jerusalem founded by the Crusaders, which are argent, a cro.ss potent between four crosses or. A recognized ex- ception exists wherever a charge lies over a Held p:irtly of metal and partly of color, or wliere an ani- mal is (see Infrii) iittired, armed, uiigule<l, crowned, or cliained with a tincture dilTcrcnt from that of his body, Marks of cadency, chiefs, cantons, and bor- (hires are also occasional!}' exempted from the gen- eral rule, being, according to some Heralds, not laid on the shield, but coiisti, or sewed to it. Everything contained in the tield of an escutcheon is called ii c/uirf/e. Charges !ire divided by Heralds into the three classes of honoridile ordinaries, subor- dinaries, and common charges. Under the name of ordinaries or honorable ordinaries are included cer- tive is the liar, containing the fifth part of the liehl; and there are also the di/uft, one-half of the l)ar, und the harrukt, one-half of the closet, the latter seldom borne singly. 0. The r/uvron (Fig. H), composed of two strips clescending from the center of the shield in diiigonal dirc'cliims like the rafli-rs of a roof. Its diminutives (ire the /■/iirrnni I of half, and the rouplr. i:loiu\ one-fourth its width, the latter borne, as ilx name implies, in pairs, and generally accompanj^ing the chevron— ou ettcli side of it. 7. The crota ( •4*4' #■ ! ^ tain old and very frequent bearings, whose true pe- culiarity seems to be that, instead of being taken from extraneous objects, they are representations of the wooden or metal strengthenings of the ancient shields. Thej- are ten in number, viz : 1, The chief (Fig. 3). the upper part of the shield separated frrtm the rest by a horizontal line, and comprising, accord- ing to the requirements of Heralds, one-third of it, though this proportion is seldom rigidly adhered to. Its diminutive is the tillet, supposed to take u]) one- fourth the space of a chief, in whose lowest part it stands. 2. The ptle (Fig. 4). a band or stripe from top to bottom, said, like the chief, to occupy one- third of the shield. It has two diminutives, the pullet, one-half in breadth of the pale, and the indttrse, one -half of the p;dlet. S. The /'iiifl (Fig. •')), !i simi- lar band crossing the shield diagonally from dexter chief to sinister V)ase. Its diminutives are the hendlet or giirti'r, one-half of its breadth ; the CMt or roti.ie, one-half of the bendlct : and the ribuinl. one-half of the cotise. The bend is sometimes borne between two cotises, in which case it is said to be mtiMd. a term sometimes applied with doubtful propriety to the other onliuaries when accompanied with their diminutives. 4. The Acrtrf ,«'««£(';■, a diagonal band from sinister chief to dexter base. Its diminutives are the acarpe. oue-half of the bend sinister ; and the hdti'n (Fig. 6). one-half of the scarpe. The baton stops short of the extremity of the tield at both ends, and has been considered a mark of illegitimacy. .5. The/..v.v (Fig. 7). a horizontal bjuul in the middle of the shield, said, like the ordinaries :dreaily enumer- ated, to occupy one third of it. Its principal diminu- Fig- Fit's. l.V- ?-'. 9), uniting the pale and fess, an ordinary which was originally like the rest, composed of the clamps ne- cessary to the strength of the shield, but had also the deeper meaning of the symbol of the Christian faith. Besides its plain form, the cross was varied in nu- merous ways, most of these varieties being, how- ever, rather common charges than ordinaries. Of the 39 lesser crosses mentioned by (Juillim, and 109 by Edmonson, a few of the most frequently ocoir- ring are the following : The r/v«,i moliiie (Fig. 10), with the ends turned round both ways; the cronx fieury (Fig. 11), of which each limb terminates in a Heur-de-lis ; the croxx patonee (Fig. 12), each limb of which has three points; the ervsn potent (Fig. 13), crutch-shaped at the ends; \\\c croaH pattee {¥\a:. 14), small in the center, but widening toward the ends; and the cmaK cromlet (Fig. l.'j). crossed at the ends. The latter is the most frequent of all. and borne oftener in numbers than singly. Any of these crosses is said to be titchee when the lower limb terminates in a sharp point, as in Fig. IG. There is also the crw.is Maltese, whose limbs have each two points, and converge to a point in the center of the cross : thoui;U not frequent as a heraldic charge, it derives an im- portance from being the badge of the Knights of Malta and of many other orders. M. The Mittit-t, or St. Andrew's Cross (Fig. 17). formed by a junction of the bend dexter and bend sinister. 9. The pile (Fig. 18). a wedge with point downwards. A single uncharged pile should, at its upjier part, occupy one- third the breadth of the shield, but if charged, it may be doul)le that width. 10. The f/uurter'. con- sisting of the upper right-hanil fourtli jiart of the shield cut otY liy a horizontal and a jierpeudicular line. Its diminutive is the (•«/(<</« (Fig. 19). Armo- rial figures may be depicted on any of these ordina- ries, but not on their diminutives, with the exception of the canton. We observed that the tield of an escutcheon may be of two different tinctures, divided by a partition- line, which line may vary in direction. When di- vided by a partition-line in the direction of one of the ordinaries, the shield is said to \k party jnr that ordinary ; thus we may have (Figs. 20) a shield party per pale. bend, fess, chevron, or saltire. An escutcheon divided as by a cross is said to be quartered. A shield divided into anj- number of parts by lines in the direction af a pale. bend, or biir, is said to be paly, hendy. harry, the number of pieces being specified, as in the example Fig. 21, HERALDRY. 32 HERALDRY. barrv of six, argent auc] gules. When the field is of metal and color separated by any of the lines of partition, and the charge placed on. it is said to be ritiintfr-rhnngeii: this means that the part of 'ENGRAILED iNVECTED '- VJkVY ■Ln_n_n_n_ embattled /VWWNAA. INDENTED /\A/\/ DAHCETTf the charge which is on the metal is of the color, and vice Ter.ia. as in Fig. 22. the arms borne by Chancer the poet, per pale argent and 'gules, a bend counter-changed. The partition-line, or the boundary-line of an or- Fis •i:i. dinary, is not always even. Fig. 23 shows the com- monest forms of irregular partition-lines in use, viz., the (ngrntled, iiietcUd. iravy, ne/nile, einliattled, in- deiiUd. and djuireUe. An ordinary engrailed has the points of the engrailed line turned outwards, and an ordinary invected, inwards. Dancette differs from indented by the partition-line being marked with only three indentations. The ^tihurdiimriex, or sub- ordinate ordinaries, are generally enumerated as the following, though there is no very broad line of de- markation between them and the common charges. 1. The gy run. When a shield is at Duce quartered and party per saltire, as in Fig. 24. the ' division is called gi/n>iiiiy "f light (from gyrnx a circle), and one of the triangles, or at least that triangle in dexter chief is a gyron. Gyronny of si.\, ten, or twelve also occasionally occur, so called according to the number of the triangles. 3. The fret (Fig. 2.5) is a cognizance derive.', from the banding or ornamenting of the shield, and a shield covered with this lattice-work decoration (Fig. 26) is said t(i }Kfritty. 3. The hurdiire. or border(Fig. 27) is a .stripe encircling the shield. It is much used to dis- tinguish different branches of a family, and is often charged with small devices, on which account it has sometimes been reckoned an lionorable ordinary. 4. The iirle (Fig. 28) differs from a bordure in not touching the extremity of the shield, .'i. The i/r.i- sii.re. regarded as a dimimitive of the (irle, is generally borne (jouble, and fliiry couulerflory. as in the arms of Scotland, or a lion rampant witliin a tn'ssure fiory countertlory gules (Fig. 2!)). (3. The pall (Fig. 30), the archiepiscopal ornament of that name, sent from Uome to metropolitans, and resembling in form the letter Y. 7. The Jt/iiir./,e.i (Fig. 31), the de.xter anil sinister sides of the shield cut off by a curved line. Flanches are always Ixirni^ in pairs, .•ilid sometiincs chargeil. H. The hisnigi . a tigure of four eijua! sides, with the upper and lower angles acute and the others obtuse. !l. The fiiKil (Fig. 33), longer and more ac-ute than the lozenge. 10. The ruKtre (Fig. 33), a lozenge pierced nnnid in the center. U. The miutrle (Fig. 34), a lozenge per- forated, and showing a narrow border. Mascles were probably originally links of chain-armor. A field is said to be hyzengy (Fig. 3.'5), pisilly or mait- ciiUy when divided by diagonal lines in the direction of these subordiuaries. A field divided by horizon- tal and perpendicular lines into squares of different tinctures is said to be i-iifcky ; in the case of apsn chei-ky there are three such rows of the squares. Among the subordiuaries are sometimes reckoned certain circular charges called nmndtU or niiindleti. distinguished in English Heraldry by very different names according to their tinctures. When of or, they are called hezfintu ; of argent, plntex ; of gules, torteaux : of azure, hurts; of purpure, gnlpen ; and of sable, ogre-sseit, or pelletn. We now come to the third class of figures occur- ring in armorial bearings. We have seen that the ordinaries and subordiuaries are for the most part purely heraldic figures, connected in their origin with the shield itself; the romiiniii rh/irgex, on the other hand, are representations more or less con- ventional of familiar objects, which have no neces- sary relation to the shield ; but are in some way emblematic as concerns family or individual history and character. The knights, in the early days of Heraldry, ransacked the animal, tlie vegetable, and tlie mineral kingdom, as well as tlie range of things natural and artificial, for cognizances which would be distinctive, and at the same time suggestive, of the name or title of the bearer of them. We can only enumerate a few of the charges of most fre- quent occurrence. Of the beasts, the liifii requires special mention. The king of beasts is one of the most frequent of heraldic devices, and is made to assume a great variety of attitudes, for which see Lion. Lions and other beasts of prey are said to be iirmed or langued of any tincture when their teeth and claws, or their tongue, is of that tincture. With some change of color or position, the royal lieast came to be used by all who coidd claim kindred, however remote, with royalty, and lions were further multiplied by augmentations granted by the Sovereign to favorite followers. The heraldic leopard, which has been the subject of much con- troversy, was originally but another designation for the lion passant-gardant. Bears, boars, bulls, stags, are favorite heraldic beasts. A stag walking is saiil to be trippiint ; he is at gaze when a lion would be statant-gardant : he is attired of any tincture when his horns are of that tincture. The animals that possess horns and hoofs are said to he armed and '//((/«7frf in respect of them. The heads and limbs of animals are often borne as charges, and they may be either cnuped, cut oft' in a straight line, or i rased, cut oft' with jagged edge. Of birds, we have first the eagle. The sovereign of birds, and sj'mbol of imperial Jove, was, next after the lion, the most favorite cognizance of royal personages, and was adopted by the German Emperors, who claimed to be successors of theCa'sars of Rome. The imperial eagle had at first but one head ; the monstrosity of a second head seems to have arisen from a dimidia- tion of two eagles, to represent the Eastern and Western Empire. The eagle of Heraldry is most generally displayed, i.e., its wings are expanded ; sometimes it is preying, or standing devouring its prey. The alrrivn. the cognizance of the Duchy of Loraine and tlie family of Jlontmiirency. was orig- inally l)Ut a synonym for the eagle assumed as an anagram for the word Loraine, but modern Herahls have degraded it into a nondescript creature without beak or claws. The martlet was originally a mar- tin, a species of the swallow, wliicli has also in course of time been deprived liy heralils of its legs and beak. The ]ielican, the swan, tlie cock, the fak'oii, the raven, the parrot or popinjay, and the peacock, are all of tolerably frequent occurrence. The pelican, has generally her wings indarsed. or placed back to back, and is depicted pecking her lireast. When in her nest feeding her y.oung, she is called a i)elican in her piety. A peacock borne aflronte with his tail expanded is safd to be in hi.i HEBALDBT. 33 HEBALDB' COIXEGK pride. Birds of prey are armed of tVie Bame color of whicli tlicir liciik and talons are rcpri'scntc<l. Siidi uh liuve no tiiloHH are heuktd and iiirmhcrid. The curk is said to he armed, created. a.m\ jellojied , tlie latter term referring to his com!) and nills. Birds liaving the power of flight are, in respect to tlicir attitude, clone, rialiuj, or tulant. Fishes anil reptiles occur as charges: tlie former are said to In- miiant, if drawn in a horizontal, and hniiriunt, if drawn in a |)crpcn- diculur position ; and tlie dolphin, in reality straight, is conventionally txirne em,h<med or bent. The en- enllup nhdl is of frecpient occurrence, and is said to be the hadge of a pilgrim. Soinetinies the con- ventional heraldic form of an animal differs from its true form, as in the case of tlie antelope of Heraldry, which has the head of tlie stag, a uni- corn's tail, a tusk issuing from tlie liji of the nose, a row of tufts down tlie liack of the neck, and sim- ilar tufts on the tail, the chest, and thighs. Of " animals phantasticall " we have among others the griffin, wyvern, dragon, unicorn, basilisk, harpy. We have the human l)ody in whole or part, a naked man, a savage, or wild man of the woods, also arms, legs, hearts, Moor.s' heads, Saracens' heads, and that strange heraldic freak, the three legs conjoined, carried in the escutcheon of the Isle of Man. Of plants, we have TOSffl, trefoils, cinqxiefitiU, leawn, giirbx (sheaves of corn), trees, often erndirat^'d or friKtiKited of some other color, and, above all, the celebrated yfc'«'-rff-W.v, used as a badge by Louis VII. of France, before Heraldry had an existence. When a plant, or an animal, or otlier charge is bla/.one propi r, what is meant is that it is of its natural color. The heavenly bodies, the sun, moon, and stars, are also pressed into the service of Heraldry, as are things inanimate and artificial without number, particularly such as were familiar to the warriors and pilgrims of the 13th and 13th centuries. Helmets, Iiuekles, shields, hatchets, horseshoes, swords, arrows, batter- ing-rams, pilgrims' staves, mullets (for spur-rowels), and water-bougets, or bags, in which in crusading times water was carried a long distance across the desert, also the clarion or war-trump, generally or erroneously called a rest. Even the letters of the alphabet have been used as charges. Charges may be placed either simply on the field or on one of the ordinaries ; in some instances, one of the ordinaries is placed over a charge, in which case the charge is said to be dehruisedhy the ordinary. Three charges of one kind are placed two above and one below, unless blazoned /ft /<"■•<■•< or /« 7ot/<-. In the 14th and IStli centuries, the simplicity of early Heraldry began to be departed from by accumulating a variety of charges on one shield, and in later times we have sometimes a charge receiving another charge like an ordinary. The'growing complexity of shields arose from the augmentations granted to distinguish the younger branches of a family, or charges assumed from the maternal coat by the descendants of an heiress. In the end of the last and beginning of the present century, a practice prevailed for a time of introducing . into armorial bearings matter-of-fact landscapes, representations of sea-fights, and of medals and decorations worn by the bearer, setting all heraldic conventionalities at defiance, and deal- ing in details not discernible on the minutest inspec- tion. Such charges are frequent in the arms of the heroes of the old wars; as, for an example, in the augmentation granted to Sir Alexander Campbell, bart., in addition to his paternal arms — viz., "A chief argent charged with a rock proper, subscrilied G/iraWnr, between two medals: and on the dexter representing the silver medal presented to Sir X. Campbell by the Supr^ie Government of India, for his services at the storming of Seringapalam, in 1799; that on the sinister representing the gold medal presented to him for his services in the battle of Talavera." The grants proceeding from the present Kinss-of-Arms are made conformable to the usages of Heraldry, and do not stand in need of such lengthened explanations to make them intelligible. The arms of the dilTerent members of a family have been distinguislied from one another, somelimes by the use of a bordure or othir ililferi'nce ; and some- times, especially by Knglish Heralds, by the use of certain figures ralleil marks (}f cadency, the label, ereH. cent, mullet, inartlit, an n,iilet, jUar-de.-lis, to designate the clilest, second, third, fourth, fifth, or sixth son and his ilescenilants an invention originating about th(^ timi^ of Henry V'H., but which cannot consi.s- tently be carried througli all the ramifications of a family for a succession of generations. lileiionry is an e.ssential part of the science of arms. To blazon a coat is to so describe it that any one with an ordinary knowledge of Heraldry will be able to ilepict it cor- rectly. In the language of blazonry, all tautology must be avoided. The tincture of the Held is first mentioned; the ordinary, if any, follows, unless it be a chief; then the charges between which the ordinary is placed. The charges on the ordinary follow, and, lastly, we have a canton or chief, and marks of cadency. Besides tlie heraldic devices depicted on the shield, there are the following borne external to it— the helmet, the mantle, the wreath, the crest, the motto and scroll, the supporters, and the coronet. The helmet, originally a i)iece of de- fensive armor,, became in the course of time one of the usual accompaniments of the shield ; and, placed over the arms, it came by its form to mark the rank of the wearer. For these distinctions, which are of comparatively recent date, and ap|)licable only to British Heraldry, see Helmkt. The muntling is an embellishment of scroll-work flowing down on both sides of the shield, and originating in the cuintoise, or scarf, wrapped round tjie body in the days of coat-armor. From the center of the helmet, within a tcrenth of two pieces of silk of the first two colors of the armorial bearings, issues the crest, originally a special mark of honor worn only by heroes of great valor, or advanced to a high military- command ; now an inseparable adjvmct of the co.at of arms in English, though not in Continental Heraldry, and often assumed and changed arbitrarily without the proper authority. The scroll, placed over the crest or below the shield, contains a motto bearing in many cases an illusion to the family name or arms. Sup- porters are figures or animals standing on each side of the escutcheon, and seeming to support it. They were in their origin strictly ornamental devices, which only gradually acquired a heralilie character. In England, the right to use supporters is confined to the Royal Family, Peers, Peeresses, and Peers by courtesy. Knights of the Garter, Knights Grand Cross of the Bath, and a very few families whose an- cestors bore supporters before their general use was restricted. In Scotland, supporters are also used by the Baronets of Nova Scotia and the chiefs of various families. The crown of the Sovereign, the miter of the Bishop, and the coronet of the Mobility are ad- juncts appended to the shield of those whose ditrnity and office entitle them to that distinction. The sub- ject of marshaling arms, or arranging various coats in one escutcheon, is explained iifa separate article. Here it may suffice to lay down a few general rules. A husband is entitled to impale the arrns of his wife, i.e., to place them on the same shield side by side with his own. When the wife is an heiress, the husband bears her arms in an esctitrheon "f pretense, or small escutcheon in the center of his own shield, and the descendants of the heirese may quarter her arms with their paternal coat. A Sovereisrn also quarters the arms of his several States, and feudal arms are quartered by subjects. An elective King may place his herditary arms on an escutcheon of pretense over the insignia of his dominions. HEBALDS' COLLEGE.— A collegiate l)ody, founded by Richard III. in 1493, consisting of the heraldic officers of England, who were assigned a habitation in the Parish~of Allhallows-the-Less, in the city of London. See College of Arms. HERBORT SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. 34 HEROES. HERBORT SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— In this system. the auiili's iif the polyirdii ;ire covered by case- mated reduits, surri)uuded by barracks loop-hnled for musketry and artillery. These are flanked by two redoubts, covered by a glacis, before which stands a counter-guard. The extremities of these course- faces forma low flank before the redoubts. Defen- sive barracks connected by an earthen parapet form a general retrenchment. An envelope of counter- guards flanked by lunettes, which have also their glacis, casemates, extra flanks, etc., surrounds the whole. The system is ingenious ; but, the outlay is enormous. The uurevetted parapets and the flanks rising in tiers would expose it to an attack of vive force, and it would also suffer much from ricochet. HERCOTECTONIQUE. — A term in fortification sig- nifying that branch of military architecture which specifically points out the best means of defense and the surest method of providing stores. The wf)rd is derived from the Greek. HERCULES POWDER.— A mixture of carbonate of magnesia with carbonizing and oxidizing materials, cornbined with nitro-gh'cerine in varying propor- tions, to produce different grades of explosivcness. Although Sobrero well established the fact that Ditro-glycerine was a powerful explosive — and about 18.53 fhe French Academy made several practical tests showing it was an agent of great importance, and scientificinen occasionally wrote upon the sub- ject — the article of glycerine had not yet been pro- duced in large quantities, mostly on account of the expense attending its manufacture, which was still in its infancy ; and hence the manufacture of nitro- glycerine had remained wholly impractical, for x-ommon mining and engineering purposes, until about the year 1863. The Hercules Powder Com- pany, well knowing that nitro glycerine had been used as mixed with gunpowder many years before, commenced the manufacture of a high explosive, in 1868, compounded in that mannel'. But it was found that all these mixtures of the nitro-glycerine compounds were faulty in two particulars, viz: — 1st. A tendency to decomposition when exposed to much summer heat, or long storage or use in very hot mines, etc., in consequence of some small particles of nitric acid remaining in the nitro-glycer- ine, rendering it more or less dangerous from de- composition. 2nd. The noxious fumes arising from this decomposition, both in storehouses and in the mines, causing nausea and headache and in some cases weakening the quality of the powder. As a remedy for the first, the carbonate of magnesia en- tirely neutralizes any free acid that may chance to remain in the nitro-glycerine, and converts it into nitrate of magnesia, which is explosive, and renders it so perfectly free from anj' liability to spontaneous combustion that it may be safely stored, for manj' months, in the hottest weather, or be transported through the longest voyages in the tropics, without undergoing any chemical change. The remainder of theinixture is compounded upon strict chemical principles to neutralize noxious fiunes that would otherwise be generated. See High Exploniven. HEREFARE. — An old term from the Saxon, signi- fying thi- same as warfare. " HEREGELD.— A term derived from t)ie Saxon, sig- nifying a lax which was formerly levied for main- tainiuic an army. HERESILIA. — A term derived from the Saxon, signifying a soldier who abandons his colors, or de- serts the service. Also written Ilerisl/tn. HERETOCH. -The leader or the comnumder of an army. The term frequently means a C<instable or Marshal, ajid is sometimes written Ilrrit";/. HERETUM. -A court in which the guards or mili- tary retiime that usually attended the old British Noliilily and Hislioiis were accustomed to draw up. KERGATE. A term derived from the Saxon sig- nifying a tribute which was paid in ancient times to the Lord of the Soil, to enable him to carry on war. HERISSON.— A formidable hedge or chev;iux-de- frise. It is made of one stout beam fenced by a number of iron spikes, and which, being fixed upon a pivot, revolves in every direction upon its being touched, alwavs presenting a front of spikes. HERLIN SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— This sys- tem proposes an enciente uf detached bastions and javelins, and divides the town into quarters lij' double cavaliers erected behind the gorge of the bas- tions. The ramparts are casemated with a double parapet and a fausse-braye. HERMANDAD. — An Association of the principal cities of Castile and Aragon, bound together by a solemn league and covenant for the defense of their liberties in seasons of trouble. These Confederacies were sanctioned by the Sovereigns, as agents for sup- pressing the increasing powers of the Nobles, and for maintaining public security through the land with no cost to the Government. In Aragon, the first Hermandad was established in the middle of the 13th century, and in Castile about 30 years later ; while in 1295, 35 cities of Castile and Leon formed a joint Confederacy, and entered into a compact, by which the}' pledged themselves to take summary vengeance on every Noble who had either robbed or injured a member of their Association and refused to make such atonement for the wrong ; or uponanj' one who should attempt, even by the order of the King, to levj' an unjust tax. During the long period of Anarchy in which the Christian Rulers of Spain were impotent to maintain order in their own Do- minions, the Santn Hermandad, or Holy Brother- hood, had presented the only check against the un- bounded license of the Nobles ; and Isabella of Cas- tile, seeing the beneficial effects which an extension of the Insfitution was capable of producing, obtained the sanction of the Cortes for its thorough reorgani- zation and extension over the whole Kingdom in 1496. The crimes reserved for its jurisdiction were all acts of violence and theft committed on the high- roads or in the open country, and the penalties at- tached to each misdemeanor were specified with the greatest precision in the codes of laws which were enacted at different times in the 3'early assemblies of the deputies of the Confederate cities. An annual contrilmtion was, moreover, assessed on every hun- dred householders or vecinoa for the equipment and maintenance of the horsemen and the gnndriUeros or officials of the Brotherhood, whose duty it was to arrest offenders and enforce the sentence of the law. Although the Hermandad was regarded with much disfavor by the aristocracy, it continued for many years to exercise its functions, until the country was cleared of the banditti and the Ministers of Justice enabled to discharge their duties without hinderance from lawless disturbers of the peace. In 1498, the objects of the Hermandad having been obtained and public order established on a firm basis, the Brother- hood was disorganized, and reduced to an ordinary police, such as it has existed, with various modifica- tions of form, until the present century. The laws enacted at different times in the Juntas or Assem- blies of the Hermandad were compiled, in 1485, into a code, known as the Qtuuhrnn de Ian Leyes niievas de la Hermaiuhul, which was first printed at Burgos in 1.527. HEROES.— In the Homeric period. Kings, Princes, Generals, Leaders, all brave Warriors, and men wlio excelled in strength, courage, wisdom, and experi- ence. Many of these had, im account of such qualities, a fabled origin, half human, half divine, and" were honored, after death, with a kind of ado- ration or inferior worship. These heroes and denti- gods were recognized as the special patrons or |)ro- tectors of |iarticular countries or cities, and to them were raised temples and altars. These examples of heroic character, beldupconstantly to the admiration and imitation of peoples, tended to strengthen their pecidiar character, and to impress them with the greatness and glory of courage, contempt of danger, HERRISON. 35 HEXAGONAL POWDER. and nubility of purpose. Poetry cxalti'il tlic heroie Btiiliineat tJi suliliiiiity ; mid poems wliicli celeljriitecl tlie deeds of heroes lire themselves termed lieroir. The inmiriimry time when heroes iiiiil other semi- divine lieini;s lived on eiirtli wus commonly culled the lleroie Aire. HERRI80N. — In Heraldry, the hedijehof:, ii clmrKe allusively home liyfiimilies of the iiiinie of Iliirris. HERSE.— Ill fortitieiition, ii kind of giite or |)ort- cuUis, with iron bars like a harrow, set in with iron pikes, placed above gates and lowered, to impede the advance of an enemy. It is usually hung liy a rope and is fastened to' a moulinet, which is cut in case of a surprise, or when the first L'ate is forced by a petard, so that it may fall like a portcullis and stop the passage of agate or any other entrance of a fortress. HERSILLON. — A strong beam, whose sides are stuck full of spikes, wliicli is thrown across the breach made by an enemy to render it impassable. See Ifirxf. HERULI.— A nomadic and warlike German tribe, who iiiliabited the north shores of the Black Sea, Imt afterwards divided into sections and wandered into dilferent parts of Europe. They first appear in history in tlie third century as taking part with the Goths" in their excursions against the eastern prov- inces of the Komau Empire. In the fourth century they acknowledged the supremacy of the Gothic King Ermanric, but when Attila, King of the Huns, made his descent upon (Jaul. they joined his stan- dard. After the overthrow of the lluns, in which tliey suffered considerably, they establislied an or- ganized and distinct Confederacy on the banks of the Danulie, and under the leadership of Odoacer, assist- ed in 47() in the overthrow of the Western Empire. Under their King Rudolph they, in the beginning of tlie sixth century, attempted the subjugatiun of the Longobardi, but were defeated and dispersed, some of them proceeiiing to Scandinavia, and others lieing al- lowed bj' the Emperor Anastasius to settle on the south bank of tlie Dan- ube. In the time of Justinian some of them embraced Christianity. A large portion of tliem afterwards joined the Gepidte in their wars a- gainst the Eastern Empire; but oth- ers fought with Justinian against the Vandals and East Goths. Towards the end of tlie sixth century they were merged into other nations, and disappeared from historical records. Tlie Heruli were bold, hardy, and extremely pugnacious. For a con- siderable period they retained their strong individuality, and presented a firm resistance to the influences of civilization. Thej' are said to have offered human sacrifices. Also writ- ten ^■Ertili, and Eruli. HESSIANS.— Troops belonging to Hesse-Cassel, Prussia. They have been frequently liired in Great Britain, particularly in the war of American Inde- pendence, when they were sold at t'40 sterling a head,*!) of which was to be repaid if returned alive. HETMAN.— The title of the Head or General of tfie Cossacks, now retained only among the Cossacks of the Don. From the earliest times the Iletmau was elected by the voice of the assembled people ; the mode of election being by throwing their fur-caps at the candidate they preferred, and the one who had the largest number of caps was declared duly elected. The ]iower of the Hetman was very great, and ex- tended over life and death. When the Cossacks in 1644. submitted to the Russians, the Hetman was permitted to retain his rights as formerly. The Em- press Catherine entirely abolished the dignity of Hetman of the Ukraine, and substituted a Govern- ment consisting of eight members. The Don Cos- sacks liave, indeed, retained their Hetman, and even he possesses but the shadow of his former power. The latest elective Hetman was Count I'lalotf. who played a prominent pari in tluf wars with France (1h"i2"14j. After his death the Hetman was ap- pointed by the Czar, and ulliiiiately the title was made hereditary in the Grand Duke, the heir to the llimiii-. Also written At'iyimn. HEURTEftUIN8.~Two pieces of iron resembling a knocker, which are placed over tlie trunnions, or axis of a cannon. HEUSE. — An iron shoe, sometimes called ptdieux, attached to the greaves of ancient armor. Iiaving an iron sole, and tlie upper fomposed of mail. HEXAGONAL POWDER. -Kxperimeuts were made at Fori Monroe in 1S72 and \x~'i with what is known as hexagonal-grained powder, inanufactured by tlie Messrs. Duponl & Co , of Wilmington, Del., which demonstrated its superiority for heavy ordnance, giving low maximum pressures, with good velocities and great uiiiforniity of action. One of the samples was selected for proof of the converted 8 and 0- inch rifled guns in 1874. Hexagonal jiowder has been employed since that date in trial and proof of all 8.incli converted guns. The uniform size of grain, and their j)olyhedral shape, insure great uni- formity in position and size of the interstices in the make-up of the cartridge : this insures with a uni- form densit}- of grain a high degree of uniformity in pressures and velocities from given charges of powder and weights of projectiles. The drawing shows the shape and dimensions of this powder, the specific gravity being 1.7.')11. The proportions of the ingredients of hexagonal powder conform to the United States standard, and up to the completion of the incorporation in the wheel-mill, its manufacture is like that of ordinary powder. Mealing — Tlie wheel mill-cake is revolved in a cylinder of wire-wove cloth, with wooden-lialls, until it is mealed. Pressing — The mealed jiowder 1 is then carefull)' pressed between horizontal metallic plates or dies. The powder comes out in a sheet or cake of polyhedral granules united along their ver- tical edges, the diesbeing nearly perfect dodecahe- drons. " Graining — The press-cake is passed be- tween rollers armed with brass cutting teeth at an ! angle of from 60" and 120" to the axis, which cut the cake into granules, tlieir cross-section being almost heiagimal. whence the powder derives its name. Glazing — The powder is then sent to the glazing-mill and glazed. Brus/iing — The powder is next passed repeatedly through the brushing-raa- chine. This consists of a frame with brushes re- volving near an inclined plane along which the powder passes liy the motion of the lirushes. Dry- ing — The brushing ended, the powder goes to the dry-house where It is dried. The powder is now HIBEKNIAN ROYAL SCHOOL. HIGH TREASON, iiiiuutely examined, its specific gravity is taken, and a count made of the granulation"; a variation of two granules to the pound being enough to condemn the powder. Re-br'ishing and re-drying — If satis- factory, the powder is again passed through the brushing-machine, re-dried, and then receives a third brushing. Packing — The i^owder is finally packed in barrels and is ready for inspection. See Gunpowder. HIBERNIAN ROYAL SCHOOL.— A School establish- ed in Great Britain for tlie maintenance of 350 children of military officers who are supported and educated at the School, at an expense of £7,000 per annum to the country. HIDE-BOUND.— A term which, when applied to a horse, signifies that his skin cannot be pulled up or raised from his ril)s and back ; caused from bad keep, poverty, internal disease.- The remedy con- sists in good grooming and diet, with gentle medi- cine and keeping the animal warm. HIDES.— The "skins of buflfaloes, cows, bullocks, and other animals. Buffalo-hides are used in India for the manufacture of buflf accouterments, belting of machinery, etc.; bullock or cow-hides for mend" ing cartouches aud priming-pouches, and a variety of other leather-work. Buffalo-hides which have urtdergone the process of tanning are used for cover- ing the floors of powder-houses and charge maga- zines. HIERARCHY.— The essential element for the gov- ernment and service of an Army is a military hier- archy or the creation of different grades of rank, to which different functions and powers are assigned, the lower in regular subordination to the next higher in the ascending scale. It should be founded oil the principle tliat every one acts in an Army under the orders of a Superior, who exercises his authority only within limits established by law. This authority of the Superior should be greater or less according to rank and position, and be proportioned to liis^ re- sponsibilities. Orders should be executed without hesitation ; but responsibilities should be confined to him who gives orders in virtue of the superior authority with which he is invested ; to him who takes the initiative in an order ; to him who does not execute an order that he has receive<l ; and to him who usurps a command or continues illegally to exercise its functions. The military hierarchy is determined and consecrated within its sphere of acticm by : — 1. Grades of rank created by military laws ; 3. By other laws regulating the exercise of rank ; 3. By military insignia ; 4. By military hon- ors : and •'). Bv the military oath. HIGH-ANGLE FIRE.— Tlie fire from gtms. howitz- ers and mortars at all angles of elevation exceeding l-"".^. See Fir,. HIGH EXPLOSIVES.— The name given to the vari- ous nitro-glycerine compounds. The value of these plosives in the United States, and the percentage of nitro-glycerine contained in the powder they rop- resent. See Exph'site AgenU. HIGHLAND REGIMENTS,— The origin of the fust of these regiments, the 't2d, has been given under the head IJlack AVatch. The valuable services of this regiment encouraged the Government to aug- ment the force ; and accordingly seven other High- land Regiments have been raised from time to time —viz., the 71st, in 1777; the72d, or Duke of Albany's Own, in the same year ; the 74th, in 1787; the 78th, or Ross-shire Buffs, in 1793; the 79th, or Cameron Highlanders, in 1805; the 92d, or Gordon Highland- ers, in 1796: and the 93d, or Sutherland Highland- ers, in 1800. The uniform of each of these corps is the Highland dress, including a distinctive tartan. The soldier wears a coatee of "scarlet, a kilt (in most, but not all, of the regiments), a plaid across the shoulders, a plume, and the other attribtites of the Gaelic costume. In an array where officers are ap- pointed by general competition, nationalitj' is neces- sarily disregarded : but these Corps are those in which Scotch gentlemen most frequently seek ap- pointments, and a large proportion of the officers are Scotch. Of the men, at least 79 per cent, are Scotch, 11 per cent. English, and 10 per cent. Irish. The regiments are recruited at Stirling, Aberdeen, Perth, Fort George, and Lanark. HIGH SEAS.— the open sea, including the whole extent of sea so far as it is not the exclusive proper- ty of any particular country. The rule of interna- tional law is that every country bordering on the sea has the exclusive sovereignty over such sea to the ex- tent of three miles from its shore ;but all beyond, and which is not within three miles of some otlier coun- try, is open or common to all countries. The part of sea within three miles' distance is generally called the territorial sea of the particular country, or mare clausum. The distinction has little effect on tlie right of navigation, but as regards fishing it is other- wise. Thus, for example, foreign fishermen have no right to fish within three miles of the British coast without a license from the Crown, or unless some special treaty — as for example, the French and English treaty — has laid down other arrangements. HIGH STEEL.— For the construction oif cannon, steel may be divided into high and h(P steel, the difference being that the former contains more car- bon that the latter. High is very hard aud lias a great ultimate tenacity. It has but little extensibili- ty either within or without its elastic limit; it is therefore too brittle for use in cannon, unless used in such large masses that the elastic limit will not be exceeded by the explosive force of the powder. It melts at a lower temperature than wrought-iron, and is difficult to weld as its w-elding temperature is but little less than that at which it usually melts. See Steel. ATLAS. (Standard). HERCULES. (IIANT. -ETNA. HECLA. JUDSON. BRAND. Per Cent N. a. BRAND. Per Ceut N. G. BRAND. Pnr Ceut N. 0. BRAND. Per Cent N. G. BRAND. Per Cent N. G. BRAND. Per Cent N. 0. R. E. P. . F 5& under 10 15 20 F+ B, E-h 15 20 25 No. 5 ■ 16- FP FFF No. 4 No. 4S,-. 20 25 M 20 No. 3 No. 3X.. 26 25 N0.4X... 25 XXX 27 D,.- 30 No. 3,.... 30 No. 2,.... 30 N0.2C,.. No.' 2', '.'.!.' No2 Extra New No.l 33 "'46" 45 50 D+ c .35 40 45 50 (to No. 3S,.. No. 2 N0.2S,.. No. 2 8S. No. 2 SSS No. 1,.... No 1 X X 35 40 45 50 55 ns 75 No. 8X... No. 2,.... 35 40 No. 2X.. No.l 35 40 C+ 3 No. 2x X 50 No.lx... 50 B+ No.l,.... 65 A m No.l 75 No. IX X 7.5 compounds depends in a very great measure upon 1 the quantity of nitro-glycerine contained in them. The table herewith ltivcs tlie distinguishing marks adopted by liie leadimi manufacturers of high ex- 1 HIGH TREASON.— Treason against the State or the security c)f the Sovereign, whether by imagina- tion, word, or deed. In the United States, treason is confined to the actual levying of war against the HILT. 37 HITCHCOCK FOBOIRO. Unittil States, or any adlieriii!; to their enemies, givinir tliein aid aiul comfort. See 'J'rm'ini. HILT.— TIk' Imiidle of u cuttin;; instruineiit, es- iK'iiiilly of a tciiifc or sword. Ililtid i.s a term used in Heraldry, In indicate the tincture of the luiudlc of a sword. HINNY.— Tiie liyhrid produced hclwcen a horse ami u female ass. It is smallcrlhiinamidi-, butthe body is more bulky in iiroportion to tlic leirs. and Its s'trenirlh is inferior. Il is less valuable than the mule, alihoui;h it is nniredocih'. The hiiuiy is rare. It was described l)y some of tlie earlier naturalists »9, a hybrid between the o.\ and the ass, and even BulTdii sccins to have entertained this notion. HIPPODROME.— The (ireek name for the place set apart for licjrsc and chariot races. Its dimensions were, accoriiini; to the conuuon opinion, half a mile iu lenirth and one-eii:lilh of a mile in breadtli. In construction and all impnrlant [loints of arrange- ment, it was the counterpart of the Roman circus, with the exception of the arranirement of the chariots at the starting-place. In the hi|>podrome, the chariots were arranged so as to form two sides of an isosceles triangle, with the apex towards the goal and a little to the right side. But as this would have given the chariots on the left side a longer course than those on the right, the hippo- drome was constructed with the right side longer than the other. The start was efTected by setting free the chariots on the extreme right an<lleft. when they came opposite the next two, by setting them free also, and so on till all were in motion. The hippodrome was also much wider than the Roman circus, to allow rooni for the greater number of chariots, for though we have no iirecise information as to the nund)er that usually started in one race, we know that Alcibiades on one occasion sent seven : Sophocles mentions ten chariots, as competing at the Pythian games; and the number at the Olympic games must have been considerably greater. There IS a beautiful description of a chariot-race in Homer (Iliiid, xxiii. 2(i'3-().'50). The golden age of the hi]i|io- drome was during the lower Greek Empire. The blue and green factions in the hijipodrome carried their animosity into all departments of the public service, and laid the fcmndation of that perpetual disunion which rendered the Byzantine Empire a prey to every aggressor. HIRCARRAH. — An Indian term for a messenger, guide, footman, or a spy. Sometimes written ffir- carriK HIRING OF DUTY.— Hiring of duty is forbidden in all Armies. In the United States, the Articles of War provide that no soldier, Ijelongiug to any regi- ment, troop, battery, or company, shall hire another to do his duty for him. or be excused from duty, ex- cept in cases of sickness, disability, or leave of ab- Bence. Every such soldier found guilty of hiring his duty, and the person so hired to do another's duty, shall be pimished as a Court-JNlartial directs. Every Non-commissioi ed Officer who connives at such hiring of duty shall be red\ieed. Every Officer who knows and allows such practices shall be pun- ished as a Court-Martial mav direct. HIR?INI.— A people of Italy who inhabited the south portion of Samnium. They have been con- sidered by some autliorities as merely a Samnite tribe, while by others they are looked upon as an independent nation. The country they inhabited was the wild and mountainous district traversed by the Sabatus, Calor, and Tamarus. trilmtaries of the Vulturnus. and on the east side of llie Apennine ridge, the upper course of the Autidus. In the early history of Rome the Hirpini are found. identi- fying themselves with their Samnite neightiors against their common foes. They seem to have been snbdued in the early part of the third century B. c, as iu 268 b. c, Heneventum, the ke.y of all their military postions. was colonized by Roman settlers. They appear iu history for the "first time as an independent people after the second Piinin War. Revolting from their old Comiuerors. they joined the Carthaginian Invaders, and though tliey were unable to retake the stronghold of IJeneven- tiun. they kept faithful to Hannibal till defeat at the Melaurus restored the Empire of Italv to his op- ponents. In the year of that event the Hirpini made peace with their old masters by br'traying into their hands the garrisons of their Allies. f'roin this time till the outbreak of the Social War, the Hirpi- ni seemed to have continued steailfasl in their al- legiance. On that occasion, however, they set tlie example of revolt to the Allies, and might have be- come fortnidable enemies, had not the rapiil suc- cesses of Sulla induced them to repair their error by a comiilele submission. At the closeof this war the Hirpini obtained the franchise, and do not again ap- pear in history as an independent people. Their towns were Beneventum. Aeculanum. Equus, Tuti- cus, Trivicum. Murirantia. and Aquilonia. HISTORY.— Military history may be defined as a narrative or description of the several military trans- actions, as campaigns, battles, sieges, marches, etc.. of armies. A thorough knowledge of this liranch of history is necessary to make the military man apt in his profession, self-reliant, and capable of (command. It is indeed the secret of many a Commander's suc- cess in the varied positions he is placed in his career, as in the study of military history he finds a precedent for every strategic emergency, and a so- lution of the man)' ditticult problems in the art of war, wliich great Generals have overcome. The stiiily of military history further tends to createlugh aspirations after military glory, from the peru.sal of deeds of valor performed by men who have devoted and virtually sacriticed their lives for the good of their country. HITCH. — I'lie name given to certain knots, such as the timber-hitch, cliree.hitch. and others. Tliese knots are verj' valuable for artillery and engineer purposes, the advantage being that, as long as the strain is kept ujion them, tliey never give way. Hitches may be described as overlaying a part of a rope with itself in such a manner that a loop or loops are formed to jam on each other. See Kimtx. HITCHCOCK FORGING.— This system of forging is designed to insure sound welding in the fabrication of large cannon. The iron is heated in a reverbera- tory furnace, to avoid its contact with sulphur and other impurities of coal. The gun is forged of rings of wrought-iron, or low-steel made witlur.it welds, i»nd upset or butted]together, as by Ames's process. The rings are so formed as to be united first in the center, that the superfluous cinder may be squeezed out. An anvil is seated on the piston of a liydro- static press, so as to be lowered as the successive rings are added. A furnace is situated l>etween the anvil and a steam-hammer, and so arranged that the rings project into it from below, and the liammer drops into it from above. The ring to form the muzzle of the gun is laid upon the movable anvil and projected sufflciently into the furnace to allow the flame to raise it to the welding heat. Mean- while, in another part of the furnace, the rings are heated to welding in the same time, by proportion- ing the heat, by means of dampers to the relative bulks of the two parts. 'Without removing the parts from an atmosphere in which there is verv lit- tle i^ any o.xygeu. they are laid together ami instant- ly welded by a few strokes of the steam-hammer. The anvil is then lowered by the thickness of an- other ring, and the same process is repeated. Although the gint may be of any size, the jiarts actually united at one operation, may be made so light by reducing their thickness, that the pressure of a hammer of moderate weight will be- adequate. And when the whole operation of upsetting is con- fined to one joint, exactly the requisite pressure for that joint can be applied: and there is no fear of injuring other parts by setting it up soundly, because HOBBLE 38 HOISTING APPAEATU8. the mass of the gun below it is cold, and forms a rigid pillar — practically a continuation of the anvil. It" would appear that all the conditions of sound welding may tlius Ije attained, if tlie process can be practically carried out. This process was in- tended especially for fabricating guns of low-steel, the rinss to be made witliout wetds, by bein^ ori- srinally cast in the form of small thick rings, and then rolled", in a modification of tlie tire-rolling machine, to a larger diameter and a smaller section. Tliis treatment would develop an endless grain in the riuirs, in tlie direction of the circumference. HOBBLE— HOPPLE. — A fetter for horses, or other animals, when tiirned out to graze— chiefly used in the plural. Wlien in the vicmity of tlie enemy or horse-thieves, the stock may be iiermitted to graze, and at tlie same time be secured by means of the hopplcH or side-lines. They are likewise of inesti- mable value for use on animals prone to stray far away from the camp or herds. The drawing shows the usual fiirm of their construction, the fetlock straps being made of a tliick leather, the inside smooth and soft, and tlie sewn edges uppermost wlien on the animal's legs. For military purposes, it is decidedly better to have the leglets made of steel, with a lislit connecting lock and chain of the same material. Leather hopples deteriorate in strength upon exposure to moisture and the weather, and may be readily cut and removed by the enemy or robbers. Steel hopples have the advantages of beino- less cumbersome, mucli more secure, lighter in weight, and can be placed on or taken off the ani- mal wfth greater facility, by those having the means of unlockfna: them. In the absence of this very im- portant eqfupment, tlie soldier may successfully liiipple his horse with a stirrup-leatlier, by putting its middle round one fetlock, then twisting it half-a- dozen times, and finally buckling it round the other fetlock. HOBILERS. — An inferior variety of cavalry used or raised ill the reign of Edward II. Tliey were sta- tioned at Portsmouth and at otlier maritime places, and bound to keep a little flag for the purpose of "■iviuLr notice of invasion. They wore an aketon or armor of plates, a baseinet. iron irauntlets, a sword, knife, and a lance. Also written Ihiheliers. HOBITS.- Small mortars of (i or 8 inclies bore. iiiouiiled on gun-carriages ; they were in use before tlie howitziT. HOCHE BOS.— Certain soldiers among the ancient s. wlio were so called from tlieir brandisliing the pike. Tliis term lias likewise been applied to the pike it- self. HODOMETER.— An instrument for measuring the distance traveled over by any conveyance, and con- sisting of an arrangement of toothed wheels, like clock-work, fixed on one side nf a machine, and connected with the axle, from which motion is com- iiiunicated to it. An index and dial show the ex- act distance the vehicle has traveled. See Odomthr. HOG-GUM, — The name given in the West Indies to a resinous substance, which is there extensively used as a substitute for pitch to tar boats and ropes, also for strengthening plasters, etc., and internally as a diuretic, laxative, and stimulant medicine. It is still disputed what tree produces the true hog- gum ; some ascribing it to morunohtd coccinea, of the natural order g iittiferir ; some to rhtismetupium. a species of sumach of the order anacardinfecB ; and others to Uelirigia bnUnmifeni, of the order nmyri- dfiteee. The probability seems to be that all these — and perhaps other — trees yield resinous substances of very similar quality, and commonly designated by the same name. HOIST.— 1. The perpendicular height of a flag, as opposed to the. //^, or breadth from the staff to the outer edge. 2. A machine for hoisting ores, metals, castings, workmen, etc., in mines and foundries. A very primitive hoisting-machine. wliicli resembles the modem capstan, is used in the Convent of St. Cath- arine, at the foot of Mount Sinai, to raise travelers to a door in the second story. This is a somewhat inconvenient and tedious operation, but is used in a land where robbers go on horseback. It is also worthy of remark, that the people of the land have no idea of the value of time, and so set six men to help another in at the door. The obelisks in ancient Egypt may have been raised Viy gradually lifting the apex and scotching up by introducing earth beneath them. The Stonehenge blocks were very probably raised in the same way. When Chersiphon built the Temple of Ephesus. in the time of Amasis of Egypt, lie raised the architrave by surrounding the columns with liags of earth, which served as an in- clined plane. HOISTING APPARATUS.— In designing and build- ing machinery for hoisting ami transferring light loads, many of the same problems are presented Fin. 1. which occur in the construction of heavy cranes, and the exiierieuce gained in one is available in the other. Too much has heretofore been left to " rule of tnunib " jiracticein the designing cf light hoisting niacliinery, and frecpient accidents to life and limb still needlessly occur from continued j.'dherence to- HOISTING APPARATUS. 39 HOISTING APPARATUS. old types iif niiicliiiics in wliirli wifely, bolli of per- son and load, (lei)ends upon I lie care mid iiilelli^eiH'e of the operator. It is possilile to so coiistriiel liaiid- lioisting inacliinery that aeeideiils arisiiii; from nirc- lessness in its use are praeti<-idly iuipossilile. Sueli construction involves no saeritiee of simplicity or I'fflciency. and no material increase in civst. To ad- here to the old. therefore, is loassumeneeilless risks to property and unjustitialih' risks to human life. The risks referred to ari.se chielly from two causes ; Jir^t, a deficiency of material in ])arts subject to strain : and. sinmi!, the iise of ratchet-wheels to hold the load suspended, and of non-automatic brakes to efl'ect lowerini;. The tirst defect, a want of jiroper kind or amount of material, arises from unskilful desinnini; luid from the etVort after cheapness. The second is adherent in the elements of mechanism employed, and can only be avoided by the use of new and better devices, so constructed as to be automatic in all functions where carelessness is po- tent to produce harm. The active openition of /iw'.st/ni/ is usually free from danifer in any machine of sufficient strength. It is the (Ir.ir.eni of the load, whether by intent or I)y accident, that involves danirer. During the act of hoisting the o|)erator slowly expends power, wddch is stored up as latent energy in the mass he has raised, and which, if expended or given back sud- denly, as in falling, is cap.'iblc of working serious mischief. The mechanism should, therefore, he so constructed that the load, when lifted, shall be sustained independently of the operator, so that should he cease his efforts, or even suddently let go the rope or handles, the load will simply cease to move and will remain suspended. Under no cir- cumstances should the loa<l be permitted to descend by gravity unaided by the controlling hand of the operator. This principle of construction, namely, the control of the load, at all times and under all conditions, by reliable automatic devices, is em- bodied in all of the hoisting appliances described in this work, designed and built by the Yale and Towne Manufacturing Company. Winding-drums or barrels shoidd have a diameter and length such as will enable them to receive the whole length of rope or chain to be hauled in by winding it upon their surface in one coil, without overlapping. In large cranes the load is usually carried upon four, six, or even eight parts of rope or chain, so that the length to be wound up anioimts to four, si.\, or eight times the effective hoist, and the dimensions of the barrel thus bec(jme very large. Moreover, this barrel must either be caused to travel longitudinally on its shaft, so that the rope or chain as it leads off shall be alwa_ys in the center of the crane and hoisting mechanism (which methixl of construction involves a serious complication and greatl)' widens the space occupied by the gearing), or the rope or chain, as it vmcoils, be permitted to vary in position from one end to the other of the barrel, in which ca.se it is nearly o>it of center, thus Inducing objectionable lateral strains and causing greater friction and wear. Fig. 1 shows a simple arrangement of gears and crank, winding the lifting rope on drum or cylinder. It may be easily fasteneil on any post, or part of a building, or used in con- nection with a crane as shown. t'haiu-wheels require a width only slightly greater than a single part of the ch.ain. and a diameter merely snthcient to give the proper engagement with it, so that both dimensions become much smaller than in a winding-barrel, and the total sjiace occu- pied is l)ut a small fraction of that required for the latter device. The chain-irhifl is fixed in direct line witii the chain, and all lateral strains are avoided, while the flat bearings afforded for the chain by the pockets preserve the shape of the links and protect them from bending strains. The slack chain, after passing over the wheel, falls into a proper receptacle below. From this anahsis of the facts is deduced the proposition that chains, if well maile, constitute the iiest form of flexible <(ird for sustairdng the load in a crane, anil that a well construcli'd rlitiin-irhnl Ois contradistiuLniislic-cl from a winiling-barrelj is the- best form of device for hauling in and paying out the chain ; and, theri'fore. that thi-best method of crane construction involves the use of these two elements. When using the chain-wheel system, great effort must be nuide to secure chains of perfectly uniform pitch. Chain-making is one of the few remaining manual trades in which modern machinery has not to[a greater or less extent displaced tin- skill of the individual workman. .Many atteinpts have been made to jjroduci; chains by machinery, and allhoitgh simie success has been attained, no nuichine-made chain has yet been produced having sufficient relia- bility and tmiforuuty of quality to adapt it to use in cranes. The all-important opc^ration in chain-mii- king is the process of w<0<ling the links, and in this the personal element seems indispensable to a per- fect result, no machine, however perfect, taking the place of the skill and intelligence of the workman. As used in the Weston cranes, the pitch-chains of the smaller sizes are made entirely of Norway iron, while for the larger sizes either the Xorway iron or American iron of high elasticity and rluctility, is used. Each link is forged and welded with great Fig. 2. care, and much more time and labor is expended on this part of the work than is the case with common chain. All of this pitch-chain is made under a j patented process, which consists in forging the chain slightly under pitch, after which it is tirst cleaned and brightened by " rattling," and then stretched in a special machine to the final gauge or pitch. The lirst process causes the several links to come into more perfect contact or bearing by remov- ing the scale and other slight asperities from th-dr surfaces. The second process assists in bringing their adjacent surfaces into closer contact, tends to strengthen the sides of the links, and gives the iron a sliglit initial set by straining it to a degree some- what greater than that which will be caused by the load which it is intended to ciirry. The final step in the process is a carefid and rigid inspection of each link of the chain and the removal of any which are at all imperfect. As a result of this treatment, a chain is obtained which is accurately uniform in HOISTING APPARATUS. 40 HOISTING APPARATUS. pitch, and which, when used within tlie intended limit of load, will not stretch or alter its pitch. It is l)elieved that the chain thus produced is more perfect and reliable than any made heretofore. In determining tlie diameter of iron for the several sizes of chain, those sizes ha%'e been adopted which will limit the stress upon the liuks of the chain to a ma.ximum of from 9,000 to 10,000 lbs. per square inch of cross-section when carrying the full load. As the pitch-chain was designed primarilyforu.se in the Weston Differential Pullej'-blocks, in which the lc«id is always carried upon two parts of chain, the nominal capacity of the several sizes indicates in each case the maximum load intended to be carried upon two jmrts of the chain. A single part is, of course, capable of carryiug a load of one-half the amount given in the "table. The following table gives the dimensions of the several sizes of the pitch- chain above described. Nom'al cap'y,Tons* * A J. 4 1 \^ 2 3 7 4 5 e 8 H 10 Diam. iron, inch's... ♦The upper line indicfites tlie load which can be safely carried on two parts of the chain, i.e., as used in a one-sheave taciile- block. Each part of the chain thus carries one-half ot the total load. If the load is to be carried by a single chain, select a chain of a nominal capacity of twice the intended load. Fig. 2 gives a sectional view of a double-chain screw hoisting-machine. JIauy advantages accrue from the use of worm- of automatic brakes where necessary. In well pro- portioned worm-gearing with cut teeth, friction can- not be relied upon to hold a suspended load from running down, but a very moderate lirake resistance applied to the worm-shaft will accomplish this re- sult. If a load suspended through a train of spur- gearing be allowed to rim down, it will do so at an accelerating velocity approximating to that of a fall- ing body. With the worm-gearing, however, very little acceleration takes place after certain speed has been attained, and gearing of this kind thus be- comes a safet}' device which prevents undue accel- eration of the load even when running free, and is a most valuable means of preventing accidents, both to the mechanism and to those operating it. The ordinary ratchet-wheel is a disc with teeth or indentations on its periphery, and in practice it is employed in combination with a pawl or a dog ar- ranged to engage with its teeth in such a manner that the ratchet-wheel, being attached to a rotating shaft, is entirelj' free to revolve in one direction, but, by the action of the pawl, is prevented from rotation in the contrar}' direction. Thus arranged it is generally attached to the primary shaft of a winch, or other hoisting-gear, so that, while it op- poses no resistance to rotation of the shaft in the direction necessary for hoisting, it effectively pre- vents motion in the contrary direction. When it is desired to lower the load the pawl Jis thrown out of engagement with the ratchet-wheel, and the load then lowered b}- turning the cranks backward, or by letting go of the cranks and controlling the descent of the load by a brake applied to the shaft . Both of these arrangements are dangerous, and Fig. 3. gearing in the construction of lioi.sting machinery. I are productive of serious accidents. Where lower- Among these may be mentioned its compactness as | ing is elfected by turning the cranks backward with compared with spur-gearing, the ability to operate i the pressure due to the load upon them, it freiiueutly shafts at right angles to each other without resort j hai)pens that a heavy load overcomes the operator, to bevel gears, and great facility in the ai)plication ! in which case the cranks begin to revolve with great HOLD. 41 HOLDFASTS. violiiicc, unci often strike the opi/rator liefore he ciin esciipi; from their readi. WiifTO a luakc is used, there is less (l!ini.'er, hut even the safe descent of the Iniiil is eontinirent upon the skill with wliich the lirake is used, and any lack cjf skill or watchfulness will result in a rapid descent of the load. In tlii.s ease, it the motion is not checked the load may de- scend so rapidly as to cause dauiaire. wliile if its motion l)e suddenly arrested hy the brake, the Hhock and strain thereby induced are apt to diininge tlie crane. A friction ratchet is one in which the action of friction is sulislituted for the teeth and jiawl of the coinnion ratchet, so that the retaininir action of the ratchet will lake place instantly and in all |)iisitions. A safety ratchet may be delined as one in which loweriivi: of the loud is ell'ecled liy reversini.' the motion of the shaft to which the rat<'het is attached without any disentcajrement of the pawl or ilssul»<ti- tule, the construction beini; such that so loni; as this backward motion is continued the load will descend, but that when it is discontinued the load will auto- matically come to rest, from which it follows that with a safety ratchet the craidis or handles of a hoistiniT-machine may be "let iro " .Mt any time, eitJier in hoistini: or in lowerintc, the ratcliet there- upon aulomatieally holdini; tlie load suspendeil and jireventin;; " riuuiina: down" or descent of the load. Tlie jjreat desirability of so important a result luiB lomc been conceded, but most of the devices liere- tofore invented for its accomplishment have been so <omplicate(l, or so uucertaui in action, as to find lit- Ui- favor. In cranes operated by power one or more clutches are essential to the convenient oiK-ration of the nieclianism. Experience has demoiLstrated that the and wear upon keys and feathers, which i» a serious defect in most hoistinK-cn^^ines, cuusiug Ilie shafts to split at key-way. This engine is wHl suited for all liard duty, such as pile-driving, haiding logs, bridge-building, and iriany other kinds of' work where engines are liable to be broken by suiiden strains. The clutch can be set so as to do'thework Uie ropes are safe at. and then will slip, and save Uie engine and gearing from breaking. The motion to operate the clutch is ea.sy and natural, and with a powerful straji-brake we can hold or lower care- fully any load we can hoist. See Crunen, Differen- tiiil Pi(Ufy.liliirk, and Menhnnicnl M/meuvem. HOLD.— A plaeeof security ; a fortified place, fort, or castle. Often called a stronghold. The expres- sion tn hiild. isfretpieutly employed to mean the fact of being in military possession of anyplace: while tnlidld nut means to maintain any place, ground, etc., against an enemy. HOLDALL.— A iiortable ease for holding small ar- ticles recjuired by soldiers. Leather bags or cases are generally used for carrying implements for the equipment of guns, and are known as " of!" and " near." Each has links at the back for Iiangini; it on the saddle. HOLDFASTS,— The most essential subjects to be considi nd before any heavy weight is moved or sus- pended, are the nature and"eondition of the securing points, together with the strain that will be Ijrouglil on them. Natural holdfasts— such as the piers of casemates, pintles for guns of position, trees, etc.— mjiy freciuently be found, around which straps may be placed. In such eases all corners should l)e jiro- tected by wood, or the rojie itself ptnxuhtl to ])revenl chafmg. In places where holdfasts can lie driven or sunk, the oriliiiary picket-post can be made use of, Fi;:. 1. Fig. a. Fig. .3. Fig. 4. best and most reliable clutch for this jxirpose is that invented and patented by Jlr. TlionKis A. Westou, M. E.. and lirst fully descriljed in a paper read by him before the British Institution of Mechanical Engineers. The essential basis of the Westou clutch or coupling consists of two series of friction discs arranged alternately with eacli other upon a common axis, one series being carried by one shaft, and the other series connected to the other shaft or wheel which is required to be coupled with the first shaft. The great advantage arising from this alternate ar- rangement of the discs is that the frictional effect of anypressure applied to coiqile them is repeated as many times as there are discs in the two series, that is. the number of all the discs is a cimstant multi- plier for the friction produced between a single pair of the rubbing surfaces by any given pressure. A most perfect and an effective hoistiug-cngiuc, made by Messrs. Frisbie &, Co., of Philadelphia, is represented in Fig. 3. A distinctive feature of this engine is the manner of eonnectinir the spur-gearing to fri>ti'rii,-d?->im!i by bolting directly to the rim of the drum. This does away with all torsion of the shaft F)L'. .5. I but only when light weights have to be dealt with. In scouring to a iioldfast from which it may become ! necessary to ease off, at least one complete turn must be taken before making fast ; otherwise, when the strain is on it, it is difficult to cast off. Precise rides cannot be laid down as to the description of holdfast best suited for particular operations, but it sliould be liorne in mind that it will .save much time and trouble to make it iu the first instance con- siderably more secure than seems to be absolutely ' necessary, as when a holdfast once liegins to sive, it is difficult to strengthen it. Whatever holSfast niay be used, the strain should be taken by the eu- i tire structure at once : otherwise it might srive way in detail when it would not do so as aVhole. The drawings represent some of the methods of custom- ary holdfasts, using pickets, anchors, heavy cannon, etc. When the strain to be sustained is very sjreat. tlie holdfast shown in Fig. 2, may be used to ad- I vantage : a h c d h ti trench from ten to fifteen feet long and two to four feet in width and depth. It is dug in a direction perpendicular to the strain. Several heavy stakes are driven into the trench far HOLLOW BALLS. 42 HOLY SEPULCHEK. eaouffh from the side to luimit plauks lieiug placed between them and the earth. A heavy beam, with the bight of a chain around it, is then laid on at the bottom of the irench against the stakes, the ends of the cliain being brought up between tlie planks along a trench, rising gradually to the surface so that there will be no tendency to lift the beam up when the strain is on it. The whole trench is then tilled in and rammed. HOLLOW-BALLS.— In military pjTotechny, many varieties of balls are made, diffe-iug in purpose from bomb-shells, but, like them, tilled with ignitible composition. They are used either to give light, to produce very dense smoke, or to diffuse a suf- focating odor. Some of them, althougli designated bails, are not globular in shape. IJght-hnUn consist of canvas stretched over a skeletou-frame, and painted ; the frame is filled with a composition of saltpeter, sulphur, resin, and linseed-oil, rammed down hard ; and is provided with a fuse, the length of which determines the time that will elapse before the composition ignites. These light-balls weigh from 5 lbs. to 70 lbs. each, according to their size. Tliey are intended to give out a brilliant light, which may reveal the operations of the enemy, during night, at a siege or iu the field. Smoke-bulls are made of several thicknesses of paper, shaped by means of a globular core or a mould. They are fill- ed with gunpowder, saltpeter, powdered sea-coal, Swedish-pitch, and tallow; and are calculated, after being fired oflf, to send out a dense smoke for nearly half an hour, in order to blind or incommode the enemv. Stiiik-hdlh are filled with a composi- tion which, when ignited, diffuses an odor almost intolerable. Some of the contrivances of Captain Norton and other inventors at the present day, are extensions of the same principle as these inflam- mable balls. It may here be added, that most of these projectiles, esp"ecially light-balls, and smoke- balls, are fired from mortars rather than from guns. See Pyrotecliny. HOLLOW OF THE AKM.— An expression for the slight inclination of the a.xle-tree-arms downwards (when the wheels have dish), so that the lowest spoke of each wlieel may be vertical. HOLLOW PROJECTILES.— Under the head of Hol- low Projectiles are included shells for guns, howit- zers, and mortars. Tliese are usually made of cast- iron, and are classified according to the diameter of the l)ore of the piece.or their weight. A shell is a hollow' projectile filled with gunpow- der, which is ignited by a fuse at the reiiuired mo- ment, the bursting of the shell causing destruction by its explosive force and by the fragments and, if the object be combustible, by setting it on fire. The thickness of metal must be such that the shell may contain as large a bursting charge as possible, but that it be strong enough to withstand the shock of the discharge within the bore of the gun. The thickness of metal in a spherical shell is about one- sixth of the diameter, and the weight of the shell is about tliree-fourths that of the solid shot of the same calilier. The shell of a rifle-gun being elongated, is, by giving it a greater length than the shot, brought up to the same length as the latter. ^Mortar-shells are fired from mortars at high angles, being intended to fall upon and set fire to buildings, vessels, or other (•om1)Ustible constructions; to de- stroy earthworks, or by their great penetration be- fore bursting, to explode magazines protected from other projectiles. Tliey are fitted with two liniH. placed one on each side of the fuze-hole, which serve for attaching a pair of ditll-honkti. The fuze- holes of mortar-shells are larger in diameter than those of other common shells, and I hey arc not counter-Slink or boucbed with composition. See l'i-ij>i-tJlix and .S//,,'/.v. HOLLOW REVETMENT.— AVhen arches are con- structed from one counterfort to the ne.\t, tlie name /ujlloin or wiinter-atvlied revetment is given to the disposition, which is both excellent and economical for hi^li scarps. HOLLOW SQUARE.— The form in which a body of foot is drawn u]) with an empty space in tiie middle for the colors, drums, baggage, etc. A body of troops formed into a squad to resist the charge of cavalry on critical occasions. HOLLOW TOWER.— A rounding made of the re- mainder of two brisures, to join the curtain to che orillou, where the small shot are placed, that they may not be so much exposed to the view of the enemy. HOLSTER.— The leather case which holds the pis- tol. Holsters are either worn on the belts, or are affixed to the pommels of the saddles. In the latter instance, they are frequently covered with wool or fur, to prevent injury to the riders in the event of being thrown forward upon them. The drawing shows the form and construction of the regulation holster. In the English service. Lancers and Kon- commissioned Officers of cavalry have two bolsters attached to the front part of their saddles. Wallets have been introduced iu lieu of holsters for the Stalf and certain rciriments of the service. HOLY ALLIANCE.- A league formed after the fall of Napoleon by the Sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, nominally to regulate the relations of the States of Christendom by the principles of Christian Charity, but really to preserve the power and influence of the existing Dynasties. .Alost of the other European Rulers acceded to it, and the treaty was formerly made public in the Frnnkford Journnl, February 2, 181(3. It was in virtue of this league that Austria, in 1831, crushed tlie Revolutions in Naples and Piedmont, and that France, in 1823, restored Absolutism in Spain. Subsequently, both France and England seceded, after which it became a mere nominU umbra. A special article of the treaty excluded forever the memliers of the Bona- parte Family from anv European throne. HOLY LEAGUES.— The name ajiplied to certain l^olitical alliances iu Eurojje ; the jirincipid are as follows: 1. In l.ill, between the Pope, Spain, and Venice, the object being to expel the French from Italy. 3. In 1538, lietween Charles V. and the Roman Catholic Princes of Germany in opposition to the league of Schmalkend. 3. In 1.571, the Pope, Spain, and Venice against the Turks. 4. Of the Guise family, tlie Pope, Spain, and tlie French Par- liament against the Huguenots. 5. In lliO!), lietween the Pojie and the Roman Catholic States of Swabia and Bavaria, (i. In 1()84, of Poland, Germany, and Venice airaiiist the Turks. HOLY SEPULCHER.— The Knights of the Holy Sepulcbcr ((iiislituled an Order oif Knighthood insti- tuted, jirobably, by Pojie Alexander VI., for the guardianship of the Holy Scpnlcher, and the relief and iirolcction of iiilgrims. Tlie Pope was origi- nally tlie (Jraiid-inasler, but '.le suliseqiiently ceded his riiilits to the Guardian Father of the Holy Scp- nlcher. The Kniglits must, by the rules of the Order, be all of noble descent; they were bound to HOLY WATER SPRINKtEE. 43 HOUINO PIGEON liwir muss iliiily, to li^lit, to live, nnil to dir for the Clirisliaii faith, etc. In return for these (hilies, Ihi' Kni'j;hls hiiil the most imiisiml and extraordinary privih'iies conferred upon them: tiiey were e.\em]il from taxation, eonid inarrv, and yet possess ehnreli prnpiTty, lenilimize liaslards, an<l ent down and liiuy the liodies of eriminuls who had lieen lniiit;ed. On the recapture of .(erusalem l)y tlie Tnrl<s, tlie Kni^dils retired into Italy, and settled at Perugia. After a temporary union with the Hospitalers, the Order was reconstructed in 1S14 both in France and in Poland, and is still in existence within a vi'ry small circle of Ivninhls electeil by the (Juardian Fa- ther from the most respectable pilgrims who come to .liTUsaleni. HOLY WATER SPRINKLER —A name applied to thi- Jliiil, l)oth from its sha])e anil from the drops of blood which started from those u])on whom it was usc'd. HOMAGE. — The service or a show of respect due from .a kniglil or vassal tohis Lord in feudal times. The word is derive<l from the form of expression used in doin^ the service, whicli was — ji" ili riiijue eoKtn /iimw — f become your man. Since the abolition of tenures, the word has no siil)stantial legal meaning in the law of England, except in a limited sense as to copyhokLs, to denote the kind of acknowledgment made by a tenant to the Lord of the Manor. The Ho- mage ,Iury consisted of the tenants who did Inmiage, and their presence was necessary to attest some acts. IliiiiKijiiiiiii ri'ddcre was the expression, now obsolete, signifying a solem renunciation of homage or fealty to the Lord, and a detiauce of him. The word ho- mage is not used in Scotch law. though the feudal system is not obsolete in Scotland in many otlier re- pects. HOME. — In artillery, tlie term used to express the ]iosition of a sliot when the gun is loaded. Thus, " Is the shot well lumie?" is a common expression amongst artillerymen. HOMICIDE. — The killing of one human being by another either innocently or feloniously. To say that there has been a iKjmicide does not necessarily imply tliat a crime has been committed : for though every murder is a homicide, every homicide is not a miinler. The law permits a man to kill an- other in self-defense when his own life is as- sailed or threatened ; but the danger must be real, or in good faith and for sound reasons deemed so by the person threatened. A man may lawfully kill another, after due warning, in defense of his property, or to prevent the escape of one wlio has committed felony. An Officer of Justice charged with tlie duty of arresting a criminal or with tlie performance of any other lawful act, may kill a person who resists or attempts to thwart him liy force. A person charged with felony, seeking to es- cape after arrest or any one Heeing to avoid cap- ture, may be lawfully killed by an officer if he can- not otherwise be taken, A person engaged in com- mitting a felony may be lawfully killed by an eye- witness if there be no other way of preventing ihe crime. The keeper of a prison may, if necessary, prevent the escape of a prisoner by taking his life. In all such cases, however, it must appear that the killing was resorted to as a last alternative. Justi- fiable homicide is the term applied by law iu all such cases. Where one kills another by accident, without any intention to do him injury, and while exercising a proper degree of caution, the law deems it an ex- cusable homicide ; as, for example, when a man driving in the highway in the darkness runs over and kills another without knowing it, or, discover- ing the danger, has yet no time of power to avert the calamity. The line between justifiable and ex- ou.salile homicide is vague and, in a legal sense, not important, since neither the one or the otherexposes a man to punishment. In some of the States of the Union no distinction is made between them. HOMING PIGEON.— The result of tlie investigation into till; i)raclicability of using pigeons to curry mes- sages in time of war is not so encouraging as was hoped. Althoutrh there are instgnces wdien they have been usi-d to great advantagi', and when they have been the only means of communication, there seem to he obstacles to their certain and systematic u.se in the time of actual hostilities. It is a fact that, despite tlie greatest care in training, tlie iiigcon sometimes fails at the critical moment. When il succeeds, however, the stake is generally very great. To attain one success it may be worth while to suf- fer many failures. For ,this reason. perhai)s, those Nations who devote most time and money to the perfecting of their military systems, still .system- atically train lari^e numbers of pigeons for use in war. When Paris was about to be besieged in 1870, the pigeon-fanciers in that city suggested to the military authorities that the pigeons within the city limits be sent out, and that others from the pro- vinces be sent into the city. The latter proposition was acted upon, but the former was not, until bal- loons were used, when there was an opportunity to send out pigeons in the balloons, it being intended that the birds sliould return with mes.sages. Pigeons had been declared contraliand of war early in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. There was taken out of Paris, in l)alloons. 303 pigeons. Of this numlier, fifty-seven only returneil. 'f hese bore letters, photo- graphed in finest characters upon scraps of paper so minute that 300 of them weighed only one-eii:litli of a grain. Newspapers, reduced Ijy piiotography to micro.scopical characters, were carried by these pigeons. The magic-lantern was made use of to en- large the letters, wdiich, thrown ui)ou a prepared surface, were read by the public. These .'57 birds were not the only ones sent into Paris during the siege. A pigeon post service was established at Tours, for the purpo.se of conveying messages into the Capitol. The regular rates for this service made it possible for one bird to carry §.500 worth of de- spatches, but. during the latter days of the siege, the Ciermans introduced trained hawks that were used to destroy the pigeons. These instances show suf- ficiently, that while the pigeon has been used for carrying messages, many causes — some understood and others not understood — unite to make them un- certain and untrustworthy means of communication. The reason why the pigeon seeks its home, the fact that makes possible its use a carrier, has never been satisfactorily given, and its discussion involves the most interesting incjuiry concerning the bird. Some have believed the action of the bird due to in- stinct, others to training, while one of the most ex- perienced and practical French fanciers has recently advanced the theory that the pigeon is guided iu its flight I.iy currents of electricity in the air. or by other atmospheric influences ; others, again, differing from all these, believe that instinct, intelligence, and care- ful training, combined, account for the action of the birds. What is instinct ? To this there may be many answers. l)ut when considered in connection with the flight of liirds. instinct is illustrated by the stork, which, traveling only at night, flies North in the spring and returns in the fall. Swallows and wild geese, and many other birds, move North and HOMME D'ABMES. 44 HOMME D'ABMES. South at the same seasons. They do not. however, confine all their movements to tlie night-time. All these move by what we term instinct. Whatever that may be, it is all-powerful in its influence on the birds. "But it is not so with the homins pigeon. Experience shows that the flight of that bird is not certain unless it has been trained, and unless atmos- pheric conditions are favorable to its flight. Not- withstanding this, however, there are sometimes cir- cumstances that give color to the theory that the bird flies b_v instinct alone. The message should be adjusted to the middle feather of the'tail, tirst shaving both sides to within an inch of the end ; then lasli the message, with waxed silk, lirmly, so that the bird cannot pick it off. One person must" hold the bird to prevent it from fluttering while another attaches the message. Mes- sages should be written with lead pencil (ink runs if wet) on a very flne tissue or manifold paper, and folded very tight. Messages should be sent off on several birds, and if of very great importance, on ten or fifteen, so that some will be sure to reach the fort. The message on the miildle feather of the tail will not annoy the bird, for when he is at rest it folds on top. It will not do to tie the message on the legs, as it is necessary for the bird, in flving, to hide the feet in the breast feathers so as not to offer a resist- ance to the air. Fig. 1 shows the best manner of holding the pigeon, when attaching the message, or when handling the bird for other purposes. There are numerous varieties of homing pigeons remarkable for their powers of flight and^ their at- tachment to the home in which they have been reared and first flown. Prominent amongst these are the Dragon, the well-known Hying Tumbler, and the Skimmer, or a mongrel race between these two breeds. Among the pure breeds that can be flown good distances may be mentifmed that called the iwl pigeon. But the varieties in which this homing facultyis developed to the highest degree is unques^ tionably the different races of Belgian birds, which are termed in England l)_v the general name of Ant- werps, and in Belgium are known as Smerles, Cumu- Itts. Demi Bees, etc. Of these varieties the Smerles are the most important. They are rather small birds, and kiok very much as if they liad been originallv lired from a rather coarse lilue Owl ]iigeon, crossell with a Blue Hock. The head is arched and tlie skvdl capacious, indicating a full development of brain, and offering a striking contrast to tlie flat narrow skull of the English fancy Carrier. The most strik- ing characteristic of these birds is the firmness and great breadth of the flight feathers of the wings. These overlap eacli other to a great extent, ami afford a strong firm wing wilh which the flight is urged. The keel of the lireast-bone is deeji and well covered with strong muscles ; and tliere is altogether an ab- sence of any ofl'al or large develo])ment of any part not used in flight. Of all the pigeon-tribe the Pouter, shown in Fig. 2, in appearance perhaps the most strange, is the furtherest removed from the ancient dove or common typical pigeon of the universe. Tliis remarkalile variety of our domesticated pigeon seems to be the extreme, the very utmost point, the greatest stretch of latitude to which the fertile imagination of man can be carried, or, indeed, to which the almost in- exhaustible resources of nature might be expected to sport, or culture lie extended. Here we have a pigeon which is a pigeon, but does not look like a pigeon — an estimable variety whose merits have been extolled b.y its admirers — a kind whose peculi- arities are the cause of frequent surprise, doubt, and even ridicide. There are nine recognized kinds, or rather sub-varieties of the Pouter, viz.: black, red, yellow, blue, silver, mealy, creamy, blue-checkered, and white. The Jacobin shown in Fig. 3, is a most popular variety, and its fanciers number some of the most earnest and painstaking breeders. It, as a bird, has proved to be a great lioue of contention, and the va- rious contestants have held so firmlj- to their opin- Fifi. 3. ions and objections that for a long time there existed several types. These differences the National Peris- terouic Societj- finally arranged. Twenty years ago the name was not known : it is an innovation and an eyesore to those who have seen the inire-bred bird. The home of the pigeon should be as cons])icii- ous as possible. Notwithstanding the fact that the flag at posts will geuerallv make the home of the birds in the military service noticeable at a long dis- tance, it is suggested that when it is possible the^flag- staff be surmounted bj- a large spherical reflector, or a large white ball. That their arrival from a voyage may lie quickly known, they should announce them- selves. This could be arranged by connecting, liy means of a light wire, the door of their house or loft through which the}' enter with a bell in a room that is to lie habitually occupied. The wire need only be attached when messengers are expected. It there- fore appears the Medical Department at posts should have charge of the pigeons in the military service, and that tlieir loft be near the hospital. Not only will they then be most likely to receive constant care, but judicious attention: and in return maybe ex- pected to interest and to lie a direct lienefit to tl e Iiatients in hospital. Although it is important to send the same message by several birds, they sliould not lie sent off togetlier, but tossed up at intervals of five or ten minutes. When thrown off together, especially if in good condition, they sometimes play and loilcr. Sci' ('nrritr-piginn. HOMME D'ARMES.— A military phrase among the French, signifying' ;i gi'iillemen or cavalier who be- longed to one of the old companies., who was arm- ed Cap-a-pie. and always fought on horseback. In ancient times, every man of this description was ac- companied by two horsemen indepeudeully of his HOMOGENEOUS, 45 H0N0B8 PAIS BY X£0OF8. scrvimts. One of lliu nionntfil attcinliiiits wiiH iirined Willi tlic; criisM-ljow, mid the dilicr willi n coniiiinii l)(i\v nr 11 lHitU(.--a.\c ; so llml, 100 Jloiniiim d'Ariiu-K coiiip iscd a body of 800 liorsc. Il was a spccicH (if cavalry wliicli fxislcd from the rt-if^n of Louis XI.. iiiiiii till' rci^ii of IIiMiry II. HOMOGENEOUS.— A term applied to various sub- Hliuiecs to denote that they eoiisisl of similar parts, or of parts of the same nature and kind ; thus, the suhstaiiec of a solid shot may lie said to be homo- geneous when the metal is of the same density and te.\ture throughout. In any perfectly homogeneous shit, the center of ligure and the center of gravity of the mass are coincident. HONES. — A particular class of stones used for the |)ur|iiise of sharpening all edge-tools and weapons, riiey are usually cut into pieces about a foot in length, and from an inch to two inches thick, and either left sijuare or rounded, according to their inteniled uses. The tinest kind of hones are those called oil-stones: these are hard, compact, and so very silicious that they readily wear down the hard- est steel ; they are varieties of slate, ilerived from the argilhu-eous schists of the paleoz<iic period. The best are those brought from Turkey : Hohemia is also celebrated for its hones ; and very e.vcellcnt ones are discovered in Persia, in the Ilartz Jlountains, in Syria, in America, Spain, Peru, and in Siberia. In Great Britain several localities yield hone-stones of e.xcellenl quality, and none better than the cele- brat<'d Water-of-Ayr stone, whicli is much used for polishing copper-plates, as well as for liones. The Welsh oil-st(me or Idwall stone, and llu' cutler's greenstone, are olitained from Snowilon in Wales: and in the neighborhood of Tavistock the Devon- shire oil-stones are procured. Tlie hones used for sharpening scytlies, etc., are usually made of coarse- grsiined sandstone. HONEYCOMBS.— Flaws or defects in guns resem- bling the cells made by bees, worked in the metal Uirousjh the action of exploded gun powder. They sprea 1 rapidly, and with continuous tiring, so(m eat into the metal to such an extent as to render the fiirllier usi' of the gun dangerous. HONORABLE ARTILLERY COMPANY.— The oldest existing volunteer corps in lirilain. Four military bo. lies — the Artillery Cuinpuni/. the SergeiiiiUat- Arnix, the Veomen of the (fiturd, and the Gentle- men, PeiixiiHiern. were established as far back as tlie time of the Tudors; all these organizations still exist, but under greatly altered circumstances. In l.')37. Henry VIII. granted a patent to three jicrsons, appointing them " Overseers of the Scienc<' of Artil- lery," for long-bows, cross-bows, and hand-guns. They were to constitute a guilil or a fraternity for this puriiose, with power to appoint assistants and successors, to purchase lands, and to use a common seal; and their formal otHcial name became "The JIasters. Ilulers, and Commonalty of the Fraternity or Guild of Artillery of Long-bows, Cross-bows, and Hand-guns." The freemen of the guild or company were empowered to keep arms, and exerci.se them- selves in shooting. In 1(50.1 a patent was granted l)y James L, intended chietly to effect the preserva- tion of the shooting and praci icing grounds around London for the Artillery Company. In l(i$5 a Com- mission was appointed by Clmrles L, still further to insure this oliject. In 1(!38 the Corporation of the City of Loudon presented to the company the plot of ground ever since called tlie .\rtillery Ground, near Moortields, as a Held for military exercise. Royal Princes frequently enrolled themselves as members of the Company, usually as '■ Captain General." In 171!), George I. issued an order that all commission and stall officers of the City Train-bands (a metro- politan niilitia) shoidd become members of the Artillery Company, and exercise with the other members at all convenient times. The word " artil- lery " hail heretofore been considereci as apiilyiug to bows and arrows as well as to tireanns : but the members of the Company, like other marksmen, had also abandoned arcliery, without, however, making any change in their designation. In a summons to the Company to meet for exercise on a particular day in IDHS, it is said : ■"Those genlleinen that on that day hanille muskets are desired to take care that their arms are clean and well lixed, and that they bring with them line dry powili'r, and even matcli." The Company, like many other city guilds, has nearly outliveil its original purpose. In 1780, when the "Lord George (iordoii riols " atllicted the me- tropolis, the members of tiie Artillery Comjiany ef- fectually protected the Hank of Kngland : in 1848, wlieu Cliartist riots were apprehended, the Company was (m the alert to render good service if neerled ; and in the spring of 18;')!), when an uneasy feeling l)revailed in Kngland concerning the designs of France, the members polished their arms and lookeil forward to eventualities ; l)ut the Company has never been engaged in an actual warfare with an enemy. The Artillery Company consists of members elected by ballot, who pay one guinea annual sub- scription, and sujiply themselves with dress, amis, and accouterment.s. These payments, together with the rental received from a small amount of real property, constitute the fund out of which the ex- penses are defrayed. The members leani ritle- shooting as well as artillery practice; there are cer- tain days of meeting at Moortields ; and every sum- mer there are certain days of drill and jjractice at Seaford. The Corps comprises six infantry com- panies, a grenadier company, a light-infantry com- pany, a ritie company, and an artillery company. Until 1.84!), the members elected their own officers; but since that year the Crown has apijointed them on the nomination of the Lieutenancy of the City of London. The Lieutenant-colonel appoints the Non-coinmissioiied Otticers. See Artillery f'i/rp«. HONORS OF WAR.— The term employed to express the privileges allowed to a garrison surrendering, cither in consideration of a brave defense, or from some other cause. Many degrees of honor may bs paid to a vanquished enemy, according to the gen- erosity or judgment of the victorious Commander- in-Chief. In some cases, the gan'ison is allowed to inarcli out with all its arms, drums beating, colors flying, etc. : at another time, the conquered force will only be permitted to advance silently to the front of their works, there to ground or pile arms, and then, facing about, to return to their lines as prisoners of war. Occasionally, the capitulation will provide that the garrison shall deposit their arms and warlike stores at some specified spot, and then march on to their own territory on [jarole of not serving during the existing war against the vic- tors or their allies. HONORS PAID BY TROOPS.— The following officers are received with standards and colors dropping, the officers and troops saluting, and the bands, trum- pets, or lield-music jilaying, as is indicated in each case: \. The President. Slusic : " The President's March." 2. The General Commanding-in-Chief. Music: "The General's March." 3. The Lieuten- ant-general. Trumpets sounding the flourishes, or drums beating the ruffles. 4. A Major-general. Two flourishes, or two ruffles. .5. A Brigadier- general. One flourish, or one ruffle. Officers of \ the Navy are received with the honors due their assimilated rank, which is as follows : Admiral, General ; Vice admiral, Lieutenant-General ; Rear admiral, Jlajor-general ; Commodore. Brigadier- general ; Captain. Colonel ; Commander, Lieuten- ant-colonel ; Lieutenant-commander, Major ; Lieu- tenant. Captain: Master. First Lieutenant. : Ensign, Second Lieutenant. Officers of Marines, and Officers of Volunteers and Militia in the service of the L'nited States, receive the honors due to their rela- tive rank. To the Vice President, the members of the Cabinet, the Chief Justice, the President of the Senate, the Speaker of the House of Representatives HOOD. 4G HOOKS. of the Unitcil States, aud to Governors, within their respective States aud Territories, the same )ionor.s are paid as to a General Commauding-in-Chief . Amer- ican aud Foreign Euvo.ys or i\Iiuisters are received witli tlie compliments due to a Lieutenant-general. Officers of a foreign service are complimented with the honors due to'their rank. The national or regi- mental colors passing a guard or other armed body are saluted, the trumpets sounding, and the drums beating a march. No honors are paid when troops are tn route, on marches, or in trenches ; aud no salute is rendered when marching in double time, at trot or gallop. The Commanding Officer is saluted by all dommissioned Officers in command of troops or detachments. Courtesy among military men is indispeusal.ile to discipline ; respect to superiors is not confined to obedience on duty, but extended on all occasions. All officers salute each other on meeting, and in making or receiving official reports. When under arms, fhe salute is made with the sword or saber, if drawn ; otherwise with the hand. A mounted officer dismounts Ijefore addressing a superior not mounted. In all cases the junior first'salutes. On official oc- casions officers when under arms indoors, do not im- cover, but they salute with the sword or hand, ac- cording as the sword is drawn or in the scabbard -, when indoors and not vmder arms they uncover and stand at attention, but do not salute. A Non-com- missioned Officer or private in command of a detach- ment without arms salutes all officers with the hand. If the detachment be on foot, and armed with the rifle or carbine, he brings the pieces to a carry, and salutes as prescribed for'a Sergeant. The Command- ing Officer is saluted Ijy all Commissioned Officers in command of troops or detachments. The Sergeant'K Salute is also used liy privates out of ranks armed with the musket, and by sentinels in saluting all of- ficers not entitled to a present. Whenever a Non- commissioned Officer or soldier without arms passes an officer, he salutes him, using the hand farthest from the officer. A Non-conunissioned Officer or soldier being seated, and without particular occupa- tion, rises on the approach of an officer, faces toward him and salutes ; if standing, he faces toward the officer for the same purpose. If the parties remain in the same place or on the same ground, such com- pliments are not repeated. If actuallj- at work, soldiers do not cease it to salute an officer unless ad- dressed by liim. A Nou-commissoned C)fflcer, or soldier, with musket or drawn sword, makes the pre- scribed salute witli the musket or sword before ad- dressing an officer ; he also makes the same salute after receiving the reply. A Non-commissioned Of- £Ecer, or soldier, with sword or bayonet in the scab- bard, and when unarmed, salutes witli the hand. In- doors, a Non-commissioned Officer or snldier, when imarmed, uncovers aud stands at attention, but does not salute ; in all other cases, he salutes as just pre- scribed, without uncovering. A mounted soldier dismounts before addressing an officer not mounted. An officer moimted dismounts Ijefore addressing a superior officer not^nounted. When an officer enters a room wliere there are soldiers, the word ■' dtten- thin " is giveu by some one wlio perceives him, when all rise, remain standing in the position of the soldier, and |)reserve silence until the officer leaves the room ; if at meals, thej' do not rise. Soldiers at all times, and in all situations, \i\\y the same compli- ments to officers of the Army, Navy, and JIarines, and to all officers of tha Volunteers and jMilitia in the service of the United States, as to officers of their own partic\dar regiments and corps. Officers in citizens' dress are saluted in the same manner as when in uniform. Officers will at all times acknowl- edge the courtesies of enlisted men. When return- ing tlie .salute of the enlisted men, officers salute as prescribed in the tactics. When several officers in comiiany are salutetl, all who are entitled In the sa- lute return it. Officers arriving at Head-quarters of a Military Geographical Divisiim, or Deiiartmeut, or of any or- ganized ]\Iilitar_y Command, or at a Milifarj- Post, as soon thereafter as maj- be practicable, call upon the Commander thereof, and, if there be time, register their names in the office of the Assistant Adjutant- general or Adjutant of the command. If the visit- ing officer be senior to the Commander the former may send a card, when it will become the duty of the Commander to make the first call. HOOD, — A term applied to the leather cover for tlie stirrup of a saddle. It is the same as the Span- ish Tiipiidera. HOOF PAD. — A device attached to the hoof of a horse to keep the foot, or the shoe of the foot to which it is attached, from cutting the fellow foot or the fetlock. A device to prevent interfering. HOOFS. — The healthy soundness of the horse's foot is mainly preserved b}' permitting it to grow un- injured by the rasp and knife (see Hokse-shoeing), whilst its toughness is secured, and undue drjTiess and evaporation is prevented, b}' smearing daily the crust, sole, aud frog -with a little glycerine, or a mi.\ture made by melting together a quarter of a pound each of tar, honey, beeswa.x, and glycerine, with a pound of lard. Softness and 1>rittleness of the hoof, which are fruitful sources of cracks aud corns, may be remedied by the regular use of such dressings, by placing the feet for several hours daily in thick woolen swabs, kept cool and moist l.iy frequent applications of cold water, and by en- couraging a more healthy growth of horn by occa- sional mild blisters round the corouarj- band. Cracks, or sand-cracks, as the)' are termed, mostly occur amongst horses much upon the road, cause lameness and constitute unsoundness. When serious and re- cent, poulticing, thinning away of the crust about the crack, and perfect rest are essential. After the earlier heat aud tenderness are removed, a hot iron should be drawn at right angles to the crack, lioth above and fjelow, so as to separate the diseased fnim the sound horn. Waxed thread or fine wire should be wound round the hoof, and a sound growth of horn stimulated Ijy a blister round the coronet. HOOKS. — A small liut important element of the suspending apparatus of a crane or hoisting-machine is the hook which terminates it, and by which the hoisting mechanism is attached to or is connected with the load to be lifted. Investigation has shown that the strains developed in hooks are of an ex- ceedinglj- complex character, and the determiuatioQ of the correct proportions of the several parts was only reached, after much study and discussion, by means of mathematical calculations of much in- tricac}' aud liased upou the results of numerous ex- periments. Without undertaking here to disclose the intermediate steps of the investigation, we will simply give the final results in the form of the work- ing formula;. The drawing represents, to a scale of one-sixth natural size, a .5-ton hook of the dimensions and shape determined by the following formuhc, which give the dimensions of the several parts of hooks of capacities from 3.50 lbs. (or oMe-eiiihth of a ton) up to 20,000 lbs. (or 10 tons). For liooks of larger sizes the fonnuUe become slightly difTerent, the general proportions, however, remaining the same. For economy of manufacture each size of hook is made from some regular commercial size of round-iron. The basis, or initial point, in each case is, therefore, the size of iron of which the hook is to lie made, which is indicated liy the dimeusion. A, in the diagram. The diineusion. D, is arl)itrarily as- sumed. The other dimensions, as given by the formula', are those wliich, while preserving a pro- per bearing-face on the interior of the liook for the ropes or chains which may be passed through it, give the greatest resistance to spreading aud to ultimate rupture, which the amount of inaterial in the original bar admits of. The symbol .i is used in the forniulie to indicate the nominal ciipiicity of HOOK SWIVEL. 47 HOOFES LIFE SAVING EOCKET. the iKiok ill Idiis of 2,000 pounds. The formiiln- wliicli ili'liTiniiic the lines of the other parts of tlie lioolis of the dilVereiil sizes are iis followH, the ineiisurements lieiiiL' all expressed in inches: D=.r> A -)- i.2r,. E=.(i4 A -|_ i.(i(), K=.:j3 a _|_ .^.i, H=1.0MA, 1=1. 33A. .] = ).20A,K=l.lHA.<i=.7r. I), ()=..8(i8 ^+ .(1(1, (2=.(i4-i -}- l.(iO, L=l.()r>A, AI= .50A, N=.8r,I5— .10. lT=.t<(i((A. The dimensions. A, are ixTcssarily based upon the ordinary merchant sizes of round-iron. The sizes which it has been found liest to .select are the fol- hiwiug ; Capacity of Hook, j), j, \, 1, U, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10 tons ; Dimension A, §, {i, J, l^V, U, ^, IJ, 2, i\, 2+, 2J, 3j inches. The formulfe which jrive the sections of the liook at the several points are all expressed in terms of A and can therefore be readily ascertained by reference to the foregoius scale. E.xperiiuent has sliown that hooks made according to the above formula' will i;ive way first by o]H'ning of the jaw, which, however, would not occur excejit with a loud much in excess of the nominal ca- pacity of the hook. This yielding of the hook when loaded to excess becomes a source of safety, as it constitutes a sig- nal of danger which cannot very readily be over-lookefl, and winch must proceed to some considerable distance before rup- ture will occur and the load be droji- ped. A comparison of these hooks with most of those in or- dinary use will show that the latter are, as a rule, badly pro- portioned, and frequently dangerously weak. Hooks proportioned by the above fornudx- are used in all the Weston cranes. See C'rnntfx. HOOK-SWIVEL.— A device intended for dispensing with the necessity of the triangular bayonet in stackl ing arms. It is of great value in connection with the trowel-bayonet, the use of which in digging, would dejirive the muskets of the mesuis of stacking them when necessarily set aside for this purpose. The swivels are so attached to the upjier bands, that it is easy to insert each hook into the swivels of the two remaining gvms necessary to complete the stack. The process of stacking is very simple. The men being at irrder ii/rniH, bayonets unfixed, the Instructor commands : 1. St>x'k, 2. Arms. At the command itiick, each even number of the front rank turns his piece, barrel to the front Ohe barrel turning to the left), and inclines his piece slightly forward, grasping it with the left hanil at the upper hand, (he thumb and forefinger raising the hook-swivel ; each even mimber of the rear-rank then passes his piece to his tile-leader who grasps it between the bands with his right hand and throws it, barrel to the rear, two feet in front of his own piece, the right hand slipping to the up])erband. the thumb and foretinger raising the hook-swivel, which he engages with that of his own piece, and inclines both to the right. Each odd number of the front rank grasps his piece with the right hand between the bands, the left hand guiding the hook-swivel, which he holds near the hook-swivels of the other ]iiec('S. At the command uriiix. each odd number of the front rank engages the hook of his piece with the free hook of tlie piece of the even number of the rear rank. He then turns the barrel downward and to the right l)etween the other two — so that it shall rest upon (heir intersection — and rests the butt about fifteen inches in front of his right foot. If in single rank, number two of each four makes the stack, using (he piece of nuniljer three as ex- plained for the even numbered rear-rank man; number one using his own piece as explained for the odd numbered front-rank man. and the loose pieces are passed and laid on as before. In breaking the stack the loose ])ieces are passed as before, and the stack is broken as when in two ranks, numtjer two taking his own jnece in ins right hand and that of nimiber three in his left, which he passes to him on breaking the stack. Number one grasps his own piece with his right hand. HOOKUM. — An Indian word, signifj'ing order or command. Honkmnmnnmeh signifies a letter of in- structions, or the paper that contains orders. HOOPER LIFE SAVING ROCKET.— This rocket is a moditiealion of the Hale rocket. The body is cylindrical in form, and is of sheet-metal 0".l(i.5 tluck. The point of the rocket or head is ogival in form, made of wood, and has a cylindrical tenon I'M in length, which is inserted into the front end of the body. The head is held in position by seve- ral screws passing tlirough the rocket-case into the tenon. The rear end of the case is closed by a me- tallic base carrying a double-swivel and perforated with five vents or gas escapes, each one-half an inch in diameter. On one side of these vents are fiuted projections extending 2". 3 towards the rear, so HOPLITAL. 48 UOEN WOEK. curved as to leave the opposite sides open for the unimpeded escape of the gases evolved by combus- tion. The object of this arrangement is to produce a motion of rotation about the longer axis of the rocket, and thus secure greater steadiness of flight. This cast-iron base is held in position by pins pass- ing through the case. To the swivel is attached a chain a little over 3 feet long, to which the line is made fast. The rocket is fired bj' lireaking the paper covering of one or more of the vents, and in- serting a piece of slow match and igniting the outer end. The following are the principal dimensions and weights of the rocket : Inches. Length of body Diameter o, body... {^Si;;^---;:::;: r Total length Length of ogival part. Head -; Diameter [Tenon :{{^re''ter;;:: Length of base outside of case Total length of rocket Length filled with composition Diameter of vents Number of vents Length of chain and swivel Average weight of rocket and chain. The following directions should be observed when using this rocket and its stand. 1. The elevation required for the stand to be ascertained by means of a small quadrant : 35'^ will carrj- the line 300 yards with ease. 2. It is suggested, in order to save time, that every rocket-line should be spliced to a spring-swivel that it might at once be attached to the end of the rocket-chain. 3. In all cases three fathoms of the rocket-line to be wetted before being attached to the chain. 4. Place the rocket in the trough or stand with its shoulder against the small iron projection at its base, and have the chain haug- in^ down through the slot. 5. To fire the rocket : With a pointed stick break the oil-paper covering each of the flange-holes, insert into one of them a slow match, light and retire to an angle of 45° to the rear of the stand. See Life-xating Rockets. HOPLITAL. — Foot-soldiers among the Greeks, who bore heavy armor, and engaged with broad shields and long spears. These took precedence of all other foot-soldiers, and never went into action except in their own proper positions in the phalanx. HOPPEK. — A device, employed in machine-guns, very nearly of the form of a cartridge, and tapered downward. Its sides serve to guide the cartridges into the carrier singly, so that they can be removed one by one. The front end of the aperture is pro- jected downward nearly into the carrier next the barrels, and thus serves to cut off the entrance to that particular l)arrel which is in front of it while in this position, and the cartridge which lies upon the one already in the groove from sliding forward and prematurely entering the opposite barrel. See Gnt- ling a tin. HOPPEfi-PLATE.— A component part of most ma- hopper, K, through which the cartridges descend to their places in the grooves of the carrier-block ; whereupon they are instantly taken possession of by the locks, forced into the barrels, and fired. A short distance in front of the hopper is an upright pin, /', on which the feed-drum rests and revolves. The upper side of the plate is flat and circular. See GatUng Gun. HOBDE. — A wandering troop or gang ; especially a clan or tribe of a nomadic people possessing no fixed hal)itations but migrating from place to place for the sake of pasturage, plumler, or like cause. HORDEABIUM.— The money which the Romans gave their cavalrj' for the sustenance of their horses. HORION. — A term which formerly signified a hel- met, and which in the vulgar acceptation of it at the present time among the French, means a blow upon the head. HORIZON. — The circular line formed by the ap- parent meeting of the earth and sky : this, in astro- nomical phrase, is called the sensible horizon. The rational horizon is the circle formed by the plane passing through the center of the earth, parallel to the sensible horizon, and produced so as to meet the heavens. HORIZONTAL FIEE.— In gunner)-, the fire of guns and howitzers imder low angles of elevation. See Fire. HORIZONTAL RANGE— In gtinnery, the distance to which a piece of ordnance will project a ball on a horizontal plane. Supposing no resistance from . the atmosphere, the greatest range would be when I the piece is elevate3 at an angle of 45°, and in I all other positions the horizontal range would be as the sine of twice the angle of elevation. In a re- I sisting medium the maximum horizontal range re- ( quires the elevation to be less than 45°. It is found by experience that, with ordinary velocity, a cannon-shot ranges farthest when the elevation of the piece is about S0°. HORIZONTAL VELOCITY.— A projectile's velocity at any point resolved in the horizontal direction. Thus, if V be the velocity of a projectile moving at an angle E to the horizon. Horizontal Velocity =V cose. HORN-WORK.— That work, in fortification, having one front only, thrown out beyond the glacis of a Qom'woflc; eornifis a'Batiai), fortress; with a view, 1. To strengthen any weak chine-guns. It is a brass-curved plate, /, hinged to salient in the general outline : 2. To occupy a the frame-work of the gun on the right side, and plateau in advance of the place, or to protect build- covering the carrierMock. It is provided with a ings, the including of which in the original enceinte HOBS D£ COMBAT. 49 H0B82. would have oxtondod it to an inronvpniont dofrroo ; 3. To occupy a toutruc of luiid proti-ctcd dii its sides; 4. To Imr h (Ictilc; T). To (-over the liciid of at)rid(;e; 6. To oicupy risiiij; j;round, I lie pos- session of which would rcndi-rlhc enemy more than necessarily dangerous. The front rif a horn-work consists of two demi-liastions connected by a cur- tain, and usually defended in front, as in the fortress itself, by a tenaille. ravelin, and covert-way. The flanks, protected by ditches, run struitrhl upon the ravelin, bastion, or curlain of the main defenses, so that tlie <litch mav be swept by the tire of the latter. The flanks shoidtf not be too Ion;; for easy musketry range. In most of the earlier works of this nature, the ditch of the horn-work was united with the ditch of the main works by beini; cut throiiirh the glacis and covert-way. but in modern works the hom-woik is constructed entirely beyond the ulacis. inR to diflferent ooiintries. are questions also un- certain; and the last of them is verv sinnlar to that which is so much afritated respeelint; the dog, al- though it must be admitted that the iliversities arc not so great as in that case. The lijis and teeth of a horse adapt it for crop|)ing the short hi-rbage of dry plains or hills, so that it tinds abundance w'here the o.\ would be very insufHcienlly supplierj. The feet arc also adapted to dry rather than to soft orswampy ground. On soft ground, not only is the foot apt l<> sink, not being very broad, but the homy foot is softened, and a diseaseil state of the feet is the re- sult, as in th<- c;ise of a great many dray-hor.ses in London, reared in the alluvial distrirts of" the east of Kngland. The horse, however, reijuires a liberal supi)lv of water ; and during the dry season, in the hot plains of Soiuh America, great troops of wild horses often rush furiously to the rivers, and as they Occasiiuially, horn- works are very useful ; but all I approach the drinking-place, trample one another • Love " to a company modern Engineers generally prefer constructing de tached and advanced works. See Cn/wit-iritrk. HOBS DE COMBAT. -The French term, literally meaning "beyond the battle," used tosignify a com- batant, or body of combatants, so completely beaten either Ijy physical force or strategy, as to be incapa- ble of further action in the struggle which is act- ually under consideration. HOBSE. — 1. A military term foraliody of Cavalrj-. 2. We can go back 35 centuries, to Job the afflicted Inhabitant of Uz, for the most wonderfully ()i>etical description of the true horse. Solomon, later, does not hesitate to compare his of horses in Pharaoh's cha- riots. Homer portrays the horse as a sensitive being, and relates that the steeds of Achilles wept at the death of that hero. Virgil tells us that the charger of FalUis followed the remains of his master to his burial, his eyes filled with tears. Pliny, the naturalist, positively asserts that horses often bewail the loss of their masters. Buf- fon, a hundred years ago, said : '• The noblest con- quest achieved by man is that of this proud and met- tlesome animal, which shares with him alike the hard- ships of war and the glory of a conflict. He likewise shares his pleasures in the chase, in tournay, in the race ; he glows with brilli- ancy and ardor." The na- tive country of the horse is uncertain. Some contend for Asia, and some for Af- rica ; some suppose that the horse was first domesticated in Egypt, and quote Scrip- ture in support of their opin- ion, but to no better purpose j than to show that at a very j' early period it was in use as 3. Throat a domesticated and valued i- fj^^^,'.- , .. . . 5. shoulder, animal among the ancient Egyptians: whilst others adduce arguments not more \ has conclusive to show that it was originally domestica- ted in the north-east of Asia ; some thiiik it not im- probable that Europe also, and even Britain, had in- digenous horses. Whether certain wild races of Cen- tral Asia and the north of Africa are indigenous to under foot, vast numbers of skeletons remaining to bleach in the sun. Wild horses are found on the plains of Central Asia. Some also inhabit mountainous or hilly dis- tricts both there and in the north of Africa. They abound still more in the gra.ssy plains of North and South America, although they were first introduced into America by Europeans ; and certain tribes of Indians, both in North and .South America, have become at least as equestrian in their habits as any of the Tartars of the East. Wild horses are also found in the Falkland Islands, into which they were introduced by Europeans, and a peculiar breed Forehead. Jaw. & Arm. 7. Larje Pastern. 8 Small Pastern. 9. Withers. 10. Baclc. X05IE!JCI,ATURE. 11. Loin. 12. Hip. 13. Stifle. 14. Thieh. 15. Hamstring. 16. Point of the Hock- 17. Hock. 18. Croup or Rump. 19. Doclc. 30, Cannon-lwnes. been found in a wild state in the Island of Celebes. The races or varieties of the horse have an evident relation to the climate of the countries in which they occur. Those of cold and stomij' regions are comparatively small and rough-haired ; those of more favored climates, lar^e and sleek. the regions in which they are found, or the offspring There are differences, more evidentlv to be ascribed of animals which have escaped from domestication, , to domestication, according to which certain breeds like those of Aiiierica, and whether the origin of the \ of horses are particularlv suited to certain kinds of domestic horse is to be referred to one original form, work some excellins in fleetness. some in endurance, or to several forms somewhat different, and belong- , some in mere strength for burden or draught. The HOKSE-ARTILLEKY. 50 H0BSE-GUAHD3. slender form of the race-horse or hunter contrasts almost as strongly with the pomlcrous solidity of the dray-horse, as the great size of the latter does with the dirainutiveness of the Shetland pony. Wild horses generally congregate in troops, sometimes small in number, but sometimes of many hundreds. Tlie males have fierce contests for tlie supremacy, and males that have contended unsuccessfully are often driven off to a solitary life. On the appear- ance of danger, the chief stallion of a small troop seems to direct the movements of all, and even the largest troops seem instinctively to move in a Ivind of concert, so that when they arc assailed, the stronger animals oppose the enemy, and protect the younger and weaker. Wolves, even wlien in packs, attack witli success only weakened stragglers, and even the jaguar is repelled. In fighting, horses either raise tliemselves on tlieir hind-feet, and bring down the fore-feet with great force on the enemy, or wheeling about, kick violently with the hind-feet. The tarpaii of Tartary is one of those races of Tvild horses whicli are sometimes regarded as o- riginal, and not as descended from domesticated -animals. It is of a reddish color, with a very black stripe along the back, and black mane and tail. The eye is small and vicious. Tarpans are sometimes caught liy the Tartars, but are with great difficulty reduced to subjection. In some of tlie steppes of Central Asia, are wild horses of a white or dappled- gray color. The wild horse of South America is there called the rnuMang. It exhibits considerable 'diversity of color, but bay-brown is the most prev- alent. It .is strong and active, and is often taken with the lasso, and employed in the service of man. A curious metliod is practiced by some Indian trilies of promptly subduing its wild nature, and Tendering it tractable, by blowing strong!}' with the mouth into its nostrils. . By other tribes, it is suli- dued more rudely. It is thrown on the ground, and ere it can recover, a man gets upon its back, whom, when it rises, it cannot shake off, and who retains his seat until it is quite submissive. Tlie koomrah of North Africa is regarded by Col. Hamilton Smith as a distinct species. It has no forelock, but woollj" hair on the forehead, is of reddisli-liay color, with- out stripe on the back or any white about the limbs, has limbs of somewhat ass-like shape, and the tail covered with' a short hair for several inches at the root. It is an inhal>itant of mountainous regions. When full mouthed, the horse will have forty teeth, twenty in each jaw. Tlie mare possesses only thirty-six. The age of the horse may be deter- mined by observing the teeth, the times at which they appear, are shed and replaced, and the altera- tions in their form and markings; — 3 years, all milch teeth, which are easily distinguished from the permanent by being smaller, whiter, and In' having necks; — 3 years, two permanent teeth, central in- cisors ; — 4 j'cars, four permanent teetli, central and lateral incisors ; — 5 years, all are permanent teeth. From this time on, the age of the horse is decided by the marks on the teeth ; — 6 years, the marks on tlie central incisors are worn out, and the points of the tushes are Iilunted ; — 7 years, the marl<s on the <-ontral and lateral incisors are worn out, tho.se on tlu' corner incisors still showing; — 8 j-ears, all the <:avilics are filled up. Beyond this age the criteria are uncertain. For the military service the horse should possess the general features shown in the aliove drawing, and should not b(^ less than 14 nor more than 1(5 hands liigh ; weigh not less than T.'iO, nor more tluin 1.100 lbs.; age not less than . 5 or more than H years ; head and ears small ; forehead broad ; eyes large and prominent ; the shoulders long and sloping well back; fore-legs straiglit and standing well under; chest broad and dee]); barrel large. and increasing from girdle to Hank; withers ele- vated ; ba(^k sliort and straight: loins anil haunches broad and muscular: hocks well bcnl and undertlie lior.sc ; pasterns sianting ; and'feet small and sound. ] In the matter of the treatment and qualities of the horse, we can not do better than remember a few axioms and aphorisms current among a people with whom tlie raising and training of horses are matters of religion, and to whom the Prophet has said, "Whoever raiseth and traineth a horse for the Lord is counted in the number of those who give alms night and day." " Make your horses work, and make them work again. Inaction and fat are the great peril of a horse, and the main cause of allhisvicesanddisea.se." " As you would shun the plague so shun a horse with shrunken breast and straight shoulders. But one whose croup is as long as his back and loins together take with closed eyes." "If you would know at a glance the value of a horse, measure him from the last joint of the tail to the middle of the withers, and from the mid- dle of the withers to the tip of the upper lip, on a line between the ears. If the hind measure is the longer, the horse is of little worth ; but if the fore- part is longer, rest assured the animal has distin- guished qualities, and the greater the difference the greater will be his value." " Never run your horse up or down hill if j-ou can avoid it." " To prepare a too fleshy horse for fatigues make him thin by exercise ; never by withholding his food." ' • Do not beat your horses, nor speak to them in a loud tone of voice ; do not be angry with them, but kindly reprove their faults ; they will do better thereafter, for they understand the language of man and its meaning. If by chance you meet with a horse in- sensible to kindness, hesitate not to employ the power of your spurs, but in such wise that he never forgets the punishment." " The man who gives not a steady walk to his liorse excites pity. The walk is the gallop of always." See Cavalry-hirrses, Ar- tillery-jSoraes, Pack-animals, and Draught-anhnals. HORSE-AETILLEKY.— A portion of the artillery which generall}' serves with cavalry. One of the mounted branches of the British service is Horse- artillerj'. The formation of this branch dates back to the year 1793, when two troops were raised at Woolwich. Each troop consi-sted of 4 guns, but in November of the same year 2 more troops were added, and each troop had 6 guns. Subsequently it was raised to 12 troops. This branch of the service has been further augmented to the extent, at the present day, of ti brigades, of 5 batteries each, each batter}' having 6 guns. The present equipment of the Horse-artillery is made up.of 9-pdr. M.L.R. guns. The gun is made of a steel tube with a wrought-iron jacket: caliber. 3 indies : weight, (i cwt. ; length of rifling, 62'3 inches; rifling, three grooves, with a uni- form pitch of 1 lo 30 calibers; charge, 1.75 lb The carriages for these guns are of wrought-iron. The Horse-artillery is held in hand for all deci- sive moments. When launched forth, its arrival and execution should be unexpected and instanta- neous. Ready to repair all disasters and partial re- verses, it, at one moment, temporarily replaces a battery of foot, and at the next is on another point of the field, to force back an enemy's column. In preparing the attacks of cavalry, tliis arm is often indispensable and aways invaluable ; brought with rapidity in front of a line, or opposite to squares of infantry, witliin tlie range of canister, its well-di- rected fire, in a few discliiirges. opens a gap, or so shakes the entire mass, that the cavalier finds but a feeble obstacle, where, without this aid, he would in vain have exhausteil ;dl his jiowers. HORSE GRENADIERS. -The Flying Grenadiers, who fighl both on foot and on horseback. They were first established in France by Louis XIV., in 107G. formed in scjuHdrons, and called (In iiiiilii i-k Vnlaim, HORSE GUARDS. 1. '["he name aiiplied to a liirge public oflice in \\'hitehall, appropri:ited to the de- parlinents under the General Coninianding-in-Chief. Th(^ word Horse-gU!irds is used conventionally to signify the Military Anlhorities at the lieacl of Army Alfairs, in contradislinction to the Civil Chief, HORSEMANSHIP. 51 HORSEMANSHIP. or the Socrctiiry of Stiitr for War. 2. Tlic I{ojiil HorHt'-^uiirds, or Oxford lilucs, is the lliinl heavy cavalry rct^iinent of the llouHcliold IJrijiadc. Tin; regimi'iil was riiiscd in Kitil from tin' rciiiiiaiitM of the disbanded Army of the lute Commonweiillh. It has ever proved a loyal (•i)r])H, althou<;h it ri'adily transferred its alleirianee from .lames II. (r> William III. U look part in .MarlbdnniLrh's caniiiaifins ; gerv<Ml under the Duke of Welliii^rton in tlie I'en- insida and at Waterloo, and has always been con- (tiilered one of the finest heavy cavalry eorps in the world. The Onards of State for the Sovereij,'n are taken either from its ranks or from those of the Life-i;uards. Tlie jiresent nniforn\ consists of a Hteel helmet, with iiliiiiie, a steel cuirass over a blue coatee, leather breeches, and knee-boots ; the horse.s are black. The establishment of the rej;imenl con- sists of 1,302 of all ranks, with 825 horses, exclusive of ollii'crs' (■liiir^:ers. See Cavalry and Dnir/nim. HORSEMANSHIP.— Throughout history the art of msumnin.!; the horse and ridiiif; on his back has rank- ed hi.nh amon^ useful and (graceful accomplishments. Aceordinj; to Ca-sar and Livy, the Niimidians and Mauritanians rode their horses wilhonl either bit or Middle, and guided them solely by using a small switch, which was applied to either side of the neck, iiccordino; as they wished to turn. The Persians trained their horses to kneel to receive their riders, and were the first to introduce saddles. Stirrups ■were used in the .Tth century, but were not common even in the 12th. The two essentials for riding are a firm seat and a light hand, as without a combina- tion of the two no one can become a good horseman. In every description of riding, the light or delicate " hand," just feeling the mouth of tlie horse, and playing the bit in accordance with his movement, will insure success ; and it is to this delicacy of wrist that we must attribute the ease and skill with which ladies so often ride the most high-spirited anima)K, which, in rougher hands woidd be umuanageable. The first lesson in horsemanship is to learn to mount safely and easily ; and the ordinary and on the whole least objectionable way is as follows : Stand at the shoulder of the horse, looking towards his tail, aixi taking the reins in the right hand, divide them by tlie middle finger of the left till you feel the horse's well down in his sadille, with his body erect, the seat being preservi'd more by balance than by a tight hold by the leg or thigh. In rapiil movi^ments or when charging over irregular tielils, a very firm seat is necessary ; tlw slirrup-lealhers are then about two holes shorter, and the feel pressed "home" in the stirrups, which otherwise would be apt to be lust in jumping: the li'g from lliigh to thi' knee well for- ward, and nearly at right angles to the u])pfr jiarl of the body inclined forward ; the legs |>erpendicular, the heel well down, and the toe pointing nearly straightforward. This seat the trooper has in com- mon with all eipiestrian nations, as the Arabs, Tar- tars, Persians, Kgyptians, Cossacks, Magyars, anrl Circassians, the last mentioned nation carrying it to such an extreme that thi'leg assinnes the form of the letter V, having the knee for the apex. In rid- ing at the bars or hurdle "collect" the horse into the pace at which he goes with most ease to himself ; i keep him straight at the fence till he rises : " ease" his mouth by leaning forward ; take especial care not to confine it when he is making his elTort, or you will |)idl him into the fence as he descends : lean well back in the saddle, and gently take hold of his mouth to support him when landing. Do nf)t gallop with a loose rein (except down hill, when the horse requires his head free), for the horse will go with a straggling pace, which is very undesirable. For rapid iiiovements, the essentials are a good and powerful seat, good " hands," a great knowledge of pace, 'and quickness to take advantage of any chances of sticcess. As the strongest part of a horse, and also the center of action, is situated at" a point just behind his shoulder-blades, the nearer we can ride to this the better, and riding rather forward in the saddle is a relief to the horse, while leaning back, as it bears tipon his loins — his weakest part — is a cause of fatigue. The grip in riding should be maintained by the knees, 1 the thighs, and the calves slightly. The thigh is the I most essential part of a good and strong seat. Few I riders who.se thighs are short and roimd. have a good j seat ; while, on the other hand, jockeys and tall thin men, whose thighs are long, and more or less hol- lowed on the under side, are generally very firm. 1 No one pretends to horsemanship without a knowl- niouth ; then take hold with the left hand of a lock of the mane, lift the left foot into the stirrup, and using the mane as a slight hold, spring into the air, taking hold of the back of the saddle to assist in getting the right leg easily over the horse, steadying the fall of the body by the right hauil on the ponunel, and then arranging the stirrups. In dismounting exactly the reverse of this process is followed, or both feet may be disengaged from the stirrups at once, and the rider may vaidt from tlie saddle to the ground with great rapidity, and less risk of falling if the horse chance to move on. There are four different styles of riding practiced among modern civilized nations — viz., the military, road, hunting, and racing styles. The military style differs in many particulars from the others, as, owing to the long stirrups used, the soldier is obliged to sit edge of the proper action for emergencies. If a horse runs away, do not exhaust yourself by vain pulling, but guide him out of danger, and let "him run till he is tired. A Bucephalus noseband is a great security against bolting. If a horse rears, loosen the reins, and lean forward; in hunting, the " art of falling" consists in getting clear of your horse. In case of a horse kicking, keep his head up as much as possible, and sit firm in the saddle. The art of riding teaches and shows the position to be taken on horseback, so as to be there with the greatest security and ease. It at the same time affords the means of leading and directing the horse with the utmost of facility, and of obtaining from him by the simplest method and with the least fatigue the most exact and perfect obedience in everything which his strength and con- formation allow. He is the good horseman, there- HORSE MEDICINES. 52 HOBSE-SHOE. fore wlio firm and easy in his seat, has acquired ■ timates of most celelirated Engineers differ widely botli the knowlediie of what he may asli of his horse from each other ; Boulton and Watt, basinfj their andthepracticeof the best means of enforcing obedi- I calculations upon the work of London dray-horses ence And that is the well-trained horse which j (working eight hours a day), estimated it at 33,000 understands the intentions of his rider from the foot-pounds per minute. D'Aubuisson, taking the sli-rhtest of his movements, according to sriven priu- ! work done by horses in whims at Freiberg, estiraa- ciples and executes them with promptne^ss, agility, ted the work at 16,440 foot-pounds, working dght and vii;i .. . HORSE MEDICINES.— In a military pomt of view, the medicines issued to an army or command for the treatment of diseased or disabled animals. A Siippli/ Table is usually authorized for an army, the hours a day ; under all similar circumstances, Desa- guliers's estimate was 44,000; Smeaton's 22,000; and Tredgold's 37,500 foot-pounds ; 17,400 is thought to be near the truth. It matters little, however, what number is assumed, provided the same be always medicines are all procured on requisition, and the j used: and accordingly the original estimate of Watt Veterinary Surgeons dispense them. The following j is still counted a horse-power. In calculatmg the Name of Drug. Aloes. Alnm. AnUe Seed. Aqua Ammonia. Ar-'t^nic. Ast -iio^tida. Bicarbonate of ( Potash. 1' Bismnth. Blacl. vntimony. Blue Vitriol. Calomel. Camphor. Cantharides. Carbolic .\cid. Castor Oil. Cayenne, Chlorate of Potash Copperas. Croton-oil. DigitaliP leaf. Epsom .Salts. Ether. Fowler's Solution. Gentian Root. Ginger. Glauber Salts. Iodide of Potassium Linseed-oil, raw. Magnesia. Mercurial Ointment Nux Vomica. Opium. Action aud Use. Dose. Antidote. Laxative and Tome. Astringent. Aromatic and Stomachic. Stimulant and Antacid. .\lterative and tonic, used for Paralysis, Mange, etc. .\nti-8pa8modic. Coughs, etc. Diuretic and Antacid. Good for Rheumatism. For Chronic Diarrhcea. etc. Promotes the Secretiona. Astringent aud Tonic. Cathartic. .\nti-spasmodic. Diuretic and Stimulant. Externally and Disinfectant. Cathartic. Stimulant and Carminative. biur<tic. Given for bloating, etc Tonic and Astringent. Powerful purgative. Sedative ana Diuretic. Cathartic and febrifuge. .\nti-spasmodic. L'sed for skin diseases. See Arsenic. Tonie. (Tonic, Stimulant, and Stomachic. Used for flat-1 ( ulent colic, dyspepsia, etc. / Cathartic. (Diuretic and .\lterative. Employed for Rheuma-) \ tism. Dropsy, Enlarged Glands, etc. j Cathartic and Nutritive. For colts as an antacid and laxative. Used for Mange, itch, lice, and other parasites. Nervous stimulant— used for Paralysis. (Anodyne and .\nti-spasmodic. Given in Colie.l ( Inflammation of Bowels, Diarrhoea, etc. / Prepared Chalk. Antacid. Quinine. Tonic, given during convalescence. Saltpetre. Diuretic and Febrifuge. Soda Bicarh. Simil..r to Bicarb. Potash. Soda Sulphite. .\ntiseptic and Alterative, used for blood diseases. Soluiion of Lime. !.\ntacid. used as an antidote to poisoning by acids. Spirits of Chloro- /. ^„ndyne and Anti-spasmodic. form. I , r, , . Tonic and Stimulant. Used for Paralysis. ( Alterative and Laxative. Used for Skin disea- 1 '( ses and Rheumatism. ) )^ to 1 oz. 2 to 3 drs. X to 2 cze. 1 to 4 drs. 1 to 5 gre. 1 to 3 dre. 3 to 5 drs. >^ to 1 oz. "^ to xr dr. >i to 1 dr. 10 to 40 gre. X to 1 dr. 3 to 6 grs. ><; to 1 pt 5 to S5 gre. 1 to a drs. >i to IX drs. 10 to 15 drops I Opium. to to 20 grs. Stimulate. 2 to H ozs. Vinegar. Magnesia and oil. Vinegar and raw Linseed-oil. Infusion of oak bark. Give also Lins'd-oll Eggs. Milk, etc. Eggs and Milk. Eggs; soap; gruel. Strychnia. Sulphur. Sweet Spirits of) Niter. / Tannic Acid. Tartar Emetic. Tincture of Aco-> nite Root. (" Tincture of Can-i tharides. / Tincture Ergot. Tincture Iodine. Tincture Iron. Tr. Nux Vomici. Tincture Opium. White Vitriol. Diuretic and Diaphoretic. Astringent. Sedative and Alterative. Sedative. Used for lung fever, etc. Stimulant and Tonic. X to 2 ozs. 1 to 4 drs. 1 to 2 drs. 2 to 5 drs. 6 to 12 ozs. )4 to iX drs. 1 to 2 pts. ,V to 1 oz. 15 to 25 grs. a to 1 dr. Mto 1 oz. IB to so gre 1 to 3 drs. 3to8dre. |< to I oz. 4 to 6 oz. 1 to 2 oz. X to 1 gr. >^ t3 2 ozs. X to JXoze. 20 to 40 grs. 'a to >.. dr. 15 to 35 drops 1 to 2 ozs. 1 to 2 ozs. ■i? to 1 oz. 2 to 4 drs. 1 to 2 ozs. 5 to 15 grs. Hydrated peroxide of iron. (Give very freely starch or flour, with wa- ( ter largely. Whites of eggs with milk given freely. \ Saleratus.followed quickly by copperae, ) both dissolved in water. (Belladonna, strong coffee, brandy and < ammonia. Dash very cold water on ( and keep the horse moving. Linseed-oil largely. Raw. Tobacco. Tannic Acid. (Give small doses of Nux Vomica, use \ stimulants largely, and keep moving. See Nux Vomica See Opium. Milk, eggs, and flour. Parturient. Used externally. Tonic and Astringent. I'sed for Typhoid diseases. Tonic. Stimulant ill Paralysis and Dyspepsia. Anodyne and Anti-spasmodic. /Astringent. Us- d for cuts, wounds, aud sores,! ( in solution. j For a colt one month old. give one twenty-fourth of the full dose for an adult horse as given above; three months old, one twelfth : six months old. one-si xth : one year old, one- third ; two years old, one-half ; three years old, three-fourths. ^ power of a steam-engine in terms of this unit, the general rule is to multiply together the pressure in pounds on a square inch of the jiislon, the area of the piston in inches, the Icngtli of the stroke in feet, and the number of strokes per minute ; the result obtained by this operation, divided by 33,000. will give the horsc-pciwer. It is generally necessary to deduct about one-tenth of the whole, as an allow- ance for friction. HORSE SHOE.— In fortification, a very small round or oval work, with a parapet; generally made in a ditch, or marsh. doses for the horse, prescribed by the eminent Vet- erinarian, Dr. Kendall, are found on all Army Sup- ply Tables, and may be administered by any intelli- gent soldier, in tlic absence of the Veterinary Sur- geon. See V(t( riiiary Art. HORSE POWER. — .\ term used in expressing the force of II iiiolive power. It is liiised upiiu the as- suiiiplioti thai horses ill general perform a certain constant amount of work in a specilicd lime : an as- Bumiilion whicli is evidently erroneous. The funda- menlal unit of work is the foot-pound; but in measuring the work of a horse by this unit, the es- HOKSE SHOEING. 53 H0B8E SHOE NAUS. HORSE SHOEING.— Till' ordinary sysicni of liorsc- sIkk'Iiii^ is null' ami irrationiil, ami is the main cause of iiiDsl, lamciicHses and of llic iiiajorily of falls in ridiiii; and drivinij;. Chief anion^ist its faults are the nttelupts to tit the foot to the shoe, instead of the shoe to the foot, and the wholesale euttini; and rasp- in;.;, and eonsequent injury of the seviTal parts of till- foot. After the eaulious removal of the old shoe, the erust, on vvliieh it rested i;enerally reipiires to he ])ared down with a dniwiim-knife, and its ed.se afterwanls rounded with the rasp. Any nii;- ged ))ortions of the fro^ may also be taken o(T, and tliis inelinh'S the whole of the allowahle parini; or dressing of the horse's foot. The horny sole in- tended as a coverini; and jirotection of (hc> sensitive parts lieneatli : the tough elastic frog, an insensible pad which obviates concussion, luid |)reserves the foot wide and free from contraction : the bars, an Involution of the crust, which help it to support weight, and give it lateral sujiport.are idl too valu- able to be ruthlessly cut away, and in all ordinary cases must be scrupulously preserved from both knife and ras]i. For sound healthy feet treated as ddvised, a plain shoe is preferalile forsadilk' or har- ness horses ; the web need not exceed three-fourths of an inch, must tit the crust closely and accurately nil the way round to tlie heels, where its inner edge ■will rest upon the strong luicut bars. Nowhbre must there be any overlapping, which only renders the shoe more apt to cut the opjiosile limb, and be torn olT in heavy ground. To lessen the chances of tripping, and make the shoe wear e(pially. it should for the fore-feet lie turned nj) very slightly, and its ground surface hollowed out a little at the toe, so as powers without so much risk of sli|)pin);. Instead of the tive nails used for the lighter liorscH, seven or eight are reipiisite. Figure 1 shows an excellent form of front shoe and the proper positions of nail-holes; «,</, are the heels, of th<- same thickness as the rest of the slioe ; '/,'', are the points at whicli Ihi' heels of the hoof terminate: c.c, sIkjw the seating; and '/.<'. the posi- tions of nail-heels. Figure 2 represents tlie ground surface of the hoof |)repareil for I lie shoe; «, « 1, a3, show the front, inner, and outer toe ; hi, 1/2, the in- '; ner and outer (juarter; c 1, cS, the inner and outer heel; (l.(/,f/, the sole; I'.f, tlie crust or wall of the hoof; fj", the bars; f/.f/. the commissures ; fi.kj, the frog (■// being directly luider the navicular joint); and /,'. the liulbs of the heels. Horses with weak, tender, or bruised soles may for a time recpiire leatli<-r or water-proof pads, liut as the sole grows, these should be discontinued, and ] are never refjuired in healthy feet, where the sole, which is the best and most natural protection, is al- lowed to grow luidislurbed by the knife. Horses with corns should luive their shoes made with a wide inside wel>, which rests upon the bjirs, or h;ive for a time a bar-shoe. The last nail on the inside should ai.so be dispensed with, and the seal of the corn or bruise carefully pared out, but without injtiring frog or bars. If, from constant cutting, the bars are unfit to aid the crust in carrying tlie shoe, it will often be advisalile to shoe for a time; with tips or half-shoes, keeping the horse as much as is possible on soft ground, and waiting the healthy growth f)f the foot. In troublesome cases of thr\isli. such tips ari' also most serviceable, allowing the frog the natural and Fi:;. !. to present the appearance of an ordinarv- shoe which has been worn for a fortnight or three weeks ; and which, as every one knows, is therefore rendered more safe and comfortable. By turiug up at the toe, i these advantages are secured at once. For saddle and light harness work three nails on the out — and two on the inside will lirmly secure any well-made, well-titting shoe. The nail-lioles should be counter- sunk, be nearly in the center of the web. and pass straight throtigh it, thus giving the nails a tinner hold of the stout luirasped crust. The points of tlie nails when ilriven home should be broken over and laid down with the hammer, but not touched with the ras)). The rasping of the crust which smiths fondly reganl as their tinishingand polishing stroke. is very injurious, removes the vmetuous iiroti'cting portion of the crust, and renders it weak, brittle. and liat)Ie to crack. Shoes should be replaced every three weeks or a month at furthest. In shoeing the hind-feet the outside web is generally turned slightly down behind, whilst to give an equal bearing the inside heel is thickened. For hi-avy driiught. both hind and fore shoes slniuld h;ive moderate tips and heels, which enable the horse to exert his entire ca . Fis;. a. healthy pressure for which it is intended, and with astringents and cleanliness greatly expediting a cure. Groggy horses should have the toe shortened, and turned up, as already advised ; the frog and sole must be untouched, and the shoes made light and nicely fitted. Over-reach, or cutting of the heel of the fore-foot with the shoe of the hind, is remedied Iiy tiling round the posterior edge of the offending toe, and keeping that shoe as far back as possible on the foot. For speedy cut, which is commou in horses with in-turned knees, the shoe should be care- fully titled and no projecting portions be left: the clinches must also be well hammered down. See Chiirlier System uf JIorse-Hhneiiig. Seymour Shoe, and Siimr-shin . HORSE SHOE NAILS.— The nail for a horse's foot differs materially from every other kind of nail, not only in shape, but also in the quality of iron from which it is made, as well as the process of nnuiufac- ture. The slightest deviation from shape and (pnil- ity of the iron renders the horse-shoe nail compara- tively useless. From the days of Tubal Cain to the present time tire has been the only element with which iron could be properly wrought. Everj- other EOBSE-TAIL. 54 . HOSE-TBOnOH.- methoci has resulted in producina: articles of great inferiority where strength and durability are re- quired, and in no place are these two requisites more necessary than in the horse's shoe-nail. The Ancients used only charcoal in the working of iron, thus avoiding all sulphurous gases, hence the supe- removed. It the sheer is so fortunate as to draw it out without hrenking, the lameness will disappear, but not until the horse has been laid up for a con- siderable time. Should the nail break, the result is far more serious. It requires but little observation and reflection to arrive at the conclusion as to the kind of nails to be used in the horse's foot, whether a mangled piece of riority of their weapons. The old Damascus blades owe their superiority in part to the use of asphalt when being forged, thus avoiding the presence of sidphur. which is so ruinous to all kinds of iron and Bteel. Profiting by this knowledge, the manufac- turers of the Putnam nail avoid tlie use of coal and ] coke in forging, use only pure carbon gas made from petroleum, "and thereby obtain a much higher tem- perature in the working of the iron. This hot-forg- ed nail, when made of pure iron, has no equal in the known world. The first drawing shows a cross-section of iron from which the cold-punched and sheard-nails are ' (^ made by forcing blanks therefrom by means of a punch. These blanks are put through a series of rollers and drawn into the form of A, with an in- dentation on the thin end for the scarfed points, which conduct the nail out of the h(5of. B repre- sents the piece which is removed by shearing the blade of A. so as to leave the nail, C, complete. The rolling of iron ri>ld produces lamination, caus- ing the iron to separate in layers, as shown in D. But as the compression of shearing holds the edges together, it does not show itself until driven into the hoof, when the horny fibers cause them to separate while being driven, and one portion is forced into the foot and the other oi/t through the wall of the lir)of, thus causing lameness, lock-jaw, and dealli, as the records of State courts, tin well as the testi- mony of horse owners, abundantly show. One of these nails made hy the ndd-cut process, and slivered when being driven in by the shoer, is shown at E. The pain caused by a slight sliver of wood under the fing<T-nail will give one a slight idea as to liow ]iainful such a nail must be in the foot of the horse, there to remain until the shoe is iron, rendered dangerous by the fvld-ndling and rnt\ ting process, or one made from the rod at a welding heat, where all the fibers remain intact, and a per- fect cnenem maintained, making it utterly impossible to sliver; likewise a greater amount of tenacity an<t ductility is obtained, by which the shoes are retained on the feet for a much longer time. Having selected the best nails, the shoer .should drive as small and few nails as will hold the shoe firmly and securely to its place. He should see that the nails fill the holes and the heads the crease, leav- ing little, if any, to project beyond the ground sur- face when finished, thus preventing the clinch from rising when brought in contact witli stones, and sav- ing the injuring of the ankle. See Putnam Nail. HOKSE-TAIL,— Turkish Standard Commanders are distinguished by the number of horse-tails carried before them, or planted in front of their tents. Thus, the Sultan has seven, the Grand Vizier five, and the Pashas three, two, or one. HOESFALL-GTJN. — This gun is a solid forging of wrought-iron, bored out. The trunnions are forged upon a separate ring, which is held in place by a key- The dimensions of the gun are as follows: — Length, 15 ft. 10 in. : the diameter over the chamber, 3 ft. 7 in.; length of bore, 13 ft. 4 in.; diameter of bore, 13.014 in. The weight is 53,846 lbs. The usual windage is J of an inch, and the gun is not rifled. The unequal shrinkage of the solid breech of this gun, during its fabrication, caused a crack, which was afterwards covered with a breech-plug, or false bottom in the chamber, to prevent the lodgment of any burning material. This gun is noted for its remarkable en- durance, and terrible effect, at short range, in target practice at Shoeburyness. HORSLEY POWDER.— An explosive agent, com- posed of chlorate ofpotassa and gall-nuts, in propor- ti»n by weight of three to one, used principally in charging torpedoes. Its disruptive action in relation to the best gunpowder, volume for volume, is about 15t(>l. HORTON LATHE CHUCK.— A chuck of theimiver- sal type variously emjiloyed in the Arsenal. The drawings present a view of the device together and in its parts. The jaws are moved to and from the center simultaneously by means of the geared screws and the circular rack, which is enclosed in the deep groove or recess in the bilck-plate, the center faces of the front and baek-plates making a perfectly tight casing for the gearing, so that no <lirt, chips, etc., can possibly get into them to clog and injure the- chuck. When the rack is taken out, especiidlv from the fore-jaw, it makes a sujierior independent jaw- chuck, niakinir two chucks in one. See Cliiirk. HOSE TROUGH. The hnsc-trough is a small wood- en channel, in wliirh is placed a linen b.-ig termed the jKiirdt r./iiiKr , tilled with ]iowd(T, to lire the charge. The bag should be of <-lose texture, and well sewed- The.s" troughs are made li in. square in the clear. The four pieces of which they are composed, the sill, sides, and top, or cover, are from | to ^ in, each in thickness. A trough shoidd penetrate the powder- case about 4 in., and sb.oidd exactly fit the opening left for it. It is fastened to the floor of the branch HOSPITAL. 55 KOSPITAI. tiy niiils, tliroiif;Ii the si driven ti) riceivc lliciii. troiii;li lire cfiiiliiicd by pirUcis In prcvrnl it. I)cin;; (lisliirhcil. 'I'lic liilVcTciil li'ii;r||is of llic Irouuli sliDiilcl he cut lo til t-xaclly. Kacli pcirliiiii nf the Irou^rli sliuuld liiivc i(s cdvi-r well lilti-d iind scciiri-d Willi one |)cir only, in order tliiil il nmy rciidily he rc- iiiovimI lo iiilrodiice tlio powdcr-liosc" The Irougli is sai<l to tiiiil<e nil eltiow wlicii it clmi-ges its direc- tion. Tlie ))ic(i-s foniiiiin "n elbow slioiild be solid- ly yet Biiiiply coiuieclcd. Wlieii severiil mines are to be fired at llie s;mie uiiiiiu-iii, it is necesMary so to proportion llie trains to explode them, that, startinir , from the same point, the distances in time from that point to the charges may be all equal. Tlie follow- ing cases show the manner of obtaining this result whicii enter small pickets try), and perfectly tight, in rcgaid to the walls, .Somelimes the sides of the tiiere are dilferences of ()|)inion, but it is proba- ble that a plastering of mortar over juths, white- washed with milk of lime, is the best, on account of ils absorbing power, noxious gases lieing undoubt- edly disposi-il of ill Ibis way by oxidation williin the porous spaces. A plan of iiosi,;tal was nol unusual la the armies during the late War of the Kehellion in America, in which Ihe w.irds or pavilions were disposed in a radiating form around a circular court, from 10(1 lo !.')(» feet in diameier. according to the size of tlie bospilal. A plan of Kicks Hospital near Baltimore. .Md., issonie- liiiies given as a model. This has a mess dining- room in one of the radi- ating buildings, ralher larger than tlie others, and oflices and other ad- iiiiiiistralive buildings- in the court. A better plan was carried out in the hospital at Point Lookout. .Md.. in which the Administration A- partments, Dispensary, JIcss- rooms, and Sur- geons' Quarters were placed in a large build- ing occupying a site a- mong the other radia- lingliuildings. The ad- vantage is apparent in the open court that is unobstructed in res^ard to currents of air. and in the great cheerfulness of such arrangement, whicli admits of a free view from one ward to all the others, allowingthe convalescent patients who may be sitting in tlieir respective porticoes to greet tlorton Lfltlie-rhuck. each other; for wounded and sick soldiers, wlien they are able to be so, are a very social fraternity. For two charges place a trough on the shortest line The central court can then be laid out in plats of gras.s from the one to the other, mark the center of it, and | and flower-beds, in the care of which the pat'lents let the principal trough join it at that point. For take great pleasure during their often Ioul' contine- three charges connect, as above, the two which are nient and absence from faniily. The plan lif the Lin- nearest. Let a trough lead from the middle point i coin Hospital at Washington was the arrangement of this to the third charge ; bisect the whole length of the wards in the form of an isosceles triangfe, they of trough lietween this third charge and either of the 1 being placed en e^/ielon, \vith the base of the triangle others ; then let the principal trough be joined to I being left open. The triangular space between t1ie this last point. For four charges first connect them i wards was occupied by the" various Administration two and two, then join the central points and pro- Buildings. ceed as above. The elbows of a trough impede the In England there are several grades of hospitals, communication of the lire, for whiciran allowance The smallest is the Regimental Hospital, under the must be made when proportioning the trains, each Medical Officers of the Regiment : next, there is the elbow being valued at 3 in. Square elbows impede Divisional Hospital, presided over by Staff Medical somewhat more than oblique ones. Officers, for the benefit of all the Corps in the Divi- HOSPITAL.— The principles of hospital construe- sion : and, lastly, there is the General Hospital, ap- tionwere pointed out by a Commission of the French I plicable to the whole force. In these hospitals the Academy of Sciences in 1778. and improved in sev- i -Medical Officers are responsible directly to the Sec- eral details by Miss Nightingale. Galton. and others, retary of State for War for all purely medical func- and in the late American and Franco-German wars. ! tions". With regard to discipline, inspections, and The general principles maybe gathered from the , other military dtnies, the principal ;>Iedical Officer is following directions. The most important part of a , responsible to the Commandant of the Regiment or hospital is the ward ; that is, the special apartment. I Division, who in his turn is answerable tothe Gen- or system of apartments, for the reception and care of the patients. It sliould, if large, be arranged in separate pavilions of one, or at most not more than two stories. These buildings should be about 2o feet wide, 14 feet high, and of a length allowing not less than 100 square-feet per bed. In warm climates the height should be greater, and also the floor- eral-in-Chief for the state of the hospitals iu his command. Soldiers while in hospital are subjected to a stoppage of 7d. a day from their pay. unless in hospital on accoimt of wounds received in actifm or on service in the field : but their whole pay is stopjied if detention in hospital be certified to have become necessary from their own misconduct. There are space, allowing at least 130 square-feet per bed. No I some large Military Hospitals at home, such as Net- one ward should contain more than 33 beds. The ley. Fort" Pitt, for" lunatic soldiers. Woolwich, etc. windows should be opposite, reaching from 3 feet i In the French Army the service of the Field Hos- above the floor to one foot from the ceiling, and oc- pitals forms part of the intendance of the Army, the cupy (Uie-lhird of the wall-space. The fioors should Medical Officers in charge being under the supreme be of hard pine or oak (Georgia pine in this coun- , control of the Intendaut-generaT. HOSPITALEKS. 56 HOSFODAB. HOSPITALERS.— Cliaritablf brntherlioods fouiulecl at variiius times and in iliffcrcnl countries for the care of the sick in hospitals. The vow to devote them- selves to tliis work of mercy is, iu all these brotlier- hoods, superadded to the ordinary vows of poverty, chastity, and oliedience, which are common to all the reliiiious orders in the Church of Rome. One of the earliest recorded instances of a hospital served hy such a brotherliood is that of Constance in the 13th century. The Knights of St. John, of Jeru.sa- lem. as also the Teutonic Kniyhts were originally Hospitalers. The Hospitalers of Our Lady of Chris- tian Charity were founded near Chalons iu the end of the 13th century by Guy de .Joinville ; a smaller body at Paris in 1294": anil the Hospitalers of Our Lady Delia Scala about the same time at Siena. The historj- of the Brethren of Mercy, founded by St. John of God, will lie found interesting. There are manv other local institutes or congregations, all of which, however, recognize the same general rules, and follow the same general organization. HOSPITAL FLAG,— A flag used ,to indicate the lo- cation of a hospital or ambulance. These flags iu the United States Army are as follows : For general hospitals, yellow bunting 9 by 5 ft., with the letter H, 24 in. long, of green bunting, in center. For post and field hospitals, yellow bunting (5 l)y 4 ft., with letter H, 24 in. long, of green bunting, in center. For amliulance and guidons to mark the way to fleld lios- pitals, yellow l)unting. 14 by 28 in., witli a border, 1 in. deep, of "jreen. HOSPITAL FOR INSANE SOLDIERS.— The Insane of the military service are sent by Department Com- manders, under proper escort, to Wasliiugton, where the patients are reported to the Adjutant General of the Army to procure the order of the Secretary of War, The application for admission to the Hospi- tal should be forwarded in time to reach the Adjut- ant General at least one day before the arrival of the patient iu Washington. The application sets forth a full description o^ the patient, and is accompanied by a certificate from a jNIedical Officer as to duration of insanity, whether developed before enlistment or employment iu the military service, and. if possible, a diagnosis of the case. If the patient l)c a soldier, his descriptive list and clothing account is also fur- nished. On the departure of the patient from his station, the Commanding Officer gives stich orders to the person in charge as will provide for the trans- portation of the necessary attendance to the Institu- tion and back again to their posts, and for their sub- sistence, either in kind or bj- commutation, during their absence. To obtain the release of a patient when cured, or his delivery to the care of friends, application is made to the Adjutant General, accom- panied by the recommendation of the Superintend- ent of the Hospital. After si soldier has, in the usual manner, been reported a fit subject for admission to the Government Hospital for tjie Insane, and is or- dered to l)e sent to Washington, his Company Com- niandi-r forwards, with his " descriptive list," cer- tificates of disability made out and signed in the usual manner. The man is not discharged at the post, nor is the order given for his discharge by the Department Commander, but his discharge is order- ed from tlie Adjutant General's Office, after his ar- riv:d at llie Itosjiilal. HOSPITAL FUND. The saving arising from an eco- nomical use of the rations of the sick and attendants in a hos])ital c<mstitute the Hospital F\md. The amount ispaidovertothesenior>Ic<lical Officer at the]stat ion. and is accounted for and expended by him exchis- ively for the benefit of the men in the hospital, in the purchase of such articles of diet, comfort, or con- venience as may be required, according to instruc- tions received from the Surgeon (ieneral. HOSPITAL SHIPS. -Ships fitted out as hospitals in all c\pcilil;oiis 'i.-yond the sea, for the care of the sick and wounded : they have liccn found invaluable iu many foreign expeditions. In China, in 18G0,four were fitted out, and ships for this purpose formed part of the expedition to the (jold Coast in 1874. They serve either as stationary hospitals or, if sick accumulate, can sail home to the nearest station, dis- charse, and return to fill aiiain. HOSPITAL STEWARD.— A Non-commissioned Otfl. cerof tlie (ieneral StatT whose duty consists in making tip prescriptions, administering medicines, and in a general supervision of the sick, under the instruc- tions of some Army Medical Officer, In the L'niled- States Army, there is one Hospital Steward for each millitary post, and the Secretary of War may appoint from the enlisted men of the Army, or cause to lie enlisted, as man}' Hospital Stewards, as the service may require, Thej' are graded as 1st, 2ud, and Srd class, are permanent!}' attached to the^Medical Corps, under such regulations as the Secretary of War may prescribe. The chevron worn by the Hospital Stew- ards is shown iu the drawing. The senior Medi- cal Officer of a hospital requiring a Steward may re- commend a competent Xon-commissioned Officer or soldier to be appointed, which recommendation the Commanding Officer forwards to the Adjutant Gen- eral of the Army, with|his remarks thereon, and with the remarks of the Company Commander. Antl, as the object of these more permanent apiioiirtnients is to procure the services of a more competent body of Hospital Stewards, no soldier nor citizen must be recommended for appointment who is not /t'limrn to be temperate, 'honest, and in every way reliable, as well as sufficiently intelligent, and skilled in Pharm- acy, for the proper discharge of the responsible duties likely to be devolved upon him. HOSPITAL TENT.— A large tent used for liospital purposes. It is usuall}' made of heavj' cotton-duck. In the United States service it is 14 feet long. 1.5 feet wide, and I.') feet high (center); with a wall 4i feet high, and aXv of appropriate size. The ridge-pole is made into two sections, and measures 14 feet when joined. This tent accommodates from 8 to 10 per- sons conifiirtalily. HOSPITAL WABON.— .V carriage on four wheels, having four or six springs, used for carrying the wotmded of an Army. The Prussian hospital wag- ons are fitted up with coml)ination ca.ses, in which are packed everything supposed to be ue('essary in a hospital for woimded, including bandages, splints, drugs and amesthetics, blankets, and an amputaling- table, besides an assortment of tags, on one of which the surgeon writes his orders as to what is to be done in each case, attaches it to the patient, and leaves him to the care of others. Five ambulances, three sujiply-wagons (carrying food, bedding, and tents), and two Surgeons' wagons constitute a lios- pital-train for a division, and will accommodate 200 |)atients. rc(|uiring 13 Surgeons and 74 men for their care. HOSPODAR.— A Slavonic title once very commonly given to the Governors of Moldavia and Walachia, whereas the I'rincc of Kouniania is now known un- der the native Homani<' title of Dnmiiii. Another Slav<inic term. ll''7V)r<«/, was also given to the Hos- podar, the term NVojcwod signifying the right and dignity of leading flic Army (being thus identical with IJukeJ, while tlieNospodar (Uospodar. Gospod, HOSTAGE. 57 HCTCHKISS MAGAZINE GUN. Gospiidiii. ill I 111- various SliiVDiiic iliulrrts; inciiiis simply, Master CDoiiiiinisj. KorniiTly, (hi- I/illiiiii- niiiii I'rinces were likewise riillcd J/iin/iniliirM. iiwil llic I'olisli Kiiiiis.dowii to the lime of Soliieski. lissiimed this title ill their diploiiiiilic iie;ic)liiitions with Hiis- niii. H'lKiidiir (Huler. Moiiareh) is even now the title of the Kiiiperor of Kussiu, and in couvtrsutiou si;:- Jlilics MiisliT. HOSTAGE.— A person areepted as a jiU'iljie for the lierfiiriiiaiiee of eouditions. When a town capilu- lales, vii-lors and van(|iiished usually K've into the custody, one of the other, several otheers, us |)ledf;es that I'aeli party will duly earry out the terms sti])!!- lated. Wlieii the terms are fultilled. the h(istai;es are exrhanned : but if tlu' terms be evaded, the op- ])osite side holds the risjlit to jiut to death, or other- wise luiiiish, the hostages in its possession. It is needless, however, to aihl that, in modern civilized warfare, the circumstances would have to be very remarkable indeed to be held to .justify so cruel a lueasure as the execution of a lio.stage. HOSTILITIES. A rupture between the natives of dilVereul countries. The tirst hostile deed that is coinmilled liy either party is considered the com- ineiicemeut of liostilities. Between n.'itives. the rtrst act of hostility pi'esup]ioscs a drcl.Mr.it inn of war. HOTCHKISS BREECH LOADING MOUNTAIN RIFLE. ■ — This guu, haviug been devis<-d especially with re- ference to the niountain service, is made as light as praclicalile. It weighs only IKi.d lbs., and one man is alile to place it upon the back of a mule. The weight of the carriage being but i'ii) lbs., the pack- ing, unpacking, and mounting of the gun and its carriage require only two men. For transportation the material is distributed as follows: One mule car- ries the piece and tw'o small chests <ontainiiig a(!ces- sories ; another mule carries the carriage and shaft, and others carry the ammunition- chests. The construction of tlic Hotchkiss gun is based u])on the use of a metallic cartridge, by which the ob- turation of the breech is ac- complished. Tlie extraction of t he cartridge-case is effect- ed automatically by the open- ing of the breech. The gun is made of Wliitworth steel, compressed in tlie tluid state. The mechanism of the lireech consists simply of a prismatic liolt, with a cam, entering a cavity re- cessed in the breech. It is operated by a lever with hanrlles. by which the bolt is withdrawn, or the re- verse. As "metallic cartridges are employed, a close tit of the breech-block is unnecessary, and the bolt is adiusted freely to its slot, which is an advantage over other breech-loading systems, which recpiire great liicety in the tit of the breecli-mcchanism in order to insure a perfect obturation. The cartridge-extractor is a simple prismatic piece of metal, bearing at its forward extremity a hook; it is guided in a cavity in the upper part of the breech, parallel to the axis of the piece ; on its lower face is fitted a tenon, wliicli slides in a groove cut in the upper face of the breech- block. The groove is straight on the sides towards the handle, but curved at the other extremity— to. | wards the opening for charging — so that in withdraw- ing the breech-block the tenon of the extractor slides for a time in the straight part of the groove, but as I soon as the lilock is so far withdrawn that the open- j ing for charging comes against the face of the chamlier the tenon becomes engaged in the inclined portion of groove, and is suddenly drawn liackwards, by which motion the empty case is thrown out of the gun. The movement of the breech-block is ar- rested by a stop-screw sliding in the recess upon the upper fiice of the block. The ammunition is com- posed of a inetallic case which contains the powder, and is united to the projectile — an explosive shell — by •'choking," in the same maimer as the cart- ridges for modern small-arms. The cartridge is of brass; the hiail being strengthened by cup-shiipirl reinforces. It is not primed, l>ut is ignited by the ordinary friction primer. In the base of the cart- ridge is a valve formed liy the cup reinforces; the gas from the primer opens the valve, whirli closes automatically, after the ignition of the charge, by the pressure of the gas inside, thereby preventing the escape of gas through the vent. The cartridge can be recharged, on an average about eight times. The projectile is of a cylindro-ogival form, about 3^ calibers in length; it licing fiirnisheil with a mid- dle band of a soft brass, which takes the rilling, rpon the cast-iron body of the prfijeclile are lunied a number ot grooves, of little depth and width, be. tween which are narrow and shar)> ridges. The band covers this portion of the ))rojeetile. and at the inoment of firing the pressure of the gas which siir- soiinds the iirojectile in the chamber molds exactly upon the brass the corresponding grooves and ridge.* that are on the cast-iron. This method of banding olTers the advantage of securing a jjcrfect iidlierence between the brass band and the projectile, and also liermits regiilatiiiir with great nicety the forcing wlieieb}' the friction necessary to produce rotation may be reduced to a minimum. The band of brass obviaic? the fouling of the bore. The piece can be tireii a great many times witlioul any necessity for using the spoiige. , The shells are fitted with percu-s- sionfuscs of the ilotchkiss pattern. Tlie following are the principal w'cights and dimensions : t'aliber l.Go inches. Length of bore 24.72 calibers. Weight of piece IKi.tiO pounds. AVeight of carriage 220.00 pounds. Weight of cartridge complete 2 pounds 10 oz. ElTeclive range 4.200 yards. Number of helicoidal grooves 10 Twist (to the riglit) 49.21 inches Depth of ffrooves (uniform ) 0.12 inches HOTCHKISS MAGAZINE GUN.— This gun. invent- ed by Jlr. B. B. Ilotchkiss, an American, lately re- siding in Paris, was tirst brought to this country by him in the spring of 187G, and exhibited at the Cen- tennial, at Philadelphia. It was found necessary to make many changes in the arm originally introduced by Mr. ilotchkiss, and for these improvements pat- ents have since been granted. The gun thus im- jiroved has been approved by two Boards of ( llticers, apjiointed by the Chief of Ordnance of the -Vrmy, for the purpose of examining small-arms. As now offered, it was a second time recommended for trial in the hands of the troops by the Ordnance Board of 1881-82. It embodies the experience of six years' manufacturing. and the valuable suggestions of many experienced officers who have used it in the tield. It is a most simple and solid repeating-gun, capable of doing good service under the most disadvauta- geous circumstances. The drawing shows the work- ing parts, with nomenclature, of the latest improved model of 1883. The operation of tlie gun is very simple. 1. To open the breech-bolt : llold the slock lirmly with the left hand a little in front of tiic receiver: and with the right hand niise the handle, and draw baik the bolt, making but one motion. 2. Close the bolt by an inverse motion. This operation cocks the piece. 3. To cock the piece without withdrawing the bolt : Raise the handle as before, and immedi- ately turn it down. 4. To load the magazine : Raise the handle, and draw back the bolt. Take a cart- ridge between the thumb and middle finger, placing the point of the fore-hnger on the bullet ; insert the head of the cartridge in the receiver, just in^ront of the point at which it narrows down, and press it back in the magazine until a distant click— the head jiassing the cartridge-stop — is heard. Repeat the operation until five cartridges have been inserted. .\notlier may then be placed in the chamber. The magazine may be unloaded in two wavs:- HOTCHKISS MAGAZINE Onn. 58 flOTCHKISS MAGAZINE GLN. 1. Raise the handle, and draw back the bolt: the cartridge will be then thrown out. Holding the muzzle of the arm well up, push forward the bolt (d» not turn it down), the tluimb of the right hand pusliing the knob of tlie cockiug-picce, and pull the trigger. Draw back the bolt by the knob of the cooking-piece : and the cartridge will be pushed for- ward, and remain in the receiver. Remove the cart- ridge, and proceed as before. 3. Rai.se the handle ; place the wrist of the right hand against the handle of the lock-tube, the thumb being extended across NOMEMCL.\TURE. 1. Receiver. 2. Guard-plate. 3. Guard-plate Screw (rear). 4. Guard-plate Screw (froDl). 5. Side-screws (2). 0. Cockiug-piece. T. Locking-tube. R Bolt-head. 9. Firing-pin. 10. Firing-pin Screw. 11. Extractor. 12. Main-epring. 1.3. Bolt-lock. 14. Bolt-lock Spring. 15. Bolt-l'>ck Spring Screw. 16. Magazine Cut-off. 17. Magazine Cut-off Spring. 18. JIagazine Cut-off Spring Screw. 19. Magazine Tube. 20. Magazine Spring. 21. jSlagazine Nut. 22. Cartridge Follower. •ii. Cartridge-stop. 24. Cartridge-stop Screw. ■io. Cartridge-stop Roller. 25. Cartridge-stop Stop-pin. 27. Trigger. 28. Trigger-screw. 29. Upper Tang-screw. 30. Butt-plate. 31. Butt-plate Screws (2). ; It Will piv,.t. the bolt in front (if the liaiidle, and the fore-tinger resting upon the barrel. Draw back the bolt (kcep- inL' the hand in the same position) by pressing the back of tile tliiinib near the wrist against the front of the handle: remove the cartridge with the lluimb and lingers, whicli are thus at liberty to receive it. Push forward the bolt (do not turn"it down), and ! and turning pull the trigger. Withdraw the bolt with the back of the thumb as before, and stop the cartridge com- ing from the magazine with the fore or inde.x finger. Remove the cartridge, and proceed as before until the magazine is exhausted. Tlie magazine cut-off is found on the right of the piece, just in the rear of the bolt-handle. It serves to lock the magazine so that the arm may be used as a single loader while the contents of the magazine are held in reserve. When the thimib-piece is pushed forward, however, the arrangement of the meclianism is such that no cartridges can escape from tlie magazine to the chamber, and tlie weapon is practically a single loader. The bolt-lock is placed on the left side of the receiver, oppo- site the magazine cut-off, and serves at the same time to lock the bolt and the trigger in such a manner that the bolt cannot be turned or drawn back, nor the arm fired. To lock the bolt and trigger push forward the thumb-piece of the liolt-lock; this can only be done when the bolt is clo.sed and the gun cocked. To unlock the bolt, push back the thumb-piece of the bolt-lock. To dismount the gun : — 1. Take out the bolt. To do this, raise the handle, and draw back the boit until the forward end of the cocking-piece just clears the rear end of the receiver; then after letting go the han- dle, take hold of the cocking- piece, and turn it down to the right until the projection on the bolt-head leaves the groove under the front end of the locking-tube. The latter may then be drawn out at the rear, and the bolt-head removed at the front of the receiver. To return the bolt, the head must be inserted from the front, and the other part from the rear. 2. Take off the butt-plate, by removing the two butt-plate screws. 3. Take out the mag- azine nut. 4. Take out the ma- gazine spring and follower. .5, Take out all the guard side- screws. 6. Take out the guard- screws and the upper tang- crew. 7. Take off the butt- ;|ock, by drawing it backward from between the guard and $ u])per tang, and off from the S magazine tube. 8. Take out ^ the guard. 9. Take out the ^ liolt-lock anil magazine cut-ofT springs. It will aid persons unaciiuaintcd with the gun, when endeavoring to replace these parts, to remember that the Hat sides of tlie springs lie next the receiver, 1(1. Take out the boll-lock and magazine cut-olT. While these parts re- semble cacli other exteriorly, be observed that the bolt-lock has a short and is assembled on the right of Ihe arm, while the magazine ciit-olT has a much longer pivot, and is assembled on the left. 11. Take out the magazine tube. This is accomplished liy drawing back the masrazine lube from its seat in the frame, it slightly to the right, so that it may a HOTCHKI88 PEKCUSSION FUSE 59 H0TCHKI88 EEVOLVIHO CANNON. pass llic trifippr. 12. Take mil the \vipin}:-rod. 18. | Take "f tlic Ijiimls. 14. Itcinovc the tip-stock. Tlii.s i in licst (lone by sej)araliiii; tlic tip-stock, or for(-nriii, j from the liarrcl ; first at tlic forward end of tlic tip- [ stock, .sc|iiiraliiiLC tlimi uiilil tlic stud on the receiver i.s willidrawii from the slot in tljc rear end of the ti]i- Rlock. \r>. Take out the IriLC^'cr. by removiiii; tile tiinner-screw. 1(!. Take oil' the barrel. This should be altempted only by ])ersoiis |irovidcd with proper tools, as the barrel and receiver are very lirmly as- soiiiblcd tofjether. 17. The cartrid;xi-sto)i may be dismounted from IIk^ nuard. by unscrewing the cart- ridijc-slop screw, and driving out, from the left to the riiiht, the slop-pin. To dismount the brccch-bolt : — 1. Remove the boll-head. To do this, hold the cockinir-piccc firmly in the left hand, and willi the rifjlit turn down tlie lianilles as in the act of lockiiis; tlic bolt. The head will Ihenslip off. 2. Turn <iut the liring-pin .screw. 3. Slip the bolt-head partly on the I'.rojcc'tinj; end of the tirini;-pin, and use it as awri'iich to unscrew the jnii. The main-spriiiLC may then be removed. 4. Keniove the extractor by tappinir gently on its pro- jectini; end with a piece of wood. To assemble pro- ceed in the inverse order of Ihe operations given above. See Mnqasi m -qint . HOTCHKISS PERCUSSION FUSE.— This fuse con- sists of a metal body, A, clos<'d at the front end with a screw cap, li. It has a conical hole in the rear, which is closed with a lead plug, <'. (the safety-plugj, pressed in very tightly, so that llie plug iirojects a iiltle through the base of the body-case, toward tlie inside. The plunger, I), is composed of lead cast into a brass casing to strengthen it, and to prevent the lead being upset by the shock of discharge. Two brass wires, /''.cast into Hie lead on opposite sides of tiie plunger, liolil it suspended in the case, the wires going through the holes in the bottom of the case, and being held securely in position by the safety- plug. TIk' ])luni:er has a nijiple cast into the lead, ami is primed with an ordinary percussion-cap ; in its axis it has a powder-chamber. " O, which contains the igniting- charge. The operation of the fuse is thus : The safety-iilug is dis- lodged backward into the interior of tlie projectile by the shock of l-D discharge ; the wires then being not held so tight in the hole, the ! plunger is di.sengagedand rests on : the bottom of the fuse-<:a8e, and j is free to move in the 'ine of a.\is. When the flight of the projectile is suddenly retarded by its strik- ing iui object, the ]ilunger. in con- seciuence of its inertia, is driven forward, and the primer strikes against the screw-cap, thus igniting the powder in tJie channel, and so tiring the bursting-charge of the ]iroje(iile. See F'lsr. HOTCHKISS PROJECTILES.— Projectiles of this sys- tem, as shown in the drawing, are composed of three parts. The Iwdy. 15. and the mii. ('. are of cast-iron, iuid the n'liy. U, of lead. The ring is locked into the body and the cup by the grooves (b) and (c). all the parts be- ing thus hehl securely together. The j acVion of the charge is to drive the cup forward, thereby expanding the soft metal into the rilling of the gun, and at the same time liinding the lead so that it caniKit revolve ujion the pro- jectile ; this last is assisted by a few grooves on the cast-iron under the lead. The amount of expansion is controlled liy the distance tlie cup can move before coining in contact with the end of the body. All those projectiles with which time fuses arc used have three "longituilinal grooves on the outside, to insure the passage of the flame to the fuse. The ring, being placed miidi nearer the <entcr of gravity of Ihe projectile ilian if at the ba.se, tends to steady the projectilr^ in the bore, and iricnase the accuracy of tire. A ilotclikiss pro- jectile, lately introduced for brr^ech-loailing guns. iH of cast-iron, in one piici' ; a banri of soft brass, alioiit one caliber long, is forced into a reciss in the pro- jectile, situati'd well over the center of gravity : two longitudinal grooves prevent the banil from turning. Upon till! outside of the band is cut a niimbiT of saw-toolhed grooves, to reduce the strain due to com- pression of the brass as the projectile is forced into, the bore. See Kj-jiii ntlinii I'riijertHis»,ni\ l'r'ijrrl,itin. HOTCHKISS REVOLVING CANNON. The Holcli- kiss revolving cannon caiinol be classed with mitrail- leuses in Ihe ordinary sense t,f the latter tr-rm. as explosive shells are fired with the forinir. and it has a range equal to that of field-artillery. The .system of this gun may be explained as follows ; Five" barrels, grfiuped around a common axis, are revolved in front of a solid breech-block, which has in one part an opening to introduce the cartridges, and another opi'iiing through which to extraci the empty shells, while the cartridges are fired after being revolved and while motionless in frfnil of the solid portion of the breech. Fig. 1. The exterior aspect of this revolving cannon resembles the Galling mitrailleuse, it being, on the other hand, entirely different in its interior mechanism. The system is composed of two distiiu't jiarts, viz., the barrels with their disks and shaft, and the frame and breech containing the mechanism. The live barrels, made of the iinest oil-lemiiered cast-steel, are mounted around a com- mon axis, between two disks, on a central shaft. The series of barrels are in this way placed in a rec- tangular frame, which is attached to the breech, the near end of the shaft penetrating the same to receive the rotary motion from the driving-gear. Fig. 2. The breech of the revolving cannon is composed of a solid cast-iron breech-block, weighing about ;5Hfj lbs. This absorbs the greater part of the recoil. It has a door at the rear end, which can be easily op<'iied, so that the nK'cIianism is freely accessible, and can, if necessary, be dismounted and ]iut back into its place in a few minutes, without tlie aid of any special tools. A peculiar feature of this gun consists in the barrels remaining «J(7/ during the dis- charge, so that there is no movement of any kind to impede the accuracy of the tire. This stop or lost motion is obtained by tlie shaping of the driving- worm, which is so constructed that the inclined driving-thread only covers half its circunifcrence, the other half of the thread being straight. The ef- fect of this is that the barrels only revolve during half a revolution of the worm, and stand still during the other half revolution. The combination of the mechanism is so arranged that the loading, tiring, and extracting takes place during this pause. This feature is of great importance for the accuracy of tire and the durability of the system. The worm- shaft projects through the breech on the right side, and has a crank with which the whole system is moved; on the left side of the worm-shaft a small crank is attached, by which the loading and extrac- tiiui of the cartridge-shells are effected in the follow- ing manner: On the interior face of the left side of the breech a cog-wheel is mounted, with two hori- zontal racks, the one being placed above the other under this cog-wheel, and parallel to tlie axis of Ihe barrels, so that in moving either of these racks tlie other is moved by the' cog-wheel in the opposite di- rection. I'art of the lower rack forms a vertical slot, in which the small crank on the left side of the worm-shaft works. The rotation of the latter con- seipiently gives an alternating and opposite move- ment to the two racks, so that while the one is going forward the other moves back, and reciprocally. The under rack forms the extractor ; the upper one moves a piston which drives the cartridge into the barrels, the cartridge being placed before the HOTCHKISS BEVOLVING CANNON. 60 HOTCHKISS REVOLVING CANNON. piston, in the trough in which it moves; and during ! ridges are piled one upon the otlier, the opening of the time the barrels are motionless it is introduced the" introduction-trough is closed hy a little door, into the one standing before the trougli. The cart- , which goes down by the weight of the cartridges, ridge is not " driveifhome" entirely, but its head is ' the tirsT of which drop;* into the trough, and then in view of au inclined plane, cut into the metal of i the piston in moving forward, raises the same door Fig. 1. Side Elevation. the breech, on which it slides when it is moved by and allows no more cartridges to enter until at the the rotation of the barrels. This completes the iii- : proper time. All parts of the mechanism are very troduction of the cartridsre into its chamber. The \ strong and durable, and hardly exceed in number piston itself is a simple cylinder connected with the | those of an ordinary small-arm, there being, besides rack, and running in a slot in the couducting-trough. | the group of barrels, thirteen parts, viz. :— 1, 2. The When the racks are in their extreme positions tliey breech-block, with its door for closing the rear end. 3, 4, 5. The crank-shaft, with its worm for moving the barrels, and small crank for working the loader and extractor. 6. The crank. 7, 8. The firing-pin and spiral spring. 9. The extractor. 10, 11. The loading-piston and rack for moving it. 12. The cog-wheel for transmitting the movement of the ex- tractor to the loading-piston. 13. The door for reg- ulating the feed of cartridges. The operation of the mechanism may be described as follows, supposing the crank to lie in continual motion : A cartridge is placed in the introduction- trough, the piston pushes it into the barrel, then the barrels begin to revolve, and the cartridge is carried on till it arrives before the tiring-pin, wliich pene- trates the solid part of the breech, and which has in the meantime been retracted by action of the cam. Fig. 2. Vertical Section through AB. remain still a moment. This, stop is obtained by ' Fig. 3. Then, as soon as the cartridge has arrived giving the slot in its center part a circular shape con- j into this position, the barrels cease to revolve, and ■ ' the primer of the cartridge is struck by the tiring- centrically to the shaft of the crank. This is neces- sary, because at the moment of the barrels arriv- ing" at the end of their course the head of the cartridge-case becomes engaged in the hooks of the extractor, which would not be possible it it were in motion at the time. The extractor is a large double hook at the end of the bottom rack; it is very solid. Fig. .S. Longitudinal Section Thron^'h the line of Axis. and its proper working is certain under all circum- , crank ; stances. jVfter the cartridge is extracted from the barrel it strikes against an" ejector, which pushes it ! out of the extractor, and it falls to the groimd tlirongh an ojieiiing in the under part of the l)reecb. Tlie firing-pin has an elongation. ]iointing downward, wliich. i)V file operation of a s]iring, is pressed I maimer that without ilisiilacing the against a "cam on the worm, and as the worm rotates, tain amount of laleral niolion as well liic cam drives the liring-])in back and compresses , may be given to the gun. Thus the gun is made to the spring. Tlie moment the tiring-pin becomes . sweep horizontally along a line, by adjuslment, lie- liberated, it strikes the primer of the cartridge and i tween each single shot, or during rapid discharge, the discharge lakes place. To obviate the difflcul- [ The ammunition for Ihe revolving caimon con- lies which exist in other systems, when Ihe cart- 1 sists of a center-tire metallic cartridge of special con- pin and discharged ; then the revolution of the bar- rels begins again, and the fired cartridge-shell is car- ried on until it comes to the extractor ; this, in the meantime, has arrived up to the barrels and the cartridge-head rolls into it. As soon as the head is laid hold of by the extractor, the barrels again cease to revolve, and'during this jieriod the cartridge-shell is withdrawn and drop- ped to the ground. As during every stoppage of the barrels the gun is sup- plied with a new cartridge, and the fir- ing and extraction is also performed, during this time a continvious but slow fire is kept up. By supplying the gun in this manner with single cartridges, about thirty rounds per minute may be fired. Should rapid firing be required, the gun is then supplied, not with single cartridges, but with "feed cases," con- taining groups of ten cartridges each, and in this manner from sixty to eighty rounds per minute can be fired, with only three men to work the guu: viz. — one man to train the gun and revolve the one man to place the " feed-cases " contain- ing the cartridges into the "feed-trough"; and a third man at the ammunition-chest to charge the " feed-cases" and to hand them to the charger. At- taciied to the frame is a lurii-table whichVoniiects the camion to Ihe " trumiiou-saddle," arranged in such carriage a (-er- as of elevation HOTCHKISS REVOLVING CANNON. 61 H0XCHK188 KEVOLVINO CANNON. Blniclidii, liolilinj; in (•.■tcli one the powder, the jiro. jrclilr, 1111(1 the luhriciitiiift-wail, !irniii;;iMl like llir Kiiiiilar iiMiiMiinilioii t'cncriilly iisril f(ir Hiimll-itriii.H. Two (lilTiTcnl kiriils of |irojcclili-s iiri' iiscd, llic one <«u explosive slicll und the oilier ii ease-shot. No- tliiiii; iiec'd be saiil of the latter, as it does not dilTer from the eoinmoii eas<' or eaiiister-shot used in ordi- nary cannon. The shell is of a novel eonstrnelioii ; il is of cast-iron, of a eylindro-o^rival sliape, slijjhtly rounded at the rear end. The packing consists of a hrass coat of alioiil oik' caliber in linirth. and placed tqiiidistantly from the center of jrravity. This coat is of soft brass iMbini,', contracted with irreat jirc'S- mire lover the body of the projectile, it bein;; pro- vided with longitudinal f;rooves, and two jirooves encirclini; il at the top and bottom ends of the pack- inj;. Tlie coatinj; is forced into these i^rooves, and any disturbance of it ou the body at starting is thus jectile, and the rilling' is impressed on tlie riljM only covered by the tubiiiL'. Its dimensions and weifrlits are as follows : l,eni;tli of body, li.tili inches ; entire liiiL'lh with fuse, 4.27 inches; lenKlli '>f brasscoat- int;, 1..') inches. The carlrid^re-case is composed of a spirally-rolled tube of sheet-brass, strengthened at the head with an inside and outsirle cup. The head is punched out of sheet-iron, and is fastened to the cups with three rivets. The primer consists of a casi; holding the anvil, and is closed at the bottom end by the cap containing fwlminati- ; it is lilted into a hole which penetrati-s tli<- hea<l and both cups, and it projects through into the inside of tin- cartridge-case. This cartridge, which can be manufactured with great farility, on account of its simplicity, has jjroved itself to be of a very durable (pialily. and it can be used repeatedly, Iht construcliuu of the body of Fifr. 4. Hotchkies Revolving Cunnon. with Shou obviated. These grooves serve at the same time as breaking-lines of the shell. After the coating is at- t4iched to the projectile, some small saw-tooth-like grooves are cut into it. to reduce the strain while being forced through the rifling of the barrel. These grooves can be filled with a lubricating substance, an<l this is then carried perfectly between the pro- jectile and the bore of tlie barrc'l. The coating of the projectile is conical at its front part, correspond- ing with the cone in the projectile-chamber, so that it is exactly centered in the bore as sooii as the for- ward movement commences. Its rear end is cylin- drical to within about one-third of its length. The shell is turned smooth all over, and is nearly 0". 016 in diam<-ter less than the bore of the barrel. This projectile is made with great care and exactness, witii only a very small deviation in dimension. The fuse employed is that known as the Hotch- kiss percussion-fuse, used in large quantities during the last war in America, and described above. The improved llotchkiss shell is with its fuse a little less than three calibers in length, or about seven- sixteenths inch shorter than the one just described, fnmi which it differs, with the above exception, in the following particulars only : The new shell has four circumferential grooves separateil by ribs about one-twentieth inch wide, and longitudinal cuts be- tween ribs. The tubing, about one caliber in length and one-sixteenth of an inch thick, instead of being corrugated ou the exterior, as in the old shell, is perfectly smooth, and is contracted into place by a slight pressure only. The gas from the discharge presses the jiackiug so tirnily into the grooves and cuts that it cannot rotate independently of the pro- Ider-picce. Pietol-grip Stock, and Firinp-trigecr. the cartridge allows it to expand to the chamber of the gun without the metal being stretched, so that after the discharge it contracts itself again to its previous diameter, thus leaving the tired case per- fectly loose in the chamber for extraction. The lu- bricator consists of a wad of felt about ".236 thick, dipped in a solution of mixed tallow and beeswax. A paper dislc is placed between the lubricating-wad and the charge to prevent the powder getting dam- aged by the greasy surface of the lubricator. The projectile is "inerely pressed into the neck of the cartridge and is not clenched, as there is enough friction to hold it absolutely secure. Of course the ammunition is, as in the case of all of the modern small-arm ammunition, which it resembles, rendered safe against influences of weather and danger of explo.sion. The following are the prin- cipal dimensions and weights, etc., of the gun. Caliber t". '-■«" inclicf. Total length of bore 4 feet 2.281; imhes. Lencth of riHing 3 feet 8.S82 inches. Rillfna. one turn in 4 feet 1.212 inclies. (Twivt and depth of groove uniform.) Number of grooves 12 Width of lands 0.098 inchss. Depth of grooves 0.019 inches. Number of barrels S Diameter of barrel over powder-clamber. . . .3.4<i4 inches. Diameter of barrel at the muzzle 2440 inches. Weight of each barrel 77. liai (Kiunils. Radiasof sights 2'3" W7 Vertical distance of the line of eight from the common axis of the barrels 2.0866 inches. Horizontal distance of the line of eight from the common axis of the barrels 6.496 inches. Weight of gun 1.047.i'i pounds. Total weight of gun with traversing appar- ntue ... l,l.%7.4,Si)Ound8. For the revolving cannon a special carriage has HOTCHKISS SHELLS. 62 HOT-SHOT. been roustriicted. This was found necessary, as the ordinary lield-gun carriage is not provided with tlie means for procuring an excellent and immovable rest for this gnu. The trail of the carriage consists of two brackets of steel-plate, connected by three transoms and bolts, the rear end being connected by the trail eye-piece. The brackets diverge against the trunnions. The trunnion-bearings, and the hear- ings for the axle-tree, are riveted to the outside of the brackets and are fitted in tlie ordinarj- manner. The axle-tree is of steel, the arms being slightly con- ical. The wheels have metallic naves and ring-tires. The nave consists of two parts, the inside flange, with the pipe-box, and the outside tlange. The spokes are cut in a conical form at their " hub" ends, so that they fill the uave-tlanges, and the two parts of the nave are bolted togetlier with the spokes with six screws. These wheels are very strong, and have been found practical and economical in ser- vice, and they allow spokes to be easily substituted for others when broken. The elevating arrangement consists of a screw working in a gun-metal nut, resting in the oscillating bearing. This nut is revolved by conical gear-wheels from the left side of the trail, the top-end of the screw being attached to the trunnion saddle-plate. The handspike is hinged to the trail so as to fold back in traveling. A tool-box is placed between the trail ; this at the same time makes a solid con- nection of the trail-brackets. The carriage of the revolving cannon is usually provided with a light steel shield for the protection of the gunners from small-arms fire. This shield is of three parts, made to fold together, thus forming seats for two men. It can immediately, when coming into action, be luifolded. and only the muzzles of the barrels and the wheels of the carriage are exposed to the enemy. Tlie steel plates are about 0.236 inch in thickness. Two boxes are attached to the axle-tree, each to carry three feed-cases loaded with ten rounds of am- munition. On the carriages not provided with a shield, these ammunition-boxes are protected by light steel plates in front, and have a lid of steel, which, when raised, forms a small protecting-shield, and when closed they form seats for two gunners, so that with two or three gunners on the limber a suflicient number of men to serve the piece would be taken into action with the gun itself. The gun shown in Fig. 4 is intended specially for use against torpedo boats, and is mounted on the rail of a ship, as shown in the drawing. The recoil is taken up by the pivot, and the gun is so nicely balanced as to be easily trained by the gunner, who stands with his left shoulder against the "cross" or breech extension, and with his right hand grasping the pistol stock at theright of the gun has as complete control of the weapon as if it were a fowling-piece, or the gun may be held by the rack. See Machine- ejiin. HOTCHKISS SHELLS.— The" first variety has three walls. ])anillel,oruearl/ so, with each otlier, and vmited to a solid base. In producing it. the middle wall, is first cast liy the ordinary process. This wall is then suspended ujjon a core- [)iccc, whose dimensions are such as // 'B \ *l "'" '''■^^'•' a spac<' between its exte- ^ ' I J: riiiraud the interior surface of this wall, r(jual to the thickness desired for the inner wall. This core and middle wall are then suspended in a mold of Ihc common construction, wliicli mold has an innercontourthe ^hape of the exterior of the coniplele shell. The metal jioured inlcj this mold envelopes Ihi' middli' wall, and forms the shell as shown in Figure 1. The object of this peculiar form Fig. 1. of construction is to producer a shell whicli will be broki-n into a larger number of pieces than shells of the ordinary construction. Near the forward and rear ends of the cylindrical portion of the shell cannelures are turned to receive the pack- ing or soft brass bands, which are pressed and crimp- ed into place. Tlie base of the shell is slightly cham- fered. The Hotchkiss field-shells of ordinary pattern, as shown in Figure 3, are one inch longer than those described above, and have greater powder capacity. Thej' are cast in the usual way for casting shells, and have the same general shape as the triple-wall shells. The packing as original- ly made consisted of a soft brass tubing about 4 inches in length, running for nearly two-thirds the length of the cylindrical portion of the shell ; it was pressed and crimped into a recess turned on the shell to receive it. Cannelures were turned on the exterior of the tubing to diminish the bear- ing portion of the packing to be cut through by the rifling of the gun. Before these shells were fired, aud to insure suitable rota- tion, Mr. Hotchkiss had added a smooth brass tubing about \\ in. long, which was also pressed and crimped into the recess turned for it. In turning this recess two annular rings were left. Ah ex- amination of the results of a recent experimental firing shows an average of 17.4 hits per shot for the triple-wall against 10.4 for the common shells. The liability to premature explosion or breaking u]i in tlie gun seems to be about as great for one as for the other. Experiment fully demonstrates the superior destructive effects of the triple-wall over the com- mon shell. See Shells. HOTEL DES INVALIDES.— An Establishment in Paris, maintained at the expen.se of the State, where a number of old French soldiers are quartered. Its chapel contains the tomb of the great Napoleon, and is an object of much attraction to all visitors. It was founded by Louis XIV. in 1671. and during his reign and for a long time afterwards was a place of retirement for|tlie aged servants of Court Favor- ites as well as Invalided Soldiers ; but this abuse was put an end to by St. Germain in Louis XV. 's reign. In 1789 the Hotel had a revenue of £68.000, but during the time of the Republic its property was alienated and the Institution supported from the public revenue. The Hotel can accommodate 5.000 men, and the actual number of inmates is not much below this. See Soldlem' Homen. HOT-SHOT.— Hot-shot may be fired for the pur- pose of setting fire to vessels or buildings, though the}- are rarely used. Shot of low gauge should be clio.seu for this purpose and with reduced charges. They can be made red-liot in from 1.5 to 30 minutes, but care must be taken not to bring them beyond a bright red, as they are then liable to fuse and be- come misshapen. The part resting on the furnace- bars heats more quickly than the <ipper part, so they must frequently be turned. Shot expand ,,'5 of their diameter when brought to a red-heal : there- fore, to prevent any accidents, each shot should be passed through a red-hot shot-gauge before being taken from the fire-room. Should the shot jam in the bore it must be cooled by ])ouring water in at llie muzzle; but if that fails, the charge nmst be drowned before attemjiting to blow out the shot. .Tunk and grommct-wads which liavc been soaked in water for two or three hours, having the water pressed out of them, are lo be used in loading.' The juuk-wads musi be small enough lo lit easily when swelled by being soaked. The cartridge must be perfectly tight, so that powder will not be scat- tered along the bore. Sufficient elevation having HOT SHOT FORK. 63 HOWITZER. been fiivc'ii to cimhlc the shot to roll homo, first outer tiio oiirlriilj;o, a dry jiiiik-wiul, iiiiil Ihoii ii wot jwiiU-Wiul, iuiil nun thoiii homo. Uriii;^ tho sliot in 11 l)onrcr anil enter it, uitli u wot i;roniniet-wiiil on top; .■iineo it cools rii])i(lly, no time should he lost, (^iiaiililies of snioUe will eonie np lhron;rh the vent, hut a red-hol shot does not burn Tnore than the outer yarns of a well-soaked junk-wud, oven if left in tho i;un till it lieeonios cold. See Fhrirvrks and /'r.'j.riilr.y. HOT SHOT FORK. A fork niaile of iro)i, fastened to a wooden handle, and is used I o pull the shot out (if the furnace. It has two pronirs, which curve in- wards and upwards, so as to retain llio shot between tlu'iri whi'u once in position. HOT-SHOT WADS.- Wads for firing hot-shot, and (itluT like |iurposos, may bo nuule of hay wrapped with rope yarn, and arc made in tho same way as jimk-wa(ls|; or they may be made entirely of hay, by twist ins; fnuu llic hay a rope of an inch or an inch and a half in dianu'ter, and then eommencini; at one end and donlilini; it up about one caliber in lenj;tli, and twistins; it all the time, until it boconu-s nearly large enounh, when the rope is to be wound around the waduerpendicularto its a.xis, and fastened with a hitch. HOTTE.— A .sort of hand-basket, which is often made use of in tho construction of batteries and other works, and serves to earry earth from one ph'ice to another. Hence the word /i"(l, a well- known contrivance for carrying liricks. HOUGINES. — Parts of ancient armor covorin;^ the thighs, legs, and arms. HOUNDS. — 1. Pieces of wood used in the con- struction of lindjers for gun-carriages to connect the splinter-bars with the axles. 2. The blood- hounds employed for military purj o e-i The jius- sians liave strengthened their army by the novel addition to each company of a pack of powerfully and carefully trained dogs. These watchful animals are sent out with the sentinels on picket duty, where their chary ear and still koouer scent prove an impregnable barrier to the lurking spies of the enemy. The dogs used are a spoeies of blood-hound from the Ural .Moiui- tains. The dog is selected because of its ha- bitual silence. It growls but never barks — a mill tor of the first importance to soldiers oear an enemy's camp. The Ural honnd is gifted with an exceedingly tine .sense of .smell, keen ears, and is over alert. Most comforting of all to the lonely picket the dog is said to be ospeeiall}' courageous in defending its mas- ter. It is curious that, with the examiilo of the King Charles spaniels before us, no one thought before of using these intelligent ani- mals as sentinels. The value of the plan is self-evident. The Jluscovites have gone fur- ther, and are training swift hounds as well as the.se same Ural dogs, to act as dispatch bearers, n\uch as tho carrier pigeons were employed in 1871. They certainly would be hard messengers to catch, when stealing through the woods at night. See JU<'o,i-/i'Jinifl. HOURGLASS.— A glass ves.sel filled with sand, and compressed and attenuated at its center into the shape of tho figure 8, whereby the sand can only run througlv tho connecting orifice in a given time. This vessel is contained in a wooden stand. For- nuTly each Englisli regiment was furnished with this hourglass : and even at the present day native regiments in India use it. A common mode of keep- ing the time by native guards is by means of a metal bowl having a small hole in the bottom of it. which is allowed to swim on tho surface of tho water, and to fill in the space of an hour. This rough and ready mode of a.scertaining time, tluuigh not always cor- rect, gives a near approximation to tho lapse of an hour. This nature of time-clock was the first in- strument to measure tlio lapse of time independently of the sunshine. A simple time-keeper is also kept, but the arrangomi-nf is inverted, the bowl beinj; liHed with wafer, and the wafer allowed to escajie into a rece])fa<le in the same s]iaco of time, fhrougji a bole in the bottom of the bowl. HOURS OF SITTING.- The hours during which a ( 'oiirl-.VIarliiil is aulhori/ed to hold its sessions. The law provides that the proceedings of trials shall bo carried on only betwo'n the hours of oiglit in the morning ami throe in the afternoon, excepting in cases which, in the o|)inion of th(^ Ollicer apjiointing the Court, ro(|uire inimeiliate example. In the latter case, the order apiiointing the Courl-.Marlial must clearly state that •The Court is authorized to sit without regard to hours." HOUSE. A term anciently api)lied to the blocks of wood or frame structures, upon which tho early bombards wore fixed. See Fttxt. HOUSEHOLD TROOPS.— Those troops whose es- pecial duly it is to attend tho Sovereign, and to guard the .Metro]iolis. Those forces comprise three regiments of cavalry — the 1st and 2d Life Guards, and the Koyal ilorso Guards, and three regiments of Foot Guards (which include seven battalions), the Grenadier, Coldstream, and the Scots Fusilier Guards. The cost of these corps, for pay and allowances only, reaches the sum of £230,000 a year ; and they number in all ranks 1 ,802 cavalry and r>.'.)')(t infantry, who are justly hold to be the flower of the British Army. HOUSING. —The cover or <loth over or under a horse's saddle, used for cleanliness or as an oma- nuaital or military appendage. In the United States Army, housing is prescribed as follows: Furden- enil OffuMr« — To be worn over the saddle ; of dark blue cloth, trimmed .with two rows of gold lace, the outer row one inch and five-oigliths wide, the inner row two inches and one-fourth : to be made full, so as to cover the horse's liaunches and to bear on each flank corner the following ornaments, distinctive of rank, to wit : For tJie Oeiieml of the Army — A gold enibroiderod spread eagle with two stars and "Arras of the United States " between them : For Lieuten. ant General — A gold embroidered spread eagle and three stars ; For Major (letternli — A gold embroi- dered spread eagle with two stars ; and For Briga- dier Oemrah — A gold embroidered spread eagle and one star. ^veSaddle-clotli. HOWITZER.— From the earliest days of artillery there existed short, chambered pieces, which pro- jected stone balls under great angles of elevation. In 1478, an attempt was made to use in these pieces, hollow projectiles filled with powder, to which was attached a burning match to set the powder on fire : but it is proliable that tho accidents which accom- panied their use caused them to be abandoned for the time. In l(i34, however, means were devised to overcome this ditliculty : and, thus perfected, these pieces were introduced into the French service as a class of cannon now known as mortars. In the reign of Louis XIV., a great variety of mortars were used ; HUB MOKTISING-MACHINE. G4 HUE AND CEY. and some of them, called Comminges. after their inventor, threw bomt)P weighing .5.50 pounds. Early attempts were also made to throw hollow projectiles from perrieres and culverius, or guns ; but great difficulties were experienced in loading them, and the accidents to which they were liable, as in the case of mortars, caused tiiem to be abandoned. Subsequentlj'. however, the Dutch artillerists con- ceived the idea of reducing their length, so that the projectile c(mld be inserted in its place by hand; and. thus inipnivcd, these ciinuoii r.ipidly ciinie into use, under llie name of howitzers, from the German, Jldiihitz. The howitzer coiubincs in some degree tlie accuracy of a cannon with the caliber of a mor- tar ; and, while e(|ually effective at short ranges, is far more ))ortabIe than either. That the jviwder, on its expansion, may act with full force on the shell, it is <'ontined in a hemisplierical chamber of smaller diameter than the rest of the here, the mouth of which is completely closed by the shell when rammed home. The Coehorn howitzer, much used in India for mountain service, is a small gun, light enough to be borne by a horse up hilly defiles, etc. See Hoiritz- er, Ordnance, and TiNnty-fnur-pounder llmMztr. HUB MORTISING MACHINE.— A machine in which a wheel-hub is held upon a mandrel or stake, so dis- posed that a reciprocating chisel may cut tlierein the mortises for the spokes. The hub is dogged or clamped so as to prevent rotation while the mortise is being cut, and is then rotated at a determinate number of degrees to present the next spot. The drawing shows a power hub mortising- machine used in making the wheels for gim-carriages and Government wagons. Those hubs to be mortised are held fast in a screw-chuck, one end turning in cups fitted to each size. The chuck has a dial at- tached to it, accurately spaced for 10, 13, 14, 16, and 18 spokes, thus obviating the necessity for setting out the mortises. The bed also has stops which regulate the length, and is ar- ranged with a lever and stops, to give any required bevel or dish to the mortise. It is sup- ported by a standard, bolted to the base of the machine, mak- ing it firm and solid, and is raised and moved for the mor- tise by hand-wheels. The chis- el is reversed by hand, and brought down by the new dou- ble lever or treadle, which is ver3' easy for the operator. The bit-shaft has the new arrange- ment of lever and weight for working it, and is driven di- rect from the counter-shaft. The machines are complete in every respect, and are made in the best possible manner. This size works hubs 13 by 16 inches and under. It can lie fitted with a bed for common mortising, if desired. The counter-shaft has tight and loose pulleys, 13 inch diameter, 4 inch face, and should make 3.50 revolutions. The counter-shaft should be placed on a level with the pul- lej'in top of machine, and 8 or lOfeetdistant. Weight of ma- chine, 3,600 lbs. See Mortis, ing-iniichine. HUE AND CRY.— In Great Britain, the Official Gazette, which serves to advertise de- serters from Her Majesty's ser- vice. The phrase is derived from the old process of pursuit with horn and voice, used in Englisli law to ih'scribe the pursuit of felons. Whoeverar- rested the person thus pursued was so far prot<'cted tliat he rc(|uircd no warrant to justify the arrest; and even if the party turned out to be no felon, no action could lie brought if the arrest \\i\» honii fide. But it was not only a ground of action, but an olTense subject to tine and imprisoinnent, to maliciously and wantonly raise the hue and cry against a iicrson. It was the duly of all persons to join in a hue and cry, and if u person who Lad been robbed, or knew of a HUI88IER D'ARMES. G5 HUNT HAOAZINE-OUN. rdbhcry, fiiilcil to niisc tlic line imd cry. he. was liii- blc lo line or im[)risijniii(iil, or. iicconliM^ to souk; luillidrs. (o iiKlii'tiiii'iil. line itiid cry is mow Biib- stiiiiliallv iiliolisliccl. HUIS8IER D'ARMES. -TipHlufr; nil officer so-piiU- ed in France, wlio wasattiiclieil to the Uoyal Ilouse- liold. They were at first disliiiifiiished liy the name of S'n/i'Hn iVAnnrs, or Seri^eanls-at-AriMS. Some were directe<i to bear the mace liefore the Kini;(Uir- injs the day, and obtaine(l on that account the appcl- hition of Ilii'.Hnien< d'Armm: in later limes Ihcy were called the lluissiers. or TipstatTs of tlie Kind's Chamber. Others kept watch in the K line's bed- chamber dnrini; the nis;ht. and were sworn to expose their lives for the safetj' of his person, whence they obtained the name of Archern d" la Gnrdr. wliich term was changed to (riirdrn dit (,'orpii, or the Body- guards. HULK. — A name given to any old ship unfit for sea-service, which is used in harlmr as a depot of some sort. In the great naval harbors, tliere are coal-hulks, powder-luilks, convict-hulks, and liulks to which tlie crew of vessels repairing are turned over. HUMETTY.— A term in Heraldry, apjilied to a cross or other ordinary which is cut o(T, and nowhere reaches the edge of the shield. See Ihrnldry. HUNS. — The name of a considerable nation of an- ti(|uity, which, from time to time, made incursions upon tlie Roman Dominions, and which eventually, under Attila, the most renowned of all its leaders, brought the Empires of both the I^ast and the West to the very verge of destruction. The Iluns were of Asiatic origin, and, in all prob- ability, of the Mongolian or Tartar stock ; tlierefore akin to, and perhaps to be identified with the Scyth- ians and Turks. According to De Guignes, whose theory has been accepted by Gibbon, the Iluns who invaded the Itoman Empire were lineally^ descended from the Hiongnou, whose ancient seat was an ex- tensive but barren tract of country immediately to the North of the great Wall of China. About the year 800 B. c, these people overran the C'hincse Empire, defeated the Cliinese armies in numerous engage- ments, and even drove the Emperor Kao-ti himself to an ignominious capitulation and treaty. During the reign of Vou-ti (141-87 b. c), the power of the Iluns was very much broken. Eventually they broke into two distinct camps, one of which, amounting to about 50,000 families, went Southwards, while the other endeavored to maintain itself in its original seat. This, however, was very difiicult for them to do ; and eventual^- the most warlike and enterpris- ing went West and North-west in search of new homes. Of those that went North-west, a large number es. tablished themselves for a while on the banks of the Volga. Then crossing this river, they advanced into the territories of the Alani, a pastoral ]ieople dwell- ing between the Volga and the Don. At what period this took place is uncertain, but probably early in the 4th century. T!ie Alani, who had long dwelt in these plains, resisted the incursions of the Huns with much bravery and some effect, until at length a bloody and decisive battle was fought on the banks of the Don, in which the Alan King was slain, and his army utterly routed : the vast majority of the survivors joined the invaders. HUNTING HORN,— The Hunting Horn or Bugle Horn is a fre(iuent bearing in Heraldry. When adorned witli rings, it is said to be (jurnixhed. If the mouth and strings of the instrument are of ditTer- eut tincture from the horn, 'his must be named in blazon. See ILrdldri/. HUNT LIFE SAVING PROJECTILE. -This appa- ratus consists of a projectile and a tin can known as the shore-can. It is intended for life-saving pur- poses, to be used in connection with a gun or liiortar of suitable dimensione. The body of the shot or projectile is composed of a tin lube closed at the front end bv a disk of iron. Tlie head or |ioinl is made of lead lii-l upoti the enl of the tin tube. The leail e.xlenils up tlie side« of the lube, forming a thin ('oating for a distance of :) ".2 from tlie plane of the head, 'i'lie diameter of till' (hit head is 2.1) inches, but when lired ex- liands to the full size of the bore. The tube is re- inforced for (i inches of its length above the lead with a galvanized sheet-iron tube. The object of this reinforce is to slrengthi'n the tube and prevent upsetting when fired. Near the rear end of the lube four tr.ipeziform (liecesof tin, tr'rme(l "wings," are soldered to the tube at riirht angles loeacli riilier and eipiidisiant circumferenlially for the purpose of guiding the projectile in its (light after the manner of the barbs of an arrow. About g.'iO yards of small line is coiled on a spindle in a lathe, after passing through a saluraling solution of paraliiie. Tliis coil is wrapped with a thicknessof laboratory paper, and as soon as withdrawn from the lathe-spindle is jilacecl in the tin lube. The exterior end of the line is made fast lo a wire loop which projects from the rear end of the tube. Tin; wire is soldered to the tube. The rear end of the tube is then closed with a wooden plug one inch in thickness and of the same diameter as the inside of the cylinder. An axial hole one inch in diameter serves for the line to pass Ihrough in escaping fnjin the shot. A paper disk is pasted over this end of the projectile, which must lie removed before tiring in order to secure and withdraw the end of the line. The shore-can contains the shore-line and is made- of tin. It is a short cylindrical tube, of greater diameter than the body of the shot. The lower end is closed by a bottom of the same material as the cylindrical body. To the bottom a ring is at- tached in which is tie i a line, or through which a stake is driven, to prevent the can from being carried off in firing. Holes are punched through the bottom over each side of the ring-seat, through which ihe end of the line belonging to the outer coil is passed and tied to secure the line to the can. This shore- can contains about 250 yards of small line, coiled in a lathe and saturated with jiarattine in the same manner as the line in the shot. After coiling, the line is placed in the can and the tin cover put on. The cover has a centra! hole 1".6 in diameter through which the line is paid out. h. strip of laboratorj- paper is pasted around the can so as to overlap the junction of the cover and body of the can and prevent the removal of the former. A paper disk, which must be broken before firing, is j pasted over the hole in the top. j The method of using this apparatus is as follows: Suppose the gun. projectiles, and shore-can placed I on the firing-ground and the gun in position for j firing. Insert the powder-charge, tear the paper cap ifrom the rear end of the projectile, and draw i out a couple of feet of the line : place the projectile in the bore with the flat leaden head first. Then tear the paper cap from the hole in the top of the shore-can and pull out about 2 feet of line; tie the ends of the line together and place the shore-can near the gun on the windward side. The proper elevation is then given to the piece, the priming- wire inserted in the vent, a friction-primer put in, and the gun fired. See L'ft-iian'iig liocketn. hunt' MAGAZIKE -GUN." —This gun belongs to that •system in which a fixed chamber is closed by a bolt, by direct action. The receiver has a slot in its upper surface for the purpose of loading the chamber direct when the piece is used as a single-loader: it is also bored through at the rear for the reception of the breech-bolt. The latter is composed of two parts, the body and the locking-tube, which are connected by a left-hand screw-thread. The bolt is locked by two lugs, turning in corresponding cuts in the re- ceiver. These lugs are so shaped on their rear sur- faces as to cam the bolt against the base of the cart- ridge during the locking. A cam on Ihe inner surface of the rear end of the locking-tube forces the bolt HUBSLE B£V£IM£NT. 6G HUT. slightly to the rear, starting the shell, during the unlocking. The opening of the joint in the breech- bolt fthe thread being left-handed) during the lock- ing aids in the camming forward of the bolt, while the closing, by drawing the forward portion to the rear, aids "the starting of the shell. When the bolt is withdrawn the extractor, which is of the spring- hook pattern, pulls on the upper side of the head of the shell while the under side abuts against a forked post. By this means the shell is thrown clear of the gun. In order to insure the ejection of the shell a quick motion of the bolt is necessary. The forked post acts also as a guide for the breech-bolt. A slot in the rear of the bolt receives the nose of the ham- mer, allowing it to strike the firing-pin onl}' when the piece is locked. A slide prevents the hammer being pulled back by catching of clothing, etc. It must be moved back before the hammer can be ■cocked. The magazine, which is in the tip-stock, is loaded from the side of the receiver, or from imder- neath, by first raising the carrier by the withdrawal of the breech-bolt. The carrier has two grooves, one on each side, on its inner surface. In these ^grooves projections on the breech-bolt enter. As the "bolt is withdrawn the projections travel in the upper horizontal portion of the grooves until they reach in- clined faces when, by the pressure against them, the carrier is compelled to rise, bringing a cartridge op- posite the chamber. When the bolt is returned, the projections travel in the lower horizontal portion of the grooves until they reach other inclined faces, when the carrier descends opposite the mouth of the magazine, so that cartridges cannot escape until it is in position to receive them. No magazine cut-off is provided. As a magazine-gun, 4 motions are ne- cessary to operate it, viz. : cocked, opened, closed, fired. As a single-loader, 5 motions are necessary, viz. : cocked, opened, loaded, closed, fired. The gun caliber 0".44. carries 13 cartridges in the maga- zine, 1 in the carrier, and 1 in the chamber. See HUBDLZ EEVETMENT.— This kind of revetment is made by driving poles in the same direction as Ihe interior slope, into the banquette, about eighteen inches below the tread, and then forming a wicker- work. l)y interlacing twigs between them in a similar manner "to basket-work. The poles sliould be nine inches apart, and their diameter about one-and-a-half inches. They should be secured to the parapet by lonn- withes. The drawing shows a hurdle revet- ment and fraise. See lievetnunt. HUBDLES. — Straight and fiat rectangles of strong wicker-work, about" (i feet long, and 2 feet 9 inches higli. Tliey are useful in many ways, both in mili- tary and civil life, either as fencing, as barriers, or in forliticatiim. in the construction oilivrdlr-lmtteriex. These last were the invention of Sir William Con- greve, who devised them as the speeiliest means of throwing up earthworks; three hurdles are fastened at their ends in tlie form of a triangle, and Ihe cen- tral space is filled in a short time with earth. These triangles can be constructed to any ground-plan, and with their aid, a body of soldiers can intrench them- selves in a few minutes. Tlie hurdle is composed of wattles interwoven round stakes or pickets, the laller iluring the man\ifacture being fixed upright anil tirnily in tlie gmimd. HUBRAH. — A shout of encouragement and ap- plause, characteristically English. It serves also as a war cry. As an engagement at sea commences, the crews of the English vessels send up deafening hurrahs ; in a charge on .shore, the English soldiers hurrah when they rush upon the enemy. There is sometliing strangely exciting in this simple sound, and the combatants work themselves, as they shout, into a frenzied forgetjulness of danger. HUBST. — A charge in Heraldry employed to rep- resent a small group of trees, generally borne upon a mount in base. HTJBTEB — HEUBTEE — HEURTOIB. A square beam placed at the foot of a parapet where there is an embrasure to prevent the wheels from injuring the iuterior slope, when the gun is moved in battery. A short fascine or fagot is sometimes used as a substi- tute for the beam. A hurter is placed on the front part of a siege platform, under the wheels. The motion of gun-carriages is checked, front and rear, by pieces of wood or iron, boiled to the top-rails, called hurUrs and cimnUr-hurUr.t. HUSSABS, — Light cavalry. The name is derived from the Hungarian words hvia (twenty), and ar (pay), because every twenty houses had to provide one horse-soldier. In the British Army there are 13 1 regiments. The men are armed with a saber, car- bine, and pistol. The weight the horse of a hussar carries is about 18 stone. The dashing bold hussar, that epitome of military impudence and reckless- ness at the tavern, should present those qualities in : a very sublimated form on the field. Regardless of fatigue and danger, his imagination should never present to itself an obstacle as insurmountable. On the march, constantly at the enem^^'s heels ; in posi- tion keeping him at all moments on the alert, harassing him either with fatigue, or apprehension for the security of his rear and communications ; on the field careering with a falcon's speed and glance upon his quarry, however it may seek to elude his blow, such should be the hussar. HUSSITES.— The followers of Huss. Honoring him and Jerome of Prague as martyrs, thej' despised the decrees and anathemas of the Council, and took terrible revenge on the Priests and Monks. The symbol of their Confederacy was the cup, the use of which in the Lord's Supper they extended to the Lait}-, as James de Misa had already done with the approbation of Huss. In 1417 King Wenceslaus was constrained to grant them the use of many churches. After his death, Au- gust 13, 1419, the majority of the States re- fused to acknowledge his brother, the Em- peror Sigismund, who had broken his safe conduct to Huss. And the papal instructions to the Cardinal Legate, John Dominico, re- quiring him to employ violent measures for I the conversion of the Hussites, an insurrection en- sued, and the war began which is known in history as the Hussite War. Convents and churches were reduced to ashes, and Priests and Monks were slain. The Hussites divided into two parties — the Calixtine and the Taborlten. See Huss et la Ouerre desSussiten, by Ernest Denis (1879). HUT. — A structure more or less rough in its de- tails, for the housing of troops. It is substituted very often for the tent, when the sojourn in a camp or cantonment is likely to be of consideration, as, for instance, through a winter — a hut. however rude, which is wind and water-tight, being as superior in comfort to a tent as the latter is to the open air. Huts may be made of almost any size, and are som?- times for one officer ; at others for as many as one hundred men. The principal hut encami)mrnts in England are Aldershott, Shorncliffi', Colchester, and the Curragh of Kililare ; in British North America, hut-camps are situated at intervals of a day's march on the route from New Brunswick to trochee, and Ihe troops who made that winter-march in IHIil to 18C3 found their shelter truly welcome. The qiiarlers oc- cupied by the Uniti'd i^lales troops on the American frontiers, are very frequently huts made of tiuil)er HYDEB. 67 HYDRAULIC BUTTEH. by the troops. A good liut iimy lie readily finu stniftpil on Hiiitablc^rouiKlor liillsiili' by ex* iiviitinn 1111(1 ciivcrin;; witli u roof ; hiil if limber Im cnnvi'ii- ifiil. it is Ixttcr to build u l"f/ liiit, coviTiiii; with bark skins, bushes, reed mats, weii-wecds. or any Hiutabbr material procurable. In buildini; the hut four poles an; planted in the ground where the cor- ners are to rest. The lof;s are then piled one abovi' another ai;aiiint these poles, us shown in the drawing;, beinn notclu'd where they cross so as to brim; their Bides together. The .space lietweeu the logs is then made water-tight and air-tiplit by a stufting of clay, wattles, sallows, or small bundles of Iwii^s. Within, the joints should be lined with laths, or the whole be supported by a scantlint;, and may consist of overlapping boards, or boards laid Hush and shingled, or laths and shingles, or even birch-bark alone. The door is usually ledgcd, and there are one or two windows, with glazed sashes and shutters. A hut thus formed makes a snug habitation, and will last for many years; exclusive of the sashes, two men can erect in about a week, a hut of rough logs which shall be sufficiently large for their residence — that is, with an interior area of aliout lO feet. When circumstances permit the logs are occasionally sqtiared, which enables them to be fitted more ac- curately to each other, and adds, of course, to the solidity and finish of the whole structure, as well as to its durability. In this case the corner logs, in- stead of crossing each other, are joined by a dove- tail, or cutting the end of each to an angle of 4.')''. ^he f famed hut has the advantage over the log luit of allowing more exactness of finish, and from its lightness and portability being easily transported to any place where logs for hut-building may not be forthcoming. It consists of a strong framework of squared wood, properly fitted together, and covered with overlapping planks or weather-boards. The pieces should be sawn to the proper size, fitted to each other, and numbered ; then packed together in small compass for conve3-ance to the intended site, where the structure can soon be erected. It is usu- ally estimated that one of these huts, 30 feet long. 16 broad, and 10 high, makes a good barrack-room for 30 soldiers. The camps at Aldershott and the Curragh are mainly formed of framed huts. Where extra warmth is desired, the spaces between the up- rights are built tip roughly with bricks, Imrned or unbumed. Pi«e huts, common in the south of France, and very useful where wood is scarce, as well as very comfortable, are walled with blocks of clayey earth, and rammed with great pressure into wooden molds until they assume the forms of stones. These are laid one above the other much as stones themselves vi'ould be by a mason, and the wall so formed is both durable and sightly. The most critical operation for the non-professional hut- builder is roofing. This is usually thatch, shingles, paper, or felt, if lightness Vie an object; and of stones, liricks, or tiles, it the walls be calculated to bear their pressure. A roof of split logs gouged out in the center, like a long curved gutter, is good. A layer is placed side by side, with the hollow side up, and a second layer is put on them, with the hollow side down. The roof should have a pitch of not less than iT)'^ to keep out the rain. All cracks should be carefully filled with grass, mud, clay. etc. Th huts of Indians and all Savages are seuerallv rouml or ajiproximati' to the circular form, [irobubly be- cause of thir maximum house for a minimum cover. In building huts, it might be well to remember tlwl logs split better from the (Town or small end toward the liull. HYDER.— The Arabic term for lion. This title is frei|u<-nllv given In iiii'n of rank ill India. HYDRAULIC BUFFER. A recoil check, in con- stru<-liiin very similar to Ihe air-cylinder, A liquid is useil instead of air, but lh<' |)rinci|iles of operation are similar. This bulTer is, at jiresent, furnished only with the converted guns in the United Slates service. In its usual form it consists of a cast-iron cylinder 78 inches long, with an interior diameter of 8 inches, closed at eilher end by a cast-iron caj). Near the rear end of the In]) of the cylinder is a bole fnr the purpose nf filling it » itli water, or some n: n- freezing lic|uid. A hole in the front end, closed with a screw-plug, permits Ihe fiuid to be withdrawn. Nine and one-half gallons (|)recisely) of fluid are re- (|uired. A wrought-iron piston-rod passes through the rear cap, and is secured to the rear of the top- carriage by a wrought-iron cross-head. The piston- head, of wrought-iron, l.T inches thick, is piened near its circumference, on opiiosite sides of the rod, with two holes seven-eighths of an inch in diameter. These holes flare out both ways 25 inches, allowing free passage to the fluid from the rear to the front of the piston, permitting the top-carriage to run back without strain. Upon the top of the rear end of each rail of the chassis of No. 3, is bolted a wedge or incline, having a rise of 2.5 inches in ()4 inches ; near the rear end of this, is attached a brass angle- plate, to which are secured three rubber counter- hurters. A similar angle-plate with hurters is at- tached to the front part of the chassis. Water or any other free-flowing liquid answers for filling the cylinder. In cold weather a non-freezing liciuid, as a mixture of glycerine and water, metliyl and water, or some of the non-freezing oils, must be used. The greatest care must be observed to have in the cylin- der the exact amount required. The difliculfy of properly regulating all of these matters makes the hydraulic buffer greatly inferior to theair-cvlinders. The recoil of the guii is controlled in all I'russian carriages for the land service by the Hydraulic Buffer. As generally used, it consists of a wrought- iron lap-welded cylinder, with cast-iron cover-cap and flange, and wrought-iron piston-head and rod, a packiiig-gland and emptying-cock of brass. The cylinder is 77.375 inches long in the clear, and 8.07 inches in diameter, and holds 12 gallons 5 pints. The cap closes the rear end, being screwed on. The flange is screwed on the front end. and the cover is bolted to the flange. Both the flange and cover are flat on top. to allow the top-carriage to pass over them without striking. To secure per- fectly tight joints, a mineral composition is spread over" the screw-threads of the cylinder liefore the cap and flange are put on, and the same, mixed with chopped hemp, is laid between the flange and cover before they are bolted together. Tlie packing used to make a tight joint around the piston-rod consists of a piece of tow about 1.25 inches in circumference and 3 feet 7 inches long, greased with tallow, and wound round the rod and pushed into the recess in the cover. It is held in place by the packing-gland, which is made to squeeze the packing by being screwed into the cover until the rod can be just moved by the strength of one man. A zinc pan is suspended from the front end of the cylinder to catch any oil tliat may drip from the gland in firing. A filling-hole is bored and tapped in the upper surface of the cylinder near the rear end, and is closed by a wrought-iron screw-plug, which is se- cured to the chassis by a short chain. An emptying- cock of brass is provided in the lower part of the cover. The piston-head, 8.04 inches in diameter, has four holes drilled in it . each 1 .25 inches diameter, for the 7-inch gun : .9 inch for the 9, 11. and 12-inch, HYDRAULIC CRANES. 68 HYDRAULIC ENGINES. and .8 for the 10-inch, and .7 for the IS-inch of 25 tons. The piston-rod screws into the head, and i.s prevented from tnrniusr by a screw. Tlie collar-nut screws on to the rod a few inches from the end, and the connectins-nut on the extreme end. The cross- liead is held between tlie two nuts, with r. play of about one-tenth of an inch, and the hole in tlie cross- head for the piston-rod is made oval, to allow of the top-carriag-e beins thrown on its truck-wheels with- out bending the piston-rod. The cylinder is secured to the chassis by means of iron bands which pass over the cylinder, and are bolted down to the rear bottom-plate at the rear end, and at the front end to a bearins-plate which is bolted to the diasonal braces. Tlie rear bottom-plate and the lower flange of the rear transom are hollowed out to form a bed for the end of the cyK.ider. The top tlange of the rear transom is cut away from tlie cap of the cvlinder. The cylinder, before being bolted down on the chassis, is brought to bear sqmirely against the rear transom, with the flat edges of the flange an.1 screwed into a piece to which the cover is held by screws. There is a hole in the bottom piece for tilli)n'j the cylinder: it is stopped with a screw and a cock in the cover for emptying it. Thepislon-head, Willi fiuir holes bored in it, flts the cylinder closely, and to it the piston-rod of cast-steel is fastened, and passes through the cylinder-head, the joint being packed with hemp-packing and bronze packing-bo.\. The end of the piston-rod is fastened to the cross- head, which is bolted to the bottom transom of the top-carriage. The Hydraulic Buffer operates in this manner: "The cylinder is tilled almost full with glycerine, which is preferable to water in that it does not evaporate or freeze. A certain amount of air is always left in the cylinder. In the recoil of the car- riage the piston-head connected to it by the piston- rod and cross-head cmipresses the glycerine in the , ,(o) "» rear end of the cylinder, and causes the liquid to flow rapidly through the holes in the pist(m-head, irradmiliy bringing the carriage to a state of rest. The air in the cylinder acts as a cushion when the gun is Hrcd. and lessens the shock which is then communicated to the ditfereut p:irts. Tlie resistance of the liipiid tn a slow motion of the piston-head lieiiig verv small, no dithcully is experienced in run- ning the gun slowly into battery. The Hydraulic IJulfer should" be the object of es- jiccial attention. :illliougli there is little to do to It :ifter it has been secured in its place in the shops. First, attention should be paid to the jireservation of the glycerine in the cylinder at its pniper height, which c;tn be discovered at tlic ti]liULr-li<ile. If the glycerine f:dls licUiw the prescribed depth, it does not maltler from what cause, it must be replenished. For this purpose, take out the (illing-hole s<Tew and insert the funnel in the liole. The purest glycerine is always to be preferred, of a density of 1.111, which neither evaporates ikpt freezes, even with the great- est cold, and has no action on the metals. In case8 of emergencj' the defleiency may be made up with pure water without altering its qualities sensibly, but this addition of water should never exceed one- i fourth of the whole. In filling the cylinder the pre- I scribed quantity marked in figures on the end should [ under no circumstances be exceeded. In some car- riages the proper height of the glycerine is marked 1 by a screw. To prevent it from leaking, it is ab- solutely necess!iry, in the first jjlace, to keep the filling-liole screw always tight by wrapping it with 1 a hempen thread, with white lead or tallow when I necessary : secondly, to tighten the hemp packing : whenever the least leaking of the liquid is observed, ' by screwing up the packing-gland : and, thirdly, to keep the eniptying-cock always tight and well closed. It is advisable to close it with a wooden plug. Be- fore the firing, the carriage, and particularly the ! hydraulic l)uffer, should, as far as possible, be minutely inspected, the bolts, nuts, etc., which may have got loose tightened up, and the working of ' the ditferent parts tested. See Pneumatic Bufftr. HYDRAULIC CRANES.— Wherever a large numlier 1 of cranes luivc to be worked near each other, water- power is by far the most manageable, economical, and convenient method of working them. Sir W. ' Armstrong & Co., oi Newcastle, have taken the lead in introducing this kind of machiner3'. They j have fitted up a great many railway goods stations j with complete sj^stems of hydraulic cranes. The pressure usually employed in working the liydraulic cranes is greatly in excess of the pressure admissible in the case of steam. Six or seven hundred pounds to the square inch is usually em- \ ployed as the working pressure. It is got "up to this great pressure by means of an arrangement \ called an accumulator, which consists of a large ; hydraulic ram of 16 or 18 inches in diameter, carry- ing a wrought-iron cylinder. This cylinder is filled up with stones or gravel to the weight of GO or 70 tons. A powerful horizontal .steam-engine forces water into a cjlinder and slow- ly raises the ram with its enor- mous load. Pipes lead away from the cylinder to the cranes in the diflferent parts of the sta- tion, and are thus supplied with water under the great pressure caused by the load forcing the ram into" the cylinder. "The load is constantly rising and hdling a little as these cranes draw their supplies from the cylinder. If the cranes were supplied direct from the force- pumps (if the ste:im-engiue, without the intervention of this accumulator, their action would be jerky and un- steady. The accumulator acts as a reservoir of power, and when it happens that a great number of cranes are drawing off water at the same moment, and in excess of what the engine force-pumps can supjily. the ram descends, keejiing uji the while the full 71(0 lbs. pressure ; and then, when the cnmes are dem;uid- ing less abundant supplies, the engine overtakes its works, and .sends the ram up again. When it arrives at the top it touches a lever conununicating with the throttle-valve of the engine, and thus slows or stops the engine when the accumuhitor Iwis mounted to its maximum height. The miiment it begins to descend, the lever is relieved, the throtlle-valve opens, and the engine goes on again with such speed as the work de- mands. Sec Crniiis. HYDRAULIC ENGINES —These engines are fre- quently used in fciuudries and arsenals, where water <if a high pressure is i)bliiinal)le. They do nut dilTer in any essential jiarticular frnm a steam-engine. As the pressure under which they work Lh from five to BTDBAULIC FOKQINO. 09 HYDRAULIC GUN CARHIAOE ten limes firciilcr limn tliiit nf ii stciiiii-i'nf;inc, tlicy arc iniicli hmihUit. A ((uiimoti fi)rni is tliiil <■{ tlircr Bmiill cvliiiilcrs in wliicli Mircc pjuiificrs work. 'I"li(^ water is ailiiiitti'd iiito tlie evlinilers liy nieiins of valves, anil forces tlie pliinirers iiiilwunls. These pltMiijers are eonnecleil vvilji a lliree-lliniw crank, and when Ihey have ((inipleleil llieir onlward travel, or wiirkinn-stroke, the water is allowed to escape from the cylinder, llie pliin;xcr then slides inwanis, to lie anain forced outwards liy a fresh rush of water admitted at, the proper instant into the cylinder hy the action of the valve. Hoots Holary llydraidic Engine, extensively used in till' United States and abroad, is represented in the ilrawint;. In order tn realize the fnll lienelils that may be derived from this, or any other Hy- draulic ]Cni;in(% it is of tlie utmost iin|.ortance that the supply or feed-pipe be sulliciently iar<;e todeliv- er the water to tlie engine when niiininLj, at the Bame pressure as at the mains. .Anythini; less than this crijipli'^ llie rnjiin-. ami c;ii:s(s it to use an un- necessarily iMr^eamoiml of water. In a loni; service- pipe of small .si/e the pressure is so reduced by the friction of the water in passing throui;h the pipe, that though it may supply a sufticient volume of water, it would be at such a diminished pressure that it would have but little power; for instance, if an engine used fifty pillons of water per minute, with forty pounds pressure per square inch at the mains, and yet by the use of a small service-pipe, reduced the pressure at the emrine when running to ten pounds per square inch (which is often done), it is evident that while the same quantity of water is used, that only one-fourth of the useful effect would be obtained from it, that would be if the same pressure was maintained at the engines as at the main. It is also plain that to do the work that coidd be done witli the T)!) gallons at 40 pounds pressure, that four times as much water would lie required at 10 pounds jiressure.or 200 gallons; thus plainly showing that with a given work to be done, much less water will be required with a large pipe than with a small one. hence the importance and econ- omy of having the feed-pipe amply large. This engine being a pressure-engine, the water is confined and cannot escape until it has exerted its whole force in turning the engine. AVhen the engine does not turn, no water is discharged except from a slight leakage. It can only receive and use a sutticient quantity of water to fill the engine, each revolution. The en- gine is a water-meter as well as a water-engine, therefore the quantity of water useil is not deter- mined by the size of the pipe, but by the number of revolutions of the engine. If the jiipes were ten times as large, the engine would not use any more water per revohition than with a very small pipe, but the amount of power resulting from a given amount of water windd be in proportion to the dif- ference in ]ircssure. as shown before. The engine should be placed on a solid foundation perfectly level from end to end, and be firmly se- cured, so that it will not get out of position from the strain of the lielt or other attachment. IJut care • must be taken to have an equal bearing on the foundation ; otherwise, when it is fastenci.1 down, it ) will be on a strain and <ause it to work hard, fare must also betaken in lilting on the fer'daiid discharge, pipes, and making the connections, that they are not on a strain, for this may also spring the machine ami cause it to run hard. The disrliarge.pipe should always have a syphon or trap bet ween theengineand the sewer-pijie into which il discharges, for the pur- pose of keeping the discliarge.pipe full of water, by keeping out the air. The size of the pulley should be such thai, when all the machinery is on that the en- gine is to drive, and running at full speed, llie ri'gu- lating-valve should be wide open. If the speed is loo high, the driving-jiulley should be enlarged : if too slow, it should be diminished. HYDRAULIC FORGING. ForL'ing with Ihe hydraii- lic-])ress instead of the hammer and anvil. The jiro- cess is analogous to that of rolling. The advanlaires claimed for the process are that it is, in manv opera- tions, more expeditious than theordinary modes, and also that it produces a better structurarcondition of the jiarticles of the material, the force lieing less suiierlieial than the sudden impact of a hammer, and I moving Ihe jiarticles of m;itler near the center to a greater e.xtent, thus rendering the forged b;ir more homogeneous. Kvery forger and obsi-rvant person ' has noticed that in tlie ordinary mode of forgimr a j biir of iron there is, when the liar is thick enough, a protrusion of material at the edges, leaving a groove in the middle of the thickness, because of the super- I ficial portions of the iron b;ir having received Ihe greatest spread. Rolling or forging bv jiressure I avoids this. Forging by hydraulic pressure is prac- ticed in Europe. At Vienna there are several presses in o|ieration, one with a piston 24 inches in diameter transmit linL' a pressure of 2,400.000 lbs. HYDRAULIC GUN CARRIAGE.— The renowned 35- ton Hydraulic Carriage was cimstrucled at Wool- wich, under the direction of theCommamlini: Officer of the Carriage Department. A detailed description of this carriage will suffice for all others. The hydraulic ajijiaratus with which it is provided is used to check the recoil in firing, run the gun into battery or from battery, and also to traverse the car- riage to the right or left. These different operations are performed by means of two hydraulic cylinders, O and D, and the double-action pump in the reser- voir, E, which contains a mixture of alcohol and water. The pump, worked by mejuis of the brake, G, drives the liquid into the distributing-chest, H, which sends it through the tubes, I K L, either to the front end of the cylinder O, or to one or other end of the cylinder D. The desired position of the valve is given by means of the lever, M, attached to the right side of the chassis. The cylinder, 1), has a piston, the rod of which is fasteneil to the chain c, c, which engages a wheel mounted on the .^^ame axle as the pinion that drives the bevel wheels, in- tended to give motion to the rear traverse-wheels. The motion of the piston in either direction carries the chain, c, with it, thus causing the pinion to tuni, and by its means the traverse-wheels. To traverse the carriage to the right or left it is sutticient to turn the distributing-valve so as to send the liquid i n one or the other face of the piston, and then to work the pump by means of the brake, G. The chain moves on the wheel with a velocity four times sreater than that of the piston ; a slight motion, therefore, of the latter is sufficient to traverse the chassis through a considerable arc. A piston is also fitted to the cvl- inder. D. which is used to check the recoil in firing, and to run the gim into battery. The piston has a leather packing on either face, and the front end of the rod is fastened to the carriage. The front enil of the cylinder is placed in communication with the distributing-chest by a pipe, and the rear end by a passage, K, with a second reservoir, Q. The passalre, K, can be contracted more or less by a conical valve, which is regulated by means of the regulator, I. To use the apparatus as a hydraulic bulTer. close tlic communication of the front part of the cvliuder, O, HYDKAULIC JACK. 70 HYDEAULIC JACK. with the pump through the distributing-valve, H, and reduce the section of the orifice for the stream according as circumstances may require. When the gun is fired, the carriage as it recoils forces the pis- Foii in. and drives the liquid into the reservoir, Q, through the opening around the conical valve : the recoil is checked as in the ordinary hydraulic buflfcr, by the resistance that the liquid meets with in pass- ing through the narrow orifice. The entire dis- tance throiigli which the valve may be moved is one inch, and the part of the valve-stem that projects is graduated into tenths of an inch. In firing with maximum charges the valve-stem is turned in up to the division of eight-tenths. To run the gun from battery without firing, it is sufficient to open the communication of the pipe, I, with the pump, and to work the latter. Tlie pres- sure of the liquid on the front face of the piston forces it into tlie cylinder, O. and draws the carriage, being attached to' the rod, P. back with it. The liquid which is in rear of the piston escapes as be- fore, l)ut without meeting any resistance in its pas- siige around the conical valve on account of the slow- ness of the motion. To run the gun into battery. arc of 54° is two minutes, and tlie same for running the gun from battery 6^ feet. The loading apparatus is decidedly novel. It is composed essentially of a chain with the links constructed like the joint of a carpenter's rule, so that it can turn on!)- in one di- rection, while it is as stiff as a solid rod in every other. The links of this chain are made as follows : The angles of the links on top are square, wlijle those underneath are rounded : two adjoining links thus abut against each otlier when an effort is made to bend the chain outward, while it can be readily bent in the opposite direction. It is guided in its motion by a kind of tube inclosed between two sheet- iron plates. A spur-wheel and pinion supply tlie means of raising the tube out of its bed, and raising the chain up to the bore of the gun. The tvibe is held at a convenient height by a pawl. A rammer or sponge is fitted to the front end of the chain ac- cording as it is wished to loaa or sponge the piece, and by working the crank-handles the cliain is forced down the bore as if it were a rigid staff. The trials with this arrangement have given satisfactory re- sults. A still m'ore original mode of loading, based on the use of a pneumatic apparatus, has been ap' the front of the cylinder, O, and the tube, T, are placed in communication with the discharge-pipe by means of the distributing-valve, H. The carriage then runs into battery of itself by reason of the in- clination of the rails of the chassis. Its velocity is checked by the resistance that the liquid meets with in passing through the tube, T. If it be wished that the gun .shalfrun into battery more quickly, a special tube, c, is provided, of larger cross-section, which allows the water to pass more quickly ; it will be sufficient to open the valve, by means of the handle, to reduce the time of running in to a few seconds. By turning this handle the motion of the carriage may be regulated at pleasure, and it may be even stopped at any point on the chassis by closing the valve altogether. The ordinary position of the valves is that represented in the drawing, the appar- atus being arranged for running the gun from bat- tery. Tlie liquid wliich is forced by the pumps passes into the tube, T, while K, and L, communicate with the discharge-pipe. If the valve be moved farther to the right, L, remains in connection with the dis- cliar;;r-pipe, N. T is closed while one of the orifices of admission comes opposite the outlet, K. If, on the contrary, it is pushed to the left, I. and K, com- municate with the discharge-pipe, and L, with the otlier opening. These two extreme positions of the valve correspond with the traversing of the chassis in one or other direction, and the last also to running the irun into battery automatically. A dircction- plate'^is attached to"the chassis on the right side, giving the positions of the lever, M, corn'sponding to those of the valve for traversing the gim to the left, from battery, gun to the right, and into battery. One man at the valve-lever and two nu'u at the pumps are sufficient to execute all (if the miincuvers, though it is preferable to have four nwn at the pumps. The 'time re(iuired to traverse the gun through an plied to a 65-ton gun in the experimental casemate battery at Woolwich. This arrangement has the ad- vantage of requiring only very little room. See Sea- eoaft nnd Gnrrison Carriages. HYDKAULIC JACK.— A machine which often takes the place of the jack-screw for raising heavy weights. It is simply a form of hydraulic press, which may be placed beneath heavy ordnance, or any great weight which it is desired to raise, and generally consisting of a stout frame furnished with upright grooves, in which a follower may be forced upward by a hydrau- lic cylinder. By proper appliances the power may be rendered almost immeasurably great. The enor- mous multiplying power given by this machine has been employed for a great variety of useful purposes such as compressing bales of cotton, paper, etc., ex- pressing oils, bending of iron plates and bars, and raising weights. This was the means employed for launching tlie Great Eastern, at Jlillwall. and for raising to their position the tubes of the Britannia bridge. Thejac/c.i. as manufactured by Watson and Stillman, New York, up to 30 tons capacity appear to the eye. when dejiressed, a simple cylinder with a head ; and when elevated, like one cj'linder sliding within another. The cylinder is from two to six or more inches in diameter, according to the power de- sired. The head (which is .screwed on to the inner cylinder, c.-dleil the ram) has a socket for the recep- tion of the lever by which the force-pump is worked. Tlie force-pump is contained inside of the ram, and conse(pientlv is not seen in the following drawings. The ram, with the head, contains only as much fluid as is reiiuired to fill the vacancy in the cylinder, caused by the raising of the mm in the act of lifting, and when this is accomiilishcd, the tluid is returned into its original reservoir by a valve operated by the lever that works tlie ]iuuii). The lever is delatched, and may be put on at pleasure. The claw attachment HYDRAULIC LOADING APPAEATU8. 71 HYDRAULIC LOADING APPARATUS. is iiii iron tube, Bcrewed into tlic lower side of the lit'iul, 1111(1 piiHsinfj down to the liolloni of the jack outside of llie < yli'ider. on llie lower end (jf wiiieli is a elaw timt supports the weij;lit l(; lie raised. These jacks are HkIiI. portiilile, and of easy applica- tion — a jack to raise 5 tons wei(;lis only 20 llis., anil one to raise 100 tons not more than liTri lbs. They are all worked liy the lahor of one man only, who is rapalile of raisini^ 10 Ions through a space of one foot in one and a half minules. or 100 Ions the same distance in ten minutes. The horizontal jacks havean<'nliirin-d resiTVoir, containing' lluid sutlicient to run them out their entire leni;lh in a hcprizontal position. To use the jack, place the head for if a claw-jack the claw or head) \mder the weight to be raised, place in the lever with the projection down- its working. The cylinder and bottom, on which it rests, are made from one piece of steel, thus ri liev- ini; the ri-servoir-casin;,' of strain, aiul dispensing wilh one very troiiblisome iiacking and making u jack stronger and lighter than one having a wrought- iron cylinder. There is nolhing dillicult of access, or which an ordinary nu'chanic cannot keep in good order. I''ig. 4 shows a double pump-jack, liaving pumps with pistons J inch and Ij inch diameter, the larger giving about one-third the pressure of the smaller, and working three limes as fast. This style of jack is used where there is a variety of work, or where the jack has to work under varying loads. Fig. ■') shows the hydraulic pidling-jaek, used for hoisting or pulling heavy weights in engine rooms, or in other circumscribed places, setting up Fig. ). Kig. S. Kig. -J. Fig. 3. •ward, then work it perpendicularly until the weight is at the required height, or the number of inches the jack runs out. To lower the weight, push the lever to the bottom of the stroke, take it out, turn it with the projection upward, and with a slight pres- sure of the hiind. the weight may be lowered as slow- as required, or stopped at any point. Sometimes it liappeus that another stroke of the lever woidd raise the weight too high ; then raise the lever a little, and push itdowu slowly, by which the stroke will be missed. Should the valve stick to its seat, and pre- vent the jack working, by striking the lever a few sliarp blows up anil down, the valve will be released. Fi^. 1 shows the style used when the jack stands iipoii the groimd or light board, and can be placed under the work, or where steadiness is reqinred. Fig. 2 .shows the style used when there is not suf- ficient room to get the head of the jack under the work, and is the pattern used for moving heavy guns, boilers, machinery, etc. Fig. 3 shows a form of lifting-jack used for dry docks, pressing flanges on wagon wheel hubs, etc. The piston is entirely enclosed, thus preventing all grit or foreign material getting into the pump and cutting it or preventing I rigring, pile-drawing, etc. This jack appears like a plain cylinder with rings at each end. bv which to attach the body to be moved. Thev are three or more inches in diameter, and one and" a half or more I feet long, according to the power required, or the distance the weight is to be moved. It has a force- jMimp on the outside, worked by a lever, which forces the fluid contained in the cvlinder to the op- posite side of a piston, to the rod of which one of j the rings at the end is attached. Bv this operation the jack is forced together, drawimr with it the I body to be moved. It will work vertically, hori- zontally, or at any angle. To use the jack, till it through the screw in the side of the cylinder with whiskey and a few drops of oil. To p>ill or lift anv- j thing, make it fast to the jack by chains or ropes through the rings at each end, havinn; first extended it as far as it will go. This is done" by frivins: the thumb-screw in the force-pimip two or three turns inward, and pulling out the piston, then turn out the thumb-screw imtil it stops. Put in the lever and pump as nnich as required. See Joi-hscreir HYDRAULIC LOADING APPARATUS. -A system of apparatus used w hen maneuvering heavv liirret- HYDRAULIC POWES. 72 HYDRAULIC POWER. guns. This apparatus was thoroughly tested, in "worlving tlie lUO-ton guns, belonging to the Italian Oovernmeut, in experiments at Spezzia, 1876. The working of the gun, including all the operations of loading and sponging, is effected by tlie mean.s of i hydraulic pumps, which are all operated by one small steam-engine. The gun is placed with its trunnions resting on two heavy blocks of metal, which, being retained by guides, slide on large beams or girders built in the floor of the turret. In front and rear of the blocks are pistons, working in cylinders in the direction of the floor-beams. These pistons, under the influence of water-pressure, move the gun in and out of battery. The breech is raised and "lowered by similar means. When the gun is to be loaded, it is run forward and the muzzle de- pressed till it is in front of an armored hood, which shields an iron door in the main deck. The door slides back, a sponge appears on the end of a staff, wliich enters the bore and lengthens itself like a telescope till the bottom is reached, when, in obedi- ence to the touch of a valve, a Hood of water is ejected from the sponge to extinguish fire and wash the bore. The shot and cartridge next appear, lifted from below on a small truck, which is runout on a trap-door. The cartridge is lifted in front of the muzzle, the sponge (now converted into a ram- mer ) pushes it a short distance into the gun, is then witlidrawn, and when the shot rises pushes Iioth to the bottom of the bore. The sponge is withdrawn below deck and the trap closes. Each of these movements is effected entirely by water-pressure, the course of the water and the corresponding operation being determined by manipulating the proper valve. The only defect in the principle was developed by the bursting of the English 38-ton gun on the Thunderer, in 1879. If the slipping of a shot is to cause the bursting of a gun. anything that tends to produce this slip- ping is to be deprecated, and as the liydraulic load- ing-gear requires the gun to be inclined downward at a considerable angle, it would appear that the machinery was open to objection. But a similar difficulty presented itself years ago with broadside guns. These were found to start their projectiles freely, not so much by the rolling of tlie ship as by the jerk of running the gun out. Wedge wads were ■employed expressly to prevent this, and guns are generally dependent on the efficiency of these wads for the fixing of thi-ir projectiles. HYDRAULIC POWER.— The use made of hydraul- ic power is probably greater at Elswick than at any otlier Establishment in the world. This might natu- Tally be expected, when it is remembered that the world is indebted to Sir William Armstrong for the advance made in this direction. The system of hy- draulics at Elswick extends to all parts of the grounds. Teaching all the shops, wharves, and wafer-front. Pumping-cngines are established at convenient in tervals, only one working at a time, and the connec- tion of pipes being continuous, the uniform working of the system is established by five or six .accumulators ■witli 18-inch rams. The working of the pumping- ■I'ngiue is made automatic. The accumulator nearest to it is slightly more heavily loaded than the others to give a lead in rising to tlie distant one, and is con- nected with a steam regulating valve to act as a gov-' ■ernor for adjusting tlie speed of the engine to tlic varying demand of the hydraulic machines. Tlie pressure .sustained throughout the system is 7.')0 pounds to the square inch. The pipes are usually 5 inches in diameter, the largest being inelu^s. Hydraulic power is used for the forge and foundry- cranes, also for the movable cranes whicli operate along the water-front. For the accommodalion <if thi'se last, pipes are run, in junction with tlie pres- ■sure main, with hydrants from IS to W! feit apart, from which connection is made with thc^ cranes liy means of telescopic tubes. Two or more cranes can ■thus be brought into operation on any vessel at the water-front. On the eastern end of the wharf are erected large hydraulic shears, worked by a direct- acting hydraulic cylinder, 40 feet stroke, "lifting 120 tons. The back leg moves so as to bring the lifting cylinder aliout 30 feet out ; the foot is moved by a screw .50 feet long, with hydraulic engine and gear. The most notable hydraulic crane that has yet been produced from these works is one erected in the Italian naval ar.senal at Spezzia, which is capable of lifting 160 tons through a range of 40 feet. It is car- ried upon a ring of line rollers supported by a ped- estal of masonry, and the slewing is effected bj- an hydraulic engine applied to a pinion which gcan; with a circular rack. The rake of the jib or projec- tion from the center of rotation is 65 feet, and its height from the quay-level is 10.5 feet. The crane is counterbalanced on the side opposite to the load. About the grounds at Elswick. particularh- at the approaches to the shops, there are numerous small capstans worked by hvdraulic engines, which are of great service in hauling heavy loads into or out of shops, and in transporting them from shop to shop. It is almost unnecessary to add that it is at Elswick that the applications for working heavy guns jiy hydraidic power have been designed and manu- factured. No foundry or gun factory can be con- sidered etficiently equipped without being provided with arrangements for the plentiful supply of hydrau- lic power. We can but briefly describe a system of hydraulic supply within the limits of this work, although the subject is a very important one, and is, at present, receiving the attention of the United States authori- ties in connection with the proposed establishment of a Government foundry, for the manufacture of heavy ordnance adapted to modern warfare. The Holly System of Water Supply, an invention of Bird- sill Holly, of Lockport, New York, and the most perfected system of which we have knowledge, is designed not only to supply water for ordinary pur- poses, at any desired elevation, without the use of a reservoir or stand-pipe, or any other contrivance for calling into requisition the principle of tlie hydro- static equilibrium, but also to furnish the means of extinguishing fires at several points at the same time, if necessary, and all this without the u.se of any movable engine for that purpose. This result is accomplished by placing a set of Holly pumping machinery, which is of peculiar construction, within a suitable building, located at a convenient point where the supply of water is accessible, and from whence by a proper system of mains and pipes the water can be conducted wherever it is needed. The pumping machinery, which may be propelled by either steam or water-power, must be adequate to the service required, having a reserve of power for extraordinary occasions. To guard against contin- gencies the machinery is duplicated, or so construct- ed that the breaking of a part does not disable the whole. In order to maintain steady pressure, the operation of the machinery is continuous ; but as the demand for water is subject to constant varia- tion, means are provided for the automatic regula- tion and government of the pumps, so that the amount of water delivered is in exact accordance with the requirements of the moment. The means of regulation which thus forms such an important feature in the Holly system is an exceedingly sinii)le mcclmnical device de])ending for its operation upon the degree of pressure in the mains. If this pres- sure falls, owing to an unusual drain, the regulator instantly acts so as to admit steam for a longer period into the cylinders of the engines, and the pumps are thus at once caused to operate more rapidly .•mil powerfully. When the pressure in the mains increases, owing to but small drafts being made on them, the reverse takes ])lace and li'ss water is pumped. The nornial jiressure is adjusted by the engineer in accordance with average require- ments. The Are protection aft'onled by the Holly HYDRAULIC POWER. 73 HTDEAtLIC FOWZB. system is of tlip moHt <'fflci('nt not miTi'ly distriliuli-cl In liyil under pressure, so nil lli".l isrei the liosc 1111(1 turn on Die siren of the eiij;iiie to give a (|iii(k pressure, ill response Ion suilde work of iin instant. The mere causes sutHeient diininulion of to oiierate a valve, whieli in with a whistle, the sounding o for the engineer to turn on the clinrantpr. Water is ranis, liiil .sent there |uired is toeiiiiple on 111. 'I'lie iidjuslnieiit supply under heavy n aliiriii of lire, is the o|)ening of a hydrant jiressure in the pipes turn eonwnunieates f which is the nlarin tire pressure. lie admitted to but one cylinder, and exliausted info the other three, then passini: the condenser, forming a eonipoiind-enginc' at pleasure. To change from direct to coniponnd. it is only necessary to manipu- late three stop-valves. one connecting the sleam-pipi- of three cylinders with the hoilers, one connecting the exhaust-pipe of the fourth cylinder willi the con- denser, and the third connecting the exlmust-pipe of one <ylin<ler with the steam-pipes of the three. The valve gear of each steam-cylinder consists of a slide valve moved by un eccentric in the usual nian- Tlie Holly (lundruplex piimpiiig-engine is represent- ed in sectional elevation in Kig. 1. It .has four steam- cylinders inclined at an angre of forty-tive degrees, and four pumps, one of whicli is in a direct line with each cylinder. The steam-cylinders and their pmnps are arranged in pairs on opposite sides of a heavy iron fruiiH'. the two cylinders of each pair being con- nected to a common crank-pin. and tlie crank for one pair of cylinders being set 135 degrees in advance of that on theojjposile sitle. The engines are of the reciprocating piston form, with guides and connect- ing rods. A connecting rod alli.\ed to the ijack crank-pin actuates an air-pump b<>rtm. giving motion to two single-acting air-pumps and two boiler feed- pumps, one of which draws water from tlie liot well, and the other from tbe steam-jacket.s which surround the sides of all the steam-cylinders. The steam from tlie jackets passes through a feed wafer-heater, so that the temperature of the feed can be raised to any de- sired point by increasing the amount of steam sup- plied to the jackets. The connection of the pumps with the steam-cylinders and the steam piston-rods with the pumps, is by means of keys, so that any engine or pump can readily lie thrown out of action. The steam-piston is packed by cast-iron rings set out by springs, the set-screw of which projects lieyond the face of the piston, and ther<! are lionnets in the lower cylinder-lieads, so that the piston rings can be adjusted without Ojieningthe cylinder. The pumps are of the piston variety, donlile-acting, the pump barrel being secured in a chamber containins the valve by a rib which forms a part it ion liet ween valves on the opposite ends. The piimji valves arc tlat discs of rublter. secured to iron discs having stems work- ing in guides. These iron discs are of sufilcieiit ■weight to bring the valves to their seats promptly. and no springs are nsed. The valves seat on metal gratings. The steam and exhaust-pipe of the several steam-cylinders are so arranged that steam from the lioilers can be admitted directly into all the cylinders and exhausted into the condenser, or live steam can ner and admit ting steam I hrouglifint the whole stroke. A double puppet-valve in the steam-chest regulates the point of cut-ofT, being actuated by a revolving spiral cam which can be moved in an axial direction, and thus vary the periods of admissions from zero to full stroke. The manner in wliicli this cam is moved so as to regulate the speed and ])ower exerted, is an important peculiarity of the Holly pumping-engine. The adjustment is effected liy means of a regulator connected with the water-main in such a manner that any change in water pressure is immediately corrected by an adjustment of the cut-off, resulting in a practically uniform water pressure under the most varying conditions of supply. If the water Iiressure tends to fall, owing to an unusual draft upon the main, the cut-off is immediately lengthened and the engines exert a sulticient power to maintain the original pressure; if the consumption is sud- denly lessened so that there is a tendency for the water pressure to increase, the cut-off is at once shortened, dimiuisliiiig tlie power of the engine sufti- cieiitly to maintain the original pressure under the reduced supply, and if all consumption of water suddenly ceases the engine will immediately stop. The regulator is represented in Fig. 2. It is evident from the foregoing description that the Holly regulator acts in an essentially different manner from the ordinary governor, which would increase the cut-off as the water pressure augment- ed, and shorten the cut-off as the same diminished. The details of the regidator are briefly as follows : .V small water-cylinder, containing a solid piston, is (•(mneeted directly with the main, and a weight is attached to the piston so as to counter-lialance the water pressure. This is effected by suspending the weight from a strap which passes over a cam that rotates as the pressure changes, thus altering the lever arm of the counter-balance, and keeping it in equilibrium with the water pressure, however much the latter may vary. The cut-off cams of the steam- cylinders are moved axially, either to shortea or to HYSBAULIC FOWXB. 74 HYDBADLIC FOWEK. lengthen the cut-ofl •when the regulator throws a friction-clutch into gear, which it does whenever the water pressure varies from a given amount. A weighted lever would maintain this friction-clutch in fear, were it not for the action of the regulator, he shaft on which the counter-bali>nce cam rotates has an inde.\-wheel, and the index can be set at any desired water pressure. So long as the water pres- sure varies from the figure at which the index is set, the friction-clutch is kept in gear by the weighted Fit;. 3. lever, and the cut-off is adjusted until the required l)ressure is reached. At this point t)ie index engages with the weighted lever, and throws tlie friction- dutch out of gear. Whenever the water pressure varies, the friction-clutch is thrown into gear again. dianging the cut-otT so as to maintain the water pressure constant. It will be seen tliat the cut-off is regulated by positive gear driven by the engine, and tlie f)nly work required of the regulator is to connect or disconnect this gear. Should Ihe pres- sure rise very suddenly, however, a jtiston in the safety cylinder raises a lever to wliieh the cut-off gear is connected, and throws the cut-off to zero instant- ly, if this is requisite. Following the cpiadruple engine, the Company lias brought out a novel horizontal compound con- ilensing-cngine, designed by Mr. Ilarvey F. Gas- kill, Engineer and Superintendent of tlie Works. It was the purpose of the Company in bringing out this engine to provide one less costly than the quad- ruplex. and better adapted for pumping larger quan- tities of water : also to stand in the first rank as to economy. Following is a description of the engine, reference being made to Figures 3 and 4. On a pair ] of iron bed-plates are mounted the two pumps, and in direct line therewith the two low-pressure steam- cylinders connected to the pump piston-rods. Be- tween the pumps and steam-cylinders are placed beam supports, which are firmly bolted to the bed- plates, and also rigidly stayed bj- wrought-iron struts to the pumps and steam-cylinders. These beam supports carry the beam shafts and beams, the lower end of the latter being connected to the cross-heads of the low-pressure cjdinders by means of links. On the top of the pumps are placed the main shaft bearings, which support the shaft, fly- wheel, and cranks, the latter being keyed to the shaft at right angles to each other. On" top of the low-pressure steam-cylinders are mounted the two high-pressure steam-cylinders, with their centers in the same horizontal plane as the center of the main crank shafts. The cross-heads of the high-pressure steam-cylinders are connected by means of connect- ing rods to the crank-pins. From the high-pressure steam-cylinders heavy cast-iron girders extend to the pillow-blocks. On the inner end of each of the beam centers an arm is keyed, from which the air- pumps are driven. The valves of the steam-cylin- ders are operated by means of eccentrics on a shaft, which is driven from the main shaft through small bevel gears. The admission-valves to the high- pressure steam-cylinders are of the double-beat pup- pet pattern, so arranged as to open at the proper time and to close at any desired point of the stroke. The exhaust-valves from the high-press\ire cylinder are also the admission-valves to the low-pressure steam-cylinders, and are ordinary slide-valves, re- maining open somewhat less than the time required to make one complete stroke. The exhaust-valves- from the low-pressure cylinders are also plain slide valves, operating the same as the high-pressure ex- haust-valves. The pump.plungers are arranged to work through glands in the center of the pumps, and are accessible from the covers at the end of the machine. The pump-valves are placed on horizon- tal plates below and above the line of plunger travel. The glands above-mentioned divide the valves of one end of the pump from those of the other end at the center of the valve plates. The operation of the machine is as follows: Steam is admitted through the automatic cut-off valves into the high pressure steam-cylinders, urging the pistons forward under full boiler pressure until the point of cut-off is reached. The valve then closes and the remain- ing portion of the stroke is accomplished by the elastic force of the steam. When the piston has nearly reached the end of its travel, the exhaust valve between the high and low pressure cylinder opens and the steam remaining in the high pressure cylinder rushes into the low pressure cylinder and against its piston, which at that time is at the end of its travel and at tlie opposite of the high pressure piston. The low pressure cylinder-piston is then in turn urged forward b_v the incoming steam, which is expanded to four times the volume it occupied in the high pressure cylinder at the time of its release therefrom. The releasee from the low pressure cylinders is accomplished hv means of the cxhaust- valv<'S in the return strokes. This operation is re- peated on each side and at each end at priipcr times. The close cimnection between the t\vo<yliuders re- duces the clearance spaces to a minimum, which with thorough jacketing insures the most economical use of steam. This engine is also built to operate as a ncm-cmn- ])ound engine, in which case the upper or liigli |ins- sure steani-cvlinders and <'oniicclions are nmitlc<l, and the lower sleani-cylinders are provided wilh automatic cut-off valves. Steam is admitted into HYDROMETER. 75 HYDROMETER. these cylinders direet from the l)oil(r ami exlmusted HYDROMETER. An in.slniiiienl eini)loyed to dc- into the <'ondenser. ThiK ninilc__(>f ((inslnictioii is ; teriMiiM- vjm < ilic griivilieH. The drawini; exhibila udiipted to small places, and Id cities and villages I the form ot the inslrninent used in delermininfr the where the eheaiiness of fuel renders the lirBt cost j siiecilic gravity of ujetals. ll is constructed oii the Fi?. a. of the machine a matter more to he considered than the annual saving in the fuel. Although even when constructed as a non-compound engine, a duty of Fig. 4. 50,000,000 foot-pounds of work can be obtained from 100 pounds of coal. See St-eam-digf/u, Turbine, and WaUr-wlut h. principle of Nicholson's liydrometer : having a Imlb IXt inches diameter and Sinches high, made of cop- per, in one piece, without seam. The copper is .03 in. thick, and deposited on a mold, of low fusible metal, by the electro.gal- vanic process. A handh of brass wire, with broad Manges at the en(t-, is in- serted in the bt>ttom of the mokl, be- fore the copper is deposited, the cop- per covering and luiiting with bo<h. The brass cone is bored through its axis, and screw-threads arc cut in it. After the bulb is formed, the fusil)lc mold is melted, and withdrawn througl; the aperture in the brass cone. The aperture is then closed liy a small screw and made air-tight by close fitting, and by sealing-wax spreadoverit. Asolid stem of brass is then screwed into the bottom of the bulb. A vertical index- stem, made of steel, is inserted in the upper part of the handle. The U[)per end of the stem receives the weight- pan, which is supported in its place by a coni.^al socket on its underside. The height of the hydrometer, from the bot- tom of the ball to the weight pan. is 21 inches. All of the exterior surface is protected by electro-gilding. The weight of the bulb, including the han- dle and brass cone, is about l.o.S.'iO grains : the lowerstem and ball weigh about 20.320 grains, and the weigjit- pan is 6(30 grains: making the total Weight of the hydrometer about 36.830 grains. Its general form, and the dis- tribution of the metal within it, place till- centers of gravity and buoyancy so far apart that it readily takes a ver- tical position when immersed, and will deviate very little from it. however ir- regularly it may be loaded. The maxi- ■ar^J mum buoyancy of the hydrometer is 14.600 grains, and. when loaded to ze- ro, it displaces ,51,430 grains of water. The buoy, ancy may be rediiced one-half by increments of 500 grains each, by placing one c>r more of the adjusting EYDSO-FNEUMATIC CABEIA6£. 76 HYDRO-PNEUMATIC CAEKIAGE. weights over the ball, at the bottom of the stem. Such a reduction of the buoyancy is found con- venient in practice, when weighing: small samples, as it prevents the necessity for placing and displac- ing numerous weights on tlie pan. The index stem is .071 inch diameter ; a length of 1 inch displaces one grain of water. Four points of silver wire, made thin and sloping at the ends, are attached near the stem so as to form a scale of weights, in tenths of a grain. The two nearest opposite points are one- tenth of an inch apart. When the instrument rests with one of these points above, and the other beneath the surface of the water, it is at zero. Wlien either of them touches or is even with tlie surface, the load is one-tenth of a grain too heavy, or too light, and if either passes through the surface, the error is then two-tenths of a grain. If either of the two points which are more distant from the zero touches the surface of the water, the load is then deficient, or in excess, three-tenths of a grain ; and if the heel of either of these points passes the surface, the error is then four-tenths of a grain. Careful observation of the position of these points, when the h3'drometer is immersed and at rest, will serve to indicate the true balance, when the zero mark may be al)0ve or below the surface of the water, within a given limit. By this method, the inconvenience and delay of bringing the zero to the surface of the water by" the decimal parts of the grain weight is thusavoided. Thewaterin which the hydrometer is im- mersed is contained in a cis- tern of glass, 3.5 inches deep, and not less than V2 inches diameter. If the bottom of the cistern is not level a flat plate should be placed over it and supported horizontal- ly on three legs. The height of the water in the cistern should be such that wlien the bottom of the hydrometer descends to the plate the weight-pan should be one- quarter of an inch above the surface of the water. This will prevent an immersion of the pan when overload- ed. The weight-pan is at- tached to the inde.v stem b}' an open socket, on its under side, in order that it may be removed with its load from the hydrometer and placed on a table where the weights may be safely and accurate- lycotmted. Astheweights often consist of man}' pieces, errors may occur in count- ing, or in the record of them; it is a good precaution to verify them by a recount after making the record. A tliermometer. with a scale of about 5° to the inch, sub-divided in quarters of a degree, is suspended in the water while weigh- ing samples and the temperature sliould be noted at each weighing. The weighings are made at tem- peratures varying with the state of the weather at the time, and as llie density of water varies with its temperature, the latter is noted in order that the pro- per corrections may be made. The unit adopted is distilled water at the temperature of (!()" Fahr. The hydrometer may be employc-d to determine the relative density of distilled and any other kind of ■water. The weiglit of the hydrometer, added to its balance-weight in distilled water, at the tempera- ture of fiO", gives llie weiglit of a quantity of pure standard wat<T which is e(|ual in bulk to tlie im- mersed part of the instrument. The weight of the hydrometer, with its load, when immersed in like manner in any other kind of water at the same tem- perature, gives the weight of an equal bulk of the latter: and this weight, divided by the former, giveg the multiplier for correcting the density when as- certained in any other than pure distilled water. Rain or river water may be used instead of distilled water, if its relative density be first accurately deter- mined and the proper correction be made. At the foundries, generall}', river water is found to be snffi- cientl)- pure for use without needing any correction. In using the hydrometer, first load the pan with the grain weights until the instrument rests at zero, and record the sum of these weights as the Balance nf the Uydrometcr. Ne.\t, place in tlie pan the sample, to- gether with as many weights as will again bring the instrument to its zero, and record these weights as the Sample Balance in Ah: The difference between these balances is equal to the weight of the sample in air. Then place the sample on the bulb of the instrument and immerse both until the hydrometer again rests at zero, and record the weights on the panas the Sample Balance in Water. The tlifference lietween this balance and that in air is equal to the weight of the water displaced by the immersed sam- ple. The temperature of the water at the time of weighing is noted, and if it is not at 60° divide the weight displajed liy the the sample by that number in the following table which is opposite the noted temperature, and the quotient will give the corrected displacement for the temperature of 60"^. Then, the weight of tlie sample in air, divided by the corrected displacement, gives the densit}- of the sample. The hydrometer may be employed in determining the varying densitj- of the same water at different de- grees of temperature. The weight of the water it dis- places at any other temperature than 60°, divided by its displacement in the same water at 60", will give the proportionate weight of water displaced bythe same instrument at other temperatures. See Are- ometer and Specific Gravity. HYDEO PNEUMATIC CAEEIAGE.— A hydro-pneu- matic carriage has lately been proposed by Major JloncrieJI for the use of siege-carriages, somewhat en the system of his counterweight carriages for heavy guns. The object obtained is lightness, the facility of loading the gun when out of sight of the enemy, and raising it en barbette without anj- diffi- culty, thus obviating the necessity of cutting em- brasures in the parapet. The carriage is designed for siege purposes, and it seems not improbable that the development of its principle may altogether rev- olutionize that branch of military operations. Bat- teries of attacks have hitherto lieen protected by embankments hastily thrown up, while the guns have been fired through embrasures. But the deadly precision of improved artillery sends shot after shot into the embrasures, while its penetrating power makes ordinary earthworks but very indifferent pro- tection. Major Moncrieff's idea is to adapt to the attack the system he has been elaborating for coast defenses. He digs a hole .and buries his gun in it. The soil, when it is excavated, is carried to the rear, and the enemy has no mark to guide his aim ; after each discharge the gun sinks out of sight, and the indication of its precise whereabouts vanishes with the smoke. In the sieges in the late war. the Germans found that they must withdraw their bat- teries to immense distances, whence the tire was vague and relatively ineffective. Major jMoncricIV undertakes to place his guns within 500 yards of the enemy's works. By his very well-known iilea of the counterweight he had attaini'd his object of elevating the gun out, and returning it to cover, and so en- abling the gunners to work in comparative .safety by storing the force of the recoil. Hut the objection to ajiplying the system to siege operations was the un- wieldy weiglit of carriages fitted willi the coimter- weiglit, where liglitness and facility of movenunt were primary considerations. The hydro-pneuma- tic system dispenses with this ponderous counler- weight, replacing it very ingeniously with a simple HTGROMETRR. 77 HYGEOMETEE. cylinder only contaiiiini; iiir imd water, wliicli oscil- lati'S between tlie clweks of llie triin-earrias;e. It is a feature in the carriaiie that it can lie secured on an improvised platform witlioiil any lii-avy and coKtly apiiliances. It is fastened by a chain passed loosely round som<^ balks of timber buried in the urounif. and the fastenini; acts as a rude i>ivot, on which it revolves. When in i)osition for lirin;;, the irun is raised to a lieiirht of some 7 feet upon a jiair <if arms or elevators which lay holil nf the Iruimions, and llieiraetion is re<;ulaled by racks, which .are arranj^ed to work in c nmcction with a radial conneclin^-rod. Between these is the head of the |)istou which works in the hydro.pneunuitic cyliiuler. With the dis- charge of the i^un the head of tiio cylinder sways liaekwards. the piston is forced down by the recoil, an 1, as the piston slowly iroe.s down in this cylinder, the nun descends with it to the normal jiosiliim for loading. The internal adjustments of the cylinder are, of course, the essence of the invention. 'I'lic piston descends in a tube of water, communicating at the bottom of the cylinder with a couple of side- chambers which are tilli'd with air. As the water is forced <lown in the central tube, it necessarily rushes into the side ones, and the elasticity of the air it violently compresses is the motive jiower that is to be stored for use. There is just sulticient water to fill the central cylinder and to cover all the valves and joints, and there is nothing but strong and solid metal in those parts of the side-chambers in whicli the (compressed air is to be conlined. At tlie bottom of the cylinder, between it and the air-valve, and immediately in rear of the latter, is a " throttle-valve." The throttle-valve c<msists of a snuill. circular, per- forated cylinder, revolving within a larger one. and its |)urpose is to neutralize, by the application of water friction, any excess of energy in the recoil. Indeed, ue.xt to employing air and water, as light and convenient materials of enormous power to work those heavy siege guns, the idea is to use those elements so as to avoid friction and concussifin. Instead of the very violent recoil which threatened to shake the strongest carriage to pieces when it was arrested sharply by the resistance of screws and iron, according to this hydro-pneumatic system the recoil is made to e.xliaust itself upon air-springs and water- cushions. The first shock is broken upon tlie mass of water in the mi Idle cylinder, and the throttle-valve disposes, as it were, of any of the subsequent vibra- tions. Theoretically, therefore, if we may use the expression, the recoil shoidd be all self-c(mtained. It was very nearl_v so in all practice ; the carriage moved slightly to the lirst sliot, as the cliain tight- ened that secured it to the balks : but the shot that followed made no perceptible change in its position. It must be remembered that under the old system, and before Major Moncrieff had invented his counter- poise, or thought of his hydro-pneumatic cylinder, the gun would liave wrenched itself away from such a rough-and-ready fastening. When the piece is raisetl for firing, it is managed by a worm-wheel at the side, which regulates the angle of elevation, and which turns easily to the touch. To sum up the merits of the invention, if it realizes the advantages claimed for it — and as it confessed to be a mechanical success, we can scarcely see how it can fail to do so — it will enable sieae-liatteries to be established and worked with comparative impunity at an extraordi- nary short distance from the formidable guns which are mounted on modern fortresses : siege-guns may be secured in position anywhere with materials that are always ready to hand ; and carriages on con- stant service will be exposed to the very nu'/iimiim of strain. Moreover, Major Moncrieff's new appara- tus can be easily adapted to ordinary siege-carriages. and a cart and a couple of horses will transport its extra weight. If it proves successful with the heavy 40-pr. siege-guns, a fortiori it must succeed with the 46-pr. to be employed for coast batteries, as sugsres'ted in Major Moncrieflfs pamphlet on defenses. | HYGROMETEB.— An instrument for nieasuring the quantity of moisture in the atmosphere. The earlier forms of hygrometer depended ujion the proixTty possessed by some substances of readily alisorbing ' moisture from the air, and being thereby rhanged in dimensions or in weight. Of this kin<l was the hair hygrometer of Saussure. in which a hair, which ex- pands and contracts in length according us the air is more or less moist, was mad(r to move an index ; a similar instrument was the whalebone inslrunxnt of Ueluc : but as other causes as well as moisture affect such instruments, they alTord no accurate in- dications. The most perfect hygrometer, tlierireti- cally, is that of J. F. Daniell. It consists of two bulbs coimected by a very strong bent tube, and enclos- ing a thermometer, together with some ether and the vapor of ether, the air having been lirst expelled. This hygrometer was employed at the Hoyal Ob- servatory. (Jrcenwich. from 1M40— the C'ommencc- j ment of meteorological observations- till 1847. when it was superseded by the more convenient instrument, I the Wet and Dry liulb Thermometer of usual form. j This instrument consists of two ordinary thermom- I eters— one has its bull) bare, and thus shows the ' temperature of the air ; the other has its bulb covered I with uuislin, which is kept wet by a cotton wick I dipi)ing into water. The evaporation from the mus- lin, and the conse(|uent cooling of the bulb, being in proportion to tlie dryness of the air, the diflerence between the readings of the two thermometers is greatest when the air is dryest, anri zero when it is. ' completely saturated. The readings of the tliermo- ) meters then being taken, the elastic force of vapor I at the dew-point is calculated bv the formula of Dr. I Apjohn : d h u, h 1 (1)P=/ .-; (2) F =/--.-; I 88 30 96 30 i the first formula is to be used when the wet thermo- I meter is above, and the second whenever it is below, the freezing-point '32^'j- In these formuhe. F is the elastic force of vapor at the dew-point, which has been determined for different temperatures by Heg- naull from carefully conducted experiments ;"/. the elastic force at temperature of evaporation (or read- ing of wet bulb J; d, the difference between the dry and wet bulbs; and h. the height of the barome- ter. From this the quantity of moisture in one cubic toot of air, etc.. can be found as before. To dispense with these troublesome cahulations. thQ llygromHric Tn. bli:^ of !Mr. Glasliier may be used. Mason's hygrometer, represented in Fig. 1. is a verj- convenient and satisfactory instrument for prac- tical use. It consists of two ther- mometers, as nearly as possible similar mounted parallel upon a frame and marked respectively '•wet "and •• dry." Thebulbof the one marked tret is covered with thin muslin or silk. and kept moist from a fountain which is- usually attached. The principle of its action is. that unless the air is saturated with moisture, evap- oration is continually going on. Ana as no evaporation" can take place without an expenditure of the heat, the temperature of the fifc'. I. -^-i-i bulb thermometer, under the evaporation from the moistened bulb, fails until a cer- tain point is reached, intermediate between the dew- point and the temperature of the air. as shown by the thermometer. To tind the dew-point, the absolute drvness. and the weight in grains of a culiic foot of air, tables have been constructed empirically from ex- periments at Greenwich, combined with Kegnault's HTGKOMETEK. 78 HYGEOMETEB. Tables of Vapor Tension. Wlien using this instru- ment, if the air be very dry, the difference between the two thermometers will be great ; if moist, less in proportion, and when fully saturated, both will be alike. For different purposes, different degrees of humidity are required, and even in household use, that hygrometrical condition of the atmosphere most beneficial to one person, may frequently be found al- together unsuitable for ano'ther. "Dry" bulb 70*^ and '• wet" bulb 62* to 64° indicate average health- ful hygrometrical conditions ; any other relative con- It consists of a thin and highly-polished tubular ves- sel of silver, A, having one end somewhat longer than the other. A rather delicate thermometer is intro- duced into the tube at the smaller end, to which end of the tubular vessel, also, a flexible rubber tube with ivory mouth-piece is attached. A sufficient quantity of ether to cover the bulb of the thermo- meter, being poured into the silver vessel, the ether is agitated by breathing through the flexible tube. A rapid evaporation ensues until at the moment the dew-point is reached, the moisture is seen to condense DEW-POINT. d a < Difference between reading of Wet and Dry-ba . a < + 30° 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 +30° + 30° + 27° + 24° + 21° +17° +13° + 7° — 1° —11° ^^30° 31 31 28 25 22 18 14 9 + 2 — 7 —23 31 32 32 89 26 23 20 16 11 5 — 3 —17 32 3.3 33 30 37 24 21 17 13 7 — 1 —12 —32 33 34 34 31 28 26 22 19 15 9 + 2 -7 —23 34 + 35 + .35 + 32 + 29 + 26 + 24 + 20 + 16 + 11 + 5 -3 —17 +35 36 36 33 30 27 24 21 18 13 8 — 1 —12 -32 36 37 37 34 32 29 25 21 19 15 9 + 3 — 7 —23 37 38 38 35 33 30 26 23 19 17 11 6 — 3 —16 38 39 39 36 34 31 28 24 20 16 14 8 — U —31 39 + 40 + 40 + 37 + 35 + 32 + 29 + 26 + 22 + 18 + 12 + 10 + 3 — 6 —22 + 40 41 41 39 36 33 30 27 23 19 14 8 6 — 2 —16 41 42 42 40 37 34 31 28 25 21 16 10 3 + 2 — 9 —29 42 43 43 41 38 35 33 30 26 22 18 13 6 — 3 — 5 —20 43 44 44 42 39 37 34 31 27 24 20 16 9 + 1 —12 —13 44 + 45 +45 +43 + 40 + 38 + 35 + 32 + 29 + 25 + 21 + 17 + 11 + 4 — 7 —27 + 45 46 46 44 41 39 36 33 30 27 23 19 14 7 — 2 -18 46 47 47 45 43 40 37 36 32 28 25 21 16 10 + 2 -11 47 48 48 46 44 41 39 36 33 30 26 22 18 12 5 — 6 48 49 49 47 45 42 40 3T 34 31 28 24 20 15 8 — 1 49 + .50 + 50 + 48 + 46 + 43 + 41 + 38 + 36 + 33 + 29 + 26 + 22 + 17 + 11 + 3 +.50 61 51 49 47 45 42 40 37 34 31 27 23 19 13 6 51 52 62 50 48 46 43 41 38 35 32 29 25 21 16 9 52 53 63 51 49 47 44 42 40 37 34 30 27 23 18 12 53 54 64 52 60 48 46 43 41 38 35 32 28 24 20 15 M + 55 + 55 + 63 + 51 + 49 + 47 + 45 + 42 + 39 + 36 + 33 + 30 + 26 + 22 + 17 + 55 56 56 54 62 50 48 46 43 41 38 35 32 28 24 19 66 57 57 55 63 51 49 47 45 42 39 36 33 30 26 22 67 58 68 56 54 6J 60 48 46 43 41 38 35 31 28 24 53 59 59 57 55 63 61 49 47 45 42 39 36 33 29 26 59 + 60 + 60 + 58 + 66 + 54 + 52 + 60 + 48 + 46 + 43 + 41 +38 + 35 + 31 + 28 + 60 61 61 59 57 56 54 62 49 47 ii 42 39 36 a3 29 61 62 62 60 58 57 55 53 61 48 46 43 41 38 35 31 62 63 63 61 60 58 66 54 62 60 1^ 46 42 39 36 a3 63 64 64 62 61 69 57 66 63 51 49 46 44 41 38 35 64 + 65 + 65 + 63 + 62 + 60 + 68 + 66 + 54 + 52 + 60 +48 + 45 + 42 +39 + 36 + 65 66 66 64 63 61 59 57 65 63 51 49 46 44 41 38 66 67 67 65 64 62 60 68 66 54 52 .60 48 45 43 40 67 68 68 66 65 63 61 69 68 56 54 51 49 47 44 41 63 69 69 67 66 64 62 61 59 57 65 53 50 48 45 43 69 + 70 + 70 + 68 + 67 + 65 + 63 + 62 + 6» + 58 + 56 + 54 + 62 + 49 + 47 + 44 + 70 71 71 69 68 66 65 63 61 69 57 55 53 51 48 46 71 72 72 71 69 67 66 64 62 60 ^ 56 54 .52 50 47 72 73 73 72 70 68 67 65 63 61 60 68 56 53 51 49 T3 74 74 73 71 69 68 66 64 63 61 69 57 55 52 50 74 + 75 + 75 + 74 + 72 + 70 + 69 + 67 + 65 + 64 + 62 + 60 + 58 + 56 + H + 51 + 75 76 76 75 73 70 68 67 65 63 61 59 67 55 63 76 77 77 76 74 72 71 69 68 66 64 62 60 58 56 64 77 78 78 77 75 74 72 70 69 67 65 64 62 60 58 .55 78 79 79 78 76 75 73 71 70 68 66 65 63 61 59 67 79 + 80 + 80 + 79 + 77 + 76 + 74 + 73 + 71 +69 + 68 + 66 + 64 + 62 + 60 +58 + 80 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 dition required may easily be found by experiment, and then, dispensing with calculations, or reference tables, it is only necessary to see that the two ther- mometers stand in the required relation to each other. The hygrodyke, shown in Fig. 2, is on the principle of IMason's hygrometer, but is arranged with a dial and pointer so that the absolute and also (he relative dryness and the dew-point may be read off without calculation. I{ci;nauit's hygrometer, with aspirator. Is represented in Fig. ;i. I$y means of this instru- ment instunlaueous ob-servations may be readily made. upon the exterior surface of the polished silver tube. The reading of the thermometer at this precise mo- ment gives the dew-point. Lieutenant James Allen, United States Army, has made an ingenious and novel application of tlie Iiy- grometer, inforetflling frnKt by the determination of the dew-point. Lieutenant Allen uses, in his investi- gations, a dry and wet-lmlb hygrometer of a s|)ocial construction, consisting of two mercurial thermom- eters, which, being placcil siili- by side, will indi- cate the same temperature. The iiry-bulb is but a HYGROMETER. HYGROMETER. common thermometer, inteiuled to show the tem- pcriitiirc of the mr. Tlic wct-lmH) in al.si> a coiiiiiioii thcniKJiMcliT. liiil liiiviiii; ils Ijulh I'dvcn-rl willi ii piece of tliiii iinisliii, fi'diii wliieli pii.MseH a few llirciulH of dariiiiif;-ciitt(]ii or imrrovv strip of niusliii into u siimll vessel eoiitiiiiiiiii; raiii-waliT. Water rises liy capil- lary iillriictioii from llic vessel and llius keeps th(' musliu consluntly wet. When the air is dry, evap- oration from llie miisliu proceeds rai)idly. and on necownl of tlie heal lost in tills way, the wet-liidli in- dicates a lower tempera- ture than the dry-lndl) ; when t he air is damp evap- oration is sh)wer, and the dilt'irence between tliese two thermometers grows less, and where the air is completely saturated eva- poration ceases, and the two thermometers indi- cate the same tempcra- I turo. To keep this instru- I ment in working order, several things r<'(|uire spe- cial attention. The ther- mometers must lie alike, for if one shoidd be tilled with mercury and the other should contain spirit, or if they slioufd l)e tilled with different quantities of the same fluid, the readings will he vitiated. All starch or foreign matter should be washed out of the thin muslin covering and the cotton wicking. The water \ised should be pure ; for if lime or other salts be dissolved in it, the nius- Firj. a. perature of the mercury in the bnlb. By means of this contrivancif and the foregoing talile, the dew- point can hi' delerinined with a sudieient degree of nicely. To determine tlie ilew-poinl. at any time. subslract the n-ading of the wel-biilb fromlhal of the dry-bulb: lind the temperature of the dry-bulb in the left hand column of the Table, opposite which in the eolunui that is marked at th(' top with tlie dilTerence between the dry and wet-bulb, is to be fouiwl the dew-point souglit. Having ascertained the dew-point with certainty, the ap])roach of low tem])eralures or of frost may be foreseen and provided against. Thus, suppose on a tine clear day, towards evening, tliat the dry-l)ulb is 50" and the wet-bulb 40", the dew-point at the time Fig. 3. lin will soon be coated with a calcareous or other incrustation. Rain or distilled water should be used. The muslin ought to be changed when covered with dust or otlier impurities, and care should be taken not to touch the muslin with the fingers, otherwise it will get slightly greased, and capillary attraction will be thereby interfered with. The bulbs of the thermometers should be made to project li or 2 inches below the scales. The thermometers should also be a little apart from each other, and the vessel containing the water ought to be placed as far removed as possible from tlie dry-bulb. The ther- mometers should be exposed to the air wliere the circulation is unobstructed. They should face the north and be always in the shade. They should be removed at least a foot from the wall of any build- ing, and should be about ten feet from the ground. They should be protected against the heat reflected by the neigliboring objects, such as buildings or a sandy soil, and they should be sheltered from the rain. If the dry-bulb should become moistened by rain, the bulb should be carefuUj- dried about five minutes before making the observation ; since drops ■of water, by their evaporation, would lower tlie tem- Fik'. 4. (per Table) is 22" F. Frost on the ground may then be predicted with certainty, and no lime ought to be lost in protecting the tender plants of the garden. If, on the other hand, with a sky quite as clear, the dry-bulb is 50" and the wet-lnilli 47". the dew-point is 43", and no frost need be feared. Assuming the skj- to remain perfectly clear of all haze or clouds, the raising or depressing of the dew- point during the night, (usually witha change of wind), arc the onl)- circumstances that can happen to interfere with the predictions founded on the hy- grometer. Frequently the presence of any haze at high altitudes during the night prevents the radiation of heat from the earth and thereby the frost which otherwise would have occurred. Hoar-frost is form- ed under the same circumstances as dew, with the single exception of a lower temperature. When the temperature of the surface of plants falls lielow 32" the moisture of the air is condensed upon them in the solid state and forms a layer of snow-crystals, like spongy ice. Hoar-frost therefore is not frozen dew. but the moisture of the air is deposited in the solid form, without liaving passed through the liquid con- dition. Hoar-frost, however, like dew. is deposited chiefly upon those bodies which radiate best, such HYGKOSCOPE. 80 HTPSOMEXaiCAL IH££MOM£T£a. as plants and the leaves of vegetables, and the de- 1 posit is made prmcipally on those parts which are turned toward the sky. Since plants sometimes be- come cooled by radiation from 12*^ to 15" below the temperature of the surrounding air. a frost may occur although a thermometer a few feet above the i ground, in an instrument-shelter, may not sink to 32'^. During a clear and still night, when a ther- mometer which is six feet above the ground sinks to 36° or less, a heavy frost may be expected ; and a slight frost may occur wiien the same thermometer sinks only to 47^. Whenever it is practicable, an instrument-shelter should be built. The Stevenson pattern, shown in Fig. 4. is a very suitable one. The louvres are double, sloping in opposite direc- tions, so that while there is access of the air to the inside, the radiant heat and rain are effectually ex- cluded. A single lattice, however, will answer the purpose very well. This screen should be erected on legs four feet high, and should stand over grass on open ground. It should not be under the shadow of trees nor within twenty feet of any wall. See ThermtrineUr. HYGEOSCOPE. — The form of hygrometer employed to determine the ability of powder to resist moisture. It is usually an air-tight box in which the powder is subjected to a dampatmosphere at a uniform tem- perature for 24 hours. It consists of a Ijox lined with copper, with a space of two inches between packed witli hair. The lid is double also, like the sides, in construction; an India-rubber gasket covers the edges of the top, which is screwed lirmly down with thumb-screws. Inside the box is a moval)le perforated traj' of copper resting on ledges 8.5 inches by 8.5 inches. The intervening spaces have water- tight trays on ledges filled witli a solution of niter. The powder to be tested is placed in circular cups of copper having fine wire-gauze bottoms, affording free access of moisture to all the parts of the sample under test. The percentage of gain is determined by weighing the powder in carefully prepared bottles on op ninglliehygroscope. A careful record is kept of the barometer, the hygrometer, external and max- imum ami miuimimi internal thermometers. See </ u II /I'lirilfi- »ni[ /iixpicti'iii. iif (rMnpoirdi-r . HYPEHMETROPIA. .\n anomaly in the refraction of the eye whirli. by law, disciualihes a recruit for enlistment in the Army. This defecl is dependent on a condition of the eye exactly the reverse of my- opia. It is the condition in which rays from distant objects come to a focus hiliinil the retina. A irl.'uice at the drawing will cxjilain this condition. IIy|>ir- metro|)ia is due to a formation of the lye, wliicli is present from birth. It is also hereditary, being transmitted throuirh entire families, llypermi-lro- pic eyes are usually flat and shallow in appearance. Although present from birth, it is often, unless of a high degree, not manifested until the duties of the school-room begin, and. in the slighter grades, it may not be noticed until adolescence or middle-life ; neverthelesss the defect has existed all the while, but it has been masked and overcome by the exer- tions of the little ciliary muscle. Distinct vision is one of the instincts of our senses, and our eyes un- conscioush' adjust themselves so as best to secure it. Any change of the convexity of the lens is effected by the action of the ciliary Tnuscle : now. since the focus'for the rays falls behind the retina, the convex- ity of the lens of the eye must be increased in order to bring the focal point on the retina, and hence the little muscle is called upon to do the work ; but, since this condition of the eye is permanent, so also this muscular contraction is almost constant while the eyes are employed. Besides this constant exer- tion, the muscle must also act with vigor enough to give tlie ordinary power of accommodation for near objects. In j'outh the ciliary is in its greatest vigor, and it then overcomes this defect even when of considera- ble degree, but as age advances, the power of the muscles diminishes and then it is that the defect be- gins to manifest itself. The great cause of all these symptoms is the overstrain and eventual exhaustion of the ciliary mnscle. So long as it is able to ac- complish its excessive task, it overcomes, or rather masks the defect, but as soon as its power gives out, the accommodation fails and indistinctness of near objects results, in addition to which we have the long chain of distressing symptoms which arise from the overstrain ; many an obstinate headache has its sound in an tmreeognized hypermetropia. Since in this state of the eye the focus falls behind the retina, the remedy is found in a glass v.hich will increase the refractive power of the eye. thus bring- ing the focus of the rays of light on the retina : such a result is obtained by the proper convex glass. As, however, the ciliary muscle is able to mask a certain iimount of the defect, even after it has become appa- rent, the convex lens, which most improves distant vision, will correct but the portion of hypermetro- pia which is "manifest." and, indeed, frequently the patient may reject all convex glasses as failing to improve his distant vision, and yet be hyperme- tropic to a considerable degree. The glass which corrects the manifest defect will often greatly conduce to the patient's comfort, yet to select the glass which will correct the entire defect, the accommodation of the eye must be tem- porarily suspended by putting the ciliary muscle at rest by means of a solution of atropia. when the entire defect becomes apparent and may be carefidly measured bv the oculist. See HicriiitK. HYPSOMETRICAL THERMOMETER.— It is gener- ally assumed llial water boils at 212" Fahrenheit, but lliis is tnu' only at the sea-level, under a barometric jiressure of 21t.il22. in latitude 45, at a temperature of 32"^ Fahrenheit, and with clKMnirally jiure water. The boiling-])oint, therefore, varies with the latitude, the height above sea-level, the pressure of the atmos- phere and the tempeniture. Thus, at Philadelphia, under the mean baromelie pressure of that locality, of 2'.>.!I23 at 32'-' Faliri'niieil, water boils at a tempera- ture of 21 1 .!l!)4 Fahrenheil. .As there is an evident relation between the lioiling-poiiit and the elevation of a jilace, as shown by the decreased barometric pres- sure as we ascend, it would seem a comparatively IBERIAN SWORD. 81 IC£RL simple matter to mrasiiro thp Iiciirlit of a monnlfiiu by the tem|>iTiaiirc at wliicli tin- (■liiillili<iii nf wiilcr occurs. The ImrdnuMric prcHHiirc. hnwcvcr, fur the fiame place, is contiinially varving. and with it, the boiling temperature of lluiils. "Jt tollowH. there- fore, tliat in order to deteriiiine elevations willi any decree of accuracy, by means of a boilinir-point thernionieler. it is necessary in the first placi'. that the thermometer employed should be most accurate- ly uradualed and coMipared with the readini; of a sland- ard barometer, reduci'd for temperature and latitude. It is necessary, also, that obser- vations should be made, with as little interval of lime be- tween as possible, at thi' low- er point from \vhi<'li llie ele- vation of the lii;iher point is to l)e determined, as well as at thehiclier point itself, and that these observations be re- peatedly made. In relation to the necessity of a thorouchly acute thermometer, Admiral Fitzroy says, in his " Notes on Meteoroloccy:" "Each de- gree of tiie boilinii-point ther- mometer is equivalent to al- most 550 ft. of ascent, or one- tenth to 55 ft. ; therefore, the smallest error in the gradu- ation of the thermometer it- self, will atTeet the heiixhl de- duced materially." Having prepared to make observa- \i^fj^ tions with accuracy, it will ' S> become necessary to ascer- i** tain the means of deducing the height from the observa- tions made. The following Table gives very nearly the elevations in feet corn'spond- ingto a fall of I'-', in the tem- perature of boiling-water. When the barometer falls, or when a part of the pressure is in any other way removed, it boils t)efore coming to 212°, and when the pressure is in- cre.iscd the boiling-point rises. An elevation of 105 feet above the sea-level umkes a diminution of one degree; at higher levels the difference of elevation corresponding to a degree of temperature in the boil- ing-point increases. At the f'ily of Mexico, 7,000 feel above the sea, water boils at 2(XJ^ ; at Quito, 0.000 fei-t above the sea, at 194": and on Donkia Mounlain, in Ihe Himalayas, at the hi-ight of 18.000 f<cl. Dr. Hooker foimd itto boil at 180'^. The know- ledge of the etTect of dinunished pressure is largely turned to account in i)rocesses where the substances are apt to be injured by a high temperature. Elevation (n Feet Kbutlition between for each dein-ee. ai4uiid210 sao 210 ■• 800 .ViO 200 " 1(10 .'iVI 190 " 180 570 It is assumed that the hoiling-point will be dimin- ished 1'-' for each .520 feet of ascent until the tenipir- ature becomes 210'-', then 5;J0 feet of elevation will lower it one degree until the water boils al 200", and so on, the air being at 32" Fahrenheit. As. ac- cording to Kegnault, tlie air expands .00203(5 of its volume at 32" ff)r each degree increase in tempera- ture, it is necessary to find the mean temperature of the air between the two points, and applying the cor- rection d>ie to the difference between that and 32", Ihe formula will be as follows : Let //represent Ihe vertical height iu feet belween the stations: //and i the boiling-points of water at Ihe lower and iijiper stations respectively ; and/, the factor found iu the above tal)le. Then //=/ (B— b). Let ?ii be the mean temperature of the stratvim of air between the stations. Calling the correction due to Ihe mean temperature of air O. its value will be found from the equation, ('=// (m— 32) .00203G. Calling the corrected height H', it will be found from the for- mula n'=n-{-n (m— ss) .002036, that is n'=H [1-f-Cm— 32) .002036.] When an accurately made and carefully compared thermometer is employed in accordance with the fore- going rules and instructions, very accurate and val- uable results may be otjtained with the hypsometrical apparatus. But it is manifest that with thermometers as ordinarily made, whose freezing-points have been fi.\ed without regard to the condition of a true zero. and with observations which leave entirely out of account many of the factors necessary to even ap- proximate correctness, the results so obtained must often be of little value. See Barometer and Tlur- mometer. I IBERIAN SWORD.— A small sword somewhat re- sembling a dagger and much worn by the Roman foot-soli3iers, on the right side. ICE. — In high latitudes, during the winter, rivers are frequently covered with ice of sufficient thickness to sustain the heaviest loads. This means of com- munication should be used with great circumspection. A change of temperature may not only suddenly destroy this natural bridge, but render the river im- passable by any method for a considerable time iu consequence of the floating ice. When from three to four inches thick, ice will sustain iufantry march- ing in single file. With the thickness of 4.5 inches. , cavalry and light guns can pass over it ; with six ! inches, heavy field-pieces ; eight inches will support siege-guns, but, for greater security the wheels should be locked and secvired upon way-planks which slide upon the ice. Ihe pieces being moved by band. In very cold weather the thickness of the ice may be increased by covering it with a layer of straw or brush and throwing water over it, of two rows of logs maybe laid at a distance apart equal to Ihe width of the roadwsiy : a layer of earth is spread be- tween them and water is thrown on and allowed to freeze. This operation is repeated until a solid road- way is formed. Troops working in concert can ac- complish iu this manner a very strong crossing in a short while. Ice. when very thick, and therefore difficult to re- move, may be broken up by charges of powder in water-tight cans or bags, fixed underneath or placed in holes bored in it. Charges of from live to ten pounds of the powder placed in ice two feet thick will break up an area twenty feet in diameter. Eiiht ounces of dynamite will produce the like or even a greater result. ICENI. — A warlike tribe of ancient Britain, occu- pying, as is supposed, that part of the country which ICH OIEN. 82 IMPACT OF PEOIECTILES. corresponds nearly with the present eounties of Nor- folk ami Suffoilc. Under tlieir (jucen Boadicea they rebelled iiijainst the Romans. ICH DIEN.— Tlie motto of the Prince of Wales. According to one theory of its derivation, the phrase was emploj'ed by Edward I. on presenting his new- born son, Edward of Carnarvon, to the Welsh, using the expression in its Welsh signification — Eich dyn, " Behold the man." Another view attributes it to the occasion of the killing of John, King of Bohemia, by the Black Prince at Cressy, and asserts that the latter found the motto under the plume worn by the dead King, and assumed it to imply that " he served under the Kiufr. his father." ICHNOGRAPHY.— Tlie plan or representation of the length or breadth of a fortification, the distinct parts of whicli are marked out either on the ground itself, or on paper. A plan upon the correct principles of ichri'igraphy represents a work as it would appear if it were leveled to its foundations, and shows only the expanse of ground on which it had been erected. The science does not represent either the elevation or the different parts belonging to a fortification. 'This properly comes imder the title Profile, which does not, however, include length. ICICLES. — In Heraldry, charges of the same shape as drops in the bearing called gutte, but reversed. They have also been called clubs, locks of hair, and guttes reversed. " IGNITIBLE EXPLOSIVES.— Substances which on a mateli, tulie, or (h'tonating composition being ap- plied to them, ignite, such as gunpowder, gun-cot- ton, nitro-glyeerine, dynamite, and glyacyline, all of wliich can he used as explosive agents, for submarine as well as land purposes. IGNITION.— The act of setting fire to, or of taking fire, as opposed to combustion or burning, which is the consequence of ignition. Gunpowder may be ignited by the electric spark, by contact with an ignited body, or by a sudden heat of 5T2^ Fahrenheit. A gradual heat decomposes powder witliout explo- sion by subliming the sulphur. Flame will not ig- Dite gunpowder unless it remains long enougli in contact with the grains to heat them to redness. Thus, tlie blaze from burning paper may be touched to grains of powder without igniting them, owing to the slight density of the flame, and the cooling effect of the grains. It maj- Ije ignited by friction, or a shock between two solid bodies, even when these are not very liard. Experiments in France, in 1835, show that powder may be ignited by the shock of copper against copper, copper against iron, lead against lead, and even lead against wood ; in handling gunpowder, therefore, violent shocks be- tween all solid bodies should be avoided. The time necessary for the ignition of powder varies accord- ing to circumstances. For instance, damp powder requires a longer time for ignition than powder per- fectly dry, owing to the loss of heat consequent on the evaporation of the water : a powder the grain of which has an angular shape and rough surface, will be more easily ignited tlian one of rounded shape and smooth surface ; a light powder, more easily than a dense one ; and a powder made of a blabk <:harc()al, more easilj' than one made of red, inas- much as the latter is compelled to give up its vola- tile ingredients before it is acted on by tlie niter. Seo Kxpln^iiin and (Itnipmnder. IGNORANCE OF THE LA.W.—rg7im-aiit/f/ Jiinx, or ign<ir.'iiirc of llie law, is held to be no excuse for any breach of contract or duty, nor for crime or otlwr offense. It is absolutely necessary to slart with this maxim, otherwise it would be quite impossible to administer the law, for if once a contrary maxim were allowed, it would not only Ik^ a premium to ignorance, but would lead to endless and aliortive iiKjuirics into the interior of a man's mind. Ig- norance of a fact, however, is a (lifferent thing. Another kindred maxim of the law is that every man intends tlie consequences of his own acts. Thus, if he shoot at or give poison to a person, it is presumed that he intencled to kill such person. So, if he leaves a trap-door open in a street or thorough- fare, it is held that he intended people to fall into it and be injured. There is, however, a doctrine called bona fiden, which, in the case of petty offenses punishable by Justices, often tempers the strict and rigid application of the maxim ignornntia juris ntminem exciimt ; and even in crimes a Court al- ways takes into consideration, when passing judg- ment, whether the prisoner was an ignorant or in- telliuent person. ILIYATES— EELIAUTS.— A nomadic tribe of Per- sia and Turkistan, and mostly of Turkish, Arabic, or Kurdish descent. They are Mohammedans of the Sunni sect. They have no settled abode, but live in tents, moving from place to place, according to climate or season. They have large flocks and herds, and some tribes live by plunder. Each tribe pays tribute in cattle for the use of grazing ground, money not being known among tliem. Also written EelianU. IMAGINARY QUANTITY.— In the working of gun- nery problems, it often happens that the root of a negative quantity must be extracted ; if the root is odd, the operation can be performed, but if even, the root can only be furmally extracted, and is in consequence called an hnpnsm'ble or imaginary quan- tit}'. For instance, the cube root of — C4 is not an imaginary quantity, for — 4x — 4x — 4 = — 64, and therefore x'^ — 04 = — 4 ; but the square root of — 64 is an impossible quantity, for no possible quan- tity (whether it be -)- or — ) multiplied by itself can produce a negative quantity ; similarly and a fm-ti- iiri. the fourth root — 64 is an impossible quantity, and the same is true of all even roots. Imaginary quantities are, however, generallj' reduced to one denomination as multiples of v — l,in the following manner ; y/ZTeJ = \/64x — 1 =V^64 X ■v/— 1 =8 \^ — 1 ; and again.v^ — 18«= = VOa^ x — 3a = ^9rt* X v/3« X ^ — 1 =3a2 \/'2a v^^^l. These forms very frequently occur in higher algebra. IMBRUED. — An expression used in Heraldry to signify bloody, or dropping with blood. Weapons thus blazoned are drawn with drops of blood fall- ing from them. Also written Embrxied. IMMORTALS.— In antiquity, the name of a body of 10,000 troops, constituting the guard of the King of Persia : so called because they were alwaj's of the same number; for as soon as any of them died, the vacancy was immediately filled up. They were distinguished from all the other troops by the rich- ness of their armor, and still more by their bravery. The same term was applied to the life-guards of the Roman Emperors. IMPACT OF PROJECTILES.— In order to arrive at a clear understanding of what takes place when the motion of a projectile is arrested by any resisting medium, it is necessary to recall some of the ele- mentary principles upon which these phenomena depend. The manner in which a projectile acquires its velocity, is a good illustration of the manner in which its motion is destro\'ed. If the mean pressure, P, of the gas be multiplied by the space, S, passed over by the projectile while ac(|uiring its velocity, the result' will be the measure of the work done by the charge of powder ; and it will also be equal to the work of stopping the same projectile, no matter how or by what means it may be lirought to rest. The same result is generally arrived at by measuring the velocity imparted to tlic ]irojc(iile under the cir- cumstances mentioned, and multiplying the square of the velocity by one-half of the mass of the pro- jectile ; or, since the mass is ccpial to the weight divided by the force of gravity, the expression for the work stored in the iirojeetile, and whicli must W vo be expended in bringing it forest, = .where 2/7 iUPAIE. 83 DIFEBIAL CBOWH. W = weight of the projectile' in poiindu, v = velocity of the projectile in f<'el, and r/ the force of gravily in feet, or the velocity which a. body will iic(|uire by its own weij;;lit in on<' Heeoixl of lime. This ex- pression involves indirectly tbe simie ((iianlilies lis tlmt first mentioned ; namely, the ineiin pressunr of the gas and the distance passed over by the projec- tile : assuminfj; this measure for the work stored in the projectile, it remains to consider how this work is expended. The following are the different effects i)roducc(l by the impact of a projectile upon any solid body ; some of the.Hc being so connected as to render their relative importance extremely doubtful. ComprennioH — The first effort of impact is to com- press or drive back those iiortionsof both ])rojectiles imd target first connng in contact upon tho.se im- mediately iK'hind them ; the amount of this com- pression depending upon the material and velocity of impact, as well as upon the form of the projectile. Elongation — The greater part of the work of tlie projectile in penetrating wrought-iron anil similar materials is expended in .overcoming the tenacity of the material, or in elongating the fiber. This is evi- dent when we consider that punching or shearing consists not so much in cutting tlie fiber, as in bend- ing it, and afterwards pulling it in two lengthwise, .b'/fm/v'nj— This, as just stated, consists chiefly in the two strains already mentioned. Bending. — This also implies tension and compres- sion ; the back of the target being elongated, and the front compressed. Pulverizing — a portion of the material. This takes place only in case of liard materials, as a stone or cast-iron, and it then absorbs a very great amount of work. Like bending and shearing, it involves compression and elongation, the material being com- pressed until it yields laterally to a tensile strain. Motion — While the work is Ijeing expended, a certain amotint of time is allowed for the force of the projectile to impart motion to the target, espe- cially that portion immediately in front of the pro- jectile. Friction — The friction is very great, especially in the case of the more pointed form of projectile, and varies inversely with the velocity of the projectile. Heat — This is due to friction, both external and internal, that is, of the projectile and the fragments against the target, and against each other during the distortion of the material, from compression, bending, etc. The suddenness with which this heat is generated is almost unequalled by any known source of heat. It is well known that the heat develop- ed in the interior of loaded shells, on striking violent- ly a thick iron plate, is sufficient to ignite the powder, and this fact has been utilized in dispensing with fuses for exploding armor-punching shells. The effect of a projectile on striking a mass or target of any form or material, may be divided into two general portions, — one being entirely local, ■while the other is distributed over more or less sur- face according to circumstances. The former is the penetration, and the latter may be called concussion. ;6ee Penetration of Projectiles. IMPALE. — In Heraldry, to arrange an)' two coats of .arms side b^' side in one shield divided per pale. It ^^^—^-—^ i** "sual thus to exhibit the con- ^ H joined coats of husband and wife, ^^r H H the husband's arms occupying the ^r ^H H dexter side or place of honor, and r ^flf H the wife's the sinister side of the li(' may belong. Bishops. Deans, Heads of Colleges, and Kings of Anns impale tlieirarms with their insig- nia of ofjlcc, giving tlic dexter side lo the former, fn early Heraldry, when two coats were represented in one shield side by side, only lialf of each was ex- hibited, an arrangement which has been called ilimi- (liatiou. Sometimes the one coat only was dinudi- ated. A reminiscence of dinndialion is preserved in the practice of omitting tlie bordiires, cries, and trcssures in impaled arms on the side bounded by the line of irMpidemenl. ISce llirnhlry. IMPEDIMENTA.- All the accom|)a'niments to an army received from the Romans the name <if itnpfdi- menta. They consist in a general sense of muni- tions, equipments, provisions, hospital supplies, tents, engineering tools, bridge eqiiii)age, boats, baggage, cooking utensils, etc., necessary for the use of an army moving against an enemy. This requires the use of large numljers of wagons and draught ani- mals, or shipping, and necessarily impedes the move- ment of an army. IMPENETRABILITY.— One of the essential proper- ties of matter wliicb implies that no two bodies can at the same lime occupy the same space. If a nail be driven into a piece of wood it does not, properly speaking, penetrate the wood, since the fibers are driven aside before the nail can enter. If a vessel be filled with fluid, and a solid body be then placed in it, as much water will run over as is equal in bulk to the solid body, in this w'ay making room for it. The lightest gases are really as impenetrable as the densest solid ; although, owing to their compressi- bility, il is not readily made ai)parent. IMPEEATOE.— An old Roman title signifying Com- mander, which was applied to the Kulers of Prov- inces, the Consuls, Pro-Consuls, etc., or to anybody who had an Imperium assigned him. After "a vic- tory the Roman soldiers frequently saluted their Com- mander by this title. See Emperor. IMPERIAL CROWN.— Properly the crown boniebv the German Emperor; it is in form a circle of gokl, adorned with precious stones and Jlei/r.i-dr-li.i, bor- dered and seeded with pearls, and raised in the form of a cap voided at the top like a crescent. From the middle of the cap rises an arched fillet enriched with pearls, and surmounted by a globe, on which is a cross of pearls. The name Imperial Crown is, however, in English Heraldry, applied to the crown worn in times past by the Kings of England. From the 12th century onwards, the Crown of the English Sovereigns underwent repeated changes in form and enrichment. That of Edward II. was formed of four large and four small strawberry leaves, rising Incurves from the jewelled circlet, and having eight small flowers Alternating with the leaves. In the crown of Hen- ry IV. eight strawberrj' leaves, and as many fleurn-dt'-li.i alter- nated with sixteen small groups of pearls, three in each. Under Henry V. the enriched circlet was for the first time arched over with jewelled bands of gold, and the apex of the arches were sur- mounted with a mound and a cross, while crosses patees were substiHited for the strawberry leaves, and roses or Jie II n-de-lis for the clusters of pearls. The arches, at first numerous and elevated to a point, became in later times, restricted to four, and depressed in the The Imperial Crown of Heraldry, as now ^^Bt^eAai Oram. center, escutcheon. When a man marries i understood, is, in point of fact, the form "of crown a second wife, heralds .say that he I worn by the English Sovereigns from Charles II. to Impale. ni'W divide the sinister half of the William IV., as represented in the subjoined wood- shield per fess into two compart- ' cut. It has four crosses patees and four Jieurs-dt-li.t ments, placing the family arms of his deceased wife set alternately on the circlet, while four pearl-stud- in chief, and of his second wife in base. A bus- ded arches, rising from within the crosses, carry at band impaling his wife's coat with his own, is not their intersection the mound and cross. The State allowed to surround the former with the collar or Crown of Queen Victoria differs considerably from ihe insignia of any order or knighthood to which this, having a far more enriched character! It is ntPEEIAL GUARDS. 84 IMPLKMENTS, covered with diamonds and studded witli gems, and the arches are wrought into wreaths of rose, thistle, and sliamrock formed of brilliants. A cliarge, crest, or supporter, crowned with a regal crown, is said to be imperially cnmned. IMPERIAL GUARDS.— The name of a body of select troops, organized by the French Emperor, Napoleon I., which greatly distinguished themselves at Auster- litz. IMPERIALISTS.— A designation chiefly applied to the subjects of, or forces employed l)y the House of Austria, when opposed to the troops of other Ger- man Powers. IMPETUS. — In gunnery, the altitude through which a heavy body must fall to acquire a velocity equal to that with which a ball is discharged from a piece. IMPLEMENTS.— Artillery implements are em- ployed in loading, pointing, and tiring cannon, and in the maneuver of artillery-carriages. The imple- ments for loading cannon are : — 1st. The rammer- head is a short cylindrical piece of beech or other siege and sea-coast cannon, as field and moimtaln cannon can be unloaded by raising the trail of the carriage, which permits the projectile to slip out by its own weight. 4th. The irorm. Fig. 2 is a spe- cies of double cork-.screw, attached to a staff, and is used in field and siege cannon to withdraw a car- tridge, ■'ith. The gunner'.i haversack is made of leather, and suspended to the side of a cannonier by a shoulder-strap. It is used to carry cartridges from the ammunition-chest to the piece, in loading. 6th. The pnna-bi/x is a wooden l)ox closed with a lid, and carried by a handle attached to one end. It takes the place of the liaversack in siege and sea- coast service, where the cartridge is large. 7th. The tube-pouch is a small leather pouch attached to the person of a cannonier by a waist-belt. It con- tains the friction-tubes, lanyard, priming-wire, the thumb-stall, etc. 8th. The budge-barrel is an oak barrel bound with copper hoops. To the top is at- tached a leather cover, which is gathered with a string, after the manner of the mouth of a bag. It- Fig. 1. Fia. .'i. tough wood, fi.xcd to the end of a long stick of ash, called a utajf', and is employed to push the charge to its place in the bore or chamber of a cannon. 3d. The xpiingr is niriuiUen brush, Fig. 1. attached to the ciiil iif a staff, for the ])urj)ose of cleaning the inte- rior of caniicin, and e.\tinguishing any burning frag- ments of tbc cartridge that may remain after tiring. In the lield and mountain services, the ramnier-liead and sponge are attached to the opposite ends of the same staff; in the siege and sea-coast services they are attached to separates staves. To protect the sponge from the weather, it should, when not in use, be enclosed in a rorer made of canvas and jiainted. 3d. The ladle is a co]iper scoo)) attached to the end of a stafT for the purpose of withdrawing the jiro- jectile of a loaded piece. Ladles are only used for is employed to carry cartridges from the magazine to the battery, in siege and sea-coast services. 9th. The priming-wire is used to prick a hole in a cart- ridge for the passage of the flame from the venf . It is a piece of wire, pointed at one end. and tlie other is formed into a ring which serves as a handle. 10th. The thnmh-stall is a buckskin cushion, a'tachcd to the finger to close the vent in spimging. 11th. The ' fune-setter is a brass drift for driving a wooden ftise into a shell. 12th. The fuse-mallei. Fig. 3 is made of hard wood, and is used in connection with Iho setter, liitli. 'Dicfuse-sair is a lO-inch tenon saw foi" cutting wooden or paper fuses to a proper length. 14lh. 'Ti\cfiise-gimlet\>iti common gindet, which may be employed in place of the saw to open a commu- nication with the fuse composition. 15th. Thc/us«- IMPBEGNABLE. 85 IMPSES8I0R TAKER. auger is an iiistruiiicnt for repiilaliii!; (he time' of burnini; of a fuse, \<\ riMnovini; a <crliiiii porlion of the roinposilioii fnnii the exterior. For lliix |)iir- poHc il lias a iiiovalile i;railiiale(l sriile, wliicli ri'iru- lutes the ileplli towliieU the aiii;er slioiild penetrate. lOlli. The fiiM'-raxp is a coarse lile employed in fit- ting a fuse-plnj; to a slicll. 17tli. Tlu; fuHt-pliig refiinir is vised to enlarge' tlie eavily of a fiise-pliig, after it has been driven into a i)rojeetile, to enable It to reeeivea jiaperfiise. IHtli. 'Vht-nhill-pbt;/ m-reir Is a wood serew with a handle ; it is useil to extraet a phii: from a fnse-hole. ISJtli. The fune-fitrddDr is worked by a serew, and is a more powerful instru- ment than the preecdini; ; it is used for extraeting wooden fuses from loade<l sliells. 20th. The mur- tar-.vnrper is a slender piece of iron with a sjjoon at one end, and a scraper at the other, for cleaning the cliamlier of a mortar. 21st. The gunmr'n Kleeees are jnade of tlannel or serge, and are intended to be drawn over the coal-sleeves of the gunner, and |)re- VCnt them from being soiled while loading a mortar. 23d. The funnel is made of copper, and is used in pouring tlu^ bursting charge into a shell. 23d. The poirdrr-uit'iimirm. Fig. 4, are made of cojiper, of a cylindrical form, and of various sizes, for the pur- pose of determining the charges of shells and can- non, by measurement. 24th. The /"/i^ffcrf is a <n>ril, one end of which has a small iron hook, and the other a wooden handle. It is used to explode the friction-tubes with which cannon for tlie land ser- vice are now tired. 2.5th. The gnnnrr'-i pincers, gim- let, and iient-piinrh are instruments carried in tlic tube-pouch for removing ordinary obstructions from the vent. 2()tli. Tlie HlieU-hookK is an instrument constructed to fasten into the cars of a shell, for the purpose of lifting it to the muzzle of the jnece. The implements for pointing are : 1st. The gun. ner'K level is an instrument for determining the high- est points of tile breecli and muzzle of a cannon when tlie carriage-wheels stand on even ground. It Is made of a brdsa plate, the lower edge of which is terminated by two steel points which rest upon the surface of the piece. A spirit-ln-el is attached to the plate with its a.xis parallel to the line joining the points of contact. When the level is in position, the vertical slideis pressed down with the linger to mark the required point. 2d. The tangent-scale is a brass plate, the lower edge of which is cut to the curve of the base-ring of the piece, and the upper edge is formed into onsets which correspond to dif- ferences of elevation of a quarter of a degree. It is used in pointing, by placing the curved edge on the base-ring, with the radius of the offset corresponding with the highest point of the ring, and sighting over the center of the offset and the highest point of the Bwell of the muzzle. 3d. The Ireech-sight, is a more accurate form of the tangent-scale. It consists of a vertical scale graduated to degrees and eighths of degrees, and a curved Aa<e which rests upon the breech of "the gun. A slide is attached to the vertical piece, which has a small hole or notch cut on its upper edge, through which the aim is taken. The slide is fixed at any point by a thumbscrew. 4th. The pendulum hausse is used to point tield-pieces, and at the same time to obviate the error which will ari.se when the wheels of the carriage stand on uneven ground. It is composed of a scale arranged like a peniluUim, a si/sjh nsion-pieee, and a sent which is screwed to the breech of the gun. A slot is cut in the suspension-piece into which the scale is inserted, and fastened Viy a pivot, which allows it to vibrate in a lateral direction. The scale also vibrates in a longitudinal direction, as the journals of the sus- pension-piece are free to turn in the grooves cut in the seat to receive them, thus assuming a vertical position independently of the surface of the ground .on which the carriage stands. 5th. The gunner's qitadrant is a wooden instrument for measuring the :iingles of elevation and depression of cannon, and particularly of mortals. The nature of the instru- ment and its mode of apjilication are very simple. The plumb-line and bob when not in use, are carried in a hole formed in the end of the long branch, and covered with a brass plate. The principal maneuvering implements arc: 1st. The trail-handspike, which is made of wood, and attacli(!d to the trail of a fielil-carriage for the ])ur- pose of giving directiim to the piece when aiming. VVIien tlie carriage is limliered, the handspike is at- tached to the chei-k by means of a ring and hook. 2(1. The maneurtriiig.liiinds]iil:i is likewise made of wood, but it is longer and stouter than the preced- ing ; it is used for siege and sea-coast carriages and gins. 3d. The sliad-handspike is made of wood, armed with an iron point, which is turned up in a way to prevent slipping on the ]ilatforni. It is par- ticularly useful in the servici- of mortars and sea- coast carriages. 4th. The truck-hnudxpike is made of inm, and is employed to work the maneuvering wheels of sea-coast carriages, by inserting it in the holes formed in the circumference of the wheels. Sth. The eccentric-handspike is used to throw the eccentric axis of the maneuvering wheels of the sea- coast carriages into and out of gear, for this pur- pose it has a head with a hexagonal hole which tits upon the extremities of the eccentric axle-tree, (ith. The mller-fiaudspike supplies the place of rear maneuvering wheels in certain of the new sea-coast gun-carriages. It is operated by inserting the point of the handspike under the heel of the carriage-shoe, and pressing down the long arm of the lever; in this way the weight of the rear portion of the carriage is thrown upon the roller, which moves upon the rail of the chassis. 7th. The prd-inge is a stout hemp rope, occasionally employed in field-service to connect the liipette <if "the carriage and pintle-hook of the limber when the piece is tired. It is termina- ted at one end with a hook, at the other wit ha toggle, and has two intermediate rings, into which the hook and toggle are fastened whenever it is necessarv' to shorten the distance between the carriages, 8th. The spange-fiucket is made of sheet-iron, and is at- tached to field-carriages ; it is used for washing the bore of the piece. 9th. The tar-bucket is also made of sheet-iron, and is used to carry the grease for the wheels. 10th. The watering-bucket is made of sole- leather, riveted at the seams, and is used to water the horses. The gutta-percha watering-buckets are sometimes used. 11th. The water-buckets iivemmXe of wood, and bound with iron hoops. There are two kinds, one for the traveling-forge, and the other for the service of the garrison-batteries. 12th. The drag-rope has a hook at one end. a loop at the other, and si.x wooden handles placed about four feet apart. It is used whenever it may be necessary to emploj- a number of men in hauling loads, or extricatins a carriage from a difficult part ef a road. 13th. Tlie men's^arness is very similar to the drag-rope, except that the rope is stouter, and the handles are replaced by leather loops which pass over the shoulders of the meU; to enable them to exert their strength to advantage. 14th. The bill-hook, or hand-bill, is used for cutting twigs. 15th. The screir-jack is a lifting- machine, composed of a screw worked by a nwtnhle nut supported on a east-iron, stand. It is useful in greasing carriaje-wheels. IMPKEGNABLE.— Xot to be stormed or taken by assault: inc:ipable of being reduced by force; able successfully to resist attack ; as an impregnable fort- ress. IMPRESSION TAKER,— A device employed for re- cording impressions of vents and interiors of bores in the inspection of cannon. In its usual form, it consists of a wooden head, one-half of which is cyl- indrical, and the other half is of the shape of the chamber, both being rather smaller than the parts of the bore for which they are intended. The staff, flatened on its upper side and rounded on its under side to fit the curve of th3 bore, is mortised into the cylindrical portion of the head. A mortise is cut EVEPEISONMENT. 86 INCLOSED "WORKS^ through the chamber part of the head, extending several inches in the rear and the front of the posi- tion of the vent. Into this mortise a loose piece is fitted, capable of free motion upwards and down- wards, the top of which is pierced with holes to secure the wax or composition which is spread over its surface. This movable piece rests on a wedge attached to a flat rod running through a slot in tliis rod about four inclies long, a pin passing through it into the staff. To use the instrument, withdraw the rod as far as the slot will permit, which will allow the movable piece upon which tlie composition has been spread to drop below the surface of the head, and protect it. Push the head to the bottom of the chamber and arrange the position of the staff, so that the mov- able piece will cover the vent, then press the end of the rod home. This motion will throw out the com- position, and a distinct impression of the vent and of fire-erncks (shoidd there be any) will be left on the surface ; draw the rod back as far as the slot will allow, and withdriiw the instrument ; the impression, being protected tliereb.y, will come out uninjured. Impressions of injuries or cavities in the bore may easily be taken by a similar contrivance. See trutta- jtercha Impressions, Inspection of Ordnance, 3.nA.Vent Impressions. IMPRISONMENT. — Officers may be sentenced to imprisiiument Ijy a general Court-Martial in any case where the Court may have discretionary authority. General. Garrison, or Regimental Courts-Martial may sentence soldiers to imprisonment, solitary or other- wise, with or without hard labor for various offenses enumerated in the Articles of War. A Garrison or Regimental Court-Martial, in awarding imprisonment, is limited to a period not exceeding thirty daj-s. When a Court awards solitary imprisonment as a punishment, it is necessary the words " Solitary C^on- finement " should be expresed in the sentence. The legal imprisonment in the United States is confine- ment, solitary confinement, and a confinement on bread and water; the latter does not extend over 14 days at a time, witli intervals between the periods of "such confinement not less than such periods, and not exceeding 84 days in any one year. IN BATTERY. — A command in heavy artillery ser- vice for moving the gun forward into position, prior to aiming and firing. For instance, at the siege- battery, as soon as the piece is loaded. iNos. 1 and 3 uncho'ck the wheels (if they have been chocked), and with Nos. .3, 4, .5, and 6, all facing towards the epaulment, embar ; Nos. 1 and 3 through tlie front spokes of the wheels, near the fellies, under and perpendicidar to the cheeks ; Nos. 3 and 4 under the rear of the wheels, and Nos. 5 and 6 under and per- pendicular to the stock, near the trail. All being ready, the gunner commands : He.we, and the piece IS run into battery, Nos. 5 and 6 being careful to guide the muzzle into the middle of the embrasure. As soon as the wheels touch the hurter, he com- mands : Halt. All unbar, and Nos. 1, 3, 3, and 4 re- sume llii'ir posts. INCAPABLE. — A term of disgrace, frequently an- nexed to military sentences, when au officer has been cashiered by the sentence of a General Court-Martial, and rendered ineajiable of ever serving his country in cilhi-r a civil or military capacity. INCENDIARY MATCH.— A preparation in pyro- teehny. made Ijy boiling slow-match in a saturated solution of niter, drying it, cutting it into pieces, and iilunging it into tuelted fire-stone. It is princi- pally used in loaded shells. See Fireworks. INCENDIARY SHELL. -A hollow projectile charg- ed with iiH'iiidiary composition, and designed for setting tire to buildings, ships, and other objects. Hollow balls filled with fire, appear to be among the earliest jjroji'etiles used in warfare after the introduc- tion of the Greek-fire, though lliese were not fired from cannon ; but descriptions are given of balls of Are used by the Saracens in Spain, which seem to correspond closely with modem incendiary-shells,^ The use of incendiary compounds appears to have gradually become obsolete, as we hear little or no- thing of their employment until toward the close of the 18th century, hot shot being used as a substitute. About 1797, Chevallier, in France, invented an in- cendiary compound, which .seems to have been tried to a limited extent by the French Government, for filling shells. Since then, many inventors have ex- ercised their ingenuity upon this subject, the princi- pal object being to obtain an inextinguishable com- position for charging shells, to be ignited either by time-fuse or by percussion. The only shells of the incendiary kind generally recognizedin modem war- fare are carcasses. INCENSED.— The epithet applied in Heraldry to panthers and other wild beasts borne with flames issuing from their mouths and ears. The term, Amme has the same signification. See Heraldry. INCLINE. — To gain ground to the flank, as well as to the front. Inclining is of great use in the march- ing of the line in front, to correct any irregularities that ma}' happen. It is equivalent to the quarter facing and to the oblique marching of the infantry. It enables us to gain the enemy's flank without ex- posing our own, or without wheeling or altering the parallel front of the company. INCLINED PLANE.— The inclined plane is reck- oned as one of the mechanical powers, because, by rolling it up a plane, a man may raise a weight which he could not lift. This principle is extensive- ly made use of, chiefly in the raising of weights and in road-making. It is here unnecessary to go into a mathematical investigation of the theory of the in- clined plane, as it may be seen in the common books on mechanics, but the result is as follows: The force required to lift a body (viz., its weight) bears to the force required to keep it from rolling down an In- V"W clined plane, the same proportion that the length of the inclined plane bears to its height : also the weight of the body bears to the weight which tends to bend or break the inclined plane, the same proportion that the length of the plane bears to its base. Let us suppose a plane, whose length, AB, is thirteen feet; base, AC, twelve feet ; and height, BC, five feet ; and let the weight be 780 poimcls. Then the force, P, whicli can sustain 780 pounds on the in- clined plane, is ^jths of 780, or 300 pounds (/. e., a force which could just lift 300 pounds) : also the force, R, which presses perpendicularly on the plane, is -;-|ths of 780, or 720 pounds. When the weight has not only to be sustained on the plane but drawn up to it, the resistance of friction has to be added to the power necessary to sustain the weight. In com- mon roads. Engineers are agreed that the lieight ■ of an incline should not exceed J^th of the length, or, as they phrase it, the gradient should not, be greater than one in twenty. It may here be men- tioned that knives, chisels, axes, wedges, and screws, are mere modifications of the inclined jjlane, but the last two being generally classed as di.stinct mechan- ical powers, will be treated each under its own head. See Aftriu/niral Pinners. INCLOSED WORKS. -Inclosed works are a.ssailable on all sides, and must, for security, present an un- broken line to the assault. They are usually divided into three classes, viz. ; 1st. Polygonal works or re- doubts ; 2d. Tenailled works or star forts; 3d. Bas- lioned works. The redoul)ts maybe inclosed on all sides of a square, polygonal, or circular figure. The INCOUUODER L'ENNEMI. 87 INCOEPOEATINO MILL. lattpr form is rarrly iisrd, hoint; nnsiiitiililc f o proiind in uriicriil, iiiid from llii' iiri|iciMMiliilil y nf li'ivin'^ nrjy lliuikiiii; (icfcMSc U> IIk' (litcli. I{c(l<]iil)ls on Ufvcl finmnd arc generally Hquarc or |icnl,ai;onal. On a hill or risiiii; ;,'roiiiid tlicir outline will, in nioHt cuhch, follow tlif conlour o( llio siinunit of tin; Idll. The dimensions of all inelosed works should he propor- tioned to the nuinher of men they are to contain. One lile, that is, two men, are rc(|uired for the de- fense of every lineal yard of parapet; Ihe numhi'r of yards in the crest line (jf any redoulit should not, therefore, exceed lialf Ihe nuudjer of meii to IxM'on- taincd in it. Afiain, as ovcry man in an inclosed work recpiircs 10 s({uarc feet of tlie interior space, that space clear of the Ijancpiette nuist not contain less than ten times as many square feel as the num- ber of men to he contaiticd in it. From these con- siderations il follows: Isl. To find Ihe least imiuher of men sullicieut lo man tlu^ parajjet of an inclosed work. nuiUiply the number of yards in the crest line by two. 2d. To lind the greatest number of men that an inclosed work can contain, find the area, clear of the liamiuette, in scpiare feet, and di- vide tliis number by U). When the work contains guns, ;ii4 square feet must be allowed for each gun, and this quantity, mulliplied by the number of guns, nuisl be sublracled from tlie wliole interior space. The remaining number of square feet, divided by | 10, will give the number of men which the redoubt can hold. The side of a square redoulit should, under no circumstances, be less than 50 feet. The great objections to small inclosed works are : 1st, the liabilily of their faces to be enfiladed from with- out; 2i\, the dillieully of providing an elfective flanking defense for their ditches ; 3d, the weakness of their sidient angles, the ground in front of tliem being imdefeuded by a direct fire. In tracing re- doubts and all inclo.sed field works, care must be taken to direct as much as possible their faces upon inaccessible ground, so as to reduce to a minimum the cfTeets of an enemy's enliliide. while a|i|)roach on the salients must be rendered ditliculf by abalis, trous-de-loup, and obstacles of all available descrip- tions. , It will henceforward be very dittieulf lo guard the interior of inclosed works from the effects of distant musketry. Well-trained troops from a distance of 900 yards could throw willi certainly every shot into the interior of even a sm;dl redoubt : while the angle at which they fall, some l.'j'^ to 20>^, would enable them to sweep the whole interior and make every part of the redoubt too hot. It seems to be a question whether such a work can be pro- tected by traverses from such a plunging fire. See Bastinned F&rU, Field ForUftcaUon, Redoubt, and Star Forti. INCOMMODER L'ENNEMI.— To get possession of a fort, eminence, etc., from which tlie enemy may be harassed, or wliich fs ni'cessarv to his security. INCORPORATING MILL.— The incorporation, or grinding togetlier, of the three ingredients that form gunpowder is by far the most important process in the whole manufacture, for unless the minute par- ticles of the three ingredients be thoroughly blended and brought into the closest contact with each other, all subsequent operations — however well performed — will not compensate for the error. The incorpor- ating mill, which is shown in the drawing, consists of two large and heavy " hard chill" cast-iron edge runners, revolving on a circular cast-iron bed ; the peculiar action of these runners or rollers is well adapted for thoroughly grinding and incorporating the several ingredients ; their great weight is for crushing the ingredients ; which are also ground together by the twisting action produced liy the roll- ers traveling round in so small a circle. Kacii roll- er travels over the bed in a separate track, and is assisted by the plough (hereafter described), which mi.xes the material, so that it is subjected to crushing, grinding, and mixing by the one operation. Incor- porating mills in a gunpowder factory are usually grouped together, and the motive power may oitlier be waliTor sleam : in eilhercase Ihe power provided sl]i>nlil be capable of driving four or more pairs of run- ners. Each pair is so arranged tliat it can be disen- gaged or put in gear at pleasure by means of a friclion- clut(;h, without interfering with the steady working of the engine or water-wheel. When the latter is employeil, the speed is regulati'd by a governor in <onnection w ith Ihe sluice ; by this means the flow of water is caused to immediately increase or diminish as a pair of runners is put into motion or slopped, and Ihiis a regular speed is always mainlained. Tlie runners travel round Ihe bed at the rate of 8 revolu- tions per minute ; they are 0' 0" in diameter by 113" broad on the face, and they each weigh four ton.s. As already staled, tlie two travel on different paths, the one being near to Ihe outside rim or curb of the bed, while the other travels near to the inside curb or " cheese." A horizontal shaft or spindle com- mon to both runners passes through their centers, and between them is a crosshead, fixed on a vertical shaft driven by means of a bevel wheel and pinion, the latter being secured on the main driving-shaft that passes ini(lernealli the bed of each mill, and is common to all. The vertical shaft jiasses through the crosshead, and is provided with brass bushes, which allow the runners to rise or fall a<'Cording to the irregularity in the thickness of the material under them. On each side of the crosshead and project- ing outwards is an iron bracket, having a phiugh (made of a wedge-shaped piece of wood shod with felt and leather) "fitted to it, and so arranged as to sweep the bed and to keep the composition under the runners. The one plough sweeps against the outside curb, immediately in front of the runner that travels round the larger circle, and the other against the cheese or inside curb, immediately in front of the runner that travel*; round the smaller circle. The in.side of the outer curb, as well as the outsideof the cheese where the ploughs work and rub against them, are covered with copper or gun-melal. The composition attains a body in abourone hour after the runners are set in motion, and the action of the ploughs in moving the whole of the material on and across the bed thoroughly mixes it. and sub- jects every particle to the same amount of pres- sure. Each pair of runners is provided with a tell- tale dial, which shows the attendant the time that the mill has to run. and enables him to judge the condition of the cake from time to time. From three to four hour:; is the period a charge should be on the mill, providing the engine or water-wlieel is maintained at its proper speed. This timing of a charge is a very important point in the manufacture where powder of an equal quality is required, and IKCEEA8ING T^W^ST. 88 IKCREASING rWIST. the attendant has to watch for anj' change in the at- mosphere, so that he may work the charge dry or moist, as the humidity of the air leads him to de- termine. The ingredients, or cliarge, as it comes from the mixing-machine— 50 lbs. in weight — is spread equally over the bed of the mill, and moist- ened with from 4 to 8 pints of distilled water by means of a rose-ended watering-pot, the quantity heing regulated according to the state of the atmos- phere, and as the experience of the attendant shows him to be necessary. The cake should be of a black- ish-gray color, and, when broken, of a uniform ap- pearance, without any white or yellow specks in it ; the presence of these would indicate insufficient in- corporation or grinding. Further, it should not be more tliau half"'an inch in thickness, in order to be thnroughly incorporated, nor should it be less than a quarter of an inch thick to insure safety, because if the runners are allowed to come in contact with the bed, the friction caused by their twisting action is so great that an explosion would almost certainly be the result-. At the expiration of tliree or four liours under the before mentioned conditions, a charge will have attained all tlie properties of gunpowder, nor will the powder be improved by heavier runners or an increase of speed. For fine sporting gun- powder, however, the operation of incorporating is continued in some cases for as long as 8 hours, and whh heavier rollers, but it is doubtful whether the powder is much, if at all, improved thereby ; the purity of the ingredients is of more consequence, in- asmuch tliat on tliis the quality of powder depends mucli more than vipon a long or short period of in- corporali(m, for if regularity be observed and the runners are of one size and weight, and the charges are worked for an equal length of time and under the same conditions, a fairly uniform powder will be the result. A method used by some for testing whether the incorporation has been well performed, is to take iuilt an ounce of the cake granulated by hand and flash it off on a glass plate ; if a slight res- idue only is left on the surface it is a sign that the attendant has done his work thoroughly. It has al- ready been stated that incorporating-mills are gen- erally in groups : it becomes necessary, therefore, to prevent explosions spreading amongst these mills. This is very eflectually done by the use of a drench- in'' apparatus, which consists of a large board act- ing as a flapper, aud placed horizontal!}' over each pair of runners. This flapper is attached to a shaft running throughout the entire group of mills, and in connexion with it, and immediately over each set of runners, is a copper cistern holding about 40 gal- lons of water, so arranged and poised that when the flapper is raised by an explosion the catch is disen- gaged, and the cistern overbalancing empties its contents upon the mill. This, of course does not prevent damage being done to the mill in which the explosion first occurs, but as .the v.diole are con- nected to each other by means of the shaft referred to, all the cisterns of the group are emptied at the same time, thereby drenching the charges in the other mills, and thus confining the damage to that mill wherein it originated. In addition to tliis, an ar-angeinent is provided whereby the attendant can, in case of an explosion in anj' part of the works or in his iiinnediate neighborhood, upset the cisterns of water from tlie outside, and thus prevent the ex- plosion spreading. In a well-constructed incorpor- ating mill all the movable parts, such as Iiolts, nuts, etc., are litted willi th(! greatest care, and at each end of tlie rumier-sbafl. and also ov<'r and under the cross-head between the runners, large gun-metal discs or drip-pans nrv litted: these not only prevent any oil or greasy matter dropping into the charge, but likewise any bolt, mit, or pin that may have be- come loose in the vicinity of these parts, falling down into the charge, and possilily i>roihicingan ex- plosion, if till' mill is at work. Further, wliere steam is employed as the motive-power in a gunpowder works, care must be taken at all times to prevent sparks being emitted from the boiler chimney ; this may be effected in several ways, either by using an- thracite coal, or coal and coke, for the boiler fur- nace, or by having a spark-catcher or arrester fitted inside the flue near the base of the chimney, or a number of baffle-plates being placed in the chimney itself in a zig-zag manner. If proper precautions are taken, and the flues are regularly cleaned out, there will be no risk whatever in using steam-power. See Gunpmoder. INCREASING TWIST. — For an increasing twist, the edges of the angle-board must be curved accord- ingly, and as it is the property of the parabola to in- crease uniformly, it has been adopted as the curve of the rifling for those guns having an increased twist. When this system is adopted, the grooves start in a direction parallel to the axis of the bore, and the twist increases uniformly towards the muz- zle. In the drawing, ABCO denotes the develop- ment of the bore, and OM that of a groove. The origin of the co-ordinate axes is taken at the com- mencement of the groove at the bottom of the bore ; the axis of Y is parallel to the axis of the bore. The curve OM is tangent to OA at O, since the projectile starts in the direction OA. Let P denote the vari- able angle between OX and the direction of the curve Oil. If the twist increases uniformly, tan P win decrease unif ormly as the ordinate iiicreasen, and we shall have tan P = — , m being an undetermined y constant. dy m But, tan P = — = — , or dx y ydy = mdx ; integrating, y- ='imx-\- K. (a) The constant of integration (A') is zero, since the curve passes through the origin. («) is the equa- tion to the parabola referred to the vertex and prin- cipal axes. In the figure, MT is the tangent at JI, and MM' equals AB = itc, e being the caliber of the gun. Also M'T is put equal to nc, n denoting the number of calibers in which the projectile makes one turn after leaving the muzzle. To determine m, putting J", for the value which P has at M we have TO tan P' = — ; I also, nc n tan P' = — = — ; 7tC Tt In m= — It Whence the equation to the curve is ny-' a-= - (J!) Bj'meansof equation (/<)the curve is easily traced. The advantages claimed for this method of rifling are. that the ]irojcetile, not being forced to take tiie INDEMNIFICATION. Hi) INDENTING PISTONS. 1 sfcnnd tlip repistrar fnll« in its turn, deprpsscs tlie fni' iiiil of tlir Ir'vcr. I, anil IImih nMi-asrs the iiiiiin- sprim; ; tin- kiiifr jiils forward, Hirikcs the falliti)^ chninoiiietcr, and indents tin; iijipi-r recorder. Ah shown below, a very Hinii>le relation holds Ijelween the dent thus obtained and the velocity of the pro- jectile which caiisrd it. A nioinent's thoii;,dit will show that the lower the velocity the higher up shall the reconhT be iiidenteil. The chronometer is used in leveling the clirono- scope ; for this purpose attach it to its' magnet, hurimj preriiiiixly rorkril tlie inileitter ; then, by means of the tripod-screws, bring it to its norm.al jiosition. lii •whole twiat of the rifling at once, moves more read- ily from its seal, and llius the initial strain upon the breech of tlic> gun is reiluccil, Ihiicby prolong- ing its life; also that the bearings on the projectile are not liable' to be lorn olf. Theoretically it would seem that a system of rilling which permits tlu- pro- jectile to move directly from its seat, at the moment of iirnition of the charge, must be more favorabh' to endurance than one which, by inijieding the lirst niovcmenl of th<' projectile in tlie bore, narrows the S]iacc for the expanding gas, and consec|uenlly brings a greater pressiu'e on the breech of the gun. Hut practically this method does not appear to be suc- cessful in the enormous cannon of recent construc- tion. The greatest objection to the increasing twist is that it cannot l)e used with a long bearing of pro- jectile. Indeed, the theoretical bearing, whether it is a soft metal ring, a sirip, or a stud, is inlinitcly short— a mere line— and practically, length of bear- ing only olitaini'd by a constant molding of the pro- jectil(! io the new angle of ritling, so that the portion of the projectile intended to take the grooves, must be short and also soft, for if it cannot obtain, by changing its lignrc, more bearing on the grooves than on a mere line, it will imdonbtedly cut llu' Eroovi's, thus increasing friction, and soon ruining "the bore. In the absence of further exjieriuu ;ils, it wiadil hardly be Siife to conclude that long bearings will not prove indispensable to the heavy projectiles and high velocities that are now reciuired. A pro- jectile, if balance<i on weakening studs in each groove, is liable to break up througli the stud-holes, thereby injuring the gun. To nqiidly rotate an iron cylinder, say twelve inclu's in diameter ar.d three calibers in length, weigliing nearly a third ' f a ton. by a ring of such jioinls, is very likely to produce a tciihhUng motion and unsteady movements 5u tlight, with reduced range. Very rapid twist, although it conduces to steadiness of motion, cannot be given because small bearings will not endun^ the great ettort neeessarv. See Grooves. Ri-fliiig, and Tiri'xt. INDEMNIFICATION.— In the French and English Armies, there is an indemnification established for losses in the military service, and other allowances are also made in the nature of iudemnilications ; as for furniture ; fuel and light ; foroge ; txpensea of divine won/lip ; commnnd money to General and Field Officers; quarters; expense» upon. routes; provinions ; grntuity at the beginning if a campaign ; field filloir. ances ; mes!<; rarringe of baggage ; blood-money ; per- manent pension!) ; temporary pensions, or gratuities in lievi thereof; rewards for meritorious conduct; and pensions to widows and children of otficers. In the United States service, the law provides that if a horse be lost in battle, an officer may receive not exceeding two hundred dollars for his horse, and allowances are made for quarters, fuel, forage, pro- vision and transportation of baggage, and command money in certain cases. INDENT. — A word particularly made use of in India for the dispatch of military business. It is of the same import and meaning as to draw upon. It likewise means an order for military .stores, arms, etc., as an indent for new supplies, etc. INDENTED.— In Heraldry, oneof thepartitionlines of the shield, similarly notched to dancetle. Iiut with the notches nuich smaller, and not limited in number. See Ilrraldri/. INDENTED LINE,— In fortitication, a serrated line, forming several angles, so that the one side defends another. The faces are longer than the tlanks. In- dented lines are used on the banks of rivers, where they enter a town. The parapet of the covered-way is also often indented. INDENTER. — This active element of the chrono- scope, as shown in the drawing in section, consists of the circular knife. G, fixed in the mainspring, II, ■which can be cocked by means of the catch on the lever. I. On the breaking of the first circuit, the chronometer falls verticallj'; on the rupture of the evelingfrom front to rear, let the beveled shoulder of the bob, opposite the numbered face, rest lightly against the projecting edge, '• <•, of the trianixulaV base; in leveling laterally, align the right face with the edge d d, of the salient angle of the above i)ro- jection. In cocking the indenter, be careful not to disturb the level of the instrument; the left hand alone is therefore used: the fingers grasp the tube, li, while the thumb pulls jiack the spring until it catches in the lever, I. The screw. 51, which is tapped through the lever anil rests on the fulcrum- mortise will regulate tlnvhold of the catch, which should be as light as possible. The knife is a cir- cular rowel of tempered cast-steel fastened in a slot of the mainspring by the a.xial screw, N, the loosen- ing of which permits the presentation of a new edge, should the old one be blunted. See Le Boulenge Chronograph. INDENTING FORCE.— The comparative softness or hanlness of metal is determined by the bulk of the cavities or indentations made by equal pressure; the softness being as the bulk directly, and the hardness as the bulk inversely. Of the different forms of cavity made by indenting-tools that of the pyramid is preferred, because of its simplicity and the ease with which its vohune may be computed. The in- deatiug part of the tool is in the form of a pyramid, having a rhombus for its base, the diagonals of which are, respectively, one inch and two-tenths of an inch, the height of the pyramid one-tenth of an inch. In late experiments the form of the pyrannd has been changetl and imjiroved somewhat by c:ius- ing it to make a longer line and mark minute dilTer- enees more accuratelv. 'i>fc Rodman ('utter. INDENTING-PISTONS.— The indenting-pistons that are used in the service arcfoundto vary iutheirdiam- eters. The pressure of the gas is e.xerted upon their inner ends, and varies directly with the area pressed. It is desirable to have a scries of pistons adopted which shall have the same area of cross-section. In practice, the area of these pistons has generally been assumed to be one-tenth of one square inch. The fol- lowing Table gives the diameters, areas, and pressures upon those pistons of which the dimensions are known, neglecting friction, and supposing the pres- sure per square inch to lie 100,000 pounds. Little is known in regard to the effect of friction upon these short pistons. The friction of the gas- check against the walls of the hole would render the indicated, less than the actual pressures. A uni- form system of pistons and cutters should be estab- lished in order to render the results obtained com- parable. The more nearly the conditions are assim- ilated the greater will be the approximation of (he INDEPENDENT. 90 INDIAN A£iinr, relative pressures to an agreement. At tlie present spindle, etc., has a perpendicular movement of two time each piston necessitates a separate Table of , inches. The upward and downward movement of Pressures and when the length of the cuts is re- 1 the main slide, to which the vertical is attached, i& Pistons. Ordnance Manual, 1861 Frankf ord Arsenal, (musket) Rodman Metcalfe Theoretical National Armory circular cutter National Armory circular cutter No. 3 West Point internal pressure-gauge. . . .S'S Q Inches. .37 .357 .3568+ .356 ..357 .355 Sq. in. .107521 .106940 .106362 .100098 .100000 .ogg.iss .190098 .0989798 Lbs. 10752.1 10694.0 10636.2 10009.8 10000.0 995.1.8 10009.8 Remarks. 0" .37 given here because this number has eometimeff been used in calculating pressures. Made for National Armory. Vide ■' Experiments on Metals for Cannon," and similar writings. Made for use with "' spiral cutters." True diameter— 0".356824743746. Also for Adams's cutter. Made at National Armory for Frankf ord Arsenal quired to determine the pressures, a Table must be constructed for each cutter. See Circular Cutter aud Prexxiire-qrivfje. INDEPENDENT.— In a strict military sense, a term which distinguishes from the rest of the army those companies which have been raised by individuals for rank, and were afterwards drafted into corps that were short of their complement of men. An Independent Company or Troop, is one that is not incorporated into any regiment. INDEPENDENT SCARP.— A wall 3 feet thick erect- ed at the foot of the exterior slope, and when it is breached the parapet cannot fall. It is loop-holed and provided with a banquette. Its height should not be less than 20 feet. INDEX MILLING-MACHINE.— A machine adapted to a n-reat variety of work on metals, in the Armory. The "Imall machines of this class, weighing about 600 pounds, mill lOi inches long and Ti inches high, and will cut gears up to 8 inches in diameter. The use of the inconvenient counter-shaft, with binder, weight, etc., commonly used with this class of ma- chines, is avoided in the Armory, an ordinary over- head shaft being used, and the compensation for rise and fall of mili-spiudle and carrier obtained by a splined shaft passing through the lower gear. Wlien not in use for cutting gears, the index-spindle is solidly clamped, so that when using a vise, centers, or spiral-cutter, no strain or injury can come upon the index-plate or pointer. The larger macliines, weighingabout l,400pounds. are perfect gear cutters within certain limits of size, cutting fast "and smoothly, and, in addition, having provision for using a vise", centers, and spiral cutter without injury to the delicate dividing mechanism, thus practica'lly furnishing two machines. Tliey mill 18 inches in lengtli and 11 inches in height ; cut spur-gears up to 21 inches in diameter ; also worm and bevel-gears. An adjustable rim-rest supports the gear-blank while being cut, and prevents chat- tering. The mill-arbor has an outside center sup- port,"which can be removed if required. The cutter- head may be worked by the screw in front, or hy an adjustal)le lever, conne"cted with rack and pinion at tlie back, and is balanced by a weight under the machine. The index-plate is 14 inches in diameter, has 3,800 holes, in S.") circles, and divides all numbers to .lO, all even numbers to 100. and every fourtli number to 200. The drawing represents the machine most com- monly used. It is adapted to cutting mills, spur or bevel-gears, up to inches diameter. The index- plate i's attached to the bottom of a hollow spindle having a graduateil <lisc. The si)iiidle is pivoted to a vertical slide, and with its attachments, as vise or centers, may be moved and .secured at any angle in a v<'rtical plane of 180", or 90° on either side of an upright position. This slide, carrying the inilex- 6 inches, and its side traverse 12 inches. The centers shown in the engraving as attached to the index- spindle, will receive work Z\ inches in diameter and Si inches in length. The spindle is of steel, and slides in a cast-iron sheath or shell, which runs in cast-iron boxes lined with Babbitt-metal. The hori- zontal movement of the spindle and the vertical move- ment of the slides are made by adjustable hand-levers, and limited by check-nuts." The head has a longi- tudinal adjustment by a screw to the extent of 3J inclies. The machine weighs, with countershaft, vise, ami centers, 650 pounds. Speed of counter- shaft, having 8 and 5 by 3i inch tight and loose puUevs, 100 revolutions per minute. See Milling. INDIAN ARMY.— The Indian Army in the days of Clive. whicli was composed of botii the liritisli and native troops, was comparatively small, liarely suffi- cient to hold its own ; but even in those days it did great deeds of valor, as the battle of Assaye and other battles testify. By degrees, as the East India Company increased its territory, a larger Army was found necessary, and both British and native troops Indians, American. 1. Menitari warrior, dressed for the dog-dance. 2. Dakota varrior. 3. Maudan cl boin (jirl. 7. Buffalo dance among the Mandans. 8. Assiniboin spell-mound. VII-856. Ded with his trophies. 4. The same iu garments of state. 5. Assiniboins. 6. Dakota squaw and Assini- INDIAN COUNTRY. 91 INDIANS. wcro a.ifimcnted. Tii IS."}" Ilii' iiiiiliny of the nalivi' Ariiiy liiok place, wliirli iiiTcssilalccI ■d.\\nujsy in tlic orj^aiii/.alioii cif tlic Army iiivnlviii;; a lari;c increase of the HritlHll force. From this date tiie .\rmv of the Kast India C'ompaiiy hecaiiu^ a |)arl of her Mu- jcsly's Army, paid out of the revenues of India. The Army of India at present consists of Oa.S.'iO British troops and 128,. "500 native trtiojjs. More than lialf the former are stationed in the Heniial Presi- dency, 3K,000 men lieini; in jjiirrison aloiii; the valley of the (laiiires, Ouile, and in the I'ljiijiili. while thi' 8trenj:cth of the native Army fur tlie same I'residency amoiinis to 4!), 001). ISens^al i)roper alone requires abont 7,000 Kn;;lisli troops for its fruard, or nearly one-ninth of the total number of the Urilish em- ployed in India. The remainder are distributed amongst the North-west Provinces and in the Presi- dencies of JIadras and Bondjay. See /iast India .'I ?'im/. INDIAN COUNTRY.—" The Indian country," with- in llic meaning' of the Trade and Intercourse Acts, may be delined in general as: 1. Indian reservations occupied by Indian tribes. 2. Other districts so occupied to which thelndlan title iias not been extinguished. Furthermore, the operation of the said Acts may be retained by treaty or extemled by Act of Congress over districts not in other respects Indian country. If any special case shall occur which, in the view of the l)epartnienl Commander, may not appear to be embraced within the delinition above stated, he re- ports the case, with all its facts and circumstances, to the Secretary of War, in order that the ([uestion whether the locality is " Indian couutr}' " maybe re- ferred to I he Secretary of the Interior. Where lands are secured to the Indians, by treaty, against occu]iation by the whites, the Military Com- manders keep intruders oiT, by ndlitary force, if nec- essary, until such time as Indian tith' is extinguished, or the lands are opened by Congress for settlement. There is no jurisdiction conferred upon State or Territorial Courts 1 itrv an Indian charged with the murder of another Indian. Section 2MlJ of the Re- vised Statute's of the United States, as amended by the Act of February 18. 1875, entitled " An Act to correct errors and sujiply omissions in the Revised Statutes of the United Siates," provides that sectioii 214o shall not be construed to extend to crimes com- mitted t)y one Indian against the person or property of another Indian, nor to any Indian committing an offense ii. the Indian country who has been punished by the local law of the tribe. When questions arise as to the ownership of ani- mals in possession of Indians, the Commanding OtH- cer of the nearest military post is authorized and di- rected to act in conjunction with the Indian Agent in charge of the said Indians in tlie investigation and determination of the ownership. Whatever may be the rule in tlie time of war and iu the presence of actual hostilities, military officers can no more than civilians protect themselves for "wrongs commited in time of peace tmder orders emanating from a source which is in itself withovit authority in the premises. Hence a milltar}' officer, seizing liquors supposed to be in Indian country, when they are not, is liable to action as trespasser. The difference between the value of the goods so seized, at the place where they were taken and the place where they were returned to the owners, is the proper measure of damages. Supplies, stores, or propert\' of auv kind, procur- ed out of Army appropriations, are not transferred, in any way or luider any circumstances, for the use of Indians, except under authority tirst obtained from tlie Secretary of War. Any officer violating the terms of this regulation is charged with the money value of the supplies, stores, or property transfered. and in addition is otherwise held accountable, ac- cording to circumstances. Ko issues of arms, am- munition, or any other Ordnance stores arc matlc to Indians not in the employ of the War Dcoarlment as scoulH. To carry into effect ihr joint resolution adopted by Congress, August .'). 1S7(!. the sale of (ixe<l am- munition or metallie cartridges, by any trader or other p<Tson, in any district of the Indian country/ oceu|)ied by hostile Indians, or over which they roam,] is prohibited: ami all such ammunition or cartridges inlroduced into saiil country, Ity traders orother per- sons, and that are liable in any way or manner diri'ct- Iv or indirectly, to be receive<l by such hostile In-' (lians, is always deemed contraband of war, and seized by any military officer, and confiscated : and the district of country to which this prohibition shall apply, during the continuance of hostilities. Is des- ignated as that which embraces all Indian country, or country occu|iied by Indiiins or subject to tlie"ir visits, lying within the Territories of Montana, Da- kota, and VV'yomiug, and the States of ^Nebraska and Colorado. I5y virtue of authority conferred upon the Presi- dent of the United States in .section 2132, Revised Statutes, the introduction into thelndlan country or district occupied by any tribe of hostile Indians," for the purpose of .sale or exchange to them of arms or ammunition of any description, and the sale or ex- change tliereof to or with such Indiims. is prohibited. All military commanders are charged with the duty of assisting in the execution of this order, andofE.x- ecutive Order of November 23. 1870, the provisions of which are extended to include all Indian country within the Territories of Idaho, Utah, and Washing- ton, and the States of Nevada and Oregon. Sec In- clian Tfrrit'Ti/. INDIAN FILE.— Single file; the arrangement of men in a row following one after another, as is cus- tomary among Indians when traversing the woods or mount:iins. INDIAN FIRE.— A bright white signal-light, pro- <luced by burning a mixture of 7 parts of sulphur, 2 of realirar, and 24 of niter. INDIAN INK.— The cakes of this substance, which is a mechanical mixture, and not, like the true inks, a chemical compound, are composed of lampblack and size or animal glue, with a little perfume. The lampblack must be remarkably tine, and is said to be made in China by collecting the smoke of the oil of sesame. A little camphor (about 2 per cent.) is also found in the ink made in China, and is thought to improve it. This substance is used in that coun- trv with a brush both for writing and for painting upon paper of native manufacture, while in this cfiimtry, it is extensively employed for designs in black and white, and all intermediate shades of color. Much curious information on this pigment may be found in ^lerimee's treatise, De la Peinture. INDIAN PONY.— The square-buUt. large-trunked, and short-legged pony used by the North American Indians and elsewhere. This pony, generally be- lieved to be the result of a cross between the South- ern mustang and a small t^'pe of the Canadian, is never fed, stabled, combed, shod nor doctored ; and when not under the saddle is left to shift for himself. In the winter he is a mere animated skeleton. His proportions vary according to the localities in which he is found, but he seldom exceeds thirteen bands in height. He is wonderfully sagacious and sure- footed. He can climb a steep, rocky hill with as- surance and activity, and rush down a precipitous declivity with much indifference. He will get over and through places, which appear utterly impracti- cable, with ease and rapidity, while the American horse would labor to travel at a walk. He particularly excels in the passage of swamps, marshy places, and sands perforated with gopher holes. INDIANS. — The collective nai le now generally given to the various nations and tribes inhabiting North and South America, at the time of their dis- covery by the Spaniards, and to such of their de- scendants as survive at the present day. The name INSIAK8. 92 IHOIANS. of Indians was first given to the natives of America from the mistaken notion of tlie eariy voyagers. Columbus himself ineluded, that the newly found Continent was in reality a part of India. This was soon shown to be an error ; but the name of Indians, thus wrongly applied to the inhabitants, continued to be usedin every narrative of voyage and discov- er}-, and has descended even to our own times, only that we now qualify it in some measure by speaking of them as American Indians. In the classification of Blumenbach the American Indians are treated as a distinct variety of the human race ; but in the threefold division of mankind laid down by Dr. Latham, they are ranked among the Mongolidi:e. Other Ethnologists also regard them as a branch of the great Mongolian family, which, at a remote period of the world's history, foimd its way from Asia to the American Continent, and there remained for tliousands of years se|)arate from the rest of man- kind, passing meanwhile through various alterna- tions of barbarism and civilization. Morton, Jiow- cver, the distinguished American Ethnologist, and his disciples Nott and Gliddon, claim for them a dis- tinct origin, one as indegenous to the Continent it- self as its favuia and flora. Pritehard, whose views generally differ from those of Morton, acknowledges Uiat •' On comparing the American tribes together, we find reasons to believe that they must have sub- sisted as a separate dejiartment of nations from the earliest ages of the world. Hence, in attempting to trace relaUons between them and the rest of man- kind, we cannot expect to discover proofs of their derivation from any jjarticular tribe or nation in the Old Continent. The era of their existence as a dis- tinct and insulated race must probably be dated as far back as that time which separated into nations the inhabitants of the Old World, and gave to each branch of tlie human family its primitive language and individuality." Dr. Robert Brown, in his "Races of Mankind," the latest authority on the subject, at- tributes to the American race an Asiatic origin. He says : " Not onl_y are the Western Indians in ap- pearance very like theirnearest neighbors, the North- eastern Asiatics, but in language and tradition, it is confidentially affirmed, there is a blending of the people. The Eskimo, on the American, and the Tchuktchis, on the Asiatic side, understand each other perfectly." In fact, modern Anthropologists incline to think that Japan, the Kuriles, and the neighboring regions may be regarded as the original home of the greater part of the American race. It is also admitted by Anthropologists that between these various tribes, from the Arctic Sea to Cape Horn, there is greater uniformity of physical struc- ture and personal characteristic than is seen in any other quarter of the globe. The '• Rea Men," as they are called, of the United States and Canada, differ in many respects from the Guranis of Paraguay, and both from the wild tribes of California, but all exhibit the clearest evidence of belonging to the .same great branch of the human family. Upon this ])oint the testimony of a writer like Humboldt is very important. " The Indians of New Spain," says Humboldt, "bear a general resemblance to those who inhabit Canada, Florida, Peru, and Brazil. We think we can perceive them all to be descended from the same stock, notwithstanding the prodigious di- versity of their languages. In the ])()rtrait drawn by Volney of the ('ana<iian Indians, we recognize tlie tribe scattered over the Savaiuiahs of llie Apure and the Carony. The same style of features exists in both Americas." 'I'he Mongolian cast of features is most marked in the tribes nearest to the .Mojigol coast, ('. e., on the shores of the Pacific, and gets less noticeable as we go Eastward. Their traditions, too, indicate that the trilies on the eastern seaboard came from the West, and the western tribes even came from regions still further west. Generally the i>liysical characteristics of the Amer- ican Indians are as follows ; a square head, having a low, but broad foreliead. the back of the head flat- tened, full-face, and powerful jaws ; cheek-bones prominent ; lips full ; eyes dark, and deeply set ; the hair long, not absolutely straight, but wavy, some- thing like a horse's mane, and like that, of a glossy hue ; little or no beard — where it does appear, it is \ carefully eradicated with tweezers : color of the skin reddish or copper ; the height of the men about tlie average, but looking taller from their erect posture I and slender figure ; the women rather shorter, and ! more inclined to obesity, Ijut many of them with symmetrical figure and pleasing countenance ; hands and feet of both men and women small. As before said, however, there being some hundreds of tribes among the American Indians, there are apny de- I ))artures from these general cliaracteristics, not only in individuals, but entire septs. " The Americans," saj'S Pritehard, " are not all of the hue denominated red, that is, of a copper color; some tribes are as white as many European nations ; others brown or j-ellow ; others are black, or, at least, they are des- cribed by travelers as vcrj' much resembling in color the negroes of Africa. Anatomists have distinguished what they have termed the American form of the human skull ; they were led into the mistake by re- garding the strongly marked characteristics of some particular tribes as universal. The American nations are spread over a vast space, and live in different climates, and the shape of their heads is different in different parts. Nor will any epithets derived from their habits of life apply to all the tribes of this de- partment. The native Americans are not all hunters ; there are many fishing tribes among them : some are nomadic : others cultivate the earth, and live in set- tled habitations; and of tliesc some part were agricul- turists before the arrival of the Europeans ; others have learned of their Conquerors to till the soil, and have changed the ancient habits of theirrace, which. as we ma_v hence infer, were not the necessary result of organization or congenital and instinctive propen- sity." Dr. Jlorton's views on this subject substan- tially agree with those of Pritehard, and both concur in adopting the test of language as a proof of one common origin for the various native tribes of both North and Sotith America. The linguistic conclu- sion, now generally acquiesced in, is thus briefly sta- ted by Mr. Albert Gallatin: "Amidst the great di- versity of the American languages, considered only in reference to their vocabularies, the similarity of their structure and grammatical forms has been ob- served and pointed out by the American Philologists. The result appears to confirm the opinion already en- tertained on that subject by Jlr. Du Ponceau. Mr. Pickering, and others; and to prove that all the lan- guages , not onlj' of our own Indians, but of the na- tive inhabitants of America, from the Arctic Ocean to Cape Horn, have, as far as they have been investi- gated, a distinct character common to all, and ap- parently differing from any of those of the other Con- tinents with which we are most familiar." The next question that comes under consideration is : Whence does it arise that, with all this similarity of physical conformation and language, there should have "been only two nations amoug so many millions — namely, the Mexicans and Peruvians — wboatliiined to any high degree of civilization ? When the Spiuii- ards entered Mexico they found in it a rich, power- ful, and warlike nation, living in walled cities, in which were palaces and other siunptous residences. They were ruled over by an Emperor or King whose sway extended over many other nations besides his own'. They worshiiipi-d the sum. ;iiid liad an organ- ized Hierarchy ; they luiil also fixed laws, were ac- quainted with many of tlie arts and sciences, espe- cially astronomy ; they practiced agriculture, worked mines, and displayed considerable skill in manufac- tures, both iuduslrial and oriiauienlal. The Nation thus discovereil was that of the .\ztees, who jirofes- sed to have ammig tlieiu evidi'iiccs of antic|uity dat- ing as far back as the year UrA of our era. A few Mandanr and Crerokkks. 1. Lodge of a Maiulan chief. 2. Soalp of a man; featliera as mementoes ( American jjortable cradle. G. Ciioroliee village. T. Air-burial, s. Mandan village and canoes. 9. M IX-430. r deeds. 3. Plan of a North Atnerican Indian tepee (hut). 4. Chief's summer wigwam. 5. North JO. North American canoes INDIANS. 93 INDIANS. ypurs later, in I'crii, the Spiiniardw found anollipr Nation, also cxcec(liiii;l_v rii-lj. niiiriiTijiis. and power- ful with a civilization fnlly as nuicji cxtcndiMl as thai of llic Azli'cs, yet, dilVcrinn from that in many (tsHcn- lial particulars. This was tlic Nation of (^uidiuas, frc(|Ucntly termed Incas (more correctly Ynrjiii). as- BO<iated with whom were the Aymaras, whose country had been snhjuf^ated by the Incas two or three centuries liefore the arrival of I'i/arro, in I'eru. Each of these Nations — till- .Mexicans and Peruvians — is supposed to have slowly developed its own civilization during a long process of ages. In every other |)art of America European settlers and e.K- plorers have found only complete or semi-barliarism. Such was tlu^ case in Virginia; such in New Kng- land. Canada, the Hudson's IhiyTiTritory. California, and i'alagonia. Int'entral America, liowever, there have been found extensive remains of architecture and other traces of civilization, which would seem to date back to even a more remote period than that of the Mexican or Peruvian Empires. Immens(^ artificial mounds also exist in the valley of the Mis- sissippi an<l elsewhere throughout America, suppos- ed to be the work of the ancestors of the present wandering tribes. If so. there may be sonu' truth in the theory of Dr. Martins, a distinguished German Ethnologist, " That the nations of the new world are not in a state of primitive barbarism or living in the original simplicity of micultivated nature, but that they are, on the contrary, the last remains of a peo- ple once high in the scale of civilization and mental improvement, now almost worn out and perishing, and sunk into the lowest grade of decline and de- grachition." Dr. Pritchard appears inclined to the same view, adding : " Attentive observers have been struck with manifestations of greater energy and mental vigor, of more intense and deeper feeling, of a more reflective mind, of greater fortitude, and more consistent perseverance in enterprises and all pursuits wdien they have compared the natives of the New World with the sensual and volatile, and almost animalized Savages who are still to be found in some fjiarlers of the Old ('ontinent. They have been ecjually impressed bj'the sullen and nnsocial charac- ter, by the proud apathetic endurance, by the feeble influence of social affections, by the intensity of ha- tred and revenge, and the deep malice-concealing dissimulation so remarkable amid the dark solitudes of the American forests." Dr. Robert Brown adopts a geographical classifi- cation of the American tribes, which is, on the whole, at least unsatisfactory. There are Arctic tribes ; North-western tribes inhabiting the region west of the Rocky Jlountains between California and Alaska; Californian tribes; Indians of the Central Plains; Prairie tribes ; North-eastern Indians; Cana- dian Indians ; and Central American Indians. The chief existing tribes are ; Eskimo, Cowichans, Tson- feisths, Nanaimos, Quakwolths, Nuchultaws, Kos- eemos, Sesliahts, Nittinahts in Vancouver Island ; Hydahs (Queen Charlotte Islanders) ; Tsimpsheans, Bellacoolas, Chilcoatins, Shuswaps in British Colum- bia ; Cayuse, Snakes, Klamaths in Oregon ; the Dig- ger or Californian Indians, the most degraded of all the tribes ; theComanches, Apaches, Navajos, Hual- pais, Yampas, in the C'entral Plains : the iloqui, Pueblos, Pimas, Papagos in New Mexico ; Utahs, Pahutas, Pahides, Soshones,Loo-coo-rekahs,Goships, Cheyennes, Arrapahoes, Kwivas, Arickarees, Poncas, Yanktons. Gros- Ventres, and Sioux or Dahcotahs, Assiniboines. Blackfeet, Crows, Omahas, Ottoes, Pawnees, etc., are all Prairie tribes; the Dela wares, Mo-hee-conneughs (Mohicans), Oneidas, Tuskaroras, Senecas, Shawnees, Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Seminoles, Osages, Kaskias. Weealis, Potowatomies, Quapaws, Peorias, Kanzans, Sanks, Foxes, Puncas, etc., in the North-eastern States; the Crees, Santeux or Ojebways, Chippewayans, the Sacliss or Shewhap- mucii in Canada ; Tehuantepecs, Mosquitos, Smoos, Twakas, Toonglas, Payas, Ramas, and Cookras in f 'entral America. Again, M. d'Orbigny has classifierl all the Indians of .South America under three great groups, viz., the Anilian group, the Mediterranean group, and the liasilio-Guarani group; and these he subdivides into thirty-nine distinct nations ; viz., '1. C^uichua; 2. Aymara ; 3. Chango : 4. Atacama; 5. ^uracares; f(. .Mocetenes; 7. Tacana ; 8. Muropa; !). Apolista; 10. Araucananian ; II. Euegian ; 12. Patagonian ; Hi. Puelche ; 14. Charrua; I.'). .Mbo- cobi; l(i. .Vlataguayo ; 17. Abipones; W. Lengua ; li). Samuco; 20. Chiquito; 21. Saraveca; 23. Otuke; 23. (Juruminaca ; 24. Covareca ; 2.'5. Curaves ; 28. Tapiis; 27. Curucaneca; 28. Paiconeca ; 2!). Cora- beca; 30. Moxo : 31. Chapacura; 32. Itonama; 33. Canichana ; 34. Movima; 3-'). Cayiivava ; 30. I'acaguara; 37. Itenes; 38. Guarani ; |3!). Boto- cudo.' Other classilications have been alteni]ited, but all 'more or less arbitrary. .Morton is content with two grand divisions, viz., the 'Tollecan Nations' and the 'Barbarous Tribes,' the former embracing the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians, and the latter all the uncivilized or senu-civilized tribes from the ex- treme North to the extreme South. The Toltecans are said to be the builders of the remarkable scries of mounds foiuid throughout North America. The Indians are yearly decreasing in numbers. A fair estimate would probably give Alaska 20,000; British Cohmibia, 20,000 ; Vancouver's Island, U,000 : Canada, 5,000 ; California, Oregon, and States north of it, 10,000 ; Prairie-lands west of the Kocky Moun- tains, 10.000; other portions of the United States, 2.000; In New Mexico and Central America, 2O,0tJO. This would gives us a total of about 110.000 for the whole of North America, exclusive of half-breeds, &c. Some twenty tribes have become partially civil- ized, and live by agriculture, imder the protection of the American Government, on what are called 'Indian Reservations.' There are in these Indian communi- ties many men and women whom education has developed into most valuable, intelligent, and even polished members of a highly <ivilized conmiunity. Two tribes (Choctaws and Cherokees; have become wholly civilized, and have a settled form of govern- ment modelled on that of the United States. The Cherokees stand alone amongst modem nations in having produced a second Cadmus, one Sequoyah, or George Guess, wdio actually invented an alphabet. It must be stated, however, that fully one-half of these civilized tribes are, like Sequoyah, half-breeds. Even the whites marrying Choctaw or Cherokee wo- men are admitted, if they choose, into these tribes. Both the early English and French settlers of North America were often atwar with the Indians, either in self-defence or instigated bj' a desire for their lands. In Virginia the Indians who had combined to exter- minate the Whites were subdued after a ten 3-ears' war. In New England (1637) the Colonists of Con- necticut and Massachusetts destroyed the warlike Pequods, and in 1043 the Narragansetts. The war of Phillip, king of the Wampanoags, ended. 1676, ia the almost totaldestructionof that tribe. The Dutch in New Amsterdam and the English in North and South Carolina suffered greatly from the Indians. In the Seven Years War between the English and French the Indians were used by both sides and ter- rible atrocities were committed. In 1763 a number of tribes were united under Pontiac, the Chief of the Ottawas, in a general conspiracy to exterminate their Conquerors, but they were finally subdued. When thp American Revolution began the Indians, who were Allies of the English, ravaged on the frontiers. The United States, by the Constitution of 1787, claim- ing sovereignty over the whole territory, made trea- ties with the Indians for the purpose of obtaining their lands; but in 1700 the Miamis and other tribes conspired and defeated the army under Gen. Harmar, and the following year under General St. Clair, but were stibdued by General Wajiie. In 181 1 they recom- menced hostilities under Tecumseh, but were de- feated at Tippecanoe by General Harrison, who also_ INDIAN TEREITORT. 94 INDICATOR. in 1812. defeated tlie combined forces of tlie Englisli and Indians, and Viilled Tecumseli. In tlie Soutli the C'reelvs were conquered bv Jaclvson in 1813, and the Scmiuoles of Florida in 1817. In 1832 tlie Sacs and Poxes, under tlieir Chief, Blaclc Hawk, liarassed the frontier Settlements, and from time to time tlie Sioux, the Comanchcs, and Apaches, often joined by other tribes havcgiven the Governmentgreat trouble. In 1838 the Cherokees and Creeks were removed from Georgia to the Indian Territory, West of the Missis- sippi, wliieh the Government had established to be the permanent home for all the Indians. The Semi- noles of Florida refusing to remove, a bloody war ensued, which lasted 7 years and cost .fl. 5. 000, 000. After the removal of the Choctaws, Creeks, and other tribes to the Indian Teritory, other reservations were formed in several States. In 1871 there were on re- servations 237,478, which, added to 60,000 in Alaska, and about .50,000 others not yet placed in reserva- tions make the total number of Indians in the United States, as estimated by the Indian Department, 350,- 000. The number in the British Colonies is estima- ted at 1.50,000. The five civilized tribes of the Indian Territory had under cultivation (1879) 337,000 acres, on which they raised over 3,000,000 bushels of cereals, and were en- gaged largely in the raising of stock. The Indians on other reservations had under cultivation 157,056 acres, and raised over 1,500,000 bushels, and all to- gether about 225,000 tons of hay. The Indians are scattered over a large extent of country, and the diffi- culty of managing them is increased by the attempts of bold and unscrupulous white men to invade their reservations for trade, wliich often involves fraud, and for the sake of the mineral deposits known to be there. The Utes in Colorado and Apaches in New Mexico, especially, have given the Government much trouble. The Utes are tierce and warlike, and resist all efforts to induce them to abandon their wander- ing life and cultivate the soil. Earnest attempts have been made at different per- iods by individuals and Societies to Christianize and civilize the Indians, some liave been remarkably suc- cessful. The French and Spanish in connection with their Colonies, had Missions among the Iroquois, Chip- pewas. Creeks, and other tribes. In Florida, Texas, New Mexico, and California, they had ])rosperous Missions. In 1643 Thomas Mayhew labored with suc- cess for three years at Martha's Vineyard, Mass., fol- lowed in the same work by his father, and b)' others of the family for live generations. In 1646 the Legis- lature of Massachusetts passed an Act for the propa- gation of the Gospel among the Indians, and in the same year,Iohn Eliot began his labors at Nonantum, churches were formed, and the Bible and other Chris- tian books translated. The Brainards labored with effect in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The Morav- ians and Friends have been active in instructing the Indians. The various Protestant Denominations, through organized Societies have had for many years Missions among the Cherokees, Choctaws, Ottawas, Chickasaws, Creeks, Dacotahs, and some other tribes, instructing them not onlj' in religion, but also in the arts of civilized life. The Indian problem, always troublesome to the U. S. Government is now seen to involve grave, moral, and political issues not at first recognized. The governmental policy has been one of expediency rather tlian of justice. Treaties have been made with the tribes as with sovereign nations, but have been set aside on easy pretexts. In(lia;is have not been considered as citizens under the law ; their ownership of property, as recognized, has bi'cii trilial and not imlividual. They have been allowed to be the jiray of rapacious speculators in land, and thievish traders. Of latit years the Government has sought to apply abetter policj-, but the evil has been foinid too vast and deep for easy reform ; and a wave of p(ip\ilar feeling is now rising, bearing in upon the (icivcTiirMcnl with strong demands in dilTerent direc- tions. There are signs that the discussions will re- .sult in better processes of dealing with the Indians, and that the Government will find or make its way to a system that shall be wise and just. See Iiid'an Territory. INDIAN TERRITORY.— The home of civilized or partially civilized remnants of once powerful aborig- inal tribes, removed liy the Government from linTe to time from different parts of the Union, and which, upon separate reservations and under forms of gov- ernment established by themselves, are living at peace with each other and with the United States. In June, 1830, Congress passed an Act setting apart "All that part of tlie United States west of the Miss- issippi, and not within the States of Missouri and Louisiana or the Territory of Arkansas." to be known as the Indian Country. The region thus described formed a part of the Louisiana purchase of 1803 from France. Portions thereof have since been organized into new States and Territories, and only a remnant of the original Indian Country now remains. To it has been added, however, a narrow adjoining strip of land west of the 100th meridian which was ceded to the United States by Texas. The Territory con- tains 20 reservations, the names of which, with the extent of each in square miles are as follows; — Arra- pahoe and Cheyenne, 6,715; Cherokee, 7,861 ; Chick- asaw. 7,267; Choctaw, 10,450; Creek, 5,024; Kan- sas, 1.54.i ; Kiowa and Comanche, 4,369; Modoc, 6; Osage, 2,291 ; Ottawa, 28i ; Pawnee, 442 ; Peoria, 78|-; Pottawatamie, 900; Quapaw, 88|; Sac and Fox, 7.50; Seminole, '6V2% Senaca, 81 ; Shawnee, 21; Wi- chita, 1 ,162 ; Wyandotte, 38 J ; total area appropriated, 47.039 square miles; unassigned, about 22,000 square miles. White speculators and adventurers have often attempted to enter the Territory and appropriate the lands not included in the reservations, but the Gov- ernment of the United States, in fulfillnient of its treaty stipulations to the Indians, has prevented them. A late movement of this kind was made in 1879, when the President issued his proclamation warning those engaged therein to desist, and informing them that if Uiey should enter the Territorj' they would be ex- pelled, if necessary, by an armed force. A Bill was lately introduced in Congress to erect the Indian Country into a regular Territory of the United States, thus, opening its unsettled lands to the whites and subjecting the Indians to the very encroachments to avoid which they consented to go upon the reserva- tions. It has been proposed in some quarters to make the Indians citizens, to place them under Territorial Government, and finally to admit them as a State to the Union. But to this plan there are some serious obstacles, not the least of which is the unwillingness of the Indians themselves to sacrifice the autonomy of their respective tribes and the Governments of their own already existing. Though this ma)- ulti- mately be arrived at, it is not easy to see liow the Government of the L^nited States could sudden- ly force such a change upon them without viola- ting the most solemn treaty obligations. The popu- lation of the Territory, exclusive of white residents, is reported to number 74,140. The number of whites legally there is about 12.000, and besides them there are 3,000 others who would be excluded if the law was strictly enforced. Agents representing the United States live among the various tribes, exercising a paternal oversight of their affairs, and protecting them from encroachments. They are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate, and, under the existing regulations of the Indiiin Bureau, are nominated by the Religious Denomiiiiil ions which have Missions among the tribes. Each tribe has its own inner government, but the United States Courts have jurisdiction in civil actions where a white man is a parly, in cases of crime against a white man, and of violations of the laws regulating trade and in- tcrciiursc with the Indians. See liidifin ('mi/itri/. INDICATOR. - 1 . An invention of General (ieorgo \V. Wiiigale, of the New York Militia, for instruct- ing men in alining the musket. A steel rod, passing INDICATOa. 95 rNDICATOE. thrniigh n brass tnmpion in the muzzle, is prnjeptefi fdrwarcls by tlic liriim-jiiii. Tlic' ri>cl carrirs iisliarp l)i>ilil in the )iii(: of the- siglils, wliicli |iiiiicliircH it iniiiiaturc target a foot or so in front of llic muzzle. 2. In connection with tlie test inn-machine it has l)ecn found ilesirahle to liave an instrument wliich wouMi^ive a continuous curve representini; (lie elon- {,Mtions and cnrres|iondin;j tensile strains for speci- mens of various Uirids, in order lo arrive at the ex- act dynamical value of the metal. An instrument has been devised for this purpose, as represented in Fig 1. It consists of a l)rass frame. AH. support- ing a vertical cylinder, (!, revolved by the endless screw, S; this screw being turneil by the tape, T, which draws around the pulley, T, as the weight, Fie. 1. W, is wound along the scale-beam. Wlien the chain was used as a weight, the cylinder revolved as the chain was paid into the scale. This arrangement causes the cylinder to revolve as the weight or strain upon the specimen increases or diminishes, and if the marker M, renuiins stationarj-, it will describe u horizontal circle upon the paper witli which the cylinder is covered. Starting from the zero-point of tile scale, the length of any arc of the circle will represent the strain upon the specimen at the instant tlie marker has arrived at the end of the arc. If now tlie elongation of a given portion of the specimen carries the marker in a direction parallel to the axis of the cylinder, it is clear that the curve. NO, de- scribed upon the paper, will accurately and contin- uously represent the relation between the elongation of the specimen and the corresponding strain upon it. In order to move the marker in this manner, it is connected with one end of the specimen by the clamp Q'. whieli tits into a center-pmich-mark on the specimen, while the frame and cylinder are at- tached to the other end, Q. of the specimen in a similar manner. The portion of the specimen be- tween the two center-punch-marks is evidently the only portion whose elongation will move the marker along the paper, and the space passed over by the marker divided by tlie original length of this portion will give the elongation per unit of length of the specimen, or the per cent, of elongation ; and the area bounded by the curve, NO, and the co-ordinates, NR and RO, measures the mirk of breaking the specimen. 3. A steam-engine indicator is an instrument used to draw a diagram, showing, upon a reduced scale, the motion of the piston and the pressure acting upon it at each point of its stroke. It consists essentially of a small steam cylinder and a small drum upon whicii is rolled the paper for taking the diagram. The cylinder is provided with a piston whose motion is resisted by a spiral spring. Steam may be ad- mitted beneath this piston and cause it to rise, or a varinim created beneath it and cause it to fall, the amount of movemeni being a measure of the pres- sure, as in a spring-balance. Motion from the pis- ton is conveyed by a series of levers to a pencil, which is inaile to press against a slip of paper rolled upon tli(^ drum. When the instrument is in use, its cylin- der is connected to either end of the large cylinder of the engine, anil tlie drum is made by suitable means to revolve back and forth, having a motion which corresponds to that of the engine piston, only it is on a much reduced scale. Until steam is a(l- mitted to the indicator there is no pressure upon its piston, and if the pencil point is then pressed against the ))aper on the drum, it will, as the latter moves back and forth, trace a straight line, which is the line of atmospheric pressure. When steam isallowed to enter, the indicator piston rises against the re- sistance of the spring to a height corresponding to the steam pressure, and if this pressure remains un- changed during a stroke, a straight line parallel to the atmospheric line will be traced ; when release takes place the piston instantly falls and the pencil moves with it, and when a return stroke of the en- gine occurs, the pencil will trace a line correspond- ing to the back pressure against which the engine piston is moving. This gives an idea of the process of tracing a diagram when steam follows full .stroke ; when a cut-olT is used, tlur pencil traces the same line as before until the cut-off valve closes, when, as the pressures fall, then' is traced a curve which irives the pressure at each point of the forward mo- tion according to the law for expansion of steam. The length of a diagram drawn in this way repre- sents on a smaller .scale the stroke of the engine, and the line traced by the iimi il shows the pressures Fig. 2. acting upon the piston. These pressures are mea- sured by the movement of the spring containeii in the indicator, an inch of movement, or an inch of height above the atmospheric line on the diagram, representing so many pounds pressure, accordlmr to the spring used; thus a 30 lb. spring would be com- pressed, so as to give the pencil a movement of one nroiCATOK RING. 96 INDUCTION OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS. incli for 30 lbs. steam pressure, and a 40 lb. spring, one inch for 40 lbs. pressure, and so on. Having then, a scale, in which one inch is divided into 30 or 40 parts, or any other numlter of parts such as or- dinarily used, we can readily measure any pressure drectly from the diagram when once we are permit- ted to"know what scale or spring has been employed. Fig. 3 shows a neat construction of the theoretical expansion curve, which should always be drawn upon the dia- gram in order to compare it with the actual line traced by the indicator. To make the construction it is nece«ary to know the clearance space so as to draw the clearance line, B V, from which expansion is reckoned, to draw B C, the line of boiler pressure and also V V, the line of perfect vacuum. Then take any point such as O, on the expansion line of the diagram ; tlxis point must not be later than F, the point of release, because here the exhaust line begins ; from () draw O P at right angles to B C, and O N at right angles to B V, join V and P and at N, where V P intersects O N, draw N M parallel to B V. Then M is the theoretical point of cut -off. The space M P can be divided into any number of parts which need not be"equal,and lines drawn from V to points a, b, c,etc., cut the line M N in points a', b', c', etc. From a and a' are drawn lines parallel toM N and O N respectively and where they intersect is one point of the curve. The same operation for b and b', gives another point and so on. When a little skill is acquired these lines need not be entirely drawn in, but only so much as to show the intersection which determines a point of the curve, and it is thus a verj' easy and expeditious method for drawing the true curve upon an indicator diagram. Fiir. ^, is a sectional view of M a h the lower side, and parallel thereto, is fixed a gradu" ated plate of brass. When the frame is lowered, the graduated plate touches the platform; but when not refpiired for use it is raised up and secured by hook- ing it to some rings on the under side of the cheeks. 2d. of a plate similar in form and graduation to the one already mentioned, which is attached to the butt Fig. 3. the Thompson Indicator, which is considered as the standard of this t-ountry and Europe. See Plani- meter and Thiimp«iiii Indicator. INDICATOR RING. — A thin narrow ring of wrought iron, tiltnl i>ii the breech-screw of a breech-loading gun, with a raised line of brass on it, which shows by its coincidence with a similar line on the top end of the brccch-scrcw whether the vent is properly scrcwi'd u]i. INDIRECT POINTING APPARATUS.— Varius appa- ratus for pointing guns indirectly have been ijmploy- ed from time to time. That employed by the Prus- Bians in the sieges of the war of 1H70-I87i and repre- senteil in the drawing is favorably endorsed by all Offlcers who have employed the m<'tliod. The appa- ratus is composed, ist. of a trapezoidal frame of ron attached to the axle by means of straps; under end of the trail; when the latter is lowered, this plate like tlie other, comes in contact with the platform. The plate turns on a hinge. and may be raised up and fastened to a spring-hook on the rear transom. In using this apparatus it is operated as follows: The fire being once suitably adjusted by means of direct observations, the difference which exists between the graduations of the two plates is noted, the readings being made from the zero to the directrix, AB, traced upon the platform. In all the tiring that fol- lows it suffices, in order to point the piece, to read the graduation of the first plate that coincides with the direc- trix, and then to shift the trail to the right or left until the difference between the gradua- tions of the plates shall be equal to that originally noted. The graduation of the plate is arbi- trary. In the Prussian artillery the principal divisions are 40 m. m. apart, and these inter- vals subdivided into 10 equal parts. These graduated scales permit of maintaining to a great exactness and without renewed pointing, a line of sight once es- tabUshetl, which is of the great- est importance in firing at an object concealed from the view; Jt they also permit of varying, la- V-^— terally, the point of fall for dis- tances, by displacing horizon- tally the point of departure of the line of sight, an operation required in breeching masonry, for making the horizontal cut. This method of pointing was em- ployed by the Prussians with great success at the siege of Stra.sbourg, in batteries without embrasures, for breeching walls of masonry by a phmging fire. INDORSED.— A term applied" in' Heraldry to two animals ]ilaced back to back. Two keys, two wings, etc., may also be indorsed, and a pelican is always drawn with his wings indorsed. The terms Addoned and Tnihirsi-d liave the same application. INDUCTION OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS.— The dis- cov<TV of the power of eleclrie currents to induce currents in neighboring conductini: circuils is due to Faraday. His researches on the subjecl. named by him riittd-rlcHrir. induction, were published in the Philosophical Transactions (1831-32). Henry (1832) IHDUCTION OF ELECTRIC CUEEENT8. 97 INDUCTION OF ELECTEIC CUEEENTB. observed tlial when coiitaet was l)roUen in n long galvanic eireiiit u brifjlit uparlt oeciirreil, wliieli dicl not oeeiir when tlie eireiiit was slicjrl. 'I'his was ghowii liy p'araday (18:i4) to be due to the extra cur- rent induced liy Hie viirinus parts of the eiriMiit in each other. liueiilioll'Moraiid Sturgeon ( |H:jT;shovved tlie superior nctioji, in induction apparatus, of abun- dle of iron wires to tlial of a solid bar of iron. Jlen- ry ( 1 841) studied the indicative action of induced cur- rents of dilTerent orders. l)e la Kive desi);ned, in 1841^, an electro-clienueal condenser, consistinj; of a prinuiry coil, which, by means of the extra current, could enable a simile nalvaniecell todecomposit wa- ter. The same decomposition, however, had bi'i'H effected by Wright in 1840. RuhndvorlT construct- ed (18r)0 or 1851) the tirst so-called Inihirlion c„il, the excellence of which was chieliy attained l)y the pro- per insulation of the secondary coil. Fizeau (18.")3) incH'ased immensely the power of the coil, l)y pro- vidin;; it with a condenser. Of late years coils of great power have been constructed, rivaling, if not excce(iins tlu^ most powerful electric uiachinea in length and power of spark. The Fundamental law of current induction may be thus shown : Two long copper wires are tix<'d so as to be parallel and close to each other. The ex- tremities of the one are in connection with the poles of a galvanic battery, and tho.se of the other, with the binding-screws of a galvanometer, 'i'he instant the circuit of the battery is completed, and the cur- rent sent along one wire, a current in the opposite direction is induced in the other wire, which is shown by the dertection of the needle of the galvanometer. This induced current is only momentary, for though the current continues to circulate in the tirst wire, the needle soon falls back to its original position of rest, and the wire then gives free passage to other currents, and appears to be in no way affected. If, however, as the primary wire remains in any one position, all evidence- of electricity in the secondary wiri' disappears; but if in this position the slrengtli of the primary current should be increased or dimin- ished, momentary currents in thr- secondary wire wotdd again mark the cliangis in the primary, tin; increase causing an inverse, and the derrease u direct current. Hence; we conclude, that a current irlilch brginn, a current vhich apjiniichtii, or a current which incria^cH in utrenr/th, indncex tin inverse mtmienlary current in a neiglihi/ring conducting circuit, and that a current irhic/i st"pn, a current which retires, or a current irhirh (IccrenscH in strinijth, induccH a direct momentary current in a neiglilnrrin'j circuit. Ffir in- verse, the word mgntirc. and for direct, the word pemitioe, are freipiently emi)loyed in reference to in- duced currents. I In experiments like the above, it is much more I convenient to wind the jirimary and secondary wires side by side round a bolibin, so as to forma coil. ' The wires are insulated from each other by a cover- ing of wool or silk. Not only does such "a disposi- I tion admit of very long wires being used, but it also disposes the wires emi)l(jyed to greater advantage, j for each single turn of the primary wire acts not only on the corres])onding turn of the secondary wire but on all the turns near it. The inductive effect of \ such a coil is much greater than that which would i be obtained tiy the same extent of wires running side by side in a straight or crooked line. It is not even necessary that the two wires be wo\md round toireth- er, each may be wound (m a separate bobbin, and the one placed inside the other. The primary coil is made of wire one-twelfth of an inch in diameter, covered with wool : and the secondary coil of silk- covered wire, one-eighteenth of an inch! much longer than the primary wire. With two such coils, many I principles of induction can be given. now, when the needle is at rest, the battery circuit be broken, and the current stopped, another momen- tary current is indicated by the galvanometer needle but in this case in the .same direction as the inducing current. The inducing wire and current are called primary, and so are distinguished from the induced vpire and current, which are termed secondary. The passive condition of the wire while thus under in- duction has been described by Faraday as electro- tonic. An electric throb, so to speak, makes the setting in of this state, and another its vanishing ; the former in the opposite direction to that of the in- ducing current, and the latter in the same direction. If the primary wire be movable, so that it can be suddenly brought near to, and withdrawn from the secondary, while the battery current passes steadily, currents are induced as in the former case, the ap- proach of the wire being marked by an inverse cur- rent, and its withdrawal by a direct one. As long, Let us place the primary coil within the secondary ; let the primary, along with the self-acting rheotom, be put in the circuit of a galvanic cell, and let the secondary coil be connected with a galvanometer. The interruption in the primary current being effect- ed by the rheotom with great rapidity, the induced inverse and direct currents are sent out with corre- sponding rapidity through the coil of the galvan- ometer. If this last be of a short and thick wire, so as not to tax the tension of the current transmitted, the induced currents will not deflect the needle : or if they should happen, through the unsteady action of the break, to do so, it only oscillates round its Iiosition of rest. This proves that the quantity "f electricity transmitted hy the induced inceru and direct currents is the satne, for they each exert the same in- fluence on the needles. But if the coil of the gal- vanometer consist of a long fine wire, the needle is kept deviated in a direction which argues the actioa IHDtJCTION OF ELECTEIC CUERENTS. 98 INDUCTION OF ELECTEIC CUEEENTS. of the direct current. This leads us to conclude that both currents, though equal in qnatitity, are vnegual in tension, the direct current having the highest ten- sion, for it has more power to force its way through the fine wire of the galvanometer than the inverse, Other proofs of the same principles may he easily furnished. The difference of the tension of the two induced currents, is accounted for In this way; when a change takes place in the primary current, the quantity of the electricity induced by it in the sec- ondare wire is the same whether this change takes place quickly or slowly ; the tension, however, is very differcnL AVhen the change takes place slowly the total quantity of electricity in circulation con- tinues to pass as slowly, and there is little in motion at one time ; but when the same occurs quickly, it is sent with momentiun. so to speak, and the quan- tity in circualtion at one time is as much greater, in comparison with the former case, as the time is shorter. It is this quick dispatch of electricity which constitutes the tension of the current. Now, as it takes some time before the primary current is fully established, the inverse induced current is slow and of low tension ; hut when the contact is broken, the primary current ceases much more suddenly than it began, and the direct induced current is quick and of high tension. This view of the matter is borne out bj' experiment, for it is found, that trhaterer favors the suddenness of the changes of the primary current, heightens the tension of the currents induced by these changes. The break, from this circumstance, forms an important element in the construction of all induction apjiaratus. Tlie inductive power of tlie primary coil is immensely increased by placing a bundle of soft iron rods or wires in the center of it. The magnetism which begins and ceases in these at each passage of the current acts in conjunction with the inducing force of the coil. The center of the bobbin is hollow, to receive a bundle of this kind. The greater part of the inductive action is due to the iron core, and the induced currents got with and without it are not to be compared in point of eucrg}'. A solid bar of soft iron may also be used, but with much less advantage, for the induced cur- rents which linger in it after the stoppage of the main current acting themselves inductively, impair the suddenness with which the current disappears from the primary wire and magnetism from the core. The thin layer of oxide which forms on the rods in- sulates them sutKciently from one another, and pre- vents the formation of such currents. It is partly for the same reason that metal tubes cannot be used for bobbins for either primary or secondary coils. If such were used, closed circuits would be formed in them, the reaction of which, however, woidd pro- long the changes of the primary inducers and con- sequently impair the tension of the secondary cur- rent. Metal bobbins would not be open to this ob- jection If they had a longitudinal slit, which would make the tranverse section a broken ring and cir- cuit. The excitation of magnetism in the core is the principal aim of the primary coil, and as a strong current is essential to that object, it is made of thick wire and of moderate length. In the secondary coil, the tension of the induced current alone is aimed at, and with tliis view it is made of as thin wire as can be made, so as to admit of as many turns as posssible being brought within the influence of the core and primary coil. The electric conformation of the se- condary coil is sometimes looked upon in the same light of that of a galvanic battery. Thetotal electro- motive force of tiie coil is I he sum of that of all tlu' turns in it, in the same way thai the electro-motive force of the battery is proportionate to the number of cells. Not only does a galvanic current induce electricity in a neighboring (■irc\iit, hut it also acts inductively on itself. When contact is broken in a l)atlery cir- cuit, the galvanic spark is seen. When the wire is short, the spark is feeble, but it increases in lirilliaiicy with the length of the circuit, and this becomes par- ticularly observable, when the wire is wound rovmd in a coil. This certainly does not arise from the cur- rent being strong with the long wire, and weak with the short one, for (piite the reverse is the case, as might be shown with the aid of a galvanometer. The real cause of superior brilliancy of the galvanic spark with the long circuit is to be found in the induction j of tlie primary current on the various parts of itself, ! exciting, as they are called, extra cwrents in the prim- I ary wire. It has been fully attested by experiment, I that at the instant a galvanic current begins and ends, extrei currents are induced by the action of the several parts of its circuit upon each other, that at the begin- ning erf the current being inverse,' and that at the end direct. As the extra current inverse acts opposite to the main current, it does not appear as a separate current but only retards the instantaneous passage of the main current. The extra current direct suc- ceeds the main current, and has consequently a sep- arate existence. It is what is generally referred to when the extra current is spoken of. This extra cur- rent is of much higher tension than the original cur- rent. The effect of the extra current on] the direct induced current of the seeondarj' coil is to lessen very decidedly its tension. If a way be made for the extra current, the tension of the induced current falls prodigiously. In a large coil-machine, which gives freely sparks of 1 or 2 in. in length, when the two portions of the break are joined by a thin wire, so as to allow the extra current to pass, sparks will not travel between the two poles, however near they are brought. When no such communication exists, a portion of the extra current leaps over between the separating parts of the break, and in so far diminishes the intensity of the secondary current. The con- denser of the coil-machine, to be afterwards de- scribed, has for its object the absorption or suppres- sion of the extra current, but the manner in which it effects this is not j'et properly explained. The prejudicial effect of the extra current on the induced current is easily understood, when we bear in mind that it prolongs the cessation of the magnetism of the core and of the current in the primary coil, and thus imparingthe suddenness of this change, reduces the tension of the induced current. The essential parts of the induction coil have been already described in detail. A primary coil with its core of iron wire, and a secondary coil exterior to and insulated from a primary coil, form the main portion of the instrument. The primary coil is con- nected with the poles of a galvanic batten.-, and in the circuit a rheotom is introduced, to effect the in- terruptions of the current essential to its inductive action. The only parts not yet referred to are the condenser and the commutator. The condenser con- sists of several sheets of tinfoil and oiled silk, laid alternately the one above the other. The first, third, fifth, etc., sheets of tinfoil are connected by strips of the same material ; so are the second, fourth, sixth, etc.; the whole forming a condensing apparatus like a Leyden jar, the odd sheets forming the one coat- ing, and the even sheets the other. Each set of sheets is connected with one of the wires of the pri- mary coil. The condenser is generall}' placed in the sole of tlie instrument, and does not meet the eye. The commutator consists of an ivory cylinder cov- ered with conducting plates on two sides, and is so constructed that it can break contact, or transmit the current through the coil in either direction. The drawing represents Queen's dissected Huhm- korff coil, wliich is mostly adopted for the opera- tions of mines, torpedoes, etc. A, A', are binding posts, to connect with the battery; C: is the Bertin conuuutator'used in reversing the current; at V, the battery current enters the primary coil; this latter can be removed, as also can the core, r; at n.tlie bat- tery current is autonuitically broken. The brass jilales, p,p', connect the condenser wilh the primary circuit : tlie condenser is contained in a sliding draw- INEBXIA, 99 INFANTRY COLOaS. er, wliirli ran be very piisily removed. T$, TJ' arc tlie teniiiiials of U\t: Beeondary coil. A copper (•ondiic- tiu{? wire, wliieli is iiisulaled t)y one or I wo coals of gntla-perchu, connects tlie cliarjj;es willi llje ;;alvanic n]iparalns. The cliarn(^ is exploded liy passini; n Bjiark tlironijli a very small portion rjf fulminate of rnereury inserted between tlie ends of two cop|)er wires, which are enclosed within a short tub(' of ;;ut- ta-pcreha, coated within with sulphiiret of copper. Tlie wires are bent near llie end of the tube anil twisted aroniid each other. A little meal powder is llirownaround the fnlminate am It he t idle, which, with llietnl)e and the bent ]mn of tlie wire, is tiLrlilly closed in a small .<;utta-pereha bai;, to Uec]) ont mois- liM'c. To lire a sinirle mine, one end of the twist is golilered to the condnctini; wire and the other inser- ted into the earth to complete the circle. For sev- eral nnnes to be exploded at the same time, conduc- tiiis wires connect the mines, and the ends of the twist are soldered one to each conductor, except the end one, which has one of its ends inserted into the earth. ]5y this condiinalion the scries will be cxi)ioded without any sensible difference of time between the nearest and furthest mine. See Galvan- ism. INERTIA. — A term expressive of tliat indifference to a state of rest or motion which is a universal jirop- crty of matter, and may be expres.sed by sayim; that a body in inution will continue- in motiitn, and a body at rest will remain (it rest, unless a'^ted npon hysonie ex- ternal force. The latter part of this ]irinciple was Known to the Ancients, and by them attributed to a certain repui^uauce to motion, which was a charac- teristic of all nuitter; but it was shown by Galileo that the former part was equally true and general. This property of matter has been called by Kepler vis inertia.. INESCUTCHEON.Tn Heraldry, a single shield borne fls a charge. When there are "two or more, they are simply called escutcheons, for an inescutcheon. it is said,must always occupy the fess point of the shield. An inescutcheon is to be distinguished from an es- cutcheon of pretense, which is not a charge, but a separate coat. See Heraldry. INFAMED.— In Heraldry, an epithet applied to a lion or other animal which has lost its tail, the loss being supposed to disgrace or defame it. Defamed looking ba'-k)rards occurs in ancient blazon for coun- ter-rampant regardant, the lion being su|)poscd to be ilving from anencmy . Often written Defamed. 'infamous BEHAViOE. — Disgrace -mTH infamt AND INFAMOUS BEHAVIOR arc tcmis in use in the mili- tary and naval codes to designate conduct (and pen- alty) which is not only opposed to discipline, but also disgraceful in a social sense. As infamous behavior, bave been always classed in all countries desertion of colors on the field of battle, failure to attempt to suc- cor comrades in danger, cold-blooded cruelty, and other crimes which are greatly subversive of moral- ity. If a man is foimd guilty of any of these crimes by a Court-JIartial. and not sentenced to death, the sentence is ordinarily discharge — or dismissal — with ignominy or infamy. So severe an enactment great- ly adds to the force of the penaltj', and stigmatizes the offender for life as a disgrace to his couiury and bis cloth. INFANTKT.— The term nifantry was originally ap- plied to a body of men collected by the Infante of Spain, for the purpose of rescinng his father from the Moors. The attempt being successful, the term was afterwards applied to foot-soldiers in general, as opposed to cavalry. Among the ancient nations of Europe the foot-soldiers constituted the chief strength of the armies. In the best days of the Grecian and Roman States, battles were won mainly by the force flud discipline of the phalanges and legions, and the number of the infantry in the field far exceeded that of the cavalry. The cavalry were then, as at present employed chiefly in protecting the wings of the army find in completing a victory gained by the infantry. I The ancient Franks, when tliey left the forests of (ierinany, were accustomed to march and light on foot; and they iiersevered in this practice even after tliey had obtained possession of tlir; country of thft Gauls, which abounded with horses. J{ul soon after the time of Charlemagne Institutionsof ChivaJry began to l)e generally adopted in t hi- kingdoms of Kurope. These led to frequent exhibitions of martial exercises on horseback in presi-nce of the Sovereigns and assembled Nobles : and the interest inspired by the achievements of the Kniirhls on those occasions was naturally fol- lowed by a lugh regard for that order of men. I5y degrees the cavalry, which was com|)osed of j)ersons possessing raidi and jiroperty, and completely armed, acquired the re])utation of Ijeing the princi|ial arm; while the foot-soldiers, badly armed and disciiilined, were held in comparatively small estimation. This continued 400 j'cars, and although war was the princi- pal occupation of maid<ind, military science fell into neglect. Hut Uulirs were forced by the power of feudalism to make an alliance with the dcsi)ised class of foot-soldiers, and in 1214 we linil that some of the German iidantry was recognized to be " very good, and trained to light im the level even against cavalry." The cavalry of France was routed at C'o\irlrai Ijy the infantry during the next century, and the Austrians suffered defeat bv the elllcient work of the Swiss ])ike at Jlorgartcn (l":)!.'")), Semiiach ri:i8(i), and Kafels (1388). At C'ressy and Poicliers (l:MG-13.")G) the Knights of England dismounted to fight beside the successful infantry. The jirincipal weapons of the infantry before the invention of gunpowder were long- bows, halberds, cross-bows, spiked clubs, axes, pikes, staight-swords, shields, corselets, mail-jackets, helm- ets and partisans. In the Kith century, however, these weapons were replaced by fire-arms, and in the 18th century, the musket was' in general use. It became customary during the Thirty Years' War to form battalions of infaiUry composed of .'iOO men, which were massed into dense columns during battle in spite of the deadly effect of the enemy's artillery and fire-arms. The absurdity of this formation was first exposed by GustavAdolph, who recognizing the destructiveness of fire-arms, arranged his battalions with a view to increasing the effectiveness of the fire of his troops, while avoiding exi)osure to that from the enemv. His tactics were so successful at Breiten- feld a'nd Lutzen (1G31-32) tliat they were soon after- wards universally adopted. The bayonet came into use in 1070, and the socket-bayonet about 1G99. Fred- rick the Great made many improvements till then comparatively unknown. The rapidity with which his infantry troops performed theirevolutions during battle contributed largeh' toward his famous victories in the Seven Years' War. In fact the Prussian in- fantry have ever since his time served as models for other European countries. The superiority of this arm consists in the troops being able to act on ground where cavalry camiot, and it is obvious that the lat- ter must be nearly useless in the attack of fortified towns. During the "War of the Rebellion inthiscoun- trv skirmishing was in vogue in the northern and southern armies. It had been in use during the Re- volutionary War, and was well siuted to the Ameri- can character. Skirmishing has since been adopted in Prussia, and the skirmish line is recognized as the proper formation in battle to avoid the destructive effect of the breech-loaders. The co-operation, how- ever, of cavalrj' andiufantry troops was neglected by American Generals. Artillery fire usually opened the battle, and was followed by the advance of the whole line on the run in a final charge. The Infantrj- Tac- tics in general use were those of Casey, founded on those of Scott. Casey's Tactics, however, were ab- andoned for those of Hardee, and in 1867 those of Upton were finallv adopted. INFANTRY COLORS.— In the United States, each Regiment of Infantry has two silken Colors. The first, or the Natiimal Color, of stars and stripes, as 1 described for the garrison flag ; the number and IIJFERIOR. 100 INFLAMMATION, name of the regiment is embroidered with silver on the center stripe. The second, or Regimental Color, is blue, with the arms of the United St"iitcs embroidered in silk on the center. The name of the regiment in a scroll, underneath the eagle. The size of each Color is six feet six inches fly, and six feet deep on the pike. The length of the pike, including the spear and ferrule is nineleet ten inches. The fringe, yel- low ; cords and tassels, blue .and white silk inter- mixed. See Colors. INFEEIOK.— A term signifying, in a military sense, junior in rank. Inferior officers are those of the lower ranks or grades. INFERNAL MACHINE.— xV term applied to various deadly contrivances: foi- instance, to the battery -gun with which the attempt to assassinate Louis Philippe was made, and the devices used on similar historical occasions. A noted infernal nufhine was the tire-ship used by the English at St. Malo. This was a three- decker charged with powder on the first deck ; shells, carcasses, etc., on the second; and with barrels fil- led with combustibles on the third ; the gun deck was covered with old guns overloaded. It was intended to destroy ships, iSridges, etc. INFLAMMATION. — When grains of powder are uni- ted to form a charge, and tire is communicated to one of them, the heated and expansive gases evolv- ed insinuate themselves into the interstices of the charge, envelop the grains. and ignite them one after another. This propagation of ignition is called in- Jlammation, and its velocity, the velocity of infiam. mntiiin. It is much greater than that of combustion, and it should not be confounded with it. When pow- der is burned in an open train, fine powder inflames more rapidly than coarse; such, however, is not the case in fire-arms, owing to the diminution of the in- terstices. If a charge were composed of mealed pow- der, the flame coufd no longer find its way through the interstices, and the velocity of inflammation and combustion would become the same. Now supposing one grain or particle alone be ignited, it will first be inflamed over its whole surfaced and the progressive combustion will take place from the exterior to the interior. Its rate of cmnhmtion will therefore depend upon both its shape and size, leaving out entirely, for the present, the question of density and hard- ness. A particle of spherical or cubical form will ex- pose less surface to ignition in proportion to its vol- ume than one of an elongated or flat shape, and will consequently require a longer period for the combus- tion of its entire mass; the' larger the particle, also, the longer will be the time required for its combus- tion. Looking, then, at one grain of powder by it- self, we may say that the larger it is. and the more nearly its form approaches a'sphere, the longer will its combustion take, and the slower will be the evo- lution of the gas. When, however, we come to re- gard the action of an aggregation of sucli particles, as in the charge of a gun, the rate of ignition of the whole charge is also affected by the size and shape of the grain. The part of the charge first ignited is that near the vent, and the remainder is inflamed by contact with the heated gas generated by the com- bustion of this portion, so that the rate of ignition of the whole mass will be regulated by the greater or lessfacility with whicli the gas can penetrate through- out the charge, which is itself dependent upon the shape and size of the interstices between the grains. If the grains be splierical and regular in form, the interstices will be comparatively large and uniform, and the gas will penetrate the mass with facility; again, the larger the grains, the larger the interstices between them. If, oii the other hand, they be flat or flaky and irregular in shajic, the passage of the gas will be more dilhcult, ami the rate of inflanunatiou of the charge hmIucmmI. W'e see, therefore, that the considerations whicli affect the more or less rapid combustion of an individual grain of gun])owder, al- so affect the rate of ignition of a eliarge of such grains, but in an opposite direction; so that a form of grain which will, individually bum rapidly may offer an increased resistance to the passage of the heated gas through the charge, and thereby retard its ignition, while a grain which will burn more slow- ly may allow of the charge being more rapidly igni- ted. By varying the size and shape of the grain alone, a powder may therefore be obtained, a charge of which shall be ignited rapidly throughout, but burn comparatively slowly, or one which shall be ignited more slowly, but when once inflamed burn very rap- idly. It is necessary to draw a clear distinction be- tween a rapidly igniting and a quickly burning pow- der. The heat developed increases with the charge, and as the velocity of the gases increases with their temperature, it is therefore evident that a large charge is consumed quicker than a small one ; it is also true that the loss of heat absorbed by the surface of the bore is much less sensible when the charge is great than when it is small; that is, the quantity absorbed is proportional to the surface or the square of the caliber of the gun and the heat developed increases as the cube of the caliber. With proper data we car readily determine the density of the gaseous products at any particular moment of combustion. For this purpose, take the case in which the inflammation of the whole charge is considered instantai»eous, and let P be the weight of the charge ; d' the density of tin composition of which thepowderismade; Fthespact in which the gases expand ; t' the time of combus- tion of a single grain ; t the time since the combus- tion began ; d the density of the gases at a given in- stant. The weight of powder remaining after a time, t, will be equal to PI 1 |, and the volume will be equal to — | 1 | ; the weight of gase- d' ved wi ous products evolved will be equal to p| 1 — I 1 I I; and their density will be equal to this quantity divided by the space, V, di- minished by the space occupied by the powder un- burnt at the end of the time, t. Or, d= Let K, represent the ratio of the weight of powder which would fill the space T, to the weight of the charge P, and I), the gravimetric density, or weight of a unit of volume of powder, we shall have the e(iua- tion, DV V K =K, or — =— ; P P D and the formula for the density of the gaseous pro- ducts becomes. 1 — d = INFOEMANT. 101 INITIAL TENSION. If the charge fillw Uic cnlirc spaor K, K=\, and 1- d= n '■=(-01 n "Wlien the grains arc sinned, t=t , and d= — ; and if yr=l, rf=A K Huviiii; dftcriiiincd the nicnn (U^nsitv "f tlie gas- eous prDducts at any instant of tlic (■(indnistion, we can determine tlic pressure exerted on I lie enclosing 8urfac(-s liy means of JSiimford's formula /'=1.841 (905rf) 1 + 0.DO2. • This value of I' supposes that the entire charge is inflamed at tlu^ same time— a supposition that is not Strictly correct, except for small and li;;litly-ramined charges. When the charge is large, and well-rammed, as in cannon, it is necessary to take into consideration the time of inllammation. In a majority of cases the preci'ding fortnulas will give the relation between the density and expansive lorceof gunpowder, without sensible' error; but wiien the grains are small, and the cliarge is compressed by ramming, the interstices are dimiuislied in size, and the inllammation is compar- atively less rajiid ; besides, the si/e and form of the charge exert an intluence wliicli increases with its length. It is proposed to mo- dify the formulas, and adapt them to the most general case, liy considering tlie Inflainmation progressive. Take a charge of powder, of any form whatever, and consider it ignited at the point. A, the inllanimation will reach the surface of the concentric zone, />', the radius of which is tv, In the time t, r being the velocity of intlamniation. by substituting / — * for t, and supposing ^=1, should the cliargi' comjiletely till the space in which it is burned. Integrating between the determined lim- its, we olitain the mean density of the gases developed. The solution of this (pieslion, in a general sense, in very di.'ticult, H!;d rei|uires tlie aid of the difTerenlial calculus. There are particular cases, however, where the solution is not dillicult ; for instance, where (he charge is of cylindrical form and is |)laced at the bot- tom if till' bore of a guu. See J'Jxjjlim/jn and Oun- potrt/f-r. INFORMANT. — In case a civil person is the com- plainant, he becomes the principal witness before a Court-Martial, and after giving his evidence may re- main ill Court, in order that the Judge-Advocate "may- refer III liiiii, INF0RMEE8. — In the British service, soldiers who gave iiifoniiiitioii of false musters, or of pay illegally detained ; and were, for said. services, entitled to their discharge. INGAUNI. — A tribe dwelling on the mountains and seacost of Genoa in the first and second centuries B.C. They were very active in the wars between the Romans and Ligurians, and were Allies of the Car- thaginians in the second I'uiiie 'War. They were regarded as a distinct tribe in the time of Pliny and Strabo, but after the battle with Emilius Paulus, 181 1). c, in which they lost l.'j.ODO men, very little was heard of them. The town Albenga, tlien called AlViiuni Imjaurium, was their Capital. INITIAL TENSION.— The .system of initial tension consists ill making a gun of concentric tubes, by putting on each successive layer, iirocecding out- ward from the center, with an initial tension exceed- ing that of those below it; in other words, so that each hoop shall compress the one within it. Tlie inner layer is thus in compression wliile the outer layer is in the highest tension. Tlie inner layer i.s able to sustain the first and greatest stretcli, aiid the outer lajer, although stretched less b_v the explosion There will be portions of the charge situated within j "^ "."-' po"'!;'"". '':i« already been stretched mto high this zone which the flame will mit have reached; tension, and thus bus to do an ecpial amount of Others in which the combustion is completed: and I j*^'"'''^- The intermediate layers bear the same rela- Others, between these two, in which the inflammation is completed, but the combustion is only partially com pleted, as represented. The extent of the inflamed zones being determined by the form and dimensions of the charge, exerts a great influence on the development of the ga.ses. and consequently on their density. If the velocities of in- flammation and combustion be known, the iiuantity of gas formed from each zone can be calculated, and the question becomes one of analysis. In this calcu- lation, the integral limits which refer to the extent of the zones are determined liy the surface of the charge; and those which refer to the progress of the combus- tion of the grains will be the point of ignition and the surface of inflammation: or, if « be the time neces- tion to the initial strain, and to the strain of the powder, so that, in short, all the layers contribute equally of their tensile strength to resist the strain of the explosion. Each hoop, or tube, has this ele- ment of weakness, that its inner circumference is more stretched than its outer one. Absolute perfec- tion would necessitate infinitelj' thin lioops, and, practically, the thinner the layers the greater will be the strength, provided the mechanical difliculties in constrviction, and more especially in applying, a great number of thin strata with the proper tension do not outweigh the advantages. Tlie two piinci- pal methods of.applying the system are I)y shrinking on, or by forcing on, the hoops. If the hoops are put on by shrinking, two embarrassments arise: Firxt. The hoop must be accurately bored, and after each layer has been put on, the gun must be put in a lathe and the outside turned. Great accuracy of abor is refmired — labor of the most expensive class. Secondly. The process of shrinking on is not to be depended upon ; nowhere is there a difficulty in in- sary for the flame to reach the surface of the zone, the i suring the exact temperature required, but scarcely radius of which is x, the time of i)artial combustion of a grain of this zone will be t—t', and its complete combustion is expressed by the relation <=<'-(-4. For this zone the derksity of the gaseous products at the instant of inflammation will be d=0, as when completely consumed d=D. The intermediate values maybe determined by form- ula (1) t O(-O) any two pieces of iron will shrink identically. The fitting of hoops with nice adjustment would be diffl- cult, theoretically : practically, it would not be done. But the chief embarrassment is the uueuual effect of heat. In the first place, heating the layers over a fire to expand them subjects one part to more heat than an- other ; the temperature of the surf;ice and interior are unequal, thus causing irregular strains. This may be remedied by boiling the hoops in oil. which would toughen as well as expand the hoops. In the .sec- ond place, the hoops are often heated to redness, when oxidation takes place. The internal diameter of the hoop is increased, and scale is left between some parts and not between others. In the third INITIAL VELOCITY. 102 INJURIES. place, cast-iron aiitl steel sensibly and permanentlj' enlarge in proportion to the amount of carbon they contain when subjected to the heat. Whitworth and Blakely advocate the method of forcing the hoops on with liydrostatic pressure. The forcing of a slightly conical ring over a correspond- ingly conical tube obviates the necessity of great ac- curacy in the diameter of either pieces. The truth of the cone depends upon the corre'ctness of the lathe. The truth of the surfaces is also a question of good tools. The tension of the ring depends on the dis- tance to whicli it is forced in tlie conical tube, and this may be regulated by the safety-valve of the hy- drostatic-press. With special tools, and when cor- rectness depends upon the mechanical appliances, which can be adjusted with the utmost nicety, an in- expert workman could hardly fail to do well. See Built-tip Guns, Cannon, Ordnance, and Varying Elas- ticity. INITIAL VELOCITY.— In gunnery, the speed with which the ball leaves the muzzle of the gun. This was formerly calculated from the momentum as shown by the Ballistic Pendulum. A very great improvement of late years is tlie Electro-ballistic Pendulum, the invention of a Major Navez of the Belgian service, which actually measures the interval of time during wliich the shot traverses a short space of ground. The apparatus consists of a steel penduhnn falling at the side of a graduated sector of a circle. Behind the segment is a piece of iron ca- pable of being magnetised by a galvanic battery adjoining. The wires for completing the circuit between the battery and the magnet are so arranged that they are in connection with two targets of pa- per or other thin material in the line of the pro- jectile's fire. So long as the circuit is complete, and before the experiment, the magnet holds the pendu- lum at its highest point. When the shot pierces the first target, the circuit is broken, iron demag- netised, and the pendulum released; these effects being absolutely simultaneous. With equal simul- taneity, the piercing the second target re-establishes the circuit, magnetises the iron, and arrests tlie pen- dulum in its descent. The distance between the targets is known, and the accumulating resistance of the atmosphere within that time ; the sector being finely graduated, the distance traversed by the pen- dulum shows exactl}^ the fraction of a second occu- pied, and from these data the initial velocity is a matter of simple computation. Of an orilinary smooth-bore cannon, the initial velocity is near to 1600 feet per second. See Ballistic Penduhtm, Chriinoscopp . Gvn-pendnhim. and Velocity. INITAL VELOCITY OF ROTATION.— Let V be the initial velocity of the projectile, or space which it would pass over in one second, in the direction of fliglit, moving with the velocity with which it leaves the piece, and I the distance passed over by the pro- jectile in making one revolution ; then — will be the I number of revolutions in one second, and V Zk — the angular velocity of tlie projectile at the muz- zle. Tli(! velocity of rotation of a point on the sur- face is given by the expres.sion, rw=^7ir — , I in which r is its distance from the axis of motion, and u> is the angular velocity. Sec Grooves, Rotation, and Vehciti/ nf llnUitiiin. INITIATIVE.— In offcnsivi' warfare, to take the in- itiatite is llic power of compelling your adversary to make iiis movements dependent on your own, tlie re- sult of wlueli is to give tile invacier of a territory great advantage. It is also explained as the success obtained by the invader of a territory, suitable for military moveinents, and defended only by an army, not by fortifications ; not only is the advantage in his first onset, but in subsequent engagements, thus- disconcerting and to some extent crippling his ad- versary so as to frustrate or deprive him of the pow- er of carrying out offensive measures. INJURIES. — In the e.xcrcise of professional duty by militarj' officers, injuries may frequently be occa- sioned to otlier officers, or to private individuals, whose legal remedies are here considered. As be- tween officers themselves, the language of the Ar- ticles of War is sufficiently comprehensive to bring most of such cases within the cognizance of a Court- Martial; but a Court-Martial has no power to award pecuniary damages for injurious conduct. Its juris- dictiom is criminal, and its judgments are penal. It may happen, too, that the common feeling of the ser- vice, to which the otfending or the complaining party belongs, would in many cases render an application to such a tribunal utterly fruitless; as the general sentiment of the members of a particular profession or class of society, respecting a matter of profession- al or corporate right or conduct, is often found to be at variance with the public law of the land. Civil ac- tions are therefore maintainable against commissi- oned officers, for exceeding their powers, or for ex- ercising them in an oppressive, injurious, and impro- per manner, whether towards military persons oroth- ers. Extreme difficulties, however, lie in the way of plaintiffs in actions of this nature, for no such action is maintainable for an injury, unless it be accompa- nied by malice or injustice: and the knowledge of this, while it can never check the conduct of good men, may form a check on the bad. Where an officer makes a slip in form, great latitude ought to be al- lowed; but for a corrupt abuse of authority none can be made. It will be convenient to consider the law upon this subject; 1st, as it applies to wrongs com- mitted by officers towards persons under military au- thority; and, 8dly, as it applies to persons not subject to such authority. Some of the decisions that will be quoted were pronounced in cases where naval offi- cers were concerned; but the principle of the deci- sions applies equally to both services. I. Wrongs to- wards Persons under Military Authority. — A notion appears to have at one time extensively prevailed that an officer could have no remedy against ill treat- ment received from his superiors in the course of professional duty, except by bringing the offending party to a Court-Mflrtial, and subjecting him to the penalties of the Articles of War. This opinion, how- ever, was quite unfounded in point of law; and such a state of things miglit often be productive of the worst conseqnences. The point was distinctly rais- ed in Grant c. Shand, where an action was brought by an officer in the army against his superior officer for oppressive, insulting, and violent conduct. The plaintiff was directed to give a military order: and it appeared that he sent two persons, who failed. The defendant thereupon said to the plaintiff, "What a stupid person you arc," and twice struck him; and although the circumstances occurred at Gibraltar, and in the actual execution of military .service, it was held at the trial that the action was maintainable! and a verdict was found for the plaintiff. An applica- tion was afterwards made to the Court of King's Bench to set aside the verdict; and Lord Mansfield, the Chief-Justice, was very desirous to grant a new trial; but the Court, after argument, refused to dis- turb the verdict. So also an action will lie for unjust treatment under tlie form of flisci])line. as inSwiuton r. Jlolloy, wlierc the defendant, who was Captain of the Tridint man-of-war, put the Purser into confine- ment, kept liim impri.soned for three days without inquiring into the case, and thin released him on hearing his defence. The Purser brought liis action against Captain Molloy, for all his unlawful deten- tion ill custody; and, upon the evidence, Lord Mans- field said, that such coiidiict on the jiart of the Cap- tain did not appear to have been a discharge of his duty, and therefore that his justification under the INJURIES. 103 INJURIES. fliKfiplino of thonavy liiid fiiilcil liim. The jury gnvn fl.OdO (laiiiaiTcH. In tlic fnrct'oiin; ciisc no want of npriiihlncsH was all.ril)iitcil to ('aptain Molloy; and the ilccision rested wliolly (jn tlie eirennistanee of Iiisliavini; committed an injiistiee, altlioij^ii without a corrupt intention. Cruelty or unneeeHHary severity, when wilfully conimilleil in the exercise of superior authority, are also jjjood causes of action. Thus in Wall r. Macnamara, lh<- action was hroui;ht liy the plainlilT, as Cajilain in thi' African Corps, a^rainsllhe defendant. LieuleuanI (iovernor and Alilitary Com- mandant of Sencfiandiia, for iniprisonim; the plain- tilt for the space of nine months at (iauibia, in Afri- ca. The defense was a justiliealion of the imprison- ment under the Mutiny Act, for the disobedience of orders. At th(^ trial it apiieared Ihat the imi)rison- menl of Ciiiitain Wall, which was at lirst lei;al, name- ly, for leaviuf; his ]iost wilhout leave from his Su- perior OHicer, thoui;h in a had stale < if health, wasai;- gravated witli many circumstances of cruelty, which were nd"erted toby Lord Manslield, in the followinir extract from his charge to the jury: " It is admitted that the plaintilT was tn blame in leaving his post. But there was no enemy, no mutiny, no danger. His health was declining, and he trusted to the licnevol- C'lice of the defendant to consider the circumstances imder which he acted. ]?ut supiiosing it lohave been the defendant's dulj- to call the i)lainliir to a milita- ry accoimt for his misconduct, what apology is there for (h'nying him the use of the conmi(>n air in a sul- try climate, and shutting him up in a gloomy prison, when there was no possibility of bringing him to a trial for several mouths, there not lieing a sutlicient number of ollicers to form a Court-.Martial ? These circumstances, independent of the direct eviilence of malice, as sworn to by one of the witnesses, are suf- ficient for you to presume a bad, malignant motive in the defendant, wduch would destroy his jiistitica- tion, had it even been within the powers delegated to the defendant by his commission. The jury there- upon, after deliberation, found a verdict for ('apfain Wall, with il.OOO damages. An undue assuinjition of authority in matter not within the range of mili- tary discipline, is also a good ground of action against a Superior Officer. This appears from the case of Warden v. Bailey, where the plaiutiir was a perma- nent Sergeant in the Bedford regiment of local mil ilia, of wdiicii the defendant was the Adjutant. In Ko- vember, 1809, the Lieutenant-colonel issued a regi- mental order for establishing an evening school at Bedford, lie appointedthc Sergeant-major the blas- ter and ordered all Sergeants and Corporals, includ- ing the plaintiff, to attend and pa_y eight-pence a week towards the expenses of the school. The plain- tiff and some other of the scholars having afterwards omitted to attend, several were tried by Court-Martial and punished. The plaintiff, how-ever, was only rep- rimanded, and he promised regular attendance in fu- ture. Shortly afterwards he was ordered to attend a drill on parade, when the defendant, who appears to have been a shopkeeper, shook his fist at the Plain- tiff, called him a rascal, and told him he deserved to be shot. The defendant then directed a Sergeant to draw his sword and hold it over the plaintiff's head, and if he should stir to run him through : and, by the defendant's direction, a Corporal took off the plain- tiff's sash and sword. The plaintiff was then con- ducted, by the defendant's order, to Bedford gaol, witli directions that he should be locked up in soli- tary confinement, and kept on bread and water. He was thus imprisoned for three days. lie was then ■brought up liefore the Colonel and the defendant, and other officers of the regiment, and again remand- ed to the gaol. The plaintiff's health having been impaired by the contimninee of this treatment for | several weeks, he was afterwards conducted to his own house, and there kept a close prisoner until Janu- ary 1810. when lie was escorted by a file of Corporals from Bedford to Stilton, to be tried by Court-AIartial for mutinous words spoken on parade at the time of his arrest, and for tliercliy exciting otiier.s to disobe- dience. He was trii-d ar:ccordingly, but liberated in March, 1810. U|)on this he broughHii.s action against the Adjutant for the wrongful imprisonment, when an ol)jection was taken that the question of lliepro- jiriety of the arrest was not within the jurisdiction of the ("'ivil (,'ourts. The Courts of Common Pleas, however, overruled this objc-ction. Sir.JanicK Maus- lielil, C. .1.; "It nML'ht br- very convenient Ihat a mil- ilary ofllcer might beenabledto make the man under his command learn to read or write,- it might be verj' useful, l>ut is not a part of nulitary discipline. Then, there is a tax of Hd. a week for learning to read and write The subject cannot be taxed, even in the most indirect way, unless it originates in the Low- er House of Parliament." Mr justice Lawrence: " It is no part of mililarv duty lo attend a school, and learn lo write ami read. If wriliiiL' is necessary to Corporals and Sergeants, the Superior Officers must .select men wlio cnn write and read ; and if they do not continue to do it well, tliey may lie re- duced to the ranks. Nor is it any part of niilitary duty to pay for keeping a school liglit and warm : this very far exceeds the power of any Colonel to order." In a subsei/^ient stage of the. same case, when it was altemi)ted to justify or defend the mutinous expressions used by ^\■;l^len on parade as aliove sta- ted, on the ground of llie illegality of the order wliich gave rise to them, the Court held, tiiat altliough War- den Inid I)een unlawftdly arrested for disoliedience to that order, such a circumstance affonled no war- rant for insul)ordinate language on Warden's part, and therefore no exemption from ndlil.ary arrest and punishment for the same. " Xor will lie (said Lord Ellenliorougli, C. .J.) be less an object of military punishment, because the order of the Lieulenant-col- onel, to which this language referred, might not be a valid one, and such as lie was strictly competent to make There may be disorderly conduct to the prejudice of good and military discipline, in the manner and terms used and adopted l)y one soldier in dissuading anothersoldier not to obey anordernot strictly legal. If any erroneous order on the pari of a Connnanding Officer woidd not only justify the in- dividual disobedience of it by the soldier, biit would j\islify him in making infiammatory and reproach- iul pulilic comments upon .same to his fellow-sol- diers, ecpially the objects of such order with himself, is it posj'ble that miiMary order and discipline could be maintained?" The conunon defence of officers, against wdiom actions of this nature are brought, is a justification of their conduct as agreeable to'the dis- cipline of the service, and contriluitary lo tiie main- tenance of that discipline. And there can be no doubt that where the conduct brought into question is not an oppressive, malicious, or unreasonable exercise of power, and does not amount to an excess or abuse of authority, an action is wholly unsustainable. The principles tipon which the Courts of Law jiroceed in actions arising out of the aliuse of military power, will receive fiTrther illustration from the language of Lord Mansfield, in summing up the evidence to the jury in Wall v. JIacnamaraT His Lordship thus ex- pressed himself: '• Intryingthe legality of acts done by military officers in the exercise "of their duty, par- ticularly beyond the seas, where cases may "occur without the possibility of application for proper ad- vice, greater latitude ought to be allowed : and they ought not to sufferfor a .slipof form, if their intention appears bj'the evidence to liave been uprisht. It is the same as when complaints are brought against infe- rior Civil Magistrates, as Justices of" the Peace, for acts done by them in the exercise of their civil duly. There the principal inquiry to be made by a Court of Justice is, /wtr the heart itoml f and if there apjjcar to be nothing wrong there, great latitude will be allowed formisapprehcnsion or mistake. But. on the other hand, if the lieart is wrong — if cruelly, malice, and oppression appearto have occasioned of [isrcrrava- ted the imprisonment, or other injury complained oiT INJUBIES. 104 INJUBI£8. they shall not cover themselves with the thin veil of legal forms, nor escape under cover of a justiticatiou the most technically regular, from that pimishment, which it is your province and your duty to iuHict on so scandalous an abuse of public trust." It is no legal objection to an action for the abuse of military au- thority, that the defendant has not been tried and con- victed by a Court-Martial, for that argument holds in no case short of felonj'. The infliction of an unjust or illegal sentence, pronounced bj' a Court-Martial, is a good cause of action by the prisoner, against all or any of the Members of the Court, and all persons concerned in the execution of the sentence; such a sentence. If it exceeds the authorized measure of pun- ishment, being not merely invalid for the excess, but absolutely void altogether. The most remarkable case on record of this kind is that of Lieutenant Frye, of the Marines, who, after on mmecessary previous im- prisonment for fourteen months, was brought to trial before a Naval Court-Martial at Port Royal in the iVest Indies, and sentenced to be imprisoned for l.'j years, for disobedience of orders, in refusing to assist In the imprisonment of another oflJcer, without an order in writing from the Captain of Her Majesty's ship Oxford, on board of which Lieutenant Frye was serving. At the trial the written depositions of seve- ral illiterate Blacks were improperly received in evi- dence against him, in lieu of their oral testimony, which might have been obtained and sifted by cross- examination ; and the sentence pronounced was it- self illegal for its excessiveness, the Act 22, George II., which contains the naval Articles of War, not allowing any imi^risonment beyond the term of two years. On the return to England of Admiral Sir Chaloner Ogle, the president of the Court-Martial, Lieutenant Frye brought an action against him in the Court of Conimon Pteas for his illegal conduct at the trial, when the jur^- under the direction of the Lord Chief Justice ^ illis, gave a verdict for the Plaintiff, with £1,000 damages. The Chief Justice at the same time informed Lieutenant Frye that he might have an action against all or an}' of the other members of his Court-Martial ; and Lieutenant Frye accordingly issued writs against Rear Admiral Mayne and Captain Renton, upon whom the same were served as they were coming ashore at the conclusion of the proceedings of the day at another Court-Mar- tial, of which they were acting members, for the trial of Vice Admiral Lestock, for his conduct in a naval engagement with the French fleet off Toulon, in the early part of the same year. This was deemed a great insult by the members of the sitting Court-Mar- tial, who accordingly passed some resolutions or re- monstrances in strong language, highly derogatory to the Chief Justice, whicli they forwarded to the Lords of the Admiralty, by whom the affair was re- ported to the King. His Majesty, through the Duke of Newcastle signified to the Admiralty "his great displeasure at the insult offered to the Court-Martial, by which the military discipline of the navy is so much affected; and the King highly disapproved of the behavior of Lieutenant Frye on the occasion." The Lord Chief Justice, as soon as he heard of the resolutions of the Court-Martial, ordered every mem- ber of it to be taken into custody, and was proceed- ing to uphold Hut dignity of his Court, in a very de- cicled manner, when tlie wholeaffair was terminated in Novenil)er, lT4(i, by tlie Members of the Court- Martial signing and sending to his Lordship a very am])le written apology for their conduct. On the reception of this paper in the Court of Common Pleas it was read aloud, and ordered to be registered among the records as a "Memorial," said tlic Lord Chief Justice, " to the present and future ages, that who- ever set themselves up in ojiposiiion to the laws, or think themselves above llie law, will in the end find themselves mistaken. The proc<'edings and the apo- logy were also published in the J^'jiid'in UnzetUi of 15lh November, 174G. It may be useful to mention here, as a legal point giving rights of redress between military men, that a Superior Officer cannot safely deal for his own advantage, in money matters, with a Junior Officer under his command. The influence whicli a Senior Oflicer can exercise over Iiis Junior is such as to destroy, or at least to control, in the purview of a Conrt of Equity, that entire feeling which is very proper and essential to the perfec- tion of a bargain or contract ; and if a Regimental Ottioer places himself in a position where such influ- ence may operate to the prejudice of the Junior, the transactions between them are liable to be set aside for want of fairness or conscientiousness. This is the rule applied to dealings between a guardian and his ward, a physician and his patient, a landlord and his steward, a clergyman and a penitent, and all other cases where the existence of just and unavoidable in- fluence may lead to abuse. ■ II. Wrongs towards Persons not under Military A uthoriUj. — jfnjuries may be occasioned to persons not subject to military authority, by ofticers mistaking or exceeding their powers, or exercising them with malice, negligence, or unskilfulness ; but for acts of this kind a remedy lies only in the Civil Courts ; the military tribunals, as already observed, having no power to grant pecuniary compensation by way of damages, and non-military persons having no locus standi as prosecutors before such Courts, wliich are instituted solely for the maintenance of order and discipline among the armed forces. In cases of the kind now under consideration, it is quite immaterial whether the cause of action has arisen within the realm, or beyond the seas ; though this proposition was not finally established until the year 1774, when the great ease of Fabrigas «. Mostyn was determined in the Court of King's Bench, and put an end to all further question or doubt upon the sub- ject. The Plaintiff was a native of Minorca, of which Island the defendant. General Mostyn, was Governor. The General had by his own absolute authority im- prisoned the plaintiff and banished him from the Is- land without a trial. The defence was, that in the peculiar district of Jlinorca, where the offence oc- curred, no ordinary Court or JIagistrate could have had jurisdiction. But the proof of this defence fail- ed, and the jury gave the plaintiff £3,000 damages. The objection, however, was taken that the action did not lie, by reason of the foreign locality of the cause of it, and the point was twice argued at great length ; but judgment was eventually pronounced anainst General Mostj'n, in accordance with the ver- dict of the jury. It should be noticed also that as General i\Iostyn, happened to be a Governor, his ap- pointment gave him the character of a Viceroy, so that lomlly andduring hisgocernment-aocivW or crim- inal action lay against him. On principles of public justice, therefore, it was necessary that a remedy should be had in England. The undue assumption or ml.tt<iken exercise of authority by officers towards non-military persons, is a clear ground (jf action against them in the Civil Courts, even though there be no malice accompanying the transaction. Captain Gambler, of the Navy, underthe orders of Admiral Boscawen, pulled down the hotises of some sutlers on the coast of Nova Scotia, wlio supplied the the seamen of the fleet with spirituous licjuors. The act was done with good intentinn on the part of the Admiral ; for the liealth of the sailors bad been af- fecfcd by fn'quenling lliese lunises. Captain Gam- bier, on "his return lo England, incaiitiously brought home in his ship one of the sutlers whose houses had been thus demolished. Thenuin would never other- wise have got to England ; l)ut on his arrival he was advised to bring an action against Captain (ianibier. He did so, and recovered £1,000 damages. Hut as the Cajjtain liad acted by ilie orders of Admiral Bos- cawen, the representatives of the Admiral defended the action, and paid the damages and costs. This was a favoraI)le, case, unaccompanied by any mali- ciuus feelini; ; but the parties cimeernecl did not at- tempt lo disturb the verdict. Admiral Sir Hugh INJUBIES. lUo INJURIES Pallisrr wiia (Iffeudant in Hiiiiiliir iirtion fordfstroy- iiitC tlHliini; hiils on tlic I-iilirinlur cdiist. After the Ti'calv "f I'liris, Uic (Jiumdiaiis, early in llie seaHnii, (•reel("(l lulls for (isliini^, anil liy sueli means olilaiiiiMl an ailvaiitai;o over I lie tisliernien who eaini' from Eni;lan(l. It was a nice iineslion upon the ri>;hts of tlie Canadians. Hul the Admiral on the jjnmnds of ])nl)lic policy, ordered the huts to l)e destroy<'d. An action was brouj;lit ai;ainst him in Kni;lan(l liy (jne of the injured ])arties, and thc^ case ended in ar- liilration. Bui on the pari of the Admiral it was never oontended that the action did not lie by reason of Ihe suhjeet-malterof oceiirren<-e heyond'tlu! seas. "I remendjer," said Lord Manslield, "early in my time being counsel in an acti<in brought by a carjjen- ter in the train of artillery against (Jovcrnor Sabine, who was (iovernor of Gibraller, and who had barely conlirmed the sentence of a Court-Marl ial. by which the plaintilT had lieen tri<'dand senteneeil to be whip- ])cd. The (iovernor was very ably defended, but no. Iiodv ever thought the action wcnild not lie; and it beiiig proved that the tradesmen who followed the train were not liable to martial law. the Court wore of that opinion, and the jury found the defendant guilty of the trespass, as having had a share in Ihe Renti-nce, and gave X'TOI) damages." The following cas<', involving Ihe same prinri|ile, occurred in India, and was there tried before the Supreme^ Court of .Mad- ras. Mr. H. Smith was agent, at Secunilerabad, of a mercantile house at Madras, from whom lie receiv- ed a very handsome salary. lie l)ecanie indebted to a soldier of II. M.'s 33d regiment for some work in- trusted to him. and a disjaite having arisen between them as to the amount, this led to a violent alterca- tion between .Mr. Smith and the Superintendent of Ihe Bazaar acting under Ihe local military regulations. Lieutenanl-colone! (Jore thereupon sent a tile of men to arrest the PlaintilT. who was accordingly seized about six o'clock in the evening, and marched from Ills house through the streets oif the cantonment to the main guard at Secunderabad, where he was kept till twelve o'clock the next day. In C(mse(|uenee of these proceedings, lie brought an action against Colo- nel Gore for false imprisonment. Seeumh-rabad was an open cantonment for a part of the subsidiary force serving in the Territories of the Nizam : the force consisting partly of British and partly nativetroops. It had barracks, and the men were hutted. It was also upon a ticld establishment, ccmstantly ready for immediate service. The Article of War then in force, was thus intituled, " Of duties in quarters, in garri- son, and in the lield ; " and it enacted, " that all sut- lers and retainers to the camp, anil all persons what- soever serving with forces in the field, though not en- listed soldiers, are to be subject to orders, aceording to rules and discipline of war." Sir Thomas Strange, C. J.: " The question was, whether the troops, 'to hji cantoned, were in the state to which the cited Arti- cles of War applied. The Court thought they were not. It nnght have been a field force, being iipon a field establishment, so as to be ready to move at the shortest notice. There might be great similarity in the arraugenients adopted for an army, whether in the field or cantoned. A respectable witness. Bri- gade-major Lyne, intimated as much. Still, so far as the Court could form a judgment upon a question of this nature, there seemed to be a dill'erence be- tween a camp and a cantonment, which appeared material When in the field, not only the army, but its appendages, must be under the imme- diate control of the Officer Commanding it, accord- ing to the rules and discipline of war. So situated, the sutler, who chose to follow the camp, identified himself in a manner with the soldier for every pur- pose almost but that of fighting The plain- tiff called upon the Court to say, whether Ihe force in question, under the command of the defendant, was at the time in the field. It seemed impossilile to say that it was, without confounding ideas ajipar- eutly very distinct The defendant appear- ed to liavc acted under a mistake of his authority, for which h<' was liable lo answer, as it had bi-en productive of serious injury lo the plaintifT." Juilg-. menl was then-fore given against Colonel (iore, with fifty jiagodas damages. In the foregoing case refer- ence was made to an a<:tioii brought by Mr. Hobert Bailie, an up-coiinlry trader in llie province of Ben- gal, against .Major fieneral Uobert Stewart, for an assault and false imprisonment. Mr. Bailie had re- sided within the canlonmenis of Cawnpore for many years, and dealt in Kuropean articles, which he prin- cipally disposed of lo Ihe mililary stationed there. In October, 17'.)7, ii|)on a conqilaint made lo him by one of thepeophr of his Zenanah, he tied up and very severely Hogged one of his ('lii>irl,-yrliirK. For this act Major-tieneral Stewart ordered Mr. Bailie to be tried by Court-Martial ; and as he acknowledged to have used no less than six switch whips in the Hogg- ing, alleging as his reason, that as they were new wliips he was afraid of breaking them and spoiling their sale, the (Jourt-Martial sentencted him to five days' imprisonment, and to make an apology to the Commanding Officer. This sentence General Stew- art, thought 111' did not approve of it, confirmed; and issued orders for Mr. Bailie to depart the camp as soon after his enlargemenl as ]iossible. The Supreme Court of Calcutta held .Mr. Bailie to be a sutler within the meaning of the .\rticlcs of War, so as to render him amenable lo military law. But in the above men- j tioned action of Smith r. Lieutenant-colonel Gore, the Chief .Justice, Sir T. Strange, declined to he gov- erned by the decision in (Jeneral Stewart's case, as the note furnished to the Court did not clearly show whether or not the army was in the field when the transaction occurred. An nnrin,vniil>le or malieiirwt exercise of power will, in like manner, render an olficer liable to an action for damages. An instance of this occurred in the year 1783. when an action was brought against General Jlurray, (iovernor of 3Iin- orca, for improperly suspending Ihe Judge of the Vice-admiralty Court of that Island. The General liiui professed himself ready lo restore the Judge on his making a jiarticular apology : and on referi'nce to the Home Authorities, the King approved of the suspension, unless the Governor's terms were com- plied with. There was no doubt as to General Mur- ray's power to suspend the Judge for proper cause; yet. on the proof of his having unreasonably and im- properly exercised the authority, and notwithstand- ing the King's approbation of his proceedings, dam- ages to the amount of £.'5.000 were awarded against idra by a jury; and. as Jlr. Baron K_\Te observed, it never occurred to any lawyer that there was any pre- tence for questioning the verdict. HfgligenceoT un- .■ikilfulne.t.<« in the exercise of an officer's duty may al- so be a cause of action for damages in respect of pri- vate injuries thus occasioned ; and in such cases the approval of an officer's conduct by the Government, or by the superior military authorities, will neither relieve him from liability lo an action, nor have any intiuencc upon the decision of the Courts of West- minster Hall. Thosetribnnals investigate such mat- ters on independent evidence, according to their own rules, and pay no regard to the previous conclusions of official functionaries, however high their rank may be. It is a rule of English law. in unison with Ihe law of nations, by which all civilized States are governed, that no officer engaged in military operations in his country's cause, by the order or with the sanction of the constituted authorities, shall incur any indi- vidual or private responsibility for acts done by vir- tue of his commission or ofticial instructions. Such transactions being of a public nature, redress or satis- faction for injuries to which they give birth, is to be sought by public means alone, from the sovereign power of the belligerent or offending state, according to the principles of international law, and the general usages of civilization, which neversuffer such matters to be litigated before ordiuarv tribunals. If, in time INJimiES TO CANNON. 106 IHNEE^ of peace, the citizens of a friendlj' Foreign State sus- tain a private injury at tlie hands of a naval or mili- tary officer serving under the orders of the British Government, but unauthorized by his commission or instructions to do the act complained of, the ordinary tribunals of England afford the same redress against him as in the case of a British subject similarly ag- grieved ; and this rule applies even in those cases where the violated rights of the foreigner are such as the law of England denies or prohiljits to its own subjects. But if the British Government have ex- pressly instructed the officer to commit the act which constitutes or gives occasion to the grievance, the matter becomes an affair of state which is not cog- nizable by the Courts of Law, and must be adjusted by diplomatic arrangement between the two Govcrn- nients concerned. In such cases also it is quite suf- ficient, if the officer's proceedings, though not orig- inally directed or authorized by the terms of his in- structions, are afterward sanctioned and adopted by the Government ; for this renders them public acts, over wliicli courts of law have no jurisdiction. INJUKIES TO CANNON.— With the exception of the bending of the trunnions of bronze cannon by long firing, the principal injuries to which cannon are subject, are internal, and arise from the separate actions of the powder and the projectile. They in- crease in extent with the caliber, whatever may be the nature of the piece, but are modified by the ma- terial of which it is made. The injuries from the powder generally occur in the rear of the projectile. They are, 1st. The enlarge- ment of that portion of the bore which contains the powder, arising from the compression of the metal. This injury is more marked when a sabot or wad is placed between the powder and the projectile, and is greatest in a vertical direction. 2d. Cavities, pro- duced by the melting awaj' of a portion of the metal by the heat of combustion of the charge. 3d. Cracks, arising from tearing asunder of the particles of the metal at the surface of the bore. At first a crack of this kind is scarcely perceptible, but it is increased by the continued firing until it extends completely through the side of the piece. It generally commen- ces at the junction of the chamber with the bore, as this portion is less supported than others. 4th. Fur- rows, produced by the erosive action of the inflamed gases. This injury is most apparent where the cur- rent of the gas is most rapid, or at the inner orifice of the vent, and on the surface of the bore, immedi- ately over the seat of the projectile. The wear of the vents of bronze cannon is obviated by inserting a cop- per vent-piece. The effect of continuous firing on the vents of iron cannon is to produce a uniform en- largement of the inner orifice, and to seriously weak- en the piece. The appearance of a vent thus enlarg- ed, is irregular and angular, with its greatest diame- ter in the direction of the axis of the bore. To obvi- ate the serious consequences that result from this in- jury Captain Dahlgren has placed in his naval guns two vents, each a short distance from, and on oppo- site sides of the vertical plane, passing through the axis of the piece. One of them is filled with melted zinc, the other is used until it becomes so much en- larged as to endanger the safety of the piece ; it is then fillecl with zinc, and the first one opened. Tlie injuries arising from the action of the projec- tile occur around the projectile, and in front of it. They are, 1st. The Incitement. This is an indenta- tion in the lower side of the bore, produced by the pressure upon the ball by the escape of the gas through the windage, before the ball has moved from its seat. The elasiicity of the metal, and tlie burr, i>r ermodlng tip, of the metal in front of the ])rojec- tile, cause it to rebound, and being carried forward by the force of the charge, to sfrike against the up- per side of the bore, a sliort distance in front of tlie trunnions. From this it is reflected agavnst tlie bot- tom, and re-reflected against the top of the bore, and so on until it leaves the piece. The first inden- 1 tation is called the lodgemrnt ; the other rnlargementa. In pieces of ordinary length, there are generally three enlargements, when this injury first makes its appearance, but their number is increased as the lodgement is deepened and the angle of incidence in- creased. Bronze pieces are considered unservice- able when the depth of the lodgement is .18 in., and the depth of an enlargement is. 16 in. The effect of this bounding motion, is to alternately raise and de- press the piece in its trunnion-beds, and to diminish the accuracy of fire, until finally, the piece becomes unfit for service. It isprincipallyfrom this injury that bronze guns become unserviceable. Mortars and howitzers are not much affected by it. The prin- cipal means used to obviate this injury, are to wrap the projectile with cloth or paper (as the cylinder- cap of the cartridge used with field-guns), and to shift the seat of the projectile. The latter maj' be done by a wad, or lengthened sabot, or by reducing the diameter and increasing the length of the car- tridge. The last of these methods is considered the most practical as well as the most effective : and it has an additional advantage of diminishing the strain on the bore, by increasing the space in which the charge expands before the ball can be moved. The French bronze siege-guns, which formerly were ren- dered unserviceable in 600 service-rounds, now en- dure, by this method, 3,500 service-rounds. 2d- Scratches, or furrows made upon the surface of the bore by rough projectiles, or by case-shot. This is not a serious injury. 3d. Cuts, made by the frag- ments of projectiles which break in the bore. 4th. Wearing airay of tlie lands of rifle-eamwn, especially at the driving edges. 5tli. Enlargement of the muz- ule, arising from the forcing outward of the metal by the striking of the projectile against the side of the bore, as it leaves the piece. By this action, the shape of the muzzle is elongated in a vertical direc- tion. 6th. Cracks on the exterior. These are formed by the compression of the metal within, generally at the chase, where the metal is thinnest. This por- tion of a bronze-gun is the first to give way by long firing, whereas, cast-iron cannon are burst in rear of the trunnion, and the fracture passes through the vent, if it be much enlarged. The principal injuries to which cast-iron cannon are liable are the wearing away of the metal of the bore above and below the projectile, and at the in- terior corners of the vent. In guns which have seen much service the enlargements thus occasioned have- been known to exceed one inch in both cases. It has been seen that the strength of cast-iron cannon is di- minished by repeated firing, and that there is a limit beyond which they should not be used. For Amer- ican cannon this limit has been fixed at one thousand service-rounds. The number of times which an iron piece has been firedmay be approximately determined by the size of the bore, and vent if it be not bushed. The first is taken with the "star gauge," andthesec- ond by an impression in wax. Slight cracks in the surfjice of the bore, particularly about the seat of the charge, indicate the approaching fracture of a cast- iron gun. The injuries to which wrought-iron can- non are most subject, are the enlargement of the bore by the extension or compression of the metal around it, and the rapid enlargement of slight cracks and cavities bv the fiame of the powder. See Cannon. INLYING PICKET.— A body of infantry or cavalry in camiiaign. detailed to march, if called upon, and hell! ready for that purpose in camp or <iuarterg INNER. — Tlie name given toa certain part ofatar- gct. A shot striking in this space (a circular ring)' on the Creedmoor target counts!). On fheregulation target, the smallest circle, always i>ainled black, is called the bull's-eye; the ring embraced between the bull's-eye and the circumference of the next larger circle is called t he ivv/iiv; I lie ring bet ween the. second and third circles is called the inner; and the space outside the larger circle is called the onte^r. In the target represented on next page, the space between INNER FLANK. 1U7 INSPECTION. tlio sorond firclr and tlic vcrlirnl lines is the inner, iuhI I lie s|i:i(i' (iiilsiilc llic viTliciil linr'M is tlic iiiitir. INNER FLANK. Tluit wliirli is iiciircr tlii' point, on wliicli a line rests, or wliifli is farllicr frniii lliir enemy. In drill, it is always tliat Hank which is nearer Ihi; [Kiiiit fnuM whiih the line is dressed. INNISKILLINERS.— Ill Ihe British service, officers and soldiers of tlie Sixth Draj^oons and the Twenty- seventh Foot ; so called from tlu'two i-et;iments hav- insj; been ori};iually raised at Inniskillen, a town of Ulster, where the iidiabilants distinijnished them- selves in favor of Kinj; William against James II. Often written EaniKkiilinern. INROAD.— The entrance of an enemy into a conn- try with purposes of hostility ; a s\idden or desultory incursion or invasion; encroacliment, notwithstand- ing elTorls to prevent it. INSCONCED. — In the military art, when any part of an army has fortified itself with a sconce, or small work, ill order to defend some pass, etc., it is said to be insconeed. Ensconce signifies in a general sense to cover as with a fort. INSPECTION. — Divisions and brigades are inspect- ed between the fifteenth and twentieth of eacli month by inspecting officers designated for the purpose. Tlie Commanders of regiments and posts make an in- spect ion of their commands on the last day of ('very month. Captains inspect their companies every Sun- day morning, and no soldier is excused from Sunday inspection e.xeept the guard, the sick, and the neces- sary attendants in the hospital. Medical oflicers hav- ing" charge of hospitals make a thorough inspection of tliem every Sunday morning. Troops are inspect- ed when mustered for payment. liesid.es these in- spections, frequent visits are made during the month by the Commanding Officer, company and medical officers, to the men's quarters, the hospital, guard- house, etc. Except when otherwise specially pro- vided for by the Secretary of War or the General of the Army, every militarj-post, station, and command in the Army is inspected at least once every year by Di- vision or Department Inspectors, under the direction of their respective Commanders. In addition to these inspections, post, station, and other permanent Com- manders, between the first and fifth days of Septem- ber in each year, make thorough inspections of their respective commands, and forward reports thereof, through the proper military channels, to the Inspec- tor General's Office, at the Headquarters of the Army, so as to reach that office not later than October 1st. These reports do not interfere or dispense with those of the inspecting officers. inspections are made under specific orders clearly defining their object, which will be exhibited to the officers whose troops or atTairs are to be examined. Commanding Officers are to see that every facility is afforded for such examination. Inspectors give or- ders only when specially authorized to do so : and then give them in the name of the officer authorizing it. They must report with strict impartiality all ir- regularities. They should refrain from informal con- versation on the subjects of investigation, and from all expression of approval or disapprobaticm. In- spectors take care that no injustice be done to organ- i'zations or individuals by reports not fully sustained by tliorough personal exainiiiation. I'l-fore leaving aeomniand, the Inspi-ctorpublii'ly informs the troops that opportunity will be given any soldier to lay be- fore him a well-groundeil complaint without any of his oflicers being present. The spheri' of inquiry of Inspectors gener- ally includes every branch of military affairs, and whr'tliir tlie military laws and regula- tions are fully complied with. In specific cases, it is defined and limited l)y Ihe onlers they receive. Generally, ri |)ort is made as to zeal and ability of C'ommanding Offlcerfl, and whethertliey possess the requisite profes- sional knowledge for Ihe proper exercise of Iheir conunand ; whetlier they preserve liar- mony and unanimity in the command, and observe the .system of instruction anil treat- ment of subordinates enjoined by Ihe ]{eiru- lations; wlnMher the officers are properly in- structed and efficient. Special reportis also to be mad(^ in case of any officer of inlem ]ierate or immoral habits, or who has proper asso- soeiates. or who is addicted to gaming, or is unfit for active service by infirmity or any other cause; whether the number of men in ranks at inspection Corresponds with the returns, and how absentees are accounted for; whether the band exceeds the au- thorized numl)er, and any nun not musicians are mustered with it ; as to Ihe discipline, military ap- pearance, and bearing of Ihe troops; their instruc- tion in all military exercises and duties; the nature and frequency of exercises and recitations in tactics; the target practice; whether they are practiced in marching with the full kit ; the slate of their batter- ies, or arms, equipments, and siccouternients of all kinds; Ihe sufficiency, uniformity, and fit of their clothing ; when the troops were last paid, and, if payment be deferred, the cause of delay. In the inspection of a post, it shoukl be reported when and by whom the post was last inspected ; whether it lie sufficiently garrisoned, and the arm.a- iiient and supplies of all kinds sufiicient in kind and quantity; the strength of the garrison and its arma- ment ; whether the Commanding Officer is familiar with the design and capacity for defense of the work, the ground in its vicinity, and Ihe principles of de- fense of fortified places ; in case of frontier and sea- coast forts, whether the Conini;uiders understand and liroperly execute the laws relating loneutrality, quar- antine, etc., and the regulations prescribing interna- tional courtesy ; as to the cleanliness, stale of repair, and sanitary condition of barracks and quarters ; as to Ihe kitchens and messes, Ihe sufficiency, variety, and preparation of food ; of the guard-house, prisons, bake-house ; of the hospital, and whether the sick are properly cared for ; of the stables, harness, means of transportation and animals, the number unservicea- ble ; in the case of Cavalry and Artillery horses, as to their grooming, shoeing, veteriniiry treatment, and general condition; as to the capacity of the officers conducting the Administrative and Staff services. the fidelity and economy of their disbursements, and whether payments and issues are made strictly in ac- cordance with law and the Kegulations. The regu- larity of issues and pavmenis; whether supplies re- ported on hand are verified ; whether the labor of Ihe supply departments is performed by troops orljy civ- ilians. If by civilians, their number, the cost", and reasons in justification of their employaiient ; as to the condition of all public property and stores, and whether any is used for private purposes; whether buildings and property are properly secured against fire, theft, exposure, and damage ; whether forage, wood, and Subsistence supplies are properly protect- ed and under sentinels ; as to the neighboring Indian tribes, their numVier, disposition, and other informa- tion useful in a military view ; as to Ihe population, resources, routes, and means of travel, etc., of the surrounding countrj-. IK8PECTI0N ABMS. lOH INSPECTION OF OBDNANCE. u INSPECTION ARMS. — A command in tlic Manual of Arms, directing that tlie piece be placed in a pre- scribed position, preparatory to its inspection. The movement is executed as follows : The recruits be- ing at order arms, bayonets fixed, the Instructor com- mands — 1. Inspection, 3. Arms. Commencing on the right, the Instructor inspects the pieces in succession. Each recruit, as the In- structor approaches him, tosses his piece quickly ■with the right hand opposite the left eye, catching it with the left hand between the rear-sight and the lower band, the thumb extended along the stock, the barrel to the right, and inclined slightly to the front, the hand at the heiglit of the chin; he then passes his right hand quickly to the lock, placing the thumb on the ham- mer, the elbow raised as high as the hand, the fingers, closed together, extending in front of loek. (Two.) The recruit press- es tl'.e thumb on the hammer, lowering the elbow at the same time, and brings the hammer to the half-cock ; then drops the right hand by the side ; the Instruct- or takes the piece with the right hand at the small of the stock(the recruit dropping the left hand by the side), inspects, and hands it back to the recruit, who receives it with the left hand in the position pre- scribed in the first motion, passes his right hand, as before, to the hammer, and the fore-finger to the trigger, which he pulls, at the same time press- ing the hammer downward to free it from the half- cock notch, thus bringing the hammer to the safety- notch; the piece is then lowered with the left hand, seized near the middle band with the right, and brought to the position of ardn: As the Instructor returns the piece, the recruit next on the left throws up his piece to the position of inspectiim, and so throughout the squad. Should the piece be inspect- ed without handling, the recruit resumes the «;■(/<»• as the Inspector passes to the next man, who immedi- atelv tosses vip liis piece. INSPECTION MARKS.— All cannon are required to be weiglied. and to be marked as follows, viz.: the number of the gun, the hiitialx of the Iiiitpecpy>-\': name, on the face of the muzzle — the numbers in a separate series, for each kind and caliber at each foundry ; the initial letters of the name of t\\e founder and the foundry, on the end of the right tnmnion; the i/ear of fabrication, on the end of the left trunnion ; the foundry number, on tlie end of the right rimbase, above the trunnion; the ireig/it of the piece in poii nds. on the base of the breech ; the letters U. S., on the upper surface of the piece, near the end of the rein- force. The natural line of sight, when the axis of the trunnions is horizontal, should be marked on the base- ring and on the swell of the muzzle, whilst the piece is in tlie trunnion-lathe. Cannon rejected on inspec- tion, are marked XC, on the face of the muzzle ; if condemned for erroneous dimensions which cannot be remedied, add XD ; if by powder-proof, XP ; if by water-proof, XW. Converted guns are marked as follows : The number of the gun J the weight if the piece inpounds ; the initials (f the Inspector'' s name, and that of Ww foundry whirethegunis convirted, and the year of the concersion on the face of the tube, in ;i circle concentric with the bore, in letters and figures at least one inch long, Tlie initials of the foundn/ irhire the tubeismrule, and the nuiiiliirof tlie tube, in small type, on the face of the tube, under the initials of the" In- spector. The results of all final measurements and examinations arc noted on the inspection report of the gun. See I iisperlion nf Ordnance. INSPECTION OF ACCOUNTS. -The Inspections of Disbursing < >tlicers' accounts, which arc nciuirrd liy law. are ;iiade{iuarterly, or four times within the year, with a reasonalile interval between any two e.\ami- nations. Division and Department Commanders usu- ally provide for the inspection of Disbursing Officers' accounts through the Inspectors attached to their headquarters, or by detail of suitable oflicers within their commands for the purpose. The law provides, in regard to Inspection of Accounts, " that no officer so detailed shall be in any way connected with the Department or Corps making the disbursement." The Inspector makes a minute and thorough inspec- tion of the accounts of Disbursing Officers, and com- pares the result in each case with the officer's bal- ance at his place of deposit ; and each Inspector is held responsible for any defalcation or misapplication of the public money or property which may occur witliin the command to which he is assigned that an active visilance on his part niicht have detected. INSPECTION OF CONDEMNED PROPERTY.— In- spectors are the only officers authorized to inspect public property with a view to condemnation. The final disposition of condemned property, except it be worthless, can only be ordered by Commanding Gen- erals of Departments. All surveys and reports hav- ing in view the condemnation of public property, for whatever cause, should be made by Inspector Gen- erals, or Inspectors specially designated by the Com- mander of a Department or an army in the field, or by higher authority. Such surveys and reports hav- ing a different object from those of Boards of Sur- vey, are required independently of any preliminary action of a Board on the same matter. An officer commanding a Department, or an army in the field, may give orders, on the report of autho- rized Inspectors, to sell, destroy, or'make such other disposition of any condemned property as the case may require — ordnance and ordnance stores alone excepted, for which the orders of the War Depart- ment must always be taken. But if the propert}- be of very considerable value, and there should be reason to suppose that it could be advantageously applied or disposed of elsewhere than within his command, he should refer the matter to the Chief of the Staff Department to which it belongs, for the orders of the War Department. No other persons than those above designated, or the General-in-Chief, can order the final disposition of condemned property, saving only in the case of horses, which should be killed at once to pre- vent contagion, and of provisions or other storcs-which are rapidly deteriorating, when the immediate Com- mander may have to act perforce. Inventories of condemned property are made in triplicate, one to be retained by the person accountable, one to accompany his accounts, and one to be forwarded through the Department, or other superior headquarters, to the (Jhief of the Staff Department to which the property belongs. Officers inspecting public property cause the de- struction, in their presence, of all property found to be worthless, and which is %vithout any money value at the place of inspection. The action of an Inspect- or, on property of this character, is final, and his in- spect ion report on the same is a valid voiicher for the officer responsible for the property. In the discharge of the duty devolved upon Inspectors in this regula- tion, they are regarded as answerable that their ac- tion is proper and judicious according to the circum- stances of the case. Unserviceable arms and stores will be inspected and disposed of in like manner with other jiroperty. Tlieir.w^f can he ordered by the Scc- rcl:irv of War onlv. INSPECTION OF ORDNANCE.— The objects of in- sjiecting cannon are to verify their dimi'nsions, par- ticularly those which alTect the accuracy of fire, and the relation of the piece to its carriage, and to detect any defects of metal and workmanship, that would be likely to impair their strength and endurance. Smooth-bore cannon ])resented for inspect ion and ))roof are placed on skids for llic convenience of turn- ing and nidviiig Iheiii easily. Tliey are first examined carefully on tlie exterior to ascertain wlietlier there be any flaws or cracks iu the metal, wlmther they be finished as prescribed, and to judge, us well as prac- INSPECTION OF POWDEB. 101) INSPECnON OF POWDEB. tical)lc, of the (|uiility of llio metal. They must not lie coviTcd witli piiinl. lacUiT, or any other eoinjiosi- tion. If it l)e ascertained tliat an alternpt lias hi-en niadi' to eoneeal any flaws oreavilies hy phiLCiriiifj; or fillini; I hem with cemenl or any sulistanre, the i;iin is rejeeled without further e.vandnation. After this ])rc- liminary examination, the Insjiector proceeds to veri- fy the dimensions of the piece. The interior of the bore is first examined by rellectini; the sim's rays in- to it from tlie mirror, or, if the sun heohscured, liya liirhled ("indic ora lump jjlaced on the end of a rod and inserted into tlu' hore. The cylinder-),;aui;e screw- ed on the stair is then pushed i^eiitly to the bottom of the cylindrical pari of the bore and withdrawn ; it must go to the bottom or the bore is too snnill. The bore of tlie piece is then measured with the star- eautje, bcijinning at liotlom. Measurements should be made at intervals of | inch to tlie front of seat of shot, and at intervals of 1 inch from that point to the niu/zlc. In rilled nuns the measuri'iucnts are taken from land to land, and afterwards from f^roove to groove, the head of the star-gauge being fitted with the suitable "guide" to insure the proper position of the measuring points. The position of the trunnions with regard to the axis of the bore and to each other is next ascertained. To verify the position of the axis of the trunnions, set the lrunnion-S(|uare on the trun- nions, and see that the lower edges of its branches toueii them throughout their whole length; push the slide down till it touches the surface of the piece, and secure it in that position by the thumb-screw; turn the gun over, and apply the trtmnion-square to the opposite side, and if, when the |)oint of the slide touches the surface of the piece, the lower edges of the branches rest on the trunnions, the axis of the trunnions is in the same plane with the axis of the bore; if they do not touch the trunnions, their axis is above the axis of the bore by half the space be- tween; and if the edges touch the trunnions and the point of the slide does not touch the surface of the piece, their axis is below the axis of the bore. If the alignment of the trunnions be accurate, the edges of the trunnion-square will tit on them when applied to different parts of their surface; their diameter and cylindrical form and the diameter of the rimbases are verified with the trunnion-gauge. To ascertain the length of the bore, screw the guide-plate and measuriug-poiut ou the cylinder-staff and push them to the bottom of the bore; place a half-tompion in the muzzle and rest the stafi in its groove; apply a straight-edge to the face of the muzzle and read the length of tlie liore on the staff. The exterior lengths are measured by the rule or by a profile, the accuracy of which is first verified; the exterior diameters are measured with the calipers and graduated by a rule. The position of the interior orifice of tlie vent is found from the mark made on the rammer-head by the vent-gauge inserted in the vent, while the rammer- head is held against the bottom of the bore. Two impressions are taken. The position of the e.xterior orifice of the vent is also verified. The vent is exam- ined with gauges, and the vent-searcher is to a.scer- tain if there are any cavities in it. All smooth-bore bronze ordnance should be bored under size from .04 to .05 inch, and, after proof, reamed out to the exact caliber. Whitish spots show a separation of the tin from the copper, and. if extensive, should condemn the piece. A great variation from the true weight, which the dimensions do not account for, shows a defect in the alloy. In mortars, the dimensions of the chambers and the form of the breech may be ver- ified with patterns made of plate-iron. After the powder proof the hore is washed and wiped clean, and the bore and vent are again examined, and the bore reraeasnred. The results of each of the meas- nremeuts and examinations arc noted on the inspec- tion report against the ntmiber of the gun. A proper discretion must be e.xcrcised in the inspection of ord- nance ; such slight imperfections as do not injure a piece for service may be disregarded, whilst tlie in- structions should Tie strictly enforced witli regard to defi'cis which may impair its utility. The duties of the inspection of converted gnnscom- mciicit Willi the imc]itioM of the work, and themost important are perforiiicil before the gun is complet- ed. The breech-cup is verified by the steel templet before it is screwed into |)lacc. 'f he different shoul- ders and the shape and [litch of screw-threads are similarly gaugeil before the [larts are united; diame- ters of tubes are verified, and the base of the tube and recess for the muzzle-collar before the insertion. The dimensions of the casing are also proven. When the gun is presented for final inspection it is placed horizontally on the skids, and inspected as explained above for smooth-liore cannon. That the finished bore of a bronze piece may not be injured liy the proof-charge, it is bored out under size, from .04 to .Or> inch, and, after proof, reamed out to the true size. When the powder-proof is fin- ished, the bore should be cleaned and examined ; the vent should be stopped up with a greased wooden plug, the muzzle raised, -and the gun filled with water, to which pressure should be applied to force it into any cavities that exist; or the water should he allowed to remain in the bore twenty-four hours. The bore must then be sponged dry and clean, and viewed with a mirror or candle, to discover if any water oozes from cracks or cavities, and also, if any enlargement has taken place. The (piantity that runs out of a crack or honey-comb will indicate the extent of the defect ; and if it exceed a few drops, the piece should be rejected, although the measured depth of the cav- ity may not exceed the allowance. After the bore has been reamed out to its proper size, its dimensions are again verified, and an examination of the bore and vent is made, to detect any defects which may have been caused or developed hv the proof. \Vhitish spots show a separation of the tin from the copper, and. if extensive, .should condemn the piece. A great variation from the true weight which the dimensions do not account for, .shows a defect in the alloy. Bronze cannon should be rejected for the "follow- ing sized cavities or honey-combs : Exterlitr. Any hole or cavity 0.2.5 in. deep in front of the trunnions, andO.3 in. deep ator behind the trunnions. InUrii/r. From the muzzle to the reinforce, any cavity 0.1.5 in. deep. Any cavity from the reinforce to bottom of the bore. In all other respects, the inspection of cast-iron and bronze cannon are alike. See Calipers, CMcabel-hhck, Chnmbir-gavge, Cylinder-gmige, Dhk, Impression-taker, Measuring-staff, Mirror, Profile, boards. Proof of Ordnance, Rammer-head, Searcher, Star-gauge, Template, Trunnion-gauge, Trunnion, rule. Trunnion-square, Vent-gauges, Vent-guide, and Vent-searcher. INSPECTION OF POWDER.— The Inspector of gun- powder should satisfy himself before its reception as to the purity of the" ingredients employed by the manufacturer, and that their proper preparation and careful manipulation through all the various stages of manufacture have been rigidly observed. Before pow- der for the military service is received from the man- ufacturer, it is inspected and proved. For this pur- pose at least 60 barrels are thoroughly mixed togeth- er. One barrel of this is proved. Musket powder should be fired three rounds with service charges. Jlortar and cannon powder should be fired three rounds with heaviest charges in a field and siege-gun respectively. Mammoth, hexagonal, cubicah pris- matic, or other special powders, three rounds with battering charges from guns in which these powders are to be used. The density and granulation of the powder, as well as the velocity and pressure obtained in its proof, should conform to the Ordnance Regu- lation in these respects, for the particular service or ])iecc for which the powder is required, within the allowed limits of variation. Gunpowder should be of an even-sized grain.angu- lar and irregular in form, without sharp comers, and very hard. When new. it should leave no trace of INSPECTION OF PROJECTILES. 110 INSPECTION OF PBOJECTILZS: dJst when poured on the back of the hand, and when flashed in quantities of 10 grains on copper plate it shouhl k'ave no bead or foulness. Itsliould give tlie required initial velocity to the ball, and not more than the ma.ximuni jjressure on the gun, and should absorb but little moisture from the air. The size of the grain is tested by standard sieves made of sheet brass pierced with round holes. Two sieves are used for each kind of powder, Nos. 1 and 2 for musket, 3 and 4 for mortar, 5 and 6 for cannon and 7 and 8 for mammoth powder. A compact shape of grain approaching the cube or sphere, is desirable. Elongated Hat scales are objec- tionable. The number of grains in the several weigh- ed samples should be counted. Diam. of hoIe9formiisket-po\vdcr..No. 1, 0.0.3in. ; No.2,0.06in. Diam. of holes for mortar-powder. ..No. 3, 0. 10 in. ; No. 4. 0.2.5 in. Diam. of hole6forcannon-powder..No. 5,0.85in.; No. 6, 0.50 in. Diam. of holes for mammoth-powderNo. 7, 0.75 in. ; No. 8, 0.90 in Hexagonal,) Dimensions of these powders vary with the caliber Cubical, }- of the gun in which they are ufed, and have not as Prismatic, i yet been definitely determined upon in our service. Gravimetric density is the weight of a given mea- sured quantity. It is usually expressed by tlie weight of a cubic foot in ounces. This cannot be relied upon for the true density when accuracyisdesired, as the shape of the grain may make the denser powder seem the lighter. Its only value is a fair idea of the value of air space in a given weight. The specific gravity of gunpowder varies from' 1. 0.5 to 1.8. It is import- anfthat it should be determined with accuracy. Al- cohol and water saturated with saltpeter have been used for this purpose ; but they do not furnish accu- rate results. Mercury only is to be relied upon. Hard- ness is tested by breaking tlie grains between the lin- gers ; the hardness is judged of by experience. It is very necessary that the density or specific gravity of the powder should be most accurately deterinined. For this delicate operation a very ingenious instru- ment has been devised by Colonel Jlallet, of the French Army, called a ]\Iercury Densimeter. Initial velocity is determined by any of the elec- tro-ballistic machines available ; the Boulenge chro- nograph is one of the simplest and most generally used for proof of powder. The strain upon the gun is determined by the Kodman pressure-gauge, or some suitable contrivance. The amount of mois- ture in powder is determined by drying samples in an oven with a water bottom. A vessel of tin, dou- ble-walled, except the face containing the door, is fitted at the top with an opening for the introduction of water ; the door is double ; the inner skin-lining has perforations at the top to allow the escape of moisture given up by the powder. Ledges on the Inside of the oven support the powder-trays. Before use, the water space is filled with boiling water ; a spirit lamp keeps up the heat ; the supply of water is kept up to compensate for evaporation. The pow- der is subjected to heat as long as it loses weight, the loss indicating the percentage of moisture driven off. On being removed from the oven it should be trans- ferred at once to perfectly clean, dry, and air-tight weigliing bottles. The ability to resist moisture is determined by subjecting samples which have been dried to exposure, first in open air. then in a hygro- scope containing a solution of niter at 100*^ cooled to 80" Fahr. On breaking the grains, a fine ashen-gray color throuffliout slinuld appear; the grain texture should be close, without white specks even when magnified. " Flashing" on glass or porcelain plates, small cop- per measures for fine-grain powders inverted on the plates, keeps the heap nearly the same at each trial. The powder should be in small conical lieaps; if the incorporation is good, only smoke marks remain on the i)lale after Hashing; if b;i(i, specks of undecompos- ed niter and sidpliur will form a dirty residue. The test re(|uires experirnce to insure good judgment. The relative incorporation is determined by llie bal- ance; the greater increase of weight on the plale, the less satisfactory the powder in this respect. Moist powder flashes badly. The report of inspection should show the place and date of fabrication and of proof, the kind of powder and its general qualities, as the number of grains in 100 grains, its specific gravity; whether hard or soft, round or angular, of uniform or irregular size; whether free from dust or not; the initial velocities and pressures per square inch obtain- ed in each fire; the amount of moisture absorbed; and, finally, the height of the barometer and hygrometer at the time of proof. Each barrel is marked on both heads, (in white oil-colors, the head painted black), with the number of the barrel, the name of the manu- facturer, year of fabrication, and the kind of powder, cannon, mortar, or muxket, etc., the mean initial ve- locity, the pressure per square inch on the pressure- piston, and density. Each time the powder is prov- ed, the initial velocity is marked below the former proofs, and the date of the trial opposite to it. See Analysis of Puicdir, Densimeter, Qwnpowder , anA. Hy- groscope. INSPECTION OF PROJECTILES. — The principal points to be observed in inspecting shot and shells are to see that they are of the properform and size ; that they are made of suitable metal; and that they have no defects, concealed or otherwise, which will en- danger their use, or impair the accuracy of their fire. As it is impracticable to make all projectiles of exact dimensions, certain variations are allowed in faijric- ation. They should be inspected whilst perfectly clean, and before becoming rustj', so that flaws and imperfections in the metal can be detected by the eye. Sphfrical Projectiles. — The inspecting instruments required for shot are one large and one svuill gauge and one cylindrical-gauge for each caliber. The C}'linder-gauge has the same diameter as the large gauge; it is Constructed of cast-iron and is five calibers long. The large and small gauges are made with a diflerence in diameter of 0.02 inch for projectiles turned in a lathe, and 0.04 inch for those not so turn- ed. All these gauges should be verified from time to time, and when they have become 0.01 inch larger than their true diameter they should no longer be used. One hammer having a flat face and a conical point. One swrc/KT of steel wire. One. cold-chisel. Steel punches. Figure-stai7ips. The shot should be inspected before they become rusty; after being well cleaned each shot should be carefully examined to see that its surface is smooth, that the metal is sound and free from seams, flaws, and blisters. If cavities or small holes appear on the surface, strike the point of the hammer or punch into them and ascertain their depth with the searcher; if the depth of the cavity exceeds 0.2 inch, the shot should be rejected. The discovery of any attempt on the part of those engaged in the fabrication of the shot to conceal such defects by filling up the holes should insure rejection. The shot must pass in every direction through the large gauge and not at all through the small one, and the mean of their diame- ters should be nearer that of the former gauge than of the latter. After having been thus examined, the shot are passed through the cylinder-gauge, which is placed at an inclination of about two inches between the two ends, and supported on blocks of wood in such a manner as to be easily turned from time to time to prevent its being worn into furrows. Shot which sisrfe or stick in the cylinder sliould be rejected. The avJ erage weight of shot of 10 inches and under is de- duced from that of three parcels of 20 to ."iO each, taken indiscriminately from the pile ; some of those which appear to be the smallest shouldbe also weigh- ed, and if they fall short of the prescribed weight of their caliber by more than one thirty-second |>art, they should be rejected. Shot of larger caliber than 10 inches should each one be weighed by itself and its weight stamped upon it near one of the ears for the shell-hooks. The dimensi(ms of grape an<l canister shot are ver- ified by means of a large and small gauge attached IKSPECTION OF PKOJECTILES. Hi INSPECTION OF PE0JECTILE8. to the sumo IiiiikHc. Tlic surface of tlie shot sliould be sinciiilli mill free from seams and cavities. For tlie inspection of sIk'IIs and case-sliot, tlie followinj; inspeclim; inslrumenls are recjiiircd in addition to those used in iiispeclinii shot, viz: Ciilipi'm for meas- uring Ihetldclcness of the iirojectiles at tlie side. Cal- ijiera for nieasurini; the thickness at llio bottom. Gijnf/r.i for the dimensions of the fuse-hole, and for the thicUness of metal at the fuse-hole. A pitir of ]iiiii(l.lu'll.irwK; iriHidi a pliii/H to fit (he fuse-liohr and liored Ihrouirli to receive the niu/zlcr of the liellows. The surface of the shell and its exterior dimen- .sions are examined as in the case of shot, particular atleiition being paid to the lieniisphere opposite the I other inrlitationof the soundneHsof the metal, as the parts ciintainirif; cavities will dry more slowly than the other ])arts. Tin; mian weight of shells of 10 inches and under is ascertained in the same manner as that of shot, and larger ones should be weighed and stamped the same as with shot of like caliber. All projectiles rejected in the inspection should be marked with an X made with a cold-chisel; on shot near the gale; or, whin turnr-il, near one ear, and on hollow projectiles near the fuse-hole. FAiniiidUd I'rojectUfK — The following Table will show tlie [Kiints upon which the Inspecting Officer must inform himself and report before accepting shot, and the variations he is authorized to allow: Suljject of measurement. Projectile : Leru^th of cylindrical portion of body Lengt h of 1 1 ead Length of base for sabot Total length of projectile -: Diameter of cylindrical portion Diameter of base over threads Pitch of threads Radius of head Thiickness of bottom Length of interior cavity Thickness of walls at — inches from — Tliiekness of walls at — inches from — Eccentricity of axis of interior cavity at from base Diameter of fuse (or screw-plug) hole. Pitch of thread on fuse (or screw-plug hole) Length of thread on fuse (or screw plug) hole Diameter of hole for shell-hooks Depth of hole for shell-hooks Distance from base of i)rojectile Weight of projectile, pounds Sabot : Height of sabot Exterior diameter of sabot Interior diameter of sabot Jlaxinuim thickness of outer lip Minimum tliiekness of outer lip Depth of cannelure Maximum width Weight of sabot Weight of sabot and projectile, poimds Allowed variations ±0.4 J-0. 5 -t- 15 _ . 1 ±0.3 ± .01 ± .05 . 1 ± .1 0.1 ± .01 No. rejected for errone- ous dimensions of head. ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± No. of amined. inch No. rejected for erroneous dimensions of cylindric body or base Weight of total number ac- cepted Mean weight of projectile. No. of sabots examined... No rejected for erroneous j^o. of sabots rejected for dimensions of mterior erroneous dimensions- cavity No. rejected for eccentri- city of interior cavity... No. rejected for defects in material or finish , 1 ,01 , 05 02' Total number rejected..., is No. sabots rejected for de- fects in material or finish Total number of sabots re- jected , 02 ,03 .Oil . 01 . oi! .03' .01 Total number accepted.. No. of sabots accepted — Weiglit of heaviest one ac- cepted ± .2 Weight of lightest one ac- cepted Weight of total number ac- cepted Mean weight of sabot.. Weight of total number of sliotaiid sabots accepted fuse-hole. Cavities and imperfections in casting are generally found about SC^ from the top of the shell when in the position in which it was cast. Shells should be rejected for rough casting, projecting seams, sand-Haws, a collection of dross, cavities or honey-combs of more than two-tenths of an inch in depth, whatever their diameter, or a number of small holes giving the projectiles a spongy appearance. The shell is next struck with the hammer to judge by the sound whether it be free from cracks ; the po- sition and dimensions of the ears are vcritied. The thickness of the metal is then measured at several points on the great circle perpendicular to the axis of the fuse-hole. The diameter of the fuse-hole, which should be accurately reamed, is then verified, and the soundness of the metal about the inside of the hole is ascertained by inserting the finger. The shell is now placed upon a trivet in a tub con- taining water deep enough to cover it nearly to the fuse-hole: the bellows and plug are inserted into the fuse-hole, and the air forced well into the shell. If there be any holes in the shell, the air will rise in bubbles tlirough the water. Tliis test also gives an- The following instruments are required and used as indictated : 1. One large ring-gauge, witli handle : interior di- ameter 0".03 less than the diameter of Ijore of gun. 2. One small ring-gauge, with handle ; interior diameter O'.OT less than the diameter of bore of gun. 3. One cylinder-gauge made of cast-iron and five calibers in length ; interior diameter same as large ring. 4. Calipers for measuring the thickness of the walls of the shot or shell and determining the eccentricity. j This instrument consists of two parallel arms, foriii- j ed by a continuous steel strap. One arm is terminated by a curved point, and is graduated into inches and ! quarters, from the end toward the center; the other arm carries a socket, at right angles to its length, through which slides a graduated measuring-rod. Tlie zero of the scale corresponds to the position of the rod when it is in contact with the curved point, and a vernier-scale on the socket permits measure- ments to 0".01. To use the instrument, the arm with tlie curved point is inserted into the cavity through I the screw-plug hole, and the clamp is screwed fast INSPETCION OF SMALL-ABMS. 112 INSPECTION OF SMALL ASMS. at the required point. Two sliort cj'lindrical arms on the clamp serve as bearers, and allow a motion of the instrument only on its own plane. The eccentricity of a spherical projectile is measured by the distance of the center of gravity from the center of figure, In oblong shot, however, it varies directly for each cross-secdon from the seat of the core, which is near the screw-plug hole, to the head of the cavity, and is measured by the angle made by the a.xis of the cavity with the axis of the projectile. To determine the axis of the cavity, the greatest and least thick- ness of the walls are measured at two or more depths. Half the difference between the two will give the distance between the axis of the cavity and that of the projectile for that particular section. It is ordina- rily considered sufficient, however, to determine the eccentricity of but one cross-section near the center of gravity and compare it with the known results of previous experiments. 5. The first intimation of eccentricity is shown upon the rolling-table, which consists of a heavy cast- iron plate, beveled with great care, and two parallel rails attached to it and separated from each other by a distance slightly less than the length of the cylin- drical part of the shot. When a shot is rolled upon the rails, the heaviest side must come to rest beneath, and a more or less readiness to assume a particular point of rest indicates approximately the amount of eccentricity. 6. ilensuring-rod for determining the length of cav- ity ; made of steel and graduated into tenths of an inch for a short distance on each side of the point indicating the proper length. 7. Gauge, for length of screw-plug hole ; made and graduated like the preceding. 8. Templet, for gauging the profile of the shot ; made of steel ; graduated to indicate the length of head, position of shell-hook holes, length of C3'lin- drical part, and total length. 9. Oauge for the Butler sabot. This is made of steel and in two parts ; the one screwed upon the other when not in use. The lower part gauges the sabot as regards pitch and length of thread, length and thickness of ring ; tlie upper part gauges the length and pitch of the thread upon the base of the shot. A .tmall templet gauges the depth and width of cannelure and thickness of outer lip. 10. One hammer, weigliing half-a-pound, having a flat face and conical point. 11. One searcher of steel wire No. 20, with handle ; steel punches and a eold-chisel. The shot should be inspected before it becomes rusty. It is first placed upon the rolling-table and examined with the eye for defects in material, which in shot cast with the head down, are apt to occur as cavities in and about the base. These, when dis- covered, are probed with the "searcher" or steel punch ; if more than 0".3 deep, or of such character as to suggest weak, imperfect metal, the shot is con- demned. The head of the shot is struck with the hammer at its junction with the cylindrical part, for the purpose of detecting cracks liable to be produced there in cooling chilled shot. A dull sound indicates the existence of such a defect, which is further test- ed by hammering with a sledge. It is then rolled, and, should the amount of eccentricity be considered doubtful as regards that allowed, is measured with the calipers. The length of cavity and of screw-plug hole are then verified, and the templet applied to the profile. Kolling it from the table, it is stood on end and the gauge screwed to the base. The sabot is then screwed to its gauge, the dimensions of the cannelure verified with "the small templet, and the character of the metal examined. The sabot and screw-plug are then fitted to the shot, and it is again stood on its head and the ring-gauges are applied to it. The smaller should not pass over the shot at all ; the larger shouhl pass over its entire length. It is then passed through the cylinder-jauge," which is fastened, slightly inclined, to a block of wood ; the weight is finally determined and stamped at once upon the body of the shot near the sabot. Shot and shell rejected during inspection are marked with an X made with a cold-chisel. With each lot of shot, and from the same metal. is cast a cylindrical colunui about 2 feet high and 2^ inches in diameter in a sand mold, and the head of a projec- tile in the usual iron mold. As soon as cool and be- fore the shot have been sent to the " finishing shop" a test specimen is cut from the colunm, its specific gravity determined, then broken in the testing-ma- chine, and its fracture examined. Tlie chilled head is split under a hammer to expose the depth of chill, and the results so determined are compared with an occasional shot cut open along its axis. Should the tenacity, density, or chill be unsatisfactory the entire lot is condemned. Chilled shot are intended for the penetration of wrought-iron plates, and were the result of experi- ments to substitute for the steel projectiles first used one of cheaper material of the requisite hardness. A fracture of the head of a chilled shot presents the following appearance : The exterior laj'er is white, of crystalline structure, the crystals being dis- posed normal to the exterior surface. The central part is dark, granular, and less compact than the rest of the mass, showing the presence of considerable graphitic carbon, while the intermediate layers show less graphite and grow harder and denser as thej' ap- proach and finally blend with the exterior. Different metallurgic processes, and among them the repeated fusion of iron, qualify it for chilling. The desired result has been obtained in England by adding to a mixture of gray iron and shot scrap four per cent, of ilmenite, an ore of iron in combina- tion with titanic acid, and containing — Iron oxide (equivalent to 45.3 metallic iron) 61.4 Titanic acid .33.2 Silica 4.2 Tin oxide ! 1.2 Manganese Trace. In consequence of the chilling process, the head is so hard as to resist even a file, while the cylindri- cal body is soft mottled iron. The head" is not touched after casting in order to preserve intact the skin, which is the soundest and densest part. The chilling power of the metal-mold, which de- pends upon its heat-conducting power, varies with its thickness and somewhat with its own temperature and that of the melted metal when poured into it. The specific gravity of chUled cast-iron is greater than that of gray or mottled iron, and tliis fact is used in discovering the depth of chill of a shot by weighing the shot first in air and then in water, and comparing the results with those obtained from a standard projectile of the same weight in air. Tlie shot which weighs the less in water will be chilled to the less extent, since the discrepancy must be due to the lower density of its chilled head. See Pro- jectiles and Shell-gauge. INSPECTION OF SMALL AKMS.— All the materials used in the niimufacture of arms must be of the best quality, and they should be tested by the Inspectors according io tlie prescribed methods. The wood for gunstocks should be seasoned at least three _years and kept in a dry place two years before being worked. It must be free from "knots and sap, and no wood which is brash or light or worm-eaten, or in any degree decayed, or which is cut across the grain at the handle of the stock, or which is kiln- dried, sliould be u.sed or received. The following rules for inspection apply to all small-arms, whether made at the national armories or by contract at |)ri- vate estalilishments. The attention of theinsiiecting officers should be directed as much as possible to tlie operation of the workmen in the course of the fabrication of arms% Each component jiart is first iiisp<'cted by itself and afterward the arm in a fin- ished state. The material and the forms and dinirn- sionsof all the parts must Cdufiirm strictly In tlinsc of established patterns, the workmanship and finish INSPECTION OF SMALL ARMS. 113 INSPECTION OF SMALL AHM8. nuiHt ('([iiiil those of tli<' Mioilcl iiniiH, iiMil 111!' Hcvcnil partH must lio browiicil, IiIikmI, cusc-liiirdcmrd, or polished, as in the standard iiiodcl. The fortns and dimensions of tlie partsare verilied liy means of stan- dard fian^^es. The liarrels are inspected in earh of the following; stashes: Rolled, first stxaiirtitened. first bored, sceon(l liori'il, tliird turned, third l)ore<l. seeorid milled, j;round. proved, fourth hored. liftli liored, sec^ond polished, rilled, seeond muzzle liled, sixth milled, seventh milled, fourth lurneil. tifth lurne<i, cut. pro- tiled, liled. and hrovvni'd. In these inspections the Inspector will verify the liarrel with proper irauijcs for each staij;e. He will see that the thread for llie receiver on I he barrel is well cut and the bayonet- stud well brazed on; that the exterior and inlerior diuu'usions of the barrel are correct; that there are no interior hanuner-marks. rinc^-bores, cinder-holes. Haws, cracks, or other defects which will not dis- apjiear in tinishinR. The barrels rejected for defects that can be rem- edied will be stamped on the upper side near the breech with the nuirk of ciindenuiation, which is always the letter ('. If the ilefecl be of such a nature as not to prevent the use of the barrel for a shorter arm when cut olT. the mark will b(; made on the defective part. The liarrels will be proved in the sirotm.l staije. They will be fired twice with the followini; changes : First Charge. Powder. Grains. 280 Ball. W'ds. No. 2 Secood Charge. Size of Ball. Powder. Uraiiid. 2.W No. 2 Weiglit. Grains. mo Diame- ter. Inches The wad is formed by rollinj; up a strip of ])aper 0'".01 thick, 1" wide, and 12" lonfi. One wad is placed on the powder and the other on the ball, and the charjie is well rammed with a cop- per rod. The wad occupies, when rammed, about %" in the leni^th of the b:irrel. The barrels are closed for proof witli provint^-plufis. liavini; vents in them. During lh(^ loading the vents are closed by leather thongs. The barrels are clamped down in a semi- circular bed capable of holding about 40, with the i)ro- ving-plugs abutting against set-screws working through a rim around the bed. Tlie barrels are jire- venteil from moving forward, under pressure of the set screws, by collars screwed on the barrels at their rear ends, which abut against a rim parallel to the one mentioned. In order to prevent accidents, it is prescribed that each barrel as soon as loaded shall be carried to the proof-room and placed in the bed. "When the bed is full the leather thongs are removed. A powder-train is laid in a groove containing the vents. The train is fired from the outside of the room by means of a percussion lock and cap. Musket powder will be used for proving the bar- rels of rifles and carbines ; the powder nuist be of the best quality as regards the initial velocilv and pres- sure; it must be proved immediately before being used, unless it shall have been proved within one year and the Inspector has no reason to suppose that it has become deteriorated. The measures for the proof, charges should be of a conical form, with the mouth as small as may be convenient, in order that there may be less variation in the (pianlity of the jiowder. Before commencing the proof of barrels, the Inspec- tor will satisfy himself as to the quality an<l proof of the powder, the size of the balls and' of the wads. After each discharge he will pass the ramrod into each barrel, and those which have missed fire will be reprimed and discharge<l liefore i>roceeding to tlie i proof of another lot. " After each pr<iof-cliars;e the' Inspector will examine 'lie barrels which have burst i and note the cause i f the defect, whether in the ma- erialor workmanship. lie will examine those which i have not burst, and will condemn any which are evi- dentally defective, ile will stamp the letter 1' after each roiinii on every barnO wliicli successfully en- dures liie test. The Ir'ller is stamped on the under side of Ihebairel ind near its lireech-end. To avoid errors, the stamping is <lone in the proof-room. Af- ter the second iiolishiiiL'. the barrel receives the final slanip. viz: V. for viewed. I', for proved, and the eagle's head under them, placed on ils upper left side just ill front of the receiver, .\fler firing, the barrelg should be washed clean in hot water. The examin- aiion is then made. They should be inspected in the inlerior and on the exterior. The Inspector will reject such as are too large in llie bore, and such as have holes, cross-craeks, scales, seams, or ring-bores ; he w ill examine the brazing of the liayonct-stud and see that the barrel is not notch- ed too deeply or indenled inside. The barrels hav- ing been n'duced to their ullimatc dimcnsirms, siraighlened. and completely finished, are again care- fully inspecled lo verify the" straighlness of the bore, Ihc exierioraiiil inlerior diameters, and their weight, which should not vary more than one ounce from the slandard weighl. The slraiirhliiess of Ihc liarrel may be ascertained by holding it up to the light and re- llecling a straight edge on the dilTerent parts of the bore, by which means an ex|)eriencc<l eye readily de- tects any inaccuracy in the bore. The small or stand- ard gauge should pass fr<-ely through the whole length of the barrel, and the bore shiiuld not admit the large or limit plug. The grooves should be care- fully examined to see I hat they are formed according to the pattern, and that they are even and uuiform throughout. The lireech-screws and receivers will be examined to sec tliiit they are of the proper dimen- sions, are sound in every part, and have good threatfe. They are case-hardened. The screw must be tried in the receiver to see that it occupies all the threads in the tap of tlie receiver. .l/rnXx— Barrels condem- ned for defects detected after proof, or at any time in the course of inspection, are marked with the let- ter C, struck in deeply. The breech-blocks are stamped " U. S. Model ;" also with theyearof adop- ti<m of model, just in rear of the hinge. The num- ber of the gun is stamped on the uiiper rear portion of the receiver. The barrel, receiver, and breech- block having been assembled, they are placed in a skeleton frame. One roiin<l is fired with «0 grains charge:"?" is then stamped on the barrel, inimedi- ately below the eagle's head. The gun is then com- pletely assembled, and fired t\vv rounds with service- ammunition to see that all the jiarts are in perfect working order. It all be found satisfactory, '■?" is stamped on the under side of the stock, in rear of the guard-plate. The locks having been put together the Inspector observes; 1st. That they are clean in the inside; 2d. That the sear works freely when the sear-screw is driven as far as it will go, and that the nose is suffi- ciently strong and falls' properly into the notches of the tumbler; 3d. That the bridle has no cracks or flaws about the holes for the tumbler-pivot and screws; 4th. That the springs are well bent and of good pro- portion, that the fixed branches fit close to the lock- jilate. and that the movable branches swin^ clear of it without having too much play ; .lib. That the slits of the screw-heads are not defective ; 6th. That the arbor and pivot of the tumbler fit accurately in their holes; Tth. That the hook of the tumbler does not f;ill below the edge of the lock-plate \vlien the cock is drawn: 8th. That the notches of tlie tumbler are sound and smooth, and that the tumbler fits and turns well; Olh. Tliat the main-spring swivel is sound by snapping the hammer several times on the bare cone ; 10th. That the hammer fits well on the square of the tumbler, and that it does not rest on the loek-plate when screwed up tight, and that it has the proper set in ri'lation to the firing-pin: llth. That all the parts work well together. The lock is adjusted so that wlien cocked a scale attached midway of the finger-piece INSPECTION OF SMALL-ARUS. 114 INSPECTION OF SMALL AEMS. of trigger will pull o£E at from five to seven pounds. When mounted in stock the pnll on the trigger should be not less than six nor more than eight poimds. The place of fabrication is stamped on the lock-plate, with the letters " U. S." overit. Aneagle is stamped just in rear of the former stamps. The initials of the Master Armorer or jjrincipal Inspector are stamped on the stock opposite the rear end of tlie lock with italic letters. The soundness and freedom of the ramrod from flaws and cross-cracks are ascertained bj- the sound it gives when suspended by one end and gently struck with a piece of metal, and b}' bending over a curved piece of oak plank, 31i inches long and 5 inches high at its middle point, one end of the rod being held by a staple. The rod should be turned at the same time so as to present the different portions of the surface successively to inspection. The diameter and length of rod are verified by proper gauges. The tiffing of the groove is ascertained by drawing and returning the rod smartly several times to see that it hf)lds well and does not stick too tight : the ramrod must bear on the rod-stop, and in that position its head should not project beyond the end of the barrel ; it should fill the groove well ; the open part of the groove should be in the center of the stock, the covered part in the middle of the thickness of the stock, between the outside and the bottom of the barrel-groove, and the rod should not interfere with the front side-screw. The form and dimensions of the bayonet are veri- fied with the proper gauges. The temper is tried by springing the bayonet attached to a barrel, the point resting on the floor. The bayonet is also tested in the following manner : A curved piece of oak plank. 16| inches long, 3 inches high at each end, and four inches at the middle is securely attached to the work- bench. A staple is fastened at one end of the curve, and a metal bridge i inch high at the other. The point of the bayonet-blade is placed in the staple, and the bayonet, fixed on a Ijarrel, is bent, face and hack alternately, over the plank. In this situation the blade is also examined for Haws and cniss-cracks. It should not remain bent after this trial. The Inspect- or then seizes the blade near the point, and strikes the elbow on the workbench to ascertain that the wel- ding is sound. If the proof shows no defects, he veri- fies the dimensions and bore of the socket and the accuracy of the channels. He examines the dimen- sions of the clasp to see that it fits well to the shoulder: that it turns evenly without liinding in any part; that the stop is well placed and firmly set ; that the clasp- screw and its thread in the stud of the clasp are well «ut ; that the elbow has the proper form and dimen- sions. Bayonets are marked on the face of the blade, near the neck. Those rejected for detects that can- not be remedied are marked with the stamp of con- demnation. The examination of the stock is directed — 1st, To the quality of wood ; that it has good straight grain, is well seasoned, ancj free from sap and worm-holes. The degree of seasoning is indicated by the smell of wood ; by the appearance of the lock and barrel, etc., when removed from the stock ; they will be rusted by unseasoned wood ; by rolling a fhin shaving be- tween the fingers it will crumble if the wood be well seasoned, otherwise it will be tough and will bend. The n\edium weight of a well-seasoned ride-stock is 1 poimd 14 ounces ; of a carbine-stocU, 1 poimd 11 ounces. Stocks made of good walnut will not weigh more than thre(Miuncesless than these weights. 2d. "To the workmanship; that it is free from splits, especially about flie barrel-groove and heading ; that the grooves and beds are of tli« proper forms ami di- mensions ; that file roundings for llie bands ari' smooth and accurate ; that the stock has the pro])er JhU or crook, and is of flic right length; that the holes are well drilled, and that those for the wood .screws have good threads. In examining the bed of the lock, see — 1st. That all the edges arc sharp iind smooth; 2d. That flie beds of the sear-screw and sear-spring screw are not bored down to the trigger or to the breech-screw ; 3d. That the beds of flie main-spring and main-sjiring screw do not penetrate to the barrel; 4th. That the holes for the tang of the sear are as small as possible, so that the searsliall not be wood-bound ; .?fh. That the wires fit well in tlieir holes Mnrkii — The stocks inspected are mark- ed on the left side with the stamp of approval (the initial of the Inspector's name), or of condemnation, as the case may be. The front part of the trigger at half-cock should be nearly perpendicular to the surface of the guard- plate ; the slit of the trigger should be of the exact width, so that the trigger shall have no lateral mo- tion. It is important that the guard-plate should bear firmly on the wood in every part, as otherwise by driving the tang-screw too hard the trigger might be brought too close to the sear, and the action of the lock be thus interfered with. The butt-plate should be well fitted in the center of the stock. The bands should fit smoothly at the shoulders, and closely to the stock and barrel, but not so tight as to require a great effort to remove them. The band- springs should not be too deeply set ; they should spring liack freely when pressed down; the holes for the wires should not interfere with the barrel or ramrod grooves. All the mountings should fitsmooth- ly to the stock. The stock should have fhe proper fall or crook, which is ascertained by applying the pattern, and by trying fhe piece in the position of aiming. By sighting along the barrel if will be seen whef her if is well slocked; whefher fhe ban<ls, the front and rear sights, and the bayonet, are well set. The Inspector is not restricted to the particular examinations above menlioned; he will make any other I'xamiiiations which he may deem necessary to ascertain the (juality of any ]iarl of flie arms and their conformity to the standard models ; if he dis- cover or suspect any attempts on the part of the INSPECTION OF SMALL-ARMS. 115 INSPECTION OF SMALL ARMS. workmen to cover or conceal serious defects, lie will siiliject tlie arms to the most severe senitiiiy in or- der to (leteel sueli defects. In llie iiisiM-elion of coii- triiel, iirnis tlie Inspector will jndi^'c of the (|uidily of materialM and workiniuisliip by thi' rules which (gov- ern in like cases iit the national armories without ex- acting in any case more ri?;id <'ondilions than are enforced at those establishments. The ()rdnan<'e f)fliccr cliarsied with the iiisjiection of arms, or the Master Armorer at the national armory, will <'ause at least one in twenty of each lot of arms passed by a Sub-inspector to be taken to pieces in his presence, and hi' will examine them strictly, ai-'reeably to the forei^oini; directions, before' allixini; his stamj) of a])- ])roval on the finished arms, all of which nnist be e.xanuned by him. As a {general rule, every i)art condenmed, on inspection, will be indelibly marked with the letter C. and every iirinciij.al part ajiproved will be marked with the initials of the Inspector's name. Care must be taken that the marks of ap- ])roval are not slamijcd so dee]) as to be injurious. Finished arms approved in insjiection will be nnirked on the left face of the stock with the initials of the mune of the principal Inspector and the yi'ar of iii- specticm. The drawing shows the markintc-macliine used for stamping- the letters etc., on the finished work. It is so constructed that roller dies may be used on flat surfaces,, or flat dies on work of cylin- drical form. The die is fastened to a sliding car- riace, or rack, is made to traverse the work by a hand-lever, and is brousht to bear on the work by a foot-lever, the work bcins liehl on the tabh'S by a suitable fixture. The machine has both horizontal and vertical adjustments, and i.s mounted on a col- umn of convenient height. Tlu' inspection of revolvers should include the fol- lowing: 1. Bluing — Examine the polishing and blu- ing of the cylinder, barrel, and frame, and see that all sharp edges and corners have been removed. 2. Opening — Bring the hammer to half cock, and open in usual manner. 3. Tenting in"' .ikdeton" rerolnr — Remove the cylinder from the frame and place it in a " skeleton " revolver carefull_y made for the pur- pose, and test the cylinder and ratchet to see that they will interchange. The cylinder is removed by turning the cylinder-catch-cam screw l)ack one-half turn, thus liberating the cylinder-catch. 4. Kitra-t- or — Examine the extractor and extractor-spring; see that the extractor is held to place in cavity in cylin- der: that the spline and steady-pin do not allow the extractor to project over the chambers of cylinder: and that the extractor fits the cavity in the cylinder, see that extractor-spring is properly wound and holds extractor to place. Test extractor-stem, turning tlie stem back one-eighth turn by placing pin in the hole of head. Test the screw by bringing it back finnly to place. ,5. Cylinder-caUh — Cylinder removed, revolver at half cock. Test cylinder-catch-cam screw, turning to place; see that cjdinder-catch cam brings the cyl- inder-catch to place, firmly holding the same, and that the mark on head of catch-cam screw corres- ponds with the mark on the cylinder-catch. Test cyl- inder-catch with frame and barrel-catch. Closing the revolver, holding the barrel-catch back by thumb of right hand, see that cylinder-catch passes over in- cline of frame freely, yet rides over same, having a bearing on rear surface; that tang of barrel strikes on top of the post of frame, not allowing the cylin- der-catch to rest on the frame except at incline. G. Barrel-catch. See that barrel-catch opens snfticient- ly, passes over cylinder-catch freely, and holds same lirndyto place; that it is clear of the liarrel-tang at all points except where it engages with hook on cy- lincler-cateh. Test the barrel-catch spring and bar- rel-catch screw. 7. Actionof'jnrrel luul ryli/uhr rntch- en — Open the revolver, let the hammer down, and endeavor to close the revolver; see that barrel-calih prevents by being forced back on hammer; bring re- volver to half-cock; close it: see that barrel-catch is forced back bv imder side of cvlinder-catch hook. properly engaging with same imder the influence of barri'l-catch spring. H. Ifunntiir-nuM; i/r Jiriiig-pin — IJring the hammir to full cock. Snap off. Examine nose of hammer anil see that it i)rojects sufficiently. See tliat the bearingfor the extractor-stud is correct. 9. Cylinder, etc. — Examine racliet and extractor-stud; test stud with a socket-wrench: test extractor with chandlers of cylinder with a phig-gange. 10. Lnch- iriirli- Uring liammer to full cocli. Exandne tlie hand and test hand-s|iring. Test the stop-spring. Ex- amine base-iiin. II. Ailjiinttnent — Set tlie hammer to ! half-cock; turn the cylinder-catch-cam screw back one-half turn; open cylinder-catrh; replace the cyl- ! inder and turn the catch-ciim screw back to place. Close the revolver. See that the cylinder is free and ! properly adjiisled with the cylindcr-cateh; that it re- ' volves freely on the base-pin; thiit it rotates in either direction: that the gas-ring is free from the barrel: that the hand does not rest against the ratchet; tliat the extractor-stud is properly adjusted to the recoil- [ilate, holding the cvliiiiler on end of base-pin, allow- ing no longitudiniif play, (iauge distance of cylin- ders from barrel, limits" 0".00(; and 0".(l()8. Gauge disiance of cylinder from recoil-plate, which should be 0".OIi.'). 12! J'linl and limb lorlc — AVork the joint of the barrel and frame, testing and adjusting it by the joint-pivot screw. See that the friction-collar moves freely on the joint pivot. By working the joint of the barrel and frame, test the extractor, ex- tractor-spring, lifter, friction-collar, pawl and pswl- springs. See" that extractor works freely, projects to the proper distance, and returns when released from lifter bv the pawl; tlnit extractor-spring works free- ly, is of proper strength, returns the extractor ipiick- ly and holds it firmly in its place: see that the lifter works freely on joint-pivot, engaging with pawl and is held bv same under the influence of pawl-spring until rele'ased. See that pawl works freely on pawl- pin, in frame; that the ciitcli on the front end of the pawd engages promptly with catch on the lifter, un- der the influence of the pawl-spring at the rear end of the pawl, and is released by front end of the pawl passing up the incline infrout of joint ; that the pawl- spring'is of proper strength. 13. Screic.i and pinn — Examine and test the cylinder-catch, lianimer-stnd, side-plate, guard and stock screws. Try each screw, bringing it down to its bearing, if not down ; turn back one-eighth of a turn, then liaek to place : see if the parts come together. This verifies the counter- sinking of the holes, thickness of head, and length of screw. Examine and test pawl. stop, and trigser pins. 14. Stock- — Examine material and workman- ship. 15. Pull — Weigh the pulling off, which should be 9 pounds, with limits, 8 pounds and 10 pounds. See that it cannot be pulled off w hen at half-cock. 16. Alignment <if barrel and cylinder — This may be tested by placing steel " thimbles" in the chambers, bringing to full cock and inserting a caliber-gauge at the muzzle. The lower end of this gauge has a ten- on which fits the inside of the " thimble." If the axis of the chamber does not coincide with that of the barrel, the gauge will not go down. The "thim- bles" are similar in form to the cartridge-shell 17. Action of recotver— To test: Grasp the revolver with left hand, near joint, barrel resting between thumb and forefinger, the index-finger resting on barrel, the second finger against cylinder-catch and on the cyl- inder with the third finger; thereby allowing the ne- cessary amount of friction to be applied to test the lock-work. Slowdy cocking the revolver with the right hand, test the working of the hand and ratchet, hand-sjiring, stop and stop-spring, stop and stop notch in cvlinder. See that stop leaves stop notch in cylinder before the hand takes hold of ratchet: that sear enters the half and full cock-notches of hammer promptly, and does not "creep" when released by pressure on trigger : that hammer works freely in frame ; that the mainspring has proper action on ham- mer and is correctiv adjusted by the strain-screw. Kest butt of revolver firmly, cock rapidly, and see if INSPECTION OF TRANSPORTS. no INSPECTION OF TROOPS. the stop notch in cylinder is thrown past the stop bolt; try each notch. 18. See that the arms are prop- erly stamped ami numbered, and that they have sus- tained uo damaiie durint; assembling and inspection. See Fa'in'iyilhiii i>f Firt-nriiis, and Small-aniis. INSPECTION OF TRANSPORTS.— In inspecting wa- ter transportation for troops, the Inspector must be governed by circumstances and necessities. Military emergency is not unfrequently a controlling consid- eration, but should never cause undue risk to life. In an ordinary condition of things, and especially in voyages of any length. Inspectors are to see that the vessels provided are such as promise reasonable com- fort to passengers. If there be anything to indicate necessity for a critical inspection, the services of an expert are to be employed. The Inspector should examine the contract and see that its stipulations are complied with, and ascertain how the vessel is rated at the underwriters : the age of the hull and machinery, and their existing condi- tions, so far as he can judge. He should inquire when the vessel was last in dock, the condition of the boil- ers, and when last put in. He should examine whether the outfit of tackle, spare spars, etc., is suf- ficient : whether there is an ample provision of boats, life-buoys, and deck-room enough for quarters for officers and enlisted men, and if the limit of the Act of Congress detining the relation of tonnage to pas- sengers is not exceeded. He should see that the ves- sel's crew is large enough for her proper working, and inquire into the competency of the officers ; that there are the proper instruments of navigation, com- passes, etc.; report if the chronometers have been rated, and if there is a supply of charts. The water tanks and butts are to be looked at to see if there is water for passengers and crew. He should specially inspect the cooking arrangements, see that the ves- sel is clean, and that the portion occupied by troops is dry and v.'ell ventilated. In order that the paddles may be secure from the action of the waves, in a side-wheel sea-going steam- er, the projection on the sides under the guards, called the sponsons, should be covered up to make that portion as solid as any other part of the ship ; the keel, stern-apron or inner stern, futtocks, floor- timbers, dead-wood, stern-post, transom, inner post, frame and filling timbers abreast of the engine, the wales, the rudder and rudder fastenings, should be increased in strength twenty-five per cent, over those of river steamers. The weiglit of machinery should be below the water-line. The vessel should be high between decks and well ventilated by hatches, wind- sails, and side-lights. There ought to be water-closet and temporary bath arrangements. Provision for sufficient masts and sails in the event of accident to the motive power, should be made, and there ought not to be less tlian a fore and aft sail to each mast set upon a gaff, and a trysail to each mast to be set in a storm. .Sec Tnnixp"rt«, INSPECTION OF TROOPS.— A close examination of troops is generiiUy made each Sunday morning and previous to muster. In the United States Army, a bat- talion is mspected as follows; Dismaunted Troops. The battalion being in line, bayonets fixed, the Colo- nel causes it to break into column of companies, right in front, and commands : Hear open oreler.2. March. At the first command, the right and left guides of each company step three yards to the rear to mark the alignment for the rear rank. Each Captain has- tens to the right, verifies the position of the guides, and tlien jjlaces Irmself facing the left, tliree j-ards in front of tlie right file. The Adjutant places him- self on the left of the color-guard, and commands: 1. Fcr'rnrd, 2. (Juide left. At the command tnare/i, the ranks are opened in each company :the .\djutant conducts the color-guard to the head of thecolmnn. posts it twelve yards in front of the center of the lead- ing c imjiany, and then brink's it to rear open order. The r)rum-major conducts tlie liand. passing liv the right flank of the battalion, to the rear of the column. and posts it, facing to the front, twelve yards in rear of the rear company. The Colonel next commands : 1. Field and utoff to the front, 3. Maech. The com- missioned officers, thus designated, form in the order of rank from right to left, fieldofficers on the right, on a line equal to the front of the column, six yards in front of the colors, the non-commissioned" staff form in a similar manner, three yards in rear of the field-officers. The Colonel, seeing the movement exe- cuted, takes post on the right of the Lieutenant-colo- nel, and awaits the approach of the inspecting officer. Such field and staff officers as may be superior in rank to tlie Inspector do not take post in front of the column, but accompany the inspecting officer. After inspecting the field and staff, the Colonel commands: i.Ordir, 2. Akms, and the Inspector, accompanied by these officers, passes down the open column, looking at every rank, front and rear. The field and staff return their swords as soon as inspected. The Colo- nel now commands: 1 . In place. 2. Rest. When the Inspector, commencing at the head of the column, proceeds to make a minute inspection of the non- cimimissioned staff,color-guard, and theseveral com- panies in succession. The Adjutant gives the neces- sary commands for the inspection of the color-guard. The non-commissioned staff and color-guard may be dismissed as soon as inspected. As the Inspector successively approaches the companies, the Captains command: 1. Vompany, 2. Attention, 3. Inspection, 4. Arms. The Captain, as soon as inspected, returns his sword, and accompanies the inspecting officer ; Lieutenants, when the Inspector begins the inspeo- tion of the front rank, face about and stand in place rest ; the arms, accoutermcnts, and dress of eacli sol- dier having been minutely inspected, the Captain commands: 1. Open, 2. Boxes: when the ammuni- tion and boxes areexamined. The Captain then closes ranks, stacks arms, opens ranks, and commands : 1. Front rank, 2. About, 3. Face, 4. Unsling, 5. Knap- sacks, 6. Ope?i, 7. Knapsacks. The men of the front rank having faced about take a short step forward so as to be free from the stacks. At the command unsling.each man unfastens his knapsack. and, stand- ing erect, holds it by the straps in front of the knees, flap from him ; at the command knapsacks, he places the knapsack on the ground, flap upward, the great- coat si.x inches from the feet, and then stands at at- tention; at the seventh command, he opens the knap- sack, turning the flap toward the feet, the flap rest- ing on the great-coat ; he then stands at attention. The Inspector having inspected the knapsacks, the Captain commands : 1. liepaek, 2. Knapsacks. At the command knapsacks, each soldier repacks and buckles up his knapsack, leaving it in the same posi- tion as before opening it, and then stands at atten- tion. The Captain then cimimands : 1. Sling, 2. Knapsacks. At the command sling, each man grasps the unbuckled strap of the knapsack with tlie right hand, the buckled strap witli the left hand, the right hand uppermost, and stands erect, the flap of the knapsack from him ; at the second command, he re- places the knapsack on his back. The Captain then commands; 1. Front rank, 2. About, 8. Face. The men of the fnmt rank having faced about, step for- ward to the line of stacks ; the Captain then closes the ranks, takes arms, and on intimation from the Inspector, marches the company to its quarters and dismisses it. In a long column, some of the rear- most companies after the iiispectiim of dress anil general appearance, may be permitted to stack arms and break ranks until just before the Insi)ector ap- proaches them, when they take arms, and resume their position. Tlie band plays during tlie inspec- tion of tlie companies, and is brought to rear open order by the Drum-major on the ajiproach of the In- spector. E:ich man as the Inspector approaches him raises his instrument in front <if the b.Mly, reverses it so as to show both sides, and then returns it to its former positiim. In column of several comiianies, the inspection of dress and general appearance may IN8PECII0K OF THOOPS, 117 INSPECTION OF TROOPS. be (lispcnsi'il with, tliphiittalion liciiis tiroiii;lit to an order, iirid in pliuc rest, as soon us the licld and slull have been irisprcliil. A( inspeclion of (|iiart('rs, tin- IiispiTlor is accoiiipanii-d l]y all the oflleers, or by such of tlieiii as he may designate ; the men. witli j.dov<'s and aeeoulerments, stand covered in froni of their respective hunks ; in camp they stand in front of their tents ; the senior non-commissioned otllcer iiiion the approach of the Inspector, commands : 1, Vompany (or Hqitwl), 2. Attention. Moiintcil Trodpn. — 'rh(^ battalion beinR in line, tlie Major causes it to break into column of compan- ies, rii;ht in front, anil (commands : 1. Jl((ir npiinir- der, 2. Mauch. At the lirst conunand, the Adjutant places himself on tlu- li'ft of the f;nard of the stand- ard, if the standard be with the battalion, and com- mands: 1. Firrinird. 2. Gaide left. At the com- mand march, the ranks are opened in each company; tJK' .\djutant conducts the s^uard of the standard to the head of the column, and [josts it si.\ yards in front of the otlicers of the leadini; company, ojiiiosite the center of the eom])any. The banil. if tliere lie one, passes by the rijrht tlank of the battalion, to the rear of the column, and takes post, facing to the front, twelve yards in rear of the rear company. The trumpeters of the battalion, if consolidated with the band, return to their respective companies; the Ma- jor's trumpeter places himself on the riijht of the trumpeters of the leading com])any. The jAIajor ne.xts conimanils : 1. Field and nt'ijf t<i thf frnnt, 2. March. The commissioned officers, thus designated, form in tlie order of rank from right to left, lield- olficers on the right, on a line equal to the front of the column, fifteen yards in front of the standard; the non-commissioned staiT form in a similar man- ner, six j'ards in rear of the tield-otiicers. The Ma- jor, seeing the movement executed. takes post on the right of the lield and staff, and awaits the apjiroach of the inspecting otticcr. Sucli field and sliilT otli- cers as may be superior in rank to the Inspector do not take post in front of the column, l)ut accompany the inspecting officer. After inspecting the field and stafT, the Inspector, accompanied by these officers, passes down the open column, looking at every rank, front and rear. The field and staflE return their sabers as soon as inspected. The Inspector, having re- turned to the head of the column, proceeds to make a minute inspection of the non-commissioned staff, guard of the standard, and the several companies in succession. The Adjutant gives the necessary com- mands for the inspection of the guard of the stand- ard. The non-commissioned staft and guard of the standard may be dismissed as soon as inspected. As the Inspector successively approaches the compan- ies, the Captains command: 1. Iiupectlon, 2. Abms. The Captain, as soon as inspected, returns his saber, and accompanies the inspecting officer; the Lieuten- ants, when the Inspector begins the inspection of the rank, face about and remain at ease, unless cther- wi.se instructed. After inspection of dress and general appearance, if the Inspector desires to inspect the companies dis- mounted, instead of mounted, the Major dismounts the battalion and forms rank. The horses of the offi- cers are held by trumpeters. The inspection is con- ducted in the same order as before. At the com- mand : 1. Inspection, 2. Arms, the men take the reins off the horses' necks, pass the right arm through the reins, face to the front, and undingcarbine. The arms are then inspected as prescribed in the School of the Soldier Dismounted. The inspection being completed, the Captain, on intimation from the In- spector, causes carbines to be slung, then mounts the company, and dismisses it. Inspection of a Battery. — The battery being in line, the Captain commands: 1. Prepare for inspee.tion, 2. Action, 3. Front. 4. Right, 5. Dress, 6. Front. 7. Draw, 8. Saber. These commands are executed as prescribed for revieviv, the trumpeters also drawini; saber; if the inspection has been preceded by a re- view, the Captain may omit the seventh am] eighth commands, cautioning tin- trumpeters to draw saber. The inspecting otIlciT inspects the Captain, and then file chii fs of platoon, beginning on llie right; pass- ini; around the li ft of the battery, he inspects the cliief of laissons, then goes to tlie right and inspects the trumpeters and guidon ; the Inspector next goes to tlie right section of thi' right platoon and inspects the section; beginning with the chief, who executes iniqu'ction nahi-r, he passes in front of the piece, along the right of the section, and in rear of the caisson, returning by the left of the si'ctionto the front; he then go<'S to the left section of the right platoon and inspects it, as prescribed for the right section; he then inspects the other sections in like manner. As the Inspector approaches each limber, Xo. opens the lid of the chest so as to show its contents; he closes the lid as soon as the Inspector passes the lim- ber on its left. The caisson corporal opens and closes the lid of the caisson limber-chest, as ex- plained for No. li ; he also, when so directed, opens and closes the liils of the other chests. The trum- ])eters, chiefs of section, tirst-sergeant, quarternuis- ter-.sergeant. and the artificers when mounted, exe- cute inspection sahir as ttie Inspector approaciies them. The Captain, as soon as inspected, retunis saber and accompanies the Inspector. Each chief of [ilatoon accompanies the Inspector during the in- S|)ection of his platoon; he then returns to his post, faces to the rear, and remains at ease. As soon as the forge and battery-wagon, after the commands wlion. front, have taken their places in line with the limbers and caissons, the senior blacksmith opens the lid of the limber-chest of the forge, and the wheelwright opens the battery-wagon: they then resume their post.-s. If mounted, they dismount and give the reins of their horses to the wheel-driv- ers of the forge and battery-wagon, respectively, and then conform to what has been just prescribed. The forge and battery-wagon having been inspected, each is closed b3' the proper artificers, who resume their posts. If they have horses, after closing the forge and battery -wagon tlie_v mount, return to their i posts, and draw saber. The inspection of the bat- tery-wagon being completed, the Captain returns to the front and center of the battery, faces toward it. ami commands : 1. //r/c^rs, 2. Prepare to dismoi-xt, 3. DisMotrxT, 4. Inspection knapsacks and valises. At the command dismount, all the officers and mounted men dismount ; the horses of the Captain, I chiefs of platoon, and chief of caissons, are held by the trumpeters, assisted by the guidon if necessary. At the fourth command, each cannoneer takes his knapsack from the carriage, returns to his post, places his knapsack on the ground, flap upward, the great-coat six inches from the feet, opens his knap- sack, turning the flap toward the feet, the flap rest- ing on the great-coat, and then stands at attention ; each mounted man unstraps his valise from the sad- dle, and places it at his feet in the position of stand to horse, opens his valise, and then stands to horse. The Inspector.accompanied by the Captain, then in- spects the knapsacks and valises, passing through j the battery as before prescribed, each chief of pla- j toon accompanying him during inspection of his pla- toon. The Captain then commands : Repack knap- sacks AND vALLSEs. At tliis Command, the knap- sacks and valises are clo.sed and strapped in their proper places : the cannoneers then resume their posts and the drivers stand to horse. The knapsack of each cannoneer rests vertically on the foot-boards of the chest on which he mounts, so as to be under his legs, the flap from the chest: the knaps.acks are secured to the chest by means of a strap which is passed in front of the knapsacks, and is fastened to the ends of the chest. The knapsacks of the first- sergeant, quartermaster-sergeant, chiefs of section, trumpeters, guidon, and the artificers when mount- ed, are usually inspected in quarters : on the march their knapsacks, unless otherwise prescribed by the INSPECTION BEF0BT8. 118 INTELLIGENCE DEPARTMENT. Captain,are carried on the foot-boards of the limber- chests of the forge and battery-wagon, and in tlie baggage-wagons. Tlie knapsacks and valises hav- ing been inspected, the officers mount ; the Captain then commands : 1. Driven, 2. Prepake to mount 3. Mount. At the third command, all the mounted men mount. The inspection being completed, the Captain, upon some intimation from the Inspector, forms line, marches the battery to its park, and dis- misses it. The battery is frequently inspected in full marching order — the men in blouses, and equipped with haversacks and canteens ; knapsacks and valises packed : overcoats, when not worn, rolled and strap- ped to the knapsacks or saddles ; horses equipped with nose-bags and halters; caissons loaded with a day's forage. INSPECTION REPORTS.— Reports of the various kinds of inspections, for the information of the In- spector General. Inspecting officers, before trans- mitting their reports to their Commanders, indorse thereon the remedies that have been applied bj' the local Commanders for the correction of irregularities that may have been brought to their notice. All Su- perior Commanders in forwarding the reports, in- dorse them with their action, and such remarks as may be of importance for the information of the Commander of the Army. Copies of all non-confidtntial Inspection Reports are forwarded to the Inspector General, through the ascending channels of communication. Command- ing Officers only may forward copies of contidential reports. INSPECTOR GENERAL.— Inspector and Inspector General are terms in military affairs, having a some- what vague signification. Tliere are Inspectors Gen- eral of Cavalry, Infantry, Artillery, Engineers, Mi- litia, and Volunteers, whose duties are really those which their names infer — viz., the periodical inspec- tion of the several corps of their respective arms, and the pointing out of deticiences, the corps being un- der the command, however, of its own officers, and not of the Inspector General. The Inspectors Gen- eral of Musketry and Gunnery Instruction in the English Army are charged with the direct superin- tendence and ordering of such instruction through- out the army. In the Medical Department, the In- spectors General of Hospitals constitute the highest grade of surgeons, under the Director General of the whole department. Inspectors are employed in many capacities. Inspectors of Volunteers are Staff Officers charged with the administration and organ- izing of the detached corps of Volunteers in their several districts. Tlie post of Inspector General of Au.xiliary Forces has lately been abolished, and his duties transferred to the Department of the Adjutant General, in order to bring the Militia and Volunteers more immediateh- under the supervision of theCom- mander-in-('hief. INSPECTOR GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT.— In the United States, the law at pre.sent provides for one Inspector General, with the rank of Brigadier Gen- eral ; two Inspectors General, with the rank of Lieu- tenant-colonel ; and two with the rank of JIajor. Also, that the Secretary of War may. in addition, de- tail Officers of the Line, not to exceed four, to act as Inspectors General. In the British service, the In- spectors Generals are officers appointed by the Horse Guards, with the exception of the Inspector General of Fortifications, to carry out, in the most searching manner, the duties of inspection in their respective branches, and to Ijring to the notice of the Coin- niand(T-in-('liief all itoints with which lie should be iiiaile^ic(|uainlcd. They are assisted in their duties liv I ii^jMi-tiTx. whci act under tlieir inslructi(jns. INSUBORDINATION. — Disoliedience to lawful nu- thority, under the following phases .viz. : 1. Striking a Superior Officer; 2.1'sing or olfering violence against a Superior Officer; 3. Offering violence in a military prison; 4. Disobeying the command of a Superior Officer; 0. Using threatening language to a Superior. For either of the above offenses an officer or soldier is to be tried by a General Court-Martial. INSULT. -In a military sense, to attack boldly and in open day, without going through the slow opera- tions of trenches, working bj' mines and laps, or hav- ing recour.se to those usual forms of war by advanc- ing gradually towards the object in view. An ene- my is said to insult a coast when he suddenly appears upon it. and debarks troops with an immediate pur- pose to attack. INSURGENTS.— Soldiers or people generally in a state of insurrection. The term, however, admits of one exception. Hungarian \uiurgnnls (Tnxiirgenten die Vngarixchen) mean the Hungarian Jlilitia, called out or summoned by general proclamation, as under the old feudal system, INSURRECTION.— A rising of people in arms against their Government, or a portion of it, or against one or more of its laws, or against an officer or officers of the Government. It may be confined to mere armed resistance, or it may have greater ends in view. See Cim'l War and Ribi-llion. INTELLIGENCE DEPARTMENT— A branch of the Quartermaster General's Department, presided over bj' the Deputy Quartermaster General. It has for its object the collecting, sifting, and arranging of all information on subjects useful to the Government or Army in peace or war. This Department in England is comparatively of recent date. Its functionscom- prise: — Topography; Strategical and Tactical Ques- tions ; Concentrations; Collection of all data bearing on the organization of foreign armies ; Home and Colonial Defense, etc. The information to be ob- tained on the above subjects is gathered in time of peace, so that, when war breaks out, the General commanding an expedition may have put into his hands the most detailed information that maps can contain of the countrj- in which operations are to be carried on, and all such other information needful for the vigorous prosecution of the war. Formerly, whatever information the General received was througli the Quartermaster General's Department, then imperfectly organized for obtaining such intel- ligence as is now afforded, and also by reconnoise sances a daj' or two in advance of the Army. Now- a-days, the General is made acquainted with the country he has to traverse before he sets out, and is thus often enabled to map out his future movements before commencing operations. To the Intelligence Department may be attributed, to a great extent the success of the German arms during the war of 1870 — 71. Before starting on the campaign, maps of the country the Arm}' was to invade were largely distri- buted. "and also handbooks containing information on many valuable points sucli as railways, local- ities, power of districts to afford food, etc. — in short, all information tending to the successful issue of the war. The Intelligence Department of England is modelled after that on the Continent, but only for defensive purposes; It is composed of Staff Officers, whose education and intelligence fit them well for the duties they have to perform. The Department may be said to be at present merely the nucleus of what will be, it is to be hoped, a still larger one. There is ample field for an increased number of Staff Officers, and in comparison with the Continental De- partment, the establishment is small. The following extract from a lecture given at the United Service Institution, in Feliruary 187.5, by Major Bracken- bury. K. A. , D. A. Q. M. G. an officer of the Intel- ligence DeiiartmenI, will p>it the ri'ader in ])ossession of tlie inforniiilidii ti)b<' ac((uin'il. and the work to be performed by the Staff Officers of such a Department, as carried out in Prussia, Austria and France; — "1. A thorough military acquaintance with the topogra]ihy and resources of all latids belonging to the nation and its neighborhood. " 2. An intimate accpiaintance with the armies anil military institutions of foreign powers, as well as of the linnie armies and institutions. IirrSNDANCE. Hi) IMTENDANT. "3. A scheme for ninvement of Iroopn hy rftilwiiy, roail, or wilier, iiccoriliMi; In prohiililc evenhmlitics. This is l)ase(l <m a stuily of lioiiie and foreign iiieaiis of eoriiiiuiniralioii. "4. Military liislory, whicli is always a mine of iriforiiiatiori if honestly drawn up acconling to ofll- cial kiiovvledge. ".'). Seleelioiis from theabove items of kiiowle<lg(' careful! >■ drawn upaiid pii1>lislied for the information of the army. Tliis requires frequent use of tlic prinl- inj;-i)ress. "(i. In the three rountries tlieStalT isehiirged with tlie issue of the re(|uisite maps in ease of war, and. for this purpose, is in elose inlimaey with llie great map-making estaljlislunents re))resented l>y tlie Ord- nanee Survey, wliicli is a civil l)raneli. though con- ducted Ijy oltieers of the Itoyal Engineers." In timeof war, the dulicsof this department would be similar to those perfcprmed l)y that section of the Ctcueral Stall' in Conlincnlal armies, with this excep- tion, that in conscc(uencc of the paucity of ollicers enijiloyed in tliis branch of the service, it would have to be supplenicnied by s|)ccial Stall' Ollicers, in connection with the Quarteruuister (ieneral's Depart- ment. Preparatory to the eonunenccmeni of hostili- ties, all the information concerning the country in whicli the operations are to be carried on collecled and collated by the Intellgenee Dcpartmcnl in lime of peace— will be furnished to the (ieueral in com- mand, who will next have to obtain further informa- tion through this Department as tollic enemy's posi- tions, mural, etc., by means of outposts, reconnois- sances, spies, and enii.s.saries. The names of the enemy's Generals, the organization and the dress of his troops can then be learnt, as the capture of a single prisoner or jiatrol nuiy sliow. even by his imi- form. buttons, or lace, the presence of a [larticular corps. Newspapers may furnish informalinn of great value. During the I'russo-Auslrian war of lH(i(>, llie first antlientic information the Prussians received of Benedeck's march from OlmiUz to Vienna was de- rived from Brackenbury's letters. The information obtained by the means of outposts is of very great importance; and the first step taken by Ihe SlalT of Couliaenlal armies, after the declaration of war, is to draw a atrdoii of light cavalry; lo this force one or two ollicers of the Intelligence Department are at- tached. One sphere of action is U|) lo Ihe enemy's outposts, whose movements must be watched, and all information concerning them beoljlained through the videttes, reconnoissances, etc., without driving them in, to do which would need areconuoissance in force a measure of doubtful value, as it often leads to a general engagement. The Officer Conunanding an outpost is responsible for the amount, as well as for the correctness, of all the information he sends to the Officer Commanding; he has, therefore, to exer- cise his discretion as to what intelligence he sends in, and this should be ratlu'r too much than too little. In transmitting any knowledge he has acquired, he \ must ;ulhere as much as possible lo the words of Ihe informant; but if the information be of great value, the person from whom it has been obtained, such as a prisoner, deserter, or patrol leader, should be sent I in to headquarters. The information obtained from | prisoners, deserters, and persons from the enemy's j side, is always valuable. The first two classes do i not as a rule know much, but travelers, and parti- cularly boys, are great sources of information, as they are close observers, and are less likely lo be in- fiuenced by patriotism, and a small briljewill suffice as remuneration for the news supplied. The real rank and file of an Intelligence Depart- ] ment, before and after hostilities liave begun, are the regular paid spies. Officers commanding outposts can make use of local spies, but the main body of \ these men remain attached to the head(|uarters, for specific purposes, under an officer specially appointed | for that duty, who should possess the following I qualifications: — I 1. Thorough relicency. 2. Keen knowledgi' of human nature. 3. Distrust of all nnsup|)orii'il information. Lack of information is not Ihi- dilliirilly in wartime, for the shilling lendcncy of men's feixrs is to exag- gerate dangers; the number of spies, therefore, may , be safely reduced. Tliere are two classes of spies as shown above: — 1. [,iiml S/iien. — Tliese are men accidentally employed, and whose business may take them into the enemy's liiu's. Tliey are to be trusted I in gaining inlelligenci'; moreover, their powers of in- fornialion are naliinilly confined lo a small area, and as they are probably wi'll acquainted with that area, and their being o:i busini'ss, they are not so lial)le to suspicion. 2. I'did Hpifn. — These should alwavs l)e kept apart and in ignorance of each other. Thev should receive liberal jiay. acconling to Ihe residt of work. In India, Ihe plan formerly ado])led in pay- ing the native sjjies Wiis to |iut a bucketful of go', mohurs before Ihe man, and lo allow him to take away as many as his two hands could hold. Some military writers lay down that all llie informalicjn obtained by the Inlelligenec Deiiarlment should be published to the army, as experience has shown that, by acting thus, surprisesand panics have been guard- ed against, great fatigue saved, and that the best marclies have been made when t!ie men knew the object of t!ie imdertaking. Having collecte<l the re- ipiired information, the next point will be the trans- mission of sueli intelligence. This is performed in three ways: — 1. By the electric telegraph. 2. By visual signalling. 8. By mounted orderlies. Sometimes the three are combined. The electric tel- egraph is applicable for Icjug distances, between stationary points anil along main lines; between camps at some distance from one another, field tele- graphs may be laid down. Visual signalling is useful in broken ground, across obstacles, with ships at sea, and also for moderate distances, where the points are not stationary for any lime, such as Ihe outposts. It was found particularly useful in the Loosliai expedi- tion on the borders of As.sam. For short distances mounted orderlies can be used, between points con- stantly moving, as well as for transnussion of news in wooded countries. The following have been found good distances to transmit intelligence hy the modes indicated: — Electric telegraph, above 8 miles; Visual signalling, li to 8 miles; Orderlies, 1 to Hmile. INTEND ANCE.— 'In Continental Armies, an estab- lishment corresponding to the English branch of the Cimtrol Department. In the German army it is a small Department, and the duties are more restricted and entirely civil. Until 1866, Prussia had no combatant ofiicers attach- ed to the Intendance. It has much less independent responsibilit}-, and clashes less with the War Depart- ment, because it only refers to matters beyond gener- al control, and large funds are alwiiys placed at its disposal bj' the military authorities; ne;irly two-thirds of the army expenditure is paid by it, like the Cloth- ing Department. In France, the Intendance possess- es the direction and control of everything that con- cerns pay, provisions (wu/n/'i/f'fts de Aot/cAc,) contracts for the same. Clothing Department, etc. This De- partment is officered exclusively by officers of the army, of no lower rank than that of Captain, and whose age docs not exceei! 3.5 years; they have to pass an examination before a Board of Officers. Their functions are purely administrative, and they have no rehilive rank. INTENDANT.— INTENDANT MILITALRE.— An offi- cer in the French army charged with the organizji- tion and direction of all Ihe civil services attending a force in the field. The officers acting under his or- ders are those in charge of all the finance services, the provisions, stores, hospitals, artillery train, and trans- INTERCHANGEABLE. 120 INTEBN. port departments, besides the interpreters, guides, and sucli like temporary services. Tlie Intejidnnl- en-Chief of an arm}- is the Representative of tlie Min- ister of War ; and. sliort of supersedinc; the General's orders, can exercise, in case of need, all the functions of that high officer of state. The Intendanceis divi- ded into Intendants, ranking with General Officers, Sub-Intendants with Colonels, and Assistant-Intend- ants with Majors; besides Cadets, who receive no pay, and constitute a probationary grade. Intendant was the name given in France before the Revolution to the Overseer of a Province. Such per- manent officers were first appointed by Henry II. (l.'iSl). Under the complete system'of centralization established by Richelieu, these Intendants, as they were now called, became tlie mere organs of the Roj'al Minister, to the exclusion of all provincial action. To them belonged the proporlioning of assessments, the levj-ing of soldiers, etc. The National Assembly in 1789, established in each department an elective administration. Kapoleon virtually restored the In- tendants, but exchanged the hated name for that of PreficU. INTERCHANGEABLE.— The meaning of this word is self-evident, viz.; that which m.ay be given and taken mutuall)-. In military materiel, the term is used to express that an article which suits or tits any part of a machine, a lock of a gun, a wheel, etc.. will fit corresponding parts of a like article ; and thus all parts of iniitiriel are for the most part made inter- chanieable. INTERIOR ECONOMY— Applied to military affairs relates to the whole management of a regiment, the responsibility of which lies with the Commanding Officer, as he is the mover and director of every- thing pertaining to his command. It includes all duties in which the officers and men are interested, such in the former case, as their mess, band, funds, etc., and in the latter, to the messes of the non commissioned officers and soldiers, their amuse- ments, libraries, in fact, everything tending to the good order and welfare of the regiment. INTERIOR FLANKING ANGLE.— In fortification, the angle formed by the meeting of the line of de- fense and the curtain. INTERIOR FORM OF CANNON.— The aim in all gun ecnstnution is to obtain the maximum amount of work from a given charge and weight of piece, this within the limits of safety to the piece itself. To at- tain this, the relations between the interior dimen- sions, the charge, and the projectile, have to be in each case studied and regulated with the greatest care. The dimen.sions of a piece are also governed somewhat by the nature of its service, and circuin- stances under which it is to be tired. The interior of cannon may be divided into three distinct parts ; 1st, The vent, or channel which communicates lire to the charge ; 2d, Tlie sent of the charge, or chamber, if its diameter be different from the rest of the bore ; 3d, The cylinder, or that portion of the bore passed over by the projectile. See these parts under proper headings. INTERIOR RETRENCHMENTS.— When a breach is made in the enciente, altliough military usage and a point of honor require of the garrison to sustain at least one assault, the consequences of defeat are of too serious a character to expect such an effort, un- less a place of safety be provided, into which the garrison may retreat after defending the breach and obtain an honorable capitulation. On this account, and also to lengthen tb(; defenc'c, interinr retrench- ments are made in the liasticma. Tlu'se works may be either of a temporary or permanent character, but it is generally conceded that the latter class alone offers a serious obstacle to the enemy. The former, moreover, reqtiires that the retrenchment slioidd be thrown uj) during the siege, an undertaking of great dilliculty. both from the aimoyance of the enemy's fire and the fatiguerj staleiif (he garrison, occasioned by its ordinary duties. The works may be placed within the bastion,s, which are the parts of the en- ciente usually breached, or in rear of their gorges. Those which are placed within the bastions extend across them either between the faces or between the flanks. When placed at the gorge they connect the two adjacent curtains. They may be divided into four classes, viz. : 1st, those that rest against the faces of the bastions; 2d, those that rest against the flanks; 3d, those that rest against the two adjacent urtains; 4th, and those that comprehend several bastions. The plan of these works varies with their position, the size of the bastions, or the more or less openness of their salient angles. In small bastions with very acute salients, when the retrenchment rests upon the faces, it usually receives the form of a tcnaille or an inverted redan, the angle of the tenaille being about 1008. When the bastions are large and the salient angle quite open or obtuse, the retrenchment may receive the form of a small bastion front resting upon the faces. Kither of these forms may in like manner be used when the retrenchment rests upon the flanks of the bastion. But as this position en- ables a retrenchment of the form of an ordinary redan to have its ditches swept by the tire of the flanks of the adjacent bastions, this form is in some cases used in preference. When placed between two curtains at the gorge of a bastion the plan of the retrenchment is always a bastioned front. See In- terii>r Wi'rks (im\ Pirmanent Fortifications. INTERIOR SLOPE.— In fortification. the surface con- necting the superior slope with the banquette tread. It is well to make the interior slope vertical (and it is oftentimes made so) for the reason that defenders in that case can stand close to the parapet in delivering their fire. A vertical slope would require a strong construction of some kind, to retain the earth in posi- tion, and to resist the horizontal thrust produced by the prism of rupture. When the materials for mak- ing this construction are abundant and convenient, a vertical slope, or one nearly so, maj' be used. A steep slope requires a strong revetment, otherwise it is to be preferred. A gentler slope requires a slighter protection, but has the disadvantage of placing the soldier too far from the interior crest when he is in a standing position; and it exposes him more to pro- jectiles grazing the interior crest. The rarity of hand- to-hand conflicts on the parapet, and the use of breech-loading weapons, allow the use of gentler slopes for the interior of the work than were formerly regarded as admissible. Gentle slopes are accom- panied, however, by the disadvantage of requiring the soldier to occupy a recumbent position when fir- ing his piece. See Pield-fortification. INTERIOR WORKS.— Besides the works exterior to the enceinte, the object of which is to retard the as- sailant in his attempts to enter it by breaching. En- gineers have placed within it other works, termed interior works. They are placed on such points as are exposed to be breached by the enemy's artillery, and are intended to cut these off from that portion of ■the enceinte not so exposed. By them the garrison is enabled to make an effectual defense of the breach when the asault upon it is made. When intended for the defense of the breach alone, they are called interior retrenchments. They are of various forms, being adapted to the position they occupy and the degree of resistance to be offered, and are usually constructed with a revetted scarp and counterscarp to secure them against an ojien assault. When a con- siderable command is given to an interior work over the one in which it is placed with the view of olilain- ing a plunging fire on points which the enemy may occupy on the exterior, it receives the name of a cavalier. When an interior work is detached from the enceinte and is organized to receive the garrison and rely on its own resources after tlie main work lias f:tllen, it is termed a citadel. See InU^ior lie- trenchinents. INTERN.— A term used in a military .sense to ex- press the act of giving shelter to troops which have INTEBNAL FBESSURE OAUOE. 121 IKTEHNATIONAL LAW. taken rofui^e on iicutriil Icrrilory. On pnssin;; tlic fniiilicr IIk' men arc ilisanncii ajid mhI, id ilic ilif- liTciil (luartcrs alliilti'il to IIli'Iii. i;<Mii-rally in the in- terior of llic coiiiilry : llicy arc treated on tlie same footinij; as tlie soldiers of tlie countrv, and tlie olli- cers are allowed to keep tlieir arms, horses, anil l)ai;- gai;e, but have to ji;ive their parole that lliry will not attempt to eseape. Towards the end of tin.' war of 1870 71, IJonrhaki's Army, sorely pressed by the (termaris took icfiiu'c- in Swii/i-rland. to escape "being taken prisoners and wiTe iiilerneil there. INTERNAL PRESSURE GAUGE. Various forms of the Inlenial I'ressnre-i^an^e have been propo.sed. 'J'hat liy Doctor \V. K. Womlliridjie is fonnd satis- factory. It consists essentially of a i)istiin havini; a coniciil cavity, pressed by the i)o\vder-;;ani;<' aj;ainsl a disk of copper which enters the cavity in pro|)or- tion as It is crushed. The surface of the cavity is formed with a tine spiral thread, continnons fr )m the face of the ])iston to the ape.x of the cone —: ho tnrns of their tlircails bein^ divided into t<'nths ly lines radiatini; from the apex. These are inipresi-cd upon the copper accordins; to the extent that the metal has Ix'cn forced into the cavity, and a readinj; of the numlier of tnrns of the spiral atl'ords an indi- cation of the pressure to which tlie piston has been subjected. It may be considered to be a moditic.-i- tion of a form of Internal t<aui;e projjosed by Captain Henry .Metcalfe, Ordnance Department, the sjjiral cutter of which is convex. The cut on the disk is divided for facility of readin;^ the pressure. See Pre tsurf- Gd nqe. INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE. - The line at which dates chaniie. Iiein^ made later by one clay by those who cross ihe line from east to west, and earlier by one day by those crossiuu; it from west to east. If a person start at midday, that is, when the snn was shining perpendicularly on the meridian that passes through the place of starting, and travel westward, keeping pace with tiie sun, thus keeping the sun direct- ly over the meridian of the place at which he might be, he would make a complete journey around the globe in twenty-four hours; and return to his ])lace of starting at noon the next day. Twenty-four hours would have passed, but to the traveler the sun would have been shining perpendicularly as at noon all the time ; and the question arises, when or at what jioint did tlie traveler change from noon of one day to noon of the next? For instance, if he should start at Mondity noon and keip the sun in the zenith, be would arrive at the jilace of starting Tuesday noon— it would be noon-day to him during the whole journey of twenty-four hours — Monilay noon would change to Tuesday noon without an intervening night : where would the change occur ? It is to him apparently still Monday noon, and to obtain the correct date he must drop a day. The reason for dropijing a day can be more fulh' shown as follows :— Kemembering that the earth makes one complete revolution on its axis in twenty-four hours, anil thus the sun in its ap- parent diurnal revolution moves over 800 degrees of ! space in twenty-four hours, it thus moves over l.'J de- grees of space in one hour, from which it is evident that the difference in longitude which causes the difference in the relative time, may be estimated in time, allowing 15 degrees to an hour, or one degree to four minutes. Therefore, suppose a man starting from any given point, travel one degree west, his watch, instead of marking twelve o'clock at noon, according to the correct time at that place, would mark four minutes after twelve. Let him travel west l.T degrees, and he will find that 1 o'clock by his watch will be noon-day by the sun. Let him go on to 120 degrees, and when the sun is in the zenitli his watch will indicate eight o'clock p. m. Completing liis journey around the glolie. he will have gained. in tills manner, twenty-four hours. From tliis it will he seen that in order to obtain the correct date twen- ty-four hours must be subtracted from his time. On the other hand, if a person could travel eastward at the Hame speed with whieh the sun apparently trav- els westward l\Uf same rate of spi-eil with wliich tin; earth revolves on its a.xis;, if hi- should start on liis journey at noon-day, he would meet the sun when exactly on till' opposite side of the earth from the place of starling, and continuing :lie jouniey would again meet the huh at Ihe place of starling, thus see- ing threi^ noon-days within the twenty-four hours, I or apparently gaininga day. This we know to be im- i possible, since only tweniy-four hours of time liave I passed, while in reality tin extra period of light has iieen gained, and thus to obtain Ihe rorrect local date j a ilay must be arlded to your time. From Ihiswesee i that, for every time a ))erson travels around theearth ! in either direction, there is a difference in time of one day, and the result is the same regardless of the ! rale of speed. To avoid thi' confusion of dates which mii-.t necessarily result from this constant gain finone side and loss on the other, it has been pro- posed to determine upi)n some line at which eastern bound travelers shall add one day, and westward bound travelers shall drop a day from their reckon- ing, and thus ijrevent a disagreement in regard to the day of the week. The line at which this addi- tion or subtraction shall be made is what is meant by the date-line. " INTERNATIONAL LAW,- The body of rules, deriv- ed from custom, or treaty, by which nations, either tacitly or expressly, agree to be governed in their in- tercourse with each other. Some of the rules have existed from the beginning of history ; their nundier has gradually increased, their scope widened, and their quality improved. The Amphictyonic Council, formed in very early times and limited to Grecian tribes, required that after a battle an exchange of prisoners should be made, and a truce declared in order that the dead might he buried. They also bound themselves not to destroy any city included in the alliance, or to cut it otf from funning water in war or peace. The Romans in their early days estab- lished a College of Heralds for ileclaring war, and al- lowed only sworn soldiers to take part in it. The in- fluence of Christianity, declaring the universal broth- erhood of man as one of its fundamental truths, has been great and beneficent in the sphere of naticnal character and intercourse. Many barbarities fell at once before it, and many others have been gradually mitigated and subdued. International Law has two natural divisions — the one containing rules for the intercourse of nations during peace, and the other regulating the changes made by war. HlGHT.S AND DnTIES OF NATIONS DuEDJO PeACE. — 1. Individuals cannot be parties to International Law; but may. if strangers, claim liumcne treatment un- der the law of nature broader than that of nations. Onl)' independent, organized communities are na- tions, and have the power of making treaties with other nations. Protected or dependent States. Pro- vinces and Colfinies, the members of Confederacies, and separate Kingdoms made one by a permanent compact, must conduct all their intercourse with oth- er nations through that nation on which they are de- pendent, or of which they are a part. No particular form of government and noditTereiice of religious be- lief necessarily excludes a nation from the obligations and advantages of International Law-. Independent States have equal duties and rights, without reference to their size or other relative (lifferences, and are sov- ereign in the sense of having no political superior. The individual States of the .\mcrican Union may be said to have a certain local and relative sovereignty; but with respect to other nations the United States only constitute a Sovereign State. International Law deals only with State d'fiu-t-n. While a body, hither- to dependent or forming a part of a nation, is striv- ing to effect its independence, other nations cannot help it. without creating a state of war with the par- ent State. A State cannot evade its obligations by change of Coristiiution. Denmark and Norway, when INTEENATIONAL LAW. 122 INTEENATIONAL LAW. separating in 1814, cacli took its share of tlie ilebt of the United Kingdom ; and tlie United States assumed the debts of tlie preceding Confederation. Tlie in- dependence of a State implies, first of all. freedom in the conduct of its internal affairs. Generally there can be no legal interference with them b_y anothre State. Yet when a State, by external alliances, is in- creasing its power in a degree that endangers the wel- fare cr tranquility of its neighbors, the right of in- terfering in order to preserve the balance of power is claimed and has been exercised: as, for example, in the war of the Spanish Succession, and after the French Revolution and the fall of Napoleon. On the other hand, when circumstances do not require or warrant such an interference, there have been na- tional declarations designed to forestall and prevent it. An instance of this was furnished by what is called the Monroe Doctrine — President Monroe's de- claration made in order to prevent European inter- ference in what had been Spanish America — that "The United St:>tes would consider any attempt on the part of the allied European Powers to extend their system to any portion of our hemisphere as dan- gerous to our peace and safety." Also, when any great cruelty has been practiced by the strong against the weak the right of interference by other nations is claimed. A signal instance was furnished in 1827, during the struggle for independence by the Greeks against the Turks, when the allied fleets of Great Britain, France, and Russia destroyed the Turkish fleet. 2. A State has a sovereign right to its territories and property. Its propertj' consists of public build- ings, forts, ships, lands, mone_y, and siiiular posses- sions. All private property, also, within its limits is under its protection. Its territory includes all the surface of land or water w'thin its limits ; of har- bors, gulfs, and straits within certain headlands : and of the sea within a league from the shore. Outside of this limit the sea is free to all nations for com- merce and fishing. But while foreigners are free to catch fish in any part of the ocean contiguous to the territory of a State — as on the banks of Newfound- land — they cannot dry their nets or cure their fish on the adjoining coasts unless the privilege has been granted by treat}'. A ship owned by inhabitants of a countr}' cannot be regarded as national territory, but is simply private property under the protection of the national flag. In a foreign port it may be at- tached for debt, and its crew are accountable to the laws of the port and of the country for any miscon- duct which they may commit. Rivers between two countries, unless a contrary provision is made by treaty, are common to both, and the bunidary runs ', through the principal channel. When a river rises in one State and enters the sea in another, each por- tion, strictly speaking, is subject to the State within whose limits it is contained. The dwellers on the upper shores have no right, except by concession, to descend to the sea through the lower territory. Yet there seems to be an equitable claim to the privilege almost amounting to a right : and within the present century almost all such navigable rivers in the Chris- tian world have been opened by treaty to the use of those who live on their upper wat.TS. Among these may be mentioned the Rhine, Scheldt, Danube, La Plata and its tributaries, Amazon, and St. Lawrence. 3. Duties which foreigners coming into a country owe to its laws and government. Aliens, sojourning in a country, must sul)niit to its laws tmless releas- ed from their jurisdiction by special treaty or inter- national custom. They are secure in the enjoyment of their property, the use of the Courts, and llie trans- action of lawful l)usiness. They can dispose of their property by will to persons residing abroad, or can transmit it to their own country. They have also the i)rotection of Consuls and Ambassadors a])p<>int- ed by their own comilry. Several cla.sscs of jiersons are specially exempt, in a greater or less degree, from the jurisdiction of local laws ; as, for example, Sov- erigns traveling through a foreign country, Ambas- sadors accredited to it, the officers and men of na- tional ships in its ports, and foreign armies when pas- sing through it by permission. In England former- ly no one born a subject could lawfully expatriate himself, nor could any foreigner be naturalized ex- cept by Special Act of Parliament. But in 1884 jiro- vision was made for granting foreigners all the riglits of native-born subjects except membership of the Privy Council or of Parliament. In the United States a foreigner ma}- be legally naturalized after five years* residence, and three years after he has formally de- clared his intention to renounce his former national- ity and become a citizen. Persons who have commit- ted offense against the laws of their country often fice for refuge into another. If the offense be political only, the nations which are most free themselves generally allow the fugitives to remain; but if they have committed, or are charged with crime, they may be delivered up for trial to their own country when demanded according to the provisions of trea- ties made for the purpose. An Ambassador in very ancient times was considered a sacred person; and. as national intercourse and comity have been enlarged, there has been a proportionate increase in his rights and privileges. His person, dwelling-place, proper- ty, family, and attendants, are, in a great degree and as a rule, exempt from the criminal and civil juris- diction of the country to which he is sent. He has libert}' of worship, according to the customs of his country and to his own choice, for himself, his house- hold, and by extension of courtesy, for other persons belonging to his nation. In some countries this lib- erty has been restricted to worship in his own house. Consuls are agents who have no diplomatic charac- ter, but are sent to reside in certain districts to pro- tect the interests, chiefly commercial, of the country wliich appoints them. Their duties are imposed by their own Government, and are performed by per- mission of the foreign power. They are honored and protected by the flag of their country: but their priv- ileges are, in general, much less than those of Am- bassadors, except in Mohammedan countries, where, having often been required to perform diplomatic duties, they have acquired corresponding rights. The modern office of Consul arose in the commercial times of the Middle Ages, when companies of mer- chants, going to reside in the eastern parts of the Mediterranean, had officers, chosen at first bj' them- selves and afterward by their governments, to settle disputes that arose in conducting business affairs. Treaties are compacts between nations for the regu- lation of intercourse between both governments and people. They comprise, in a great measure the his- tory of International Law. The power to make them is determined by the Constitution of individual States. In the United States they are negotiated under the direction of the President, and are ratified bj- a two- thirds vote of the Senate. When they promise the payment of money it must be apjiropriated for the purpose by a vote of the House of Representatives. ■ II. Internation.4L Relations as ^Modified by Wab. 1. War is a contention by force of arms between two or more nations. In order to be just it must be necessarily undertaken to repel an injury or to obtain a righteous demanil. The power of deciding for what |)urpose iind when it is to be waged must be left to each nation, because there can be no other judge. A iiiition that has been wronged, or thinks it has, may take no notice of the wr(mg, or employ only peju'cful me;isures to obtain redress, or accept the offered mediation of a friendly power, or propose arbitr;ition, or use armed force. In <;eiieral, other nations have no right to interfere. Vet, in some cases, war between two nations may become to other nations a cause for war. Mediation offers a way for escaping war which m;iy be e(|u:dly lionnnible and a(lvant;igc(nis to both jiiirties. Vet it <'iiii only give advice wliich niiiy be rejected by one or lioth of the parties. Arbitration, in special cases, may be simple, INTERNATIONAL LAW. INTEENATIONAL LAW ensy, and pfTcctive. The pnrtiofl agree on the Arbi- tnilors, llic |)f>ints to l)i' consulcnMl, tlw tiiiu; unil pliuf, iiiid tlic law wliicli is to ^jovcrn the ruse; anil they liiiiil tlicmsclvcM to aliidi- l)y the decision. Tin- suf'ccHS wliicli lias, in niinirrous instanci'S within the present eentnry, been altaineil lij' arliitralion, and especially in tlie recent itiiporlant case lietween tlie I'niliMl Slates and (Jreat Mrilain arisinu' out of the war for the sniipression of thi' Sonlliern Helii'llioii, warrants the hope that wiir may ofli-n, in a sitnihir way, be avoided. After the happy settlement in the instance hist mentioned, the Hrilish Ilfiuse of Com- mons presented an address to the (^uecn, prayini; that measures mifilit be taUen "W'ilba view to furth- er irn|)rovemcnt in International i/iw and the estab- lishment of a }:;enera! and jiermanent system of inter national arbitration." 'i. War between two nations interriipts all recog- nized intercourse between the indiviilual members of each. The relations of commerce, the right given by treaty to reside in either country, and all com- nnniic-.ition by direct channels between them, come to an end. Sometimes |)ermission is granted to re- main slill in the country : and generally lime is grant- <■'] lo reUKive uilh |iniperly and elTecls. The treaty of IT'.)4 between the I'nited Stales and (ireal Britain stipulates that "Neither the debts due from individ- uals of the one natitm lo indivi<iuals of the other, nor shares nor moneys which they may have in the pub- lie funds or in the public or jirivale banks, shall ever, in any event of war or national dilTerenc<'. be se(iuestered or confiscated." According to Chancellor Kent. " As a general rule, the obligations of treaties are dissijiated by hostilities." It is said also bv an- other writer that " Great Britain, in practice, admits of no exception to the rule that all treaties, as such, arc brought to an end by a snbsecpient war between the parties." The peace of Westphalia and the treaty of Utrecht have been renewed several times when the nations concerned in them, after having been at war, were making new treaties of peace. 3. The interests of humanity demand that, during warlike operations on land, non-combatants should l)e molested as little as possible in the prosecution of their iieaeeful interests and in the enjoyment of their homes. On the sea, ships and cargoes belonging to enemies have, until recently, been accounted lawful prey ; but in the enlarged commercial relations of th'_' world much progress has been made towards e.vemjiting innocent traffic on the seas from interrup- tion during war. 4. The forces lawfully emploj-cd in war are, on land, Regular Armies, Jlilitia, and Volunteers; and, on the sea, national ships and private vessels com- missioned by national authority. Bvit as privateer- ing is necessarily attended with great evils, earnest efforts have been made to restrict or abolish it. In 185G the parties to the Declaration of Paris adopted four rules concerningmaritime warfare. one of which declares that "Privateering is and remains abol- ished." Other nations were asked to accept them on condition that they would be bound by them all; and almost all Christian States did agree to them. The I'nited States withheld their assent because, as it is their policy to maintain only a small navy, the rightto resort to privateering in case of w;ir olTers the only way by which they can cope with the large navies of other nations. They agreed, however, to adopt all the rules, provided the signers of the dec- laration woidd consent to exempt from capture all innocent traffic of enemies on the sea. In 18()1 the offer was made to two of the principal European powers, by the Secretary of State, on the part of the United States, to come under the operation of the four rules ; but as it was made for the whole Kepub- lie — the rebellious as well as the loyal States — it was declined. | 5 The rights and duties of neutral nations. In recent times the commercial intercourse among peo- ple of different nations has become so general and eonstftnt, that they are practically united almost into a confederacy so as to be entithd lo a voice in dr^- ciding wlielherwar between individual nalionsshall, in any [larlicular case, be pirmilled. Sonielinies, in view of picidiariliesin its position, a territory is madi; permanintly neutral so that armies cannot cross ilH tiouiidaries nor can it engage in war. Switzerland and pari of Savoy, since IHl."), and Belgium, since 1K:j(), have been in this condition. Sometimes several Powers uidle in an armed neutrality in order to main- tain <:ertain maritime rightsagainsf both belligerents. But such a league is liabh; to result in war. A neu- tral State must be impartial in its dealings with both belligerents; must keej) itself, its territory and sub- jects, as detaeheil as jiossible from the war; and be; e(|uallyhumane to both parties when slorm,disasleror hunger casts them on its shores or within its bounds. By the treaty of Washington, in 1871, (ireat Britain and the United States adopted three rules lo be ap- plied in settling dillicullies then existing between them, lo be observe d l)y them in the- future, and to be urged on the acceijtanee of oilier nations. These rulesare — thai "A neutral government is bound 7'''*^, to use due diligiiice lo prevent the tilting out. arm- ing or ei|uipping. within its jurisdiction, of any ves- sel which it has n asonable ground to believe is in- tended to cruise or to carry on war against a power with which it is at peace; and also to use like dili- gence to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction of any vessel intended to cruise or carry on war as above, such vessel having been specially adapted, in whole or in part, within such jurisfliclion, to war- like use; Kecmd, not lo permit or sulfer either belli- gerent to make use of its ports or waters as the base of naval operations against the other; or for the pur- pose of the renewal oraugmentation of military sup- jjlies or arms, or the recruitment of men ; t/u'rd. to exercise due diligence in its own ports and waters, and as to all persons within its jurisdiction, to prevent ;iny violation of the foregoing obligations and duties." 0. The lialiililies and rights of neutral trade. By the rules set forth in the Declaration of Paris, a "neu- tral flag covers the enemy'sgoods with the exception of contraband of war," and " neutral goods, with the exception of contrabandof war, are not liable lo cap- ture under an enemy'stlag." The term " contraband of war " is used to denote articles which directly aid warlike operations. According to a formula adopted by the United States, the list includes all kinds of guns, fire-arms, ammunition, weapons, armor, mili- tary clothing, equipments for men and cavalry horses, and all instruments, of any material, manufactured and prepared for making war by sea or land. The right of blockade in time of war is universally ad- mitted, but in general is available only for harbors, mouths of rivers, and limited districts of coast. \s a blockade begins and ends at definite times, pre- vious notification, of both its beginning and ending, must be given to traders and neutral governments. To be legal, it must be maintained bv armed force sufficient to show that it is actual, and to prevent all ordinary and open attempts to pass it. All merely formal, or. as they have been called, paper block- ades, like Xapoleou's Berlin and Milan Decrees, and the two counter British Orders in Council in 1807, are regarded by International Law as futile and void. When a vessel is captured and found guilty of at- tempting to enter or leave a blockaded port, the penalty it incurs is the confiscation of itself and its cargo. In carrying out the international rules adop- ted concerning contraliand goods, enemies' goods on enemies' ships, and lilockades, search is often neces- sary to determine the nationality of the vessel and the nature of its cargo. It must be submitted to by the vessel, but it must not be so conducted as to give unnecessary annoyance. The right of search is a war right. apjilicable to merchant vessels only in time of war, and to those suspected of piracy at any lime, inasmuch as piracy involving attack on the peaceful and unarmed, is held as warasrainst the human race. INTEKNATIONAL SALUTE. 124 IHTEENCHMENT. INTERNATIONAL SALUTE.— A salute of 21 guns to a national tlas;. This salute is the onlj' one which is returned, and this is invarialily dune as soon as possible. The time intervening must never exceed twenty-four hours. The failure to return such salute is regarded as a discourtesy or lack of friendship justifying the other party in asking explanation. In the presence of the President of the United States, however, no salute, other than the nati"iinl mlute, and that specified for him. is to be fired. It is the custom for saluting vessels-of-war, upon anchoring in presence of a fort, to hoist at tlie fore the flag of the Country in whose waters they are, and to fire the first salute. A failure to do so is a proper subject for explanation. Notice of an intention to salute tlie flag is usually given by the vessel direct to the fort : but as giving notice involves delay, vessels fre- quently salute without it. Vessels mounting less than ten guns do not fire salutes requiring the guns to be reloaded. Surveying vessels, store-ships, or transports do not salute. If there be several forts or batteries in siglit, or within six miles of each other, one of them is designated in orders to return inter- national salutes. Either of the others receiving no- tice from a saluting vessel of intention fo salute the flag, immediately notifies the one designated as the saluting fort, and informs the vessel of the fact. If a vessel salutes without giving notice, the fort desig- nated as the saluting fort returns it. United States vessels return salutes to the flag in United States waters, only where there is no fort or battery to do so. United States vessels do not salute United States forts or posts. Salutes to the flag are in no sense to be considered as personal. See Sfdutes. INTERVAL. — In drill, the lateral space between men or corps. The following are the usual intervals in line between the different brandies of the service: 1. Between files when formed in squadron, 6 inches from knee to knee. 2. Between the guns of a battery in line, full intervals, 19 .yards. 3. Between squad- rons in line, the breadth of a division, but never less than 12 yards. 4. Between cavalry regiments in line, or between cavalry and infantry in line, as for squa- drons. 5. Between battalions in line. 30 paces. G. Be- tween batteries in line, or between artillerj-and other troops, 28j j'ards. 7. Between cavalr}- regiments in contiguous columns, as for squadrons. 8. Between battalions in contiguous columns, 12 or 30 paces, as ordered. INTO GEAR.— For most pieces, the motion of the top-carriage to and from battery is regulated by a pair of truck-wheels, one on each side; which work on an eccentric axle placed underneath and a little in front of the axis of the trunnions. The wheels are thrown into gear hy means of handspikes insert- ed into sockets upon the ends of the eccentric axle; the wheels then rest upon the top of the chas.sis rails; and only the rear part of the soles of the top-car- riage rest on the chassis rails and have sliding friction. The wlieels are thrown imt of gear in the same man- ner; the entire soles then having sliding friction upon the chassis rails, thus checking recoil. In the l.'i- inch gun-carriage there are two pairs of truck-wlieels, one pair being placed in front, as just described, and the other pair near the rear end of the carriage; tlie rear wlieels only are on eccentric axles, and wlien these are out of gear the soles of the top-carriage rest fairly on the chassis rails, and the motion is on slid- ing friction. When the rear wlieels are in <jeiir the front wheels also touch the cliassis rails, and the top-carriage moves on rolling friction. To prevent the rear wheels from working out of ijenr while the gun is being run from llie b:itlery, or jumping iu gear when the piece is tired, pawls are provideil for lack- ing file rear axle. Wlientlie rcarwheels are in grar, [ motion is communicated to tlie carriage by means of a handspiki' on each end of the front axle. This | liandspike carries a doulile pawl, which works in \ ratchets or cogs on the truck-wheels. The hand- spike is arranged with a counter])oise. consisting of a heavy piece of iron placed on tlie short arm of the lever. See Out of Gear. INTRENCH. — To secure a position or body of men against the attack of an enemy, by digging a ditch or trench. An army may intrench itself either hy a con- tinued or an interrupted line; in the former case, the line may be composed of parts so connected as to leave no uncovered space between them; in the lat- ter, those parts maybe isolated from each other, and uncovered intervals left between them. INTRENCHED CAMPS.— Troops, when within strik- ing distance of the enemy, should, to avoid the con- sequences of a surprise, be encamped always in order of battle. The modern practice of armies is to in- trench, if encamped even for one night. Such in- trenchments are usually of the slightest and most hastily-constructed kind, merely sufficient to afford shelter against a night attack. The artillery in this case is only that usually accompanying troops on the march, and for it gun-pits will siiftic'c. These are made by simply throwing up the earth in front of each piece so as to foriii for it a crescent-shaped epaidinent. If rails or any similar material are con- venient, a slight revetment may be constructed to support the earth on the side towards the piece. In dry weather the earth may be dug from the inside and thrown up iu front, thus forming a depressed position or hole for the piece to stand iu. The chest of the limber will hold sufficient ammunition for im- mediate use. To protect it. the limber is turned with its po!e//v'»i the piece, and is covered with an epaul- ment similar to that for the gun; or, removing the horses, it may be backed up near to and on one side of the piece, occupying with the latter a portion of the gun-pit. The caissons, horses, and other mate- rial of the battery ma}' be placed in some sheltered position a little way to the rear. The positions oc- cupied by artillery on such a line ought to be those that would be selected for it on any well-arranged line of battle. When, in consequence of attack by the enemy, or of his threatening attitude, the Army stands upon the defensive, the slight intrenchments of a temporary camp are increased and strengthened until they become a sXxons. intrenched line (f battle. See Field-service. Ii^trenchment, Line (f C'ircuntval- lation. and Line of ('oiintei-i'nlltition. INTRENCHING-TOOL.— An implement used for in trenching. The value of a hasty intrenchmeut was well understood by the Roman legions, for they exe- cuted works of tills kind, iu the presence of an en- emj', with wonderful skill and rapidity. " It was by movingearth that they conquered the world." Na- polean said. " There are five things from which the soldier must never be separated ; his ammunition, his haversack, )iis rations for four days and an in- trendiiny-tool." Never has the utility of rapid field intrenchments been so clearly demonstrated, as in our last war. and never have they been used with greater success. The skill shown in improvising serviceal)le intrenchments was really very astonishing; frequently, for want of spades they used knives, cans, b<iwls— in one word, anytliing that came to hand. The art of utilizing cover is of great importance, and the .soldier who carries in compact form the means of erecting cover at will is inileed fortunate. Whether the soldier shall carry liis intrenching-tool, or have it carried for him ; whetlier only a portion of the troops should carry tools, or wliefher each soldier should carry his own. are questions now under discu.ssion. See Clitz Ititri ncliinfi-tool. Farrow Knife.-troirel and Tent- peg, Tr'iirel H<ii/onet, and Zatinski Intrenching-tool. INTRENCHMENT.— Ill a general sense an ii'itrench- ment is any work, consisting of not less than a jiar- apet and a ditch, which fortifies a jxist against the attack of an enemy. As a means of prolonging the <lefensc in a regular work of permanent fortification, intrenchments arc made in various i)iirfs, to which the defenders successively retire wlieii driven in from forwani works. Bastions are ordinarily intrenched INTREPIDITT. 125 INV£IIIO£T OF £FF£CT8. at the Rorttc by ii brcrtstwork nnil a rlilcli, forminij citlRT u re-C'iiti-riiii; unfile <ir a kiiuiII fnnil of f(]r(ili- cutioii. Such a work across the uorL'i- of the rcilan at Scliastopol caused tlic repulse of Ihe liritisli attack inScj)!.. IH.iri. A cavalier, with a ditch, is also an intreiicluiieut. An army in the (ielil often strength- ens its position Ijy intrenchinents, as hy a rmiV lined line of parapet and ditch, l)roken into redans and curtains, or liy a line irilh intrrralu, consisting of de- tached works of more or less pretention llunking each other, INTREPIDITY.— An uncpialificd contempt of death and inililTcrcnce to fortune, as far as regards person- al safi'lv; a fearlessness of heart, and a darinj; enter- prise of mind. Acconlini; to Kochefoucault, intre- pidity, especially with reijard to military dariii};, im- plies "_^'r«)/i,f'.s.'< of character, jireat dinfiilrnre of mind, and extraordinary strenr/f/i of soul. Buoyed up and supported by these (pialilies (which are sometinu'S natural and sometimes ac(piired), men beconu^ super- ior to every emotion of alarm, and are insensible to those pcrlurliations of tlie heart which the prospect of iinmiiienl danger almost alwaj's en{;en<lers. INUNDATIONS.— This obstacle is formed by dam- minu; back a shallow water-course, so as to make it overflow its valley. To be effective, an inundation should be six feet deep. When this depth cdunot be procured, trous-de-loup, or else short ditches, placed in a (|uincun.x order, are dui;, and the whole is cov- ered with a sheet of water, which, at the ditches, nuist be at least six feet in depth. The <liiiim used to form an inundation arc made of good l)inding earth, or of crib-work of logs tilled in with stone, gravel, and earth, or of successive layers of fascines and gravel. If the dams are to stand for some lime tliey maybe faced on the upper side with boards. They cannot, in general, be raised higherthanleii feet: they need not be thicker than tive feet at toji, unless they are exposed to a tire of artillery, in which case they should be regulated in the same way as a parajx't. The slope of the dam down-stream should be the natural slope of the earth; but up-stream the slope sliould Iiave a base twice that of the natural slope. Stuicexare made in the dams, in a similar manner to the sluices of a mill-dam, for the purpose of regulating the level of the water in the pool above, in case of lieavy rains, Wante-ireirx are also serviceable for the same purpose, but unless carefully nuide they may »'ndanger the safety of the dam. The distance of the dams apart will depend on the slope of tlie stream. The level of each pool should be at least eighteen inches below the top of the dam, and thi; depth of water below each dam should be at least six feet. These data will suffice to determine the center line, or oris, of each dam. Artificial inundations seldom admit of being turn- ed to an effective use, owing to the ditliculties in forming them, and tlie ease with which they can be drained by the enemy. But when it is practicable to procure only a shallow sheet of water, it should not be neglected, as it will cause some apjirehension to the enemy. In some cases, by damming back a brook, the water may be raised to a level sutlicient to be conducted into the ditches of the work, and ren- der some parts unassailable. The ditches in such cases should be made very wide, and to hold about a depth of six feet. During freezing weather the ice should be liroken in the middle of tlie ditch, and a cliannel of twelve feet at least be kept open, if prac- ticable. The ice taken out should be piled uji irreg- ularly on each side of the channel; and. as a f;irther precaution against a surprise. water should be thrown on tlie parapet to freeze. In a system of inundations the dams should, as far as practicable, be built at points the least exposed to the tire of the assailed. The head of each dam on the side of the enemy should be secured from surprise by a redan, stocc-ade, or other defense, and the dam itself and its approach- es should be swept by musketry and artillery. Inundations must be made with great care and forethntight. The nature of the soil aid the time necessary to elTcct Ihe re(piir<cl inundation must be particularly noticed. When the supply of water ig small, evaporation and liltnition may become very prejudicial. The (juantity of water (^ furnished per second by u stream is found from the formulas, V= wxrlxv; and V=— .OT-t-x/.tXW+I^ia JV^^ '° which M represents the width of bed, (I the mean depth, V the mean velocity per second, (' tlie fall. The volume of water may also be calculated by measur- ing the section of the bed, and multijilying it by the iiu'an velocity. The mean velocity \ \\» found from the formula V= ^+(^^'— 1)' , in which 7 repre- 2 sents, in inches, the velocity at the surface. In or- dinary weather, the evaporation varies from •ff to A of an inch ]ier day, and tiltration in common soil maybe reckoned at one inch in 12 hours. It is quite dangerous in winter time to till the ditches of field- works with water; and when a garrison is compell- ed to remain a long time in an inundated country, fever does more damage tlian the enemy. See Ac- cesHiiry Meimitdf Defense. INVALIDES.- Wounded veterans of the French Army. maiiit;iined at the expense of the State. Many of these old soldiers are ipiartered at the Hotel des Invalides, an Establishment in Paris. See JIutel des IiiritlidiH. INVALID ESTABLISHMENT.— An Establisment in the Indian Army for the transfer of officers who may be declared to be unlit for further service. It consists of — 1. The Invalid Battalion: for officers who, al- though disqualitied for further active service, are still equal to the discharge of garrison duties. 2. The Invalid Pension List: for officers disqualified for both active and garrison duties, either from age, wounds, or decline of health. The)- are transferred to this list, as stated in the government order, " Provided their conduct and habits are such as not to affect the character of that Institution, which is designed as an honorable retreat to the worn-out or di.sabled but deserving officers," The several orders issued on the subject of tliis Establishment will be found in the re- gulations applicable to the European officers in In- di;i. part III., by the late G. E. Cochrane, Assistant ililitary Secretary, India Office, and in the orders issued by the Government of India. INVALIDING. — A term signifying the return home or to a more healthy climaU', of soldiers or sailors whom wounds or the severity of foreign service has rendered incapable of active duty. The man invalided returns to Iiis duty as soon as his restored liealth justifies the step. INVALIDS. — Worn out or maimed soldiers, or tliose who from permanent sickness are unable to remain in the Army, There are some invalids who from change of climate recover their liealth ; these men join the ranks again. In the British service, disabled men are periodically invalided and sent home from India and the Colonies. Besides Chelsea Hospital, for the reception of worn out and disabled men. the Corps of Commissionaires is open to pensioned sol- diers : whilst so attached, they can add to their liveli- hood by giving their services as messengers or watdi- men. JIany invalids, known as Out-penjiionfrs, are allowed to reside where they choose. See Soldiers' Jl'tine^. INVASION.— The hostile entrance or attack of an enemy on the dominions of another: the passing of the regular line of frontier of any country, in order to take possession of the interior. INVENTORY OF EFFECTS OF DECEASED OFFI- CERS AND SOLDIERS. — In tlie United States Service, in case of death of any officer, the Major of his regi- ment, or the officer doing the JIajor's duty, or the second officer in command at any post or garrison, as the case maj- be, immediately secures all his effects then in camp or quarters, and makes and IKVEESION. 126 IBON. transmits to the office of the Department of War, an inventory thereof. The Articles of War also pro- vide that in case of the death of any soldier, the Commanding Officer of his troop, battery, or com- pany shall immediately secure all his effects then in canip or quarters, and shall, in the presence of two other olBcers, make an inventory thereof, which he shall transmit to the office of the Department of War. INVERSION.— In tactics, the subdivisions of the unit have their iiabitual position in the order of bat- tle. This is necessary, in order that tlie mechanism of the unit may have that simplicity and uniform- ity in which there will be no difficulty in its being comprehended and retained by ordinary minds, to the end that every movement may be executed with promptitude. Still cases may occur in which the requisite rapidity to meet an attack, or to move in a given direction," cannot be attained without chang- ing the habitual order. Such cases are provided for by what are termed tnvei'sions, in which the subdi- visions temporarily change places and parts. Inversions are very important in tlie field, and they offer such great advantages, that Bonaparte strongly advised their employment in many circum- stances. Our tactics admit the employment of in- versions in the formations to the right and left in line of battle, and also in the successive formations, except in that of faced to the rem- into line of battle. INVESTMENT.— The main objects of this operation are to cut oil all communication between the garrison and the exterior; to prevent succors of every kind from being thrown into the work; to sweep off every thing in its vicinity that might, in any way, be ser- viceable to the garrison ; and, finally, to cover a close reconnoissance of the defenses by engineer and other officers. For a successful attainment of these ends, the investing force, which should be mainly if not solely composed of cavalry, moves upon the work with celer- ity and seciecy; and, after surrounding and secur- ing all avenues to it, sends out detachments to scour the environs up to the very gates of the work, if prac- ticable, and bring off with them, or destroy, all per- sons, cattle, provisions, etc., met with. A chain of posts and sentinels is in the meantime established in the best positions to prevent all access to the work, or egress from it ; care being taken to select for the posts points which are not exposed to the artillerj' of the ■work, or are beyond its range. The posts occupied by tlie troops during the day-time, and termed the Daily Cordon, are shifted at dark, and points nearer the work are taken up, to form the Nightly Cordon and hem the work in more closely. The posts and sentinels for this purpose should be pushed as far forward as they can find shelters from the musketry of the defenses; and under their protection the re- conuoitering officers should spare no efforts to gain an exact idea of all the ground exterior to the work, and of the cliaracter of the defenses. The main body of the besieging army, with the engineer and artillery siege't rains, follows closely upon the investing corps, to prevent the line taken up by the latter, which, from its extent, is necessarily weak, from being lorced cither by the garrison, or by strong detach- ments from without. The positions for the camps of the various c()r])S are designated by theC'ommand- ing General, after a careful reconnoissance. These are placed bc^yond the range of the heavy artillery of the works, with their color fronts facing from tin- ■works; and, as far as ])racticable, on points favora- ble to the health and comfort of the troojis, and the defense. Whenever natural obstacles, of marshes, rivers, etc, occur between the camps they nuist be crossed by good lines of communication, so that no impediment may Ije offered to the speedy concentra- tion of the troops upon any point tlireatened from ■without. i^ocSier/r. IRELAND.- The insignia of Irelau<l have been v.iri- ously given by I'arly writers. In llie reign of Kil- ward IV., a commission api)ointed to inquire what were the Arms of Ireland found them to be three crowns in pale. It lias been supposed that these crowns were abandoned at the Reformation, from an idea that they might denote the feudal sovereignty of the Pope, whose Vassal the King of England was, as Lord of Ireland. However, in a MS. in the Herald's College of the time of Henry VII., the Arms of Ire- land are blazoned azure, a harp or. stringed argent; and when they ■were for the first time placed on the royal shield on the accession of James I. they were thvis delineated ; the crest is on a wreath or and azure, a tower (sometimes triple-towered) or, from the port, a hart springing argent. Another crest is a liarp or. The national flag of Ireland exhibits the liarp in a field vert. The Royal Badge of Ireland, as settled by sign.nianual in 1801, is a harp or, stringed argent, and a trefoil vert, both ensigned with the Imperial Crown. IRISH BRIGADE.— A body of men who followed the fortunes of James II., and ■n-ere formed into re- giments under the Monarchy of France. IRON. — This most important metal in ordnance constructions ■will be most conveniently considered under the two following heads: 1. Chemistry of Iron. Chemicall}- pure iron is of so little general interest that we shall confine our remarks on the properties of this metal to thos* which are exhibited by bar or wrought iron. Its color is gray or bluish-white; it is hard and lustrous, takes a high polish, is fibrous in texture, and when broken across, exhibits a ragged fracture. It requires a very intense heat for its fu- sion, but before melting passes into a soft pasty con- dition, in which state two pieces of iron may, bj- be- ing hammered together, be united or welded so com- pletely as to form, to all intents and purposes, a single portion. At a red lieat. it ma)- be readily forged into any shape; but at ordinary temperatures it possesses verj' little malleability, as compared with gold and silver. In ductility, it stands very high, being bare- ly exceeded by gold, silver, and plafiuum ; and in tenacity, it is'only exceeded by cobalt and nickel. Its susceptibility to magnetism is one of its most remark- able characteristics. At a higli temperature, it burns readily, as may be seen at the forge, or (more strik- ingly) when a glowing wire is iniroduced into a jar of oxygen. In dry air, and at ordinary temperatures, the lustrous surface of the metal remains unchanged; but in a moist atmosphere the surface rapidly be- comes oxidized and covered with rust, which con- sists mainly of the hydrated oxide of iron. At a red heat, iron decomposes water, and liberates hydro- gen, the oxygen combining ■with the iron to form the black or magnetic oxide (Fe^O*), which occurs in minute crystals. This is one of the ordinary methods of obtaining lij'drogen. The affinities of iron for most of the non-metallic elements are very power- ful. The chief of the iron compounds arc— " a. Oxides of Iron — Iron forms four definite com- pounds with oxygen — viz. (1), the protoxide (FcO), which is the base of the green or ferro\is salts of iron ; (2), the sesguioxide or peroxide (FCjO,), which is the base of the red or ferric .tolls; (3), the black or inag- netic oxide (Pe,,Oj), which is regarded by some clu'ui- ists as a compound of the two preceding oxides ; and (4), ferric acid (PeOj). The protiKcide cannot be ob- tained in an isolated form, but it forms the base of various ferrous salts, and combines w^itli water to form a hydrate (FeO,HO), which, on the addition of an alkali, falls in white Hakes. The most inqiortant protosalts of iron, or ferrous salts, are Ihe carbonate, the sulphate, the phosphate, and the silicate. Cor- bonate of Jron (FeO,CO„) exists naturally in various minerals, and may be obtained artilicially by precip- itating a soluble protosalt of iron with carbonate of potash or soda, when the carbonate falls in white flakes. On exposure to the air. it absorbs oxygen, and gives off carbonic acid, and is thus converted into Uip hydrated peroxide. Sulphate of irioi (FcO, SO., ■ 7IIO) is obtained by the solution of iron, or its sulphide, in dilute sulphuric acid ; in the former case, a IKON. 127 IBOK. then' is an cvolnlirin of liyflroijfn. and in thf latter, iif sulpluirclcd liyilrii'^icM. On (■vii|i(initiiiii of tlic so- lution, thu salt isolilaini'd in clear 1)1 iiisli-f^rccn rlioni- ■boidal crystals, conlainini? seven atoms of water. This salt is coniniercially Known as copperas or irreen vitriol. P/ionp/iitfe i>f iriin is obtaineil l]y preeipilat- ing a solution of a ])rotosalt of iron with jihosphate of soda, wlien a wliitc- |irecipitat(; of phos|)liat<,' of iron is thrown down. All these salts, especially the carbonate and snlphalc, are extensively used in med- icine. iSiliciifc and pliosphateof iron occur naturally in several minerals. The peraxi'ih of iron, termed also sesquioxide, red oxide, or ferric oxide, is ob- tained in an anhydrous form by igniling the proto- sulphate, and is known in tlie arts under the names colcotlidr, criii'ii.i of Murn, or rouge, according to the degree of levigalion lo which it has been submitted. It is em|)loyed for polisliing glass, jew<dry, etc., and is also used as a pignunl. It oe<'urs both in tlie an- hydrous and in the hydrated form in various miner- als. Tlic hyilrotid ]-ierii-xi(le CiVe.^ii^.ZWO) is obtain- ed by pn^cipitating a solution of a persalt of iron, or of a ferric salt, with an excess of potash, ammonia, or alkaline carbonate. It falls as a yellowish-brown tloeculent jireciiiitate, which when dried forms a (U'lise brown mass. This hydrated peroxide of iron, when freshly i>repared and suspended in water, is regarded as an antidote in arsenical poisoning. Rust, as has been already menlioned, is a hydrated per- oxide, coinliined with a lillle ammonia. The most important of the persalts of iron, or ferric salts, are the neutral and the basic sulphate, whose fornudio are I"e ()„, 380^ and FcoOj, 3S( ).,.nVoA^, respective- ly, the nitrate (Fe.Oj.SNt)- ). the phosphate, and the silicate. The nitrate which is obtained by the solu- tion of iron in nitric acid, is a useful medicnial agent. The blnrk or miiijnetic. oxiilc and ferric (h'iil,-v{\\\i:\\ has not been obtained in a free state, and is only known as a constituent of certain salts, must be passed over without comment. h. Haloid salU of iron — the chlorides, bromides, and iodides — next reijuire notice. There are two chlorides — viz., a protoeh'.oride (Pet'l) and a per- chloride or sesquichloride (FeaC'l,,). The latter may be obtained by dissolving peroxide of iron in hydro- chloric acid. The tincture of the sesquichloride of iron is perhaps more generally employed in medi- cine Uian any other preparation of this metal. The protiodide is an extremely valuable therapeutic agent. <■. There are probably several sulphides or KiHphu- retH of iron. The ordinary sulphide is a protosulphide (PeS). It occurs in small quantity in meteoric iron. It may be obtained artificially by the direct union of the two elements at a high temperature, or by the precipitation of a protosalt of iron by sulphide of am- monium. It exists in glistening masses, varying in color from a grayish yellow to a reddish brown. It is insoluble in water, but in moist air becomes rap- idly oxidized into protosulphate of iron. With acids, it develops sulphureted hydrogen. The bisulphide of iron(FeS2)isthe rrora p^/v'to of Mineralogists, and the mu?idic of commerce. Under the latter name, it it used extensively in the preparation of oil of vitriol. There are also other sulphides of less importance. 3. Manufacture of iron — The increasing use of iron is a prominent characteristic of the present age, and every day sees some new application of it in the arts of life. Althougli the most useful of the metals, it was not the first known. The difilculty of reducing it from its ores would naturally make it a later ac- quisition than gold, silver, and copper. The reduc- tion of the ore known as the black oxide of iron, however, has been carried on in India from a very early time. In Europe the rich specular and other ores of Spain and Elba were much used during the [ Roman period ; in Greece, also, iron was known, : tliough, as among the Romans, its use was subse- quent to that of bronze. We are informed, too, by the Roman historians that this nu'tal was employed by the ancient liritaius for tlie manufacture of .>pears [ and lances. The Ifomans, during their oc(,ii|ialion of liritaiii, mamifacliireil iroji in a considerable ex- lent, as is ivi<lenceil liy the cindir-heaps in the forest of Dean and other places. 'I'he rudir processes then in use left so much iron in th(' cinilers that those of Dean forest furnished the chief supply of ore to 20 furnaces for between 200 and IW) years. In those early times, tb(- iron oris were reduced in a simple contcal furnace, callid an air-bloomery, erected on the top of a hill, in order to obtain the greatest blast of wind. The furnaces were subsequently enlarged and su]iplied wilh an artificial blast. C'lufTCoal was the only fuel used in smelting till 1018, when Lord Dudley introduced coal for this purpose; but the iron-masters being unanimously opposed to the change, Dudley's imiirovement died with himself. It was not reiulrodui'ed till Abraham Derliy, in 1713, ctnployed it in his furnace at Coalbrook ftale. 15ut as this method was not pro|)erly understood, the pro- duction of English iron declined with the change of fuel, till, in 1740, it was only three-fonrlhsof wliat it liad formerly been, Al)out 10 jears after this, how- ever, the introduction of coke gave renewed vigor to the iron-trade, and then followed in rapid succes- sion those great improvements in the manufacture which have given to the history of iron the interest of a romaiue. The introduction of Watt's steam- engine in 1770, the jirocesses of puddling and rolling invented b_v Henry ('ort in 1784, and the employ- ment of the hot-blast byNcilsonof Glasgow in 1830, have each been of inestimable service. The great- est improvement introduced into the iron manufac- ture in recent times is the process of Mr. Bessemer for the production of steel, patented in IS-IO. The "Siemens Martin" method of making steel has also of late come into extensive use. Irini ores are abundantly distributed all over the globe; the chief kinds being — 1. Magnetic iron ore ; 2. Red hematite, specular, or red iron ore : 3. Rrown hematite, or brown iron ore ; 4. Carbonate of iron, including spathic ore, clay ironstone, and blackband ironstone. The ore richest in the metal is the rung, netic, or Mack oxide of iron. When pure it contains nothing but oxygen and iron, its chemical formula being FejO,, which gives 73 per cent, of iron by weight. It occurs in dark heavj' masses of black crystals, and is found in the old primary rocks. Sweden is famous for this ore, and for the iron pro- duced from it, which is esteemed the best in Europe. The celebrated mines of Dannemora, in that country, have been constantly worked since the l.'ith century. Russia, too, has great iron works in the I'ral Moun- tains, which are supplied with this ore. So, also, have Canada and several of the American States, as Virginia, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, etc. The rock formations in which magnetic iron ore occurs very rarely contain coal, hence it is almost always smelted with wood-charcoal, which, as it contains no sul- phur, is one great cause of the superiority of the iron produced from it. lied henuttiU differs from the last only in containing proportionally a little more oxygen, its formula being PeoOs, that is to say, 70 per cent, of iron by weigiit. There are several Vari- eties of this ore, but only two need be referred to. The first of these, ■specular iron, so called from its bright metallic luster, occurs in large and beautiful crystalline masses in the Island of Elba, where it has been worked for more than 2.000 years, and is like- wise found in many other parts of the world. It is of a stecl-graj- color, assuming a red tint in tliin frag- ments and when scratched. "^ The other variety Is kidiuy ore, whose origin is still a curious problem, as its deposits occur sometimes in veins and some- times in apparently regular beds. Its characteristic form is in large kidney-shaped nodules, with a fine radiated .stnicture. This shape, however, is only assumed in the cavities of massive deposits. Red hematite is sometimes called blood-stone. It is used for polishing metals, and yields a blood-red powder, used as a pigment. This valuable iron ore is found I30H. 128 IRON in many Countries, Ijui in few places in greater abim- flance than at Whitehaven and Ulverstone, in Eng- land, where splendid masses of it occur, 15, 30, and even 60 feet in thickness. Brmm hematite, or brown iron ore, is hydrated peroxide of iron, and has the same composition as red hematite, except that it contains about 14 per cent, of water. It is generally found massive, more rarely crystalline, and a variety occurring in small rounded nodules is called pea iron ore. When mixed with earth or clay, it forms the pigments yellow och- er and brown umber. Brown hematite is now an im- portant ore in Great Britain, about 3,000,000 tons being annually raised. It occurs in different geolog- ical formations, chiefly in Devonshire, the forest of Dean, South Wales, and in Antrim, in Ireland ; also in an earthy form in Northamptonshire. It is the ore chiefly smelted in France and German}'. Bag iron ore is a variety of brown hematite, usually contain- ing phosphorus, which occurs in marshy districts of recent formation. Carbonate, of iron, when found in a comparatively pure crystallized state, is known as spathic, spathoxe, or .ipari^y iron ore ; but when im- pure and earthy, as clay iron.<<tiine &nd lilackfia?id iron- utone. Spathic ore was little worked in England pre- vious to 1851. soon after which it was discovered in Somersetshire. It forms mountain masses in various parts of Prussia and Austria, and is now much in de- mand to yield the spiegeleisen required in the Besse- mer process. In its purest form it contains 48 per cent, of iron; and m color it varies from white to buff or dark brown, some specimens of it taking a beau- tiful polish and looking like marble. The clay and blackband ironstones are essentially mixtures of car- bonate of iron with clay, blackband having also a considerable proportion of coaly or bituminous mat- ter. These dull earthy-looking ores occur abun- dantly in Great Britain, and form, after coal, the greatest of her mineral treasures. Fully one-third of all the ore mined in the country is obtained from the coal-measures, where fortunately both the fuel and the limestone, indispensable for the reduction of the iron, are also found. The ore occurs as balls or no- dules in the shales, or in continuous beds. Some of these seams are full of fossil shells, and the ore is then called " musselband " ironstone. Iron ore is still reduced to some extent in Europe liy the old and imperfect process of the Catalan forge, not unlike a common smith's forge. In America, however, as well as in all other Countries where iron is largely smelted, the blast-furnace is now univer- .sally employed, by means of which the metal is ob- tained in the state of crude or cast iron. For the fin- er kinds of iron, charcoal is the fuel employed, be- cause, unlike coal or coke, it contains no sulphuret of iron or other injurious ingredients. The Kussian and Swedish furnaces smelt with charcoal, and on this, as much as on their pure ores, depends the high reputation of their iron. A solitary charcoal-furnace at Ulverstone iu England, and another at Lorn in Scotland, are still working — the only relics of times past, when this was the only fuel employed. As a preliminary process to the actual smelting in the blast furnace, clay and blackband ironstones are generally roasted. This is accomplished by breaking the ore into small pieces, spreading it in open heaps on the ground, and mingling it more or less with small ciimI according to the nature of the ore. BlacI:. band commonly contains enough of carbonaceous matter to burn without the addition of coal. The Iiile. which ma}' contaiu from one to several thousand Ions of ore, is liglitcd at the windward end, and burns gradually along, aided by occasional fires in tlie sides, uiilil the whole heap has undergone cah'iiiaUon, the time reijuircd for lliis purpose being generally about a moi.th. Sometimes tlie ojieralion of roasting is performed in close kilns instead of open heaps, a mode by which the ore is considered to be more uniformly roasted, and with cimsideralily less fuel. Of late years, the kilns are often heated by the waste gases of the blast-furnace. Hv calcination. IBON. 12'J IBOM <'lay ironstnno Iospr from Sil to 30, and Mackband from 40 to 50 per cent, of its wci^lil, llir I<jss consist, ini; cliictly of corljoiiic acid and water, t)iit sidpliiir and other volatile siil)staiiccs arc also dissipatc(l in the proccs.s. The roastini; also coriv<Tl.H the proto.^c- ide and corbonate of iron into peroxide, whifdi pre- vents the formation of any slans of Hilieate of iron, such slags, owing to the dittkrulty of reducing them, causing a loss of iron. In Kngland the rich ores like the magnetic or red hematite are not subjected to calcination, but they are so in Sweden. 'I'lie ohhT type of blast-furnace consists of a massive tower of Btone or brick-work strengthened with iron liinders; the newer plan is to build it of comparatively thin brick-work, and surround it entirely with strong ircjn plates. In either case an inner linini; of refractory fire-brick is given to it, which is separated from the outer portion of the wall by a narrow space tilled with sand. Internally they vary very nuu-li in form, l)Ut jierhaps the liarrel sha]ie is the most ])rev- alent. and most of them contract towards tht^ bottom in the shape of an inverted cone. Recent ones have been built from 80 to 100 feet in height, instead of not more than (iO as formerly. The blast-pipe, with its tuyere-branches, surrounds tin- heartli, and on one side there is a recess and openings for running off the metal and slag. Fig. 1. shows the construc- tion of the Higelow furnace or cupola, and will serve ; to illustrate the modern advancement in this line. i The operation of smelting is thus jierformed: The ' roasted ore, coal and lime (Hux) arc either hoisted, or, i if the nature of the ground permits, moved along a ' platform or gangway to the gallery near the top of i the furnace, and fed into it at intervals through the ' openings in the side, when the mouth is open, or by \ lowering the cone, when the mouth is closed. We may ' here state that the furnace is kept continually l)urn- i ing except when under repair. The materials are of [ cour.se raised to a very high heat, and gradually fuse into a softened mass. The clay of the ironstone then unites with the lime to form a coarse glass or slag, the oxide of iron at the same lime gives up its oxygen to the fuel, and allows the metal itself to collect on the hearth at the bottom of the furnace, imited with from 3 to ."ji per cent, of carbon, whicli it takes from the fuel, forming the variety called cast-iron. Every 13, and sometimes every 8 hours, the metal is run olf from the furnace, by means of a tap-hole at the bottom of the heartli, into rows of parallel molds, called pigs, which are formed in the sand, hence the name "pig-iron." The slag which floats on the melt- ed iron is run otf by an opening at the top of the hearth. If the furnace is working well, the slag should be of a light-gray color: any dark-ljrown or black color shows that too much iron is passing into it. The quantity of materials necessary to yield a ton of pig-iron may be taken roundly as follows: 2 tons of calcined ironstone: 2i tons of coal, of whicli about 8 cwts. are taken for the blowing-engine and hot-air pipes; and 12 to 16 cwts. of broken limestone. The proportions, however, vary in different districts ac- cording to the nature of the fuel and ore. The week- ly produce of a single blast-furnace varies extremely — from under 100 to more than 500 tons in some of the larger furnaces. Different districts classify their pig-irons in slight- ly different ways, but, as a rule. No. 1 to No. 4 are known as gray iron. No. lis largest and brigliest in the grain, brings the highest price, and is best adapted for fine castings. Nos. 2, ii, and 4 become successively less in the grain, of a duller luster, and lighter in color, but up to No. 3 are known as foun- dry pigs. After No. 4 the metal ceases to be gray, and though higher numbers are sometimes em- ployed, the other qualities are more usually known as forge, mottled, and white pig-iron. Gr;iy iron has its carbon partly in the chemically combined, but chierty in the uncombinedor graphitic state, and re- quires a higher temperature to melt it than white iron, though very fluid when melted. White iron has its carbon wholly in llie combined state, and is chielly available for conversion into malleable iron. I lematite pig-iron suitable for making JSessemer steel has an exceptionally high Viilue. The hot-blast pro- cess whicli has be<'n described before was intro- duced in 1830 by Mr. James H. Neilsrm, of Glasgow, and has been productive of very remarkable effects on the iron trade. The whole invention consists In simply heating tlii> air blown into the furnace, and yet the saving of fuel by this is about one half, and the proiliiction of iron, since it came into use, has enormously increased. The "cold-blast" is still, however, to a limited extent employed, and produces the strongest iron, though necessarily at a much higher cost. The difference in quality appears to be caused by the greater heat in the case of the hot blast facilitating the passage of impurities into the iron. Of late years much attention has been given to plans for saving fuel in the lilast-furnace. Prev- ious to the introduction of the hot-blast as much as 8 tons of coal, as coke, were consumed for every ton of i)ig-iron made. Even when this is reduced to un- der 3 tons of raw coal per ton of pig-iron, fully three-fourths of all the heat produced is still wasted in open-mouthed furnaces. The method of saving the waste gases byclf)sing the mouth of the furnace, now generally adopted when coke is used is attend- ed with so much economy, that, in the Cleveland district alone, over 600,000 tons of coal yearly are saved by adopting it. There being a difficulty in closing the mouth of the furnace when raw coal is used. Mr. Ferric, of Monkland, a short time ago, patented a self-coking blast-furnace, by which, a- mong other advantages, the gases can be saved. It has now been in use for some years in Scotland, and produces a ton of pig-iron with 34 instead of 53 cwts, of coal previously required. Raising the tern- Fig. 2. perature of the blast from 900° to 1000° F. has also been attended with a saving, and so likewise, in some districts, has an addition to the height of the furnace. It will be readily understood that there is a cer- tain degree of heat necessary to be maintained in a cu- (lola to melt the largest amo"unt of iron in the shortest time, with the least amount of fuel, as a ton of coal might be consumed without melting a single pound of Iron if the temperature is not sufficiently elevat- ed. It will be equally apparent, that any depart- ure from the proper temperature, will just to that degree occasion loss in all these respects. To secure the best results, the proportions between the amount of iron to be melted, the fuel used, and the quantity of air supplied in a given time, should be fixed and unvarying. This can only be done by a machine ffiving" a force blast, as with Blowing Cylinders, or Hoot's Rotarj- Blower, which measures and forces IRON. 130 ntoB. forward a definite quantity of air every revolution, so tliiit wlien by experiment the maximum result is obtained, it can always be maintained at tliat point witl'.out any variation whatever. As a fan does not give a force blast, the quantity of air delivered varies with every chanffc of condition, with the manner of charging the cupola, the kind of iron or fuel used, and the amount of stock in tlie cupola — but, more than by all other causes combined, the slag or cin- justment whatever. This arrangement obviates the necessity of taking the blower apart to renew tlie journal-boxes, as was necessary with machines built at an early date, thus saving much trouble and ex- pense. It will be observed by an examination of the internal parts of this Positive Blower, as shown in Fig. 2, that it does not operate at all on the principle of a fan. that is, by imparting momentum to tlie air by running at a great velocity, but by a regular dis- ders in the cupola. As it becomes foul, and the tuyeres become obstructed, the blast constantly di- minishes, until melting in many cases entirely ceases, and it becomes necessary to drop the bottom. Thus the conditions absolutely necessary to secure uni- form results can never be obtained with a fan blast, as no certain supply of air can ever be predicated upon the operation of a fan. A force blast, on the contrary, helps to keep the tuyeres open and free from ollstruction : but in case of their being obstruct- ed, the pressure is increased by the obstruction, and the same amount of air still continues to be forced through the diminished openings, and must con- tinue to do so, or the machine must stop. With a fan this is not the case. Only a limited pressure can be obtained, and when this is reached, diminish- ing the outlet does not iu the least degree increase the pressvire, but rather the reverse. The Piston Blower undoubtedly gives a force blast, and, when properly arranged, is far superior to any species of fan whatever, but not nearly so good as the Rotary Blower for cupolas, for the following reasons, viz. : The blast is irregular and comes in puffs with every motion of the piston, and requires a large receiver to equalize the blast ; this is both bulky and expensive. In addition to this, the machinery and fixtures are heavy and cumbrous, requiring a large amount of power to operate them. Besides, their cost is so great as to place them beyond the range of the large majority of establishments. The importance of a force blast will be more fully realized when we consider the enormous amount of air required in the combustion of coal in melting iron. Accurate experiments have shown that about 33.000 cubic feet of airare consumed in melting a ton of iron. which, if reduced to a solid, would weigh about 3,600 pounds, or 1,200 lbs. more than both the iron and coal. The melting point of cast iron is about 3.800'-', and a considerably higher temperature tlian this is required to render the iron perfectly Huid. Root's Rotary Blower is shown iu sectiimin Fig. 2. These famous Blowers have the improved arrangement for journal boxes, shown in Fig. 3. The box consists of two parts — the thimble or bearing, and the box pro- per. The bearings are made of phosphor or carbon- bronze. The thimble or lining is bored out to fit the journal with perfect accuracy, and is also turned otf inn the outside so as to be precisely (■ou<-entric wilh the shaft. The l)iix which holds the lining or bear- ing IS also bored out to the exact size to receive tlie bi'arimi, which is I'leld from turning by set-screws in the cap. The advantages of this arrangement are that, if from gross neglect or inattention the journal- boxes have been allowed to cut or wear, and need re- newal, it is only necessary to remove the caii and push the lower half of the bearing out, inserting the upper half or a new one in its place. Thislirings the sliaft exactly iu its original position, without any ad- placement of the air at each revolution, whether it runs fast or slow. When the air enters the case at the opening for induction, and is closed in by the wings of the revolvers, it is absolutely confined, and positively forced forward until brought to the educ- tion pipe, where it must be discharged or the ma- chine stop if perfectly tight, as there can be no back- ward escapement of the air after it once enters the case, the contact being kept up at all times in the center of the blower between the pistons, or revol- vers, thus preventing any escape of the air in that direction. We pass now to the consideration of malleable or wrought iron. It differs from cast-iron in being al- most I'ree of carbon. The great object iu the pro- cesses adopted for the conversion of cast into malle- able iron, accordingly, is to deprive the former of its carbon. But it is also very desirable to get rid of deleterious ingredients, such as silicon, sulphur, and phosphorus, which latter are generally present in minute quantities in the cast-iron The ordinary processes for the manufacture of malleable iron are refining, puddling, x/iingling or hammiriitg, and roll- ing. The refinery consists of a flat hearth, covered with sand or loam, and surrounded with metal troughs, through which a stream of water is con- stantly flowing, to keep the sides from melting. The cast-iron is melted with coke on the hearth, and a blast of air kept blowing over it, which causes its carbon to unite with the o.xygen of the air. and pass off as carbonic oxide gas. Oxygen also unites with silicim to form silica, and with iron to form the ox- ide. The silica of the sand uniting with oxide cf iron, produces a slag of silicate of iron. The refined metal is finally run out in cakes on a bed of cast-iron, kept cool by a stream of water. Being only partial- ly decarbonized by this process, it is next broken up for the puddling furnace. About 10 per cent of iron is lost in the refinery. White pig-iron, or at least such kinds as contain car- bon in the combined state only, are best suited tor puddling, because they become pasty, and so more easily worked than gray iron containing grn]ihitic carbon, which does not soften into this condition pre- vious to fusion. It is only in some districts that the '■ refining" process is much used, iu others a portion only of tlie puddling furnace charge is refined : and iu making inferior kinds of malleable iron, the ])ig- iron is not previously refined at all. Tlu're are two ways of puddling now practical ; the firsi or older way best aiiplicable to refined iron, is called dn/ /iiid- dtinr/, and in it the decarburizalion is|)ro(hice(l cliief- ly by a strong current of air passing through the fur- nace: the second or newer process, is called irt't pud- dling or hiiiling. iu which case the oxidizing of the lartxm is effected chiefly by hematite, magnetic ore. basic slags, and other easily reduci'd materials, but to some extent also by the air. The operation of noN. 131 IBOV. puddling, Ihdiiuli dilTrriii;; in ilctiiils iiccordini; In ciri;umHliinc(!rt, in in ;i general wny condiiflcil uk fol- lows : A cliarnc of from 4) to. I c wis. of rnctiil, iin-iud- inj; some liiiiunicr slut; and iron scale, is |)la<'i'd on tlio bed of tile fiirnare while still hot from previous workinj;. In about half an hour, when the fur?uiee is in workiiic; order, Ibeehari^e is niellcd, anil is then stirred or "rabble<l" for a eonsider.'ible lime, when it bef^iiis to "boil" by tint formalicjn and escape of carbonic oxide, which forms jets of Idue llame all over the surface, (iradually, us the carbon of the pig-iron is more and more oxidi/.eil, pasty masses of malleable iron separate, and these' an^ removed in balls commonly wei^hini; about HO lbs,, but some- times larijer. About an hour anil a half is recjuired to work olf a chari;e,and it takes from '22to '30 cwls. of i)ii;-iron lo jiroducea Ion of malleable iron. Sie- men's rei^cneralive )j;as-funiaci', in which inferior fuels can be utilized, is applied to puddlinu;as well us toother metallurgical processes ; atul Hie more recent revolving ])uddling furnace of Mr. Danks is the most promising of any of the attempts yet made to ]iudille iron by mechanical means. The process inunedialely following the puddling or boiling is called " shing- ling," and consists in hanunering tli<' puddled balls with either the helve or sleam-hanniier, or in passing them through a squeezer till they an; sulticienlly con- solidated, and the greater part of the cinders forced out. For a description of the steum-hununer, wliich is nuicli used for heavy forgingsas well us forshing- liug, see that liead. Puddled lialls which have under- fniie the process of shingling are called .v/a/wor hhuimii. 'hese are next passed through heavy rollers termed '• forge " or " puddle-bar rolls." and reduced to the form of a flat bar. For all the better kinds of iron the bars thus treated arc cut into short lengths, piled together, reheated in a furnace, and again passed through the forge rolls. Once more the iron is cut, piled, and lieated, and is then passed through tlie " mill-lruin," consisting of what are termed the "bolt- ing" or " rough rolls," and finally through the " tin- ishiiig rolls." Both tliese sets of rolls in the case of plates and sheets are plain, but in the case of bars are grooved, so as to form them into the required sliape, sueli as flat, square, round, octagonal, or T- shaped iron. There is still another important variety of iron, viz., uteel, the manufacture of which remains to be described. Steel diflers from malleable iron in con- taining a varying proportion of carbon, usually from .5 to 1.8 per cent. When rich in carbon, it closelj' resembles cast-iron in composition, except that it is more free from impurities. Steel can be made by adding carbon during the direct reduction of a pure iron ore in a furnace or crucible, but the results of this method are scarcely ever uniform. The liner kinds of steel are still made by the old cementation process — that is, by the roundabout plan of Hrst con- verting cast into malleable iron, by depriving the former of its carbon, and then adding carbon again by heating the iron ■with charcoal. In making any kind of steel, however, the getting rid of silicon, phosphorus, and sulphur is as important, anil a mat- ter of moreditliculty than the securing of any requir- ed proportion of carbon. As blistered steel is full of cavities, it is neces.sary to render it dense and uni- form, especially for the finer purposes towdiich steel is applied. By one method it is converted into what is called "shear steel." This is done by breaking the bars of blister steel into short lengths, heating them in bundles, and partially welding with a forge- hammer. The rod so formed is heated again, and now brought under the action of the tilt-hammer. Here, by a succession of blows, it is formed into bars, which are much more compact and malleable than blister steel, and consequently lietter fitted for edge-tools and the like. If the single-shear steel is doubled upon itself, and again welded and drawn into bars, it is called double-shear steel. By another method, viz., that of melting the blister steel in fire- clay crucibles, and casting it into ingots, " cast-steel " is made. This is the Itest kind of steel, being finely granular, homogeneous, dense, and well adapted for the finest culling instruments. Hieel is now largely made dirielly from pig-iron by ])udilling, much in the same way us that proci'ss is applied to Ihe production of malleable iron. By an- other plan (Tehulius's process;, pig-iron isgrainilat- ed and heuleil in a crucible with the oxides of iron and manganese, and fire-clay, the result being cast- sleel This process has succeeded well in Sweden. The Siemens-Marlin proc('Ss consists in melting pig- iron along with malleulile iron and Bessemer steel scruj), about 7 per cent of spiegeleisen being added towards Ihe end of Ihe pror-ess. The operation is condneted in Ihe Siemens regenerative furnace, and the product in Ihiscase is also cast-steel. There are also several moilesof munufacliiringsteel direct from the ore, such as by the old way in the Catalan forge, and by Chenot's jirocess, in which liydrocarbons are used. It would appear from the results of recent experiments made on the large scale ut Middlesbor- ougli, that Alessrs. Thomas & (lilchrist have succeed- eil, by a comparatively simple device, in practically eliminating the phosphorus frem Cleveland pig-iron during the conversion of the latter into steel in the Bessemer converter. Tlie great importance of this discovery will be at once understood when we state that the Cleveland iron is the cheapest inUreat Brit- ain, and that the Cleveland ore yields one-fourth of all Ihe iron made in the Country. Hitherto it has not been remunerative to make steel from this pig- iron on account of the exceptionally high percentage of phosphorus it contains, und the ditficulty there has been of removing an ingredient so deleterious to steel. Success, however, husat length been achieved by obtaining, through the use of lime and oxide of iron, a basic slag in the cimverter, and by lining this ves.sel with bricks made chiefly of magnesian lime- stone, fired at a very higli heal. A basic lining is given to the converter instead of the ordinary silice- ous one, which is acid, and so a base is furnished with which the phosphoric acid can combine with- out the certainity of the lining being eaten away by the basic slag, as would be the case when thislining is siliceous. It is only as respects the nature of the slag in the converter, and the kind of lining used for this vessel, that Thomas & Gilchrist's mode of mak- ing steel, as far as it has yet been tried, dilTers from Bessemer's ; except that for the latter a high-priced pig-iron is required. Of course steel can be made by the new process from other low-priced irons besides Cleveland. We will now take a glance at the properties of each of the three principal kinds ofiron.and the pur- poses to which it is chiefly aiijilied. Cnst-iron. as the crudest, cheapest, and most fusible, is used, as a general thing, for the heavy portions of all engineer- ing and ordnance work, such as the bed-plates for machines, cylinders, columns, cisterns, low-pressure boilers, water and gas pipes, rollers, girders, and a large variety of the like. A large quantity is also consumed in the manufacture of " hollow-ware." which includes pots, pans, and other cooking vessels. For all kinds of ornamental objects, again, it is al- most exclusively used, because liere its property of being readily cast into molds gives it a great advan- tage on the score of cheapness. Malleable iron dif- fers considerably in its properties from cast iron. The latter is practically incompressible, but it can be comparatively easily torn asunder. JIallcable iri>n, on the contrary, possesses great tenacity ; it is, more- over, very malleable and ductile, especially at a high temperature, so that it can be rolled into sheets as thin as paper, or drawn into the finest wire. Fur- ther, it possesses the valuable property of welding — that is, two pieces can be completely united togeth- er by hammering at a white heat. Malleable iron is largelj- employed for the inmmierable variety of arti- cle included under the general term "hardware," lEON CLAD OATH. 132 IBOH CLAD TEAIHS. such as locks, keys, hinges, bolts, nails, screws, wire- work, and the so-called tin-plate, which is merely sheet-iron dipped in melted tin. It is the mainstaj'of the railways and the electric telegraph, and has almost displaced timber as a material for steamships and saiRng-vessels. It is also much used for roofs and bridges of large size. Rolled armor-plates for war- ships and fortifications are now made of malleable iron from 5 to 23 inches thick. Steel possesses sev- eral valuable properties which do not belong to either cast or wrought iron. It is harder, denser, and whiter in color. It is also more elastic, takes a higher polish, and rusts less easily. Like malleable iron, it IB also weldable. But its most characteristic proper- ty consists in its admitting of being tempered at will to any degree of hardness. If, for instance, a piece of steel be heated to redness and plunged into water, it is made hard and brittle ; but if it be again heated and slowly cooled, its original softness is restored. B}' gently reheating the steel it will acquire a grada- tion of tints indicating various degrees of hardness, beginning with pale straw color, and passing succes- si\'ely to full yellow, brown, purple, and finally blue. The straw color is the resL'it of a temperature of 440°, and the blue 570" F., the former being the hard- est and the latter the softest tempering. The use of steel is no longer confined to such small articles as files, edge-tools, knives, etc. By means of improved machinery and processes, steel is at present manu- factured on a scale that was little dreamed of thirty years ago, so that such objects as field-guns, heavy shafting, tires, rails, armor-plates, and the like are now being made of this material. The superior ten- sile strength of steel, which is about double that of malleable iron, gives it a great advantage where lightness is required. Large numbers of steamships are now building of steel. See Cannon-metals, Cast- iroii. Metallurgy, Piling, Puddling, Rolling-mill, Smelting, Steel, Welding, and Wrong fit-iron. IRON-CLAD OATH.— An oatli of allegiance prescrib- ed by Statute of the United States, for those taking of- fice under the National or State Government, in ac- cordance with the provisions of the 14th Amendment to the Constitution. The oath as administered reads as follows : "I, , residing at , do solemnly swear that I have never voluntarily borne arms against the United States since I have been a ctlzen thereof ; that I have voluntarily given no aid, I take this obligation freely, without any mental res- ervation or purpose of evasion; and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the.ofilce on which I am about to enter. So help me God." Sworn to before me, this day of , ) 188—. - U. S. Commissioner. ) This oath is still administered to officers under the U. S. Government, but its application has been re- stricted by special Acts of Congress, relieving, in certain instances, classes and individuals from the effect of its provisions. IRON-CLAD TRAINS.— Trains were iitilized as a means of reconnoitering during the American war of Secession, and during the v.-ar of 1870-71 , in Europe, but no heavier guns than those usually employed as field artillery were mounted on them. Recently, however, it has been demonstrated that guns as heavy as a 40-pounder may be mounted and fought on trains with satisfactory results, there being little or no straining in either the trucks or rails. Experience has shown the following to be the best way of mak- ing up the train : 1st truck, empty, so as to guard against the Line being mined. 2d truck, a machine- gun in front, spare rails for repairing the line. 3d truck, spare rails, bowls, chairs, etc., for repairing the line. 4th truck, 40-pr. gun and crew. .5th truck, ammunition wagon. This is protected all round by thin iron, and the magazine is covered in front by a pile of short railway iron a little higher than a pow- der-case. On each side is a baulk of timber, and on top a layer of rails, three or four of which are bolted down. The powder is in half metal-lined cases. This truck also contain fuses, tin cups, tools, four cases of wet and one of dry gun-cotton, Bickford's fuse, de- tonators, lantern and candles, slings for lifting the guns and carriage, bearers for the gun, a collapsible boat, stretchers, ana arm-racks for the covering party of twenty-eight men. 6th truck, protected with thin iron plates, carrjing two Catlings with their crews. 7th truck, two 9-prs. with their limbers, two 7-prs. and their crews. 8th truck, steam-crane. 9th en- gine, protected with railway iron laid horizontally along the boiler, |-inch and f-inch iron plates round the working parts, and sand-bags. lOth truck, pro- tected by iron plates, carrying the covering party, and with a Galling in rear. A reserve engine always followed, usually on the other line, and if necessary brought up another train with a battalion. countenance, counsel, or encouragement to persons engaged in armed hostility thereto; that I have neithe; sought, nor accepted, norattempted to exer- cise the functions of any office whatever under any authority or pretended authority in hostility to the United States ; that I have not yielded a voluntary support to any pretended government, authority, power, or constitution within the United States, ho.s- tile or 'nimical thereto. And I do further swear that, to the best of my knowle<lgc and ability. I will sup- port and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same ■ that During the recent Egyptian Campaign, the English mounted a 9-inch Armstrong M. L. R. gun in tlie manner described, and shown in the drawing. A truck, which had been constructed some time back to transport a 26-ton boiler from Alexandria to Suez, was found in the store and appropriated. It was longer than the ordinary trucks, and much stronger b\iilt. running on eight wheels close together, and with especially constructed springs. Three baulks of timber were placed across the front part of the truck, and bolted through the Moor. A J inch iron plate, two feet wide, was bent over these, and bolted to the bottom of the truck, and in the center f o this IBON CROSS. 133 IBEEOULAB SITES. plalfonii till' pivoliiiK bolt rt WHS pliiccd. Asii niipimrl a pifcc of |-iii<li iron, four inclics wide whhI'i.ximI to the lop of the liolt, when the bars were in position, and iiiso bolted under the earriaiir'. h. The slide, which was of the lanil servic'e patlern with hii^h rol- lers, hail toliernt <lown so as to brini; the weif,'lit as low as |)ossible. 'I'Ik' rollers weri' tiiUen olT and the axeltrees cut. An extempore rear-axle was made ont of a bar of iron, and the rear rollers of a lO-inch nun carriage were used as rear-slide rolh^rs, the fore part of the slide workin;; without rollers, on an iron skid plate. The rear rollers were so fur forward that the slide was very liable to tip up when the i^un recoiled — in fact, several j^uns were disabled in lijc forts dur- ing the boinbanlnient in this miirnier. An arraniic- nient was Iberefon^ tilted to tlu! fore part of the slicUt which prevented this, anil, at thesanu^ time, allowed lateral motion to the slide for training. In rear of the rear-slide rollers a baulk of timber was ])laced, projecting about two feet on either side, with bolts for the training tackles, r.. When the gun was out and the training on, a wedge was driven in between this baulk and thi^ rear of the slide, so as to take some of the weight of the gun on recoil olf the rear axle, which was rather weak, and also to distribute the weight more evenly over the truck. In order to run the gim in, sonte sort of a purchase was neces- sary, and nothing (-ould be found to answer the pur- pose better than the crab of the Moncrieff gun at Fort Uas-el-tin. The gun was then mounted by a crane, and everything worked satisfactorily. About 58 of training was obtained on either side, which in this case was suflicient to cover the principal works at Kafr-Dowar, partic-ularly as there was a sharp bend in the line, and a very much larger arc could be covered by a judicious selection of points to lire from. See Itailwdy OomiininicaticnU. IRON CROSS.— A Prussian order of kuigbtliood, in- stituted ou .Mar. 10, 1813, by Frederick William III., and <'i)nferred for distinguished services in the war which was then being carried on. The decoration is an iron cross withsilvermounting. The grand cross, a cross of double the size, was presented exclusively for the gaining of a decisive battle, or the capture or brave defense of a fortress. IRON CROWN.— The crown of the ancient Longo- bardian Kings, given according to an unauthenticat- cd tradition, by Pope Gregory the Great to Queen Theodolinda, and preserved till lately in the Cathe- dral of Monza. Henry, in 1311, is the lirst German Emperor \tho is known to have worn it. It was re- moved by the Austrians to Vienna after 1859, but ■was presented to the King of Italy in 1866. The out- er part of the crown consists of a golden hoop, with enameled flowers and precious stones, in form like an ancient diadem, within which is a thin jilate or lillet of iron, which is declared by a tradition long oppos- ed by the Church at Milan, but adopted by "the Con- gregation ■' deisarri riti" &i Home, to have been ham- mered from one of the nails of the true cross. When Napoleon I. was elected King of Italy in 1805, he took this relic and crowned hfmself with it, disdain- ing to receive it from the hands of a Bishop; and at the same time he founded an order of knighthood, taking its name from the Iron Crown. The order — forgotten after the fall of Napoleon — was restored and remodeled in 1816 by the Emperor Francis I., who gave it the name of "the Austrian Order of the Iron Crown. IRON CYLINDER GAUGE.— An instrument adapted for testing the body, studs, and pitch of rifling of muzzle-loading projectiles, at one operation. When Dianieti'r Diamettr IJinnieter over l)ody. overstiid:*. low over etuds. Inclifs. Inctiep. Indies. ]6-l)r. 3-.58 3-81S 3T95 9l)r. 2-™ 2218 — T-pr 2-SW 3-1K3 ,3-16,5 the present number of this nature of gauge is used lip, iron ring gauges will be introduced for general is- sue; the cylinder gauges being restricted to stations of in8[iectiiin. The forigoing are the dimensions of till' u'aiiL'is for rilled Held guns. IRON FILINGS. Small portions or jiarticlcB of iron rubbed olT by the act of filing- they are used in the mamifactiire of fireworks and for other |iiirposcs. IRONS. Shackles of iron into which the ankles of a prisoner are fixed, and which slide on a long iron bar. Kefractory soldiers, who evince violent behav- ior, and become unmanageable, are commonly put in irons, several being jilaced side by sifle aloiig the same bar. In cases of extreme violence the wrists may be sindlarly treated, but instances of this latter punishment are rare. TIk! ptinishment of " putting m irons" is more common in the Nav}' than in the Army. Conunonly called Jlilhue.i. IRONSIDES. A Cuirassier. The term is specially applied to Cromwell's Cavalry. As Captain of a troop of horse, Cromwell exhibited aslonishinir mili- tary genius; and against the men trained by himself — "CromweU's Ironsides"- the battle-sliock of the fiery Rupert, which at the beginning of the parlia- mentary struggle none else co\d(l withstand, spent itself in vain. IRREGULAR FORTIFICATION.— Those^in which, from the nature of the ground or other causes, the several works have not their du(; proportions accord- ing to rule; irregularity, however, docs not neces- sarily iniplv weakness. IRREGULARITY.— A violation of the customs of service — ii dili(|uency which is suliject to censure, but not serious enough to be brought before a Courl-.Marlial. IREEGULAE SITES.— The problem presented for solution to the engineer^in irregular sites is freijuent- ly one of no ordinary complexity; demanding a minute and laborious study of the natural featuresof the position in their relations to the defense ; con- nected with a tentative ])rocess of which the object is so to modify the plan, rclief.and details ordinarily adopted, as to adapt them in the best m:inner to the given position. No rules but of a very general char- acter can be laid down for the guidance of the en- gineer in such cases. The more plunging the fire of the work, the more efficacious will if prove to be. The etijciency of this fire will depend upon two caus- es ; 1. The conunand of the work over the point to be attained. 2. The direction of the ground with re- spect to the lines by which it is swept. As to the command of the work over the exterior ground, it hiis already been shown that motives of economy restrict it, in most cases, within very nar- row limits, where, to obtain it, artificial embank- nunits have to be employed. To augment, therefore, in the greatest degree this element of the defense, advantage shoidd lie taken of the natural features of the locality, by placing the principal lines, from which the exterior ground" can be seen, on the most commanding points" of the site. If. with this position given to the principal lines, the ground swept falls or'slopes towards them, a most favorable combination for an efficacious plunging fire will be obtained; for, with this direction of" the ground, the enemy will meet with far greater diffi- culty, to put himself under shelter by his works, than where the ground falls or slopes from the line by which it is swept; as the surface, in the latter case, descending in the rear of the cover thrown \\\i by the enemy, will be screened to a greater extent than in the former, where it rises in rear of the cover. When this, however, cannot be effected, the next best thing to be done is so to place the principal lines with re- spect to the surface to be swept that it shall be seen by a part of these lines, thus bringing to bear upon it a Hank fire from these parts. The general rule, therefore, which the engineer is to take as a guide, in order to satisfy the condition of bringing the exterior ground under an efficacious fire from the work, is: 1. To place the principal lines of his work on the IREEGULAR TROOPS. 134 I80L£. most commanding points of the site, and in such di- rections as to bring the exterior ground to be swept in a position slopiiig towards tliese lines in such a manner that they can bring tlieir entire fire to bear upon it, or else" bring a portion of it to sweep it in front. This will generally behest effected by placing the salient points of the work on the most commanding and salient points of the site; as, in this position of the .salients, the faces, wliich are usually the prin- cipal lines bearing on the exterior ground, will oc- cupy the salient and commanding portions of the site, whilst the re-entcrings, being thrown on the re- entering and lower portions of the site, will be in the best position for sweeping the ground innnediately in the advance of the faces by a Hank fire ; and at the same time these re-enterings will be masked by the faces from the enemy's view, and thus preserved from serious injury up to the moment when their ac- tion mav be rendered most effective ; that is when tlie eneiTiy. despite the fire from the faces, lias suc- ceeded in planting himself upon point on which this fire cannot longer be brought to bear. To carry these precepts iutopractice, a wide margin is left to the engineer's judgment in which he will find it nec- e.ssary"in some cases to extend the lines of his works beyond what a strict regard to economy might pr^ scribe, so as to include within his defenses ground' from wliich he can best sweep what is exterior to it, or wliich, being occupied by the assailant, might make his own "position less tenable, in this way necessarily forcing him to extend out his lines so as to embrace all tlie crests within them that over- look the valleys beyond them; and in very many ca- ses to throw his own lines further back in order to avoid enfilading or plunging viewsfroin points which are too. far to" be brought within his defenses. 2. The condition of leaving no dead spaces, that is. no point of the defenses vuiguarded by their fire, will depend in a great degree for its fulfilment on the same rule as the preceding. But where both conditions cannot be satisfied, the distant defense should be sac- rificed to the near; as upon the latter tlie moreorless of obstinacy of resistance depends: since the fire of the work aiid the action of the garrison are the more effective as the point to be guarded is the nearer to the defenses. 3. The condition that the troops and materiel within the defenses shall be sheltered from the enemy's fire, from all coininanding points with- out, will depend upon the relative positions of the principal lines and the exterior commanding points; and as far, therefore, as it can be done, without sacri- ficing either of the preceding and more important condTtions.thepIanof the work should be so arranged that tlie principal lines shall present themselves in tlie most favorable direction to the exterior ground to avoid plunging, enfilading, or reverse views upon their terre-pleins from any point of it. To effect these objects, when the work is in the vicinity of commanding heights within cannon range, and the crests of these lieiglits. as seen from the wcirk. present a nearly horizontal mitliue, the principal lines of the work, fronting the heights, should receive a direction as nearly parallel as prac- ticable to that of the commanding crests. >Vhen the outline of the crests jiresents a nearly continuous line, but one which declines or .slopes lowanls the site of the work, the principle lines towards the height should receive a direction converging to- ward the point when; flic line of the crests, as seen, if prolonged, would join the site. The reasons for the positions assigned to the principle lines in these cases respectively, may not, at a first glance, be ob- vious ; but by examining the relative positions of the crests of the heights and of the principal lines, as Jiere laid down, it will willmut dilfieulty be seen that they can be brought in the same plane, and the latter be so jilaced as to give a nearly uniform com- mand to the parapets of the iirincipal lines over the site; an<l that by keeping the terre-pleins of these lines in planes parallel to the one in which thecresta of the heights and those of the parapets are held, and at suitable levels below it, the parapets will lie made to cover the terre-pleins from the fire of the heights in the simplest manner. The foregoing general methods for determining the direction of the princi- pal lines fronting commanding heights, so as to cover from direct fire, in the easiest manner, by their parapets, the space to the rear, occupied by the troops and tnuteriel, present, at the same time, the simplest cases of the adaptation of the plan of a work to the features of the locality, to subserve the object in view. In most cases, all that can be done is to avoid giving such directions to any of the prin- cipal lines, as shall be favorable to enfilading or re- verse views of the enemy ; which may be effected by so placing them that tlieir prolongations shall fall on points where the enemy cannot establish his works; or those which, if occupied by him, will afford dis- advantageous positions for his batteries either for enfilading or reverse fires. As the attack derives its great advantage from its enveloping position, by which enfilading views and a concentrated fire can be brought to bear on the assailed point, so, in the general disposition of his defenses, the engineer should endeavcr ro reduce these salient and assaila- ble points to the fewest number, and to accumulate upon them such surplus strength that in spite of their natural weakness they will cost their assailant a great deal of time and a large sacrifice of means to get possession. This consideration has led engineers to propose for the general outline of their defensive pol}'gon a triangle in which the princijial develop- ment of their work being a number of fronts on a right line, they can neither be enveloped nor their principal lines be enfiladed bj' the assailant's trench- es, thus 1 caving* only the three angular points as assailable, and wdiich the)' propose to strengthen by an accumulation of works upon them. See FortiJU ratiiin. and Pe)-mnnfnt Fortifirativn. IRREGULAR TROOPS. — Troops which, though in the pay of a nation, do not belong to the regular forces. In the British arm_v there are no .such troops. In India there are two or three irregular forces, comjiosed of cavalry and infantry, for the protection of native states. The present native cav- alry regiments in her Majesty's Indian army were originally raised as irregular troops. They found their own horses, arms, clothing, etc., for which they received a certain monthly sum; but this has been modified of late years, and they are no longer stvled irregular cavalry. "ISABELLA.— The Order of Isabella the Catholic is a Spanish Order of Knighthood founded by Ferdinand VII. in 1815. as a reward of loyalty, and for the defense of the possessions of Span- ish America. It is now conferred for all kinds of merit. The Sov- ereign is the head of the Order, which is divided in to the three classes of GrandCrosses,Command- ers, and Knights. IHSOCHRONISM.— A pendulum is isoclininiiiis when its vilirations are performed in ecpial times, whether these vibralicms be large or small ; but it can only possess this pro- perty by being constrained to move in a cycloidal arc. This is man- aged by causing the string to wrap and unwrap itself round two ei|ual cycloidal cheeks, the diameter of whose generating circle is e(|iial to halflenglh of ]icnduluiii. Isocliron- ism is closely approximated in ]inictic(' liy causing the pendulum to descrilie a very small <ircul;ir arc. ISOLE. — A word used among the French, to ex- press any thing which is detached from another. It is variously applied in fortification: As, for instance, a OtinT of Isaljella the Cathalio. IS9MERISM. 135 ITINEaABY. parapet is wiiil In lio wife when llicrc is an interval of 4 or 5 feet cxislini; between the rampart am! its wall, wliicli interval serves as a patli fortlie nMniils. ISOMERISM. Isomeric li Mlies may he eoiisidered as naturally div ilcil into pliysi<'al i.somerNaiiil eliemi- cal isomers. Tlie pliysieal are more strictly or per- fectly isomeric than tlie clii'mical, and on accoiinl of their similiar molecular or radical composition when they are subjected to the action of dilTerent forces or reaiient.s exhibit tlur same liehavior. Thus there are several hydrocarl)ons known as tcrpenes, havini; the- coin posit ion C!,,, II ,„, as the oils of lemon, lieri,'iimot. and tiirpi'iiline, which show the same reactions under the inllucnce of chemical ai;ents, except their dilfer- encc of odor and action orpolari/ed lii;ht. Chenncal isomers merely, do not carry their isomerism so far, for allhi>ni;h they may have the same proportion of elements, and also the same molecular weii;lit. they do not <'Xliibil the same behiivinr undiT rcairculs. Thus, till' molecular formula, < ', ll,,( )^, reiiresentstlircc dilTerent bodies which decompose dilferently when acted upon by caustic alkalies. ]iroprionic acid.C., IIjO.IU), beinj; cimvcrtedat common tem|)eratnres iutoproi)riouate of potassium. CjlIjO.KO. Acetate of methyl, CjlIjO.CHjO. is not chanffed at ordinary temperatures by caustic potasli.l ml wlien heated with it, acetate of potassium and mcthylic idcohol are i)rn- duced. As^ain, formate of ethyl, ('ll(),('„llr,(), when heated witli caustic potash, is chanircd into for- ate of potassium, t'iI(),K(). and ethyl alcohol, CjHjHO. These chemical isomers are the metameres mentioned in the preceding article, their behavior dependini^ upon the manner in which orj^anic radi- cals enter into their composition. Another class of these bodies arc called jioh meres. ISOMETRIC PROJECTIOM. A kind of drawing used by engineers for purpo.ses of construction. It is an orthographic projection in which one plane or pro- jection is employed, and therefore the ineasurement is without legard to the rules of perspective, the plane of the drawing being supposed to be at an in- tinite distance from the eye. It is used to delineate structures whose principh' lines are parallel to three rectangular axes, and the plane of projection makes eqiuil angles with these axes, which are calleii co- ordinate axes, and the planes, taken two and two, arc called co-ordinate planes. The plane of projec- tion passes through the point of intersection of the three axes, and this point is the center of projection. The projections of the co-ordinate axes are the di- recting lines of the proj<'Ction. and form equal angles of 1308 with each other. ISSUE.— A term applied to the distribution of ra- tions and supplies. In the British service, /.v.w^,i are certain sums of money which are, at stated periods, given to ])ublic accountants for public service; and for the honest distribution of which, every individ- ual so intrusted is responsible to Parliament. Hegi- mental issues ure moneys jtaid by regimental agents, acting i:ndcr the authority of their respective Col- onels, for regimental purposes. ITALIAN ARMY. Italy, like most of the Contin- ental Nations, has adopted the compulsory .system in raising her Army, similar to France and Germany. The yearly contingent is put down at 100.000 men, 70.000 of which serve in the lirst category or active array. In this, they remain for 3 years (in the cav- alry 5 years); 5 in tlie reserve of the active Army, and 4 in the mobile miliria. The length of service there- fore is altogether 13 years, and the age of joining the colors is 18 years. The men who have not been called to do duty in the active service form the second category, in which they have to serve 5 years in the reserve of the active armyand4in themilitia. They are only as.scmbled for a few months everv year. By the "law of the 30th September, 1S73. Italy- is divided into 7 military commands or army corps. five of which have 2 and two 3 military territorial di- visions. Each military division consists of from I to 6 military districts, giving a total of 10 territorial | ili visions and 02 military ilistricls. Further, the king- dom is divided into (i commands of artillery, of 1 or 2 divisions eacii flotal 12) anci into r-ommands of engineers of 2 or 3 divisions (total lti^ The laml ter- ritorial forces comprise V\u; ]ii rmmu iit army a\\i\ the imihili' militiii. The ptrmmieut army consists of the slalT, the artillery, and engineers, the infantry, the cavalry, a cor|)S of //emliii-mirie, him] the civil depart- ments (commissariat, medic.'d administratives. etc.) The ■mnhili' iniliziii. comprizes 232 battalions of infan- try, 24 com|)anies of rilles, 15 ccmipanii-s of lnrHagli- eri, and 40 companies of field and 20 batteries of siege artillery, together with lOcompanies of engin- eers. By this system, it is computed that Italy can place uiider arms the following numbers : Active army, Syr.,'.)")! ; Keserve. 148,004; Mo/iile militia, 21^.- 873; total, 823,827 men. These forces in wartime are organized into 20 divisions, forming 10 Corpii (I'Ariiiii . ITALIAN SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— A system of fortilication constructed on the interior polygon. The front, from 350 to 300 yards, was divided into six equid p;irts: the flanks perpen<lieuhir toil were equal to ,',, and the curtain to ; of the whole length. The Hanks were peri)enilicular to the curtain becau.se fortresses were not unfrecpiently attacked on the cur- lain before the inventii>n of the ravelin ; anil the faces of the bastions were directed so as to receive flank defense from the curliiin. The ditches werr deep and wide, with counterscarp panUlel to the faces of the bastions and marking part of the flank defense. The revetments were high, from 40 to .50 feet, rather massive iind much exposed, since the besiegers could see from 15 to 17 feet of the masonry from a distance. ITINERARY.— A rough sketch of the country through which troops have to march; giving the roads and villages; not ing the numlier of inhabitants and houses, whether of stone, brick or wood; and conveying as much information of thecountry as can be gathered in a short space of time. In the United States Army, the Commanding Offi- cer of every body of troops ordered to march selects a competent person — preferably a Commissioned Officer — to whom is intrusted the special duty of mak- ing the field-notes and sketches, and keeping the journal necessary for the preparation of a map and report of the route traversed. The person so selected is, if possible relieved of a part of his routine duties to enalile him to give due attention to this subject. The Commanding Officer daily, or more frequently if necessary, inspects and verifies the notes and jour- nals. If there be no competent suljordiuate to per- form the duty, the Commanding Officer himself makes the notes and keeps the journal. When a detachment leaves the main column, the point on the '■route" is noted, and the reason given in the rt marks. The Commander of the Detacliment sees that the notes and journals are continued over his new line of march, and after its completion transmits them to the Commanding Officer of the main body. On the completion of the march, the notes and journals are sent, through the regular channels, to the Depart- ment Headqu;irters, where their contents are em- bodied upon the maps in course of preparation there. The notes and journals are then forwarded to the Chief of Engineers at Washington. Suitable instru- ments and note-books for use in keeping itineraries of march are obtained through the officer on Engin- eer duty at the Heachpiarters of Geographical l)e- partments. who from time to time renews his sup- ply by requisition on the Chief of the Corps of En- gineers. The name Itinerary was given by the Romans to a table of the stages between two places of importance, with the distances from one to another. The itineraries of the ancients contribute much toour acijuainlance with ancient geography. Of these, the most import- ant are the ft'neraria Antonini and the Itinerarium Iliercisulym ita n u m . The Itiiuraria A n Omin i are two in number, the Itinerarium Provinciarum and the JACABANDA WOOD. 136 JACOBINS. lUnerarium Marinnm, the former containing tiie routes tlirough the Komiin provinces in Europe, Asia aid Africa ; and tlie latter the principal routes of navigators, who then sailed onl}' along the coasts. They take their name from Antoninus Caracalla.by whom thev were published, as corrected up to his time, but they seem to have been originally prepared at an earlier date. The Itinerarium Jiierusolymitanum was drawn up 333 a. d., for the use of pilgrims from Burdigala (Bordeaux) to Jerusalem. Of these itine- raries, various editions have been published. See Journak ufMavoh, J JACAKANDA WOOD.— A very hard, heavy, brown wood, also called rosewood, from its faint agreeable smell of roses. It is brought from South America, and is produced by several trees of the genus jam- randa, of the natural order bignoiuMea. Several species of this genus are called earoba in Brazil, and are there accounted anti-syphilitic. Several species of the nearly allied genus Ucoma also have an ex- tremely hard wood, as .T. pentap?ii/Ua. a native of the Caribbean Islands. The Brazilian Indians make their bows of the wood of T. toxiph>/ra or pno (farw. All varieties are very -desirable for gun-stocks, etc. JACK.— A pompoint. or quilted tunic, made of leather and well padded. It was worn by foot sol- diers in the 14th century. ^Vlso written Jaqiie, and the name of a form of liabergmn worn in the 16th century. JACK BOOTS.— Tall boots of tough, thick leather, reaching above the knee, and formerly worn by cavalry. In some instances, as an additional pro- tection against sword-cuts, they were lined with thin plates of iron. The only regiments in the Brit- ish service which still retain these handsome but cumbrous boots are the Life Guards and Royal Horse-Guards. JACKET.— 1. In the manufacture of ordnance, a tube inclosing and reinforcing another tube. 2. A short and close military coat, extending downward to the hips. Commonly called Shell-jacket. JACK IN THE BOX.— A handy engine, consisting of a large wooden male screw turning in a iemale screw, which forms the upper part of a strong wood- en box, shaped like the frustum of a pyramid. It is used, by means of levers passing throagh holes in it. as a press in packing, and for other purposes in the arsenal and laboratory. JACK SCREW. — A machine for raising heavy weio-hts, chiefly buildings of various kiuds,as houses and^bips. It has various forms, the most powerful being a differential screw. The most convenient form" however, is a single screw and net, the inclined plane of the screw being as near a horizontal as is con- sistent with the thieknesB of the thread and diame- ter of the screw. Other devices of the kind are em- ployed, as the hydraulic jack. The drawing shows what is known in the arsenal as th e " Ra pid Moving Screw Jack," so called, because ' the screw, when the load is off, can be raised immediately to any desired point, and when up can be as quickly let down; thus saving the tedious operation of turning the screw up and down as in all the other screw jacks. To raise the screw to any de- sired height for the work, it is only necessary to lift the same by 'taking hold of the lever; to lower it.'take liold of one of the handles with the left liaiid, and inclining the jack to iin iuigle of about 4.') degrees, wilh the ether hand holding the lever, let the screw down. Tlu^ two segmental nuts ar( made of gun metal, and are supported on steel pint moving in angular slots so as to allow them in and out of the gear. The frame, lever, ratchet and cap are made of malleable iron, and the pawl of cast steel. The following sizes and weights are usually employ- ed for artillery purposes : No. Height 22 Raif*e. Bar. Weiaht. Caaclty . 24 11 2 in. 48 lbs. H tons, 2.5 27 15 2H " 90 ■• 30 " 27 36 24 2K " 137 " 30 •' 26 29 14 3 " 210 " 50 " No. 26 is provided with a detachable hook for ground lifting and bridge-work. See Hydraulic Jatk. JACK TREE.— A well-known tree in India. It yields an excellent timber, first j-ellow, fading to brown, hard and brittle, resembling satin ; warps if not properly seasoned. A cubic foot of unseasoned wood weighs 50 lbs. The timber is used in the Bombay arsenals for packing-cases. The fruit of this tree is very much esteemed by the natives in the southern parts of India. JACK WAMBASIUM.— A sort of coat armor, former- ly worn by horsemen, not of solid iron, but of many plates fastened together, which some persons by ten- ure were bound to furnish upon any invasion. JACOBINS. — The members of a political club which exercised a very great influence during the French Revolution. It was originally called the (Jlub Bre- ion, and was formed at Versailles, when the States- General assembled there in 1789. It then consisted ex- clusively of members of the States-General, all more ox less liberal or revolutionary, but of verj' different shades of opinion. On the removal of the Court and National Assembly to Paris, this club began to ac- quire importance. It now met in a hall of the for- mer Jacobin Convent in Paris, whence it received the name of the Jacobin club, which was first given toil by its enemies; the name which it adopted being that of the Society af Friends of the Constitution. It now also admitted members who were not members of the National Assembly, and held regular, and public sittings. It exercised a great influence over the agi- tation, of which the chief seat and focus was in the capital, and this influence was extended over the whole country by afliliated societies. Its power in- oreased until it became greater than that of the Na- tional Assembly. It formed branch societies of clubs throughout France, of which there were soon not less thiui i200. When the National Assembly dissolved itself in September, 1791, the election of the Legisla- tive Assembly was mainly accomplished imder the iniluence of the Jacobin Club. Almost all the great events which followed in rajjiil succession were de- termined by the voice of the Club, whose delibera- tions were regarded with more interest than those of the Legislativ<' Assembly. It reached the zenith of its power when the National Convention met in Sept., 1792. The agitation for the death of the King, the storm which destroyed the Girondists, the excite- ment of the lowest classes against the bourgeoisie or middle classes,and the reign of t<'rror over all France, were the work of the Jacobins. But the overthrow of U(ilics]iierre on the !tth Thermidor. 17!t4. gave also the deathblow to the Jacobin Club. The magic of its imm<' was dc^stroyed ; and the Jacobins sought in vain to contend against a reaction which increased JACOBITES. 137 JAUES FEOJECTIUE. daily l)olli in tlic r'unvi'iilinn himI iimonix llii' people. A liiw of Oct. l(i forl)ii(lc llic iidlliiition of cIijIih, anil on Nov. it, 17i)4. tli<! .lacoliin ( liili wasliiiallv elosed. IIh plai'C of ineel.iim was soon afler <lciMoliHlieil. The term .laeol)iiiH \h often enijiloycii to (le.sii^nale persons of exireini' revolutionary Hentinitnts. JACOBITES. - Tlie name };iveM to the adherents of tlie male line of tile ilonse of Stnart in (Jreal lirituin and Ireland after the Hevolulion of KiHH. Many of the most <levoted royalists followed James II. intr^ France; hot the {greater part of the Jacobites ri'niain. in;; in their native land made a trreater or less show of snhniission to the new f;overninent, while they secretly supported the cau.se of tlie Pretender. Their intrij^ues and conspiracies were incessant till the mid- dle (if the IHth century. Their hostility to the House of Hanover broke out in rebellions in ITLTand 174.'), in consi|uei)ce of which not a few of them lost their lives upon the scall'old, titles were attainted, and es- tali's contiscateil. After 174.') their cause became so obviously hopeless that their activity in a irreat meas- ure ceased; and it was not lonirtill it ceased altogeth- er, and those who still retained their alla<hn;ent to the exiled family aciiuieseed in the order of thinffs established by the Revolution. In Scotland, the liojies and wishes of the .laeobite I'arty were expressed in inany spirited souses, which form an intereslini; part of the national literature. The Jacobites of England were also '/'on'r.s. They were generally distiiiLCuishcd by warm attachment to the Church of Kngland, as opposed to all dissent, if they were not members of the t'hurch of Home, and held very stronu:ly the doc- trine of iioii-rexintiiiicf, or the duty of absolute sub- mission to the King. The Jacobites of Scotland were also generally Episcopalians and Roman Catholics. Macaulay, however, points out that the Highland clans which espoused the Jacobite cause did so on other grounds than the English Jacobites, and were far from having previously received the doctrine of non- resistance. In Ireland, the Jacobite cause was that also of lh(^ Cells, as opposed to the Saxons, or the native race against the English ColoniiiU, and of the Roman Catholics against the Protestants. These di- versities prevented a complete union, and greatly we.'ikened the .lacoliites. JACOB'S LADDER.— 1. A term originally applied on shipboard to a short rope-ladder with wooden steps, to give easy access to the shrouds and tops, but latterly applied to any short ladder of similar construction used in fortification for passing from one level to another, in the absence of ramps, etc. 3. An ap- paratus for raising light weights a considerable height. One form nuich used in arsenals and lab- oratories is shown in the drawing and consists of an endless chain of buckets, tilling themselves at the bottom of the chain, and emptying at the top. JACQUERIE. — The name given to the insurgent peasants in France in the middle of the 14th cen- tury, in the reign of John. The insurrection of the Jacquerie broke out in the year ]3.')8, when the French King was a prisoner in England, and France in a state of the greatest disorder and anarchy. The immediate occasion of it was the enormities perpe- trated by Charles the Bad, King of Navarre, and his adherents; but it was really caused by long-con- tinued oppression on the part of the Nobles. Sud- denly rising against their Lords, the pea.sauts laid hundreds of castles in ruins, murdered the Nobles, and violated their wives and daughters, practicing every enormity, and acting, as fhey said, on the principle of doing as had been done to them. The insurrection broke out in the neighborhood of Paris, but extended to the banks of the ^ilarne and the Oise. For some weeks this part of France was entirely at their mercy : but the magnitude of the danger induced the (juarrelsomc Nobles to make common cause against them, and on June 9 the peasants were defeated with great slaughter near Meaux l)y Captal de Buch and (iaston Phebus. Count of Foix. This put an end to the insurrection. JADE. — A name somewhat vaguidy applied to a nuiid)c'r of ndnerals not vi-ry dissimilar nephrite, axestone, 8er|ieiitine, I'tc. N'ephrile and axestone appear to be the miner:ils of wliich j'tdf ornamentH ari! generally made. But Yi', or Chinese jade, of which very beautiful vases and other articles are made in China, is supposed to be prehnite. Jade of all kinds has a greenish color, and when i)olished, has a rathiT dull and greasy aspect. Jade is much used in Polanii and Turkey for the handles of swords and sabers. JAGHIRE. - An Indian term, signifying the assign- ment of the reveinies of a district to a servant or de- pendent of government, who \s vii\Ui\ Jin/liirdtir. Jag- hires are frequently given in India to persons asa re- ward and comjjeMsation for their mi/itary Bcrvice.s. Jar/hi >■!• Ax/iii/it is a term signifying land granted for the support of troops. JALONS,- Long poles with wisps of straw at the top. They are fixed atdiiTerent i)la<es and in dilfer- ent roads, to serve as signals of observation to ad- vancing colinnns, when the country is inclosed, etc. They are likewise used as ('amp colors to mark out the ground on days of exercise. JAMBEAUX.— Armor for the leps, made of waxed leather or metal, anil much woni intheMiddle Ages. Commoid\' written ./'/////".''. Set; (irfavfH. JAMES OF THE SWORD.— The Military Order of Saint James of the Sword was tirst instituted in Spain, in tlie reign of Ferdinand II. King of Leon and Galli- cia. In the tirst instance it was organized with a view to stopping the inroads of the Jloors, and its mem- bers pledged themselves to secure 'the safet)' of the roads. They entered into a league with the Brethren of St. Eloy, and the Order was confirmed by the Pojie in in.'j. The highest rank intheOrder istliat of (Jrand Master, which is united to the Crown of Spain. The Knights were obliged to prove their noble descent at least four generations back, and to show that they numbered among their ancestors no Jews, Saracens, or Heretics, and had never been cited by the Inquisi- tion. JAMES PROJECTILE.— A cyliudro-conoidal mis- sile of cast-iron, having a compound envelop of canvas-sheet-tin, and lead, called packing, encir- cling nearly the entire length of the body of the cylinder. 'The canvass being the external portion of the packing, is well saturated with a tallow lub- ric, which renders the loading easy, and cleans the gun at each discharge. The head of the projectile may be solid, or, if it has a prepared cavity, the missile then becomes a shell. The average weight of the projectile for a 4'2-pounder gun is, if a solid, 81J lbs., if a shell, G4J lbs., of which in either case (il lbs. is the weight of the packing. Its length is 13 inches, of which V>\ inches is the measurement of the conical head, and GJ inches is the length of its cylindrical body. The diameter of the cylinder is designed to be Ci| inches, or \ of an inch less than the bore of a 42-pounder gun. It retains its full di- ameter with accuracy for i of an inch of its length at each end ; then for the intermediate space, tlie diameter is shortened half an inch, thereby forming a recess round the body of the cylinder, between the ends. Fig. 1. The shortening of the diameter, and consequent loss of iron to the circumference of the body of the cylinder, is replaced by the before-named packing, when the projectile is prepared for use, Fig. 2. The solidity of the conical head is contin- ued into, and forms the solid end of the cylinder. The base, or opposite end of projectile, has a central orifice, of 3| inches in diameter, which extends 2i inches into the cylinder; and from which ten rec- tangular openings diverge (like the mortises for spokes in tlie hub of a wlieclj, through the body, to the periphery of the cylinder, in the recess of its cir- cumference. The packing is formed by a plate of sheet tin, of the length of the greatest circle of the cylinder : and in wrdth, equal to the length of the recess caused b3" the shortening of the diameter. JAM -NUT. 138 JANUAEIUS. This plate of tin is laid on a piece of strong canvas, which is two inches wider, but of the same length of the plate ; and the canvas is folded over the side edges of tlie plate, and tirmly secured Ijy cross sew- ing. The tin plate, when so prepared, or half cov- ered, is folded round the body of the missile in the recess, and retained in position by an iron collar clamp. The space between the inner surface of the envelop and the body of the cylinder is filled with melted lead, which, adhering to the tiu and iron, forms a compact mass round the body of the projec- tile. When the charge is fired, the power or gas gen- erated by the burning of the powder, in its effort to expel the projectile'and to escape from the gun, is forced into the orifice in the base of the missile, and tlirough the ten openings against the packing. FIG. 2. AFTER THB APPLICA- TION OF THE PACKING, AND READY For USE. a.b.c.d. Beltof canvas, tin, aiid lead, called packing. e. Orifice in base, leadint; to recces. PIG. 1. Bi^FOUE THE APPLICA TIO.N OF THE PACKING. a. Baud ?4 inch wide at ends of cylinder. b.c,d. Recess round body of cylinder, m. Rectangular openings through to recess. n. Orifice in base, leading to the recess. which is thereby pressed into the grooves, in the gun's bore, and by its firm hold in them the rifle motion is imparted to the projectile. When the projectile is a shell, its fuse-orifice is in its head and axis. The length of the orifice for a 4'3-pounder shell is 2| inches. For two inches of its length, its diameter is 1 inch, and for the remainder of the length, the diameter is reduced to J of an incli ; forming a shoulder in the fuse-orifice, to prevent the fuse-plug from being driven into the cavity of the shell, when, by firing, the missile is expelled from the gun. The threads of a female screw are cut in the head of the fuse-orifice for the reception of tlie body of the fuse-orifice cap. This cap is of brass. Its diameter is an inch, its length half an inch ; its head is convexed, and has a slot cut in it for the re- ception of a screw-driver ; the base cud is deeply cupped to admit the nipple of a musket cone, and to give more play to the fuse-plug. The fu.se-plug is of wrought iron, surmounted by a musket cone ; and its action in the fuse-orifice is like the ordinary working of a piston. Its lengtli is !{ inches, of which the quarter is the leagth of its shoulder. The diameter of its shoulder and body, is very nearly the same as the two diameters of the fuze-orifice. Its vent is in its axis, and in size to receive the male screw of the musket cone. The threads of a female screw are <'ut in tlu- head end of tlie vent of sufficient length to receive the screw end of the said cone- When the shell is loaded, care shoidd be taken not to overfill its cavity, and thereby prevent the work- ing of the fuse-plug. The powdershould be cleaned from the fuse-orifice ; the plug should be oiled toen- sure its free and sure action. Its cone should be capped, but before the aiiplication the itercu.ssion cap should lie carefully examined to see that it is [lerfect, and of th(^ best (juality. The fuse-plug, when so prepared, is then inserted into the fuse-orifice, and it should enter freely, but not by its own weight un- til the shoulders of the fuse-plug and orifice are in contact. The cap for the fuse-orifice should be then firmly screwed in, which completes the charging of the shells. If after the shell is loaded the fuse-plug should be disturbed tiy handling; that is. if the plug has slidden forward, it will be forced back to its proper position by the impulse given to the missile, by the firing of tlie gun charge ; and it will so remain during the flight, until the shell impinges against any hard substance ; as ground, wood, etc., which, by obstructing the progress of tlie missile, causes the fuse-plug to slide forward with violence, and by the collision of the cone's point against the bottom of the fuse-orifice cap-plug, the percussion cap on the cone will be exploded, and the bursting charge of the shell fired. See Expanding Projectiles. JAM-NUT. — A nut of frequent occurrence in the construction of artillery carriages. the elevating gears, etc. See Lork-niit. JANGAK. — A kind of ponton constructed of two boats with a platform laid across them, which is used by the natives in the East Indies to convey horses, supplies, etc., across rivers. JANISSARIES— JANIZAEIES.— A Turkish military force, originally formed by the Osmanli Sultan Ork- lian, about 1330, of young Christian prisoners com- pelled to embrace Mohammedanism ; and more per- fectly organized by Sultan Amurath I. after 1362, when the number was raised to about 10,000, and especial privileges were conferred on them. They were for some time recruited from Christian prison ers. but their privileges soon induced many young Turks to seek admission into their body. There were two classes of Janizaries, one regularly organized, dwelling in barracks in Constantinople and a few other towns, and whose number at one time amount- ed to 60,000, but was afterwards reduced to 35,000 ; and the other composed of irregular troops, called Jamaku, scattered throughout all the towns of the Empire, and amounting in number to 300,000 or 400,- 000. At the head of the whole Janizary force was the Aga of the Janizaries, whose power was limited only by the danger of revolt, and extended to life and death. The Janizaries were always ready to break out into deeds of violence if their pay or perquisites were withheld. In times of peace they acted as a po- lice force. They served on foot; generally formed the reserve of the Turkish Army, and were noted for the wild impetuosity of their attack. The Sultan's body-guard was formed of them. The Janizaries, however, soon began to be very unruly ; and their history abounds in conspiracies, assassinations of Sul- tans, Viziers, Agas, etc., and atrocities of every kind; so that, by degrees, they became more dangerous to the Sultans than any foreign enemies. Theattempts of the Sultans to reform or dissolve them were always unsuccessful, till Sultan Mahmoud II., in 1826. being opposed in some of his measures liy the Janizaries in Constantinople, displayed the flag of the prophet, and succeeded in arousing on liis own behalf the fan- atical zeal of other portions of his troops. The Jani- zaries, deserted by their Aga and other principal offi- cers, who remained faithful to the Sultan, were de- feated and their barracks burned, when 8,000 of them perished in the flames. A proclamation of June 17, 1826, declared the Janizary force forever dissolv- ed. All opposition was defeated with bloodshed. Not fewer than I.'), 000 were executed, and more than 20,- 000 were banished. JANUARIUS.— The order of Saint Januarius was founded by Iviug Charles of Sicily (afterward Char- les in. of Spain), on July 6, 1738. It was abolished after the Kri'nrh Invasion of 180{i, and reintroduced in 1.S14. The badge is a gold octagonal white and red enameled cross, with gold lilies in tlie upper and side angles. The obverse represents St. Januarius in episcopal robes, with an open book. The round middle of the reverse shows a golden open book, and two ])liials partly filled with blood. The Knights are either Ciirnlicri di Oinxtiziii. who must count four noble generations, or Cavalieri di Urazia. JAPANNING. 139 JEWEL TABOET. JAPANNINO — A lalioratnry prowss, civin^; acfiat- infi iif viirnisli uiid dllicr iiwilcrials to (•crliuii mitnu- factiircs, by wliicli a rrsciiil)liiiicc is |]riiiliii-ccl to the bcaulifiil lac(|iR'r('(l wares of Japan and Cliina. Tho tfnn in more ficncrally applicil in tliiscoMnlry to me- tal works upon wliicli a (larli-coiored varniKli \n ap- plied with lieat ; Imt the proress is quite as exten- sively applied to papier-mache works. The japanninj; material consists of aniuu' or copal varnish, alone, or mixeil with ivory-lihu'k, to [jroduce a lilack ja])an; or with aspljalt, to produce a dark or li;:hl brown, accordinj; to the <pianlily used. Forliimeil wares, a sinjrle coating is all that is usually given. After be- ing varnished they an' put into a iu'aled oven for a time, after which they are ready for use; but in the case of more substantial artick'S several coats of var- nish are applied, each lieing dried in the oven pre- vious to the ap])licatioii of the next, so that a coating of sulUcient substance to b<-ar polishing is thus oli- tained. Hotten-stonc- and Tripoli jiowilcr are used by the polisher, and a beautiful surface is ol)tained, in no respect inferior to that of polished jet. The polishing powders arc at first applied with leather, but the linishing is d<me by women, wlio use the palms of their hands only, with small quantities of Tripoli. JAT8 JAUTS.— The name of a people of Hindu- stan, tirst mentioned in history at thebeginntng of the ! 1th century. They opposed the invasion of Jfah- moud the Gazne Vide, and arc said to have gathered a fleet of as many as 8,000 boats in the Indus, where they were attacked by the invader and completely defeated. In the reign of Aurungzebe, the Jats ap- peared as banditti in the mountains in the interior of India. They increased in strength and daring, until they tinall}' became formidable, and under their Chief, Sooraje Mull, even dictated the policy of the Mogul Court. The invasion of northern India by Ahmed Shah, Sovereign of Cabul, put an end to the prestige of Sooraje Mull, who, after allying himself to the Mahrattas, deserted them before the battle of Panniput, and joined Ahmed Shah. Ilis services on the occasion of this battle were rewarded by the pos- session of Agra and its district. At the time of the establishment of British power in northern India, the since celebrated Kunjeet Singh was Hajah of the Jats, and by a treaty with Lord Lake, was permitted to remain in control of his territories without paying tribute. Disagreement between the English author- ity and that of the Kajah brought about a conflict, and early in 1826 the almost impregnable fortress of Deeg, the stronghold of the Jats, was invested by a large force of Britisli soldiers under Lord Comber- mere. On Jan. 18 the fortress was stormed and cap- tured, and the power of the Jats was at an end. JAVELIN. — A short and light spear used for dart- ing against an enemy. In the R(>man legion, the first and second lines ("the hastati and the principes) were both armed with two javelins to each man. Each javelin was in all about Oj ft. in length: the shaft 4i ft. long, of tougli wood, an inch in diame- ter; and the remainder given to the barbed pyramidal head. In action, the legionary hurled one javelin on the enemy at the first onset ; the second h^ retained as a defense against cavalry. The Goths and other barbarians used a javelin. At present, javelins are used in Europe in hunting the boar, and Ijy many savage nations in ordinary hunting. Theassegai of the Caffre is a javelin of native iron. JAZESAN. — \ coat of scale armor, first worn in the Middle Ages. This garment was sleeveless and somewhat lighter than the hauberk. Commonly ■written Jazerant. JEFFREY POJECTILE.— In this projectile, the lead is affixed to the rear of the projectile by dovetails, into which it is cast: a hollow, resembling that of the Minnie bullet, is 'eft at the bottom, for the pur- pose of causing the lead to be driven into the riflins. A wad or covering, consisting of tiannel coated with soft soap, IS wrapped around the rear of the projec- tile, to facilitate loading, decrease windage, and lu- bricate the bore. JELOUDAB. An East Indian term, signifying to bi'loiiL' In Ibi- train or equipage. JEUADAB. A native ofticer in the Indian Army, whose position corresponds with tliat of a subaltern in a company of Euroi)ean infantry. The name is also given to the heail man of a nativi establishment in a factory, and indeed to any man who exercises authoritv over a number or gang of men. JE MAINTIEDEAI. Tlic motto of the House of Nassau. When William HI. came to the throne of England, he continued this, but added the "liberties of England and the I'rotestant religion, " at the same time ordering that the old motto of the royal arms, " Dieu et mon droit " should be retained on the great seal. IfiHi). JENIZEB EFFENDI.— An appointment among the Turks, which in some degree resembles that of Pro- vost-Marshal in European armies. The only func- tions which this officer is permitted to exercise are those of judge to the company. He sits on partic- ular days for the purpose of hearing the complaints of the soldiers, and of settling their difTerences. If a case of peculiar difficulty should occur, he reports the case to the Aga, whose opinion and determina- tion are final. JENNIFEE SADDLE.- A saddle very extensively used in the Tnited States and other countries, prior to the invention of the Wliitman Kiddle. While con- sidered one of the best saddles in its time, it had the serious defects of being too short in the scat, too short in the bearing, and too much rounded on its iinder side, inclining it too "rock" and sore the back in the center; also sharp pommel and too straight in cantle. JERKIN. — A buff military coat, on which was worn a light collar. The jerkin took the place of armor towards the end of the 16th century. JERBID.— A slender javellin used as a dart by the soldiers of the East, in the Midde lAges. JESSANT.— In Heraldry. springing forth. a term fre- quently used as sj'nonymous with 'Iiixuant, rising, as a demi-lion is often represented doing, from the bot- tom line of a field, or upper line of an ordinary. Jes- ^ sant is sometimes used improperly N A r for «'(;Vw(H<, or risinc from the mid- dle of an ordinary. The phrase,;eA- sant-de-lis is used with respect to a strange heraldic device depicting a leopard's head affronte with fleur- de-lis passing through it. The fam- ily of Jloreley, Hants, bears sable, a leopard's head argent jessant-de- Jessaat-de-Iis. ]ig . and gules, three leopard's heads jessant-de-lis or, are the arms of the family of Can- telupe. See Heraldry. JET.— 1. A term signifying the motion of any body that is urged forward by main force : it likewise means the space which is gone over by any propelled body ; and sometimes the instrument from which anything is thrown or shot ; as the cross-bow. etc. Jet den bombes is a phrase used instead of tir. which formerly expressed the course that a shell took when it was thrown out of a mortar by the power of gun- powder. 2. In pyrotechny, jfts are rocket-cases filled with a burning composition ; they are attached to the circumference of a wheel, or the end of a mov- able arm to set it in motion. JEWELS. —By an egregiously absurd and unneces- sary complication of nomenclature, introduced by way of adding dignity to the science of Heraldn.'.the tinctures of the arms of peers have sometimes been designated by the names of precious stones: argent is pearl or crystal : or, topaz; gules, ruby: azure, sap- phire; sable, diamond; vert, emerald; and purpure, amethvst. JEWEL TARGET. — A canvas target, having frame- work and machinery made of iron. The niechanis!n permits of the use o"f a target of any class bv taking JIB-CKANE. 140 JIB CHAJTB. out the frame and legs of one target and substituting therefor those of another. A frameworli supporting the target works upon a center-pin or spindle (13 inches Ions) securelj' fastened to a heavy timber at the back of the pit, and revolves the target to the right or left such distance as may be required. Wlien a shot strikes the target, tlie marker by suitable con- trivances pulls the target over, and hangs ' disk, denoting the value of the shot, in the shot-hole, patches the last hole (if any), and swings the target back into position ready for the next shot. The marker for this target is provided with small disks made of wood, tin, or iron, with hooks in the center and each side of them, and painted to represent certain values. JIB-CBANE. — The mode of operating the hoisting and traversing mechanism of the larger sizes of the Weston jib-cranes is fully explained in the article Trolleys. The details of the gearing whereby these several motions are affected are as follows. Fig. 1 is a cross-section taken at the foot of the mast of a large jib-crane. A is the mast, to each side of which is bolted a housing containing the gearing for oper- ating the two parts, X, and Y. of the main hoisting chain. Eacli of these housings is provided with a horizontal shaft, revolving upon which is the worm wheel P, the hub of which covers the entire length or left hand housing, and its contained gearing, is the same as that just described. Fig. 2, is a detail view of one of the chain wheels, R, with the chain guide, S, and stripper, V, showing Hg. I. of the pin or shaft between its bearings. Over the hub of this wheel, is tlie pocketed clmin-wheel U, with tlu'cliain stripper V, and a chain guide. .S The chain wheel is made separately from the worm wlicel to admit of easy removal and renewal when worn out. Heferring now to the right hand housing in the drawing, () is the crank shaft extending through the housing at riglit angles to the worm wheel shaft a- bove. Q is the worm, fitted upon the shaft, (), at its center, ami gearing into llie worm wheel, P. K. isa spur ])iiiii)ii, tittcil to one end of the shaft, (), and cap- able of sliding longitudinally tliereon. T isa small guide sheave over which the slack of the chain falls after passnig aniiind the lower semi-circumfcniice of the chainwheel. K. The arrangement of the opposite Fig. 2. the manner in which the chain is guided during its contact with the wheel, and the provision, by means of the stripper, V, for compelling it to leave the wheel, R, at the proper point in whichever direction the wheel is being turned. The slack part of the chain, after passing over the guide sheave, T, falls into a receptacle between the housings at the foot of the mast. The chain being endless, the two parts, X and Y, come together in the receptacle just referred to, and are there united, the amount of slack chain con- tained in the box varying with the position of the running block. Fig. 3 is a horizontal cross-section taken through both housings and the mast of the crane, the several Fig. 3. parts being designated by the same iftters in Fig. 1. M is a shaft parallel to the crank shafts, O and N extending through the mast and carr3'ing at one end the large spur wheel, L. The pinions, J, and K, as previously explained, are arranged to slip upon their shafts so as to bring them into or out of coincidence with the intermediate wheel, L, and the pinion, J, is disengaged. If now the crank be applic<i to the shaft, N, and turned in tlic projirr direction, the chain, X, will be liaided in and the load raised. The same effect will result from rotation of the shaft, O. If both be turned simultaneously, hoisting will be effected at double speed. By applying the crank to the shaft, M, motion will be communicated through th<? wheel- L, and pinion, K, to the shaft, (), and hoisting will occur at a rapi<l spei'd iirojiortionate to the relative diameters of the wheels. L and K. Three speeds are thus olitained for hoisting, all of which are equally aiiplicable to lowering by reversing the motion of the cranks. JIB-CKANE. 141 JIB C£AM£. To pffcct the prnppr travpl of the trollfy. both pin- ions, J and K, lire nlippcil into fn);iif;i''n''nt vvilli Ilic wlic(^l, L. My llicM lurMiiii? fitlicr (if tlic sliafis, Nor (), in t.lii^ proper (iiri'i'lion, oiic, purl, of llic lioistiiif; cliain, X, for cxanipli', will lie liaiili'il in. anil I lie op- posite part, y, paid out atcipial speeds, the elf eel of which is to cause the trolley to niovi' horizontally upon tlie jil). I5y applyini; the crank to the shaft, M, these motions are accelerated, and a rapid move- ment of the trolley results. Two cranks are furnished with each crane, and it is to be noted that the construction ailtnitsof the em- hloyment of both cranks upon any one of the shafts M, N. or (), so that the entire eneri,'y of all the men employed upon the crane is transmitted throuirh that shaft, while, if more, rapid action is desired, one of tile cranks may lie ])laced tipon the rii;lit hanil end of tlie shaft. N, and the other upon theo|iposite or left hand end of the shaft. (). In either case the two shafts, bein.i; on opposite sides of the crane, do not in any way interfere with one another, and are thus L with its two pininno. The worm whepls and worms are entirely contained within the two housinjrs, the upper parts of which latter are arranf;ed to liftodto li'ivi- access to the fx'''"'''if,'. Kacli of the worms runs in an oil well, thus insuring perfect lubrication, anfl each of thesis wells is provided with a ilriiina>re-lap at the bottom to draw olT the lubricant when de- sired. Fig. 4 represents a jib-crane of medium size, eacli member of the frame consistinn of two parts, separated so as toiierndl the chain luid block to pass between them, so that the load can be moved close into the mast. The lioislini^ mi'chanism is attached to tin; mast near its foot, and lh<- rutmin;; block which carries the loud, is suspended from a trolley travelling; on thi' jib and capable of movement in and out by nu'ans of independent gearing attached to the jib at its intersection with the mast Cranes of this desiirn are built of any desired capacity from 1 ton to .5 tons. The frame consists of wrought iron chan- nel beams, each of the three members of the frame Fi?. 4. always available for the full number of men who can effectively be employed uiion them. I The compactness and simplicity of this mechanism will be apparent from the forestoinir description. The , entire operating mechanism oif the crane consists of j two worm wheels and worms, and of the spur wheel ! being composed of two such channel irons. The di- mensions are such as to give the accepted factor of safety, and the several parts are very securely con nected together at their intersections by riveting. Hoisting is effected through a train of spur gearing operated by crank in the usual way, and provided JIGGEK. 142 JOHNSON L0ADIN6-APFAEATTTS with an automatic safety ratcliet. Lowering is ef- fected by a separate mechanism consisting of a turned worm wlieel and worm, operated by a light hand wheel, as shown in the cut, this mechanism being also available for raising light loads. Thus arranged, the machine is self-sustaining and can be left at any time with the load in suspension without danger of the load running down or the handles flying back. The construction gives three changes of Speed, and embodies the endless chain system, which insures an even distribution of wear over the entire length of chain. Rotation is easily effected by pushing or pulling the suspended load, the pintles in top and bottom bearings being of steel and turning in bronze boxes. Motion of the trolley on the jib, in either direction, is effected by gearing operated from below by an endless hand chain, as shown in the cut. The self- sustaining construction of the hoisting gear holds the load suspended at any height while the trolley is moved in and out on the jib. Cranes of this type are adapted for use in arsenals for handling and liiounting heavy guns, in foundries, forges, rolling mills, etc. See Cranes and Trolleys. JlGrGEE. — fn mechanical maneuvers, an appara- tus consisting of a strong rope with a block at one end, and a sheave at the other, used in maintaining the tension of--or, technically, in "holding on" to the cable as it is thrown off from the capstan or windlass, around which it only takes two or three turns. JIM CROW. — One of the tools used by railway platelayers for bending rails, and forms one of a set of platelayers' tools attached to the royal engineer siege equipment. It is suitable for bending the 24 lb. rails of the trench railway. JINGAL. — A small, portable piece of ordnance to be fired from the ground or on a wall, resting on a long, slender butt-end, and two legs. This piece was commonly used in India. Sometimes written Jii'gall. Sec 'Gingah. JOAR. — An East Indian term, signifying a general massacre of the women and children, which is some- times performed by the Hindoos, when they find they cannot prevent the enemy from taking the town. When this dreadful and unnatiiral ceremony is to take place, a spot is selected which is filled with wood, straw, oil, etc. The victims are inclosed and the whole is set on fire. JOHN BULL.— A familiar synonym for the Eng- lish people. Its origin is attributed to Dean Swift, but Arbuthnot first gave it literary currency in his Histi/ry fif John Bull (1712), a political allegory in- tended to satirize the Duke of Marlborough, and to increase feeling against the war with Prance. In art John Bidl is well known as a burly country squire, impetuous, honest, narrow-minded, dogmat- ic, and easilv imposed upon. JOHN OF JERUSALEM.— The Order of Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem, otherwise called Knights OF Rhodes, and after of Malta is the most celebrated of all tlie military and religious orders of the Middle Ages. It originated in 1048 in an Hospital dedicated to St. John the Baptist, which some merchants of Amalfi were permitted by the Calif of Egypt to biiild for the reception of the Pilgrims from Europe who visited the Holy Sepulcher. The nurses were at first known as the Hospitaler Brothers of St. John the Baptist of Jerusalem. The Seljuk Turks, who succeeded the Egyptian and jVrabian Saracens in PaU'Stine, plundered tlu' Hospice, and on the Con- quest of Jerusalem by the Crusaders under Geoffroy (le Bouillon in 10i)i(, tlie tirst Superior, Gerard, was found in prison. Released from durance, heresvmi- ed his duties in the Hospice, gave material aid to the sick and woun<led, and was joined Ijy several of the ('rusaders, who devoted themselves to the service of the poor Pilgrims. By advice of (Jerard, the breth- ren took vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience before the Patriarch of Jerusalem. Pope Pascal II. gave his sanction to the Institution 1113. Ray- mond du Puy, the successor of Gerard in the oflice of Superior, drewup a body of Statutes for the Or- der, which was confirmed by Pope Cali.xtus II. To the former obligations was afterward added those of fighting against the Infidels and defending the Holy Sepulcher. Various Hospices, called Com- maiideries, were established in different maritime towns of Europe as resting places for Pilgrims, who were there provided with the means of setting out for Palestine. The Order having become military as well as religious, was recruited by persons of high rank and influence, and wealth flowed in on it from all quarters. On the Conquest of Jerusalem by Sal- adin in 1187, the Hospitalers retired to >Iargat in Phenicia. whence the progress of infidel arms drove them first in 128.5, to Acre, and afterwards, in 1291, to Limisso, where Henry II., King of Cyprus, as- signed them a residence. By the Statutes of Ray- mond, the Brethren consisted of three classes. Knights, Chaplains, and Serving Brothers ; these last being fighting Squires, who followed the Knights in their expeditions. The Order was subsequently di- vided into eight languages — Provence, Anvergne, France, Italy, Aragon, England, Germany, and tlas- tile. Each nation possessed several Grand Priories, under which were a number of Commanderies. The chief establishment in England was the Priory at Clerkenwell, whose l^ad had a seat in the Upper House of Parliament, and was styled First Baron of England. In 1310, the Knights under their Grand-Master, Foulkes de Villaret, in conjunction with a party of Crusaders from Italy captured Rhodes and seven ad- jacent islands from the Greek and Saracen Pirates by whom it was then occupied, and carried on from thence a successful war against the Saracens. In 1.523, they were compelled to surrender Rhodes to Sultan Solyman, and retired first to Candia and after- ward to Vitebo. In 1.530, Charles V. assigned them the Island of Malta, with Tripoli and Gozo. The Knights continued for some time to be a powerful bulwark against the Turks ; but after the Reforma- tion a moral degeneracy overspread the Order, and it rapidly declined in political importance: and in 1798, through the treachery of some French Knights, and the cowardice of the Grand Master, D'Hom- spech, Malta was surrendered to the French. The lands still remaining to the Order were also about this time confiscated in almost all yie European States ; but though extinct-as a Sovereign Body, the j Order has continued during the present century to drag on a lingering existence in some parts of Italy, as well as inRussia and Spain. Since 1801 the office of Grand-Master has not been filled up : a Deputy Grand-Master has instead been appointed, who has his residence in Spain. The Order at first wore a long black habit with a pointed hood, adorned with a cross of white silk of the form called Maltese on the left breast, as also a golden cross in the middle of the breast. In their niilitary capacity, they wore red surcoats with the silver cross before and behind. The badge worn by all the Knights is a Maltese cross, enameled wliit'e, and edged with gold ; it is suspend- ed by a black ribbon, and the embellishments at- tached to it differ in the different countries where the Order still exists. JOHNSON LOADING-APPARATUS.— The aim of tne inventor in planning this apparatus has been to pro- duce a loading device which may be applied with- out altering the present style of gun-carriages, and which may be operated from a position considerably below tlie nui/.zle of the gun. A staff-carriage is supported by rods which may be raised or lowered by racks and pinions. Tlie staff-carriage carries a short shaft, ui)on which there is a pinion for driving the sponge staff or rammer staff, also two drums for receiving the rope by which it is rotated. The lirst operation in cleaning the gun is to raise the staff-car- JOHUB DE RAJAH. 143 JOURNAL OF ATTACK. riui;c ; till! springs stalT is thon Tnn thrriiicrh the cur- riiii;c us fur us ciinvciiiciil ; tin' frrc end nl I lie sliilT is llii'M niiscd l)y imi'Hiim of a rml lillcd williii fork for tlir piirpdsc. A.s HODii us tlif tci'tli of !i rack with wliii'li till' spoMHc stuir is provided, ciii^unc llic Icctli of llii' pinion in llie ciirriane. llic pinion is turned liy means of the ropes, forcin;; tin; sponge into the liore of 111!' jjnn. The sponi;e start carries a driiin tiy means of whicli it may hi' revolved when llie spmijie rea<'hes the end of llie liore. The sponL,'e staff is wilhdrawn by reversinij; the molion of the pinion in the <-arriai.;e. A carlridiii' rest reeeives the earlridf^o shell, or shot, anil carries it to the miizzleof Ihe K""' The rammer stall is then inserted and operated in imieh the same manner as the sponije slatf. After loadini;. the start-earriaso and the cartriilire-rest are lowered out of the way to permit of Ihe ready adjust- ment of Ihe fjiin. This very iri;ienioiis apparatus is the inveiilion of Lieutenant David i). Johnson, Uni- ted .Stales Army. JOHUR DE RAJAH. An Indian sword used early iu the seventeenlli century. JOIN. — A technical word used in the service, sig- nifyins; to effect the junclion of one military body with another. In a more limited sense, it means the accession of an individual, volunlary or otherwise, to a corps or army. If an oflicer, on beini; ordered to .ioin. omits to do so wilfully, he is liable to trial by a General C'ourt-Marlial, or to be peremptorily suspended for bcin;; absent without leave. JOINTEE JYNTEE.— A wood ivhose charcoal has been mucli used in the (jovernmenl i)Owdcr works at Ishapore, near Calcutta, in Ihe manufacture of i;un- jiowder. The jointee grows from seed, and Mowers afler the first year; it then increases in size till it be- comes a small tree ; at tlirec or four years old. it makes the best charcoal, the libera being then large and de- fined, and well separated ; the charcoal is of a light- ish color, and is not dense to the eye or touch. The tree flourishes best on the banks of small nnllah.s or water-courses. Jointee charcoal is not so soft as that of Ihe urhur or dhall stalk, but it is more dry, brillle, and hard. .\n averaged-sized tree of three years' growth will occupy about r> sipiare yards, and produce about Ihret; maunds of wood, which will yield about :!() lbs. of charcoal, tlie quantity required for I wo IDO-lb, barrels of gunpowder. Therefore 10.- 000 barrels would require about sixty beegahs of land under constant cultivation, one-third to be cut each year. The average specific gravity of jointee wood is .707, and sp. gr. of the charcoal produced from it .27.') ; and it yields 2.5 per cent, of charcoal. Experience has shown that this wood is not so good for gunpowder purposes as the dhall bush, and there- fore should only be u.sed in case of a failure of that crop. JOINTS. — This ig a very important point in connec- tion with a system of mines. In many instances it will he found necessary to join either twolengths of cable, or an insidated wire and a cable, together, in both of which cases great care must be used in ma- king Ihe joints, so hat the insulation and the conti- nuity of the circuit may be perfect. As oxides of metals can scarcely be considered con- ductors, all joints in a wire, over which an electric current is to pass, should, when formed, be perfect- ly clean. In making a splice in a wire enough of the two ends to form a joint should first lie brighlened. and then each wire should be firmly wound around the other, as shown iu the drawing, the different evolutions touching one another, and passing, as near as may be, at right angles with the wire which they surround, A wire, in being spliced, must never be bent hack and wound upon itself, forming a loose loo[i. which, for telegrapii'c purposes, is ralher un- reliable. In making a joint under water, a great ob- ject is to totally exclude the ingress of water, or even moisture, which would at once alTonl a j)atli for the current and cause a loss or a leak in the cable. — See Miniii. JONES GABION. A useful gal)ion made of ten bands of galvanised sheet-Iron, worked over twelve wood pickets, the ends brought together and con- nected by two buttons at one end. lilting into two slots at the other. Kacli liand is 77 inches long, '.i\ inches wide, of No. 20 gauge, or about OO.'i inch thick : weight of ten, 2!) lbs. The buttons and but- ton-holes are required to stand a weight of 073 lbs., Ihe band ilself will support about K.WO lbs. ; ' each band has four holes to admit of combination to form bridges, beds, stretchers, and for other in- j cidenlal applications ; little or no instruction is re- quired for making these gabions. Two expert men can make a gabion in five min- utes. JOODAY PERRAPUT.— An East Indian term, signi- f3'ing a slave lakin in war. JOSLYN TOMES GUN. -A breech-loading rifle hav- inga fixed chamber closed by a movatile breech-block which slides in the line of the barrel by direct action. It is opened by cocking the hammer. In so doing a hook-shaped shoulder on its forward portion is dis- engaged from a corresponding recess in the receiver; ami the whole bolt containing the hammer and lock, is free to move backward to its full extent. The fir- ing-pin being linked to the hammer is also positive- ly withdrawn from the face of Ihe bolt. The piece is closed by reversing the molion of the bolt. It is held closed by a spring-catch (friction-pin) on its side. It is locked by the descent of the hooked por- tion of the hammer into the recess of the receiver, when Ihe piece may be fired by a back-action lock concealed in Ihe bolt, the Irigger alone being detach- ed. The firing-pin descends with the hammer along an inclined groove in the face of the bolt leading to the site of the fiilmintae in the center of the cart- ridge-head. Extraction is accomplished by a spring- hook recessed in the side of the bolt, and riding over the rim of the cartridge when Ihe piece is closed. Ejection is caused by the cartridge-shell being quick- ly withdrawn on two longitudinal guides, one on each side of the receiver, and ejected by the head striking first a stop on one guide; and then almost simultaneously a stop to the rear of the first, on the other guide. JOURNAL. — A public record or general orderly book kept in the French service, and in which every trans- action that occured during a siege is entered by the Governor of the town, for the inspection of a Super- ior Authority. The General Officer who carried on the siege of a place likewise kept a document of the same kind, and minuted down every thing that hap- pened under his command. So thai the Journal I which was kept in this manner was a circumslanlial detail of what occurred, day after day, during the attack and defense of a town. j JOURNAL OF ATTACK.— In actual siege operations a daily record is made by each Engineer Officer on I duty in the trenches, of the amount of work done, the time required, the means of execution, etc.. with any observations that may seem of value. These records are transmitted to the headquarters of the Commaiiding Engineer, where they are filed aw.ay for reference, and from Ihem the progress of Ihe trenches is carefully laiddown uponthe original direclingplan of the attack. From the data furnished by such rec- ords, and from Ihe results obtained in Ihe Schools for Iraiiung engineer troops, the average lime required for executing Ihe various portions of the siege works, under ordinary circum.stances, during IhcMiifferent epochs into which they have been di\nded, has been laid down by writers on this subject. This mode of calculation has also been applied to test the relative JOURNAL OF DEFENSE. 144 JOUENALS OF MARCH, valueof different systems of permanent fortifications, | completed on the sixth day. and the fire of the de bv submitting them to a fictitious siege, and esti- j fcnses be brought under in twenty-four hours after mating from the time, as shown in this way, requir- ed for'their reduction, how much longer the one sys- tem would hold out than the other. However in- genious this method may at first appear, it affords no real practical test of any importance ; the dura- tion of sieges depending upon moral and physical laws, as their whole history has shown, that no mode of calculation can reach. The immediate successors of Vauban, who made use of these calculations in theoretical sieges, have usually allowed nine days, from the opening of the trenches to the completion of the 3d parallel ; estimating that all the batteries, along the front of the 1st and 2d parallels, would be the batteries were in full play. JOURNAL OF DEFENSE.— In the American service, during war, the Commander of a place and the Chiefs of Engineers and of Artillery are required to keep Journals of Defense, in which are entered in order of date, without blank or interlineation, the orders given or received, the manner in which they are executed, their results, and every event and circumstance of importance in the progress of the defense. These Journals are sent after the siege to the War Depart- ment. JOURNALS OF MARCH.— Commanding officers of troops marching through a country liltle known. JonHNAL of the march of [^/lere insert the names of the regiments or companies composing the column'], com- manded by . from ^here insert the point of departure] to [the stopping place], pursuant to [here gvie the No. and daU of order for the march]. Date. Hour. Weather. Distance. ■ REMAEKS. 1860. ,5. A. M. 1. p. M. 10. 6.30. 6. 4.30. 4.30 A. M. 4.30 p. M. 3 p.m. 9. - 6.30 A. M. Very pleasant; cloudy in the r. m. Rain. Cloudy, with wind. — Cold early in morning. — Cloudy. Total, 19 Road rocky ; but little grass ; good water. Plenty of timber on the summit of hills, extending 3 miles ; road to right of hills. July 8. 3 8 Good shelter for camp at foot of peak ; fuel plenty. Springs of sweet water, with good grass near. Road to this point rather more sandy. 3 Road runs through a canyon i mile long, to right of a small stream : marsh on left of stream; water sweet; grass excellent. Halted to graze two hours. No Indian signs. 1 Companies F, G, and I, 3d , detached at Mt. P , under command of , (see par. 3, General Orders, No. ), to take road to A small creek, easily forded. 4 Road turns short to right at top of hill after cross- ing river ; crossing good, but a little boggy on right bank. This bottom shows signs of recent overflow, when it must have been impassable; banks low; water sweet ; no wood near crossing ; road hard and good up to river. July 7. "^^--- Total, 47 ^~~~~~~-— , July 9. 5 At the point where the roads fork, turn to the right. The left-liand road leads to a deep ravine, which cannot be crossed. 8 After the road strikes the ravine, it runs one mile along its bank before coming to the crossmg-place. The campins ground is at springs, half a mde be- yond the ravine. Old Indian signs at the sprmgs. in Road less rocky ; last three miles rather sandy ; no water. Passed at one point an Indian grave. 5 Road still rocky; good springs,where casks should be filled. No more water for twenty mdes after leav- ing springs. Occasional hills to left of road.; no wood or grass. July 8. ~~^^^--~-^^ 19 jorrRNEE. 145 JUDGE ADVOCATE, k<'('p jmirniils of tlu'ir niiirclics iiccoriiinfT to a form liiiii ilowii in Army licL'iilalioiis. At llii' ciid nf the inarcli a ccipy of llic jdnrnal i'~ rclaiiicd at llic Hiatinii when' tlic lr(io|iH arrivr, ami tin- ririL'inal in forwaril- I'd to llic Hca(li|iiart(TS (jf llic Dcparliiiciil or Corps (I'Anncc. Tliciuc after a copy lias liccii taken, it is transmitted, tlirouuli the IIca(l(|narlers of On: Army, to tlu^ Adjutant General, for tlie information of lli(( War I)<'parlmcnt. Tlic drawin;^ represents Ketcliam's conlinnons protilc-book, which is mostly used for roiile-skctcliini; ami n<'neral licld notes. When this cannot lie ohtaincd, a liook made of sheets of paper fiililcil to half the letter size will an- swer. The record should run fromthe bottomlotlie top of each pai;c. Ucferriiijjf to llic form on paf;e 144. it is under- stood that IIk' distance, in mile-., hi'twecn each of the horizontal divisions, will be noted in the col- umn headed " DiKldiin," which will be summed up at llic'lop of each column, and the sum carried to the boltom of llic iic.\t column. The notes within each horizontal division are to show the general di- rections of the march, and every object of interest observed in passing over the distance represented thereby ; and all remarkable features, .such as hills, carries the felt, the other the wood-work. Tliere ' are four separate parts in its structure : 1. The ilnnr. \ irnij. a sfilid piece of ornamental carpenterinf;. that tak<'S to pieces instantly. 2. The «V/'s which con- sist of lengths of wood-work, that shut i > on the priiKtiple of the tiizy-timgH. 'A. Tlie roof-riijH. The lioltoni of each of these is tied to the sides of the jourl, and ils top fits into a socket in — 4, the mtif- riiirj, which is a hoop of wood strengthened by trans- verse bars. Over this framework broad slieets of felt arc thrown ; their own weight makes them lie steadily, for they are (juitc an inch in thickness; however, in very stormy weather, tiny are weighted with stones. There is no metal in the structure. JOUSTS. — E.xercises of arms and horseniansliip, performed in the Middle Ages by Knights and Nobles. In the joust the combatants engaged one another sing- ly, each against his antagonist, and not in a troop, as in the tournament. The number of courses to be run and strokes to be given was generally three, but sometimes a larger number. Tlie weapon most in use in the joust was the lance, but sometimes the liattle-a.\c and sword were employed. To direct the lance anywhere but at the body of the antagonist was reckoned foul play. In the joust of peace or juule streams with their names, fords, springs, houses, villages, forests, marches, etc.. and the places of en- campment, will be sketched \:\ their relative positions. The " Remarkx" correspo,: ling to each division, will be upon the soil, pro luctions.quantity and qual- ity of timber, grass, wat' and fords, nature of the roads, etc., and importai '. incidents. They should show where provisions, • irage, fuel, and water can be obtained; whether the streams to be crossed are fordable, miry, liave <]ui( ksands or steep banks, and whether they overflow their banks in wet seasons; also the quality of the water; and, in brief, every- thing of practical importance. When a detachment leaves the main column, the point on the "route" will be noted, and the reason given in the Eetnarks. The Commander of the detachment will be furnished with a copy of the journal up to the point, and will ctmtinuc it over his new line of inarch. JOURNEE. — A term used among the French to e.v- prcss any particular engagemcni or battle : as La journee de Marengo. We frequently adopt the vrord in the same sense ; thus, a hard-fought day signities a hard-fought battle. JOURS.— The tours of duty which are done in the c nirse of a day and a night. Ktre de jour is to be Othcer of the Day. or to command a body of troops at a siege or otherwise in the capacity of a General Olticcr, etc. JOURT. — The Kirghis-jourt is a capacious, solid, warm, and tire-proof structure, that admits of being pitched or taken to pieces in an hour, and with- stands the cold and violenl winds of the steppes of Central Asia, in a way that no tent or combination of tents could pretend to ctTcct. A jourt of from 20 to 2.5. or even 30 feet in diameter, forms two camel- loads, or about half a ton in weight. One camel de plnisance, a foot encounter preceded the mounted combat. In the 1.5th century the usages of jousting had come to differ in ditlerent countries to such an extent that an elaborate treatise was written in ex- planation of the various modes distinguishing the characteristic differences. JOUTE.— A close fight between \\\o individuals. It likewise means an engagement at sea. JOVES. — In fortification, the two sides in the epaul- mciit of a tiattery which form the embrasure. JOWHER. — A kind of watering in Oriental sw^ord- liladcs and Damascus gun-barrels. JOYEUSE.— The name given to the sword of Char- lemagne. JOZERAUNT. — Ancient armor ; a jacket strength- ened with plate. Also written jourine. JUDGE ADVOCATE.— The title of an official at- tached to Jlilitary Commissions or Courts-Martial, whose duties are analagous to those of Prosecutin"- Attorneys in Civil Courts; but whose functions in relation to military law. are also similar to those of a District Attorney, or Corporation Counsel, in beinc of an advisory character. Tlie appointment of Judgtv Advocates for special Courts rests in the authority which appoints the Court, whether that be the Presi- dent, the Secretary of War. or theCommander of the Army. But there is also in the United States Army a ( 'orps of seven Judge Advocates with the rank of Major, who are under the general direction of the Judge Advocate General, and who can be detailed on Courts-Martial or Military Commissions, but are usually stationed at the Headquarters of the Military Departments, where they act as legal advisers to the Deiiarlment Commanders, and may be appointed by them to Court-Martial duty. The olficial duties I of a J udge Advocate during a trial by Court-JIartial JTJBGE ADVOCATE GENERAL. 146 JDDGE-MAETIAL. or Military Commission, or examination by a Court of Inquiry, are as follows : Preparation of the case for the prosecution, procuring of witnesses, admin- istering the oath, opening the" case for the prosecu- tion with the necessary argument, questioning the witnesses, and submitting the case to the Court. But be.sides these duties the Judge Advocate has still an- other — seemingly anomalous in this conuection— that of protecting the witness from improper or leading questions, and to that extent also acting as counsel for the accused. In the English military service the duties of the Judge Advocate have been so far modi- fied that he does not act as Prosecutor, but solely in his advisory capacity in connection with the Court, and as the Recorder of its proceedings. Tlie Articles of War are silent on the subject of the Judge Advocate's assisting the Court with his coun- sel and advice as to any matters of form or law ; it nevertheless is his dutJ^ by custom, to explain any doubts which may arise in the course of its deliber- ations, and to prevent any irregularities or deviations from the regular form of proceedings. The duty as- signed the Judge Advocate is more especially incum- bent on him incases where the prisoner has not the aid of.professional coimscl to direct him. which gcn- eralVy bappens in the trials of private soldiers, who having had few advantages of education, or oppor- tunities for mental improvement, stand greatly in need of advice under circumst'ances often sufficient to overwhelm the acutest intellect, and. embarrass or suspend the powers of the most cultivated under- standing. It is certainly not to be understood that, in discharging this'office. which is prescribed solely by humanity, -the Judge Advocate should, in the strictest sense consider himself as bound to the duty of coun- sel, by exertinghis ingenuity to defend the prisoner, at all" hazards, against those charges which, in his capacity of Prosecutor, he is. on the other hand, bound to urge and sustain by proof ; for, understood to this extent, the one duty is utterly inconsistent with the other. All that is required is. that in the same manner as in Civil Courts of Criminal Juris- diction, the Judges are understood to be counsel for the person accused, the Judge Advocate, in Court- Martial, shall do justice to the cause of the prisoner, by giving full weight to every circumstance or argu- ment in his favor ; shall bring the same fairly and completely into the view of tlie Court; shall sug- gest the supplying of all omissions in exculpatory evidence ; shall engross in the written proceedings all matters which, either direct!}' or by presumption, tend to the prisoners's defense ; and finally, shall not avail himself of any advantage which superior know- ledge, ability, or his influence with the Court may give liim in. enforcing the conviction, rather than the ac- quittal, of the person accused. When a Court-Martial is summoned b_v the proper authority, for the trial of any militarj' offender, the Judge Advocate being required to attend to his duty, and furnished with articles of charge or accusation, on which he is fo prosecute, must, from tlie informa- tion of the accuser, or other sources, instruct himself in all the circumstances of the case, anl by what evi- dence the whole particulars are to be proved against the prisoner. Of these, it is proper that he should prep.ire, in writing, a short analysis, or plan, for his own regulation in the conduct of the trial, and ex- amination of the witnesses. He ought then, if it lias not been done by some other functiimary, fo give information to the jirisoner of the time and place appointed for his trial, and furnish him, at the same time, with a co])y of the charges that are to lie exhibited against him, and likewise a correct detail of the Members of the Court. The Judge Advocate ought then to hand in to the Adju- tant (Jeneral. or Staff Oflicer charged with the de- tails, a list of witnesses for the prosecution, in order that they may be summoned to give (heirattendance at the time and jilarc ap])ointed. It is proper, liUe- wise, tliat he should desire the prisoner to make a similar application, to insure the attendance of the witnesses necessary for his defense. These measures ought fo be taken as early as possible, that there may be sufficient time for the arrival of witnesses who may be at a distance. When the Court is met for trial. and the members are regularly sworn, the Judge Advocate, after opening the prosecution by a recital of the charges, togethtr with such detail of circum- stances as he may deem necessary, proceeds to ex- amine his witnesses in support of the charges, while at tlie same time he acts as the Recorder or Clerk of the Court, in taking-down the evidence in writing at full length, and as nearl}- as possible in the words of tlie witnesses. At the close of the business of each day. and in the interval before the next meeting of the Court, it is the •duty. of the Judge Advocate to make a fair copy of the proceedings ; which he con- tinues thus regularly to engross till the conclusion of the trial, when the whole is read over by him to the Court, before the Members proceed to deliberate and form their opinions. The sentence of the Court must be fairly engrossed and subjoined to the record copy of tlie proceedings ; and the whole must be authen- ticated by the signature of the President of the Court and that of the Judge Advocate. It is required by the Articles of War, that " Every Judge Advocate, or person o'fficiating as such, at any General Court-Martial, shall transmit, with as much expedition as the opportunity of time and distance of place can admit, the original proceedings and sen- tence of such Court-Martial, to the Secretary of War; which said original proceedings and sentence shall be carefully kept and preserved in the office of the said Secretary, fo the end that the persons entitled thereto, may be enabled, upon application to the said office, to obtain copies thereof." The Judge Advo- cate sends the proceedings to the Secretary of War through the Adjutant General. See Court-Martial. JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL.— In England, the Supreme Judge, under the'Mutiny Act and Articles of War, of the proceedings of Courf.s-Mariial. This officer is also the adviser, in legal matters, of the Commander-in-Chief and Secretary of State for War. Before conflrmafion the sentences of all Courts-Mar- iiai, with the evidence adduced, are submitted to him; and it is for .him to represent to the Com- mander-in-Chief any illegality of procedure, or other circumstance rendering it undesirable that the Queen should be .advised to confirm the Court's de- cision. The Judge- Advocate-General receives a sal- ary of £2,000. and is a member of the House of Commons and of the ^Ministry — changing, of course, with the latter. As it is essential that the Judge Advocate General should have an intimate acquaint- ance with the milifarj' law, as well as with the gen- eral law of the land, he is provided with an as- sistant or Deputy , whose office is permanent, and who is selected from among barristers of eminence. The Deputy Judge Advocate is an officer holding a temporary commission as Public Prosecutor in every Court-Martial. lie must be an officer of intelligence, as it is part of his duty to examine and cross-ex- amine witnesses, fo warn the members of the Court of any illegalit}' in their proceedings, and generally to fulfill, in the limited area of the Court, tlie func- tions which belong fo flic Judge Advocate General. In the United States, the Judge Advocate Gen- eral is the Chief of the Bureau of l\Iilitary Justice at Washington with tlie rank of Brigadier (Jeneral. To him the proceeilings of all Courts-Martial. Courts of Inquiry, and Alilitarv Commissions are forwarded for revision and record. In England flie Judge Ad- vocate General is the final legal autliorily for the Army, and the adviser of flic Crown in cases where any action of the Sovereign is required. His power is supreme as to reviewing the proceedings of Courts- Martial, etc. See Jiurcav of Military Juxticc. JUDGE MARTIAL. -In former years the Supreme .judge in Martial l.aw, as fo the jurisdiction and powers of j\Iilitary Courts in the British system. JUDSON POWDER. 147 JUBISDICTIOir. JUDSON POWDER. -A low !;rii(l<- liij^Ii-c.vplosivc iiivc'iilcd by IO^IjitI, .ludson, iif Sun Friincisco, Ciili- fdriiiii, iiiid palcnlcil in 1H7(). .muici' wliicli tiiiii; il, 1ms lii'cii iii:iriiifiicluri'(l in lurii<- (|ii;iiililics iit licrklcy. Ciilifoniia, anil lias urovvn ruplilly in favor with all who have nscil it. taUini; the place of black pow- der in heavy work. It is nol a hi;;h exi)losive and cannot be used for such work as is inten(h'<l for Giant. Atlas or Hercules powder, but wherever black powder is in use Judson powder can be sub- stituted to threat advantage As this powder con- tains nitro-glyecrine it becomes hard in cold wea- ther (at about 4.")" F). When in this stale it readily breaks ui) into i;rains by a little pressure and can then be jjoured like sand into the smallest crevice. When usin;^ frozen powder, it is necessary to use a primini; cartridge of Giant, and toalways have this cartridge soft. For blasting or (pnirry work, Judson powder is put up in watcr-i)r")f jiapcr-bags, con- taining C>\, 12i anil 2.1 pounds each, and 8, 4 and 2 bags respectively are put in wooden boxes holding 50 pounds. It is also put up in water-proof cart- ridges of any size desired for special purposes. See Jlif//i Explosives. JUMP. — A guu-barrel made of a ribbou of iron, or laminated iron and steel, coih'il around a mandrel at a red heat, then raised to a welding heat and placed on a cylindrical rod, whicli is struck heavily and vertically on the ground, is said to be jumpfd. The clTect is to cause the edges of tli(^ ribbon to unite, a junction which is compTetod by the hammer on an anvil, the manilrel retaining its position. Such bar- rels are said to be twisted. The twist is stul>, wire, or Damascus, according to the mode of manufacture of the ribbon. See Gun-barrel, and Twist. JUMP OF A GUN.— The increased angle of depart- ure at which a projectile leaves a gun, after the gtm has been trulj- levelled at the target or object to be struck. The method usually pursued to ascertain the " jiunp" of a gun is to place a target at 130 feet from the gim which has been truly levelled, so as to be horizontal. On tiring the gun. the position of the hits on the target determines the "jump" as, if above the level on the target, it shows that the pro- jectile has left the piece with a certain amount of elevation : if it had not been so, gravity would have brought the shot below the level on the target. This "jump" is due to the tendency the gun and car- riage have to rotate on the trail. Experiment has shown that the "jump" which the system makes before the projectile leaves the muzzle is much af- fected by the nature of the ritling. A breech-load- ing gun in which the shot is forced through the bore, "jumps" more than a muzzle-loading gun of the same weight and length. JUNCTION-'BOX.— In s'ubmarine miuing, when it is necessary to employ a multiple cable, a junction- box is used to facilitate the connection of the sever- al separate wires diverging from the extremities of such a cable. In one angle of such a box the multi- ple cable is introduced, while the cables make their exit on the opposite sides and pass to different mines. The ends of the cables are secured from pulliHg out by hooked nippers. Each multiple cable is com- posed of seven cores, and each of these is connected "by means of joints with the mine cables within the junction-box. The boxes are usually made of cast metal and must, as an essential condition, be perfect- ly water-tight. They are of various forms, depend- ing upon the object for which each is to be used. They should be supplied with the other apparatus for laying mines. A junction-box should be placed in .scch position as to be easily attained, even in the presence of an enemy, and its buoy should, if possible, not be seen. It is also very essential that it should be in a safe and guarded position, for any injury to the jimction- box or multiple cable would be fatal to the group of mines in connection. JUNIOR. — Any one having a lower rank. When the I grade is the same, the junior has the more recent commission or warrant. JUNK. -1. Pieces of old cable or cordage, used for making points, gaskets, etc. When picked to pieces, it is much used in the arsinal instead of oakum. 2. A fanuliar term in the Urilish Army and Navy for the salt meat supplied for long trips— the nanu- being jirobably derived from the fact that it becomes as hard and lough as old rope, pieces of which are ofli- cially styled junk. JUNK WADS.— Wads used for proving cannon. Wad-molds for each caliber, consisting of two cast- iron cylinders of dilferent diameters .set in oak, or of two strong pieces, strapped with iron, and joined by a hinge, are emi>loyed in their manufacture. The jimk. after having been i)icked. is compressed \,y being beaten in tlie smaller mold with a maul anil cyliiiilrinil rf;v/«— the latter nearly of the size of the mold — until it assumes the requisite dimensions; it is then taken out by raising the upper part of the mold, and closely wrap|)eil with rope-yam jjassed over it in the direction of the axis of the cvlinder. and fastened by a few turns aroimil the nuddle of the wad. It is then placed in the large mold, and again beaten with the maul and drift until its diameter is increased to that of the mold; wheii it is taken out and its diameter verified by a wooden gauge corres- ponding to the larue shot-L'auge of the caliber. JUPON JUST AU CORPS. A surcoat. The name jupon is chietly apiilicd to the short, tight form of that military garment in use in the 14th century. It was a sle(^veless ja(,'ket or overcoat, composed of several thicknesses of material sewed through, and faced with silk or velvet, upon which were embroid- ered the arms of the wearer. It fitted closely to the body, and, descending below the hips, terminated in an enriched border of various patterns. JURISDICTION.— All officers, conductors, gunners, matrosses. drivers, or other persons whatsoever, re- ceiving pay, or hire, in the service of the Artillery, or Corps of Engineers of the United States, are subject to be tried by Courts-JIartial, in like manner with the officers and soldiers of the other troops in the service of the United States. The officers and soldiers of any troops, whether militia or others, lieing nnis- tered and in pay of the United States, arc at all times and in all places, when joined or acting in conjunc- tion with the regular forces of the United States, gov- erned by these Rules and Articles of War, and are subject to be tried by Courts-Martial, in Hkemanner with the officers and soldiers in the regular forces, save only that such Courts-Martial are composed en- tirely of militia officers. No person is liable to be tried and punislu-d by a General Court-Marlial for any otTense which shall appear to have been com- mitted more than two years before the issuing of the order for such trial, unless the person, by reason of having absented himself, or some other manifest im- pediment, shall not have been amenable to justice within that period. Can Courts-Martial and Civil Courts have concur- rent jurisdiction over offenses committed bv soldiers? Or, in other words, if a soldier is guilty of'an offense which renders him amenable for trial before the Civil Courts of the land, can he also be tried for that offense (if its specification should establish a viola- tion of the Rules and Articles of War) by a Court- Martial? By the Constitution of the Unfted States Congress is authorized " To make rules for the gov- ernment and regulation of the land and naval forces:" and Congress, pursuant to this authority, has estab- lished Rules and Articles for the government of the arinies of the United States. These Rules are an ad- ditional code, to which every citizen who becomes a soldier subjects himself for ihe preservation of good order and military dicipline. The soldier, howev- er, is still only a citizen of the United States. He has not. by assuming the military character become. as is the case in very many European countries, a member of any fully privileged body who may JTJSTATJCORFS. 148 EAISEB. claim trial for all ofEenses by Courts-Martial. He is still amenable to the ordinary Common Law Courts for auy offenses against the persons or property of any citizen of an}' of the United States, such as is punishable by the known laws of the land. An ex- amination of the Rules and Articles of War will show that the offenses therein described, and against which punishment is denounced, are purely military. They are crimes which impair the efficiency of the military body, and even in cases in which they would be recognized as offenses by the ordinary Common Law Courts, they could not be considered the name of- fenses. Take.forinstance,Article21,which inflicts the punishment of death, or other punishment, according to the nature of his offense, upon auy officer or sol- dier who shall strike his Superior Officer. Here is an offense punishable under the known laws of the land as an assault and battery, and, as such, it could be tried by the Common Law Courts. But such trial woidd not prevent a Court-Martial from afterwards taking cognizance of it under Article 21 ; for the of- fense1)efo"re the Common Law Court would be strik- ing anequal. while before the Militar_v Court it would have essentially changed its character. Again, sup- pose an officer had been guilty of stealing, he miglit be prosecuted before the Common Law Court for the felony, and afterwards charged with conduct un- becoming an officer and a gentleman, and dismiss, ed the service. It can hardly be contended that the offenses in either of the cases cited would be the Mime before the different Courts; and if not, the Ar- ticle which forbids a trial a second time for the same offense, could not be pleaded in bar of trial. Re- cognizing, then, the principle that the soldier, as a citizen, is subject to the Common Law Courts for offenses committed against the well-being of the State, it must also be recollected that he is subject to trial by a Court-Martial for any violation of the Rules and" Articles of War. In the case of " Eels, plaintiff in error, r. the People of the State of Illi- nois, " it was urged that the Act of the State of Illi- nois under which Eels was tried was void, as it would subject the delinquent to a double punishment for the same offense, the crime with which he was charged being actionable under a law of the United States. The Supreme Court decided that, admitting the plaintiff in error to be liable to an action under the Act of Congress, it did not follow he would be twice punished for the same offense, and gave the follow- ing dettnition of that term : An offense in its legal signification means the transgression of a law. A man may be compelled to make reparation in damages to the injured party and be liable also to punishment for a breach of the pub- lic peace in consequence of the same act, and maj' be said, in common parlance, to be twice punished for the same offense. Every citizen of the United States is also a citizen of a State or Territory. He ma_v be said to owe allegiance to two Sovereigns and may be liable to punishment for an infraction of the laws of either. Tlie same act may be an offense or trans- gression of the laws of both. Thus an assault upon tlie Marshal of the United States and hindering him in the execution of legal process is a high offense against the United States, for which the perpetrator is liable to punishment ; and the same act may also ))e a gross breach of the peace of the State, a riot, as- sault, or a murder, and subject the same person to a punishment under the State laws for a misdemeanor or felony. That either or both may, if they see fit, punish such an offender cannot be doubted. Yet it cannot be truly averred that the offender has been twice punished for the same offense, but only that by one act he has committed two offenses, for each of I which lie is justly punishable. He could not plead j the punishment by one in bar to a conviction by the ! other. JUSTAUCOKPS.— An ancient tight-fitting coat, hav- ing a military appearance and constructed of cords. A sim|>k- primitive ])r(itotvpe of mail-armor. JUSTIFIABLE HOMICIDE.— The killing of a human creature without incurring legal guilt, as where a man is duly sentenced to be hanged; where one, in self-defense, necessarily kills another to nreserve his own life, etc. JUTE. — The jute of commerce is a fiber produced from two species of tiliaceae, the mrchortis olitorius and eorchoruscapxvlrn-is, two plants, alike in qualities, though slightly different in appearance, and sown in- discriminatel}'; the first having round seed-pods and reddish stalk, the. latter long seed-pods and bright green stalk. From the fiber, which is the cheajiest known are produced gunnies, gunnj'-cloth and cord- age, and from the finer qualities, carpets, shirting, coat-linings, etc.. are made. It is extensively used for mixing with silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics, and also in paper-making, while the leaves are eaten in many places as food. The first mention of the word jute is in 1796, in the manuscript commercial index of the Court of Directors of the East India Companj-. It is the Bengali name used bv tlie natives of Cuttack and Balasore, where the first European manufac- tories were established in the middle of the last cen- tury. In 1829 the total export from Calcutta was 20 tons, value £60. In 1833 it had increased sixteen fold, and about 1864-6.5 the increased demand caused jute cultivation to extend to other districts, the ex- portation in 1872-73 reaching the enormous amount of 300,000 tons, value £3,300,000. England, Bomliay, and America originally divided the exports of jute, and up to the time of the civil war North America took the largest share of the gunnies. Jute and gunnies are now exported from Bengal largely \fi France, Australia, and other parts of the world. Jute grown iu England is not remunerative. It has been success- fully grown in small quantities in America, however. Gunnies are classed as Xos. 1, 2, and 3. Ko. 1. thick and close woven, is used for sugar, fine grains such as linseed or rape-seed, and similar products; No. 2, also close woven, but thinner, for rice and all the larger grains: No. 3, very thick, coarse, and open, is principally suited for the outer covering of double bags. The manufacture of gunny with primitive looms is a common form of convict labor in Bengal. Near theHimalaj'as, in north-eastern Bengal, the na- tives wear a fine cloth of their own manufacture, made of jute, or of jute and cotton. Increased de- mand has lately induced jute production in Burmah, Italy, Queensland, and America, etc; and a Euro- pean Company has been started to cultivate jute in British Burmah on a large scale. The manufacture, again, is largely carried on in Great Britain, and is the chief industry of Dundee and Belfast. In Ben- gal jute valued at about a million sterling is an- nually manufactured, mostly for local consumption, ' the bulk being turned out by the Euglish mills, of t which there are several near Calcutta, employing ' thousands of hands, the Gauripore and Barnagore mills being the principal. I JUZAIL, A very heavy rifle used by the Afglians. K KABBADE.— A military garment of the Modern i Itwas also frequently worn by both the Romans and Greeks. It was generally made of wool, without Gauls. See Saffiim. sleeves, and fastened by a girdle around the waist. KAISEE. — The German title of Emperor. It was KAJAWAH8. 149 E££H£ SEHIIIGTON MAGAZINE GUN. dorivc'd fniiii tlmt of Ciesar, pcnniltcd by Dioflctiiiii to 1)1^ used liy the (iiivemini; I'riiici- of Ditlnialia, C'roiitia, and tlir lini' of the Daiiuhi', wlio was llcir J'rcsiiinplivc lo llic Iniju'rial Tliroiir. 'I'lic Icrm was cniployfil by I lie (liTiiiaii ICiiiiicrorM of tlic Miildlc Ai^cs, and later liy the Kinprrors of Austria. In 1H71 it was assiinicd liy William I., of I'russia, on his be- in;; rrowiied Kniperor of (lermany. KAJAWAHS. Am Indian Icrni. I.ar'je )iantHers, placetl aeross a camel's back, in wliicli camp kcllles, pots, etc., are carried on the marcli. 'I'he panniers are lari^e enoni::li lo carry disabled men with much ease anil comfort. KAKTOWDA. A term applied in the East Indies to the tine mold used in malting butts for archery practice. KALAI. — A Turliish fortress. The term is rather parliciilarly applied to sloccades or very similar struclurcs. KALMUCKS.— The ICalmuelts, or, as they call them- selves, the Derben-Ueirat (the four relatives), and al- so desii^nated by the name of Kleutes and Khalindk (apostates), are the most numerous and celebrated of the Alonijol Nations. They are divided into four tribes, the first of which, the KlnMl-oti (warriors) num- ber nearly (10,000 fandlies, and inhabit the country round the Koko-nur, which they consider the native country of the race. One portion of Ibis trilie nngral- ed to the banks of the Irtiscli.and became sidisequent- ly incorporated with the second tribe, the D/iingars; another portion nugrated to the banks of the Vol^a, in the 17th century, and is found at the i)resent day in the goverment of Astrakhan. The second tribes are the Dziingarn, who give the name to a large ter- ritory (I)/.unu;aria) in the west of Chinese Tartary; at the jiresent day they ninnber about 20,000 fiunilies. Tlie third tribe are the Dirbeta or Trhoron. wdio desert- ed Dziingaria, and finally, to the number of 15,000 fandlies, removed a few years ago to the plains of the Hi and the Don, where they are being rajiidly in- corporated with the Don Cossacks . The fourth great tribe of the Kalmucks are the TorgoU, who, about 1660, separated from the Dzungars.and settled in the plains of the Volga whence they were called the Kal- vDirkii iif the Volf/ii; but finding the Russian rule too severe, the majority returned toDzungaria. No Jlongol or Turkish race presents such charac- teristic traits as the Kahnueks; indeed they answer exactly to the description given of them by Jor- nandes 13 centuries ago, wdien, under the name of Huns, the}' devastated scnilhern Europe. The Kal- muck is short in stature, with broad shoulders anda large head; has small, black eyes, always appearing to be half shut, and slanting downwards towards the nose, which is Hat, with wide nostrils; the hair is black, coarse, and straight, and the complexion deeply swar- thy. The Kalmuck is considered as the original type of the Mongol and Manchu races, and his ugliness is the inde.x of the purity of his descent. They are a nomad, predatory, and warlike race, and pass the greater part of their lives in the saddle. Their usual food is barley-flour soaked with water, and their drink is the " koumiss " (made from fermented mare's milk). In 1829 Russia established a Kalmnck Insti- tute for the training of interpreters and government officials for the Kalmucks of Russia, a'.d she has since been making great efforts to introduce civiliza- tion among them. Most of the Kalmucks are Bud- dhists, but a few hpve adopted Mohammedanism or C'hristianitv. KALSA CUTCHEEEY — The room of business, where matters pertaining to the Indian Army are transact- ed, and all matters of litigation on tliat brancli of ser- vice are determined. KAMPAK.— A kind of hatchet saber of the Middle Ages, without a hilt or cross-guard. The handle is made quite straight, and it forms with the blade a Latin cross. KAMPTULICON.— The name given to a kind of floor-cloth, which is said to be made of india rubber and cork ; much of it however, consists of oxidized linseed-oi! and cork. The cork is reduced to a state resenililing very line sawdust, and kneaded lip with the real caoutchouc, or with the artificial kind made of oxiilized lins('(^d.oil, the whole being kept very soft by heat. 'I'he mass is then made into sheets by passing through cylinder rollers heated witii steam. The sheets, when cold, are ready for use, when no ornamental surface is required; but very excellent designs may bi^ painted upon it, the same us upon ordinary tloor-cloth. Kanijitulit'on, notwithstanding the case with which it is made, is more expensive; than lloor-cloth made liy iiainting hempen or linen fabrics; it has, however qualities which render it very valu- able for special purposes; its elasticity to. the tread not oidy makes it agreeable to walk on,but it is noise- less, and is consequently well adapted for Jiospital pas.sages and other positions in whi.h (puet is desir- able ; it is also im])ervious to damp, and thereby well suiled to damp stone floors. It is also very suitable for lloor-clotlis in i)owder-houses, but is not so dur- aiile as leather hides. KANAUT. A term used in India to designate the wall of a canvas tent. Sometimes written Kanut. KANDGIAR. -A Turkish sword very much like the yataghans and tlissas. It is generally , single-edged, without guards. It is very often ornamented with diamonds and other precious stones. Also written J\ inifi'ii r. KAPIGI-BACHI.— The officer in charge of the gates of the Sultan's Palace. The name is also applied to a Turkish warrior. The name Karauh is given to IIh' Sultan's body-guards. KAETTIKEYA.— The Hindu Mars, or god of war, a being represented by the Puranic legends as sprung from Siva, after a most miraculous fashion. The germ of Karttikeya having fallen into the Ganses. it w'as on the banks of this river, in a meadow of Sara grass, that the offspring of Siva arose ; and as it hap- pened that he was seen by six Nymphs, the Krittikds (or Pleiades), the child assumed six faces, to receive nurture from each. Grown up, he fulfilled his mis- sion in killing Taraka, the demon king, whose power, acipdred by penances and austerities, threatened the very existence of the gods. He accomplished, be- sides, other heroic deeds in his battles with the gi- ants, and became the Commander-in-Chief of the divine armies. Having been brought up by the Krit- tikas, he is called Karttikeya, or Shanmdtura, the son of six mothers ; and from the circumstances ad- verted to, he bears also the names of Gdngeya, the son of Ganga; Sarahhi'i, reared in Sara grass; S/ian- iinikha, the god with the six faces, etc. One of his common appellations is Kumnrd, youthful, since lie is generally\represented as a fine youth; and as he is riding on a peacock, he receives sometimes an epi- thet like Sikhivdhdna, or " the god whose vehicle is the peacock." KATAITYX.— A Greek casque, of the 8th century, B.C. It was made of leather and provided with a chin-strap, but had no crest. KATAN. — A Japanese sword. Commonly called Cnttan. KATZENKOPF.— The German name for the uheeU lock and mortar pistol of the eleventh centurv. KAVASS.— In Turkey, an armed Constable". The term is also applied to a government servant or cour- ier. KECHEEKLECHI.— Giiards attached to the person of the King of Persia : they are armed with a mus- ket of an extraordinary size and caliber. The Kech- erklechi were enlisted and formed into a regidar Corps al)out the middle of the 18th century. KEENE REMINGTON MAGAZINE-GUN.— This gun is now made for the United States military cartridge, forty-five caliber, sevent_v grains of powder, but can be adapted to the use of other forms of military cart- ridge, such as the Spanish and Russian. The maga- zine is located under the barrel, thereby enabling it to carry the greatest possible number of cartridges KEENE-BEMINGTON MAGAZINE-GUN. 150 KEENE-EEMINGTON MAGAZINE -GDR. witliin a given weight and length of barrel. It is be- lieved that this is, for many reasons, the best posi- tion in which to carry the cartridges of a magazine- gun. All of the motions are direct and positive. The cartridges are held securely in position while pass- ing from the magazine over the carrier to the cham- ber in the barrel, in which respect it has a decided advantage over other magazine-arms. The cart- ridge does not pass on to the carrier until the gun is opened for the purpose of loading, so that there is no danger of a cartridge being exploded in the carrier in case a defective cartridge i s fired in the gun. ing the finger from the trigger ; in this last respect differing from other magazine-guns, which can only be cocked by removing the hand from the trigger. The parts are all large and strong, and can be readily removed and replaced for the purpose of cleaning or inspection. The magazine is so arranged that it can be charged while the breech is closed, thus avoiding the entrance of dirt into the working parts of the gun. The gun may be held either bar- rel up or reversed for this purpose. The drawing exhibits the parts with the nomenclature. To charge the magazine.— Hold the arm in the left hand, the butt-stock"under the right arm. Grasp the Receiver. Guard. Carrier Screw. Carrier Screw. Trigger. Trigger Pin. Carrier Lever. Carrier Lever Spnngj Carrier Lever pin. Carrier Lever Screw. Carrier Latch Spring Carrier Latch . Cul-off Spring. Cut-ofl Cut rff Lever- Cut-off Spring Screw. Breech Bolt. Extractor. Extractor Bolt. Extractor Spring. Locking Bolt. Locking Bolt Spring. Locking Bolt Screw. Rear Cap. Cocking Lever. Cocking Lever Screw. Cocking Lever Link. Link Screw. Link Pin. Ham mer. Rear Cap Screw. Firing Pin. Hammer Pin. Elector. Ejector Screw. Main Spring. Hammer Fly. The arm is always left at lialf-cock, and the lirccth I carlriilgc between the thumb and the forefinger of locked so that it ciiiinot be jarred open and the cart- [ right hand, and press it forward, liiillel first, into the ridge lost out. From the half-cock it can be brought uiagazinc with the end of the Ihiiiiib, which mav be to the fiill-cock readily and ((uickly while the arm hehl sideways for that purpose. The magazine may i8 being carried to the shoulder, anil without remov- 1 be charged with the breech either open or closed, and KEEP. IT)! KEHT BUGLE. with the piit-nfT lover in ittt forwanl or Imckwiinl position ; but it in more convenient to do so with tlie hreecli rlnmtt unci the eut-ofT lever liwh. To loud from Ihe miiLCii/ine. First. If thearm liiis been lired or Ihe hammer is down, nnloek and draw bael< tlie bree<'h-l)olt (iidi-hlii and willi SNlll<'i( nt force to brini; it eUnr hiirk, therel)y raising; and loekin;^ the nnder the barrel, and is operated by a lever, the liaekward and forwanl movement of which cocks the liaininer, opens the l)ree<h. IhrowH out the empty sliell, and lirin;^s a new carlridtfe into place, ready for diseiiarjje. Tlie drawing shows the action. The following may be noted as the advantages of this arm : — It has all the ref)uircments requisite to u carrier and bringint; up a cartridge. Shove the bi>ll lirst-class inagazine-gun. It is of simple construe- forward and lock it ; the hammer will remain at half- tiou, and has fewer parts than any other magazine- 1, recelver;2, bottom tang; 3, levef ; 4, breech-block; ,5 top cover; (i, ejector; ' H, main spring; 13, side-loadinf; spiinE cover, iia seen from the back; 14, tri"" spring; 17, brcccli-block piu; IS, currier-block screw. carrier-block; 8, bottom plate; 10, hammer; ir; l.ij, carrier-block clamp; 16, carrier-block cock. If it is desired to tire, the hammer may be \ ritle operated by a lever. It is strong. The parts brought to full-cock while the arm is being lifted to ' arc of such si/.e'and form as not to be liable to break the shoulder, the foretinger remaining on the trigger, or get out of order. It is made of the best material, Second. If the arm has been closed and left at iialf- [ wrought iron or steel, as is most suitable for each cock, lower the hammer and then proceed as before. \ part. It is very easily manipulated, and can readily After the cartridge has been transferred from the | be understood'by any person who is at all familiar magazine to the chamber, it sliould either be tired | with fire-arms. It is "safe, accidents from premature or removeil from the gun before another cartridge is I di-scHarge being impossible. The resistance to the passed through tln' carrier. j discharge is indirect line with the bore of the barrel. To use the arm as a single loader, with the maga- [ The tiring pin cannot reach the head of the cartridge zine in reserve, push the cut-otT lever forward. This iintil the'breech is fully closed— consequcutlv, the cuts off the passage of the cartridge from the mag- , piece can only be fired when the breech is locked, azine. The arm may then be used as a single loader. | The curtridge umd is the A5-calih(r cfnter-fire. United This gun is so made as to be left at half-cock after States ODrernment .itandard. amtnining'iO grains of loading; but if it is preferred to have it left at full- ixnrder and Ht) grniiiHof lead. When a lighter charge cock, it is only necessary to remove the hammer is desired, the United States carbine cartridge— the fly. No. 37. which is let into the tumbler to carry the same length as the above— but loaded with only 55 trigger over the full-cock notch. See .l/«^ff2/Hf-(/!/H. I grains of" powder, may be used. The magazine is KEEP.— In media'val fortification, a keep was the | charged through the "side of the receiver when the central and principal tower or buililing of a castle and that to which the garrison retired, as a last re sort, when the outer ramparts had fallen. A tine specimc'-i of the ancient keep is still extant amid the ruins of the Rochester castle. The keep was simi- lar to what the classical ancients called the citadel, inner fort. ^e& Castle, Fortification aniX Safety l{e- douht. KEIR METAX,— An alloy patented in England, which ditTers from .iterm-metal mainly in having no 'till. This alloy consists of copper 100, zinc 75, iron 10. KELT. — K very early war-axe. It seems to have lieen spiead in every direction, and to have belonged to no country in particular. It was also called 'V/^ KENNEDY RIFLE. -.V novel ritle developed and breech is closed, and the rifle can be used as a single loader, the charged magazine being held in reserve. The arm is made in three styles: — The musket weighs i) lbs. 4 oz. The barrel is "33 inch. It carries when loaded, 11 cartridges. The carbine weisrhs 7 lbs. 8 oz. The barrel is 22 inch. It carries when loaded, 7 cartridges. The spurting rifle weighs 9 to 10 lbs. The barrel is 38 inch. It carries when load- ed, 9 cartridires. See I'huenix and Whitney liifle. KENT BUGLE.— The key-bugle invented by Logier early in this century, and named after the buke of Kent, the fi^ther of Queen Victoria. Ithassi.x keys, and is the predecessor of the great tribe of cornets. It will traverse chromatically a compass of more than two octaves, beginning from 13 Hat beneath the stave up to the C above, "fhe bugle with pistons or introduced by the Whiliuy .Vrms t'ompany. It is a | with cylinders has a lower compass than the pre- repeating or magazine-ritle, with the magazine placed : ceding". KENTLEDGE. 152 EHEonrB. KENTLEDGE.— Old cast-iron articles wliich have become uuserviceable, such as condemned guns, shot and shell, etc. KERANA.— A long. trumpet, similar in shape and size to the speaking-trumpet. The Persians use it whenever they wish to make any extraordinary noise, and they frequently blow it with hautboys, kettle- drums, and other instruments, at retreat or sunset, and two hours after mid-niglit. KERN.— A name applied formerly to Irish and Gaelic infantry soldiers. The men in those days were armed with a sword and a dart or javelin, which was tied to a small cord, so that after they had thrown it at the enemy they could instantly recover it. and use it in any way they thought proper. The javelin was called '^kcne which is also the Irish for a knife. KET'S REBELLION. — An outbreak which took place in Eunland, in l.')4i), \rader the leadership of William Ket, a tanner, living in Wymondham, Nor- folk. He is said to have had 20.000 followers ; but the rising was suppressed by the Earl of Warwick, after an^engagement in which more than 2,000 of Insurgents were killed. The leader, Ket, with others, suffered death on the gallows. KETTLE-DRUM. — 1." A drum formed by stretching vellum over thecirctilar edge of a hemispherical ves- sel of brass or copper. This instrument, which gives forth a sharp ringing sound, is used by regiments of cavalry and horse-artillery in lieu of the ordinary cylindrical drum, which would, from its shape, be inconvenient on horseback The small military dnun is frequently called by this name. Tliey are still used in pairs, in the Eng- lish and Prussian armies, and elsewhere, slung on each side of the withers of a cavalry-horse. One i^== jiriim is tuned to the keynote, and the other to the tifth of the key. The tuning is by a hoop and screws. Kettle-drums are not usedln the United States mili- tary service, but are much used in orchestras sup- ported upon a tripod, as shown in the drawing. 2. Kettle-drum, as applied to a social gathering, orig- inated in the IJritish army in India. It sometimes happened in the emergencies of camp life that in an entertainment given by officers and their wives there was a lack of "requisite furniture, and the heads of kettle-drums were made to serve in place of tables to hold the cups of tea. So by metonymy the article used gave name to the occasion on which it -vas useil. The name <'ame to mean an informal party, and specilically an afternoon party, in which elabor- ate dress and costly viands gave place to every-day attire for ladies and business suits for gentlemen, with very simple side-table refreshments. This kind of visit \vas introduc<Ml into Kngland atatime of gen- eral linancial depression by some who wished to meet their frieiiiis socially, yet could not, as before, dress expensively and entertain sumptuously. KETTLE-DRUM CART.— A four-wheeled carriage drawn by four horses, which was used exclusively by the British Artillery as a pageant. The Ordnance flag was painted on the fore part, and the drummer, with two kettle-drums, was seated, as in a chair of state, on the back part. This cart, which is finely engraved and richly gilt, has not been in the field since 1743, when the Kin^ was present. It is at pres- ent kept in the Tower of London. KETTLE-HAT.— A cap of iron worn by knights in the Jliddle Ages. KEY.— 1. A bolt used on artillery carriages to se- cure cap-squares and for analogous purposes. A key- chain, is attached to the key to prevent it from being lost. 2. A common heraldic bearing in the insignia of sees and religious houses — particularly such as are under the patronage of St. Peter. Two keys in saltire are frequent, and kej's are sometimes inter- laced or linked together at the boirs — i.e. .rings. Keys indorsed are placed side by side, the wards away from each other. In secular Heraldry, keys sometimes denote Office in the State. See Key-point. KEY-POINT.— A point the possession of which gives the control of that position or country. Great care ntust be taken to always direct an assault upon the key-point of the position in order that the main attack, when successful, may produce a lasting bene- fit. When about to commence the operations of a siege, the General is called upon to decide the follow- ing : 1, Which part of the position is easiest to carr}' ; 2. Which part,carried,tgives possession of the rest; or, which part is the key-point; 3. Which side of the part selected is the best on which to make his approaches ; and, 4. Which part selected would be the best, tak- ing into consideration the establishment of his de- pots and lines of supply, and the probabilities of an attempt to relieve the besieged. These questions are partially answered before the posting of the besieging army is completed, as it would be bad policy to have the tr-jops encamped too far from the ground where the main operations of the siege are to be conducted. See I'liiiit of Attnck. KEYSERLICKS. — A name commonlj' applied to the Austrian troops. The term was indeed common among the British soldiers, when they did duty with the Aiistrians, and invaded France in 1794. See Ini- peri(tlititti KHALASSIE. — An Indian sailor. This race of men come chiefly from the Chittagong district. Besides a sea life, khalassies take service on shore, and form a large portion of the native establishment attached to arsenals in India, bordering on the seaside. Dur- ing the march of a regiment in that country, they are employed in looking after the camp equipage. KHAN. — A title of Jlongolian or Tartar Sovereigns and Ijords. A Khanate is a principality. Khetgan means " Khau of Khans," but has seldom been ap- plied. The word Khan is probably of the same ori- gin as King. KHEDIVE.— One of the titles of the Rviler of Egypt, a triliutary prince of the Sublime Porte, who. since 1867, has exercised absolute power within his own dominions. The first Khedive was Ismail, Sovereign of Nubia, Soudan, Kordofan, and Darfour, son of Ibrahim Pasha (eldest son of Mohammed Alt Pasha, founder of the dynasty), was born in 1830, and suc- ceeded his uncle. Said Pasha, in 1863, as the fourth Viceroy of Egypt, He traveled through the Capitals of Europe, informing himself concerning their man- ners and customs, and these he introduced into his own dominions on his return. lie fell under the dis- pleasure of the Sultan, through the jealous fears of the latter regarding Euro]n-an ascendency in Egypt, but succeeded in obtaining from him important con- cessions. By a firman dated May 21, 18(i(!. he gain- ed the right of the succession in the direct masculine line in his branch ; by that of ,Inne 8, 1867, the title Khedive, or Sovereign, was granted him ; anil by the firman of Sept. 211, 1872, he olilained the right to in- crease his army and navy at his pleasure, and to bor- KHODADAUD SIRCAB. 15^ KINO. row money. Fiimlly, lio wns roiiocdod, in 1H7I?, Ilir rif^lit to coik'IikIi: Irciilii'H of coiiimcrcc. willi llir full iiiitonoriiyof I he ail mi nisi nil iiii] of I lie Comilry. Vcl (Irspilc III! Iliis, tlir Siilliiri rclaiiicil in liis liariilHllic ilispiisilioii of Die (JoviTiimcnl, in Kirypl, since, in April, 1H7'.), lie proposeil to the WesliTn Powers to , dispose Ismiiil in fnvor of liis nnele, Ilidim I'asliii, the rii^'hlful heir. This proposition was not receiv- cil fuvorahly, tlioiij;h repealed in .lime, and 1 hi' Sultan was linally induced to issue a lirman ileposiiiL; Isniad in favor of his son, I'rince .Moliammi'dTevlik. This was on .lime 2li, and the lirman aliolished that of 1MT;{, and deprived the Khedive of the |io\ver tocon- cluih^ treali<'s with Foreinii I'owers, and to maintain a Nlandinnarmy. Ismad I'asha aceordiiiLrly quilliiiu; the throne, his son was ])roelaiined Khedive, under the title i.f Tcvlik I, KHODADAUD SIRCAR.— The Covcrinnent or Kuler blessed <ir liehiv<'d of (ioil ; it was a lillc assmned by Tippoo Sahib, the Sovereii;n of the Kiiiijdom of Mysort', who fell in (U'fense of his Capital, Serin;;- apatam. when it was slormeil. May 4, IT!)'.), by the Uritish forces under Ijieutenant (ieneral llaiarri. KHOP. -All early Kiryptian iron weapon, about G inches lotiu; and roughly formed, from stone, in the shape nf a sceax. KHOUTTAR. A llimloo weapon, liaving a birge bl.iile liki' the Ilalian iini'lufe, li\cd on to a S(|iiare liandle, into wdiich the hand is slipped, and thus jiro- teetcd as far as the wrisl. Tliere are Kli'nittarn in which the blade is divided into two ])oinls. but they are not common. Such are called ser])ent-tonsue(l. KHYBER PASS.— The most practicable of allopen- ings, four in number, I lirough tlie Khyljcr Mountains, and the only one by which caimoii are conveycil he- tween the plain of P<'sliawur,on the riglit bank of the upper Indus, and thejilain of .Jelalabad. in northern Afghanistan. It is ;!0 miles in lenglli, liciiighere and there merely a narrow ravine between almost per- pendicular rocks of at lestliOO feet in height. It may be said to have lieen the key of the adjacent regions in either direction from the days of Alexander the Great to the Afghan Wars ot l)S;i!)^3, (luring which it was twice forced by a ISritish army, in spite of an obstinate defense by the natives. Tiie Mrst lighting in tlie Afghan War of 1878-79 was in forcing an en- trance into this pass, over which, as was stipulated -in the conditions of peace, the Anglo-Indian author- ities are henceforth to have full control. KIBEE. — A Haw produced in the bore of a gnnl)y a .shot strikinir against it. KICKING-STRAP.— Astrap used indranglitto con- trol a violent horse. One or two should be attached to each horse battery. It is fastened to the shafts. and passes ovi'r the croup of the horse, thereby pre- venting him from kicking. KIDifAPPERS.— A name formerly applied to par- ties who by improper means decoyed the unwary into the army. KILLA. — The Indian term for castle, fort, or fort- ress. The Governor or t'ommaudaut of a Killa is known as KiUadar. KILLESE. — A name commonly given to the groove in a cross. bow. KILMAINHAM HOSPITAL.— An institution near Dulilin for tlie reception of woimdeil and pensioned soldiers. U was originally founded by King Charles II., and is conducted on similar principles to the sis- ter Iiislituticm. Chelsea Hos]iital. Kilmainham Hos- pital is maintained liy annual Parliamentary grant, and provides everything necessary for the comfort of upw ards of S'lO veterans and otlieers. The General Commanding the Forces in Ireland for the time be- mg \six iiffifi'-i the Master of Kilmainham Hospital, ami has his residence on the estate. KILN. — A name applied to various kinds of fur- naces, ovens, or other devices made of stone. l>rick, or iron, or of the material itself to be operated upon. Thev mav be divided into intermittent and continu- ous, or perpetual ; or into f umace-Uilus, oven-kilns, and what may be (ernii'd mound-kilns, such as are used in making charcoal ; and also a kind whiih ari' inlermecliate between oven and mound-kilns, as certain kinds of brick-kilns, where the raw-brick is a part of the kiln, and forms a Blrucliire which can- not be strielly called an oven. 'V\\i: fn man -kiln . ii,r burning limi-.stone, may be of an intermittent or of a perpetual kind. An intermittent kiln is one in whi( h the lire is let to go out after the charge is burned ; a continuous kiln is one which Is so ar- raiigeil that the charge may be removed and a fresh one put in while the lire is kept burning, and the furnace kept at its reiliicing heat. An intermittent furnace-kiln may be niadi' of stone or Ijriekof an oval form, like an egg standing on either end. That form resemhrmg an egg standing on its larger enrl is per- hajjs the most common, although some lime-kilns are shaped more like deep bow Is, without much con- traction at the to|). When^ wood is very l)lentiful and cheap, and the lime is burned for agricultural ])urposes. so that ashes is ;i desirable ingredient, a common howl sliajie is jierhaps ])referable, lie<'aiise it is readily charged with both limestone and wood, and a mass of wood may be placed upon the top in addition to w hat is used in the charge, by which thorough burning will be secured. In a furnace-kiln, a grating of iron is jilaced at the bottom, or an arch of open brickwork, and then the charge is in!;<'nious- ly ])laced. lirst with fuel, and then with the broken masses of limestone in such a manner as to allow the flame to pass through and thoroughly perform the work of heating. Tliese kilns may he from 10 to 30 feet high, or even higher. Intermittent oval kilns are used in burning Portland and other kindsof hydrau- lic cement, and they are 40 to ."jO feet high, and em- ploy coke or coal for fuel. The charge is usually composed of one ))arl of coke or coal and two parts of raw cement. Tliere arc. however, several kindsof cement which do not reriuire so prolonged high heat as Portland cement, and these might be burned in a kind of kiln so constructed as not to require the fire to go out when the burne<l contents are removed so freiiuently. These kilns are cylindrical, except at the bottom, where they have the shape of an inverted cone, and a chamber below and a kind of spout lead- ing into it from the bottom of the cine, so that the charge when burned may be raked down from time to time with a suitable apparatus, and removed, while it may be renewed at the top. Cement-kilns should be lined with tire-lirick. A preferable form of continuous kiln is one in which the kiln-cylinder is charged only with the material to be burned, and a current of flame or heated gas is introduced at the sid<' near the linttom. The lieat thus passing up through the material reduces it to tl;e proper condi- tion, without adding any por''on of the ashes of the fuel to it. KILT — A dress worn by men living in the High- lands of Scotland, andby a few regiments in the Brit- ish Army. It consists of a loose petticoat extending from the waist to the knees. Tlie kilt was worn 1 y British chiefs as early as the beginning of the 7th cen- tury; it was made of skin, but striped kilts were common, and it is said that, in all probability, the Scottish kilt was known among the British earlier than is generally supposed, from the inhabitants of North firitain being on intimate terms with their neighbors, and likely to have assumed the dress. KING. — The person vested with supreme power in a State. According to feudal usages the King was the source from which all command, honor, and authority flowed; and he delegated to his followers the power by which they exercised subordinate rule in certain districts. The Kingdom was divided into separate Baronies, in each of wdiich a Baron ruled. Lord both of the lands, which he held under the ob- ligatiim of rendering military service to the King, and in many cases also of the people, who were vassals of the soil, and his liege subjects. In modem limes the kingly power often represents only a limited KING-AT-ABMS. 154 KIT. measure of sovereignty, various constitutional checks being in operation in different countries to control the royal prerocative. Tlie King may succeed to the tlirone by descent or inheritance, or he may be elect- ed by tlie suffrages of some body of persons selected out of the nation, as was the case in Poland. Even when the kingly power is hereditary, some form is gone through on the accession ot a new King to sig- nify a recognition by the people of his right, and a claim that he should pledge himself to perform cer- tain duties, accompanied by a religious ceremony, in which anointing with oil and placing a crown on his head are included as acts. By the anointing a certain sacredness is supposed to be thrown round the roj-al person, while the coronation symbolizes his supremacy. There is now no very clearly marked distinction between a King and an Emperor. A Queen-regnant or Princess wlio has inherited the sovereign power in countries where female succes- sion to the throne is recogni'/.ed, possesses all the po- litical rights of a King. In England it is said that the King never dies, which means that he succeeds to the throne immedi- ately on the death of his predecessor, without the necessity of previous recognition on the part of the people. . He makes oath at his coronation to govern according to law, to cause justice to be adminis- tered, and to maintain the Protestant Church. He is the soiirce from which all hereditary titles are de- rived, and he nominates Judges and other Officers of State. Officers of the Ami}' and Navy, Governors of Colonies, Bisliops, and Deans. He must concur in every legislative enactment, and sends Embassies, makes treaties, and even enters into wars, without consulting Parliament. The royal person is sacred, and the King cannot be called to account tor any of his acts ; but he can only act politically by his Ministers, who are not protected by the same irre- sponsibility. A furtlier control on the royal pre- rogative is exercised by the continual necessity of applying to Parliament for supplies of money, which practically renders it necessarj' to obtain the sanc- tion of that body to ever}' important measure. The crown now in use as the emblem of sovereignty differs considerably inform indifferent countries of modern Europe ; but in all cases it is distinguished from the coronets of the nobilitv in being closed above. KING-AT-ARMS—KING-OF-AEMS.— The principal Heraldic Officer of any country. There are four Kings-at-Arms in England, named respectively Gar- ter, Clarencieux, Norroy, and Bath, but the first three only are members of the College of Arms. Garter Principal King-of-Arms was instituted by ! Henry V., 1417 a. d., for the service of the Order of the Garter. His duties include the regulation of the arms of peers and tlie Knights of the Bath. In the capacity of King-of-Arms of the Order of the Gar- ter, he has apartments witliin the Castle of Windsor, and a mantle ot blue satin, with the arms of St. George on the left shoulder, besides a badge and scepter. His official costume as Principal King-of-Arms of England is a surcoat of velvet, richly embroidered with the arms of the Sovereign, a crown, and a col- lar of SS. Tlie insignia of this office arc borne by Gar- ter impak'd witli his paternal arms, the latter on the dexter side of the shield. These are argent. St. George's cross, on a chief gules a ducal coronet en- cir<?led with a garter, between a lion of England on the dexter side and a fleur-de-lis on tlie sinister, all or. Clarencieux and Norroy are Provincial Kings-of- Anns, with jurisdiction to the South and North of the Trent res|ieclively. They arrange a register, alone or conjointly with (iarler, the arms of all lielow the rank of llie peerage. The odicial arms of Clarencieux are argent St. George's cro.ss, on a chief gules a lion of England ducally crowned or. Those of Norroy are argent St. George's cross on a chief per pale az- ure and gules a lion of England ducally crowned between a fleur-de-lis on I lie dexter side, and a key. wards in chief, on the sinister, all or. Both Provincial Kings have a crown collar and surcoat. The crown is of silver gilt. The crown of a King-of-Arms is of silver gilt, and consists of a circle inscribed with Ihe v/OTds,Miiierire mei Deusseciindum magmim mUericordlam tuam, sup- porting 16 oak leaves, each alternate leaf higher than the rest. Within the crown is a cap of crimson sat- in turned up with ermine, and surmounted by a tas- .sel wrought of gold silk. Kings-ofArms were for- merly entitled to wear their crowns on all occasions when the Sovereign woreliis; now they assume them only when peers put on their coronets. The installa- tion of Kings-at-Arms anciently took place with great state, and always on a Sunday or Festival-day, the ceremony being performed by the King, the Earl Marshal, or some other person duly appointed by roy- al warrant. Bath King-of-Arms, though not a member of the College, takes precedence next after Garter. His office was created in 173.5 for the service of the Order of the Bath. On Jan. 14, 1726, he Avas constituted Gloucester King-of-Arms (an office originally created by Richard III., in whose reign it also became ex- tinct), and principal Herald of Wales. He was at the same time empowered, either alone or jointly with Garter, to grant arms to persons residing within the principality. The chief Heraldic Officer for Scotland is called Lyon King-of-Arms, who since the union has ranked next to Garter. His title is derived-from the lion rampant in the Scottish royal insignia, and he holds his office immediately from the Sovereign, and not as the English King-at-Arms, from theEarl Marshal. His official costume includes a crimson velvet robe embroidered with the royal arms, a trii)le row of gold chains round the neck with an oval gold medal, with the royal arms on one side and St. Andrew's cross on the other ; and a baton of gold enameled green, powdered with the badges of the Kingdom. His crown is of the same form with the imperial crown of the Kingdom, but not set with stones. Before the Hevolution he was crowned b}' the Sovereign, or his Commissioner, on entry on office. There is one King-of-Arms in Ireland, the Ulster. In the 14th century there existed a King-of-Arms called Ireland, but the office seems to hav-e become extinct, and Edward VI. created Ulster to supply the deficiency. His arms are argent, St. George's cross, upon a chief gules a lion between a harp and a port- cullis, all or. The royal ordinance relative to the Or- der of St. Patrick, issued May 17. 1833, declares that in all ceremonials and assemblies Ulster King-of-Arms shall have place immediately c/to' the Lj'on. See Herald. KINK. — A twist in a rope or cord, caused by the tightness of the coil, aud a relaxation of pressure in the direetiim of its length. The best rope, however, rarely kinks. In imcoiling a new coil of rope, pass the end at the core to the opposite side and draw it out; the turns of the rope will then run out witliout kinking. KIKK RIFLE. — A breech-ioading small-arm having a fixed cliamlier closed by a movable breech-lilock, which rotates aliout a horizontal axis at90° to the axis of the barrel, lying Iielnw the axis of the barrel and in front — being moved from below by a lever. This piece is a modification of the well-known Spencer repeating rifie, contaiuiug in an unwieldy butt-stock, six magazine tubes instead of the single one usually carried. These are connected on a cen- tral spindle and revolved into place by hand. KISSELBACHES. — A name commonly applied to the soldiers of India. KIT. — 1. A cement for stuffing canvas to place over tlie vents of carcasses to keep out the damp. 2. In military language, the equipment in necessaries, such as shirts, boots, brushes, etc., of a soldier, but not applicable to bis uniform, arms, or accouter- ments. Formerly, a higli bounty was given, and KITCHEN CAKT. 155 KNIGHTS. then severely cneroacherl upon, by nialfinc; the re emit pay fur his l<it. Tlir fiilrcr iiriiicipli: is ritjvv adoplcil of issulni; a free kil Id ciicli rccnjil, with a BinalhT ))ounty. Tlic soldier has still to rcjilacc nc- cessarics, worn out or lost, at his own expense, liut performanre of certain ciiiiies, aniouL' others to at- tend tlieir Soverei^'ii or Feudal Superior on Iiorst- liaik in lime of war. The institution of knifrht- hood, as eonfemil hy investiture, an<i with certain oath and ceremonies, arose f,'rafliuilly throu;,'liout he ohtains the articles at wholesale, and very low : Kurope as an adjunct of the feudal system The prices. As these necessaries are so eli(-ai)ly procur- | character of the knight was at once military and religious. The ilefense and recovery of the holy sepulcher, and the prcjti'Ction of pilgrims, were the ed, it is held a very heavy military offense to make awav with llieni. KITCHEN CART.— A traveling-kitchen to accom- pany troops in the field. These carts are usuall_v supplied at the rate of one to a liattalion for 1000 ohjeots to which, in the early times of the institu- tion, he especially devoteil liimself. 'i'he system of knight-service, introduced into Kngland hv'William soups. They shoidd he provi<led with boilers a la , the Conqueror, empowered the King or even a Su- Pnpin with an ulterior fire-place. These constitute ! perior Lord who was a subject, to compel every the body of the cart, the superior jiart of wliicli is , holder of a ci-rtain extent of land, called a KninhVH furnished with iilaiik to lie used as a table. At the e.\tremity of the cart there are two foot-boards upon which the cooks may rest while working dur- ing the march. I'apin's digester is essential to cook well and rapidly. The interior arrangement of the fire-iilace which is suited to baking is very ecouom. ical in fuel. 8ee TmivUii;/-kitrlieH. KLICKET.— A small post<'rn or gate in a palisade for the jiassage of a sallying parly. Also written Kliiiht. KNAPSACK.— A bag of canvas or skin, containing the soldier's necessaries, and worn suspended by straps between the shoulders. Those used in the ';/I'Vh tcf. to become a ni(-mber of the knightly order ; his investiture being accounted proof that he possessed tlie recpiisite knightly arms, and was sufliciently trained in their use. 'The " Statute of Knights," of the first year of Edward II., regulating the causes that were to be held valid to excuse a man from knightly service, sliows that in the 14th century the knightly office was not always eagerly coveted; yet its social dignity was very considerable, for even Dukes, if not admitted into the order, were obliged to yield precedence in any royal pageant or piililic ceremony. In time of war, each knight was bound to attend the king for 40 days, computed from the day when the enemy arrived "in the country. After the long war between France and England, it be- came the practice for the Sovereign to receive money compensations from subjects who were un- willing to receive knighthood, a system out of which gri'W a series of grievances, leading eventuallv to the total abolition of knight-service' in the reign of Charles II. Knighthood, originally but a military distinction, came, in the 16th century, to be occasionally con- ferred on civilians as a reward for valuable services rendered to the Crown or communitv. The first civil knight in England was sir Williain Walworth, Lord Mayor of Loudon, who won that distinction by slaying the rebel ^\'n\ Tyler in jireseuee of the King. Since the abolition of the knight-service, kiiiglitliood has been conferred without'any regard to ])roperty, as a mark of the Sovereign's es'teem. or a reward for services of any kind, civil or military. , In recent times it has been bestowed at least as often _ _ " I on scholars, lawyers, artists, or citizens, as on British army are ordinarily of black painted canvas ; [ soldiers, and in many cases for no weiirhtier service but some other nations, as the Swiss, make them of ; than carr)-ing a congratulatory address to Court. thick goat-skiu. dressed with the hair on. Thi knapsack affords by far the easiest way of carrying light personal luggage during a march or walking tour. KNEBELSPIESS. — A German lance used about the beiriiiuiu;;- of the Dth centurv. KNIGHT BACHELOR. 'V\w lowest grade of kniglit- liooil, now only conferred in the I'liiled Kiiig<loiii. Originally, like all kniglilliooil. a military distinc- tion, knighthood of this description came to be often bestowed on civilians, and in recent times it has frequently been \ conferred for no weightier ser- vice than carrying a congratulatory address to C'ourt. It is generally couferred by tlie Sovereign by a ver- bal declaration accompanic'd with the imi>ositiou of the sword, and without any patent or i list rumen t. The person who is to receive the honor kneels down b<'- fore the Sovereign, who touches him on the shoulder with a naked sword, saying, in French: " Soh ehev. alier nu nom dr Dicii " (He a knight in God's name), and then adds : " Rise. Sir A. I?." In exceptional cases, persons have^beeu made Knights Bachelor by patent. The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland oecasiou- allv exercises a riLdit of conferring kniirlithood. KNiaHT- ERRANT.— A wandering knight ; or any knight who traveleil in search of adventures, for the purpose of exliibitiiig military skill, prowess and gen- erosity. See Knighlx. The ceremonies practiced in co'nferring knigl*tliood have varied at different periods. In general, fast- ing and bathing were in early times necessary pre- paratives. In the nth century, the creation of a knight was preceded by solemn confession, and a mklnight vigil in the church, and followed by the reception of the Eucharist. The new knight offered his sword on the altar, to signify his devotion to the Church, and determination to lead a holy life. The sword was redeemed in a sum of money", had a be- nediction pronounced over it, and was girded on by the highest ecclesiastic present. The title was con- ferred by binding the sword and spurs on the can- didate, after which a blow was dealt him on the cheek or shoulder, as the last alTront which he was to receive unrequited. He then took an oath to pro- tect the distressed, maintain right against miirht, and never by word or deed to stain his character as a knight or" a Christian. A knight might be de- graded for the infringement of any part of his oath (an event of very rare occurence), in which case his spurs were chopped off with a hatchet, his sword broken, his escutcheon reversed, and some religious observances were added, during which each piece of armor was taken off in succession, and cast from the recreant knight. It has been said that knighthood could originally he conferred by any person of knightly condition, Im 1 t >f Cl\ t\\.\ Kl.rlit *n Ln.-.*^..- I* ...» » ^ 1.. •_;_* 3 KNIGHTS.— Originally Men-at-Arius bound to the , but if so, the right t"o bestow it was^early restricted KNIGHT SERVICE. 156 SNIGHTS-TEMPLAB. to persons of rank, and afterwards to the Sovereign or his representative, as the Commander of anArm}-. In England the Sovereign now bestows knighthood by a verbal declaration, accompanied with a simple ceremony of imposition of the sword, and without any patent or written instrument. In some few in- stances, knighthood has been conferred by patent, •when the persons knighted could not conveniently come into the presence of royalty, as in the case of Governors of Colonies, or other persons occupying prominent situations abroad. The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland also occasionally, but rarely, exercises a •dfll'gated power of conferring knighthood. The monosyllable " Sir " is prefixed to the Christian names of knights and baronets, and their wives had the lesjal designation of " Dame," wMiich in common in- tercourse becomes "Lady." Persons wlio arc simply knights without belonging to any order are called in England, knights hnchelors. a name probably cor- rupted from lias checalier. Knighthood of this kind is now only conferred in Great Britain. A degree of knighthood called banneret formerly existed in Eng- land and France, which was given on the field of bat- tle in reward for the performance of some heroic act. For the mode in which that dignity was conferred, see Banneeet. No knight-banneret has been created m the field since the time of Charles I., when that honor was bestowed on one Sir John Smith, for res- cuing the royal standard from the hands of the reb- els. George" III. twice conferred the title on occa- sion of a review, but the proceeding was considered irregular, and the rank of the knights not generally recognized. The form of helmet which the require- ments of the later Heraldry have appropriated to knights, entitling them to place it over their arms, is full-faced, of steel, decorated with bars, and with the visor a little open. For the different orders of knighthood, see separate articles, under their appro- priate headings, in this work. KNIGHT-SERVICE.— A tenure of lands held by knights on condition of performing military service. It was abolished in the time of Charles II. of Eng- lanil. Sec KnighU. KNIGHTS TEMPLAR. — A celebrated Religious and Mditary Order, founded at Jerusalem in the begin- ning of the 12tli century, by Hugues de Paganes quired from the Ahbot and Canons of the Church and Convent of tbe Temple, whence the Order ob- tained the name of the "Poor soldiers of the Tem- ple of Solomon," afterward abbreviated into Tem- plars. The knights were bound by their rule to hear the holy office every day, or if prevented Ijy their military duties, to say a certain number of paternosters instead : they were to abstain from flesh four days in the week, and from eggs and milk on Fridays. They might have three horses and an esquire each, but were forbidden to hunt or fowl. In the earlier period of their history, tl)e Templars made a great show of poverty, contrasting much with tlieir later condition. After the conquest of Jerusalem l5y thf- Saracens, they spread over Eu- rope ; their -valor became everywhere celebrated ; immense donation!; in money and land were show- ered on them; and members of the most distin- guished families thought themselves honored by en- rolment in the Order. In every country where they existed, thev had their Governor, called the Master of the Temple or of the Militia of the Temple. The Templars had settlements in England from an early period. The first was in London, on the site of Southampton Buildings, Holborn ; but from 1185 their principal seat was in Fleet Street, still known as the Temple. The Round Church which bears their name was dedicated by Heraclius in 1185. The Templars were at first all la3Tncn and of noble birth. Pope Alexander III., however, in 1162, author- ized the admission of spiritual persons not bound by previous vows, as Chaplains to the Order, who were not required to adopt the military vows. A third class was afterward introduced, consisting of laymen not of noble birth, who entered as serving brothers, some of them being attendants on the knights, and others exercising trades in the houses or lands of the Order. Eventually, many persons became affiliated members without taking the vows, for the sake of the protection afforded them. As the power and pros- perity of the Templars increased, so did their luxury, arrogance, and other vices, which gave the French Kings pretext for endeavoring to suppress them, and lay hold of their possessions. Accusations, many A * ^ Reiiulnr .Jewels — Knights 'remjihir. Gcoffroy de St. Omer, and seven other French I of which were absurd and incredible, were brought knigiits for the protection of the Holy Sepulchcr, against them by two members of their own body, and of Pilgrims resorting thither. Baldwin II., King I fliiir principal enemy was Philippe IV. of France, of Jerusalem, bestowed on this order tbeir tirsl place j wlio induced Pope Clement V. to accede to a scheme of residence; and an additional building was ac- 1 by which the whole members of the Order were seiz- KNOTS. 157 KNOTS. od nnrt imprisonert, tlioir lands oonflsofttcd, andmnny of Ihciii liicil. {■(iiiviclcci, 1111(1 cxcciilcil fcir caiiilal (Tillies. 'I'lic Kiij^lisli 'rcMiplars wcri' arri-slcd liy coiii- niaiiil iif Kdward II., ami a t'ouncil licld in lyondon in lliO!) having coiiviclcd llicm (if various criTiics. nio.sl of which were probably imaf;inary, the Kin;; seized their poBscHsions. In i;!13 the whole Order throiiujliout KuroiK' was Huppressed by the Coiinei! ol Vieiiiie, and its properly bestowed ou the l\nit,dits of SI. John, to wliieli latter Order their KiiKlish po.s- sessioiis were formally transferred by a Statute of Edward II. in Vi'Xi. The habil of the Templars was white, with a red cross of eij,dit points of the Maltese form worn on the left shoulder. Their war-cry was " Beau S('anl-," and their banner, which bore the game name, was jiartcd jier fess sable and ariient. They also displayed above their lances a white banner changed with the Cross of the Order. Tlicir badges were the AgniiK Dii, and a representation of two Kiiii^lils mounted on om^ horse — indicative of the orifiiiinl poverty of the Order. KNOTS. — 1. knots of dilferent kinds arc borne by dilTereiil families as heraldic badges, and are occa- sionally introduced as charges in sliields. Theforms of some of them ajipear to be sueijested by the ini- tial Idler of the name or title of the bearer. In the Wake and Ormonde knot it is not ditticult to trace a 11' and two Os. The liourchicr knot, as seen on the tomb of Archbishop Uoiirchicr.al Canterbury, bears a resemblance to two 7/s, and the StatTord knot to two <Sa. The Lacy knot contains wittiin it a rebus on the four letters of the name Lacy. 2. A twist or loop in a rope or cord, so made that the motion of one piece of the line over the other shall be stopped. The knot owes its power of pass- ive resistance to the friction of the rope. The uses of knots are infinite; in the commonest occasions of life one or two simple knots are indispensable ; in building, mining, and moving ordnance, knots of curious form are employed; wdiilc on .sUiplioard, they may be nunihercd by the dozen, and each is appropriated to a speeilic duty. The following are the more important knots employed in mechanical '. maneuvers : Tirii half /titchex — Pass the end of a rope round the standing part and bring it up thr«ugli the bight. This is a iialf hitch. Take it round again in the same manner for two half hitches. A clfjre hitch — Pass the end of a rope round a spar, over, and bringing it under and round behind its standing part, over the spar again and up through its own ])art. It may then, if necessary, be stopped or hitched to its own part; the only difference between two half hitches and a clove hitch being that one is hitched roimd its own standing ]iart and the other is hitched round a spar or another rope. Rmtnd turn and ttco half hitches — Take a round turn around the stakes or posts, and secure the end by two half iiitchesaround the standing part. This is useful in securing the guys of the gin to the stakes. .1 hinclineknttt — Take the end of a rope in your right hand and the standing part in your left: lay the end over the standing part, and with the left hand make a bight of the standing part over it ; take the end under the lower standing part up over the cross, and down through the bight. This is very useful in form- ing a temporary eye at the end of a rope. S(ji/<i)'e knot — Take an overhand knot round a spar; take an end in each hand and cross them on the same side of the standing part upon which they came up; pa.ss one end round the other, and bring it up through the bight. This is. sometimes called a rcc/Xvi"?. If the ends are crsssed the wrong waj-, sailors call it a granny knot. A timhir hitch — Take the end of a rope rotmd the spar, lead it under and over the standing part, and pass two or more round turns around its own part; pass the first turn oci r the end part instead of through the bight, as in a half hitch. Used in securing the ends of the trace-ropes to the maneuvering bolts. A rnllinff hitch— Psifn the end of tlie rope round a spar; lake il round the second time, nearer to the standing jiart; then carry it across the standing part, over ami round the spar and up through the bight. A strap or a tail-block is fastened to a ropi^ by this hitch. Used in shifting the fall from one end of the windlass to the other. A blackirnll hiU'h — Form the bight by putting the end of a rope across and under the standing part; put the hook of a tackle through it, the center of the bight resting against the back of the hook, and the end jammed in the bight of the hook by the standing part of the rope. A cntn-pair — Take a large bight in the rope, and spread it open, putting one hanilat one part of the bight and the other at the other, and letting tlio standing part and end come together; turn the bight over from you three times, and a small bite will be formed in each hand; bring the two small bites to- gether, and jiut the hook of a tackle through them both. This is very useful in applying a purchase or tackle to the fall of^another. A tlifitt btnd, (weavers knot) — Pass the end of a rope up through the bight of another, round both parts of the other, and under its own part. Ca/rrirk bend— Yorin a bight in the rope and lay the end across the standing part; stick the bight of another rope up through the loop thus' formed, and carry the end over the end of the first rope under the standing part, and through the loop formed by its ownbigut; stop each end to its own standing- part. Fisherman's bend (anchor knot)— Take two turns around the gun-sling or spar with the end of the rope ; hitch the end around the standing part and through both turns, and then pass the end over the second and under the first tuni. A sheep shank — Make two long bights in a rope which shall overlay one another ; take a half hitch over the end of each bight with the standing part which is next to it. A marlinspike hitch. — Lay the marlinspike upon the seizing stuff, and bring the end over the stand- ing part so as to form a bight; lay this bight back over the standing part, putting the marlinspike down through the bight, under the standing part, and up through the bight again. Very useful in putting on lashings etc. Stopping is fastening two parts of a rope together, as for a round seizing, without a crossing or riding. Nippering is fastening them by taking turns crosswise between the parts to jam them, and some- times with a round turn before eacli cross. They are called racking tvrnn. Pass riders over these and fasten the end. This is a convenient way to se- cure a fall while it is being shifted on the windlass. ^■1 screir is applied by weaving a liglit strap through the different parts of a fall, bringing the two ends together, and screwing the whole up tight by means of a stick or bar passed through the bights. .1 strap, or sling, is formed by knotting or splicing together the ends of a short strand or rope. It is used for hooking tackles into. Pointing- -Unlay the end of a rope and stop it ; take out as man)- yams as are necessarj-, and split each yarn in two, and take two parts of different yams and twist them up taut into nettles; the rest of the yams are combed down with a knife ; lay half the nettles down on the scraped part, the rest back upon the ropes, and pass three turns of twine taut roimd the part where the nettles separate, and hitch the twine, which is called the warp ; lay the nettles backward and forward as before, passing the warp each time. The ends may be whipped and snaked with twine, or the nettleshitched over the warp and hauled taut. The upper seizing must be snaked. If the upper part is too weak for pointing, put in a , piece of stick. This is an elaborate way of whip- i ping ropes, and requires considerable practice. Seiti/tg a rope is connecting the two parts with 1 smaller rope, or spun-yam. Take a piece of spun- KNOUT. 158 KBIS. yarn and double it ; pass the bight under the two parts of the rope to be seized; put both ends through it and liaul taut, using a level applied with the mar- linspike hitch ; separate the ends, pass them around the rope in opposite directions until enough turns are taken, hauling each turn taut, and seeing that they lay close and smooth. Cross the seizing by passing the ends in opposite directions between the ropes and around the seizing, and linish with a square knot. ^■1 lashing is applied on the same principles. After Bufficient turns have been taken, the lashing is /rap- ped by taking the ends around the turns, hauling them close together, and making the lashing tighter, of course. To pass a shear lashing. — Middle the lash- ing and take a turn round both legs at the cross ; pass one end up and the other down, aroimd and over the cross, until half of the lashing is expended; then ride both ends back again on their own parts and knot them in the middle ; frap the first and rid- ing turns together on each side with sennit. This will be useful in rigging shears for hoisting guns, when a gin is not available. Any two spars that will sup- port the weight can be used. The knots most frequently used and the manner of forming them are described under the appropri- ate headings. KNOUT — KNUT. — A scourge composed of many thongs of skin, plaited, and interwoven with wire, which was formerly the favorite instrument of pun- ishment in Russia for all classes and degrees of crim- inals. The offender was tied to two stakes, stripped, and received on the back the specified number of lashes ; 100 or 120 were equivalent to sentence of death, but in many cases the victim died under the operation long before this number was completed. If a culprit survived this punishment lie was banished for life to Siberia. The whipping was inflicted by a criminal, who preferred this office to exile to Sibe- ria, and who was constantly kept in prison, except when his services were required. The nobility were legally exempt from the knout, but this privilege was not always respected. In earlier times the nose was slit, the ears were cut off, and the letter V for vor (rogue) was branded on the forehead; but this ag- gravation was abolished by Alexander I. The knout was abolished by the Emperor Nicholas, who substi- tuted the pUti, a kind of lash. KODALLIE. — An Indian term. A tool used by the natives of India in digging all kinds of earthwork. The face of the tool is shaped like a hoe, and has a short handle nearly parallel to the face. It is used in a kneeling or sitting position. KONKBI. — A sword of the Middle Ages, without a hilt or crossguard. The handle is straight and forms with the blade a Latin cross. KOBAZIN. — A short hauberk or jacket of scales. It is frequently called Jazeraii. The term is also ap- plied to a large imbricated hauberk, covered with overlapping plates, somewhat like the small hauberk of the 8th century. KOT DUFFADAR.— A non-commissioned officer in the East Indian Native Cavalry, corresponding with a troop Sergeant Major. See Duffadar Major. KOUL. — A soldier belonging to a noble corps in Persia. . The KouU constitute the third corps of the King's Household Troops. They are men of note and rank, and no person can arrive at any consider- able post or situation in Persia who has not served among tlic Kouls. . The Commander of the Kouls is known as the Kouler-Agasi, and is usually Governor of a considerable Province. KRANKENTRAGER.— A special corps organized by the (Jerman Ami}' ; its duty is to carry the sick and wounded. The men are mostly taken from the Lnnd- tnehr, but some are students from hospitals and uni- versities. The former are in uniform, and the latter in plain clothes ; but all wear the red cross on their arm, and are under the protection of the Geneva Convention. They are men of two year.s' service, kitelligent.of good character, and have received some theoretical instruction in surgery and medicine. The instruction imparted to these men is directed by Sup- erior Officers, assisted by Surgeons. They arc taught to give the first care to the wounded ; to carry them on stretchers and to form the stretchers, from any im- provised material ; to transport the wounded to the ambulance wagons ; to prepare the wagons for that purpose ; and to perform all such duties as shall be required of them during a battle. KBEBS. — A complete suit of armor, comnosed of imbricated plates. KRIEGSSPIEL.— This German war game was con- trived by a Prussian, Councillor Reiswitz, in order to follow with greater facility the campaigns of Na- poleon I. His sou, an artillery officer, found it, by reproducing the campaigns on a map, an easy method of stud3'ing the different movements of troops, and caused the game to be adopted in about 1824 by Feldmarschall von Muffling. The Kriegs- spiel eventually became familiar with the Army, and was finally introduced in the military schools as the best means of studying strategy and tactics. This game was not only a study, but a favorite pastime, of VonMoltke's,Blunientliars, Prince Frederick Charles, and of other German officers, who took a prom- inent part during the war of 1870-71. It is stated that they carefully studied for years, by means of this game, the ground on which they carried out their operations in Prance. The Kriegsspiel was first introduced in England after' the Franco-German war (1870-71). and is now frequently played in all the large garrison towns of this country. A club has been formed at Aldershott for that purpose. The necessary apparatus for pla3'ing the Kriegsspiel is composed of maps carefully prepared on a scale of 6 or 8 inches to the mile ; of metal blocks, made to scale, as nearly as possible, representing all the dif- ferent branches of the service, from regiments to skirmishers; and strings of beads, for cavalry recon- noitering. The number of persons taking part in the game consists of the officers commanding the two armies, of a judge or chief umpire, supported gen- erally by two or three umpires. The umpires alone see the ground occupied by the two forces. Instruc- tions are given as to their positions ; the time of the j'ear, the length of the days, the state of the roads, etc., are settled beforehand. The losses made on both sides are calculated by means of tables carefully pre- pared ; they form a large volume, and were publish- ed, in 1870, by Colonel von Trotha. Other circum- stances, such as troops sheltered by earthworks, ar- tillery firing out of range, are taken into considera- tion ; those that have not been laid down in the rules are decided by a throw of the dice. Thus the action gradually develops itself as each Arm_y advances on the contested ground, till victory is declared for one side or the other. The principal utility of the game appears to be in the arrangements previous to and during the early conduct of an action. When the troops get to close quarters, the element of chance enters so largely into the game that it destroys to a very great extent, the dependence that may be placed on the issue of the battle. The game, liow- every, affords great practice in the drawing up of the order of march of columns previous to an action, and the development of the columns of march into formation for attack. In the hands of men having some military experience, this game becomes a cer- tain means of acquiring and perfecting a Science which in time of peace cannot be easily acquired. It raises questions wliich are strategical problems of great interest. See Strategos. KBIS. — A dagger or poniard, the universal weapon of the inhabitants of the Malayan Archipelago. It is made of many differentforms, short or long, straight or crooked. The liilt and scal)bard are often much ornamented. Men of all ranks wear this weapon; and those of high rank, when in full dress, some- times carry three or four. In Java, women sometimes wear it. Also written CVeeatand Kreea. K£NKA OUN. 159 KKUPP OUN. EBITKA GUN. The .system of aUorod hrccch-load- iiii; iii\isUcls of Ui(- Kii.ssiaii service is tile invention of Sjlvester Krnka, a re;jinieiilal arMiorer of tlie Austrian army. Its cliief features are siniplieity and coin])actness. The drawin;; represents tlic Itreeeli system with tlie breecli-bloeli reniov('d. Tlie follow- ing arc the principal parts, viz : « <, is tliat portion of the hrceeh-framc or receiver inlowliieh th(> liarn^l is screwed; r, is the slot or well in wliieli the breecli- block rests when the chamber is closed ; m is the hole into which is screwed the point of the hinge-pin aroiind which the breech-block revolves; In t, isthe lug in rear of the breech-block through which the hitige-piu passes; c, is the groove by which the cart- ridge is inserted into the chamber; r .1 t. is the lug which serves as a support for tlie breech-block and a stop for the hammer. A ; i\ represents the extractor in position; k, is a small catch-pin actuated by a spring which presses into a small indent in the front face of the breech-block and holds the block in place with slight friction; d g, are broken lines, showing the position of the thumb-piece of the breech-block when closed but not locked down by the hammer. The lower portion of the block is semicircular in form, and has a groove, into which fits a raised band or rib, r. The object of this arrangement is to in- crease the strength of the parts to resist the force of the ciiarge. The rear corn<'r of this rib is rounded off tt5 prevent it from interfering with the insertion of the cartridge ; the firing-pin is pushed back, when the lilock is opened by the oblique surface of the notch , and also in closing the block, bj' the chamfered cor- ner of the receiver, s t. The extractor is a lever of the first order, and is operated by opening the breech smartly, in which case the shell is thrown out clear from the receiver. The cartridge belongs to the cen- ter-fire system of Berdan. The shell is made of brass; the head is folded and strengthened with a re-en- forcing-cap. The caliber of the Russian altered arms is (iO, or 0".<). See SmaU-armH KRUPP GUN. — The fabrication of cannon is the matter of chief personal interest to Herr Krupp, who watches with the closest interest what governments in every part of the world are doing, and proposing to do, in relation to their armaments. Xcarh' every government, except England and the United States, hasbeena purchaser of ICruppguns, and there seems to be no cessation in the demand for them. At pre- sent Italy and China arc his best customers, and the 12.5-ton guns for the Italian government which he has now in hand are the most prodigious pieces of ordnance which have ever been made. Krupp's pre- eminence as a gun-maker is unquestionablj' due to his ca:rly perception of the fact that steel must sup- plant iitin in the fabrication of ordnance, and to his posses'sion' of such unrivaled facilities for the manu- facture of steel in his own works. New ideas in the construction of ordnance Ilerr Krupp docs not claim to have developed, but he was one of the first to per- ceive that breech-loading cannon would completely take the place of muzzle-loaders. It was this change which definitely forced the abandonment of iron in the construction of cannon in Europe. Krupp satis- fied himself that the wedge system of breech-closing was the best, and in spite of the conclusion of the French and English authorities that the French in- terlocking Bj'stcmis superior, Knipp goes ahead and shows no sign of giving up the system with which his name has come to be identified. The 12.')-ton guns are :).') calibers in length— that is, over .W feet. The inner tube is covere(l with steel rings to the muzzle, and the outer jacket at the breech in which the breech-closer is placed is an enormous iiieci; of steel. Not a single, part of these extraordinary guns could be produced by any establishment in the I'nil<'il Stales, for we have no means in America of hammering or working such enormous masses of metal. The largest caliber is 40 centimeters, or something over 10 inc-lies, and the boring of a tube of this size is an important operation. The core, when i\\y boring is completed, is still a ponderon.s cylinder, which can itself be bored and used as a tiibe of a smaller gun. The cutting of the rille grooves in a large gun is a very simple operation and not a protracted one, as these grooves are cut simul- taneously, and the work is done by the machines with mathematical accuracy. Every gun is tested on the grounds near the shops by being fired lour times, and the large guns are then sent to Jlepiien, in north (iermaiiy, to lie tested by the agents of the governments which jiurchase them--if such tests be desired. Krupp often conducts experiments of liis own at Meppen, and occasionally large numbers of foreign olficers are invited to be present. The drawback to such elaborate experiments is the enor- mous expense which they entail. Considering that the butts are wholly artificial structures of sand and masonry, and that "the hirgest cannon are here fired at closeranges, it will be seen that great strength and security are required. The workman in charge is pointed out as a person who has "fired more can- non " than any other man in the world. The trials at Meppen are all for the. purpose of testingthe range of the gun. those at the Works to test the strength of the gun. Near the firing-grounds at Essen is the Ordnance Museum, where are retained speci- mens of everything that Herr Krupp has accom- plished in the development of artillery. Tlur principal feature in the Jleppen programme of 1870 was the trial of Krupp's 40-ccntimcter (l.'J.T.'J inch) breech-loading gun, weighing about 70 tons 17 cwt., known commonly as the 71-ton gun. The trial was specially important for three reasons: 1st. It isthe first breech-loader whose power approaches that of the 100 and 80-ton guns made in England ; 2d. It is a steel gun ; 3d. Its proportions are based on results obtained during the last few years. All these questions are interesting, and deserving of so much attention that it would be difficult here to deal fairly with all. For the purpose in hand, how- ever, it is not necessary to discuss the question of the respective metals of the guns, because it can eas- ily be shown that there was nothing in these exper- iments that bears upon this point beyond the nega- tive fact that the steel guns in no respect exhibited any fault. We may safely say that the Woolwich guns would have done equally well, as far as the raa- teriiil is concerned, for the pressures in Krupp's guns were by no means excessive. The 71-ton gun, for exam- ple, was not subjected to as high a pressure as the English 80-ton gun has borne. A test which tries neither gun obviously furnishes us with no means of comparison, and hence the Meppen trials in no way furnish data for the discussion of the relative merits of wrought-iron and steel guns, but bear entirely on the two" other questions, "namely, that of breech- loading and proportions — the former, as concerns ease in working, and the latter power, and good shoot- ing. The Ill-ton gun was mounted as for coast defense, on a traversing platform, and a carriage nearly of the P^nglish pattern in all respects. The brackets were made of wrought-iron, the gun being elevated by multiple gear, acting on elevating arcs, fixed on the gun. Beneath the carriage were two hydraulic buffers. A modified form of Cunningham's chain KRUPP GUW. 160 KBTTPP GUH. gear, was used for traversing the platform, which ran on trucks on three concentric racers, the pivot being about six feet iu front of the carriage when run up. A lifting crane was attached to the platform, fixed on a sort of axle, with a counter-lever with powerful spring, which required considerable force to compress it by bending downthe crane, and which decreased the work of lifting the projectiles by the same amount, thus dividing the labor of lifting the projectiles into two operations. The gun was easily worked by a detachment of fif- teen men. Ten rounds, with chilled projectiles were first tired ; the time occupied by the last five rounds was twent3--four minutes. The breech piece moved easily. A good deal of oil was used on it. The breech- loading certainly saved the men much labor, not only in the actually ramming home but also in bringing up the projectiles, since it was not necessary for them to cross of the racers or the Cunningham chain. The charge was made up in four cartridges, each contain- ing 110 pounds of prismatic powder. The least sat- is&ctory part of the service of the gun considering everything, was the ditficulty experienced in the ignition of the charge and in remedying miss-fires. The vent was in the axis of the piece, and a disk of calico was torn off the bottom of the cartridge last entered, to expose the powder to the fiash of the tube. The latter was of a bad pattern, short and weak. No stress is to be laid on this, as the remedy is obvious. A primer or a stronger tube would rectify this fault. A more important question is the shooting of the gun as regards power and accuracy. The chilled projectiles had 0.078 in. windage, which is about the same as that in Woolwich projectiles, namely, 0.08 inch over a copper rim. The common shell subse- quently fired, however, had the unpractical windage of about 0.01 inch over an iron body. The target dia- grams show a remarkable degree of accuracy, chief- ly iu the vertical direction, which argues well for the regularity of the charge, which surely must be attri- buted to the prismatic powder employed. It stands to reason that a charge composed of a fixed number of prisms of uniform size and density gives promise of greater uniformity being attainable than when pebbles are employed ; and Fhere seems no reason to doubt that, whatever difficulties were at first experi- enced, this has been achieved. Surely if two attempts are made to obtain regularity in powder — one by employing prisms each uniform in size and shape, and if possible pressed uniformly, and another by means of pebbles of an accidental shape from uni- formlj- pressed powder-cakes — the former, though it may be difficult, offers promise of ultimate success in the higher degree. As to the windage, stress can hardly be laid on the great reduction in the case of the common shell; the two kinds of projectiles made pretty nearly equally good practice. Lastly, (IK to Vif proporliimsfif thebore andchamher. The bore of the 71-ton gun is only 20 inches shorter than that of the 100-ton gun and S.") inclies longer than that of the 80-ton gun. The chamber in length is GO. 6 inches, that of the 100-ton gun being 59.7 and of the 80-ton gun 59.6. The caliber of the 71-tou gun is 15.75, against IG iu the 80 and 17.72 in the 1004on gun. Consequent!}', the bore of the 71-ton gim is 21.8 calibers long, against 18 in the 80 and 30.5 in the 100- ton gun. The diameter of the chamber of the 71-ton gun is 17.32 inches, that of the 80 and 100-ton guns being 18.0 and 19.7 inches, respectively — that is to say it is 1 .57 inches greater than that of bore, as com- pared with 2.0 inches increase in the 80 and 1.98 inches in I he lOO-ton gun. Speaking generally, then, the bore of Krupp's gun is relatively rather longer and the cliamber less enlarged than in the IDO-ton gun, while in the 80-ton gvm the bore is actually the shortestand theenlargenu'nt of the chamber actually the greatest of tlu^ three. On these proportions nuiin- ly depends the power of the guns. To be able to make a comi)arison between them, discrimination is necessary. It would not be right to take e<pial or proportionate charges as the basis of the comparison, because the principle on which a long gun is advo- cated is that any greater result can thus be got from a gun with a given strain on it, but at the expense of some waste of powder. It is clear, then, that look- ing to the endurance of the gun rather than the expenditure of powder, the basis of comparison should be propiirtionate pressures. It would scarce- ly be right to say equal pressures, because the thick- er gun can fairly be expected to bear a greater strain than the thinner one. Now, the best results obtain- ed from these three guns are as follows : The 80-ton gun at Woolwich, with a proof-charge of 445 pounds, giving a pressure of 21.5 tons, discharged a projec- tile weighing 1,728 pounds with a velocity of 1,657 feet per second — having 32,938 foot-tons stored up work, or 6.58.37 foot-tons per inch circumference — equivalent to a penetration of a 32. .34 inches plate of wrought-iron. The 71-ton gun at Meppen is report- ed on one occasion, with a charge of 485.1 pounds, giving a pressure on the gun of 20.92 tons, to have discharged a projectile weighing 1,715 pounds with a velocitj' of 1,703 feet per second — having therefore 34.489 foot-tons stored-up work, or 697.02,foot-ton3 per inch circumference — equivalent to the penetra- tion of a plate 33.5 inches thick. During the public trials in August the 71-tou gun was not tested so severely, and it is therefore right to class the above in tlie same category as the Woolwich proof round above metioned. In August the average weight of the chilled projectiles was 1,712.6 pounds. The firing charge was 452 pounds, the initial velocity was 1,648 feet, the stored-up work was 32,241 foot-tons, the work per inch circumference 651.59 foot-tons, equivalant to a penetratian of 32.12 inches. The pressure on the bore was 19.85 tons. The highest result hitherto obtained with the lOO-ton gun, of 17.72 inches caliber, has recently been furnished by Captain Noble ; it is as follows : Charge, 573 pounds: projectile, 2,000 pounds, about ; velocit}-, 1,725.5 feet; stored-up work, about, 41,300 foot-tons, or 743 foot-tons per inch circumference, which is equiva- lent to a penetration of nearly 35 inches of armor. The pressure on the bore was about ,18.0 tons. It is quite clear, from the above, that the 71-ton gun is a much better weapon than the 80-ton gun, inasmuch as it beats it in every respect. It fires a heavier pro- jectile with a higher velocity, which has therefore more energy or stored-up work and an inch and a half more penetration, and all this is done with less pressure on the bore of the gun. The reason is that it is a better proportioned gun,its main advantage be- ing its greater length. The lOO-ton gun compares much more favorably with Krupp's gun, but, never- theless, would do so better if its length were greater. The main difference in the guns depends on the dif- erence in length ; and the question naturally arises with those investigating, how is it that the English Government is now completing and issuing 80- ton guns so inferior in power to Krupp's 71-ton gun, which has already achieved the results we speak of. The answer is, that the guns were designed for the " Inflexible," and that, being mtizzlc-loaders, the ves- sel had to be made with portions of the deck corres- ponding to the length of the gun, to make provision for its loading. All this was determined years ago. Since that time invent/gations have shown the desira- bility of greatly increasing the length; but the gun l)eing a muzzle-loader, it is impossible to do so. For the ship iu question, a muzzle-loader is limited as to its length by inflexible conditions; and all that can be done is, by enlarging the chamber, to utilize to the fullest extent the disproportionate thickness of metal. Apart from the trying instance, however, it is clear tliat every increase in length is in favor of the breech- loader, because the labor Jind inconvenience of muz- zle-loading increase in an increasing ratio ; and, in the case of turret guns, and jirolialily in some guns in casemates and cupolas, nmzzlc-loading becomes eventually almost impossible. KRUPP OUN. i(;i KEDPP GUN. Very rcnmrkabli' results were DbUiincd witli smiill- pr guns. An cxcfllciit .ll-loii M-iiicli gun wiis tried, the behavior of wliieh closely resembled llial of the 71-ton gun, ineludiiig the method of working, occa- sional niiss-lires, and the like. An 11-ineh (2«-centi- mcler) howitzer, a 4.i:i-in(h (\0S> centimeter) siege gun, and a H.7y-ineb (!l.li eentinieter) were tired, wliieli <lid well but need not behere nolieed indelail. A long .'i.ll-ineh (l.'i-eentimeterj gun on a special .sea service carriage with oil builer gave good residts; also an 8.37-incli (21-cenlimeter; iiowit/.er, and a 5.9- inch (IS centimeterj mortar, were tired at dummy guns in a battery with good effect, notwillislanding I hat some of the fuses failed to act. Two remarkably characteristic guns, ;i.4-iiich (8.7-centimcter;, were fired, tixcd on pivots, one with little, and the other with absolutely no ])rovision for recoil. With these is naturally connected another non-recoil arrange nient of Krupp's, now well known, consisting of 0.1- inch (l.") centimeter) ",im, muzzle pivoting, the muz- zle being ball-shaped and working in a socket in an armor-plate. These three guns possess peculiarities deserving of attention. ' One piece, ;i.4 incliis in caliber, was 14 feel 3:^ inch- es long. Its chamber was enlarged to an extra- ordinary extent, being .'5. 9 inches in diameter. The cartridge was a long bag, very loose on the powder, made so as to admit of being adjusted in the cham- ber by hand. The charge was 7.7 pounds. Two kinds of projectiles were tired — long ones. 12..') inch- es inlengtli, weighing 22 pounds, and shorter ones 9.5 inches in length, weighing 15 pounds. The initial velocities of these projectiles were 1,829 and 3,098 feet respectively. The maximum pressure was 11.0 tons. During this extraordinary performances the gun was held rigidly, being lixed on a strong vertical steel pivot, and so steady was it that small coins placed on its barrel were not shaken off on ti ing except near the muzzle. Eventually a Dutch ''.licer dis|)layed sufTicient coutideuce to sit astride on the gun wliiU' it was fired, with the projectile shooting between his legs at the rate of about 2,000 feet per second. The second 3.4 gim somewhat resend)led the above, but had provision for slight recoil, the pivot moving on its lower end as a center, the gun forcing the upper end back against a piston or buffer. The muz- zle pivoting 6.1 gun was worked easily, the armor absorbing the shock of recoil, and suffering in no way apparently beyond the structure appearing to spring a little in the earth. A man laid it while riding on a sa^Jdlc placed on the chase of the piece; he employed sights directed through a small hole at a convenient height above the gun. and he tired the gun himself by pulling the lanyard while stillsitting on the piece. This system has been tried by one Goverment experiment, but has not hitherto found favor. It certainly appears as ii a heavy gun so fixed to a shield, and impressing its work on it every round, must soon destroy the structure; l)ut apparently it would take a very long time for a med- ium gun to do so, and it is possible that a gun so completely protected and able to fire with such great rapidity might perform admirable service before it failed in this way. so that, under .some conditions, such a gin< might be very valuable. The ball portion of the muzzle can be readily un- screwed, and so can the disk containing the socket into which it fits in the plate. This operation can be safely performed, a shutter being riui up which completely covers the opening from the enemy. It still appears possible, liowever, that a blow from a very heavy shot might distort and jam the screwed portion of the plate. Against ordinary siege guns such a gun working with all the speed due to non- recoil, and with such an extraordinary measure of security, might effect much. Two trials against ar- mor took place, one to show the comparative effects of firing against chilled and soft hammered iron structures. As both were manufactured by Ilerr Krupp, the trial cannot be regarded as a represent- ative one of the system he opposes, and it would be a mistake to discuss it here. The other was the fir- ing of a 9.45-in<li ("24-centinieiiT) gun, with acharge of"l05.3 pounds and a steel projectile weighing 348.3 pounds, at a target which consisted of a front 12-incli wrouglit-iron [ilate, a wood layer of 2 inches, and a liiick wrought-iron plate of 8 inchi-s. Tlu; plates wens rolled at Dillingeii. The shot had a striking velocity of 1,870 feet, which would give 8,492 fool- tons energy or stored-up work, a penetrating figure of 388.5 foot-tons ijer inch circumference, and a penetration of 19.33 inches of iron. The projectile, however of each of two rounds fired passed complete- ly through the entire 20 inches of ir<m and grazed a'bout 2.000 meters farther up the range. The plates were indifferently rolled, and contained some phos- phorus, it is said; but the jienetration of the sliot was. after making all allowances, extraordinary. They were scarcely deformed in ap])carance wlien recovered. The steel was excellent. Tliey liadogival points, the heads being struck with a radius of two diameters. To simi up, the features;which chiefly concern us in thesis extraonlinarv trials are— 1st. The success of the breeeh-loailing'syslem. 2d. The great results obtained as to power and accuracy of tire. 3d. The muzzle-pivoting and non-recoil systems. Although these have been noticed in the short relation already given, one or two words may be useful to lead a dis- cussion. First, it must not be supposed that equally good results have not been •btaiued as to power when guns have been nuide in accordance with the conditions arrived at by recent experiments, as may be seen from the following examples: J'lro years ago the new tyiie KIswiek 0-inch gun wjis fired with a charse of 33 pounds and a projectile of 82 pounds, the initial velocity being 1.902 feet, and thetotal en- ergy 2.057 foot-tons : the same gun, with a charge of 37.5 pounds, discharired a projectile of 83 pounds weight with a velocity of 2,0;)1 feet, having 2.:!03 foot-tons total energy. With this may naturally be compared Krupp's 5.9-inch gun, fired at Meppcn, with 33,1 uounds charge, and with projectiles weigh- ing 88.2 and 112.5 pounds.giviiig velocities of 1,835.- 3 and 1,608.7 feet, and total energy of 2.000 and 2,1- 71 foot-tons respectively. On one occasion it is re- corded in Krupp's printed tables as having fired a shot of 09 pounds weicht withacharse of 37. 5 pounds with a velocity of 2,135.8 feet, liaviiig 2,183 foot-tons energy. In these comparisons the Elswick gun has sliuliVly the advantage. It can scarcely fail to be ob- served", however, that to rival the residts of Krupp, Elswick achievements, and not of Government guns, are instanced. In some measure this may be account- ed for by the fact that private manufacturers are un- trammeled by routine, and a master of tlie question seizes lessons taught by experiments and works them as he judges best. The Government does not encour- age the manufacturing departments to aim at taking the lead in experimental investigation. There are however, one or two serious lessons that we might learn from foreign trials. Take, for example, the three cases of breech-loading guns,breecli-loading small-arm rifles, and prismatic powder. .\ll these have been taken up. tried, and discarded, while they were steadily worked out to a successful issue by Germany. About 1853 the needle-gun was tried and rejected in England. Prussia.acting onherown judg- ment, patiently worked at it, and in 1803 or 1864 the entire superiority of breech-loading arms became in- disputablv proved and they were universally adopted. About 1860 the English tried prismatic or pellet pow- der, and rejected ii : and after adopting breech-load- ing guns about 1858, they gradually superseded them about 1866 by muzzle-loading ordnance ; and now, after Germany has steadily worked out these ques- tions to a successful i.ssuethey are trying both one and the other again, and those who have weighed the results obtained by them, as compared with those of their own guns and powder, can hardly doubt KEUPP GUN LIFT. 162 KKUPP SEA COAST CAEEIAGE8. that both will be eventually adopted. Until recently, [ the Italians and Englisli were the main supporters of muzzle-loadina; guns. These gens were character- ized also bj' being made of wrouglit-iron, whicli complicates the comparison we now wish to make. Still, the fact remained that England and Italy liad muzzle-loading guns of 100 and 80 tons weight, and I of a power that no breech-loading ordnance could rival. The Meppen trials have exhibited a gun which entirely surpasses the last-mentioned piece, and, for its weight, compares well with the former. , Instv'ad of dealing with a theoretical gun existing on- ly on paper, then, we have one in thoroughly good working order, loading and tiring by hand with a rapidity, and shooting with a power and accuracy, far beyond the achievements of the 80-ton gun up to the present time. This result is not due to a want of knowledge but to the impossibility of appl)'ing knowl- edge to the case of the 80-ton gun. With muzzle- loading guns on the present English system they have greater labor in loading, and have to commit them- selves to the length of their gun three or four years before they bring it into service. To argue that breech- loaders should be at once adopted would be to com- mit the fault we have complained of above, but sure- ly we have sufficient reason to give them a trial on a. large scale. If breech-loaders have the advantages of ease and rapidity in working, of the possiliility of changing their length without revolutionizing the surrounding structure of the ship, and of affording greater cover, especially when nonrecoil carriages of any kind are employed, they surely deserve afidl trial even at the cost of having both breech and muzzle- loading guns in the service. See Krvpp Sea-coast Cnrringex, and Krnpp Steel Works. KEUPP GUN-LIFT. —It consists of two quadran- gular pyramidal pillars 23 feet high, made of angle- iron riveted together and strongly braced, as shown in engraving, resting each on a solid base of cast- iron. The pillars are connected at the top by a cross- beam 19J feet long, made of two principal trussed beams strongly secured by cross-tics, and carrying at the middle a double jjulley, and at about 4 feet dis- tant, on either side, a single pulley. A long cliaiii is se- cured at its ends to the windlasses, 17, passing over tlie pulleys and around the triple block, which is pro- vided with a double hook to receive the ends of the sling-chains. The alpliabetical order of the letters indicates the maimer in wliicli the wheels and pin- ions actuate each other. The chain thus makes a half turn on each single pulley, one turn on the double i)ull(^y, and one and a half turns on the tri- ple block, as shown in the drawing, the ends of the chain being double between the pulley and block. It is easy to see how a limited number of men, oper- ating on the cranks of the windlasses on both sides, are alile to raise as heavy a weight as a 12 or 14 inch gun. See Oun-lift, and Prussinn Gun-lift. KKUPP SEA-COAST CAKELAGES.— The top carri- age is composed of two cheeks connected together by a front, rear and liottom transom. The latter, of boiler-plate, extends under the bottom of the cheeks their entire length, and is shod on the under side wliere it comes in contact with the rails with brass shoes screwed fast to it. The cheeks for the G-inch gun are made of a single plate 1 inch thick. For the larger calibers the}' are made of two plates rivet- ed together, with a wrought-iron frame between them ; in the upper side of the frame the trunnion- beds are formed toreceive the trunnions, which have bronze friction-rings fitted on them. Cap-squares are used for all carriages. Both cheeks are pro- vided on their outer faces with an apparatus for giv- ing the elevation. It is composed of a cog-wheel- operating a circular rack fastened to the gun by a bronze stud. The rack is held in place engaged with the teeth of the cog-wheels by a small roller with its a.\is in the cheek. To elevate or depress the gun there is a wheel on the left side, with holes in its periphery to take a handspike ; and on the right side there is a wheel with handles. In carriages for heavy guns this wheel is not on the same axis as the cog-wheel, but works in a pinion to gain power to raise the gun. The gun is held in any desired position by turning a check- screw which presses the wheel against the check. In firing, the top carriage rests on the chassis rail throughout the entire length of the shoe, in order to distribute the pressure arising from the discharge over a greater surface. To run the gun into liattery the top carriage is provided with four truck-wheels. The rear pair are on eccentric a.xles, and can be thrown in gear by turning the .axles part way round; this brings the front wheels in play, which turn on fixed axles. In the 6-inch gun-carriage each pair of wheels has a common axle, which has its bearings in the two cheeks, and the wheels are close up to them on the inside. The bottom transom has two openings left in it to allow the rear wheels to bear on the rails. The lever of the rear wheels on the left end of the axle is kept in position by a latch on the cheek. In carriages for heavier gims, begin- ning with the 0.7 inch gun, the truck-wheels are placed between the two plates of the cheek, in front or rear of the frame. Each wheel has its own axle. An automatic arrangement is made to nm the gim into battery after firing, without any action on the part of the gunner. This device consists of two wedge-sliaped pieces of iron screwed fast to the top of the rails in rear of the top carriage. When the gun recoils, the rear wheels run up these inclined planes, the rear end of the carriage is raised till the front wheels are brought to bear also, and after the recoil the carriage runs down the inclined planes into battery, ready for the next fire. The eccentric axle is kept from turning by a key in the check. To run the carriage from battery this key is taken out, and the wheels also be thrown" in gear by turning the axle with a handspike in the handspike-socket. To pro- vide for the possible wear of the front wlieels, and preserve an iMpial and quick motion when running into battery, the front wheels are also mounted on axles with eccentric boxes, which are kept in posi- tion by a small screw in each. To make this adjust- ment, remove the screw and turn the box, which, on accoi'int of its eccentricity, will lower tlie axle ; it is held in the new position by the screw i)la<ed in a second hole. Two angle-irons are fastened to the bottom transom to guide the top carriage in its re- the may XBCFP SEA-COAST CABBIAOES. 1G3 KBUFP SEA COAST CABBIAGEB. coil ; and two j^uido-liooks flanur of tli(: mil pnjvt'iil thu loling on it. India-rulihcr In crs are proviilcd to liniiltlic and rear. In the (>-in<'li carr placed liy the curve of the which join lh(^ licittoni transi rini,'H are fastened to the rear the holtom, to hook the rop( •carriat;e from battery. The hydraulic Ijultcr is use which pass iindor the top carriage from hul- irters and connter-hiirt- reidil both to the front iage the liurters are re- enil of the angle-irons im to the cheeks. Two end of the cheeks, near .s to for pulling the top d to regulate and check chassis is transmitted directly to it. The rear wheels have several holes bored radially into theni to receive the i-nd of a hanils[)ik(r to traverse the carriage in giving the proper diriction to the gun. liurters and ciiunti'r-hurters are placed on thi- front and rear ends of the rails, or the front and rear transoins, to stop the carriage running into or from battery. These hurt(-rs are made each of a steel piston, fitting in a box, anil holding between the head and box a num- ]){-r of India-rubber diaks, separated from each other by sheet-iron rings. the recoil of the gun. It consists of a forged cast- steel cylinder bored out and turned. Its rear end is closed by tlie bottom, screwed on anil fastened to the rear transom of the chassis by screws. The front end of the cylinder is also screwed into a piece to which the cover is held by screws. There is a hole in the bottom piece for tilling the C3'linder; it is stop- ped with a screw and a cock in the cover for empty- ing it. The piston-liead, with four holes bored in it, fits the cylinder closely, and to it, the piston-rod of cast steel is fastened, and passes through the cylin- der head, the joint being packed with hemp-packing and l)ronze packing-box. The end of the piston-rod is fastened to the cross-bead, which is bolted to the bottom transom of the top carriage. Tlie chassis is composed of two rails, connected together by transoms. The rails are wrought iron, I-shapcd, rolled in a single piece for thcsmallerguns, and built up for the ll-inch gun, and all of larger caliber. The front transom is composed of two plates, the upper and lower joined together in the middle by cross-pieces of the same profile as the rails. The rear transom is also composed of an upper and lower plate, united by two cross-pieces riveted to the plates with angle-irons. The rear end of the hydraulic cyl- inder is bolted to the front one of these cross-pieces through an intermediate piece. The middle tran- som, composed of a plate, re-enforced with angle- irons, supports the front end of the cylinder, which is secured to it by its brace. The front and rear transoms of the C-inch carriage are made of single plates, placed vertically, and re-enforced at top and bottom by angle-irons. The traverse-wheel forks are made fast to a front and rear bolster, which are bolt- ed to the chassis. Each bolster is composed of two vertical side plates, one horizontal plate and one ver- tical plate, with the necessary angle-irons to unite the parts together. The rear bolster is made enough liigher than the front one that the four wheels may be all of the same size, notwithstanding the inclination of the chassis, which is necessary to make the gun run into battery after tiring. The traverse- wheel forks, composed each of a front and rear l)ranch,are bolted to the under side of the horizontal plate of the bolsters. The traverse-wheels are of cast steel, with a deep semicircular groove cut in their periphery to fit over the traverse-circle, which is nearly semicircular in cross-section, so that a large part of the recoil of the A hinged tongue, bolted to the front transom of the chassis, connects it to the pintle in front. A wind- lass, attached to the rear end of the chassis, is used to run the gun from batterj-. It has a drum with raised sides for the rope, and is operated by a crank turning a wheel and pinion. For guns of very large caliber a double set of wheels and pinions is added between the crank and drum. All of tliese parts are fastened to a stirrup, which is secured by means of a tenon to the rear end of the rail. To run the gun from battery, hook the ropes on each side to tlie rings in the top carriage|take a turn around the drum, tighten the ropes and work tlie cranks. In the car- riage for the 6-inch gun the arrangement is replaced by a simple block-and-tackle, which is hooked in tlie rings in the rear end of the chassis. In the other carriages these rings are fastened to the windlass-frame, and are also used in traversing the carriage. For this purpose, commencing with the 8-inch sea-coast carriage, a windlass is used, fas- tened to the rear end of the chassis by a boiler-plate frame, strengthened by angle-irons, to which all of the moveable parts are attached. The principal part is tlie drum, around the circumference of which the cliain works, fastened at its two ends to rings out- side the platform, A pair of horizontal and vertical leading wheels on each side prevent the chain from leaving the drum. If the drum be turned by means of the crank which communicates with it through the wheel and pinion, the drum moves on the sta- tionary chain, traversing the chassis with an eas}' but rapid enough motion. In case the chain breaks, the chassis may be traversed with handspikes. A crane is provided for the heavj' carriages, commencing with the 8-inch, for elevating the projfctile. It is placed on the right side of the chassis, on a di- rect line with the brcecli of the gun, when it is in battery. It consists of a curved iron upright, which is held in a vertical position by a pillow-block and collar, and is rcadih' turned by the handle. The drum is near the foot of the upright. By turning the crank, motion is given to the rope, either directly or by a wheel and pinion. One end of the rope is fas. tened to the drum, and thence it passes over two fixed pulleys on the upright. The other end has a hook fastened to it. This hook is inserted in the upper ring of the shot-cart, which, holding the projectile, is hoisted up, the tongue being first taken out. The [ crane is turned until the carriage touches the gun, to KHUPP RIFLING. 164 KRUPP STEEL WORKS. which it is hooked. The shot being rammed home, the crane is turned, and the empty cart is lowered. Steps are attached to the chassis at several places for the convenience of the gunners (angle-irons are fas- tened to the rails, and oak planks, secured to them), as the step for the gunner in pointing in rear and across the chassis, on both sides of the chassis, and between the rails, for the men serving the gun, in- serting the projectile, the charge, etc. The foundation of the platform is of brick mason- rj-, from 3 to G feet thick, acconling to the caliber of the gun. The stability of the foundation being the essential condition of the continued good working of the carriage, the masonrj- should first of all have a solid bed. If the soil be not firm, as often happens on the sea-coast, the foundation should be made by driving piles, on which a good bed of concrete sliould be laid, and may be made still more solid by pieces of railroad iron. The following implements are supplied for the car- riages : Two wooden handspikes (ash), liaving ends sliod with iron and made to fit in the holes of the ele- vating-wheel, in the rear truck-wheels, and rear trav- erse-wheels ; one wrench for tlie packing-box; a wrench for the cock and the filling-hole screw in the hydraulic cylinder; a screw-wrench, and asliot-cart. The bod)' of the cart is a piece of curved sheet-iron, on which the projectile lies. It is held in place by an iron strap passing over it, tlirough whicli two screws pass and press against the shot between two bands. An e_ye-bolt and ring is provided on the top of this strap, into which the hook of the crane-rope is passed to hoist the shot. The front end of the cart has a flange, with two liookstohang it to the breech of the gun, where it rests and serves as a guide in loading. Tlie a.xle and two bronze wheels are placed a little in front the center of gravity, and a sheet-iron prop at the rear end, and also the pole, which can be taken off, but is held in place when in use by two hooks below and two studs above. To load tlie cart, the projectile is first placedon its base and the cart over it; the screws for holding the projectile are turned down ; the cart is then righted and the pole put in place. For every battery ,"or in large batteries for every three guns, there is added a pair of windlasses like that already described and used in running tlie top carriage back, and a funnel with a graduated scale inside giving its contents in gallons. Its bottom orifice is closed by a cock, and is used in filling the cylinder with glycerine. An ex- tra bl(/ck and tackle is added to those carriages which have no windlasses. The carriages having been all mounted and proved in the Shops by firing and working them, it is only required for mounting them in batfery that the cor- responding parts should be secured to the platform, which should be level and firm. The pintle-plate sliould be laid down so that the pintle shall be exactly vertical. The rear traverse-circles should be placed on the arc of a circle described with tlie pintle as a center, and a mean radius of l.T feet, for all sea- coast carriages from G to 11 inch caliber. The 12-incli carriage is similar in its genera, con- .struction to those above descril)ed. It admits of an elevation of, the gun of 17", and a depression of 7". The axis of the trumiion-beds is !Ki.7 inclies above the platform. Tlu^ elevating apparatus is provided with a wheel on either side of the carriage, having radiarl handles with which to (iperate it. Tliis wheel carries a pinion, which is comiected l)y an iuterine- diate wheel to tluit which works the circular rack, thus gaining power to raise' the breech. The rails have a dejitli of 17,7 inches, a width on to]) of 0.3!) inches, and an inclination of 4'^. The piston-head of the hydraulic, cylinder is jiiereed with 4 holes .7(i inch in diameter ; I'.IJ gallons is the maxiniiiin (juan- tily of glycerine that should be put in the (ylinder. The weight of the top carriage is 12,4.')G pounds; the chassis, 33,842 pounds. The 14-inch carriage differs from the 12-inch only in some minor details. The axis of tlie trunnion- beds is 10.') inches above the platform. The carriage admits of the gun being fired over a parapet of 78 inches in heiglit, with an elevation of 19" and a de- pression of 6°. A dial-train is attached to the cir- cular rack of the elevating apparatus, and sliows to the gunner working the wheel the degree of eleva- tion given to the gun. The hydraulic buffer has two cylinders 9 inches interior diameter, in place of a single one. They are placed close to the rail on each side of the chassis. Three traverse-circles and three sets of traverse-wheels are used instead of two. A graduated arc of a circle is traced on the plat- form in rear of the chassis, with a pointer fastened to the end of the rail to give direction to the gun when the objt ct fired at cannot be seen on account of darkness, smoke, or fog. Weight of the top car- riage and chassis, 74,961 pounds. See Hydraulic Ihiffir, Krupp Gun, Pldtfnrmx, Sen-coast and Gar- rix'in f'arriagen. and Siege Carriages. KRUPP RIFLING.— In this system the grooves are quite shallow, their sides being radial aSd forming sharp angles with the bore, fhe rifling has a uni- form twist of one turn in 4.5 calibers generallj-. The grooves are wider at the bottom of the bore than at the muzzle, so that the compression of the lead-coated projectile is gradual, and less force is expended in changing the shape of the projectile. Tliis change of shape is effected b}' making the whole groove of the same size as at the muzzle, and then cutting away graduallyon the loading-edge of thegroove. Of course, as the twist is uniform, the driving-side of the groove cannot vary. The outer surface of the lead coating of the projectile is in raised rings with grooves be- tween, to allow space for its being drawn down in passing tlirougli the bore. The advantages of this, or the compressing system, are that the projectile is centered during its passage tlirough the bore, which prevents balloting ; the angles of departure and the initial velocities are therefore more uniform, and the stability of the axis of rotation on leaving the bore is better assured ; from whicli result great regularity and precision of fire. Tliere is little or no difficulty as to erosion of the metal caused by the gas forcing its way between the projectile and the bore. The lead jacket of the forced projectile does not prevent the emplo)'- ment of heavy charges. Forced projectiles do not wedge in the bore. The regularity of the movement of these projectiles does not wear or injure the bore. Tlie soft metal coating prevents damage to the lands. The bursting of a projectile covered with soft metal has comparatively no baneful effect on the gun. The objections to the system are the severe strains on the gun by suddenly stopping windage, by foul- ing, and bj- forcing the projectile into a bore of smaller diameter. The compressed projectile must be fired from a breech-loading gun, and the increasing-twist is impracticable from the great length of the soft-metal liearing. The soft coating of the projectile is liable to injury in handling and in store ; also to be stripped on firiuii. KEUPP STEEL WORKS —The widespread reputa- tion of the steel ])roduced in the great works of Ilerr Krupj), at Essen, in Prussia, has induced us to give it a brief notice. His manufactory, always a large one, has been gradually increasing in size during the last half century, imtill it now covers nearly 1000 acres, and gives employment to some 14,000 persons. For large nu'tallurgical works, Essen is favorably situated, being in the center of a coal-bearing area, where coal of the purest kind can be comparatively cheaply procured. There is also at hand the niangan- iferous iron ores of Prussia, which have been found so excellently adapted for the manufacture of steel; but it is believed tliat the admirable organization of every |)art of bis mauufactury has conduced, as much as anything, to the great success of Krupp. Witii laborers and lueclumics who have passed the regu- lation-time in the Prussian army, overseers trained in the German technical schools, and a small staff of K8HATRIYA. 165 KU KLUX. ex|)criciif((l imalytifal clicinisits, he liiiH (ibvioiisly a lljrcat ji(lvaiitai/;(' in rniifiiiclinj^ opiTjitifinM where or- der, syMteiii, ami skill are of parunioiiiil iiM|i(irlariee. IJiit even with these l)enelils, Kriipp's pruiliii-licinH wiiiilcl iKil liave ^;ainecl their eelchrily, were it not for the scrn|)uli)UH (;are with wliicli he j)erfornin every manipulation. In llie article Ihon we have (lescribi'd th(r inannfa<;turo of steel by the cemi lUation and Uri- te.mer iirocesBcs, but there are several other methods of inakini; it, and one of these is by the deearburiza- tioii of east-iron in Ihe ]iuddlili<; furnare. This is the process by which Krupp makes liis steel, in the first inslance; and tiie material he most lar;;ely employs is spiefieleim'n, or specular cast-iron, a hifjhly crystalline variety, usually conlainini; about 4 per cent of man- ganese. This iron is admirably suited for conversion into steel. The )iuddlin;; process for steel is similar to that employed for iron, except that Ihe former is conducted al a lower teniiierature, and re(|uires nicer management; but in the case of steel, llie cast-iron to be operated ujjon is never previously relined. Cast- iron til the extent of about 4 cwts. is melted in the puddling furnace, mixed with a quantity of slai; or cinder (chietly silicate of iron), and stirred -with a rabble. Durins this operation, the carbon in the cast-iron (\isually about .'5 per cent) is irradually oxi- dized by tile oxviien present in the ciniler; ciirhonic oxide is produced, and as it escapes, what is techni- cally termed " boiling" takes place. When the ebid- lition becomes active, the temperature is raised un- til the appearance of incipient solidilication occurs: the heat is then lowered, and the ordinary process of balling proceeded with. Steel thus produced \isu- ally contains from 0..'5 to 1 per cent of carbon; but if the temperature is not skillfully regulated, the car- bon becomes wliolly burned away, and malleable iron instead of steel is produi'cd. Puddled steel, although tiseful for most purposes in the arts (except cutlery), nevertheless wants ho- { mogeneity, on account of a certain intermixture [ of cinder, which is ditlicult to get rid of without fu- j sion — a defect which is ajit to prevent it from weld- j ing perfectly. In Ivrui)p's Works the puddled steel i is renielteJ into crucibles, in order to convert it into ' cast-sleel ; and it is the wonderful uniformity of qual- itj' with which he manufactures this in very large masses, that constitutes the superiority of, and gives so great an interest to, his productions. The cruci- bles employed are made with extreme care, mainl}- from lire-clay, to which a little plumbago is added; their capacity varies from ."JO to 100 lbs., and it is re- ported that as manj' as 100.000 are kept drying at the same time. After being once used, the crucibles are broken up, and mixed with other material, to make new ones. In the casting-house, where the large ingots are run. the furnaces, which contain about 1,200 crucibles, are arranged along the sides of the building ; and in the central portion the steel molds, varying iu ciipacity from 100 lbs. to 50 tons, are disposed in line between two pairs of rails, upon which runs a movable crane. It is iu the casting of such an enormous ingot as .50 tons of steel (the larg- e.st yet produced) from crucibles of small capacity that the perfect organization of Krupp's Establish- ment becomes more strikingly apparent. At a given signal, one gang of workmen remove the crucibles from the furnaces, while another seize them with tongs for the purpose, and pour their contents into narrow canals of wrought-iron, lined with tire-clay, which converge into the opening by which the mold is tilled. This is the critical stage of the operation, the diftieulty being to deposit in the mold a contin- uous stream of melted steel of about the same de- gree of beat, so as to cool uniformly, and to solidify into a perfectly homogeneous nuiss. Of such uni- form soundness are some of Krupp's large steel in- gots, that one — shown in the London Kxhibition of. 18G3, 9 feet high, 44 inches in diameter, and weigh- ing 21 tons — when broken across ilid not show the slightest flaw, even when examined with a lens. In order to manipulatt? these extraordinary masses of Htei'l, there is a steel hainmer, weighing .50 tons — the mechanical marvel of the Works at Essen -which has a cyliniler nearly six feet in diameter. It has a 50-lon crane at racli of its four corners, and behind each of these again there arc four heating furnaces. A movable bench on low massive wheels serves to j remove alarge ingot from any of the furnaces, which is then, by means of the powerful cranes, and a sys- I tern of pulleys and crabs, placed on the anvil, and worked into any desired shape. The anvil-face weighs 1H5 Ions. The (pianlity of steel manufactured by Ilerr Krupp annually amounts to about 125,000 tons, represent- ing a value of about tH.tJOO.OOO. It consists chief!)' of rails, tires, crank-axles, shafts, mining pump-rods, and guns I hi' proportion of ordnance being about Iwo-liftlis of the whole. Guns have been made at Essen for the J'russians, Austrians, Helgians. Dutch, Ilaliiins. Turks. .Japanese, and also for the English, although not directly ordered by the Government. In 1874 the works included 1,100 smelting and other furnaces, 275 coke-ovens, 204 forges, 300 steam boil- ers, 71 steam-hammers, 281! steam-engines of 10,000- hor.se power, 1,0.50 machine tools, 30 miles of railway, HO telegraph slalions. a clwmical laboratory, and pho- tographic, lilhogra])hic, printing, and bookbinding eslablishmenls. Therit is a tire-brigade of 70 men, besides l(i(S watchmen. In 1870 the consumption of coal and coke logether amounted to 012.000 tons ; that of gas, 7.:j00,000 cubic meters in 20.342 burners. Krupp lias built good houses, hospitals, etc.. for his men. Besides the works at Essen, the firm possess- es several mines and .smelting works. In the Paris Exhibition of 1807, Krupp showe<l a huge gun in- tended for a coast battery to defend the attacks of plated ships. It was made entirely of cast-steel, weighed 50 tons, and could projiel a shot weighing 1,080 lbs. It took IG months, working day and night without interruption, to manufacture. The price of the gun alone was £15.750. and of its carriage and turn-table, which weighed respectively 15 and 25 tons, X'(),000 more. In the Vienna Exhibition of 1873. Krupp showed, iu a pavilion by themselves, a number of most interesting objects in steel. Among them were a huge gun like that shown at Paris, about 4 feet 6 inches in its greatest diameter ; an octagonal ingot, weighing fully 50 tons : and a marine-engine shaft. 15 inches in diameter. He also exhibited at Philadel- phia in 187G. See Krupp gun. KSHATBITA.— The second or militarj- caste in the I!r;ilimanii-al social system. KU-KLUX— KU-KLHX KLAN.— The title of a Se- cret Association which existed in the Southern States from 1866 to 1872, and which terrorized that section of the countr}- diiring the period in question. It was first made known as an active agency in Ten- nessee, in 1867, when the Governor of that .State, William G. Brownlow, called tipon the U, S. mili- tary authorities, to suppress violence and public dis- turbances in the State, which were traced to this organization. The history of the Ku-klux shows that at the close of the war various Societies of a political character were formed in the States of Ala- bama, Arkansas. Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, North and South Carolina, Tennessee, and Texas, under the names of the Knights of Ihe White Cam- ellia, White Brotherhood. Constitutional Union Guards, Pale Faces, Invisible Empires. Invisible Cir- cle, etc., all of which were eventually lost in the broader scope and more powerful and permanent in- fluence of the Ku-klux Klan. From the evidence afforded it would appear tliat the origin of these Secret Societies, and more particularly of the one we are specially considering, is to be found in the dislo- cation of poltical and social interests in the Southern .States consequent to the aggressive influence of a long and devastating condition of warfare. In expla- nation of their foundations. ex-Confederates claim that they were preceded by organization of loyal KUL. 166 ETTBTCHI leagues, which, as thev allege, were formed among the Negroes in the South through the efforts of "Carpet-baggers," so-called radical leaders intrigu- ing in the interest of the perpetuation of the power of the Republican Party in the Southern States. It is also claimed in behalf of the Southern people that, through the action of the 14th and loth Amendments to the'Constitution of the United States, the South- ern white population was greatly endangered both in its homes and its social relations, the emancipated Blacks being generally considered in the light of a race angered by long and bitter servitude, now armed and equipped by law and public sentiment, and only waiting opportunity for an uprising and to grasp the balance of power among the high- spirited people to whom they had been slaves for more than two centuries. This is the Southern ex- planation of the rise of the Ku-klux. Whatever may be the measure of truth contained in it, this in no wise militates against the justness of public condemnation of its acts. By Joint Resolution, dated April 20, 1871, the two Houses of Congress ordered an investigation into the condition of af- fairs in the States recently in a condition of insur- rection. For three years" the press had been filled with detailed statements describing acts of atrocity atiributed.to the secret and terrible Ku-klux Klan, which rivaled the worst instances recorded against the Spanish domination in the Netherlands, and the bloody scenes of the French Revolution. In every Southern State except Virginia. West Virginia, Del- aware, Maryland, and Florida, assassination of Ne- groes and white Republicans were of daily occur- rence. The gift of suffrage to the colored man had been nullified in its outcome as a political influence throush the system of terrorizing which utterly pre- cluded the free suffrage of the emancipated Blacks. Besides instances of special massacres covering lar^e numbers, and of which there occurred many m South Carolina, Louisiana. Mississippi, Texas and Tennessee, the daily and nightly assassinations, whippings, burnings, and other outrages were innu- merable. "and were never recorded. In reporting the state of society in Texas, the evidence given is, to the effect that the Negroes were murderedwith sucl; frequency that there was no possibility of keeping an accurate record of the details. On the basis of reports of this nature, and stimulated, doubtless by the intense public feeling in the North, created by the gradually spreading conviction of the lamenta- ble cleticiency in the power of the law as applied in the South, Congress, through its Committee, pro- ceeded to the inv'estigation ordered by the Joint Reso- lution to which we have already referred. The re- sult of this investigation appears in the 12 octavo volumes reporting tl^e testimony taken and published among the official documents (Senate) of the year 1872. ° An immense mass of evidence displays the nattire and acts of the Ku-klux, and fully justifies the title "Conspiracy," which Congress bestowed up- on that organization. While the Ku-klux may have originated for a minor purpose, it is difficult to be- lieve that this tremendous association of men sworn to fidelity; having its ramifications in every Southern State, and the power of life and death in most of them; with a ritual, oath, grips, pass-words, and all the other secret and systematic machinery neces- sary to llic carrying out of the most hidden and dan- gero\is purposes— it is difficult to believe that the real motive and intention of the Order were not the subversion of the Government of the United States, and the rehal]ililation of the leaders of the Reliel- lion. To this end, the negation of the suffrage in the South, and the efforts to defeat reconstruction, may reasonably be supposed to have tended. And whatever diverse opinions may be held regarding the good sense, judgment, and patriotism displayeil in the Reconstruction Acts and tlie metliods ado])teil to carry them into effect, it is impossible to view with- out the severest censure the nature of the opposition to them, as conducted by a bloody and revengeful association of exceedingly cruel and implacable men, intensely crazed by the facility with which murder and incendiarism could be made to do duty for what its members chose to consider retributive justice. Following is the oath of the Ku-klux Klan, as it was offerea in evidence before the Investigating Committee of Congress: "I (name), before the great immaculate Judge of heaven and earth, and upon the holy evangelists of Almighty God, do, of my own free will and accord, subscribe to the follow- ing sacred binding obligation. I. I am on the side of justice and humanity and constitutional liberty, as bequeathed to us by our forefathers. II. I re- ject and oppose the principles of the radical party. III. I pledge aid to a brother of the Ku-klux Klan in sickness, distress, or pecuniary embarrassment. Females, friends, widows, and their households shall be the special object of my care and protection. IV. Should I ever divulge, or cause to be divulged, any of the secrets of this Order, or any of the fore- going obligations, I must meet with the fearful pun- ishment of death and traitor's doom, which is death, death, death, at the hands of the brethren." This sufficiently theatrical obligation becomes im- pressive when one reflects that its various sections were carried out with absolute rigor, and that dis- obedience of the orders of the Chief of a klan was actually visited with instant death. Thus were the customs of the Carbonari paralleled among so pro- saic and conventional a people as the Americans so late as 1871. The members of the Order were ob- liged to deny their membership, even when answer- ing as witnesses in a Court of law, and were obli- gated to clear each other by their testimony in such cases or when acting as jurors. The Ku-klux grad- ually died out as an active organization after the investigation of 1871 ; and although certain of their methods continued to obtain during the progress of elections in the South, the return to sounder sense and better feeling on the part of the people of that section, and the improving condition of the relations between the North and the South, gradually died away with the passions in which the organization originated. It is reported that there were at one time 550,000 members of the Ku-klux Klan in the South, of which number 40,000 are said to have been in Tennessee. KUL. — The Turkish word for slave to the Prince. The Grand Vizier, the Bachas, the Beigler Beys, and all persons who receive pay or subsistence from situations dependent upon the Crown, are so called. This title is in high estimation among the Turkish military, as it authorizes all who are invested with it to insult, strike, and otherwise illuse the com- mon people, witliout being responsible for the most flagrant breach of humanity. KULLUM. (Nauclea parviikfra). — A wood used in the Bombay Presidency for fuses. It is a very light, soft, close, and even-grained wood, of a light brown color, not verj' durable, and will rot when exposed to wet. KUNDA DE RAJAH.— An IndiaH sword of the 16th century, 3j feet long, and entirely made of iron. The blade is damascened, and the handle, guard and hilt are beautifully engraved. KURROL.— Tlic Indian term for the advanced- guanl (if a main army. KURTCHI.— The iVrsian name of a Militia. It consists of one body of Cavalry, which is composed of the first Nobility of the Kingdom, and of the lin- eal (lecendants of the Turkish Conquerors, who placed Ismael Soplii on the throne. They wear a red turban of twelve folds, which is made of particular stuff. This turl)an was originally given them by Ismael, in consideration of their attachment to the religion and family of All. In consequence of their wearing this turban, the Persians arc always called hv tlie Turks KitiHin.^rhi or Red-heads. The Kurt- ciii compose a body of nearly 18,000 men. The Com- KTANIZINO. Kw LABOEATOBT. mandinK Offlrcr nf the Kurfcl'.i is known an Knrtrhf- hdjichi, wild fiiriiicrly liii'l I'-f iili'iilical aiillinrilv timl was iirif;iiially |)osstss'_-J l)_v Uu; (.'(jnslublu of Fraiii-c. tlmbrT, ptf., from rlry rot or dcray. Th'iH moBt fffl- lacioiiM iiii-lliod. wMirh cdnsiHlH of injiclin^' into the |)or<ts <jf tin- wood aKoliilion of <orroKive Hublimate, wiiH iiivuiilcd liy .John II. Kyan, wlio waH born in KYANIZING.— A proceKfl for proHerving ordnance ! Dublin, Nov. 27, 1774, and died in IbOO. L LABAKl'M. — The fatrio'ia standard of the Uoman Emperor ('onsl>antii>(', designed tocomnienioratc the miraculous vision of the cross in the sky, which is said to have appeared to him on his way to attack Maxenlius, awdtoliave been the movinLC cause of his conversion to Christianity. Jt was a loni; pipe or lance, with a short transverse liar of wood attaelied near its extremity, so as to form somethinn; like a cross. On the point of the lance was a golden crown sparkling with gems, and in its center tlie mysterious monogram of tlie cross and the initial letters of the name of Christ, with the occasional addition of the Greek letters Alpha and Omigii. From the cross- beam depended a ])urple banner, decorated with i)re- cious stones, and fully surrounded by a rich border of gold cnd)roidery. The cross was s\djstituted for the eagle, formerly depicted on the Roman stand- ards, and there were sonu'limes other emblems of till' Saviour. Uetween the crown and the cross were beads of tlie Emperor and his family, and sometimes a figure of Christ woven in gold. See Staiidfinl. LABEL LAMBEL.— In Iferaldry, the mark of ca- dency which distinguishes tlie eldest son in liis fath- er's lifetime, familiar tons from its entering into the composition of the arms of the Prince of Wales and other members of the royal family. It consists of a horizontal stripe or lillet, with three points depend- ing from it. When the mark of cadency itself is des- ignated VLjiti\ its points are called InM.i. It is said that the eldest son's eldest son should wear a label of five points in liis grandfather's lifetime, and, simi- larly, the great-grandson a label of seven points, two points being added lor each generation. The label extended originally ([iiite across the shield, and some- times occupied the upper, though now it is always placed in the lower part of the chief: the points, at first rectangular, assumed in later times the form called pattue, dove-tailed, or wedge-shaped, and more recently, the label ceased to be connected with the edges of the shield. Edward I., in his father's life- time, bore the arms of England within a label not of three, but of five points azure, joined to the head of the shield, and interlaced with the tail of the upper- most lion. Edward II., when Prince of Wales, used indilTerently the label of three or five points, as also did Edward III.;but from the time of the Black Prince downwards, the eldest son of the King of England has invariably differenced his arms with a label of three points argent, and the practice has been for the younger sons also to bear labels, which are some- times of other colors and more points, and differenc- ed by being charged with fleurs-de-lis, castles, tor- teaux, hearts, crosses, etc., as directed by the Sov- ereign by sign-manual registered in the C'ollege of Arms. The practice of differencing by the label which is thus in viridi observantui in our own and other royal families, is less used by subjects. Like other marks of cadency, laliels are sometimes borne as permanent distinctions by a particular branch of a family. See Hera'dry. LABORATORY.— This term is generally applied to establishments for conducting chemical or physical investigations, or for chemical manufacture. Chem- ical laboratories may be for purposes of instruction, as are those which are attached to colleges or other high schfiols. These institutions also sometimes have special laboratories for research. All large private manufacturinf; cstablishtnentfl where chem- ical processes are employed, to a considerable extent have laboratories attached to them in which invest- igations are carried on; many of them in the nature of preparatory trials of processes, .to facilitate the process of manufacture. A government manufac- tory is sometimes called a laboratory, and so are many smaller private establishments, as metallurgi- cal laboratories. telegra|ih laboratories, et<-. The following fixtures and furniture should be provided for a government lalioralory. \. Cartridije.litVL . — .\ talile for making cartridges for small arms, 12 feet long and 2\ feet wide, for 13 men or boys to work at. and the length in that pro- portion for any greater number ; tables for cutting paper anil fiannel. and for rolling cases on ; choker for rocket-cases; press f<ir rocket and port-fire cases; benches for cartridge-tables : stools. Closets should lie partitioned off from these rooms and furnished with cases, drawers, racks, and shelves for materials and tools. 2. FiUing-linnnc. — A shelf. 3 feet wide, for weighing on; other shelves with closets under them; tallies with raised bonlers for filling, folding, etc. ; budge-barrels, or jiowder-barrels, with copper hoops and covers; stools for scats ; footstools; a step- ladder; stands and gutters for emptying powder-bar- rels. 3. Packing-hiiuse. — Tables, benches and stools. 4. Store-houne. — Shelf for weighing on the shelves, drawers, and closets; tables, scales, stools, seats, step- ladder. 5. Drit'ing-lKmsf. — Blocks set in the ground or pavement ; benches and stools. In favorabkrweath- er, a porch attached to the building, or a tent, may be used for a driving-room. 6. Mixing-house. — Tables with raised edges ; sieves, etc. 7. Furnacf -house. — Furnaces ; work-benches'; platform-balance or large scales; atinner's bench and tools, with a vise, an anvil, and a chest for tools, a smith's forge, shovel and poker, stools, etc. 8. C«r;)fnfcr-.'(//"/. — Turning- lathe and tools ; carpenter's benches and tools. 9. Miigazini. — Shelves and frames for boxes and barrels. Two kinds of furnaces are used in the laboratorj- : In the first, the flame circulates around both the bottom and sides of the kettle : in the second, it comes in contact only with the bottom ; the latter are used for compositions of which gunpowder forms a part. Furnaces are built of bricks. The kettle is of cast-iron, about 3 feet in diameter at the top. h.av- ing a rounded bottom and a flange about 4 inches wide around the top, or else strong handles to set it by. The bottom is .T.") inch thick, and the sides .5 inch. By setting it in an iron plate pierced with holes, encircling the bottom, a furnace of the first kind may be converted into one of the second kind by stopping the holes. Fiirnm-efnr reducing the tyxide i>f lead (rr dross. — This furnace is built in the open air. on a stone or brick foundation. It is composed of a cylinder of sheet- iron, It) inches by 30 inches, lined with refractory- clay from 3 to 3 inches thick. The interior has a form of an inverted frustum of a cone, terminating below in a basin, the bottom of which is inclined toward a tap-hole. The fire is made in the furnace, and the draught supplied by a bellows, the nozzle of which enters at the top of the reservoir. The dross and the charcoal intended for its reduction, are thrown on the fire from the top of the furnace. The metal, as it is reduced, flows into the basin and escapes LABOBATOSY. 168 LABORATORY MATERIALS. through the tap-hole into an iron vessel and ia cast into bars or pigs as desired. In the field, furnaces may be built with sods, or sunli in the earth, if bricks cannot be readily procured. F'urnax built'inith fmrlx. — Let the kettle rest on a trivet, the feet of which may stand on any piece of flat iron, such as the bottom of a shot-canister, or stand for grape, the bottom of the kettle about 1 foot from the ground ; build round it with sods. The door of the furnace is 10 inches square : the flue of the chimney, opposite to the door, G inches square, and commencing about 6 inches from the ground ; the first part of the flue inclined at an an- gle of about 15", the rest vertical, and placed, if cir- cumstances permit, against a wall ; the top of the door and of the flue ruay be supported by small bars of iron. Furnace nun/i in the earVi. — The edge of the ket- tle should be about 1 inch above ground, and the bot- tom 13 to 15 inches above the hearth of the furnace; the earth is dug down vertically 1 foot from the ket- tle for the front of the furnace, and the door is cut 10 inches square. The earth is removed and sloped out. so as to give access to the door: the flue is bored out on the opposite side with a crowbar ; it com- mences 6 inches above the hearth, and comes out of the ground 18 inches from the furnace, whence it is carried horizontallj' about 13 feet. In furnaces of the second kind mentioned above, the trivet maj' be omitted, and the kettle may rest on the sod or earth for about 1 inch all round, and the earth rammed in against the sides of the kettle. It is important to observe the following precautions against accidents : Avoid as much as possible, the use of iron in the construction of the buildings, fixtures, tables, bench- es, boxes, etc., of the laboratory ; sink tlie heads of iron nails, if used, and fill over them with putty, or paste several thicknesses of paper over tlicm. Be- fore the men go to work cover the floor with carpets or paidins, which are taken up carefully, after the men leave, and carried at least 50 yards from the building, and there shaken thoroughly and swept. During the work have the carpets frequently swept. Place the stores in cloth bags in the windows ex- posed to the sun. Prevent persons from entering with sabers, swords, or canes, etc.. or with matches about their persons. Direct all who work where there is powder to wear moccasins or socks, and to take them off when they leave. Direct the men not to drag their feet in walking. Make the doors and windows to open and close easily, without friction ; keep tliem open whenever the weather permits. Never keep in the laboratory more powder than is ne- cessar\', and have the ammunition and other work taken "to the magazine as fast as it isfinished. Let pow- der-barrels be carried in hand-barrows made with leather or witli slings of rope or canvas, and the ammunition in boxes. Let everything that is to be moved be lifted, and not dragged or rolled on the floor. Never drive rockets, port-lTres. etc., or strap shot or shells in a room where there is any powder or com- position excej)! that used at the time. Loading and unloading shells, driving rockets, pulverizing the materials, the preparation of compositions requiring the use of fire, and in which the components of gun- powder enter, ought to be done, in all cases when possible, in the open air or under a tent far from the laI)oratory and magazine. Never enter the labora- tory at night, unless it is indispensable, and then u.se a close lantern, with a wax or oil light carefully trim- med. Allow no smoking of tobacco near the lab- oratory. In meling lead, be sure tliat it contains no moisture; put the ])igs in carefull}-, and do not use mure than will fill llu^ pot two-tliirds full. U.se tlie same precaution in melting all fatty substances. See Pirew'irku, Lnhnratnnj Multridh. and Hnyal Lahura- tori/. LABORATORY MATERIALS.- Laboratory materials may be classified as follows: 1st. Those for produc- ing light, heat, and explosion. 2il. Those for color- ing flames and producing brilliant sparks. 3d. Those used in preparing compositions. 4tli. Those used in making tools, cases, cartridge-bags, and for miscel- laneous purposes. ^Iaterials for Light. Heat, and Explosion. — Po- ta'<n!um nitrate (^niter), KNO^. — For use in the labor- atory, niter should be freed from all foreign substan- ces and be reduced to a fine powder or else to very minute crystals. It is best pulverized by hand in the rolling-barrels at the powder-mills; but it may be pulverized by hand in the laboratory as follows: Put into a roUing-hnrrel 50 pounds of dry, refined niter and 100 pounds of bronze balls; turn the barrel for two hours and a half at thirty revolutions a minute, striking it cautiously at the same time with a mallet to prevent the niter from adhering to the sides. Separate the balls by means of a brass-wire screen, and the foreign suljstanccs with a hair sieve. Niter may also be pulverized by pounding it in a brass mortar, or by solution as follows : Put 14 pounds of refined niter with 5 pints of clear water, in a broad and shallow copper pan, over a slow fire, and as the uit(>r dissolves skim off the impurities ; stir the so- lution with a wooden spatula until the water is all evaporated, when the niter will be very white and fine. Should it boil too much, th<i pan must be lifted from the fire and set upon wet sand or earth, and the niter should be stirred until it dries, to pre- vent it from adhering to the pan. Piitnxxiiim chlnriite, KCIO^. is a white salt; crystal- lized in white scales : anhydrous; not altered bj' ex- posure to the air; soluble in water, more in warm than in cold; insoluble in alcohol; density, 1.989; decrepitates and fuses at about 500°; at about 720" it is decomposed into oxygen and potassium chloride. This salt is one of the most energetic of oxidizing bodies, because it parts with its o.xygen so readily, of which it contains a very great quantity (.8915 of its weight). Thrown on burning coals, it melts quickly. It explodes b.y simple contact with sulphuric acid; mixed witli a combustible body, the mixture may be exploded by friction or by a blow. It should be purchased crj-stallized, and should not contain more than oue-thousandtii of its weight of chloride of sodium or potassium. Its purity is tested by means of the nitrate of silver di.ssolved in distilled water. 731 grains in one-quarter of a pint. Dissolve 77 grains of the chlorate in 300 grains of warm water, and let the solution get cold; the chlorate will be precipitated in crystals. Add to the liquid about tvvo drops of the solution of the nitrate of silver. After filtering, the liquid ought not to give a precipitate by the addition of more nitrate of silver. Mercury fulminate, CNC{NO^)Hg. is a gray salt, crystallized in fine silky needles; soluble in water, more so in warm than in cold water. It is an ex- tremely dangerous substance to operate upon in a drj- state, owing to the readiness and violence with which it explodes. It detonates strongly when struck by a hard body; but sometimes trifling friction may serve to produce this effect, even when employed Jn a moist state. Heated to 300° it explodes, evolv- ing an exceedinglv bright flame. It is decom- posed, with explosion, by the electric spark, and contact with strong nitric and sulphuric acids. The products of detonation are carbonic acid, nitrogen, and vapor of mercury. It should always be mani- pulated moistened with at least 30 per cent, of water. To prepare fulminate nf mercury. — Dissolve in a glass retort capable of holding about a half-gallon, 10 ounces of piu'e mercury in five poimds nitric acid (aciua-fortis), of the specific gravity of 1.40. The so- lution is made by placing the retort in a water or sand bath of about 120°, or exposed to the sun's rays on a warm day. The vapors which come over arc very deleterious, and should not be inhaled. It ri'(|uires about eiglit hours to thoroughly dissolve th<' uiercury. When the solution is complete, pour the licjuor into a witle-mouthed glass vessel capable LABORATORY MATERIALS. ]{-,<) LABORATORY MATERIALS. of liolcliiii; H lo U) i;iillmis, iiiln vvliicli .T.OTr) pounils of alcohol (i'lliyl)i iilioiit I!} piiilM, of tlic Hpccilic gnivily of .8.1 liiivc been previously poured. Ciiri- iiiusl, hr' liikeii (o /)'/)/;• l/if iiitriilr :>/' iiu rrnri/ mi Ihr alfiiluil, lis lh(' reverse inoile of iiii.xiii!; Ilie conipoiinil in very danserous. (Jreat lieat is evolved diirini; the etTervesceuee which ensues from the mixture, and the !;lass vessels used should be well annealed, and of ii form lo hear a hii;h heal without l)reakinfj. Carliovs of thin flinl-irliiss, without in<)uth-rini;s or any ahrupt ehanire in thickness, are bi-st. The oper- ation shcjidd be performed at a safe distance from the lire', nsthe vajiors of ether diseni^aged are hii;hly in- flanunable. When reddish fumes l)ei;in to appear, tlioy must be reduced by nddini;alcf)hol in small ipian- tities. The proportion of alcohol used in (he whole operation varies accordinu; to the strength of (he acid and ah'ohol, and also with the static of the \v<'atlier. The proper (|\iantity is that which is just sullicient to keep down the reddish fumes, and is determined 1)V trial with the materials used. When the elTerves- cence has ceased, the fidminate of mcrciuy is found at the bottom of the vessel as a brownish precipitate. A small (luantity of water is potired in, and the con- fer. Is transferred to the wasliing-tub.whereit is repeat- edly washed ill soft water, until the vvati'r no lonjrer reddens litmus-paper. The fulminate is in the form of very small crystals, of a lii;ht i;ray<-olor and bri- liant surface. If the operation be well and carefully performed, no metallic mercury will be reprodin-ed. The weight of the fulminate when well dried will be about 14 per cent, greater than that of the mercury used. If the proper proportions be not used (or if the materials be not of good quality), the product will be, instead of fulminate, an impaliiable yellow powiler which is incombuslible. AVlieii this is ob- serveil, the result may generally be corrected by varying the proportion of alcohol in the mixture. The fulminate of mercury is kept under water, in Btone jars, which should be preserved from frost. Riill hrhnxtone is used for melting, and flowers of Bulphur may be used instead of roll sulphur |>ulver- ized. The purity of the tiowers is more lo be de- peniled upon than that of the roll sulphur. When inixi'd wilh potassium chlorate, however, it should be washed to remove sulphuric acid. 8uli)liur facili- tates the ignition and combustion of compositions to which it is added. Ouup'>irdir--¥oT compositions, gunpowder is mriil- ed. either by rolling it for two hours with once and a half of its weight of balls, or by beating it an e(|iial ' length of time in a leather bag. or by grinding it with a niullcr on a mealiug-table. Mealed [lowder. and pulvi'rized saltpeter, charcoal, and sulphur are gen- j erally obtained from the powder-mills. Antimony (regulus of antimony) is a gr.avish-whitc metal, very brilUant, with a highly lamellated struct- ure. Specific gravity, (i. 7 ; melting point. 80!^. It is easily reduced to powder, and by its combustion with sulphur produces a strong light and heat, with a blue or white flame. Antimony is never found |)ure ; in the shops; that which is sold uuih'r the name of regulus of antimony always contains a little snlpln.ret of antimony, arsenic, and sometimes the sulphurct of iron. Lnmpljlwk is the result of the incomplete combus- tion of resinous substances. It is com]iosed of 80 parts of carbon and 20 of impurities. It is cnijiloyeu to ((uicken the combustion of (-ertain substances ; liut before it is used it should be washed with a hot alkaline solution, to remove all traces of empyreum- atic oil. Coloring Materials. A flame is colored by intro- ducing into the composition which produces it a substance, the particles of which, being interspersed through the flame and rendered incandescent, give it the required color. Coloring substanci's do not gen- erally take part in the combustion, and their presence more orless retards it. It is for this reason that potas- sium chlorate, a more powerful oxidizing agent than niter, is used in lieu of it in compositions for colored lires. There are a gnat variety of substances whicli [rive color to flames, the princijial of which are stron- iium nitrate and sulphate for red, barium nitrair' for green, the bicarbonate of soda for yellow, copprT sulphate for purple, copper carl)onate and acetate for blue. Lampblack is employi'd to give u (rain of rose-colored lire in the air. and powdered flint glass for v\hite llanii-s. Sjiarks are produi-ed by in- troducing intothe {omposition fliings or thin chips of wroiiglit or last iron, zin'c, steel, copper, or fragmentH of charcoal. I run. Filings and very thin chips give most bril- liant sparks and stars, the effects of which depend almost entirely on the size of (he particles u.sed. The tilings must be made when wanted, or be very care fully i)reserved from rust. ('(iHl-iriin, Pulverized, it gives very large and white sparks, in tireworks ('Chinese flrej. Select the while cast-iron, or take the jiieces of utensils with thin sides. To pulverize it more easily, heal it to a red heat and (brow it into cold water. Steel. — In fireworks, filings and small pieces give the most brilliant sparks. Zine is a bhiish-wliite metal, usually brittle, and its fracture shows a crystalline structure. Specific gravity, (>•!); melts at (i8()": is volatilized at a red heat, and lakes fire in the air, burning with a light flame. At 400'' it is easily reduced to a powder iu p. mortar. Granulated zinc is used lo produce a blu- ish flame. An alloy of zinc and antimony pulverized gives beautiful blue drops. The oxide of zinc (Jtinr. er.iiif zinc) produces tlieap])earance called gold rain. It ought to be purchased in scales, not in a powder, as in this latter case it may be mixed with foreign substances. Ciipjier fiUngii are used to give reddish sparks and a ^eenish blue flame. Prepakino Compositions. — Turpentine, spirits of turpentine, Venice turpentine, tar. pitch, and rosin, arc chiefly employed in the jireparalion of composi- tions for producing light. Alcohol, whisky, brandy, or vinegar is used in mixing compositifins into which niter enters, as it does not dissolve niter. It should be strong. To prevent it being drunk, mix a little asafetida with it. Beeswax and mutton tallow are employed in mixing compositions intended to pro- duce heat and light. (fum (Yrrti/f should be transparent, yellowish- white, brittle, insipid, inodorous, soluble in water and vine- gar, insoluble in alcohol. It is used in solution to give body and tenacity to compositions, or to make ilicm burn more slowly. It should be prepared as required, for when in solution it undergoes a decom- position. Miscellaneous Materials — Coppfr'}^ a red . brilliant metal, possessing sreat tenacity, ductility, andmalle- ability. Specific gravity, 8.0; "fusible at'about 1980". Copper, being bill slightly acted on by saltpeter, is employed for powder measures, utensils for refining saltpeter, etc. Copper vessels should not be exposed to a great heat, or used for heating compositions contain- ing sulphur, as the copper would be rapidlyoxidized. Bronze is used in the" laboratory for utensils and implements which receive blows or act by percussion, and replaces steel and iron wherever there is danger of an explosion from a blow or from friction. Branx is an alloy of about two parts of cojjper and one of zinc. Brass wire is used for ligatures, for screens and sieves. Slieet-irun~%e\ec\. the softest and most pliable. ] When it is substituted for tin. in strapping projec- tiles, it should be first annealed by heating it to a i dull red heat. and letting it cool very gradually under warm ashes, not exposed to the air. Lend is a lluish-white metal, bright, but tarnishes quickly in ihe air. Specific gravity, when pure, 11.48;" melt? at GOO'^, and volatilizes at a red heat. The puritv of lead is judged of by its specific gravi- tv. To de'termine this, after having weighed the pig, lABORATOP.Y MATERIALS. 170 LABORATORY MATERIALS. suspend it with a wire in a vessel of water, so tliat it shall be completely immersed, without touching the sides, and weigh it again. The weight in the air, divided by the difference between the weight in air and water, will give the specific gravity, which ought to be 11.35 for lead of commerce. Lead melt- ed in contact with air is soon covered by a coat of gray oxide, which rapidly increases in thickness. The formation of this oxide, or dross, is prevented by covering the lead with powdered charcoal or ros- in. To reduce the oxide of lead. — Put in a kettle about 50 pounds of lead, with j\; of its weight of powdered charcoal or grease ; cover the kettle, and raise to a red heat ; stir the mass.and add gradually more eoa'., as it assumes a 3-ellow color, using in all J of the weight of oxide ; dip out the lead with an iron ladle. and pour it into iron molds or pans. After having obtained in this way two-thirds of the weight of oxide, in lead, throw the dross into a tub of wa- ter, and wash it, to separate the ashes and coal; dry the remaining oxide and grains of lead, and put them in a ladle with j'j of their weight of rosin ; raise to a red heat, set fire to the rosin, shake the ladle and pour off the lead. A further addition of rosin will produce more lead ; -^-^ of the weight of dross is generally used. Tallow may be used in place of rosin. When the quantity of dross is con- siderable, it may be reduced, in a similar manner, in a small cupola-furnace. Plinnber-f' sAder is an alloy of lead and tin, in the proportion of two parts of the former to one of the latter. Paper. — Paper for cartridge-box wrappers should be homogeneous, and without any trace of stalks ; well sized, even, pliable, with a good body without being too thick, free from folds or rents. The sheet when moistened ought to present a uniform hue, without spots or marblings. Taken out of tlie water and suspended for a moment by the extremities of the short sides, it ought not to tear from its own weight. The sheet crumpled in the hand or pinched with the nails, ought not to tear in the folds, and when torn the rent should be fibrous. A strip of paper 4 inches wide ought not to break under a weight of 40 pounds, in the direction of its least strength. In testing the strength of paper, the two ends are held by two vises of hard wood. Each vise is composed of two rectangular jaws, which can be brought against each other and held firmly by means of screws, or by tenons on one jaw pass- ing through the other and keyed flrml}- to it. A strip of paper 4 inches wide is cut and inserted in the vises, so that the length between them shall be exactly 12 inches. The jaws are closed tightlj-. and one vise is suspended from a fixed point by means of a cord or hook, and to the other is made fast the Siie and weight of paper. No. ], For muBket-cart- ridgcB No. -J. For mueket-cart ridge wrapper No. 3. Wrapper for Cart ridge-box No. 4. Rockets and Port- lireH No. 5. Fixed aramuution No. 6. Cannon-cart^idKe^ No. T. Fireworks Inches. 13 Xl6>i 18 X20 riB Xl4 I 18 XIO '120 xao 1.24 X20 19 X88 23;<<X24 19 'x2:) 13 Xl0>s Weisht, pounds. 21 27 3-X 45 65 60 70 20 Proof weight, pounds. 40 101 180 22.'^ 315 85 pan of a balance. It is loaded gradually, with care, until the paper gives way. The strips should not lie taken from tlie edges of the sheets only, but from all purls, and from the length and breath sureess- ivelv. for in these two directions the strength is very different. Five sheets are generally taken from each ream, in which only one sheet can have less strength than that allowed. If this condition be not fulfilled, the ream is rejected. The other papers are tested in the same waj', and shculd possess the same general characteristics. Tow should be entirely of hemp or flax, clean.dry, sound, free from stalks and foreign substances. Merino or .lerge, for cartridge-bags, should be made entirely of wool ; it should be strong, closely woven, twilled, and not frayed; the width should be even in the same piece ; that } yard wide is convenient and the most common. The colors are to be preferred in the following order ; green, gray, yellow, blue, red, white ; reject black, which is almost always burnt and weak. tVwiDfw should be the strongest and closest woven; it is used for the sacks for fire-balls. Twine should be strong, smooth, and well twisted .03 inch thick for sewing fire-balls, etc. ; from .06 inch to .08 inch for fixing ammunition, etc. Rope should be even and well twisted, pliant with- out being soft, made of hemp of good quality, water- rotted, and entirely freed from stalk. Its size should be uniform throughout its whole length. The rope most commonly used in the laboratory is white- hemp rope, froml inch to 1.5 inch in girth. Thread — Saddler's thread, of flax, three strands ; used with paper boxes for revolver cartridges. Glue should be hard, dry, transparent, of a brown- ish red color, and free from smell. To Prepaee Pastes and Glue. — Flour paste — Sift the flour and mix it with 8i times its weight of water ; heat it gently, stir it, and let it boil for three-quarters of an hour ; when it becomes ropy pour it into bowls and pass it through a sieve before it is quite cold. The flour yields 7 times its weight of paste. Time required to make it, one hour and a half. It is best made of rye flour. Starch paste. — Mix wheat starch with twice its weight of water, pour it gradually into 6J times its weight of boiling water, and let it boil for ten minutes, stij-ring it all the time ; then proceed as before. Starch yields '8 times its weight of paste. Time required, one hour. Pantefor pasteboard. — Mi.x the flour or starch with 12 times its weight of water; this yields times the weight of flour and 11 times the weight of starch. Paste mixed with glue- — The addition of J5 of glue makes the paste fit for parting sheets of parchment together or for pasting paper on wood. Dissolve the glue separately and pour it into the cold water with which the flour or starch is mixed. Clieese paste is made of fresh white cheese and also quicklime. Pound the cheese in a mortar with boil- ing water; let it stand and decant it; repeat this operation three or four times. Pound together 3 parts of this cheese thus prepared and one part of quicklime, moistening it with pure water till the paste ropes like honey. Prepare only a little at a time. It is used in pasting parchment and parch- ment paper. These diSerent kinds of paste should be used cold. A suppl}' for not more than two or three days should be made at one time ; but it may be preserved longer by adding alum in the propor- tion of tV o^ "^*-' weight of flour. The depredations of rats may be prevented bj' dissolving a like pro- portion of colocynth in the water with which the paste is made. Hair iieven for mixing compositionH. (50 meshes in 1 inch, or 2,500 in No. 1. a square inch, a single hair in ( one direction, 2 in the other. ( 25 meshes in 1 inch or (125 in a No. 2. square ineli, 2 hairs side by ( side in eacli direction. (12.5 meshes in 1 inch or 150 in No 3.- one scpiare inch. 3 hairs side ( by side in each direction. (18() meshes in a square inch, ( lirass wire. No. 4. The mevex for the laboratory are made of brass wire, hair, or silk, and may he square or round. lABOBEB. I LACE. Brass sieves ought to be used only for dry mutcri- nls. A silk si(rvc of 120 inrHlicH In ilic liiiciir iiidi is used in preparing gliiHs duHl for priming coniixisi. tions. t/lue is dissolved in its own weigh! of boiling water. A gliic-pot willi a walcr-biith hMouIiI be used to avoid burning tlie glue. HcMnnvc llic pot from tlie fire as soon as llic glue is found to lie entirely dissolved. See Fir(ir<irl,-n. L'ABOREB. In a military sense, any direet and concentrated ('Ifort wliicli is made to destroy a forti- fication. The term likewise applies to llu' working of a bomb or shell, which excavates, plows up, and scatters the earth about wherever it bursts. jMhirr- er uii riimi>art, signifies to bring several pieces of ordnance discharged from two oblicpie diri'ctions to bear ujion one center. Sbc'lls an; generally used on these occasions, and the chief design is to second the operations of the nuiuT in some particular part from which the explosion is to take place. LAC- A substance obtained from incrustations made by an insect (Cocoi.n Inrca) on the l)ranches and twigs of many trees in India. The lac is formed by the insect into cells, snmewdiat resembling a lioney- coiub. in which the insect is generally found entire, and owing to whose presence stick-lac yields by pro- per treatment a red dye, nearly, if not c|uite, as bright as that olitained from cochineal, and more permanent. Lac is found encircling the branches of tliese trees in the form of a tulie; the broken branches with in- crustations at various distances are called in com- merce .v^/cAu^c, which ought to be semi-transparent. The coloring matter e.\hil)ite(l liy grinding stick-lac, and then treating it with water, constitutes seed-la'; which, when melted up into masses,is called lump-lac. 8hell-lac is obtained by f\irlher purifying the seed- lac. Lac dyeconsistsof the coloring matter extracted from the stick-lac. It is met with in small squares sim- ilar to indigo, and is used as red dye instead of cochi- neal. Lac dye is largely manufactured in India and ex- ported to England. In IJengal, lac is cliietly produc- ed in the forests of Sylhet and at Burdwan: it is al- so procurable in the Deccan; but Siam and Pegu af- ford the largest supplies. Shell-lac is used for the numufacture of sealing-wa.x, also as varnish; in the latter form it is applied for setting the fulminating iharge in gun-caps, and in coating Boxer's fuses antl friction tuIies. LACAY. — A name formerly given to an old French militia. The word is found among the public docu- mculs which were kept by the Treasurers lielonging to the Dukes of Britany in the b5th century. LACE. — An ornamental fabric of linen, cotton, or silk thread, made cither by the hands, somewhat after the manner of embroidery, or with machinery. The manufacture of lace by hand is an operation of exceeding nicety, and requires both skill and patience of no ordinary kind, and the best productions of this fabric surpass all other applications of textile mater- ials in costliness and beauty. Whctlier the ancients really had any knowledge of lace-making, excepting gold-lace, which will be men- tioned at the end of this article, is not known, nor is it known with any certainty when this art came into practice in Europe ; but there is good reason to sup- pose that poi rit-lafe , the oldest variety known, was the work of Nuns during the latter half of the 14th and the beginning of the 15th centuries. This point- lace is very characteri.stic, and is truly an art pro- duction. The artistic character of the patterns, and the wonderful patience and labor shown in carrying them out, places them, as female productions, on a parallel with tlie decorative works in stone, wood, and metal of the Monks. They indicate no tiresome efforts to copy natural objects, but masterly con- ceptions of graceful forms and tasteful combinations. It will readily be supposed that an art depending .so much on individual skill and taste, would be likely to vary exceedingly ; nevertheless, all the varieties esolve themselves into few well-marked groups, un- der three distinct classes. The first class is the Gut. jnire, which comprises all the true needle. worked lace, whether ancient or modem; its varieties are: Itdse-polnt, in which the figures are in higli relief, liav- ing a rich endjossed appearance ; VenfMan-point, I'ur- tiigurne-p'iiiit. .WiilltKe-point ; in all of these the pattern is flatter than in the liimr-point, I'ointtrAlenmn, and JlriiK.wlH-poiii/,. The last twoare still made, the niod- <Tn I'oint d'Alencon (pjitc ripialing in beautj- and value that made in the middle of tin; ITtli century, when its manufacture was introduced by- the cele- brated Colbert, Chief .Minister of Louis XIV. The I'oint d'.Mencon has ver}- distinctive characteristics. When the jiattern is once designed, each portion may be worked by a separate perscm, ami the various fig. ures are then connected by a grounilwork of threads, which are so passed from one figure to anotlier as to represent a web of wonderful delicacy and regulari- ty ; small spots or other figiires are here iind there skillfully worked in where the threads cross each other; these are called i/md/n, and not only add much to the strength of the fabric, but greatly increase its richness of effect. In all these varieties, but two kinds of stitches are employed, and these differ chief- ly in the greater or less closeness of the threads em- ploj'ed. First, a series of threads are laid down all in one direction, so as to cover the pattern, and then a certain number of these are taken up and covered by loops of the cross-stitches, orare more lightly held together. The second class is pilloir.lnre. sometimes called cushion or bobbin lace, from the pillow or cushion being used to work the pattern upon, and the various threads of which the figures are made up, each being wound upon a bobbin, usually of an or- namental character.to distinguish one from the other. The pattern, on parchment or paper, being attached to the pillow or cushion, pins are stuck in at regular intervals in the lines of the pattern, and the threads of the bobbins are twisted or plaited round th'em so as to form the net-work arrangement which is char- acteristic of this class of lace, the patterns, or figur- ed portions, being worked out by a crossing of threads, which, although actually plaiting, gives the effect of weaving. The varieties of this lace are : Spanfsli, grixindfd Spanish. Saxony lirus.iels. Flemish lirusseli.Mechliyi, Viihnrienne.H. Dutch. Lisle. Chantilly, silk and cotton blonde. Limerick. Buckinghamshire and noniton. The last has of late j-ears become the most beautiful of all the varieties made in Great Britain. The Irish or Limerick lace has also taken a high position. The third class is machine-made lace, which, by its wonderful improvement and rapid develop- ment, has worked a complete revolution in the lace trade, so that the prices formerly obtained for hand- made lace can no longer be commanded, whilst ma- chine lace, of great beauty, has become so cheap and plentiful as to be worn by all classes. The lace-ma chine, or frame, as it is technically called, is so com- plicated that it would be hopeless to convey any re- ally intelligil)le appreciation of it without a volumin- ous description of all its parts. One or two points of chief importance may. however, remove any diffi- culty in understanding its general principles. First, then, as in the loom, there is a series of warp-threads, placed, however, perpendicularly instead of hori- zontally, and not so close as in ordinary weaving, the space between each being sufficiently wide to admit of a shilling passing edgeways between them. Be- hind these threads, and corresponding to the inter- LAC£RKE. 172 LACEEB8. spaces, is a row of ingeniously constructed flat bob- binj or reels resting in an arrangement called a comb- tar or bolt-bar. These are so placed that, with the first movement of the machine, each bobbin, which carries its thread with it, passes through two of the parallel and perpindicular threads of the warp, and Is lodged in another and similar bolt-bar in front of the warp. But this front bolt-bar, besides an ad- vancing and receding motion, has another move- ment called shogging — from right to left. When it receives a bobbin by its forward motion, it draws back, bringing the bobbin and thread through two of the upright threads ; it then shogs or moves to one side, and goes forward again, taking the thread through the next two warp-threads, and lodging the bobbin on the back bolt-bar again, one distance be- yond its last space ; this it recovers by the ne.xt movement, and it again passes through the tirst space, to be again received by the front bolt-bar. By these movements the bobbin-thread is twisted quite round one upright thread of the warp ; an- other movement then shifts the bobbin, so that it will pass through the ne.\t pair of upright threads, and so carry on its work, the warp-threads moving at the same time, unwinding from the lower beam, and being rolled on the upper one. There being twice as many bobbins as there are threads in the warp, each bolt-bar having a set which it exchanges with the other, and all being regulated with great nicety, a width of lace is made in far less time "than has been required to write this short description. The various additions to, and variations upon, these operations, which only apply to bobbinnct, for the production of patterns, are so numerous and com- plicated — each pattern requiring new complications — that it will be useless attempting to describe them; suffice it to say, the_v all depend upon the variations which can be given to the movements of the flat, disk-like bobbins. The history of the lace-machine is not very clear ; it is said to have been originally invented by a frame-work knitter of Nottinghani, from studying the lace on his wife's cap; butlt has continually received improvements, among which those of Heathcote, in 1809 — the first to work success- fully — Morley,inl811 and 1824; those of Leaver and Turton, and of Clark and Jlarl, all in 1811. The manufacture of lace by machinery is chieflj' located in Nottingham, whence it is sent to all parts of the world; but we have no means of knowing to what extent, for, with that strange perversity which dis- tinguishes the statistical administration, only thread- lace is mentioned in the lists of exports, whilst the vast production of cotton-lace is mixed up with the returns of calico and other fabrics of that material. — Gold-late and Siher-la'-e, properly speaking, are laces woven, either by the hand or by machmery; from exceedingly fine threads of the metals, or from linen, silk, or cotton threads which are coated with still finer threads of gold and silver ; but in this country it is too common to designate as gold or silver lace, not only that which is rightly so-called, but also fringe made of the materials, and also gold and silver embroidery, such as is seen on trappings, and upon some ecclesiastical dresses, etc. Gold-lace is made in Loudon, but considerable quantities of that used for decorating uniforms and other dresses, etc., in this country, is olUained from Belghmi, where it is an important branch of manufacture. France supplies much of the gold and silver thread used, and excels all other countries in its production, in some of the ni'ire artistic varieties of gold and silver lace and emijroiilcry. Italy has lately shown great taste and skill. Tin- works of r^uigi M:irtiniof Milan attained great celebrity, and were recently said to produce aiiout ilO.UOO worth per annum. LACEENE.— The sliort woolen military cloaK of the Kiiiiians. LACHETE.- An opprobrious term which is fre- quently UM'd among the French, and ajiplied in all instances of cowardice, want of spiril. etc. LACHICHE SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— This system has a fnmt similar to that of Cormontaigne, except that the perpendicular equals \ of the front, and tliat the salient places of arms have fleches for reduits. In order to avoid the effects of ricochet and vertical fires, the artillery is placed under case- mates. The curtain, the reduits of re-entering place of arms, and the faces of ravelin have casemates open at the rear. The lower gallery serves for musketry, and facilitates the ventilation of the upper case- mates. The glacis has a sufficient command to mask all the masonry. The fleches protect the covered- way against enfilade. LACKERS— LACQUERS.— Vamisiies prepared for coating metal-work. The formula usually employed is for gold color: alcohol, 2 gallons; powdered tur- meric 1 pound ; macerate fora week, and then filter with a covered filter, to prevent waste from evapor- ation; to this add, of the lightest-colored shell-lac, 12 ounces ; gamboge, 4 ounces ; gum- sandarach, 3J pounds. This is put in a warm place until tlie whole is dissolved, when 1 quart of common turpentine varnish is added. A red lacquer, prepared by sub- stituting 3 pounds of anuotta for the turmeric, and 1 pound of dragon's blood for gamboge, is exten- sively used. The following .ackers are used for iron ordnance : 1. Black lead, pulverized, 12 parts; red lead, 12 parts; litharge, .5 parts; lampblack, 5 parts; and linseed-oil, 66 parts. The mixture is boiled gently about twenty minutes, during which time it is con- stantly stirred. 2. Umber, ground, 3j parts; gum shellac, pulverized, 3J parts; ivory-black, 3f parts; litharge, 3J parts; linseed-oil, 78 parts; and spirits of turpentine, 7j parts. The oil must be boiled half an hour. The mixture is then boiled 24 hours, poured off from sediment, and put in jugs, corked. 3. Coal-tar (of good quality) 2 gallons ; and spirits of turpentine. 1 pint. The turpentine to be added in small quantities during the application of the lack- er. In applying lacker, the surface of the iron must be first cleaned with a scraper and a wire brush, if necessary, and the lacker applied hot, in two thin coats, with a paint-brush. It is best done in sum- mer, when the metal is heated by the sun's rays, with gloves made of sheep-skin, the wool turned out ward.s, cut 0.4 inch long, the thumb alone being free. Old lacker should be removed with a scraper, or by scour- ing, and not by heating the guns or halls, by which the metal is injured. About 5 gallons of lacker are required for 100 field-guns and 1.000 shot ; about 1 quart for a sea-coast gun. The lacker for small-arms is composed of beeswax, 13 pounds; spirits of turpentine. 13 gallons; and boil- ed linseed-oil. 1 gallon. All the ingredients should be pure and of the best quality. Heat them together in a copper or earthen vessel, over a gentle fire, in a water-bath, until they are well mixed. For holsters, scabbards, etc , the following is used: Prussian blue (in lumps), 4 parts; sugar of lead, j'j parts; aqua-fortis, j',, parts; linseed oil, boiled, 70 parts; and spirits of turpentine, 24.6 parts. This mixture is used for the first and second coats. The ingredients, except the turpentine, are boiled together in an iron kettle eight hours, when the mixture will assume a brilliant black color. When the varnish is nearly cool, stir in the turpen- tine. The kettle in which the varnish is made shoidd be of a capacity to hold double the quantity of var- nish to be boiled. For the third or finishing coat, the following is used: (ium copal (in clean lump), 2(U parts; boiled linseed-oil, 42i parts; iwid spirits of turpentine, 31 piirts. To make this varnish, put the copal in the vessel, set it on a cli;ircoal fire for one hour, in wiiich time it will melt, and all llie watery particles will evaporate. Add the oil while the copal is warm, but not boiling hot. When nearly cool add the turpentine. For.') pounds copal and the pro- \)vT jiroportionsof oil and turpentine the vessel should hold 6 gallons. See Pniutn. tACS D'AMOUK. 17a LAMBREQUIN. LACS D'AMOUR.— In HiTiildry, a cord (if ninnint,' UnniH iisrd as III! (•xlfriiiddc'cdnilion to Hurrouiid tin- jirriis (jf widows mill iiniiiarricd women; llic Cord- ti'iT, wliicli dilTcrs hut sli;,dilly from it, Itciiig used Ki:nilarly willi llie shields of miirried women. LACUNETTE. ■ -An early term in fcjrliliciilion, mj;- nilyiiii; a small fosse or ditch. The word (Uiiutti: has since liccn ado|)lcd. LADDERBRIDGE. A temporary hril;;e. formed hy running; a cart or jjun limber into tiie stream und se- ouriiii; it there, willi the shafts in u vertical position. l>y ropes from holh sides of the river, one cud of a ladder from each hank restini; upon it, and covering the steps or runi^s with planks. LADLE. -1. For carryiiii; the shot to the pieces, there are two kinds of ladles. The first eon.sists of u rinj^and stem of iron, fastened to a wooden handle two feet lonir. The inner top edge of the ring is grooved out to receive the shot. The other ladle, for carrying the largest shot, consists of a similar ring, to wluch stems are li.\ed for connecting one single and one double handle, so that two men can be employed to carry the shot, the double handle be- ing to prevent the ladle from turning over. ■ 3. An implement for removing the powder or projectiles from guns, when it is not ilesired to dis- charge them. It consists of a ladlediead, made of the same kind of wood and in the same way as a ranuner-head, and the laille pmiier, which is of. sheet-brass or copper, fastened to tlie head with cop- per nails. LADY OF MERCY, OUR.— The Spanish Order of Knighthood, founded in 1218, by James I. of Ara- gon. in fnlhllment of a vow made to the Virgin dur- ing his captivity in France. The object for which tlie Order was instituted was the redemption of Christian captives from among the Moors, each knighl at his inauguration vowing that, if necessarj' for their ransom, he would renuun himself a captive in their stead. Within the tirst six years of the ex- istence of the Order, no fewer than 400 captives are said to liave been ransomed hy its means. On the expulsion of the Jloors from Spain, the labors of the knights were transferred to Afrit-i. Their badge is a shield party per fess gules and or, in chief a cross pattee argent, in base four pallets gules for Aragon, the shield crowned with a ducal coronet. The Order was extended to ladies in 12(il. 1 LADY OF MONTESA, OUR.— Order of Knighthood, I founded in liJlT, by King James II. of Aragon, who, on the abrogation of the Order of the Templars, urged Pope Clement V. to allow him t ,• employ all their estates within his territory in founding a new Knightly Order for the protection of the Christians against the Moors. His request was accedesl to by tiie following Pope, John XXII., who granted him for this purpose all the estates of the Templars and of the Knights of St. John situated in Valencia. Out of these was founded the new Order, which King James named after the town and castle of Moutesa, which he assigned as its headquarters. The Order is now conferred merely as a mark of royal favor, though the provisions of its statutes are Btill nominally observed on new creations. The , badge is a red cross edged with gold, the costume a long white woolen mantle, decorated with a cross on the left breast, and tied with very long white cords. LAIDLEY PRACTICE-MUSKET.— In the construe- tion of this gun the same form and motions of load- , ing and tiring as in the service-ride have lieen retain- ed as nearly "as possible, consistent witli a moderate expenditure in its production. An old smooth-bore musket is taken, reamed out for a length of eleven { inches, for the reception of a coil ribbon-spring, on one end of whicli a closely-fitting piston is placed, having a stem of about five inches attaclied to its ' center ; a hole is bored through the breech-screw and a cut made on its under side to receive a spring ; a [ circular disk with a flaring hole through its cent'er is j secured in the barrel just in front of the end of the l)reech-screw ; a short liver crosKi-s the end of the liarrel just in front of this disk, and is held in posi- lion by the sprijig already referred to ; the hole in the cone is enlarged and receives a small spindle with a collar at its middle, which prevents it from coining out. About twelve inches from the breech a horizon- tal cut is made tlirougli the top of tlie barrel, leaving an opening of two inches in length: a cylinilricai jilug. having a hole through its axle, is inserted in the barrel at this place, an I a handle screwed in. An inner barrel, having a liore of .22 inch and a length of 17 inches, its upper end counter-bored, is inserted in the barrel and seeurerl by a screw ; the length of the block is such as to close the space between the chambered recess and the end of the inner barrel. A hole is bored through the side of the stock to com- municate with the liole through the breech-screw. To load the piece, bring the hammer to the half-cock and compress the spring. This is most conveniently done by fixing the ramrod in a cast-iron block at an angle of about 45" with the horizon. Seize the mus- ket as at charge bayonet, insert the end of the ram- mer in the muzzle, and jiress the musket down until the spring is caught; withdraw the musket, hold it in the left hand near the lower band, the muzzle in- clined downwards; seize the handle with the right hand, turn it, and draw it back ; takea dart between the thumb and fore-tinger, insert it in the bore, and push it well home with the thumb. Be sure that no part of it i)rojects; close the breech-block and se- cure it b)- turning the handle. Cock the piece, and it is ready for tiring. The men in tiring stand at u distance of 1.'5 paces from the target. Two men use the |same gun, tiring alternately. Each man after tiring goes to the target, extracts the dart with a claw tool, and records the value of his shot. The other man loads and fires as soon as the preceding dart is removed and the target is clear. In order to give the soldier the benefit of practice-firing at ol)jectsat long ranges, the difficulty increasing greatly with the distance of the target, owing to the blur on the sight when the eye is adjusted to the proper focus to see distant objects, place a target at f500 or GOO yards dis- tant, or as far off as convenient, so that it can be seen through the open window ; place a target Vy paces from the firing-stand, at such a height that the dis- tant target may be seen 4 or 5 inches below the mid- dle of its lower edge ; mark on the floor the position for the feet of the man when firing, raise the longer leaf ofjthe sight, aim at the distant bull's-eye, and fire; the shots will strike the near target if correctlj' placed, and the accuracy of aim will be shown hy the score thus made. The height of the target may have to be adjusted after the first few shots. LAISCHF.S.— Thin metal plates which the ancient Gauls placed upon the buS-coats of infantry. between the buff and the lining. LAMBEAUX. — In Heraldry, a cross formed in the upper like a cross pattee, but with the lower limb not widened, but ter- minating in a label of three points, I " having," according to Sylvanus _J — . Morgan, "a srreat deal of mystery ^^^^^^^ in relation to' the top, whereon the ^""^ first-born Son of God did suffer, send- LainhpauSi \^„ out three streams from his hands, feet, and sides." LAMBOYS. — In ancient armor, laminated .skirts of small overlapping steel plates. These took the places of bnth the <(/(■<?.« and tuilles of the somewhat earlier times. LAMBREQUIN.- 1. A -word used in Heraldry in three senses: 1. The mantling attached to the hel- met, and represented as depending over the shield. 2. A wreath; 3. The point of a label. See Label. 2. A leathern strap or flap hanging from a cuirass, which is often highly ornamented and made to reach as far as the thighs. Lambrequins frequently cover the helmet to protect it from wet and heat. m LAMPION DE PARAPET. 1 174 LANCEB8. LAMPION DE PARAPET.— A lamp generally used on a parapet or elsewhere in a besieged place. It Is a small iron vessel filled with pitch and tar, which is lighted b)' the troops as occasion may require. LANCASTER GUN.— A species of rifled cannon, which has been partially adopted in the British ser- vice. When the great difficulty of rifling heavy ord- nance to an extent to give a sufficient rotary motion to the projectile became apparent, Mr. Lancaster devised a plan by which grooves might be dispensed ■with altogether. Instead of a strictly circular bore, he gave his gun an elliptical bore, the elipse being of very small eccentricit}'. The major axis was not in one plane from end to end of the gun, but was made to revolve in the length, until it had moved round one-fourth the periphery of the elipse. The pro- jectiles are, of course, elliptical also ; elongated, and somewhat pointed in front "When tlie shell is pro- jected, it must follow the twist in the bore, and the rotary motion thus imparted is retained to the end of the range. Several Lancaster guns were employed at the siege of Sebastopol, and some of them burst. But these were scarcely fair specimens, being service 8-inch guns (with circular bore) bored to Sir. Lan- caster's elliptical standard, and therefore weakened. The wrought-iron guus on his special model have given, however, more certain results. The special advantage claimed for the Lancaster gun is that it fouls less than any of the other gtms in use. See Ordnance. , LANCASTER HERALD.— One of the six Heralds of England, ranking second in point of seniority. His office is said to have been instituted by Edward III., in the 34th year of his reign, when he created his son, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. Henry IV. rais- ed Lancaster to the dignity of a King-at-Arms. Ed- ward IV., after reducing him back to the status of a Herald, abolished his office, which was revived by Henrv VII. LANCASTER PROJECTILE.— The earlier projectiles of this class, were made of wrought-iron, simply oval, but without any rifle-twist upon them ; but more recently the shot have been bent to the shape of the bore ; some of these had a wrought-iron cas- ing put over a cast-iron projectile, and this, project- ing four inches to the rear, carried a lubricant which the wooden wedges at the bottom sent out whileex- panding the casing so as to flU the bore. The weight of this projectile was 44 pounds, and its capacity for bursting charge, 4J pounds. It was thick in the rear, and thin in the front, tapering to a point. LANCASTER RIFLE.— A small-arm having a slight- ly oblate bore. The twist, as found by experience to be most advantageous, is one turn in 52 inches. The approved diameter of the bore is .498 inch. the length of the barrel being 32 inches. An eccentricity of .01 inch in half an inch is found sufficient to make the bullet spin on itsaxis to the extreme verge of its flight. The length of the bullet found to answer best with these rifles is 3| diameters in length with a windage of .004 or .005 of an inch. LANCASTER RIFLING,— This plan of centering the shot was used with partial success by the Engl'^shin the Crimea. The gun is rifled with two rounded grooves, each about one-third the circumference in width, so that the cross section of the bore is oval. ( )nly a trace of the original bore is left at its minor axis. The major axis in the 32-poundcr is 6.97 in., and the minor axis 0.37 in., so that, considered as a two-grooved rifle, I.AMCAai£E. (|„, jjrooves are 3-inch deep at the centers. The abseni'C of shoulders to the two grooves converts the two places of contact of the projectile with the rifling, into circular wedges tending to burst the gun or to compress the projectile. LANCE. — 1 . A weapon of war composed of a sharp Bteel blade, from 8 to 10 inches long, grooved like a. common bayonet wilh a socket at its base and two iron straps for attaching it to the handle. The han- dle is of strong, light wood, with a tip of iron at its lower end and a leathern loop at its center of gravity to support and guide the lance. It is usually from 8i to 11 feet long, and weighs about 4J lbs. This weapon is not used in the United States service. The Russians have their regular and irregular Cossacks armed witli the lance. The Austrians, also, have Lancers ; but the Polish cavalry use the lance better than any other people. The lance, when not in use, rests in a leather boot attached to the stirrup, the right arm being passed through the leather loop of the lance ; or by putting the Tower end in the boot and strapping the handle to the pommel of the sad- dle. Lancers are more formidable than other cavalry because they are able to reachfurther. Skill in com- bating a lancer consists in keeping to his left, in order to shun his lance. Pressed too nearly, the Lancer must have resource to his saber and let his lance rest upon his arm. The moment in which he attempts to seize his saber is dangerous to him. TheMexi- can cavalry are generally Lancers. 2. An iron rod which is fixed across the earthen mold of a shell, and which keeps it suspended in the air when it is cast. As soon as the shell is formed, this rod must be broken, and carefully taken out with instruments made for that purpose. Shells ought to be scrupulously ex- amined with respect to this article, as they could not be charged were the lance, or any part of it, to re- main within. 3. An instrument which conveys the charge of a piece of ordnance and forces it home to the bore. LANCE A FEU. — A species of artificial firework which is made in the shape of a fuse, and is used for various purposes. Its composition consists of 3 parts of best refined saltpeter, 2 parts of flour of sul- phur, and 2 parts of antimony; the whole being pounded and mixed together. The chief use of the Lanm a feu is to throw occasional light across the platform, whilst artificial fireworks are preparing. They likewise serve to set fire to fuses, as they can be taken hold of without danger. Lance de feu is a species of squib, which is used by the garrison of a besieged town against a scaling part}'. See Larues. LANCE A FEU'PUANT.- A stink-fire lance prepar- ed in the same manner as a stink-pot, and used by miners. When a sapper or miner has so far penetra- ted towards the enemy as to hear the voices of per- sons in any places contiguous to his own excavation, he first of all bores a hole with his probe, then dis- charges several pistols through the aperture, and lastly forces in a Lance a feu puant, taking care to close up the hole on his side to prevent the smoke from returning towards himself. The exhalation and stinking hot vapor which issue from the lance, and remain confined on the side of the enemy, infect the air so much, that it is impossible to approach the quarter for several days. Sometimes, indeed, they have had so instantaneous an effect, that in order to save their lives, miners, who would 'persevere, have been dragged out by the legs in an apparent state of suffocation. See Lances. LANCE-CORPORAL.— The assistant to a Corporal ; a private performing the duties of a Corporal. The Lance-corporal ranks above a private in the line, and usually performs the duties and possesses the authority of a Corporal, but does not receive a Cor- poral's pay. LANCE "knight.— A German foot-soldier ; origin- ally cine of the serfs who followed the camp in the service of the common soldiers. See LmixqueiteU. LJVNCE REST.— A projection like a bracket, on the riglit side of a breast-plate in armor, to aid in bearing a huicc. LANCERS. — A description of cavalry soldiers who are armed with lances. The type and perfection of Lancers are the Russian Cossacks, whose long lances enable them to combat with enemies at a distance from .which they thcuisclvcs take little harm. The Lancers were brought into European notice by Na- lANCES. 175 LAND SUHVEYISO. pok'on, who t^ri'iitly relied iipnn Home Polish repi- IiK'iits. After Hie peace of IHIT), Hie arm was mlopt- (•(1 in the Kii^lisli serviee, liiil it is thiiii^;lit by many thai the Hi'ilisli l,ane<T lias a weapon too short to en- alile liim to char^jfe on an infantry sijiiare with any chanee of success. The Ijan<*r, like the I'oet," is horn not fashioned." In the hands of the Pole, the lance, whether used to charj;;e in lini' or in the dispersion of ]iiirsiiit, is a truly fearful weapon; but to those to whom loni; praclice in its use has not made it a second nature, it is only emharrassini;, and more to lie avoided by a comrade than by a foeman. Still the apprehension of beini; run tliroutch has a powerful moral elTect upon a man ; and there is no sounil more ajipalliug to a tlyinu; enemy than " Here come the liancers." LANCES Small paper cases, .3 to .4 inch diam- eter. Idled with one or more compositions, each huniini: with a tlanu- of a particular color. They are iiseil to mark the outlines of tinures, and an' at- tached to lin'hl frames of wood or sticks of bamboo. To make the cases, cut the paper into rectangles of a length equal to the reipiired length of the case and of such widths as to make the case three thicknesses of No. 7 paper. The length of the case is generally about leu ^mes its e.xterior diameter, depending on the composition with which it is to be tilled and the tiini' it is required to burn. Pastil thi' rectangleand roll it on an iron former with tlie hand. When the cases are dry, ('ut them to their proper length. Place the cases in holes bored in a block of hard wood, the holes .02 inch larger than the case, and their depth .25 inch less than the length of the case. Drive in the bottom of each case a ladleful of clay. Insert in the top of the ease a small funnel; jjass the drift through the funnel into the c;ise; till the funnel with composition; rais<r tlu' drift one inch above the top of the case; press it to the bottom and give it three light blows with a rocket-drift; continue in the same way, raising the drift above the top of the case between each volley until the case is tilled to .2.5 inch of the top. Prime tlu^ lance with mealed powder, moistened with gummed water, and dip the end while moist in rifle-powder. When the case is to be tilled with two different compositions, drive the case with the first composition till it is about .2 inch above the required height; remove the surplus to the exact height with a gauge, and proceed witli the second composition as with the first. Bore holes .02 inch larger than the lances, and .5 inch deep, from 2 to 4 inches apart, according to the size of lance. The holes should be bored so that the lance shall be horizontal when the frame is in po- sition. Dip the end of the lance in glue, and press it (irmly in the hole, arranging the lances parallel to each other. Or they may be fastened to the frame by means of sharp nails or tacks, driven into the frame and projecting about .4 inch. The end of the lance is pierced with an awl, dipped in glue, and thrust on the point of the nails, arranging them perpendicularly to the friinu". See I-'inwifrks. LANCE-SERGEANT.— An acting Sergeant. This position is given to Corporals when additional Non- commissioned officers are required to assist the ofti- cers of troops and companies in the discharge of their duty. If the Lance-sergeants prove themselves effi- cient, they are usuallv promoted as vacancies occur, LANCES LEVEES. -Uplifted lances, indicating that the enemy was beaten, and that the Chevaliers or Gendarmes should close the day by giving a final blow to the disordered ranks. LANCE SOCKET.— A leather socket which supports the butt of tlie lance when carried on horseback; called also hino -bucket. See Lance. LANCE WOOD.— A wood valuable for its great strength and elasticity. It is produced by the small tree guatterin tirgiita (natural order unonetceee). An- other species, G. Iniirifolin, yields the wood called white lance-wood. The latter is not nuich used. Lancc-wood is of great value in carriage construc- tions, when it is used for shafts and carriage-polcH, for which it is esjireially fitted. The part used is the main trunk of tlu- tree, which is very straight, and rarely more than !) inches in diameter, with the bark on. It comes in small quantities from the West In- dies, eliiilly. however, from Jamaica. LANDGRAVE. — A (ierman nobleman of arankcor- respoiidiMg to an English Karl. The wife of a Land- grave is known as Landgravine. LANDING. In fortiticalion, the portion of the floor of the galli-ry, between the frames tlial lioiind the en- trance to a return, is termed a luitiliiifi. The land- ing is in all cases horizontal, as well as that [lortion of an obliipie return between the oblique frame and the one next succeeding, which last should not be placed further than an ordinary interval from the furthest point of the obli(|ue frame. See <lriUiry. LANDS. — In ordnance, the sjiaces between the fur- rows or grooves in the biirrel of a rilled t;un. Seir liai'ril. LAND8BERG SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. -This system consists of three unrevetted eucientes : the first of tenailles of GO" with small redans in the re- entering angles; the second, of a fausse-braye, with bonnets at salient ; the third of an envelope of 125 to 225 yards faces replacing the covered-way. In the nuiin ditch there are casemated redoubts for mus- ketry and artillery. The ramparts are much exposed to enfilade ; and all the more so since there is no traverse; the absence of a covered-way exposes the place to an attack of vive force ; the relief being small, escalade may be resorted to ; there is no pro- vision made for sorties; and the space left for houses is very limited. Landsberg calculates that the out- lay will be much less than for Vauban's hexagon, and that a vigorous defense may be expected from a gar- rison of 20,000 men and 00 gims. LANDSTURM.— The Third Reserve of the German Army, 'I'he German soldier, after remaining Z years in the Active Army, 4 in the Reserve, and 5 years in the Landicehr, is draughted into the LniKht.iirm. which owes its origin to the wars of the First Em- pire, and was formerly a force raised for home de- fense only. But, in 1874, a bill was passed by which the Emperor can summon that force of his own au- thority in case of urgency, and the men of the Third Reserve can be draughted into the Landieehr if their services are needed. It is computed tliat this new organization will increase the strength of the Ger- man Army up to nearly two millions of men. LAND-SURVEYING.— The measurement of the area of a portion, whether small or large, of the earth's surface, is an important application of mathematics, and involves a thorough acquaintance with geome- try, trigonometry, and the theory and use of the in- struments employed for the determination of angles. Fields or portions of ground of small extent are nieas- ured easily and with sufficient accuracy by a chain (for distances), and a box-compass or cross-stafT (for angles). For larger areas, the use of the surveyor's table is requisite ; and for those of still greater ex- tent, in which the greatest accuracy is requisite in the determination of the angles, the astrolabe, theodo- lite, sextant, circle, refiecfor, micrometer, etc.. are used. The surface to be measured is divided into triangles, which are separately measured and calcu- lated ; but when a large extent is included in ths measurement, it is not enough to proceed from one triangle to another, in which way an error at the out- set may be propagated with continual increase; hut a t)ase line, as long as circumstances admit of, must, in the first instance, be accurately measured, upon which, by means of the measurement of angles, all the subsequent calculations are made to depend. and lines subsequently measured are only intended to be corrective of the results obtained by calctdation. When the extent of surface is still greater, as when a whole country is to he measured, points here and there are astronomically determined, their meridians are accurately laid down, and a complicated system LAND TRANSPORT. 176 L iNTERN SLIDES. of triangles is employed to insure accuracy. This is called tr'anc/nlntiiin. LAND TRANSPORT.— A branch of the Control De- partment. It comprises men of the Transport Com- panies, and cattle for the draught orotherwiseof the stores and baggage of an arm}-. Carts or wagons of the lightest nature should be used, and the horses employed to draw them should be driven and not ridden. Pack animals should only be used on emer- gency, when a sufficient number of carts cannot be obtained. In mountainous countries, resort must be had to this kind of transport, as was the case in Abyssinia. But, as a rule, pack animals are to be avoided as being the worst and most difficult trans- port to manage. In India, the transport consists of bullock carts of the country, elephants, and camels. See Military Train. LANDWEHR.— A military force in several of the Gorman States; somewhat corresponding to the militia of Great Britain. It is not always retained under arms. During peace, its members spend most of their time in civil pursuits, and are called out for military service only in times of war or of commotion — care being taken, however, that they are suffi- ciently exercised to make them ready for such ser- vice when necessary. The name Landwehr was first applied to the Tyrolese, who rose against tlie French ; and in 1805 "a similar force was raised in the other German Provinces of Austria, which, how- ever, the Emperor has recently abolished. By far the most elaborate and complete system of land- defense was the Prussian, which was called into ex- istence in 1813, when all Germany rose against Na- poleon. As early, indeed, as 1806, or earlier, Mar- slial Knesebeck, then a Major in the Prussian Army, had proposed such a thing : but it was not till tlie opening of the campaign of 1813 that the Prussian Landwehr was organized according to Scharnhorst's plan by a Royal Edict, dated Mar. 17. At first, it was designed solely as a land-defense, properly so called, and not, what is now the case, as an integral part of the regular army. It was called out in two separate levies, the first comprising all men from 26 to 33, and the second those from 33 to 39. The old men up to 60 belonged to the Landxtiirin, which was called out only for the defen.se of house and hearth. After the second peace of Paris appeared the Land- wehrm-dnung (Landwehr-regulation)of April 21, 1815, according to which the country was divided into 104 districts, each of which had to furnish a battalion of Landwehr. To every battalion of Landwehr was attached one squadron of L'hlans ; three battalions formed a regiment ; two regiments, a Landwehr brigade, which, along with the brigades of cavalry and infantry, was placed under a General of Division. By tlie Constitution of April, 1871, the Prussian ob- ligatioH to serve in the army was extended to the whole German Empire. Every German capable of bearing arms, after serving in the standing army for seven years, has to enter the Landwehr, and remain in it for anotlier five years. LANE. — The term applied to a[body of soldiers in two ranks standing face to face, forming, in fact, a street, passage, or lane. The French call this form- ation haie, or hedge. It is used when troops form a guard of honor for persons of rank to pass through. LANGREL. — A villainous case-shot made up of var- ious fragments of iron of irregular shape and size, so as to fit the bore of the cannon from wliich it is to be discharged. It was formerly much used for disabling sails and rigging of ships. Also written Lanqracje. LANGTJED. — 111 Heraldry, an animal whose tongue is of a dilTererit color from its body, is said to be lan- guid i>{ lliHl eiiliir. It is understood in England that unless the blazon direct otherwise, all animals are langued gules whose tincture is not gules, and an animal gules is langued azure. This ruI(Mloes not hold good in Scottish Heraldry, wliere " when tlie tongue, teeth, and claws are of different tinctures from their bodies, they are to be mentioned as arm- ed and langued of such a tincture." — Nisbet. When a beast or bird is represented without teeth or claws, this is expressed in blazon •' sans langue and arms." The term Lampasse is used in the same sense. LANGUE DE BOEUF.— A sword of the 15th cen- tury, with a tapering blade, about 25 inches long and 5 inches wide at the handle end. It was double edged, and very much resembled the pnrdzonium.or&msXi sword, of the ancient Greeksiand Romans, which they carried on the left side. LANGUET.— A small slip of metal on the hilt of a sword, whicli overhangs the scabbard: the ear of a sword. LANSQUENETS.— German foot soldiers raised to- wards the end of the 15th century. They enlisted voluntarily, and hired themselves out as mercen- aries to any power that was willing to pay them. Charles VII. of France first added them to his infan- try. After the 16th century the name fell into dis- use. LANSQUENETTE.— A short, wide, two-edged, and pointed sword of the 16th century. The handle waa like a truncated cone, and flattened at the end to form the pommel. LANTERN. — A contrivance for the purpose of giv- ing light : it ismiade of glass'or any transparent mat- ter. There are two kinds of 'lanterns, dark andMua- rory, which are used at night ui batteries or on the line of march. LANTERNS. — 1. An implement made of copper, resembling a round spoon ar ladle. It is fixed to a long pole and serves to convey gunpowder into a piece of ordnance. 2 A Swiss cannon rammer, on a long shaft, the end of which contains a wadding screw. It was first used in the 15th centur}-. LANTERN SLIDES.— Contrivances used in trans- cribing microscopic despatches sentbycarrier pigeons in time of war. The 7iegatite should be very delicate and full of details ; rather thin without being flat, and clear in the shadows. Intensification should be avoided, except in the case of line work. Especial care should be taken in adjusting and focussing the camera, as the subsequent enlargement greatlj' mag- nifies all defects. The slide is simply a positive taken from the negative, and may be of the same size, though it is generally reduced. This operation is best per- formed in a darkened room with a wooden shutter in the window. An opening in the shutter, of the proper size, is arranged to hold the negative, and the camera is so adjusted that the positive will be of the proper size for a slide. In this case, transmitted in- stead of reflected light is the active agent, and the length of exposure is very much reduced. The same care as before is necessary in the adjustment and focussing of the camera. The light passing directly through "the negative should come from aclearskj'. In case the horizon line is near the prolongation of the axis of lens, the negative will be unequally illum- inated, and the positive will not be of uniform den- sitj-. llVi /i/oto are preferable for both negatives and positives, as the most skillful and careful man- ipulation will not insure clear glass for the highest lights of the latter when sensitive drj- plates are used. The Collodion should be of a shiny color and the negative bath only faintly acid. Give free ex- posure, and rather under-develop with an acid devel- oper in order to obtain the requisite density. Use 45 minims of glacialacetic acid per ounce of Instantan- eous Developer. After the plate is fixed, should the lights be found veiled, the plate may be cleanedhj flooding it with tlie following solution: Potassium Cyanide ! 30 grains. Water 1 ounce. Saturated willi iodine until clear. Toning is best (hme with a lO-grain solution of plalinii' chloride. It will fre(|ueiiliy be necessary to use dry plates for lantern slides in'tead of wet plates because of the inconvenience attending the use of the latter. See I'liolography. LANYAKD. 177 LA8UIHQ LANYARD. -A strniif; cord, oiif cnil of wliifli liiiH a siimll iniii liook, iinil tlu; other ii wooden Imiulle. Itisuseilfor exploding tlie friction-primer wlien ii piece is to lie tired. A new form of lanyiird liiiHsi slidinff liiindle, wliicli strikes a tixed liiitton on tlie cord, iind thus explodes the primer. Tlii' further end of the liinviird is held by the left liiuid at the lieight of the breast, while the right hand slides the liandle until it strikes the l)ulton, usually opposite tlie right side. LAPEL. — The facings of a coat. Until the intro- duction f)f epaulettes in IHli. the white lapel was sy- nonymous with a l.ieutenant's eonunission in tlie British service. Commonly written LiipclU. LAPIXHAE. — A wild race inhabiting, in ancient times, the mountains of Tliessaly. Tliey derived their name from a mythical ancestor, LiipitlicK, a son of Apollo, and the lirother of C'entaiiros. the equally niytliical ancestor of the Centaurs. A bloody war is said to have been waged lietween the kindred races in prehistoric times, which ended in the defeat of the ( 'ciitaurs, but thcLapithtc were in tlieirturn sub- dued by Hercules. LAPPING.- 1. The process a gun undergoes after being rilled, also after " proof." for the purpose of removing any little burrs which may be thrown up / / / / on the edge of the grooves by the proof rounds. The lapping-machine, represented in the drawing is ex- tensively used in government arsenals and armor- ies for grinding thin, tlat pieces that cannot well be clamped for milling witliout retaining their winding Irregularities. With this machine an unskilled work- man can grind a true surface at much less expense tliuii mining would cost. Diameter of lap, 18 inch- es ; weight of machine. flOO [lounds ; speed of lap, l,r)()0 revolutions perminute: Hp<'ed of counter-shaft, (1 by T) inch tight and loose pulleys, (12.') revolution.s ]ier minute. 2. The wearing away the land-surface in a rilled gun to ease the entrance of the projectile. LAPSE. .\n expression formerly used in the Urit- isli Army to signify the reversion of any ndlitary property. Thus, upon the sale or purchase of on" commission at the regulated difference, another (where there are two) is said to lapse to government. Commissions la|)se or fall into the patronage of gov- ernment, when vacancies hajipen by death, by offi- cers being superseded, or where oflicers apply to sell who have only purchased a part of their commis- sions, and have not served long enough to be entitled to sell the whole ; in which case they are only per- mitted to sell what they actually ])urchased, and the rcHiaiiidir is the gift of the government. LAP-WELD. — A weld in which the welding edges are made thin, lapped one over the other, and weld- ed. LARGESSE. -^[onej' which, in early time, it was the praclice to grant to Heralds on certain state occa- sions, for proclaiming the style and title of the Sov- ereign and his Nobles. The regular fees, as recorded in one of the Ashmolean MSS., were: "At the coronacion of the king of England XlOOapparalled in scarlet. At the displaying of the kinge's banner in any campe, 100 markes. At the displaying of a duke's banner, i.'20; at |a marquis', 20 markes; at an carle's, 10 markes. The king marrying a wife, i'.IO, with the gifts of the kinge's and queene's uppermost garments; at the birth of the kinge's eldesl son. lOO markes; at the birth of younger children, £20. The king being at any syge with the crown on his head, i'.")." LARIAT. — A long cord or thong of leath- er with a noose. The term is now com- monly applied to a rope \\ inches in cir- cumference and 30 feet long, made of Ital- ian hemp, which is much used in the United States Cavalry service to picket the hor.ses while grazing. See Laxxi. LASMES. — A term employed in Herald- ry. When the field is bestrewed with an indefinite number of drops of a blue color, it is said to be gnttedt tariiie.1. a nomencla- ture pectiliar to British Heraldry. LASCAR.- IntheKast Indies, a term sig- nifying properly a camp-follower, but gen- erally applied to native sailors on board of British ships. The Lascars make good seamen, but being of an excessively irrita- . ble and revengeful nature, are generally keptin the minority in aship'screw. Such men. under the name of Khalrvmien, are em- ployed in some of the Indian arsenals. At Hong Kong and in Ceylon there are com- panies of Lascars in the pay of the British Government. LASHES.— Formerly General Court-Mar- lials could sentence a soldier to receive a ■ crtain number of lashes. At present this mode of punishment is prohibited, and no person in the military service is punished by flogging, or by branding, marking, or tattooing on the body. '' LASHING. — The securing together any bodies by means of ropes ; there are two modes generally used, viz., square and rf(- The nature of rope depends on the work to In securing sheers, guns, and any articles that require to be fixed, lashing is resorted to. There are three kinds of rope u.scd forla.shing — l"g line, seiz- ing line, urtiXHamhrii' line. Lashing used in mount- ing and dismounting guns are of different dimensions. agntutl. be dime, I.ASHIirO-BINGS. 178 I.ATHE LASHING RINGS.— Rings fixed on the sides of ar- tillery traveling-carriages, to lash the tarpaulin, as also to tie the sponge, rammer, and ladle. LASH-EOFE. — A rope used in packing. The packs or loads are made fast and retained on the animal's back by means of a cinch and lash-rope. The cinch is made of strong canvas, about eleven inches wide and one yard long, doubled so that the edges are in the middle. Strong pieces of leather are firmly stitched on both ends and on both sides, with the canvas cinch lietwecn, as shown in the drawing. A three-inch iron ring is made fast at one end, and a hook of hard wood at the other. Natural shapes are usually selected for the hooks. The lash rope is of 1} inch hemp rope or rawhide, about 35 feet long, with one end spliced to the cinch-ring, the other end served. See Packing. LASSO. — A long stout cord or thong of skin, with a leaden ball at each end, employed by the South Americans in capturing wild horses, oxen, etc. It is thrown in such a manner, that when it strikes the neck or leg of the animal to be captured, the im- petus of the ball causes the cord to coil round the limb. The hunter's horse is furnished with a saddle having a high pommel, so that the hunter may coil his end of the lasso round it, or even fix it, if he chooses, though this latter practice often leads to dangerous consequences. The lasso was frequently used against European soldiers during the contest of the South American Republics for Independence; and, though with very little success, by the barbar- ians of the Russian Army against the French sentin- els during the Crimean War. Similar in its name and application is another implement consisting of a stout thong of hide with a slip-noose, used in many cotmtries; but chiefly among the South American and Mexican hunters. It requires much greater address to use it suceessfidly . In Mexico the lasso is called a lariat. LASSO HARNESS. — A harness consisting of a brown leather surcingle and one trace. The surcingle is rather wider than a common girth, and is composed of two pieces (joined together by rings), one of which is placed over the saddle, and the other round the belly of the horse. There are also rings at the end of the surcingle,"which is drawn very firmly iviund the horse, and fastened tight by lapping a white leather thong (fixed at one end of the surcingle) through these rings. There are two descriptions of traces, one being 8 and the other 12 feet long. They have hooks at each end, and when the 'lasso harness is made use of by cavalry, etc., to assist draught-horses in moving very heavy carriages, or in dragging guns, etc., up steep hills, one of these hooks is fastened to a ring in the surcingle, and the oIIht to the carriage. When two horses are in draught, the traces must be inside, and each rider should keep his horse's croup a, little outwards, LATCH CROSS-BOW.— A form of crossbow, spec- ially Mclapli'il for sieges and for shooting at a mark. This was the weapon used by the Genoese at Agin- «ourt in 1420. LATERAL COMMUNICATIONS.— In warfare, eom- IiuuiicalidMS wliich should he kept up between the dillereul i)ortions of an army wlien moving from one ■common base bydilTerent roads towards an enemy, so that, in case of a concentration l)eing recjuired on any particular point, instructions and orders can be readily carried out, and the different portions of the army brought together with rapridity. To prevent 1 any obstruction to comnumications being kept up, e.<q5ecially when advancing towards the enemy, the several roads on which the armj- marches should not, if possible, be separated by rivers, morasses, or a mountain ridge ; rivers would not be so objectiona- ble, as they might be forded or crossed by bridges. Several roads tending in the same direction, with ea.sy means of concentration, is the most satisfactory way of moving an army. LATHE. — A machine in which the object revolves while it is shaped by a cutting tool applied to it. The art of turning is of great importance in gun-con- struotion and is extensively applied in mechanics, the most delicate articles of luxury and ornament, equal- ly with most ponderous machineries being produc- ed by it. As an art, it dates from a very earh- period, and Theodorus of Samos (about 560 b. c.) is na- med by Pliny as its inventor ; but long before this per- iod, the potters w/teel, the earliest and the simplest form of turning machine, was in general use, as is evidenced by numerous references in Holy Writ. The immense variety of work performed by lathes or turning machines necessitates great variations in their construction ; but their mode of operation is alwaj-s the same, and consists in fixing the work in position by two pivots or otherwise, causing it to revolve freely round an axis of revolution, of which the two pivots are the poles, ond holding a chisel or other cutting tool so as to meet it during its revolution, taking care that the cutting tool be held firmly and steadily, and moved about to different parts of the work till the reqiured shape be obtained. Lathes are generallj- divided, with respect to the mode of setting them in motion, into pole-lathes, /</o<-lathes, liand-irheel lathes; and ;)(wer.lathes ; with respect to the species of work they have to perform, into cereif/'-lathes, which form the outside surface, and spindle, mandrel or chuck lathes, which perform hol- low or inside work, though this distinction is for the most part useless, as all lathes of good construction are now fitted for both kinds of work. iJcrf-lathes are those used by turners in wood, and Jar-lathes for the best sort of metal work ; and the small metal center-lathe employed by watchmakers is known as a turn-bench. The primitive and most simple form of lathe for wood-cutting is the pole-lathe. It con- sists of two planks or beams placed horizontally side by side with a narrow space between them, which, being firmly supported at a convenient height, con- stitute the bed: of two uprights or puppets rising from the bed, one of them stationery at the left end, and the other sliding along over the slit between the beams, and capable of being fastened at any requir- ed point by a projecting tenon and wedge beneath ; of a treadle below and parallel to the bed ; and of an elastic pole or loth (whence some derive the name lathe) fixed to the ceiling above. This form of lathe is well adapted for turning long thin cj'linders of wood, the piece to be turned being held fast at each end Ijy the conical iron or steel point projecting from the inner face of each puppet. Motion is communicated to the work by a cord which is fastened to the lathe overhead,wound twice or thrice round the work, and then attached to the treadle be- low. When the workman presses his foot on the treadle, the work commences to revolve rapidly, un- winding the cord towards the treadle, and winding it up on the side next the pole, causing the latter to bend considerably. During this peri<id, the workman has been holding his cutting-instrument to the work ; l)ut after the treadle has been quite (iressed down, he removes his foot, and the reaction of the bent pole causes the work to revolve in an opjiosile direction, till the pole has straightened itself; and during this latter revolution, no cutting is done. When the whole |)iece is to be turned, the cord must be moved from an unfinished to a finished part of the work. For the pole, an clastic steel bow and string are substituted aEAiiiNO, IjATHEs. etc. 1. Focit-latliP. 2. Screw-i'UttiiiK Inthe. 3. Spindle-lathe. 4. Lathe with two drills pivot-lathe. 1^'. Wood mid metal-turner's tools. 13. Copyinj; turning bench. 1 1. Turner's tools. 15 VI-494. /er-lalhe. 0. Small power-lathe support. 7. Wheol-ladie. 8,0. Cross sujiport. 10. Spimlle-lathe. 11. Jeweler's m UlTHE. 179 LATHE. wlicii the work is liglit or fine, the cord licinii; u(- tiiclicd to the miilillo of the Htriiii;, anil tlic liow fiis- tcni<i lo the ccilini; liy its <'ciitcr. 'I'lic iiiIviimIiil^c of the polc-htllii' is timl it never iici|iiiri'S nu iMi|ieliis in llie direction of tlic cutting motion, for wlieni'vertlic pressure on tlie treiidlo is removed the reliction of th(t pole tukcs <'lTect ; l)iit llie great waste of time dur- ing tlic straiglitening of tlie pole and rising of the treadle has caused the aljandonnient of tliis ma- chine for the foot. lathe. The fool-latlic, the most I common and generally useful form of lathe, ditrers i from the former in liaving a liiiiid-nUick or faul- \ luad iu ulacc of the left-hand stationary puppet. This ' large, coarse, conical screw for holding lirmly any large piece of wooden work; Wu: liolU^ufcUuck,u. strong, circular cup with pirpiudicular sides, into which one end of the wcjrk is lirmly fastcneij Ijy u mallet, or. if too small. Iiy four screws working inward through its sides; the rfr/7/-'7(«c^. of a cylindrical form similar lo the last. but with a square cavity for holding drills, tli(^ instrument, and not the work, being made lo ro- tate in this instance; and the cmcenlric cimtk, a most ingenious piece of m(;chanism — a fiat plate with two slits almost to the center, and in line of a diameter, within which slits works a spindle, with screw-ends carrying two steel studs, whose heads project through head-.stock, consists of two supports or puppets firmly connected at their base, and fastened at right angles to the bed by means of screws. The outer puppet is pierced for a screw and the inner one is supplied with a steel collar, within which the man- drel carrying the speed-pulleys turns. The left end of the mandrel is concave, so as to allow the steel point of the screw to fit closely. A rest, which slides along the slit between the two beams of the bed. and ■which may be clamped at any point, and elevated or depressed as is found necessary, is used by the work- man for the purpose of leaning his cutting-tool up- on, in order to afford it a greater steadiness. The pulleys on the spindle and mandrel are of different sizes, and so arranged that when the endless band is the slits above the surface mi the right side: these heads carry two curved pieces, which serve as clamps to hold the work; and as the spindle-screws are of the same fineness, and with right and left threads, the revolution of the spindle either removes both further from the center or brings both nearer to it; hence, when the studs are once set at equal dis- tances from the center, they alwa3'S remain so, and the work may be removed and replaced without dan- ger of destroying the adjustment. All these chucks are of metal, and are mostly employed for heavy work ; turners of wood or ivory preferring wood- chucks, which can be altered as required, and secur- ed by an iron ring round the outside, to prevent split- ting. The cutting-tools employed are various ; goug- placed on the left-haml pulleys, an extremely rapid motion is communicated to the mamlrel, the motion being reduced, more and more as the band is trans- ferred more to the right, till, at the extreme right. the rotatory motion is much slower than that of the spindle. When the foot-lathe is required for center- work, the inner end of the mandrel, is furnished with a point; but when hollow or inside work is to be done, it nuist be armed with a screw. In this latter case, certain contrivances, known as cAf/c^s. for hold- ing the work, are screwed on to the end of the man- drel. Some of these most commonly used are the screw-churk, which shows on its right side a fiat cir- cular surface, from the center of "which projects a es are used to rough out the work — if soft wood — after which chisels with a straight oblique edge are employed; the instruments for harder materials, aiich as ivory or bone, are smaller than the former, and have their sharp edges "better backed ;" for in- side-work, drills are first employed to make an open- ing, and then cutting-tools of various shapes are em- ployed, according to the form which is wished to be given to the interior surface. Fig. 2 represents a fuU set of twelve tools for use with flie lathe. To avoid the imperfections in the workmanship arising from unsteadiness of hand in the workman, the slide-reft is employed. This valuable addition is furnished witli two motions, one toward the work, and the LATIGO STKAP. 180 LATTICED. other along, parallel, or at an_v inclination to it, ac- cording as cylindrical or conical tiguresare required; there is a socket for tlie chisel, which is tirmly held in its place by a screw ; and after the slide-rest has been adjusted, the operator has only to move the rest forwcrd or sideways, as may be required, the motions being effected by two screws and winches. The /laml-icheti lathe is similar to the former, but so much larger as to reqnire two workmen, one of whom is employed in setting the instrument in motion by turning a wheel. Tlie poirer-lathe, represented in Fig. l,"is similarly set in motion by horse, water, or steam power, and is used for heavy metal-work, as pi.s- ton-rods.iron columns of various kinds, wheels, artil- lery, etc. This machine differs from the foot-lathe chiefly in the substitution of rack-work, and wheels and pinions, for the endless band, and for manual labor, in the various adjustments of the machine, such as in moving forward the tail-stock, etc.; and In the mandrel being supported by both puppets of the head-stock. Fig. 3. sliows an improved sliafting attachment, and wiien ifted in connection willi tlie lathe, makes a convenient arrangement for turning a large amount of shafting. The latest patented device in this line is the Pond shaft turning attachment with a rotar}' force pump. It consists of a reservoir bolted to the sliding rest, having strong housings to be bored to receive plain split rings for size and steadying, or fluted rings that will mill to size. Three cutting tools precede and one water polishing tool follows above rings, and are all on front side of shaft to be turned ; on back of shaft opposite tlie cutting tools is an ad- justable support. Tlie pump attached to reservoir circular figures is by screwing on to the mandrel an apparatus, by means of which the work can be thrown out of the center of rotation at regular inter- vals; but as each different class of form requires a separate kind of apparatus, it is impossible here to describe the operations in detail. One species, how- ever, known as rune-engine turning, and employed for producing involved curviliueal figures, such as ap- pear on bank-notes and on ornamented gold, silver, or gilt work, is so peculiar and ingenious as to call for more special notice. In this species, the stand- ards which siipport the mandrel are no longer fixed at right angles to the lied, but are capable of oscillat- ing iiackward or forward in a plane parallel to the plane of rotation of the mandrel, and are so acted on by a spring that when pushed to one side they are at once restored to their former position on the pressure being withdrawn. Suppose, then, a metal wheel with its rim waved or indented, fastened concentrically on the mandrel, and the mandrel, pushed aside by a fi.xed steel point or roller, applied to the rim of the wheel ; the reaction of the spring against the pres- sure of the roller will keep the latter in close contact with the waved rim throughout, and will produce a definite oscillatory movement of the mandrel of the chuck, and the work fastened on it, and consequent- ly — the cutting or graving tool being firmly held by the slide-rest — definite deviations from a circle in the lines marked on the face of the work. The wave- rimmed wlieel, called a roxelte, may be replaced by another, and that by a third, and so on till a suffi- cient uumberof different waved linesare obtained. A number of rosettes are generally strung at once oa driven from lathe-counter, forces water on to each cutting tool. Pressure of each stream can be regu- lated as desired. The reservoir is so constructed that it catches the falling water which is pumped again without waste. The reservoir may be readily re- moveil, leaving regular lathe for general work. In wood-turning, the wood is prepared by an axe and rasp, must be lightly though firmly" pressed against by the cutting-tool ; while metal-w-ork must be cleaned from the. sand of the mold or scales of the forge, and in turning, requires less care. Soft woods must be made to revolve with great rapidity ; very hard woods and brass require "much less velocity"; wrought iron and copper, still less; steel, a further dimiiiulion of speed ; and cast iron, tlie least velocity of all. After the work has been duly shaped, it re"- quires to be polished ; and this is effected while it is still in the lathe and rotating, by applying shark's skin to wood, pumice-stone and chalk to ivory and horn, and emery, tripoli, or putty powder to iiietals. Hitherto, we have suppcjsed that" the a5cis of revolu- tion of the work is lived, and eonseijuenlly that all work was turned to present a transverse circular sec- tion; but other forms of section maybe easily ob- tained. The general mode of obtaining these" non- tlie mandrel, and the fixed guide is brought into gearing by means of a steel band called a" rubber, with one rosette after another. Similar concentric curves of greater or less perimeter are obtained by removing the slide-rest from, or bringing it nearer to, the axis of revolution. See Axle-lathe, Engine- lathe. Iland-hithe. Heading-lathe, Shafting-lathe,iipin- 7iing-liitlie. and Turning. LATIGO STRAP.— A strong strap of leather used with the aparejo-eincha to tighten the aparejo. It is about G feet long, IMuches wide at one end and tap- ering to J inch at the other. See Rammer-cloth and Packing. LATRINES. — Conveniences for soldiers in camps and liarracks. !Much nitention has of late been de- voted to their construction, a large percentage of the army sickness having been traced to their defective and inquire conditi(ui. LATTE. — A straight saber used by the cuirassiers • in France. LATTICED.— Latticed, or Treille, in Heraldry is a term apjilieil to a shield covered with a decoration resembling frelty, but differing in this respect, that the pieces do not cross over and under each oilier: those directed from dexter chief to sinister base are LAUNCH. 181 LAY TOaPEDO. pliKcd Mp])<T!iioflt and elonf, that is )iavo nails in- scrli'il 111 llic joints. See Ileralilrij, LAUNCH. 'I'd lamirli a f;iiii or iitliiT ol)ject for- ward iir bacliward is In innvn it ill tlic direction of its axis. If tile \vci(;lit is siK'li as to rciiuirc levers or handspikes, they are jilaeed, usually, on opposite sides, and the power applied liy l)eariiif:;ilowii, at tlu' same time carryini; the free end .if the lever in a di- reelion contrary to that in which the object is to be moved. LAUNDRESS. — A camp woman, usually the wife of a soldier, employed to wash siildier'.i clothinu;. LAUREL. — By the ancient Orceks, the laurel was called d(ipluie\ it wa.s sacred to Apollo. iJcrry- beariug twigs of it were wound roun(i the forehead of victorious heroes and poets; and in later times, the degree of Doctor was conferreilwith this ceremony whence th(^ term Lnurention ; and. according to some the term Hachclor. And to this day a laurel crown is the emblem of honor to which poets, artists and warriors aspire. LAVURE. The grains, dust, or detached pieces of metal which fall in casting cannon. LAW. — Ulackstone says Law means the rules of liuman action or conduct. This detinition is too wide, for it is confined only to such rules as Courts, supported by proper aulhority, will enforce. The Law of Nature consists of those laws which are com- inoii to all mankind, and are supposed to be. as uearl)- as can be conj<'cturcd. independent of tlie ac- cidents of time and place. The Civil or Municipal Law of a nation is what is commonly understood by the term Law, when applied to a particular country. The "Civil Law" is also sometimes used /)«/• exctl. lenee to denote the old Koman Law as embodied in the Institutes of Justinian, the Code, and other parts of wiiat is commonly called the Citrpii.i Juris Civilis, Many of the leading doctrines of that Law have been adopted by modern nations. England is the civiliz- ed country which has adopted the least from the Code of Law, while Scotland follows Continental nations in adopting the Itoman or Civil Law to a large ex- tent, and on many subjects in adopting it entirely. The Law of Nations is subdivided into Pulilic Inter- national Law, and I^rivate International Law, or the comitas gentium. Law is often used in England as contradistinguished from equity, but this is chieHy due to the accidental circumstance that there is a subdivision of Courts into Courts of Law and Equit}', according to the nature of the remedy given. Law is also often in popular parlance distinguished from Justice, the latter being supposed to be perfect in its nature, or as near the standard of perfection as can be supposed ; whereas there are numberless cases of injury, hardship, and oppression which, owing to human infirmity, no system of human laws can adequately redress ; and this is often adduced as confirmation of the doctrine of future rewards and punishments. Law is also sometimes subdivided into Criminal Law, Constitutional Law, etc., accord- 1 ing to the particular subject matter. See Articles of W(ir, Execution of Laws, International Law, Martial Lair, and Military Law, LAW OF ARMS.— Certain acknowledged rules, reg- ulations, and precepts, which relate to war, and are observed by all civilized nations. The Law of Arms also shows how to proclaim war, to attack the enemy, and to punish offenders in the camp, etc. ! LAW OF NATIONS.— Such general rules as regard ! the Embassies, reception and entertainment of stran- gers, intercourse of merchants, e.Kchange of prison- 1 ers, suspension of arms. etc. See Internatirmal Laie. LAWS OF WAR.— The recognized rules for the conduct of civilized warfare. These rules relate to the treatment of prisoners, non-combatants, spies, traitors, etc. ; the disposition of private propert)', the rights of capture, occupation and conquest, the establishment of blockades, tlie rights and obliga- tions of neutrals, etc. LAYETTE.— A three-sided tray or box without a cover, used to carry powder from one mortar to anollier in powdcr-iiiills. LAYING A GUN. In gunnery, pointing a gun so timl till' projei-tile shall '•Irike the oliject aimed at. This is circctcd by bringing th(^ top of the notch of the hind sight, the ape.v of the foresight Cwbelhcr muzzle or trunnion^, and the object in line. In la^'- ing a rilled gun, Ww. scales for elevation and deflrc- tion must be first adjusted. This being done. No. 1 of tJH^ gun's crew proceeds to lay the gun. He places himself in rear of the gun, bringing Ids eye to a level with the top of the hind sight, and about inches in rear of it, and, when laying guns where it is necessary to sloop, places his feet so that the body is well balanced, steadying liimself by leaning on the gun with his arm, and gives thenecessarj' orders for elevating or traversing, until the gim is laid as above; with field guns lie himself elevates or de- presses. With guns tilted with a traversing liar, the tinal adjustment is given by No. 1 liimself. In lay- ing a gun. it is well to avoid putting the back of the nail on IIk^ top of the sight, the hand to cover the eye, holding the tangent scale, or other peculiarity. In breech-loading and muzzle loading rifled guns, provision is made in the sighting to meet wliat is known as the co?istant i/ejlirtion of such guns caused by rifling. To provide also against deflection liy wind or other inaccuracies, such as one wdieel being higher lliaii another, a delleclion scale is attached to each gun. Formerly, guns which had no tangent scale were elevated by means of the quarter siglits orquad- rant. LAY TORPEDO.— From the date of the destruction of the rebel ram Albermnrle, in 18G4. by a spar tor- pedo invented by W. W. Wood and John L. Lay, ('ol. Lay has devoted his entire time to the inven- tion and construction of submarine torpedoes. Sev- eral forms of Lay spar torpedoes to be operated on ship-board are in use in the Russian Navj-. The torpedo or explosive charge, usually of dynamite, is fixed to the end of a long spar, and is thrust out from a swift torpedo boat, or armor-clad ship, under the hull of a vessel sought to be destroyed, and there exploded. The electrical self-propelled torpedo boat of Lay's invention is in extensive use in Europe, especially in Russia ; and two such boats are owned by the United States Government. Some of the Russian boats were built in the United States. The boat is a spindle; in length, some twelve or fifteen times its diameter. The boats are built from 600 pounds to 2^ tons in weight, and cost from #3.000 to •'115,000 each. Each boat carries a propelling en- gine, the motive jiower being usually carbonic "acid gas, retained in a chamber or reservoir, under a pressure of 600 to 1,000 pounds per inch when the reservoir is first charged. The throttle valve is opened and closed by a magnet, or by a gas cylinder actuated by a magnet. The boat carries a coil of telegraph cable, of about the specific gravity of water. As the boat advances, the cable is reeled off. and passes out of the boat through a jiipe, which conveys it back past the screw propeller. When the cable reels out, sea-water is permitted to enter the cable compartment, and so maintain the specific gravity of the boat. The rudder can be set to port or starboard, or held amidships, by means of an en- gine controlled by a magnet in coimection with the telegraphic cable. The boat will usuallj- run just under the surface of the water, but can be raised or lowered in the water by the admission or ejection of water-ballast, the water being forced out of the ballast chambers by the pressure of gas from the gas reservoir when a cock controlled through the wire is turned; or the boat may have rudders to deflect it upward or down- ward in the water, these rudders being controlled in the same way as the steering rudder. The sight rods, or target rods which project above the water have the forward side painted of a color such as not to be easily distinguished from the water; the side toward LAZASnS. 182 LAZT TONOS. the operator is bright colored. These target rods may be fixed on the boat, or may be made to turn down or to telescope into the boat, the movement being controlled in such case by a gas cylinder con- trolled by a magnet. The firing-pin when thrust in, by encountering an obstacle, cuts out a resistance crease of speed is obtained is not yet divulged. The Whitehead fish torpedo, of English invention, is somewhat like the Lay torpedo in the fact that it is of spindle shape, is driven by a screw from a gas en- gine inside, and carries a bursting charge. Here the resemblance ends, as the torpedo, when once pointed Thk Lay Torpedo (Longitudinal Section 1, A. Dynamite Chamber. D. Propelling Engine. B. Gas Reservoir Compartment. E. Engine for Operating Diving Ruddere. C. Caiile Compartment. F. Steering Engine. Propellers. Cable Tube, Firing-pin. coil and closes an electric circuit through the cable to firt. the charge, which is in the front part of the boat; or the operator on shore or ship-board who directs the boat through the telegraphic cable may fire the charge by a touch of the firing ke_v on the key-board. The shore or operating end of the cable is connected with an electric battery tlirough a switch- board. Suitable keys on the switch-board control the tlirottle-valve, steering-gear, and all other opera- tive mechanisms on the boat, by a current through a single electric wire. The ingenious electrical de- vices by which so much is accomplished, are the inventions of Mr. George Haight, Colonel Lay's idea having been to have a separate wire in the cable for each machine on the boat. The front end of the boat, which carries the charge, is sometimes made detachable, and is thrown off from the boat before firing; generally, however, the boat is to be sacrificed with the enemy which it seeks to destroy. The operator, by watching the sight targets through a telescope, is enabled to guide his boat to the enemy with certainty, or, if the enemy is beyond his reach, he can direct the boat back, and by cutting out the tiring circuit on his switch-board the boat can be safe- ly handled, as it carries no percussion firing mechan- ism. The lay torpedo boat can be confrolfed at a dis- tance of more than a mile and a half. As recently im- proved, it will run for distances of nearly a mile at the rate of about thirteen knots. The ditficulty in obtain- ing higher speed has been the tendency of the com- pressed gas to freeze by expansion. Dr. Kellogg, of Hartford, Conn., and Sir. Haight have each devised apparatus to utilize the heat of seawater to prevent freezing, and with the sea at summer temperatures, very good results have been obtained, in increasing the speed of the boat. Mr. G. H. Reynolds, of the Pelameler Works, New York, has also made valu- able iniprovemculs. Messrs. Geo. Haight. W. IL Wood, and William Winsor, of New York, have re- cently invented im improveniciit by whirh the dan- ger of freezing of the gas is siil)staiitially done awiiy with, and a speed at the rate of sixteen knots is said to have been attained, with a probability of still fiir- ther increase. The mechanism bv wliicli I Ids in- and started, is no longer under control, but must go its course, wherever that may tend. As it has less speed and is much more expensive than a rocket of equal size, it would seem to be much less desir- able. See Torpedw.<i. LAZARUS. — A military Order formed at Jerusalem b}' the Christians of the West when they were mas- ters of the Holy Land. They received pilgrims un- der their care, and guarded them on the roads from the insults of the Mohammedans. This Order was instituted in the year 1119, and was confirmed by a Bull of Pope Alexander IV. in (1355), who gave it the rule of St. Augustine. LAZT TONGS. — Before the lazi/ tongs, or panto- graph, as it is now known, was introduced much time was spent in contriving some ingenious make-shift to properlj' transmit the reduced motion from the cross- head or trunnion of the engine. Fig. 1 shows how the Bacon pantograph attachment is applied to one of the adjusting nuts which steady the cross-head on the brass ways, while the cross-head lies in a hori- zontal plane, as in many of our old-fashioned hori- zontal engines. One of these adjusting screws is lifted a little, the two long links are shut under each side of the screw underneath the head, and the head then screwed down upon them, making it perfectly rigid, but at the same time not altering any adjustment of the engine. Here a little point must be borne in mind by the party who is applying this device. It will be seen, by reference to Fig. 1, that we have attached the device to the back end of the cross-head on the outside of the guide,and that we must allovs- the cross- head to travel precisely as far one way as the other, and must take the end of that side of the cross-head to which we have made the attachment for our center line, and not calculate from the center nut shown on that siileof the cross-head. Now the post, the top of which is shown in Fig. 2, which supports the other end of the pantograph, must be exactly square with the portion of the cross-head to which we have at- tached the pantograph, when the cross-bead is in pre- cisely the center of itstravcl. In other words, wemust allow the difference between the ceulndnut and the one on the end, as shown, from which to (iblaiii our LEAD. I8;i L£AD. central line. TIip iirms of tho pantograph iito shown nnrl the brnsson or guitlcs. Thn head of the post is shut up lis much as llicy ciiii hi- when iiltai licil prop- also shown in Fij;. 2. In Fij;. ;i, wr- have theCorliKM f. The support of Ihat cml of the panloj^raph from ! j;ui(l(^ when; the links are put uniler the adjustini^ erly. the post, which is shown at its outer arms, anil the corci-screw in thi^ short cross-har, must he precise- ly in line when the paiiloLjrapli is in this position, screw at the top. This may he done hy horinj^ a hole into the cross-head and screwin); in a piece of three-eif^hths round iron, the outer end of which is (tatlenecl, and has an eye drilled throuf^h it, then dro[i (he taperiiiL^ stud on the out end of the paiito- LTiiph into the eye whenever it is desired to use the paiilonraph. Fi<;. 4 shows the old-fashioned pen- iliiluMj allachiMl to a vertical i;uide or way. In this case, a little slot in the lower end of the pantograph Fit'. •')■ is necessary ; the links may not necessarily be used in the positions shown, hut may be brought up at right angles, leaving the slot to make allowance for the circle described. This attachment avoids drill- ing, tapping, taking out the screws that confine the gibs, or defacing the engine anywhere. On slow- moving or condensing engines these attachments can be applied so that the i)antograph can at any time be hooked on while running. and diagrams can be taken from the high or low pressure cylinder, from the pmnps, standpipc, or anywhere that is necessary. It is a simple little convenience, and, as has been Fif;. 1. else the diagram is worthless. The end of the post must be high enough. so that the pantograph lies per- fectly easy and without any cross-friction ordraught. Fig. 2. shows the application of the attachment to a %- perpendicular guide or cross-head, which is vertical. In this particular case the two links are run un- der the connection between the cross-head proper Viz. 4. so clearly and frcriuently shown, it saves a great deal of vexation and delay, and ensures more accu- racy in the work, if only a little pains are taken. One point must also be observed in using the panto- graph — that is, to allow a little leeway between the carrying pulleys of the mdicator and the cord-peg. This attachment is solely manufactured and for sale by the American Steam Gauge Company, of Boston. It costs very little, and it is certainly a labor-saving and an annoyance-preventing device. See Panto- graph. LEAD. — l.The slight /OTvwrrf inclination of the axle- tree-arm is called Uie lead; the hollow of the "rm and lead together are termed the let of the arm. 2. A bluish-white metal of considerable brilliancy, which soon disappears on exposure to the air. owing to the formation of a thin tilm of oxide. It is so soft that it may be cut or beaten into thin sheets, but in duc- tility and tenacity it is low in the scale of metals. It is readily fusible at a temperature of about 62.5'', and at a higiier temperature it absorbs oxygen rapidly from the air, and the oxide thus formed" volatilizes in the form of white fumes. The combined action of air and water on lead is a subject of great practical importance, in consequence of the metal being so frequently employed in the construction of cisterns and water-pipes. The lead becomes oxidized at the surface, and the water dissolves the oxide ; this so- lution absorbs the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, > a film of hydrated oxycarbonate of lead (PbO.HO +PbO,CO„) is deposited in silky scales, and a fresh. portion of oxide of lead is formed and dissolved. and in this way a rapid corrosion of the metal ensues. This action is materially increased by the presence of some salts and diminished by the presence of other salts in the water. LEAD. 184 LEAS. Pure lead is of very rare occurrence. Almost all the lead of commerce is obtained from galena, the native sulphite of lead, by a process to be presently explained. The lead thus obtained is often nearly pure, and to obtain it pfrfcctly pure it should be re- duced with black flux from oxide left by igniting pure nitrate or carbonate. The compounds of lead with oxygen are four in number — viz., a suboxide PbjO, which is a black powder of no importance ; a pro- toxide, PbO, which is the base of the ordinary salts of the metal: abinoxide, PbOo : and red lead, which is a compound of the two last-named oxides, and is usually represented by the formula 2PbO,Pb02. The protoxide is commonly known as Litharge. Jt is ob- taincd on a large scale by the oxidation of lead in a current of air, when it forms a scaly mass of a yellow or reddish tint. If the oxidation be effected at a temperature below that required for the fusion of oxide, a yellow powder, termed Massicot.\s obtained. Litharge is much used by the assayer as a flux ; it enters largely into the composition of the glaze of common earthenware, and it is employed in phar- macy in the preparation of plasters. A mixture of 1 part of Massicot with 10 of brickdust, made into a paste with hnseed-oil, forms the compound known as Dhil Mantie, which, from the hardness with wliich it sets, is frequently employed to repair defects in stone-facings. The most important of tne salts of the protoxide of lead are— 1. The Carbonate (PbO,CO„) which oc- curs native as a beautiful mineral in transparent needles or fibrous masses, and which is prepared under the name of White Lead on a large scale as a pigment by a process to be subsequent!}' described. The carbonate is insoluble in water, unless it is largely charged with carbonic acid. It is quickly blackened by exposure to hydrosulphuric acid (sul- phureted hydrogen), either in the form of gas or in solution, and this is a serious drawback to the use of the lead salts as pigments. 2. The Sulphate (PbO.SOj), wliich occurs native in white prismatic crystals, and is formed as a heavy white precipitate on adding sulphuric acid or a soluble svdphate to a soluble lead salt. 3. The J^itrate(FbO. "SO-), which is formed by dissolving lead or its protoxide in dilute nitric acid. 4. The f'hrnmrite^, of which the princi- pal are the neutral chromate or Clirume Yellow (PbO.CrOj), and the dichromate or Orange Chrome. These are much used in pigments, and in calico-dye- ing. .5. The Acetates. The ordinary- or neutral acetate (PbO,C4H303-|-3aq.) is prepared on a large scale by the solution of litharge in distilled vinegar, and evaporation, when the salt is obtained in four- sided prisms, or more commonly in a mass of con- fused minute white crystals, which at 213* lose their water of crystallization. From its appearance, and from its sweetish taste, it derives its name of Sugar of I^ead. It is much used both in medicine and in the arts. Basic acetate of lead, regarded by some chemists as adiacetate, and by others as a triacetate, and commonly known as Goulard's Extract, is pre- pared by boiling a solution of sugar of lead with li- tharge, and adding alcohol, when the salt separates in minute transparent needles. It is the active in- gredient of Croulard Water, which is imitated by the Liqn.or Plmithi Diaretatln Dilutvs, and of Goiilard's Cerate, which is imitated by the Ctratitm Pliimhi Compo.iitum of the London ])harmaco]Ki'ia. The best tests for solutions of the salts of lead are the forma- tion of a black sulphide with hydrosulphuric acid, or hydrosulphate of ammonia, insoluble in an excess of the reagent; of a white insnluljle sulpliatc with , sulphuric acid, or a soluble sulpliate ; of a yellow chromate with chromate of potash; and ii yellow io- dide with iodide of ])otiissium. All the sidts (if lead, insoluble in water, are soluble in a solution of ])ot- ash. Hefore the blow-pipe on charcoiil, the salts of lead yield a soft, white bead of the metal, surround- ed by a yellow ring of oxide. Lead was largely worked by the Romans in Great Britain, and pigs with Latin inscriptions have been frequently found near old smelting-works. The min- ing of lead in England was formerly regulated by curious laws ; some places, such as the King's Field, in Derbyshire, having special and peculiar privileges. It was the custom in this district not to allow the ore under any circumstances to leave the mine till it was measured in the presence of an official called a bar-7naxter, who set aside a 2.5th part as the King's cope or lot. L^p to a comparatively recent period, persons were allowed to search for veins of the ore without being liable for any damage done to the soil or crops. Lead ore is pretty generally distributed, but by far the largest supply of this metal is obtained from Great Britain and Spain, the former country yielding some 75,000 tons per annum, and the latter probabh' an equal supply. Nearly a fourth of the total British produce is procured from the Northum- berland and Durham district, where there exists, at AUenheads, one of the largest mining establishments in the world. Scotland and Ireland furnish only a very small quantity. AVith the exception of a little from the carbonate of lead, all the supplies of this metal are obtained from the sulphide of lead or galena. The lead ore, when taken from the mine, is broken up into small pieces, "botched," and washed, to separate impurities. Sulphide of lead, when toler- ably pure, is smelted with comparative ease. It is first roasted in a reverberatory furnace. From 20 to 40 cwts. of galena are put into the furnace at a time, either with or without lime. In about two hours the charge becomes sufficiently roasted. During the process, the larger portion of the ore (PbS) takes up four equivalents of oxygen, and becomes sulphate of lead (PbO,S03), a littie oxide of lead (PbO) is also formed, while another portion remains unaltered as sulphide of lead. After it is roasted the ore is thor- oughh' mixed together, and the heat of the furnace suddenly raised. This causes a reaction between the unchanged and the oxidized portion of the ore, and reduces much of the lead, sulphurous acid being at the same time evolved. In the third stage, lime is thrown in and mixed with slag and unreduced ore. When this becomes acted on, the whole of the lead is practically separated from the ore. and is then run oft at a tap-hole. In some districts, the roasted ore is smelted on a separate ore-hearth called the Scotch furnace, where the heat is urged liy bellows. Peat and coal are used as the fuel. This is a slower mode of smelting than the last, but yields a purer lead. During the operation of smelting, a considerable quantity of lead is volatilized, and carried off as/umg or smoke, which, when allowed to escape into the atmosphere, not only involves a loss of lead, but destroys all vegetation for some distance around the works, and poisons cattle and other animals feeding near them. Much attention has of late been paid to the obviating of these evils, and several plans are in use for the pur- pose. Where it can be done no method is more effec- tive than simply conducting the smoke from the fur- naces through a long horizontal flue — saj' a mile in length — to a vertical stack. The fume condenses on the sides, certain openings being left for the pur- pose of collecting it. About 33 per cent, of the fume thus recovered consists of metallic lead. When lead contains antimony and tin as impurities, they are separated by fusing the metal in shallow pans, and allowing it to oxidize at the surface. In this way the antimony and tin form oxides, and as such are skimmed off. Lead is an important metid in the arts. Rolled out into sheets, it is largely tised for roofing ho\ises, for water-cisterns, and for wiiter-pijies. It is also of great service in the construction of large chambers for tlie niaiuifacture of suliihuric acid. Its value for them;inuf;ictnreof shot is well known. Alloyed with antimony, etc., it is largelvconsiimed for type-metal, anil with tin, for solder. "Much lead is also reqinred for the manufacture of pewter, Britannia Metal, etc. LEAD COATING PROCESS. 185 LEAGUE. Of (lie (■()iii|Hiiin(ls of l<iiil, other than iillnyn, which occur hirf^ciy in comuiktcc, the followini; arc the principal: W/iiit' /,ead or ('(irlniniUi' nf /,«('/. a sub- stance very extensively used as white paint, and also ti> fiirni a liody for other colors in paintini;. As much as Ki.OIH) tons of it are ainiually made in KuLdand. While lead is still lari;(ly made by the olil J)utch process w hicli consists in freatint; metallic lead, cast in the form of stars or uratinjrs. in such a way as to [greatly facilitate the absorption of carbonic acid. I'hese stars of N'ad iilaced in earthenware vessels, somewhat liki- llower-pols, and conlainins a little weak acetic acid, are built uji in tiers in the form of a stack, and surrounded with spent tan or horse-dun^;. The hi'at civen out from the dun;; volatilizes the acid, which, alont; with the air, o.xidizes the lead. 'I"he acetic acid changes the o.xide into the acetate of lead, and this is, in turn, converted into the carbonate by the ('arbonic acid tjiven olT from th(^ hotbed. ]{y this process, nielallic lead re(|uires from to 8 weeks for its conversion into white lead. Several less tedious processes for the manufacture of a while |)aiiit from lead have been tried at various times, but the only one now practiced is that for the production of an oxychloride of lead, by acting on raw galena with liydrocliloric acid. Minium, lied Lead, irr lied Oxide of f^eiiif, is much consumed in the manufacture of Hint-glass and porcelain, and to some extent as a pig- ment. It requires to be made of very pure lead, as a slight trace of copi)er wovdd impart a color to glass. Minium is prepared by healing Mn.iKicut, or protoxide of lead, to a temperature of tiOO" F. in iron trays, in a reverberatory furnace, carefully avoiding fusion. More oxygen is thus gradually absorbed ; and a com- pound of the proto.xide and the peroxide of lead is formed, having a bright red color, which is the red lead of commvrcii'. — Lil/iiirge has been already no- ticed. LEAD-COATING PROCESS.— The process of lead- coating projectiles, chemically, as adopted by Ord- nance Otiicers, is as follows: 1. The projectiles must be turned olT smoothly and brightly. 2. Keep them in a pickle or solution of zinc and vitriol (pro- portion tliree pounds of zinc to each pound of vi- triol,) until they show a metallic appearance; about 20 pounds of vitriol to 100 shells of nine pounds, and enough water to cover the surface to be coated; the projectiles being set upright in a wooden box lined with lead. The zinc prevents the acid from acting too violently on the iron. 3. After the pickle, immerse them in clear water, and then in a bath of one pound of lime to 2f gallons of water. 4. Hub the surface with rags and sand until a clear metallic appearance shows itself; wipe dry with rags and saw-dust ; brush off the saw-dust. 5. Heat the projectiles to that degree that a drop of water thrown \ on them will boil at once. 6. Dip them in a solu- ' lion of one part of sal-ammoniac to four parts of water (hot.) 7. Then cover them with a thick j layer of powilered sal-ammoniac. 8. Being perfectly dry, dip them into the molten zinc until they have the same temperature as the zinc. 9. Wipe off the dripping zinc with gloves previously saturated with the solution of sal-ammoniac (6). The gloves must have dried without being wrung. 10. Cover them again with powdered sal-ammoniac. 11. Dip them into molten pewter for about half a minute. (For j projectiles of hardened iron the coating with zinc is i dispensed with. ) 13. Wipe off the dripping pewter with the sal-ammoniac gloves. VS. Cover them ' again with the powdered sal-ammoniac. 14. Put I them in the mold and pour the molten lead in. The I process to the zinc coating (8) is the same or similar to the galvanizing, only more caution is taken to have very smooth surfaces. The process from the tin coating to the ^casting must be done quickly. The mold for the final casting is of cast iron, made of two halves, working on a heavy hinge, and con- nected to a heavy bottom plate, and opened and shut by a pair of long handles. The inside must be pol- 1 Ished. Its interior diameter must be a little longer than the diameter of the llnished coated projectile. The molil, |)rior to casting, is warmed ho that drops thrown on will boil at once, and receives a coaling of grease, which should be allowed to dry before casting. The casting is tested by making in- cisions which will show whetlier it ailheres lirndy to the iron or will peel <jff. The projectile is tinishcd by turning olf in the lathe the lead coating to the <lesired dimensions; prove them, and screw in the bottom or bead-screws. See C'uated J'ri>jectiUH. LEADERS. Long paper tubes of small diameters inclosing a strand of (piick-malch. They are used to communicate lire rajiidly from one point to an- other. The velocity of combustion is from 1 to 2 yards per second, (fepending upon the size of the tube, being niorc^ rapid as the tube is smaller. Leaders are made by rolling a strl|) of thin paper, 2^> inches wide, as obli(iuely as possible, on a ram- rod, or cut the paper into trapezoids 4 inches wide at one base and 2} at the- other: jjaste the edges of the strips O.'J.'i inch, and roll them on a ramrod so that one end shall be enlarged, funnel-shape. When dry, pass a strand of quick-match through, and let it project about an inch at each end. To unite them into a long line, insert the end of one into another a distance of .7.') inch, and tie them with a thread. If the line be long, first .stretch a piece of twine, and attach the leader to it every few- feet. See FireirnrkK. LEADING. — The clogging of the grooves of a rifle with lead from the bullet ; one of {he principal ob- stacles against continuous accurate shooting. It is obviated by covering the bullet with a paper patch or bv using a lubricant in the cancllures. LEADING COLUMN.— The first column that ad- vances from the right, left, or center of any army or batt;ilion. LEADING FILE.— The first two men of a battal- ion or company that marches from right, left, or center, bv files. See Vile-leader. LEADING FLANK.— When a line breaks into col- umn in order to attack an enemy, the Leading Flank is that which must always preserve the line of appvi in all movements in front. The first battalion, or company of every column which conducts, is called the head or leading flank of that column. LEADING QUESTION— In the proceedings of Mili- tary Tribunals, a question to a witness which sug- gests the desired answer. Such questions are objec- tionable except under certain conditions. LEAD OUT. — A command in the mounted service to cause the horses to be taken from the stable or picket line preparatory to mounting or harnessing. LEAF SIGHT.— A form of elevating rear sights, consisting of several hinged leaves of different heights. It is usually attached to the tangent .sight, and is often called a Sliding Lenf-head. See Sigld. LEAGUE. — 1. A measure of length of greal anti- quity. It was used by the Romans, who derived it from the Gauls, and estimated it as equivalent to 1500 Roman paces, or 1.376 modem EnglieJi miles. The League was introduced into England by the Normans, probably before the battle of Hastings (1066), and had been by this time lengthened to 2 English miles of that time, or 2^^ modern English miles. At the present day, the League is a nautical measure, and signifies the 20th part of a degree— i. e., 3 geographical miles, or 3.456 statute miles. The French and other nations use the same nautical league, but the former nation had (until the intro- duction of the metrical system) two land-measures of the same name, the legal posting-league = 2.42 Eng. miles, and the league of 25 to the degree, which is = 2.76 statute English miles. 2. The term generally employed in the IBtli and 17th centuries to designate a political alliance or co- alition. The most famous Leagues were those of Cambray, Schmalkald, Niimberg, etc. But the name has a peculiar importance in the history of France, LEAGUE OF MASBACH. 186 LEATHEA as applied to the opposition organized by the Duke of Guise to the granting of tlie free exercise of their religion and political rio;hts to the Huguenots. This League, known as the Holy League, was formed at Peronne, iu 1576, for the maintenance of the Roman Catholic Religion in its predominance; but the object of the Guises was rather to exclude the Protestant Princes of the Blood from the succession to the throne. For an account of the civil war that ensued, see Hixtinre de la Ligue (H vols.. Par. 1829). LEAGUE OF MAKBACH.— Under the rule of Count Frederick of Hohenstaufen and his successors, Sua- bia became the most rich, civilized, and powerful country of Germany, and the Ducal Court was the resort of the Minnesingers ; but the wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, and the quarrel with the French respecting Naples, put an end to the Dynas- ty in 1268. The Ducal Vassals in Suabia rendered themselves almost independent, and professed to acknowledge no lord but the Emperor. During these dissensions arose the Lordships of Wiirtemberg and Baden, with numerous lesser States, holding direct of the Crown, and opposed to them the Cities, which strove also for an equal independence, and at last, in reward of important service, obtained in 1347 great additional privileges. A number of them united to make common cause against the neighboring Feudal Lords in 1376 (known as the First Suabian League) ; an opposite league was formed between Wiirtem- berg, Baden, and 17 towns in 1405, called the League of JIarbach; and both took part in the war of Swiss Independence, the former in support of the Swiss, the latter of the Austrians. At last, the towns, which had been rapidly increasing in wealth and power, de- cided at Ulm, in 1449, to form a standing army, and a permanent military commission, for the forcible preservation, if necessary, of peace and order ; and the Count of Wiirtemberg, the most powerful of the opposite party, having joined them, was appointed Military Chief of the League, which ultimately grew up into the Great Suabian League, and exercised both administrative and judicial authority over the whole country, effectively repressing feud.al quarrels. In 1512, Suabia became one of the ten circles into which Germany was now divided, received its complete or- ganization in 1563. and retained it almost without change till the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. But during this period, the wars of the towns with Wiir- temberg, the Peasants' War, of which Suabia was one of the foci, the Thirty Years' War, and those be- tween France and the Empire, destroyed the demo- cratic constitution of the towns, and with it their en- ergy, and then their prosperity disappeared, leaving now no relic which could suggest th^ir former great political importance. LEAGUER. — 1 . The camp of a besieging army ; less often a camp in general; a siege or beleaguering. 2. A confederate, or one who unites in a league. LEAST SQUARES.— The method of Least Squares, in astronomy and problems of motion, is the best mode hitherto discovered of obtaining the most cor- rect result from the number of observations upon any phenomenon. These observations are assumed to differ slightly from each other, and to be all of equal value, that is, taken under equally favorable conditions, and with equal instruments. Theordi- Tiary and long established mode of approximating to the trulli in such cases, is by finding the arithmetic mean, and accepting it as the correct result ; but in all cases where the result required does not come di- rectly from observation, but requires to be discover- ed by calculation, this simple and usefid method is inapplicable, and that of 'Least Squares, 'which gives more prol)al)le corrections, is adopted. The nielhod is fcjuudcd (in a tliciirem which was first propounded by Legeudre in 1806, more for the sake of insuring uniformity among calculators thati from any belief in its intrinsic value; l)ut it wasafterwardslhorough- ly discussed and proved by GnuwM and Lajilnce. that "if the mean of a number of distinct observations be j so tiken. that the sura of the squares of its differ- ences from the actual observations (generally desig- nated errors) shall be a minimum, tliis mean will be. under the.se circumstances, the correctest obtainable value." The process by which the mean thus obtain- ed is shown to be the most trustworthy approxima- tion is too long for insertion here ; but it may not be undesirable to give an example of the most common form of the method as occurring iu astronomy. Let there be a series of equations- X = X-- X,= 3x- X ^ 4x ■ Xl=-x+ 3^-i- 3i where the unknown quantities are x, y, and «, con- nected by various (the more the better) equations with X, X,, etc., quantities which must be deter- mined by actual observation. Suppose the value of the quantities thus found to be 3, 5, 21, and 14, then since by hypothesis all these four observations are erroneous, the errors are 3 — X, 5 — X,, 21 — Xj, 14;— Xa, or 8— X— y — 1t, 5 — 3k — 2y — 52, 21 — 4a; — y — 4z, 14+ x^Zy — Zz. The squares of these four errors are now added to- gether ; and, to find the values of x, y, and s, which will render this sum (call it S) a minimum, we must differentiate S with respect to x, y. and «in turn, and putting each of these partial differential coefficients equal to zero, we obtain the three equa- tions, — 88 + 27x + 8^/ + 30« = ; — 76 + 8j -}- 15y + 25z = 0, and — 157 -f 30^; -|- 25y + 54j = ; from which the most trustworthy values of x, y, and z can be found by common algebra- LEATHER.— The skins of animals chemically al- tered by the vegetable principle called tannin, or- tannic acid, so as to arrest that proneness to decom- pose which is characteristic of soft animal substances. Its invention reaches beyond the dawn of history and was probably among the earliest germs of civiliza- tion; for as the skins of animals would naturally be among the first articles of clothing, any means of pre- serving them more effectually than by drj'ing would be highly prized. The discovery that bark had this effect was doubtless the result of accident. The prin- ciple of its action was unknown up to the present century ; and the same unvarying method has been employed from the earliest times until the last few years, when the invention of new processes has much faciliated the manufacture. The skin of all animals used in the production of leather consist chiefly of gelatine, a substance which easily enters into chemical combination with the tan- nic acid found in the bark of most kinds of trees, and forms what may be termed an insoluble tanno.gela- tin. This is tlie whole theory of tanning, or con- verting the skins of animals into leather. Former- ly, oak-bark was supposed to be the only tanning material of any value ; but latelj- very numerous ad- ditions have been made to this branch of economic botany. In addition to the process of tanning in making leather, there are other modes, one of which is taw. ing, another dren-v'ng in oil. The following are the skins which form the staple of our leather manufac- ture : ox, cow, calf and kip, buffalo, horse, sheep, lamb, goat, kid, deer, dog, seal, and hog. These are consumed, in a great degree, in the construction of military equipments and appliances. The term pelt is applied to a!) skius before they are converted into leather. When simply made into leather in the state we find in shoe-soles, it is called, " Rough Leather;" but if, in addition, it is submitted to the process call- ed currying, it is termed " Dressed Leather." Tlio following trade-terms are in general use : hides or crop-hides, butts and backs, bends, offal, and skins. The comiilcte hide when rounded, wilh the cheeks, shanks, and belly-pieces, etc., pared off, is called a LEATHEB. 187 LEATHEB. butt; the pieces cut ofT constitute the nffal; iiml nkinn in Iiirfie qu.-intltieH from AuHlralia and the Cape of are all the lii;liter forms of leather, such as sheep, | Oood Mope. The latter with the cape skin, are coat deer, etc. I used for liook-liinding, jrhivcs, etc. Lauih-skinH are imported also from Italy, Sicily, and Spain, and tewed and dyed for making gloves, in imitation of kid. A great portion of all sorts of lambs and sheep lire tawed and used for aprons, sewing harness, plaster-skins, tying up bottles, lining shoes, and other Sheep and lamb skins are imported (in the wool) jobbing and inferior purposes. Deerskins are dress- LEATHEB CANNON. 188 LEATHEB CANNON. ed by the oil process, and form a great portion of tlie 80-called s/(«m')^ leather, which derives it name from the chamois of the Alps, from the skin of which it was formerly made. Dog-s/cins are tanned or tawed for gloves, and for thiu shoes and boots. Seal-xk/ns are manufactured into the so-called "patent leather," by varnishing their upper surface. The manufacture of this kind of leather has of late become of great importance to the London, Edinburgh, and New- castle tanners. Iloff OT pig .ikin^ are imported from Russia and other countries, and many are supplied b3' Scotland ; their use is chiefly in the manufacture of saddles, etc. Walrus a.nd Ilippopr/tamus hides are tanned in considerable numbers for the use of cutlers and other workers in steel goods, "buffliug-wheels" being made of them often an inch thick, which are of great importance in giving the polish to metal. Lately, belts for driving machinery have successful- ly been made from them. Knngarno-skins of various species are tanned or tawed in Australia, and form a kind of leather in great favor for dress-boots. The first process in making tanned sole leather is to soak the skins or hides in water for a greater or less time, to wash and soften them; they are then laid in heaps for a short time, and afterwards hung in heated rooms, by which means a slight putrefactive decom- position is started, and the hair becomes so loose as to be easily detached. This process of " unhairing " is mostly followed in America ; but in Great Britain milk of lime is used for soaking the hide till the hair loosens. Hides or skins intended for dressing pur- poses, such as shoe, coach, harness, or book-binding, after the hair is taken off by the lime, have to be submitted to a process called " bating," for the pur- pose of reducing the thickening or swelling occas- ioned by the introduction of the lime, and for cleans- ing the skin from grease and other impurities. This is effected by working the skins in a decoctiou of pigeons' or dogs' dung and warm water, and no dressing-leather is ever submitted to bark or shumac ■without undergoing this process. The first attempts at improvement in tanning'were the method invented by Mr. Spilsbury in 1823, and the improvement on this method by Jlr. Drake, of Bedminster, in 1831. The principle consisted in caus- ing the ot/ie or tan-liguor to filter through the hides under pressure. For this purpose, in Drake's process, the edges of the hides were sewed up so as to form a bag. The bags being suspended, were filled with cold tan-liquor, which gradually filtered through the pores of tiie hides, and impregnated them with the tannin. The processes by infiltration, however.have been entirely abandoned for heavy leather, as they have the effect of rendering the leather porous and deficient in firmness. Various patents for improvements in tanning have been in operation of late years. Hercpath and Cox, of Bristol, tied hides to each other to form a long belt, and pressed them between rollers, to squeeze out the partially exhausted tan-liquor from the pores, so that a stronger liquor might be absorbed. Messrs. J. and G. Cox, of Gorgie Mills, near Edinburgh, made an improvement on this mode bj' attaching the hides to a revolving drum, so that the hides press on each other on the top of the drum, but hang suspended in the tan-liquor from the lower part: and thus, by the hides being alternately in and out of the liquor,the tanning is quickly effected. Tniring consists in dressing the skins with anti- se]itic materials, so as to preserve them from decay; but by this operation no chemical change is effected in the gelatine of the skins ; hence, tawed leather can be used in the manufacture of glue. In tawing, the first process is careful washing, next dressing them with lime, then removing the liairor wool, and lastly, steeping tlicm in some one or more of the various mixtures wliich are used for converting skins into leatlier by tliis method. ]iesidea tanning and Uiin'ng. many kinds of leath- er require the currier's art to bring them to the state of completion required for military purposes. The currier receives tlie newly tanned skins, 'and finds them harsh to the feel, and rough on the flesh- side. He removes all the roughness by carefully shavingwith a peculiar knife. After soaking in clean water, he then scrapes the skin with considerable pressure upon a scraping-tool or slicker, and thus re- moves any irregularities. The moisture is then removed as much as possible, and oil, usually cod oil and tallow, are rubbed over the leather, which is laid aside to dry completely, and as the moisture leaves it. the oil penetrates. When quite dried and saturated with the oil, the skin is rubbed on a board with rounded ridges, by which a peculiar grained appearance is given, and the leather is rendered very pliable. In currying, almost every variety of leather requires some variation in the processes em- ployed, but the currier's object is in all cases to give a suppleness and fine finish to the skins. Moroem Leather, formerly an article of import from the Barbary coast, is now prepared in large quanti- ties in this country from goat-skins ; sheep-skins are also used for imitation. It is alwaj-s dyed on the outer or grain side with some color, and the leather- dresser in finishing gives a peculiar ribbed or a rough- ly granulated surfaace to it, by means of engraved boxwood balls which he works over the surface. Russia Leather is much valued for its aromatic odor, which it derives from the peculiar oil of the birch-bark used in tanning it. The fact that this odor repels moths and other insects, renders this leather particularly valuable for binding documents ; a few books in a library, bound in Russia Leather, being effective safeguards against insect enemies. It is also said to destroy or prevent the vegetable evil called mildew, to which bo»ks are so very liable. The drawing represents a side of leather, and is made to the scale of one inch to the foot ; the marks show the size and shape of the specimens tested, and the figures give the strain in pounds at which each piece broke, the permanent elongation in fractions of an inch, and weight in ounces and drachms. The pieces were each 11 J inches long by 2 inches wide, and were taken out of the exact portion of the hide on which they arc marked. These test were made by Messrs. Riehle Brothers, at the testing department of their works, for the obvious reasons of determining by actual experi- ment, the tensile strength of the different portions of a side of leather. These tests have been the means of awakening new interest in important investigations, as to the com- parative value of sides of leather for special military purposes, and as to the best means of producing the best results. Until comparatively lately the testing of iron and other metals, excepting by the crudest methods, was almost entirely neglected, but now testing has become a necessity, and the value of metals is determined between buyer and seller by their endurance under certain tests that are brought to bear upon them, and that correspond to the spec- ial use that they may be required for. This, no doubt, will also be the method of determining the value of leather, especially that used for belting, etc.. and the comparison of tests made with patented and rubber belting is interesting and useful. See Testing Ma- chine a. LEATHER CANNON.— A variety of cannon intro- duced by tiustavus Adolphus into the army on ac- count of their mobility. Undeniable evidence, how- ever, of tlieir earlier existence, though of a smaller size, is found in the " Landesliuter Ilarnisch-Kam- mer-Inventurium " of 15(>2, iu which mention «s made of a " Lange lederne Buehse mit Kugel-Modell." Although Gustavus Adolphus improved and per- fected the leather <annon which he introduced into his army in l(i2<>, and used iu the siege of Worm- ditt, yet neilher he nor the German Freiherr Mol- ehior von Wurmbrandt, nor the North British Baron Robert Scot, can be regarded as the inventor. The LEAVE OF ABSENCE. 189 LEAVE OF ABSENCE. invciilion iscviilcntly of niiiclirnrlier dale. A Iciillicr inorliir for firiiif^ sliclls, on cxliiliilion in llic ArMcniil at Venice, wiih, tlie Vcnctiiins iiHBcrt, iniide in i;j4l) ; it is very liliely, liowovcr, tliiit ilH orij^in is Honu-- wlial I'urliiT. One is liiTi; rcininilol of the niiiny siili- slitutcs fornielal ordnance, cspri'ially of the wooden cannon (entirely bound witli iron lioops;, wliicli arc frequently menlioncd in the period from 152.') to : 1530. The leather cannon varied from a l-i)r. to a 4-pr. The bore consisted of a copper cylinder, of the [ thickucBS of thrce-fourtli.s of the diaineter of the ball used. The lcnfj;lh of the cylinder was sixteen calibers ; cascable and lirecch were screwed into the cylinder. The vent, of copper, was screwed into the breech. The entire length of the bore was covered with iron hoops, over which a number of ropes were woinid, which, in turn, were covered with several layers of varnish. Over these layers another round of ropes was wound, and over this was spread a layer of cement. This process was repeated until tlie coat was of the thickness of two calibers; the last coalinj;eonsisted of tarred leather, which ii'i^'*' t'"" eannon its name. The charge amounted to one-fourth, rarel_v one-third, of tlie weight of the ball ; the cannon was loaded only with canister. Canister-shot, until that time only used in sieges, was introduced by Gustavus Adolphus into the field .service, and consisted mostly of musket liullets, though old pieces of iron were very often used. The shot were put into wooilen and tin boxes, linen bags, and sometimes only in rude wicker baskets. The lea- ther cannon, of i)0 lbs. weight, with its light carriage, was easily drawn by two men. This cannon, however, by no means met the high expectations entertained of it. Already in 1031 the Swedes ceased using this na- ture of gun, because at the battle of Breitenfeld it not only became so overheated that the charges ignited of themselves, but it also gave a very short and tm- reliablc range. In 103!). a certain Lieutenant Wolf Muller, of C'hemnit/,, circulated the report that he wius in po.ssession of a secret for the construction of lejither cannon which had many and decided advan- tages over metal ordnance. The Elector of Saxony orderoil t)olnnel von Schwalbach to investigate and to report sis ti> its worth. The report of the Colonel was found to be favorable, and expressed in these words: — "Owing to their light weight, easy trans- porUition, and saving of powder, as well as the ad- vantages they offer in the field against the enemy, and in nicnmtiiinous and swampy regions, in which latter places heavy cannon can seldom be used at all, such pieces cannot be too highly regarded," etc. The Elec- tor ordered the construction of two leather cannon.for which were given " fifty-seven florins three groschen ready money ; seventeen florins three groschen for sixty pounds pewter ; fifty-one florins three groschen for two and one-fourth himdred-weiglit refined cop- per. Of the copper, the coppersmitli received two hundred-weight, with which lie made a tube four and one-half ells long, weighing ninety pounds, and used twelve pounds for muzzle and vent. The waste in melting twice amounted to si.xteen pounds, the re- mainder was left to the smith as paj- for his work." The trial with these leather guns could not have been very satisfactory, if we may judge from the following item in a record of weights of the Ar- mory at Dresden, June 14, 1030: '• Inventory of the weights of copper and pewter of the bunt leather pieces in the Elector's Armory at Dresden : — Copper, one-half hundred-weight, twenty-six pounds ; pew- ter, thirty-four pounds." Xo mention being made of these guns at a later period, it is taken lor grant- ed that this one failure was thought sufficient to cool all enthusiasm for leather cannon. LEAVE OF ABSENCE.— The permission which of ficers and soldiers of an army obtain to absent them- selves from duty. In the British service, in applying for leave, theWar Office form is used. The General Commanding has the power to grant leave within monthly returns. For special duties, the olllcerwho is to |ierform the work in the interim is to be named in the application for leave. The apiilicalion of a Medical OHlcergocs first to the principal .Medical Of- ficer in I he division or garrison ; that of a IXV'naster to tlie War Ollice, accom])anied bv a certificate from a Hoard that his accounts are satisfactory, cash oal- ance correct, acting Paymaster engaged, and de- claration made that the real Paymaster is answerable for substitute. The application of an oHIcer pro- ceeding on nick leave must be accompanied liy a mediciil certificate. If the officer is not \\\if\y to re- join soon, it is usual for the Medical Board to ask the General to assemble the Board, or to get him to apply to the Horse Guards, should the regulations point out this to be the course to be pursued. In the In- dian military service, leave of absence includes three kinds: — 1. Furlough in or out of India on sick or general leave ; 2. Genera! leave on private Imsinesg, or on sick certificate in India, or short leave to sea; 3. Privilege leave. In the rules which govern an officer's furlough in or out of India, there is no distinction be- tween »/>/• and /jtneriil leave with respect to allow- ances, hitherto drawn, both being included under the general term, furlough; provision, however, is made for the obtainment of leave under medical certificate without all the restrictions applicable to furlough when taken without it. In the rules under the head of furlough, it is shown that an officer of the Indian Army must serve six years after his return from Eng- land or elsewhere, after taking furlough, before he is entitled to any more leave counting as service : but should the ofllcer in question have accumulated leave, so that after two years' absence he has still one or two years leave due him, hewill be permitted three years after his return to proceed again on leave witliout loss or appointment. ,Short Uare, not exceeding three months, may be taken to sea on certain conditions; but ab.sc'nce from India for any longer period is treat- ed as furlough. Privilege UavefoT sixtj- orninety days (depending upon the part of the country an officer is cantoned in), in each year, is granted to all officers in military emploj- without loss of allowances; should this time be exceeded, it nu»t be converted into gen- eral leave, unless sickness has been the cause of de- tention. In the United States service leaves of absence are not granted so that a company will be left without one of its commissioned officers, or a garrisoned post without two commissioned officers and competent medical attendance ; nor is such leave granted to an officer during the season of active operations except on urgent necessity. No leave of absence exceeding seven days, except on extraordinary occasions, when the circumstances must be particularly stated, is granted to any officer until he has joined his regiment or corps, and served therewith at least two years. In giving permission to apply for the extension of a leave of absence, the tenn of the extension is stated. The term of the extension approved by the Department Commander is regulated by the season and the usual opportunities for reaching the officer's station, so that he may not be absent during the time for active operations. Leaves of absence are granted for periods specified as " one month," " one month and ten days," " two months," etc., instead of so many days, and com- mences on the day the officer departs from his proper station. The expiration of his leave must find him at his post. Leave for one month, begin- ning on the first day of a calendar month, expires with the last day of the month, -whatever may be its number of days. Commencing on an intermedi- ate day of a month, the leave will expire with the day preceding the same day in the next month. The day of departure, whatever the hour, is counted as a day of aliscnce; the day of return, whatever its hour, as a day of duty. The Commander of a post way take leave of absence not to exceed seven days at one time, or in the same month, reporting the fuct LE BOULENOE CHS0N06BAFH. 190 L£ BOULENOE CHBONOGBAPH. to his next Superior Commander ; and in time of peace the Commander of a post may grant leaves of absence not to exceed seven days at one time, or in the same month. A Department Commander may grant leaves for one month, or extend to that period those granted by Post Commanders : a Military Division Command- er, for two months, or extend one month a leave granted by a Department Commander under him ; the General of the Army, four months, or extend to' that period a leave already granted. Applications for leaves of absence for more than four months, or to officers of Engineers and Ordnance, or officers of the General Staff or serving on it (Aides-de-Camp ex- cepted), for more than one month, are referred to the Adjutant General for the decision and orders of the Secretary of War. Officers are not permitted to leave the United States, to go beyond sea, without a special permission from the War Department. Offi- cers of the army traveling or stopping in foreign countries, whether on duty or leave of absence, are expected to avail themselves of all opportunities, properly within their reach, for obtaining information of value to the militarv service of the iTnited States, especially that pertaining to their own arm or branch of service. Verbal perniits for less than t%vent}--four hours are not counted as leaves of absence. But for every other absence of whatever duration, the date of departure and return is noted on Post, Regi- mental, Department, and Division Returns against each officer borne thereon. Permission to hunt is not considered as a leave of absence or charged as such if the officer, on his return to his station, tiles with his Commanding Officer a certificate that his absence has been solely employed in hunting, and furnishes as complete a description of the country passed over as circumstances permit. Officers when absent on account of sickness or wounds, or lawfully absent from duty and waiting orders, receive full pay; wlien absent with leave for other causes, full pay during auch absence, ntit exceeding in the aggregate thirty days in one year, and half-pay during such absence exceeding thirty' days in one year. When absent ■without leave, they forfeit all pay during such ab- sence, unless the absence is excused as unavoidable. By an Act of Congress approved in 187(i, an officer may permit his leave to accumulate for a period not exceeding four years. He may, moreover, enjoy five months' continuous leave on full pay, if the fifth month of such leave is whoU}- distinct from the four year period. An officer on leave over this time re- ceives half-pay only. When an officer is absent tm- der certificate of disability duly accepted, on account of sickness or wounds, he is entitled to tlie same pay as if an order had been issued granting him a sick- leave. Officers absent on certificate of disability should so arrange that the certificates niaj' cover entire calendar months, and not monthly periods commencing with intermediate days. The pay-ac- count of every officer on leave should, throughout the period of his absence, exhibit the date of com- mencement of leave, the authority for liis absence, and in case the account is for tlie month in which the absence terminates, the date of return to duty. In all cases the day of departure or relief from duty is counted as a day of absence, and the day of return as a day of duty. In' determining the portion of a leave of absence for which an officer is entitled to full pay, no time is considered outside of a period of four successive leave years, including the leave year or years in which the absence is taken. The leave year is reckoned from June 20th to the following June 19th inclusive. lu estimating tlie period of absence during any one leave year, each and every day's absence is included. Every officer who is dropped by the President from the rolls of tlu' Army for absence from duty three months without leave, forfeits all pay due or to become due. See Furlough aJld Si(:k-lr<ire. LE BOULENOE CHRONOGRAPH.— In this instru- ment tlie time between two events is ascertained by notiag the distance of the/rf« fall of a heavy body during the interval, the beginning and end of this distance being made to accord with the occurrence of the events tjy means of the galvanic current. It can be used not only as a micro-chronometer, but directly as a velocimeter. The drawing shows the instrument ready for use, for taking velocities, and for measuring minute intervals of time To olitain velocities at once, two electric circuits are establish- ed, a fixed distance, saj' fifty meters, apart, in such a manner as to be successively broken by the pro- jectile in its flight. The first current circulates through the electro-magnet A, whose armature is a long cylindrical rod C, called the chrmiometer, furnish, ed with two enveloping zinc tubes, D and E, called rerordrrs. The second current passes by the electro- magnet, B, whose armature, the shorter rod, F, is called the registrar. The third active element of the instrument is the indenter, consisting of a circular knife, fixed in a mainspring, which can be cocked by means of a catch on a lever. On the breaking of the first circuit, the chrono- meter falls vertically ; on the rupture of the second the registrar falls in its turn, depresses the free end of the lever, and thus releases the mainspring ; the knife juts forward, strikes the falling chronometer, and indents the upper recorder. As shown below, a very simple relation holds between the dent thus ob- tained and the velocity of the projectile which caused it. Even with this brief description, a moment's thought will show that the lower the velocity the higher up shall the recorder be indented. The above succint account of the action of the in- strument is sufficient for a comprehension of its the- ory. As an irn'gin of reference for the falls of the chronometer, we take the dent imprinted on the low- er recorder, when the knife is " let off," while the chronometer is suspended. Let // lie the height above the origin of the dent due to the shot; then, as the chronometer followed the law of falling bodies from the beginning of its movement up to the time it was struck bv the knife, we have T as the time corresponding to this fall. It would also be the time of the trajectory between the targets (giv- 50 ing a velocity of — meters to the projectile;, orovid- T' ed the chronometer began its fall at the precise in- stant the first, and the knife struck it at the precise instant the second current was broken. But this is, in reality, not so ; for, after the breaking of the first current, a certain interval, <(>, elapses before the elec- tro-magnate is sufficiently demagnetized to permit the fall of the chronometer, which will accordingly be retarded by this time, and the observed duration of trajectory will be too small by the same quantity. On the other hand, from the lireaking of the sec- ond current up to the instant of the knife striking the chronometer, the following intervals elapse : o' for the sufficient demagnetization of the electro-mag- net, B. t' for the fall of the registrar to the disk of the indenter. t" for the release of the catch, t'" for the knife to clear the horizontal distance to the falling chronometer. The observed time T' is then too great by the quantity (</+ t' -\- t" -j- 1'"), and too small by *. For the true time of flight, T, we have, therefore, T' — (</ + t' +t " + t'" — *) = T' —i. For T = *, we have T' = t, whence to obtain the value of t we have only to break both circuits sim- nltaueonsly, and note the resulting time of fall ; since after this common rupture, there passes the time ■{. before the chronometer falls, and (o' -)-*' + t" -j- t'") before it struck ; until it is dented there elapses tlien tlie time ((>' -\- t' -\- t" -\- V" — *) or t. As will be shown presently, the instrument can be so adjusted as to give t a constant value, say 0" .!■'). Whenever desirable, we can very readi- ly ascertain whether the apparatus is thus adjusted LE BOULENOE CHBONOOHAPH. 191 LE BOULENOE CHBONOOBAJH. or not, by usinj; tlio ilixjiinrtor, wliicli is in Itotli cir- ciiilH. Iftlic ri'sull ins (lent ''' 1 10.29""" alidvc tin- oriirin (lli(^ licif;lit corrcHiiondins; to O'M.'i at \Val<;r- town Arsciiiil), llicii tlir instrnnK'nt is properly Hct. Dcpi'ndcnl upon this coiKiilion.wo ran fix in ailvanci- I lie iK'iiilil (Mirrcsponilini^ to any irivcn velocity of proji'i-lile. For example, with iin inilial veliieily of .'iOO Mielers, I lie projeelile will piisM over I lie 50 iiielers' interval Iietweeii the circuits in U".l, and tlie instru- iiient will record 0".15+0".l, or0".25, andthe lieight will therefore be H = 9.8037 X 0".2.5» -=30G.36niin. Rrci]>rocally, if tlio slintpivps a dent 300. 36""" above the oriij;iii, we conclude thul the jirojectilc was mov- inii; wiili a velocity of .')()() meters. Tiie lieirrlits cor- resiioudiuij; to all velocities within the ordinary limits of exijcnuicuts have liceu calculated aud iuscribed also serves as a stand for mount in^ it. After unpack- ing the liox screw on the sectional iron tripod, then stand it independently of the lloor, so that it maybe subject to as little viiiration as possible, and fasten se(Mirely in its place the trianf;;ular plate that carries the indeiiter and column. The electro-ina;;net» are commonly attached by jiassini^ the threaded stems throui^li the column, and llien ti^rhtenii^; with the milled nuts. The ilisjiinctor shoiihl be ])laced very near the instrument, within easy reacli of the operator. Ordinarily one seven-inch chromic potash cup will be found sutlicient for tlie registrar circuit, and three cups for tin- chronometer. As so little power is reipiired, we would recominenfl. if easily attainalile, that Daniell's or Hill's batteries be used as givinif most constant action. Two re- corders are ]iiit ou the chronometer. These lubes should be liLflitly tapped, before being slipped on, to insure a snug tit. Care must be taken tliat the lower recorder rests closely against the bob, on a metal rule, furnished with a sliding index, Tchioh thus aJords a simple means for directly measuring the velocity of the projectile tired. The shot having given the indent, we adjust the rule to the chronom- fiter, slide the beak of the index into the notch, and read ofl: the velocity. As has already been stated, when it is desired to measure velocities directly, two targets must be set up 50 meters apart. The chronometer circuit passes through the first, and the registrar through the sec- ond, the disjunctor being in both. Should local diffi- culties intervene to prevent the targets being set up exactly 50 meters apart, multiply the velocity read , from tue scale by the constant ratio — where D is the 50 actual space in meters. For transport, the diflferent parts of the instrument are packed in a box, which The currents befng properly established and suffi- ciently strong to enable the magnets to maintain the rod-armatures, the next step is the adjustment of the apparatus, which comprises these three opera- tions: 1. Leveling the instrument. 2. Regulating the power of the electro-magnets. 8. Fixing the height of the disjunctor-reading. The instrument is set up for firing in the same manner as for taking a disjunctor reading. To avoid confusion, numbered ink-marks, about one-sixteenth of an inch apart, are made around the bases of the two recorders, and each mark is successively brought in line with the cut on the ring as the firing progresses, by which means the dems arc made on equidistant straight- line elements. The zincs can thus receive about twenty dents, and then be turned end for end and receive twenty more. The shot having given a dent, apply the rule to the chronometer in the manner LES. 192 LEE MAOAZINEGUN. described for tracing the disjunction circle, bring the veruier-l<nife against the edge of the notch, clamp it, and read olT the velocity. The experiments for the day being over, the date is inscribed on the proper recorder, and, if deemed necessary, it may be filed for future reference, If tlie foregoing directions as to the setting-up and adjustment of the instru- ment are carefully followed, not only will there be no appreciable variation in the disjunctor-readings before any shot, but they will, remain constant from round to round. See Sreger Chrnnngraph, Chrono- scope, Disjunctor, Iruienttr. and Micro-chronometer. LEE. — A term employed in target practice to de- note the quarter to which the wind is directed, as distinguished from windward, or the part ichence the wind comes. Also written Leeward. LEEK.— The Welsh emblem, in consequence of a command from Dewi, or David, afterwards Arch- bishop of St. Davids', in 519. On the day that King Arthur won a great victory over the Saxons, Dewi is said to have ordered the soldiers to place leeks in their caps. LEE MAGAZINE-GUN.— This gun, patented in 1879 in Europe and America, is entirely novel in principle and not only obviates all the objections found in tubular magazine systems, but has numerous and marked advantages peculiar to itself. Thearm is of the bolt class, which years of use in the armies of Russia, France, Italy, Prussia, and other great pow- ers, has proved to possess all the essential qualities of a military weapon. The drawing gives a^sectional view of this gun with the magazine in place, and it will be noticed that the parts are few in number. The resistance in this gun is direct, and is taken on both sides of the receiver; a lug being constructed on the lower side of the bolt and opposite the shoul- der on the bolt handle, which locks ilsi'lf firmly into a recess made for that purpose in the receiver, there- by affording an equal bearing on each side instead of on one side only, as in most other bolt systems. The extractor, also, is of new design, having direct action and great power. notch cut on the extractor-spring next the shoulder of the bolt handle, the extractor-spring. Q, is pressed forward, releasing the hook on its under side, from the pin with which it engages when in place. This releases the extractor-spring and the extractor, and the bolt may then be drawn out of the receiver. By pressing forward and downward on the lug of the key-sleeve, F, it is released from the bolt, together with the thumb-piece, E, the firing-pin, C, and the mainspring, D. To assemble the bolt and its parts, the pieces, E, C, and D, are placed in their proper position, and the lug of the key -sleeve, F, is pressed upward into its locking-notch "in the bolt. Return- ing the assembled bolt into its place in the receiver, lay the extractor in its notch on the bolt and place the extractor-spring in position, giving the bolt a sharp push forward, and the hook will engage itself on the pin on the bolt-rib created for the purpose, and the arm is ready for use. For simplicity, strength, ease of manipulation, rapidity and certainty of fire, this system is not excelled as a single fire breech- loader by any other in use. To change this single fire breech-loader to a maga- zine arm, consists simply in introducing through a slot or opening cut through the stock and receiver, forward of the trigger guard, a magazine made to contain five (more or less) cartridges, which inser- tion or removal can be effected more quickly than a single cartridge can be loaded into or ejected from any ordinary single breech-loader. The magazine is held in place by the magazine catch, K, which engages into a notch or depression in the rear of the maga- zine, as shown in the drawing, and can be released in a moment by an upward pressure on the maga- zine catch, K, at its lower end, where it projects downward into the trigger guard. The magazine is retained so firmly and secure in poeition that'll is im- possible for it to become accidentally released, no matter how roughly the arm is used or how severe a shock it may receive. These magazines are pressed into shape from one piece of metal, and are strength- ened by a rib made on their rear and bottom interior, which renders them, although weighing but about three ounces, strong and rigid enough to endure without injury any shock or blow itable to be re- ceived in rough service. They may be adapted to cartridges of any length. The cartridges are held XOMKN'CLAIURE. A. Receiver. 14. Bolt. (_'. Firing-pin. D. Main-spring. E. Thumb-Piece. T. TrigRer. !•'. Ktv->l<-cve. K. Magazine-catch. G. Kxtractor. 1,. Sere-nprinf;. 11. Sere. M. Magazine. S. fJnard-Bcrew. N. 'Mncnzine-spring. O. Trii;i;i r-guard. P. stock. K. Tang-ecrew. The arm can be carried while lo.adcd with perfect j in a nearly horizontal position, the flange or head safety by withdrawing the thumb-])iecc, E, to the half-cock notch, whicli operation fixes the bolt firm- ly to its closed position, and locks the firing-pin barU- waril clear from the carlridge until the thuml)-picc<r is drawn back to full-cock, when the piece may be fired. Tlic case and rapidity with which this arm can be dismounted and assembled is noticeable. I$y inserting the point of a knife or screw-driver into the of each being in advance of the one below it, as , shown, rendering it impossible for anything to im- , pinge upon the primer of either cartridge, and thus obviating every possible danger of premature dis- ' charge in the magazine. The cartridges are fed up- ward into the system by the magazine spring, N, as re(iuired, and l)eing held strongly in position, no de- formation of the bullet is possible. By actual ex- LEE MAGAZINE GUN. VJ-6 LEE UAOAZINE GUN. ix-riinciil, tin- liullcl i)f curlriilj^'i'H ho licld. iin<I r-x- poHcil lo the recoil received fnmi (Uie liiinclred slwits tired ill tlu' arm, showed no diiiiiiiiHion in leii).;tli. 'Pile siiiiplicily of llieiiiiiu'ii/.iiH' iiieeliaMisiii proper of lliis iiriii is uiieiiualled and reniarUalile, eonsislin;,' (inly of llire(t jjieeeH- Uie niaKa/.ine, M, llie inaj^a- zine-sprin;;, N, anil llie nianazine-ealcli, K, and in- i-liliiUdili/, a small siiring; which operates in a slot in the side of the receiver, and i)roje('ls over the open- i in}; throuj^h which the carlridi^es pass upward from tlie inaj^azinc, formini; a bottom to the receiver, wdule the arm is iH'infi; used as a sini;le loader. The c<]m- ple.\ity of the maijazine ineclianism in most repeal- in;; arms, with the conseiiuent lial)ilily lo lireakaf;e or derangement, has been one of the objections of I fered lo their adoption for military purposes. When the magazine is i)Ut into place (accomiilished eitlxT liy pressure or liya sharp tap of the hand;, Ihe head of Ihe upper <artridi;e is relieved of its tension af;ainsl tlie inclined tlanf;es on tlie rear and upper part of the magazine, by its pressure ugaiust the uudur openiiig Ihe breech flraws back the upper cartridpe, relieviiiL' ils front en<i from tlie hemispherical de- pression ill which it rested ; the spring. N, lifts the biillel end of Ihecartridge upward, and free from tlu; magazine, the bolt moving backward just far enough to allow its front end to pass in rear of the head >l the cartridge, which head, thus relieved, rises by the iiresHure of the spring, N, snniciently to engage the end of the bolt. The forward movement of the bolt then carries this cartridge into the chamber •f the barrel. On opening the system and withdrawing the bolt the e.vtractor ejects with certainty the exploded sheli, and the same operations apply until the maga- zine is exhausted. . It is intended that two or more miigazines shall be furnished with ea<li arm, which are to be carried, charged in the carlri<lge box or pocket of the sol- dier The ma<'azines can be charged with cartridges (live is the number recomniench'd that they shall contain), each in less than live seconds. It is <iuite practkable that i»U ammunition issued lo troops be A B CD side of the bolt, B (the upper edge of the rear wall | contained in these magazines, which may be made, of the magazine being slightlv hollowed to the shaiie if required, very light, of skeleton form, and of such of the bolt). The rearward" motion of the bolt in cheap construction as will admit in action of their LEFAUCHEUX GUN. 194 LEOIOR being dropped and left on the field, as are the ex- hausted shells of expended cartridges. The arm can be used as a single loader until the need of rapid tir- ing becomes apparent, when at the word of com- mand, the charged magazines may be inserted and used. The least intcliigent soldier can obey this order without looking at the arm. While removing or in- serting the magazine, the arm should be held firml;>' at the grip by the soldier's kight hand, in a vertical position. it is believed that the feature of de. taclmhUity. as arranged in tlie Lee system, will par- ticularlj- commend itself to the minds of military au- thorities. The ease, rapidity, and certainty, with which the charged magazines can be inserted into, or removed from the arm, places it in the power of the officers of disciplined troops to positively control the expenditure of ammunition. The soldier may use his arm as a single loader until the vhal moment when a rapid fire is needed. At the order a loaded ma'iazine can in an instant be inserted, and a volley of five, to be immediateh' succeeded by five, ten, or fifteen more shots (if as manv as four magazines be supplied), rapidly delivered. It will require but little drill to teach the ordinary soldier to deliver twenty- one well directc;! sliots from this gun in fort}' sec- onds. E :pcrts at the Armory fire that number easily in thirty s 'conds. Using the d-tachnble magmineH, the necessity of all njj.o/' appliances is obviated, and the danger of the soldiers becoming so confused in the heat and excitement of action as to err in the proper adju t nent of the cut-off, need not be feared. This arm possesses evident advantages over all masaziuc-truns having lubidar magazines, placed under or above the barrel, or in the l)utt-stock. In such magazines the cartridges ride lengthwise, one following another: the bullet of one coming directly in contact with and resting on the primer of the .-ar- tridire next it. All of the cartridges are forced to- ward the breech mechanism by a spiral spring, which must be of sutficient strength to support the weight of the column of cartridges, and force them into the receiver or breech of the arm as fast as required, and of necessity it must have very con.siderable stiffness or streugtii. A French army cartridge, which is about the average weight of military cartridges in | use. weighs more than 1,-'^ ounces. The weight of j a column of five such cartridges would be seven | oimces. fo\ir-fifths of which weight would in a tulni- ' lar masazine, rest upon the point of tlie bullet of the last cartridge, and which bullet comes directly in contact with the primer of the cartridge in advance of it. Add to this compressive force the possibility of the cartridge having extra sensitive primers, and the soldier or marksman may reasonably shrink from t!ie possibility of an accident which would proI)ablv kill, or maim for life. It is hardly neces- sary to .■illude to the demoralizing effect a single in- stance of premature explosion of a cartridge contained in the t\ibular magazine of a military weapon would have upon the soldiers of a command armed there- with. Such an accident would probably at least seriously wound the operator, and the knowledge that such c'lsn.'dties are possible would cause the men to shrink from bringing their arms to the slioul- der, and if tired at all, tlu'ir guns would be held at arm's length, as far as possible from the person, without aim or probable effect. Another serious disadvantage pertaining to all tii- bular magazine systems, is the imavoidable defor- mation of all cartridge bullets carried therein. In till' drawin'.r. A, sliows perfect cartridges fwitli inside primers), as in position while contained in a tubular magazine-rifle, at " Order Arms": B, shows one of the cartridges with its head depressed, the fulminate of the inside primer compressed, and the bullet fiat- tened , C, shows perfect cartridges (witli outside primers) as in position wlnle contained in a tubular mai;azine-rifle at " Order .\rms"; and 1). shows one of "he cartridges with its bullet flattened and com- pr<'9aed (t'o'j of an inch), and the primers deformed; the deformity in each case being due to the recoil of 100 rounds. Even the ordinary jolting inciiient to an infantry march, greatly aggravated in the case of cavalry, will in a short time so batter and deface the point of the lead bullet — thus increasing its diam- eter — as to materialh' impair its accuracy in flight, besides rendering it difticult to force it into place in file chamber of the barrel, and with the possibility of wedging the enlarged bullet so tightly into the chamber — the carfridM being only part wav home — that any attempt to withdraw the charge may separ- ate the bullet from the cartridge case, leaving the lead jammed into the chamber, removable only by use of a rammer introduced through the nuizzle. The soldier, baffled and confused by an}' failure of his arm — which failure is liable to occur at the su- preme moment which decides the fate of battle — will lie less efficient than if armed with the obsolete muz- zle-loader, which, although slow, is suppfiseil to be tolerably sure. A final objection to all tubular mag- azine s}'stems is that the balance of the arm is con- stantly being changed. Each cartridge expended from the magazine alters the relative weight which one extremity of the arm bears to the other, and must radically affect the accuracy of the soldier's him. See Mngmine (,un. LEFAUCHEUX GUN.— A breech-loading gun of pe- culiar merit. The under-guard of the barrel formed of two pieces of iron having a joint, is maintained in a right line by a rigid plate which supports it. This plate may be made to revolve on its axis with a hori- zontal l)ackward and forward movement, by the ac- tion of the hand, when it withdraws its silpport from the under-guard, which forthwith jields and severs the breech from the rest of the barrel. The chamber which is to receive the cartridge thus is exposed and the piece is loaded. The cartridge itself at its base is provided with a large cap. from which projects a pin or small nail; this fits an opening in the breech of the gun. and the hammer strikes it and so fires the piece. To breech-loading militar}' rifles con- structed on the Lefaucheux system it would be im- possible, or at least impracticable, to add the bay- onet ; for the use of the bayonet in actual conflict would be almost certain to lead to a complete sepa- ration of Ihe two parts of the piece. LEGATE— LEGATION.— As commonly used in mod- ern times tlie word Legate is applied to the person charged liy the Pope of Rome to represent him, or the Konian Church, at the seat of Government of a foreign country, or at the seat of a bishopric of the C'luiFLh. But the word need have no such restricted use. It was employed by the Romans under the Re- public, before the Church controlled Rome, to in- dicate .any person sent by the Government on a spe- cial mission of importance to another Government, or even to a Conquered Province; when a Legate Ireiiuently became acting Governor b_v virtue of such commission. Legntns among the Romans was a sy- nonym of Ambassador. Envoy Extraordinary, Le- gate, Ambassador, are three words signifj-ing near- ly the same thing: the first two indicating a fresh or special appointment for a specific object, and the last a more permanent mission. The term Legation includes all that appertains officially to the position of a Legate, an Ambassador, or an Envoy Extraor- dinary, viz., his Secretaries, Attaches, Family, and Residence. We speak of the Residence of the Amer- ican Legation, but by "A call at the Legiition" one may mean a call on any officer or any of the fami- lies of the officers of tlie Legation, meaning then by Leiration the seat of re.-idence of its memlxTS. LEGION. — A legion in the Roman military system, corresi)onded in force and organization to what in modern times we should call a corps (Turmi'i . It dif- fered in constitution at different periods of Roman history. In the time of the Rejiulilic, a legion com- posed 4,.'"'00men. thus divided: 1 ,'21)0 /iiistut'. or inex- perienced troops; \,200 priiici/u/i. or well-trained sol- diers; 1.200 xeliies, or skirmishers; 600 triarii, or pila- LEOIONABII. 195 LELEGES. n^vi;t(;riinsfi)rmingarpsrrvf'; ami '.WOe/jiiitfji, knitjlits who actcil as cavalry, and l)cloni^'i'il to families of rank. Uuring tliis jiiTiod llic Icf^ioiis were formed forliic season, standiim armies lieiiii; of laler j;rowtli. Tlii^ liastali, principes, anil Iriarii. formed lliree separate lines, ea<'li (iiviiieil into II) iiiiiiil jdiH or com- panies, 130 men each in the case of the two front lines an I 00 men in the triarii. A maniple was coin- man led by a Centurion or ('ai)lain, who had a Se. cond Centurion, or Ijieutenant, and two Hiiti-olllcers, or Heri;eants, under him: as non-commissioned otH- cers. there was a /><'c<(//».i, or Corporal. to every s(|uad or tent of ten men. 'I'lie senior Centurion of each [ line commanded that line, anil had therefore functions corresponding to a modern |jieuteiiant-coloni-l. The jtrimipiinx, or senior Centurion <if the triarii, was the most important rej^imental olllcer, and comnninded the legion in the absence of the Tribunes. The 300 cavalry formed a rej;iment of ten tiinnat, or troops of 30 horsemen, each under three JJfcnrioiis.oi whom the senior had the comnuuid. The velites were light troops, not formiuj; p:'rt of the line of battle; had apparently uo olticcrs of their own; and wen' attach- ed to the 30 maniples in eijual jiroportions. Tlu- Stalf of the legion consisted of six Tribuiu'S,whonuina!;e<l the paying, quartering, i)rovisioning, etc. of the troops, and who commanded the legion in turns for a period each of two months. Tliis command, although in- couvcnient. lasted till the tinu-s of the civil wars, when a L gatun^tir rjieutenant-general, was ap|)ointed a permanent Comiuanilant of the legion. The of- fensive weapons of the hastali and principes were two barbed iron-headed javelins, one of which was hurled at tlic enemy on the first onslaught, while the other was retained as a defense against cavalry. The triarii had long pikes. In addition to these arms, every soldier bore a very short, strong, cut-and thrust, two-edged sword. The legionaries' defen- sive armor consisted of a plinned liemlet, breast- plate, iron-bound boot for the right leg, and a semi- cylindrical shield 4 feet long by 21 broad. The veli- tes had uo defensive armor, were lightly armed, and in action usually operated for ilanking pur- poses. Each maniple bore an ensign aloft, and each legion had its distinguishing eagle, l']) to the time of Marius, service in a legion was sought as honor- able occupation, and men of some means were alone eligible ; but Marius enlisted slaves, and turned the legions into corps of a purely mercenary army. At the same' period, the manipular formation was abolished, the three lines were assimilated, and the legion was divided into 10 cohorts, each of three maniples. Soon the cohorts were raised to 000 men, making the^legion O.OIK) infantry, besides cavalry and velites. It was ranged in 2 lines of .5 cohorts each ; but Caesar altered tlie formation to 3 lines, of re- spectively 4, 3, and Scoliorts. During the latter Em- pire, the legion became complex and unmanageable ; many sorts of arms being thrown together, and bal- istiB, catapults, and onagers added by way of artil- lery. Having so degenerated from its pristine sim- plicity and completeness, the legionary formation was soon overthrown amid the incursions of the victorious barbarians. See Tltuixdering Legimi. LEGION AKII.- The second of three classes of sol- diers in t lie Roman Army ; the soldiers of the legions. LEGION OF HONOR. --.\.n Order of merit instituted under tlie French Republic in 1S02 by the First Consul, as a recompense for military and civil services. It was ostensibly founded for the protection of repub- lican principles and the laws of equality, and for the abolition of differences of rank in society, everj' so- cial grade being equally eligible ; but its real" aim doubtless was, by popularizing the idea of personal distinction, to pave the way for establishment of the Kmpire and of the more exclusive titles of nobility that were to accompanj' it. The proposal for its in- stitution was at first violently opposed by the legis- lative body and the tribunate, ou democratic grounds, and carried eventually by a very narrow majoritv. The Order originally comprised three classes- Grand Ollicers, Commanders, and Legionaries. The cm.ss of (Irand Ollicers was.fm the coronation of Napoleon I., divided into Kidghlsof the (jran<l Kagic fthe highest classy, and (jrand Ollicers. On the restoration of the Hoiirbons, the legion was retained, but remodeled so as to iose much of its original character. The eagle was called a cross, and tlie efligy of ilenry JV. re- placed that of Napoleon. The Knights of the Grand Kagle liecame Grand Oosse--, the Legionaries were tran.sformed into knights, and the numerous educa- tional institutions, founded by Napoleon forthcchil- dren and relatives of the members of the Order, were much reduced in scale. In 1837 a new military class called Ollicers was admitted. Vnder the president- ship of ],ouis Napoleon, part of the jiroperty of Louis I'hillippe, which had been reston-d to the State, was set apart as an endowment for the legion, and new regulations were made regarding the jiensions of the ditferent classes. The original form of decoration was reintroduc<'il, which under the S<cond Kmjiire was somewhat modilicd. As worn then, it consisted of a cross of ten points of white enamel edged with gold, the points connected with a wreath of laurel proper, and in the center, with an azure circle charged with the words "Napoleon III.. Kmpereurdes Fran- cais," was a head of the Emperor. The cross is en- signed by the inipirial crown of France, and worn attached toared ribbon. Tlie (iraii 1 Ollicers also. as a general thing, wore on the right breast a silver star charged with the imperial eagle. The same star was generally worn on the left breast by the Knights Grand Cross, and their cross was attached to a broad red ribbon which passes over the right shoulder. The vast numbers of this Order, and the insignifi- cance of many of the persons on whom it has been conferred, have dctracttd much from its value. The number of members in 1872 was 00,17!) ; but the law- passed in that year, that only one new member should be added for every two vacancies, reduced the mem- bership in the next five years (1877) to ;")i),208. The revenue of the College of the legion has been aug- mented by the addftion of property belonging to Louis Philippe. Out of this fund pensions are paid to those members of the Order who have served in the Army or Navy ; the civilian members receive no pension. By the existing statutes, candidates in times of peace must have served in some military or civil capacity for 20 years; exploits iu the field or severe wounds constitute a claim in time of war. Two distributions take place in the year. The nomi- nation of military persons takes place on parade, and of civil in the Courts of Justice. No ignoble punish- ment can be inflicted on a member of the Order so long as he belongs to it. To rise to a superior rank, it is indispensable, at least for natives of France, to have passed through the inferior grades. LEGS. — Human legs are not unfreqiiently borne as charges in Heraldry, sometimes naked, sometimes booted, and they may be coupled, /, e., cut evenly off, or erased, cut with ajagged edge, and that either at the thigh or below the knee. The knee when rep- resented is always embowed. A remarkable device of three legs in armor, conjoined at the thighs, and flexed in triangle, forms the insignia of the ancient Kingdom of ilan, with the appropriate motto, Quo. cunque jecerin stabit. The classical symbol of the Isl- and of Sicily (Trinacria) was formed of three naked legs similarly conjoined, and the triple-mountained Isle of Man might have awakene 1 in its Norman Sov- ereigns some recollections of their Mediterranean con(|uests. LELEGES. — An ancient and warlike people which peopled the Islands of ^-Egean, and is supposed to have been of Pelasgic origin. Authorities differ as to its exact identity, some having confused the Le- leges with the Carians, with whom thej* are said to have united in support of the Trojans. Homer rep- resents .Vltes. King of the Leleges, as having been the father-in-law of Priam. Pausanias considers Le- LENGTH OF BOEE. 196 LEH8. lex, the founder of this race, to have been a foreign- er from Eiivpt. and that he became King of Megara. According "to this authority, the grandson of Lelex, Pylus by name, founded the eity'of Pylus in Slesse- nia witli a colon_y of Megarian Leleges. Tlie last that is recorded of the Leleges is that"they joined the Carians in colonizing the west coast of Asia Minor. LENGTH OF BOEE.— The slmr rate of burning of mealed powder, which was originally used in can- non, led to the belief that the longest pieces gave the greatest ranges. In spite of much experience to the contrary, this belief was entertained, even after gun- powder received its granular form ; and several pieces were made of enormous length, with the ex- pectation of realizing corresponding ranges. A culverin was cast during the reign of Charles V. which was 58 calibers long, and fired a ball weigh- ing 36 lbs.: but on trial, "this piece was found to have actuallylc.ss range than an ordinary 12-pdr. gun. The experiment of reducing its length, by succes- sively cutting it off to .'iO, 44, and 43 calibers, was tried, and it was found that tlie range increased at each reduction until it gained 3,000 paces. That the length of the bore has an important effect on the vcfocity of the projectile, will be read- ily seen by a consideration of the forces which ac- celerate and retard its movement in the piece. The fi'-rderating force is due to the expansive effort of the inflamed powder, which reaches its maximum when tlie grains of the charge are completely con- verted into vaiior and gas. This event depends on the size of the charge, and the size and velocity of combustion of the "grains. With the same or con- stant accelerating force, the point at whicii a projec- tile reaches its maximum velocity depends on its density, or the time necessary to overcome its inertia. The retarding forces in action, are— 1st. The fric- tion of tlie projectile against the sides of the bore : this is the same for all velocities, but is very differ- ent for all the different metals ; 2d. The shocks of the projectile striking again.st the sides of the bore: these will vary with^the angle of incidence, which depends on the windage, and the extent of (he injury due to the lodgment and balloting of the projectile: 3d. The resistance offered by the col- umn of air in front of the projectile: this force will increase in a certain ratio to the velocity of the pro- jectile and length of the bore. As the accelerating force of the charge increases up to a certain point, after which it rapidly diminishes, as the space in the rear of the projectile increases, and as the retarding forces are constantly opposed to its motion it follows, that there is a point where these forces are equal, and the projectile moves with its greatest velocity: it also follows that, after the projectile passes"this point, its velocity decreases until it is finally brought to a state of rest, which would be the case in a gun of great length. The length of bore which corresponds to a maximum velocity depends upon the projectile, charge of powder, and material of wliich the piece is made; and taking the caliber as the unit of measure, it is found that Uiis length is greater for small-arms which fire leaden projectiles than for guns which fire solid iron shot, and greater for guns than for howitzers and mortars, which fire hollow projectiles. It may be l)roadly staled that with suitable powders, the following relations should exist between the charge and the length of bore, in order that there may be a profitable use of the charge: — Charge. T>ength of hnre. I the weight of shot About 20 calibers. I " ..*-.." ... " 30 " I " " " " . . . . " 85 In each case a greater length of bore would give increased velocity, but it would be oblained at the expense of aililitional weight, whicli Ciin be better ulilizid I'iscwhcre in tin- gun. See ('(tnnnn. LENGTH OF CANNON. In smoolb-bore guns, the distance between the rear of tlu base ring and face of tne muzzle, measured in a line parallel to the axis. The length of B. L. R. guns is measured from be- hind the breech to the face of the muzzle, the breech screw not being included, and the length of M. L. R. guns from the neck of the cascable to the face of the muzzle. The length of a mortar is the whole distance from face to breech, measured along the axis. The length of guns is sometimes expressed by their calibers; but this, except with smooth-bore guns, is a very inaccurate method of comparing tlie lengths of rifled guns. To say with smooth-bore guns that they were so many calibers long, wassufti- ciently accurate, because the weight of charge and shot was always in proportion ; but with rifled guns, which not only differ in this respect very greatly from smooth-bore guns, but even among themselves, to speak in this manner is very misleading. A 68-pr. gun has about the same length of bore as the 8-inch rifled gun, and is conse(iuently the same length in caliber; but, as the charge of the latter is double that of the former, the number of expansions with an 8-inch gun is only h;ilf of what it is with a 68-pr. The more scientific wa}-, is to designate the length of bores bv the number of expansions ot the charge. LENGTH OF FUSE.— This expression has reference to the period a fuse is required to burn, the time being determined by the range. Fuses (time), such as are used with M.L.R. English guns, burn a certain num- ber of seconds, viz., 5, 9, and 20 seconds respectively. The use and object of these different fuses are as fol- lows : The 5-second fuse is used with shrapnel shell (G. S. gauge), up to the 80-pr. inclusive. This fuse is very necessarj' for F. S. shrapnel shell, which must be burst with great accuracy to develop its power. The 9-second fuse is used with common and shrapnel shell (G. S. gauge), up to 80-pr. in- clusive, at long ranges. The 20-second fuse is used for common shell (G. S. gauge, garrison service), up to the 80-pr. inclusive, at long ranges. It is only used in the F. S. for high-angle firing from the 7-pr. gun. It is not available for shrapnel, as it has no powder-channels. B. L. R guns use fuses of the same lengths as above. The following will be found, as a general rule, nearly correct for getting the length of fuse with muzzle-loading rifled guns. Di- vide the number of hundreds of j-ards in the range by 2, and add 1 up to 1,000 yards, 2 up to 2,000 yards,- and so on, for length of fuse in tenths of inches. LENGTH OF PEOJECTILES.— This length necessa- rily varies in the different descriptions of projectiles for the same gun, inasmuch as it is to some extent subordinate to the consideration of bringing them all (with certain exceptions) to the same weight, but it- has been decided that a length of two calibers at least is necessary for very accurate shooting, and it is de- sirable for good Ills riia. or destructive effect on im- pact, at any but very short ranges, to have the weight great in proportion to the caliber, or in fact to the surface of resistance, and of course this is favored by an increased length of projectile. LENS. — A circular section of any transparent sub- stance, having its surfaces either both spherical, or 1 one of them plane and the other spherical. A ray of j light in passing through a lens is bent towards its I thickest part : hence lenses are either convex (thick- est in the middle) or concave (thickest at edges). The former make the rays more convergent than before, j the latter make them more divergent. The point to which the r;iys converge, or from which they diverge, ' is called a focus- principal focus when the rays are LEOPARD 197 LETEE, parallel. Tlic focus for a ronvex lens is real, i.e., the rays actually pass llirou(;li it. and form an inverted ima^e .smaller iir larger than llie object aci'ordiiuraH the ol)ject is at a distance i;reater or less than twice the |>rinripal focal lcni;lli ; liiit the imaife is iTect and maijnitied if thi^ olijcct be within the principal focal leni^th, Kor a concave lens the focus is virtual— the rays seem to conii' from it and form an erect iniuj;e smaller than thi' object. The lenses in the drawinfc, thoUi;h they may be of the same focal length, have |)eculiar propiTties which render them suitable for particular ojjtical instru- ments; thus, the convexo.plane lens has only one- fourth of the aberration of a plano-conve.v, or Iwo- tliirds of an e(|ui-convex or crpii-concave of the same focal liMiiith; but, in general, the e(pii-conve.x is the most desiral>le form, .\berralion has been to opti- cians what refrai'tion is to the astronomer, an unwel- come intruder, which s])oils his linest theories, and limits the accuracy of his results. This alierration lias, indeed, liecii destroyed by combinini; lenses of equal and opposite aberrations, as for instance, imit- inj^. by means of C!anada balsam, a dind)l(! convex with a double concave. A still belter method would be the fornuition of lenses having one side si»herical, and the iilher of an ellipsoidal or a hyjierboloidal form ; but this has not yet l]een successfully accom- plished. Convex lenses of giass, rock-salt, ice, etc., may be used as " burning-slasses," since radiant heat is refracted according to the same laws as light — the hot focus being nearly coincident with the luminous one. I'latiniuu, gold, etc.. liave been fused iu three I or four seconds liv tins means. LEOPAHD. — The leopard has been descrilx'd by ' sonu' Heralds as the issue of the pan! and lioness; and tlic circumstance that such liybrids are unjiro- : ductive, is assigned as a reason for appropriating that animal to the armorial ensigns of Abbots and f Abbesses. However, the representations of leopanis, at least in English Heraldry, are so exactly like those I of the lion passant gardant, that it has been made a question whether there is any ditference between the two, and it has more especially been a keenly- contested point whether the three animals in the royal escutcheon of England were lions or leopards, i In early tinu-s we find them blazoned in both ways, j and the true solution of the qiiirstw vexiitii seems to be, that at one period the heraldic leopard came to be considered as a mere synonym for the lion passant gardant, though the two animals were originally re- garded as distinct. In the infancy of Heraldry, be- fore distinctive aiipellations were invented for the different attitudes of animals, it was customary to draw a lion in the attitvide since called rampant, and a leopard as passant gardant. This difference of posi- tion sufficiently indicating which animal was meant, they were otherwise similarly represented, and no attempt was made toexhibit the spots of the leopard. By and by, as coats of armor were multiplied, it became necessary to difference them by varying the position of the animals depicted ; and the blazoners of those days, thinking more of attitude than of zo- ology. had recourse to a compromise in their nomen- clature. The lion was naturally supposed to be ram- pant and in profile, the leopard passant gardant. AVhen the conventional animal that might stand for either was passant and in iirotile, he was designed a lii>n-leapnrde ; and when rampant gardant he was a leopard-lionne. The king of beasts was very early assumed as his appropriate insignia by the Sovereign of England, as well as by the Sovereigns of other countries in western Europe. The lion was at first I borne singly, and his natural attitude, like that of I other lions, was considered ti> be rampant. But when \ a second and third lion were added, it became less convenient to draw them in therampant attitude, and the lions became lions-leopardeor passant, as seen in the seal of King.Iohn : a further change of position to passant gardant made them heraldically leopards. Edward III.. Edward the Black Prince, and Richard leoi)ard. Kerby was designaletl Leopard Herald in the of Henry IV.: and it was not till the middle fjf tl Nicholas reign II., speak rif their crest of the Llth century that thi' lions of England regained their original name. Though leopards, properly so called, hardly occur in English Heralilry, liaving (lassed into lions passant gardant. their beads or faces are occa- sionally borne. If no part of the neck is shown, the proper blazon is a leopard's faci' ; if a portion of the neck is lira wn. it is a leopard's head. erased orcouped, a<coriling as it is cut olf evenly or with a jagged edge. LE8GHIANS. A body of liW.OOO people, inliabitin)^ the mounliiins of western Dagheslan in the C'aucawiH (Asiatic Kussia;, and speaking various languages. For many years they maile a brave resistance to Hus- sian aggression. Siiici- IH.')!) they have been peace, alile Their religion, a niodilication of Islamism, ig (loled Murailisni, and was founded about Wid by a native I'rophet. LE8SE. A machine covered with rawhides, used as a mantelet by the ancient (ireeks for ilitfiTciit jiur- jioses. LETTER BOOK.- A book containing the entry of all otlici.il letters written by the Commanding Ollicer. or under his direction, to the jiublic departments, and to individuals, on regimental business. It contains ail alphabetical index, and a sejiarate index for the public departments. It need not be preserved be- yond three years, after it is completed, care being taken to k<(p copies of such letters as may be likely to be reipiired for reference. LETTER OF MARQUE. The commission authoriz- ing a Privateer to make war U|)on, or seize the prop- erty of another nation. It must be granted by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, or b_v the Vice Admiral of a distant Province. Vessels sailing under such commissions are commonly spoken of as Lettmnf Maniue. Making war without Letters of Marque by a private ves.^el. is piracy. Letters of Marque were abolished among European nations at the Treaty of Paris, in 185(5. LETTRE DE PASSE.— A paper which was formerly signed by the Kings of France, authorizing an offi- cer to exchange from one regiment to another. LETTEES DE CACHET.— The name given to the fa- mous warrants of imprisonment issued by the King.s of France before the Revolution. All Royal Letters {Lettres Riiyatix) were either Lettrnt Pittenten or Let- tren de Cachet. The former were open, signed by the King, and countersigned bj' a Minister, and had the great Seal of State appended. Of this kind were all ordinances, grants of privilege, etc. All Letters Pat- ent were registered. or enterinnUd by the Parliaments. These checks on arbitrary power did not exist with re- gard to Lettres de Cachet, also called Lettres Cloaen, or sealed letters, which were folded up and sealed with the King's little seal (cwliet), and by which the Royal pleasure was made known to individuals or to corporations, and the admistration of justice was often interfered with. The use of Lettres de Cachet became much more frequent after the accession of Louis XIV. than it had been before, and it was very common for jiersons to be arrested upon such a war- rant, and confined in the Bastile, or some other State Prison, where some of them remained for a very long time, and some for life, either because it was so intended, or. in other cases, becau.se they were for- gotten. The Lieutenant General of the Police kept forms of Lettres de Cachet ready, in which it was only necessary to insert the name of the individual to be arrested". Sometimes an arrestment on Lettres de Cachet was a resource to shield criminals from justice. LEVEE. — This term originally meant visits of cer- emony paid in the morning among persons of rank. It is now vmderstood to mean an assembly at Court, on state occasions, of those of Her JIajesty's subjects whoare entitled to the privilege of presenting them- selves before the Sovereign. The privilege of holding levees is also accorded to Her Majesty's representa- LETEE EN MASSE. 198 LEVELING BAB. I lives at home and abroad, to the Field Marshal Com- manding in Chief, and other hif;h Functionaries. LEVEE EN MASSE.— A general rising of the people of any country, either for the purpose of self-defense, or to "answer the intention of its governing powers. See L'vy. LEVELERS. — A party which arose in the army of the Long Parliament, "when it overawed that body, and sentthe King to Hampton Court in 1047. They determined to level all ranks, and establish an equal- ity of titles and estates througout the Kingdom. Sev- eral of the officers belonging to this party were cash- iered in 1649, and on the departure of Cromwell for Ireland, at the close of that year, they raised mviti- nies in various quarters, and were put "down liy Fair- fax with bloodshed. They were not only treated as traitors by the King, but persecuted by Cromwell as dangerous to the State. In politics their fundamental principles included: 1. The impartial authority of the If.w; 2. The legislative power of Parliament; 3. Absolute equality before the law; 4. The arming of the people for securing the enforcement of the laws, and the protection of their liberties. LEVELING. — Level is a terra applied to surfaces that are parallel to that of still water, or perpendicu- lar to the direction of the plum-line; it is also ap- plied to the instrument employed in determining the amount of variation from perfect levelness. The in- strument ordinarily is a cylindrical glass tube very slightly conve.x on one side, and so nearly filled with water, or what is better, with alcohol, that only a small bubble of air remains inside. The level is then mounted on a three or four legged stand, with its convex side upwards, and by means of a pivot and elevating screws, is made capable of assuming anj' required position. If the level be properly construct- ed, the bubble should lie exactly in the middle of the tube when the instrument is properly adjusted, and, at the same time, the line of sight of the telescope at- tached to the level should be accurately parallel to the surface of still water. In ordinary levels, this first condition is seldom seen, and, instead, two notches are made on the glass to mark the position of the two extremities of the bubble when the instru- ment is level. The tube and bubble should be of con- siderable length to insure accuracy. A very hand- some level o^ precision, constructed by Fauth and Company, United States, for the Coast and Geodetic Survey, is employed for the most exact work. It can also be used as a gradienter, the micrometer screw for raising or depressing the telescope being made with the utmost exactness, and being provid- ed with a graduated head. The telescope has an aperture of li inches, and 10 inches focus, with two astronomical eye-pieces, magnifying 40 and 60 times respectively. Tlie pivot-rings are of phosphor-bronze, and rest on agate. The striding level is chambered, and one division] equals 3 seconds of arc. The hor- izontal circle, of five inches diameter, divided on silver, reads to 30 seconds ; the center is of steel ; clamp and spring tangent motion. Custom has established the measurement of abso- lute levels from the average surface of the ocean — the mean between high and low water — as the zero level ; when reckoned from any other zero level, they are relative levels. Leveling, or finding the difference l)etween tlie levels of two or more points. is designated by the term hypsometry in geodesy. ThiTc are three ))rinci])al and indepenileut melliods of leveling. Tlie first depends upon the fact that the surf;iees of lluids at rest are perpendiculiir to the dircclion of the force of gravity ; upon this is l)ased the common level. In th(^ second method, trigono- metrical leveling, we must know, first, the zenith distance, or the angle between the zenith of the sta- tion and the object whose height we wish to find (making a correction for the effect of refraction.) and. second, we nuist know or accurately (lelermine the horizontal distance from the sl.'itiou to the oli- jccl determined usually by triaugulation. In accu- rate work a careful adjustment of the theodolite, the instrument used in this method, is necess;iry. Local attraction sometimes causes a deflection of the pluml)-line, thus affecting measurements of ze- nith distance. Atmospheric refraction is a more important element of uncertainty, for which reason the horizontal distance should not exceed 12 or 15 miles. The coefficient of refraction is irregular, and varies with the temperature and pressure of the at- mosphere ; it is most steady and nearest its mini- mum between 10 a. m. and 2 p.m. From the above data, the difference in level is easily calculated. The weight of the atmosphere bearing upon a unit of surface diminishes in a geometrical progression as the heights increase in an arithmetical progression ; therefore, by the third method, heights are deter- mined with the barometer. Physicists have con- structed numerous formula; embodying tlie law of Mariotte, and introducing corrections for tempera- ture, expansion of air. and the effect of latitude and height upon the action of gravity. It is believed that considerable accuracy can be attained by this method, particularly if the annual means of temper- ature and pressure for the stations whose difference in level it is desired to find are substituted in the formulae. Aneroid barometers have Iieen graduated to indicate heights up to 12.000 or 16,000 feet; they give only approximate results. If a delicate appara- tus for determining the boiling point of water be used, the corresponding heights taken from a table will give the reading of the barometer at that point, so that the instrument itself can be dispensed with. This depends upon the fact that the boiling-point of water decreases as the pressure of the atmosphere becomes less. Ses Theodulite and Y Level. LEVELING BAR.— A square steel bar with par- allel faces, somewhat longer than the distance be- tween the sights on the largest gun. The rear end is bevelled at an angle of 60°, the angle at which the sight is placed. It has a central line marked on it throughout its length, on the under side, and s s along the bevelled end. It has also marked on its sides, near the forward end, the distance at which the sights should be placed for each class of gun. It is also fitted with screws for bringing it to a level. The leveling-bar being laid on the front sight, and its bevelled end taking against the rear sight-liar, bring it to a level with the spirit-level and screws. This will give the true guide for angle of rear sight- bar, and the lafter's proper plane. As soon as rear sight-box is fitted, bore hole for same through rear sight-mass. The hole is bored with the rear sight- box (in. and the latter is kept down in its place by a sling around cascabel set up by a handspike. The rear sight being fitted true as to the leveling- bar, again level the arm of sighting-tompion, and streteii the thread back over the gun, this time bring- ing the thread to the exact middle of the rear sight- notch. Now, in theory, the thread ought to come directly over the inilal pointof the base-ring, and over the mark already accurately laid off on the front sighl-mass; but ))ractically this is never the case, as it is aliiiiist imiKMsililf to fit a rear sight-box so true as to bring the middle of the sight-notch in the ex- act line of sight already laid off. It will lie found, >ipon stretching the thread the second time, that it will fall a trifle one side or other of the inilial point on base-ring. So. virtually, it is necessary again to lay ofT a line of sight . Willi a measure take the distancethat the Ihrciid fulls to one side of the initial |ioinl on base-ring. Take this same ilistiince thatthu thread is out, and lay it off horizontally on the cross- LEVELING RODS. I'.l'.l LEVELING BODS. li.ir iif the v<rii<iil sightinR-arm. Of course, when llic thread is also mov('<l tliiH distunrc on tlio siglit- ini; iinii, the thread will fall I he same dislunce to one Hide on the front sitrlit-iiiiiss ; Iherefori' mark this last point where the thread falls over the front si;:lit-mass. and thus is estalilished the second and final line of siLcht. Also mark the point where the thread now crosses the base-rinj;, and this is the final initial point to be marked for a full due on the liase-rinir. Where the thread crcjsses the front sight- mass, hold the front sight itself directly under the thread. When the front sight mass was lined out. at the same time with the rear sighl-nniss a regula- tion distance was given from base-ring to center of front sight -mass, and from this central iioint the mass was marked cml and cut. See dniri'iii Sig/iti. LEVELING RODS The various Icveling-rods used by American engineers are made 'n two or more part.s, which slide from each other as they are ex tended iu use. tliese depressed surfaocH arc painted white, divided into feet, tenths and hundredths of a foot, and the leet and tenths figured. The front piece reads from the bottom 'ipward to seven feet, the foot figures being red and an inch long, the tenth figures black, and eight-tenths (if an inch long. When the roil is ex- tended to full length the front surface of the rear half rea<ls from seven to thirteen feet, and the whole front of the rod is fiiri.red continuously and becomes a self-reading rod thirteen feet long. The l)ack sur- face of the' rear half is figured from seven to thirteen feet, reading from the top down ; it lias a scale also by which 'he rod is read to two-hundredths of afoot as it is extended. The larL'et is round and made of sheet-brass raised on the perimeter to increase its strength, and is paint<-d in white and red quadrants ; it has also a scale on its chamfered edge, reading to two-hundredths of a foot. When a level of less tlian seven feet is (h'sired the target is moved up or down the front surfaee. the rod being closed together and ^ u \<^ The PJtilndelphia rod. plicwn in Fig. 1, is made of I two strips of cherry, each about lliree-fourths of an inch thick by one and a half inches wide and .seven feet long, connected together by two metal sleeves, the npiwr one of which lias a clamping-screw for fas- tening the two parts together when the rod is raised for a liieher reading than seven feet. Both sides of the back strip and one side of the front one are plan- ed out one-sixteenth of an inch below the edges ; l^ Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. clamped ; but when a greater height is required the target is fixed at seven feet and the rear half slid out. the scale on the back giving the readings like those of the target to twtvhundredths of a foot. The Troy rod shown in Fig 2. is a self reading rod up to six feet, or can be read by a vernier on the rear piece to thousandths of a foot as usual. It has two targets as shown, both fastened to the front half of the rod, the lower one having its center LEVEB. 200 LEVEK. line just three-tenths above the end, and the target exactly six feet above the lower. There is a clamp- ing piece with screw on the back of the rod below the target, by which the two parts are clamped to- gether when desired. The face of the front piece is recessed like that of the Philadelphia Rod, painted white, divided to feet and hundredths, and figured as represented. The side of the front half is divided to feet and hundredths, read by a vernier on the top of the rear lialf to thousandtlis, and figured from the top downwards, beginning with three-tenths, that being the lieight of the center line of the lower target. When a level of less than six feet is taken on the rod the observation is made by the lower target, and the reading is direct as given on the side ; but when a greater height is taken the upper target is sighted upon, and si.x feet added to the reading on the side in every instance, and thus a reading up to twelve feet readily obtained. TheiV^cw) York ?'«(f is made of maple, in two pieces, sliding one from the other, the same end being always held on the ground, and the graduations start- ing from that point. The graduations are made to tenths and hundredths of a foot, the tenth figures be- ing black, and the feet marked with a large red figure. The front surface, on which the target moves, reads to about six and a half feet ; when a greater height is required, the horizontal line of the target is fixed at the highest graduation, and the upper half of the rod, carrying the target, is moved out of the lower, the reading being now obtained by a vernier on the graduated side, up to an elevation of twelve feet. The mountings of this rod are differently made by different manufacturers. We shall give those which are mostly used. The target is round, made of thick sheet brass, having, to strengthen it still more, a raised rim, which also protects the paint from being defaced. The target moves verj- easily on the rod, being kept in any desired position by the friction of the two flat plates of brass which are pressed firm- ly against the two alternate side?, by small spiral springs, working in little thimbles attached to the baud which surrounds the rod. There is also a clamp-screw on the back, by which it may be se- curely fastened to any part of the rod. The face of the target is divided into quadrants, by horizontal and vertical diameters, which are also tlie boundaries of the alternate colors with which it is painted. The colors usually preferred are white and red ; some- times white and black. The opening in the face of the target is a little more than a tenth of a foot long, so that in any position a tenth, or a foot figure, can be seen on the surface of the rod. The riglit edge of the opening is chamfered, and divided into ten e- qual spaces, corresponding with nine-hundredths on the rod ; the divisions start from the horizontal line which separates the colors of the face. The vernier, like tliat on the other side of the rod, reads to thou- sandths of a foot. The clamp, which is screwed fast to the lower end of the upper slidiug-piece, has a movable part which can be brought by the clamp- screw firmly against the front surface of the lower half of the rod, and thus the two parts immovably fastened to each other without marring the divided face of the rod. Fig. 3 represents another form of this favorite rod, introduced by the Messrs. Gurley, United States. In this rod, a third or fovirth piece is added to the two of the old rod, giving thus a rod of greater length, anil at the same time making it more compact an<l portable. The divisions, the verniers, readings, and target are the same as those of the old rod. Tliere are two varieties of the three- parted rod, one sliding to allow a reading of thir- teen feet and the other extending to fourteen feet ; the first when closed is only five feet long, the last but a little over five and a half feet. The four-parted rod is, when closed, but five feet in length, but can be extenilcd to sixteen feet. The ArckiUn'tif^ rod is a very light and simple sliding rod made of maple, in two parts, each seven- eights of an inch square, and wlien closed, about five feet six inches long. As shown in Fig. 4, the front half is divided on two sides to feet, tenths, and hundredths, reading by verniers on the target and side to thousandths of a foot. The target is smaller than those of the rods already described, but of suffi- cient size, and moves on the closed rod when levels 1 of less than five feet and four-tenths are to be taken. When a greater height is needed the target is fixed ! at the highest division, the front half carried above 1 the rear part and clamped at any point desired, by the clamp-screw, as shown, the height being now read off by the vernier on the lower half up to ten feet. This rod is adapted for use with any level, and is so light and efficient that we believe it will come into general use ; when it is to be used by an architect, the divisions are made in feet, inches and sixteenths, and no verniers are then required. The Bontonrod, shown in Fig. 5, is formed of two pieces of light mahoganj' or baywood, each about six feet long, and sliding easily by each other in either direction. One side is furnished with a clamping piece and screw, and a small vernier at each end, the other or front piece carries the target and has on each side a strip of satinwood inlaid upon which divisions of feet, tenths and hundredths are marked and figured. The target is a rectangle of wood fastened on the front half, is painted black and white, and has its middle line just three-tenths above the end of the rod. Each tenth of the rod is figured decimally in three figures or to hundredths of a foot, and by the verniers is read to thousandths. The target being fixed, when any hieght is taken above six feet, the rod is changed end for end, and the divisions read by the other verniers ; the height to which the rod can be extended being a little over eleven feet. This kind of rod is very convenient from its great lightness, but the parts are made too frail to endure the rough usage of this countr)-, and therefore American engineers have generally given the preference to others, made heavier and more substantial. In addition to the above, there is what is termed a Telemeter rod, formed of two pieces of pine, each three and a half inches in width, seven-eighths of an inch thick, and six feet long. Both sides of the rods are painted white, the inner surfaces Deing also re- cessed to protect the divided surface, with divisions in black of feet, tenths, and lumdredths, and figured, the feet in red, the tenths in black. The two pieces are connected by a strong iron hinge, and folded in transportation; when in use, they are opened, laid flat, and joined firmly in line by a wooden bar, about eighteen inches long, held to each piece by two strong brass screws, which enter into metal sockets secured in each part of tlie rod. This is a self-read- ing rod. and is often used in connection with tlie micrometer wires to ascertain distances by a simple observation in the same manner as the Philadelphia rod. A rod of English make Is sometimes used, in which the two smaller upper parts slide out of a larg- er and lower one which answers as a case ; when closed the rod is five feet long, and extends to four- teen feet. It is divided on a recessed face to feet, tenths, and hundredths, the divisions being painted and figured like those of the Philadelphia and Tele- meter rods. This is also furnished with divisions in meters, decimeters, and in centimeters ; length when closed one and a half meters, and sliding out to four meters. See T Level. LEVER. — This, the most simple and common, but, at the same time, most important of the seven mechanical powers, consists of an inflexible rod — straight or bent, as the case may be— supported at some jioint of its length on a prop which is called {\\v fulrrum, and having the ireight to be moved I'nd power to move it applied at other two points. In the accompanying illustrations, AB is the lever, F the lETEE HITCH. 201 LEVER SHEARING MACHINE. fulcrum, A mid 15 llic pi)int« of iinplifntion of P and W, the power (or |)rcsHurc; mid wci^lil rcHpiclivi'ly. If l\u: iiniiH Al*' mid 15K lie c-(iiiiil. tin- powrr I' mid the weight VV iiiu.Mt also lie e(|iml to produce e(|iii- libriuiii ; if the ariii of the power, A F, be loiii<c-r than the arm of the weii^ht, HF, thi'ii, to produee cquilihriuiii, the power I' must he less than the weifilit W. and I'/w vrmii ; if AF lie donhle the lenjjtli of liF, then 1', to produce e(|uilil>rinni, must he half of W ; and, i^eneriiUy, as is hIkjuii in the ele- mentary treatises on mechanics, t/ii' jioirir and wright <tre, in the inverm: ratio of tkcir dinlnnceK from tlie ful- crum. This is equally true for straight or bent levers; but the distanc(! of the power and weight from the fulcrum is not, in all cases, the actual length of the amis, hut the lengths of perpendiculars from the fulcrum upon the directions of the jiower and weight. The principle holds good, whatever be the relative jiositions of the power, weight and fulcrum ; and as there can be three dilTerent ar- rangements of these, we thus obtain what are called " the three kinds of levers." Tlie firxt *mrf(Fig. 1) is •where the fulcrum is placed between the power and the weight ; the balance, spade (wdien used for raising earth), the see-saw, etc., are examples of this; and scissors and pincers are examples of double levers Levers of the third kind are used when velocity, or a large e.xlent of motion, is required at the expeiwc of power, and we conse(piiMitly lind this form nnicli used in the structure of the lindis of aninuils. The structure of the human arm fFig. 4;, is a very good example of this; the fulcrum is the HOcket(^C>of llic elbow-joint, th<^ power is tin: strong muscle ftlie bi. I ce/m), which passes down the front of the /lur/i^nin, and is attached at A to the rot/ii/M ("as shown;; the weight is the weight of the ffjrearm, together with anything hild in the hand, the two being supposed to be conibini'd into one weight acting at Ji. IJy this arrangement, a large extent of motion is gained, by a slight contraction or extension of the mu.scle. 1 When a large mechanical advantage is required, this may be obtained, without an inordinate length- ening of the lever, b)' means of a very simjile com- bination of them. Here the levers have their arms in the ratio of 3 to 1, and a little consideration will make it plain that a power (P) of 1 lb. will bal- ance a weight of 27 lbs. ; but in this instance the ' particular (lefect of the lever as a mechanical power shows itself prominently ; for if the weight has to be lifted 2 inches, the power re()uires to be depressed (2x27 or) .'54 inches; and. as the extent of the power i cannot be largely increased without inconvenience, ^T ITe Fig. ; Fig. 2. Fig. .3. of the same kind. Levers of the .tei-orui f^ind (F\tr. 2) are those iu which the weight is between the power and the fulcrum ; examples of this are the crowbar, when used for pushing weights forward, the oar — the water being the fulcrum, and the row-lock the point of applicaticm of the weight — and the wheel- barrow ; and of double-levers of this kind we have the nut-crackers as an ordinary example. In lev- ers of [t>ie third kind (Fig. 3). the power is always between the weight and the fulcrum. Fishing-rods, whips, umbrellas, and most of the instruments used with the hand alone, are levers of the third kind: and shears, tongs, etc.. are examples of double levers of this class. It is evident that, to produce equilibrium in levers of the first kind, the power may, according to the ratio of the lengths of the arm, be either greater or less than the weight ; in the second kind it must always be less ; and in the third kind, always greater. This is expressed in technical phrase b)' saying that the first kind of lever gives a mechanical aricnntfige or disndeantage, the second alwa)-s gives a mechanical advantage, and the third always a me- chanical disadvantage. Levers of the second kind, ■ having the same mechanical advantage, are, when Vvj.. I. worked by man. twice as powerful as those of the first kind, because in one case he uses his muscular force as the power, in the other case only his weight. the advantages of this machine are confined within narrow limits. See Mechanicol Powers. LEVEB HITCH.— A knot similar to the drag-rope knot or woolding-stick hitch. It is used for tight- ening ropes, but instead of turning the woolding- stick round, it is applied on the principle of the lever. LEVER JACK. — An adjustable fulcrum with a lever fifteen feet long, used chiefly for greasing the axles of traveling carriages. It consists of a wooden stand, made of two uprights and framed into one bed. Two lever-plates (cast brass) are fastened to the large end of the lever by screws, and prevent the lever from slipping on the fulcrum-pin. See Mechanical Ma- neiivfr.1. LEVEE-RING,— A wrought-iron ring, fitting on the circular part of the breech-screw of the Armstrong gun. It is kept in place by two split keep-pins which work in a groove round the breech-screws. The ob- ject of the lever and tappet arrangement is to give a powerful momentum in tightening up and releasing the vent-piece from its seat in the gun. LEVER SHEARING-MACHINE.— It is evident that in all punching or shearing-machines, driven by a belt, there must be a conversion of the rotary motion of the driving pulley into a reciprocating motion of the punch or shear blade. To obtain the requisite power, many revolutions of the driving pulley must occur to one stroke of the punch. In crank machines, the whole pressure of the cut comes directly on the crank pin, which must perform a good portion of its revolution under this heavy strain at whatever speed the crank shaft mat' be running. This limits the power of such machines to the practical pressure sustainable on a given surface at a given velocity. When the vertical slide which carries the punch "is operated by a lever, the .sliding motion of the part of the lever in contact with the vertical slide is al- most inappreciable : the pressure extends over large surface with little motion; so with the fulcrum pins over which the lever works ; with very little and very slow motion of these parts much pressure is admissible, while the long end of the lever is operat- LEVER SHEERS. 202 LEWIS-EICE HAOAZHTE-OUN. ed upon by the lifting cam acting under compara- tively light pressure. Added to this economical use of power, with the very greatly diminished friction- al resistance, comes the possibility of so shaping j the cam which is designed to lift the lever as to cause the motion of the punch to be about uniform through the whole length of the stroke, to return quickly, and then to dwell during any required por- tion of the revolu'.ion of the cam-shaft at the top of \ its stroke. Therefore, in comparing machines using the crank or eccentric with those employing the lev- el and cam, if in both cases the same pulley, belt, and gearing is used, running at the same rate of speed, and making the same length of stroke at the 1 punch or shear blade, it will be found that there is a capability of punching larger holes or of shearing thicker plates when the cam and lever are used than ; when the crank or eccentric is employea. On the ^ lever punch and shears is arranged a four-toothed clutch on the main shaft, to be used in stopping and starting the plunger. This admits of quicker work than w^ien the cam is shifted on the main shaft. The tail end of the lever is made to drop on a block of wood held in a box at the back of the machine, and the adjustment of the length of block to limit the fall of the lever enables the stroke to be controlled, and in thin metal to carry the punch close to the plate with less drop than when thicker iron is being punched, so obtaining a longer dwell for setting the plate. In the Seller's machine, the heavy wrought iron lever in the housing easily raises the blade by its own gravity, and the cam which moves tlie lever is so shaped as to cause the motion of the blade in cutting to be at a uniform rate of speed. Returning quickly it dwells for some time at the top of its stroke. thus giving ample time to shift the plate for the next cut. In the earlier machines, the lifting-cam ' was moved sideways from under the lever when it was desired to stop the machine. This could only be done when the cam was free from pressure at the end of the stroke, and in starting again the cam could only be pushed in when in proper position in regard to the lever. The cam is now kept in posi- tion under the lever and is attached to or detached from the shaft by means of a four-toothed clutch, which, while it can only be withdrawn at the com- pletion of the stroke, yet at the same time will permit the starting again to be effected in any one of four positions of the driving wheel in relation to the cam, thus saving much time, and also pre- venting the damage to the machine likely to arise from working the cam only partly under the lever. Tlie shear blades are placed so as to he right for tiimming edges of plates, not for cutting bar iron. Operated by a heavy wrought iron lever within the housing. Independent stop motion by means of a four-toothed clutch in the housing. Blades rest open when clutch is out of gear, vertical motion of blades li inches. Can be used to shear plates of iron ^1 inch thick. Fast and loose pulleys on the machine 36 inches diameter, 7 inches face, which should make 114 revolutions per minute. See Angle Shenring-inachine,Power Shears, and Shearing- ma~hin.f. LEVER SHEERS. — A contrivance consisting of a long. heavy spar, with one end resting on the ground, and the other supported on two short spars, crossed an<l securely lashed together. The butt-end of the spar is heavily weighted, and is usually sunk a little in the ground, resting against a board or slab of wood, to prevent the earth from yielding to the pres- sure of the force acting in a direction parallel to the spar, and tending to force the end of it into the ground. A rear guy is also employed, to prevent short cross spars, or sheers, from falling to the front. The pressure of the spar or lever at the point where the sliort spars cross prevents them from incliningto the rear. LEVET.— A blast of ft trumpet— probably that by whicn soldiers are called in the morning. This term is now obsolete. LEVIGATION.— A process of the laboratory for con- verting different substances to a smooth, uniform powder by grinding them between two Hat surfaces. The same process essentially is used in grinding paints, printing inks, and drugs. LEVY. — Thecompulsory raising of a lot of troops from any specified class in the comnumity for pur- poses of general defense or offense. When a country is in danger of instant invasion, a levee en matue is sometimes made — i. e., every man capable of bearing arms is required to contribute in person towards the common defense. On less urgent occasions, the levy may be restricted to a class, as to men between 18 and 40 years of age. At other times, a levy of so many thousand men of a certain age is decreed, and the districts concerned draw them by lot from among their eligible male population. In armies sustained by volunteering, the levy, which is a remnant of bar- barous times, is unnecessra}' ; but the system was frequently resorted to in France before" the enact- ment of the Conscription Laws: 1862 has shown great levies in the United States of America ; and in any country where great danger is apparent, and volunteers are not suftioiently numerous, recour.se must at all times,be had to a levy of the people. LEWIS. — An ingenious mode of lifting heavy weights. It consists of three pieces of iron, two of them wedge-shaped, and the third straight, which, when placed together with the straight piece in the center, form a dove-tailed wedge. Tlie wedge is in- serted in a hole of similar shape, cut either in stone or in metal. To the end of each of the pieces a rin^is attached, throughw hich a horse-shoe ring is passed, and to this the rope or chain is securely fastened. LEWIS HOLES.— The holes, in which the shell- hooks work in the 10-inch and 13-inch, mortar shells. They take the place of the early liign, which are ob- jectionable because of being knbced off in trans- port or piling. LEWIS-RICE MAGAZINE-GUN.— This gun belongs to that system in which a fixed chamber is closed by a moveable breech-block rotating about a horizon- tal axis at right angles to and below the axis of the barrel ; in front, the lock is conaled. The breech- block is operated by a lever, and is locked by a cam. The cam is held in position by a spring, one branch of which serves as a trigger-spring. The breech-block is simply a box containing the firing- pin, a bell crank lever, one|arm of which controls the motion of the firing-pin, the mainspring, trigger- spring, etc. The box is closed by a cover, in a slot in which is situated the extractor. In operating the lever, so as to open the block, a point bears against the surface of the cam, presses it forward, and un- locks the piece. During the unlocking, the lower arm of the firing-pin lever is so moved by the nose of the cocking-lever as to cause the upper arm to retract the firing-pin. When the lever has been rotated suffi- ciently, the trigger-spring causes the nose of the trig- ger to enter the full-cock notch ; at the same time the shoulder of the cam rides over the point of the trigger. The piece cannot then be fired until the cam isin its seat. The extractor is a flat blade, turning on the same axis as the lever, and operated by the shoulders of the slot in the cover of the breech-block in which it lies. The magazine is in the butt-stock. It is lomied at the siile, near the rear, by first withdrawing the magazine-tube nearly its full length. When the breech-block is opened, a cartridge is forced by the magazine spring against the cartridge-stop As the block is closed, the stop descends, due to its arm working in a slot on the in- ner surface of the receiver, and the cartridge enters the chamber. A fork on the upper surface of the receiver prevents the cartriilge being thrown out when tlie block is eloped, and also guides it into the chamber. A cut-off is situated on the left side of LETDEN JAB. 203 LEYDEN JAB. the receiver. It may be ho set us to [irevenl the breecli-bloek openiiif!; fur enough to ill low (■iirl riders to feed from the miin'"'n''- 1 ''e picc'e miiy tlii'ii he iiHed us a sinj^le-loader. As a manuzine niiii. li mo. tioiis are neeessary lo operate il, viz.: opened, elo.sed, tired. Ah a siiip;le-loailiT, 4 motions are neeessary, viz. : o]iened, loailed, clcjsed, tired. This t;un carries .*) earljid^^cs in tin- miiLCaziDr and one in the eliamhrr. If the breech-bloek be opened, liie six cartridges mtiy be loaded directly in the muguzitie. See Maga- tiiif-(/i/n. LEYDEN JAR.- The ))rinclple of tlie Leyden jar was discovered by Musciiciibroecli at licyden in 17-4.'), In'nce its name, (iralath. in (ierniany, 174(>, fonliinied the clcctri(t lialtcrv liy combininfj; a series of jars; and tinally I)rs. Watson ami Bevis, by covering the ontside of tlie jar with tinfoil, lironght it to the complete stale in whieli we now have it. The mouth of the jar is generally closed by a wooden stopper, through wliicli passes the stalk of a brass knol> or ball, surmounting the whole. The couneetion between the inside coating and the hall is completed by a cliain e.vtending from the stalk to the bottom of the jar. If this jar be jiut on au insulating stool, so that sparks can pass from the prime conductor of a machine to the knob, when tlie jar is thus insulated, one or two sparks pass, an<l then tlie charge seems complete, for no more sparks will follow, though tlie action of the machine is continued; or if they do, they are immediately dissipated from the knob in a brush discharge. If then, however, the knuckle of the experimenter lie brought near the outer coating, sparks begin again to pass freel}' ; and for every spark of + electricity that passes between the machine and the knob, a corresponding spark of the same name at once passes between the knuckle and the outer coating. This continues for some appreciable lime, and then the jar apjiears to be again completely saturated. It is now said to be fully charged. The outside of the jar can. in this slate, be handled freely, and if it be still on the insulating stool, So may also the knob, although when the hand first approaches, it receives a slight spark. But if, when the e.\|)erimenter lias one hand on the outer coating, lie bring the other hand lo the knob, before it can reach it, a siraighl. highly brilliant spark passes between the knob and his hand, and he experiences a shock of great vio. lence. If he try the same Ihiug again, a feeble spark and shock again ensue, and the jar is now thorough- ly discharged. As it is hi.glily inconvenient, if not dangerous, to discharge the jar through tlie body, discharging totign are used for that purpose, which consist of two brass arms ending in balls, and moved on a hinge by glass handles. A very instructive experiment may be made wlien the coatings are fitted to the jar so as to be removed at pleasure. After the jar is charged, it is put on an insulating stand. The inside coating is lifted out by the knob, and a slight spark is got by the hand in doing so. The jar is now taken up by one hand, and the outside coating is removed l)y tlie other, and, as before, another feeble spark is got. The whole is now built up in inverse order and discharg- ed, when the spark is nearly as brilliant as when it is discharged at once witliout such dissection. From this it may be positively argued that the charge of the jar lies in the glass and not in the coat- ings, and that it is very likely that in all cases it is in the dielectric the charge resides ; that the con- ductors, whicli are usuallj- looked upon as the seat of the charge, are merely tlie limiting surfaces or exponents of it. A portion of the total charge may reside in them, but no more than is found on two similar contiguous dielectric surfaces. Taking this for granted, it is easy to explain the action of the Leyden jar. The electrifying power of the charging machine is exerted on two dielectrics— the glass ol the jar and the air — the external limit in both cases being tlie surrounding objects which constitute the ground. The action on the air through the inside coaling or the knoli is ipiile similar to what we find in the case of any body lo be charged. Tlie action through the glass is peculiar, because we are shut out from it. The limits of this action are the inside KurfaccH of the inside and outside coatingH. The air charge we participiale in as we move in it. \Ve are, however, ipiite ixt<rnal lo the action on the glass; but if we coulil move about in il between the coatings, w(' should find things there exactly similar, 80 far, at least, as kind of action is c<jncerned, lo what we find in charged air. Seeing thai the glass of th(? jar is a thin and good dielectric, and the air much thicker and more difhcull to polarity, the chargitig power of the macliine is exi-rtcd for the most ]iart in the glass, the [lolarilication in the air being comiiaratively slight. A.ssuming electricity to be a polarilication of molecules, the electricity of the jar resides Ihus in glass, and to a much less extent in the air. The potential at the inner coaling is the same as that at the knob, for any connected system of good conductors must be at the same potential. We judge of potential bjjihe air charge, and thus we take the potential at the knob as the ])oteiilial at the inner coating. The spark got from the knob of the insulat- ed jar is small compared with that of the charging machine, and as sparking distance is, generally speak- ing, proportional lo potential, the potentialof the jar is much below that of the charging machine. Thus, a Lei/dtn jar is a (•ontrivaniu- fur acfumnlating large, quanlitieH of eUctriciti/ at a lor potential. The thin- ner the glass, the greater will be llie accumulation of electricity, but the feebler will he the potential of the jar. When the electric field is limited, as in the glass of the Leyden jar, it is s(mietimes said to be bound, as distinguished from the fref charge of an ordinary air field. When the knob of Iheinsu- lated jar is touched, a spark is got. and if the finger be then removed to the outer coating, another spark, but of the ojiposite name, is obtained, and the knob is again prepared to give a spark, and this alternat- ing process may be continued till the jar is emptied. Wien the inner coaling is touched, the outer coat- ing becomes insulated, and Ihus the potential alwaj-s shifts to the insulated coating with an opposite name lo what it had before, tach spark olitained by the finger in going from one to the other con- sumes so much of the energy of the charge, and so the potential is gradually lowered. Whcnlhe jar is discharged liy the tongs, the charge of the dielectric glass is thrown into the dielectric air. The particles of the glass, though more easily electrified than those of air. having a higher specific inductive ca- pacity, offer a much greater resistance to discharge than those of air. At the same stase of polarilica- tion, the air gives way, while the ^lass still keeps polaritied. I fence a jar with glass "only a fraction of an inch in thickness can give rise lo an air-spark of several inches; besides this, the charge in the glass is somewhat uniformly distribuledT In the air, with the tongs, the force of the charge is con- centrated on a certain region of il, and the breakin<T down of the conductive resistance of the air is more easily effected. The feelile residual spark from the jar, after the first main discharge, is due to what is called electric absorption. Somehow, the electricity given to a dielectric is not immediately available when a circuit is offered, the dielectric taking some lime to recover itself. This is observable in all solid dielectrics, but no trace of such action is found in air. The sparking or xtriking distance of the jar in- dicates the potendal of the charge. The quantity may be measured by the turns of the charging machine. It is found that when the same quantity is given ;io two jars, one double the other in point of covered surface, the striking distance of the large jar Js only half that of the small jar ; and that to charge the large one so as lo obtain the same length of spark, twice the quantity must be given. If two jars be taken of the same size, and one of them be UBEETY, EQUALITT, FRATEENITT. 204 LIEUTENANT COLONEL. charged, we finil that, on connecting their outside coatings, a spark passes wlieu their l^nobs are brought together, and that, wlien now the double jar is discharged, the spark is onlj' half as long as was got from the single jar discharged directly. The quantity discharged finally in the double jar was the same as in the single jar. but the potential was half. The spark occurring at the participation of the charge accounts for the loss of potential For great power, large surfaces are necessary. This can be obtained either by constructing a large jar, or by uniting several small jars together so as to act as one. The latter method is preferable, as we can vary the surface according to the number of jars employed. A combination of small jars united together as one is called an electric battery. A very convenient form of electric battery is shown in the drawing. The knobs of each jar communicate with a large central one b_y arms of brass moving on hinges, and the outer coatings are put in a conducting connection, by being placed on an insulated stool covered with tinfoil. The interior coatings are conveniently charged by a long projecting arm from the central knob, and the exterior ones by connecting the stool with the knob of the unit jar. or by a wire with the ground. Any jar can be throvvn out of action by throwing back its arm. See Elertririty. LIBERTY, EQUALITT, FRATERNITT.— For nearly a century, these three words have been accepted as embodying the creed of those who maintain the rightful supremacy of the numerical majority; and they have been sounded as the watchword of that formidable movement known on the Continent of Europe as "Tlie Revolution." of which the object was to assert this supremacy by overturning the existing fabric of society. When contrasted with the demo- cratic creed of antiquity, the only novelty which the modern symbol exhibits consists in the proclamation of " Equality ;" for " Liberty," in the widest sense — meaning thereby the ultimate extension of political power to the whole body of the citizens — has been the object of the most enlightened politicians of all ages; whilst the protest in favor of " Fraternity " is a mere sentimental commonplace, about the specu- lative soundness of which there never was any real difTerence of opinions. The first state document of importance in which the doctrine of " Equality" is set forth is the Ameri- can Declaration of Independence of July 4,17T(). This celebrated document proceeds thus: "We hold these truths to be self-evident : that all Men are mat- ed Kpial; that they are endowed by their Creator witli certain unalienable riglits; that among tliese are life, liberty, and the |)ursuit of happiness," etc. This, as we liave said, was in 177G. Hut as a specu- lative opinion, the doctrine of "Equality" had been proilaimed by Hobbes more than a century before, and from his lime down to the period at which it thus received practical recognition, it had never been lost sight of by the class of speculiilors to which Ilobbes belonged. Under different forms and from various points of view, it had been reasserted by Spinosa, Rousseau. Helvetius, and ultimately by ^ the class of political declaimers whose works were simultaneous with the American, and immediately proceeded the French Revolution. j LIBRARIES — Military Libraries are either garrison I or regimental. The former comprise large collec tions of books, with newspapers, games, lectures, etc., j in commodious rooms, and are Intended to win sol- diers from the gin-shops and vicious haunts which I are ever prevalent in garrison towns. Attempts liave been made to provide the soldiers with books, both for instruction and amusement; but statistics prove that the men patronize few liesides fiction and trav- els, and religious books, not at all. Regimental Libraries are smaller collections of books, which ac- company regiments in their various movements. The charge'for Military Libraries in the British Army wasT for 1870-77. the sum of £4,085. LICORNE — An improved howitzer introduced by tlie Russians in 1777. Short, light cannon intented to throw large projectiles with comparative small charges were used by the Dutch in the early part of the 17th century and came into almo.st general use during that century, prior to the introduction of the lii'itrne. See Ilmmtzer. LICTORS.— Among the Romans, the official attend- ants of Magistrates of the highest rank. They car- ried the fnsce» before the Magistrates, clearing the way, and enforcing the use of the appropriate niarks of respect. It was their duty to execute the punish- ments ordered by the Magistrates, such as scourging with rods and beheading. They were originally free men of the plebeian order, [and not till the time of Tacitus could the office beheld by freedmen. Slaves were never appointed Lictors. LISE. — A warlike machine which was formerly used to throw large stones against a fortified place, or upon an enemy. LIEUTENANT.— A term applied to a variety of offi- ces of a representative kind. Thus, in military mat- ters, a Lieutenant-general personates with each div- ision of an army the Geueral-in-Chief. A Lieutenant- ^ofonf? commands a battalion for a Colonel in the latter's absence. But the title Lieutenant, without qualification, denotes the second officer and deputy, or locum-t^nen/i, of the Captain in each company of cavalry or infantry. A Lieutenant in the British Foot- Guards ranks as Captain inthe Army, and exchanges with a Captain in another regiment. Captain-lieu- tenant, an obsolete rank, was the .subaltern who com- manded the " Colonel's Company " in each regiment. — A Secand Lieutenant is the junior subaltern of a company, and corresponds to what formerly was an Ensign. In the United States Army and Marine Ser- vice, the Lieutenant ranks next after the Captain and there are two grades. First and Second Lieutenant, the latter being the lowest commissioned officer. These grades rank with those of Master and Ensign in the United States Navy. In the British Navy, Lieutenant is a misnomer in the case of the officer bearing that title. His func- tions in all respects correspond to those of a Captain in the Army, with whom he ranks, and with whom he also nearly matches in regard to pa)'. A Lieuten- ant's full pay is 10s. a day ; and his half-pay ranges, according to length of services, from 4s. to 7s. a day. Six jears' service afloat are requisite to qualify an officer for the rank of Lieutenant, and the candidate has also to pass a satisfactory examination in sea- manship and general professional knowledge. As leaders in all minor enterprises, such as boat expedi- tions, culling out. etc. Lieutenants in war time carry- off most of tile laurels awarded to actions of singular personal daring. LIEUTENANT COLONEL.- The rank in the United Stales Army next atiove Miijor anil next below Colonel, anci answering lo lliat of Commander in the Navy. In the British Army it is nominally the second officer in a regiment ; but virfially a Lieu- LIEUTENANT DE LA COLONELLE. 205 LIFE SAVING ROCKETS. temint-colonel commands every Itiitlalion of infan- try and rcf^inir'nl of eavalry.llie |)0»l of Colonel liiMni; merely iin liiinorable Hineeiire, with MMually t'l.OOO a j'ear allaelied, awarded to some (ieneral Ollicer. The Ijieulenant-coloiiel is responsil)le for Die dis- cipline of his l)attali<in, tlie comfort of his men, and ultimately for every detail comiccted with their organization. He is assisted hy the Major and Adjiitanl. In the artillery and eni^dneers, where the rank of Colonel is a sidislanlive rank, with lanu'ilile rei;imenlal duties, all the functions of Mculenanl- Colonel are more limited, one having; eharire of every two halt<'ries of artillery, or two companies of en';rineers. The pay of a Mi'Ulcnanl-colonel varicK i.'l. '.Is. 2(1. per diem in the Household Cavalry to 17s, in the Infantry of the Line. Five years' rcfrimental service as Lieutenant-colonel enlilles an ollicer to hrevet rank as Colonel, wlii<h. while im]irovin); his position in the Army, docs not. however, affect his status in his re!;iment. LIEUTENANT GENERAL.— In the United States army the rank mxt heneath that of General; the latter under the President, bcin>; Connnandcr-in-Chicf. It was tirst authorized by Congress in ITIIH, and be- stowed upon General Washinj^ton, in view of the then anticipated war with France. After Washini;- ton's death the rank remained in abeyance until 18.')i5,whcn it was revived (in brevet) by ^.!on(j:res8 for General Winfield Scott, at whose deatli it again lapsed. In 18C4 it was again revived by special Act, and conferred on General U. S. Grant, on whose pro- motion by the creation of the grade of General in his behalf. Major General William T. Sherman be- came Lieutenant General ; and, on his succession to the rank of General, Major General I'hilip II. Sher- idan was promoted to be Lieutenant General, and so reuMuns until the present time, 1884. See General Officer. LIEUTENANT DE LA COLONELLE.— The Second Otlicer. or what was formerly styled the Captain- Uentiniint of the Colonel's C'ompany of every in- fantry regiment in France. See Lienteniint. LIEUTENANT DU ROI.— During the Monarchy of France there was a Deputy Governor in every forti- fied place, or strong town, who commandeil in the ab- sence of the Governor, and wdio was a check vipon his conduct when present. This same person was called Lieutenant du Hoi. Lieutena/iti den Garden Fran- ca'xe.i et Siii.tnes bore the rank of Lieutenant-colonel, and took precedence of all Captains. Lieutenants Proi-incifiux d" Artillerie were certain officers belong- ing to the old Erench service, and immediately at- tached to the artillery, who bore the title or name of the particular Province in which they were stationed. Several of these Lieutenants, who had military employ ment under the Board of Ordnance received the rank of Lieutenant-general in the Army from the Kinir. and could rise to the most exalted stations. LIFE GUARDS.— The mounted body-guard of the Sovereign. In the British Army there are two corps BO designated. They never leave the country except in a verj" great emergency. These regiments were engag<Hi in the Peninsula, and were present at the liattle of Waterloo, where they greatly distinguished themselves. The two regiments of Life Guards wear a cuirass over a scarlet tunic. Their headpiece is a steel helmet. Tlie remainder of their dress consists of leather breeches, long gauntlets, and jack-boots. Their weapons are the sword and the carbine. See GuardK. LIFE OF PIECE. — An expression denoting the Icngtli or time or the number of rounds a piece of ordnance will stand before it becimics unservice- able. This is estimated in smooth-bore ordnance at from 1.000 to 1.200 rounds with service charge and one sliot. Experience, however, has shown that it is not so much the number of rounds fired which destroys a gun as tlie high elevation given to it to obtain extensive range. Guns tired horizontally, or at no greater elevation than .'i'^ or 6^. do not ex- perience the great strain whicli a gun fir<-d at .'iO" would, and the reason is obvious, as guns firi'd at a low elevation recoil in proiiorlion to the relative weight and friction of the projectile ; whereas, when elevated to ^iO", the- gun cannot recoil, the force, therefore, is exerted downwards, and the L'un impinges on itsstipporl, whicli is comparatively iiMiniivalile ; thus the force which displaced the gun ill the tirst instance is now exerted on the sides of the gun. The initial velocity is also increased with the angle of jirojection, which (-auseH the shot to press more upon the charge and thus to increase the resistance of the exjiansion of the gases. This increased resistance also adds to the strain upon the gun. Suflicient experic-iice has not yet been had of rilled guns to state what number of rounds the dilTer- ent classes of such ordnance can bi-ar, but it may be inferred that their endurance will be considerable. LIFE ROCKET DEPARTMENT,- That branch of t he Marine Department of the- liourd of Trade which has thcnianagement of life-rockets, mortars, lines, buoys, and belts, divides with the National Life-boat Insti- tution the laborsconnected with the prevention of shiiiwreck, and the rescue of shipwrecki-d persons. This has been the arrangement since 18.').'). Until that year the life-mortars in use were partly under the control of the Admiralty, sometimes under the Board of Customs, partly under the Institution just named, and partly belonging to private individuals. The Merchant Shipping Act, passed in 18.')4. and put in force the following year, placed the whole under a different organization. To work out properly the rocket and life-saving system, a topographical or- ganization is in the tirst instance adopted. The coasts of the United Kingdom are classified into 59 coast- guard divisions or wreck registrars' districts: and the coast-guard Inspector of each division or district has control over all the rockets, mortars, buoys, belts, and lines kept at the various seaside stations in his district. There were in 1874 about 300 such stations; some supplied with mortars, some witli rockets as well as mortars, but the greater number witli rock- ets only. Most of the mortars are Boxer's improve- ment on Manby's ; and most of the rockets are Box- er's improvement on Dennett's. Boxer's rockets, found more effective than mortars, are made at the Royal Labratory, at Woolwich, and are supplied by the War Department to the stations, on requisition from the Board of Trade ; as are likewise mortar- shot and shell, fuses, portfires, signal-lights, gun- powder, etc. At each station is kept a cart, express- ly made to contain all the requisites for the rocket apparatus, read}' packed. Eighteen rockets are sup- plied with each apparatus ; and a new supply is ob- tained before these are exhausted. Between 1874 and 1880, the system has extended year by year in the number of stations and of men; but while the details of organization have changed, no new princi- ple has been introduced. Simlper apparatus, con- sisting of life-belts and life-lines, is kept at a much greater number of stations. The system is worked by the coast-guard, the men being paid for period- ical drilling, and for regular service. Special ser- vices are rewarded with uifts of money, medals, etc. LIFE-SAVING ROCKETS.— When a life-boat is not at hand, or a raging sea and a shoal coast renders its use impracticable, a distressed ship may often re- ceive help from shore, provided the distance be not too great for the throwing of a rope. A small ropo may draw a thicker, and that a hawser, and the hawser may sustain a slinging apparatus for bringing the crew on shore. For short distances. Captain [ Ward's hearing-stick has been found useful : it is I simply a piece of stout cane about 2 ft. long, loaded at one end with 2 pounds of lead, and at the other Send is securely attached to a thin line. It is whirled round vertically some 2 or 3 times, and then let go ; j but it cannot be relied on for more than .50 ^ards. Kites of various kinds have been employed, but are not found to be certain enough inaction. The tiring IITTING JACK. 20G LIFTIHG JACK by gunpowder of some kind of missile, with a line of rope attached (o it, is the method which has been attended with most success. In 17!)1 Sergeant Bell, of tlie Royal Artillery devised a mode of tiring a shot and line from a distressed ship to the shore. It was afterwards found to be more practically useful to fire from the shore to the ship. In 1807 Captain Manby invented his lifi'-iiu.n-tar, an ordinary 5^ in. 24-pounder coehorn, fixed at a certain angle in a thick block of wood. The missile discharged from it was a shot with curved barl)S, something like the flukes of an anchor, to -catch hold of the rigging or bul- warks of a ship. How to fasten the sliot to the rope was at first a difficulty : cha'.ns were not found to answer : but at length strips of raw-hide were found suitable. To assist in descr3-ing the exact po- sition of a distressed ship on a dark night. in order to aim the mortar-rope correctly. Manby used a chem- ical composition as a firework, which would shine out in lirilliant stars when it had risen to a certain height. A third contrivance of his for replacing the shot by a shell filled with combustibles, in order to produce a bright light which would render the rope visible to the crew, was not so successful. Many variations have been made in the line- throwing apparatus. Colonel Boxer has recently substituted a hidt for the shot, with four holes at the end ; fuses thrust into these holes shed a light which marks the passage of the bolt through the air. Tren- grove's rocket-apparatus, invented in 1821, consisted of an ordinary 8-oz. sky-rocket. Certain practical difliculties, liowever, affected it. and it did not come much into use. In 1832 Dennett's apparatus was in- vented. It nearly resembled the old sky-rocket, but with an iron case instead of a paper one, and a pole 8ft. long instead of a mere stick ; it weighed 23 lbs., was propelled liy 9 lbs. of composition, and had a range of 350 yards. A ship's crew having been sav- ed by the aid of this rocket at Bembridge, in the Isle of Wight, the Board of Customs caused man}- of the coast guard stations to be supplied with the ap- paratus in 1834. Carte's apparatus, brought for- ward in 1842, depended on the use of a Congrevc rocket instead of an ordinary sky-rocket. It does not appear that this apparatus was ever adopted b}- the authorities. Mr. Dennett next sought toimprove the power of his apparatus by placing two rockets side by side, attached to the same stick ; and it cer- tainly did increase the range to 400 yards ; but as the simultaneous and equal action of the rockets could not be always insured, the scheme was abandoned. Colonel Delvigne, of the French army, invented a life-arrnir, to be fired from an ordinary musket. It is a stick of mahogany, shaped like a billiard-cue; the thicker end presses on the powder; while the thinner end. loade<l with lead, is fitted with loops of string ; a line or thin rope is attached to the loops, and the thin end of the stick projects beyond the barrel. The jerk, when the arrow or stick is fired, causes the loops to run down the stick to the thick end; this action has an effect like that of a spring, preventing the stick from dartinit forward so sud- denly as to .snap the line. The apparatus will send an arrow of 18 oz, to a distance of 80 yards, with a mackerel line attached. Another French contriv- ance, Trcmlilay's rocket with a barbed head, was soon adopted for the Emperor's yacht ; but as it is to be fired from the sliiji to the shore, it partakes of the same defects as Sergeant Bell's original inven- tion. The most effective apparatus yet invented is Colonel Boxer's. Finding that Dennett's parallel rockets on one stick do not work well, he succeeded after many trials in a mode of placing two rockets in one tube, one behind the other. The head is of liard wood; there is a wrought-iron case, with a partition l)etween the two rockets. When fired, the foremost rocket carries the case and the attached line to its maximum distance, and the rearmost rocket then gives these a further impetus. The ef- fect is found to be greater than if the two rockets i wt re placed side by side, and also greater than if the quantity of composition for the two rockets were [ made up into one of larger size. The rocket is 1 fired from a triangular stand, and is lighted hy fuse, port-fire, or percussion-tube ; tlie elevation is deter- mined by a quadrant or some similar instrument. Tlie lines used with these several projectiles have varied greatly; but the best is found to be Italian hemp, spun loosel}'. It is very elastic, and when thick enough for the purpose, 500 yds. weigh 46 lbs. In Boxer's rocket, the line passes through tlie tail of the stick, then through the head, where it is tied in a knot, with India-rubber washers or buffers to les- sen the jerk. The line is carefully wound on a reel, or coiled in a tub. or faked in a box provided with pins ranged round the interior— to enable the line to run out quickly without kinking or entangling. Dennet's faking-box for this purpose is the one now generally adopted. Life-belts, jackets, and buoys of various kinds are used, made of cork, inflated India-rubber, etc. ; but one apparatus now employed in conjunctitm with the life-rockets is know-n by the curious name of petticoat-hreeclies. or more simply, xlhig life-bui>y. It is not strictly either a belt or a buoy, but a garment in which a man may be slung clear out of the water. When a rocket has been fired, and a line has reached the distressed ship, signals are exchanged between the ship and the shore; a thicker rope is pulled over the ship by means of the line, and a hawser by means of the rope. When all is stretched taut by fastening to the masts, etc., anv articles can be read- ily slung and drawn to and fro. The petticoat-breech- es, was originally invented by Lieutenant Kisbee, and consists of a circular cork life-lnioy forming the top ring of a pair of canvas breeches ; one of these is hauled over from the shore to the ship; a man gets into it, his legs protruding below the breeches, and his armpits resting on the buoy; and he is hauled ashore by block-tackle. The crew of a wrecked ship can thus one by one be relieved. To prevent losing the hawser and other apparatus, when the last man has left the ship, an apparatus called a hawser-cutter is used working in the ship, but worked from the shore. After the destruction of the Northfleet in 18T3, off Dungeness, an exhibition was organized at the Lon- don Tavern, to which the inventors of new life-sav- ing appliances were invited to contribute. Among the apparatus were Hurst's lifi-raft. consisting of a double pontoon, bridged over, stowed outside a ship, and lowered by simply cutting the lashings; Christie's life-raft, a large, rectanguliir framework, rendered buoyant by numerous air-tight spaces, some of wliich are available for stowing water and provisions; and Parrott's tuhulnr life-rnft, composed of c\'lindrical air-bags made of painted canvas, supporting a floor- ing of sail-cloth and netting, and rendered rigid by poles fixed in various directions. JIany other novelties were displayed at the London Tavern, and also at a similar collection in tlie annuiil International Exhi- bition, in the forms ot life-boats, rafts, garments, belts, buoys, etc. See Aw-hirr-mcket, licxrlJfe- suxing Rocket, Chandlfr Anrhiyr-ihot, Delvigne Life- saving Oun, German. Life-saving Horket, Hooper Life-saving Rocket. Hunt Life-saving Rockets. I^yle- Kmery Grapple-s/iot. Manby Shot, Parrptt IJfe-sav. ing Mortar. Rockets. Russian LJfe-saving Rocket. Shot- lines. !ind Signal Rocket. LIFTING JACK. — A geared screw, with a project- ing fool or hook at its lower end, for lifting heavy weights. This jack. as used at military posts. consists of the following detailed parts; 1 beil: 1 handle; 2 ri- ret-bolts No. 3 A, to strengthen the bed; 4 ira»bers; 2 mits; 2 eye-plates for the braces, let int<i tlie ends of the bed, and fastened by 4 sereirs. 3 inch, and 1 .<,creir,\ inch. No. U!; 1 .itaml (cast-iron); isteadying- points.ncTvvicd into the bottom of the stand; 3 bra- ces, fastened to the stand at the upper end by 2 bolts No. 2; 1 screw, eaine size and pitch as the elevating XIOHT. 207 LIQKZ screw for caHfniatc carrmRps; Ifitot; 1 plnlt', fusten- t'J to tlie foot by 3 srreir.i, U-incli, No. 14; I imt; 1 liiiiion for llic lioislinji-.Mcrew (hi'iiHS), liki' IlioHc fur IIm' CHSe- Iiiali' I'li'valiiii; screw; 1 hIih/I for pillion, kejit in plaee l)y one siTfii-./iin lei ill the staiiil ; 1 crank, lield to tlie shaft liy 1 /n/J No. 4; 1 wooden liandle, fastened by 1 irai/iir ; 1 nut No. 3; and I rrip.jilifti', let into tlie liead of the stand one- eii^bth of an iiieb and fasleiied liy 4 hitU-m-ri'irii No. 1. This jaelc is now <iiiile superseded by the liydraiilio-jack. The jack represenled in the draw- ini; isiised forneiieral purposes, , is simple, eoiiipaet and power- ful. .\ nooil suhsliliite for a jack are two handspikes placed under the a.xle-lrce, when, with the aid of Iw^o robust nunners, the carriaij;e can be raised to take off the wheel. The jack known as Clerk'n is the coininou screw-jack of the service, in a easl-iron conical bo.\, with metal top and triangular b;ise. This jack is of i;reat power, and used for heavy carriaj^cs in lieu of the '■toolhand iiinion " and "screw-jack." There are other jacks in the service, such as the rack a«rf;)/H/"«, liftiini ;j tons ; llfdey's, which varies in power from 2 lo 30 tons : and Taiiijye^s liydrniilii-, cap;ilile of liflint; from 4 lo 30 tons. See Jack-screw, anil Mirhiiniciil Maiwiirera. LIGHT. Opiics ranks ne.\t to dynamics in the cate^-ory of nearly rj'cc? sciences— that is, of sciences whose fundamen'l:d principles are so well known. Unit the resull of almost any new experimental com- bin;ilion can be predicted niathemalicnilly. Given the forces acting on a body, the laws of motion en- ables us. by purely mathemalical processes, to de- termine ,the conseipient motion. Though we have not as yi't arrived ;it equal iierfection in optics, we are ccrl;unly far on the way, and proliably have now attained nearly all the jirogress (independent of ini- proveinents in our malhematical methods) which will be made until the next great step in molecular j physics shall give us the clue to the nature of the minute motions on which light, heat, electric j currents, ami magnetism depend. The most extra- ordinary and almost inciedilile pri'dictions of theory ! have been verified by exiierimeiit. and at present i the ditferenccs between theory and experiment may be divided into two elas.ses. corresponding to the above exceptions. The first are those depending on I the imperfections of ni;ithematical iirocesses. where, because, for example, as we are ye", unable to ob- tain the exact solution of a certain differential equa- tion, we have to content ourselves with an approxi- mate one. Hut I'very improvement in our means of approximation is found to introduce a closer agree- I meut between theory and experiment. This difReul- | ty may safely be left to mathematicians. It is other- [ wise with the second ditticulty. This dcpemls on our ignorance of the ultimate nature of matter, and | our consequent inability to apply mathematical rea- I soiling in a perfectly correct and siifiicieiitly com- prehcus'.ve manner. Here, the experimenter's work is still required, and it is in this direction that we must in all probability now look for important ex- tensions of our knowledge. Optics is divided into tw.) parts pliysiciil and gcirmetn'cn' . Of these, the latter contents itself willi assuming certain obvious experimental truths, such as the f.act. that light in a unirorni meilium moves in straight lines, the ordin- ary l;iws of rellection ami refraetiou, etc., and mak- ing these its b;isis, employs malliematics to develop their further con.sequences. It is thus that theory has shown how lo carry to their utmost perfection Buch exquisite specimens of art as the best teiescopeg and microscopes of the present day. Hut these in- vestigations, and their practical appliialion, are I wholly indepeiideni, of the nuliirr of light, and can- not be alfi-eled by discoveries in that direction. It is otherwise when wi' conii^ to physical ojitics. This cominenceM with the question : " WIkiI in light .'" and then endeavors to diMluce from the nature of light the (rxperiinental laws which, as we have seen, are assumed as the basis of geometrical opiics. IJy two perfectly distinct classes of astronomical observa- tions — aberration and the eclipses of Jupiter's satel- lites -W(' know that light takes time to pass from one body to another -the velocity being (enormous — about 300,000 miles per second. Hence it follows, that either mntter oreiiirgy must be transferred from a body to the eye before we can see it. Here we have "at once the rival physical theories of light, which have alternately had the advantage of one an- other in explaining observed phenomena. It is only of late years that an <'l/)f?'''w(«<////( rrncin has finally decided between them — by showing one of them to be utterly incompatible with a result of ob.servation. Newton adopteil tin; corpuscular theory, in which light is supposed to consist of material particles— i. e., he adopted the first of the two possible hypotheses; and he gave the first instance of the solution of a problem involving molecular forces, by deducing from this theory the laws of rellection and single re- fraction. We shall see immediately that this beauti- ful investigation led to the destruction of the theory from which it was diiduced. But. independent of this, there are many grave and obvious objections to the corpuscular theory: for it involves es.senlially the siipposilion of material particles impinging on the ej'e with the astounding velocity of 300.000 miles per second. If such particles weighed but the mil- lionth of a pound, each would have something like ten times the momentum ('', c., the battering power), and six miUiim times the vis viva or kinetic energy (/. p., the penetrating power), of a rifle-bullet. Sup- pose them a inillitm times smaller — yet as millions of millions of them must ever be supposed to enter the eye at once, coming from everv' point of the sur- face of every visible olijed. it seems impossible to reconcile such a hypothesis with the excessive deli- cacy of the organs of vision. It is not pretended by the advocates of the rival hypothesis, undulatory theory of light, that they understand exactly the nature of the transference of energy on which they suppose light to depend; but they take from the analogy of sound in air, and of waves in water, the idea of the existence in all space of a highly elastic fluid (or quasisolid). provisional- ly named the ether, and they suppose light to con- sist in the propagation of waves in this lluid. Huy- geus has the credit of having propounded, and ably developeil and illuslrated, this theory. As we have seen above, no third hypothesis as "to the nature of light is admissible. JIany strong arguments against the truth of the corpuscular theory had been fur- nished by experiment, especially in the early part of the present century: and as they were always met by further and more extraordinary properties which had to be attributed to the luminous corpuscles, the theory had become complicated in the most fearful manner; and this of itself was an almost complete disproof. Still.it held its ground, for Newton's old objection to the rival theory, viz.. that on the un- dulatory hypothesis there should be no shadows at all (witness the analogy of sounds heard round a cor- ner), was as yet unanswereil. This dilliculty was overcome by Young, to whose sagacity we are in- debted fortheidea of interference, which completely explained the apparent discrepancy. But the ques- tion between the rival llieories was finaliy settled by Fi/eau and Foucault. who. by processesenlirely dif- ferent, but agreeing in their results, determined the velocity of light in air and in water. Now, Newton had shown that refraction, such as that of lisht by tlOHT. 208 LIGHT. water, if predicated of moving pnrtides. requires that tliey should move faster in water than in air. Huy- gens, again, had clearly shown, that if such refrac- tion be predicated of trdreit. they must move much slower in water than in air. Fizeau and Foucault | found, by direct measurement, that light moves slower in water than in air. Hence, it is certain that light consists in the transference vf energy^ 7u>tof\ k \\\e front of a plane wave which is passing in the di- rection CD; i. e., suppose all particles of the ether in the plane AB (perpendicular to the plane of the paper) to be similarly and equally displaced. Ac- cording to Huygens, we must suppose every particle, P, to be itself the source of a wave, which, from the uniformity of the medium, will spread with the same velocity in all directions. With center P, and radius B Fig. 1. mutter and the undulatory theory is based upon this fact. But. as to the manner in which energy is thus transferred, we are entirely ignorant. The com- mon assumption is. that waves of distortion are propagated in the ether. The nature of this motion will be described under Wave. But many other modes have been suggested, one of the most notable of which is that of Rankine. Here the particles of ether are not supposed to be displaced, but each is merely made to turn an axis as the wave of light passes it ; the particles having polarity by virtue of which they arrange themselves in similar positions when no light is passing, and by which, also, any ro- tation of one particle produces a consequent rotation of those in its neighborhood. For the explanation of most of the common phenomena of optics, it is quite iudilTerent which of these assumptions we make, and, indeed, theory has not yet been carried far enough to enable us to devise experimental methods of testing which is the more likely to be the case in nature. It cannot be too strongly insisted on that all we know at present is, that light certainly depends on the transference of energy from one part of the luminiferous medium to another ; what kind of en- ergy is tran.sferrcd, vibratory or oscillatory motion, or rotation, etc., is a problem which may possibly forever remain unsolved. But vibrator)- wave- motion being that with which we are most familiar, as in earthquakes, .sound, waves in water, etc., we naturally choose this as the mo.st easily intelligible basis of explanation and illustration. And we shall now briefly show how the laws of linear propagation, reflection, single refraction, interference, diffraction, dispersion, polarization, and double refraction may be accounted for. We assume, then, that light consists in a succes- sion of waves, and for our earlier inquiries it does not matter whether they be (like those of sound) waves of condensation and rarefaction, in which the vilirations take place in the direction of the ray. or (like those in water) waves of distortion or displace- ment wilhont condensation, in which case the lu- minous vibrations must be assumed to take place in some direction perprndioilar to the ray. The phe- nomena of polarization and double rcfracti(m show us that the former of these hypotheses is very unten- al)le. Propagatldn nf l.ioht in a Vnifurm Isotropic Medium - (.\n iso1ro|)ic' m( ilium is such that if a cubical porlion be taken, it possesses precisely the same |)roperlies whatever be the directions (if its sides. Glass and water are isotropic, rock-salt and i<'e are „ot.)— Suppose AB (Fig. I) to represent ut any time Fig. 2. the space which light passes over in any assigned interval, t, describe a sphere represented in section by a circle in the figure Do the same for adjacent points, Pj, Pj, etc. Let Pi be the intersection of the circles whose centers are P and Pj, p« that of the circles whose centers are P, and P^, and so on. Then, asp, is equidistant fxova. V and P,, and (ap- proximately) from all points of a small circular space between P and P, on the wave-front AB, all the sep- arate wave-disturbances coming from these points to p-i will be in the same pha^e, and will therefore combine so as to strengthen each other ; while in other directions they will be in different phases and combine to destroy each other. The locus of all such points aspi, Pj, etc., will therefore, at the end of the time t. contain all particles of the ether equally and similarly disturbed, and will thus be the new wave-front. But it is obviously a plane parallel to AB. Also the disturbance at P has passed to p, ; and, when the distance PP, is taken as verj' small, Ppi is perpendicular to the wave-front AB. Hence, in such a medium, it is readily seen that a plane wave remains plane, and always moves with uni- form velocity in a direction perpendicular to its front. [There is a difficulty as to what becomes of the disturbance, which, according to Huygen's as- sumption, ought to travel tack into the dotted por- tions of the spheres ; and it is not easy to account for the absence of this on mechanical principles. But we are content here to take for granted that no Fig. a. waves are propagated backward from the main wave, as a fact clearly proved by experiment.] Since a small portion of the surface of any curved wave nuiy be considered as plane, we now see how any such wave will be prnjiagaled in an isotropic medi- um. Erecting perpendiculars at every point of the LIGHT. 2( »il LIGHT. siirfiu^o of the curved wave, and laying (ilV iilonj; theBo lines the spiicc which lif;ht jmHseH over in a ijivr'n interval, and the cxtreiiiilicH form a new ttiir- faee, which in llie wavc-frdiil after the lapse nf that interval. lifjlirlion at <i I'lnne Snrfwi'. Suppose AB (Fii;. 2) to he a plane wavi'-front. innviiif; in tlie (iireclioM of \Mi pcrpcnilicular to .Mi. I.ci A'' he the rellcctinj; surtaee. and let the intersection of the plane of the wave-front with the relleetini; surface be a line through A perpendi<idar to the paper. When H has arrived at I). A would have arrived at //, and 1' at <j (where hll is parallel to H,\. anil I'f/ and \li to Mil), hail it not been for the rellictinK surfac(« Hence, when ]5 is at h, A has diverf,'e(l into a sphere of radius All, V from /) into a sphere of radius, ]>q; and so for each point of the wave- FiK.4. front. Now, the spheres so described about A and p as eenteis obviously touch the plane hli: conse- tpiently they touch the other plane hn, wliich makes the angle AJ« equal to XbB. Now, lina is the front of the reflected wave, and A« is the direction in which it is proceeding. Hence, obviously, the ordi- nary laws of reflection. 8ee fatiijitrirs. Ilefraction at a Plane Surface hihi an hntnipir Med- ium — Here we take account of the change of veloci- ty which light suffers in passing from one medium to another. In Fig. 3, A, P, H. i, ;). g, and H repre- sent the same as before-but suppose Ak now to re- present the space through which the wave travels in the second medium, while it would travel from 1$ to A in the first. With center A, and radivis A'f, describe a sphere. Let ha touch this sphere in a. Then /la is the front of the refracted wave. For, i( prr be drawn perpendicular to i«, we have prr: Aa-.: hp; AA:: pq: A/i. Hence, while A travels to <?. and B travels to A, P travels to p, and thence to tt. And the sines of the angles BA* and Aba, which are the angles of in- cidence and refraction, are to each other as Bh to A'(, /■. e., as the velocity in the tirst medium is to that in the second. See Dinptrien. It is quite obvious from the above figure that the lenK the velocity in the second medium the more nearly does the refracted ray enter it at right angles to its surface. As a contrast we may introduce here a sketch of Newton's admirable investigation of the same problem on the corpuscular hypothesis. Let U and V be the velocities in the two media, a and H the angles of incidence and refraction. Then the forces which act on the corpuscle being entirely per- pendicular to the refracting surface, the velocity paraUcl to that surface is not altered. This gives U sin. a = V sin. Ji. Also the kinetic energy is increased l)y the loss of potential energy in passing from the one medium to the other. Hence, the square of V exceeds that of V by a quantity which depends only on the nature of the two media and of the corpuscle. This shows that V is the same whatever lie the direction of the lay, and then the first relation proves that the sines of' the angles of incidence and reflection are iiiiyr.-e'i/ j as the velocities in the two media, (. c, the refract- ing ray is more nearly perpendicular to the refract- ' ing surface the greater is the velocity in the second ! medium. It is very singidar that two theories j so widely dissimilar "should each give the true /a'" | of refraction : and in connection with what has just j been said, it may be mentioned that i.n iIm corpuK- cular theory a corpuscle passes from one point to another with th(^ least wtiaii, while on the undula- I tory theory it passes in the least time. Hamilton's grand i)rincii)le of rarip'n;/ actinn includes both of tlufse. I ntirference Fre^nel's moile of exhibiting this phenomenon ('whose discovery, as before said, is due to Young) is very simple and striking. An isosceles prism of glass, with an angh; very nearly 180°, is placed CFig. 4) in front of a brilliant point (the image of the sun formed by a lens of very short focus, for instance;. '\'\u- effect of the prism is that light which passes from () through the por- tion (^K ai)pears to have come from some point such as A (the image of () as seen through the upper half of the prism). Similarly the light which has passed through l'(2 appears to come from some point B. The light which has jiassed through tiie jjrism is to lie received on a white screen ST. At the point T, which is in the jirolongation of the line OQ, the distances T.V and T15 are equal ; but for no other [joint, as U in the line ST, are I'.V and VR equal. Suppose U and V to he such that L'.V and I'B difTer in length by half a wave-length of some particular color. VA and VB by a whole wave-length of the same; then waves ' arriving at T, as if from A and B, have of necessity passed over equal spaces, and consequently their crests must truly coincide, so that at T tlieyreen- force each other. But at U a hollow from A is met I by a crest from B, so that darkness is the result. At V, again, crest and crest coincide. And]|so on. Hence, if we are experimenting with one definite color of light, the effect on the screen is to produce at T. V, etc., bright bands of that color, all parallel to the edges of the prism PQK. At points like U there are dark bands. And the length of a wave can easily be calculated from this experiment; for the lengths of OQ and QT can be measured, and knowing the angles of the prism and its refractive index for the particular color employed, we can calculate the posi- tions of A and B. We have then only to measure the distance TV between the centers of the two adjoin- inw Ijright bars, and then geometry enables us to cal- culate the difference of the lengths of V.V and VB, which, as we have seen. is the length of a wave. The results of this experiment show how very minute are these wave-lengths for visible rays. Thus for Inch. Kxtreme Red, the wave-length in air is ...0.00002(j6 •' Vlclet. •' " " O.OOOtJKJi These are, roughly, the 7j,J,-,5 and the g,-J„- of an inch. Seeing, then, "that light describes 200,000 m. persecond, the number of waves which enter the eye per second are : Extreme Red 4(50 ndllions of millions. Violet 730 These numbers, compared with those of sonorous waves show the extraordinary difference in delicacy between the optic and auditory nerves, liut where- as the range of the ear is somewhere al out 12 oc- taves, that of the eye is less than one. Diiip<ri<ion. — \\'e have just seen that, b)' Fresnel's interference experiment, waves of different length are separated (for in the last figure the position cf the bright line, V, depends on the length of the waves which produce it). But the different colors are also separated by common refraction, as in New- ton's celebrated experiment. This shows, of course, that in refracting media, waves of different colors move with different velocities; and, as the violet arc more refracted than the red, it appears that the shorter waves move more slowly in glass or water than the longer ones. In free space, waves of all lengths travel with equal speed, else all stars ought to appear drawn out into spectra, in consequence of LIGHT. 210 LIGHT the earth's annual motion. Also, a star suddenly breaking out. or suddenly vanishing (a phenomenon several times observed), sliould flash out in the first instance red, and gradually become wliite, or it should grailually decay from wiiite to violet, which is not, however, observed to be the case. These facts are, ineeed, the most difficult to explain of any to which the rmdulatory theorj- has as yet been applied. Fresnel, indeed, appears to have been in possession of a solution of the difficulty, but the appendix to one of his papers, to which he more than once refers as containing this explanation, was not found among his MSS. C'auchy and others have, however.by very delicate investigations, shown that, if the furms exerted hy the moleriileti^iif a refracting body on the ether are exerted thrnuglr distances com- parable with the length of a irave, the velocity of light will then depend on the wave-length. The velocity is. in fact, shown to be represented by a formula such as this; B A where A and B are constant quantities for a ^iven medium, and ^ is the length of a wave. The larger ff is. the less will be "the second term of the formula, and therefore the velocity will be the greater. A very singular result follows from this same formula— viz., that the velocity will become disturbances which give rise to this ray are propa- gated in spherical waves in the crystal. He showed also that the other ray could be jaccounted for. if the disturbances to which it is due were propagated in the form of an oblate spheroid touching the sphere with the extremities of its axis, that axis being parallel to the crystallographic axis of the mineraT. The following diagram (Fig. 5) when carefully ex- amined will make this apparent: — P is the point where the ether is disturbed. Two waves spread from P in the form shown jn the cut. the line ABP being the axis of rotation of the spheroid, and parallel to the axis of the crystal. Thus, let rays a\. etc. 'Fig. 6J, of which ABis the wave-front, fall upon .the sur- face A* of such a crystal; and let AC be the direc- tion of its axis. t)raw. about A as a center, the sphere and spheroid into which the disturbance at A spreads in the crystal while light in air passes from B to b. Then if planes be dlawn through the line b (perpendicular to the paper) so as to touch the sphere in /Jjand the spheroid in B^, these planes will touch respectively all the intermediate spheres and spheroids produced by disturbances at points be- tween A and A. Thus, bB^ and bB^ are the new wave-fronts and the ray »A, falling on the crystal, is divided into the two A/?, and AB^. Of these Afi, is the ordinary ray, and being produced by spherical waves, has all the properties to be looked for in the case of a ray ordinarily refracted. It obviously B Fig. .5. more and more nearly equal to A as the wave length is srreater. Hence, waves of low radiant heat, which are merely waves of light which are incap- able of producing vision, must be crowded together toward a limit, not very far l)eyond the red end of the spectrum. Polarization— \N<^ n(5W come to a set of phenomena which give us some furtlier infor- mation as to the nature of lunnniferous waves. When two beams of light, such as those in Fresnel's experiment, are polarized in planes perpendicular to each other before they meet, they do not interfere. This is in accordance with the assumption required for the explanation of the existence of polarization itself— viz., that the viljrations of the ether take place transversely to the direction of the ray. Double. Refraaion—Om assumptions, forced upon Tis by experimental results, are now so far complete that we may proceed, after Fresnel, to apply them 1o the explanation of double n-fraction. Tins ex- planation is extremely l)ciuitifnl. and wlien pub- lished, was justly hailed as tlie greatest step in physical science which had been nfade since New- ton deduced the facts of physical astronomy from the law of gravitation. As we have seen above, in treating of siiuple reflection and refractiim, that the form and velocity in and with which a disturb- ance spreads frr>,n any point of a wave is all that is required for the dVlermination of the course of a ray. we must endc'iivor to find the form in which a disturbance spreads in a double-refraclingcryslal ; and this should lead us to a construction for each of the two rays. Huygens had .'ilreaily pointed out that one of the two rays produced by Iceland spar folows the ordinary law of refraction. Hence the Fig. 6. moves forw.ard perpendicularly to its front, as A 5, is perpendicidar to B^b. But it is otherwise with A/?j, which is, in general, not perpendiculav to its front, B^b. Again, if AC. the axis of the crystal be not in the plane of incidence, the ray Afl„ is not in that plane ; so that here we have refraction out of the plane of incidence. The exact accordance of this construction with observation was proved by the careful experiments of Wollaston. We have only to add, that the two rays AH, and Ai?„ are, in all cases, completely polarized in planes at right angles to each other. The experiments of Brewster showed that in b}' far the greater number of minerals and artificial crystals, both rays art.' extraordinary — i.e.. neither of tliem can be accounted for by dis- turbances propagated spherically in the crystal. But no tentative process could lead to the form if the wave-surafce in this most general case. Here Fresnel's genius supplied the necessary construction. He assumes that the ether in a crystallized body is possessed of different rigidity, or ditl'erent inertia, in different directions ; a suiijiosifion in itself ex- tremely |)robable, from the mechanical and other properties of crystals. In the general case there are shown to be three principal directions in a crystal, in any one of which, if the ether be displaced, the resulting ehistic force is in the direction of the disiilacenient. Kach of these is. in all eases, jier- pendiciilar to the others. Any given dis])lacement of tlie I'ther corresponds to |iarlial ealeidalile dis- placements parallel to each of these lin<'s, and thus the elastic force consequent on any disiilacement whatever is known if we know those for the three rectangular directions. All the calculations are LIGHT AETILLEBY BATTERY. 211 LIGHT INFANTHY. thus <ii'pcnd(mt on tlirrr mimbers only, for each sub- stiince. It would uncliily limRtlicn lliis uriicle, and bcHidc-H would lead um into diHfussinns fur loo re- condite for a work Uk(' this, to cnli-r upon the ipics- tion whether the vibrationa in polarized liiilit ar<f perprndiriilnr to or in the plane of polari/alion, a Bubjeet whifdi has recently lieen well invcHlijfated by Stokes; or to consider ilie |irodnclion of ellipti- cally polarized jii^lit by rellection at tlw surface of metals, diamond, etc.; and various oilier most im- portant |)ointsof the theory. We can oidy mention that Green, Caucliy, Stokes, and olliers, who have entered deeply into the nieclianical question of luminiferous vibrations, have found themselves obliged to take into account the mrrmnl wave, which, as we have seen, Fresnel neglected. Fluo- rescence, spectrum analysis, anil various othiT im- portant recent ailditions to the theory, must lie nicMcly mentioned; as also the very remarkabl<' observation of JIaxwell, which appears to coiuiect liiz^ht and electricity, and was derived from a theory which assumes the ether to be the vehicle of elec- tricity and mai;netism as well as of linht and heat, and by which it appears that the velocity of light is expressible in terms of the static and kinetic units of electricitv. LIGHT ARTILLERY BATTERY.— A mounted Bat- tery of tield-guns. In Ihe I'nited Stales army, for the purpose of dilTusing instruction, the Lieutenants of the live artillery regiments are passed through the School of Light Artillery in their respective regi- ments, so that no Lieutenant will be in that School more than two years at any one tour. From this rule may be [excepted Lieutenants in command of companies the Captains of which are indefinitely ab- sent. Adjutants, Regimental Quartermasters, togeth- er with such others as from accidental causes may be unable to ride. If a vacancy happen in the grade of Captain of a Battery designated as a Light Battery, it will be tilled by the order of the Secretary of War, on the recommendatitm of the Colone'., who usually name* the Captain best qualified for the service. Ev- ery Battery of Artillery actually armed and eqviipped as a Battery of Ilorse-artillerv or a Light Battery, and serving as such, is allowed, for annual practice, as many blank cartridges and friction-primers for instruction antl drill as may be deemed necessary by the Battery Commander, and apjiroved by the Post Commander. Such Batteries are also permitted to expend in target practice, annually, twentj--five pro- jectiles for each gun of the command. LIGHT-BALLS. — Preparations in pyrofechny.made in the same manner as fire-balls, except that iliere is \ no shell in them, as they are u.sed for lighting up our own works. They continue alight from 9 to 16 minutes.accord- ing to the caliber. Light-balls are of four different natures, viz : 10-inch. 8-inch, 5i-inch. and 45-inch. I Their form is oblong, and about 1^ caliber. The skeleton frame is made of wrought iron, and is par- tially covered with canvas, and filled with composi- | tion which burns with a brilliant light. The proportion of composition is as follows: — lbs. oz drs. Saltpeter. groTind fi 4 0, Sulphur, ground 2 8 Rosin, pounded 1 14 Linseed oil, boiled 7 8 See Firi'-IiaUn and Firewm-fcn. LIGHL-BARREL. — A common powder-barrel pierc- ed with numerous holes, and filled with shavings that have been soaked in a composition of pilch and ros- in ; it serves to light up a breach, or a l)ottom of a ditch. See Fireworks, LIGHT BOBS.- In the British service, the familiar term used for the light infantry. LIGHT CAVALRY.— Regiments of mounted sol- diers who, from their light equipment and active horses, are especially adapted for making long marches, performing outpost duties, skirmishing. etc. The experience of the wars of 1806 and 1870-71 has shown, clearly and convincingly, that the splen- did charges, which in the days of Frederick and Napolc-on frequriitly ilc:cided the fate of battles, have jiassed away, and tiiat, in Ihe future, it is before an action that the main role of Ihe cavalry will be foimd to lie. Since the introiluction of arms of precision, the duties of this branch may well be considered purely strategical, as cavalry can seldom be employ- ed to take a decisive part in a battle. Upon this branch now devolves the task of preparing the way fi>r an engagement, hy recimnoiterinij the positions of the enemy, and giving, as to his movements, as much valuabh^ information as possible. Light caval- ry can therefore be used as a screen to mask the movements of the advancing orretreating army, and like a swarm of spies, to search the country of the enemy, gather information from all (piarters, facili- tate and often render uiuiecessary an armed attack, and, finally, bitwilder, by harassing the foe. Em ployed as erliiiri-urs or feelers in every direction, they make a ring of mystery arounil their own army. The enemy does not know their whereabouts, while they carryback valualile information to their chiefs. The duties now thrown upon the light cavalry soldier demand much increased intelligence, and a knowl- edge of the o|)erations of war. The value of good information is so im]iorlanl. and the evil of bad so great, that it would never be safe to trust anybody of ordinary trained men to fulfil these duties. Light cavalry form an important branch of the Intelli- gence Department, and it may be well said that ' They are the eyes and ears of an army." The hus- sar regiin<-nts form the light cavalry of the British army: but thejlancers and the dragoons, although classed as medium cavalry, are often employed in the same duties. LIGHT HORSE.— All mounted soldiers that are lightly armed and accoutered for active and desul- tory service : such as dragoons, hussars, mounted riflemen, etc. See Lii/U Cavalry. LIGHT-HOUSE BOARD.— A body organized in tlie United States, in accordance with an Act of Congress approved Aug. .31, 1853, and having the control and management of all lights. buoys, beacons, etc., on the coasts of the United States. It consists of eight per- sons, viz., two officers of high rank in the Navj-.two officers of the Corps of Engineers, two civilians of high scientific attainments, an officer of the Navy, and an officer of the Corps of Engineers — the two latter serving as Secretaries. The Board as thus con- stituted is attached to the office of the Secretary of the Treasurj'.who is Ex-officio President of the same. A chairman, elected by the members Irora their own number, is chosen to preside in the absence of the President Ex-officio. The Board is required to meet four times a year, and the Secretary of the Treasury is empowered to call it together whenever, in his judgment, the exigencies of the service may require a meeting. It actually meets almost every week in the year. The coast and tlie waters of the country are di- vided into districts, each of which is served by an offi- cer of the Army or the Navy in the capacity of Light- House Inspector, and other officers are emploved from time to time, according to the exigencies of "the service. The different subjects reqinring attention are first referred to standing committees, who.se duty it is to investigate and report to the Board what ac- tion, if any, is required. The two Secretaries per- form all routine and general administrative duties under the orders and regulations of the Board. LIGHT INFANTRY.— A body of armed men select- ed and trained for rapid evolutions. The service of Light Infantry often demands great individual ad- dress, intelligence, and quite well developed phvsica! powers ; a combination of qualities not ea-ilv found, and seldom, indeed, without careful, habitual train- ing. Whereas, in Infantry of the Line, the qualities of the individual are of less importance. as results here depend almost solely upon the action of the mass. LIGHT INFANTRY COMPANY. 212 LIGHTNING C0NDUCT0E8. The habitual order of battle of Light Infantry is the dispersed order ; and whether acting offensively or defensively, it depends for its results upon the effect of its fire, resorting to the close order, and using the bayonet, only exceptionally. As each individual, although immediately supported by his own file- clo.ser, and those on his right and left, is still often thrown upon his own resources, being obliged to take cover where he can most conveniently tind it, he must be a good marksman, cool, deliberate, and cir- cumspect ; since it may become necessary to keep an enemy occupied hours, and even days together, pressing on him at one moment and yielding to him the next, or holding with tenacity, and disputing inch by inch some particular point, as it may suit the views of the General in command. In Infantry of the Line, as success depends upon th^ action of the mass, ensemble, judgement, coolness, and, determina- ion should alwavs characterize all its movements whether it delivers its tire in line, forms in column to attack with the bayonet, or throws itself into a sriuare, to await the charge of the enemy's cavalry. The duties of Light Infautry are to open an engage- ment, and, after it is fairly under way, to keep it going; turning it to advantage if successful, other- wise breaking it off. In its_ relations to the Infantry of the Line it should cover 'the flanks of the latter: clear the way for its advance by rooting the enemy out of all covers, and then holding them if requisite. Upon it devolves all advanced-post, detachment, and advanced and rear-guard service. LIGHT INFANTRY COMPANY.— In the British ser- vice, a company of active, strong men carefully se- lected from the rest of the regiment. It always oc- cupies its place on the left of the battalion until called for. When the call sounds, the Light Company orders arms and unfixes baj-onets without word of command, and remains in readiness to move. LIGHT MARCHING ORDER.— A term applied to troops lightly accoutered for detached service — usu- ally paraded with arms, ammunition, canteen, and haversack. LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.— The following points and precautions should be carefully observed in the construction of powder-magazines and factories, in localities visited by lightning: experience shows that metal in a building, whether disposed of in the form of a conductor or otherwise, never attracU light- ning. That, provided the surfaces of metals are not Interrupted by bodies possessing a less conducting- power, a building entirel)' of metal will be the safest of all, and that such buildings require no further lightning-conductors than connection with the earth over the masonry foundations on which thej' are often laid. That, with regard to a building of brick or stone, the object must be to establish a sufficient mimber of lines of electrical conductors, extending from its most elevated and prominent points to the ground; and, further, bring the building into a con- dition similar to that of a metal bviilding by means of other conductors generall}' attached to more promi- nent lines of the building itself, such as the ridges, angles, and caves. There is no advantage but the ciintrary, in endeavoring to insulate the conductors from llie building. The Ix'st material for conductors is copper, either in tubes U to 2 inches diameter and .IS.') inch to .2 inch thick, or a wire rope. All melnl surfaces, whether lead, copper, or iron, on ridg<'S, roofs, gut- ters, or coverings to doors or windows, to be con- nected by plates of copper with the conducting .sys- lem. Lead, on account tjf its low conducting power, cannot be altogelher depended upon. One or more s<ilid <-oppcr rods lo project freely into tlie iiir, about T> feet above the liighest points of the liuilding to wliich the main conductors are applied. The sum- mit of the rod to be pointed; but gold, gilt or i)Iat- inum tops are unnecessary. The termination of the conductors below to be led into damp or porf>us soil, when the Ijuilding liappens tii stand upon it ; but. when the soil is dry, two or three trenches to be cut, radiating from the foot of the conductor to a depth of 18 inches or two feet, and 30 feet in length, and either the conductor carried along the liottom of the trenches or old iron chain laid in them, care- fullj' connected with the foot of the conductor. The trenches to be then filled up to one foot in depth with coal-ashes or other carbonaceous substance, and afterwards with earth or gravel. If it be possilile, in regulating the surface drainage to lead a flow of water, during the rain which gen- erally accompanies thunder-storms, over the site of the trenches, it will be an additional precaution. Tanks are useless, except where the water flows freely into them from the surrounding soil, and even then they are superfluous as appendages to the con- ductors. The conductors for brick or stone magazines with .slate roofs should' consist of a sheet-copper strip 4 inches wide. and .12.5 inches thick, covering the ridge, and securely fixed to it by wrought-copper nails. At each end of the ridge a solid copper rod .5 inch in diameter is securely fixed to the conductor on the ridge; and projects about 5 feet above the high- est point of the buUding. Upper end of this rod is carefully pointed Copper strips about 3 inches wide, or copper tubes nearly one inch in diameter, pass down the angles of the hip, and are firmly secured to the copper eaves-gutter. The descending water-pipes, made also of copper, and fastened to the face of the building by copper holdfasts, are connected at their lower end to the underground conductor by a piece of copper, 3 inches wide, wrappeii around the lower end of the water-pipes and riveted to the imdergrotind conductor. The under- ground conductor runs out from the building 4 feet, and then branches into two parts, each 8 feet long, 2 inches wide, and .Vi^i inch thick. These conduc- tors are about 2..'> feet from the surface of the ground at the lower end, and arc covered with coal ashes and earth. The copper sheathings on the doors and windows are connected with the lower end of the water-pipes bj- flat copper strips, 2 inches wide, fixed to the water-table 1)V copper nails driven into wooden plugs about 10 feci apart. When lubu- IIGHTNINO MAGAZINE GUN. 213 LIMBER. lar coiKluclnrs cannot be had of suniciciil IcnKtIi in one pic('<;, llicy arc <'onni'ctcil ]ty n union joint, anil Ntrcngtiicncd l)y a small pipe or fcrrnlc, about 4 inches lont;, insiilcthc tube, anilrivi'ted to each end. Buildiiif^s which liave the eavcs-^;ullers and down- pipes niad(M>f tin or xinc should liavi^ a main <'on- ductor communicatini; directly with the f^round ; it shoidd also be connected with the eaves-flutters, and the down-pipe should connect by a mi'tallic commu- nication with thegronnd, ruiuiiii!; out some distance from the buildinf^. Incase of liuildini;s sitiiale<l on a dry or rocky soil, ('special pains must always b(^ taken to lay down old chains or other condiiclors in various directions, to at least a distance of 10 to t.'i yards, anil from 1 foot to \.r> feet below the sur- face of the i;round ; and, if i)Ossibli', lead a How of rain over the surface of the cround about or near the condnctor. Let the conductor terminate in a large surface of moist earth whenever it can be ef- fected. If copper be not used for conductors, /.inc is the next best material of which they can be made. If iron be used, it shoidd be in the .ohape of galvanized wrought-iron pipe, not less than 2 inches in diame- ter, tirmly screwed together in joints of e.xtra thick- ness. Copper tube, of a thickness of from .12.') to .3 inch is always to be preferred : it has more than five times the capacity for conducting electricity that iron has, and more tlum three times that of zinc. See Piiirdir DijuiU. LIGHTNING MAGAZINE GUN.— The inventors of this rilie, the (Jolt's Patent Kire-arnis Maniifacttiring Co., have adopted the left-handed method of hand- ling, which enables the breech-action to be nuieh simplified and lightened without detracting from its strength. The cartridge used is the same as that of the 44 caliber C'olt revolver; it contains 40 grain of powder, and the b\illet weighs 200 grains. The drawing shows the arm and its parts in position ready for tiring. To load and tire, tiring the piece to the shoulder in the usual wa}' ; grasp the handle of the slide -•l,with over the cartridge-head hrfirre the inagazine-gute will allow another cartridge to \»- fed to the carrier, thus preventing blorking of the breech-action. The liring-pin is held liack positively until the cartridge has entind the chamber, when the bolt is locked so that ]irciiialure explosion is impossible. The ham- mer jis automatically locked and unlocked by the hook on the rear end of the magazine-gate. By this arrangement the rille may be loaded and dis- charged by the reciprocating motion of the slide, keejiing the trigger constantly pressed back during the motion by I he forefinger of the right hand. The magazine can only be charged when the slide is drawn to the rear. To take apart the rifle, take out the tang-screw. Draw oir the butt-stock. Take out the magazine- screw at the front end and remove the magazine. Take out the two side screws, cock the piece, draw the slide about half way to the rear, and withdraw the trigge--plale. Slide the bolt dear back, insert a punch in the small hole on the left hand side, and push out the locking-brace pin. and slide out the lock. The other parts can be removed without spec- ial directions. To assemble the rifle, replace the jiarts in the reverse order from that given for tak- ing the rifle apart See Colt Mar/(tzine-rijle. LIGHTS. —In pyrotechny, lights are made by press- ing lance or similar composition in shallow vessels, or in cases of large diameter. The burning surface being large, the light attains a great intensity. Shallow earthern, wooden, or metal vases or paper cases are used. The vase or case is filled with dry composition, slightly pressed in ; or composition, moistened with gummed water maj' be used and pressed in the case more compactly. It is primed i)y powdering the surface first with a mixture of eipial parts of the comitositiou and mealed powder, and then with powder alone. Cover the top over with paper, pasted on the sides of the case. Through the center of the cover i)ass several strands of quick- match, spreading them over the suface and uniting them on the e.xterior in a single strand. When the light is made with dry composition, the the left hand and draw it to the rear. The first part of this movement raises the locking brace, /?,from the abutment. C, acts upon the tiring-pin-lever, /.'.with- draws the firing-pin, E, and releases the magazine- gate, F. causing it to hold back the cartridge in the magazine. Continuing the movement, the bolt. O, moves to the rear, ejects the cartridge-shell, cocks the hammer,//, and raises the carrier, /,so that when the movement is finished, the cartridge is in proper position to enter the chamlier. The slide is then drawn forward. This movement carries the bolt for- ward, drives the cartridge into the chamber, throws down the carrier into position to receive another car- tridge, and the rifle is ready for firing. A feature peculiar to this rifle is, the lock is brought clear forward and the extractor is hooked case must be placed in a vertical position. It may be placed horizontally if moistened composition be used and firmly packed. Torch-ligliU for funeral ceremonies are made bj' impregnating large strands of cotton with a thin al- coholic pap, the whole arranged in vases like an oil- lamp, the pap replacing the oil. See Fire>ri>rks. LIMBEE. — To suit a gim-carriage to the easy and rapid transportation of its load.it must be convert- ed into a/"'/)--wheel carriage, which is done by at- taching it to another iiry-wheel carriage, called a Umber. The field-limber is composed of an -nxletree (1), a/orA (2). two hound.t (.3 3), a splinter-bar (4), ivt'O foot-boa fd.i (5 5), a pole (6), &piiitle-huok and key (7), two pole-gokes (8), and a pole-pad (9). A side view of the limber is shown in the article Caisson. UUBES-CHAIH. 214 LIMITS. with the manner of attaching the rear carriage to the pintle-hook. The limber a.\le-lree is made of iron, imbedded in a body of wood, as in the case of the gun-carriage. Ttie fork constitutes the middle por- tion of the limber, and is the portion to which the pole is attached. It is formed of a single piece of wood one end of which is mortised into the axle- body, and secured by the pintle-hook bolts, and the other is cut into the shape of a fork, to receive the tenon of the pole. The hounds are two wooden rails which are bolted to the axle-body and splinter-bar. They serve to support the ends of the limber-chest andfoot-boards, and also for the purpose of trans- mitting the draught of the horses to the axle-tree. Tlie chest is firmly secured by a stay-plate which is situated at the bottom of the cut in the fork, and two stay-pins, which pass through holes near the rear ends of the hounds. The spUnter-bar is a piece of wood placed cross-wise with the pole, and is firmly secured to the fork and hounds. It has four hooks, to which the traces of the wheel horses are attached. The pole, or tongue, is employed to regulate the motion, and give direction to the car- riage. The point of attachment of the rear carriage being near the axle-tree, and there being no sweep- bar, "the weight of the pole is mostlj- supported by the collars of the rear horses : it should therefore be made of strong, light wood — asli is generally used for this purpose. As the pole is liable to be broken in ordinarj' service, the method of attaching it to the fork should alwa3's be such that all of the fragments can be promptly removed, and a new pole inserted. The foot-boards are secured to the fork and hounds in a proper position for the feet of the cannoneers to rest upon, while riding upon the lim- ber-chest. The pintle-hook is a stout iron hook firmly fastened to the rear of the axle-tree, for the purpose of attaching the rear carriage. This mode of attachment is simple, strong, and flexible— quaXi- ties which are essential to rapid movements and great endurance. The point of the hook is perforated with a liole for the pintle-key, which prevents the carriages from separating while in motion. In the old system of field-carriages, the operation of lim- bering and of imlimbering was so difficult, that a rope, called a "prolouge," was used to connect the gun-carriage and limber in action. This implement is still retained, but the same necessity does not ex- ist for using it. All field-carriages should admit of being turned in the shortest possible space. This depends upon the size of the front wheels, the dis- tance between the front and rear a.xle-trees. the position of the pintle, and the thickness of the stock at the point where the front wheel strikes it. Not- withstanding that the front wheels are made higher in the present system of field-carriages tlian" the (Jribeauval system, which preceded it, the carriages of tli(' former have greater facilit}' of turninjf in consequence of the diminished thickness of the stock. See i) iin-i'arrimjes. LIMBER CHAIN.— A keep-chain wliich goes round ■ the iiinlli- ami confines the trail to tlie liml)er, pre- venting its llyini; off the limber-hook. LIMBER CHEST.— The ammunition or tool-chest belonging to the limber of an artillery carriage of any (h-scription. Those of the gun-carriage and caisson are fitted up as ammunition-cliests, while those of the forge and battery wagon contain re- spectively tools and stores for blacksmiths, and for carriaL'c-makers' and saddlers' use. LIMBER HOOK.— The hook on the limber to which the trail of the gun is attached. LIMBERING-UP HOOP.— A stirrup-handle on the trail of a gtm by which the piece is moved in lim- bering and unlimbering. LIMBER PITS.— Artificial cover provided in war- fare for tlie limbers of guns. They are usually 12 feet long, Ti\ feet wide at bottom, 7 feet at top, 3 feet deep, and provided with ramps at each end. A pit of this size can be executed in two liours by eight men. Each pit should cover a limber and two horses. LIMENARftUE.— An office" of distinction, which ex- isted in the Roman Empire. The persons invested with it were directed to watch the frontiers of the Empire, and they commanded the troops that were employed upon tliat service. LIMITARY.- The guard or superintendent placed at tlie confines or boundaries of any Kingdom or State. LIMITATION OF TIME OF PROSECUTION.— In the United States Army, no person is liable to be tried and punished by a General Court-Martial for any of- fense which appears to have been committed more than two years before the issuing of the order for such trial, unless, by reason of having absented him- self, or of some other manifest impediment, he shall not have been amenable to justice within that per- iod. LIMITES ROMANI. — The name of a continuous series of fortifications, consisting of castles, walls, earthen ramparts, and the like, which the Romans erected along the Rhine and the Danube, to protect their possessions from the numerous attacks of the Germans. LIMITS. — The importance of the notion of a limit in gunnery cannot be over-estimated, since many branches of mathematics, including the differential calculus and its adjuncts consist of nothing else than tracing the consequences which flow from this notion. The following are simple illustraticms of tlie idea : The sum of the series l-t-i + T+i + etc., approaches nearer and nearer to 2 as the num- ber of terms is increased ; thus, the several sums are H, \,\ IJ, 1}!, etc., each sum always differing from 2"by a fraction equal to the last of the terms which have been added ; and since each denominator is doulile of the preceding one, the further the series is extended, the less the difference between its sum and 2 becomes ; also this difference may be made smaller than any assignable qtiantitj- — say, -njo'oirtt — by merely extending the series till the last denom- inator becomes greater than 100,000 (for this, we need onl}' take 18 terms ; 3 terms more will give a difference less than -nnnrBlra '■> ^'^^ ^o on);again, the sum of the series cannever be greater than 2, for the difference, though steadily diminishing, still sub- sists ; under these circumstances, 2 is said to be the limit of the sum of the series. We see, then, that the criteria of a limit are, that the series, when ex- tended, shall approach nearer and nearer to it in value and so that the difference can be made as small as we please. Again, the area of a circle is greater than that of an inscribed hexagon, and less than that of a circumscribed hexagon ; but if these polygons be con- verted into figures of 12 sides, the area of the inter- ior one will be increased.and thatof the exterior one diminishi'd, llie area of the circle always con- tinuing intermediate in position and in value ; ami as the number of sides is increased, each poly- gon approaches nearer and nearer to the circle m size; and since, wlien the sides are equal, this difference can be made as small as we please, the circle is said to be the limit of an equilateral polygon the number of whose sides is increased indefinitely; or, in another form of words commonly used. " The polygon approaches the circle as its limit, when its sides increase without limit," or again, " When the LiailTS OF FIRE. 215 LINE. nimiber of sides is infinite, llie ijolyj-'oii liiciinies H circle." When wi; use the terms ••iiitinite" ami " zero " in inatheniitties, imthini; more is ineiint Ihiin tlmttlie (|iiiintily In wliieh the term is applied is iii- crt'tixlntj iritftniit liiiu't or tliminUitinij ittiUjiiiitt'ltl', and, if this were kept in mind, tlieri' would he mucli less confusion in the ideas eonneeled with thes(; terms; from the same cause has arisen the discussion c(jn- cernim; the p()ssil)ilily of what are called vanishing fractions (/. e., fractions, whose numerator and de- nominator become zero simultaneously; having real !» — 1 values; thus = - when x= 1; but by divi- a; — 1 sion we find that the fraction is equal to «+ 1. which = 2, when a: =: 1. Now, this discussion could never have arisen had the question lieen in- J» — 1 ■ terpreled rightly, as follows : approachesto X — 1 2 lis its limit, when x continually apjiroaches 1 as its limit, a proposition which can be proved true by sub- stituting successively ;i, 2, H, 1|, 1,'j, Iti'io' e'c, when the corresponding values of the fraction are 4. ;). 2J, 2|, 2|Jf,, 2,iif,, etc. The doctrine of limits is employed in the dilTereutial calculus. The tiest and most com])letc illustrations of it are found in New- ton's I'riiiripid, and in the chapters on maxima and minima, curves, summation of series, and integra- tion generally, in the ordinary works on the calcu- lus. LIMITS OF FIRE. —'Within the limits of the zones of (lavjger, ])ositions are found for front, for reverse, an<l for enlilading tire. If the two faces, for exam- ple, of a work be prolimged to intersect the extreme limit of dangerous ground, the sector whic'i they embrace is termed the limits of dirrct or fnmt fire; since, from every position that can be taken up within this sector, a direct fire alone can be brought to bear upon the two faces. The two sectors which lie adjacent to this are termed the limits of lateral, or reverse fire, since they afTord positions from which a reverse fire can be obtained against one of the faces, and a front fire upon the other. It is also only within these last limits that positions for enfilading the terre- pleins of the faces can be obtained. Sec Defilement. LINCH-FIN. — A pin through the end of an axle-arm of an artillery carriage to keep the wlx'el on. A hook attached to the head of the ])iii and embracing the axle-arm prevents the pin from being jolted out. A ring against which the linch-pin rubs is called the Liwli-pin Wa-ilKr. LINE. — 1. In fencing, an imaginary line opposite to the fencer, wherein the shoulders, right arm, and the sword should always be found, and wherein are also to be placed the two feet at the distance of 18 inches apart. 2. In tactics, a body of men in either one or two ranks; generally a body of troops drawn up with an extended front. 3. An expression used in the 15ritish Army to distinguish ordinary Cavalry and Infantry from the Guards. Artillery, and Engi- neers. It obviously takes its origin from the fact that the troops in question constituted the usual " Line of Battle." 4. The Line Officers of the Navy ; and Army in the L'nitcd States are divided into eleven i grades, and their comparative rank on the active or retired list is as follows: The Admiral of the Navy ranks with a General of the Army. The Vice Admiral of the Navy ranks with a Lieu- ! tenant General of the Army. 10 Rear Admirals of the Navy rank with Major Generals of the Army. \ 2.5 Commodores of the Navy rank with Brigadier : Generals of the Army. 50 Captains of the Navy rank with Colonels of the 1 Army. 90 Commanders of the Navy rank uiih Lieutenant Colonels of the Army. 1 80 Lieutenant Commanders of the Navy rank with .Majors of I he .\rmy. 2H() I.iiMitenants of the Navy rank with Captains of the Army. 100 .Masters of the Navy rank with First Lieuten- ants of tiie Army. 100 Knsigns of the Navy rank witli Second Li(Mi- anls of the Army. .Midslilpmen of the Navy. All SlalV Olliiirs are appointed by the President with the sanclion of the Senate. He- also appoints for vessels in actual service all Warrant Ollicers. such as boatswains, gunners, sail-makers, and carpenters, that may be reipiirefl. All ollicers not entitled to hold warrants are called I'elly Ollicers. AH ctlicers of the Army above the grade of Sergeant hold their authority by commissions, and are therefore termed Commissioned Officers, to distinguish them from Non-commissioned (officers. Presi<ient Fillmore in General Orders, No. ."jil, of ISiOl, has given the following satisfactory exposition of the use of the word IJiie in our Statute Book : The 132(1 Article of War provides that "If. upon marches, guards, or in (|Uarters, different corps of the Army shall happen to join, or do duty together, the officer highest in rank of tlie Line of the Army, .Marine Corps or Jlililia, by commission there, on duty, or in quarters, shall command the whole, and give orders for wliat is needful to the service, unless otherwise specially directed by the President of the United Slates, according to the nature of the case." The interpretatiim of this Act has long been a sub- ject of controversy. The difficulty arises from the vague and uncertain meaning of the words '"Line of Uie Army," which, neither in the Knglish service, (from which most of our military terms are bor- rowed), nor in our own, have a well-defined and in- variable meaning. By some they are understood to designate the Regular Army as distinguisiied from the Militia; by others, as meant to discriminate be- tween officers by ordinary commissions and those by brevet ; and, finally, by others, to designate all offi- cers not belonging to the Staff. The question is certainly not without very great difficulty, and it is certainly surprising that Congress should not long since have settled, by some explanatory law. a ques- tion which has been so fruitful a source of contro- ver.sy and embarassmcnt in the service. The Pres- ident has maturely considered the question, and finds himself compelled to dilTcr from some for whose opinions he entertains a very high respect. His opinion is, that, although these words may some- times be used in a different sense, (to be determined by the context and subject-matter,) in the 122d Article of W'ar, they are used to designate those officers of the ,\rmy who do 7iot belong to the Staff, in contra- distinction to those who do, and that the article in- tended, in the case contemplated by it, to confer the command exclusively on the former. The reasons which have brought him to this conclusion are briefly these : 1st. It is a well-settled rule of interpreta- tion that in the construction of stntntes, words of doubtful or ambiguous meaning are to be understood in their usual acceptation. Now it must be admit- ted that, in common parlance, both in and out of the Army, the words '•Line"and •StatF' are generally used as correlative terms. 2d. Another rule of constructiou is, that the same word ought not to be understood, when it can be avoided, in two different senses in different laws, on the same subject, and, especially, in different parts of the same law. Now in another article of this same law. the words '• Line andi>taff of the Arm} " are clearly and beyond ques- tion used as correlative and conlradistinctive terms. The same remark applies equally well to almost every case in which the words "• Line " and " Staff" occur in the numerous Acts of Congress. On the other hand, there is but one Act of Congress in which the words " Line of the Array" have been pur- posely employed to designate the Regular Army in LINEAX RANK. 216 LINE OF COnNTERMAECH. contradistinction to the Militia, and none in ■which they have been manifestly used as coutradistinctive of brevet. 3d. If Congress had meant hy these words to discriminate between officers of the Reg alar Army and those of the Militia, or between officein by bre- vet and by ordinary commission, it is to be presum- ed that tiicj- would have employed those terms, re- spectively, which are unequivocal, and arc usuallj' emploj'ed to express those ideas. 4th. If we look at the policy of the law, we can discover no reasons of expedieucj- which compel us to depart from the plain and ordinary import of the terms : on the con- trarj% we may suppose strong reasons why it ma}' have been deemed proper, in tlie case referred to by the Article, to exclude officers of the Staff fromcom- mand. In the first place, the command of troops might frequently interfere with their ajipropriate duties, and thereby occasion serious embarrassment to the service. In the next place, the officers of some of the Staff Corps are not qualified by their habits and education for the command of troops, and al- though others are so qualified, it arises from the fact that (by laws passed long subsequently to the Ar- ticle in question) the officers of tlie Corps to which they belong, are required to be appointed from the Line of the Army. Lastly, officers of the Staff Corps seldom have troops of their own Corps serv- ing under their command, and if the words "Offi- cers of the Line" are understood to apply to them, the effect would often be to give tliem command over the officers and men of all the other Corps, when not a man of their own was present — an anomaly al- ways to be most scrupulously avoided where it is is in any manner possible to do so. 5th. It is worthy of observation that Article 25, of the first " Rules and Articles." enacted by Congress for the government of the Army, corresponds with Article 122 of the present Rules and Articles, except that the words " of the Line of the Army " are not contained in it. It is evident, therefore, that these words were inserted intentionally with a view to a change in the law, and it is probable that some inconvenience had arisen from conferring command indiscrimin- ately on officers of the Line or the Staff, and had sug- gested the necessity of this change. It is contended, liowever, that Sec. lO.oftheAct of 1795, enumerates the 3Iajor General and Brigadier General as among the Staff Officers, and that this construction of the Article would exclude them from command, which would be an absurdity. No such consequence would, however, follow. The Article in question was obvious- ly designed to meet the case (of not unfrequent occur- rence) where officers of different Corps of the Army meet together witli no officer among them who does not belong exclusively to a Corps. In such a case, there being no common Superior, iuthe absence of some express provision conferring the power, no officer, merely of a Corps, would have the right to command any Corps but his own; to|obviate this difficulty, the Article in effect provides that, in such an event, the Officer of the Line, highest in rank, shall command the rest. But if there be a Major General or Briga- dier General present, the case contemplated by the Article does not exist. No question can arise as to the right of command, because the General Offi- cer, not belonging to any particular Cc^rps, takes the command by virtue of the general rule which assigns the command to the officer highest in rank. See Brerrt. Coniiiiand. and Rank. LINEAX RANK. — The rank of a Line-officer in his particular arm of tlie service. The Unenl promotion of a Line-officer is his promotion according to sen- iority in the arm of service, as opposed to promotion in the reiriment. LINE OF BATTLE.— The formation of an army for battle. In all actions it is necessary to place troops in such a formation previous to making the assault, or in showing front to the adversary, as shall expose them as little as possiljle, and yet place them in the readiest mode to carry out the orders of the Com- mander. It has been the custom from a verj' ancient date, coming to us from the Romans, and an ac- •x-pted principle by most nations, that an army, when drawn up for battle, should be formed in three distinct lines ; the fimt line, to commence the battle ; the second, to support it. and to fill up the gaps; the third which is in rear of all, as a reserve. This triple formation, though modified, remains much the same at the present day; but instead of deployed lines or lines of heavy columns, the troops are placed in lines of half-column formation. This has been rendered necessary from the withering fire and long rauge of the present arms of precision, which necessitate the reduction of the front of bat- talions. It has also become necessary, whether tak- ing the offensive or standing on the defensive, that shelter, either artificial (such as shelter-trenches) or natural, should be taken advantage of to screen the men as much as possible, and so not to expose them (in the case of an attacking party) more than can be helped before the moment of formation previous to the final rush in upon the enemj^'s position. LINE OF CIRCUMVALLAIION.— The front and the rear of camps around a besieged place are secured by lines of field works. The exterior line of works, termed the Line of CircumtaUation, should form an unbroken line of intrenchments composed of the most simple clementarj' parts, as tenailles, redans, etc., witli a slight profile; its chief object being to prevent succors of small detachments from slipping into the place. The interior line, termed the LJne of CounterTalliition. is composed of detached works, which, if the garrison is strong, should be in defens- ive relations. The main points whicli sliould be occupied by these works are the principal avenues to the defenses, and the positions selected for the parks of the siege-train; to secure these points from the attempts of the garrison, and to render the entrance of large convojs into the defenses imprac- ticable. The lines are so placed as to leave a space of about 200 yards between them and the front and rear of the camps. When the great extent of ground that must be taken up ly a besieging force, in the investment of anj- considerable posiflon, which requires to be entirely surrounded to cut off all communication between it and the exterior, is taken into considera- tion, particularl}- now when rifled guns have ac- quired such long ranges, it will be seen tliat com- plete lines of circumvallation will be seldom practicable, and in most cases must be of too weak a character to serve as an intrenched defensive position for the besieging force to receive battle within them. Accordingly, in the later sieges in Europe, continuous Hues of circumvallation have been seldom resorted to ; the besiegers contenting themselves with occupying oulj- the main points of their position liy field works, and giving the inter- vening space such protection as could be afforded by strong patrols and posts This departure from former practice arose, iu most cases, from the want of strength of the besieging force, and was fre- quently attended by the very events against which lines are chiefly effectual in guarding. As a field of battle against a succoring force of sufficient strength to cope with the besieging army, a position taken behind a line of circumvallation is but in rare excep- tions eligible, a maxim tliat applies to all extended and weak lines ; and iu :ilniost every case, where a serious effort has been made against such positions it has proved successful, and has entailed heavy loss on the besiegers. But, it must be repeated, as tills is not the object of these lines, they are not open to this objection ; and, as they have been found serviceable for the sole purpose' to which they should be applied, they ouglit to be thrown \\\i in all cases where the means of the besiegers will admit of it. See I ntrt itrhtd <'oin]is. LINE OF COUNTERMARCH.— A sort of a trench whicli the besieged make, and push forward from LINE OF COUNTEKVALLATION. 217 LINE OF OFEBATIONB. tlir cliicis, for llic purpose of coiintfractiiig tlic ene- inv's works. LINE OF OOUNTERVALLATION. The line of Held works coiislnu-lrd In froiil of tlic ciiinps, anil oiillir side next to till- licsi(i;i-(l i)osilion. to defend llie (•iiinps. parks, and trains against any attacks whieU iniulil be made by the besiei;('d. See Line, of (Ur ftnin<l'l(ttiink. LINE OF DEFENSE. A line rcprcsentiiiK the flight of a rille-b;ill from the jilaee \vh<Te the soldiers stand, to seour th<' fare of the li;islioM. The line of de- fense should never exceed the ranije of Ihi' rille. It is eilhi'r./(r7(«/t^, or /v(_y(f?i<. The iirst is when it is drawn from tlie aii;;le ; the last, when ills drawn from a point in a cnrtain, ranging the face of the bastion in forliliealion. LINE OF DIRECTION.— In gunnery, the line for- merly m.irked upon guns by a short ])oint upon the mu/./.le. and a cavity on the base-ring, todircct the eye in ]ioinliug tlu^ gnn. LINE OF FIRE. — 1. In gunnery, the production of the axis of the gnn directed upon a point which is ill a vertical distance above the object to be struck, (■orres|)onding to the time of tlight re((uired for the range, and at the end of which time the shot will be brought to the object by the force of gravity. 2. In forliliealion, this term ailmits of two distinct licccplalions ; fir.it, when it is found necessary to give an idea of the manner in which a ramjiart or an inlrenchment covers any space of groimd by the (lis<-harge of ordnance or musketry, lines must be drawn to represent the distances traversed by the shot, etc. — these lines are called linen "f fire, being representations of the actual ranges ; semnd, all that extent of a rampart or intrenclmient from which the projectili- of ordu.anee or uuisketrv are discharged. LINE OF LEAST RESISTANCE.— The shortest dis- tance from the center of the charge of a mine to the open air. Assuming the crater to be of the form of a truncated cone, as is usual, the radius o d, of the lower circle, being also assumed at one-half the ra- dius p n, of the upper circle, then the radius p B, of the tipper circle, is termed the n-nter radius, and tlie line o p, drawn from the center of the powder A p a perpendicular to the surface where the explosion takes place, the line nf least r'sistnnce. The lineo b, drawn from the same center to any point in the cir. ctnnference of the upper circle, the radius af eiphis'im. A mine with a line of least ri'sistance not greater than nine feet, formed by sinking a shaft from the surface of the ground and placingthe charge at the bottom of it, is tenneil a fougasse. — See Crater. LINE OF MARCH.— The arrangement of troops for marching; also, the course or direction taken by an army or smaller command. LINE OF METAL.— The profile cut from the U])per surface of tlie piece by a vertical plane passing through the a.xis of the bore. When pointing a jiiece, the li7ie /if metal is accurately determined, and the piece is i»o maneuvered as to iiriug the line of metal into the jilane of tire. LINE OF METAL ELEVATION.— In gunnery, the visual line connecting the front and back sight when the latter is at its lowest point. /. c, connecting the notch on the swell of the muzzle, or dispart sight, when the trunnions are perfectly horizontal. LINE OF OPERATIONS. — All lines of communica- tion leading towards an enemy's base do not offer eiiual advantages to an army acting on the offensive. Some lead more directly and otter more security than others in an advance on the enemy ; some ma}' offer greater advanfages than others when our superiority lies either in infantry or in cavalry ; some ari' more- favorable nstoHiibsislIng an army, or alTord ing it more convenient Iransportion, or in enabling us to turn the enemy's position ; others again receive better siipjiort from the Itase of operations, etc. The taliiit of a (ommanding (jeneral is chiefly shown in weighing the advantages and (h'fects of eacli of these circumstances, and selecting from them the best. A line of operations is said to hvnimple when the army corjjH moving against the enemy are kept tOL'etlier. or at least are not so far separated as to be be3'ond mutual su|iporting distances. These Cfirps conse(|ueiilly niusl all move on roads nearly parallel, anil not too far apart, and without any impassable ohslruclions between them. A line of operations is said to be doulile when an army divided into two parts follows two sensibly iiarallel roads which are so far asunder that the two ])orlions cannot be reunited upon the same day on the same t-eld of battle. Unless we are superior to the enemy on each line, both in niimbersand the moral qualities of our troops, a double line of ojjeralions is purely disadvan- tageous to us; and particularly so if the two lines diverge as we advance; for the enemy, by throwing himself between the two fractions of our army, may beat each of them separately, and find himself in an attitude to inlercei)! our communications. The more rapidly the double lines diverge, the greater will be danger and the certainty of success to the enemy. Here we find a marked ilitTeieiice lietween what may be termed a ^'trategieal and a tactical operation. In the latter the greatest danger that an army can run is to be surrounded on the field of battle ; where- I as an army that throws itself, by a strategical move- 1 meni, between several fractions of an enemy's army beyond supporting distance of each other, may, by superior activity, defeat them all in succession. The only case in which — the armies on the two sides being sensibly of equal strength, and control- ling reasons calling for it— a dimble line can be fol- lowed, in the face of a General of respectable abili- ties, is when the latter has also adopted double di- vergent lines, or lines very far asunder. But in this case our double line must be an interim- one, or lie between those of the enemy, so that the two frac- tions may, in case of need, support each other if attacked ; or be suddenly concentrated so as to at- tack one of the fractions on the enemj-'s exterior line, the other in this case being beyondsupporting distance of the one attacked. This principle of in- terior lines, particularly when they converge as we advance, as a matter of fact, is only a modification of the one of a single line. It only amounts to keeping the fractions of our army in such distances from each other that they are nearer together than those of the enemy, and can be concentrated on any one of his before it can be reinforced by the others. Still, it must be observed, that it is always safer to maneuver on a single line than upon two, although they may be interior. It is important not to confound double, or multiple lines, with the various lines of communication over which fractious of an army are necessarily marched, in order to concentrate oii a particular point. In this case the movements of all concur to the same end ; the army corps are momentarily separated only to march with greater convenience and rapidity": to reconnoiter the ground more thoroughly over which they move: and to live more comfortably. This mo- mentary separation of our forces, to be again united at the moment of battle, when well executed, is the very acme' of good generalship. It is one of the best means of keeping the enemy for a long time uncer- tain of our real intentions as to the point of attack. To know when, in turn, to scatter our forces to em- brace a greater e.xteut of country, when circum- stances permit or call for it, and then to concentrate them, in order to strike a decisive blow, is one of the most marked features in the qualities of a irreat Captain, No General of modern times has shown this trait in as Ligh a degree as Napoleon. LINE OF SIGHT. 218 LINE OF WOEKS. When, by the eventualities of a campaign, we find ourselves "rather forced to abandon our primitive line of operations and take up some new one, tlic lat- ter generally receives the appellation of au aeeifle?it- al line of operations. This term is not properly appli- cable to a line voluntarily taken up, to march upon a point which the enemy may have weakened by with- drawing from it troops, under the apprehension that he was threatened on some other. This change of line, so far from being an accident, is the legitimate fruit of profound combinations, and may be the cause of important successes. The primitive line was, to some extent, a feint; and the line apparently but secondary the true one; it cannot therefore be termed accidental; it will be thus simply the 7iewline (if operations In like manner in a retrogade movement an army may abandon its natural line of retreat and take up another,leadiug off laterally from it, for the purpose of enticing the enemy into a district of country less favorable to him, and at the same time to throw him further off from his main object. The line of re- treat in this special case will be sensiblv parallel to our own frontier instead of being, as it is gener- alh', perpendicular to it. This new line of retreat also cannot be classed under the head of accidental lines, since it is one voluntarily adopted, and pre- sents advantages over the natural line of retreat. It has received the name of the parallel retreat, a term sufficiently expressive of the thing itself. To be successfully executed the retreatiug army should not be too inferior in force to the enemj', and should run no risk in being cut off from its own frontier b}' moving too far from it. The local features are par- ticularly to be taken into consideration in such operations. If they are of a broken character, the movement will be the less periJous ; if, on the contrary, the country is open, and without strong natural points of defence, the safest plan will be to regain our frontier by the shortest line. When a choice between several lines of operation is offered, it will be best to adopt the one where the army can be most easily subsisted, and in which, according to the kind of troops of which it is com- posed, the army will be most secure from the ene- my's enterprises If the army is superior to the ene- mj- in cavalr_y, it will u;iturally prefer to move over au open district and country: it, on the contrary, its main strength lies in its infantry, it will prefer to skirt along the foot of a mountainous range, or to march through a broken country. A line oif opera- tions parallel and near to a river presents the advan- tage of having its wing nearest the water course per- fectly secure from attack, whilst the river itself fur- nishes an excellent communication for bringing for- ward men and the supplies. The defensivepositioa taken up by the enemy also has great weight in de- termining the direction of the line of of operations. If he occupies cantonments extending over a consid- erable line, the most natural line will be the one by which the army can throw itself into the center of the enemy's isolated corps, and thus separate them and beat them in detail. By attacking one wing of a position of this kind we sho\ild, in all likeliliood, force back one corps after another vipon the neiirh- boringone, until in tlie end the whole would, in tliis way, lie concentrated in their natural order of retreat. If, on tlie contrary, the enemy's corps are in proper supporting distance of each other, the natural jiniiit of attack is certainly one of his wings, l)r(ivi(led that, in making the said movement, the line of operations of our own army is not left ex- posed; for the first of all necessities" Isneverto place eitlier our base or our line of operations in jeopardy. The choice to be made will also depi'ud upon the characters and military talents of the enemy's Gener- als, the quality of the forces, their moral condition, etc., etc.; these are points which carry such great weight with al)le Commanders that they have of- ten been known to have adopted plans the very re- verse of what they would have done under contrary circumstances, according to their being in front of one or another General. Turenne, having for his op- ponent Conde, did not allow himself to do things which seemed to him as easy and a matter of course before the Archduke. On one occasion, in 1654, he lost some men while passing within the range of grape in front of the Spanisli lines, wliich called forth remarks from some of the officers accompany- ing him. To these he replied: "The march we are making would be very imprudent before Conde's po- sition; but it is very"important that I should exam- ine thoroughly this position ; and I am so well ac- quainted with the Spanish service, that I feel assur- ed that before the Archduke has been informed of it, has'sent word to Conde, and called together his council, I shall have completed it and returned to camp." "See," .said that Captain who more than the other was capable of pronouncing a judgment on such points, "here is something that pertains to the divine portion of the art," In truth, military genius manifests itself in just such subtle distinctions and delicate shades. See Base of Operations, and Ohjec- tive Point. LINE OF SIGHT.— In gunnery, the right line passing through the notch of the tangent-scale and tip of the trunnion-sight (at any elevation), and the object. See Pointing. LINE OF WORKS.— When it is necessary to hold for a time a line of considerable extent by a force in- ferior to that whicli may be brought against it, the line should be fortitied by intrenchments, consisting of a series of works laid out according to the approved principles. The kind of work forany particular po- sition on the line will depend upon the nature of the locality it is to occupy and the manner in which it will combine with those adjacent in securing mutual support throughout. Such lines are frequently from fifteen to twenty, or even thirty miles in length, ex- tending over every variety of country, andm their construction call for the highest skill in military en- gineering. They are constrvicted, usually, either for tlie protection of important towns, cities, and depots; or to make secure the base of operations and lines of communications of any amy maneuvering in the field : or, by stretching across peninsular regions, to restrict the theater of operations of the enemy; or for surrounding and besieging a place ; or for the purpose of holding the enemy in position with a part of an army while the remainder makes a flank or other strategic movement. The civil war of 1861-65 afforded numerous instances of each of these con- ditions. The same general principles apply to lines as to other field-works ; but, from their gre;it extent, they usually receive only a slight relief, and tlu' simplest angular figures are adopted for their plan. In laj'- ing them out, advantage should be taken of all tlie natural features presented liy the position, so as to diminish the labor of erecting artificial ones. The flanks of a line or posit ion are generally weak points. Wlien possible, one or lioth should rest on natural l)oints of support. A flank not so supported must lie secured by slronir works espeeiidly well garnished with artillery. A iioiul that Ikis nnt":i clear field of fire is a weak jioint, iind should be strongly intrench- ed, so that the enemy may not have advantage of hills, ravines, or oth"er shelters in approaching the line. Care should be exercised in determining the kind of artillery for such positions. The field of LINES. I'll) LINES fire hc'inp; rontnirtpcl, lone ranijc \<i not of so much iniporliiiu'r as iiliility In sciircl] hdiinil llii' <'iiciiiy'H shelter, iir In lliriiw a greal mass of prnjeclili's in a liiiiil<'(l liiiw. Mortars, howitzers, aiiiLiMaehitie-;;iins will he fiiuiid servicealili'. In estalilishiiii; a line of w<irk8, tile most important ohjeel should he to eov- er every portion of the front within fair ranj;"' with (lireet or cross lire. To aeecjmplish this, all promi- lieiil l)oints alomj the line are fnrlilied, eaih with a wiirk havini; a Iraee most suited lo Ihe ecjiifcirmalion of liiat parlieular site. The most important of these .shonld lie inclosed works npon the hastiiiii-front ])rinciple, and of consiilerahh- size, capahle of endiir- iiifi an independ<'iit attack. Smaller inclosed works, such a.s redouhls and star forts, occnijy ""' Hi'<'ond- ary points. Between the works thus Incaled extend riJIi-trciu'hiH, capahle of shelterini; infanlry. The line is therefdre conipiised of a series of works mutu- ally supporting each other and covering ever}' avenue of approach. The arlillery, of which there should be an abun- dance, will naturally he jilaced in the works occupy- ing the most cimimanding and salient positions. These works should never be so far apart as to be out of mutual tlaidving range of Ihe arlillery with which they arc armed. It is the dut}' of ollicers of arlillery to co-operate with those of engineers in se- lecting the positions of the works that are to he arm- ed with artillery, and to determine the kind and quantity to be placed in each. As infantry troops constitute the chief garrison of works of this nature, they will be recpiired to construct them, leaving to the artillery the constructiiui of magazines, emliras- ures, and the other a<-ccssories pertaining to their special arm. Oeuerally these works ary thrown up very hastily, and often when an immediate attack is apprehended; this, lo a considerable e.\tent, decides not only the nature of the works, but the parts of them that rei|uire tlu^ first attention. Subsequently, if time permits, they are strengthened, improved, and worked into better shape. As far as jiractica- ble, the line should be composed of inclosed works, for the reason tliat should the enemy concentrate and break through at any point, he will not be able lo sweep the line to the right and left by taking it in Hank and rear. To storm ami capture each work in succession would be an operation too cosily for hiin to undertake. It is ailvisable in most instances to have in fro n SfSOy. forcing hig way through the main line, from obtain- ing easy possession ofiheiu by the rear. Sites for them should be selected with a view of olitaining from them a searching 'ire of the front line in reverse. This line of works, although apjiarenlly iiUTt in rear, unist he ke|)t fully armed and manned, ready lo driven the enemy from any part of the main line that he may succeed in obtaining possession of. Promi- nent salients in the main line are especially inviting- to the enemy; hehinil these a second line should be prepared, so placed, if (lossible, that should the ene- my obtain the nniin lin(' he will be within musketry range of the second, an<l hi- forced with wearied troops lo undertake the capture of it. See FiiUl Furtifimtiun,. LINES.- The field-works known as lines are divi- ded into several classes, according to thi^ object for which they are constructed; or, according to som(t peculiar arrangement of their parts, or some other characteristic ipiality. They are most generally classified us r<intinnfd Uiuh and lineji with iiitervatx. There are no openings in a continued line, except those made for the use of the defense. Continued lines have been much used in past military opera- tions, and will, in all probability, be used in the operations of the future. They may be usefully employed where a jiassive defense only is to be made, and where the position to be defended is limited in extent, and not exposed to flank attacks. They are not fitted for an active defense, and they have the serious disadvantage of being untenable, when any part of the line has been taken by the enemy. They require a large amount of labor lo construct ; and it is a very doubtful <pieslion, whether the advantages they give compensate for the time and labor employed in their construction. Lines with intervals differ from the continued lines, by leaving intervals along the front of Ihe posi- tion, which intervals present no obstructions to an enemy moving through them, excepting so far as they may be (lefendeil liy the fire of the works, or may be obstructed by natural obstacles. or by artificial ones,pliieed along the front. The works formingthc line ma}' be placed so close to each other as to be in defensive relations ; or they may be so far apart, as lo admit only of their defending the intervals between them. If an obstinate defense is to be made, a second line should be used. It should as a general rule be ^soy Pl.an of a Linn with IntRrvnIs of Lunettes, or of the line, within easy musket ran;:e, a line of stnall red;ins or bmettes ;il intervals of:ihoiU l.filHI y;irds. Each of these shiniUl be capable of holding from one lo two hundred infantry ami four to six tield-pieces. This line of outworks would form, as it were, a species of picket-line, keeping the enemy from close- ly observing and harassing the main line, and would Cfmstitute an advanced line of battle, ag;iinst which the tirst shock of the enemy is partially thrown aw:iy, and he dare not attempt to neglect them ; for ;'in endeavor to penetrate through the intervals woiUd expose his flanks to a close and deadly flank and cross fire. The redans lieing ojien towards the main line, could not be held if captured by the ene- my, A somewhat similar line of works should be established in rear of the main line. They shoidd, however, have their gorges stockaded or otherwise closed to prevent the enemy, should he succeed in Square Redoubts flanked by Retired Redans. I placed behind the first, and distant from it, abotii one-fourth, and certainly not grciiter tlian one-half, of llu' distance between the works in the first line. When artillery is used in the second line, a good position would be about six hundred yards distant from the first. This places the second line just out of range of aimed musketry fire, but in close range of arlillery fire. .\ third line of field-works is some- times liuilt. The general arrangement of the works of this third linewith the works of the first and second, conforms to the princijiles employed in arranging the work in the second line. A third line might be usefid. in case of an active defense, since the works placed along this line can be utilized as screens for the reserves and for bodies of cavalry. A fourth line would evidently be of no practical service in the defence of a position. A force. unable to retain possession of outer lines, could not hold the fourth. LINESUEN. 220 LINKED SHELLS. The number of Hues, whether a single one, or two, or three in number: the kinds of worlis to be used on each line; the distauee apart of the works on each line; the distance apart of the lines; and the details oif their construction, depend upon the natural features of the ground, the numbers and kinds of troops which are to occupj' them, the range of the arm used in their defense, and the time dis- posable in which to construct them. Certain advantages are claimed for lines with in- tervals. These advantages may be brietiy stated to be as follows 1. The lines with intervals admit of either passive or active defense. They are peculiar- ly fitted for the latter. 3. Lines with intervals are more easily adapted to the natural features of the ground than continued lines. 3. For the same ex- tent of front, they require fewer men to defend them, and the works require less labor to construct, than other kinds of lines. 4. They admit of a bct-ter use being made of raw and inexperienced troops. 5. A line with intervals may still be defended, even'after a part of the line has lieen captured, or after the en- emy jias broken through the line. The main defect inherent in lines of this class, is the sub-division of the defenders into several inde- pendent commands, b}' wbich unit}- of action of the whole command is impaired. This defect is reduced somewhat by a proper disposition of the works. A few capacious and strong works are better than a large number of small ones. Experience has shown that a bodj' of one thousand men, in a single, well- constructed work will offer a more effective resist- ance to the attacks of an enemy than the same num- ber would, when scattered aniong three, four, or more, smaller works. The difficulty which a Gen- eral would meet, in obtaining experienced officers tit for these independent commands, and in having these officers to act in unison with each other, gives sufficient grounds for such a result to be expected under ordinary circumstances. See Bastioned Line, CremaflUre Line, Multiple Lines, Redan Line, Mog- niat Line, Ser/-ated Li?ie, and Tenyiaille LJne. LINESMEN.— A term frequently applied "in the British service to the infantrymen of the Regular Arniv. LINES OF COMMUNICATION.— A term applied to all the practicable routes and roads connecting the dif- ferent parts of an army occupying the theater of war. Therefore, as the army moves from its base, the lines of operatimis become lines of communiea- Von, and since these lines of operations are generally the longest and most important lines ofcommunieji- tion, it is to them that the simple term communica- tions generally refers. All the routes used b}' the trains employed in provisioning an army, form a part of the communications. The m6st important, safest, and most convenient of these routes, all other things being equal, will be the central one, or the one leading from the center of the army back to its base. This ])articular route is sometimes designated as the li>n>tf mipplies. LINES OF EETEEAT.— The roads passed over by an army when advancing are ordinarily the roads taken when the army retires or is driven back. In the latter case they are known as Lines of Retreat, and are Single, double diverging, etc, according to their number and^jjosition. Sec Retreat. LINES OF TORRES VEDRAS.— Famous lines of de- fense within which Wellington took refuge in 1810, when he found it impossible to defend the frontier of I'ortugal against the French armies; and from which, in the year following, he issueil on thiit car- eer of slow iuid hard-won victory, which ended in Ihe expulsion of llie Frencli from the Peninsula. The j first, or outermost of these lines, extending from Al- liandra. on the Tagus. to the mouth of llie Siz;indro, on the sea-coast, ami following the windings of the hills,, was 29 miles long ; \\\v\'<emnd (and bv far the most formidable) from (I to 10 miles behind "the first, stretching from t2uintella,nn the Tagus, to the mouth , of tl'e St. Loreuza, a distance of 24 miles ; the third, situated to the southwest of Lisbon, at the verj- mouth of the Tagus, was verj' short, being intended to cover a forced embarkation, if that had become necessary. The entire groimd thus fortified was c(]ual to FiOO scjuare miles. LINES WITH INTERVALS.— When the front to be defended is covered by a number of field-works, scattered along this front, and placed near enough together|to sweep the intervals with their fire, the whole arrangement forms a disposition called a I^ine with Intervals. Field-works placed so near to each other, that each one can bring its fire to bear upon the ground in front of those adjacent, are said to be in defensive relations with each other. See Lints. LINGERER.— One who pretends to be indisposed, in order to avoid his tour of duty. Hence the ex- pression malingerer, or a soldier who avoids duty in a disreputable manner. LINKED REGIMENTS.— In localizing the forces of the British Army, it is laid down that in each of the sub-districts of "the country two regiments shall be permanentlj' selected (whether absent or present) to be so localized, and the mode of selection is of regi- ments having any connection with the countj-. These regiments are termed li?iked, and in the case of one of the regiments going or being on foreign service requiring men to make up its numbers, sol- diers are drafted from the regiment remaining at home. LINKED SHELLS.— Admiral the Hon. Arthur A. Cochrane has recently devised a novel method of marine attack and defense. Its verj- novelty may tend to prejudice against it those who are saturated with the conviction that nothing new which is also good can be devised in warfare ; but the whole scheme is at once so simple, so ingenious, and so easil3' and cheapl}- tested, that it commends itself to impartial minds. He proposes to strew the line of approach of a hostile ironclad preparing to ram, or the wake of a ship when retreating, or the course of an enemy engaging on the broadside, with floating or partly submerged torpedoes, through which thepur- suer dare not attempt to pass. These torpedoes could be thrown to some distance from the ship by n\eans of mortars, which would fire very small charges of powder. Thus the 13-inch service mortar, at an ele- vation of 4.5 degrees, has a range of 850 yards with 3 pounds of powder, and with half a pound of pow- der a range of 180 yards when projecting a shell of aboit 180 pounds weight. The shells would have a charge of high-class explosive, say, of 35 pounds weight, surrounded by an envelope, whether of thin metal or other material, of sufficient capacity to buoy the bursting charge and of strength to resist the pro- jectmg charge of, sa}', H povmds of powder. The shells would be connected by a floating line 100 feet or 200 feet in length, of small diameter, but of great strength ; such coupled shells could be very readily fired from two mortars simultaneously by electricity; the}' could be placed quite close together ; or the mortars, of which there would likely be .six or eight on a large ship's deck, might be placed at a distance apart of 50 or 80 feet on the line of keel or otherwise, the rope still connecting the shells. The action of the air on the connecting line when the shells were fired would be to draw the shells together; but it is not anticipated that this would be a practical diffi- culty over the ranges expected, viz., from 200 to 1,200 yards as the mortars would be slightly deflect- ed from each other. It is proposed to use such shells against shi])s on their ne;ir approach liy firing them across and just ahead <if the ship. It is clear thiit if the hostile ship slill jiroceeded, she would, by foul- ing the rope, dniw Ihe shells alongside and be blown up, and as the shells would be concussive and fitted with time-fuses, they would doubtless not fail to act. Should the ship stop in time to avoid the shells, oth- ers could be thrown astern of or over her, so as to hamper her nu)venients. Under any circumstances, LINOLEUM. 221 LINOLEUM. the liostile sliip could not ram her cnciny, iiml by Htoppiiii; would olTcr a pood liirijcl for mortar hIicIIh III lie llirnvvii on licr decks, iirid lor iirlillcrv liro. |l is iiropoMcd to cuiiiloy HJiclls of HcvcTid clasMcs : "A" shells chariced willi explosives, eupalile of tloat- ins on water, eased ill metal or other material, and united liy a lloatini; rope ; to he tired across the hows of shii)s, or dropped across ships or ports in a tidi*- way. "B" sliells, cluir;;ed with explosives, of slight- ly i;reater specilic i^ravity than water; such to h(^ rcLfulatcd as to \]\v. depth they shall sink in watiT hy means of an India-ruhher luhe or other material ; such tuhe to he seciirely attached to the shell when it is fired, or hy a line to the shell when it is ncct.s- sary, tilled with air and attached to the shell. lu the case of land service, such a luhe could bo easily tilled with explosive, and sucli tuhe could h<' attached to a second shell, for clcarini; ])arapets, treuclies, etc,, underspecial circumstances. "A" shells would he useful to clear hostile ships out of rivers, tideways, and to blow tip buttresses of liridges floatini;-hridges, sucli as those lately used in the Danube, preventiiiLi; ships entering; the Danlanelles, etc. "B" shells, on beini; thrown near the ships and buoyed by a |)ractically invisilile tul)e, at a deiith of Bay, l.T feet, woidd be very fatal on explodini;. "B" shells could be thrown on the line of advance of a torpedo ; and when enterins; a hostile port, defend- ed 1>3' submerged torpedoes, they could be thrown in advance of ships entering, and rej;ulaled by means of the buoy line, to exploile at any depth, or on the bottom, tlius cleariiif; the channel. The shells could be cased in metal and made in sections, or could be made of paper suitably preivared. Shells from mor- tars are now considered to be eltieient in proportion to their fallins; weijrht. The shells suijgested would be elHcient in pro|)ortion, not to their weight, but to the charge of explosive carried. From the small weight of the mortars, very small charge and small recoil, they could be most readily fitted to any ship almost without strengthening fitments, and In the case of numerous river steamers would add but little to the draught of water. It will be seen that the success or failure of the whole scheme de- pends on the possibility of firing linked shells, so that iheir line of flight would be nearly (larallel, and on the construction of the shells. Nothing but direct experiment can decide the first point; but it might be settled in a day for an outlay of a few jiounds. The construction of the shells obviously presents some difficulties. Admiral Cochrane has proposed several designs for shells intended to overcome these difficulties. It may be fairly assumed that fire from mortars, whose shells would be, or might be, con- nected by a slight line, would be very inaccurate, particularly in high and cross winds. But if one is driven to make comparison of efficiency. the accurac}- of artillary fire in ships in high cross winds may be seriously questioned, and the accuracy of action and aim of torpedoes fired from or at ships in motion may be very niucli more seriously questioned, par- ticularly if fired at more than .500 yards distance. The bows and the sterns of ships are, as a rule, now the favored points for projecting the torpedoes, and compressed air. steam, steam pistons, and gun- powder, are being tried to endeavor to obtain a sat- isfactory nu'ans of projecting them into the water, after which they have to find some yet undiscovered process of making them go straight to the object to be struck, a result wliich, when there is any sea on, or the boat or vessel is in motion, will never be ac- complished in any degree to be relied on. A com- parison may be made between the effect of, say. a 100-tou gun, 80 feet long, burning 400 or .500 pounds of powder, and projecting a shot of three-quarters of a ton, against a 2(5-iiicli armor plate, and that of one of the shells proposed by Admiral Cochrane, falling when charged with 20 pounds or 30 pounds of gun cotton, on the deck or into the barbette bat- tery of a 10,000 tons ironclad. Further, when the cost of the 100-ton gun. the powder and shot fitments, and complication of hydraulic gear recpiired to work such a gun, are cimsidered.as against a iy-in<;li mor- tar, weigliing perhaps 12 hundred. weight, and requiring, so to say, no science to work it what- ever, the advantage s<rems notal)ly in favor of mor- tars as the principal arm. It may be observed that a sea-service i:i-inch mortar weighs about .5 tons; its shell, loaded, about 200 pounds, carrying a bursl- ini; charge of some 10 pounds, and when tire.ialau angle of 4.5 degrees, with y pounds of powder, ranges H.50 yards ; but, as at jiresent, Adndral Cochrane only suggests shells of a weight of, say, 1(X) pounds, and that to be projected to a distance of, say, 1,200 yards, and that as the mortars should be made of phosphor-bron/.e, 12 cwt. might, it is assumed, suf- lice for the vvi'igiit of the mortar. The S. S. mor- tars have to face the firing of 200-pound shells up to a range of 4.000 or .5.000 yards. Mortar firing and sus- tained efforts to improve mortars have been but littl3 considered. Hifled mortars are hardly known; and the suspended mortars- Roberts' patent, on turn- tables for f .•a service and used in the Baltic in 18.54 — have dropped out of sight, though they were stated to offer many advantages in principle, while faulty mel:il and construction were ipioted against them. LINOLEUM. — A peculi;ir jireparaticjii of linseed-oil, which is variously emiiloyed for military purposes. In 1849 Nicies and Uochelder independently discov- ered that chloride of sulphur will solidify oil, and render il usable in many new ways. In 18.5!) JI. Per- ra communicated to the Academic des Sciences the details of a mode of effecting this by mixing and melting the ingredieiits.and pouring the mixture out in a thin layer. By varying the proportions the re- sulting substance pssumes varying degrees of con- sistency. Thus, 100 linseed oil -|-2;) chloride of sul- phur jiroduces a hard and tough substance; 100 oil -|-15 chloride a supple substance like India-rubber; and 100 oil -|- 5 chloride, a thick pasty mass. This third kind dissolves well in oil of turpentine. Jlr. Walton afterwards found that, by the application of heat, linseed oil will become hard without the addi- tion of chloride of sulphur. He conceives that it is not a mere drying, but a real oxidizing. Linseed-oil, first boiled, is applied as a layer to a surface of wood or glass, then dried; then another laj-er; and so on till the required thickness is produced. The sheet is then removed, and is found to be very much like India-rubber in elasticitj^; in fact, the produc- tiim of a layer by this means is analogous to the smearing of clay-molds with caoutchouc juice to pro- duce India-rubber, as practiced in South America. The drying is a little expedited by adding a small portion of oxide of lead. The solid oil is crushed, and worked thoroughly between heated rollers; and when treated either with shellac or with naphtha, it becomes applicable in various manufacturing forms. The term/ymwif^m properly applies to the hardened or tRe oxidized oil itself, but is cheifly u.sed as a designation for one of the substances made from or with it, a kind of floor-cloth. When the oxidized oil is rolled into sheets it becomes a substitute for India-rubber or gutta-percha. When dissolved as a varnish or mastic and applied to cloth it is useful for water-proof textiles, felt-carpets, carriage-aprons, wagon and cart-sheets, nursing-aprons, water-beds, tank-linings, table-covers, etc., according to the mode of treatment. When used as a paint, it is useful for iron, for wood, and for ships' bottoms. When used as cement.it possesses some of the useful properties of marine glue. When vulcanized or rendered quite hard by heat it may be filed, planed, turned, carved, and polished like wood, and used for knife and fork handles, moldings, etc. When brought by certain treatment to the consistencj- of dough or putty.it may be pressed into embossed molds for ornamental ar- ticles. When used as a grinding-wheel, touched with emery, it becomes a good cutter. Lastly when mixed with ground cork, pressed <m canvas by roll- LINSTOCK. 222 LISSB£EO£S FUSES. ers, tlie canvas coated at the back with a layer nf the same oil in the state of paint, and the upper or prin- cipal surface painted and printed, it becomes the Lhwleum floor-cloth, for the production of which a factory has been established at Staines. Dunn's pat- ented fabric fur similar purposes has no oil in it; it is a mixture of cork-shavings, cotton, or wool fibers, and coutchouc, spread upon a cotton or canvas back, and embossed with patterns ; it is a kind of kamp- tidicnn. LINSTOCK. — An iron-shod wooden-staff used in gunnery, for holding the lighted linstock in readi- ness tobe applied to the touch-hole of the cannon. In old pictures, tlie linstock is seen planted in the ground to the right rear of each piece, with a match smoking at each" of the ends of the fork in which it terminates. LION.— The lion holds an important place among the animals borne in coat-armor. As early as the 13th century, the king of beasts was assumed as an appropriate" emblem by the Sovereigns of England, Scotland. Norwav, Denmark, the native Princes of Wales", the Counts of Flanders and Holland, and various other European potentates. Lions occur in different posi- tions. 1. The earliest attitude of the heraldic lion is rampant (a), erect on his hind legs, and looking before him, the head being shown in profile, as he ap- pears in the Arms of Scotland, and origin- ally did in those of England. This was the normal position of a lion : but as the royal animal came to be more generally used by all who claimed to have any kindred with royalty, and to ))e granted to favorite followers by way of augmentation, some diversity of attitude was adopted for distinction's sake. 3. Rampant gardant celebrated winged lion of St. Mark, adopted by the Uepublic of Venice. The Island Kepuljlicbore. azure, a lion winged or sejant, holding between his fore- paws a book open argent, in which are the words. Pax tibi Marm Evanyflhta meu.i. Two or more lions borne on one shield are sometimes (though never when on a royal coat") blazoned Lwnceh. See Ilir- aldry. LIP-STKAP. — ri. small strap with a buckle passing from one cheek of the bit through a ring in the cen- ter of the curb chain to the other cheek, for the pur- pose of preventing the horse from seizing the cheek of the bit in his mouth. LIS. — A warlike macliine used by the Ancients. It consisted of apiece of wood or a stake, about the size of the human body, which was made smaller at the top than at the bottom, and resembled a lily not yet blown. Several of these were tied together with ozier or willow twigs, and were used for the security of a camp. They were not unlike the palisades of the present day. (ti). erect on the hind legs, and affronte or full-faced, 3. Rampant regardant (c), erect on the hind legs, and looking Ijackwards. 4. Pa.^sant (d). in a walk- ing position, with the head seen in profile. H. Pas- xant gardant (e), waJking. and with the head af- fronte'. 6. Pamint regardant, walking, and with head looking behind. 7. Statant, with all four legs on the ground. 8. Sal/ant, in the act of springing forward on his prey. 9. Sejant (J), rising to pre- pare for action. 10. Sejant affronte, as seen in the crest of Scotland. 11. Couchant, lying down, but with his head held well erect, and his tail beneath him. 13. IJarmant, asleep, with his head resting on his fore-paws. 13. fhioard or Cone, with his tail hanging between his legs. The lion passant gar- dant is often blazoned as the linn of England; and at a time wlien terms of blazonry were compara- tively few, it was confounded with the leopard, and "hence the lion passant and rampant gardant came to be called respectively the lion-le<yparde, and leopard-lionne. Two lions may be depicted rampant riimhatant — i. e., face to face — or rampant addoxse. placed back to back. Among leonine monsters, we liave two-headed lions, bicorporate and (ricorporatc lions, lion-dragons and lion-])oisscms. There is also the IJohcmiun lion, with two tails, and the more LISCHINE TENT.— A Russian hospital tent of pe- culiar construction, and well endorsed b}- militar)' men. The frame is of iron, and is covered with thin pieces of board 10 feet long and 1 foot wide, over- lapping each other like Venetian blinds. The ridge is of canvas. The iron frames are four in number. It has the advantage of being cheaper, more durable, warmer, and capable of better ventilation than the canvas tent. See Tents. LISSBERGEB FUSES. — The [Lissbcrgcr percussion fuse, shown in Fig. 1, consists of a copper tapering body, A. with enlarged head, but closed at the rear b_v a brass screw-plug, which is hollow nearly its entire length. Fitting this screw-plug is a brass hol- low cylinder tilled with a friction composition ; the lower part of tlie cylinder is closed. A wire, whose lower end is serrated and twisted, passes through central holes in the screw-plug and the solid cylin- drical plunger : it has its upper end loojied 1o form a shoulder against the plunger, lietween the plun- ger and the end of the scrcw-pIug is a disk of h'athcr. The lower end of the scrcw-plug is closed by a small ((uantity of ride-powder, and a disk of leather presseii in. The fuse -body has about the .same taper rearward, and is inserted in tlie shell the sameasthe ordinary paper lime-fuse; when inserted in a shell whose Might is suddenly arrested, the serrated wire is drawn forward by the phmger. igniling the fric- tion composition, and setting fire to the charge. LIST. 223 UTTEB. The time-fuse is an imliimry paper fuse. A, sliown in KIlt. 2, which is iirnileil liy nieiins (if un inerlin isniter. Tlie iirniter, H, (-(insists (if fourpiirts: A lirass solid-headed sliell, siiirlilly taperinu: on the ex- terior, liavintr holes in the liead and side-openings fortheeseaiie of ijas; thniUL'h the head of Iheliody, A. is introduced a hollow brass cyrnider. whose low- er end is cut and closed; within this cylinder is a lead plumper and a friction-pellet. At the instant of discharge, the friction-pellet is forced back and throui;h the routjh-closcd end of the cylinder by the ]ilunij;er and the tiine-fnse is thus iirnited. Sec Fiim. LIST. — 1. A line inclosini; or forniini;the extremi- ty of a piece of trniund, or field of combat ; hencc^in the |)lural, the i:r(iund or lield enclosed for a race or condial. 'I\iinli r Die ///.v^i, is to acce])t a cliallcnirc, or eni^age in a coi\test. 2, To cnjraire in the ])ublic service by enrolling one's name, as soldiers ; to in- close for combat. 3. A roll or a catalogue ; as the Army h'ltt. the Pni/ TJut, etc. LISTENING GALLERIES- The galleries of a forti- lication, le;iiling outwards from the counter-scarp gallery, See GdMi ry. comparatively small amount and in bad proportions. Neither does the presence of these substances add liny thing to the safety of the mixture. They tend to lower its tiring- pouit, and render it more easily explodeil. Its cii.iracteristicH, as compared with dy- namite, are: 1. (Jreater sensitiveness to temperature, exjiloding at 120", while dynamite exi)lo(le» at lliO"; 2. (ireater sensitiveness to moisture from the presence of the hygro.scopic nitrate of soda ; 'A. The gases from the explosion always contain carlK nic oxide from the carbon in the compound : 4. For ecpial volumes it has the lesser explosive power. See Dynamite, Kxphm'Te Agents, and Nitm-fjlycerine. LITTEE— A sort of a stretcher or liurdlc-bed on which the wounded are carried off the lield of battle. It is especially used for the badly wounded, who can only be carried lying down. In 1859 a Medical Board was convened to examine the subject of hos- l)ital transport. Besides various recommendations regarding the kind of veliicles suitable for the con- veyance of patients and of supplies, the Hoard ad- vised that IwiUinrHe littrrx should be constructed and issued to the frontier posts, This recommendation LITHOFRACTEUE.— An explosive mixture having the following composition : Nitro-glvccriue .'52.10 per cent. Kie.slguhr ;i0.00 Coal 12.00 Soda-saltpeter 4.00 Sulphur 3,00 100.00 '• Sometimes, instead ^.f the sodium nitrate, the po- tassium of barium salt is used, and variations made in the (juantity of uilro-glycerine containvd iu it. Like all the uilro-glycerine jireparations, it has no necessarily definite composition, it being merely a mixture made according to the caprice of the manu- facturers. This preparation is made by Krebs Bros. vt Co. in Cologne, and has been used to some extent in Europe. It is claimed by the makers that the other substances (coal, saltpeter, and sulphur) mixed with the nitro-glycerine increase the quantity of gas delivcreci, and, therefore, the explosive force also. This isnot,howcver,correct."Nitro-glycer- 1 was approved, and the specifications for the con- struction of such litters were incorporated in the Hegulatious for the Army. The form of litter re- commended appears to have been derived from ex- periences ill Florida and Mexico. The drawimr shows the manner of its construction and its (lifferent parts. It weighs 8.S pounds : the poles are 32 inches iu diameter and It) feet long; the sections are 44, 8 and 3^ feet respectively from front to rear. Xunier- ous improvised litters, constructed on the same gen- eral plan, have been extensively emi)lo3ed iu Indian Campaigns and in travel over very rough counlrv. During the late war in this country, a number of persons, actuated by motives of patriotism, human- ity, or interest, devised and brought to the notice of the War Departmcut forms of couve^-ance for the sick and wounded, in localities impracticable for wheeled vehicles. Several of these were apparently suggested by the descriptions of Delafield and Mc- Cleilan of the horse-litters and cacolets they had ob- served in the Crimea. A number of sets of these litters and cacolets were purchased by the United ine is so sudden in its explosion that nothing can I States Government, but were never used with suc- be added to it from the slower burning of any of the cess. The drawing shows the British Crimean mule- other combustible ingredients, which are present in ' litter, also the very easy p(wilion of the wounded sol- LITTEB. 224 LITTEB. (iier when ready for transport, and the equipment. In the litters and cacolets now issued in the French Army there are improvements providing for making the sections of the litter rigid, so that it can be used temporarily as a stretcher, for reduction in weight, and for greater compactness in packing. The mule- chairs and litters now issued by the British Koj-al Carriage Department are lighter and more conven- Amode of transporting sick and wounded by lit- ters that at one end rest on the ground, so that the patient is drawn, but only partially sustained, by the pack-animals, is mentioned by early travel- ers among the North American Indians. Parkman indicates that in the war with Pontiac, in 1763, the Colonists carried their wounded by this contrivance, and, in a later work, refers to the ti-a-cee used by the Oregon Indians ; and Lewis and Clark resorted to it in 1805, to carry a wounded hunter of their party. Latterly, this meth- od of transport has received much atten- tion from medical officers, as well adapted to the exigencies of frontier service. As- sistant Surgeon JIcGillycuddy, United States Army"^ has made the accompanying drawing of such an appliance attached to a horse. A sacking bottom is lashed to two poles that are separated by traverses, and secured to the stirrup-leathers of a cavalry horse equipped with the regula- tion saddle. The soldier's pack makes a pillow, and a blanket is thrown over him. In this contrivance the utmost limit of simplicity has been attained. This form of litter is draicn, while the Uco-horfe lit- ter is carried, it being substantially a stretcher, either horses or mules being substituted for the men who act as stretcher-bearers. In the latter, one ani- mal is harnessed between the poles before, and the second between the poles behind ; the patient being lent than those used in the Crimea. The drawing shows the British Army mule litter attached to its pack-saddle. It weighs 84 pounds, without bedding or pack-saddle. With the paillasses and pack-sad- dle, the weight is 167 pounds. The weight of a pair of English litters, used in the Crimea, was 138 pounds and 13 ounces, without the pack-saddle. So far as experience has gone, every form of litter and cacolet has been disapproved for one cause or an- other by tlie United States War Depiirtment. Al- though used in European services and in Algeria, with satisfaction and under favorable circumstances eilliiron plains or on open rolling country, in our mounlaiiioiis coiuitry, they are only a troul)lesome and liarl)arous encumbrance, cruel alike lollie wound- ed and the jiack-aniinals. This aversion lo sick-tran- sport by cacolets and double lillcrs is doubtless due to defects in administration rather than to any de- merits of the system, without efficient animals and packers it is vain to anticipate useful results from the best-contrived aiii)liances. Used with the greatest adviintiiL'i- in Algeria, and in the Crimea, the French caco.cts and lillers were adopted by the Brilish .\r my .iledical Department with satisfactory results. placed on a piece of canvas or other material, stretch- ed between the poles in the intermediate space. Such a litter was extemporized by Assistant Surgeon A. Hartsuff, United States Arniy, as shown in the draw- ing. This litter possesses the disadvantage of accident in case the two animals do not work well tog<'ther ; also, if the animals keep step, the litter begins to vi- brate, from the regularity of the motion, and in- creases to such a degree as to almost throw the patient out. Again, the litter cutting off the sight of the ground from the rear animal, makes him par- \ ticidariy liable to stumble. All things considered, : it would appear that the one-horse litter is far su- peri(jr to this form, and the exiiericncc of all having had occasion to use both contrivances, contirms this opinion. The aparejo is the favorite pack-saddle for general ])urposes in America, and it is believed that auibulance-chairs and litters can be adjusted with facility to these saddles; what is essential is that there should be trained animals and skilled jiackers. Until these indispensable adjuncts nr'i [irovided the contrivances found useful in European armies cannot be advantageously employed in our LITTLE FORTIFICATION. 225 LOADING. scrvifc, iind imdiial fifllcers will ]>(• i-Dnipcllcfi to re- Horl. in ciiicrf^ciicicM Id Mic Inivcc or to llii- two-liorai; litter, i'li-v A mini limce, (JiVJ/lrl, Strrlj^hi^r tind '/'raoV ; also ('/tan/, JJiiarw., OreeiUmf, McMlihrry, und 'J'/un- tlc J.itUrn. find till thr Kpform Mill in 1832. they hii<l tin- ex- cliiMivc privilc^^c of votiii}; for MeniherM of Purlia- iiicril for till' I'ily. LIVE SHELLS.— Shells loaded with their burHting clrii "". !•■ ii.jy for Hcrvice. LITTLE FORTIFICATION.- The name piven to the first division of tlie lirst system of Vauban, when the exterior .side of the fortiliealion does not exceed 'ihO yards. It is used in the eonslnietion of citadels, small forts, crown-worlis, and horn-works. See Fortifica- tion. LIVE- HEAD.— The hf<id-iiU>rk of a lathe, which con- tains the lire-npindle ; in conlradistinclion to Ihv.dfnd- head or t/til-nUick, which contains ihv dtod-xpi/itllt'. LIVERY. — A word applied in its origin to the cus- tom whicli prevailed under the Merovinijian and Carlovingian Kinsrs. of delivering splendid liahits to the members of their households on great festivals. In the days of chivalry, the wearinij of liverj' was not, aa now, conlined to domestic servants. The Duke's son, aa page to the Prince, wore the Prince's livery, the Earl's son liore the Dtike's colors and badge, tlie son of the Esquire wore the livery of the Knight, './rl tlie son of the gentleman that of the Esquire- Cavaliers won^ the livery of their mistres- ses. There was also a large class of armed retain- ers in livery attached to many of the more powerfid nobles, who were engaged expressly to use the strong hand in their masfer'.s quarrels. By the col- ors and badge of the retainer was known the master under whom he served. The livery colors of a fam- ily are taken from their armorial bearings, being generally the tincture of the tield and that of the principal charge, or the two tinctures of the field are taken instead, where it has two. Tncy are taken from the first quarter in case of a quartered shield. These same colors are alternated in the wreath on which the crest stands The royal family of Eng- land have sometimes adopted colors varying (|uite widelj' from the tinctures of the arms. The Plan- tagnets, for instance, had scarlet and white colors . the House of York, murrey and blue; wliite and blue were adopted b_v the House of Lancaster; white and green by the Tudors ; yellow and red by tlie Stuarts, and lij' William HI.: and scarlet and blue by the House of Hanover. An indispensable part of the livery in former times was the badge. The Church of Rome has its liveries for Apostles, Confessors, Martyrs, Virgins, and Penitents. The Freemen of the 91 guilds or corporations which embrace the different trades of London, are called Liverymen, because entitled to wear the livery of their respective companies. In former times the Wardens of the companies were in use yearly to deliver to the Lord Jlaj-or certain sums, 20 shillings of which was given to iudividvials who petitioned for the money, to enable them to procure sufticient cloth for a suit, and the companies prided themselves on the splendid appearance which their livv>ries made in tlie civic train. The Common Councilmcn, Sheriffs, Aldermen, and some other superior officers of the city are elected bv the Liver\nien of London ; LIVING FORCE.— That force of a body in motion which determines the work of which it is capable. It is measured by tlie product of the mass and the square of the velocity. See Forrt, and Work. LIZIERE. — The berme or narrow i)ath round forti- fications between the parapet and the ditch, to pre- vent the earth from falling in. LLAMA. This aninuil was in general use as a beast of bunhii on the Peruvian Andes at the time of tlie Spanish conquest, and was the only beast of burden used by the natives of America before the horse and ass were introduced by Europeans. It is still much used in this capacity on the Andes, the peculiar conformation of itsfeet enabling it to walk securely on slopes too rough and steep for anj' other animal. The working of many of the silver mines of the Andes could scarcely be carried on but for the assistance of llamas. The burden carri<(l by the llama should not exceed 12.') pounds. When too heavily loaded the animal lies down and refuses to move, nor will either cq^xing or severity overcome its resolution. It is generally very patient and do- cile. Its rate of traveling is about 12 or l.") miles per day. See Pack Animaln. iiOAD. — 1. A word of command in the Manual of Arms, executed as follows : The Instructor com- mands — 1. Sgiiad, 2. Load. Execute the first motion of about face , the left knee slightly bent : at the same time drop the piece into the left hand at the lower band, elbow against the body, the small of the stock two inches below the right breast, the barrel sloping downward at an angle of about twent}--five degrees, the right hand at the small of the stock. (Two.) Look toward the chamber, open it. remove tlie car- tridge-case if nccessarj-. take a cartridge from the cartridge-box, and hold it near the chamber, be- tween the thumb and first two fingers. (Three.) Place the cartridge in the bore, pressing it home with the thumb, close the chamber, cast the eyes to the front ; carry the right hand to the small of the stock, and raise the muzzle to the height of the chin. 1 . Carry, 2. Arms. Kesume the carry with the right hand, at the .same time face to the front. (Two-) Drop the left hand by the side. With cartridges, the commands for loading, previou- to the first are: 1. With ball (or blank) cartridge . 2. Load. 2. The term "load" is also applied to to the charge of a fire-arm. Sei' T.'iadinfi and Manual o/Arm.t. Fig. 14. LOADER. — An instrument used with smooth-bore siege howitzers to steady the shell in the passage down the bore. The fixed iron band which crosses the hollow hemisphere of the loader has a hole in it which embraces the fuse, and which on reaching the bottom of the bore can be easily disengaged. LOADING. — In loading guns and howitzers, the powder is carefullj' put up in a cartridge-bag of woolen cloth, which is either attached to or carried LOADING BAR. 226 LOCK. separate from tlic projectile, depending on the weight i of tlie projectile. In ramming a charge, only a suf- j ficient force should he used to send it home, as the i space which the powder occupies affects the initial I velocity. In loading mortars, the powder is poured : from tlie cartridge-bag into tlie chamber, and level- 1 ed witli the hand ; the shell is then carefully lower- 1 ed upon it with the hooks. After a piece has been discharged the bore should be well sponged, to ex- tinguish any burning fragments of the cartridge that may remain: and to prevent the current of air from fannini; any burning fragments that may collect in the vent, it should be kept tirmly clo.sed with a thumb-stall in the operation of sponging. E.xperi- ence shows that the use of a wet sponge is danger- ous, as it contributes to form, from the fragments of the cartridge-bag, a substance which retains fire. It may be sometimes necessary to fire projectiles that are either very much smaller or larger than the bore. If it be desired to use a gun-shell, or solid shot, which is very much smaller than the bore, it should be very securely strapped to a stout sabot which fits the bore ; if a mortar-shell, it is placed in the center of the bore by means of wedges, and the s\irrounding space is filled up with earth. Jlortar-shells are fired from guns and howitzers, by digging a hole in the groimd about 20 inches deep, and placing in it two pieces of stout plank inclined at an angle oil 45", for the support of the breech ; the chase is supported on a moveable wedge, which rests on skids firmly secured with platform stakes ; the charge of powder is then inserted in the bore, and the projectile is placed on the muzzle. and secured by passing strings over it, and tj'ing their ends to a rope, which encircles the neck of the chase. Pieces fired in tliis wav shoidd be elevated 40" or 45"; thus situated, tlie fuse of the 8-inch mortar-shell takes fire from very small charges ; but the 10-inch fuse shovdd be primed with strands of quick-match, -which are allowed to hang over the sides of the shell. LOADING-BAR. — A more convenient implement than the sliell-hooks fcir carrying and loading the i shell. It is simply a bar of round iron about twofeet long, fashioned into a ring if! one end for a handle, and having a screw cut on the other end, which screws into a shallow hole tapped in the shell at a short distance from the fuse-hole. When the shell is lowered into the bore an<l adjusted, the bar is un- screwed and removed. LOADING SIDE OF AGUN.— The side of the grooves of a gun, by which a projectile passes down the bore of a rilled gun from tlie muzzle. The studs of the shot press against this side when being loaded, but on being forced out by the explosion of the charge, they press against the other side, termed the driv'ng side. LOADING-TONGS. — Tongs for placing in the charges and sliclls of siege howitzers. They are formed of two arms, so hinged together that the bent ends of the short arms will enter the ears of the shell, and the grooved and widened ends of tlie long ones w^ill clasp between them the cartridge. The imple- ment is made of such a length that the cartridge can "be thrust into the chamber by reaching in one hand, lioldiiiix the tongs with the cartridge in iiosilion. LOCALIZATION.— The act of establishing troops, depots, nia^.iziues, etc., in any appointed jilace, di- viding lliem into a number of small centers indepen- dent of each other In case of mobilization of an army, each appointed town forms a place of rendez- vous, where men on furlough and those behmgingto the reserve meet to obtain their arms and ('(luipment, and lo he ilrilled until they are draughted into tlie re'jirnriils in Ihc field, or join the army of reserye. LOCAL RANK. The rank given to an ollicer in Her Majesty's service serving in a foreign land with other troops, whi-rehy he is placed-in hispropei posi- tion, as regards ec|uality of rank, with those ollicers whose tirsl commissions are of the same date, but wh>have been more fortunate in promotion. For instance, a British officer located in India, with his regiment and with troops belonging to the Indian Army, may find himself junior in rank to an Indian officer, tliough his first commission is of the same date; to equalize their standing in the country, what is termed local rank is conferred by the Commander in-Chief in India. LOCATI LITTER.— A single mule-litter designed by II. Ijt>cati, of Turin, for the passage of the narrowest defiles, avoiding as far as possible obstructions from tree-branches overhead or impediments on either side. It is looked upon with much favor in Europe, The drawing shows a cross-section of this litter, with its frame, braces, and cover, C. D. E. F., attached to its saddle, A. See //« r. LOCHABER AXE.— An axe with a curved handle ;uid very liroad blade. It was the ancient weapon of the Highlanders, and was carried by the Old City Guard of Edinburgh. LOCBAGE. — In Greek antiquity, the title of an offi- cer who commanded a cohort. LOCHOI.— The designation for a file in the elemen- tary tactical formations of the Greeks. The com- position of the grand phalanx was as follows: Te- traphalangarchia = 4 I'lialnnxm = 16 Chilinrchicf = G4 S^yntnijiiiata — 25fi Tet.rarchim = 1024 LocIki! or files = 4 090 Enimvtia> of 4 men each. It is thus seen that, in the various formations, one division of the whole could be made by the powers of 2 or 4. LOCK — 1. In fencing, to seize, as the sword-arm of an antagonist, by turning the left arm around it, in order to disarm him. 2. That part of a fire-arm by which the powder is fired. Muskets, in their earliest u.se, were fired by the hand applying a slow match to the touch-hole. Towards the end of the 14th century, the first improveinent appeared in the tiuit-hl/'i-k. This consisted of a crooked iron lever, in the end of wliicli the iii;itch was fixed. 15y a pin- gear of a simple n;iturc, jiressure on the trigger iirouffht the match ;icciinite|y down on the powder pan, of which the lid had previously been thrown forward by the hand. This mode of firing involved the carrying of several yards of slow match, usually wound round the body :ind the pie<-e ; rain extin- guished the match, .'lud wind dispersed the jiowder in the pan, so ?liat the malch-lock, clumsy withal, was bill an iinc<Tl;iin ;ippar:ilus. Superior to the in:ilch-lock was the wheel-lock, in- troduceil at Nuremberg in 1517, in which fire was ))roduced by friction between a ])iece of flint or iron pyrites and a toothed wlu'cl. The ni('<'haiiism which generated the sparks simultaneously uncovered the LOCK CTLINDEB. 227 LOCKIWG CHAIR, pan, so lliat tlio diini^ors from wind and rain were averted; Iml before tirin(^,tli<' apparatiiM reimired to lie wound up like a clock, anil therefore llie charf^es could not be frefjuent. The wheel-lock continued for a loni; jicriod to be used in (ierMiany. ami parliaily in Kranee. In the Spanish dominions, however, its place was sup- plied by the simpler contrivance called the snan- haunce, snapphalui, or lh(^ asnaphan lock, of nearly contemporaneous invenlion, which, aetini; by means of a sprini; outsiile of the lock-plate, produced lire Ihroui^h tiie coiii'ussiou of a Hint aijainst lh<' ribbed lop of the powder-pan. lis positions of half and full-cock were obtained by th(t insertion of a pin to stay tlu' operation of the mainsi)rinn. In the jniil- dle of the 17lh century the /m^-iw^: was invented, oond>inin'; the action of the wheel-lock and the snap- liaunce, while it was incontcslably superior to either. After combatinj; nuu'h prejudice, it was universally adoi)ted i?i the armies of western Knrope by the com- nu'iicement of the IHth <'eiUury. Muskets cnibrac- im; it obtaineil the nanu' of "fusils," ,'i Krencli adap- tation of the Italian word fun'lf, a Hint. With suc- cessive improvenu'nts, the Hint-lock continued in general use until the introduction of [hi; pi.TCwmi'm- Tiick almost in our own day; and among eastern and barbaric nations the tlint-lock is still extant. Its great superiority over the snaphaimce consisted in the '■ tumbler " (of which itresently) and also the "scear," appliances still retained in the percussiou- lock, which enabled the positions of half and full cock to be taken up without the intervention of pins, always uncertain in their action. The principle of the percussion-lock is the produc- tion of lire by thefallini; of a hanuner upon some detonatini; pow<ler, the explosion of which pen- etrates well into the charsre in the barrel of the gun. The first practical ap|ilication of tliis principle to lire-arms is due to the Hev. .Mr. Forsyth of Bel- helvie, in Aberdeenshire. Various forms in which to ignite the detonating ])0wder have been devised, but that generally accepted until within the last few years was the copper cap, fitting tisjhtly on the nipple of the gun, charged with a detonatincc com- pound, and exploded by the hanuner fallinu; upon it. The mainsprinc; commimii'atcs through the swivel with the tumbler, which conccutrically with the hammer moves on the tumbler-nail. After the liammcr has delivered its stroke, its further progvcas in the direction required by the spring is buvred by tlie nipple. On pulling back the hammer to the position of half-cock the tumliler turns wi'.h it, and the pointed end of the scear (which nuves tm the scear-nail as center), inlluenced by the ;<f ear-spring falls into a notch in the tumbler. On forcinir back the liammer to full-cock, however, the scear will move down to a shallower notch: and on the lever end of the scear being raised by the trigger, it brings down the liammer with a heavy blow on tlu' cap. To keep the works firmly in their .several places, a " bridle" is screwed over them which includes the pin through the tmnbler in its widt'a. Since the adoption of lireech-loadimr arms, tlie action of the lock is so far varied that the hamnuT usually falls on a movable pin, which is impelled against a de- tonating charge |)laced in the body of the cartridge itself. A spiral spring around the pin brini;s it back to the position necessary for aiuither blow. The advantasre of this arrangement is that one operation of loading is substituted for the double" process of loadins and capping. The conditions to be fidtilled in the construction of a military lock, are — 1st. The production of tire, and its comnumication with the char<;e, should be certain, and under the perfect control of the soldier. 2d. The cap shoidd be placed up<m the cone with facility, and it should not be displaced in handling tlie piece. 3d. Fragments of the cap should not incommode persons near by. norsliould the sras gen- erated by the explosion of the cap corroile or injure the cone, barrel, or stock. 4th. There should be no danj;cr of accidental explosions. The ordinary percussion lock as commonly constructed is com- po.sed (if \l\\v, lork-filate, to whidi the several parts are altache<l, anil jiy which the lock is fastened to tlie stock ; [\u- hanuner, whiith strikes ujjon the cap, and ex))lodes the composition ; the mahinprinp, which sets the hammer in motion; the t'liiMir, j or axle, by which the power of the maiuspring Ib ! connnunicated to th(^ hammer; tlic near, ax lever, j the point of which fits into the notches of the tumbler, and holilstlu^ hammer in therei|uired posi- ti<in; the notches arr; desiijnated as the /i/W-c^cA niitrli, and Mifrty-notcli ; the KKir-xjirinrj. whirrh pres- ses the point (jf the sear well into the tiindiler notch, \\\w hridlr^ which is pierced with two holes for the inner pivots of the Hear and tumbler ; the nwitel, which joins the mainspring and tumbler. The foreijoing constitute '.he essential parts of an ordi- nary pen'ussion-lock; in addition to these, the new service lock is supplied with Maynard's self-priming ajiparatus. TIk' ]irimer user! in this apparatus, is a loni; strip of iia])er containimr about (iO charges of percussion-powder, distributed at uniform interval.s. The strip is wound up in the form of a coil, and in- serted in a cavity cut into the exterior surface of the lock-plate, called the nuigazine. One end of the coil protrudes throuiich an opening in the inafjiizijie, so that the center of the first charge of percussion. ]>owder is directly over, but not in contact with, the top of the cone. When the lock is sprung, the pri- mer is accurately cut olf by a knife-edge located on the lower side of the face of the hammer, carried forward and promptly exploded on the top of the cone. Xfefding-finr/'-r, connected with tho tumbler, pushes out another primer, when the ham. nier is brought to the po^-iticu of " full-cock." Othei methods arc used for sclf-priming. in some of whiclj i the primer is enclose,-i iu the cartridge itself; but few are found, under all eireumstauces. to lie as reliable as the comiuoa perouisionlock. In the back-action lock, the m>iiii;4p:ing is placed in rear of the tum~ 1 bier, and thr, scar-spring, as a separate part, is dLs. pen.sed witli. The nioitise, which forms a bed for I this lock, seriously affects the strength of the stock at tlie hp.ndle; and, for this reason, the front-action li,(^k is generally preferred for military arms. The drav.-ing shows the Parker lock at full-cock. See ,Sprinfjji(M liijtf- LOCK-CYLINDEE.— A component part of most ma- chine-guns. Behind the carrier-Uvrk the shaft car- ries another cyliuder.ealled the Ivck-cylhulfr.m whose surface guide-grooves are formed, which are in line with the barrels, and in which slide long breech-plugs or locks, called Uick-tuhes or plnngcru, by which the I cartridges are thrust into the barrels, and which close the barrels and resist the reaction of the charges when they are fired. This cylinder is called the lock-cylin- der, because each plug or lock contains a spiral main- spring acting on a firing-pin or hammer, by which I the charge is fired, so that the plug performs all the functions of a gun-lock, as well as of a breech-plug. See Gatling (run. LOCKET. — A name sometimes applied to the chape of a sword-scabbard; the metallic part jiut on the end to prevent the point of the sword from piercing i thniugh it. LOCKING ANGLE.— The turning angle of carriages, or the angle formed between the gun-carriage and I limber, when the wheel of the latter conies in con- tact with the trail. LOCKING-CHAIN.— The work of holding liack a I carriage, on descending ground, devolves on the pole-horses. When the descent is verj- steep and the load large, they are relieved of a portion of this work by attaching a chain to one of the rear wheels, iu such a manner as to prevent it from turning, and thereby changing the friction on the axle-arm to fric- tion on the ground. In field-carriages, one end of I the locking-chain is secured to the stock by an as- LOCKING-PLATE. 228 L06ABITHM8. sembling-liolt, and the other is passed around the felloe, and secured to itself by a key. In siege-car- riages, wliere the load is much heavier, a shoe is at- tached to the chain, upon which the wheel rides. This prevents the tire from being worn and the wheel from being strained ; at the same time, the op- j eration of locking and unlocking cau be performed [ without stopping the carriages. The lock-chains on caissons are fastened to lock-chahi bridles under the front ends of the side-rails, and are held up by lock- j chahi hi'iks fastened to the outside of the side-rails. , LOCKING-PLATE.— A plate of metal^tixed on each I side of the trail of a wooden field carriage, at that point where the wheel of the limber, when it is turn- ed round, comes in contact with the trail, called the j locking angle. The plate being thus placed, the trail can receive no damage, as the plate acts as a fender. LOCK-NAIL.— One of the pins by which the parts of a gim-lock are secured to the lock-plate. In the old form of lock, they are the tumbler.pin.ma'ni'pring- screir. .wrir-pin, bridle-xcrew, hammer-nail, and ham. r/ier-xpr/itf/ screfc, LOCK-NUT. — A nut placed in contact with the main nut, on the same shaft, to keep the main nut from tiirning. It is of frequent occurrence in the construc- tion of artillerj- carriages, the elevating gears, etc. It is alsocalled"./rt"'-""i! or check-nut. LOCK-PIECE.— A block of metal at the outer open- ing of the vent for the attachment of the lock. As friction-tubes are now used for firing cannon in the land service, this part is omitted. LOCK PLATE.— The plate in a small-arm which covers the lock, and to which the mechanism is at- tached. LOCKSPIT. — In field fortification, the small cut or trench made with a spade, about a foot wide, to mark out the first lines of a work. LOCK STEP.— A mode of marclung by a body of men going one after another as closely as possible, in which fheleg of each moves at the same time with, and closely follows, the corresponding leg of the per- son directly before him. LOCOMOTIVE CRANE. -Cranes of this type consist of a rotary crane, usually of the pillar variety, mount- ed upon a suitable ear or truck, and provided with an independent boiler and engine, the power of which is utilized for hoisting, lowering and rotating the load, and also for propelling the car upon its tracks. Loco- motive cranes are of a great convenience in large works of all kinds where the buildings cover much ground and are connected Ijymeans of railroad tracks, By means of these tracks the crane can be transfer- red from one place to another, to suit the require- ments of the work, and can Ije utilized also for trans- ferring heavy loads from one building to another. They are useful also upon freight wharves, where, by means of a track laid near the edge of the wharf .they can be utilized for unloading vessels, and also for transferring heavv loads from one vessel to another. The construction of cranes of this type is varied ac- cordini: to the requirements o* the work to be done. See ('riniei. LOCOMOTIVE TORPEDOES.— During the war be- tween Oreal liril.ciu and tlie United States in 1812- 14. this name was applied to certain mysterious boats invented by Fulton and other Americans for the pur- pose of navigating beneath the surface of the water, and injuring the bottoms of hostile vessels. In those days of hand-to-hand naval war, all these designs (which, by the wa>', were failures) were looked upon as little less llian diabolical. The progress of de- structive weapons during half a century has removed this aversion. The moilern torpedo is of two kinds — first, the locomotive torpedo, which is in various ways projected against the side of a hostile vessel; secondly. Ilie liveil torpedo, a kind of stationarv liomb-siiell inlemieil to explixle under the bottom of the enemy's ship. To these fi.xed torpedos it is now more usual to give the appropriate name of subma- rine mines. Of locomotive torpedoes there are three classes : (1.) The Whitehead 'fish torpedo,' which has a fish- shaped ease, and is propelled in a straight line under water by means of a small screw-propeller driven by compressed air. It is discharged from a carriage on tlie deck of a man-of-war, and exjjlodes on im- pact against the object aimed at. The secret of the construction has been sold by the inventor to the Austrian. Russian, and English Navies. (2.) The Harvey ■ towing torpedo,' which is towed out at an angle from the side of the attacking shij), and ma- neuvered so as to come in contact with the bottom of the ship attacked. It is exploded either mechan- ically on contact, or by means of an electric fuse, the wire being inserted in the towing line. (3.) Boom, or outrigger torpedoes, which are carried on long booms in the bows of boats or steam-launches, and thus driven against the side of a hostile ship and ex- ploded. Torpedo boats are becoming a special feat- ure of European Navies : they are swift steamers not more than 60 feet long, lying low in the water, and steaming up to 19 knots an hour. The Polyi h'- mus, added to the English Navy in 1881, is an ar- mored ram, expressly an<l cunningly designed for torpedo warfare (carrying Whitehead torpedoes) and is a formidable vessel, 240 feet long. See Torjcdoen. LODGE ARMS. — An old word of command, which was used on guards and pickets for the men to place their arms in front of the guard-house or quarter- guard. LODGED. — A term in Heraldry. A beast of chase, as a stag, is said to be lodged when l}'ing down with its head erect; a beast of prey in the same position is said to be eouchant. LODGING-MONEY.— An allowance in the British Army, granted to officers and others, for whom suit- able quarters cannot be provided in barracks. Mar- ried Sergeants and private soldiers who are married " with permission." are entitled to lodging-money at various rates up to 8s. a week, when separate rooms in barracks cannot be spared for the accommodation of each couple. The total charge for lodging-money in the Army Estimates amounts to about A'lOO.OOO. LODGMENT.— 1 . In gunnery, the hollow or cavity in the under part of the bore, where the. shot rests wlien rammed home; it is formed in smooth-bore ord- nance, after much firing, from the elastic force of the powder acting upon the upper surface of the projec- tile, and forcing it down, so as to occasion an ellipti- cal indentation. 2. In fortification, an intrenchment hastily thrown up on a captured breach or outwork, in order to maintain the position against recapture. See S;,;,e. LOGARITHMS. — A series of numbers having a cer- tain relalicin to the series of natural numbers, by means of which many arithmetical operations are made comparatively easy. The nature of the relation will be understood by considering two simple series such as the following, one proceeding from unity in geometrical progression, the other from in arith- metical progression: Gctiiiulricnl pcrics— 1. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64. 128, 256, 512, etc AritliniL-liciil scries— 11, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 7, 8, 9, elo. Here the ratio of the geometrical series is 2, and any term in the arilhmelical series expresses how often 2 has been nuilliplied into 1 to produce the corres- pcuiding term of the geometrical series; thus, in proeceiling from 1 to 32, there have been fi steps or nudtipliealions by the ratio 2; in other words, the ratio of 32 lo 1 is compounded five times of the ratio of 2 to 1. It was this conceptiim of the relation that led to giving the name of logarUhmt: to tlu! arithmetical series, the word logarithm nwwmns. " the ninnber of the ratios." As to the use that may be made of such series, il will be observed tl'al the sum of any two logarithms (as we shall now call the lower series) is the logarithm of their product ; e.g., 9 (=3-t-(>J is the logarithm of .512 (=8 X 1)4). Simi- larly, the difference of any two lo'arithms is the logarithm of the quotmt of the numbers; a mult- LOGARITHMS. 229 LOOAHITHMS. pic of any logarithm is the logarithm "f tin- rorrcH- poiuliiiK number raised to tlw power of I'le multi- ple; (■.■;..Hf^ 4 X 3)isthel(itrarillim of arw) ( Id''), and a sulimultiple of a logarithm is the loi;ari1lim of the eorrespondinu; root of itH mnnher. In this way; with eomiilete tal)len of numl)ers ami their eorres- p()n<lini; lof^arillnns, addition is maiie to talte the place of midtiplieation, svihlraetion of division, miil- tipli<-alion of involution, and division of evolutir)n. In order to make the series above niven of ]iraetieal nse. it would be iii'cessary to eomplete thi'Ui by iii- terpolatini; a set of means between tlie several terms, as will be explained below. We have chosen 2 us the fundamental ratio or base, as beini; most con- venient for illustration; but any other mnnber (m- tei^ral or fractional) mifjlit be taken; and every dif- ferent base or nifl-ij. fives a dilTerent system of lo^a- rilhms. The system now in use has 10 for its base; in otiier words, H) is the nundier whose li/i;arithm is 1. The idea of niakinc; use of series in this way would seem, upon inipiiry. to have been known to Archimedes and Euclid, without, !iow<'ver, resnlt- inj; in any practical scheme; but by the end of the Kith century, triu^onometrical oiterations had become so complicated that the wits of several m;ithemati- cians were at work to di'vise means of shortenini; them. The real invention of loi;arithms is now uni- 1 versally ascribed to John Napier, Haron of Merchis- toun, who in l(il4 printed his Ciinoii Mirahiliii Li<<]-\ arithmorum. His tables only ^iveloi;arithms of sines, j cosines, and the other functions of anjiles; tiiey also labor under the three defects of beim: sometimes + | and sometimes — , of dccrcasiiiff as the corri'spond- i iuit natural numbers increase, and of having for their rm\iT (the immber of which the logarithm is 1) the ' number which is the sum of 1 1 1 + 1-1 1 ■+, etc. These 1.3 1.2.3 defects were,however,sooii remedied: John Spcidell, in 1019, amended the tables in such a manner that the logarithms became all positive, and increased along with their corresponding natural numbers. lie also, inthc sixth edition of his AVork (1()24), construct- ed a table of Napicr'.s logarithms for the integer num- bers, 1, 2, 3, etc., up to and including lOllO. with their differences and arithmetical complements, be- sides the numerous other improvements. Speidell's tables are now known as hyperholie- lognrithms. But the greatest improvement was made in Kil'i by Pro- fessor Henry Briggs. of London, who substituted for Napier's inconvenient " radi.x " the number 10, and succeeded before his death in calculating the logarithms of 30,000 natural numbers to the neyv radi.x. Brigg's exertions were doubly seconded ; and before 1028 the logarithms of all the natural ntunbers np to 100.000 had been computed. Com- puters have since chiefly occupied themselves rather in repeatedly revising the tables alreadj' calculated than in extending them. The following is the simplest method of construct- ing a table of logarithms on Brigg's system. The log of 10 = 1; the log. of 100 (which is twice com- pounded of 10) = 2- ;"the log. of 1000 = 3-, etc.; and the logarithms of all powers of 10 can be found in the same manner. The intermediate logarithms are found by contin\iaUy computing geometric means between two numbers, one greater and the other less than the number required. Thus, to tind the log. of 5, take the geometric mean between 1 and 10, or 3'102..., the corresponding arithmetic mean (the log. of one being 0, and that of 10 lieing 1-) being '5; the geometric mean between 3-lti2... and 10. or .')103 .. , corresponds to the arithmetic mean between '.5 and 1". or '75 ; in a similar maimer the geometric mean between 3-ie2... and .5023.... or 4'210.... has its logarithm=i (•T.5 •.5). or -025 : this operation is continued till the result is obtained to the necessary degree of accuracy. In this example, the twenty- first result gives the geometric mean = .l-OOO.OOS, and the corresponding arithmetic mean— ■0i)8, 970, which is in ordinary calculations used as the loga- rithm of .'). Sinc<^ division of immbcrH corresponds to subtraction of logarithms, and since 2=V-', the log. of 2= log. 10 log. r,=\- — -098970 =-301030. Tlic logarithms of all prinx- numliers are found in the sami' way as that of .T ; thosi; of composite num- bers are obtained by the ad<lition of the logarithms of their factors ; thus, the log. of 0^ log. 2 log. 3 .•301030 -477121 =-7781.'»l. " This method, though simple in principle, involves an enormous amoiiul of calculation; and the following method, which de- pends on the modern algebraic analysis, is much to be prefc-rred. According to this method, logarithms are considered as indices or powers of the radix; thus,10" = l, 10-»'"""^2, 10-'"'"=='=3, 10-=1(W, etc. ; and the laws of logarithms then become the same as those of indices. Let r represent the radix // the natural number, a; its logarithm; theny=r'[, or, iiutting l+afor r, y— (l-j-")" ; and it is show-n by the binomial and exponential theorems (see the ordinary works on algebra; that y =\-\-Ax-\- A'x^' A^x^ — I- • [-, etc.. where .4=r— 1— ^(r— 1 1= -t- i 1.3 1.2.3 (r — 1)* — . etc., the former eejuation expressing a number as the sum of different multiples of its Ic-ga- rithm and the radix. 1 1 A If — be now substituted for x. then, y = r ^ 1 + A 1 1 1-1 1 (-. Ptc. = 2-71828182.... which, as 1.2 1.2.3 before mentioned, is Napier's rad.x, and is generally 1 A 'a called c; then r ^r, or r=ie .or A is the logarithm of r to the base of radix e. Then, referring to the above mentioned value of A, we have log. iV (i.e.. log. of ;■ to the base of f ) = /■ — 1 — i {r — 1 )" -4" i (;■ — 1)^ — . etc., or, as before, putting \-\-n for r. a- u^ log. e(l + '<) = « 1 • '■'''■• • <i series from 2 3 which log. >(1 -|- a) cannot be found, unless a be fractional. However, if we put — '( for a, log. e(l — «) = — a , etc.; and subtracting 2 3 this expression from the former, log. c(l +a) — log. e(l (1 j^ „X a' a^ I = 2 (a -^ 1 h, 1 — a/ 3 .5 etc.). and. for the sake of convenience, putting ii -f 1 1 + « 1 for . in which case a =: , we w \-~ a 2« + 1 "+1 ( 1 1 finally obtain log. = 2 1 ^ Zu C2«+l 3(2« + l)» 1 ) ■\ , + etc. ■ , or log. e(w + l)=log. e-u 5(3«+l)» ) ^ ( ]_ 1_ _|_ ]_ " { 2« + 1 32'/ + 1)' 5(2« + l)« +, etc. If 1 be substituted for u in this for- mula, the Napierian logarithm of 2. is at once verj- readily obtained to any degree of accuracy requir- cd; if 2 be put for «.the Napierian logarithm of 3 can be calculated, etc. Now. as logarithms of any system I have always the same ratio to one another as the cor- . responding logarithms of any other system, no matter LOOEUDNT. 230 LOOKING GLASS SIGNALINO. what its base, if a number can be found wiiicli.when multiplied into the logaritlini of a certain number to one base, gives the logarithm of tlie same number to another base, this multiplier will, when nuiltiplied into anjsr logarithm to the first base, produce the cor- responding^logarithm to the other base. The multi- plier is called the modulus, and, for the conversion of Na]):erian into common or Brigg's logarithms, is equal to •4342y44...; so that to find the coinrii'in loga- rithm of any nnmber, fir^t find the Napierian logar- ithm, and multiply it by ■4343944... As in Brigg's system the logarithm of 10 is 1, and that of 100 is 3, it follows thatall numbers between 10 and 100 have, for their logarithms, unity + a proper fraction, in other words, the integer portion of the logarithms of all numbers of twotigures is unity; similarly, the integer portion of the logarithms of all numbers be- tween 100 and 1000 is 2. and, in general, the integer portion of the logarithm of an}- number expresses a number less by unit.y than the number of figures in that number. This integer is called the characterintir, tlie decimal portion being designated as the man- tissa. As the logarithm of 1 = 0. the logarithms of quan- tities less than unity would naturally be negative ; thus, the logarithm of h would be— "30103, but, for convenience in working, the mantissa is kept always positive, and the negative sign thus only applies to the characteristic : the logarithm of i or ••5 would thus be 1-69897, the characteristic in this and similar cases expressing, when the fraction is reduced to a decimal, the number of places the lirst figure is re- moved from the decimal point ; thus, tiie logarthm of ■000-5 is 4-09897. Logarithms are of frequent ap- plication in the solution of problems of gunnery, etc. LOGEMEKT.— Any place occupied by ruilitary men, for the time being, whether they are quartered upon the inhabitants of a town, or are distributed in bar- racks. Wlien applied to soldiers that have taken the field, it is comprehended under the several heads of huts, tents, etc. LOGISTICS. —Bardin considers the application of this word bj' some writers as more ambitious than accurate. It is derived from Latin Logista, the Ad- ministrator or Intendant of the Roman armies. It is properly that branch of the military art embracing all details for moving and supplying armies. It includes the operations of the ordnance, quartermaster's, sub- sistence, medical, and pay departments. It also em- braces the preparation and regulation of magazines, for opening a campaign, and all orders of march and other orders from the Gcncral-in-C'hief relative to moving and supplying armies. Some writers have, however, extended its signification to also embrace Strategy. LOG-LINE. — The cordage used for lashing to gun- aprons, sponge and muzzle caps, etc. There is also a log-line made in India which is used for choking rockets; for handles for ca.se-shot, etc. LOG PAPER. — A thin drawing paper used in the manufacture of paper fuses, etc. LOG REVETMENT.— A revetment made of tnmks of small trees or saplings laid horizontally one on the other. and siipported by posts sets into the lianiiuette. At frecpu-nt intervals tie beams are dovetailed be- Iween tlie logs, and, extending six or eight feet into the parapet, are secured to horizontal anchoring logs. For intrcnchments hastily thrown up. this is the most usual form, rails or timber of any kind being used. See I{ir,tnirnt. LOMBARDS. — A German people of the Suevicfam- ily, not very luimerous. but of distinguished valor. who played an important part in the early history of Europe. The name is derived from Longohardi , or Langiibardi. a Latinized form in use since the 12th century, and was formerly supposed to have been given with refeu-nce to the long beards of this peo- ple : but is now derived rather from a word yjarta, or barte. which signifies a battle-axe. About the 4th century they seem to have begun to leave their orig- inal seats (on the Lower Elbe, where the Romans seem to have come first in contact with them about the beginning of the Christian eraj. and to have fought their way southward and eastward, till they came into close contact with the Eastern Roman Empire on the Danube, adopted an Arian form of Christian- ity, and having been for some time tributary to the Heruli, raised themselves upon the ruins of their power, and of that of the Gepida", shortly after the middle of the 6th century, to the position of Masters of Paunonia,and became one of the most wealthy and powerful nations in that part of the world. Under their King Alboin, they invaded and concpiered the north and center of Italy (.508 — .569). The more com- plete triumph of tlie Lombards was promoted by the accession of strength which they received from other tribes following Uiem over the Alps — Bulgarians, Sarmatians, Pannonians, Norici, Alemanni, Suevi, Gepidie, and Saxons — for the numbers of the Lom- bards themselves were never very great. 3. Cannon of peculiar form in former use, and originally em- ployed by the Lomliartls. See Bombard. LONG-BOW.— A bow of the height of the archer, formerly used in England for war and sport. The term is now sj-nouymous with buic, and used in con- tradistinction to C'ruHs-hotr. See Bu^r. LONGE. — The training ground for the instruction of a young horse, to render him quiet, tractable, and supple ; to give him free and proper use of his limbs, to form his paces, and to prepare him in all respects for the cavalry service. LONGEVITY PAY.— An extra rate of pay for long service. It has recently been decided by the Supreme Court that service as Cadets must be taken into ac- count in computing Longevity Pay. The service per- formed as enlisted men of Regulars or Volunteers is also to be counted. Under secton 1284. Revised Statvites, a soldier who completes a term of five years' continuous service, and re-enlists within thirty days thereafter, is entitled to an additional allowance of .#2 per month ; and for each successive and continuous re-enlistment imder the same conditions he is entitled to a further ad- dition of $1 per month. See Pay. LONG ROLL.— When the troops should form sud- denly to meet the enemy, the signal " <« ff77n,«," is sounded or the " long roll" is beaten. The troops after assembling on their compan.y parades. form rap- idly in front of their camps. In the cavalry, if the troops are to form mounted, the signal "fo A<^.ic" is sounded. LONG- ROLLER. — A round piece of wood. 6 inches in diameter, and 3i feet long, having a groove cut round it in the middle, for the reception of the gun when placed upon it. It is used to move a gun in the direction of its axis, on skids, on a hard snujoth surface, such as a platform, etc. Two of them are used at once, and the gun moving upon them, gains twice the distance passed over by the roller. LOOKING-GLASS SIGNALING.— A nuthod of sig- naling invented ami extensively used by theNorth American Indians, both on the I'hiins and in the re- gions west of the KoiUy .Mountains. The rellection of the sun is flashed from a small piece of a mirror held in the hand, and in this manner a Chief is fre- quently enabled to direct the movements of his war- riors with the greatest ease and certainly from a dis- tant point overlooking the field. This method of sigiudiiig. modified by the resources of science, has been lately inlroiluced into the Knglish service, and uscil lioth in India and Southern Africa. A great advantage of this method over the ordinary signal system is that the apparatus ism' re portable, bu^ it LOOPHOLED GALLERIES. 231 LORAEII. can he siu'cchfiilly used (inly in rcfrions wliiTc llic ulnios|)lirrc JH clciir of cloiiils tliri>iiuli conHidcriiblc |icriii(ls (if lime. Anybody wlio liiiH iiny idea (if Ilic iirdiiiury incllidd of lclcnrii|iliinL' liy clcclricily with IIm- car alplialx't, will uiidcrsland how sjiaccs of lime may lie cnipldycd to indicalc Ictlcrsnnd words by means of tlic eye. Tlicrc arc two nictliods: the rc- tlcclor nmy bi; obscnrcd cxccpl wlicti the screen is temporarily removed to pnxhicc a llasli or letter; or the rellcclor may be kept exposed except when it is olisciired to prodnce a letter. The lirst method is said to be the easier for the liej;imicr, bill the second less fatiiiiiiiiti; lotliecye. Thedislance Ihroiifih which this mode of comiiiunication may be curried on varies with the size of the mirrors ami the clearness of the atniosphere. From the llimalavas a .'i-inch mirror Iins communicated distinct sij^nals (iO miles. The in- Ktriiment could be used with ijood success on the Andes. When the sijinalini; station forms an anj^le ftrcaler than a rij;bt aiitrle between tlie sun and the rcceivinix station, two mirrors are used to prevent too prcal a loss of rays by obliiiue rellectioii. The mir- rors arc mounted on tripods, and arc held by a socket, or a universal joint. Uesides its use as a sifjiialing instrinuent, the helio!;ra|)h has served to delinc dis- tant jioints in a survey, and for this purpose was em- ployed in the triaiiiiulation of India. It was also used by tlie late Astronomer-Uoyal of Kn);hinilat the Cape of (iood Hope in vcrifyin;; the arc of the meri- dian. See }ff}it>(jrit)>}itj. LOOPHOLED GALLERIES. Vaulted passages or cascmales, usually iilaceil liehind the counterscarp revetment, and behind the gorijesof detached works, liavinn holes pierced throujih the walls, to enable the defenders to briin;- a musketry fire from unseen posi- tions, upon the assailants in tlie ditch. I;(Hiplioles, however, are not contined to i;alleries. In modem fori itical ions, the revetments, both scarp and count- erscarp, are very generally pierccil for a musketry fire. LOOP HOLES.— In'fortification, loop-holes are small apertures in tlip walls. tlirough which sharp-shooters may tire. The loop-hole should widen towards the outside, that the shooter may have a sweep witli his ritle; and it is of importance, on that account, so to fashion the sides tliat a bullet ma}' not iienelrale. un- less tired straight into the center. For Ibis |)iirposc, the stones arc generally laid stepwise, although oth- er forms are frcciuently resorted to. Walls are read- ily made available for purposes of defense by loop- holing them, the mode of doing it varying with their height and situation. It is a general rule that loop- holes must be so i)laced that an enemy, if he suc- ceeds in ru.shing up, shall not be able to make use of them. To prevent this they should be 8 or 9 feet above the ground on the outside; liut on the inside the banquette from which the defenders are to fire should not be more than about 4 feet (i inches below them. A portion of the wall not less than 18 inches high should be left above the loop-holes to screen the men's heads when tiring. These points are attain- alile in several ways ; if the walls are high, the loop- holes may be made near the top, and :i lemporary stage or earthen baniiuette might lie [ilaced inside ; if the wall is not over 6 feethigli, the loop-holes may be made at 4 feet inches above the inside level, and a ditch made outside. The quickest way of making a loop-hole is to break tlie wall down from the top for about 3 feet, and then to till it up at the top with a stone or sand bag. If the wall should be low. a piece of timber supported on a couple of stones would be a ready expedient. If expo.sed to the Hre of artillery, a wall will not afford good cover, but it may be intproved by sinking a trench in rear and throwing the earth against the wall, or by digging a ditch in front and throwing the earth over the wall. LOOSEN. — To open ranks or tiles from close order. To loosen is. in fact, to lose that firm continuity of line or perpendicular adherence, which constitutes the true basis of military operations. The lock-step was introduced for the purpose of counteracting tlie mlschievouH eirects of loose inarching, liiit It pro- duced a greater liiconvenient'e. and has therefore been laid aside. The equal pace and marked time correct both. LOOTEES. An Fast Indian term for a body of ir- regular horsemen, who plunder and lay waste the (■(Mintry, and harass the enemy in their march. The word is derived from l/ml, plunder or iiillage, and is fr('i|U(nllv wrillen Limtim and h/otj/ WiiU"irK. LORAIN SIGHT. Owing to the great range ut which rilled guns are used, and of the accuracy of tire demanded of them, it is important that they should be provided with aiming apparalus more jier- fect than the coarse and clumsy siirhts heretofore sup- posed to be siitlicieiil for arlillcry jiiirposes. The Ijorain sight, of which th(r following is a brief de- scription, combines the properties most desirable in a sight for heavy rilled guns. Tliis instrument is es- sentially alraiisit with a vertical and hori/ontal limb, the former to give the re(|uired elevation or depres- sion, and the latterto give proper allowance fordrifl. The telescope (A) has a top, a front and rear open sight («)• used to bring the object aimed at within the field of view. The vertical limb (H) is graduated to degrees. The least count of the vernier is six minutes. The tangent screw (C) elevates or de- l)resses the telescope. The horizontal limb d); has a scale of 20" on each side of the zero, which is gradu- ated to degrees. Thest;indards (K E'j are sujiported !.y the horizontal limb. The tangent screw CFj moves the horizontal limb to right or left. The base of the instrument (G) has on it the vernier (g) of horizon- tal limb, the least c(nnit of which is six minutes. When in use, this instrument sits in a seat (ri)which is screwed on to the right trunnion of the gun. This seat is so placed that the plane of its top is parallel to the horizontal plane through the axis of the bore. When the vertical limb is at zero, the axis of the tele- scope will be parallel to the axis of the bore, if the zero of the horizontal limb coincides with the mark (Oon the seat. The mark (/) is on a movable piece (A-) and attached to the seat, and its position is easily lie- lermined. The elevations given with this sight and with a (piadrant do not agree, the latter being meas- ured from the horizontal and the former from the line from sight to object. In tiring from above an object, the Felescopic sight re(iuires more elevation than the quadrant. If from below an object, it re- quires less elevation than the ([uadrant. When the piece is to be fired, the instrument is lifted out of ils seat. One instrument suffices for three or four guns, it, being carried from piece to piece as they are pre- pared for firing. For short range and rapid firing, the pieces should, in addition, have the ordinary sighting arrangements. The proper place for the sight is on the left trunnion ; but as. with carriages now constructed, it would be interfered with by the crane, it is placed on the right trimnion. LORASII.— Among the Homans, officers whose business it was. with whips and scourges, to com- pel the gladiators to eng;ige. The Lorarii also pun- ished slaves who disobeysd their masters. LOBD. 232 LOSSES. LORD. — A title ejiven in Great Britain to persons Ddlile In- birtli or by creation. Peers of tlie Realm are so styled, incluiiinsi such Arcbbisliops or Bishops as are members of the House of Lords, who are Lords Spiritual. By courtesy, the title Lord is given to the eldest sons of Dukes, Marquises, and Earls, prefixed to an inferior title of the Peerage, and to the young- er sons of Dukes and Marquises, prefi.xed to their Christain name and surname. The following per- sons bear the title Lord in virtue of their employ- ments: the Lord-Lieutenaut of Ireland and Lords- Lieutenant of Counties, Lord Privy Seal, Lords of the Treasury and of the Admiralty, the Lord High Ad- miral, Lord Great Chamberlain, and Lord Ciiamber- lain. Lord High Constable, Lord High Almoner, Lord High Steward, Lord Steward of the Household, Lords in Waiting, Lords of the Bedchamber, Lords Justices, the Lord Chief Baron of Exchequer, the Lord Chief Justice, the Lord Lyon, the Lord Mayor of London, York, and Dublin, and the Lords Pro- vost of Edinburgh and Glasgow. The Committee of the Scottish Parliament by whom the laws to be proposed were prepared, were called Lords of the Articles. The favored beneficiaries, who, after tlie Scottish Reformation, obtained in Temporal Lord- ship the Ijenefices formerly held by Bishojis and Ab- bots, were called Lords of Erection. Persons to whom rights of regality were granted in Scotland, were termed Lordsof Regality. The representative of tlie Sovereign in the General Assembly of the Church of Scotliuid is called the Lord High Commis- sioner. Tlie Judges of the Courts of Session and Justiciary in Scotland have the title "Lord " prefixed to their surname, or .some territorial designation as- sumed by them ; and throughout the three kingdoms Judges are addressed "My Lord," when presiding in Court. LORD LIEUTENANT.— In Great Britain, the Lord Lieutenant of a count}' is a permanent Provincial Governor appointed by the vSovereigu by patent un- der the Great Seal. The office, in England, arose from the occasional Commissions of Array issued liy the Crown in times of danger or disturbance, requir- ing experienced persons to muster the inhabitants of the counties to which the Commissioners were sent, and set them in military order. The right of the Crown to issue such Commissions was denied by the Long Parliament, this question proving the immedi- ate cause of the breach between Charles I. and his subjects. Their legality was established at the re- storation b_v a Declaratory Act. The Lord Lieuten- ant is now the permanent local Representative of the Crown, who, on the occasion of an invasion or rebel- lion, has power to raise the militia, form regiments, troops, and companies, and give Commissions to ofti- cers. The bistor}' of the office seems to have been somewhat similar in Scotland. The "Lieutenant" is commanded to "raise the County" whenever it may be necessary to bring the rebellious and unruly possessors of castles and fortalices into subjection; and though his powers were executive rather than judicial, he seems sometimes to have had authority to exercise the functions of the Sheriflf, or overrule liis decisions. The Lord Lieutenant of a comity is at the head of tiie Magistracy, the Militia, and the Yeomanry; he nominates officers of militia and vol- unteers, and is the Chief Executive Authority, form- ing the settled channel of communication between the Goveriunent and the Magistracy for tlie preser- vation of public tranquility. Under him are perma- nent Dejiutv-Lieutenants appointed bv him. LORD LIEUTENANT OF IRELAND —the Viceroy or Dipiilv iif llie Sovereign to whom the Government of Ireland is coiiiniitted. Tlie olliee has existed from a remote ])eriod, the appointment having been made under different desigii;itions. His powers were in (•arly times very exiensive, almost regal. For the last half century following the Revohition the Lord [lieutenant resided little in Ireland, visiting it only once in two years to hold the session of Parliament. ! Some Lords Lieutenant never went to Ireland at all, and occasionally, instead of a Viceroy, Lords Justic- es were appointed. The Lord-Lieulenant is ap- pointed under the Great Seal of the United King- dom, and bears the Sword of State as the symbol of Ills vice-regal office. He lias the assistance of a Privy- j Council of as members, appointed by the Sovereign, and of OflJcers of State. He is commissioned to keep the peace and the laws and customs of Ireland, and to see that justice is impartiall)' administered. He has the control of the police, and may issue orders to the General commanding the troojis for the sup- port of the Civil Authority, the protection of the public, the defense of the Kingdom, and the sup- pression of Insurrection. ^'He may confer knignt- iiood, and, previous to its disestablishment, had the disposal of church preferment, as well as all the oth- er patronage of the country. The grant ing of money, and lands, and pensions, of all titles of honor except simple knighthood, the appointment of Privy-Ci.iin- cilors. Judges, Law Officers, and Governors of Forts, and the appointment to military commissions, as a common thing, are reserved to the Sovereign, act- ing, however,on the Lord Lieutenant's advice and re- commendation. No complaint of injustice or oppres- sion in Ireland is entertained by the Sovereign until first made to the Lord Lieutenant, who is in no case required to execute the royal instructions in a matter of which he may disapprove until he can communi- cate with the Sovereign and receive further orders. Yet, notwithstanding the dignity and responsibility of his office, the Lord Lieutenant acts in every mat- ter of importance under the direct control of the C'ab- inet of Great Britain. Tlie views and opinions of the Cabinet on all the more important questions con- nected with his government are communicated to him by the Home Secretary, who is held responsible for the Government of Ireland, and with wiiom it is the duty of the Lord Lieutenant to be in close cor- respondence ; on matters of revenue he must be in constant communication with the Treasury. On his occasional or temporary absence from Ireland, L'^rd- Justices are appointed, who are usualh' the Lord- Primate, the Lord Chancellor, and the Commander of the Forces. His salary is £20,000, with a resi- dence in Dublin Castle, as well as one in Phcenix Park. His tenure of office depends on that of the Ministry, of which he is a member. A Roman Cath- olic is ineligible for the Lieutenancy of Ireland. LCRICA — A curiass. or coat of mail worn bj- the Roman soldiers, made of various materials. The ordinary kind consisted of a skin, or a piece of strong linen covered with small plates of iron, which re- sembled, both in their shape and in their manner of overlapping each other, the scales of a serpent or fish. Sometimes cuirasses or hauberks, composed entirely of iron rings linked together, were worn by the Ro- man JIaxtnti. A less flexible but more impervious defense was the cuirass made of hard leather or of metal, and consisting of two parts (the one covering the breast and abdomen, and the other the back^, united by hinges and leather thongs. LORIMER. — A maker of bits, spurs, stirrup irons, all metal mountings for saddles and bridles, and generally of all articles of horse-furniture. In Lon don. the loriniers. who had previously formed part of another guild, were incorporated by letters patent in 1713; in the Scottish burghs they have been com- prehended as a branch of the corporation of hammer- men. Cutlers, locksmiths, and brass-foundcis have been considered as in the exercise of branches of the lorimer art. and therefore bound to enter with the cor[ioration. The Court of Sessions in WM held it to be a gross violation of the exclusive privi- leges of the lorimer craft to manufacture bits, slirrup-irons, and other metallic articles of horse- furniture, with a view to silver-plating thcra before selling. LOSSES. — 1. Killed, wounded, and captured per- .sons, or captured property. 2. In the British Army tOUP DES ANCIER8. 233 LOWELL BATTEEY GUH. there is a regular provision made for indemnification for louses by fire; by Hliipwreck; in action willi tbi^ enemy by capture at sea; liy deslniction or capture of a public store-house; bv the destnictionof articles or horses, to prevent, their falling' into the hands of the enemy, or to prevent the sprcailini? of an infec- tious disorder. In thi' I'nitcd Slati'S it would seem just that Conu'rcss shoulil cslalilish some general rules re-'ulatiiu; such matters. The prini'iple of selt- liii"- all such claims by special Uvu'islation cunnot but hear hardly on a number of individuals, and also probably in the end imposes greater burdens upon the treasiirv. , LOUP DES ANCIENS. An iron instrument, nuule in llic sluipi- of a tiiiaillc, bv means of wlii(!li the ancieiils .i;rap|)lcd the batteriiig-raius, and broke tbemiu the midiUe. mounted with four barrels arranged in a circle. Aftir firing from one barrel until it may become hiMited, it is moved aside by a simjilc movement, and another brought into action, and so on. The tirsl barrel becomes cooled before it is again brought into use. so that a continuous tire can lie maintained for any length of tiiiw. Th(^ barrels bi-ing hung ui)on trunnions may be disconnectefl from the machine or tilted upvvaril's, allowing them to be readily- inspect- ed or cleaned, also facilitating tlie extraction of any obstruction. The working parts are exceedingly simple and strong, requiring but a few seconds for their remov- al or ri'placement, and ciin t)e mani|)ulatecl liy any ni.in of orilinarv capacity. The tiring is from the center of the machine, and therefore is not diverted from its aim Ijy the recoil. The lock has two extract- LOUIS.— The name of a Military 'Order in France, instituted by I^ouis XIV.. in 1(593! Their collars were of a llanie color, and passed from left to right. The King was always (iraud Master. Commonly written KitifihU of St. '[joiih. lover's "WAR.— In French history a name given to a civil war in the year l.WO. during the reign of Ilenry IV. It was so called because it arose from thi> jealousies and rivalries of the leaders, who were invited to meet at the Palace of the (Jueen-Mother. LOW BLAST FURNACE.— A metallurgic furnace in wliich the air of the blast is delivered at moderate iiressure. LOWELL BATTERY GUN. This gun is of the Mi- trailleur order. It may be mounted with one or any number of barrels, but the firing is confined to one at a time, and requires but one lock. It is generally ors, which are not dependent upon springs, but op- erating positivelv, in.sure the extraction of the empty shells under all circumstances. The cartridges are fed into a hopper from which they are fakeu by two carrier-rolls and deposited one by one between the jiliinger and opening in the barrel. The plunger then'forces them into the chamber of the barrel, fires them and extracts the empty shell, leaving it in the position which it occupie<l before firing. The next motion of the carrier-rolls throws out the shell and lirings another loaded cartridge into position to be forced into the barrel. It is impossible for the empty shell to he carried around a second time, by which the gun might be closrged. The drawins sliows the gun mounted upon its improved gun-carriage. The mechanism of this carriage is'^so arranged that the gun can be level- U)WELL BATTEKY GUN. 234 LOWELL BATTEEY-GUH. ed, adjusted or trained to be effective in any posi- tion, either at elevation or depression. When op- erating upon roiigli or uneven ground and when frequent changes "of position are necessary, this arrangement is of nuicli vahie, as it enables the gunner to bring the gun into any desired position iu a very shoriT time, Attaclied to tlie carriage are two skeleton cages or crates, wliere four thousand cartridges can be deposited and carried with the gun, and at tlie same time be within easy reach of the operator and fed directly to the magazine, requiring no transfer of the ammunition after it is packed "at the place of manufacture. Three men can work the gun steadily and continuously when the carriage is used. The following points shoula be noticed in connec- tion with this gun: The tiring being from the cen- ter of the macliine, the barrel is not diverted from its aim by the recoil, whereas in most machine-guns the tiring"-barrel is located some distance from the center of the machine, and the barrel is consequent- ly soon diverted by the continued recoil. The tiring being confined to one tiarrel at a time, other cool and clean barrels are kept iu reserve, so that a continuous fire may be maintained. It is well known that the barrels of a rapid firing machine gun become over- heated after a few hundred shots, and thereby be- come practically inoperative until cooled. As the fir- ing is confined to one barrel at a time the gun is not rendered inoperative by the bursting of a cart- ridge shell or other obstruction in the chamber, as the^obstructed barrel may be instantly moved aside, occupying but little space, and requiring but a few seconds for ils removal and replacement, it can all be taken from the gun and packed in a close bo.\ ; by which it can be kept in condition for use at, all times. In making long marches over dusty roads the mechanism of some guns is liable to be clogged by dust and found inoperative when called into action. The Lowell Battery Gun requires no feed case or any preparation or transfer of the ammunition whatever, but the cartridges are fed directly from the packages as they are prepared at the factory into a trough which convej'S them one by one to the carrier rolls. By this arrangement two men can keep up a contin- uous fire for any length of time. It is well-known that when feed cases are required for working ma- chine-guns, a large force is required to fill and apply them. Frequent jams also occur in transferring the cartridges from the feed-cases ; to the hopper, and the feed cases being necessarily of delicate construc- tion they are liable to injury. The plunger of this gun isprovidea with two strong extractors, operating positively and not depending on springs. These extractors are arranged to grasp the cartridge shell at opposite sides and remain lock- ed until the shell is fully withdrawn. Extractors op- erated by springs are liable to slip over the flange of the shell when U sticks in the chamber of the barrel, preventing the further operation of the gun until re- moved. The ejection of the empty shells does not depend upon gravity, but is absolutely forced out by the positive movement of the carrier rolls. This fea- ture will be appreciated by those who have exper- and another brought into position. Most machine guns become more or less disabled when one barrel IS obstructeil by the non-extraction of the empty shell, and in some cases entirely so until the obstruc- tion is removed. The barrel and working parts nuvy be removed and replaced in a few seconds, allowing them to be readily inspect;'d and cleaned or removed for ])rotection or other purposes. In nu>st machine guns, the barrels are made fast to the frame work, rendering ins|)ection and cleaning (juite diflicult. and, the working parts being encased, considerable time, anil services of an expert are re- quired to extract any obstruction. The mechanism ienced the dilficidty attending the failure of the ejec- tion of a shell. The barrels are firmly fixed in the breech plate and retiuire no adjustment after the fir- ing has begun. But few tools are required to dis.sect the machinery, all of which and a spare plunger are packed with tlu' gun. r(i|uiring no sjiare article or tool box to be carried willi it. The lateral, oscillat- ing or traverse motion is very simiilc,and can be op- erated by the gunner while firing, and be made to cover any desired space at any distance and returned to a fixed jiosition without cessation of firing. This j gun can lie worked and fired by two men steadily I and continuously 4tl0 shots per nunute ; and, by the UOW STEEL. 235 LOBBICAnOH. tssistiincf of u lliird niun to fffd. it ran lie wrirkcd at U\r rule of (ilKI prr iiiiinili'.laUiiii; llii' carlridiri's from the boxi'M HS till V ciiinc from llic factiiry. My llir ad- dilion of a second ]>Iiiiii;(T the niiinliiT of hIioIs per minut(" can l>c doulilcd. 'I'lic lock is conslniclcd up- on a new principal, is very simple, ;tiiil not liable to be iiijure(l or disabled by wear. 'I'lie drawiiin sbows the j;mi moiiiiled on a tri[>od and ready for liriiif;, Russia, after llioroMi;li inves- tigation fpy its naval olllcers, bought twenty Lowell Battery (inns, Tlie I'niled States Navy lias adopted it. California has imrchased three for its State pris- ons. Ohio lias one, and other Stales are in negotia- tion for them for use by militia eomi)anies stationed in cities. I tenacity, and a lower range of ductility depending on its proportitin of carbon. It has lesfl extensibility within the elastic limit than hifli steel, but greater beyond it; or, in other words, greater dnctility. Iih great advantagi- over wroiight-iron for general pur- poses is that it can be melted at a practicable heal , and run into large masseH, posgessing soundness and tenacity. Its advantageH for cannon are greater elasticity, tenacity, and hardness. Its tenacity when suitabli- for cannon is about !»0,(KK) lbs., or three times as much as cast gun-iron, and .'iO per cent, more than the Ijest wroughl-iron. The dittlcidty in the use of steel for large, homogeneous guns is the great size of the hammers required to work the blocks into which it is cast. See Steel. LOYALIST.— A peraun who adheres to his Sover- A comparison of this gun with rival guns detracts nothing from the Lowell. While the Gatling gim has ten locks and ten barrels, all revolving at each shot, the Lowell Battery gun has but one lock and uses but one barrel at a time. The disabling of one lock or barrel of the Gatling renders it useless until repaired by a skillful mechanic. A disarrangement of the Lowell can be remedied by the renewal of a lock or change of the barrel, which can be done in live seconds by any person of ordinary capacity. See Mitchinr dun and Buttery Guns. LOW STEEL. — This variety of steel is often known as "mild steel," ''soft steel." "homogeneous met- al," and "homogeneous iron," and is made by fusing wrought-iron with carbon in a crucible, after which it is cist into an ingot and worked under a hammer. As it contains less carbon than high steel, it has a greater specitic gravity. It can be welded without difficulty, although overheating injures it. It more nearly resembles" wrought-iron in all its properties. although it has much greater hardness and ultimate [ eign, or to the constituted authority: especially one who maintains his allesriance to his Prince or "(Jov- ernment, and defends his cause in times of revolt. LOZENGE. — In Heraldry, a charge generally enu- merated among the sub-ordinaries,"in"the shape of a rhombus placed with the acute angles at top and bottom. The horizontal diameter must be at least eipial to the sides, otherwise it is not a lozenge, but a fusil. The term hti ngy is applied to a field divid- 1 ed by digaonal lines crossing one another at regular j intervals so as to form a diamond pattern, the com- I partments being of alternate tinctures. See JJeraldry. j LUBRICATION. — The application of a substance to a surfaceforthe purpose of making it smooth. This substance, which is called a lubricant, may be either a liquid, a semi-li{iuid, or a solid. Plu'mbago. or black-lead, is in most common use as a solidlubri- canl but powdered soap-stone, or talc, is \ised for many purposes, as, for instance, bv shoemakers upon the inside of the heels of boots a"nd shoes to facili- tate the pulling on. When it is desired to have a LU6S. 236 LUTE. rope or cord slip over a liearine, as a pin, or a pulley ■which refuses to turn, it is usual to smear it with lard. Grease is the common lubricant, hut for ma- chinery, or thebearins; of axles generally, other sub- stances may be added which will materially reduce the friction. Mineral oils, particularly the thicker portions of petroleum, have valuable lubricating pro- perties, and may be used either alone or added to lard, tallow, or animal oils, according to the size, weight and velocity of the rev alving shaft. Oils are used for high speed ; pasty lubricants for large and heavy bearings. There are a great variety of lubri- cants used for the a.xles of artillery carriages, maiij' of them patented. Perhaps the most favorite lu- bricant fo rlight. fine road carriages, which are fur- nished with tight bo.\es, is castor oil. When the box is not tight, a mixture of lard and rye flour is used to advantage. It has the property of lasting, when mixed in the proportion of alxiut 4 parts of grease to one (if llmir. Black-lead may be \iscd in combination witli lard and flour, or it may alone be mixed with lard or oil. Some vehicles are inade with wooden axles, and for these common pine tar is an economical, lasting, preservative, and etticient lubricant. Its application may be alternated with lard, or a mixture of lard and tallow, or lard, tallow and flour : but it is well to have some tar always present. Wherever great deli- cacy of motion is required, as in watches and other time-pieces, the lubricant must be very fluid. The lubrication may be performed by manual application, or mechanical devices niaj'be employed. There are many. kinds of lubricators. They are in the form of reservoirs, which discharge their contents, the lub- ricants, as fast as they are consupied by the revolv- ing shaft or piece of moving machinery. A simple and often a very efficient lubricator is an inverted oil-can suspended over the bearing or place which requires lubrication. When a pasty lubricant is used, it may be applied on a sponge or brush, if the situ- ation favor such application. The ingenuity of the operator is often advantageously' exercised as well as that of the inventor. LUGS. — The ears of the ordinary bomb-shell, to wliich the hooks are applied when lifting it. LUNETTE.— 1. An iron ring at the end of the trail of a fleld-piece, which is placed over the pintle-hook of the limber in limbering up the gun. The term is also applied to the hole through an iron plate on the under side of the stock of a siege-piece, into which the pintle of the limber passes when the piece is limbered. 2. Arteld work consisting of two faces forming a salient angle, or one projecting towards the enem}-. and two flanks, parallel, or nearly so, to the capital or imaginary line bisecting the salient angle. In shape, it is like the gable end of a house. It is intended for the defense of avenues, farm- houses, bridges, and the curtains of field-works. The term is specially applied to a .small work beyond the ditch of the ravelin, to supply its deficiency of salieucy, and formed at the re-entering angle made by the ravelin and bastion. The lunette has one face perpendicular to the ravelin, andthe other is iK'arly perpendicular to the bastion. The term luni't- t'lii.i is applied to a smaller sort of lunettes. !See Field LUNETTES D'ARCON.— In order to bring the lu- nettes further olf the jilaee anil diminish the defect of their gorge, (ieneral D'Arcon has constructed lunettes which bear his name, and which are sup posed to be eapalile of defending themselves. This work has the same dimensions as an ordinary lunette, except that the salient angle may be made as open as deemed necessary. The gor;;e is closed by u liiiip-holcd wall 18 feet high, and a mund tower l.T feet in diameter .separated from a terreplein by a ditch I'J feet wide. LUNGE.— An extended thrust in fencing and bay- onet exercise. The lunges are used the sanu' as the tiirusla, auddillcr frouithem only in advancing tiie left foot, so that the left leg, from the foot to the knee, shall be vertical. In both the thrust and the Iiuige, the body must be covered on the side of the adversary's piece. See Bayonet Excem'se and Thrust. LUNT. — The match-cord formerly used for firing cannnn. LUSTRATION.— In antiquity, purification by sac- rifices and various ceremonies. The Greeks and Komans purified the people, cities, fields, armies, etc.. defiled by crime or impurity. This was done in several ways,, viz.: by fire, water, sulphur, and air, tlie last by fanning or agitating the air around the thing purified. When Servius Tullius had num- bered the Roman people, he purified them as they were assembled in the Campus Martins ; and after wards a lustration of the whole people was per- formed every fifth year before the Censors went out of office. On that occasion the people assembled in the Campus Martins, when the sacrifices termed SHoeetaurlliii. consisting of a sow, sheep, and ox, after being carried thrice around the people, were offered up, and a great quantity of perfumes was burned. This ceremony was called J.nstriim. It was instituted by Servius Tillius, .566 b.c, and per- formed for the last time in the reign of Vespasian. The term Limtrnm was given also to the period of five j-ears lietween the lustra. The army was puri- fied before a battle by causing the soldiers to defile before the two quivering halves of a victim, while the Priest was engaged in offering certain prav'ers. The establishment of a new Colony was preceded by a lustration with sacrifices. Home itself, and in fact all the towns within its dominion, al- ways underwent a lustration after being visited by some great calamity. The lustration of fields were performed after sowing was finished, and before reaping began. The lustrations of flocks, designed to keep them from disease, was performed every j'ear at the festival of the Palilia, when the shepherd sprinkled them with pure water, thrice surrounding the fold with savin, laurel, and brimstone set on fire, and afterwards ottering incense and sacrifices to Pales, the tutelary goddess of shepherds. Private houses were purified with water, a fumigation of laurel, juniper, olive-tree, and the like, a pig being offered as a victim. Infants were purified, girls on the third. Iioys on the ninth, day after birth, then named and placed under the protection of the god of the family. The lustration of a funeral pile was by having the spectators march round it before a fire was kindled. Whatever was used at a lustration was cast into a river, or some other inaccessible plrfce, as to treail upon it was considered ominous of some great disaster. LUTE. — A term employed in the laboratory to de- note a substance used for effectually closing the joint of apparatus, so as to prevent the escape of va- por or gases, or for coating glass vessels so as to ren- der them more capable of sustainging a high temper- ature, or for repairing fractures. For ordinary pur- poses, lutes made of common plastic clay or pipe- cla)' with an admixture of linseed-meal or almond- powder, or,for common stills,linseed-meal and water made into a paste, are quite sufficient : for more deli- cate experiments, /<(« lute, covered over with moist- ened bladder, is used. Lutes for coating glass ves- sels are generally composed of Stourbridge clay or Windsor loam, mixed with water ; but the most simple method is to brush the glass retort over with a paste of jiipe-clay and water, dry it quickly and re- peat the operation till a suflicient thickness of coat- ing is obtained. Other lutes in frequent use are ]\'il- li'ji'ii lute (!' paste conqioscd of a solutiim of borax in boiling water with slaked lime), various mixtures of biifax and clay, nf lime and white of egg, irnii rriiieiit, moislcned bladder, paper prepared with wa.x ! and turpentine, and caoutchouc. The use of the last nauu'd lute has on accotnit of its llcxiliibilily , and con.sequent non-liability to accident, been ra- I pidly extending. LUZERNER. 287 LYON KINO OF ARMS. m LUZERNER.— A name u'lvpn to the pdlr.hiimmir ill <iciiii;iiiy mill S\vilzcrliin<l, it lieiiif;; ii faviirilc iirm <if llir pcnplc (if Lucerne. LYCANIEN8.- ,\ leriii iipplied liy (lie I'Veneli pi llie I liMiLriiriiiii liii;lil infiinlry. LYING OUT OF QUARTERS. In the Inilcd StHlcH army, any ulllcer nr .scililier ulm lie s (nil of liis i|iiiir- tcrs, jrarrison, or ciinii), willioiit leave fniin his Sii- jierior Otliccr, is iiiinisheil as a Cinirt-.Martial may (lireel. LYLE EMERY GRAPPLE SHOT. This iiroipctilo wasdeviseil by MeiileiianI I). A. Lylc, I'nited States Army, and Mr. C 10. ICniery, diaiinhlsiiian at the National Arniorv. It is intended for use in eoiinec- tioii with Die 2i-iiieli Lyle iruii fur life-saviiii; pur- poses. It is an eliinjjaled, solid, east-iron, smooth- bore projectile, with a wrought-iron base and shank. In form the sliot is cyliiidro-ocival. The radius of the ofrival head is eipial to the diameter of the pro- jectile. An a.xial cavity, l.ao inclis (8.175 centimet- ers) deep is horerl in the rear end of llic shot. u|)on whose interior cylindrical surface is cut a female screw-thread to eiif^aije the screw on the wroui;ht- iron iiase. The base has a cylindrical jj^K a.\ial cavity drilled through it, with a <#^^\ rounded tiroove on one side to accoin- niodale the stop and stop-sprinj;. Tlie W^ ^ front end of this cavity is enlarged by counter-boring, to a!low the necessary longitudinal play of the shank-head in opening and closing the llukes. The screw on this end tils accurately that in the body of the .shot. At the rear end of the base are formed live sectoral slots, e((iiidislant circuniferentially. '«'> ' fl These slots receive the heads of the 1 ' vHm flukes, which are fastened to the base at, these points by rivets. Circular grooves are milled out between the slots to allow the insertion of the rivets. The shank is of forged wrtughl iron. The front end of this bolt has a screw- thread, upon which, after insertion in the axial cavity of the base, a nut is placed. This end of the bolt is riveted after screwing on the nut. A rectangu- lar groove on one side of Ihe shank re- ceives the stop and spring. Five lugs, placed cqiiidistantly around the shank near the forward end, serve as points jl'S of attachment for the links that extend the llukes. The rear end of the shank [JlillI /vSS contains an eyt'-hole for attaching the line in tiring. Kach link is coni])osed of two tlal pieces of Troy steel, with holes at each end to receive the rivets that connect them with the shank andthike. The flukes, five in number, ;>re also 0./i il£5) made of Troy steel. Each fluke lias a rounded notch near its uiipcr or for- t ward end to accommodate the corres- ponding lug on the shank when closed. All edges or angles are carefully round- ed. The details of form and coustruc- l[ tion permit the use of the projectile in the 2i-incli gun already in the service, and prevent the entanglement of the line as much as possible in tiring. The \ai\i \r projectile is inserted in the gun point I I^Bfh "■''*'■ ■^^illi the tlukes closed, as shown nul ij WtS ™ ""' drawing, and the line tied in the eye-hole of tiie shank. In this posi- tion the base of the shot is toward the muzzle of the gun; the llukes [lartially enter the bore while the shank extends beyimd the muzzle. In tiring, the pro- jectile describes the tirst part of its trajectory base foremost; the strain upon the shank being toward the rear, the tlukes are kept closed: but, as soon as the projectile reverses, •111 m the tension on the line draws tint the shank to llie limit of its pint/ in the base, sjireading the (liikes to their full extent. \Vh( n the head of the shank reach- es the bottom of the counter-bore in Ihe base of lli<! shot, Ihe slop is thrown out by Ihe action of the slop- spring, and a s(piare shoulder (alches on llie base and prevents the closing of Ihe llukes. The latter may be ojiened anil closed readily by band. To close the llukes [iress Ihe lliumb upon the .stop until the shoulder is disengaged, and then push in the shank genlly till its head strikes the front ind of the count- erJiore. When vessels arc stranded the crews sometimes fasten a line or rope to a cask, spar, buoy, or raft, and heave it overboard, hoping that the wind anrl waves will throw it on the shoie lo be seized by ])er- soiis there, llius establinhiiigcommunicalion between the wreck and beach. It freipjently occurs, however, that lliere is an inshore current that carries the float- ing object along parallel to the coast, in which case the object desired fails lo be attained. This jirojectile was devised for the purpose of liring over the line thus paid out from the stranded vessel, soastopassa- l)ov(> that line at some desired ))oint between the cask or buoy and the vessel, and then by hauling in the attached shot-line, the flukes grapple the ship's line, and enable the life-saving crew on shore to land the buoy and secure the line from the vessel. There are other uses to which it may be put that will readily suggest themselves to llio.se familiar with the service. The following are the principal dimensions of the shot ; Inchcp. Cent. Total lenpth of hnrty anrl liuf(> ]a..')0..34.289 Length of ogival tiead S.17— 0.5118 Hadius of licad ii.50— 6.;«0 Lt-nutli of cylindrical liarl «.83r,24.Wj7 Diameter of cylindrical part 2.50— ti,8.W A.xial cavity— Length 1.25— .3.17.5 Banc— Total length 2.75- 8.985 Shank— Total length 13.25^.^3.(1.54 Total Icntth of shotandKliank llukes closed aS.."*— 59.(W9 Tolal length of shot and hhank. tlukCB extended 84,W)-62-483 Diftance of center of gravity from bflpe 5.00= l'.;.7(Hl The weight of the shot is 18.318 + lbs. = 8.2G4 kilos. See Anchtir-rtiiket, ChandUr A nchorsKut. and Lifl-Hlirluf/ Rni-hi't-^. LYON KING OF-AEMS.- The title borne since the first half of the loth century by the chief heraldic oflicer for Scotland, lie is the" Presiding Judge in the Lyon Court, and appoints the Heralds. I'ursiii- vanls. and Messengers-at-Arms. Unlike the Eng- lish Kings-of-Arms, he has always exercised juris- diction independently of the Constable and Marshal, holding office directly from the Sovereign by C( ni- missiou under the Great Seal. In Scotland he takes precedence " of all Knights and Gentlemen not being officers of state, or Senators of the College of Jus- tice." In England he ranks after Garter, and before the Provincial Kiug-of-Arms. Since the revival of the Order of the Thistle, he has been King-of-Arms of that Order. So sacred has his person been held that, in 1515, Lord Drummond was declared guilty of treason, attainted, and imprisoned in Blackness Castle, for striking Lyon. Prior to the Revolution, Lyon was solemnly crowned at Holyrood en i nter- iug on oftice by the Sovereign or his Commissioner, his crown being of the form of Ihe royal crown of Scotland, but enameled instead of being set with jewels. The crown is now only worn at corona- tions ; and that actually supplied on occasion of the last four appointments has been similar to the crowns of the English Kiug-of-Arms. Lyon's badge or me- dal, suspended by a triple row of gold chains, or on common occasions by a broad green ribbon, exhib- its the Arms of Scotland, and on the reverse. St. An- drew on his cro.ss; and his baton is of gold enamel- ed green, powdered with the badges of the Kingdom and with gold ferrules at e;ich end. Besides the vel- vet tabard of a King-of-Arms, he has an embroi- dered crimson velvet robe; and as King-of-Arms of the Thistle, a blue satin mantle, lined with white, with at St. Andrew's cross on he left shoulder. LYMAN CAHTRIDGE. 238 LYUAN CAKTBIOOE. LYMAN CAETRIDGE.— The object of Mr. Lyman is to suppl_v a cartridge which shall liurn with a con- stantly increasing tire-surface s(i tliat nearly uniform pressure shall be exerted upcm the projectile until the powder is about all consumed. When the cartridge is suited to the length of the barrel, the strain will be distributed equal!}- throughout the principal part of the barrel, whatever may be its length. It con- sists in forming powder into a solid cake within the cartridge shell, which cake.if for small-arms, is pierced by a central perforation from end to end, and is pro- tected from the (ire by the shell on its outer surface and rear end, so that only the small surface of the perforation and the front end of the cake can be ex- posed to the igniting flame. After this small surface is ignited the burning proceeds in a radial direction toward the surface of the cake, thereby continuous- ly enlarging the burning surface in a constantly increasing ratio and increasing the development and heat of the gases, and exerting a nearly uniform pres- sure upon the projectile throughout the principal part of the length of the barrel. The character of this powder cake is very impor- tant ; it should be solid and compact, none of it gran- ular ; it should have- a uniform density so that it will l)e burned evenly on all sides. To make it, powder meal which is reduced very fine may be moistened until it becomes somewhat plastic or of a consistency adapting it to to be molded and compressed into a solid mass, and while in this soft or plastic condition it is properly compressed in the cartridge shell. When dried the rapidity with which the powder burns depends upon the porosity of the cake, and this depends upon the amount of water contained in it •when being compressed as well as upon the pressure. The drawings show a longitudinal .section of the breech (if the gun containing a cartridge in position for tiring, also cross sections of modified forms of the cartridgi'. In tlie chamber of the tmn li is the breech-lilock whicli holds the cartridge in iilace, (' is a wedge for securing tlie bree<-h-block. wliich part may be of any suitable construction, I) is ihe car- tridge shell or case, and K is the powder cake packed I der-cakc. In the shell which protects its outer cylindrical and rear end surfaces from the action of the fire, G re- presents holes running tlirough the powder cake and through the head F of the cartridge, H is a firing tube passing centrally through tlie powder cake, and is designed to direct the igniting Hanie to tlie front end of the cake. This tube projects rearwardly from the cartridge head, and bears against the breech- block, leaving a space I between them. The car- tridge head is alsolocatedsomewhat within Ihe shell, so that the shell may bear upon the breech-block, as shown. To fire the cartridge a flame is forced through the firing tube and ignites the front end of the powder cake and flashes back down the perfora- tions in the powder cake, igniting the surfaces of all the holes at the same instant. The particular object of the chamber I behind the cartridge head is to permit the perforations through the powder cake to communicate with one another to insure their being instantly and simultaneously ignited throughout tlieir whole extent. If these holes were closed at their rear ends some of them might possibly become more or le.ss filled with air and gases upon the first of ignition which would prevent their entire surfaces from being instantly ignited and thereby prevent the intended uniformity of the ra- dial burning and increase of the burning surface along the whole length of the hole ; but when these channels open into a common space as shown tliey cannot become so filled or obstructed and their en- tire surfaces are instantly ignited and the progress of the radial burning is practically the same in all parts of the powder cake. The distance of the per- forations in the pow-der cake from each other de- termines the time of the burning of the cartridge and this distance should be proportionate to the length of the gun. The holes should meet some time be- fore the projectile reaches the end of the bore. When the walls of the powder cake are burned through, the burning and caving of their remaining fragments may raise the pressure slightly ; but the space into which the burning gases expand has now become so large and the rapid onward movement of the shot increases it so rapidly that such increase in pressure is not material. Trials of the cartridge in a | inch rifle .show initial velocities of 3080.2247, and 2313, f. s., although these experiments are the first, and naturally do not show its capabilities when everything is perfect. The shot thrown at these velocities was seef/i, calibers long, and with a twist of 4A inches. The cartridge as adapted for cannon has the following specifications: 1. A cartridge consisting of a sliell charged with a solid cake of pow-der or other material having longi- tudinal holes running through from end to end, and protected by said shell from the action of the fire upon its outer surface. 2. A cartridge consisting of a shell charged with solid cakes of powder or other explosive material packed in the shell and extending from end to end of the shell, and each provided with one or more holes piercing them longitudinally, and being protected from the action of the fire upon their outer surfaces. 3, A cartridge consisting of a shell charged with a solid cake' of powder, which is pro- tected from the action of the fire upon its outer sur- face by said shell, and at its rear end by the head of the shell, said cake and the head of the shell being liierced by longitudinal holes. 4. A cartridge con- sisting of a shell charged with a solid cake of pow- der jiierced from end to cud by holes extending also through the head of Ihe cartridge, the cartridge being Iirovided with a iirojection extending rearwardly and adapted to bear against the gun, and thereby form an open space back of the head of the car- tridge. 5. A cartridge consisting of a shell charged with a solid cake of jiowder pierced from end (o end with holes extending also through the carlridge head, and provided wilh a firing tube arranged to direcl the iguiting-flame to tlie front end of the pow- LYMAN HASKELL MULTl CHARGE CANNON. 239 UACCONNZLL CABTBISOZ BOX. LYMAN HASKELL MULTI CHARGE CANNON.— Tl.r Ihcdry i]f lliis ciiriiisilyiif iirdn.'iiici- is llic unidiial arcuiiiuliilion iif vrlncity or povvcr liy ii succcHsion (if cliiiriicM of powder c.vijloilcil licliiiid tlir projectile as it. passes aloiii; tlu^ Ijore of llie niiii. 'I'lie inertia of the sliol is lirsl overeoiiie liy a inodr-rale eliariie of eoarse-;;raiiied. slow-lmriiiiii; powiler. and I lien repealed cliarf^es of (iuiel<-l)urniMir powder are ap- l)lied in sueees.sion until a greally iner<'ased velocity is attained. <}eneral Newton, [niled Stales Army, says the penetrative power of this i;iin is not inferior to Ihal of the Arnislroni; Hl-I<in and lOO-ton j^uns. lie lliinks Die lO-iiieh aeeeleralini; nun would he as etlicienl as the Sl-ton nun. and nearly as nuieh so as the l(l(»-tun n"". !'>"' "'''' ''"' I'-i-ineh aeeeleratin^ gun would be more powerful than tli<' lOO-lon gun. No doubts are entertained by e.vperts that the gas clie<'k can be made jicrfectly ellicient, and it is be- lieveil that early e.\perinients will show that these guns, at eoinparatively moderate cost are at least as cflieient as tlie best in Europe. See lliixkell Mutti- c/iif/y/t ( 'tin /i"it . LYMAN SIGHT. —The optical principle involved in this most excellent sii;ht is entirely new in its appli- cation. Wlien aimini; it has the appearance of a rinn or hoop, which sliovvs tlu' frtmt sif;ht and the object aimed at, without intercepting any part of the view. The drawing shows the manner of its con- struction. The aperture of t lie sinht. beinij v<'ry near the eyes, is greatly mannitied as compared with the notch in the conuMon ojien sinlil. This fealnre fr'ivvs many the impression that an aperture which looks so lar^e cannot allow of accurate aim ; whereas, the larger this small ai)orture looks, the more accurate the aim. Furthermore, the distance from the Lyman sight to the front sight is nearly twice as much as from the ordinary open siucht to the front sight which, in itself, ihnUiles the accuracy. The rim of tlie si^lit can be instantly changed to give it a large aperture with a narrow rim, or a small aperture with a wider rim. For all quick shooting the large aperture should lie used. The sisht can- not shut out the view of the front sight, nor the ob- ject to be aimed at : while with any other rear sight the chief dilliculty in aiming is to bring tlie sights and objects (piickly into line without interfering with the view of tlie front siu;ht or the object. It possesses the following additional advantages, viz., it allows an instantaneous aim to be taken — tlie ob- ject being sighted as quickly as if only the front sight were used: it readily permits one to shoot movinR objects, with linth the eyes in use; it is also verv accurate, simpli-. and strong. Any kjnd of front sinht may be used with it. anil it may be put on any rilli' in the same way that a peep si^lit is attaclii'd. and adjusted for shooting any distance up to 1,(XX) yards. To apply the sight to any rifle, screw the base firm, ly on the tang of the piece. See that the tpring notch in the sisrht-joint is file<i so that the sight stands perpendicular when in use. Remove the miildle sight, /. e., the rear open sight from the gun. A blank piece can be put in the slot on the liarrel, if desired. It is recommended to use the Beach fn/nt s'g/it. in conjunction with the sight, and for most shootinir, use the larife aperture of the rear sight ; and for verj- quick shooting, aim with both eyes open. M MACADAMIZED. — A term applied to roads covered ', with lirokeii stone. The principles of the Macadam system of road-iiiakingare as follows; For the foun- dation of a road, it is not necessary to lay a substra- tum of large stones, pavement, etc., as it is a matter i of ludifTerence whether the substratum be hard or soft ; and if any preference is due, it is to the latter. The metal for roads must consist of hrokiii utorie-t (granite. Hint, or wliinstone is by fartlie best): these [ must in no case exceed (i oz. each in weight, and stones of from 1 to 3 oz. are to be preferred. The i large stones in the road are to be loosened, and re- moved to the side, where they arc to be broken into pieces of the regulation weight ; and the road is then j to be smoothed with a rake, so tli:it the earth may settle down into the holes from which thelarge stones were removed. The broken metal is then to care- fully spread over it; and as this operation is of great import;ince to the future quality of the road, the metal is not to be lif'd ou in shovelfuls to the requis- ite deptlt, but to be scattered in shovelful after shovel- ful, till a depth of from 6 to 10 inches, according to the quality of the roiid, has been obtained. The road is to have a fall from the middle to the sides of about 1 in GO, and ditches are to be dug on thetield side of the fences to a depth of a few inches below the level of the road. This system, which at one time threatened to supercede every other, is calculated to form a hard and impermeable crust on the surface, thus protecting the soft earth below from the action of water, and so preventing it from working up through the metal in the form of mud. Strange to say, it has succeeded admirably in cases where a road had to be constructed over a bog or morass,but in some other circumstances, it has been found de- ficient. MACANA.— The war-club of the South American Indians. MACCONNELL CARTRIDGE-BOX. This bo.x, in- vented by (.'aptain C. C. .\[acConnell of the U.S. Army, MACDONALD'S HALE KOCKET. 240 UACHICOULTS GALLEKY. is square-shaped, made of leather lined with tin. and has compartments to hold 40 cartridses. There is au openinc at the bottom, worliiug by means of a spring, and by which onecartridj^e can be taken out iit a time. The cartridges are placed in the bo.\ on top by raising the flap. The box is worn on the waist-lielt. MACDONALD'S HALE ROCKET.- Tlie case of this improved mcket is of steel of great strength, at the end of which is soldered a collar, to the center of which is screwed a wrought-iron tube : this tube unites the head to the body of the rocket and allows the gas to escape through the upper vents. The head has a cavitj', communicating with the e.xterior by five openings directed toward the rear. These vents or openings, as in the Hale rocket, have semi- cylindrical flanges ; tlie gas escaping acts against to b:; hurled at an enemy when lie approaches near the wall, as in scaling, undermining, etc. Such de- fenses are very common in castellated architecture, especially over gatcwaj's. towers, etc. For the pur- pose of attaining, by musketry, the foot of a scarp wall without flank defenses, resort must be had to a machicoulated arrangement at the top of the scarp. The usual mode adopted for this purpose, is to form a parapet wall which rests upon a solid hori- zontal band of stone, near the top of the scarp, which is supported on corbels or projecting blocks, lirndy built into the wall. The back of the pariipet wall 13 placed a few inches in advance of the scarp, leaving room for the slanting loop-holes pierced in the hori- zontal band through which the fire is to be delivered on the foot of the scarp. The top of the parapet wall is also arranged to admit of firing on more distant the concave face of the flanges and imparts amotion of rotation to the rocket. The lower end of the case is closed by a disc, also pierced witli five vents cor- responding to those in the head, and furnished with similar flanges. This construction applies the mo- tion of rotation to the head as well as to the rear part of the rocket, and remedies the considerable de- viation of the Hale rocket due to the motion of ro- tation being applied to the base only ; as its center of gravity is quite considerably in front, the head describes very large and irregular spirals. The rocket composition consists of TO parts of niter, 16 parts of sulphur, and 2.3 parts of charcoal. It is pressed into the tulie with a pressure of 90 tons. As it is bored throughout its whole length by the chan- nel, the surface of inflammation is much more con- siderable than in the Hale rocket, and its velocity much greater. The head has at its front part, in front of the cavity, a shell with a bursting charge, which is ignited by means of a fuse, either percus- sion or time. The rocket thus perfected has given results very superior to those obtained by war-rockets of other systems. Five 12-pounder rockets thrown under an angle of 8" 1.5' had a mean range of 1.8T0 meters, with a lateral deviation of 2.74 meters only, while Hale rockets of the same caliber, under the same angle of elevation, had a range of only 1,200 meters with a lateral deviation of 34 meters. See RockeU. MACE. —A strong, short wooden staff, with a spiked metal ball for a head. It was a favorite weapon with knights, with the cavalry immediately succeed- ing them, anil at all times with fighting priests, wiiom a canon of the church forbade to wield the sword. No armor could resist a well-delivered blow from tlie mace. The mace is now borne before magistrates as an ensign of authority. The variety known us Margenfitern.av Morning-xtarMnA generally a long handle, and its head bristled with wooden or iron points or spikes. MACEDONIAN PIKE.— A spear or lance of great length used ill warfare by the Greeks. It is common- ly ("illi il Siirissa. MACHETE.— A large, heavy knife resembling a l)roa(ls\vc>ril, often 2 or three feet in length, used by the inhabitants of Spanish America as a hatchet, to cut their way tljrough thickets, and for various other purposes. MACHICOLATION. The iicl of hurling missiles, or liouriii'i variiius Imrniiig or melted substances upon assiiiliiiits llirciiLdi Mdi'hifiilntinnx. MACHICOLATIONS. The apertures between the corbels supporting a projecting parajiet. The machi- colations are for the purpose of allowing projectiles points. Where, from the irregularity of the site, the ordinary machicoulis cannot be made efficient, re- sort may be had to small polygonal chambers of stone, open at top, and having the sides and bottom pierced with loop-holes and machicoulis. These con- structions may be made just of sufficient size to hold a single sentinel. They are placed at the angles of the works where they will not be exposed to artillery, and are supported on a corbel work urojecting from the top of the scarp wall. MACHICOULIS GALLERY.— To place a house in a defensive attitude, the doors and windows of the lowest story should be firmly barricaded, and loop- holes be made as in the case of a wall. A tambour should be placed before the doors, both for their protection and to procure flanking arrangements if required. The windows of the upper stories should be partly barricaded, to cover the troops within, and loop-holes should be arranged as in the lower stories. The roof, if not fire-proof, should be torn down, and the floor of the upper story be covered with earth or dung, moist from the stable, to the depth of about two feel. If it is intended to de- fend the upper stories, should the enemy succeed in forcing the lower, the stairs should be torn down, and slight ladders be used in their stead; holes should be made through the floor to fire on the en- emy in the lower story, or to throw heavy articles, or boiling water, etc., on him. If there are bal- conies to the windows of the iqiper stories, or an ujiper gallery, they cun readily be placed in a de- fi'iisive st!ite"by pliuiiig thick boards as a shelter on the outside, tiiid ciilling suitable holes through the floor to defeiiil the doors and windows of the lower story. If liiere should be no conveniences of this nature, a temporary structure, termed a Ma- MACHINE GUN. Z41 UACUINE GUN. Trial No. 1. For Accuracy. Range 500 meters; 2 targets, 20 meters apart. Name (if C)i) 1 Trial. Ilotclikiss Nonlcnfi-klt Gardner Pratt it Whitney Oanlner Norilenfelilt Monligney Gatlinic Oatlins M)2 1.00 M> .45 .45 .433 .433 .45! .42 o lis ci2 c ^ bl) lOi 24 80 80' (20 ■(801 lool lOOl. 100; 100 REMAnES. 10 Gun sighted after each shot. 8!Firing fast. 17 (Jain at 20 shots. C'artridL'f nipped in feed-slide. 10 Firing fast. 901 " very .slow. I •' fast. 141i " at rate of 800 jier ininnte. 61| •' fast. * No. hits not known. Trial No. 2. 100 shots. Range l.OOO meters ; 2 rows of targets, 20 meters apart. Name of (inn on Triai. Ilotclikiss Nordenfeldt Gardner Pratt & Whitney Gardner Nordenfeldt Montigney Gatling Galling !« !^ 1> o j3 U Vj •a C . iil) t XI 2 1h C3 o J3 2 M « O 6 fcl) m £ 5 1.45 2 10 7 4 1.00 4 24 7 1 .45 2 100 43 2 .45 8 100 60 2 .45 10 100 51 10 .4.33 30 100 59 30 .433 IG 100 40 10 .45 15 100 106 6 .42 15 100 48 Remabks. Gun sighted after each shot. volley (4 shots). Firing at rate of 200 per minute slow. fast. time 3i seconds. fast. Trial No. 3. For Accuracy. Range 1,800 meters : 100 shots; two rows of targets. Name of Gun. Gardner, . . . Pratt & Whitney, Gardner, Nordenfeldt. Galling, . . , Gatlina;, . . . o . tr, . c ■= i. fli c ir. Remabks. s s ■a^ o OS .S2 Iz; 03 K 1 12 100 1 Firing Slow. 2 24 100 •' 2 20 100 15 10 50 100 .1 10 15 100 18 time 3f seconds. 6 21 100 20 slow. Trial No. 4, one mile. Time 30 seconds. Range, 800 meters; two rows of targets. Name of Gun. Hotchkiss. . . Nordenfeldt. . (lardner. . . I'ratt it Wliitney, Gardner. . . Nordenfeldt, . Gatling, . . . Gatling. . . . ^ ■o "S s to . ^ fc« 'H 2 o P 02 02 ^21 30 1 485 888 30 12 52 20 30 4 84 44 1 30 4 170 27 30 3 160 120 30 20 251 121 30 13 413 29 30 8 195 82 Remakes. Most of shots went over. It being late this trial was made in a hurri-. It was the first trial made with the Gatling. ,V large party I were present, who wanted to see the gun, l_or it would not have been fired. Pratt and WHiitney gun fired 3.266 shots in 9| minuter, with four changes at the crank ; two barreled Gardner, 1,446 in i\ minutes; 100 shots fired at 70" elevation in 'i\ seconds by the Gatling. UACHIN£-OnN. 242 II[a.CKENZI£ CUPOLA FUBNACE. chicoiilis Gallery, may be formed by placing stout pieces of scantling through holes made in the wall, on a level with the Hoor; these pieces being confined to the floor on the inside, either by nailing them to it or by tying them with rope to the joists; the)' should project from three to four feet beyond the wall on the exterior, and vertical pieces of smaller scantling, about four feet long, should be nailed to them, on which boards are nailed to cover the troops from the enemy's fire ; these boards should be at least three inches thick. The tlooring of the gallery is laid on the horizontal pieces, and holes are made through it to fire on the enem}', or to throw grenades, stones, etc., on him. Any similar arrangement which will shelter a man, in the act of firing from a win- dow on the foot of the wall, or in throwing over stones, etc., will serve the same purpose as a Machi- coulis gallery. A table might easily be arranged to answer the end in view. The drawing shows a section of a Macliicoulis. D is a flooring joist : A is a hori- zoutal support ; B is a cross timber ; and C is an up- right in frnnt. See Tamb(mr. MACHINE-GUN. — A gun designed to deliver a- gaiust animate objects a strong, rapid, continuous and accurate fire of small projectiles at all ranges suited to infantry; to be served by the fewest possible number of men, .and also to give a fire that may, in many cases, be as effective as the discharge of can- ister from artillery. The conditions to be fulfilled in the construction of such guns are: simplicity and strength of mechanism ; lightness ; freedom from sen- sible recoil ; endurance ; and interchangeability of ammunition with that used by the troops generall_y. A variety of machine guns, having merits, will be found noticed under Battery Guns. Prominent a- mong the American l)attery or machine guns are the (rfMhig, the L'twell, the Oirdner, and the Uotchkias J^rvoti'tng Cannon. piiJll!!>::!>':!>;i!i:!|li<!iii'll#fe& Fij. 1. The Gardner machine-gun, shown in Fig. 1., is an exceedingly simph- machine, with a capacity for rapid fire |)rolialily lis great as is consistent with the economical exiienditure of ammunition, and its ex- treme lightness of construction niiikes it very easy to handle. Several forms of cartridge-holders and feed-cases to feed cartridges to the (i;irdner gun have been devised by Air. P;irUliurst. In one of these the cartridges are licld by the bullet end in ii block, leav- ing the flanires exjiosed. The feed tube or guide of the gun receives all the flanges in a block. The block is then pulled off. The Ijowell machine-gun, inanufa<;tured at Lowell, Mass., fires a shigle barrel. bu* is provided with two, three, or more barrels which can be rapidly turned into position for firing as one or another becomes heated. Tlie cartridges are held in feeding-tubes above the gun, and pass down the tubes into the carrier-rolls. These are two cogged wheels placed side by side behind the barrel and on axes parallel with the barrel, the cogs abutting instead of intcrmeshing, and the space be- tween the cogs being just large enough to receive a cartridge. A plunger carries the cartridge forward from this receptacle while the wheels are at rest, fires, and then withdraws the shell, when a further rotation of the cog-wheels ejects the spent shell and brings another into line with the barrel. The gun is made with an automatic traversing mechanism which nuiy be thrown into or out of gear, so that the direction of fire n\ay change slowly or rapidly over a sector of considerable extent in front of the gun, or the fire may be confined to a single line of direction. The rapidity of fire for the 45 caliber is about 300 shots per minute. The carriage, nsnall}- cmplo}-ed in the United States, for the machine-gun is at wo-wheeled vehicle, drawn by two horses placed abreast ; the oJT horse works in shafts situated so as to occupy the proper position ; the carriage is guided by this horse, and he supports the portion of the weight that is not liorne by the axletree. The near horse is ridden by the driver. When firing, the horses being detached, the shafts serve as a trail. The gun is mounted over the center of the axletree on an iron bed formed of two plates, one of which moves over the other about a vertical axis, to give the desired horizontal training to the gun. On each side of the gun is a box opening to the rear ; the cuterior is divided into spaces, each of which carries a feed-case. These boxes serve also as seats for the gunners. Boxes of additional am- munition and tools and spare parts are carried in a compartment beneath the gun bed in rear of the axletree. Fig. 2. on the opposite page, shows the form of light gun-carriage used with the Lowell Battery-gun when making long marches over very rough country. It is a suitable pattern for all machine-guns, • and is, of very simple construction. The trials of machine-guns at Turin, Italy, commencing October 10, 1883, and tabulated on page 241, will serve to show the wonder- ful ]>nwers of these weapons . MACKAY GUN.— A wrought iron gun dis- tinguished from the Whitworth and Lancaster guns by the following characteristics; The Whitworth has a hexagonal bore in a tube of homogeneous iron, sireugthened with hoops forced on by hydraulic pressure ; the Lancas- ter is without grooves, but the Ijore is oval ; the Mackay has numerous grooves, but the projectile does not, as in other guns, fit into them, its rotation being imparted by the rush of gases through the spiral grooves around it. In every case the groove or oval takes one turn, or portion of a tiirn. within the cun. MACKAY PROJECTILE. — The distinguish- ing feature of this ]irojectile c(msists in the apiiliriition !ind use of several diagonal grooves formed in tlie interior surface of the gun at a great angle, which are to a<t as wind- age grooves so that the powder and gas pass- ing down such grooves, encircling the projectile, shall have a longer distance to travel than the pro- jectile, and also cause the projectile to revolve round its longest axis at a high rotation as it passes down the gun. The ]irojecliies are not allowed to enter or fit these grooves ;is in rifles, but simply to pass down the smooth surface in which the grooves arc formed. MACKENZIE CUPOLA FURNACE.— This pattern of furnace is extensively \ised in working camion me- tals, and in the fabrication of projectiles. The Iiody of the cupola, which is oval in shape, consists of a MACKENZIE CUPOLA FnKNACE. 243 MACKENZIE CUPOLA FURNACE lining <if lirc.I)ri(k iiiclowd in a wroiiKlit-iron cais- son, conl rafted at IIk; lop to form the slack, and rcstini^ on a cast-iron liotlotn plate, wlilcli is siip- [xirlcd on iron ])illars. The pcciiiiaril y of lids cupola, as conipar<'d willi ollicrs of llic many varieties in use, exisis only in llie shape of llie tnyerc, or ii] llii' nielhod employed fcjr inlrodueini; llie iilast, a <'onlin- iio\is air-chand)er inclosed l)et\veeii the caisson and a wrouf;ht-iron ajiron, wliicli jirojeels inward, and is braced by a (asl-iron rini;, widcli can easily be re- ))laced when worn ont. The tuyere itself is the slol iaiiealh, tliroiii;h which Ihe air, aibnitted to the chand)erfrom llielilasl-pipes, passes into the cnpola. Tlie liolloni is a cast-iron droji-door made in Uvo hin^^ed [larts, and supiiorled.wlien closeil.by a proi). Tills bollom is covered wilh a layer of sand,arrani:e(" with a ijenlle slope towards the spout; the laller, throuith which the melted iron runs to the hidle. is of iron coated wilh loam, and painted willi coke- wash. The c?tar(/ing.(liinr is situated at tlie rear of the furnace, and the stock is {generally lifted lo it on an I'levalor. To chari;e the furnace most expc- diliously shavings are placed in the boltom. then liilht "wood, and oonl-wood sawed into lenplhs of from ten to eiihteen inches, a part of it lieinir stood on end around the sides to protect them, and the whole bed beinir built up level. In this last respect care is used lhroui;h all the subsequent .stajres of the charirins. On Ihe top of the wood is placed tlie 'stcK'k," which, for a No. H furnace, consisis of about 2,100 pounds of (I,ehii;h)lump coal. The lire is llieii liirhted, and when the llanies are seen lo lie working Well through the mass about five tous of iron are placed evenly on top : then about 000 pounds of egg or grate coal, followed liy live tons of iron. This '• building up " of the charge can be continued as long as the malcrial can be handled through the chargiug-door, the ordinary capacity of such a fur- nace as described being about fifteen tons. In charging the iron, it is usual to first put in pieces of plate and light scrap iron to iirolect the lump coal from being broken as the heavier portions of the charge are added. As soon as the cupola is "charged " the Wast ig put on. and in about twenty minutes Ihe iron is •• down." and ready lo lie drawn olf. Warned of this by the melted "metal ■• blow- ing" through the " cap-hole." the melter closes it securely with a"fo/rf" made of sand mi.xed willi clay-wash ; he has prepared in advance also a num- ber of other "bods." which he uses for the same purpose whcnevr it may be necessary while draw- ing Ihe metal. The "bod "is lightly attached to the end of an iron or wooden rod, "and beinir shoved UACLED ABMOS. 244 MADIGAN AUSTDNITION-BOZ. into the tapping-hole, sticks to it and closes it up. To " tap" the cupola, the melter shoves into the '■ hod" an iron bar with a square point, and enlarges the hole by turning the bar aroiuid. The ladles in- to which the metal is run are lined with a mi.xture of molding sand and clay-wash, or with loam, and thoroughly dried before iieing used. When all the nietp.l is drawn off, the cupola is " dumped " liy re- moving the prop and allowing the doors to fall. The '• dump" is then extinguished, and the pieces of iron and fuel picked and sifted out. After each day's casting, the furnace has to be repaired by picking out tlie slag which has formed within, and by daub- ing with a nd.xturc of clay and (ire-sand the parts of the lining where the fire-brick has been l)iirned out. About once in si.\ months the entire tire-brick lining has t.f) be replaced. Hee Cupola Furiiiife, Foundry. and Jrun. MACLED ABMOR.— Armor of the Middle Ages, - composed of small lozenge-shaped plates of metal, sewed on a foundation of doth orleatlier, and some- I times overlapping each other half way. MACOMBER GUN.— A gim, the pecufiarity of which consists in its stated extraordinary strength. The chamber for holding the powder and the breech of the gun are formed of discs of wrought iron, com- posed of three different qualities of tht'iron, the soft- est forming the center and the hardest the outer circumference of the disc, which are thoroughly welded together, leaving a hole in the center. After a sutficient numV)er of these are prei)ared to form the gun, they are roughly engine-turned to bring them to a uniform thickness. These discs are then submitted to a process of " setting " by steel punches (each disc separately), by powerful blows of a steam- hammer, beginning lightly, and increasing gradu- ally until the soft and hard metal have been forced (in a cold state) from center to circumference to the point of enlargement of the latter which rommence- ment of the enlargement is proof that every portion of the disc tuill bear its equal proportion of a future strain or concussion which it may be sulijected to and whicli, in the use of gunpowder, cannot exceed the test thus supplied. After the discs are set, they are welded one at a time upon a mandrel; by the proce-s known to smiths as "jump welding." "Sub- sequently, the mandrel upon which the discs were forged will be entirely taken out by the process of boring the gun. leaving only the metal which has been subjected to the steam-hammer and punch. The breech of the gun is surrounded with steel rings, which are forced over it, in a cold state, by a powerful hydraulic press. The gas-check is Mr. Macomber's own invention. He uses Dyer and Sons' friction-primers, and makes use of the strong- est powder and of a tine grain ; but he states that he would have no objection to use gun-cotton. The weight of the gtui is Vi cwt., caliber IJ inch, weight of shot 3 lbs., initial velocity about 2000 feet per second. The inventor states tliat at an elevation of 38° the shot attains the very remarkable range of 9^ miles. MACROMETER.— An instrument by means of which tlie ranges of distant objects can be determined with rapidity and accuracy. It consists of two mir- rors, disposed somewhat similarly to the mirrors of a marine sextant, the observations being taken nnich in the same way. One of the mirrors is mova- ble, and is fixed to an arm on which the several distances, from 20 to 2.000 yards, are marked. The arm moves over a peculiar curve placed on a part of the instrument called the " fan." and indi- cating the distances answering to any given inclina- tion of the mirror. The arm. moreover, is fitted with a slide so as to be capable of being set to any length of base, and this liase may either be measured by a chain or may be paced, the slide being set to the line marked "yards" or "paces," as the case may be. The result is always given in yards. -When it is required to make an observation, two men take up a position so as to form a triangle with the ob- ject, the distance of which it is desired to ascertain. One of the two observers, by means of an optical square, places himself so as to be at right angles with the distant object and the second observer, by whom the macrometer is used. From experiments made with this instrument, the distance of moving objects has i)een ascertained with very great nc<uracy. and in the case of stationary objects the (TFiir has been fo\Mid to lie less than 1 jier cent. The notation of the instrument admits of the units being taken to rei>resenl chains and links; thus 835 woulci be 8 chains and ;!5 links. MADIGAN AMMUNITION BOX.— These boxes, also ad.'ipled for use as a nu'dicine or mess chests, are jiackcd in pairs on cither an aparejo or ordinary pack-saddle. They meet all the re(|uircmenls of ac- tive service and by means of them, troops in line of MADRIEBS. 245 MAOAZINE. battle or skirniisliiiii^ may br ijiiickly siipplu'd, and arc not (ihlificd to lost; valiiahU; inotiirnts of tinii;, while iinpaekini;, iinscrewin!; eovers, etc. The drawiii); shows the boxes packed on an aparejo, aii'd the manner of nsini; Iheni. Their eonstrnction is sueli that all or iiiiy part of the eonlenis may be re- moved, whenever desired for immi'diate use, wilh- oul iiiiloadini;, slaekini; the lash-rope, or even halt- in^C the animal earryini; them. These are eerlainly important advantaiies in case of a surprise or sudden attack upon tlu' pack-train, or the unexpected dis- covery of the enemy; or, if used for medieal or sub- sistenci; stores, and in case of sudden illness, or the necessity of entinsc a meal under tlie various cir- cumstances forbiildini: a halt. Many instances will doubtless recur to every officer or soldier of exper- ience in field service, where disasters have resulted from not liavinj; l)een able to quickly replenisli the supply of anuMiition. Tlu' devices l)y which this box is made available for sudden emerfjencies, are essentially three in num- ber, viz: FiitsT, and most important : — The anille castings or corner-bands in the center of each side of the top of the box, each of whi('h has a diagonal circular opening, or socket, for the lash rope. Sec- ond: — The center partition. 1 J inches thick, on the top of which is screwed a center strii), 'i\ inches in width, with two lids hinged thereto, oi)ening from the ends. Third: — The sul)-division of the inferior of the box, b)' adjustable partitions, into compart- ments, adapted in luimbcr and arrangement, to the nature of tile contents, and shape and size of the packages. These compartments prevent the shak- ing or damaging of the packages by the motion of the animal, which would occur with an ordinary box after being partially emptied; and permit the load to be kept practically balanced by faking out of each box, alternately all or part of "the contents of one or more compartments-thus obviating any ne- No special fittings or attachments to the ordinary aparejo or pack-saddle, an: retpiired; the boxes an; complefr- in Ihiinselves and in case of emergency nniy be packed with very little in the way of outlit a few old sacks tilled with hay or straw, a couple of cinches ;ind a pii-ce of rope will answer. The am- munition hrixes in present use in the United States are very unsuit;ihle for (lacking; two being too light for a i)roper load, while three are awkward to handle, very difficult to lash so as to be ke|)t in place on an aparejo or pack-sa<ldle, and are liable to chafe and strain the animal's back. MADRIERS. Long plankg of broad wood, used for supporting the earth in mining, carrying on a sap, nnikuig coffers, caiioniers, galleries," and for var- ious oilier jiiirposes at a siege ; also to cover the mouth of petardsafter they are loaded, and are fixed with the petards to thegatesor other places designed to be forced o|ien. When the planks are not strong enough they are doubled with iilafes of iron. MADRINA. — The animal preceding a trooii of mules, usu;illy ;iii old mare, in South America, to the neck of whi<h a little bell is attach<<l. the sound of which the mules follow with the greatest docility. If several large troops are turned into one field to graze, in the morning the muleteer has only to lead the madrinas a little apart, and tinkle their bells, and although there may be 200 or 300 mules together, each immediately knows its own bell, and .separates itself from the rest. The affection of these animals fill their madrina saves infinite trouble. It is nearly impossible to lose an old mule ; for. if detained sev- eral hours by force, she will, by the [lowerof smell, like a dog. track out her companions, or rather the nia<irina ; for. according to the muleteer, she is the chief object of affection. The feeling, liowever, is not of an individu;d nature ; for any animal with a licll will serve ;is a ni;idrina. MAGAZINE. — In a literal sense, any place where stores are kept; but as a military expression, a maga- zine always means a jviinhr-mnyiizinr, although arms may at times be kept in it. A magazine may be a depot where vast quantities of gunpowder are held in reserve, an entrejiot for the supply of several ad- vanced works, a battery magazine for the wants of a fortress during a siege, or merely an expense mag- azine for the daily requirements of the special bat- tery in which it may be situated The last is usually temporary, and hollowed out in the back of the ram- part ; but the other forms require most careful struc- ture. They most be bomb-proof, and therefore ne- cessitate very thick walls ; they must be quite free from damp : and they should "admit sufficient day- light to render the use of lanterns within generally I unnecessary. The drawing shows cross sections of I fascine, copper, and gabion magazines. Magazines J- 8 cessity for unloading, or touching a rope during the march other than the usual adjustment of the lash rope. By filling only a portion of the compartments, when tlie packages" are unusually heavy, or when the iinimal is not in good condition, the weight of tlie load may be adapted to the circumstances of the case. without danger of rattling, shaking, or breaking the packages; for hard bread or other stores of light weight, the boxes may be made larger, if desired; or if necci<S(iry. four boxes of the usual size oin be pack- ed on one animal . arc commonly built of brick, the solid masonry be- ing arched over within, and a thickness of earth sometimes added above the brick-work to insure im- permeability to shells. The entrance is protected by shot-proof traverses, lest an opening sli<iuld be forc- ed by ricochet shots. AVithin. the magazine is di- vided into bins or compartments, and one of these should always be kept empty in order that the bar- rels of powder may frequently be moved from one place to another, a process necessary to keep it in good condition. The liatterv magazine commonl UA0AZINE-6UN. 246 UAGAZINE-OUN. contains 500 rounds for tlie guns dependent on it. Depot magazines should, when possible, be limited to 1000 barrels of powder. In 1870-71, tbe German Army Corps had supply trains generally attached to the divisions of each corps; these distributed food to the troops— they carried 4 days' rations for men. Then they had a certain number of supply wagons, containing food for men and horses for six days ; these kept in rear of the corps, and could communicate with the mag- azines. When traveling by rail, tbe troops were fed at certain stations, or took in their food at these stations. The whole management of supply appears to have been admirably carried out, and, when so performed, it considerably facilitates oper- ations. The subject of the formation and position of magazines is one of such vast importance that military men will do well to study the history of past campaigns, when tliej' will ob.serve — to take only one example — how Napoleon, in the Wars of the Re- public, was careful to accumulate vast magazines and to keep his communications open, notwithstanding that his troops helped themselves pretty freely off the country they invaded ; nevertheless, no General ever realized more than he did the necessity of having ac- cumulated supplies ready to fall back upon, aiicl to keep his communication to the rear carefully guard- ed. See TJyhtning Oo?iducU>rs, Powder Depots, and Pmrilir MafjazhieK. MAGAZINE-GUN.— A breech-loading small-arm, Ixaving a magazine capable of holding a number of cartridges which may be fired in quick succession — the empty shell being ejected and another cartridge conveyeif to the chamber from the magazine by working the mechanism of the piece. There are several types. 1. Those in which the magazine is a tube below the barrel, as in the Winchester, the Ward-Burton, etc. 2. Those in which the magazine is in the stock, as in the Spencer, Meigs, and others. 3. Those in which tbe magazine is a separate piece attachable to the gun when required, as in the Lee, Elliot, and Gatling gim. The following is a general classification of magazine-arms,founded on the meth- od by which cartridges are fed from the magazine : rist sity of providing troops with arms that will give every possible superiority of fire in battle. Rapidity of discharge is certainly an essential element under all circumstances. Should equal detachments be opposed, there can be no doubt but that the one able to fire ten effective shots per minute, each man, more than the other, would have a great advantage. Rapidity of fire alone can compensate for an in- feriority in number of men engaged. In magazine or repeating arms, the cartridges are fed automati- cally into the chamber of the barrel, by the manipu- lation of the breech mechanism. It is only neces- sary to close the breech when tlie arm is ready to fire. This obviates the necessity of handling ami charging each cartridge, besides preventing tlie con- siderable loss of ammunition, occasioned by soldiere dropping cartridges while transferring from the car- tridge-box to the arm, which, in the excitement of battle and rapid firing, are seldom recovered or saved. Tbe principal objection offered to magazine guns, is that their use causes a wasteful and unnec- essary expenditure of ammunition. The same argu- ment was largely used, when only a few years ago, the merits of breech versus muzzle-loaders, were being discussed, and is as treat noir as then. With officers and non-commissioned officers thoroughly impressed with the necessity of an economical and judicious use of ammunition, the question becomes one only of discipline and drill. No valid reason can be given why, other essentials being equal, the same men should not aim as well, firing rapidly, as slowly sighting requires the same time whatever may be the tmie used in loading; and if increasing the time expended between the firing of one shot and sighting for the next, increases the effect- iveness of the man, it follows, that to shoot accur- ately, a certain amount of time must be wasted in operations other than aiming the weapon — a theory that could hardl}' be sustained. The drawings show the positions at "order arms," of cartridges contained in tubular magazine-guns, constructed with magazines under the barrel and in the butt-stock. All the cartridges are forced toward the breech mechanism by a spiral spring (as partly , direct i fist, by rotating barrel aboiifl let, by a spring. -| 1 axie parallel to it into liue> . I 3d, indirect. ..^ with magazine. j I 2d, to position opposite re- l_ 1^ ceiver , butt .took. 2d b^ a ratcbet. P^^; -^^^0^'-, ^^"'*^""'~ i by hand. » 3d, by a epiral cam (screw- motto u). fist, sliding, at riaht angles to axis of boru. \.rnw 1 berwithcjirt- ad, tip stock.. ^ by a spring- >ierwhicb-; arms ^ ridgcB from • ( (is- let, to position oblique to axis of bore. 2d, rotating— -' u. to position parallel witb axie. 3d. sliding and) 1^ rotating— / ' {to position parallel to axis ] nf bore and above re ^ and by gravity ceiver — ) 3d, ningazinc"! on tup of > by a spring barrel ) 4th, magazine) by a spring (ver- (to position opposite center) belowbolt / ticallyj— ( of chamber. / 5th. revolving) chambers / \ into Jine with axis of I bore. The quoRtirm of the comparative merits nf maira- ' shown in A), -which spring must ho of sufflcient zint* ixuns ami Hiiiu;]** hn'cch-Ina(k'rs, for military j strcnirtli to support the weiLrht of the cnhimu of car- purposes, lias Ikm-m so exiiauslively (iiscussed l>y tlie tridi^es. and fttrec thcni into the receiver of the arm military autliorilies of the worhl, that there would seem lo be uo longer any duubl regarding the neees- as fast as re(piired.and (tf necessity it must have very considerable stilluess or strength. The weiglit of a MAG\ZIHE GUN. 247 HAOAZIHE 0U2f. cciluninof live ordinary service eiirlri<lKes waulil l]e iiljimt seven ounces, al, least four-liftlis of wliicli weight would in a lul>ular niafrazine, rest fairly upon llie point of llie liiillet of the last carlridt'i! and wliicli liullel cunes directly in conlaci vvilli till' primer itself of llie earlriiii;c' in advane(- of it. All ordnance otlieers and anuMiuiiliori manufac- turers reali/.e tlic' ditticully experienced in prcparini,' fulminate of mercury (used for primers), thai will, in jiraclical use. alwiiys liav(^ a uniform decree of sensitiveness. It can "be made so sensitive that the into the receptacle below. It is readily seen, then, that the use of «ucli a spiral spring makes premature explosion not onlv/""«'''>''',l>ut riru prohahle. nmKWMtK is no way to prevcMit it, except by discardinf; it, as in the Lee or Cliairie-Keece guns. During the War of the Keliellion, guns using the spiral spring liave heen known to explode when the cuvulrv were on a march. Of course suih arms were discarded; but the same thing may happen to any arm of recent inven- tion which is so constructed as to require a spiral sprin" in feeding the cartridge into the chamber. slightest scratch will ignite it. and many fulminate mixers have lost their lives by a moment's inatten- tion or relaxation of caution while compounding it. While it is generally [lossible to produce fulminate of nearly e(iual quality, still difF<'rent batclies do vary: and whether it be from difference in this (|iiality, or from tile ditTerent jiosition or placement of the ful- minate in the primer as regards the cartridge-anvil, or otherwise, still it is certainly true that cartridges are to be found in use that will explode with one half the concussion ordinarily required. It is a fact that cartridges have exploded by dropping a few inches from the machine in which thev are loaded li Where the cartridges are fed from the butt-stock by a spiral sprins the bullet is liable to strike the counter-bore of the barrel, making a notch in the bullet and renderini it useless for accurate work. When the cartridges are brought up by a carrier oa an anirle the same thing will happen— the counter- bore of the barrel either stops the bullet or cuts off a piece sufficiently large to make it impossible that its flight be accurate and make a good target, be- cause of its irregular shape made by such contact. It is well understood that a good shot, when using anv of the ma^azin -luns in which the cartridges are fei up by a spiral spring. use3 it as a single-loader ; MAGISTRAL GALLERY. 24« UAGNESIUM. and the reason is, that tlic bullet is generally so mu- tilated by striking the counter-bore, that its tlight is not to be depended \i)iou for accuraey. MAGISTRAL GALLERY.- A name frequently ap- plied to tlie gallery iiuiuediately behind the counter- scarj) wall, in eoutradistinetiou to the Eni-floping Gallfry, which is parallel to the counterscarp gallery, and at some thirty or forty yards in advance of it. See Gallfry. MAGISTRAL LINE.— The trace or outline of a work as the jilnn of its guiding or iifigixtral line. In tield fortiticatious, this line is the interior crest line. In permanent fortifications, it is usuallj- the line of the top of the escarp of each work. MAGNA CHARTA.— The great Charter which was granted liy King John of England to the Barons, and has been viewed by after-ages as the basis of English liberties. The oppressions and exactions of a tjran- nical and dastardl}' Sovereign called into existence a Confederacy of the Barons or Tenants-in-Clnef of the Crown, who took up arms for the redress of their grievances. iTheir demand was for the restoration of the laws of Henry I., laws which might probably be cliaracterized as an engrafting of Norman Feud- alism on the "ancient custom of England," or pre- viously existing Saxon and Danish Free Institutions, in which •' ancient custom " were comprehended the laws of Edward the Confessor. A conference be- tween the Sovereign and the Barons was held at Kuunymede, near Windsor, a place where treaties regarding the peace of the kingdom had often before been made. King and Barons encamped opposite each other ; and after several days of debate, John signed and sealed the Charter with great solemuit}', on June 15. 1215. MAGNESIUM.— Although the discovery of the met- al magnesium was made by Sir H. Davy in 1808. it was looked upon as little more than a chemical curiosity for about half acenturj-. In 1830 a French chemist, Bussy, obtained globules of the metal by fusing globules of potassium, in a glass tube, with anhydrous chloride of magnesium. Bussy's labors were followed by somewhat improved methods, adopted by Bunsen, and subsequently by Jlatthies- sen, who succeeded in pressing some grains of the metal into wire. The first great advance was in 1856, when Deville and Caron effected the reduction of the i)ure chloride of magnesium by mixing it with fused chloride of sodium in clay crucibles, us- ing fluoride of calcium as a tlux. and throwing in fragments of sodium ; they thus obtained magne- sium on a larger scale than any of their predecessors. The most important part of their investigations was the discovery of the volatility of the'metal. All these were, however, mere laboratory experi- ments. In 1859 Bunsen, of Heidelberg, and Ros- coe (now of ^Manchester), published a memoir on the great importance of magnesium for photographic purposes, owing to the high refrangibility and the great actinic power of the lignt emitted by burning magnesium-wire. The study of this memoir led 3Ir. Sonstadt to consider whetlier, the magnesian .salts being so abundant, the metal might not be obtained, on a comi)aratively large scale, at a moderate price. After a |)roloi!ged scries of expensive experiments lie succeeded, in 18(i2, in producing very satisfactory specimens of the metal varying froin about the size of a pin's head to that of a hen's egg. Al- though it burned freely enough, it was stillwanting in ductility ami u\alleability. ra consequence of the presence of certain impurities: but by May, 18(53. these diflicultii's were overcome by "a process of puriti(^ation by distillation; and by the close of that year In- considered it safe to liegin manufacturini;. The .Magnesium .Metal Company was consc(|urntiy organized, and soon operations conuncnced at ^laii- chesler, where magnesivnn is now made on a very considerable scale, as well as by an American Magnesium Company at Boston. One ijreat ad- vantage of Sonstadt's method is its simplicity ; it cin be accomplished l)y the hands of ordinarj* work- men ignorant of all chcndcal knowledge. The pro- cess of manufacture may be thus described : 1. An anhydrous chloride of magnesium is prepared by saturating lumps of rock-magnesia (carbonate of magnesia) with hydrochloric acid, and then evapor- ating the solution to dryness. 2. One part of metallic sodium cut in small pieces is placed in a iron crucible, and covered with five parts of the chloride. The crucible is covered, and heated to redness, when the chlorine leaves the magnesium and unites with the sodium, for which it has a stronger affinity. When the crucible has cooled, and its contents are removed oi masne, and broken, the magnesium — in that state known as crude magnesium — is seen in nuggets of various sizes, varying from granules to masses as large as a hen's egg. 3. The distillation of the crude metal is effected in a crucible throvigh which a tulie ascends to within an inch of the lid. The tube opens at the bottom into an iron box, placed beneath the bars of the furnace, wdiere, on the completion of the opera- tion, magnesium is found in the form of a heap of drippings, which may be melted and cast into ingots or any desired form. The difticultj' of ol)tainiug a metal with so little ductility in the form of wire — the only form that was originally tised for yielding light — had still to be overcome; and after various par- tia'.l}' successful attempts to press small quantities into wire by Matthiessen and some other chemists, Mr. ]\Iather, of Salford, devised apiece of machinery 1)3' which the metal is pressed into wire of various thickness. Jlr. ^Mather also was the first who ob- tained the metal in ribbons, in which form, from the larger exposed surface, combustion takes place more completely. The apparatus for making the wire and ribbon is very ingenious. The chief feature of it is a small hollow cylinder, adapted to receive a ram at one end, and covered at the other by an iron screen perforated with two or more holes opposite the cham- ber. This press, as the cylinder is called, is sub- jected to the action of gas from a blow-pipe, and the heat employed is only sufficient to soften the metal in the press. The pieces of magnesium are thrust into the chamber, the ram is placed in the mouth of the press, and a pressure of between two and three tons— obtained by hydraulic apparatus or by steam — forces the ram against the softened metal, and the latter oozes in continuous strings of wire through the perforations already named. To make ribbon, the wire thus obtained" is passed between two hollow heated rollers, and is received in a flattened state up- on a reel. To Mr. Mather is also due the credit of having constructed the first nuignesium lamp, in which the end of the wire or ribbon is presented to the flame of a spirit-lamp. A concave reflector sent the light forward, and protected the eyes of the op- erator. The first time that a photograph was taken by this light was_at Manchester in the spring of l.st!4, liy Mr. Brothers 'and Dr. Roscoe. That the nuignesium light, in a more or less modified form, must prove of extreme value to photography, cannot be called in question. Besides overcoming the ol)stacle of un- suita1)le weather for the I'mployment of sunlight, it may be a]i])lied both for the cx])loratiou and the pho- tography of various <lim structures, imdcrground regi<'us,"etc.. such as the interior of the pyramids, of catacond)s, natural caverns, etc., which could not otherwise be examined or photogra))hcd. Its! color appniaches very much neiirer daylight than that of the light fr<im oils, candles, or coal-gas. As conqiarcd with the sun, its luminous intensity is ^l-,. but its cheiui<'al intensity is ,,',., and this high aciiiuc power makes it specially valuable for photo- graphic purposes. Although it does not lu'arly eipial the electric light as an illuminating agent, like it the nuignesium light gives off no luixious vapors. Hut while it burns, white clouds of the vapor of magnesium are formed which would I)e more or less CCC€CC€€COCC)M;C)€a;CCCC)Ce«)D ©cc©c©€ej€c«cic)«)«:C)®©€CC'C'a:4j ,1 b c d The Compass, Magnetism, Polarity, etc. 1. Magnetic poles. 2. Magnetic rod (suspended). 3. Mag? magnetic polarity. T. MuKnetizing iron. 8,9. Natural magnet, with annaturo. 10. Horse-shoe tion. I.'i. Ai)paratus for iletfrmining the degree of declination. 16. Magnetism of the terrestrii variation of inclination. ^J to !H. Magnetometer. 25. Magnetic variations or disturbances. rv— SOS. ^ > iflo iiu ut) 00 au CO <o 20 '-^u -m 60 " so. i' 160 no 120 100 80 fill 40 "0 ion leo 110 ICO i&f> 160 110 IJu 80 100 1^0 I lu -W'J* 4. Magnetic needles with marked poles. Magnetic staff, broken at various points. 6. Illustration of Magnet armature. 12. Action of a magnet at a distance. 13. Magnetization by friction. 14. Declina- Map of declination. 18. Magnetic inclination, lit. Inclinatorlum. 20. Map of inclination. 21. Diurnal KAONETISU. 249 MAGNETISM. troiiblcsomtr in private rormis. Tliis olijcclioii is saiil to be to sdiiic cxtcnl. removed, witliout diiiiiii- Isliiiii; the lirilliitney of ; the liirht. by alloying with zini: ; iiml at any rate it woiihl xearcely at all inter- fere witli its nse in hirjre jmlilie ImihliML's. Still less w<iiil(l it do so when tlie li'^'ht i< burned in IIk' open air. Tliere is, liowever, not niiiih hojje of the niaunesiiini li,!;ht sueeessfnlly eonipelirii; witli the electric Hfjlit for the illnininalion of larire linildinirs, streets, or even of ocean steamers. liecent trials with the electric lii;ht at the British Musenm and other place's have now proved conclusively that wUer<'ver a i;real deal of li;;lit is reipiired, "ras is beaten out of the lield on the score of economy. As respects the niinntenance of an e(|ual amount of li;;ht, gas is twentv limes more costly, a dilference which will speedily cover the original expense of the necessary electrical apparatus. The niagnesinm light, on the other hand, is nuich more costly tlian gas ; and although the ores which could be used as a source of magnesium are very abundant, yet any probable cliea])eMing of the process of extrai-iing the metal from these is not likely to make the light a very economical one. Still, for any jiurpose where, for a comparatively brief linu-, a very inli'nse light is required, magnesium wire or ribbon has about it almost the simplicity of a wax taper; nor are the lamps at all complex l)v which tlie metal may be burned for hours continuously. Two kinds of magnesium lamps are made. In one of these kinds, wire or tliin ribbon of the metal is coiled al)Out a reel or bobbin. From this reel the ribl)ou is drawn by means of two small rollers and projected through a tube to the focus of a metallic rellector, wdiere it passes througli the tiame of a spirit-lamp to insure its continuous combustion. Tlu'se rollers are kejit in motion either b\' an opera- tor turning a small wlieel, or in the more expensive j forms by clock-work. In the other kind of lam)) the i magnesium is used in the form of dust, which is j mixed with line drj- sand in the proporlicui of one of the fornuT to two of the latter. Tills mixture is placed in a funnel-shaped reservoir, and conducted, by means of a narrow tube provided with a stop- cock, to the llame of a spirit-lam|) which serves to ignite and maintain tlu' llame of the jiowdered mag- nesium. If nitrule of siroutia besubslituted for.sand, a splendid red light is produced, and in Ibis way, by using other chemicals, various colors can be obtain- ed. It was about the year 1804 that magnesium was first made on a commercial scale, and it is foimd that the demand for it, although not decreasing, is scarcely at all extending. It is almost wholly used for burning in photographic lamps, for Hash lights, and for fire-works. It has l)een attemjited to make magnesium usefid for other purjioses. Various al- loys have been made with it and other metals such as lead, tin, zinc, cadmium, and silver; but they are all brittle ami liable to change. It is very doui)tful, therefore, if any of these alloys will beconu' iiseful in the arts, and the metal itself is sc;ircely likely to be available in the constrviction of objects of orna- ment or utility, since, wlien exposed toilamji, it soon becomes coated with a film of hydrateof magncsiuiu. MAGNETISM.— The power whicli the magnet has to attract iron. JIagnets are of two kinds, natural and (iH'ficial. Natural magnets consist of the ore of iron called magnetic, familiarly known as loadstone. Artificial magnets are. for the most part, straight or bent bars of leni]HTed steel. which have been magnet ized liy the action of other magnets, or of thegalvau- ic current. The power of the magnet to attract iron is by no means eqiuil throughout its length. If a small iron ball be suspended by a thread, and a magnet he passed along in front of it from one enii to the other, it is powerfully attracted at the ends, but not at all in the middle, the magnetic force increasing with the distance from the middle of the bar. The ends of the magnet wherethe attractive power is greatest are called its poles. By causing a magnetic needle mov- ing horizontally to vibrate in front of the ilifTerent parts of a magnet placed vertically, and counting the nund)irof vibrations, t'aerateof incrcuHe of the mag- netic intensity may be exactly found. A nnignel has two poles or centers of magnetic force, each having an eipial powi'r of attracting iron. This is the only properly, however, whicli they ])o.ssess in common, for when the- poll's of one magnet are nnidi' to act on thosi'of another, a strik- ing dissinnlarity is brought to light. It might be thought that, by <lividing a magnet at itsctntiT, the two poles could be insulateil, the one half containing all the north jiolar maiini'lism. and the other the south. When this is done, however, both lialves become separate mag- nets, with two poles in each — the original north and south poles standing in the same relation to the other two F'J-'- I' poles called into existence by the separation. We run therefwe certainly never have line kind of magnetixin tvithfiit having it am'icia- ted ill the name magnet with the name amount of the opposite magiu'tlmn. It is this double manifestation of force which ccjustitules the polarity of the mag- net. The fact of a freely sus])endcd m:ignet taking I up a fixed position h;is le<l to the theory that the earth itself is a huge magnet, haviiu; its north and south magnetic poles in the neighborhood of the poles of tlie axis of rotation, and that the magnetic needle or suspended magnet turns to them as it does to those of a neighboring magnet. All the manifesta- tions of terrestrial magnet ism give decided conlirma- tion of this theory. It is on this view that the French call the north jiole of the magnet the south pole (/>o/e austral), and the soutli the north pole (pole liortal) ; for if th'; earth be taken as the standard, its north magnetic pole must attract the south pole of oth- er magnets, and ricf nrsa. In England and (jermany the north pole of a magnet is the one which, when freely .sus|)eiided, points to the north, and no refer- ence is made to its relation to the mjignetism of the earth. All artificial magnets are either bar mag- nets or else horse-shoe magnets. (See Fig. \.) When powerful magnets are to be made, several thin bars are placed side by side, with their poles lying in the same way. They end in a piece of iron, to which they arc bound by a brass screw or frame. Three or four of these may be put into the bundle, and all these again into bundles of three and four. Such a collection of magnets is called a magniticinitynzine or h<ittery. A magnet of this kind is more powerful than a .solid one of the same weight and size, because thin bars can be more strongly and regularly magnetized thau thick ones. A good form of magnet is a paral- lelopipcd of magnetic iron ore.with pieces of soft iron, bound to its poles by a brass frame encircling the whole. The lower ends of the §oft iron bars act as the poles, and support the armature. The magnetic needle is a small magnet nicely balanced on a fine point. When a short bar of soft iron is suspended from one end of a magnet it becomes for the time powerfully magnetic. It assumes a north and south pole, like a regular magnet, as may be seen by using a small magnetic needle; and if its lower end be dipped into iron filings, it attracts them as a magnet would do. When it is taken away from the magnet the filings fall off, and all trace of magnetism disap- ])ears. It need not be in actual contacf to show mag- netic properties ; when it is simply brought near, the .same tiling is seen, though to a less extent. If the inducing magnet be strong enough, the induced mag- net, when in contact, can induce a bar like itself, placed at its extremity, to become a strong magnet ; and this second induced magnet may also irans- luil the magnetism to a third, and so on. the action being, however, weaker each time. If a steel bar MAGNETISM. 250 MAGNETISM. be used for this experiment, a singular difference is observed in its action; it is only after some time that it begins to exhibit magnetic properties, and, when exhibited, they are feebler than in the soft iron bar. When the steel bar is removed, it does not part instantly with its magnetism, as the soft iron bar, but retains it permanently. Steel, there- fore, has a force which, in the first instance, resists the assumption of magnetism : and, when assumed, resists its withdrawal. This is called the coercitire force. The harder the temper of the steel, the more is the coercitive force developed in it. It is this force, also, in the loadstone, which enables it to re- tain its magnetism. The inductive action of terres- trial magnetism is a striking proof of the truth of the theory already referred to, that the earth itself is a very large magnet. When a steel rod is held in a positioiT parallel to the dipping-needle, it»becomes in the course of some time permanently magnet- ic. The result is reached sooner when the bar is rubbed with a piece of soft iron. A bar of soft iron held in the same position is more powerfully but onlv temporarily affected, and when reversed, the poles are not reversed with the bar, but remain as before. If when so held it receive at its end a few sharp blows of a hammer, the magneti-sm is rendered permanent, and now the poles are reversed when the bar is reversed. The tor.sion caused by the blows of the liammer appears to communicate to the bar a coercitive force. We may understand from this how the tools in work-shops are generally magnetic. W^henever large masses of iron are stationary for any length of time they are sure to give evidence of magnetization, and it is to the inductive action of theearth's poles acting through ages that the mag- netism of tlie loadstone is to be attributed. Magnets, when freshly magnetized, are sometimes more pow- erful than they afterwards become. In that case they gradually fall off in strength till they reach a j point at whicii their strength remains constant. This is called the puint of snturatiun. If the magxiet lias not been raised to this point, it will lose nothing af- ter magnetization. We may a.scertain whether a magnet is at saturation by magnetizing it with a more powerful magnet, and seeing whether it retains more magnetism than before. The saturation point i depends on the coercitive force of the magnet, and ] not on the power of the magnet with which it is 1 rul.ibed. When a magnet is above saturation, it is ' soon reduced to it by repeatedly drawing away the armature from it. After reaching this point, mag- nets will keep the same strengtli tor years together if I not subjected to rough usage. It is favorable for the preservation of magnets that they be provided ' with an armature or keeper. The power of a horse- shoe magnet is usually tested by the weight its arm- ature can bear without breaking away from the mag- 1 net. Hacker gives the following formula for this I weight : W=^i -^/m' ; W is the charge expressed in ' pounds ; a, a constant to lie ascertained for a par- ticular quality of steel ; and in is the weight in j poiuids of the magnet. Small magnets, therefore, are stronger for their size than the large ones. The reason of tliis may be thus explained : Two magnets of the same size and power, acting separately, sup- j port twice the weight that one of tliem does; but if , the two be joined, so as to form one magnet, they do not sustain the double, for tlie two magnets [ being in close proximity, act inductively on each other, and so lessen the c(mjoint power. Similarly, several magnets made U]i iiili) a battery have not a force proportionate to tlieir number. Coidomli dis- covered, by the oscillation of the magnetic needle in the presence of magnets, that when magnet:) ore so i pltired Vint two adjoining poles may aet on carh other ■irithout the interfererire of the opposite polen, lliat is, when the magnets are large compared with the dis- tance between their centers, their nftnirtire or re- pulsive force taries ini;ersely im the square if the dis- tance. Gauss proved from this tlieoretically, and exhibited experimentally, that when the distance between the centers of two magnets is large com- pared with the size of the magnets, that is, irlien the action of both poles comes into play, their action on earh olhtr taries inversely as the cnhe of the distance. When a magnet is heated to redness it loses perma- nentl}- every trace of magnetism; iron, also, at a red lieat, ceases to be attracted by the magnet. At temperatures below red heat the magnet parts with some of its power, the loss increasing with the tem- perature. The temperatures atwhich other substances affected by the magnet lose their magnetism differ from that of iron. Cobalt remains magnetic at the liighest temperatures, and nickel loses this property at'C63^ F. Electru-mngnitism includes all phenomena in which an electric current produces magnetism. The most important result of this power of the current is the electro-magnet. This consists (Fig. 1) generally of a round bar of soft iron bent into the horse-shoe form, with an insulated wire coiled round its extremities. When a current passes througli the coil, the soft iron bar Incomes instantly magnetic, and attracts the ar- mature with a sharp click. When the current is stopped, this power disapears as suddenly as it came. Electro-magnets far outrival permanent mag- nets in strength. Small electro-magnets have been made by Joule whicli support 3,500 times their own weight, a feat immeasurably superior to anything performed by steel magnets. When the current is of moderate strength, and the iron core more than a third of an inch in diameter.yx" magmtism indvced is in proportion to the strength of the current and of the number of turns in the coil. When the bar is much thinner than one-third of an inch, a maximum is very soon reached beyond which anj- additional turns of the wire give no additional magnetism; and even when the core is thick, these turns must not be heaped on each other, so as to place them beyond in- fluencing the core. It follows from the above prin- ciple, tliat. in the horse-shoe magnet, where the in- ductive action in the armature must be taken into ac- count, the weight which the magnet sustains is in pro- portion to the sguai-es of the strengths of the currents and to the squares of the number of turns of theirire. This maximum is in different magnets proportional to the area of section or to the square of the diameter of the core. The electro-magnet, from the ease witli which it is made to assume or lay aside its magnet- ism, or to reverse its poles, is of the utmost value in electrical and mechanical contrivances. The action ! of the electro-magnet is quite in keeping with Am- pere's theory, as the current of the coil, acting on , the various currents of tlie individual molecules, places them parallel to itself, in which condition the soft iron liar acts powerfully as a magnet. The di- rection of the current and the nature of the coil be- ing known, the poles are easily determined by Am- pere's rule. Builders of magnetic engines take ad- vantage of the facility with which the poles of an electro-magnet ma}' be reversed, b.y which attrac- tions and repulsions may be so arranged with another magnet as to produce a constant rotation. The forms in which they occur are exceedingly various. Fig. 2, shows a simple and common construction, whereby a double-beam engine of much power is obtained. Powerfid machines of this kind have been made [ with a view to supplant the steam-engine ; but such attempts, both in respect of economy and constancy, have proved utter failures. Mii(jntto.eUctririty includes all phenomena where magnetism gives rise to electricity. I'nder Induc- ■tiini if Electric CurnntsW. was stated that when a I coil, in which a current circulates, is (piickly placed within another coil unconnected with it. a contrary induced current in the outer coil marks its entrnnce, and when it is willidrawn. a direct induced current attends its withdrawal. While the ])rimary coil re- j mains stationary in the secondary coil, though the I current continues to flow stcadilyin the primary, no MAHRATTA HELMET. 251 MAIL. current is iiiduccd in Ihi' scrnndary roll. It is altio shown, tluit if, wliile the priiimry Cdil is Btiitionary, the Btrcnjitli of its cvirriMit be incrciiscd or (iiminisji- ed, I'lU-li inereiiae and djmiinitinn induce opposite currents iu the secondary coil. C'liange, in fact, whether in the position or current strenjith of the primary coil, induces currents in llie second.'iry coil, and the intensity of the induced current is in pro- portion to the iiinount and suddenness of the change. In sinirular coulirmation of Anijiere's theory, a per- manent har-inairnet may be substituted for the pri- mary coil iu these experiments, and the same results obtained with f;reater intensity. Wluii abar-mai^net is introduced into the secondary coil, a current is in- dicated, and wlien it is withdrawn, a current in a coutrarj' direction is observed, and these currents take place in the directions rccpured by Ampere's theory. A change of position of the magnet is mark- ed by a current, as in the former case. If we had the means of increasing or lessening tlie magnetism of the bar, currents would be induced the sameas those obtained by strengthening or weakening the current in the primary coil. It is this in<luclive power of iron at the moment that a change takes place in its magnetism, that forms the basis of niagnelo-electric machines. Of late years qinte a new era has arisen in the construction of magneto-electric machines. The compactness, simplicity of construction, and marvelous power which the new machines possess, give them quite a novel importance in practical elcctricitj'. The names chiefly associated with the new improvements are Wilde of Manchester, Siemens and Wlieatstone, and Gramme of Paris. Mr. II. Wilde, in 1860, patented a magneto-electric machine, foimded on the principle that a current or a magnet indefinitely weak can be made to indurea current (/r a megnet (if indefinite strength. A Wildi's machine H ton in weight, measuring about 5 feet in length and height, and 20 inches in width, driven by a steam- engine, produces a most lirilliant electric light, and exhibits the most astonishing of heating powers. Wheats! one and Siemens gave a new interpretation to Wilde's principle. The great drawback of all the forms of the machine is the enormous velocity at which they rotate some 2,000 or more revolutions in the minute. -Vt tliis speed a machine soon wears itself out. Another dis- advantage is the heating of the armatures in Wilde and Ladd's machine. Ferguson's has never been tried on a large scale. It is found necessary to keep the armatures cool by a flow of cold water. This heat. however removed, is manifestly a mere squandering of the energy of motion, and a loss to the current given otT. A third objection is the loss that always takes place when the side-springs change from the one ring to the other, sparks more or less bright ac- companying the change. For the electric light. how- ever, the alternate currents are used, and this source of loss isnot experienced. These defects are removed m the latest form oi thoelortro.mn!»nelic machine l)y Gramme, of I'aris. in it, instead of a solid armature of iron, a ring is employed on which a great number of bojibins of wire arc set. Astonishing as were the elTecta produci'd by Wilde's machine, those ob- tained from (iramme's seen quite to eclipse Ihem. In (comparing two mag- neto-electric machines, we must lake into account the kind of wire used for the revolving armature. For ten- sion purposes, a thin and long wire gives Ihcliest results: for ipiantily or healing purposes, a short and thick wire does best. To compare a tension with a quantity armature, the sam ■ test even in the same machine would give most contradictory results. Hut comparing, so far as [xisssible, machines intended for the same purpose Grammi; seems to have the advantage of all others. In the first place, the speed of revolu- tion seldom exceeds BOO revolutions per minute : yOO is sufticient for most purjMises. A Granune machine driven by the hand will melt 10 inches of an iron wire j's of an inch in diameter, a feat not accomplished by any other arrangement. The electric light got by a 3-liorse-power engine working a machine a ton in weight is eipial to up- wards of 8,000 sperm candles. A si":nal-light of this kind has been constructed for the House of Lords, under the superintendence of the endnent engineer Conrad W. Cooke, who has rendered no small ser- vice in perfecting the machine. The carbons con- sumed last four hours, and when burned out are in- stantaneously replaced. A Gramme machine adapt- ed for electro-plating, and worked by a 1-horse- ])ower engine, deposits nearly 27 oz. of silver per lionr. an achievement far transcending the similar performance of other machines. Among the heat- ing wonders of the Granune machine we are told of a tile half an inch in diameter being burned up in .5 minutes, of 1.5 feet of No. 18 |)Iatiuum wire being broughl to a glowing heat, and of 8 feet of iron wire .0.~)1. See /•'lectn'riti/ And (Idlcdiilmii. MAHKATTA HELMET.— An Indian casipie, hav- ing a long movable nfisc-iiiece of a singular shape; a large mail hood which protects all the head, and a neck-guard which descends to the loins. MAIDEN. — A name given to a machine for behead- ing criminals, which was in use in Scotland from about the middle of the 10th century to nearly the end of the 17th century. It is said to have been in- troduced into Scotland by the Regent Jlorton, who had seen it at Halifax, in Yorkshire, and was him- self the first to suffer by it, whence the proverb. "He that invented the maiden first handselled it." Morton, for anything that is known to the contrary, may have introduce<l the maiden; but he certainly was not its first victim. Fifteen years before he was put to death by it (l.")81 a. d.) it was employed to behead Thomas Scott, of Cambusmichael. one of the murderers of Rizzio (l-'JOO a. d). It would seem at first to have been called indifferently "The Maiden" and "The Widow" — both names, it may be conjec- ttired, having their origin in some such pleasantry I as was glanced at by one of the maiden's last vic- tims, the Earl of Argyle (1681 a. d.), when he pro- i tested that it was " The sweetest maiden he had ever ! kissed." A frightful instrument of punishment used 'in Germany in the Middle Ages was called "The ; Virgin." But it had no resemblance to the maiden, which was exactly like the French guillotine, except that it had no turning-plank on which to bind the criminal. The maiden which was used in the Scot- tish capital is now in the Museum of the Antiquaries of Scotland at Edinburgh. The term nuiiden t also applied to a fortress which has never been taken. j MAIL. — A term signifying a metal net-work, and I ordinarily applied to such when used as body defen- UAILLET. 252 UAJOB-OEMEBAL. sive armor. Well-made mail formed an admirable defense against all weapons except lire-arms, and its pliability and comparative liglituoss gave it favor over the more cumbrous plate-armor. MAILLET.— A kind of mallet formerly tised by the French in their engagements. The maillet was used attlie famous battle ""Dcs Trente" in 13.51. Under the reign of Charles VI. a Parisian mob forced the arsenal, and took out a large quantity of mallets, with which they armed themselves for the purpose of murdering the custom-house officers. The per- sons wlio assembled on this occasion were afterwards called Maillotinx. In the days of Louis XII. the Eng- lish archers carried mallets as offensive weapons.^ MAILLOTIN. — An old French term which signified an ancient weapon that was used to attack men who wore helmets and cuirasses. A faction in France was also distinguished by this appellation. See Ma'llet. MAIN. — A term signifying first in size, rank, or importance. It has "many useful compounds at tached to it, such as : Ma'in body of an Army, the body of troops, other than those forming the ad- vanced or rear guard. Main guard, a body of men generally of the strength sufficient to guard a person or place from injury or attack. It remains on duty 24 hours before being relieved. Large forts or fortresses have a main guard chosen from the troops garrisoning them, luider which guard all disturbers of peace, drunkards, etc., are placed, as well as all people who cannot il)y night give an account of them- selves, or who do not know Uie parole. Main mag- m'ni-, the principal magazine in a work or battery, in which there is more than one magazine. Mw'/i irnrk. in fortification, the principal work as distin- guished from the outworks. " MAINADE.— Tlie French term for a body of ma- r.'iuilers commanded "by a chief. MAIN-GATJCHE.— A dagger of Spanish origin es- pecially used in duels in t'he 16th century. On one side of" the hilt it has a guard .which is curved and carried up to the pommel in the form of a half shell; from the talon, or heel of the blade, on the opposite side, is a hollow indent, intended to hold the thumb. The weapon v.'as held in the left hand, with the thumb al)Ove and the gviard below ; and it was used, while making an attack, with the sword held in the right hand to ward off the blows or thrusts that the adversary might make with his sword. SeePeiinated Dftqger. MAIN PIN. — A strong cylindrical bar passing ver- tically through a hole inlhe front bolster of theVag- on bc'idy. and through one in a corresponding bolster in the fore carriage? The pull of the traces is con- veyed from the fore carriage to the body solely through the ma'n-pin. This means of connection between fore carriage and body allows the former to turn horizontallyindependently of the latter. MAIN-SPRING.— The spring in a gunlock which drives thf hammer. See Ijock. MAINTENANCE.— The Cap of Maintenance, some- times callc<l Clip of Digii'ty. a cap of crimson velvet lined with ermine, with two points ttirned to the back, originally only worn by Dukes, but afterwards assigned to various families of distinction. Those families who are entitled to a cap (.f maintenance place tlieir crests on it instead of on a wreath. Ac- cording to Sir .loliTi Feariic, "the wearing of the cap liiid a iH-ginning from tlie Duke or General of an army, who, having gotten victory, cau.sed the chiefest ofthesul)dued enemies whom he led to follow him in his triumph, bearing his hat or cap after him, in token of stibjection and C'aptivity." Most of the reigning Dukes of Germany, and various families belonging to the peerage both of Kni;land anil of Scotland, bear their crests on a cap of mainli'Uunee. MAISON DU ROI. The King's Household. Cer- tain select bodies of troops were so called duringthe Monarchj' of France, and consisted of the (rordei- du-C(/rpa, the Uendarinoi, the C'/ievaux-legirs, the Mim.w-nfta'ren. the (rendarinerie. the GrenndierK t\ 'V/^m^.the regiments belonging to the Fn-uchand the Swiss Guards, and the Cmt Suisxes. The Maison- du-Koi was not considered a separate establishment from the rest of the Army until the reign of Louis IV. This establishment was successively formed by different kings out of militia companies, which they took into their bodv-guard. MAITHE D'ARMES.— A term in general use among the French, signifying a Fencing Master. Every regiment has a Maitre d'Armes attached to it. MAJESTY.— A title of honor now usually bestow- ed on Sovereigns. Among the Romans, Maje^titu was used to signify the power and dignity of the people; and the Senatorial, Consular, or Dictatorial Majesty was spoken of, in consequence of these functionaries deriving their power from the people. After the overthrow of the Republic, Majestas, became exclu- sively the attribute of the Emperors, Bignitnx being thenceforth that of the Majestrates. The MajeMm of the Emperors of Rome was supposed to descend to those of Germany as their successors; but the adop- tion of the attribute by other European Sovereigns is of comparatively late date. Its use began in Eng- land in the latter part of tne reign of Henry VIIL, up to which time, "Your Grace" or "Your "High- ness" had been the appropriate mode of addressing the Sovereign. Henry II. was the first King of France who was si^uilarly styled, and Louis XL and his suc- cessors became entitled, in virtue of a papal Indl, to call themselves by the title of "Most Christian Maj- esty." Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain similarly obtained for themselves and their successors the title of "Most Catholic Majesty;" and Stephen, Duke of Hungary, and Maria Theresa, of "Apostolic Majes- t}-." The Emperor of Austria is now styled His Im- perial Royal Majesty; in German. "K.K. (abbrevi- ated for Kaiserliche"Konigliche)Majcstat " Emper- ors, Kings, and Queens are now generallj" addressed as"Y'our Majesty," not including the Sultan of Turkey, whose proper style is "Your Highness." The Sovereign of the I'nited Kingdom is personally addressed as " Y'our Majesty," and letters are ad- dressed to "The King's" or "Queen's" "Most Ex- cellent Majesty." In Heraldry, an eagle crowned and holding a scepter, is blazoned as an "Eagle in his Majesty." MAJOR. — 1. An officer next in rank above a Cap- tain and below a Lieutenant-colonel. He is the lowest Field UfHcer. Since the reorganization of the English army, the Major is a selected man. and his term of service in this rank is for five years, after which, if not re-employed, he is put on half- ' pay. This does not relate to Majors of the artillery ! anil engineers. The duties of a Major depend upon the nature of the service on which he is employed, In the line, whilst with his regiment, he has to sec to the drill and equipment of the men in conjunction with the Adjutant. Being a Field Officer, he is mounted on all parades and in action. In the artil- lery and engineers, the rank of Major lias been re- cently reintroduced, and single batteries of artillery are now commanded by otlicers of this rank, instead of by a Captain, as hitherto. It was in the year 18'27"that the rank of Major in the artillerj- was abol- ished, its holders being made Lieutenant-colonels. It ap|)ears that this class (jf Field OlHcer did not ex- ist in the army imtil the seventeenth century. 3. Used adjcctively, the word Major, in the arm}- sig- nifies a superior class in a certain rank, as Sergeants- Major, who are superior Sergeants ; except in the case of (iencral Olticers. in which its signification is arljilrarily limited to ^Major-general, the third of the four classes of Generals. MAJOR GENERAL.— The rank next below tlial of Lieutenant-general, and above Brigadier-general. He usually Commands a Division. A Major's com- mand in peace time in England is that of a District ; in India, a Division of the Army. A Brigade of the army is properly a Major-general's conunaud, Thus, MALABAR GUNS. 253 HANBY BHOT. on Hcrvirc with a larirr armv. a ncncral would com- tnaiid II C'lr/iK il' A mil i\ ii l.iciMciiaiit-^^eiicral a Di- visicin, mill a MMJor-i^cniTal a Hrifiadc. MALABAR GUNS. Heavy pieces of oninaiK-e, wliieli were iiuide in llie Maialiar emiiilry, and were formed liy means of iron bars joiniil lofrellier with hoops. They were very long and extremely un- wieldy. MALCHU8. — A short sword of Italian origin, used in I lie lifleenlli oentury, and very much like the .'Ui«- lll V . MALINGERER. -A soldier who feigns him.self sick. Any soldier convicted of malingering, feigning or producing disease, or of intentionally ]ir(iiraciing his cure or aggravating his disease, is liable to be tried by a C'ourt-Martial for "Conduct prejudicial to good order and military discipline," and to suffer the pun- ishment attached to that offense. See Feigning of Jtist'llAI'. MALKIN ■ A sponge withajointedstaffforcaniions. MALLEABILITY. The property which certain met- als possess of being reducible tothinleaves, cither by hammering (hence the corresponding German word hiiinini rl)fir/,-eif)i>r by laniinaliim between rollers. jThe order in which the nialleablemctalscxliibit this prop- erly is as follows: gold, silver, copper, platinum, palladium, iron, aluminium, tin, zinc, lead, cadmi- um, nickel, cobalt, (iold far surpasses all other met- als in malleability, being capable of reduction into films not exceeding the 200,0t)0th of an inch in thick- ness; and silver and coppcrmay be reduced to leaves f f great tenuity. Although gold and silver also pre- sent the pro])erty i<f (lit utility in tlu- highest degree, there is no constant relation between the two prop- erties ; for example, iron, although it may be reduc- ed to extremely thin wire, is not nearly so malleable as gold, silver, or copper. MALLET.— A wooden hammer. it is used for a varii'ly of purposes in the field, such as driving pic- kets, tent-pins, etc. The head is made of elm, and the helve of asli. JIallcts vary in size and shapcaiid are made in India of babool or soomlry wood. Jlal- letsare also very generally used by mechanics, such as joiners and carpenters, coopers, tinmen, etc. MALLET'S MORTAR.— A monster mortar manufac- tured some years ago by .Mr. ^Mallett. It consisted at the lower end of a solid cast-inin breech, abutting on which were a series of wrought-irou hoops, fol- lowing each other in succession up to the muzzle; these were inserted into each other by rebates, and ■were firmly secured by six iron .staves, at equal in- tervals, abovit its surface, extending longitudinally the whole length of the mortar. The total weight of the mortar was 50 tons 13i cwt. ; the diameter of the shell 3 feet, and its weight, when unfilled, 26^ cwt. From the experiments made with this mortar, it appears that there was a tendency to sepanition between the trunnions and the cascable, and con- sequently- there was reason to think that it never could be employed on service. This piece of ord- nance is not in the service, but a model of it may be seen in the Royal United Service Institution, AVhitehall. London. MALTA.— The most ancient and celebrated of Mil- itary Orders is that of Sriint John nfJerumlem. which owes its origin to the Hospital of St. Jolin, foundcil in Jerusalem in the year 1048. It became in 1118 a Religious Order of Knighthood, and from 1309 the Knights were called Knightu HosjiiUiUers of IVwde.t. and from IUSO Knights of ifaltn. The representative of this Order in England was the Prior of C'lerken- well, who had a seat in Parliament, and was styled the First Baron of England. This Order is now al- most extinct, no Grand blaster having been elected since 180,5. The badge worn bj- all the Knights is a Maltese cross, enamelled white and edged with gold, suspended to a black ribbon. Some members of this Order did duty during the war of 1870-71 with the sick and wounded, the order thus appropriately end- ing, as it had begun, in hospitals. MALTESE CART. .V (art which ran be used vpith eithir BiiiL'li' or dmibli' draught. The two side pieccB of the cart form the shafts, and are bolted across an axle-tree bed, and connected also by a hind ear-bed, splinter-liar, and axis slats. The tart is formed of wood, and is adapted for man draught. Its weight is und<r 7 iwt. MALTESE CROSS. A cross of eight points, of the form wiirn as a decoration b^' tin; Hospitallers and other Orders of Knighthood. MAHELIERE Armor for the breast, from which depended two chains, one attached to the [lommel, and llie other to tin- ^eaMiard cf the ^word. MAMELUKES MAMLOUKS MEML00K8.— An Ar- abic word signifying . »'"»''/(, the name given in Egypt to tlu; slaves of the Heys, brought from the Cauca- sus, and who formed their armed force. When Genghis Kh;in desolated great jiart of Asia in the 13th Century, and carried away a multitude of the inhabitants for slaves, the Sultan of Egypt bouglit 12,000 of them, partly Mingrelians and Tcherkesses, but mostly Turks, and formed them into a body of troops. i?ut they soon found their own power so great that, in 12.')4. they made one of their own num- ber Sultan of Egypt, founding the Dynasty of the Baharites, which gave place to another Mameluke Dynasty, that of the Borjites, in 1382. The Cauca- sian element predominated in the first Dynasty, the Tartar element in the second. In general, they form- ed able anci energetic riders, and Egypt under their sway arrived at a degree of prosperity and pfiwerto which she hail been a stranger from the rlavs of Se- sostris. Selim I., who overthrew tlur Afameluke Kingdom in \r>n. was compelled to permit the con- tinuance of the 24 Mameluke Beys as Governors of the I'rovinces. This arrangement subsisted till the middle of the IBtli Century, when the number and wealth of the Mamelukes gave them such a iirejion- derance of power in Egypt that the Paslia named by file Porte was reduced to a merely nominal ruler. The number of them scattered tlirout;lioiit all Egypt was between lO.UOO and 12,000 men." Tlieir number was kept up chiefly by slaves brought from the Cau- casus, from among whom the Beys and other Offi- cers of State were exclusively chosen. Their last brilliant achievements were on the occasion of the French Invasion of Egypt, and during the time im- mediately followinjr the retirement of the French. At this time Murad Bey stood at their head. But in 1811 they were foully massacred by Mohammed All. afterwards Viceroy of Egypt. MAMMOTH POWDER.— A variety of powder form- ed by breaking up mill cake. Exact uniformity of size and shape of grains does not therefore exist. The average granulation is 85 to the pound. The diameters of the holes in the testing sieves are .75 inches and .110 inches. See Gunpowder. MANACLES. — Handcuffs or nipperK for prisoners. The two pieces of metal are hinged together, the upper portion of which is curved so as to fit the wrist, and the lower portion is straight except at a point near its outer end, where it is slightly bent. MANBY SHOT.— Without entering upon" a detailed description of the difTercnt plans proposed, from time to time, for establishing communication be- tween a stranded vessel and the shore, it will, per- haps, be well to mention that Mauby's apparatus is not the only one which has been used for this pur- pose. Kites have also been suggested as a simple means of carrying a line from a wreck to the shore, and are manufactured fortius pur|)ose by the •'Ship- wrecked ^Mariners' Society, London Bridge." The board of trade employed, to a great extent, until 1805, Dennett's rockets, in preference to Manby's shot ; and there can be no question that the balance of advantages inclines strongly to the side of the rockets. In 1865 a rocket proposed by Colonel Boxer,R. A., was adopted by the board of trade to supersede Den- nett's rocket, to which it is preferred because- — 1st. UANCH. 254 MANDARIN. The range of Colonel Boxer's rocket is little, if at all, inferior, and in every other respect it is much supe- rior; 2d. The combination of Mr. Dennett's two rock- ets is very objectionable, and from their velocity they frequently carry away the line, and sometimes both do not ignite. They are also double the expense. These rockets are fast superseding Manby's shot at all stations, and the latter may shortly be expected to become entirelj' obsolete. There are two natures of Manby's shot in the serv- ice, the 24-pounder oblong or" cylindrical," shown in the drawing, and the G-pounder spherical shot. They are designated 24-pounder and 6-pounder, re- spectively .from their calibers, not from their weights. The 24-pouiuler oblong, or " cylindrical " Manby's shot, is a cast-iron c\"lindro-couoidal projectile, with a slightl}' rounded base, and about Ij calibers in length. The shot is drilled down its longer axis for the reception of a wrought-iron bolt, which passes completely through the projectile from end to end, and projects about five inches beyond the base, ter- minating in an eye, to which is attached a plaited hide thong 3 feet in length. Four holes, for the re- ception of " fuses," are drilled into the shot at the base, equidistant from one another and from the cen- ter of the base, anil slightly inclining inwards. These holes are conical in form, and are about the same diameter as the fuse-holes of the 13 and 10 inch mor- tar shells. They are about .Si inches in length and are roughed in the interior to afford a better hold to the fuses. The hi<le thong, or " strop," which is fast- ened to tlip eye-bolt, is made of four strips of raw horse-hiile.doublecl tbrougli the eye and tightly plait- ed, the plait being further secured by being stitched in several i)laces with hide. The end of the thong is formed into a loo)) which is tightly woolded with fine tarred spun-yarn. These projectiles weigh (with thong; aliout 80^ pounds. The (J-pounder spherical Manb3-'s shot is rarely de- manilcil. and is scarcely to be considered as a service projectile. It consists of a diajihragm sliell tilled with lead, and having an iron loop llxed into it, to which is attached a thong similar to that of the ob- long j^rojectile. This shot is without fuse-holes. It weighs about 8 poimds. The action of a oblong .shot is as follows: The end of the line is made fast to the loop-hole of the thong, the rest of the line being carefully coiled either in a basket or upon the ground or deck, and a fuse is placed in each of the four holes made for the pur- pose. The fuses being uncapped, the projectile is carefully placed in the piece with its base toward the muzzle, and upon the discharge of the piece carries out the line, one end of which being retained, agood communication is thus established between the ves.sel and the shore. The use of the hide thong is to remove the line from the immediate flash of the discharge, and so prevent it from being burned. The fuses serve, by the bright light which they give forth, to indicate the path of the shot and guide the tiring party in laying the piece. The strength and direction of the wind must be consi- dered in determining the direction to be given, the trajectorj' being affected by them to a very great ex- tent, owing to the influence which the wind has upon the line. With deep-sea line, and with the or- dinary charge of 12 ounces, the range varies from 400 yards downward, according to the strength and direction of the wind. The 6-pounder is used in the same way, with the exception that, having no fuses, the operation of fixing and uncapping them is dis- pensed with. These projectiles are maiidy used to est-Ablish a communication between the shore and a stranded vessel, but the principle is applicable to a variety of other purposes, etc. The maximum charge for the 24-pounder oblong Manby's shot is only 12 ounces, giving, with 4.5'^ of elevation, a range from 400 yards downward, ac- cording to the strength and direction of the wind. If a higher charge is used, the line is generally broken. See Life-mring liockets. MANCH MAUNCH.— A frequent charge in English Heraldry, meant to represent a sleeve with long pen- dant ends, of the form worn by ladies in the reign of Henry I. Or, a manch gules, has been for a long time the arms of the Hastings family, one of whoiii was steward of the household to Henry I. MANDARIN. — A term applied to Chinese officers of every graile by foreigners. It is derived from the Portuguese mandnr, to command ; the Chinese equivalent is Kwan. There are nine ranks, each distinguished by a different-colored ball or button placed on the apex of the cap, by a peculiar em- blazonrj' on the breast, and a different clasp of the girdle. The balls are ruby, coral, sapphire, a blue opaque stone, crystal, opaque white shell, worked gold, plain gold, and silver. Theoretically, these grades are indicative of relative merit, but as office and titles are sold to a great extent, the competitive examinations, which are the only legitimate road to distinction, have lost much of their value. A Man- darin is not allowed to hold office in his Native Prov- ince; the intention being to prevent intrigue, and to draw to Pekin the ambition and talent of the coun- try, where temporary employment is given in sub- ordinate offices, prior to appointments to the Prov- inces. He is not allowed to marry in the jurisdic- tion under his control, nor own land in it, nor have ' a near relative , holding office vmder him ; and he is i seldom contintied in office in the Station or Prov- ince for more than three years — a system of espion- age which serves further to strengthen the Imperial Government. It is incumbent on every Provincial Officer to report on the character and qualificationa of all under him, which he periodically transmits to 1 the Board of Civil Service ; the points of character are arranged under six different heads, viz., to those who are not diligent, the incfticient, tlie superficial, the \mtalented, sii[)erannuated, and diseased. Ac- cording to the opinions given in this report, officers are elevated or degraded so many step in the scale of merit, like boys in a class. They are reqinred to accuse themselves when remiss or guilty of crime. MANDILION. 255 MANGANESE. MANDILION. — A soldicr'.s looHe coat— viHiiiiUy an oilier .j;iriMiiil, witlioiit, slccvts. MANDREL. An arlior or axis on wliicli work is tcnipcinirily iilaccil lo lie liinicd. Tlic arlior wliii li revolves ill the lieadstoek of a lallie and carries llie upper pulley anil also the cliiick or faee.pliile, if one be used. 'iVuversiiii; mandrels are used in eonnc'e- lion willi 1, lilies, and are driven by ^eariiiL' from a eoimlersliafl overhead. The term i> aNo eiii|)loyed in fiirL'inir. to iU'i:ole a rod used to i)reserve the interior form of hollow-work. MANEGE. -Till- art of horsemanship or of training; horses; also, a school for tcachiiii; horsemanship, and for traiiiiiii^ lior.scs. See JIiirM'iiiiin.i/iij), and MANEUVER.- A term from the French, commnn- l}- wrillen iiiiiiii'iirri\ and sijinifyini; 'handy-work,' is somewhat vajiuel}' used in Kniilish dimilitary and naval lanj;uai,'c to denote collateral movements, not openly apparent, of bodies of men or squadrons of t ships, by which an enc>my is coerced, or by wddch , it issouuhl lo compel him to take some course ad- verse to his interests. I MANEUVERING WHEELS.— The eccentric truck- j wheels used on Sea-ioasI Carriafjes for reiinlalinj^ the motion to and from battery. When it Ijccomes ^ necessary to check the re<'oil of the i^un-carriage, the j wheels are thrown out of near by means of a hand- | spike inserted in the j<ocket attached to the end of the axle-tree, and the carriaire moved on slidinii' fric- tion. When the fjim is to be moved into baltery, the wheels are thrown into ijear in a similar manner, and the front ol the carriajie moves on rollinir fric- tion. In the IS-inch carriage there are two pairs of | maneuvcrini; w heels, one pair beinu; placed in front and the other jiairnear thcrcarend of the carriasre. iSee .Sr«-c"iM^ and ddrrixiri ('iirn'ii(/e«. '' MANEUVER MARCHES. Man'jics made to ifain j a posilion, the possession of whii'li compels the ene- my to leave the position he is oceupyinir. When such marches are under the oliservation of the ene- ■ my, lliey ari' termed .}f<iii<iriirn'«. An example of manoeuvre marches is seen inthi' movements of the i dill'erent cor])S of the French Army in 180.5, from Ihe time they crossed the Khine initil they crossed the Danuljc, since bj' their execution, the Austrian I position at Ulm was lurneil and was no longer ten- I able by tlu' Austrian army. See ( 'onri ntratiun, Mor- chin, S[iin-hiH and 'rurlicdl Mn n-lifn. MANEUVER OF HEAVY GUNS. -The introduction of iron-clad vessels of war, and of larger cannon us- in;; jirojectiles of greati)' increased power, has ren- dered it necessary that more complete protection for J the gun and for the cannoniers should be provided than that furnished in the batteries of the present day. This want has lirought fortli a system of De- I ])ressing Carriages, by wliicli Ihe gun, after being tired, is drawn below the jiarapet and there loaded. Of these carriages the " MoncrieiT" in Europe, and ' those known as the " King" and "Bnffingtou," in- } ven'ed 5n the United States, have met with the most favor, but the general adaptaliility for service of no one of them has yet been estal)lished. The only pl.'in jiroposed, with Ihe view of olTering increas- ed protectiini in maneuvering lieavy cannon on tlie carriages now in our service, is that of the late Col- onel Benton, of the Ortlnance Department. In this system the movements are effected by two climns or r<ipi», worked by a winillnKK placed within a casemate in the |iarapet or in a traverse, between two guns. The i)ower being sitiiaU'd to the right of the gun. '• rope No. 1 " jiasscs from the windlass to a pulley in the axis of Ihe platform, thence lo a iiullcy at the left of the platform, back over a pulley attached to the fork of the left rear traverse wdieel, up over a pulley on the rear transom of the chassis, thence for- ward under a pulley at the front transom of the top carriage, and Ihe end of the rope is attached to a sta- ple on the under side of the gun in front of the trun- nions. " Kope No. 2 " goes from the windlass over a pulley attarlied to the fork of the right rear trav- erse wheel, thence up over a pulley on the; rear tran- som of the chassis, then to a ])ulley at the rear tran- som of the top earriagi- ; the end of this rope is fu»- teneil to a ])in in the base of the; breech of the (jun. 'i'lie ropes passing loo.sely over the )>uneys, the ap- pliialion of forc(' to " No. !" will depress the muz- zle and to " No. 2" v,\\\ depress the breech. 'I'hegiiii is drawn "from hdWrn" by force bing applied lobolli rojx's at once, or to one rope alone, the traverse wheels being choked A rope attached to a hand- spike and jiassing over a pulley at the upper part of the check enables a gunner protected by the |)arapel to place the rear truck wlii'cls '• in gear" and allows the gun to run "Into hiittiry" by the force of gravity, the windlass being out of gear. 'Yii tnirfi-Ki' thegun, " rojie No. 1" mustbelocked to Ihe pulley at the front of the top carriage. Move- ment to the l(fl, will then be ac<om|)lished by "No. 1," the force being exerted at the jinlley at the left fork, and to the right by " No. 2," which will exert its force at the right fork. To hutil \\\f gun. the muz- zle is depressed below the parapet: tlie Jirojectiles are on a shelf along the face of the parajiet, and are con- veniently transfiTred to the piece on a rarrinye, wliich is worked by a rojte and put let/ running on a movable incdined tramway. A secMonnl or ttdiumpin sponge and rammer must be used, and the carriage may be employed to force the projectile home. The gunners, whilst loading, arc protected from shot and shell by a piece of boiler plate set in the face of the parapet. Tlu; sights are jilaei'd on the underside of the gun as near as convenient to the cheek. The elevation may be given by an arc, a pointer being on the trunnion. The gun is mounted with the rriit doirii, wliicli enables it to be tired with the least ex- ])osure to the cannoniers. Each windlass is capable of maneuvering two guns. See Mechanical Mtai. I'liri'r.i. MANEUVERS.— In all changes of position that de- mand a disturbance of the fundamental order of battle of the unit, it is broken into its sulidivisions, which are placed in certain relative positions with respect to each other, according to the object in view. These conibinations are termed man- eimers. and their chief object usually is to change the direction of the front of tlip unit, according to the particular exigency. ^Maneuvers, like all the rest of the mechanism pertaining to the unil, should be stamped with simplicity and uniformity. The tactics of the present day present, in this respect, a remarkable contrast to those of Ihe period anterior to it ; wdiich is owing, in no small measure, to the little scope left for individual fancy : every proposal being submitted to the formal examination of an enlightened board. Stage sjiectacles alone now occasionally furnish some notions of those wiiimsics of olden times ; so happily bit oti in the well-known article of Salmagundi, where the street-pump figures as an almost impassable obstacle to the show soldier of that day. See EuolutioHx. MANGAN. — An ancient war machine The term Miiiiffriii wasgenerally adopted to signify any species of warlike machine ; but it more particularly meant the largest and most powerful machine that could be used for warlike purposes — whether it was prac- ticed to throw enormous stones against besieged places, or to cast javelins, etc. This machine an- swered the double purpose of defending or attacking fortified places, and it was sometimes used at sea. Also written Mangon, and Mongoncl. The JIangonel jiroper was a very strong and powerful <";v«.v.A(7;-.from 1.5 to 20 feet long, used for throwing arrows, darts or stones. The Trttiiicket. liiliaiitlequin, etc.. were only a variety of the above. MANGANESE. — A metal resemblingiron in its chem- ical properties, ar.d seldom if ever alisent from cast- iron. It is commonly found in iron ores, and the same operatiim which reduces the iron in the blast- furnace also reduces the manganese, and this metal IIAN6E. 256 ILANN GUH. becomes alln^-ed or clnsel_y mixed with the melted iron. Tlie influence exerted by the manganese upon tlie character of the cast-iron is very (lecide<l, tend- ing to the production of the white variety, tlie man- ganese diminishing tlie tendency of the carbon to sep- arate in the form of graphite. White cast-iron, there- fore, is found to contain the largest proportion of manganese. The spathic iron ores yield a cast-iron containing a particularlj' large quantity of mangan- ese, sometimes exceeding one-tenth of the weight of the cast-iron. Such an iron is capable of containing upwards of one twenty-tifth of its weight of carlion in combination with it, and the compound thus form- ed clirj-stallizes in large and shining plates, whence it is named by the Germans Spiegekisen, or mirror-irun . It is largely employed in the manufacture of Besse- mer steel. The presence of manganese in iron in- creases the fiuiditj- of the slag, and encourages the passage of phosphorus, sulphur and silicon into the slag, tlius reducing the proportion of tliose injurious impurities in the metal. Its most important proper- ty, however, consists in its affinity for oxygen, pre. venting the formation of oxides of iron. See Vtmt-iron^ MANGE. — An infectious disease which attacks horses when neglected. It results from the attacks of minute mites, or aeari. which burrow in the skin, especially if it be dirty or scurfy, cause much irrita- tion, heat, and itching, and the eruption of minute pimples, with dryness, sciirfiness, baldness, and even bieaching of the skin. The treatment consists in destroying the wyiri and insuring the cleanliness and health of the skin, both of which objects are eflFect- ed by washing the parts thoroughly every second day with soft soap and water, and dressing daily ten persons, each termed a Manipulus. The velites were attached to these by equal portions. The cavalry were divided into ten troops, termed Turma. To each mani]iulus there were assigned two centurions, and two tile-closers ; and to each turma two decur- ions. The velites, although forming a part of the manipuli, had centurions assigned to them, to lead tJiem in battle. The normal order of battle of the liomans, prior to the time of Marius, was in three lines; the hastati in the tirst ; the principes in the second; the triarii in the third ; and the cavalry on the wings. The manipulus. which was the unit of force, was drawn up ui 12 tiles, with a deptli of 10 ranks, in the line of hastati and principes ; in the line of triarii there were onl_y 6 tiles. The right and left tiles of the manipulus were led by a centurion, and closed by an officer file-closer. The manipuli of the three lines were disposed in quincunx order; the manipulus of one line opposite to the interval be- tween the manipuli in the one in front, this being the same as the manipulus front. The intervals between the lines were the same as the depth of each line. An interval of about 3 feet was left between the ranks and the files of the manipulus. The same or- der of battle was followed for the social troops on the wings. The two legions occupied the center ; but what interval was left between them, or between the center and wings, or how far the cavalry was posted from I he infantry, is not well ascertained. UANN GUN.- The breech mechanism of this gun belongs to that system in which the breech-block re- maining stationary, the body of the gun is made to revolve upon its trunnions the necessary degree (o open and close the breech. It may be generally des- with sulphur or mild mercurial ointments, or with a solution containing four grains either of corrosive sublimate or arsenic to the ounce of water. Castor- oil seeds, bruised and steeped for twelve hours in buttermilk, are very successfully used by the native Indian farriers. Where the heat and itching are great, a few drops of tincture of belladonna maybe added to the usual dressing, or applied along with a little glycerine. Where the general health is indif- ferent, as in chronic cases, the patient should be lib- erally fed, kept clean and comfortable, have an oc- casional alterative dose of any simple saline medi- cine, such as niter or common salt, and a course of such tonics as iron or arsenic. Cleanliness and oc- casional washing and brushing maintain the skin in a healthy state, and thus prevent its becoming a suitable nidus for the wuri. MAMIFAIBE. — Armor covering the mane and neck of a horse. MANIFESTO.— A public declaration issfled by a Soveriign I'rince, or by a (Government on some state emergency, expressive of intentions, opinions, or of motives. Immediately before entering on a war. a Manifesto is issued containing a statement of the reasons which liave been held to justify the Sover- eign or Government in taking up arms. In case of a revolt, a .Manifesto is sometimes issued to recall sulijeets to their alleffiance. MANIGLIONS.— The two handles on the back of a pieri- iif (inhiiuice. MANIPHLARIS.— The chief office in a ManipiihiK of the Roman infantry. This office was likewise ordinary. MANIPULUS.- In the tactics of tiie Romans, each class <jf the infantry of the line was subdivided into cribed as consisting of a breech-lilock attached by straps to the trunnions, with suitable devices for se- curing, first, the requisite closeness of contact with the breech of the gun to produce the necessary re- volution about the trunnions. To describe more particularlj' : In the drawing. A represents the cast- iron body of the gun, rc-inforced about the breech with forged-rings, B, of wrought iron, shrunk on. The mass of metal C D, closing the bottom of the bore, consists of two pieces. Tlie piece C, in front, constituting the breech-block proper, is loosely' re- cessed upon the piece D in rear, and has a slight pla_y back and forth, so as to admit of being pushed up in close contact with the breech when tlie gnu is prepared for firing. Tlie means of producing this movement in the block is furnished by tlie screw N, which, passing centrally through the fixed breech- piece D — the latter being bored and threaded to re- ceive it — abuts against the rear face of the movable blocjv. The outer extremity of the screw is fitted with a weighted lever or handle, having "lost mo- tion" checked by a lug, ^I, attached to the circum- ference of the screw shoulder. A point of support for the breech-apiiaratns is siqiplied by the elevating device. This consists of two screws of the same pitch, one on either side on the breech, connected bj- a worm-gearing and operated by cranks which ex- tend beyond tlie carriage. The rimbases are con- centric with the trunnions, but jiroject sulficiently beyond the surface of the gun to accomodate the loops of the breecli-slra|)s. In order toopeii or close the breech, the raising or lowering of the breech of the gun is elTected by means of a crank and jiinion, centered U])on the side of each breech-strap and working in a large-toothed segment, E, the crank- UANOMETEB. 257 MANOMETEB. shaped axle G nf wliich passis iinilcr flic pun ami tlir()U(j;li a slutted lui;, F, and lliiis ediniininiiales tile iiKilioii jiroduced hy tlii' crank lo the lireeeli of (he nun. 'I'he fixed l)iceeh-plcee I) and the straps are of wrought iron; the movabh,' lihiek (' is of cast- iron. The gun is rilled willi ileven lands ami grooves, eaeli of ei|iial width, and of a uiiiforin pilch of one turn in (iO feel. Width of lands and grooves, 1".1H.'(24 Di'l)Ih of i;rooves, 0".ia.") Tile <-hainl)er is eonoentrie willi I he liore, and of a diameter slightly grealer than thai of the bore l)e- tweeii grooves; its eapacily is sullicieni lo conlain a charge of HO i)ounds of powder and a shot of 170 pounds, the laller being inserled in the bore as far as its front band. The top of each land is <-onnecleil with the cylindrical surface of the cliainber by a • Huilal)le r.-uiip or bevel. The gun is center-lire through a vent in the breech-block. This veni makes a turn at nearly right angli-s, .so as lo make ils exit on top of the gim. Its interior opening is through a steel disc. The gas-check (designed by the invent- or) used in this gun is cu])-shaped, and is pierced with a hole to|admit the llame from the vent. It is necessary to remove this check before ami rei)laee it lifter loading. (Jas-checks of this |)allcrn, but of dif- ferent alloj's of copper, I in, ziiir, and lead, were pre- pared with the view of determining the most suitable material. The projectile for this gun consists of a cast-iron body, having a front and rear baud of soft metal — lead and antimony — encircling it. The iron body of the projectile allows the usual windage, but the lead bands exceed slightly the diameler of the bore, including grooves. The weight is from 150 lo 170 iiounds. The gun is loaded as follows: The breech-screw is loosened, and the crank-bandlcs turned until the gtm, revolving on its trunnions, assumes a position in which the chamber is sulliciently exposed above the breech-block for the insertion of the charge. The gas-elicck is then removed, and llie projectile inserted by sliding it along the trough T in the top of the breech-block, and pushing it forward until the front liand stops against the rifling. The charge llien follows, the gas-check isreplacecl, and lliecrank reversed until the gun is restored in line with the breech-block; finally, the breech-screw is tightened by means of a two-handled lever. The gun is mount- ed on a 10-incli carriage, widened to accommodale the increased length of ilie rimbases, with suchother alterations as are required by the nature of the ele- vating-devices. The recoil. check is of the Parrotl friction clamp-pattern. The following are the prin- cipal dimensions : — Exterior diameter of gun at muzzle, 1.5.00 inches. Maximum diameter 28. .50 Diameter of trunnions, 10.00 Diameter of rimbases, .... 17.00 Diameter of breech-screw, including threads ^ 8.50 Diameter of bore. 8.40 " Diameter of chamber 8.60 " Radius of breech, (trunnions to breech) .51.35 '" Distance from trunnions to muzzle, 92.75 " Total length of gun 144.00 " Length of breech-screw, including 'nut, " 28.00 Thickness of breech-straps, . . . 4.50 •' Dept!; of breech-straps at trunnions, 25.00 '" Depth of breech-straps at breech- block 16.00 Depth of breech-straps at middle point 11.00 Length of chamber, including ramp, 24.00 " Total length of bore. . . ^ . . 144.00 Number of grooves, 11 Depth of grooves, 0.125 inch. Tolallengtb of pun over all, . . 178.50 inches. Total weight of gun, 20,0(Xi pounds. See (h'iht<iiire. MANOMETER.— Properly an instrument for meas- uring the rarity of th(^ air or (jf other gases ; but the name is most fre(|iiently a|)plied to inslruincnts for indicating the clastic force of gases which is always inversely proportional lo their rarity. The several kinds of barometers are really manometers, and so is the sleam-gauge of a sleam-eiigine. F Fk'. 3. Width of grooves and lands, Pitch uniform ; one turn in, 1.18524inclies 60 feet. The various forms of manometer maybe classified under three heads : 1, the open-air manometer, on the principal of the baromel<-r: 2, the conlined-air manometer, on the principle of .Mariotte's instrument; ami :>.lhe mclallic-spring manometer. A simple open- air m;uiometer consists of a glass tube, open at both ends, placed upright in a strong bottle of glass or iron the bottom of which contains mercury. The tube piisses through ;i tight packing box in the neck. In the upper part of tiie bottle there is an orifice which admits compressed air, acted upon by steam or va- por, whos(? tension it is desired to measure. But this form cannot be used for high jiressurcs. Th" mid- ti])le-braneh manometer is a modilicatiou of the sim- ple open instrument, and is constructed by bending a long tube, open at both ends, in a series of V-shaped flexures of from 20 to 40 inches in height, the num- ber of flexures depending upon the pressure the in- strument is liable to be subjected to. Columns of mer- cury, of equal height, being jilaced in the lower halves of the V-shaped legs, will indicate the pres- sure excited at one end of the tube, by the sum of the excess of height of the mercurial columns in al- ternate legs, or by multiplying the excess of height in one leg by the number of legs containing such ex- cess. Tiie system is fastened to a board or metallic plate, which at one side, near the last branch, is fur- iMslied with a graduated scale. The compressed-air manometer is simply a strong V-shaped tube closed at one end, while at the other is attached the pipe Cdinmuuicating with the gas or vapor whose tension it is desired to measure or ascertain. A portion of the flexure of the V contains mercury, and the space between it and the closed end is tilled with common air. Now, according to Boyle s or Mariotte's law, a. pressure exerted on the colinnn of mercury suffi- cient to force th<' air into li;df the space it occupies at the normal atmospheric pressure, must become doubled, or 15 lbs. to the square inch must beadded. .Vgaiu, to compress the air into half the remaining space, 30 lbs., or dovible the iiressure required for the reduction to the lirst half, must be added, mak- MANOMETEE A POUDRE. 258 MANOMETRE A POUDRE. ing in all a pressure of four atmospheres for the re- duction to orie-fourth the original vohime. It is evi- dent, therefore, that a graduated scale, to exhibit the degrees of pressure, must have its spaces decrease from below upwards. The graduation is accom- plished b_y means of an open-air midtiple manome- ter. The metallic-spring manometer consists of an inde.x traversing a graduated arc, and having ajiplied to a spriag connected with it — which may be in the form of a spiral— a piston actuated by the force of the gas or vapor in the boiler or steam-chamber. Fig. 1 represents the common open manometer ; Fig. 2 is a compoimd open manometer : and Fig. 3 the differential manometer. The latter is used to register very small differences in pressure. It con- sists of a bent glass tube, placed upright and having a cylindrical bulb and a stop-cock on each arm. One bulb and both tidies, as far as zero of the scale, are filled with a mixture of alcohol and water. The other bidb and the remaining part of the correspond- ing tube are filled with a colored oil, of exactly the same specific gravity as the former mixture. A verj- slitjht difference in pressure is thusstrikinsrly shown. MANOMETRE A POUDRE.— An apparatus", design- ed by JI. X. Korslunioff, of Paris, and embodying an application of the reversed hydraidic press to the measurement of powder pressures in gimnery. For the conversion of unwieldy weights and strains into amounts conveniently measurable, the inversion of the iDrineii^lo of the hj'draulic press possesses the but a.graphic record of the pressures, during the passage of the projectile through the bore, is traced in a moving baud of paper. The syiparatus is suit- able for resolving the following problems: 1. To determine the force of ex])ansioii of powder, thus permitting the comparision of powders dilferiuij; in [ their chemical composition and form. 2. To de- termine what is the best charge for a given caliber, ) according to the natui;e and quality of the powder. i 3. To determine the different pressures of the gases in the bore during the departure of the projectile, i and tluis to decide upon the best dimensions for a i cannon according to its charge and the nature and weight of its projectiles. Referring to tiie drawing, we may make the fol- lowing description of parfs ; a — A cj'Under carry- ing a screw plug, which serves to attach the appara- tus to the breech of the gun. * — Cover of the" eyl- inder. c — Sheet of platinum forming thecylinderat its upper portion, d — Nuts securing thecover of the cylinder, e — Tubes for the escape of the gases which may be above the fitting S. /—Very thin cap- sule of platinum, inserted in a central aperture of the cylinder, fitting into the annular cannelures with which the wall of the aperture is furnished, and clinched upon the lower face of the cover, g — A small button resting on the capsule, actuating the spring I, and having a fork for the support of the lever /(. h — Steel lever hinged at the point t. and carrying at its extremity y, a pin for raising another same advantages of compactness and simplicity that cliaracleri/.e that press in its normal ajiplications It meets with elegant illustrations in some forms of heavy weighing maciiines, in the Edward's instru- men{ for registering " proof strains," etc., but cer- tain practical dilliculties have heretofore precluded its use in registering powder jiressures. In the "manometre" under consideration, however, not only is this object claimed to have been attained. lever ^T. /(—Steel lever lunged at the point /', and carrying at its farther end a style or pencil z, limited in its movements by a curved guide;). /—Steel sjiring fixed to the plate /•, perforated by a slot for the ad- mission of tlie lever /(, and tiy a second slot synuuiil- rical therewilh. 'I'his spring is traversed by Ihestitm of the button ,'/, and presses vertically upon the head of this same button. ;» -Brass rollers fixed in the plate r. and guiding the baud of paper, n — Clock- MANIA. 259 MANTLET. work k''^''"S iiiolioiilo Ihclarjifloollicil-wliccl wliicli tnuiHiiiils it to ll.c nillcr o.aj^aiiisl wliicliiHarnmij^cd a comi)rcssing cylinilor, which circcts the iinrdlliiij; of the papor carnCMl by the reel o. />- Circular i^uide for Htyie or pencil. ;■- lir.nss jilatc lixeil In the cover of the C3'liii(ler. t- Screw closinix the orilici' which serves to iiitroducc-thc mercury, oil, or al<!ohol into the capHule/, as well as between the cover and the sheet of iilatiinim c. C'allin;; Pthe pressure upon n unit of surface exer- cised by the gases of the i)ovvder ; .1 the surface of the piston receiving direct, pressure of tlic gases; S the surface transiuilling the pressure to tlie liijuid ; p the resulting pressure upon a unit of surface of the liquid, we shall have : l'.v ~ S It is evident from this formula that the value of 7) can lie reduced to any desirable amount by varying the ratio of tlie su"faces ; that is tosay. by increasing S or diminishing .v. Jjct us assume x equal to a circle of Om.OO.'i dia- meter = cm.l!)G3.'). S equal to a circle of 0"i.l()l) diameter = 78" '^■"..'54. P equal to (iiJUO kilogrammes to the square centimetre. 0500k X o.l<J(i:35 p^ -, or 10k. 35 per square ccnti- 78..54 metre. It becomes evident that the immense pres- sure of the gases of the jiowder thus manifests itself by a greatlj- reduced and perfectly measurable pres- aiu'e ; moreover, the spa(U! traversed by the piston is, in elTcct, almost nothing ; the volume of liquid which penetrates into the capsule, supposing that tlw ])oint in contact with the buttoi\ rises one milli- nw-lrc, will be equivalent in volume to a cone having for liase a circle of about 30""» diameter and 1'"™ in lieight ; so that m'D» h 3.1416 X 30» 1 X — = X — = 104 J mi".7,'i. 4 3 4 3 The surface S of the piston under the sheet of plat- inum beiug 7854 n mm t!ie elevation of this piston 104.72 for the above displacement of volume will be 78.54 or 0. mm 013; that is to say, a trifle over onehundreth of a millimetre. The apparatus is fixed upon the breech of the can- i uon, in a hole tapped for the purpose, communicat- ing with the interior of the piece by an aperture of { the same diameter as the piston .v. The pressure of the powder gases acts iq)on the piston .v, and dis- j Iriliutes itself by the siu'face S upon the sheet of platinum, which transmits it to tlie liciuid contained in th(> capsule /'. This pressure causes the upper portion of the cajisnle to rise in a spherical form, [ raises, by this movement, the button .9, which raises i in its turn the lever //, thus making it describe an are of ii circle aliout the point r. In order to verify the pressures of the curve, it is necessary that, for it IS necessary, at a previous experiment, to arrange a recurved tube fixed bv one of its arms to tlie screw plug of the cylinder. This tube, filled with liquid, should terminate at its other extremity in a stufling I box, traversed by a stem, upon which graduated pressuri'S can be nuiintauied by means of a lever, I which should be liing(^d by one end to some (ixed point, should pn^ss upon I'lie stem, and should be capable oi being loaded at its other end with succes- sive weights corres|)onding to the pressures which it is desired to exercise upon the piston. Each pressure being maintained for an instant, the pencil traces during that time a horizontal line indi- cating thir height which corn'sponds to that pres- sure. These different heights, when compared, with the curve, indicate exactly the pressures existing during the departure of the pro.jectile.lt is conleni- pl.itcd that in all the above mentioned experiments the cannon be mounted on some mechanical ilevice which shall neutralize the effect of recoil; such, for instance, as that of M. I'Admiral Labrouse. This ap- paratus may, however, beemployerl for the following uses; 1. To measure hydraulic pressures. 2. To meas- ure the pressures required to liquefy gases. In these ap- plications it will be desirable to increase the diam- eter of the piston h, and to diminish that of the pis- ton S. The sheet of platinum may be replaced by a dia]iliraginof gutta-percha, thus "reducing the cost of the machine, and, in fact, the clockwork. The paper and the pencil may be omitted, their jilacclje- ing supplied by an index moving upon a dial-plate, as is represented in the drawing of the hydraulic manom^tre. MANTA. — A water-proof canvas, five feet square use<l as a [lack-cover. It serves to protect the loads in Inmsit, during damp and rainj- weather; and is used for tlie shelter of the stores and the packers, when in camp. MANTEAH.— A term, literally signifying a cloak, but freipiently used among the French "to e.xpressthe covering thai. Hussars or Light Infantry carry for the double purpose of shielding their bodies from the inclemencies of the weather in outposts, etc., and for spreading over their heads, by means of poles, when tliey occasionally halt, and take a jiosition. The iliintrnv. irArtHis was a round shield much used during the tifteenth and sixteenth centuries. MANTILLIS.- A kind of shielil, anciently fixed up- on tJie tops of sliijis as a cover for archers. MANTLE.— A long flowing robe, worn in the Mid- dle Ages over the armor, and fastened by a fibula in front, or at the right shoulder. The mantle is an im- portant part of the oflicial insignia of the various or- ders of knighthood. Ladies of rank wore similar mantles, in many instances decorated with heraldic charges, in which case the mantle bore either the im- paled arms of the lady and her husband or her hus- band's arms only. A number of examples may be seen in monumental effigies. MANTLET.— A shield placed over the mouth of an emhrasurc to prevent musketry bullets" and frag- nunls of shells from Uying throigh and injuring J^«. Fig. 1. FIs. i reference, horizont.il lines be previously traced bv [ those serving the piece. A hole in the lower part the pencil under .'•fTerent pressures, eaclunaintained allows the muzzle of the piece to pass through into constant for a tletermmate lime. For this purpose \ the embrasure when it is to be fired. The size of MAHTLIKG. 260 MANnAL OF ASMS. these openings will depend upon the dimensions of the piece. Rope is the best material for constructing mantlets. The usual size of a mantlet is 5 feet high, 4.5 feet across, and 4 inches thick. For siege guns the opening is l.G feet high by 1.3 feet across. Three- inch rope is a suitable size, it is laid in three or five ' thicknesses, each of the two outer laj'ers being in one piece bent vertically. The inner layers" are bent and laid horizontally, and the whole well tied together. The mantlet is bu-ng on a horizontal pole supported by forked up- rights set in the ground, on each side of the em- brasure, at the foot of the interior slope, as shown in Fig. 1. The elasticity thvis afforded by the supports greatly increases the resistance of the mantlet. A small hole or slit is pierced in the mantlet to allow the piece to be aimed. Mantlets of this size weigh about 400 pounds. A small ring mantlet of rope, shown in Fig. 2, placed upon the chase of the gun is sometimes used. When rope cannot be obtained, one of similar shape mav be made of wood. Mantlets may be made of wood or of iron, or of wood and iron combined. Those of the latter kind furnished for the siege of Yorktown were made of two thicknesses of ^^^inch wrought-iron spiked to 3- inch oak plank. On the head was a 2-ineh square iron bar riveted to the edge of the iron plates, against which the oak planks abutted. The ends of this bar projected inches, and were rounded, serving as supports to rest upon upright stakes or timbers standing against the interior slope of the parapet. See Gun-itheltrrs. MANTLING. —A heraldic ornament depicted as , hanging tlown from the helmet, and behind the escutcheon. It is considered to represent either the cointise, an ornamental scarf which jwssed round the body, and over the shoulder ; or the military mantle, or robe of estate. When intend- ed for'the cointise, it is cut into irregular strips and curls of the most capricious forms, whose contortions are supposed to indicate that it has been torn into that ragged condition in the field of battle. When the mantling is treated as a robe of estate, the bearings of the shield are sometimes embroidered on it. A mantling adjusted so as to form a background for the shield and its accesso- ries, constitutes an Adiierement of Arms. It is not till the latter end of \\\f 14th century that the mantling appears as a heraldic ornament on seals. In British Heraldry, the mantling of the Sovereign is of gold lined with ermine : that of Peers, of crim- son velvet lined with ermine. Knights and gen- tlemen have generally crimson velvet lined with white satin ; hut sometimes the livery colors are adopted instead, as is generallj' the practice in Con- tinental Heraldrv. See Lambrequin. MANSLAUGHTER.— The unlawful killing of an- other without malice, express or implied. Man- slaughter is either voluntary, i. e., where there was an intent to commit the injury ; or involuntary, where there was no such intent. It differs from nmr- der in its absence of malice, and, as it is supposed to be committed in hot blood, no person can be an ac- cessory before the fact. Among cases of homicide which constitute a manslaughter maj' be mentioned killing a person b}' gross negligence, though in the discharge of a lawful act ; killing a person'who has given great provocation ; .and killing an officer act- ing without or beyond his authority, though this may also be excusable homicide. The killing of an officer acting within his legal authority is murder. The provocation above-mentioned must be imme- diate, not remote ; and though proof of provocation sufficiently repels the presumption of malice which the law attaches to everv case of homicide, it is not sufficient to lower an offense from murder to man- slaughter, if express malice be made out. In most of the United States manslaughter is divided into different degrees, punished with longer or shorter terms of imprisonment. MANUAL. — A prescribed exercise by means of which soldiers are taught to handle and use their weapons. The Mftnual of Arms, the Manual of the Pieiv, the Manual of the Sword, etc., are explained in detail in the Tactics and Regulations of an army. MANUAL OF ARMS.— An exercise with the musket MANUAL or THE PIECE. 2G1 MANUAL OF THE PIECE. orridr', llirnuiih wliirli rfoniits arf drilled, to pivt; tliciM a free use cjf llicir liiiibH, iiiiil nf the weapon re- giirilcd merely a« ii pike. It eompriscH the lir«t coiiTMe of inslnielioii after the ritlc has been placed in the learner's hands. In the I'nited Slates service, the piece is in the rifjht hand: the barrel nearly vertical, and restinf; in the hoUuvv of the shoulder, the f^nard to the fnml; the arm lianiiini.; nearly at its full len};th, near the body, thethundj aiul forelini;ereiubraciiiL' the fruard, the remainiui; Mni^'iTs closed (iii^ellier anil }rraspiu;r tin stock just und<T the liamnuT, which rests on the little linger. This is the \)ii^\\\on of carry anna, the position is represented in Kii;. 1. Ueeruits often have defects in the conformation of the shovdders, breast, anil hips. On first bearint; arms they are li.able lo deranije their ]iosilions, by loweriii}; Ihe rinht shoulder and the riixlil hand, or by sinkiim; the hip and sprcadin<r the ell)ows. The Inslruelor endeavors Ici correct thes<' fanlls, so that the i)osition of Ihe jiii'ces in the same line may be uniform, without constraint to the men. The Instructor .sees that the piece at a carry is neilher too hi£;h nor too low; if.too hi!rh, the rij;ht elbow will spread out, the soldier will occu|)y too much space in his rank and tlie [(iece be uiisleady; if loo low, Ihe tiles will be too much closed, (he sol- dier will not have room cnouiih to handle his piece with ease, Ihe rii;hl arm will become fatigued, and ■will draw down the shoulder. emits proifTfssively, after becoming familiar with handling Ihe piece. As the motions relative to the cartridge, the li.vingand unfixing of Ihe bayonet, can- not be executed at Ihe rale prescribed, nor even willi a uniform swiflness, they are not subjected to the ca- dence. The Instructor, however, caiiHcs llieKC mo- tions to be executed with promplnesH and with re- gularily. As soon as the recruits thoroughly under- stand the several motions, they execute them alter- nately with and wilhfiut thi' nundiers, in oriler to atlain Ihe proper cadeMce, and lo beconn' jierfect in the mechanism. The piece is habitually carried at lialf-cock. To avoid repetition the following niles in tlic Man- ual of Arms are r/nwml: 1. In resuming Ihe "carry" from any position in the manual. Ihe nioiion next lo the last concludes witli the l<-fl hand at Ihe height of the shoulder, (intrersex- tendeil and joined, the thundi close to the forelinger, back of the h;ind lo Ihe front, Ihe elbow close lo the body, the right hand embracing the guard with the thumb and jforelinger. 2. In all ])ositions of the left hand at the lower band, except rhnryc hriyinut and rtrm>i;)'>ri, the thumb is extended along the barrel, the end of it touching the lower band. In rh/irf/r baynnit and nrmn pr/rt tlie thumb clasps the piece immediately below the lower band. 3. In all iiositions of Ihe piece in front of the cen ter of the body, the barrel is to the rear, and vertical. 10 11 12 13 14 15 IT) The Manual of Arms is taught to four men, placed at lirst in one rank, elbow to elbow, and afterwards in two ranks. To make the niechauism better known, the execution of each command is divided into motions. The rate or swiftness of each motion in the manual of arms, with the escepti(ms herein in- dicated, is fixed at the ninetieth part of a minute. The same interval of time should separate the com- mand of execution from the preparatory conuuand. The Instructor at tirst looks more particularly to the execution of the motions without requiring a nice ob- servance of the cadence, to which lie brings the re- The drawings show the various positions of the sol- dier and piece in executing the Manual of .\rms, au- thorized for the United States Army. See Aim.Anm Port, Carry Amis, Charge Baynnet. Fix Bayonet^ Load. Order Arnifi, Parade Rent. Present Arms. Jtest on Arms, Jierer.ie Arms. Itight Shoulder Arms. Se- cure Arms, Support Arms, Trail Arms, and Cnjix BayiiDft. MANUAL OF THE PIECE.— The term piece, as here used, applies lo cannon, whether gun. howitzer, or mortar. -\s a matter of convenience, it is also used to designate both camion and carriase when the can- MANUAL OF THE PISTOL. 262 MANUAL OF THE PISTOL. non is mounted. The men employed in the service of artillery are called artillerymen. Those for a sin- gle piece constitute a gun-detachment, and vary in number with tlie size and kind of piece. The detach- ment is composed of two nou-commissioned officers, and from two to ten privates. The senior non-com- missioned officer is called chief-uf-dHacJiineiit ; the other gunner. The privates are called canncnfern. The detachment is formed in double rank, and told off from the right as follows : No. 1 is on the right of tlie rear rank ; No. 2 in front of No. 1 ; No. Son the left of No. 1; No. 4 on the left of No. 2; the oth- er numbers follow in the same order, even numbers in the front, odd iu tlie rear rank. When, by facing about, the front becomes the rear rank, the numbers of the cannoneers do not change. The service of the piece consists of all the opera- tions required iu loadiug, pointing, and discharging it. To avoid repetitions, the following general rules are noted collectively : 1. The implements and equipments required for a piece are taken to it by the detachment when going to the exercises, or the}- may be placed there pre- vious to that time. Thej' are removed, at the con- elusion of the exercises, by the same means, and re- turned to their proper places in the store-house. It is the especial duty of the chief-of-detachment to see that all that appertains to his piece is complete and in good order. 2. AVheu the equipments are distributed, the gun- ner buckles the strap of his pouch around his waist, wearing the pouch iu such position as to interfere as little as po.ssible with his movements. The cannoneer who wears it. buckles on the primer-pouch in like manner. The gunner removes the vent-cover, and clears the vent with the priming-wire. Cartridge- pouches are carried suspended from the left shoulder to the right side. 3 In sponging or in ramming, the knee on the side toward which the effort is made is always bent, the other straightened. The weight of the body is added, as nmch as possible, to the effort exerted by the arms. When the sponge tits so tightly as to be difficult to move in the bore, Nos. 1 and 2 may use both hands in inserting and withdrawing it. Cart- ridges are inserted into the bore, bottom foremost and seams to the sides. All projectiles having fuses are inserted into the bore so that the fuse .shall be towards the muzzle. 4. A primer is prepared for insertion in the vent by holding it between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand; the lanyard, wound upon its handle, is charges the piece turns his face from it, pulls the lan- yard quickly, but steadily, and fires. Inmiediately after the discharge he resumes the erect position, re- winds the lanyard upon its handle, returns it to his pouch, and resumes his post. The guuuer, after pointing, goes where he can observe the effect of the shot ; when he resumes his post. At the command, cfone firing, pieces that are loaded remain so until further orders ; those that are partly loaded— if with the cartridge only— the cartridge is rammed home ; if the projectile has been inserted, it likewise is rammed home. In both cases the priming-wire is left in the vent, as an indication that the piece is loaded. If the piece is not loaded it is sponged out. j\Jl the cannoneers resume their posts. 7. The habitual post of the chief-of-detachment is facing the piece and two yards in rear of the platform or rearmost part of the carriage. He has, under the instructor, or officer immediately over him, general supervision of all duties performed by his detachment. During firings he looks after the supply of ammu- nition, and sees that those engaged in preparing and serving it to the piece perform their duties properly. All ammunition must be prepared for firing at the service magazine. Projectiles should be carefully cleaned of all rust, dirt, or protuberances liable to cause them to stick, or injure the bore. 8. In the service of a battery of several pieces, the pieces are designated Nos. 1, 2, 3, etc., from right to left : these numbers are independent of \\\e permanent numbers assigned to pieces in a work. Iu directing the pieces to be fired, they are always designated by their lattery numbers ; as, 2fumb(rone — Fike ; Xinii- ber two — Fike, etc. When the wind comes from the right, the firing should commence on the left, and reciprocally. Under the fire of the enemy, the men are directed to cover themselves by the "parapet or traverses as much as may be consistent with the ex- ecution of their duties. 9. Previous to proceeding with any exercise with the pieces, and frequently at other times during the exercises, the instructor,assisted by the other officers, will explain to the men the nomenclature of every- thing appertaiuiug tliereto ; the application and use of the various parts, machines and implements used; the names and use of the diff'erent parts of the work adjacent to the piece : the kinds of ammunition used; charges of powder ; kinds of fire ; antl, generally, all matters that assist iu making the men efficient artil- lerists. 10. In aiming, first get a clear view of the object, and see that the piece is approximately in the line of fire before looking through the sights, and if the ob- held in the right hand, the hook by the thumb and ' ject be not in tlie line, instantly give the command to forefinger : the hook is attached by passing it ujnvard through the eye of the primer; the hook and primer, thus attached, are held by the thumb and forefinger of the right hand ;the primer is pushed into the vent by the thumb. After the primer has been inserted in the vent, the cannoneer who fires the piece drops the handle, allowing the lanyard to uncoil as he steps back to the position from which he is to fire; holdsthe handle, willi tlie cord slightly strctclied, passing be- tween the middle fingers"of his right hand, back up, and breaks to his left and rear a full pace with the left foot, the left hand hanging nat\irally by his side. 5. In aiming guns and howitzers, the guiiner places the breech sight hi its seat or socket, and aims through it ; gives Hie proper direction by causing the trail to be moved, commanding left or r/g/it, tapping, at the same time, on the right side of the brci cli for tlie trail to be moved to tlie left, and on the left side for it to be moved to the right. The cannoneers at the trail will closely observe the motions of the gunner. With mortars, the gunner signals, with his hands, the direction in whicli he wishes the carriage moved. When the piece is pointed, the gunner raises both hands as a signal ; the (vinnoneers moving the piece ,' then unbar and resume their jiosts. (). At the command fire, the cannoneer who dis- ! move the trail tothe right or left. Always aimquick- 1}-, as the eye will not then become wearied. The prop upon which the sponge and rammer are sup- ported is a low trestle, or simply a block of wood sufficiently high to prevent the sponge taking up dirt from the ground. The rammer is always laid on the side nearest the piece. To prevent the pro- jectile from starting forward, guns should be given at least five degrees elevation previous to being run into battery, and running into battery should be done so as to prevent sudden jar against the hurters. 11. In all exeueises for instruction, duties .should be performed as nearly as possible as in actual service, and not by pretense only. To do this, in the service of the jiiece a dummy cartridge should be used, to- gether with actual projectiles. Tlie cartridge may be iiiailc of canvas or stout gumiy-sacking, filled to the projier weight with coal broken to the size of the powder used for the piece. A worm serves for withdrawing the cartridge. A strong lanyard at- tached lo the fuse-plug will serve to withdraw the projectile. The free end of the lanyard remains out of the muzzle as the projectile is pushed home. (See Art'lhn/. MANUAL OF THE PISTOL.— To draw the pistol the Instructor (■(immands : 1. Dhaw ; 2. Pistol. At KANUAL OF XH£ SABER. 2(i; MANUAL OF THE BWOED. tlif commnnd (Iretw, iiiilmtldii llic Hap nf ilic liolster wilh llic rijilil hand, iind gnis[) the slock, the hack (if llic liaiiil li> the body. At tlic (•(iiiiiiiand ;i/«M, draw and raisi' llic |)isli)l. tlic hand lioldiiif; llw stock willi llic lliiiiiil) mill last three tiiiircrs, llic forcliiis^cr over tlic uiiard. j^uiird to llic front, barrel vertical. (■Ibow near llic body, tlii' wrist as liit;li as tlic rij^lit slioulilcr and six inches in front of il. To Ijoai) llic jiislol. lower inloiliclcft hand, the barrel |)oinlin<:j to the left and front, and downward al an an- gle of forty-live deforces, half-cock llif pistol (cock it if necessary); j;ras]) the stock with the right hand. (Two) Open the chanibcr.if necessiiry eject the cartridge-cases, take a cartridge from the cartridge- box wilh the right hand, and hold it near the cham- ber between IIk' lliiimb and ''rst two fingers. (TiiiiEE.) Place the cartridge in the chandler, jjress- ing it home wilh the Ihiinil); conliniie to insert car- l"idgcs until the chamlicrs are loaileil ; close the chamber, carry the right liund to the stock, and re- sume the position oi mine pintul. Al llie command Uk.^dy, cock the pistol with the thumb of the right hand. To Aim, lower the pistol to the front, the arm about three-fourths c.xlendcd. forclingcr iqion tlie trigger; close the left eye an<l sight with the right. To Fire. press the forelinger against the trigger, tire, and take the position of rai.v pistol- To return pistol, the instructor commands: 1. Hrturii, 2. Pistol. Droi) the uui/./.le. insert the pistol in the holster. b;ick of the lumd to the body, button the flap, and drop the liiind by tlie side. The squiid liciiig in the position of rai'ne pi'nUil, the instructor comimmds : 1. Iit.iprftinn, 2. pistol, jiasscs aUuig the rank, iind examines the pistols. To inspect the pistol minutely, h.e takes it in his hands, iind llien returns it to the recruit, who grasps it at the slock anil takes tlie position o{ 7-iiise ]i/.it<'l. MANUAL OF THE SABER. The manual of the Sillier is buiglit in the following order, and by the following ciiiumands ; 1. Drum, 2. Saber. At the command dniw, unhook the siibcr with tlie thumb and first two lingers of the left lumd, thumb on the end of the hook, lingers lifting the upper ring ; pass the right band through the saber-knot, and push the sliding loop ujWo the wrist witli the left band ; grasp the scabb;ird wilh the left hand al the upper l)and. bring the hill a little forward, seize the gripe with the right hand. ;iiid draw the lilade six inches cut of the Si;d)liard, pressing the scabbard against the thigh with the left li;iiid. Fig. 1. At the command f^ahcr, draw the saber quickly, raising the arm to its full ex- tent, at an angle of aliinit forty-live degrees, thesalier in a straight line with the arm, and make a slight Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Y\s. 3. pause: hookup the scabbard with the thuml) and first two lingers of the left hand, thumb through the ui>per ring, lingers supporting it ; and drop the left hand by the side; at the same tyne, bring the back of tliclilade against the hollow of the shoulder, tlip blaflo vprtiral, the arm nearly extendrd, thfi left side of the gripe wilh the thumb against llie tliigli, th(' little linger on tin; back of tlie grijic. 'J'/iU in the poHition of citrrji Kahtr dimiuninted, and is represented in Fig. 2. 1. I'riHint, 2. Haheb. Carry llie saber vertically to the front, raising tb^ hand as liigh an the neck, and si.x inches in front of it, edge lo tlie left, the thumb extended on the back of the gripe, little finger by the side of the others, Fi^. ;*. 1. In. nppftiim, 2. Saheic. Take the position lApnxint xolrr. (Two.) Turn the wrist outward to show Die other side of the blade, the edge to the right; make a slightpaiise, and then turn the wrist back. (Three.) Uesume the carry. 1. Hi turn. 2. Saiiek. At the command ritum. lake the jiosilion oi pre-ftit nalitr ; at thesamelime unhook and lower the scabbard with tint left band, and grasp it at the iijjper band. At, the oommanil Milin-, carry the right hand opposite and six inches from the left shoulder; lower the blade and pass it across and along the left arm, the point to the rear; turn the hand slightly to llie left, tixing the eyes on the opening of tlie scabbard, and insert the blade six inches in llie scabbard. (Two.) Return the blade, and free the wrist from the .saber- knot ; turn llie head to the front and drop the riilit hand by the side; al the same time hook up the saber with the left hand, turning the saber toward the body, guard to the rear, and drop the left liand by the side. "manual OF THE SWORD.- The Manual of the Sword in the I'nited Sbiles Army, is as follows: 1. Draw, 2. Swoitus. Al the command ilriiir, unhook llie sword with the thuml) and lirst twolinirers of the left hand, thumb on the end of the book, finsers lift- ing the upper ring ; grasp the scabbard withlhe left hand at the upper band, bring the hilt a little for- ward, seize the gripi- with the right hand, and draw the blade six inches out of the scabbard, prcssin"- the scabbard against the thigh with the left han<i! At the conunand sirnrd, draw the sword f|uicklv, raising the arm to its full extent, at an angle of aboiit forty-live degrees, the sword in a straight line with the arm, and make a slight pause ;"liook up the scabbard quickly wilh the thumb and lirst two fingers of the left hand, thumb through the upper ring, fingcra supporting it. and drop the left hand by the side; at the same time bring the back of the blade against the shoulder, the bhide vertical, back of the gripe to the re;ir, the arm nearly extended, the I liumb and forelinger embracing the" gripe, the left side of the gripe with the thumb against the thigh, the other fingers extended and joined in rear of Fhe gripe. Thixistheponitioiiofairry sw&rd. Oflicers mounted unhook the sword before mounting, and, in the first motion of draw-sw&rd, reach with the right liand over the bridle-hand, and without the aid of the bridle-hand draw the sword as before; the right hand in the i-arry rests on the right thijh. When the swoni-knot is worn, the right Wrist may be placed in it in the first motion, before grasping the gripe. 1. /";•(»«(=««. 2. Sword. At the command piVM'/it, carry the sword vertically, and promptly to the front, raising the band as high as the neck and six inches in front of it, the thumb on the back of the gripe, back of the gripe to the right, elbow close to the bod}'. At the command s^rw-rf, drop the point of the sword by extending the arm, so that the right hand may be brought to the side of the light thigh, the back of the hand down, the blade inclining downward and to the front. In rendering honors with troops, officers execute the lirst motion of the salute at the command pre- sntt. the second motion al the conunand <frm.i. The sword is returned to the curri/ at the command. 1. ('(irri/, 2. Arms. When arms are ordend, the offi- cers and non-commissioned staff drop the point of their swords, the back of the hand invariably up. At pnra'fe rest, they clasp the hands directly in front of the centre of the body, the left hand up- permost, the point of the sword between the feet. MANUBALLISIE. 264 MAP. In marching in double time, tlie sword is carried dia- gonally across flie breast, edge to the front, the jDoint in front of and at the height of tlie left slioul- der ; the left hand steadies the scabbard. At funer- al ceremonies, the sword is reversed under the right arm, the left hand clasping the blade behind tlie back. When the escort reds on arms, tlie otiicers stand at parade rest, iuclining the head. OHicers on all duties under arms, draw and return sword with- out waiting for any command. All commands to soldiers under arms are given with the sword drawn. In route marches the sword is carried in the scab- bard. The non-commissioned staff and sergeants ■with swords drawn salute by the first motion of pre- sent sirord, as explained for officers. This position is taken at inspection, and the wrist turned out- ward to show the flat of the sword toward the face. 1. Return. 3- Sword. At the command return, take the position of the first motion of pre- sent sicord ; at the same time unhook and lower the scabbard with the left hand, and grasp it at the upper Iiaud. At the command sinrrd. carry the right hand opposite and six inches from the left shoul- der ; lower the blade and pass it across and along the left arm. the point to the rear ; turn the liead slightly to the left, fixing the cyts on the opening of "the" scabbard, and insert the blade six inches in the scabbard, (Two.) Return the blade, free the wrist from the saber-knot (if inserted in it ,i,turn the head to the front, and drop the right hand by the side: at the same time hook up the sword with the left liand, turning the sword toward the l)ody, the guard to the rear, and drop the left hand hy the .side. Offi- cers mounted return swords without using the left hand : the sword is hooked Tip on dismounting MANUBALLISTE. — A cross-bow. There were two kinds used in the reign of Henry VIII- viz., the latch which was used for quarrels and the prodd for ' bullets. I MAP. — A map is a delineation, on a plane, of some portion of the surface of a sphere, celestial or terres- trial, on which the objects intended to be shown are traced, whether stars or towns, mountains, etc. Ter- restrial maps are termed qeographkal. when they re- fer to the land : and liydrograpldeal maps, or charts. when tiiey delineate the shores of the sea. A per- fect representation of a country, with all its parts in true proportions and relative positions, may be made on a globe ; but since the surface of the earth is spherical, it is not possible so to delineate any large portion of it on a plane as to retain these properties. Hence geographers resort to different methods of representation called projections, which are of two kinds — either real perspectives from different points of view, or approximate developments. The five principal projections are — the orthographic, the stereographic, tlie gloliular, the conical, and the cyl- indrical, or Mcrcator's In the first of these, the flat surface on which the map is drawn is supposed to pass through the center of the earth, and according to the distance of the eye, the projectiim is either of the first, second, or third kind. In the lyrthoqraphic. the ej'e is assumed to be at an infinite distance from the center of the earth, so that all rays of light proceed- ing from every point in its surface are parallel and perpendicular. From the nature of tliis projection, it is evident that while the cenlral parts of tlie hem- isphere are almost accurately represented, towards the circumference the countries are crowded togeth- er and diminished in size. On this account it is of little use for geographical, though of considerable value for astronomical ])urposes. In tlic stereoyrapliic, tlie eyeor point of projection is assumcdto be placed on the surface of the sphere opposite the one lo be delinejited. If the globe were traiisiiareut, the eye would then see the opjiosite concave surface. Con- trarj' to tlie orthogra|)hic, this metliod contracts the center of the map, and enlarges it towards the cir- cumference. Owing to the une(iual area of the di- visions, and the dilliculty of finding the true latitude and longitude of places, this projection is not much employed. In oriler to rectify the opposite effects of the two preceding, the globular projection, a modification of the two, is generally adopted. If we suppose the ej'e to be removed from the surface to a distance equal to the sine of 4-5* of the circumscrib- ing circle, the projection is called globular. In oth- er words, if the diameter of the sphere be 200 parts, it must be produced TO of these parts in order to give the point of projection. All meridians and par- allels in this projection are in reality elliptical curves, but as they approach so nearly to being circular arcs they are very rarel}' shown otherwise. Fig. 1. — Globular, or Equidistant Projection of a Hemisphere. The construction of the globular or equidistant projection is as follows (Fig. 1). Describe a circle NESW, to represent a meridian. a_.d draw two dia- meters, NCS and WCE, perpendicular to each other, the one for a central meridian, the other for the equa- tor. Then K and S will represent the north and south poles. Divide each of the quadrants into 9 equal parts, and each of the radii CN, CE, and C also in 9 equal parts. Produce NS both ways, and find on it the centers of circles which will pass through the three points 80 x 80. 70 y 70, etc., and these arcs de- scribed on both sides of the equator will 1)e the paral- lels of latitude. In like manner, find on WE produced, the centers of circles which must passtlirough a. h. c, and the poles. Having selected the first meridian, number the others successfully to the east and west of it. A map in this way may be constructed on the rational horizon of any place. The ini])ossibility of getting a perfect representation of special parts of the sphere by any of the previous methods, led to the desire for others less defective. Of all solid bo- dies whose surfaces can be accurately developed or rolled out upon a plane witliout alteration, the cone and cj'linder approach nearest to the character of the sphere. A portion of the sphere between two paral- lels not far distant from each other, corresponds very exactly with a like conical zone; whence it is that conical developments make tlie best projections for special geographical maps, and even with some mod- ification^ for large portions of the globe. Since all meridians on the globe are great circles passing through the poles, the north and south points at any places correspond with tlie poles of the earth. The east and west points, however, are indicated by a line at right angles to the meridian, and do not, except at the equator, correspond with those of the earth. In all the projections hitherto described, the direction eithcrof the north and south, or of I he east and west jioints, is reiires.-nled by a curved line, so Ihat on such a map the course of a vessel would almost always be laid down in a curve, which could only be described by continually laying off from the meridian a lineal an angle ecjual to that made with the meridian by the jioint of the compass at which the shiji was sailing. If the vessel were to steer iu a direct N. E. course by one of the previous MARAUDING. 265 MARCEL DEPBEZ REGISTEB. projections she would, if land did not intervene, | ordnance survey of Great Britain is on the scale of dcscribi' a spiral rrmml. and iilliiimtclv arrive at the ^,,,',,,5 of naturc.or 1 inch of paper to om- nuh- of siir- — -.1 1.. . ti,..r..r,,r.. ti„. iiiMriiwT rciMiircM a oliart I face. A recent iinprovcnjiiit inlrodiiced into our north pole- Ihcrcforc. the mariner rccpiircs a diart i face. A recent iinprovcnjiiit introdnced into our wliii h wiiri-niihle him to steer his course liy com- best ma|)S is;that of print im.M lie waler-coursi-s^iii hhie pass in Btraii;ht lincsonly- This valuahle instrument is supplied hy Mcrcator's chart, in which all the meridians an" striUL'lit lines jii rprmlii-iihir to the eijuator, and all the uarallels straight ^hwn immllH ■p! C a n o- =r a EE n in n TTT u D D Dj Lif ,- '■ 1 1 1 „ It — — - - - - — - ■' 1 1 '■ »i ,i .. 11-.11J (1 £5 r.3 150 1 » m : JLL jl± rtfi: ii it Ml ink, niakinir the oroi;raphy and skeleton of I'very country sliinil out in clear relief, thus avoiding the confusCri ri^ultinir from all the lines heing black. MARAUDING. -This word common, under ortlio- Rraphic variations, to most of the Eiiropi-an lan- guapes, and, probably, of identical root with the virb "to mar" means irre^rular jiliindcr or violence olVercd to the inhabitants of a country by the indi- viduals of an army. In all armies where discipline is maintained. marau<ling is, at least professedly, punished by ilcalh ; the Provost Marshal having power to iiitlicl that penalty summarily on all of- fenders taken in in the act. MARCASITE.— Sulphurous pyrites, which super- seded till- iiKif'-h. in ilischar^ini; lire-arms. The py- rites when struck, iL'iiiled. ;i\v\ llri'd the charire. MARCEL. DEPREZ REGISTER.- In order to replace the induction-spark as means of rejristration, Mr. Marccl-Dejircz had recourse to electro-magnets whose armature, retracledby a counteracting spring, was furnished with a pen which rested on the sur- face of the cylinder of the chronograph, this pen be- ing so arranged as to be disjjlaced in the dircctiim of ageneratri.x duringtlie niovenient of the armature. As a result of this arrangement, the pen traced on the Fig. 2. — Mcrcntor's PrdjcctifHi. to the equator. It is constructed as follows ("Fig. 2): A line AB is drawn of tlu' reijuired length for the equator. This line is divided into 3(), 24. or 18 equal parts, for meridians at 10", 1.5*^, or 30" apart, anil the meridians are then successively drawn through these points ])erpendicular to Ali. From a talile of meridional parts (a table of the number of minutes of a degree of longitude at the eipiator com- prised lietweeu that and every jiarallel of latitude up to Hi)"), take the distances of the parallels and of the tropics and arctic circles from the equator.and mark them olT to the nortli and south of it. .loin these points, and the projection is made. This projection, of course, does not aud is not intended to give a na- tural representation of the earth, its effect l>eing to exaggerate the polar regions immensely. Tlie dis- tortion in the form of countries and relative direction of places, is rectitied Ijy the degrees of latitude be- ing made to increase proportionalily to those of longitude. This is the only maj) which gives an un- briiken view of the whole surface of the earth. The term wf/'is specially ap])licd to reiireseiitalions of land, or lauii and water together; while that of I'hirt is limited to the coast and water surface only, show- ing currents, rocks, anchorage, light-liouses, har- bors, soundings, aud other objects of importance. A geographical map proper is a general iiuip of the world, or of a large extent of country. .*V topo- graphical map dilTers from it in being limited in area, and much more detailed. The ordnance survey of Britain is a good example of a topographical map. Besiiles purely geographical and topographical maps. Fig. 1. cylinder in motion a given circumference so long as the current jiassing in the eleetro-magnet of the reg- ister kept the armature attracted : when the current was broken, the pen. drawn laterally by the arma- ture, traced a hook, and connected" with the prece- ding circumference by a curve, the form of which depended on the relative velocities of the cylinder and the pen, and finally, the armature being arrested by a catch which limit"s its course, the pen traced a new circumference a little distant from the preceding. Fig. 1. If the current was re-estal)lished at the end of a certain time, the armature was attracted anew. the pen traced a second hook, and was replaced on the original circumference of which it continued the others are constructed for special purposes, which j trace. 'The two hooks obtained indicate the instants may be physical, political or civil, military, statistic- ! when the breaking and the closing were produced. al, "historical, etc. In order to construct "a map, and The employment of electro-magnets as registers was to determine accurately the positions of places on it, not new ; these devices had Ijeen applied since 1844 a knowledge of two elements is essential— viz.. lati- ' to the Wheatstone and Breguet chronographs, and tude or disUince from the equator, aud longitude or Regnault employed them also with the chronograph distance east or west of the meridian adopted. Every that he used in" his celebrated experiments on the map, whatever its dimensions, is in some definite re- measure of the velocity of sound. If we were lim- latiou to the actual size of the globe. This relation ited to the reproduction of the arrangements adopted is indicated by a scale— a graduated line showing, by by these different experiments, it would be impossi- its divisions, the number of miles corresponding to ble to obtain a precision susceptible of competing any space measured on the map. The .scales of geo- with the employment of the iniluction-spark. The graphical maps range from about 800 m. to an inch usual electro-magnets, similar to those used in tele- "(for maps of quarters of the globe) to 10 miles to an graphy, have, in'fact.a functional retardation which incli: those of topographical inaps range from 1 inch is far from unimportant. If we seek for these appara- to 25 inches to a mile, the largest topographical maps tus, employing, for example, the lime that elaps^ ■we have, admitting of the most minufe details. The between the moment when the current which ani- MABCEL-DEPEEZ REGISTER. 266 MAKCEL DEPEEZ EEGISTEE. mates an electro-magnet is broken and that when its armature is set in motion under the action of tlie counteracting spring wliich retracts it, we find tliat tliis time, which niay be called retardation of dis- connection, attains aad often exceeds a luindredth of a second. The time that elapses between the mo- meat when the current is re-established, and the ar- mature returned to its original place is greater still ; it may be called retardation of connection. The sum of these two retardations forms the time lost between two successive signals, and limits the number of sig- nals to be required in a second by a given electro- magnetic register. Hence, we see that an ordinary electro-magnet could scarcely give more than 40 sig- nals in a second. In order that we might count on the precision of these signals, it wouUrbe necessary, besides, that the functional retardations, or at least'the retardations of discouuectiou, should be absolutely constant for the same register. If this condition was fulfilled, we could, in fact, notwithstanding their slow action, obtain a great precision of measure in the vahuition of a difference of durations ; we could also measure, with equal precision, portions of time smaller tlian the time lost by the apparatus, by using two electro- magnets for registering the two signals whicli de- termine the time to be measured, provided that we had the means of determining exactly the supposed constant retardation of each apparatus. Thisiueans exists, as we shall see further on ; but the retarda- tion of disconnection is unfortunately not constant in the ordinary electro-magnets. This retardation, is composed of two parts: a retardation in the cessation of the magnetic attraction, which retardation is owing to the phenomenon usuallj' designated by tlie name of remaining magnetism, and a retardation owing to the setting in operation the mechanical organs of registration; this latter retardation can be made con- stant, but it is not the same witli the retardation of demagnetization, whicli depends on several various circumstances, and especially on the intensity of the current, which may varj' with the resistance of the circuit or the activity of the battery; the retardation depends also on tlie manner in which the current is broken. The variations of tlie retardation or demag- netization, although very trifling in themselves, would, by using the usual electro-magnets, have at- tained limits greater than the degree of precision sought would allow: it was necessary, then, to find the means of regulating the working of the devices. The course to pursue naturally presented itself: it was necessarj- first of all to seek to reduce, in abso- lute value, the retardation of demagnetization, be- cause thus the variations of this retardation must be reduced in the s;une ))roportion. while at the same time the apparatus could be made sulticiently rapid in its operation to follow, in most eases, tlie succes- sion of the ))heni)inena to be observed. The empliu'- nient of these small registers, formed of diminutive electro-magnets, like those which arc now used in bomc special apparatus, such as the electric toys of Mr. Trouve, must, after wliat is known of the work- ing; of these toys, secure the first improvement. An- other motive led to the employment of very small apparatus, or at least of very small movable pieces ; it was the necessity for accelerating as much as pos- sible the movements of the tracing-pen. In ordinary electro-magnets, where the counter- acting force applied to the armature, as well as the attractive force which is opposed to it, are com- parable to the weight of this armature, the latter moves with only a very feeble acceleration, at the disconnection as well as the connection. The result is that if the rotatory movement of the cylinder on which the pen, guided by this armature, makes its trace is a little fast, the traces obtained unite tangent- iall)' by a lengthened curve with the circumferences described by tlie pen in its two extreme positions, so that it is very ditiicult to catch the line at the pre- cise moment when the pen is set in motion. If, on the contrary, the pen is animated by a rapid move- ment, so that its velocity ;s promptly comparable to that of the cylinder, the lines that it leaves are cleanly detached from the extreme circumferences and give signals easy to distinguish with precision. Kow, this result can be obtained by emploj'ing very small armatures, so constructed that the inertia of the movable pieces develops only a very feeble resistance to the movement, and so arranged that the energy exerted on them by the counteracting spring that im- pels them may be considerable in proportion to the masses set in motion. These considerations induced Mr. Marcel-Deprez to establish very small electro- magnetic registers, furnished with still smaller arma- tures, that the magnetic attraction might be rela- tively great in proportion to the mass of these arma- tures, and to employ long and light pens, placed, as well as the movable masses, as near as possible, or practicable, to the axis of rotation, in order to re- duce to a very minimum the moment of inertia of the system. Moreover, in order to diminish the re- tardation of disconnection, Jlr. Marcel-Peprez pro- vided his registers with a means of regulating the counteracting force applied to the armature in such a manner as to cause this force to form nearly an equilibrium with the magnetic attraction, so that disconnection takes place as soon as the attraction becomes slighth' reduced and instantly after the rupture of the electric current. The forms given to the Marcel-Deprez registers, in departing from these principles, were very variable, and we will content ourselves with describing some especially ainilicable to the chronograph and other ballistic apparatus. Fig- 3. Fig. l.represents one of the registers phiced against (he cylinder of a modified Sclniltz clironogra])!!, and Fig. '.i. represents the registers arrangeil side liy side 10 in numbi'r, on a horizontal form lixed in front of the revolving <'ylinder : they are iiKumted each on a little screw-slide on which ii eounleracting spring acts, and which allows each pen to come into con- tact with the cylinder or to withdraw from it at will. A general lever movement of the form removes at will all the pens at the same time, or, on thecontrarj^ MARCEL DEPREZ REGISTER. 207 MARCEL DEPREZ REGISTER. briii);8 them together in contact witli the cylinder. KiK'h("lrctro-m!if;n<'t,Fif;.1,is('onipoiJ<'(lof two helices ofnljiiul \'i 1 (().47i!4 inch) (liani<-(cr, |iliici-il vcrli- cally in a |)lune nurnial to the cylinilcr, anil Inrnishcil wilii pillar masses, rclalivcly stron;; ; between theni is lixed a small armature (if prismatic form, which vveii;ha only a few milli^ramnK'S, and which, heini; thus itnnuTseil in tin' maiinetit- lield, is snlijected to an atlraclivi^ forci^ which can b(^ raised In 10 1)00 anil 20,000 times its weii;ht. The siippnrtini;- jiiiwer iif the electro-mairnetH may amiiimt tii 200 j;rammes ((>.4;)0:! iiz. tniyj. This armalnre is secured to a very liv,ht hiirizimtal axis iif steel, placed as near as ])os- sihle, and which has at one extremity a small, very slender steel pen, and at the other a small lever, di- rected from the side oppiisite to the armature, and whoso extremity, bent into a hook, hooks into the rini; of a dnnhlc thread of extended caniitchiinc. The lensiiin (if this caniitclmuc thread can lie rci^ulated with precisiiiu tii any deiircc desired; the lower part of the double thread passes throuirli a small clasp, where it is held by a tensifm-serew ; by looseninj; this screw a determined vveii;ht can be suspended at the extremity of the thread; the tension is allowed to be ])ro(luced, and when cipiilhrium is established the clasp is tight.eued and the wcinlit (become useless) is removed. Thus the thrc:iil is a repository of a ten- sion rxiu-tly nu';isurcd by tlu' w<'i!iht, and which ac- ciirdinji;ly can be reproduced at any instant. In order to establish an equilibrium between the tension thus produced and tlie iittractivc force of the electro-magnet, a small additional piece of soft iron is employed, i)laccd on the electro-magnet in contact with the polar mass, in proximity to the ar- nKiliire, ;iud on the side opposite to the axis of rota- tion. Fin'. 1. This mass can be displaced gradually by means of !m adjusting screw; by setting it nearer to or farther from the arniiiture the attractive force is diminished or augmented, and this force may thus be sulliciently reduced to ciiuse the spontaneous dis- coimectionof the cli'ctro-magnet; if the mass is then removed a little farther oir by a very slight move- ment of the screw, the atlniction is augmented in a meiisure just sullicicnt to maintain the arm;iture, so that tlie least reduction in intensity of the current sullices to liberate it, and conse{iuently it is set in motion as soon as the ciu'rent is liroken, or at lea.st with a retardation exceedingly sm;dl and very con- stant. The arrangement represented by Fig. 2, and which shows the working of 10 registers placed side by side ag;iinst the chronograph cylinder, is espe- cially applied to the mc;isuring of the dur:itions of lilicnomena following eacli other in toompid succes- sion to pernnl the connccliim of ii register between each signal. In this case, in fact, it is necessary to employ as many registers and distinct circuits as there are signals to observe, requiring for each reg- istOT only one signal, for the necessity is thus dis- pi'nsed with of m:iking th<' registers connectors, that is to say, of regulating the course of the ;innatures in such a manner tliat they might be recalled by the magnetic attraction at the time of the re-establish- nient of , tin.' current. This latitude facilitates in a singular manner the employment of the apparatus, because it allows of giving to the pens a course large enough to nndic the traces easy to read, and of reg- ulating the position of the additional mass so as to renih'r the electro-magnets very sensitive, which could not be done to the same degree if an excess of force must lie left to the attractive force, in order to restore the arnuiture from a distance. This is the arrangement whicli it would be most proper to adopt for the electro-magnet almost exclusively, if the fact of employing ditl'erent electric circuits did not, on the other h:uul. introduce c;u[ses of uncertainty and dillicidties in their use often very great. Tlie emiiloyeini'Ut of electro-magnets, also, simply as discomiectcrs, has been reserved in practice for the case where the intervids of the successive sig- nals are so short that it is not possible to tind re- gisters sufflcicntly rapid In their course to follow the production of these signals. The limit is now very much extended by the re<enl improv<'tnentH which .Mr. .Marci-l-IJcprez has made in his registers, wlilcli can execute as many as 2.000 movements per second. I At the tiimr when his first investigations were exe- futcd, in concert with the marine artillery service, he had already jiroduced registers whose ri-lardation iif disconnection w;is reduceil to less llian one Iwo- thoiisandtli of asi'cond, and which, placed in the cir- <uil of a fork sust;uncd by eh'ctricity and giving 1,. 000 simple vibrations per second ("."iOO periods;, <;ould follow the movement of this fork, and thus ])roduce •WO rupture signals and . 100 closing signals per s^c- j ond, by leavingon the revolving cjOinder of a chrono- graph traces which indicated that the register re- I m.-iini'd still at rest for an a|>precial)le timet in the in- terval between the two signals. j Hut however rapid ?he registers might be, they would not have given the 10 signals which it was the 1 objc(-t to obtain in case of need during the develop- ment of the pressures in the bore of a gnn from the moment of thcinllanunation of the charge to the mo- ment of the mjiximum jiressure wliich, it is known, can scarcely be two or three thousandths of a second in dunition. so th;it the successive signals could only betwoten thousandths of a second apart,and eventless. It would also be necess;iry to adopt for these special researches the employment of many independent reg- isters, each giving Init a single signal, as Fig.2 shows. For other researches, such as the studies of exter- ior b;dli3tics, or even that of the law of the move- ment of the projectile in the bore, reconnecting reg- isters could tie employed. Fig. 3 shows a register with large, wide helices arranged w-ith regard to each other in such a man- ner as to cause the oscillation of a small armature mounted .synnnetrically on a horizontal axis, which is terminated at one end by a small lever, to the ex- tremities of which can be lixed the threads of ex- tended caoutchouc, two in number. The armature can only receive a very slight oscillatory movement, which is regulated in case of need by displacing the cori'S of the helices, and a great force of attraction is thus olitained to induce the recomn-ction. The movement of the armature is commiuiicated to the pen whigh is on the extremity of a small parallel axis, placed on the upper part, by means of a very light lever, secured in a small fork, and which produces a notable amplification. In another mode of con- struction much useil, two registers nuiuuted side by side so as to be sinudlaneimslv utilized, are arranged Fi-. 1. in such a manner as to produce two traces very near each other, so as the Iietter to utilize the available space on the cylinder. In each of these registers the helices are placed end to enii. lengthwise to one an- other, and tlieir poles placed in juxtajiosition are cut so as to serve as a lodgment for a small prismatic armature which is thus innnerscd in the magnetic tield. The axes on which the two armanires are fixed are placed between the electromagnets, one on the left and the other on the right, in such a manner MARCEL-DEPEEZ KEGISTEK. 268 MAECEL-DEPBEZ SEGISTEE. as to bring tlie pens near to each otlier ; these axes have each a pen at one of the extremtiies and sup- port, in tlieir middle, a small plate of spring-steel placed verticall_v, against the extremity of wliicli rests a horizontal screw, that can be worked with a key, so as to produce a counteracting effort adjust- able at will. A vertical supporting screw, whose po- sition can be regulated with the same key, serves to limit the course of the armature, so as to make the connection possible, allowing at the same time a suf- ficient course for the pens. In order to obtain the connection in these registers, it is necessary always to give to the magnetic attraction an excess of force over the tension of the counteracting spring, which does not permit the retardation of demagnetization to be reduced to the minimum which it would be possible to attain without this necessity ; but the ex- cessive reduction of llie dimensions of the helices, which in the last apjiaratus figured did not exceed 5 millimetres (0.19(58 inch) each in diameter and T mil- limetres 0.2756 inch) in length, permits the reduction of the retardation to a value extremely small and makes the variations in it altogether insignificant. We are assured, in fact, by the arrangement which will be described farther on, that the retardation of disconnection of these registers can be reduced to cme three-tliousandths of a second, and that the va- riations of this retardation, from one disconnection to another do not attain to one fifty-thousandtii of a second. In the apparatus sketched, which was arranged for mounting by means of a collar with a clamp screw, on a cylindrical shaft placed before the cliro- nograph cylinder, one of the registers was moimteil stationarj' on the common support, the other was sustained by a small movable slide wliieh a square- headed screw permitted to move backwards or for- wards, by means of the key already used for the otlier adjusting screws ; this regulated the two pens so that they might rest equally on the surface of the cylinder of the chronograph. Fig. 4 represents an- other type of register, frequently employed. It is adapted to a number of mechanical arrangements, especialh' when it is desiered to combine si>!e by side, as we siiall see upon investigation, several inde- dependent registers. The helices, which in this case measure 7 millimetres (0.27.'5() inch) in diameter and 9 millimetres (0.3543 inch) in length, are placed ver- ticall)' as in the apparatus, Fig. 1. The employment of a prismatic armature lodged between two polar masses is abandoned on account of the difficulties in construction and adjusting which it involved, and a flat armature is substituted which acts directly on the poles and approximates the arrangement of the ordinary electro-magnets ; this armature is hollowed out, however, outside of the poles, in order, there- by, to diminish the mass, and it is made movable around an axis parallel to its length, and as near as possible to diminish the movement of inertia. The resistance due to the inertia of the lever on which the counteracting spring in the register (Fig. 1.) is applied is also avoided by applying directly on the armature the effort which is here produced by a small spiral spring. This .spring can be extended at will by a mill-headed button, fitted very tightly, and which acts upon a crank to the extremity of which it is fastened. An adjusting screw, whose point touches against the arniiiture, limits at will the course of the pen which is soldered on a small pi])e fitted on the extremity of the shaft. By loosening this screw the course can l)e made so great that the re- gister cannot naturally connect ; in this case, a ten- sion maybegiven to the counteracting spring slight- ly inferior 1o the attractive force so as lo reduce as much as jiossible the retardation of disconncclion. On the contrary, by revolving and tightening the screw so as to diminish the course, and liy reducing also the tension of the counteracting spring, a pre- ponderance may be restored to the attractive force, great enough to produce the connection of the aiipa- ratrs which is then in a condition to give numerous successive signals, but the retardation of disconnec- tion is, in this case, slightly augmented, according to the intensity of the current. These registers are each secured to a ring-shaped mounting with its under part open. By tliese rings they are fitted side by side on a cylindrical shaft ; they constitute so many clasps susceptible of being each tightened on tliis shaft, in any position what- ever, by means of a mill-headed screw. To each of these registers may thus be given an indiviilual move- ment of rotation around this shaft, by whicli move- ment the pens are brought on the same line, and a general rotary movement of the shaft afterwards re- moves them altogether, or makes them bear equally and at the same time on the surface designed to re- ceive the registry. By what precedes, we see that the property of connecting automatically can be giv- en to a register only on the important condition of limiting tlie course of the pen and in also reducing the counteracting force which determines the rapidity of its movement of disconnection ; the magnetic attraction, exerted on the armature, dimin- ishing according to the square of the distance, we imagine that, in practice, in order to preserve a course sufficiently rapid, we may be led to reduce, to a very small quantity, the amplitude of the displacement of the pen, which renders the readings difficult. A rem- edy was sought for tliis defect by the employment of organs for multiplying the movement like those represented by Fig. 3. Mr. Napoli also constructed registerssuch as that represented by Fig. 5. in which the amplification of the movement was produced by the medium of two cams resting one on tlie other, with surfaces arranged in such a manner as to vary, at each instant, according to a proper law, the rela- tion of the arms of the lever and consequently the action of the counteracting spring acting then direct- ly on the shaft which contains the pen; this is the, arrangement known by the name of "distributer of Uobert Iloudin." Mr. Marcel-Deprez also sought to overcome this difiiculty by using electro-magnets, comliiued in i)airs and of dilTerent forces, working successively liy the .same action of the disconnection; the attraction of the armature, in ordinary circum- stances, was produced by a very small ••ind very sen- sitive electro-magnet, whose retardation of disconnec- tion could be made small, and, at this lime of the dis- coniieilion. the armature established contact which introduced in the circuit a larger electro-magnet sus- ceptible of acting with force on the armature in or- der to return it lo its place. When the current was reestalilislied, it was this second electro-magnet which caused the connection, and wlien tlie armature HABCH. 2G9( MA£CH£B. was thus bronj;lit into contact all lljiiiiis were rc- slorcil aiildinalically I" llicir place : llic current was llicM sent a^'ain into llie . small elec-lnj-niiignct. See S'/jirt iiiiil Murrii-Ih /ire! ('hrimnijriipji, MARCH, — A terniapjilied to a piece of niusic com- poHcil cliiedy for niilllary hands, to accompany the marchini;' of troops, to help them to preserve time and to act as a prevenlive ai;ainst fatijrnc. Marches are pliiyed on wind inslrnnients or liv the (ifes and drnms, and are generally some simple popniar air. Each re'4irnenl in Ihe lirilish service has its special march for marching past; the Fusiliers are allowed to |ila\' cm that occasion the " British (Jrenadier." MAJRCHANDS.- Petty sutlers who follow an army on its inarch. As they trenerally deal in articles whicli are re(|nired hy the ollicers and soldiers, it is thehusi- ness of every (!eneral to see them ])ro|)erly treated, to insure their safely, and to jicrinit them, under cer- tain rcL^iilalions, to have access to the camp. MARCHES. - 1. The l)ounilarics Ijclwcen Kngland and Scot l.md, also between England and Wales. The term siij;nitied primarily tin' murk of a country's limits (the ?;(«.)■<•/() ; and hence was apjtiied as a desig- nation of thel)ordcr countries ordislricis of the Ger- man Kmpirc, com|uered from neighbouriuLr nations. Thus, we read of the marlxni Austria, of Northern Saxony or lirandenburi;, Lausalia. Jloravia, Steier- mark, etc. Tlie Lcovernors intrusted with the charge ofthe.se border districts, or mai-k.i, were called mark- grnfn, corresponding to the English and Scottish WiinlenK of Uie Morrhen. '2. The movements hy which a body of troops is conducted from oti<' place to another. They shoidd be well directed and should be ordered so as to conduct the troojis to their des- tination with the least amount of privation and fa- tigue compatible with the object to be attained. The art of directing properly i> march belongs to "Strat- egy", while the art of arranging the details of its exe- cution is a part of "Logistics." As the success of many military operations depends almost entirely upon their execution marches form a most im. portant element in the Art of War. Marches when made at a distance fnnn the enemy and where it is not necessary to take precautions to guard against an attack are known as rmiUt marches : those made in the theater of operations and where the enemy may at any moment make his sudden a|)pcarauce, are called striitffjiatl marches; those maclc in the im- mediate vicinity of the enemy and so near, tliat they may be observed by him, are c;\\\i.-dtiii-ti'-iil marches. Besides these three classes of marches which arc based upon Iheposition of Ihe enemy, writers use var- ious other classitications, based nijonthe objec^ to be attained, or upon some other characteristic feature. These are known as marchiH .ifajncsntration.umiieiiver indirlies.retreatK, finnk-mnrches, etc. Although the object of the movement and the na- ture of the ground determine the order of march, the kind of troops in e;ich column, and the number of columns, tlie t'ommander must so act as to pre- sent his men in rtghtmg order at any moment. With this in view, it will be necessary to observe the fol- lowing points : 1. All things to be arranged in the same order in which they are likely to be required. 3. The cheerfulness and efficiency of the men to be secured, carefully considering the proper indul- gences, the weather, the physical features of the country, and iiuporlant hygienic principles. 3. Tlie animals to be herded, loaded, driven and guarded with the greatest care. When distant from the ene- my, or when in broken or dusty country, certain considerations of the first order may very properly give way to case and comfort, but. as a general rule, tile transportation (kept well closed up) should fol- low closely in the rear of the main command. The simple movements of the troops, like that of forming into line of battle from a colunmformaiiou, or the converse, or a change of position in the actual presence of the enemy, form apart of tactics: but the following general rules arc applicable at most limes i and places : IJatteries of artillery and tlieir caiHHOiw move Willi the corps to which they are attached; the licld train ami ambulances march at the rear of the column, anil the baggage with the rear guard. (,'avalry and infantry do not march together, unless the ijroximity of the enemy makes it necessary. In cavalry marches, when distant from the enemy, each regiment, and, if possilile, ea<:h squadron, lorms a separate cohinin, in order to keep up the same gait from front to rear, and to trot, when desirable, on I good ground. In such cases, the cavalry may leave camj) later, and can give more rest to the horses, and more attention to tlie shoeing and harness. Horses are not bridled until the time to start. The ofTlcers and non-commissioned oHicers of cavalry companies attend ixrsonally to the packs and girths. When necessary, the orders siiecify the rations the men are to carry in their haversacks. The Field Ollicers and Captains make freipienl inspeclions during the march; at lialts they examine the knapsacks, valises, and haversacks, and tlirow away all articles not authorized. When it can be avoided, troops should not be assembled on high-roads or other places where they interrupt the communication. Generals of divisions and Commanders of detached corps send a Staff Officer to the rendezvous, in advance, to receive the troops, who. upon arriving, take their [ilace in the order of battle, and then form in close column, unless otherwise ordered. Artillery, or ; trains halted on the roads, form in file on oneside. The execution of marching orders must not be de- layed. If the Commander is not at tlie head of his troops when they are to march, the next in rank puts the column in motion. If possilile, each column i^ preceded by a ditachment of pioneers to remove obstacles to the march, aided, when necessary, by infantry. The detachment is divided into two sec- tions ; one stops to remove the tirst obstacle, the other moves on to the next. In night marches, and at bad places on the line pf march, when iiracticable, and at cross-roads, if neces- sary, intelligent non-commissioned officers will be posted to show the way, and iire relieved by succes- sive details from the regiments asthey comeup. The Sergeant-major of each regiment remains at the rear with a trumpeter or a drummer, to give notice when darkness or dilficully stops the march. In cavalry, a trumpeter is placed in rear of each squadron, and the signal is repeated to tlie head of the regiment. The General and Field Officers frequently stop. or send offi- cers to the rear, to see that the troops march in the prescribed order.and keep their distances. To (juick- eu the niarcli, the General warns the Colonels, and may order a signal to be sounded, which is repeated in all the regiments. In approaching a defile, the Colonels are warned; each regiment passes separate- ly in column of fours in the order designated by the Commanding Officer, two battalions, \vlien possible, marching abreast; on emerging from the defile, the battalions form line under the immediate direction of the General, the flank battalions being so posted as to prevent the enemy from passing between them and Llie entrance to the defile. Halts to rest and re- form the troops are frequent during the day, depend- ing on the object and length of the march. They are made in preference after the passage of defiles. Led horses of officers, and the horses of dismounted men, follow their regiments. The baggage wagons never march in the column. When the General or- ders the field train and amliulances to take place in the column, he designates the position they shall take. If two corps meet on the same road, they pass to the right, and both continue their march, if the road is wide enough; if it is not. the first in the order of battle takes the road, the other halts. A corps in niiirch must not be cut by another. If two corps meet at cross-roads, that which arrives last halts if the other is in motion. A corps in march passes a corps at a halt. if it has precedence in the order of bat- tle, orif the hailed corps is not ready to move atonce. MARCHES. 270 MABCHES. A column that lialts to let another column pass re- sumes the march in advance of tlie train of this col- umn. If a column has to pass a train.the train must halt, if necessary, till the column passes. The col- umn which has "precedence must yield it if the Com- mander, on seeing the orders of the other, finds it for the interest oflhe service. The rate of march ordinarily for different troops is a< follows ;— Infantry, 2f miles an hour: tiekl-artil- lery 3^ miles an hour : horse-artillery or cavalry, 4 ^ to 5 miles an hour. These rates only apply to small bodies marchins; independently. Practically, in- fantry in larse bodies can only march at the rate of 2 miles an hour. Infantry, being the slowest march- ers, necessarily rea;ulate the pace of mi.xed columns. It is computed that a division of infantry of 12 bat- tiilions. of 800 men, marching in fours, will occupy about 7,()80 yards. Its artillery (two batteries), without wagons, and marching by divisions, occu- pies about 400 yards. A divisiouemnplete. including the advanced and rear guard, will cover about 7 miles. To determine tlie time of march (T) of a column; Let D = the distance (in feet) to be passed over ; L = the length of the column in feet ; D' = the distance (in feet) passed over in one minute by the column.incUidins; halts; and T' =the time of de- lay (in minutes) duelo the elongation of the column in passing defiles, the physical cTondition of the com- mand and all the irregularities of the route ; then, L = the time (in minutes) for the column to pass D' over a distance equal to its length, and T (in min- utes) = „ L D D- T- + L + D T' + - + - = ;; D' D' D' Thus, for a column of troops 860 feet in depth, moving at the rate of 100 yards per minute (includ- ing halts) and delayed eleven minutes, to pass over six miles, 300 X 11 + 860 + 31680 •J = = 119^ minutes. 300 haiist the troops immediately before engaging the enemy. Whenever delay's occur in front, the brigades may form in column of battalions, and stack arms. It is the duty of all Commanders, within their com- mands, to investigate, personallj' or by means of staiT- olHcers, every cause of dcla_y,ai)d staif-ofiicers should be frequently sent ahead for the purpose of gaining any information that might shorten the march, and lessen the fatigue of the troops. AVhen cavalry and artillery form part of the col- umn. Commanding Officers must bear in mind that their efficiency depends almost entirely upon the cunditiun. of the horaen, which alone make's them able to get over long distances in short spaces of time. The horses must, therefore, be nursed with great care, in order that they may endure the utmost fa- tigue when emergencies demand it. When near the enemy, the artillery always marches with the bulk of the troops, its place being near the center or rear of the infantry or cavalry, never at the head of the column. In campaign, if a battery does not march with troops of the other arms, a sufficient escort must alwaj-s be provided. When an accident happens to a carriage, it is pulled out of the column, if possible, so as not to interrupt the march ; otherwise, the carriages in rear pass it by the most convenient flank and close to proper distance. The disabled carriage resumes its place as soon as the damage is repaireil ; if the road be narrow, it must fall into the lirst interval it finds, and regain its proper place as soon as the ground permit^. The caisson of a disabled piece remains with it; a piece, however, does not remain with its disabled caisson, the caisson corporal, and men to assist him, if necessary, being left behind. When a piece and its carriage are overturned, it is better to disengage the piece by letting the breech rest on the ground, or on a block of ^\■ood, and by then raising the muzzle with a handspike, while the cap-squares are taken off; the carriage is then right- ed and the piece mounted. To right the carriage without disengaging the piece, detach the limber, secure the cap-squares, and lash the knob of the cascabel to the stock ; place tlie middle of a rope over the nave of one wheel, pass the ends of it down- ward between the lower spokes of that wheel, then under the carriage, through the corresponding spokes of the other wheel, and then upward over the wheel and across the top of the carriage to the side where it was first attached ; the ends of the rope and the wheel to be raised are then manned, and the carriage The average march for infantry is from fifteen to twenty miles per day. When troops move in large bodies, and particularly in the vicinity of the enemy, the march should be conducted in several columns, in order to diminish the depth of the columns, and to expedite the deployment into line of battle. The order of march should state the time for each divis- ion to commence its movement, so as not to interfere j pulled over, two men being required to steady the with the march of the division preceding or follow- | trail. If necessary, the ends of the rope may be fas- ing. and to prevent fatigue from keeping^'meu longer tened to the limber, and horses used to assist in right- under arms than is necessary. In route marches, feg. '—- " '-'— * '"■ — ' ■*" ' = '-' iments usually alternate in leading the brigade ; in like manner brigades alternate in divisions, and div- isions in corps.' In large commands, the roads, if possiVile, are left to the artillery and trains. The ord- er of march should state whether the troops or trains should have the right of way. Each brigade is pro- vided with a corps of ])ioneers under charge of a commissioned officer. The pioneers precede the col- umn for the purpose of removing obstacles and pre- paring the way for the troops. AVhenever fences, hedges, walls^ ditches, or small streams, arecncoun- tere'd, a passage-way is made wide enough for four men, or eiglit men if in double column of fours, to march abreast without obstruction. This will prevent the column from lengtliening out, and also prevent the fatigue and delay of regaining distances. On long marches, a halt of half or three-quarters of an liour should be made for the regular meals. The halt, if practicable, should be made in the vicinity of wood and water. When long distances have to be overcome rapidly, it is done l)y changing tlie gaits; the double tiniiMs used for ten or fiffeen minutes, and the quick time for live minu- tes; the most favf)riible ground is selected for the double time ; special care should be taken not to ex- ing the carriage. A piece and its carriage may also be righted without disengaging the pieccTas follows: detach the limber; fasten two prolonges, or the middle part of a picket-rope, to the trail; chock the wheels; and dig an oblong hole under the muzzle about two and a half feet ileep: pass one of the pro- longes, or one end of the ])icket-rope, over the car- riage to the front: man the ends of the prolonges, or picket-rope; then raise the trail and pass it over the axle to the opposite side. Other methods may be re- sorted to, depending upon the circumstances" of the case, and the appliances at hand. Light carriages may be righted by hand without using a rope. After pulling up a short, steep hill, the horses should lie halted to recover their wind; when this cannot lie done, they will move very slowly. In go- ing up a difficult hill, ttie carriiiges may be haltedto rest tlie horses, by bringing them across the declivi- ty and locking the limbers or diocking the wheels; for this purpose, it may be expedient to start the sections, or platoons, from the bottom in succession, leaving a distance of twenty or thirty yards between the dilTerent portions of the cohiinu." 'if the draught be so difficult that the teams are li;ible to sl:dl, some of the carriiiges in the rear are halted and tlieir lead- ers hitched to the teams in front ; on completing the UABCHING. 271 HABCHINO. asopnt. thosp loaders arc sent hnrk to tlio oarriages •wliii-li hnvr liiillcd, with us iiiiiiiy aililitiniiiil \y,tirn as may br r(((uin'(l. As i! is very lianl to make llic> liorscs pull li)i;cllii-'r, ikH more tiiaii live pairs can be liilclicil wilb cfTcc^l to a single carria^re. The drivers never disinniiiil. in goiiij; down hill ; the wheel-driver holds his near horse well in band, and his oil" horse very short; the other drivers barely streleh their traces. If the hill be st(^"i).the wheels may be locked ; if vi'ry sleep, the proloni^e may be used by the can- noneers to lioKI back ; in this case the wheel-horses only remain hitched to the carriage, the others being leit in rear. In moimted batteries, the cannoneers nsnally attend to the loeUing; in horse batteries, the swinii-driver, or with a team of but two pairs, tlie lead-driver, dismonnls for this jjurpose ; slioidd there be a ditch or other ilaut;erons i)lace on the rnail-siile, the wheel toward th.-it side is locked jn preference to the other. If a carriage have to move alonj; a declivity so steep that a sliijlit jolt nniy ovu- turn it, a prolonire is fastened to the lower side ol the carriage, and held by two or three cannoneers who march on the upper side of the slope; the rope passes over the carriage. When crossing a ditch, if it be wide and dee]), the prolonge is H.xed and the handspike taken out ; the team is halted on the <^dgc, ;ind I he piece run by hand close to the limber, which then moves slowly until the piece reaches the bot- tom of the ditch, when it moves qvucklj- until the piece is out. If the ditch be deep and narrow, it may be necessary to cut down the edges, and hold back with prolonges; shoidd the trail sink into the ground in passing over, it is disengaged with a hand- spike, or by fastening a i)rolonge to it. In passing shallow ditches, drains, or deep furrows, the car- riage must cross them obliquely. When moving over marshy ground, each ciirriage moves at a dis- tance of ten or twelve yards from the <me preceding it, to avoid having to halt ; ollicers, or uon-commi.s- sioned officers, are posted at the worst places to in- struct the drivers how to conduct their teams. The horses must pull freely and quicken the gait ; if the ground be ver}' miry, it ma_v be neces.sary to assist with prolonges, or even to use them alone, the teams crossing separately. When about to cross a ford. if it be not well known, it must be examined, and the dangerous places marked, before the c;irriages attempt to cross. If the water be deep and the current strong, great care is necessary. The men ;ire instructed to keep their eyes fixed on some object on tlie opposite bank which marks the place of exit ; they must not look at the stream, and move rather against the current, so as to better resist its power. If the ford have al)ad bottom, and the banks be difficult, the teams arestcengthened by adding pairs ; an officer or ncm-commissioned offl- eei;, is posted at the entrance to regulate the distance between carriages, and to instruct the drivers how to proceed ; a second officer, or non-commissioned offi- cer is posted at the exit to direct the drivers how to leave the ford. The management of the teiim is the same as in crossing marsh}- ground ; the horses must not be allowed to halt, or trot, either in passing the ford or in leaving it, imless the stream be neither deep nor very rapid; in this case, the carriages may be lialted to let tlie horses drink, or at least to give them a mouthful of water. Upon reaching the op- posite b;ud<, the leading carriages are halted after they have moved far enough forward to leave room for the carriages in rear. If the chests be not water- tight, and are at the usual height of two feet ten in- ches above tlie ground, a ford deeper than two feet four inches cannot be crossed without danger of wet- ting the ammunition. If the chests be w;iter-tight, or means have been t;dcen to raise them higli enough, a depth of three ;md one-third feet ni;iy be s;ifely at- tempted. When the ford is deeper than this, the cannoneers must carryover the cartridges, fuses, and primers, in pouches which they hold above the water. The chests are sometimes removed and taken over in boats. In crossing rivers wliioh cannot bo forded, when there are no bridges, the horses are swum,and the carriages and harness crossed on rafts, etc., if tl«; rivers be liroad and swift, it is loo hazardous for horses to be ridden; in[t his ease a horse, known to b(; a good swiinnier, is riilden without a saddle, as a leader, the other horses following without riders; the horses are led or driven to the bank, anri can gen- erally be made to take the water wi'.hout much I trouble. The bridle-reins must be secured tojirevenl i the horses from getting their legs entangled. A horse swims easily and safely with a man lloating and holding lotlK^ mane or tail. In the pas.sagc of a military bridge, when at the entrance of the bridge, the lead and swing drivers disuKnint and lead their pairs. A distance of twelve yards is taken between the carriages, and the gait is free and decided ; the drivers keep the carriages as near the middle of the flooring as possible, and must not halt; if tlie bridge crack under a carriage, it, must increase its gait and get over as fast as possible. If the flooring be wet, battens should be nailed across it to keep the horses from falling. If the bridge begins to rock, the pass. age of the column is suspended. In passing over a Hying bridge, all the drivers dismount and hold their hlirses ; it may be occasionally advisable to take the horses out ; aiid in boisterous weather, or at night, the wdieels may be locked. The disposal of the troops for a march and the manner of executing it and overcoming the difficulties attending the same lielong, as we have already observed, to the practical details of the profession, for which speeilic rules are laid down in every service ; and with which it is presumed that every man who accepts the resposibility of a General's position has made himself acquainted. All of this may be sum- med up in a few words. First, the trains of every description must be covered by the troops, for which inirpose they must, in an advance movement, be either in the rear, or on that flank where they will be least exposed to the enemy. In a retreat they nnisl be in advance . When an army moves in sev- eral nearly parallel columns, the combination must be such that' an imposing force can soon be concentrat- ed on anv point thre:itened. The divisions of each column must, in like manner, be in supporting dis- tance of each other, but, for convenience, not crowd- ed on the march. As to advanced guards, flankers, and rear guards, both their strength and composi- tion must depend on the General's judgment, found- ed on the force, characterand position of the enemy, and of the nature of the country through which the march is made. Just in proportion as he has read, has refiectcd, has had oiiportunities for action, will his judgment lead him to take right measures; whilst still more certainly, if he has wanted these aids to forming an enliiihtened judgement, will he take wrong one. See ('(inceiitvatwu Marches, Flank Marches. Maneuver Marches. Route Marches, Strat- egical Mnrchci. and Tactical Marches. MAECHING.— One of the first necessities to dis- tinguish ;i body of disciplined troops from a mere crciwd of men. "is a regular cadenced stej). taken by every individual at the same time and with the same foot." The necessitv of this for harmonious action is obvious. The a'ncient Roman legions had mili- tary music to beat the time for their march. In the feu'dal ages, when infantry fell into disrepute, ca- denced marching Wiis unattended to, and seems only I to have been thoroughlv revived by Marshal Saxe. I The best music for a march is found to be some sim- ple tune, such as can readilv be performed by drums and fifes. The music, besides preserving the time, acts as a preventative of fatigue. In the British service there are the slow march of Tf) paces, each of 30 inches, in a minute— only used on parade: the quick imircli. of 110 paces, in winch all evolutions are performed : anil the double-quick. of 1/50 running paces, with the knees raised high. This last cannot be sustained for any great ilistance. MAECHING MONET. 272 MABECHAl. and is employed in a charge, or in suddenly occup_v- ing a hill or some commanding position, and in a few short iuterral movements of regiments. In the United States service, the length of the step in common and quick time is 28 inches, and the cadence is at the rate of 90 steps per minute for com- mon time and 110 for quick time; in double time, the length of the step is 33 inches, and the cadence at the fate of 165 steps per )minute, but it may be increased to 180. When troops are to march a long distance, the route step is employed, the men keep- ing tlieir proper places in the ranks. See Mnrrhes. MABCHING MONEY.— The adtlitional pay which officers and si ■Idiers receive for the purpose of cover- ing the expense necessarily incurred when marching from one place to another. MAECHING OKDEK.— A soldier is said to be in marching <inli r wlien he is fully equipped with arms, ammunition, and a portion of his kit. In the Eng- lish service this equipment weighs from 30 to 35 pounds. In service marching order, hy the addition of provisions and some campaigning necessaries, be carrys nearly 50 pounds. The heavy marching o-rder, whicli was yet heavier, is now happily abolished, MARCHING ORDERS. — The orders issued prepara- tory to troops marching. In these orders, the routes, theorders of march. and detailed instructions for the different arms of the service are clearlj' set forth ; and in the British service the marching orders are intended to cover at Itast si.\ days. MARCHING REGIMENTS.—A "term given in Eng- land to those regiments having no permanent quar- ters, but liable to be sent to any part of Great Britain or to any part of her possessions abroad. Although the word ni'irching is insensibly confounded with those of line and regulars, it was originally meant to convey something more than a mere liability to be ordered upon any service ; for by marching the reg- ular troops from one town to another, the inhabi- tants, who from time immemorial have been jealous of a standing army, lost their antipathy to real sol- diers, by the occasional absence of regidar troops. At present the English guards, infantry, etc., may be considered more or less as Mnrcliing liegimetits. The marines and volunteers have stationary quar- ters. J MARCH PAST. — An expression made use of when a regiment or any larger body of men pass in review order before the Sovereign or Reviewing Officer. It is usuall}' performed in column or quartei'-columu at quick march or at the double, and with the moun- ted branch, when so ordered, at a quick trot, canter, or gallop. In England, the " march past" of large bodies of troops is carried out after the completion of the autumn maneuvers or summer drills. MARCOMANNI. — .\n ancient German people who, in the time of (';esar, lived along the banks of the Uhine. but afterwards, as appears from Tacitus and Strabo, settled in Bohemia, from Avhich the)' expell- ed tlie Boil. Their King, ^laroljoiluus, entered into an alliance with tlie tribes living around them to de- fend Germany against the Romans. The combined forces of tlie alliance numbered 70.000 men, and the Emperor Tiljerius signed a treaty with them 6 a. d. ; but tlie Marcomannic Alliance was bealen 11 years later by the Clierusci and their allies, and in 19 the Gotliic Catualda drove ilaroboduus from the throne, and himself usurped the sovereignty. But he was soon overtlirown, and the native dynasty establish- ed, under wliose rule the ilarcomanni extended their territory up to the Danulie, till their encroachments alarmed the Romans, whoattacked Ihem in the tiTiie of l)oinilian. This war. which subsided for a time in till' reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. broke out again under JIarcus Aurelius, anil was carried on with bitterness from l(iU to 180. when it was ended by the peace of ('ommodus. The iMarcomanni contin- ued to make raids into the Provinces of Noricum and Hhtctia, and in 270 invadeil Ilaly as far as An- cona. From this time thty are little heard of ; and their identitv finally disappears among the followers of Attila. MAEDI GEAS.— The French designation for what is known as Shrove Tuesday in the calendar of the English Church, the Festival held upon the Tuesday preceding Ash Wednesday, the first day of Lent ; with the exception of Mi-Careme or Mid-Lent Thurs- day, the last of the prolonged festivities known as the Carnival. It is most extensively celebrated in Rome and Paris. In the latter it has been the cus- tom for many centuries to lead in procession a fat or prize ox (JJeeuf Crr<is whence Mardi Gras), followed in a triumphal car by a child called the Butchers' King. The entire day and night is spent in the wildest revelry, sometimes degenerating into unre- strained license. In the L'nited States the only cele- bration of Mardi Gras worthy of note is that of New Orleans, where the first display was given in 1857, and since the end of the war the observance has been carried out with great pomp and splendor. For the preceding week tlie gayetj' has been univer- sal, and on 3Iardi Gras the wliole city is turned over to the rule of King Rex, v/ho enters "the gates on the previous day. On Tuesda)' the mimic monarch, passes through the streets, escorted by his body- guard, the " Mystic Krewe of Comus," Knights of Momus, and various military and visiting organiza- tions. To him are confided the gates of the city ; minor police regulations are suspended, and until the dawn of Ash Wednesday the air is filled with music ; in every street are dense throngs of merry- makers, and the glare of illuminations. In the evening occurs the great street pageant of the Mystic Krewe of Comus, in which are displayed elaborate tableaux, placed on moving platforms and brilliantly illuminated. These represent noted scenes of history, poetry .or fiction, and are constructed at great expense and with artistic elegance. All the arrangements of the parades and accompanying balls are under the control of societies composed of the most noted professional and business men of the city. The observance is gaining ground also in Memphis. MARECHAL.— A Major General. This word is variousl}' compounded in forming military terms. Marechal de Bataille is a military rank which once existed in France, but was suppressed before the Revolution, or rather confined to the Body-Guards. An otficer belonging to that corps received it as an honorary title. Its original functions, etc., with re- spect togeneral service, sank in the appointment cf Mar&'halde Camp unci Major General. It was first created by Louis XIII. Marechal-deneral des Lagis df la Cavalerie took place under Charles IX. in 1594. He had the chief direction of everything which re- lated to the French cavalry. Marechal des Logispmir les Vivres was a person belonging to the Quarter- master General's Department in the old PYench ser- vice. The person invested with the rank of Marechal de Camp was a General Officer and ranked next to a Lieutenant General. It was his duty to see the army properl}- disposed of in camp or quarters, to be present at all the movements, to be the first.to mount hischarger and the last to quit him. He commanded the left in all attacks. The appointment under this distinction was first created by Henry IV. in 1598. Marechal-Ceni'ral des Camps et Armeis du Ri'i was a post of high dignity and trust, which during the French Monarchy was annexed to the rank of Mare- chal de France. Military writers dilfer with respect to the privileges, etc., which belonged to this ap- pointment ; itis, however, generally acknowledged that the General Gfflcer wiio held it was intrusted with the whole management of a siege, being sub- ordinale only to the Constable, or to any ci\]tcT Mare chal tie France, who was his senior in ajipointment. Mari'chal-Oeneral des l.ogis de I'Armec was an ap- pointment which existed during the old French gov- ernment, and has since been replaced by the Oh'fde e Ktat-Majiir, which corresponds with that of Quar- termastcr-Geueral in the British service. MARECHAUS8EES DE FRANCE. 273 MARIOTTE'8 LAW. MARECHAUS8EE8 DE FRANCE.— A B|?ecics itary poli'-t^ wIi'k'Ii furincrly c.vistcil in I'nincc. ing thy Krciich Monarchy tlicrc were :JI (■(impiinics of MarechivuHsi'es k (,'hi'v'al, ur iimiinlcil pnlic-cmi'H. Thc'secompunies wcn^fm-riicilfor IhrlpiirpuM' ofprc- BCrviiit; piililic IraiKiuility, and witc dislrilHilcd in the iliii'iTrTil I'rnvinccs nf the Kinu'iloni. Th'iH ii^'cful body ijf ni<-n wa-* tirst foriniil under I'hili])!. in 1000; they wore aflcrvvards »upprc«xfd.and afjain rocstal)- lishcd in 17:30, as const itulinir a part of Uic (Jcndarni- erie of France. There were oilier eompanies of of mil- no uliip can ever pSsBCBB any comparable resinting Dur- i)()W(rr ; and, as they are armed with nuns the smallest of which will iirohahlv !)'■ :iOO-poiiM<l<:rs. itis expect- ed that they will be able to destroy any fleet that could be sent afainsl them. At the present day the value of sea-fort ilications is disputed, as iron-plated vessels may pass them with impunity unless tliear- tillerv in the fort be ho heavy as to destroy the ar- mor iif till- shiiis. In the Ion;;; run, however, it is appari'iil that th(^ fort can command the (greater power, for its armor mav be of any thickness, while from the :!1 above mentioned: such, lor iiislaiice, as thai of till- Cniistablcs, called the ( iciidarmcrie. MARGRAVE. A German Nobleman correspond- in..; in rank to the English Marquis. Margravine is the wife of a Afdrf/mrr. See MarqueHS. MARINE FORTIFICATION. Marine fortification dif- fers from l.-ind rorlilieati.pu in that till' approaches of till' encmv wliicli are to be resisted lake place on the level of the sea, so that he can coiiu^ near wilhout havim; to overcome the danjjjerous slope of the glacis. The combat is simply one between two powerful batteries, and the iiuestion to be decided is whether the ship or the fort will first be placed A»;-.v de cumhat ; the ship bavins;; ordinarily the lari;- esl number of guns, while the fort has more sf)lid batllementa, and its fewer guns of gn-at calil)er can be lircil with a steadiness unallainable on so shifting a base as the ocean. Vnder I hese circumstances, the less relief a sea-fortress has the heller, as by so much the less is it likelv to be hit from the shipping. Its walls arc usually "built perpendicular, or nearly so. The magazines "and quarters for the men are bomb- proof, as also are the casemates, from which the guns are usually fired, although sometimes, as in llie 'martello-tower,"thc gun is worked on the top of the siruelure. Sea-fortifieations may be of various im- portance, the simplest being the" battery consisting Marechau;;;^;;;; who wM-e panicuiany disiinguished that of ihe ship "'-' ';;:';;;!'i;;;i 'g!;:\!l";^:"%!;::'::i ■ • .... »rs. and. on the oilier hand, the iimii lo tin. si/.e oi arlillery must !)<• sooner reached in a ship than in a solid and slationary fortress. MARINES.— Troops who serve at naval statifms, and on board ships of war. The men are drilled in all respects as soldiersfli'.rlit infantryj. and therefore on shore arc simply ordinary land-forces. On board ship they are train'eil to seaman's dulics. but still pre- serving "their mililary organization. Their ordinary functions an; as sharpshooters in time of action and at other times to furnish sentries for guarding the stores, gauL'ways, etc. They are useful as exercis- ing a good'eontrol over the "less rigidly disciplined sariors\ and having always fire-arms and bayonet.* ready, tliey have often been instrumental in sup- pressing tlu' first outbn-aks of mutiny. The intro- duefioir of -Marines into the American Army took place by Act of Congress, passed Nov. 10. ITT.'i, by which two battalions of this arm were directed to be organized. Again, by Act of .July 11. 1798, "estab- lishing and organizing a .Marine Corps," this body became an established element in the naval force of the L'nited States, liable to do duty either on board vessels of war at sea, in fortsor otherwise upon shore as might be directed by the President. The Coni- mandant of the Corps has the rank and pay of Col- onel. It has no regimental organization, however, but may be formed into as many companies or de- tachments as the President may direct. V,htn em- ployed on naval service the .Marines are subject to the law"s and regulations which govern the Navy; but if eno-a"-ed on "shore duty, they are aiiunalile to the au- thority of the Articles of W'ar. The United States Marine Corps consisted in 1880 of 8(i ofhcers and 1,- .500 enlisted men. Marines were first established in En.'land, as a nursery from whence to obtain sea- men to man the fleet, "by Order in Council of Oct. 16, 1604. Their utility becoming conspicuous, other of a mere parapet formed in a cliff or on a hill, and regiments of Marine Forces were raised, so that by mounted with u'uns to command the sea : these are 1741 there were 10,000 men, anil in 17.'59 as many as generally builtln such conceaied situations that it 18,000. During the great French war the number "is hoped" the hostile ships will not perceive them un- rose above 30,000, but a great reduction took place til they actually open fire. They are numerous all after peace was concluded. By recent ^a^ .?' around the Bri"tish coast. Next" greater in import- 1 mates, 14,000 Marines were provided, including -,- anee is the martello-tower. More^iiowerful still are | 900 artillery,at a yearly cost of £940,417. Their goyem- the beach-forts, such as those which cm either shore ment rests solely with the Admir;ilty. 1 he Koval defend the entrance to Portsmouth harbor; these ! Marines are divided into three divisions of light m- are constructed of the most solid masonry, faced | fantry and one of artillery. P>""m'.'",'''" g"*^^ ">! *_':'?3°^' with massive iron plates, and armed with guns of the heaviest caliber, sweeping the very surface of the sea, so as to strike an approaching ship between wind and water. The guns are usually in bomb- proof casemates, and the fort is often defended on the land side if the coast be level ; if, however, high- er ground be behind, this would be useless, and then the sea-front alone is defensible. Most terrible of all sea-forts, however, are the forts, with perpendicular faces and two or three tiers of heavy guns. Such are the tremenilous batteries which render Cronstadt almost inapproachable, and by which Spithead and Plymouth Sound are now fortified. These forts are generally liirge, with all the requisites for a garrison to maintain itself ; against them wooden ships stand no cliance, and in tiie American Civil War fort Sumter, at Ch.arlestcm, showed itself no mean antagonist for ironsides. In such forts iron is employed as the facing, in plates of such vast thickness and weight that it is supposed ity throughout the artillery and infantry respective- ly. In rank, ilarine Otiicers correspond with .\rmy Officers of similar grades according to seniority: as a corps the Marines "take place between the 49th and .50th rciriments of Infantry of the Line. Every ship, on iKMiig commissioned, has her complement of Ma- rines drafted into her. The uniform is red, with blue facinss and white belts. On their colors the completely isolated I men proudly bear the word ■■ Gibraltar," in the fa- nious defense of which fortress they bore an heroic MARIOTTES LAW.— An empirical law deduced by Bovle and Mariotte from two independent series of experiments, thomrh. stransrely enough, reached by both at about the same time. It is generally ex- pressed as follows: T/ie Umperature remaining tlie mine, the volume of a given ma.^.i of gaaigin inverse ratio t^i the presKure which it xustei'nji. This law may be held to besubstantially correct within a consider- able rano-e of pressure, iut the labors of Regnault MAKK. 274 MAB.KSMANSHIP. have made it evident that atmospheric air and most other gases, especially under very high pressures. are rcallvmore compressed tlian if theyfollowed Ihe law. Tliis deviation is most marked in tlie case of gases capable of being liquefied, as they approach the point of liquefaction. MARE 1. — A German geographical term, which signified primarily the ninrk of a country's limits {X\\e march)-, and hence was applied as a designa- tion of the border countries or districts of the Ger- man Empire, con(|uered from neighboring nations. Thus, we read of the marks of Austria, of Northern Sa.xony or Brandenburg, Lausatia, Moravia, Steier- mark, etc. The Governors intrusted with thecliarge of these border districts, or the maH's, were called Mnrh-graf.i. corresponding to the English and Scot- tish Wnr()fnx of tlw marches. See Marquess. 2. That toward which a missile is sent ; the part of a target aimed ;it. MARKER.— 1. The soldier who forms the pivot of a wheeling colunui. 3. A person, whose duty it is to record the number of hits and misses made by soldiers at target-practice. 3. In maneuvers, for the purpose of indicating the direction of lines of battle, tlie battalion is provided with four markers, who are habitually posted in the line of file-closers, one near each Hank of the right and left companies when in line, and the leading and rear subdivisions when in column. At parades and inspections, two markers are required, who retire, after the line is formed, behind the flanks of the color-company. At inspec- tion they accompaii}' the color-guard to the front and are inspected with it, taking post two yards from the rear rank, in rear of the ni;ht and left'files. MARKING MACHINE.— A tool for impressing text- ual or emblematic designs into finished work at the armory or foundry. The drawing shows a handy machine of this class, which is much used. The de- sign is formed on the face of a circular die, which revolves witli an arljor that is held in a carriage slid- ing in uprights, and is brought to its work by a foot- lever (not shown in the drawing), tlie device being impressed on the piece to be marked, as it is moved, with the table to which it is secured, by hand-lever under the die. Pieces of varying diameti'rs may be marked in the same machine. Tlic machine is mounted on legs of convenient heiglit. and weighs about ;!()() pounds All caimcm are re(juired to be marked with the weiglit in poimils. Ihe mnnber of the ])iece, the initials of the Inspector's name tlie in- itials or nuiuc of f'Mindrvand vcar of f.-iliricalioii. All ' pieces manufactured in the United States, since 1861 have these marks on the face ; those of previous date have them distributed on the ends of tlie trunnions, the face, the breech, and the top. The numbers tor each kind and caliber at each foundry are in separ- ate series. Cannon that have been "inspected and condemned are marked on the face X C. See In- upectiiin of Ordnrince. MAEKSMANSHIP.—To become skilled in marks- mcnisliip, one must possess a thorough knowledge of the rifie. the principles of its construction, its capa- bilities, and the care required to preserve it always in a condition of greatest eliiciency, ttie laws govern- ing the flight of the bullet, and the causes which tend to impress upon its motion certain irregulari- ties ; an understanding of the best positions for fir- ing ; a readiness for estimating distances ; and the experience required to make allowance for the force of the wind, or the motion of the object aimed at. The acquirement of the requisite skill to Are accu- rately is one of the most important duties of the soldier: not only his own safety but that of his companions may often depend upon his ability to deliver his fire with elfect, and the greatest profici- ency in the manual of arms cannot atone for a want of dexterity in this particular. Any man having per- fect vision can, through perseverance, become a fair marksman. Long practice with cartridges is not necessary; but a strict compliance with the rules for pointing and aiming, and a careful study of the caus- es modifying tlie accuracy of fire, will be sure to lead to more than average skill in firing. When firing in vacuo, the trajectory is easily trac- ed and its properties simply discussed. Considering its position with reference to the line of sight it wiU be seen that near the muzzle it is below the line of sight for some distance, then it cuts it ; beyond this point it riscsabove the line of sight for some'dislance, then falls and cuts it again. This second point of in- tersection is the point-blank and deteriuines the point- lilank-range. With a rifle, up to 175 or 200 yards, the line offirewillnot cut the line of sight; "or. in other words, will not shoot high. Now.as it is neces- sary, in order to hit an object witliin or bejond the point-blank, to aim below or above it certain dis- tances, it is readily seen how indispensable are the coutrivances (sights) which will so alter the point- blank as to make it coincide with any object direct- 2ry ly aimed at. The range in vacuo equals in which 9 X and .y are the horizontal and vertical components of the impulsive force, and g the acceleration due to the force of gravity. From this we see that (veloc- ity being constant) the range will be the same when the angles of fire are equally distant from 45" ; thus, angles of fire 36'^ and .54'-^ will give the same range. It is also seen that the range will be a maximum when ly is a maximum, or when :r=^, or wnen the angle of fire is 4.5'-^ The motion of a bullet is grcatlj' modified when the movement is through the air. The progressive velocity of fail of the bullet being so much less than its initial velocity, the air resistance opposed to its descent will be inap]ireciably small in comparison with that in the direction of its motion of translation (the resistances being proportional to tlie squares of the velocities). Hence, when the bullet would have been at certain points, in vacuo, it will in reality be at points below and in rear of them, by distances in- creasing from the point of departure(since the resist- ance of air causes the sp;ices passed over in equal times to become ))rogrcssively smaller and smaller), tiius causing the trajectory in air to be constantly below and in rear of its placi' in vacuo and changing its curviture, so that the left branch jireseiits a flat- tened form while the right liraiich ajiproaehes the vertical. From thus destroying the symmetrj' of this curve, there results that tlie angle of fall is great- er than llu' angle of ascent, and more eonsiderablv MARKSMANSHIP. 275 MARKSMANSHIP. 80 as ii is clisiiuil frniii the origin, tlmt the poiiil (if ciiliriiiialion is lowiTcd, iiiiil lliiil the nuif^c is i^rci-tly (liiMinisiicd. To iimkc proper iillowanccs, tli<; siulils iiiiisl be carefully iiiaiiipiilaleil, ami ulicn lirini; at loili; rilllge a ilelic'ale esliiiialioii of (listimee is iieees .Mjiry 1o (ihlain ueeiiriiey of lire, even when using llie l)esl. and niosl, aeeiiralely irradiialeil siglils. Any or- <lliiary man ean l;e drilii'd to esliniale dislanees up to (iOl) yanls wifli great aeeuraey and dispaleli, liy tile eye alone. Instriinients may be iiseil for greater dislanees, but their use is of no practical value in the field before an enemy, and can only be resorted to on the drill ground as an aid where lime isuu im- portant eleniei*. Having Ihorouglily mastered the principles of uiniing, experienee only ean teach the l)est positions under various conditions and circumstances. Tlie wlion the fire is in two ranks, tlie front rank kneel, not only to obtain a sli'adier position, but to got them out of tiic way of the rear rank, and thus se- cure a more rapid ai]d accurate lire. Till' favorite posit irin for long-range firing, particu- larly with a military ritle, is that of tlie Skirmikhr ////- huj. In taking Ibis position. Ihi' legssliould be well separated, tile toes lieing turned outward, so as to cause the body to hug tlic ground as clo.sely as pos- silde. Till- left elbow sboiibj be kept almost straiglil luider lh(' rille Cif placed too far lollie left, it straiiM tlie wrist), luid Ihe barrel grasped firmly with tlic left haiKi. The right elbow should be placed a little to the right. To jirevent the elbows Heparating, 08 tlwy are naturally inclined to do on ban! ground, a depression m;iy lie made m Ihe ground with the heel of the boot, or something soft placed under tliem. regulation position. " firing slaniling," is generally preferred. .Many lind an easier and tirmer position by bringing the left .shoulder well to the front, and r("stiiig the rille over tlic lower part of tlie left thuniij. The advantage of this position is that it brings tlie left elbow directly under the barrel with- out any strain on the muscles. Its disadvantage is tliat, in a side wind, the body is too apt to sway ffldeways, ■which must be avoided by placing the feet fui-ther apart. The llythe Sclioo'l direi'ts that the rille be pressed against the shoulder with the ?r/Y hand, the right holiling tlie stock lightly; Inil, most marksmen prefer, while grasping the barrel firmly with the left hand, so as to keep it steady, to hold it well against the shoulder with the right. .In The liips sliould be twisted to tlie reft, and the riirht shoulder well raised, to keep the collar-bone out <if file way and alTord a firm scat for the rille-butt, which must be held closely against it. Many of ilie best shots at t'reeilmoor and Wimbledon shoot, lying on tlieir backs. Some lie slightly on the riirht "sidij resting the rille-barrel over the left leg, the left hand grasping tlie piece at tlie small of the stock, and pressing it against the shoulder. In this position, tlie distance of the rear sight from the eye requires a liirger aperture than usual. The following is a fcivorite back position: — The marksman lies on liis Iiack, liis legs crossed, the left leg under the right knee, and firmly held liy the right calf, the muzzle of the riUe resting in the all cases, it will he found that the puU-off of the trigger will be lightened by a firm grip with the right thumb. The standiiig position depends so much on the personal equation of the marksman as to prevent that extreme nicety of aim re(|uired in long-range firing. It also renders the rifleman liable to bs- swerved by the wind, and ofTers the enemy a Tjetter target. It is seldom used before the enemy or at long-range. Kneeling is Open to the same ob- jections, but to a less extent. In the English army. j crotch between the knees. The left arm is placed behind the head, the hand firmlv grasping the bull ^ of the rifle, the back of Ihe head resting on the left forearm, and the right cheek touching the side ofthe butt. The right hand holds the small of the stock with a firm grasp, the elbow resting on the ground. In this position, not only the piece, but the entire '■ person of the shooter is perfectly supported, and ali- solute steadiness is secured. Giklersleeve. Coleman, and other Americans have adopted this position, and MABKSIIANSHIF. 276 MABKSHCANSHIF. Sir Ilenrj' Ilalford and others at Wimbledon concede its advantages. It is doubtful whether any advan- tage is gained by h'ing on the l)acii, in shooting with military rifles. The position, Face I>tiicninard<, is certainly preferable for militarjf reasons, enabling the soldier to rapidly advance or retreat, to shelter himself behind cover or to entrench himself. Wiieth- er the-rirteman shoots standing, kneeling, sitting, or lying, after having once tested and become satisfied as to the positicm oest suited to himself, he should practice it until it becomes perfectly natural and easy. With a steady aim and position, the circumstances which cause the bullet to deviate from the spot at which it is aimed are so numerous, that it is rather the exception than the rule when a man can aim directl}' at the object to be struck. It is, therefore, necessary that the soldier should know how to make allowances for these causes of deviation; to know where he should aim in order to strike the object. A frequent cause of deviation of the bullet is a false or defective barrel, short swells and long depressions being often found on its interior. These swells or ridges, by increasing the friction, may so affect the recoil as to have an injurious effect on the fire, or so affect the exterior form of the bullet as to produce an irregularity in its motion. The swells and de- pressions, moreover, change the interior lines of the piece and give the bullet a false direction. Another cause of deviation of the bullet is the vibration of the barrel when tiring caused by the want of a homo- geneous distribution, of metal about its axis, and often to binding liands. These vibrations tend to alter the direction of tiie bullet as it leaves the muzzle. Recoil causes the lirer to turn to the side from which he fires, and produces deviation in that direction. It is supported by pressing the butt firmly against the shoulder, and is differently felt according as the position of the rifle, relatively to the horizontal, changes. The shock of the recoil against the shoulder is diminished by the bend in the stock, serving to decompose the force into two com- ponents, one acting through the stock against the shoulder, the other in the direction of the axis of the barrel, ten ling to raise it. Whatever lessens the recoil, theoretically, increases the range. The recoil is only 9.5 lbs. for the Kemington rifle (70 grains powder and bullet of 450 grains), while in our service rifle, caliber 45, it is 175 lbs. When the bullet reaches the muzzle of the rifle, it will revolve about its axis nearly 800 times in a second, and a point on its exterior side siirface will have an axial velocity of about ninety feet per sec- ond. This, in connection with the resistance of the air produces a lateral drifting of the bullet in the di- rection in which the grooves have a turn. This is known as drift, anil is greater in the descending than in the ascending branch of the trajectory. It in- creases as the diameter of the bullet, the angle of fire, the velocity of rotation and the range inn-easi'. and as the velocity of trauslatiou decreases. The drift in our service rifle, at 5U0 3-ards, is two feet. The pull of the trigger should not be too great, a three-poiiiid pull being the minimum. It shovdd be pressed by a steadily increasing pressure of the finger in the direc- tion of the axis of the barrel, without cnmmunicating motion to the rifle, the breath being lielil until the hanuner falls. If the trigger is too liard and is |)ul!ed convulsively, the muzzle will lie turned to the right. There should be a i|uick and decided connection be- tween the mind and finger. Fevv men can pull off the trigger of the service rifle with the first joint of a single finger. A defective position of the line of sight or incorrect graduation of the rear siglit will cause a deviation of the bullet. If the front sight lie to the right of its proper place, the bullet will go to the left, i\m\ i:iceveriiii. The liullet will alsob<^ raised (range increased;, since the top of the sight is lower than it is when in its proper position. If the rear sight be to the right or left of its true place, the bu'... let wi'l go to the right or left, and will be lowered (range diminished), since the top of the sight will be lower than when in its true position. A serious cause of inaccuracy, originating with the firer. is the faulty position that he gives to the musket in firing, by inclining to the right or left, which tends to carry tlie liullef to the side to which the rifle is inclined, and to diminisli the ange. When firing at long ranges a trifling inclination to the right or left will throw the bullet very wide of the target. The condition of the atmosphere no- ticeably affects the course of the bullet. The more moisture there is in the air, the greater Ihi? elevation required; hence it is that the bullet is frequently noticed to fall immediately after a rain. Warm air offers much less resistance to the motion of the bul- let than cold air does, even a fall of 20'^ in tempera- ture causing the bullet, ordinarily, to lower ten or eleven inches at 300 j'ards range. In firing over water, the elevation must be increased, in conse- quence of the lower temperature of the air over the water. In ascending a mountain, the air be- comes more and more rare, and consequently the re- sistance to the bullet is less on the mountain than at its base. Mirage, an optical illusion, occurrina: in level districts on very warm days, causes the target to apparently raise in the air and become distorFed in sliape. This materially affects such objects as are near the ground, and engenders a tendency to shoot too higii. The influence of light and shade on the effect of firing is remarkable. On a bright day the target is refracted so as to apparentlj' stand higher, and will, theoretically, require a lower elevation than on a very dull day. When the light shines directly on the tar- get, when the target is against a light background (so that the details are better brought out); wiienthe sun shines on the firer's back, when the atmosphere is clear, when the ground is level and uniform in ap- pearance or when it gradually rises toward flie tar- get, the same will appear much nearer, and will the- oretically require a higher elevation. The best shooting is invariabl_v done on cloudy days when the sun's light is evenly diffused. It is very difficult to shoot well when passing clouds intercept portions of the sun's light and heat. It is readily seen how this disturbance might set up currents in the air which would tend to carry the bullet from its course, and how the rays of light deflected from their course be fore reaching the eye would cause the target to ap- parently occupy a false position. It will lie well to diminish the elevation should the sun suddenly ap- pear and light up the target while the firer still re- mains in the shade, and to increase it should the tar- get remain in the shade while the sun shines on the firer. Bright sights and barrels are obviously ob- jectionable. The reflection of the sun's light (in the sights causes them to appear as brilliant points and precludes the possibility of an accurate aim. If the sun's rays come laterally, the trouble will be still greater inasmuch as they will brighten the rear side of the fnmt-sight and the opposite side of the notch of the rear-sight, and cause a tcndeucy to shoot away from the sim. The refraction of the sun's rays from a polished barrel causes the target to be- come indistinct and to assume the appearance of motion. The sights and barrel about the muzzle should be blackened with smoke if nothing better is at hand. The effect of wind on the trajectory and the al- lowance to hi' made for it are most troublesome questions for the marksman. His best skill and judgment must be faxed when firing in windy weather, or in mountainous districts where there are many (;ross-(urrenls with which to contend. All winds, except toward tile target, retard the bullet and render a liiiihcr elev:ition necessary. A wind from the rear helps the bullet and lendsto high shooting. Experience has sliown it necessary to alter the wind- gauge twelve or more feet between two consecutive K&BK TIME. 277 HASOB. sliots over ii ninf;c of 1 ,000 yiirds, in order to make a bull'scye eiicli lime, wlicn llic wind was very liiijii or variiililc. In BuhI<'m 'lIiind-lioi)l< fdr Ilytlic'it in stilt- ed Hint "One liour u d:iy of jirivuic praclice in uini- inn-drill will, in a few weeks, niakcii niun.-i lirsl-cliiss sliot." Tliis is trne, for tlie ]iosilion anil inniini; drills eonstimtc the very foiimlalion of any system of practice. It is an alisnrd inistak(r in any service to have n'cruils fire olf-haiid at a lari;et on(' hundred yards distant, when tliey scarcely know the diireri'nce between a rille and a sholf,nni, .and cannot hit a barn- door when lliirty oacesdislanl with either, fiva Jiijk I'm In. MARK TIME.— A (•onimand in the School of the Soldier. It is execnied by niovinijeaeh lej; alternate- ly in iiuiek or ordinary lime, without j;aininn i^roniid. I'his movement is frequently i)racli(U'd when a front line or column has opened t(jo much, in order to af- ford lh(^ rear an ojiiiorlunity of irettin^ up ; and Bometimes to let the liead of a colunm disenj^age it- self, or a body <if troops (ilc by, etc. MARLINE SPIKE. A ponderous iron pin. with a lar;;e head and a taper jHiint, used for separatinj; the strands of ro|)e prejiaratory to splicini; or knotting; also employed as a lever in tigntenini; rigijing, etc. MARLINREPEATING RIFLE. —An American ritle having' iinialile ad\'.-inlai:i's over most repealing arms. It belongs to the liult class, so long used I))' nuuiy of tion, in a simple manner, brings the cartridge with it, and places the same in line with tha chamber of Ihe barrel, while the spring F tirndy holds cartridge in place. The hammer, (i, is brought to full-cock by the same motion, and held there by the action of the trigger. ll,enlering its full-cock iiotcli. Hringing the lever back lo its natural jiosilion causes tlie l)olt to move forward, pushes the cartridge into the chamber, lowers the carrier-block to receive a fresh cartridge, securely locks the breech mechaniHni, and leaves the arm ready to fire. The magazine is loaded through an opening in the side (jf the receiver, which opening is closed by a cover. It holds nine carlri<lges and one can' be ])laced in the barrel. The cartridges can be inserted in the magazine either wilh the block open or closed. When th(' bolt is withdrawn the cartridge at the bottom of the magazine enters the carrier-block y/v/rf- iialli/. avoiding Hie concussion produced in many guns by the sudden .jump of the whole column of cartridges with a momentum, in some cases, suffi- cient to explode a sensitive ]irinier. All the advan- tages of a single breech-loader are also contained in this rifle ; it can be used with great rapidity, the car- tridge being inserted in the barrel instead (pf in the magazine, and cartridges specially loaded with patch- ed bullets for target shooting can be used in thU way. The ritle is made for two sizes of cartridges : the European Governments ; but instead of opera- ting the bolt by a cumbersome and ungainly handle projecting from the side, it is operated by a stnmg ami powerful lever, on the under side of tlie arm. thus making a handsome model, easy of manipula- tion. The bolt comes solidly up to the base of the cartridge, covering it entirely: in this way all danger is avoided, even though a defective cartridge should happen to lie used. A premature explosion cannot occur, and the greater the recoil, the more firmly the bolt is held in its place. The operation of the gun is of the simplest kind, and yet the action is the strongest that can be made. The drawing shows the ritle with all the operative parts in open position. Throwing forward the lever. A, withdraws the firing- pin, I. ludoeks the bolt, H, and causes it to reoede, carrying with it the extractor, (', which extracts the shell of the cartridge just tired, while the ejector E, attached to the lower .section of the bolt, ejects the same from the receiver. By the same motion. the carrier-block, D, is raised from its natural posi- [ 40 cal., GO grains powder, 260 grains lead, straisrht shell ; and 4.5 cal., 70 grains powder, 420 grains lead, being the regulation Government cartridge. In the 40 caliber we find a heavy charge of i)owder behind a comparatively light bullet, thus attaining a high initial velocity and very flat trajectory : with excel- lent results up to 800 yards. The barrel is octagonal in cross section, is 28 inches long, and the weight of the arm is 9^ pounds. See Rifle. UARLIAS. — Tarred white skeins or long wreaths or lines of untwisted hemp dipped in pitch or tar. with which cables and other rojies are wrapped round, to prevent their fretting and rubbing in the blocks or pulleys through which they pass. The same serves in artillery upon ropes used for rigging gins, usuallv put up in small parcels called skeins. MAROLAIS SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— This system adopts the fausse-braye. and the flanks are retired anil casemated. It is a very fair sample of the Dutch Sclio'l. See Forffi-^ition. ' MABON. — A piece of brass or copper, about the UAROONS. 278 MA£S. size of a crown, on wliieh all the hours for going the rounds were marked in the old French service. Several of these were put into a small bag, and de- posited in the hands of the JIajor of the regiment, out of which they were regularly drawn by iThe Ser- geants of Companies, for the officers belonging to them. The hours and half hours were engraved on each Marun. These pieces were numbered one. two, etc., to correspond with the several periods of the night; so that the officer, for instance, who was to go to the 10 o'clock rounds, had as many Marons marked ten as there were posts gr guard-houses which he was directed to visit. Thus on reaching the first, after having given the mot or watch-word, to the Corporal, he delivers into his hands^the^l/aroon. marked one. These Maroim being pierced in the middle are successively strung by the different Cor- porals upon a piece of wire, from which they slide into a box called Boite nnx Ronden. This "box is carried next morning to the Major, who keeps the ke}' ; and who on opening it can easily ascertain whether the ri>unds have been regularly gone by counting the different Marons, and seeing them suc- cessively strung. MAROONS.. — A name given in Jamaica and Dutch Guiana to runaway negro slaves. The term was first applied to those slaves who were deserted by their Masters, the Spaniards, when the British con- quered Jamaica (1655), and who took refuge in the Uplands, where for 140 years they maintained a con- stant warfare with the British Colonists; but in 1795 they were subdued, and a portion of them re- moved to Nova Scotia, and afterwards to Sierra Leone. The remnant fraternized with their manu- mitted brethren in 1834-35. The Maroons of Dutch Guiana form a number of small independent com- munilies. MARQUEE.— An awning or cover of canvas form- ing an officer's tent ; a tent complete. JIarquees are of two kinds, viz.. Dining and Sleeping Mar- queen -. the former being used as officers' mess tents. Also written Markit. MARQUESS— MARQUIS.— The degree of nobility which in the peerage of England ranks next to Duke. Marquises were originally Commanders on the bor- ders or frontiers of countries, or on the sea-coast, which they were bound to protect. In England, the title of Marquis was used in this sense as early as the reign of Henry the III., when there were Mar- quises or Lords-marchers of the borders of Scotland and Wales: and the foreign equivalent of Markgraf was common on the Continent. The first English Marquis in the modern sense was Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford, who was created Marquis of Dublin by Richard II., to the no small offense of the Earls who had to yield him precedence. The oldest exist- ing Marquisate is that of Winchester, created by Ed- ward VI. in 1551. The title was first introduced in- to Scotland inl599,when the Marquises of Huntlyand Hamilton were created. The Coronet of a Marquis, as worn in the United Kingdom, is a circle of gold, with four strawberry leaves (or oak leaves), and as man}' pearls alternat- ing with them, and placed on pyramidal jioints of the same height with the leaves. The mantle is scarlet, with three and a half doublings of ermine. A Marquis is styled "The Most Honorable;" his wife is a Marchioness; his eldest son takes by courtesy the next lower title in the peerage, except where that is identical with the title of the Marquisate, in which case he must take the next lower still, as in thecaseof the Marcpiis and Earl of Salisliury, whose eldest son bears the courtesj'-title of Viscount Cran- borne. The younger sons of a Manpiis are styled 'Lord.' and daughters ' Lady,' with tlie addition of Christian n:niie ;itul surname. MARRIED ROLL.— A register kept in each regi- ment, troop, battery, or establishment, in the Eng- lish Army, and in which are inserted the names of! all non-commissioned officers and soldiers who are married with permission. All non-commissioned officers holding the rank of Staff Sergeants of cer- tain grades are permitted to marry, and also Ser- geants of troops, batteries, or companies, &c., in a certain proportion, as laid down in the Regulations. Of the rank and file, 7 per cent, in England and 10 per cent, in India are allowed to marry, and are en- tered on the married roll ; these numbers are calcu- I lated upon the establishment of the corps, except in the royal artillery, in which the calculation is made upon the establishment of each battery. No non- commissioned officer or soldier is entitled to have his name placed on the married roll without having obtained the consent of his Commanding Officer be- fore marriage. In the case of a soldier below the rank of Sergeant wishing to marry, he must have completed 7 years' service and be in possession of at least one G. C. badge. If he has a balance in the savings-bank of £5 or upwards, it will be considered a desirable qualification. The fact of the name of a non-commissioned officer or soldier appearing on the married roll ensures him and his family certain privileges which are not accorded to men marrying without the consent of their Commanding Officer. MARRONS.— Small cubic boxes, made of paste- board, filled with powder, and wrapped with strong twine. They are used to give a loud report, or the effect of cannonading. To make a marron, cut the pasteboard into rectangles, whose sides shall be 3 and and 5 times, respectively, the length of the side of the marron required. Divide the rectangle Into 15 equal squares ; cut out the squares forming the four cor- ners of the rectangle, and divide the three remaining squares on the long side from each other bj' a cut the length of their side and perpendicular to the long side of the rectangle. Form a small cubic box with the pasteboard thus cut out ; paste the squares to- gether which cover each other, and paste a band of paper around the box, leaving the cover open. When dry, fill the box with powder, paste down the cover, and envelop It with two or three layers of strong twine. Cover the marron with glue or kit, and prime it with quick-match inserted in a hole punched into the powder at the middle of one of the taces. See Com- poaithins and Fireicorks. MARRUCINI. — An ancient people in central Italy, on a narrow tract of land along the right bank of the river Aternus. Their territory extended from the Apennines to the Adriatic: between the Vestini on the north- and the Frentani on the south ; and be- tween the Pellgnl and the Adriatic on the east and west. They were an independent nation, said to be descended from the Sabines, and generally were in alliance with their neighbors, the Marsl and Pelignl. They entered into alliance with the Romans in 304 B. c , but rebelled at the beginning of the Social War. Their onlj' place of Importance was Teste, now Chieti, on the right bank of the Aternus, now the Pes- cara. MARS. — The Roman Mars, who as a war-god is surnamed Oradhux (=grandiji divnx, the great god), also bore the surname of Silranus, and appears to have been originally an agricultural deltj-; the pro- pitiatory offerings were presented to him as the guar- dian of fields and flocks; but as the fierce shejiherds who founded the city of Rome were even more ad- dicted to martial than to pastoral pursuits, one can easilj- understand how Afars Silvantm should have, in the course of time, become the " God of War." Mars, who was a perfect personification of the stern, relentless, and even cruel valor of the old Romans, was held in tlie highest lionor. He ranked next to .Jupiter; like him lie bore the venerable epillut of ?\it/ier li^hiTA-pitir) ■, he was one of the three Tute- lary Divinities of the City, to each of whom Numa appointed a flamen ; nay, he was said to be the father of Honudus himself (by Khea Silvia, the Priestess of Vestil), and was thus believed to. be the real progen- itor of the lioman ()eo]ilc. He had a sanct\iary on the (Juirinal ; -.uul the liill received its name from hia HARSKILLAISE. 279 nABSUALLIMG OF ASUS. suriinnic, Qt/'n'niis, llie most proljaMi' iiicunin;; of wliifli is tfie H-prar-arm d. It, was iiiiilcr this (losiunation that he was invdUcd as tlic pnilcclor <if tlic Qit'rites (fitizensj- in (illicr Wdnls, of tlir Slate. Tlic priiici))al aiiinials sacrcil to liiiii wire tlii' wolf mill till' liorsi'. Ill- liail many Tciiiplis at IJoinr, the most cclclirati'il of wliirli was that oiilsiilo llic I'urld (Uipena, on the Apiiiaii Hoail. The Civnptu MarthiH, whiTc the Uoiiians ]iractici'il athlitic anil Miililary exercises, was named after him ; so was the month of March {MarVnn), tlu' lirst month of the Human year. The LmV MartiaU^ (ijames helil in his honor; were celebrateil every year in the einiis. Auks, the (Ireek l;i)i1 of war, was tlie son of Zeus anil Hera, anil the favorite of Aphrodite, who liore him several ehililren. He is represented in (ireek poetry as a most sanguinary divinity. delii;htini; in war for its own sake, and in the destruelion of men. Hefore hijn into battle i^oes his sister Krin (iStrifcj ; aloni; with him are his sons and eompanions, DrimuH (Horror) and I'ImIuih (Fearj. He does not always adherit to the same side, like the iireat Atltriia. hut inspires now tiie one. now the other. He is not al- ways victorious. Diomede wounded him. and in his fall, says Homer, " he roared like nine or ten thous- and warriors toi^ether." Sueh a representation would have been deemed blasphemous by the ancient Roman mini, imbued as it was with a solemn Hebrew-like reverence for its gods. The worship of Ares was never very prevalent in Greece; it is be- lieved to have been imported from Thrace. There, and in Hcythia, were its great .seats, and there Ares was believed tohave his chief home. He had, how- ever. Temples or Shrines at Athens, Sparta, Olym- pia, and other places. On statues and reliefs, he is reiiresented as a person of great muscular power, and eilhi r naked or clothed witli the chlamys. MARSEILLAISE. The name by which the grand song iif the lirst French Kevolutidu is known. The circumstances which led to its composition are as follows: In the beginning of 1793, when a column of volunteers was abinit to leave Strasbourg, the Mayor of the city, who gave a banquet on the occa- sion, asked an officer of artillery named Houget de Lisle, to compose a song in their honor. His request was comiilied with, and the result was the Afdiwi'l- Itr'.ir — both verse and nuisic being the work of a single night. De Lisle entitled the piece ('/inntde Guerre d' I'Ariin'e dii li/iin. Next day it was svmg with rapturous enthusiasm that only Frenchmen can exhibit, and instead of (iOO volunteers, 1000 marched out of Strasbourg. Soon from the whole army of the north resounded the thrilling and fiery words (iiixarmes mix iinms ; nevertheless the song was still luiknown at Paris, and was first introduced there by Barbaroux when he smnmoned the youth of Marseilles to the Capital in July, 17!(3. It was received with transports by the Parisians, who — ignorant of its real authorship — uanied it Hymne des MarseiUaine, which name it has ever since borne. MARSHAL — Aterm which originally meant a groom or manager of the horse, though eventually the King's Marshal became one of the principal OtticiTsof Stale in England. The Hoyal Farrier rose in dignity with the increasing importance of the C/nralerie, \\\l he became, conjointly with the Constalile, the judge in the Curia' ^/artiales. or Courts of Chivalry. An Flarl- dom is attached to the dignity, and the otiiceof Earl- Marshal is now licreditary in the family of the Duke of Norfolk. When the King headed his army in feudel tiires, the assembled troops were inspected by the Constable and ilarshal, who lixcd the spot for the encamtiment of each noble, and examined the number, arms, and condilion of his retainers. With these duties was naturally combined the regulation of <'ill matters connected with armorial bearings, stand- ards, and ensigns. The Constable's functions were virtually abolished in tlie time of Henry YIIL. and the JIarshal became thenceforth the sole judge in questions of honor and arms. The Earl-Marshal is president of the English college of arms, and ap- points the Kings.at-Arms, IleraldH, and PursuivanlK. The Marshal's functions wen; formerly exercised in time ol jxrace in the Aula Iteyiii or King's (Ireat Court, and on the division of the Aula Riijin. lie ap- pointed deputies in the new courts; hence arose the otlicesof .Marshal of the King's CQueen's^Bench, and of Exche(|uer, whose iirincipal (hity is to lake charge of larsons conmiilted to their custody by the court. Besides the Earl-.Marslial thent is a lvnii;hl-.Marshal, or .Marshal of thi' King's ftiueen's; household. The Marshal of the King's Bench held two dilT(;rent I courts, which haver been altogr'ther discontinued since IHIO. Tlie .Marshal, or Provost-Marshal, of the admiralty is an otlicer whose duty it is to act minis- terially iinder the orders of the court of admiralty in securing prizes, executing w;irrants, arresting crimi- j nals, and attcnilini: their execution. I The dignity of ^Marshal existed formerly in Scot- land, where a different nrlhography was adopted, and the office of .Marischal was hcredit:iry in the family of Keith. Sir Kobert Keith, the Marischal, was one of the most distinguished warriors in the army of Kobert the Bruce ; and his descendant, the Marischal in 14.")0. had the dignity of Karl conferred on him with no other title but that of Earl-.Marischai There is little doulit that the Lyon King-al-Arms was, like the English Kings-at-Arms, originally sub- ject to the Marischal, but his dependence ceased at a very early period, and the heraldic functions dis- chariied by Hie Earl-.Marsluil in England devolved in Scotland on the Lord Lyon, who held office di- rectly from the crown. Scotland had no Knight- Marischal till 1()33. when Charles I., at his corona- tion, created the office. In ITUideorge. tenth Earl- Marischal. was atlainted inconsequence of his share in Ihe rebellion of the jirevious year, and the office has since been in abey;nicc. In France the highest military officer is called a Marshal, a dignity which originated early in the 18th century. There was at lirst only one Mareehal de Frame, and there were but two till Ihe time of Francis I. Their number afterwards became unlimited. Originally the Mar- slial was the Ksquire of the King, and commanded Ihe vanguard in war : in later times the command became'supreme, and the rank of the highest mili- tary impi>rt:ince. From the title of this class of geiienil ollicers the Germans have borrowed their Feld-Marschall, and we our Field-Marshal, a dig- nity bestowed on commanders distinguished either by elevated rank or superior talents. In the United States the word is used in three signiticat ions : 1. To denote the Ministerial Officer of Ihe United States Courts, there being one appointed to each judicial district. The duties of this officer resemble those of a Sheriff in the State Courts; he opens and closes the sessions of the District and Circuit Courts, serves warrants, and with his deputies enforces the execution of the internal revenue and other U.S. Statutes. 3. To denote a leader or director of cer- emonies, festivities, or processions. 3. In many states of the south and west the Marshal is the head of the mnniciiial police force, and is to be dis- tinguished from Ihe officers of the county called Sheriffs, and from the officers of the juslice courts called Constables. lu a few northern cities, form- erly the name was applied with doubtful propriety to special police officers. MARSHALLING OF ARMS.- -The combining of differ- ent coats-of-arms in one escutcluHm.for the purpose of indicating family alliance or office. In the earlier her- aldry. it was not "the practice to exhibit more than one coat in a shield, but the arras of husband and wife were sometimes placed acfallee, or side by side, in separate escutcheons ; or the principal shield was surrounded bv smaller ones, containing the arms of maternal ancestors : and we not uufrequently find maternal descent or marriage indicated by the addi- tion of some bearing from the wife's or mother's shield. Then followed d'md'ation,w)ieTC theshield UASSl. 280 MAETIAL LAW. was parted per pale, and Uic two coats placed side by side, half of each beins shown. By the more niodern custom of impaling (Fig. 1), the whole of eac'.i coat is exhibited, a reminiscence of the older practice being retained in the omission of bordiires, orels, and treasures on the side bo'mded by llie line of impalement. The most common case of impale- ^arshaJling of Arms. mcnt is where the coats of husband and wife are con- joined, the husliand's arms occupying the dexter side of the sliield, or place of honor, and the wife's the sinister side. Bishops. Deans, Heads of Colleges, and Kings-of-Arms, impale their arms of office with their family coat, giving the dexter side to the for- mer. A man who marries an heiress (in heraldic sense) is entitled to place her arms on a small shield called aneKuU/ieon. of pretence, in the centerof his achieve- ment, instead of impaling (Fig. 2.). QuaHer;ng(F\g. 3), or the exhibiting different cvits on a siield divid- ed at once perpendicularly and horizontally, is tlie most common mode of marshalling arms, a practice wdiich, however, was unknown till the middle of the 14th century. The divisions of the shield are called quarters, and are numbered horizontally, beginning at the dexter chief. The most common object of quartering is to indicate descent. The coats quar- tered in aia escutcheon must all have been brought in by successive heiresses, who have intermarried into the familv. In the case of a single quartering tlie paternal .arms are placed in the first and fourth quar- ters, and tlie maternal in the second and third. The third and fourth quarters may, in after generations, be occupied by the arms of a second and third heir- ess. Sometimes an already quartered coat is placed in one of the four quarters of the escutcheon, then termed a grand quarter. We occasionally find the shield divided by perpendicular and horizontal lines into^ix, nine, or even more parts, each occupied by a coat brought in by an heiress : ana in case of an odd number of coats, the last division is filled by a repetition of the first. In the course of generations, a sliield may tlius be inconveniently crowded by the accumulation of coats, including the several coats to wliich eacli heiress may, in a similar way, have be- come entitled, and in Germany, sometimes twenty or thirty coats are found marshalled in one escutch- eon ; but in British Heraldry, families entitled to a number of quarterings, generally select some of the most important. Quarterings, at least in Scotland, are not allowed to be added to the paternal coat with- out the sanction of the heraldic authorities. Sov- erc-igns quarter the ensigns of their several States, giving precedence to the most ancient, unless it be in- ferior to the others in importance. In tlie royal es- cutcheon of the United Kingdom, England is placed in the first and fourth quarters, Scotland in tlie sec- ond, and Ireland in tlie third; the relative positions of Scotland and Kngland being, however, reversed on tlie official seals of .Scotland. Spain bears the arms of Leon in tlie first and fourth quarters, and Castile in the second and tliird. An elected King generally places his arms surtout on an escutcheon of pretence. MARSI. -An ancient tribe of central Italy, inliabit- ing the district around the lake Fucinus ( /xir/o lU (.'eUi/w). Their origin, like that of otiier Italian tribes, is involved in olicurity and fiction. Tliey were probably of Sabine origin. They an; worlliy of notice chiefly on account of th<-ir warlike spirit. The Marsians were at one lime allies of tlie Itomans, but. in 308 b. c, they revolted and joined the Sani- nites. After being subdued they again, 301 b.c, sh^iok off the alliance of Home, but were beaten in the field, anii lost several of tlieir fortresses. From this time they continued tlie firm allies of Rome, contributing by tlieir valor to her triumphs until the Italians were aroused in 91 b.c., to demand a -'dress of tlieir v.Tougs and a share in tlie privileges of Roman citizens. A war ensued, generall}' knov u as the Social War, but frequently call d the Marsic War, because the !Marsi were prominent among the malcontents. Their leader was Silus Ponip«dius. Though often defeated, their perseverance lained the object for which they had taken up arms in 87 B.C. Tlie JIarsians, inhabiting a mountainous dij- trict were simple and temperate in tlieir habits, but hardy, brave, and unyielding. So marked was their valor that there was a proverbial saying recorded by App^an, "That Rome had achieved" no triumph Mtr the Marsi, or ir.'t/iniit theMarsi." The an:ient JIarsi were represented as enchanters, able to tame ser- pents and to heal their bites; and it is worthy of note that the jugglers who now amuse the people bj- handling serpents are natives of the region in the vicinity of Lago di Celano. Their only important town was Marruv'um (Qan Benedetto). the ruins of which are visible on the east shore of the lake. MAETEAU D'ARMES.— An offensive weapon, so- called from its resemblance to a hammer. MAETEL DE FEE.— An offensive weapon in use at the beginning of the 13th century. It was in the shape of a pointed hammer or small pickaxe. It is stated to have made sad havoc in mailorarmor, and left fatal openings for the passage of the sword or lance. MAETELLO TOWERS— are round towers for coast defense, aliout 40 feet high, built most solidly, and situated on tlic beach. They occur in several places round the coast of the Uniteil Kingdom; but princi- pally opposite to the French coast, along the south- ern shore of Kent and Sussex, where, for many mil s, they are witliiu easy range of each other. They were mostly ei'ected during the French war as a de- fense against invasion. Each had walls of 5h feet thickness, and was supposed to be bomb-proof. The base formed the magazine ; above were two rooms for the garrison, and over the upper of these the flat roof, with a 4i feet brick parapet all round. On this roof a swivel heavy gun was to be placed to com- mand sliipping, while howitzers on each side were to form a flanking defense in connection with the neighboring towers. Although the cost of these littfe forts was very great, they are generally consid- ered to have lieen a failure ; their armaments have mostly been removed. The name is said to betaken from Italian towers built near the sea, during the period when piracy was common in the Medit - erranean, for the purpose of keeping watch and giv- ing warning if a pirate-ship was seen approaching. This warning was given liy striking on a hell with a hammer (Italian ilurtelli)), and hence these towers were called t'-rri da miirh'ilo. MAETIAL LAW. — An arbitrary law, proceeding directly from the military power,and having no imme- diate constitutional or legislative sanction. A place, district, or country occupied by anenemy st:inds, in consequence of tlie occupation, under tlie iMartial Law of the invading or occu])ying Army, whether any proclam;ition declaring Martial Law, orjany pub- lic warning to the inhabitants, has been issued t r not. Martial Law is the immediate and direct effect and consequence of occupation or conquest. The presence of a hostile army proclaims its Martial Law. Martial Law does not cease during the lios- tiie occupation, excejit by special proclamation, or- dered by thccomiiuinder-iii-cliief ; or by s])ieial men- tion in the treaty of peace coucluding tlie war, wlien the oceujiation of a iilace or territory continues be- yond the conclusion of peace as one of the condi- tions of the same. Martial Law in a hostile country consists iu the suspension, by the occupying military UASTINET. 281 UAAIINI U£I<£Y SlfLE. antliorily, of the friminiil and rivil liiw, and of the iloiiicslic iulii]inislratioii ami L'oviTnincnt ill the oc- (Mipii'il place or Irrrilory. and in llic siihslitiilioii of military rule and force for the same, as widl as in llie dictation of general laws, as far as inililary ne- cessity reiinires this suspension, sidistilulion, or dic- tation. The commander of the forces nniy proclaim that, the administration of all civil and penal law shall continue, either wholly or in pari, as in limes of peace, unless othiTwisc ordered hy the iidlitary authority. .Martial Law issirnply military authority exercised In accordance with the l.'iws and usaijes of war. ^lilitary oppression is not .Martial I^aw; it is the abuse of the power whii'li that law confiTs. As jNIartial Law is executed by nulitiiry force, it is in- cumbent upon those who administer it to be strictly guided by the iirincljilcs of justice, honor, and hu inanity- virtues adornimr a soldier even more than other men, forthe very reason that he jiossesses the power of his arms aiiainst tlie uuaruied. Martial Jjaw should be less stringent in places and countries fully occupied and fairly con(niered. Much greater severity may be exercised in places or regions where actual hostilities exist, or are exjiected and must be prepared for. Its most complete sway is allowed — even in the commander's own country — when face to face with the enemy, because of the absolute necessi- ties of the case, and of the |iaramount dutytodef nd the country against invasion. To save the country is ])aramount to all other considerations. All civil and penal laws continue to tal<j' their usual course in the enemy's territory under Martial Law.uidess in- terru]ited or stopjicd l)y order of the occupying mili- tary power; but all the functions of the hostile gov ernmcnt — legislative, executive, or administrative — whether of a general, provincial, or local character, ci'asi' under Martial I-aw, or contimie only with the sanction, or, if deemed necessary, the participation of the occupier or invader. Martial Law extends to pro])erty, and to jiersous. whether they are subjects of the enemy or aliens to that government. C'oiistds, among American and Euroi)eau nations, are not dip- lomatic agents. Xevertheless, their otliccs and per- sons will be subjected to ^lartial Law in cases of I mainly to the support and etllclency of the Army, its safely, and lhi> safety of its operations. The law of war docs not only dtsclaim all crni-llyand bad faith concernin'.; iiigageinents concluded with Ihi' enemy during the war. but also the bri-aking of stipulations solemnly contracted by the belligerents in time of l)eace, and av(jwedly inlendeil to remain in force in I case of war between the contracting powers. It dis- • claims all extortions and oilier transactions for in- dividual gain ; till acts of private revenge, or conni- vance at such acts. Offenses to the contrary shall be severely punished, and especially so if committed by oMlcers. Whenever feasible, .Marlial Law is car- ried out in cases of individual offenders by Military t'ourts ; but sentences of dtrath shall be executed only with the approval of the chief executive, provided the urgency of the case does not reijiiire a speedier execution, and then only with the ajjproval of the chief commander, fsce Militari/ Ijiir. MARTINET A term applieil to a strict disciplina- rian. It is suiijiosed to have taken its origin from an .\djutant of that name, who was in high rei)Ute in the French iirmv as a tlrill otiicer during the reign of Louis .\1V. MARTINGALE.- A thong of Icalher.fastened at the end of the ■jirth under the belly of a horse, and at tin' oilier end totliemusral: lo keep him from rearing. MARTINI HENRY RIFLE.- This rille. adopted as the new small-arm of 'lie linlish service, has a lireech- loacling aijparatus on the iMartini system united to a barrel ritied on the system of Henry, a guu-maker of Scotland. Martini, a Swi.ss. derived liis system of breech-loading from the Peabody system of this country, liy dispensing with ilie independent out- side lock and substituting therefor a spiral-spring tiring-bolt or striker, inclosed in the breech-block. The breech-loading ajiparalus, the formof the ri- tling.and the cartri<lge,are shown in detail in the ac- companying section taken through the axis of the barrel, with the breech closed. The receiver is a solid frame of iron, uniting the barrel and the front and rear portions of the stock. The barrel is shown at L, the tiii-stock at V S, and the butt-stock at K, The point of the butt-stock is shaped to tit into the urgent necessity only ; their property and business are not exempted. Aiiv deliniiueiicv they commit against the established military rule may be punish- ed as in the case of any other inhabitant, and such punishment furnishes no reasonable ground for in- ternational complaint. The functions of Ambassa- dors. Ministers, or other diplomatic agents, accredit- ed by neutral powers lo the hostile government, cea.se, so far as regards the displaced government; but the conquering or occupying power usually rec- ognizes them as temporarily iiccreditcd to itself. !Martial Law affects chiefly the police and collection of public revenue ami taxes, whether imposed by the expelled government or by tlie invader, and refers rear end of the receiver, which is cupped to receive it; it is fastened to the re<-eiver by the longitudinal screw-bolt, K tS,iu the manner shown in thedrawing. The several parts of the breech system may be divid- ed into two groups, viz ; 1. The falling breech-block and Uie firing apparatus contained in it: 2. The trigger and other parts attached to the trigger-plate, and the extractor. . The breech-block is pivoted at its rear and upper portion, and in uncovering the clKimber of the barrel for Ihe purpose of loading, its front portion f;dls. The axis-pin, ;) .«, around which the block turns is made of hard bronze. The por- tion of the collar surrounding this pin is embedded in the receiver and constitutes the principal recoil- MARTINI-HENRY RIFLE. 282 MARTINI-HENRY RIFLE. bearing surface of the block. As this surface is a- bove the axis of the bore, prolouged to the rear, there is a downward pressure of the block at the moment of explosion. This pressure is resisted by the short arm of the lever, b h. and the block thereby secured in its place. Tliis lever, called the block-lever, is composed of two arms, and turnsround the pin,ii vr. The short arm of the block-lever is divided info two branches. The long arm serves as a handle bj' which the block is worked, and when closed its point en- ters a countersink, and is held in place by a small catch-pin. The short arm of the block-lever works in a cut on the lower side of the breech-block. This cut is so shaped that the points of the branches of tlie short arm working against its sides raise and lower the block and lock it. The drawing shows the block in the locked position. The lever-pin passes through both cheeks of the receiver, and is secured to the left cheek by a small screw, the head of which en- ters a groove in the point of the pin. The firing-bolt, or striker, lies in a hole extending nearly through the center of the breech-block. It is composed of its point, which projects througli a cor- responding opening in the head of the block ; a col- lar, which serves as a shoulder for the spiral main- spring to press against, and the body enveloped by this spii al spring. The rear portion of the striker has a vertical slot, in which works .the point of a lever to draw back the striker to the position of full cock. This lever is called the tumbler. The rear end of the striker has a slot in it, that it may be adjusted by a screw-driver to receive tue point of the tumbler. The striker is kept in place by a nut screwed into the rear end of the breecli-block." The tumbler is pivoted on the same axis-pin as the locking-lever, n ir, and is placed between its two branches. To show when the striker is at full cock, the end of the lever-pin. n ir, has an index-arm, which lies on the right side of the receiver and turns with the tumbler. It is for this purpose that the portion of the pin on which the tumbler tits is made square. The tumbler, when at full cock, is supported on a rocker, called the tum- bler-rest. The nose of the trigger,in turn supports the tumbler-rest at r. Tlie tail-piece of the tumbler-rest bears against the back of the trigger when the latter is pulled. The trigger-spring is shown in,rf/. To prevent accidents when the piece is carried loaded, the trigger is secured in place by the trigger-bolt, which Is slid back and forth by pressing on the fin- ger-piece. When locked, the bolt fits into a notch, and is kept in place by a spring. The extractor, c , is a bent lever pivoted at e n. Its vertical arm is composed of two branches with points which hook under the rim of the cartridge to extract the shell. The horizontal arm is shaped to receive the downward pressure of the breech-Wock on its point and start the shell from the chamber. As soon as the shell has moved slightly the point of the breech-block strikes the arm near tlie fulcrum, and ejects the shell with force from the piece. The form of the rifling is shown in the drawing. Tiu' number of grooves is seven: in sliaiu- they are tUit at the bottom; the lands are narrow, liaving the appear- ance of sharp ribs, wliich arc designed lo take a firm hold of the bullet. It is understood that these grooves iiTr. made somewhat deeper at the breech than at the muzzle. Twist is one turn in 33 inches. There is a brass collar around the head of the ran\rod to pre- vent injury lo tlie bore in wiping out. The triangu- lar bayonet is issued wiih all arms to private soldiers. The sword-bayonet is issued to non-comnussioned officers. Tlie weight of the Martini-Henry rifle is 8i pounds; of the present bayonet 13A ounces ; of the new bayonet, 14 ounces"; of the old scabbard, ounces ; of the new scabbard, 4t ounces. The weight of the rifle with a new bayonet attached is!) jiounds 11 ounces; with tin- ol'd biiyoiict, '.) iiouiids 1 1 _i ounces. The cartridge iidopted for the .Martini-lleiiry rille is made of wrapped metal, after what is known in England as the Boxer system. Each cartridge is composed of some fourteen distinct pieces, as sliown in section. The body of the shell is made by wrap- ping a trapezoidal piece of thin sheet-brass around a cylindrical former, making a tube. One end of this tube is turned inward to form an interior flange for securing the sliell to its head, the other end is re- duced in diameter to fit the cylindrical portion of the bullet. A piece of thin paper 's rolled up witli the brass sheet for a lining to the shell to protect it against the action of the powder. The head of the shell is made of a perforated sheet-iron disk, (, two re-enforcing cups of thin sheet-brass, k. tlie anvil- pocket, g, made of copper, and apsper wad, c. The relative positions of these pieces are shown in the sectional figure, and they are held together by the anvil-pocket and the paper wad, which is pressed in- to its place with great force under the head of the anvil-pocket, while the open end of the pocket is riv- eted to the disk. The shell is primed by inserting into the anvil- pocket from the outside a primer composed of a per- cussion-cap of copper, ?, and containing an anvil, a, also of copper. The bottom of the anvil-pccket has a small hole for the passage of the flame from the fulminate of the primer when it is exploded. The bullet, c, is of cylindro-conoidalform. made of lead hardened by an admixture of one-thirteenth part of tin. The bullet is slightlj' cupped at the base, and has around it a slight groove, r, 7-, or canne- lure, into which the cartridge-shell is choked to hold the bullet in place. The bullet is enveloped in a patch of thin paper, similar to that u.sed for bank-notes. The lubricating material is a bee's-wax wad, 10 d, lying between the powder and bullet. This wad is separated from the powder by a stout paper disk (jute), and from tlie bullet by two disks of the same material. The weight of the bullet is 480 grains, and the powder is similar in quantity to that known as No. 6, Curtis and Harvey's make, and weighs 85 grains. These cartridges can be reorimed and re- loaded. Since the Martini-Henry rifles have been placed in the hands of the troops certain defects have been de- veloped, and the, uecessar}' alterations have been made to correct them. The most serious defect ap- pears to have been the recoil, or " kick," of the arm, extending, according to the newspaper accounts, so far as to disable soldiers after firing a series of not more than one hundred shots. The cause of this severe recoil is attributed to the great weight of the charge (powder and bullet) in proportion to the weight of the arm. The prominence of the stock in rear of the breech-frame contriliutes to the incon- venience of the recoil by striking against the face of the firer. if care be not taken to hold the piece prop- erlj'. The injurious effect of the recoil is found to be the greatest with soldiers not accustomed to the use of the new arm, and diminishes as tliey become more accustomed to it. To remedy the evil as far as practicable, it has been decided to lengthen the butt of the stock. Originally the distance from the trigger to the middle point <if the butt-plate was 13 and 14 inches, and the two kinds of rifles were issu- ed to the troops in the proportion of two of the for- mer to one of tlie latter lengtli. The corresponding distances now are about 14 inches and 14iinches, andtlie cliangeis said to have gone quite tar toward remedying tiie evil. To protect the left hand from the hciit of the barrel in rapid firing the porlion of the barrel embraced by the hand is covered with a leather shield strapped and buckled on. The butt- plates were fornwrly roughed by cross-hatching witli a file to give a firmer liold against tlie shoulder. This has be<'n dispensed with as unnecessary, and the surface is now left smiiotii. The locking-liolt has also been dispensed with as unnecessary, and the block axis-piii is countersunk and made of steel instead of hard bronze. The strikers having been MARTIN SHELL. 283 MASON AND DIXON'S LINE. foiinil Id lircak, Imvi- bffii nintfrinlly slrcni?lli'Tic(l. Till' plan (if scrcwinj; in tlic point nf llic niiiirod to liold it in its place has been (■lianjr''il to a shoulder reMlin/i aijainst a slop, vvliieli is strongly secured to tliesloek below llie lip, somcwhul after the Amer- ican plan. The carbines of Ihe cavalry and artillery ])atternM have Ihe same caliber asthe Nrarlini-llenry rille, ami have also the same twist and form of rillinj,', but Ihe barrels are only 111 inches in Ien{;th. The weii;ht of the cavalry carbine is 7 pounds, H ounces, ami that of the artillery cariiine is 7 [loniids, lOi ounces. To- tal length, ;i feet, 1},^ inches, ^vv Hiixr Cartridge, I'eiilHiiii/.Miirthii Itijtc, and Itui/iil S/iiiill <irtiis, MARTIN SHELL.— A very ingenious substitute for a red-hot shot, to wliic-h, as far as experience has eont", it is much superior. It is an ordinary shell lurnished with an iron screw stopper. Molten iron is poured into the Hhell, the stopper screwed in, and tile missile discharL'ed for iiiccndiarv iiurposes. MARTLET. -In Iferaldry.a birilre- semblinu'a swallow, with lontrwintrs, very short beak and tliii;hs. and no visible Iciis, given as a mark of cad- ency to tlie fourth son. It is also otherwise used as a charge. The martlet was originally meant for the marl in. and in the earliest Heraldry, it is not deprived of its feet. MASCLE. — In Heraldry, a lozenge- shaped figure ])erforated and showing a very narrow border. The term mar-fu'li/ is as a general, thing applied to any tield that is divided by diagonal lines into lozenge-shaped compart- ments of alternate tinctures, each having its center voided of tlic op- posite tincture. L"z, nr/n-miixcally \s a field comjiosed of lozenges and mascles alternately. In the earlier Heraldry, mascally was used for what was after wards callen lozengy . Cros- ses and other ordinaries may be form- in which case they should begin with See Itiriilriry. -A kind of armor sometimes Martlet. ]5£aacIo« cd of mascles, half a mascle. MASCLED ARMOR worn by the Xorman soldiers, composed of small lozenge-shaped plates of metal fastened on a leathern or ijuilted uniler-coat. MASK. — 1. In a permanent fortification, a casema- ted redoubt, one or two stories high and 13 yards in width at the capital, which is sometimes added in from of the caponier; a ditch 10 yards wide may be formed in front and rear of it. Its salients being made circidar and loop holed, a close and powerful tire can be brought to bear uprmllie enemy if he suc- ceeds in establishing himself in the ravelin. The name miiHlc is given to this reiloubt, as it ads us an eHicicMt mask or counter-guard to the caponier. 2. A wire cage to protect the, facer in fencing. Fig. 1 represents the ordinary frnrin;/ iniiKk, furnislied w illi ears and fronts. Fig. 2, represents the hiiu rapier manic padded. 'A. As a military expression, mniik, Is used in several senses. A mnsked lattery is one so constructed, with a grassy glacis, etc., as to be hidden from the view of Ihe enemy until, tr) his sur- prise, it suddenly opens tire upon him — on his flank, perhaps. The lire of a battery is OTOs/c^rf when some other work, or a body of friendly troops, intervenes in the line of tire, and jirecludes the use of the guns. A fortress or an army is maxkrd when a superior force of the enemy holds it in check, while some hostile evolution is beins carried out MASON AND .^IXONS LINE.-Tliis line f riginated in t lie (lifiiculf ies which occurred in tracing the bound- ary line of a tract of land granted to William Penn in 1081. This land lay west of the Delaware and north of Jlaryland. and a part of its southern bound- ary was defined to be "a circle drawn at 12 miles distant from Newcastle northwards and westwards into the beginning of the 40" of northern laHtnde." Later, Penn received another grant, and, his agent being unable to agree with the authorities in Ameri- ca as to the just boundary, he came to this country himself in 1682 to establish his claim and take pos- session of his land. He was opposed by Lord Bal- timore, the matter was referred to the Committee of Trade and Plantations, a change in the reigning mon- arch of England took place, and it was not until 1760 that the final deed was issued to the heirs of Penn, closing the controversy. But even then the question of surveying the disputed territory with a view of defining the boundary-line opened new disa- greement : and it was to arrange this that Charles .Mason and James Dixon, "Mathematicians and Sur- veyors," were mutually agreed upon by the contes- tants. Thomas and Richard Penn, on the one part, and Lord Baltimore, the great grand-son of Cecilius, the first patentee, on Ihe other. "To mark, run out, settle, ti.v and determine all such parts of the circle, marks, lines, and boundaries as were mentioned in the several articles or commissions, and were not completed." The two surveyors commenced their work in 1704, and did not finish it until 1707: the delay being partlj- owing to Indian troubles, involv- UASOKED. 284 MASTEE OF THE HOESE. in" negotiations with the SixKatious in their settle- ment. The line as tinally drawn, has l)een popular- ly supposed to have been the dividing line between the Free and the Slave States ; but tiiis is an error, as slavery existed throughout Delaware, which is both east and north of the line, until abolished by the 14th Amendment to the Constitution. To this line is owing the peculiar tract of land known as the Pan-handle," where a part of Virginia runs up be- tween Pennsylvania and the Ohio River. Very little is known of "the two "Surveyors of London," as they were styled. JIason was an assistant of Dr. Brad- ley at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich; Ixith -were members of the American Philosophical Soci- ety : both were sent by the Royal Society to the Cape of" Good Hope to observe the transit of Venus in 1769. Dixon died in Durham, England, in 1777: and Mason died in Pennsylvania in 1787. MASONED. — In Heraldry, a term used to describe the lines formed by the junction of the stones in buildin;:. MASS. — 1. In Statics, the amount of matter con- tained in a bod}'. In Dynamics, that measure of the matter in a body which determines its relation to force. The accepted measure is the weight divided by the force of gravity. 2 The formation of troops in column at less than half distance. To ?)iass troops, is to concentrate them by this arrangement on a certain point. A column is cpised in mass when the sul)-divisions have less than half distance. MASSACRE. — The killing of human beings by in- discriminate slaughter, murder of numliers with cruelty or atrocity, or contrary to the usages of civilized people. As an example, we may cite the Mountain Meadows Massacre, an atrocity committed by the Indians in 1857, in Mountain Meadows. Santa Clara Co.. Utah : as is supposed, under the instigation and direction of the Mormon leaders. A party of 130 emigrant settlers, on their way throiigh Utah to California, had in some way aroused the suspicions of the Mormons, and at the place named were sur- rounded by Indians under ilormon control, and bru- tally massacred : onl)' a few children of the party survived. In 1874 an investigation into the affair was ordered by the U. S. Government, and John D. Lee, a Mormon Bishop, and others, were indicted, tried, and condemned. Lee was executed on March 23, 1877, by being shot on the very spot where tlie mas- sacre look place. MASSAGETAE. — A. nomadic people who inhabited the broad steppes on the northeast of the Caspian sea. to the northward of the river Araxes or Jaxartes. Herodotus says that they had a community of wives; that the}- sacrificed and devoured their aged people ; that they worshipped the sun, and offered horses to him ; lliat they lived on the milk and flesh of their herds, and on lisli ; and fought on horseback and on foot with tlie lance, bow, and double-edged axe. Cyrus is said to liave lost his life in fighting against tliem, .530 e.g. Niebuhr and Boockh are of opinion that they belcmged to the Mongolian, but Humboldt and others to the Indo-Germanic orAryan family. MASSE. — A species of stock-purse, which, during the French monarchy, was lodged in the hands of the Regimental Treasurer or Paymaster, for every Sergeant, Corporal, Drummer, and Soldier. The amount retained for each Sergeant was vmgt deniers per day, anil dix denier^ for each of the other ranks, according to the establishment, not the effective number, of each battalion. Out of tliese stopi)ages a settled and regular mns^e, or stock-purse, was made up, and at the en<l of every month it was ])aid into the hands of the Major or Ofliccr intrusted with the interior management of the corps, and was then appropriated to defray the expense of clothing the difTerent regiments, and lodged in the hands of the Directors or Inspector-General of Clothing. MASSE D'ARMES. -A warlike weapon, which was formerly usc^d in France. It consisted of a long pole •with a large inm head. MASSELOTTE. — A French term used in the foundry tosi'j;nify tliat superfluous metal which remains after a cannon or mortar has been cast, and which is saw- ed or tiled off to give the piece its proper form. MASSIE. — A short stick or rod, used by artificers in making cartridges. MASSING GUNS.— The best mode of successfully silencing the enemy's artiller_y,or of destroying some special position of his, is by means of a number of guns brought to bear on that point. This system was first introduced by Napoleon at the battles of Wagram, the Moskwa, and Llitzen, and subsequent- ly was emploj-ed with great effect b.v the Germans during the war of 1870-71. In the concentration of artillery in action it is not necessary that all the guns should be formed up into one gigantic battery. With pieces commanding a range of 3, 000 yards, a hundred guns might generally direct their fire on to one spot, without being crowded together, and it is hardly likely so many guns would be required to concentrate their fire. It is further shown that it is important in massing guns, es- pecially under the fire of an enemy, that the guns should" come into action as nearly simultaneously as possible; otherwise each battery m.ay be crushed in its turn as it comes up, from the enemy having got the exact ranse of the battery which first got into position. MASTER -GENERAL OF THE ORDNANCE.— An offi- cer formerly at the head of the Board of Ordnance. Before the present regimental organization of the ar- tillery, all details of the regiment came under the care and superintendence of the Master-General. The position of Master-General was introduced into the English Army as early as 1483: at all events, that seems to be the earliest date that the name of such a functionary can be traced. This officer was at the head of the Board of Ordnance, to which most im- portant duties were assigned ; and if any one would wish to learn what the Master-General had to do in the 17th century, let him go to the Tower and exam- ine the correspondence of Lord Dartmouth, the faithful friend and servant of Charles 11., a profes- sional artilleryman, and James II., a skilled Master- General to the" last. The last JVIaster-General of the Ordnance was Lord Raglan, who died while in com- mand of the British Arm}- in the Crimea. MASTER-GUNNER.— Formerly iin ancient office un- der the crown, as far back as the reign of Henry VIII. The appointment is now filled by pensioned sergeants of artillery. A Master-Gunner, as under- stood nowadays, is a warrant officer selected from the Non-commissioned officers of artillery, whose duty is to take charge of guns, ammunition, stores etc., in a fortress. The Coast Brigade is com- posed of Master Gvmners (pensioners), and there are 3 classes, 1st, 2d, and 3d. containing 16, 26, and 83 respectively- master" of THE BUCKHOUNDS— An officer in the Master of the Horse Department of the Royiil House- hold, who has the control of all matters relating to the royal hunts. A salary of £1,. 500 is attached to the oflice," which is regarded as one of considerable po- litical importance." The JInstcr of the Buckhonnds goes out of oflice on a ehanije of ministry. MASTER OF THE CEREMONIES.— An office insti- tu'ed at the Court of England in 1003, for the more honorable reception of Ambassadors and persons of distin<-tion. The same term was afterwards extend- ed beyond die Court, by beintr applied first to Beau Naslu the famous '■^Miislerof the Ceremonies," or President of the amusements at Bath, and then to other persons exercising the same function in ordin- arv ;isscnd)ru'S. MASTER OF THE HORSE.- The lliird great officer of the Court, who lias the suiierintendence of the Royal Stables, and of all horses iinil breeds of horses befongiiig to the (^ueen. He exercises authority over iill the Equerries ami Pages, (Jrooms, Coach- men, Saddlers, and Farriers, and has tlie appointment MASTER OF THE SWORD. 285 MATHEMATICS. and conlriil of all arliticirs workinp; for the Qufcn'H slahlcs. Ill' is answcnihlc for the (lislmrwiiicnt of all revenues appropriated to defray the expenses of Ids Deparlriieiil ; hid his aeeoiiiits arei^iidiled and ex- andned liy the iJoard of Green Cloth, lie lias the privilei;e of niakini; iis<! of the royal horses, jiaftes, and servants, and rides next to her Majesty on all stale occasions. The olllce is one of ijreal antiipiity, and is considered to hi' a ])osition of <;reat honor. The Master of the llorse is appointed dnrinf; pleas- ure, hy letter-patent; but his teiuire of olllce depends on the existence of the political parly in power. Tlie salary is t'3..')(IO a vear. MASTER OF THE SWORD.— A citizen employed to iiistnicl in the use of llie sMiall-swnrd, liroad-swnrd, and liayon<'t, at the U. S. .Mililary Academy. He is willioul rank, but wears a luiiforni of the fijllowing pattern : C(Mit — Double-breasted frock, two rows of but- tons of the General Staff of tlie Army, seven in each row. Ovireoitt. — Same as prescribed for a Second Lieutenant, dismounted. /'iiiitiil'">iin Dark lilue, plain, (.'fill — Chasseur ])atlern, with Icllers .M. A. in silver, encircled hy a wreath in i;old on the front. Sword iiiul Sir'inl.hdt — Same as jjrescribed for Lieu- tenants of Infantry. He is permitted to wear the dark-blue sack-coat prescribed for Army officers, Willi the Inittons of the General StafT. MASTER TAILOR.— A compelent tailor, attached to each regiment, who has been, if a soldier, pro- nounced by a Board of Seri;eant Master Tailors lo be eflicieul and well up to his work, or who has been instructed in the art of tailorini; at the Gov- ernment Clothing Establishment, Pindico. A civil- ian tailor may volunteer for the situation; and if so, he will have to pass an examination at the Royal. Army C^lothini; Depot, ami be enlisted as a Sergeant Mas- ter Tailor MASTIC. — A species of gum-resin yielded by the mastic or lentisk tree {pi'ntaefa lentisciir>, natural or- der tfrebinthacfjx). It oozes from cuts made in the bark, and hardens on the stem in small round tear- like lumps of a straw-color, or if not collected in time, it falls on the ground ; in the latter state it ) acquires some impurities, and is consequently less i valuable. The chief use of this gum-resin is in j making the almost colorless varnish for varnishing prints, maps, drawings, etc. It is also used by dentists for stoiipiug hollow teeth, and was formerly j used in medicine. It is imported in small quanti- i ties, chiefly from the Morocco coast, but some is occasionally brought from the south of Europe. The name of mastic is also given to oleaginous ce- ments, composed of about 7 parts of litharge and 93 of burned clay, reduced to fine powder, made into a paste with linseed oil. MATADOR. — A long, narrow sword with a cross- bar. The toreador, on foot, tights with this sword anil kills the bull. MATAFUNDA. — An ancient machine of war, which was used for throwing stones, probably by means of a sling. MATCH. — The name given to a material, such as cotton, hemp, tow, etc., which is rendered combus- tible by being dipped or soaked in some ignitible so- lution-. There are two kinds of match familiar to the artiller3'man. quick-match and shnc-match. Quick- match is made of different-si/,ed threads- vis: four-, si.x- and ten-thread — soaked in a solution of gunpow- der, mixed with gum arable and water in a l)oiling state, and of such consistency that the thread shall be thoroughly coated with it; it is then wound on reels, and gunpowder sifted on it. If it be stifT, and has the coating of powder perfect over the surface, it is serviceable. If it has been bruised or twisted and the coating of powder removed, it is unservieea- able. It is largely used for priming fuses, etc. Slow- match is made of slightly twisted hempen rope, soak- ed in lime-water and saltpeter, and then dried, or it can be prepared by washing the hemp in a lye of water and wood ashes. It burns at the rate of one yard in eight hours, and is used for lighting port- fires, etc. MATCHLOCK. The name formerly given to a siriall-.-iiiM or musket. The earlii'st muskets were llri'd hy irieans of a piece of slow-match applied by Hie hand lo Ihe touch-hole. An imiiroveriient on this mode of ignition was made at the end of tlic fourleenlh century by a lock being attached to the musket which held the match, and by firessure ap- jilied to the trigger of Ihe lock, it" brought the lighted match down on the powder-pan and thus ignited tin; priming powder. This mode of ignition cause<l the musket to be called the iniitcldrjck. See Lock. MATE GRIFFON.— An ancient machine, the de- stroyer and terror of the Greeks, which projected both stones and darts. MATERIEL.— The expression, "materiel of artil- lery," embraces all cannon, carriages, implements, ammunition, etc., necessary for artillery purposes, and is used in conlradistinclion to " fersunntl of ar- lillrri/," which refers to the othcers and men. The expression, " xi/sliiii af firtilliry," tvU-th to the char- acter and arrangement of the materiel of artillery, as adopted b)' a nation at any particular epoch. In the Lnited States' service, the term " ordnance and ord- nance stores," embraces not only all the muteriel of arlillery, but the swords, small-arms, and accoutre- ments used by inf;;ntrv and mounted troops. MATHEMATICAL INSTRDMEMTS.— Those instru- ments employed in the determination of the length of lines or the size of angles. Pairs of compasses, surveying-chains, etc., are examples of the former class; while the compass, sextant, theodolite, and the numerous list of astronomical instruments gener- ally denominated telescopes, including the equatorial transit instrument, mural circle, etc., form the latter class. The more important of these instruments will be treated of under separate heads. MATHEMATICS.— The science which has for its subject-matter the properties of magnitude and num- ber. It is usually divided into Pure and Mixed; the first including alljdeductions from the abstract, self- evident relations of magnitude and number; the second, the results arrived at by applying the prin- ciple so established to certain relations found by ob- servation to e.tist among the phenomena of nature. The branches of Pure >fathematics which were first; developed were, naturally. Arithmetic, or the science of number, and Geometry, or the science of quantity (in extension). The latter of these was the only branch of mathematics cultivated by the Greeks, their cumbrous notation opposing a barrier to any effective progress in the former science. Algebra, or the science of numbers in its most general form, is of much later growth, and was at first merelv a kind of universal arithmetic, general sjTiibols taking the place of numbers; but its extraordinary develop- ment within the last two centuries has established for it a right to be considered as a distinct science, the Science of Operations. Combinations of these three have given rise to Trigonometry and Analytical Oeoniftry. The Differential and Integral Calculus makes use of the operations or processes of geometr}-, algebra, and analysis indifferentlj' ; the Calculus of Finite Differences is in part included under algebra, and may be considered as an extension of that science : and the Calculus of Variations is based upon the Differential Calculus. The term " Mi.xed Mathematics" is calculated to lead to error; "Applied Mathematics" is a more appropriate name. This portion of mathematics iacludes all those sciences in which a few simple axioms are mathematically shown to be sufficient for the deduction of the most import- ant natural phenomena. This definition includes those sciences which treat of pressure, motion, light heat, sound, electricity and magnetism — usually called Physics — and excludes chemistry, geology political economy, and the other branches of science' MATRAS. 286 UAUSER BIFLE. which, however, receive more or less aid from ma- thematics. MATRAS. — An ancient bolt or arrow with a round disk or head, which killed witliout piercing. It was ofteuer used for the chase than in war, and was es- pecially useful in bringing down such beasts as the iumter might wish to preserve with the skin uniu- jureil. MATRON. — A woman, generally the wife of some well-behaved soldier, who is employed to assist in the hospital, do the washing, etc. The matrons are under the direction of the Surgeon and are originally ajijiointed bj' this officer. MATROSS. — A name formerly given to an artillery- man. In the early organization of the British ar- tillery, there were only two-lraiued artillerymen per gun ; they consisted of a gunner and his mntr or matrass. It was in the year 1T83 that the term gun- ner was substituted for that of matross. It would appear from this that the mate, or matross, was in fact a gimuer. Another explanation of the word is as follows : A man whose business it is to be in the train of artillery, next the gunners, to assist them in loading, tirius. and sponging the guns. MATTER.— From a pliysical point of view, mat- ter is anything tliat can affect the senses, or that can exert, or be acted on hy force. The existence of matter, in the sense of substaace, has been doubted by many Philosophers, including some of the great- est of Experimenters. Indeed, as we can know matter only by the forces it exerts, it is obvious that the supposition of mere geometric points, capable of exerting force (technically called centirsvffvn-f), will as satisfactorily account for all observed phenomena as any other idea of the ultimate nature of matter. Here, however, we are dealing with a question con- fessedly beyond the reach of experiment, and be- longing to the domain with which metaphysics pro- fesses to deal. Although experiment cannot lead to a knowledge of the ultimate nature of matter, it , may lead to important discoveries as to the arrange- ment of the molecules of different bodies, and their similarity or dissimilarity. Some of the questions to which we may expect an answer, though not a speedy one, have already been mentioned in the article Fokce ; but in order to render intelligible the short account which we intend to give of some very interesting ideas recently propounded by Gra- ham, it will be necessarj- to repeat some of them. The old idea of the transmutation of metals impli- citly contains the assumptinn that all kinds of matter are. ultimately one. Far from being a startling as- sumption, this is the simplest and most easily con- ceived notion we can entertain on the subject; and it offers a remarkably simple explanation of that extraordinary property of matter which Newton proved by careful experiments, that the weight of a body depends only on the quantit\-. not on the qualit_y of the matter that composes it. One idea, then, of matter is, that the atoms (or smallest parts, what- ever these may be) of all bodies are identical, but that the molecules (each of which is a single atom, or a definitely arranged group of atoms) differ from one body to another. Thus (to take an instance merely for explanatiim, not as at all likely to be cor- rect), if hydrogen be supposed to consist of the simple atoms of matter; o.xygen, each mohcide of which is 8 times as heavy as one of hydrogen, may have each molecule formed of 8 elementary atoms, arranged in a group such as the corners of a die; carbon, () times as heavy per molecule, might be coniijosed of fl sim|)le atoms grouped as at the corners of an octoliedron; and so on. It is obvious that here each atom must be supi)Osed capable of exerting force on every other. This leads us natur- ally to speculations as to the medium through which this force, if it be exerted at a distance, is projja- gated ; and then we have introduced matter of a more refined character than oursujiposed elementary atoms. This ditlicullv has suggested to various Pliilosophers the idea that there is no actio in distans, that all pressure, for instance, in a gas is due to in- cessant impacts of its particles upon each other and upon the containing vessel. But from various ex- perimental results, we know that this species of mo- tion is capable of being transferred from one body to another, of being increased or diminished by change of temperature, and is, in fact, Iicdt itself, one form of kinetic energy. This, if there be no ultimate difference between kinds of matter, could never be the cause of their apparent difference. Hence, in Graham's view, though all ultimate atoms are identical in substance, Ihey have special motions of their own, by which one is distinguished from an- other, these motions not being capable of transfer from one atom or group of atoms to another. It is difficult to conceive energy in such a form as not to be transferable, so that we refer the reader to Gra- ham's own papers for the further development of his theory- remarking, in conclusion, that no theory of the nature of matter can be considered as at all complete till it account for the mutual action of separate atoms ; for this the existence of a continuous material medium in space would seem to be neces- sary ; and this, in its turn, would, if accepted, enable us to dispense with the idea of atoms. In con- nection with this, we may mention that Sir William Thomson has shown that mere heterogeneity (wliich we know exists in matter)- together with gravitation, is sufficient to explain all the apparently discordant laws of molecular action ; matter being supposed, in this theor}', to be continuous but of varying den- sity from point to point. MATTOCK. A pioneer tool, resembling a pick-axe, but ha vim; two broad, sharp edges instead of points. MATTUCASHLASH— An ancient Scotch weapon, sometimes called Armpit Dagger, which was worn under the armpit, ready to be used on coming to close quarters. This, with a broad-sword and shield, com- pletely armed the Highlanders. MAUL. — A heavy beater, or hammer, usually shod with iron, u.sed in driving stakes, etc. That fur- nished from arsenals has a cylindrical head of wood, 6 inches in diameter and 8 inches long, with an iron band around each end. The handle is 24 inches long and 1.. 5 inch in diameter. Weight 10 lbs. Thismaul, as issued, owing to poor material and favdty con- struction, is of but little value. AVliere much ser- vice is required, it is better to make the head of tough, hard wood, with a handle considerably larger tlian the one of regulation pattern. MAUSER RIFLE.— The Mauser is a modification of the C'hassepiM system, by which it is adapted to the use of the metallic gas-check cartridge, and has been adopted by the Prussian Government as a substitute for the needle-gun. In the drawing, II represents the housing or receiver attached to the barrel bj- the usual form of screw at its forward end, and to the stock at its rear end by a tang-serew, which pene- trates through the stock to the trigger-guard. The general form of the receiver is a tube cut away at different points for the reception of the parts that work in and are attached to it. The breech is closed by a bolt called the breech-bolt, which contains the firing-pin, and other parts necessary to the operation of locking and cocking. The principal part of the breech-bolt is the tube, K. The rib, w, on the exte- rior of this tube, known as the locking-tube, is for the purpose of locking into the space cut away in the receiver between/and/, to enable the breech- bolt to sustain the force of the discharge. The ends of this ril) licing made quite oblique to the axis of tlie bore, or rallier of s])iral form, and the ends of the cut being moreover made to correspond, the breech-liolt is screwed forward against the cartridge when it is locked in loading. By this arrangement the cartridge is not onl}' forced into its place in the chaml)er, should there be imdue resistan(%', but ac ciilental explosions which might arise from striking the head of the cartridge directly when the bolt is MAXIMILIAN TOWERS. 287 HAXIHILIENNE. Hlinviil f(.ru:iri|, :in- avoided. Tlifi tliumb-picce, hg, is lUhn'lii'il to lliis rill for tlii' jiiirpoHcof workin;; the l)rrccli-l)olt. The lircccli-boll is li'riniii:ili'(l in tlic si'piinilc picci-, /■ ft /■. ]{y vviiy of (li'siiriiiition, lliis pic<'c is ("illc<l the holl-licail. Thi' forwarri por- tion liiis 11 sinnll rounil lioli- for llic point of the firing- pin; the tcnnon wliicli cnli-rs tlic locI<ini;-tiil)e, 1ms nil ovul liolit, llml l)('ing the sliiipc of tlic cross-sce- tioii of tlic firinn-pin vvliicli passes tlirougli it.. Tin; cxiractor-liook is ultaclicil to tlic side of the bolt- head Ijy means of a dovelail-teniion and works in a over the flange of llie cartridge into its rcccBB in the tiarrel. The screw motion of the lockinK-lidJe ^\vi-n [lower to start the earlridt;e ease sliould it !'dhere to the chandjer. When withdrawn, the ease falls out by slif^hlly tijipintr over the Ijarrel to tlie rifil't. Tlie fol- lowinfi arc some of the princijial weights, dimensions, etc., of the .Manser rifh? and cartridge as adopted for the I'riissian military service : The iiorc is A'A'A inch (\ 1 millimeters j'diameter, and rifh'd witli 4 flat grooves eiinal lo the lands in width ; the depth of the grooves is .01 inch and the twist is from right to left and one " 7} K, <3 corresponding groove cut in the left side of the well j of the receiver. The stud, A. lits into the notch of the rib, and is the means of uniting these two parts longitudinally, at the same time their motions aromid \ their common a.xis are inilependent of each other. The lower front corner of the coeking-piece, s p ». ' catches against the nose of the sear, ii s, and Jiolds the tiring-pin at full-cock when the holt isshovcd for- ward and the breech is closed. It has also a groove, I into which the nose of the sear projects when the I tiring-pin is pushed forward. The projection, d, [ works in a cut in the receiver. II, and thereby pre- vents the firing-pin from turning. A projection fits into a correspon<iingly shaped cut, in the locking- tube, K, and by the pressure produced by the firing- pin spring keeps the breech-bolt in the locked posi- tion. The firing-pin nut, A .i, secures the cocking-piece to the tiring-jiin. The projection, g. fits into a groove, and is thereby prevented from unscrewing. The parts marked, n f. and a .<, are the sear-spriug and sear combined in one piece. This piece is attached to the lower side of the receiver by ascrew : the |ior- tion through wliicli the screw passes serves as the ramrod-stop. The trigger, a z, is pivoted to the sear, and is composed of an arm and tinger-piece. Fig. b, shows the Hring-pin, and its spiral spring, made <if squnrc instead of round wire. The port ions in front and rear of the siiriui; are made oval in cross-section . to prevent the pin from turning in locking. The re- 1 enforce, t. forms a shoulder for the spring to press against. The main drawing represents the firing- pin in the position of resting on the head <if the cart- ridge after firing. As the piece is brought to the position of full-cock in loading, an improvement has lately been introduced into this arm for locking the firing-pin in case it is not to be tired immediate- ly, and thereby preventing accidental explosions. The motion of the breech-bolt to the rear is limited by the sear, a -i, which works in a groove on flic under side of the locking-tube, K. To remove the bolt en- tirely from the receiver it is only necessary to press on the trigger at the same time that the breech-bolt is pressed back. A recess serves to relieve the strain ou the sear-spring by allowing the nose of the scar to penetrate it. The firing-pin screw, b s, is removed with the fingers (having a milled head) by pushing back the firing-pin and slipping forward the cocking- piece so as to free the projection, g. from its recess. The spring of flic extractor allows the hook to pass turn in 33 inches. The length of the barrel is SS.fl."! inches ; the total length of the rifle without bayonet is .'iS.l.') inches : with l)ayonet, 71.0.5 inches ; weight, without bayonet, 10 pounds; with bayonet, 11. (J pounds. The sight is arranged for a natural point- blank of 300 meters. Tlie movable part is graduateil up to l.OOO meters, some 500 yards fart her tli:in most military rilles. The initial velocity is about 1.400 feet. The cartridge-shell is drawn out in the usual way from a disk of sheet-brass, and is .shown natur- al size. The head is solid, and has an exterior prim- er of the Berdau p;itteru. This distrilmtion of the metal in the lu'ad is somewhat different from that in ordinary solid-head shells, and is such as to give it great strength to resist rujitiire under the pressure of the powder. The interior of the cartridge-shell is covered with a coaling of varnish to prevent the metal from in ting injuriously on the powder-charge. This varnish is applied by means of very ingenious ma(>hines devised and nuide by the I'ratt and Whit- ney Company, of Hartford, Conn. The bullet is patched with bank-note paper, thin and stning, and there is a luliricating-wad between the powder and bullet. The powder-charge is 77 gr:iins- The pow- der for the Mauser rifle differs from all other Prus- sian pow'der. inasmuch as red charcoal instead of black is employed in its manufacture, which is thought to give it greater strength. The s*e and shape of the grain ;ire similar to that of the English musket-powder, known as Curtis and Harvey's No. (i. The bullet weighs 3S() grains. See ''hnimepitt Jit'll' . and Smif/'. ir/it.-*. MAXIMILIAN TOWERS.— Circular buildings 33 feet high, with a mean thickness of wall of (i^ feet : the diameter of the base is 118 feet, and that of the top 110 feet. They are surrounded by a ditch 8 yards wide towards the exterior, and gradually be- coming narrower towards the interior, where it is only four yards wide at the entrance gate. The de- bhiis of the ditches have been employed to construct a glacis, that covers the masonry on the exterior, and gradually falls to the level of the ground in rear. 32 of these towers, from ."iOO to GOO yards apart, have been placed ar<iund Liutz. They are to be connected at the moment of need by a curtain, a ditch, and ;i palisaded covered-way the whole being flanked bv the towers. MAXIMILIENNE.— .\ German fluted armor of the Sixteenth century. Often written Maximilifin. See MHana'se. MAXIM MACHINE-GUN. 288 MAXIMUM CHARGE. MAXIM MACHINE-GUN.— In otlier machine-guns, the feeding and firiu'j: and tlie traversinjj; have to be performed b}' manual power, and, however beauti- fully carried out, the operator in any competition ff)r speed is pretty severly tried; and one operator alone can hardly manipulate the machine at high speed, and in his breathless condition alter its direction to any purpose. Of course, the assistance of another man must be had when the particular magazine from which the rounds are entering the gun is exhausted. The inventor of this gun claims to have achieved a remarkable advance in making the recoil of his bar- rels work the feeding and firing-gear; the operator kneels down quietly behind the breech and directs the barrel at his leisure exactly as he likes. There are clearly more advantages in this than appear at once. First, as noticed above, the heavy work of manipulation is saved ; secondly, the danger of a jamb from a delay or hang lire is obviated, for the obvious reason that as it is the shock of discharge of each round that loads and fires the succeeding oue, when a cartridge hangs fire the gun miist wait for it, as without it there is no motive power to load the next round. This is clearly a very different condi- tion of things from that in other machine -guns, when a man is driving the loading and firing-gear as liard as his strength permits, and when a jamb may be produced by" delay; thirdly, a much greater rate of firing may be attained than by hand-driving gear, viz., 600 rounds per minute, instead of about 200; fourthl}-,the machine may be much lighter, and need not be clamped rigidly, as must be the case when a level handle has to be viotcntly worked on one side of it. The gun may be described as follows : It has a single barrel, arranged in such a way as to recoil slightly in its bearings, the force of recoil of each round acting on the feeding and firing-gear, so as to load and discharge the next round, and so on, round after round, in succession. That is, the force of re- coil extracts and ejects the empty case, brings the next round into position, pushes it home, and cocks and liberates the striker. The barrel recoils 9-16 inch, with its breech held firmly closed. This gives the bullet time to escape and fly about a hundred feet, so that the gases have also abundant time to escape after it has left the muzzle. Then a locking- hook, which has held it close, is opened, and the barrel is stopped, while the breech and extractor run on, carrying the empty case with them. This is ejected, and the succeeding round brought into position by a feed-wheel, when the return stroke, given by a connecting rod, sends the charge home, closing the breech, pushing the barrel forward into a firiiig position, and finally releasing the striker which tires the round. The recoil of this round re- peats tbe above movements, and so on, as long as filled cartridges are supplied and fired. The inventor has made his gun with a 0.4.5 inch bore to fire the service cartridges. He has a pattern of cartridge case which enables him to have a much simpler gun, because he is able to dispense with the recoil of the barrel proper, and work with the breech recoil alone ; but he thinks it wiser to sacrifice what is necessary to enable him to meet all existing con- ditions. " The gun without stand weighs about 60 pounds, a tripod for a man-of-war about 130 pounds, and a C'arriage for field service from about 60 pounds to 200 poimds, according to the requirements of the case. This tripii<l is about three feet high, and the piece from niu/.zleto rear of firing mech;inism meas- ures about 4 feet 1) inches. The gun can be left to move freely by hand for rapid change of position, as in the case of "tor|)edo boats or cavalry at short dis- tances; or it may be clamped and traversed or ele- vated by slow or ()uick n\ovement screws. The car- tridges are fed either from a belt or a drum. The beltls preferred by many. Each band or belt is about 7 feel long, and carries ;3;i3 cartridges, and one belt can be joined on to another, so that a stream of in- definite length can be used with care and attention in placing the boxes containing each belt in position. The drum fits on to the top, and is, we think, a more ordinary and less complete arrangement ; it only holds 96 cartridges, also, and a man would be much more likely to be exposed in changing drums than in arranging the belts, and he would be kept constantly employed ; in fact, one man does not appear to be at all sufficient for the work in rapid firing. When at full speed— 600 per minute— allowing the bullets a velocity of 1,200 feet per second, it will be seen that a stream of bullets is formed, l.'iO feet from bullet to bullet. Should all the men near the piece be killed, the gun will go on firing as long as the supply of am- munition lasts. Under these conditions, the barrel must become very violently heated. Some of our readers are perhaps familiar with the spectacle of machine-gun barrels firing at a much lower rate of speed passing through the different tempering colors of steel. Mr. JIaxim endeavors to provide for this by enclosing the barrel in an outer gun-metal case, which allows a large space between barrel and case to be filled with wafer. Finally he has devised a plan for carrying the smoke of from the muzzle. The natural objections that appear to suggest them- selves are — (1) That the opening of the breech by re- coil is difficult to manage safely at so great a rate. It is thought, however, if it is clearly understood that the breech must remain completeiy closed — in- deed no more opening than any breech-loading can- non during recoil — until it has "reached a point when the bullet is 100 feet awaj-, it will be seen that there is no danger of escape of gas. It would be interest- ing to see what would happen if a bullet lodged in the bore ; but this is an awkward contingency for any machine-gun. (3) It may be objected that a miss-fire stops the firing for the moment, while in many machine-guns it merely involves the failure of one bullet, the cartridge being ejected and the fir- ing going on without interruption. Perhaps the ma- chine can be sent on bj' hand instantly; but we think cartridges for this gun ought to be as free from miss- fires as possible, as the loss of a number of rounds delivered in quick firing must be serious. Alto- gether, the gun is a wonderful design, and one which natiirally attracts much greater interest than almost any piece in tlie same stage of development. The speed of firing, the ease of working, and saving of exposure of men promise great practical advantages, and the extreme neatness of the idea of the automa- tic system, by which each round fires itself and works the gear at exactly the speed that suits its own behavior, is very attractive. See Machine-gun. MAXIMUM. — A term variously employed in Ord- nance and Gunnerj". In ilathematics. maxhninn is the greatest value of a variable quantity or nia2;ni- tude, in opposition to minimnm, the least. More strictly, a maximum issuch a value as isgreaterthan those immediately preceding and following it in a series ; and a minimum is a value which is less than those immediately preceding and following it, so that a function may have many maxima and minima unequal among themselves, as in the case of a curve alternately approacliing and receding from an axis. Traces of the doctrine of maxima and minima are to be found in the works of Apollonius on conic sections. Tbe thorough investigation of them requires the aid of the differential calculus, and even of the calculus of variations. The brothers Bernouilli, Newton, Mac. laurin, Euler, and Lagrange, have greatly distin- guislied themselves in tiiis depiirtment of Mathemat ics. The Hindus have displayed great ingenuitj- in solving, by ordinary algebra, problems of maxima and minima, for which, in Europe, the caloilus was considered lo be necessary. MAXIMUM CHARGE.— By increasing the charge of powder of aliri'-arm, tbegrcaterand (in couscquence of tbe wedging of the unburned grains among each other) the more ililhcult will be the mass to be set in motion ; the space between the front of the charge MAXIMUM KANGZ. 2H0 MAYNAfiD HIFLE. iiiid llie muzzle will %o (liininisliKiI ; iiiuj ii ]itrK<"r nuiiihiT of sriiiiiH will be thrown out iiiiciiiiHiiiiKrd. It is cviilciit, therefore, timt the elTect of ii eharne of powder oil a projectile should not inerense with the size of the clmr^ic; and experiment bIkiws that be- yond aeertaiii point, an increase of <-hari;e is actu- ally accuiupaiiied wilhaloss of velocity. The cliar;;e corresponding to this jjoinl is called the inaxiniuni charj^e. All experience proves that the loii(;er a piece is, in Icrnis of itscaliber, the greater will he the niaximuin charges in jiroportion to the weight of tlu^ l)rojectile. For heavy cannon, lU to 20 calibers long, the inaxiniuni charge may be stateil to be J the weight of the projectile ; and lor light cannon of the same lenglh, i to ij of this weight'; the increase of range for charges above the weight of (he ])ro jectilc, being very Hinall. A charge of .| the weight of the projectile, and a bore of IH calibers, is the most favorable combination that can be made in smooth-bored cannon, to obtain the greatest range with the least strain to th(' carriage. In lh<? early days of artillery, when di'H instead of grained ]iow- der was used in cannon, the weight of the charge was ('(pial to that of the projectile; after the iulro- duclion of grained powder, it was reduced to ij, and in 1740 to \, this weight. MAXIMUM range!— In gunnery, the very extreme range of a |)rojectile either I'rt vacuo or in the air. In the former (were it possible), with a given velo- city, the extreme range of a spherical projectile would be obtained at an angle of 45''; in the latter, with a velocity of 1000 feet per second, the maxi- mum range would be obtained at an angle of about 32"; a 56-lb shot would, under these circumstances, at 32'' elevation, range 5720 yards in the air, and 23,940 yards in tmuo, and at 45°, 20,666 yards in racuo. The maximum range of rifled ordnance is much in excess of that of smooth-bore guns, the 9- inch gun having ranged over 11,000 yaids. MAYHEM. — Wounding is the name sometimes the loss of one of the jaw-tceth.thc ear, or the nose, ' was no Mayhem in common law, becaugc these mcn- bers can be of no use in (igliting. MA YNARD PRIMER. A i>rimr-r made by indenting a sliei-t of pMpir ill ri'gular intervals, tiHiiig each in- denlation with a small f:hargff)f Jiercussion powder, and covering the whole- with another sheet of paper lirnily pasted on. The sheet is then cut into strips, each strip containing 00 primers in a single row, 'and, to protect it from llie moisture, it is covered I with a thick coat of shellac varnish. — See Friction I'rimfrH. MAYNARD RIFLE.- While special attention has bi'eii ji;iid lo llii' m;inufaclure of superior sporting rifles, the interest in rifle shooting at long range, has led lo the invention anil inlroiluclion of what is known as the " New Creedmoor Kifle." in which the acknowledged and superior merits of the May- nard system are introduced, securing convenience, safety, accuracy, and efticiency, all made apjilicable to meet the present demanil for long range practice. The Creedmoor rille is a 32-incli, 44 caliber, special- ly adajited to llic reiiuirenients of the Creedmoor range, and lo which has been ajiplied every facility and appendage which has been found by trial and experience best adapted to secure the most satis- factory results, including ammunition, vernier, and wind-gauge sights, spirit level, and all of superior models and workmanship. All the advantages com- prised in the Creedmoor rifle, have also been applied to a new model mid-range target rifle, 32-incli, 40 caliber, designed and esiiecially adapted for target practice and ordinary ticld-service. This rifle is represented in the drawing, together with two models of targets selected from the large number in possession of the Massachusetts Arms Company, and representing a fair average result for the distance named. The rifle has an elevating peep, adjustable rear-leaf, and Black's combination-sights, and weighs about nine pounds. found in law books for the offense of inflicting on an- other some dangerous hurt or wound; and it has been otherwise described as an aggravated species of bat- tery. A still more aggravated and ;itrocious offense of this kind used to appear in the list of offenses against the criminal law of England under the term of M.w- HEM, which was a violently depriving another of the use of a member proper for his defense, such as an arm, a leg. a linger, an eye, a fore-tooth, and some others; but it was laid down quaintly enough, that One valuable and special feature of the Maynard system is, that it admits of an interchange of barrels of any length or caliber. The manner of attaching the barrel to the stock is very simple and as follows: Push the arm of the lever axis-pin down and for- ward until it stops against the screw which holds it in place, then withdraw it as far as possible; hold the barrel in the left hand, pass the lever down throuiih the breech-piece, hook the barrel on to the axis-screw at the front end, insert the lever axis-pin UcCLELLAN SADDLE. 290 McLean foktkess. through the lever, then turn its arm back to its fas- tening position. No screw-driver rcquiretl. To de- tach the barrel, place the barrel in position as for in- serting the cartridge, then reverse the motions for at- taching. This is a capital gun in the field, and especially on marches through a game countrj-, when it may be desirable to use the weapon either as a rifle or sliot gim. Either barrel can be slipped into the same stock in a moment. The ammunition is peculiar. The strong brass cartridges are loaded at leisure, costing nothing but for the powder and lead, and may be used over and over again for any number of times. One can carry cartridges in his pocket, loaded with different sizes of shot, and slip in and fire any size wanted, for large or small game. The ritie in itself is confined to the central-fire ammunition in each and all of the calibers, excepting the .22, in which the rim-fire ammunition is used ; but, by the application of a simple device rim-fire cartridges may also lie used. See Ilaiky Firing-phi. McCLELLAN saddle.— a saddle used by the Uni- ted States cavalry prior to the advent of the Whit- inaii saddle. This saddle was a great step in advance in its time, and was received with much favor. Its greatest faults were bad bearing surface, too wide in front, like the Mexican, allowing it to slip forward and embrace the tender points of the shoulder-blades; too short in the seat and too wide in front of seat, forcing the rider to an upright position, or the ex- treme "forked seat," throwing the weight of the rider too much over the fore-legs of the horse; a high, sliarp. dangerous pommel, and heavy. See Saddle. McELDERRY MULE-LITTER.— In the operations against the Modoc Indians, in the lava-beds of Ore- gon, the ordinary methods of transport were found unsuitable, and a form of mule-litter, devised by As- ceed the outer limits of the flanks of the pack-ani- mal; a condition adapting it to the passage of nar- row defiles or canyons, or of roads encumbered by vehicles. See Litter. McINTYEE-FUSES.— The time-fuse, shown in Fig. 1, and inserted in the rear of the shell, consists of the brass stock, A; time-fuse B: a brass screw plug, C; and a lead igniting cap, D. Tlie fust composi- tion driven in a paper case is first mscrted m the ® ^ hill ' sistant Surgeon II. ^IcElderry, U. S. Army, proved serviceable and well adapted to the exigencies encoun- tered. The drawing shows the construction of the litter and the manner of using it. When not in use it can bo folded compactly togetlier, so as to permit a load of grain, provisions, etc., to be packed iipon it. When the animal arrives at its destination, the load may be removeil, the litter unfolded, and made availal)l(' for tl\e transportation of the wounded back to the base of supplies. By the use of the adjustable iron support, which raises up over the lower end of the litter, a wounded lower extremity can be sus- pended in the anterior or other splint, and the pa- tient tluis carried witli much greater ease and com- fort than when tlie wounded meinber is simjily laid upon or fixed to the litter. It is used upon tlie aparejo, is well-balanced, and has no tendency to make the animal's liack sore. It is firmly fixed in position by means of an extra-broad horse-luiir girth, as shown in the drawing. The litter weighs, with- out a mattress. r)4 pounds, and like tlie 77/ Htle litter, has the advantage that its width does not much ex- Fig. 1. Fig. 2. stock, the screw-plug with a vertical hole, to one side of its center is screwed to touch the top of the fuse. The igniting cap with its channel of pressed powder composition is then inserted so that the under opening of the channel shall commu'iicate directly with the bole through the screw-cap, which is also filled with the composition. Directly under the projection which rises above the top of the igniting cap is the upper opening to the channel. Before firing, this projection is removed with a sharp knife and the composition thus exposed. The combination-fuse, shown in Fig. 3, is identical with the time-fuse, except that there is inserted in the fuse composition a plunger, whose head is of lead, and whose tapering stem is of brass ; immediately sur- rounding the stem of the plunger is a column of plaster of Paris, between which and the composi- tion is a tube of fusible metal. Should the pro- jectile in which the fuse is inserted strike a resisting object before the fuse composition has burned out, the plunger is thrown forward into the shell, giving the Hame from the burning composition direct ac- cess to powder in shell. See Fuse. McKEEVER CARTRIDGE-BOX.— This box, inven- ted by Captain Samuel McKeever, of the U.S. Army possesses all the requirements and advantages ne- cessary for the military service, and is at present used b}' the United States troops. It is made of leather, is 6 J inches long, 3| inches wide, and H in- ches thick. It is carried on the waist-belt by two loops, opens from the top. the outside half working on a hinge formed by a brass rod running under the box and holding it together. The cartridges are held in webbing loops, ten in each .section of the box, and are readily extracted from the box, a bel- lows arrangement allowing the tops of the cartridges to incline forward when the box is open. It has been improved by the addition of a brass escutche- on, and by making the bellows of russet leather, which is not so liable to corrode the cartridge. This box possesses all the merits of the thimble, or ser- vice belt, which has been highly recommended by many offlcers of the Army, with the additional ad- vantages of protecting the cartridges from the dan- ger of lo.ss, or exposure to dust or moisture. No provision has been made in this box for a screw- driver, but, whenever necessary to carry one, a car- tridge may lie taken out and the screw-driver in- serte d in its place. McLEAN FORTRESS.— This fortress, a section of which is shown in the drawing, is designed to be a permanent structure, or it may be a huge raft, with interior couipartuieuts forsujiplies of all kinds found IIcL£A» MACHINE QUR. 291 V£&S D£VIATIOV. necessary. The raft is to be towcil from plarc to place-, ami when in position in simllow water will rest on the bottom, bein)^ liehl by Imllast or piles, or by auuliors. The fort or raft is to bear two turrets. one within the other, the outside one bein;; station- ary, the inner one rotalinc. the sruns lirinu; through port-holes in the outer turret. The surface of the fort is to be heavily armored, and have quarters and storerooms lic-low tlie armor. McLEAN MACHINE GUN.— This gun, illustrated in lUe (Irawini;, is one in which every detail is made sulionlinate to the one of extreme rapidity of lire. The cartridi^es are in mnsazines at each side of the barrel, and are forced liack l)y their spring followers into asidewise reciprocatins breech slide containing chambers for two cartridges. When one of the cham- bers is in line with the barrel the other is inline with the magazine, and the loaded cartridge pushes out the old shell, the bullet being too large to pass into the slide further than its seat. The cartridge is fired in the slide, the force of the recoil serving to cock the firing-pin so that it is in position for the next shot. The same system is intended to be used with a maga/.ine stnall arm. ])r. McLean has made more varieties of machine-guns than any oilier maker, Imt, in the opinion of the writi-r, lie has sacrificed too much in other directions in order to secure rapidity of fire, and up to this time none of liis working guns have met with more than u moderate degree of success. lie has a number of improvements now in progress which are I'.x- ])i<led to overcome tlie dilficul- ties hitherto experienced. See MtifJilni -(j'lnn. MEALED POWDER. -Gunpow- diT piilviriz<-d by treating with alcohol. It causes compositions to burn readily and quickly. See (liiiij"'irf1f'r. MEAN. As a general term, the medium between two extremes, and is ordinarily understood to be what is known in matliematics as an arithmetic mean. An iirllh- metlr miim l)ctween two numliers is found by adding tlieni togetlier and dividing by two. A iirnmet- rir iiirrni is found by dividing the larger number by the smaller, and taking the sfpiare root, which gives the common ratio; the smaller number multi- [ilied by this ratio, or thegrealer number divided by it, gives the mean. A liitrmunic mcnn is found by achling the reeijirocals of the numbers and dividing by two ; the rcci))r(ica! of the result is the mean. MEAN DEVIATION.— For the same trajectory, the mi'iin defiatidii of a projectile, at a given distance, may be taken as an indirect measure of its accuracy at that distance. To obtain the mean deviatfon; let the piece be pointed at the center of a target sta- tioned at the required distance, and fire a certain number of shots, say ten : and let the position of each shot-hole be measured in a horizontal and ver- tical direction from tlic oriirin of co-ordinates. tak( n at the lower left hand corner of the target. The sum of the distances in each direction diiided liy the number of shots, gives the corresponding co-ordi- nate of the renter nf impact, or the center of the cluster of shots fired. Multiply the horizontal co- ordinate thus obtained by the number of shots wliose ciirres|)onding co-ordinates exceed that of the center of impact ; take the ditferenee between this product anil the sum of the horizontal co-ordinates that ex- ceed that of the center of impact: this difference divided b}- one-half the number of shots fired, will give the 7Hf«rt hi>riziintal detidtian. The mean rerti- C'7i(fcD/at;V/;i is determined in a similar manner. Each of these results may be verified by making the same calculations upon the shots whose co-ordinates are less than the corresponding one of the center of im- pact. The mean absolute drriatimi. which is the average distance of the shots from the center of im- pact, will be the hypothenuse of a triangle whose sides are the mean horizontal and mean vertical tleviations. The successive steps are explained by the following tabulated example: The -|- signs are prefixed after the determination of the center of impact. The foregoing furnishes a measure for the accuracy of fire of the piece and pro- jectile, but it does not afford a measure for marks- manship, the object of which is to direct a projectile so as to strike a given point or surface. In the U. S. Military Service ordinarj' target practice is re- corded by the number of projectiles striking a tar- get of a given size : and when firing for prizes, by the '"string" or sum of the distances of the shots from the point aimed at. each miss counting twenty inches on the string. The shortest string is the one selected. The measure of "marksmanship" now most generally adopted is the " score," or sum of UEAir IMPACT. 292 MEASURING MACHINE. the numbers representing the value of shots plaeed screw having been made witli great care by \Vm. within certain circles described abuut the center of a Sellers & Co., of Philadelphia, it was put into the given target. The size of the target and the radii | engine and was found to give, for a certain number SHOTS, 9. 10., Co-ordinates. Horizontal. Vertical. Feet. Feet. 4-5.60 -1-5.80 -1-5.40 4.95 5.05 4.45 4.85 -1-5.25 -1-5.20 4.75 --6. 00 --5.45 -1-5.35 4..'-0 4.65 +5. 2 J -1-5.18 4.30 -1-5.50 4.00 Sum. Sum divided by 10 gives center of impact Preceding, multiplied: horizontal by 6; vertical by 5.. Sum of the greater co-ordinates Ditference of two preceding lines Divide by 5 for mean deviations Center of imp.act ; horizontal multiplied by 4 ; Sum of lesser co-ordinates Difference of two preceding lines Divide bv 5 for mean deviations vertical by 5. 51.53 49.90 5.158 4.99 30.918 34.95 32.23 27.70 1.312 2.75 .262 .55 20.613 24.95 19.30 23.20 1.312 2.75 .262 .55 Mean absolute deviation., .609 feet. of the circles depend upon the distance, the number assigned to corresponding circles being the same for all distances. MEAN IMPACT — The point of mean impact on a horizontal target is the intersection of the lines of mean range and mean lateral deviation; and on a vertical target, it is the intersection of the lines of mean vertical and lateral deviation. MEAN RADIAL DISTANCE.— The relative precision of small arms is decided by what is termed the irwan radial distance of the shots from the center of the group on the target. To determine it, find the point «/ mmre mpac«,and measure the absolute distance of each sliot from it. Divide the sum of these distances by the number of shots on the target. MEASURE OF UNIFORMITY.— In'gunnery, the reg- cu.arity in the velocity given by a numberof consec- utive rounds. It is calculated as follows: Take the mean observed velocity, and from this deduct the difference of each round, and divide the sum of thedilTerences bv tlie number of rounds tired. MEASURING MACHINE.— The need of an instru- ment for I he purpose of determining dimensions by difference from verified standards has Ijeen felt in all well-regulated engineering, tool, and machine shops. The screw operated by awheel with gradu- ated periphery, has been in use for many years, and was broughtto ahigh degree of jKTfection by White- worth in Kngland, ami otiiers. It may be siud that, with ])roper safeguards in its use, it "is sufHciently accurate for all practical purposes. It is doubtful if a screw of [jerfeetly uniform pitch tliroughout any considerable length can be made. The attimipt to compensate for this variability of pitch is frequent- ly made by various devices. An interesting means of doing so is shown in tho dividing engine al the Frankford Arsenal. A new of turns, a greater length than the nominal pitch of its thread indicated. To counteract this an inclined plane was attached to the engine, upon which a weighted lever secured to the nut runs up or down as the nut traverses the screw in opposite directions. The effect, as it runs up the plane, is to back the nut a small fraction of the distance it would otherwise travel, and thereby compensate for the error of the pitch, and rire fersa. If the pitch were absolutely uniform throughout the length of the screw this would leave nothing to be desired from a mech<anical point of view, but when the pitch varies from inch to inch, as is nearly always the case, instead of an in- clined plane, the corrective element of the engine would have to be a surface having a series of eleva- tions and depressions to correspond to the varia- tions of the pitch, a result only to be attained by a "cut and try" process, alike tedious and expensive, and of only approximate accuracy. It coukl not be depended upon for small fractional parts of the inch, .say 0.0003 inch, or more or less, such as are daily brought into use. Short screws, or portions thereof, may be quite uniform, or so nearly so that the error can be safely disr2garded, or an allowance made for it. These considerations have led to the adoption at arsenals of the plan of obtaining certified stamlards of length, diameter, etc., in suitable forms and meas- uringiby difference from them, tlie <ibjeet under exaiiiinatidu as jiroposed by Mr. llichards. These st:ui(lar(ls differ liy convenient fractions of an inch from one another, and by using the nearest one to the object whose; dimensions are required, only a very short screw is necessary. The drawing sliows the form of a Measuring Maeliine much used in ar- senals. Tlu-se machines are niad<' <if various si/.es. are adjusted for absolute measurement of dimeu- MEASURING-STAFF. 29;- HECHANICAL MANEUV££S. sions within their rangf, and htp rorrort within a limit (if (IMC tcn-th()HSiiM(lth of iin iriili. Tliis \n the usual limit of iiceunicy f'lr cyliiKlriciil j^uagcH, and sufficiently precise for all practical i)iirp(jse8. Tliese biscuits were first introduced into Britain from Amcr- irii l)y Mr. IJordrn.in tlie yeurlH/jl. Tlicy havi- been spoken highly of by medical men as food, and arc still made to "a limited extent; but one purpose they miuliincs will imlicate, by means of vernier attach- ment, variation.^ to one twenty-tivc-tlioiisandtli of iin incli, or even less ; but mrmciring and iiidiiyiting are very (lilTcrcMt tliimjs. although generally confounded. Sec h' iiitf/i . MEASURING STAFF.— An instrument employed in tlie inspccliim (if cannon. It consists of a stuff of steel or inm, in jointsof suitable lengths, connected together by screws. Each joint is provided with a light brass'disk. D, the diameter of which is .O.'i in- ches less than that of the bore. Through tlie center of the disk there is a liole which tits upon the shoulder at the joint; the whole is so arranged that wlien the joints are screwed together the disks between them are held firmly in place, while the length of the staff is not affecte(l by them. A steel point is screwed on to the end. When pushed to the bottom of the bore, the staff coincides very nearly with its axis. The outer joint is graduated to inches and tenths. A slide, S, is made to play upon it with a vernier scale, graduated to hundredths of an inch. On the inner end of the slide, a branch, B, projects at a right angle, sutHciently long to reach across the muzzle-face, and, when in contact with it, to indicate the precise length obtained from that point to the end of the measuring-point on the other end of the staff. The instrument is introduced until the point reaches the bottom of the bore, and the branch placed so that it takes across the mazzle-face, and the reading shows the length of the bore of the gun. See Inspection of Ordruince. MEAT BISCUIT. — A preparation of the substance ol meat combined with a certain quantity of flour, and made into the form of biscuits, by which process the nutritive qualities of the meat are preserved for any length of time. One way of preparing these biscuits is as follows: Large pieces of beef are placed in a quan- tity of water sufficient to cover them, and are sub- jected to slow ebullition. The fat being skimmed off, evaporation is allowed to take place, until the liquid is about the consistency of syrup, when it is mixed with fine wheaten flour, rolled out to the thickness of ordinary ship-biscuit, cut into any shape required, baked, and dried in the ordinary manner. Onepound of biscuit usually contains the soluble parts of h lbs. of meat and half pound of flour. The meat biscuits can be eaten like ordinary biscuits:but boiled in about twenty times their own weight of water for half an hour.with the usual condiments, they make an excel- lent soup, and for this they are chiefly intended. Meat were first intended to serve — that of preserving the animal food of South America fand Australia— has since been more effectually done by other and simple means. MECHANICAL GUN CARRIAGES.— The first of all considerations as to the muunliiig of a battery is, that it should admit of the utmost possible rapidity of fire, united with accuracy of aim. It is impor- tant to secure the greatest possible ethciency of the weapon under the conditions in which it is required to be em])Ioycd. The duty of iiroviding the most perfect means of working guns seems to be second only in importance to that of adopting the best ma- terial, form, and construction for the gun itself. Of two similar guns, that which can fire the greatest number of rounds in a given time is certainly more effective, and rapidity of fire depends more on the gun-carriage and convr?niences for loading, than upon any peculiiirity attaching only to the gun. Owing to the increase in the size and power of ordnance since the introduction of armor, gun-carriages have gradually become elaborate machines; and mechani- cal science, in the hands of experts, has produced carriages and slides which enable the heaviest guns to be easily, accurately, and safely worked in cramped positions. Thegreat superiority of wrought- iron to timber as a material for gun-carriages is now universally acknowledged. The principal re- quirements of mechanical carriages are powerful moving-machinery so contrived as to be unaffected by the concussion of firing; self-acting controlling gear, almost independent of human carelessness; the gradual absorption of, rather than rigid resistance to shocks; the dispersion of concussions over large sur- faces; and smoothness and ease of motion in every direction, and safety under all conditions. Guns mounted on the di.sappearing principle, are arranged to drop when fired into a position in which they can be loaded under cover, and from which they are only raised when required again to deliver their fire. In this system the gun must not only be loaded while lowered and under cover, but it is usually fitted to be trained and aimed while there, by in- direct methods, such as by telescopic apparatus adapted to the gim's axis, and so arranged that it can enable an observer to look over and above the cover. MECHANICAL MANEUVERS.— The mechanical ma- neuvers iire the applitation of machines and of mechanical powers for mounting, dismounting, mov- ing, and transporting artillery. The implements and machines required for the various operations depend upon the kind and weight of the piece and the na- ture of the maneuver to be performed. In every case the minimum numljer of each is used. When much work is to be done, due allowance must be made for wear and tear, which, with heavy material, is verv considerable. Sound discretion should be MECHANICAL MANEUVERS. 294 MECHANICAL MANEUVEBS. exercised not to allow the wearing to go beyond the limit of safety. Those now used'for siege-pieces are such as can be found in most localities : the rollers, chocks, and, if necessary, the hand-spikes being readily shaped from sections of trees. The follow, ing is a list of the implements generally used when maneuvering siege-pieces : Implements. g £ 5 5 i is 1 Remarks. Handspike... . Loni: roller Short roller. Gun-chock Wheel-chock... Roller-chock... Shifting-plank. Trace-rope. Inch. 84 42 18 3.6 7 67 360 ;inch. Inch. Lb. Oz. 12 25 12 6 a 4 1 48 8 8 2 4 .55 6 7 2.75 6 5 12 r'nd r'nd r'nd 3.5 3 2.25 1.25 (■Grooved V inch < de^p iu the ( middle. Wedj^e-shape. fSectlon a tri- 1 angle. Top '' rounded ?4 of i an inch. /Ends beveled on \ opposite sides. I Sometimes call- -j ed monkey 156 ( wrench. "Made of round iron 0.75 in. in diameter, with at each end ; length of links 5 inches. In every case the wooden handspike is required, and the following general directions for its use are given. Six are the number generally used. When men on opposite sides of a piece apply themselves to a handspike, the handspike used is tliat of one of the where square handspikes could not be used. When a handspike rests on a fulcrum, and tlie weight on one end is to be raised by bearing down on the other, the weight should never rest on the beveled side, as the handspike would not then give a good hold, and would be liable to split. In this case the beveled side should be down. But if used for lifting, as when two handspikes are crossed under tlie breech or chase of a gun to heave it upward, their ends resting on the ground or platform, the beveled side should be up. Two or more men, lifting or hauling together, must wait for the command before exerting their strength. The gunner sees that all are ready before giving the command heave. Then all move with a prompt but steady effort, and apply their jiower in- creasingly until the weight responds to their effort. The gunner will repeat the command heave as often as it may be necessary. When the movement has been sufficiently made, the gunner commands : Ease Away. Those making the effort will then desist ; but in doing so will be careful to avoid all sudden shocks or strains. Every operation should be done with spirit and animation, but without bustle or con- fusion. Vigilance should be constantly exercised to have the piece or rollers securely chocked. The limber of a siege-piece makes a powerful lever, and may be advantageously used in manj' cases. The pole is raised and the pintle engaged in a sling around the weight to be raised. The pole is hauled down by a trace-rope attached to the eye. The machines and appliances usually employed for moving heavy artillery : Ropes, blocks and tackle, gins, hydrauiic-jacks, sling-carts, casemate truck, truck-wagon, railway truck, cradle, gun-lift, capstan, derrick, shears, blocks and skids, hand-cart, blocks Cwhole, half, and quarter), way-planks, pinch-bars, mortar-wagon, collar. These, with the implements even numbers ; the man to whom it belongs is at the smaller end, the corresponding odd number at the I)uttend; those who assist place tliem.selves inside of these two numbers ; the lowest numbers nearest the ends. When two or more men wcjrk at the same eiiil of a haiulspike, the man to wliom it belongs is at tlie end, and theotlicr men in the ascending order of their numliers from liiin. When several hand- spikes are crossed at the muzzle in order to raise or lower it, they are applied in theorderof thenumliers of the men to whom tliey belong. tliose of the liighest numbers nearest to the trunnions. The handspikes used in the mechanical maneuvers are beveled on one side, as these will enter into places or under bodies used in the mechanical maneuvers with .siege pieces are sutlicient to manage the heaviest pieces of ar- tillery in all cases which ordinarily present them- selves in service. All implements and machines, be- fore being used, should be most carefully examined in every detail, to see that they are serviceable and suitable for the operation to be performed. None should be put to uses for which they are not intended, nor subjected to strains tliey are not constructed to bear. It must be borne in mind that the giving way of one part breaks and destroysothcrjiarts. frequent- ly to an extent not readily repaired, and, furthermore, endangers tho.se working at the maneuver. Heavy weights must never be allowed to drop, even for the MECHANICAL MANEUVERS. 295 MECHANICAL HANEUVE&8. Bhortcxt dintnncPH ; tlicy must he loworefl to rest Willi 11 uriillr inotioii. mill ill llii' Hiiiiic time clidckitil t(i prcvcnl nilliiii,' nr siidiiif;. In lioisliiiir. tlicy iiiiist, wlicii |)riicli<"il)lr, be closely follciHcd up with Mocks mill chocks 111 fiiinnl ii;;iiiiist any ])ossililc);ivin;; way. All motions willi licavy lioilics iiiiisl lie slow, sous not lo (jcncralc inoiiiciiluiii. Suiiiiorls miist liiivc a firm base, luiil s<iitrolilin;; a level foundation.'and be liiiill up verlicully. All holdfasts inubt be secure be- yiinil possibility of fiiviiij; way. 'I'hc iiiancwver of the various service pieces are de- tailed in the Tactics. Within th(^ limits of tliis ar- licli' we will ('Online our dcHcriplions to some f;ene- rid maneuver.s and appliances, the details of which will cover the uriiund of the whole subject. 1. To mmr it i/iin hi/ ndtiiiii it I'liice a skid under the rear of the trunnions, and aniillKT under the middle of the chase, and mil the i;iiii over. By inclinint; the skids and cultinj; the muzzle it may lie moved in dif- ferent directious. lu rolling heavy guns it is most convenient to use two collars of wood or cast-iron of equal diameters (one on the breech, the other on the muzzle), larj;e enough to allow the trunnions to turn without striking the ground. A rope used as a jiarlmckle is the best metiiod of rolling a gun. To do this, place the gun on skids, and attach the rope by a bowline to one of the trunninus. passing it un- der and around up over the gun, and hauling on the end. If the gun is to be rolled up aslope, two ropes, of size suitable to the weight of the gun, are used. An end of each rope is made fast to some fixed object at the upper part of the slope: the other ends are carried under the chase and body respectively, and up over the gun: tliese ends are hauled iipnn by iMcans of a capstan, or by attaching to them a fall and tackle. The muzzle is slued forward by pinch- ing with bars, or by means of a rope and tackle at- tached to a roller or skid thrust into the muzzle. The iiiece is lowered b\' inverse means. 'i. T'l xh ft, II gunfrDin the truniiion-holeK to iti travel, ing-hi'il. — Limber up ; remove the cap-squares and chock the wheels front and rear: place the short roll- er under the reinforce: allacb the trace-rope at its j middle to the cascabel by two half-hitcbes; cross two handspikes under the one in the bore; lift and push at the muzzle, and haul on the rope until the trun- nions are over their travelling position: raise the cha.se.bring forward the roller to the head of the stock and lower the chase upon it; raise the chase again; remove the roller, and lower the chase upon the I stock; take off the rope; replace the cap-Bquarcs; in- sert the elevating scri'W from below, and laKJi it. If I a lifting-jack can be used, place it under tlie swell of ' the muzzle ; raise the chase ; place a half-block on the head of the slock; take a second lift, and place two rollers on the slock, on(^ just in rear of tin- trun- nion, the olher under the reinforce; chock the lattc-r toward the muzzle, and remove the half-block: haul on the ro]ic atlaclicd to the cascabcl, and bring the breech over the bolsl<T; chock the rear roller; place the jack under the muzzle, and remove the rollers. To shift the 'gun from its Iravelling-bed to the trun- nion-holes, chock the wheels front and rear; remove the caii-squares; raise the chase and insert the short roller under the trunnions; attach the rope by its midille to the cascabcl; bear down the muzzle, and, as the piece: rolls forward, guide the trunnions into llieir holes by means of the ro|ie; remove tlie short roller. A hfiwitzer is shifted to and from its Iravel- ing-bed by the same means, except that the liand- ."pike in the bore is chocked above and below for rais- ing the chase, the low<'r chock being placed about IH inches in the bore. The vertical diameter of the short roller should be just forward of the rinibases. '.i. 'I'll inure mil! liiinilU- liriity (/iihh irith ii triirk iiiul traiairiiy. The ease with which heavv loads are moved when loaded on an firdinary railway-car, on a smooth, rigid, unyielding track, ascompare<l with other means of conveyance, has led to the adoption of this mode of transportation whenever the work to be done will justify the e.xiiense of preparing the roadway iind laying down the track. It is thought that this means of tninsportation might be madea- vailable for the transportation of LO-incli guns and other heavy loads in and about our ]iermanent works; that a temporary portable track might be provided capable of supporting as great a weight as that of a l.'i-inch gun. and could be laid down readily without much preparation of the road-bed, in nianj- [jlaces none at all,!ind furnished at a small expense! A four- wheeled truck of simple construction, strong enough to sustain a weight of tweuty-tive Ions, could be con- structed at a cost not much greater than that of a cradle, but could be moved with far greater ease and much greater celerity. This idea elaborated, and proposed as the best, for transporting l.'i-inch guns over moderately even ground. For this purpose, under the above mentioned conditions, it will com- mend itself for its simplicity, efficiency, and economy. In foundries, an<l special locations in permanent works, there are positive advantages attending the lise of iir&r/iead tramways, within'ccrtain limits of weight and strain. The excellent machinery in this line made by Edwin Harrington <fc Son. and adopt- ed by the United States Government, has demon- strated that there is an actual saving of 50 per cent, in the cost of labor, and little liability to accident, by the use of such a system. Two men can handle a large casting of 2, .WO lbs. with great ease, and rais- ing it clear of other heavier articles in the path or on t he floor, avoid the necessity of moving or handlincr the latter. Fig. 1 shows a simple form of turn-fable for an overhead track. The load is revolved by means of a hand-gear and pinion ojierated by a wheel and chain: the table can be adjusted to anyre(|uired numlier of tracks that will allow the load, when once raised, to be transported to any desired point with safety and dispatch. The carrier truck c;innot be run off from any track, except on to the turn-table, and when on the turn-table it cannot be run off ex- cept on to some one of the tracks. When connec- tion is made with any track, the table is securely locked in position, thcreliy preventing all pessibility of accident. Fig. '2 shows the construction of the most approved geared truck. The ordinarj- truck, when constructed of one or more wheels, and run by pushing or pulling the load at the lowerend of the cage or sling, is very liable to lurch or jump, espe- cially if running around a curve, often causing lireak- agc of the chain or rope, as may be in nse,"besides HECHANICAL UAN£UT£RS. 296 HECHANICAL UANEUVEHS. being a source of great annoyance to persona that may be on the floor over the truck. The geared truck obviates all this, and one man can run the heaviest load required with case on a straight rail or round a curve, stopping and starting at any desired point, the truck running with perfect smoothness and dis- turbing no one. To mount a gun on the surface car, raise it by hj'd- raulic jacks high enough to get the track and car under it : support it by blocks built up imdcr the muzzle and breech ; lay the track between tlie blocks, and place the truck on the track under the gun, tlie trunnions midway between the wheels; lower tlae gun on the truck; or place skidding, one end on blocks built up to the required height to reach the boLster, the other on the ground, and roll the gim up the inclined plane thus formed to its place on the truck. The bolsters are just high enough to permit the gun to be rolled into its place. Four men can laj' down the track a distance of eighty yards in thirty minutes where no grading is required. Four men can transport a 15" gun over level ground, us- ing a capstan, twenty 3'ards in live minutes after it has been mounted, the track has been laid down, and the capstan in position, or tliey can lay down the track and transport the gun twenty yards in fifteen minutes, all of the preparations having been first made. A horse with one double and one single block will move a 1.5" gun as fast as the track can be laid and the tackle shifted, or a pair of o.xen will pull a 15" gun. a dead pull, without the interven- tion of pulley-blocks, the road Iieing level. An in- creased force will be required if the track, instead of being in a level, is on an ascending grade, and pro- Fig. 3. portionately irreater as the angle of the slope increases. Horse-power is the only one recommended, except in very extraordinary cases, where there is a great amount of work to be done and done quickly. 4. 'I'o moKe and nuiunt heatygunn, etc., with blocks, hydraitltc, jwh^, enpntiin, or crab, crndleK, etc. — To move a heavy gun a short distance, raise it on skids, so ihat the trunnions will not touch the ground, roll it over by the pinch-lmrs. chocking the breech and cultinj; the muzzle when necessary. For longer distances, and through narrow entrances, mount it on the cradle, with rollers and shifting-plank under- neath, and if on level ground move it along with pinch-bars or handspikes; if up a ramp, rig the fall and blocks to cradle, crab, and some fixed or well- secured object on top of ramp, and then work it up with the crab, changing the shifting-plank and roll- ers as required. Weston's hoisting crab, with auto- matic safety brake, should be used on every pos- sible occasion. This excellent machine is shown in Fig. 3, and consists of the usual winding barrel, for common rope or chain, driven by manual power, applied to cranks, through two or more spur wheels, the ratio of the gearing being varied in the several sizes of machines, according to the load to be lifted. The lifting is accomplished in the usual manner. The lowering is done with the least possible exer- tion, by winding the handles backwards, and as long as this motion is continued the load will de- scend. The construction of the safety ratchet or brake is such that the load is always self-sustained and cannot run down. The handles cannot recoil on the operator, and if suddenly "let go" at any time, either in hoisting or lowering, the load will quietly come to rest and remain suspended. The smaller size has onl}- a single speed or power ; the larger size, two changes of speed. The capacitj' of either may be increased by the use of a running block in the usual manner. For the purpose of thorough illustration, we will notice the process of mounting a fifteen-inch gtui. The gun is supposed to be in its cradle, the cradle > being blocked up to a level with the skidding that rests one end on the chassis-rail. Each skid is sup- ported near the rail by a crib of heavy blocks piled one on top of the other, three in a crib, and brought to a level with the rail. The cribs, if placed obliquely to the iskidding,will still be stable and support the skidding more in the direction of itslength. lThe ends of the skidding remote from the chassis-rail are supported bj' two double cribs. Each crib is built of three tiers of blocks, alternate ends resting on the lower tier,each pair of blocks parallel to each other and r 6" apart. The cribs are brought to a level with a chassis-rail. To move the gim from the cradle on the skidding, a man with a chock stands by muzzle andbreech, the rest of the men work at the bars. The muzzle is first cut and chocked from the cradle to the skidding; after the muzzle rests on the skidding the breech is cut on the skidding the same way as the muzzle. This operation is continued alternately with breech and muzzle as before, except the men with the chocks now chock on the side toward the chassis-rail until the gun rests on the skidding on the chassis-rail, under its position when mounted on the carriage. The gin or pumps are now set over the muzzle^and breech or under them, as the case may be. The cribs to support the muzzle and breech are now respectively placed 3'from the muzzle, and at the great- er swell of the breech. In raising the gun, the breech is raised first bj' pump or gin 6" full, a man standing on each side with chock, in case of slip, to prevent rolling. Care is taken to set the gin or pump vertical over or under the breech, and when lowering to case up, without jerking. gradually. The muzzle can now be raised 13'' full. Iifocked and chocked in that posi- tion. The skidding is now removed. The breech 6" additional, always having the men with chocks on either siiie readv, and following up the gun with the blocks, so that" it cannot have a tall in case of accident. The blocks used <'iime from the cribs for the skiilding that are no longer rcMiuired. The oper. ation of alternate blocking at breech and muzzle is MECHANICAL MOTION. 297 MECHANICAL MOTION. continued until tlie gun stands above the licight of the tniiinion-l)P(lswitli the axis tliroufrli the trunnion liori/iiiiliil. Tlic top-cnrriai;i' is now put on the chassis and assciiihlcd with Ihc Irunuion-licils undrr till' Iruuiiions. Tlir i;un is tlicri hiwcrcil in Ihr trun- nions, an I till- l)h)ci<s and };in or piinips removed. Anotlier plan, whi'ii the to|)-carriaL':i' lias not been taUen apart, is as folhjws: Mount tlie chassis on philfcirni and toii-carriaijc^ on tlie chassis witli f;in, anil tlien run tlie top-carriaf^e into haltery. Hring tlic gun upon cradles or siiiddini; until it is parallel to a convenient position of chassis. Uoll the fiun over the chassis.'^havin^; the breech ]irojeclini; be- yond the rear end of Ihc chassis, raise it by blockini; iniihT the breech beyond the rails, and under the muzzle by lihx'ks outside rails, with .'i sUiddinit 'aid across thcni, until the nnizzle is hiirli ciioiii.di for llnr foi).carriage to be moved back under the trunnions; the muzzle is raised by [;in and the breech by hy- dr.iiilic pump. Hun thetnp-carriaiie back under the trunnions, lower the nun into the trunninns, remove scatlcildinsj;. In buildini; scalToldimr of blocks, [lut tlic thickest at bottom, an<l as you L;ain in hei!.dit in raising; a gun, replace thin blocks by thicker ones. Derricks for raising and mounting ordnance as heavy as 1.^" are to he avoided, if possible, as tlicy are heavy and troublesome to move and set up — more ditlicidt to handle than guns, and can only be used under favorable conditions of space; in other words, they cniisunie labor :ind tiuw thiit ought to be ex- pended only on the guns. These objections apply to any machine of much weight and size beyondtwo or three cubic feet. Forts arc often at comparative- ly inaccessilile places, and are often in themselves very limited, and possess platforms for guns in an- gles and conrtned places hard toiipj)roach with guns as large as 1.5", and, conseiim-ntly, the minnn of handling— moving and mounting — must be small and powerful. We will close this article with a description of the unloading and mounting of the 2()-inch gun at the United States t'eulennial E.vhibition. This gun. with a 13-inch sea-coast mortar of about IS.OOIJ jiounds, a cradle of about 4.000, with heavy ycllow-])ine skid- ding and a deck-loiid of binilier, in all about HO tons, were shipped from Fort .Monroe on a vessel rated at 94 tons. She nearly foundered in a gale ou Chesa- peake Bay on her way to the canal at Baltimore, but arrived at Philadelphia atloat but leaking badly, with her deck only about eiglit inches above the water-line and about four feet below the level of the wharf at high tide. The steam-crane on the wharf had Ijeen found by analysis to be insufficiently strong to lift the gun entire ; it was conscquenth' simply used as an auxiliary. A 14-iuch spar was wedged very tightly into the m\izzle of the gun, and served also as a fastening-point for the 11-ineh hawser by which the gun vfas raised. The gun having been blocked up about 3 feet from the cascabel, the crane began to lift. It lifted the muzzle about 15 inches, besides stretching the hawser about 8 feet. Blocking was then placed just back of the center of gravity of the gun. and the muzzle lowered on this pile as a fulcrum luitil the breech was high enough to take a fresh pile of blocking beneath it. By tliis lift the gun was raised about 3 inches. The position of the three supports was as follows : 1st, 5 feet from the muzzle ; 2d, immediately back of the trunuious ; 3d, 2 feet from the breech. Owing to the position of the third point the crane was strained about 18 tons by this lift. Doidjle piles of blocking were used at each bearing-point for safety, so as to limit any accidental fall in raising or lowering the gun to an inch or two at the utmost. Chocking- quoins were also used to follow up the gun closely in its movements. About 1.5 men were used through- out the maneuvers. One of these men, as ship- carpenter, with his adze and crosscut-saw, was par- ticularly valuable, and also a rigger from the United States Navy-yard. Heavy 18-iuch yellow-pine skid- dinfj was placed from under the gun to the wharf, in- dining slightly upwards, and tlii' hawser parbuckled around the gun and fastened to the crane. A pur- chase was takiii from the muzzle by a locomotive slandiugoii a neJLdilioring track. The crane began to hoist at f).44, the gun immediiitely rolling toward the wharf as the hawser uneoileil. The muzzle was cut meanwhile bv tlii' locomotive. At 7.04 p.m. the gun was landed, in 1 1 hours (J minutes working- time. As the vessel was relieved of the weight of the gun it rose, converting the inclined way of skidding into a declivity leading to the wharf. This feature per- mitteil the pile of blocking on deck to be much low- er than would otherwise have been necessary. On the second ilay the gun was rolled by the craneand loco- motive together to a [losition jiarallel with the rail- road track a<Toss which it had lic'cu necessarily land- ed. Toward the latter |iart of this operation the loco- motive was disjiensed with, it being found that bv phicingthe crane in a favorable position, taking hold of tlu; muzzle, and then tojiping l\\v boom, the muz- zle could be cut almost as well as with tin- locomo- tive. After about 4 hours of effective hoistiUL', the gun was placed on the car, on which it was trans- l)orted safely the ne.xt morning to the exhibition grounds, and unloaded the same day. The advan- tages in this operiition were as follows: I. The Jjro.x- imity of William C. Allison it .Son's wharf and their large car-works, from which were olilained. readily, sujiplics of blocking. Hat iron bars, heavy tools. men, and notably the use of their steam-crane and railroad- plant, and the 6-inch oak car-bolsters, especially val- uable for blocking. II. The use of an extra heavy flat car procured from the Pennsylvania Railroad Compan)'. The disadvantages were: I. The small size of the vessel, its breadth of 23 feet giving only 8 or 9 feet on each side of the bare gun to work in. The gun also occupied all the space between the masts. With the additional weight of the blocking upoj her decks, used in raising the gun, the danger of breaking them in or of starting fresh leaks was greatly increased. II. The Captain of the schooner refused to permit hydraulic jacks to be used, for fear of breaking in his deck. III. The gun had to be rais- ed so high, in order to roll it otT upon the dock, that the stability of the vessel was considerablj' endanger- ed. IV. The Captain of the schooner refused to lie alonjrside of the wharf, fearing, as he represented, shoal water ; consequently the gun had to be rolled off from end of the wharf in a direction at right angles to the railroad track. V. Much of the work was done after dark, in the hope of getting the gun on the car by Sunday, the Pennsylvania Kailroad wishing to move it to the grounds on that day, for fear of obstruction to the track and to avoid car- demurrage. VI. The men were unaccustomed to moving heavy weights, and shirked all they could, especially at night. In mounting the 20-inch gun, the LaiiUey gun-lift was used, assisted by blocking. The other guns were mounted with blocking only. The light auxiliary shears, provided with the gun- lift, proved of considerable value in placing in position heavy articles, such as the lield-cannon, raising the ways of the drop-hammer, etc. A casemate-gin, mounted on three rollers, was also used. This was very useful in picking up heavy pieces, such as lumps of ore, drop-anvds. etc., and moving them to the pedestal or the foimdation ou which thej' were to be placed. Two of the rollers on the windlass- legs were joined together by a sleeve of heavy steam- pipe, fitting over the projecting limbs of the axles, to prevent the rollers from assuming their natural position at right angles to the line of the leg. See Blocks, Captian, dtemate-gin, Oa*emaU-truck, Cord, age. Crab, Cradle, Derrick, Gin, Giii^derrick, Knots, Lever-jark, Lifting-ja(k. Mounting Cannon, Piper Oin. Mope, /Sfiears, Sling^cart, Sling.wagon, and TackleK. MECHANICAL MOTION.— Colonel A. H. Buffing MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. 298 MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. ton, United States Army, has recently de.signed an interesting macliiue, which is serviceable as a prac- tical illustration of the resolution of forces into com- ponents, and of the principle of mechanics that ac- tion and reaction are equal, simultaneous, and con- trary. For a full description of this machine, refer- ence is made to the Report of the Chief of Ordnance for 1882. In this connection we will be confined to an investigation of the theory of the contrivance. Suppose, in Fig. 1, the two circles A and B repre- sent the pitch-lines of two gear-wheels, one. the lar- ger, geared inside— a ring-gear — and twice the dia- meter of the other, each ti.xed at, but free to revolve on, its center. Any point, (7, of the smaller will mark on the face and through the center of the other a right line, a b. Suppose a point arer the point d be fi.xed to a slide on the face of smaller A [which slide can move onlj' in the line rfc], and compelled to move in a groove, a h, across the face and center of larger B. If a force whose direction is the same as in the direction of e d (Fig. 1). As it was shown above how the perpendicular component of the ap- plied force is destroyed, it remains to show in wliat manner the parallel one is neutralized. In Fig. 3 let a b represent the groove across the face and center of B. d the point of a slide on the face of -1, and also of a block free to move in the groove a b, and the arrow e d represent the applied force and direction of it. It has been seen that under the action of this force the gear A would start to roll around inside of B, as indicated by the arrow, carry- ing the arm h i as indicated, which in its turn would carrj- the gear C and give it by means of fi.xed gear D the nifition indicated by the arrow. But the two small gears engage at c, and examining them at this point it is seen that they have motion or, strictly, tendencies to motion, in opposite directions, conse- quently no motion can take place, although the sys- tem is free to move either by application of force to the arm or the//'«e ring-gear. Thus the teeth of a the line dehe applied to this point no motion of the system can take place; for the action against the larger would be in the Vmvfdg. perpendicular to a i at rf, and passing through/, the point of engage- ment of the two gears, and X\k renctioii on smaller would be in the same line ; tliese, acticm and reaction, being equal, no motion could take place. But sup- pose the center of smaller gear be free to move, mo- tion would then take place — the smaller would roll arotmd inside the other, the point referred to mov- ing in the groove a h, the larger gear, although free to" move around its center, "remaining stationary — that is, the force applied would be resolved into two components, one perpendicular to and the other par- allel with line a h, the former destroyed by action and reaction, the latter passing through the center of larger, producing motion only of smaller gear. Suppose, now, two more gears precisely the same in size and gearing and having the same relation to each other be placed so tliat the small ones shall en- gage over the centers of large ones — these latter hav- ing no direct connection with each other — and that the centers of small ones be connected by an arm fixed so as to revolve at e, (Fig. 2) ; the two systems differing only in that the ring-gear (D, Fig. 2) shall be fixed — unable to move in any way. ^1 and B of Fig. 2 being the two gear.s explained in Fig. 1, en- gaging at/; and Z> (/^and 7^ coincident, showing but one circle), engaging at J, being the equal pair of last supposition"; the' smaller gears engaging at c and luiited by the arm h i, each free to revolve on journals of arm at h and /. If motion be given to the arm the small gear C will roll around inside the fixed ring-gear l>, and revolve Hie other .1 about its center /i, as it is carried around by the arm, and A will carry with it the movalile ring-gear /A or if motion be "given t" this latter (/I) it will carry vl with it. wliich in turn will roll 6' around inside the fixed gear B. During this motion any point of A will describe a riglit line across the face and center of /i as previously noted. But if A and Ji be ar- ranged witli slide and groove and a force applied, as above sujjposed, the system cannot be moved as long as the direction of this force crosses the center of -1 2. Fig. 3. fixed ring-gear are interposed at every point of revo- lution to neutralize the parallel component. To al- waj's practically have the force applied, as described, to a crank arm whose center is at c, a link is attached and connects with tlie slide and block. To carry over the centers, the system of four gears above ex- plained is doubled, the crank-arms being placed at right angles on the shaft to which they are attached. The point d describes during a revolution a double cusp. MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS.— In the constniction of models or machinery, tlie skillfid inventor and mechanic will stud.v to avoid clumsiness in the ar- rangement of the parts, and will naturally select the simplest and best forms of mechanical movements. By the kind assistance of the proprietors of the fSci- entifie Atruricnnwe&Te enabled to present a. series of such movements, from among wliich the inventor may select at once that movement best suited for his purpose, and see at a glance the separate parts best adapted to any special combination of mechanism. The following is a brief description of the various movements as numbered: 1. Shaft coupling. 2. Claw coupling. 3. 4. Lever couplings. On the driv- ing sliaft, a disk with spurs is mounted, and to the shaft to be driven a lever is securely hinged. By causing this lever to catch in the spurs of the disk the coupling is readily effected, as in the figure 5. Knee or rose coupling, of which 26 gives a side view. 6. Universal joint. 7,8. Disk and spur coupling. 9. Prong and spur lever coupling. 10. Fast and loose pulley. 11. Sliding gear, the journal-boxes of one of the wheels being movable. 12. Friction clutch. By tightening or releasing a steel band, en- circling a pulley on the shaft, the machinery is 'thrown in or out of gear. 13, 14. Shoe and lever brakes. l.T, 10. Change of motion by sheaves. IT. Spiral Hanged shaft. 18. Cimnecteil with the rod are pawl links, catcliing into ratchet teeth in the wheel to which rotary motion is to be imparted. When the rod moves in one direction, one of the pawls acts; and when the rod moves in the opposit<! direction, the other pawl acts in the same direction as the first. 19. The reciprocating motion of a rod MECHANICAL MOTION. ■2U'.) MECHANICAL MOTION. Is converted into rotary motion of tlie fly-wheel by a wciijlil suspinik'd frdin a ronl, which piisnis over u siimll |)iillcy that coiiiicctH witli a trcaillc, from whifh thr> iikiI'kjm is Iransiiiillcd to the lly-wliccl. 20. " P'lj'iiii; horse." My piilliii}; tlic cords radialinj; from the craMl<, the persons occiipyiiij; (lie scats or liorscs oil the ends of the arms arc emdilcd to keep tlie apparatus in motion. 2\, 22. IJow-strinn ar- rangements to convert rccii)rocatinn into rotary mo- tion. 2;). Same jMirpose liy dilTerential screw. 24. Tlie .same Iiy donble raclv and wheels. 2!). Coiiplinj^ for square sliafts. 2(i. Side view of Fig. 5. 27, Sliding-spnr pulley coupliuf;. 28. Lever witli bear- ing rcjller to lij^liten pulley bands. 2!). Chain wheel, lit). Reciprocating rectilinear into reciprocating rot- ary motion by two racks and cog-wheel, as shown. 31. ()bli(jue-tootlied wheels. 82. Worm and worm- wheel. 33, 34. Claw coupling with liiugcd lever. and lifting cam. 55. For giving reciprocating mo. tion to ruck 50. Hame motion to a bar, with hIoI, by means of an eccentric jiin projecting from a re- volving disk and catching in the slot. 57. Walking- beam anil llj-whee!. .'JK. Ueciprocating motion to pump or other rod by means of eccentric disk and friction rollers. (See HI and 104;. VJ. Hoisting crane. (iO. Kriction gears. (See 43;. 01. Kolary into reciprocating by rising and falling ftinion acting on endless rack. 02. Hy the revolving .iim a rising and falling or a reciprocating rectilinear motion in readily imjiarted to a drum. 03. lU'ciprocating mo. 35, 86. Disk couplings with lugs and cavities. 37. Disk coupling with screw bolts. 38, 39, 40. Shaft couplings. 41. Face view of Fig. 12. 43. Friction cones. 43 Friction pulleys. 44. Self-releasing coup- ling. Disks with oblique teeth. If the resistance to the driven shaft increases beyond a certain point, the disks separate. 45. Hoisting bloeks. 40. El- bow crank, for changing motion. 47. Reciprocating into rotary motion by zigzag groove on cylinder. 48 Another form of Fig. 29. ^9. Reciprocating into rotarv motion. 50. Same purpose. 51. Same pur- pose, l\y double rack and two ratchet pinions. When the double rack moves in one direction, one pinion I is rigid with the shaft : when the rack moves in the opposite direction, the other pinion is rigid, and a continuous rotary motion is imparted to the fly-wheel shaft. 52. Reciprocating into oscillating. 53. Ro- ; tary into reciprocating. Ijy the action of the wheel- pins the carriage is moved in one direction, and by the action of the same pins on an elbow-lever it is moved in the opposite direction. 54. Stamp rod tion is communicated to a frame by means of the endless rack and pinion. 04. Reciprocating recti- linear motion to a toothed rack by a toothed seg- ment on a lever-arm, which is subjected to the action of a weight, and of an eccentric wrist-pin. projecting from a revolving disk. Go. Reciprocating motion to a rod. The wheels are of different diameters, and consequently the rod has to rise and fall as the wheels revolve. (See 110). 60. Cam and elbow-lever. 07. Rod reciprocates by means of cam. 68. Revol- ving into reciprocating motion, by an endless seg- mental rack and pinion, the a.xle of which revolves and slides in a slot toward and from the rack. This rack is secured to a disk, and a rope round the disk extends to the body to which a reciprocating motion is to be imparted. 69. Elliptic gears. 70. Bevel gear. 71. AVomi and worm-wheel. 72. Transmit- ting motion from one axle to another, with three ditlerent velocities, by means of toothed segments of unequal diameters. 73. Continuous revolving into reciprocating, by a cam-disc acting on an oscillating lever. 74. Intermittent revolving motion to a slialt with two pinions, and segment gear-wheel on end of shaft. 75. Oscillating lever, carrying pawls which engage teeth in the edges of a bar to which recti- linear motion is imparted. 76. Oscillating lever, connecting bj- a link with a rod to which a recti- linear motion is imparted. 77. Oscillating lever and MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. 300 MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. pawls, which gear in the ratchet-wheel. 78. Com- mon treadle. 79. Describing on a revolving cylin- der a spiral line of a certain given pitch which de- pends upon the comparative sizes of the pinion and bevel-wheels. 80. Marking a spiral line, the graver moved by a screw. 81. (See Fig. 58). 82. Plunger and rods. 83. Cross-head and rods. 84. Recipro- cating rod guided b}- friction rollers. 85. Revolving into reciprocating motion, b}' means of roller-arms extending from a revolving shaft and acting on lugs projecting from a reciprocating frame. 86. Crank motion. 87 Reciprocating motion communicated by toothed wheel and spring-bar. 88. The shaft car- ries a taper, which readily catches against a hook securely hinged to the drum, so as to carry the drum along and raise the weight on the rope. When the tappet has reached its highest position, the hook strikes a pin, the hook disengages from the tappet, and the weight drops. 89. Reciprocating motion to a rod by means of a groove in an oblique ring se- cured to a revolving shaft. 90. Double crank. 91. Cam groove in a drum, to nroduce reciprocating mo- tion. 92. Belts and pulleys. 93. Pulleys, belts and internal gear. 94. As the rod moves U]i and down, the teeth of the cog-wheels come in contact with a i)awl. and an intermittent rotary motion is imjjart- ed to said wheel. O.'i. Ry turning the horizontal ax- les with different velocities, the middle wheel is caused to revolve with the mean velocilj-. 96. Os- cillating lever and cam groove in a disk. 97. Lazy tongs. 981. Oscillating segment and belt over jjul- leys. 99. Converting oscillating into a reciprocating motion by a Cam-slot in the end of the oscillating lever which catches over a pin projecting from one of the sides of a parallelogram wliieli is connected to the rod to which re<iprocaling motion is imparled. 100. Oscillating motion of a Ijeam into rotary mo- tion. 101. Motion of a treadle into rotary motion. 103. Double-acting beam. 103. Single-acting beam. 104. (See Figures 58 and 81). 105. Device to steady a piston by a slotted guide-piece, operated by an ec- centric on the driving shaft. 106. Rod operated by two toothed segments. 107. Two cog-wliee!s of equal diameter, provided with a crank of the same length, and connected b)' links with a cross-bar to which the piston-rod is secured. 108. Device for a rectilinear motion of a piston-rod based on the hy- pocycloidal motion of a pinion in a stationary wheel with internal gear. If the diameter of the pinion is exactly equal to one half the diameter of the internal gear, the hypocycloid becomes a sight line. 109. Same purpose as 56. 110. Action similar to 65. 111. Revolving motion by a circular sliding pinion gear- ing in an elliptical cog-wheel. 112. Similar to 96. 113. Carpenter's clamp. The jaws turn on the piv- ot-screws, and clamp the board. 114. An irregular vibratory motion is given to the arm carrying the wheel A ly the rotation of the pinion B. as shown. 115. Intermittent rotary motion of the pinion-shaft, by the continuous rotary motion of the large wheel. The part of the pinion shown next the wheel is cut on the same turve as the plain portion of the cir- cumference, and therefore serves as a lock whilst the wheel makes part of a revolution, and until the pin upim the wheel strikes the guide-piece upon the pinion, when the pinion-shaft commences another revolution. 116. Stop-motion used in watches to limit the number of revolutions in winding up. The convex curved part, a h, of the wheel B serving as the stop. 117. Several wheels, by connecting-rods, driven from one pulley. 118. Intermittent circvdar motion is inipart<'(l to "the tootlied wheel b_v vibrating the arm H. When the arm H is lifted, tlie pawl is raised from between the teeth of tlie wheel, and tra- veling backward over the cireiunference again, drops between two teeth on lowering the arm, and draws MECHANICAL POWERS. 301 MECHANICAL P0WEE8, Willi it llic vvliccl. 1 r.l. Kcfiproraling rcrtilincar motion is |j;ivcii lo tlic- liar liy tlic loiiliiiiioiiH iiiolion of tli(^ cam. 'I'll!' ciim is of ccjiial diaiiii'lcr in I'vcry ciircttion mcaHurcil across Ilic ccnlfr. 120. Moclian- isni for rcvolviin; the cylinder in Coil's lirearnis. Wlicn tlic lianiincr isj drawn back, the doj;, «, at- tiiclicd to the tumbler acts on the ratchet, l>, on the bark of llurcylinder, and is held ii|) lo Ihe ratchet by a sprinj;, c. \'i\ . Allernnte increasin;,' ami dirninisli- ini^ motion, by means of eccentric loolheil wheel and toothed cylinder. 122. Oscillating or pendiilnm engine. 'V\\v cylinder swings between truimions like a pendulum. The piston-rod coimects directly with crank. 12!i. Intermittent rotary motion. The small wheel is driven, and tln^ friction rollers on its studs move the larger wheel by working against the faces of obliiiue grooves or projections across the face thereof. 124. Longitudinal and rotary motion of the rod is produced by its arrangement between two rotating rollers, the axles of which are oblique to each other. ISR. Friction indicator of Roberts. Upon the jieriphery of the belt-puUey a loaded car- riage is placed, its tongue connected with an indica- tor. With a given load the indicating pointer re- mains in a given iiositiou, no matter what velocity is imparted to the pulley. Wlien the load is changed the indicator changes, thus proving that the friction of wheels is in proportion to load, not velocity. 126. Circular intermittent rectilinear reciprocating mo- tion. U.scd on sewing-machines for driving the shut- tle; also on three-revolution cylinderprinting-press- es. 127. Continuous circular into intermittent cir- cular motion. The cam is the driver. 128. Sewing- machine, four-motion feed. The bar, B, carries the feeiling-jioints or spurs, and is pivoted to slide, A. B is lifted by a radial projection on cam, C, which at the same time also carries A and B forward. A si>ring produces the return stroke, and the bar, B, drops by gravity. 129. Patent crank motion to ob- viate (lend centers. Pressure on the ireailh- moves the slotted slide. A, forward until the wrist passcfi the center, when lliir spring, B, forc-es the slide againot the slops until ne.vt forward movement. 130. Four- way cock. Kil. One stroke of the piston gives a complete revolution lo the crank. VA2. l{cclilinear motion of variable velocity i.s given to the vertical bar by rotation of Ihe shaft of the curved arm. IIW. I'anlagraph for copying, enlarging and reducing )ilans, etc. C, lixed point. B. ivory tracing point. A, pencil. Trace the lines lo be copied with B, and the I)eneil will reproduce them double size. Shift the slide to which C is attached, also tlie pencil slide, and size of the eo|iy will be varied. 1S4. Ball-and- socket joint for tubing. KW. Numerical registering device. The teeth of the worm-shaft gear with a pair of worm-whei'ls of equal diameter, one having one tooth more than Ihe other. If Ihe tirst wheel has 100 teeth and the second 101, the [jointers will indi- cate respectively 101 and 10,100 revolutions. \W. Moutgollier's hydraulic ram. The right-hand valve being kept open by a weight fir spring, the current flowing tlirougli the pi|ie in the direction of the ar- r<iw escapes thereby. When the pressure of the wa- ter current overcomes tlu' weight of the right valve, Ihe momentum of the water opens the oilier valve, and the water passes into the air-chamber. One equi- librium taking place, the left valve shuts and the right valve opens. By this alternate action of the valves, %\ater is raised into the air-chamber at every stroke, 187. Rotary engine. Shaft Band hub, C! are arranged eccentric to the case. Sliding radial pistons, a, a, move in and out of hub C. The pis- Ions slide through rolling packings in the hub C. i;J8. Quadrant engine. Two single-acting pistons, B, B, connect with crank D. Steam is admitted to act on the outer sides of the pistons alternately through valve fi. and the exhaust is between the pistons. 13!). Cir- cular into rectilinear motion. The scalloped wheel communicates motion to the horizontal oscillating rod, and imparts rectilinear movement to the up- right bar. 140. Rotary motion transmitted by roll- ing contact between two obliquely arranged shafts. MECHANICAL POWERS. — Machines are instru- ments interposed between the moving power and the resistance, with a view of changing the direction of the force, or otherwise modifying it. Machines are of various degrees of complexity ; but the simple parts, or elements of which they are all composed, are reducible to a very few. These elementary ma- chines are called the Mechanical Powers, and are usually reckoned as six in number, three being pri- mary — viz., the kter, inclined plan(,anA pulley; and three secondary, or derived from the others — viz., the w/(f^i-aftrf-(U^« (derived from the lever). t\uttredge, and the screw (both derived from the inclined plane). To these .some add toothed wheels. What is special to each machine will be found under its name ; a few observations applicable to all may approjirialely be made here. 1. In treating of the "theory of the lever and other mechanical powers, the question really examined is, not what power is necessary to move a certain weight, but what power is necessary to bal- ance it. This once done, it is obvious that the least additional force to P will suftice to begin motion. 2. In pure theoretical mechanics, it is assumed that the machines are without weight, A lever, for in- stance, is supposed to be a mere rigid line ; it is also supposed to be perfectly rigid, not bending or alter- ing its form under any pressure. The motion of the machine is also supposed to be without friction. In practical mechanics, the weight of the machine, the yielding of its parts, and the resistance of friction, have to be taken into account. 3. When the effect of a machine is to make a force overcome a resistance greater than itself, it is said to give a meclianicnl ad- tnntnge. A machine, however, never actually in- creases power — for that would be to create work or energy, a thing now known to be as impossible as to create matter. What is gained in one way by a ma- MECHANICAL POWEBS. 302 MECHANICAL POWEBS chine is ahvaj-s lost in another. One pound at tlic long end of a" lever will lift 10 pounds at the short end^ if the arras are rightly proportioned : but to lift the 10 pounds through one foot, it must descend 10 feet. The two weiglits, when thus in motion, have equal momenta : the moving mass multiplied into its velocity, is equal to the resisting mass multiplied into its velocity, \yhen the lever seems to multiply force, it only concentrates or accumulates the exertions of the force. The descending one pound weight, in the case above supposed, may be conceived as making 10 distinct exertions of its force, each through a space of a foot: and all these are concentrated in the rais- ing of the 10 pound weight through one foot. The principle thus illustrated in the case of the lever holds good of all the mechanical powers. 4. The object of a machine is not always to increase force or pressure; it is as often to gain velocity at the expense of force. In a spinning factory, e. g., the object of the train of machinery is to distribute the slowly working force of a powerful water-wheel or other prime mover, among a multitude of terminal parts moving rapidlj', but having little resistance to overcome. 5. The mechanical advantage of a compound machine is theoretically equal to the product of the separate mechanical advantages of the simple macliines com- posing it ; but in applying machines to do work, al- lowance must be made for the inertia of the materi- als composing them, the flexure of parts subjected to strains, and the friction, which increases rapidly with the complexity of the parts ; and these consid- erations make it desirable that a machine should con- sist of as few parts as are consistent witli the work it has to do. 6. The forces, or "moving powers," by which machines are driven are the muscular strength of men and animals, wind, water, electrical and magnetic attractions, steam, etc.; and the grand object in the construction of machines is, how, with a given iunount of impelling power, to get the great- est amount of work of the kmd required. This gives rise to a multitude of problems, some more or less general, others relating more especially to particular cases — problems, the investigation of which consti- tutes the science of applied mechanics. Oue of the questions of most general application is the follow- ing : If the resistance to a machine were graduiilly reduced to zero, its velocity would be constantly accelerated until it attained a maximum, which would be when the point to which the impelling force is applied was moving at the same rate as the impelling force itself would move if unresisted. If, on the other hand, the resistance were increased to a certain point, the machine would come to a stand. Now. the problem is. between these two extremes to find the rate at which the greatest effect or amount of work is got from the same amount of driving power. The investigation would be out of place here, but the result is that the greatest effect is pro- duced when the velocity of the point of application is one-third of the maximum velocity above spoken of. The moving force and the resistance should therefore be so adjusted as to produce this velocity. It will be our endeavor in this article to find the relation between the power and the weight when they lialance each other in each of the simple ma- chines ; friction and the weight of the machine not being taken into account. For the sake of conven- ience, the power will be denoted by P, and the weight by W. A lever is an inflexible rod, straight or lient, turning on a point calleil Ihi- fii/rrii in. It is mucli used in the form of an iron bar for moving heavy bodies, through small distances. Fig. 1 tl.ows a lever used for that purpose, in which F is tlie fulcrum, P is the power exerted by the hand, and W is the weiglit to be moved. Take a straight inflexible bar, .\ B, Fig. 2, and place it on a prop. F. On the end, li, hang a weight, W, and balance it with the power. P. tiimg on the end, A; FA is the power-arm, and F 15 the weight-arm. Now if F \ is equal to F B, then W is equal to P ; if F A is I three times the length of the arm. F B. then W is double the length of F B, then W is double of P; if FA is three times P;and so on. The ireight always bears the same proportion to the pmmr as the pmrier-nrm bears to the iceig/it-ami. The same thing may be expressed by saying that the power mukiplied by the length of the power-arm is always equal to the W Fig 2. weight multiplied by the length of the weight-arm. This rule holds for all levers; but if the lever be bent as in Fig. 3 we must not take the bent arms of the lever, E JI aud F N, for the power and weight arms; but for the power-arm we must take, FA the per- pendicular drawn from the fulcrum to the direction Fi?. 3. in which the power acts, and for the weight-arm we must take FB, the perpendicular drawn from the fulcrum to the direction in which the weight acts. The same precaution must be observed if the power and weight do not act in directions parallel to each other, as shown in Fig. 4. In Figs. 3, 3, 4, the power multiplied by the length Fig. 4. of F A is called the mrnnent of the power about the fulcrum, and expresses the tendency that the power has to produce motion about thc^ fulcnnu ; in the same figures, the weight multiplied by the length of F B is called the moment of the weight about the ful- crum, and exi^rcsses the tendency that the weight lias to produce motion about the fulcrum in tlie op. posite direction. We see that wIk'U a lever is at rest the moments of the power aud weight about the ful- MECHANICAL POWERS. MECHANICAL POWERS. cruin are cqnnl. Lrvorfi nro pcnfrally dividpd into ' power is wantpd ; the human arm, Fig. B, is an ex- tliriM- kinds, mcdnliiii; In tin- posilicjii of the power ; iiiiiplc. 'I'lic fulrruin is at llii- elbow, the w<-i(rhl IH luid vviij,'hl Willi riL'iiril lo llic liilcniin. In levers of tlic li'uly resting on the hand, and llie coutraclilc the lirsl kind the power and wi'iirlit act on ditTerent sides of the fulcrum, as shown in Fiir. .■). It is cvi- Flg. 5. dent that with levers of tliis kind wemayeitber linve a mer/ui n irat ndrnnUigi' or a nu'c/ianieal (Umidriintage, accordingas the fulcrum is placed nearer the weisjlit or the power. Kxamples of this kind of lever are numerous; the cro\vl)nr. u.sed as seen in Fii;. 1; the poker used in stirring; the fire; and the <law-h;im- mer used in dniwimr a nidi, are faniili;ir illustra- tions. In these, as well as in the examples to l)e piven of the otiier two kinds of levers, the reader shoidd satisfy himsi'lf as to what constitutes llie fiih-rinn. yioirer.awA weight in each case. In levers of the second kmd, the power and weight act ou the Fig. 6. same side of the fulcrum, the -weiffht being nearer the fulcrum, as shown in Fig. 6. llere. it is evident, that we have alwaj-s a niii-luinicnl iuhaiitnge,\\\w{\\ex great or small, for the power-arm must be alwavs somewhat longer than the weight-arm. Nut-crackers, a chii)ping-knife.an o;ir used in propelling a boat. and a door taken by the handle and opened on its hinges, are levers of the second kind. In levers of the third kinii, the power and weight also act upon the same side of the fulcrum, the power being nearer the ful- A. force of the muscle furnishes the power which acts at P. When the nmscle contracts, the hand de- scribes a much longer curve than P does, and this ctah- w FiL'. 'J. is convenient. The Wlieel-nn<J-Axle. as represented in PMg. !). consists of two cylinders of different si/.es, having a common axis to which they are rig-irlly attaclied : the larger cylinder is called the wheel, because a wheel having a groove in its circumfer- ence for carrying a rope is sometimes used instead of it ; the smaller cylinder is called the axle; their common axis is firmly supported on a strong frame. The weight is attached to the end of a long rope which is coiled round the axle, and the power acts at the end of another rope which is coiled rf)und the wheel in an opposite direction, so that when the W Fig. r. crum, as in Fig. 7. In this kinn of lever there is al waj's a mtrhanirnl dhndrant/ige^ for in it the power- arm is always shorter than the weight-arm, so that to support a weight with it a greater power is re- quired than if the power were applied direct!}- and without the intervention of a machine at all. " Thii ' rope is pulled down the weight is raised. Fig. 10 kind of lever is only used when velocity rather than I represents a vertical section of the wheel-and-axle, MECHANICAL POWERS. 304 MECHAIflCAL P0WEE8. from which it is manifest that it is merely a modifi- cation of the lever, in which C, the center nf the axle, is the fulcrum. C A, the radius of the wheel, is the power-arm. and C B, the radius of the axle is the weight-arm. It clearly follows, from the law of the lever, that the wheel-and-axle is in equilibrium when the power multiplied by the radius of the wheel equals the weight multiplied by the radius of the axle ; so that if the radius of the wheel were eighteen inches and tlie radius of the axle two inches, then a power of Fig. II. one pound would balance a weight of nine poundB. In the windlass, shown in Fig. ll,thearm,AC,is used instead of a wheel. Examples of the practical ap- plication of tlie wheel-and-axle are seen in the caps- tan, crane, water-wheel, and toothed wheels. Fig 12 shows a Pulley in use. It is a small disk or wheel, of wood or metal, having a groove in its circumference for carrying a string, and turns on an axis passing through the center of its faces, the axis being supported by a frame called a l)lock. Pulleys are designated as either fixed or movable; a pulley is said to be^Jvrf whenit does not ascend or descend according as the weight is raised or lowered. It is manifest from Fig. 12 that a fixed pulley has no mechanical advantage, for the power, P, must be equal to the weiglit, W, in order to support it. This machine is only used to change the direction in wliich a force acts. Wlien force is transmitted througli a string, as it is in the case of pulleys, it gets the name of te/Miiui, and a string possesses the property of transmitting a force without changing its amount ; thus the tension at every point of the string in Fig. Fig. 12. Fig 13. 12 is the weight, W. Pulleys are called movable when they ascend or descend according as the weight is raised or lowered. We have a movable pulley in Fig. 13. When ()nemoval)le i)ulley is used, Uic strings being parallel. th(^ weight is ('(jual to twice tlie power. For W is supported by th<^ tension in B H and the tension in A P; and since the tension in each of these is the power, P, acting upward, these two tensions would support a weight of 2 I'; therefore W must be equal to 2 P. It is generally found to be convenient to vise a fixed [lulley along witli a mov- able one when we wish to change the direction of the force, as in Fig. 14. There are three systems of arranging pulleys — or reeving them, as it is called. In the first system, wliich is shown in Fig. 15, each pulley hangs by a separate string, and all Uie strings are parallel. When three movable pulleys are ar- Fig. 14. ranged thus, the weight is equal to eight times the power ; for the tension in the string passing under the first movable pulley at the top is the power, P ; Fig, 15. the tension in the string passing under the second movable pulley is 2P: the tension in the string pass- ing under the third movable pulley is 4 P ; and the tension in the string hanging from this pulley is 8 P. But this last tension supports the weight, W^, there- fore W ^ 8 P. It will be observed that in this sys- tem each movable pulley that is added doubles the mechanical advantage. In the second system the string passes round all the pullejs, and the folds of this string are parallel, as represented in Fig. 16. Here the weight, W, is supported by the tensions in the folds of the string ; and as there are four fohls, each having the tension of the power, P. the weight must be four times the power. In this system the weight is alwaj'S.as many times the power as there are folds in the string, the folds being counted be- tween the two blocks. In tlie third system Fig. 17, each pulley hangs by a separate string, and the end of each string is attached to the weight, the whole being suspended from a fixed support. The tension m the string passing over the first pulley at the bot- tom is the power, P ; the tension in the string pass- ing over the next pulley is 2 P: the tension in the string passing over the third pulley from the bottom is 4 P ; and so on. Thus it is when three pulleys are arranged in this manner, W is sup- porte'd by P -f 2 P -f- 4 P, that is, by 7 P, and MECHANICAL POWERS. 305 MECHANICAL P0WEH8. therefore tlio wLi>,'lit in exactly cqnnl to seven times tlie power. The I'lTect of iiny <iIIiit nimilMT iniiy he eiilculaled Himilurly. The tirst ihiiit; tliat strikes (iiif (in (xiiiriiiienling with tlie piiMeys is tlie principle of virtual velocities. Let us mal^e an ex- IHTimcnt with tlie first system, shown in Fii;. LI. Here we liavB three movable puhcys, luiil we tinil that a ]iower of 1 oz. halanees a weight of H oz. Triif: hut cm imtting the machine in action, we also liiHJ that wlien the weight is raised 1 ft. the power has to move through 8 ft., so that what is gained in power is lost in speod. and, as we said before, this is true of every machine. We now come to consider the inclined |)lauc. Here Fig. 18. is one in Fig. 18. We shall perform an experiment on it, and then draw a conclusion. Let the weight, W, be drawn from the bottom to the top of the in- clined plane by the power, P, which acts on the Ftg. m. weight in a direction parallel to the length of the plane AB; W will be thus raised through a vertical dis- tance equal to B C. the height of the plane : but dur- ing this time P will have descended through a ver- tical distance equal to A B. the length of the plane. Kow, from the principle of virtual velocities it fol- lows at once that there is equilibrium here, wlien P multiplied by A B is equal to W multiplied b)' B C; that is, on the inclined plane, when the power acts parallel to the length of the plane, there is eqiiilibri- um when the'power multiplied by tlie length is equal to the weight multiplied b}' the height. In Fig. 19, an experiment m shown vfhich verificB the rule we have just drawn from the prineiph: of virtual veloc- ities. A \i and A (; are two boards, hinged together at A. A C rests for convenience on a table, and A B can be made to rise from it at any angle by insirrt- ing a wedge, iiro|MTly i]re|mreil as seen in tlie (Igure. Froni I! Jiangs a bar gradiialiMl in inches, by which the height of I lie plane can be at once nieasuri'd. Tlie carriage, W, (-onstitntes the weight, and the power, 1', acts on it in a direction parallel to the longlh of the |ilane. Xow make P balance; W, and then measure the height anil length of the plane; it will be fiiiiiid that P is to W as the height, of the pliine is to its len'.rlli ; that is, the power multiplied iiy the number of iiulies in the length will be equal 1(1 the weight iiiiilliplied by the niuiilier of inches in the height. By varying the experiment, so that llic power might act in a (lirection jiarallel to the base, we would lind (hat there would he equilibriuin when the jiower multiiilied liy the base equals the weight niiiltiplicd by tlie height. Two inclined planes ]ilaced base to base form a Wedr/e. It is much used ill splitting wood, as in Fig. 20; it is also used for raising great Fii;. 20. weights through small distances. In dockyards, ships are raised on the stocks by wedges driven un- der their keels. Theoretically considered, the me- chanical advantage of the isosceles wedge is the side of the wedge divided by half the back. But this gives us no idea of the real advantage of the ma- chine : this arises from its enormous friction, and also because the force wliicli urges it is derived from the blow of a hammer or a mallet, etc.; a force so very different in its nature from the resistance that it has to overcome, which is the pressnrc of some weight or the cohesion of the particles of a body, that it admits of no numerical comparison. One part of the theory is true: that the small- er the back the greater is the advan- tage of the wedge. If a flexible in- clined plane, A — one made of paper, for example — be wrapped round a cylinder, B, as in Fig. 2i, a screw is formed. By means of the apparatus in Fig. 23 we can determine the me- chanical advantage of the screw. The resistance here is the bar, AV, which is to be moved forward : the power acts at the handle, A P. When the machine is put in action by turning the handle, the power moves through the circumference of the circle described by the handle, while the weight is only moved from" a to i, the distance between two threads; so that in the screw the power is to the weight as the distance between two threads is to the circumference of the circle described by the power. Thus, suppose A P sweeps a circle of 30 in., and that the distance between two threads is i in.: then the mechanical advantage of the machine is 30 di- vided by A, that is 60; so that if a power of 50 lbs. i» Fig. 21. MEJHAHICS.7 306 MEDAL. exerted on the handle, A P. the bar, W, is urged forward with a force of GO times 50 lbs., that is 3,000 lbs. The screw is much used to exert a great pressure tlirougli sniiill distances. Fig. 23 shows a common screw-press. To apply the screw here, in an expe- ditious way, a hollow screw is cut in the nut, N, Ffe. 33. iuto the groves of which the threads of the solid screw tit exactly. The solid screw, S, is fixed to the press-board, B B, so that it cannot turn round, but can be made to move up and down; on the other hand, the nut, N, is fixed, so that it cannot be moved up and down, but can be made to turn round by means of the bar, P, which is inserted in a hole" in its side. When the power makes one revolution, the solid screw, with the press-board attached to it, is raised through the distance between two tlireads; so that if the power, P, sweeps a circle of 20 ft., that is, 240 in., and the distance between two threads is 1 in., then the mechanical advantage of the machine is 240; so that if a force of 100 lbs. be exerted on the extrem- ity of the lever, anything placed between B and D will be pressed with a force equal to 240 times 100 lbs., that is. 24,000 lbs., or W'; tons. In the compomid machines, the mechanical advantage is the |)r()diut of the mechanical advantages of the simple machines which compose them. Thus, in Fitf. 24 we have a compound machine consisting of C T7 B Fig. at three levers combined together; its mech.anical ad- vantage is 3 times 2 tinu-s 2, or 12: 3 beim; tlu' mechanical advantage of the first lever, 2 that of the second, and 2 that of the third. A jiower of 1 lb. applied at A. would balance a vveiirlit of 12 lbs. :it I). MECHANICS. Tlie seiciicc wliich trials of llie nature of forces and of their acliui on liodics, eitlier tlirectlyorby the agency of machinery. The nature of force will be found treated of under Fokce. The action of forces on liodies may be in the form of pressure or of impulse, and may or may not produce motion. When the forces are so balanced as to preserve the body affected by them in a state of equilibrium, their actions are investigated in that branch of mechanics called Statics ; when motion is produced, they are considered under the head of Dynamics, or Kyyietics. The equilibrium and motion of fluids (including liquids and gases) is treated in the subordinate branches of Hydrostatics and Hy- drodynamics; though the special terms Aerostatics and Aerodynamics (for which the comprehensive term Pneumatics is often used) are sometimes em- ployed to designate those portions of the science of mechanics in which the action of gaseous bodies is treated of. The science of mechanics owes very little to the ancient philosophers. They were ac- quainted with the conditions of equilibrium on the lever — discovered by Archimedes — and had reduced the theory of all the mechanical powers, except the pulley and the inclined plane and its derivatives, to that of the lever, but this was nearly all. Archi- medes, starting from the principle of equilibrium on the lever, struck out the idea of a center of gravity for every body, and investigated the position of that point for the triangle, parabola, and paraboloid. Till the 16th century, the science remained stationary. Cardan, the Marquis Ubaldi, and Stevinus — tlie first to give the correct theory of equilibrium on the inclined plane — then gave it a slight impetus, and the labors of Galileo, who introduced the expression of mechanical propositions in mathematical formu- las, discovered the laws regulating the motion of falling bodies, and originat.ed investigations con- cerning the strength of materials, placed the science on a bl-oad and substantial basis. Torricelli, Des- cartes, Pascal, Fermat, Roberval. and Huyghens, on the continent, and Wallis and Wren in England — the last three of whom simultaneously discovered the laws which regulate the collision of bodies — added each his quota to the New Science, as Me- chanics was then called. In 1687, appeared New- ton's Principia, in which the complete experimental basis of the subject was first laid down in a satis- factory maimer, and the mechanical principles which had before been considered to act only at the sur- face of the earth, were shown to rule and direct the motions of the planets. Contemporary with Newton were Leibnitz, and the two elder Bernouillis, James and John, who, besides contributing greatly to the advancement of the science, applied to it the newly- invented differential calculus, which was found to be a weapon of immense power. From this time, a constant succession of illustrious men have prose- cuted the study of theoretical mechanics, or of subjects connected with it. The chief names are Daniel Bcrnouilli, Euler, D'Alembert, Clairaut, La- grange, Laplace. Lagrange's Mecanique A7ialyUque not only systematised the subject, but enormousls' increased its power and the range of its applica- tions. The last great additions to the science are those made by Sir W. R. Hamilton, under the name of the principle of Varying Action. The develop- ments which this h,as received from Jacobi, Boole, Cayley, Liouville, Donkin, Bour. etc.. form an ex- tensive and ditficull branch of applied mathematics, chiefly of the theory of simultaneous <lifferential equations. MEDAL - A piece of metal in the form of a coin, not issued or circulated as money, but stamped with a figure or device to preserve tlic ]>ortrait of some eminent person, or I he memory of some illustrious ac- tion or event. Tile study of medals, interesting in an historical and anti(|uarian point of view, is also important as illustrating the contemporary state of art. Like coins, medals belong to two periods, an- cient and modern, separated by a wide interval. To the former liehmg those pieces issuing from the mint of ancient Rome, known as M-dn't'iimi, of the size H£SAILL£ MILITAISS. MEDICAL SCHOOL. of the aureus in );(ilil, of tlic ilcnarius in Bilvcr, iind of the tirst <jr larjjc Ijrans in copper. 'I'licyare ^fncr- crally .Hupposcil to liavi; bern sirui'k on occasions Niniilar to tlKis<' on wliicli medals arc coined in mod- ern times, on tlie accession of an Emperor, on the ucliievement of an imp<irtant vi(^lory, or us specimens of \vorl<mansliip; hut tlicr<' are circumstances wliich countenance the helief tliat they were circulated as money. Medallions prior to the time of Hadrian arc rare and of ^jrcat value; one of the most lieautifid and most famous hcinnai^'old medallion of AultusIus C'a'sar; from Hadrian to the close of the Kmpire they are comi)aratively conuuon. Of the Roman medal- lions, somct wen' struck l)y order of the Emperors, some by the Senate; the latter nniv be known by being inscribed with the letters S. ('. 'I'lie lar!j;er bronze me- dallions are of adinirabU^ workmanship. In some of them a riny' of bronze surrounds a center of (ropper, and tlie inscription extends over both metals. No por- trail of a person not princely o<-curs on any ancient medal, a rem;irkable circumstance, coiisidcrinu; the numerous conlemporary statues of poets, historians, and philosopliers. The CuntorniiiU are bronze med- als marked with furrows (funtorni). distributed at the public names and apparently also in use as money, Numerous medals and medallions were stru<'kin the (Jrci'k provinces of the Uoman Kmpire, of less sub- stance and thickness, for the most part, than those of Rome. The Sicilian medals are of very tine work- manship, particularly one with a head of Ceres, and on the reverse a Victory crowning a figure in a ear. Medals in the present day are conferred by the Sov- ereign as marks of distinction for eminent worth or noble conduct, more particularly for naval and mili- tary services. Such med:ils of honor are seldom of gTe;it intrinsic value, their wortli de|iending merely on lheassociationsconiiectc<l with tlicm. They have ribbons attached, with clasps or small bars, each of wliich bears the name of a particular action. The Waterloo medal is of silver, with the head of (Jeorge IV (Prince Regent), a winged Victory, andthe wonis " Waterloo," " Wellington;" it hangs from a crimson ribbon, with a narrow stripe of blue near ciich edge. The ('rinu';ui nu'dal, also of silver, is attached to a blue ribbon with yellow edges when worn for .service in the Crimea, and to a yellow ribb(m with blue edges when for service in tlie Hallie. Good-service medals of silver were institutedMu 1830 and 1831, and rules formed fortheir distribution among meritorious sail- ors, soldiers, and marines. The Naval medal is worn suspended from a blue, and the Jlilitary from a crim- son ribbon. There are also various British medals which have been conferred for services in the Penin- sula, India, etc. On every medal is engraved the name, rank, etc., regiment or ship of the recipient of it. Medals and decorations do not seem to have been evpr conferred as rewarils in the Army or Navy prior to the Commonwealth. The French military medal and the Sardinian War Jledal were some time ago be- stowetl to a large e.xtent on British officers, soldiers, seamen, and marines. The former exhibits the effigy of Napoleon III. , surmounted by an eagle, and is worn from a yellow ribbon with green borders; the latter is charged with the Cross of Savoy, and suspended from a skv-blue ribbon. MEDAILLE MIHTAIEE.— A French military medal inslituled by Napoleon III. It is conferred princi- pally (m privates and nou-commissioned officers for galhiutry in the field, and carries with it a pension of i'5 a year. Tlie medaille miUtaire is, however, also conferred on Field Marshals and Generals when they have attained to the highest rank of military honors, that of Grand-Croix of the Legion of Honor. It exhibits the effigy of the founder, surmounted by an eagle, and is attached to a yellow ribbon with a green border. It was, after the Crimean War, be- stowed, to a large extent, on British soldiers. MEDICAL BOARD.— A Board consisting of three or more officers of the Medical Department, convened by an order through the Secretary of War, for the inspectiim of woiindcrd ofllcerH in order to He<:iirc them a provision for jifi', in uc<-ordance with the rcirulations rr-LMrrliriL' jjcnsions, etf:. MEDICAL DEPARTMENT,- 'Ibis Departriient of an army, next lo Ihi- ( umiiiissariat, is thir most impor- tant of all the non-combatant sections. The surgical trealm<'nt of the woimdeii in actual lighting, and still more the combat with di.sease engendered by crowd- ing, unhealthy stations, and the reckless habits of the soldiery, necessitate a large Medical] SlafT; for,oii an average of the wholi' army, it is found that Ibi; rate of sickness is at least triple that for the civil pop- ulation. In the British army every liattalion, when at home or in the temperate zone, has a Surgeon and an As- sistant Surgeon; when in India or the tropics, anolbcr Assistant Surgeon is added. In addition lo these of- ficers, there are numerous Staff .Medical Ollicers at all stations, who have charge of detachnienis, hos- pitals, etc. The active list of the Medical Officers comprised, in 1879-80, H'.Hi Surgeons-General, IJep- utyjSurgeons General. Surgeons Major,and Surgeon.s. Besides these, there are Ix^lween 400 and .000 Medi- cal OHicers em])lo)ed with the army in India. The total estimate for medical establishments and ser- vices in 187i)-80 was XSOIi.SOO. The Medical Depart- ment is governed by a Director-General, who is a member of the War Office, and has charge of the sur- gical, medical, and sanitary arrangements of the army. In the United States, the Surgeon General is charg- ed, under the Secretary of Wiir, with the adminis- trative duties of the Medical Dcpiirtment. The Chief Medical Purveyor is the chief purchasing and dis- bursing olHccrof the Medical Department. He has, under the direction of the Surgeon General, tin; su- Iiervision o! the purchase and distribution of all med- ical and hospital supplies. Every military post has at least one medical officer and sometimes two, as the nature of the climate or the strength of the gar- rison demands; all of whom are under the command of the Surgeon Genera'.. The Medical Department is, at present, organized as follows: — One Surgeon Genera!, with the rank of Brigadier General; one Assistant Surgeon General, with the rank of Colonel; one Chief Medical Purvey- or, with the rank of Colonel; four Surgeons, with the rank of Colonel; eight Surgeons, with the rank of Lieutenant-colonel; two Assistant 5Iedical Purvey- ors, with the rank of Lieutenant-colonel; fifty Sur- geons, with the rank of Major; eighty-eight Assis- tant Surgeons, with the rank of Captain; and thirl}-- seven Assistant Surgeons, with the rank of First Lieutenant. There are also in the Medical Deiiart- ment, four Medical Storekeepers, and one hundred and tifty Hospital Stewards. Assistant Surgeons have the rank, pay, and emoluments of First Lieu- tenant of Cavalry for the first five years' service, and the rank, pay, and emoluments of the grade of Cap- tain after fire vears 'service. MEDICAL' DIRECTOR.— In tlie United States ser- vice, an officer who is assigned to duty at the Head- quarters of a Military Geographical Division or Department, and who, under the supervision of the Surgeon General, has control of the Medical De- partment within the limits of the command in which he is serving. Medical Directors are as- signed by order of the Secretary of A^'ar, and are required to make such special reports to the Sur- geon General as shall at all times keep him fully in- formed as ito the sanitary condition of his Depart- ment. MEDICAL SCHOOL.— An establishment for the tech- nical education of medical officers forthe British and Indian military service. Candidates are examined competitively in the ordinary subjects of professional knowledge; and. passing satisfactorily tbrougli that ordeal, are then required to attend, for six months, at the Military Medical School, where they go through jiractical courses of military hygiene, military and MEDICAL STAFF. 308 MEDICAL SUPPLIES. clinical-military surgery and medicine, and patholo- gy with morbid anatomy. As tlie School is attached to the Koyal Victoria Hnspital, which is the great in- valid depot for the whole army, the students have ample opportunity of seeing theory exemplified in practice. The School comprises 4 Professors with £850 a year each, 4 Assistant Professors having £450 each, and usually about 40 medical candidates, who receive each 5 shillings a day and lodging-money. The annual cost of the whole establishment is about £7,fl00. MEDICAL STAFF.— A branch of the British Army, under the control of some experienced officer, sta- tioned at headquarters and denominated Director General. Immediately under his command are a number of Inspectors General, Deputy Inspectors General, and a Corps of Staff Surgeons. The locality of all the ofticers subordinate to the Director Gen- eral is determined by the force to which they may be attached. All the Keginient.al Surgeons and As- sistant Surgeons make their reports to and consult the Staff Officer who is placed in their district. The Director General is paid from the civil department of the Government. A Deputy Inspector General of Hospitals must have served five years at home, or three years abroad in this rank, before he shall be eligible to the hisrhest rank of Inspector General. MEDICAL STOREKEEPEES.— Medical Storekeepers are charged, tmderthe direction of the Surgeon Gen- eral and the Chief and Assistant Medical Purveyors, with the storing and safe-keeping of Medical supplies, and with the duties of receiving, issuing.and account- ing for the same, according to regulations. If a Med- ical Storekeeper be assigned to the same depot with an Assistant Medical Purveyor, he prepares all re- quisitions under his direction and subject to his ap- proval. Medical supplies transferred to Medical Store- keepers by the Chief or Assistant Medical Purveyors are receipted for as invoiced, without breaking pack- ages, provided that the number of packages corres- ponds with the invoice, that thej- be in good ship- ping condition, and that there be no reason to sup- pose the contents broken or defective. Medical Storekeepers cause the Medical supplies issued or transferred by them to be well packed, each article designated by the name of the maker or vender, and each package legibly and correctly marked with the address of the oflicer for whom it may be intended, and with its weight and contents, whether medicines, hospital stores, instruments, dressings, books and stationer}', bedding, clothing, or furniture and ap- pliances. There are four Medical Storekeepers iu the United States army, with the rank, pay and emohuuenis of a Captain of Cavalry. MEDICAL SUPPLIES.— The Medical supplies for an army are prescribed in the Standard Supply Tables furrished by the Surgeons General, and issues are governed by it, except as to the size of packages, which'may be regulated by circumstances and quan- tities re(juired. \Vhen any requisition is not accord- ing to the Supply Table, the reason therefore is ex- plained, as in the prevalence of epidemics, unhealthy location of troops, or other cause making a deviation desirable. In the United States service. Acting Assistant Medical Purveyors at field depots, and the senior Medical Officer of every hospital, regiment, post, or detached command, forward their requisi- tions for Medical supplies to the Medical Director under whom they may be serving. The Medical Director approves or modifies the requisition at his discretion and transmits them to the nearest purvey- ing depot for issue. If the Assistant Medical Pur- veyor or officer in charge of the depot deems necessary, on account of the character of the sup- plies, he forwards the requisition through the Chief Medical Purveyor to the Surgeon General for instruc- tions. If the quantity required be large, and there is time, the Medical Director transmits the requisi- tions, with his recommendations indorsed thereon, to the Surgeon General. Requisitions to replenish Medical supplies are madft in detail, in duplicate, and transmitted by different mails, on the 30th June and 31st December They are made only for articles that are, or probably will be, deficient. They exhibit the quantit}- of every article on hand, whether more be wanted or not. At. remote posts, requisitions are made at such times and for such periods as may be specially authorized by the Surgeon General. Special requisitions are only permissible in cases of emergency. A duplicate of every special requisition, giving the name of the officer upon whom it is made, is immediately for- warded to the Surgeon General for his inforniatirn. Requisitions for articles not on the Standard Supply Table is, iu all cases, forwarded to the Surgeon General for his action. When it is necessary to ob- tain Medical supplies, and recourse cannot lie had to a purvej-ing depot.they may be purchased by the Medi- cal Officer, and bills in duplicate therefor sent through the Medical Director to the Surgeon General for ex- amination a,nd payment. The purchasing officer shall prepare, in triplicate, an invoice of all the articles bought — one copy to be forwarded to the Surgeon General, with the bill i one, as a voucher, to accom- pany his next property return, on which he accounts for the articles purchased; and one to be filed with his retained set of vouchers. In all official lists of Medical supplies the nomenclature, order, and classi- fication of the Standard Supply Table is strictly followed. The whole table is not transcribed in all instances, but the names of the articles mentioned follow the official arrangement. I.— REGULAR LIST MEDICINES. Acid, acetic. Acid, carbolic, for disinfection. Acid, carbolic, pure, crystallized. Acid, citric. Acid, muriatic. Acid, nitric. Acid, sulpliuric. Acid, suliiliuric, aromatic. Acid, tannic. Acid, tartaric, powdered. Alcohol. Aloes, powdered. Alumina and potassa, sulpliate of. Ammonia, aromatic spirits of. Ammonia, carbonate of. Ammonia, muriate of. Ammonia, solution of. Antimony and potassa, tartrate of. Arsenic, pills of. Arseuite of potassa, solution of. Belladonna, alcoholic extract of. Bismuth, subnitrate of. Borax, powdered. Camphor. Castor oil. Cerate, blistering. Cerate, resin. Cerate, simple. CluiJk, prepared. Chlcral, hydrate of. Chlorofcjnn, purified. CinclKHKi, II 11 id extract of. Ciunaninii, oil of. ("od liver oil. Colehicum seed, Muid extract of. Coloeynth. eoni])ound extract of. Copper, sulphate of. Crotou oil. Digitalis, tincture of. Lrgot, lluid extract of. Ether, compound spirits of. Ether, stronger, for anaisthcsia. Ether, spirits of nitrous. Flaxseed. Flaxseed meal. Ginger, fluid extract of. Glycerine, pure. Gum arable, powdered. Hyoscyamus, alcoholic extract of. Iodine. rpecacuanha, powdered. Iron, solution of the sulphate of. Iron, sulpliate of. Iron, tincture of the chloride of. Iron and qiiinia, citrate of. .lalap, powdered. Lavender, compound spirits of. Lead, acetate of. Liquorice, extract of. Licpiorice root, powdered. Magnesia, heavy calcined. Magnesia, sulpliate of. Mercurial ointmeut. Mercury, corrosive chloride of. JIEDICAI, SUPPLIES. 309 UEBICAL SUPFLIEB. Mprrury witli chalk. C'antharides, cerate of the extract Flannel, red, all wool. Mercury, inilil chloride of. of. (;utta-])(rcha cloth. Mercury, ointiiRiit of the nitrate (Jatecliu. liinl, patint. of. Chamomile flowers. Lint, pickid. Mercury, ])ill of. Cinchona bark, powdered, .Muslin. Mercury, rc<l oxide of. Cloves, oil of. Needles, cotton, Ihindjle in case. Morphiii, sulphiite of. Collodion. Needles, assorted. Mustard Hccd, black, ground. Copabia. Needles, uphol.sterer'g. Ku.x vomica, alcoholic extract of. Creosote. Oakum. Olive oil. Cubeb, oleo-resin of. Oile<l muslin. Opium, camphorated tincture of. (ientian, fluid extract of. Oile<! silk. Opium, compouinl powder of. (Jum araliic. Plaster of Paris. Opium, <lciH|ori/,cil tincture of. (iuaiac, resin of. Pencils, hair. Opium, powdered. Indian bcmj), jiuritieil extract of. Pins. Opium, tincture of. Ijx'cacuaidia, fluid extract of. Plaster, adhesive. Peppiir, Cayeime, uTound. Iron, dried sulphate of. Plaster, isinglass. Pei)pernunt, spirits of. Iron, by by<lrogen. Silk, gray. Pills, cam|)hor and opium, in bot- Iron, hyijopliosphate of. Silk, ligature. tles. Iron, syrup of tlic iodide of. Splints. Pills, compound cathartic, in bot- Iron, oxalate of. Splints, Smith's anterior. tles. Iron and potassa, tartrate of. Splints, material for making, felt. Pills, (ipinin, in bottles. Iron, pyrophosphale of. Sponge. Podophyllum, resin of. Mercury, green iodide of. Tapi-, cotton. Potassa, caustic. Mercury, yellow .subsulphate of. Thread, linen. Potassa, acetate of. Mor|)hia, acetate of. Thread, cotton, spools. Potassa, biearl)onate of. Myrrh. Tow. Potassa, bitartrate of. Origanum, oil of. Towels. Potassa, chlorate of. Potassium, cyanide of . Towels, roller. Potassa, nitrate of. Sarsaparilla, fluid extract of. Twine. Potassa, permanffanate of. Senna, confection of. Potassium, bronude of. Sinapism paper. IV.- ARTICLES NOT EX- Potassium, iodide of. Soda, phosphate of, exsiccated. PENDABLE. Qiiiuia, s\di)hate of. Khuharb, ])o\vdered. Soda, suljjhite of, exsiccated. Sulphur, in roll. IN8TBUMENTS. Roclielle salt. Tar, wood. Atomizers, steam. iSantonin. Taraxacum, fluid extract of. ('upi)ing glasses. Seneka, lluid extract of. Tolu, balsam of. Cupiiing tins. Silver, nitrate of, in crystals. Valerian, fluid extract of. Kleetric apparatus. Silver, nitrate of, fused. Veratruin viriile, fluid extract of . Field case. Soap, eastile. Veratrum viride, tincture of. Irrigators. Soap, common. Wax, yellow. Lancet, thumb. Soda, bicarbonate of. Wild-t'herry bark, fluid extract of. Leech, artiflcial. Soda, chlorinated solution of. HOSPITAL STORES. Obstetrical case. Sqidll, powdered. Arrow-root. Pocket case. Squill, syrup of. BarU-y. Post-mortem case. Strychnia. Beef, extractor, Liebigs. Scarificators, Sulphur, washed. Brandy. Scissors. Turpentine, oil of. Candles. Speculum for the rectum. Vaccine virus. Candles. wa.\. Speculum for the vagina. Wax, white. Cinnamon, Spongeholders. Zinc, acetate of. Cocoa or chocolate. Spray apparatus. Zinc, oxide of. Corn starch. Stethoscope. Zinc, solution of chloride of. Farina. Stomach-pump and tube, in case. Zinc, sulphate of. Gelatin, shred. Syr'nges, bard rubber, 8-ounce. Ginger. Syringes, hypodermic. II.-SUPPLEMENT.\UY LIST. Milk, concentrated. Syringes, rubber, self-injecting. MEDICINES. Nutmegs. Syringes, rubber, self-injecting. Acid, arsenious. PepperT black. with colpeurynter in each case. Acid, benzoic. Sugar, white. Syringes, universal, hard rubber. Acid, chronuc. Tapioca. Syringes, vagina, glass. Acid, gallic. Tea, black. Syringes, vagina, hard rubber. Acid phosphoric, diluted. Whiskey. T'ooth-extracling case. Army pat- Acid, hydrocyanic, diluted. Wine. tern. Aconite root, fluid extract of. Thermometer, clinicaL Aconite root, tincture of. III.-AKTICLES EXPENDA- Tonirue depressors. Ammonia, phosphate of BLE. Tourniquets, field. Anise, oil of. INSTRUMENTS. Tourniquets, screw, with pad. Arnica, fluid extract of Nipple shields. Urinometers. Arsenic and mercury, solution of Probangs. Amputating case. iodide of. Syringes, glass. Trephining case. Assafetida. Syringes, rubber. General operating case. Atropia, sulphate of. Trusses, single. Exsecling case. Bismuth, subcarbonate of. Trusses, double. Capital operation case. Bismuth, tannate of. DBESSmOS. Jlinor operation case. Blistering, liquid. Bandages. Trunks, leather. Bromine. Bandages, suspensory. Barometer, aneroid. Buchu, fluid extract of. Binder's boards, small. Barometer, mercurial. Cacao, butter of. Binder's boards, large. Hygrometer. Calabar bean, extract of. Cotton bats. Rain-gauge. ■ Cantharides, tincture of. Cotton wadding. Rain-gauge glasses. ICESICINE CHEST. 310 MELDER SYSTEM OF FOETIFICATIOK Thermometer, maximum. Thermometer, minimum. Thermometer, standard. , Anatomy, Grays. Bumstead on Venereal. Chemistry, Fowne's. Children, Diseases of,Meigs Treat- ise. Children, Diseases of, Vogel. Craig on the Decimal System. Diagnosis, Da Costa's. Dictionary, English, Worcester's. Dictionary Medical, Dimglison's. Diseases of Women, Thomas. ^_, Dispensatory. Ear, Troltsch on. Eye, Stellwag on. Histology, Strieker's. Hygiene, Parke's. Jurisprudence, Taylor's. Jurisprudence, Stille' & Wharton's. Meteorology, Loomis'. Midwifery, Hodges. Midwifery, Cazeau.x'. Ophthalmoscope, Zander. Pathology, Surgical, Billroth's, Physics, Ganot's. Physiology, Flint's. Practice of Medicine, Flint's. Practice of Medicine, Wood's. Practice of Medicine, Reynolds'. Practice of Medicine, Aitken's. Practice of Medicine, Niemeyer's. Recruits, Examination of, 'Trip- ler's. Skin, Diseases of, Tilbury Fox's. Surgery, Erichsen's. Surgery, Gross'. Surgery, Holmes". Surgery, Guthrie's Commentaries. Therapeutics, Stillc's. Therapeutics, Waring's. Therapeutics, Mechanical, Wales'. Woodward on " Camp Diseases." Woodward's Hospital Steward's Manual. Case,Diet and Prescription Book. Morning Report Book. Order and Letter Book. Record of Deaths. Register, Meterological. Register of Patients. Register, Surgical Operations. Bed sacks. Beds, water. Blankets. Blanket cases. Counterpanes. Cushions, rubber, small. Cushions, rubber, with open cen- ter. Gutta-percha bed covers. Mattresses, hair. Mosquito bars. Pillows, hair. Pillows, feathers. Pillow cases, white. Pillow ticks. Sheets. The above Table is ample and sufficiently varied for ordinary practice, but in order to provide for the necessities of unusual emergencies, and to indulge, as far as practicable, individual preference and treat- ment, special requisitions for numerous miscellaneous articles, not on the Table. may be made to the Surgeon General at any time. ^^^__^^ UEDICINE CHEST.— A pannier filled with a varie- ty of medicines necessary for a campaign, together with such chirurgical instruments as are useful. These chests are usually provided by the Govern- ment, and are fitted up with a view to being trans- ported on pack animals. Before taking the field for a long or indefinite period. Commanding Officers, or Surgeons-in-Charge, should provide a sufficient num- ber of Medicine Cheats, each supplied with the follow- ing articles : A case of pocket surgical instruments, consisting of, at least, a lancet, sclilpel, small knife, forceps, and scissors; a few rolls of sticking and ad- hesive plaster; some silk, needles and waxed thread; an assortment of bandages, splints, sponges and some red flannel ; some lint, oil-silk and tow ; a flask of wine or brandy ; a hypodermic injection syringe ; a tourniquet and small cup ; blue mass, quinine , opium and cathartic, put up in usual doses ; a little chloroform, laudanum, hartshorn, camphor, solu- tion of morphia, iodine, tincture of chloride of iron, chloride of hme, tincture of m3Trh and aloes, tinct- ure of arnica (excellent for strains and contusions), spirits of nitre, ammonia and turpentine ; sulphates of iron, zinc and copper ; pulverized indigo, carron oil, saltpeter, tartar emetic, nitrate of potash, pre- pared chalk, tincture of opium and catechu, cantha- rides (in powder), sugar of lead, acetic acid, and powdered mustard ; emetics and aperients (mild and powerful); nitrate of silver, in a holder ; cold cream or glycerine (cooling for irritated surfaces) ; a cor- dial for diarrhoea, a sudorific (Dover's powders ex- cellent), and some simple cerate or a mixture of wax and lard ; some alum, Jamaica ginger, castor oil, linseed oil and meal, flaxseed, and an assortment of cathartic, diuretic, sedative, febrifuge and alterative "l)alls"; also some astringent ointment (one part ace- tate of lead and three parts of lard), hoof ointment (equal parts of tar and lard), and a strong liniment. See Field Jiemedien, Medical /Supplies and Military Surgery. MEDJIDIE.— A Turkish Order, instituted in 18r)2, and conferred after tiicCrinican Campaign, to a con- siderable extent, on Britisli officers. It has five classes; and tlie decoration, which dilTcrs in size for the dilTerent classes, is a silver sun of seven triple rays, with the device of the crescent and star alter- nating with the rays. On a circle of red enamel, in the center of the decoration, is the Icgeiul in Turkish, whose signification is "Zeal, llonur, aiiil Loyally," and the date 1208, the Mohammedau year corre- sponding to 1852; the Sultan's name is inscribed on a gold field within this circle. The first three classes suspend the badge around the neck from a red rib- bon having green borders, and the fourth and fifth classes wear it attached to a similar ribbon on the left breast. A star, in design closely resembling the badge, is worn on the left breast by the first class, and on the right breast by the second class. MEDIUM CAVALRY.— An appellation given to some of the regiments of the British army which are neither /(fai'^ nor light. There are 11 regiments of medium cavalry, 5 of which are Lancers (5th, 9th, 12th, 16th, and 17th), five Dragoon Guards (1st, 2d, 3d, 6th, 7th), and one (6th) Dragoons. The latter 6 regiments wear brass helmets. The average weight carried bv the horses of the medium cavalry is about 18 stone 10 lbs. MEER BDKSHY.— A Chief Paymaster in the East Indies. MEER TOZUK.— In the East Indies, a Marshal whose business is to preserve order in a procession or line of march, and to report absentees. MEGGHETERIARQUE.— The Commanding Officer of a body of men called Meteriennes, who formerly did duty at Constantinople. They were composed of soldiers who were enlisted in the Allied Nations. MEGRIMS, — Megrims and vertigo are the terms usually applied when a horse at work reels, and then either stands for a minute dull and stupid, or falls to the ground, lying for a time partially insensible. These attacks come on suddenly, are often periodi- cal, are most frequent during hot weather, and when the animal is drawing up a hill, or exposeil iluring heavy work to the full raj's of a hot sun. Liability to megrims constitutes unsoundness, and usually de- pends upon the circulation through the brain being •temporarily disturbed by the presence of tumors. Horses subject to megrims are alwaj-s dangerous; if driven at all, they should be used with a lirciistplate or pipe-collar, so as to prevent, as much as possible, pressure on the veins carrying the blood from the head. Uiey should lie moderately and carefully fed, and during hot weather liave an occasional la.xative. MEIGS GDN. — An early |magazine-gun carrying a great mimber of cartridges. Some patterns carried as many as forty or fifty rounds. This system, like many of its contemporaries, did not meet with any considerable success. See M'lqiuine-qnn. MELDER SYSTEM OF FORTIJFICATiON.— This sys- tem very much resembles that of Freytag, but there ]££L££. 311 UENAGE. in an iiliHciK-o of ravelins on tiio. salirntB of bastions. MELEE. A Miililary t<-riii wliicli in uMcd anioiif; llic KrciK-li to c.vprrssllic hurry anil coiifiiHion of a battle. Mi'lc'c corrcspdiids with the Knglish expres- sion " Tliicli of tlic tit;lit." MEMBEKED.— A term in llcralilry; vvliin a l)ir(l lias its lc,i;s of a ditTcri-nt color from its liody, it ia saiil li> he iiicinlpcri'd of that color. MEMBERS. Officers are so called who are detailed bv orders to sit on (ieiieral or ( Jarrison Coiirts-.VIar- tial. In case su]ierniituerary niendiers are detailed for a court-martial, lliey are sworn, and it is rii;hl that they should sit and be present at all deliherati<ins even when the court is i;)eared,'.in order to be [in-par- ed to take the place of any absent member. Until thentheyhave no voice. MEMOIR. -The title ijiven by military officers to those pl.ins which they olTer 1o their urovcruMient or eonunanders on subjects relalint; to war or .Military economy. Metniiim is a species of history, written by persons who had some share in the transactions tliey relate, answerint; in some measun; to wliat the Komans call (!ommentarii. (.'lesar's Commentaries are the Memoirs of his ('amiiai<;ns. MEMORIAL. — Au address in the form of a petition to a iSoverei.<;n or other authority, able to redress the grievance of the memorialist. Aleinorials or peti- tions of the nature above adverted to may he ad- dressed by officers to government; they must be •written, not printed, and signed Dy the writer. MENACE.— A hostile threat. A Court-Martial may punish, at discretion, any person who uses any nienaciui; words, siiins or gestures in its presence, or who disturbs its proceedings by any riot or dis- order. MENAGE.— All military men should have a tlior- I ough knowledge of the structure and ])ower.s of endurance of horses; slioidd be familiar with the rules for their management under all circumstances; j should understand in detail the method of shoeing ' them, and be able to treat all ordinary cases of in- iury or disease. In the field, or on tiie march, an Ignorant or careless commander will always have many broken down and unserviceable animals, while the animals of other commands, performing the same duties, but judiciously handled, remain in good condition. To make the horse tractable and stea^Jy in jn/nmt- ing. - Go up to the horse, and pat him on the neck, and speak to him ; then take the reins from the horse's neck, and bold them at a few inches from the ' rings of the bit with the left hand; take such posi- tion as to offer as much resistance as possible to the horse, should he attempt to break away; hold the whip in the right hand, with the point down; raise the whip quietly and tap the horse on the breast; the horse natural/y tries to move back to avoid the whip, follow the horse, pulling at the .same time against him, and continuing the use of the whip; be c;ireful to show no sign of anger nor any sym|)toin of yield- ing. The horse, tired of trying ineifcctuiilly to avoid the whip, soon ceases to pull, and moves forward; then drop the point of the whip and make much of him. This repeated once or twice, usually proves sufficient; the horse having found how to avoid the punislnnent, no longer waits for flu- application of the whip, but anticipates it, by moving up at the sliglitest gesture; this is of great assist;uic-<' in tlie beudiug-lessons, as also in mounting and dismount- ing, and accelerates the training of the horse. To bend the horse's neckand to rein in.dixnyiunted. — The balance of the horse's body, and his lightness in hand, depend on the proper carriage of his heatl and neck. A young horse usually tries to resist the bit, either by bending his neck to one side, bj" set- ting his jaw against the bit, or by carrying bis nose too high or too low. The bending-lessons serve to make a horse manageable by teaching him to con- form to the movements of the reins and to yield to the pressure of the bit. During the lessons the horse must never be hurried. To liend the nrrk to the right for inslaiice, lake a posiliun on the near side of the horse, in front of his slioulderand facing toward his neck ; take the off rein close up to the bit with tho right hand, the near rein in the same way with the left band, the thumbs toward each other, the little lingers outward, bring the right hand toward the body, and at tiie same time extend the left arm bo as to turn the horse's head to the right. The force cm- |)loyed must be gradual, and jiroixirtioned to the re- sistance met Willi, ami care must be taken not to bring the horse's nose too close to bis chest. If the horse back, continue the pressure until, finding it impossible to avoid the restraint inijiosed by the bit, he stands still and yiehls to it. \V li<-n the bend is complete, the horse holds his head there without any restraint, and chiimps the bit ; then make much of him, and let him resume his naluriil jiosilion by de- grees, without throwing his head round hurriedly. A horse, as a rule, chani|)s the bit when he ceases to resist. The horse's neck is bent to the lift in a sim- ilar manner, the man standing on the off side. To rein in, cross the reins liehind the horse's jaw, tak- ing the near rein in the right hand, and the off rein in the left, at about si.x inches from the rings ; draw them across each other till the horse gives way to the pressure and iirings his nose in. Prevent the horse from raising his head by lowering the hands. When the horse gives way to the cross-pressure of the reins, ease the hand, and make much of him. To bend the horse's neck and to rein in, mounted. — The horse should be equipped with the curb-bridle. To bend the neck to the right, for instance, adjust the reins in the left hand; seize the right rein with the right hand well down; draw it quietly toward you vmtil the horse's head is brought completely around to the right, in the same jiosition as in the bend dis- mounted. When the horse champs the bit, make much of him, and allow him to resume his natural position. I'o rein in. lower the bridle-hand as much as possible, turning the back uppermost; with the right hand, nails down, take hold of the curb-reins above and close to the left hand and shorten them by degrees, drawing them through the left hand, which closes on the'reins each time they are shor- tened. When the horse resists much, and holds his nose up, keep the reins steady; do not shorten or lengthen them; close the legs to prevent the horse from backing; after remaining perhaps a minute or more with his nose up, and his jaw set against the bit, he will yeld, bring his nose in, and champ the bit; make much of him, loosen the reins, and, after a few seconds, rein in again. This exercise gives the horse confidence, and teaches him to arch his neck, and bring his head in proper position whenever he feels the bit. Most young horses are afraid of the bit, and they must never be frightened by sudden jerks on the reins, lest they should afterward refuse to stand the requisite pressure of the bit. A certain amount of bearing is necessary to induce the horse to work boldly and well, as well as to apprise the rider of what the horse is going to do. In reining in, some horses rest the lower jaw against the breast; to counteract this press both legs equally and force the horse forward to the bit. Some liorses will not work up to the hand, that is, will not bear on the bit at all. Such horses are unfit for the service. To teach the horse to oliei/ the pressure of the leg.— If it is desired to turn to the right on the fore-feet, for instance, applv the right leg well behind the girth, very quietly, anil without t'oucliing the horse's side with the spur; press airainst him till he makes a step to the left with his hind-legs; then cease the pressure of the leg and make much of him; then re- peat the same until the horse takes another step, and so on until he has turned about, always pausing when he takes a step in turning. The horse should not be reined back ; his fore-legs remain in place, and his hind-quarters move around in a circle. Both legs are kept close to the horse, the pressure of UEN'S HAKN£SS. 312 MEECUEY. either leg being increased as the occasion requires. Turning tn tlie left on the fore-feet is executed in a similar manner. To break the horse of had habits. — Should the horse rear, the rider must j-ield the hand when the horse is up, and urge liim vigorously forward when he is coming down ; if the iiorse be punished while up, he may spring and fall backward. Kicking can be prevented by liohling the horse's head well up, and closing the legs; if necessary, they are closed so much as to force the horse forward. Shying some- times results from defect of sight, and sometimes from fear. If from fear, the horse must be taken up to the object with great patience and gentleness, and be allowed to touch the object with his nose. In no case shmild a horse be punishrd for t'midity. The dread of chastisement will increase his restive- ness. To acpu-stotn horses to firing. Station a few men at a little distance from. ami on both sides of .the stable- door, and cause them to fire pistols as the horses are led into the stable to be fed ; for the same object, a gun mav be fired during the hour of feeding. To teach horses to jump — Horses should be first taught to leap the ditch and then the bar. They are equipped with the watering-bridle, and follow a steadv horse who is accustomed to jumping. The horses are taken in the open field and practiced at jumping shallow ditches, fallen logs, very low fences, etc. Great dis- cretion must be used in applying the whip, and the horses will not be required to leap repeatedly over the same thing or at the same place. See Iiorse and Horsemanship. MEN'S HARNESS.— An arrangement by which men are attached to a gun-carriage which is to be moved but a short distance, or where animid power cannot be employed. It consists of a rope 18 feet long and 4 inches in circumference, having a thimble at one end and a thimble and hook at the other. Ten leather loops are fixed in pairs to the rope, .5 on each side. These are of sufficient size to allow a man to pass Ills body through them, the strain of the draft com- ing on the chest. MENSUEATION.— That braach of the application of arithmetic to geometry which teaches, from tlie actual measurement of certain lines of a figure, how to find, by calculation, the length of otherlines, the area of surfaces, and the volume of solids. The de- termination of lines is, however, generally treated of under trigonometrv, and surfaces and solids are now understood to form the sole subjects of mensuration. As the length of a line is expressed by comparing it with some well-known unit of length, such as a j'ard, a foot, an inch, and saying how manj^ such units it contains, so the extent of a surface is expressed by saying how often it contains a corresponding super- ficial unit, that is, a square whose side is a yard, a foot, an inch; and the contents of solid bodies are similarly expressed in cubes or rectangular solids having their length, breadth and deptii a yard, a foot, an inch. To find the length of a line (except in cases where the length maj' be calculated from other known lines, as in trigonometry) we have to apply the unit (in the shape of a foot-rule, a yard measure, a chain), and discover by actual trial "how man)- imits it contains. But in measuring a surface or a solid we do not require to apply an actual square lioard, or a cubic block, or even to divide it into such squares or blocks; we have only to measure certain of its boundarj'-lines or dimensions; and from them we can cak-idate or infer the contents. To illustrate how this is done, suppose that it is required to de- termine the area of a rectangular figure AIK'I), of which the side AH is 7 inches, and the side AC 3 inches. If .W be divided at the ])oints F and K into ',i jiortions, <'ach 1 inch long, and parallels l)e drawn from F and K to AB or CI); and if ,\I{ be simil;irly divided into 7 parts, of 1 in<-li ea<h, and jiiindlels be drawn to AC or 151) through the points of section, then the figure will be divided into a number of equ"l squares or rectangular figures, whose length and breadth are each 1 inch; and as there are 3 rows of squares, and 7 squares in each row, there must be in all 7x3, or 21 squares. In general terms, if a and li be the lengths of two adjacent sides, there are a rows of little squares, and h squares in each row. Hence the area of a rectangle = tlie product of two adjacent s'des. The areas of other figures are foimd from this, by the aid of certain relations or properties of those figures demonstrated b}' pure geometry; for instance, the area of a parallelogram is the same as the area of a rectangle liaving the same base and altitude, and is therefore equal to the base multiplied by the height. As a triangle is half of a parallelogram, the rule for its area can be at once deduced. Irregular quadrilaterals and polygons are measured by dividing them into triangles, tlie area of each of which is separately calculated. By reasoning similar to what has been employed in the case of areas, it is shown that the volume of a rectangular parallelopiped or prism is found in cubic inches by multiplying together the length, breadth, and depth in inches; an<l the ol)Uque paralellopiped, prism, or cylinder, bv multiplvins; the area of the base bv the height. "MENTONIERE.— The bearer of a" helmet, some- times c;illed liariere. Also written ilentonniere. MERCENARIES.— Soldieis strving for pay in any foreiirn service. MERCURY.— One of the so-called noble metals, re- markable as being the only metal that is fluid at or- dinary temperatures. It is of a silvery white color, with a striking metallic luster. When pure, it runs in small spherical drops over smooth surfaces ; but when not perfectly pure, the drops assume an elon- gated oxtail'd form, and often leave a gray stain on the surface of glass or porcelain. Moreover, the pure metal, when shaken with air, presents no change upon its surface; while, if impure, it becomes cov- ered with a gray film. It is slightly volatile at or- dinary temperatures, and at 662° it boils, and forms a colorless vapor of specific gravity 6.976. Hence it is capable of being distilled; and the fact of its being somewhat volatile at ordinary temperatures, helps to explain its pernicious effects upon those whose trades require them to come much in contact with it— as, for example, the makers of barometers, looking- glasses, etc. At a temperature of — 39°, it freezes, when it contracts considerably, and becomes mallea- ble. In consequence of the uniform rate at which it expands when heated, from considerably below 0* to above 300'' , it is employed in the construction of the mercurial thermometer. All mercurial com- pounds are either volatilized or decomposed by heat; and when heated with carbonate of soda, they yield metallic mercury. Native or virgin quicksilver only occurs in small quantity, usuallj- in cavities of mer- curial ores. Of these ores, by far the most im- portant is cinnabar. There are two means of obtain- ing the metal from the cinnabar : the ore may be burned in a furnace, in whicli case the sulphur is given off a; sulphurous acid, and the mercury is col- lected in a condensing chamber ; or the ore may be distilled with some substance capable of com- bining with the sulphur — as, for example, with slaked lime or iron filings. The mercury im- ported into this country is usually almost chemically pure. If the presence of other metals is suspected, it may be pres.sed through leather, re-distilled, and then digested for a few days in dilute cold nitric acid, which exerts little action on the mercury, if more oxidiziiblc metals are present. The mercurj-, after being freed from the nitric acid by washing with water, is cliemicivlly pure. There are two oxides of mercury, the black sub- oxide (Hg„0) and the red oxide (IlgO). Both of these lose all their oxygen when lic;itcd, and form salts with acids. Tlie Hack sii/inride, allhougli a pow- <rfiil base, is very unstalile when isolated, being readily converted by gentle warmth, or even by UGSCUBY SENSIMETEB. 313 IiLEEIDIAN. mfirc exposure to lii;lit, into red oxu'.c iinil tlic mcliil (Hf;a()»=llg()-flli;). The most iiiii)orliiiit of its siilTs is the iiilnit(' (nir.,(»,N(),.+2Ac| ), from wliosc watery solution iimmoniu tlirowsdovvn ii liluek preci- pitiite known in jiliiirniiiey "s iittrrnriiia xiiiiihiUn Iliilinitii'diii-'. from Its ilisein-erer, an<l consist Iiil; cssentiiilly of tlie bliu-ii sul)oxiile with some amnio- iiia and nitric acid, wliicli an- apparently imiiinbin- ation. Of the ird oiMle. the most important salts are the nitrate (lIf;().N()r,+HA(|); the sulphate (IlsrO.SO.iJ, whieli is employed in the nmnufnelure of Corrosive sublimate: and the l)asi<' sulphate (;ilIi;(),.S().,) which is of aycllow color.and is known as tiirjiiih ininernl. Sulphur forms two compounils with mercury -viz., a sulphide fllL'.^i- » blai'k p iwder of little im])ortance and a suli)hide f IIi;S}, which occurs naturally as cinnabar. Siil/i/n'il'- "f meir'iry is thrown ih/wn as a black preiipilate by passins sulphureted hydroi;en throuirh a solution of a persall of mercury (corrosive sublimate, for exam- ple). When drieci atul sublimed in vessels from which air is exeludeil, it assumes its ordimiry red color. The well-known iiij^ment virniiUinn is sul- phide of mercury, and is soin<'limes obtained from pure cinnabar, but is more fre(|uently an artificial product. Mercury unites with most metals to form amalgams, several of which are employed in the lab- oratory. Of the numerous organic compounds of mercury, it is unnecessary to mention more than the fulminate and the cyanide (HgC'y). which may be jirejiared by dissolving the red oxide of mercury in hydrocyanic acid, and is the best source from which to obtain cyanogen. The uses of mercury are so mimerous that a very brief allusion to the most important of these must .sutticc. It is employed extensively in the extraction of gold and silver from their ores by the process of amalgamation. Its amalgams are hirgely employed in the processes of silvering and gilding, and some (as those of copper and cadnnum) are employed by the dentist for stopping teeth. It is indispensable in the construction of pliilosophical instruments, and in the laboratory in the form of tlie mercurial bath, etc. It is the source of the val- uable pigment Vermillion. It is eonslantiv used for percussion caps, and in takiag the density of gun- powder. Spherical projectiles are floated in mer- cury to ascertain whether thev are homogeneous. MERCUHY DENSIMETER.— "In order to secure a first-class gunpowder, which is so essential for mili- tary purposes, it is of tlie utmost importance that the several ingredients should be as pure as possible; this being secured, it thenbecomes very necessary that the density or specific gravity of the powdershouldat all times be as nearly as possible the same, as any variation however slight, affects its quality and force to an im- mense extent. To ascertain its density, therefore, is a matter of considerable importance anil for this delicate operation a very ingenious instrument has been devis- ed called a " densimeter "; it may be described as fol- lows : On a small table a kind of barometer is fitted, but instead of the glass tube being closed at the up- per end and all in one piece, as is usual, it is in this case made in two pieces and open at the top. The upper part is about 34 inches in lenirth, and is con- nected to the lower, which is 10 inclicH in length, by- means of a closely litting and pc-rfectly air-tight screw(-d metal joint; the low-er part, inst(-ad of bi-in^ a plain parallel lub(-of the same diameter Ihroiigli- oiit as tlie ujiper, is made in the form of a glolje or bulb, and on the neck at each end of it a metal union and stop-cock are sectured, both of whi(-li are made p(-rf(-ctly air-tight. I5y means of one of these unions this glass globe or lower half of the instrumi-iil is al- lai-lied to the uppi-r, while the other union, into whi(-h is screw-(-d an open iioz/.li- or metal lubi-. ilips into a cup fast(-n(-il to tbi- tabli- tilleil with mi-rcury. On another tabh- staiiiling by lh(-side of the- tirst one an orilinarv air-iiump is lixed. with vai-uum gauge, etc. It will n-adily be seen that if the upper part of the glass tube of liie densimeter be connected with the iiir-i)umi). and the air be extracterl from the glass tube w-hilsl the lower tap is(-los(-d, a vacuum will be f<irm(-d, and that ujioii opc-ning the lower tap soas to afford a fr(-e passaL;<- for the mercury in the cup, it will rise and fill the glass glolii- and n|)p(-r jxirliou of the tube to su(-h a height as will balance th<- pressure of the atnios])liere, thus giving a column of mercury of pre<-isely the same total height as that in an ordin- ary baromet(-r. "To use the instrument, two tables are placed side by side, the open uppc-r (-nd of th(- glass tube of the densimet(-r is (-onnecli-d with the air-i)Ump by means of a flexible tube, the taji on the upper union of the densimeter is op(-n(-d, the lower one is closed. The air-pump is worked; as soon as all the air is exhaust- cil, shown by a vacuum gauge attached to the air- pump, the lower tap on the glass tube immediately below the globe is opened, and the mercury rushes into the tube: when it ceases to rise, the two metal l;ips arc closed, anil the globe part, with the mer<-ury contained therein. is n-moved and carefully weighed. All the mercury is now emptied back again info the cup, and the globe, nearly filled with a known weight of gunpowder, say lOU grammes, is then reconnected to Uie densimeter under the same conditions as be- fore, and the air again exhausted until a vacuum is formed. The lower tap is now opened, ;uiil the mer- cury allowed to linil its way in and rise in the tube; the"mercury rises to precisely the same height in the tube as before; but the globe having been nearly fill- ed with gunpowder will contain less mercury. The taps on the lower portion of the instrument are clos- ed, the globe part removed and again weighed. This weight, as well as that previously ascertained when the globe was entirely filled with mercury, is record- ed, and from these two ascertained weights the den- sity of the powder can readily be obtained liy the following rule: Tofirtd the deuMy of the gunpuirder, we hare only U> multiply the specific gravity "f the mer- cury by the weight of the gunpowder plarid in the globe of the densimeter, and divide by the difference in iceight of th- globe ichen filled with mercury only and whenfill- ed with guupowdir and mercury, plus the weight of the powder placed in the globe ; the result will show the densitv of the gunpowder under test. See Deiui- meter.'Dupont de Nemour's Jhnsimeter, Inspection oj Powdr. anil Mercury Densimeter, MERIDIAN.— The name given to the great circle of the celestial sphere which passes through both poles of the heavens, and also through the zenith and nadir of any place on the earth's surface. Every- place on the earth's surface has conseijuently its own meridian. The meridian is divided by the polar axis into two equal portions, which stretch from pole to pole, one on each side of the earth. It is midday at any place on the earth's surface, when the centre of the sun comes upon the meridian of that place: at the same instant it is midday at all jilaces under the same half of that meridia"n, and midnight at all places under the oppo.site half. All places under the same meridian have, therefore, the same longitude. Stars attain their greatest altitude when they come upon the meridian: the same thin": is true approxi- i matelv of the sun and planets; and, as at this point MEBISIAN UEASUBEUENI. 314 UEBBILL OUN. the effect of refraction upon these bodies is at a minimum, and their apparent motion is also more uniform, astronomers prefer to malve their observa- tions wlien the body is on the meridian. The instru- ments used for tliis purpose are called meridian circles. The meridian may be determined at night by pass- ing a plane through a plumb-line and the north star. The trace of this plane on a horizontal plane will be the projection of the meridian sought, the north star \ s s /■ «■ — * — ,,-• ijrande Oitrse '^.i^^ /»<> / vole antimr/ poUum n \ \ X. of ic^rease holds good to the poles, the length of every tenth degree of latitude in English feet is as- in the following table : being only yV° from the true pole. It is easy to re- cognize the north star— it is the seventh star of the little bear and is found precisely in the prolonga- tion of the two first stars of the great bear {grande otirse), a constellation disposed in symmetrical order as in the drawing. To practically determine the variation of the com- pass, erect a pole, and at a distance of 200 yards set up another, so that the two are in a line with the true north ; the variation of the compass may be as- certained the next morning by taking tlie bearing of one pole from the other. UERIDIAN MEASUKEMENT.— The determination of the form and size of the earth from the measure- ment of an arc of a meridian has been a favorite problem with mathematicians from the earliest times, but up to the middle of last century 'heir op- erations were not carried on with exactness suffi- cient to render their conclusions of much value. Since that time, however, geodesy has so rapidly progress- ed, owing to the invention of more accurate instru- ments and the discovery of new methods, that the measurement of the meridian can now be performed with the utmost accuracy imaginable. The modux operandi is as follows : Two ctations, having nearly the same longitude, are chosen; their lutitude and longitude arc accurately determined (the error of a second in latitude introduces a considerable error into the result), and the direction of the meridian to be measured ascertained ; then a base line is measured with the greatest accuracy, as an error here general- ly becoincs increased at every subsequent step ; and then, by the method known as triangulation, the length of the arc of the meridian contained between the jiarallcls of latitude of the two stations is ascer- tained. As the previously found latitudes of its two extremities give the number of degrees it contains, the average length of a degree of this arc can be iit once determined: and also — on the supposition that the lengtli of a degree is uniform— the length of the wliole meridional circumferencr of liie carlli. This oiieraticm of incridiaii nicasurenu'ut has liccn per- formed at different times on a great many arcs lying between ()8" north latitude and :W soull'i lalilude., and the results show a stc-idy tliou^li irregular in- <:rease in the length of the degree of laljlude iis the latitude increases. On the supposition that this law cj t3 <a •C S 3 S-: Sr S -, Deg 11 fee s •*^ •^ .2 t=! c:S '£. _ to hfj tfj OJ E a a ^J" Q \-i'~ 0" 362,732 50° 364,862 10° 362.843 60° 365,454 20° 363,158 70° 365,937 30° 303.641 80° 366,252 40« 364,333 90° ?66,361 This result shows that the earth is not spherical, as in that case the length of all degrees of latitude would be alike, but of a more or less spheroidal form — that is having its curvature becoming less and less as we go from the extremity of its greater or equatorial diameter to the lesser or polar axis. It was by the measurement of a meridional arc that, in 1792-99, the length of a quadrant of the earth's cir- cumference was determined, in order to [form the basis of the French metrical system. See Metrii-al Mewoirex. MERIT ROLLS.— Rolls prepared by the Academic Board, at each examination, in which the merit of each Cadet (at the United States Military Academy) in each branch of study upon which he has been ex- amined, is denoted by a number proportional to his proticiency and to the importance of the subject ; and in wliich the names of the Cadets are arranged, in their respective classes, in the order of aggregate merit, as determined for each, by the addition of the numbers expressing his merit in each particular branch, and in discipline. The table on page 315 show& the manner of forming the general Merit Roll. MERKIN.— A mop used for cleaning caimon. Also written Malkin. MERLON — In fortification, the position of the par- apet between two embrasures. Its length is usually from fifteen to eighteen feet. The term is also ap- plied to the projection on the top of a crenellated wall. MERRILL BAYONET HANDLE— The essential feature of this device is a slide in tlie side of the handle, which being withdrawn, allows the bayonet-stud to pass a- side into the square notch prepared for it at the far- ther extremity of its L-shaped groove. It is securely kept there by pushing back the slide into its former position. In a modrtication of this invention, the bayonet is held on the gun by the engaging of tiie bay- onet-stud with a corresponding notch in the spring- catch swinging in a slot in the end of the handle. By pressing down the outer end of the spring-catch the shoulder on its forward extremity is passed above the bayonet-stud, and the bayonet is still further se- cured 'on the gun by the muzzle passing througii a corrfspiindin'j; liole f()riiie<l in the guard. MERRILL GUN.— A breech-loading rifle having a fixed chamber closed by a movable breech-block, which slides in the line of the barrel by direct action. It is opened by raising the liandle of the breech-bolt to a vertical position and drawing it back to its full extent. In raising the handle, the firing-pin is re- tracted by a lug near its head engaging with a spiral caiu-recess in the receiver; it is held back by tlie lug entering a circumferential groove in the liolt. In withdrawing the bolt, it passes over the hammer and presses it back to the full-cock The piece is closed by reversing the movement of the bolt. At the end of the forward stroke, the point of the ex- tractor engages with a recess in a ring which sur- M£BBILL LOCK, 315 HEBWIN HULBEST BEVOLVZB. roundH tlio moull: of the fliambor, and acninst I in the Brooklyn Navy Yard, was forged like tho which the l)olt is prcHscil, and turns tlw riiit,' witli it ; : IIiiri~f(iH (inn. hy llic MirHey Iron WorkH, in 184/1. so that I lie rotation <if the holt in lockin;^ will not I Its iliinensions ari' : total leii;;th. Ifi!) iiiehi-s ; diuni- cauwMt to ^rind ai^'ainst the head of the eartridi^e. I I'tiT over tlie eliamlier, 28 inches ; lenj;lli of hore, 144 In turning down the handle, the piece is locked by ' inches; diameter of bore, la inclies ; weight, 10, 7W a a i' S 1 3. . b 3 O H A « . C5 •^ H O. .■s tn Q ■ Si Class Rank. CO « s A A T3 SS oja ■go: s i o c OS i "a. A a a n^ 'f •= o a ij V Jz; OS I t CO ^a" OS s 5" 03 o c 1 1 Maximum in) each branch, j' 300.0 100.0 75.0 300.0 150.0 100.0 100.0 300.0 150.0 100.0 75.0 200.0 1950 1 A.B 293., 5 82.8 66.9 292*8 146.6 95.4 81.9 300.0 144.6 - 98.8 75.0 170.01848.3 2C. D 3i)fi.7 98.9 74.3 285.7 144.9 89.6 95.4 289.3 135.7 100.0 73 3 150.01838.6 8E. F 300.0 95.9 67.6 289.2 139.8 85.0 87.5 293.8 146.4 96.4 68.7 138.6 1807.9 4G.H 200.3 75.7 59 5 282.1 136.4 87.3 85.3 285.7 133.9 89.2 66 173.3 1783.7 51. J 287.0 80.8 70,6 296.4 143.2 73.5 84.1 390.4 139.3 97.6 09 6 103.3 1T47.8 6K.L 283.8 94.9 71,3 257.1 133.0 91.9 79.6 260.7 141.1 92.8 6<; 9 172.0 1745.1 TiM.IN 277.4 96.9 69.8 300.0 148.3 100.0 92.0 374.9 138.6 90.4 73.3 183.3 I7;i4.8 80. P 270.9 92.9 73 5 264.2 138.1 79.3 100.0 253 5 130 4 91 6 74 1 163 31 7X0 8 9Q.R 274.1 90.9 63.9 278.5 134.7 64.3 93.2 257.1 142.9 88.0 63 5 107.0ll717.1 lOS. T 258.0 70.7 58.1 207.8 141.5 97.7 59.3 264.2 133.1 95.3 67.8 191.6J1710.0 IIU.V 2(il.2 64.0 43.4 274.9 1.50.0 96.5 96.6 278.5 148.2 94.0 71 4 100.6 16.39.9 12W.A 264.5 88.8 73.3 242.8 139.6 67.8 88.7 221.4 126.8 86.9 64 3 149.0 1603.8 13B.C 238.7 77.7 58 8 271.4 131 3 68 9 94 3 282 1 117 9 85 7 70 5 102.3 1.599.6 148 ;^ 1581 9 14D.E 225.8 89.8 69 1 224.9 127.9 88.5 49.1 271 4 137 5 84 5 65.1 15|F.G 251.6 83.8 72.0 185.7 121.1 94.2 77.4 196.4 114.6 70.2 60.7 166.31494.0 See United States Military Academy. the engaging of a sectional collar on the bolt with a corresponding groove in the receiver. When this is accomplished, the lug on the tiring-pin is oppo- site the deepest part of the spiral recess and is free to move forward when the piece is fired (by means of a center-lock moved by a double main- spring. ) Extraction is accomplished by a spring- hook lying on top of the breech-bolt : and in draw- ing back the bolt, the natural spring of the extractor presses down the rim of the cartridge upon the bot- tom of the receiver, mitil it is checked by striking against a notch left there for that i)iirpose, and is thereby thrown upward around the hook of the ex- tractor and clear of the gim. MERRILL LOCK.— A lock intended to dispense with the tumbler and adjacent parts, and to be her- metically imbedded in the stock. In a modification of the lock the motion of the mainspring is arrested by a stop-pin after the hammer, in falling, has passed the half-cock notch. When applied to the Spring- field system the act of raising tlie tiring-pin guard in turning the cam-latch to open the block would be sufficient to easily overcome the friction and weight of the hammer and to bring it to the half-cock. In this lock there is no swivel, the mainspring pressing directlv on the hammer. BIERRILL MAGAZINE.— In this device, the comb of the butt-stock is cut out in a groove deep enough to receive one cartridge, on end, and long enough to accomodate four or five of them side by side. A movable back for this groove is formed by a follower- block, which is pressed forward by a spiral-sjiring, carrying the cartridges ahead of it to the mouth of the magazine, from which they are to be picked out ! one by one. The magazine has a sliding cover by whicli, in traveling, the cartridges are to be kept from falling out. MERSEY" GUN.— The 13-inch wrought-iron gun, pounds. It was, received after the bursting of the Stockton Gun, of which it is a copy. The Mersey Works have also constructed satisfactory wrought- iron guns by the rolling process. MERWIN HULBURT REVOLVER.— The new Army Revolver, patented and manufactured by the Messrs. Merwin, Hulbert and Company, is rapidly becoming UESAIL. 316 MESS KIT. a favorite with tlie military organizations throuili- outtiie Uniteii States. Tlie details of its construction may l)e readily understood by a reference to the il- lustration which we present herewith. This revol- ver makes the following claims for superiority: — Compactness, symmetrical, easy outline, and general neat appearance ; no salient points to prevent its ready and easy insertion into or withdrawal from the holster. In handling, not liable to injure the hand : all the projecting parts being rounded and smooth: cleaning being ttierebj' facilitated. Tlie circular form of cylinder front gives a continuous cover to breech of barrel ; prevents sand or dirt entering therein. Accidental unlocking of the parts prevented, as ham- mer must first be set at half-cock. The front sight forged solid with the barrel; not liable to be separ- ated therefrom or injured. The extractor ring pre- vents the interior of the lock and ratchet from foul- ing by escape of gas about the primer when using outside primed ammunition. The hood and collar at front of cylinder covering base-pin and base-pin hole prevents fouling. The tlanged recoil plate here covers and protects the heads of the cartridges ; pre- vents sand or dirt entering between face of recoil plate and cylinder, which miglit clog it and prevent rotation. The cylinder and barrel can be dismount- ed from the frame and re.assembled thereto without the use of screw-driver or any tool. The construc- tion is not intricate nor fragile, and the extractor is a solid part of the base pin. Strength, durability and endurance. Simultaneous, positive, and easy extrac- tion of shells : great power obtained for starting the shells before final extraction by the incline screw ac- tion on the base-pin. Less lateral escape gas is de- flected downward into the works, as no top strap is used. The face of the collar on cylinder takes against the bracket, prevents forward movement of cylinder when pressed by the ball in rotating ; gives a central bearing ; prevents abrasion of cj'linder face against rear of barrel : gives easy rotation ; permits a close joint without friction, reducing the escape of gas ; the cylinder is not forced backward on firing, but is held forward by the hood-clutch taking into the recess of the cylinder collars. The lines of re- coil and resistance are close together, lessening up- ward inclination of barrel when fired. The following are the directions for manipulating the arm : To load. — Place the hammer at half-cock, press the gate downward and insert the cartridges. 7« eject, the s/ielLi — Push back the thumb-bolt under the frame, turn the barrel outward, and draw- forward, when the shells will fall out. To take the arm apart — When the barrel and cylinder are drawn forward, press the small pin in the barrel-catch even with the frame, then press the catch down and draw forward. Complimentary letters have been received as re- gards these arms from all parts of the world. Col. George T. Denison, author of the Russian Imperial Report on Arms and Cavalry Tactics, for which he received the government reward of five thousand dollars and gold medals, as well as medals from other governments, says: "This army revolver is, in mv opinion, the most perfect cavalry pistol in the world." MESAIL. — That portion of a helmet which closes on the open front, more generally known in England as the VentniU. Also written Mezail. MESNE PROCESS.— Any writ issued in the course of ;i suit between the original process and execution. By tills term is also meant the writ of proceedings in an action to summon or bring the Defendant into coirt.or compel him to appear or put in bail, and then to hear and answer tlie plaintitT's claim. MESS. "A term at present used in the sense of a number or association of otticers or of men taking their meals togi'tlier. In societies consisting entire- ly of the male se.x. and of one set of men contiimally thrown together, it is a very important social point that the Mess should be well regulated. There are consequently stringent rules — both of the service and of mutual etiquette — laid down for its government. One officer acts as caterer, receives subscriptions from the several members, charges the wine to those who drink it, etc. ; a steward has charge of the more menial department, arranging for the cooking, pur- chase of viands, servants, rations, etc. In the Brit- ish army, the Mess is a regimental institution for the maintenance of a common table for all the offi- cers in a regiment, who are bound to subscribe an annual subscription, whether present or absent. Married men pay one half if they do not regularly attend the mess, but they pay all contributions to the mess fund. The introduction of messes into the British Army has been attended with the happi- est results. Officers of all ranks meet together on an equal social footing, and the youngest officer in the regiment is able to enjoy the society of his senior and brother officers without reserve. The advan- tages of a mess are manifold, and are seen not only in its social value, but also in the means it offers to all ranks of living well and comfortabl}'. A small government allowance is granted in aid of the ex- penses of the officer's mess. Messes are extended also to the non-commissioned officers and men of a regiment, who have their several messes under the superintendence of the officer commanding the regi- ment and the captains of companies. In France, the several grades mess separately ; lieutenants and sub-lieutenants forming two tables ; captains an- other, and field officers of different grades generally eating separately also. MESSAGES. — C'ommtmications passing between officials whether in peace or war time. In the for- mer, mes.sages are generally sent by dismounted orderlies, except the communication is urgent, when it is sent by a mounted orderly. In the latter,mount- ed orderlies are sent between the general and his staff, on subjects relating to the army and requiring expedition. Important messages forwarded to a distance, and where the bearers may fall into the enemy's hands, should be sent in duplicate, one real, the other false ; the former to be concealed in a quill about his person, in such a way as is not likely to be discoveretl, and which way will in peril suggest it- self ; the latter in the form of a letter. One orderly is not considered safe ; one or two more should be sent at certain intervals of time, say two or three hours between each. Emissaries sent from besieged cities with messages to relieving forces or to friends should use great wariness to avoid falling into the hands of the enemy; but if they do, they should be able to conceal the message, which in all probability woidd be in cipher and in only a few words, about their person. The modes resorted to in warfare, to avoid written communications being seized, are numerous. During the siege of Metz, Marshal Bazaine, desirous of communicating with the go- vernment at Tours, sent two emissaries disguised as Ijeasants, who both managed to pass through the lierman lines ; one carried liis despatch in cipher inside a hollow tooth, and the other had his message woven in one of his socks. Carrier pigeons very often play an important part in the transmission of messages during hostilities, as they did during the siege of Paris in 1870-71. MESSENGERS.— Officers employed by Secretaries of State to convey dispatches at home and abroad. In former (la3-s their occupation consisted, to a con- siderable extent, in serving the Secretaries' warrants for the appn'hension of persons accused of high treason and other grave offenses against the State, nor was it unusual for them to keep the ))risoners whom they a])])rehended at their own houses. They are now principally emjiloyed in foreign service. MESS-KIT. — That portion of camp equipage con- sisting of cooking utensils. The cooking imple- ments and table necessaries should be so selected as to nest compactly. The camp kettles may enclose uejIbe se camp general. 317 METALLIC AMMUNITION FOE SMALL AEM8. the (iishpnns, and tlipsp tlic skillrts nntl smiillfr ar- liclcH. It is licsl willi ;i view In paiUiiiL'' In liiivc llic Kkillt'ls, fryini;i)uiiH, I'tc, so coiirtiructid lliut u spoou may be applied as a liandle, and rciiiDvcd wlion not in use or when packed. The drawing hIiows the idea. MESTEE DE CAMP GENERAL.— The next otlicer in rank, in the did Fniirh cavalry service, to the CJoloni'l-Gencral. This appointment was created under Henry II. in 1552. Mentre de Camp General rff.v DriKj'iiinx, was an appointment which first took place imder Louis XIV., in l(iH4. METAL.- 1. A term in Heraldry. The field of the cicuteheon and the ehart'es wliieh it bears may lie of metal as well as of color; and the two metals in use auKini; lieralds are gold and silver, known as or aud argent. It is a rule of blazon that metal should not be placed on metal, or color on color. 3. Broken stone, etc., used as a road cover. METAL CASTING. The art of obtaining casts of any desired object liy means of ])oiiring nu-lted metal into molds prepared for the purjiose. It has risen to great importance in recent limes, on account of the many new applicalionsot iron. Iron-founding, brass- founding, type-foimding, as well as casting in bronze and zinc, are the principal divisions of the art. The casting of the finer metal and alloys, as gold, silver, anil German silver, is necessarily conducted on a smaller scale. Wheu the casting of an object is re- quired, it is necessary, in the first place, to make a pattern. Suppose it to be a plain round iron pillar, such as is used for hanging a gate upon. A patlern of this is turned in some wood which can be readily made smooth on the surface, such as pine, and then varnished or painted so as to come freely out of the mold. This wooden pillar, or any similar pattern, is always made in at least two pieces, the division being lengthwise, for a reason which we shall presently see. The next step is to prepare the mold. The molds used by the iron-Jouiuler are either of sand or loam, but more generally of fine sand. Proceeding with the preparation of the mold, the founder takes a molding-box, which is composed of two open iron frames with cross bars, ..the one fitting exactly on the other, by means of pins in the upper dropping into holes in the lower frame. One half of the box is first filled with damp sand, and the pattern laid upon it a little t'.ry pivrli ag sand\Mi\\\% sprinkled on the surface. The upper half of the box is then put on and sand firm- ly rammed all around the pattern. The box is then carefidly opened, aud when tlie pattern is removed, its impression is left in the sand. The mold at this stage, however, is generall}- rough and broken. It is necessar)-, therefore, to give it a better finish, which is done by taking each half of the mold separately, repairing it with a small trowel, andreiutroduciug the corresponding half of the pattern till the impression is firm ami perfect. Finally, the surface of the mold is coated with charcoal-dust, which gives a smooth surface to the future casting. These columns being made hollow, there is yet another matter to arrange before the casting can be made — namely, the cvre. In the instance before us, it would simply be a rod of iron, covered with straw and loam to whatever thick- ness the internal diameter of the column happened to require. The core of course occupies the center of the mold. The cast iron is melted with coke in a round fire- brick furnace, called a cupola, the heat being urged ' by means of a powerful blast, created by fanners re- volving at liiL'li speerl. The molten melal is run from a tap at the bottom of the furnace Into a mal- lealile iron ladle, lined with clay, from which it is poured into the mold through holes viiWcd runnert OTgatm. When the mold is newly filled, nutnerouB jets of blue fiaiiie issue from as many small holes pierced in the sand. Tliesr- perforations are necf-s- sary for the escajie of air and other gases [irodiiced by the action of the hot metal on tlu' mold. Care must also be taken not to have the moM too damp, otherwise steam is generated, which may cause holes in the casting, and even force part of the me- tal out of the mohl. The casting remains covered up for a tinu', in order to cool slowly, and is then removed by breaking away the sand, and drawing out the core. In the cas<^ of a fluted or otherwise ornamented ])illar, the pattern w<juld rcfjuire to be in at least four pieces instead of two, because It is only a plain pattern that will come out of the mold in halves without tearing away the sand. When a pattern is necessarily made in several pieces, it is drawn out of the mold bit by bit, to the right or left, as the case may be, and so parts from the sand without breaking it. Suppose that a snuil'. ornament- al vase was to surmount the jiillar, the founder would pre])are the pattern of tliis in a more elabor- ate manner. He would first nu)ld it in wax or clay, from which a cast in plaster of Paris is made ; from that, again, a cast is taken'in an alloy of tin and lead, which, after being sharply chased, and divided into the required number of pieces, is used as a pattern to cast from. All ornamental patterns, such as figures, scrolls, leaves, enriched moldings, and the like, are made in this way, whatever metal the ulti- mate casting is to be produced in. Very large en- gine cylinders, pans, and such vessels, are cast in loam-molds, which are built of brick, plastered with loam, then coated with coal-dust, and finally dried by means of a fire. This method is adopted with large plain objects, where a pattern would be expensive, and when very few castings of ime kind are required. Iron molds, coated with black lead or plumbago, have recently been introduced for casting pipes into; they are greatly more expensive than any other kind, but they enable a founder to dispense with a pat- tern, as, when once made into the required form. they are not destroyed like molds of sand or loam at each casting. Bronze and brass are cast in molds pre- pared with finer sand than that used for iron. Pew- ter and similar soft metallic alloys are cast in brass molds. The tj-pe-founder, on the other hand, uses molds of steel, which are now worked to a great ex- tent by a machine. The variety of articles produced by casting are very numerous, among others we may mention cylinders, cisterns, paper-engines, beams, boilers, pumps, and the heavy parts of machinery generally, gates, railings, lamps, grates, feiulers, cooking-vessk-ls, and the like, in iron ; cannon, many portions of machinery, and numerous ornamental oijjects, in brass ; sculpture and other works of art in bronze and the more costly metals. One of the m ost remarkable cast ings yet execut ed f or t he require- ments of modern engineering, was thecylinder of the hydraulic press used for raising the tubes of the Britannia bridge. It measured 9 ft.x 3 ft. 6 in., the metal being 10 in. thick, and weighed upwards of 20 tons. It remained red hot for three days, and it was seven days more before men could approach it to re- move the sand. Sole plates of steam-hammers, and for other jnirposes, have been cast more than double this weight, but the same care was not required in their execution. In regard to sculpture, perhaps.the most wonderftd casting known is the colossal statute of Bavaria at Munich. 'finisiied in 1850. which stands 54 ft. high, the face being equal to the height of a man. It took eight years to cast, and the cost of the bronze used was about £10.0no. See Fimndri/. METALLIC AMMUNITION FOR SMALI^AEMs'— For the manufacture of metallic ammunition for small- METALLIC AMMUNITION FOR SMALL- ASMS. 318 METALLIC AMMUNITION FOE SMALL ARMS. arms and friction and electric primers for cannon on a large scale, the following buildings are required : No. 1. Fi re-proof factory -with L; basement being provided with machinery adapted to tl.e manufacture of primers, etc., with a separate) rooui containing: grindstones, emerj'-wheels, etc., and tumbling bar- 1 rels. The first story being fitted up with all the machines, tools, and benches of a first-class machine- shop, for manufacture and repair of the machines and tools employed in the works, with necessary of- fice and engine rooms, and well furnished with presses and cabinets for surplus tools, standard gauges, spe- cimens, etc. A room in L, with all appliances for -washing cases.and a large and conveniently arrang- ed drying-room over the engine boiler. The second story "contains all the machinery necessary for draw- ing, trimming, heading, and forming cartridge-cases, wtth a separate room in L provided with machines and tables for making paper packing bo.\es ; print- ing-presses, type-fonts, etc., for printing. No. 2. Fire- proof factory for manufacture of bullets, with separ- ate rooms for charging eases and inspecting and packing finished ammunition. No. 3 Blaeksinithx'' xhop and stacks for forcings and small castings, and annealing furnaces for tools, etc., with a separate room for annealing and pickling cases. No. 4. Car- penter-shop, for making boxes,tools,implenunts. etc. drawing or reducing. The cylindrical shell is trim med to a standard length in a machine called the case-trimmer. After washing, the shells or cases have a fiange formed at the closed end by pressure in a special machine called the header. The headed case is tapered to a standard size. The open end is made cylmdrical for the length the bullet enters it, so as to inclose the latter snugly; and if it be inside- primed, like the present service cup-anvil cartridge, the anvil is inserted and fastened at the same time by crimping the case around its edge. Priming is done in a machine called the primer. For outside priming a percussion-cap is vi.sed, made in the ordinary way. Priming of fulminate of mer- cury should not under any circumstances, be de- posited on brass, as it forms an amalgam, and rapidlj- deteriorates the metal and priming. Shellac varnish is used to protect the surface of brass. No injurious deterioration from this cause has been noticed in the use of copper. Bullets are made in a bullet-machine from a cast slug or rolled bar ; the last is considered the best ; they are trimmed by a machine called the bullet-trimmer. The diameter is required to be up to standard with no minimum allowance, and they are sized at the lubricating machine by passing through a die. The form^ width, and depth of grooves must conform to the standard with very little No. % I'oint-sh'-p. No. 6. Rit'irt-h'Of, . fur manu- facture of fulminate of mercury. No. T. Magazine. for powder. No. 8. Small Magazine, for fulminate of mercury and friction-powder. No. 9. Store/muse, for storing cartridges, primers, etc. The modern center-fire metallic cartridges maybe divided into three classes: the solid attached head, the solid head, and the folded head. There are two varieties of folded-head cartridges the reinforced and non-reinforced. As regartls priming, the above- named classes are divided into outside and inside primed cartridges, and may be designated respect- ively as re-loading and non-reloading cartridges. They are generally made from sheet-co])per or brass, the latter material having more elasticity, and the for- mer more uniformity and durability. Mannfa-tnre — Sheet metal of the required thick- ness, from .025" to .09", is used for the various kinds of cartridges. This is fed to a double-acting die and punch, which cuts out a disk and forms it into a cyl- indrical cup at one operation. The cup is reduced to a cylinder of the requin^d length in from four to >ix operations by dies and punches, and is called variation. The weights should not vary more than two grains from the standard of 405, grains. The lubricant should be free from acid reaction, and of vegetable origin as bayberryor Japan wa.x, and filled into the grooves by a machine. Loading, or assem- bling thecase, powder, and bullet, is done in a ma- chine called the loader, by one operation (as in the Frankford arsenal loader), or by several operations known as plate-charging. The bullet should be perfectly concentric with the case at the time of in- sertion. The charge of powder should be asimiform as possible, with not more than two grains variation from the standard weight of 70 grains. All cart- ridges should be wiped clean and gauged as to dia- meter, length, and diameter and thickness of head. Those should be rejected showing any defects in material, or bad workmanship. Each cartridge should be weighed to detect loss of parts or defi- ciency in weight of powder. A special automatic weighing machine is used at Frankford arsenal. That the present degree of perfection in tlie manu- facture of these several classes of metal cartridges has been the result of gradual and careful develop- METALLIC AMMUNITION FOR SMALL ARMS. ;; 1 '.) METALLIC AMMUNITION FOE SMALL ARMS. mpnt, is evident from a cursory examination and <'imiimrison of tli(^ earlier, intermediate, and more reeeiil licst forms. Anions tlu^ tirwt of metal (■iirtri<lf;cn of Ameriean invention is tlie McjrHc, wliieli waH brouf^lit out a short lime before tlie war of the rebellion, bill not thoroiifrhly experimented with at the tiiiic' or intro- duced into serviee. lis objeetionubli; feiitiires are apparent in tlie li^^lit of proi^rehs made. IN merits over paper or similar ammunition are apparent, the chief, p<'rliapa, beinj; that it was desi;:iied as a self- primed carlridi^e, had a tlani^ed-head for e.vtraetin;; the case, and that it reduced the operations of load- ing. About the same time the nurnside. Maynard, an<i a few others, were produced, some of whieli \v<-re i;ood in their day, an<i for the arms for which Ihey were desifjned, but were tired by means of a cap, throiii;li a vent, at some distance from the carlrid;;!', and w<-re extracted by the lingers. With them there was not that necessary nicety of fit to the chamber of the crun, the joint was not absolutely closed, and the failures to explode were as frequent as with theold-fashiouctl paper eartridgi^ and perciission-cap. Such failures would, now-a-days, be considered a most unwarranted percentage in any metallie ammunition laying claim to excellence, and, in the best known varieties, do not occur to the extent of one in one thousaixl rounds; in fact, many attain a much liigher standard of sure- ty than indicated l)y this figure. The records of the testing-rounds show long-<ontinued firing and con- sumption of thousands of rounds without failure at all from any cause, and tlie summation of a yi'ar's practice and test, in proof of manufacture, exhibit.s but an exceedingly small percentage of such failures. For some time the idea of combining the primer and cartridge did not assert itself, but some in vent itmK were pushed in this direction, and the rim-]irimed cartridge was produced. In this the fulminate com- position was placed in tlie folded head of the case. its advantages being Burc exploBion when Htnick by the point of the liring-pin; less of fulminate and less Hlrain on the head of the cartridg('; greater seiMirity in handling and using under all exigencies of Bervice. These cartridges have been subjected to llic Beverest tests to demonstrate their capability to resist all ac- cidents, such as masliing up boxes of ammunition, and even firing into them with bullets. Only the cartridges actually impiuL'ed iijion ex|)loded under such t<'Sts, their neighbors being only lilackened and not otherwisi' damaged. TIk^ safety of handling and transporting this ammunition in comparison witli that of tlie old-fasliione<l kind is vastly in its favor, and the risk attending Us carriage is almost nothing. Its grea'.ly superior quality to resist expo- sure of climate, moisture, c.U-., has also been proven by such exceedingly severe tests that it may be asserteii to be practically water-proof. A central and direct blow on the point primed is an essential and highly important feature of the center-primed cartridge; its general ado|)lion, and adaptation of all breech-loading service sinall-arms to its use, is the best proof of its acknowledged superiority. Sim- ple modifications of the form of the head adapt it to safe us(t in magazine arms, even though the front of one bullet rests on the head of the preceding cart- ridge, while with all varieties of repriming ammu- nition the central fire is a nine gun nim. Otiier rea- Bons in its favor might be given, but it is believed sufficient have already been adduced to warrant the statement that whatever may be claimed as the par- ticular merit of a;iy one variety of metalic ajnmuni- tion, by ardent inventors and admirers of special forms, all are agreed that, for military purposes at lejiBt, the palm to center-priming must be yielded. Theservice-cartridgc', made of a copper case with a folded-head and copper fulminate primed cup-anvil, crimped in position, has been so long used and test- ed on the experimental ground and in the field, and 1)V various boards of experts on smali-arms, and its This mode of priming requires a large charge of the priming composition, which, being thrown into the fold by swiveling, the entire circumference of the head was not always primed thoroughly, and as the cartridge is exploded by striking the rim at a part of the head under the hammer, it not infrequently hap- pened that it failed from the point struck not having any priming. The large charge required, also (a- bout 5 grains against A grain for the center-fire), was a furtlier objection "to rim-priming; the explod- ing of so large a quantity of cpiick-powder in the folded head, the weak part of the cartridge, tending to strain and open the fold to bursting, as it frequent- ly did. Another objection to rim primed cartridges is that they are more liable to accident in handling, and in shock of transportation, and in those incident to service; in fact, a number of instances of explosion in the magazine of repeating-arms, and in patent cartridge-boxes for service of such, have been report- ed, by which serious injury resulted to the soldier. Hence, efforts to produce a still more reliable and satisfactory cartridge, and the development, produc- tion, and general adoption for service of what is now so well known as cenUr.primed metallic ammunitim, excellence in all these fields of trial so well demon- strated, that no particular description of its construc- tion and performance is here necessary. Some of the varying modifications of the folded-flange car- tridge are noted in the drawings. It is of rare oc- currence that the fold is sometimes slighth* opened or burst in firing, probably from a defect or thinness of tlie metal, but this is not attended with the least inconvenience or risk to the person or arm, and, in most cases, would escape notice altogether outside the carefully scrutinized cases at the experimental and testing grounds. So far this has not been deemed of any consequence in the service, and none of the best model breech-load- ing arms take the least notice of it. If necessarj-, however, the folded-head cartridge is abundantly susceptible of improvement, in an easy and practic- able manner, as is evident from an examination of the various forms of re-enforcement of cartridges of this construction, experimentally tested and herein described. The Berdan, made in large numbers for the Rus- sian government, for use in the Berdan breech-load- ing rifle, has been most strictly and severly tested METALLIC AMJIUNITION FORSMILL-AEMS. 320 UEXALLIC AMMUNITION FOK 8MALL-ASMS. during manufacture, and has proved of great excel- lence. It is exceedingly ingenious; its re-enforce- ment simple and effective; its capacity as a reloader fully tested and demonstrated b_v prolonged and re- peated trial, daily, during production of millions of rounds; a number of the shells being reloaded, primed, and flred ten times, and much more extend- ed trials have been had for special test of the endur- ance of the cases in this particular. Its chief distin- guishing feature is that its anvil is of the same con- tinuous piece of metal as that of which the case is made. Herein there is no possible displacement or misplacement of the anvil, and it has a fixed position with respect to the primer. The cartridge is singu- lar in this respect, and superior to its rivals that re- quire a separate anvil. In it was a happy idea hit upon by the inventor of making his anvil by a simple return of the met;il of the pocket for the primer. All other anvils are its inferiors in that they have to be handled in assembling the parts of the shell. An- other advantage is, it presents a point to the primer inside, rendering it sensitive to the blow of the ham- mer. The use of the special Hobbs' primer is most excellent in this combination. Other varieties of an excellent re-enforcement may be referred to, as ex- hiliited in the drawings and notes under this class. These re-enforcements may be accomplished in var- ious ways, as by a ring of expanding metal, a ring of solder, felt or 7)a;»«7'-»ia<;/(C wads, etc. When the ring of this metal is used as a re-enforcement it is best applied, and perhaps only effectually, in those cartridges having a pocket or return of the head for the priming. In these cases it should be so formed as to act by expansion against the walls of the case and of the pocket, to cut off the escape of gas to the folded head in both directions. The solder ring has been found to be a good re -enforce also, and in the wrapped-metal and some other varities of car- tridges it serves also to attach the flanged-head to the body of the case. It was tirst used here for this purpose, and that it acted also as a re-enforce was a resulting discover}'. The felt or papier-mache wad is not believed to be as good or to hold the head as se- curely, although it is extensively used in the various forms of Boxer ammunition. It is not believed that a simple ring of any soft metal of any shape, as lead or its alloys, forced into the case at the head, will act as a re-enforce, as has been claimed. No matter how closely the metallic surfaces are in contact, if the re- enforcement does not expand more promptly and as fully as the case itself under all the pressure of the gas, it does not strengthen or re-enforce the point to which it is applied. A re-enforcing ring works well, applied to a Martin cartridge, as well.Jinfact, as to a Berdan. and in the same manner. An objection to the Martin is its small anvil for small-headed car- tridges, and their liability to burn the priming com- position inclosing the pocket on the anvil, a difficul- ty met with in their manufacture, with the bar-an- vil, and which can onlv be wholly eliminated by careful inspection of primed cases. A very notable cartridge is the Boxer, as made at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, for the Snider and Martini-Henry rifles. A perusal of the English re- ports of their small-arm ordnance board will show the most casual reader that the failures of these car- tridges, from all causes, have been what would be considered in our trials of the best American car- tridges as a very large percentage, suthcient to war- rant the abandonment of a cartridge that failed so often. Unlike its American prototype, frtim which it was originally taken, its ]iarts are more lunnerous, and the steits of operalicms in its produclidu more than double those in tlial siinjjle cartridge. Its cost, hence, is also large, considering the low prices of la- bor and materials, and the very large numbers fab- ricated in the country of its adoption; a cost very much \n excess, it is believed, of that of any other of the most approved American varieties of metal cartridges fabricated under similar advantages of cheap labor, low-priced materials, and large produc- tion It does not appear to be well adapted to stand the shocks of transportatin or exigencies of service, is easily indented and disfigured, so much so as se- riously to interfere, with ease of loading. Per contra, it is beautifull)' expanded and brought into shape of the exact walls of the chamber in firing, and extracts readily if the head holds, which, from the reports, seems not always to be the case. It is not suitable in its present state and form for vise as a reloader, whatever may be claimed for it in this respect, and it is doubtful if it could be made so. The idea of such a use does not seem to receive encouragement from recent reports. Its attachable heads, from the peculiar and awkward mode of fixing them, are not exact or even, and may not always lie firmly put on. Made of iron, it is believetl they never should be for cartridges subjected to all varieties of climate. The use of this metal for a cartridge, otherwise so cost- ly, is the poorest kind of economy. There are several varieties of solid heads, as the Hotchkiss, the Dutch, the United States Cartridge Company's &c. The head, here, is re-enforced by using a thick sheet-metal strip to form the case, and leaving sufficient stock in the head, in drawing the case, to flow out and'form the flange solidly. That this is effective in making a very strong case is un- questionable; its manufacture requires some heavier plant for special operations; its cost in metal and production is somewhat greater; and it is believed that the head is unnecessarily strong for the present work required by well-constructed breech-loading small-arms. Experience, it is believed, has fully demonstrated that, in order to insure the best results in service, our small Army should be furnished with the most approved arms and material practicable. To effect this, the careful selection of an excellent (the best if it can be determined upon, for the chief trouble of such a selection seems to be from embarroji de richesse in this branch of invention) system of breech-loading rifle small-arm, and suitably working efficient am- munition for the service of the same, is preeminently desirable. Supposing the first part of the proposition accomplished, and such a breech-loading system selec- ted, approved and adopted, their production in such numbers as may be required by the Government for the Army, the uniform equipment of the militia, and the necessary reserve-stores for future emergencies, can unquestionably be accomplished at the National Armory, and no danger need be apprehended of any serious difficulty in the way of adaptation of its present machinery and plant, to the manufacture of any breech-loading system of small-arms, perfectly interchangeable, in these days of advanced scientific manufacture, when the production of the most com- plete and intricate machinery, interchanging in all their parts, is a problem of an easy, sure, and daily accomplishment. If, from the abundance of good things to be chosen from, the difficulty of selection can be over- come, the rest, with adequate appropriations, is comparatively easy. A prime essential of such ma- nufacture should be the institution of a rigorous standard from which there should not be the slightest departure, except by competent authority. Expe- cially .should this apply to the chamber of the gun or neat of the cartridge, the dimensions of which should be invariably fixed, s'.nd the greatest nicety of finish and adjustment of breech-mechanism insisted upon. In other words, the chambers should, within the limits of meehiuiical construction, be of the same dimensions, to the tlicuisandlh <if an incli, both for the body of the cartridge and its llange or head, ihe neat (ftfie extractor should not occupy any part whatever of tlie body of the chamber, and its surface should be as smooth as it is possible to make it. The depth of the flange recess of the chamber should only be sufBciently deeper than the thickness of the head of the airtridge to be employed in it to METAL LINED CASES. 321 METALLURGY. allow fur the easy cloning of the brcedi-block, the Hiimll viiriiilioiis of thickness of iiicliil fruiii wliifh tlic cusf is iiiailc, 1111(1 of ncccssiiry iiiiiiiiifiiclurc. A (lilVcrciicc lit O'.OI is lii'lirvcd to lie iuii|iU' fur all |mr|)os(/s ; ils diaiiu'liT may lii' at least O'.fKi larj^er than that of the carlrid^^e-head, which should itself be great enough to allow a secure hold to the ex- tractor. Ail the nngli'H of the chamhir x/ioi/ltl he. dUjlMy rovnihd. Tlie leMt;tli of the eliauiber should be but a few hundredths iif un inch lciii;.;cr than that of the case of the eartridije, anil its throal. or seat of the jirojeclinu; ])art of the bullet, shniild lie ac- curately alteuded to, so that, with the cartridge in Hi'tu, the breech-blocU being dosed, it should always occupy the same relative position with respect to its bearings in the chamlier, and the bullet have the i smallest necessary distance to move before engaging | the grooves of the barrel, wliicli engagement should be well advanced before the bullet is free from the case, to insuri! that it will start with its axis in the direction of the axis of the barrel. The expansion of the case in tiring should immediately shut iifV escape of gas arounil its body to the rear- the only limits in diilerence of diameter of chamber and case allowable being those necessary to insure the required ease in loading, and there shinild lie no fiiuling of the chamber in firing' liall-carlridges. A little retlectiun will convince all that an invariable chamber ('.t the prime enmntidl to the projwr pirformanre'of the cartridge, assuming, of course, that the latter is also as carefully made. This once obtained, let us insist on the case of the cartridge fitting as closely as practicable- the limit of variation allowalile being only the very small unavoidable range of thickness in metal strips, and a reasonable life or wear of dies and punches necessary to the production of ammunition by the quanti- tj-. These degrees of perfection can be obtained only by the adoption and j.reser- ration of exact standard gauges, by fre- quent and every-day careful inspectim: of material and work, and keeping the attention of mechanics directed to the necessity of constant watchfulness over and frequent verilicaiion of their tools dies, and puu- dies, in current use to insure the desired nicety Without this constant care in keeping up to the standard, work, however satisfactorily and success- fully ■inaugurated, will soon become indifferent. All experience shows that the fulminate composi- tion for priming should not be in contact witli any easily corroding metal, or so deposited in the primer ' or in assembling the parts as to rentier any galvanic action possible for its deterioration and eventual de- struction. It is not believed that the service ful- minate composition for ijriming in contact with pure copper undergoes any such deleterious change, as our percussion-caps of twenty years ago are now prompt and perfectly reliable. It should not be in immediate contact with brass, however, where bra.ss is used in construction. This is not necessary, as in the Ilobbs' primer, for instance, it is efficiently protected by being between two coats of varnish, one applied to the botom of the cap before the priming is dropped in, the other to one side of a tin-foil var- nislied disk pressed over the priming, which also hohls it securely in place. Similar means of pro- tection are used in other primers, or an equivalent. The United States Cartridge Company's primers, the Millbank, etc., are well protected from moisture, de- lexioratiiin. and injury. See Ammunition. METAL LINED CASES.— Powder barrels lined with sheet copper, for the purpose of holding prepared cartridges. Metal-lined cases are used as portable magazines. When tested. they should be water-tight. METALLURGY.— The art of extracting metals from their ores. The operations are partly meclianical and partly clicmical . Those proceBscs wli icli depend principally on chimical reactions for their results iiave reference chielly to the roasting and smelting of ores, and are described under the heads of the different metals. I!ut there are certain preliminary operations of a mechanical kind which metallic ores undergo, such as crushing, jigging, washing, etc., which we shall describe here, as they are essentially the same for the ores of lead, copper, tin, zini'. and indeed most of the metals. Ores are first broken up with hammers, into piices of a convenient size for crushing or stamping. Waste material, such as pieces of rock, spar, etc., which always accompany ore, are as far as possilile picked out by hand, and the ore itself is arranged in sorts according to its jiurity. Various kinds of apparatus, such as riddles, sieves, etc., are then used for separating it into (iifferent sizes, in order to secure a uniform strain on the crushing machinery. In one of the most a]ii)roved forms of crushing-mills the ore is raised by means of small wagons to a i)latfiirm, where it is ready to bo sup[)lied to the crushing-rollers through an opening. These rollers are mounted in a strong iron frame, held together by ■\\Tought-irou bars, and bolted to strong beams- Their distance apart is regulated by means of a lever to which a weight is attached. The bearings of the rollers slide in grooves, so that when any extra pressure is put upon them by a large or hard piece of ore, the lever rises, and allows the space between the rollers to widen. The crushed ore falls upon a series of sieves, which are made to vibrate. These have meshes increasing in fineness as they descend ; and the upper two are so wide that pieces of ore too large to pass through them are conducted into the lower part of the Ijucket-wheel and raised again to the platform to be recrushed. The lower four sieves separate the remaining portion of the crushed ore into different degrees of fineness, which is collected in pits. A sectional view of the Blake Ore Crusher, stand- ard in the United States and abroad, is shown in Fig. 1. A three-sided framework of cast-iron, with broad flanged base, holding the movable jaw. J, in suspen- sion, from the front part of the machine, between the upright convergent jaws of which tlie stone is crush- ed. "The jaw shaft, K, is held in place b.y wrought iron or steel clamps. C. which serve to take part of the strain due to crushing in the upper part of the jaw space, and also serve as walls thereof. In the low- er part of the three-sided frame or front part of the crusher, and on each side of it. are holes in the cast- ing to receive the main tension rods which connect the front and rear part of the nuichine. Therearpart B. is called the main toggle block, and is also pro- vided with holes for thetension rods R. R., corres- ponding to those in the front casting. These two parts of the machine are connected by the main steel METAL SEPAKATOK. 322 METCALFE CAETEIDGE BLOCK. tension rods, R R.,eacli provided -with screw-tliread and nuts, ]S. N., by whicli their lcn_s;tlis and the jaw opening are readily adjusted to crush coarse or tine, as may be desired. The front and rear castings are supported on parallel timbers, to the under side of which are boiled the bo.xes carrying the main eccen- tric shaft, S, provided with tiy wheels and pullej', D and E. The timbers are thus made component parts of the machine, and take the transverse strain which comes upon the pitman connecting the main shaft and the toggle joint placed to the rear of the mov- able jaw, and between it and the main toggle block. Between the broad flanged bases of the front and rear castings and the timber on which they rest, are placed flat rubber cushions, CC, one-quarter to three eighths of an inch thick. Every revolution of the shaft brings the toggles. O. O, more nearly into line, and throws the swing jaw forward ; it is withdrawn by the rod provided with rubber spring L. In this way a short reciprocating or viljratory movement is communicated to the movalile jaw. The rigidity inseparable from macliines with cast iron frames, and which is the cause of frequent break- ages is complete!}' overcome in this machme, and tile longitudinal as well as the transverse strains are brought upon materials which are strong and elastic as compared with cast irnn. The rubber cushions. Fig. 2. while offering sufficiently great resistance to com- pression in case of the breakage of stone or in doing the normal work of the machine, will, in case of the accidental intrusion of the steel hammers or anything of that kind, be compressed and so permit a par- tial revolution of the fly-wheels before connug to a full stop, thus relieving the machine of those nearly infinite strains to which those of the old forms were subjected, and which resulted in breakage of import- ant parts. The toggles are long, and of equal leugth, and may be worn indefinitely as compared with tho.se in the old machines. The construction of the pit- man, R' II, is such as to admit of change of inclina- tion of the toggles, and consequently of adjustment of the length of stroke of the movable jaw. The jaw opening can be varied between an}' working linnts by means of the nuts, M, on the tension rods, and the machine be .set to cnin/i roarM or fint as iiiiiy be desired. This Breaker can he run at a higher rate of speed with safety than any of the old forms of cruslier with cast iron frames, and will consequently do a greater amount of work. It is verj- uuich light- er than the old forms, and has at least doulile their strength. It has been repcatedl)- subjected to the | test of a steel hammer Ixiiig thniwn between its jaws, when going at as high a rate of s])eed as >iOO revolutions per nnnute without the slightest injury to or any breakage of the machine. The manner fif moutniug the t'rusher, so that it mav lie readil- hauled from place to place, is illustrated in Fig. 2. It 1 wil' be seen how peculiarily well adapted this style of Breaker is for mounting. The fly wheels themsel- , ves serve as the rear pair of wheels. The keys of I the main Hy wheels are withdrawn, and the main l' shaft is provided with a collar and set screw to hold the wheels in place when the machine is being haul- ed about. After being crushed, the ore is washed and sifted on a jigging sieve. In one of its simiJest forms the ore is placed on a table from which a sieve is tilled. It is then immersed in a tub of water and a jigging motion communicated to it by a workman alternately raising and lowering a handle. This effects two purposes — it washes the ore, and separa- tes the material into two layers: the upper consists of the lighter spar and other impurities, which are raked off; and the lower consi.sts of the heavier and purer portions of the ore, which are now ready for the roasting furnace. It will be apparent that in the bottom of tlie tub there must be a quantity of more or less valuable ore, which, from its fineness, has fallen through the sieve. This is called sludge or slime ; and the minute particles of ore it contains are recovered either by simply forming an incline on the ground, and washing it with a current of water, or by using an inclined table called a dfeping-tnble. Ore which has been reduced to powder at the stamp- ing-mill, as well as slime, is washed by tlab apparatus. The material is put into a chest which is placed in a sloping position, and is supplied with water on turning a stop- cock. The current carries the contents of the chest through an opening at the bot- tom, and spreads it, with the aid of a se- ries of stops, or small bits of wood, over the surface of the table. A stream of water is tlien kept flowing over the table till the earthy impurities are ah carried down into a trough, the pure jjartielcs of the ore re- maining, by reason of their greater specific gravity, near the top of the table, whence tliey ar(! removed to be smelted. Some- times the table is suspended by chains and receives a succession of blows at the top from a hiijf'er, moved b_y cams on the same principle as the stamping-mill. The varie- ty of machinery and apparatus used in dressing ores is very great, and they pass under different names in different districts, but tliev are all very similar in principle to those we have descriiied. See Jrvn. METAL SEPAEATOR.— A machine much used in armuries and arsenals for separating iron and steel chips, turnings filings etc., from those of brass or composition. Its capacity and utility for this kind of work are very great. The machine is not only a great labor-saving device, but brass-stock treated with it is much improved, as it is so tlioroughly cleansed that it may be used for the best of work. The machine may also be used for separating iron from emery. The driving shaft should run tlO to 100 turns per minute. There are two things absolutely necessary in using the machine : 1st, ^\ henever the machine is not running, raise the brush and cover the wheel with iron. 2d, The tray uuder the hopper should strike e(iually on each side, so as to distribute the stock evenly on the wheel. If you wish it to feed faster, draw the hopper forward. The bo.\es should be placed as shown in the drawing. METCALFE CARTRIDGE-BLOCK.— This consists of a wooden block, H inches by 1 3-4 inches by 11-16 incli, bored on its edge with eight holes to receive the same number of ritle cartridges. It is provided with a carrier or metallic hook, sliding ujion th<' belt, in which it isprnjiosed to carry the block full of car fridges. Thcrilleaud tlie block arc so arranged that, at ])lcasure, they cun be secured together in a very convenient position for loading. It is intended that the lilocks, when exhausted, shall be thrown away; but Ihev can, ifnccessarv, lie refilled and used iiLanv METEOEOLOGICAL REGISTER. 323 METRICAL MEASURES. imps. It is proposed tlml as iiiiiiiy of tliese carriers anil l)lo<ks I)c worn upon the belt as may Ik- iieces- fiiiry, line re};ar(l Ijeinj; hail to tlie size of the men and to the ehuracler of the service reqnirin^ their nt;e. The ailviinlai;es of this invention are niaiiifohl. The hlork in ilseif is a nooil piieUiiL'e forihe carlridnes. It is nearly indeslrijelihle in Iransportation orhy wet; it keeps ihe eartriiljres from joslliui; together, and Metal Srpf^rntor. therein', as has been shown by e.xperieuce, endanc;er- ing their surety of tire. It also i)rotects them from dust and sand, quite as injurious to the gun as mois- ture would bo to the cartridge. It is a convenient package in shape and si/.<', if an extra supply of am- muniliou had to be carried in the men's ])ockets. When combined with the gun, a considerable in- crease in the possible rapidity of tire is attained and a very marked advantage is found in tiring lying down. In this position it seems jiroijable that nuich of Ihe firing of the future is to be conducted. The only i)ortion of a man so tiring whicli it is at, all necessary to move is his right arm. If an isolated skirmisher, he need not twist or roll over to get at his l)ack or side for amunilion, and thereby attract attention. The cartridges are immediately in front of the firer, imder his eye. He sees just where they are, and how many are left him. We have frequently heard of troops engaged in iutrenchments spreading, for convenience, their cartridges on the parajM't in front of them. In a similar ca.se, a man provided ■with the block has all this facility of manipulation, with this additional advantage, that, if obliged to change his position hurriedly, he does not have to leave his ammunition behind him, but carries it with the gun to which it belongs. Pickets or other troops exposed to surprise maj' sleep with their belts off if they have their blocks fixed. In case of a surprise, they have but one thing to look for — the gun. Moreover, the block protects the hand from burn- ing on the barrel. After a few shots have been tired from the new Springfield ritle, especially on a hot day, the barrel becomes so hot that it can hardlj' be touched. The block, when fixed, prevents the hand from touching it if the thumb be properlj' laid along the stock. The English War Department has conse- quentl}' been obliged to issue leal her pads to buckle over the barrel at the grip. With the cartridge-block it h nerer xn niiif/i ni't'tl'dii.i irhf/i it i.i tixed. METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER.— A monthly report prepared and transmitted by the Senior Surgeon on duty at each military post. It embraces the follow- ing items, as noted in the forms on pages 334 and 32.'). "methylated spirit.— AIcoholCC^HsOHO), of specific gravity of-83. mixed with 10 per cent, of wood spirit, or mcthylic alcohol (C'HjO, HO), which is one of the products of the destructive! distillation of w<ioil. Methylated spirit is used for damping de. tonal ing compositions, so as to form them into paste, when tliey can be handled. It dissolves siiellac. METIER. A term apiplicable to those nations which keep up large standing armies, and make war their princijjal objecl and pursuit. Chevalier I'olard gives the following definition relative to Ihe question which is often discussed on the subject of war, name- ly whether war be a trade or a science. The Eng- lish 'call it a profession. Folard, however, distin- guishes it in this manner: /ai guerre cut unr, nnHifr pour I'ti it/in'rii iitu, it iinr nrifure ])"ur leHhabileK fjens, METRICAL MEASURES. The frequently recurring necessity for clianging tables expressing the dimen- sions, weights, and |>ower of foreign guns Mother than , British) into their equivalents in our own system has suggested tlu; preparation and compilation of tlie tables on pages 320 and 327. Some of the tables have been pidjlished in part, or in another form, but such have been generally based upon values for the meter and /-/foyraw, whicli tlie latest accurate investigations have rendered obsolete; other of the tables, if ever published, are not generally accessible. All (except table M) are based upon the value of the meter in iiirhen and of the kilogram in (jrainx. The standard inch and grain of the United States are copies of the British ; the tables, therefore, also express the equivalents of metrical in British measures. MeasukesofLknoth, Squabes. and C'cbic Measures. — (Tables A., J5., and C; The international bu- reau of weights and measures at Paris is now en- gaged in delermining, with the utmost exactness, the relations of the French standard to those of other nations. Since 1808 the United States Coast Survey Ollice has used a value for the meter equal to 31). 370432 inches, as determined by an extensive se- ries of comparisons, the results of which are pub- lished in a volume entitled "Comparisons of the Standard of Lengths of England, France, Belgium, Prussia. Russia. India, and Australia, made at the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton, 1800." Pend- ing the result of the investigation at Paris, this value of the meter is generall.y accepted by scientific men. The fact that the meter "is standard at 0° C. (32" F.) and the yard at 02" F. has been taken into account, and the value given is that of the meter in inches of the standard yard. Tables A, B, and C, like all the remaining ones, consist of the values of each denom- ination, from 1 to 9 inclusive, which can be applied to all numbers, by decimal multiplication and di- vision. Weiohts. — (Table D.) The standard troy pound of the United States.at Philadelphia, is our only standard of weight; it is an exact copy of the imperial troy pound of Great Britain, obtained in 1827. Elaborate comparisons, since 18.>5, of this troy pound, weighing .5.700 grains, and of the commercial or avoirdvipois pound of 7,000 grains, derived from the former, with copies of similar weights from the standard pound of Great Britain, have shown that there is less than ^ Jjj of a grain difference between the monev standards (troy weights) of the two countries. The British ntnndard pmind armrdnpoi.i is the weight, in the latitude of London, of a certain piece of platinum kept in the exchequer oflice. In the Philosophic;d Transactions for 1856, is published Prof, W. II. Miller's determination of the weight of the kilogram equal to 15.432.34874 grains, which is accepted as authoritative. This value has been used in the pre- paration of Table D. Ant Space per Unit of Weight of Powder-charge. — (Table E. ) In the metrical system, the volume of the chamber and bore of the gun is expressed in decimeter cubes (d. c.) or liters. The space in the bore (or chamber), in rear of the projectile in place, in which the combustion of the charge takes place, constitutes the initial tolume, smAlhe final ralumeTe- sults when the projectile leaves the piece and the in METRICAL MEASURES. 324 METRICAL MEASUEES. 60 s c e3 00 ■ssjjBtnajj 'qj •/fmnun^ ■3 O a a ■papng; a "3 •3 ^ •ntjSag w S P- a 3 o o f5; o C a OJ S S •< <1 a ;^ 2^-^ o = S , S Ph 1^ o 05 fe u ^ Q j o 1 d. a M o .2^-2 e = 5 e3 WH »»-t O 1 ^ Q O O . a M 1=1 S o CD fe ^ Q a fcfj . CD 1( o p^ x s '3)2 S "r i^ 1 3 S-; >>B C8 =J Q E S' u H Ph a C5 o Lh s ^ p-( H « s • <1 t- oo a T-H S 5Q ^ ^ o Em (7} 05 & ■o o ^ a o •^- 6 o d 1 ^ 6 iz; o 6 t» 1 No. of days of ' rain and liail. i 6 CO c d ;zi H 1 Average ' cloudiness, i d |Zi p4 'A o d iz; "^ 1 Metbical measures. 325 UETRICAL MEASUBEB. 188 . Barometer aud llicrMiuiiiclir idlmljcd. Month. 7. A. M. 2 P.M. 9 P. M. Remaiikh. Bar. ThiT. Hnr. TIllT. Bur. ThcT. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 . 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 • 188 . n Dry and wet liulb thr rraometer. Month. 7. A. M. 2 P. M. 9 P.M. Month. 7 A.M. 2 P. M. 9 P.M. I i C! ■■■ D.B. W.B. D.B. W.B. D.B. W.B. D.B. W.B. D.B. W.B. D.B. W.B. S 17 1 18 2 19 3 20 4 21 5 22 6 23 7 24 8 25 9 26 10 27 11 28 12 29 13 30 14 31 15 16 • Month! V mpfln. lOITEICAL MEASURES. 326 UETBICAL MEASURES. t^ b-. 1 6"S a s o c > > 5S fli 3 O , 1 £ § 5 S- c £■ ||S.| _, £ ^ C ' ■" a £- OS o o a 5 03 rt ri -* -* V. _. -* C- " ri " " = ci 5 X o 3i5 a-2 o a. r' a c; .a " .— .r- "" ■"" "~ p* "" "" -^ "~ ••" ■" .« "" 'tlr 2 ^~r^r~^^ '."^~'': "; T . . "^"1 ' T ^ : . . .'^ ■ C3 "■.'*",' ^ ^ '.^ N-/-rt ^^ ^ B eg ii C3 e! •S-.e. 02 ■ 03 . 3 : c : ■ H \ 3 : o O 1^ o ci 3 o £ J (-1 a 1 0^ a. ?1 z t: t S : fc : .S-Sgt.S £ 53 S C3 - u £.1 ^ 0) o ^ M w cu S.S£ 3 : o Hi £ CD 0) : 3J CMC ! " ! 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O 0/ *^ cfi o ii " So £ •- ja ^ C^ .i .= c c s a Si o 1 03 T3 a 2°a 1 " • 5 A i^ 1 1 3" 3 3 1 "= c 3 3 3 5 1 ^ O a ■S a a 4^ d " o Oi CC w ^ C c o fl( H^ 1 ■^ V V -^-v^ V * •'>m^x — ^ CQ d Q -»— K] ^ o HETKICAL MEASURES. 327 METRICAL MEASURES. in a pound to the square inch. .s 1 5 " -g 2 g s -s s ; ft - j^ ft - « « .o « a a ..S £ a 2 ^ tl-^ t I a g|So ^ t - 7£|fe& Sfi 1 ■■Z ^Z a a B-i 5 ■ a o 2 c ^■" a a 'o'o •go 1.1 c ll •i a 5 't X 3 a * a — If ^« "§ 5 •a a a£ kilogramme of powder t-pound to a pound of ilosrauimo of powder It-ton to a pound of a. ft Fabrenlieit degree, alirenheit degree. t. t V -^ t -J. = - K 2=5 = 5 o o *- a - c p a^ — 0/ -, — ^ 62 S a c g 2 s 2^ 2-^ W= tfj- c-= :§ ft:5 £ g S l| a ce .Sa t I Zi ^ s s s ?: El ill c ^ & a C^ s 3^ C 1- ^5 a e c!C^__Ci^=£ i 5 1(.-= 7 tf.-c t'" . B " — •5 u a c a ^^ a) : y S a (73 ■ CO . 03 ; fy S •• a g : £ . S s o c ShSh M _W _H _ al w^ ^H ^ E^ W H H S" s~ ~"^ , ^.,■^_- , - WW . ^ -* o t^ 00 s 00 ^ I> OsS - t' CO t* t^ S? 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' -^./^•' ^^ : : ■ ■ 03 S3 =3 5 o '"o ~_o •Sg §0 tc a w s: fl i ^ sis l| : fl^l ' 5 a "i c '3 - s=s la c: .- .E ^ s a 3 O C a '■ S 2 i2 ; 1 1 1 2 3 5 ' rt s a t .11 « B.t; ^ c 5" i ■^ a ^2 i a X "IT £? C b^ 2 " X - to It _t/:- a 3 ^ 1 "5 : a c a = a" 5 * J to : tji r ^^^^ : ^ =* ^ ' ^ - ? ? ° • 1 .3 •5 ^-a - 5 .5 2 a| 5 ~ *" 2 — 5f a ^ 2 c=':?g5 =11 ^^1 ~4 l'-S5S a 1 §5 c3 c . = r :; :3 |.|..s If c o '^ rr.' i C ~ .: 5 5:3=3 J = 5lf 1 c£ 5 '2 a :^ *= i 7 -yii ^ 1^1 i| x 2 ^ "P c a a: ■— a a ^ *^ '5 "" £!S ■^„ - X — ^ - a i a ^ *" "S ^' T' " j; *T ^ ?* *-■ z c ~ ~ s n ~ u J, "^ 1 ^ i 5 s a • ;i^^*^ ^ i,"^"^ " U 1^'! t»^ X .a ;^ ;£^ "^ 6 ~ ^E§5 ^^.^ _ ' ' ■' •oiqux ^ t-i W ►J s ^ METRICAL ME4SUEES. 328 METRICAL MEASURES flamed passes have ex]3andetl to completely fill the wholeof the bore. The detiuite i elation between the ^powder-charge and the initial and final volumes, which we express by " cubic inches of air-space :to the pound of powder," is in that system expressed by " decimeter cubes of air-space to the kilo- _gram of powder." Table E enables us to convert these expressions. PREsstTRE OF AN ATMOSPHERE. — (Table F.) Thc value of the unit atmosphere (or atmo.) which has been adopted in tlie metrical system, and used by Regnault in his investigations to determine the rela- tions between the temperature and pressure of gases, is the pressure of T60 millimeters(29.923 inches) of the mercurial column at O'' C. (33'^ F.) at Paris; which amounts, in that latitude, to 1.0333 kilograms on the square centimeter, or 14. 69(17 pounds on the square inch. In consulting this table it is therefore neces- sary to remember that it deals with an arbitrary unit atju-fsphre. The Encvclopa-diaBritannica, gives as an ntmos- phei-c. in tlie English system, the pressure due to39.- 905 inches of the mercurial column at 32" F. at IjOU- don, which atmosphere thus becomes 0.99968 of that of the metrical system. Under this pressure (39,905) distilled water boils at 313° F. Rankine assumes as the value of an English atmos- p/'iere the pressure due to 39,933 inches of the mercur- ial column at 83"^ F., which in the latitude of London corresponds to a pressure of 14.704 pounds per square inch. This, it will be observ?d is the/ie-g/it used in the metrical system, which is thus indicated as the universal standard. ■ There are two ways of taking such a standard. 1st. If the absolute pressure at Paris, due to 76 cen- .timeters of the mercurial column at 0° C. be as- sumed, then if we would have the same absolute pressure in taking readings of the barometer for presmrts, in a different latitude, allowance must be made for a dilTerence of height of the mercurial col- umn, corresponding to the'difference between the latitude of the place of observation and that of Paris. Tile height of the mercurial column at 0" C. giving a pressure equivalent to that of this metrical atmos- phere, can be computed in centimeters by the follow- ing expression : (1 -f .00531 sin^ 48° 50') 76 X 1 + .00531 sin- I. for any latitude I. (48"^ 50' being the latitude of Paris.) Thus we have for New York City, taking ^=40° 42' 43", a value for the expression, of 76.063- 14 centimeters=29.946 inches, which height of the mercurial column at 33° F. at New York City would indicate a pressure equivalent to the metrical atmos- phere of constant pre^n^ure. 2d. On the other hand, assuming the universal standard to be the pressure (wherever taken) due to 39.922 inches of the mercuri.al column at 33*^ F., then the absolute pressure of this unit utmnsphere at New York would equal but 14.686 pounds on the square inch, which is 0.999373 of the metrical at- mosphere nt Paris. It may be added that 39.923 inches of the mercurial column at 32° F. corres- ponds to 30 inches at 57°.8 F. ; the reduction to 32° for this reading being— 0.078 of an inch for an ob served reading of "the attached thermometer of 57°.8 F. Bendino-Stress per Unit of IjEnoth.— (Table G.) — In the case of a uniformly distrilnited load, or of a pressure tending to bend or burst ojien a structure, this table enables us to pass from "kilogrammes to the centimeter" to "pounds to the incli." etc., and i)ice mrsa. Stress per Unit of Square and Cbbio Measures. — —(Tables II and I.) The first of these tables finds its application especially in thc conversion of (■xpressi(ms giving the tensile strength of materials, wherein we change thc^ metrical expression in "kilogrammes to the square millimeter" into "pounds to the square nch,." otherwise stated simply as " pounds ten- sile Etrength." The two tables apply to the conver- sion of values of forces of compression ; the word stress being used to indicate either a force of exten- sion or compression. Units OF Work or Enekoy. — (Table K.) — This table gives simply the equivalent values of "kilogramme- ters" in "foot-pounds." and "tonnes-metres" (some- times written rfy»«mo(ic,«) in "foot-tons." It will be used in the translation of abstract quantities of work or energy. Energy of Projectiles. — (Table L.) — The transla- tion of expressions for total energies will be made by Table K, while in this series (L) we pass readily to expressions for energies of projectiles in terras of the "unitsof the shot's circumference" and "units of the shot's cross section." This series also enables us to translate the proportion of the total eneigy due to each kilogram of the powder-charge, each kilo- gram of the piece, or each kilogram of the projectile, into equivalent denominations in our own system, and »«■« versa. Further, it includes a translation of the proportion of the total energy due to each unit of the terms in which the pressure upon the bore is expressed ; as, for example, "tonnes-metres (of en- ergy) per atmosphere of pressure" in "foot-tons per pound of pressure." In Ordnance Notes, No. XLV, Maj. George W. JIcKee, United States Army, has already called at- tention to the influence of the local value of the force Vfv' of gravity (g) in using the formula E= , which 2g is employed |for determining the energy of a pro- jectile. In connection with these tables, it may be remarked that while they translate the value given in the foreign tables, yet the values thus deduced may not alwaj's be strictly comparable with each other or with our own. The practice of the United States Ordnance Department is to use a value for ff= 33.2, which is the same as that used in Great Bri- tain ; this makes the published tallies of energy di- rectly comparable for the two countries, but slightly underrates the local power of our own guns. The French use the value of g at Paris, where it is equal to 9.81 meters=33.l85 feet, which, it will be seen, gives slighth- greater energies for one of their guns than we publish for one of ours, supposing all the values entering in the formula (except g) to be identically the same for the two guns under com- parison. Small changes introduced in the value of^ will, however, make little practical difference in the published results, which, for energies, are usu- ally given in foot-tons to tenths only. 'Phermometers. — (Table M.) This table presents merely a tabulated solution of the formula C° X 9 • Ro X 9 F°= h 33= 1-33. 5 4 By decimal multiplica'.ion and division it can be ap- plied to all numbers, as the others. In passing from centigrade or Heaumur to Fahrenheit we first take out tiie tabular numbers and then add 33 ; in tlie re- verse operation we first subtract 32 from the Fahren- heit degrees, to be converted into centigrade or Reaumur, and tlien take out the tabular numbers corresponding to this remainder. Units of Heat— (Table N.)— The thermal unit centigrade is the amount of heat required to raise unit mass of water from to 1° C. This table exjiresses the relation between the amount of heal re(|uiri'd to Tn'i>iv one kilogram (2.2046 pounds) of water from to 1° C. (I'^.S. F), and the amount of heat reciuired to raise one pmind of water 1" F, (from 33° to 33° F). The mechanical equiva- lents of the " unit of heat " in the two syst<'fiis bear a like relation to each other. This " mechanical equivalent, in the English system, is the number of METEOKOUE. 329 UICBOHETES. foot-iiDunds of iTiorliniiifiil ciMTi^y wliicli must l)c ex- pended ill order to riiise tlic leiii|)i'niliireof one jioiiiid of vviiter one dei;rec>. For Fureiilieil's deirrei' timt <piiiintily (".Ionic's ei|iiiviileiil ) i-i 77;J fool iioiindn; for Uie Ceiiti^nide decree I of 77:2- HiHD.d foot-pouiidH. If we replnce tiie pound l>y ii lviloi;niin (2.'ii)'Ui-\- poniids), Unit qimiililv liecomes for the Cenli'^nide degree 2.2()4(>of g of 7t2--- W)f.i.r,4 foot-poiindn.whieli is the inechiinical e(|niviUein of the nielrieid nnil of Ileal, iiiiil U i'(|iiiil to 4'3:i.r).') kiloijr:iinelers. METRONOME. A viilnalih' nmehiiie for indiealinj; the correct liiiieor eudeiiee. It was inveiiled in 1H1.') by Miilzel, tlie invenloralso of Ihe anlonialon Irninp- eter. The lest of a correcl inctronoine is. tliat wlien set al I'll) il shall heat seconds. MEURTRIERES. Small loop-lioles.siillicienlly larjre to admit the barrel of a rille or musket. throin;li which soldiers may Hre, undercover, against an ene- my. Likewise tlu' cavities made in tlic walls of a forlilicd town or place. MEXICAN SADDLE. The ]\Iexiean, or California saddles as soiiidiiiics cnlleil, are extensively used tlinnn^honl Ihe Western Slates of America; and, in proportion to their excessive cost, are considered b}' the traders and Indians far superior to any other sad- dles manufactured. They are furnished with wool- lined baslos. llama skin ancpieras, siidaderos. tapade- ros and slirrup-Ieatlicrs handsomely eiit-stam]ied. These saddles, direct descendants of the .Moorish- Spanisli, hrounht over by Cortcz JiOO years aio.liave hardly improved in the cli:ui>i;es. The convenience and safely of the rider are alone considered. The shape of the bearing surface runniiii; through all the many varieties is invarialily liar/. They can never be used without a great thickness of saddle cloth or blankets, and even then cut, gouge, and lacerate the back of the liorse. They are always hmry and aw/i- ■ward. MICRO CHRONOMETER.— When the clironograph is used, willi an interval of /iO meters or more be- tween the targets. the chro- nometer receives the dents near the top, when of course it is moving with its greatest speed, and. conse- quently, small dilTcreuces in time irive proportion- ately large differences in height. But when the in- terval to be measured be- comes small this no longer obtains, for then the dent of the shot is imprinted on the to(Pf;' recorder near the disjunction circle before the chronometer has ac- quired much acceleration. To obviate this difficulty the arrangement shown in the drawing is adopted. The electro-magnet of the registrar with its stop is removed to the upper part of the column, and iiitro- ducfd III the circuit that in broken first. Ky this ar- rangement we obtain a dis- junction dent near the up- per end of the chronometer and thus regain the ad- vantage, even when the in- terval is very small, of re- cording very minute times where the representative scale is greatest. This dis- junctor-reading is about 0".3, at least double what U was before, hence the representative dents cf small times are readily marked on the chronometer when it has double its former velocity. We may re- mark here thai for diminishing velocities and in measuring small liiiies for di'crcasinir intervals, the units of the sialc in the one case and the correspond- ing spai-es on the ilironometer in the otIiiT increase —most desirable attributes of instrumc-nls of thJB class. The fall corresponding to Ihe time to be meas- uied is recorded nif/ativeli/, as thi- tiring dent is be- low the disjunctor-reading, and Ihe duration of this fall is found by siiblnicliiig that of Ihe former from the latter. These heights are measured to tenths of a millimeter by means of the scale engraved on the rule and by its vernier and the correspon ling times 2 11 inav be caleulaleil from (he formula T = j . or *J g taken directly from a table, which is formed anal- ogously to the ordinary logarithmic tables. When the interval becomes so great as to give a dent below the up|)er recorder. Ihe ring on the rod iiiiistbe removed, and two of the larger tubes applied to the chronom- eter, one above the other. The largest interval that can be recorded by the inslrument thus arranged is that which corresjionds to the disjundor-reading, a little over 0". 3. When Ihe time between the rupture of the two circuits exceeds this reading, the cliron- ometer is struck before il has commenced to fall. and the dent of the origin is obtained. See A« Jioulenge (!hr"ii'tijr<ij //. MICROMETER An instrument used with a tele- scope or microscope to measure small distances, O! the apparent diameters of objeels which subtend very small singles. The micrometer with a gradu- ated scale is used for measuring distances by direct comparison. The apiilication of the micrometer to the telescope is credited by Whewell to Huyghens, Malvasia and Azout. It was a great advan<'e in the attempt to do by accuracy of measurement what had previously been attempled, and in part accom]ilished, by enlarging the instrument so as to enable the meas- urcmenls of smaller arcs. The first micrometer on record is that of Gascoigne, of England, constructed about l(i4l), and used by him in measuring the diam- eters of the moon and some of the planets. The instrument had nicely-ground parallel edges of brass- plate, and parallel hairs were substituted by the re- nowned Dr. Ilooke. The drawing shows the micrometer used with the Engineer's Transit and other standard instruments. It consists of a compound cross-wire ring or dia- pliragrr.. having three horizontal wires, of which the middle one is cemented to the ring, as tisual, while the others, lb and cc. are fa.stened to small slides, held apart bv a slender brass spring lioo)i, and ac- tuated by independent screws, dtt. by which the dis- tance between the two movable wires can be adjusted to include a given space, as one foot on a rod one hundred feet distant. These wires will in the same manner include two feet on a rod two himdn^d feet distant, or half a foot at a distance of fifty feet, and so on in the same proportion, thus furnishing a means of measuring distances, esjjecially over broken irround. much more easily and even more accunttely than with a tajie or chain.— See Engineer's lyansit. Gradienter anil Stadia. MICEOPHONE. 330 HICBOSCOFE. MICROPHONE.— This instrument, invented in 18 by I^rnf. Hiijrlios. does for faint sounds what tlic microscope does for matter too small for siii;ht: the fall of a bit of tissue-paper or the tread of a fliy being rendered audible at man_v miles distance. In prin- ciple the microphone illustrates the action of sonor- ous vibrations on the strength of an electric current. One of the most sensitive substances for microphonic action is willow-charcoal, plunged in a state of white lieat into mercury. The theory is that in a liomogeneous conductor the compressions and dila- tations of the molecules balance each other, and no variation of current ensues while under minute sub- division, with electrical continuity, sonorous waves affect the strength of an electric current, and varia- tions in the current reproduce sonorous waves. One form of microphone consists of a piece of mercury- tempered carbon an inch long, placed vertically between two carbon-blocks hollowed to receive its ends, wires connecting the blocks with the batter_v and the receiver by which the sounds are to be heard. " A piece of willow-charcoal," says the iuveutor, " the size of a pin's head is sutKcient to produce articulate speech." Two nails laid parallel, with wire connections, and a third nail laid across them, make a simple form of microphone. A few cells of any form of battery may l)e used. A con- tinuous sound has been made by the mutvial inter- action of the microphone and telephone, each instru- ment in turn repeating the sound made by the other. Many iiseful applications of the microphone have been made or suggested. MICROSCOPE.— An optical instrumentby which ob- jects too small to be viewed by the naked eye may be seen and examined. A single or simple micros- cope is one by which the object is seen directly: it may consist of a single lens or more than one. In a mmpiiurid microscope two or more lenses are so ar- ranged that the image formed by one is magnified by the others, and viewed as if it were the object itself. In a tiolrir microscope a reflector and condensor are employed to direct the sun's rayson the object. In a tuceriiiil microscope the rays of a lamp are similarly directed. The microscope is used for a variety of military purposes in arsenals, and also for detecting adulterations in the ration and fabrics. Another use to which it may be applied was disclosed during the late Franco-Prussian war. Copies of newspapers, reduced many-fold in size by photography, were fastened in large numbers to carrier-pigeons and in- troduced into besieged cities. These were easil}- real by the microscope. The United States Army microscope, made by Zentmayer, is thus described : It has a brass body, 16 inches high, on a bra.ss stand, with a joint to in- cline it to any angle, double-milled head-rack and pinion for coarse adjustment, micrometer-screw for tine adjustment, and a movable glass stage ; under the stage a tube is titted for carrying the ac- cessory illuminating apparatus, concave and plane mirrors, arranged for direct or oblique illumination, two eye-pieces, one achromatic object-glpss {(, of an inch focus, of 24 degrees angular aperture, one ach- romatic object-glass { of an inch focus, of 80 degrees angular aperture (not adjustable for glass-cover), giving power of 50, 100, 250, and 4.')0 diameters ; camera lucida, stage micrometer ruled -rJ j and ^^,-,'5,-, of an inch, and a condensing lens two inches diam- eter on a separate stand. The drawing shows one of the latest improved mi- croscopes and stands. The stand has a tripod (A) for its base, upon which is ])laccd a rcvolviiig fitting (B), graduated to degrees, by wliich means the mi- croscope can be turned around wilhoul lis being lift- ed from the lal)le, and the anujuni of such rolaliou registered; upon this titling two pillars are firmly fixed. and between them the limb ((') can be elevated or depressed to any angle, and tightened in its posi- tion by the lever (D). The limb carries at one end the body (E; (binocnilar or monocular), with eye- pieces and object-glasses ; inits center the compound stage (F), beneath which is the circular plate, slid- ing on a dove-tailed fitting, and moved up and down by the lever (Z), and ca'rrying the supplementary liody or sub-stage (G); and at tlie lower end a triang- ular bar carrying tlu mirror (H). Each of these parts requires a separate description. The binocular body consists of two tubes, the one fitted in the optical a.xis of the microscope, and the other oblique. At their lower end and immediately above the object-glass tliere is an opening. into which a small brass box" or fitting (I) slides; this box holds a prism so constructed that when slid in it intercepts half the rays from the object-glass, diverts them from their direct course, and reflects them into the addi- tional or obliipie tube. To the prism-box is attached a spring-catch, which, when pressed in, permits of the removal of the prism-box: but this is only need- ed for cleaning, as, when the box is drawn back to tlie distance properly allowd by this spring, the prism in no waywhiitever interferes with the field of view, and all the rays pass up the direct body and the microscope is converted into a monocular one. The upper or eye-piece ends of the tubes are fitted with racks and pinion for varying the distances be- tween the eyes of various persons; and arrangements are made for racking out one tube more than the oth- er, to suit irregularities or inequalities between the eyes of the observer. This body is moved up anil down with a quick movement by means of the mill- heads (K), and with a very delicate and a fine ad- justment by the milled head (L). This milled head works against a lever, which moves a slide indepen- dent of the rack-movement, and gives an adjustment at once certain and decided. The compound stage is of an entirely new construc- tion ; the object is most frequently merely placed upon it, but, if necessary, it can be clamped by pare- fully bringing down the spring-piece (JI); tlit' ledge will slide up or down, and the object may be pushed sidewa_ys ; this arrangement forms the coarse adjust- ment. Finer movements in vertical and horizontal di- rections are effected by means of two milled heads (N and O), the screws attached to which are kept up to their work by opposing springs, so as to avoid all strain or loss of time. The whole stage revolves in a circular ring by the milled head (P), or this can be drawn out, and then it turns rapidly by merely ap- plying the fingers to the two ivory studs (Q, Q) fas- tened on the top plate, which is divided into degrees to register the amount of revolution. The stage is attached to the limb on a pivot, and can be rotated to any angle, which angle is recorded on the divided plate (R), or can be turned completely over, so that the object can be viewed by light of any obliquity without any interference from the thickness of the stage. Beneath and attached to the stage is an iris diaphram (S). which can be easily and altogether re- moved, as shown in the illustration, from its dove- tailed fitting, so as not to interfere in the .slightest degiee during the rotation of the stage. The va- riations in the aperture of this diaphragm are made by a pinion working into a racked arc and adjusted by the milled head'(T). "Beneath the stage are two triangular bars (U, V), the one revolving around and tlie other rigiil in the optical axis of the instrument. Ou the former the sub-stage (G), carrying all the apparatus licn-ifler described for illumination and pi>lariz;ition. fits, and is racked up and down by the milled head (W): the mirror also, if desired, slides on the same bar: the revolving motion to this bar is given by the milled head ( X), and the amount of angular movement is recorded on the circle (Y), whilst the whole of this part of the stand is raised and lowered coiu-eutric with the optical axis of the instrument by the lever (Z), and the amount of siu'h elevation or de])res:-ion registered on a scale attached to the limb. This bar can be carried around and above the stage, and l)e thus used for opacjue illumination. The lower tri- MICH08C0FE. 331 HIC£OSCOF£. anpiilar liar (V) rarrips the mirror II. or a ripht- ' of HIiiminHtinn. unmo provision has to be made for iiiif;lc prisiii, when llii' illuiniiiiilioii is rc(|iiiriMl lo lir lioliliiiK variuiiM picci-M of apjiaratus between the ob- <iiiii'ciitiic with till' ciplical axiB of tlir iiistniiiiriit, jict anil llic> mirror. For lliiH piirpoHe a Hupplenii-nl- anil inil<'pi'ii(lcnl of llic iiiovcini-ntM of oilier iJiiiiiiin- ary Ixxiy, or Hulj-Ktage, i.s inouriti-il perfectly true utin" apparatus. Tlie iiiirror-lio.\ eoiUainK two mir- willi llie l)orly, and iH moved up and down in itH fit- rors, one !lat and the other eoneave: it HwinL's in a tinj; by rack and pinion eonneeted witli tlie milled rotalins; HctniiireU^ attaehed to a lenifthi'iiiiif^-liar, lieailMfW). Thi.'< Hiil).»tai;e, to whieli reference liaa wliicli enables it to l)e turned from iiiie Bide to the already been made, is now regarded as one of the other, and revolves on a circular tittins for frivin? I most important parts of the achromatic microscope; greater facilities in regulating the direction of the ' in it all the varied appliances for modifying the char- beam of liglit retlected,' the whole sliding on either , acter and direction of the light are titled. But a few of the triiiugvdar bars, previously referred to. and : years since it was considered sufficient for this made to reverse in the socket (a) so as to bring the "part of the stand to be constructed so as to move up center of the mirror concentric with the axis of the i and down perfectly coincident with theoptical a.xisof microscope in either case. the instrument, and for that purpose it was racked in As the mirror alone is insufficient for many kinds | a groove planed out on the same limb as that on the ■MICROSCOPIC-GAUGE. 332 MICRO SFECTROSCOPE. Tipper end of which the optical iiortions were carried. But lately microscopists have shown the desirability of alTordi'na: every facility for lateral angular adjust- ments: and this has led to the sub-stage being attach- ed to an arc (A) working in the circular plate (Y),and moved by a rack and pinion (X).whilot the amount of such aniular movement is recorded on the upper sur- face of tlie plat? (Y). Having once fixed the angular direction of the light.the focusing of it depends upon the lever (Z). which moves the circle up and down, and with it the arm ta'Tving the illuminating appar- atus, in the "pt'rn' ax x of the instrument. MICROSCOPIC-GAUGE.—An instrument used in coc- nection with the testing machine. It consists of a pair of glass sides, which are connected with the speci- men l)y collars in the manner shown. One of the Omz 1'^-.l-<-IM: els*^ glass sides is graduated to thousandths of an inch, and the other to hundredths of an inch. A micro- scope using a one-inch objection is employed in reading these scales, and by means of it the scale of thousandths may be readily subdivided into ten th(jusandths of an "inch by the eye alone. Tlie mi- croscope is supported by an adjvistable arm attached to one of the posts or the testing machine, or to a post e.xpresslj' provided for this purpose, and de- taclied from the machine. See Taper-rule and Ver- nier f/auge MICRO-SFECTEOSCOPE. — A spectroscope placed in comiection wiih a microscope, in order that the ab- sorption lines may be readily produced. The in- strument is employed in various testings ; but nota- the focus of the top lens of an eye-piece especially constructed is placed wliat is technically termed a slit, B ; this consists of two shutters me( ting in the center of the field, the one sliding up to the center of the field of view, and the other adjusting by means of a delicate milled head. L'pon the delicacy of the edge of this slit the value of the Spectroscope large- ly depends, any irregularity or piece of dust appear- ing a dark band at right angles to the spectrum un- der examination, and greatly interfering with the definition. In the same part of the instrument is in- serted a small right-angle prism, (D), which can be pushed forward or drawn back out of the field of view by a milled head. In the former position it re- flects the rays passing through any object placed upon the supplementary stage to the eye placed at the eye-end of the instrument, and enables the ob- server to compare two spectra witii one another, or to measure and record the position of the absorption bauds. Placed on the flat surface of tlie eye-piece are a couple of levers, moving two shutters, placed immediately over the slit, for regulating the length of the spectrum under examination. Above the top lens of the eye-piece the most important portion of tlic instrument slides; this consists of a series of prisms, (A), so arranged as to give a direct-vision spectrum, and upon the amount of the dispersion of which prisms much of the. value of the instrument depends. At the side of the main tube is a supple- mentary stage, upon which a standard scale, or a second cbject is placed, supjilied with a mirror, for reflecting the light through tlie object, the rays then being totally reflected by the right-angle prism, (D), before alluded to, and thrown up the fube to the ob- server. To u.se the instrument, remove the ordinary eye-piece of the microscope, and siide the spectro- .scope eye-piece (Figs. 1 and 2) into the body in its place. Remove the upper tube, containing the series of prisms, and draw back the sliding slit by a milled head, so that one-half of the fleld of view is clear. Focus the microscope to the object to be examined. Fig 1. blv.by Surgeons in viewing the absorption bands of brood in toxieological research. The micro-spec- 'troscoiH' designed tjy Walmsley and Co., and shown •in figures 1 and 2. consists of a series of prisms, (A), arranged for direct vision, fitted into an eye-piece, and sujiplied with various appliances namely, a slit, (H), a suijplemenlary siieclrum arriuigement, consisting of a small right-angle jirism, D. a stage, .for |)lacing an object upon, and a niirrdr, for reflect- ing the light and all the necessary udjustmeuls. In which is placed upon the stage, pass it up to the ed"-e of the slit, move the side shutters by the levers, so'as to sliut off all side light, save that passing llirough the object, and push back the sliding side of the slit by Ih'e milled head. Focus tile top lens of tlie eve-piece to the slit by nutans of the rack-aud- pinion place the tube, containing the compound prism (A), over the eve-piece, remove the object from the stage, adjust the slit by means of an adjust- in" milled head, so as to obtain clear vision, if by day. MICRO! ASIMETER. 333 HILBANK GUN. Hglit, Sf) tliat llic Frnnnhofcr lines iiro faintly sppn, rcpliuc llic iilijcct tij lie <'XiiiMiiii'(l upon llic hIhuc. and llic. absorption-hands will \iv readily Ki'i'n. The clmractcr of these hands and their jiosilion varies in every objeet: and if any praelieal use is to he made of the investigations, it is necessary not only to ob- serve, bnt to record their position, by means of a standaril scale provideil for the |)iirpose. MICROTASIMETER. An iicsinimeiil invented by Mr. Thomas A. lOdison for the purpose of mi'asnrini; very minute Viiriulioiis of pressure causi'd by the e.\ pansion or contraction of any t;ivcn bodj-, from what ever causes, heat, moisture, etc. A part of the a])- paratus is constructed upon the principle of the py rometer. and when the e.\pansion is caused by moist lire, uj)on that of some forms of liyurometer. Hut the novel and unicpie part of the invention consists in the elfeet which th<' pressure of the e.\])aii(linj,' rod has upon the electric resistance of a piece of car- bon placed in the circuit of a galvanic batter}'. A rod of vulcanite is vised as the expanding element when it is desired to use the instrument to ascertain slight variations in the heat vil)rations coming from any object, as the sun, or a gas, or electric light. This rod is adjusted in a strong frame kepi at an equabU; temperature, so that no expansions or con- tractions shall exert any inliucnce, except those wliich take place in the vulcanite rod itself. In th(! chamber which receives one end of this rod, or plate, there is placed under a follower, or slide, a piece of carbon, which becomes compressed witli great force upon the exi)ansion of the vulcanite rod. If radiant heat is to be nieas\ircd, a large funnel is placed in front of the ap|)aratus to gatlier the rays and throw them upon tlic rod or plate. When the ravs increase in intensity the rod expands, compresses tlie button, aiid changes its conducting capacity, which at every moment is indicated by a galvanometer. The in- stnnnent has been used successfully to ascertain the variations in the radiation from the sun during an eclipse. It may also be used to note the variations taking place on a day when clouds are passing across the sun's disk, or wiu-n the transmission of his raj's differs from increase or decrease of moisture. It may bi^ used as a delicate liygronu;tcr by substitut- ing in place of the v\dranite rod a body containing gelatine', which expands under the influence of moisture. MIDDLE AGES. —The designation applied to the great historic period between the limes of cl.assir an- tiquity and modern times. The beginning and close of this period are not very definite. It is usual. how. ever.to regard the Middle Ages as beginning with the overthrow of the Western Roman Empire in tlie3'ear 476 ; and there is a pretty general concurrence in fix- ing on the Reformation as the great event which brought this period to a close. It began with the rise of the Frankish upon the ruins of the ancient Homiui Empire, and with the commencement of civ- ilization among the barbarous tribes which had taken I)09session of what were formerly Roman Provinces. lu course of it the different nations of Modern Europe were formed, and their political and social systems developed. It was a period of ranch super- stition, in connection with which much religious en- thusiasm very extensively prevailed, luanifested in many great religious endowments, in magnificent ecclesiastical buildings, in pilgrimages, and, above all, in the Crusades. In the earlier parts of this per- iod file Church was much occupied in the extension of its bounds in the north of Europe, where heath- enism still subsisted, and the means employed were not always consistent with the spirit of Christianity. During the Middle Ages the Hierarchy acquired enormous power and wealth, and the Papacy rose from comparatively small beginnings to its utmost greatne'ss. During thcMiddlc Ages chivalry had its rise and decline, modifying and, in many respects, tending to refine the feelings and usages of society. Towards the close of the Middle Ages the revival of letters, the increase of knowledge, and the formation of a wealthy and influential class in society .diHtincI alike from the aristocracy and the peasantry, tended. even before the Reformation, both to the dindnution of the power of llic Hierarchy and the liecay of the feudal system. MIDDLE ASSEMBLING BAR.- A eompon<fnt part of the caisson. It is made of iron, has two ears in the middle to serve as stay-plates fi;r the middle- chests, and a slot for the axe on the right of the mid- dle-rail. MIDDLE CHEST.— The front ammunition-chest on the body of the caisson ; so called because it is be- tween the hind chest and the limber-chest wlien t)ie caisson is liiiilnTed. MIDDLECULVERIN. -A cannon of tlie Fren^li ar- tillery, under Henry II., carrying a projectile weigh- ing two pr.iinds. MIGNON. -The former French term for & piekrd HoMii r at present called Elite. MIKADO. The popular title of the Emperor of Ja- piui, though in official documents the term Tcnno (Heavenly King) or Tenshi (Child of Heaven) is most frei|uently used. Other titles used inthenative parlance or literature are Nin-o (King of men;, 0-6 or I)ai-o (Great King), Ko-tei (Ruler of Nations). Other terms arising from the application of the name of the Mikado's place of residence to his jjerson, are Dai-ri (Imperial Palace), Chd-tei, (Hall of Audience), Kinri (the Forbidden Interior), Go-sho (Palace;, which names occur frecpiently in old European works on, Japan. The term Mikado means Honorable Gate, like the Turkish "Sublime Porte," and the Egyptian "Pharoah." The Dynasty of Mikados is the'oldest in the world, the [iresent ruler, JIutsuliito, beingtlie 12W of the Imperial Line. The first Mikado Was JimmuTemio, who began to reign (itiO b.c, the pro- fessed starting-point of Japanese chronology. The lirst seventeen Mikados in the oflicial list are said to have died at ages ranging from 100 to 141 years. The Mikados have each a personal name, but no family name, and the name of any one Mikado is never re- peated; though in two instances in the list, two Mika- dos reigned each twice, ami have each two posthu- mous titles. Seven of these Sovereigns of Japan were females. The average duration of each reign is nearly 31 years. The 3Iikados claim descent from the heavenly gods, and their regalia of sovereignity area mirror, crystal ball, and sword. The possession of these palladia is the test of legitimacy during civil or dynastic war, of which but one is known in Japanese history — the period 1336-92, when a compromise was made by the rival in jiossession of the regalia receiv- ing the title of Ex-Emperor, and handing over the sacred embleir s to the other. After death, the ."^likado receives a posthumous title bj' which he is known in history. The Mikado is allowed twelve miV^^'/orcon- aubines, besides the Empre.ss; and in addition, there are four noble families called Shinno from whom heirs may be chosen for adoption. Succession is not always to the oldest son, but usually to the Mi- kado's nominee. The Imperial Household forms a distinct department o' :he govermnent, called the Kimaisho. MILANAISE.— A G.-rman fluted armor of the be- ginning of the sixteenth century. The cuirass is rounded, the breast-plate does not possess the cen- tral ridge oi ti^palAxiA the shoulder pieces are large with jiiuM-gardm. The cuishes and upper arm pieces are fluted like the rest of the armor but, the lower arm pieces and the greaves are plain. The mlereU are paw-shaped and indicate the time to which tliis armor belonsr^. MILBANK GUK.— A breech - loading small-arm, having a fixed chamber closed by a movable breech- block, which slides in the line of the barrel by di- rect action. The piece is opened by raising the han- dle of the breech-bolt from its recoil-bearing in the receiver, and then drawing back the bolt. It is closed by reversing the action of the bolt ; the ham- Iin,B STEEL. MILD STEEL. J mer-bolt striking a sear-bolt in closing, antl thercb}' compressing the spiral mainspring which surrounds its rear portion. It is locked by the support afford- ed the base of the handle by its bearing on the re- coil-shoulder of the receiver when the piece is closed. The piece is tired by the action of a spiral main- spring surrounding the hammer-bolt. The hammer- bolt is kept from accidentally discharging the cart- ridge by striking the tiring-pin before the breech is fulfv closed, by meansof a tiausversc stop-pin, which, when the handle is up, passes through the liriug-pin and keeps it forced back with its point fiush with tlie face of the bolt. When the breech is fully locked by turning do\\"n the handle into place, the transver.se pin is drawn back by an inclined surface in the bole of the tiring-pin through which it passes, and it leaves the tiring-pin free to be driven forward, at pleasure, in the usual way. The rear end of the tiring-bolt when drawn back passes through the base of the rear section of the breech-bolt, and indicates the position if cocked. Extraction is accomplished by a book swinging on a pin passing transversely through the recoil-block near its face. Ejection is caused by the action of a spiral spring, set in the face of the bolt and pressing against the lower edge of the cartridge-head until tlie shell is clear of the chamber. The shell being then free to turn, is rota- ted around the hook by which it is held and is thrown clear of the gun. A .safety-lever is connect- ed with this arm and serves to disi^ense wdth the ne- cessity of a half-cock notch. The accidental open- ing of the breech may be prevented bj' turning up the handle part way and jjressing down its stop- pin ; the point of this passes into a hole in the side of the recoil-block, and thus prevents the revolution of the entire bolt. MILD STEEL.— The statistics of iron and steel are very suggestive of the condition of the times. In the middle of the last centur}- the amount made in England was about one five-hundredth part of what it is at present; the amount imported was more than that manufactured at home, whilst now the English aunuallj' export millions of tons; the last few years have shown a striking increase in the world's annual production, though great fluctuations have occurred; the amount produced has risen from some 10^ mil- lion tons in 1869 toabout twent)'-one millions in 1882 — an enormous increase due to the vast development in tlie use of iron and steel for ships, railways, bridg- es, buildings, machines, etc. Apart, however, from the increase in the total qiiantities we notice (Fig.l) that cast iron, wrought iron, and steel have not in- creased uniformly, but the last has far surpassed the others in the rate of its growth, having nndtiplied some twelve times in the thirteen years under consid- eration. Although steel has been made from remote ages, it was only about twenty-tive years ago employed on a comparatively small scale for such articles as tools, knives, swords, springs, etc.. and from the expendi- ture of time and fuel on its manufacture, it was ne- cessarily an expensive article: but the inventions of Bessemer, Siemens, and others have resulted in the production of a class of " mild" steel in large quan- tities, moderate in price, suitable for various purposes of construction, and surpassing wrought iron in all, or almost all, of its good qualities. Of late years competition in the trade has led to numberless im- jirovements, and great economy in manufacture, es- pe<'ially in the amount of fuel consumed. It may be interesting to notice the pro]iortion of iron and steel annually produced (in 1882, for example) in each country. We are at once struck by the salient fea- ture that (Jreal Britain is far ahead of all others in quantity ; in fact, excluding the United States, her production probably exceeds that of all the rest of tlur world i)ut together; but other nations an^ also now making good progress. With regard to qnality. the reputation of English iron and sle(tl is deservetUy very high ; the great majority of modern impro\c- ments in manufacture are due to English inventors, practically developed by English makers, and many foreign firms are glad of English assistance. Iron ores and good coal, as well as niateri;ds for fire-bricks and fluxes, are found abundantly all over England, while the great carrj-iug trade gives facilities for the plentiful supplj'of good ores from Spain, and pig iron from Sweden for modern steel making, as well as for the export of manufactured iron and steel to foreign customers. The resources of other countries are, however, being largely developed. Second on the list comes the United States, whose rate of increase of manufacture is unexampled. The demand has been hitherto so great, to meet the won- derful development of the railway system, and other large works, that millions of tons have been sent from across the Atlantic, but the time has now come when the United States produces sufficient for its own wants. Its natural resources are very great, and it has excellent ores of great richness and abun- dance, vast coal-fields, calculated to last for centuries, and a peo|jle fidl of energy. At first sight it may seem strange that at the present moment steel for only an 8-in. gun can lie produced, but this is simply because until lately there has been no demand for it. The colossal plant needed for heavy gun manufacture does not exist in America, where the heaviest ham- mer is one of 17 tons, while France bas one of 100 tons, and Krupp is said to be making oneof l.TO tons. Whitworth is now supplying the Government of the States with steel for 10 in. guns. The United States have lately sent a Gun Foundry Board to make in- quiries in Europe concerning the manufacture of steel for military purposes ; their report has been published, and contains most valuable information : a supplement submitted to the Senate 22d December last, gives plans of two proposed gun factories, one for the Army and the other for the Navy. Besides certain annual expenses, it is estimated that a sum of A'7, 000,000 will last for six and a half years, in- two years will be required. Next on the list of producers comes Germany, which po.ssesses the largest manufactory in the world — that of Krupp— remarkable for its excellent steel which soon attained a wide reputation, as shown by the fact that in 186.'5 England ordered from this firm, for her own use and that of her colonies, no less than 11,3!)0 tyres and .564 axles for railwa}- purposes. Krupp early applied his steel to the manufacture of ordnance, and he lias supplied several nations with guns. Germany depends greatly on this maker for her ordnance, but the American officers do not con- sider this a wise arrangement, as the Government may find it difficult to deal with a single private firm in times of great emergency. Fourth in magnitvide comes France; with her well known Le Creusut, Terre Noire, and other works. The first, with its massive plant and 100-ton ham- mer bas produced steel armor plates of excellent quality; while the second has, after many difficulties, attained great success in steel castings, and in the manufacture of steel projectiles. Although the loss of Alsace bas told heavily on the production of iron and steel by France, and though half her ores are imported, her progress is certainly very good, es- pecially in the steel required for warlike purposes, as after the war of 1870 the French Govcrnnu'nt en- couraged private companies to such an extent that several can prixhice the largest steel ingots, otlu'rs have the plant of a gun factory, and others again are able to produ<-e armor-plates of excellent quality. The American officers consider that France has made belter arrangements than other nations between the Governnu'nt and the steel makers. Belgium has good sujiplies of coal, but Having ex- hausted her own ores, has to import for the numu- facture of steel; nevertheless she has made good jirogrcss, especially considering the means at her disposal, and she enters keenly into competition with England in certain departments of the trade. UILD STEEL. 335 MILD BTEEL. • Austria, though formrrly cololirated for nctal- lurjricnl m!iiiiif;ictiircs, and possi'ssinir cxrcllcnl fnics. lias l)c(?i iin.-ihlc Id keep i)ac(: with oilier coiiiilrirs in tlic pnidiictiijM (if inin iiixi Htccl. 'I'lie wiiiil of coal, and of caHy (Miiimmniciitifms, and piTliaps tlic lacli of ornaniziilion and (■apilal, have proved liindranocs to dc'chiiiMicnl. Kussia possesses exeellent ores in tlie mountains of Hiberiaaiid tlie Krai, liiitllic want of l'ooiI means of transport and of eoal prevents a larire manufaet,ire : Imt mild steel has been made since 1870, andlhi' pro- duel ion for ndliliiiT ])urposes is now consideralile. The Russian (lovermueni seems anxii>us lo supjily ilsi'lf Willi sleel ; armor and i^iins up lo oO tons are now made iu Russia. Formerly Krupp supplied ordnance. The best Swedish pig iron is of capital quality, as the ores from which it is produced are very pure, and the charcoal employed as the fuel in smelting being free from sulphur, does not conlamiiiale the cast iron: but the waat of coal limits the supply. Fifj. 1 . 1882. 1869 .B 1 :^ii h ; ',:'■'• ym Hi n s Fig. 2 The production of iron and steel by the countries of the world in 188:', Pig. 3 Increase of the c world's annual "3 production o f -p* iron and stcffl CQ during i:j years — « 1869 to 1883. g 6 5 ^---^HS S*' 'S d^ a. Figs. ! and 2 .—A, steel : B, wronglit iron : C. cosMron 3:— B. Bessemer; t", crucible; O. H., open hearth. ■ U Fig Spain cannot be calleil a manufactuiing country; but the Bilbao ore has lately been very largely used in steel making ; twenty years ago hardly any for- Iresult wi'llbeto give brittlenesslnsleaT of'strength lign ore was used in England ; now she annually im- ports about 8,000.000 tons from Spain, and other na- tions also supply Ihemselvcs largely. This country is conseipieiilly ini|iorlant to the steel makers. Ital}' has harilly any iron or steel works; the Klbd ore has loii'.^ been fiimous. but is not so important as formerly. The huge armor-clad ships of Italy, willi their very heavy iruns. have, however, called for large "Upplies of mild sleel for warlike purposes from abroad, and they have cimlribiiled not a little to the development of some i>rivate (inns for producing heavy war material. Accftrdiiig to the Stani/jini of recent date the firm of Sir U'. Ami- slroiig and Co. has obtained a concession for estab- lisliing large factories for making guns and armor plates in the neiichborhood of Naples. The other nations of Europe produce but little iron and steel, and Ihey are chiefly supplied from those already named. In the other countries of the world considerable progress has been made, as also in some (jf the colonies— the establishment of a gun foundry at (Quebec is under consideration; and in many places large sujiplies of ore are available. Steel is by no means easy to define, since it is a complex body, and as all "persons are not exactly agreed concerning the dillerence between it and iron, lawsuits have conseijuently arisen; but the detinilion of mild steel given liy Holley. quoted in the Royal Gun Factory Treatise, that itis "an alloy of iron, cast, while in a fluid slate, into a malleable ingot," has, at any rale, the advantage of simplicity, if not (jf perfect exactness. This detinilion serves to distinguish it from cast iron on the one hand, and from wrought iron on the other ; as cast iron is not malleable, but crumbles to pieces if heated and struck by the hammer, and wrought iron, though malleable, is produced, not as a fluid, but as a pasty niass, the temperature of the ordmary furnace being insutlieient to mell it. Wrought iron is more fibrous than mild steel, and it contains, from the method of its manufacture, an average of 3 jjer cent by weight, or Ti per cent by volume of slag, dispersed through its" mass in fine tilamenls, which detracts from its strength ; on the other hand, the process of fusion in the manufacture of mild sleel gets rid of all traces of slag ; and this is a great advantage. (.)ld definition.; of 'steel stated that I he pro))orlion of carbon in it was more than in wrought iron, but less th;in in east iron; but this hardly holds good at the present time, wdien some mild steel has no more carbon than some wrouclit iron. Sir V,'. Armstrong states that " steel is iron produced by a process of fusion instead of by one of adhesion, and in that sense it is mdependent of any particular sense of carbonization. Using the teriii in this sense, steel has the advantage over iron in being free from defects in vvehlini:. It irenerallv contains more carbon than wrought iron, which reii- ders it stronger. It is also tougher under some tests, but more prone to fracture under others. . . . The manufacture of steel continues to improve, while that of iron is stationary, and the time is probably near when the manufaetureof iron, as now practiced, will entirely merge into that of steel, as produced by the process of fusion." Taking HoUey's definition, carbon is the essential substance which alloys with iron to form steel ; it increases the hardness, elasticity, and tenacity, al- though it decreases the elongation before fracture : it also gives rise to the important property of tem- pering by rapid cooling, by which these advantases can be increased, though with a further loss of power to elongate. Annealing, or softening by slow cool- ing, may be called the reverse of tempering. The presence of carbon, however, greatly adds to the difficulty of forging, which must be done at a lower temperature as Uie proportion of carbon increases : if too hot. the mass will crumble to pieces under the hammer, or if this does not actually take place, the mUD STEEL. 336 MUD STEEL. in the operation of forging — producing what is tech- nically called ••burnt steel," : in explanation of this remarkal)le fact it can only be stated that some phy- sical and (possibly) chemical change takes place in steel at a certain temperature depending on the pro- portion of carbon present, which causes it to assume a coarsely crystalline structure, greatly decreasing its strength and reliability : the forging of steel is consequently generally more tedious than that of wrought iron, which can often be heated to a white heat when it becomes soft, and can then be quickly hammered into tlie required shape. At the begin- ning of modern steel making, the necessity for care about the temperature tor forging was not fully rec- ognized, and •• burnt steel " was often produced, ac- counting probably for many of the mysterious frac- tures which happened, -and wliich gave reason for so much distrust. At Terre Noire especially, the men who had been accustomed to deal with wrought iron could not understand for a long time that steel must be treated differently, and experience was only gained at the cost of a good many failures. On one occasion, the ordinary workmen were turned away, and carpenters who had to learn the work, but who would do what they were told, were engaged in- stead So great, however, is the progress in some depart- ments of steel-making, that notwithstanding these ditlicuUies of working we find Mr. Denny writing that "steel for ships' plates has become so uniform as to have lost interest, while iron attracts attention from its deterioration and want of uniformit}'. and the men complain if they are put to work upon it on account of the amount of spoilt work involved :" and this is not an isolated opinion. It cannot be said, however, that the large masses of steel for guns are as yet produced with such uniformity. Mild steel can be welded like wrought iron, but the operation becomes more and more difficult as the carbon increases ; the 13-pr. steel axletree is conse- quently made in one piece without any weld, but wrouglit iron axletrees are most conveniently made in two pieces, which are afterwards welded together. On the other hand, large quantities of excellent tubu- lar steel are now produced by the process of lap welding. It is more difficult to cast mild steel than cast iron, because a more uniform result is required, and since the temperature of fusion is so much higher (from the smaller proportion of carbon), much greater con- traction takes place on cooling, giving rise to a vari- ety of intense molecular strains, whicli are sometimes sufficient to tear the metal apart in the mold, and often cause surface cracks, telling of a state of strain which must be allowed for and counteracted as far as possible by suitable methods of cooling and reheating Krupp takes the greatest care on this point, making the cooling of his ingots very slow indeed, keeping them warm with hot ashes sometimes for weeks, and they are said to be remarkably free from cracks or flaws. Annealing for several days is often resort- ed to in the case of steel castings. As small differences in the proportion of carbon make very great differences in the elasticity, tenaci- ty, liardness, elongation, etc., it is most important to use every effort to control the quantity admitted into steel in manufacture, and it is one of the great- est aims in nuiking steel for ordnance, to obtain, as nearly as possible, the desired propDrtion of carbon; for this i)Mrpose it ranges from about O.^iT to 0..'). For the hard steel face of compound armor plates it may be as high as 0.8 per cent. In all modern steel there is a considerable proj^ir- tion of manganese; this is supposed to act in the sanu: way as carbon in hardening, but its eilect is not so marked. It is always added to nu'lted steel in manufai'ture. in order (it is sup])osed)to lake away ferrous oxide, which forms at a high lemperalure, and also to a certain extent, it may take away otlur impurities which would impart red shortness or brittleuess at the forging temperature ; asmangan-. ese Las an extraordinary affinity for oxygen, it is prepared for use as an alloy with carbon and iron, termed spiegeleisen or ferro-mangauese, according as the proportion of iron or manganese predomi- nates; both of these alloys are now important articles of commerce. When the manganese mixture is put into the liquid steel, some of it immediately attacks the ferrous oxide, deprives it of its o.xygen, and be- coming itself oxidized, runs harmlessly into the slag, leaving a certain small quantity of metallic mangan- ese to alloy with the steel ; this is the last operation before pouring out, in the Bessemer and •'open hearth" processes, so that no time may be given for the formation of any more f';rrous oxide. Mild steel should not have more than about 1.0 per cent, of manganese, or it will be brittle, but it is generally best to have less than this quantity. Messrs. Had- fleld and Co., however, have lately produced steel having as much as 12 per cent, of manganese which has shown remarkable qualities, and may perhaps become of practical utilit.v in various ways. This alloy is very hard, but not brittle, and is scarcely affected if lieated and plunged into water ; but con- siderable variations have occurred in its properties. Silicon has the property of rendering cast-steel in- gots sound and free from blow-holes ; small quanti- ties of pig iron rich in silicon are often added for this purpose. It is supposed to de-oxidize, the carbonic oxide gas which forms the bubbles, and thus silica is produced which enters the slag. Not more than about 0,3 per cent, of silicon should be present, and much less if the steel is to be of very mild quality 'or brittleuess will be produced.) Sulphur and phosphorus (especially the latter) are the enemies of the steel maker, for if present beyond a very small amount (say 0.04 and O.OG respectively) they jjroduce britfleness : as a very large proportion of the ore-deposits in the world contain too mucli phosphorus to allow them to be used in the manu- facture of steel as it is generally carried on, it has long been a great problem to invent some process by which it could be eliminated, and it appears that this has at last been practically accomplislied by the basic process, invented by Messrs. Thomas and Gil- christ, in which freshly calcined magnesian lime- stone (dolomite) absorbs the phosphorus almost en- tirely when the metal is melted, and by this process good steel has been produced from highly phos- phoric ores. The averages of analy.ses inade in the North Eastern Railway Company's laboratory by Mr. Routledge.of twenty steel rails made from ha?ma- tite iron, and of twenty others made from pho'sphoric Cleveland iron by thebasic process, give very nearly the same results. Car- Sili- Sul- Phos- Man- bon con. ptiur. phorus. eancse. Iron. Ilfematite Steel. 0-4.5S 0-105 0-121 0-0.53 1-178 98-093 Cleveland steel. 0-4.50 0065 0-095 0-0.54 1-301 98-134 As far as .present experience goes, the physical qualities of the two steels are said to be similar : basic steel has not yet, however been employed for ordnance. Although this plan was invented by Englishmen, it has been more widely adopted in some parts of the Continent (where phosphoric ores abound) than in Euffland, where good ores are generally procurable from abroad if not close at hand : and the practical question now seems to be generally one of economy, whether it is better acc<irding to local conditions, cost of carriage, etc., to employ an expensive ore and a comparatively cheap method of production, or a cheap ore and a somewhat more expensive process : as further experience, however, is obtained, the ad- ditional labor and expense of the basic lining plan may possil)ly be reduced. The results have been so godd that it"seemsasif a new(le|)arture has occurred in tlie pnigress of steel makiiii; ; already about a. million tons of steel are manufactured annually in Europe from phosphoric pig, and the highest honors MILD 6TEEL. 337 KILD STEEL. Ii;n !• Iiiiti i^ivcn to tlie inventora. It must, how- ever, \h; stiileil that orcH rich in Bilicon [in'seiit Bnme (lifllcully with this |)roccss, us Ihr fiiriiiice lin- ini; in iiuicli corroded, iiiid cure must he tulien to use freshly caleiiied liincstone, us it sooti iihsorl)s nmist- ure from (he atmosphere. 'Pile ]>{iwer lo resist alirasioiiaiid ruhliini; possessed h)' jjiihl slcel, is jrreater lliun tliat of wrou^lit iron; tliis is a|iparetitly due, not only to greater liardness imparted l)y more earl)!!!!, hut it also results from the ureater unifortnily of its structure: wrousihl iron, on the other hand, Ihikes olT, from the [iresence of lilauienis of slai;. The udvantaf^e of mild steel over wrouirht iron in this respect has heen shown in a marked manner liy the superior endurance and uni- forniily of steel rails : as, for instance, when the Lon- don and Norlliweslern Haihvay Company some years ago made a careful experiment it Chalk Farm Slulion at a spot where the tralllc^ was specially heavy, the top side only of steel rails lasted eleven times as lonj; as both sides of wroui;ht iron om'S on the other side of the same liii^. Steel has con.sequently been wide- ly adopted for rails, thouj^h it cannot be said that all now mamifactured are of nearly such linnd quality us those made for that experiment. This samei)rop- erty was long ago recogni/.ed in gun making, when t le bores of ordnance, which have lo resist the abrasion of studs, etc., and the erosive action of lired gunpowder, were made of steel. The proreis of drawing into wire increases the elasticity, tenacity, and elongation of steel to a degree miattainalile in any other way. Advantage has of late year.'i been taken of this fact in the manufacture of ordnance, as this nietlif d also allows of the initial tensions being very accurately uljusted. and no ex- tensive Haws can remain undetected. Many other physical and chemical properties of steel might be considered, but those just mentioned are probably the most important for the purposes under consid- eration. Kxcluding the oliler processes for the manufacture of hard tool steels, we tind that mild §teel for con- structional purposes is produced by the three follow- ing methods: 1. Crucible. 2. Open hearth. 3. Bessemer. In each of these plans a very high temperature must be obtained in flrder to melt the steel, which must not be in contact with the solid fuel, because if it were so, the proportion of carbon in the steel would be too large; and means are always taKen to reniler the product as uniform as possible. 1. The crucible plan is by far the oldest, but it is now the least employed; it has long been known that wrought iron enclosed in a crucible with car- bonaceous matter is capable of combining with the carbon, and melting, to form steel, at a temperature insuthcieut to melt wrought iron alone. At the present time, carefully weighed proportions of wrought iron, with sometimes a little steel, or even good cast iron of known composition, powdered charcoal, and spiegeleisen are put into a crucible capable of holding some GO to 100 pounds, this being about the limit which its strength will enable it to bear without risk of cracking. A number of such crucibles are placed in a furnace specially construct- ed for their reception; a very high temperature is obtained, and after some two and a half to three hours, according to the degree of carbonization re- quired, the contents are melted, the carbon has al- loyeil with the iron to form steel, and the manganese in the spiegeleisen has reduced any ferrous oxide which may be present. A liquid slag formed at the top, and a tire-clay cover prevent oxidation, which might otherwise occur at the high temperature at- tained; the contents of several crucibles are then poured into the same ingot mold as rapidly as pos- sible. Krupp has greatly developed this" method, anil he has poured from as many as 1 800 crucibles into one mold : great care and arrangement in the large numbers of men employed being necessary. The advantages claimed for tliis plan are tliat the llam(' is not in contact with the sleel. and. therefore, cannot contaminate it; and uniformity of quality ig gaineil if the temperatun; and timeof heating are the same, othi-rwise the reactions may differ in dilferent crucililes if the heat varies in ileralion and intensity. Till' disadvantages are, tlir' r'xpense and the great- care and arrangement necessary for very large in- gots, when great numbers of men must lie carefully trained to work togetl:i-r ; the length of time taken in casting is al.so a drawback, but llie product is often excellent if ull necessary conditions are observed, und it has been largely employed for gun tubes, where Firth's crucibli^ steel has been much used. 2. The 0|)en hearth plan is pirhai>sthe most recent mi'thod of steel making, and it owes its success to (111! invention of Siemens and others, who have con- structed furnaces of the regenerating lype.capulile of producing very high temiieratures. Thisso-called j hearth is somewhat spoon-shaped, sloping down to one point, and the bed is covered widi partly fused sand ; good cast iron is first thrust in, Jind the flame beating down or reverberating from the low roof, soon melts i(, as the metal is readily fusilile from (he large quantity of carbon which it contains, and thu.-j i the so-called "bath" is formed. Sometimes only one kind of pig iron is used, but generally it is more economical to make a mixture- for instance, a very j pure Swedish ])ig iron combined w't^U a cheaper iron I from English hienialite ore, which h asagood deal of sulphur, but not enough tomakean injurious amount in the mixture, and sometimes steel mixed at first with the cast iron. When the bath is sufliciently fluid, steel scrap, crop ends of rails or wrought iron are thrown in, after being warmed by the waste heat, the object beingto obtain a mixture having less and less carbon ; when these have been well melted down, a further .reduction of carbon is effected by the addition of known quantities of good Spanish hiematite ore— an oxide of iron. When this is added, a violent ebullition ensues, due to the combination of tJ»e carbon in the melted charge with the oxygen in the hffimatite, and the consequent production of car- bonic oxide gas; this is technically called "boiling." The whole operation 7Hi(//it be done by the use of pig iron and ore without any wrought iron or steel. Tliis was a good deal practiced at one time, but it was found to be very expensive, as more fuel was re- quired, and the wear and tear of the furnace lining was considerable, from the corrosive action of the large quantities of slag produced. JJuring the latter part of the process the steel maker is constantly testing the composition of the molten mass, by insert- ing a large iron rod with a spoon at the end of it. and taking out a little of the steel; this is judiciously cooled, hammered on an anvil, bent over and broken, and the fracture and general appearance are ci m- pared with the samples previously obtained wliich have given good results, and which have been chemically analysed. If it is judged that the carbon is not low enough, more ore must be added if no "boil" is going on; but if, on the other hand, it is too low alreadv, some good pig iron must be put in. and on leaving off the operation the steel should be as quiet and free from bubbles as possible, to avoid blow holes in the casting. Great practical skill is required on the part of tlie s(eel maker; his tests must be (akeu rapidly, and a judgment must soon be made from the scan(y and apparentl}- rough data furnished by the comparison of the test pieces with the standards but. never- theless, the same results may be repeatedly attained by the same operator within comparatively' narrow limits. Just before the pouring out. comes the addition of the proper quantity of spiegeleisen or ferro-mac- ganese : both of these necessarily contain carbon, and consequently the melted mass should previously be more decarbonized than the finished steel. The manganese is previously heated, carefully scattered MILD STEEL. ;'.;w MILS STEEL. over and stirred up in the steel, and allowed to re- ' it becomes decarbonized and consequently more in- main a short time to become Ihorouijhly incorporated i fusiiilc, it still remains lii|uid ; after some :3IJ minutes and to ensure vmiformity of cnmiiosilion ; at the last i the Hame becomes much shorter and alters its char- moment two spoon tests are taken, one for chemical I acter. signifying that the carbon is becoming very analysis of the carbon and the other for physical low, and that the operation is nearly completed ; it trial : the lapping hole at the bottom is knocked through by means of hammers and a long rod. and tlie liquid steel flows out along a gutter into a large iron ladle lined with tire-clay and previously healed; if not heated, or if the temperature of tne liquid steel is too low, a good deal of waste occurs from the formation of a considerable '•skull," or metallic lining, caused by the solidifying of the outer part cf the steel in the ladle. When all the steel has been poured out. two spoon samples are very generally taken for chemical and physical tests, the hulle is carried by a powerful crane to the ingot mold it is desired to till, and a plug is raised at the bottom, worked bj- a rod passing through rings of fire-clay in the liquid mass; the steel then runs out of the bot- tom of the ladle and tills the ingot mold: the slag being lighter remains at the top and is not mi.vcd up with the steel, unless indeed any difficulty occurs with the bottom plug, when the sieel must be poured from the top of the jadle, as water is from a jug ; in this case, small quantities of slag may become en- tangled in the steel, and the ingot will probably be spoilt. Sometimes the metal is run direct into the ingot mold without the use of a ladle, but this is not generally' considered a convenient plan. The whole operation lasts from 7 to 11 hours, or longer, accord- ing to the size of the furnace and tlie weight of charge ; the largest furnace yet made will melt over 30 tons at a time ; the furnace bottom needs repair after each charge. The advantages of this process are that it is cheaper than the last, the composition of the steel can be very carefully controlled, but it requires very great attention and skill on the part of one or two responsible persons. It is verv largely employed in making steel for ordnance, carriages, and other military constructions, where uniformity and liigh qualities are more desirable than economy. 3. By far the largest proportion of mild steel <^nearly 80 per cent.) is manufactured by the Besse- mer process, but it is not applied to military piir- 2ioses to anything like that degree ; the ra))idi"ty and economv of tliis plan are considerable, and the whole operation is startling and impressive. A large egg- shaped iron vessel called a "converter," can re- volve on trunnions, one of which is provided with teeth which gear with rack-work, by means of which it can be turned up or down. The other trun- nion is Imllow, and through it comes a pipe eomnui- iiicating with a great numlier of small holes or "tuyeres" fitted in the fire-bricks situated in the bottom of file vessel ; a blast of air can thus be sent from an engine through the tuyeres. The top of the converter is provided with a sliort chimnej', and the interior is lined with a very refractory material called ganister. The operation is as follows : The <-oiiverter being heated, it is turned down and melted cast-iron is poured in by a gutter, either from a reluMtiug furnace, or in some e:Lses, as first prac- ticed at Terre Noire, direct from the blast furnace, where it is reduced from the ore ; when a sufficient <liarge has lieen poured in— onl}' about J of the to- tal capacity, so that the iron may not rise to the tuy- e'res on p-uiriug in— the blast is turned on, and when it is fully on, the converter is turned up: the li- (luid iron c;mnot run down the small tuyere holes through which the blast coiui'S, but on the contrary, the i)ressure is sufticient to cause a eonliniuius stream of bubbh's of air to rise up through the mol- ten mass, thus oxidizing the carbon in it with the formation of carbonic o.\ide gas, which burns with a strong flame some 20 feet in length at the top of the <.'liimiiey. The t(-mperature of the iron is considerably raised Jjy the combustion of the carbon in it, and, although is essential that the exact lime of leaving off should be chosen, as if the "blow" is stopped too soon, sufficient carljon is not extracted ; if, on the other Inind, it is continued too long, the iron becomes oxi- dized, when not only is some of it wasted but the quality of the rest is spoilt, for the ir<m itself burns, and excess of o.xide is formed. The appearance of certain lines in the spectroscopic appearance of the flame is employed to find the proper time for leaving oflf. but it is often determined by eye alone. Before pouriug out, however, comes the addition of man- ganese, which is absolutely neces.saiT in this plan : as from the method of manufacture a good deal of ferrous oxide must necessarily be formed ; the "blow" is continued for rather less than a minute, after which the steel is poured out into the ladle, when it is sometimes stirred b}' meaAs of an "agi- tator" to distribute the manganese and produce uniformity. Tlie ingot casting is the same as in the "open hearth" system. The rapidity of this plan enables an enormous output to be made with a mod- erate plant, as each "blow" lasts less than half an hour to produce 6 to 13 tons of steel, but this very rapidity prevents the careful control over the residts which can be exercised in the last method: in a large firm this can be allowed for by sorting the in- gots produced, and ;i|)plying each to the purpose for which it is most suited: but it is most dlHicidt to know what will be the exact proportions of carbon and tlie other qualities of any particular "blow." It does not appear at present to be well suited for the manufacture of ordnance ; and the following extract from the " Proceedings of the American So- ciety of Civil Engineers" about the Jlonongahela Bridge, Pittsburg, seems to represent the facts con- cerning the employment of this steel for work of the higher qualifies : "The difhcultj' seemed to consist in controlling the uniformity of the steel within close limits for quality and strength with the Bes- semer process. After a while, the attempt was given up, and the 'open iiearth' was substituted— no froidile was then experienctd in getting a uni- form grade of steel of prescribed quality." Some 43,000 tons of "open liearth" steel will be used in tlie construction of the Forth Bridge. Bessemer steel is very much used for rails, and also for a great variety of other purposes, including comjiound ar- mor. When steel is to be forged, it is c;ist into an ingot mold of a very simple form, efforts being made, by the use of silicon, cither in the pig or in a special mixture, or by fluid pressure as used by ^\'hitworth. to get rid of blow-holes: the ingot is taken out. re- heated, carefully inspected, cracks cut out, and it is then either hammered, rolled, or pressed to the re- quired shape, great care being taken about the tem- perature. In order that the_blows may be well trans- mitted through the mass, it appears that very heavy hammers are now generally preferred, iirobably be- cause mild steel is not in as soft a condition as wrought iron when forged. As large masses of steel are now worked, it is probalile that the numbers of already existing very heavy haniniers may be in- creased, unless Wliitwcn'fh's method of hydraidic pressure be employed instead; and this now appears to be verj- gemrally prefi'rred: great progress has been made in some of the leading factories abroad: and this .seems an important unitter for Kuglish manufacturers to consider, with reference to the hirge masses re(|uired for ordnance. Larger ingots h.ave been produced in France iuid (fcrmany th;ui in Kng- land. Increase of tenacity can be obtained by Hie inqior- tant operation of tempering, but this is at the ex- pense of elougatioujbefore fracture. The temper ob- UILD STEEL 339 UILD STEEL. liiincil viiricH with the aiiioiiiit of ciirboii iti the steci, the li'iniH-nitiiri' iirid tlic iiiiturcof llic coormf; iimliT- ial nipr oil hi'iiii; uciicnilly I'oiisiclcrcd llic lii'st fur iari;i- iiiasscM, as it Man a k'ss cKiulucliiii; |miw<t tliaii waTcr, and codls llie niflal more sli)wly. Kiupp in nai(l li> temper liis Ktcel ala uniform lieat; wiiile our plan for oriliiance is to temper a lest pii'ce at 1,450 <;eLC- Fm li'i'l 'f "''i^ ''"'■'* ""' .'-''^''' ?-"""' results, tlie temperature is varieil within eertaiii limits, amltlii'M the whole mass is treati-d in th<' sami' way as nearly as possilile, as the test piece whi<'h ;;ave the hest re- Bulls. Temperin'j; lowers tlie si)eeitie j;ravity sliu;htly, (■oiisei|Uently warpini: and surface eraeks are often produced by this operation, when larf,'e masses are aeteil upon.' The S<-hneiiler steel jilate at the Hpez- zia experiment in 1883 was tempered on the face to fiain hardness, and it eonse(|uently warped so much that it had to he planed otV at the corners to make it tit the franu' it was jilaced in. (iun tubes often de- 1 vclop surface cracks after Icmpcriui;-, but sullieii-nt , thickness of metal is allowed so that tliey may after- wards be cut out in the lathe. With steel castinijs, every effort is made to get rid of blow-holes ; this lienerally involves (for all irood work) a very consideral)le deadhead, which adds to the expens.-" and has to be cut olf. Annealin'; for several days is resorted to by some, while others are content with slow cooling in hot ashes; t<'mi)erinj; is scuuctimes used for sjiecial pvirposcs, such as the head of an armor-piercini; projectile, tlioujj;h it can- not be said that east-steer projectiles are as yet ver>' suecessfid for arnior-pierciuj:: purposes a;zainst steel or compound armor. Great progress has recently beon made iu steel castings; and they are now ii.sed for a great variety of purposes; stmie cast trucks have been subjected to very rough treatment, and yet they have not shown anv s'i^nis of fraeture.but liavc simi)- Iv bent out of shape. Swedish castings now being ex- hibited by Mr. Xordenfeldl have attracted very great (lono with boiler plalcH, which arc madcof vcrj'mild sli'cl, having' but little <arbon. For ordnance, the tension and bending tests are ^•en.rally sutllcienl ; the elasticity, tenacity, and ,.l, ition are carefully recorded, and the area of the .^aclure anil its general appearance are also no- ticed both b<fore and after tempermg. In gun man- ufactut : the behavior of the temixred te.st piece serves as a "uide for the treatment of the mass from which itcaine; bit il appears now to be generally acknowledged, that the same heat will cause a dif- ferent temper in a small test piece, and in the large mass as the latter will cool so much more slowly .ami will not, therefore, be so much all'ected as the smaller iiieee It seems a sound method to jjroceed (as it is believed the French do; to cut a piece off the tempered mass and then test it, and the result will be a more certain knowledge of the tenacity etc., really attained-more particularly as with all the ( ariMit ijresent used, it is not possible to be quite sure that the large mass is brought to the same heat as the test piece was. The elongation on fracture has of late attracted attention, as it is a well recog- nized fact that a short test piece will elongate much more per cent, of its lenu'Hi than a longer one of the same material : this is explained by the circumstance that as the elongation is only considerable ju.st im- mediately at the i)oint where rupture takes place, the U>Ud elongation of the long piece is not actuaUy A y y / / / / / / A ^ Fig. 2. Exflnn)les of stffl ejifstiniis of compIicHtod forms. Mes..ir*. n;ul. IU-I(1 .& Co. attention on account of their soundness and excel- lence ; a very high temperature is obtained when melting the steel, and liquid fuel is employed. In designing the shape of a casting, sharp corners and great ditferences of thickness must, if possible, be avoided on account of the difficulties of preventing unequal strains tending to produce rupture in con- tracting (Ml cooling down. A great varietj' of tests arc applied to steei in iiif- ferent places, according to the purpose for which it is retiuired ; latterly there has been a growing tend- ency towards uniformity; the workmen's rough tests of bending, breaking, and observing the friicture has been systemJitized in various pulling machines, actu- ated by a dead weight or by levers, or by hydraulic pressure, by idl of which the limits of elasticity and tenacity are indicated; liending and torsional tests are also often applied, ;nid in other cases dynamical trials are made, as by dropping heavyweights on to rails, or by exploding gun-cotton, as is sometimes Fig. .3. Showing toes of floiiijation ]ht cent, in test pieces of tliiu pro portions, bnt of tlic suine material. The dotted lines .\ B C. A'h'C are drawn to indicate similar etongaliuns .\ .\', B B'. C C.) much more than that of the short piece, and is con- sequently less iu proportion to its length — or the elongation per cent, of its length is less — {vMeFig. 3, where a test piece of Whitworth's dimensions is supposed to elongate an amount A A ; if the same material is made according to Koyal Arsenal pattern. it will only elongate BH", instead of BB' which would be iii the same proportion as the last, while if the test pieces are stiU longer, the elongation C'C" is even less per cent ;) thus if a test is taken according to the Woolwich plan, it will not give such a favor- able result as by the Whitworth method unless the differences in the proportions of the test pieces are taken into account. It is usual to say that the elongation is so much in a test piece of so many inches, but this is not really correct, as a thick piece will elongate more than a thin one: it is now pro- l)osed that all test pieces shall be of the same pro- portion of length to thickness. ] It is important that the tests imposed should be \ reasonable and possible, but this apparently has not ' always been the case. as. for instance, when iron was first employed in the construction of ships. the test em- ployed iDy Lloyd's was the single one of good tenacity, irrespective of ehjngation. before fracture ; the con- sequence was that much inferior brittle iron was I built into manv a vessel, accounting, doubtless, for numbers of casualities. On the other hand, to show MILD STEEL. 840 UILD STEEL the advantage of good elongation before fracture, many instances have occurred of steel vessels ground- ing on rocky places, when the bottom plates have been bent anil crumpled, but not fractured, as they doubtless would have been if they had been brittle, although with a high tenacity. Going to the other extreme, the demands for tenacitj' and elongation, within certain limits of temperature for tempering, have been so high in some specifications that it has not been found possible to come up to the standard when large masses have been supplied; the steel has in some cases been rejected wholesale, whilst at other times it has been passed, when the tests being set aside became useless. Not only are mechanical tests employed, but the chemical composition of steel is found by quantitative analysis in a most systematic manner: and each large factory has a regular laboratory, with one or more analysts, a class of men created by the require- ments of the steel trade, in which sound scientitic training in those concerned is a sine qua non for suc- cessful manufacture. The tests imposed b}' the Ordnance Committee on large masses of steel appear to have been very strin- gent, and manufacturers have found a difficulty in complying with the conditions, but the making of steel in the Royal Arsenal has given a decided im- petus to gun steel, which differs somewliat from that required for most other purposes. The French Gov- ernment, intent upon progress,have insisted on rigor- ous tests for steel which their own makers at first de- clined. but afterwards agreed to complj- with ; in the meantime, however, a large contract was given to a foreign firm. It would appear to be the wisest course to insist on obtaining the very best material for gun steel. The amount of steel used for naval and military purposes bears only a small proportion to that which is used for ordinary industries, and this ratio varied greatly in different countries, being probably high- est in Russia and lowest in the United .States. A great part of the steel for warlike uses can only be pro- duced by special plant on a colossal scale— thus we hear of 100-ton iiammers, immense rolling mills for armor. 160-ton cranes, a tank containing 100 tons of oil for tempering, railway trucks for Faking im- mense weights, and tools for machining enormous masses of metal. The number of factories in the world where the heaviest gims and armor can be produced is thus necessarily limited. About two years ago a most important decision was made that English ordnance, of all calibers, was in future to be constructed entirely of steel, and wrought iron coils were abandoned, as there was no longer a doubt that steel is much superior to wrought iron for this purpose, from its greater strength. This has been especially noticed with guns tiring the mi dern large charges of slow-burn- ing powder. The 3;eel for ordnance should be of such a qualit)' as to possess a consitlerable elastic limit, so that permanent deformation or enlargement of the bore may not take place to any appreciable ex- tent, its uncertainty being always urged as a reason for its non-adoption in the service as long as wrought iron was used in numufacture. It appears, howevtr. that rclialjility and uniformity are now bi'ing attain- ed. thougli only by most unceasing and intelligent care in all processes of manufacture. Especially is this recosruized to he the casi; where very large masses are forged, a< the difficulties in obtaining un- iformity in the mass become greatly increased. The percentage of carbon is about 0.4 to 0.4") with cru- cible steel wlien tlie manganese is low ; but with the " open hearth " sleil lh<' percentage is a good deal less (0.2S to 0.31) when more manganese is present. ■ A modem heavy steel gun is constructed as fol- lows : The tube is made from the ingot by repeated- ly and alternately heating and drawing out under the hammer, and a core is tlien cut out or treparmed and thus most of the material cut to pieces iu the or- dinary process of boring is available for other pur- poses ; the process is also quicker. Whitworth ]iro- po.ses, however, to proceed in a different manner, suggesting the plan adopted with such success by his firm in forging hollow propeller sliafts, which are made thus : An ingot is bored, and the shavings re- melted; the interior containing a higher percentage of carbon and other constituents, is not considered of sufficiently good quality for further use without remelting. The hollowed ingot or cylinder is then heated, a hollow steel mandrel of smaller diameter than the interior is passed through it, anil both are .»4(iatr""TUw* ^^1 Manohu 1^ ^ h""^ • ^ |j 1 F"-* / IS 1 n V. Fig. 4. Wllitworth's Hydraulic Forging Press. Drawing out a Tube. placed in the powerful hydraulic pressing machine, which presses the metal of the cylinder against the mandrel b}' repeated pressings while the cylinder and mandrel are turned round into fresh positions (Fig. 4) ; the consequence is the hollow cylinder becomes gradually less in diameter, but increases in length, this process is repeated with thinner mandrels and repeated heats until the cylinder assumes the desired proportions of the propeller shaft ; the mandrels are kept cool by water circulating through them. No service gun tubes, except those supplied through the Elswick Company, have yet been made in this man- ner, though it may possibly be adopted for some of the largest. The hoops for service guns are also made from the ingot, which is trepanned, the ends cut off and remelted, and the rest is cut into thick rings, each of Fig. 5. Wllitworth's Hydraulic Forging Press. Enlarging a IToop- which is afterwards heated and made thinner by hammering on a mandrel placed through it and sup- ported at each end (the hoop is thus suspended on the mandrel). This operation naturally increases the diameter, anil llie manufaelure resembles thai of the weldless tin's of railway wheels. Wliitworth makes some hoops in this way. sulistituting flic press for the hammer (see Fig. .')), but he proposes to con struct others in tl>e same way as the tube, in the form of long, thin cylinders, and thus the heaviest guns could hi! made of fewer parts than tlio8<> at present designed. K'or instance, the 1 10-lcm gun is intended to bu made of forty-three parts, but one MILD STEEL. 341 MILD STEIU,. of Wliitwortli (Icsip-n woulil fonsist of only clfvcii picfc.s. The iiiw Knulisli liciivy guns an? now rc- quiri'd in liirjjc nuinlicrs for tlu; Niivy, iind also fur the coasl. dcfcnHrs of Knirland and llic ColcinicH, anil every cITiirl slmidd l»' inadi' to supply llicin with all the rapiilily I'Dnsislciit willi cllii icncy. Tin- nIi-cI for the 110-lon i^iiiis is bciiii; inadf liy Wliilworlli and Caninicll. and llic forginjjs will lie liandi-d over to lh(! Klswick Ordnance C'oni|)any. who will mach- ine Iheni a]id build up the L!;Mns. In a few months time Whilworlh's liiie eslahlislinient will have all the tools necessary for erjniplelinc; tlu' heaviest };uns, anil KlswieU will jirolialily have the plant fur casl- inj; and for^ini; tlie heaviest infrots; the country will then ])ossess two complete establishments to supple- inent the Itoyal Gun Factories, and there are of course several other firms wdiich can produce excellent steel in lar^e masses, and who are accustomed to the workini; of heavy steel fori^iugs. Care sliould be taken that thoroughly reliable i;uns are produced, an 1 close inspection should be insisted on durini; manufacture, as well as rigorous proofs, liefore the guns are admitted in the service. Military maUrulhns before now been nesleeted in our country for years during peace time, from indifference or on the score of economy; then suddenly, wdien the need for it has been felt, on the outbreak of war, a hurried onU'r lias been i;iven for laru'e quantities; this is an expen- sive ]>hin, as a liiL'h price is nceess:irily ehiirircd un- der such I'ircumslances, ;ind it is ditlicult to m;ike proper insiiectioii; it is far the wisest plan to pro- ceed methodically and ililiirenlly while there is time. The barrels for small arms are made of mild steel from tlie bar, in an mirenious machine with a series of vertical and horizontal rolls, which in one heat draws out tlie barrel to the required lentrtli with ac- curacy. This has been in use some six years at En- field, and copies have since been supplied by an En!j;lish firm to several foreign goverinnenls. The bayonet is made of a hard steel welded by the aid of borax to a socket of softer steel ; great care being taken not to overheat the end of the bar, w hieh will form the blade, while the socket being milder, i.-^ made much hotter; the tests to which bayonets are subjected before being passed into the Service hsive lately been niiide a good deal more severe than be- fore the iate %var in the Eastern Soudan. The increased strains which the large charges of modern guns impose on gun-carriages have necessi- tated the employment of steel in their consttuction, in order to obtain the necessary strength; and steel plates and axles are now freely used, as in the 13-pr., but wrought iron is still preferred for some parts, as for instance the trail eye of a field gun-carriage, ■which is subject to constant jars. Steel castings are much used for heavy gun carriages ; some of 5.5 cwt. each have been made in considerable numbers for the sides of 43-tou gun-carriages ; and steel cast- ings on a grand scale are contemplated for the proof ' carriage of the 110-ton gun. Steel racers have long been introduced for use with some of the heavier garrison guns, as they well resist the blow caused by the jump of the platform on tiring, wdiich indented the older and softer wrought-iron racers, and ren- dered subsequent traversing a difficult operation ; the path and twenty-eight rollers of cast iron on which the tvirrets of the Iiifex'ble revolve have not been found hard enough ; in future they will prob- nbly be of steel. Tubular steel linings are employed for the cylinders of Vavasseur mountings ; and cor- rug;iled steel plate has been tried for tield artillery ammiuiition boxes and appears to succeed. Steel has been applied to shells with great success, but at present the expense is considerable. Shrap- nel are made for the 7-pr. and 13-pr. of Delmard's tubes, with thin walls and bursting charge in the liead ; the proportion of useful weight in the former being 45.4 per cent., while in other natures it is 35 per cent., ;ind often much less. Steel h;islieen tried for common shells, as they do not break up so often on striking earth as east-iron shells. An example of the advantage of their usif was furnished by an cxperiiiiiiit. whi-n a parapet was more readily breached by a 13-pr. with steel shells, than bya.5-in. gun with 50 lb. cast-iron ones, the velocities being about the same in each rase : the walls of steel sliellB being made thinner than those of cast-iron a larger bursting charge can bi' inserted. IJy lengthening sliells and compressing the powder, it has been found l)OSsiblc lo more tjian double the bursting charge; thus with the O-inch gun the bursting charge in the ordinary common shell is under 7 lbs., but long steel ones have been made liol ling 10 lbs. of compressed I)owder; this increase is most important when de- stroying e;irthworks, etc. Krupp has done a good deal in this direction. It is doubtful which is the best way to apply steel for these purposes. wlielhcT to cast it at once to the rcipiircd slnipe or to forge it; the first is the simplest and eliejipest way; but at present ditliciiltics arc ;qit to appear with blow-holes which may lead lo fniclure in the bore when the walls of the shell are thin ; however, with recent im- provements in casting steel, this objection may very t possibly be overcome. I Anotlier plan is to cut off lengths of tubular steel heat it, bend in one end for the head, and turn in I and close up the other end for the base, or else weld in a base disk ; another device has been ingeniously .employed of cutting olT apiece of thick bar steel stamping it into a hollow, and drawing up the sides [ gradually wdicn he;iteil to form a shell. With regard to armor-piercing ])ri)jectiles, some few years ago experiments were nnide at Shoeburyness with !)-in<;h I)rojectiles, with striking velocity about 1,.500 f. s., to determine the best material of which they should be made, and also the form of bead, etc. The gen- eral result was that forged steel (from Sir J. W hit- worth and Co.) was decidedly the best, but at the sametimeit wasvery expensive; sincethen, however, conditions have altered, and not only is the striking velocity of modern projectiles often considerably above 1,500 f. s., but the steel and compound armor of ships now being made is hardcrlhan the wrought iron plates which were formerly employed. Conse- quently, the projectiles break up. and it cannot be said that the present shells are ipiite satisfactory. Careful experiment is needed to find out the best methods to pursue. It is to be hoped that the sub- jects of steel armor piercing projectiles for the heav- iest guns may be thoroughly £one into, and the best material for the purpose employed. At the present time the Service Palliser cast iron chilled shells do very great damage to the targets. but the)- break up in doing so. Krupp has produced a good armor-piercing projectile, and the French 2S'avy has for some years past been provided with steel ar- mor-piercing "shells for 33 and 19 cm. guns, all sup- jilied by contract under severe tests for reception. The following conditions were imposed some time ago when the French Government invited their steel makers to supply a large number (3,100) of armor- piercing projectiles for 33 and 27 cm. guns ; the conditions imposed appear to be somewhat severe, and show that a high standard of excellence is de- sired. The total number is divided into four for each caliber, and the behavior of two shells tested out of each lot will determine the acceptance or re- jection of the others. The heavier projectiles are to be fired almost at right angles against a 30 cm. Creusot steel plate with wood backing with striking velocity of 435 to 445 meters per second, while the lighterones will strikea 25 cm. steel plate with a velocity of 455 to 4G5 meters per second. If the first ))rojectilc perforates the target ijnbroken and im- craeked, the lot to w hich it belongs is to be at once accepted; but if it breaks up in perforating, the sec- ond projectile will be fired, and only if it getsthrougli uninjured will the lot be accepted. If the first round does not perforate tiic target, the lot will at once be rejected. Facilities were given to allow the makers MILEAGE. 342 UILEA6E. to fire trial shots against steel plates before submit- ting their finished shells. Nordenfeldt bullets for penetratina; the sides of torpedo-boats are forged from steel bars by drawing down a part to form two heads: pieces are tlieu cut off, stamped to true shape in a die, and oil tempered. Compound armor is constructed on two plans by the only two firms which at present manufacture it in England. The Atlas Works (Sir J. Brown & Co.) make it on Ellis's patent; a considerable thickness of wrought iron and a thin steel face plate are kept at a few inches distance from each other, with wedge plates round three sides, ami small steel studs at several points keep them from coming too close to each other in the furnace ; tlie whole mass is then strong- ly heated with the plates horizontal ; when hot enough it is taken out and lifted by a crane, swimg vertical, placed in a pit, and melted steel is poured from a large ladle into a trough which distributes little streams into the cavity between the t.vo plates and joins them together ; in a short time the whole plate is taken up and j^ut back again into the fur- nace ; when reheated, it is taken out. and the whole is passed through the large rolling mill. In Wilson's plan, adopted by Cammell and Co.. a large wrought iron plaie built up of many thick- nesses is passed through the rolls, and is then pushed horizontally into a huge iron chamber which can re- volve on trunnions ; when the plate is secured, the whole is turned up and becomes vertical, and liquid steel is poured in from a ladle and tfough, between one side of the wrought iron and the side of the bo.x, precautions being taken to prevent it from flowing elsewhere. In "VVilson's plan the steel was formerly poured on to a wrought iron plate provided with a rim and placed horizontally ; but this was given up, as the scum, etc., tended to remain on the face of the plate. The whole is afterwards rolled. The steel constitutes about one-third of the weight in both systems, its object being to break up the projectile on impact ; it consequently has a consid- erable amoimt of carbon in order to give it the neces- sary hardness, while the wrought iron at the back of the plate is intended to hold the plate together, and to prevent the formation of cracks and splits as far as possible. This class of armor has achieved good results : the experiments at St. Petersburg and at Spezzia during the last two or three years, as well as some made at Shoeburyness, having been favor- able. Ellis's plan has the advantage of a very good front surface, but the results attained by each are generally considered to be about the same as far as present experience .has shown. The resisting power of compound armor is greater than that of wrought iron, and consequently a less weight will give as great protection under ordinary circum- stances, and it is coming into use on board sliips ; on land, however, it will probably be little used, ex- cept, perhaps, in some very confined situations. Wrought iron of equal resisting power, but of great- er weight is cheaper. The injury sustained by wrought iron when it is struck is generally local; but compound armor tends to split over a considerable area, and is not well cal- culated to resist blows falling close together. Very good estimates can be formed beforehand by calcu- lation of the probable penetralion of wrought iron, if the plate be of orilinary (|ualily, but tlu' resisting power of comi)ouiid armor is at present dillicult to foretell ; it depends uu)re, perli:ips, on tlie total weiirht than on the thickness of the jilale, and the nalunt of the backing h:is a most imporkinl infiii- enee on the rcsistftnce olfered. It has been suggested that a consideral)l(^ number of experiments might prolitably be made on a small se;U(^ in order to en- deavor to determine the value of various alter;itions in its arrangement. Compound armor is now made in larL'i' qiiaiililies in Russia, (iermaiiy, and France on the Wilson system; in the latter eouiitry there are three factories busily eng.iged and in Germany the Dillengen works have been in operation for two years producing compound armor for tlie three ships Ulcli iiburg, Brernne, and Bremmer. The Rus- sian works at Kolpino, 16 miles from St. Petersburg, are just completed, and the first of their compound armor-plates, under an English director, are now being manufactured. The works will probably be well employed, as the Russians are rapidly develop- ing their navy, and six large armor-clads are fast approaching completion. Excellent steel armor has been made at Le Creusut, of a milder quality than the face plates of compound armor, and it has" given good results when tested at Spezzia, in competition with compound armor. Thin shields are used for the protection from musketry fire of men working machine-guns : they are \ inch thick, and oil tem- pered ; the resisting power is considerably better than that of wrought iron. Steel enters into the construction of a variety of warlike stores, notably in torpedoes; the beautiful air receiver before us is a good example of the fin- est work, forged from a bored-out ingot, oil temper- ed, and accurately turned down till the metal is very thin. It is most carefully tested to make sure that it will sustain the pressure of the compressed air which drives the engine in the Whitehead torpedo ; and the hollow torpedo propeller shaft also pre- sents a good example of a weldless steel tube of great strength. Tubular steel also cornea into use in rocket cases and in sockets for tent poles, in which strength and lightness are combined. Large quantities of compressed hay have been sent out to Egypt bound round with Bessemer steel wire. A very interesting and recent example of the use of welded steel tubes is furnished by the gas vessels which contain compressed hydrogen for military balloons. These have only been developed during the last few months, and 150 are now in South Africa with Major Elsdale, R. E.. who hopes to make good use of them under Sir Charles Warren. It was con- sidered difficult to make hydrogen in the field, and therefore the plan was adopted to carry it in strong receivers. Various makers were asked to produce this rather novel work, and many responded, with the result that the pattern shown by Mr, Delmard was considered far the best, as it holds more than any other with due regard to weight and safety. Each vessel is proved before uge, and it must not sJiow signs of any permanent enlargement when charged with a test pressvire very considerablv in ex- cess of that which it will have tc stand when the hy- drogen is stored in it. Some said that under such higii pressure the gas would get through the thin metal ; but as a matter of fact it does not do so, and some vessels have remained fully charged for montlis. It will be most interesting to hear how this contriv- ance will answer on active service. The receivers can easily be transported ; the weight of gas in them is only 12 ozs. when fidly charged, and thej' will float in water. In fact some fully charged have been formed into a raft. Somewhat similar vessels are also emjiloyed for carrying oxygen and hydrogen under great pressure for use with the lime light when signalling. See Steel. MILEAGE —An allowance of eight cents |)er mile paid to othccrs for travel. To entitle an officer to mileage the travel nuisl be performed iriUiinit trflopn, and be covered by ;i sjieeific (ird<Tin the case issued bv a superior ofiieer previous |o conuiieneement of llu: journey. Sueo orders are issued only where the journey is on account of and necessary lo the public service Distances nnist "be calculated by the short- est usually traveled route," no matter by what route the travel was performed. Ivxceplion lo this nde may be m;ide only when the l<'rms of tl.e order, or impraclicability of the "shortest usu;illy traveled route," compel the officer to proceed bya longer route. In such cases mileage maybe p:ii(l for "each mile actually traveled." Lists of distances are fur- MILES. HIUXABT COLLEGEb. nislicd by the PaTinnstcr (Iciifral. Milciiiii- (viiwiot . l)c allowed for micli li.'irl of a dlHlaiirc aH lies over thai, portion of a "railroail on wliicli tlic IroopH and SupplicH of Ihc- rnili-d Stales arc cnlilli-d lo belrans- ported free." Ollieers whose orders entitle tlietn to niiU'a.i;e may exercise tlieoplion of "niilea;j;e" forllie entire journey (free railroads exeliided): or of "trans- portation in kind" for the enliri' jmirney ; or of "mile- ULCe" and "transportation in kind" fordilTerent parts <)' the same journey. lint nnli'a;;e earniot lie allowed for any dist'anee for which Iransporlalion in any other form has been furnished by the I'nited Slates. Ailvan<(^ mileage may by paid, without special nu- Ihority, when the distance to lie traveled, exclusive; of anv part which may by embraced in the list of free roads, is not less than twothousand miles. This will nol apply, however, lo journeys in which the order contcinplates delays at intermediate points alTordinii; <ip]iorlunity to collect milcafje for complet- : ed travel. In the followini; cases no expense of travel is allowed : In joiniut; for duly upon lirst aiipointment to the military service ; <ir under lirst order after reinstatement, reappointment, or revoca- tion of an order of dismissal ; or to elTect an exchani;e of station, or a transfer from one company or regi- ment to another wlien the same is made at the re- quest of the parlies. Except inj; oidy in the follow- iui; cases : Assistant Surireons, approved by an ex- aminiivi; board and commissioneil, joiniuii; for duty under the tirsl order; jiraduates of the .Military Academy, from West Point to their stations ; enlist- ed men journeyins under first order after appoint- ment or commission. MILES. — A soldier of the Middle Ages, usually of noble or knightly rank. He went "to the wars, mounted on a uooil war-horse and followed by an escort, more or less uuniero\is in accordance with his own rank and means, composed of vassals and serfs, who were equipped with slings, bows and ar- rows, cutlasses, and spears. MILITARY ART.— Military art may be divided into two principal branches. The first relates to the or der and arrangement which must be observed in the management of an army, — when it is to fight, to march, or to be <'ncamped. This branch is gen- erally known under the name of liirticK, which sig- nifies order. The second belongs to the other branch of military art. and includes the composition and apiilicalioM of warlike machines. MILITARY ASYLUM, ROYAL. An educational (iovernment Institution at Chelsea, near, but wholly distinct from, the Royal Hospital for I'ensioned Sol- diers. Its object is the suitable education for trade, etc., of .TOO male children — generally orphans — of British soldiers. For tliese, there are a Model Scliool and an Infant School, and the boys have a cimipletel}' military organization, with scarlet imi- foim, band, etc. As a result of their training, a large proportion of tlie pupils ultimately volunteer into the army. Tliis school was originally estab- lished ill 1803 by the late Duke of York, wlien<-e it is still commonly known as the " Duke of York's School." Originally a similar school for soldiers' daughters was included, but was not found to an- swer, and has been discontinued. Attached to the school is a training establishment for military schoolmasters, known as the Normal School. The total cost of the whole Institution is about £11,. 000 per annum. MILITARY BRIDGE.— A temporary construction, to facilitate the passage of rivers by troops, cannon, and military wagons. The most efticient are de- scribed under Pontoon; but there are many other kinds. A bridge of boaU is formed of sniaII-<Taft. especially cargo-boats, collected from various places up and down the river; trestles are placed in them to bring tlieir tops to one common level; the lio;its are anchored across the river, and baulks of timber, rest- ing on the trestles, form a continuous road from boat to boat across the wdiole breadth of tlie river; the lioats ought to be of such size that, when fully laden, the gunwales or upper edges shall nol be Iffss than one foot above tin; water. lOipi-hriilaen are sonie- times.bul not fn^qiK'iitly, used by military enKineers. A liudt-niid-riipf, hriili/i' consists of rrables resting on boats, anil supporlinga plalformor road of stout tim- ber. A rdMk-liridiji' consists of a series of timber-rafts resting on casks; the casks are grouped togellier in ipiadrangular masses; at certain intervals timbers are laid upon them to form rafts, and sevi'ral such rafts form a bridge; it is an inferior kind of pontoon- bridge. A treMi -hridiii- is sometimes made forcro(;8- ing a small stream in a hilly country: it consists of trestles hastily made up in any rough materials tliat may Ik; at hand, with phinking or fascines lo form u flooring, cables to kei-pthe trestles in a straight lire, and heavy stones lo prevriil them from Hoaling. lldJ't.lirid'jIiK. consisling of jilanks lashed together, are easily made of any rough materials thai may be found on the spot;" but they have little buoyancy, and are not very maiiageiible. A nw!iiij-Jlyinij I ridge consists of a bridge of boats, of which one end is moored in the center of the river, and the other end left loose; tills loose end is Iirouglit to the proper side of the river, the boats are laden, and they make a semicircular sweep across the river, by means of rudders iind o;irs, until the loose end of the bridge reaches the other li;ink. A triiil-Jiying I ridge is a boat or raft, or a string of boats or rafts, which is drawn across a river by ropes, in a line marked out and limited Iiy other ropes. History has many examples of the use of military bridges. The first of magnitude, of which we liave (k-tafled accounts, was the one built of boats, over the Hellespont, by Xerxes, when he invaded Greece, nearly two thousand four hundred years ago. This bridge was about one and one half miles long, and was composed of two roadways. One was used by the troops; the other by the baggage train and camp followers. It is said lliat the number with him was .'5.283,220, and that they were seven days and nights in crossing. Bridge's across the Tigris resting on boats are mentioned by Xeiioplioi'i. Alexander the Great used skins of animals inllated, or filled with hay, as floats in crossing streams, as shown in his passage of the Oxus. The Romans carried witli their armies small boats and bridge material, when rivers iiitersected their lines of march. An example of a military bridge resting upon fixed iioints of support is described In the fourth book of " t'jfsar's Com- mentaries." This bridge was across the Rhine, and was of sufficient strength to meet all the demands made upon it. We find many descriptions of military operations along the Rhine. and of the means used to pass this river, by armies operating along its banks. The .same may be said with reference to the Danube. History records, in many cases, the failures arising ] from a want of a military equipage. and the disasters j averted by the use of such equipage, or by the con- i St met ion of an improvised bridge from the materials found in the neighborhood. The want of a bridge equipage was particularly felt by Bonaparte in his campaign in Italy, in IT'.Ui. The presence of such an equipment would have enabled him to cross the Po in time lo place his forces in the rear of the Aus- trians, and would have avoided the forcing of a pas- sage over the Adda, at Lodi. The importance of bridtre equip:i2es was pari iciilarly fell by the armies of till' United States in the war of IHiil ."). The delay in the arrival of the bridge material was. on more than one occasion, a cause of di.saster. Xo better example of the imporhuice of a bridge equipage and the value of skilled pontoniers can be given than the single instance of Napoleon's crossing of the Beresi- na.in 1812, in his retreat from Moscow. See Bridges and P'-nt/wn. MILITARY COLLEGES. — The great improvements made in the art of war in late years, in weapons and discipline, makes a demand "for a body of trained officers capable of moving, directing, and bringing MILITART COLUMH. 344 MILITARY DISCIPLINE. into effective operation tlie modern applian'-es of ■war. As this special traininjr cannot be olilained at tlie few Government Institutions and ordinary ed- ucational estalilisliments, it has become the policy of most governments to encouraie a study of mili- tary science by establishing); military departments in "the various State and private Colleges. In the United States, officers of the army are detailed as Drofessors at Colleges and Universities as follows:— The details are apportioned throughout the United States as nearly as may be practicable according to population ; such States as do not contain sufficient population to entitle them to one officer are grouped with one or more contiguous States or Territories, 80 that the combined population of the group will allow the detail of one or more officers, to the extent of thirty officers in all. As a rule Captains of Com- panies, Regimental Staff Officers, or officers who have served less than three years with their regiments or corps, or who have recently cojiipleted a tour of de- tached duty, are not eligible. No details are made tliat will leave a battery, troop, or company without two officers for duty with it. The period for detail is not longer than three years. Retired officers, if acceptable to any Institution. may, on their own re- quest, be detailed on this duty among the thirty au- thorized. Besides this number, any retired oiEcer ma}' arrange to serve at a College or University ■without detail from or reference to the War Depart- ment; but unless rfft(f(7cfZ imder section 133o, Revised Statutes, such service will not entitle the institution to the arms, etc., provided by tliat section. No de- dail is made for any Institution except upon an ap- plication from its proper representatives, nor is any other so detailed, unless acceptable to the authorities' o* the Institution, who sliould make theii selection from the officers available for this [duty. Applica- tions for officers should be addressed to the Secretary of War, and should duly certify the number of male students the College or University has the capacity to educate, and should also be accompanied by the last printed catalogue. Officers of thearmj' desiring a detail at Colleges or Universities may make appli- cation to the Adjutant Genera'., through the usual militarv channels; their applications and the recom- mendations forwarded therewith will, if the officers are available, be furnished to such Institutions as may desire to make a selection. Issue of stores, limited to the following, will be made, under section 123.'), Revised Statutes, b}' the Chief of Ordnance to any selected Institution upon its filing a bond in the penal sum of double the value of the property, conditioned that it will take good care of and safely keep account for the same, and will, when required by the Secretary of War, duly return the same, within thirty days, in good order, to the Chief of Ordnance United States Army, or to such officer or person as the Secretary of War may designate to receive it. 2 3-inch rifled guns, wrought-iron, model 18G1, at $4no, $900 00 2 carriages and limbers, 3-incli gun, at $325, 650 00 2 gunners' haversacks, at $3,35, . . , 6 70 4 lanyards, at 10 cents, ...... 40 2 priming wires, at 10 cents, 20 2 liandspikes, trail, at $1 2 00 4 sponges and rammers, 3-inch, at fl, . 4 00 4 sponge covers, 3-inch, at 80 cents, . . 1 20 2 tube-pouches at $1.50 3 00 4 thumbstalls, at 20 cents, . . - . . 80 2 tonipions. ;i-incli, at 30 cents, ... 60 2 vcnl-covers. at 40 cents 80 1 pciulMlum haussc, 3-inch, 2 50 1 ix'iidulmn haussc seat 60 1 ]>cnduhiMi hausse pouch 75 2 pauliiis, 12 l)y l."") feet, at .fll,75, . . . 23 50 1.50 Spriiiglield "cadet" rifles, cal. .45, with appendages, etc., at $18 2,700 00 150 bayonet scabbards, steel, 'cadet." at 91 cents 136 50 1.50 waist belts and plates, at 50 cents, . 75 00 1.50 cartridge-boxes, <-al. 45, at $1. '25. . . 187.50 For practice-firing the following allowances of am- munition will be made annually to each of the vari- ous institutions, viz: 1.000 carbine metallic ball- cartridges, cal. .45; 1.000 metallic blank cartridges, cal. .45; 100 rounds blank cartridges for 3-inch gun; 300 friction primers. This ammunition is issued upon requisitions, which should be forwarded to the Chief of Ordnance by the presidents or superintend- ents of the institutions. See Military Schools, and Post Sdtnoh. MILITARY COLUMN.— Among the Romans a col- umn on wliich was engraven a list of the forces in the Roman Army, ranged by legions in their proper order. They had another kind of Military Culumn called Ciilu'iina Bell'ra. standing before the Temple of Janus, at the foot of which the Consul declared war bv throwing a javelin towards the enemy's coimlrv. MILITARY CREST.— A common expression for the top line of a slope. The drawing shows how the defender (who. while standing near the military crest, uncovers only his shoulders and observes the whole body of the assailant as he climbs the as- cehtj will, on receding from the crest, place himself below the jjrolongation of the slope and lose sight of his climbing adversary. At the same time, he will receive the enemy's grazing fire as the latter ascends to the crest. See interior Crest. MILITARY DECORATION.— A medal.cross of honor, etc., bestowed fi>r di^linguislied services. MILITARY DEPARTMENT.— A military sub-divi- sion of a country. The whole territory of the United States is divided into Jlilitary Departments, each be- ing under the command of a general officer. See Oeogrnpliicnl Drpartn.ents and IJivisionH. MILITARY DISCIPLINE.— The obedience to and exer- cise of all orders and regulations which have for their object the good govenunent and management of a regiment or army. In fact, discipline may be de- fined as the perfection of order and regidation in an army. To it may be attrilnited in the ilaj' of battle much of the success which has attended the arms of a nation. Without it, an army becomi-s a rabble; and though braverj' will do much towards achieving success, it is by discipline mainly that the object of a war can be idtimately attained. In tlie United States service, the following regulations in this con- nection are observed : All inferiors are required to obey strictly, and to execute with alacrity and good faith the lawful orders of the superiors appointed over them. Military avithority is to be exercised with lirnniess. but with kindness and justice to in- feriors. Punishments shall be strictly conformable to military law. Superiors of every griide arc for- liidden to injure those tmder them by tyr;innical or capricious conduct, or by abusive language. Cour- tesy among military mensis indispensable to disci- pline ; respect to superiors will not be c(mtined to obedience on duty, but will be extended on all oc casions. Deliberations or discussions among any amiTAKY EXECUTION. 345 MILITABY JH8TICE. class of mililiiry n>cn liavintr tlif ohjpi^t nf ronyoyinK priiisc^ or (•(■iisurc, or any ruiirl; of aiiproiiiilioii to- ward llicir Hii|H'rii>rs or others in llic inililary Kcrvicc. and all piililiralions rclalivcio IraiiHactions helwccn oflicernof a private or persoiiid naliire. whether news- jiapir, i)aniphlet, or hand-bill, are strictly prohibitfd. Bel' Di'f'/il'iii'. MILITARY EXECUTION. The punishinint infliil- fd by the scMleiiee of a ( 'ourt-.Marl iai : also the rav- ii'-riiiir or ilc-.ini\ ire.: of .■! loinilry or town that refuses to p.MV till' eoliliilillliori inllieird npoM tlieni. MILITARY FIRST PRINCIPLES. 'I'he bodily Irain- Ini; for a soldier, to niaUe him hardy, robust, and cap- able of preserviiii; health arnidsf fatii;ue, bad weath- er, and chanvce of climate: to niar<-li at such possible pace, for such len'j;lli of time, and with such burden, as wilhoul IrainiiiL' Iw would not be able to do. MILITARY FRONTIER. The formir name of a nar- row strip of land alon;;' the TurUisli frontier of the Austro-llumcarian F.mpire. It bad a si)ecial military constitution and formed a sejiarate •' (!ro\vn-land." Of lato, however, the peculiar institutions of the Mil- itary Frontier have been abolished ; portions of the territory have been incor])orated with ailjoinin.i; provin("es; and since 187;^ the remainder of the Mili- tary Frontier, now oHicially ternu'd tbv Croato-Slav- oni"c liorder-land. forms, ]iUm<x with Slavonia and Croatia, a de]iendence of tlu' llumrarian Crown. The Constitution, civil and military, is now accordinizly similiar to that of the other Provinces of the HutiLrar- ian part of the Empire- The area of the ^Military Frontier was about T.^^OO scpiarc miles, and its pop\i- la-tion in lH(i!) was (i!)l),800. The breadth of the ter- ritory once known under this name is considerable towards the western <'.\tremily, but diminishes to only a few mileu at the eastern'. The surface has an avera;j;e elevation of upwards of 2,000 feet. .\11 tbc important rivers How eastward. The climate is se- vere in the hiiihlands of the west. but mild in the low- er districts toward Slavonia. Maize, wheat, oats, fruits, and vcjietablcs are the principal productions. Till' Military Frontier owes its oriijiu as a Crown- Ian 1 to the necessity of havini; a permanent body of defenders on the borders durini; former wars, and cspeciallv durina; wars wi h the Ti:t: s. In the 15tb century "the Austrians had gained from the Turks certain tracts of territory on the banks of the Save and Danube. These tracts they colonized, making it, however, a condition that the Colonists must ren- der military service against the Turks. Tims orig- inated the Capitanate of Zengg. during the reign of Mat bias Corvinus. The Wanisdin Frontier originat- ed in the same manner in the KJtb, and the Banat Frontier in the 17th century. The Constitution of the Military Frontier, as it e"xistc<l till 1873, has been thus described : The nulilary stations along the fron- tier serve a threefold purpose — tlie defense of the country, the prevention of smuggling, and the pre- vention of the spread of contagious disease into the territories of the Austrian Empire. The inhabitants of this Crown-land enjoy peculiar privileges. Their immigrant ancestors received only the temporary' use of lands consigned to them: but in 18.50 a law was passed making over the land to the occupiers as their own property. This right of property does not belong, however, to indiviiluals, but to the f im- ily in a luiited sense. The oldest member of a fam- ily (called the Jlrni.teatff) is intrusted with the man- agement of the land; his partner (the Hau^mutUr) ranks equal with him. and thev each receive a double share of the profits for the year as recom- pense for the management of the estate. A family of this sort is called a border-house {(!>•( iiihaux). All ■who are able to bear arms are sworn to the service from their 20th year. The soldier of the frontier, who is clothed as well as armed and supplied with anununition liy Government, finds it bis duty not only to watch and protect the frontier, but to pre- serve peace and order in the interior, and to go on foreign service when rciiuired. Only the smaller portion of the l..i<. - ,,r the Militarj' Frontier in re- tained in readiness for active service, while the re- mainder pursue their ordinary cmploymcniH. To facilitate the accomplislunent of the purpoHcs aimed at by the Military Frontier, the rwdon. a Hcries of guarii-houses along the frontier, affording accomnio- dalion to from four lo eight men, as well as larger ones acconniiodating twelve men and a ji;nior ofTl- cer, has beiii instituted. Within this line an- the olllcer.s' posts. Without annount iiig himself at the posts, no one is allowed to pass the lioundary ; and, after permission is given, the passenger nuist re- main a longer or shorter lime at the (|Uarimline eg- lablisliment, in order that all introduction of disease may be ]irc'\ciilc d. MILITARY INDICATIONS. There are mr.ny indi- cation- which, if reported to a General and his Staff, enable them to judge of what they wish to know, as clearly as if a detailed i)icture of thi' enemy were spread before them. It is necessary, therefore, tiiat every ollicerand soldier should know- how to mark and colled these signs. They consist, when a camp, bivouac, or cantonment is observed, in the color of coats and pantaloons; other distinctive marks, the numbers of videtles, sentinels, tires, and tenis of the enemy: the fre(|uency and direction of rounds, pa- trols, and recomioissances; the nature and time of signals by truni|iet or dnnn; the placing of signal ])osts; measures of straw; boughs broken off; the arrival of reinforcements; new uniforms; collections of fascines, beams, joists, ladders, boats. When a corps is watched on the march, the signs to observe are the depth and front of columns; tlie number of subdivisions: the sort of troops, infantry, cavalry, artillery, trains; the f|uickness and direction of the march: the height of the dust: the reliection of arms; the munber of the tliinkersand the eclaireurs. When an army ready for battle is observed, we should particuhirly note the number of its Hues, their extent, the composition of the troops in column or in line of battle; the cidiber of pieces; their position relative to cavalry and infantry; the number of skirmishers; their maneuvers; the concentration of forces or artillery on s\ich a point, Ihuik marches of <me or many corps. If troops are followed on their march, we note the tracks of tnen and horses, those made by wheels, cattle, and beasts of burden; the relative positions of these tracks: whether they are regular and preserve an invariable order; whether the places where thev stop have little or much space between them: whether the route passed over is covered with remains of animals; whether the skletons of the horses are lean and sore; whether the ground is bloodv; if graves have been freshly made, whether some indications ma.v not show them to be for sup- erior officers; whether the coimtrj- has been devas- tated; whether the entrails of beef, mutton, or horses are seen; whether the tires are recent: whether they are numerous, and show much or little ashes; whether bridges are broken, and in what jjarts: whether the inh;ibitants of the country are anxious, sad. Inunble, iuumated. or satistied. Sec SigiiJi. MILITARY JURISDICTION.— Military jurisdiction is of two kinds: first, tluit which is conferred andde- tined by statute ; second, that which is derived from the common law of war. Jliiitary offenses under the statute law nmst be tried in the manner therein di- rected ; but military ofTcnses which do not come within the statute nnist be tried and punished under the common law of war. The character of the courts which exercise these jurisdictions depends upon the local laws of each particular country. In the armies of the United States the first is exercised by Courts- Martiid : while cases w Inch do not come within the '■ Rules and Articles of War." tr the jurisdiction con- ferred by statute on Courls-Martial,aretried,by mili- t:ir\ commission-. See Jurhdktinn. MILITARY JUSTICE.— That species of justice which prevails in the army, and which is administered by militarv tribunals in accordance with the Articles of MILITARY KNIG:ITS. 346 MILITAIIY OKDEES. War. In Russia just ice is frfquently obtained tlirouuli wliat is known as tlie Court of Honor. In tlic Unit- ed States the Articles of War provide that any ofticer who thinks himself wrona;ed by the Commandin.; Officer of liis regiment, and upon due application to such Commander, is refused redress, may complain to the General commandina; in the State or Territory where such regiment is stadoned. The General shall examine into said complaint and take jiroper meas- ures for redressing the wrong complained of : and he shall, as soon as possible, transmit to the Department of War a true statement of such complaint with the proceedings had thereon. Any soldier who thinks himself wronged by any officer may complain to the Commanding Officer of his regiment, who shall sum- rnon a Kegimental Court-Martial for the doing of jus- tice to the complainant. Either party may- appeal from such Kegimental Court-Martial'to a "General Court-Mart ia! ; but if, upon such second hearing, the appeal appears to be groundless and vexatious, the party appealing shall be punished at the discre- tion of said General Court-Martial. . See Articles of W<n: T2 to lO.i. Court of II,m„r, and Courtn.Martial. MILITARY KNIGHTS.— An Institution of Mill- tary Knights at Windsor. England, formerly called '• Poor Knights," which owes its origin to Edward III., and is a provision for a limited "number of old officers. These officers consist of a Governor and 13 Knights on the upper foundation, and .5 on the lower, together 18, and are composed of officers se- lected from every grade, from a Ciolonel to a Sub- altern, chiefly veterans, or on half-pay. They are allowed three rooms each in Windsor Palace, "and 2 shillings per diem for their sustenance, besides other small allowances. See Knights. MILITARY LAW.— Under the Constitution of the United States, Congress is intrusted with the crea- tion, government, regulation and support of armies; and all laws passed by Congress for those purposes are military laws. Congress, being also invested with power '• to make alUaws which shall be neces- sary and proper for carrying into execution the fore- going powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of theUnited States, or in any department or officer thereof," is supreme in all military matters. The office of Commander- in-Chief, intrusted by the Constitution to the Presi- dent, must have its "functions first defined by Con- gress. Such military powers only as Congress confers upon him can be exercised. E.xcept- ing that, being the Commander-in-Chief under the Constitution, he of course exercises all authority that Congress may delegate to any militarv commiinder whatever, by reason of the axiom that" the power of the greater includes that of the less. Many of the functions, thus devolved by the Constitution on Con- gress, in most governments' belong to the Executive. The King of Great Britain makes rules and articles for the government of armies raised bv him with tlie consent of Parliament. Congress, with us, both raises and governs armies. An army raised in Great Britain is the King's army ; with lis it is the Army of the United States. These most essential distinc- tions should cause Congress to give more of its at- tention to the army. It should "be borne in mind that our rules for the government of the army have been borrowed almost entirely from Great Britain martial law is in the highest degree arbitrary and capable of alnise. It may be decreed at will bycom- petent military authority, and the only rule as to the propriety of its[being established is the test of neces- sity. Tiie Duke of Wellington, from his place in the English House of Lords, deprecated its employment, except under the most urgent pressure, and then only with great modifications. In a celebrated Cey- lon case the late Lord Chief-Justice Cockburn was very reluctant to admit that civil law could be super- seded by Court-Martial, except where, as in India, the military government was absolute; but in the same case Blackburn. .1.. laid down the dictum universally accepted in tlie United States, that martial law is de- rived from statutory provisions and fovmded on para- mount necessity. Thus the question as to its nature is closely connected with the manner of its exercise, and this again with the rettpunsibility for such exer- cise. As to its extent, we may refer to a decision of the U. S. Supreme Court in the case of Neal Dmc v. Bralish Johnson, October term, 1870. It was held: that an officer of the United States, while in service in an enemy's country, was not liable to an action in Civil Courts for acts done in pursuance of a Super- ior's orders ; and when anj' portion of an enemy's country was in the military possession of tlie United States, the municipal laws were to be continued in force and administered through the ordinary chan- nels for the protection and benefit of the inhabitants and others not in military service, but not for the protection and control of army officers or soldiers. In the Supreme Court of Missouri it has been held that the Act of Congress making the order or author- ity of the President a good defense for acts done or left undone during tlie Rebellion, is unconstitutional. The whole subject of the relations of the civil and military authorities in time of war, and especially the constitutionality of Acts passed distinctly as wa"r measures, is of great interest, and, while much may be ret judicata, there are many points not yet clearly determined. See Martial Lair. MILITARY NECESSITY.— Military necessity, as un- derstood by modern civilized nations, consists in the necessity of those measures which are indispeusible for securing the ends of the war, and which are law- ful according to the modern law and usages of war. It admits of all direct destruction of life and limb of armed enemies, and of other persons whose de- struction is incidentall}' unaroidabie in the armed contests of the war; it allows of the capturing of every armed enemy, and every enemy of importance to the hostile government, or of peculiar danger to the captor ; it allows of all destruction of property, and obstruction of the ways and channels of traffic, travel, or communication, and of all withholding of sustenance or means of life from the enemy; of the appropriation of whatever an enemy's country af- fords necessary for the subsistence and safety of the Army, and of such deception as does not involve the breaking of good faith, either positively pledged, regarding agreements entered into during the war, or supposed by the modernJaw of war to exist. Men who take up arms against one another in public war do not cease on this account to be moral beings, re- sptmsible to one another, and to God. Military necessity does not admit of cruelly, that is, the iutliction of sutlering for the sake of suffering that the relation of the army to the jieople is in the j or for revenge, nor of maiming or wounding, except two countries entiri^ly distinct ; therefore, that rules "" ' " ' ' ' adapted to an aristocratic government may not be entirely suited to democratic form.-. .Martiid law must lie distinguished from both mili- tary law and military government. The last denotes the rule of a coucpicredor iiisurrectionarv dislrlcH)V military authority, while military law is iliat branch of the law which regards military iliscipline and the government of (lersons employee! in the military ser- vice. Martial law. says Kent, supersedes and sus- pends the civil law. but military law is superadded an 1 subordinate to thecivil law. It will be seen that in fight, nor of torture to extort confessions. It doi s not admit of the use of poison in any way, nor of the wanton devastation of a district. It admits of de- ception. b\it disclaims acts of perfidy : and. in gen- end, military necessity does not include any act of hostility which makes the return to peace unneces- siirily (lilticull. MILITARY ORDERS.— Religious Associations which arose from a mixture of the religious enthusiasm and the chivalrous love of arms which almost e()ually formed tlie characteristics of medieval society. The first origin of such Associations may be traced to tlie UILITAJIY PITS. :il7 UILITABY P08ITI0B. npcpssitics nf the ("liristiiiii rcsidiiiis uf ilic Holy Liuiil.iii wliicli IIk' iiKiiikn.wlioM' Mrs! duly liail liccii t(i Hcrvc III!' pilLtrinis in the liuspihil ut .Icriisiilciii, were coiiipcUi'il. by llu' iicci'ssily nf si'If-dcfciisc, to asHiiiiKr the cliiiraclcr of solilicrs as well asnf rnnnkH. Till! Order of the 'rcniplars was of siiiillar orif^iii. Tlioso of Alciiiilara and t'alalniva in Spain had f<jr llu'ir ininicdialc (jlijcct llic difcnsi' of llicir country a;;ainsl llic Moors. 'I'licsc ()rd<'rs, as well as llial of Avis in l'ortMi,'al,\vliicli was inslif.ilcd willi a similar view, followed llic (islcrciaii rnic, and all llirc<' dif- fered frcjMi iMe 'I'eiMplarsand llie Kniijlils of Si. John in lieini; ])erMiiUed l)y their institute to marry onee. The .same privileire was enjoyeil in the Savoyard Or- (IcTof Knii^hts of SI. Maurice and the Flemish Order of SI. Ilulicrt. Oil the contrary, the Teutonic Knights, who had their orii^in in the Crusades, were bound by an absolute vow of chastity. Willi the varyini; conditions of society, these Hclii;ious Asso- ciations have at various limes lieeii abollslu'd or fallen into disuse; but most of tliem still subsist in the form of Orders of Kiiijihtliood. and in some of lliein, attempts liave recently been made to revive, with c<rtain niodilications, the monastic character which tliev orii^inallv ])ossessed. See Onlrr. MILITARY PITS. Rows of jiits in the form of in verted cones or pyramids made before a work, and having a stroiii; |ialisadc or slake in the center of each. To prevent Ihe enemy's rillemen from making use of them, they should be made either too deep or too shallow, that is, either 8 feet or 2j feet deep. Till' diameter of the pits at the top is 6" feet, and 1 foot at the bottom ; that of the shallow pits, 8 feet sipiare at the lop, and not more than 2,i feet deep. The usual position for mililary pits is beyond the counterscarp, and principally opposite the salient angles. They would form an obstacle to cavalry. One man can construct two deep jiits per day iu easy .soil, ami ten shallow pits under the same circum- stances. MILITARY POLICE.— A few steady soldiers wlio are cho.scn from a regiment or regiments to main- tain order and regularity within the liin's of a camji or garrison. They are under the supcriiiteudeuee of the Provost-Sergeant, and their number varies ac- cording to circumstances. When on duly, they wear i<. badge round their right arm marked M. V. When an army is in the field, it is reoommended that a troop of polii'c should be attached to each di- vision, and one to the hcad-iiuarters of each army corps, to preserve civil order as distinct from mili- tary discipline. This body of men to be umler the Provost-Marshal, who. during war time, is vested with exceptional iiowers. MILITARY POSITION.— All officer, to be able to select a suitable posiiion for an army, should know the distances taken up by troops in order of battle: the tactical combinations of the different arms, and their placing for mutual support to derive the great- est advantages from their respective action in battle, the qualitications of each for the defensive and offen- sive, and the nature of the ground best adaiiled to their maneuvers. In selecting a position for an ar- my, regard must be had not only to the ground in the immediate vicinity of the field of battle; but also to Ihe nature of the surrounding country in its rela- tion to the position to be chosen: whether the latter U'uds itself in every respect to advantage to the par- ticular ground iu question. The following are the principal points to be held in view in selecting a position: 1st. The extent should be in proportion to the number of troops in hand to occupy it; its general direction being such as to present :iii unliroken front throughout, from which a strong direct tire ni;iy be broug-lit to bear upon iill the ;ippr"aclies leading to it. it too cxtendeil, weak points will have to be left in the line; if too contracted, all the troo]is available cannot be placed to bring their fire to bear upon the enemy. An allowance of one thousaml y;irds for every live Ihoimand to six thousand men of all arms will generally be maile. 'i'liis provides for two linen and a reservi'. Cavalry in line r(<)uires one yard to each file, infantry two feet, and artillery from eighty to one hundred and ten yards for ( ach battery of six pieces, depending upon th<; inlirvals. Kvery po.sition should have u depth of at least five liundred to one thousand yards, to permit Ihi' free inoveiiientB of troops of all arms. iS'o position should lie taken up which does not prisent ample means for retreat, allowing the troops to be marched ofl the field with- 1 out confusion from crowding. i 2d. Good communications should exist througli- ! out the whole extent of the posiiion, permitting the troops to move freely from point to point to re-en- force the line where necessary; good dctioiK^/ien to the front, to allow the offensive to be promptly assumed; good roads leading to the rear, to facilitate tlie safe withdrawal of the troops in case of di.saster. As a j passive defense will never lead to any decisive re- sults, a position should always present every facility necessary for the army to assume the offensive at ] any favorable period of the battle. ad. Good commaiul over the ground by which Ihe enemy must approach, thus providing for a Utrong, direct fire, and facilitating shelter for the iro ips, which, if n it afforded by the natural features of the ground, should be sui)plied by the construc- tion of the best protections possible under the cir- cumstances. 4tli. There should be natural obstructions along the front of the position within effective rifle range, as a marsh or a stream. These serve to l)reak the enemy's line and delay him in bis advance at a time when the most daimige may lie inflicted. If these obstacles do not exist, the weak [loints of the line should he strengthened by abattis, slashed timber, enlanglenients, etc. The obstacles should not, how- ever, be of a nature to afford shelter to the enemy, but simply cause a ilelay in his advance. A pond, marsh, or a narrow, deep stream, are good examples of what is most f:ivorable to fulfill this condition. Aji obstruction p:irallel to the front, and between one hundred iind three liundred yards from it, is very favorable and adds to the strength of a position, provided always, that it does not afford shelter to the enemy's troops. Any position with obstacles perpendicular to the front, as hills, wooded ground, etc., should be avoided, as they afford shelter for the enemy and conceal his movements. If, how- ever, these obstructions cease some distu.ice in ad- vance of the line, they are not so uufavoratile. Any position along a small stream flowing into the sea or a large river, would be a desirable one, as it ])re- sents the features of an obstruction in the front, and at the same time a strong sup}>ort for one fiank. .'ilk. Strength on the flanks is particularly import- ant at Ihe present time. as. with the improved weap- ons, a front attack will not offer many chances of success without severe losses. Pleasures must then Ije taken to turn a tiank and thus render the position untenable, at the same time liaving a strong force in fnmt to prevent the enemy from re-euforcing the tiank attacked, or extending his line to mcei the turning' movement. If the Hanks do not rest on some natural obstacles, as a village, extended marsh, an unfordable river, etc., they must be strengthened by all the means at hand, ;is fortifications, accumulations of troops, etc. The flanks should not he commanded by any ground in the vicinity, nor should there be facilities of auy kind iu the neighborhood which would allow the enemy to approach unseen. Gth. The location should be healthy, and the re- cpiisite wood and water should be near at hand and e:isy of access. 7th. Conditions two and four cannot be satisfied at one and the same time. In case an active defense is intended, condition too will govern, in order to have good <ii/ii>iir/u.ihy which to fall upon tlie enemy at the proper time. For a passive defense, which is MILITABY POSITIONS. 348 MILITAKY POST. generally impnserl when ilie forces are much inferior to the enemy in nuiiil)ers or discipline, the third con- dition shouli! l)e fulfilled. In a defensive position, if the flanks are well pro- tected, the concave front is the strongest; for the enemy while moving forward to the attack exposes both ins Hanks to a strong tire of artillery posted at the extremities of the line. If, however, the flanks are not strong naturallj', or are liable to be turned, a convex front is desirable: for it gives short lines of communications, allowing supports to be moved quickly to either wing when threatened. The gen- eral case will be a combination of the two above men- tioned, presenting alternately salients, re-entering ansles. and straiulit lines joinins; ihem. MILITARY POSITIONS.— Isotated positions, oc- cupied by small detachments, for the purpose of guarding particular points wliicli are of importance during the operations of a campaign, or for the lon- ger or shorter period. These positions are frecmently villages, farm houses, etc. The ofticer charged with placing a village in a defensive attitude, should flrst proceed to a careful examination of its environs, tor the purpose of ascertaining what natural obstacles, and what facilities, they present to the approach of the enemy. Very slight accidents of ground may be greatly improved by trenches of trifling depth, to place troops speedily under cover. When the sur- face is undulating it should be particularly examined witli this view, the ofticer taking a position at differ- ent points and directing men to approach him, and occasioually stooping to observe how much they will be masked from a fire at various heights above the surface. The side slope of a ridge from the en- emy will be the best position for the trench to obtain speed)' cover, provided the ground in advance of it can be well swept from its crest. The next points to be considered are the walls, hedges, etc., of en- closures, which ma}' be turned to a useful account for the defense, or which might serve as a shelter totheenemj'. After having finished this examina- tion, he will next proceed to lay out his works; ar- ranging their plan so as to draw every possible ad- vantage from the natural and artificial olistacles at hand, to render certain points inaccessible, and to procure a shelter for troops snd flanking arrange- ments by means of the walls, hedges, etc. If there should be danger of an attack before these works can be completed, the roads leading to the village, by which the enemy might approach, should be broken up ; and cannon should be placed in the best position to guard the most accessible points. The streets of the village should by barricaded, and the houses and walls, in the vicinity of the barricades. shorld be placed in a defensive attitude. In taking these preparator)' measures against a sudden attack, any means that will afford the troops a cover from the enemy's fire should be resorted to ; bales of cot- ton or wool, casks set side by side, and filled with earth, piles of timber, etc., have been used with great success under such circumstances. As the vari- ous arrangements called for under such circum- stances will demand great activity on the part of tlie garrison, care should be taken to distribute the work among the men most conversant with it, placing the men who liave any skill in the handling of tools at preparing the wooden and stone defenses, and com- mon laborers at throwing up the earthen works, etc. The works that surround the village should be placed so far from tlie houses that the troops shall not be incommoded either b}' the splinters occasion- ed by the enemy's artillerj-, or by the flames and smoke, should the houses be set on fire. The com- munications from all the exterior defenses to some central rallying point should be carefully arranged, to avoid confusion in retreat, and check the pursuit of the enemy. The garrison should be made per- fectly familiar with them and with the resources they may'afford, incase of need. Short-cuts should be made for this purpose by breaking through garden walls, the party walls of houses, etc., and by the erec- tion of barricades at all suitable points to make a stand. MILITARY POST.— A Military ''Station" is synony- mous with Jlilitary "Post." In each case it means not an ordinary residence, having nothing military about it except that one of its occupants holds a militarj' commission, but a place where military duty is performed or stores are kept or distribu- ted, or something connected with war or arms is kept or done. The interchangeof official compliments and visits between foreign Military or Kaval Officers and the authorities of a Slilitary Post are international in character. In all cases it is the duty of the comman- dant of a Military Post, without regard to his rank, to send a suitable officer to offer civilities and assist- ance to a ves.sel-of-war (foreign or otherwise) recent- arrived. After such offer it is the duty of tlie Com- manding Officer of the vessel to send a suitable offi- cer to acknowledge such civilities, and request that a time be specified for his reception by the Command- ing Officer of the Post. The Commanding Officer of a Military Post, after the usual offer of civilities, is always to receive the first visit without regard to rank. The return visit by the Commanding Officer of the Military Post is made the following day. or as soon thereafter as practicable, \\nian a Military Com- mander officially visits a vessel-of-war he gives notice Abraham Lincoln, Fort, D. T., Dept. Dak. Adams, Fort, H. I., Dept. East. Alcatraz Island, Cal., Dept.Cal. •Andrew, Fort, Mass., Dept. East. Angel Island, Cal., Dept. Cal. Apache, Fort, Ariz., Dept. Ariz. Assinaboine, Fort. Mont., Dept. Dak. Barrancas, Fort, Fla., Dept. Eajrt,. *Bat(m Rouge Barracks, La., De])l. East. Bayard, Fort, N. M., Dept. Mo. Benieia Barracks, Cal., Dept. Cal. Bennett.Fort, D. T..Dppt. Dak. Bidwell, Fort, Cal.. Dept.Cal. Bliss, Fort, Texan, Dept. Mo. Boise Barracks, Idaho, Dept. Colundjia. Bowie, Fort, Ariz., Dept. Ariz. Brady, Fort, Midi., Dept. East. Bridger, Fort, Wyo., Dept. Platte. Brown, Fort. Texas, Dept. Texas. Buford, Fort, D. T., Dept. Dak. Canby, Fort, Wash. T., Dept. Columbia. •Carroll, Fort, Md., Dept. East. •Caswell, Fort. N. (;., Dept. East. Clark, Fort, Texas, Dept. Texas. •Clark's Point, Mass., Fort at, Dept. East. •Clinch, Fort, Fla., Dept. Ea,t. Ca'ur d'Alene, Fort, Idaho, Dept Columbia. Columbus Barracks, Ohio. Columbus, Fort.N. Y. II., Dept. East. Concho, Fort, Texas, Dept. Texas. •Constitution, Fort, K. II.. Dept. East. Craig, Fort, N. M.. Dept. Mo. Cumniin2;s, Fort, N, ^I., Dept. Mo. Custer, Fort, Mont., Dept. Dak. D. A. Russell, Fort, Wvo., Dept. Platte. Davids Island, N. Y. Davis, Fort, Texas, Dept. Texas. •Delaware, Fort, Del., Dept. East. Doufflas, Fort, Utah, Dept. Platte. •Dutcli Island, R. I., Fort on, Depl. East. Elliott, Fort, Texas, Dept. Mo. Ellis, Fort., Mont., De])!. Dak. •Finn's Point, N.J., Battery at, Depl. East. •Foote. Fort, JId., Dept. East. Fred Steele, Fort, Wvo., Dept. Platte. MILITARY PUNISHMENT. U\) MILITAHY PnHIBHMEHT. ♦Gaines, Fort, Alii., Dfpt. Kast. (iastdii, Fori, Cal.. Dcpl. Cul. (iil)si.ii, Flirt, 1)1(1. T., I)(|il. .Mo. •Oorucs, Fort, .Mc, Dcpt. Kasl. (iraiit. Fort. Ariz., Dcpt. Ariz. *Ori»wolil, Fijrt,' Coiiii., Dcpt. East. Hale, Fort, D. T., Dcpt. Dak. llalleek, Fort, Nev., Dej)!. Cal. JIainilton, Fori, N. V., Uept. East. Hays, Fort, Kans., Dcpt. Mo. Huachuca, Fort, Ariz, licpt. Ariz. •Indepeiidenoe, Fort, -Mass., Dcpt. East Jackson Barracks, La., Dept. East. ♦Jackson, Fort, Ga., Dept. East. ♦Jackson Fort, T,a.. Dcpt. East. JelTcrson Barracks, Mo. ♦Jell'erson, Fort, Fla., Dept. East. ♦Johnston, Fort, IS. C, Dept. East. KeoLtli, Fort, Mont., Dept. Dak. ♦Key West Barracks, Fla., Dept. Kast. Klamath, Fort, Oreg., Dept. Columbia. ♦Kno.v, Fort, Mc., Dept. East. ♦Lafayette, Fort, N. Y. H., Dcpt. East. Lapwai, Fort, Llaho, Dept. Co- lumliia. " I.,arainie, Fort, AVyo., Dept. Platte. Leavenworth, Fort, Kans., Dept. Mo. Leavenworth Military Prison, Kans. Lewis, Fort, Colo., Dcpt. Mo. Little Rock Barracks, Ark., Dept. East. ♦Livingston, Fort, La., Dept. East. Lowell, Fort, Ariz., Dept. Ariz. Lyon, Fort, Colo., Dept. Mo. Mackinac, Fort, Mich., Dept. East. ♦JIacorab, Fort. La.. Dept. East. ♦Macon, F'ort, N. C, Dept. East. Madison Barracks, N. Y., Dept. East. Maginnis, Fort, Mont., Dept. Dak. Marcy, Fort, N.5L, Dept. Mo. ♦Marion, Fort, Fla., Dept. East. Mason, Fort, Cal., Dept. Cal. ♦McClary, Fort, Jle., Dept. East. McDermit, Port. Nev., Dept. Cal. McDowell. Fort. Ariz., Dept. Ariz. M<llcnry, Fort, .Md., Dcpt. East. Mcintosh, Fort, Texas, Dept. T( xas. McKinncy, Fort, Wyo., Dept. I'latte. Mia.le, Fori, D. T., Dcpl. Dak. ♦.Millliii. Fort, I'a., Dcpt. Kast. Missoula. Fort, Mont..Dciit. Dak. .Mojavc. Fort, Ariz., Dcpt. Ariz. Monroe, Fori, Va.. Dept. East. •Montgomery, Fort, N. Y., Dept. Kast. ♦Morgan, Fort, Ala., Dept. East. ♦Monltric, Fort, S. (:.. Dept. East. Mount Vernon Barracks. Ala., Dcpt. Kast. Jlycr, Fort, Va. Newport Barracks, K}., Dcjit. East. Niagara, Fort, N. Y.,Dept East. Niobrara, Fort, Neb., Dept. Plutte. Omaha, Fort, Neb., Dept. Platte. ♦Ontario, Fort, N. Y., Dept. East. Pembina, Fort, D. T., Dept. Dak. ♦Phoiii.x, Fort, ^fass., Dept. East. •Pickens, Fort, Fla., Dept. East. •Pilic, Fort, La., Dept. East. Platlslmrg Barracks, N.Y. Dept. East. •Popham, Fort, Me., Dept. East. Poplar River, Camp, Mont., Dept. Dak. , Porter, Fort, N. Y., Dept. Eas.. Preble, Fort, Me., Dept. Kast. Presidio of San Francisco, Cal., Dcpt. Cal. •I'uliiski, Fort, C5a., Dept. East. Randall, Fort, D.T., Dept. Dak. Reno, Fort, Ind. T., Dcpt. :\Io. Riley, Fort, Kans., Dept. Jlo. Ringgold, Fort, Te.xas, Dept. Texas. Robinson, Fort, Neb., Dept. Platte. San Antonia, Texas, Dept. Texas. San Diego Barracks, Cal., Dept. Cal. " •Sandy Hook, N.J., Fort at, Dept. East. •Scammel, Fort, Me., Dept. East. Schuyler, Fort, N. Y., Dept. East. Seklen, Fort, N.M., Dept. Mo. •Sewall, Fort, Mass., Dept. East. Shaw, Fort, Mont.. Dept. Dak. •Ship Island, Miss„ Dept. East. Sirlnev, Fort, Neb. Dept. Platte. Sill, luirt, Ind. T.. Deiii. .\Io. Sisseton, Fort, D.T., Dcpt. Dak. Snclling, Fort, Minn., Dcpt. Dak. Spokane, Fort, Wash. T., Dept. Columbia. ^Standisli, Fort, Masn., Dept. Kast. Stanton, Fort, N.M., Dept. Mo. Stevens, Fort CJreg. Dept. Col- luiibia. Stockton, Fort, Texas. Dept. Texas. St. Francis Barracks. Fla., Dept. East. ♦St. Philip. Fort. La.. Dipt. East. Sullivan, Fort, Me., Dept. East. Sully, Fort, D. T.,Dept. Dak. •Sumter, Fort, S. ('., Dcpt. East. Supply, Fort, In(l.,T,. Dept. Mo. •Taylor, Fort, Fla.. Dept. East. Thomas, Fort, Ariz.. Dcpt. Ariz. •Thornburgh, Fort. Utah. Dept. Platte. TolK n. Fort, D. T., Dept. Dak. Townsend, Fort Wash. T., Dept. Columbia. Trumbull, Fort, Conn.. DepU East. Uncompahgre River.Cantonment on, Colo., Dept. Mo. Union, Fort. N. M., Dept. Mo. Vancouver Barracks. Wash. T., Dept. Columbia. Verde, Fort, Ariz.. Dept. Ariz. Wadsworth, Fort, N. Y.. Dcpt. East. Walla Walla. Fort, Wash. T., Dept. Columbia. Warren, Fort, Mass.. Dept. East. Washakie, Fort, Wyo.. Dept. Platte. •Washington Barracks. D. C, Dept. East. Washington, Fort, Md., Dept. East. Wayne, Fort, Mich., Dept. East. West Point, N. Y., U. S. Military Academy. Whipple Barracks, Ariz., Dept. Ariz. Willets Point, N. Y. Wintield Scott Fort, Cal., Dept. Cal. Wingate, Fort.N.M.. Dept. Mo. ♦WinUirop, Fort, Mass.. Dept. East. •Wolcott, Fort. R. L, Dept. East. Yates, Fort, D. T., Dept. Dak. of his visit to the vessel previously thereto, or sends an officer to the gangway to annoimce his presence, if such notice has not been given. He is then receiv- ed at the gangway by the Commander of the vessel, and is accompanied there on leaving liy the same offi- cer. The officer who is sent with the customary offer of civilities is met at the gangway of a vessel-of-war by the Officer-of-the-Deck ; through the latter he is presented to theComnuinderof the vessel, with whom it is his duty to communicate. A vessel-of-war is ap- proached and boarded by Commissioned Officers by the starboard side and gangway. when tlicre are gang- ways on each side. In entering a boat the^wwV'rgoes first and other officers according to rank : in leaving a boat, the siiiior goes first. The latter is to acknowl- edge the salutes which are given at the gangway of naval vessels. Naval vessels fire personal salutes to efficers entitled to them when the boat containing the officer to be saluted has cleared the ship. It is an ac- knowledgment for his boat to " lie on her oars " from the first until the last gun of the salute, and for the officer saluted to uncoVer. then at the conclusion to "give way." The exchange of official visits between the Commanding Officers "of a Post and vessel opens the door to both official and social courtesies among the other officers. The foregoing list comprises the Military Posts oc- cupied by troops of the United States on the 1st of January, 1884. Those not garrisoned are marked*. MILITAHY PONISHMENT.— In a military sense, the execution of a sentence pronounced by a Court- Martial upon any delin(|uent. The Ronians pun- ished crimes committed by the soldiery with the ut- most rigor. On the occurrence of a mutiny, every tenth, twentieth, or hundredth man was sometimes chosen by lot. but generally only the ringleaders were selected for punishment. Deserters and sedi- tious persons were frequently, after being scoorged. MILITARY REGULATIONS. 350 MILITARY SCHOOLS. sold for slaves, and occasionally the offender was made to lose his right haud, or was bled nearly to death. Among the nations of Western Europe, t':e ■punishments for military offen.ses were, till ]atel_v, no less severe than tliey were among the Romans. Besides the infliction of a certain number of lashes with cords, soldiers convicted <if theft, marauding, or any other breach c^f discipline which was not punishable with death, were sentenced to run the gantlope. In Russia the knout was extensively used. (See Knout.) It is often necessary to punish to maintain discipline,, and the Rules and Articles of War provide ample means of punishment, but not sufficient rewards and guards against errors of judg- ment. In the French Army degrading pimishmcnts are illegal, but soldiers may be confined to quarters or deprived of the libert.y of leaving the garrison ; confined in the guard-room, in prison, or in dun- geon ; required to walk or to perform hard labor ; and officers may be subjected to simple or rigorous arrests. Everj' officer who inflicts a punishment must account for it to his superior, who approves or disapproves, confirms, augments, or diminishes it. If an inferior is confined to the guard-room, he can- not be lil)erated except upon application to a super- ior. Any officer who has been subjected to pun- ishment must, when relieved, make a visit to him who ordered it. The French Code has, in a word, been careful to provide for both the security of its citizens and the strength of authority. The punish- ments establislied by law or custom for U. R. sol- diers' by senteuce of Court-Martial, arc embodied in the Articles of War. (See Articles of War.) It is regarded as inhuman to punish by solitary confine- ment or confinement on bread and water exceeding fourteen days at a time, or for more than eighty- four days in a year, at intervals of fourteen daj-s. MILITARY REGULATIONS.— The rules and regula- tions observed in one uniform system, and by which the discipline, formations, fleld-exercises, and move- ments of the whole army are directed. See Army Eegidatioiu and Articles of War. MILITARY SCHOOLS.— Establishments for the edu- cation of officers, non-commissioned officers, and men of the army. In the United States, schools are established at all posts, garrisons, and permanent camps at which troops are stationed, in which the enlisted men are instructed in the common English V)ranches of education, and especially in the history of tlie United States. The Secretary of War details such officers and enlisted men as may be necessary to conduct them. It is the duty of every post and garrison commander to set apart a suitable room or iiuilding forschool and religious purposes. The Uni- ted States Military Academy, the Artillery Scliool, and the School of Application for Cavalry and In- fantry are discussed in detail imder the appropriate lieads. Tiie military schools of foreign countries deserve consideralile attention, especialh' those of France, where a military commission is one of the best schol- astic prizes looked forward to. In France no at- tempt is made to impait general education at the mili- tary semiuarics; a boy is required to have a thorough general knowledge before he can be admitted to these institutions. Being open to universal competition, and being the only channel — or nearly so — to the Ijcst employment under tlic state the great military schools by the high standard required for them, give great im])etus to general education throughout the em- pire and tlie ly<'ees, or public schools, adapt their course of instruction to'the anticipated competition. In the army, two-thirds of the line commissions and one-third of those for the scientific corps are given to non-commissioned olhcers, but very few of tliese rise bcy<md tlie rank of Captain; the remaining com- missions in tlie line and scientific corps, and all ap- pointments to tlie Staff, are given by competion after a careful course of ])rot,'ssional education. The can- didates in open competition are jjlaced according to merit either in the Infantrj' School of St. Cyr or the celebrated Polytechnique: at both colleges tliey have the right, if tliey need it, to jjartial or entire stale support. From the School of St. Cyr tlie more prom- ising pupils pass to the Staff School, and thence, af- ter a thorough course, to the Etat Majeur of the army; the remaining students pass as subalterns in. to the Line. The pupils of the Polytechnique, which is entered after the age of 17 years, have annually about IGO valuable prizes open to them. The first 30 to 40 candidates usually select civil emploj-ment under the state, such as the "ponts et chausiies;" those next in merit choose the artillery and engineers, and pass through a technical course at the School of Application. The remaining students either fail to (jualifv and leave the school, or have to content tliemselves with commissions in the line, subordin- ate situations in the government, civil or colonial service, or they retire into civil life altogether. In actual service there are schools for the men, who are also taught trades and singing. The standard of edu- cation among French soldiers is far higher than among their English brethren, as the conscription draws the men from all classes of society. The Prussian system of military education differs from that of France in that competition is but spar- ingly resorted to; and the object is to give a good general and professional education to all the officers, rather than a specially excellent training to a selected few. Aspirants for commissions must enter in the ranks, and within six months pass a good examina- tion in general and liberal knowledge; if however, the candidate has been educated in Cadet House — which is a semi-military school for j-ouths — and has passed properly out of it, this examination is dis- pensed with. After some further service, the aspi- rant goes for nine months to one of three "Division Schools", where he completes his professional edu- cation. If he pass the standard here required, he is eligible for the next vacancy, but cannot be com- tnissioned unless tlie officers of tlie corps are willing to accept him as a comrade. The Artillery and En- gineer Schools do for those services what the Divi- sion Schools do for the line. The culmination of Prussian military education is the Staff School, open to competition for all the officers of the army, and presenting the highest prizes in the profession. In all the schools, the candidates study at the expense of the state, or receive great auxiliary grants. The Austrian system is very elaborate, and com- mences at an early age; boys intended for military service beginning their professional almost contem- poraneously with their general education. There are schools for training for non-commissioned officers and for officers, and senior departments for imparting more extended instruction to both classes. C'andidates for appointment as non-commissioned officers pass by competition through the lower houses, where they remain till 11 years old; the upper houses, which detain them till 15; and the school companies, whence, after actual apprentice- ship to service, a few pupils pass to the academies for aspirants for commissions, and the others are drafted into the service as non-commissioned officers. For officers, boys are pledged to the service by their parents at the age of 11, when they are placed in Ciidet Schools; after which the state takes charge of them. At about 16 the hoys pass, according to qualification, to the line or scientific corps academies, and four years later into tho.se services themselves. The young otHcer's cluince of entering the Staff School — and tlierefore the Staff — depends upon his place at tlie final academic cxiimination. The compe- tition observed through<iut the course of militarj' education is said to impart great vigor to ^lie tuition. In tlic Italian army the system so nejirly approaches tlial of France tliiU a separate descriplioii is unne- cessary. It need only be slat,ed that the educational status of the Italian oflicers is consider(!d high. In MILITARY SCIENCE. 351 MILITARY BURGEE Y. the British army tlie scliools are of spvcnil variciics. cxclianjrcfl. plerlged, loaned, or given away; and no 1. Tliosi- for Ihi: t'diiciition (jf the olHccrH alrciidy piTson not a soldier, or duly aiitliori/.cd oftf^•r of *hc in llic sirvife, an the Stuff CulViji' uiid (lie ewlabliHli- ' l'nit<-d SlateH.wlioliaH possrssion of any Kiieli eJotlieB, meiil at Clialliain for training eni;incr-r olHecrs. [ arriix, inililary outfltH, or aeeouterments, no furniHli- 2. I'rofi'ssiona! scliools connnoii to odlccrs and men, as tlie Sciiooi. ok (itTNNKitv and the Sciiooi, or Mc'HKKTHV. ;!. Schools for Ihc professional ediiea- lion of candidates for conwnissions; as Sand iichht MiLITAIlY (loI.LKOK anil the KoYAL MiLITAIiy ACAD- KMV. 4. The schools for men in the ranks and for their children, or llie Ukoimkntal Schooi.s; and tin- ed, an<l which have been the subjeet of any hikJi sale, tiarler. exchange, pleilife, loan, or irift.can have any riiihl. lille.or inleri'st therein: Init the same may bi' seized and taken wherevir found by any ofllcer of the l'nit<'d States, civil or military, ami thi'nupon \h- delivered lo any (^uarlermastir. or other odioer authorized to receive the same. The possession of instruction provided for their sons or orplnuis, as at 1 any such clothes, arms, military outfits, or accouter- th(^ RovAi. Mii.iTAHv Asylum. See MiUlary f'o/- ments by any person not a soldier or oHicer of the ^r/c.v. United States is i)rcsum])tive evidence uf such a sal?, MILITARY SCIENCE. -War is both a iirirnra\nt\ an ' barter, c.vchani^e, pledije, loan, or K'f- art. AH invcstitjalioiis whicli liavc lor their o'ljcct MILITARY SURGERY.— Heslricted to its rijrorous thedetcrni illation of tlic iireal principles ivliich should | sii;nilicatioii, MiliUiry Surf/iTy is the surfjical prac- govern a Ueneral in condiictinir his military opera- tiee in armii-s; but in lis broad anrl ordinary accept- tions; all analyses which are made to show the im- ' ation embraces many other branches of artcompre- portant and essential fealiircs which characterizi^ a '[ liendin!; the practice of medicine, sanitary preeau- campaiirn or battle, and coni])arisons made with other i tions, hosjiital administration, andiulanccs, etc. campaisjns .•mil bullies; all deductions and forma-' The military surceon must not finly be a skillful tions of rules wliicli are to be used in military oper- physician iin:l surireon. but he must have a constitu- atioiis; all thi'se belon;; to the ■' .Sc/'trtce "/' Tl'a;-." , tion snfliciently strong to resist the fatigues of war. The pra<tical application of these great principles i and all inclemencies of weather; a solid judgment and rules belong to the " AH of War." | and a generous. activity in givinij prompt assistance In the science of war as in the other physical I to the wounded without distinction of rank or grade, geiences, the facts must precede theory; and al- | and without even e.\T:luding enemies. Hemusthave though the number of known facts issteadily increas- i the courage to face dangers without the power, in ingtlie number of general principles upon which the all cases, of combating them: hemusthave great thi'ories of the science are b.'iseil. is constant, if not ' coolness in order to act and operate in the most diifi- decreasing. Tiiese general principles are deduced by cult positions, whether amidst tile movement of a close and critical e.xamiimtiou of such methods of troops, the shock of arms, the cries of the wounded, waging war as have been adopted by those great (Jenerals who are known as eminent in their profes- sion. It is evident then that an intimate connection exists between military history and the science of war. Napoleon said, " AU-xander made eight cam- paigns; Hannibal, seventeen, one in Spain, fifteen in Italy, and one in Africa; C'a'sar. thirteen, of which eight were against the Gauls and five against the le- gions of Pompey ; (Justavus Adolphus, three ; Tii- reune, eighteen ; Prince Eugene of Savoy, thirteen ; Frederick, eleven, in Bohemia. Silesia, and on the banks of the Elbe. The history of these eighty-four campaigns, written with care, would be a complete treatise on the art of war. From this source, the prin<'iples whicli ought to be followed. in offensive as well as defensive warfare, could at once be obtained." To these campaigns, are to be added the battles and campaigns of Napoleon. .Jomini, an eminent writer on military art. says: "Correct theories, founded upon right principles, sustained by actual events of wars, ami added to accurate military history will form a true school of instruction for generals. If these means do not produce great men. they will at least proiiuee generals of sufficient skill to take rank | next after the natural masters of the art of war." The sources of all treatises on ilHltarji Sc'i'iire are to be found in the military liistories narr;itiug the events an 1 results of the b;Utlesaud campaigns just enumer- ated. MILITARY STORES. —The arms, ammunition, cloth- ing. ])rovisious, etc., pertaining to an army. In the United States all public stores hiken in the enemy's camp, towns, forts, or magazines, is secured for the service of the rnited States. The clothes, arms. mili- tary outfits, and acc.outerments furnished by the Doited States to any soldier cannot be sold, bartered. in a charge, in a retreat, in intrenclim;-nts. under the I ramparts of a besieged place, or at a breach. He niust have inventive ingenuity which will supply the wants of the wounded in extreme cases, and must be prepared for all emergencies. Frequently the surgeon is not immediately avail- able. In anticipation of such an evmt, it is incum- bent upon all who take the tield to possess a suffi- cient knowledge of medicine and practical surgerj- to enable them to relieve the sick and wounded (both men and horses) until professional aid c;iu be secured. The fracture or dislocation of a limb is the most fretpient of all accidents attending a campaign in a rough or mountainous country. A mis-step of the soldier, or a fall of the horse", often results in this mishap. When fractures occur and there are no splints at hand, they must be improvised from such materials as may be found. If the thigh be fractur- ed, a rifle may be used for a splint, placing its butt in the axilla, and allowing it to pass ahmg the outside of the limb, being secured by bandages around the trunk and ankle. A fractured leg may be secured with a splint of any description placed along its out- side and the whole then wrapped in a coat or blank- et and made fast by strajis. or strings of soft materi- al. It is a good plan to tie the fractured leg. at the ankles and convenient points, to the uninjured leg, and rest them on coats, blankets, or a mattress. In this manner the two legs will move as one, and the broken bone will not injure the flesli. A fracture may be "put tip" with a gim stock or sword scab- bard—even a roll of straw or grass makes a good temporary splint. A fracture of the arm may be "put up" with a bayonet scabbard, or with thin bun- dles of straw or grass. Light pieces of board, bark. MILlf ABY TENTTRE. MILITABY TENURE. or even tie soles of shoes or boots are often useful for splints. Tlie fore-arm should be carefully sup- ported in a sling. Often a severe shock or collapse from pain or nervous fear follows the fracture, in which case a stimulant (whisky and water) should be administered. Dislocated and broken ribs are frequently the re- sults of falls and other accidents. The drawino- shows the normal position of the ribs and adjacent bones— IT is the breast-bone ; c. c. r. the ribs, which a,Ti fastened at one end to the spine i. />.. and at the other end are at- tached to the breast-bone by means of strips of cartilage, d. d.'d. ; e is the collar-bone. There are twelve (13) ribs on each side, all of differ- ent lengths— the shortest are at the top and have the smallest curves ; descending they increase in lengt ' to the seventh, which is the longest, then decrease. The last two have no cartilages, are very short, and are attached to the spine only. In this connection it would be well to carefully note the formation of the pelvis, and the sacrurn which supports the spine. The pelvis is frequently of the limb. Should there beany difficulty in check- ing it. ligatures should be applied. When the bleed- ing is arterial, the limb should be firmly grasped by both hands above the wound, so as to cut off tlie current from the heart by firmly compressing the woimded vessel against the bone, until a tourniquet may be applied. A temporary tourniquet may be adjusted by plac- ing a fiat or roundish stone over the course "of the artery and above the wound, l)etweenit and the cen- ter of circulation, holding it hi situ by means of a biud.handkerchief,string,or thong, the ends of which are securely tied. A stick or bayonet is then passed througb the band or thong and twisted round and round several times, until the band is so tightened as to press the stone forcibly on the artery, which, being compressed against the main bone of the limb, will cut off ihe passage of blood through the vessel. If the bleeding be from the hand, fore-arm, or arm, apply the tourniquet or bandage near the shoulder. If from the foot, leg, or thigh, apply it between the knee and hip. As a rule the main arteries are so placed that they are not likely to be reached and injured; they are deep in tlie flesh, and follow the courses of the inner seams of the coat sleeves and pants. Thus the main artery of the arm runs from the a.xilla down the inner side or the arm, at the lower edge of the biceps muscle, to the end of the elbow; that of the thigh runs from midway the groin, down the inner side of the thigh, under the deeper muscles to the back of the thigh near the ham. Ice. if convenient, may be applied to wounds of small vessels, with good results, causing a rapid con- gelation of the blood. Hot water will accomplish the injured by thrusts and gun-shots.all of which wounds demand the most careful and cautious treatment. The drawing shows its form, with the location of the iliac fossae, a. a., and the anterior surface of the promontory of the sacrum, h. To know how to arrest bleeding is all important, as life may often be saved by promptly adopting simple means." Bleeding may be from veins or from arteries. In the first case the blood is of a dark color, and flows slowly in a stream towards the heart; in the second ease it is of a bright red color, forcibly issues in jets, and is in a direction from the heart. In ordinary venous hemorrhage, such as the bursting of a varicose vein, the bleeding may be stopped by pressure or elevation same, and is far preferable if the patient be feeble. When the patient becomes faint and insensible from loss of blood, he should be placed flat on his hack, with his head low. Cautery may be resorted to when the tourniquet fails to do its work. The ac- companying drawing shows the manner of Uie at- tacliment of the muscles, a, b, to the bone, the func- tions of ligaments about the joints, and the manner in which the arteries are covered and protected by the muscles, etc. In reseting a strong and muscu- lar limb it is often necessary to keep up a great strain on the muscles in order to weary them and cause them to rela.K, when the bone may be set with less difficulty. See Fifld Remedies, Medical Supplies, Medicine C'he/<t, and Woutidn, MILITARY TENURE.— In England, an accompani- ment or immediate consequence of the Feudal Sj's- tem estalilislied during theMiddle Ages throughout j the greater part of Europe. Feuds were introduced by the barbarous tribes who poured themselves into the Roman Empire during the 4th. .5th, and (itli cen- turies. The chief feature of feuds was, that the lands of the conquered country were parceled out to the leaders, on the condition of bearing arms when- ever the Sovereign required them. The relation thus created between Sovereign and Vassal was called a feud. The Grantee held his lands at first for life oiilv, but grailually it was developed into a heredi- tary character, and also into one which admitted of subinfeudatiim, i. e., the parceling out of the feudal land among Vassals of the head Vassal, who was the Lord of his own Vass.als Tliis kind of relation between Lord and Vassal gradually was extended to all kinds of land, for the owners ofallcidial land vo- luntarily surrendered their land to some Lord, so as MILITARY TRAIN. 353 MILITIA. to Imvc tlie Hiuno advantaces. The Vassal diil ho- niUK'''"'!"' Ijonl. anil ti)i)k thf oalli of fciilly. Hc Kidcs llicsfi cliariiftcrislics, the licililiri}; cariic to he atU-nilcd with llic folliiwiiij; incidciils. 1. An aid, wliicli was a paymcnl [jraiiti'd tn lii-l|) the Lord in his ncccssitirs. 2. .\ relief was a triliiiti' [laid liy a new Tenant on succeeding to his |)redeeessor. It. A tine was paid by a Tenant to the Lord on alienating tlie lauds to a pnrciiaser. 4. An escheat or forfeiture was tl'.e revertini; of the estate to the Lord when there was a failure of heirs or some violation of duty on the part of the Vassal. The Feuilal System was extended to iCnijland by the Norman 15arons soon after the ('oni|uesl, with the concurrence of William L, mucii to th(^ dislike of the Sa.vons, whose griev,- anees grew until th<!y found vent in Magna Cliarta, which Was in fact an attempt to restore their earlier Constitution. — Th(^ chief liction, however, of a rela- tion between the Crown and tlie holders of land was not got rill of. The Crown was nominally the Lord I'arariiount, and tliere were intermediate Lords called Mesne L'lrcls, of whom the Tenants helil. (ira<lual- ly. the kinds of tenure were classed uniler free and base services- -the former being those which a free- man might p'rform, as serving in war, or paying a sum of money; the latter, such as a Peasant might perform, such as ploughing the Lord's land, etc. MILITARY TRAIN. Formerly a highly important corps of the army, of winch the function was to transport the provisions, ammunition and all other materiel, together with the wounded in time of bat- tle. It was formed after the Crimean war, on the dissolution of the Land-Transport Corps. It com- prised six battalions, in all 1H4(J officers and men ; and its annual cost forjjay, etc., was about X71.000. The corps ranked after the Koyal Engineers, and was classed as Moimted Infantry, the otHcers receiving infantry rates, anil the men cavalry rates of pay. The commissions were purchasable, as in the line. The men were armed with carbine and sword, but rather for defensive than aggressive purposes. At- tached to each battalion were 100 liorses, with pro- portionate wagons and aml)idances. It is proper to observe that the Military Train con- stituted only the nucleus of a transport service for a large army, and that in lime of war it would be ex- panded by the addition of thousands of horses or mules, and the incorporation of many hundred drivers, etc. The advantage of posse.ssing even a few men ready traineil, and capable of directing the movements of others, was amply demonstrated liy the failures of the Crimea in 1854-1800 ; so tha* Par- liament voted ungrudgingh' the expense of this corps, although in time of peace it was comparatively with- out employment. The jMilitarj" Train was disband- ed in 1870" as being too military in its formation. Its functions were transferred to tlic Transport section of the Army Service Corps, a purely non-combatant organization. MILITARY WAYS.— The large Roman roads which Airripiia caused to be made through the empire in the reign of Augustus for the marching of troops and conveying of carriages. They were paved from tlie gates "of Home to the utmost limits of the Empire. The British have constructed a military road throughout India, with wells and other accommoda- tions at certain distances. MILITIA. — The purpose and opinion of tne found- ers of our government is unequivocally expressed in the second ameudment to the Conslitution, which declares, " A well-regulated militia being uecessarj- to the security of a free State." The unvaried agreement of all subsequent writers and statesmen WMth this assertion might well cause us to view with some alarm the fact that all attempts to secure an efficient militia have hitherto signally failed. While all agree that the perpetuity of a republican form of government depends on raaiutainiug a well-regulated militia, the fact has been demonstrated that under no other form of government is it so difficult, owing to the indisposition of the people to subinit to the enforcement of military duty in time of peace. Washington, in liis annual mesHage to C'ongresH in 17i)4, said : " The devising and establishing of a well- regulated militia would be a genuine source of legis- lative honor, and a perfect title to publirt gratitude." The wisdom of this assertion has been proven by the stibsecjuent failure of all attempts at legislation. Nevertheless, we are certainly convinced that llir; solution of the difllculties is now en.sy, not through any superior wisdom of our own, but because time and experience have solved the difficulties for us. This solution we conceive to be to sub- stitute a volunteer militia in place of enforced militia duty, believing that our population has reached such a number that the volunteer militia of the Slates will be sufficiently large and efficient for all the purposes for which militia can or ever should be used. Xo subject, unless it be that of finance, has so long and so often engaged the attention of Congress as that of the militia, anil on none have more able and ex- haustive reports been written by those whose slight- est utterances we have been taught to honor and re- spect. The records of Congress are filled with mes- sages from Presidents, reports of Executive Officers, reports of Committees of both Houses of Congress, and with jilans and bills for the imjirovement and or- ganization of the militia, to attempt even a brief out- line of which would far exceed the proper limits of this article. We cannot, therefore, do more than give a brief outline of the most salient features in the his- tory of the subject. On July 18, 177.5, the Continental Congress pa.ssed a series of resolutions recommending '■ to the inhab- itants of all the United English Colonies in Xorth America that all able-bodied effective men between sixteen and fifty years of age in each colony immed- iately form themselves info regular companies of militia." One of these resolutions is particularly sug- gestive, as it contains the germ of the volunteer sys- tem which has now grown to such nroporlions. ' It is as follows: That one-fourth i)arl of the militia In every Colony be selected for minute men, of such persons as are willing to enter into the necessary service, . . . and as these minute men may eventually be called to ac- tion before the whole body of the militia are suffic- iently trained, it is recommended that a more par- ticular and diligent attention be paid to their instruc- tion in military discipline. On the formation of the Federal Government one of the earliest acts of the first House of Kepresenla- tives, in 1789, was the appointment of a Committee to prepare a bill to organize the militia. The session adjourned before the Committee made a report, but at the following session, in 1790, General Knox, Secretary of War, submitted his celebrated plan for organizing the militia, accompanying it by a letter of transmittal which is remarkable for its terse, striking, and strong arguments. His plan, in brief, was that every boy on arriving at the age of eighteen years should be enrolled in the cadet corps of militia and be obliged to serve in camp of instruction thirty days in each of first two years and ten days in the third year, and that no person arriving at the age of twenty-one years .should be entitled to exercise the rights of a citizen unless he could produce his certificate of having so served ; all citizens between twenty-one and forty-five years of age were to be enrolled in the main corps of militia and be obliged to drill four days in each year ; and between forty- five anil sixty years of age to be enrolled in the re- serve corps, which should be assembled twice in each year for inspection of arms. L'nder his plan the general government was to furnish uniform, arms, equipments, and bear all the expenses of the camps of instruc.ion. The features of General Knox's plan were clearly embodied in a bill prepared by a Committee of the House of Representatives, and the subject was discussed in detail on many occasion* ffllLITIA. 354 MILITIA. through the two su'cceedinj: sessions until all of its original features were eliangeil or nioililied, and the Act of May 8, 1792. tinally agreed upon and enacted. As this is ilie law still in force, we reserve a detailed explanation of its provisions, and simply state here that its main feature is that every citizen, between eighteen and forty-five years of age. shall be enrolled in the militia and shall arm and equij) himself at his individual expense. This law was found to be so crude and inadequate that it became the subject of criticism immediately- after its passage, and of ef- forts to amend it which have continued to the pres- ent time. As well expressed by Washington, after the attempt was made to put it in practical operation it •■ exhiljited such striking defects, as could not have Ijeen siqiplied but by the zeal of our citizens" ; and in his annual messages to each succeeding ses- sion of Congress, during his two terms of office, he urged that the evident defects of the law be re- medied. In the session succeeding the enactment of the law an effort was made to repeal the provi- sion requiring everj' citizen to arm himself. In the next following session, in 1794. a bill was reported by a C'onimitfee of the House of Representatives to organize a " select carps" of militia, to be armed and equipped b}' the general government, and paid for service in amiual camps of instruction. Different propositions, having in view these two changes in the militia system, were discussed in successive ses- sions until 1798. when the threatening condition of our relations with France culminated in the forma- tion of a provisional army and other warlike prepa- rations that temporarily suspended consideration of the militia system. Our troubles with France having been amicably settled, the militia (juestion again assumed promin- ence, and Jefferson, in his annual message to Con- gress, importuned them to take some action. It was chieflv through his earnest efforts that the law of Aprir23, 1808 (section 1661 Revised Statutes), was passed, making a permanent appropriation of f 200,- 000 a year to provide arms and equijimeuts for the militia. Somewhat curiously, however, the require- ment of the old law that everj- citizen shouhl arm and equip himself was not repealed, and still remains the statute. As the country was rapidly increasing in population the uselessuess of requiring active mili- tary duty from the whole body of citizens became more apparent, and was felt to be an unnecessary bur- den. JelTerson in his annual message in 180.'5. recom- mended that the militia be classined according to ages, and thought that those from eighteen to twenty- six years of age would form a sufficiently large body to be subjected to any duty in time of peace. This proposition was taken up by Congress, and in various forms was the subject of debate in successive ses- sions, until the war of 1812 put an end to the discus- sion without any result having been reached. Madison was almost as urgent in liis appeals to Con- gress to amend the militia law as JelTerson had been. In his annual message in 1810 he advanced anew ])roposition in the suggestion that the commissi(med and non-conunissioned officers of the militia should he assembled in annual camps of instruction at the ex- pense of the general government: and in his last an- nual message, in 1816. he earnestly reeonunended a reorganization of the militia, and classifying Ihem ac- cording to age. Pronqited bylhe reconiniendal ions of Madison, the Fourteenth Congress, in 1816. di- rected the Secretary of War to prepare anil report a plan for the organization of the militia. Secretary of War (Iraham reported to the following Session, re- commending very forcibly that the militia be divi- ded into three <'lasses aceoriling to age, anil thai the two younger,; classes be detailed and required lo assemble annually in large camps of instruclion and l)e arnu'd. eipiipped. and subsisted at the ex- pense of the general government. This report was referred lo a eommiltee of which (ieneral Harrison ((then a Representalive from Ohio; was chairman. Harnson took a deep interest in the subject, and pre- sented a careful report. lie deemed it essential that the whole body of the people should be instructed in military mailers, and fortius purpose recommended that mililary instruction be made a branch of educa- ticm in every school in the country. Believing that it would entail loo great an expenditure of time and money to subject the whole enrolled militia to drill and military training, he revived the old proposi- tit>ns first made by President Madison, and recom- mended tliiit the Officers and Sergeants be as.seinbled annually in camps of instruction, be paid for their time, and be tlioroughh' drilled and instructed at the expense of the general government, which he esti- mated would amount to about one and a half million dollars a year. Harrison continued the agitation of the subject while he remained in Congress, and made reports in 1818 and 1819 urging action. ■ In 182.') Secretary of War Barl)our addressed a cir- cular letter to the Governors of all the States and to many citizens most prominent in military and civil life, setting forth that it had long been apparent that some change in the militia law was uecessar}-. and asking their views on the subject. He then conven- ed a Board composed of some of the most distinguish- ed officers of the army and militia for the purpose of considering the question, and sidjmitted to them the voluminous correspondence that had resulted from his circular letter. It is worthy of note that the president of this Board was Winfield Scott, then a Jlajor General in the Army, and that Zachary Tay- lor.then a Lieutenant-colonel of Artillery. was one of the members. The militia were represented on the Board by General Cadwalader of Pennsylvania, Gen- eral Sumner.of Massachusetts, and General Daniel of Xorlh Carolina. The report of this Board, together with all the papers and correspondence connected with it, was transmitted to Congress by the Presi- dent. The Board reported that they considered the primarj' defect of the militia law to be in the excess of numbers which it held to service. They recom- mended that a select corps of militia be formed, to consist in each State of one brigade for every Con- gressional Representative, and that the officers of this select militia be assembled in camps of in.struc- tion ten days in each year, and be paid by the gen- eral government for their time and traveling ex- penses. They also recommended that the office of Adjutant General of militia be created, and that, on the application of State Executives. the United States shoidd furnish officers to instruct the annual camps. In 183.5 President Jackson, in his amuial message urged C^ongress. in his usual forcible style, to give their attention to the subject. and among other things recommended that volimteer organizations be en- couragetl and inducements held out for their forma- tion. The Secretary of War (General Cass), in his annual report, gave his views on the subject, and represented the necessity of some legislation. Ur- gent etfort waf nuide in Congress to secure agree- ment to some plan, but without success. In 1840 Secretary of War Poinsett submitted a jilan to Congress. Ajiparenlly d<>spairing of securing agreement Xo any plan that sinqily changed and per- petuated the existing system, he proposed a radical reform that strelehed" the constitutional powers of the general government lo such an extent as to cause opposition lo it on that ground. His plan was to divide the militia into three classes -the active, re- serve, and mass. The active militia to consist of 100.000 men. apporticmed to the respective States. and each Stale lo be rei|uired to keep its (piola filled at all tiuu'S, either by voluntary enlistment or draft. One-fourlh of the active mililia to go out of .service ■imuially and be enrolled in the reserve corjjs. The mass of llie mililia not lo be subject to any duly in lime of jieace. He proposed thai Congress should by law aiilhorize the PresidenI to order the active niililia inio the service anil pay of Ihe United Slates for tliJrly days iu each year for i he purpo.se of placing UIUXIA. 355 MILITIA. them in campa of instriiftion. This appRiirs ti> have been tlie lust derided allcmpt to save the de- oayiiiK system from <lissoliili()ii, willi tlie exeeplion of an eli'orl in 1H4(), when a liill was reporh'd lo renii'dy the excess of mmmiIiit of the militia hy lim- itinfj tlie enrollment in lime of peaee to those be- tween twenty-one and Ihirly years of ai;e, who shonld lie formed into a lej^ion of active militia in oaeii State, the olliccrs of which should serve an- nually in camps of instructiou at the expense of the general frovernment. The militia system, iiy this time, was virtually dead ; durini,' the many years ilevoled to dehalinfj a remedy for its defects it iiad gradually sunk, until it no longer existed except on the Statute-hook. In the mean time, in all the States, by a process of " natural selection," there had sprung up volunteer organizations of militia, and the Slates, by fostering and encouraging Ihem, had supplieil the (leticieiicies of the general law. These volunleer organizations made possible and gave elliciency lo that splendid body of volunteers whose soldierly (pialili<'S and deeds of valor in the Mexican War gave such re- nown to our arms. After that war still greater in- terest was manifested in the volunteer militia ; the States devoted to Ihem the meager supply of arms and e(|ui|)ments olitained aninnilly from the general gov- ernmcMt. which in many inslances they supplemenled by large appropriations of Ihcir own, and Ihe volun- teiT mililia continued lo increasi' in nundiers and efficiency until the lireaking out of the " War of the Kebelliou." Of that fearful struggle it is safe to say that the magnificent armies which were so quickly formed on both sides were only made possible by the facts that the efforts of regularly educated ofli- cers in drilling and disciplining them were supple- mented by those who had received a partial military training in the volunteer militia. .Inst before Ihe war, in ll-KiO, an earnest effort was made in the House of Representatives to increase the annual appropriation for furnishing arms and equip- ments to ttie mililia. In urging the measure, Mr. Vallandigham reviewed the militia system and spoke of the volunteer system replacing it. asserting that they would '' in time become the National (iuard of America." After the close of the War of the Rebellion, an- other most decided effort was made, both in the House and Senate, to reorganize thenulitia, or rather to create a new militia system, and several bills for that purpose were introduced in the Thirty-ninth Congress. Although none of these bills were passed, they contained provisiims that are interesting and suggestive, and some that went lo the extreme limit, if they did not go beyond the constitutional power of Congress in the premises. It w'as. however, a purpose common to all the bills to form au act- ive volunteer militia, and that seemed to be ac- cepted as the true solution of the militia question. This closes the history of the efforts to achieve a satisfactory militia system, with the exception of an interesting report by the Chief of Ordnance, and a report by the Senate Committee on Jlilitary Affairs (S. Report 50, second .session Forty-tifth Congress), both recommending that the permanent appropria- tion for providing arms and equipments for the mi- Mtia be increa.sed'to .fl, 000, 000 a year. The three following points are at present urged as the proper remedy for the defects in the Militia sys- tem : First. To substitute a volunteer militia, limited in number in time of peace, for the existing compul- sory system that applies to the whole body of the people, and which has become so inapplicable as to be utterly disregarded. Second. To make such provisions as will aid and encourage the formation of volunteer organizations, remove the disparity in their numbers and discipline tliat exists between ditfercnt States, ami promote their efficiency to a common standard that will make thi-m availal)!e for all the purpoBCB for which a mi. litia is reipiired. Thiril. To abolish the present system of a perma. nent appropriation to provide arms an<l equipmi-nl)) for tlie mililia, and subslilute provisions prescribing with wlial amis and equipments the mililia shall be furnished, and on what conditions— leaving it lo tin; discretion of Congress to regulate the aiiniiul ujipro- prialions for that purpose. In relation to the lirsl frature, the substilulion of the volunlier system, Ihe lirief sketch we have given of Ihe history of the mililia law will liave made il apparent that the chief defect of Ihe existing system was early recognizicl to be in the excess of numbers lield to milili.-i duty by it. As tliecounlry increased in iiopiilalion this excess of numbers corresponding- ly increas<d, until the law lias now bi'come a prac- tical alisurdity by re(|uiring to-day actual militia ser- vici; from six and one-half millions of tiien. We have seen that for more than half a century the Itest and wi.sest statesmen of our country endeavored to procure agreemeni to some plan that would limit the militia to a practicaljle number, in order that it might be made an elfective body. The more the coimtry increased in population, and the more the population became absorbed in the pursuit of wealth and material prosperity, the more imi)racticabli' be- came the provisions of the militia law, until tinally it sank into such utter contempt that all iireiensi- of regarding it ceased- The "cornstalk mililia" and the annual "trainings," with all their accompanying parodies on military efticiencj', remain only as recol- lections of our boyhood days. Volunteer organiza- tions gradually increased as regard of existing law decreased, and, though unrecognized by the general law, and without any of the. aids or requirements necessary to secure efliciency, they have managed to maintain a precarious existence. .Hid have nn- questionalily been of great and essential service to the country. We think it good policy and true statesmanship to acknowledge the changesand avail ourselves of the results which time and the force of circumstances have brought aliout, and we there- fore assent to the proposition that the volunteer militia of the State— the mililia in fact— should be recognized as the militia of the law, and provided for accordingly. On the second feature, the provi- sions made for promoting the efficiency of the vol- unteer militia and securing a uniformly high stan- dard in -Jill the States, we tielieve there can be no disagreement. Theunorganized levies which, un<ler the name of militia, have been called into service in all the great wars of the country, while they occa- sionally performed some brilliant service, have not only shown the inefficiency of existing law, but have also served to make the term "militia" one of con- tempt and derision. It is not denied that great dis- parity exists in the character and efficiency of the existing volunteer organizations between the Slates and even within the States. During the "Labor Riots of 1877" some volunteer organizations proved utterly undi.sciplined and unreliable, while others performed conspicuous and valuable service. Con- gress has never exercised its constitutional power " to provide for organizing, arming, and disciplin- ing" the volunteer militia. On the ccmtran.-. Ihe volunteer organizations have maintained themselves at their own expense, with such aid as by unwearied exertions they may have been able to procure from their respective States. It is due solely to the want of support and of uniform requirements as to drill and discipline that the volunteer organizations have not all reached the same efficiency that characterize a part of them. The men who constitute the volun- teer organizations are naturally those who have some love or aptitude for military affairs, and we therefore see no reas(ni why. un<ler the proper regu- lations for their discipline and training, they cannot attain a high and uniform efficiency. That they have been or are in any particular inefficient is not MILITIA. 356 MILITIA. an arsiument against the possibility of making them all that we desire. We therefore consiiler the sug- gestions made, to aid and encourage tht volunteer system and to exact certain requirements of them, as both politic iin<l wise. We deem Ihem politic, for the reason that the aid they offer is conditioned on the volunteers complying with the provisions which are deemed essential to'their efficiency. We deem them wise, for the reason that we believe that under their operations a volunteer militia will be created, which, although remaining under the ex- clusive control of the States, will, when its services are required by the general government, be fovmd ready and ecpiipped for instantaneous service and fully efficient to perform the duties of militia, which Jefferson defined to be " not only to meet the first attack, but, it it threatens to be permanent, to main- tain the defense until regulars can be engaged to re- lieve them." It is also worthy of consideration that in encouraging the volunteer system you provide for disseminating military knowledge and a partial milit*yy training among those who would be most likely to respond to a call for volunteers in time of war. It has been agreed by all who have preceded us in considering the subject that, whatever might be the expense of securing an eflicient militia, it would be so small, as compared with the benefits to be derived from it, that it sliould not be considered, and would, in fact, be covered by indirect savings of expense which it would render practicable in ofiier directions. While the States have applied all the existing permanent appropriation for the militia to providing the volunteer militia, the issue of property under that appropriation is limited to arms and equipments. This has been not only the greatest obstacle to the advancement of the volunteer militia, but has also prevented them from being useful on the occasions when theirservices have been required, Tents and camp equijjage are absolutely necessary to enable the volunteers to go into camps of instruc- tion and learn the elementary duties of soldiers. A plain, serviceable, and unostentatious uniform, over- Organized strength. So STATES. 2 g e o • 1 a 2 O e O 2 c 5 - o aO 2 a e o a s o -3 ZJ a _o S a o O 'S o H o a Ill E- ho la a :a 3 03 ^-' §>, S S.2 3 1878 1879 1879 1879 1878 1879 1879 1878 1879 1879 1879 1879 1 1 1 2 4 19 3 6 3 1 1 10 8 14 17 35 15 205 35 50 4 8 1 9 27 13 95 76 37 264 67 174 1 6 23 41 107 38 215 99 134 851 130 451 6 66 161 61 143 65 329 214 193 1,339 235 687 14 81 185 814 1.805 605 3,699 1.764 2,895 18,941 2,988 9,063 76 1,164 2,450 875 1,948 670 4,028 1,978 3,088 20.280 3,223 9,750 90 1.245 2,635 78.458 Ne w Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island 48.770 44.366 225.461 42,969 73.961 567,669 248,127 Pennsylvania Delaware 433.371 24,073 89.344 Virginia 315.200 100.000 1879 1879 7 16 18 163 41 67 196 748 263 993 2,. 521 10,812 3,783 11,805 200,000 95,856 180.000 Florida 1878 8 50 100 315 373 5,130 5.503 25.903 170,000 1879 1879 1879 1877 1879 1876 1879 1879 1879 1879 1879 1879 1879 1877 1879 1879 7 5 1 14 2 5 1 32 1 6 16 ■ 8 12 51 4 6 3 11 1 5 9 206 87 953 48 79 531 80 111 548 77 92 13 331 38 127 9 3,757 1,306 16,377 722 1.284 8,374 1,.544 1,799 7,394 1,347 1,824 204 4,581 696 2.047 135,178 47 1 197 4 149 84 710 43 72 400 73 71 387 67 78 8 369 36 106 2,.551 1,119 15,424 674 1,205 7,343 1.464 1,688 0.846 1.370 1.732 191 4 250 658 1.920 137.973 Texas 1.50.000 100.000 218,000 1 1 239,564 Oil jo 114 500.000 320.546 5 3 1 3 1 1 1 5 23 107 5 5 1 50 300.000 350,000 300,000 250,(100 120,000 197,456 Nebraska 46 000 11 121.070 20.000 1878 1879 1878 3 7 6 34 88 7 33 130 36 59 357 49 582 2,340 553 641 2,.597 603 14,878 42 114,.565 29,000 Grand aggregate 145 931 1,605 6,198 8.869 117,037 125,906 6,516,758 MILITIA ADJUTANT. 357 UlLITIA ABJU'i'ANT. cduls, liliiiikc(s, liiivcrsucks, ranlccns, dr., are cs- Hciitial lo Uic outfit of tlx' volunteer, lliiil hr iiiiiy be ciilleil into Herviee iit a nioinenl's warniinr, ami that lliH .services may l)e ell'eelive wljen caKeil for. (Id |)ai,'e ■H'lll U an alistrael of llie inililiii force of the United Stales foruanizeil anil unorL'ani/.eilj, ac- cording' to tlic latest returns received at llie olllce of the Adjutant General, United States Artny, furnislwd for the information of the ('onf;ress of the United Slates in compliance vi'itli section 3^3 of the Keviscd Slaliiles. The existini; vohinleer militia are provided with what is essential. !-ioiu<' of the Stales have made very lari:e appropriations to sup|)lemeiit tlii' amount here- tofore allowed b}' theOeneral ( iovernineni, anil many of the States, as we have before menlioned. have now in possession considerable amounts of arms and eipiipments thai have been issued to them by the fieneral f;overnnient. It is Iherefore dillicult to es- tiniale what would be the cost of making up dehc- iencies, and of conipletinij the armiu'.:; and eipiip- mcnt and of |)rovidiim; luiiforms and i:nnp e(|uipaire for the vohinleer militia in the manner eonlemplaled, but we .judge that three million dollars wo\dd be am- ple for that purpose, and that itsappropriation mi;j;ht be distributed into the budget of three successive years. After the volunteer militia should be once "completely armed and e(pupped, we juil;;e that an annual expenditure of $750,000 would mainlaiu it in proper condition. These sums are comparatively very small, scarcely larsjc enough to excite either opposition or comment, being smaller than was fre- qiU'ntly contemplated and advocated in the earlj' days of tlie Republic. The annual expenditure would be less than is required to sustain a regiment of cavalry in the regular service, and it cannot for a moment be questioned that a standing force of l.'JO,- 000 thoroughly armed, equipped, and well-drilled volunteers, ready to take the ticld atthe lirst mo- ment of danger, would be as eJTective in the national defense as one regiment of regulars, ami that the ex- istence of such a force would be seriously considered by any Nation contemplating an attack on us. In this connection it is not improper for us to observe thattlie Senate C'onunittee on Military Affairs in the Forty-tiftli Congress recomniended that the annual appro])rialiou fcr the militia be increased to iji 1,000, - 000, very pertinently observing that "if .fSOO.OOO was none too much in 1808, certainly $1,000,000 is none too much now " There is no feature in our form of government in which the powers of the general government and the rights of the States are so intimate'.y interwoven as in the jurisdiction over the militia. One of the stated primary causes for forming the Union was to "provide for the common defense." In the opinion of the framers of the Constitution, a well-regidated militia was the essential means of providing for the common defense, and they accordingly framed the clause to provide tliat Congress sliall have power — to provide for organizing, arming, and disciplin- ing the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be enqjloyed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the ap- pointment of the officers and tlie authority of train- ing the militia according to the discipline prescribed, by Congress. The purposes and provisions of this clause are clearly and distinctly stated and scarcely admit of misinterpretation. The States are expressly limited to the appointment of the officers and to training the militia, and in training it, it will be observed, ac- cording to the discipline prescribed l)y Congress If the certain power conveyed to Congress by the words "organizing, arming, and disciplining" could bedoulited, the debates of tlie Federal Convention are sufficiently clear to remove them. The Commit- tee that reported the clause, on being asked the scope of the powers that they intended to convey, replied that they meant bj' "organizing" proportioning the ofllcer.s to the men ; l)y "arming," not only lo pro- vide for uidformily of arms, but llie uuthorily lo regulate the modesof furnishing thiMn, either tjy the miiilla Iheinselves, the Stall' governmenis, or the na- tional Treasury ; and by "iliseii)lining," to prescribe the manual exercise, evolutions, etc., and that laws for disciplining miiHt involve; penalties and every- thing necessary for enforring pi-nalties. TJie debates of the Federal Convinlion on adopt- ing the clause, Ihouirh short, are pertinent. jMr. Mason, who inlrodiiced the subiect, llioiight that all powers overthe militia should be vested in the gene- ral government, which he suliseipiently morlilied liy suggesting that this absolute power should lie limit- ed to a iiortion of the militia at a time, so that tiy serving in rotation the whole body woulfl finally be disciplined. Mr. Madison Ihouirhl that the regula- tion of the militia naturally apiartained to the au- thority charged with the public defense, that it flid not seem in its nature divisible between two distinct authorities, and that the discipline of the militia is evidently a national concern, and ought to be pro- vided for in the national Constitution. The clause as reported by the Committee had but little opposition, it being conceded, as stated by Mr. Handoli)h. tliat reserving to theStateslheapiiointinent of the officers was all the security they needed. .Mr. Dayton and Mr. Ellsworth expressed Ihem.selves in favorof plac- ing greater limitation on the power of Congress, but a motion made for that )iuri)Ose received only one vote, that of Mr. p^llsworlh, who moved it. and the clause, as it now stands, wasthereforcaihipled with a marked unanimity in sentiment and vote. We have only adverted lo the question of the con- stitutional power of Congress as a matter of historic- al interest in connection with the general subject, for whatever (pieslion there may he as to the constitu- tionality of the existing law, or of some of the plans heretofore suggested for reorganizing the militia, none can possibly arise on the proposed reorganiza- tion, for it is a happy solution of all the constitution- al questions involved. There is not a compulsory feature presented. It simply says to the Slates that if they will by their own laws provide for and enforce such requirements as Congress deems necessary to secure an efiicient militia. Congress will exercise its unquestioned constitutional power, and provide for arming such militia out of the national Treasury. ■ From this review of the subject we are satisfied that time has solved those difficulties of the militia system for which the wisdom of our predecessors could find no acceptable remedy, and that the great increase in the population of the country now makes it not onl)' practicable but desirable to substitute the volunteer system for enforced militia duty in time of peace. The subject is one on which there never liave been any political differences, and on which none should exist. Washington, as the exponent of the Federalists, was unceasing in his efforts to procure legislation, and Jefferson, as the leader of the Anti- Federalists, was even more importunate in urging it. In view of these facts, and of the fact that we now have practically no militia system, and that the strength and perpetuity of our republican form of government largely depend on the existence of a well-regulated militia, we indulge the hope that the subject'will receive the earnest consideration whicli it deserves, and that some decisive action will be taken on it. See Stote Trofp.i. MILITIA ADJUTANT. -^.\n officer appointed to each regiment of militia to superintend the drill and in- struction of the regiment. He is taken from the reg- ular army. The following are the regulations re- cently issued relative to the duties of Adjutants of Militia: -■ 1. The Militia Adjutant will be, during the nrtn- training period, the representative at the brigade depot of the officer commanding the militia battalion or battalions. "2. He will raise and enroll all recruits for the MILITIA AETILLEKY. 358 MILLING. militia battalion or battalions, and superintend tlie out-statiou recruiting for the army and the militia as required. "3. He will have military charge of the militia staff during the non-training period, and the military charge and supervision of tlie drill of the militia re- cruits when they are trained in large bodies; militia recruits, when they come up singly or in small num- bers, will be attached to squads of line recruits, and they will in that case be under the supervision of the officer of the brigade depot. 4. Tlie duties specified in the foregoing paragraph will have priority over all others, but when Militia Adjutants are not employed upon them, they will be liable to perform such other depot and sub-district duties as the officer commanding the brigade depot or sub-district niav direct. MILITIA ARTILLERY.— Forms a large body of ar- tillery in atldition to that of the regular forces of Great Britain. Formerly the militia artillery was called upon to exerci.se with all kinds of ordnance, tut since 1873 the}' only practice with garrison and coast guns. Each regiment, however, has some Armstrong guns for the drill of recruits; but, from the absence of horses, its organization into batteries remains incomplete. The places of meeting chosen for the yearly drills (two months for recruits, and one for a regiment) are some fortified poin*sof the coast, where the men are taught to exercise with garrison and field pieces. There are 30 regiments of artillery, composed of 7'.)() officers, 06 surgeons, 15,978 men. MILITIA RESERVE.— A force^created by the Act of 1867 ; its numbers not to exceed one-fourth of mili- tia quota; the men to be enlisted for 5 years, during which time they remain on the strength of militia regiments, but are liable to be drafted into the army in time of war. MILLAR GUNS.— Guns introduced into the English service liy General Millar in 1827. The thickness of metal at the breech is considerable, and comparative- I ly slight in the chase. Two of his 8-inch guns are still in the service. Besides these guns. General ilil- lar also introduced the 10-inch and 8-inch iron how- itzers and the present L. S. S. B. iron mortars. MILLAR HIND SIGHT.— A sight consisting of a block of guu-metal, with a thumb-screw, lead pack- ing, a brass scale, and two screws. The blocks are of five different patterns. The scale differs for each nature. It is tightened by a thumb-screw working against a brass spring in the block, and is in every' case graduated to j degrees. It is attached to the rear of the base ring at an angle of 76'-'. MILLBANK — A large prison. situated on the banks of the Thames, Chelsea. All soldiers under sentence of Courts-Martial for lengthened terms of imprison- ment in England are committed to the military divi- sion of this prison. Soldiers also sent from abroad un'ler punishment for lengthened periods are gener- ally sent to Jlillbank, or to the military prisonin the district in which they disembark. MILL-CAKE. — The incorporated materials for gun- powder, in tlie form of a dense mass or cake, ready- to be subjected to the process of granulation. As the process of incorporation approaches completion, the (;harge requires to be carefully watched, in or- der to insure each finished charge leaving the mill in as nearly as ])ossil)Ie the same state as regards mois- ture. The appearance of the ])owder wlien finished depends mainly on the state in which the charges leave the mill. The finished charge usually has from two to three per cent, of moisture. If loo much moisture be present as the incori)oralion draws to a close, the charge nuist be repeatedly pushed u]i witli wsliirer; if too little, some more must be added from the watering-pot. Tlie color of the charge gives a very good indication of the amoMul^of mois- lirre present. When the process is finished, the charge, now known «.» mill-mice — being pari ly in the state of soft cake, and partly of dust— is scraped and swept up from the mill-bed, placed in wooden tubs, and transferred to the charge-house to await inspection. If the charges are found to be of a ])roper color and consistency, samples from each are taken, wliich, after being roughly granulated by hand and dried, are Hashed on a gliiss-plate to ^cer- tain the thoroughness of the incorporation they have undergone. This flashing is more a matter of form than anything else, for the mill-cake seldom fails to give satisfactory results. See (junpuwder. MILLER MAGAZINE-GUN.— This gun is an adapta- tion of a magazine to the United States service Spring- fieUl rifle. The alterations are as follows : The or- iginal receiver and breech-pin are replaced by a re- ceiver alone the tang being solid with it. The upper ' rear pari of the receiver gives the bearing for the I cam, while the space ordinarily filled by the breech- pin if utilized as a channel through which the cart- ridges are fed from the magazine in tlie butt-stock. The ejector-stud is replaced by one beveled on its rear as well as its front, in order that the cartridges may slip easily over it into the chamber. The magazine, is a tube slotted through its whole length. To the upper side of the side of the tube fiat springs are screwed. At the end of each spring and riveted to it is a lug, beveled on its rear service ; all these lugs pass through holes cut in the magazine and serve to separate the cartridges. A ratchet works in the slot in tlie magazine-tube. It is operated by a slide at- tached to the guard-plate. When the slide is drawn back the teeth of the ratchet pass in the rear of the heads of the cartridges. On being returned to posi- tion each tooth moves a cartridge forward, the lugs on the springs being pressed out of the way by the cartridges themselves. At the front of the ratchet is a cartridge-stop, held up b}' a spring. The stop is prevented from rising too far by a pin. Wlien the ratchet is withdrawn the stop-spring jields — since the cartridge cannot move backward on account of the shoulders of the lugs on the springs— the stop descends and is drawn under the firstcartridge, which is then free to leave the magazine and enter the cham- ber, gravit}' being tlie motive force, the gun being held muzzle downward. When the ratchet is moved forward the 2 1 cartridge occupies the place of the 1st, the 3d of the 2d, and so on. The ratchet is pre- vented from entering the tube by two pins which bear against the outer surface of the tube along the edges of the slot. It is held in contact with the tube by a spring, which is kept from slipping off the bot- tom of ;thc ratchet by two forks. The magazine is loaded through a gale in the butt-plate. A projec- tion im the breech-block hooks over a pin and pre- vents motion of the ratchet when the piece is lock- ed. As a magazine-gun, five motions are necessary to operate it, viz : cocked, opened, loaded (by oper- ating the ratchet by the slide), closed, fired. The same number of motions is necessary as a single- loader. This gun carries six cartridges in the mag- azine and one in the chamber. The last cartridge will not feed from the magazine, however, until forced down by others when the magazine is reloaded. See Magazine-nun, ami Springjiild Ji/'flt'. MILLING.— Tlie term "milling" as generally un- derstood, means the cutting of inetals by aid of ser- rated revolving cutters, eacli having a suitable number of cutting-teeth. Milling cutters have been used in this country for many years, but until re- cently Willi only a limileil amount of success, owing to the expense anil dillicully of iiroduciug their cut- ting edges and keeping them in order. This was next toimpossible before the introduction of a small emery-wheel and compound slides, etc., for carrying the milling cutter wliile being re-sharpened. Hence in the old system of milling, v.hicli did not permit of the re-sbiirpening of the hiird [leclh, the results were, that after much expense and time had been bestowed on a culler (including a (inantily of hand- labor spent upon it while in its unsliarpeued state), the whole was as it were upset by the process of tempering ; the accuracy which had previously been HILLING. 350 KILLIHa. iinpiirlcd lo it, liciiitr iisiiully <|"'''' 'l'''*'''"y<"(l liy lli'' aclinii (if 111!' liri' ;uiil siiildcii cijcjIiiiL'. In siimi' cases the culliT would lie fi)iiiiil sli'j:lilly warped iirt wisleil; in (iIIkts it, woidd lie oval or eef:enl,rie ; mid tiiosI In'iineiilly, when set to work o? ex|Mri-'ive and iinrelinblo prnrrss of rp-sharpcning by liand-liliri'^ Mail Id lie ;.'oiie tliroiifrli oiiei- iiioro ; llieii llie re-li-rii|)<Tiii;;, wliieli caused the eiiltiT aj^ain to become; warped, swelleil, or eccentric ; and eiicli niotlK'rsit. woiMil tie oval or ecf:eniric ; aiiii niosi , lo oecome w.ii pen, nnemii, oi i-eieiniji , unn I'lieii frciinenlly, when set to work on a trnly-rnnniiiK li""' it was siitiji'cted to the lieat of lh(r lire, It raa mandrel in the millini; machine, not more "than one- the risk of beinj; destroyed by cracking when plunged third of the number of its le<lh were foniid to 1)<; I into a cold bath. ....ifincr lit all. the others not comiiej- in contact with' We reiiresent in Fit'. 1 the Brown and ShiirDe iniril '" lit* liUUHUl ,'i II. T 11,1. II ,, ,1, i'',i,i>, ,,r •"■ cnttin;; at all. the others not cominir in contact with tlie work. This really meant that not more than oni' third of the pro]KT feed per revoliilion could be ap We represent in FIl'. 1 the I5rown and Shurpe niiiv<irsal millini; inachinc. which has all the move- ments of a plain milliicj- macirme, and the following plied, and not more than one-thir.l of|tlie proper work produced. Nor was this tlie only drawback: the quality of the workmanship produced by such a millini: cutter was not of the best, and deteriorated hourly from blunting and wear. Sucli a culler would probably not work for more than two whole days before it would require to be asain softene 1 by being heated red-hot and allowed to cool gradually. The in addition: — the carriage moves and^is fed auto- matically, not only at right angles to the spindle, but at any angle, and can be stopped at any required point. On the carriage, centers are arranged in which reamers, drills ;ind mills can be cut either strai::ht or spiral. The head which holds one center can be raised to any angle, and conical blanks placed on an arbor iii it, cut straight or spiralling. The MILLING. 360 MILLING. cone has three diameters, each 3^ inches face. In addition, the cone is strongly geared, thus making six changes of speed. Tlicre are. also, the same number of changes of feed. The spindle boxes are of hardened east steel, and, together with the spin- dle bearings, are carefully ground, and are provided with means of compensation for wear. The spindle will carry a cutter arbor projecting 15 inches, which is supported by an adjustable center at the outer end. Cutters of eight inches or less diameter can be used. The horizontal movement of the spiral clamp bed upon the knee, in a Hue with the spindle of the machine, is 6i inches, and the vertical move- ment of the spiral bed centers below the spindle centers is 11 inches. The spiral bed can be set at angles of 3.5" each way from center line of spindle, and can be fed automatically 33 inches, taking also 23 inches between the centers, and will swing lU inches. The hole througli the chuck anr! iTpira'l head is U inches. In add'ition to all the more com- mon kinds of plain surface milling, this macliine is applicable to a great variety of work, among which on a mandrel of the small cutter-grinding machine ; th" mandrel itself is adjusted vertically and liori- zontally Ijy ordinary slides, and by means of a ^yorm and worm-wheel, to its required angular po- sition ; and each tooth is ground or re-sharpened by passing at once rapidly f(3rward and backward under a small revolving emery-wheel. The man- drel fits easily into the cutter which is being ground, so that the latter may be readily turned round by the thumb and linger of the operator. Milling cut- ters are made of the required form to suit the va- rious shapes they are intended to produce ; and all the ordinary forms can be used in any milling machine eillief of the horizontal or vertical class" The face-milling cutters. Fig. 3. are of disk form, and are among the most useful. They are constructed to cut on one face and on the periphery ; and they produce very perfect finish, especially on cast-iron. This form is also very useful for all kinds of stepped work, wliich even when not of the simplest form, can be readily and reliably finished to standard breadths and depths ; so that the pieces may be in- Fig 4. may be mentioned the following : cutting nf bevel and spur wheels, worm wheels and racks ; milling of cir- cular arcs and slots ; squaring of bolt heads and nuts ; fluting of tops, reamers. &c., cutting the teeth of mills, either straight or spiral ; slotting of screw- heads ; making of twist drills; drilling of holes on the periphery or face of plates; die-sinking, milling key-ways in spindles, &c., &c.; proving as its name indicates, a machine adapted for universal applica- tion to milling purposes. It is proper now to describe the modem system of making and maintaining the improved milling cut- ters. A cast-steel forging, or l)lank as it is usu- ally styled, is bored, and then turned to its proper shape in a lathe. The teeth are then machined out of the solid to the required forms, in a uni- versal milling or other machine. The work is so accurately jiroduced, direct from the machine, that no costly hand-labor need be expended ui)Ou the milled cutter, which is tiiken direct from the mill- ing maclnne to the hardening furnace, and tem- pered. The hole in the center of the cutter is then ; carefully ground out to standard size, so that it ! may tit accurately and without shake on the nian- «irels both of the grinding machine and of its own ! milling machine. The culler or mill isnowplaeeil Fig. 6. terchanffeablp, and fit together without the slightest shake or play, just as they leave the machine, and without any hand-labor bestowed on them. Another ordinary and useful form is the cylindrical cutter, with teeth cut spirally over its circumference. This is largely employed for cutting flat, vertical, or hor- izontal surfaces, for finishing concave and convex curves, and for complicated forms made up of straight lines and curves. With this spiral arrangement of the teeth, and with reliable means of re-grinding or re-sharpening them, very high-class machine work can be produced. Some experiments liave been made by cutting a spiral groove or thread into the outer surface of one of this class of mills, and thus re- ducing the aggregate length of its cutting surface. Other mills again arc made in the form of sm;dl cir- cular saws, varying from ^J to Ik in. or more in thick- ness. Tiie teeth in some of these arc sinqily cut around the circumference ; others have these teeth cxti'nding SOUK' dist;ince down each side, their edges radiating from the center of the mill. Towa-d the center they are reduced in thickness so as to clear themselves. These cuttersareusefid foragrcat vari- ety of work ; for instiince the cutting of key-ways, parting otT or cutting through pieces of metal, and making parallel slotsof various widths, for the broad- KILLINa. mi MILLINO. or of which two or moro riittors mny bo nwrl side bv Hide. Coniciil iiiid iiiiL'uhir iiiiHiiiL; ruttcrs arc iiiucli c>iM|)l()yo(l for a ureal variely of work, such as llienit- tini; of rimers, tlie iiiakiii!; of iiiilliii^ cullers Uietii- selves.bcvclintt.ctilliiii; llie serraled part of hand and tliumb-acrews, inilH,etc. Any loniphx fonns. such us tlu' spaces bet ween llie leelliof spur, miler, and otiier wheels, I'an l)e machined by usiiii; what are known as tlic paleill cutters, which can he rc-sliiirpencd as often as rc((uireil liy simjily ^rriiidiuL; the face of eacli tootli. They are so coustrncled that, liowcver often tliey arc re-ground, lliey never lose their original curved forms, and always produce the same (hpth of cut. One of these cutters, for instance, will cut the same standard shajies of teeth in a spur-wlieel, after it has been u.sed for years, as it did the first day it was started. Fiijufes, :i, 4, and n illustrate some forms to which tliese cutters are adapted. There is risk of fracture in niakim.; lar!j;e milling cutlers out of one solid cast steel blank, tlie principal dilticulty being in the teinpering. In practice it is found that if they arc required of larger diameter ly fastonod at any angle, by two square h. ;i'l i r^ ws, one of which is shown in the drawing. Fig. it shows a dividini/ haul iiiul tail Stock, well adapted to tho uses for which it is designed. It has a conipensaling wedg<- for adjusting the halves of the spacing worm gear. and .'in alteration of the usual tail stock pattern so that milling riitters. ailjusted close to the center, pass clear across. With it gears can be accurately s|)iiced, mills cut of straight, conical or irri'giilar forms, taps and reamers tliitcfl and worm wheels gasheil. The slots in the stock allow the head to be elevated from a horizontal to a vertical position. and by supplemental slots in the elevated head, in which llicT heads of clamp l>olts slide, the head can be rje- pressed to :il) dr irri'cs iielow a horizontal line, and .'i degrees beyond a vertical, making 125 deirrees of change, all determined by graduations on stock. The spacing worm gear is made in halves, and all points liable io wear are provided with means of c:om|)ensa- tion for wear. Three inde.x dials go with the hea<l, di- viding all numbers uj) to 50, and as many others as an every day machine shop practice may demand. Fig. 7. than about 8 ins. they are better made of wrought- 1 iron or mild-steel disks, with hardened cast-steel 30 securely titled into them that they do not re- [ quire to be removed. The cutting-edges can then be re-sharpeneil in their own places, as in the case of the ordinary uiilling cutters; thus insuring that each shall liave the same angle of cutting and clearance, run perfectly concentric, and therefore do a maximiun amount of c\itting in a given time. It must however be borne in mind that the smaller the diameter of the milling cutter, the better finish it will produce; and cutters of large diiimeters should only be used to reach into depths where one of smaller diameter cotdd not, or to do the heavier classes of work. Again, the smaller the cutter, the less does it cost to make and maintain. Fig. 6 represents a cutter in connection with the work, showing the position required in cutting the teeth of a spiral cutter. The distance a=one tenth of B. The hole in the cutter is I inch. Fig. 7 shows FJg. 8. Garvin's spiral attachment, designed for use with the milling machine, and which will cut with the proper charge gears, spirals with pitch varying from one turn in 1.66 inches to one turn in (iO inches. Fig. 8 shows the swivel vise, mounted upon a graduated base 3i inches high. This vise is useful for a vari- ety of work, is quickly adjusted, aud may be secure- The spindle of the elevating head has a taper hole clear through, and the end of the spindle is threaded to receive the chuck, allowing pieces of any lenirth less than 1 and l-lli inch diameter to be milled. The tongues under the base of the head and tail stock are of steel, and can be removed to allow swivelling of the head, so that work held in the chuck, such as hollow mills, etc., can be cut under or hooking. The tail stock has a milled head adjusting screw, and screw to bind the spindle central in any position. These centers are designed to be used on milling, shaping and planing machines. The cutting speed which can be employed in mill- ing is much greater than that which can be used in any of the ordinary operations of turning in the lathe, or of planing, shaping, or slotting. A milling cutter with a plentiful supply pf oil, or soap and water, can be run at from 80 to 100 ft. perminute when cutting wrought iron. The same metal can only be turned in a lathe, with a tool-holder having a good cutter, at the rate of 30 ft. per minute, or about one-third the speed of milling. Again, a milling cutter will cut cast-steel at the rate of 25 to 30 ft. per minute. The uicrcased cutting speed is due to the fact that a mill- ing cutter, having some thirty points, has rarely more than three of these cutting at the same time. Each cutting point therefore is only in contact with the metal during one-tenth of each revohition. Thus, if we suppose it is cutting for one second, it is out of ciuitact, and therefore cooling, for the succeeding nine seconds, before it has made a complete revolu- tion and commences to cut again. On the other hand, a turning tool while cutting is constantlj- in contact with the metal: and therels no time for it to cool down and loo.se the heat imparted to it by the cut- ting. Hence, if the cutting speed exceeds .30 ft. per minute, so much heat will be produced that the tem- per will be drawn from the tool. The same ditticulty to a great extent applies to the cutting tools in plan- ing, shaping, and slotting machines. The speed of cutting is governed also by the thickness of the shav- ing and by the hardness and tenacity of the me'al which is being cut; for instance, in cutting mild steel HILLSINS. 362 HILLS SPUS. ■withatraverseof 3-8 in. per revolution or stroke, and drawing, is composed of a liecl-strap, a, or "main with a shaving about US in. thick, the speed of cut- I leather band," as it is called by the inventor, to ting.must be reduced to about 8 ft. per minute. A [ which the rowel-plate, b, is riveted, a lower strap, good average cutting speed for wrought or cast-iron i or under strap, c, passing under the boot : and a is 20 ft. per minute, whether for the lathe, planing, j spur-strap, d. The metallic parts of the spur are the shaping, or slotting machine. i rowel-plate, b, the yoke or frame, 6, the shoulder, h Fig. MILLBIITS, — MTLLBiND. or Fer | DE MOULIN in Heraldry: a charge meaut to represent a mill-iron or- iginally a mere variety in desig- nating the cross moline, but ac- counted a distinct charge by some heralds. See Heraldry. MILLS CARTRIDGE BELT. This Ill-It in its ninin features is not un- ilillrmd. \\\i^^. what has beeu for along time known as the ''Prairie Belt," its distinguishing cliar- acteristic being tliat it is not only made entirely of heavy cotton fabric, but that the whole belt — the main fabric or body of the belt, as well as the loops or thimbles which hold the cartridges — are woven in one solid piece, at one and the same time, in the same loom, there being no sewing whatever in the entire belt. The cylindrical loops are taken from and returned to the main web at the same point, so the cartridge is held in place b.y friction produced by contact with its whole circumference, and are of such accurate form that, aided hy tlie cord at the top of the belt, the cartridge cannot drop out. (all of brass in one piece), the rowel,/, of steel, the rowel-pin of steel, the buckle, k. of brass, eyelet, I, and the brass rivets and burs, marked 1, 2, and 3. The buckle is fastened to the understrap by means of a small projection, which is twined over the bar of the buckle and riveted, the tongue passing through the slot. The eyelet, I, is intended for the insertiou of a button attached to a steel wire double loop for strapping down the trowsers. Tue different steps in the process of manufacture of the rowel-plate and yoke are very simple. The plate and yoke are first punched out flat in a rotary press. The middle slot and the holes for the rivet^ and rowel-pin are then punched. The branches of the yoke are next rounded and bent up b}- means of a punch and die of proper shape. The shoulder is then formed and by the next operation set lirmly down on tlie rowel-plate. The holes are then drilled, and the finished rowel-plate and yoke are pickled ami i)(ilislieil. The hole for the rivet is drilled or punclied, and the rowels are strung on a wire pass- ing tlirougli the hole, placed in the milling machine, and the teeth milled out. '^.M^:AM.I^ As seen in the drawing, the belt has a suitable margin above and below the cartridge and loop wliicli prevents the wearing of the former by rubbing against the clothes of the wearer. Handsome and (lural)lc buckles are furnished, so formed that the wearer may adjust tlic length of the belt to his person without sewing or cutting, and can also adjust the buckle midway Iietwecn the cartridge loops. This belt was recommended by llie Kipiip- meiit Board of 1879, was very fully approved by tlie (Jcneral of the Army, and adopted by the Secretary of War. and is now the Regulation Helt for tlie I'nitcd States Army. See Pwiler-Juiii'H lielt. MILLS SPUR.— This spur, the^invention of (' olonc Anson Mills, I'nited Slates Armv. and shown in the The rowel is riveted in the yoke with a rotary press. The rivet is increased in diameter throughout its entire length by this operation, and the hole in the rowel is made i'^'' larger than the rivet to allow for this increase. The rowel-plate is riveted to the heej-slrap by the same press, as it is not easy to do the rivetingby hand without the iilate. The leather parts are assembled after the rowel-plate has been riveted. The sjiur-strap and heel-strap are placed together and the eyelet inserted; the heel-slrap and under-strap on the other side are assembled in the same manner; the end of the under-strap with the ■slot in it is theu'carefully hiserlcd between the heel- strap and the spur-strap, and the whole securely riveted. V.-p'tf'iw; X mt iX-S7S. Mining. 1. Miners ftt work. !). ScafTol.ling. 8. Filling ore-carl. I' miners ill Strassfiirt satt-mine. G. Steam-nuiiip. 7. I.lfal soctioi. ..f a mine. MIM BASHT. m MINES. MIM BA8HY. -In the East Indies, a commander of Oiii' tliiiiisiuiil liiirsc. MINER'S TRUCK. In lnw gallerips and branches, wlicri' wheelbarrows cuiinot, l)(^ UHed, small wagons or mf/ifj'\H intr/rs, restini; on short east-iron wlieels, answer the same piirpnse, a man pushing l)eliiri(I, assisted hy arinlher piilliiii; wilh a rope in front, wlieu lljc gallery is desceudim;. chief wToiijrht hy the mine often very frrc&t 1» its moral iiilluenee on tlie troops, and especially on the assailants. The hravesl soldiers, who advance with- ont llinciiinu: to the very mouth of the cannon ir/u'r./i. tlinj Hfe, will hesitate to cross jff'und which they suppose to he iindirmined, and on whicli Ihi-y may he dashed to di'slruelion in a moment, without tin; \ power of averting llic uusctii. danger. Tht lirsl em- MilJH Spur. MINES. — Military mines constitute at imce one of the most important dej);irtmenls in niililary enjrin- eeTing, and a very formidable accessory bolh in the i attack and defense of fortresses. A nnlitary mine I consists of a gallery of crreater or less length, run from some point of safety imder an opposim; work, \ or\mderan area over which an at larUiiiir force must pass, and terndnatins; in a chandxT which, beim; stored witli tninpowder, can be exploded at the critical moment. Mines are of great ii.su to the be- 1 ploymenl of ndnes was very ancient,and merely con- sisted in obtaining an entrance to the interior of towns by passing lieneatli the defenses ; but this soon fell into disuse, the chances of success being merely those of introducing a body of men before the besieged discovered the mine. Tlie ne.vluse occured during the Middle Ages, and was more destructive. 'I'he miners went no further than beneath the wall, tlien diverged to either side, and undermined the wall, say for about IIH) feet. During the process, Fii,', 1. siegers in the overthrow of ramparts and formation 1 the wall was sustained Ijy timber props; and these of a l)reach : the '■<"(«((rw/'«(S of the besieged in \ui- being ultimately set on lire, the wall fell: and the dermining the glacis over which the assaulting col- 1 besiegers, wlio had awaited the opportunity, rushed umn nuist charge, and blowing them into the air. in at the lireaeh. This use of ndnes of attack neces- or in destroying batteries erected for breaching, are | silated those of defense winch obtained in medi.Tval equally serviceable. But far above tlie actual mis- 1 times and have ever since kept the name of" cninter. VnSTES. 364 KINES. mine!'." The earliest subterranean defense consisted of a gallery surrounding the fort in advance of the foot of the wall, and termed an enveloping gallery. From this the garrison would- push forward small branches of triliutarj' galleries, wlience they could obtain warning of the approach of hostile miners, and by which they succeeded, at times, in overthrow- ing the biittering-rams or towers of the besiegers. Two centuries appear to have elapsed between the introduction of gunpowder into European warfare and its application to subterranean operations. The first instance of this occurred in l.'JOS, at the siege of the Castello del' Uovo, in tlie bay of Naples, which a French garrison liad succeeded in holding for three years against the combined Spanish and Nea- politan forces. At length a Spanish Captain, Pedro Navarro, devised a gallery into the rock, which he stored with powder, whereof the explosion, hurling portions of the rock and many of the besieged into the sea, caused the immediate capture of the place. At once the use of mines of attack spread through- out Europe : and so irresistible were they soon con- sidered by all military engineers, that it was not at all unusual for the besieger, after preparing his mine, to invite the besieged to inspect it, with the view of inducing the latter at once to surrender. Defense soon availed itself of the new power, and, retaining the enveloping gallery as a base, ran small countermines in many directions, to ascertain, by hearing, the approach of the enemy's sappers — his work being audible, to a practiced ear, at a hori- zontal distance of CO feet. Small charges were then exploded, which, without creating surface disturb- ance, blew in the approaching gallery, and buried the sappers in its ruins. Thus commenced a sj-stem of subterranean warfare, requiring the greatest risk and courage, in which the operator was in constant danger of being suffocated. Of course, in such a system, the balance of advantage lay with the be- sieged, who had ample opportunities, before the siege commenced, of completing his ramifications in every direction, and, if desirable, of revetting them with masonry, which much diminished the chance of being blown in; while the assailant, no longer able to cross the glacis by an open zigzag trench, was compelled to engage in a most uncertain subter- ranean advance. The French engineer, Belidor, in the 18th century restored the advantage to the attack, by demonstrating that the explosion of a very large mass of powder in a mine which had not yet entered the labyrinth of defensive mines, effected the de- struction of the latter for a great space round, clear- ing the way with certainty for the hostile advance. Although the primary purpose of a mine is the ex- plosion of a charge of powder, they are often used as a means of communication between different works, or between different parts of the same work, some being constructed of size sufiieient to permit the passage of four men abreast, of horses, and of artillery. It is, of course, impossible, in such a work as this to give even an outline of the professional part of military mining; but the article would be incom- plete without some allusion to the main principles. Mines are either vertical (x/iafts). horizontal, or in- clined, in either of which latter cases, they are giU- kru'.n, the word "ascending" or "descending" being added if there be inclination. The dimensions range from the i/reat gallery, ft, 6 in. by 7 ft., to the xmiM branrh — tlie last diminutive of the gallery — which has but 'i ft, G in. height, with a breadth of 3 feet. The most fre(|i»'nt work is the rmiimoii (jdtltry, 4 ft. in. by 'A ft., which is considered the easiest for the miner. The sapper's tools are numeroiis, but most in request are his shovel, pickaxe, and, above all, his push-pick, he has, besides, a l)arrow, a small wagon, a lamp, and other accessories. As he advances, it is necessary to line his gallery, al- ways at the top, and almost always at the sides. This he does either by frames — which resemble door- frames, and serve to retain horizontal planks or sheetmg in position against the earth — or by cases somewh.at resembling packing-cases, of little depth, which are used to form the sides and top. With cases, galleries are suppo.sed to advance one foot and a half per hour ; while with frames, the progress is barely more than half that amount. Whena mine is exploded, the circular opening on the surface is cjilled the crater; the line of leant resistance is the perpendicular from the charge to the surface; the half, diameter of the crater is its radius ; and the radius of explosion is a line from the charge to the edge of the crater, on the hypothenuse of the triangle, the revolution of which would form the cone. When the diameter equals the line of least resistance, the crater is called a one-lined crater ; when it doubles that line, a two-lined crater; and so on. The com- mon mine for ordinany operations is the two-lined crater ; and for this the charge of powder should — in ground of average weight and tenacity — be in pounds a number equal to one-tenth of the" cube of the line of least resistance in feet, for example, at a depth of 18 feet, the charge should consist of 583 pounds. In surcharged mines, or globes of com- pression, as introduced by Belidor, vastly greater charges are employed, and craters of sixlines are sometimes produced. The rules, in these cases, for computing the charges vary exceedingly, accord- ing to different engineers, and in every case are very complicated. Previous to the explosion, the gallery- is filled up behind the charge, or tamped, witirearth, sand-bags, etc., to prevent the force of the powder wasting itself in the mine. This tamping must extend backwards for one and a half or twice the length of the line of least resistance. The mine is commonly fired by means of a powder-hose, composed of strong linen, inclosed in a wooden pipe laid carefully through the tamping, or b_y wires from a voltaic battery. One of the most important subjects engaging the attention of the engineer is the proper ventilation of the mines. With the progress of civilization, this sub- ject is assuming, every day, aspects of more and more importance, not only in relation to safety and health, but in a great measure from its vital connec- tion with some of the great enterprises of the day. The entire inadequacy of any of the present arrange- ments or systems to give any thing like a thorough and perfect ventilation becomes niore and more ap- parent as they proceed to greater depths and dis- tances under ground ; which, taken in connection with the unhealthiness, great risk and fearful loss of life from explosions, now of such common occur- rence, suggest the alarming contingency of being compelled to abandon them at no very distant day. The consequences of even a slight interference with the mining interests of Europe are dreadful to con- template. And in some parts of our own country the subject is one of great importance. Sometimes, in connection with high chimneys above ground, additional shafts have been sunk. Fires have been kept in the mines and chimneys, in order to rarefy the air and thus produce draught. This is uot only dangerous, but to a great degree ineffectual. And further, it has been demonstrated that the power re- sulting from the combustion of one pound of coal will give more ventilation than thirty to fifty pounds consumed in the way spoken of. May we not, there- fore, on the whole, pronounce this system a failure? The only remaining plan of note to be considered is the fan. Of late they have received considerable at- tention. Enormous fans of from twenty to fifty feet in diameter, have been constructed at great cxpcn.sc, and rc(pnring ;i vast amount of power to run them. But these considerations would not be of so much consequence, if they accomplished the purpose; but this, in mines of any consideral)le dcptii and extent, tliey do not and can not. Within a certain range, fauM woidd luidoubtedly be beneficial, but fans do not have a |)ositive action either fcu' pressure or ex- haustion. Their capabilities are thus limited. Tlie MINES. 3G5 UIB£6. (lc'<'i)(T and nioro extensive tlie mine, I lie printer the neeessilicH fur tlioruuf^li venlilulion. lleri^ they must iilwiiys fail. The KiioI'h ])iisilive hlower appears to Ik; Hk; most sati.Hfaotory niaehine ever iiHcil by llie mining engineer. With tliis apparatus phieeil at the mouth of the shaft we ean exhaust tlie damps and foul air in any required ((Uiiiitity, and discliarge it entirely out of ami away from tlie mine, where it ean do no liarm whatever. The foul air thus displaced will l)e replaced by ])urc air, which will rush in from the surface in a volunu' equal 1o the air displaced. Thus the most distant parts of the mine; will be e(pudly as well ventilated as any other part and th(; nunc throughout its entire extent may be said to be washed out with pure air. By this method, the foul air re- sulting from blasting in mines and tunnels is ex-' hausletl at the point where the gases are formed, and entirely removed from I he tunnel and replaced with pure air. This venlilalor is shown in scclion in Fig. 1. It consists of two rotary pistons, which are eacii 2:") ft. diameter and 11! ft. wide, and arc built upon steel shafts. Upon each of the shafts are keyed live cast iron disc plates, having llanges at, their circum- ference which are all turned to exactly the same i diameter. In each disc jilate there are three wrought ' iron bars lixed on each siilc of the center, and reach- \ ing Id the outsid<' of the rotary piston ; planed re- cessi'S are provided in the disc plates to receive the bars, which are also secured to the disc plates by bolls turned to tit. The outer ends of the bars are widened, and marked off and slotted to the radius of the outer circle. Angle irons bent to the radius I of the outer circle are riveted to the extremities of i tween the periphery of one of the rotary pistonB and the center circle of the other is also tlie sarnc, and thus in any part of the ventilator the clearance for loss by l\w. returning of the air is not much more llian fl inch. The arrangement of the engine-house and venti- lator building is shown in the engraving ; the dis- charged air escapes through perforated openings in the roof, and, owing to the viTv large area of outlet from the ventilator— the top of the ventilator casing being left entirely ojien tlie air that is being ex- hausted from the pit must necessarily be delivered into tli<; atmosphere at a lower velocity than is usual with other ventilating machines. The range of thi.H blower, when employed as an exhauster, is cer- tainly in advance of any of the previous mechanical ventilators ; and in the writer's opinion this would be a decided advantage in the case (jf an explosion. When the air-doors become disarranged, the ventila- tion of the mine is interfered with at the moment when it would be of the greatest service, and this owing to the limited power of fan ventilation, which can only be dependetl ujion up to about 3 in. water gauge ; but in a case of emergency, with a Root's ventilator similar to the one described, the machine could be instantly driven at its maximum power, and would speedily clear the workings of the choke- damp, fire-damp, or after-damp. Since explosion.s cannot always be prevented, it is of importance that the deadly gases should be drawn out in tlie shortest possible space of time, and replaced with pure air; and from present experience this ventilator appears to be well fitted to suit these reipiirements. rig 2. shows the adaptation of the Cameron min- Fig. 3. the bars, and are covered with ^ in. sheet iron plate; the center circles are also covered with | in. sheet iron jilates on the turned flanges of the disc plates. The sides of the pistons are covered with %vood, and the ends with sheet iron. These rotary pistons re- volve in bearings fixed upon deep cast iron girders, which form the framework of the ventilator pit, and are connected together at each end of the ven- tilator by cross girders. The girders and the cast iron side plates above them are planed on their in- side surfaces, and the stonework of the ventilator pit is dressed off level with the planed girders. The engines to drive the ventilator are a pair of 28 inch cylinders with 4 ft. stroke, and provided with ad- justable cut-off valves. They are placed at right angles to the ventilator, and are connected to it with bevel wheels 9 ft. 2-| in. diameter, two bevel wheels being tixcd upon the crank shaft, each gearing into a bevel wheel keyed upou the end of the ventilator shalts. The engine beds are carried along and fixed upon a stay girder, securely keyed and bolted to the main girder. The main girders are fixed 13 ft. ^ in. apart, therefore, the clearance between the rotary pistons of 13 ft. and the sides of the ventila- tor pit is only ^ in. on each side. At each end of the ventilator pit, and at the bottom on each side of the inlet from the upcast shaft, adjustable packing blocks of timber are fixed^pon hinged iron frames, ! and can be adjusted with screws and nut ; these j blocks are set up quite clo.se to the periphery of the rotary pistons within ^ inch. The clearance be- I ing pump for sinking and recovering shafts. It fre- quently happens in sinking a shaft that it makes water so rapidly that it is very difficult to remove it as fast as necessary, and for the same reason great trouble is experienced in lowering an ordinary hori- zontal ptjmp from one level to another ; and in attempting to recover old mines fhat liave been " drownecl out," the difficulty is the more serious, because of the large surface below to make water. This machine is held in suspension in the shaft, and being vertical, reipiires but little room, and can be raised and lowered as required. There is no dan- ger of its being submerged. Being compact and strongly made, without any of the working parts exposed to injury, they are well adapted for the rough usage incidental to the work for which they were designed. Adjustable wrought-iron dogs are provided to fasten the pump to the shaft timbering, although they will work equally as well when hang- ing by the tackle, or will operate perfectly when placed at an angle or horizontally. The general features are exacUy the same as in an ordinary hori- zontal machine, except that they are arranged to work vertically. Iron pipes or flexible hose may be employed as best suits the situation. It is but rare that, in the defensive arrrangements of a field work, any combination for a war of mining is provided for ; although in many, and those but recent cases of a stubborn and protracted defense of field works against regular siege operations, mines have been employed with great success, although UINIE BALL. 566 MINISTEK. not made before the works of the assailant were un- der way. As the end to be attained is the same in conducting the defense of a work by mines, whether it be a temporary or a permanent one, the same prin- ciples in the .arrangement of a combination of mines for this purpose are equally applicable to the two cases; the most essential of which are as follows: As the galleries of a system of mines serve the pur- pose of underground communication, they should be sul)jected to the same conditions as other communi- cations. A condition of primary importance is, that no combination shall be made which might com- promise the safety of the work. To this end, no gal- lery beyond the ditch should lead to the interior of the work; for should the enemy get possession of such a gallery he might either penetrate into the work, or else barricade the gallery and hold posses- sion of it long enough to blow up the works under which it leads. The galleries should not offer anj- facilities to the besiegers for carrying on tlieir works. Those galleries, therefore, which, communicating with the ditches, might serve the besiegers for their descent of the ditch ; also a continued counterscarp galler}% which may not only facilitate the descent of the ditch to the besiegers, but also, when in their possession, give them that of the whole system of mines, and, besides, serve to protect their passage of the ditch, and to prevent sorties in it, should be re- jected. A gallery behind a portion of the counter- scarp not favorable to the enemy's works, is very use- ful as a depot for the implements of the miners, and also as a communication. A complex sj'stem of mines should not be used for works that can be carried by storm ; for the reason that the besiegers might easily get possession of the system before it could be brought into play. The entrance to a sytsem from the ditch must be revetted, to offer a sufficient ob- stacle to prevent the enemy from getting possession of the system by surprise ; hence, a revetted counter- scarp is a necessary condition in the establishment of the system. The galleries should not be run out to any considerable distance beyond the covered- ways, both on account of procuring a good circula- tion of air, and because very advanced galleries are easily destroyed by the besiegers. The distance to which the galleries may extend should be so much the less as the ground above them is well protected by the collateral defenses. The soil must be suita- ble for the establishment of a system ; wet, marshy ground, shifting sand, and hard rock, present almost insuperable obstacles ; whereas a dry, firm soil, soft rock, or ordinary earth, under a thin superstratum of hard rock, are very favorable circumst.-inces. If tlie sub-soil is wet, but presents a firm and dry su- perstratum 13 ft. thick above the level at which the water collects^ mines may still bo jilaced with ad- vantage. Besides the above general conditions, there are certain special ones to be attended to in arranging the" galleries and chambers. The galleries should be placed as far below the surface as practicable, to withdraw them from the effect of the globes of com- pression of the besiegers. To drain the galleries they sliould have a slight inclination, about j'j, towards the ditches ; or, if the ground descends towards a hollow, the inclination may be given in that direc- tion. The cliambers, on the contrary, should be near the surface ; by this arrangement the powder is economized, and all danger to the galleries from the explosion avoided, whilst the object of the mines, which is to destroy the enemy's works, can be as ful- ly attained by small mines as large ones. The galler- ies should not be placed nearer to eacli other than twic(^ tlie lineof least resistance of tlie heaviest cliarg- ed mines, and not mueli less than four times tlie line of least resistance of llie smallest charges. This ar- rangement will readily admit of a combination of mines in two tiers, the line of least resistance of the lower being at least doubles tliat of the u|)per, the cliamberH of which mav be so arranged that the explosions of one tier shall not affect either the gal- leries or the mines of the other. Twice the line of least resistance of the largest mines is the least dis- tance that can be allowed between the galleries, in order that the mines of the lowest tier, which, be- ing placed near one gallery to destroy a part of it, shall not injure those parallel to it. By placing the galleries at this least distance apart, the" branches for the service of the upper tier will be as short as pos- sible, effecting thus a saving of time and labor ; and for the same reason, the galleries on any one point being as many as can be "placed, there will be less chance of all being destroyed by an explosion, but that some one of the galleries will be found service- able. The galleries and branches for the service of the different groups of mines should be independent of each other, so that there may be no confusion in the service, and that no group may be rendered un- serviceable by the destruction of the communications to another. The same principle should be attended to in combining the different groups of mine cham- bers. The galleries and branches should never pre- sent their flanks or sides to the globes of compres- sion of the besiegers. This rule leads to the rejec- tion of enveloping galleries. See lUoirer, Gounter- mhien, F!r'iig.'i<itt(ry. Oallery, and Shaft. MINIE BALL.— A liall or bullet of peculiar con- struction. It is cast hollow for nearly two-thirds of its length, and into the opening of the internal cyl- inder there is introduced a small concave piece of iron, which the powder at the moment of firing forces into the slug, spreading it open, and causing it to fit perfectly to the barrel. Hence, a great in- crease in the precision of aim and the extent of range. See /hilM. MINIE RIFLE.— A rifle introduced some years ago and adapted for firing the Minie bullet, the peculiar- ity of which bvdlet was that it had an iron cup placed in a cavity at the base, which, on the rifle being fired, expanded the lead into the grooves of the barrel. In 1851 a rifle musket of the Minie pattern was supplied to the English Army, but only to a limited extent; it was used in the Crimea, at the battles of the Alma and Inkermau. Notwithstanding its many advantages, it was found to be defective in practice, and was superseded by the Enfield rifle in 1853. MINION. — An ancient form of ordnance of small size, the caliber of which was about three inches. MINISTER.— I. FuNCTioNAKY Diplomatic. By the American system Ministers to exercise diplomatic f imctions near Foreign Courts are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate of the United States. They are accredited by letter to the Sover- eign of the country to which they are appointed, and are permitted certain immunities and privileges, being entitled to be addressed as " Excellency," and conceded exemption from the operation of municipal law. The United States send no Envoys of the rank of Embassadors, permanently accredited to Foreign Courts; but have not infrequently conferred the rank and authority in the case of special missions. II, Functionary Executive, In the United .States Gov- ernment, the executive officers are under the imme- diate official direction and control of Heads of De- partments, ineludingthose of State, Treasury, Interi- or, War, Post-Oftice, Navy, Justice, and Agriculture. Seven of these Officials have seats in the Cabinet or Coimcil of Advisers of the President, and are termed "The Cabinet." They are the Secretaries of State, War, the Treasury, the Navy, and the Interior; the Postmaster-Oeneral, and the Attorney-General, or the H( ad of the Department of .lustice! These Offi- cials are aiipoiiiled by the Presiilent, and confirmed by the Senate; their duly is to administer or execiile the functions of their respective offices under the direction of the President; to whom they are imnu>- (liately resi)onsil)le and t(» whom they report aniuially; and from tiim^ to time on special subjects if so desir- ed by him. They hold their offices at llie will of the President, who may request their resignations if the KIROR BARONS. 367 HIBAOE. good (if Ilic publir Hprvico slmllofprn torcr|iiirc it. As iin AilviHory Council, tlicy iis.^cuililrui llic call of tlic President, or ill stilled tiincs, for coiifcn-ncc, to cn- unciiitc oi)inions or to imswcr (nioslions. Tiicre iH nothini;, liowrv(T,in UicConstitutioii or elsewhere in American law wliicli renders il ol)lii;Hlory on the President to eni|)loy them in this nianner, thoujcli custom has made it usual and convenient so to do. K.vcepliiif; to the {'resident for tlie [iroper perfonn- anee of their ofljcial duties, tliey have no responsibil- ities; and in no particidar e.xce])! in l\w nature of these duties do they resemble the IMinislers of Great ISritain or those of the Kuropean Powers MINOR BARONS. Tin' word baron, in the earliest Iieriod of l''eu(hilisni, sii;nilied one who held lands of a superior by military lenun'. The superior miL'ht be the Sovereinn, or he mi;,dit be an Karl or other eminent jxTson, who held of the Hovereijrn. Ac- cording as he was the one or the other, the Huron waa, in the earliest sense of the distinction, a (ireat- cr or Lesser Baron. At the Coiujuest a larj;e jjart of the soil of Kiifjland was parceled by William the Norman amons; liis military retainers, wlio were bound in return to perform services, to do honuii^e, aiul to assist in ailministerini; justice, and in trans- act ini; the other business done in the Court of the King. 400 of these Tenants-in-Chief of the Crown are enumerated in Domesday, ineludinij; among them "Yiee-coniites" and "comites", who together con- Ktituted the body of men called the Barons of Kng- land. As the Sovereign was entitled to demand from 11. e Baron's military service, homage, and attendance in tlie Courts, so, many of tlie principal liarons, pnr- ticularly^ such of them as were Karls, had .Military Tenants, from whom they in turn received homage and assistance in administering justice in their Ba- ronial Courts. These Tenants were Barons of the Barons, or, in the earliest sense. Minor Barons ; but by the usage of England, from the Conijuest down- wards, they were seldom called ISarons, that term having l)een generally restricted to the' former class, the holders of land direct from the Crown, who were ne.xt to the King in dignity, formed his army and his legislative as.scmbly, ami ol)tained the great Cliarter from King.Iohn. Thesul)infcudation which produced the iMinor Barons was checked by a statute of Kdward I., directing that all persons acquiring lands from a subjc<'t, should hold not of that subject, but of his superior. MINUTE GUNS.— Guns lired on the interment of an officer of rank, or of some liigh pers<mage of the realm. The officer to whom these honors are paid must have been above the rank of Colonel in the Armj', or of Commodore in the Navy, and have died on service. Minute gims are also tired as signals of distress. MINUTE MAN. — A man enlisteil for service wher- ever required, and ready to march at a moment's notice. The term was first used in the American Uevplution. MINUTES.— A l)rief orrough rejiort of the proceed- ings of a Society or Council drawn uji by the Secre- tary or Hecorder. They are so called from being taken down sliorlly, and in minute or small writing, j tfi lie afterwards ensjrossed. I MINUTES OF COUNCILS IN THE MILITARY DE- PARTMENT.— 'I'he notification of orders and regula- tions, which are directed to be observed by the Brit- ish Army in India. These minutes receive the sanc- tion of tiie Governor-General in Council, and are the results of previous communications from the Court of Directors in Europe. The answer to the French word, Iltxultiit, which was prefixed to all orders and regulations that were occasionally issued by tlie Mil- ) itary Boards, or ConseiiKle Guerre, for the govern- irent of tlie Army. The term, Jugeinent (fun Conneil | de Guerre, corresponded with minutes of a General ; or Garrison Court-Martial, and expressed not only the minutes, but the .sentence of the Court. MIQUELETTI.— Asmall body of mountain fusiliers, ! ' who formerly belonged to the Neapolitan Army. The term jl/M/'/'Wt is applird to Bandits, who liav« infested th«! I'yrenean Alouiilains ; the name is alHo I borne by the Captain-General's Guard. In 1H08, Napoleon organized a corps of Miipielet» Fraiicaiii, who ri'iidered good services. j MIRAGE.— A phenomenon extremely common in ' certain localities, and as simple in itB*origin as aston- ishing in its elTe('ts. L'nder it art classed the ap- pearance of distant objects as double, or as if bus. jiended in the air erect or inverted, etc. One caiise of the mirage is a diminution of the density of I the air near the .surface of the earth, produceil I by the transmission of heat from flie earth, or in ' some other way; the denser stratum being thiiH placed (ihitn , instead of. as is usually the case, hehw the rare#. Now, rays of light from a distant object situated in the denser nieiiiiim ti. e., a little above the earth's level), coming in a direction nearly jiar- allel to the earth's surface, meet the rarer medium at a very obtuse angle, and instead of passing into il, are reflected back to the dense medium, the com- mon 8urfac(? of the two media acting as a mirror. Su)ipose, then. iisiiectHlor tobe situated on an emin- ence, and looking at an object situated like himself in the denser stratum of air, he will see the object by means of Vlirectly transmitted rays; but besides this, rays from the object will be retfeeted from the upper surface of the rarer stratum of air beneath to his eye. The image produced by the rellected rays will appear inverted, and luhiw the real object, just as an image rellected in water appears when ob- served from a distance. If the object is a cloud or portion of sky, it will apjiear by the reflected raj's as lying on the surface of the earth, and bearing a strong resemblance to a sheet of water; also, as the reflecting surface is irregular, and constantly varies its position, owing to the constant communication of heat to the upper stratum, the reflected image will be constantly varying, and will ]iresent the ap- pearance of a water surface ruftled liy the wind. This form of mirage, which even experienced travelers have found to be completely deceptive, is of com- mon occurrence in the arid deserts of lower Egj-pt. Persia, Tartary, etc. In particular states of the atmosphere, reflection of a portion only of the rays takes place at the sur- face of the dense medium, and thus double images are formed, one by reflection, and the other by re- fraction — the first inverted, and the seccmd erect. The phenomena of mirage are fre(iuently much more strange and complicated, the images being often much distorted and magnified,]and in some instanc- es occurring at a consideral)le distance from the object, as iii the case of a tower or church seen over the sea, or a vessel over dry land, etc. The particu- lar form of mirage known as looming is very fre- (juently observed pt sea, and consists in an excessive apparent elevation of the object. A most remarkable case of this sort occurred on July 26, 1798. at Has- tings. From this place the French coast is fifty miles distant; yet. from the sea-side the whole coast of France, from Calais to near Dieppe, was distinctly HIRE. 368 MITEAILLE. visible, and continued so for three hours. In the Artie regions it is no uncommon occurrence for whale-flshers to discover tlie proximity of other ships by meaus of thier images seen elevated in tlie air, though tlie ships themselves may be below the hori- zon. GeneralU', when the ship is above the horizon, only one image, and that inverted, is found; but when it is wholly, or in great part below the hori- zon, double images, one erect aud t!ie other inverted, are f rcqueutly seen. The faithfuluess and distinct- ness of these images at times may be imagined from the fact, that Captain Scoresby, while cruising oflf the coast of Greenland in 1822, discovered the pro- pinquity of his father's ship from its inverted image in the sky. Another remarkable instance of mirage occurred in May, 1854, when, from the deck of H. M. screw-steamer Archer, then cruising of Oesel, in the Baltic, the whole English fleet of nineteen sail, then nearly thirty miles distant, was seen as if sus- pended in the air upside down. Besides such phe- nomena as these the celebrated Fata Morgana of the Straits of Messina sinks into insignificance. The Spfctcr of the Bracken in Hanover, is another cele- brated instance of mirage. Its varieties are indeed numberless, and we refer those who wish for fur- ther information to Brewster's Optics, Blot's Traite de Phys'que, and for the mathematical theory of the mirage to the works of Biot, Monge, and Wollaston. MIKE. — In the French artillery, a piece of wood aboiu. 4 inches thick, 1 foot high, and 2^ feet long, which is used in pointing cannon. MIKEUE. — An instrument employed in coast bat- teries for ascertaining whether the enemy's ships are within the range of the guns, and thus to prevent the gunners from expending their shot unneces- sarily. MIRMILLONES.— A variety of Roman gladiators, said to have been so called from their having the image of a fish on their helmets. Their armsVere like those of the Gauls; hence we find that they were also called Galli. They were usually matched with the''Retiarii. MIRROK. — An instrument used in the inspection of cannon. The interior of the bore is examined b_y reflecting the rays of the sun into it from tlie mirror or mirrors ; or, if the sun is obscured, and there can be no delay, by means of a spirit-lamp or of a wax taper on the end of a rod, tiiking care not to smoke the surface of the bore. See Inspfrtimi of Ordnance. MISBEHAVIOK BEFORE THE ENEMY.— The Art- icles of War declare that anj' officer or soldier who misbehaves himself before the enemy, runs awav, or shamefully abandons any fort, post, or a guard which lie is commanded to defend, or speaks words inducing others to do the like, or casts away his arms or ammunition, or quits his post or colors to plunder or pillage, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as a Court-Martial may direct. MISCELLANEOUS.— An item or charge in the Esti . mates of the British Army, and so distinguished as Miscellnnewds Services; the same as our Contingent JSipfnditnres. MISCONDUCT AT DIVINE SERVICE.- In the Art- icles of War, it is earnestly recommended to all Officers and Soldiers diligently to attend divine service. Any officer who behaves indecently or irreverently at any place of divine worship is brought before a General Court-Martial, there to be jmblicly and severely reprimanded by the President tliereof. Any soldier who so ofl'enda, for his first offense, forfeits oue-si.xth of a dollar; foreacli further offense he forfeits ii like sum, and is confined twenty- four hours. Tlie money so forfeited is deducted from his ne.xt jiay, and is ajiplied, by the Ciqitain or Senior Officer of his troop, battery, or company, to the use of llie sick scildicrs of the same. MISCONDUCT IN TIME OF WAR.— All Officers and Soldiers are to beliave themselves orderly in quarters and fin tlie march; and wlioever commits any waste orspoil, either in walks or trees, parks, warrens, fish- ponds, houses, gardens, grain-fields.inclosures, or mea- dows, or maliciously destroys any property whatsoev- er belonging to inhabitants of the United States (un- less by order of a General Officer commanding a sep- arate army in the field), shall, besides such penalties as he may be liable to by law, be punished as a Court- Martial may direct. In time of war, insurrection, or rebellion, larceny, robbery, burglary, arson, mayhem, manslaughter, murder, assault and battery with an intent to kill, wounding, by shooting or stabliing, with an intent to commit murder, rape, or assault and battery with and intent to commit rape, shall be punishable by the sentence of a General Court-Martial, when com- mitted by persons in the military service of the Unit- ed States, and the punishment in any such case shall not be less than the punishment provided, for the like offense, by the laws of the State, Territorj', or District in which such offense may have been com- mitted. MISERXCORDE. —A very short sword, in early times, attached to the right side, corresponding with the position of thereguhir sword on the left side. This weapon is so called because it was habitually used to stab the fallen and vanquished foe, when iii such ex- tremity either that mercy would be sought, or that it would be a merciful deed to put an end to the suffer- er's agonies. MISNOMER.- Themistaking of the true name of a person. If auj' prisoner plead a misnomer heiore a Court-Martial, tlie Court may ask the prisoner his real name, and call upon him to plead to the amend- ed charge. MISSILE. -^A weapon thrown, or intended to be thrown, for doing execution ; as. a lance, an arrow, or a bullet. MITER. — The miter, as an ornament, seems to have descended in the earliest times from Bishop to Bishop. Among the Cottonian MSS. is an order dated July 1, 4 Henry VI., for the delivery to Arch- bishop Chichely of the miter which had been worn b/ his predecessor. It was in some cases a very costly ornament. Ajchbishop Pecheham's new miter, in 1288, cost £17.3 4s. Id. In England, since the Reformation, the miter is no longer a part of the Epi.scopal costume, but it is placed over the shield of an Archbishop or Bishop, instead of a crest. The miter of a Bishop has its lower rim surrounded with a fillet of gold ; but the Archbishops of Canter- bur}' and York are in the practice of encircling theirs with a ducal conmet, a usage of late date and doubt- ful propriety. The Bishop of Durham surrounds his miter with an Earl's coronet, in consequence of being titular count palatine of Durham and Earl of Sed- burgh. Before the custom was introduced of Bish- ops impaling the insignia of their sees with their family arms, tliej' sometimes differenced their pater- nal coat by the addition of a miter. Miters are rare as a charge in Heraldry, but are sometimes borne as a crest, particularly in Germany, to indicate that the bearers were feudatories, or dependencies of ancient Abbevs. MITFORD PERCUSSION BULLET.— An ordinary En- field bullet, having a iliamber.down its longer axis, to within \ inch of the hollow; this clianiber contains i\ grains of detonating composition ; and the bot- tom is closed with wa.v. It is intended to explode, ammunition wagons. MITIGATE.— T'o diminish the severhy of punish- ment. Every otlicer who is authorized to order a Genenil Court-Martial has jiower to pardon or miti- gate any punisliment adjudged by it, except the punishment of deiilh or of dismissal of an officer. Every officer commanding a regiment or garrison in which a Regimental or Gaitrison Court-Martial may bi' held, has power to pardon or mitigate any pun- ishment which such Court may adjudge. MITRAILLE. Small pieces of old iron, such as lieads of n;nls, etc., with whicli pieces of ordnance are sometimes loaded. MITKAILLEUK. •m;'.) MITBAILLEUB. MITRAILLEUE.— A nmchino-ciin in vvliicli nii- iiicroiis liirn<' Imri'd rifles arc ('(itiiljini'il with hrcceli iiclioii, 1)V iiic'iiiis of wliicli a shower of liiillels may h.' rapiilly projeelcil by oik- man. It was invcnti'd in Helitiiiin, anil uiloplcil by llie Freneh Kni])eror kooii Mft<T the I'rnHsiaii-AnHtriaii war of lH(!(i. It was t)i(! ejiief cannon of the Frenell artillery diirini; the Franeo-(;erinan war of 1870. The mitrailleuse e.x- isteil in a jirimitivc form as early as the Ittli eeii- lury, and well-preserved speeimens mav lie found in the arsenals and museums of Vienna, Uome, Ber- lin, Moscow and ('onstantinoi)lc. A late form of the weapon, used liy the French, has :i7 barrels, and am- inuiiilion chests alongside the iinn on the same axle. The :!T carlridi;es, intended for the cliari;e, are con- tained in a small box. A steel plate with corres- p.mdini; holes is placed on the open box, which is then reversed, and the cartridges fall, ])oints fore- most into their respective holes. They iire prevent- ed from fallini; throngh by the rims at their bases. The loaded plate is then introduced into the breech- slot, an 1 when the breech is closed by a lever, a number of steel pins, pressed by spiral springs, arc only lirevcnted from striking the percussion arrange- ment ill the cartridges by a plate in front of llicm. When this case is moved slowly by a handle, the cartridges are tired one by one. If the plate be with- drawn rapidly, tlu'y follow each other so quickly that Iheir discharge is almost simultaneous. The projectile weighs ;i7 grammes, or a little over an ounce. The charge of powder is from (! to 8 gram- mes. The last amount is that connseled by the in- ventors. Thismilrailleur weighs ISO kilogrammes, or 400 pounds without the carriage, and it can be worked by two men. It was found, however, at Vienna, in December \W.), that to obtain the most rapid tiring, or 48 balls jicr mimite, five men were necessary to work the piece. The front carriage contains from 48 to Hii boxes for loading, an'd the two caissons hold l(i breech- plates furnished with cartridges. The piece is, therefore, ])rovi<led with 23(i8 cartridges ; and a battery of 8 mitrailleurs can hurl on an attacking column 3848 effective projec- tiles per minute. The description and nomenclature of the one-inch mitrailleur (Gatlin Gun), a jiiece much used in the United States Army, is as follows: The breech load- ing rifled hurrels (1) are fastened together by a front per-gromtii; hnp^fr-itpr.'ng. Son the drawing below The following parts are within the breech-easing lork.r.yliiidfr; rcar-giLde nut ; a/ckiny-ring; CKkiiig kwih ; cucking-di-vice ; mrking-rinf/ clatitpn ; Hpiral cam ; diaphragm ; diaphnigin-jilug ; genr-irluel ; pin. inn ; rn'ir iiainKC.ri'W ; era nk-Hlioft ; in/rm ; ituriii-gc/ir. Kach lock consists of a hirk-hntl, lork-tuhe iir plunger, hick-li<iiitiiirr, tork.Hpring,Jiring-jiin, and iTlrnrli.r. T(i talcf' Itie. mitrailleur upurt ii]i>ik tip frame anil Ijarrels; takeoff hopper; take off cascabel jilati- ; take pin out of pinion, turn crank downward, and then remove crank-Khaft ; take out rear-sight, and then remove large gear-wheel ; take out rear plug in diaphragm, and gently revolve the jiiece until a lock presents itself on a line with the hole in the diaphragm, through which the locks are success- ively removed ; take out large screws on sides of breech-casing, and remove casing to the rear. Be careful to have the lock-cylinder and piece supported so as to keep the center-line of main-shaft parallel to top of frame ; this is necessary to prevent the inner breech or rear of the piece from dropping when the casing is removed. The large rear nut, on the shaft in rear of the lock-cylinder," and which serves as a guide for the rear-ends of the locks, is made fast by a tapered |)in and a bft-htinded ncriic ; to remove this nut, the pin is taken out and the nut turned to the right. The lock-cylinder and carrier- block are then taken off. The spiral cam need not come out of the casing in taking the mitrailleur apart. To put the mitrailleur together — P\it main-shaft in place, through the plates which hold the barrels, and then replace carrier-block, lock-cylinder, and large rear nut; screw up this nut tightly. and put tapered pin through the nut and shaft: jjlace the mitrailleur in the frame, and let front end of main shaft rest in the hole designed for it. in the front of frame; take care to keep the center of iiKiin-shaft in the plane of top of frame. When the piece is in this position, push the cocking-ring over the lock-cylinder :ind let it hang loosely round the carrier-block; raise the breech .slightly, and push the breech-casing over the lock-cylinder, etc., to its place; screw casing to frame and put cocking-ring in its proper place ; re- volve the piece to the right or left, so that the places for the locks will come on a line with the liole ia the diaphragm, through which the locks are suc- barrel-plute (2) and a rear hnrrel-plute (3). The enr- riir-hloek (4), a hollow cylinder whicli carries the car- tridges, is directly behind the barrels. The lock-cyl- inder, another cylinder behind the carrier-block. con- tains the loek.^ (one to each barrel). The barrels, carrier-block, and lock-cylinder, revolve around a common axis called the mninshaft (5). which is turn- by the hand-crank ((i). The lock-cylinder revolves within a brerch-casi/ig (7), forming the body of the gnu and closed in rear by the cn.mibel plate (8) The breech-casing is fastened to {he frame (9) by theca<- ing-screirn (W). The cartridges are inserted in the h'ipper (\\), and pass successively into the rhannels of the carrier-block, whence the)' are thrust into the barrels by tlie lork-tiiheK or plungers . and held there until exploded by tUaf ring-pins. The cartridgi-nliell stop is attached to the hopper. The other parts are the trunnions (12) ; rear-sight (13) ; front-sight (14): face (15) : socket, for head of elevating-screw ; socket guide-plnte and screic ; locking-block for locking bolt : plug for removing locks : trarersing-screir ; regulat- ing nut, on traversing-screw ; thumb-.y,ring for regu- lating nut; crank-atop; hinges; hoppei-spindle; hop- cessivcly inserted and placed in a proper position; then insert screw-plug to close the hole through diaphragm ; put on cog-wheel : replace crank-shaft, pinion, and tapered pin ; then put on rear-sight, and screw on butt-plate and hojiper. The following is the nomenclature of the gun-car- riage for the mitrailleur: Stock: head ; groove ; trail; rounding of trail; trail-plate; henette ; jointing -rng; pointing-socket; trail-handler; wheel-guard plate; tle- vating-screw ; elevating-scrau box ; ehrating-screic bid; rondelles; checks; ira.':her-hooks for liandspike ; under, straps ; handspike-rings ; ceiji-iqtiare.i ; cap~\qiiare chains; key-chains and keys; trunninn.bids ; trunnion swivel; trunnion.-swicel friction-bed; Jrame ferr trater. sing.apparatus or tran rsing-arm ; tracersing-fork ; traversing-fork spring: (si)iral); traversing-fork han- dle: tran rsing-fork ciamp-screw: traversing-fork c<7.i>', with slot for handle ; locking-bolt connected with traversing-fork by a lueking-lecer ; I'xking-lolt c-nse; .itock-teat, with /linge and prop; drag-hooks; eletating- screuD nut ; elevating-n ut luindlr ; eletating-rlamp .icrew; rod-ca.ie and kegs; axle; uheels. See GatXing Oun, Machine-gun, and Piece. MITTEN. 370 MODEL. MITTEN. — A liand-covering which superseded the gauntlet in tlie 15th century. It was made of thin plates of steel, with joints, to enable the hand to move freely. It is of this mitten that Bayard saj's, — "Ce que gantelet gague. gorgeriu le mange." MITTLEREE.— One of the three parts of which the encieute is formed, in the German system of fortifi- cation. MIXED BATTLE. — A combination of defensive and offensive battles. The most common case of this class is that in which a position is selected before hand where the army awaits the attack of the enem}-, and at a suitable moment moves from it and attacks the assaulting columns. This case is sometimes known as a "defensive-offensive" battle. Where the ground is favorable ami the troops are in good con- dition, these battles offer peculiar advantages, since the assaulting columns, being exhausted by their first efforts are not in the best condition to repel the at- tack of an armj' rushing forward from its position. See liiiltlj'n. Defensive Battle, and Offensive Battle. MIXING MACHINE.- A machine employed in the manufacture of gun powder. It consists of a hollow drum of copper about 2' wide by 3' in diameter which is made to revolve at a speed of thirt3--five revolutions per minute. The bearings of this drum are hollow, and a shaft passes through them, having in the interior of the drum an eight sided boss or tube secured to it; into this a series of arms or flyers are screwed, there being five on one face of the octa- gon and six on tlie next alternately, so that there are iortj'-four flyers altogether. They are made of a flat section, but forked at the ends, and provided with holes through their flat sides, and each one is set at a different angle to the next: their points just clear the inside of the drum, and they revolve in the op- posite direction to it at the rate of seventy revolu- tions per minute. The three bags of ingredients (50 lb. in all) are emiitied one at a time through a door into the copper drum, and after the machine has been five minutes at work they will be found to be thor- oughly mixed. Tlie door in the drum is now opened, and tlie com])ositicm falls down a shoot into a tub, and after being spread out, is carefidly examined, and then placed in the receiving bags. When the bags are filled, they are tightly tied up, and it is very essential that this operation be carefully performed, for should tlie eoinposition be allowcil to remain loose in the bags (the ingredients having very dillVrent specific gravities), the saltpeter would fall to the bottom, the charcoal rise to the top, and the sulphur occupy th(' center, lliereby undoing the mixing; and as any vibration caused l)y the working of adjacent machinery would lie much ag;iinst the composition retiiining llie thorough mixture given loit liythi'uia- rf-hiuc, tlie bags are put into small magazines sepa- rate from all buildings containing machinery, and there laid on their sides, so that the weight of the saltpeter may affect the mixture as little as possible The composition is now ready for the next operation, and this is performed in the incorporating mill. See Gimpowder. MOAT. — The ditch round the ramparts of a fort- ress, may be either wet — i.e., full of water— or dry. In the latter, which is the commoner case, the depth should not be less than 12 feet nor the widtli under 24. The more perpendicular the walls, so much the greater will be the obstruction to the enemy. In regular works the walls are usually reveted with masonry, that at the foot of the rampart being the scarp or escarp, and that below the covered way the counterscarp. See Ditch ;ind FortiHration. MOBILISATION MOBILIZATION.— The act of pre- paring troops for war. The process consists in augu- mentmg a regiment from its peace to its war com- plement, in calling in men on furlough, in organizing the staff of divisiolis and brigades, constitudng the commissariat, medical, artillerj-, and transport ser- vices, and in accumulating provisions and munitions As the work of mobilizing an armj' causes great and inevitable expense, it is only resorted to \vhen hos- tilities appear imminent. The rapidity with which armies can be mobilized has been of late years great. In 18.59, it took thirty-seven days for Prance to collect on the river Po, a force of 104,000 men, with 12,000 more in Italy. In 1806, the Prussian armies (220.000 in number) were placed on the Frontiers of Saxony and Silesia iua fortnight; and in 1870, Germany was able to mobilize her forces in nine days, and to send in eight days more to the French frontier an army of 400,000 soldiers and 1200 guns. The mobil- ization of the British armj- has been provided for under orders issued by the War Office and Horse Guards. By this scheme, which is not only based upon defensive requirements, but also adapted for offensive warfare as well. 800.000 men will be avail- able within a few da3's for the defense of the coun- try, and if necessary, a certain portion of the force can be embarked for a war in foreign countries. MOBILITY. — Lightness, facilit}- in moving. In war- fare it is of the highest importance that the artillery and transport of the army should be as light and movable as is consistent with efficiency. Not only does this term apply to the particular branches above adverted to, but mobility expresses also the facility and rapidity with which an army can trav- erse a country, when called upon to do battle with the enemy, which, combined with concentration of force, is likely to bring :iiatters to a successful issue. MODEL. — A pattern or imitation of anything on a small scale, in wood, stone, wax, or any other con- venient substance. Models are not only made for the reduction in size of, articles of all sorts, and for possession of fac-similes of all such works as are either too large to be moved or too expensive to be bought, but they are valuable in a military point of view in giving, in a handy and instructive form, the elevation of grovmd sketched out in topographical maps, and which is also applicable to fortifications, etc. Under the name oi model an ajiparatus has been lately invented by Captain E. Padmore Clark (In- structor of Musketry, Herefordshire Militia), for the purpose of instructing officers and men in the cavalry and infantry drill. The infantry model consists of a miniature regiment of infantry, i . metal, and is so formed that the ranks can be simultaneously turned in any direction, ;uid the position of otflcers and m;u'kers is ele;irly dctiiied. This appamtus. which is called " Drill Moiiel App;iratus," consists of a bat- talion of six companies, with mounted ami other of- ficers, color-party, band, and picnieers. complete. Two of the companies are divisilile into half-companies, for the purpose of sliowing the movement of the side- face cinn panics in the format ion of a two-deep square in a batlalion of/"//r comiianics. There are six small stands to attacli to the riglit or left, or the center, of MODULUS. 371 MOFyATT GUN. oacli company, for tlu' loadiiijj; Riiidc in formations of fours Id a ihiiik, or for llic rii^'lil ujiiiilc in n-tiriiif; in liiir. Tliis apparatiiH will, (loiil)llrss. jirovc vc-ry iisi'fiil \i iinpiirlitiiit.o younn olliccrs jirai'ticai knowi- cdf^c in lliisirniiorlanl hrancli of tiii-ir profrwsion.and will assist tlicin in (•Icarly unili-rstandini.; llir diircrint movements whirli eoni|)anics and l)allalions arceall- ed upon to perform on the drill-ground or in the Held. Tlie drill model for eavalry is similar, and rr>- l)r<'senls a whole regiment, and the troopsand sipiail- rons are divisihle on the plaJi of the infanlry nioilel. MODULUS. X constant c<ieHicient or nudtiplier, Ijy means of which one .series or system of quanti- ties can he reduced to another similar series or sys- tem. Thus we have the modulus of elasticity, of friction, and of .systems of lonarilhnis. The system of loijarillims wliich is universally acf^'pted as the prim.'iry is Napier's, and from it all other systems are deduei'd in the followini,' muimer : l,et N he a numlier of which th<' Napierian loij;arillini is /<, <■ heiiiir the Napierian hase, it is required to find the lou;ariHim of N to some other base a. Let x be this logaritlim, then, we will liud A log.cN 1 X= ; i. e., log. nN= = X log. cN. log. i" log. ,a log. t« 1 This multiplier or "modulus," • — , is indc- log. id pendent of N, and is therefore constant for the re- duction of all Napierian logarithms to the system whose hase is a. If ((=^11), ihe multiplier becomes ■ 1 , the modulus of Brliigs', or the common sys- log. clO, temof logarithn:s, and is equal to- =.4342- 2.30258.509 944. MOENCHS BUCHSE.— A small hand-cannon 11 inches long and 4',' inches in diameter. It preceded the invention of tlie wheel-lock, and gave the tirst idea of it, MOFFATT GUN.— A breecli-loading rifled field- gun. The body A is of steel, and bored through from end to end. The breech-mechanism consists of a conical lireech-plug, accurately fitted to the bot- tom of the bore, and efticiently closing the same through the support atforded by the lireech-strap. This strap is attached to the truunious as au a.\is of against the lugs, the loops of the strap over thr- trunnions acbnitting of a slight play for that pur- pose. In the |)reliminary lirings had with the gun, to test till' working of the parts, the breech was thrown open by the shock of discharge, closing again during the recoil. To obviate this a locking device wa8 adiled. consisting of a bolt and key, passing through the breech-strap and into a rccesH in the breecli- block. A half-turn of the handle is sufllcient to press the block liirnly ilown into jilace, and there retain it. A half-liirn in a contrary direction disen- gages the key from the recess in tlie block, and the breech can be thrown open. Should the breech- block not always fall back on tilling up the breech, a leather strap is provided, which pulls back the block after the breech has been sntlicii-ntly rai.sed to disengage it from the strap. The trunnions are screwed into the gun-body, and are furnished with shoulders, by which the loops of the brceeh-straps are confined to IIk; rimbases. The rilling of the gun consists of twelve grooves and lands each, the width of the lands being 0".2.5, and the depth of the grooves 0".0.5. The twist is uniform, and makes one turn in 12 feet. The cham- ber is concentric with the bore, but of larger diam- eter, measuring 3". 19. the diameter of the bore through grooves being but 3". 17. Its capacity is such as to accommodate a charge of 1{ pounds of powder and a lead-coated or a double-bearing Butler projectile of about 10 pounds weight, the projectile being inserted in the ritled portion of the bore as far as the front rib or band. The vent is in the normal position on top of the gun. When the gun was orig- inally linished it was provided with a cup-shaped gas-che<'k of copper; but having failed to give satis- faction under heavy charges, a number of Broadwell rings, of steel, brass, and compositicm, were tried, several of w hich gave excellent results. The use of a loose internal Hodman pressure-gauge being pre- cluded in a small breech-loader, and it not being wished to mar the gun liy boring for the external gauge, the inner faci' of the breech-block was bored and tapped for the reception of an interior plug. The gun-body was manufactured by Messrs. Firth & Sons, Sheffield, England, of the best quality of crucible cast-steel, and forgeii from a single ingot. As received at the South Boston foundry, it was rough-bored and turned. The steel for the l)reecli- block, strap, etc., were forgings from the XasUua motion, but is enabled to withstand the strain of discharge by locking into lugs on either side of the breech of tlie gun. "The breech-strap rests in n'ar upon the top of the elevating-screw, to which it is attached by a suitable coupling, to a<lniit of the free movement of the screw. The breech-block is hinged in a fork attached to tlie under side of the breech. The operation of the mechanism is as follows: The breech is opened bj- tilting up the breech of the gun. through the medium of a lever E, which has its axis in a stirrup underneath the breech-strap. By this operation the block is raised out of the breech-strap, and falls back tiy its own weight upon the latter, thus exposing the chamber. To close the breech again the lever is raised, and the gun, owing to its preponderance, falls back into the position for tir- in<T ; the wedge-shaped back of the breech-lilock, at the same time, enters a correspondingly beveled re- ■ cess in the breech-strap, and draws the latter firmly Works, New Hampshire. The final work of fitting, finishing, and assembling, was accomplished at the South Boston foundry, under the :;upervision of the Inventor. The following are the dimensions of its principal parts, to wit : Diameter of bore across lands 3.07 inches Diameter of bore through grooves 3.17 inches Diameter of chamber 3.19 inches Diameter of breech-block cavity at seat of gas-check 3.90 Inches Diameter of breech-block cavity, outer edse 5-23 inches Diameter of piece at muzzle 5.90 inches Diameter of piece at trunnions S.OO inches Diameter of breech 9.57 inches Diameter of trunnions 3.67 inches Length of rille portion of bore 55.00 inches MOGRABIAN. 372 MOLDING. Length of beveled juuction of chamber and bore 1.00 inches Length of chamber 9.50 inches Total lengtli of gun 72.05 inches Pitch of rifling uuiform;^one turn in 144.00 inches Number of grooves and lauds 12 AVidth of lands 0.25 inch. Weight of gun 1,000 lbs, Weiiilit of gun-carriage without imple- ments....." 900 lbs. The preponderance of the gun at the elevating- screw is such as to render the gun easily operated. The gun is mounted on a United States 6-poundcr carriage; the only modifications required being to change the housing for the elevating-screw, and to slighUy increase the space between tlie cheek-pieces. See R'liKl ILiiritzcrs, anil Ordiifinfe. MOGEABIAN.— A soldier of a branch of the Turk- fuse of distillery wash called " returns." Great care is required in securing the proper degree of cohe- aiveness in the composition, as it must be sufficient to enable the mold to preserve its form in handling, and not so much as to cause it to be injured by con- traction in drying. It is considered sufficiently co- hesive when it wil! retain its form when taken in a moist state and squeezed in the hand. The same composition may be repeatedly used in molding, but as its cohesive property is destroyed bj' tiie heat to which it is exposed, it must be reprepared in the same manner as when first formed. The mold is formed in a cast-iron case called a flank, which is usually made in sections correspond- ing in number and length to those of the pattern. These sections consist of two pieces wliicli, when united, arc circular iu cross-section, excepting two slight enlargements opposite each otlier for the for- ish infantry composed of the peasants of the north- ; mation of the channels or "side gates" for the metal ern part of Africa, who sought to better their con- \ to pass down. The pieces are flanged at the edges, dition by entering foreign service. | fastened by bolts, and additionally secured by clamps MOGUL.- The popular designation of the Emperor | over the flanges. The trunnion sections of the flask of Delhi, as the impersonation of the powerful Em pire established iu Hindustan by the Mongols, who were called MnguU by the Persians. The first Great Mogul was Baber, the great-grandson of Timur,whD founded the Mongol Empire in Hindustan iu 1526. In 1803 the Great Mogul was deprived of his throne ; In 1827, of even the appearance of autliority, be- coming a mere pensioner of the British ; and in 1858, >Iohammed Bahadur, the last of the Dynasty, was are fitted with trunnion boxes which have movable plates at their ends for the purpose of introducing the trunnion patterns and facilitating the formation, of that part of the mold. The several sections are so constructed as to be tmited to each otlier in their regular order by means of clamps over tlie flanges at the top and bottom. To form the mold the lower or breech section of the flask is placed upon an iron plate in an upright position, the corresponding sec- condemned, and transported for complicity in the ' tion of the pattern introduced and centered: the Indian Mutiny. i space between the pattern and the flask filled with MOIENNE.-A piece of ordnance, which is now called molding composition, which is rammed down in thin a 4-pounder, and which is tea feet long. It was for- ' la_yers around the pattern until the section is com- merly used by the French. ] pleted. The patterns for the side gates and their MOINEAU. — A small, flat bastion, raised in front of : branches for conveying the metal into the mold are an indented fortification, to defend it against attacks ' iatroduced as the work progresses. After the mold fnim small-arms. i for the lower section is finished the next section of MOLDED POWDER. — A powder having the same ! the fiask is placed upon it and secured, the corre- ingredients as those of ordinarj- gunpowder, but sponding section of the pattern introduced, fitted each grain is separately molde<l. Gen. Hodman was the first to propose this variety of powder : the object being to cause the powder to burn on an increasing surface, thus lessening the strain on the gun in the first moments of combustion. See Oiijipmcchr. MOLDING. — The process by which a cavity of the form of the gun is obtained by imbedding a model in sand and then withdrawing it. The model of a gun, technically termed the pattei-ii, is usually con- structed of wood made in as many sections and parts as may be necessary to admit of its being easily withdrawn from the mold. The sections of the pattern for the breech and reinforce are made with diameters exceeding very slightly those of the fin- ished gun. while the diameters of the sections for the chase are largely in excess. The breech section is provided with a cascabel_ for supporting the gun in tlie lathe while being turned and bored. The pat- terns of the trunnions are attached in tlieir places by wooden pins, which can be easily witlulrawu when it becomes necessary to detach the pattenis. Tlie several sections of the pattern for the body of the gun are made with a slight taper to facilitate their withdrawal. The pattern for the chase of the gun is made considerably longer than the required length of that part, to provide a "sinking-head"' which, when the gun is cast, receives the scoria of the melted metal as it rises to the surface, and also furnishes the metal required to feed tlie shrinkage caused by the cooling of the casting. The sand used for ilie molding composition should lie princi- pally of silex, very refractory, commonly called sharp-sand. When not .sufficiently refractory it is vitrified by the high temperature of the melted metal, and protuberances are formed ujion the casting which are removed with great difficulty. To pre- pare th(^ composition for use the sand is carefully aifled. then projierly mixed and moistened with water in which clay has been stirred, or with the rc- witli dowels, which enter the breech section and hold it accurately in place. The molding is con- tinued with this section as with the first, and when completed it is lifted off, the pattern being left in the mold. The third section of the flask, which is usually the trunnion section, is then placed upon the second and secured, and the pattern adjusted in the same way as before. The trunnion patterns are attached and the molding is continued. When this section is completed the pins attaching the trunnion patterns are removed and the patterns withdrawn. The formation of the remaining sections is continued until the whole is completed, thus insuring a perfect mold throughout, free from irregularities at the junction of the sections. Care is taken to sprinkle dry sand upon the surface of each section of the mold before continuing the work to prevent adhesion and to admit of the sec- tions being separated without injur}-. As the work upon the respective sections is finished the patterns are withdrawn. If any portions of the mold are injured iu the withdrawal they are repaired. The several sections are placed in the drying oven, where a moderate heat is kept up, until thoroughly drie<i. They arc then removed from the oven, and a .vash, composed of German graphite, pulverized anthracite coal, and distillery returns, applied to the interior surface of the mold. The sections are replaced in the oven, and when dried removed, and a second coating of the wash applied while the mold is still warm. This wash is to produce a smooth, hard sur- face. It prevents the melted metal from mixing with the sand of the mokl and forming protuber- ances on the surface of the casting. The ciire-harrcl or arbor consists of a water-tight cast-iron tube, made sufficieully thick to withstand the pressure of the metal in the mold. lis length and diameter are such as to leavea sufiicieut surplus of metal iu the bore of tlie gun to secure a good HOLDING COMPOSITION. 373 MOLLY MAGUIEE8. finish. It is conslnictcd witli n sliirlit taper to fnfil- itate its wiUiilruwiil after the riislin},'. 'I"he hiwer end is rouiiiled oil' uiiil is lilted with sevenil iniii pins fi)r seeuriii}; tlje extremity iif the rope, wliich is used iiH vvruppin;; nmteriid in tlie prepariitiun of the cure; tlie exterior of tlic l)arrel is fluted from top to hottom to allow the escape of the pases generated hy its combustion. liefore bc- int; used the core-l)arrel is always sulijeeted to a powiTful water i)ressure to test its soundnes. To prepare the core for <'astin!^, journals are fitted at its extremities. It is tlien placed iti a horizontal po- mlion upon an iron truck, sup]iorte(l hy the jour- nals rest iiii; in heariims, and turned Ijy a crank at- tached to on<' of the journals. It is first wrapped ■with wliite hemp rope so as to cover uU of llie e.xter- ior surface in contact with the melted metal in the mold. (_)ver this a coatins; of molding composition is applied quite wet, wrapped with twine or wire to instire its adhering. AVhen the compo.sition has par- tially dried another thin coating is applied, and the surface rendered smooth and even by revolving the core in contact with a straight edge resting on the truck. The truck witli the core is then rolled into the drying oven. When the composition is dried the core is removed from the oven and a coating of the same wash again applied. It is again replaced in the oven luitil thoroughly dry, when it is removed and the journals taken out. Tlie one at the bottom is replaced by a tight fitting screw-plug covered over with molding composition. The top is fitted with a water-tiglit cap so constructed as to receive the con- ducting-pipes for the water, and is ready for use. Thvpi't as usually constructed for the casting of guns on the Uodman plan, is cylindrical in form and is surrounded with a brick wall, Ijuilt in offsets, af- fording supports for braces to steady the mold in po- sition; grates are arranged aro\md the circumference of the ijottom for tires lighted immediately after the casting to retard the radiation of heat from the ex- terior of the mold. To retain the lieat of the fires in the grates the mouth of the pit is covered with a close-fitting cover of boiler iron. For furnishing air to the fires, flues are made opening into the pit below the grates, while near the top another flue, making suitable connection with a chimney, produces the necessary drauglit. If the pit has bein out of use for any very great length of time, it is thorouglily dried l)y tires in the grates liefore placing the molds in position. To prepare the pit to receive the mold, the bottom is covered with a layer of sand. A heavy cast-iron plate in then laid down and carefully leveled. Upon this section the breech section of the mold is placed in an upright position. The otliiT sections are successively lowereil and secureil in their places, the whole beinir liraceil from the sides of tlie pit to keep it in a vertical i)osition. The core is then lowered into the mold of the gun. To center and secure it in position, a cast-iron frame, usually termed a " si)irler," is employed. The spider consists of a heavy ring supported upon three legs, each having a projection at the bottom fitted with an adjustable screw resting uj)on the upper flange of file flask. The core passes through the ring of the spider, is secured to it by bolts through the Itange at the top of the barrel, and held firmly, so that any movement of the sjiider will produce a change in the position of the core. To center the core, a long wooden rod is used, to the end of which a piece of board is fixed to hold a light. The length of this projecting board, previousjy determined, is the distance which the core shoulil be, whi'ii in the center, from the mold at its maximum diameter. Having adjusted the core in the mold by means of the screws in the legs of the spider, it is firmly secured in its position by clamps made to fit under the flange at the top of the flask and over the pro- jections at the end of the legs of the spider. The fuel for the tires in the ])it i^; arranged on the grates in readiness to be kindled. See It'idinnn Gun. MOLDING COMPOSITION.- The sand most used for this purpose is a kind of hjani, which contains a suliicient (|uantity of clay to reniler it moderately cohesive when damp. Sand, possessing all the qinilities required for molding, is seldom, if ever, found in a state of nature; but when the requisite qualities are known the materials may be selected, and an artificial composition produced without difficulty. The sand should lie principally of silex, very refractory, and of the kind commonly called aftarp-sand. When not sufficiently refractory, the sand is vitrified by the high temperature of the melted metal, and protuberances are found upon the casting which are not easily removed. The method of preparing the molding-composition artificial!}', varies according to the kind of casting for which it is to be used. In preparing it for cannon, great care is taken to introduce the exact quantity of clay required. When too litle is used, the com- position is not sufficiently adhesive; when too nuich is used, the mold is injured by contraction in drying. The sand is first carefutly sifted, then properly mixed and moistened with water in which clay has been stirred; the composition is considered sufficient- ly adhesive when it will retain its form after having been taken in a moist state and squeezed in the hand. The same composition may be repeatedly used for molding, but as the adhesive property of the clay is destroyed by the heat to which it is exposed in casting, more clay must be added every time, in the same manner as wlien the composition is first formed. See .UnMhig. MOLLY MAGUIRES.— A secret Order which existed in 1S54-~T, and probablj' still exists, in the anthra- cite coal mining region of north-eastern Pennsyl- vania. Here 400 collieries employed 60.000 men; Americans. Germans, Welshmen, Englishmen, and Swedes comprising one-half the number, the re- mainder being Irisli. Among the latter half origi- nated, in the loc;dity named, the Order of JfoTly Maguires, a branch of the " Ribbonmen" of Ire- land. The Order, howevsr. had a much wider ex- istence, and is alleged to have been affiliated with UOMENI. 374 VOUENTUU. the "Ancient Order of Ilibercians," elsewhere a peaeeable and reputable organization. Until 1865 and '66 the Order of Molly Maguires had not become generally known for the murders and other brutali- ties which then distinguished it. In ISTn, having gained control of a combination which forced a general strike in the coal regions, it succeeded in obtaining an ascendency in the councils of the miners, and from that period was prominent in assassinations and other outrages, committed usu- ally on the persons and against the property of Jus- tices of the Peace, Police Officers, and Mining Bosses. The number of murders increased between 1869 and '71, and fell off after the latter year, and until that of the great strike of 1875. According to some of those who made an investigation into the antecedents of the Mollj' Maguires, they originated in the trade-unions, and not in the A. O. H. or among the Ribbonmeu. None but Catholic Irish- men or their descendants were admitted to member- ship : the Order was organized in divisions, each having a chief ofBcial known as a " Bod3'-Master " ; and there were signs and passwords to enable mem- bers to distinguish each other. These signs and passwords were given to the members by the Body- Masters, who received them from the County Dele- gate, wlio got them from the State Delegate, to whom the}' were furnished by the National Delegate or National Board in New York City ; to the latter they came quarterly from Ireland, by the hands of the Steward of one of the transatlantic steamships. A central and governing organization known as "The Board of trin" was said to be the origination of the Order, and this held quarterly meetings in England, Scotland, or Ireland. So extended were tlie ramitications of this Order in Pennsylvania, that it was made known during the trials of the Molly Maguires in 1877 that one of their Body-Masters in thei'ottsville district held tlie high office of County Commissioner. The tiual exposure, capture, and punishment of the ili^lly >Iaguires was largel}' due to the energy and determination of Franklin B. Gowen, President of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad Company ; through the immediate instru- mentality of James McParlan, a detective, who joined the JIoll}' Maguires, he became acquainted with their members and the secrets of organization, and was at length enabled to afford information which disclosed the names of criminals connected with a majority of the murders committed by the Order. A large number were apprehended, tried, and con- demned, and their execution — that of a number of them occurring on the same day — so alarmed 'the members of the Order that it ceased to possess any extended influence. MOMENT. — The moment of any physical agency is it> importance with reference to some special appli- cation. Thus the moment of a force applied (per- pendicularly) to a lever, is the importance of the force as regards turning tlie lever about its fulcrum. It is. as we know (see Lever), proportional to the product of the force b)' the distance of its point of application from the fulcrum. The moment of a force about any axis (to which its direction is perpendic- ular) is the product of the force by its least distance from the axis ; and a similar definition is laid down for moment of velocity and moment of momentum. It is easy to see (see Momentum) that in any system of nnilually acting bodies the moment of momentum about any axis remains constant, since tlie equal mutual forces measure the momentum transferred from one body to another, and the moments of these forces are in pairs equal and opposite. A particular case of this is Kepler's law, I hat each planet describes equal areas in equal times about the sun. In the rotation of bodies round an axis, (he mo- ment of inertia is thct sum of the products of each par- ticle of the: bo ly into the square of its distance from the axis; or if .M lie the body, 7/»i, 7/1.^. m,,, etc., the particles composing it,and /'i, rj, r,, etc., their corres- ponding distances from the axis, then the moment of inertia of M=m.,)\--^-m„r^^-{-7n,r,'-'-\- etc., and if a quantity, K, be found such that MK^="iir,=-|-m2r2 ^ -)- '«3''3^+. etc. then K is called the radius "f gyra- tion. See Ctnter of Gyration. MOMENTUM. — Momentum maybe defined as pro- portional to the mass moving, and its velocity, con- jointly. If we assume unit of momentum to be that unit of mass moving with unit of velocity, we shall evidently have, for the momentum of a mass M, moving with velocity V, the expression MV. And such is the unit generally adopted. It is .shown by experiment that, when force produces motion in any body, the momentum produced in one second is pro- portional to the force — and, in fact,/o;r« ismeasni-ed by the, momentum it is capable of producing in unit of tinw. Thus, the same force, if acting for one second on each of a number of bodies, produces in them velocities which are inversely as their masses. Also when, as in the case of falling bodies, the velocities produced in one second are the same in all, we con- clude that the forces are pi'opurtiomil to the masses; and, in fact, this is the phj-sical proof that the weight of a body is proportional to its mass. Again, if diflEerent forces act, each for a second, on the same mass, the velocities produced are proportional to the forces. All these are but different modes of state- ment of the experimental fact that force is propor- tional to the momentum it produces in unit of time ; which forms a part of Newton's second law of motion. When two masses act on each other, Newton's third law of motion shows that the forces they mutually exert are equal and oppo- site. The momenta produced by these must there- fore be equal and opposite. Thus in attraction or impact of two masses, no momentum is lost; since what is lost by one is gained bj- the other. The momentum of a system of bodies can be re- solved (as velocity is resolved) into components in any assigned directions, and the mutual forces of the system may be thus likewise resolved. Applying the previous result, we see at once that in any s3-stem of mutually acting bodies (such, for instance, as the solar system), no momentum is, on the whole, either gained or lost in any particular direction ; it is merely transferred from one part of the sj'stem to another. This fact, called the conservation of momentum, has caused great confusion in the minds of p.seudo-phy.sic- ists, who constantly confound it with conservation of work or energy, a totally different thing. The mo- mentum produced by a force in any period of time is measured by the product of the force and the tiine during which it has acted — the energy or work done by a force is measured by the product of the force and the spacf through which it has acted. Jlomentum is pro- portional to the simple velocity of a body, and can, iiecer, by any i'notrn process, he transformed into any- thing elsi'. Energ3', when de[>ending on velocity, is proportional to the square of the velocity, and is in the natural world constantly being tran.iform^'d from its actual or kinetic form to its pott ntial form , and bach again, or to some other kinetic form, sucli as heat, and finally m.ust liectmie heat. Momentum, on the con- trarJ^ is never altered, either in kind or in amount. In knocking doirn a wall, or in staving in the whole side of a ship, the battering-ram of the ancients (when constructed of sufficient mass, and worked by the proper number of men or animals) was jirobably nearly as etfective as the best modern artillery. But in making a breach in a wall, or in punching a hole in the armor of an iron-clad, mere massive shot with low velocities (such as those of the Dahlgren guns), are comparatively ineffective, however great tlieir momentum ; while an Armstrong or 'Whitworth (iro- jectile, with a fraction of the momentum, but with greater velocity, and, for its size, much greater kinetic energy, effects the object with ease. In many every-day ])henomena, we see most distinctly the dilTerence between these two atfections of matter. Thus, a blow delivered from the shoulder by a heavj/ MONARCHY. 375 MONCBIEFF DEFBESSION CABBIAGES. pugilist, evfln if it be Hliic;gi»lily Rivpn, senenilly floors its man, witlioul ildiiiiririiicli oIIkt injur}' ; but a sharp stroke adniiniKtcrcil liya liglil wcii,'lit, while liardly disturbini; I he adversary's equilihriuMi, iii- fliets serious |MUiishriienl. MONARCHY. - 'I'liat fonn of ij;overnineiil iu aeoin- linniit\' by whicli one person e.\creises Uk* soverf-ii^n aulhorily. Il is only when the Ivini;, or Cliief .Mag- istrate of the coinniunily, possesses Ihe entire rnl- ini^ power liiatlie is, in Ihe proi)er aeeeplalion of Ihi' term, a Monareli. Most of tlie Oriental (Joverninents past ami pre.scnt, Russia at ])resent, anil Spain ami France as they were- in the last century, are in this strict sense Monarchies. Tlie deiienerale form of Monarchy is tyranny, or (Joverinnent for tlie exclu- sive^ benelit of the liuler. Wlien thelleadof the State, still possessin;;; IIk! status and diLTnity of roy- alty, shares the supreme power with a class of No- btes, with a pojmlar body, or with both, as in our own country, the (iovernment, though no Ioniser in strictness monarchical, is called in jiopular laniruaife a Mixed or I.iiniled Monarchy, the term Absolute Monarchy beini; applied to a Goveriuuent properly monarchical. The biiiliest ideal of (government would piTliaps beallaiiieil by an Absolute Monarchy, if there were any seenrily for always possessin;^ a thoroui^hly wi.se and uood Monarch ; but tliis con- dition is obviously unattainable, and a bad Despot Inis it in his power to intlict intinite evil. It there- for becomes desirable that a coverning class, com- posed, if possible, of the wisest and most enlight- ened in the country, should share the stiprcme ])ow- er with the Sovereign. A Limited .Monarchy has this ailvautage over an Aristocratic Republic that, in ditiicult crises of the nation's e.xistanee, Royalty becomes a neutral and guiding [Kiwer, raised al)ove the accidents and struggles of political life. Mon- archy, most usually hereditar}-, has sometimes been elective, a condition generall}- attended with feuds and distractions, as was the case iu Poland. The elective system is still followed in the choice of the Pope. Constitutional Monarchy may be in its ori- gin elective, or combine both sj'stems, as when one family is disinherited, and the scepter declared hereditary in the hands of another under certain con- ditions. MONCRIEFF DEPRESSION CARRIAGES.— The de- pressing garrison-carriages have been made to mount guns of G. 3-inch, 7-inch, and 'J-inch calibers, the latter being as large as it is thought practicable to work on this kind of carriage. The cheeks are made like those of the heavy carriages, of two h- incli plates riveted together, with wrought-iron frames S\ inches wide between them. The cheeks are connected by two transoms of plate-iron. The elevator is made in the same way as the cheeks. The chassis-rails are of girder-iron, 19J feet long, G',- incbes wide on the flange, and 12 inches deep for the 9-inch gun. Si.v traverse-wheels are used. The carriage lias been tested at Shoeburyness by re- peated firings, some of which with the 6.3-inch and 9-inch gnu we witnessed. The smaller gun comes down to the loading position after firing more smoothly .and with less shock than the larger gun. the charge for which was 50 pounds of powder and a projectile weighing 2.')0 pounds. The G.8-incli gun is designed to fire over a parapet 9 feet 4 inclies high, and the 9-inch gun over one 12i feet high. In the 9-inch hydro-pneumatic carriage the force of the recoil is utilized to compress a certain volume of air contained within a close vessel, and is after- ward employed to raise the gun from under cover to the firing position. The gun is supported on two strong lever supports. One end of each embraces the trunnion of the gun. and the other is keyed to a heavy shaft which turns in journals near the founda- tion-plate. This shaft has two strong cranks wliich operate pistons fitted to two cylinders. A third lever support is hinged at one end to the breech of the gun,, and the other to a support attached to the ele- vating-apparatus. The cylinders communicat* by means of strong pipes witli air-vessels, and a valve is arranged to jiermit the water to pass from the cylinders to the air-vessels, but does not allow it to return. A sutllcient quantity of water is used to assuri: the valves being always immersc'd in it. The air in Ihe vessels is compressed by means of the air- pump until it is under sutllcient pressure to raise the gun from the loading to the firing position. When the gun is tired, tho. recoil forces the pistons in the cylinders, and compresses the air in the vessels, whi(^h hold it in store until required to raise the gun for the next i'lrtt. By turning the valve which allows the water to flow back fnjm the vessels to the cylin- ders, the water at on<-e jiresses against the piston- heads, and forcing them back raises the gun to the firing position. The carriage is the same in prin- ciple as the hydro-pneumatic siege-carriage, which will be noticed in detail. Major Moncriefl" urges with much force that by the adoption of a depressing carriage for siege-guns, embrazuri's for earthworks, which are entirely un- suited to modern warfare, may be dispensed with, and a better and safer Ijattery can be used ; namely, that in which the guns are i)lanted in pits or trench- es where the gunners are entirely protected from the fire of sharpshooters and the direct fire of canister and shrajjuel. In his siege-carriage, instead of using the recoil of the gun to raise a counterpoise weight which sliall in turn elevate the gun from the loading to the firing jiosition as in his sea-coast carriage, he utilizc'sthe recoil to compress a volume of air. which being brought to act upon the gun shall raise it to the firing position. The same idea, was proposed several jears ago by Mr. James Eads, civil engineer of St. Louis, and a carriage made to operate on this principle was patented by him. Moncrieff's car- riage is built for a (H-pounder rifled gun. It resem- bles in its general appearance an ordinary wrought- iron siege-carriage, and diiTers from it only in the addition of the hydro-pneumatic cylinder and piston, the elevating arms or supports, and a modification of the apparatus for pointing the gun. Between the cheeks of the carriage is placed a cast-iron cj'lin- der with trunnions, which are supported in trun- nion-beds in the cheeks. The cylinder hangs in a vertical position, and comes down to within lo inch- es of the ground. This cylinder is a compound one, having an inner cylinder in its axis, there being two channels of communication between them. closed by valves. The first is intended to permit the pas- .sage of the liquid from Ihe inner to the outer cylin- der, and is closed on . one side by a valve which works out automatically, and on the otherby a reg- ulating-valve for moderating the motion of the piece at the last part of the recoil, and also acting auto- matically : the other channel allows the liquid in the outer cylinder to pass into the inner one. and is closed b}' a valve which is operated by means of a lever attached to the left trunnion of the cylinder. A piston fits the inner cylinder closely. Its head is divided into two branches and serves as a transom to the two lever arms, to which it is secured by hinge-bolts. The two lever-iirms are strong wrought- iron bars, the lower ends of which are formed in the shape of trunnions, and fit in the trunnion-beds of the carriage, being held in place by the cap-squares. The upper ends have holes bored in them to receive the trunnions of the gun. In the firing position these arms are nearly vertical, and raise the axis of the piece 8 feet above the platform : the recoil brings them nearly horizontal, lowering the trun- nions of the gun to about 3| feet. Two long iron rods are fastened to one end to the breech of the gun by a hinge-bolt, and the other end to the elevating apparatus. The inner cylinder is filled with liquid, which also occupies the lower part of the outer cylinder, but only for a short distance, so as to cover the passages between the two cylinders. The liquid is a mixture MONGOLIAN CASQinB. 376 HONE. of one part of glycerine to two of water. The air is the outer cylinder is compressed ,by means of an air- pump before it is put in position. The exact degree of pressure must be determined by experiment. The carriage is held in place l)ehind the epaulement by means of a chain or rope, which is made fast at one end to a hook on the axle at its middle point, and the other to an anchor in the ground in frout of the gun. The recoil of the carriage must be prevented in order that the hydraulic apparatus may be made to oper- ate. The regulating-valve of the cylinder is worked by a crank, which is moved by a connecting-rod at- tached at its uppc end by a hinge-bolt to the right lever-arm. The connecting-rod has a slot in its low- er end, in which the pin of the crank plays. Suppos- ing the gun to be in the firing position, the regulat- ing-valve is wide open. "When the gun is discharged the recoil presses the lever-arms down to the rear, forcing the piston in the cylinder, which turns around its trunions. The pressure on the liquid opens the valve and allows it to pass into the outer cylinder, compressing the air contained therein. The regulat- ing-valve is open during the great part of the motion downward, the length of the slot being so regulated that the pin of the crank will not reach its upper end until the gun is almost down, when it will turn the crank and close the passage between the two cylind- ers. The trunions strike on India-rubber buffers bolt- long iron rods attached to the breech are hinged to the upper end of the racks. By turning the handle of the endless screw, the circular racks are raised or lowered, and also the breech of the gun. The circu- lar rack has its center at the point around which the rod is pivoted on the breech of the gun when it is in the loading position, so that the angle that its axis makes with the horizon in this position is the same, no matter at what angle it may be fired. Reflecting sights are arranged on the carriage, so that the gun maybe aimed by the gunner without exposing him- self to the enemy's fire. The carriage is mounted on an ordinary siege-plat- form. and the^ parapet should be an overhanging one, in order that there should be the necessary space for loading, and to insure the muzzle of the gun when in the firing position being well beyond the crest. If the hydro-pneumatic arrangement be disabled, the gun may be then mounted on the carriage as an or- dinary siege-gun. The hydro-pneumatic cylinder should be charged in the park and not in the battery. Air-pumps are provided for this purpose. The mean pressure in the cylinder during the experiments has been 400 pounds per square inch, about 27.2 atmos- pheres, the piece being in the firing position. and cor- responds to 500 pounds when it is in the loading pos- ition. If it should be necessary for any reason to increase the pressure in the cylinder, portable air- ed to the upper side of the cheeks. The greatest dis- tance that the piston can be forced into the cylinder is 28J inches, and the dimensions of the cylinder and piston are so determined that at the end of the mo- tion this air will have been compressed to about one-third of its original volume. When the piece is loaded, in order tobringit to the firing position, it is only necessary to open the passage between the out- er and inner cylinders. To effect this, the gunner on the left turns the key in the left trunnion of the cvlinder, and opens the valve which allows the li- . quid to return to the inner cylinder ; tlie pressure of air drives back the lifiuid, 'which raises the pis- ton and the gun. Two chains fastened on the right and left of the piece, one end to the lever-arms and the other to the clu'eks, stop the gim when it has Tcaclicd the firing j)Osition. During the ujiward motiim the conned ing-rod attaclied to the right lever turns the regulating-valve and opens it ready for the discharge of tlie piece. A windlass lictwcen tlu' sides of the trail affords (he means of bringing down the gun by the aid of ropes to the loading position without firing, or when the trunnions are not brought in contact with the rubber buffers, as will happen when firing with small charges at high an- gles. The elevating apparatus consists of two circular lacks placed on the inside of the cheeks, and o])cr- ateil by means of an ciulless screw, which turns a pinion" engaging in the teeth of the rack. The two reservoirs are proviiicd containing air compressed to 75 or 80 atmosplieres. The gun lias been fired many times with 12 pounds of powder and a projectile weighing 64 pounds; tlie carriage worked well. It has been found that it can be fired at the rate of one round per minute at low angles of elevation. The weiglit of the carriage comprete is G2J- cwt., the ser- vice-carriage being 32} cwt. Major Moncrieff be- lieves the weight may be reduced (by making the cylinder of bronze instead of iron, the plunger a hol- low cylinder of wrought iron, and the lever-arms of built iieams instead of solid) to 50j cwt. The great weight of the carriage is still regarded as a serious objection to it. Besides, the complex and delicate nature of the machinery, and the complication of stores required to go with it, induce the belief that it would prove too cumbrous for use in sieges gener- ally. See Seawnut and Garrison C'arriagefi,' ana Siege C'ai-riar/ef.. MONGOLIAN CASQUE.— An ancient helmet with peak crest ami socket for plume. It was very beau- tiful, and richly ornamented with damascened work. MONK. — The most common methods of firing mines are by the use of the monk and the box-trap These two methods recpiire a powder-hose. The monk is a bit of agaric lA inches in length. The train to be fired by it. is arranged as follows. Stretch the extremity of the hose tipnii a sheet of jiaper and sprinkle some dry. fine powder ujion it; cover this powder over with another sheet of paper, secured at MONOMACHY. 377 UOORINO. its four forncra with dry ciirlli or Htoncs; pass tlic; monk tlirouLtli 11 hole in llic iiii])cr slicct, and let it project liiUf itH IcMu'lli alirivc it, its Imsclicirit; pliiiiu'- Cll in tlie j)oW(l(r on llir liotloin kIiimM; si-l lire lotlie nioiilt lit top witli another pie(M; of agaric, termed an infiirmfr of tli(^ same diuiensions and form as the first, and retire (ini(:l<ly. IJoth tlie use of tlie Ijox-traj) and monk I.ave tli(^ jnconvenienee of recpiirini; a powder-hose, wliieli, from its own explosion, poisons llie. galleries. They have also, and more jiarlicularly the monk, thedefeet of not producing the explosion aUvaysat the instant desired. To avoid these inconveniences a galvanic current has of late l)een applicil to lire mines, and with complete success. This method has been found particularl}' serviceable in tiringchargi'S underwater. Sec //<(.('-^;v(/),and Jtiirket-tniiiuh. MONOMACHY.— A single combat or the fighting of two, hanil to hand. Il is di-rivcd from Ihc (in^'k. A due] Miav prcipcrly l)e (■.■dli'd a .Moiiomachv. montal'embert" system of foktification> Among the wrilcTs on permanent fori ilic.al ion whose works liave hail an imporlant bearing <jn Ihc' progress of Ilie art, Monlalcmbert holds a conspicuous ])lace, although not educated as an engineer. Struck liy the evident defccis of the methoils of Ids prede- cessors, particularly the want of casemates, both for defensive dispositions for artillery and musketry, imd the shelter of the garrison and munitions, Mon- ta.enibert devoted his time, talents, and fortime to bringing about a change in tlie direction in which it seemed to him called for. Ilis elforts, however, ..ed to no modilicatious of consequence during his -ife, which was principally spent in angry contro- versies with his opponents, except the extension of casemaled defenses for sea-coast works; and it is only within a comparatively recent period, in the present century, that a new sciiool of engineers has grown up principally in Germany, based upon the views put forth mainly by Montalembert. Tlie prin- cipal propositions of Montalend)ert consist : 1. In the entire rejection of the bastioned .system, as, according to liis views, imsuitable to a good defen- sive disposition; and in its stead he proposed to n.se either the Unnillcilty.ilitii, or else thv j)ii/ygoiiiil .yj/nh-in. 2. In basing the strength of these last systems upon aa overwhelming force of artillery tire in defensive casemates. 3. In organizing strong permanent' works within, and indeueudeut of the body of the place, wliicli are to serve as a .secure retreat for the garrison when forced to give up its defense. Mon- talembert tirst gave the name jiolygonal system to a trace of the enceinte in which all of the angles are either salient, or where the re-entcrings are very slight. A description of the polygonal system in its most simple form, tlie one in wliicli Montalembert presented it for the fortifications at Cherbourg, one of the most important naval stations in France, will be given lierc as an example. The body of the place consists of the sc;irp wall, arranged with casemates for artillery and musketry; of n corridor, between these casemates ami the earthen rampart and para- pet. In rear of the rampart is a high wall, arranged with loop-holes, within which the garrison retired when driven from the defense of the rampart. Case- mated capoimieres, which arc secure from a cmt.p-de- mahi, are placed along the rampart, and so amiiged that a tire can be thrown from tlieni overtlu- parapet and also along the tcrre-plein. The corridor is also swept by a casemated capouiiiere for musketry; and the front of the wall b_v a like arrangement. The principal caponniere for tlauking the main ditch is in the form of a lunette, anil placed at the middle of the exterior side, its ilanks joining the casemated gallery of the enceinte. The Hanks and the faces of this work, are arranged with two tiers of artilU-ry and musketry lire; e;ich think carrying ten ami each face twelve guns. A wet ditch sep;irates the faces ;ind flanks; a loop-holed wall enclosesthe portion between the tlanks, from which the opposite port ion between \ the faces is swept by muskrrtry. The capoimiJ-rc !» covered in front by a face cover of earth, in the shape of a redan. Tlie scarp of the enceinte i» covered in like manner by the continuous face cover of earth, in the re entering angles of whicli casema- led batteries of two stories, for artillery and mus- ketry, ari' i>laced to (lank the ditches ami sweej) tlic positions for counter batteries around the salients of the covered- way. These batteries are 7nasked in front by eartlien works. Tlie whole is covered by the glacis of the covered way, arranged in the usual manner. The better to flank the main caponnitrc, the portion of the casemated gallery joining it ig arranged with two tiers of artillery tire, the remain- ing jjortion having but one tier of guns. The com- munications between the dilferent works are by bridges across the wet ditches. Sec I'olyf/nnal fiyn- ieiii of FDrUftratiim, and St/ntem of Forlifiration. MONTER -.A term signifying to rise from one rank to another in the way of [jromotion, as from l-ieuteiiant to Captain, etc.", orfroni having the com- mand of the youngest company to be promoted to that of thi. oldest. MONTEEO.— A military cap and hood formerly worn in ("imp. MONTIGNY MITRAILLEUR.— A machine gun con- sisting III :iT ritliil still b:irrels, hexagonally formed exteriorly, and fitted iinil soldered into a wroiiglit- iron tube, somewhat in Ihe form of an ordinary piece of artillery. This has a movalile breech-piece worked by means of ii lever, and containing a sjiring and striker, corresponding with each barrel. The whole of the barrels can be charged simultaneously by the introduction of a steel plate containing the thirty-seven cartridges ; they can be tired independ- ently, and at any interval of lime, or the whole may be tired in one second ; reloading takes five seconds, and a continuous tire at the rale of ten discharges per minute can be maint;dned. The l'uu is provid- ed with both vertical and horizontal' adjustments, and may be made to sweep horizontally along a line of adjustment between each discharge, or "during the discharge itself. As there is no recoil, the gun once laid will continue to throw 28 lbs. weiglif of lirojectiles per minute on tlie same spot, or at var- ious points of any line requiring the same eleva- tion without any further labor Uian that involved in the working of the lateral adjustment. It appears from Major Fosbery's account, who was sent to Bel- gium by the English government to report on this mitrailleiir, that at 860 yards the hits were 32-12 per cent. From the report of the Special Committee ap- pointed to carry out comparative experiments with the Jlontigny and Galling milrailleurs, it would seem that the result is in faVor of the latter. In the special competition between this gun andthe.Mon- tigny mitrailleur of thirty-seven barrels, the former made G18 hitsin 3minutes31 seconds, in 720 roundsat (iOO yards; the Montigny. at the same ran^e and with the same number of rounds, scoring .'iSS in 4 min- tutes. With ."ioS roundsat SOIJ vards^ the result was even more favorable to the (Jailing, which made 439 ' hitsin 2 minutes 20 seconds, agaiiist the Montigny's 292 in 3 minutes 3 seconds. MONT-PAGNOTE.— In fortification, an eminence where persons post themselves out of reach of can non, to see a camp, siege, battle, etc., without beino- exposed to danger. It is also called the Post of the InruhwrafileK. MOORING- — This is the most difficult operation con- nected with submarine mines. It is a problem con- taining so many conditions 1 hat it is impossible to sive more than general suggestions coucernius its solu- tion. In order to possess a ma.xinium of "efficiency, no indication of the position of a mine should appear on the surface of the water, and yet the spot, to within a few feet of where it is deposited, must be known to the defenders of the channel in which it is used. In certain cases— as when there is consider- able rise and fall of the tide— it is impossible to total- MOOBS. 378 MOOBS. ly conceal the position of a system of mines. Wlien such is the case, the very smallest indication possible should be allowed to appear on the surface of the water. It has been found that the least current, or so much roughness as only a moderate breeze would cause, renders the placing of even a single mine in a definite position a matter of very considerable difB- cult}-. When a series of mines are to be moored in proper relative position, this difficulty is much in- creased, and it is, furthermore, augmented in propor- tion to the depth of the water. The objects to be obtained in mooring are as fol- lows : 1st. That the charge should be ke^pt as nearly as possible stationary at the point where it is requir- ed to act. This is paVtieularly necessary where there is a tide which, flowing first in one direction and then in another, tends to cause the mine to shift its position, and is indispensable in the case of mines intended to be fired by judgment. 2d. The moorings should be so arranged that there shall be as little twisting as possible, which might break or injure the insulation of the electrical cables. 3d. The anchors or heavy weights used should be suited to the nature of the holding ground or bottom. 4th. Mooring cables should be so arranged that they may not be likely to become twisted together or entangled. The best special mooring appartus for general purposes is tlie mu«tirixim anclior. It is decidedly so for a soft, mud- dy bottom. On a hard, rocky bottom the dead- w'eight of the mooring must be depended upon to keep a mine stationary, and if a heavy mushroom anchor is used, its edges should be furnished with toes or points to catch in the crevices of the rocks. The weight of the anchor would depend on the buoy- ancy to be overcome, and would usually be from 500 pounds upwards. Ordinary mooring chains and hemp cables may generally be employed in connecting the charges or circuit-closers with the anchors. Where there is any tendency to twist, a wire cable is tlie best to counteract it. Any considerable amount of twisting must be checked, as it is liable to entangle the moorings and to rub and injure the electric cables. Jvext to the mushroom sinker the ordinary anchor is the best. For make-shifts, any heavy-weights— as large stones, pigs of metal, or bars of iron— may be used. These must necessarily be sufficiently heavy to hold a mine iu position simply b}' their dead- weight. The material just mentioned can be fastened to frames of wood, and the whole sunk as one mass. The weight necessary for a mooring, whetlier an- chor, sinker,or other apparatus, will depend upon the buoyant force of the mine, the nature of the bottom, an<l the currents. The buoyancy of a mine is in excess of flotation over its weight. This would be measured by the number of poimds required to sink it, and no more. When wooden casks are used the Ijuoj'ancy may be roughly taken as equal to the vvciglit of the charge of powder. With heavy metallic cases their weight must, in all cases, be taken into consideration. In watcT free from currents twice its buoyancy is con- sidered necessary to keep the mine in a vertical posi- tion over the mooring; this, tlierefore, wovild l)e the wi-ii;hl rccpiircd for tlic mooring. Wlieri- tlicre is a current, additional weight to keep it from swinging off with' it is required, and this hiereases with the strengtii of tlic latter. Whi'uthe mine is moored by a single cable, a convenient rule, approximating closely to results from experiments, is to allow one addition.'w buoyancy for each mile per hour of current; i.e., two buoyancies being allowed for slill watei, three would be allowed for a current of one mile; four for two miles; five for three miles, ami so on. These represent the weights fortlnr mooring in each instance. In a tide-way where there is a current of more than five miles au hour, two anchors m.ay be advantageously used, placed up and down stream at a considerable distance ajiart, depending upon the force of the- current and the ilistance from the bot- tom at which the mine is to float. It is extremely difficult to moor miues in proper lines and depths by this means. When the mine is small, say one containing a charge not greater than 200 pounds, a single large barge may suffice for placing it. The anchors can be let down at a suitable distance apart from the extremities of two out-riggers, (me from each end of the barge. The mine, attached to the middle of the cable connecting the anchors, is weight- ed down by a heavy saddle, wliich after the an- chors are down, is hoisted in and the mine permitted to rise to the proper depth from the surface. In order to place a large buoyant charge of, say, 1000 pounds and upwards, three of these large boats are required to carry it and its anchors.one for each anchor or mooring sinker, and one for the chargfe it- self. They are connected by a rope, which, if kept stretched, would insure the anchors being placed at the proper distance apart. The sinkers and mine are carried out and lowered from the davits at the stern of each boat. Skillful boatmen and sailors are re- quired for all operations connected with the placing of mines, and a handy steam-tug is the most conven- ient craft to use. The floating mine is used where the depth of water is so great that, if placed on the bottom, the mine would require for efficiency an ex- cessively large charge. In this case it is held to the bottom by moorings in such position as not to rise to the surface at low tide. nor at high tide be so deep as to be beyond effective range of over-passing vessels. To arrive at this exact point, it is best to haul the mine down towards the sinker. For this purpose there are various contrivances, someone of which would be supplied with the rigging furnished with the mine. When the mines are to rest upon the bottom, they are lashed to some heavy object suffi- cient to sink and hold them in position, and then lowered to their places. See t^ubmariiie ilines. MOORS, — A people who form the great majority of the population of Barbary. Their appearance in- dicates their origin, which is a mixture of the Mauri, (from whom they derive their name), Numidians, Phenicians, Romans, and Arabs, who have success- ively held possession of the country. Inconsequence, they are found to vary considerably in appearance and character in different parts of Barbary, but all show much more or less strongly the sj'mptoms of a • considerable infusion of Arabian blood. They are a well-formed race, with fine oriental features, and a mild and melancholy expression of countenance. They are more friendly and sociable than the Be- doinns and Berbers, who inhabit the deserts and mountains: but are inferior to them in mental ability, besides being voluptuous and cruel. As the Arab conquerors of Spain invaded that countrj' from Africa, where they had largely re- cruited their forces, they were naturally enough called Moors, and in Spanish history the terms Moors, Saracens, and Arabs are synonymous. From this mixed Moorish-Arab race sprang the ^VonVwHCf who were permitted by Ferdinand the Catholic to remain in Spain after the expulsion of their cinmtrymen, on condition of their embracing Christianity. A cruel persecution, which was originated by Philip II., drove them to rebellion (l.'iOT-TO), and in l/JTl many of them emigrated to Africa; those who remained lieins, to the number of 500,000, expelled in 1610 by Philip III. The Moors first appear in modern history as the Allies of the Vandals in their invasion of Africa, and wcrecontimially rebelling ag;iinst the Byzantine Krn- peror. They were next, after a severe struggle, con- quered and converted by the Arabs in 707. In lO'.tl they were smnmonedhy the latter into Spain, to aid in stemming the tide of Christian Conqiu'st; and af- ter faithfully siqiporling the Arab Calif of Cordova, etc., till bis dominions fell inlotlie hands of the King of Leon and Castile, tliey n-lired in 1238 to Granada, where Ihey founded tlu'ir kingdom. The Kings of (Jranada carried on a vigorous, and, at the same MOOBSOM FUSE. 379 MORTAR. timo , rliivalrotis wiirfaro with the KinRH of Cnstilo; bill ill Iciinlli, wc-;ikciii'il liy iiilcnial ilisciinl, were (•(irnpL-llcil U) succiiinli lo FinliiiuMd llic ( 'utiiolic in 14!)3. The Moors, or ill Iciisl Ihiil, portion of them who refused to adopt Christianity, were then ex- pelled from Spiiin, mid in revenue, foundeil in IHIH the pinillr;il Sillies of Ali;iers Tiinis, iind Morocco. MOORSOM FUSE. 'I'lie liody of lliis fuse is made of hroii/i', mid is screwed into the ey of llie sliell by incmis of a licy tilled into two niorlises made in the head. Tlie lower part is not Ihrcaded, and iirojec'ts into the ehamber of the shell. In llie body of the fuse two cylindrical chambers are ])laced, one above the other, with their axes perpendicular to each other. These chmiibersare both alike, with similar jiercus- sion apparatus. In each chamber is placed a solid cylinder of tironze.terminaled al each end by a small l)roie(iioii, or piston One head of the chmnber is movable, and win n screwed into ils place, its exter- ior is Hush with the convex surface of the fuse. Holes are left on the exterior for the use of a key, and the head is screwed in, after the hammer is placed in the chamber and suspended. In each end of the cham- lier is a small recess, a vent beinn bored throuijh to it from the I'Xteriiir of the fuse. 'I'liese are both tilled with fulminating powder. A hole is drilled through the hammer at its middle point, and per^ieudicular to its axis, and is used to suspend the hammer, by means of a copper wire, in the center of the cham- ber. The wire passes througii corresponding lioles iu the body of the fuse, and is soldered at the ends in the curved positions of the holes near the surface of tlie fuse. In the lower end of tiiefusc a third chamber is placed willi a percussion apparatus sim- ilar lo the preceding, acting, however, in the direc- tion of the axis of the fuse, and having but one end of the chamber provided with percussion-powder, the vent leading from which communicates with a cross-chamber, liaving at eacli end a small chamber tilled with powder. The hammer, a cylinder of bronze, with a piston like Ibe others, on its upper end, is suspended in the same way, and has below it a copper-wire passing through holes in the fuse, and soldered like tlie rest. At the Iiottom of this last chamber stands a cylinder of lead, fixed in its posi- tion by its base, which is pressed in a little offset,be- tween the bottom end of the fuse and the cap wliicli closes the chamber. When the shell strikes, the sus- pension wire of that liammer whose axis coincides with diameter of the shell passing through the point of impact, or, is parallel to it, is torn loose, relea.sing the hammer, and allowing it to plunge forward and explode the fulminate, by striking it with the piston ou its end. From the construction of this fuse it will be seen that there are six points on the surface of the shell, the striking of wliieli will produce the working of tlie apparatus with certainty. See Fuse. MOOflANA.— In the East Indies, a "term applied to the soldiers who are employed to collect the revenue. MOPPAT. — A very early name for a cannon sponge. MORGENSTEEN.— A mace with a long handle and spiked liead. See Jfurn/ii)} Star. MORGENSTERN GUN.— A breech-loading rifle hav- ing a fixed chamber closed by a movable breech- block, which rotates about a horizontal at DC to the axis of tlie barrel, lying above the axis of the barrel, and in front. It is opened by drawing back the handle of the tiring-bolt until" the ribs on its sides are clear of the grooves in the receiver in which they slide. This cocks the piece by compressing the spiral mainspring which surrounds the tiring-bolt, until it is caught and held by a sear lying well in the bottom of the breech-lilock. The breech-block may then be thrown upward and forward until it is stopped by striking the front part of the receiver. It is held open there by the head of the ejector- spindle, which changes its bearing on the extractor so as, througii it, to support the block. The piece is closed by reversing the movement of the breech- Work, nnd is lorked by the sidn ribs of the flring- boll engaging with the undercut grooves in the rear portion ot the receiver, 'i'lie piece is llred by a con- cealed spiral-spring lock the liring-bolt being re- leased by the action of the triggiT within the re- ceiver upon the sear within the block. Extraction is accomplished by the breech-blork striking the liiK on the extra<tor above its centre of motion, and ejection is caiiseii liy the acceleraliun im|iresseil on Ihe extractor liy the action of the ejector spring on the fjector-siiindle, when, by the motion of opening, the direction of this latter passes below the axis of th(! extractor. The ejector-spring is then released from \\u: tension caused by its compression in opening, and causes the extractor to rapirlly rotate about its axis, carrying the empty cartridge against the beveled shoulders of the receiver, by which it is deflected upward and thrown clear of the L'un. MORGLAY. — An ancient and very deadly weapon, in the form of a great sword. MORION. -Originally a {Spanish helmet. It had neither vizor, nose-piece, gorget, nor neck-guard; but was suniionnled by a high crest sometimes half the height of the helmet. Its edge lurned up in a |)oint in front and behind, so as to form a crescent when seen in profile. The itfojv'ore was worn by Ar- quebusiers and Men-at-Arms. HORNE. — The head of the lance used in tilting or other peaceful encounters. It was curved so that an adversary might be unhorsed, but not wounded, by a stroke. Also written Martru:. MORNING GUN. The gun fired at the first note of reveille, al all mililarv posts, forts, etc. MORNING PARADE. -The daily parade at troop, sometimes called Troop Parade. In every garri- soned town, fortified place and camp, as well as in every town througii which soldiers pass, or occa- sionally halt, a certain hour in the morning is fixed for the assembling of the different corps, troops, or companies, in regular order. See Dre.ts Parade. MORNING REPORT.— A report of troops, their service, condition, etc., rendered every morning to superior authority. The Morning Reports of Com- panies and Detachments are comliined and form the Conmlidated Morning Report. The form of Jlorn- ing Report, given on page 380, used at West Point, will illustrate its purpose. MORNING STAB.— A mace having a long handle and a head with projecting spikes. It received its name from the ominous jest of wishing the enemy good morning with the Morning-itar. when they had been surprised in camp or city. This weapon became very popular on account of the facility and quickness with which it could be manufactured. The peasant made it easily with the trunk of a small shrub and a handful of large nails. Mornijig- stim, short in the handle, like hammers, were made especially for the Cavalry, Some were sup- plemented witli small hand-cannon in the 1.5tU cen- turv. MORRIS-PIKE.— An ancient pike much used by Ihe Moors. See Pike. MORTAR.— A short and comparatively light can- non, employed to throw hollow projectiles at great angles of elevation. It is intended to produce effect by'the force with which these explode. The great curvature of their fire gives them power of reacliing objects behind works which would be secure from direct fire. As the projectile has a large diameter, and, except in rare instances, a very great range is necessary, a comparatively small charge of powder is requisite. To give this" its utmost powerand con- centration, it is confined in a hemispherical chamber at the lower end of the bore, but of less diameter. The shell completely closes tliis chamber; and when the explosion ensues receives its full force on its center. Ordinary mortars range in diameter of bore from f> to 13 incites. Large mortars have, however, been tried at times, as at the siege of Antwerp citadel MORTAR. 380 MORTAH. u c " .0 Cm © 4J ^ S c8 g c H o a 6* Note. On the monthly return of absentees and men on special duty to be accounted for by name, after "Explanations of AlterationB." S. CS O O w it I c a K 1 i a .2 1 < Explaual'u of Alteration. S 5 •IlJ.qBSIQ JOJ 1 1 1 1 1 1 'S a « s Q +:> a 02 uapjo A"a •lEiUBjei.OA-g •nopBnpcjSA'a -3 a> a '3 1-5 •jajsoBJi Ag jn.iu^jsni-aj Ag l.iuiUToddu Ag •njnjajj is^i ajBSajS^y ?§ •ajBSajSlBY "imox <1 o 02 •SaiBAUJ •sjaouJO '0 "X a; Q ■s;uBnainaiq •sniBidBO .^ •SajBAUjJ 2" •bjaogjO "0 -N 02 O ■ •sjuBua^nan •sniBjdcj 6 > a O •sajBAUj •sjaoc^o -R •siUBnajnaii •sutBjdBg ID ■Sa}BAI.IJ O •siaofflo -0 -K •S}UEnajnai7 ■saiBjdBO o a c ■SajBAUJ •siaouio -0 "N ■sjUBuainatq ■sniBidBO i •AUcl'3J'«"3WO-0'N^ •sjaoujo P.inoo c p •sajBAUj "SJJ3HJO '0 'N •siUBuainan •sniBjdBf) E OS •sajBAtaj •SI aoUIO "0 N BiuBnainaiT •snii!)dB;^ 3 Q •SajBAUJ sjaoujo -0 'N: •sjuBua^nan 1 jC^ suie+uB.j o e o tj) □ a K t c2 •saiiiAUfl ■tfjaoujo D "N ■siuBnaiuari suniidwo >> SajBAUJ •siBjodaoo •sjUBaSiag •siUBuainaj'i •SUIBldtl^ -3 . o bn cj g S a a o o:'a c — 1 71 c O o , ^ o 3, o br t.1 O O MORIAB BATIEBIES. 381 UOBTA£ BATT£EI£S. in 1833, when Hie Frcnrh broufi;lit tm<- of 24 inches bore to llic ailiicU. 'I'liis inonHtcr, owin^ to its iin- wii-lcliiiiss and otlicr raiiscs, was a failuri'. I^arifcr Hiili tliari lliis, tlioiiL;li iiciliaps nionr manai;cal)lc, is Mr. .Mallet's great, ;i(i-ineli mortar, constriicti'd in ISHf), of iniii |>arts wel leil toi;ellier. and now at Woolwich, riitlier iis a curiosity than for use. Ah loaded shells arc of immense wei!i;ht, so lieavy, in- deed, as in larger calibers to involve the apparatus to deposit them in their places, and the mortar is lired at liiLjh elevaliims, the recoil is so great and so nearly vertical that no carriaLTc conid withstand the shock; it is necessary, therefore, that the mortar shoiilil be mounted on a solid iron or lindier bed, by the trunnions, which are placed l)i'hind the breech, and supported in front by massive bhx^ks of wood. Tills arraugenieut renders the ajiparatus so heavy I provided with complete' pointing apparatus, are oa- pabli' of following the course of a moving vcbhcI with the same facility as a gun. Mortars, likcr other cannon, are aimed In' first giving the direction and then the elevation. The ele- vation, which is usually tliatof tlu^ greatest range of projectiles in rac'/'/, vi/.., ^I", is determined by ap- plying theijuadranl to tlie face of the piece, and raiH- ingandlowering the breech until that number of de- grees is indicated. Tliechargeof powder is varied to suit tile re(iuired range. 'I o give tlie shell, for the same range, a greater velocity in l\u: decendinp liranch of its trajef^tory, the mortar is sometimes lired at an angle of (i(J", in winch case the charge of pow- der must be increa.sed accordingly. As ?nortars are usually masked from llie object to be bombardeil by an epaulment or parapet, different means from those -T »0 1. Chcfkn, 2. Maneuvering bolt. .3. Deck plank. 4. .'<lee^JU^. 5. Cap square, tj. Cap straps. 7. BoisttT. 8. (^uuin. a. Eye bolts. that mortars of large size .arc rarely used in field operations, their ordinary positions being in defen- sive or siege works, and in mortar-vessels. More ■wieldy, however, are t he Coehorn mortars, invented by the Dutch engineer of that name, for clearing the covert-way or ditch of a fortress. This mortar issufti- cieutl}' small to be managed by one man, and is ac- counted usefid in siege or defense operations. Tlie French use a similar Lilliputian ordnance under the denomination of pierriers,or stone-throwers. Small mortars are likewise constructed for mountain war- fare: a mule carries the mortar, another the bed. and a third is laden with the projectiles. The use of mor- tars is diminishing at the present time, elongated shells of great weight being now thrown from rifled cannon. Vertical fire is effective when it is desirable to prevent an enemy from occupying certain anchor- age. The deck of a ship is as completely vulnerable to falling shells as the bottom is to submarine mines and torpedoes. Judiciously-placed batteries, if arm- ed with a sufficient number of mortals throwing shells, would make it perilous for an enemy to re- main within their reach. But mortar-firing from smooth-bore mortars is at best somewhat wild, ami depends on quantity for its effectiveness. It is, however, safe to say that no fleet nor vessel can re- main under well-directed fire from heavy mortars. A battery of one hundred heavy mortars will keep at bay all the iron-clads that can maneuver or anchor within th :ir range. The moral elTect of mortar-fir- ing is appalling, and increases vastly with the num- bers of mortars used. The armor that a vessel is capable of carrying on her deck, in addition to that upon other parts, is not sutticient to resist the crush- ing power of a 13-iuch shell withma.\imum velocity — il9 feet per second. The 10-iiich mortar is ser- vicealile only against unarmored decks, or those very slightly protected. In firing at iron-clads the shells slundd not burst before striking; in fact, it is best to fill the shells with .sand instead of jiowder. Solid shot would be preferable to either. JFortars mounted on the center-pintle traversing chassis, and used with guns become necessarj- for giving them their direction. There are several processes em- ployed, all of which, however, are reduced to de- termining practically two fi.xed points which sliallbe in line with the piece and tne object, and sufficiently near to be readily distinguislied by the person point- ing the mortar. Tliese points determine a vertical plane which when including the line of metal becomes the plane of fire. See Ji"b, Coelmm Mortnr, l)y(r Pointing Apparatus, Ordnance, I'addock InterpoUi- ter. Plummet, Sea-ninst Mortar, and Siege Mortar. MORTAH BATTERIES.— :Mortar batteries have prin- cipal fc.-iluns of b;itteries for guns. It is desirable that they should be located where good views of tlie enemy's positicm may be had : this, in order that the gunner may himself see the effect of his shot, and not, as is too frequently the case, have to depend up- on the imperfect report of a distant observer. For siege mortars, the platforms are placed the same dia- tance apart as for siege guns, viz., 16 feet: for sea- coast mortars, the distance is the same as for sea- coast guns, viz., 18 to 23 feet. They are usually placed in pairs, with traverses between each set of jiairs. Embrasures are not required, and as tlie platform must be at such distance from the parapet that the blast will not injure the interior crest, it is not necessary to revet the interior slope, the earth being allowed to assume its natural .slope. There are two kinds of mortar batteries used in the attack: those for mortars throwing shells ; and those for mortars throwing baskets of stones, or other like projectiles. Hesides these, there is the Coehorn mortar, which, from its small size, may be placed in any unoccupied corner of the trenches within their range from the besieged works. The first kind of batteries maybe in front of the first and second parallels, or any other points farther back. The positions chosen for them should be such as to bring as great a portion of the defences under the direction of their fire as jiracticable, to increase the chances of destructibility of each shell thrown. The second kind are usually placed in front of the third parallel, mainly with li view to annoy the covered- MORTAR BEDS. 382 MORTAR CARRIAGES. ways and parts adjacent. These batteries are usually sunk below the natural surface, since even several feet difference nf level iu the position of a mortar will have but little effect on the range, or the tra- jectory. The profile suitable for such positions, vHider the ordinary circumstances, is the following. Widtli of trench a"t bottom. 13 feet 6 inches. Depth in front, 3 feet 6 inches. Depth in rear, 4 feet. Re- verse slope, i. Front slope, 2 feel base. Height of parapet, 4 feet. Thickness of parapet, 18 feet. Berm, 1 foot. Tlie earth for the epaulement is taken from an exterior ditch ; and, when splinter-proof traverses are required, portions of ditches are made opposite to their position to furnish the requisite earth. The siege-mortar platform furnished for field-pur- poses is too light to sustain much firing. For fi.xed batteries, they shoidd lie constructed of heavy tim- bers, and to insure anything like accuracy iu firing, must be both level and stable. The sea-coast plat- forms when properly laid, are in every respect effic- ient. A good kind of rail platform may be made by using two pieces of timber, 13 to 15 inches square and 9 feet long for the rails, to which planks 3 (cr 8 inches thick aud 8 or 9 feet long are spiked. The rails are parallel, and have their centres 38 inches apart for the 10-inch mortar, aud 32 inches for the 8-inch. A pit is dug large enough to receive this structure, and the bottom being made perfectly level, it is placed in it with planks down. Earth is filled in on top of the planking. Tliis kind of platform is particularly well adapted to sandy localities. If the mortar is in- tended to be fired in various directions, a sufficient number of rails are used to extend over the whole surface, the planks being spiked to all of them. Mor- tar and other batteries for firing. loaded shells, are provided with bomb-proof shelters for the men who load tlie shells, and others also for the loaded shells These shelters may be placed in the epaulements of the batteries, under thick traverses, or in an}- posi- tion most convenitnt for the service of the battery. When the site of the battery is marshj-, the con- struction of the parapet and the laying of the plat- forms require great care to give them the requisite strength and firmness. Each of these parts should receive a firm bottoming of two layers of long fas- -cines, 13 inches in diameter, the border for a breadth of 3 or 3 feet receiving a thickness of 3 or 4 layers, the first well covered with sand or rammed clay, if they can be obtained, before placing the second forms are to rest, is too uneven or too much inclined to be easily leveled by hammers, it will be necessary to fill in the space required for the service of the guns with earth or sand, and to use a cribwork if necessary around the border of t!ie interior to con- fine the soil, which, as in the case of a marshy soil, sJiould be well rammed and levelled before laying Uie platforms. The drawing shows a plan of an indented sunken battery on a causeway from 50 to GO feet wide. a.b. is the line of direction of fire; c, contraction of rear of battery; d d, enlargement of rear of battery ; e, ramp. MORTAR BEDS.— Mortar beds serve the same pur- pose as gun-carriages. The beds for the smaller Jf^ layer, which should cross the first at rieht angles, and be well picketed to it. On this bed the parapet is raised, and, if the adjacent soil of wliicli it is formed is very wet, layers of smaller fascines may be advantageously used at different heii;hts to prevent the wet soil from running. The site of the guns should be covered, to a depth of at least (> inches, with moist sand, or good loam well rammed, to re- cciv(^ the platforms; which, like those at the sieges of Forts Pulaski and Wugiier. should rest on a bed of plank, over which the weight of the guns should be well distributed by the under timbers of the plat- form. On a site of solid rock the only means that can be well employed for constructing the jxirapel is sand- bars. If the surf;ice of the rock on which the ]ilat- mortars are made of one solid block. The larger beds are constructed and put together in a manner similar to the top-carriages for guns. At the ends of each cheek are projections, called front and rear notches, underneath which the cannoneers embar with their handspikes to move the carriage. On those for siege mortars there are also two front aud two rear maneuvering bolts for the same purpose. The bottom part of each cheek, resting on the plat- form, is called the shoe; the front aud rear ends being designated the toe and heel, respectively. Carriages for siege mortars are without truck- wheels, and rest directly on the platform. Sea- coast mortars have two truck-wheels on an eccen- tric axle, for maneuvering the carriage on the plat- form, and maneuvering bolts are omitted. See Miirtur ('arriaqen and Tliirteen-inrh Mortar. MORTAR CARRIAGES.— The application of the principle of rifling to mortars, in common with guns of all kinds, has had the effect to obliterate to a great degree the sharply-defined lines of distinction which formerly divided the different classes of can- non, and to reduce them more closely to a common model, adapted more nearly to a common use. The rilled mortar, to give it the desired efficiency, has been increased in length until it differs in no respect from a howitzer or short gun, and is no longer confined as for- merly to a vertical tire exclusively, but may be used with effect for direct or curved fire, with solid or hollow shot, as well as shell. Tlie carriages for the different guns havT' had to iradcrgo ne- cessarily corresponding changes to adapt them to the new ccmditions of service ; and as the guns have been modified till tliey bear a resemblance to each other, so the carriages on which moiuued are less distinctive in appearance and more nearly approach the same pattern. The mor- tar, in place of being mounted as formerly on its bed. must in its changed condition be provided with a carriage constructed so as to enable it to deliver its fire at any angle from O*-' to 00'^, and be turned with promptness on any object within a wide field of fire, United States. — The Coehorn mortar carriage is simply a block of wood, weighing 133 pounds ; the total weiglit of piece, e(|uiiiMients, and carriage being 311 pounds. The carriage or block ujxm whicli the mortar is mounted, is provided with two handles on each side, by means of which the mortar is readily carried by four men from one part of the work to another. They accompany troops in the field for use against an enemy covered by intrench- UOKTAR CARRIAGES, 388 MOETAH CAEHIAGE8. menla. The fjround, wlicii firm, in sufTlciinl for llic carriiitjc Id rest upiin; if il is mil, linn, ii |il:iifiirMi can rriiilily Iki (,'.\UMii|)ciri/.cii fnirii siiili iii;it('ri:il iiH may lii' al lianil. Tlic carriaiic sIkimIiI lie li-vrl wlini tlic iiiorlar is tirfd. Tlic sici;c murlars arc lircil from woollen plalforms, 'I'lic carriagcH arc of wrouKlit-iroii, ami, bcim; williout fhasHos, rest di- rectly 111)011 the plalforms. 'I'lic lli-iiicji mortar is fired from a wooden plaiform. The ('arria^e is of wroui^lil-iroii, and, lieiii'^ willimit eliaxsis. re.^ls di- rectly upon llie ]ilalform. An axle, earryini,' at each extremity a IrneU-wlieel, (lasses llironi;li tlie carriai;!^ near (lie front end ; this axle is eccentric, and when thrown in u;ear the truck-wheels rest upon the plat- form ; only the rear part of the shoo then rests on the platform and moves with slidini; friction. Two steps are placed on tlu^ front pari of the carriai;e for convenience in loadinu;, 'I'lic carria;;e of lli(> lO-incli .sea-coast mortar is of vvrou^dil-iron, and is provideil with an eccentric axle and truck-wheels similar to the earriaiji' for the i;i-incli niorlar, Aii.itn'ii.— The Austrian carriai^e is composed of two cIku'Us, ciK'h formed of 1 wo plates of hoiler-iron riveted tos^etlicr around their outer edtjes. with a wrousht iron frame between them. The cheeks are 47 inches liii^h in front and \H\ indies in rear. Trunnion-lieds formed in thc> upjier face are jiro- vided with Irunnion-plates and cap squares: the hitter are held each by two keys. The two cheeks are joined to,!::etlier front and rear by two transoms, each formed of two plates of iron and aniile-irons. These transoms pass throui;h cuts made in the inner plate and arc riveted to the outer jilale of the cheek; they are also secured to the inner plate by angle-irons riveted to each. Two bolts pass throuich these transoms and join the cheeks, besides a. bolt, about a third of the heiii'lit from the top in front. The part of the bolts embraced between the cheeks has a wroughl-iron pipe over it. A square hole is cut in the cheek near the front edge, intended for the wrought-iron axle used in transportation. The a.xle is eonijiosed of a body, sipiarc in cross-.section, and two cylindrical arms for the wooden wheels. The cheeks arc provided with four pairs of truck- wheels, two for moving the carriage to the front or rear, and two others for moving it lalerall}'. They are all mounted onecceutric axles, which have cast- iron handspike sockets. The carriage ma)' be thus moved in either direction, as may be desired, or it muy rest flat on the platform for tiring. The axles are held in position by means of keys. The elevat- ing apparatus is composed of a screw, which moves a nut which has a hook bearing against the breech of the mortar. The screw rests in a bi'd of sheet- iron inclined upward to the rear, riveted by angle- irons to the inner face of the cheeks. Near tlie Tear end of the bed there is a collar, in which the screw turns. The head of the screw has in il holes in whidi is inserted a crank-handU- to give rotation to the screw. 'I"hi- nut is guided in its motion by two projections which move in correspondinj; grooves in the bill. For firing at low angles of elevation a block is placed on the hook, lilting over it and increasing ils height. In order to bring the mortar quickly from the (iring posilion to that for loading, there are fastened to eiiher side of the I lireecli of the mortar two circular steel arcs with i teeth which engage each with a jiinion on the iniier face of the checks. A wheel and pillion on the out- side of the cheeks are used to give motion to the inner pinion. To transport the mortar an axle i.s inserted in the checks of the carriage and ordinary wheels are put on, raising the carriage with jacks. A trail is )irovided which lias a lunette for hooking on to an ordinary siege-limber : it is secured to the carriage by passing one end under the front tran- som and engaging it in two hooks under the point- ing-bed, and held liy a cro.ss-piece. Weight of the carriage, r>,l40 pounds: of the axle, 2;jl pounds; the trail, 1!)^ pounds; with the lock-chain and shoe. 380 pounds; the two wheels, 470 poi nils ; the lim- ber with wheels, 838 pounds; the total weight of the carriage ready for traveling. 0,973 |)oiinds ; with the mortar, 17,830 pounds. Width of track of rear wheels, 73 inches; front wheels, 48./). Angle for turning. 43". The elevating screw with the ordin- ary hool: will give elevation of 20" to 00" ; by put- . ting on the block, angles from 10" to 20". Gtrman!/ — This carriage is composed of two wooden cheeks, the greater portion of the border re- enforced by iron straps and ji^ined together bj' four wooden transoms and eight transom-bolts. A trun- nion-piece, rt, of wrouglit-iron is bolted to the upper side of each check, and is provided with a cap- square, key, and chain. The elevating apparatus is composed of a long iron screw with a square double thread, turning from right to left. inclined at about 2,')". It is terminated at the upper end by a wheel and handle, and turns in two collars fastened one to the front side of the lower transom and the other to the middle transom. The nut '■ travels along the screw tliroughoul its length. The ends of the female screw are provideil with rollers, which play in the grooves of channel-beams secured on the inner face .of the cheeks. Two iron rods, t>, connect the female screw- to the breech of the mortar, which has a horiz-ntal hole drilled into it to receive a bolt, forming an axle around which the rods, o n. move. By this ;irr;inge- menl ;iiigles of elevation froniO" 10 7.5*^ may be given. The c;irri:ige is provided w illi two siege-wlieels and a wroughl-iron axle, which may be raised vertically by means of a hoisting apparatus and made to move in two slots formed by an iron bar fastened to the front face of the cheeks. This axle has near each arm a square re-enforce, with a vertical hole in it. in which is placed a lironze female screw with a doulile thread; one nut is right-hamled. the other left. The hoisting apparatus is composed of two vertical screws in the slots, e, passing through the nuts in the axle. The screws have on their upper end the spur-w heel, /. engaging in the threads of the endless screws. one of which is right-handed, the other left. and mounted \ on the same horizontal shaft, which is turned in jour- nal-boxes in the upper part of the grooves by means of a cai)stan-liandle. A, on each end. The axle is guided in its motion in the grooves by a plate of iron, screwed to the inner face of the axle, between the two -shoulders, and terminating in square hooks, which form guides, and slide in tlie grooves. The hoisting apparatus is used either to lower the carriage on the platform by raising the wheels so that they do not touch, ortoraise the carriage by bringing the wheels on the ground. Fournun :it the handles of the screw are sutficient todo this work. To lower the mortar on the platform, it is neccssarj- to raise the wheels only from i to ij of an inch, whereas for the transpor- tation of the mortar the carr^ige must be raised suffi- cientlv to attach it to the limber. This is done by MORTAB CAHBIAGES. 384 HOKTAB CABBIAGES. means of a trail. /■, of T-iron. This lias a lunette at one end, and is made fast to l\u- middle transom by means of a strong bolt, I. and to the rear transom bj' two iron ears, between which it is tirmly held, A 15-centiraeter gun-limber is used. The wear on the female screws in the axle is diminished b}- means of stirrups with screw ends ; the axle is lowered to its lowe.st point in the groove, the ends of the stir- rups are passed through holes drilled in the axle to the right and left of the shoulders, and the threaded ends are screwed into double nuts, which are jammed hard. The middle part of the stirrup fits in a notch, g, cut in the lower end of the screw, and prevents it from turning. There are several other irons on the cheeks ; two priming wire eye-bolts, four equipment- axles, and when the gun is to be traversed these wlieels are thrown in gear, and when the proper horizontal direction has been given to the gun they are thrown out of gear,and receive none of the shock of the recoil. The n jans for traversing the chassis are the same as in the sea-coast carriages, namely, a windlass and chain maile fast to the platform near either end of the outer traverse-fircle. The pintle is in the front transom. In order to preserve the axis of the gun at the proper height above the platform to enable the gun to tire over parapets of the usual construction.it is necessary to make the top carriage as much higher as the top of the chassis has been low- ered. To give the different elevations ranging from to 75", a circular rack is fixed to the under side of rings, / /, two hooks, t, four plates, p p, at the rear, two of which are on the otiterface of the cheeks and two on the rear face; they present a kiud of cup turned downward, in which the hook of the roller- liandspike engages. The lower front transom and rear transom are provided with pointing-plates. Weight of carriage, 4,457 pounds; the carriage and morTar, 11,125 pounds. Height of the axis of the ti'unnions above the platform in tiring position, 54 inches. Length of the cheeks, 80 inches. Total length from the front part of the wheels to the end of the trail, 158 inches. Krupp's carriage for what he designates as his 28- ceutimeter (11-inch; howitzer is arranged to enable the gun to deliver a direct tire over a parapet in the same manner as a gun mounted in an ordinary bar- bette battery, and to tire as a mortar at an angle of elevation of 15°. The carnage in its general cou- tlic gun, the center of the rack tieing at the intersec- tion of the axis of the trunnions with that of the gun. A cog-wheel engages in the teeth of the rack, and is operated by two wheels on the outside of the cheeks, the same as in the sea-coast carriage. A graduated arc is attached to the outside of the left cheek, just under the tnmnion; an index about 11 inclies in length is made fast to the left trunnion, and indicates the elevation of the gun. The means for checking the recoil, nmning the gun from battery, hoisting the allot, etc., are the same as in the other carriages for heavy guns. Hussm. — The 6-inch-mortar carriage represented in the drawing, as well as the 8-iuch, which differs from this only in the dimensions, were designed by Colonel SemeuotT. It is composed of two cheeks of boiler-plate 1 inch thick, connected by five bolts, with pipes, forming transoms, two above and three stniotion is quite similar to that made for the sea- coast guns, wilh such moditications only as became necessary to fit it for the special service required of it. To enable- tliechassislo resist the strain brougbl upon il in tiring at elevations of 75". the rails are made to licar evenly fm four traverse-circles laid in the plat- form, placed at (•(|ual distances from <'ach other. below. The tninnion-bcd is formed by re-enforcing the hole cut in the iilate with a Hat piece of iron on the outside and an angle-iron on the inside. The trunnion-bed is secured to this by means of rivets with countersunk heads, and inside of the angle- irons are ballens, with screws on tlie end for hold- ing the cap-s(|uares. The lower edge of the clieek The rear traverse-wlieefs are mounted on eccentric i is re-enforced both on the inside and outside by UORTAR CABRIAGE8. 385 MORTAE CARRIAGES. angle-irons, nnd slind with a flat bar fnstoncd liy rivets witli oountcrsunk heads. Two jriiiiles are fastened to tlie aiigle-irons in front and rear, and serve lo niii(h' the earriai^<' in its motion hy i)ressinf; against tlie direelrix, wliich will lie ineiUi<iiied here. after. The elevating iipparatiis is composed of an are fastened at each end to the mortar, having teeth which cngag<' in a jiinion iiioiinted on an axle turned by two haililles outside of the checks. Two can- noneers, one on tlie right and the other on the left, give the elevation by turning the two handles at the same time. The angles of lire are embraced be- tween !>" depression and 73° of elevation. A clamp- gcrew on th<> left end of the shaft prevents the gun from moving after it has been pointed. To load the mortar, it must be brought after tiring to nearly a liori/.onlal position. The use of a gunner's level each time is avoided by having a graduated bron/e arc fastened on the outside of tiic cheeks, just under the right truimion. anil an index marked on the face of the truiuiion. In firing, the carriage slides on the jilatform ; or, for the facility of running it into battery anil moving it lalcrally, it may be mounted by means of four truck-wheels on a kind of low chassis or directrix. The two front wheels, mounted on the same axle, are just over the top of the chassis, but do not touch it; the rear wheels are mounted each on a crank-axle; a forked lever, \<1iieh can be l)rought down between the cheeks, serves to bring the wheels in contact with the tops of the directrix. To cause the carriage to run on its four wheels, it is sullicient for a can- noneer to force the forked lever down to the rear : the rear end of the carriage is thus raised, and the front wheels are made to bear. The directrix is com- posed of two wooden beams, covered on top and sides bj' plates of iron, and ioineil by two wooden tran- soms and three bolts. Near the front end is an iron axle, with a vertical hole in its middle for the pintle, and provided with two traverse-wheels which rest on the front traverse-circle of the platform. Two hurters, attached to the front end of the directrix. Stop the carriage in its motion into battery, and two counter-liurters, placed la rear, limit the recoil when in cross-section, arc placed crosswise, four toward the front, thn-e in the ndildle, and two in rear; eleven round sleepers are laid on and slightly let into them; nine of the round sleepers are laid down in the shape of a fan, and the other two halved inlfi the others form the rear obliipn' sides f)f the platform. On top of the eleven slecpirs. and slightly let into them, arc laid thirty-two (1-inch sipiare scantling of variable length, accordinir to their jiosition, the <'nd8 cut olf ol]|i(|ui'ly. The last sixteen sciintlini; are se- cured at their ends by two hnrler-planks let into the scantling and held by bolts. The front scantlings are secured in the same way, only the Ijurtcr-plank is not let into the scantling. In rear of each sleeper a large |iicket is driven. Near the front end of the platform the pintle])lateand friction-circlearc placed and screwed fast, .and near tln' middle of Ihi' plat- form a second traverse-circle with ohhng holes in it. The length of the platfiprm is Id feet, its slope to the rear U", and the lateral lield of tire 00". This plat- form, wddch is still provisionally used in sea-coast batteries, has been recently replaced in siege and garrison batteries by a simpler one, which has been tested with much satisfaction since 1873. This last is formed of two rectangular parts f)f unerpial width. It is composed of nine sleepers, (i inches sijuare, and covered with twenty pl.-uiks 3 inches thick and 9 inches wide ; seven sleepers, five in the middle and two at the edge of the platform, arc b") feet long, and extend from one end to the other ; the remaining two are 7 feet !) inches long, and sujiport only the rear plank. The sleepers rest on the heads of fifty-eiglit pickets 3 inches in diameter and 3 feet long, driven into the earth. Twocross-pieces are placi-d under the front ends and middle of the seven long sleepens; that under the middle supports the front ends of the short sleepers, also the traverse-circle and the rear end of the carriage. For transporting the mortar and its carriage an axle has been Htted to the latter for two wheels, and a movable trail intended to hitch onto the siege- limber is used. The axle is held in the boxes cut in the front edge of the clieeks by means of cap-squares and bolts. 'The movable trail is represented in the firing at low angles. Near the middle, between the two beams, is placed a traverse-wheel, which travels on the rear traverse-circle. The directrix is provided imderneath with four cross- sleepers, which prevent its bending under the weight of the carriage. The length of the directrix will allow a recoil of 9 feet, which is sufficient for the maximmn charges with a dry platform at angles greater than 20'"''. and with a damp platform at angles greater than 45". For less angles it is necessary to throw some sand or similar materi:d under the carriage. To give lateral mo- tion to the mortar, if only a slight motion is re- quired, insert the end of the lever in the holes in the rear traverse-circle and press against the carriage. If, on the contrary, it is desired to move the carriage through a great angle, the directrix is traversed on its wheels by three or four men pulling on a rope fastened to its rear end. The platform, as originally adopted, is fan-shaped; nine sleepers, semi-circular drawing, with its lunette, its friction-plate, and lash- ing-ring. It is put in place by unscrewing the two rear bolts of the carriage, bringing the trail in posi- tion, replacing the bolts, and securing them by the nuts. The mortar being in battery, to put it in traveling position it is rini back to the rear of the lilatform: the axle and trail are put in place. The front of the carriage is raised by means of a jack put under the middle of the axle, blocking up with blocks till it is high enouirh. The rear end of the carriage is raised with two jacks, or by means of a lever-bar passed imder the carriage crosswise. Tli. wheels are put on and the limber hooked. A seat for the driver IS placed on the forward end of the trail, in front of the pintle; in the box under this scat the bandlesof the elevating-screw are carried: they have to be removed to admit the wheels being put on. The axle is provided with a bucket-hook. The siege- limber is arranged so as to be drawn by ten horses. UORTAB CASEMATES. 386 MORTISING MACHINE. In rear of the fixed splinter-bar, with its two swingle- trees, a longer splinter-bar is made fast, and provided with two swingle-trees. The pole has a movable double-tree at its end with three swingle-trees : the front horses are hitched to the traces of the three middle ones. Two lock-shoes for the rear wheels are carried on the body of the limber. The directrices of the mortar carriages are carried by themselves in siege-wagons ; four can be carried in one wagon, with great ease. The following are the principal weights and di- mensions : Pounds. Weight of the carriage with mortar and limber 8,893 Weight of the mortar 3,461 "Weight of the carriage without trail, a.vle . or wheels 3,693 Weight of the trail and seat 3,373 Weight of the axle with two wheels . . 1,030 Weight of the siege-limber 1.373 Kumljer of horses to draw the carriage . 10 Wliole length of the carriage to the end of the pole 23 feet. Width of the carriage ...... 76 inches. Diameter of the front wheels ... 56 inclies. Diameter of the rear wheels . . . 62i inches. See Gu>i-mrriage< and 8!ege-m'jHar. MORTAK CASEMATES. —These arc usually placed in rear of the parapet, by which it is covered from direct fire. The arch is"covered by earth, to break the shock of shells. It rises towards the front to give ample room for the shell in its flight. The case- mates are covered on their flanks from enfilading fire by an embankment, and are partly closed by a wall in the rear. A small ditch is made in front of the chamber, and a slight wall built within it, to give cover from the splinters of shells falling l)e- tweeu the parapet and the casemate. Arched cham- bers are in some cases made beneath the mortar chambers which serve as store-rooms and tempo- rary magazines. When these casemates are placed in rear of a portion of the parapet but little expo.sed to direct fire, the thickness of the parapet in front of them maj^ be reduced, and the interim slope be re- placed by a breast-height wall along the front of the casemates, in order to give better cover in flank and from slant fire, by throwing forward the casemates more under cover of the parapet. See Caseinatea. MORTAR-FOSE.— The mortar-fuse now used is a paper-case time-fuse, similar in general appearance to the ordinary paper-case fuse, of long time of burning. The}' are made up in packages and marked with the kind and length of fuse. For any shorter time the fuse is cut with" a sharp knife or fine saw. With this fuse is used a wooden fuse-plug, having a conical opening, which is reamed out to fit the paper case. When the shell is loaded, and the fuse cut to the required lengtli, it is pressed in the plug and the plug firndy set in the fuse-hole. The lieail of the fuse hav- ing been covered vvitli tow or some- tliiiig to prevent breakuig the com- position, the fuse-setter is placed on the plug, and it is driven with the mallet until the head is about :|- of an incli above the surface of tlie shell. The old form of mortar-fuse con- sists of a case made of beecli-wood, turned in a lathe to a conical shape, and bored out nearly to the bottom to receive the composition. The composition is driven with fifteen blows of the mallet. The bore is en- larged at the lop to receive a priming of mealed powder moistened witii alcohol. To protect priming from moisture, the top of the fuse is covered with a cap of water-proof paper, on which is marked the rate of burning of the composition. The exterior is divided into inches and tenths, to guide tlie gunner in regulating the time of burning. This operation is generally performed before tlie fuse is driven into the fuse-hole of the shell, by cutting it off with a saw, or boring into the composition with a gimlet. If the fuse be driven, the column of composition may be shortened by taking a nortion from the top with the fuse-auger. Tlie great disadvantage of this fuse is its irregu- larity, it being very difficult to press such a large column of composition so that equal lengths will burn in equal times. See Fuae and Time-fane. MORTAR PLATFORM.— A platform similar to that used with siege guns, but of smaller dimensions and withiiut a slope. See riatfurm. MDRTAR SCRAPER.— A slender piece of iron with a spciou at one end and a scraper at the other, used for cleaning the cliambers of mortars. MORTAR SHELL.— A hollow projectile of dimen- sions to fit the pieces shown under the head of Mor- tar. Mortar shells are issued loose, but are filled with a charge of bursting-powder at the time they are required. They are tired from mortars at high angles ; the larger natures, with the object of set- ting fire to buildings, ships, or other combustible constructions (and in the attack of a place they would be especially directed on the gunpowder magazines); the smaller natures, to annoy or drive out troops behind parapets or any particular cover. MORTAR VESSEL.— A class of gun-boat for mount- ing sea-service mortars, and in some cases provided with steam-power. The mortars are usually of the largest caliber — 13 inch. To enable the mortar to be properly maneuvered, and to resist the recoil from the nearly perpendicular explosion of so great a piece of ordnance, the vessel has considerable breadth in proportion to her length. The mortar is slung amid- ships in a massive bed. The ancient form of mor- tar-vessel was the " bomb-ketch," convenient because of the length of deck without a mast. The present vessels originated during the Russian war. and were fonnd serviceable at the bombardment of Sveaborg. MORTAR "WAGON.— A wagon used for the trans- portjition of siege mortars. siege guns, and heavj' pro- jectiles. The limber and wheels are the same as those for the siege-gun carriage. The body consists of a platform of rails and transoms, resting on the rear axle-tree, the two middle rails being prolonged to the front to form the stock. The side rails -are prolong- ed to the rear, and furnish supports for the roller ijf a windlass; which is used for loading the wagon, the guns, mortars, etc., being drawn up the stock. which rests on tlie ground, forming an inclined plane. Each end of the roller is provided with pawl and ratchet, operated by a handspike, fitting into a socket after the manner of the windlass of a giu. Over good and firm roads, the mortar-wagon is capable of carrying the 100-pounder Parrott, or any other uiece not ex- ceeding in weight 10,000 pounds. MORTISING-MACHINE.— A machine much used in arsenals in the construction of gun-carriages, etc. The self-acting mortising-machine was invented by General Bentham, and described in his specification of 1793. lie made them for the Uritish Admiralty previous to 1800. His descriptiim includes the oper- ation by means of a hole previously bored and then elongated by a vertically reciprocating chisel; and also the making of a mortise liy a rotiiry cutter dur- ing the traveling of the work. One form included a pivoted table. Hrunel's mortising-machine, made by .Maudslay for the iiritish Admiralty, about 1804, with improvements, is emiiloyed at this time for mortising the shells of blocks. The drawing shows the C B. Rogers medium-power mortising-niachine, as employed in most of the arsenals of construction. This niacliine is provided with boring appiiralus and is especially adapted for ordinary work in hard wood and the heavier classes of building. The MOSS TROOPERS. 387 MOTION. oliiscl liim a rapid perpendicular niDlion, and !« br()M;;lit down to (lie work hy the treadle, and ear ried up l)y the baianee-wei!;lil on baeU end of treadle. It is self-revernin}j, twrninK the chiMel when the treadle is l<'t u\>, at eaeh end of the mortise. Tlio lied can he set at any anule re(|uircd. The inaeliine has llie horirii,' apparatus, which is si't on the same line wilh Ihe chisi'l, so Ihal the work can he liored and llien riui under the chisel and morlised without unclampirii; it from the lieil. The hit-shaft is run by a bell from the chisel-shaft, and so arraugcd, that when the chisel is workint; the hit stops, and, as the chisel is let up by the treadle, the bit starts, ready for horiiis:. The driving pulley is 10 inch diameter, 3 inch face, and should make 800 revolutions per minute. The machine may be driven from a main line, if it is level with the pulley in top of machine. If not. a counter will be needed, to set on a level with the pulley, and 8 or 10 feet distant. The weight of the m.'irhine is 1,4.')0 pounds. 8cc Double llnrlny and M'rrtixiiiii-iiKirkinf, and Jfith Mi/rliHijiy-mmliiw. MOSS TROOPERS.— AfaraiiderH; free-boolcrH; plun- derers, 'i'hey wf 11- eonlined to the districts winch divided the Scotcii and KuKlish territories before (he Union. They were lianded top'dii-r in clans, anri lived by rapine, and received this denomination from the characlir of (he country over which they (ravel- ed in their adventurous mode of life. In Fuller's Wi>rl/iit:i of h'/ir/ln/iil it is stated that, at one time, they nuiid)ered S(!veral thousands, and that their jfreat enemies were "The laws of llie land and the Lord William Naworlh," who finally reduced them to leijal obedience. Scolt mentions them in 'J'/ie Imj/ I'f till- l,a«t Min«lrH. MOTHIR AL MOOLK.— In the East Indies, a term applied lofordlications, tiarricades, intrenchmen(s,or hrcast works. MOTION. — 1. A division of a movement in the manual of arms to facilitate the instruction of re- cruits. 2. The laws of motion are the fundamental principles connectin^r force and motion in (he physi- cal universe; and are oliviously to be derived from I'xperiiiienl alone, since intuitive reasoning cannot possibly give us any informal ion as to what may or may not be a law of nature. Thou<;h these laws are derived from experiment, it cannot be said that we have any very direct experimental proofs of their truth — our most satisfactory veriticatioua of them are derived from (he exact accordance of the results of calculation widi those of ob.servation in the case of such i,dirantic comliinations of mutually influenc- ing bodies as (hat of the solar system: and it is by such proofs that they must be considered to have been finally established. They seem first to have been given .systematically and completely by New- ton, at the opening of the J'rhicipia; but tlie first two were known to Galileo, and some of the many forms of a //((/•< of the third were known to Hookc, Iluyghens, Wren, and others. We shall give them here in order, wi(h a few brief comments, showing their htn.wfi/ and (heir ii.se First, then, we natur- ally inquire, what matter would do if left to itself; and, by considering cases in which less and less e.x- lerual force is applied to a body, we are led to the statement called [he first law of median. 1 . Jii'cry body continues in its state of rest or of uni- form motion in a straight line, except in so far as it may be compelled by impressed forces to change that stiite. This e-xjiresses simply the inertia of matter — i. e., a body cannot alter its stiit( of rest or motion ; for any such alteration external force is required. Hence the definition of force as that which changes or tends to change a body's state of rest or motion. Now, how does the change of state depend on the force which produces it ? This is obviously a new question, to he resolved b)' experiment ; and the an- swer is (he second lair of motion: 2. Change of motion is proportional to the impressed force, and takes place in the direction of the straight line inwkieh the force acts. Newton's silence is as expres- sive as his speech. Nothing is here said about the previous motion of the body, or about the number of forces which may be at work simultaneously. Hence, a force produces its full effect in the form of change of motion, whether it act singularly, or be associated with others; and whatever, moreover, be the original motion of the body to which it is applied. Hence, there is no such thing as equilibrium oi forces; every force produces motion— and what we call equi- librium is not the balancing of forces, but the bal- ancing of their iff(cts. Hence, the absurdity of at- tempting to found the science of Statics on aiiy other basis than is to be derived from the second hu»of motion ; which, in fact, leads us at once (by the ;«/•- allelogram of velocities, which is a purely geometrical conception) to Wie paralU I ig ram of forces, and thence, with the help of the third law, (o (he whole subject of Statics. The second law also supplies the means of measuring /orc« and mass; and of solving any prob- MOTON. 388 MOUNT. lem whatever coneeming the motion nf one particle. But more is required before we can study Hie motion of a sysU'in of particles — as a rigid bod_v, or a liquid, for instance ; or a system of connected bodies. Here there are mutual actions and reactions of the nature of pressure or of transference of energy between the parts — and these are regulated by the third law of motion. 3. To euery motion there is always an eqiuil and contrary reactian; or, the mutual actions of any two bodies are always equal and oppositely directed m the same straight line. Thus, the mutual pressure be- tween two bodies has equal, but opposite, values for the two. The tension of a rope is the same through- out, and tends as much to pull back the horse at one end as to pull fn-ward the ^inal-boat at the other. The earth exerts as much attractive force on the suu as the sun e.xerts on the earth — and the same law applies to the other attractive and repulsive forces, as those cf electricity and magnetism. But Newton goes much further than this : he shows, in fact, that action and reaction fsubject to the third law) may consist in work done by a force, instead of the mere force or pressure itself. From this form of the third law we derive at once the principle of virtual velocities, which in its application to ma- chines is familiar as " What is gained in power is lost in spe4!d." But we also derive the grand principle of the indestructibility of work or energy ; at all events in the case of the ordinar}' meclianical forces — and this must be regarded as one of the grandest dis- coveries which Science owes to Newton. It is true that he merely mentions it, and then abruptly passes to another subject ; yet we can hardly exaggerate the value of this single remark. Experimenters, mainly Davy and Joule, have since shown that all the physical energies, as heat, light, electricity, etc., are subject in their transformations to the third law of motion, and tlius the system constructed by New- ton for ordinary dynamical purposes, is now found to rule the most mysterious of the affections of matter. See Force, and Mutipli^rs. MOTON. — In ancient armor, a small plate covering the armpits of a knight, used when plate armor was worn. MOTTLED CAST-IRON.— A mi.\t\ire of the white and the gray varieties in varying proporiions, the gray iron sometimes appearing in specks, like min- ute flowers upon a white ground; whilst in other specimens the mass is composed of gray iron, and the white iron appears in spots. Fine^ graj' mottled iron from its great tenacity is known to be the best titted for large castings wliere great strength is re- quired, and is employed for gun-founding. It may be made by mixing white and gray iron, or by con- tinuing gray iron in fusion for some time, until it gets the proper color. The kind of mottle will de- pend much upon tlie size of the castings. See Cast- iron. MOTTO.— In Heraldry, a word or short sentence which forms an accompaniment to a coat-of-arms, crest, or household badge. Mottoes were originally attached to the badge when the family had one, or to tlic crest where there was no badge. In later Heraldry, the practice isto place the motto in an es- crol either over the crest or below the shield. A mot- to is sometimes a religious or moral sentiment, as '•Gardez la foi." "Ilumanitate;" it isnot unfrequent- ly a heroic exclamation or war-cry, "Courage sans peur, ■' "Forward." In a great many cases it bears reference to the crest, badge, or some bearing of the escutcheon ; thus, Stuart, Earl of Moray, has for crest a jielican wounding herself, and for motto, "Stilus per C'lirislum Hedemptorcni ;"and not a few mottoes are punning allusions to Hie family name — as Scudamore. "Scutoamo.*s Uivini:" Vernon, "V'er non semper viret;" "Fare, fac," for Fairfax; and "Time Deum, cole regem," for (Coleridge. Two mottoes are sometimes used liy the samir family — one above the crest, the other below the shield. The [ motto, "Dieu et mon Droit," which accompanies the royal arms of Great Britain, is supposed to have been I a war-cry, and was used in England at least as early ; as the time of Henry VI. Its origin has been as- ; signed to a saying of Richard I., "Not we, but God and our right have vanquished France." MOULINETS.— 1. Circular swings of the sword or saber, performed as follows: Left Moulinet. Being at guard, extend the arm oliliquely to tlie left and front to its full length, the hand in tierce and as high as the eyes, the point of the saber to the front, and a little higher than the hilt. (Two). Lower the blade, edge to the front, and make rapidly a circle around tlie hand, to the left of and near the horse's j neck, the blade passing close to the left elbow; re- turn to the first position. (Thbee). Resume the guard. Right Moulinet. Being at guard, extend the arm to the front to its full length, the hand in quarte, and as high as the eyes, the point to the front, and a little higher than the hilt. (Two). Lower the blade, edge to the front, make rapidly a circle around the hand, to the right of and near the horse's neck, the blade passing close to the right elbow; return to the first position. (Thbee). Resume the guard. Rear Moulinet. Being at guard, raise the arm to the right and rear to its full extent, the point of the saber upward, the edge to the right, the body slightly turned to the right. (Two.) Begin by moving the point of the saber toward the left, and describe a circle in rear. (Thbee.) Resume the guard. In executing the moulinets, the right arm is kept as steady as possible in position, the saber being controlled by motions of the wrist and hand. See Saber Exercise. 2. Mechanical appliances employed to draw up the cords of the cross-bows, while the bows were held down by the feet. They were in common use about the end of the 13th century. MOUND.— A bulwark for of- fense or defense. 2. In Herald- ry, a representation of a globe, surmounted with a cross (gene- rally) patttie. As a device, it is said to liave been used by the Emperor Justinian, and to have been intended to represent the ascendancy of Christianity over the world. The royal crown of England is surmounted by a mound, which first appears on the seal of William the Conqueror, though the globe without the cross was used earlier. MOUNT. — The means or opportunity for mount- ing, especially a horse : and the equipments essen- tial to a mounted horseman. 2. To place one's self on, as a hor.se, or anything that one bestrides or sits upon. Hence, to put on horseback ; to furnish with animals for riding. 3. To put anything that sustains and tits, for use ; as, to mount a gun on its carriage, to prepare'for being worn or otherwise used ; as, a sword-blade by adding the hilt and scabbard. A sliii) or a fort is said to »H6<»;(i cannon when they are arranged for use in and about it. 4. A term in Heraldry. When the lower part of the shield is oc- cupied with a representation of ground sliglilly rais- ed, and covered with grass, this is called a mount in base; e. g., argent, on a mount in base, a grove of trees ppr. — Walkinshaw. of that ilk, S<-olland. ,'>. A word of command in cavalry exercise for tiic men to mount their horses. It is executed as follows: The men standing to horse, the Instructor commands : Pkepauk to mount, whereupon the odd numlxrs lead out. All the men then face to the right, dropping the right rein from the hand, take two side steps to the right, sliding the hand along the left rein, make HonncL •Mnnrifc MOUNTAIN AETILLEHT. 380 MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY CARRIAGE. a half face In tlic left ho uh tn brinj; tlic riclil ni(lc to- ward tlic liursc'M Hank; nirry the rif;lil, fool, three inches Id the rear ; take the reinM with llje riL'hl hariil aided by the left, and plaee the rii;lil hiirid on llje j)oniinei, ll»^ reins eoniini,' into the lianil hel ween the tliiirnli and fnre-tini^er, and held so as to feel lit,'litly Uie horse's nicmlli. (Two.) Ka<'h reernit places a third of the left foot in the stirrup, with the assist- ance of the left hand if ne<'essary, and supports it, ai;ainst the forearm of tlie horse; rests upon the hall of the riiiht foot; places the h'fl hand on top of lh(^ neck, well forward, and i;rasps a lock of the ni-ine, the lock eoniini; out between the ihunih and forc- finirer. The Instructor thin conunands : 2. .Mount. At this eoninuind, siirini; from the riirht foot, hold- ing lirinly to the mane, and keeiiin^ the ris;hl hand on the poMUuel ; l)rini; the heels toi^ether, tlie knees straiiihtened and resting against the saddle, tlu' l)ody erect. (Two.) Pass the rijiht lei; extended over the croup of the horse without touching him ; let the body come gently down into the saddle; let go the maiie. insert the right foot in the stirrup, pass the reins into the left hand and adjust them. At the conunands, 3. For?)!., 4. Hank, the even numbers move n|) upon reaching tin- saddle, a position shonhi be assumeil with the buttocks bearing e((iuilly upon the saddle, and as far forward as possible ; the reins coming into the left hand on the side of the little linger, and leaving it between the thunib and fore- finger; the little finger between the reins, the other lingers closed, the thumb pressing the reins tirmly on the second Joint of the fore-tingcr; the left fore- arm horizontal, the lingers six inches from the body and turned toward it; the little linger a little nearer the body than the upper i)art of the luuid ; the right hand behind the thigh, the arm falling niitnrally, the feet inserted one-third of their length in the stirrups, the hi'els slightly lower thiin the toes. MOUNTAIN AETILLEEY.— Mountain artillery is designed to operate in a country destitate of car from the facility will] which it eoidil ]»■ carried up stei'p ascents, and to the tops of llal-roofed houses, in slreel.flL'liling. See Full/ , I /•////, /■//. MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY CARRIAGE. Till; carri- age fur llie Miountain-rille is ^imihir in material and general conslrui-lion to that of the lield-gun.and com- l)ines strength, simplicity, and lightnesH. Tlic axle is without an axle-body, and the wheels Iiave metal naves. The mounlain-howit/.er carriage should be light enough to be carried on the back of a i>ar;k animal, and the axle-tree should be short enough to permit it to ])ass through very narrow deliles. It dillers in construction from the lield-carriage, inasmuf:li as the stock and cheeks are formed of the same jjieee, by hollowing out the head of tlx; stock. The wlieelH an; thirty-eight inchi'S in diameter, and the axle-tree is nuide of wood, the arms being protected from wear by «/>«««. or strips of iron. The distance be." twecn ihe wheels is about e(|ual to thi-ir diainelcr. It is arrangecl for dr:iught liy attaching a jiair of shafts to the trail. The pack-saddle and its harness are constructed to carry severally. tli(; howitzer and shaft, the carriage, or two anniumition chests, or it enables an animal to draw the carriage, with the howitzer mounted upon it. A iiortable forge ac- companies each mount;iin battery, and is so construct- ed that it can be enclosed in two chests, and carried, with a bag of co;il, u])on the jiack-saddle. The Russian carriage has very short cheeks, the front ends of which are cut off obliquely instead of vertically; the trunnion-beds are let into this ob- lique face, and the trunnions are heldliy cap-squares and keys. Krupp makes two sizes of carriages for the 8-ccntimeter and (i-centimeter guns, respectively. The elevating-screw admits of IH" of elevation and 10" depression. The anmumilion-chests arc made of wood, with iron angle-pieces. The English have two carriage.?, as shown in the drawing, for the two 7-pounder guns, one of which riage-roads, and inaccessible to field artillery. It must, therefore, be light enough to be carried on pack-animals. The piece used for nu)untain service in the United States is a short, light 12-pdr. how- itzer, weighing 320 lbs. The form of the chamber is cylindrical, and suited to a charge of \ lb. of pow- der. The projectiles are shells and case-sliot. It is discharged from a low, two-wheel carriage, which serves for transportation whenever the ground will permit. When the piece is packed, the carriage is packed on a separate animal The mountain howit- zer is also employed for prairie service, and in de- fending camps and frontier forts against Inilians, in which^asc it is mounted on a light, four-wheel car- riage, called '■ the prairie carriage." In the Mexi- can war, the mountain howitzer was found useful. weighs 150 pounds when made of steel, and 200 pounds if made of brass ; the other weighs 200 pound.s when made of steel, and 224 if made of bronze. The wheels are 30 inches and 3lj inches in diameter, re- spectively, and have a track of 27 inches. The ele- vating apparatus consists of a movable bed. which hooks on a cross-bar between the cheeks over the axle, and has two studs, one on each side, to rest in racks riveted to the inside of the trail-pieces. A sliding-quoin rests on the bed. and is worked by a screw" which passes through a collar in the end of the bed and enters a nut in the quoin. A light iron limber is made for tlie heavier carriage, and carries two ammunition-ciiests, which contain ten rounds of ammunition each. In transportation the gun is carried in Russia and MOUNTAINOUS SITES. 390 MOUNTAIN TEANSIT. 6-centimet«r. 178^ pounds. 198 pounde. 105^^ pounds. 16' 4fJV pounds. 7 ounces. 4 lbs. C>r oz. 919 feet. Germany over the horse's spine, the breech in front, this being deemed the more favorable position for passing narrow passes and tlie roads Ihrougli wliicli mountain artillery has frequently to make its way. The obiection to having any part of the load cross- ways has induced the Russians to detach the axles for transportation, believing that the delays which may occur on the march from the axle-arms interfering ■with a free passage through woods, etc., would be greater than would result from having to adjust the axle to the carriage when it was required to com- mence tiring. The carriage pack-saddle is provided ■with a rear pad to protect the animal's rump from blows from the end of the trail. The following are the principal -weights and di- mensions of Krupps carriages :— 8-ceBtimeter, "Welglit of carriage with wheels. 332 pounds. ■Weiglit of gun with wedge 2*27 pounds. Weight of aramunition-chest, paclced 103.6 pounds. Number of roundsin each chest. 8 Weight of pack-saddle 4G?i pounds. ■yVeight of powder-charge 14 ounces. Weight of shell, loaded 8 lbs. 13 oz. Initial velocity of shell 952 feet The following are the principal weights of the English carriages: — Pounds. Weight of lisht carriage without wheels 161 Weight of light carriage with wheels 287 Weight of lieavier carriage without wheels 192 Weight of tieavier carriage witll wheels 328 Weight of limber 333 MOUNTAINOUS SITES.— The crests and gorges are the most important military features of a promi- nently marked mountainous position. It is tlirough the latter that the roads are made, and the former, from their elevation, command the latter. The crests should therefore never be abandoned to the enemy, although from their position, or distance, they may not directly overlook the gorges ; for, independently of the real advantage of position, ■which the enemy would thus acquire, he would possess a relative advantage in the moral effect pro- duced on troops when they lind themselves in a com- manded position. If the base of the mountain does not stretch out too far from the summit to admit of a sure retreat on the latter, -^orks may be thrown up for the defense of the base, with intermediate works between the base and the summit placed on the secondary ridges, or other commanding points. But if the distance between the summit and the base is great, and particularly if it is decided before- liand to retreat upon the summits, in case of disaster, then the base should be disregarded. The works thrown up for the defense of the sum- mit should be laid out on the brow of the height, for the purpose of overlooking and guarding its sides. As has already been stated, the ]ilan and relief of the defenses will be subordinated to the features of the ground. Where the surface along the crests is undulating, presenting salient and re- entering parts, consisting of spurs and ravines more or less prominent, the salient points should be occu- pied by works with a good relief, and otherwise strengthened b}' passive obstructions to the assail- ant's advance, as from tJu-ir position a broad Hank- ing sweep of the surface for artillery can be ob- tained for the defense of the approaches upon the collateral salients. The re-entering portions may be occupied with defenses of a ■weaker profile, as their position is stronger and it is from them tliat a strong fire of mvisketry and of llu; lighler Held guns can be brought to l)ear upon the ground directlj^ in front of the salients adjacent to them. Tlic cremaillere line and tlie redan line with long curtains broken forward, so as to form a tenailled combination with alternate long and short brandies, botli lend them- selves lictter tlian most other combinations to a wm- figuration of ground of this description. Very steep slopes will not admit of a defense with artillery, because the gun cannot be tireil under a much greater depression than one-si.xth, and unless the shot take effect the enemy will be inspirited lo advance, confiding in the safety of his position. In slopes of this character the works may consist sim- ply of a parapet, in the form of a glacis, without any ditch, the earth for the parapet being taken from an interior trench ; in some cases a dry stone wall may be substituted for an eartlien parapet. An abattis may be formed in front of the parapet ■within close musket range; and heavy round logs, or large masses of rock, be arranged along the parapet, ready to be rolled over on the enemy should he break through the abattis. Steep escarpments of rock are generally considered as inaccessible ; but those points should never be left to their o^wn strength. It is always prudent to post a small de- tachment to frustrate an attempt of the enemy to sur- prise them. A steep natural slope maybe made in- accessible by cutting awaj' the face of tlie eminence. It may, in some cases, be indispensably necessary to guard certain points at the base of a mountain, as, for example, where the base is washed by a river, over which there is an important ferry. Under such circumstances the point to be guarded should be most thoroughly protected by some strong work; moreover, a number of posts, placed at intervals on the most commanding points between the summit and the base, should connect the two. These posts should, when practicable, be placed in defensive re- lations, and in all cases their tire should sweep all the ground between the two principal points. The interior of the posts most advanced should be ex- posed to the Are of those in their rear, in order that the enemy may be driven out, should he succeed in forcing his way into any one. As these posts will require a considerable detachment for their defense, care should be taken not to multiply their number unnecessaril}-, and never at the expense of the main defense. All communications, leading through the mountains, should be carefully guarded, both at their outlets and at the most suitable intermediate points for defense ; otherwise the most respectable positions will be liable to be turned by the enemy. If the communications are not of ase to the assailed, they must be barred b}- a line of abattis, or by an artilicial inundation, etc. ; and they sliould be watched by a detachment of light troops, whose retreat on the main works should be secured in case of an attack by superinr forces. If the communica- tions are of use to the assailed they should be de- fended by intrenchraents, which should command and enlilade them in the most effectual manner. MOUNTAIN TRANSIT.— This instrument is a mod- ification of the Engineer's Transit, made for moun- tain and mine survej-s. but applicalile as well to all the other work of the Engineer. It is made exceed- ingly light and portable, its needle being 4 inches long; and its telescope 8 inches long, having a pow- er of 30 diameters. Its sockets with the leveling head, remain attached to the instrument; and its compass circle is movable about its center, so as to lay off the variation of the needle. In this instru- ment the limb is divided on solid silver to half de- grees, with verniers reading to single minutes; some- times the limb is divided to twenty minutes with verniers reading to half minutes. There are also cylindrical caps above the leveling screws to exclude the dust, etc. The drawing shows one of the cellu- loid refiectors, wliieh are placed over the two oppo- site verniers of the limb, and are of service especially in the surveys of mines, to throw light upon the di- visions below. Like the Engineer's Transit, this instrument is sometimes used Willi a plain telescope; but oftener with one or more of the extras, as level, chiiiip and tangent, and vertical circle. More frequently, how- ever, the Alountain Transit is furnished as shown, with vertical arc, level, clamp and tangent, and the solar altaehinent. ' which is essentially the solar ap- paratus of IJurt iilaced upon the cross-bar of the or- MOUNTAIN WARFAHK. MOUNTAIN WAEFAHE. (liiiiiry Iniiisit, llii' jmliir axis being directed above insteud of liclow, iif* is llieoiisc in llic solar coinpiiss. A lit lie circular disk of about an inch and a half diamclcr, and having a very short, round pivot, projcclini; hIkivc its u])p('r surface, is first sccuri'ly screwed to the lelevcope axis. I'pon this piv(;t rr!sls Ihi' eularijcd base of the polar axis, which is also lirnily connected with the disk by four capslan- liead screws iiassini; from the underside of the disk into the base already named. These screws serve to adjust the polar axis. The hour circle surr()un<lini; the base of I he polar axis is easily movable about it. and can bcfaslened at any point desireil by two fhil-head screws above. It is dividcii to live minutes of lime; is lii^ured from 1. to XII., anil is re;id liy a small index tixed lo llic declinathiu are, and moving with il. A hollow coui', or Rocket, tittinu; closely to the polar axis and made to move snuijly upon it, or clamped at any jioint desired by a milled-head screw on top, furnishes by its two expandeil arms below, a lirni supjiortfor the declination arc, which is securely fastened to it by two lari^e screws, as shown. The (h'clinution arc is of about five inches radius, is divided tociuarter degrees, and reads by its ver- nier to simrle minutes of arc, the divisions of both vernier aiKi limb bcini; in the same plane. The ile- cliuatiou arm lias the usual lenses and silver plates on the two opposite lilocks. made precisely like those of the ordinary solar compass, but its vernier is out- side the block, and more easily read. The declination arm lias also a clamp and tangent movement, as shown in the drawing. The arc of the declination limb is turned on its axis and one or the other solar lens used, as the sun is north or south of the equa- tor; the drawing shows its position when it is north. The latitude is set olT liy means of a large vertical limb having a radius of two and a half inches; the are is divided to thirty minutes, is figured from the center, each way, in two rows, viz., from to 80"^ and from 90*^ to 10^, the first series being intendej for reading vertical angles; the last series for setting off the latitude, and is read by its vernier to single minutes. When desired. an arc of three inches rad- ius is prepared reading by its vernier to lialf min- utes of a degree. It lias also a clamp-screw inser- ted near its center, by which it can be set fast to the telescope axis in any desired pi sition. The vernier of tlie vertical limb is made movable by the tangent- Hcrew attached, ho that its zero and that of the limb arc ri'iidily made to coincide when, in adjusting the limb to the- level of the leles<;one, the ar<: is clamped I to the a.xis. The iiwial tangent movement to the telescope; axis serves, of course, to bring the vertical limb lo the proper elevation. A level on the under side of I hi- telescope, with ground vial and scale, ig indispensable in the use of the solar ..tiachment. The diviih'd arcs, verniers, and hour circle are all on silver plate, and are thus easily read and [)reserved from tarnishing. To determine latitude, first level the instrument very carefully, using, as befon;, the level of the lele.scoiie until the bubble will remain in the center during a complete revolution of the instrument, the tangent movement of the ti'lescope beini.' used in connection with the leveling screws of the parallel plates, and the a.xis of the teli-scope firmly clam[)ed. Next clamp the vertical arc, so tliat its zero and that of its vernier coincide as near as may be, and tlien bring them into exact line by the tangent-screw of the vernier. 'I'lien, having the declination of the sun for 12 o'clock of the given day as aflected by the meridional refraction carefully set off u|)on the de- clination arc, note also the c(|uation of lime and fifteen or twenty minutes before noon, the telescope being directed lo the north, and the object-end lowered until, by moving the instrument upon its spindle and the declination arc from side to side, the sun's image is brought nearly into position between the equatorial lines. Now bring the declinalii n arc directly in line with the telescope, chimp the a.xis firmly, and with the tangent-screw bring Ihe image precisely between the lines and keep it there with the tangent-screw, raising it just as long as it will run bclovir the lower equatorial line, or in other words, as long as the sun continues to rise in the heavens. When the sun reaches the merid- ian the image will remain stationary for an in- stant, and then begin to rise on the plate. The moment the image ceases to run below is of course apparent noon, when the inde.x of the hour arc should indicate XII, and the latitude be determined by the reading of the vertical arc. It must be remembered, however, that the angle through which the polar axis has moved in the operation just de- scribed is measured from the zenith instead of the horizon as in the ordinary solar, so that the angle read on the vertical limb is the complement of the latitude. The Mountain Transit is usuallj' placed upon an extension tripod, in which all the legs can be short- ened or lengthened at will. It is thus adapted for use in mountain surveys, where one or more legs must be shortened ; or for mines, where in many places a short tripod is indispensable. If desired, Ihe sliding pieces can be easily turned end for end, the points being thus put out of the way, and the tripod morr s,;?ely transported. The tripod wheu closed is only three feet long, and is carried by an ordinary shawl-strap. The weight of this instru- ment, as made by the Jlessrs. Ourlcy. United States, with plain telescope is 8i pounds: with the solar at- tachment, arc, level, and clamp, Di jiounds. The extension tripod weighs about 8 pounds. See En- giiiffV^x Transit. MOUNTAIN WARFARE.— In warfare, mountains offer a considerable obstacle to an invading army, and, if properly defended, may either stay the ad- vance of an enemy or prevent ingress into the coun- try. The difliculty to be overcome will be still greater if there be other obstacles, such as rivers and a succession of mountain ranges. In such warfare the invading General should use every precaution in examining each step of the way, and gleaning all in- formatiim in his power from maps, guides, and re- connoissances. Further, he should be careful that he does not fall into a trap, which the enemy may lay for him in feigning retreat, when he is endeavor- ing to outflank him and get in his rear, thus render- HOUNTED PAY. 392 MOUNTING CANNON. ing the position of the invader very precarious. It sliould therefore be laid down as a nia.xim that, in mountain operations, especially, the tianks and rear of the invading army must be secured, to prevent being surrounded. One of the great difficulties in small bodies of mounted riflemen. Mounted rifle" men were considerably used and appreciated by Napoleon I. and his Generals. .Jomini writes on the subject as follows: " It is certainly an advantage to liavc several battalions of mounted infantry, who can this nature of warfare is keeping the communication ' anticipate an enemy at a defile, defend itin retreat, open with the rear, and bringing up food for the j or scour a wood." Sir G. Wolseley, in writing on army, as mountain ranges, passes, etc., do not afford the subject of outposts, gives it as liis opinion that, facility for using wheeled carriages ; and the trans- ! whenever mounted infantry is introduced into the port, therefore, resolves itself into men and pack animals. Such transport forms but a slow and pre- carious means of carrying forward supplies, if not well guarded. History affords examples of the diffi- culty of mountain warfare in transporting the wa- teriel of war : thus, for instance, that of Napoleon, the First Consul, whilst effecting the passage of the Alps, with the French army, in'that part called the Great and the Little St. Bernard. The carriage of his artillery and stores was a source of great anxiety ami difficulty. The exertion of a whole battalion was requisite for the conveyance of one field-piece, with its proportion of ammunition; one-half of the regiment could only draw the load, while the other half was obliged to carry the knapsacks, firelocks, camp kettles, and five days' rations. MOUNTED PAY.— A grade of pay allowed mounted officers, or to other officers serving under conditions which entitle them to the same pay. The following officers, in addition to those whose pay is fixed by law, are entitled to pay as mounted oilicers : officers of the Staff Corps below the rank of Major, officers of troops of cavalry, officers of one light battery for each regiment of artillery, officers announced in orders from the Adjutant General's Office as Acting Signal Officers, and authorized Aides-de-Camp duly appointed as such. Other light batteries of artillerv which may be designated by the President, and equipped as such, will each have the organization of a light battery, except the additional 2d Lieutenant and the officers thereof actually serving with the light batteries will be mounted. Officers actually serving with companies of infantry mounted by au- thority of the War Department, and not iu excess of the legal organization of infantry, are mounted while so serving. A company of infantry moimted retains the same organization as on foot. Other officers on duty which, in the opinion of the Depart- ment Commander, requires them to be mounted, are entitled to be so considered, on the certificate of their Department Commanders that they have been on duty in the service of the United States which re- quired them to be mounted during the time. See Pai/. MOUNTED RIFLEMEN.— Mounted infantry, the designation of riflemen being given to them from the arm they were equipped with. Mounted riflemen are soldiers trained to act as foot and cavalry sol- diers. This arm is but little known at the present time in the British service, but since the war of 1870- 71, which has confirmed the opinion held by many soldiers, ^that mcmnted riflemen are now essential to every enterprising army, the subject of reintroduc- ing it in the army has been often discussed. The flrst mention in military history of mounted riflemen is that of the dragoons created by Marechal de Bris- sac in 1600. They were foot soldiers mounted on horses, who on emergencies carried a comrade en i-niuiv. The flrst official record of such troops in the Brilish service dates from a royal warrant of 1072, which regulates the matchlock as one of the arms. ' The Scots Greys, who were raised in 1083, carried also fire-arms, as well as the British (iragoons of the seventeenth century ; both were instructed to act as infantry on horses, to enable them to make more rapid movements. Dragoons, acting as such, were evcniually changed into cavalry ; and the last corps liearing the name of mounted riflemen was that at the Cape, which wasdisbandecl afew yearsago. This nature of n)ounled infantry has been reintroduced in the volunteer forces of the country, there being four service, and its employment properly understood, these outpost duties will devolve to a very consider- able extent on it. Such men are invaluable in cover- ing retreats; to seize, destroy, and hold bridges; for works of destruction, such as removing rails and telegraphs, etc. For these duties they were frequent- ly employed in the American and thelast Continental wars, most foreign armies having adhered to that system. Colonel Hamley says, in his "Operations of War," second edition: "As cavalry alone could effect nothing in an intersected country, or against a body of mixed troops, or a force shelteredby ob- stacles, it is indispensable that the troops thus em- ployed, while mounted for the sake of celerity, should be able to meet infantry on good terms. Their chief action must therefore be as infantry, the horses of the dismounted men being held by their comrades. . . . Mounted infantry is altogether a different thing from dismounted cavalry, and the two kinds of" force should be kept carefully distinct. All experience has shown that cavalry who are habituated to rely on their fire-arms are apt to lose their distinctive characteristics of promptitude, impulsion, and reso- lution iu attack; and it would be impossible, by any amount of training, to combine such opposite "func- tions in the same troops. By establishing mounted riflemen as a separate arm of the service, men and horses of a size which, though admirably suited for rapid and sustained movements, is deficient in the power and weight that tell so formidably in the charge, might be turned to excellent account." Colonel Hamley further states that on this kind of troops might jjroperly devolve the business of recon- noitring or heading the advanced guards, of seizing defiles, etc. On the other hand, the regular cavalry, spared in great measure the harassing duties which fritter away its strength, would be preserved intact for the day of battle. In a country like India, in- fantrj* can be mounted on camels, and has been .so utilized when it was desirable to send troops on a forced march to take a place by surprise, or to scat- ter a collecting force. Each camel carries two men. It would be necessary on such service to dismount; and rest the men during the journey. But except for the expense there is no reason why there should not be a permanent Corps. MOUNTING CANNON.-Jf the platform is nmch above the general level of the ground, as in case- mated batteries and on ramparts, the cannon have to be raised by strong derricks to the level of the platform, or they may be drawn up ramps of earth or of scaffolding. 1st. The cha.ssis being on the jjlatform, the top carriage not in position. There will be re(iuired to mount the gun one or two hydrnuUc or two or three screw jacks, depending on their power, and hhcks of different lengths and widths, varying in thickness from one to twelve in., also a few skids and chocks. The gun is brought parallel and near the chassis, a jack is jilaced under the breech luid one under the nuizzle ; the extrem- ities of the gun are raised alternately and sujiported by blocks till they are at such a height that skids jJaced <m the rails of the chassis will p;iss under it. The gun is rolled till it occupies a proper position tuuler that for the top carriage. It is then raised as before, being suiiported by cribs of blocks built one luider Iheswellof the hreecli.anotlier under the chase, three feet from the muzzle, till it is brought to a height iibove that for the truimion beds. the trunnions being level. The lop carriage is taken to pieces and UOUBNE. 393 MOVABLE PIVOT. asspmhlpd in posilion under tho gun, which is then let ilown inli> |il,'icc. 2(i. The (liiisHis iiriil l(pii ciirriagc IxMng in posi- 1 tion. — T\ut jfun is bnnmlil piinillcl to tlicchiissis. and is raist'il anil rolled us i)i-fcjrc on to skids placed on tlie rails in rear of the top carriage, tlie breeeh pro- jectini; to the rear. It is then lifted liy jaeks and sup- porleil on a erih of tiloeks bnilt in rear of Ihc'ehassis nnder tile hreeeh, and Ijy a skid liearinir under the lini/./.le laid across and restini; on I wo cribs, one on each side of the muzzle without the chassis. The gun l)eing sufllciently hii;li, the top carriajri' is moved to the rear and the gun lowered into the trunnion beds. In raising heavy cannon an onlinary gin can sonu'liines be used for llie muzzle, the jack being re- | ((uired for elcvaling tlie breech only. In buililing tlic cribs the thickest blocks, as a rule, should be I — "y- was flomotimoB used in uport to dlHtingiiiRh the bat- talion men from the flank companies. It was in- deed generally apiilieil to them by the Grenudiern and Fjghl IJobs, meaning that whilr- the latter arc de- tached, the former rr main in (juarters, like cutH to watell the iriiri'. etc. MOUSING A HOOK.— A mode of passing a piece of spun yarn round the point and back of the liook of a block, in ordiT to prevent it disengaging itself from anvlhiii'.; to which it may be hooked. MOUSftUETAIRES.- A body of horse-soldiers un- der the oM I'reiK h lli'jfimf., raised by Louis XIII. in 1033. This Corjjs was considered a Military School for the French nobility. It was disbanded in l(i4(f, but was restored in l(i.')7. A .second company wa.i created in KidO, and formed (,'ardinal Muzarin's Guard. Also written Muaketeim /fl* tt^aaafgstfejtfe* placed at the bottom, and thin blocks .should be re- placed by thicker ones as the gun rises. 3d. The cannon being on or by the platform, the chassis and the top carriage in position or not. In many instances the position of the platform is such that the mounting may be facilitated by th? jacks being placed above the gun. In this case a special device is used. The jacks, two in number, are supported each upon a heavy timber or bolnter resting on blocks, or on high, strong trestles. On top of the jac:k rests one end of a lerer, the other end bearing on a fulcrum. A strong iron hoisting-bnr also through one made in the lever. This bar is passes through a mortise prepared in the bolster and pierced with a number of holes, into which iron pins maj- be placed. The extremities of the gun are slung to the lower ends of the hoisting-bars ; pins being placed in the bars immediately above the levers, the jacks acting on the levers raise the gun ; pins are then passed through the bars above the bolsters and the weight sustained by them till a new- lift is taken with the jacks ; by transferring the pins the gun is brought to any desired height, the jacks being worked together. The bolsters should be of sufficient length to embrace the chas.sis, and the gun placed by the side of it. If the chassis and top car- riage are in position the gun is raised to the neces- sary height, the carriage traversed till it is brought beneath it, and the gun then lowered into place. If the gun alone is on the platform it can be raised, and the chassis and top carriage be brought in suc- cession on a truck and placed in position beneath it. The appliances to be employed in mounting heavy cannon, and the order in which the different parts should be placed on the platform, must vary with the position and nature of the work and the am- strnction and the arrangement of each particular platform. Any device or arrangement that maj- expedite or facilitate the work sliould be resorted to. The circumstances may be such as to render advis- able slight variations in the steps taken in mounting each sun in a battery. See Mefhnnical Maneuvers. MOURNE.— That part of a lance or halbert to 'which the steel or blade is fixed. MOTTSER. — In the British Army, a sobriquet which ! MOUSQUET FUSIL.— A//»«-''W- gun which was in- venteil by .Marshal Vauban, about 1(!40. and which was so contrived that in case the Hint did not strike tire, the powder might beintlamed by means of a small match which was fixed to the breech. Most authors of Encyclopedias, from the habit of copying one an- other, have repeated that the bayonet was invented and manufactured at BayonnebyPuysegur, who died in 1682. Nevertheless this sort of dagger pr sword had been adapted to the arquebuscand even perhaps to the earliest portable fire-arms. The bayonet was already known in France in l.'iTO, but was not uni- versally adopted tmtil 1640. when it replaced the pike in certain regiments. Subsequently the bayonet was fixed at the end of the gun by means of the socket. This was the side-arm joined to the fire-arm, called mii^ket-gun, and attributed to Vauban. MOUTH. — 1. The opening of a piece of ordnance at which the charge is introduced, and from which, when fired, it issues. 2. The interior opening of an embrasure, from eighteen inches to two feet wide, according to the caliber of the gun, and of a rect- aniular or trapezoidal form. See Einbra.fure. MOVABLE BATTERY.— A battery usually consist- ing of field guns and small mortars which can take up, temporarily, any favorable position for damaging the enemy's defences. The movable gun batteries will consist of 10, in some cases, 20-pounder rifled guns ; and the Napoleon gun for throwing hollow projectiles. These guns will take advantage of any temporarj' covers, as undulations of the ground, woods, fences, etc., from which they can bring a damaging fire on the defences, and which they will maintain until the fire of the besieged becomes too heavy for them. In this way, a very important au.x- iliary to the fixed batteries will be called into play ; sometimes forcing the besieged to establish new po- sitions to drive oil these light guns. In like manner the smaller mortars that can be readily moved by hand, or on sleds, may be placed in good temporary positions to increase the amount of fire delivered on anv stiven point. See BatUrie.'i SlViA Fixed Batttries. MOVABLE PIVOT.— The arc described by the sol- dier or guide on that flank of a line of troops toward which a wheel is made. See Pivot. MOTEMEHT. 394 MULLET. MOVEMENT.— The regular and orderly motion of au army for some particular purpose. It is also de- scribed as the changes made by an army from place to place, either to take up new camping ground, to engage the enemy, or to avoid him. "Under this term are comprehended all the ditferent evolutions, marches, countermarches, and maneuvers, which are made in Tactics, for the purpose of retreating from or of approaching towards an enemy. The science of military movements forms one of the prin- cipal features in the character of a great Commander. If he be full of resource in this important branch, he may oftentimes defeat an enemy without even com- ing to blows, for to conceal one's movements re- quires great art and much ingenuity. MOTJENNE.— An ancient 4-pounder, 10 feet long, weighing 1,300 pounds. In the time of Charles IX. (1572) it was a 2J pounder. MOYENNE VILLE.— A term formerly given by the Fr'-nch to an\' town in which the garrison was equal to one-third of the inhabitants, and which was not deemed sufRcienth' important to bear the expense of a citadel ; more especially so because it was not in the power of the inhabitants to form seditious meetings without the knowledge of the soldiers who were quartered on them. MOYENS COTES.— In a fortification, all those sides which contain from 80 to 120 toises in extent. The}' are always fortified with bastions on their angles. Tlie miij/eii.t cottn are generally found along the ex- tent of irregular places, and "each one of these is in- dividually subdivided into small, mean, and great sides. MUFTI. — A term in the army for plain clothes, the opposite of regimental clothing. In the British army, an officer in England is permitted to appear in vmfti when off duty. MUHLAGIS. — Turkish Cavalry composed of expert horsemen, who generally attend the beglierbe3's. Tlicv arc not verv numerous. MUIKKIRK IKON.— A variety of iron well suited for the purposes of gun construction. It is made with charcoal at Muifkirk, Prince George's County, Mary- land The ore used is a nodular carbonate of iron from the tertiary sands of the western shore of Ches- apeake Bay. It is more or less altered into sesqui- oxido of iron by the action of surface water, and is cleaned and roasted before charging the furnace. The yield of iron from the raw ore is from 40 to 45 per cent., and from the roasted about 50 per cent. This iron has been used at the South Boston foundry for a number of years and with excellent results, bu"t has not until recently been employed for ordnance purposes. Sec Don r [run and Iron. MUIR MONTSTOEM KIFLE. — A breech-loading small-arm ha ving a fixed chamber closed by a movable breech-block, winch rotates about a horizontal axis at 'M" to the axis of the barrel, lying below the axis of the barrel and in front, being moved from above by a thumb-piece. The breech-block of this arm is moved by an outside lever, the interior shaft connected with which is cam-shaped, so that the first motion of opening draws down the breech-block, until a li]i on its upper surface is clear of a hook or jaw formed on the under side of a projection of tlie frame over- hanging the mouth of the chamber. By continuing the Miulion of the lever, the breech is fully exposed by the rotation of Die block, I he h:imnicrat the same time being brought to tlie full-cock. Bv reversing tlie movement of the lever the bn'ccji is Hosed. The breech-block is locked by the abutment of the frame upon its back. Extraction and ejection are accom- plished by a sliding extractor in'the lower side of the barrel. Its under side is notched for the upper end of a lever, which is pivoted on the .same pin as Ihc hammer. This lever has two horizonlid arms, which are struck by corresponding jirongs on the lower side of the block, in opening the piece. MULCT. A soldier is said to be niiilrtirl of Ifis pay when put under fine or slojjpages for necessaries, o"r to make good some dilapidations committed by him on the propert}' of the people or the government. MULE. — A hybrid animal, the offspring of the male ass and the mare, much used and valued in many parts of the world as a beast of burden. The ears are long; the head, croup, and tail resemble thoseof the ass rather than those of the horse; but in bulk and stature the mule approaches more nearly to the horse. The mule seems to excel both the ass and the horse in intelligence ; it is remarkable for its powers of muscular endurance ; and its sure-footed- ness particularly adapts it to mountainous coun- tries. It has been common from very ancient times in many parts of the East ; and is much used also in most of the countries around the Mediterranean Sea, and in the mountainous parts of South America. Great care is bestowed on the breeding of mules in Spain and Italy, and those of particular districts are highl}' esteemed. In ancient times the sons of Kings rode on mules, and they were yoked in chariots. They are still used to draw the carriages of Italian Cardinals and other ecclesiastical dignitaries. Both in Spain and in South America mules emplojed to carry burdens are driven in troops, each preceded by an animal— in Soutii America usually an old mare — called tiie iixf/rina, or godmother, to the neck of which a little bell is attacdied, and the mules follow with the greatest docility. When troops mingle in their halting-places or elsewhere, they are readily separated, as they recognize at once the sound of their own bell. Mules are comparatively little used in Britain. Pack mules should not be too large or high on their legs. The Spanish-Mexican mules, for endur- ance, are superior to all others. These mules are small, but can stand a great amount of abuse and starvation, and will suffer but little from the effects of a hard drive. Being smaller than the American nmles, they can fill up in a much less time, and it will be found that in three hours on thin grass they will fill up and recuperate better than American mules on the same pasture in six hours. This is the secret of small mules outlasting the large ones in the mountains and on the prairies. The time spent in camp is not sutficientlj- long, when the grass is scarce, to allow a large one to find enough to eat. The small mule finds sulficient in a shortVhile and has some time left for rest and recuperation. As in other hybrid animals generally, males are more numerous among mules than females, in the proportion, it is said, of two or three to one. There is no instance on record of offspring produced by two mules: but instances occur, although rarely, of their producing offspring with the horse and with the ass. The mule is verj- superior in size, strength, and beauty to the hinny, the offspring of the male horse and the female ass. See Pack A nimah. MULLEB. — A hand instrument made of wood and covered with leather; it is used in the laboratory for reducing powder to great fineness. The term is also applied (u the painter's stone for miximj paint. MULLET. -Mullet, or MoUet, in Heraldry, is a charge in the form of a star, having generally five Mullets. points, intended to represent a spur-rowel, and of fr,^'i|uent occurrence from the earliest beginnings of coat-armor. Gwillim, SirGeorgc jMackenzic, lUulNis- betlay it downtlial mullclssbould always be iiierced to represent tlie round bole in which the spur-rowel lunis, liut Ihis has been by no means uniformly at- tended to in practice. Much confusion exists iu bla- MULTIBALL CARTRIDGE. •MK) MULTIPLF, DEILI. zonry hetwi'iii mullcls lunl slars; in Enp^land tlie rule most gcncrully luloptcil is thai llic iniillcl liiis live |)oints, wliiTciis the star liiis si.\, unless any otliiT nuinljcr lie spccilied. Nishct lays (Idwii st rule nearly tlic convcrHi! of this, wliieli lias never been ailliered to; anil in Seollisli Heraldry llie same fifTure seems lo he often hlazoned as a midlel or a star, aeeordin;^ as it aeeompanies mililary or celes- tial lii;iires. The midlel is llie mark of eadenev as- sij^neil lo (he third son, "Toineile him to <'hivalry." Till; mullet is occasionally used in Heraldry for the fish so called. See Jfinttdry. MULTIBALL CARTRIDGE." A carl ridge in which two or more liidlels or jiieces of lead are snhslitiiled for the ordinary bullel, with the idea of doini; more execution at short ranges, 'i'lie followim; advan- tages are claimed for the encased multiljall cart- ridge as manufactured liy Mervvin, lliilhert A; Co: 1. No Icadiiii; of liarrel l)y any numlier of discliarg- cs. 2. At each discharse the casing acts as the cleaner and lubricates the barrel. 3. The lubricated case taking the rilling gives an easy transit of halls iiud accuraiy of lliglit. 4. The hd)rieant is preserv- ed uniier the dilVercnt ordinary degrees of tempera- ture, f). By the centrifugal force given to the casing and balls by the rilling, the casing is thrown olT after leaving the barrel, Ihe balls diverge or separate nearly e(pial to the front of three men at about one hundred yards distance. (!. The multi (or ;i-ball) cartridge in its cfTcclivc (or destructive) results at each discharge at short range is nearly ecpial to three separate discharges by a breech-loiuler throwing one ball. 7. The cartridge is tirndy constructed and will withstand rough usage of actual service and preserve its uniformity of shape. 8. Continuous (and rapid) firing without re(iuiring the barrel to be cleaned. 9. Preservation of powder. The casing as an insulator prevents galvanic action between the metallic shell and balls which chemical action in time would deteriorate the powder. 10. The cas- ings are made, the balls placed an<l secured firmly therein, separate from Ihemclallic shells and can l)e transported in l)ulk or otherwise without injury and attached to the loaded metallic powder case when desirable (or at reloading of shells) The mulliball carlriilge for the service rifie is shown in Fig. 1. and has the following particulars: Weight of powder charge. . . .grains. .53 Nuntber of balls 8 Diameter of balls (each) 0".424 Weight of balls grains. 108. OG Total weight of lead grains, 326 Fig. 1. Fig. The charge is inclosed in a copper cartridge case of service dimensious. The three balls are inclosed I in a strong casing of paper lubricated with a mlxtiir" Of paralllni- and beeswax, making of them a single piece. The paper is saturated with the lubricant. The case is crimped at the base to hold the bulls in place; longitudinal cuts are made through the case ; to facilitate rupture after it has left Ihe i>iece. (A I light coating of shellac covers the portion of IhecuHC I that projects from the shcjl in some of the carlrirlgcH with a view to ])rotection of the cartridges from al- niospheric intluences;. 'Ihe lubricant is placed in [ the recesses (corresponding to cannelures), where the balls come in contact. The mulliball cartridge for the service revolver ia shown in Fig. 2, ;ind has the following parlicularH: Weight of powder charger . . . grains 23 Number of balls (1 ogival and 2 spherical seg- ments; 3 Diameter of balls 0".434 Length of ogival bidlc't 0".39 Altitude of segments - 0".23<J Weight of ogival bullet • . . . grains 111 Weight of segments (each) . . . grains. H3 Total weight of lead ..... grains. 27.5 The charge is inclosed in a copper cartridge case, of service dimensions- The paper casing for the bullets is like that for the rifie. The ogival has a fiat base, and the bases of the segments fit to this and to each other. The lid)ricant is placed in the reces.ses and about their junctions. 'Assuming that li inches penetration in soft |)ine boards with these balls would inllic-l a dangerous wound, it has Iieen. foinid by experiment that the effective range (jf the rifie-bullel mulliball is limited to tibout 100 yards; and with the ])istol even at 2-5 yards, but one" of the bullets in Ihe ciirtridge has a penetration of 1^ inches. The (luestion naturally arises whether it woidd be advisable to encumber men in action with cartridges wdiich.as revolver cartridges, are not at any range ajperior to the uniball lo inflict a dangerous wound, and in an}- case could not be used with effect beyond 7-5 yards; and as rille cartridges cotdil not be "iisc-d with c-fi'ect beyond 17.5 yards, while their«uperiority lo the imiball is limited between 30 and 100 yards. See Hnckxliut Cartridge and Wright Multihall Cart. riiige. MULTI-CHARGE GUN.— Many attempts have been made by inventors lo utilize the accelerating effect on Ihe projectile of several charges successively fired in a gun. Bessemer proposed to use a very long gun, placing the charges separ:ilely in holes at the breech, to be fired in succession by electricity. In the Ly- man-Haskell midti-charge cannon, the inertia of the shot is first overcome b.y a moderate charge of very coarse-grained, slow-burning powder, and then repeated charges of quick-ljurning powder are ap- plied in succession until a great increased velocity is allained. In recent experiments with an acc.^ e - atiug or multi-charge gun tlie average ])enetration in laminated armor composed of one-half inch boiler- plates was 4]',5 inches. No doubts are entertained by experts tliat early experiments will show that these guns, at comparatvely moderate cost, will be at least as efficient as the best in Europe. See I,l/iiiiin Hdx/,-/!/ Miilti-clidrgi' Cnnin/n, MULTIPLE DRILL.— A tool designed more espe- ciidly for drilling side fr;inu-s and steel armor plates, but well ;idapted to a wide range of other general w irk in the armory. The large size machine is fitte 1 with two or any required numtjer of sliding heads ; these heads, carrying drill spindles, with a lateral range of 17 feet from center to center of spindles, and a forward and back movement, at riglit angles, on a sliding horizontal arm, of 10 incites (or more if desired), thus enabling holes to be drilled in line orot/ierwise. Capacity on top of table under drill spindle, 32 inches ; from floor to top of table. 32 inches: fsom colui."n to center of drill spindle. 22 inches, or more, according to length of tiie sliding arm: from column to frc'int of table 18 inches; top surface of table. 14 inches wide by 18 JTOLTIPLE LimSS. 39G UITLTIFLIEB8. feet 4 inches in length ; table has a front or vertical surface, 25 inches deep by 18 feet 4 inches in length; T-slots on both top and vertical surfaces for clamp- ing work ; vertical traverse of spindles, 13 inches : spindles balanced by weight attached direct to top of spindle ; lias quick return by wheel and rack : has automatic gear feed suitalile for drilling or boring: driving cone 22x4j inches in diameter, to run 325 turns per minute, four or more sections ; each head has perfectly independent universal move- ment and an independent feed, also an independent friction for stopping and starting ; spindles are steel ; pinions and rack gearing are of steel ; steel shafts and screws ; all cut gearing ; floor space oc- cupied, 48 inches wide by 18 feet 8 inches long ; total height to top of spindles, 9 feet ; weight, 18,- 000 pounds. The drawing shows a smaller tool which is used for general work. The spindles have hand and power feed ; balanced, quick return by lever; lateral adjustment, can be run one or more at same time, and at any desired speed, by arrange- ment of gearing ; table has vertical adjustment by right and left screw ; distance from spindle to col- umn. 7i inches ; and with counter-shaft and pulleys, 12 by Sk inches, to run 350 turns per minute. Weight, 850 pounds. See Drill Prem and Gang Briih. MULTIPLE LINES.— It has been proposed, by some writers, til throw )ip several lines of detached works for the defence of a position ; so that the troops in the first line m;iy retreat under cover of the second, and so on. This arrangement, in the first |)laci', can seldom be made, without makfiiing the order nf bat- tle, and fherefore weakening the defence, by too great a dissemination of the troops. Moreover, in works of great extent there never can be that con- cert wliirli is soessc.lial 1o a vigorous defence, from the iinprai-licabiiity to direct it properly. The troops destine<l to act offensively against the enemy if re- pulsed, are too far in the rear to be l)roughi u]) in time; and the ground being greatly cut up. by such a multiplication of works, will render the man- euvers slow and dilllcull. Besides, a rrrj/ e.dpitnl oh. i'c.tion in war, the time a;id liibor reiiuireil to throw up so many works are altogether beyond what can be disposed of in the ordinary circumstances of an army. See Lines. MULTIPLIERS.— It would exceed the limits of l\\\s work to enter into a discusion of the formulas from which the values of the multipliers used in the equa- tions of motion in air are calculated ; it will be suffi- cient to explain how these tables are used in prac- tice. The reader will find this .subject, as well as all others relating to Ballistics, ably and fully treated in Dinion's Traite de Baliatique. Multiplier B. The decimals are carried out to three places, which Is sufficient for ordinary pur- X poses. The values of — are given in the first hori- e V, zontal line, the value of — in the first vertical col- r lunn. and the values of the corresponding multipliers are set opposite to them. To find the multiplier B for two intermediate X V, values of — and — , not given in the tables, we seek, c r in the absence of the proper numbers, the corres- ponding values of the nearest tabular numbers. We add to these, parts proportional to the differences, as though each part were to be considered separ- ately. Multiplier I. The values of / are given in the same table as tho.se of B; except that it is necessary to commence in the lower horizontal line, and sub- tract from them the product of t(-:^) by the corresponding number of the line called "Correc- tion." Values of Uand D. This table is calculated for X differences of 0.10 in case of -, in the upper line, and c V, for differences of .05 in case of — . For P',the values r of - are fotmd in the upper horizontal line, and for c D, in the lower line. X Values of -Bfor\calculationoj Ranges. This table c X V, gives the value of - and — , for differences of 0.05 c r and 0.05; the unknown quantity to be determined is X V, X ~ when — and -iJ=:P, are given. c, re Arrange the calculations as in the preceding cases. Only (me of the proportional parts is unknown, and this is determined by the condition, that if it be ad- ded to the other proportional part, and to the num- ber in the table, the sum is equal to the required num- ber, y, Vahies of r for initial velocities. This table gives the result arising by dividing by v//? for vahies of r X . V, V, -and—; tlie i|u;inlitv to be determined is —. The e r ' r method is the same ;is in the preceding table ; the siiznof the ililTercnce should invariably be clianged ifllie valui' of file quotient'/ is found to diminish as MnNCHEEL. 397 MUSKET. -increases. Sec DhUaii'K Formulan. MUNCHEEL. A kind iif litter wljicli iHtisedon tlie Muclras \\.w\ lidiiiliiiy side of India. It is Kiinply a liainiiHK U siispeiideil from a liori/Diilal pole, an<l is carried liy two iiwii, It, \veii;lis uliout yO llis. To keej) llie canvas of tlie cot or Ijainiiioelt at full lenirlli, there is a cross piec(' of wood at the top and liottoni. On service it wonldbe used for the same purpose us the doolie of Heiii^al. Under another name, the mnnclieel is largely used to carry jieople ahout in tlie Himalaya Mountains. A large niidirella is used to keep oil' the snn. and a waterproof ])i('ce of clotli, or a l)lanUet, is thrown over the siipiHirting pole to keep otT the rain. See LitUr. MUNIFICE. A Honian soldier who was subjected to every kind of drudgery-work in camp. MUNIMELL. — A stronghold, fortification, breast- work. I'le. MUNITIONS OF WAR.— Ammunition and military stores of (•v<Ty description. MURAOE. — An ancient term for money appropri- ated to the r<'pair of military works. MURAL CIRCLE. -An astronomical instrument for taking declinations ; consisting of a large circle built against the wall (whence its name), movalile on its axis in the plane of the m^.idian, and with a tele- scope attached, also in the plane of the meridian, which turns about an axis. The circle is graduated, the whole instrviment counterweighted and furnisheil with an illuminating apparatus for night readings. Headings are made accurate by set-screws and mi- croscopic micrometers. Tlie plane of the limb and the optical axis of the telescope are made [jarallel to the meridian by leveling and sweeping-screws, and the cross lines of the eye-piece should follow a star near the etiuator their whole length. The instru- ment being rectitied, the height of a star above the horizon is measured by a cu]) of mercury ; the star is observed directly and then by reflexion, the half sum of the readings being the correct angle. The co-latitude of the place is obtained as with the the- odolite. As the tube is movable about the circle, reading should always be checked by reiteration : with more tiian one limb of tiie circle. MURAL CROWN.— In Heraldry, a crown in the form of the top of a circular tower, masoned and em- battled. It is meant to represent the crown which was given by the Romans as a mark of distinction to the soldier who first mounted the walls of a besieged town, and fixed there the standard of the army. A mural crown sujiporting the crest, in place of a wreath, occurs in the achievements of several of the English Nobility, and in various grants of arms made in tlie early part of the present century to officers who had distinguished themselves in war. Viscount Bercsford, in consequence of his gallantry at the battle of Albuera. obtained as crest, issuing out of a mural crown, a dragon's head with its neck pierced tlirough by a broken spear, the head of the spear, point downwards, being held in the mouth of the dragon. MURDER. — The crime of killing a human being of malice aforethought, and is punishable with death. It is immaterial what means are employed to effect the object. Blackstone says that the name of mur- der, as a crime, was anciently applied only to the secret killing of another, which the word moerda signifies in the Teutonic language. And among the ancient Goths in Sweden and Denmark the whole vill or neigliborhood was punished for the crime, if the murderer was not discovered. Murder is defined by Coke thus: "When a person of sound memory and tliscretion unlawfully killeth any reasonable creature in being, and under the King's peace, with malice aforethought, either express or implied." Al- most every word in this definition has been the sub- ject of discussion in the numerous cases that have occurred in the law courts. Tlie murderer must be of sounil memory or discretion; I. e., he must be at least 14 years of age, and not a liinalie or idiot. Tlie act must be done unlawfully, i. e.,it must not be in self-defense, or from other justifiable cause. The person killed must be a reasonable creature, and lienci; killing a child in the womb is not murder, but is puiiisliabh' in another way. The essential thing in murder is that it be done maliciously and deliberately, and hence in cases of hot blood and sciitlling, the olfense is generally manslaughter only. Killing by duelling is thus murder, for it is deliber- ate. It is not necessary, in order to constitute mur- der, that the murderer kill the man he intended, provided he had a deliberate design to murder some one. Thus if one shoots at A, and misses hiin, but kills IJ, this is murder, because of the previous felon- ious intent which the law transfers from one to the other. So if one lays poison for A, and B, again.st whom the poisoner had no felonious intent, takes it, and is killed, this is murder. The only sentence on murderers is now deatli. which is carried out by hanging. Formerly the murderer was directed after death to be hung on a gibbet in chains near the jilace of the crime. Formerly, also, dissection wa.* added as part of the sentence, and the execution was to take iilace on the day next but one after sentence- But now an interval of a fortnight usually takea [ilace and the body is buried in the precincts of the prison. Attempts to murder were until recently pun- ishable i(i England like capital felony; but now all attempts to murder are jiunishable only with penal servitude for life, or for a term not less than three years. MURDERER. — A great piece of artillery. Among the ordnance given up to jlonk with Edinburgh Cas- tle in KioO is mentioned "The great iron murderer, Muekl.' Meg." MURDEESSES.— In ancient fortification, a sort of battlement w ilh interstices raised on the tops of tow- ers in order to fire through. MURSAIL.— That portion of the helmet made so as to lower or turn down in order to protect the face. So called from the resemblance it bore to the muzzle of an animal. It is the same as Mesail and Ventail. MUSCHITE. — A local designation applied to the earl\- hand-culverins, and which gave its form to the word Vd'unquet or musket. MUSCULE. — In ancient times, a machine of war; alow, long, and sharp-roofed shed, which enabled the besiegers to advance to and sap the wall of the besieged. See Textudu. MU'SICIANS.— The men enlisted and detailed to furnish music for troops. Regiments are supplied with field music on the requsitions of the Command- ers, made, from time to time, direct on the Adjutant General ; and, when requested by Regimental Com- manders, the Adjutaut General will endeavor to have suitable men selected from the recruits, or enlisted, for the regimental bands. See Band, Drummer, Fiftr, and Trumpeter. MUSKET— MUSQUET.— The fire-arm for infantry soldiers, which succeeded the clumsy arquebuse, and in I80I gave wa}' before the Enfield rifle, which, in its turn, was converted into Snider's patent breech- loading rifle, now known as the Snider-Enfleld ; the latter arm, so far as the regular infantry is concerned, has been replaced by theilartiui-Henry breech-load- er, but the English navy, cavalry, andthe auxilliary forces still retain the Snider. The first muskets were match-locKs; after which came wheel-locks asnaphans or snap-hance and flint muskets: and last- ly, percussion muskets, w hich were a vast improve- liient, both for accuracy and lightness, on all which had gone before. Compared, however, to either the Enfield or JIartini-Henry rifle, the musket familiar- ly known as Brown Bess, was a heavy, ugly, and in- effective weapon. The following is a table of the ranges attained, on an average, by the musket, the Enfield, and the Martini-Henry : MUSKET BASKETS. 398 MUTINY. Enfield Martini- Musket Rifle. Hcnrv Rifle. Accuratefire 100 600 1300 Effective against detached parties.... 150 800 1500 Effectivcagainst troops iu column... 200 1000 1800 MUSKET BASKETS.— Small baskets about afoot or a font and a half high, 8 or 10 inches diameter at bottom, and a foot at the top, so that being filled with earth there is room to lay a musket between tliem at the bottom. They are set on low breast- works, or parapets, or on such as are beaten down. MUSKETEEK.— A soldier armed with a musket. See Monsfjuetiu'res. MUSKETOON. — An obsolete weapon, a short mus- ket witli a very wide bore, carrying a ball of 5 oz., and sometimes bell-mouthed like a blunderbuss. The arm was mostly used toward the close of the seventeentli century. Also written Musquetoon. MUSKETRY INSTRUCTION.— The knowledge im- parted to the officers and soldiers of a regiment, to perfect them in the theory and practice of small- arms. The following is the course pursued in all Line Regiments. Every year,in tlie infantry and ca- valry, each company and troop in a regiment is struck off duty in turn, to go through the annual course of mu.sketrj', under the Regimental Instructor. This is divided into preliminarj' drill and practice. The former lasts four days, and consists of position (standing and kneeling), aiming, the judging dis- tance drill, and the teaching of theory ; the latter is divided into three periods, and consists in firing a number of rounds at different distances, from l.^O to 8U0 _yards — standing, kneeling, or in an}- position. Volley and independent firing, skirmishing, etc. form part of the course, during which each man fires 90 rounds. The result of each man's firing is consigned to carefully drawn up tables, and c'las- sified by regiments according to the figure of merit. These tables are publislied yearly ma. blue-book. See Schiuila of Muxketn/. ' j MUSKETRY INSTRUCTOR —In England, an officer attached to each regiment of the regular and au.xi- liary forces, to carry out the instruction and prac- tice of the musket. He is one of the Permanent Staff of a regiment. MUSTER. — A review of troops under arms and fullly equipped, in order to take an account of their numbers, inspect their arms and accoutrements, and examine their condition. In the British army, muster is a calling over of the names of all the men composing a regiment. Each man present answers to his nalne, those not answering being returned as absent. The muster- roll from which the names are called is the Pay- master's voucher for the pay he issues, and must be signed by the Commanding Offlcer,the Adjutant, and himself. The crime of signing a fal.se muster-roll, or of personating another individual at a muster, is held most severely punishable — by imprisonment and flogging for a common soldier, by immediate cashier- ing in the case of an officer. In regiments of the Line a nuister is taken on the 24th of each month. The muster after a battle is a melancholy proceed- ing, intended to show the casualties death has wrought. In early times, before the army was a standmg force, and when each (.Captain was a sort of contractor to the Crown for so many men, the mus- ter was most important as the only security the Sovereign had that he really obtained the services of the number of men for whom he paid. Accordingly, any fraud, as making a false return, or as mustering with his troop men not actually serving in it was by the Articles of War of Henry V. made pimishable with dentil for the .second offense, and by Charles I. with death " witlioul mercy " for evi^n tiie first such crime; while any jjcrson abetting in any way in the fraud shared the penalty. In the United Stales, troops are mustered for pay on the last day of February, April, .June, August, October, and December. The musters are made by sox Inspector General, if present, otherwise by an officer specially designated by the Commander of the Arm}', Division, or Department ; and in absence of either an Inspector General or officer specially designated, the muster is made by the Commander of the Post. All stated musters of the troops, when practicable, are preceded by a minute and careful Inxpei-tion in the prescribed mode ; and if the com- mand be of more than a company, by a Review, before inspection. The Mustering Officer having inspected the companies in succession, beginning at tlie head of the cohnnn, returns to the first company to muster it ; each Captain, as the Mustering Officer approaches, brings his company to rear open order, supports arms, and commands : Attention to muster. The Mustering Officer then calls over the names on the roll ; each man, as his name is called, distinctly answers Here! and brings his piece to a carry and then to an order anas. The Adjutant, at muster, provides himself with the muster-roll of the Field and Staff ; and each Captain with a roll of his com- pany, and a list of absentees alphabetically arranged. After muster, the presence of the men reported in the hospital and on guard is verified by the Muster- ing Officer, who is accompanied by the Company Commanders. MUSTER-BOOK.— A book in which military forces are registered. MUSTER-MASTER.— The Mmtering or Inspecting officer who takes an account of troops, and of their arms and other military apparatus. Tliis title is not known in the United States Army. See Muder. MUSTER-ROLL.— A return or list of all troops and establishments, actually present on parade or other- wise accounted for, which is taken on the day of mus- ter. The presence at muster of all concerned is per- emptorily necessary, otherwise au officer or soldier subjects himself to forfeiture of pay, unless leave by competent authority has been obtained Sometimes written Muster-file . See Pay-roll. MUTILATED. — Wounded in such a manner as to lose the use of a limb. A battalion is said to be muti- lated when its divisions, etc., stand unequal. MUTINY. — Behavior either by word or deed sub- versive of discipline, or tending to undermine su- perior authority. Till recently mutiny comprised speaking disrespectfully of the Sovereign, Royal Family, or General Commanding, quarrelling, and resisting arrest while quarrelling; but these offenses have now been reduced to the lesser crime of "Mutinous Conduct." The acts now constituting mutiny proper are e.xciting, causing, or joining in any mutiny or sedition ; or when present thereat, failing to use the utmost effort to suppress it; when, knowing of a mutiny or intended mutiny, failing to give notice of it to the Commanding Officer; strik- ing a Superior Officer; or in using or offering any violence against him while in the execution of his duty: disobeying the lawful command of a Superior Officer. The puni.shment awarded by the Mutiny Act to these crimes is, if the culprit be an officer, death or such other punishment as a General Court- Martial shall award; if a soldier, death, penal servi- tude for not less than four years, or such other punishment as a General Court-Martial shall award. As the crime of mutiny has a tendency to immedia- tely destroy all authority and all cohesion in tlie naval or military body. Commanding Officers have strong powers to stop it summarily. A Drum-liead Court-Martial may sentence an offender, and if the case be urgent, and the spread of the mutiny appre- hended, the immediate execution of the mutineer may follow within a few minutes of the detection of, his crime. It, however, behooves Commanding Officers to exercise this extraordinary power with great caution, as the use of so absolute an authority is narrowly and jealously watched. To prevent mutiny among men the ofiieers should be strict without harshness, kind without familiarity, atten- tive to all the just rights of their subordinates, and MUTINY ACT. 399 MYOPIA. above all tilings inOHl ijarlicular io Ihr- currying out, to tlic very letter of any promisi; they may liavc IIlMilr. MUTINY ACT;— An Act of the BritiBli Parliament pasHi-d from ycarto year, invcstinj; the Crown with powors Io n'fi;iilat(! Hie j;ovcniiiiciil, of llir Army anil to frame Arlieles of War. The Navy stands under Navy Discipline Acts, IMIil and IHfili, the suceessors of Articles of War first enacted imdc'r (,'harles II., which, indike the Mutiny Act. remained in forces for an indelijiite lime. i}y ihe Bill of |{if;hts,the main- tenance of a Htandiiifi Army in time of peace, unless by consent of I'arliajnenI, was declareil ille.^al, and from that time the nuniIxT of troDps to he maintain- ed, and the cost of the dilVerenl hranelies (if th(' ser- vice, have been regulated by an anmial vote of Ihe House of (Commons. Hut Parliament possesses a further control ov('r the Army. Soldiers, in time of war or rebellion, being subject to martial law, may be piuiisluMl for mutiny or desertion; but the occur- rence of a mutiny in certain Scotch regiments soon after the Kevohition, raiseil the (pieslion whether military disciplines coidd be maintained in lime of peace; and tlie courts of law decided that, in the ab- sence of any statute to enforce discipline, a soldier was only amenable to the common law ; if he de- serted, he was only liable for breach of contract ; or if \h: struck his oll'icer, to an indictment for assault. The authority of the Legislature became indispens- ablis to the mainlena'i'-e of disciijline ; and Parlia- ment, from UiSl) till IHT!), at the beginning of every Session, conferred this and other powers in the !Mn- tiny Act, limited in its duration at one time to si.\ months, but latterly to a year. Although it was greatly changed from the form in which it tirst passed, l'.)0 years ago, the annual alterations were slight, and substantially it had a lixed form. The preamble ([Uoting thealiove de<!laratiou from the Bill of Rights, added that it was judged necessary that a force of such a number should be continued, while it gave authority to the Sovereign to enact Articles of War for the government of the force. The Act had 107 clauses, the (irst live speeitied the persons liable to its provisions — namely, all enlisted soldiers or commissioned otlicers on full pay, those of the Militia or Yeomanry employed on active service, and to recruits for the Militia under training. Clauses C-14 treated of Courts-Martial; clauses l.'i-SS re- lated to crimes and their punishment; for mutiny, desertion, cowardice, treason, insubordination, death might be the penalty; for frauds, embezzlement, etc., penal servitude was awarded. Clauses 29-33 pro- vided for military prisons, the reception of soldiers in civil jails under the sentences of Courts-Martial. Clauses 34-37 enacted rules for deserters. Clause 38 referred to furlough; 39-41 enacted that no per- son acquitted or convicted by a Civil Magistrate or Jurj' be tried by Court-Martial for the same offense, and similar matters. Clauses 4'2-.')9 referred to En listment ; GO-74 to stoppages, billets, carriages, and ferries, and the conveyance and entertainment of troops. The remaining 24 clauses adverted to mis- cellaneous matters. By clauses II).') and 100, the Mi- litia, Yeomanry and Volunteers might on emergency be attached to the regular forces. For years prior to 1878, attention had been drawn in Parliament and ehsewhere to the shortcomings of tlie Act, as well as to its cumbrousness, and the Articles of War by which it was accompanied, explained and amplilied. These represenlatiimsctdniinated in the appointment of a Parliamentary Committee, which, in 1879, pre- sented a Bill to supersede the JIutiny Act, and, like it, to be passed annually as the "Army Discipline and Regulation Act." The Marine Mutiny Act. ap- plj'ing to the Marine Forces when serving on shore, was almost identical in its jirovisious with the Mu- tiny Act. Passed annually up to 1!S78. it was in 1S79 -nergcd with the Mutiny .Vet in the " Army Discipline ami Regulation Act." MUZZLE-LOADER.— The name given to all guns. smooth-bore or rifled, which are loaded at the mouth or muzzle, to distinguish them from those loaded at the brei-cji. All the; newly-made ordnance used in the service are rilli-d, and loaded at the muzzle, but the tirst rilled guns ('.\rmslrong'sj were breech- loaders. The change from breech-loading to muz- zh'-loading was brought about, (sjiielly, from the in- stability of the system in lieavy guns, a want of a, reliable l)ree('h-clo8er, ami the want also of a suit- able percussion-fuse. JMoreover, the nature of the powder used when heavy breech-loaders were in the .service was such as to render the? breech apparutuH unsafe. A muzzle-loading gun has a simpler, less costly, and stronger construction ; the ammunition is less t:ostly, and a simi)le fuse, without percussion urrantremeni, can be \ised. MUZZLE-PIVOTING CARRIAGE.— The vertical ficl 1 of tire of guns mounted in casemates is so muoli re- stricted by the embrasure Ihat l\u: want has long been felt of a carriage which w ill allow tlie gun to be used at high angles of elevation, and also at a depression, without a great enlargement of the em- brasure. With the view of solving this problem, a new carriage for casennites has been constructed recently, by which the gun can l)e fired through an embrasure of the usual dimensions at 1.0" elevation and 7" depression. The principle adopted in its <oustruction is to vary the height of th(' trunnion- beds instead of always preserving them in tbe .same li.xed positions as in the ordinary <arriages. To effect this, each cheek of the carriage is cut with a wide vertical slot, in which plays up and down a rectangular block of iron bored with a hole to re- ceive the truimion of the gun. Under this block is placed a strong screw to support the weight of the gun. By means of a hydraulic jack i)laced under each trunnion-block the gun is raised or lowered (o any desired height, and the motion is immediately followed up by the two screws, to which the weight of the gun is at once trans- ferred. Two minutes are required to raise the gun from the lowest to the highest position. In order to obtain the greatest elevation, it is of course neces- sary to lower the trunnion-blocks to the bottom of the slot, and for the greatest depression to raise them to their highest position. See Sea-coajit and Oarrisiii, I 'tirriftfjta. MUZZLE RING.— The metallic ring or circle that surrounds the mouth of a cannon or other piece of ordnance. MUZZLE SIGHT.— A front sight placed on or near tbe muzzle of a tire-arm. MUZZLE VELOCITY.— A term more properly em- ployed for tlie iiiitiiil velocitj', or the velocitj' at the muzzle of the piece. MYOPIA. — An anomaly in the refraction of the eye which, by law, disr|ualifies a recruit for enlist- ment in the army. This defect depends upon the refrarlive condition of the eye ; it is that condition in which the rays from distant objects come to a \Uicnn ill front of the retina, and consequently the latter receives but the blurred and indistinct image of external objects. A glance at the drawing will explain this. Myopia is usually due to an abnormal lengthening of the eyeball, thus" causing the retina to recede from the point where the rays come to an ac- I curate focus. It is a disease which often exists from i birth, and is freqiienlly hereditary; but. although I frequently this condition is present from birth, and MYElAaCH. 400 NAIE8. manifests itself in later life, no doubt, many cases are developed by excessive use of the eyes at fine " near work," such as reading or sewing, before the coats of the e}-e have become fully developed and hardened. Statistics show that the percentage of Myopia iucreases in proportion to intellectual devel- opment, and, that while it may be quite small in the lowest grades of Schools, it steadily gains in num- bers as the course of study becomes higher, uutil, in the Colleges and Universities it reaches a very large percentage. Among the prolific causes of the development of this disease, is the habit of reading with the head bent forward and over the book, thus preventing the free circulation of >he blood, and causing a conges- tion of the eyes, which tends still further to stretch the coats of the perhaps already weakened organ. The habit of reading with insutiicient illumination, or in a reclining posture, is also most injurious. The popular belief that near-sighted eyes are strong ones is not only absolutely incorrect, but also most mis- ! chievous, since there is no state of the eye which j more urgently demands the use of a proper glass, than does Alj-opia. Such eyes instead of being strong, are not only absolutely weak, but they are ! sick ejes, and, if the defect be of a high degree, li- able to the most serious accidents, which may result in loss of sight. The danger lies not in the imper- fect vision. Ibut in the interocular changes which ac company the defect in its higher grades, and which often are progressive. The treatment of near-sightedness is the use of the proper cuncate glasses. By this, there is an endeav- or to attain two objects. The rays are brought to a focus on the retina, and thus distinct vision is insur- ed : and, by wearing the proper glasses, the disease may usually be arrested. In cases where the defect is slight, the correcting-glasses can be given by a good optician, care being taken to select the irea'/cest concave lens with which vision is normal ; where, however, the defect is high, the advice of an oculist should be sought. Messrs. Walmslej' & Co. make a specialty of glasses for mj'opic eyes, and supply most hospitals with same. See -Recruits. MYRIARCH.— A Captain or Commander of 10,000 men. MYRMIDONS.— Tliose soldiers who accompanied Achilles in the expedition against Troy. Hough, desperate characters banded under a leader, are fre- quently called Myrmidons. N NABOB. — A corruption of the word nntrith (depu- ty;, was the title belonging to the atlministrators, un- der the Mogul Empire, of the separate Provinces into which the district of a Suhahdar was divided. The title was continued under the British rule. but it grad- ually came to be applied generally to natives who were men of wealth and consideration. In Evirope, and especially in Britain, it is applied derisively to those who, having made great fortunes in the Indies, return to their native country, where they live in ori- ental splendor. Also written A'n'ab. N4GAKKANA,— In the East Indies,tbe place where all the drums and war-music are kept. NAGGUK. — The principal drum in Asiatic armies, commonly allowed only to persons of high dignity; the Ijass drum. NAIANT— NATANT.— A heraldic term applied to a fish when borne horizontally across the shield in a swimming position. NAIGUE.— A native subaltern of- ficer among Indian and Anglo- Asia- tic troops, whose functions are rath- er somewhat analogous to those per- , , formed among European troops by TSaianB. (jjg DriU-sergeant. Also written Kii/'rk and Naik. NAIL BALL. — A round projectile with an iron pin proinidiug from it, to prevent its turning in the bore of the i)iece. NAILS. — Pointed pieces of metal, generally having flattened or rounded heads, used for driving into wood-work, for the purpose 'of holding 'lie |iieces together. A variety, in which the head is very large, and the spike portion snudl, used by shoemakers for [irotecting the soles of boots and shoes from wear, is.called the h'lli-iinil; another, which is ma<le by cut- ting thin plate-iron into thin |)ointed |iic<esof various lengths, is called brmh: these sometimesare without heads, but are usually made with a slight projection by way of a head. When made small, with fiat heads, for attaching cloth or hangings in upholstery work, they are called Uiekii; and when very large for heavy carpentry, spikes. formerly, all nails were hand-made, by forging on an anvil; and in Britain and the north of Europe vast quantities are still made in this manner, being preferable, for many kinds of carpenters' work, to those made by machinery. In France, the greater part of the nails used for light carpentry-work are made of soft iron wire, pointed with the hammer; and in order to head them they are pinched in a toothed-vise; which leaves the portion for the head projecting, and makes below it three or four grooves in the nail, which increase its hold on the wood when driven home. The head is beaten into a counter-sinking on the vise, which reg- ulates the size. The iron used for hand nail-making in Britain is sold in bimdles, and is called nail-rods; it is either prepared bj' rolliug the malleable iron in- to r .ds or small bars of the required thickness — which process is only employed for very fine quali- ties — or by cutting plate-iron into strips by means of rolling-shears; these shears consist of two powerful revolving shafts, upon which are fixed discs of hard steel with squared edges. The discs of one shaft al- ternate with those of The other; they are of the thick- ness of the plate to be cut, and the shafts are so placed tiiiit a small portion of one set of the discs are inserted between those of the other set. When the shaftsjare revolving a plate of iron is pressed between the discs, and it is forcibly drawn through, the steel discs cutting the plates into strips with great rapidity. The quantity proiluced in this waj- is enormous, some mills turning out at the rale of ten miles per hour of nail-rods. Several inventions in which America took the leiul, have been introduced, and are succes.sfully worked, for making nails direct from plate-iron, either by cutting them out cold or hot; and a very large jiroportion of the naihi in use are m;ide in this way. Nail-making by machinerj' was originated in Massachusetts in IHlti. NAIKS.— A nativi' military tribe of the Malabar Coast. Thiy atlirm that they are the oldest nobil- ity in the world. Thi'ir ]iri(leon this supposition is greater than that of the Kiijpoots. In 17.T), the King of Travaiieore, with the assistance of a French officer called Lannoy, disciplined 10,000 J^uirs in the method of European Infantry. KAISSANT. 401 NATIONAL ABMOEY CIECULAE CUTTEB. NAI88ANT. A term iii)plic(l in hcialilric liliizoii tii an aiiiiniil dc- picicil as coiiiini; forlli out of llic middle not lii\r i/thtiant or jtHHunt oiil of llic hoiindary line— of iiii or- dinary . NAKED BULLET.— A (rrnnvfd or cannclnriMl hullcl as dislinf;iii»hcd from llic patcliiMl Itiillct. S<'c Hiillel. NANA.- In the East Indi'H, tlie Niiieeant. ,i,|,. „ lii.li isfrivcn to a Chief of tlic ^lalirattas. It more pro[iiTly sij^nilics llic aclinj; lii'ud of llic ( iovcrniiicnt, and Ocncral of llic forccH. NAPOLEON GUN. -In iK.^li it was jiroposcd to in- crease llie power of the liijlit and diniinisli tin- weifilil of llic heavy lield arlillcry, liy llie inlroduetion of u single piece of nicdinni wci);lil and ealihcr. 'riieforni of the new piece is sliown in the drawing;. It has no clianibcr and shoidd tlicreforc lie chis.scd as a K""' Its e.vterlor is characterized by the entire aliscnce of nioldinj; and ornament ; ami in this respect il may be al om-c dislin;;uislicd from llie old lield cannon. 'Plic first reinforce is cylindrical ; and il has no second re- inforce, ii3 the exterior tiiixrs uniformly with the chase from the extremity of the first reinforce. The size of the trunnions and the distance between the rimbases are the same as in the a4-pdr. liowitzer. in order Unit both pieces may be transported on the same kind of carriage, '['hi' </iameiir of t/ie b'rre \n that of a 12-i)dr. The Irnyth nf Imre is ju.«t l!i^' cali- bers. The weight is one hundred times the pro- jectile, or 1,200 lbs. The fluirge (if pumUr is exact- ly tlie same as that for the heavy li-pdrs. (pattern of 1840), or 2J lbs. for solid and case shot. and '21bs. iSl for canister shot. It lias,' therefore, as trrcat range and accuracy as the heaviest gun of the old system; and, at the same time, the recoil and strain on the carriage are not so severe. The new gun and carriage weigh about 500 lbs. more tlian the 6pdr. and car- riage; still it has been found to possess sufficient mobil- ity for the general purposes of light artillery. The effect of this change is to simplify the innteriel of field artillery, and to increase its ability to cope with the rifle-musket, principally by the use of larger and more spherical case-shot. The principal objection to an increased caliber for light field-guns is the in- creased weight of the ammunition, and the reduction of the number of rounds that can be carried in the am- munition chests. See Field Artillery. NASAL. — A kind of peak or visor,on ancient helms for the protection of the nose. NASIR-JUNG. — An Indian term expressing victor- ious or triumphant in war. NATION. — A word used in two distinct senses. 1. A State or Independent Society united by com- mon Political Institutions. 2. An aggregate mass of persons connected by ties of blood and lineage. and sometimes of language. The modern dogma of nationalism, as maintained by a class of Conti- nental Politicians, starts from an assumption that a nation in the latter sense ought necessarily to be also a Nation in the former, and endeavors lo assign limits to the several races of Europe, with the view ' of erecting each into a distinct State, separated from other States or Nationalities. The extreme Polili- cians of the. National School seem to consider the supposed rights of Nationalities as paramount even to llie obligations of treaties, and the political con- junction of one Nationality witli another is looked on by them as an adequate ground for a revolt or separation, apart altogether from the cpicstlon whether the Kalionality is well or ill governed. In point of fact, the different races in Europe are »o commingled, that any reconKlriiction <if the political map of Europe, on elhnological principles, would be impossible, even if <leHirabli'. The blood of ninc- lenllis of Euro|)e lias been mixeil within the histor- ical period. 'I'hc test of language, on which Nation- ality has .somelimes been based, is a dr-ceptive one, in so far as il is indelinilr- and perpetually lluclnatinf;. The people on tlii' fronlier between two races, as in the South Tyrol, generally speak two languuf;c8. Then we have dialects, liki- the Walloon, the (Jrfid- nerisch of the Tyrol, and the J{omaiiscli of the «!ri- Kons— as also the IJrclon, Welsh, (iaelic. anil Irish languages, which could hardly be made the basis of independent communities. The well-being of the people governed is properly the end of all govern- ment, and it has praelically not been iilways found that a State is better governed when it eo'nsisis of one race only, than when it includes an aggregutc of races. Highly diversified Xalionalilies may be united in one political .syst<'m, provided only that the Uovernment respects and (-onsulls the (lecul'ari- ties of the several races and does not attempt to force the usages, habits, or language of one oa the rest. NATIONAL ANTHEM.— A selection of music set lo words. :ui(l < iiiiimc.n lo all nations. In England the national anlheiii is "God save the Queen," which is played when troops pay the prescribed honors to the Sovereign and members of the Koyal Family ; in the latter case only six bars of ihi' aiilliem are "play- ed. The first part of the national anthem may also be played at the salute of a Viceroy, at state cere- monials, and at the trooping of colors. The play- ing of the national anthem is only due to those personages who are entitled, under the regulations, to a royal salute. __b NATIONAL ARMORY.— A national es- I tablishment for the manufacture of small- — jj arms, etc. The manufacture of I'nited ^ States small-arms and small-arm am- munition for the present armies and mil- itia, and for the reserve supply, isoneof the LTcatest importance, and the Springfield Armory is a model one of the world in the perfectiim of its fabrications, the extent and completeness of its arrangements and the facilties for the production of this class of war- ike stores. NATIONAL ARMORY CIRCULAR CUTTER.- A mod- ification of the Adams cutter, from whicli it differs only in the details of its form and dimensions. The diameter of the circle which forms the cutting-edge is 3"; the angle formed by the elements of the two right cones whose intersection forms that edge is 60° instead of 61" 20'. The altitudes of these cones are the same, and are equal to 0'.86G. The thickness of the disk is 0".25 The angle of 60'' was adopted for the edge as being an an^le which could be ac- curately formed in a turning-lathe without difficulty, as almost every machinist possesses an equilateral triangular gauge by which he can verify at any in- stant the angle included between the" legs of the striding-gauge that he uses to guide him in turning the bevels. "The diameter and Uiicknc-ss of the disk- plate were cho.sen with reference to retaining the angle of 60', ar.d with reference to ease of exact measurement by practical mechanics. By assuming these dimensions the strength of the cutter is not impaired : it is rendered a little more sensitive to small dilTercnces of pressure than the Adams cutter; and its dimensions, both linear and angular, are easily jireserved in fabrication by any one of ordi- nary mechanical skill. The limits of these linear dimensions, whether expressed in hundredths or thousandths of an inch, can always be made to fall upon the larger and more common divisions of al- most any English scale of inches. The special ad- vantage of the circular cutting or indenting edge is that it can be readily pressed into the indentation, previously made in the copper block or disk while NATIONAL CEMETKRIES. 402 NATIONAL HYMNS. in the piece, upon its removal to tlie dynamometer or testing-machine. In tlie case of the pyramidal cutter, it is, and always will be, a matter of consid- erable difficulty to make the apex of the pyramid coincide with its former position, in adjusting it in a dynamometer for the purpose of getting the read- ing" of the estimator or the setting of the limit-gauge, in order to govern the operator in making the simi- lar secondary cut or cuts from or by means of which the pressures are determined. The more accurately the cutter is inserted into the indentation made by the force of discharge, and the greater the precision of the adjustment of the limit-gauge, the more near- ly will be the appro.ximation to the true pressure as determined by the dynamometer. AVith the circular cutter, no difficulty is experienced in adjiisting its edge to the bottom of the indentation in the copper. The steel disks for the National Armory circular cutters were made in September, 18T(i. See Adams Cutter, Benton Dynamometer, Circular Cutter, and Prear-ure Gauge. NATIONAL CEMETERIES.— In the United States, these arc the burial-places for soldiers, provided by the general government. The Quartermaster Gene- ral of the arm}' has cliarge of all the National Ceme- teries, and the records pertaining thereto. There are, at present, (1884) 26 National Cemeteries of the First Class; 20 of the Second Class; 11 of the T/tird Class, and some 23 of the Fuurth (Hass. The Superintendents of these classes are paid |>75, $70, .*6.5. and $60 per month respectively. Military Commanders exercise the same supervision over National jMilitary Cemeteries within the Geographi- cal limits of their commands as over other military posts or establishments under them, only excepting the Military Cemeteries in the District of Columbia and at Arlington and Alexandria, Virginia, which are attached to the Quartermaster's Priucipal Depot of Washington. D. C. — A copy of the following law is kept posted at the entrance, and in several other conspicuous places, in eacii Cemetery : Every person who willfully destroys, mutilates, defaces, injures, or removes an}- monument, grave- stone, or other structure, or who willfull}' destroys, cuts, breaks, injures, or removes any tree, shrub, or plant within the limits of any National Cemetery, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, punishable by a fine of not less than twenty-five dollars and not more than one hundred, or by imprisonment for not less than fifteen daj-s and not more than sixty. The Superintendent in charge of any National Ceme- terj- is authorized to arrest forthwith any person engaged in committing any misdemeanor herein pniliibited, and to bring such person before any United States commissioner or judge of any district or circuit court of the United Slates within any State or district where any of the cemeteries are situated, for the purpo.se of holding such person to answer lor such misdemeanor, and then and there .shall make the complaint in due form. See Battle- gniund Cemeteries, I'ost Cemeteries, and Superin- tendent rif National Cenieteriis. NATIONAL DEFENSE.' The defense of a State or a Nation against invasion. The national defenses of a country consist, besid<'S her armies and reserves, of the navy ; of the fortifications, forts, and fortresses l)uilt along the coasts, and on some important strate- gical points, either iidand or on the frontier line ; of torpedoes laid <lown for tlie iirotection of harbors, arsenals, etc. When these have been found insuffi- cient, an a])peal is maik' to all men alile to carry arms to stand up for the defense of the country, and to repulscr the invasion. This is called a levee en Timsse. In England, in the event of a threatened in- vasion, the volunteers would be called out and mobi- lised with the different army corps to which they liehmg. NATIONAL GDAED.— A body of militia composed ncipally of the Bourgeoisie, first formed by the Committee of safety in 1789, and musterine at cue time 300,000 men under the command of Laiayette. Napoleon dissolved them in 1795, and reorganized them in 1814. They were again dissolved in 1837, by Charles X., were reorganized in 1830, deserted Louis Philippe in 1848, were reorganized in 18.52, and took part in the Franco-Prussian war and the Insurrection of the Commune. — The .same term is applied to the State Militia of New York and New Jersey. In England the National Guard is an organization for local defense, differing from the British militia and volunteers, in being at the disposal of the Mu- nicipalities, not of the Crown. Italy, Greece, and other nations have maintained this civic force; but the country whence it derives historic fame is France. The French National Guard was instituted in Paris in 1789, when the Government had an army of 30,000 at the gates. The Municipality armed 48^- 000 men, and their example was followed by the chief towns ofFrance. These corps obtained the name of National Guard and assumed the famous tricolor as their ensign. In 179.5, 30,000 of the Paris National Guards attacked the Tuileries and were re- pulsed by Napoleon Bonaparte with 6,000 regular fjoops. In 1830 they were reorganized under the command of Lafayette, their original chief; and be- tween 1848 and 1851 a law was passed by which all males above 20 not otherwise employed under Gov- ernment were included in the National Guard. Af- ter the Coup d'Etat in December, 1851, they were reduced to the condition of an armed police. In the war of 1870-1871 they showed some signs of vitality in sympathy with the Commune, but effected nothing for France. After the fall of the Commune thev were disbandad. See Militia. NATIONAL HYMNS.— Popular airs which are pe- culiar to and characteristic of a particular nation. It is a singular fact that the composers of national hymns are seldom known. The Germans call their national music i)olk's mimik. a designation which is very appropriate, as a people collectively may not improperly be considered as the actual composer of its national tunes. A short melody extemporized by some one in a moment of patriotic emotion, is often taken upby others and traditionally preserved. In the course of time it generally undergoes modifi- cations, until it has attained those conditions which insure it a general acceptance. This fully explains what W. Grimm means in his laconic saying, "A national song composes itself " {Eiyi Volkslieddiehtet ■lick .wlbst), for the attempts of celebrated musicians to invest a tune with universal and permanent popu- larity have been successful in a few instances only. Among the most popular European national hymns, is Cod sffi'f the King, but the authorship of the tune has not hitherto been satisfactorily ascertained. In Prussia it is called Heil Dir im Sieger Kram, and in the United Statf s the melody is simg with the words " My country 'tis of thee," etc. Although there is no satisfactory evidence of its having been in existence before the reign of George II., there are several tunes known of an earlier date in some degree resembling it. The Austrian national hymn, Gotte irhatte l^Franz] den Kaiser, is a composition by Joseph llaydn. Having during his visit to England wit- nessed tlie effect of God. save the King, on public oc- casions, Haydn resolved .after his return to Vienna, to present his country with a similiir composition. 15aron Swicten and (lount Saurau procured the ])octr_v for him, and the hymn was sung for the first time on the birtlulay of the Emperor Franz, Feb. 12, 1797. The iioetry was written by L. Leopold Haschka. The Russian hymn dates from the year 1K30, when the Emperor Nicholas ordered it to be per- formed in concerts and representations on the stage. Its coiii))oser was Alexis LwofT, and the air appears to have been suggested liy the Sicilian Marincr'x Hymn, which is also a favorite melody of the Gon- doliers iit Venice. The poetry of the patriotic song JCATIONAL BIPLE ASSOCIATION. \ 403 NATIONAL RIFLE ASSOCIATION. of the Danes, Kong Christian stod ved piyien Mont, was written by Ewald, iind the iimsie Ik by a (Jer- liian CDmiioscr, .Ii)li:iiin i larliiiauri. The Freiieh imtioiial liyii". tl"' Miii-n(Hl(iini . dates fniiii tlieyeur 17i)2. It was eoinposed liy Koujjet de I'lsh', diiriiii; tlie Freneh Uevohitioii. Ylie national hymn of the Germans, Die Wuclit, nin /I'/iciu, eame into f;reat popuhirity durini; the Franeo-German war of 1H~0. Will iit dfx Deiitxclien Vulirlund was written hy Krnst Moritz Arndt, a (Jornian patriot. diirini.f the wars of Napoleon I. There liave hei'n many at- tempts to mannfaeture national son^s in llii- Inited States, but the great national liymn of Ameriea will probably be a spontaneous ])ri)duction. The mar- Spnni/led lianner was written by F. S. Key, in 1814, and the words were adapted hy F. Durang to an old Freneh air, long known in England as Ann. creoii in, Itirinn, and in Ameriea as Ailnmn and Liberty. It grew in favor in the Loyal Stales during the Rebellion, and was played eontinually liy all military and orehestral bands. But as a patriotic song for tlie people at large it is almost useless, as the range of the air, an octave and a half, places it out of the compass of ordinary voices. Yankee Doodle has the claim of long association, and will probabl}' always retain a certain degree of favor. Its words are mere childish burlesque, audit is n'ported to have been a popular tune in England during the Commonwealth. Some state that its doggerel words originated at that time, Oliver Cromwell lieing designated as Nankee Doodle. Others state that it was the tune originally set to the old English song, Lydia Locket lout her I'ucket, and that the present words were written by a British Sergeant in Boston in 177.5. Hail ('ulnmbia. was written by .biseph Ilopkinson in 1798, and was set to the music of the V rexid) nV a March, which was composed by one Phylas or Fayles, a German leader of orchestra in New York. Columbia the Oem of the Ocean, and Harrison Millard's Viva V America have also attained considerable jiopularitv. NATIONAL ELFLE ASSOCIATION.— Althougli the introduction of the ritHe as a military weapon was owing to the lessons of our Kevolution, andalthough our success in the earlier contests of our history de- pended upon the skill in its use displayed by our an- cestors, no recognition, until lately, was given by our citizens of the fact that the change which has taken place in the habits of the American people was rapid- ly depriving them of that personal skill in arms and marksmanship, which hitherto formed one of tlie greaest elements of our national strength. Other nations have long since instituted a thorough system in rifle practice. France, Germany, Switzerland, and, above all, England and Canada, unite in giving to rifle practice a leading position in their system of military training. 150,000 trained riflemen are a standing proof of the Wimbletou contests in Eng- land. So, on our Northern border. Canada boasts lier 40,000 skilled shots, and has her annual Local, Provincial, and Dominion matches, by which their skill is maintained. In this country, on the other hand, the matter was entirely neglected, although our entire system of defense is based upon the levy- ing of volunteers in cases of emergency, who, to be valuable, or even available, must understand the use of arms, and supply by their skill as individuals the confidence which discipline gives to regular troops. While England had a system of rifle practice which was required to be annually and thoroughly perform- ed by everj' soldier in the army, whether stationed in India, Australia, or Europe, our war Department for a long time sent raw recruits against the Indian sharp-shooters of the plains. In the National tiuards a similar apathy prevailed ; and it was tlie rule, not the exception, for a man to .serve out liis full term of enlistment in their ranks without firing a shot. This anomalous condition of affairs having excited on siderable discussion among military men through the press, finally, on November 24, 1871, led to the formation in the cit_v of New V'ork of the NotioruU liijle AHKociatlon, which was designed to Ije the parent of many similar Associations throughout the country, and of uniform pra<;tiei' in the Army. Thi« Association was incorporated under the laws of the state of N(;w York, and included among its incorpo- rators many jirominent otllcers and ex-ollicers of the Army and iN'ational guard. TIk' main aim of the ,\ssociation is the encourage- ment of ritl(- |)raeti(,e throughout the United States, and the success thus far attained surpasses the mo.st sanguine anticipations. The present scope and con- dition of th(^ Association will be best comprehended by carefully reviewing the Regulations: I. — Manaokmknt. — A. — Annval Meetingx. — 1. An- nual meetings for competition will be conducted by an E.xecutive Ollicer, wearing a tri^colored badge, allied by a Slalislieal Ollicer, wearing a blue badge, a Financial Ollicer, wearing a white badge, a Range Officer, wearing a red badge, and assistants, wearing badges corresponding in color to those worn by the chiefs of their res])ectiv(? Departments. 2. The Ex- ecutive Ollicer shall have control of the range for the conduct of matches, and shall a|)[>oint an Adjutant to assLst Inin. y. The Statistical Ollicer shall have charge of all statistics. 4. The Financial Officer shall have charge of all tinanees connected with these meetings. 5. The Range Ollicer shall have charge of all Firing Points, and of the shooting thereat. B. — Other detmpetitionx. 1. All other association compe- titions will be conducted by an Officer or Director of the Association, or other competent person previous- ly designated as the E.xecutive Officer. In the ab- sence of the Oflieer, Director, or other person previ- ously designated, the Assistant-Secretary or Super- intendent of Range shall act as the E.xecutive Officer. II. — General Regulations. — 1. During the pro- gress of a match, no one, except, the Oflicers, Di- rectors and Employees of the Association, the com- petitors and the Scorekeepers, will be permitted within tlie ropes, without special permission of the Range Officer. 3. The squads of competitors will be stationed not less than four yards in the rear of the tiring points, where each competitor must remain until called by the Scorekeeper to take liis position at the firing point, and until he has completed his score. The Scorekeepers will be seated close to and in rear of the firing point stakes. 3. Scorekeepers shall, as each shot is signaled, call in a loud voice the name of the competitor andthe value of the shot, and at the conclusion of the score of each competitor, announce in like manner his name and total score. Competitors must paj- attention to tlie scores as an- nounced and recorded, so that any error may be promptly investigated. 4. All competitors will be allowed to examine the records of the Scorekeeper during the progress of any match. 5. All protests and objections must be made to the Executive Offi- cer, or, in his absence, to the Range Officer in charge. In case a competitor is dissatisfied with the decison of the latter, he may appeal to the Executive Officer. 6. Anj' competitor feeling himself aggriev- ed by the ruling of an Executive Officer, may make to the Secretary a statement of his grievance in writing, giving the names of two ormore witnesses in the case, whicli shall be handed to the Executive Committee at its first meeting thereafter for its con- sideration. The decision of tlie Executive Commit- tee shall be final, subject, however, to the discretion of said Committee, or any two members of it. to refer tlifi matter to the Board of Directorsfor its decision. 7. .lUl practice upon the Range is subordinate and must give way to matches of the Association. 8. These regulations, and such special rules or direc- tions as the Executive Officer may give, must be rig- idly complied with by competitors and all other per- sons upon the Range grounds. III. — Rlfles.— The rifles or carbines allowed to be used in the competitions are — 1st. Military rifles; NATIONAL RIFLE ASSOCIATION. 404 NATIONAL BLFLE ASSOCLATION^ 2d. Any rifles ; and must comply with the following conditions, viz.: 1. Military Ii>ytes. V!e\ght (without bayonet) not to exceed 9 pounds, 4 ounces. Stock sufficiently strong for military purposes, and such as to admit the use "of a sling ; minimum pull of trigger six pounds. Sights to be of h"na fide military pat- tern, to be attached to the barrel ; the front sight to be immovable. The rear sight may be used as a wind gauge, by the sliding bar or the leaf being moved laterally, either by sTiding, or by a screw, or by an}' similar device suitable for military purposes. Filing or altering the sights of such rifles, or of the riflesused by the Katioiial Guard, or Regular forces (except as authorized by the military authorities thereof) is prohibited. The sliding bar of the rear sight may be inverted, and lines drawn to mark the center. Any pad or shoe attached to the butt is prohibited. 2. -4Hy i?///<", maximum weight lOpounds, minimum pidl of trigger three pounds ; sights of any description, except telescope, magnifying and sucli front aperture sights as solid disks or bnshes pierced in the center, which cover the target so as to con- ceal the danger signal when displayed. No stirrup constructed of metal or other substance, connected to the ritle by straps of any kind, for the purpose of taking up or" lessening its recoil, will be allowed. 3. Competitors shall sut)niit their rifles and ammunition for inspection whenever required. 4. No hair or set trigger will be allowed. 5. No fixed or artificial rests will be allowed. IV. — Ammttnitiox. — 1. In competitions restricted to the use of breech-loaders, the gun shall be loaded at the breech with fixed ammunition. 2. In all other competitions any ammunition may be used. V. — Takgets. — The targets are divided into three classes, and shall be of the following sizes : 1. Third ClnKf, to be used at all distances up to, and including 300 yards — Target 4x6 feet. Bull's-eye circular, 8 inches in diameter. Center "' 26 " Inner " 46 " Outer, remainder of target. 2. Second Ctas/<. to be used at !ill distances over 300, to, and including 600 yards— Target 6x6 feet. Bull's-eye, circular, 23 inches in diameter. Center " 38 ' Inner " 54 " " " Outer, remainder of target. 8. Firxt C'laxK, to be used at all distances over 600 yards— Target 6x12 feet. Bull's-eye, circular, 36 inches in|diameter, Center " 54 " " " Inner, square, 6x6 feet. Outer, remainder of the target. MAKKING, SCOKING AND SIGNALING. 1. Bull's-eye, counts 5 ; signal, white circular disk. Center," " 4; " red white and black ■• black " red flag waved quicklj' twice right and left in front of the target. Ricochet hits will be marked out after the flag signal. 2. Wlicn a shot strikes the angh- iron uikiu which the tarL'Cl sIuikIs. the marker will open II. e trap andraise and lower his flag three times in front of the target. 3. Any objection to the record of a sliot as signaled or to one not signaled, must be made before another shot is fired. Any competitor challenging the mark- ing of a shot shall first deposit witli the Kxecutive officer, or his representative, the sum of §1.00. If liis challenge is sustained the money sliall lie return- ed. In ease the challenge is not sustained tlie money shall be forfeited to the Association. The C'iiallen- ger shall be permitted to inspect the target in com- pany with the proper officer. 4 Any alterati(m of a scoring ticket must be witnessed by the officer in charge of the firing point, and endorsed with his initials. VII. — KcNNiNG Deeb. — 1. Will he run only liy a signal from the firing point. Any rifle may he used, VI. Inner, " 3; Outer, '• 2; Ricocliet, scored R : provided the sights are without traverse adjust- ment. Position, standing: distance, 100 yards, un- less otherwise prescribed. A fine of ten cents will be imposed for firing when out of bounds, not firing, or for hitting the haunch. Scaring and Signalling, Bull's-eye, wliite disk, counts 4, Center, red " " 3. Outer black " " 2. Haunch, white disk, with black cross, scoring II. VIII. — Bull's-Eye Targets. — 1. Bull's-eye tar- gets will be open all the time during the Annual Meetings. 2. Tickets (entitling the hoMer to one shot af any Bull's-eye target) will be sold at the office of the Financial Officer, upon the Range, at 10 cents each, or fsvelve for ifl.OO. i. Each competi- tor making a Bull's-eye will receive a Bull's-eye ticket. 4. At the close of the firing each evening, the pool receipts (less one-half retained for expenses) will be divided yro rnto among tliose making Bull's- eyes, on presentation of their tickets. 5. No person will be allowed to fire more than three shots consec- utively at any Bull's-eye target, provided others are waiting to fire. IX. — Matches. — 1. The commencement of the An- nual Meetings will be signaled by the firing of two guns, 15 minutes apart. The first will be" the sig- nal for competitors and scorekeepers to assemble at the firing points, and the second to commence firing. 2. The matches will take place, if possible, at the hour previously named. Any deviation from the programmes will be posted upon the Bulletin board as long before hand as practicable. The pouting upon mick bulletin board trill be coniddfred .sufficient notice to all competiUrrs of everything so posted. It sliould be examined by all competitors daily, both morning and afternoon, before the shooting com- mences. 3. In team matches, at Annual Meetings, an officer will be assigned to each of the firing posts- as Supervisor, and he will, in connection with the Scorekeeper, keep a record of the firing ; and any disagreement between such officer and Scorekeeper, will be decided bj' the Executive Officer, subject to appeal, as provided for in the Regulations. 4 Each Team may appoint a responsible person to act as Supervisor, whose duty it shall be to see that the rules of the N. R. A. are strictly adhered to by tlie team at whose target he may be assigned. 5. No practice will be allowed upon the range on any of tlie days of the Annual Meetings, unless specially authorized by the Executive Officer. This does not apply to days upon which special matches of the As- sociation, or of affiliating associations or clubs take place. X. — Entries. — A.''Annual Meetings. — 1. For all competitions open to militarj' organizations, the teams shall (unless otherwise specified ) consist of twelve from each Regiment, Battalion, Company, or Troop. 2. In all cases competitors for prizes of- fered to military organizations must be either offi- cers or regularly enlisted members in good standing of thcReiriment. 15att:ilion, Company, or Troop which they represent, and shall have been such for at least three months prior to the match for which they are entered. All entries must be made for full teams. 3. Entries must be made at tlie office of tlie Associa- tion, in New York City, at least one ireek preceding the commencement of the meetings, when the en- try books will be closed ;it the office of the Associa- tion, .indall subsequent entrii's shall be called I'ost ICnIi'ies. and a ch;irge of .'iO percent, additional will be imposed upon all such I'ost Entries. 4. Com- jietitors who are prevented from being jiresent at any meeting shall have the entrance fees they have paid returned after the meeting, provided that they send their tickets and give written notice to the Secretary before thi^ (lay on which the prize for which tluy have entered has been aimoimccd for competition. 5. Competitors i>revented from com peting by illness will receive back tlieir entrance fee NATIONAL KIFLE ASSOCIATION. 401 NAXIONAX. £IFL£ ASSOCIATION. in full, on production i)f it incilical rcrlillciito and tlu'ir entry tickils. (!. The lioldcrsof post cnlry tickets nmy lie (inlered tci tire wlienever tiiTf^et iie- conmicHliitinn ciin lie |ir(jviile(l, Init slioiild tiii'V l)e precluded friini eiinipetini; by delieieney of tiirnet accoinniodalion, their I'ntniMce fees will be returned to them, the iCxecutive Otiicernol l)einf; ubletonnar- antee acconmiodal ion for all siu-h entries. 7. All en- tries are received upon the express <'ondition that the coinp<'tilor is toappear at tiie lirin'.; point at the exact time named upon his score ciinl, and completi' liisscore within tlie limitation of time prescribed, regardless of weather or any other nnforeseen cause. 8. The same person shall not be a member of more than one team in the .same unit ch. i). ('om|)etitors selected to shoot in team matches, or who are de- tailed to shoot olf a tie at a particular hour, and who tind that such en!;ai;ements will int<'rf'ere with their shootimj; in other conipetitions, irnist at once com- municate with the I'jxeculive Otlicer. 'i'hesi: cases will be i)rovided for, irhen jmnxi/di', liy alt<'rin!; the hour ; and when that cannot be done, the entry will be cancelled and the entrance fee refunded. Ji.— OeneralUegul(iti'iit.i.-\. A mendierof the Associa- tion enterinj; for or shooting in a matcli on the range must exhibit his badge. 2. A register ticket may be transferred at any time before the tiring for the match has commenced, l)y cxi'hanging it at the office of the Statistical 011i<'er for one having the name of the new liolder. It is available oidy for the hour and target for which it was originally is- sued. Any erasure or alteration not initialed l>y tlu' Executive Ollicer will r<'nder the ticket invalid. 3. No post entries shall be received for any competi- tion after the tiring in such competition has com- menced, unless expressly permitted by tlie terms of a match. XI. — SHooTtNO. — 1. Competitors must be present at the firing points punctually at the time stated upon their tickets, or forfeit their riglit to shoot. 2. After a competitor has joined a sipiad he shall not quit it until he has completed his tiring, or retired. 3. No two competitors shall shoot in any match with the sanu' ritle, nor shall a competitor change Ids rifle during a competition, unless exjiressly per- mitted liy the terms of a match, or unless his first rifie has become iuiserviceat)le througli an accident, which must be verified liy the officer in charge of his firing point. 4. In all competitions confined to members of military organizations, competitors shall shoot in tlie authorized uniform of their corps, in- cluding waist belts. .5. In each match of the An- nual Meetings, except wliere otherwise stated, the squad or team assigned to each target will lie re- quired to commence firing at the time nanu'd on the score card, and to continue firing at the rate of one shot per minute until the completion of the score. 6 The time for each squad to commence and close will be signaled by firing a gun every thirty nnnutes, from 9 A. M. to 5.30 p. m., and no firing by any of its members will be permitted except between tliose signals. In case a competitor, without fault on his part, has Ijeen prevented from finishing his score within that time, he may apply to the Executive Officer for further assignment, the granting of which will be in the discretion of that officer. 7. Competi- tors retiring from matches forfeit all claims therein. 8. iV« sighting .i/intn trill he allowed in any iimtrli, but targets will be assigned as BuWu-eye Tnrgetn at which competitors may practice at any time, provided such practice does not in any manner interfere with their presence at the designated time at the firing point to which tliey may have been previously assigned. 9. In all competitions restricted to military rifies the competitors sliall place themselves at the firing point by twos, and shall fire alternately until they have fired all their shots. 10. In other competitions the competitors shall fire their shots alternately j throughout the squad. 11. Competitors may wipe or clean their rifles during any competition, except I those restricted to the use of mililary rifles. In com[ietitions at more than one distance, restricted to mililary ritles, cleaning will lie permitted between distances. 12. Wheniver the daiiL'er Hag is dis- played, competitors about to lire will be reipiired to open the breecli block of their rifles ("if breedi- load(rrs). If they leave the firing point thev miiHt withdraw the cartriilge. 13. Any competitor" delay- ing his sipiad will be passed l)y. In no case will the tiring be delayed to enalile a competitor to jjrocure a ritle. 14. Compelilors must shoot their scores at (lilferent distances in the oriler named in the condi- tions of the competition. XII.— I'oHiTioN. — 1. In all matches rexcept those specially for carbinesj, the position \\\t to and in- cluding 300 yards, shall be standing. The left elbow nuiy be rested against tlie body, jirovidc-il the little linger of the left hand is in"frout of the trigger guard. 2. In carbine matches, the position at' 200 yards shall be standing; at 300 yards, kneeling; over that distance, in anv position tas prescribed for infantry;. 3. In all other matches, at distances aliove .300 yards, any position may be taken without artificial rest to the rifie or body. 4. One-armed competitors will be allowed to use false arms, with- out extra sujiport, in the standing and kneeling jiositions, and to assume any position in the use of military rifles, at distances above 200 yard.s. T). Shots at Bull's-eye larirets, at all distances, be^ yond 300 yards may be fired in any position without artificial rest. 6. In all cases the rifle shall be held clear of the ground. XIII — Ties.— 1. Ties shall be decided as follows : A.— fa ludividual Shmtiiig. 1. When the firinc takes place at more than one distance, liy the total score made at the longest distance ; and if still a tie, and there be three distances in tlie comjietition by tlie total score at the seconil distance. 2. By the fewest misses in the entire score. 3. By tlie fewest outers in the entire score. 4. By the fewest inners in the entire score. ,5. In handicap n'latches (after the preceding), by the fewest centers in the entire score. 0. If still a tie, by inverse order of shots counting singly from the last to the first. 7. In matches where two or more scores added together count, if still a tie, by adding together the last shots of each single score, and if .still a tie. by adding to- gether the next to the last and so on. 8. By tirine single shots at the longest range. B.~I)i Team Shooting. 1. By the aggregate total score made at the different distances in inverse order. 2. By the fewest misses in the entire .score. 3. By the fewest outers in the entire score. 4. By the few. est inners in the entire score. .5. By the loijd of each round in inverse order. 6. By the competitor on each side who has made the highest s<-ore, firing five rounds at the longest distance. II. The naines of competitors who have to shoot off ties will be po.sted on the Bulletin-board as soon after each match as practicable. III. When the ties are shot off, one sighting shot shall be allowed without charge ' IV. Competitors not present at tlie firins: point's at the hour named for shooting off tics, loo.sc their right to shoot. V. If. having forfeited their right to'^ com- pete, they shall still be within the number of prize winners, they shall take any prize that may be al- lotted to them by the Executive Committee. Xiy.— PRIZES. 1. Prize winners, upon application to Statistical Officer on tlie range, will receive certifi- cates, which must be given up on receiving the prizes. 2. Prizes will be delivered on the ranseat the close of the nieetino;, under the direction of the Prize Committee, uuleBs otherwise specified. 3. All prizes and Bull's-eye money not claimed within thirty days after the day on which same was won, shall be for- feited to the Association. XV.— Penalties.- Competitors must make them- selves acquainted with the regulations, as well as with the conditions of anv match for which they may have entered, as the plea of ignorance of either NATIONAL SALUTE. 406 NAVAL HOWITZ£B. of them will not be entertained. DisqvnUflcaUon -. Any competitor (a) who shall tire in a name other than his own, or who shall fire twice for the same prize, unless permitted by the conditions of the competition to do so, or '{h) who shall be guilty of any conduct considered by the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee as discreditable ; or {c) who shall be guilty of falsifying his score or being accessory thereto: or {d) who shall offer a bribe of any kind to an employee — shall, upon the occurrence be- ing proved to tlie satisfaction of the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee, forfeit all his entrance fees, be forever disqualified from competing at any time upon the range of the association, and shall not be entitled to have any prize won by him at the time or meeting awarded to him. Exclusion from all further Competition. 1. Any competitor who shall be detected in an in- vasion of the conditions prescribed for the conduct of any match, shall be ruled out of such competition. 2. Any competitor, in any meeting or match, refusing to obey any instructions of the Executive Officer, or his assistants, or violating any of these regulations, or being guilty of imruly or disorderly conduct, or being intoxicated, will be immediately ruled out of all furtlier competition, during such meeting or match, and forfeit his entrance fees ; and may also be reported to the Board of Directors or the Execu- tive Committee, and be by them disqualified from the use of the Range. 3. Any competitor firing when the danger flag or trap disc is shown at the target or firing point, or knowingly discharging his rifle except at alarget to which he has been assigned or into the blowing-off pits, or as may be directed by an Officer, shall be debarred fromallfurthercompetitionsdtiring the meeting, and shall forfeit his entrance fees. This shall not apply to a competitor accidentally firing at the wrong target, when no danger disc is up. 4. Any person discharging a rifle or snapping a cap within the inclosure. except in accordance with the regulations for shooting may, at the discretion of the Executive Officer, be required to leave the ground. 5. Any competitor or other person found with a load- ed rifle except at tlie firing points and when about to shoot, shall be debarred from further competition during the whole of that meeting or competition. 6. Any person, whether a competitor or not, inter- fering with anj' of the firing squads, or annoying them in any way will be at once expelled frorri the ground. 7. Anj' competitor discharging his rifle accidentally, either by his own want of care or by reason of any defect in the rifle, shall be disqualified from further competition in the match. 8. Should a competitor lose his register ticket, omit to take it to the firing point, fail to attend at the prescribed hour, or give a wrong ticket, and so by his own neglect miss tlie opportunity given to him of com- licting for the prize for which his ticket was issued, his claim in regard to such competition shall be can- celled. 9. Any person firing on a wrong target will be reported by the scorer to the Executive or Range Officers present and will be fined i|1.00 or be de- barred from further competition ; or both, in the discretion of the Executive Officer. 10. Any per- son ruled out of any meeting or competition shall forfeit all entrance fees. NATIONAL SALUTE.— A salute of one gun for each State in llic Union. This salute is fired at noon on the anniversary of the Independence of the United States at each military post or camp providetl with artillery. See Sriliit)H. NATIONAL TROOPS. -Troops raised under the au- thority (if Ciiugress, in contradistinction to the Mil- ilia, which may be called State troops, being organ- i/eil bv the several States. NATURAL ANGLE OF SIGHT. The angle which the niitiirdl line if night iTiakes with the axis of tlie pieee. NATURAL FORTIFICATION.— A fortification consist- ing of those obstacles wliich nature affords to retard the progress of an enemy ; such as woods, deep rav. ines, rocks, marshes, etc. The term is emploj'ed in contradistinction to Artificial Portifieatioii, or that which is raised by liuman ingenuity to aid the nat^ ural advantages of the ground, or supply its defi- ciencies. See Fortification. NATURAL LINE OF SIGHT.— The right line pass- ing through the highest point of the line of metal at the muzzle, and the highest point of the same line in rear of the trunnions. See Line of Metal. NATURAL POINT-BLANK.— The point-blank is the point at which the line of sight intersects the tra- jectory the second time ; or, more practically speak- ing, it is that point which, being aimed at, is struck by the projectile. The natural point-blank corre- sponds to the natural line of sight when this line is horizontal, and the distance of this point from the muzzle is called the point-blank range. NATURAL STEEL.— A variety of steel which is ob- tained by reducing the rich and pure kinds of iron ore with charcoal, and refining the cast-iron, so as to bring it to a malleable state. It is made principally in Germany, and is used for making files and other tools. The India steel, called irooti, is said to be a natural steel, containing a small portion of other metals. See Shear Steel and Steel. NAVAL CAMP.— In .military antiquities, a fortifi- cation, consisting of a ditch and parapet on the land side, or a wall built in the form of a semi-circle, and extended from one point of the sea to the other. This was beautified with gates, and sometimes de- fended with towers, through which the defender* issued forth to attack their enemies. Towards the sea, or within it, they fixed great piles of wood, like those in their artificial harbors; before these, the ves- sels of burden were placed in such order, that they might serve instead of a wall, and give protection to those without; in this maimer, Nicias is reported by Thucydides to have encamped himself. When their fortifications were thought strong enough to defend them from the assaults of enemies, the ancients fre- quently dragged their ships on shore. Around these ships the soldiers disposed their tents, as appears everywhere in Homer But this seems only to have been practiced in winter, when their enemy's fleet was laid up, and could not assault them; or in long sieges, and when they lay in no danger from their en- emies by sea, as in the Trojan war, where the de- fenders of Troy never once attempted to encounter the Grecians in a sea-fight. NAVAL CROWN. — In"Heraldry,a rim of gold round which are placed alternately prows of galleys and square sails. The device is said to have originated with the Roman Emperor Claudius, who, afler the conquest of Britain instituted it as a reward for maritime services. He who first boarded the enemy's ship, and was the occasion of its being captured, was entitled to a naval crown. A naval crown supporting the crest in place of a wreath oc- curs in various grants of arms in the early part of the present cen- tur_v, to the naval heroes of the late war. The crest of the Earl of St. Vincent, bestowed on him after his victory over the Spanish fleet in 1797, is issuing otit of a naval crown or, enwrapped by a wreath of laurel vert, a demi-pegasus argent nianed and hoofed of the first and winged azure, charijed in the win;; with a fleur-de-lis or. NAVAL HOWITZER,- A bninze shell-gun. adapted t(i field and biial servi<'e. Tliey are made (if bronze on aecdiint (if their cdinparative lightness for the same strength, and from their being less liable to burst than iron guns of the same caliber. They are both smooth-bore and rifled, and are alike in the principle of construction and general appearance, and differ only in weight and dimensions. Around the charge the metal is distributed in the form of a. evlinder, extending suflicienllv in fr(int of the seal Naval Crown. NAVE. 407 NAVEZ LEUE8 CHEONOSCOPE. of tlic prnjpctilc ; thence to the muzzle it iH continued UH a triHicati'd cone. NAVE. — The central portion of a wheel; it is'^en- (■rally coinijosed of a cylindriciil ]<\<ick of wood in wliicU the .H])okes arc lirnily lixerl, and in which the axle-arm works. This has hillierto hcen Wiv inive of all artillery carriajj;cs in the Urilisli service, hut in tlic newly constructed wroui;lit-iron carriafies the Madras pattern nave, made of metal, willi some slight modilication, has heen adopted. In the .Mad- ras wheel, as ori;;inally formed, the nave. box is made of gun-metal, and cast in one piece with one t)f the plates, hut the principle of construction is the same whether it he so united or cast separately, be- tween the two plates, 13 spokes anr placed, so formed that the parts which enter the nave are in close (-ontac^t with each other, and with their ends forming an arch completely round, hut not (piite touching, the nave hox. Tlic vvliole <-onstru(tion is tlu'ii tirndy bolted togetlier, witli \2 triangular holts passing through holes in the discs, and fitting into the triangular spaces fornu-d hetwecn each sjjokc by their radiation from each other. These bolls have circular heads, ami when driven into their places, their ends are secured outside by nuts. The naves are in two or three parts. The great advantage in the latter is that the top and bottom, as two cjf its parts are termed, are almost rendered perpetual, whereas in the nave in two parts, if the i)ox wears and therefore becomes unserviceable, the box with bottom, altogether nearly three-fourths of the nave , is rendered useless, and must be reneweil; hut with the nave in three parts, the box alone is renewable if it wears away. In the late Madras artillery, the guH-meUil lunv hud been in use for the last sixty or seventy years, and no failure of its strength or want of durability had ever been reported. For many in the nave, must bo fixed with ■■peeial reference to thes(r side thrusts. Th(t strains in the planes of traction are l)ut slight, on account of the small in- ertia of the nave about itsaxis. IScc Arr/ii/jitl/l Wheel. NAVE BOXES. H>;xes which are plated in the naves; they were formerly made of brasH, but expe- rien<:e has shown that those of cast-iron cause Icbb friction, and are mucli cheaper. There are two, one at each end, to diminish the friction of the uxle- tree aL'ainst the nave. NAVE BEAKE. A contrivance for skidiling the weeds of giHi carriages in order to increase the frictional resistance, at the time of recoil. The two halves of the brake clasp the nave with more or less tightness. The attachmi'iit between the brake and tiie nave is only a frictional one, and a certain amount of slipping round occurs if there is a very violent recoil. NAVE HOOPS.— Flat iron rings used to bind the nave; tlKTc are generally three on each nave. NAVEL.— A lug with a hole through it on the under side of a carronadc, used to connect it with its carriage. • NAVEZ LEUES CHEONOSCOPE.— This is probably the most successful of all the pendulum instruments, where the value of the time is expressed in arc. It may be said to consist of two separate instruments, the pend'dinii and the (liHJunrUir. The pendulum is an upright plate of vulcanite with a graduated arc, .1, moiuited on a stand, and supportin;' two pendu- lums, two electro-magnets, a pair of sprmgs, and the pivot upon which the escapement system works. One of the pendulums, «, is termed the chronometer pendulum, and the other, i, the regixUr pendulum; and the magnets are so adjusted, one behind each pen<lulum, that when magnetized by a current of electricity they will just sustain the" bobs o£ their .^circuit from t)aflery which maffnetize.'! the chronometer electro-magnet. . .(.'ircuit Irom ttic buttery which maunetizes the rejrister electro. magnet. -Arrangement of the second circuit to investigate the value of the coeflicicnt x. reasons it was a great improvement on the hlnck nave. Its durability was apparent after the occupa- tion of Burmah in 1852, and svibsequent years. In that country, for a long period after it was annexed to the British possessions, gun carriages. Bengal and Madras, had for want of cover to stand out exposed to Sim and rain. During that period not a Madras wheel was the worse for exposure, wiiereas the ma- jority of the Bengal wheels had large deep slits in the wooden naves, wddch necessitated their being re- placed and the wheels set up afresh. Side thrusts on the wheel tend to shear the material of the nave (if it be of wood), and to bend the flanges when of metal. The amount of material and its disposition respective pendulums, into both of which a piece of soft iron is inserted. -Yn index-needle, having a vernier at the end to slide along the graduated arc, is riveted to a steel disc, c. working in the same axis as the chronometer pendulum, with which it oscil- lates, simply by friction, initil clamped by the action of the escapement. The springs are attached to the vertical plate, and pass one on each side of the steel disc, e; near the ends of the springs are two cleats, one on each spring, between which a wedge- lever, f, can be adjusted To keep the springs apart : \ two other cleats close on the disc of the index-needle, which is between the springs, when the wedge- I lever, e, is displaced by the face of the stirrup, rf. NAVICULAR DISEASE. 408 VEEDLK, The rod of the register pendulum is provided with an arc carrying a stirrup, rf, which in its descent when tlie pendulum is released, knocks away the wedge- lever, e, from between the springs, and so closes them upon the disc, c, of the index-needle, thus clamping it. The disjunctor consists of a small stand. B, on which are two pieces of brass,//, each provided with a pressure-screw, a brass spring, g. fastened by another pressure-screw, and a cam, 7>, to work the spring ; the brass pieces have platinum points, separated from each other liy a very short in- terval, and the spring has also a platinum point be- low it, which, when pressed down by the action of the cam, connects the two other points ; thus con- necting, when requisite, the circuits through the apparatus. The electric currents are obtained b.y means of Bunsen's voltaic batteries, there being two circuits for an ordinary- experiment, one passing tlirough tlie magnet of the chronometer pendulum on the first screw, the otlier through the magnet of the register pendulum and the second screw ; as both pass through the disjunctor.the simultaneous disjunction of both circuits can be effected by turning the cam, releasing the spring, and so disconnecting the plati- num points. The apparatus is placed in a small house at a distance of about 130 yards from the gun. so that it may not be effected by the firing, and tlie arrangement of the gun and targets is as follows : The first target is place<l at a distance of 10 j-anls in front of the muzzle of the piece, and the second tar- get 40 yards beyond the former ; both targets are of the same construction and dimensions ; each con- sisting of a wooden frame having copper wires stretcued across in parallel rows liy means of pins in the sides of the frame, and these wires are broken by the passage of the projectile through them. In order to protect the wires of the first target from the action of the gas, a wooden screen is pUiced about 40 inches from this target, between it and the gun ; the screen has a circular hole, about 1^ calibers in diameter, through which tlie projectile passes. When the gun is fired, the projectile passes through the first target, breaks the first circuit, and demagnet- izes the magnet of the chronometer pendulum ; the bob begins to fall, carrying with it the index-needle. When the projectile cuts the wires of the second target, the circuit is broken, and the magnet of the register pendulum is demagnetized ; the bob falls, carrying with it the arc and stirrup, which in its descent knocks away the wedge-lever and clamps the index-needle. The time due to this arc of vi- bration can, by the theory of the pendulum, be read- ily ascertained, but it must be greater than the time taken by the projectile to pass from one target to the other ; for a certain small interval of time eTapses between the rupture of the second circuit and the claniiiing of the index-needle. This small portion of time is found Iiy means of the disjunctor, before the gun is fired, by breaking both circuits at once, and the small arc so found must be deducted from the arc determined by firing the gun. See Chruno- NAVICULAR DISEASE.— A disease in the horse, consisting in strain of the strong fiexor tendon of the foot, at tlie point within the hollow of the fetlock, where it passes over the navicular bone. It is mo.st common amongst the ligiiter sorts nf horses, and especially where they have upright jiasterns, out- turned toes, and early severe work on hard roads. It soon gives rise to a short, trijiping, yet cautious gait, undue wear of the toe of the siioe, wasting of the muscles of the shoulder, and jirojecting or '■pointing" of the alTected limb whilst standing. VVIieu early noticed, and in horses with well-forined legs, it is often curable ; Imt when of several weeks standing, it leads to so much iiiMainination and de- .struction of the tendon and adjoining parts, that .soundness and fitness for fast work are again inipos sible. Kest should at once be given, the shoe re- moved, the toe shortened, and the foot placed in a large, soft, hot poultice, chansed everj' few hours. Laxative medicine and bran niashes should be or- dered, and a soft bed made with old short litter. After a few days, and when the heat and tenderness abate, cold applications should supersede the hot ; and. after another week, a blister may be applied round the coronet, and the animal placed for two mouths in a good yard or in a grass field, if the ground be soft and moist ; or, if sufficiently strong, at slow farm-work on soft land. Division of the nerve going to the foot removes sensation, and con- sequently lameness ; and hence is useful in relieving animals intended for breeding jiurposes or for slow work. The operation, however, is not to be recom- mended where fast work is recpiired ; for the animal, insensible to pain, uses the limb as if nothing were amiss, and the disease rapidly becomes worse. NEBULY. — One of the partition lines in Heraldry, which runs out and in, in a form supposed to represent the uneven ed-ies of clouds. NECESSARIES.— The articles issued to the British soldier, such as boots, shirts, stockings; razor, etc., which are requisite for his comfort and cleanliness. These are technically termed regimental nece-imriex. Non-commissioned officers are not allowed to sell regimental necessaries to the soldiers. Every arti- cle is directed by the Regulations to be marked with the owner's name, the letter of his company, and the number of his regiment; and the sale or injury of them renders him liable to be tried by Court-Martial and punished. NECK.— The elbow or part connecting the blade and socket of a bayonet. See Jinyonet. NECK COLLAR. — A piece of armor which support- ed the whole of the rest of the harness. This must not be confounded with the ^'"/•jrff. underneath which it was placed, and which, like it, was formed of sev- eral plates. NECK LINE. — Xn old term in fortification signify- ing the cortre. NECK OF A CASCABEL.— The part joining the knob to the base of the breech. See Camihel. NECK OF A GUN.— The small part of the piece in front of the chase. NEEDFIRE.— Fire obtained by the friction of wood upon wood, or the friction of a rope on a stake of wood, to which a wide-spread superstition assigns peculiar virtues. With varieties of detail, the practice of raising needfire in cases of calamity, particularly of disease among cattle, has been found to exist among most nations of the Indo-European race. It has been supposed effectual to defeat the sorcery to which the disease is assigned. When the incantation is taking place, all the fires in the neighborhood must be ex- tinguished and they have aU to be relighted from the sacred spark. In various parts of the Scottish highlands the raising of needfire was practiced not long ago, and it is perhaps still had recourse to in some very remote localities. The sacrifice of a heifer was thought necessary to insure its efficiency. The ways of obtaining fire from wood have been various; one is lij- an apparatus which has been called the '■ fire-churn," a cylinder turning on a pivot, and fur- nished with spokes, by means of which it is made to revolve very rapidly, and fire is generated by the friction. Fire struck from metal has been supposed not to possess the same virtue, and in .some instances the persons who performed the ceremony were re- quired to divest themselves of any metal which might be about them. In its origin the fire-churn was considered a moih'l of the apparatus by which the fires of heaven were daily rekindled. It is still in daily use in the temples <if the Hindus. The same superstition was doubtless the origiu of the story of Prometheus. NEEDLE.- An instrument of metal, or other ma- terial, for the jiiirpose of carrying the thread in sew- ing, embroiderv, knitting, netting, and other similar operations. >feedles are generally made of metal, KEEDLE-QUKB. 409 NEEDLE OURS. but hone, ivory, ami wood urc also used ; for orrli- niiry iiciMllcwork. ciillcil Hrwioi;, tlicy an' made of line Hlccl, iind arr too wril known to need descrip- tion ; for other kimls of work they are ofleii inueli larger ami dill'ereiitly formed, aeeordiii(; to the re- quirenientH of tlie work to be done. Tlie iiKUiiirtic, iu'kUi- is a slender bar, usually pointed and resting on a pivot, in a compass, so as to turn freelv towards the maiineti(^ poles of the earth by vii'tne of the mag- nelic polarity with which il has been arliliciully en- dued. NEEDLE GUNS.- To be loaded at the breech, and lo lie lired by the |)eiietrali(in of a needle into, or the impiiiiiint; of a piston on, a detonatiii!; cap within the cartridi^e, arc distinct attributes in a weapon ; and althoui^li it is only within the last tifty years that the .system has been carrieil out with success, breech-loadini; arms have been tried, accepted, and aliandoned without niunber durini; the last three centuries. Indeed, a sort of instinct iliclates that loadini; at the breech is the jircferable course ; and all the earliest nuiskets were so made, the system beinj; doubtless abandoned from the dilliculty of ac- curately closim; the breech, in tlio.se days of rough workmanship. The extraordinary ellicacy of breech- loading arms for military i)ur])oscs was brought |)rominently forward during I he wars of the last few years, and mitably in the Prussian campaigns of "l8()4 against Denmark, and of l.S(it) against Austria. The successes of the Prussian arms were attributed in no small degree to the rapidity with which their troops cotddlirc as compared with the enemy. They had, in greater or less numbers, liorne these same rilles since 1835, but these were the first opportuni- ties of using them in warfare. To all tie other' powers, whose men still carried nuizzle-Ioadiug ritles and who bad debated, without practical result, for years past the (luestion of armanu'iit with breech- i loaders, soldiers thus armed appeared irresistible. | From July. 1800, to the present moment, the ham- mer and the anvil have been busy night and day througliout the civilized world in making the weap- ons of ileatb yet more deadly. Scarcely two couii- tries seem to have adopted the same i)lan ; each na- tion has elaborated a system from among its own in- ventors. Tho.se possessing no great reserve of rifles have prepared new arms ; but the majority of Gov- ernments have been content, in the tirst instance, to convert their existing stock into breech-loaders of as good a con.struction as circumstances would permit. Thus, Britain, after oiTcring a handsome prize for the best design, selected one said (subject to some controversy) to be the invention of the late Mr. Snider. It is to be borne in mind that the British Government only regarded the Snider arm as a make- i shift for the conversicm of the enormous stock of Enfield rifles then in hand, reserving to itself the ultimate selection of a sintable pattern on which to manufacture new weapons. It is not to be under- stood from what is said above that Britain adopted a breech-loading arm in a sort of panic after the battle of Sadowa. It was after the Danish Cam- paign, on the llth Jul}-, 18t)4, that it was decided as an abstract question to arm the British infantry with breech-loaders; a portion of the cavalry having for aminiber of years previously been armed with Sharp and Westley Richards carbines, loading at the breech. The selection of an arm took longer ; tiut by the be- ginning of 18G.5 it had been decided to convert the great stock of rifles on the "Snider" sj'stem. In 186!) it Vi-as determined that new arms should be on the Martini-Henry system — i. e , with the Henry barrel, and the Martini breech action. The advantage of breech-loading is obvious ; to be able to insert the charge at the breech end instead of tli<' muzzle, is to save time, and to avoid exposure to hostile tire dur- ing the operation of loading and ramming home, wliich involves considerable outstretching of the limbs. The great condition of success is, that the bullet shall be propelletl with equal force and ac- curacy, and with equal safety to the rifleman, an from the muzzle-loader. When a charge is Ignited, the constituents of the gunpowder, assnnnng a gas- eous condition under the lieat engendered, expand into a voluiiU' of light gas many times greater in bulk than the powder Ix'fore occupied. On the amount r)f this expansion and its sudden action on the pro- jectile, the force of the shot depends. Any joint in the breech-piece through wliich a portion of this gas can escape, without having imparled its thrust to the ball, tends, tlierefon-, to lessen tin- range and penetration ; while the shock of the explosion falling more severely on this than on any other part of tlie barrel, tends yet more^lo dislocate the breech-piece, and diminish the clo.seness of the joint's fit. In weapons which do not call for a long range, as re- volver pistols, a jierceptible interval is left between the chamber and barrel, through which much gas es<!apes ; but in rifles, which have range and pene- tration as i)rincipal objects, there is prima facie ground for preferring a muzzle-loader. The gas, however, is far from i)ure, as generated in the barrel, for much water is produced and held in suspension, while there is also a solid residuum consisting of un- burned materials of the powder. In the muzzle- loader, these clog for, technically, foul; the barrel, filling the gnxives. and ren<iering the ramming home of succeeding charges more and more dirticult. Tlic effect is, that a solid mass of unburned matter is gradually forced by ramming into the head of the barrel, destroying th(^ accuracy and usefulness of the weapon. In the breech-loader, this solid depos- it must be provich'd against both ways. The back- ward throw on firing (for, of course, the charge ex- plodes with ecpial power in every direction j tends to force it into the mechanism of the joints, prevent- ing their proper til, and continually augmenting the escape of gas; and, on the other hiind.tlie de])osit in front is most detrimental to accuracy of fire. This protection of the breech apparatus, the prevention of fouling, and the retaining. and. if possible. improv- ing the force and accuracy of fire, were the pro- blems which inventors have had to solve. A moderate escape of gas in front of the first position of the ball, is not under an}' circumstance, found to l)e of any material disadvantage. If, then, the barrel could have an opening where the cartridge could be inserted, and then pushed backwards, an escape of gas through the joints by which the opening might he subsequently clo.sed would be comparatively im- material; but this formation would be impracticalile, because the explosion of each cartridge would drive the fouling more and more backwards, till ultimately the chamber at the breech would be unable to con- tain the cartridge. It is clear, therefore, that tlie charge must be inserted either at the barrel's head, or, if the barrel be opened, in a space close to the barrel's head. In either of these cases, the breech must be solidly closed to resist the explosion. A third case, as in the Snider, is where the cartridge is inserted and then pushed forward, tlie aperture being closed by a solid breech-piece which com- pletely fills that portion of the barrel, and forms, with the barrel's head, a massive foot to resist the , backward pressure of the fired powder. Xo breech action can be made to fit so accurately, as to prevent a backward escape of gas unless a properly-construct- ed cartridge-case is used. A perpendicular moving joint is found in practice to be the one which is best adapted for preventing a serious escape of gas. In the Prussian needle-gun, the end of the barrel is the frustum of a cone, which fits into a correspond- ing cavity in the fore-end of the breech-piece, but* ' in practice this joint is not sufficiently tight to pre- vent an escape of gas from the self-consuming cart- ridge used with this gun, which becomes incon- veiiientl}' great after long use of the weapon, and it is only ;ivailable when the breech-piece is pushed up from the rear. In the Snider and several other I breech-loading weapons, the cartridge is made itself N££DL£-6UNS. 410 NEEDLE GUNS to close hermetically the aperture between the barrel and the fore-end of the breech-piece. Tliis is effected by the expansion of the cartridge-case which, being composed of metal, or a combination of metal and paper, is driven out by the force of the explosion till it completely tills the chamber and prevents any escape backwards between the sides of the case and the chamber. The cartridge has a portion of its case at the base flattened out into a rim which tits along the groove. When the cartridge is deposited in vhe recess in the chamber, this breech-piece is- closed against the heel of the barrel by moving up the handle to the front end of the groove, and then turning it down to prevent it from being driven back on the explosion of the charge ; representing, indeed, the resistance offered by the heel of an ordinary muzzle-loading barrel. Firmly screwed within the breech-piece, at a short distance from its front, is a FiL'. 1. into a corresponding recess in the end of the barrel; and to prevent expansion backwards, which would fracture the cartridge-case, and injure the breech or the firer, the breech-piece is made to fit as closely as possible against this base. This rim is on the Snider cartridM. The Prussian gun, although it may be said to be now obsolete (having been superseded bj' the Mauser, a bolt gun on much the same principle, but \ising a metallic cartridge-case), was first in the field. As regards its breech-apparatus and needle-lock, it con- sists of three concentric hollow cylinders, with a solid cylindrical bolt inside the last (Figs. 1 and 3). solid block of metal, on which impinges the first force of the explosion. Projecting from this block to the base of the cartridge is a strong tige, or pillar, around which a suitable space containing air is left. Through this same pillar is the channel for the needle to work. Fitting within the rear-end of the breech-piece is a smaller cylinder, h. constituting the lock of the gun. It slides within the breerh-piece, and is retained from falling out backwards by the spring, /, which catches in a notch, d. Along the bottom of this cylinder is a groove to admit the pas- sage of the trigger, k, and at the back is a short, up- right handle, by means of which the weapon is Fig. 2. The rear-end of the barrel is firmly screwed into the head of the chamber, a. which is fixed to the stock of the iiiecc, and is open at the rear-end. Tlie up- |)er half of tiie cylinder is cut away at the front end for rather luore than the length of the cartridge ; this constitutes the opening in whicli the musketeer in- serts the cartridge. From the rear of this opening to the back, a groove is cut, sultii-iently wide to al- low the square pillar of the breech-handle, c, to pass along it. In the middle of this groove is aright- angled shunt, iiffcriug a stop to the lireeeli-iianiUc when drawn backwards, unless it he likewise lurneil downwards wlien it may be passed eompl<'tcly out at the rear end. Next within the chamber is the Iireech-piece, which, to ailniit the cartridge, is drawn back for a sutlicienl distance by the breecli-handk' cocked. Lastly, within the lock is a bolt, I, pressed forward by a spiral spring, and having the needle, m, rigidly fastened to its front end. Having now descrilK'd the several parts of the ritle, it is easy to follow it from the moment of a shot being fired until the next is ready for discharge. The soldier first presses down the spring, i, with his finger, releasing the catch below it, and enabling him to draw back the lock to the next catch on the spring (Fig. 1.) Having done so, he raises the breeeli-handle to the ! perpenilieular, and passes it along the groove to open the lireecli. This done, \u' ])laces the cartridge in j the opening tlius made in the chamber, and again moving up llie breech-piece to close the breech, the tige in it pushes the cartridge forward into the bar- rel, and the rifle is at once at "half-cock;" for in NEE8HUN0PAT. Ill R£UT£ALg. drawinpbiirk the Inrk, tlin front point of the sprinp, /, fiircc'd llic holt, I fiiii'liiilinir llic nrcdlc m), with it, 1111(1 till- iirojcctiiiii, II., oil it, Imviiif; pusHrd over tlic liciid-of llic IrifTL'cr, k, isfuutclit by the litltcr in awuywliicli (-an only be rilcaHcd by 1 he fulling of the Irinncr. t It will be observed that at half-cock tlie needle is ready lo penetrate the carlridu'c, hut thai the Kpirii! HJiriii;; is loose and witliout power. To " fiill-crick," iio more is necessary than lo push /( back lo ils ori;^- inal position. It cannot lake llie boll, I. with il, as the I rii;!;er retains it t<i the rear. 'I'hc posilion (Fij^.i; is now obtained, in which the boll, /, ])rojeets at the back, and the spiral sprin;; iseoinjiressed into ustale of passive slreiii;th. All Ihat is now needed to lire the {tun is to |iress upon the trinijer, iiiilil the jxiint II bears, when Ihe boll, /, beiiii; released by Hie de- pression of /', the spiral sprini; asserts ils jiower, and drives Ihe needle into ilie heart of Ihe carlrid{;e, tlie parts all resuming their orif^inal positions. At first sifrht, one cannot help exclaiming: " What a com- plicated apparatus with Ihe four cylinders and Ihe springs"; but, in reality, it is as simple as almost any otlier gun, for the whole ineclianisin of Ihe lock is dispensed with. If il be desired lo lake the needle- gun to pieces, press Ihe trigger till the iioini,/), bears. If the breech-handle hellien in Ihe tiinder pari of ils groove, the breech-piece with its <'oiilenls will slip out of the chamber. Pressing down, next, Ihe sjiring !", until the second catch is passed, there is nothing to retain the lock, //, in the bn'cch-piece; and Ihe lock being free, the needle, with its attached liolt and spring, falls readily out of ils fore-end. The gun is thus taken to pi<'ces in a few seconds, and as many sutlice to put it again in lighting order. The niosi delicate portions are the needle and Ihe spiral spring; but in case of accident to these, I here is a spare one in a small cavity opening by a spring in the butt-end of the stock. The worst feature about this celebrat- ed gun is its weiglil, 12 lbs., or 33 ])er cent, heavier than IheEntield or Snider ritle. See "rumian Nee- dle (^trfiinf and J'ntnniiiit Nu'dle.guii. NEESHUNGPAT.- An Indian term expressinga vio- lent assault without bloodshed. NEGATIVE.— 1. A term used to express the result of measures or enterprises which, though not enlirely successful, are not productive of serious or mischiev- ous consequences. Hence the lirilish expeditions to Spain and Walcheren may be consideretl as having had negative success. 3. In pholograidiy, that kind of photographic picture in •which the lights and shadows of the natural object are transposed; the high lights being black, and Ihe deep shadows transparent, or nearly so. Negatives are taken on glass and paper by various processes, and should indicate with extreme delicacy, and in reverse order, the various gradations of light and shade which occur in a landscape or portrait. A negative dilTers from a positive inasmuch as in the latter case it is required to produce a deposit of pure metallic silver to be viewed by reflected light; while in the latter, density to traiiamltted light is the chief desideratum; accordingly inorganic reducing and retarding agents are employed in the development of a positive, while those of organic origin are used in the production of a neirative. NEGATIVE HAUSSE.— In order to strike an object at a distance less than point-blank range, it will be necessary to diminish the angle that the axis of the piece makes with Ihe natural line of sight. This will be accomplished by diminishing the difference between the radii of the muzzle and base-ring. This amount, required to be taken from Ihe radius of the base-ring, is generally calletl the iiegathe NEGATIVE PENALTY.— The term applied to such punishments as removal from command, bars to in- dulgence, reprimands, etc. NEGLECT OF DUTY. — Total omission or disregard of any prescribed service, or unsoldier-like execu- tion. All crimcH not cnpitnl, and all disorders and nr-glects, which oIlicerH and soldiers may be guilty of, lo the prejudice of good order and military dis- ciiiline, though not meiilioned in Ihe Arlicfes iif War, an; lo be taken cognizance of by a (iineral, or a Kegimenlal, (iarrisoii, or Field Olllcers' Courl- .Marlial, according lo Ihe nature and degree of the olfeiisi', and punished at the di.scretiou of such Coiirl. NESHAUMBURDAE.- The Indian name of an En- siL'ii. NETLEY HOSPITAL. -The Royal Victoria Hospital, at Nelley, is a superb building, on Ihe shore of Southanipton water, for the recepli(m <if invalids from Ihe army on foreign srrvice, and from among the Iroops serving in the adjacent niililary districts. In times of peace, il is only necessary lo use a portion of the vast slriiclure; but in Ihe event of a Kuropean war, in wliicii Ihe British armv should lake jiart, the exigencies of the servi<;e woufd probably tax its ac- commodalion lo the utmost. There is provision for 1,000 patients willi power lo increase the number if necessary. The .Medical SlalT of course varies in pro- |)orlion to Ihe work to lie done : but al jiresent it con- sists of a (Jovernor. an ,\djulaiit. a I'ayniasler, an .\ssistanl-('oiiiiiiandant, and .Medical (jtlicers, and Ollicers of Orderlies of various ranks. The total cost of the conslruclion of this hospital, which was com- menced in 1H.")5, has been about XSOO.IXtO. Attached is Ihe Medical School for candidates^ for the army .Medical Dejiarlment, the students having the best means of [iraclical inslruclion in the wards of the hospital. Netley is also the head-quarters of the fe- male nurses of the army, who are under the control of a lady stationed there as Superintendent. Complete arrangements have been made for Ihe landing of wounded men in front of the hospital and for con- veying them thither with the least disturbance. Tliere is no doubt as to the convenience of this great hospital for its purposes; but some questions have been raised, under high sanitiiry authority, as to the salubrity of the site, adjacent as it is to the wide banks of mud which Southampton water uncoversat low tide. NETTOYERLESMAGAZINS.— In artillery, a term which means lo remove Ihe different pieces of ord- nance, for the purpose of having them carefully ex- amined, etc.. and to have the stores and ammunition so arranged as not to receive damage. NEJ'TOYER LES TRANCHEES. -A term meaning to scour or <lean the trenches. This is effected by means of a vigorous sally which the garrison of a besieged place make upon the besiegers; when they beat in the guijrd, drive off the workmen, level Ihe parapet, break up and choke the line of circumval- lation, and spike or nail the cannon. NEUTRAL AXIS.— The name given to an imaginary line to any body which is being subjected to a trans- verse strain, and separating the forces of extension from those of compression. If the ratio of the resist- ances to extension and compression were the same for all substances, and depended merely on the form of the body, then in all bodies of Ihe same form the neutrals axiwould have a detinite geometrical posi- tion; but it has been satisfactorily proved by 3Ir. Eaton Hodgkiuson. that this ratio has a separate value for each substance. In wood, Avherethe ratio is one of equality, the neutral axis in a beam sup- ported al both ends, whose section is rectangular, passes lengthwise through the center of the beam; while in cast-iron, in which Ihe resistance to com- pression is greater than tluil to extension, it is a lit- tle above, and in wrouglil-iron. in which Ihe con- trary is Ihe case, it is a little lielow, the center. NEUTRALS.- Nations who. when a war is being carried on, take no part in the contest, and evince no particular friendship for or hostility to any of the belligerents. As a general rule Neutrals should con duel "themselves with perfect impartiality, and do nothing which can be considered as favoring one SETTBATJEK SYSTEM OF FOETIFICATIOW. 412 NIGHT-FIEINa. ■belligerent more than another. The duties and ob- ligations of Neutrals at sea have given rise to many complicated questions. It is allowed on all hands that a Neutral State forfeits lier character of neu- trality by furnishing to eitlier belligerent any of the articles that come under the denomination of con- traband of war. If she does so, tlie other belligerent is warranted in intercepting the succors, and contis- cating tliem as lawful prize. Contraband of war, besides warlike stores, has sometimes been held to include various other articles, a supplj' of which is necessary for tlie prosecution of the war: and it has been doubted liow far, in some cirrumstances, com, hay, and coal may not come under that cate- gory- An important question regarding the rights of Neutrals is, wliether enemies' goods not contraband of war may be lawfuUv conveyed in neutral bot- toms. The principle tliat free sliips make free goods was long resisted by England and other maritime countries : and the general understanding has been that belligerents have a right of visiting and search- ing neutral vessels for tlie purpose of ascertaining — First, whether the sliip is really neutral, as the hoisting of a neutral flag affords no absolute secu- rity that it is so : Second, whether it has contra- band of war or enemies' property on board. Neu- tral ships have therefore Ijeeu held bound to pro- vide themselves with passports from their Govern- ment, and sucli papers as are necessary to prove the property of the ship and cargo ; and it is their duty to heave to when summoned by the cruisers of either belligerent. It lias been considered that a neutral sliip which seeks to avoid search by crowd- ing sail, or by open force, may be captured and con- fiscated. When a merchant-ship is sailing under convoy of a vessel of war it has been said that the declaration of the officer in command of the con- voy that there is no contraband of war or belli- gerent property on board is sufficient to bar the e.x- ercise of tlie right of search. A declaration having important bearings on the rights of Neutrals was adopted by the Plenipoten- tiaries of Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, Eussia, Sardinia, and Turkey, assembled in Con- gress at Paris on April 10, 1856. By its provisions, 1. Privateering is abolished. 2. A neutral flag covers enemies' goods, with the exception of contra- band of war. 3. Neutral goods, with the exception of contraband of war, are not liable to capture under the enemy's flag. 4. Blockades, in order to be binding, must be effective— that is, maintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access to the coast of the enemy. It has sometimes been pro- posed to exempt private jiroperty at sea from attack during war. Such a project, however, seems inex- pedient. There may be a propriety in respecting the property of individuals on land in a time of war, because its destruction, however injurious to the persons immediately concerned, can liave little in- fluence on the decision of the contest. But at sea private property is destroyed, because those from wliom it is taken, being purveyors or carriers for the eoniniunity at large, its loss must seriously affect the public, and have no small influence in bringing the contest to an end. See Hlockarle, and Cmtrahiind of War. HEUBAUER SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— This system is distinguished by a rc<iiiit in the re-enter- ing places of armcs, imitated by C'ormontaingne. It also proposes six fold flanks. NEW MATTER.— It is not proper that the Prose- cutor shoulil be all()W<'d to introduce iiein matter, neither should it lie ailmilled on the defense. There is a great difTereuce between new matter of accusa- tion and facts proved by evidence to mitigate the sentence. The latter are not new matter in its strict sense. ShouM cillier party, in the course of their examination of witnesses, or by bringing forward ncTV ones for that purpose, introducenew matter. the opposite one has the right of calling other wit- ] nesses to rebut such new matter. The Court-Martial ' should be very circumspect to see and prevent new matter from being introduced, either in the prosecu. lion or defense. But the Accused may urge in his defense mitigating circumstances, or examine wit- nesses as to character or service, and produce testi- monials of such facts, without its being considered new matter ; and if any point of law be raised, or any matter requiring explanation, the Judge-Advo- cate may explain ; no other reply is admitted. NEW'MODEL.- In the United States, all cannon made since 1861 are on the New Model. This is characterized by the absence of all ornament on the exterior, — the outline is made up of gentle curves as far as possible, — and on the inside the bottom of the bore is a semi-ellipsoid. NEW TRIAL.— In Court-Martial, the privilege of a new trial is not denied. The provisions therefore are borro"wc(l from common law, and are not held, in either civil or military tribunals, to preclude the accused from having a second trial on his own mo- tion. Officers who sat on the first trial should not be detailed for the new trial ; they have formed and expressed opinions. New, or second trial, can only be authorized where the sentence adjudged upon the first trial has been disapproved. After a sentence has been duly approved and has taken effect, the granting of a new trial is beyond the power of a Mil- itarv ('ommander, or the President. NEW ZEALAND CROSS.— A decoration instituted in the year liSU'J. The New Zealand Cross was provided in the year 1869, b}' the Government of the Colony, with the sanction of the Crown, as a reward for acts of distinguished valor similar to those recognized by the Victoria Cross. The fourth clause of the Order in Council, which subsequently received her Majes- ty's special sanction, as "Fountain of Honor," pro- vides that "The distinction shall only be conferred upon those officers or men who, when serving in the presence of the enemy, shall have performed some signal act of valor or devotion to their duty, or who shall have performed any very intrepid action in the public service : and neither rank nor long service, nor wounds, nor any other circumstance or condi- tion whatever, save merit or conspicuous braverj-, sliall be held to establish a sufficient claim to the honor." NIELLO-WORK.— A method of ornamenting metal plates by engraving the surface, and rubbing a black or colored composition, so as to fill the incised lines, and give effect to the intaglio picture. It is by no means quite certain when this art was originated : Byzantine works of the 13th century still exist to at- test its early employment. The finest works of this kind belong to the former half of the ISth century, when remarkable excellence in drawing and group- ing minute figures in these metal pictures was at- tained by Maso di Finiguerra, an eminent painter, and student of Ghiberti and Massacio. In his hands it gave rise to copper-plate engraving, and hence much interest attaches to the art of niello-cut- ting. Genuine specimens of this art are rare, some of those by Finiguerra are very beautiful and effective, tlie black pigment in the lines giving a pleasing effect to the surface of the metal, which is usually silver. Tho.se of his works best known are some elaborately beautiful [lattines wrought by him for the church of San Giovanni at Florence, one of which is in the Uffizia. and some are in various pri- vate collections. In the collection of ornamental art at South Kensington, there are no less than 17 spec- imens of this art. NIOHER. — An Indian term for any fortified city measuring at least Scoss.or y English miles, in length and breadth. NIGHT-FIRING. — Canncin arc pointed at night by means of certain marks, or measurements, on the carriage and ])l;ilform, which are accurately deter- mined during thi' day. In the case of guns and 3J. _.- |?fFi.P. "tit, ' NIGHTLY CORDON. 413 NITRATE OF SODA. liowitzcrs, the clcvatifni iiiiiy be (Iftcrmiiicd by mark- iiit; the clcvaliiig screw where it eiitcrH llie nut, (ir by meaniiriiii; llie diHlaiiee lielweeii the head (it the gcrew and stuck. In the case of mortars, the [)Osition of the <|iiiiin may lie di'termined liy marking;, or ]>y nailiiit; a eleul cm llie hiplster. 'I'lie direetidri of a (■arriai;e or mortar-lied is (h-lerndned hy nailinf;Htri|is of lioards alom; the jilalforni, as i,'uich's to tlie trail and vvlieels; to ])revent tlie strips from lieintf injured by tlie recoil, they should hv nailed at a i-ertain dis- tance from the carriaiie, or bed, and the space lilli'd uj) with a stick of pro]ier wiillli, which should l»^ removed before tirini:. The chassis of a sea-coast rarriafc can be secured in a particular direction by lirndv chorkini,' the traverse wheels. See J''iiiitii:t/, NI(3HTLY CORDON. In the operation of a sie{;'e, the investment of the iiosition is usually jierformecl by a stroni; body of troops detached from theattack- inff force, which body moves quickly and suddenly, siirroumlinu; the position, andseizinujallthe avenues of approach. A chain of outposts and sentinels placed just outside of the raiii;<' of lire of llie difence, but close enouirh to watch all the avenues leading to the position, is established by the investing force. This chain is drawn iniiearer to the position at nifiht, and moveil back a short distance in day time. The terms nightly cordon and daily cordon are frequent- ly used to desi;;iiate this chain. See ('ordiiii. NIGHT SIGNALLING.— An important branch of sig- nalling. It may be elfected in various ways. Inor- dinary service two torches are used.— one on the ground and the other attached to a staiT, which is used precisely as the Hag for day signals. Lanterns held in the hands can also be used. For long dis- tances and when stations cannot be seen on account of intervening obstacles, such as woods, signal-roc- kets, candle-bombs, and other pyrotechnic devices are used. NIHILISTS. — A revolutionary organization in Rus- sia, aiming at the destruction of all existing laws, religions, and politi<al and social systems, while preparing to replace them with nothing. It is stated that the term was first employed by the Russian novelist, Ivan Turgenieff, in his stories of Russian society. It was, however accepted by the organiza- tion itself, as will apjjear in the following quotation from a speech by a member, and which may be ac- cepted as fairly significant of the doctrines with ■which the minds of the advanced Radicals of Rus- sia have become imbued. " Nothing, in the present state of social organization can be worth much, for the simple reason that our ancestors instituted it. If we are still obliged to confess ourselves ignorant of the e.xact medium between good and evil, how- could our ancestors, less enlightened than we, know it ? A German Philosopher has said : ' Every law is of use. It rules the conduct of individuals who feel for one another and appreciate their respective wants. Every religion, on the other hand, is use- less ; for ruling, as it does, our relations with an incommensurable and indefinite Being, it can be the residt only of a areat terror or else of a fantastic imagination.' ISow, we Xihilists say, no law, no religion — Nihil ! The very men who instituted these laws ruling their fellow-creatures have lived and died iu complete ignorance of the value of their own acts, and without knowing iu the least how they liad accomplished the mission traced for them by destiny at the moment of their birth. Even taking it for granted that our ancestors were com- petent to order the acts of their fellow-creatures, does it necessarily follow that the re(|uirements of their time are similar to those of to-day? Evidently not. Let us, then, cast ofT this garment of law, for it has not been made according to our measure, and it impedes our free movements. Hither with the axe and let us demolish everything. Those who come after us will know how to rebuild au edifice quite as solid as that which we now feel trembling over our heads." Two points will be observed iu this manifesto : the one being its positive unlugoniHrn to all existing things — because ,lliey exist ; the (■Iher the sophistry with which the accepted position is reasoned out to a logical conclusion. And lliin brings us naturally to the- starting points of Russian Nihilism: iu tin: inlluence of the Russian history; in the nature of the Russian people; and in the ex- (■e])tional character of the Russian Political System. NIP. — A term used in artillery, meaning to stop ropes with a gasket, or with several turns of spun yarn round each, and the ends made fast, NIPPLE. — The passage of communication in per- cussion arms between thi; cap an(l the charge; the ixreussion cap is jjlaced on the nipple when the tire lock is iirimed, and by the action of the lock the piece is discharged. In breech-loading arms, except in the Snider, there is a different arrangement for igniting the charge, which renders the nipple un- necessary; these are fired by means of a needle or some similar method. NIPPLE WRENCH.- The spanner with sides which tit the scjuare of the ni|iple, and which is used for screwini; it to and unscrewing it from the barrel. NIQUIBS. — An Indian term for men whose mill- tary functions anumg the Sepoys, correspond with th(ise of Curporals in other services. NITEE— NITRE.— Niter occurs as a natural pro- duct iu the East Indies, Egypt Persia, where it is found sometimes as an eftlore.scence upon the soil, and sometimes disseminated through its upper strat- um. Tlie crude salt is obtained bj' lixiviating the soil, and allowing the solution to crystallize. A large ([uantity of niter is artificially formed in many coun- tries of f^urope, by imitating the conditions under which it is naturally produced. The most essential of these conditions seems to be the presence of de- caying organic matter whose nitrogen is oxidized by the aeti<iii of the atmosphere into nitric acid, which combines with the bases (potash and lime) contained in the soil. The method employed in the artificial production of niter consists in placing animal mat- ters, mingled with ashes and lime rubbish, in loosely aggregated heaps, exposed to the air, but sheltered from rain. The heaps are watered from time to time with urine or stable runnings ; at suitable intervals the earth is lixiviated, and the salt crystallized. Three years usually elapse before the niter bed is washed ; after this interval a cubic foot of the debris should yield between 4 and 5 ounces of niter. As there is always a considerable quantity of the nitrates of lime and "magnesia present, which will not crystallize, carbimate of potash, in the shape of wood-ashes, is added so long as any precipitate occurs. The nitrate of lime is decomposed, and the insoluble carbonate of lime separated : Carbonate of Nitrate of Carbonate of Nitrate of Potash. Lime. Lime. Potash. K0,C02 -f CaON'Oj = CaCCO^ + K0,N05 The clear liquor is then evaporated and crj'stallized. It has been found that the earth in which niter has once been formed furnishes fresh niter more readily than on the first occasion. Care is taken that the niter pill lit it'onx. as they are termed, shall rest upon an impervious flooring of clay, so that the liquid which drains away fromlhem may be collected and pre- served. See NitrnU'n and •Saltpeter. NITHING. — An old term for coward or poltroon. Also written yidiiir;. NITRATE OF SODA.— An extensive deposit in the soils of some jiortiniis of Peru and northern Mexico. It is cheaper than nitrate of potassa.andforthe same weight affords a greater amount of nitric acid, or oxysen. Its affinity for moisture constitutes a serious objection to its use in the manufacture of a gunpowder for war purposes, or one that is to be preserved for [any length of time. The nitrate of soda may be used in obtaining the nitrate of potassa by decomposing it with carbonate of potassa — the ]iotash of commerce. See Chlorate of Potassa and JS'iter. NITKATES. 414 NITROGLYCERINE. NITRATES.— Salts formed by the union of nitric acid with bases. Some are found in a natural min- eral condition, as saltpeter and cubic niter. The}- are distinguished for their solubility in water. On being heated, they undergo decomposition, being converted either into free nitric acid and a base, or into oxygen and a nitrite. In many respects one of the most important nitrates is the nitrate of silver, or lunar caustic. It is of great use in surgery and the arts. As a caustic it acts powerfully, but rather superficially, producing a white slough, whichblack- ens soon on exposure to the light. It is used in a solid state, or in solutions of all strengths. If dis- solved in pure water, it remains colorless ; but the smallest particle of organic matter will cause the solution to turn dark. On this account it is em- ployed for making marking-fluids for linen. Indeli- ble ink is usually made by dissolving 1 part of nitrate of silver and 4 parts of gum-arabic in 4 parts of water, and adding a little India ink to give it color, so that it may be seen when the mixture is applied. The place which is to receive the impression is first moistened with a solution of carbonate of soda and dried. After the application of the ink. the writing is exposed to the sunlight. Lunar caustic markings may be readily removed by applying a few drops of tincture of iodine, iind dissolving out the io('ide of silver thus formed by a solution of hyposulpiiite of soda, or a dilute solution of caustic potash. Nitrate of silver is used in photography. Nitrate of am- monia, or ammonic nitrate (according to modern nomenclature, ammonium nitrate), NHjO.NOj, or, according to later views, NO3NH4, may be formed by the action of the galvanic current on a mixture of nitrogen and oxj'gen with an excess of hydrogen ; but the common method is to add a slight excess of aqua ammonia to nitric acid. If crystallization is conducted slowly, six-sided prisms, like those of ni- trate of potash, will be formed, having a specific gravity of 1.035. It melts at 226° F., and at 482" decomposes into water and nitrous oxide, or laugh- ing-gas. Nitrate of baryta, or baryta saltpeter, is made by treating the native carbonate of baryta with nitric acid. It crystallizes in anh3-drous regular octahedrons, having a specific gravity of 3.184. When heated strongly it is converted into baryta, or baric oxide, with evolution of oxygen and nitrogen. Nitrate of bismuth and also sub-nitrate are important salts in the arts and medicine. Nitrate of cobalt, prepared by the action of nitric acid on the oxide, crystallizes from solutions in beautiful pink-red deli- quescent crystals, having a specific gravity of 1.83. It is much used in the chemical laboratory, particu- larly as a blow-pipe reagent. With magnesium com- pounds, it yields a pink color ; with those of zinc, green ; and with aluminum compounds a beautiful blue ; for this reason it is much used in coloring porcelain and earthenware Nitrate of copper is made by the action of diluted nitric acid on copper turnings. Nitric oxide gas is given otf during the operation. It crystallizes from cold solutions in beautiful blue, deliquescent, rhomboidal prisms, containing four molecules of water. From solutions above r>d" it crystallizes with three molecules of water in needles, liaving a specific gravity of 2.047, soluble in alcohol. Nitrate of copper is'converted, by moderate heat, into an in>olul)le basic nitrate. By raising the lieat, the acid is comjiletely driven off, leaving only the black oxide of the metal. Ni- trate of copper is sometimes useful in surgery, as an application to certain ill-conditioned ulcers. The nitrates of iron are important salts. The protonitrate or ferrous nitrate, is formed by digesting iron-turn- ings in very dilute nitric acid. It crystallizes in pale treen rhombohedrons, having the formida Fe(N()J.,, H„0._ It is much used in dyeing. The peniitriit(\ or ferric nitrate, is made by di.ssolving iron-turnings in nitric acid of sp. gr. between 1.2 and 1.3. It is used in surgery. Nitric acidfonns several salts with lead, the principal of whicli is the common nitrate, or plumbl nitrate, PbCNOj)^. It crystallizes in an- hydrous regular octahedrons, usually milk-white and opaque. It dissolves in 7i parts of cold water. Is is decomposed by heat, with evolution of peroxide of nitrogen. Nitric acid forms a greater number of salts with mercury than with any other metal, one of which is used in medicine, and the other for the manufacture of corrosive sublimate. See Niter. NITRO-CELLULOSE.- During the last few years great improvements have been effected in the manu- facture and application of this material, and in con- sequence, its use is rapidly extending, especially in Great Britain, where it is found of great advantage in mining operations, owing to its not producing smoke when exploded. For the improvements as well as the invention of gun-cotton, we are indeljted to Germany and Austria, the most important im- provement being that of Baron Lenk, consisting chiefl}' in the following precaiitions in the manufac- ture: 1. A perfect cleansing and drying of the cot- ton. 2. The u.se of the most concentrated and purest acids procurable commercially. 3. Steeping the cot- ton a second time in a mixture of the strong acids. 4. Continuance of this steep for 48 hours. 5. A thorough purification of the gun-cotton from free acid by washing in a running stream for several weeks. This may be supplemented by washing in a weak solution of potash, but is not absolutely necessarj'. The following are the important advantages insured by the new method of making nitro-cellulose : 1. The same initial velocity of the projectile can be ob- tained by a charge of nitro-cellulose one-fourth of the weight of gunpowder. 3. There is no smoke from the explosion of nitro-cellulose. 3. Nitro-cel- lulose does not foul the gun. 4. Nitro-cellulose does not heat the gun to the injurious degree of gunpowder. .5. Nitro-cellulose gives the same vel- ocity to the projectile with much smaller recoil of the gun. 6. Nitro-cellulose will produce the same initial velocity of projectile with a shorter length of barrel. 7. In projectiles of the nature of explosive shells, nitro-cellulose has the advantage of breaking the shell more equally into much more numerous pieces than gunpowder. 8. When nitro-cellulose is used in shells instead of gunpowder, a quantity equal in'weight to one-third of the latter produces double the explosive force. NITRO-GLTCERINE.— An explosive agent formed by the action of nitric acid upon glycerine at a low temperature. The following reaction occurs : When freshly made it is a white, opaque, heavy oil, but becomes transparent and nearly colorlessj on standing for a sufficient lime. Above .1" (41"^ F.) it has a specific gravity of 1 .C,is odorless and of a sweet taste. It is poisonous, and if placed in contact with NITBO OLYCEBINE. 415 NITBO GLYCERINE. the skin, oven in Hinall fiuiintitii'S, Ijcforo tlio syHtem has hcconie ucciislomcd to its uclion, ]iri)iiiU!cH vio- Iciil, lic'iuliiclic. If iiicoriiplcli'ly freed from acids, it uiiderf;iieB .M)ioiiUmeoiiH ilecdiiipoHiliuii, is dani;<rrous t(i liuiidlc. and iilliiiialely iiiuy lose its ex|)losivc proj)- crlies; when piir<' il eon^ceals heh)W 0'' (41" F.J into a white, crystalline solid, which is nearly inca- pable! of explosion ; it may readily he thawed hy in- troducing the vessel (■ontainini; il into warm water, which restores its full explosive power. Milro- glycerine, ignited in small quantities hy a Ihune, anil uneonlined, burns with ditlieulty; at 217.2" (42^!" i'\) it dellaijrates vi<ilently ; if ignited contined, or if sul)ii'eted to the exphision of l.'i grains of ful- minating mercury, it detonates with tremendous force ; fully exploded it gives oil no injurious gases. It is not ordinarily sensitive to friction or moderate percussion, but is very much so when in a state of decomposition. In th(' numufacture, nitric acid is niixed with twi<-e its weight of strong sulphuric acid to take up the water formed during the reaction, and prevent the dilution of the nitric acid. The process consists t'8.scntially in the conversion of glycerine into nitro- glycerine, and the separation and washing of the iiitro-glycerine. The apparatus is shown in the drawing. A, -4, arc wooden troughs placed around the brick <'hinmey, /', J>. In these troughs are the earthenware pitchers, ", ", which contain the acid mixture. On the shelf, Ji, above the pilc:lier, are the bottles, /i, h, which contain the glycerine. The bottles arc loosely closed by wooden stojipers with broad, rounded tops. Through holes in these stop- pers pass loo.sely the rubber tubes, c, c, which reach to the bottom of the bottles and carry small glass jets at their outer ends. C^onical wooden plugs, e, e, are placed in the holes through the stojipers alongside the rubber tubes. The steam-|iipe, O, passes along the shelves, Ji, B, iust behind the gly- cerine bottles. The air-main, F, passes under the shelf, Ji, and carries on its under auU' a number of small, short pipes or jets (two for etich pitcher), to which are attached the rubber tubes, d, d, wliicii hang over the jiitchers. In these rubber tubes are inserted glass tubes, long enough to extend to the bottom of the acid pitchers. The troughs are mad(! tight to hold the ice-water with which the pitchers are surrounded Partitions, with openings at the bottoms, cut off the corners of the troughs forming clear spaces. These spaces contain water only, as the partitions keep out the ice. These water spaces are convenient as affording opportunities for quickly emptying a pitcher into water if it becomes neces- sarj'. In one corner of each tro\igh is j)laced a pipe, through whicli the water may be drawn off into the escape, E, when the operation is tinished. The pitchers stand on narrow strips, which raise them off the bottom about two inches, thus giving the cold water free antl perfect access all about them, and when set in proper position are well imder the overhanging hoods, (\, V,. These hoods are flat wooden boxes, wide at the bottoms and drawn in at the tops, where they lit against openings in the chimneys, J)L>. In the lower part of thc^ chinmc}', on the floor below, is placed a grate and Hre-door. Each pitcher receives 18 to 20 lbs. of the aciil mix- ture according to the strength of the latter. All are then set in place in the troughs, covered with glass plates, surrounded with ice and water, and allowed to stand until completely cooled. Into each bottle is put 2 lbs. of glycerine, When the acid in the pitchers has fallen to the temperature of the sur- rounding ice water, the covers are removed from the pitchers, and the air-tubes passed through holes in the hoods down into them. Through these air- tiibes a strong current of air is forced by means of a pump driven by steam. This current of air keeps the contents of tlie pitchers in continual agitation. The air for the pump is drawn through sulphuric acid to render it perfectly drj-, and just before it enters the air-main over the troughs it is thoroughly (!Ooled. The cooling arrangement is made of 10 coim of small tin pipe, which are surroundid hy ice. ThcHf! coils are so arranged as to give an extcnHive cool- ing surface' without impeding the current. As soon as the air current has been turned on, the flow of glycerine is begun. Kach rubber lube, <•, is a syphon which is started by suction through a glass tube iii- Hcrted in the outer end. As soon as the glycerine runs freely, the suction tube is witliilrawn anil a (in(!- pointe<l glass jet i)Ut in its place. The glycerine runs from this jet in a fine stream directly into the pitcher under it. In cold weather the glycerine may become too thick to How easily. To overcome this the bot- tles of glycerine are warmed by passingsteam llirongli the pipe behind them until the glycerine is Kuflicient- ly thin. The glycerine dropping into the acid mix- ture is rapidly acted on and converted into nitro- glycerine. The reac-tion is accompanied b.v a con- siderable evolution of heat. This heat must be re- moved, for if the temperature be allowed to rise loo liigh the glycerine is not converted into nitro-glyc(;r- ine, but is oxydized or burned, with formation of other substances. The limits of temperature are very narrow. Starting at 32", the temperature must never go beyond 48" ; at ■'50" to ijO", there is grcat_ danger of "firing" taking place. The liquid in' the pitchers is kejit colil by surroimding them with ice-cold water and by the stream of cold air passing into the acid. The most important work of the air- current is to keep the acid mixture in constant agi- tation. In this way the heat generated is quickly diffused through the whole, preventing an.y sudden local rise of temperature. The glycerine is much lighter than the acid mixture, and would be apt to collect in little pools above it. and when these were broken \q) and a (piantily of glycerine suddenly brought into contact with the acid, the ac'tion would be so rapid that it could not be controlled. While the glycerine is running into the pitchers, observa- tions with the thermometer are con.stantly made of the temperature attained in them. If in a pitcher the temperature is found to be rising too rapidly and to be approaching the higher limit, the glycerini^ is evidently running in too fast, and its flow must be checked, which is done liy pressing down the coni- cal wooden plugiu the stf>pperof the glycerine bottle. This plug passes through the same opening as the rubber glycerine tube ; therefore, when it is pressed down, it compresses the latter so that less liquid can pass through. If the temperature is too high or con- tinues to rtse, the plug is forced hard down, closing tlie glycerine tube altogether. The flow of glycerine being "checked or stopped, the pitcher rapidly cools down again. As Jsoon as the thermometer shows this to be the case, the plug is loosened and the flow again set up. Constant care is therefore necessarj', but the operation is a simple one, easily learned and performed by orilinary workmen. If the limit of temperature "is exceeded, "firing" takes place, in- dicated by the copious evolution of red, nitrous fumes, and in extreme cases by flame. Usually when this occurs it is easily controlled by stopping the glycerine stream and stirring vigorously the contents of the pitcher, but if it is violent the pitcher nmst be emptied as quickly as possible. During the op- eration of conversion! acid and irritating fumes are given off in large quantities, greatly to the injurj- of those compelled to breatlie tliem. In the apparatus here described these are entirely removed through the hoods and chimney. K fire in the ^rate at the bottom of the chimney causes a powerful draught in the hoods, which overhang the pitchers, drawing up- wards all the fumes and dis<harging them into the open air. Generally a small fire at "first is found to be suflicient, and quite frequently no fire at all is ncressarv. It does not mix with and is unaffected by water. It has a sweet, pungent, aromatic taste, and pro- duces a violent headache if placed on the tongue, or NITRO-MANNITE. 416 NOBILITY. even if allowed to touch the skin at any point. Those constantly iisina; it soon loose their suscepti- bility to this action. Freshly made, opaque nitro- glycerine does not freeze until the temperature is Towered to S°-5° below 0" Fah., but the transparent or cleared nitro-glycerine freezes at 39''-40'' F. Ni- tro-jjlycerine freezes to a white crystalline mass. When frozen it can be thawed by placing the vessel containing it iu water at a temperature not over 100"^ Fah. Pure nitro-glj'cerine does not spontaneously decompose at an ordinary temperature: but if it con- tains free acid, decomposition is apt to occur. It is, therefore, very important tliat all acid should be re- moved by thorough washing when it is made. No Instance has yet been noticed of the spontaneous decomposition of properly made and purified nitro- glycerine. Pure nitro-giycerine is not sensitive to friction or moderate percussion. If placed upon an anvil and struck with a hammer, only the particle receiving the blow explodes, scattering the remain- der. Nitro-glycerine in a state of decomposition be- comes very sensitive, exploding violently when it is struck, even when uncoufined. Nitro-glycerine may be conveniently kept in large earthen jars, with a layer of water over the explo- sive. If it is to be transported, the liquid form is very inconvenient, especially from the danger of leakage. It is therefore advisable to freeze it, and carrj' it in a frozen state, when it is perfectly safe. For transportation it should be put in strong tin cans holding about 45 or .50 lbs. Each can should be para- ffined on the inside, and have passing vertically through its center a tin tube, so that freezing or thawing maybe more easily accomplished. All ves- sels in which nitro-glycerine has been kept should be destroyed when not wanted for the same vfse, as the nitro-glj'cerine cannot be easily washed off. Nitro-glycerine is the most powerful explosive in use. In difficult blasting, where very violent effects are required, it surpasses all others. In spite of the many accidents that have occurred with it, it has been found to be so valuable that its use has steadily and largely increased. Its liquid form is a disad- vantage except under favorable circumstances, as when made at the place where it is to be employed. It, however, forms the essential ingredient in a number of solid mixtures. When used iu blasting- work it is usually put iu tin cans or cartridge-cases. If the bore-holes are tight, it may be poured direct- ly in ; but it is rarely safe to do this, as there is great danger that some of it will escape through Beams in the rock, and not be exploded, remaining to cause accident at a future time. Since nitro-gly- cerine is so readily detonated, it has the advantage of not requiring strong confinement. Even when freely exposed it will exert violent effects, such as breaking masses of rock or blocks of iron. So, in blasting, it requires but little tamping. Loose sand or water is entirely sufficient. The relative force of nitro-glycerine is not easily estimated, since the ef- fect produced depends greall.v on the circumstauces. Thus, a charge of nitro-glycerine iu wet sand or any soft material will exercise but a slight effect, while the same charge will .shatter nuuiy tons of the hard- est rock. In tiie former case much more sand would be thrown out by a slower e.\plosiim, wliich would gradually move it, than by the sudden, violent shock of tlie nitro-glycerine, whicli would only compress the material immediately about it. But in the hard rock the sudden explosion is much more effective than the same amouiU of force more slowly applied. Koughly, it may be said that nitro-glycerine is eight times as powerful as gunpowder.wheu taken weight for weight. On ('xplosion, nitro-glycerine is resolved entirely into the gases — carbonic, anhydride, water, nitro- gen, and o.xygen (Nobel;, the last named a|)pearing onl}' in small (piantity. If explosion is imperfectly accomplished, oxides of nitrogen are formed, and the total quantity of gas is lessened. If fully exi>lod- ed, no disagreeable or poisonous gases are given off. See Duaiin, Dynamite, Gun-cotton, Gunpowder, and LiUtofrartni r. NITEO-MANNITE.— A high explosive resembling nitro-glycerine in its properties, and made in an anal- ogous manner by the action of nitric and sulphuric ac- ids upon Mannite; a peculier saccharine matter which forms the principal constituent of manna; it is also found in several kinds of fungi, in asparagus, celery, I onions, etc. It is most readily obtained by digesting manna in hot alcohol. On cooling the filtered solu- tion, the mannite is deposited in crystals, which are very solu'ljle in water, and possess a sweet taste. NOBILITY.— That distinction of rank in civil so- ciety whieli raises a man above the condition of the mass of the people. Society has a tendency to in- equality of condition, arising from the natural in- equality, physical, moral, and intellectual, of those who compose it, aided by the diversity of external advantages, and of the principles and habits imbibed at an early age. This inequality is apt to increase ; the son, inheriting the faculties of his father, is more favorably situated than his father was for making use of them ; and hence, in almost every na- tion, in even the very early stages of civilization, we find something like a hereditary nobility. Privileges originally acquired by wealth or political power are secured to the family of the possessor of them ; and the privileged class come to constitute an Order, ad- mission into which requires the consent of society or of the order itself. The military tenant who held but a portion of a knight's fee participated in all the privileges of nobility, and an impassable barrier ex- isted between his Order and the people. Over Continental E\irope in general, the Nobles, greater and lesser, were in use, after the 10th century, to as- sume a territorial name from their castles or the principal town or village on their demesne ; hence, the prefix "Pe,"or its German equivalent "Von," still considered over a great part of the continent as the criterion of nobility or gentility. Britain was, to a great extent, an exception to lliis rule, many of the most distinguished family names of the aristo- cracy not having a territorial origin. After the introduction of HeraTdrj', and its reduc- tion to a system, the possession of a coat of arms was a recognized distinction between the Noble and the Plebeian. In the words of Sir James Lawrence : "Any individual who distinguishes himself may be said to ennoble himself. A Prince judging an in- dividual worthy of notice gave him patent letters of nobility. In these letters were blazoned the arms that were to distinguish his shield. By this shield-he was to be known or nobilin. A Plebeian had no blazon- ry on his shield because he was ignobilis.oT unworthy of notice. Hence arms are the criterion of nobility. Every Nobleman must have a shield of arms. Who- ever has a shield of arms is a Nobleman. In every country iu Europe, without exception, a grant of arms, or letters of nobility, is conferred on all the descendants." On the Continent the term Noble is still generally used in this sense ; in England it is now more common to restrict the words noble and nobility to the five ranks of the peerage constituting the greater nobility, and to the head of the family, to whom alone the title behmgs. Gentility, in its more strict sense, corresponds to the nobility of Sir J. Lawrence and of Continental Countries. This dilTerence of usage is a frequent source of misappre- heusion on both sides of the channel ; at some of the minor German Courts the untitled member of au Eu- glisli family of ancient distinguislied blood and line- age has sometimes been posliioned to a recently created Baro.i or"HerrVon," who has received that title, anil the gentility accompanying it along with his commission in the army. It has been taken for granted that the latter belongs to the "Add" or nol)ilitj', and not the former. The nobilil ,■ of Spain boasts of a special antiquity and purity of blood, a descent from warriors and HOBLE CHRONOSCOFE. 417 NOBLE CHRONOSCOFE. conquerors aloiii', without tlu; infusion of imy of tlit clenu^nts dcrivcil from tlu^ oliurcli, hiw, and com- merce thai arc to be founil in olhcr countries. " Hi- dalgo"(A<7"'''"'.'/".**on of HOMiclioily.nol./iV/M.i )iiilliiin) is a Icriu which implies nciitilily or nol)ilily. TIk; ]Ii(lid?;o aloMc ii.'is in strictness a ri'.;lil to the title "Don," which, like "Sir" of Kni;lish Kniirhls and 15aronels,r<M(Mires the adjimctt of the Cliristian name. When the Cliristian name is omitted, Ihi' titU^ "Se- nor" instead is prelixed willi the addition of " I)e." "Don" has latterly been used by persons who have no proper claim to it about as extensively as " Es- quire " in Miiu'lanil. lliiliilnuia, till recently, conferred important privileges and immunilies. The higher nobility arc stylcil (Irandees; formerly the lille was " l{icohombrc,"and the ceremonial of creation con- sisted in granting the right of assuming the pennon and caldron {penon y cdidcra) — the one the rallying ensign of command, the olhcr of maintenance of fol- lowers. In conlradislinclion from the Grandees, the class of nobility below Ibem are called " Los Titula- dos de (lastilla." Hcil lilood is said to How in the veins of the Hidalgo, blue in that of the Grandee. Formerly there were three classes of Grandees, who.se mark of tlistinction was this -that a Grandee of the lirst class was entitled to put on his hat in the royal presence before the King spoke to him; the second, after the King spoke to him : the third, after the King had spoken and he had replied. The secoud and third classes arc now absorbed into the first. of this shaft can be recorded wilh uecurary to the onc-tenlh part of a second. The speed usually at- tained in working this instrument is about l.OfJO inches per secon<l. linear velocity, at the circumfer- encr' of lh(^ revolving discs so that each inch trav- ellcil at that sjiccd ri'prcsents the one-thousandth part C)f a second; and as thc' inch is Kulxlivided by j the vernier, V., into a thousand parts, alinearreprc- sentation at the cin-urnfercnce is thus obtained of intervals of time as minute as the onc-ruiHionth part of a second. As a small variation in speed would afTect thc re- lation betwi'cn thc sevend records obtained, the uniformity of rolalicjn is ascerlained on each occa- sion of experiment by Ihree observations: one im- mediately l)efore, one during, and one immediately after the experiment, the mean of the three observa- tions being taken for thc average speed. With a liltle ])rnclice there is no difficulty in arranging the instrument so that thc discs may rotate either imi- formly or at a rate very slowly increasing or decreas- ing. The arrangements for obtaining the tlertrical /•(crrf.i arc as follows : the revolving discs are cov- ered on the edge witli a strip of white caper, and are connected with one of tlie secondary wires, G, of an induction coil. The other secondary wire, H, carcfidly insulated, is brought to a discharger, I, op- posite tiie edge of ils corri's]ionding disc, and is fix- ed so as to bi' just clear of I he latter. When a spark passes from the discharger to the disc, a minute hole NOBLE CHBONOSCOPE.— The principle of action of this instrument consists in registering, by means of electric currents upon a recording surface, travel- ing at a uniform and very high speed, the precise instant at whicli a projectile passes certain delined points in the bore. It consists of two portions : first, the mechaiiii-al arrangemtnt for obtaining the necessary speed, and keeping that speed uniform; secondly, the dectrii'itl recording arrimgement. The first part of the instrument consists of a series of thin metal discs, A, A, each 80 inches in circumfer- ence, fixed at intervals upon a horizontal shaft, SS, whicli is driven at a high speed by a heavy descend- ing weight, B, through a train of gearing, multply- ing 62>5 times. The driving-weight is, during thc ex- periment continually moved up by means of the handle II. If the requisite speed of rotation were got up by the action of thc falling weiglit alone, a considerable waste of time would ensue. To obviate this inconvenience, the required velocity can be ob- tained with great ra])idity by means of the handle C. The precise rale of the discs is obtained by nieansof the stop-clock D, which can at pleasure be connect- ed or disconnected with the revolving .shaft. E; and the time of making any number of revolutions is perforated in the paper covering upon that part of the disc which was opposite the discharger at the inslant of the passage of the spark: but. as the situ- ation of this hole in the jiiipcr would be very difficult to find, on account of its extreme minuteness, the paper is previously coaled willi lamp-black, and the position of the hole is thus readily seen: a di-^tinct white spot is left on the blackened paper, the lamp- black at that point having been burnt awa\- by the spark, so that the white paper is shown beneath. By nieansof thc micrometer the distance between the sparks on thc disc is reail olT. In order to connect the primary wires of the in- duction coils with the bore of t!ie gun, so thai they may be cut by the projectile in its passage, the gun is lapped in a number Of pl;ices for the reception of hollow steel plugs carrying at the end next the bore a cutter which projects slightly into the bore. This cutter is held in position liy the primary wire, which is carefully insulated and passed down the plug, through the cutter, and b:ick out of the plug, the ends being connected to tlie main wires leading.to the induction coils. When the projectile reaches the point where the plug is screwed in, it presses the cutter in flush with tlie bore, and, by so doing, cuts NOISY. 418 NOIZET SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. the primary circuit. As each plug is reached a spark is clelivered, and thus tlie passage of the projectile along the bore is recorded at regular intervals. Some idea may be conveyed of the minute intervals of time which can be measured by this means, from the fact that the distances between the parts of a X-lnch gun at which tlie time-records have been obtained are in some instances only 3.4 inches, while tlie total lime the projectile takes to reach the muzzle of the gun — a distance of 100 inches — when tired with a full charge, is about the one-hundreth part of a second. By this means the time may be recorded which the projec- tile occupies, from the commencement of motion, in reaching ditferent parts of the bore, and from these time-records may be deduced tlie velocit}' with whicli the projectile is passing through the different parts of the bore, and the pressures in the gun which cor- respond to these velocities. See Chrvnoscupe. NOISY. — A term applied to projectiles in flight. The passage of a rifled projectile through the air causes a shrill, tearing sound. An experienced ear at exper- imental practice can detect from this sound whether the projectile is properly centered; if not,it is said to be noixij in flight. NOIZET SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— The School of Application for engineer and artillerv officers, flrst established at Mi^zieres and sulisequently at Metz, has given to France, from about the period of the French Revolution down to the present day, nianv able officers who have gained universal and deserved celebrity for these two corps. In these schools the precepts of Vauban and CornKmtaigne have been jealously regarded as the highest authori- ty, and their manuscripts and works have formed the basis of the instruction given in them. Some slight modifications were proposed in the front of Cormon- taigue by two engineers. IhatiUnn and Dvrigneau, and taught by them in the course of permanent for- tification given in the school. These changes chiefly consisted m enlarging the demi-lune and making it more salient ; and in placing casemates for cannon in the flanks of its redoubt, with reverse views on the breaches that miglit be made in the bastion faces. The teaching of the school of Metz has received its principal impress in later years from General Noizet. For nearly fifty years. General Noizet was engaged in tlie study and practice of his profession, serving for many years as professor of the art of fortification in the school at Metz. He had the good fortune to applv practically on a large scale the principles taught by him in the school. He was for ten years a member of what we would call the Board of En- gineers for France, and has visited ever\' fortifica- tion in France. He is regarded as first among tlie successors of Vauban and Cormontaigne. The front planned bj- him has been taken as an elementary exercise for instruction in the art of fortification for the cadets of the U. S. Militar)- Academy at West Point, N. Y. In it, there is no sensible departure from the views and method of Cormontaigne, except- ing to introduce such modifications as would remedy some of the acknowledged defects of his method. This front combines the principles of the science of fortification to as great an extent as any one sys- tem or method that can be given to the student. An- other object has been kept in view in using this front. That is, to present in its combinations, uproh- Inn. in the solution of which the iiupil would have to apply to a special case, both the cli'iiuiitary piin- ciples of fortifications, and the geometrical methods used by the military cgineer in the practice of his profession. Noizet, in the jilaii of his enceinte, has adopted dimensions and constructions which gives results for the most part, the same as those of Vau- lian and Cormontaigne, making the defensive pro- perties of tlies« different iiietliods about ec|iia]. The Client of tlie exterior side, the lengtli of the curtain, the diiiiinished angle, and the direction assumed for the flanks, produce a combination giving an etflcicnt flanking, both as to direction and amount of fire, for the >5ntire scarp, and a powerful cross-fire upon the covered-way and its glacis in advance of the bastion 'salient. The lines of defense, by this combination, are within the eflfective range of the most improved small-arms, and the flanks are capable of receiving a battery superior to the counter batteries that can be brought against them from the glacis crest of tlie op- posite covered-way. The dimensions and form of the profile are such as experience has shown will give durability and stability to the masonry from the pressure of the embankments, and the ordinary causes of destructibility to which it is liable when exposed ' to the weather. The rampart and jjarapet have suf- ficient strength to resi.st the action of the heaviest siege artillery in ordinary use. whilst they offer to I the assailed every convenience for their prompt ac- tion, and the use of their arms. The width and slopes of the ramps are regulated for the passage of artil- I lery. Where the height to be overcome is slight, as that between the terre-plein and barbette, l\xv slope of the ramp may be as great as J, and its width be 3.30 yards. Where the height is greater, the decliv- ity of the ramp should be proportionally less steep, and its width be 4.30 yards at least. The position of the terre-plein with respect to the interior crests is that usually considered necessarj* to give shelter to the troops and materiel on it. By inclining that of the bastion, the guns and troops on the faces and flanks are better covered from the enfilading and ri- cochet fire than they would be if the terre-plain was horizontal; as a ball passing over the salient will of necessity reach an inclined terre-plein at a point much farther from the salient than one which is horizontal. The following is the summary of the principles, anil es.sential details involved in this sys- tem. 1st. The enceinte of every permanent work should present an uninterrupted line of scarp wall, which, when the ditch is dry, should beat least 30 feet high above the bottom of the ditch. 2d. All the approaches to the work, beyond the ditcii within the effective range of its fire, as well as the ditch itself shouldbe completelj-sweptby thisfire. 3d. All scarp walls should be sheltered from the fire of the enemy's artillerj-, to the latest moment, by earthen masks. 4th. AH parapets should be proof against the heav- iest projectiles, to which they may be exposed. .5th. The terre-plein of the rampart sliould be masked by the parapet from the enemy's view : it should be wide enough for the infantry and artillery service ; should have convenient communications for these between all its parts: and lietweenit and the parade. 6th. All outworks, except the covered-ways, should be regarded as accessories rather than indispensable additions to the main work. When properly placed, they strengthen weak points and delay the enemy's progress, by forcing him to gain possession of them before he can advance beyond the points they oc- cupy. Their scarps, and the gorges liable to be turned by the enemy, should be of masonry, not less than 12 feet in height. The more retired of these works should command the more advanced, and where this rule is violated, the retired work should be defiled from an_v establishments that the enemy might be able to make on the advanced one by which it is commanded. They should be command- ed by the enceinte, and as far as practicable Hanked by I'ne fire of its small-arms, 7th. The covered- ways are regarded as indisiiensable. Without Ihcm the commimicaticms between the main work and tlie exterior would not be secure. Their enibaiiUnieiits form, in a great majority of cases, the only masks for the scarps of the works in their rear, and by alTord- ing advanced cover for the garrison, give the means of annoying the enemy by sharpshooters, and re- tarding hisapproacli by sorties in small |iarties. They should be Ihoroughly swept liy the tire of small-arms of all the works in their rear, anil have tlicir terre- plcins delileil from all conimaiidiiig points liable to fall into the hands of the eneiiiy. Htli. The glacis should be thoroughly swept by the fire of ariillery NOLAN RANGE-FINSEB. 419 NOLLE PROSEQUI, anil sinall-nrms of tlic main work and outworks where a fire can lio liroiif;!)!, to liear upon il. For this purpose, the surfaees shouhl he soarrani;erl that their interseelions shall not form liollows or ridi^es, wliieh niii^lit he of ailvantafji; to llie enemy in ad- vaueimj; upon the work. i)tli. The ti'naijle is an es- Benlial achlilion to all fronts of attack. Without it, the postern in the curlaiji would he not only insecure but absolutely unserviceable as soon as the enemy couhl in any manner j;ain a position where Ids (ire could l)e broui;ht to bear on its outlet. It also enables the <lefense to form retrenchments reslinp either on the thinks or curtain of the enceinte, that cannot bi^ turned l)y thi' enemy, and also olTers a sheltered place-of-amis, in the ditch, between it and the curtain, whidi can be used for assemliling troops against the enemy in the ditches. Its relief is so de- ternnned that it shall not mask the tire of tlie Hanks on the bastion-faces, whilst at the same tinu' it af- fords cover to the scarp of the curtain and Hanks. 10th. The demi-huie, when properly arraui^ed, forms an imiiortant addition to tlu' defense. It covers tlie curtain and portions of the bastion-faces near the shoulder angle from the lire of the enemy's artillery, ami secures the main outlet from the enceinte from surprise. The arrangenu'Ut of thedemi-lunes places the l)astions in strong re-enterings, thus forcing the enemy to take them before he can attempt the as- sault of thcenceinte ; and when the faces of the bas- tions prolonged fall within the demi-lunes, they mask tliem from enfilading views. These advantages are the more decided as the demi-lune is the larger and more advanced. Its scarp is taken 23.50 feel high to afford the necessary security against an open ssault, and to obtain a ver}' cHicient cut across its face. 11th. The denu-lune redoulit adds to the strength of the demi-lune. Its arrangement with Hanks adds directly to the strength of the enceinte, as the re- verse tire from the tianks on the breach in the bas- tion-face will force the enemy to carry the redoubt before he can risk an assault on the breach. 12th. The redoubt of the re-entering placc-of-arms, adds greatly to the] xtrength and M'curltii of the covered way. From its retired jiosition, it can be occupied after the dimi-lune has fallen, provided there is an efficient cut in the demi-lune face, and the redoidjt has bcendetiled from the establishments of the ene- my on the parapet of the demi-lune. It also, in con- nection with the demi-lune, covers that portion of the curtain which is exposed through the ditch be- tween the tenaille and enceinte flank. Its crest should mask as little as practicable the lire of the bastion- face on the glacis in advance of it. Kith. The cut in the demi-lune face is an important addition, as it secures the redoubt of the re-entering place of arms from being turned. Its position should be so chosen that the face of the redoubt may be Hanked through it by the fire from the demi-lune redoubt. A para- pet is thrown up behind the cut to ilefend it after the enemy has gained possession of the demi-lune salient. It should command the salient and its tcrre-plein should be defiled from the same point. 14th. The ditches should furnish the earth required for the embankments. Their dimensions, therefore, will depend upon the amount necessary for this pur- pose. When water can be used, it is more advan- tageous to increase the width at the expense of the depth. The ditches of the different works should afford no communications through which an enemy might penetrate from one into that of another, anil thus as.sault the works by the rear, l.lth. The com- munications, in accordance with our general prin- ciples already stated, should be of convenient di- mensions, and of easy access; be swept by the fire of the works in their rear; be covered from the fire from all points that the enemy can occupy whilst they are needed; be secure from surprise, and from being approached in the rear by the enemy; anil not compromise the safety of any work through ■which they may lead. A fortification constructed in keeping with tlie.se principlis, possesHes the advantage of having its dilches thoroughly swept from the main work itself; of bringing a cross and Hank lint to bear upon the approaches on thesalienis of the enceinte ; and fur- iMshing a strong direct and cross Hre upon the site in advance of tli<^ curtains and the faces of the bas- tions. The principal objections urged against lliiH particular system are: 1. That its chief character- istic, a perfect Hanking disposition for the entire line of the scarp, is attainable only under certain relations between the n^quisite relief for a lirTUianenl work and the lengths of the exterior hide and curtain, which therefore restricts it in its application to for. tifications of a i)ermanent character. 2. That, in or- . der to secure a suHicient length of flank for an ef- fective flanking disposition, the angle between the face of the bastion and the exterior side, termed the ilirniiiinhnl irnr/li' of the [lolygon, has to be made so great as to decrease considerably the space inclosed within the polygon, whilst the development of the lineof the encefnte is greatly increased by it. '.i. That the direction necessarily given to the faces from this cause throws their prolongations in positions very favorable to the erection of all the enfilading batteries against them. 4. That the flanks, upon which the wliole .sj'stem is based, lie in positions in which, like the faces, they can be not only easily enfiladed, but are further exposed to a reverse firclrom shot which may jiass over the parapet of the faces as well as the opposite flank. 5. And that these objections are much the stronger as the salient angles of the poly- gon are .^mailer or as the nun ber of the sides is decreased. See Cdrmanla'gne System of Fortijica- tiiiii. Fiirlifii-dtnin, and Sifitem i>f Furtifimtion. NOLAN RANGE FINDER.— The principal parts of this instrument are ; 1. Two instruments for meas- uring angles. 2. One tape-line. 8. One reckoning cylinder. Kach of the two instruments consists of two telescopes, which lie crosswise one above the other under an angle of about 90"; the smaller of the two has a long arm, with a vernier at one end; to the other a sector is fastened, which is divided up into degrees. By means of a screw, an angle of about 30" can be described by the upper or smaller telescope. The reekimiug cylinder consists of a solid body and two rotating rings. The lower ring and the lower edge of the body are divided into 100 equal parts. On the upper ring are the logarithms of the figures, and on the upper edge of the body are the logarithms of the signs, from tj" up to 2" 15'. To find the range, the instruments on their tripods are arranged at the end of the assumed base-line, which is perpendicular to the range; or the instru- ments may be attached to the right and left guns of a battery. The long telescopes" are turned loward the object whose distance is to be found ; the smaller ones upon each other, and the cross-threads of each made to cover the cross-lines on the leather disc through which each small telescope points. The coincidence obtained by directing the longer tele- scope on ,tlie object, the two angles at the tiasc are determined ; the base-line being measured, one side and two angles of the triangle arc obtained. With this data recourse is then had to the reckoning cyl- inder. The arrow marked " band " is set on the fig- ure that corresponds with the distance between the instruments or base-line — say 34 yards; then set the arrow on the lower ring on the figure correspond- ing with the angle found through the instrument — say 18"^; then find the figure for the number of de- grees of the other angle — say 42'^, on the lower ring. Just above that is the figures 60 on the other division of the lower ring ; coinciding with this on the lower edge of the upper ring is the distance, 1,320 yards. The bases used are conveniently taken from 30 to 40 yards for a range of 3,000 yjirds and over. See I'rutt Rnng'-fiindfr. NOLLE PROSEQUI.— An entry upon the records of a Court-Martial by the plaintitf or the prosecutor, MOMBHIL POINT. 420 NORDENFELT MACHINE GUN. declaring that the proceedings against the defend- ant shall be discontinued. A NoLe Proxequi is not equivalent to an acquittal, but acts merely as a stay of proceedings, and the defendant is liable at any time to be re-indicted. It may be entered as to one of several defendants, and is often done so to allow his testimony to be introduced against the others. It is generally in the discretion of the prosecuting ofBcer to enter a nolle prosequi, but in some cases leave must be obtained from the Court. NOMBRtL POINT.— A term in Heraldry. See Escuti-lie'in. NOMENCLATURE.— Technical designation. Tlie term, as applied to military stores, signities a sys- 'tematic classilication of words pertaining to each article used in the service. For nomenclature of ordnance, etc., see appropriate headings in this work. NON COMBATANT.— Any person connected with an army, or within the lines of an army, who does not make it his business to fight, as any one of the Medical Officers and their assistants. Chaplains, and others; also, any of the citizens of a place occupied by an army. In the English Army, the duties of all non-combatants are restricted to the Civil De- partment. NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS.— Subordinate offi- cers of the tieniTal Staff, Regiments and Compan- ies who are appointed, not by commission, but by the Secretary of War or Commanding Officers of Regiments: The}' are usually selected on account of good conduct or superior abilities. In the British Army, the Non-commissioned Officers constitute a numerous and very important class in the regimen- tal system between the Commissioned Officers and the men. As the former are not permitted to mix with the private soldiers, lest familiarity sliould diminish tlie sway of absolute discipline, it is necessary to have an intermediate class to overlook the men in their barracks and at all times when off the parade. None are so suited for this duty as the best conduc- ted of the men themselves, who are promoted by selection to Non-commissioned rank, and hold many Fig. 1. privileges and powers unallainable by the privates. The Non-commissioned Officers comprise the Ser- geants-Major, and all the S<'rgeanls, i\w. 'I'ruuqtcters, DruMimcrs, and liuglcrs, and, in the Life Guards, and Royal Horse (iuanls only the Corporals. Tliey can be reduced to the ranks by sentence of a Court Martial, or by thci' Colonel Commandant; but not by a Lieutenant Colonel nor by any Junior Officer. Non-commissioned Officers are entitled to quarters for their wives, or lodging mouey in lieu of quarters. Accustomed themselves to obey, the Non-coranus- ioued Officers are admirable assistants in preserv- ing discipline; veterans, to whom military life is a second nature, they are looked up to b}' their cf)m- rades as examples, to lead in battle or to teaeli in drill. The Non-commissioned Officers have a mess to themselves. In a battalion of infantry at home, there were, in 1874. 58 Non-commissioned Officers to 530 rank and file: in India, 66 to 830; but the rank and file may be greatly augmented withoiit affecting the number of Non-commissioned Officers. In the whole British army (European) for the year 1874-75, there were 30, U49 Non-commissioned Offi- cers. This rank is a necessity in all armies; in France, the Non-commissioned Officers are termed Sinia-Offiferii; in Germany, Vinter-Offizieren. NON-EFFECTIVE.— The term applied to the por- tion of the personnel of the army or navy not on ac- tive service or in immediate readiness for active ser- vice. It thus comprises all officers on retired or half-pay, pensioners, and superannuated officers. In a force liable to frequent augmentations and re- ductions, the non-eft'ective charge must be considera- ble, and a large retirement is necessar_y, in order to rapid promotion. The great French war, also, with the reductions following it, bequeathed to the British an annual non-effective charge of several mil- lions, which is not yet wholly expunged. In 1878-79, the non-effective charges were £3,344.912 for the the army, and £1,887,571 for the navy, being up- wards of 16 per cent on the gross cost of the two ser- vices. NOOSE. — A rinming knot, which binds the closer the more it is drawn. See Cordage, Knots, and Lasso. NON-POLAR PROJICTILES.— A designation ap- plied to projectiles which do not keep the same end or aspect foremost throughout their courses. NORDENFELT MACHINE GUN.— In addition to the older mechanism devised by Mr. Nordenfelt for his well-known four-barrel 1-inch gun, he has lately in- FiL,'. •-', troduced modifications more suitable for two or three barrels, and as several of these new guns liiive been recently tried with great success at Portsmouth and elsewhere, we give a complete description of :ill the Nordenfelt vcilley guns now miide. In order In ex- plain the differences in the meeluinism used for the several guns, we will commence our description BOBDEBFELT MACHINE OUN. 421 HOaDEHFELT MACHINE GCN. with two of the 1-inch guns as representatives of the two Hj'stcins. Tilt! fiiur-harrH X.inch gun, AdmiriiUy jinWrn. — When tlic u.S(? of the torpedo Ijoiil luiaiiii' fir'ncnil, it foUowud as a iicccuHiiry (■oii.si'(|Uciici' tluil a iiicaiiM of defence must be provided afj;ainst llie.se swift and destructive little vessels, and the Hrilisli Adiniralty searched for a weapon haviiii; suMi<ient penetrating power to dain»i;(- the l)oiler of a torpeilo boat at a distance of from liOO to . '>()() yards. Otiier essential conditions required were that I he f;un could l)e fired so rapidly that it would almost certainly score asuHii'ient mimber of hits on an approacliinjj; tor- pedo boat to insure its bcini; disabled during its run at fidl speed from the distance named, before it could reach the vessel attacked, or which could l)e flred so rapidly as to make it impossible for the boat to discharge a Whitehead torpedo at such a range that the missile would have any reasonable chanci' of hilling ils mark. After various I'oinpeli- lions the Adiniralty deciiled iu fuvor of the Morden- felt gun. The four-barrel gun, shown in Fig. 1, consists of a rectangular framework of wrought iron, the sides of wliicli art! connected by three jilales or transoms. The four barrels are placed sid(' by si<li' in the fraiix', their muzzle ends passing through the front cross- pie<'e. while the breech ends are screwed into the middle transom. In the rear of the middle cross- piece is the action block, which is capable of move- ment backwards and forwards. In front of this action block are four breech plugs, corresponding to the barrels. These are of steel pierced with a tdian- nel, iu which a tiring pin or striker moves freely, and they are furnished with an extractor on the right side. Behind each plunger is a hiininu'r, with a projecting t<'non, and behind the hammer is a strong s])iral siiring. The trunnions til into a cross-head pivoting on a cone, which is tirmly fixed to the side or other part of the ship, where the gun is to.be tired. The train- ing is given by a hand-wheel, which works a worm gearing into a horizontal tootlied rack attached to the top of the cone. The elevation is produced liy a wheel working a dilTerential screw. One turn of the training wheel gives (i degrees of training, and one of the elevating wheel 12 degrees of elevation or depress- ion. The action of the mechanism is as follows. Supposing the discharge to have been just completed, that the lock closes the breech end of the barrels, and is still secured in its place by the two bolts ; 1. The handle begins to move to the rear ; the friction rol- ler traverses the concentric part of the action i)late. and the action block remains steady. The spring and the heel of I he lever, acting on the trigger comb, drive It from right to left. 2. As the movement con- tinues, the action lever acts on the locking-bolt plate, and withdraws the bolts leaving the action block free. 3. At the moment these bolts are withdrawn the friction roHer engages in the straight part of the action plate, and the action block begins to move back, drawing with it the breech plugs, which ex- tract the cartridge cases 4. When the breech plugs are clear the friction roller on the action block bears against the forked arm and so pushes the carrier to the left. At the same time the cocking cam begins to press against the tooth of the trigger comb, carry- ing the hitter to the right. The empty cartridge cases fall to the ground and are readily replaced by filled ones. The tenons of the hammers pass be- hind the teeth of the trigger comb, which is driven to the left by the spring, or by tlie cocking cam, as the action block moves forward. The handle moves forward with the following effects : 1. The fric- tion roller on the action lever acts on the director, and moves the action block to the front. The action block, pressing against the fork, drives the carrier to the right, thus placing the cartridges in line with the barrels. 2. The action block advances to the front and the spiral springs are compressed by the ham- mers, which are kept bark by the trigger comb. The plungers push the cartridges into Die barrels, a. When till- carlriilges an- qiiile homer, the action block stops, and the stud on the action lever causes the closinj' cam to drive the bolls into the lioles in the gun frame, so that the breech dosing is <!om- lilete. 4. The action lever now bi-gins to carry the trigger comb to the right. Kacli hammer is released in turn from the toriih which retains it, and the striker pertaining lo it is ilriven forward in consc- ()uence. The action of the drill slop is this: The hand lever is brought up by it before it has com- pleted the back stroke, so that the hammers cannot pass behind the trigger comb. Thus, the gun is not iull cocked, l)ecause the springs are not compressed whi'ii the action block moves forward. The gun is sighted up to 1,800 yards, and the sight is so litted that it can be moved nji and down by means of a rack and pinion. The following are some of the prhicipal advaiilages claimed for guns made on the Nordeiifelt system: They are strong and simple, and the whole mechanism, as well as the springs and tiring pins, can be taken out without the use of any tools ; they lire either single shots or volleys of four shots each as desired. The cartridges are fed to each iKirrel from its own comiiiirlnient, iind imlependent of the otlii'i's, so that if one or more barrels become damaged the lire can be continued from the remain- ing barrels. The gun is free from any jKissihle llaliility to jam, more es])ecially after some of the ini|)rovements recently adopted by the Admiralty. In order to test these improvements, 2.000 rounds were tired very rapidly without any hitch or jam whatever and most of the vessels at the bombard- ment of Alexandria were armed with these guns, lirhig m:iny thousands of rounds without any failure or dilliculty. Uesides their principid obj.-ct as de- fense against torpedo boats, these guns are especially useful for firing against the guns ami rifiemen in the enemy's tops, even if iirotected by shields — against conning towers and gun-ports— and in Egypt they have been recently used for firing through the port- holes of forts, and mounted on railway trucks, they have served forking range firing against troops. The cajiacity of the system for verv nipid firing of steel projectiles of larger caliber tlian rifie bullets, makes it a very valuable weapon, even for purposes where, perhaps, strictly speaking, small shells might be more suitable, because with the modem swift vessels a slow-firing machine gun has really very little chance against a quick-volley gun for purposes where the latter has sufficient penetrating power. llie double-barrel \-inch guii — This double-barrel 1-inch gun, shown in Fig. 2, has been made for the purpose of being mounted on torpedo boats, where the four-barrel 1-inch gun has been considered too heavy. The gun weighs only li cwt., and its naval carriage and stand weigh together IGH pounds. Counting 345 pounds for SOOrounds of amnuinilion, 80 pounds for hoppers, and 132 pounds for the gun- ner, the weapon, with mounting ammunition and gunner complete, weighs 8 cwt., which is well with- in the limits that can conveniently be carried on a torpedo boat. When not in action, >. e, when the gunner and ammunition arc below, the weight of gun and mounting is only one-third of the weight of the Nordenfelt four-barrel gun. It fires the same l-inch steel-shot cartridges aslhe four-barrel gun. and with exactly the same'initial velocity of 1,500 feet. Its penetrating power is consciiuenlly the same as that of the four-barrel 1-inch gun already described. The accuracy of fire is also the same when firing very slowly, and is somewhat higher when firing more rapidly, because its volley of two shots causes less vibrationto the weapon from accumulated recoil than the volley of four shots. The rai)idity of fire in pro- portion to the number of barrels is somewhat great- er than that of the four-barrel gun. because the stroke of the lever is shorter. The four-barrel gun fires ten volleys in eight to ten seconds , this two-barrel gun NOEDENFELT MACHINE-GUN. 422 NOEDENFELT MACHINE-GUN. fires ten volleys in six to seven seconds. This gun thus fires twenty shots in six to seven seconds, and it fires sixty shots in the half minute. As will be seen, the rectangular frame is made in one piece, with the center cross-bar dovetailed into it, and the front cross-piece bolted on to its fore end. Tlie barrels are screwed into the center cross-piece and pass throiigh the front cross-piece. The action cam is cut into the cam plate and is driven by the friction roller on the action lever, which again is moved by the firing handle, keyed on to the axis pin. The breech plugs are made in one piece with the cam plate, and contain the firing pins. On the upper face of the cam plate are two studs which pull back the hammers. The action block is moved right and left by the rear end of the action lever. In the action block there are four grooves, two of which receive the breech plugs when drawn back, the other two contain the ham- mers and spiral springs, which are held within them by the back plate, which carries the pressure of the action block on to the rear of the frame itself. Tlie cartridge receiver is moved right and left in front of the action block by two lugs or cams on the cam plate. The trigger comb is inserted into the action block, and is held by a spring ; '.he sloping surfaces of the hammer studs move it to the one side to catch the hammers, and the trigger comb is pushed against the side of the frame in order to release the hammers when the shots are to be fired, showing the parts separately. The operation of the mechanism of the Nordenfelt machine-gun may be described briefly as follows, supposing a discharge to have just taken place : 1. The tiring handle travels to the rear, supports the rear of the breech plugs, the back plate of the action block resting firmly against the rear of the frame. 4. The movement of the action block to the riglii pushes the trigger comb against the inner side of the frame until the hammers are re- leased and the shots fired. The principal advantages claimed for this system, in addition to those men- tioned above for the four-barrel gun, and which also apply to this weapon, arc the great simplicity of the mechanism, in which the number of parts is 16 in all, or only 8 parts per barrel. Tlie movemeuts of the parts of the mechanism are all inside the frame, so that the action block does not move beyond the rear part of the frame. When the firing handle is held for^vard in the position in which the gun would travel, the entire mechanism is inclosed, so that not even the slots for the extraction of fired cartridge cases are open. This makes this system especially suitable for guns which are exposed to dust and storms of sand. In the following article are described all the Nor- denfelt volley -tiring guns which are at present manufactured : No. 1. 2 ico-barrellh iiich gun — This tj'pe weighs 4 J cwt., and fires steel shot and shell weighing 23 ounces, with an initial velocity of 1,600 feet, giving a penetration of li inches into an iron plate at 300 yards ; the shells iiave 580 grains burst- ing charge. This gun is made to compete with re- volving cannon of the same caliber which fire 16 ounce shells with 337 grains bursting charge and 1,390 feet initial velocity, giving a penetration of \\ inches at 300 yards range. The rapidity of fire is about 40 shots per half minute. Both guns are about Fig. 3. while the friction roller moves along the concentric part of the action cam, the plungers remaining steady in order to give sulticient support to the cartridge case after the discharge. The rear end of the action lever during this movement brings the action block over to the left and allows the spring to pusli the of trigger comb into position. 2. The continued rearward movement causes the cam plate to draw back the breech plugs into their grooves in the ac- ti<m block, after which the lugs upon it move the cartridge receiver over to the left to take a fresh layer oif cartridges. 3. .lust before the rearward movement is completed the hauuners are caught by the studs on the trigger comb. The forward move- nu-nl of the tiring handle has the following effect : 1. It forces the lugs on the cam plate against the cartridge receiver and inishes it to the right so that the cartridges are in a line with the chambers in the barrels. 2. The cam plate is driven forward, and the breech plugs enter the grooves in the cartridge n-ceiver, pusliing the earlridgcs into the clianibers. 3. When the lirecch plugs have closed the lireech, thi! rear end of the action lever jiuslies llic action block over to tin- right imlil tin- hammers couic in a line with the tiring pins, when the action block fully the same weight ; the Nordenfelt is, however, the more rapid of the two, as it tires a volley of two shots for every single shot fired by the revolving gun. No. 2. Two-barrel \\ inch gun. This weighs 3J cwt., and is made in the same way as No. 1, and for the same purposes. Its shell weighs 14L ounces, with 460 grains bursting charge, but its greater initial velocity of 1,500 feet gives to this gun the same penetrating power as the \\ inch revolving gun, with its rapidity of fire and slightly less weight of gun. No. 3. Two-barrel 1-inch {heary) gun. — Is made to No. 3 pattern, with exceptionally l<mg barrels. The weight is 4 cwt, and it fires solid steel shot of 9^ ounces (shells are not allowed for this weight of projectile). This steel shot gave at Porlsmouth an initial velocity of 2,009 feet jjer second and penetrated a 2-inch sol- id iron jilale at 300 yards range. This gun has been made for defense against torpedo boats if in future any cnuutry should carry out the idea to arm such vulnerable parts as boiler and engines with 1-incli steel plates. No. 4, Ftnir-lmrrcl X-im-h (midium') gun— TUt' type of this gun is illustrated liy Fig. 1. It tires 8.9-o"unces solid steel bullets, with 1,6.50 feet initial velocity, and gives greater penetration than the four-barrel 1-inch English Admiralty gun; it NORDENFELT MACHINE GUN. 423 HOEDENFELT MACHINE OUH. weightB about ^ cwt. more, and i» rnoiint to be ugfd for tlic siinic imrpDHCM and in the hhiiic iiianucras tlit.' ordinary four-tiarrc! 1-inch j;un No. (1, l)y any Navy tliul may desire to liave ^^rcatiT iicnctratiiit; power at till! cost of more expensive aniniiiiiilinn and vvilli- oiil redneini^ llie rapidity of (ire. No. !j. /<'iur-/i(irrii \-iiirJi (/'III 'I'lds unn is sijniliir to No. and I'restli Haine arnjunnilion ; it coMsecinently lias I lie same jjen- etratintf power but lires 30 per cenl. nion- rapidlj' and weii;lis k ewt. more liian the four-barrel ^iin. No. (i. Fiiur-harrel l-inrh i/i/m— Tliis gun has been already fully described as representing Hie Norden- felt volley guns with more (ban three tiarrels. No. 7. Tinii-hiii-rii \-inch r/ii.ii -This gun has also been noticed ( Fig. 2), as represeiitativit of the [latlorn of volley guns with less than four barrels, and is prcp- poseil for arming torpedo l)oats, as being the lightest volley gun made with siiflicient penetrating power for this purpose, the only other guu of less weight of any other system with sulHcient jienetrating power, being the Nordenfelt s' , single-barrel IJ inch shell-gun. No. 8. Ticeliv-hnrrii rijlr-crilihtr gun; and No. 'J. Ten.harrel rifle caliber guii. fully illustrated in Fig. 'A. These machine-guns weigh about 2.', cwt. and 3 cwt., re.=ipectively, and Hre 1,200 "and 1,000 rounds per minute. Thej' are constructed after the same pattern as the four-barrel English gun, and are especially designed for naval as well as for land service, in competition with the tive-barrel Gardner gun. At the Slioeburyness trials in Feb- ruary, 1H81, the ten-barrel Nordenfelt did not act (|uile so well as it shonlil have done in cousecjuence of it having been adjusted to incorrect ammunition, but after the extraciing and feeding gear had been [Hit in order, the gun worked to perfection at all the Portsmouth trials in July, 1H82. On that occa- sion it tired 3.000 rounds in three minutes three seconds without any hitch or jam wliatever, and it worked so easily that the same man tireil the whole of the 3,000 rounds without any relief ; immediately after the tiring ceased, the officers ascertained that the gun was in perfect order and worked quite as easily as at the commencement. For laud service they have been recommended more especially for two purposes. First, for acting on the thinks of artillery for the protection of artil- lery against infantry lire. The enemy's infantry could never advance so close up to a battery of artil- lery as to force it to retire if the battery had on each flank a ten-barrel gun firing ritle cartridges, and ca- valry w(>uld never charge, or could never reach a battery protected thus by two guns capalile of a very rapid tire continuously poured out of it, wliile the gimner who aims the guu wovdd all the time follow the movements of the advancing cavalry. The ten- barrel guns are mounted on an ordinary light field carriage with its limber which holds 4,000 rounds (Fig. 3). Four horses easily manage the gun and Umber, three men ride on the limber, and the Cap- tain of the guu is separately mounted. The second purpose for which this t_ype is adapted is especially for position defense. Wherever machine-guns can be used in such positions that there is little or no dif- ficulty to provide ammunition, and where it is not required to lift the gun about too often, the ten-bar- rel Nordenfelt is to be recommended. Even with its great rapidity of fire it does not require any greater number of gunners to serve it than the five-barrel guns. It has been stated that a machine-gun wastes am- munition, but this is not tlie ease, because it must score a nuich greater percentage of hits than has been recorded in recent wars from rifle fire. This is quite natural, because the gun has no nerves and is not fired from the unsteady shoulder of a man pant- ing with fatigue or excitement— and a soldier would commence to fire his rifle at long range (where he wastes Ills shots) for fear tliat he might not be able to stop in time an enemy who outnumbers him. If he has a gun that fires 1,000 rounds a minute, he, would keep cool and aim carefully, well knowing that when he does commence lire at short range no enemy can face il . The No. 10. Sc-ceii-harrel rifli-i-ali. her fjan; and \\u- 'Hit. W. Fice-lmrrel riJleuuiUlier yun are each made to the jiatleni of tlie four-barrel gun. with such alterations in llii' inner mechanism as are, nei fssary.in conse(|ueiice of the gun being narrower. They weigh \\ cwt. and 1 cwt. res|)eclively, and lire with a rajiidily of 7.'")0 and 000 rouiuls pir minute. The llvi'-barri'l gun has lintd 3,000 rounds in 5 minutes ,5 seconds without any hitch or jam ; the same man firing tlie whole of tlie 3,0(XJ rounds with- out relief. It has also fired at 30 degrees elevation, and at 30 degrees depression, tlie feeding andexlrao tion giving iierfect satisf.ution. For the very rapid movements of mounled infantry, and to save "lime In dismounting the gun for tiring, and mounting it again when it has to be moved, a very light carriage has been made at the suggestion of Lord Charles IJeres- ford, on four wheels, to be drawn by two horses driven by a man sitting on his box on the two front wheels. The gun is mounted at the rear of the car- riage, and is fired fnjin it without taking out the horses; 3,000 rounds of ammunition are carried on the same carriage, as well as the gunner wlio fires (he gun, and .a second man who looks after and supplies the ammunition. 'Hie remainder of the ser- vice for the gun are mounted on spare horses, liar- nessed so as to replace quickly any of the driven horses that become disabled 'I'lie carriage itself is so light that it carries a shield to protect the gun and the gunners, and also to prot(,'ct 'he horses against direct lire from the enemy's rifles during the time the gun is fired. This shiehl enables the giin to advance within shorter distance of the enemy's rifle fire than could otherwise be done, and allows the gun to be kept at shorter and more effective ranges when re- tiring before infantry. The essential idea of this mode of using the gun is of course to make all pos- sible use of its exceedingly rapid movements, to rush forward to a comparatively close range against in- fantry or artillery, taking t"he risk of being disabled while galloping forwanis (much in the same way as the men in a torpedo boat take the risk when ap- proaching a vessel). In infantry service the gun is mounted on its own limber (Fig. 4), from which it is fired; the limber, as represented in th,e drawing, is on two wheels, the pole acting as a trail wdien the gun is to be fired. In this case, as well as in the previous one, the gun can be trained nearly all round by means of a traversing screw without shifting the position of the carriage. When mounted for infantry on the two-wheel limber carriage it can be served with six men with drag-ropes. " If desirable, there can be four men dragging, the other two acting as reliefs when changing the men at the ropes, or as spare men if any of tlie others are di.sabled. With the Captain of the gun there would thus be only seven men required. The five-barrel gun can also be used for mountain service with advantage, the gun and the trail being quite light enough to be carried each on a mule, a third mule taking the wheels and axle, and a fourth the ammunition, hoppers, and imple- ments, with other mules for spare ammunition — the only difference from .the three-barrel gun being that this would require an additional mule for the gun and carriage and more ammunition. On the other hand its fire w-ould be more effective, and only the same luimber of men are required to serve it." It could also be placed in an ammunition wagon for the use of infantry, though only four five-barrel guns could be carried, if cTosely packed, by the wagon within the same weight as si.x live-barrel guns. No. 12. 2'lirec-harri'l rifle-caliber gun ; and No. 13,* Tiro-biirrel rifle-caliber gun. These are made to the pattern of the two-barrel volley gun. They weigh respectively riS pounds and 40 i)ounds, and fire at the rate of 400 and 300 rounds per minute. For na- val service they are not used at present, because tlie five-barrel Norileiifelt is quite light enough for all na- NORMAL PROFILE. 424 flORHAL PROFILE. val purposes, but for land service tbey are very use- ful, in consequence of tin ir lishtnessand simplicity. The three-barrel gun does not weigh more than tlie Gardner one-barrel, and the Nordenfelt three-barrel gun consists of thirty-tive pieces compared to thirty- three pieces in the Gardner one-barrel.. All these light Nordenfelt guns are, like those of larger calibers, made almost entirely of best wrought steel instead of the gun-metal so freely used in some other types of machine-guns. In order not to be exposed to rust, these light Nordenfelt steel guns are carefully and completely covered over in a galvanic bath with a coating of copper which protects the guns as well as all the various parts of the mechanism except the actual wearing surfaces. These types are designed especially for the following purposes: 1. Fur cnv- alry. — The gun is so light and so convenient in shape that it can be carried on a led horse at the same speed as the cavalry advances without disabling the horse. One led horse would then be required fur the gun and implements, one led horse for the stand from which it is to be tired when the gun is dis- mounted, and one led horse for the cartridge hop- pers or feed cases tilled with ammunition. Other horses or baggage wagons would carry the e.xtra supply of ammunition. 2. Fur mounta'n sire'cs. — A gun nmle which can carry 2 cwt., including sad- — except, perhaps, as a wall piece — when it is proved that I ven a tliree-barrel gun can be made light enough to be carried by a man on his shoulder. A General would probably not submit to the expense and incon- venience of a macliine-guu eiiuipnient and service of men and mules for gun and ammunition, when the efficiency of the gun is entirely dependent on one single ritlc barrel. See Machitn'-rjun. NORMAL PROFILE.— Profile which would be con- structed for a work located upon a level site, and when there is time to build it. It is evident that great variations must occur, influenced largely liy the hind of eartli and the surrounding circumstances at the time of the construction. Slopes which are practicable in one kind of earth will not retain their shapes in other kinds. Parapets placed on sites com- manding all ground in common range need not be so high as those on lower ground commanded by neighboring heights. The principles laid down and the reasons expressed for the normal profile apply equally well to all its variations. A consideration of the following jirinciples will lead to the construc- tion of a strong profile which is essential to a vigor- ous defense. Men of the greatest ordinary stature, in bringing their muskets lo an aim, do not fire at a higher level than about five feet ; therefore any mass of this height in front of them will just inter- Fig. 4. die, would carrj- the gun and stand. A second mule would carry the wheels, axle, and cartridge hoppers filled, and other mules would carry the extra supply of ammunition wanted for the gun. 3. For infiintry. — Six of these guns, with tlieir stands, wheels and hoppers can be stowed away in one bag- gage wagon or extra ammunition wagon, and follow the ammunition train which is nearest to the front. "Whenever a comparatively small force of infantr}' is hard pressed, or when it has to protect a threatened point, a larger cantonment, or temporary mtrench- ment, the six guns can be lifted otT the wagon and be ready to commence fire in a few minutes. Two men can drag each gun on its wheels for considerable dis- ances. and one man can carry the gun with two men carrying the stand, if such difficult ground is met with that such a light gim cannot conveniently be dragged over on its wheels. No. 14. Single-barrel rifie-rnliher gun. — This gini is made wifli a ditTerent mechanism from the two patterns ibove named. It •veighs in pounds, and it fires at the rale of 180 rounds per minute; it has often fired successive spurts of 30 shots each in eight to ten seconds. This gun has been made in order to show that a single- barred machine-gun need not be more than 4 pounds lieavier than an ordinary rifle ; at the same time no single-barrel rille-caliber would really be used in war cept their fire : but this mass would not shelter a man standing behind it ; to effect this, in the case of the tallest men usually found in the ranks, the in- terior crest should be at least six feet six inches above the terre-plein. The command must then be regulated by these two facts, and this principle may belaid down. The command of a field work over the ground occupied by the assailant, should be at least five feet; and six feet six inches over that oc- cupied by the a.ssailed. In following this rule for the command, we deprive the assailant of a plunging fire upon the parade ; but as a breast-height of five feet is too high for men of ordinary stature to tiro over it and give their pieces any sensible depression, as is very often requisite, it would be necessary to throw lip a sufficient banquette for this purpose behind the parapet, which would add to the time and labor of constructing the work. On this ac- count it is best to give the parapet only the height to admit effective firing over it, which is about four and a ipiarter feet. But this minimum command would give the assailed cuily a sliglit advantage, as the men, when on the banquette, would be still much exposed; and in an assault the height of the parapet would present an inconsiderable obstacle. These defects of low works have led Engineers to adopt eight feet as the lemt height of parapet which KOBTON LIQUID FIKE. 42: NOTABLES. •will admit of any rcspcftablo defcnao. Tlic greateU heiykl liiiH Ik-cm IixcmJ iit tiDiliv fr.rt, owing to tlic <lif- ficully of Ihrowiiif; up a work willi \\w. ordinary means at liand, wliicli arc usually only llic |iick and Bliovil. Tlic thickness of tlie parapet, wlilcli is iilways esti- mated by tlie iHirizcJMlai ilisiancc hclwecn tin- interi- or and exterior crests, is rci^ulated by the niaterlid lisi'd for the [)arapcl; the kind of allaek: and its pro- bahle duraliou. 'I'he rule adnptcd for this is to add to the dei)tli of penetration of the projectile, given by experiment, one-half for this thickness. In fol- lowing lliis ride there will always he a Ihickness of earth between the extreme penetration of a projectile, at any point below the exterior crest and tli<' interior of the work, ureal er than one- third the Ihickjiess of I he parapet. The su|}i!rior slope is arrangeil to defend the crt^st of the coimti'rscar|); to ellect which the tire slioidd not strike below the crest, nor pass more than three feet over it; otlierwise, cither the counlerscarp would be damaged, or the assailed by stooping when near the crest, would lind a shelter. The inclination of the superior slope, however, sliouldnot be greater than ouc-fourth, niir less than one-sixth. If greater than nnc-fourlh, it would make tli<^ portion of Ilie j)arapel, about tlic interior crest, too weak; and if less than one-si.\tli the ground <lirectl3' in front of the work woiiUl not be so well (Ufended; moreover, as artillery cannot be lired at a greater depression than one-sixth, without injuring the carriage, this inclination of the superior slope serves as a check in rapid tiring. The exterior slope i» the same that the earth natu- rallij ainiiinen. An}' means used to make it steeper would be injurious; because they would be soon destroyed by the enemy's lire, and the earth giving way, the necessary thickness of the parapet would be diminished. riie interior slope receives a base equal to one-third itn fieiyht. This is a residt of experience, which has shown that it is the most convenient fur the soldier in leaning forward to deliver his tire over a parapet. The tread of the banquette is placed four Jeet iitree inches beliiin the interior crest ; this will admit men of the lowest ordinary stature, to tire conveniently over the parapet. Its width is tiro feet, J or a defense with one ran/t-; andfnirfict for two or three ranks; be- cause the third rank does not tire, and i.s therefore placed on the banquette slope, the hase of which is twice the altitude, to render the ascent convenient. Wlien the tread of the bancpiette is very high, and particularly in enclosed works, wIutc interior space is wanted, steps may be substituted for a slope. The berm is a defect in Held works, because it yie'ids the enemy a foothold to breathe a moment, be- fore attempting to ascend the exterior slope. It is useful in tlie construction of the work for the work- man to stand on; and it throws the weigiit of the parapet back on the scarp, which might be crushed out by this pressure. In tirin soils, the berm may be only from eighteen incites to two feet wide; in other cases, as in marshy soils, it may require a width of six feet. In all cases, it should be six feet below the exterior crest — to prevent the enemy, should he form on it, from firing on the troops on the banquette. The dill u should be regulated to furnish the earth for the parapet. To determine its tlimensions, the following points require attention: its depth should not be less than six feet, nor lis width less than twelve feet, to present a respectable obstacle to the enemy. It cannot, with convenience, be made deeper than twelve feet; and ils greatest width is regulated by the inclination of the superior sloiie. which, pro- duced, should not pass below tlie crest of the coun- terscarp. The slopes of the scarp and counterscarp will depend on the nature of the soil, and the action on it ot frost and rain. The sc;irp is less steep than the counterscarp, because it has to sustain the weight of the ))arapet. It is usual to give the slope of the scarp a base equal to two-thirds of the base of the natural slopo of a mound of fresh oarth whose altU lude is equal tolhcdejilh of theditch; the baseof the coiinterscarji slope is made cipial loone-lialf tlie same; base. In excavating the dileh it will be found that more earth will lie furnished at the salients than is re()uired then- for the p:irapet; and that the re-enter- ings will not always turnish enough. On this ac- counl, the' widlli oif the dil(;li should not bi^ uniform, but narrower at the salients than the re-enterings. Tlie salients of the jiarapel on horizontal sites, are sometimes mad(^ higher than the re^'nterings,a grad- Uid slope being given to the interior crest from the salieiils to the ri'-enterings, with a view to cover bet- ter the terrc-plein, towards these last jioints, from tli(^ plunge of an enlilailing fire on tlie faces. The elTcct of this, however, is but trilling, as the descend- ing |ilunge of the projectile is the greater, as the sa- lient is higher over which it passes. On such sites, therefore, the jirolilc of the parapet is usually uni- form throughout. See Field Pvrtificati'm and Profll. inq. NORTON LIQUID FIRE.— In the character of its efl'ccls, Ibis rivals all tli;it has been recorded of the old (Imli Jir( . The composilion henr used consists of a chemical combimition of sulphur, carbon, and phosphorus. The compo.sition is enclosed in a shell, and is instantly ignited upon the shell striking any object. NORWEGIAN ARMY.— By the terms of the laws of I8(ili and 1^7(1, the ;irmy of Norway is composed of Troops of iIk' Line, the Miiilary Train, the Mili- tia or Landevaern, the Civic (Juards, and the I.and- storm, or liiial war levy, In 1HT8 the Troops of the Line numbered 18,000 men and 7/50 ollicers. All young men above twenty-one years of age are liable to serve, with the exception of the inhabitants of the three northern amis of the kingdom. The only for- titied spots are Fredericksteen at Frederickshald, Frcderickslad, Akersliuus, Bergenshuus, Jlunkholni, ;iiid Vardohuus. NOSE BAG. A biig of stout canvas with a leather bcltcnn, and having straps at its upper, open end. by which it may be fastened to a horse's head while he is eating the contained provender. It is generally used for feeding the grain out of the stables. The drawing represents a nose-bag properly provided with means for ventilation, llorses suffer much when their noses are confined in a close nose-bag, where the jaws cannot be opened without compress- ing the nostrils and preventing the ingress of suffi- cient air. NOSE-BAND.— The lower band of a military bridle, passing over in front and attached to the cheek- str;ips. NOTABLES.— The name formerly given in France to persons of distinction and political importance. As the States General were inconvenient to the des- potism of the Monarchv. the Kings of the House of Valois adopted the expedient of calling in their stead Assemblies of the jXotabU-s. the time of calling them and the composition of them being entirely depend- ent on the pleasure of the Crown, by which also their whole proceedings were guided, so that they seuerally consented at once to whatever was pro- posed to them. Thev showed a particular readiness in granting subsidies, to which they themselves, as NOTE. 426 NTTNCUPATIVE WILLS. belonging to the privileged classes, were not to con- tribute. An Assembly of Notables, convened in Paris by Richelieu in 1636, and presided over by Gaston, brother of Louis VIII., consisted of only 35 members. For more than a century and a half even this poor acknowledgment of any other mind or will in the nation tlian that of the Sovereign ceased to be made ; but when the state of the finances brought the monarchy into difficulties and perils, Louis XVI., at the instigation of the Minister C'alonne, had recourse again to an Assembly of Notables, whicli met Feb. 22, 1787, and was dissolved May 25. It consisted of 137 members, among whom were 7 Princes of the Blood, 9 Dukes and Peers, 8 Mar- shals, 11 Archbishops, 22 Nobles. 8 Councilors of State, 4 Masters of Requests, 37 Judges, 12 Depu- ties of the Pays d'Etats, the Civil Lieutenant, and 25 persons belonging to the Magistracy of diflerent cities of the kingdom. Calonne's representations of the state of the finances induced the Notables to adopt many reforms in the matter of taxation; but no sooner was the assembly dissolved, than many of them joined the Parliaments in opposition to resolutions adverse to their private interests, so that the King was compelled to determine upon assembling the States General. Necker, who had meanwhile been placed at the head of affairs, assem- bled the Notables again, Nov. 6, 1788, to consult them concerning the form in which the States General should be convened. The Notables de- clared against every innovation, and so compelled tlie court to half measures which helped to pre- pare the way for the Revolution. The Parliament of the new principality of Bulgaria is spoken of as the Assembly of the Notables. NOTE. — A brief writing intended to assist the memory. Members of Courts-Martial sometimes take notes. They are frequently necessary to enable a member to bring the whole body of evidence into a connected view, where the case is complex. NOT GUILTY. — The form of verdict in a criminal prosecution, and also in some civil actions, when the Court find in favor of thj defendant or accused party. The verdict is conclusive, and the accused cannot, in criminal cases, be tried a second lime. NOT PROVEN. — A form of verdict used in criminal prosecutions when the Court thinks there is some foundation for the charge, but tlie evidence is not strong enough against the prisoner to warrant a ver- dict of guilty. In such a case, a verdict of '• Not Proven " is substantially a verdict of acquittal. Tlie prisoner cannot be tried afterward, even though new and conclusive evidence come to light after the ver- dict. NOYADES. — The execution of political offenders in irreat numbers at once by drowning them, one of tlie atrocities of the French Revolution, practiced at Nantes by Carrier, the deputy of the Convention. This mode of execution was also called, in cruel sport, V<rtieiil DrpiirtntioH. NOYAN. — 1 . The whole of the vacant space or bore of a cannon, under which are compreliended the di- ameter of the mouth, the vacant cylinder, the breech, and the vent. 2. With respect to bombs, grenades, and hollow balls, that which is called yoyan consists of a globular piece of earth, upon which the cover is cast. The metal is poured in between the cover and the Noyan, after which the Noyan,orcore, is broken ami the eiirtli taken out. NtJGGAR, A term in the East Indies for a fort. NUMEROS. Uoiuid pieces of brass or other metal, wliii h wire niHiibcred and used in the old French service ill tlie detail of guards. NUNCIO. The name given to the superior grade of the Ambassadors sent by the Pope to Foreign Courts, who are all calledby the general name of Le- gate. ANuncioisan Ambassador to the CViurt of an Kmperor or King. The Ambassador to a Repub- lic, or to \\\v. Court of a Minor Sovereign, is t'alled Internuncio. NUNCUPATIVE WILLS.— A nuncupative will, so termed from naming an executor by word of mouth, is a verbal testamentary declaration or disposition. By the common law, it was as valid in respect to personal estate as a written testament. A will could not only be made by word of mouth, but the most solemn instrument in writing might be revoked oral- ly. In a rude and uncul'ivated age, to have required a written will would have been a great hardship, but with the growth and progress of letters, the reason forpermitting averbal testament diminished in force, until an effort to establish such a will by means of gross fraud and perjury gave rise to the provisions of the Statute of Frauds. Nuncupative wills, not being regulated by statute as to their mode of celebration or execution, the single question for the judgment of the Court is, whether the nuncupation was made by a person entitled to that privilege. The restrictions of the Statute of Frauds were not applied to wills made by "any soldier being in actual military ser- vice, or any mariner or seaman being at sea." By the revised staLUtes of New York it was provided that nuncupative wills should not be valid, "unless made by a soldier while in actual military service, or by a mariner while at sea." The terms of the ex- ception in the statute are briefly stated as follows : — " Any soldier being in actual military service, or any mariner or seaman being at sea." The phrase- ology is slightly different in these statutes ; but the rule is substantially the same in all- that the nuncu- pation is only valid when made by a soldier in ac- tual military service, or a mariner at sea, at the time of the testamentary act. It is not enough to be a soldier or a sailor, but there must be actual service. The military testament was lirst conceded by Julius CiEsar to all soldiers, but it was subsequentl_v limited by Justinian to those engaged in an expedition — solis qui in expeditiunibus oc^vpati aunt. The exception was borrowed with the rule from the civil law, and the courts have invariably adhered to the principle that there cannot be actual warfare and the soldier not be engaged in txpeditione. So also the nuncu- pation of a mariner to be valid must be made at sea. It is sometimes difficult to determine when the mariner is to be considered at sea. For example. Lord Hugh Seymour, the Admiral of the station at Jamaica, made a codicil by nuncupation while stay- ing at the house on shore appropriated to the ad- miral of the station. The codicil was rejected on the ground that he only visited his ship occasionally, while his family establishment and place of abode were on land at the official residence. But when a mariner belonging to a vessel lying in the harbor of Buenos Ayres, met with an accident when on shore by leave, made a nuncupative will, and died there, probate was granted for the reason that he was only casually absent from his ship. The will of a ship- master made off Otaheite has also been allowed. The principle upon which the privilege of nuncupa- tion is conceded applies to all persons of whatso- ever classes engaged in the marine service, wliat- ever may be their special duty or their occupation on the vessel. As in the army, the term " soldier" em- braces every grade, from the private to the highest officer, and includes the gunner, the surgeon, or the general; so in the marine, the term " mariner" ap- plies to every person in the naval or mercantile ser- vice, from the common seaman lo the captain or ad- miral. It is not limited or restricted to any sjiecial occupation on shipboard, but a pur.ser, or any other person whose particular vocation does not relate to the sailing of the vessel, possesses the same right as the sailor. A cook is certainly as mucli a necessary jiart of the eil'eclive service of a vessel as the purser or the sailor; and there would seem to be no ri'ason why he should be ex<'luded from the advantage of a rule designed for the benefit of men engaged in the marine, without reference to the particular branch of duty performed in the vessel. As well because the wills of sokliers and mariners were excepted from NUBSE. 427 OBEDIENCE. the oporationsof the proviHinns of tlin Statute of Frauds, as for the niifioii ami irnniiiil of the excep- tion. ami tlu: ])cciiliar charai'tcr of tlic military IcHta- nu'iit, it was never licld rciinisili- lliat llicir nuncu- Siitions Hlioiild be made liiiriii;.; I lie last sickness, 'or has any ])arti<iilar mode lieen iirescriljcd in re- spect to the niiiniier of makin'.^ the leslanient. The very essence of the privilejie, however, consists in the iil)SeIi<:e of all c<Temonies as lejral re(|iiisiles -or, us Merlin stales the pro])ositioii, "Iheir f<irin was properly to have no form." It is true the Roman law prescribes two witnesses; l)iit this, however, did not relate to the essence of the act, hut only to the proof. In respect to evidence, we do not follow the civil or canon law; no particular number of witnesses is re- (|uired lo verify an ad jiidiciiUly, and ;dl the court (ieni:uids is lobe s;itislicd l)y siiHicienl evidence as to the substance of th<' last leslanii'ntary requestor declaration of the deceased. This ascerliiined, the law holds it sacred, and carries it into elTect with as much favor and regard as would be paid to the most formal instrument executed with every Ici^id solem- nity. And so, according to numerous decisions, made in (Jrcat Bril;iin, quoted t)y I'rendergasI, "whenever ii military ollicer on full p;iy m;ikes an in- formal will its validity can only be supportcil by showing the testator to have been on actu;d military service at tlic time the will was made. And the re- sult of tlie decisions ajipears to be, thiit an officer serving with his regiment, or in command of troops in garrison or quarters, either in the United King- dom or the Colonies, is not deemed ondi-lmil military service. To satisfy the meaning of the Act of Par- liatnent in that respect, he must be on an expedition, or on some duly associated with positive danger." HUB8E. — A person whose whole buBineflB is to attend tin- sick in hospital. In the L'nilr'rl Stutc-H service, nurses are dclailed in post hospitals from the companies who ari' serving at the post. Ordi- narily one nurse is allowed to every ten persons sick in hospital. In ('ontinental Armies the "Sisters of Charilv" usually carry their mission of niercy into the military hosjiilals. Protestant Knghinil having no such organization to f;ill back upon, the soldierH have l)een dependent on the regular male hospital attendants for their care during sickness, or whea sidfering from wounds. Th<; Crimean campaign, however, disclosed so melancholy ii picture of the want of women's co-operation, thai a liand of self- sacrificing ladies, headed by .Miss Nightingale, pro- ceeded to Turkey, an<l were soon acknowledged as messengers of health and life l)y the unfortunate wounded. The example thus set has not been without effect. In th<' Franco-German war of 1870- 71 lady luirses in large nund)crs and of various na- tion« ministered in all tin- mililarv hospitals, and the like took plat-e again during tlie Uusso-Turkish war of 1H77-7H. NUTHALL RIFLE.— In the ordinary mode of groov- ing rillcs, sharp iingles are left between the groove and "land " (those parts of the smooth-bore left in their original state after the process of grooving has been completed). These create great friction with the projectile, both in loading and discharging. Ma- jor Nut hall removes these objections liy rounding off the "lands" into the grooves, that "is, making them a series of convex and concave curves, the bore assuming a beautiful ajipearance to the eye, for the smoothness and evenness with which the lands and grooves blend into each other. o OAKUM. — A tangled mass of tarred hempen fibers. ni:iilc from old rope by untwisting the stniiids and rubbing the fibers free from each other. Its princi- pal use is in caulking the seams between planks, the space round rivets, bolts, etc., for the purpose of preventing water from penetrating. It is much used in artillery for packing shot and shell, wiping the vents of guns after tiring, cleaning elevating screws and implements, and in making washing sponges. OATHS. —The taking of the oath of lid'elity to Gov- ernment and obedience to Superior Officers, was, among ancient armies, a very solemn atlair. A whole corps took the oath together, sometimes ;ui entire army. In modern times, when so many other checks are used for maintaining discipline, the oath has be- come little more than a form. In the United King- dom a recruit enlisting into the armj' or militia, or a volunteer enrolling himself, swears to be faithful to the Sovereign, and obedient to all or any of his Superior Officers; also to divulge any facts coming to his knowledge whicli might atfeet the safety of his Sovereign, or the stability of that Sovereign's Government. The Members of a Court-Martial take oath to try the cases brought before them justly, ac- cording to the evidence, to keep secret the finding until ooutirmed b}- the proper authority, and to keep secret always the opinions given by the mem- bers iudividualTy. The only other military oath is the common oath of a witness before ;i Court-Mar- tial to tell the truth the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. See .lrt(Wf« «/ U'rt;-. OBEDIENCE.— Submission to the lawful orders of a Superior. Two questions arise under this article ; AVho is to judge of the legality of the command, and who may constitute a Snperior OJfiferf It is evident that if all officers and soldiers are to judge when an order is Imrful and when not, the captious and the mutinous would never be at a loss for a plea to justify their insubordination. It is, therefore, an es- tablished principle, that, unless an order is so mani- festly against law that the (|Uestion does not admit of dispute, the order must first be obeyed by the In- ferior, and he must subsequently seek such redress against his Superior as the laws allow. If the In- ferior disputes the legality before obedience, error of judgment is never admitted in mitigation of the offense. The redress now afforded by the laws to Inferiors is not. however, sufficient ; for doubtful questions of construction of Statutes, instead of being referred to the Federal Courts of Law for their true exposition, have received variable expositions from the E.xecutive, and left the army in an unfortu- nate state of uncertainty as to the true meaning of certain laws, and this uncertainty has been most un- favorable to discipline. Again, wliilethe punishment of death is meted to officers and soldiers for dis- obedience of Imrful commands, the law does not protert, officers and soldiers for obeying unlatrful commands. Instances have occurred in our country, where officers and soldiers have been subjected to vexatious prosecutions, simply for obeying orders, according to their oath of office. Would it not be just if the law, instead of requiring otlicers and sol- diers thus nicely to steer between Scylla andChaiyb- dis. should hold the Superior who gives an illegal order, alone responsible for its execution? By Sit.. perhr Officer in tlie Articles of War, is meant an offi- cer who has the risrht lo command his inferiors in OBEBEB. 428 OBLIQUE. the military hierarchy. The word superior, there- fore, embraces, within their appropriate circle of of cominand. Commanding Generals, Superior Regi- mental and Company Officers, Superior Officers of Corps or Departments, and the Commanding Officer en guards, marches, or in quarters of whatever corps of the line of the army, marine corps or mil- itia authorized to command the whole, whenever different corps come together. This construction of the words ''officers appointed over me, according to to the Rules and Articles of War," is manifest by an attentive examination of those articles. See for e.xample, Abt. 34, which gives authority to "all officers of what condition soever to part and quell all quarrels, frays, and disorders, though the permmx cimc'rned should belong to anMher regiment, troop, or company:' Here it is seen that the ordinary subor- dination, by grades, is found only in the same " rrgi- inent, troop, or company:' Tl^e power to part and quell quarrels, is, however, made an exceptional case, in favor not only of officers of different fegi- ments, but the power is even extended to those of an " inferior rank." In a company, regiment, or corps, subordination by grades is established by the terms of the c(3mmission held in such regiment or corps. So, also, where officers hold commissions in the arm)' at large, their right to command when on duty is co-extensive with their commissions. Within regi- ments and corps the muster-roll, then, at once deter- mines the question of superiorly of officers on duty. OBEKEE.— One of the three parts of which the en- ciente is formed, in the German system of fortifica- tion. OBJECT-GLASS.— The glass in a telescope or micro- scope, which is placed at the end of the tube nearest the object, and first receives theraj-s of light retlected from it. The office of the object-glass will be clearly understood by an examination of the common opera- glass, shown in the drawing. This is a double tele- scope, constructed optically on the same principle as the telescope invented by Galileo, and is used for looking at objects that require to be clearly seen rather than greatly magnified— such as scenery and performances in theaters and pulilic halls. Each tube contains a convex achromatic object lens and a double concave eye lens, which are placed at neatly the difference of their focal length apart. Thus, if the object-glass is five inches focus, and the eye-piece one inch negative focus, the length of the bodies will be about four inches, and the power will be nearly live times — that is, the objects looked at through the opera-glass will be seen as distinctly as they would be with tlie naked eye if brouglit four times nearer the observer. Opera-glasses, are short and light, and can l)e easily managed with one hand; they have small maguifying power, say from two to four times. The two object-glasses or large lenses are the most important ones, and upon their perfection the qual- ity of the opera-glass depends. With the opera-glass a low magnifying power and large and clear field of vi(^w are the great objects to be desired, on account of the comparative nearness of the objects looked at; l)ut when Ihe objects are one or more miles distant, power becomes a more important quality than field of view. To obtain a greater magnifying power with glasses constructed upon the principle of the opera-glass, the distance between the object-glasses and cj'e-pieces must be increased, and the greater that distance the higlier the power. In order to keep up fair proportion of light with the increase of power, the object-gla.sses must increase in diameter. Such glasses, as they are only intended for outdoor use, are called Field or Marine-glasses, have shades to extend beyond the object-glasses to keep off the sun or rain, and are made throughout very substantially, in order to bear rough handling of field or sea service. They are put up in strong leather cases, with strap to sling over the shoulder. The power of field-glasses varies from five to eight times, and their cfearness and efficiency depend upon the accuracy of finish of the object- glasses, and their durability to the strength and good workmanship of the body. See Spy-glass. OBJECTIVE POINT.— The point to be reached or gained by an army in executing a movement, has been termed the objective poi7it. There are two classes of objectives, viz : natural and a-ridental. The term geographical is frequently used to designate the first of these. A natural objectice may be an important position, strong naturally, or made so by fortifications, the possession of which gives control over a tract of co\mtrv, and furnishes good point of support or good lines of defense for other military operations. Or, it may be a great business center, or a capital of the country, the possession of which has the effect of discouraging the enemy and mak- ing him willing to sue for peace. Acridentnl objec- tives are dependent upon the militarj' operations which have for their object the destruction or dis- integration of the enemy's forces. These objectives are sometimes called " objective points ofmanfuver. " The position of the enemy determines their location. Thus, if the enemy's forces are greath* scattered, or his front much extended, the central point of his position would be a good objective point, since the possession of it would divide the enemy's forces, and allow his detachments to be attacked separately. Or. if the enemy has his forces well supported, a good objective would be on that flank, the possession of which would allow his communications with uis base to be threatened. It is well to remark that the term "point" used in this connection is not to be considered merely in its geometrical sense, but is used to apply to the object which the army desires to attain, whether it be a position, a place, a line, or even a section of country. See Base of Operations and Line of Operations. OBLAT. — A disabled soldier formerly- maintained by alilieys. OBLIQUE. — This term, in tactics, indicates a direc- tion which is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the front, but more or less diagonal. It is a com- mand of warning in the tactics for the movenu-nt. It is used when referring to diagonal alignments, attacks, orders of battle, squares against cavalry, changes of front, fires, etc. The oblique step is a step or movement in marching, in which the soldier, while advancing, gradually takes ground to the right or left at an angle of about 25". It is not now practiced. As soon as recruits are well established in the principles of the direct tnarch, they should be exer- cised in luiirehlng obliquely. The squad marching in line, tlie Instructor commands: 1 . Right (or left) ob. liqiie, 3. Makch. At the command oiarrh, each man makes a half face to the right, and I hen marches .straight in the new direction. As the men no longer touch elbows, they glance along the shoiddersof the nearest files, toward the side to which they are ob- li(iuing, and regulate their steps so that their shoul- ders are always behind those of the next man on that siile, and Ihat his headconceals the heads of the other men In the rank. The men preserve the same length of pace and the sanu' (U'gree of ol)li(iuily, the line of OBLIQUE EMBBASURE. 429 OBSTACLES. the milk ntiiminiiii!; piinillcl to its orifrinal position. To rcHiiiiic ilic orli;iiiiil ilircftioii, tint iiislriictor coiii- niiUKis: 1. Forward, 'i. Maiich. At the coiiiinaMil miirch, ciicli iimii imiiUcn ii liiilf fac(-' to Ihr left in nmrfliini;, mill llicn imovch slniiujlit to the front. If the s(|ii;i(i lie at a Ijall, llic men half face to tlic riijlit at llic coniinaiid /vV//(/"W/V/«^', anil slrp olT at (he corn- niaiid iiKirrh. M lialtcd while ol)lii|iiinLr, ""'.V will, after halting, face to the front willioiil fiirllier eoiii- mand. In the oblitiue inareh in line, the fjuard is always on the side toward which Iheoliliijue is made, withoutany indiealion toihat elleet lieinjx ;xiven: and. when tile direet iiiareh is resumed, the irnide is, equally without indication, on the side where it was previous to the ol)lii|ue. Tliis rule /.< gfinriil. The squad in colunin of tiles otiliques by the sanic? foni- mands and means as when in line, the leading file beiiiL' the ^;uiile. OBLIQUE EMBRASURE.— A direct emlirasure is one in which the directrix is perpendicular to the interior crest at the point of intersection with the (Test ; an iihliiiiir eiiihrnimrc is one in wliicli the dircctri.x makes an ansile with the interior crest. When possible, direct embrasures are the ones which are made. If oblique embrasures are to be made, their method of eonstruetiou is practically the same as that fjiven for direet embrasures. Obliipie em- brasures do not admit of the muzzle of the nun beinir inserted so far as the direct ones, and they weaken the parapets more. Oblique embrasures are not used, as a rule, if the directrix makes with the nor- mal to the crest an angle exceeding ten desrees. In case the anfjle is greater, the embrasure is provided for, in field works, by modifying the interior crest. The manner of laying out an oblique embrasure is similar to the direct ; the month is of a rectangular form, but is made wider in ])roportion to the ob- liquity, in order that the part of the embrasure which correspcmds to the muzzle of the gun may be nearly of the same width in both the direct and ob- licpie embrasures. The exterior width of the sole is made equal to one-half the length of the directrix, measured on the sole. The cheeks are laid out as in the last case. The muzzle of a gun should enter at least six inches into the embrasure, to prevent the blast from injuring the checks ; this limits the oli- liquity of the dirertrix to about sixty for long guns. The height of the cheeks must not lie more than four feet forlhe same reason ; it will, therefore, in most cases, be necessary to raise the ground on which the wheels rest, giving to the toj) surface the same dimensions as for a barbette, and forming (he side slo]ies and ramjis in like manner. See Eml.raxure. OBLIQUE FIRE.- When two b.itteries bring their fire obliquely upon one point of the enemy's line, they make, what is called, a cross or concentrated fire, which is very destructive upon columns, though not so efTective as enfilade fire. If a pointed pro- jectile strike an iron plate at a less angle than that formed by a tangent to the curve of the bead, it will probably glance off, as the tendency of the shoulder will be to slide along the plate, and the point will find a difficulty in "biting." If theanglebe greater than about .00 degrees, the resistance will approximately be increased in the proportion of the extra thickness to be traversed. In this case the sharp point of the projectile '"bites" the plate on striking, and the shot has a tendency tobring its axis perpendicular to the face of the target ; perforation then depends upon the energy with which the projectile may be anima- ted. Tlius the side of the Mnnnrrh (T-inch plates) could be perforated "directly" by a projectile having ; a zone-energy of 90 foot-tons, but it would require lib I foot-tons to send the same projectile through at an ' angle of (50 degrees. The defense, therefore, should | not rely too much on the chance of shot striking "ob- liquely" ; for the projectiles fired from large modern rified ordnance would probably perforate all thinly armored ironehidsat all fighting angles and ranges. OBLIQUE FLANK.— In fortification, that part of the \ curtain from whence the face of the opposite bastion may be discovered; and is the dislanee between thr; lines r««/7i< nni\Ji'/iant, which an- rejected by some engineers, us being liable to be ruined at the begin- ning of a siege, esjiecially when made of sandy earth. This olilique or second Hank defends very obliquely the opposite face, and is lo he used only in a place attacked bv an anov witlmnr arlillerv. OBLIQUE order" OF BATTLE. Military writers describe this order of battle us one in whi<!h the [irimitive jiarallel order has been departed from, with the design of giving the one force, liy maneuvering, a superiority over the other, or, in otlier words, if an army attacks its enemy in Hank, say the right, its own right must be refused, and lience. when it ar- rives on the enemy's line, the army will be in oblique order. In order to make use of the obliipK- order with success, the enemy must be deceived as to the intention to attempt it, otherwise it may be in his power to frustrate its execution by reinforcing tlie menaced Hank ; extreme caution, therefore, in the preparation for such a maneuver, and the utmost rapidity in its execution, are indispensalily reipiisitc. The aim of using tliis order of battle is to turn or outflank the enemy. See Order i if liattk. OBLIQUE STEP.— A step or movement in march- ing, in which the soldier, while advancing, gradually takes ground to the right or left at an angle of about 25"^. It is not now |)racliced. OBLONG BULLET.- This form of bullet at present used in the United States' service, is composed of a cylinder surmounted by a conoid — the conoid being formed of the arcs of three circles. The cylinder has three grooves cut in it, in a direction perpendic- ular to its axis, to hold the grease necessary for lu- bricating the bore of the piece in loading, and possi- bly to guide the bullet in its flight, after the manner of the feathers of an arrow. A conical cavity is form- ed in the bottom, in which the gas of the charge ex- pands, and forces the sides of the bullet into the grooves or rifies of the gun. From these grooves it receives a rotary motion around its long axis, which prevents it from turning over in its flight. See Bui- let. Pr'ijirtilis and Rmind Bullet. OBSERVATORY.— For the purpose of observing the flight and effect of the projectiles, a look-out termed an observatory, is arranged on one of the flanks of the batterj' ; in most cases the end of an cpaulement will afford a safe point, where a secure shelter of sand-bags can be made so as to enable an officer with a field-glass to note the range and effect of the fire, so as to regulate it and give the greatest ethcienev. OBSERVER SERGEANTS.— In the United States, Sergeants in the Signal Service, stationed in large towns and important commercial centers to give timely warning of the approach of storms, rise of rivers, and all other important weather news for the guidance of niercliants and others. OBSISIONAL CROWN.— A crown so called- among the ancients, which was bestowed upon a Governor or General, who by his skill and exertions, either held out or caused the seige to be raised of any town belonging to the Republic. It was made from the grass which grew on the spot, and was therefore called r/rniiiinenji. OBSTACLES. — No obstacle is insurmountable. Ob- stacles may hinder, and even slop for a while, an OBSTRUCTIONS. 430 OBSTRUCTIONS. euemy's approach, but they can be overcome. Their passive resistance must be aided by tlie active re- sistance of the defense. These obstacles, in order that tliey should be accemory means of defense, should detain the enemy in a position where he will be under the fire of the defenders at close range. Hence, the following conditions should be observed in arranging the obstacles in front of a field work. 1. The obstacles should be placed within close musketry range of the defense. 3. They should be arranged so as not to afford shelter to the enemy. 3. Tliey should, as a rule, be protected from the fire of the enemy's artillerj'. 4. They should be ar- ranged so as not to interfere with an active defense of the work. Their uses as obstacles wUl depend upon the degree of resistance which they offer in harmony with the foregoing conditions. Abatis placed in the ditch will, in one case, be in the best position ; in another, it should be placed some distance in front of the work. A fraise placed in tlie scarp, when the ditch is swept b_v a fire from the work or from ditch defenses, will be better than if along the counterscarp. Torpedoes, military pits, entanglements, etc., may all be combined. In some cases The grotmd in front of the work will be the better position; in others, the crest of the counter- .scarp and the ditclies offer the best conditions for their use. As a general rule, it is advisable to place the obstacles not nearer than fifty yards to the in- terior crest, if the profile is a weak one. When the profile is strong, it is not a matter of so much im- portance, so long as the assaulting columns are exposed to the fire of the defense. It is well to remark with respect to inundations, that they should not be used until tlie last moment. The unliealthi- ness due to the presence of stagnant water is apt to produce more casualties than are to be feared from the enemy's attacks. If the dams can not be pro- tected or hidden from the enemy's artillery fire, they should be built, as far as possible, so that the enemy can bring his fire to bear only upon the upper side. The amount of the dam exposed to his fire will then only be the portion between the top and the surface of the water. See Accessory Means of Defense. OBSTRUCTIONS.— Water may be made a very im- portant accessary means of defense in many localities, as in a fiat, marshy country where the level of the natural surface lies but at a slight elevation above the water-level; or as, in the case of an undulating surface, where small streams running through val- leys, can be dammed back, so as to produce an in- undation of some extent. In the former case, the defensive works can be easily girdled by a zone of marsliy ground, which will give an assailant great trouble to construct his trenches and other siege-works upon, whilst the work itself can be secured from attempts at surprise, by keeping its ditches filled with water to the depth of six feet at least. In such a locality — moreover, if in a climate where the winters are mild — revetted scarps and counterscarps, the chief use of which is to prevent an attempt at an open assault, may be replaced by earthen ones, a strong stockade being formed along a wide berm, answering as a corridor, to give greater securitj' on the more exposed fronts of the work. In the latter case, portions of the ground, in the immediate vicinity of the works, may be covered by a sheet of water, of sulHcient depth to prevent their being us('d by the assailant in his approaches; and within the inundation thus artificially produced de- tached works may be erected, wliieli, bj' taking flank and reverse views over other lines of approach of the assailant, may force him to make his approach upon other points which will have been strongly fortified to mc'ct this condition of things. To form these artificial inundations the locality must lend itself to the construction of dams, in such a position that they cannot be reached by the assail&at's missiles, and will be secure from any other means he may take to destroy them. This supposes, then, that the stream should either run through the works, so that the dam could be erected within them or so near to them that, in combination with some advanced work, the dam may be made secure. In a locality having these features, the inundation would, as a general rule, have to be formed on the upstream side of the work, since, if made below it, the dam would have to be placed further from the work, and the inundation itself might spread up too far within. Besides these objections to this position, an assailant would evidently have greater facilities for tapping the inundation and running the water off than when it occupies the upstream position. The position and extent of the dams, and the other neces- sary constructions connected with them, as sluices, waste weirs, etc., will depend entirely upon the lo- cal features of the site, and will form a particular study in each case for the engineer. Besides these uses of water as a passive obstruc- tion, arrangements may be made, when the locality is favorable to it, for producing a powerful current to sweep away the assailant's works in the ditches by letting loose a large body of water, which has been dammed back for the purpose, with a rush into the ditches. This, in like manner, will require the same constructions as in the preceding ease, and Hash gates which can be suddenly turned about a hori- zontal or a vertical axis, so as to give an outlet to the water in considerable volume" and with great velocity. These gates have to be placed in some secure point of the ditches, inaccessible to the assail- ant and covered from his missiles, and, if effectively used, may prove a source of great annoyance to him by frequentl}- frustrating his attempts to make a pas- sage of the ditch. Solid hard rock, or even thin layers of soft rock alternating with layers of soil, as was the case at Sebastopol, are great obstructions to an assailant's siege works, as the rock has, in many cases to be blasted out to gain partial cover, and a large amount of earth, with trench materials, has to be brought forward at great risk of life to form the parapets. In constructing a work, nothing should be omitted which, if placed on the line of the assailant's ap- proaches, will delay his operations and force him to greater efforts and exposure. To this end, where fragments of rock can be readily had in sutticient quantities, it should be used in forming the embank- ment of the glacis, and also be thrown in upon other points, over which important lines of trenches must necessarily run. Besides these accessory means of delaying the pro- gress of the besieger's works, a site of solid rock, of- fers the farther advantage of giving natural scarps and counterscarps, where the ditches are excavated out of the rocks, of far greater resistance to the as- sailant's means of destruction than any masonry, however solidly and carefully constructed, can offer; besides forcing the assailant to construct galleries through the rock to attain the level of the bottom of the ditch where his passage of it is to be constructed. With a similar purpose, the stumps of large trees may be left in like positions, and trees may be plant- ed when the work is constructed with the object of cutting them down and leaving their stumps when the work is threatened with a siege. Mines, when properly, arranged and well planned, are so important a defensive means that they should constitute a part of the permanent dispositions of defense of every work wliere the eliaracter of the soil will admit of it, at least on those points which are otherwise weakest, and therefore most liable to be assailed. The general arrangement of a combina- tion of galleries and mine chambers, as well as the details fortheir construction, are given in the articles, Mines, and CJountekmines; therefore, nothing further is called for here than to state that li>e jirincipal gal- leries of the combination should be constructed with OBTUEATEUE. ODOKETZK. the work, and of durablo malprials, Ifavini; llicf)tli<T parts to bi! done when I lie i-xi'icncy calliri'^ for tliciii iniiv liiippi'Il. Si'C, AraxxDiy/ Mrii.uH oj Ihfi iiac, OBTUEATEUE.- A kiiiil of slnppcr, wliiili is usual- ly iiiaili' (if uriKiglil iron, anil umucI with the Mailcn, and similar fuses. The i>hltir<itcur is screwed into tlic Ial)le, and assists in preventing the soft metal of the fuse from being driven into the shell by tlie force of tlie eliars;e. OBTUEATION. — The'eseape of i;as at tlie junction of the brceeli block and tlie end of tiic bore must be preveiitccl; the sj'stem of «/'^«/'a<'«rtemployed by tlie Enijlish i]i tlieir iiu)dern IS. I;., (interrupted screw; oninance was a carefully made steel cup attached to the breech-block ; when the gun was fired tlie ex- panding gases pressed the sides of the steel cup against the bore and over the junction with the block, thus closing all small orifices. Iinnicdiati'ly afterwards the elasticity of the steel caus<Ml the cup to regain its former shape, and the breech could be opc^ned again. Th<' French have obtained good results from tlu; lateral expansion of a wad of asbes- tos and tallow acted on by a hemispherical steel block at the end of the bore. With 15. L. small arms the oMuratiini., is elTec:ted by the use of a nielallic cartridge-case. OBUS- OBUSIEE.— A species of small mortar, re- sembling a mortar in everything but the carriage, ■which was made in the furm of that belonging to a gun, onl}' shorter. It has been frequently used at sieges; and was well calculated to sweep the cover- ed-way and to lire ricochet .shots. They wen' usual- ly loaded with cartouches. A howitzer, called Ohiis. icr, was known under the name of lluHcnicze, in 1434. OC. — An arrow used by Turkish archers and bow- men. OCCUPATION AEMY.— An army that remains in possession of a newly conquered country, retaining it as a kind of hostage, until peace is signed and the ■war indemnity paid. Armies of Occupation are gen- erally fed at liie expense of the defeated nation. OCTAGON. A plane closed tigure of 8 sides. When the sides are e(jual, anil also tlie angles, the figure is called a "regular octagon"; in this case, each angle is 135", or equal to three half right angles. If the alternate corners of a regular octagon be joined, a square is constructed ; and as the angle contained between the sides of the square and of the octagon is one-fourth of a right angle, the octagon may easily be constructed from the square as a basis. The oc- t.agon in fortitication is well calculated in its ground for the construction of large towns, or for such as have the advantage of neighboring rivers, especially if the engineer can so place the bastions, that the en- trances and outlets of the rivers may be in some of the curtains. By means of this disposition, no per- son could come in or go out of the garrison without the Commandant's permission, as the sentinels must have a full view from the flanks of the neighboring bastions. ODA. — A name given to the different corps or com- panies into which the Janissaires were divided. The ■word Oda means a room, and the companies were so called from messing separately. ODA-BACHI.— A termapplied to a Captain super- intending the gunners at Constantinople. ODIUS. — A herald in the camp of the Greeks be- fore Troy. OBOMETEB. — An instrument attached to a carriage or other vehicle, for the purpose of registering the distance it has traveled. Such machines have been in use from an early period, and one is described by Vitruvius in that part of his work De ArchiUxtura, ■which is devoted to machines. The instrument, as commonly employed, consists of a train of wheel- work, which communicates motion from the axle of the carriage wheel to an index which moves round the circumference of a dial fixed in one side of the carriage over the axle. The wheel-work is arranged so as to produce a great diminution of the velocity impressed by the axle of the vehicle, and the dial m so graduated that llie index can show the niimbirof miles, furloii'.'s, yards, etc., traversed. The instru- mi'iit is also constructed to work independently, lie- ing in this case provided with wheels and an axle of its own; when this is done the wheel is made of such a size that its circumference is an aliquot part of a mile, an arrangement which greatly siniplifieg tilt; calculation of the distance traversed. The complete Odometer can then be drawn along by a man on foot, or attached behind a carriage. The Odometer, shown in Fig. 1, consists essen- tially of a .s(|uare brass weight or pendulum, hung within a rectangular frame which revolves with the wlieel, while the pendulum remains vertical. Upon the front face of the pendulum are fwo brass ■wlieels, two inches in diameter, the inner surfaces of which are in contact, the edges of both uniting to make a groove corresponding to a worm cut in the middle of a shaft fastened to the sides of the frame. The front wheel has one hundred teeth, the rear one ninety-nine, and both pitch into and are moved by the revolving worm of the frame. There are also the same number of divisions as of teeth on eacli wheel, and they are figured, tlie front wheel from to 100, the rear one from to 0000. The front wheel has three spokes, an index being also cut down on its perimeter to read the divisions of the rear wheel, the front wheel itself being read by a slender steel wire fastened to the brass weight and curving over the worm, so as to be immedia>' .y over the divisions of the wheel. Now when t)'^ frame is made to re- volve by the revolution o*" the wagon wheel, the worm will turn both wheel , and each will be moved forward one tooth by evei^ turn, and when one hun- dred turns are made, the front wheel wUl have moved completelj- around, and the index of its zero division will liave been carried over one division of the inner wheel. And thus by noting the positions of the in- dices of both wheels, the number of revolutions of the wagon wheel can be easily obtained up to 9900, when both wheels will be at zero again. The wagon wheel being of a given size, the number of feet traveled can be at ^nce ascertained by noting the readings of the wheels, at the beginning and end of the journey, subtracting one from the other, and mul- tiplying tlie perimeter of the wagon wheel by the number of turns made. An excellent form of Odometer devised by Messrs Gurley, United States, is represented in Fig. 2. The pendulum is fastened to a shaft turning in tlie center of a strong circular metal box on this shaft, and turn- ing ■nitli it is a pinion giving motion to a train of wheels, each of which has also a shaft to the end of which an index is fastened. There are dials for each index as shown, and the number of turns of the wagon wheel can thus be counted up to 100,000. A (EIL DE B(EUF. 432 OFFENSIVE BATTIE. strona: bezel ring with thick glass covers the dials and allows them to be easily read. The Odometer is securely fastened to the spokes of the wheel by three carriage-bolts, there being also a thick leather washer on each side confined between the bottom of the projectmg arms, and a metal washer of same shaue on the other "side of the spokes. In using this Odo- Fig. 2. meter the reading of the dials must be taken at both ends of the journey, the one subtracted from the other, and the remainder showing the number of turns of the wagon wheel, multiplied into its peri- meter. See PedomeUr. CEIL DE BCEDF.— A French term literally signify- ing ox's eye, applied in architecture to those small round or oval openings in the frieze or roof of large buildings, which serve to give light to spaces other- wise dark. The most famous is that in the ante- room (where the courtiers waited) of the Royal Cham- ber at Versailles, which gave name to the apartment. Hence the expression, Les Fnstes de V (Eil-de-Batif —\. e., the history of the courtiers of the Grand Jlon- arque, and by extension, of courtiers in general. OFF. — Most distant ; a term commonly used in speaking of horses harnessed to a carriage, in con- tradistinction to near. It means the animal which is harnessed on the right hand facing the front of a team. The tennis variouslj' compounded, as in the expressions, tn march off, to sound off\ to tell off', etc. OFFENSE. — A crime committed by an officer or soldier for which he deserves punishment. All acts that are contrary to good order and iliscipline. omis- sions of duty, etc., may be called military oflenses, and subject the olTeudcr to be tried by Court-^AIar- tial. The principal oflenses are specified in the Ar- ticles of \V:ir. OFFENSIVE BATTLE.— In a purely Offensive Bat- tle, an army seeks file enemy and attacks him wher- ever he is to be found. To know wiiat we are going to encounter is half the battle in almost all affairs of life ; for we are, thus far, secure from the siirprise of finding something in our way that we had not counted upon. In no transaction is lliis beforeliaud knowledge more important tlian in jirepaiing for a battle. Tliere is hardly any labor, any ]iers<inal risk to which a General should not subject himself to gain precise and accurate information on this head. Here he must see for himself, at llie risk of finding his orders misconstrued, and his jilaus (Ufeated by tlie carelessness or stupidity of his sul)ordinafes. A personal reconnoissance therefore of the enemy's position is indispensable, and if this is made on the eve of the attack the General should take another last look in the morning, before moving, to see that the enemy has not anticipated him, and taken steps that call for changes on his part. Of course, what- ever is advantageous to the defensive will particular- ly engage his attention ; but, as his great object is, iiot only to drive back the enemy, but to bring on him a great disaster, the chief point to which he will bend his thoughts, will be to see by what mode and by what point of attack he can secure the greatest strategical results. Considerations therefore both of tactical and strategical character must receive the careful examination of the Commanding Gen- eral, in deciding upon iiis plan of attack. The first, as carrying with it the most im- portant advantage, is the strategical result ; the two principal of which are, first, either to direct the main effort upon that wing of the enemy which, if overthrown, will naturally bring us on the line of retreat of his forces, or, second, upon some point between his two wings which, if pierced, may force his dis- connected forces ondivergent lines of retreat, and thus expose them to the disaster of being beaten in detail, or to the capture or de- struction of one of the fractions. In the bat- tle of Austerlitz, for example, in which the Allies at first acted offensively, their plan was made subservient wholly to the strategi- cal result. The right of the French position was nearest to their line of retreat on Vien- na; by forcing this point, the Allies would have been brought between the French and Vienna, thus throwing them further from their base. It repulsed in this attempt, which was possible, the Allies still covered their own line of retreat, so long as their center and right held firm. The strategical object of Kapoleon, on the contrar3', was to pierce the Allied center, and thus secure the advantages of a successful operation of this kind. Next in importance come what may be termed the grand tactical considerations ; that is, the means of doing most damage to the enemy on the field of battle itself. For example, if the enemy's position is such that he has an impassable obstacle on one of his wings, as a river, lake, or a narrow defile, tac- tical considerations alone would suggest to direct our main attack on the opposite wing, since it is evident that by defeating this, the center and the remaining wing may be very easily thrown upon the ob- struction which it either cannot pass, or must pass with difficulty, and thus be captured or great- ly cut up. In like maimer, tactical considerations would engage us to attack a height on the ene- my's position which, if gained, would give our forces a decided advantage ; or, if his line of bat- tle presents a very salient point, upon which our efforts can be concentrated to attack this point; or if his line at any point presents a wide break, into which we can force our way, to do so ; any one of these pointsi, if gained, would give decided tactical advantage. Though not necessarily leading to the same de- cisive results as the two preceding, a third consid- eration, in choosing the point of attack, is the fa- cility which the natural features of the ground, over which we nuist move tipon it, afford for the combined operatiim of the troops of the different arms that are to make the attack. Too much weight, however, is not to be given to this, in se- lecting the point of attack; as ground, hbwever dillicult, may almost always be got over by troops of all arms, and very often it more tlian compensates for tlie labor of doing so, by the cover and other ad- vantages it may afford in advancing. In tiie liattle of Austerlitz the laclica! advantages were greatly against the Allied point of attack, as OFFENSIVE PATROLS. OFFICER IN CHARGE. they, in the first place, had to advance againHt the villafjfH nccupii'cl liy the Frciicli and 1liroiii;h nar- row, lioMovv riiuds, in which llicir ccilurniiH l)i'canic confuHcd and disnrdiTcd ; and tlicy haii, iiiorrovcr. on the (lank and rear .'iiviral pniids, wilh only narrow cause way w ijcl wccn tlicin,ori which.if thrown, tlicnt was no onllcl of cscap<: cxcciit over these nar- row defdes. all (jf which were exposed to llic artil- lery of the French. The rcsidt, as we know, was a frightful disaster. Prudence c<iunsels, in all such cases, to fon'f;olhe teniptinf; ohjcct of a ^rand result if to gain it we ccjiosc o\irselves, if iinsuccessful, to a f;r<'at disaster. The (lencral who looks forward alone, not proviilini; for his own n'ar or flanks, or who. intent only upon some strikinj; success, rushes recklessly in the purstdt of it. within the jaws of destruction, has learned hut half his trade, and that the most easily ac(|uired and the most dangerous in its ap[)lication in such hands. It is in nicely weii;h- inn these <'onsidcrations and selectinj^ the l)est, that the fireat (Jencral shows his powers. Kccoi^nizin;; scttleil principles as his guides, he does not apply them hlindly. Althou);h hut one point, known as the kf.y-ipnmt, is usually selected for the main effort of the assailant, still the whole line of the assaile<i is more or less menaced, to prevent the key-point from receiving reinforcements. A difTerent course, one hy which we endeavor, so to speak, to envelop the a.ssailed, can only be attempted with a prospect of success, when we are greatly superior in force. Had the Al- lies at Austcrlitz, instead of pressing with such vigor the French left whilst they weakened their center in moving on the French right, thus leaving the pla- teau of Pratzen a comparatively easy prey to the French, simply menaced the left and held the plateau with a strong force, not succeeded in their main at- tack, they would at least have avoided the sub.sequent disaster. Connected with enveloping attacks is that of sending a strong detachment, hy a circuiloi:s route, to fall cm the enemy's rear, wddlst an attack is made on him in front. Such maneuvers are wrong in principle, and nulitary history presents stiking in- stances of their failure in practice. The topograph- ical features of the immediate theater of operations can alone determine whether to risk turning opera- tions. When this is in a very broken or obstructed country so that such a movement may be concealed for the time necessary to perform it, the risk will he less, but the chances are still against it. An attack on the center is the obvious operation when the enemy's line is too extended for the num- ber of his forces. It may also be the best course when the enemy's line of retreat is through a detile in the rear of his center, as, in case of success, each wing is cut off from the line of retreat, and the troops of the center, if forced upon the detile, cannot escape from a serious disaster. Where both flanks of the enemy's position are secure, and it becomes a case of necessity to attack some point of the front must be selected for the main effort, which, if gained, will give a decided advantage. For example, if there is a commanding eminence on his front, every efTort sliould he made to carry it, as, from there, the field of battle being overlooked the enemy would be ob- liged to fall back. In this case the order of battle would necessarily become (wnixat; the divisions of the center, to make the assault, .being in advance whilst their flanks and rear wotild be secured hy the divi- sions of the wings advancing in echelon, those near- est the center being most advanced. P-liminating all exceptional local features, the general case which presents itself is that, where the entire line of the enemy is equally exposed, and where success there- fore depends upon the ability of the assailant to keep the wh(de line so threatened that its reserve alone can be moved with safety from one point to another, whilst a powerful effort with concentrated forces is made on some one point, usually one of the wings. In this case the assailing wing will be strongly rein- forced, particularly with artillery; the center alBO strengthened, whilst the opposite wing will be re- fused, thedivisions receding from towards the center, in echelon, so as to parry any attempt at turning tliiiii. or at making a Hank attack on tliispart. The only geiHTal rules that can he well laid down for the distribution of tliedilTerent arms on thc-tli-ld of battle have already been given. Detailson this point must be necessarily left to the subordinates, wiio, if well ac(piainled with the true functions and resources of their respective arms, will seldom fail to post them so as to do as much injury to the enemy and be ex- posed to as little danger to llK'niselves as the natural features of the lield of battle will admit of. The plan of thi^ battle having been decided on, the maneu- vers to carry it out shoidd be as simple as possible, so as to guard against the failures that almost in- variably attend any attempt at complex movements, within striking distance of the enemy. All di.-ilribu- tions for what are termed passages of lines .'■hoidd be avoided, even in the case of thoroughly drilled troops. The distril)ution of infantry in echelons, wherever it can hea<lopted, is onei,f thi- best, as each division has its sujiport at hand on its flank, wddlst the interval left between the flank of the one in ad- vance and that <jf the one next it in rear, should of- fer sulHcient space for cavalry or artillery to move forward to the front if wanted. See liattlcK, Defen- sire Htittli', and Mired liattlr. OFFENSIVE PATROLS.- That class of patrols made exterior to the line of out-posts, with a view of gain- ing intelligence of the enemy's whereabouts. 'They are composed of larger bodies of men than defen- sive patrols, the number being proportioned both to the distance to be gone over, and the extent of front to be examined. In a position, presenting but few cross-roads, and sparsely settled, a patrol of ten or twenty horsemen may be found ample, to search, with all desirable thoroughness, from twenty to forty miles in advance of the position, along the principal avenues to it ; whereas, with a more ex- tended front, presenting many lateral avenues, double this number might be required for the same duty. From the information obtained, through the ordinary channels of maps, and by questioning the inhabitants at hand, the commanding-oflicer can usually settle, with sufficient accuracy, the strength of a patrol. OFFENSIVE WAR.— Military acts of aggression constitute what is called an Offennite War. Those who assail an opposite or adverse army, or invade the dominions of another power, are said to wage an Offennive War. See War. OFFENSIVE WEAPONS.— All arms of the present day, such as cannon, small-arms, swords, and other weapons which would be used on an army taking the field for offensive operations. See Ordiuince and Smnll-firms. OYTICER.— Military Offif^s are combatant and non-combatant, the latter term including Paymasters, Medical Officers, Commissariat, and other Civil Officers. Commissioned Officers in the English army are those holding commissions from the Crown, or a Lord-Lieutenant, and comprise all holding the rank of ensign, or corresponding or superior rank. Divided by duties, they are Staff Officers (see Staff), or Regimental Officers (see Regiment) ; divided by rank. General Officers, Field Officers, and Troop or Company Officers. The last are Captains, Lieutenants, and Sub- Lieutenants, and, except in the cavalry, are un- mounted. The only Warrant Officers in the army are Master Gunners and Schoolmasters. Non-com- missioned Officers are described under that heading. OFFICER IN CHARGE.— An officer, at the United States Military A( adeiny, charged with the enforce- f ment of all regulations governing the Corps of Ca- dets. Each of the Assistant Instructors of Tactics are in turn detailed as Officer in Charge ; his tour of duty to commence at guard-mounting, at which time OFFICER IN WAITING. 434 OFFICIAL CODETESIES. he reports for orders to the Commandant of CndHs, Between tliirly minutes after receille roll-call and tap:< he stations himself in, or near his office, and at no time durins; his tour absents liimself from it, except on duty or at meals, witliout the sanction of the Cummandant of C'adetn. He is in tlie Cadets' mess-hall at their meals, is present at every parade and roll-call during his tour, and sees that all duty during the day which does not require the presence of the Commandant of Cadets is performed in a sol- dier-like manner, and according to regulations and orders. He sees that all signaTs are sounded at the proper time, and takes effectual measures to sup- press all irregularties and disturbances that may oc- cur in the quarters or their vicinity, and corrects all violations of orders or regulations coming to his knowledge. He visits the sentinels at his discretion during his tour, to see that they are well acquainted with their duties. On being relieved, he embraces in his report all suggestions that maj' be of service to the Commandant for the preservation and pro- motion of health, police and discipline, and reports all offenses against discipline, coming to his knowl- ediie. which have nccurred during his tour of duty. OFFICER IN WAITING.— In the British service, the Officer next for duty. He is mentioned in orders, and ought to be ready for the service specified at a minutes warning. He must not on this account quit the camp, garrison, or cantonment. OFFICER OF THE DAY.— An ofticer whose immed- iate duty is to attend to the interior economy of the corps or garrison to which he belongs, or of those with which he ma)' be doing duty. The Officer of the Day has charge of the guard, prisoners, and po- lice of the garrison; and inspects the soldiers bar- racks, messes, etc. Both the old and the new Officer of the Day are present at guard-mounting. While the old guard is being relieved, they inspect the guard-house, orients, and verify the number of pris- oners. Theyj then proceed to report to the Com- manding Officer, when the Officer relieved presents the report of 'the Officer of the Guard, upon which he previou.sly makes such remarks as circumstances re- quire. At the same time, the new Officer of the Day receives his instructions. The Officer of the Day is responsible for the enforcement of the police regvila- tions, and the cleanliness of the post or camp. " Fa- tigue parties are furnished him when the number of prisoners is insufficient for police purposes. The | Officer of the Day visits the guards during the day at such times as ne may deem necessary, and makes I his rounds at night at least once after 12 o'clock. I The Officer of the Day sees that the Officer of the Guard is furnished with the parole and countersign before retreat. In war time, the Officer of the Day satisfies himself frequently during the night of the vigilance of the police guard and advanced posts. He prescribes patrols and rounds to be made by the Officer and Non-commissioned Officers of the Guard. The Officer of the Guard orders them when he thinks necessarv. He visits the sentinels frequently. — OFFICER OF THE GUARD.— An officer "detailed daily for service with the guard. It is his duty, imder the Ofiicer of the Day, to see that the Non- commissioned Officers and men of his guard are well instructed in all their duties; he inspects the reliefs, visits the sentinels, and is responsible for the pris- oners and the property used by them and the guard. He is also responsible for good order, alertness, and discipline. ( )fficers remain constantly at their guards, except while visiting their sentinels, or necessarily engaged elsewhere on their proper duty. The Of- ficer of the (iuard insi)ects his guard at reveille and retreat, and sees that the (-ountersign is duly rom- miniicated to the sentinels at the prliper time before twilight. See (hiard Ilipurt. OFFICIAL COURTESIES. The interchange of offi. cial ei)mj)liincnts and visits between foreign military or naval otliicrs, and the authorities of a military post, urc international in character. In all cases it I is the dutj' of the Commandant of a military post, without regard to his rank, to send a suitable officer to offer civilities and assistance to a vessel-of-war (foreign or otherwise) recently arrived. After such offer it is the duty of the Commanding Officer of the vessel to send a suitable officer to acknowledge such civilities, and request that a time be specified forliis reception by the Conmianding Officer of the post. The Commanding Officerof a military post, after the usual offer of civilities, is always to receive the first visit without regard to rank. The return visit by the Commanding Officer of the military post is made the following day, or as soon thereafter as practicable. When a Military Commander officially visits a vessel-of-war he gives notice of his visit to the vessel previously thereto, or sends a suitable officer (or an orderly) to the gangway to announce his presence, if such notice has not been given. He is then received at the gangway by the Commander of the vessel, and is accompanied there on leaving by the same officer. The officer who is sent with the customary offer of civilities is met at the gangwaj' of a vessel-of-war bj' the Officer-of-the-Deck ; through the latter he is pre- sented to the Commander of the vessel, with whom it is his duty to commimicate. A vessel-of-war is approached and boarded, by commissioned officers, bj' the star-board side and gangway, when there are gangways on each side. In entering a boat, the junior goes first and other officers according to rank; in leaving a boat, the senior goes first. The latter is to acknowledge the sahites which arc given at the gangwa)' of naval vessels. Naval vessels fire personal salutes to officers entitled to them when the l)oat containing the officer to be saluted has cleared the ship. It is an acknowledgment for his boat to "lie on her oars" from the first until the last gun of the salute, and for the officer saluted to uncover, then at the conclusion to "give way." The exchange of official visits between the Commanding Officers of a post and vessel, opens the door to both official and social courtesies among the other officers To a boat with the Hag of an Admiral, Vice-Admiral, or Rear-Admiral, or the broad pennant of a Commo- dore, boats with narrow pennants "lie on their oars" or "let fly their sheets," and boats without pennants "toss their oars." In both cases officers in them salute. In the case of two boats meeting or passing each other, each with the same insignia of a Commanding Officer, the jimior is the first to salute. Officers of inferior grade to a Commanding Officer passing him in a boat, "lie on their oars" or "let fly their sheets," and salute. All other officers pass- ing each other in boats are to exchange salutes, the junior saluting first. Cockswains steering boats are, whenever commissioned officers are saluted, to stand up and raise their caps, and whenever warrant of- ficers are saluted they raise their caps onlj . The of- ficer or Cockswain of a loaded boat, or of boats en- gaged in towing, salute a boat with the flag of an Admiral, Vice-Admiral, or Rear-Admiral, or the broad pennant of a Commodore, by standing and raising their caps. When boats are rowing in tlie same di- rection, an inferior is not to pass a superior in grade unless he is on urgent duty, or authorized by the superior. When boats are pursuing opposite direc- tions, the rule of the road to prevent fouling is, that both shall "put their helms to port" — /. e., to pass to the right, circumstances permitting. When boats are approaching the same landing or vessel, an in- ferior is always to give way to a superior in rank. Boats about leaving a ship's side or landing are to give way in anq)le time to others approaching. It is not projicr to land over another boat without per- mission, and only when it cannot be avoided is per- mission to be asked. Boats display their ensigns when they shove off.andkeep them dying until llieir return. To distinguish ofllcers in boats, Commanding Offi- cers of fleets, s(|uadrous, or divisions carry the dis- tinguishing marks of their rank on the bow of their OinCIAL ENTEL0FE8. 435 OIUIS LAW. bar^fx. Flii}?s and piiiiiants (iislint;iii«liinK rank arc. also worn at the. hows of lioals. An AdniiraPH tlajr ifl a liliic llai; licarin;; four vvliilc stars ; llial of a Vii'c- Admiral liiars llircc^ stars; a Ut-ar-Adniiral.two slaiw- a Coinniodorc's pennant, one slar, and is a swallow- laili-d Ma;;. 'I'lic narrow pennant is worn liy (loni- niandinn OlUc'crs of lesser ranli. In addition, (Cap- tains in tlic Navy wear a );ilt ball on tlic end of tlii'ir boat staffs, and Commanders a |,'ilt star. To tlie HJiips, l)()ats, and ollieers of llie Uniled Slates Navy, as well as foreif^n olticers, llie foreLfoini: is due; and courtesy between the land and naval services is in- ilispensable to j;ood order and diseiplini*, as well as necessary to tlur national dignity and honor. Mili- lary ollieers of assimilative rank are entitled to and should carry the above boat insignia. Navy rei^ulations require ollieers and men never to omit, on any occasion, to extend the same complimi'iits toolllcers of the Army us are paid by them to ollieers of the Navy. When a civil functionary entitled to a salute ar- rives at a military post, the Commanding Ollicer meets or calls upon him as soon as practicable. The Commanding Otiicer will tender him a review, pro- viding the garrison of the place is not less than four batteries of artillery, or their e(|uivalent of other troops. When an officer entitled to a salute visits a post within his own command, the troops are para<l- ed and he receives the honor of a review, unless he directs otherwise. When a salute is to be given an officer junior to another present- at a post, the senior will be notified to that effect by the Commanding Of- ficer. Military or naval officers of whatever rank, arriving at a military post or station, are expected lo call upon the Commanding Officer. Under no cir- cumstances is the flag of a military post dipped by wav of salute or compliment. OFFICIAL ENVELOPES.— In the United States, it is lawful to transmit through the mail, free of post- age, any letters, packiiges, or other matters relating exclusively to the business of the Government of the United States : Provided, That every such letter or package to entitle it to pass free bears over the words "Official business" an indorsement showing also the name of the Department, and, if from a bureau or office, the names of the Department and bureau or office, as the case may be, whence trans- mitted. And if any person makes iLse of any such official envelope to avoid the payment of postage on his private letter, package or other matter in the mail, the person so offending is deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and subject to a fine of.three hundred dollars, to be prosecuted in any court of competent jurisdiction. For the purpose of carrying this act into effect, it is the duty of each of the Executive Departments of the United States to provide for it- self and its subordinate offices the necessary enve- lopes ; and in addition to the indorsement designat- ing the Department in which they are to be used, the penalty for the unlawful use of these envelopes is stated thereon. These Envelopes, with the pen- alty clause printed thereon, are confined to the War Department and its bureaus and offices in Washing- ton City. For small packages of public property, weigliing not more than four pounds, the mails may be used, as authorized by law, provided the cost of freight is not less than the postage at legal rates. Such packages may be prepaid with official postage stamps at the rates required by law for the matter inclosed ; and by authority of the Post Office De- partment packages containing public property may he sealed, provided a written certificate is affixed, signed by the officer mailing the same, that they contain no matter subject to a higher rate of postage than has been prepaid thereon. Under the pro- visions of the Universal Postal Union Convention, concluded at Paris on the 1st of June, 1878, the prepayment of postage on every kind of correspond- ence exchanged in the mails between countries of the Postal tfnion can only be effected by means of postage stamps valid in the country of origin for the correspoiKhrnce iif private individuabi. Tlie only correspondence exern|)ted from this reipiirement is ollleiid correspondence relative to the [joslal hervice and exchanged directly between Postal Administra- tions. Correspondence a<ldressed lo Postal Union countries and colonies can only be prepaid by means of the ordinary United Slates postage stamps which are furnished lo the public. See I' ranking IMt/rn. OFF RECKONINGS. An allowance formerly given to the Commanding Officers of regiments and Cap- tains of (,'on]paiiies. out of the annual clothing money set aside for their men The allowance was subsequently paid only to the Colonels of regiments, and was a fluctuating sum, depending on the amount of the surplus left after the clothing was made up. About twenty-five years ago. an average of thirty years was struck, and a fixed sum from that period allowed yearly to Colonels, termeii dolonrfx All'/ir. ««'•(', amounting to about i'GOO a year inline regi- ments, in aildition to the regular pay. Tiie term uff. reehiningn is th<Teforc now obsolete. OGEE.— A molding Consisting of two curves, one concave and the other convex. It Is called (in clas- sic architecture) cymaliiim or ryma reterivi. The ogee is also mucli used in Gothic architecture. An arch having each siile formed with two contrasted curves is called an ogee arch. The ogee, sometimes written ogive, frequently constituted the ornamental molding on guns, mortars, and howitzers. OGIVAL. — The form usually given the head of ob- long ])rojectiles. It was found by Borda that this shape experienced less resistance from the air than any other. See Oblong Bullet, and Projectiles. OHM'S LAW. — This law is singularly in accordance witli experimental results. It assumes that the elec- tro-motive force for a particular galvanic pair is con- stant, and that the strength of the curent it produces is the quotient which results from dividing it by the re- sistance of the circuit. This resistance arises from two sources, the first being the resistance within the cell offered by the exciting liquid, and the second the interpolar resistance. He represent the electromotive force; I, the resistance within the cell; «c, the inter- polar resistance; and S, the strength of the current, or the quantity of electricity actually transmitted, the statement of the law for one couple stands thus: e S= •. The application of the law in a few partic- l-\-w ular cases will best illustrate its meaning. If we in- crease the number of cells to n, we increase the elec- tromotive force n times, and at the same time we in- crease the liquid resistance « times, for the current has ne Titimesasmuchof it totravel,thenS=— — ^. If w be nl-^w small compared with nl — that is, if the external con- nection be made by a short, thick wire — it may be ne e neglected, and so S = -- = — . This shows that one nl I cell gives in these circvtmstances as powerful a cur. rent as a large battery. But if nl be small with re- spect to ic— as in the interpolar circuit of an electric nt telegraph batter)'— ?»; may be neglected.and S = — . w Here we learn that the strength of the current in- creases directly as the number of cells. We may learn from the same that the introduciion of the coil of long,thin wire of a galvanometer into such a circuit, introducing but a comparatively small increase of resistance, causes a very slight diminution of the cur- rent strength. If. again, we increase the size of the plates of a galvanic "pair n times, the section of the liquid is proportionately increased, so that whilst the electromotive force remains the same, the cell re- OIL-BATH. 43(j OLEOMETEH. sistance diminishes n times; therefore S = - l+w ne If the exterior resistance is small, nl l-\-nii! may be neglected, and S = I and the strcnffth is . thus shown to'increase n times. These are only a verj' few of the conclusions arrived at by this law. With the aid of a tangent galvanometer, which gives the value of S expressed in absolute magnetic units, or centimeters of voltameter gas, we ascertain e and I for an}' pair. By making two observations with two wires of known resistance separately included in the circuit, we have two simple equations with two unknown quantities, from which e and I can be easily found. In doing so, we must adopt a unit of resistance. The unit proposed and determined by the British Association, the B. A. unit, or the ohm, is the only one now used in this countrj'. The resistance of the liquid of the pair would be expressed in units of this, and the electromotive force in absolute imits or centimeters of gas, with a circuit offering a unit of resistance. See Galnanism. OIL-BATH. — A bath employed in tempering steel. The tube of steel is drawn out of the furnace and sunk into a large iron tank about twenty feet deep, containing several hundred gallons of oil. The heated steel in passing into oil will sometimes cause the sur- face-oil to take fire, which is extinguished by closing the top of the tank. A covering of coal is also form- ed round the steel by the burned oil, which greatly retards transmission of heat. The tank has a water- space surrounding it, and as the steel parts with its heat, raising the temperature of the oil, the temper- ature of the water is also raised. The water, as it is heated, is drawn off by an escape-pipe, and a sup- ply of cold water is continually running in, thus the heat is gradually taken from the mass. Exceeding toughness is the result of the operation ; the tensile strength of the steel is made higher, and it is harder and more elastic. See Tempering. OnXETS. — Small openings often circular, used in mediieval buildings for discharging arrows, etc., through. Also written Oeillets. OIL TEMPEEING.— In English gun construction, all tubes being procured by contract with the different steel producers in great Britain, are delivered at Woolwich as solid ingots, and, of course, untem- pered. The facilities at that place are ample for all needs for tempering in oil. The general details of this process as practiced at Woolwich have been pub- lished in the English text-books, and need not he in consequence described in this work. The effects of Oil-tempering are to increase the hardness, tensile strength, and elastic limit of the metal, but some- what at the expense of its ductility. It is a process, however, which is applied to all steel products for heavy ordnance in England, and also in France, and has been so long practised, with confidence in it re- maining so long unshaken, and, in fact, increasing, that it must be recognized as probably an important process to be employed iti constnictions where steel tubes of about equal diameters throughout their en- tire length are designed for use in built-up guns. For ingots, however, wherein uneciual diiuneters find place, the process becomes one of dcnduful benefit in its application, as it evidently disturbs the molecular conditions of the metal ; secticms of different dianu'- ters lieing une(|ually acted upon by the tempering process, injurious strains are introduced similar to those produced by uneciual cooling in iiuiss<'S of cast iron where the areas of adjacent cross-sections are sensibly and abrujily different. The increased hardness and diminution of the percentage of elongation in the metal introduced hy the amplication of the process are subjectB for consi- deration, and should leave the question of tempering one for consideration and further experiment. The increased tenacity and hardness secured by the process was a matter of great moment to the En- glish constructors when the Palliser stud system of projectiles was standard in the British service, as the enormous strains brought to bear on the bearing edges of a few deep rifle grooves required these qualities to be present in the highest degree attain- able; but now, when the Palliser stud sj'stem for securing rotation is a thing of the past, it remains to be considered if the merits of the oil-tempering process should not be further inquired into, both theoretically and experimentally, if praticable, and the result may be that a modification of the process, securing an increase in toughness and tenacity to a more limited extent, may be attained without .sacri- ficing too much the extensibility of the metal, which, by permitting a yielding at the critical period in gun practice with high pressures, instantaneously pro- duced, adds largely to the ability of the construction to withstand the effects of those powerful, danger- ous, and suddenly applied strains. The steels used have not changed m qualities since 1872, and about the same physical properties obtain now as then, as exhibited by their tests. A soft steel of 31 tons per square inch at the breaking point, and when tempered in oil raising to 47 tons, is now, from the latest information in print, about the standard required at the Woolwich arsenal. The untempered steel reaches its elastic limit, at, say 13 tons per square inch. and the tempered at 31 tons per square inch. It is thus apparent that the oil-temper- ing not only increases the tensile strength of the metal, btit also increases in much greater ratio its elasticity. It is stated on good authority that no standard of heat required for tempering has been es- tablished — different specimens requiring different heats — and hence tests for the required temperatures are made for each tube from specimens taken from their ends. The more hammered steels require less heating than the less denser or softer ones, and hence the degree of heat required varies in every case depend- ing on the grade of the steel under treatment as to its physical properties as determined by tests. See Tempering. OIL TESTER. — A machine used for ascertaining the relative value of lubricants, giving the co-efficient of friction, and pressure per square-inch of journal; also the temperature at the .same time. The drawing on the opposite page shows such a contrivance with the following: Extreme height Extreme length Extreme width Weight . DISTENSIONS 21 inches. 46 •' 28 " 3S0 pounds. ADAPTATION. Provided with three sizes of journals, viz, 2 inches, 2f inches, and 3 inches, also a cone-pulley to run at 3 different speeds. Capacity 2.200 jioiuids. In using the machine, a small and determinate (juantity of the oil to be tested is placed on the jour- nal, the pressure is adjusted to that at which the oil is desired to run muler test: and the machine is started at a speed whicli will give the desired rela- tive velocity of rubbing surfaces. Observations are made at short intervals, and recorded, until the test is closed by rapid heating, as shown by the ther- mometer, and ('xcessive increase of friction is indi- cated. Competing oils are similarly tried, an<l the records afford a perfect me;ins of comparison. The relative jiiiwcr of resisting high temperatures with- out dccciinpcisilicin is another ini|)ortant point which may be ti'^lid. See Testing-vim'/iine. OLEOMETER. — An instrument for ascertaining the densities of fixed oils. It consists of a very delicate OLITAHT. 437 OLTUFIC 0AHZ8. thcriiioinctcr-tiibc tlic t)iilh ticine: liirirc in prnpnr- tidii li> llic Hloiii. It in (iividcil inid lifly di-i^rccH, and IJuatH ul zi-ro in [iiirc oil (jf puppy.H i. al !W to liH.J'^ ill pure oil of iilriioiidM, :iiid iit RO*-' in pnrc olive oil. Also wriltcii I'jIiiiiiiiKi.i r. OLIFANT. A lioru wliicli .i I'iiliidiii or Knif^lit sounded in token of deHuMce, or iiH ii cliiillcnjie. C'oiMiMoiily written (Hiji}i<tnt . OLINDE. A term iipplied to iin eiirly fcjrin of sword-blnde. OLYMPIC GAMES.— The most splendid National Festival of the Ancient Oreeks, celebrated every fiftli year iu liouor of Zeus, the father of the gods, In 1)0 present, on pain of Ixtinj? tlirown headlong; from the 'I'yp.'ean rock. 'I'lie panics wene lii-ld from the 11th to the LOlii of the Attic inonlli Ifika'^mi. 4(/",« (our.) Illy Aiii;iiHt;,diiriiiL' whic'lj, lirsl lhroii{rh. out Klirt, and then throiij;hoiil the rent of (Jrcece, lierald.T ])roclainied the cessation of all intestine hoH- lililies ; while the territory of Elis itself was de- elariil invi<ilal)le. Tlur eoiiihatants wiTc reipiired to iiiideru;o a preparatory traiiiinj; for 10 months in th<' (iyiiiiiaHiiim at Klis, and diirini; the last of these months the K.vninasium was almost as numerously atlcnd(-d as were the games themselves. Much un- certaiuty prevaila as to the manner in which the con- Oil Tester. on the Plain of Olympia. Their orisrin goes back into Trehistoric Ages. According to the myth elab- orated or preserved by the Elcan Priests, tiiey were instituted by the Idccan Herakles in the time of Kronos, father of Zeus ; according to others, by the later Herakles, son of Zeus ami Alkmene ; while Strabo, rejecting the older and more incredible le- gends, attributes their origin to the Heraklcidse after their Conquest of the Peloponnesus. But the first glimpse of anything approaching to historic fact in connection with the games is their so-called revival by Iphitos, King of Elis, with the assistance of the Spartan lawgiver, Lycurgus, about 884 b. c; or, ac- cording to others, about 828 b. c, an event com- memorated by an inscription on a disc kept in the Heroium at Olympia, which Pausanias saw. That festive games were celebrated here — in other words, that Olympia was a sacred spot long before the time of Iphitos, can indeed hardly be doubted : the uni- versal tradition that the Elean King had only " re- vived" the games proves this; but nothing what- ever can be historically ascertained concerning their origin, character, or frequency, in this remoter time. Iphitos may, therefore, be regarded as their founder, yet the reckoning of time by Olympiads — the real dawn of the historical period in (Jrcek history — did not begin till more than a century later. At first, it is conjectured, only Peloponnesians resorted to the Olympic Gaines, but gradually the other Greek States were attracted to them, and the Festival be- came Panhflknic. Originally, and for a long time, none were allowed to contend except those of pure Hellenic blood ; but after the Conquest of Greece by the Romans, the latter sought and obtained this honor, and both Tiberius and Nero figure in the list of Roman victors. Women— with one exception, the Priestess of Demeter Chamyne — were forbidden tests were distributed over the different days. Krause suggests the following order: (.)n the fir.st day the great initiatory sacrifices were ofl'ered, after which the competitors were properly das.sed and arranged by the Judges, and the contests of the trumpeters took place; the second day was set apart for the boys who competed with each other in foot-races, wrest- ling, boxing, i\\e pentathlon . Ihe p'inkrntiun, horse- races; the third and principal day was devoted to the contests of men in foot-races of different kinds (as, for example, the simple race, once over the course: the dinulds, in which the competitors had to run the distance twice; and the dolic/ion, in which they had to run it seven or twelve times); wrestling, boxing, the pankratioii, (in which all the power and skill of the combatants were exhibited), and the race of /lop- litfx, or men in heavy armor; on the fourth daj- came oft the pfiitnthlon, (contest of five games — viz: leap- ing, running, throwing the discus, throwing the spear, and wrestling), the chariot and horse races, and perhaps the contests of the heralds; the fifth day was set apart for processions, sacrifices, and ban- quets to the victors (called Olympinnikm ), who were crowned with a garland of wild olive twigs cut from a sacred tree which grew in the Altis, and presented to the assembled people, each with a palm branch in his hand, while the heralds proclaimed hisname. and that of his father and country. On his return home; he was received with extraordinary distinction; songs were sung iu his praise, statues were erected to him, both in the Altis and in his native city; a place of honor was given him at all public spectacles; he was in general exempted from public taxes, and at Athens was boarded at the expense of the Slate in the Prytaneion. The regulation of the games be- longed to the Elcans, from whom were chosen the Heilanodikal, or Judges, whose number varied. At ONAGER. 43« OPENING OF THE TBENCHE8. first there were only two, but as the games became more and more national, and consequently more nu- merous, they were gradually increased to ten. some- times even to twelve. They were instructed in their duties for ten months beforehand at Elis, and held their office onh' for one year. The officers who exe- cuted their commands were called Alytioe. and were imder the presidency of an Alytarcli. ONAGER. — A warlike machine, which was used by the ancients to throw stones of diflerent sizes. It is mentioned bv Vesetins. See Ballsta. ONE-HORSE "litter.— A litter intended to be dragged by one horse or mule. It is variously ex- temporized from such material as may be at hand. The drawing, from a photograph of one of these to wa'ls not more than 2i feet thick, the others to heavier walls ; the object being to lessen, as far as practicable, the weakness which loop-holes neces- sarily cause to the wall ; this defect increasing as the exterior or interior opening is greater. For thin walls, where the plan of the loop-hole is trapezoidal, the width of the exterior opening may be from 3 to 4 inches, and that of the interior from 15 to 18 inches. These dimensions, however, may vary according to the field of fire to be brouglit within tlie range of the loop-hole, the more or less cover to be given to the troops, and the strength of the masonry of which the wall is formed. The ver- tical dimensions of the loop-hole, both on the inter- ior and the exterior, will depend upon the field of contrivances, used in the Powder River Indian Cam- paign, in 1876, shows the manner of its construction and use. When two animals can be spared, or when the country to be passed over is exceedingly rough, the tiroJiorse litter will usually give better satisfac- tion. See Litter, Stretcher and I'ravee. ONEIN. — An offensive weapon of mediaeval times, consisting of a staff with a hooked iron head. OPEN.— A term frequently used in military move- ments and dispositions, in contradistinction to close; as open column, open distance, open order, etc. It also constitutes part of a word of command ; as, rear open order. By open distance in aihimn is meant that the intervals are always equal in depth to the extent in front of the different component parts of the column. OPEN DEFENSES.— To this class belong the ar- rangement of the parapet which has already been described ; simple loiyp-holed loalls for musketry used as inclosurcs of gorges, etc. ; exterior corridors which are covered either bj' a wall or an earthen parapet; unA barbettes and emf/rasures for artillery. Walls of this class, when used as the inclosures of the gorges of lunettes or other isolated works, placed in advance of the eneiente, but within the reach of its artillery fire, should be high enough to secure tlie work from an open assault, and sufficiently thick to resist the occasional shot which may reach them over the parapet by which they are covered. Tor these purposes tlie height sliould be from 12 to 1.5 feet, and the thickness from 4 to 5 feet. The loop-holes are not placed nearer to each other than from 3 to 4 feet, estimated between their axes. They should be at least G feet above the exterior foot of the wall, and 4J feet above the ground or banquette within. The loop-holes are usually placed at regu- lar intervals along llie line of tlie wall ; or only op- posite that portion of the exterior ground upon which a tire is to he brought to bear. The form and dimensions of the loop-hole will de- pend upon the thickness of the wall and the field of view, both vertically and horizontally, which istobe covered by its fire. The plan is either trapezoidal, wid- ening from file front of the wall inwards, or else it widens from the center each way to the front and back; or, as is the more usual form in our works, the interior portion from the center widens inwards, whilst the; exterior part is rectangular in plan, and of the same width as the width on the interior or the back of the wall. The first form is best adajrted fire to be embraced in this last direction, and they will be regulated accordingly ; the top and sole of the loop-hole receiving a suitable slope or direction for this purpose. The foregoing details can only be determined upon from the special object to which the loop-holed de- fenses are to be applied. Care only is to be taken that in attempting to give cover to the troops their field of view be not too restricted by too narrow an opening for the use of the firearms. Where the throat or narrowest part of the loop-hole is within the wall, the exterior opening leaves a wider mark for the missiles of the assailed, and when the sides of the loop-hole gradually widen outwards, a shot striking one of them may glance inward and do injury. To prevent this accident, the sides and sometimes the sole are made in offsets. A more convenient form for construction, and one better adapted to arresting the enemy's balls, is to make the exterior portion rectangular in plan for half the width of the wall, as already descriljed. In open exterior corridors the troops covered in front either by an earthen parapet, which is usually only musket-proof, the scarp wall being run up to the superior slope ; or else the scarp wall serves as the cover, in which case it is pierced either throughout its length or at suitable points with loop-holes. The floor of the corridor serves as abamiuefte tread for the loop-holes, and is therefore placed with reference to the direction of the fire from the loop-holes. Tlie height at which the scarp wall rises above the floor of the corridor will depend upon the level of the floor and that of the bottom of the ditch ; this height, however, should not be less than 6i feet to afford a Bufliicient cover to the troops. See Barbette Battery, Covered. Defenses, EmbraMtre Battery, and Machicou- lis. OPEN FLANK.— In fortification, that part of the flank which is covered bv the orillon. OPENING OF THE TRENCHES —This operation, in the progress of a siege, supposes that all the meas- ures preparatory to it have been taken ; the depots of trench materials estalilished and well provided; careful reconnaissances of the site and the defenses made; an accurate map made from sueh instru- mental surveys as were practic;ible, and other infor- mation gained ; the positions of the defenses marked out upon the map giving the directions of the faces and cajiitals of the principiil works; the distances and heights of their salient points from that of the OPEN ORDEE. 430 OPTICAL ILLUBION. lirHl imnillcl, c\c.; nnil tlic fipproximalc positions of tlic lirst piinillcl and of llic iippromlics to il from tli(- (l('pi)tH in its rear, and of tiiosi' Iciidini; from il npon tlio (i(!f('nH<:s. Willi till' i/iif'i furnished from these Boiirccs tliecnijineers can proceed lo staUe out nj)o]i llie i^roiiiid Uie direcliuns of tlie purlions of tlie trenches npon which i^rimnd is to he lirst broken, either on tlie sanieniuhl, or a nif^lil or two before, as oiipcirtiinity may serve. 'Pliis duty is readily per- formed with the aid of roiiLjh ski'tclies, dark lanterns, Hinall pockel compasses, and jiiekcts painted white, with all of which tlie oMicers are provided, and with llie aid of several intelligent n(in-cominissioucd olll- cers or suldiers of the engineer troojjs. Kverythiii!; beini; in readiness, the workmen are assembled in detachments, at the projjer momenl towards nighl-fall, at the depots of the trenches, wliere they receive their trenchini; tools, and what- ever else is necessary to carry on the work with. They are then led, in sins;le tile, to the positions tliey arc lo occujiy in breakim; ti;rcjund, by an otlicer or engineer soldier; sometimes each man grasping with tlie right or left hand a tracing rojie or tape, on which his position is marked in the usual way, or else the traeing-tape is tirst stretclie<l and the men placed in their position near il. When once in position, the working parlies are commanded to lie down and keep perfectly quiet until ordered to rise and commence work; to give time to the engi- ncer otlicers to rectify any mistakes of direction in the lines. So soon as this is done, the order is given to rise and break ground. This will be done by each man digging a hole as speedily as posssible, and llirowing the earth towards the defenses, bo as lo give cover for himself, and from which he can gradually, and with security, work forward in the ilirettifm of the trench he is to e.\cavate. This ope- ration is supervised by the engineers on <luty. who sec that any mistakes made by the men digging are corrected at the proper moment. In the prosecu- tion of the works <iuriDg this period, the simple trench, Hying sap. or full sap will be used, as op- portunity may offer, and as the fire of the defenses T-leides have sometirnCH been used in large orcheHtraH, but the amount of breath which is recpiired to play them has prevented lh-:ir coming into general use. OPINION. I. Decision, deti-rminalion, and judge- ment formed upon matters that havi- bi-en laid before a Court-.Marliid or Court of Intpiiry. 2. The lecli- nical name for tlur advice; given by an Advocate. Till! Attorney orSolicitor writes astali-iiient of facts, called "a ease" in Kngland, and "a memorial" in Scotland, which ends by asking certain ipiiries, and till' answer written by the (/'ounsel is his opinion. A Counsel is not liable for any damages caused by his giving a wrong opinion, though the result of gross ig. noraiice, this being one of the [irivileges of Counsd. OPLITAI,- A (Jrecian army, at the period when the military art was in the greatest pc-rfect ion among them, was composed of infantry and cavalry. The former was made up of three different orders of soldiers; termed, 1. The O/ilitai, or heavily armed, who wore a very complete defensive armor, and bore the.iam.vrt, or Macedcjuian pike, a formidable weapon either for the attack or defense, .'iboiit 24 feet ia length. 3. The l'iiiln\ or light infantry, who were without defeiLsivc armor, and carried the javelin, bow, and sling. 3. The I'liUmtir, who were inter- mediate between the other two, carrying a lighter defensive armor, as well as a shorter pike than the opiitai. The opiitai, when formed for exercise or parade, were drawn up in open order; leaving an eijual in- terval between the men of each rank and between the ranks. When ready to charge, each man occu- pied a square of 8 feet, and the six leading ranks brought their pikes to a level ; thus presenting an array in which the pikes of the sixth rank extended 3 feet in advance of \\w front one. In attacks on intrenchments, or fortified cities, the men of caeli rank closed shoulder to shoulder, asufflcient interval being left between the ranks to move with celerity ; the leading rank kept their shields overlajiped lo cover their front ; the others held them above their heads for shelter against the weapons of the enemy. OPTICAL ILLUSION.— Of all the senses none is more is more or less certain and destructive. As the flying j deceptive than the sense of sight; il often deceives sap will afford the most speedy cover against case [ us as to the distance, size, shape, and color of objects; shot, it will be employed geuer.ally so soon as the trenches have been advanced within destructive range of this; using, however, the simple trench at night, or at any other opportune momenl. The full sap must be used when within the certain range of small-arms, and when the cannon fire of the defenses is very deadly; resorting, however, to the flying eap whenever the risk is but slight. See Siege. OPEN ORDER. — In taclics,anintervalof about three yards between each rank. See Hear Opt /i (Jrder. OPERATIONS.— Under the term Slilitary Opera- tions are included ; field operations ; offensive and defensive operations; underground operations; siege operations, etc. All consist in the resolute applica- tion of preconcerted measures in secrecy, dispatch, tegular movements, occasional encampments, and desultory combats or pitched battles. OPHICLEIDE. — A musical wind-instrument of brass or copper, invented to supersede the serpent in mili- tary bands. It consists of a concial tube, terminat- ing in a bell like that of the horn, with a mouth- piece similar to that of the serpent, and ten ventages or holes, all stopped by keys like those of the bas- son, but of larger size. Opliicleides are of two kinds, the bass and the alto. The bass ophicleide offers great resources for maintaining the low part of masses of liarmon}'. JMusic for it is written in the bass clef, and the compass of the instrument is from B, flu it frequently makes them appear as if in situations where their existence is impossible ; and often makes us think them movable when they are not so, and vice versa. An object appears to us as large, near or distant, according as the rays from its opposite bor- ders meeting at the eye form a large or a small angle: when the angle is large, the object is either large C.r near ; when small the object must be small or distant. Practice alone enables us to decide whether an ob- ject of large apparent size is so (m account of its real size, or of its proximity ; and our decision is ar- rived at by a comparison of the object in jumtiun, with other common objects, such as trees, houses, etc., which may chance to be near it, and of which we have by experience come to form a correct idea. The same is, of course, true of apparently small ob- jects. But when all means for comparison are re- moved, as when we see a distant object floating ou an extensive sheet of water, or erect in an apparently boundless sandy plain, where no other object meets the eye, then our judgment is completely at fault. Imperfection in the acquired perceptions of siglit, as it is called, produces inanj' other illusions; il leads us lo consider spherical solids at a distance as flat discs, and deceives us regarding the size of objects, by their color ; the sun appears larger than he would if illumined by a fainter light, and a man in a white habit seems larger than he would if he wore a dark third space below the bass staff to C, the fifth added \ dress. Illusions are also produced by external causes, space above il, including all the intervening chrom- I The property which the eye possesses of retainingan alic intervals. The alto ophicleide is an instrument I impression for a very brief, though sensible period of very inferior quality, and less used. Its compass \ of time (about one-quarter of a second), after the ob- is also three octaves and one note. The music for it I jecl which produced the impression has been re- is written in the treble clefT, and an octave higher I moved, produces a third chiss of illusions. Common than it is played. Double bass or monster ophi- I examples of this are the illuminated circle formed by OPTTMATES AND POPULAEES. 440 ORDER OF BATTLE. the rapid revolution of an ignited carbon point, piece of red-liot iron, or other luminous body, and the fiery cvirve produced by a red-hot shot projected from a cannon. OPTIMATES AND POPULARES.— In the politics of republican Rome, the conservative or aristocratic, and the democratic or progressive parties respective- ly. The Popjilnres comprised the great body of the people, including not only the proletariat but many men of wealth, but without personal influence. The Optimates were the aristocracy, the great oftlcial bouses, and their followers. The two" parties per- petuated the old contests between the patricians and plebians. The Popularea triumplied under the leader- ship of C. Gracchus, and were crushed by Sulla. OR. — In Heraldry, the metal gold represented in heraldic engravings b_v an unlimited number of dots. ORB.— In tactics, tlie disposing of a number of soldiers in circular form. The orb is a good forma- tion for a bod_y of infantry in an open country when resisting caval- Q ry, or a superior force of infantry, inasmuch as it is regular and equal- ly strong, and gives an enemy no reason to expect better success by attacking one place than anotlier. Caesar drew up his whole army in this form wlien he fought against Latiienus. The whole army of the Gauls wal^ formed into an orb, under the com- mand of Sabinus and Cotto, when fighting against the Romans. The orb was generally formed six deep. ORDER. — Tins word is applied to an aggregate of conventual communities comprehended under one rule, or the societies, half military half religious, out of which the institution of Knii:hthood sprang. Religious Orders are generally classified as Monastic, Military, and Mendicant. The earliest comprehension of Monastic Societies under one rule was effected by St . Bazil, Archbishop of Cfesarea, who united the hermits and cenohites, in his diocese, and prescribed for them a uniform constitution, recommending at the same time a vow of celibacy. The Basilian rule subsists to the pres- ent day in the Eastern Church. Next in order of time was the Benedictine Order, founded by St. Benedict of Nursia, who considered a mild discip- line preferable to excessive austerity. The offshoots from the Benedictine Order include some of the most important Orders in ecclesiastical bistorj-, among others the Carthusians, Cistercians, and Prse- monstrants. The order of Augustinians professed to draw their rule from the writings of St. Augustine; they were the first Order who were not entirely com- posed of laymen, but ol ordained priests, or persons destined to the clerical profession. The Military orders, of which the members united the military with the religious profession, arose from the necessity under which the monks lay of defend- ing the possessions which they had accumulated, and the supposed duty of recovering Palestine from the Saracens, and retaining possession of it. The most famous Orders of this kind were the Hospital- lers or Knights of St. .John of Jerusalem, the Knights Tcmi>lars. and the Teutonic Order. Many other Military Orders existed, and nut a few continue to exist, particularly in Spain and Portugal. The phrase- ology of the old .Military Orders is preserved in the Orders of Knlglithood of modern times, into which individuals are admitted in reward for merit of differ- ent kinds, military and civil. The three .Mendicant Orders of Franciscans, Do- minicans, and Carmelites were instituted in the ISth century. Their ]irin<ipal i)iirpose was to put down the oi)posilii>n to the Churcli, which had bct;nn to show itself, and also to reform the Church liy ex- ample and precept. At a later period theOrderof Jesuits was founded, with the object of increasing the power of the Church, and putting down heresy. — NotiGes of the more Important Orders, Monastic, Military, and Mendicant, will be found under separate articles. Sei' Ordfrn. ORDER ARMS.— A position in the Manual of Arms, executed as follows: The Instructor commands 1, Order. 2. Arms. Grasp the piece with the left hand, the forearm horizontal, let go with the right hand ; lower the piece quickly with the left ; regrasping it with the right above the lower band, the little finger in rear of the barrel, the hand near the thigli, the butt about three inches from the ground, the left hand steadying the piece near the right, the fingers extended and joined. (Two.) Lower the piece gent- ly to the ground with the right hand, drop the left hand by the side, and take the position to be de- described. The position of Order Arms has the arm hanging naturally, elbow close to the body, the back of the hand to tlie right, the fingers extended and joined: the barrel between the thumb and forefinger extended along the stock ; the butt against tiie toe of the right foot, tlie barrel to the rear and verti- cal. See Manvdl nf Arms, Fig. 4. ORDER BOOK.— A book kept at all military head- quarters, in which orders are written for the infor- mation of officers and men. Every order in this book sliould be signed by the Officer whose signature was attached to the originals sent from the office, and each order should be separated from the one follow- ing b}' a red line. The mode of numbering, distri- bution, and general form of orders are prescribed Ijy the regulations ; but the distribution in each particu- lar case should be noted in red ink in the margin to show that the regulations have been complied with ; and where orders, are sent to one officer, under cover to his Commander (which course ought always to be pursued), or furnished at a date subsequent to that of their issue — these facts should likewise be added: where the order has been printed, it will be sufficient to write the word " printed" in red ink in the mar- gin, to indicate that the widest circulation has been given to it. There are two indexes attached to the iKiok — one of nam^s, the other of subjects — every or- der will be indexed in the ^'«M(T immediately after lie- ing copied. For names, a deta-lied index will first be used until the record book is full, when they will be arranged under each letter as in City Directories, and tlms classified, transferred to the permanent alphabet- ical index attached to the record book. Every proper name will be indexed anda red line drawn in the bo ly of the order under it, to facilitate a reference to it. ORDER OF BATTLE.— The combination which is made to attack one or more points of an army in position. Is called the order af battle. The four prin- cipal orders of battle are the parallel, oblique, eon. cave, and convex. The lines of battle of the opposing forces being sensibly parallel to each other is an ex- ample of the parallel order of battle. This order of battle naturally results when a simultaneous attack is made along the whole front of an enemy's posi- tion. The results will usually be very decisive for the army whicli gains the advantage, but the price paid for success will also be very dear. When the line of battle of the assailant makes an angle witii that of the assailed, the order of batt.e is said to be oblique. Tiiis order of battle results when the attack is made with one wing, the other wing at the same time being lu-ld back, or refused. When the attack is made by both wings, the center being >¥- /w.scf/, tlie order of battle iaeoneai'e ; and, when made by the center, with the wings refused, coiirej-. The order of battle then results from the dispositions made to atttack the enemy's position ; so it naturally follows, that when the enemy is found, the first point, to be decided is, hoin to make the attark with the grea,tf.it duinage to the enemy and witli the l-east to the attacking force. Owing to the great loss which usual- ly follows attacks along the whole lin<% even when successful, they should seldom be made, except when the chances of success and the probalile results of victory are very great. ORDERLIES. 441 OBSmART OF ARH8. ORDERLIES. — Non-fomm'msionril ciflii-crs ami kmI- dicrs iiiipiiiiilcii to wiiil Mpnii (Jnicral unit otlirr Coiii- maiiiling Olliccrs, In coiniiiimifiili' iliiir urilcrH, ami to curry iiii^s pes. 'l"Mc OnUil/ Ojjinr. or Officer of the Day, iH the otHecr of a corjiH or regiinenl, wliow turn it is to superintend its inlericjr economy, as cleanliness llu' goodness of the food, etc. (yriltrli/ Non.rirmiitisniiiiir(l 0£irATS are tlie Ser^^^eants in each company who are " orderly,' or an <luty for the week. On the drum heatini; for orders, they pro- ceed to the f)rdcrly Hoom taUe down the j;eneral or reginuMital orilers afl'eclinjr Ihi'ir respective com- panies, show them to the Company OHicers. and warn the necessary men for any duties siiecitied in those orders An Ordirlil Hunk is provided by the ('aptain of each troop or comi)any in a rej^iment for the insertion of i;eneral or regimental orders from lime lo lime issued. ORDERLY DRUMMER. - The drummer that beats the orders, and gives notic'c of the hour for messing, etc. ORDERLY ROOM.— The court of the Commanding Officer, where charges brought against the men of his regiment are investigated, and s<'nle!ice ]«issed. It is also the ollice of the Commanding Ollicer. usually in Ihe barracks, from winch all orders emanate. ORDERLY SERGEANTS.— The First Sergeant of a company is commonly so called. ( )n hearing the drum beat for orders. Orderly Sergeants repair to the Adju- tant's Office, and, having taken down the orders in writing, they are inunediately to show them to the otlicers of their com|)any. and to warn the men for duly. ORDER OF MARCH. -The formation assumed by troops on the march, and which <lepends on the na- ture of the country they are moving in, the object to be attained, and the characteristic of the enemy, as well as the mimber of Iroops composing the force. If at any distance from Ihe enemy, the comfort of the men, as well as the means of giving them the necessary supplies, must be studied. \Vhen in the proximity of the opposinjj force, tactical consider- ations must alone weigh in disposing of the order of march. In all cases an army is preceded by an a<l- vance guard, covered by the main force, the rear of whicli is followed by a rear guard. ORDER OF MERIT.- A military distinction given to officers or soldiers for some signal service, the badge of which is generally expressive of the ser- vice. Such was the Medal or Order of Merit, pre- sented by the Austrian Emperor to tlie Officers of the 15th British Light Dragoons for their bravery in the affair of Villers en Couche iu 1794. x ORDERS.— The intructions, injimctions, or com- mands issued by superior officers. The orders of Com- manders of Armies, Divisions, Brigades, and Kegi- ments are denominated orders of such Army, Division etc., and are either General or Special. Orders are numbered. General and Special in separate series. each beginning with the year. Those issued by Command- ers of Posts, Battalions,Companies or Detachments are simply denominated "Orders," and mimbertd in one series, beginning with the year. In the British service, orders are General, Divisional, Brigade, or Regimen- tal. General Orders are issuedby the Commander-in- Chief of an army, and affect the whole of his force. The others emanate from Generals of Division or Brigade, or from officers commanding Regiments.and severally affect their respective commands. In the United States, a General Order or an important Spec- ial Order, is read and ajiproved by the officer whose Order it is before it is issued by the Staff Officer. An Order states at its head whether it is Special or Gen- eral ; its number, date, and place of issue : and at its foot, the name of the Commander by whose au- thority it is issued. An Order may l)e put iu the form of a letter addressed to the individual concern- ed, through the proper channel. Such Orders should be in strict military — not semi-official— forms. Every Commander who gives an Order involving an ex- penditure of pidilic money Hcnds a copy, without dilay, to the Bureau of Ihe War Oepartmeiit to wliich llie expendiluri' appcrlains. and if Kuch (Commander be serving in a .Military Deparlment, lie wids a copy of the order lo Ihe llcadi|i]arters of the De- parlmenl. If a Military Commander gives to a di»- bursiiig olUcer any onler in conflict with orders re- ceived by him from the officer in charge of hJH I)e|>artment at any superior headcjiiarlers, such Comnumder forthwith transmits the order lo such headquarters, with explanation of Ihe newssily which justifies it. Commaiiiling officers of Mili- lary Divisions, Departments. an<i DislrictH forward, direct, co|iies of all Ihe orders afrectin'.; tlie ofliccrH of the (Jencral .SlatT under Ihcir comMjandto llir- l)e- partmenls at Washington to which Ihe duties of (he officer pertain. It is important that advices of leaves of absence, clianges of locality, duties, etc., of sub- ordinate officers of the General Staff l)e early com- municated to tlie heads of their respective Depart- ments. Orders and inslrurtions are transmitted through intermediate Commanders, in the order of rank, except when they are of such a character as lo leave the intermediate Commanders no discre- tionary power lo modify or suspend them. In such exceptional cases, the (Orders or instructions will lie sent direct to the officer unrler whose aulhority tliey are to be executed, copies being furnished to ihe in- termediate Commanders. Orders for any body of j troops are addressed to its Commander, are opened and executed by the Conunander present, and are publisiied and distributed tiy him when necessary. Copies of all orders of the Commanders of Armies, Departments. Divisions, and detached Brigades, and of the Superintendents of the Recruiting J^ervice, are forwanleil at their dates, or as soon thereafter as practicable, in separate series (m full slieets of letter- paper, or as printed, tothe Adjutant General's Office. A tile of the printed orders is kept with the head- <iuarters of each Regiment, with each Company, and at each Military Post, and is regularly turned over fiy the Commander, when relieved, to his successor. The orderly hours being fixed at each headquarters, the Staff Officers and chiefs of the special services either attend in person or send their assistants to obtain the orders of the day; and the 1st Sergeants of companies repair for that purpose to the Adju- tant's office. During marches and active operations, and wiien the regular orderly hours cannot be ob- served, all orders are either sent direct to the troops, or the respective Commanders of Regiments or Corps are informed wlien to send to headquarters forthem. Under the same circumstances, orders are read to the troops during a halt, without waiting for tlie regular parades. See General Orderx, and Special Ord^m, ORDINAIRE.— The common French term for the soldiers' mess. ORDINARIES. — In Heraldry, certain cliarges com- posed of straight lines, and in very common use, to which writers on Heraldry had assigned abstruse symbolical meanings, but whose real chief peculiari- ty seems to be that they originally represented the wooden or metal fastenings of the shields in use in actual warfare. The Ordinarii-s are usualh- accounted nine — the chief, pale, fess, bar, bend, bend sinister, chevron, saltire, and cross. Heralds vary a little in their enumeration, some taking in the pile in place of the bar. Each is noticed under a separate article. See JTernMry. ORDINARY OF ARMS. In Heraldry, an index or dictionary of armorial coats, arranged, not accord- ing to names, like an armory, but according to the leading charges in the resjiective shields, so as to enable any one conversant with lieraldic language, on seeing a shield of arms, to tell to whom it be- longed. A very imperfect Ordinary for England is appended to Edmonson's Heraldry: a far more com- plete and elaborate work of the same kind. Pap- worth's Ordiniiry of Jhitinh Armnriah. partly edited by Alfred Morant, was published in 1874. ORDNANCE. 442 ORDNANCE. ORDNANCE. — The term ordnance includes cannon of all kinds tired from carriages, slides, beds, tripods, etc. Cannon are classified according to their nature, as guns, howitzers, mortars, and machine-guns, and according to their uses as field, mountain, siege, and sea-coast. Guns are further classified as to their con- struction, as smooth-bore and rifle ; as muzzle-load- ing and breech-loading ; and as east and built up cannon. All ordnance for land service in the United States is made by private Contractors, under the di- rection of otficers of the Ordnance Department. Ri- fled howitzers and mortars, and guns with chambers for large charges, are now under consideration. Ri- fled breech-loading field-guns are also under trial. For the present, until superior armament can be pro- vided, guns of obsolete patterns and kinds are re- tained "in service. Standard guns, howitzers, and mortars take their denomination from the caliber in inches. Heavy modern ordnance dates properlj- from the casting of the great Rodman smooth-bores in the United States. "To the impetus thus given may be ascribed the origin of the powerful guns of the pres- ent day. In Rodman's study of gunpowder and the improvements introduced by him, lay the germ of all subsequent progress in ordnance. His most im- portant invention, perjtyrated cake powder, was trans- planted bodily to the Continent of Europe, where, under the name oiprhmatic powder, it has been used ever since. So perfect is the theory of this powder, that invention and science toiling over the subject for twenty years has produced nothing better. Since the first half of the decade— 1860-70— the United States has fallen behind the nations of Europe in the ordnauce in the present stage of its development. Large-grained powder, the first of these requisites, is universally used. Great length of bore, to utilize the whole force of the powder, is another character- istic. Great power is secured by immense charges of powder and weight of shot. A caliber of at least 12 inches, giving an obloag shot of about 700 pounds, seems to be regarded as a sine qiia non for all arma- ments. England has taken the lead in all these im- provements, and though it would appear from re- cent events that her choice of gun systems is unfortu- nate, there is no question that all great advances since Rodman's day have been based upon her ex- pensive experiments. The work of the celebrated "Committee on Explosives," 1875, of which Col. Younghusband and Capt. Noble (now a member of SirWm. Armstrong's firm), were members, did more to this end than any other investigation since General Rodman's experiments in gunpowder. Acting upon the obvious idea that the peril to the life of the gun is relieved by air-space, the Committee recommended the enlargement of the bore at the seat of the charge, or the use of a chamber larger than the bore. This simple expedient led at once to an increase in the power of guns while the pressure endangering them was kept at a point lower than before. Every good thing can be pushed too far. The immense charges made possible by the English chamber have been continually added to by the Italians in their 100-ton Armstrong monsters and the vital air-space greatly reduced till a charge of about 5.52 pounds of pow- der has recently (1880) burst one of these magnificent guns. The following table gives an interesting compari- Type of Gun. Krupp, 35-cal. 30.5 p. m... Krupp, 35-cal. 35.5 c. m... German, 30.5 c. m. mar.... Russian, 12 in. (long) French, pat. 1870, 32 c. m. English, 80-ton m. 1 English, 63-ton b. 1 Italian, 100-ton b. 1 French, pat. 1875, 34 c. m., Bange, 34 c. m d Q c 305 355 305 305 320 406 343 432 340 340 a 3 so a ■*? Weight. Gun. O Kilogrammes. 10.70 12.40 6.70 9.14 6.70 8.15 10.97 11.89 6.7 11.20 48,550 455 81,350 735 36,600 325 43,3411 344 39,000, 341 82,300 771 64,000 567 103,100 908 48,340 420 37,500 450 141 225 72 128 86 204 2H3 300 117 180 530 530 488 597 470 498 624 558 480 600 Total energy at the muzzle per kilo- gramme of the weight of gun. .104 .103 .103 .14 .104 .114 .175 .118 .101 .221 power of her armament. Having been committed by her two great inventors, Rodman and Dahlgren, to cast-iron smooth-bores, which were fabricated in great numbers, her attitude has been that of Micaw- ber — "waiting for something to turn up." England occupies the other extreme. — of all the powers she has ventured the greatest sums upon the theories of her gun-makers. Her private manufacturers have received such encouragement at home or abroad that they are now able to supply tlie whole world. Their only great rival on tlie Continent is Krupp, wlio finds hismarkct priucii)ally in Germany, Russia and Tur- key. ■The early adoption of the rifle principle by all European powers placed them at once on a jjlane of advancement. The vexed questions of breech and muzzle-loading and of gun construction have been decided by each nation in tlie manner most satisfac- tory to itself. Opinions dilTer widely, and it is i)rob- able that many clianges may be made iii tliesc mat- ters. Still they all possess powerful guns whicli have certain feiilures in common, essenthil to heavy son between the largest suns at present existent : Tables I, II, III, andlV, on pages 443, 444, 445, and446,emi50dythe principal dimensions and weights of ordnance and ammunition of the United States Land Service. The tables, pages 447-456, together with the descriptions of ordnance referred to in this Encyclopedia, at the clo.se of this article, will enable the reader to trace the history of ordnance, ancient and modern, and at the same time, to make compar- isons of that pertaining to the various military ser- vices. See Armstrong Ouiut, Artillery. BlnkelyGun, Breich-initertion, Bronze Guns, Built-up (f-uris. (Gan- non, Cannon MHaU, Cust-iron Guiih, Cast-xteel Ouns, Converted Ouns, Cooling of ('Ustings, Ihthlgren Qun, EUiriek Gun Work,H, Fabrication of Ttilies, Fifteen- inch Gun, Fraser Gun, French Army Ordnance, Gun ('onxtructioH, Inspection of Ordnance. Mann Gun, Moffntt Gun, Mortar, J'alliser Gun, Parrott Gun, Parsons Gun. Rifled Hoicilzers, Hodman Gun, Schulti Wire Gun, Sutclijfe Gun. Systt^ms of Artillery, Thnmp. son Gvn,Uchatius Gun, Whitwort'h Guns, Wire Guns, and Woobcich Gun. ORDNANCE. 443 OBDNANCZ. *~ o o I-* !-• 05 OS *. Cn OO 1- 00 it" ►- ■-• ►- ►- — to » ,_, ,_, *-* rf^ it^ 1^ Ol S- in Ol OI g ' . lO faotP Ol OS -1 OS CI c;i o ;.. i. i. .1. .L. i. i. B B B B C S 3 O *o *o »o m oi en 5' S 3 3 o o :{^ p1 O r/i ^ rn O 'S O o C c B- B-p- B-B-B-B-^ B-B- S- ■y, 3 Ti n o ' g S p- O 5' -1 1 ^ : 5': n a § k 1 o, ■< 0) o 3 5' O tr 5" ED a. 3 FIELD PIECES. '12-pounder)smooth bo rifle 3 o o cr o ? S- o o o to a S if S3 3 o O o 3 2 3 3 III ifle (converted) smooth bore smooth horn (model 187 smooth bon- (model 186 smooth bore 1 "1 5 p a pi B- B* i s y ; : I- rf* : : w w i «? w : O o o : O : : : O: ^ ^Si 3o : » e tc : to 1 o» — ^ 5 o D N : b. : o 2^ ^ O 3 c o. o. _. s. g = s „ c 5 - o o o g o 3,"i. 5- a.''i * I ' . : B B : B : : : B i r.3 e -. 1 '^ i s: : : : : : 3§ 30 i : B : : I r ^ r B B 1 H^ H-t H^ H-» 1— (-• to t-* »-• »-* »■ 3 O I-* »-* 09 OS |C> cn OOO 00 *. u cn CO cn cn o 00 to "S Oi rf>. rf^ rf^ e> en OS 00 en ? Caliber. lO oi cn cn on CO KO 1 *. » *:? f t-* )-» »-» t-» ro OS -a CO 00 o O' cn ci c to to H-* lO Ku 00 'h-» "to H- O CD OS ift. «l rs /K' O OS o rf- O O o o O cn O CD 00 OO ►-00 "Z. en 05 00 on 1 ~ CO w- o tM Preponderance. -3 o OO en OOO o o OO o o: o o 00 0" o ooo ooo o o o o o o o o o h^ ooo o OOK^ I-* o >- ^ ^ H- ^ H* O Windage <Ti o en en o rf^ toco to en CO CO rf^ cn ci CD cn 00 CO s t-» ^ ^ to tOH- ■^ ee 1^ 03 & -q-a-q -^ to bD m OS :» <i <i CD i-> »^ CO 00 >c> s Of entire -a CO Oi ca CO CO o OS oscn -3 o cn CO 05 00 Ss^ 1 ts '-i'-^ OS ojooen CO to to cn OS cn 05 00 §. piece. 7) H* en )f^ en tsvxvt I-' 05 V-* t-* t— t-- to t-» H- to to CO OS c;i *. -. >-- bS *>. CO ono Of bore in inches. ri o to CO CO OT en OS b CO Od o b cn OS en o cn H* cn cn o o <i to CO to 00 CO en -] B- 9. p 2. cn cn cn >s "-l to OS OS to &3 OS en *i. tfk.cn *k rf*. rf^ ci CO K^en o»S^ io <I 00 to to cn to to cn cn cn cn cn to en Of trunnions. en -a cn : "-^ ^ to I-* t_l rf^ ►f- cn Oi CO if^ en a^ *i -4 cn cn 00 I-- hf«. to cn *. a. s p to; cn CS g. At base line. >— to ■^ cn bo CO to CO ^ to to o> ct: OS c» ^ -a C5 O « CO wo ►- cn rf». rf» oi H- 00 3 V <o oo: en *4 en C5 *a to At muzzle. n ts c;f o.** 3 t-^ ►-^ 1— bO t-* ^? -J oi: en CO H* I-* X Ci o -q OS j5 to cn 00 1-^ rfk. to cn*. OS c!i: o -a to S5 yt Maximum. tn (-*>-^ . ::;>*»■ en 00 -q >^ o to : cn : : : 00 05 ^ t-* : Twist in feet. 1 t-» I I '. t-* Number of Oi o <i-a : CO : : : : cn -J ►- ^ grooves. o o o o 1-': o : . : : o^- »-• 03 03 CO o : CO : : : : bo CO sr Width of ..V to »^ 05 to : : : *a : : : *3 <t-a c:s . grooves. 5' tri O O bb o b o o: b b : o : 9 : : : : : : : b b>- OS Depth of O CD to cnoi • ^ : : : : a 00 cog. grooves. o o o o o: o : : : : 00 e. 1-' *. (-* en en: OS : : : : 00 to <l boS^ Width of ■q ... OS : : : -J ^" S§. lands. CO • OS- o o = c o o : 0^ '< Diameter of t O I o to ■c tc to o to t c to to to : to to tc to to :^ vent. o o t -» h-* )-A to NO ^ -S CO CO rf*.: <I 00 CO h^ '='5' Dis.f rom bot- lf> tOOtl-' en en *» s J cncn ing. tom of bore. B S Dis. fr'm ver. o ooo brcn o o NO CO cn OS : *. to : cn to CO o- plane thro' a.\is of bore. Height of b' o o ooo o o °^ CO Ci <I -^ *:i ^ *3 ■^ -a -:■ ^ head. 00 cn oi c? Cn cn Cn cn en- o *"* '. t-A t-^ »-> t—t i-t h- ^- .-N Diameter of *:i to -iS> head. o cn oi cn cn cn Cn cn en- OBDMANCE. 444 OBDNAKCI. l^Oi O p H^ (**■ ^ I-* CO CO CO OtOOI-^ Mi. C7I i. g ti Si en 5 g i. »» S «■ C3 O s o o C O 05 2. t« re C en o CO ip o a.. •S3 2 o Eg a ►fl ii5 •5-p p-a 2 c 3 o ■ P o -J 5 i°§ I ^^ ^ I ?3 3 Or 00 bo 5* 2- a m O 3 C P i^j^ H-^ k-t. 1-^ GO 1-* •-*•-*»-* to ffi OCOO? ^. ocooro? o o — • 2 !=■ o o g ° o So r; C D 3 D Cr O O o O tS OS -^ C5 00 i — 9 i^ :.. V i. o »-* OO ^^ H-i 01 am B SB o o o B- - o" o B o o o o -co"! o o < qs BB ^-. . ^B■r. 3 3' r; g- n D O g p-° 3-0 3" -L — B* •^ B^ t-l B^ M "^ 3 2. 3t 2. a •-■ re g^ - S - S to ^■=' - o g ^ c-L o-a e Bo = ° B S.C g g £.'' 3 r-g O h-^ to o b'b'b' B-o o o B-C-B- a S. 2. 3. re ^ pj a ■ a a o 2 • "b"? „ B . I-' P CD ^ : o o w ^^ o 00 00 M C *^ a. 3 tr5' gin P P oo oo o pp t^to CO 1^ ta o opp pppp pp CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO ooo oa ^3 [r; • o c : -1 •. ?;^P gs O O n> £ • B a »(P3 to ^? Sp g = p o = 3 "5.3 < = a a OS o' o o g CI- P- a o - o C ► ? B o o . oo p p 3 B 3 3 O O B 3 o gorq c.* B 3" P o : O: p : ccg C&C,P O- CI* 2 o Olio CO 00 <? -1 to CT ■-« 1 "-J ^-^ ■-) w M w t» o to rf^ in to >-^>-'tOCOGOOi-'c; OOSOTOiOOO;^ .>• re B(j5' C B* B-" 9^ p p 3 S fCO. »^ »^ c;? O C?T o OlO o aq(RCR j^ X m X ^ oo 05 t-^ o ***■ ►^ o C5 to ... c;i c;i 00 ooooSBooo •"-i tS CO i-J *. OS -I ooooc ooo oo oo o oo p p H-iM CO ►-*-00 I-"*. MM Oi-'CO H^ to CO CO <l ^O to CO CO to 5 O i**-0 O Ol r* >-* to ^^ CO O 0» CJI CJT OS oooo O H'CO ~ibo Ol-" >-i CO <I ^ <1 — rd T3 re o W rrc p *-* frq a re 3 TO to -7 err cs to ^ CO CO ^ '-' to GC rf^ to*- ?c to CO o o» a? -J O itO CO o -^ c;t V rfi- CO CO !^ -a o 5. KJ. in J© "co co"iu tcco^^ to en -^jco r ■-' M b'co oto o 888 >-> to JO io to o ►-■to CO io O to OS to Oo O Sn *■ to o en OS coco OS OS 00 "o V to to Or ^J M .^ w p 3 OBDNA NCE. 445 OBDNANCX a CO Or »U t-" OC >-' 5V -1 0> 00 1— V'B'd 00 to k p* "uia. CO B o o c- o O" !^ i ^ ft "to 2 : q ^ 6 '^. -I s: h(j ? 3 g a 8 ? 2 t° ■ -z' P ■6 o c : i.o,=g4-'gS 8 : B S-'o ° -a -i -a : B = = S ° 2 2 : c a o-B B B Is B <» o- : D-s o-o- "■ i "-1 : 3,^5.5, 5, bd : CBO O o O : : : o: ■ 9 3 ; ss ^-& g T to e = : : ai '. : q'»i : ^■ §?• r. b.b.a.r.b.s.2 .^. 1 oooioo":? : o : B s ■S-§ § i o e : g • • s • ^ : 33 s< • • o i g Oq : M C : r ^^ (_» • O M 05 en X to O c o : -] osoo Oi,^ : b"*. S* . 00 Caliber. ^ ^_. K- to , C cc'ooo rfk -q o w 'it D OI ; to CS CS t*1 Weight. « K) g o c 5 0I O Or »o Oi o c > to : o o o s O s o c 5 O t-i oo o? Preponderance. 't p oo o © c 50 i S' Windage. » en It" M fc SCO ft ^_ ' C t— * k^ t— * t-^ »— i s ggs en 00 § g £gS§§l? fc;:< Of bore. 3 ft en Ol to ■ f* l-i ; Ie:^ ; ^ Of rifled part of bore. f ; OI a •1 : to 0, H* to -4 a- -J : OS*- OI a Cl I-* Si « : 60 ^ Of semi-axis of ellipse, X 9 3 ft 2 s • I ^ 1 -i S bottom of bore. B. a. p. C^ (^ 9 CO «o •«1 to u cc CO OS Jl OI *. 1^ k« jo en en Ol ?^ Ol 00 g ■o tc Of trunnions. OI Ji c;! Ol 1^" fe ^ IS » 1 o tc -JOOO^-OS p ,^ From axis of trunnions g : t-* oc cc -JOI le- 00 S OS to to OI 1- to face of muzzle. t^ ^ lo gjsggg §^ (8 : to ^0 05 < = Ol Between rimbases. B 2 OI < » 00 f [»■ -J 1-1 s From base line to face o o: ^ of muzzle. . _i ►- ►- k^H^I_i 63 f^ Cl -^ 00 < 5 CO OS ►- to coos OS At muzzle. to : 00 -q CT> ts to -1 *• to r or a I-* » _i CO 63 to 63 CO l(>i CO » C5 H-* n 00 1 s o 63 Ol Ol OT to O s to toto S 00 < SCOCO ( ■» CO OS Maximum. d 63 3 _1 ,—1 i_L l_l K*- : o a OOS-JOOO o,^ o : 03 ■:% CO Of trunnions. 10 : -J ) ■o 00 CO05 OS • ; i i §g: ^ 1 Twist. : >-- Number of grooves. : <: » C503 : Ol : : COOI ten-' OI- ; H-* ; H-i ; : o o-'^ ^ : : : cr? : CO : : to Gci-« -i b b* : t^ c-. ^ *t^ •**■ ^ Width of grooves. 3 : 3 : : OS to -J to ^ • • : CD : : < :>o o : o : : OO" o o 1 • 1- JO-' : •-* : : oioi Depth of grooves. OBDNANCE. 446 OKDNANCE rf>. v\ CO*. 00i-« 00 v;ik.p p l-it- O01-' 05-500 le to to bsoi B-"p T'^ g b" b' OS CO bo O-m -inc 3-iu O-iu 0-inch -inch s inch s .4-inch S'5" o ra B" 5'o 5* 2-5. ^2- B-p- p-p- gg CD » O » B t=^«, =^ BS i§ smoot mooth mooth smoo 2 S2 o » 3 £ B B 2 ° ii s§ o B53 o o 5 So CO o o so ^ o o o o p;-,- o* s&s S'^ S-? tJ-h-i^V p- p- =-~ ?ir o SIEGE PIECES. li-bore24-pounder, model -bore 18-pounder, model h-bore 12-pounder, mode c- =• o a" SEA-OOi Gu bore col ore colli ore 43-p -bore 32 fi. a. 2 I-* to 9. ore, m ire, mo FIELD : Gu -bore, 1 -bore 6 ore, m( re, mo Mor, ore, m ore, mi B a> tters. 4-pounder, mode 3-pounder, mode PIECES. l2-pounder, mode -pounder, model iO ST- ^00 - *. II 00 1^ tzers. adcll841 del 1841 odel 1841 odel 1841 iST PIECES. umbiad, model 1 mbiad, model 18 ounder, model 1: -pounder, model "I £1. B SJ B <xia> S5 • sii ^ OD Jl CE t¥ "-^ "^ : gfp 1^ ' '■ I w O.S a o s= 9 so X 03 CO cc Co p.ca.r. Material. o :" o . o -1* •-J" 3 0*^ o ^ o 5' o o o 5 O o • . o • o • O, . . • o • • ; B B : : P . ? : P* : : : B h-' y^ to CO »^ OI CTf-' 5Tp <I OOp Ol j>, to rfk to"*rf*- ^ O CO 00 Vl t£ GO C5 OT CO^ "^ Cn 'Vi'bi Weicfht. 00 »-. 00 or a OI 1-.! CO i-'tO -30 ^o O O! .f^ o .» QOOD It'-J c to *. oeoo OIO o o ooi oo g o*. *-o : *■ to toco CO <l o o 0:0 OJ-3 fcl Preponderance. » CHOI -300 : o OC1 OI tc Or OT Ol . 3 I-* >-i I-* Hi : t-' H-i t-'t-' : : H-' (-' oo o o : o COCOCO i : to to ~ Natural angle of sight. oo oo : o ooo : : C01-' ^ k *-cn c;t <l t- H-i CO ooo to to oo O Oi-> OCO s Of bore, exclusive S OOJ -3 *. to OT 00 05GC 30 OI Oi OI OS -3 CO ^ of chamber. t-" isi^ bi bi ifbi bi OS ."^ 2^ CR » t-' h-' i : ►--'S B it...<^ ■ : *. OI oo oco <! p : ; '-'to S Of chamber. CD is <i bi bi : 1 >* CJI en ft ^ I-. I-" t-' s From rear base- B P a sa ooo : Ol to X i^l? § to I-* »-' ^ to S *. -3 S" ring to muzzle. »0 05 gfc 5 to to 5! OOJ <■.*- OT o -3 -3 -S S From axis of tnm- 2 r* 9^ l«>- OI 15-100 l-»-J <l -a ooppp S nions to face of » - £0 C?T § ig§ bi *. bj CO bi bi p. muzzle. B 0) t-.^ t-^ 1— t to ^ ^^^ to to to to to toco S Between rim- tot-' »to p p 00 f^OOO -I p C!I OtOOIl-' S OI br bi »bo bi 1-j ^ §. bases. l-L t-' _1. 1_^ »-i § l-L I -'-'to to CO to to ts to toco l>l 10*-O5 to g o ts oco p 00 -150>-' -QOS to o Maximum. - W bl S js c;i bi to OT *-*. s< (-1 l-l to l_^ -J t-i k-* to CO •-' to h-' !-' l-i to . 00 to X o oa o Oi -■COOT -3 OT O o OI 05-3 t-* ^ '^S sk ^ s ^ ; » 00 bi bibi bi to OT 1(^00 bi § At swell of muzzle. g ft H-i ■^b cc*. »t&. 05 00 OI \ ^Oipi CO to o oo 35-3 00 g Of trunnions. i» to 3S O bo < 31CO00 >;>■ C §. 1 »J -^»a to ) o to w Utt>- 35 C> : o» : o -» <» -:i p p ^ br rf^ -3 ojoob' *■ 5, Maximum. >qt9 : 00 to OI ^s- B : ''^ ^ p<i • i:^ o to : Minimum. ^ rS- SO < 3p o p p t *-* 1 PP P D < 0.1 0.1 0.1 ft 1 Windage. Oit>- < DO <0 CO tc c 3CCl(>' coco to W ■n 05 CO CO r^ I — ORDNANCE. 447 O&DNANCE. t** ^ ^ W W ? a- =^ 2.§ » (Tl ti S •n rj N 2 S o 2 ■> !» o (^ <) 2fl <T^ -^ CI? 8 lui I--. to I-*. 00 OS i-t GO o en a^ o tfik. »^ 00 ^ >— ' 00 CD •— ^ >(». cs ►** w CO to ^bi S.t E. B ■ r-3 =; B : -1 '5 't 2 3 : 1) O ^ N O r s-N N * i-rri 1 i£.i 'Z o 5 -< -" ~ » 1^,^ S a. SS 2 ^ -1 «) - ^-1 /.-\ o S -I o ■ B : 3 ' ^ 3 ?? 3. : = 1 c - 3 'S o 1. M P ^ ■1 » "W 3 B a. ; O .s .coo 4.. fc JS X _^ -iH* h- <x> » -4 to 00 X ifc ^ -L h.* H-* 1-^ 35 i1 05 >>- !5 ts o to cn 1 ts :;t ai 05 en 00 1 *s yr i -1 a 05C5--I o -^ 3500 tn *j q f M r/3 >(>- lO u »^ -A o -J O'lf^ o ^^^ >«>. >^>l^ CO 00 >:* to W 05 -I 00 CO »^ ts to -J Si o *. o " : o 1 CT en 05 05 & o ^ ^ rf^ >(>. tOM t-^ t-^ \-t- I-* to CO OS c^ -1 CO tots 02 -J-ltO H.1 I-' to oo o .-^ to to ^ to 'X X 05 on-J o <! ooooeo 03 oa (0 00(9 OD 00 K^OStO <I » 05 -1 -J to ii>- to *. 00 -1 to a.^ 1 « ^ -1 o -- g - li" ^' &' = o = b£U er^ g -1 /^ ^ 2 "^ S 2 " N m _ .^ ^ CO ^■^ » o 3 X ,— o '3. 1-1 O •- ►- I-* l-» to H- w CO -J cn lt>. VI to CO CIOI >(>. CO o en to 00 1- o to J-" I ^ti-WMt;. 1 _ - K -1 3 3 i=?|3| : Bolder : SLi-f? i iT^^i 7\ : t o — --- T ;^f?r3 2. : 2 =?■ : ,= tn : 5 2 : 'i. : o I : 3 : ? a i S Nlil : c 2 : r. : a? c? : c : s-Y : o- • •p : : « : o : : ■• ■ D : : : H-„,-«t:* 9 tCi tc tc tc to ^ to C5 ^ ? Jl g ssgggy 2.^ TO » CO OD 5 O 5C ie 5w ^H CO to to >-• to ks^ 5^ ■ to en to Si C5 s^ <I to --1 to *. ri 1 ■-b, ? on I -1 • 2 ^ --=^^ -,§ W W *!. hH 5t r" o •^ -1 -1 C5 -1 CO '^ 7f O -i 05 O ^ 2 O O IJ- O -1 2 If «■§' 2.S o c o to to o ^ ^ CO o -.c O *" S. >< 5" »-i to — to •— ;^ -q 00 •- X CT s en *. o C5 X S '^ -c o en 05 *- ~3 iT as to bStO to S' !»( s w 'S N -l ■*. bo X ^ ^ Ft., tons 184 180 171. 205 n ■-1 00 t*. cr ^ Ft., tout 157. 152. 147. 173 V, (0 0.0 09 1 ?* S to to S5 en • ■ 5 ^ CO eo eo i ^ •<>= 3.0 3 -] oo» g r- Cfi O to totoi^ • ' s Ft ton 124 lU! 113 127 "5 -"^ 1 _] It- 05 to • 1 OBDNANCE. 448 OEDNANCE. 1 „_.f^ a a a o3^ Armstr pound loadin ing tl meclia Woolw pound loadin ing stt 1 ited . mu grifl » c c ,5 3^ ft N GO a ?5"^ S 3 ai'=l So 3 "■ ^^ .-"• —era ? £ ELS o •o. S ^— ,• — ' I. ^ 1 ' . ' >F>. ir» =^ S' Caliber. » en 3 ?• . 00 M ^ CO t~i Weight. g ;g g § • >~-L (-* I-* 1— »■ GO CTT K) Nominal exterior length. 1—1. h-^ l-L H-i f* § g S 2 Inches. en en OCR ^ ^^ 63 OT h-* to ta Caliber. □ OS C7» <-H Nunmber of ::? to 00 <i CO grooves. £ h-4 l-H A oc! a osi CO Caliber. s □Q to 5" TO g o 13 B o" CK5 ^tr? • *> g^ ^^ coS Feet. O en '^O 00 o 00 O B §. QD o 1 H.D.No H.D.No H.D.No .<= '-d o ;;■ '-d en ™ ■ - , 2. Ot:^- o 3 3^ 4 is Kind. 13 o *. *. CO g™^s!i t-l 2 n \^- ■■ J, ^^/ 'W -V— ' ^ - 1= -? *^ OS -4 *^ oogo .-3 Weight. a t. V , ' w ,^^ so ' (0 ^ O* se o o-O to o B"0 B Kind. I S5 5 O-tJ rti a 00 0,1 p.1 3 g to » ts J£ 2 CO en 00 .§ Length. 3. § CO CO (S to en en en coco QO OS g w otco SS Weight. •« ^—.*— ..—*—. /"^ '- — \ 1-1 H.L t-L H-i h-l l-» »-* t-t. t-t. ,-L 1-1 B o o o o o o o o o o o Of charge to weight w € en co*^ CO CO en en CO >f^ »;k. en of projectile. p en I-* CO en h^ CD I— ' to -:j -JOi CO-I GO H-i Crt a > ^ ' ^-^ 1 — ^ in t-^ (_i t-l I-* 1-1 i cfq ^V o o 00 oo 1-^ 5 s CO Of weight of pro- jectile to weight 3. § fe ^^-s ■ 3 00 of piece. &• GO -H. ^ >F^cn »fk. cnen ocn o &i o en en en b? *.. "coco S. Initial velocity. r<^ »;^ ^ ^ ^ 00 CO fcl K> OC t^ o c to ^T^ s---,-^-/ ^r~- CO to M CO lO ^^ Gc CO c; .-* : 1-*. ^ en t-i Pressure per square inch of » o oo en i 'cr tf^ bore. rf^ oo o oo ! O o oS en to Or en 1*^ Total. to to io ►-> CO CD -7 CO g g § Per square inch of shot's cross-sec- OS IO OS OB tion S3 ORDNANCE. 449 ORDNANCE. »— 1 I-* ^ ^ ^ — >^ I-* ^o »-* H^ ^ o ^ 6' B' 00 o ^:o c* iw x p w cn p 05 w ►*» "fC p *o ;o 5' 5' 5' 5' i/^ ■g 5' 5' 5' 5' 5' 5' r' f; 5' 5* 5* 'if g 3-3- 3- 3-3- 3-= ^ 3- 3- 3-3 o o n ft rs 1 p o- p-tb. o-s-a-s- ^ 1 CO w a B- 3 =- 3 ^^ ^ '/. w t/i rfl w -( ^ ~ -1 ,„, i-( O 553B3SHii S^S- ^ 2 o 2 o<S a N T N T ?• 5! a . rt . o ^ o o o o o 2 o o o o o ■5 3.31 T> "' 7 Q ■S o o T* ^ ^ o o'c-e-3-o* Q« rtar rtar !° 3^ 1 1 *1 -^ ^ g 1^ O r5 '^ '^ o ,_4 O 75 75 W '1- '(5 3 3 3 C 3 C '-33333 r^q . . . . . X 3 0> CI en M OS CI -3 o H^ 10 p> o Weight in -i (-• 00 (O cwts. S -1 (I ■^ en 3 C M H^ »— ^ »-^ Caliber in O U 00 O CD Od inflies. "2. fe g OJ *--1 CI CI C5 CS CO Of piece re k "• io in inches 3 Oq B' 1 g S feSSgg Of bore cn f-i in inches 1 O , ^^^^_ -\ 5 -JO O OS 4^ OO Charge in i CI ^ pounds. 5' (n _/ CT I-* to l-» lO to "^ 2 s; w to o p ^ "Weight of ?r 03 1 projectiles. rf>.OOCl(»CI005CC*-OOOlOlOS_ -J o ! Diameter. to -4 cn cn -J •-* g Bursting ts as 1 charge. Ctl (-.^h_i>_*i_i^(Oi-'tOH-''-^"-'N-iSi ■1 i 1 05Cn OO OCS-^'-JCS-T—CO-^ Length. S ft (O w :d cn ^ Elevation. jfk. CO ^»;*- Range, s: : 2SS 29 1— ( bi rf^ cs ^ CtVilio yards. <j" . . » 2 2 2 § rs M_;ig_ 3 segs§ » S-?-^-.- i ?-- § a-a-c-J Nature. o r* ? 111^ 3-» 3-: S 3 .;> -> 3 to O ^ UT O O O CJl Lateral. 1 : : : : r* 3' 3 ^ •-'CO •-''—' L l"-!*-^*©© CO 00 O >-* O tootnocnobow-jcnooos?* Weight. P ' p 5' -^ cn'' "^ v^v^ ^ -^ ^^ .-* cn -3 w a> In range a. 1 OO bob bob b CO CO CO CO CO CO coco CO 1^ o rf^ cn GD en wi c: CD oo t^ Weight per cubic -J 00 CO CO o ca cn'-'Cnco*-'*-' os S^ CD GO to . inch. A ' , t-» CO tfk. ^ ►&. Ci <l ►-*05tOOCrii-'i-^COXOOOK- cocnoooooocscnoooo^ N TO Weight of projectil : 5' °° — 3 T- P CO 00-1 .* o cn 1— 1 k- • 1— • (— • 1— * 1 ^ : B g. C0G0l0OC0^X<ICDOC5OO b--iODi*>'b-icn-aoorf>hO'-'CO rfi-H-OODO^Ci-i^WOCOtO Total volume in bore. § CO S' td CO coi—o ciOto*^o;nco H.^,-^^_^_^,-':g r M : "o : w : i*^ O 3> i "H:^.. a 4». rf».*:n cn^ Voj *.V'h;>. ij *- S Actual. o o o o cn CO ■: S3o§S cno S-l Cl 00 *^o rf^ O O CO * -^ : '■< ? 1 'qo'o --1 b o -3 cn -.3 c^ o cn cn ch Calculated. : ci- w <j ::; oco i.-.O'*^'-'— '-Jrf^r*- . IP : ■ crq o (t. ^ . u^ -5 3 _ re tD -* cn -1 o 00 Ci 00 o to o --■ «< B -I GO GO 00 00 00 I-* CO CO H-. Cn 00 CO CD X 00 00 o to to ^ ^J X to t-» cn CO to X -J o -^ Percentage realized CO CO CO CO '-* C5 X c re •-J • 3;S= -1 00 -q <l *3 o Tg.3 • f-' rD OS 00 O C35 Cn to CO CD to cn OSJi-i-OH-Csr' <iaaoo^ooooao^ Actual. 2? : ^ _:_ ^ » -3 " a: P 1-5 j^tOtP-*- o OOOl-'-q to W S o i g-^1 • r* 'T) -I J :3 •> "3 : g?i- H^tOwOO'-'OOOlSOOpT* Calculated maxi- 5 : 00 : ""'* 9° #i-Cn4*GOCO^t.OODCllCiOCOff-^ mum. ■— * 1 ; 33^" cn^i4^'---cncirfa'0'-'*>'»-'Cocoi: 00 Wl 5« : 1 : (. O-'ISS-^*^* OSOCS-~5-JCSCO go^oco: -^T^T^r^pcoto Percentage realized 1 ft) • cn to b cn b : b *- -i b ca — oo P OD»-'OJoco: oorf^ — -jtT H IT a 5" S' » c; ! ■« o e 3 a. •a a. 3" DO s B OBDNANCE. 450 OHDNANCE. Cd 2 Ills ^i -i?i ii 03 c O. = ° En SS." n- o o ffi 2 — L-j r* • - ;> ^ c ■'' t-i o >:^ a" : 3 3 • B 3 - O O : _B 3 i SS-2 Saw o o O 3 o a 3 3 3 32 -4. » s. 3 > -3 r 12 ca o K S " •'3 2,3 O 3 „ B go go o B S O 71 a 2.S o2 W 2! £ J5 B A bs; 1^ : — ^n Bg. o o d S! a- o B' en i« »co or Caliber. CO >-t Weight. Total length. cocc ctbi Length of bore. Twiet in number of calibers. oi o ■ 5 i^i^ j Number of : eroovcs. . !c. is CO CO 4- -1 tZi »-4 cn CO-l c "4 €al|. •^ "^ "^ ' — "^ "^ _ c3 _ BiB a 't3&'^3 2. ' o 1 TJ re X ca to K) til n- tZ/ tZ-KUCK-KrH) Length. i i § I ti, ■— _ M CO o; ci Sk-i o» O c o: oi K. OS X cc •&- o -1 _ *j ^j _. I-. i_* o gOl—'OCSOi OOCCOO —I ^JCD 8SS8S S:' »13 2 3 'io H CTQ t^ g'S "1 ■-* c^S: a CJ ^5 •c-s tr-c c P D = DS2 n-oooo; : -=■3 » ^-s-c-o-a . . ■Q-3 p. C-'C'C-CT! & a '^- n oorDfXOO c-o-o £ crcro-cr: : -»2- "»pp». a, ^ 3 3Dj&.CjD.' * S p ^ p ^3 3^ 5.3 ft N N P N •^ n a '^' ft fi P ?. S. 3*^ 2L » = = !?« = nn JE TO pr "- - ^P^c^S- Weight. Means of rotation. ai II II MM-';-' -H-lh *;M CO C;ViS"^^ S?S o'o^vS'b^ 'SS Initial velocity. gg2g£_8r 3 3 KWWOCO oco 7 tSS « O *--05CO I- 2:J2 9SSgg M C5 Oi toe 0> CO 1^ !:oc (0 4.j-'/0 J^*/ l:S?i82 Sb Muzzle energy. Total. r,S gg :5^i5J ,<£> OC ^ ol S8!: 8S gS SS :i SSSigg fezas^g:^ jg^sa COKiM COCO W^ Ol >i^ OCOK> 00 3 CO -^ 1-' ^ ■-' OS ts- to J- O S ~T to ■ 88 8Sio fejgfeSjS gJS^gSS gggK 8 At muz- zle. At 1,000 yards. c 3 3 g ORDNANCE. 45 1 ORDNANCE. B>i-i 2. t 3. 5d CD J » 1" ■0 05 : en s .0 -5 .0 01 « 2. .3 en 1 ^1 -^^ p ' : o -1 S-vv=" CO p -1S-.21" B to P B •^ S 3 td 3 B«2g tr' K) r "m n p g- c-i t3r~ a n i 2.- o t-' 3 . : t-' B 2.: B r' 5 B « : cr 1 N : -1 3 s CO 3; 5 o 3 p : 3. 1 OS : 1? 1 X ■ ,— , p ^^ £ : ; TS ■i N ta ■< • • -1 fD ■-1 N : : o <-* : n 00 § I c a ■a p 1? ;? "=3 3 '9' 3 3 '9^ IF 2^ tl 1 B ^ rn *-•» : : 't> 2, ^ o- s ■g^ 2 CO ■22^2 i-? a" o o : o OB^ 8S ft w 3 3' 3 -1 3' in : i S re a 3-S p 2 i'o 2. i^' s ^^ ^ i^i i ^ ^^ & p o : o CO CO -ip • a f a] f s CO CO cno CO 2 2-0 Us s. o o : o S OS b §. 3? CD -a «• g M 1 SI Ci CD !« CO 2 g »>-' g- f H »(>^ ■^^ r s ^ •^ -> o 3 S g § «.>^ CO en lb. CO OS en .-3 S: -jco 05, a? i 9 CO to o C3 ° 2Sa s- Ift* F^ B U CO bo's 00 -3 .=» a 3' a VI : i .2 P _ 2S i? Preponc ier- : •M 00 l~ r 00 ance "I 1 <5 »- : * b wio : S^ .-fO • g, is TO H c* 2 Is- 2. - a TO ■I 5' era Nature chec of gas k. en 3 -J : 00 §■■ » ti e>. eo s CO OS i «D 1 ji CO CO to CI p to 3 00 3 ^2 1 — ? Sera 3. ■ if D : 2. — 3q O 1-1 00 -. 5 s B. 2. 1 1 to n CO bo ft X §.B 1 ' »■ : p' p s !| B ^ : ^ : g. i^ ^ 00 J 5 ca •-I >■ ■J b c 3 bo — ■ § o c 2 : ft) S- rf^ ; «o 1 : p > 3 f 3 c i \ T 8r. r. g-3 3 p] • s" (0 p ■• B a. > B j a? = : a- : 2 n 53 ^ c jo : K) to 2 « ^ B "-^ CO < "0 'n 5 >p. c en t n GO • -1 : &- : .2 i'i p » s r^ .o a : o CO c» — rj P < K ^ g.5' CSC ■ Bg » : § i -5 b r 1^ ORDNANCE. 452 OBDNANCE. <=5^ •a c 2 ."" '='g^ = CO jj 5 ^ 5* T ^ X "-I K tl H p ^ re o 5 P CO B re f^ n B O P c- o o c P 3 <• re n -- ^» r/j *-< re 3* re re ^ p s 1 n f^ B o p. -1 p 3::jq o p cc ^ 3 o re' :a o o § p -1 rn o "I D- ^ rn o W c5 to 1 S r: CfH ^ P c ;^ & Cl J5 p •-» , , 2"2. p-p ; p p < ri iz: re o *"*, Qj n 3 —. ^ ft) E3 « ?r !75 W M t> W O re -1 ' a S.re^ 2 S-c ? g^re re g „ P p <= re o o 2 era <i c =. re re g a, f H» g-re a Is " ?S3 ?1: OI C5 ►-» - P 3 ta 3 3 o CO o o CO to 3 133 ►^ -^ to ==:? GO C O O O O O O to cc to CO tc to ^ )--■ ^3 X •-' iri ■— - to 00 -I O C". O »J CO -^ CO >— H- o CI !:c too CO bo 0:: ^^ re o re iq ^ uq n o ri T-! P 3 ^ si xi ^ re re re era 1 re o ^ si o re M •I ^ re o •-h tsl -"•5 re r-- C CO S » ^" re ^ c re g-5 W tra '1= ^ w H to > w V Q re c -^ re c tra era S l^B ? & 1 g p 2 p= CT ca H-i " 'c-y^'^ z: i c? "-^ . m H-i o -^ "'^ ^* Cn 1. « - P o: CO - o re '-ri o g 3 g " r w a eg 3 i 3 O P L mortar, 1. mortar . owilzer .. 5 o 71 3. N re -1 p pi oi cn ci C5 CI t^ CD CO CO CT b b S" ^ ^ o p o to t^ :^i<i :^ a CO 00 cn o or 1-^0,- re J— 1 Of CO 00 o *■ *= S ^2.' '1 ,;>. -q CO to C CO S 1 VI CO oo -^ *-^ *^. s ^ ^ 3 •0 oi r* 5^ : S| 3 2 w i g c.| re t-3 t4 p ! S> f 0^ re • a w tf>- CO 5 z i to CO <i X 2 era : '^ w S .« 01 re 1 'S »-» ^ r^ a >(*. bS p H ^ c •1 Ul g o — i" S il to "1 H o ^ CO p B >^ S) a a M CS *2 ^ p p E B Ol to °'5' 3 Ox CO B 0, P B* -^ i "1 s re oo QD r^<^''o II s E g-^3 D. c : m 5' B- p . p. : o O i^ re : CO ■ re 5 2 . CO re -1 « p -■-. ^3 ^ a. J-* CO to »p»- ^ rf»- ;^ ■^ Oil re 3 COCO ' * ^ CO CO 00 OJ CO -^ or ^ s- f p : OWHOt-^f t -1 3 : o X >! o '^ ™ ' ■a : 'a-5'd'a £ g ' ^ -d : -3 p S •o CP- ( i. -a : 5 g,S 3 g re [ , re CO 3 ■■ ■<! i I re a : c^ TTi ri^ c:, r^ Cl- P' ; ixi ^ ^ rxi CO • • crcr- : : o o : 'u Q tri toS. re lOlO M W ^.2 .St: B i »-,«*■,« (*,-K)- H C5 0- tra p p - - ^ 0^ CiCSC^CinOOOCGO -I CSK S '^ *4i. rf.. CO CO Ci ?0 CO * ~. S cncTf ^o^^ . c* 55 W •-1 h-t 05 0) CO ooceco 00 i 2 p "^ era p. re E ^>(^ ^ ,,- 3c • tra OBDNANCE. 453 0SDRANC2. c •a T3 B f a a- 5^ > w •a o c a 00 o tJ- « ? S W 3 o a w as, o to S =^ re CD re ■-f 5- crq ^ re Cf? B' B- en 3 '"2 S .3 g re re a o o o 2 D. o 1- ^g:5 ^ S BS.E- B re o jir- 5" ?i* re" ^cnj CO, " Q B o ^ — • O M £• B B - (to r** w l:^' re p re D o-y. -t re o- M O B B Hhp S 11. "-1 ■ » re fB U3 c/i m B 2 Bg^SB o o o S 2 2 B E.B ;2 w 5. re fo re^ S5 re (=■■' £"6 grg" ra 3 2 o 2 m S " " "■" B » 5 5 t" B c — 5^ res™ o ='o T 3 1 ^ re r^ ■^ B a tc -JJ g B ;;■ B o f o •-« ^ '< P re 2 B ^ c ■ 3 :j 3 p §'| g re -^ •I O B TO B- O B (J? B" r. o B O :^ ^ on m O- B- O o a. i •" ."^ S" 00 C5 '>-' O O? tfr- ts o o 1^2 2iu Si TO p If p s re £ B ■^o'B .^B 3 TO S •a •a W ^ 5" ^ 7 c •a o B- O B- O to f ■ a B 3 r' o S 3 CO 2j o 2.13 5 1 ° = 5^o-B ft re B .r* D-Cbo " : • D 2. O CO tB » re a Si 2. re O ^ r* 2* B o o 5) K re H O- a- TO T " O O ^ b;=3 =:=■ o re H '^ S '^ C ci^ - - . - - . re o re c re B 3 p p O -J «o O 00 (M CO 00 C:> ,b ^ rfi. O '-' CD O) to oo oo 00 K| *^ «5 o 50 Nominal § 1-^ o 00 o § exterior. i_i w ts ::;bi to C5 a C5 c? Ct CO CO 5. Of chamber. »— t a 00 00 «s re a TO CO 00 CO rf^ <t- ■^ en o CO 00? g o o Of rifling. 00 ft o a ^ C5 k-N, o to o o t-^ l-i b5. Total of bore. o OI § ^■'5. CD B| "» 2 ZB 5 o Caliber of piece. TO re o •o 3' W w § Maximum exterior^ o5 ^ I diameter. co^ .5^1 or po CO ?« §, Diameter at muzzle 5 g g g No. of grooves, g o o p 00 to b ■ g Width of grooves. O.S ?5 Depth of grooves. Preponderance. OBDNANCE. 454 0£DMANC£. 80 § s 5'» g r 3 3 S ►^S- ^ » - „ » o ii"g. f^.J5 '•-?■'■' = =>« S ^& s.g.2's.2-;.<i:--5-||s ss ^3 o J f^fR 2.-3 P-''? -■^03 g'^ 5^ » :i o p;-^ 2.3 t^ re-' o o N N c O CO QD •a 2 ra pgooSTo a'lS'O; = Q i » s-o » ! sO^ I |Si|l;?|i2|l * Sc c-3 5:2 "^ S-5 " S j; ■^x 3>" <'3 Sr^re < „ C S 5 T " : C3.=^ p - g'a2." = = s^B J-*'" i?5'-'5K '^■flo 5 3-~S R-Sg 3.a<i>n5=^g. |2.g.|.5-o| 15.3VS «Sgp8g5^533'< TO 3 o E.S .. 3 s-=i-- a |s.i"?!ip|-:l 3 f^ 3'^ =^ "r* o :! >■ s tc ^^ K - _ - a E5 : CD ^5 CO CO O f^ CO OT CO 03 Ci 00 Oq osg- COS. C5 .» :■ o S " " a 1 = 5 o !5 = 2 3 "^ ^ •=» -X 3-5; (t 3 •• 3 •>(» 2 ;5 " pM 3 • -■ 1 3- 3 s o « =■ "■a 5 p <:cn3 *■-! a =,•' » — ^-.g 2, £-3 ~^- » " o 3 P *< . — 3 ^ g-''S2jlC1.3^CJ3 3^ S O « « ffl ''' 3 =-"■ ^- ? P ES'Sop'J^q £■»■§ ^3<r.B2.--53- p og-r?3 a;!E'o|!^ 1== ils§1 = 2.3 S,3'i5 5B as ss|g I'p op's-- 3 ? in S-§ s " 33.5™ wg ^'".•a S E ooS a s K » -t^ 5 g IS t-p ' >o i as ;» ■|J_5_ Initial velocity. .t?d X a "> H ■ ■2 c o p f^ RecoU. Range. tKk J p BOC! 5 Z^ C. f^ ■ P p^ tsi'^t>toU c •a •a Cd m S- 2- »■ 2. 0.3 o 2.P ^ s - S 3 fv 5. s p o N G ° "> S -, 5 -. » 00 00 OC 00 30 00 ^ ti b ^ M o io S. CS o 0& Oi O Cw ^ 55 CO 00 00 .» CO b b? w CO (J- o CO -3 ►-■ -J :> CT CO ^ --I >;; e^ C5 CO CO rf^-O . C5 O O -^ 00 00 ? it.. CO it., en en ; O P o B •"•» Q p 0-0 *^ O O iTJ » '13 O f O rr ii'l-O'^P'l •^ O "-1 S» T •1 11 -I • O S" p •■ "5 B - R " » " P o : Co" o S^: f^c : B C5 05 o CO to H- -q ?: b to CO b ^ S ^ *TJ B TO B- o B- P o o B 'X3 P ? c H o 13 P B a. t c p B p. f 2 i £ Lead coated Lead coated Lead coated StiiHa ... CO re 3 to to CO to w to to g B '5 00 00 to CT b o» a c" 2 r to p i Pounds. 176.0 175.83 191.4 175.56 180.0 IS p-B' it^OO 00O5I-' S ca c-c S3 CI 01 gooocoo| crq pr. re p ' era OBSNANCZ. 455 0£DNANC£. 1 3 11 B ■5 2 ^- 5* ■a V si 0^ p" B F 3 t-^ & »-* _^ e 9 I-' n o — ■5 5' a i" 3' -3 3 o- D- B" fei W a &i 3 33 r j_l r^ T) f ri ^ *V o 1- B 1 o • 1 2 i, 4 re N n -1 n ■5 j^ 4 /—N re 1 ■a re 3. 3. B B s E. £ ^-^ CO re c -^ f 3 3 B 1 . 1 5 -1 •S.re ? 5' § ^1^ ^ 2. s*!" "S •a re (7 .^ o ^-' p-g 3. — s, 4 3=^ §5: »-l o ^■ O CD s 2 if CO O » i S' 3 3- "I C 3 s -^ fa o pg B a s S" ^ ot-g f- » b ^ 2 to ^ a c 5- 5- -a f* * O 3 3 s re Ml p 5* r re o o o is ^ g o o = o 3. Caliber of piece. • Hh o = to Ut a p SSh t--^ ^ b» O M *? CO a> g§~ UJ o 3. ^) _^ -s' Preponderance -3 at o 'X) o SI. b2 Nominal exterior -^ o s oo- 1-^ p j3 Of chamber. CO CO n s o => SI 6» ?^ O it f o c o => re ►i •-I B-S cn • B |- cp- re re en o 8 OS? Of rifling. "X To and c draul To] and c draul a o E.O o :z! ^ _.H c-g g C 2. T 2 "-r» s'g-v p 2.S tS? 3. 1 ^ 2 2» <i to" -1 p re ^- ■ o r to Maximum exterior. ^ ^ f ^ o c o 1= era o B crq 1 t—k _^ ^-^ &■ £3* •i CO a C»S At muzzle. c;- ■1 1 't' g] p' t9 si* a 5' o B O o B ? » «^ ^ §5^ lO ^ ^1 cog* Over breech-band re re 00 = •^." ^ is. N ° ifS* o >5 => Of tninnions. 1 ^ OI re zT. — » :ir »* Of chamber. • O-O 3 • B => g g «:k.<;^ B O OBDNANCE. 456 OBDNANCE. m C £2. t3 t-A ^ *^ o n '^ ^ c o a 3 C- S 3 o o o o o O 05 O Weight of projectile to weight of piece. O CT o o o Initial velocity. w w f^ D c •-1 w ■a C3 •o ^ oc t-' o 3 a Elevation. Pressure per square inch of bore. mo to 'r] I oc c* '>-' S i p o ^^ - a C c: cc to «£>■ Time of flight. *>. to *>. cji a CT O '3 Ci 'S . . . gi. to co-ito y CO 00 CT to ^ D Cf5 D re n c o O 3 X P 5' 5' o to w B era Deflection. 3 C- I 5) 3 tra —■a 3 2 era c. • » o o 9 •a a p b Mean reduced de- flection. Derivation. Final inclination. ^ ^ § II HjJ tTi _. r* fc CD O C a. o 00 ^ era 3* o 3* P ^ Weight loaded. B o ■a a a 3- Hi 3" o Bursting charge. Weight of charge to weight of projectile. o W OSDNANCE AND OBDNANCE STOBES. 457 OBDKANCE BEBOEANTS. OBDNANCE AND OBDNANCE STOBES.— Tlin pr-no- I oliolition nf tlic wliolc. In 1(104 JamcH I. 'liirnificd nil (IriiiHiiiiiiiliiin ■■OrWiiiuii I- .■iinl I )ril:tiK'(: HtoreH " j tli<; iMu>*i(T iin'l Lii'iui-nunt with llur respeclivo lilli_-H comprcliciKl.s ull chmmom iiml nrlilliTy liirriiififs iinii of .MuMlcr-rJi'iuTuI uiiil I.iciilciiant-Ocricral. Tlio liin- oi|iiii)iMciils; nil iiii|mr;iluM iiDil iMiicliiiiiH for tlio tory of the Onliiaiicc Ollicc in of iiiipurtiinrc in IJrit- SLTvicf andmiinc-uviT of arlillcry; all Mtiiall-arms, ac- isli liJKtory, as in all warn it lias hccn rcsponsiblo not ooutcrmcnts and liorsc ciiiiIihikiiIs; all anmiunil ion only for llii' nianagcmicnt of tin; maliriel of the ar- and all tools, machinery, and nialcrials for the Ord- nance Hervicc; and all horse eiiiiipnienls and harness for the artillery; and, in general, all property of whatever nature supplied to the military establish- nienl liy the Ordnance l)e[>arliiient . It is a duty of the Cliief of Ordiianc(; to furnish es- timates, and, under the direction of the Secretary of War, to make contracts and purchases, for procur- mies, but also for the direction of the j>eri<imn'l of the artillery anil <n);ineirs. IJy an (Jrder in Council of June 2;J. 1H70. the Department of Ordnancu in a very modilied form was reviv(;d under the Hurveyor-Geu- eral of the Onhiancc, as a section of the War Office, respoiisilil<- for ull supplies and vuiU-rielol War. See liiitird ,'f Orihiiiiur. OBDNANCE OFFICE.— Before the invention of kudb, ing the necessary supplies of Ordnance and Ordnance ' this ottice was supplied by oHicers under the follow- Htores; to direct the inspeclion and ijrovini; of the inj; names : the Howyer, tlie Cross-Uowy<'r, the (ial- same, and to direct tlii' construction of all cannon eater, or Purveyor of Helmets, the Armorer, and and carriai^es, ammunition-wai^ons. travelins; forges, the Keeper of the Tents. Henry VIH. i)laced it un- arlilicers' wagons, and of every iini)lemeiil and a] ])aralus for onlnance, and the ]ireparalion of all kiu<ls of anununil ion and ( )rdnauce Stores construct- ed or prepared fcir the service. OBDNANCE BOAED. -In the United States Army, a Hoard composed of such oflicers of the Ordnance Department as the Secretary of War may designate, and which is advisory to the Cluef of Ordnance and is charged willi the invesligati<m of such subjects and the performance of such duties, and at such times and places as the Uiiief of Ordnance nuiy di- der the management of a Master-G(;neral, a Lieu- t<-nanl .Surveyor, etc. Tli<- .Master-General was cho.sen from among the lirst Generals in the service of the Sovereign. The appointment was formerly for life; but since the restoration, was held diintnte beue pUi- cito, and not unfrequently by a Cabinet Minister. The letters patent for tliis ollice were revoked May 3J). 18.5.5, and its duties vesteil in the Minister of War. The last Master-General was Lord Fitzroy Somer- set, afterwarils Lord Kaglan. OBDNANCE PBOJECTILE.— A projectile having a rect. No changes are made in the established mod- \ cast-iron body, wilh a sabot composed of an alloy of els or patterns of (Jrduance and Ordnance Stores for j lead and tin, which is cast on the base of the projec- the service of the United Stales except on the recom mendation of I he Ordnance Hoard, approved by the Secretary of War. Sec Ihmrd of Ordnance. OBDNANCE DEPABTMENT.- In the I'nitert States Service, the OrdiiHnce Deparlment of the Army con- sists of one Chief of (/rdiiance, wilh Ihe rank t>f Brigadier-General, three Colonels, four Lieutenant - colonels, ten Majors, twenty Captains, sixteen First tile, and held in position by undercuts and dove- tails ; the action of the charge being to force the sa- bot on the cast-iron body and to make it take the grooves. OBDNANCE SELECT COMMITTEE.— A Committee composed ot scicniilic ollii ers. to advise the Secre- tary of Slate for War on all invtntionsin war mate- riel. It had its officers at Woolwich, in the midst Lieutenants, ten Second Lieutenants, and thirteen i of the manufactories of the Koyal Arsenal, and near Ordnance Store-keepers. The Ordnance Slore-keeper \ the head-quarters of the Royal Artillery, l)y whom at Springfield Armory has the rank of Major of Cav airy. All oilier Ordnance Store-keepers have the rank of Captain of Cavalry. No Officer of Ihe Army- is commissioned as an Ordnance Ofiicer until he shall have been examined and approved by a Board of not less tliau three Ordnance Officers, senior to him in rank. If an Officer of the Army fail on such exam- ination he is suspended from appointment for one year, when he may be re-examined tjefore a like Board. In case of failure on such re-examination he can not be commissioned as an Ordnance Ofiicer. Any number, not exceeding six. of the Ordnance Store-keepers may be authorized to act as Paymas- ters at armories and arsenals. The Ordnance Depart- ment was first established in the United States in 1812. It was not provided tor in the reduction of the army in 181.5, but continued in the service. In 1831. the Department was merged info the Artillery, attaching to each regiment of Artillery one super- ntmierary Captain, and giving to each Company four subaltern officers. The Ordnance Corps was re-es- tablished April 5, 1832. In the British service, the Ordnance Department was abolished by an Order in Council of May 2.5, 1855, after an existence of at least 400 years. Its con- stitution, its important functions, and the causes which led to its dissolution, will be found under Board of Oud^.^nce. The early history of the Department is lost in the Middle Ages ; but it ap- pears to have risen gradually under the Lancas- trian kings. A Master of the Ordnance is men- most of the designs had to be practically tested. The President of tlie Comnuttee was usually a General Officer of xVrtillery : and a Captain in the Royal Navy served as Vice-President. Since 1870 these functions have been fulfilled by officers of the Department of the Director of Artillery and Stores, who has his head-quarters at the War office. OBDNANCE SEBGEANTS. —Non-commissioned Stall Ofiicers appointed, by the Secretary of War, from Sergeants who have faithfully served eight years in the Line, four of which shall have tieen In the grade of Non-commissioned Officers. Sergeants receiving these appointments are dropped from the rolls of the regiment or company in which they have been serving. Captains report to their Colonels such Sergeants as, by their conduct and service, merit ap- pointments as Ordnance Sergeants, setting forth the description and length of service of the Sergeant ; the portion of his .service he was a Non-commissioned Officer ; his general character as to fidelity and sobri- ety ; his qualifications as a clerk, and his fitness for the duties of the position for which he is recom- mended. The duties of Ordnance Sergeants relate to the care of the ordnance, arms, ammunition, and other ndlitary stores at the post, under the direction of the Commanding Officer. Should the post be evacuated, he remains at the station, under the direction of the Chief of Ordnance, in charge of Ordnance and Ord- nance Stores, and of such other public property as is not in charge of some Officer or agent of other De- tioned in the time of Richard 111. ; but we read I partments ; and for this property he accounts to the of John Louth being Clerk of the Onlnance as ear- Chief of the Department to which it belongs. If in ly as 1418. Henry VII. constituted the Board, ' charge of stores at a post where there is no Corn- adding a Lieutenant, aSurveyor, and a Slore-keeper. I missioned Officer, he is responsible forthe safe keep- to whom a Clerk of the Cheque, was subsequently ing of the property, and is governed by the Regula- joined. With the exception of the last, whose office I lions of the Ordnance Department in issuing andao- was abolished in tlie beginning of the present cen- i counting forthe same. If the means at his disposal - - :[1 ' - - - tury, this organization was mamlained until the [be insufficient for the preservation of such property. OBSNANCE STOKE K££F£R. 458 ORDNANCE 8DEVEY. he reports the circmnstancea to the Chief of Ord- nance. OEDNANCE STORE KEEPEE.— An Officer of the Ordnance Department who holds the rank of Cap- tain of Cavalry, excepting the Ordnance Store-keeper at Springfield Armory who, by law, has the rank of Major of Cavalry. There are, at present, five Ord- nance Store-keepers in the service ; but the grade has been abolished by a recent Act of Congress, and henceforth the duties appertaining to the office will be performed by other officers of the Ordnance De- partment. In the British service, the Ordnance Store-keeper is a civil officer in the Artillery who has charge of all the stores, for which he is accountable to the Ord- nance Office. See Ordnance Department. ORDNANCE SURVEY.— By this term is understood the various operations undertaken by the Ordnance Department of the British government for preparing maps and plans of the whole kingdom and its parts. The idea of a general map of the country to be exe- cuted by the government was first proposed after the Rebellion in 1745, when the want of any reliable map of the northern parts of Scotland was much felt by the officers in command of the Royal troops. A drawing, on a scale of one inch and three-fourths to the mile, was completed in 1755; but inconsequence of the war which broke out in that year, was never published. In 1763 it was proposed to extend the survey to the whole kingdom ; but the first steps to effect this were taken only in 1784, when Major- General Roy commenced measuring a base-line on Hounslow Heath, near London, This principal tri- angulation was designed partly for astronomical purposes, and partly as a basis for a map on a small scale. The base-line was remeasured with great care in 1791; and detailed plans were commenced by officers of the Royal Engineers, partly for practicing them in military drawing, and parti}' for the purpose of forming plans of some portions of Kent for the use of the Ordnance. The principal object was, however, the instruction of a Corps of MUitary Sur- veyors and Draughtsmen, the plans themselves be- ing regarded as of secondary importance. In 1794 the survey for the one-inch map was begun, and some sheets were published in 1796. As the series of principal triangles were extended westward to- wards the Land's End, it was thought right to measure another base, for fortification, on Salisbury plaiQ in 1704; and two other base-lines were subse- qu'eutly measured— one in 1801 at Misterton Carr, and the other in 1806 on Ruddlan ;Marsh. Though first intended chiefly as a military map, the publica- tion of the survey soon created a desire on the part of the public for better maps, and surveyors were then hired to hasten its progress. This, however, was very slow, the map being at one time entirely suspended during the war in the beginning of this century, and even the parts which were executed, having been done by contract, were found very in- accurate. In this condition the survey of England continued during the first quarter of the present century, sometimes delayed by the government from motives of economy, at other times urged on by the county gentlemen, who wished the map either as a hunting-map or for local improvements. In Scotland, the principal triangulation was begun in 1809, but was discontinued in the following year, to enable the persons who had been employed there to carry forward the subordinate triangulation required for constructing the detail maps in Eiiirland. In 18i;j it was resumed, and continued steadily up to 1819; a new base line having been measured on Bel- helvie Links, near Aberdeen, in 1817, and the great sector used at various stations, both on the main- land and in the islands. It 1820 it wasagaij suspend- ed, was resumed in 1H21 anp 1822, and anew broken off in 182:i, the large theodolite being wanted in or- der to proceed with the princi|)al triangulation in South Britain. In 1824 the survey of Ireland was begun, and nothing more was done in Scotland till 1888, except that some detail surveying for a one- inch map was continued for a few years in the south- ern Counties. The chief strength of the surveying corps was now transferred to Ireland. A map of that country was required for the purpose of mak- ing a valuation which should form the basis of cer- tain fiscal arrangements and other improvements which the social evils and anomalies of Ireland ur- gently demanded. For this map a scale of 6 inches to the mile was adoped, as best suited for the pur- poses in view. On this scale the whole map was completed, and published in 1845, though the first portions were in an imperfect form, and needed re- vision which was proceeded with in 1873. This great national undertaking has been conduct- ed at different times on different scales and plans, and the system now pursued was only adopted after much discussion both in Parliament and out of doors. The map was originally begun as a military map, and the scale of one inch to the mile chosen, without considering whether some other scale would not offer greater advantages. Many now think that a scale a little larger, and an aliquot part of na- ture such as 1-50,000, or about 1^ inch to the mile, would have been preferable for the small map; in which case a scale of 1-10,000 of nature, or about 6^ inches, might have been chosen for the intermediate, instead of the six-inch scale selected at first for mere local purposes in Ireland. Be this as it may, the arguments in favor of the one-inch map are that it is the most convenient both as a general and tra- veling map. For general views of the structure of the country, the distribution and relations of its mountains, plains, valleys, and rivers, the one-inch is admitted to be superior to the six-inch, and thus better adapted in the first instance for laying roads, railways, or other extensive public works, or for the publication of a general geological survey. Such a map. on the other hand, is on too small a scale to admit of correct measurement of small distances ; it is in some respects a generalized picture, and not a correct plan. The six-inchmaps were at first selected in Ire- land as the smallest size on which correct measure- ments of distances and areas could l)e made. On them every house and field, and almost every tree and bush might be laid down. Hence they are su- perior for working out details, as in minute surveys of railways and roads, or the complex geological structure of rich mineral districts. On such sheets, too, a proprietor or farmer may find every field laid down, and the relative heights indicated by contour lines, and may therefore use them for drainage and other improvements. It has also been proposed to use these six-inch maps as a record of sales or,encum- brances of laud, thus lessening the cost and simplify- ing the transfer of property. On the other hand, their size unfits them for most of the purposes for which the one-inch map is useful, and the contour lines give a far less vivid and correct impression of the pliysical features of a country than the hill sketch- ing of the one-inch map. Most of the purposes of the six-inch plans are attained in a still more perfect manner from the 25-inch plans or cadastral survey. The last name is taken from the French cmlustre (a register of lands), and is defined as a plan from which the area of land may be computed, and from which its revenue may be valued. The purposes to which these large plans may be applieil are. as estate plans, for managing. draining, and othewise improving land, for farilialiiig its transfer by registering sales or en- cumbrances ; and as publii^ maps according to which local or general taxes may be raised, roads, railways, canals, and other public works, laid out and executed. Nearly all the States of Etirope have produced trig- onometrical surveys, many of them of great excel- lence as scientific works. All of these have been published, or are in course of publication, on con- venient scales ; generally smaller than one inch to a statute mile. ORDNANCE TIMBER. 459 ORDNANCE TIUBEK. The greatest extra European work of tliis kind is the Trigononiclriciil Survey nf liiili;i, wliii li w;is be- gun over Heventy years ai;i), iiiid lias t)eeii eoiiducted with ftn'at al)ilily. The work is drawing to a eloHe, but will still occupy several years. TluMnapH are published on a scale of srin'ooo "^ 1 "f "" ''"•'' •" l'"' mile. In'Ameriea, the Coast Survey of the Unite<l States, a map of iitimI accuracy and niiinile iletail, has been f^oiiifi; on for many years. The f;eneral charts are jiublislied on a scale of |,„Jo(i or J of an inch to a mile; the hiniiors and ports if,Jorj '"^ '^i "f an inch to a mile. Ko systemalic survey has yet been nnilerlaUen for the inlerior of the (country, ORDNANCE TIMBER. -Timber and wrought iron are the principal materials used in the construction of artillery carria/;jes and machines. Timber forthe arsenal is usually purchased in pieces of the size re- (piired to make each i)arl. A list of the pieces for a certain kind of carriage, includinf; the contents of each piece, in Imard-measure, is called a lull of Um- ber. None but the best wrought iron should be em- ployed in ordnance constructions. Large and pe- culiar-shaped pieces, as axle-treen, trunnian-platen, etc., as well as those requiring great strength, are made from Iminmered n/iapix, furnished by the iron manufacturer, according to preseril)c(i patterns ; other parts are ma<le of rolled iron. Tlie following varieties of timber are Ijrietiy noticeii as being most frequently required in the vprious ordnance con- structions : W/iite oak — The bark of white oak is white, the leaf long, narrow, and deeply indented ; tlie wood is of a straw-color, with a somewhat red- dish tinge, tough, and pliable. It is the principal timber used for ordnance purposes, being emi)loyed for all khuis of artillery-carriages. Beech — The white and red beeches are used for fuzes, mallets, plane-stocks, and other tools. An/t — White ash is straight-grained, tough, and elastic, and is therefore suitable for light carriage-shafts ; in artillery, it is chiefly used for sponge and rammer staves, some- limes for handspikes, and for sabots and tool-hand- les. JSlm — Elm is used for felloes and for snnill naves. Hickory — Hickory is ver}' tough and flexi- ble ; the most suitable wood for handspikes, tool- handles, and wooden axle-trees. /Hack, walnut. — Black walnut is hard and tine-grained ; it is some- times used for naves, and the sides and ends of am- munition-chests : it is exclusively used for stocks of small arms. Po/dar — White poplar, or tulip -wood, is a soft, light, tine-grained wood, which grows to a great size ; it is used for sabots, cartridge-blocks, etc., and for the lining of ammunition-chests. Pine. White pine is used for arm-chests and packing-boxes generally, and for building purposes. Cypress — Cy- press is a soft, light, straight-grained wood which grows to a very large size. On account of the diffi- culty of procuring oak wood of a suitable kind in the. Southern States, cypress has been used for sea- coast and garrison carriages. It resists better than oak the alternate action of the heat and moisture to which sea-coast carriages are particularly exposed in casemates ; but being of inferior strength, a larger scantling of cj-press than oak is required for the same purpose ; and" on account of its softness, it does not resist sufficiently the friction and shocks to which such carriages are liable. Bassieood. — Basswood is very light, not easily split, and is an excellent mater- ial for sabots and cartridge-blocks. Dogwood. — Dog- wood is hard and tine-grained, suitable for mallets, drifts, etc. The principal circumstances which affect the qual- ity of growing trees are soil, climate, and aspect. In a moist soil, timber grows to a larger size, but is less firm and decays sooner, than in a dry, sandy soil ; the best is that which grows in a dark soil, mixed with stones and gravel ; this remark does not apply to the poplar, willow, cypress, and other light woods w^hich grow best in wet situations. In the United States the climate in the Northern and Middle States is most favorable to the growth of limber used for ordnance purposes, except the cypress. Trees grow- ing in the center of a fonst. or on a plain, are gener. ally Htraighter ami freer from limbs than those grow- ing on lh(- edge <jf a forest, in open ground, or on the sides of hills, but the former are.at the same time, less hard. The as|iect most sheltered from prevalent winds is generally most favorable to the growth of timber. 'I'hc: vicinity of salt water is favorable to the strength and harilness of wliiteoak. The selection of timber trees should be made before the fall of the leaf. A healthy tree is indicated by the top branches being vigorous and well covered with leaves ; the bark is clear and smooth, and of uniform color. If the top has a regular, roumled form ; if the bark ia dull, scabby, and covered with while and red spots, caused by running water or sap, the tree is unsound. The decay of the topmost branches, and the separa- tion of the bark from the wood, are infallible signs of the decline of the tree. The most suitable season for felling timber is that in which vegetation is at rest, which is the case in midwinter and midsummer. Kecent experiments in- cline to give preference to the latter season, say the month of July; but the usual practice is to fell trees for timber between the first of December and the middle of March. The tree should be allowed to at- tain full maturity before being felled ; this period, in oak timber, is generally at the age of seventy-five to one hundred years, or upward, according to cir- cumstances. The age of the hard wood is deter- mined by the number of rings which may be counted in a section of a tree. The tree should be cut as near the ground as possible, the lower part being the best timber ; the quality of the wood is, in some degree indicated by the color,which should be near- ly uniform in the heart-wood, a little deeper toward the center, and without any sudden transitions. Felled timber should, as a rule, be immediately stripped of its bark, and raised from the ground. The white wood next to the bark, which very soon rots, should never be used, except that of hickory. There are sometimes found rings of light-colored wood surrounded by good hard wood ; this may be called {he second sap; it should cause the rejection of the tree in which it occurs. Brashuood is a de- fect generally consequent on the decline of the tree from age ; the pores of the wood are open, the wood is reddish-colored, it breaks short, without splinters, and the chips crumble to pieces. This wood is en- tirely unfit for artillery carriages. Wood which died" before felling should, generally, be rejected ; so should knotty trees, and those which are covered with tubercles and excrescences. Wood in which the grain ascends in a spiral form is unfit for use in large scantlings ; but if the defect is not very de- cided, the wood may be used for naves and for some light pieces. Splits, checks and cracks ex- tending toward the center, if deep and strongly marked, make wood unfit for use, unless it is in- tended to be split. Wind-shakes are cracks separat- ing the concentric layers of wood from each other ; if the shake extends through the entire circle, it is a serious defect. The center-Zi^art is also to be rejected, except in timber of very large size, which cannot, generally, be procured free from it. As soon as practicable, after the tree is felled, the sapwood should be taken off, and the timber reduced, either by sawing or splitting, nearly to the dimensions re- quired for use. Pieces of thickness, or of peculiar I form, such as those for the bodies of gun-carriages and for |chassis, are got out with a saw ; smaller pieces, as spokes, are split with wedges. Naves I should be cut to the right length, and bored out, to I facilitate seasoning and to prevent cracking. Tim- ber of large dimensions is improved by imjnersio.i in icater for some weeks, according to size, after which it is less subject to warp and crack in season- ing. To season or dry timber, it should be piled under shelter, in such manner as to allow a free cir- culation, but not a strong current of air, around OBDNANCE TIUBEB. 460 OBDNANCE TIMBEB. each piece. The piles should be taken down and put up again at intervals, varj-ing with the length of time the timber has been cut. The seasoning of timber requires from two to eight 3'ears, according to size. Oak timber loses a little more than ow- fifth of its weight in seasoning, and about one-third of its weight in becoming perfectlj' dry. From the fact that certain blowers are used with [ equal facility either for forcing or exhausting air, or producing a continuous current, which can be re- versed at will by simply changing the motion of the blower without any other alteration whatever, they are peculiarly adapted to drying lumber. It is owing to the fact that air has the capacitj' to take up moist- ure and hold it in solution, that the process called ' drying is possible. The water thus taken up is, in this 1 rangement a nearly uniform temperature is secured between the air at the ceiling and the floor, sea- soning all tlie lumber alike. Lumber seasoned in this way is not nearly so liable to crack and check as when seasoned with unequal heat. Timber for gun-carriages is now, almost entirely, worked into shape by machinery ; the operations are sawing, plani/ig, tui-ning, nicfrtisino tmd tenrnu ing, dove-tailing, etc., and are described in detail, under the various machines, in this work. In join- ing together the different pieces of a carriage, regard should be had to the character of the fiber of the, wood, and the effect of drying in changing the form of the piece. If a piece be supported at both ends, as in the cases of carriage-stocks, chassis-rails, etc., the greatest convexity of the fiber should be placed condition, invisible. At a low temperature, this ca- pacity is very small ; at 33° Fahrenheit, a cubic foot of air will only hold in solution two grains of water. This capacity is rapidly increased as the temperature is elevated, in the ratio of about three grains per foot for every ten degrees of heat ; so that at 200° Fahr- enheit, a cubic foot of air would take up about fif- ty grains of water. For rapid drying, therefore, it is necessary to liave an elevated temperature. But at any temperature, the air can be saturated with moist- ure, that is so loaded that it can hold no more, even though it be very hot. Hence it is necessary for rapid drying, not only to have heated air, but also to have a constant change, so that as fast as the air becomes saturated with moisture, it may pass off, carrying its load with it, and a fresh supply presented that may, in its turn, carry off its quantum. In simple lan- guage, this is the process of drying. The drawing shows Root's Blower as arranged for seasoning tim- ber or lumber. A notice of the drawing will explain the operation. The dry air is taken in at the inlet of the Blower and forced tlirough the heating apparatus, which may be a hot-air furnace, or coils of pijjc heat- ed by steam, as shown ifl the cut, or any otlu-r device for heating air. Afterpassing through tli<' heater the rarified air rises to the ceiling of the ilry-liouse, l)ut being positive!}' forced into the room, it dis|)laces an equal quantity of the air already there, which is forced out at the bottom of the flue, as shown by the arrows. By this means a constant and regular change of air in the dry-house is secured, thi' air passing out being loaded with moisture. By this ar- uppermost ; if in the middle, as in cases of hounds of limbers, side-rails of caissons, etc., it should be placed downward. When the pieces are to be united in pairs, as cheeks, side-rails, etc., use such pieces as have nearly the same curvature of fiber. In dry- ing a piece of timber, the sapwood shrinks more than the heart, and the effect will be to warp in the direction of the sap ; therefore to prevent the joint, formed by the two pieces which constitute a car- riage-stock, from opening, the heart-wood should be placed on the outside. To prevent the cheeks from warping inward, place the heart-wood on the inside. In hounds and side-rails, the heart side should be placed on the outside, as this will have a tendency to tighten the joints. When pieces are to be joined, the surfaces of contact and the dowels should be covered with a good coat of white-lead. Bolts and bolt-holes should be well covered with tallow moist- ened with neat's-foot oil. The surface of holes for elevating screws and pintles should be always well painted. If woodwork is to be painted immedi- ately, it should luive a good priming coat of lead before the irons are put on ; if not, it should receive a good co.at of linseed oil. For service, the wood- work of carriages and machines is painted, in ad- dition to the priming of lead-color, with two coats of olive paint; the iron-work, with one coat of lead, and one coat black paint. Great care should be ob- serveil to protect iron fortress-carriages against the corroding influence of the sea-coast atmosphere ; the best means remains to be determined by e.xperience ; at present they arc covered with one coat of hot lin- OB£ILLERE. 461 OBOARIZATIOH. seed oil siiid three coats of a reddish brown paint. Mudiin. itc. — The modclH, etc., of nil orilnance '^materiil" arc dclcriiiiiicd tiy the Onlniint (! Bimrd, siibji'ct to the rcvisidii of Ihc ('hicf of Onliiaiicc, and the final approval of tlic HctTclary of War. When a niodil has hccii duly approvcil, copies, or draw- inffs of it, are sent to the diircrciit arsenals of con- Btrnclion, and from these. i)alteriis and ;j:aiii;eH arc made for I he ijuidance of the workmen. I'utterns are f;ener:illy m,-ide of well-seasoned mahoi;any, and bound with strips of brass; K""f?''^ iir(.' made of slieet iron or steel. To secure uniformity of work at the dilTerent arspnals, it is made a part of the duty of the inspector of arsenals to see that the patterns correspond with the oriirinals ; and it is always the duty of the oflicers stationed at an arse.ial, to see thai the work, as it proi;resses, corresponds with the patterns, and tliat none but suitable materials are used. OREILLERE.— The ear-piece of an ancient helmet, shaped like an oyster shell, employed to protect the ear and cheek. OREILLON.— The ear of a sword, lani;uet, or small slip of metal on the hilt, which, when the sword is sheathed, extends alone the scabbard. O'REILLY COMBINATION-FUSE This -fuse con- sists of a metal stock, A, open at the rear, but closed at the front end by a screw-cap, B, from which pro- jects two studs, C C, for screwing and unscrewing the caps. There are also two holes, D D, in the screw-cap through which is passed and secured a strand of quickmatch, E. The fuse, F, is tightly pressed into a conical shap- ed, snug-fitting plunger, G, held in place by a wire, H, which passes thro'ugh a hole, I, in the side of the stock and enters a cannelure on the plunger. The operation of the fuse is as follows : At tlie instant of discharge the quick-match is ignited by the flame from the charge of powder ; this ignites the fuse, which continues to burn as an ordinary time-fuse ; when the Hight of the projectile is arrest- ed, the plunger, by its inertia, is driven forward, sheering off tlie pin which holds it, and, being fol- lowed by loose powder in the shell, ignition and ex- plosion follow, iee Fuse. ORGAN GUN. — A gnu consisting of a number of tubes or barrels placed in arrow like the pipes of an organ. See Orrjiif a SerpenUn. ORGANIZATION.— For the pnrpose of supply, disci- pline, rapidity and precision of movement, an army is divided into corps; corps into divisions; divisions into brigades; brigades into regiments; regiments into battalions, and battalions into companies. For the purpose of employing to advantage the different weapons and of providing for that mutual support an<i aid so essential to succcHS, an army is organized into different arms of service, viz.: Infantry, Ca- valry, Artillery and Engineers. These four arms of the service are called 'I' niojiH of the. I,ine. A battalion is the tactical unit of infantry, but the company should undoubtedly be considered th(; lighting unit, for it is the only organization that will in future wars fulllll all the re(iuirements of a unit, viz: All tlie men be known to, overlooked by. and within reach of the voice of the olHcer commanding i!. The s(iuadron of two troops is the unit of cavalry. The battery of si.\ guns is the unit of artillery. An army corps usually c<jnsists of about thirty thousand men, divided into two or more divisions, depending upon the strength of the corps. Each division is jjenerally composed of the four arms of the service — infantry, cavalry, artillery, and engineers— the artillery being assigned to the corps by battery, and the engineers by company. The corps is, as a rule, provided with a renerne of artillerj', which, with the artillery as- signed to the different divisions, is under the orderg of one commander. The organization of an army into corps was introduced by Kapoleon about the year 1804, while i)reparing his army for the contem- plated invasion of England. The idea is to make each corps a complete army in itself, in order that it may be detached at any time from the main army when the necessity arises, and be ready to act as an independent force. The division is composed of two or more brigades, and rarely of more than four. Brigades are composed of two or more regiments, and regiments of two or more battalions, each con- sisting of two or more companies, generally four. T.ie battalion organization is for administrative purposes, and for instruction in the movements prescribed in tactics. As all the duties devolving upon the General in command of an army cannot well be performed by one man, he is assisted in his duties by the officers who corhpose his Staff. The duties of Staff-officers are : to transmit the Geneial's orders; to procure information, both of the enemy, and of the condition of his own forces; to prepare reports, obtain guides, spies, etc.; to inspect the troops to see that they are properly supplied and in good condition of drill and discipline; to preserve the correspondence and records; in fact, to perform all those duties required of the General in command, which will enable him to have his army at all times prepared in every respect to meet the enemy. The principle of Staff organization is also extended to the divisions, brigades, and regiments, compo- sing the army; the duties being less important and arduous as the body of troops is smaller. The necessity for a body of officers specially trained in staff duties has been greatly increased in consequence of the fact that wars are now waged by much larger armies than formerly. Therefore every army should be provided with a body of offi- cers who in time of peace should be thoroughly in- structed in all duties pertaining to the staff, so when war is declared they will be fully competent to enter upon the active and efficient discharge of their duties. Nearly all European armies have such an organization, which is commonly known as the Gerieral Staff. Jomini lays down the following general condi- tions, as essential to the perfect organization of an army: — 1. A good system of recruiting. 2. An efficient formation, 'i. A well organized system of national reserves. 4. That officers should be well instructed in drill and maneuvers, and in all the duties of a camp and in the field, and that there should be a good system of interior economy. 5. A discipline strict, but not humiliating; a spirit of sub- ordination as far as possible on a conviction pervad- ing all ranks of its importance, rather than on the mere orders of the service. 0. A well regulated sys- tem of rewards and a spirit of emulation. 7. A special corps, engineers and artillery, well instruct- ed. S. An armament well understood, and, if pos- OaOITE & S£BF£NTIN. 4G2 OUTOUAEDS. sible, superior to that of the enemy, comprising arms defensive a3 well as offensive. 9. A staff cap- able of applying all these elements to the greatest advantages and with an organization adapted to the theoretical and practical instruction of its members. 10. Well organized commissariat and medical de- partments. 11. The command of armies and the supreme direction of operations by a sound practi- cal system. 18. The maintenance of a high military spirit. OKOUE A SERPENTIN.— A machine composed of a great number of guns of small bore loaded either from the muzzle or at the breech. Each separate chamber was encased, as far as the muzzle in wood or metal, and they were fired in succession or all at once. The term orgue was applied to .several pat- terns of ordnance, composed of a number of musket barrels, all so joined on the same carriage, and the touch-holes corresponding with each other, that they could be discharged simultaneously. This weapon may be said to have been the origin of the Mitrail- leur. ORCrUES. — Thick and long wooden beams, pointed and shod with iron, hung vertically by separate ropes in the gateway of and over the entrance to a fortified place. They answer the purpose of a port- cullis or door, and are dropped into position by cut- ting the ropes from which they hang. Their de- scent is inevitable, in which they possess an advan- tage over the portcullis, which may be held up bj' the enemy or blown in by petards, whereas petards have little effect on orgues, for if one beam be des- trovcd another can be dropped to fill up the gap. ORIENTAL POWDER. — A variety of gunpowder made at the Oriental Powder Mills at South Wind- ham. Me., on the Presumpscot Eiver, where every facility is at hand for making powder to the best ad- vantage. The following brands are well known and are regarded as excellent : Falcon Ducking — Especially adapted for breech- loading guns and target practice Its sizes are No. 1 (fine). No. 2, No. 3, and No. 4 (coarse). Packed in kegs of 6| lbs., and in canisters of 1 lb. each. Western Sporting — A clean and moist burning pow- der, and used for ordinary purposes m the field. Its sizes are Fo (coarse), FFo and FFFo (fine). Packed in wood or metalkegs of 251bs., IS^lbs., and 6;^ lbs., and in canisters of 1 lb. each. Wild Fowl Shooting — Of a coarser grain than "Western Sporting," and especially prepared for use in very damp places, and for muzzle or breech- loading guns. Its sizes are No. 1 (fine). No. 3, No. 3, No. 4. (coarse). Packed in wood or metal kegs of 25 lbs., 12J lbs., and 6i lbs., and in canisters of 6 lbs. and 1 lb. each. Blasting — A superior grade, and especially adapted for military and mineral mining, also for railroad work. Its sizes are C (coarse), T, Tpo, F, FF, FFF (fine). Packed in wood or metal kegs of 25 lbs. ORrFLAMME. — A banner which originally belong- ed to the Abbey of St. Denis, and which was borne by the Counts of Ve.xin, patrons of that church, but which, after the county of Vexin fell into the hands of the French crown, became the principal banner of the Kingdom. It was charged with a saltire wavy or, witli rays Issuing from the center cross- ways. In later times the oriflamme became the insignia of the French infantry. The name seems also to have been given to other flags ; according to Sir N. II. Nicolas, the oriflamme borne at Agincourt was an oblong red flag split into five parts. Also written Aurijlainme. ORILLON.— In fortification, and especially in the earlier systcans, tlie orillon is a semicircular projec- tion at the sliouhlcr of a bastion, intended to cover from the ol)serva1ion of the enemy the guns and defenders on the flank, which, with such a construc- tion, is somewliat retired or thrown back. Tlie flank thus protected is held by many distinguished engineers to be most valuable in the defense of the ditch, when clearing it from an attacking party, or from hostile miners. The retired flank is sometimes Orillon : a, a, orillons ; b, h, retired flanks (the dotted lines show the original bastion). straight, at others curved. The orillon is as old as the bastion, and is found in the works of Pagan and Speckle. OBLE. — In Heraldry, one of the charges known un- der the name of sub-ordinaries, said to be the dimin- utive of a Bordure, but differing from it in being de- tached from the sides of the shield. It may be the sole charge in a shield. Or, an orle gules was the Orle, coat borne by John Baliol. An orle of heraldric charges of any kind denotes a certain number (gen- erallj' eight) of tliese charges placed in orle, as in the coat of the old Scottish family of Gladstanes of that Ilk ; argent, a savage's head couped, distilling drops of blood proper, thereon a bonnet composed of bay and holly leaves all proper, within an orle of eight martlets sable. ORMOLU. — A variety of brass, consisting of zinc 25 parts, and copper 75 parts, which has a nearer re- semblance in color to gold than ordinary brass. It is extensively used for castings of ornaments. When the casting is made, its color is brought out by a pickle of dilute sulphuric acid, after which the acid is remeved by water, and a liquor varnish is put on to keep it from tarnishing. ORNAMENTS.— Those parts of the dress of a sol- dier which are more for appearance or distinction than for absolute use ; as belt-plates, shoulder straps, trimmings, etc. ORPIMENT.— A sulphuret of arsenic. There are many varieties of orpiment, one in fine golden col- ored scales, another in dense yellow stony lumps, a third in earth}'-looking masses, called King's Yellow, a familiar paint ; but the orpiment required in the laboratory for blue lights, signal-lights, and para- chute light-balls, is the red proto-sulphiiret or realgar. OUTER. — A term applied to a portion of the target. On the regulation targets it is all the space outside of the larger circle, of the space outside the vertical lines. See Inner OUTFIT ALLOWANCE.— In the British army, a sum of £150 for the cavalry and, £100 for the infantry, granted to Non-commissi(mcd Officers promoted to Commissions, to enable them to meet the heavy charges for uniform and equipments. The larger sum is given in tlie cavalry because the newly Com- missioned OIHcer has to purchase his charger. ODTFLANK.— To turn the flank or flanks' of an ene- my. See Flank Mintrmfnt. 0UTGUARD8.- Small bodies of troops stationed at a greater or less distance beyond the limits of a camp or main army, for the purpose of preventing an ene- OUTLET. 463 OUTEANCZ. my npiiroacli'mj; willioul noliof, and also to ofTiT op- poniliiiPi lo Ills prof^rcss, wliilc till: iiiiiin fiinc: prc- parcM for rcsiHlaiicc. OiilijuardH iiiarcli olT to their position silciilly, and pay no coiMpliniciiU (jf any kind to olllccrnor citliiTM. Assoon as tlii! ollicer coni- inanding an outmiard arrivcM on liiM (ground, ho pro- ceeds to carefully examine the environs, noting all heights within rille-rant^e, roads and paths liy vvhieli aneneiny may approach, etc. Il(! also takes Buch im- promptu means of 8trenf;theiiing his position as oc- cur to liim — felling a tree here, cuttinj; brushwood there, liloeicinK a path in another place, and resort- iiV!^ lo any expedient which may serve to delay the foe at point-blaidi rani,'( — an ol)jecl of importance, as a stoppajje at such a point is known lo act as a great discoura>;ement lo advancing Iroopa. See Out- OniLET. — CUitlet8,in fortification, are the passages made through a parapet, or an enclosure of a gorge, for Ihc services of the work, 'riiey should in all cases be made in tlic least e.\])<)s<'d jiart of the work. Their width need not be more tlian six and a half feet, when tised only for tlie service of the work ; but when they serve as a common passage for wagons, etc., intlie case of the intreuchmenl cross- ing a roud, they sliould be at least ten feet wide. Vi hen cut through a parapet, tlie sides receive a slope of three perpendiiuilar to one base, and are revetted witli sods, etc. A gate, termed a /xirrur, serves as an enclosure to tlie outlet. 'Plit; framework of the barrier is iiuide like an ordinary gate, consist- ing of two uprights, or xtilrK, a cross-piece, or rail, at top and lioltom, and a siringiiig bur, or a diagonal brace. Upright palisades, about seven feet long and four inches thick, are spiked to Ihe frame about four inches apart; they are tinislied at top with spikes, A barrier thus constructed will not offer a slielter to the enemy should he attempt to cut it away. The barrier is hung on hinges like an ordin- ary gate. See Hnrge. OUTLINE. — In fortificatiou, the succession of lines that show the figure of the works, and indicate the direction in which the defensive masses are laid out, in order to obtaiu a proper defense. OUTLYEKS.— A term formerly applied, in the Brit- ish service, to men who were permitted to work, on condition that the whole of their pay was left in the hands of their Captain for the time they were so em- ployed. This sum the officer appropriated to his own use. to enable him to increase his pay and keep a handsome table when he mounted guard. It was also a common practice to place on the muster-rolls the names of ortieers' children, and instances have occurred of girls receiving men's pay as outlyers. OUT-LYING PICKETS.— Detachments of cavalry and infantry, accompanied sometimes with light guns, and posted on the front and Hanks of an army in the field, in order to guard against surprise, and to keep reeonnoitering parties at a distance. See Ont~pi>!<t!<. OUT OF GEAE.— For most heavy guns, the motion of the top carriage to and from battery is regulated by a pair of truck-wheels, one on each side, which work on an eccentric axle placed underneath and a little in front of the axis of the trunnions. The wheels are thrown out of gear by means of hand- spikes inserted into sockets upon the ends of the ec- centric axle. See Into Gear. OUT-PENSIONEE.— A pensioner attached to a hos- pital, as Greenwich or Chelsea, England, who has liberty to live where he pleases. OUT-POSTS.— The detachments of troops and the method of arranging them, by means of which an Army when in bivouac, in camp, or in cantonment, is protected from surprise by an enemy. The duties of the out-posts, and of the grand-guards which form their supports, are strictly those of observation. If attacked, they offer no resistance farther than to en- able them to feel the enemy perfectly, and never lose sight of him. The task of holding the enemy in check by a vigorous resistance, so as to procure suf- lieienl time for Ihe main-body to make its dispositions forballle, is <-onsigned to the pickets. The position of llie outposts, with respect to the main-body, will Ijk regulated by the more or less broken character of the country. As a gi-neral rule the mean distance may be taken at about two miles. The line occupied by these posts should take in all the approaches to the front and flanks of the |main position. When a position is to be held for a considerable time, the out-posts may be thrown farther in advance : to pro- cure greater repose and security for the main-body. The ground on which the line of out-posts is estali- lishecl should be carefully examined ; with a view both to observation and defense. As far as practic- able, those points should be selected for posts which present some natural advantages for the defense; will screen the troops from the enemy's view; and en- able them to watch all his movements. Whenever the features of the ground do not offer natural ob- stacles to cover tlie jjosts, artificial means of a slight character sIkjuIiI be resorted to. The Hanks of the line should rest upon sirong natural obstacles; when such cannot be found, witliout giving the line too great an extent, these points must be secured by strong pickets of cavalry or infantry, thrown back to form crotchets ; from which ])alroles must be ('on- stantly kept up on the flanks in the presumed di- rection of the enemy. The strength of each out-post, and the distance from one to the other, will be regulated by the feat- ures of the ground, and the number of sentinels, or vedettes that each post must throw out. The posts should, as far as practicable, be within sight of the grand-guards to which they belong ; and the sen- tinels of their respective posts. When the ground does not permit tills arrangement, sentinels should be placed at intermediate points, to communicate promptly whatever may happen at the line of posts, or of sentinels to the rear. Posts of infantry should not, as a general rule, be placed farther apart than (iOO paces ; nor their .=eutinels more than 300 paces in advance of the posts. Those of cavalry may be some 1,.500 paces apart ; and their vedettes from 600 to 800 paces in advance. The strengti. of each post should be calculated at the rate of four men for each sentinel, or vedette. An officer in command of any of the out-posts must be capable of untiring vigilance and activity ; to perform the various duties that de- volve upon him. He should be provided with a good map of the country, a telescope and writing mater- ials. He will thoroughly reconnoiter the ground upon w-hich he is to dispose his command ; and also as far in advance as circumstances admit questioning closely any inhabitant he may find. After tak- ing up his position, he should go forward with the half of his command ; and post each sentinel him- self. If however, he relieves another in the com- mand, and deems it advisable to make any changes in the dispositions of his predecessors, he should promptly report the facts to the Commanding ( )fficer in his rear. When the officer finds that the enemy is not in his immediate neighborhood, he should en- deavor to feel his way cautiously towards liim by- patrols ; and when in immediate presence, he should omit no means to watch the enemy's movements ; and from the occurrences of the moment, such as noises, the motion of the clouds of dust, camp fires, conflagrations, etc.. endeavor to divine what is passing in his camp, and his probable intentions. Accurate written reports should be promptly sent to the officer in command, in the rear, on all these points. The reports should be legibly written, and should clearly but coru-isely, state what has fallen under the officer's eye; what he has learned from others ; and the character of the sources from which his information is drawn. See Adtanced Posts. OUTRANGE.— To the utmost ; to the last extremity. Thus the French say, Se battre A mUrance, to fight to the last extremity. OUT-SENTKY. 464 OVEECOAT. OUT-SENTEY. — A sentry posted to guard the ( n- trance or approach to a place. See Omguards. OUTSIDE.- In fencing, that part which is to the right of the line of defense. The Outside Guard is used with the broadsword and saber, to defend the outside of the position. OUTWABD FACE. — A word of commfod for troops to face to the right and left from their center. OUTWARD FLANK.— The extreme tile on the right or left of a division, subdivision, or section, accord- ing to the given front, when the battalion is at close or open column, and which is the farthest wheeling point from line into column, or from column into line. It is likewise called the reverse flank. OUTWOKKS.— A work consisting of an enceinte alone is more or less exposed to surprise, as it must have outlets of some description to keep up a com- munication with the exterior, and a bridge, or other means for crossing the ditch. This is not the only defect of a fortification of this simple character ; for having no covers beyond the ditch for its garrison, their action must 'be restricted to what may be termed a passive resistance alone ; in any attempt to operate on the exterior, they are exposed to fire as soon as they emerge from the ditch, and in a retreat towards the work, if closely pursued by the assail- ant, they will not only run the risk of being cut off, but a retreat under such circumstances may lead to the capture of the work itself, by the assailant being enabled to enter it with the retreating force. To provide against dangers of so grave a character, en- gineers have devised other defenses beyond the ditch, and which they have placed in immediate de- fensive relations with the enceinte, being under its fire, and in positions where, if assaulted, they can be readily succored by the garrison. To this class of exterior defenses the term outicorks has been ap- plied. The outworks should satisfy the following condi- tions to render them very effective and secure: 1. They should have revetted scarps of a sufiicient height to secure them from any ordinary open as- sault. 2. As far as practicable their scarps should be flanked by the enceinte and be masked from the positions of the assailant's batteries. 3. Their para- pets and covered shelters should be shot-proof. 4. Those which are most retired should command those in advance ; and whenever this cannot be done the retired work should be defiled from the one in advance by which it is commanded. 5. In any combination of outworks the dispositions should be such that the more advanced ones shall fall into the hands of the assailant before he will be able to gain possession of the more retired. 6. The com- munications should be ample, and satisfy the general conditions for these elements. See Counter-guard, Cmered-wny, Demx-lune. Redoubt, and Tenaille. OVATION.— A lesser triumph allowed to a Com- mander for any victory not deserving a triumph, in the strict sense ; hence, an expression of popular homage. See Triumph. OVEN.— A very necessary apparatus in military economy to preserve the health of troops, by enab- ling them, at a comparatively small expenditure of tfrg*^^.^:':*''"* wa'ds Lord Herbert) brought to light the excessive mortality among soldiers, which was partly— and, as the event has shown, justly— attributed to the bad cookery of their food. Captain Grant has bestowed much attention to army cookery, and has invented ovens for barrack use and for the field. While great improvements on the system — or want of 8}'stem — wliich preceded them, these ovens are still admitted to be far from perfect in their arrangements. For boiling meat, etc., in the field, he employs detached cylinders, which, when empty, he proposes to join and floor over for use as pontoons ; when in use they are united crosswise, one in the middle serving for a chimney, One or more empty barrels can be attached for steaming potatoes, and the roasting of coffee is performed, though not altogether success- fully, in another cylinder made to revolve over the OVEIf or GABIONS, DIOTNSIOTfB IN MITXM. fuel, to cook many rations together. In the British army little allcutinn was jiaid to such subjects, until, in ia08, the inuuiries of Mr. Sidney Herbert (after- Fig. 2. chimney. Up to the present time other systema have been partially resorted to ; but none has as yet been definitively adopted to the exclusion of others. Cylindrical ovens are preferable for field service, and tlie want of brick for the arch and fireplace may be supplied by two gabions of semi-circular or semi- elliptical form Im. 44 in diameter; the basket work is not go close as the ordinary gabion, and is Im. 32 in height. The two gabions, resting one over the other upon tlie flat s'de, make a cradle 2m. 64 long, Im. 44 broad, and Om. 72 high. (Fig. 1). The interior and exterior is then plastered with clay, which must penetrate the interstices of the basket work. The front and back part is shut in the same manner, or with sods. The cradle is then covered with earth to retain theheat, and in order that the superincumbent weight may not cause it to give way. Withes are attached to the top of the basket work, and passed vertically through the embankment, and then fastened to the longitudinal beam of a wooden horse straddled against the exterior curve. Eight of these furnaces may be made in 24 hours. The wooden oven (Fig. 2j is made by digging an excavation of 3m. 20 in length by 2m. 40 in breadth, and Om. 50 in depth, making the fireplace slightly descending towards the mouth. This trench is covered with pieces of wood of Om. 15 to Om. 25 square, placed close together ; the wood is covered with earth carefully packed, the chimneyplace is sodded. The fireplace is dried by lieating for 7 or 8 hours, and subsequent heatings require two hours. Such ovens resist verv well five or six bakings. OVERCHAEGED MINE.— A uiine whose crater is wider at the top than it is deep. See CraUr. OVERCOAT. — A part of the uniform, worn in cold weather and when specialh' ordered. In the United States army it is prescribed as follows :— Fur Gnuriii Ojfirirs. — Of dark blue cloth, closing t)_y means of four frog buttons of black silk and loops of black silk cord; cord down the breast, and at the throat by a long loop "(/ I'echeUi ." without tassel or plate, on the left side, and a black silk frog button on the right; cord for the loops fifteen liund- redths of an inch in diameter; back, a single piece, slit up from the liottcmi from fifteen to seventeen inches, according to the height of the wearer, ajid. OTEBHAUL. 465 OXYHYDEOGEN BLOV/ PIPE. cloHini; at, will by billions, iind button-liolcs cut in a concealed Ihip; cnUar of the Hunie eolur and material us the coal, roiindcil at the edfjes, and to stand or fall; when standing t.-) be about live incbes liiL'h ; sleeves loose, cjf a sinfjlc piec(! and rownd at tb(t bot- tom, witliont eiilT or slit; linin;^ woolen, and, with the facings, to correspond in color with the trim- mings of the uniform; around the front and lower borders, the edges of the pockets, the edges of the sleeves, collar, and slil, in the back, a Hat braid of black silk one-half an inch wide; ami arouml each frog button on the breast a knot two and onenuarter inches in diameter, of black silk conl, seven hund- rcdtlis of an inch in diameter, cape of the siime color and material as the coal, removaljle at the pleasure of tlie wearer, and reaching to the cult of the coal sleeve when the arm is extended; coat to extend down the leg from six to eight inches below the knee, according to hi'ight. To indicate rank, there is on both sleeves, near the lower edge, a knot of flat black silk braid, not exceeding one-eighth of an inch in width, and composed of live braiils, double knot. For all other Offiars — Dark blue, close-litling don ment of the Ifouschold lirigade. It was raisetl in Kifil, and took part in .Marlborough's campaigns; it also served under VVellinglon in the Peninsula and at, Waterloo. 'I'bis rcgiuK^nl, like the two regiments of Life Guards, wears a steel cuirass, but over a blue coatee, whereas the coatee of the two latter regi- ments is red. jSee Ilt/me-duardn. OXIDES.- .Metallic oxides are the most important of all the compounds of the metals, and in many cases occur naturally as abundant and valuable ores. They are divided by chemists into lliree classes — viz., (1) basil! oxides or bases, C2; saline or indif- ferent oxides, and C-i) acid oxides or metallic acids. The dillercnt oxiiles of the .same metal usuallv af- ford illustrations of two, and not unfnijuently of all three of these classes. Thus (to take the case of manganese) the protoxide (MnO; is a powerful base, the red oxide (Mn,(J , ) is a saline or indilferent oxide, showing' little tendency to comtjine either with acids or alkalies, while permanganic acid (Mn^O,; presents all the properties of an acid. As a general rule, the greater the number of atoms of oxygen which an oxide contains, the less is it disposed to unite with the acids ; on the contrary, it frequently possesses ble-breasted surtoul-coat, having a cape, made to i acid properties, and then unites with bases to form det;i<'h from the coat and fall tothi' tips of tlie lingers when the arm and hand are extended; \\u: skirl of the coat for mounted officers to reach iialf way be- tween tlie knee and the sole of the fool; for dis- mounted officers, three inches below the knee. The coat has seven buttons on each breast, of the same pattern as those on the imifortji coal. Tiie insignia of rank is on the sleeve, as follows, viz: Colonel, live braids, single knot. Lieutenant-colonel, four braids, single knot. Major, tliree braids, single knot. Caiitaiu, two braids, single knot. 1st Lieu- tenant, one braid, single knot. 3d Lieutenant and Additional 3d Lieutenant, without braid. Military Storekeepers, same as officers of the General Stall of like rank. Chaplains, without braid. On the frontier and campaign, officers may wear sails. Protoxides generally are strong salifiable bases ; they require one equivalent of a monobasic acid to form neutral salts. Sesquioxides are weaker bases; their salts are usually unstable: they re- quire three atoms or equivalents of a monobasic acid to form a salt which is neutral in coiniw;- silion. though it may not be neutral to test-paper: and in general, all oxides require as many equiv- alents of acid as Ihey contain atoms of oxygen in their composition. Some of the metallic aVfds. like the stannic and titanic, contain two atoms of oxygen to one atom of metal, but most or them contain three atoms of o.xygen- such, for ex- ample, as the manganic, ferric, chromic, tungstic, molybdic, and vanadie acids; whilst in a few cases, such as the arsenic, antimonic, and permanganic, the the soldier's great-coat, with the insignia of rank on i proportion of o.xygen is still higher. Of tlie basic Hut sleeve. See Great-coat. I oxides, which form by far the most important cla.ss, OVERHAUL. — A term used in artillery appliances ' it may be observed llial they are devoid of all me- tallic appearance, and present the characters of i art liy in "overhauling" a tackle, that, is, in separaling the blocks. This should invariably be clone from the standing, and not from tlie movalile block. OVERLAP. — In marching by echelon tor tlie pur- pose of forming upon any given point, and particu- larly in wheeling from column into line, troops may lose their relative distances by not taking ground e- nough; when this occurs, the rear division, company, or section, unavoidably crowds upon its preceding one, and is th?nsaid to overlap. OVERSEER.— An officer in the Ordnance Depart- ment, who superintends the artificers in the construc- tion of works, etc. He is called Superintendent. OVERSLAUGH.— To hinder or stop by an unex- pected iinpediment; as to overslaugh a military offi- cer, that is to hinder or stop his promotion or em- ployment by the appointment of another to his rank or duties. OWN. — A term wliich has been attached to some British regiments since the Kevolution in l(i8M. Thus the 4lli Fool, which landed with William III., was called the 4lli Kings Own. OX. — A ruminant quadruped of tlie family hon'dtp, much used as a draught animal in military trains. The ox is more frequently employed as a beast of draught in some parts of the continent of Europe than in Britain. From llie earliest historic times the horse has been more generally thus employed, and has now almost entirely superseded the ox. The gait of the ox is slow and plodding, but its strength enables it to perform a great amount of work, and it is not easily exhausted. It needs, however, intervals of rest inconvenient for the marches ; and it is not capable of exertion at all equal to that of the liorse on any occasion of emergt'ucv. See Bullock. OXFORD BLUES.— The third heavy cavalry regi- matters, and that six <jnly of them are soluble in water to any considerable "extent, viz, the three al- kalies and baryta, stronlia, and lime. All the oxides are solid at ordinarv temperatures, and as a general rule, the addition of oxygen to a metal renders it. much less fusible and soluble; the protoxide of iron, the sesquioxide of chromium, and molybdic acid be- ing the only oxides that melt more readily tlian the metal. OXYHYDEOGEN BLOW PIPE.— An mstrument for the purpose of burning o.xygen and hydrogen gases in their equivalent proportions, so as to get tlie greatest heat from the combination. Two volumes of hydrogen and one of oxygen form an exceedingly powerful explosive mixture, in consequence ot tireir instantaneous union upon tlie application of suffi- eiinl heat, as the ejectric spark or a taper, the result being the formation of water. It was, therefore, early known to be dangerous to experiment with the mi.xed gases. In some instances, when the gases were contained in separate reservoirs and connected by tubes at their extremities, they have become mingled in one of the reservoirs in consequence of a backward flow of the mixture, and serious accidents have resulted. Tliis led to the early use of concen- tric tubes for the delivery of the gases, the hydro- gen tip usually surrounding the one discharging the oxygen. By properly regulating the pressure in the gas-liolders the two gases may be mingled without danger, near the end of the tubes, at the entrance of the burner, llemming's .safety jet is used for burn- ing the gases mixed in the same reservoir; but it is not thought safe to have this of metal, but of a mem- brane. The ordinary burner, which mingles the two gases for some iuclies before llieir exit, is all that PACE. 466 PACK ANIMALS. is sutBcient to produce thorough admixture previous to ignition, and will furnish as "solid" a tlame as may be desired. The chief uses of the osyhydrogen hlow-pipe are to readily fuse metals, and to render lime incandescent in the Drummond light. See Drummvnd Light. P PACE. — In its modern acceptation, the distance, when the legs are extended in walking, between the heel of one foot and that of the other. Among dis- ciplined men the pace becomes of constant length, and as such is of the utmost value in determining military movements, the relative distances of corps and men being tixed by the number of paces marched, and so on. The pace in the British army is 3i feet for ordinary marching, and 3 feet for "double quick" or running time. "With the Romans the pace had a different signification, and it is important to bear the distinction in mind, when reading of dis- tances in Latin works ; the single extension of the legs w;is not with them a pace (paamis), but a step (gradux): their pace {panKus) being the interval be- tween the mark of a heel and the next mark of the same heel, or a double step. This pace was equiva- lent to 4.84 English feet. The pace was the Roman unit in itinerary measure; the mile being 1.000 paces, or .5,000 Roman feet, equal to .917 of an English mile. Whether measurements were effected b}- ac- tually counting the paces, or by the time occupied, is not clear; but either method woidd, with disciplined troops, give a safe result. In the Middle Ages, writers confuse accounts of distances by allusion to a geometrical pace, a measure which varied with different authors. PACING DRILL.— In the United States Army, be- fore teaching the soldier to estimate distances sim- pl_y by sight, he is first instructed to measure them ))}■ walking over them and carefully counting the number of equal paces thus taken. The Instructor causes a distance of one hundred yards to be measured off on smooth, level ground, and marked by a stake and small flag at each end. The squad is marched to the ground under arms, and formed in single rank, in a line passing through the first stake and at right angles to the measured line. The In- structor directs each man to march straight forward nntil he comes opposite to the flag planted at the 100-yard stake, and to carefullj- preserve his natural step without either increasing or diminishing its length, at the same time coimting the number of steps taken. This is repeated three times. From the mean of the three trials the Instructor will give to each man a number of steps that he will lake in measuring 10 yards and 100 yards, so that if he march with equal paces he can step 100 yards with somedegree of accuracj*. When the men have learned to measure distances on smooth and level ground, they are next practiced on that whicli is more or less broken. The Instructor reminds them that in ascend- ing, a shorter step is always taken, and the reverse in descending. Wlicre it is possible, he selects dif- ferent practice grounds, which will give the luen the opportunity of dclcrMiining the number of steps taken in a given distance in .going up or down hill, and also that which is more or less broken by ruts and furrows. The number of steps taken under these circumstances are recorded by each man, giv- ing the inrlinati(m of the ground and other irrciiu- larities as nearly as possible. The men are then ex- ercised in measuring unknown distances, embnicing as great a variety of surf:ice as convenient, ;ind con- tinued until they are al)le tf) reduce the error made to within live per cent, of the distance measureil. The ditliculty of correctly estimaling anv L'iven dis- tance without the aid of proper instruments for the purijose increases rapidly as the distance becomes greater. The exercises for the instruction of the men are for this reason divided into three parts, and the men are assigned to one of three classes accord- ing to their proficiency in the drill. The third sec- tion of the course has reference only to distances varying from 100 to 300 yards; the second section to those from 300 to COO yards, and the first from 600 to 900 yards. Beginners form the third class; those who become e.xpert in estimating the distances of the third section are advanced to the second; and : when the drill has been mastered as regards the dis- tances of the second section, the pupiHs passed into the first class, and practices estimating all distances j up to 900 yards. PACK-ANIMALS. —Pack-animals may be advanta- geously employed in sections of country not permit- ting the use of wheeled carriages. Horses, ponies, mules, oxen, elephants, camels, goats and degs are more or less used as pack-animals in different coun- tries, and the variet}' of packing gear is very great. The nature of the country to be traversed and of the load to be transported, will in a great measure de- termine the form and adjustment of the gear. The wwteisa favorite pack-animal in many countries, but' the ox is far superior, and would be in greater de- mand, were it only fashionable to use him as a pack and saddle animal. Oxen hold out much better than mules over long marches, are much cheaper, are less liable to be stampeded by the enemy, are easily caught when needed, and in case of emergency may be used for beef . In some respects the mule is a superior pack-animal to the horse. His peculiar build gives him, in proportion to his weight, a great, er power to transport a load on his back ; besides this, the mule eats less than the horse, and is more sure-footed. The load, gait, journey, forage, intervalB of rest, etc., of a pack-animal shotdd be so proportioned that he will be no more fatigued one day than an- other. It has been determined by experience that a pack-animal, traveling at a walk, over a good road, can carry from 230 to 300 lbs. . 30 miles in 10 hours ; or if he moves at a trot, 175 lbs. over the same dis- tance : and the daily work of a pack-animal is equal to that of five men, under the same circumstances. If the road be hilly the advantage will be in favor of the men. The above data supposes that the animal is regularly fed on the service-ration. If he be fed on grass alone, an allowance must be made for its quality and abundance. Over difficult and long- continued journeys, with pastures seldom good, the net weight of the packs should not exceed the half of those readily transported over a level country, furnishing a sufficiency of grain and camps at regu- lar intervals. The qu<'stion lioic must the (inimiil be lixuled and urged to uhtiiin the innxiinum work or tinr- ful effect, is an important one. If he transports a light weight, he may make a Icmg day's journey; if he transports an excessive weight, he may soon come to a standstill, and in either case the " useful effect" is little or nothing. Let l)=the disliince an animal could travel daily if mdoadcd. W^tlie weight under which he could not travel at idl. W':=some weight less than W, under uliirh he could travel D' miles per day. Then, thire obtains \\V>' ="W (I>— D/-. Now the work or • ti3.;ful elTect" will be a maxi- nmmwhenW'D' is auuixinmm, orwhen W''=: jW, PACKFONG. 467 PACKING. mid I)'^<1D, or in otlicr words, the animal •will ucconiplisli the most work when lie triinK])oi'lH Jtlin of the load iindtT which he would HtUfjficr. and li<! will travel just i th(! disliini-e he eoulil if he carri(Ml no load al all. For example: Suppose an auinial Ib ahle to travel 20 miles |)er day, liearinj; u load of 300 Ihs., and 40 miles per day, when he carrieH nolhinf^ ; then, from lh<- e()UUliou WD" =W (D—iry, wc lind \V=" - =648 lbs., the load (;2r, under which he would l)e hroufjht to a standstill, and from \V'= J W and I)' = /,]),we lind the best load to be 28Hlbs., earri<'d If) miles per day. An army reipiires to be accompanied by several thousand piick-aiiimals. Homelinu'S horses, hut pre- feralily mules; and in Asia, cummnnly camels, or even elephants. I'ack-saddlcs are variously titled, accord- ing to the objects to be carried; some for provisicms or amnuunlicin; others for carryins wounded men, tents, and, in mountain warfare, even small cannon. In battle, the immediate reserves of small-arm am- numilion are borne in the rear of divisidiis by ])ack animals; tlie heavy reserves beinsj; in wagons between the army and its baai; of operations. See Buffalo, (!<tiitel. Elephant, Llama, Mule, Packing, and Pack- miiille. PACKFONG.— A Chinese alloy or white metal, con- sisting of arsenic and copper. It is formed by put- ling two parts of arsenic in a crucible with live parts of copper turnings, or lincly divided copper; the ar- senic and copper require to be placed in alternate layers, and the whole is covered with a layer of com- mon salt, and pressed down. When melted, tlu^ al- loy contains nearly the whole of the arsenic, and is yellowish-white in color when in therougli stale, but takes a tine white |)olish resembling silver. It is not very ductile, and cannot be fu.sed without decompo- sition, as the arsenic is easily dissipated. It is seldom imported now, the nickel alloys of Europe having quite super.seded its use; in China, however, it is ex- tensively employed in the laboratory. Also written I'rtnnfi. PACKING. — The art of making up and adjusting the load of a pack-animal. The mode of packing varies with the pack-saddle and gear. \\ ilh the aparejo, used in the United States Army, the pack- ing process is very simple. It requires two men to justs the saddle blanket and corona. CTwo). No. 1 seizes the aparejo, the left hand near the center of its front, the right hand near the off and rear eiirner, and ])laces it will to the rear on the back of the ani- mal, when Is'o. 2 immeiliately adjusts the crupjjer, and assists No. 1 in moving the aparejo as far for- ward as jicissilile. fThreej. No. 1 jiasses the aparejo cinch to ihe nil side, till the sliilc-r end readies di- rectly under the animal, and assisted by No. 2, passes th(^ laligo strap downwards over the slider and in- wariis through the ring, and again over tin; slider. While No. 1 is drawing the laligo strap moderately tight. No. 2 reaches over the animal, in front of the aparejo, seizes its front corners and draws them upward and forward, placing the aparejo squarely over the animal. This being done and the aparejo Hi.l, No. 1 places bis left knee against the aparejo, ami seizes the laligo strap as far down as possible, the left hand in advance. (Fourj. The laligo strap is drawn until the cinch is surticieutly tight, when No. 1 doubles it, and passes it through the loop on the cinch, drawing it tight. No. 2 removes the blind, and ties the animal al or near his cargo. If No. 1 is not sufficiently strong. No. 2 passes around to tlie near .side, faces No. 1 and assists him in drawing the latigo strap. 1. Sling. 3. The Pack. At this command. No. 2 unties the animal, places the blind, and lakes his position near the cargo. No. 1 seizes the sling rope, doubles it and throws the loop well over on the off side. (Two). No. 2 quietly raises his side of the pack high up on the aparejo, and holding it there with his left hand passes, with his right hand, the loop of the sling-rope over the cargo to No. l,who pas.scs the ends of the sling-rope through the loop, drawing them tight. (Three). No. 1 quickly places his side of the pack on the apa- rejo against that of No. 2, holds it tliere with his left hand, and passes one end of the sling-rope to No. 2, who passes it under a branch of the sling rope al- ready on his side, and back to No. 1. No 1, resting Ills left arm against the pack, quickly brings the ends of the sling-rope together and ties them in a square knot, after drawing tight. (Four). Nos. 1 and 2 seize the pack at the lower and inner edges, settle it to the full extent of the sling-rope, and care- fully balance it. No. 2 removing the blind, and gently leading the mule a few steps forward, while No. 1 properly pack the animal. Designating the packers as No. 1 and No. 2, their duties are as follows: No. 1 is habitually on the near or left side, and No. 2 on the off or right side of the animal. To leach the art, the Instructor commands : 1. Prepare. 2. To Pack. At this command. No. 2 places the hackamore upon the animal, leads him on the off side of and near the rigging, places the blind and assumes his position on the off side. No. 1, assisted by No. 2, on the off side, then places and carefully ad- observes the pack from the rear. No. 1 then places tlie pack cover, and is assisted by No. 2 in adjusting it. When the manias are not in use, they are folded and carried on the aparejos under the oinches. 1. La.<,h. 2. The Pack. At this command. No. 1 takes the lash-rope, and hold- ing it coiled in his right, seizes it with his left hand near the cinch, and throws it to its full e.xtent to the right; whereupon he passes the cinch hook from him, under the mule, and holding it steady, he places the rope lengthwise on the center of the pack (Fie 1.) PACKING-BOX. 4G8 PACKING SMALL ARMS. (Two.) No. 1 now moves forward to the animal's shoulder, draws the lash rope forwards two-tliirds of its length, seizes it .'5 or 6 feet from the cinch, and passes it doubled to No. 3 (Fig. 2j, who takes the double in his right hand, and the hook of the cinch in his left. No. 2 then moves his hands, until he feels the rope tight, when he passes the rear branch of the rope from above into the hook and the slack back to No. 1, who draws it tight with his left hand. He then passes his right band under his left, seizes the rope in front of the pack and passes It to the rear (Fig. 3). (Three.) No. 1 passes the rope in his left hand under the standing branch from rear to front, pulls it well up on the pack (Fig. 4) and forces tlie bight thus formed below the aparejo. In the meanwhile. No. 2 grasps the end of the rope, passes it under the front standing branch on his side (from front to rear or from rear to front), pushes it to the top rf the pack, and throws the end in front of the .pack on the side of No. 1 ; No. 2 then seizes the front standing l)ranch with both hands, well down, and places his left knee against the aparejo. No. 1 seizes the front branch on" his side, placing his left shoulder against the pack. No. 2 pulls while No. 1 takes in the .slack. When all is suffi- ciently tight. No. 1 says "good," and seeing the pack well balanced passes to the rear and tightly pulls the branch under the aparejo. (Fig" 5). (Four.) No. 2 goes to the rear, pulls the branch on his right and passes it forward imder the points of the aparejo. No. 1 moves forward, on his own side, takes the end of the rope, tightens it, passes it down under the points of the aparejo, back to the center of the pack and there fastens it by drawing it under the standing branches (Fig. G). If the lash roi>e is very long. No. 1 passes the end to No. 2. who makes it fast as stated. All set, No. 2 removes the blind, ties up the hackamore strap and drives off the animal. 1. Unsling. 2. The Pack. At this command. No. 2 loosens tlie end of the lash ropo, goes to irlie animal's shoulderaiid pulls out the Ijrancli on his side. (Two.) No. 1 slackens the rear and front branches on his side in succession, passes the front branch under the standing branch from front to rear, withdraws it and passes the slack to No. 2, who tmhooks it, whereupon Nos. 1 and 2 throw the lash rope to the rear. (Three.) No. 1 unties the sling rope quickly. (Four.) Nos. 1 and 2 take down the portions of the pack on their sides. The aparejo is taken off in the inverse order in which it is put on. This being done, No.l arranges the cargoes while No. 3 collects and assorts the rig- ging, placing the aparejos in line, resting on the low- er ends of the pads. As tlie train moves out, each animal should be carefully noticed. Raising the hips and twiching the mouth or noseindicates ^'(7i- ing, and. should lead to immediate examination. The hackamores should fit very closely. Nothing is so liable to irritate an animal and give him "fits of fury" as sore ears. If possible, the cargo should be made into two packages of equal weight and bulk, of about 100 or 125 pounds, and the highest loads should be the bulkiest and most valuable stores. All ratlliuir pins camp kettles, buckets, etc, sliould be closely packed in sacks and securely lashrd on top between the side [jacks. If carelessly packed and allowed to rattle, the animals will frequently bcciime alarnu-d and as frc((uenllv succeed in dropping Iheir jiacks. PACKING-BOX. A box used for keeping fixed shot or sliell ill si ore, or in transit from place to place, or on the march with siege trains. The name is given to anv bdx or case containing mililarv stores. PACKING OF POWDER, -(ioverniueiit powder is packed in barrels of 101) pounds eacli, I 'owcUt bar- rels are made of well seasoned white oak, and hoop- eil with hickory or cedar hoops, which sliould be de- prived of their bark ; the cedar is not so liable as hickory or white oak to be attacked by worms, and it should therefore be used in prefc'rcnce: or the hoops may be prepared by immersion in a soluti(m of corrosive sublimate. The hoops should cover two-thirds of the barrel. The grain powders may be packed in canvas liags before being barreled. In- stead of a bung on the side, a screw-bole 1.5 inches in diameter is'made in the head of the barrel,- for mortar and musket powder; it is closed by a wood- screw with an octagonal bead, which must not pro- ject beyond the ends of the staves ; under the head of the screw is a washer of thin leather, steeped in a solution of beeswax in spirits of turpentine. This screw-plug renders it unnecessary to take out the head of the barrel, and the hoops may therefore be secured with copper nails ; frjr transportation, a piece of cloth should be glued over the head of the plug. Some barrels have been made with six copper hoops, and others with four copper and eight or ten cedar hoops ; the copper hoops are one inch wide and one- eighth of an ineli thick, fastened with two rivets and nailed each with three copper nails O.I52o inch long. Average weight of a hoop 2,^ pounds. Powder boxes lined with galvanized iron and cooper with large screw lids are now on trial, holding 100 pounds. It has been found that lining pomler barrels with India-rubber cloth has an injurious effect on the powder in consequence of the affinity of the caout- cliouc for sulphur. The heads of powder barrels are painted bUick in order to show the marks more plain- ly in dark magazines. The following are the dimen- sions of powder barrels : — Whole length 20.5 inches. Length, interior, in the clear .... 18 inches. Interior diameter of head 14 inches. Interior diameter of bilge 16 inches. Thickness of the staves and heads . . 0.5 inch. Weight of the barrel , . 25 pimnds. The barrels have generally 12 hoops, 14 to 16 staves, and two or three pieces in each head. T.ie dimensions are such that with 100 pounds of powiler there shall be a vacant space on the barrel to allow for shaking to prevent caking. The barrel will hold 120 pounds settled by shaking. See h'unpimde ■. PACKING SMALL-ARMS.— When small-arms are to be sent on a long sea voyage the arm-chests are provided with tin linings, securely soldered, so as to exclude all ilanipness. The clamps for the bayonets are screwed down precisely as in the unlined chest. The tenons of the packings (muzzle, butt, top, and middle) are cut off, as tlie dn does not e.xtend in the grooves ordinarily tilled by them. In a chest in- tended to be lined the grooves are omitted. A leather strip is placed under each bottom muzzle- clamp to prevent the butt-plate rubbing on the lin- ing. Two strips of wood ^ inch wide and 1 inch thick are placed lengthwise with the box, oiij' on each side, their ends resting in notches cut in \..e ends of the top clamps. The edges of the lining are about one inch above the level of the chest. Tiiey are bent inward, and hammered down on the strips of wood before mentioned. The edges are then care- fully soldered to the cover. To open the box asol- dcriug-iron and thin knife are required to ouen the soldered joint. In the field, or under other circumstances, when the proper arm-chests are not on baud, it may some- times be necessary to pack arms with straw. The interior dimensions of a box for twenty muskets may be the same as for the regular packing-box. The straw should b" long, perfectly dry, and tree from dust; ri/c straii^ is the best; /laj/ should not be used; aliout twenty-five pounds of straw are required to a box. To prepare the mwikrt for packing — Oil it; let down the hammer, pass the bayonet up to the socket into the guard-bow, on the rigid side, in front of the trigger. Alake a rope of about forty straws, slightly twisted, and forty inches long; wrap it about the musket , commencing on top of tlie hammer going round the baycmel below, again over the ham- mer an 1 round the pii'ce in front of the guard, then f ver the socket of the bayonet near tlii^ neck, and wrapping the rest around the handle of the stuck. FACE-SASDUE. 469 PADDOCK INTEEPOLATEa Lay a bed of straw 2 inches thick in thcbulloni of the box ; in the ini(hllc and at (i inc lies from the ends, iiluce three cusliions of Htraw (> inciies thicl< and i;i in< lies wi(h'. I'lil in a tier of 10 niiisl<els, crossinfi each other, the butts resliiiif allcriiati'ly against the ends of the box, the i,niards iipperiMosl and the- lianiiiK-rs licarinfr on the ensliii'iis. I'lit Hiiiidl trusses of sliaw iindir Ihe U|i])er and iidrlille bands l)y raising Ihe nuiskels at one end and Ihcn pressiiiii; them down between the oIlK'rs. I'uek l)c- tween the butts wads of straw 8 inches long, made of a liandfnl of straws folded in three ; cover the i^uards ami ^nard-bows wilh thi; ends of the straw that form these wads, which will be still about 12 inches loni;. I'ut in another tier of 10 iniiskctM in Ihe same manner, m diini; the cushions 4 inches thick. I'ack llic implciucnls in straw in the vacant spaces. Fill the b'l.x with stiaw, so that the cover shall re(niire stroiu; pressure to keep it down. Put two hoops round the box, at 18 inches from the ends. (Jther arms, swords, etc., are packed in a similar manner. Arms should not be wrapped in paper, unless it be oiled, as it attracts moisture more readily tliiin straw does. See Smnll-annx. PACK SADDLE. — I'ack-saddles are variously fitted, according; to the n.'ilure of the loads to be carried : some for provisions or ammunilion ; others for car- ryini^ wounded men, tents, and, in mountain war- fare, even small cannon. 'J'he cmna-triv saddle and gear, repri'senlcd in the ilrawini;, is used to a great extent by the Indians and traders in Northwestern America. This description of saddle is very well adapted for smooth roads and evenly formed packs, but for scout ing trains or the professional packer, where objects of every imajinahle shape and vari- ous weights are to be transported, notliing has yet been invented so suitable as the aparejn, composed entirely of hide. In very early times the sad lie to which the bun- dles were fastened consist) d of two pieces of wood, been substituted for tlie Iiorse. 8ce Aparejo and I'liekinr/. I PACK THAIN — A troop of patk-animals. When littiMLT out a train, as few riilTercnt kinds of animalii sliould be taken as jiossible, as thi'V will run in dif- ferenl herds and rcquiri' much more attintion. PADDLING. The removal, by means of a copper ' spud, of such lumps of gunpowtler as adhere to the face:' of the rollers during liie incorprjraling process in the manufacture of gunpowder. The operation recpiires j^reat care, and should oidy be resorlefl to I under exceptional circumstances. Generally water poured on the face of a roller will, to some extent, loosen (he powdr-r. PADDOCK INTERPOLATEH.— When, owing to the inlerpiisllion of an iiilirmediate obstacle, the object to be (ired at cannot be s<'en from the mortar, a point must be interiiolatcd on the reijuired line in such position that it can be seen from the mortar. This is most readily effected by this most simple and con- venient instrument, consistijig of two small mirrors attached to a metallic frame. One of these, termed the upper mirror, revolves on a horizontal axis; the other is calli-il the lower mirror, and toil is attached a small spirit level, «. Hair-lines are marked on these mirrors, representing the trace of a plane aor- cttrved so as to fit the horse's back, and joined to- gether at the ends by two other straight pieces. This frame was well padded iinderneath, to prevent injury to the horse's back, and was firmly fastened by a girth. To each side of the saddle a strong hook was attached, for the purpose of carrying packages, panniers, etc. Panniers were sometimes simply slung across the liorse's back with a pad under the band. The panniers were wicker Ijaskets, and of various shapes, according to the nature of their usual contents, being sometimes long and nar- row, but most generally having a length of three feet or upwards, a depth of about two-thirds of the length, and a width of from one to two feet. The pack-horse with panniers was at one time in general use for carrying merchandise, and for those agricul- tural operations for which the horse and cart are now employed ; and in the mountainous regions of Spain and Austria, and in other parts of the world. it still forms the sole medium for transport : though the mule has, especially in Europe and America, mal to the axis of the level at its center, and also to the axis of the upper mirrfjr. To use the instrument, the observer places himself approximatel}' on the line from the mortar to the object to be fired at. Keeping the bubble in the center of the level, lie turns the instrument so that the mortar will be re- flected from the upper mirror onto the hair-line of the lower mirror. He then revolves the upper mir- ror, and, catcliing the retlection of the object, ob- serves on which side of the hair-line of the lower mirror it falls. He moves in that direction until iSoth images— that of the mortar and of the object — fall upon the lower hair-line, the two hair-lines being co- incident. A pin or plummet is placed in prolonga- tion of this line to mark the required point. To make the last part of the observation with accuracy, the instrument should be rested on some convenient object. When the foregoing instrument is not to be liad, a point may be interpolated by two persons, each using a light, slender stake. They place them.selvts as near as practicable on the required line, one fac- ing towards the mortar, where he can see it. and the other towards the object, where he can see it, and both within view of each other. Holding their stakes vertical, they sight and move them alternately, until finally they liave them in s ich po.sition that they range both upon the mortar and the object. The stakes or, belter, plummets are then adjusted at these points, and sighting by them back to the mortar, a plummet is suspended in the usual manner behind the platform. The plummets thus established mark the desired plane of sight. This operation is more conveniently performed by using a strip of board, ten or twelve feet long, in which is set at each end a priming-wire. The board is placed at the intermediate point in a position approximately in the plane of sight, and where the mortar can bessen by sighting past both wires back upon it, and the object can be seen by sighting forward in the same manner. Two persons, one at each end, by alternately sighting and moving the board, readily FADS. 470 FAISIS. establish the wires in the required line. A phiramet is then suspended, at some convenient point in front of the mortar, in line witli the two wires on the board. Tlie plummet in rear of the mortar is sus- pended on the same line. The two plummets thus established determine the plane of siglit. — See Plummet. PADS. — In the artillery and cavalry service, pads are used to protect saddle and draught liorses from galls. The pad recommended is in the form of a folded blaulvet, or pad made of sheep or liid's skin, stuffed with hair, 6 inches by 4 inches. When placed above and below tlie gall considerable relief will be afforded. If a piece of harness is seen to be com- mencing to rub a horse, besides altering the fitting, friction may be prevented by rubbing in any lubri- cant (tallow will do on an emergency). To cure a gall or sore while tlie horse continues liis work, pads must be judiciously applied. Sheep skin is the fav- orite specific of many collar-makers ; it sometimes effects more tlian would be e.xpected; it enables the harness and skin side of tlie sheep skin to move, while the ends of tlie liair remain without motion on the tender part of tlie horse. The rubbing of a trace is sometimes difficult to prevent ; we have seen the pressure completely removed by attaching a short, flat piece of wood along a hip or bearing strap, with the ends extending 2 inches past the trace, small pads being fixed on it above and below the trace. It looks ugly, but it works well. Elastic pads constructed of a certain number of tubes of vulcanized caout- cliouc united together, and invented, some years ago, by General Angelini, of the Italian army, are stated to liave been very successful in the Italian cavalry in preventing galls. PAGAN SYSTEM OF FORTITICATION.— This system j paved tlie way for Vaubau. It included tliree kinds of Fortification, tlie great, the mean, and the small, with fronts of 390 yards, 3.50 yards, and 312 yards respcctivelj'; and was the first to employ the perpen- dicular (whicli equaled 58 yards) to draw the line of defense. The faces of the bastion were equal to y'^ of the front. The flanks were perpendicular to the lines of defense, the ditch 30 yards wide at the sa- lient, and its counterscarp directed on the shoulder- angle of the bastion. Inside the bastions were con- structed interior retrenchments.with magistrals par- allel to, and 32 yards from the enceinte. The flank was triple; the first retired and level with the ground, the third level with the inner bastion, and the sec- ond of intermediate command. The ravelin had a 90 yards' face, and occasionally received a reduit, while a counterguard sometimes covered the has- tions. In another method, called " re-inforced," the enceinte was preceded by a continuous envelope. The weak point of this S3'stcm was the possibility of breaching the curtain from the re-entering place of arms, thereby turning the interior bastion. The tri- ple flanks were also defective, the defenders being too much exjiosed to the splinters of the upper scarijs PAGEANT. — In ancient military history, a tri- umphal car, chariot, or arch, variously, adorned with colors, flags, etc., carried about in public shows, pro- cessions, etc. Also a gorgeous show or spectacle. PAGEANT SHIELDS.— Richly embossed shields of the null centur}-. Although they were pieces of de- fensive armor, they were rather intended to be worn on gala days, when the Nobles rivalled one another in the magnificence and artistic richness of their equipments. PAH — The name of the stockaded intrenchments of the New Zealanders. PAILLEE.— An ant-ient body of French Militia. The soldiers belonging to it were probably so called eilhi-r from the circumstance of their wearing straw in their helmets, in order to , know one unolher in action, or because they were accuslinned to set fire to the habitations of tlieir enemies with bundles of straw, which they always carried with lliem forlhat purpose. PAINTS. — Prepared or unprepared compositions by which wood, iron and other materials are coated with a preservative surface of oil, mixed with an earthy matter to give it color and consistency The art of painting in its primitive state consisted merely in applying such natural, mineral, and vegetable colors as were spontaneous'iy yielded, witliout any vehicle to render them permanent, consequently they had to be renewed as often as tliey were rubbed or washed off from the surfaces to which they were applied. The paints now in use are nearly all mixed with a liquid vehicle, and are applied in the liquid state. The mixing materials are varied according to the requirements of the work. Thus for some kinds of decorative work, and for water-color di'awings, gum, glue, size, or other adhesive materials dissolved in water, are employed; whilst for the painting of buildings, etc., oils of various kinds are used for mixing and thinning the colors. Thus, for painted work exposed to the weather, it is found that linseed oil boiled with the sulphates of lead (litharge) or zinc, or witli acetate of lead (sugar of lead), is the best. The preparation of boiled oil is one requiring par- ticular care, as it is desirable to have it bright and clear. Hence the proportions of the metallic salts are much varied by different manufacturers, and by some various other ingredients are added. The time of boiling and the method of filtering are also much varied. For indoor work, plain linseed oil and oil (spirit) of turpentine are used; if a glossy surface is wished, the linseed oil must be in excess; if a (!ull,OT flattened surface, then the quantity of turpentine, or turps, as it is often technically called, must be in- creased; and it is usual to add a small quantity of ground litharge and sugar |of lead, which are pre- pared for this purpose, and sold under the name of driers. For artists' colors, very fine linseed or nut oil is used, unboiled, and in small quantity, and turpentine is employed to dilute them. Paints for very rougli purposes, such as ordnance work, stone walls, etc., are often mixed with whale oil boiled with white vitriol (acetate of zinc), litharge, and vinegar, and they are diluted with common linseed oil and turpentine. Most of the paints used for ordinarj' purposes are composed first of the coloring matter, then of a quan- tity of white-lead, w-ith which and the oil they are worked into a paste of the shade required, and after- ward thinned down with oil and turpentine when used. The white-lead which thus forms the basis of most paints, and by itself a color, is a carbonate and oxide of the metal, produced by exposing pieces of lead to the action of the steam of acetic acid in beds of fermenting tan. It is the principal whhe paint used, but is liable to discoloration from the gases contained in impure atmospheres. Other white pig- ments are prepared from the oxide of zinc, and the carbonate and sulphate of barytes. Olires. for car- riages, are produced by mixtures of yellow ochre, boiled oil, litharge, lampblack, spirits of turpentine, and Japiin varnish. Meds are either purely mineral, or they are lakes, i. e., organic colors precipitated on alumina bases. Of tlie latter there are madder-lakes, prepared from madder-roots, and carmine-lakes, pre- pared from cochineal ; of the former, vermilion (bisul- yiliuret of mercurj-), Indian red(a native oxiileof iron), Venetian red (an oxide of iron), red lead (red oxide of lead or minium,). Blues consist of the artificial ultramarine, and for artists' purposes of the real ul- tramarine, also the silicate of cobalt, and foi water- colors, indigo and Prvissian blue. (Ireens are either prochiced by mixtures of yelUnrs a.r\A blues, or they are m;iiU' directly from the phosphates, carbonates, acetates, and arsenitea of copper, also from the ses- quioxide of chromium and from tcrre terte, a native mineral, consisting of iron, silica, potassa, and mag- nesia. Broiriis are numerous, and various in their composili(m. Decomposed peat, burned madder, burned Prussian blue, burned terre verte, asphalt, manganese brown, catechu. umber(which is au oxide PAIEIHO. 171 PALANQUIH. of iron with miij;ancHc). ami mummy, or tlic uspliall inixi'd witli otliiTmiitliTHlnki-ii Irotji Kf^ypliim miim- iiiii'S, lire niiionirst Ilic bi'st known iiiiii most iiscil. JIIwIls lire made of lampliliick unil lionc-liliick, i>cr- oxiilc ol nian?;anc.si-, anil lihic-tilack, wliifli is made of tli<' cliarcoal of Imrncd vine twigs. In all cascB tlic colorinj; mal<Tials of paints reipiire to be very finely uroiirid, and as very many are poisonous, great eare is reipiired in their pre|)aration, and several forms of mill have lieen invenled for the purposl^ The prineiplc upon wliich all are made is lo seeure the operatorfrom the pciisonousdusl and exhalations, and to reduee the eolorinjj; material, if ground dry, lo an impalpable powder, ov, if mixed with the oil, to a perfectly smooth paste. The following table shows the quantity of ])aints reipiired for carriages: eideril or ilisastcT. Kuch parts should be carefully ixandned by means of punches and hanimirs, and no such material be sultered lo remain wlicre it is dangerous. .Sec l,<icktrii. PAIHING. When the web of a gabion is made with two rod- at a time, tlieprocess is called /;«/mio. PAIXHANS GUN. - This gun, intended for Hhipsof war or coast fortresses, and adapted lo throwing shells and hollow shot, was adopted in France about 1824, and afterwards in England. It was used by the HuHsian Meet wliich destroyed the Turkish forts and ships in the harborof .Sinope. I'aixlians recom- mended cylindro-conieal projectiles as going more directly and striking more powerfully than round balls, and exposed to less resistance from the air. lie believed in small ships carrying lieavier gun.sfor firing shell and hollow shot. The original Paixhans Kind of carriage. Field gun-carriage and limber with implements.. . (;aisson with limber and implements Forge with limber Battery-wagon with limber Siege-carriage, limber, and implements Mortar-wagon Carriages and chassis, iron. 8-inch casemate 8-inch barbette 10-inch casemate lO-inch barbette LO-inch barbette 20-inch barbette A priming of lead color and two coats of olive color are applied to new wood-work, and one coat of lead color and one of black, to the iron-work of field-carriages. Two coats of metallic paint are re- quired for the iron carriages. Add 60 per {'cnt. for 10'' and 40 per cent, for 1.5" carriages with imeu- matic buflfcrs, and 30 and 20 per cent, for these car- riages with hydraulic buffers. One coat will last a year. Oriental red is the best for iron-work, most durable, and retains its full, rich, red color better than other metallic paints. For use mix 100 pounds of oriental red paint (in a dry state) with .5 gallons of raw linseed-oil to prepare it for grinding ; for use, add 10 gallons boiled linseed-oil, 1 gallon spirits of turpentine, i gallon Japan dryer; mix thoroughly. This mixture will make about 230 pounds. Brown metallic paint requires about the same quantity of oils, etc. The oriental red has a good body, spreads, and adheres well to iron. Vermilion red and red ochre are good substitutes when the oriental is not avail- able ; their color may be moderated by yellow ochre. Spanish brown is also a good substitute for oriental red. Mix as follows : 100 pounds of Spanish brown, with 2-5 pounds of red lead ; grind each in raw lin- seed-oil before mixing. Mix as for oriental red ; the red lead makes this paint dry harder and firmer, and stands exposure well. It requires about 2 gallons more oil than the oriental red. Before painting, all blisters, rust, or accumulation of old paint should be removed with a scraper. The top of the chassis rails should neither be painted nor oiled, but kept clean by dry scraping. All iron handspikes, elevating-bars, and similar implements, are painted black, using for this purpose common black paint. Heads of bolts and edges of rails may likewise be painted black. The damp location of most artillery posts is particularly favorable to the rapid decay of material. Rust gradually eats away iron parts of carriages and machines. These defects are frequently hidden by repeated coats of paint or lacquer, making them extremelj' liable to lead to ac- , Lead color. Olive. Black. Pound*, 6 8 6 Pounds. 10 15 10 13 11 PoundJi. 0.75 0.80 l.CO 0.90 1.00 0.75 Metallic. Pound*. :iL 10 11 10 11 14 20 gun was 9J feet long, with a bore of 8| inches, and a weight of about 7,400 pounds. The charge was be- tween lOi and 18 pounds of powder. It would bear hollow shot of 60 pounds, or solid shot of K6 to 8« pounds. The chell was mostly employed for incen- diary purposes, and was either charged with gun powder alone, or, as in the French service, with gun powder and carcass composition. See Ordnance. FALASIN. — A term originally derived from the Counts Palatine or of the Palace, who were the highest dignitaries in the Byzantine Court, and thence used generally for a Lord or Chiefiain, and by the Italian romantic poets for a Knight-Errant. PALAESTRA. — In Grecian antiquity, apublic build- ing where the youth exercised themselves in the military art, wrestling, running, etc. PALANKA. — A species of permanent intrenched camp attached to Turkish frontier fortresses, in which the ramparts are revetted with large beams. rising 7 or 8 feet above the eartlswork, so as to form a stronu' palisade above. PALANQUIN— PALKI.— A vehicle commonly used in Hindustan by travelers, and for the transport of sick and wounded. It is usually a wooden box, about 8ft. long 4ft. wide, and 4ft. high. with wooden shutters which can be opened or .shut at pleasure, and constructed like Venetian blinds for the purpose of admitting fresh air. while at the same time they exclude the scorching rays of the sun, and the heavy showers of rain so common in that country. The furniture of the interior consists of a cocoa mattress well stuffed and covered with morocco leather, on which the traveler reclines : two small bolsters are placed under his he.ad, and one under his thighs, to render his position as comfortable as possible. At the upper end is a shelf and drawer, and at the sides are nettings of larger dimensions than the ordinary pockets in carriages, for containing those articles which may be nece.s.sary during the journey. At each end of the palanquin, on the outside, two iron rings are fixed, and the fianunais, or palanquin-bear- PALE. 472 FAILISEB GUH. crs, of whom there are four, two at each end, sup- port the palanquin by a pole passing through these rings. Traveling in this mode is continued both by day and night. The palanquia is also used at the present day in Brazil, with the prominent exception of Rio Janeiro. Similar modes of traveling have been at various times in use in western Europe, but only for short distances. The Roman '•litter," the French "chaise a porteurs," and the " sedau-chair " were the forms of vehicle most in use, and the two latter were in general use till they were superseded by hackney coaches. The Roman " litter" was one of the criteria of its owner's wealth, the rich man generallj- exhibit- ing the prosperous condition of his affairs by the mulitude of the bearers and other attendants accom- panying him. See Stretcher and Tico-harse Litter. FAL£. 1. In Heraldry, one of the figures known as ordinaries, consisting of a perpendicular band in the middle of the shield, of which it is said to occu- py one-third (No. 1). Several charges of any kind aie said to be "in pale" when they stand overeach other perpendicularly, as do the three lions of En- gland. A sliield divided through the middle by a perpendicular line is said to be "parted per pale." The Pallet is the diminutive of the pale, and is most generally not borne singly. Three pallets gules (No. 2), were the arms of Ray- mond, Count of Provence. When the field Is divided into an even number of parts by perpendicular lines, it is called "paly of" so many pieces as the (No. 3), Paly of six argent and gules, the arms of the family of Ituthven. When divided bylines perpendicular and bendways crossing, it is called pa! bend_v (No. 4). An Endorse is a further diminutive of the pallet, and a pale placed between two endorses is said to be endorsed (No. 5). 2. In Irish histor}', pale means that portion of the Kingdom over which the English rule and English law was acknowledged. There is so much vague- ness in the meaning of the term that a few words of explanation appear necessary. The vagueness arises from the great tiuctuations which the English author- ity underwent in Ireland at various periods, and from the consequent fluctuation of the actual territorial limits of the pale. The designation dates from the reign of John, who distributed the portion of Ireland then nominally subject to England into twelve coun- ties palatine, Dublin, Meath,Kildare, Louth, Oarlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Tipper- arv and Limerick. To this entire district, in a gen- eral waj', was afterwards given the designati(m of tlie Pale. But, as it may be said that the term is commonly applied by the writers of each age to the actual English territory of the jieriod, ami as this varied very much, care must be taken lo allude to the age of which the name Pale is used. Thus, very soon after the important date of the statute of Kilkenny, at the close of the reign of Edward 111., the English law extended only to tlw four comities of Dublin, Carlow. Mea'li, and Louth. In the reign of Henry VI. the limits were still further restricted. In a general way, however, the Pale may be con- sidered as ctmiprising the Counties of Dulilin, Meatli, Carlow, Kilkenny, and Louth. This, altliough not quite cxiKi, will he. sullicienl for most purposes. PALEAGAS. -Chiefs of mountainous and woody districts in the peninsula if India, who pay only a temporary liomaL'e. Also written I'l'tyrinrK. PALETTES. — The imrt of the armor protecting the arm-pits. Pnlettes date back to the middle of the fifteenth century, and disappear at the end of the sixteenth. PALINTONE. — An ancient machine of war, de- scribed by Heron, Philon and Vitruvius. It was a varietv of the catapult. PALISADES.— A palisade is a stake about ten feet long, and of triangular form, each side of the tri- angle being eight inches. The trunks of straight trees should be s "lected for palisades. The diameter j of the trunk should be from sixteen to twenty inches. : The trunk is sawed into lengths of ten and a half } feet, and is split up into rails, each length furnishing from five to seven rails. The palisade is pointed at top ; the other extremity ma^' be charred if the wood is seasoned, otherwise the charring will be cf no ser- vice. A. pnlisadin/j is a TOW of palisades set in the ground, either vertically, or slightly inclined towards the enemy. To plant ihe palisades, a trench is dug three feet deep; they are then placed about three inches asunder, with an edge towards the enemy. Each palisade is nailed to a strip of thick plank, termed a riband, placed horizontally about one foot below the ground; another riband is placed eighteen inches below the top. The earth is firmly packed in the trench. A palisading is sometimes used as a priinar}' means of defence, particularly for low works. A banquette is tlirown up for this purpose against it; the tread of the banquette being six feet below the top of the palisading, and four feet three inches below the upper riband. As an obstacle in flanked works, it is best placed at the foot of the counter- scarp ; the points being twelve inches below its crest, or else covered by a small glacis. In this position the palisading fulfills all the conditions of an efficient obstacle ; it is under the fire of the work ; covered from the enemy's fire ; will not afford a shelter to the enemy ; and cannot be cut down without great difficulty. An inclined palisading, [as shown in the drawing, is sometimes placed in an advanced posi- tion in front of an ordinary trench to secure it from surprise. This was done to secure a line of trench at the seige of Fort Wagner. The palisading was made at the depot in panels of four or five palisades, cut from pine saplings Tar3'ing from four to eight inches in diameter, those above five inches being split in two, and placed with the bark side upwards. The spaces between the palisades were left onl)' small enough to prevent a man forcing his bodj' through them. See AcreMnry Means nf Defence, and Stockade. PALL.— In Heraldry, the upper part of a saltire conjoined to the lower part of a pale. It appears much in the arms of ecclesiastical sees. PALLISERBOLT.— A screw bolt for .securing armor-plates. The end upon which the screw-thread is cut is larger than the sh;ink. See Units. PALLISER GUN.— Major Palliser, of the British Service, describes his manner of making a gun to consist in introducing into a cast-iron gun a barrel or hollow cylinder of coiled wrought-iron, of such thickness in ])ro|)ortioii to its calilicr, that the resi- duiil strain borne by the tube shall have a relation PalL ■^ E N .1 Ss) [ \. 3 C. PALLIBEK PROJECTILES. 473 PALM. to the fltrain it transinits to llic surroiimJini; cast- 1 iron, wlii<-li sliiill be most suiUtbly pr(i|)i)rti(iiii-il to their respective elastieitiefl. Tlie |)reeiH(^ proportionH • will (lejiend on various ('irciinistunccs, viz: the ex- j cessive expansion of wroufjlit-iron ducr to heat, also the t;reater rani^e lietween tlie limits of eUislieily and j rupture of this metal, anil that the eastinm will have to do nearly all the l(in;;itudinal worU. liy varying the thiekniss of the tube, the transmitted strains ran be n'i;ulated with the' greatest nieety. The mi'lhod of construction is very simple. The gun having bei-n bored, a coiled wrought-iron tube is inserted, as shown in the drawing. The tube con- sists of two thin wrought-iron liarnOs, the outer one being much shorter tlian the inner one. and shrunk to it at the breech-c'nd. Two are used tor the pur- pose of obtaining the benelit of the tension, and also to break the contiauity of any internal fracture. The from the center of gravity, and llin Rame diRtance apart on all projectilen for the same gun. The bear- ing of the projectile i»on the Htiids alone. The solid shot are constructed on the plan of .Major Palliser, formerly of the Hoyal Artilliry, and are designed especiafly for the penetration of armor. They con- sist, as shown in th(^ drawing, of the /wdy IJ, from (/)) to (/>'): of the /laid II, fro.Ti (//) to C//;; the fatit// C; the stneh S; the ncreir.plhf/l\ with its //uii/iing(p); and two rxtr'irl'tr-hidiH, one shown at E. The es- sential feature of this [irojcctile is that the body is east in a sand mold and the head in one of metal. J$y this means, the head is chilled white nearly to the center, and acipiircs the pro[irrties iii intense hardness, crushing strength, brittleness, and hi'.rh dc-nsity. Hardness here relates to the rigidity of actual particles, and crushing strength to the rigid conneclion or building up of particles so as to resist tube is made to slightly taper, and the bore of the gun is tapered correspondingly; the tube is jjlaced in the li(}re, and as soon as it comes m contact throughout its length, a screw-locking ring. A, which lakes against a shoulder on the tube, is screwed into the muzzle, and sets the tube home ; and since in praeties it has been found that the elasticity of tlie wrought-iron inner lube is not proportioned to its greater elongation, the deticiency is supjilied by putting the tube under slight compression, which is elTi-cled by permanenlly stretching the wrought-iron in the gun by heavy proof-charges. The tube is further secured in the gun by means of a screw which passes through the cast-iron shell a short distance be- fore the trunnions at right angles to the bore, and screws into the tube. In the larger guns Captain Palliscr proposes to use two or more concentric tubes. In the very largest guns he proposes three tubes, the inner one to be of tlie softest and most ductile wrought-iron ; the next may be of a stronger and harsher nature ; the third of steel for some distance in front of tiie chamber. The system is being applied in the United States, and with most promising results, in the conversion of 10" Rodman guns into 8" rifles. In these guns the rifling consists of fifteen grooves and lands of equal width, with a uniform twist of one turn in forty feet. The shape of the groove is flat. The center of gravity is, b\' this alteration, thrown in front of the axis of the trunnions. This renders a special elevating apparatus necessarj-. The rifle thus obtained, though giving to a projectile a less muzzle velocitj' than does the 10" smooth-bore, has, on account of the increased weight of shot, greater penetrating power at all ranges, being doubled at s:mie and trebled at others. Its accuracj' is three times greater and the capacity of its shell twice that of the original gun. See Built-up Guns. Converted (ri/ni, and Ordnance. PALLISER PROJECTILES.— The French and Wool- wich systems ilitTer only in the form and position of the studs. and the material of whieli they are made; in each system, the number of buttons varies with the size of the gun, there being, however, always one set for each groove in the piece. The body of these projectiles is made of cast-iron : the form is cylindro-ogival. The studs, of an alloy of copper and tin, are secured to the projectile by beingpressed into undercut holes; their shape differs with the kind of rifling employed. Two studs to each groove are used for all guns smaller than 12 inches \p cali- ber, and, except for cored shot, are at equal distances [ their being forced in upon each other. The deficien- ' cy of the heail iii tenacity is met by the form given ) to it. The body of the projectile, being cast in sand, has greater tenacity than the head; a sounder casting is ensured; and the metal is rendered much less sub- ject to the action of the mf)lecular forces which may either split it in store, or crack it so as to cause rup- ture intheboreof the gun; the presence of the cavity also reduces this liability, and adds to the strength of the pro- jectile, as it is very diflicult to obtain a solid casting from such a metal, and any defect in this respect would be a source of weakness. The shape of the cavity is especially adapted to the work required. The iron i.s cast aliout the bushing in the base, which is of wrought-iron, as the metal employed. even wIk n cast in sand, is too hard to admit of tool work. The Palliscr Shell also is designed for the penetration of armor, and differs from the shot in construction only, having a larger cavity in order that a bursting-charge may be used. No fuse is em- ployeil, the charge being ignited by the heat pro- duced in the metal on impact. To prevent the explo- sion from taking place before uenetratiou is accom- plished, the interior of the shell is covered with a lacker, and the charge is placed in a woolen bag. The Boxer shrapnel, named from its inventor, em- bodies all the features essential to such a projectile. The charge being at the base, the t<'ndency is, on explosion, to increase the forward velocity of the bullets instead of their lateral spread. See SturitUd Pri))frt>lfs. PALM. — That measure of length, originally taken from the width of the hand, measured across the joints of the four lingers. In Greece it was known as palahte. and was reckoned at 3 in., or J of a cubit, which was their standard unit. The Homans-.idopt ed two measures of this name — the one was th( Greek pal'iixte. and was c:illed pnlmu.t minor ; tli( other, which was not introduced till later times, wa: called piilmiis innjr>r, or pahna. and was taken from the length of the hand, being therefore usually es- timated at three times the length of the other. .\t the present day, this measure varies in a most ar- bitrary manner, being different in each country, and occasionally varying in the same. The English palm, when used at all. whirti is seldom, is considered to be the fourth part of an English foot or 3 inches. PALMER EQUIPMENT. 474 PAHIC. The following is a list of the most common measures to which the name palm is given : Value in Eng. inches. Greek palaiste = 3.03375 Roman ^"im'M, or lesser palm . = 2.9124 pnlma, or greater palm . = 8.7373 English palm (J- of a foot) . . = 3.0000 Hamburg palm ({ of a foot) . . = 3.7633 Amsterdam "round" palm . . = 4.1200 '•diameter" palm . . = 11.9687 EolSbaXaTm} P-perly the ..«V«...^ 3.9371 Spanish Palm, or prttoo OTo/'jr . . = 8.3450 •' " oxpalmo minor . =. 2.7817 Portuguese palm, orT^cr/morfc Craveira^ 8.6616 In Germany and in the low countries the palm is feneraUy confined to wood-measurement, while in 'ortugal it used to be the standard of linear meas- ure. PALMER EQUIPMENT.— The Equipment, invent- ed by Lieutenant George H. Palmer, of the U. S. Army, consists of carrying-braces, coat-straps, knap- sack, and haversack — the whole weighing 'A^ pounds. The haversack, which is a little smaller than the knapsack, is carried on the rightside, th^ knapsack on the left side The carrying-braces consist of a back-pad and double shoulder-straps — two straps for each shoulder. The shoulder-straps are attached to the back-pad by rivets, so as to be movable on their fastenings. The back-pad gives additional bearing-surface for the weight carried. Its shape enables the shoulder-straps to be attached in such a manner as to separate them on the back and should- ers. The back-pad, in connection with the should- er-straps, prevents the weight carried from pulling directly downward on the shoulders, instead of which it tends to pull toward the center of the back by means of a pad supporting a portion of the weight. Two straps are attached to the front ends of each shoulder-strap, for supporting the front corners of the bags, the waist-belt, and cartridge-boxes. To the back-pads are fastened rings which hold the blanket-straps. Two straps are attached to the pad for supporting the rear corners of the bags. On these straps is a double loop, which may be moved down or up, for the purpose of drawing the bags to- gether at the back, or to permit them to hang at the sides. A strap looped at each end is on the blanket- straps and passes underneath the straps supporting the bags, for the purpose of holding the blanket more firmly in place when marching at double time. At the bottom of the bags are straps with buckles for diawing the bags together at the back and to re- tain them more firmly in place. PALUDAMENTUM.— A military mantle, worn by the ancient Romans, differing little, if at all, from the Chlamj-s. It was worn by the otficers and prin- cipal men iu the time of war, who were therefore called Paludiiti, and this distinguished them from the common soldiers, who, because they wore the Saguin. were caWvd the fSrigat). The Paludamtntum, which was generally white or red. came down to the knees or lower, was open in front, hung loosely over the shoulders, and was fastened across the chest by a clasp. Also written Pnli/r'imditiim. PALY. — A term used in Heraldry, to signify di- vision into four or more e(iual parts by perpendicular lines, and of two different tinctures disposed alter- liatcl>. See Pale. PAN. — 1. That part of the lock of a musket, pis- tol, etc., which holds the priming powder, the neces- sity <if which is sujxTseded by the use of percussion- caps. 2. The distance wliii^li is comprised between the angle of the cpaule and tlie Hanked angle in a fortification. 3. In military history, one wlio was Lieutenant General to JlrwcMuK and his Indian ex- pedition. He is recordc'd to have been the first author of a general .shout, which tlie Grecians prac- ticed in the beginning of their outsets in battle. FANACHX. — A plume worn upon the crest of an ancient helmet. The term is now commonly applied to any militarj' plume or feather. PANCARTE.— An ancient exercise or tournament, which was performed in the Roman Amphitheater, when strong, athletic men were opposed to all sorts of enraged animals. PAN COUPE. —The short length of parapet by which the salient angle of a work is sometimes <-ut off. PANDOURS. — A people of Servian origin who lived scattered among the mountains of Hungary, nearthe village of Pandour in the county of Sohl. The name used to be applied to that portion of the light-armed infantry iu the Austrian service which is raised in the Slavonian districts on the Turkish frontier. The Pandours originally fought under the orders of their own ])roper cliief , who was known as Harun-Basha, and rendered essential service to the Austriaus dur- ing the Spanish war of succession, and afterward in the Seven Years War. They originally fought after the fashion of the "free lances," and were a terror to the enemy whom they annoyed incessantly. Their appearance was exceedingly picturesque, being some- what oriental in character, and their arms consisted of a musket, pistols, a Hungarian saber, and two Turkish poniards. Their habits of brigandage and cruelty rendered them, however, as much a terror to the people they defended as to the enemy. Since 1750 they have been gradually put under a stricter discipline and are now incorporated with the Aus- trian frontier regiments. PANIC. — A term employed where fear, whether arising from an adequate or inadequate cause, obtains the mastery over every other consideration and mo- tive, and urges to dastard extravagance, or hurries into danger or even unto death. An inexplicable sound causes a rush from a church, a vague report in the market-place causes a run on a bank, and pre- cipitate the very events that are dreaded. This emotion either differs from natural apprehension, or presents so intense and uncontrollable a form of the feeling, that it is propagable from one person to an- other, and involves alike the educated and ignorant — those who act from judgment as well as those who act from impulse. There are, besides this feature, several grounds for believing that such manifesta- tions of involimtary terror are of morbid origin, and should be regarded as moral epidemics. They have generally arisen during, or have followed, seasons of scarcity and of phj'sical want and disease, the ravages of war or periods of great religious fervor and superstition. The dancing mania, the retreat of the French Army from Moscow, and recent and familiar commercial panics afford illustrations of certain of these relations. The most notable in- stance of universal panic, and that which demon- strates most aptly the connection here indicated, is the dread of the approacliingend of the world which pervaded all minds, and almost broke up human society, in the 10th century. The Empire of Charle- magne had fallen to pieces ; public misfortune and civil discord merged into miser}- and famine so ex- treme that cannibalism prevailed even in Paris ; superstitions and vague predictions became for- malized into a prophecy of tlie end of all things and universal doom in the year 1000- This expectation suspended even vengeance and war. The "Truce of God" was proclaimed. Enormous riches were placed upon the altars. Worship and praise never ceased. The fields were left uncultivated ; serfs were set free ; four Kings and thousanils of Nobles retired to the cloister ; and all men, according to their tendeiieies, prepared to die. It is worthy of note that during all iiestilenres there have arisen epidemic terrors, not so much of the devastations of disease, as of plots and poisonings directed by the rich against the poor. Even where these epidemic terrors are legitimately traceable to local and ])hysiml causes, as in the case of the singular affection timoria, which occurs in the marshy and FAItNELS. 475 PAF£B AMMUNITION FOB SMALL ABM8. unhcaltliy districta in Saniinin, thf tremor and trcpidatinn, iiiid iilliir phciuiiiiena, arc asi-ribeil to the inaixi'al iiilhiciKM' (if iTiciiiicH. PANNELS. Ill arlillcry, llic carriagr's upon whicli mortars and their beds arc eonveyed on a march. PANNIERS.— 1. Shields of -basket work formerly used liv archers, who set tlicni up in front during bat- tle. 2. Wicker baskets of various slia|)es. usually slung in pairs over the back of a pack-animal to carry a load. Also leather bags used in the .tame way; and especially the cases used for carrying medicines. See J'ai'k-Mi'li/lr. PANONCEAU.--An ancient name for an ensign or banner. PANOPLY. — Complete armor or defense ; a full suit of defensive armor. PANTAGRAPH PANTOGRAPH.— An instrument for copying maps and oIIht drawings. Its invention is ascriiied to t'liristophcr Scheiner, a .Jesuit, in 1003. It has since nndergon(^ various niodilications and improvements. Jt usually consists (Fig. Ijof four metallic rules, jointed two and two. and perforated with holes, a tracer, a pencil or picker ; and a screw or point which is forced into the drawing-board or table to hold the instrument in position. For use, the rules arc secured to each other by inserting thumb-screws through the holes corresjionding with the scale to which the drawing is to ije reduced or enlarged. The micropantagraph,U8ed for copying copy. To remedy tlieRC defects, the pantagraph liati been constructeil in a variety of forms, all of which, however, like the one described, depend upon the principle that the two triangles which liave, for their angular points, the fulcrum the pencil-point and a joint, and the fulcrum, the tracer-ixiint, and a joint, must always preserve their similarity. Fig. 2 shows the instrument arranged for use as an accessory to the indicator, to reduce the motion between the cross-head, or any other part of the engine, iii I the indicator.— See 7,'izi/ TimfjK. PANTHER.- A term in Heraldry. The panthtr iB borne gardant and incensed, i.f., with (ire issuing from his mouth and ears. PANZERBRECKEH.- An ancient small, three-sided poiiiiird. It ligured cons])i(uously at the battle of IJouvines. in 1214. PAPEGAI. A popinjay ; a bird made of wood or pasteboard, stuck upon a lance, and used as a mark when practicing with the bow, cross-bow, musket, etc. PAPER AMMUNITION FOR SMALL ARMS.— There are two kinds of paper cartridges u^cd in the United Slates Service, the ball-cartridge, made with a single elongated ball, and the blank cartridge. Lead balls are made by compression, by means of nnichines for that jiurpose. J'alls thus made are more uniform in size and weight, smoother, more solid, and give more accurate results than cast balls. Fig. 1. mieriiscopic di«patches, may be described as a system of connected pantagraphic levers, the least of which carries a piece of glass on which the original is re- duced in a proportion determined by the relation be- tween the lengths of the longer and shorter arms of the series. The glass rests and moves upon a diamond-point while the point remains stationary. The diamond may be raised or lowered by ap- propriate mechanism, to regulate the width and depth of the cut, or entirely remove it from the glass. With an instrument of this kind the Lord's Prayer has been written within the space of , of a square inch. In the same ratio the whole o' the Old and New Testament would be contained within -^V of Fig. 2. a square inch. The defects of the instrument are its weight and the ditliculty of rendering it perfectly mobile, both of which prevent that steady motion of the tracer which is necessary for making an accurate Tiie lead is first cast into round cylindrical bars, .58 inch in diameter for the calber ..08, and 21 inches long, and then rolled to .46 inch in diameter ; length, 2.5 i'ncues. These bars are fed to the machine, which cuts off a part sufficient for one ball and transfers it to a die, in which the ball is formed, with cavity and rings, the surplus metal being forced out in a thin belt around the ball in the direction of its axis. The balls are trimmed by hand, with a knife, and are then passed tlirough a cylinder-gauge of the proper size. One man can make with the machine 30,000 balls in ten hours, the bars of lead being prepared for him. One man can cast 1..500 bars' in ten hours, and can trim and roll 2.0t)0 bars in ten hours. A boy can trim and gauge .^.OOO in 10 hours. Bullet-molds are provided to cast balls where the pressed Ijalls cannot be liad. The mold is so constructed as to trim the balls t)y a single operation before they are taken from the mold. To grease the balls, place them on their bases on a tin frame capable of holding /50 balls, and immerse it in a melted mixture of one part of tallow and eiffht of beeswa.x, kept warm, until the cylindrical part of the ball is covered. Re- move the frame and let it stand till thegrease hardens. Three frames are required for each boy. The paper is first cut into strips of a width equal to the length of a trapezoid, using the pattern as a gufde. The paper and ruler are kept from moving by means of a lever, one end of which is fixed and the other is moved by the foot by means of a cord and treadle. The knife is held in both hands. From six to eight reams maybe cutat a time m this way. A cutting-machine like that used by book-binders facilitates the operju- PAFEB AMMUNITION FOE SMALL ARMS. 476 PAPER AMMUNinON FOE SMALL-AEM8. tion when many hands are employed. When only a knife and ruler are used, about 13 sheets are cut at a time. The following implements are required by each workman when making the cartridges : Two biyxex to hold cylinders. 20 inches long, 8 inches wide, and 4 inches liigh, in the clear, made of ^-inch boards, without a cover ; they are placed on their sides, their backs inclined against the partition in the middle of the cartridge-table, the front resting on cleats nailed to the table ; 1 former, cylindrical, of hard wood, of the same diameter as the ball, 6 to 7 inches long, one end pointed almost as much as the ball, and marked with a shallow groove 4 inches from the end ; 1 xnbot or frame, tacked to the table, to hold balls, placed at tlie left hand of the boy ; 1 spool ofthreiid. turning on a vertical spindle tixed in the table near the balls ; 1 choking-slring, made of four or live cartridge-threads twisted together, abovit 9 inches long, with a wooden toggle at \\xe end, fas- tened to the edge of the table at the right hand of the boy; 1 knife blade, li inch long, hooked, driven into the front of the table below and near the choke- string. To form the cylinder, lay the trapezoids on the table with the sides perpendicular to the bases, to- ward the workman, the broad end to the left. Take the former in the right hand and lay it on a trape- zoid, the groove in flie former against the right edge of the paper, bringing the poinled end ^ inch from the broad end of tfie paper ; envelop the former with the paper ; then, with the lingers of the left hand laid flat upon the paper, turn the former and roll all the paper upon it ; hold it firmly with the left hand and, with the choking-stringin the right, take one turn around the cylinder at about \ inch from the end ; hold the former firmly in the left hand and draw gently upon the choking-string, pressing at the same" time with the left forefinger upon the projecting end of the cylinder, thus folding it neatly inder on it. on a second trapezoid ; put a ball over the end of the former ; roll the paper on the former and the ball ; hold the cylinder in the left hand and choke and fie it as thus described for the inner cylin- der; withdraw the former, pressing the cylinder with the left hand, and place it in the box. The following implements are required to fill the cylinder: One charger, made of a cylinder of wood or brass pierced with two holes through its length, holding the exact charge of powder ; a funnel attached to one end of the cylinder, and a discharge pipe to tho other. Tlie holes in the cylinder are inade to com- nnmicate and shut oft, alternately, from the funnel holding the powder, and the discharge-pipe at the lower end. by a reciprocating motion given to the cylinder by the hands. Fill the funnel with powder, insert the discharge-pipe in a cartridge, holding the charger in both hands, and turn the cylinder ; the charge of powder is deposited in tlie cartridge ; in- sert the pipe in the next, and turn the cylinder in the opposite direction, and continue in the same way for all the rest. Cartridges may be filled with a copper charger made to hold the exact charge, pour- ing the powder by means of a small funnel, which is inserted in the cartridge. To pinch the cartridge, take it in the right hand, strike it lightly on the table to settle the powder; flatten the empty part of the cylinder and bend it flush with the top of the powder at right angles to the cartridge, the oblique side of the trapezoid on top, the cartridge standing vertical on the table; fold the flattened part in the direction of its length, with two folds from the exterior, meeting in the middle ; bend this folded end back on itself and strike it on the table to set the folds. The following utensils are required to bundle the cartridges : — 1 Tiox without ends or top, width equal to five times the diameter of the ball, height equal to twice that diameter, and length that of the cartridge. Cabtkidges for Small-arms. Kind of cartridge . Kind of iirni.. Caliber inclies . _ ,, (Diameter inches. "^" \ Weigllt grains . Charge of powder do . f Htinht inches. Trapezoid < Long basse do . (short base do . Number of trapezoids in one sheet fLength inches. ,,. J Width do . v\ rapper < Number in one sheet (color Thread for I.UOO ounces. Weight of 10 cartridges do . ( Length inches. BundlesoflO -^Wirtth do . (I3cpth do . . ,• , fLength do . f or 1,6a) cartridges. I wmtn................. ao . Weight of box packed pounds. Color of box fljength inches. Packing-box for 1,000 1 WiiUh do . balls. 1 Depth do . l^Wiight pounds. Expanding-ball. .58 .5775 500 60 4.12 4.0 2.5 16 9 6.5 6 Ordinary, color. .5 13.5 2.6 2.9 1.15 14.75 10.75 6.38 98 Olive 8.25 8.25 5 73 ..58 .577i 450 50 4.12 4.0 2.5 16 9 6.5 6 Red.... 13 2.5 2.9 1 15 Gray . . . 8.25 8.25 4.25 59.5 Blank. .58 60 3.75 4.16 2.2 24 Ordinary. 15.5 11.0 6.25 Olive.. Elongated ball. .58 .5775 450 40 4.1 4.0 2.5 1 • f.5 6 Blue .5 12.5 2.4 2.9 1.15 Yellow. 5.25 5 4.25 59.5 K .44 .46 216 30 2.75 3.25 1.6 30 8 6.5 6 Ordinary .5 6 S.3 2.0 .85 13.1 4.6 3.6 28.5 Olive ... .38 .39 145 17 2.4 2.5 1.6 40 7.5 4,9 12 Blue... .5 5 2.20 1.9 .85 10.5 3.8 3.25 16.5 Blue.. . . K .54 .56 475 50 3 3.25 2.25 24 10 6.8 4 Ordinary. .6 13.5 2.6 2.5 1.1 14.7'5 8.9 6.2 78 Olive. down upon the end of the former. Having choked the cylinder close, carry it to the right side, and with the thread in tlie right hand, take two half- hitches firmly iiround the p:irt that has been choked ; cut the ttirciid on the knifc-lilade anil press thi^ choke in a cavity in the table; place the former with a cyl- It is tacked to the table, the sides parallel to and near the edge of the table. I'ut a wrapi>ir in the box, the long side perpen- diciilar to the edge of the table, the middle of the ]iaper in the middle of the box; parallel lo the side8 of the box, two tiers of cartridges of 5 each, the baU<t PAPER8HELL. 477 FABABOLA. altcriiiitiiiij;; briiij; llxt short ends of Uu- paper to- Hi'lliir 1111(1 fold them twice cIoHo down on the cur- tridiri s; insert a piicUago of Ciiprt in llic end of the ImiidU' next to the ends of the lower tier; fold the wrapper on the ends and tie the bundle, lirst in the direction of the lenj^th, then its breadtli, with the twine fiLslencd in a single-bow knot. When niakin;; blank carlridi;es, cut the paper into trapezoids, as for llie ball-carl rid;;es; roll the trape- zoid on tlic former one turn, fold down this much of the paper on the head of tlnr former with the left hand; roll the rest of the papiT; fold down the rest of tlie iiaper; touch the fold with a little paste on the finLi;cr; press the end of the informer on a ball im- bedded in the table for the purpose; remove the cylinder from the former: place ii in a box lo dry. Fill lh(^ cylinders, as dcscribnl. for ball-carlriilL'es. Halls are packed in boxes with tow or saw-dust, to prevent their bruising. The boxes arc made of 1- inch boards, and contain 1,000 balls. They arc mark- ed on both ends with the number and kind of balls, and on the inside of the cover with the place and dale of fabrication. The cover is fastened with six 2-inch screws, and the l)oxes must be hooped with iron for transportation. They are not painted. TIk' c'lp for small-arms is made of copper. It is very slightly conical, with a rim or Han^e at the open end: it has four slits, cxiendinj; about half the height of the cap. The cap is charg<'d with J'lilminate of mercHry, mixed with half its weight of niter, the ob- ject of the niter being to render the fulminate less explosive and to give body to the 11am<'. To protect the percussion-]iowdcr from miiislurc, and alsoto se- cure it from falling out, it is covered over, in each cap, with a tlrop of pure shellac varnish. 'I'hi' cop- per for making tfie cops is obtained in sheets 48 inches long and 14 inches wide, weighing 3 pounds; a vari- ation of 4 ounces, more or less, is allowed. The cop- per should be pure, free from seams, holes, or blis- ters, well annealed, and as evenly rolled as possible, with straight and smooth edges. The copper is cleaned by immersion in a pickle made of one part .( by measure ) of sulphuric acid and forty parts wa- ter; it is scoured with line sand and a hand-brush, and washed in running water; after which it is well dried in clean saw-dust and rubbed over with a cloth slightly oiled; it is then ready for the machine. See Afufnfin''ti(ni. PAPERSHELL.— A species of fireworks, in the shape of an ordinary shell made of paper, tilled with decorative pieces, and tired from a mortar. It con- tains a small bursting charge of powder, and has a fuse regulated to ignite itvvhen tiie shell reaches the summit of its trai'ectory. " PAPER- TESTER.— A machine for ascertaining the strength of v:irious papers. The drawing shows such a contrivance with the following: DLMESSIONP. ADAPTATION. Extreme lieight S ft. Tensile specimens 12 in. long Extreme lenclli I ft. by 1 jii wide or lees. Extreme width 1ft. Capacity 100 lbs. Weight 45 lbs. A weight balance indicates the strain. There are no loose weights. A weighing beam can be substi- tuted for a spring balance if desired. When the specimen is secured, the wheel at the end of the machine being turned, causes the mandrel to turn and apply the strain to specimens. The indicator, on the face of the dial, remains stationary at the breaking point. A test can be made with speed and accuracy. The machine is cpiite valuitble in testing the qualities, etc., of papers for the laboratory. See Tfxthif! Mofiiinr. PAPER TIME FUSE.— A fuse consisting of a cylin- dric:d column of burning composition packed'in a paper case, gradually increasing in thickness from its lower to its upper or outer extremity : to insure ignition, it is primed with ritie-powder at the larger end. It is inserted at the time of loading the-piece into a brass or wooden plug previously driven into the fuse-hole of the shell. The comprmilion has the same ingredients as gunjiowder, the proportions being varied to suit the required rate of combustion; I pure meal, poirdfr 'ii}\t-» the quickest eomposilif)n; by adding certain pro|)orlions of sulphur and nitir, the composition burns more slowly. The rate of burn- ing also depends upon tlie density of the composition rajuT ti'ster. and the purity and thorough mixture of the ingredi- ents. These fuses vary in length, burning from 4 to 40 seconds: they are graduated in seconds on the outside of the case, ami can be cut to a length cor- respondiuLT to any time of Hight. See Ftme. PAPIER MACHE.— From the extension of the ap- plications fif papier-miiche in the lal)oratory, modi- fications have taken place in its composition, .:ud it is now of three kinds— 1st, the true kind, made of paper pulp; 3d, sheets of paper pasted together after the manner of pasteboard, but submitted to far greater pressure : and 3d, sheets of thick millboard cast from the pulp are also heavily pressed. The terra papier-mache is in tr:ide held to apph- rather to the articles made of the pulp tlian to the pulp itself; and a vast manufacture has sprung up during the present century, p;irticularly in Birmingham, in which a great variety of articles of use and ornament are made of tliis material. They are coated with successive layers of asphalt varnish, which is acted upon by heat in ovens until its volatile pa-'ts are dis- sipated, and it becomes hard, and capable of receiv- ing a high polish. The tine surface which can be given to the asphalt v.arnish also permits of burnished gilding and other decorative applications with excel- lent effect. PAPILIO. — A square Roman tent for eight men. PAPYROGRAPHY.— A term applied to a modified process of photolithography for enlarging copies of maps, which is considered lo possess certain ad- vantages for use ill the field. The process is carried out b}- means of an ink invented by Captain Abney, which is not greasy, and drawings made with which upon ordinary paper might be transferred to stone or zinc, for the reproduction of topographical maps and military sketches. This invention Las been in- troduced into the British Army. PARABOLA. — One of the conic .sections, produced by a plane not passing through the vertex, which cuts the cone in a direction parallel to that of a plane touching the convex surface of the cone. A little consideration will show that a section so produced cannot be a closed curve, but its two branches, though continually widening out from each other, do not diverge so rapidly as in the hyperbola. The PARACHUTE. 478 PARACHUTE LIGHT. nearer the cutting plane is to that toucliLng the cone, the less the two "branches diverge; and when the two planes coincide, the branches also coincide, forming a straight line, which is therefore the limit of the parabola. It may otherwise be considered as a curve, every point of which is equally distant from a fixed straiglit line and given point ; the fixed straight line is tailed the direetrix, and the given point Ihefijcun. Thus PAP', is a parabola, any point P iu which is equally distant from the focus" S and the directrix CB, or PS = PD. If, from S, a per- pendicular, SE, be drawn to the directrix, and pro- duced backward, this line, AO, is the axis or jtrinci- pal diameter of the parabola, and the curve is sym- metrical on both sides of it. As A is a point iu the parabola, AS = AE, or the vertex of a parabola bi- sects the perpendicular from the focus to the direct- rix. All lines in a parabola which are parallel to the axis cut the curve in only one point and are called dia- meters. All lines, such as PP', which cut the curve in two points, are ordinates, and the diameter to which they are ordinates. is that one which bisects them ; the portion of this diameter which is intercepted between the ordinate and the curve, is the corres- ponding abscissa. Prom the property of the para- bola that PS = PD, the equation to the curve may be at once deduced for PS = PD = EN, therefore PS2 (which = PN2 -f NS2 ) = EN^ ; hence PN^ = EN2 — NS-' = (ES + SN)2— NSa=ES2+ 2 ES. SN = (since ES = 2AS) iAS^ + 4AS.SN = 4AS (AS + SN) = 4AS.AN ; and calling PN, the semi- ordinate, y; AN, the abscissa, x ■, and AS, a; the equation to the parabola becomes y- = 4ax, where a (the distance of the vertex from the focus) remains the same for all points in the same curve. It is evi- dent from the equation, as well as from the geomet- rical derivation of the parabola, that it must have two, and only two branches, and that the further it is extended the nearer its branches approach to the condition of straight lines parallel to the axis, though they never actually become so. The parabola has no asymptotes, like the hyperbola, but it pos- sesses many properties which are common to it with that curve and tlie ellipse. In fact, the parabola is nothing more than an ellipse, whose major axis is infinitely long. If parallel rays of light or heat fall vipon the concave surface of a paraboloidal mirror, they are reflected to the focus, and conversely, if a light be placed in the focus of a paraboloidal reflector, its rays will be retlected in parallel directions, and would appear e(iually bright at all distances did light move without deviation, and uuabsorbed. Also, if a body be projected iu a direction not vertical, but inclined to the direction of gravity, it would, if un- disturbed by the resisting force of the atmos|)here, describe accurately a i)arabola whose axis is vertical, and whose vertex is the liighesi point reached by the body. The term parabola is used in analysis in a general sense, to denote that class of curves in which some power of the ordinate is proportional to a lower power of the abscissa. Thus the curve we have just described, and which is distinguished as the cummoH or Apollonian parabola, has the square of its ordinate proportional to its abscissa ; the cubi. cut parabola, has the cube of its ordinate propor- tional to its abscissa ; and the semicuhical parabola has the cube of its ordinate proportional to the square of its abscissa. — See Projectiles and Trajecti/ry. PARACHUTE.— A machine invented for the \mx- pose of retarding the velocit}' of descent of any body througli the air, and employed by aeronauts as a means of descending from balloons. It is a gigantic imibrella, strongly made, and having the outer ex- tremities of the rods on which the canvas is stretched, firmly connected by ropes or stays to the lower part of the handle. The handle of the parachute is a liollow iron tube, through which passes a rope con- necting the balloon above with the car (in which are tlie aeronauts and their ajiparatus) beneath, but so fastened, that when the balloon is cut loose, tlie car and parachute still remain connected. AVlien the balloon ascends, the parachute collapses like an umbrella ; but when the balloon rope is severed, and the car begins to descend, the parachute is extended l)y the action of the air, aud prevents the car from acquiring a dangerous velocity of descent ; the final velocity in those cases where the machine is of a size proportioned to the weight it has to support, being no more than would be acquired b}' a person leaping frcm aheight of between two and three feet. But the slightest derangement of the parachute's equilibrium, such as might be caused by a breath of wind, or the smallest deviation from perfect symme- try in the parachute itself, immediately produces an oscillatory motion of the car, having the apex of the parachute as a center, and the oscillations becoming gradually greater and more rapid, the occupants of the car are in most cases either pitched out or are along with it dashed on the grouud with frightful force. This defect in the parachute has been at- tempted to be remedied in various ways, but hither- to without success. The first successful experiment with the parachute was made by Blanchard at Stras- burg in 1787, and the experiment has been often re- peated by Garnerin and others ; very frequently, however, with fatal results. The parachute was employed by Captain Boxer, R.N., as an essential part of his patent light-ball, for discovering the movements of an enemy at night, and was so ar- ranged as to open up when the lighted ball had at- tained its greatest elevation, so as to keep it for a considerable jjeriod almost suspended in the air. PARACHUTE LIGHT.— A suspended light invented by General Boxer, It. A., and which is used for the same purposes as ground light-balls, viz.: to light up the enemy's works and working parties. It is pre- ferred to light-balls, as they can be extinguished or their lights hid with a few shovels full of earth, whereas the parachute has the advantage of being out of reach, so it cannot be interfered with. The parachute, light consists of two outer and two inner tinned iron hemispheres ; the two outer are lightl)' riveted together, the two upper hemispheres are connected by a chain; the inner upper hemisphere has a depression at the top, to admit the bursting charge and fuse. A quick-match leader conducts the tiash fri>m the bursting charge to the fuse com- position in the lower inner hemisphere. The inner ui)per hemisphere contains the parachute tightly folded up. To insure its opening, a cord is passed between its folds, and through a hole in the top of lh(^ paracthute, and is fastened to the upper inner hemisphere, so that, when the lieiuisphere is blown away, tlie cord is pulled and the ])arachute expaniled. The lower inner hemispliere contains the compo- sition. A hole is bored, and driven with fuse com- position, and matched as usual : this hemisphere is connected with the parachute by cords and chains ; The bursting charge is issued in the iiarachule, the fuse is bored to the requited length and well ham- FABACHUTE IiaHT-BALL. 479 PABALUEL. mered in ; tlic piiriicliuli; Dhiccil in llir iiuirliir, and fired. Tli(^ nction in furl liiT described iis follows: The fuMe ii;iiiles the Ijiirslini; ciiiiri;e, the outer liemi- spliereH are lilowii iiway, and the inner upper lienn- Bphere, which is cliained (o the outer one. is Ijlown away witli it; the panichuti^ is opened liy tlie cord and e.\|)ands,lhecoiripi]silioM in I he hiwer hemisphere liein^ ignited liy tlie (|uiek-niateh leader, wliicli ig- nites tile fuse eoniposilion, llie eoiuposiliou burning al)out three minutes when tired from the 10-inch mor- tar. PARACHUTE LIGHT-BALL.— A thin shell, the up- per half of whieli is blown oil' by the charge at a cer- tain lieight. The lower half, tilled wilh composilion, •wliich is kindled by the e.xiilosion, is ke[)l floating in the air by means <if a small iiaraehute. which is set free when the ujjper half of the shell Hies off. FABADE. Tliis word signified in its original sense a prepared ground, and was applied to the court- yard of a castle, or to any inclosed and h'vel plain. From the practice of reviewing troops al such a sjKit, tlie Review itself has acquired the name of I'arade. In its modern military acceptation, a I'ardde is the turning (uit of tlu^ garrison or of a regiment in full equipment, for inspection or evolutions before some superior officer. It is the boast of IJritish troops that tlicir line and discipline are as perfect under an enemy's fire as on the jjarade-ground. Parades are General, Regimental, or Private (Troop, Battery, or Company), according to the strength of the force assembled. See lln.in I'arndr. and I'lidresn Parade. PARADE OFFICER. An ollicer who attends to the nnnulia' of regimental duty, but wdio is not re- markable for nnlitary science. PARADE ORDER.— When a regiment of horse or foot, a troop or cinnpany, is drawn up with the ranks open and the officers in front, it is said to be in Piifiidf Ordi'r. PARADE REST.— A position of rest for soldiers, in which, iiowi:ver, they are required to be silent and motionless ; used specially at parade. Also, the coni- mand for the position. When witlioutarms, to give the men rest, imposing both steadiness of position and silence, the Instructor commands : \. Parade, 3. Rest. Carry the ri^ht foot three inches directly to the rear, the left knee sligbtlj' bent ; clasp tlie hands in front of the center of the body, the left hand uppiT- most, the left thumb clasped l)y the thumb and fore- finger of the riglit hand. When under arms, and at an order arms, the In- structor commands : 1. Parade, 2. Rest. At last the command rest, carry the muzzle in front of the center of the body, the barrel to the left ; 'grasp the piece with the left hand just above, and witli file right hand at the upper band ; carry the right foot three inches straight to the rear, the left knee slightly bent. To resume order arms the Instructor commands : 1. Squad, 3. Attention. 1. Carri/, 3. Arms. Raise tlie piece vertically witli the right hand, grasping it at the same time with the left above the right, resume the carry with the right liand, (Two.) Drop the left hand by the side. See Manual of Arms, Fig. 5. PARADOS. — Another name for a traverse. It is an intercepting mountl, erected in various parts of a fortification for the purpose of protecting the de- fenders from a rear or ricocliet-fire. PARALLEL. — In siege operations, parallels are trenches cut in the ground before a fortress, roughl}' parallel to its defenses, for the purpose of giving cover to the besiegers from the guns of the place. The parallels are usually three, ■^ith zigzag trenches leading from one to another. The old rule used to be to dig the first at (!()() yards distance, but tlie im- provements in artillery have rendered a greater dis- tance necessary; and at Sebastopol, the .VUies made tlieir first trench 2,000 yards from tli<! walls. Tho tliird trench is very near to tlie liesieged works, and i from it saps and zigzag ajiproaches are directed to file C(jvered-way. The trenches of tlie parallels re- ceive a width at bottom of 10 feet ; tlieir depth in froiit is 'i feet, ami in rear, ',i feet ({ inches. Two I steps, each IH inches high anrl \H wide, lead from the biiltom <if the trencli, on tin; front side, to the natural ground. The reverse of the trench receives a slope of 40"; or else, i.s also cut into steps. The steps in front are alone revetted with fascines. Vau- ban, in his ma.vims, prescribes that there shall be at least three parallels, or places-of-arms to be occupied by the troops of the besieging force immediately on duty, with a view to meet any sorties of the garri- son on the besieger's works; anil further, that these parallels should embrace so wide a front as to con- trol all the defenses which bear in any manner upon the ground over which the besiegers will have to run their trenches. In Vauban's time, and to within quite a recent day, it was considered that when Hie site was eom- pletc'ly exposed to the fire of the besieged, the first parallel might be l:iid out at about libO yards from the most advanced points of the defenses to be em- braced within it, and concentric with a line Joining these points, and extended so far each way as to guard all the batteries thrown up along its front to silence the fire of the defenses from assaults in front and on eitlier flank of the parallel. The position of the 1st parallel, Vauban makes dependent on the site, as affording more or less of shelter from the fire of the defenses ; and, at the celebrated siege of Sebastopol, the French established their 1st parallels at two separate points, the one at nearly 1000 yards, the other at nearlj' 1800 yards from the defenses; and file English, in their attack, also placed theirlst liarallel at nearly IHOO yards from the defenses in their front. This departure from usaire was owing to the great caliber of the guns and the large quantity of fire of the Russian defenses. Instead of three parallels, the French found it quite necessary to tlirow up as manj- as seven, the nearest of which to the Russian defenses was about 30 yards, when the final open assault was made from it upon the key point of the Russian position. The greater range and accuracy of fire of rifled guns will necessarily lead to establishing the first batteries against the di-fenses at much greater dis- tances flian formerly, when smooth bores were alone used ; and assuming the 30-pounder, as the protiable largest ordinary caliber of siege gims for the attack, tile first batteries will probably, in futute sieges, oc- oupy positions at from 2,000 to 3,000 yards from the defenses. These distances will secure for these bat- teries, what is essential for all those of the attack, a good range for destroying the artillery of the de- fenses, and security, if properly guarded, either tiy placing them within strong inclosed works, with sufficient troops to defend the works, or by troops occupying trenches so disposed as to meet a front or flank attack on the batterj'. Anj'thing like a con- tinuous line of parallel would seldom be requisite at this distance, as the garrison would hardly venture sorties so far from their defenses. Besides which, considering the great extent of front that the bat- teries would have to embrace at this distance, to con- trol all the fire of the defenses, it would require too great a length of continuous entrenchment. Tactical considerations require that, in the es- tablishment of Hie successive parallels, the one most advanced should be laid out nearer to the one in its rear, bj- which the workmen completing the former are protected, than to the defenses; so that it can 1 receive timely succor against an assault upon it by tlie besieged. Considering the first line of batteries and trenches as a 1st parallel, the position of the 2d parallel may be safely placed at 1 .000 yards in ad- vance of it; that is, nearer to it by 100 yards or more than to the defenses. As it is usual to place PARALLEL FORCES. 480 PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES. the 3d parallel so near to *.he defenses as to bring the covered ways, or other juost advanced defenses, ■which may be assaulted opcv ly, within range of stone mortars, placed in batteries either within or in front of this parallel ; its position, for this object, should be some GO yards from the salient p(ants of the most advanced portions of the defenses, or as to bring their interior within the range of the stones and othermis- siles thrown from the mortars. In giving the 3d parallel this position, there will be a %vide zone of ground between it and the 3d par- allel, over which the approaches connecting these two parallels must be run, which would be very much exposed to the sorties of the besieged, as well as the 3d parallel, were its protection left to troops stationed as a guard in the 2d parallel. To provide protection for these approaches and for the 3d par- allel, whilst in process of construction, ends of trenches, termed dim /-parallels, are run out, on the right and left of the lines of the approaches, far enough to contain sufficient bodies of troops to pro- tect all the men working on the trenches in advance of them from sorties. The positions of the demi- parallels will be regulated by the same tactical con- siderations as those which regulate the positions of the parallels. The length to which they should be extended on the flanks of the approach, will be regu- lated by tlie number of troops that it may be deemed necessary to post within tliem, and also from the con- siderations that they shall not obstruct or be endan- gered by the fire of any batteries to their rear. See ApprowhcK and Siege. PARALLEL FORCES.— Those forces which act up- on a body in directions parallel to each other. Every body, being an assemblage of separate particles, each of which is acted upon by gravit_y, may thus be considered as impressed upon by a system of parallel forces. The following demonstration will exhibit the mode in which the amount and ihe position of the resultant forces are found : Let P and Q be two parallel forces acting at the points A and B respect- ively, either in the same (Fig. 1) or in opposite (Fig. 2) directions ; join AB, and in this line, at the points A and B, apply the equal and opposite forces S and S, which counterbalance each other, and there- fore do not affect the system. Find M and N, the resultants of P and S. and Q and S respectively, and produce their directionstill they meet in D, at which point let the resultants be resolved ])arallel to their original directions ; then there are two equal forces, S and H, acting parallel to AB. Imt in opposite direc- tions, and thus, as they counterbalance each other, they may be removed. Then there remain t wo forces, P andtj, acting at D, in the line DC, iiarallel to their original directions, and their sum (Fig. 1) or differ- ence (Fig. 2) represented by K, is accordingly the resultant of the original forces at A jind B. To find the position of f', the point in AB, or AB produced, through which the resultant passes, it is necessary to make use of tlie well-known property denominated the triangle nfforcru, according to which the three forces S, M, and P are proportional to the lengths of AC, AD, DC, the sides of tlie triangle ADC ; then S : P :; AC : CD, similarly Q : .S :.- DC : C15, there- fore Q : P :: AC : V.C, and Q P or ]{ : P :: AC > BC or AB : BC, from which proportions we derive the prineiole of the lever, P x AC = Q X BC, and also P that K X BC = P X AB, whence BC = — X AB, R and the point C is found. The failing case of this proposition is when P and Q acting in opposite par- allel directions at different points are equal, in which case the resultant K := Q — P = Q — Q = 0. In all other cases there is a progressive motion, such as would be caused by the action of a single force R (= Q i P) acting at the point C in the direction of CR ; but in the failing case, since R = 0, there is no progressive motion but a rotatory movement round tlie center of AB. It is of no consequence whether A and B be the true points of application of the forces P and Q, provided their directions when produced pass through these points, and the point of application of the resultant need not be in the line joining the points of application of the compo- nent forces, but its direction must, when produced, pass through C. If there be more than two parallel forces, the resultant of the whole is found by com- pounding the resultant of the first two with the third in the way given above, thus obtaining a new resu t- ant, which is similarly combined with the fourth force ; and so on till the final resultant is found. The center of gravity is only a special name for the point of application of the final resultant of a number of parallel forces. See Couple PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES.— The fundamental problem in statics is to find the magnitude and di- rection of the resultant of twofoices; in other words, to compound them into a single force, wuich shall be in every respect their equivalent. Intensity and direction being the only elements necessary to en- tirely describe a force, forces in statics are repre- sented by lines, which are obviously capable of being made to represent them both in magnitude and direction. When two forces act along the same straight line on a particle, it is sufBcientlj' obvious that if they act in the same direction, the resultant will be their algebraical sum; if in opposite directions, their algebraical difference. This being premised, the relation between two forces acting at the same point, but not in the same line, and their resultant, is set forth in the following theorem, which is known as the Parallelogram of Forces. If two forces, P, Fig. ]. Q, acting on aparticle A, be represented in direction and magnitude by the lines .\/), \q, then the re- sultant will be represented in direction and magni- tude by (he diagonal Ar of the parallelogram described upon A/<, A7. The proof of this depends upon the simple princiiiles. that a force may lie sup- posed to act at any point of its direction, that ])oint being conceived to be rigidly attached to the par- ticle on which the force acts ; ami what may be ac- PABALLEL OBDEB OF BATTLE. 481 PABAUETSa. cpptcd as ail axiom of univcrHiil cxpcrir'ncc, that ■whi'ii any iiuiiibcr of foiccH arc iiiiprcsmMl on a par- tichr or body, each exerts itself, as if llie others wen; not acting, to produce its full (•IT<'cl. 'I'lie doelriiii^ of th(t parallelogram of fon^es liast,'iveii rise to nim-h controversy, not as to its truth, lint as to ils deriva- tion, some appearing to contend that it is directly deducilile from Ihe axiom above stated, wilhont the necessity of fnrth<T reasoning. Knowmn how to compound two forces actinf; at a point, we arc ab e to componiul or determine the resultant of any num- ber. ]f the forces, thoufjli in the same plane, do not act at the same point of a body, thosi'of lliem whose directions meet may be compounded by Ihe preced- in>,' rule ; if they are parallel, llieir resullanl is a force paralh'l to them and equal to their alf,'eliraical Bum, coimlinij; those acting in om^ direction as po.sitive, and in the oppoHite direction as n<'!;alive. The singidar case is that of equal parallel forces act- int: in opposite direc'tious. These constitute a couple, and caimot be represented by any simple force. The resolution of forces is the converse problem. To resolve a ;;ivcn force K, wdiosc direction and maf;- nitude is A;-, into two forces actiiif; in any directions that may I »■ chosen, as AP, AtJ, we have only lu draw Fig. a. parallels throtigh r, which determine the lines A/), Ay.representing the magnitude of the forces required. It is evident that there is an indefinite number of pairs of forces into which Ar might be resolved, ac- cording to the direction in which the new forces are to net. It is usual, however, to resolve a force into forces that arc at right angles to each other. The composition of motions is analogous in every ■way to that of forces ; motions are the results of forces, and the analogy might be expected. If a body be actuated simultancoiisly by two velocities having different directions, it will evidently move in a direction intermediate to the two, and with a ve- locity wdiich will in some way depend on each of them, and which is called their resultant. The proposition wdnch sets forth how to find tlie resul- tant, is called the Parallelogram of Velocities. It is: If two velocities, with which a particle is sunultanc- ously impressed, be represented in direction and magnitude by two straight lines drawn from the par- ticle, the resultant velocity of the particle will be represented in direction and magnitude by the di- agonal of the parallelogram described on those two straight lines. The proof is very simple. There is no reason wliy the full effect of both velocities sho\dd not be produced, as if the body moved first with one of them, and then with the other, in their respective directions. If in one second the body moving with the one velocity would reach /), and if we suppose it then to move on j^r for another second, parallel with the other velocity, it would at the end of the second second be at r. Hence, under their joint influence, it will be at r at the end of one second. The resolu- tion of motions is altogether analogous to that of forces. All the principles of the Parallelogram of Forces may be readily illuslrnlcd by the apparatus shown in KiL'Ure 2. Sec Fullinri Hodien. PABALLEL OBDEB OF BATTLE. In tactics, the natural order of liallle is when IroopH coming upon ordinary ground arc ranged in line of battle by the jirescribiMl tactical means, and when they arc formed in column right in front. The parallel order operates on the contrary against lh(' whole front of the ('nemy. Turenne anrl Condo fought habitually in parallel order, allbougb they sometinKm made a skillful use of oblique attacks. (liiiht rl well says that !i contiguous and regular par- allel order can be of no usi- in war. The oblique order is contradistinguished from the |)arallcl, and in gcnerid means every tactical com- bination the aim of which is to produce an effect upon two points of an enemy's line by bringing a superior force to bear down on those two points. Such combinations constitute the oblique order, whatever maneuvers nniy be used to accomplish the object. PABALLEL EETBE AT.— Great advantages some- times arise in conducting a retreat iiarallel to our frontier, when the topography lends itself to this operation ; as, the enemy, in following up, really gains but little ground in advance. If a retreat of this kind, termed a parallel retreat, is made in the enemy's country, the army subsists at the enemy's expense; the evils of war fall on him; and he is al- most as badly off as if he had not the upper hand. If this retreat takes place within our own frontier we draw after us the victorious army; we force him to move onwards without gaining a foot of ground towards the interior; we abandon to him only our borders, whilst we force him to offer his flank to any force we may have in the interior. But, with all these obvious advantages, we must look out how we attempt anything of the kind in a territory which ia open, and would give the enemy an easy means of cutting us off from our base. Such a retreat, there- fore, requires to be covered by a river, a mountaia chain, or some other obstacle that an enemy cannot cro.ss with safety, to interrupt our communications to the interior. If the parallel retreat is covered by a river,all bridges by wddch the enemy might intercept our communications, or attack in flank, should be timely destroyed, the fords obstructed and guarded. Like precautions are to be taken, when covered by a mountain chain, in occupying the main defiles, and obstructing other less important passes. Our troops should be so disposed as to fall in mass upon any corps of the enemy that attempts to force its way through ; and we shovild not show too much anxiety- respecting any weak body of troops that may have risked a raid upon our rear, as the peril is for it and not for our troops. It will be readily seen that a parallel retreat can only be resorted to with effect along a frontier of some considerable extent. Al- though a frontier of this character is more difficult to guard than one more limited, it presents, on the other hand, the advantages above pointed out, and lends itself well to the defemhe—offimo're on our side, which of itself, in the hands of an able General, is the surest means of success in a defensive war. PABALLEL EULEE.—.V draughtsman's instniment consisting of two wooden or metallic blades, so join- ed together by jointed cross-pieces as to open to different intervals and 3-et retain their parallelism, Fig. 1. A still simpler form is a rolling cylinder. Fig. 2, represents a rolling parallel nder, consisting of a flat ruler, and a roller rotatmg in bearing-posts fastened to the ruler. This instrument is very useful for constructing the plans and elevations of fortifica- tions and numerous other military subjects. The illustrations are on pase 482. See Drairing. PAEAMETEE.— This term, used in conic sections, denotes, in the case of parabola, a tlurd proportional to the abscissa of anv diameterand its corresponding ordinate: in the ellipse and hyperbola, a third pro- porticnal to a diameter and its conjugate. The par- PARAPET. 482 PAEBUCZLING. ameter of any diameter is, in the case of the para- bola, the same as the double ordinate of that diameter which pas5e>i through the focus, and is four times as long as the distance between the diameter's vertex '1 1 1 1 m ''"^IDIRS ' "iDlni m 'In 1 Jlill'i Fig. 1. Fig. a. and the directrix. The term parameter was also at one time used to denote any straight line about a curve, upon which its form could be made to depend, or any constant in its equation, the value of which determined the individual curve; but its employ- ment in this sense is now discontinued, except in the theory of homogeneous ditf erential equations, where the constants, for the purpose of aiding the solution, are supposed to vary, and the method is consequently denominated the ' ' variation of the parameters." PARAPET. — 1. A wall raised higher than the gut- ter of a roof for protection; in domestic buildings, churches, etc., to prevent accident by falling from the roof. Parapets are of very ancient date. The Israelites were commanded to build "a battlement" round their flat roofs. In classic architecture balus- trades were used as parapets. In Gothic architecture parapets of all kinds are used. In early work they are generally plain, but in later buildings they are pierced and ornamented with tracery, which is fre- quently of elaborate design, especially in French flamboyant work. Shields and little arcades are also I vised as ornaments to parapets; and the battlements of castles are imitated in the parapets of religiou.s and domestic buildings. 2. In field fortifications the main features are the covering masses of earth of which they are constructed, and which are intended to shelter the assailed from the view and fire of the ass^dlant. When the covering mass is so constructed as to afford the assailed a view and fire over the assailant's line of approach, it is termed a parapet. The rifle trench is the simplest form of work. In this, the parapet is formed by throwing the earth from a trench within to the front. The earth thus thrown up, together with the depth of the trench, afl'ords the desired shelter. The troops stand or squat in the trench and deliver their fire over the bank of earth in front. The method of intrenching affords the speediest means of obtaining cover, and is the one resorted to when troops are under fire, or when they intrench their camp or position for a tem- porary stay. Rails, logs, in fact, almost anything at hand may be used as a rough interior revetment for sustaining the earth. For artillery, the trench is made somewhat wider than is necessary for infantrj-. In the more elaborate class of field fortifications, such as the inclosed works of various descriptions, the earth to form the parapet is taken from the ex- terior, thus forming in front of the parapet a ditch which makes a formidable obstacle in the way of an assailant attempting to enter the work by escalade. Having fixed upon the profile, the pick commences the construction of the parapet by breaking ground so far from the counterscarp crest that, by digging vertically three feet, he will arrive at the positioli of the counterscarp. The excavation is carried on at the same depth of three feet, advancing toward the scarp, where the same caution is observed as at the counterscarp. The earth is thrown forward, and evenly spread and rammed, in laj'ers of about twelve inches, from the banquette slope to the exterior slope. For the facility of entering the ditch, whilst working, the offsets at the scarp and counterscarp may be formed into steps with a rise of eighteen inches each; and if the ditch is deeper than six feet, an offset, about four feet broad, should be left at the scarp, about mid-depth of the ditch, to place a relay of shovels to throw the earth on the berm. In some cases, a scaffold of plank is raised in the ditch for the same purpose, ^yhen the ditch has been exca- vated to the bottom, the offsets are cat away, and the proper slope given to the sides. The earth fur- nished by the oft'sets, if not required to complete the parapet, may be formed into a small glacis. If the soil is stony, the vegetable mold on the surface should be scraped off, and reserved to form the top of the parapet, which should be made of earth of this kind, to the depth of at least eighteen inches, to pre- pent injury to the troops from the effect of a shot striking the top, and scattering the pebbles in their faces. In making the parapet, care should be taken to form a drain, at some suitable point, to carry off the water from the interior into the ditch. Tlie wa- ter from the drain should not be suffered to run down the scarp, as it would soon destroy it. A gut- ter formed of boards, should be made to prevent this. See Field Fortifications and Normal Profile. PARASAN6. — A Persian military measure, some times assumed as a league, but equal to about four English miles. FARAZONIUM. — A name given by the early Greeks, to a short sword or dagger worn in the belt at the right side. PARBUCKLES.— Four-inch ropes, 13 feet long, with a hook at one end and a loop at the other. To parbuckle a gun, is to roll it in either direction from the spot in which it rests. To do this, place the gun on skids, and if it is to be moved up or down a slope, two 4i-inch ropes are made fast to some place on the upper part of the slope, the ends arc carrieil under the chase and breech of the gun respectively round it, and up the slope. If the nmning ends of these ropes are hauled upon, the gun ascends ; if cased off, it descends. If the ground is horizontal, handspikes only are necessary to move the gun. PARBUCKLINO. — A mode of drawing up or lower- FABCEL. 483 PABKER OUN. ing down an inclined piano any rylinilriciil objert, as a barrel or a licavy gun, wil liimt tlie aid of a crane or tackle. It consiHts in passing a Htoiit rope round a post or some suitable object at tlie to[) of the in- cline, and then doubling the ends under and over the object to be moved. This converts the cask or gun into a pulley in its own IxOialf, and limits Ihi- [)res- Bure at each end of Hie rope to one-fourlh the weight of the object moved, as felt on the incline. JJy haul- ing in the (lids ('{lually, the gun ascends, or vice ver.iil. See Mirliimirdl S/iiiiiiii'rni. PARCEL. — A tiTui, meaningin the artillery service, as applied to a rope, to put around it canvas well daubed with tar and boiuid with spun yam to pro- tect it from chaling. PARCHMENT.— There are several kinds of parch- ment, prepared from the skins of dilVerent animals, according to their intended uses. The ordinary writing parchment is made from those of the sheep and of the she-goat ; the tiner kind, known nnvellmii. is made from those of very young calves, kids, and lambs ; the thick, common kinds, for drums, tam- bourines, battledores, etc., from those of old he- goats and she-goats, and in northern Europe from wolves ; and a peculiar kind is made from asses' skins, the surface of which is enameled. It is used for tablets, as black-lead writing can be readily re- moved from it by moisture. The method of making parchment is at first the same as in dressing skins for leather. The skins are limed in the lime-pit until the hair is easily removed. They are then stretched tightly and equally, and the flesh side is dressed as in currying, until a perfectly smooth surface is ob- tained. It is ne.\t ground by rubbing over it a fiat piece of pumice-stone, previously dressing the flesh side only with powdered chalk, and slaked lime sprinkled over it. It is next allowed to dry, still tightly stretched on the frame. The drying process is an important one and must be rather slowly carried on, for which purpose it must be done in the shade. Sometimes these operations have to be repeated several times, in order to insure an excellent quality, and much depends upon the skill with which the pumice-stone is used, and also upon the fineness of the pumice itself. When quite dried, the lime and chalk are removed by rubbing with a soft lambskin with the wool on. . FABCOURIR.— A term e.xpressive of those move- ments which are made by General Oflicers, OfBcers Commanding Brigades, etc., for the purpose of en- couraging their soldiers in the heat of an engage- ment. PARDON.— An act of grace emanating from that power in the State intrusted with the execution of the laws, and exempting the individual on whom it is bestowed from the punishment to which he has been legally sentenced after conviction of crime, or to which he is by law liable for an offence on which he has not been tried and convicted. Every officer authorized to appoint a General Court-Martial, has the power to pardon or mitigate the sentence of death ; or of cashiering an officer, which, in cases where he has no authority to carry them into exe- cution, he may suspend, until the pleasure of the President of the United States can be known, which suspension, together with copies of the proceedings of the Court-Martial, ,the said officer immediately transmits to the President for his determination. And the Colonel or Commanding Officer of the regi- ment or garrison where any Regimental or Garrison Court-Martial is held, may parclon or mitigate any punishment to be inflicted. PARK. — An enclosure, or any place, where guns, wagons, animals, etc., can be placed in safety. A Park of Artillery is the whole train of great' guns with equipment, ammunition, horses, and gunners for an army in the field. It is placed in a situation whence rapid access can be had to the line of the army in any part ; and at the same time where the divisions of the force can easily mass for its protec- tion. The horses of the park are picketed in lines in its rear. Tin; term is also applied to th<- ground on which all guns stanil orari' parked. During a siege the park must be sheltered and screencfd as much uh possible from the view anil fire of the enemy ; but, in a position to communicate frer-ly with the besieg- er's trenches. If possible, its locality should also be chosen close to some good line of communication, either a road or river. Great care should be given to the position of the laboratories ; tliey should be as far away from the enemy as the jjark will permit. The officer in charge of the park should be assisled by well, trained nu.-n of the Ordnance iJepartment and a sufficient number of artificers. Kwhriglwir Piirk comprehends all the materials, tools, etc.. attached to that branch of the service. A iiiegf Piirk com- jiriscs the guns collected together at the commence- ment of tlie iiivestiiiint of a fortress, taken from the artillery park, and manned by artillery, aided l)y tlic men of the Ordnance Department. The carriages of a battery are parked in two ranks, all the pieces limbered" and in the front rank, the caissons cov- ering their pieces ; the interval is such as is most convenient; the distance from the rear part of the pieces to the end of the poles of the caissons is about eight yards. The carriages of each section are arranged from right to left in the order of their permanent numbers, the 1st section on the right. In home bntterif!<, the distance is seventeen j'ards, but may be decreased to eight yards if the nature of the ground requires it. To form the park, the Captain directs the column of sections toward either flank, or in rear, of the position to be occupied by the park, and establishes the Guidon near the point where the lead-driver of the leading carriage is to halt. lie then directs the column forty-seven yards in rear of, and parallel to, the line to be occupied by the lead-drivers of the front-rank carriages, and commands : 1. Right {or lejt) into park, 2. At (so vaaxiy) yardif interral, 3. March, 4. Front. The Chief of the lead- ing section commands : Right -irheel, at the first com- mand, and repeats the third. At the command march, given when the leading section is three and one-quarter yards from the point opposite the posi- tion which it is to occupy, the leading section wheels to the right moves forward and is halted by its Chief when the leading driver arrives in line with the Guidon. Each of the other sections continues the march until three and one-quarter yards from' the point opposite its place in park, then wheels to the right at the command of its Chief, and moves for- ward ; on arriving at three yards from the line, the Chief commands: 1. Section, 2 Haxt, 3. Left, 4. Dress. The Chiefs of platoon superintend the move- ments of their sections, but do not repeat the com- mands. The Captain and Chief of caissons go to the left and superintend the alignment as previously ex- plained. The Captain commands right into park, or left into park, according as the column is left, or right, in front. See Train. 'PARKER GUN.— This gun is a distinctively Ameri- can production, and has all the advantages of the American system of manufacturing. The different parts are made bj' special machiner}-, and by work- men who make a speciality of one thing onh', and are subjected to rigid inspection so that no defective or imperfect part can find its way into the finished gun. The number of parts is reduced to a minimum, and the construction is so simple that an}"one with no tool but a screw-driver can take the gun apart for cleaning or repairs. No breech-loader has less to get out of order, and none will stand better the ordeal to which a breech-loader is subjected. The drawing shows the top action. Pressing the thumb againstthe lever, throws it to the right, and acting through the piece, 16, forces the piece, 18, to the rear. "This piece being pivoted at the top withdraws the bolt, 17, from the'mortise which is cut in the lug, G, and releases the barrels. When the gun is PABKZK GUN. 484 PARKEB 6UH. closed the sides of the extension rib, 24, being upon the arc of a circle, with the hinge joint, 13, as a center, have a bearing along their entire surface, and the extension rib tits securely into its seat,24,in the frame. When the barrels are brought to place for firing, the bottom of the lug,6, strikes the trip, 21, withdrawing it from the bolt, 17, which then enters the mortise in the lug, 6, and securely locks the gun. The taper- portion of the chambers of the barrels, as shown In the drawing (which represents an end view of the breech of the barrels). When the gun is closed, the extractor, 14. extends from the rear end of the bar- rels to the projection on the joint, 13, and as the bar- rels swing on this joint, 13, which remains station- ary, this projection forces the extractor, 14, from the rear end of the barrels, ao that when they ar- bolt,17,locks the bp.rrcls positively firm, and the use ot a taper-bolt for fastening the gun gives it a de- cided advantage, as it does not allow a little dirt (which is very liable to get under barrels when open) to prevent the gun from locking. Many times when shooting, marksmen are balked in this way, but this pin closes with the same ease and locks as securely even if there is a little dirt in the way. When the gun is opened, the check-hook. T. comes in contact with the pin, E, which avoids any strain on the joint, 13, and thus prevents the gun becoming shaky by constant use. This gun has an automatic extractor which draws the shells or cartridges from tlie barrels during the rive at the position as shown above, the cartridges are withdrawn from them quite far enough to be entirely removed by hand. In connection with the lock, which is rebounding^ attention should be called to the direct blow of tlie flring-pin exactly in the center of the cap and at right angles with the head of the shell. By this arrangement the chance of a miss-fire is very much lessened, and the efficiency of the arm is increased. The locking-bolt is held back while the gun is open, doing away with the wear on the hinge joint which all breech-loaders are subjected to when the barrels are forced down against a strong spring in the rear of the bolt. The following drawing explains the b'ftcT action peculiar to this gun : Pressing up on the finger- piece, 1, in front of the guard. 2. raises the lifter,3, and its beveled side — coming in contact with the screw, 4 — acts as a wedge to draw the bolt, 5, from the mortise which is cut in the lug 6. and releases the barrels ready for the insertion of the cartridges. It will be observed that when the bolt, 5, is back to the position as shown, the small hole which is drilled in the under side of said bolt comes directly over the trip, 7, which, by the assistance of the small spiral spring, 8, is made to enter this hole in the bolt, 5, and operation of opening the gun. Theextractor, 14, is inserted in a liole drilled in the lug, 34, with lis rear end enlarged unil extending into and around a thereby holds it in position. The finger-piece, 1, is soMd and a part of lifter, 3. The action of tlw liftrr, 3, is pisithe, not only to withdraw the bolt fmrn, hut PAKKHUEST BACHIHE GTJW . 485 PA££OTT OUH. toforce it forward into tlie mortise inth<> ug, f>. I "r the purpose of oleaninf;. it can be very cHHily remove. l.V liikiiiL' olT th<- locks iii.d removing' Hie smiUl Jrew 4 from tl.<- end of l)olt, 5, Uicn press down on trii) 7 whieli will iillow tlx^ lifu,-r to be willidrawu without removin^r either stock, Ruard, or triRpr- plate. The improved roll, Hi, gives great stn-nglh t<, tlie joint This gun has been issued by the I nited States (Jov.Tumenl for arming Paymasters' escorts, etc., when light shooting and rough usage were an- '^^p'aBKHURST machine gun. In machine-guns the heatin.^ <it llie Imrrcls has limited the number of Charges tlPat could be rapidly tired before I hey be- come too hot for use, so that after a p<-riod of rai)id firinn- the gun would become dangerous if not allowe.l to cool T'he I'arkhur.Ht gun has a devii'e for keep- ing the barrelscool by surrounding them wilh w.Uer | umler atmosplxTic pressure, thus prevcutmg the temperature from rising above the boiling point of water. A temperature not e.\cceding 312" tahren- heit does not impair the action of the gun. The liar- rels are inclosed in a metallic water-tiglit casing having a vent for the escape of steam. The casing is tilled from time to time during the tiring as may be required. The mechanism for rapidly loading and firing is also improved. PARK1N80NIA. — A shrub found comnumly in Bentral It has been slated to yield a very fair char- coal' for gunpowder purposes; but from trials made of it of late years, at the Government Powder W orks at Ishapore, it was not foumi to be ecpial to that made from urhur or dhall xtdlk. Nevertheless it mii^ht be used if the latter crop failed. PARK PALING.— A very inferior gun-material, from which vast numbers of very inferior guns were made during the existence of the slave-trade. PARK PICKETS.— Small wooden posts which sup- port the rope line round the artillery park. They are carried either on carts or camels in India when on the march. Dimensions-length hZ inches, and diameter 3 inches. PARLEY.— In military language, an oral conference wilh the enemy. It takes place under a tlag of truce, and usually at some spot-for the time neutral-be- tween the lines of the two armies. To hmt a parley is to give a signal for such conference by beat of drurn'or sound of trumpet. , , ., PARMA.— A kind of round buckler used by the Velites in the Roman Army. It was 3 feet in diame- ter, made of wood, and covered with leather Its form was round, and its substance strong ; but berv- ius on the Aeneid, and even Virgil, say that it was a light piece of armor in comparison with the clyp- eust though larger than the pelta. PAROL— A stout wooden frame having long, sharp- pointed stakes driven into it horizontally. It is placed upon the parapet to oppose scaling parties. PAROLE.— 1. A watch-word differing from the countersign in that it is only communicated to Oiii- cers of Guards, while the countersign is given to all the members. The parole is usually the name of a person, generally a distinguished officer while the countersign is the name of a place, as of a battle-held. 2 A declaration made on honor by an officer, in a case in which there is no more than his sense of hon- or to restrain him from breaking his word. Ihus lU'signatcd limits ; or he may even be allowed to rfs turn to his own country on his //arui; not to fi/jlit a"ain, during Ihi- existing war, against his captors. To break/'rtr"/' is aicounted infamous in all civilized na- tions, and an olllccr who has bo far forgotten his po- sition as a gciilleuian, ceases to liave any claim to the treatment of an hmiorabht man, nor can he ex- pect (luartiT should lie again fall into the hands of Ihfi enemy he has deceived. The following rules m regard to pamlen are established by the common law and usages of war : An otlicer who gives ti. parol, for himself or his <'oiiimaiHl on the battle-field is deemed a deserter, and will be punished accordingly. For the ofllcer, the jiledging of U\A parole is an individu- id act and no wholesale jjaroling by an otlicer, for a number of inferiors in rank, is permitted or valid. No iirisoner of war can be forced by the hostile Go- vernment to pledge his ywrw^; and any threat or ill treatment to force thegivingof Iha parole is contrary to the law of war, and not binding. No prisoner of war can enter into engagements in- consistent with his character and iluties as a citizen and a subject of his State. He can only bind him- self not to bear arms against his captor for a limited period, or until he is exchanged, and this only with 1 the stipulated or implied consent of his own Govern- ment. If the engairement which he makes is not approved by his Government, he is bound to return : ami surrender himself as a prisoner of war. His own Government cannot at the same time disown hi3 engagement and refuse liis return as a prisf.ner. No'' one <:an pledge his paroU- that he will never bear arms against tlie Government of bis captors, nor that he will not bear arms against any other enemy of his Government, not at the time the ally of his captors. Such agreements have reference only to the existing enemy and his existing allies, and to the existino- war, and not to future belligerents. Whife the pledging of the military pary^e is a vol- untary act of the individual, the capturing power is not obliged to grant it, nor is the Government of the individiilxl paroled bound to approve or ratify it. 1 I'aroles not authorized by the common law of war are not valid till approved by the Government of the 1 individual so pledging his parole. ' The pled'^ing of any unauthorized mihlHTy parole is a military offense, punishable under the common law of war. , . , . , PAROLE EVIDENCE.— In law, it is such evidence as is ■'■iven by witnesses by word of mouth at a trial or hearing of a cause. Parole agreeinent, in Enn-lish law, means any agreement made either by word of mouth or bv writing not under seal. _ If the a-'reemcnt is made by writing under seal, it is called a deed, or indenture, or covenant, according to the nature of its contents. PARRAIN.— In military orders, the person who introduces or presents a newl.v-elected Knight. The term is also used to signify the comrade who is se- lected by a soldier who is condemned to be shot tc bind the handkerchief over his eyes. PARROT BEAKED.— A term apphed to a battle- axe and the like when very short in the handle and resemblim: a parrot's beak. PARROTTGUN.— The Parrot t rifle-.gun is a cast- iron piece of about the usual dimensions, strength- ened by shrinkms a coiled band or barrel of wrought- a prisoner of war mav be released from actual pris- on on his parole that "he will not go beyond certain iron over that portion of the reinforce '«-hi^h sur- rounds the charge. The bodies of the larger Pr.r70tt PAEEOTT LIFE-SAVING MOETAE. 486 PAEEOTT LIFE SAVING MOETAE. guns are cast hollow, and cooled from the interior on the Rodman plan. The barrel is formed b}- bend- ing a rectangular bar of wrought-iron spirally around a mandrel and then welding the mass together by hammering it in a strong cast-iron cylinder, or tube. In bending the bar, the outer side being more elon- gated than the inner one, is diminished in thickness, giving the cross section of the bar a wedge shape, which possesses the advantage of allowing the cinder the Parrott projectiles were frequently broken at the bottom by the force of the powder in such manner as to wedge the body against the bore. It is quite probable that this cause had much to do with the bursting of the gims. The inventor thinks he has corrected this evil. The following table gives the more important di- mensions, etc., of Parrott guns; ranging from the lO-pounder to the 10-inch. Gun. 10-pounder., 20-pouuder., 30-poundcr. 100-pounder. 8-inch 10-inch o o . Q .sm Q Number of Grooves. Inches. Inches. Inches. Lbs. Inches. 70 3. 11.3 890 3 0.1 79 3.67 14.5 1,750 5 0.1 120 4.20 18.3 4,200 7 0.1 130 6.4 25.9 9,700 9 0.1 136 8. 32. 16,300 11 0.1 144 10. 40. 23.500 15 0.1 1 turn in ft. at Muzzle. 10 10 12 18 23 30 bo eS 5 Lbs. 1 2 3 10 16 25 Lbs. 10 19 28 86 150 250 to escape through the opening, thereby securing a more perfect weld. The barrel is shrunk on by the aid of heat, and for this purpose the reinforce of the gun is carefully turned to a cylindrical shape, and about one-sixteenth of an inch to the foot larger than the interior diameter of the barrel in a cold state. To prevent the cast-iron from expanding when the barrel is slipped on to its place a stream of cold water is allowed to run through the bore. At the same time and while the bands hang loosely upon it, the body of the gun is rotated around its axis to render the cooling uniform over the whole surface of the bar- rel. A large number of these guns were used in the late war, both on sea and land; and the amotint of The proof of these guns consists in tiring each piece te?! rounds with service charges. The table given below shows the ranges of the 100-pounder Parrott gun ; charge, 10 pounds of cannon powder ; projectile, Parrott shell, tilled, 100 pounds ; initial velocity being 1,080 feet. See Cast-iron Guns and Ordnance. PAEEOTT LIFE-SAVING MONSTEB. — A mortar made of cast-iron and lined with a steel tube. The piece is cylindrical about the seat of the charge, gradually tapering to the face of the muzzle. The breech is hemispherical. The trunnions are placed near the breech ; their projection upon a plane through the vent and axis of the bore, being in front .a 1 . .c > c5 bo g PS i > E O B 3 a ■< Remaining locity. to Q 1 a > a- o a o "5) 4 Remaining locity. Yards. O ' Seconds. O ' Ft. -sees. Yards. O ' Seconds. a ' Ft.-secB. 100 14 0.28 14 1066 1700 4 36 5.15 5 09 933 200 29 0.56 29 1053 1800 4 54 5.48 5 24 916 300 44 0.85 44 1041 1835 5 00 5.50 5 33 914 ' 400 59 1.14 1 00 1029 1900 5 12 5.81 5 47 910 405 1 00 1.16 1 01 1029 2000 5 31 6.14 6 10 903 500 1 14 1.44 1 16 1019 2100 5 50 6.47 6 33 897 600 1 30 1.73 1 33 1009 2158 6 00 6.67 6 45 893 700 1 46 2.03 1 50 1000 220Q 6 09 6.81 6 56 891 788 2 00 2.29 2 06 992 2300 6 28 7.15 7 19 885 800 2 02 2.33 2 08 991 2400 6 47 7.49 7 42 879 900 2 18 2.63 2 26 983 2470 7 00 7.73 7 59 875 1000 2 34 2.94 2 44 974 2500 7 07 7.83 8 08 873 1100 2 51 3.25 3 03 966 2G00 7 27 8.18 8 34 867 1151 3 00 3.41 3 13 962 2700 7 47 8.,53 9 00 861 1200 3 08 3.56 3 22 959 2767 8 00 8.76 9 13 857 1300 3 2r. 3.87 3 41 951 2800 8 07 8.88 9 26 855 1400 3 42 4.19 4 00 944 2900 8 27 9.23 9 52 850 l.-,00 4 00 4.51 4 21 987 3000 8 48 9.58 10 18 844 1500 4 00 4.51 4 21 937 3056 9 00 9.78 10 32 841 1600 4 18 4.83 4 42 930 3100 9 09 9.94 10 47 839 •work done by them, especially in breaching mason- ry, is probably not exceeded by the ritlc-gimsof any o"tlicr system. While a few of them have failed in the service, others liave shown very great emlurance. The cause of this failure has been attributed to the bursting of shells In the bore, the presence of sand in the bore, etc., but late investigations show that of and tangent to a plane perpendicular to that axis and containing the front end of the chamber. The chamber has the form of the frustum of acone. The projectile is of cast-iron, cylindrical, with the ends rounded. An eye-bolt is screwed into the base for the attachment of the line. The eye of this bolt is close to the base of the shot. The cylindrical portion PAKROTT PROJECTILES. 487 PAHET. is liirncil in a liitlic sous to bcitliiioHt u pcrfi'd, (il for Uic liorc. This iipparatiiR is proviilcd with a siifrly iitlafli- mfiit, coiisislinij of a piccr of ruliliiT, rcctaiiKular in cross-section, about 1' loni;, 0".75 wide, and O"..") thick, and of tlircc or four i;alvani/,cd-iron wires about, (!' Inni;, laiil iiarallcl to each other, loosely twisted and coiled into a helix of from IH lo l'.( turns. Tlie rubbiTstriip is sotnetinies placeil insiile the coil, and at others outside of it. This cond)ine(l strap and spring is interposed between the shot and line in lirinfj. The object of the combination is to ab- Horl) the shock of the discharge and thns prevent the breakage of the line, by letting the lirst Jerk come upon tlio rubber, which will generally l)reak. and tlien upon the coiled wire spring. The wires will be straigliteneil out before the full strain falls upon the line. See /,i/>-.vini/i!/ li'icketn. PARROTT "projectiles. — Th<'S(^ projectiles are composed of a cast-iron body and a brass ring cast into a rabbet formed around the l)ase. The (lame presses against the bottom of the ringand underneath it, so as to expand it into the grooves of the gun. To prevent tlie ring from turning in the rabbet the latter is recessed at several points of its circumfer- ence. Parrott's incendiary shell has two compartments formed by a partition at riglit angles to its length. The lower and larger space is filled with a burning composition; the upper one is filled with a bursting charge of powder, which is fired by a tirnc or con- cussion fuse. Tlie burning romposition is intro- duced through a hoh' in lUc. bollom of the gtieU, which is stoppril up willi a screw-plug. A more recent form of the I'arrott Projectile for large calibers shown iti tlie drawing. Th(' sabot in cast on to the projrctile, anil is provided with a lip iiiid cannelure. It is prevented from turning on the projeclile and from stripping by means of recesses and undercuts upon the basi; of the projeclile, into wliich the metal when liipiid enters. See Expanding J'riijn'tiliH and I'mjertiUH. PARRY.— A defensive movement in bayonet and saber exi;rcises, executed as follows : With the hay. unci -The Instructor commands: 1. 'J'lerr^, 2. Pabry. Move the point of the bayonet five or six inches lo the right. 1. Qnnrti , 2. I^aiuiy. Move the piece (piickly to the left, the small of the stock passing un- der the left elbow, the piece covering the left shoul- der ; the liarrel to the left, bayonet in frimt of, and higher than the shoulder, the left forearm on the right of tlie i)iece. theelbow touching the right wrist, the fingers on the slock. 1. Heronde, 2. Paeby. Move the point of the bayonet quickly to the left, describing a semi-circle from left to right, the point fif the bayonet at the height of and in front of llie right knee, barrel to the left; the left elbow in front of the body, the fiat of the butt under tlie right fore- arm, theelbow two or three inches higher than the right shoulder. 1. Ilutt. 2. Pakky. Move the piece quickly to the left, covering the left knee and shoul- der ; the barrel to the right, the butt tliree inches above, and to the left of the left knee : the left hand and arm as in quarte parry. 1 . I'rirroe. 2. Pakby. Lower the point of the bayonet and describe a semi- circle to the left, carry the piece to the left, covering the left shoulder ; the barrel downward, the left fore- Fig. 1. Big. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Pig. 6 Fig. 7. Fig. 9. Fig. la PARSONS GUN. 488 FASnSAH. arm oehind the piece, the bayonet at the height of and to tl\e left of tlie left kuee ; the butt higher thrn the head, the right forearm above the eyes and six inches in front of the forehead. The double parries are combinations of the simple parries, and are exe- cuted by the following commands: 1. Tierce, 2, Quarte. 1. Prime, 2. Seconde. 1. Quarte. 2. Tierce. 1. Seconde, 2. Prime. 1. Tierce, 2. Se- conde. 1. Tierce, 2. Butt. 1. Seconde, 2. Tierce. 1. Butt, 2. Tierce. The U'erre and guarte parrieK are used against blows aimed above the arms ; seconde and butt parrie.i, below the arms ; prime parry, for blows either above or belo%v the arms. In all par- ries, care must be taken not to uncover the body, by moving the piece farther than necessary to parry the blow. These positions are shown in Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, and ,5. Viith the Sabei — The Instructor commands: 1. Ti-erc€, 2. Parry. Carry the hand quickly a little to the right, point of the saber as high as the eyes. and opposite the right shoulder, edge to the right. (Two.) Resume the guard. 1. Quarte. 2. Parry. Turn the hand in quarte, and carrj' it opposite the left breast, edge of the blade to the left, point to the front, as high as the eyes, and a little to the left of the left shoulder. (Two.) Resume the guard. 1. -l^f'ft, 2. Parry. Raise the hand above and six inches in front of the eyes, the elbow somewhat bent, edge of the blade to the left, point downward, and parry the blow aimed at the left side. (Two.) Resume the guard. 1. Left, head, 2. Parry. Raise the saber quickly above the head, the right arm vertical, edge upward, point to the left and about twelve inches below the guard. (Two.) Resume the guard. 1. Jiight head, 2. Parry. Raise the saber quickly above the head, edge up, point to the left and higher hanu, still in tierce, above the left shoulder. (Three.) Resume the guard. 1. Against infantry, 2. Right, 3. Parry. Turn tlie head to the right, throwing back the right shoulder, raise the saber, the arm extend- ing upward to the right and rear, the hand in tierce, edge of the blade to the left, point upward. (Two.) Describe a circle quickly on the right, from rear to front, the arm extended ; turn aside the bayonet with the back ot the blade, bringing the hand as high as the head, the point upward. (Three.) Resume the guard. See Bayonet Exercise. C'aralry Parr.'ei, Fenc- ing and Sahfr Exercise. PARSONS GUN.— The principle upon which Mr. Parsons makes his gun would seem to be similar lu that of Captain Palliser's, /. e, by varying elasticity. As applied to strengthening a 68-pounder cast-iron gun. his method consists of boring into the breech of the gun, coincident with its axis, reaming out the bore into a slightly conical shape as far as the front of the trunnions, and then inserting into this space a reinforced wrought-iron tube, which is se- cured in its place by a breech-plug. The exterior of this compound tube is turned to tit the conical space easily, its length being cut so that it will be compressed longitudinally by screwing up the breech-plug, thus communicating to the outer cast- iron portion the entire longitudinal strain of the powder. This method is based on the fact that wrought-iron may be stretched three times as much as cast-iron, and will offer from three and a half to six times the resistance within the limit of its elasti- city. Mr. Parsons has also proposed that the tube should be made of steel, having a solid breech, A, as shown in the drawing, the ingot not being bored through its entire length. He proposes to reinforce tlie tube with jackets of steel shrunk on, B, and to insert the whole tube and jacket, from the rear of the iron casting, the cast-iron gun being so bored out as to require force to insert the tube in its place. The tul)e being inserted, a steel plug, C, is to be screwed on from the rear, which presses against the rear of the tube, and the breech is then closed by a cast-iron lug representing the cascabel of the piece. See Con- eried Guns, Ordnance, and I'alliser Gun. PARTIALITY. — An unequal state of judgment or leaning in favor of one of two parties. Every mem- ber of a Court-Martial is sworn to do ju.stice, with- out partiality, favor or affection. A previous opinion expressed by a member, before the Court is sworn, is deemed a good and sufficient cause of challenge b3' either the prisoner or prosecutor, and the indi- vidual cannot sit on the trial and judgment of the case. PARTISAN. — 1. A name for a halberd or pike, or for a Marshal's baton. Tlie name is also given to the leader of a detached body of light troops, who make war by harassing the enemy, rather than com- ing to direct fighting, by cutting off stragglers, inter- rupting his supplies, and confusing him by rapid than the head, the right forearm nearly vertical. OTwo.) Resume the guard. 1. Against infantry. 2. Left 3. Pakry. Turn the Iiead and shoulders to the left, raise the saber, the arm extended upward to the front and left, the hand in tierce, back of the blade to tlie front, point upward. (Two.) Describe a circle quickly on the left, from front to rear, parallel to the horse's neck, the arm extended ; turn aside the bayonet with the back of the blade, bringing the strategy. The action of such a corps is known as Partisan Warfare. 2. Partisans are soldiers armed and wearing the uniform of their army, but belonging to a corps which acts dct;iched from llic main body for the pur- pose of making inroads intci the territory occupied by the enemy. If captured, tliey are entitled to all the privileges of the prisoner of war. Partisan warfare is advantageously pursued only PABTITION LINES. 489 FASeAOE OF DITCHES. in monntninnufl or tliiokly-wnoilcd irmtricts. In an open couMtry, lliiM-iiviilry very rciiilily ilcHtroys them. Sec (Itii rrilliia. PARTITION LINES, lii Ilcralilry, liiiis dividing; the Hliii'ld in (lircftiuns <'orri'H])(iiiiliiif; In llic onli- narii'S. Arcordinfi; to the dircctidii <if Uic imrtition linrH, II shield is Kiiid to he party nr imrlcd per fcss, per ])alc, |)rr l)cnd,pcr ch.'vcrnii.pir siiltin; ; a Hlncld divi(h'(l hy lines in the dirceticin of a orojirt, is Haid to Partition Lines in Hcraldir. be quartorod ; and a shield parted at onee per rroas and per saltirc, is said to Gironni' of eight. Tiie parti- tion lines are not always plain ; they may be en- grailed, inveeted, embattled, wavy, nebuly, indented, daiK-ette or ragul)'— forms which will be found ex- plained under separate articles. See Heraldry. PARTIZAN. — A species of halbird. Tlie "iron is long, broad, and double-edged; there is no a.xe, but barbs in the style of the ranseur. The pnrtitnv ■was known in France from the time of I>ouis XI. (1401) until the end of the 17th century, but its in- vention was not, earlier than 1400. Also written Partisan. PARTRIDGES.— In artillery, very large bombards formerly in use at sieges and in defensive works. They are mentionetl in Froissart. PARTY. — 1. In Heraldry, parted or divided; — used in reference to any division of a field or charge. 2. Any small number of soldiers detached from an army or regiment on any particular duty either in peace or war time. A party is often sent out to forage, reconnoiter, and gain intelligence. The term is also applied to other duties which small bodies of men are engaged on such as recruiting parties,work- ing partiex. storming parties, etc. PAS D'ANE. — The ring-shaped sword-guard below the cross-piece, on each side of the blade. It is not generally met with until the second half of the 16th century. PASDE SODRS.— Steps leading from the bottom to the top of a ditch in permanent fortification. PASHA, — A title used in the Ottoman Empire, and applied to Governors of Provinces, or Military and Naval Commanders of high rank. The name is said to be derived from two Persian words — pti, foot or support, and sAaA, ruler — and signifies "The support of the Ruler." The title was limited in the early period of the Ottoman Empire to the Princes of the Blood, but was subsequently extended to the Grand- Vizier, the Members of the Divan, the Seraskier, Capitan-Pasha, the Begler-Begs, and other civil and military authorities. The distinctive badge of a Pasha is a horse's tail, waving from the end of a staff, crowned with a gilt ball ; in war this badge is always carried before him when he goes abroad, and is at other times planted in front of his tent. The three grades of Pashas are distinguished by the num- ber of the horse-tails on their standards ; those of the highest rank are Pashas of three tails, and in- clude, in general, the highest functionaries, civil and military. All Pashas of this class have the title of Vizier ; and the Grand-Vizier is, par exrellence, a Pasha of three tails. The Pashas of two tails are the Governors of Provinces, who generally are called by the simple title of "Pasha." The lowest rank of Pasha is the Pasha of one tail ; the Sanjaks, or low- est class of I'rovincial Oovirnors, are of this rank. The I'asha of a Province has authority over the mili- tary force, the revenue, and the administration of juatico. His aulhorily was formerly absoluti:, but recently a check was imposed (jii him by the appoint- ment of local Councils. The I'asha is in his own person the military leader and administrator of juH- liee for the Province under his charge, and holds of- fice during the pleasure of the Sultan — a most pre- carious tenure, as the Stdliui can at any moment, in the exercise of his despotic power, exile, impri.son, or pirt him to death; and tliis has frequently been done in eases where the Pasha's power has excited the apprehension, f>r his wealth the avarice of Ids Uoyal .Master. Also written /y<n/(«w and I'acha. PASS.— 1. A straiglit, difficult, and narrow pass- age, which, well defended, shuts up the entrance to a country. 2. Permission granted by a Command- ing OHicer to a soldier to be al)sent from his qiiarters, recorded and signed by the Commanding Olficer, so that the soldier may be able to show to others, if necessary, the authority for his being absent from his regiment. 3. A road or path leading from one side of a mountain to another. Jn latitudes wher.; much snow falls, the " passes" are only open for egress or ingress during the summer months. In warfare, mountain passes play a very important part, if the operations, whether defensive or ollensive, are carried on in a mountainous country. PASSADE. — In fencing, a push or thrust ; a sud- den movement to the front. Often written I'mtuwid. PASSAGE — A movement in the School of the Sol- dier Mounted, for gaining distance to the right or left, executed as follows: To passage to the right, gather the horse and incline him to the right, by car- rying the bridle-hand slightly to the right, and clos- ing the right leg; then carry the bridle-hand well to the right, close the left leg "behind the girth without leaning to the left, so thai the haunches may move last, and hold the right leg near to support the horse and moderate his movement. The horse having obeyed, keep up the passage by a gentle application of the same 'means. To halt, replace the bridle-hand and left leg by degrees, and straighten the horse by carrying the bridle-hand slightly to the left and cIo.s- ing the left leg. In passaging, the movement of the horse's shoulders always precedes that of his haunch- es. To facilitate this, the horse is held inclined to the side toward which the passage is to be made. If the horse oblique too much, the rider carries the hand a little to the left, and increases the effect of the left leg. If the horse step too quickly to the side toward which he passages, diminish the effect of the reins and left leg. carrying the bridle-hand to the left, and holding the right" leg close. If the horse back, bear his shoulders well toward the side toward which he should passage, diminish the effect of the reins, and increase that of the legs ; a horse usually backs on account of the constraint he feels when his haunches have begun to move before his shoulders. PASSAGE OF DITCHES. — In siege operations the passage of a dry ditch consists in the descent (which is by a blindage, if the ditch is not too deep, or a blindage and gallery for deep ditches) and a full sap, which leads from the outlet of the de.m:itXo the bot- tom of the breach. The passage of a wet ditch is more difficult, and specially perilous if the besieged can produce sudden freshets by flood-gates or other contrivances. The method usually followed is to build a dike or bridge of fascines and hurdles across the ditch. The abutment for this bridge is formed by excavating a grand gallery behind the counter- scarp and throwing the earth taken from it into the ditch through the outlet of the descext. The dike is carried forward from this abutment by sappers, who work on a raft carrying a musket-proof mask on the side of the enemy". A gabionade parapet on the exposed side of the dike serves to protect the men in bringing forward the fascines, hurdles, etc., to extend the dike. PASSAGE OF KIVEES. 490 PASSPOHT. PASSAGE OF KIVEKS.— The passage is effected by surprise or by main force, and detacliments are tlirown by one means or the other upon the enemy's bank of the river before proceeding to tlie construc- tion of bridges. The passage by force ought always to be favored by diversions upon other points. In- fantry cross bridges without keeping step. Cavalry dismount in crossing, leading their horses. Wagons heavily loaded, pass at a gallop. See Bridges and Ford. ' PASSAGES. — Openings cut in the parapet of the covered-way, close to the traverses in order to con- tinue the communication through all parts of the covered- way. See Traverses. passage' 'WARRANT. — One among the numer- ous royal warrants issued for the guidance of the army. It relates, as its name implies, to tlie rules and regulations to be observed in applying for pass- ages on board troop and other government ships. The accommodation granted to officers, and the quan- tity of baggage allowed, as well as messing costs, will be found in the copy of this warrant. PASSANDEAU. — An ancient 8 pounder gun, which was l.T feet long, and weighed about 3,500 pounds. PASSANT. — A heraldic term used to e.xpress the attitude of an animal in a walking position, with his head straight before him, Fig. 1. Fig. 2. represents the attitude, Pansant gardaiit ; Fig. 3. Pa-miant re- gardant. PASS-BOX,— A wooden or metallic box with a lid and handles, used for carrying cartridges from the service magazine to the piece. The boxes are of various sizes to suit the caliber of the piece, one cart- ridge being carried at a time. The top is fastened on with two butt hinges and kept closed by strong hook and staple. A wooden handle is fastened with screws diagonally on one end, by which the box is carried. PASSEGARDES.— In ancient armor, ridges on the shoulder-pieces to turn the blow of a lance. PASSE-MUH. — An ancient 16-pounder gun, which was 18 feet long, and weighed about 4300 pounds. PASSES- BALLES. — Boards or machines made of iron or brass, used in disparting cannon, and fitted to every species of caliber. PASS'eVOLANT.— A light piece of ordnance, used in France in the l.'jth century. PASSION CROSS.— A cross of the form on which our Saviour suffered, with a long stem and a short traverse near the top. It is of occasional occurrence Passion Cross. as a her.ildic charge, though less frequent than many other variclics of cross. A passion cross, when ele- vated on three steps or degrees (which have been said by heralds to represent the virtues of Faith, Hope, and Charity), is called a Cross Calvary. PASS OF ARMS.— In ancient chivalry, a "bridge, road, etc.. wliicli the Knights iindertook to defend, and which was not to be passed without fighting the person who kept it. lie who was (lisjxiscd to dispute the pass touched one of the armories of the other Knight who held tlic pass, tli;it were iiuiisr on pales, columns, etc., erected for the purpose ; and this Tas a challenge whicli the other was ol)liged to accept. The vanquished gave the conqueror such prize as was agreed upon. PASSOMETER.- A watch-shaped instrument car- ried about the person to register the steps taken in walking. It consists of a dial and two hands, which are moved by a ratchet worked by a weight which the motion of walking causes to vilirate. PASS PAROLE.— An order passed from front to rear of an army by word of mouth. PASSPORT. — A warrant of protection and permis- sion to travel, granted by the proper authoritj-, to persons moving from place to place. Every Inde- pendent State has the right to exclude whom it pleases from its territory, and may require that all strangers entering it be furnished with properly au- thenticated documents, showing who they are, and for what purpose they are visiting the countrj'. Passports are sometimes issued by the Ministers and Consuls of the country which the traveler intends to visit, which cannot, however, be done without the consent or connivance of the State of which the holder of the instrument is a subject ; thej' properly proceed from the authorities of the State to which the traveler belongs, and ought to bear the tha or countersignature of the Minister or Consul of the country which he is about to visit. In some Euro- pean States no one is allowed to go abroad without a passport from his Government authorizing him to leave the countrj' — a provision used as a means of detaining persons charged with crime ; and pass- ports are even required by the natives to enable them to go from place to place in their own country. The regulations of different States have varied much re- garding the use of passports ; and of late j'ears there has been a great relaxation of the stringency of the regulations connected with !them. Since the facili- ties of traveling have so greatly increased, it seems to have become the prevalent opinion that the pass- port system tends to obstruct the free intercourse that is desirable between citizens of different coun- tries ; while it is ineffectual to prevent the entrance of dangerous or suspicious cliaracters, who can ob- tain passports on false pretences, or make their way in without them. Within the United Kingdom no passports are required; but for a British subject traveling in some parts of the Continent they are still requsite. At one time the greater part of Brit- ish subjects traveling abroad used to be furnished with passports from the Ministers or Consuls of the countries which they purposed to visit ; the Lord Provost of Edinburgh was also in the way of issuing passports to Scotchmen. Of late years the passport most used by British subjects is that of the British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, which is now granted to any British subject for a fee of two shil- lings, and is good for life. If the applicant be not personally known to the Secretary of State, he must either be recommended to him b.y some person who is known to him, or produ«! an application in his favor b}- some banking firm established in London or elsewhere in the United Kingdom, or a certificate of identity signed by a jNIayor, Magistrate, Justice of the Peace, Minister of Keligion, Physician, Surgeon, Solicitor, or Notary, resident in the United Kingdom. In certain cases the production of a certificate of birth may be required. If the applicant be a nat- uralized IBritish suljject, his certificate of naturaliza- tion must be forwarded to the Foreign Office. If it he dated subsequently to Aug. 24, 1850, and previous- ly to Aug. 1, IH.OS, his passport will be good for (me year only: if subsequently to Aug. 1, 1858, for six months only. The passport of a British subject nat- unili/.ed by Act of Parliament is good for life. Where the ])assport system is in full force, it is required that the pass])ort be countersigned by the ^Minister or Consul of the country which the holder means to visit, the visa being only of force for a year. The French (government allows Hrilish subjects to enter and leave France, and travel in it without passports ; PASTE. 491 PATBOLI. f. but tlicy lire wiid to 1)« Homctimfs asked for when France- is entered from the Soiitli iind Kust. In IJel- jiuni, lI()lhuul,(}erniiiny,Hwilz<Tland, AuHtriii, Italy, Jeninark, Norway, and Hwcden, passports are no lonj^er rcipiired. For Greece and I'ortiii;al they anr necessary, and (he visa is insisted on in Hnssia, Tur- key, and Kiiypl. In time of war, jiassporls or safe- conducts are ;^ranted liy tlie Supreme AuHiority on tlie spot — /.('., llie Ollicer in Counnand to insure safely to tlie holders wlien passin;; from si)ot to spot, or while occupied in the performance of some act specilied in and iiermitted by the passport. Pass- ports nniy be granted for goods as well as individ- uals; and in iime of war, the jiassport of a ship is the formal vo\icher of its neulral character. It pur- ports to be a rc(|uisition on the part of the (Jovern- inent of a Stale to allow the vessel to pass freely with her company, passengers, goods, and nuTchan- dise, without hindrance, seizure, or molestation, as being owned by citizens or subjects of such State. PASTE. — A tenacious mi.xture of flour and alum in the proportion of 2 lbs. of Hour to 1 oz. of pounded alum mixed with 1 gallon of boiling water. The mode of preparing it is as follows: Heat it gently, stir it, and let it boil :J of an hour; when it becomes ropy, pour it into bowls, and pass it thnuigli a sieve before it is quite cold. It should be used cold, and only 2 or S daj-s' supply made at a time, but it may be preserved longer by adding alum in the propor- tion of one-tenth the weight of flour. Haste is used in the laboratory in case-making, for porttires, rock- ets, light-balls, etc. PATAREMO. —A sort of small swivel artillerj-, hav- ing a movable chamber. PATCH. — 1. A greased piece of cloth wrapped around a rifle bullet. 2. A block on the muzzle of a gun to do awaj' with the eft'ect of disjjart ; making the line of bore and line of sight parallel. PATE. — 1. In fortification, a .sort of platform or terre-plein, irregularly built, yet generally constructed in an oval form. It is surrounded by a parapet, without anything to flank it, and having no other defense than what is front or fore right. Path are usually erected in marshy grounds to cover the gate of a fortified town or place. 2. An iron or earthen pot filled with powder and grenades for throwing against besiegers; some were used at Lille, in 1708. PATEREROS.— Small pieces of ordnance, now ob- solete, worked on swivels; most commonly used on board ships, where they were moimted on the gun- wale, and discharged showers of old nails, etc., into hostile boats. The French called them Pierriers from loading them with stones. PATONCE.— In Heraldry, a cross with its terminations expanding like early vegetat ion or an opening blossom. PATOO. — A very formidable weap- on with sharp edges, used by the Poly- nesian Islanders and New Zealanders as a sort of battle-axe to cleave the skulls of their enemies. -_____^ PATRIARCHAL CROSS. — A cross ^"■^ I like tlie patriarchal crosier, having its i-^ t—, I upright part crossed by two horizon ^ T"^ J tal bars, the upper being shorter than < I y the lower. A cross patriarchal flm- \~X briated »r was a badge of the Knights Templars. PATRICK.— The Order of Saint Pat- ' rick is the national order of knight- hood for Ireland, established bj' George III. Feb. .5, 1783, and enlarged in 1833. It consisted of the Sovereign, the Grand-master (who was the Lord- Lieutenant of Ireland for the time being), and 1.5 Knights. By the statutes of 1833 the number of Knights was increased to 23. The Collar of the order (of gold) is composed of roses alternating with harps, tied together with a knot of gold, the roses being en- j ameled alternately white within red, and red within "white, and in the center is an imperial crown sur- , mounting a harp of gold, from wliich the badge is suHpendid. The /;«//(/*■ or tlie .fn/ifl is of gold, and oval ; surrounding it is a wreath of sliamrock proper £aicmc& fairiarcluiL Crosa. Older of St Patrick. on a gold field ; within this is a band of sky-blue en- amel charged with the motto of the order, Qns Sep- AKABiT MDCOLXxxiil, in goid letters ; and within this band a saltire gules (the cross of St. Patrick), sur- mounted by a shamrock or trefoil slipped vert, hav- ing on each of its leaves an imperial crown or. The field of the cross is either argent, or pierced and left open. A sky-blue Ribbon, worn over the right shoulder, sustains the badge when the collar is not worn. The Star, worn on the left side, differs from the badge only in being circular in place of oval, and in substituting for the exterior wreath of shamrocks eight rays of silver, four of which are larger than the other four.' The Mantle is of rich sky-blue tab- inet, lined with white silk, and fastened In' a cordon of blue silk and gold with tassels. On the right shoulder is the Hood, of the same material as the mantle. The order is indicated by the initials k. p. PATROLS.— Patrols are of twoclasses,|from the dif- ferent objects had in view. The first are those made with a view of insuring greater security from the enemy's attempts to pass, or force the line of out- posts, and may therefore be termed defenuhe patrols. They consist usually of three or four men. who go the rounds, along the chain of sentinels and between the posts; seldom venturing farther than a few hun- dred paces beyond the sentinels chain; the object being to search points which might present a cover to the enemy's scouts, and to keep the sentinels on the alert. The second class are those made exterior to the line of out-posts, with a view of gaining intel- ligence of the enemj's whereabouts; and may there- fore be termed iiffen,iite patrul.i. They are composed of larger bodies of men than the first class, the num- ber being proportioned both to the distance to be gone over, and the extent of front to be examined. In a po.sition, presenting but few cross-roads, and sparsely settled, a patrol of ten or twenty horsemen, may be found ample, to search with all desirable thoroughness, from twenty to forty miles in advance of the position, along the principal avenues to it ; whereas, with a more extended front, presenting many lateral avenues, double this number might be required for the same duty. From the information obtained, through the ordinary channels of maps, and by questioning the near inhabitants, the Command- PATTE D'OIE. 492 PAVAVA. ing-Offlcer can usually settle, with sufficient accuracy, the strength of a patrol. From the duties to be performed by patrols, cav- alry are usually employed alone; in cases of very broken country, infantry may be necessary, but they should always be accompanied by some horse, if for no other purpose than to transmit intelligeuce prompt- ly to the rear. The main duties of a patrol are to find the enemy if in the neighborhood; gain a good idea of his position and strength; to make out his movements, and to bring in an accurate account of his distance from the out-posts of their own force; and the character of the ground between the position occupied by the respective forces. From the nature of these duties; it is evident that both officers and men, for a patrol, should be selected with a special reference to their activity, intelligence, and the ap- titude they may possess, from previous habits of life, for a service requiring a union of courage, prudence, and discriminating observation — usually to be met with only in individuals who have been thrown very much upon their own resources. When the charac- ter of the country admits of it, the employment of such individuals, singly, or in very small bodies, as scouts, is one of the most available means of gaining intelligence of an enemy, without betraying the se- cret of our own whereabout. In conducting a patrol, the Commanding Officer should provide himself with a good map, telescope, and guides; and gain all the information he can be- fore starting, by questioning persons in the neigh- borhood. Nothing should escape his eye along his line of search; and he should particularly note points wJiich might be favorable to his defense, if driven back by the enemy; or by which his retreat might be endangered. The order of march of the patrol will be regulated by the circumstances of its strength, kind of troops employed, the character of the country passed over, the hour of the daj'. and the particular object in view. Tlie intelligence and judgment of the officer in command will have sufficient exercise on these points; as he will be continually called upon to vary his dispositions. The general and obvious rule of keeping a look-out on all sides, will prompt the general disposition of an advanced-guard, rear- guard, and flankers, according to the circumstances of the case, however small his command. The sole object being to carry back intelligence of the enemy, no precautions should be omitted to cover and secure his line of march, without making, however, too great a subdivision of his force. Too much circumsiiection cannot be shown in ap- proaching points favorable to ambuscades; as woods, ravines.defiles, inclosures, farm-houses, villages, etc. The main-body should alwaj's be lialted, in a good position beyond musket-shot, or where cover can be obtained, whilst a few men proceed cautiously for- ward, following at some distance in the rear of, but never losing sight of each other, to examine the sus- pected spot. If the officer deem it necessary, at any point, to detach from his command smaller patrols, to examine points at some distance on his flanks, he should halt the rest, at the point where they sepa- rate, until the detachments come in and report; or, if he decides to move forward, he should leave three or four men at the spot, to convey intelligence jiromptly to the rear, if anything is discovered, as well as to himself. It may frequently be found that some eminence on the flanks may present a good view of the surrounding country, in which case, if it be decided to use it, two or three men ought to be detached for the purpose, with orders to keep in sight of each other, but far enough apart to guard : against a surprise of the whole. When the officer j finds himself in the presence of the enemy, he should halt his command at a convenient spot, wliere they will be screened from the enemy's view; and, liaving made his dispositions against a surprise, he will jiro- ceed with a few picked men, to the most favorable point from which he can obtain a good look-out, to lattfie. recounoiter the position occupied, and the other points of interest. If he deem it advisable to keep liis position, or change it for some other point more favorable, he will first transmit a report to the rear of what he has observed. When the patrol moves by night, the ordinary pre- cautions must be redoubled. Signals must be agreed upon to avoid danger, .should any of the parly be- come separated from the main body. Careful atten- tion must be given to everything passing around; as the barking of dogs, noises, fires, etc. On approach- ing any inhabited spot, the command should be brought to a halt, whilst a few picked men move noiselessly forward, and if practicable, by stealing up to the windows, learn the character of the in- mates. It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the mind of the officer in command of a patrol, that he must be all ears and eyes; that he will be called upon in turn, to exercise great boldness, caution, presence of mind, and good judgment, in accom- plishing a mission where the enemy must be seen but not encountered; and such roads and halting points be selected, both in moving forward and re- turning, as shall be most favorable to his move- ments," and least liable to expose him to a surprise, or a disadvantageous collision with the enemy. See Reconnoissanct, PATTE D'OIE.— A term used in mining to describe three small branch- es which are run out at the extremity of a gallery. They are so called from their clo?e resemblance to the foot of a goose. PATTEE.— Acrossin Heraldry, also called Cross Formee, a cross with its arms expanding towards the ends, and flat at their outer edges. PATTERN. — The wooden model used in easting is technically called the Pattern. Models for casting should be made of one or several pieces, according to the form of the mold required. When the form is such that the whole model can be withdrawn from the sand at once, without injuring the mold, a single piece will suffice ; but generally the model is com- posed of several pieces, so fitted that they can be put together in succession as the molding progresses, and finally taken apart and removed by piecemeal when the molding is complete. See Molding. PATTISON PROJECTILE.— This shot has projections cast upon it to fit the rounded grooves of the gun. The windage is stopped by a simple leather band, which is driven upon the conical base of the shot by the powder-gas. PAUL. — The name given to a Sepoy's tent. It is of a different pattern to the European soldier's tents being much smaller and lighter. PAULDRONS. — In ancient armor, reinforcing metal plates covering the shoulders. PAULIN. — A kind of tarpatdin. It is made of thick, unpainted canvas, and forms part of the equipment for each carriage of a field-battery of ar- tillery. They are of four sizes, viz ; — Alagazine, large ; Magazine, small ; Camel paulins ; Cart paul- ins. Large piiuliiu are used on the floors of labora- tory tents. Small magmine pmilins are used in cov- ering powder barrels and live shells in the batteries. Camel pauliii.i, being of small size, are frequently very convenient, ami are used for the .same purposes as small magazine paulins. Cart paulins are used with tilts for artificers' carts. With the exception of the camel and cart paulins, which are made of coarse country canvas, all others are made of vitry. PAVADE.— A term formerly applied to a short dagger in Scotland. iPAVAVA.— A conveyance drawn by a Imffalo, and employed in the Philippine Islands. The draw- ing sliows the manner of its construction and use. The shafts, framework, and body, are of bamboo ; the collar and nose-band of the buffalo of chair cane, ami the roof of the paudauus leaves. This arrange^ FAVESIEB. 493 PAY. nicMl furiiislicM II hint for iiiiiUiri); Inivi'fM itiore coni- furtublc. L'liliuppily, tin: liaTiiljurj, iKlmimlily suited to thr rnnstrurtinn of litters and strctohers, is not iivalliihlc in lliis and iimiiy iiIImt countries. PAVESIER. An ancient militia who lurried the (piinii.^) shield. Also written I'dvechfur. PAVILION. ^1. IiiHeruldry.acoverinitin the form of a tent, investini; the iinnories of Kings. 2. A tent raised on posts; a Hag, colors, ensign, or ban- ner. PA VISE. — A large shield covering the wliole bod}', having an inward curve, managed by a Pavisier, Pay of Offl)XT» who witli itscreened, an ardier. Also written I'limU, I'liraji, I'dvrne ariri I'arrKHe. PAVI8IER8 Warriors armed willi the puvise. In ancient (iKi.unters, bodies of I'amnierH v:irv formed on each side; and, doubtless, these strong defenses were opposed, as much as possible, to the hristije ardiers. ,\lso written I'livint/Tii. PAV0I8. -A small cuirass first worn by infantry soldiers aliout 7f)0 u. c. It consisted of plates of metal sewi'il i.n to woven stuffs or skins. Hea J'iivi,e. PAVOIS D'ASSAUT.— A German shield of the fif. teenlh century, 44 inches by 73 inches, composed of wood covered over with leather. It was al.so constructed in various shapes and sizes. PAVOISIENNE. - A small hand shield of the mid- dle of the fiiiirlcenlh century. It was one foot and one ((uarlir nf an inch in diameter. PAVON.- .\n ancient military flag shaped like a right-angled triangle. PAY.— The stipend or salary allowed for each in- dividual serving in the army. The following is a table of the monthly pay allowed in the United States Army; — in Active Service. GRADE. General Lieutcnant-Geueral Maj or-General Brigad icr-Ge neral Colonel Lieutenant-Colonel Major Captain, mounted Captain, not mounted Regimental Adjutant Regimental (Quartermaster First Lieutenant, mounted First Lieutenant, not mounted Second Lieutenant, mounted Second Lieutenant, not mounted..., Chaplain PAY OF OBADE. Yearly. ifl3,500 00 11,000 00 7,500 00 5,500 00 3,500 00 3,000 00 2,-500 00 2,000 00 1,800 00 1,800 00 1,800 00 1,600 00 1,500 00 1..500 90 1,400 00 1,500 00 Monthly. .«!l,125 00 910 67 625 00 458 33 391 67 250 00 308 33 166 67 150 00 150 00 150 00 133 33 135 00 125 00 116 67 125 00 MONTHLY PAT. After 5 years' service. 10 per et. t320 83 275 00 229 17 183 33 165 00 165 00 165 00 146 67 137 50 137 50 128 33 137 50 After 10 years' service. 20 per ct. f350 00 300 00 250 00 200 00 180 00 180 00 180 00 ICO 00 1.50 00 150 00 140 00 150 00 After I After 15 years' 20 years' service, i service. 30 per ct. 40 per ct *375 00 32.5 00 270 83 316 67 195 00 19.5 00 195 00 173 33 162 .50 162 50 151 67 162 50 $375 00 333 33 291 67 2:^3 33 210 00 210 00 210 00 18G 67 175 00 175 00 163 33 175 00 Pay of Officers and Cadets at the Military Academy. Grade. Superintendent Commandant of Cadets. Adjutant Quartermaster and Commissary of the Battalion of Cadets Treasurer Surgeon Assistant Surgeon Professor, of more than ten years' service at the Academy Professor, of less than ten years' service Assistant Professor Senior Assistant Instructor of Tactics Assistant Instructor of Tactics, commanding a Com- pany of Cadets Acting Assistant Professor Acting Assistant Instructor of Tactics Instructors of Ordnance and Science of Gunnerj- and of Practical Engineering Sword Master Cadet Grade or assimilated pay. Pay of Colonel. Pay of Lieutenant-Colonel. Pay of Regimental Adjutant. Pay of his grade in the Army. do. do. do. Pay of Colonel. Paj- of Licutcnant-Colouel. Pay of Captain, mounted. .do. .do. Pay of his grade in the Army. do. Pay of Major. $540 per annum. PAT. 494 PAT. pcaasa 2 ;3 o o o o a ■— • » X X X !— - '" O -T P ?= P o 2 :3 13 c-2 C- ■^ -D re 5 = ^5 ~ i. f 3 '■•'-^ z'o a o "* "^ ^ S "^ 5 = =5 5 g -> S c= O re tt ;a rs I O o B -1 ^> fs B B c 35 J^ M r;C y^ao>.5!Hg;^>T) ?3 8 2^3??='' B "^ o K I B ^ ^ n ^1 SsTS.^?:? " 3 3-. I I CD fD tt nii : 2 "^ ."^ '-^ ' "^^ W ■; ^ K K B C<-- tI5 .^ 2,r= — - -1 X ^ W IX - J ~" X X ' fT _ < >^ _ M „- B E3 2 "^ P .S"" =S B ^" p c=^ -;/i B H B^ SC3 TO . TO P >>-► ? p ET -1 H gs B r* rr. ^ ;^ &•—.!=: =:; to'oS o •T BT= 3 p.; O- J." < s ?; p p Hfff I Kto 3 O C TO ^ P 35 2 ? < S P o • - ,i p -• t?i£. 5 e p £ v; TO c e I— ITO P sT p J 5 C:^ w CO .'^ TO t?3 ><: ►-< M » t" > » » TO M *3 ^ ^ M O > M t< M n Z n M z !? H y g n w o p B I " o S) P- B-P TO qq B I T 2 3 CO >— I t/j H S TO P Ci W CO bO to to CO -^ en to QO s^ 2 » ^ B TO «» P • • m ( *- lO to cc to lO M- ^ ^ Cn -J CJl c m TO P GO g *. »3 to M ^s to ^ to s en -^ c;t 00 <l B 1— ' TO P 2 71 w «5 »;>^ m p B- cr 1^ ts *s u ^^ » fS S h-^ TO ^ CO en ^OI )-k 00 o B « P £ ^ SI W t f H w TO P P" PAY ACCOUNTS. 495 PAYNIZINO. Thp Ocncnil of thr Army has bcfn rctirprl, with- out iiiiy rcdiii'tinn in liiM current piiy anil allowanocH. The Miaxiiniiiii [)ay cif a ('(iloiicl is liy law .'{<4,r)(K) jht niiniiMi ; lii'iicc full 41) piT cent, cannot aecnic. 'Phe niaxiniiini [lay of a Licutenant-( 'ulnnel is liy Iaw.'5i4.0ll0 jiiT aiiimin ; liiiicc full 40 ])cr cent, cannot accrui>. An Aiil-(le-('ainp to a Major-deneral is allowed .'Ji2U0 per year in addition to the pay of his rank, not to he included in conipulinj; the service increase. An Aid-de-C'anip to a ]{rii;adier-General is allowerl .tlAO per year in addition to the pay of his rank, not to i)e incltidi'd in computing the service inen'ase. An Actin'i; Cmninissary of Sul)sistence is allowed ftlDO piT year in addition to the pay of his rank, not to he included in coinputini; the service increase. Assist- uiit Surf^eons are entitli'd to pay of Captain after live years' service. Retired ofllcers receive 75 per cent, of pay (salary and increase) of their rank. A retired Chaplain receives three-fourths of the i)ay ("salary and also increase) of his rank (Captain not inount- cdj. Tlie ollicer havin;; charije of the jiuhlic build- ings and grounds (Washington) has, while so serv- ing, the rank, pay, and emolunients of a Colonel. The Aides-de-(;anip and Military Secretary to the Lieutenant-General, selected by him from the Army, have, while so serving, the rank and pay of hieii- tenant-C'olonel. The i)rincipal assistant in tlie Ord- nance IJureau of the War Department receives a com- pensation, including pay and emohuiienls, not ex- ceeding that of a Major of Ordnance. Only one Vet- erinary Surgeon, at #75 per month, is allowed each of the cavalry regiments, from the Kirst to the Sixth Regiment, inclusive ; two, one at $100 and one at $75 per month are allowed each of the Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth Regintents ; the senior in date of appointment entitled to the higher grade. The Teacher of Music.w ho shall be leader of band at Military Academy, receives $00 per month. The clothing account Is settled Jinie 30 and December 31 of each year. Balances founil due United States are charged soldier on muster-rolls of tliose dates. Ual- ances due soldier are carried forward on company books credited to his current clothing account ; any balance remaining due him at discharge is credited on final statements. Enlisted men of Signal Corps have the pav of Engineer soldiers of a similar grade. PAY ACCOUNTS.— The Paymaster's vouchers for payments of salary made to officers and in final settle- ments with discharged soldiers. The form of the account used by officers is shown on page 496. PAY BILLS — In the British Service, accounts re- gularly tendered by Captains of troops or companies of the money required by them for the effectives of such troops or company. PAY DEPARTMENT. —That department of a govern- ment which takes charge of all matters relating to the pay of the army. In the United States Armj', the Pay Department consists, at present, of one Pay- master-General, with the rank of Brigadier-General : two Assistant Paymaster-Generals, with the rank of Colonel of Cavalry ; two Deputy Paymaster-Generals, with the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel of Cavalry ; and fortj--eight Paymasters, with the rank of Major of Cavalry. An Act of Congress, making appropria- tions for the support of the Army for the year end- ing June 30. 1884, providts that vacancies that may hereafter occur in the Pay Corps of the Army in the grades of Lieutenant-Colonel and Major, by reason of death, resignation, dismissal, or retirement, shall not be tilled by original appointment until the Pay Corps shall, by such vacancies, be reduced to forty Paymasters, and the number of the Pay Corps shall tlien be established at forty and no more. PAYMASTER.- An otlicer appointed in the army for the purpose of keeping its pay accounts, and the disbursing of moneys in payment of troops. In tlie United States Service, it is the duty of Paymasters to pay all the regular and other troops ; and to insure punctuality and responsibilitj', correct reports must be made to the Paymaster-General once in every two months, showing the disposition of the funds pre- viously transmitted, with accurate estimates for tlie next payment of such regimi'Uts, garrisons, or lie- partmenls, as may he assigned to each. When vol- unteers or militia are calleil into service, the I^resi- dent may assign to any officer of the army the duty of Paymaster. Paymasters are required to give bondB. In the BritiBh Service, Military Paymasters arc eith(tr "Control" or '•Regimental." Of the latter, who constituti- by far the more numerous class, there is one to every brigade fjf artillery, regiment of cavalry, and ballalion of infantry. The I'aymas- ter holds no other commission, but the appointment is nearly always conferred upon some person who has previously held a combatant rank in the arm)-. The finictions of Paymast(;r comprise issuing and ac- counting for the pay of officers and men, and having charge generally of all the finances of the corps. ]n discipline, the Paymaster is responsible to the Officer Commanding the Regiment; but in all money mat- ters he looks for orilers to the War Office alone. He cciinmences with a pay of 12s. 6d. a day, with the relative rank of Captain ; and after 20 years' service attains the pay of £1, 2s. Od. a day and relative rank as Major. Regimenlal Paymasters were first ap- pointed durin"; the French war. Control Paymasters liav<' financial charge in the military districts or sub-districts. They form a separate Department under the Surveyor General of the Ordnance, com- prising Paymasters, Deputy Paymasters, and Assist- ant Paymasters. PAYMASTER-GENERAL.— The Paymaster-General, in conformity with tiie laws and regulations, is charged with all necessary instructions to his sub- ordinates in reference to the supply and distribution of fimds for the payment of the Army, and all other things pertaining to the financial duties of his De- partment, and the accountability of its officers. In these and all other matters having relation specially to the internal administration of the Pay Depart- ment, the correspondence between the Paymaster- General and his subordinates, and between the Division and Department Chief Paymaster and their subordinates, is direct. In England the Paymaster- General is an officer of the British Jlinistry, but not of the Cabinet, charged with superintending the issue of all moneys voted by Parliament, lie is virtually the Paymaster of the public service, hav- ing no control over the sums issued, paying merely on the order of the Department concerned and re- ceives A'2,000 a year as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. He is always either a Peer or a member of the House of Commons, and changes with the Ministrj'. Of late years the office has been held in conjunction with that of Vice-President of the Board of Trade. The Paymaster-General is assisted by a Deputy and a staff of clerks, the annual cost of the whole department amounting to about £25,000. The first notice of this office is in the early part of the reign of Charles II., when the Paymaster-General was nothing more than the sole Paymaster of the Army. The present extensive duties of the office have been added by deurees during the 19th centurj'. PAYMASTER-SERGEANT. — A Json-commissioned Officer, in the British Army, whose duty it istoact as clerk to the Paymaster. He ranks with other stafT sergeants, and receives from Is. lid., to 2s. lid. a da3% according to his corps, with an increase of 6d. after 3 years' uninterrupted service as Paymaster- Sergeant. PAYNIZING. — A process for preserving and hard- ening wood, invented by a Mr. Payne. It consists in placing well-seasoned timber in an air-tight cham- ber, and then, when, by means of a powerful air- pump, the wood is deprived of its air. a solution of nulpliuret of cnlcium, or a sulphuret of barium is ad- mitted, and readily fills up the empty ves.sels all through the wood. The air-pump is again used, and the superfluous moisture is drawn out, and a solution PATHIZIHQ. 49G FATinZIHO. The United States, To.. .Dr. Salary. For over years' service. Station. From. the .. 18.. of the .. 18., To... of. On leave of absence from my station. Since Under S. O.. No , dated Headquarters Extended by S. O., No dated Headquarters., Returned to duty. Months.j^^^^P^"' I Amount. Deduct half pay for mouths days leave of absence. I certify on honor, that the amounts charged in the foregoing account are correct and just, as au. thorized by law, and that they are rightfully due me as stated ; and that I am not in arrears with the United States on any account whatsoever. I was last paid to , 18..., by Paymaster , and I acknowledge to have received this day of , 18..., of Paymaster , U. S. A., in full of this account, the sum of ^j;jj dollars, by check No , on (Signed in duplicate.) The following is the form of account to be used by discharged soldiers : T7ie United States, Discharged from.. To . Company U. S.,. Dr. For pay from 1st of , 188-. to of 188-, being months days, at dollars per month For retained pa}^ due For pay for traveling from the place of my discharge, to the place of my residence, miles, at twenty miles per day, equal to days, at dollars per month For deposits, Interest, For subsistence for traveling as above, days, at 30 cents per ration, or day .' For clothing due soldier Amount Deduct for Army Asylum -.. Due United States for clothing. Due United States for tobacco. , Balance., Dollars. Cents, Received of. . this date and amount. (Signed in duplicate.) , Paymaster, U. S. A., this day of , 188-, ■imidollars in full of the above account, by check No on PAY BOLL. 497 PEAEODY MAHTINI RIFLE. of Hiilplialc of iron ih injcftod; this arts rlifmicnlly upon till' siilpliiirct of hariiiiii or of calcium, and foniiH all tliroiii;!! Ilic wood cither the insoluble kiiI- |)liat(; of liariuriL riicavy spar) or of lime (iiypsiini;. Tlie adrliliciM of lliese mineral liialcrialH reniierH llie wool! very heavy, Iml il lie>-omeH also very durable, and almost in(:oml)ii>tilile. PAY-ROLL.- A roll or list of jx-rsons entitled to payment, with the sums which are to be paid on them. In the United States Army, at each regular muflter of the troops, one ordinary muster-roll and three Muster luid I'ay-rolls are-maile. The muster- roll is transmitted by the muslerini; ollicer to the Adjutant (leneral's Ollice, at \Vashini;ton, within three days after the muster. Two copies of the pay- roll arc for the I'aymaster, IIk^ other is kept with the company records. Muster, and Muster and Pay- rolls are made on the printed forms furnished from the Adjutant Oeneral's Ollice; and in making: the rolls special attention must be fjiven to the printed directions thereon. The caU'ulations on the Pay- rolls are made liy the Paymaster. They are tran- scribed by the C'ajitain on the copy retained with the (•ompany records, in order that an exact account of each soldier's pay may be kept. If it should be- come necessary to use manuscript forms, they slionld embrace all tlic data rei|uired to insure justice to the soldier, and guide the Paymaster in making I)ay- mcnl. Companies are designated on the Muster, and Muster and Pay-rolls by the names of their Captains, wliethcr present or absent. Soldiers in hospital, patients, and nurses, except stewards, are mustered on the rolls of their company, if it be present at the post. PEABODT-MARTINI KIFLE.— This rifle is a com- bination of the IVabody and Martini systems, the fornur covering the mechanism for closing the breech and extracting the' cartridge shell, after the riHe has been tired, ami the latter covering the device for ig- niting the cartridge. Tliis rifle was adopted by the EugliRli and Turkish Goveroments, after long and ex- haustive trials in competition with all the prominent breech-loading rifles of the world. It endured the test of actual experience in war during the contest between Russia and Turkey, and obtained the high- est reputation for solidity, accuracy, long range, and other desirable qualities of a military weapon. The official reports from the armies in the field, and the letters of army correspondents, unite in prai.se of the Turkish rifles. The parts composing the breech mechanism combine the greatest possible strength with simplicity of construction, and the system^ in its present perfection, is the result of long and carp, ful study to produce a rille meeting all the require- ments of military service. Its form is compact and graceful, and the symnu-try of its lines is nowhire in- fringed uiionby unscc'mly projr'ctions, which Ijesides being iilfeiisive to the eye, are ofti-n prr-judicial to the comfort of the soldiir on the march or in the perform- ance of its necessary mani|)ulalions. No movement of the barrel, or any other parts, except tlifise im- mediately connected with the lilock, is reouired in the performance of any of its operations. Tlie.se are I)erforMied in the simplest |iossible maimer, and with- out in the least infringing upon the strength and dur- ability of the ritle, whi<h is e(|ual, in these res|)ecls, to the bi'st inuz/le-loader. In the operation of load- ing, the whole mov<'menl of the block is made with- iu the breech-frame or receiver the end of the block- lever falling but a sliort distance from the slock. The block itself is a strong, substantial piece, and when in position for firing, is so firndy secured as to ensure its perfect safety, as has been repeatedly shown in the severe tests to which it has been sub- jected. The drawing shows the Pcabody-Marlini breech system. The imsition of the block, wlien it is drawn down for loading, is such as to form an inclined plane, sloping toward the breech of the barrel, and th(' groove in its upjier surface corresponding with the bore of the barrel, facilitates the entrance of the cartridge so that it slides easily into the chamber, without the necessityevcn of lookingto see that il is properly inserted. The adoption of the coil main- spring in place of the common gun-lock main-spring, is considered a great improvement, and this opinion is confirmed by the exjierience of the Knglish and Turkish troops who have been supplied with the Peabody-Martini rifles. It has been found that, in s<'veral instances, where the coil main-springs were broken, the defects were not noticed, and the springs compressed in the blocks worked as tnisal. Had such mishaps occcurred to the old gim-lock mainsprings, tlie arm would liavc been ren- dered useless. The accuracy and range of this rifle are very remarkable. The system of rifling used is that known in England as the Henry. There are seven grooves, of jx'culiarshape, with a sharp twist (one turn in twcntj- inches). After a long series of experiments, with different kinds of rifling, the English Arms Commission finally de- cided upon this system as giving the most satisfactorj- results, both with regard to accuracy and range. The manipulations for loading and firing are of the simplest kind : Throw down the block-lever with considerable force, press- ing with the thumb of the right hand : in- sert the cartridge ; and return the lever to its place, which raises the block to its pro- per position when the rifle is ready for fir- ing. After firing, throw down the block-lever with force, and the empty cartridge shell is tlirown out clear from the rille, leaving the chamber ready for the insertion of another cartridge. This extraction of the cartridge shell is^ effected by the action of an elbow lever, which throws it out with unerring ' certainty, the instant the block-lever is lowered. This elbow lever derives its power simply from the action of the block itself, and cannot become deranged, as its action is not dependent upon any spring and is of such strength as to prevent the possiliility of breakage or derangement by any service to which I it can be subjected. If it is desired to preserve the cartridge shell for reloading, throw down the block- lever witli a gentle movement, and it is drawn out into the groove of the block, from whence it can readily be taken by the person firing. I For" rapidity of firing, this rifle is believed to be PEACE ESTABLISHMENT. 498 PEBBLE POWDEE. equal, if not superior to any other single loader, and in continuous firing, to any repeater. It cannot be fired until the block is in its proper position, so that it is impossible for accidents from premature explo- .sion to occur. Tlie objection to the excessive recoil of this rifle, wliich has been raised in some quarters, has been obviated in the arms manufactured "by tlie Providence Tool Company, by the adoption of a dif- ferent form of ammunition. After the decision of the Eni^lisli Arms Commission in favor of the Pea- body-JIartini rifle, and its subsequent adoption as the standard national arm, the Imperial Ottoman Government contracted with the Providence Tool Company to manufacture 000,000. The productive capacity" of this Company's factories is 1000 rifles per day. In conclusion it may be said, that wherever the rifle has been introduced,its superior qualities of safety, strength, simplicity, easy manipulation, ac- curacy, and range, have been fully conceded. See Jlfartini-Henry Tiifie. PEACE ESTABLISHMENT.— The reduced nimiber of effective men of an army during peace time ; reg- iments are raised to tlieir full complement in war time, or, as it is termed, to a irai' entablhhment. In Great Britain tlie raising of tlie army from a peace to a war establishment is effected by calling out the reserve, the militia, enrolled pensioners, and voltm- leers : in continental armies, where the compulsory service is in force, by calling out the men on fur- lough and the reserves. PEAN. — One of the furs borne _^ . — -| in Heraldry, dilTering from Er- l *] mine only in the tinctures: the ground being sable, and the spots of gold. See Heraldry. PEA-OEE.— A form of compact brown iron ore (hydrated pero.x- ide of iron), consisting of rotmd. smooth grains, from the size of mustard-seed to that of small pease. Sometimes the grains are still smaller and flattish. This iron ore is very abun- dant in some places in France, and is smelted. PEA-EIFLE. — A rifle of small bore carrying a ball of tlie size of a pea. PEBBLE POWDEE. — Since tlie pellet powder was first l)rought into use, another description of large grain powder, called " pebble powder," has been in- troduced for service with guns of large caliber. This pebble powder is formed of large grains rang- ing from j,V of an inch to as much as 2" cubes ; and to manufacture this class of powder expeditiously and cheaj)ly, has brought forth another description of machine for forming the pebbles by cutting up previously compressed cake into cubes of the re- quired dimensions. This is done in the following manner, by a very simple self-acting machine : The cake as brought from the press-house is, to begin with, of the thickness of the required cubes, aud tliis cake the machine has to cut up— first, into long strips of the same widtli as the thickness of the cake; and, secondly, to cut tliese long strips transversely into cubes. This is accomplished in the machine by means of two pairs of rollers in the following man- ner : Tlie cake is fed into a liopper iila<'c<l imme- diately al)Ove the first pair of rollers, and, as these are provided witli knives upon their surfaces, they cut the cak(^ up into long strips. These strips fall upon an endless traveling band, wliich conveys and carries them forward to the second jiair of rollers, wliere they are cut transversely into culies. Tliey then drop into a spout, and are delivered into a revolving sifter covered with copper wire, wliicli conveys the perfect cubes into a number of wooden boxes contained in a small gun-melal Inick ; but the dust and small pieces fall lliroiigli the sifter into otlier boxes, and are taken back to the press-house and worked up again. The framing of this machine (like most of llie other machines used in tlu^ manu- facture of gunpowder;, is composed entirely of giin- Pean. metal, and has the requisite seatings cast upon it for the reception of the several brackets and pedestals which are also of gun-metal, as well as the cutting rollers, each pair being about 7" in diameter, with a number of equidistant" teeth or knives formed upon their surfaces, cut out of the solid metal. These rollers are securely fixed upon wrought-iron shafts, wliich receive their motion from a main driving shaft by means of spur gearing. The underside of the bearings of these roflers are planed and faced so as to slide in their respective brackets. One of each pair of bearings is fitted with a spring box controlled by a set-screw, by means of which tiie amount of re- sistance to the openiig of the rollers is adjusted. Blocks of hard wood are also fitted between each pair of bearings to act as stops, and thus determine the minimum" distance between the surface of the rollers, and an adjustable gun-metal scraper is fitted to each roller for removing the surplus powder from its surface. A skeleton carrying band, made of two leather belts fitted with ash cross-bars of a triangular section and at about 3" apart, is provided. These wooden cross-bars are rivetted with cojiper rivets to the leather belts aud to gun-metal strips upon their underside, these strips being of such a form as to serve the purpose of teeth for driving the band. This endless handworks upon two gun-metal drums; the one is driven by gearing from the main shaft, and the other is fitted in adjustable bearings, which can be tiglitcned by means of a screw so as to take up any slack in the band. These drums are made with flanges at each end, and have recesses formed on their liarrels to receive the gun-metal projections or strips upon tlie carrying band. A sliding table made of bard wood and provided with four gun- metal grooved wheels, which travel upon V rails, also made of gun-metal, is fitted to work underneath the carrying band, and travels at the same uniform rate of speed. The top surface of this table is covered witli leather, and made perfectly smootli ; a reciprocating motion is given to it by means of an endless chaiiQ made of slieet copper, upon one link of which a stud is fitted and works in a gun-metal block tliat slides in a bracket fixed upon the under- side of the table. A weighted gun-metai frame is also provided, and so ailjusted that the underside of it rests upon tlMvupper surface of the bars of the carr3'ing baud ; the ends of this frame are fitted witli gun-metal stay-rods, which project and work in slotted l)rackets connected to the machine ; the frame is by this means free to rise if the pressure from any causi^ exceeds that of the weight by whicli it is liekl down. The underside of this frame is planed and nia(l(^ perfectly smooth, so as to allow the carrying liand to work freely between the underside and the upperside of the sliding table. The feeding web — which is made of strong Dowlas canvas — is driven by a gun-metal drum 7" in dia- meter, thefollowing roller lieing Ij" in diameter ; the top surface of this web is supported by a board to prevent its sagging, and. in addilioii, the bearings wherein the shaft of the driving drum revolves are lirovided with slides made adjustable by means of screw L'caring. A revolving sifter is fitted under- neath the second pair of rollers, and works in bear- PECTORAL. 499 PEEP SIGHT. inRS boltorl fn tho iinrlcrsidc of thr- fruiniiif; of the iiuii'liinc ; tliis siflcr is coMiixiHcd of a number of ;;iin-iiioliil (IruiiiH kcyc(l upon ii Hliiift, and its peri- pliery is covered with copper wire, th(! wliole lieinj; enclosed in a wooden caniiit;. Underneath the sifter three Hlidinu; boxes are placed toreceiveihe liustand small pieces which pass through the copper wire cov- ering of the screen. At tlie end of the sifter a K""- inetal Iravelini; truck or carriatre is providi'd, with four wheels adajited to run on V ;;un-iiietal rails lix- ed ui)oii till' lloor ; this carriajje is capable of holding five wooden boxes, each about 18" srpiare, into which the finished |)ebblesfall from the end of the sifter as it slowly revolves. A wooden hopper of sufllcient viridth to cover the entire lenfrth of Ihi' rollers is pro- vided for feedinu; the press-cake into the first pair, and asheet cojiper casini? islitleil lo the second pair, with a s])oul at thebottom for conveyingthe pebbles into tlict sifter. All exposed i>arts, such as the ends of wrought-iron shafts, etc., are covered with recess- ed gun-metal washers securely fixed to them, and any others which may \h'. miuU: of- iron or steel are covered with leather. All hearings are fitted with suitable lubricators, and channels or pipes for con- venienlly and efficiently lubricating thi^ rubbing sur- faces ; and, as it is of the utmost im|)ortance that no oil or grease be permitted to come in contact with the i)()wdcr, the bearings of the cutting rollers are fitted with sheet copper casings made in halves and hinged, so that the upper part can be lifted and the bearings cleaned. The copper casings at the geared end of the rollers are sufiiciently large to contain the wheels and act as drip-pans. The pebbles from this machine, as well as the pellets from the hy- draulic apparatus are generally taken to the glazing barrels, the treatment they there receive glazes them and also rounds off the sliarp corners, thereby ren- dering them much better adapted for transport, stor- age etc. St^e Gunpowder. PECTORAL. — Among the Romans, the poorer sol- diers, who were rated under 1,000 drachnuis. Instead of the li-trica, or brigantine (a leathern coat of mail) they wore a peetorM, or breast-plate of brass, about twelve fingers square. Some modern troops, such as the Cuirassiers, etc., wear pectorals for the direct purposes of defense and bodily protection ; but, in general, small ornamental plates with clasps have been substituted. PECULATION. — A term used in a military sense for embezzling public moneys, stores, arms, or ammu- nition. See Articles of iVar, 00. PEDDOWK. — A tree whicli grows in the forests of Burmah and tlie Andaman Islands. It resembles mahogany in its color. It was formerly much used by the Burmese for gun carriages, and was intro- duced, some years back, into the gun carriage man- ufactory at Madras. A cubic foot of unseasoned wood weighs from 65 to 70 lbs. PEDESTALS. — Props made of wood, and used for the support of stool beds of carriages when the ele- vating screws are removed. PEDIEUX. — Coverings for the feet, used in the four- teenth century, and made of thin plates of steel or iron. FEBOUETER. — An instrument for measuring walk- ing distances. A common form consists of a string with a piece of lead at the end, and knotted at dis- tances of 44 feet apart. It is to be used in connec- tion with a seconds watch. Forty-four feet bears the same relation to an English statute mile (=5280 feet) that i minute does to an hour; that is, the knots are -^o of a mile apart. Drop the lead and allow the string to pass through the hand, the num- ber of knots slipping through the hand indicate the rate of walking in the number of miles per liour. Small Pedometers, to be worn on the person, con sist of a train of wheels in a small case, and a dial which registers the number of impulses derived from a cord attached to the foot. In this form it becomes a register of the number of paten. In Payne's En- glish pedometer there is a npcaiing watch, which shows seconds I7iinutes and liours ; and also the day of the month. See OilomiUr. PEDRO. An early gun of large caliber, employed f(jr throwing stone balls. FEEL. 1. A small tower or fort. The term /V«i. /('<7/«' is applied lo any small fortified place. 3. To strip: to iilundcr; to pillage. PEEL-TOWERS.— The name given to the towers erected on the Scottish borders for defense. They are square, with turrets at the angles, and the door is sometimes at a height from the ground. The lower story is usually vaulted, ami formed a stal)lc for horses, cattle, etc. For an account of these old towers, now mostly in ruin, see JlixUjry <}f Peeblen- K/iiri , by W. Chambers, 1804. PEE-MAH.— A tree which grows in India and Bur- mah, and is made use of in the Madras gun carriage factory for c(?rtain portions of gun carriages. It is a light and tough wood. There are two descriptions of it, red and white colored; the former is the tou^^'her of the two. A cubic foot of unseasoned wood weighs from .50 to 53 lbs. PEEP-SIGHT.— The basis of the sights used at Creed- moor in the most approved long-range rifles is the old-fashioned "peep and globe." To insure accur- ate shooting, the rear sight is made with a vernier scale operated by a screw, by which an alteration of one-hundreth of an inch, and even of half that amount, can be made in the elevation, the result being exact, and recorded in figures— the only way in which a correct record of elevations can be kept. On the Remington rifle the divisions on the vernier are termed degrees and minutes, and on the Sharps decimals of an inch. On the former each minute is gV of an inch, and corresponds >ipon a 34-inch barrel with lyV of an inch, at each 100 yards. On the Sharps rifle each'subdivision is , J ^ of an inch, corres- pondins theoretically to li inch to every one hun- dred yards. As no inan can hold or sight a rifle at 1 000 yards within ten inches, the elevation on both rifles is practically the same, or about two inches to each 100 yards for each subdivision on the vernier that is, twenty inches at 1.000 yards. The elevations on the Metford and Rigby rifles is about the same. The subdivisions upon the wind-gauge of both the PEETEES BULLET. 500 PELLET POWDEH. Remington and Sharps rifles are about ^^ of an inch, and are equivalent in practice to two inches at each 100 j'ards, or 20 inclies at 1,000 yards, on the 34-inch barrel. As the errors incident to aiming at long range will, in most cases, increase the effect of any alteration in the sights, care should be taken to keep well within the elevations which would he malhemaf icall}' correct. It must also be recollected that the veloc- ity of a bullet decreases with the distance, and as it loses its velocity it becomes more likely to be afl'ecte<i by currents of air. Consequently the effect of any change upon the sights is greater proportionately at long than at short range. The effect of wind, etc., increases in a still greater proportion, that which would require an alteration of 2 points in the eleva- tion at 800 yards, requiring 2i at 900, and 3 at 1,000. The best riflemen prefer to have the peep-hole of the rear sight of considerable size, as affording more light, and consequently allowing a better sight to be taken. In the Metford rear sight, discs having dif- ferent sized apertures may be used: and it has been stated by some of the Irish team of 1874 that they have, in foggy or dark weather, done good shooting b}' removing the disc entirely, so as to leave an aper- ture of nearly a quarter of an inch. Every rifleman should, therefore, have an extra disc, with a large aperture, to use in dusky weather. The vernier sight is usually placed upon the small of the stock. General Dakin and others who shoot on tlieir backs, have it placed upon the heel of the butt. When the latter is the case, it makes the distance between the two sights nearly a third greater than when placed upon the small of the stock, and consequently a pro- portionately greater allowance both for elevation and wind will be required. PEETEHS BULLET.— A form of bullet first used with the rifled mu.sket by the Bel- gian infantry. It has a considerable cavity of a peculiar form. The metal of the projectile is left about the axis and projects downward, filling about one half of the forward half of the cavity. In consequence of the cavity, this bullet is somewhat lighter than the bullet for the rifle a tige. PEISHWA.— The title of the per- sonage thiril in rank and authority at the Court of the Mahratta Mahara- jahs of Satara, there being only the Priti-nidhi (Delegate of Rajah), be- tween him and his Sovereign. How- ever, during the weak reigns of Sev- ajee's descendants, the Minister in- creased in importance, till, about the commencement of the 18th century, Balajee Biswanath, the then Peisli- wa, and a man of distinguished ad- ministrative ability and diplomatic talents, made himself virtually the Ruler of the :\Iahrattas. PELICAN. In Heraldry, the pelican is drawn with wings imiorsed, and wound- ing her breast with her beak. When represented in her nest feeding her young with her blood, she is called a pelican ill hrr pitti/. pellet'.— 1. An old word for shot or bullet. 2. In Kng- lish Heraldry, a roundle sable. (kjrecu has the saiiic significa- tion. PELLET POWDER. -In con- sequence of the very great increase in the size of modern rifled cannon, and the large charges of gunpfivvder which have now to be used (from 300 lbs. to.lOO lbs. being fre(|uently em- ployed), it HO(m became evident that some modiH(-a- tion would have to be made in the description of gunpowder used. It was found that the ordinary large-grain powder hitherto adopted for small char- ges was not suitable for guns of large caliber, owing to the very rapid generation of the gases, and the inordinate strain to which the gun was thereby sub- jected. E.xtensive experiments were therefore car- ried out, with a view to determine the kind of pow- der that would give to the projectile a high initial velocity, and at the same time reduce the strain upon the gun to a minimum. This resulted in the adoption of a very large-grain powder called "pellet powder," which upon trial was found to give very remarkable results, as high an initial velocity as 1,600 per second being obtained, with a low pressure in the interior of the gun of not more than from 21 to 23 tons per square inch. These pellets are formed by compressing the powder meal into metal molds; various shapes and sizes were tried, some were tlat discs, others prisms, but the shape which found most favor at first was the cylindrical pellet, 3-4" in diameter by ^" in length, and weighing 95 grains. Originally, these were made by hand, but it waa soon apparent, that, if required in large quantities, machinery would have to be devised for their pro- duction; consequently a large machine of somewhat novel description, and capable of making 400 pellets at one time, was designed by Dr. John Anderson, and manufactured at Birmingham. This machine is worked entirely by means of hydraulic power de- rived from an accumidator, which affords a pressure equal to 1,000 lbs. per square inch. This machine — which has given most excellent re- sults — consists of two hydraulic cylinders, with a division in the center of each — thus, in reality, mak- ing four cylinders ; in the two upper ones a plain cyl- indrical ram is fitted, which merely rises and falls as the water is admitted underneath the ram or is with- Pelican, in IIcTiildry. drawn. These rams are used, first, for compressing the pellets, and second, for ejecting them, when fin- ished, out of the molil plates. The two lower di- visions are fitted with pislim rams, securely atlached to crossheads, whieli are united together, and also connected to two other crossheads above the cylin- ders by means of str(mg wrouglit-iron side rods, pro- vided with collars working between lugs cast upon tlie hydraulic presses, and so adjusted as to allow oul}' a certain limited travel either u]) or down. The upper crossheads can be adjusted to their exact ])0- sitionsby lucaiis of screwed threads and lock nuts cm the ujijier end of the side rods. The use of the lower piston rams is to close the upper <ip<'niiigs in the mold |)lates by bringing the top ])imches — which are connected to Ihe upper crossheads by a gun-metal plate, down upon the mold ])liite, and thus confine the meal powder in the molds. The upper rams are now slowly raised, and these, acting upon the lower punches, compress the powder in the mold PELTA. 501 PENSABT. plate. After tlio projier (lensity IiiiH lieen Mcriiretl, till! iictioii of the lower rains is reversed, liy wliieli nieiins 1)1)1 h tlii' lower iiiiil upper crosslx'iiils rer'cive an upwaril niolioii, tlierel)y rai^iiii,' the upper punehi'H oli'iir out of the way, so as lo ai|ii)itr)f ll)i' eoin pressed pellets beiiii; ejecliMl out of the Diolil |)liili\ and this is (lone by f^ivinfj a fiirtlier upward motion to the two plain eylindrieal rams. This will he belter uniler- stood by referrinir to the enlarged view, where tin; mold plate whi<'h is double- n)ay be siipposi'd to contain a charj;)' of meal powder in tlie mold ready for eonipressini; into a pellet. The lower i)art of the niolil is closed by the lower slei'l punch tliat fits the mold very accurately, while the point of thi' punch rests upon the top surface of the plain cylindrical mm in the upper part of the hydraulic cylinder. The upper ])unch is also of steel, but much larger in di- ameter Ihun the lower one. To compress the powiler in the mold, and form a pellet, reipiires four distinct movemi'Uts of the n)a- oliine. First, the upper punch is brouj,dit down un- til it rests upon the mold ])lati' and closes the mold ; this is elTected by a downwiird motion of the two lower piston rams, to which the ui)per and lower orosshcads are connected together with the upper punches. Secondly, the lower punches arc raised by the two upper plain rams, and the powder is com- pressed in the niolil between the two punches. Third- ly, when the pellet is sufficiently compressed, the up- per punches are raised from off the mold plate, this being done by reversing the action of the two lower piston rams until the upper crosshead and punches are at a sufficient height to admit of the compressed pellet being ejected out of the mold plate. This fourth and last operation of ejecting the pellet is ef- fected by allowing the upper plain rams to rise still further, and thus force the finished pellet out of the mold by means of the lower steel punches. All these operations are simply and readily performed by means of a very ingenious arrangement of valves, the at- tendant having nothing to do beyond placing a han- dle in the several positions indicated on a dial. These valves are so constructed that the water power is admitted to the two presses simultaneously, whilst, by a self-acting arrangement, the pressure is shut off by the press itself when it has traveled the required distance. A relief valve is also provided, to allow any e.xce-;sive pressure to escape should it accumu- late from any cause, and this prevents damage hap- pening either to the pipes or other parts of the appa- ratus. It will thus be seen that a machine of this descrip- tion is capable of easily making pellets of slraost any shape, such as cyhndrical. hexagonal, prismatic, or —what is possibly the best oif all — spherical, by merely altering the form of the mold and punches. In the machine referred to. there are (on a revolv- ing table, the framework of which is made of gun- metal) four mold plates fitted ; each contains 200 holes, but as there are only two hydraulic presses to the machine, it follows that only two sets, or 400 molds, are under compression at one time, so that when we number these mold plates consecutively, then Nos. 1 and 3 will be under pressure whilst No. 2 and 4 are being filled. When the powder in Nos. 1 and 3 mold plate is sufficiently compressed, and the pellets formed therein have been removed, the entire table is turned one-fourth of the way round by means of a handle and toothed pinion working into correHpr)nding teeth provided round the jjeri- phery of thi' gun inelal table, the revolving of which is n)uch assisted by eighl small antifri<-tion rollers li.xeil to Ihi' c;isl-iron fr.imi- of thi' machine ; thesf! rolli-rs support l\w gun.n)etal table as it revolves upon its own center. Nos. 2 and 4 mold plates, which have been wholly filled with meal i)oW]ler, are now brought under the crossheads of the machine and ari' in position for the powder contained there, in to be con)pr(ssed into pellets, whilst Nos. 1 and ;j in turn take their [)laces lo be refilled; the r)pera- tion, therefore, of pressing and refilling are continu- ous, and the n)aihine is capable of producing a large (pjimtity of i)ibble powder per day, and with very little waste. Sec Ounpi/trdtr. PELTA.— A small, light shield, sometimes attribut- ed to the Anuizons, but used by numerous nations of antitpiity, such as the inhabitants of Thrace, Spain, and ^Mauritania, before its general introduction among the (Irceks. It consisted mainly of a frami- of wood or wicker-work covered with skin or leather, without the metallic rim, and of a great variety of shapes. It was sometimes round, as in the special case of the (Jclra, sometimes elliptical, but most commonly crescent-shaped orlunated. Soldiers bear- ing tbi' pilta were called I'eltaxtat. PELTAST.ffi;.— Grecian soldiers who were interme- diate between the '^>//Wrt/ and the Pmlii. The pel- tast corresponded to our elite corps of infantry, se- lected for enterprises recjuiring both celerity and a certain firmness. The formation of the peltasta; and psiloi was analogous to that of the oplitai, the number of files being 8, instead of IC as in the last. See Oplitai. PEMMICAK.— This was originally a North Ameri- can Indian preparation only, but it was introduced into the Jiritish Navy victualing-yards, in order to supply the arctic expeditions with an easily pre- served food, containing the largest amount of nutri- ment in the smallest space. As made by the Indians, it consists of the lean portions of venison dried by the sun or wind, aud then pounded into a paste, and tightly pressed into cakes ; sometimes a few fruits of (i)nelani-hier ovata are added, to improve the flavor. It will keep for a very long time uninjured. That made for the arctic voyagers was chiefly of beef. In making pemmican, it is necessary to remove the fat completely. PENAXSERVITUDE.— A pimishment awarded by the Articles of War for certain crimes committed by soldiers. PENALTY. — A sum of money declared by some statute or contract to be payable by one who com- mits an offense or breach of contract. It is con- sidered as a kind of punishment, and constituting indirectly a motive to the party to avoid the com- mission of the act which induces such a consequence. Many contracts executed between parties and gov- ernment contain a clause that one or other of them who fails to perform his part of the contract will in- cur a penalty, i.e., will be liable to pay a fixed sum of money to the other party. In such cases, a dis. tinction is drawn between a liquidated and un- liquidated penalty ; and whether it is of the one kind or the other, depends on the language used in the contract. If it is a liquidated penalty, then, when the breach of contract is committed, the party in default must pay that precise sum, neither more nor less ; but if it is unliquidated, then he is not to pay the whole sum, but merely such part of it as corresponds to the amount of injury or damage done, and of which proportion a jury is the sole judge in an action of damages. PENCEL. — A sniall flag orstreamer which was for- merly carried at the top of a lance. Also called I'eniuincel. PENDANT- PENNANT.— 1. In Heraldry, a part hansins from the label, resembling the drops in the Doric frieze. 2. A narrow llag of great length, taper- ing to a point, and usually carried at the head of the PENDULUM. 502 PENDULUM. principal mast in a royal ship, to show that she is in commission. In the British Navy the Pendants are borne of three colors — red, white, or blue — according fo the color to which the Admiral commanding the fleet pertains. On shore. Pendants are frequently em- ployed at rifle ranges to indicate the strength and direction of the wind. PENDULUM. — In its widest scientific sense, a pen- dulum is a body of any form or material which, under the action of some force, vibrates about a position of stable equilibrium. In its more usual applica- tion, however, this term is restricted, in conformity with its etymology, to bodies suspended from a point, or oscillating about an a.\is, under the action of gravity. The simple pendulum consists (in theory) of a heavy point or particle, suspended by a flexible string without weight, and therefore constrained to move as if it were always on the inner surface of a smooth spherical bowl. If such a pendulum be drawn aside into a slightly inclined position, and al- lowed to fall back, it evidently will oscillate from side to side of its position of equilibrium, the motion being confined to a vertical plane. If, instead of being allowed to fall back, it be projected horizon- tally in a direction perpendicular to that in which gravity tends to move it, the bob will revolve about its lowest position; and there is a particular ve- locity with which, if it be projected, it describes a circle about that point, and is then called a conical pendulum. If the bob of the simple pendulum be slightly dis- placed in any manner, it describes an ellipse about its lowest position as center. This ellipse may, of course, become a straight line or a circle. The bob does not accurately describe the same curve in suc- cessive revolution's; in fact, the elliplie orbit just mentioned rotates in its own plane about its center, in the same direction as the bob moves, with an an- gular velotMty nearly proportioned to tlie area of the ellipse. This is an interesting case of prugrennidii (if Ike apse, which can be watched by anv one who will attacli a small bullet to a line threall ; or, still licller, altacb to the lower end <if a loiif,' string, fixe<l to tlie ceiling, a funnel full of fine .sand or ink which is allowed to escape from a small orifice. By this process, a more or less ))crnuuient trace of the motion of the pi-iiduluni is recorded, by wliich the ellijrtic form of the path and tlie phenomena of progression are well shown. The very simple arrangemeni of appanitus, shown in the drawing, will be found con- venient for the demonstration of the princi])les of pendulums, as also the laws of impact, both in elastic and non-elastic bodies. It is readily seen that there should be no progres- sion if the pendulum could be made to vibrate sim- ply in a straight line, as then the area of its elliptic or- bit vanishes.lt is, however. found tobe almost impossi- ble in practice to render the path absolutely straight: so that there always is from this cause a slight rate of change in the position of the line of oscillation. But as the direction of this change depends on the direc- tion of rotation in the ellipse, it is as likely to effect the motion in one way as in the opposite, and is thus easily separable from the very curious result obtain- ed by Poucault, that on account of the earth's rota- tion, the plane of vibration of the pendulum appears P-i turn in the same direction as the sun, that is, in the opposite direction to the earth's rotation about its axis. To illustrate this now well-known case, con- sider for a moment a simple pendulum vibrating at the pole of the earth. Here, if the pendulum vibrates in a straight Ime, the direction of that line remains absolutel}' fixed in space, while the earth turns round below it once in 24 hours. To a spectator on the earth, it appears, of course, as if the plane of motion of the pendulum were turning once round in 24 hours, but in the opposite direction. To find the a- mount of the corresponding phenomenon in any oth- er latitude, all that is required is to know the rate of the earth's rotation about the vertical in that latitude. This is easy, for velocities of rotation are resolved and compounded by the same process as forces, hence the rate at which the earth rotates about the vertical in latitude A is less than that of rotation about the polar axis in the ratio of sin. X to 1. Hence the time of the apparent rotation of the plane of the pendu- 24 hours lum's motion is . At the pole, this is simply sin S. 24 hours; at the equator, it is infinitely great, or there is no elTect of this kind; in the latitude of Edinburgh (56® 57' 23.2"), it is 28 hr. 37 m. 48 seconds. We have not yet alluded to the obvious fact, that a simple pendulum, such as we have described above, exists in theory only, since we cannot procure either a single heavy particle, or a perfectly light and flex- ible string. But it is easily shown, although the process cannot be given here, that a rigid body of any form whatever vibrates about an axis under the action of gravity, according to the same law as the hypothetical simple pendulum. The length of the equivalent simple pendulum depends upon what is called the radius of gyration of the pendulous body. Its property is simply this, that if the whole mass of the body were collected at a point whose distance from the axis is the radius of gyration, the moment of Inertia of this heavy point (about the axis) would be the same as that of the complex body The square of the radius of gyration of a body about any axis, is greater than the square of the radius of gyration about a parallel axis through the center of gravity, by the square of the distance between those lines. Now, the length of the simple pendulum equivalent to a body oscillating about any axis ip directly as the square of the radius of gyration, and inversely as the distance of the center of gravity from the axis. Hence, if k be the radius of gyration of a body about au axis through the center of gravity, 'yk^-\-h'^ is that about a parallel axis whose distance from the first is h ; and the length, I, of k°--\-h-^ the ei|uivalent simjile pendulum is 1= . Thia h expression becomes infinitely great if A be very large, and also if h be very small (that is a body vibrates very slowly about an axis either far from, or near to, its center of gravity). It must therefore have a mininuuu value. By solving the equation aliove as a quadratic in A, we find that I camiot bo less than %k, which is, therefore, the length of the PENDnLTTK HAUSSE. 503 PENETRATION OF PROJECTILES. Bimplo i)rn<liiluiri cnrrcspoiHliiij; to Ihc qiiickcHl vi- bratioiiH wliu'li tlicr hculy <ini rxcciitc about any axis parallel to IIk; j;iv<Ti mii'. An llu; Iciif^tli of a rod or liar <if any material (1(n peiids on its tcinperatiirc!, a eloek with an ordinary peiidiiliiiii goes faster in cold, and slower in hot, weather. Various contrivances have been devise<l for the purpose of diniinisliini;, if not destroyinK, these elTccts. The most perfr-ct in theory, tlioufjli perhaps imt the most available in pralice, is that of Sir I). Urevvsler, founiled uiion the experimental discovery of Mitscherlich, that some crystals irpaiid by heat in one direct ion, while c.imtrnrting in the perpendicular one; and therefore that a roil iiuiy be out out of the crystal in such a direction as not to alt<!r in lenjith by any rhange of lemperalure. In the method of correction usually emjilriyed, and call- ed rompciiMiliiiii, advantaj;!? is taken of the fact that (lilferent substances have diirerent coellleients of linear dilatation; so thai if the bob of the pendulum be so suspended as to be raised by the expansion of one substance, and depressed by the expansion of another, the lengths of the effeotive port ions of these substances may bt^ so adjusted that tlie raising and depression, takini; place simultaneously, may leave the position of the bol) unafTecled. There are two common methods of elTectini; this, dillcring a little in construction, but ultimately depending on the same principle. Of these, the mercurial pendulum is the more easily described. The rod and frame- work are of steel. Inside the framework is placed a cylindrical glass jar, nearly full of mercury, which can be raised or depressed by turnini; a nut. Hy increase of temperature, the steel poriiim is length- ened by an amount proportional to its length, its coefficient of linear dilatation, and the change of temperature, conjointly — and thus the jar of mercury is removed from the axis of suspension. But neglect- ing the expansion of the glass, which is very small, the mercury rises in the jar by an amount propor- tional to its bulk, its coefficient of cubical dilatation, and the change of temperature, conjointly. Now, by increasing or diminishing the quantity of mer- cury, it is obvious that we may so adjust the instru- ment that till — I of tl A/ le equivalent sim- ple pendulum shall be unaltered by the change of temperature, whatever be its amount, so long as it is not great enough to sensibly change the coellicients of dilatation of the two metals. The screw has nothing to do with the cnmpiii.idtion, its use is to adjust the length of the pendulum so that it shall vibrate in one second. See Bob, G^un-pendulum, and Pliimnwt. PENDULUM-HAUSSE. — A contrivance used to point field-pieces, and at the same time to obviate ^ the error which arises when the wheels of the carriage stand on uneven ground. It consists of a scale and slidtr. The scale is made of sheet-brass ; at the low- er end is a brass bulb filled with lead. The slider is of thin brass, and is retained in any desired position on the scale by means of a brass set screw with a milled head. The scale is passed through a .slit in a piece of steel, with which it is connected by a brass screw, forming a pivot on which the scale can vibrate laterally ; this slit is made long enough to allow the scale to take a vertical position in any ordinary inequality of the ground on which the wheels of the carriage are required to stand; the ends of this pie(;e of steel form two journals by means of which the scale is supported on tiie seat attached to the piece, and is at liberty to vibrate in the direction of the axis of the piece. The neat for suspending the pendulum-hausse upon the piece is screwed to the base of the breech in such a manner that the centers of the two jour;iul nolclieK shall be at adistancc from the axis equal to the great- , est exterior radius of the base of tlie breech. The height of the front-sight being eipial to the dispart I of the piece, a line from the top of the muz/le-sight to the zero, which is the pivot of the scale, is par- allel to the axis of tin- pii'cc ; hence the vertical plane of sight passing through th(- center linr- of the scale and th<- top of the mu/./.ht-sighl, will \>c |>arallel to the axis in any position of the piece ; the scale will therefore always indicate correctly the angle which ; the line of sight makes with the axis. The hausse, i the seat, and the muzzle-sight, vary, in their con- I struction and arrangement, with the piet^' for which they are inteniled. The graduations on the scale are the tangents of ea(;h (piarler-dcgree to a radius ecpial to the distance between the nuizzlc-sight and the center of the journal-notches, which are in all cases one inch in rear of the highest point of the base of the bn'c'ch. PENETRATION OF PROJECTILES.— The most com- mon substances encountered by projectiles arc ar- ranged in the following series, in the order of their resistance to penetration: ai'r, waUr, nanif, trnnd, lend, copper, ■wr<>it(jlit-irun,ni>fl ute^il, aint-iron, cldlUd- iroii, hardened Kteel, etc. All other substances may be arranged between these, or in continuation of the series. -4ir opposes the motion of a projectile by its inertia, elastic force, and the pressure due to its weight. The projectile compresses the air in its front and disperses it laterally, while the rear of the projectile is relieved by its motion of the normal pressure of the air. A small amount of resistance is also met with in the shape of friction. In the case of water these resistances are increased by the great- er density and weight of this substance, and there is also a slight additional resistance due to the co- hesion among the particles. Sand, being a solid, or at least made up of solid elements, presents the ad- ditional resistance of "crushing-strength." It can- not be penetrated at a high velocity witliout crushing some of the grains, and the higher the velocity the greater the amount of work expended in this manner. This resistance to crushing implies a continuation of the elastic force beyond the elastic limits, and in- volves indirectly tensile strength, since a solid in be- ing crushed must enlarge laterally and finally yield to a strain of tension. In penetrating icmd, lead, or any of the other materials, "ten.sile strength" forms the chief element of the resistance, while inertia and friction become of minor importance. The office of elasticity in all these cases is to trans- mit the effect of the projectile from those parlicle-s first acted upon to those more remote, and thus call- ing into play their inertia or tensile strength, as the ca'se may be; and were it not for this properly, the statical resistance of a plate of any material to per- foration would be entirely independent of the thick- ness of the plate; a thick plate would offer no greater resistance than a thin one, since each layer or unit of thickness would be perforated without receiving any assistance from its neighbors. The irurk of pen- etration would then vary directly with the distance penetrated, or the thickness of the plate : elasticity, however, has its maximum point of usefulness in resisting penetration, and beyond this it becomes a great disadvantage. While increasing the number of fibers or elementary portions of the material brok- en at once, thereby increasing the statical resistance, it diminishes the "time during which this resistance opposes the motion of the projectile in like ratio: and the amount of motion destroyed or generated in- creases with, the time as well as with the force or re- sistance. For this reason hardened steel and chill- ed iron are less efficient in stopping projectiles than soft iron, although tliev offer a much greater statical resistance to penetration. There are many reasons for believino- that a general formula for the jx-netra- tion of projectiles in all materials may be deduced, when experiments have been sufficiently extended. PENETRATIVE EFFECT. 504 PEHETRATITE EFFECT. in wliich the constants will simply require changing to suit any particular case under consideration. That the penetration of an elongated projectile is influenced by the form of its head has been shown by experiment, many different forms of head having been tried. The flat head has been strongly advo- cated, because it is asserted to be a better form for punching than any of the pointed heads, and be- cause it is also asserted that it will bite into an iron plate at such an oblique angle as would cause a point- ed head to merely glance. But the truth of these assertions lias not been generally admitted. The flat-headed projectile is objectionable both as regards accuracy and velocity, and it has also a tendency to upset or bulge at tlie head on impact, and this result is very marked. The pointed projectile is superior in accuracy and range, and does not upset on im- pact to any thing like the same extent. It is assert- ed that it cuts through an iron plate to a better ad- vantage, or rather tears through, bending back the plate. Another point in connection with the penetration of elongated projectiles is the effect of different forms of head upon the rotation of the projectile when the impact is oblique. If the axis of the projectile is tangent to the trajectory on impact, and at the same ter, sa that its axis becomes perpendicular, or nearly so, to the face of the plate, having then only the least thickness to penetrate. It is diihcult to obtain for comparison the results of practice with the flat and pointed headed projec- tiles of the same material fired at targets inclined to the line of the range; the former having been so little used, as its form is so objectionable, both as regards accuracy and velocity. On the whole, it may be said that in the case when the projectile ought to be capable of piercing the plate or target, there is little difference between the effect of a tiat head and a hemispherical head ; but when the target is beyond the power of tlie projectUe, the hemispherical head makes the deepest indent. The impact of a projectile, in addition to indent- ing or penetrating a target, produces more or less bending, tearing, and other damage at a distance from the point of impact ; which effects may be classed under the term " Concussion." The effect of concussion is transmitted from the point of impact in all directions, in the same manner as sound- waves, and increases with the elasticity of the ma- terial. Whatever tends to diminish the elasticity of the structure, as dividing it into many pieces, or using soft ductile material to receive the projectile, »ii;, ^\\\\ \^\^\ \N^-^-S^\\^\\ \' .V\ ^N . .^N, ^ NWW.kxW \^ \^^ time normal to the target, there will be no tendency to rotate about any axis parallel with the plane of the target. In the drawing, if we suppose a projectile to arrive at A, under tliese conditions it will undoubt- edly penetrate the plate directly. But let one arrive at D or E, and there will be a tendency to rotate, and this tendency will depend upon the form of the projectile as well as upon the angle between the tra- jectory and its axis. It is often asserted,however, that the advantage in the latter case will be in favor of the flat-headed projectile, since the moment of the rotating-force will be the variable resistance of the plate multiplied by the lever arm Dd, for the pointed projectile, and the same multiplied by a much shorter lever arm, Ee, incase of the flat-lieaded projectile, and this may be negative; or in other words, there may be a ten- dency to rotate towards the normal, which would be a decided advantage. This would take place when the line of the trajectory passed within the base of the shot. In the third case, represented at B and C, a projectile is moving with its axis tangent to the trajectory, but oblique to the target; here there is also a tendency for the flat-headed projectile to ro- tate toward the normal, but it is questionable whether such rotation would be advantageous. The pointed projectile would have a less tendency to such rota- tion. On the other hand, the respective motions of a flat and pointed headed projectile on oblique impact are explained as follows : It is asserted that the flat- lieaded ])rojcctile, on striking, cuts out a portion of the face (if the plate, which it carries along in front, thus increasing the thickness to be penetrated; and. remaining nearly ])arallel to its original direction, it lias to jiiiss through tlie jilate obliquely. While, if the projectile has a pointed lieail, the [mint eiuers at first more deeply into the plate than tlie Hat head, and the center of gravity moving forward, the pro- jectile turns around more readily than with the lat- will diminish the effect of concussion. This effect is expended in two ways — First, in giving motion to the structure or in developing inertia; and, Seajiid, in overcoming the tenacity of the material, either in bending or tearing those portions first acted upon from those more remote. Both of these compo- nents increase with the whole amount of work ex- pended by the projectile, other conditions being equal. See. Impact of Projectiles &nd Prujectiles. PENETRATIVE EFFECT.— Generally speaking, the penetrative effect depends on the shape and material of the projectile, on its energy and diameter, and the direction with which it strikes the target. It is quite impossible to accurately determine the coefficients of resistance for the different materials of projectiles and plates; but practically the amount of penetra- tion, whether for iron or steel plates, or masonry, or earth, may be determined by experiment. Various empirical laws sufliiee to give approximate results; but they do not stand the test of any general appli- cation. In consequence of the varying qualities of resistance both in projectiles and targets, the varia- tion in shape of the projectile on impact, the possi- bility of the projectile breaking up, and the amount of heat developed on impact, strictly analytical in- vestigations cannot be made. If V is the velocity required for a projectile to pierce an armor-plate with right-angled impact, its energy per inch of cir- W V« cumference ( See Eiurgy)U . But if the 2g. n d. projectile strikes obliquely at an angle A, then, if it turns in on its point and perforiiti's wrmally, it is readily seen that the velocity for perforation must be V ,and consequently the energy per inch of cir- Sin A cumference for oblique perforation will be W V '2g7r d.sin'A FENNATED DAOOEB. 505 PENSIONS. that is the number of foot-tons pfr inrli of rirriini- fercncf to pcrfornli' iiu nrnior-pliit(: ol)li(iii<'ly i« found by dividinj^ tlic iiumiImt of foot-tons n-quired for perforation by rinlil-iiiinlcd iinpiiel bytlie H(|uiire of the 8in(' of the unfile of impact. If the proj<e- tile f;0C8Hlriiif(lit ihroiiKli tlie phile without turtiinfr in, the eneri^v per inch of eireuinference for obliijue perforation will be 2g 7Ti\. Sin A In this ease we would hiuc best results for flat-head- ed i)rojeeliles mid eoniiiariitively thin aruior-plates. 'I'he results of e.xpcrinu'nt show that the amount of peni-tration is directly |)r(]poilional to the produet of till' weif^lif of the projectile, mulliplied l)y its ve- locity raised to ]iowers that vary but lilllc from unity for the ditrereiil resistiiif;: Imdics. 'I'lie iiinelralion into nias.ses, such as earthen jiarapets and thick platee, is inversely proportional to the area of cro.ss- section of the projectile. From these deductions we p V obtain the expression W = in which W , called d- tlie penetrative effect, is taken as a measure of the projectile's power, p = weight of the projectile in pounds, V = velocity of impact in feet, d -^ diame- ter of shot in inches. Letting S = iienetrationof the 1 p V W sliol in inches, we have (1) S = ^ — , A A d= A being a coefficient, depending iipon the shape of the projectile and the nature of the resisting substance, to be determined by experiment. For the best (puU- ity of wrought-iron plates, subjected to the action of ogiva! projectiles of steel or chilled east-iron, the above formula may be used. For plates not exceed- ing 3i ipches in thickness A = 575, whence (2) S = . For plates of a greater thickness than 2i Indies 575 W (3) S = 1.5 inches. For plates not exceedmg 360 20 inches in thickness, this formula gives results closely appro.ximating those determined by experi- ment. The depth to which a projectile will bury it- self in a resisting body, which is too thick to bo per- forated, is less than the thickness of the obstacle that it will just pass through. For example, the shells of the 2.76 inch Italian field-gun, at l,Ot>0 yards range, pass through a brick wall 1.97 feet thick, but only penetrate 1.66 feet into a similar wall 3.94 feet thick. In speaking of the penetration Into masses of earth, wood, or masonry, the depth of penetra- tion is meant, and S In formula (i) gives the number of inches the projectile will bury Itself In a resisting body too thick to be perforated. The thickness of plate that the projectile can just pass through is generally taken as a measure of the power of guns against iron plates, and S in formulas (2) and (3) has this signification. The penetration of a projectile depends not only on Its velocity, but also upon the direction in which it strikes the object, the compo- nent of the velocity normal to the surface struck de- termining the penetration. In this case the cosine of tlie angle of Incidence should be Introduced. To find the penetrating power of a projectile, at any point of Its flight, "into armor-plates, the em- pirical formula of Major Noble, of the Royal Artillery, is used • i in which, A = penetration in feet; r ^ velocity on impact. In feet per seconil ; W = weight of shot, in pounds ; r = ratio of diameter to circumference of circle. 3.141.59: Ji —- radius of shot, in feet; g = force of gravity. 32.16 pounds; * = a co-etflc'ient determined by experiment, depending on the nature of the wrought-iron in the plate, ami the nature and form of the head of tlie shot. For a spherieul pro. jeclile against an unbacked plate, CA; is 5,:)57,200. For an ogival lieadr-d projectile against a backed plate f*), is assumed to be 4.H'21,4H0. The plate in considered to be vertical, and the trajeit<iry to be in a plane perpenilieular to the plate. Should the shot strike the pliite oliliijuely, the value of (h) determined as above, must be niulti|)lied by the sine of the angle; of incidence. Foru given projectile anil a plate of known thickness, the work required to produce penetration win be found from the equation placed under the form, = 2rR kb* ; and the velocity 2k needed at impact, from the same equation solved with reference to (r). PENNATED DAGGER —An Italian main ganehe with three blades expanding by means of a spring when a button was pressed in the handle, and form- ing a guard of great leni;th and breadth, in which the adversary's sword might be cauirht and sna|)ped. PENNETIERE.— A pocket or small bug in which slingers carried stones and leaden balls. Also writ- ten Panrtiere. PENNON. — 1. Formerly a copper wing of along, light arrow {Vtrettm) substituted for a feather. 2. A small, pointed, or swallow-tailed flag, carried by the medincval knight on his lance.bearing his personal de- vice or badge, and sometimes richly fringed with gold. The device was so placed as to appear in its proper position when the weapon was laid for the charge. Permoncelle is a long streamer-like flag, the diminutive of the pennon. See Flags. PENSIONS. —In the United States pensions are most generously granted by Act of Congress In the many cases of persons who have seen active service in the Army or Navy, and who have been honorably discharged. They are also awarded to widows, orphans, or other persons dependent on those in- stanced above. The existing pension-list of the United States Includes those which have been grant- ed for account of services rendered In the A\ ar of 1812 ; the Mexican War, and the War of the Rebel- lion. For the laws governing the distribution of pensions, and their amounts, etc., see Eetmd Sta- tutes of the United State.i. In England, pensions are awarded for good service, for mere faithful ordlnarj- service, for wounds, and to representatives of deceased officers. Oood-xerriee Pensions are rewards to selected Officers in the Brit- ish Navy for distlngui.shed service. In 1873 they were as follows : 12 Admirals had £300 each. 25 Cap- tains £150, 1 General of Marines £300, 5 do. £200. 2 Colonels £150. and 5 Medical Officers £100: total £9.150. In 1875-76 the total was £7.500. The cor responding pension in the Arm}' is called a Reward for Distinguished Service. The Pensions for I^ong Service are awarded in the army to Non-commissioned Officers and Soldiers who have served 21 years in the infantry, or 24 years in the cavalrv, or earlier if disabled from further ser- PENSTOCK. 506 PEHCUSSION CAPS. vice, according to tlie wounds, less of Ixealth, and conduct of the pensioner. Tlie amount is fi.\ed by the Commissioners of Chelsea Hospital, and varies from lid. to 3s. 6d. a day, the lower rates being main- ly confined to Negro Pensioners from the West In- dia regiments. Pensioners are either In-Pensioners of Chelsea, or Kilmainham Hospitals, in which case they forego their proper pensions, andreceive board, lodging, and a small sum for tobacco-money, or Out- Pensioners residing where they please, and drawing their pensions from the Staff Officers of Pensioners, of whom there is one in every considerable town. These men can follow other pursuits, often do so with very great success, as their militarj' habits of regularity stand them in good stead in civil life. Pensions for Wounds are common to both services, and are limited to officers. The}' are awarded res- pectively by the Secretarj' of War and Lords of the Admiralty, for serious bodily injur)-, as the loss of a limb or eye, and vary according to the rank of the recipient and other circumstances. In cases of ser- ious injury, temporary pensions are sometimes grant- ed, or gratuities. The charge for Pensions for Wounds for 1875-76 was — army, 172 recipients, £16,- 453 ; navy, 85 recipients, £9,036 ; total; £25,479. In the case of Common Soldiers and Sailors, wounds may serve to hasten or augment the pension for ser- vice, but they have no distinctive Pension for Wounds. Widows of Commissioned and Warrant Officers in the army and navy receive pensions so long as they remain unmarried, provided they have Ijeen married severally twelve months when their husbands die, and that the latter were under 60 years of age (50 for Warrant officers) when they married tlie Claim- ants. Such pension is not granted if the widow be left in wealthy circumstances, and lies dormant dur- ing a second marriage, though it may be revived should she again become a widow. The amount of pension varies according to rank, and there are three distinct classes for each rank : 1st, Wlien the husband was killed in the battle, or died within six months of wounds received therein ; 2d, When he died from some cause distinctly falling within the sphere of liis duty, but not from wounds in action; 3d. When he died in the course of nature. In an elaborate opinion given by Mr. Attorney- General Cushing, published by the War Department in General Orders, No. 11 of 1855, he draws the con- clusion that " the phrase "line of duty' is an apt one, to donote that an act of duty performed must have relation of causation, mediate or immediate, to the wound, the casualty, the injury, or the disease pro- ducing disability of death." Every person (says Mr. Cushing) who enters the military service of the coun- try — officer, soldier, sailor, or marine — takes upon himself certain moral and legal engagements of duty wliich constitute his official or professional obliga- tions. While in the performance of those things which the law requires of him as military duty, he is in the line of his duty. But at the same time, though a soldier or sailor, he is not the less a man and a citi- zen, with private rights to e.xercise and duties to per- form ; ami while attending to these things he is not in the line of liis public duty. In addition to this, a Koldier or sailor, like any other man, has the physical faculty of doing many tilings which are in violation of duties either general or special; and in doing these things he is not acting in the line of his duty, .\round all those acts of tlie soldier or sailor which are offi- cial in their nature the pension laws draw a legisla- tive line, and then they say to tlie .so]di<'r or sailor : If, while performing acts which are within that line, you thereby incur disability or death, you or your widow or children, as the case may be, shall receive pension or allow:inc,<'; but not if the disaliility or death arise from acts performed outside of that line; that is, absolutely discniuiecled from, and wliolly in- dependent of, the ])rrformancc of duly. Was llie cause of disability or deatli u cause within the Hue of duty or outside of it? Wasthatcauseapperlaining to, dependent upim or otherwise necessarily and essential- ly connected with, duty within the line; or was it un- appertinent, independent, and not of necessary and essential connection ? That is the true test-criterion of the class of pension cases under consideration. PENSTOCK. — A machine composed of timber, which, by means of a movable board, enables the defenders of a fortress to allow such a rush of water from the batardeaux as to inundate and destroy the works which the enemy may have constructed in the ditch. PENTAGON.— In fortification, a figure bounded by five siiles, which form so many angles, capable of being fortified with an equal number of bastions, PENTATHLON.— The five exercises performed in the Grecian games, namely, leaping, running, quoit- ing. darting, and wrestling. PENTHOUSE.— 1. A shed hanging forward in a sloping direction from the main wall of a place. 3. A small house, made of boards united by hooks and staples, for protecting a gun and its carriages mount- ed en hfirbeUe from the weather. PEON. — In India, a term formerly given to a foot- soldier, but in these days it does not bear this signi- fication. Native servants or mes- sengers attached to the Govern- ment offices in India are designa- ted Peons, and wear a belt with a brass plate bearing the name of the office to distinguish them from private servants. PERCLOSE.— Pekclose or Demi- CiETER, in Heraldry, is the lower Berolosa. i,,,]f ,^f ^ g;arterwith the buckle. PEHCUSSION BULLETS.— Percussion bullets may be made by placing a small quantity of percussion powder, enclosed in a copper en- velope, in the point of an ordinary rifle-musket bullet, or by casting the bullet around a small iron tube, which is afterward filled with powder and surmounted with a common percussion-cap. The im- pact of the bullet against a sub- stance no harder than wood is found to readily ignite the percus- sion charge or cap, and produce an effective explosion. These projectiles can be used to blow up caissons and boxes containing ammu- nition at very long distances. See Bullet and Pro. jecUles. FEBCUSSION CAPS.— Small coppei cylinders. closed at one end, for conveniently holding the detonating powder which is exploded by the act of percussion in percussion-arms. Caps were not used with the earliest percussion-arms, which the Rev. Mr. For- syth, of Belhelvie, Aberdeenshire, patented in 1807 ; but they became tolerably general between 1820 and 1830, and were adopted for the army by 1840. With the adoption of breech-loading arms, the use of separate caps has been discontinued. Tlie cap now forms apart of the cartridge, and atone opera- tion is placed with it in the opened breech of the gun. The manufacture is extremely simple : A sheet of thin copper is stamped into pieces of ap- propriate shape, which are bent into the form of caps by stamping-apparatus closing round a man- dril, tlie whole behig done in one machine by two operations. The caps are then placed in a tray, nioulhs upward ; and tlie inside of each is touched with a strongly adiiesive varnish. Over this is dusted llie detonating powder, all tlie jiarticles which fail to adhere being lilown, dusted, or shaken out. A stamper once more is forced into the cap, to fix and compress the powder, and the operation is com- pleted. For muskets, the caps are charged with ei|ual parts of fulminating mercury and clilorate of potash; for ciiniion, witli ;i mixture coiiipiised of two parts of chlorate of potash, two parts of native PERCUSSION FUSE. ■y()7 PEEER. sulpliiirct iif anliiiiuii_v, and one of powdered {;liin» ; the last ingredient taking; no part in llie rliendeal action, and beiiii^ added merely to inerease llu^ frie- tion. See Ce.nter-Jiri' MctdUicciiae Carlridi/i^ and l.ol-k. PERCUSSION FUSE. — A percussion-fnse e.xplodeH Ljy the striking ii[ Home parliculur ])oint of a pro- jectile afjainnt an object, as in llie case of rillc- cannon projectiles. (Jne of the l)est and simplest forms of this kind of fuse is the ordinary percussion- cap i)laced on a cone ullixed to the iioint of llie pro- jectile. 'I'he piece to which the cone is attached may lie li.\ed <ir movalile; in eillier case, the appa- ratus should he covered with u safety-cap to prevent the percussion-cap from lakiniz; lire by Ihe dischar!i;e of the ))ii'ce. The drawing represents a fuse of Ihe percussion kind, in which b is a movalile cone-piece, bearinix a musket-cap (c); and a is the safety-cap which covers the fuse-hole. When the jirojectile is set in nuilioii, the cone-piece, or "plunder," by its inertia, presses against Ihe shoulders of Ihe fuse- hole; when ils motion is arrested, the inertia of the tone-piece cau.ses the percussion-cap to nni)i)i<;e against Ihe safety-cap, which ]iro- duces exi)losion. The explosion of the projectile may lie made to take |)lac(^ at any desired time, afler the explosion of the cap, by inlcrposini; strain, or meali'd pow- der, iietween the cap and burstinj; chari;e. Experience has shown that the ])lunger should be en- closed in a light metal case to pre- vent it from being fouled by the action of the powder; and to prevent premature ex- plosions, the cone-piece should be confined by a .screw or other device, to prevent it from moving nntil the projectile sirikcs ils object. The essential rcquiremenls of a good percussion- fuse are: that it should not be ignited by Ihe shock of discharge or on striking water ; that it shall be ignited on the impact of a shell against the object, and that it may not be liable to explode by hau(lling or during transport. The percussion-fuse has many points in its favor : it assures the bursting of the projectile ; it can be u.sed for all ranges, be they never so great ; it admits— a very important desiil- eratum iu war — of estimating distances, and of cor- rectiug the error of the estimation ; it augments the result of tiring by adding great moral to physical effect, due to the explosion of the projectile in the midst of the enemy. Its only inconvenience is its inability to cause tlie bursting of tlie projectile be- fore it has touclied the object, thus rendering the effects of tire dependent upon the nature and con- formation of the target at the point of impact. See Fuse. PERCUSSION LOCK.— A lock of a gun in which gunpowder is exploded b_v tire obtained from the percussion of fulminating powder. Before the in- vention of friction-tubes, percussion caps or wafers were used iu connection with a lock, which was screwed to the body of tield pieces, and to the lock- pieces in heavier ordnance. The percussion powder was placed in a thin layer between two circular pieces of cartridge-paper, united by glue, pressed firmly together, dried and varnished with any water- proof varnish forming the wafer. Tlie caps were made by forming the wafer at the bottom ot .i paper cap which tilted on the end of the lock hammer. PERCUSSION - POWDER. — Powder composed of such materials as to ignite by slight percussion; ful- minating powder. See Gunpmtider. PERCUSSION-PRIMERS. — The percussion-primer has a wafer or tlat-head attached to a qidll-barrel. The process usually observed iu selecting the ma- terial and manufacturing the primers is as follows : Each rpiill must be clarified ami furnish a barrel at least two and a half inches long. The barrel is to be round, free from Haws, pith, and brittleness oc- casioned by clarifying, or uny other defect wliicli may render it until for the purpose refpiired. It must not exceeil in diameter nineteen-hundredtlis of aji inch at any pari, nor lie li'hs than seveiiteen- hiiuilredlhs of an inch, wilhin one and one-liulf inches of the <ijd lliat is cut from the quill. The small end must not be broken or bruised. Cut the barrels of the quills (tlose from the feather, and in- sert them inio tlie socket of a wooden block made two inches deeji and two-tenths of un inch in diameter. A punch, having ten cutters radiating from the stem, is entered into each quill-barr<-l, ami driven down with a smart tap, so as to slit the upper end of the barrel into ten jirongs, and as far as the ujiper surface of the block permits. Turn back the prongs, so that they will lie on the surface of the block ; a circular punch isajiplied to each, and made by a blow to cut olT the prongs to its own diameter (O.M inch). Very stout paper, previously prepared by two coats of shellac-varnish (giimlac dissolved in alcohol), ispunclK'd witliholes 0.17inc'h indiameter, and so arranged as to correspon<l with the sockets of the wooden lilock. The (piill-barrcls are freed from jiith, the punched iiajicrlaid on the block, the holes corresponding and tint varnished side up, the (juill- barrels put Ihrough the paper into the sockets of the block, filled with grained powder, seven grains Troy, and pressed firmly (hiwn with their prongs flat fin Ihe varnished side of the sheet of stout paper. iirush the shellac-varnish over the sjiaces of paper between the heads of the (|uill-liarrels, and sjiread a sheet of good writing-paper, slightly moistened with water, over the entire surface of the stout sheet and the prongs of the quills. Put the block and the sheets thus stuck together, with the ijuill prongs between them, into a jiress, applya force<if about thirly tons, and keep tliem long euough to set the prongs and make the sheets of paper adhere firmly. Kach (piill is separated from the card by means of a circular punch, v.hich cuts out a disc 0.62 inch in diameter, and of course includes the prongs enclosed between Ihem. A stellated disc to cover the head of the primer is punched out of linen-made paper of the finest and closest fabric. This disc has twelve points — diame- ter from exterior points, 1.25 inches, from interior 0.7 inch. Jletal jilafes are at hand with superfi<ial recesses about 0.(5.") inches in diameter. On each of these a stellated cover is placed, and four grains of fulminate deposited on it. This is composed of five part.s of fulminating mercury and one of mealed powder, both dry. Place the head of the ]irimer on the charge of fulminate, holding it Ijy the (piill- barrel and pressing it down firmly; brush good wiieat-paste on the points of the cover and on the under surface of the head, turn the points over, and unite them neatly and closely on the paper head. The primer is now made and only recjuires to be protected from moisture. For this purpose, shellac is dissolved in alcohol, so as to be thin enough to be laid on with a brush. This is of a lirownish yellow; a portiou is prepared with lamp- black. Coat over the the quill-barrel with shellac, then the under side of the wafer with the black shellac-varnish. Then shellac the upper surface of the wafer. Tip the end of the quill-barrel with black varnish, and apply a second coat of uncolored shel- lac thicklv about the jirimer. See Frietiun-primtr^. PERCUSSION WAFER.— The earliest percussion- primers iu use were made iu the form of wafers. The wafer was placed in the vent of the piece, the metal of the gun being cut away in such a manner as to form a recess at the exterior orifice of the vent, in w Inch the wafer was deposited, and exposed to the direct action of the hammer. PERDU. — A word adopted from the French, signi- fying to lie tJat and closely in wait. It likewise means employed on desperate purposes ; accustomed to desperate enterprises. PERER. — .\n old form of gun. used mostly on ships, for throwing stone-shot. PEKFORATED DISC GUNPOWDER. 508 PERMANENT FORTIFICATION. PERFORATED DISC GUNPOWDER— Compressed gunpowder, perforated with a eertaia number of holes. From the excessive pressure given to the discs, the powder burns slowly ; it has "been, and is still used for discharging rifled ordnance by some foreign artilleries. In the British artillery it is not used. See Gunpoicder. PERJURY. — The crime committed by one who, ■when giving evidence on oath as a witness in a Court of Justice, or before some constituted authority of the same kind, gives evidence which he knows to be false. But in order to make the giving of the false evidence liable to criminal punishment^ it must have been not only false to the knowledge of the witness, but the matter must have been material to tlie issue raised. If the falsehood occurred as to some trifling or immaterial fact, no crime is committed. More- over, it is necessarj-, in proving the crime, that at least two persons should be able to testif_y to the falsehood of the matter, so that there might be a majority of oaths on the matter — there being then two oaths to one. But this rule is satisfied though both witnesses do not testify to one point. The perjury must also have taken place before some Court or Tribunal which had power to administer the oath. Though in some Courts aflirmations are allowed instead of oaths, yet the punishment of false affirmation is made precisely tlie same as for false swearing. The punishment for perjury was, before the Conquest, sometimes death or cutting out the tongue; but, latterly, it was confined to fiue and im- prisonment, and at present the latter is the only punishment, with the addition of hard labor. The crime of subornation of perjurj' — ;'. e., the persuad- ing or procuring a person to give false evidence, is also punishable as a distinct offense. PERKERNUCKA.— An Indian term for Petty Offi- cers. PERMANENT ANGLE.— It is always important that the gunner should be able to aim directl}' at tlie ob- ject, so as to reduce the persunul eqnatiim to a mini- mum. But in consequence of the deviation due to the rifling, there is always a deflection from the line of sight. To avoid this, the rear sight is set at a per- manent angle of deflection, so that, no matter how much it is raised, the line of sight will always pass through the object. The formula for determining the angle for each range is deflection tan A = X cosec. elevation. range Let b c represent a perpendicular rear sight, and/ the front sight of the gun; then bft represents the angl? e is changed, the product of the three variables d in the expression - cosec e is always very nearly con- r slant. A is always small and never exceeds about 38. It varies for different ordnance, and is practically found by firing a scries of rounds at different ordin- ary elevation to find the corresponding mean ranges and drifts : the value of tan A, from the above for- mula, for each elevation is then calculated, and the mean o'f all the values of A thus found is called the permanent angle cf drift. By this means one adjust- ment of the scale is sufficient instead of two, and the deflection leaf is only used for occasional fine adjust- ment and for accidental circumstances, sucli as cross wind or difference of level of wheels. With howit- zers, however, the var^-ing charges prevent the use of this plan, and no permanent angle of drift can be found for them, -which will do under all circum- stances ; their tangent scales are therefore exactly perpendicular to the axes of the piece and of the trunnions, and they are provided with long deflection bars. PERMANENT FORTIFICATION.— Permanant fortifi- cations are designed to secure the possession of those poir^ts that are of importance to the safety of the country, and also those that will or may have an im- portant influence on the operations of a defensive or an offensive war, in which the country may be en- gaged. To secure them, they must be made so strong that to gain possession of them, an enemy would have to resort to the tedious, laborious, and costly operations of a siege or blockade. "Whatever diver- sity of opinion may be found amongst engineers and writers on permanent fortification, as to the best mode of arranging the elements of these defenses to attain this end, most of them agree on certain gener- al conditions as necessary. These conditions, thus generall}' admitted, may be enunciated as follows : 1st. They should be of sutS- cient strength to resist with success all the ordinary means resorted to by an assailant in an open assault. 2d. Have secure and easy means of commimication for the movement of the troops, both within the de- fenses and to the exterior. 3d. Be so planned that every point exterior to the defenses within cannon range shall be thoroughly swept by their fire. 4th. Be provided with suitable shelters to protect the troops, the armament, and the magazines of provis- ions and munitions of war, required for their de- fense, against the destructive measures of the assail- ant of every description. 5th. And, finally, be pro- vided with all such accessory defensive means as the line or sight, the gun being laid on the target, t, at the angle of elevation, b f r = e. Suppose .i to be the point where the shot falls, then < s measured at right angles to the line of sight, represents the deflection of the shot. Join ■•< f, produce it to a. draw i a at right angles to h t, and join a c; now a is the point at which the head of the rear sight should be placed in order to compensate for the deflection t s ; and a e b = A is the angle of deflection required. Let the range/< cciual r, and the deflectionta equals. Now, in the similar triangles, ab st d hf~ tf" r but, ab — be tan A, and If = he cosec «, d be, tan A d .'. - = ; tan A = - cosec. e. r be. cosec e r It is found practically that for ordinary service angles of (•l('v;ili(iii, tljc values of the ranges and lateral deviations vary in such a way that when the f natural feattires of the position itself may afford, to enable the garrison to dispute with energy the occu- pancy by the assailant of everj' point both within and exterior to the defenses. The defensive branch of the militarj- engineer's art consists in a knowledge of the means which are employed to fulfil the above conditions, and of their suitable adaptation to the natural features of the positions he may be called up- on lo fortify. The most simjile mode of fortifying a position in a permanent manner consists in inclosing it with a rampart surrounded by a jmrapet, with a ditch the Hc;irp of which, when dry, is reveltcd with nuisonry, and so covered by anearllieu mask that it cannot be breached except by batteries placed on the border of the countcr.scrap. The general form of the parapet and ditch to fulfil l\\e fr.it of the general condiliona given aliove will be better nn<lerstood by an e.\ain- iiialioii of the ]irofilc which is a section m.ade by a vcrlical ]iliim' pcrpciidicuJar to (he gentral direction of the principal bounding line, in plan. The rain- PERMANENT FORTIFCATION. 509 PERMANENT FOETIFICATIOH. pari s( rvrs to give the troops and armament, whicli arc pliK rd 1)11 top of it anil bcliirifl tlu^ parapet, a cnniMiaiiiliim view iiviT llii' unjunrl Id be nuanlcd by the lire of tlie licfciiHcs : wbilsl at tlic sairic lime, it inereaues llie obstacle loan open assault, by tbe ad- ditional lieiglil it gives to the Hcarj). The top sur- el A, Rnmpart;C Parapet; C, Scarp wall; 11, Ditch O.CouDter- icarp ; K, t'overed-wuy ; F, Kiubaiikmcnt (if covt-red-way. u b, rampart slope ; b c, terrcplein ; c (I, haiiiini'tti' nlope; (i e, ban- quette tread; of, interior Hlojie; f. interior crest; f g, superior- Biope ; tj h, exterior nlope ; h i, benn ; k r, ulueiw. face of the rampart, b,c. in rear of the parapet, termed the terre-plcin, affords the troops and arma- ment a convenient position for circulation from point to point, where they are sheltered from the direct views of the assailants' tire. The rampart is usually terminated on the interior, a,b, by allowing the earth to assume its natural slope, or one somewhat less Bteep, and wliich is termed the rampart-slipe. In cases where this slope would take up too much of the ground within the defenses it is replaced by a wall, termed the parnde-wall, which rises from the level of the interior ground, termed the parade, to the interior line of the terre-plein. Inclined planes of earth, termed rampn, lead from the parade to the terre-plein. being placed against the rampart-slope, or the parade-wall. The ramps are, in some cases, ter- minated, inwardly, with the same slope as that of the rampart : in others, this slope is replaced by a wall, which rises to the top surface of the ramp, or a little above it. The essential properties of the par- apet are to afford cover to the troops and armament from the missiles of the enemj-, and every facility for sweeping his positions by the fire of its artillery and small-arms. Its form and dimensions are there- fore so adjusted as to fidfil these requirements. The exterior slope, gh, is the part of the parapet towards the enemy; it is usually made with the same slope that the earth when first thrown up naturally takes. The top of the parapet, fg, called the superii/r slope, is the line along which the assailed fire on the enemy. Its inclination is generallj" taken at \ that is, six base to one perpendicular. A greater slope than this would make tlie portion of the parapet about the interior crest, weaker, and less would not so well defend the ground directly in front. A greater slope would be attended by the inconvenience of firing, under a greater depression than ,!, which would necessitate using very deep embrasures for the guns or raising the platform so high to the rear that the men serving the guns would be exposed to tire. The interior slope, ef, sometimes called tlie breaat height, is tlie part against which the assailed naturally lean in the act of tiring. It has usually a slope of f , three perpendicular to one base. This is a result of experience, being the most convenient one for a soldier leaning forward to fire over the parapet. The baru/uHte is a sniull terrace on which the soldier stands wlien tiring; the top is called the trend, antX tin- inclined phuii- bv which ills ascended, the «/"/«. 'VUilrcwl is placeil four and one-half feet belo-.v the interior crest and is two feet wide. This width is increased when more than one rank are to use it or where other causes require it. The ili>pe of the banquette may have an inclination of \, or ),oi may be replaced by steps. The Urre.pleiii is placed geiicTally from light to twelve feet below the interior crest with a fall to the rear of one foot to drain off the surface-water. The thickness of the parapet, which is estimated by the horizontal distance between the interior and ex- terior crests, seldom exceeded twenty feet. Thi.s was the dimension usually given in European con- structions of important works. Experience showed that it was sutliciently great to afford protection against the fire of the heaviest guns then used. At present, the profile most generally adopted for this part of the parapet and rampart is one in which the portion of the toj) of the rampart, for a distance of 1.5 feet back from the interior crest, is held on a level of G} feet l)eIow the interior crest and serves as a general barbette for heavy guns; whilst the remain- ing portion of tln^ top surface is placed at a level of eight feet below the interior crest, and made wide eiiough to serve as a roadway in rear of the general barbette; the two levels being connected by a slope of j or \-, and the roadway receiving a slight pitch to the rear for drainage. In tbe later profile, the in- terior slope is j , and has a banquette tread of only 2 feet, with only a banquette slope of only }. Where guns are mounted either in barbette or embrasure, the interior slope isincreased to \, and the banquette and its .slope removed; the earth taken off by these modifications serving to form the merlons between the shallow embrasures cut into the parapets. When the foot of the exterior slope rests on the top of the scarp wall, a berm of two feet in breadth is left be- tween it and the edge of the coping. This breadth of berm is objectionable, as giving a good landing- place for a scaling party in an open assault; and it is proposed,' when the work is in danger of an attack, to reduce the berm to 18 inches or one foot, by in- creasing the thickness of the parapet 6 inches or one foot. Circumjacent totherampart a wide and deep ditch is made, which from its position and proximity to' the parapet, serves the double purpose of increasing the obstacle which the enemy must surmount before reaching the assailed, and of furnishing the earth to form the rampart, parapet and glacis. Its width and depth will depend mainly upon the amount of em- bankment required, and therefore will result from the calculation for equalizing tbe excavation and embankment which these demand. It has been the practice to make the main ditch when dry, from 20 to 30 yards wide, and from 30 to 45 yards when wet. These dimensions may be reduced to within 10 or 12 yards where the embankments are not great and cir- cumstances are unfavorable to an attempt at escalade. The bottom of the ditch, when dry, usually receives a slight slope from the foot of the scarp and counter- scarp to its center, where a small drain, termed a eu7ietie. is dug to receive the surface water and keep the ditch dry. In some cases, from motives of econ- omy, the difference of level between the cunette andthefootof the counterscarp wall is increased, thus giving a less height of wall. To give strength and durability, the faces of the ditch arc revetted with walls of masonry which sus- tain the pressure of the earth, protect them from the effects of the weather, and by their height and steepness present an additional obstacle to an open assault. The wall of Inasonry toward the rampart rises to the level of the foot of the exterior slope of the parapet, sustaining the pressure of the rampart and the parapet, and is called the searp trail or scarp revetment; the face of it towards the ditch, the scarp. PEHMANENT KANK. 510 PERPKNDICULAK FORTIFICATION. The line in which the face of the scarp wall if pro- longed would intersect the upper surface of the cop- ing is termed Uie magistral. Tliis is a very import- ant line in drawing the plans of permanent works, serving as the directing line to tix, both upon the drawing and upon the ground, in setting out tlie work, tlie dimensions and relative positions of all the bounding lines. The top portion of the coping, from the foot of the exterior slope outwards, is termed the Be>-m. The opposite face of the ditch is usually revetted in the same manner. It is called the coun- terscarp wall, and its face towards the ditch, the cimnUrscnrp. The cmnmand of the parapet over the exterior ground and any outworks of the defenses, its relief, or height above the bottom of the ditch, and its height above the top of the scarp wall, are all points which call for a careful consideration on the part of the engineer in any combination of these that he may be called upon to make. The fire over the parapet should thoroughly sweep all the ground within range, at least up to the glacis crest ; aud the more so as the closer the assailant's trenches ap- proach the work, the greater will be the plunge ob- tained upon them, and the more difficult it will be for the assailant to cover himself by his trenches. The parapet should command all outworks within range of its fire, otherwise, when seized by the as- sailant, these outworks would have a plunging fire upon the main work. The relief of the parapet of the fiimking parts of the work should be sucli that every point along the foot of the scarp wall shall be swept by its fire. This supposes also a certaiu correlation between the relief and the length of the lines flanked, so that this condition shall be satisfied ; a rela- tion that can always be easily found, either by cal- culation, or by geometrical construction. The width anil depth of tlie ditch also call for a careful consideration on the part of the etigineer. A deep aud narrow ditch offers the advantage of pre- senting more difficulty to the assailant in reaching the bottom of it, either in an open assault, or by a gallery in the attack by regular approaches, thus pro- longing the defense. It masks better the sally-ports from the enemy's fire by allowing them to be placed so low that the projectiles coming over the counter- scarp cannot reach them. In like manner by draw- ing in the crest of the glacis nearer to the scarp the latter will be better masked by it from the plunge of the distant fire of the assailant's batteries ; and can- not be breached so low down from his batteries placed along the glacis crest. On the other hand, when the ditch is narrow and deep it may be partly filled by breaching the scarp, and then blowing in the counterscarp so as by the united debris to form an easy roadway for an assaulting column to enter the work. A wide ditch, on the other hand. requires more labor to construct the trench across it by which the assailant can reach the foot of the breach under cover. This is a consideration of some importance in wet ditches, where tlie assailant is obliged to con- struct a dike upon which the parapet of his cover is placed. These considerations suggest that nothing like ab- solute rules can be laid down so as to give a routine character to the practice of this branch of the mili- tary art. The rules here given witli respect to the form and dimensions of the general profile of the en- ceinte are founded upon reasons growing out of the nature of llie (|ucstion, and as sucli bav(r served as guides to engineers in the iiractice of tlieir jirofes- sion. As they have stood tlie test of long experience, it is safe to follow tliem, whilst at the same tinier the engineer should not hesitate to vary from them wlieii satisfied, after careful examination, that the <'ase be- fore him re(inire8 it. Fortification, it must be re- membered, is like all other arts. It lias its canons, which are founded upon the nature of the (|iieslion and its rules of practice based ujioii these and upon experience. Aa the latter presents to the Engineer newfacts, his practice must be made to conform to them ; but the general principles of his art must ever remain the same, and be his invariable guide. See Viiunterscarp Wall, Firrtification, Frontier Defense, Interior Retrenchments, Irregular Sites, and /Scarp Wall. PERMANENT RANK.- A rank in the military ser- vice which does not cease witli any particular ser vice, or locality of circumstances; in opposition to local or temporary rank, PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS.— A combi- nation, in mathematics, is a selection of a number of objects from a given set of objects, without any re- gard to the order in which they are placed. The objects are called elements, and the combinations are divided into classes, according to the number of elements in each. Let the given elements be the four letters a, b. c, d; the binary combinations or se- lections of two are ab, or, ad, be, bd, ed — six in all; the combinations of three are abc, abd, acd, bed — four in all; while there is only one combination of four, namely, abed. Permutation, again, has reference to the order of arrangement ; thus, the two elements a and b may stand ab or ba, so that every combination of two gives two permutations; the three elements a, b, and c may stand abc, acb, bac, bca, cab, cba, one combina- tion of three thus affording six permutations. The combinations of any order with all their permutations are called the variations. Formulas are given in works of algebra for calculating the number of per- mutations or combinations in any given case. Suppose seven projectiles marked 1, 2, 3, to 7, and that two are to be drawn; if it is asked how many possible pairs of projectiles there are this is a question of the number of combinations of seven elements, tm> to- gether, which is found to be 21. If we want to know how many times the same seven persons could serve at a piece of artillery, with a different arrangement each time, this is to ask how many permutations seven objects admit of, and the formula gives 7x6x 5x4x3x8=5,040. The theory of probabilities is founded on the laws of combination. Thus, in the case of drawing two tickets out of seven, since there are 21 possible pairs, the chance or probability of drawing any particular pair is 1 in 21,or2\. In working out questions in "combina- tions," advantage is often taken of the fact that whatever number of elements be taken from a group to form a combination, the number left gives the same number of combinations; thus the number of combinations of 10 elements three together, is the same as that of 10 elements seten together, etc. PERPENDICULAR.— A straight line standing on an- other straight line is said to be perpendicular to that other when the angles it makes on both sides are equal. A line is said to be perpendicular to a plane when it is at right angles to any line in that plane meeting it. Planes are said to be perpendicular to each other when any line in the one plane perpendicular to their common line of intersection is also perpendicular to all lines meeting it in the other plane. The word "perpendicular," in common usage refers to a di- rection at right angles to the surface of still water, and is synonymous with vertical. PERPENDICULAR DIRECTION.— In the march of a line, the direction at right angles to the line which each man should take in a direct movement to the front. Without the strictest attention is paid to this essential principle in all movements, the greatest ir- regidarity, and ultimately the greatest confusion, must ensue. Perpendicular and parallel movements constitute, indeed, the whole .system of good march- ing. When several columns, divisions, or companies advance, the lines and directi;ins of marching must be strictly perjieiidicular and parallel to each oilier, otlierwise llie dislanci' will be lost, and the ultimate object (if fiirminn' a correct line must be defeated. PERPENDICULAR FORTIFICATION.- This system of fortification owes its origin to the Marquis do PERRIERE. 511 PEE80NAL 8EEVICE. Monliilcinlxrl, a (iislinjiuiMlicd Frfncli Ofiicrnl, who publiHiicd his work iipun llic subjcci in 1770. Viiii- bmi Imd, it was adiniltcd, rciicli-nci lljc art of attack Bui)(Tior to tliat of (lcfins<'. Mimliilc miIutI xtrovi' to reverse tliiH relation, and in his endeavorn, rejecterl onlirclv the lianlion sysleni of the older r-ni;ineers. Instead of the occasional bastions, with intervcniiif; curtains, Willi which I he_v surrounded their tncrinte, }iu broke the whole polyi^on into sali<'nl and re-entcr- inj; an;j;Ics, the latter lieinn ijenerally rii^ht an;;les. Before the connected reilans thus formed were coiin- ter-!;nards of low elevation anil ravelins, to which the a|)|iroa<hes were throutth cas<'nialed w;w«7j/r7'(?«. In the salient a .irle of eacji redan, he built a l>rick tower, 40 feet in dianieliT, twelve-sided, and four Stories high. The se<-ond aud third tiers were l)inlt for heavy gmis, and \\w upper loopholed for musket- ry. In the center of the lower was a circular reduH, intended as a last refuge for the garrison. Monta- lembert maintained that from these towers every possible api)roach could be commanded, which to a great extent is true; but it must be also remembered that the greater sjiacc a gun commands, by so much the more is it raised above the jilain, and rendered visible. These towers would have little chance against the rilled ordnance of the present day. Mon- talcmbert's system was violently attacked by tlie French engineers. hutCaruot subse((ucntly adopted it, with some modifications, and it enters largely into the modern (ierman defensive works. The system lias never, however, found favor with British engin- eers. PERRIERE.— The early bombards being very un- satisfactory, to economize the ai tion of the powder, and give a more accurate direction to the projectile. the interior space, or bore, was made nearly cylin- drical, from 4 to M calibers long; it was terminated at the bottom by a very narrow and deep chamber. the object of which was to increase the effect of the powder, by retarding the escape of the gas before it acted on the projectile. These cannon were further improved by making the bores perfectly cylindrical; and were called perrhren, from the fact "that they fired stone balls. They were princiiially employed to breach stone walls, and for this purpose were tired horizontally. See Bmnhtrd. PERSIAN "WHEEL.— A contrivance for raising water from a well or stream, and used in the coun- try from which it takes its name. It is also exten- sively used in Egypt, where it is known as the ,««- guteh, in nothern India, in the Punjab, in Sinde, and also in Spain as the ntiria. It consists of a wheel, about 4 feet in diameter, revolving on a wooden axle, which is flush with the mouth of the well, and is .set in motion by means of a driving wheel turned by a pair of bullocks. The wheel has on its rim pins" of wood inserted into it, at sliort distances apart, to which buckets or jars are suspended by means of an endless band or double rope; the buckets descend on one side into the well and ascend on the other tilled with water, and discharge themselves into a reser- voir at, the mouth of the well. The Persian wlieel, used for raising water from a stream instead of a well, has the buckets somewhat differently arranged for lifting the water, but the principle is the same. PERSONAl SALUTES.— Civil and diplomatic au- thorities receive salutes as follows : The President of the United States receives a salute, to be given both on his arrival at and final departure from a military post or station provided with artillery, of 21 guns. The Vice President of the United States, 19 guns. Members of the Cabinet, the Chief Justice^ the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the Gov. (•mors within their respective Stales or Territories, 17 guns. A Commitli'f! of Congress ottlcially visiting a mililary post or station, 17 guns. The Sovereign or Chief jMagislrate of a foreign Stale, to be given both on arrival at and final depiirlnnr from a mili- tary post or station provided with artillery, 21 guns. Memliers of the Itoyal Family, i. /-., the Heir-apjiar- ent and Consort of the reignuig Sovereign of a for- eign Slate, 21 guns. The Viceroy, Governor-Gener- al, or Governors of Provinces belonging to foreign Slates, 17 guns. Ambassadors Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary 17 guns. Envoys Extraordinary and .Ministers I'lenipolentiary, 1.5 guns. Ministers I{es- ident accredited to the United States, l.'J guns. Char- ges d' Affaires, or suborrlinale diplomatic agents left in charge of missions in the United States, 11 guns. Consuls-General accredited to the United Slates. !» guns. Military and naval officers receive salutes as fol- lows: The Gcni-ral-in-Chief, Field Marshal, or Ad- miral, 17 guns. Lieutenant General or Vice Admiral, \r, guns. Major General or Rear Admiral, IH guns! Brigadier General or Commodore, 11 guns. t)(ticers of volunteers and militia, only wlien in the service of the United States, the salute s"pecified for their rank. Oltirers of foreign services visiting anv military post or station provided with artillery, are" saluted "in ac- cordance with their rank. Ill addition to the foregoing, occasions of a public nature frequently arise when salutes are both desir- able and proi)er. Orders will govern in such cases. Personal salutes are, however, strictly confined to the foregoing, and are fired but once, unless other- wise specified. The President of the United Slates, the Sovereign or Chief Magistrate of a foreiirn coun- try traveling in a public capacity, is saluted when jKixxing in the vicinity of a military post. A vessel- of-war on which the President of the United States is traveling displays the nationel ensign at the main. In the case of foreign sovereigns, vessels diplay the royal standard of the sovereign in like manner." Personal salutes, in compltment to foreign diplo- matic authorities, are to be fired onlvfor thosewho.se nations pay the same compliments'to United Slates diplomatic ministers in their territories. Personal salutes at the same place and in compliment to the same person, whether civil, diplomatic, mililarv, or naval, are never to be tired oftener than on("e' in twelve months, unless such person shall have been, in the meantime, advanced in rank. Olficers on the retired list, whether military or naval, are not to be saluted. This, however, does not apply to funeral ceremonies. An officer, whether civil, ofmilitary.or naval, holding two or more positions, either of which entitles him to a salute, receives only the sa- lute due to the highest grade. In no event is"the same person to be saluted in more than one capacity. When several persons, each of whom is entitled lo"a salute, arrive together at a post, the one hiirhest in rank or position is alone saluted. If they arrive suc- cessively, each is saluted in turn. An o"fficer a.ssimi- ed to duty according to brevet rank receives lhe"sa- lute due to the full rank of the grade to which he has been assigned. As a rule, a personal salute is to be fired when the personage entitled to it enters the post. When the troops at a military post are to be review- ed by a personage entitled to" a salute, it is most ap- propriate to tire the salute from tield guns at the place of review ; and at the time, just previous to the review, when the personage arrives on the ground. See Sdbttf.s. " PERSONAL SERVICE.— The term " Permnal f^.er- vi'c€s," employed in section 3,70.5, Revised Statutes, means services which are contracted for because of some special confidence reposed in the person who is to render them, based upon his supposed peculiar fitness as an expert, and irrespective generally of his pecuniary or any other resources; such, for in- stance, as the services of a Civil Engineer or Sur- PERSONNEL. 512 PEBSPECTIVE. veyor,a Lawyer or Surgeon, Telcsraph Operator, etc. No person belongins; to, or employed in, tlie mil- itary service of the United States shall, in behalf of the United States, purchase from any other such person, or make any contract with such person to furnish supplies or services ; nor make any purchase or contract in which such person shall be admitted to any share or part, or to any benefit to arise there- from. No person belonging to, or employed in, the mili- tary service of the United States shall be pecuniarily interested, directly or indirectly, in the purchase or sale, on behalf of the United States, of any article appertaining to such service ; nor shall take, receive, or apply to his own use any gain or emolument, un- der the guise of presents or otherwise, for negotiat- ing or transacting any public business, other than what is or may be allowed by law. PKESONNEL. — In speaking of an army, this term represents the officers and soldiers, as opposed to the Materiel, in which are comprised the gims, provis- ions, wagons, and stores of every description. The Personnel of a Battery comprises all the off.cers and men necessary for the maneuvering, management, anil care of a battery. PERSPECTIVE.— The art of representing natural objects upon a plane surface in such a manner that the representation shall affect the eye in the same way as the objects themselves. The distance and position of objects affect both their distinctness and apparent form, giving rise to a subdivision of per- spective into linear peritpective-vih\c\\,&s, its name de- notes, considers exclusively the effect produced by the position and distance of the observer upon the apparent form and grouping of objects ; while eierial perspective confines itself to their distinctness, as modified by distance and light. The necessity of at- tending to the principles of perspective in all pictor- ial drawing is apparent when we consider, for in- stance, that a circle, wlien seen obliquely, appears to be not a circle, but an ellipse, with its shortest diameter in line with the spectator audits longest at right angles to this. A square, when looked at from a position opposite the center of one of its sides, ap- pears as a trapezoid, the sides which are perpendicu- lar to the direction of the vision appearing to be par- allel, while the other two appear to converge to a point in front of the spectator, etc. For the same reason, two rows of parallel pillars of equal height, seen from a point between and equidistant from each row, appear not only to converge at the further end, but to become gradually smaller and smaller. An excellent idea of a perspective plan can be easily ob- tained by interposing a vertical transparent plane (as observance of which painters may be enabled to produce an effect true to nature. After the "scope" (t. f., the number of objects to be introduced, and the distance at which they are to be viewed; of the picture has been determined, and before the design is commenced, it is necessary to draw upon the per- spective plan three lines: 1. The base line, ot ground line, which limits the sketch towards the operator, and is the base line of the picture. 3. The lioriziintal line, which represents the ordinary position of the sensible horizon. The height of the liorizontal line is about one-third of the height of the picture, when the sketcher is placed at or a little above the level of the horizon ; but it may rise in a degree corres- ponding to his increase of elevation till it reaches near to the top of the perspective plan. The gen- eral rule is to have a high horizontal line when the view is taken, or supposed to be taken, from an emi- nence; but when the station is on a level, either actual or assumed, as is the case when a statue or a mountainous landscape is figured, the horizontal line must be low. The horizontal line in nearly all cases is supposed to be level with the spectator's cj'e. 3. The vertical line, which is drawn from the supposed position of the sketcher, perpendicular to the ground and liorizontal lines, meeting the latter in a point which is called the point of sight, or center of the picture. The vertical line has no representa- tive in nature, and is merely a mechanical adjunct to the construction of the picture, all vertical lines in nature being parallel to it in the picture. The point of sight, being the point directly opposite to the observer, is properly placed in the center of the picture, for it is most natural that the view should lie symmetrically on each side of the principal visual line ; but this is not by any means a universal rule, for we very frequently find it on the right or left side, but always, of course, on the horizontal line. All lines which in nature are perpendicular to the ground line, or to a vertical plane which is raised upon it as a base, meet in the point of sight, which is thus their vanishing point (see the line of the tops and bottoms of the pillars in Fig. 1). The points of distance are two points in the horizontal line on each side of the point of sight, and in a "direct" sketch are at a distance from it equal to the horizontal distance of the sketcher's eye from the ground line. The equality of distance of these points from the point of sight is not, however, necessary, as it occurs only in those cases where the lines, of which Ibe points of distance are the vanish- ing points, are inclined (in nature) at an angle of 45° to the base line ; but, in all cases, the two points of distance are about twice as far apart as the Fig. 1.— Illustrating the more important points of glass — a window, for instance) between the ob- server and the objects of his vision, and supposing that the oljjects he sees are not seen thnnigh the glass, but painted on it. A sketch made on a glass plane in this position, by following with a pencil all the lines and shades of the objects seen through it, the eye being all tlie tinu; kept (|uite steady, would form a picture in perfect perspective. In practice, how- ever, it is found, unfortunately, that the ghiss is not a suitable material for sketching on, and that tlie vertical position is not tlie most convenient ; it is tlierefore preferable to make a careful study of the elTects produced by change of position and distance on the appearand! of olijects in nature, and from the results of this to compile a body of rules, by the ond lines; PVR ie ihe principal and visual rny. eye is from the picture. One important use of the points of distance is to define the distance of objects in a row (Fig. 1) from each other. For this purpose two poiuts of distance are not necessary, as when the position of one pillar is found, that of the opposite is at once obtained by drawing a line parallel to the base or ground line. We have seen that the point of sight is the vanishing point of all level lines which meet tlie ground line or a vertical plaIl(^ on it at riglit angles, and tliat the points of distance (in a direct picture) arc the vanishing points of all lines which cut the ground line at an angle of Vi'^ ; but there are many other groups of parallel lines in a picture wliicli have dilTereut situations, and therefore different vanishing points. Such lines PETAED. 5U PETTMAH-FUaOE. with tlipir vani.iliinK pointH Cnillccl for diHtinction's snke, arcidental jioinlH) arc rrprcsciiicd in Fii;. 2. If ihf lU'cidenliil point is above tli(^ horizontal linr-, It is nillcil tlic n^ri(h'iil(il piiiitt dcriiil if l»'low, the amiltntiil ]ii>liU lirrentridl; anil a lillli- consideration muki'M it evident that these points may or may not be situated within the plane of the jiieturc. Such are the |)oinls and lines necessary for th(^ construc- tion of a plan in true iKTspective; and from the above cxiilanalion, we may deduce the two ujeneral principles; 1. Tlial all parallel straii;ht lines in nature are no longer jiarallel when ])roje(led on the pers])ective plane, but nu'ctin a i)oint which is called the vanishing ])oinl, and issomeoneof tli(! three above described, unless these lines happen to be also paralh'l to the ground line or llie vertical line, in wlueli Milan ('1440), whose body of rules was extended and coiiiplelerl by Peruz/.i and Ubaldi about IfiOO. PETARD. An instrument for blfiwinj; open f^nloH, dcMiolishinix [lalisades, etc. It consists of a lialf-cone of thick iron tilled with jiowderand ball ; this is (irm- ly fastened to a plank, and the latter is provided with hooks, to allow of its beinn attached securely to a f!;ate,<rtc. The Petardii-rs attaclied the petard, liirhted the slow-match by which it was to be fired, and fled. When the e\[)losion took etrect a supportinj? column charijed tliroii^rh the bn-arh, while the defenders were yet in consternation. The petard has been al- most universally superseded by the use of powder- bags. Large petards contained as much as 13 lbs. of powder. Various curious devices were employed, in ancient times for preventing the close propinquity / V f ^..-.e- H.L.. — "W.,U,jj^.j,^.___ CL. Fig. 2. — The lines O O converge to tlie accidentnl point aerial, and P P to the accidental point terreetrial. case they remain parallel wiien transferred to the picture ; and 2. That since the bodies drawn below the horizontal line arc seen as if from above, those above as if from below, and those to t!ie right and left of the point of sight as if observed from the left and right, it follows, that straight lines which in the picture are above the horizontal line lower them- selves, and those below raise themselves to it ; those to the left, foUovving the same law, direct themselves to the right, and tice verm. Aerial ptrspeftive, con- sists in a modulation of the brightness and colors of objects in accordance with the state of the atmos- phere, tiie depth of the body in the perspective plane {i.e., distance in nature from the ground line), and other accidents of place and time. As the dis- tance of objects increases, their illuminated parts are made less brilliant, and their shaded parts more j feeble. The bluish tint imparted by a large mass of the atmosphere to the bodies seen through it, is fre- quently imitated by the mixing of a slight tint of [ blue with the colors to be applied : a yellow object , thus assumes a greenish tint; a red one a violet tint, etc. The air, when charged with vapor, is repre- sented by a diminution of the brightness of colors, and by the grayish tint imjiarted to them. But in I this part of the subject rules are of Utile avail, for | experience alone can guide the painter in faithfully ] cop3'ing the myriad aspects presented by nature. A thorough knowledge of perspective is a xine quanrm to the painter or designer, and tliough many are in- clined to tliink it a superfluity, and that the sketcher has only to make use of his e_vcs, and copy justly, the very fact that such is their opinion shows that they have never made the attempt : for it is impossi- ble for the painter, and much more so for the de- signer, to execute a copy of nature with sufficient accuracy by the sole aid of the eye and hand, a fact that is unfortunately much too frequently proved b)' . mam* of the sketches exhibited in tine-art collec- tions. Perspective was known to the ancients, but seems to have become extinct during the disturb- ance"! that convulsed Italy, and was revived by Al- bert Dri'irer, Pietro del Horgo, and Bramantino of between the petard and the gate ; one of the most curious of which was a kindof enormous rat gin, set in such a manner as to close at once on the petard and the soldiers apnlying it. PETARDS.— In pyrotechny. small paper cases filled with powder. One end is entirely closed, and the other has only a small hole left for a piece of quick- match, to communicate tire to the powder. Petards are placed at the bottom of lances: thej- are also used to imitate the fire of musketrj-. See Firein/rk.i. PETAUDIEES.— A name anciently given to the foot-troops armed with Cranequinx. PETERERO. — A term formerly applied to a very- short piece of chambered ordnance. Also written I'eiln ro. PETRONEL. — A firearm between a carbine and a pistol (with a wheel-lock), which was used bv the French during the reign of Francis I.: it wasYired resting against the breast — hence its name. To pre- vent any injury from its recoil, the soldier who used it was provided with a pad. Also written Petrijial and P'litriiinl. PETTAH.— In southern India, a term applied to the Enceinte of a town, as distinguished from the fortress hv which it is protected. PETTMAN-FUSE.— This fuse consists of the fol- lowing parts: A, body : B, top-plu": C. plain ball; D, steadv' plug; E. detonating ball: F, cone plug; G, lead cup : and H, suspending wire. The steaily and top plugs are cupped in the center to receive PEWTER. 514 PHOSPHOR-BEONZE. the small plain ball of brass wire which hohls them apart ; and to prevent the ball adhering from cor- rosion, the cups are slightly larger in diameter than the ball. Round the top of the stead}- plug runs a groove tilled with detonating composition, and two fire-holes pass from the composition down through the plug. The composition in the annular groove is covered with thin sheet brass. The detonating ball, which is coated with composition, is covered with two hol- low hemispheres of sheet-copper, and over these with silk. The cone plug (not at present coned) has three fire-holes and is supported by a copper wire which passes through the tube : but the hollow of the latter is enlarged below the wire to prevent its being choked. The lead cup (pure lead) does not Test on the bottom of the fuse, but is supported at the top on a shoulder on the cone plug. The detonating composition in the steady plug and on the detonating ball consists of — Parts. Chlorate of potash 13 Sulphide of antimonj' 13 Sulphur 1 Mealed powder 1 On the discharge of the gun the suspending wire is broken and the lead cup crushed in consequence of the inertia of cone and steady plugs and of balls, which do not move instantaneously with the fuse and lead cup; sufficient space is therefore left for the disengagement of the balls, and on impact the fuse ignited by the concussion of the detonating ball on the inside of the body, or by the plain ball on the composition in the groove of the steady plug, which continuing to move, after the sudden check to the motion of the fuse, presses the plain ball between itself and the top plug. See Fuae. PEWTER. — A common and very useful alloy of the metals, tin and lead. Two other kinds of pewter have a more compound character. Common, or ley-peieter, consists of 4 parts of tin and 1 part of lead; plate-peater is made of 100 parts of tin, 8 parts of antimony, 2 parts each of bismuth and copper; another kind, called trifle, is composed of 83 parts of tin and 17 parts of antimony. Although these are the standard formulas, each kind is often much varied to suit the purposes of the manufacturer; the chief alteration being the addition of a large propor- tion of lead to the last, and a large increase of the same metal in the other two. PFEIL. — The German name of the arrow for the long bow. PHALANX.— The ancient Greek formation for heavy infantry, which won for itself a reputation of invincibility, may be described as a line of parallel columns, rendered by its depth and solidity capable of penetrating any line of troops. The oldest pha- lanx was the Lacedaemonian or Spartan, in which the soldiers stood eight deep; the Athenian phalanx had been the same, until, at the battle of Marathon (480 B.C.) Miltiades reduced the depth to four men in or- <ier to increase liis front. When Bpaminondas or- jianized the Theban army against Sparta, he felt that the Spartan line of battle would be impregnable to troops organized in their own manner. He there- fore increased the depth and lessened the front of his phalanx, which enabled him to burst through the Spartan line, inflicting the sanguinarj- defeat of Le- uctra (371 u.c). Philip of Macedon had learned the Art of War under Epaminondas, and when he re- solved to nuike his state a military power, he formed the celeliralcd Mareiionian |)halanx (;i5!t D.r. ), which •enabled him to conquer Greece, and wilh wliich his son Alexander s\ibdued the Eastern World. The Macedonian phalanx, as the latest form tliat organi- zation assumed, and as the shape in which the pha- lanx encountered the military skill of the West, is de- serving of description. The line was 10 deep; a grand-phalanx (omprising l<',.;iH4 //"/)i?/te<, or heavy- armed soldiers, subdivided as follows: tlie granil- pha'anx composed of four phalanxes or divisions, eacli under a General Officer, called a I'Jialangarcli ; his command was divided into two brigades or Mer- archien (sometimes called Te!arehie.i), each of these comprising two regiments, or Cliiliarclii-eH, of four battalions or Syntagmata each. A Syntogina an- swered accurately to a modem battalion, except that it was smaller. It was a perfect square, with 16 men each way, was commanded by a Syntiigmatarch or Xenagox; and liad an Adjutant, with one or two oth- er Staff Officers who stood behind. Eight files unit- ed were under a Taxinrch, four under a Tetrari-h, corresponding probably to a modem Captain, two files were under a Ihluehite or Subaltern. A single file of Ifi men was called a Lochn.i and the best man was placed at its head; a picked man, the Otiraguti, also marching in the rear. The arms of all these phalanx-men were pikes or spears, 34 feet long, of which G ft. were behind and 18 ft. held in front of the combatant. As each man occujiied with his shield 3 feet, the phalanx, when it advanced, had six tiers of spear-points in front, a wall of steel which no troops could withstand, especially as the bearers of the spears were pressed on by the ten ranks in their rear. By rapid movements the phalanx could change front, form in close column of syntagmata, and execute other critical maneuvers. The heavj'- armed phalanx was ordinarily flanked bj' Peltastes or light infantry, similarly formed, but only eight deep, while the cavalry were but four deep. The phalanx, as representative of the heavy formation, came in contact with the lighter legion of Rome dur- ing the wars of Pyrrhus in Italy. At the great bat- tle of Heraclea (379 b.c), the phalanx won the day; but the victory was attributable to other causes as much as to any superiority of formation. PHEON.— In Heraldry, the barbed head of a dart. It is represented as engrailed on the inner side, and its position is with the point downward, unless oth- erwise blazoned. PHOENIX RIFLE. —A breech-loading rifle formerly manufactured by the Whitney Arms Company. This, like the Whitney and Kennedy rifles, which are im- provements on it, is very simple of construction, and perfectly strong, safe and durable, while the ease of manipvdation in opening and closing the breech, and extracting the shell or cartridge cannot be surpass- ed. These arms have less parts than any other breech-loading rifles in use, and the parts are of sush form as to render them as strong and safe as rifles can be made. They have short top action, and are symmetrical in form. See Kennedy Rifle and Whit- ney Rifle. PHOSPHOR-BRONZE.— Of the many useful inven- tions and discoveries recently made in the arts, that of phosphor-bronze has proved to be one of the most important. The invention is the result of a long series of careful experiments, which have es- tablished, as a scientific fact, the great superiority of phosphorized alloys of copper and tin over other alloys and metals. The chemical action of phos- phorus on the metals composing the alloys is claimed to be two-fold; on the one hand it reduces any ox- ides dissolved therein, and on the other it forms with the purified metals a most homogeneous and regular combination, the hardness, strength and toughness of which are completely under control. No other metal combines, in so high a degree as phosphor- bronze, the conditions of toughness, rigidity, hard- ness, and great elastic resistance. From the drop- tests following its comparative relation in this re- spect to some of the best grades of wrougbt-iron is made very apparent; moreover, if jointly with these qualities the fact of the total absence of easily cor- roded metals, such as zinc, be taken into consider- ation, the advantages offered by the use of phosphor- bronze can scarcely lie over-estimated. In the following droji-tests. the weight of the dro]) was one hundred and forly-eiglu pounds ; be ght of stroke, twelve inches, except where otherwise stated; FHOBPHORUS. 515 FHO8PHOB08. (lisliincc iK'twccn supports, four inflios; striking-face of (Imp, a liluntcd wcdgc-Hliapc! ; tcst-liiirs, six inclicH Ion;;, two inclics wide, and onc-lialf incli thick. Tlic fnictionH of inclics stated in llie talile represent tlic permanent set of the test-bar after tlie blow. 'V\w letters inserted in tlie tabic' indicate the state <if the surface of tlie test-bar, on Ihi' side opposite to thai npcin which I he blow has been ijiven : a, sound ; A, slif^hl cracks at <'di;e; r, cracks at eil;;e increase in size ; (I, slijihl cracks in the middle of the test- bar; e, cracks in the middle increase in mimbir; /, cracks in the iniddl(! increase in size ; 17, remains un- altered ; — , straight; '--, tcHt-bar reversed. It is apparent from these dro])-tests that the riu:idity of phosphor-bronze is i;reatly sujicrior to that of lies! wroMi;hl-iron, for it lakes thirteen Ijlows In benil the bar Xl\'. H to the depth of one inch, whilst the best fpialily of forLjed cliarcoal iron lakes ci,u;lit blows, and the best charcoal scrap iron but six blows for the same bend. The strength of the phosplior- bronze bar No. (ix 17 is superior to that of tiest char- coal scrap iron, it havini; stood five more blows of twelve inches than the latter before bcini; ai^ain com- l)letely strai,K;litene(l. The relative streni,'lh of phos- phor-bronze as to that of other qualities of iron test- ed needs no comment. ' newed in consequence of their freedom from any ad. Iiering slag is a great point in their favor. Phosphor- bronze chisels, hammers, swages, BciHHor», key wed- ges, etc., are made of various sizes and possess tine temper, great hardness and are without any liability to give forth sparks. The application of |)liosphf>r-bronze will also be appreciated by all who iiavc experieneed llw dillicully of removing brass or iron wood screws after they have been exposed to th(! weather for a short time. Urass screws are more likely to twist off than withdraw, and those made of iron become so rusted that their removal is next to impossible. For all fortification work, car- riage linisliinir, and exterior fastenings, especially at the sea-side Garrisons, |)hos|)hor-bronze .screws are recommended as the best article yet produced. See PHOSPHORUS.— One of the most unwelcome in- gredients in iron ores, from the ease with whch it passes into the metal during the smelting process, producing the most injurious effects, if present in more than a very small proportion. Practically speaking, all the phosphorus in the ore and in the fuel passes into the pig-iron made. Ijike silicon, it makes pig-iron weak ; although it is thr)ught that when the amount is not more than one-half to three- Metals tested. Number of blows. 1 a 3 3 4 a 5 6 7 H a 8 f a 9 10 11 g 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Phosphor-bronze, XIV . B. a 1 a i a f a g l-H f i a H a t *f I Broke. Phosphor-bronze, 6x17. a f a a f M U a a a If a 1" a 7 a a A a i a t a i a a 8- foot blowe. ',„ ^ ■> 1 —Broke, b a ... i a t g g g a A A 8 foot blows. i 1 lioUed Charcoal Scrap-iron, best quality. lA — Broke. d a a a 1 a 1 Best Charcoal Fire-flox Plate-iron. a a r^ H c H c 1" c 11 a f a A } Broke. d f The same, cvit crosswise off plate. t c I'fflf Broke i 1 1 ...j.... ! Charcoal Tank Plate-iron. I At's c fBroke a lb c 1 1 i Best Foro^e Charcoal Iron. a a f ii ^f* n \i fc 9 II Broke. f tb f The important applications of phosphor-bronze have received constant and careful attention, and the use of the special alloj' has become so widely ex- tended into almost every branch of industry that it has become known as the " best" metal for bear- ings ; it has been adopted by many of the leading railroads for bearings of their locomotives and cars, and large quantities are in use in rolling mills, foun- dries, steam engines, steam ships, and industrial works of all kinds throughout the countr}-. Phos- phor-bronze tuyeres have been in use for several years in the iron furnaces of the United States with great success. They have proved much more durable than those made of iron, and after long service are found to be free from incrustation by scoria of the furnace. The facility with which they can be re- fourths per cent., the strength of the pig-iron is not materiall}' affected by it. Phosphorus occasionally forms between one-fiftieth and one-sixtieth part of the weight of cast iron, but about one-hundredth part is a more common propor- tion of phosphorus. It exists in combination with a portion of the metal as pfioiij)hidf of iron, and is de- rived either from phosphate of iron contained in the iron, or from phosphate of lime, which is frequently present in the limestone employed as a flux, and in minute quantitj' in the coal. These phosphates con- tain phosphorus in a state of combination with oxj-. gen, which is abstracted by the carbon of the fuel in ,the blast-furnace, and the phosphorus, thus set free enters into combination with the iron. So com- pletely is the phosphorus taken up by the metal, that PHOTO-GLTPHOGRAPHT. 516 PHOTOGRAPHY. only traces of that element in the form of phosphates are usually found in the slag from the blast-furnace. The effects of phosphorus are to harden cast-iron, decrease its strength, and to increase its fusibility. Iron made from ores containing much phosphorus is always mid-short, or incapable of being wrought cold under the hammer without breaking, bee ta«t-iri>7i. PHOTO-GLYPHOGRAPHY. — \ process, invented by Mr. Fo.\ Talbot, for etching a photograph into a steel plate. It consists iu coafing the plate with a mi.x- ture of bicliromate of potash and gelatine, and expos- ing under a negative. The effect of this treatment- is 1o render the" gelatine insoluble, just in proportion to the intensity of the light's action, after which a solution of perchloride of iron, of a certain detinite strength, is poured over the film, which solution penetrates those parts unacted on by light, reaching the steel plate, and biting itself in. but is repelled by that portion of the gelatine rendered insoluble ; the plate being tlms protected from the action of the solvent. Because a dilute solution of perchloride (.f iron soaks into a tilm of gelatine more readily than a strong solution, it is very important that the etching fluid should possess that amount of dilution which has been found by practice to yield the best results. The utility of such a process for copying old and rare original manuscripts or maps and plans of all kinds for the use of engineers and others will at once be apparent, and it has already been largely adopted in the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton, for the reproduction of maps and old manuscript records; at the India Museum, London, for the reproduction of the patterns of Indian fabrics; and at Woolwich Arsenal, for the reproduction of drawings of ord- nance, equipment.etc. It is also largely used by the War Departments of the various European States and in America, but in no country in the world has Pho- to-glyphography been so extensively and so usefully applied to the reproduction of maps as m India, where skilled lithographic draughtsmen and engrav- ers are very scarce. It has been most successfully worked in the Surveyor General's office, Calcutta, in the office of the Superintendent of the Great Tri- gonometrical Survey, Dehra Dhoon, and in the Pho- tozincooraphic Office of the Bombay Government at Poonah. By its aid the maps of the various surveys are issued to the public within a few months after the completion of the survey, instead of being kept ticns. The adaptation of this art to military pur- poses, in copying, enlarging, and in reducing maps, etc., also in reconnoissances, has been greatly ex- tended during the last few years. One of its most useful applications to surveying consists in taking small circular pictures or panoramas round each station of the triangulation into whicli the survey is divided. These panoramas are printed by the ordinary photographic method, and are cut out and fastened on a sheet of drawing paper in the relative position to each other which they occupied on the ground to be surveyed ; and straight lines or radii being produced from the center of each, through the objects shown in tliem, give by their intersections the relative position of each object on the paper, so that the " filling in," as it is technically termed, is completed as rapidlj' as these intersections can be found. Such a system dispenses with the very slow process of observing each object separately, and the liability to any possible error in recording the observation in the field-book, which is now quite done away with. Tlie great interest taken in field photography of late years, at posts and on the march, is due in a great measure to the improvements made in the apparatus, which began with the iutroduction of the dry plates. Tliese are sensitive gelatino- bromide dry plates, and can be carried about with little trouble. Formerly, when the wet plates were in ttse, it was necessary for an amateur to carry around with him a chemical laboratory and an ex- temporized dark-room. Solutions had to be ready beforehand. With dry plates it is not necessary to bother with chemicals while in the field. All that is necessary is to keep the plates, after the exposure, from tlie light. They can be packed away iu cases to be developed in the dark room at home. If the party wishes to make his picture at the time, a dark closet can be arranged under canvas. Onh' two solutions are necessary, and they can be carried in small bottles. Many explorers develop their plates when they get back at night from a day's photograph- ing tramp. Others save their plates and take them to a professional in the city to be developed. Pig. 1, shows a camera designed especially for field-service by the Rochester Optical Company. It is a very accurate, simple and practical instrument and may be operated by any soldier, of ordinary intelli- gence. The camera-box, in three sizes, is made of the best seasoned cherry, well finished in the natural i'i!,'. i. Fig. 3. hack for years, as they would be, had they to be lithographed or engraved. Besides being used in so many (iovcrnrnent'Offlces, this process is extensive- ly worked by mauy private individuals in Europe and Aiiicric;i. PHOTOGRAPHY.— The art of producing pictures by the action of light upon certain chemical prepara- wood. The focusing screen is hi'nffed to the camera- back, which is more convenient than where loose, and liable to loss and lircaUage. The back with screen slides uiionlhc beil, being faslened by a set screw when the focus has l)een olitiiined. The tripod isallacheil to the bed by a screw wliich, wliile it al- lows of the swinging of the box horizontally, or its Physics. 1. Apparatus for congealing water by evaporation. 2. 3. Vessel for reception of solid cai heat. 10. Leslie's differeniial tliermometer. 11, 12, 15. Melloni's apparatus for radiation of c thermo-t'olumn. 17. Spi'olnil i-iirve of tlierniic intensity. 18. Curves of intensity of the chem ture of a tlaine with wire netting;. 22. 2.'J. Davy's safety-hiinp. 24. C'onihiclinn of lieat by v constant pressure. 2M. Fonnation of mist by expansion of steam. 2it, 'iO. (ienemtioTi of he 3-1. IMaK'ietie iiuluction. 3."). Attraction and repulsion of i>aranel currents. 3G. Curr^'iil-breakt polaiizaiiun by electro-magnets. 43. Induced currents. 44, 45. Action of the nrnguetlc poI»*i t XI— 678. acid. 4 to 8. Apparatus for determination of specific heat. 9. Concave mirrors fo« experiments in radiation of 13. Heated slit'et-copper as a sonrce of rays of caloric. 14. Absorbtion of rays of heat by gases. 16. Linear pticaliiini tlKTiuio inrtueuces of the spectrum. 19. Comparative conduction in solids. 20,21. Reducing tenipera- 25. Coiidu<-ti(m of lieat by gases. 26. Generation of lieat by compressing air. 27. Specific heat of air inider friction. 31. Generation of heat by compressing lead. 32. Tension of aqueoiig vapor. 33. Induced currents. Magnetic hammer. 38,39. Geissler's tubes. 40. Rotating copper cube. 41. Diamaguetic repulsion. 42. Circular PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY. 517 PIBROCH. removal, rciimins in its Hockt't at uj] times, tints ob- viatini; loss. Tlic lens is of remiirkiilily line i|uality, giving sharp dolinition and )>;real ilcplli. 'I'lKr dia- phrafjms are ri'immMi' — a point of the greatest im- portance, to eompensate for the varyini; .streiifjlh of dillercnt lif^hts. 'I"he ])lat(vhol(l<T is made on an im- proved [jjan, doinj; away with ledi;es and thus e,\- ])osini; the full jilale to the action of the li^riil, mak- ini; a jiicture the fnll size of the fjlass. liv the old • method a (piarter of an inch all around was lo.st. The Tri|)od Lcfjs are jointed, capable of folding to half length, Imt when in position are rigid and lirm. These <-ameras are |)rovided with rising and falling fronts, swinging backs, hinged anil folding beds (almost in- dispensable adjiinets on some views), ami are adjust- able for stereoscopic work, having double lenses, on intcrcliangeable fronts and partitions. Figures 3 and li, show a swivel-bed camera. The front is mitcred in four pieces, giving it a very ele- gant ajipearance. The bed swivels under the bo.\, as shown in the drawing L, Fig. 3, is a focusing screw, and M, a lock nut for fastening the box in position when the focus is obtained. The trijjod head, /v, is adjustable, so that the camera may be leveled without the necessity of moving the tripod legs. The rising and falling front, (1, is reversible for packing more compactly. The diaphragms arc removable. The foc'us screen is hinged and falls down at the camera back, thus offering the least re- sistance to wind. This camera is but two inches thick when closed, thus making it most compact for transportation. The lens is of great depth, and fine quality, giving a sharp and clear cut picture. One of the latest of instantaneous cameras consists of a small wooden bo.\ which can be carried easily imder the arm. Inside the box is the lens through ■which the picture is taken. This is covered by a shutter, which by the mere pressing of a little knob on the outside uncovers the lens for an instant. On the upper side is another lens, and underneath a ground-glass plate. This is simply to enable the photographer to see the image he wishes to take. When it falls on the right spot in the plate he presses the little knob for less than a twentieth of a second, the dry plate is exposed and the picture is taken. Troops in motion, exploding shells, etc., have thus been photographed. With a little practice, instan- taneous photographing reaches so fine a point that a longer exposure than one-twentieth of a second is not required. It is not within the province of this article to go into an abstruse demonstration of optical, chemical or mechanical facts, but simply to direct attention to an art of no little value to Topographical Engin- eers, and all others in the active service of the mili- tary profession. Tlie dark room, preparation of chemicals, manipulation of camera, development, printing, and toning may form special studies for those desiring to become experts. The art of pho- tography is now taught as a part of the regular course at the Artillery School, Fortress Monroe, and in most of the Military Schools of other Countries. PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY.— The application of pho- tography to engraving on stone. A lithographic stone is coated with a mixture of water, gum-arabic, sugar, and bichromate of potash, dried in the dark, exposed in the camera, or under a negative. The effect of the luminous action is to render the gum almost insolu- ble. A solution of soap is then applied, which serves | the double purpose, by its decomposition, of yielding a greasy printing s irface, and by its solvent action to remove those portions unacted on by light ; its ac- tion being inversely proportionate to the extent to which the gum was fixed by the light. In this con- dition the stone is freely washed with water, and ■when dry, receives a coating of printer's ink from the roller, ■which, by uniting with the soap, gives ad- ditional body to the picture. This processVas pat- ented by Mr. W. E Newton ; but, in common ■n-ith ' Others of a kindred character, the resulting pictures ' were invariably deficient in middle lint. possessing a degree of hardness very unpleasant to the eye, which previiiled its enmiMg into geni-ral use. PHOTO MICROGRAPHY. The enlargement of mi- croseopic objects, by means of tlie microscope, and the projection of the enlarged image on a sensitive \ collodion (ilm. 'I'he manipulatory dela>ls are the same as in the collodion process, only tliat, on account of the delicate nature of the markings to !»• rendered, it is necessary loemploy a collodion yielding what is term- ed a structureless film. TIk- prineijile upon wliich the enlargement is effected is that of the conjugate foci. This branch of microscopic and jjliotographic science has [)roved a useful aid in the study of th(^ sciences of botany, physiology, and entomology, by delineat- ing, with unerring accuracy, woody fiber, ducts, .starch granules, muscular fiber, blood discs, nerve papilla-, etc. Among the numerous experimentera attracted by this interesting study. ])r. Maddox is perhaps the only one who iuis attaineil to any re- nown : and by him, minute animalcuhe. all but in- visible by unassisted vision, have been magnilied to a superficial areaof l^s(|uare inches, in which the most delicate iletails have been faithfully preserved, ijy reversing the arrangement ueces.sary for these en- largements of microscopic otjjects. it will be .seen that minute photographs of engravings, or other ob- jects, may be produced which wouhf require a mi- croscope for their inspection. In this way com- munication was maintained, during the investment of Paris, when copies of letters and newspapers were inserted in quills, and fastened to carrier pigeons; and this is really by no means so diflicult to accomplish as it may seem at first sight, since i)hotographs no larger than a pin's head have been produced, includ- ing in that small space portraits of no less than .'500 eminent men. PHOUS-DAN.— An East Indian term for a com- man<ler of a large body of forces. PHYLa;. — A Greek word, meaning tribes, applied specially to the divisions of Attica, originally four, but made ten by Clcisthenes after the Pisistratidm were driven from Athens. The number was still later raised to twelve. Each I'hyle had a leader or Phylarch, who possessed certain authority, both of a civil anrt military nature, and each tribe sent fifty representatives to the Athenian Senate. In time the civil duties, such as presiding over the assem- blies, were taken from the Phylarch and given to an officer called the Epimeletes. PHYLARQUE. — A Grecian cavalry officer who commanded the cavalry of his tribe. PISROCH. — Music played on the bagpipe, ■which has a wonderful power in exciting the martial in- stincts and hilarity of the Highlanders. Its rythm is so irregular, and its notes in the quicker parts so much jumbled together, that a stranger has difficulty in following the modulations or reconciling his ear to them. The earliest mention of the military music of the bagpipe is in 1594, at the Battle of Balrinnes ; indeed, prior to that period, the bagpipe can hardly be looked on as a national instrument of Scotland. There are appropriate pibrochs belonging to various clans and districts, but some of these may not be older than the beginning of the last century. On* of the oldest known pibrochs is called the " Battle of Harlaw," but it may be doubted whether it was contemporary with that event (1411). In the ballad account of that battle there is mention of trumpets and horns, but none of the bagpipe ; and the pibrocU style of music has so obvious a relation to the bag- pipe that it is difficult to suppose that it preceded the use of that instrument. According to Sir Waltef Scott, the connoisseurs in pipe-music affect to dis- cover in a well composed pibroch the imitative sounds of march, conflict, flight, pursuit, and all the current of a heady fight. Many remarkable instances have been recorded of the effect of the pibroch on the Highlanders. At the Battle of Quebec, in April, 1760, whilst the British troops were retreating in PICADOR. 518 PICKETS. confusion, the pipers were ordered to strike up a favorite pibroch, and the result was that the High- landers, who were broken, rallied the moment they heard the music, and formed with great alacrity in the rear. PICADOR.— A horseman armed with a lauce, who commences the exercises of a bull-fight by attacking the animal without attempting to kill him. PICAROOK.— A pillager or plunderer ; one who violates the laws. PICCOLO.— A flute of small dimensions, having the same compass as the ordinary flute, while tlie notes all sound an octave higher than their nota- tion. In joyous as well as violent passages this instrument is sometimes very effective in a band. PICKER.— A small, pointed brass wire, which was formerly supplied to every infantry soldier for the purpose" of cleaning the vent of his musket. PICKERING.— -Clittle flying skirmish, which the marauders make when detached for pillage, or be- fore a main battle. Also writen Pickerooning, and Picqneering. PICKET.— A technical term fo' an elongated conoidal projectile. See Pickets. PICKET-GOARD.— A guard- of horse and foot, always in readiness in case of alarm. See Pickets. PICKET-LINE.— 1. A positionheld and guarded by small bodies of men placed at intervals. 2. A rope to which horses are secured when groomed. The rope, which usually passes through holes near the tops of posts planted in the ground, is frequently re- placed by a timber framed on the posts. In the" Crimea, the cavalry usually encamped in line with two rows of picket-lines and a line of shel- ter tents in front of and behind the picket-lines; the arms and equipments between the shelters and the picket-hnes. The picket-lines were stretched on the ground, and tlie horses secured to tliem by hobbles on the right fore-feet; the liobble being about three feet long and buckling around thepastern-joint. The drawin^shows this arrangment, which is spoken of by tlie French officers as'being the best manner of securing the horses. PICKET-PIN.— An iron pin with a ring at the top. It is driven ill the grouml, and tlie lariat is attached to it to secure a liorse while grazing. PICKETS.— 1. Stout wooden stakes driven into the ground and used for securing purposes, and in the construction of lioldfasts. The ordinary slakes for siege-gun platforms answer for most cases. When very lieavy strains are to be borne, posts from five to eight feet long are required, and are set into tlie ground liy digging holes, or witli a piie-driver. When tlie latter is us(!d. the post should lie shod with an iron point, and have a ring upon the head to pre- vent splitting. 2. An early militarj' punishment where the cul- prit was held by the raised arm in such a position thai his whole weight fell on one foot, wliicli was 8Uli]iorli-il on a picket with a blunt point. Tlie time the man thus stood was proportioned to the offense. The punishment became, after a few moments, ex- tremelj' painful; it has long been discontinued on sanitary grounds. 3. Detachments of troops whose principal duty is to guard an army from surprise, and oppose such small parties as the enemy may push forward for the purpose of reconnoitering. The main-detacli- ments or pickets, which form the supports to the grand-guards and out-posts, occupy the principal avenues to the position of the main-body. As their duty is to hold the enemy in check, the points which they take up should be susceptible of a good defense; such, for example, as villages, defiles, etc.; when- ever these advantages are not found at hand, resort should be had to any temporary obstacles, as abatis, etc., which can be' readily procured, to place the troops under shelter. The points thus occupied should, as a general rule, be about midway between the line of out-posts and the position of the main- body. Small posts should be thrown forward by the pickets, between their position and the line of grand-guards; both for the greater security of the detachments, and as supports to the grand-guards. In like manner, when the line of pickets is of con- siderable e.xtent, intermediate posts must be estab- lished, to keep open a communication between them. No pains should be spared to obstruct the approaches of the enemy to the points occupied by the pickets; particularly those which lead to the flanks ; leaving open such only as will oblige the enemy to attack under the most unfavorable circumstances; and if, between the advanced-posts and the main-body, a defile, or other unfavorable pass should occur, which the enemy, by turning the line of the advanced-posts, might seize upon, and thus cut off their retreat, it should be occupied by a strong detachment; both to prevent such a maneuver, and to favor the retreat on the main-body. The entire strength of the advanced-posts, as well as the relative strength of the pickets, grand-guards, and out-posts, will depend upon the character of the ground covered by them ; as being more or less open, and presenting more or less facilities for circumscribing the approaches of the enemy to the main-position. It rarely occurs that sufficient troops can be Eac^ detached to cover all the accessible ground, i and perform the duties in a tiiorough manner The strength of each picket, and tlie kind of I;; troops of which it is composed, will depend on the degree of resistance to be offered to the enemy's attack ; and the character of the posi- tion occupied. In most cases where a vigorous defense is called for. they will consist of troops of all the arms ; and an aggregate of several hundred men. The grand-guards, out-posts, and patrols, should not as a general rule exceed one-third the strength of the pickets to which they belong. They will be composed of cavalry, or infantry, ac- cording to the more or less broken features of the ground. It rarely occurs that artillery is placed at the out-posts. Whenever it happens that a piece, or two, may be deemed necessary, to swee]) some passage, or defile, in advance of the line of otit-posts, the guns must be protected by a strong ]iosl. to in- sure their safety in a retreat. If, from the character of the ground, the out-posts are mahily of infantry, some cavalry should always be attaelied to them, to patrol in advance of the position, and to convey in- telligence to the rear of what may be passing in the ncighboriiood of the out-posts. When the advanced- posts cover aiiadvaiieed-guard.tlieCoriiniaiiding Offi- cer of tlie whole sliould take a ])osilion, with his artil- lery and the main-body of his coiiiniaiid, at some cent ml point, in the rear of the jiiekets: in order to be ready to supjxirt them if hard jiressed by the enemy. The choice of this ])osition is an object of the greatest importance; as the safety of the advanced-posts as well as that of the main-body, may depend upon the PICRATE8. 5in PIECE. degree of judgment shown in liia Holection. bo booh ' aa the adviinfcd-<|K).HtH liave tukcn up their slalions, iMSlruclidiis !<hould Ik^ given to the iillieers iif tlie dilTercMl poKtH, vvilh respect to Hie points upon whieh tliey are to full baeli, in case of their Ijeing forced in: the lincH of <:oinniuiiication tlu'}' must of necessity H'lire by; and tlie position tliey must take up, when j<iining tlie supports to wliich they respectively !)(•- long. An oliieer in eonuMaml of any of the out- posts must be eajiiihleof untiring vigilance and activ- ity; to perform (he various (hities which devolve upon him. lie should lie provided with a good map of the country, a telescope, and writing mater- 1 ials. lie will thoroughly recoimoiter the ground upon j which he is to dispose Ins command; and also as far | in advance as circumstances will admit; (|uestioning closely any inhabitant lie may lind. .\ftcr tid<ing uj) his position, he shoidd go forward with the half of his command, and post each sentinel himself. If, however, he relieves another in the connnand, and deems it advisable to make any changes in the dis- positions of his predecessors, he sliould promptly re- port the facts to the comnianding-oni<'er in his rear. When the officer finds that the enemy is not in bis immediatt^ neighborhood, he shoidd endeavor to feel his way cautiously towards him by p;itrols; and when in immediate presence, lie should omit no means to watch the enemy's movements; and from the occurrences of the moment, such as noises, the motion of clouds of dust, camp tires, conflagrations, etc., endeavor to divine what is passing in his camp, and his probable intentions. Accurate written re- ports should be promptly sent to the otTieer in (com- mand, in the rear, on all these points. The reports should be Iffjilily written, and should clearly, but cutwixely, state what has fallen under the officer's eye; what he has learned from others; and the charac- ter of the sources from wdiich his information is drawn. The post under the otiiccr's command, whether horse or foot, should not all be allowed to sleep or eat at once. The horses, when wanted, should be taken singly or by pairs, and always mount- ed. At night one-half of the command should be under arms, prepared for an attack; the others sealed, their arms and the bridles of their horses in hand. The men should never be permitted to occupy a house; and if the weather is such that a fire out of doors is indispensalile, it should be as much con- cealed as practicable; one-half being only allowed to sit near it; the other posted, at a convenient spot at hand, to fall on the enemy should he attempt a stroke. When the position taken up is to be held for some time, it will be well to change the locality of the posts occasionally; this should be done, par- ticularly at night, in a hilly district, changing the post from the brow of the hill, where the men can best keep a look-out by day, to the low ground at night, as more favorable to detect any movement above. The out-posts are usually relieved at day- break, as being the most favorable mcmient for the enemy to attempt a surprise; the new-guard, will serve to reinforce the old. For the same reason, the old-guard should not be suffered to retire before the patrols come in and report all safe. See Ad- vanced-posts. Fkld-service . Grand Guards, and Out- posts. PICKATES. — The picrates are salts of picric acid. Picric or trinitrophenic acid is a nitro-substitution product, formed by the action of nitric acid on car- bolic acid (phenol, CjHcOj. Three substitution products may be derived from this action, but only one, picric acid, possesses any marked explosive [ properties. Picric acid has the composition indica- 1 ted by its symbol— C„H3(NO„)30. or C'olIaNaO-, Picric acid is found in commerce, being used to dye silk and wool yellow. If the acid is heated, it takes fire and burns sharply and rapidly witliout e.\plo- 1 sion. The picrates are all exploded with more or less violence by heat or blows. When used as e.\- 1 plosiveagents they are mixed with potassium nitrate 1 CHaltpeler) or potassium chlorate. A large number of picrates are kiuiwn, but the potassium and am- monium salts are the only onr'S tliatliuve been much usid in exiilosive prei)arations. I'litnssiiiin J'icraU \ (y',,HjKNjO,, is the most vio- lently explosive of the picrates. Potassium picrate and jxitassium chlorate form a mixture nearly as powerful as nitro-glycerine, but it is so senHitive to friction or penjussion as to render it practically use- less. With potassium nitrate instead of f-hlorate a li;ss violent mixture is (obtained, but one still too liable to accidental explosion. AmiiKiuiiim J'icrnte, C,n2(Nri4)N,0,, has been proposed by Abel as an ingredient of a i)Owder for bursting charges of shells. The properties of am- nioiiiuni picrate are very difTerent from those of the jiotassiiim .salt. If flame is applied to the former, it imrns (|uietly, withastrong, smoky flame. If heated it nx'lts, sublimes, .-ind burns without explosion. It is almost eniirely uiiiilfected tiy blows or friction. This salt mixed with saltpeter forms Abel's picric- powder (Brugf^re's powder). Experiments with this [jowder in England indicate that it po.ssesses some advantages when used in shells. A number of shells charged with it were fired from guns of different caliber without accidents. It is more powerful than gunpowder and less violent than nitro-glycerine and gun-cotton. It is insensitive to ordinary means of ignition. If flame is applied to it, the particles touched burn, but the combustion does not readily extend to the others. IJlows or friction do not ex- plode it. It must be confined in order to develop its explosive force. It does not absorb moisture from the air, so that it may be stored and handled like gunpowder, and is at le;ist equally safe and perma- nent. It is prepared for use by the usual gunpowder processes of incorponition—pressing, granulation, etc.; so that it has the same form and may be handled in the same way. It may therefore be a good sub- stitute for powder when a more violent explosive is wanted and neither gun-cotton nor nitro-glycerine are available. The mixture contains 40 parts of saltpeter and 54 parts of the picrate. The picrate is prepared from picric acid and am- monia. The picric acid is dissolved in water, and ammonia added to neutralization. Another charge of picric acid is then dissolved in the same liquid, and ammonia again added. This is repeated several times, and the liquid allowed to stand for some time, when the ammonium picrate crystallizes out in large quantities. The mother liquoris dr;iwn off, the crys- talline deposit drained and dried. The mother liquor may be used for the preparation of successive lots of the ammonia salt until it becomes charged with impurities, when it may be otherwise treated or thrown away. In this way a considerable amount of the salt can be expeditiously prepared with little hibor and without much loss. " The working of the mixture is. of course, to be done at a powder-mill. Set Expl'isiie Aquits. PICEIC POWDER.— Picrate of potash. This pow- der, of a bright yellow color, has been recommended as stronger than gunpowder, and less susceptible to ignite bv means offriction or a lilow. PICTS' WALL.— One of the barriers erected by the Romans across the northern part of England to re- strain the incursions of the Picts. PIECE.— 1. In Heraldry, an ordinary or charge; as the fesse, the bend, the pale, the cross, the saltire. the chevron, called honorable pieces. 3. Thetcrms cannon and ordnance are applied to all heavy fire- arms which are fired from carriages, in contradis- tinction to S7nall-)irms. whi( h arc fired from the hand. The termp/Vc« is applied to cannon; it also used to designate a cannon in union with its carriage with or without the limber. The light artillery of the United States now com- prises the following pieces, viz. : thret-inch rifle and three-and-one-half-inck rifled-guns; half-inch and one- inch mitrailleurs; and the twelve-poundtr smooth-txrre PIECE. 520 PIECE. gun. A .45-inch mitrailleiir lias just been adopted (1874) ; it is intended to ultimately replace the half- inch mitraillcur. The three-inch rifle was adopted in 1861. It is made of ■mought-iron, by wrapping boiler-plate round an iron bar, so as to form a cyl- indrical mass, which is brought to welding heat and passed through rollers, so as to unite it solidly ; the trunnions are afterward welded on, and the piece is bored and turned to its proper size and shape. The method originated at the Phcenixville Iron Works, Pa. The model for the t/i ree-a?id-i'ne-ha!f-inc.h rille was adopted in 1870. It is to be made of wrought- iron or bronze, and in its general appearance will -.J-— ^ //I izr closely resemble the three-inch rifle. The mitrail- leurx are Gatling's, and were adopted in 1868 ; they are made of steel, some of the smaller parts being of brass. The Ucelce-puunder, or Napoleon gun, adopt- ed in 1857, is still (1874) retained in the United States service, though abandoned by all other civil- ized nations. It is cast in gun-metal or bronze, which consists of ninety parts of copper and ten of tin, allowing a variation of one part more or less. JJestrription and nomenrlatnre of light guns: The bore (1) is the hollow cj'li'ider which receives the charge. The mouth (2) is that part of the bore near- est the front of the piece. The bottom of the bore (3) is its extreme rear: in the three inch ritle, it is a semi-elliptical surface. Tlie bores of rifled-guns have grooves; the intervals between the grooves are called lands; the grooves and lands are of equal width. The tent is a cylindrical hole, perpendicular to the axis of the ji/cce (4), near the bottom of the bore, through which fire is communicated to the charge. The surface of the piece in the immediate vicinity trunnions with the gun ; their ends, or \.\\e shoulders of the trunnions, are planes parallel to each other and perpendicular to the axis of the trunnions. The breech (8) is that part of the piece in rear of a plane passing through the vent and perpendicular to the axis of the piece. The base of the frrcifcA is the plane, or curved, surface at the rear of the piece. The.seat for the pendulom-hnusse is screwed into the base of the breech. The breech includes the cnscabel (9) which consists of a knob terminating the rear of the piece, and of a neck, or narrow part, whicli unites the knob to the base of the breech. When the body of the gun is strengthened by a band, or jacket, this addition is termed a reinforce. The ■^i chase (10) is that-part of the gun in ! front of the trunnions. The muzde (11 ) is the general term for the front of the gun ; if t he chase be enlarged at the muzzle, the enlargement is called the sicell of the muzzle, and the part of the chase where the swell begins is called the neck. The front, or mutzle, sight is screwed into the muzzle, or into the swell of the muzzle at its highest point. The /ace (13) is the perpendicular plane terminating the front of the gun. Preponderance is the excess of the weight of the piece in rear of the trunnions over that in front ; it is measured by the lifting power in pounds, which must be applied at the base of the breech to balance the piece when suspended freely on the axis of the trunnions. It is decided to dispense with preponderance in all guns hereafter cast. The bore is kept as dry as possible by depressing the piece and using a vent-cover and tompion. Great care must be taken not to bend or injure the front- sights, as it affects the accuracy of pointing. After firing, the bore of the gun must be washed out, and the piece depressed. Steel guns are bronzed or lackered on the exterior. Slitrailleurs are kept cleaned and oiled to prevent them from getting rusty; after marching over dusty roads and, if possible, before going into action, the barrels and carrier-block are wiped and the parta oiled, the crank being re- Diameter of bore Length of bore Whole length of piece Greatest exterior radius of base of breech Greatest exterior radius of l)reech- casing Length of front-sight Length of trunnions Diameter of trunnions Depth of grooves Twist of grooves Weight Preponderance Rifles. 3-inch. Inches. 3. 65. 72.7 4.85 1.85 3.8 3.67 .075 1 in 10 ft. Pounds. 830 40 8i-inch Inches. 3.5 65. 73.84 5.6 2.25 3.25 4.2 .075 1 in 12 ft. Pounds. 1,156 None. Mitrailleurs. ^-inch. Inches. .5 33. 58. 3.81 1-inch. Inches. 1. 33. 68.15 6.5 2.35 2.8 2.7 3.67 .01 .01 1 in 43 inch. 1 in G ft. Pounds. 365 45 Pounds. 1,008 110 13-Pdr. model of 1857. Inches. 4.62 63.6 72.55 5.5 3.5 3.25 4.3 Pounds. 1.230 105 of the exterior orifice of the vent is called tlie vent- field. The bodg (5) is that part of the piece in rear of a plane perpendicular to the axis of the piece and tangent to the front ])art of the </•«««/'/«.'! ((!. 6), or jiro- jecting cylinders at the sides of the piece, vyjiich are iiiteuiled to support it on its carriage ; th( ir axes arc in a line piTpendicular to tlie axin of the jiiecc, and in the same plane with it. The rimbases (7,7) arc the short masses of metal which unite the two versed to avoid unnecessary snapping. Tlie foregoing are the princi|)al dimensions aiKl weights of pieces. In bronze, the weight of the three and one-half inch rifie is l,2!)i) lbs. There are seven grooves in the three-inch and thrce-and-one-half-inch rifles, and six grooves in the barrels of the mitrailleurs. In the twelve-pounder, the irhidai/c, or dilTerence between diameters of bore and projectile, is 0.1 inch. See Cannon, Gatling Gun, anil Mitrailleur. FrEBCED. 521 PIEZOMETER. FI£BCED.— In Heraldry, a term used to indicute tluil 11 clmrttc is perforated so as to show the Held bcneiilli it. Tlie aperture is presumed to he eir<:uliir, unless some oilier form, as sipiari-piereed or loz- cnf;e pierced, lie s|)ecilic-d in the bla/.oii. PIERCES.' -An inslriimenl employeil in the fuhri- cution of ordnance. The horini; of a cannon is com- menced liy plaeinj; the l)orini;-rod, armed with the lirsl. culle'r, called the iiiirrer, in tlii' prolonv;iilion of the axis of the ]iiece, and jiressini^ it a};iiinst the metal. The piercer is used till it piiielrates to tiie bottom of llie chamlier, after which a second cutter, or reamer, is altnched to the borinfi-rod, and with this the lioriiii^ is made complete to the round jiarl of the chamher. FIEKRIER. A term originally ap|)lied to an en- gine f<ir casliiii; stones, and later to a small kind of cannon. The term is now generally applied to a liiorlar used for discharging stones, etc. PIERS. In fortilication, the buttresses on which the roadway of a bridge rests. In the case of wood- en bridges, piiTS are made of barrels, etc. PIES.— Counts Palatine, who were! created in ISfiO by Popi' Pius IV, and who had precedence at Home over Knights of the Teutonic Order and Order of Malla. PIEZOMETER. — An instrument invented by Oer- sted for measuring the compressibility of liipiids. It has been pr()po.s<Ml to ascertain the jiressure of the gases evolved by the combustion of gunpowder, by including in the cavity within which the jiressurc should be restrained a piezometer, which, by regis- tering the compression of a liquid contained within it, sliould afTonl an indication of the pressure to which it had been exposed. This instrument, as em- ployed in these experiments, is shown in the draw- ing. Fig. 1,is a section through its axis; Fig. 2. an exterior side view. Tlie same letters are used in re- is a tubular support for the point, and To It is at- Fig. 1. Fii;. i ferring to like parts in each of the figures. A, is the body of the instrument. The general form of its low- er (or outer end) is hemispherical, but it is flattened on four sides (as at a and a) for fitting a socket at- tached to the middle of a small oil-pan used in filling it. B, is the barrel to which the piston is fitted. It screws freely into the body.and makes with it a close joint. C, is the piston, packed with a leather ring occupying a groove ; c, is the eye of the piston, by means of which it is withdrawn or turned when re- quired. A special itnplemcnt (not represented) is fitted to the eye for this manipulation. D, is a stem screwed into the piston. The lower end is squared, to fit a socket like that of a watch-key. As it is de- sirable to use anew stem for each experiment, spec- ial appliances were prepared for making duplicates readily and with accuracy. They are coated with a thin tilm of black varni.sh to render the marks the)' are to receive more distinct. E, is the point from which the stem receives the mark recording com- pregslon. F also a guide for the stem fif the piston. Inched the spring, (i, pressing the point against the stem; //, are holes in the support to permit the oil within It to escajie freelv when the stem is sudd<rnly thrust in, under the action of surrounding pressure. II, is a screw pr'rinitting the escaix; of oil when the instrument is hiing " set" for use, but also capable of closing tightly tlie opening in which it is situated. Tists were made of the tightness of the piston and of the joints. In preparing the piezometer for an experiment, two itemsaretohe specially observed ; it must contain no air, and (he " setting," or adjustment of the quan- tity of oil contained, must be done at the precise tem- perature the instrument is to have at the moment of firing. The procedure is simply as follows: All the parts are tirst oiled, over their whole surfaces. The adjusting-screw is inserted into the body of the instrument, which is then set upright in a socket attached to the middle of a small pan intended to catch any overflow, and is nearly or quite filled with oil, which should be made to flow down the side of the cavity rather than in a stream. The support of the marking-point, (juite clean but covered with oil, is now screwed into its )>lace, with the aid of a spec- ial implement, not described. When this is with- drawn, it will he necessary to replace the oil caused to overllow by its insertion. The barrel is now slowdy put in its place and screwed firmly down. The hole in the piston for receiving the stem is filled with oil, the stem screwed in, and the piston insert- ed in the barrel. The adjusting-.screw is loosened a little, permitting the piston to lie pressed just below the top of the barrel, and again tightened. The next step is to bring the instrument ancl its contents to the setting temperature. Fortius purpose a water bath (a common wooden pail) is provided ; also a narrow- tin ctip. deeper than the bath and weighted at the bottom so as to stand upright within it; and a pair of wooden pinchers for handling the piezometer, which instrument could be inserted in them in such a way as to be nearly enveloped and yet to leave the adjusting screw and piston readilj- accessible. The piezometer, seized in the pinchers, is placed at the bottom of the cup in company with the tools to be used in setting it, and is covered with a loose wad of cotton. The cup is set in the middle of the bath and surrounded with water kept as nearly as possible at the desired temperature, for a sufficient time to im- part, as nearly as appreciable, the same to the instru- ment. It is then withdrawn, the screw loosened, the piston depressed a little to a regulated depth with a special tool, the screw tightened, and the piston ro- tated a few degrees, which completes the setting. The object of this last movement is to inscribe a transverse line on the stem, affording a starting point in measuring the length of the stroke. Small changes of temperature after theinstnunent I is set are of no consequence, as tlie oil will of course return to the same volume, and the piston stand at the same place, on returning to the same tempera- ture. Before placing the piezometer in the hollow plug, a thin leather envelope, kept saturated with oil, is drawnupon it, (with the intention of affording protection against the shock of firing), and when in- serted, the remaining space within the plug is filled with oil, which is retained by stopping the opening through the retaining ring (which forms the com- munication with the bore of the gun) with aloosely- fitted disk of cork or leather. One particular to be noted is the position of the eye of the piston with reference to the line in which the gun will recoil on firing. The metal surrounding the eye occupies a position at one side of the piston's axis of rotation in I the barrel, thereby throwing the center of gyration out of that line; and if that center be so situated as to fall outside of a plane coincident with the line of recoil, it is evident that the piston will have a ten- dencv to rotation when the gun is fired. PIFFARD HEEL PLATE. n5>9 PILE-DEIVEE. PIFFAKD HEEL-PLATE.— This device consists of a soft rubber pad or cushion about half an inch in thickness. It is applied to the butt of the jiun (after removal of the iron heel-plate), and is retained in position by a skeleton plate. The latter is attached to the stock by usin.s one of the original screws, and in addition a small screw inserted near the toe of the heel-plate, as shown in the drawing. The stock of the gun is not altered in any manner, and the origin- al butt-plate can be re-applied at will. E.xperience has shown that, when using this contrivance, the effect of recoil has been "greatly moditied, and a charge of as much as 110 grains of powder, with 430 of lead, can be shot without discomfort. The bene- fits accruing from the lessened recoil are : Recruits and beginners will not become "gun-shy," and con- tract the habit of flinching ; increased accuracy from absence of flinching ; target practice can be more continuously and efficiently carried on than is prac- ticable without the elastic-plate, owing to the bruis- ing and other injuries attendant on the use of the service cartridge ; and, the powder charge for ser- vice ammunition could be materially Increased, thereby flattening the trajectory, andin other res- pects rendering the weapon more effective. It is evident that the use of this description of heel-plate insures greater safety and increased ac- curacy. The dropping of a loaded gun (cocked or half-cocked), butt downwards, on a stone or hard ground may result in breaking the point of the sear or one of the notches of the tumbler, causing a pre- mature discharge. This heel-plate would diminish the force of the concussion and lessen the liability to accident. In repeating rifles, in which the car- tridges are arranged in the magazine with the bullet of one pressing on the primer of the one in front of it, the dropping of the gun might cause an explo- sion in the magazine. The liability to this accident ■would be diminished by the use ofthe plate. Prac- tical marksmen have found that wlien using this heel-plate the butt of the rifle is retaint^d in proper position against the arm with less e.xertion, the rub- ber not slipping from the arm as readily as the iron butt-plate. On drill. Order Arm.i is accompanied with less noise, and less jar to the mechanism of the weapon. By a recent resolution of the Directors of the National Rifle Association, the use of this heel- plate is permitted in all military and other competi- tions held under their auspices. PIKE.— Previously to the use of the bayonet, in- fantry of the line of" battle— that is, the heavy-armed troops— were from the earliest times armed with pikes or spears. The Macedonians carried pikes 24 feet long ; those of modern warfare averaged 12 or 14 feci. They were of stout wood, and tipped with a flat iron spearhead, which sometimes hticl cutting edges. As a (lefeiise against cavalry, the jiike, from its length and rigidity, was of great value; but though it long surviveil the introduction of gunpow- der, that event was really fatal to it. For success with the pike, especially in ollensive war, a dc'pth of several men was essential, and this depth ren- dered the fire of arlillery peculiarly fatal. The pike is now sujjerseded by the bayonet on the end of the nniskcl. PIKEMEN. -Men who were armeu with the pike. Fn.1,1 111,, reign of Henry VIII. to that of William III. the greater part of theEnglish Army was formed of Pikemtn. PILE. — 1. In Heraldry, an ordinary, or, according to some Heralds, a subordinary, in the form of a wedge, issuing generally from the middle chief, and extending towards the middle base of th ; shield. It is said that a pile should occupy one-third of the breadth of the chief, or, it charged, double that breadth. When a pile is borne issuing, not from the Pile. middle chief, but from some other part of the bound- ing-line of the shield, thi5 must be specified in the blazon. Three piles are sometimes borne conjoined in point. A pile transposed is one whose point is upward. 2. A round or squared log of wood used in engin- eering operations, such as dams, bridges, roads, etc. They are sharpened at the point, and, if necessary, protected with iron points, to enable them to cut tlirough the strata they encounter as they are driven into the ground. When used for cotfer-dams, or such temporary purposes, they are placed close to- gether, and driven firmly into the earth ; the water is then pumped out, and the piles form a dam, to enable workmen to lay foundations of piers, etc. When the force of the water round the dam is great, two rows of piles are driven in all round, and the space between the rows filled with clay, and puddled. Piles are also used for permanent works, when they are driven through loose soil till they reach a firm bottom, and thus form a foundation on which build- ings, roads, etc.. may be placed. Cast-iron is fre- quently used for piles, which are cast hollow. Wharf-walls are sometimes built of piles ; tliey are then cast with grooves on the sides, into which cast- iron plates (forming the walls) are fitted. A kind of pile has been invented by Mr. Mitchell, which is of great use in very loose and shifting substances. It is called the screw-pile, and consists of a long shaft (of wrought iron), with a broad cast-iron disc, of a screw form, at the lower end. These piles are espe- cially useful for light-houses, beacons, etc., which have to be placed on sands. They are fi.xed by means of capstans, which give them a rotatory motion. In 1843 Dr. L. H. Potts obtained a patent for a new kind of pile, which consists of hollow tubes of iron, from which the sand, etc., within them is removed by means of an air-pump, and the pipes are then sunk. In recent railway bridges, cylinders have been much used to form both piles and piers. They are of cast-iron, and made in pieces (of about 6 feet in heiglit), which are applied one on top of another. The sand or gravel is removed from the inside of the first laid, which thus sinks down ; another c)'l- inder is placed above it, and the same process con- tinued till it also has sunk suflicientl}-; and so on, cyl- inder over cylinder, till a solid foundation is reached. The requisite number of cylinders is then piled up to form the pier above ground. PILE ARMS.— To place three muskets, with bayo- nets fixed or unfixed, in such a relative position that they shall niuluallj- supjiort each <itlu'r. This is done when men stand from their arms either on parade, on the march, or in camp. See SUirh Arms. PILE BRIDGE.— A form of bridge nuich used in military operations, having Ihc piers built will) piles. These may be either temiiorary wooden strucliires, in which wooden ])ili's, driven into llie ground, serve also as ])iers, or they may be iH'riuanent bridges, with iron cylinders fornung the piles below the surface, and jiiers above. PILE-DRIVER.— A machine having a rising and falling weight to drive a |)ile into the bed. Nearly forty years ago an cnnnent Scotch Engineer, James Nasmyth, th einventor of the sleam-bainmer, con- PILE DEIVEE. 523 PILE DEIVEE. Btructed the first steam pile driver wliinli, although a grciit improvement dii the onlinary drop-lmiiimer in many respecln, iK'Ver ciurie iiiln j^eiicnd usi' fur Heveral reasons. I'rinripal anion;; wliieli were tlie liability of tlie machines tliroiii;li eonipliealion of parts to ^et out of order, and tlie fact llial llii' end of eiieli separates i)il(^ reipiired to be accurately lilted and banded before it could be driven. Subsequent steam is exhausted and the cylinder falling delivers its blow, and tliereafter continui's to rain blows upon llie pile with a speed at the will of thr- operator until the pile be down, or the supply of the steam cutoff, when th(! machine is hoisteif to the rest at the top of theleadersready forari'petition of tlieper- formanei! just described. In this connection it may be slated thai li^ht or lieavy blows may be struck at the will of the operator, as a reverse motion of the valve lever, which, in the hands of the operator, ad- mits steam to the hammer, causr's the steam to be e.\haust<'d at any ilesired point in tin- stroke, and a blow correspondini,' to the height from which the ram falls delivered ; makin;; it possible, if desired by the operator, to test the pile by one or more light blow^s before the machine is permitted to work au- tomatically at fidl stroke, or if it is desired to drive the pile in jiosilion under the hammer to any desired point. It is jiossible, when the pih; is found to be nearly liome, to stop the autcmiatic working of the hammer and deliver the remaining blows re- quired to bring the i)ile to its proper position by hand. This feature in the working of this hammer is particularly advantageous, because since the heads of the iiiles driven with this hammer are neither bruis- ed nor shattered, the ability to drive to any desired level with accuracy and expedition precludes, in many cases, the ne<'essitv of cutting ofT the piles to gain a common level, In the use of this machine, whether on land or mounted on a float, it is found that witli the point of the pile in position, and the head held by the bonnet casting, no other guides of any sort are required to insure accuracy I of position when driven. The bonnet casting re- ferred to in this maihine is so constructed that no preparation of the heads of the piles is necessary Fig- 1. modificjition of Nasmyth's niacliine has greatly less- ened its liability to get out of order, and largely in- creased its usefulness, but it has remained for .Mr. R. J. Cram, an American and the inventor of the machine which we describe in this article, to devise an engine sufficiently simple in construction and ef- fective in practice. The Cram pile-driver, or pile- hammer, as it is more properly termed, has a cylin- drical ram, Fig. 1, made to reciprocate between wrought-iron I Ijeams, which with the casting con- necting the upper ends, carrying the piston rod and valve and the honnet ra.tting, hoTding the head of the pile, and connecting the bcttom ends, make the frame which guid<'S the machine while being hoisted between the leaders, or when following a pile which is being driven. These pile-hammers maybe readi- ly applied to anj' machine of the ordinary patterns without any alteration excepting such as may be necessary to accommodate the width of the hammer, and afford an opportunity for connecting the flexi- ble pipe which conveys steam from the boiler to op- erate the hammer. The hammer being hoisted to a rest at a convenient height, the pile to be driven is placed in position and the hammer lowered until the bonnet casting, which forms the bottom of the frame, receives the head in the conical aperture through which the pintle-like projection on the bottom face of the hammer strikes, when a blow is delivered. The weight of the hammer being on the pile, the clutch on the winding drum or other device ccmtrol- ling its descent, is cast adrift and the valve thrown open to admit the passage of steam through the flex- ible pipe and the hollow piston rod suttieieut to op- erate the hammer at any desired speed. On the admission of steam the hammer immedi- ately rises in its frame or cage, to the full e.xteut of the stroke at which it maybe set, ordinarilj- about four inches, and on reaching the end of its stroke the ■when the diameters do not exceed eighteen or twenty inches. When it is desired to drive piles of a greater diameter the heails are roughly chamfered with a chopping axe. It is an exceedingly difficult matter to compare the work done by this" simple machine with that of the ordinary drop-hammer, because thia PELETUS. 524 PILING. steam-hammer will so readily do ! work that the or- dinary drop-hammer will not do at all, for instance, after a pile has been driven with an ordinary drop hammer until it has become necessary to remove the ring and cut a section off the pile to" form a new and solid head, by experiment it has been found that the steam-hammer experiences no difficulty in forc- ing the pile imtil the point reaches hard pan or rock, and it will, perhaps, be sutlicient to state tbat in tbe machine here illustrated, the ram weighing 5,500 lbs., when working under a pressure of 75 lbs. of steam delivers upwards of 100 blows per minute, more than sufficient to force a pile through hard sand or clay to the depth usually desired. The fact that the ram, when the blow is delivered, is free, unattached to piston rod, valve gear, or any other pari, will recommend the machine to practical men, as will also the fact that the valve is a perfectly balanced, positive action valve, with a travel of but I of an inch in a steam jacketed chest, and that the at- tachments of the hose at either end are flexible, thus avoiding any cramping, or twisting which otherwise w.ould occur. The tappit or trip operating the valve is adjustable, permitting the operator to control the length of stroke when the machine is working auto- matically, thereby making the force of the blows suit the work in hand. Spiral percussion springs are fitted in pockets in the " bonnet casting" to receive any chance blow.and in practice are found to effect- ually prevent any loosening of the fastenings con- necting the bonnet casting with the I beams. Fig 2 shows a portable spur-geared pile-driver engine, hav- PltlNG. — In iron-working, the process of building up piles of iron bars, to be charged into the balling- furnace. The amount of work put into bar-iron varies with the quality. For the common kinds, puddled bars, or No 1 iron, cut into lengths, are piled, and when brought to a welding-heat are rolled off, either with or without first being worked into a bloom under the hammer. More usually, however, the iron of second-rolling, No. 2, is employed at the top and bot- tom plates of the piles when making finished No 3. or best iron. Beyond this, if further piled and welded, the iron is distinguished as best-heat and trehle-heat according to the number of heatings and weldings to which it has been subjected. The drawing shows samples of piling for plate, T, girder and bar-iron ; the deeper shaded inner outlines representini: finished sections. The harder and more granular kinds of iron are worked almost exclusively under the ham- mer, the rolling-mill being only used in giving the proper figure to the bar at the finishing stage. The great improvement in the strength of malle- able iron by the processes of piling and rolling has been more satisfactorily established by experience than explained by theory. One obvious effect of the violent compression between the rollers is the squeez- Cylinder. Boiler. Tubes. Dia. of Duty of Style of Engine. a? A Xi Engine g Bore. ? Dia. bo No. Dia. ^' Drum. lbs. ^ M a ^ r r r a; . 6 6 8 32 63 41 2 39 10 5 1800 1 S wi i One Drum. 10 7 10 34 72 49 2 48 12 1 3000 t. ^■'3, o > w 12 "> 10 36 72 55 2 48 12 ;S 0) 3000 o J "3 £ ^ r ( 12 6 8 36 78 55 2 54 12 f 3600 Engii ccted e era aft. One Drum. ( 20 7 10 40 90 85 2 60 "1 6000 W 1§" Two Drums. 12 6 8 36 78 55 2 54 -1 1800 L O 2 L ( 20 7 10 40 90 85 2 60 3000 Double Vertical ( 6 6 8 36 78 55 2 54 10 o| 1800 Independent Engines. "i 10 7 10 40 90 85 2 60 .2 ^ 12 Q 3000 ing a cone friction single drum. The engine is de- signed for either portable or stationary purposes, and is constructed either with or witliout wheels. The drum is loose on the shaft, having a conical friction clutch which is thrown into or out of contact with tlie large gear wheel by means of a hand lever oper- ating a spiral sleeve on the drum shaft. The drum, in lowering, revolves back free of the gear, and is con- trolled by a strap brake lined with wood, operated by a foot lever. A relief valve is also fitted to the engine, which allows it to back down with llie load. This style of engine is the favorite in the United States for land pile driving machines. It is also well adapt- ed for other kinds of work where speed in lowering is required. Tlie engine may l)e made eitlier vertical or horizontal, single or double cylinder, eillier con- nected or in(h-pendent of each other, and witli simrle or double drums. The foregoing table shows the power required for a specified duty. See Ounjmrdir- hnmmir. PILETUS. A kind of armor formerly used, having a knob u])on tlie shaft, near the head, to prevent it from penetrating the object aimed at too deeply. mg out of slag, which is liable to become entangled in the iron during hammering and rolling of the balls taken from the puddling-furnace. Tlie occur- rence of small masses of slag in malleable iron is not an uncommon cause of weakness, each particle of slag giving rise to a flaw in the metal. In the process of reheating the bars this slag is melted, and may then be squeezed out by the action of the rollers. A marked diminution in the proportions of carbon and silicon present in the iron is also effected during the process, as shown by the following results of chemical analysis: In 100 parts Carbon. Silicon. Puddled bar 0.2'.l(5 0.120 Best bar 0.111 0.088 This may be explained by the action of the oxide of iron formed upon the surficc of tlie bar during exposure to air at a weldiiig-lieat. The rolling of several bars into one single bar would n'luler the sinicliirc of the iiK'lul uniform, so that the bar would be equally strong throughout. PIUNO OF UALL8. 525 PILLAB CEAME. During the opcriUion of liifintiiii;, or piling and rolling, the iron iicfjuircs ii n'lniirkablc til)roiiK str.ic- lurc, so tliut if 11 bur of tin; best iron be nolclicd willi a cluHfl, and broken across by a steady pressure, the fracture will present a stringy appearance, resem- bling I hat of a green stick; whilst a puddled bar thus Ireateii would exhibit a crystalline, sliiningfrac- ture, not uiilik(; I bat of cast-iron. That this iirrre, or reed, as the librous slru(-'ture is sonietirnes called, should nuiterially incn^ase the resistance of a bar to any Iransverse strain, can readily be believed, for Bueh a bar n'send)les a bundle of wires lirinly bound together, wbilst a crystalline bar must be regarded as composed of a number of particles of iron stuck together in a confused Miauuer. See /run. FILING OF BALLS. Balls are piled according to kind and calil)er, under cover if practicable, in a place where there is a free circulation of air, to facil- itate which the piles should be made narrow, if the locality permits; the width of the bottom tier may be from 12 to 14 balls, according to the caliber. Pre- pare the ground for the base of the pile by raising it above the surrounding ground so as to throw off the water; level it, ram it well, and cover it with a layer of screened .-land. Hake the bottom of the pile with a tier of unserviceable balls, buried about two-thirds of theirdiametcr in the sand ; this base may be made permanent ; clean the base well and form the pile, putting the fvise-holes of shells downwards, in the intervals, and not resting on the shells below. Each pile is marked with the number of serviceable balls it contains. The base may be made of bricks, con- crete, stone, or with borders and braces of iron. Good and imperfect balls should not be used in the same base ; and, to avoid confusion, the unservice- able should be left vmpainted, or painted of a differ- ent color from the serviceable. To find the. number of hall« in a pile: Multiply the Bum of the three parallel edges by one-third of the number of balls in a triangular face. In a square pile one of the parallel edges contains but one ball ; in a triangular pile two of the edges have but one ball in each. The number of balls in a triangular n {n + 1) face is ; n being the number in the bot- 2 tom row. The sum of the three parallel edges in a triangular pile is » + 2 ; in a square pile, 2 « -j- 1 ; in an oblong pile, 3N4"2 n — 2,N being the length of the top row, and n the width of the bottom tier; or 3 TO — « + 1, m being the length, and n the width of the bottom tier. If a pile consists of two piles joined at a right angle, calculate the contents of one as a common oblong line, and of the other as a pile of which the tliree parallel edges are equal. To find the length of ii pile tchich shall hold a given number of balls, the width of the biise being fixed : A = the number of Imlls to be piled, n = the number in the width of the base of the pile, vi = the num- ber of balls in the length of the base of the pile; then 6 A+ n(n + 1) {n -f 1) m = 3 71 (ra + 1) In the table of the number of balls in a pile, on page .526, the second hne shows the number in a triangu- lar pile, the base of which is the corresponding num- ber in the lirst line. The other numbers show the contents of square and oblong piles ; the length and width of the base being in the upper line and in the left-hand column, respectively. For rifle projectiles : Divide the ntimber of pro- jectiles to be piled by the number in the triangular face decided upon, and multiply this number by the caliber in feet of tlie particular projectile to be piled. The dimensions provisionally adopted for service ritlc projectiles areas follows, viz: Total length, 3i calibers. Radius of head, Ii diameter of projec- tile. Windage, 0".O5. The cavity for cored shot and for shells is of a somewhat similar form to the exterior of the projectile, except that the bottom is rounded, and its size is so proportioned as to secure the pr(i[)er weight to the projectile. The following formulas are useful in connection with this sul)ject : For an ogival head of 1 diameter radius: Volume of head ^ D' X 0".3i(.W!)2. For an ogival head of IJ diameter radius : Vol- ume of head— I)''X 0" 44705. For an ogival head of U diameter radius: Volume of h(;ad = D' x 0".4942.'; (D =: diameter of shot. J Center of gravity of ogival hea/l ; Distance from i (r« + a") gi - 1^ gi +a a a' - r\ base = . in (r« + a2)ir — iy» + 2a « which g = length of head, r = radius of head, a = radius of head — radius of projectile. (Diam.;' Weight of eored slvjt ; Small calibers large 3 calibers Cradius)^ x 2.H. PILING OF BARBELS.— The following formute refer to the \i8ual manner of piling barrels in maga- zines. Vase 1. — Pyramid pile. 8 = 1+2+3 +;i- where 8 = number of barrels, n = number in bottom row. n (n+1) •••S = (1) 2 In an incomplete pyramid pile, n (n+1) {m — 1) m S = 2 2 n* — m*-\-n-\-m 2 (n-\-m) (n — mxl) = 2 ■' ''' where m = number in top row. Casel. — Where oft« end of the pile rests against an upright, and the top row does not touch the up- right. S = re« — nj2; where n = number in bottom row, and m number in top row. Suppose the pile continued till m = 1. Then, 8 = 2 (1+2+3. . . . +n) — 71 — 1 = n (71+1) - (?H-1) = (71+1) (n— 1) = 7i« — 1; (3) and in an incomplete pile, S = (71= — 1) — (m» ~l) = n* ~m' (4) Cojie 3. — If the top row touch the upright. S = 7i8 — m^-\-m (5) Case 4. — Where the barrels are piled between two uprights so that if bottom row = n, second = n — 1, third = n. and so on. If top row = re — 1, i.e. if top row do not touch the uprights, tn m S = mn = — (2n —1); (6) 2 2 where m = number of courses. When top row = n, i.e. when top row touches up- rights, S = mn — i (to — 1) 7» (271 — 1 ) + 1 = (7) 2 These results, being only calculated for piles of one barrel in depth, must of course be multiplied by the number of barrels in the dfpth of the piles. PILLAGE. — The act of plundering; that which is taken from another bj" open force, particularly and chiefly from enemies in war. 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VVliere tlie surrouiidiiii; ground in siilliciently firm the pro- portions of lliis foiiiidalioii arc ulioul as represented in (li(^ drawiiii;. On lilled ;.'ronnd. piliiif; (jr a lim- ber pliUform lienealli Ibe musonry, or bolli, may be necessary. 'I'licsc (lueslions can only be properly determined by a consideralion of the fact in eacli case. Keferrinj.; to the dravvinj;, A is the efjlnmn of the cran(% and 15 the boom earryinj; the upper block and revolvin;; nronnd the lixed mast or cohimn, A ; I) is Ibe musonry foundation ; 10. u heavy iron plate or rini; emlii'dded in the masonry near its bottom ; KF fouU' alion-liolts jiassini^ throu^jh this ring and also throu;;li the l]ase of the pillar. A, thus securely fast- ening; the latter to the foundation. The foundation, D, may consist of ordinary rubble masonry, covered with a cap stone, C, the upper surface of which should be dressed smooth to receive thebasf^ of the pillar, A. After the comjiletion of the foundation the ground surroundini; it slioidd be retilled and tlior- <)u;;'hly ]iacUed by r.'inunini; or puihllini. so as to as- sist the foundation in resisting tlie strains caused by the crane. The pillar or column of the crane is of cast-iron, and of simple but symmetrical design, its form being proportioned to the strains it has to resist. It has a broad base, thus giving it a good footing on the foun- dation and spreading the holding down bolts well apart. Fixed in the head of the column is a steel pin or pivot upon which rests the cross bead orj'oke. The latter is bushed with bronze and has proper pro- vision for lubrieatiim, so that the cross-head shall al- ways turn freely cm the pin. The boom or strut con- sists of two wrought-iron channel beams, well braced together and united at the upper end by a head cast- ing carrying the upper chain sheaves over which the chain passes to the running-block. The foot of the boom is supported vertically by two suspension rods, bung from the ends of the cross-bead, and its upper end or head is held by two guy rods, also extending back to the cross-head. The horizontal thrust at the footot the boom is transmitted totwo turned rollers, placed within the foot casting of the boom and trav- eling upon a turned path aromid the base of the column. The weight, botli of the boom and load, is entirely carried by a steel pin at the top of the colunni, and the friction of rotation is thus reduced to a mini- mum. a train of spur gearing provided with an automatic safety ratchet and with the Weston dlsc-brake for lowering, substantially as in the jib-crane, so that the load is always self-sustaini'd and cannot run down, nor the handles recoil on the operator. Low- ering is elTected by turning' thecranks backward, the load descending easily and smoothly so long as this motion is continued, but coming to rest if flie back- ward motion b(^ discontinued or the handles let go. Two changes of speed are provided. Swinging or rotation of the crane is effected by pushing or pull- ing the suspended load, an<l the con.struction is such that the maximum load can be easily swuug by one man. This type of crane is designed for yard use where there is no roof or ceiling to support the top of crane, and w here guy rods are objectionable. It is particu- larly adapted to railroad and wharf use, for loading and unloading heavy ordnance from cars or boats, and is a useful aildition to the yard appliances of any large foundries. They are constructed for operation by band, by power, or by direct steam, according to the rrr|uirements of the case. See ('rniceA. PILLENLICHTE.— Short cylindrical tubes of labor- atory paper, tilled with acomposition resembling that used in porl-lires. A countiTsLnk is formed in one end, at the bottom of which is placed a small disk of fulminate covered with a water-proof cap. The entire exterior is varnished. These are used to light the fuses of the life-saving and anchor rockets of the Germans. They arc put u]) in packages of twenty each. The following are the dimensions and weight: Total length Exterior diameter Depth of countersink in end. Time of burning. "Weight Inches. 1.55 0.623 0.1 Seconds. 45 Grains. 230 (S'ec fri'rman Ltfe-mving Rocket. Centi- meters. 3.93 1.58 0.25 The hoisting gear is attached to the boom near the column and rotates with the former. It consists of FILLES. — A name given to arrows in the twelfth century, according to the chronicles of Saint Denis. FILON. — A half-pike, 7 feet long exclusive of the iron, which was 18 inches. It consisted of a fir tube covered with parchment and varnished. Marshal Saxe proposed to draw up an army four deep, the two front ranks armed with muskets, and the two rear with both pilons and muskets. PILUM.— A formidable spear used by the Romans. It bore no resemblance to any other weapon of the same class, either lance, pike, or javelin. Each soldier of the legions carried two pila. The weight of the pilum caused it to be regarded rather as a spear than as a dart. PIS. — A short piece of wood or metal, generally with a head and hole at the other end to receive a key. There are many sorts used in army material. See Bolt, and Linth- pf'n. Fines.— To pinch a gun or other object is to move it by small heaves with a pincb-bar or handspike, without allowing it to turn on its axis. A piece is pinched one end at a time, the other end being chocked. The bar or handspike is placed ~as a lever, with the beveled side down, and the power applied at the other end by bearing down. PINCH BAB.— -\ stoiit handspike, of iron, with a round-beveled butt, turned up into a blunt edge for the purpose of catching under a gun or other similar object. It is used as a lever, by PINCHBECK. 528 FIBATES. pressing down, thus Jiimptng the gun forward a very short distance at a time. The butt end is of steel. The length of tlie biir is from five to seven feet. Those used witli tlie 15-inch gun are of the largest size, and weigh 53 pounds ; the shorter size weigh 26 pounds. See Mec/iinical Maneuvers. PINCHBECK. — An alloy of zinc and copper, in wliich the proportions slightly differ from those which constitute brass ; 3 parts zinc to 16 of copper constitute this material, instead of 1 part of the for- mer to 2 of the latter as in common brass. Pinch- beck, wlun new, has a color resembling red gold. PINDAEEES.— In the East Indies, plunderers and marauders who accompany a Mahratta army. Tlie name is properly that of persons who travel with grain and merchandise ; but war affording so many opportunities and creating so many necessities, the merchants, as it is all over the world, become plun- derers and the worst of enemies. PING.— The whistle of a shot, especially the rifle- bullet in its flight. PINTLE. — The vertical bolt around which tlie chas- sis is traversed. In the center-pintle carriage it is in the center of the chassis, but in the front-pintle car- riage it is in the center of the front transom. It is a stout cylinder of wrought-iron inserted in a block of stone, if the battery be a fixed one; or it is secured to cross pieces of timber bolted to a platform firmly em- bedded in the ground, if it be of a temporary nature. In casemate batteries the pintle is placed immediate- ly under the throat of the embrasure, and the chassis is connected with it by a stout strap of iron, called the tongue. Casemate carriages differ from barbette carriages in being much lower, hut their mode of construction is essentially the same. PINTLE- HOLE. — An oval-shaped aperture made in the trailtransom of a field-carriage, wider above than below, to leave room for the pintle to play in. PINTLE-HOOK.— In ordnance, a hook attached to the rear of the limber axle-tree bed of a light field carriage to enable the gun or ammunition carriage to be limbered up to it. In this position the gun forms a counterpoise to the weight that would otherwise rest on the shafts. In heavy howitzers and siege carriages formed with bracket sides, the pintle-hook is either a stiff or movable iron perch, attached to the top of the limber axle-tree, to which the gun carriage is limbered up by a hole passing through the rear transom. PINTLE-PLATE— A flat iron, nailed tohoth sides of the bolster, and through which the pintle passes. PINTLE WASHER. —An iron ring, thrcmgh which the pintle passes, placed close to the bolster for the trail to move upon, PIONEER. — A military laborer employed to form roatis, dig trenches, and make bridges as an arrhy advances, and to preserve cleanliness in the camp when it halts. Fornicrly, the pioneers were ordinary laborers of the country in which the army was, im- pressed for militarj- purposes; but now such persons are onl}' brought in as auxiliaries, a few men being attached to every Corps as a permanent bodj- of pio- neers. In the British Army one man is selected, for his intelligence, from every company. These pion- eers march at the head of the regiment, and the sen- ior among them commands as Corporal. Instead of a musket each man carries a saw-liacked sword, which is at once tool and weai)oii. Each liears also' an axe and two gun-spikes, other necessary tools be- ing distributed among them. There is something rather conllictin'r between the functions of the pion- eers and thosi^ ot I lie engineer force. PIONEER SERGEANTr— In the British service, the Kon-comniissioncd Officer who commands the pio- neers. PIPE BOX.- The cylindrical box in the nave of a wheel in which the axle-tree arm works, and in which is a recess for holding grease. A hard alloy, techni- cally known as " metal," composed of copper, tin, and zinc, is now used as the material for pipe-boxes in preference to cast-iron, on account of the less de- velopment of friction between it and the iron arm. PIPE-CLAY. — A fine clay, free from iron and other impurities, having a grayish.white color, a greasy feel, and an earthy fracture. It adheres strongly to the tongue, and is very plastic, tenacious, and infusible. The localities where it is chiefly obtained areDevon- .shire. and the Trough of Poole in Dorsetshire. It is also found in various places in France, Belgium. and Germany. This substance is much used by soldiers for the purpose of keeping their bufi belts, etc., clean. • PIPER GIN.— In this gin, the windlass is attached by placing it in windlass seats of peculiar construc- tion, and is secured in position by icf^jfrs attached to tne legs. The keepers are placed under the axles of the windlass. Two stay chains connect the pry-pole and legs at the upper brace-bands, and prevent them from spreading. They also serve to connect theparts for transportation. Two braces (upper and lower) connect and secure the legs when the gin is put to- gether, and serve to distinguish the right from the left leg — the long brace being permanently attached to the right and the short brace to the left leg. The clevis and clevis bolt are attached to the head of the prj'-pole with keyes which secure the clevis bolt when the gin is assembled ; double and single blocks, with fall, are used. This gin was designed by the late Captain J. W. Piper, Fifth artillery. Length of legs 13 feet 8 inches. Length of pry-pole 13 feet 8 inches. Weight of gin 365 pounds. Weight of windlass 88 pounds. Weight of block and fall. . . . 100 pounds. Weight of bail and dowels. .. 41 pounds. The parts are estimated to be suflicientl}' strong to bear a weight of of 5,000 pounds. The advantages of this gin are, its superior lightness and portability, and its great facility of being assembled, taken apart packed up, and transported. See Gin, and Mechan- icnl Maniurei:<i. PIQUICHINS. — Irregular and ill-armed soldiers, of which mention is made in the history of the reign of Philip Augustus. They were attached to the infan- try. PIRACY. — Robbery on the high seas, and is an offense against the Law of Nations. It is a crime not against any particular State, but against all man- kind, and may be punished in the competent tri- bunal of any country where the offender may be found, or into which he maj' be carried, although committed on board a foreign vessel on the high seas. It is of the essence of piracy that the pirate has no commission from a Foreign State, or from one belligerent State at war with another. Pirates being the common enemies of all mankind, and all Nations having an equal interest in their apprehen- sion and punishment, tliej' may be lawfully captured on the high seas by the armed vessels of any partic- ular State, and brought within its territorial jurisdic- tion for trial in its tribunals. The African slave- trade was not considered jiiracy by the Law of Na- tions; but the municipal laws of the United King- dom and of the United States by statute declared it to be so ; and since the treaty of 1841 with Great Britain, it is also declared to be so by Austria, Prus- sia, and Russia. PIRAMETER. — An instrument for measuring the power required to draw a gun carriage, etc., upon a road or track. See Dynaniometfr. PIRATES. Men, or .stpiads of men, who commit hostil-tics, wlielher by fighting or inroads for de- struction oi )iluudcr, or by raids of any kind, with- out conunission, wilhout lieing i>art and jxirlion of tlie organi/.etl hostile army, and without sharing (•(inlinuously in the war, but who do so with inter- milting returns to their homes and avocations, or wilh tiie occasional a.ssiimption of the semblance of peaceful pursuits, divesting themselves of the char- acter or apiiearance of soldiers — such men, or squads PIESCHEE SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. 529 PISTON. of men, are not public enemies, and, llicrclore, if captured, are not entitled to the privilcKes of priHonerH of war, but shall be treated Humnuirily as lii(;hway robbers (ir pirMtes. PIRSCHER SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. In this sysleni, the (iiri'iiili- is circular, and Ihi' dileh is oe- (•ui)icd liv two lines of works nuituallv llardiiuf; each other. 'I'lu! covered way and glacis are replaced by advaiiceil works. PISA REVETMENT.— A wall of clay built aj,'aiiist a slcipi- iu the followini^ manner : Common earth, mi.xed with clay and moistened with water, is kneaded until the particles will adiiere when pressed or squeezed totjcther. Sometimes (^hopped straw is ini.ved in the mass. A row of pickets, with the pro))er inclination niven to them, is driven aloufithe foot of the interior slnpe, the tups extcndinir a short distance above the height marked for tlie interior crest. A shallow trench about twelve inches wide is duf; in the |)arai)(t, behind the lini' of pickets, and a board laid horizontally on edf^e on the side ne.xtto and supported by the]nckets. The tempered clay is then placed in tlie trench and rammed. Successive layers are placed in until the day reaches the top of the board, the earth (if the jiarapet beinfj; carried up simullaneiiusly with the revetment. A second board is then plac^ecl upon the lirst, and the clay rammeil in, rising simultaneously with the parapet as in tlie first course ; and this process is continued until the top layer is on the same level with the interior crest. When the claj' has dried, the boards and pickets are removed.— See Jievetment. PISTOL. — The smallest description of fire-arm, and is intended to be used with one hand only. Pistols vary in size from the delicate saloon-pistol, often not si.\ indies long, to the horse-pistol, which may measure eighteen inches and sometimes even two feet. They are carried in holsters at the saddle-bow, in the belt, or in the pocket. Every cavalry soldier should have pistols, for a fire-arm is often of great Weight of powder, 40.'K) ip-n. Initial velocity OOii.OO feet. PISTOL GRIP. —A shape given to the small of the 1 stock in hhot-giins and rillcH, to give a betler hold I for tli(; hand. The pistol-grip has of late become (|uile popular and nearly all the recent model; of sporting arms embody it. See I'iiiUjl-rttrhlne. PISTON.- A device so fitted as to occupy the serv tional area of a tube, and be capable of reciprocation by pressure on eiiher of its sidi'S. It may be of any shape corresponding accurately to the bore of the tube; but the cylindrical form is almost exclusively I'mployed for both, as in the common pump and steam-engine. One of its sides is fitted to a rod, to which it either imparts reeiprocatory motion, as in llicsti'am-engine,orby which it is itself ri'clprocaterl, as iu the pump. In the former case it is termed solid, though generally not ri-ally so; but in the lat- ter, an aperture controlled by a valve permits the passage of the tluid from one side to the other dur- ing its downward movement. The piston usually requires "packing" to cause it to fit closely within its cylinder, and at the same time allow its free back- ward and forward motion. For this purpo.se its ends are usually fiirmedby two connected discs, or have a deejianiiular groove b<-tween them for receiv- ing the packing material, which may be hempen cord wound around it, or other somewhat expansible substance, which will not wear loo rapidly nor cause excessive friction. In modem practice, me- tallic rings, cut through at one side, so that their expansion may compensate for any wear, are largely employed in the steam-engine. The Cut on page 5.'J0 shows the plan and section of the t'ummerpiston. It is made large enough to give ample wearing surface, and with sufficient weight and careful distribution of metal, to secure strength, no extra weight being given for any other purpose. The piston consists of three parts, the piston proper, to which is fitted the tapered end of the piston rod Pistol-grip. service for personal defense, and almost indispensa- secured by a cotter, the chunk ring, and the follower, ble for giving an alarm or signal. Sailors, when | These parts are all dearly shown in the section. The Ixiarding an enemy's ship, carry each two in their plan exhibits the piston with its follower removed waist-belts. As earlj- as the reign of Henry VIII. lint showing in section the four bolts which hold it the English cavalry carried clumsy pistols called in place when connected. It will be noticed that the " Dao-s." The latest improvement on the pistol is I piston itself and also the follower are made con- the revolver. 'Y\\a phtol probably derives its name J siderably smaller than the cylinder, and that the from ihe word pMalln, which means "pommel," and , chunk ring is external to these and forms the bearing not from the word Pintiyn, for it appears not to have | surface, ^he chunk ring is turned up so as to be an been first made at Pistoja, but at Perugia. accurate fit. and is then adjusted so as to be perfectly PISTOL CARBINE. — A horseman's pistol provided | central by means of four stud bolts, which appear with a removable butt-piece, which may be secured in the plan and section: their outer ends have a eoni- to its slock bv a spring-catch, or detached, so that the weapon may be fired either from the hand or the shoulder. The pistol-carbine used in the United States, and particularly suited to the service of light artillery, has the following particulars : cal pciint which bears against the chunk ring, while the other ends are tapped into the boss of the piston and are provided with jam nuts. The center of the chunk ring is grooved to receive the cast-iron pis- ion ring which is pressed well outwards by several Length of barrel. Weight complete. Weight of )iroji-ctile, Pistol-carbine. i i • * 12.no inch. ' small spiral sprimrs spaced around the circnmter- .5.00 lbs. ence. The positions of these springs appear m the i.50.00 grs. , plan, and one of them is shown in the section. An PISTOS. 530 PITCHED FASCINE. additional packina; is provided by turning two small grooves in tlie clumli rinj on either side of tlie cen- tral piston ring. Tlie advantage of using a eiiunk ring is, that we can make a very exact Ht. and by using the central adjustment, secure perfect align- ment, and we obtain a greater wearing surface for the same thickness of piston because the cliunk ring is the same width as the piston itself and bears over ' its whole surface, whereas in the ordinary form a ' vertical hole or chimney (which is afterwards closed at the top), and the process of charring commences, beginning at the center and spreading all round until the whole pile is charred. A shifting screen is gener- ally employed so as to regulate the draught on the windward side, and small holes are made through the sods with a half-inch iron rod, these allow the vapor to escape and draw the fire to any side of the I)ile tliat may be desired. From seventy to eighty part of the piston, and the follower also, are turned down below size and do not bear at all. By this ar- rangement, also, whenever after long wear it becomes necessary to rebore the cylinder, we have only to turn up a new chimk ring instead of titling up a whole new piston. See Steam-engine. PISTOS. — Broad, short, double-edged swords of the fifteenth century, which do not differ materially from the anelacea. PIT. — The pit, in gun-casting, is usually a circular well, nineteen feet deep, and twelve feet in diameter; the walls are of brick, and the bottom, an iron tank of one-half inch sheet-iron, extending upwards eight feet. The mouth of the pit is provided with iron covers, made to fit closely to prevent escaping of heat from the fire built around the flask. During the cast- ing, the gas which is generated and passed out through the holes in the flask is ignited by dropping small (juantities of molten metal into tlie pit, and as soon after " cast " as possible, afire is built in the pit, about the bottom of the flask — wood and bituminous coal being used in sufficient quantities to burn four or five days; the mouth of the pit being covered, after tlie mass is thoroughly ignited. See Molding. PITAUX. — This term, sometimes written Petaux, was formerly used to distinguish those peasants who were pressed into the service, in contradistinction to .soldiers who were regularly enlisted. PIT BURNED CHAECOAL.— This description of charcoal is used in the manufacture of wliat is known as " pit gunpowder," and is found to be more suita- ble for filling fuses, port-fires, etc., tiian that made from retort-burned charcoal; it is also used for py- rotechnic compositions and other purpo.ses of a simi- lar kind. Charring the wood in a pile covered up with s^^aw and s<h1s is found to jiroduce a cliarcoal which will give to the gunpowder the peculiar qual- ities requir(vl for the before-mentioned purposes; the process employed isasfollows: Thewood is built upin a cone about 10' in diameter at the base and from .'"/to 7' in height, a vertical hole being left in the center of the pile or cone reaching from the bottom to the top, so as to act as achimney. Thewood is then entirely covered over with a layer of straw from 1" to .'>" in thickness, then a covering of charcnid refuse or sweepings from the store, if such can be obtained, -■ind overall a covering of sods with the grass side inwards. The pile is now fired by a few pieces of lighted charcoal being dropped to the bottom of the hours are required to char the whole mass, and as the charcoal produced by this process contains more of the wood)' fiber than the cylinder retort-burned charcoal, it consequently burns more slowly, is heav- ier, has a reddish tinge, is not so brittle, and has a more metallic sound when dropped. See Cliarcoal. PITCH. — A thick substance obtained by boiling down tar to the requisite consistency, either by itself or combined with a portion of rosin; it becomes solid on cooling, but is soon softened by the heat of tlie hand, in which state it is very adhesive. When of good quality, it is clear and hard. It is used in making carcasses, light-balls, kit, and smoke-balls. The term is also used in wheel-work, signifying the distance between the centers of two contiguous teeth. Pitch-line is the circJe concentric witli the circumference which passes through all the centres of the teeth. What is known as \\iepitch of a acrew is the inter- val between the points of starting and of arrival of a complete revolution of a screw, and consequently of the thread of a screw, which is traversed by the screw, or its thread, when it has completed an entire revolution. The pitch is therefore independent of the diameter of the screw. In rifling, the pitch is described as term resistance of the direct progressive motion of the projectile through the bore. This resistance varies according to the incline as well as the pattern of rifling ; for as the more defined the pattern the more the resist- ance, so the sharper the pitch the greater the rota- tion of projectile around the axis of progression, and conse(iuently the more difficult its initial and tlie slower its direct forward motion There are two natures of pitch, an increasing and decreasing pitch. See Tirixt. PITCHED BATTLE.— A battle m which the hostile forces have firm or fixed positions, in distinction from a skirmish. Sec Battle. PITCHED FASCINE.— Pitched fascines are fagots of dry twigs, covered over with an incendiarj' com- position, and used to set fire to buildings or to liglit up a work. The following materials and utensils arc re<iuired to make pitclieil fascines : Dry lira nrhex, about ..') inch diiuiutcr. or other light, <iimbustiblc wood; iron wire, about .0.5 inch diametiT ; four pickets, about 40 inches long and Ij inch diameter; cylindrical stickH. 20 inches long, Ij inch diameter ; 2 tracc-ropcH ; 1 rope for a capstan ; 2 leeem ; 1 mmill PITCHING FIKE. r,?,\ PLAIH. cord- 1 flat punch; 1 saie, or bill.hi>ok ; 1 block. To makp the fasrincs, form two r-rnlclica, 1 foot apart. will] llic 4(l-iM<'li pickcis; cut llic lir:incMcs 'iO iiir'lics loiii;, anil lii'llicni in llic miildlc of their l(ii;;lli, ami iil)oiit 'i inchijH from their enils, with aiineiih'il wire, aiul place inthi^ axis a cylindrical slick, inteii(h'il to preserve a vacant siiace; draw the hriiiiches tijrhtly tOfietluT, that they may hold the composition better, undent olT the ends scpnin^ Tlie fascines receive two coats of composition, wiicn pitched. ViiT tile first coat, melt 20 parts of pitch and one of tallow in the pots, tillini; (lii'rn not moretliMii half foil. ILaviii^ tirst well oiled the cyl- indrical stick, plunf;etlie fasi'inc into the liquid with the fork, tirst one end and then the other, each time pouring on the upper end two ladl<'fiils of the com- position. Let the composition iiardcn, holding the tascine over the pot, turning it slowly and tlien im- merse it in the toll of water. The assistant, with his hands covered with oil, fashions the fascine, rolling it on the bottom of the tub, and places it on the planks. The second coat is ])ut on 24 hours after the first ; it is composed of eipial parts of pitch and rosin melt- ed and mixed together in the pot. The cylindrical stick is taken oiii, and the fascine immersed in the composition, as with the first coat; it isjiermitted to drip, and is then hiid in saw-dust, and jiowdcred all oviT with it. A fascine requires about I.l pound of each composition. Fascines should be iirimcd only a short time before being used. For this purpose, dip each end, for a distance of half an inch, into a kettle holding melted rock-fire. When used for incendiary purposes, fascines are placed in piles, and pieces of quick-match and port- tire scattered over them, to make the whole mass take tiri! at once. See Fireworki:. PITCHING FIRE.— Fire is pitching when the shot is projected against an object, covered in front by a work or obstacle, the ordnance being tired at full charge. PITCHINGTENTS.— There isan art in pitching a tent, and the men of a regiment should be instructed from time to time how to [litch their tents and to strike them ready for a march; but they will soon come to know how to do so, even if they have had no previous experience, when once they enter on camp life. The following is the proper method of pitching the ordinary wall tent : After selecting a suitable spot, place the ridge pole, A B. upon the ground, approximately beneath its place when in position. iJrive pins at A and B. From .! and B -^ 0+— •— -1 F continue A B to C and />, by stepping one pace from each end. From Cand D make four paces at right angles with C D on each side, and determine the points E, F, O, H. At these points drive the corner tent pegs. By following these directions the tent may be promptly pitched and will make a beau- tiful appearance, every portion of canvas being in proper position and free from wrinkles. An impor- tant point to be <ibserved in pitching a tent is not to dig in.side but outside of it, viz., to use such means, in case of rain, that water shall not flood the tent. This, however, cannot always be prevented, but a drain dug all round the tent to the lowest ground may save a flooding. Then, again, to secure a tent from being blown down, the comer ropei) «liould be bushed. PITS. -Military pits, whether round or square, should lie so arranged as to cause an advancing enemy as much delay and annoyance as possible. They are usually made about six feet in diameter at top, and about one footat the bottom, and are placed so that the (centers shall be about ten feet apart. They shall be placi-d in rows, at least tliree in num- ber, the jiits being in (piincunx order. The earth obtained by the excavation, should be heaped up on till' ground between the pits. Shallow pits should not be deeper than about two feet, so that the enemy could not obtain shelter by getting in them. They should cover the ground in zig-zag arrange- ment, the upper liases being made square or rect- angular in form, and in contact with each otlier. The side of the upper base should be made about (■(lual to the depth of the pit. The earth obtained from the holes is thrown in frontof the arrangement, making a glacis. See Trimx-ile-lf/ap. PIVOT.— The soldier or guide upon whom a line of trooiis whcelSjOr partly wheels. The pivot is eiUier fixed or nK/nnhh. In a wheel on a movable pivot the radius is: F'or a column of tiles 2yards. For a column of twos, fours, or double col- umn of fours 3 " For a phitDon 6 " For a coinp;Lny 12 " PIVOT BOLT.— The axis of horizontal oscillation. A traversing platform passing through the pivot tran- som and the front sleeper of the platform. PIVOT FLANK.— When a regiment is drawn up in column right in front that is, when the company which stood on the right, when in line, is in front the left-hand man will be the pivot flank of each company. When the column is left in front, the right-hand man will be the pivot Hank of each com- pany. PIVOT GUN. — A cannon which turns on a pivot in any direction. PLACAGE.— In fortification, a kind of revetment, which is made of thick, plastic earth laid along the talus of such parapets as have no mason-work, and which is covered with turf. PLACATES. — In ancient armor, small plates placed in front of tlie shoulders. PLACE DU MOMENT.— When the operations of an army render it necessary that a position should be fortified and occupied for the whole campaign, the works assume more importance, and many consist of forts having five or six bastioned fronts. Such a fort is called a place du moment. PLACES-OF-ARMS.— The covered-way, from the direction given to the counter-scarps of the enceinte and outworks, forms a line of communication with salient and re-entering parts. The salient portions are termed nalient places-of-arms -. and the re-enter- ing^parts the re-entering places-of-ariiin. The salient places-of-arms result from the general plan of the covered way ; but the re-entering place.s- of-arms are formed by changing the directions of the two branches where they form the re-enterings, so as to make a salient within the re-enterings ; thus enlarging the covered-way at these points, and producing a flanking arrangement, by which the glacis can be swept, and a cross-fire be brought to bear on the ground in advance of the salients. See (>iitwi>rk.i. PLAID. — A woolen shawl of a tartan pattern, worn over the shoulder by the Scotch lUglilanders. and still worn by Highland regiments. PLAIN. — in geography, an extensive tract of coun- tni- which, on the whule. preserves a nearly uniform ekvation. When referred to the level of the sea. plains may be distinguished into low plains or low- lands, and elevated plains called plateaux or t^bk- ltin<i,<<. Plains differ much in appearance, according to the nature of their soil and the climate, from PLAIN CLOTHES. 532 PLAIN COMPASS. the frightful sandy wastes of Africa, to the luxuriant fertility of the South American silvas. They are oc- casionally crossed by hills of moderate altitude, which, however, are i;enerally detached, and exhibit no connection witli any neighborins; mountain sys- tem. These hills often, as "in tlie North American Plains degenerate into mere undulations, quite uni- form in structure. The term " Plains " is, in a limited sense, confined to the Plains of Western Europe ; those of other parts of tlie world receiving special designations, and diilering from each other in many important points thus we have the Steppes ot Eastern Europe and Asia ; the Deserts of Arabia and Africa ; tlie Saennnafis and Prairies of North America ; and tlie Llanos. Pampas and Silvan of South America. The chief Plains of Europe are, the country stretch- ing from the foot of the Carpatliians in Galicia to the Ural ^Mountains, including Poland and Russia, the drainage area of the Danube in Hungary, and the portion of Europe which is bounded by the Elbe, the Hartz mountains, France, and the sea. Plains of comparatively small extent, but presenting the necessary characteristics in perfection, are found in almost all countries. PLAIN CLOTHES.— A citizen's every-day dress, as applied to an officer not in uniform; tliis dress is also known liy the familiar name of mufti. It is left to tlie discretion of General Officers Commanding, to permit the use of plain clothes for the purpose of recreation : otherwise all Officers must appear in uni- form in camp or quarters, or when attending public lialls witliin the district iu which they are quartered. PLAIN COMPASS.— The plain compass, as shown in the drawing, lias a 6-inch needle, and is furnished with levels, sight-vanes, socliet, etc. The compass- box is in the same piece with the main plate, and the instrument is used mainly in the surveys of new lines, or in tlie preparation of maps, where i.be variation of the needle is not recjuired. To adjust tlie compass, first bring the bulibles into the center, by the pressure of the hand on dilTerenl parts of the plate. and then turn tlie compass half-way around; should the bub- bles run to the end of the tubes, it would indicate that those ends were the highest; lower them by tightening the screws immediately under, and loo.seu- iiig those underthe lowest ends until, by estimation, tlu' error is half removed ; level ti)c pliite iigain. and repeat the first openition until the Imlililes will re- main in lUr center, during an entire revululion of the compass. The siirhts may next be tested by ob- serving through the slits a tine hair or thread, made exactly vertical by a pluinli. Should the hair ap- pear on one side of the slit, the sight must be ad- justed by filing off its under surface on that side which seems the highest. The needle is adjusted in the following manner : Having the e_ye nearly in the same plane with the graduated rim of the compass- circle, with a small splinter of wood or a slender iron wire, bring one end of the needle in line with any prominent division of the circle, as the zero, or ninety degree-mark, and notice if the other end cor- responds with the degree on the opposite side ; if it does, the needle is said to "cut" opposite degrees; if not, bend the center-pin by applying a small brass wrench, furnished with the compasses, about one- eighth of an inch below the point of the pin, until the ends of the needle are brought into line with the opposite degrees. Then, holding the needle in the same position, turn the compass half-waj' around, and note whether it now cuts opposite degrees ; if not, correct half the error b_v bending the needle, and the remainder by bending the center-pin. The operation should be repeated until perfect reversion is secured in the first position. This being obtained, it may be tried on another quarter of the circle ; if any error is there manifested, the correction must be made in the center-pin only, the needle being already straightened by the previous operation. When again made to cut, it should be tried on the other quarters of the circle, and corrections made in the same man- ner until the error is entirely removed. and the neetlle will reverse in every point of the divided surface. In using the compass, the Surveyor should keep the south end towards his person, and read the bearings from the north end of the needle. He will observe that the E and W letters on the face of the compass are reversed from their natural position, in order that the direction of the line of sight maybe correctly read. The compass-circle being graduated to half- degrees, a little practice will enable the surveyor to read the bearings to quarters or even finer — estimating with his eye the space bisected by the point of the needle, and as this is as low as the traverse table is usually calculated, it is the general prac- tice. Sometimes, however, a small vernier is placed upon the south end of the needle, and reads the circle to five minutes of a degree — the circle being in that case gra- duated to whole degrees. This contri- vance, however, is quite objectionable on account of the additional weight imposed on the center-pin, and the difficulty of reading a vernier which is in constant vibration ; it is therefore but little used. To take angles of elevation.— Having first leveled the compass, bring the south end towards you, and place the eye at the little button, or eye-piece, on the right side of the south sight, and with the band fix a card on the front surface of the north sight, so that its top edge will be at right angles to the divided edge, and coincide with the zero mark ; then sighting over the top of the card, note upon a flagstaff the height cut by the line of sight ; then move the staff up the elevation, and carry the card along the sight until the line of sight again cuts the same height on the staff, read off the degrees and half-degrees passed over by the card. For angles of depression, proceed in the same manner, using the eye-piece and divisions on the opposite sides of the sights, and ri':uliiig from the top of the sights. When the instrument is to be used in making new surveys, the vernier should be set at zero and securely clamped by screwing up the nut beneath the plate. In surveying old lines, the change of the variatidn of the neeilU^ should be a.s- eertiiined by setting llie etmipass on some one well- deliued line of the tract, and making the bearing to agree with that of the old survey, by moving the circle as already described. Then the circle can be clamped, and the old lines retraced from the bear- FLAN. 533 PLANE OF DEFILEMENT. in|»(i Riven liy tlic firifriniil Siirvcy'ir. When the vii- riiitiiin of the lU'cdlc is Idiown.il ciin be ciisilysct olT by llic vernier, niid IIk^ cDiiipuHH used to run a true nii'riiliiiii by Ibe iiei'dle. A little eaiition in neeessiiry in bandling tlio eoni- pass, tbat llie ulass eoverini; be not excited by t be frietion of elotb, sillt, or tlie Imiul, so as to atlniel the needle to its under surface. Wbr^n, however, the ijjlasM bocomps electric, tlu' tliiid nmy be reiTioved by lireathini; u])on il, or to\icliini; ililferent parts of itssMrfu<'e vvitli the moistened lln;;er. An iffiiorance of this appareiUly trillini; matter has caused many errors and perplexities iiithe practice of the inexper- ienced Surveyor. The railroail compass is an instrument of the liij;liest grade, in which by the addition of a diviileilliml)and verniers the Surveyor is enabled to take anjrles, and run lines unalleeted by the imperfections of the mni;- netic needle. The vernier compass has a neat compass-circle, to which is attached a "vernier," movable about a com- mon center a short distance in either direction, thus enabling; tin; Surveyor to set the zeros of llie<'ircle at any required an<;le with the line of sii^bts; the num- ber of dcjfrecs contained in this anirlc or the " varia- tion of tiie needle" Ueing read off bj' the vernier. See S'llirr Ci)mpass. PLAN. — The representation on paper.on a reduced scab', by means of conventional siiins and jirocess, of any jiortion of the earth's surface. In fortilication, a ]ilan shows the tracinji, also the horizontal lengtlis and breadths of the works, the thickness of the ram- parts and parapet, the vvidth of the ditches, etc. It exhibits the extent, division, and distribution of the works, but the depth of the ditches and the height of the works are not represented in tlie plan. See I'ldii of ('iiinpiiiffii.Hnd Plan af Defenxv. PLANE. -1. A surface without curvature, and the test of it is, that any two points whatever being taken in the surface, the straight line which joins them lies wholly in the surface. When two planes cross or intersect one another, their comniiui section is a straight line; and the inclination of the planes to each otlier is measured by taking any point in their common section, and drawing from it two straight lines, one in each plane, perpendicular to tlie com- mon section ; the angle contained by these lines is the angle of inclination of the planes. When the angle is a right angle, the planes are perpendicular to each other. 2. A tool used for rendering the surface of wood smooth and level. It consists of an oblong block of wood or metal (the latter has only recently come into use), with an opening through the center; this open- ing is square on the upper side, ami is always large enough to admit the cutting instrument ; it dimin- ishes down to a mere slit on the vuider side, just wide enough to allow the cutting edge of the plane-iron and the shaving of wood which it cuts otf to pass through. The essential part of the tool is the plane- iron, a piece of steel witli a chisel-shaped edge, and a slot in its center for a large- headed screw to work and to attach to it a strengthening plate. They are held in place by the hard-wood wedge. By driving in the wedge, the irons are held very firmly in their plai-e. and they are so adjusted that only the tine sharp chisel-edge of the cutting-tool [irojects through the slit in the bottom of the body of the plane, so that when the too! is pushed forward by the force of the hand, the cutting edge pares off all irregularities, until the wood is as smooth as the under surface of the plane. There are many modifications in this tool, which can have its cutting edge and under sur- face made to almost any contour, so tliat mouldings of all kinds may be made. The two commonest are the jack-plane for rough work, and the smoothing- plane f<ir tinishing off plane surfaces. See Pianiiig- mai'hiiu, PLANE OF COMPARISON.— A plan of a fortress, tud of the surroundini; countrv, on which are ex- prcBsed the distanccH of the principal points from a liorizontal |)!ane, imagined to paHs through the high- est (jr lowest points of (rroimd, in the Hurvey. This imaginary plane is cidhd a plane of comparisim. PLANE OF DEFILEMENT. A plane, which con- taining the interior crest of a, work, passes at lensl I'ight feet abovir those points to be sheltered, and at least live feet above the grounil which can be occu- pied by an enemy within cannon range. The amount of space in rear of a i)arapet which is reipiircd to be defiladed, depends upon circumstances. In some cases, the entire s])ace enclosed, and in others only a part, is to be protected from this tire from a com- manding height. Thus, it is usual to require that the whole interior space of an enclosed work should be defilaiU'd; that the interior as far as the gorge slioiild be defilade<l for a lialf-enclosed work; and that so much of the interior,or so much of the terre- plein behinri tlie parapet as may be necessary for the free movements of the defense, should be defil- aded in ojien works or lines. It is not convenient in practice to place the eve at !i distance of eight feet from the ground, nor" is it an easy thing to judge, from a distance, what should be the position of a point which shall be live feet above the ground. The method used is to place the eye at a convenient distance from the grounil, observe tlie highest point of the top of the hill, and determine the position of a visual plane tangent to the hill. Knowing the position of Ibis visual plane, a second plane is passed parallel to it and five feet above it. The tangent visual jilane is known as the rampant plane, and the plane parallel to it is the plane of defilement. The position of the rampant plane and the plane of <letilemeiit may be fixed as follows: To illustrate the method, a redan is sup- posed to be the lield work which is to be built, upon a position commanded by a neighboring height, and that the salient and extremities of the faces are marked by upright poles planted in tlieground. The trace marked, the next step is to profile the work, imd this requires the height of the interior crest to be determined. Two stakes, at a convenient dis- tance apart, are erected ttpon the gorge line; if not too far apart, the poles already erected to mark the extremities of the faces may be used. A line, three feet from the ground, is marked by a strip of wood having a straight edge, or by a cord tightly stretched, and fastened to these uprights. An observer is placed in rear of this line; he sights along it and tan- gent to the hill, and determines where the visual plane containing this line cuts the pole placed at the salient. This point is carefully marked, and with the line joining the two ujirights on the gorge line, fixes the position of a plane tangent to the hill and three feet above the ground at the gorge. If on the three posts, points be marked, five feet above the points of intersection of the posts by the rampant plane, these will be points of a iilane which will pass eight feet above the ground at the gorge and five above the ground at the top of the hill. If the faces of the redan are held in this [ilane, the whole inter- ior of the redan will be defiladed from this hill, and the last plane determined will be the jilane of defil- ade, or defilement. The extremities of the faces at the gorge have parapets of the ordinary height, viz., eight feet; the parapets from these points, increase in height until the salient is reached, where the height is the greatest. The height of the interior crest can then be determined, at the points where the profiles are to be placed. The site being level, there is no reason why any one part of the interior crest should be higher than another. It is neverthe- less the practice, even in this case, to give addition- al height to the parapet at a salient, not for the purposes of defilading the interior, but to lessen the elTect of any enfilading fire which an enemy might obtain upon the faces, and to allow for the descent of the trajectorj- of a projectile which might graze the interior crest at the salient. PLAWE OF ITKE. 534 PLANE TABLE. A slight deviation from the method just described is made when the worl{ to be defiladed is a lunette, instead of a redan. Two uprights, about twelve feet apart, are planted upon, and near the center of, the gorge line. A third upright is placed in front of the gorge and ten or twelve feet from it upon the line "joining the center of the gorge line with the salient. The points are then marked where the rampant plane, three feet above the ground, cuts these three uprights and the uprights planted at the salient, and at the shoulders. A distance of five feet is marked above the points just determined, and this will fix the position of the plane of defilade for the lunette. See -Defilement, Direct Defilement, and Bi^i-erse Defilement. PLANE OF FIKE.— la Gunnery, a vertical plane thriMiijli the line of tire. See Pointing. PLANE OF SIGHT. —In Gunnery, a vertical plane throusch tlie line of sight. See Pointing. PLANE OF SITE.— The general level of the ground, or ground line, upon which the works are construct- ed,"i8 called the plane of site, whether that plane be horizontal or oblique to the horizon. PLANE OF SYMMETRY.— In artillery, an imaginary plane everywhere bisecting the space between the two cheeks of a gini carriage. PLANER-CENTERS.- Devices for supporting small work on the bed of a planing-machine. One of the two is provided with a worm and worm-wheel, by which tiie work may be rotated, so as to present each face in succession to the cutter: the other has gra|. hy and map drawing. As shown in the draw- ing, tlie plane table consists mainly of a drawing- board set upon a very firm tripod, and having upon its upper surface a movable straight edge or nlidaele., arranged either with sight-vanes or telescope, by which it may be directed to any given point, the line being then drawn on the paper along the edge of the alidade. A rectangular plate of brass to whicli is attached a small compassand two spirit-levels, is also shown, and serves both to level the table and when applied by the edges parallel n the zero points of the compass circle, to determine the magnetic bear- ing of the lines drawn on the paper, or tlie direction of the table itself. The table is made of wood ar- ranged in sections so as to prevent warping, and has an adjustable wooden roller at each end by which the paper is brought down snugly to the board, or upon which a long sheet can be rolled and unrolled at will. In place of the rollers, sometimes, and often in combination with them, a number of brass clamps as shown are used in holding the paper firmly. The plumbing arm shown in the figure has its end brought to a point, that it may be set at any given point on the paper, the plunnnet hanging from the underarm determining the corresponding point on the ground; the lower arm moves upon a hinge, an index on the side showing when the ends of the two arms are plumb with each other as applied to the table. The construction of the socket and tripod-head is shown in the drawing on page 53,5, in which n repre- sents the hemispherical concave metal cup fastened an inclined plane by which the slope of the work is regulated so as to give a taper, if required. The drawing shows an improvement in the device for dropping the worm out of gear, as in many cases it 's not needed, the''''by saving time. The dials are so drilled that they are calculated to plane any shape ♦hat is generally required, and for fluting taps, ream- ers, ste. by six screws to the wood top of the tripod, b the upper or convex part fitting nicely into the cup and clamped to it at will by the clamping piece c and nut d ; a strong spiral-ring in the hollow cylinder be- tween c and d, serves to hold the two spherical sur- faces of the socket together, and allow of the easy movement of the one within the other in the leveling of the table. The flange of the socket b supports the PLANE TABLE.— I'liiMc l.ibles may be >ised to deter mine dislanics and to note file fall of projeclilcs \n target-practice or firing for rang tabh' and is connected with its luider s\irface by three sciliiienis of brass, I wo of which are sluiwM at (W / iilso in topo- 1 these are brought down firmly upon the shoulder of FLANIMETEB. r)3r PLANI1I£T£B. the flanRd by ciipHMiii-licad Hcrows uh Hliown, or rc- leiiHiMl 111 will, tliiiM lUlowin;; llic |)laii(; table to be moved liori/.oiilally wlieii dcMircil. A set of tlirci' Icvcliiif^-xcrcws is Hoinctiiiics added for mon- aeeiir- alely leveling (lie (able, but ordinarily llie jiressure of tile liatiil upon it willi tbe Hoekel alone will be all tlial is re(iiiiri^d. Wlien clesired, a lanj,'cut movement in a/.iniiilli may also bc^ added. \VI:en estimlitinu; dislanee, if the target is on the water, a iwiut along the shore, the diHtance of which from the battery has been asorrtained, is selected so that a line drawn from it towards the place where the tirst grazes are expected to occur will be at right angles to the line of tire, or nearly so ; here one of the plane tables is placed. The other is situated as nearly in line with the larg<'l and battery as con- venient; sulliciently removed, however, not to be in- convenienced by the smoke. The two stations should be so situated that lines drawn from them to the tar- get will be nearly at right angles to each other. Their distances from each other and from the battery are known. The table is ailjusted with the small metal plate over the stake thiit marks the slation. anil leveled. The observer places his alidade on the pivot-pin, Bights carefully on a given point at the battery, and marks on the paper uflixed to the table IIk' direction assigned by the beveled I'dge of the ruler. The direction of the other station is noted in the same way, as is also the target and any stakiiB which may be jilaced in the line of (ire. V\ hen (lie cannon is ready to lire, a preparatory signal is hoisted at the battery ; se(Mng this, the observer points the alidade in tin; exiiected direction of the llrst graze. The signal is lowered and the gun fired. The instant the jet takis place, the sights of the alidade are aligned upon it, an<l the direction indicated by the beveled edge of the ruler marked ujion the paper, 'i'he lini' connecting the two stations is a base from which is determined the position of the fxiint struck and of tli(! battery. The ])rojeclion of this base on any scale will enable one to ascertain in terms of that scale the distances desired. After tlie firing, the tables are returne(l, the observations maileon one lalil<' transferred lo the other, and the intersections of llie lines lo(;ale the positions of the points struck. See . I h'lhiih . PLANIMETEE.— An inRtnimcnt for ascertaining the contents of all irregular plane figures. More than thirty years ago, OpjiikolTer, of Berne, invented an instrument of Ibis description, which seemed to fulfill all the rei|iiirements of the case ; but its cost and the practical dillicullies attending its use prevented its general adopliijn. More recently, Amsler-LalTon, of Scholfhauseu. devised a simpler and imich less costly instrumeni of the kind, which was exhibited at the Paris Expo.sition of 1807. The prin- ciple of each is nearly the same, the area being measured by a roller of given surface, the number of revolutions of which are in- dicated by a disc. The drawing shows the Amsler ])olar planimeter, whicii, in addition to the ordinary requirements of the instru- ment, is well adapted for measuring the area of iiidiriitirr (Ungrnm.i. To use the instru- ment, press the point A slightiy into the paper, n(jt clear through, ia such position that the tracer B will follow the desired line without bringing the roller C against any projection. The roller must move (ma con- tinuous flat surface. It is also well to fasten the diagram to a drawing-board, or soma other flat surface, by means of pins or springs, to prevent it from slipping. IMark a starling point at any point on the outline of diagram D. set the tracer on that point, and place zero on the roller so it exactly coincides with zero on the vernier E. Now trace the line, moving in tlic direction traveled by the hands of a watch, stop at the starting point and take the reading. 1st. Find the high- est figure on the roller that has pa.ssed the zero on the vernier, moving to the left, [^^--nJ whicli we will assume to be 4; now the ij o construction of the instrument is such, that IV j each figure on the roller represents an equal number of scpiare inches. 2d. Find the number of omipUUd divisions between four on the roller and zero on the vernier, which we will assiniie to be .5. 3d. Findthe number of the mark on the vernier which coincides with some mark on the roller, which in this I case may be (5. ^A'e now have the exact reading, 4,'^,,", inclies area. In measuring- diagrams of more than 10 inches area, add 10 to the result. To those wlio are familiar with the in- strument, it is not necessary to place the zeros together ; but take the reading as it is. and subtract it from the result. Should the second read- ing be less than the tirst. add 10 to the second read- ing before making the subtraction. If the area to be measured is very large, divide it by lines into areas of less than 20 si|uare inches, and take separate measurements. If the drawing is to a scale, multi- FLAinHG-MACHiHE. 536 PLANING MACHIKE. ply the result by the square of the ratio number of the scale. In using the Planimeter for indicator diagrams, and for which it is specUiUy adapted, we find the area of the diagram, according to the fore- going directions, whicli we will assume to be 2.48 ; we now measiire tlic length of the diagram parallel with the atmospheric line, which we will say in this case is 4 inches. Now divide the area by the length ; the quotient is the mean, or average height of the diastrara, in inches, which is .()3 inches : this we mul- tiply by the scale of the indicator, whicli we will as- sume to be 40 ; the product gives us 24.8 lbs. mean pressure on each square inch of the piston. PLANING-MACHINE.— Planing- machines have re- cently been much in use, by which both wood and metal are planed. In the case of those intended for wood, the cutting instruments are moved forw-ard over the wood by machinery in the same manner as in the hand-plane. The precision and rapidity with which these machines work have given great facili- ties for building, us one machine will do as nuich of tl first ; and this is repeated until the whole sur- face of the plate is reduced to the required level. However tedious this process may appear, it offers such facilities for metal working as were previously unknown. In" its usual form, the metaUlc object is dogged to a traversing-table and is moved against a relatively fi.xed cutler. In practice, the cutter is adjusted in a stock, and is usually fed automatically between strokes. The machine is variously constructed, and in sizes to suit the work in hand. The drawings il- lustrate the Pond machines of the latest patterns, and including novel features. Fig. 1 shows a 2fi-inch machine which is intended for light work. Its bed lias great depth and its length in proportion to the length of table is greatly in excess of usual pr.actice. The uprights have sufficient metal and breadth of liase to resist heavy cuts without jar when the tool is at the greatest height. The table is very thick, with three bolt-slots truly planed and pin-holes drill- ed and reamed, and receives back and forward mo- Fig. work as sixty men. The planing-machines used for metal are different in principle. A well-tempered, chisel-edged steel cutter is held in a fixed position, pressing downwards upon tlic metal plate, which is moved forward by powerfiil machiucry. The action of this movement is that a groove is plowed into the metal of the size of the steel cutter; when the metal has traveled its full length, and has made the tion from an open and cross belt through a powerful train of cut gears and rack. These gears are mounted on shafts liaving very large diameters and more than twice the usual length of the journal. These journals are carefully scraped together and straight surfaces scraped to surface plates. The automatic belt-shifter transfers but one belt at same time, thus obviating squealing of belts and jar of machine, it is groove complete, the downward pressure of tlie tool I entirely is removed, and by the action of the double screw which has carried it forward, it is riiurncd, and re- adjusted for another groove to be formed by the side discniuii'cl<'d fioin feeding apparatus and is irranged 1o llirow out 1" iliar llw reviTsing dogs on the lable wliich i an then lie run backward to exam- ine the work. The feeding device gives aulomatio PLANK B£V£TK£NT. 537 PLAN OF CAUPAIQH. feed in nil dircrlinns and is adjiistiililc from to J of an inch wide and takes no power exrept ul tlie mo- ment of feedin;;. 'I"ln' down and anixnlar fi'eds can be operated by hand, if more ennveiiieni, from bolli ends of I he cross-head as well as I he top of I he saddle. 'I'lie countershaft lias two pulleys, each lU inches di- ameter, by .') inches face for Ihe^i-inch belt and shonid make itlO revolutions every minute. Weight 5,000 pounds. Fig. 2 shows an 81-inch planer, designed for the heavier work. It possesses all the features above enumerated, the countershaft liavini; two ])nllcyscaeh 21 inches, by .') inches face for .'i-inch belt, and mak- lufj; 2iH) rcvdiulions a minute. The weii;lil of this machine is .'>('>, 000 pounds. See liotary IHiiner, and i^hiipinq-iniirjii lit'. PLANK REVETMENT. - Plank is an excellent ma- terial for rcvelnienis wliere dural)ilily and very great strenvclh are not re(piired. Tlu^ ease of working and eonvenicnc(^ of handling are its great advantages. When it can be easily obtained and can be sparetl for the purpose, it will always be used in works of liur- ried construction. Kevetments nuiy be maae with it by driving posts or pieces of scantling into the earth, three or four feet a])art, giving to them the sanu' inclination as the inl<'rior slope. Hoards, in a horizontal position, to retain the earth, an' then nailed to these scant- lings or posts. Or, the scantlings may be capped, and the boards having been cut into suitable li'ngths, placed in an vipri^ilit position, similar to the jiosts in the limber revetments. The moisture of the earth soon produces rot in the boards, and renders the revetment a very perishable one. See lieretment. PLAN OF CAMPAIGN. -^Before undertaking any military ojieralion, great or small, we should first sellle down upon some decidecl end to be gained : determine upon beforc'liand. as far as practicable, the steps to be taken to attain (»ir obje(!t. In one word, we should clearly see what we propose to ac- complish, in order that we may not go blindly to work and leave anything to chance. The inental process by which all that is here supposed is elabo- rated is ternu'd The huj nq nut tlic VUiti. nf Cnni-pn'tjn. In the first place, it stands to reason that this pliui should be so limited as to comjjrise only the leading strategical disjiositions, thus presenting only the out- line features, within which the mesliwork of the mi- nor operations is to be confined ; thus leaving ample latitude for all movements of detail and their execu- tion. Nothing could be more absurd than to pretend to dictate to the Commanding (General what he shall do from day to day: yet this has been (hme, and with but few exce])tions, with disastrous results. Once within the sphere of the enemy's operations, a Commanding (ieneral is no longer at liberty to do what he wishes, but what he best can. Marches, maneuvers, combats depend on circumstances for the most part imperative; decisions arrived at are often sudden, and brought about Ijy the attitude, re- sources, strength, and the tnora'.f of the enemy. The Commanding General shotdd have rnrti- hlnnrlie for carrying out the details of the campaign, the plan of which may have ticen deciiicd upon by a coimcil, but even this is far better left in the hands of him who has the whole responsibility of its exe- cution on his shoulders, and has the greatest interest in its success. It is with the aid of the general maps of a comitry, made to a small scale, as embracing a wider territory, that the general plan of campaign is marked out. All that is wanted for this object is that the map should contain the exact positions of the places upon it : the water courses, the mountain crests, the jirincipal lines of commimication, and the political and geographical boundaries. The less de- tail on such maps the belter they are for this pur- pose, as the mind is not distracted by them from I he main features. For all ])oints of detail topographic- al maps, on a large scale, are necessary. To these we have recourse when it is a question to choose an encampment; to decide upon u nulitary position ; to dispo.se an order of battle, elc. The plan of cam- paign lays down the points where the troops are to be assembled, the base and lin<' of operations, and th<! strategical points to be attained. The choice of the positions where the troops are to be assembled is not only diilatcd by the facility of sulisisting them, I although this is a point of great importance ; but by their sidtableness to deceive the enemy UH to the point on which wc; intend to make an advance, so that we nwiy take the initiative and follow up our blow with the most crushing effect. The advance, where practicable, should be made over rommoil- ious roads rather than upon narrow and obstructed byways. The nature of towns or defiles to be Ira- versed may force us to leave them on one side to lake byways, although bad ; for we overcome with le.ss difficulty material obstacles on our line of march than we can towns and defiles well defended. When an army can, in its onwanl movement, rest one wing upon a natural obstacle to an enemy, it will be well for it to keep as near that obstacle as practicable; because it will be better covered by the army, the front of which during the march occupies always several ndles in extent : at least so long as a battle is not imminent. When the two wings of the army are not supported in this way, the line of operations should cut the middle of the front of the army, in order that it may be efjually well covered on each side. There is one general nde both on the march and for battle, which i::, never to expose your line of operations; every disposition, on the contrary, should be tidten to cover it and defend it in the best possil)le manner. The plan of campaign for the de- fensive is usualh- termed the IhftiiMte I'lnn. It chiefly consists in deciding upon the character of the warfare to be adopted : one which will depend upon national traits, the resources, topography, and cli- mate of the country. The French, for example, make a defensive warfare by assailing their enemies; the Germans, on the contrary, carry on patiently a methodical defensive behind their own frontiers: the Spaniards have been seen to carry on an extermi- nating war of detail : whilst the Russians, under like circumstances, have laid waste whole provinces, and destroyed by fire their capital city, to deprive their invaders of every luaterial resource. .\ brave people, but not babituated t* privations, will not drag out a war by patient endurance, but will en- deavor to bring it speedily to a close by a few bril- liant actions ; its preferences will be for sledge-ham- mer blows, preferring the hazard of a great decisive battle, in which it may fall with glor}-, to a series of petty combats which only serve to exhaust the resources of the country without bringing about any decisive results. Carrying the war into the heart of the assailant's coimtry, or that of his allies, is the surest plan of making him share its burdens and foil- ing his plans. The courage and conduct of troops i are improved in this way, and the chances in their I favor increased. But to be successful, the party I adopting it must not be too inferior in strength, and the nature of the frontiers should favor it : as there would be too great a risk under less favorable cir- cumstances, and in these even it would not be pru- i dent lo advance too far beyond our own frontier. \ The army will chiefly depend for the supply of its i wants upon the zone "of territory adjacent to the frontier, and this should be desperately disputed, liy vmiting all its forces against the enemy's invading corps. If this succeeds, from the defensive the ar- my can assume the offensive. If unsuccessful, no- thing remains to be done but to concentrate all the troops possible and fall back upon positions selected beforehand, either of very great natural or artificial strength, as rivers, mountain-passes, fortresses, etc. In this manner the enemy is drawn forward into a region the devastations of which are upon his shoul- ders. The skilful .Montecuculi. in his memoirs, argues strongly for llie adoption of such a plan of PLAN OF DEFENSE. 538 PLANT. defensive measures; remarking that upon the ter- ritory of our enemy wc arouse tlic discontented, whilst the fountains of men, money, and whatever else war calls for, are only disordered and fail in this portion in which the war rages. PLAN OF DEFENSE.— The determination of the points on which resistance is to he made, those upon which we are to fall back in case of disaster, and the roads leading to these, in retreat; the dispositions of our forces at the outset so as to anticipate the enemy on every point; an indication of tlie points in rear of our frontier for concentration, so soon as the enemy has unmasked his projects; the mode of supporting our advanced corps and those of observation by cen- tral reserves; tinally, the designation of the points to be fortified by art, "bridges to'^be destroyed, roads to be repaired, etc., etc. : such are some of the objects upon which attention must be directed in any defen- sive plan. The suitable military dispositions in all suchplanswill be controUedby the local topography; it is, therefore, impracticable to lay dovi^n invariable rules on this point; the most that can be said is, that too great a dissemination of our force is always dan- gerous; therefore that, so far from attempting to de- fend every pass some must be abandoned to their fate, in order to effectually guard those whicli are most important and the more directly threatened by the enemy. If, instead of moving upon the latter, the enemy makes a show of gaining the former, he must be met by analogous movements, and our task should be to be in readiness to meet him by what- ever route he may arrive; and also with the most troops he can concentrate. It is from this cause that the configuration of frontiers, and the direction and nature of the roads by which they are approached, have so great an influence upon the defensive meas- ures against invasion. If these last are such as to permit our moving on right lines, from a center, upon the enemy maneuvering on the periphery, every advantage of mobility is on our side, and we ought to reach any point before the enemy. But, in any case, it is next" to impossible to close every pass. To do so would require a continuous line of troops, which, from its extent alone, would be weak at all points, and which an enterprising enemy would easily pierce at any one. Instead of attempting any such imprac- ticable plan it would be better to place a considera- ble force at some one favorable point in rear of our frontier, and, from there, take the chances of antici- pating the enemy on any point he may threaten by moving on him promptly. In advance of this cen- tral force, and upon its front and flanks, small bod- ies can be thrown forward to occupy the principal passes momentarily and give wiirning of the enemy's movements. These cfetachments, by retiring slowly and holding the enemy in check, will give the main body time to make its dispositions, either to advance or to receive the enemy at any point further back. With these precautions the main body will be se- cured from surprise, a:ud all the troops can be kept near enough to concentrate for battle. Such are the general defensive dispositions recommended by the highest military authority. It is readily seen that great discretion is necessarily left to tlie Command- in"- General, and th;it his measures should lend themselves to tlie local fitatun-s of his line of de- fense. All that is requisite that these should be good is that tliey should be based upon the simple idea of concentration. This is always preferable to a feeble continucms line, with separated bodies that cannot alTord mutual sii|)])ort; which are too tar re- moved from the supervision ol* the ('(iinnianding General, who cannot be everywhere, and which, ow- ing to the distances between them, cannot he ral- lied and concentrated in time when the line is pierced at any imint. With the foregoing disposi- tions there should be combined some suitable sys- tem of signals, or oilier means of Iransinitling in- telligence promptly from the interior line of delach- lucnts lothe niain'body. No Jiains should be spared to have this system as perfect as practicable, an(i not liable to mistakes. A position chosen on the direct road that the enemy must follow is not always the best tocheck with advantage his onward march; flank positions can also often be found of superior advantage for this purpose from which the enemy's line of operations can be threatened it he persists in neglecting this position. This is particularly the case when the force thrown on the flank is of such strength that the enemy dare not to leave it in his rear, "and therefore must attack and drive it back so that he may not expose himself to be separated from his case. In this simple manner the enemy is forced to give battle on a ground, of our own choice, and where we will have had time to make every defensive disposition. The searching out and establishing, on sound principles, flank posi- tions for concentration of troops, forms an essential feature in laying down anj' plan of defense. Having decided upon the most advanced positions to be oc- cupied, attention should next be directed to those of a secondary character, which will naturally be con- trolled by the water courses and mountain chains in rear of the first line. These will demand in their selection verj' careful study. The best of this class are those which have their wings or extremities- resting upon natural obstacles that an enemy can- not turn — as the sea, lakes, unfordable rivers, which, in some respects, overlook the lines of approach on them ; are accessible from the front only by a few practicable roads which can be easily guarded : the general outline of the position being convex towards the enemy, and in rear having good roads leading to all points of it, along which troops can be rapidly moved to any point in danger. Fortified places on a frontier will, of course, play an important part in any defensive plan ; even open towns, by properly covering them with field works, may give the means of effective resistance to any usual mode of attack. When these places lie upon a river, which is itself a line of defense, particularly wlien thej- occupy both banks of it, they afford great facilities for the operation of an army which can maneuver on either shore with safet}', so long as the place itself is not invested. Fortifications so placed completely pre- vent the enemy from using the river as a means of transportation, whUst they assist us in so using them; and, in most cases, they would therefore force an enemy to take all the known measures for gaining possession of them before he would dare to pass be- yond them. In whatever way a river may lie, which has fortified points on it, the disadvantages to an invading force are necessarily great. If parallel to our line of frontier an enemy cannot cross the river, leaving these occupied in his rear, without running the risk of a grcatdisaster. When perpendicular, he cannot with safety divide his forces to operate on both banks at once, as we have, by means of the fortified points, the ready facility of concentrating on either side at our pleasure. Without such strong points on it, a river, on the contrary, might be a posi- tive advantage to the enemy, by allowing liiin to se- cure one of his own wings from attack by resting it upon the river, whilst he would also thus facilitate his own means of transportation. As to military positions, properlj' so called, that is localities favor- able to accepting battle, great care should be taken in designating tliem on the [ilan of defense, and in preparing them beforehand for every eventuiility, by field works, lines of retreat, the removal of all ob- structions between the points of the position, etc. In every plan of defense, parlicular care should be talun in pointing out what reads shonkl be care- fully i)reserved, and which, in any emergency, may he broken up, or otlierwi.se obstructed. "These measures of deslruction arcalmosl always put off so late as to become impracticable at the" moment of need. PLANT.— In a military sense, to place or to flx; as til iildiitii utandiird. It likewise signifies to arrange FLAN. 539 PLATE-ABMOB. dilTerenl picccB of oriliiHiicc for the i)iirpoH<t of (loiiij; excoiil.ion UK'''''*'t "" •■■H'liiy '"^ ''i** work«; hence, t/i plant a hdlt' ry. Some iiiilliorH iipply this word to the act of direct ill;; ii ciiiiiioii properly. PLANTATIONS. '!><■<■« which are KometiineH pluiilcd "11 Ihi' ;;hicis of fortresses. Wlieii juiiiei- ously pliic<'d, they form a vahialile aid to the dcfeiiMe. First, ill tile wood lieiiii; uscil for tiiiilier, as they would be cut down when the place wjis aliout to he attacked. Secondly, in the roots of the trees which run under the glacis formiiii^a considerahle obstacle to the lie»ieu;er's sups. Care should be taken toleuvc a space of aliout 20 feet clear in front of the crest. This p.'irt will be of no use to the besie^cer, as the sap of his lod'j:riiem will probabjy be excavated <jiitside of it; and the defenders may liave occiision (biriiig the siei;e to cut rainp.s in it ascending from tlic covered way to facilitate sorties, or to construct lodiiments thereon for ritlemen. For the same rea- son it would he advisable to avoid planting any parts of the glacis where it is likely the defenders will have to excavate counter-approaches. FLASH. — A term coninionlv used to signify the in- terwc'aving of branches, as for gabions, (Tikes, weirs, hunlles. e>c. PLASTRON.— 1. A stiifTed pad or cushion, for- merly worn at the shoulder to sustain 'he recoil of heavy muskets and other lire-arnis, and still used by fencers upon the right side. 3. A brcast-platc or half cuirass. In the old French service, the (iens d'Arines, the heavy cavalry, the light horse, etc., were obliged to wear them on all occasions, at re- views, etc. Sometimes written J'lii.ttnii. PLATE. — 1. In Heraldry, a roundle argent. It is represented flat, and in the Heraldry of Scotland is known as a fiizant argent. 2. Metallic armor com- posed of broad pieces, and thus distinguished from mail. PLATE-AEMOR.— The employment of tliick slabs of iron to protect the sides of ships of war and the fronts of fortiticatiuns, is quite a recent invention : or rather, the modern system is the practical reali- zation ( f plans surrsrested long ago by Mersenne and others. In 1842, Jlr. Balmaiio, of New York, pro- posed that war-ships should be clad with several thicknesses of iron plate, riveted one iipon another, the plates being individually ^th inch thick. Soon afterwards, Mr. Stevens, an American ship-builder, made further suggestions on the subject, and other practical men kept the matter before the attention of thi^ aiilhorilieH in various coiintrieH. In 1854, the French sent several lloating-lmtterieH to the Hlack Sea, clad witli iron plates; and th<! Knglish Admiralty hastily iinilaleil this example, producing eight very slow and iiiimanagealile butteries in IH.'j.'j- ;j(i. Then laine in a llo(jil of Huggi'Slions for arming regular ships of war in a similar way. Tlie A(i- miralty, dismayed at the thought of dismantling the existing lleet, which hail cost so miieh, delayed the subject as long as they could, but without abandon ing it. In IHtiO, the French sent to sea /<« (lli/ire, a timber-built ship of war, altered from a !W-gun three decker to a 4i)-gim corvette, clad with 4J-inch iron plates having a burden of ;i,0()0 tons. This proceed- ing at once set the English Government on the alert they saw that further delay would be imprudent, and they set about the creation of an armor-clad navy. Many problems had to be solved — whether to case old wooden ships with armor; to build and case new wooden ships ; or to build new vessels, of which the hull as well as the armor should be of iron. Then arosit further jirobleins- how near the bulwarks should the armor-plates come, how near the bottom of the vessel, how near the stem and stern ; also, what thickness of iron, and whether the same thick- ness in every part. From IHtil to 18Tt!, the British Admiralty were en- gaged on a series of costly constructions and recon- structions, intended to alford eventually solutions to the above jiroblems. Several of t he shijis built have cost from t::il>l),OtK)to £45U,00Ueach : several half-tinislied timber three-deckers have been cut down and con- verted into iron-clads; and variations of detail almost innumerable have been introduced. Thefollowing isa list of English vessels which in 187G formed the Iron- clad Navy. Those wliicli an; wholly clad—/, e. covered with armor plates in all parts of the hull needing pro- tection—are the MinoUiur, Agincimrt, Xvrthumlier- laml, lioyal Oak, Prince Connort, Caiedonia, Oaan, Ijord Ciyd-e, Ijn-d Warden, Audacious, InviruibU, Prince All/ert, Scjrrpion, Wyvern, Monarch, Iron Duke, Sultan, Glaitun, CyelapH, Hecate, Hydra, Gor- gon, Dreadnought, Dnuxtatiun, Thunderer, Swiftmre, Triumph, Rupert, Jlotupur, Ilerculet, Indexible. Alex- ander, and tihannon. Those which are only partially clad — /. e. covered with armor-plates only in tlie more exposed portions— comprise tlie Black Prince, Warrior, Defenxe, Jie.v'ntance, Achillea, JlecVrr, VaU iant. Royal Alfred, Bellerophon. Zealvuji, Pallan, Favorite, Rexearch Enterprise, Viper, Vixen. Water. witch, Penelope. Regarded as to the material of which the hulls are mostly built, and on which the armor-plates are laid, the following are timber-built : Royal Oak, Prince Connnrt, Calednnia. Ocean, Royal Alfred, Zealous, Lord (Hyde, Lord Warden, Pallan, Favoritr, liexearch, and Enterprise. The Vixen is wood and iron: the Siriftsure and Trimnph are iron [ sheathed with wood; all the rest are iron. The ' dimensions and weight of these ships, laden with armor-plates from 3 t'o 24 inches thick, are enormous. The load displacement of five of them exceeds 10,000 tons each ; six, 9,000 to 10.000; four, 7,000 to 9,tM.O ; twelve. 0,000 to 7,000; seven, 4,0u0toU,0()0. Some of the steam engines for these ponderous ships, nomin- ally of 1200 "horse-power, work up to (indicated) 8000 horse-power. Whatever the thickness of the armor, the plates are nicely tongued and grooved to fit closely together edgewise. The bolts wliieli fas- ten them to the ship are generally 2 to 2J imhes thick, expanded at one end to form a head, andhav- ins a screw-thread at the other to receive a nut. It is not yet known whether the thickest armor will resist any shot that can be liurled against it ; whether, in o"ther words, the thickest practical ar- mor will overcome, or be overcome by, the heaviest practicable shot. Experiments at enormous cost have been conducted for some years to determine this im- portant (luestion ; a natural result has been that can- non are m;ide larger and larger, and armor-plates thicker and thicker, in the struggle between artillery FLATFORM-BOABD. 540 FLATFOKUS. and ship-building. The experimpnts (so far as Eng- land is concerned) have been conducted principaUy at Shoeburyness. The usual mode is, to construct a target resembling the armed sitie of one of the iron- clads, ani then to try to pierce it with shot fired from guns at various distances. A Warrior target, for instance, consists of a 4i-in. armor-plate, backed by 18 in. of teak, and an inner skin of :,'-in. iron ; while a Lord Wnrdoi target has 4i in. plate, 30 in. teak, and 1| in. skin. A few examples will serve to illustrate the method of proceeding. In August, 1866, a Warrior target was built up at Shoebury- ness — /. e., a target similar in strength and construc- tion to the side of that ship. Alderson's steel sliell, Armstrong's conlcle sliell, and Palliser's chilled-iron shell were tired at it from a 7-in. gun at 200 j-ards: the Palliser shot excelled the others, going clean thrtnigh the target, armor and all, and bursting be- hind. On another occasion, a Palliser 115-lb. shot went through the target even at an angle of 30*^ from the perpendicular. T[\e Lord WardenXavgeX has been pierced by 9A and 10-in. shot at a distance of 1,000 yards ; while the thinner Warrior target was pierced at 2000 yards. The Bellirophon and Herai let targets were more ponderous. At the end of 1878. the British navy consisted of 64 ships, afloat or building, of wliich 46 were efficient. They were divided into five classes, the first two of which contain only the formidable turret-ships. I'he armor of the first class comprising 4 ships, ranged from 12 to 24 in. in thick- ness : the Inflexible hasarmor from 16 to 24 in. The second class, of 9 ships, has armor from 8 to 14 in. thick. The third, of 16 ships, from 5 to 12 in. The fourth, of 4 ships, from 6 to 10 in. In the fifth class, 13 ships, the armor is from 4^ to 5j in. The last class comprises the two old iron-clads, the Warrior, Black Prince, and others. Armor-clad forts are also attracting attention. Iron has been used largel}- in the defenses of Plymouth and Portsmouth. In 1864, a line of iron-clad fort was built up at Shoeburyness, to test several modes of construction. In the same year, the Russian Gov- ernment employed the Millwall Company to build a w rought-iron shield. as an experiment for the defenses of Cronstadt. The front was made of 12 in. thick of iron in horizontal bars; this was backed by 14 in. of thickness in upright bars ; and the whole strength- ened with enormous struts, brackets, ribs, and dove- tails of iron. The shield was to form the facing or armor for a battery of three of Krupp's 600-pounder steel guns, and measured 43 ft. by 10. The shield, with its foundation-plate, weighed 140 tons. In one experiment at Shoeburyness, a plate 13 in. thick was placed in front of a mass of granite 14 ft. thick, and tired at with 200-poiinders; ifour shots cracked the granite, although the plate was not pierced. The Fig. 1. — Front View of ''Wiirrior" target, after practice witli COO-pouiider Armstrong Gun. Americans made an experiment in Chesapeake Bay, in September, 1866, on a temporary fortification, made of enormous granite blocks faced with 10 in. armor; shots of 4:M) and 630 lbs. were fired from the Hoilman guns, at a range of about S.'iO yards, and eleven such shots destroyed the whole fabric. The Thinirlerer was titled up as aliirgct-slii]iat I'ortsmoutli, ])artly to test very thick plates at very short distances. The plateu were fastened to an enormous bulkhead near one end of the ship, and the guns placed near the other end. On one special occasion, a Palliser 115- lb. chilled shot, with an extra charge of powder tired at 25 ft. ofT, went clean through a 7-in. plate and 45 in. of teak bulkhead. On another occasion soon after- wards, a nereides target, with a 9-in. plate, was tired at with an 8-in. spherical shot at 30 ft.; the sliot made a dent 2j in. deep, but did not further disturb the plate. The 24-in. armor of the Inflexible is divided into two 12-in. plates, with 9 in. of teak between — the theory of this arrangement being that the outer plate, even if pierced, will shatter the shot, which will then be stopped by the inner armor. Dr. CoUis Brown has suggested a system of sloping armored sides which would give a ship armor of 36 in. at any given point in a displacement not exceeding tliat of existing iron-clads. In the trial of the 100-ion Arm- strong gun at Spezzia, a steel armor-plate was fired at, and the shot, though it penetrated the plate, was stopped in the backing. Regarded as articles of manufacture, armor-plates were first produced mainly by hammering, several thicknesses of iron being welded one tipon another, Fig. 2. — Section of ''Warrior" Target, eliowing tlie hole made by the 600-[)ouud Shell, and displacement of the upper plate, a. armor plating, 43,i in. tliick (displaced) ; h. teak ijacking, 18 in. thick; c, boiler-plate skip. ?b' in. thick; d, wrought-iron beams ; e, platform. at a white beat, by blows of a ponderous steam-ham- mer; but it is now more customary to produce them by rolling than by hammering — pressure being con- sidered to produce more satisfactory results than per- cussion. Whatever the thickness of the slab is to be, operations are commenced with plates about an inch thick; these are heated, rolled, cut. piled up, heated and rolled over and over again, >mtil the required thickness is produced. The rollers are placed fur- ther and further apart, as the slab becomes thicker and thicker.' Some of them are truly enormous masses of metal, solid cylinders 8 ft. long by 32 in. diameter. At the Atlas works of Mes- rs. Brown & Co., Shefliekl (the chief manufactory for armor- platesj, there has been produced a rolled slab 17 ft. long, 7 ft. wide, and 14 in. thick, weighing 30 tons. At Grtiser, in Germany, some excellent armor-plates of chilled (cast) iron have been manufactured. For armor-plates, the metal is very scrupulously selected, and every part of the processes conducted with great caution. PLATFORM -BOARD. — A'side-board on an ammuni- tion carria:;c for forage. PLATFORM WAGON. — A carriage on four'wheels; having no sides, and used for the transport of guns, mortare, traversing platforms, and for every de- scri])lion of heavy stores. PLATFORMS.— To insure accuracy of fire with heavy nuns ;iiid mortars, it is absolutely necessary to have solid and substantial platforms. For case- mate and barbette batteries in forlitieafions, fixed platforms are constructed with the works. The bar- bette platform consists essentially of the pintle block, which is of irraiiite firmly imbedded in concrete ; in the lilock is inserted flic ]iintle, of iron, and around this is the friction plalc for the pintle transom of the chassis to rest upon. Traverse circles, of iron, form level and smooth tracks, upon which the traverse- PLATFORMS. 541 PLATF0HM8. wliccls run. »Tlic pinUc of iiciiscirmtr' carriiigp i.i iii- wrlrd in a hole in tlic .soli' of llic (•nil)ruHiirc, and i« liflcd oul wlii-n (lie clmssiH IH to bi; removed. The cliassis is ulliiclicd to it liy a tonf;iic, and is provided willi a front set of truverse-wlieeju. I'lalfornis for Bicj;e jjieccs accompany troops in llie field, and it Ih dcHir!d)Ie to Ijave tliem asliiilit as is compalilile with sidlicii 111 Htrenj;lh to endure llie shock of liriiii;. Tliose nsed in tiie United Stales Service conitiine. in a hiirh deiirec, tlie essential qiialilie.s of slren;;lli and portability. All the pieces coniposinf; them are of the sanu^ dimensions, and, as the w<ii:lit of each piece is oidy lifty jionnda, a soldier can carry one from the de])ot to the batteries, or any moderate dis- tance, in addition to his arms and eqnipmenls. An- other ])lalform for mortars is de.scrilied, which is very simple, atronii:, anil well snited to positions when' trees or tindier <'an bi^ easily pnanired. This is desii^nated the mil philfunn. \Vhen a n'w^t: );iin or liowilzer is to lie llred constantly in one direction, it is best to Ljive the platform an inclination to the rear. This prevents excessive recoil, and also serves to carry ofT water from rain. The dci^ree of inclination is not alisolule. When the piece is to be traversed over a wiile lielil of tire, the platform should be \WT- feelly level ; the recoil is then checUed l)y placini; a ban "f earth or a i)ile of sods at a proper distance (about live feet) behind each wheel. The followinu: is the method of laying the platform when it lias an inclinalion. To lay it horizontally, simply omit what is .said with reference to the slope : Tlie direc- tion in which the piece is to lire is established by stri'tcliimi a cord over the center of the ])lace where the platform is to be laid. This line is the directri.\ Fig. 1. of the platform. Prepare a bed for the platform by excavating the earth so that it will have the proper inclination to the rear and be perfectly level across. The earth, if not already firm, should be well rammed. Lay the outside sleepers parallel to the directrix, their outside edges being fifty-four inches distant from it. The four other sleepers are laid parallel to these, the edge of each fifteen and a half inches from the edge of the next. The upper surface of the front ends of these sleepers is fifty inches below the sole of the embrasure, and they are laid with an elevation to the rear of one and a half in<-lies to the yard, or four and a half inches in their vvliole length. Tliis elevation is delermined by placing a block four and a half inches high on tlie front end of the sleeper, and laying a straight-edge, with a level on it, from this block to the rear end: the earth is then arranged so as to bring the level true in this position. The next set of sleepers are laid against and inside of the first, overlapping them three feet, having the rear ends inclined outwards, so that the outer edges of the exterior ones sliall each be fifly-four inches from the directrix, and tlu' space between the rear edges of the oiuers the same as in the first set, viz., fifteen and a half inches from the edge of one to the edge of the next; all having an elevation to the rear of one and a half inches to the yard, and perfectly level across. The earth is then rammed firmly around the sleepers and made even with their ujipcr surface. The first deck-plank, with a hole tlirough each end for the eye-bolts, is laid in jilacc, perpendicular to the directrix, its holes corresponding with those in the sleepers. The luirler is placed on it, and the bolls driven througli the corresponding holes in these pieces. The jiurler should bi- so placed as to prevent the wheels from striking against the epaulcnient when the piece is in battery. If the interior slope lias a base of two- sevenths of ils height, the inner edge of the liurler should be two and a half inches from th<' foot of the slope. The other jjlauks are laid, each bi-ing forced against the jireceding, with the dowels fitting into llieir respective holes; the last plank has holes for the eye-bolts. Hy dritwing out or driving in the outsiiie slee|)ers, the holes through their ri-ar ends are made to correspond with those in the last deck- plank. The bolls are then driven. Drive stakes in rear of each sleeper, leaving their tops level with the upper surface of the platform. Raise, ram, and level the earth in rear of th(' platform, so as to have a |)lain, hard surface to support the trail when the recoil is great. The earlli should lie raised nearly as high as the iilatform along llie sides, and well ramnied, giving it a slight inclination outward to allow water to run olT. Tlu^ platform is fifteen feet long and nine feet wide. Instead of twelve sleepers, each nine feet long, it is pr(^ferable to use six, each fifteen feet long. See Fig. 1. The field platform is for siege guns and howitzers when serving with an army in the field, and the method of conslructing it indicates the wity in which platforms may be extemporized from sucii material as may be at hand. To lay this platform, level off the ground and mark the directrix; dig trenches for the sleepers; place the latter in the trenches so that the boles for the eye-bolts will correspond in place to those in the wheel-planks; place the wheel-planks in position, and drive in the eye-bolts. The front eye-bolts pass through and secure the hurter; apply the level and make the structure perfectly level; secure the front sleeper with stakes; it is well to secure also the rear ends of the wheel-planks with stakes; lay on the trail-plank and secure it with an eye-bolt to the third sleeper; ram the dirt well in around the sleepers. Fig. 2. To check recoil, place r.. • 1 1 • ^ ^ ,' :.■ ^-^ '' i / ( / Fig. 8. sacks of earth or piles of sods over the eye-bolts of the third sleeper, or a stick of timber, similar to a sleeper, laid across will effect the same object. This platform admits a chansre of direction of about ten degrees on each side of the directrix, thus covering as much of a field of fire as is ordinarily required. To make this chanse of direction, slightly loosen or remove the earth about the three rear sleepers, and heave the rear ends of the wheel-plauks over with handspikes. The platt<irm then has the position indicated bv the dotted lines in the figure. The siege liiorlar platform is composed of six sleepers and twent v-oiie deck-planks. It is laid level, and the front and fear deck-planks are connected by eye-bolts to each sleeper. A bed for the platform is first pre- pared bv leveling off the ground, and, if not already PLATINUM FUSE. 542 PLEA. solid, the earth should be well rammed. This bed should be sunk only so deep as to allow the upper surface of the platform to be slightly above the sur- rounding ground, for drainage. The sleepers are laid paralleHo the directrix or plane of fire, three on eacli side of it, at equal distances apart, so that the holes in tlieir ends shall correspond to the holes in the front and rear deck-planks. The front deck-plank is laid first, and the eye-bolts driven to secure it ; the re- maining planks are driven up against it, and the last secured, like the first, with eye-bolts. At the rear end of eacli sleeper a securing stake is driven. Fig.:l The earth, on all sides, should be raised nearly as high as the platform, and well rammed, giving it a slight in- clination outwards to allow the water to run oil. It ^huMXlMf-**^ • -T= ^ 7g A^. Fii:. .■!. is of the first importance fliat the upper surface of the platform should be level and true. The rail platform for siege mortars consists of three sleepers and two rails for the shoes of the mortar to rest on. It is very strong, and easily constructed and laid. The rails and sleepers are notched and fitted together as represented in Fig. 4. The distance be- tween the center lines of the rails is equal to that be- .n n n , 1.^ -, -_i nin "^~n 1 3 Fig. 4. tween the center lines of the cheeks of the mortar carriage. The pieces are put together at the battery, and the earth is e.xcavated eight inches in depth, and of suitable length and width to receive the platform. The bottom of this excavation is made perfectly level. The directrix being accurately marked by stakes, the platform is placed in position, its center line coincid- ing with a cord stretched between the stakes mark- ing the directrix. The earth is filled in as high as the upper surface of the sleepers and firmly rammed; stakes are driven in the rear angles formed by tlie sleepers and the rails, and one at the rear end of eacli rail. The platform for sea-coast mortars is 15 feet by 1.5 feet by 2 feet 2 inches. To lay it, a pit is dug 2 feet deep and about 18 feet square on the bottom. The earth on the bottom is well rammed and leveled The two inch-planking is laid level on the rammed earth, perpendicular to the directrix. The cylin- drical bolts are put in the sleepers, and the .sleepers, with bolt-heads down, are laid compactly on, and perpendicular to the planking and parallel to the directrix. As the deck-timbers are laid the bolts pass through the holes in them. These timbers are hiid compactly upon the sleepers, perpendicular to the directrix. Tln' nuts are put on the bolts and screwed down. Both the nut and bolt-heads arc countersunk. The iron plates are laid parallel to the directrix, and secured firmly with screws to the deck-timbers, covering nine feet in the center of the platform and leaving three feet on each side un- covered. The earth is then filled in, and rammed compactly around the platform, with a slight inclin- ation' outwards, so as to shed water. The plat- form for the center-pintle classis is 17 feet square ; the bottom of the pit must therefore be 20 feet square. Tlie 10-inch sea-coast mortar platform is 12 feet by 12 feet by a 1 foot 8 inches. To lay it, a pit is dug 1 foot G inches deep by 15 feet square ; the re- mainder of the operation is similar to that for the 13-inc'h mortar. See Mortar Carriages, and 8iege Ciirn'iiges. PLATINUM ruSE.— Afuse of great value introduc- ed by tlie Laflin and Rand Powder Company, and used with their magneto machines. These fuses have become noted for their surety, regularity, and perfect safety. They cannot be fired by a spark or by the effects of free electricity, but need a current of suffi- cient strength and persistence that in its passage througli the circuit it shall heal to redness a small bridge of fine platinum wire in the body of the fuse. The drawing shows, in section, one of these fuses nearly of actual size. The following are its parts : A, the shell, of copper, having a corrugation, thrown out from the inside, which holds the sul- phur cement more firmly in place. B, chamber containing the charge of ex- plosive, composed mainly of fulminate of mercury — very powerful. C. the fuse wires, of copper, entering the shell, having a covering which is a partial insulator sufficient for all ordinary pur- poses. D, the bare ends of the copper fuse wires, projecting above the sul- phur cement and into the charge. E, the small platinum wire, or bridge, sol- dered to and connecting the two ends of the fuse wires : this is heated to red- ness or combustion by the passage of the electric current. F, the sulphur cement holding the fuse wires firmly in place. These fuses are of cotton-covered wires; the nicety of insulation by gutta percha not being needed for general work, but only where blasting is to be done in deep water, and not then unless several fuses are to be fired simultane- ously through a great length of sub- merged wire. In March, 1880, these fuses were sub- mitted to a rigid and careful testiug at Willet's Point, N. Y . , and were found to be remark- ably imiform both in resistance and in the current re- quired to explode them. The blasting machine with which tliey are intended to be used is a small n^.ag- neto-electric instrument,weighing only about sixteen pounds, and occupying considerably less than oiie- lialf of a cubic foot of space. The capacity of this machine is for about twelve or fifteen holes, though under entirely favorable circumstances many more can be fired. As to durability, the construction is such that one should last as long as a clock. No un- certainty exists. In the deep mining of the Terri- tories, especially in Colorado, many of them have been used in very wet shafts, and have been found invaluable. The patent self-discharging arrange- ment, a remarkable invention, has made them far superior, for practical use, to any instrument ever made. See JUa«ting. PLATOON. —A subdivision of a company. This term (probably from the French plMim) was for- merly used to designate a body of troops who fired together. A battalion was commonly divided into 10 platoons, and each compau)- into 2 platoons, the platoon thus corresponding to the present subdivi- sion. The word is olisolete in this its original sense; but it survives in the expression "platoon exercise," which is the course of motions in connection with handling, loading, and firmg the musket or rifle. PLEA^— A technical term in law. In England it PLOUBEE. 54?, PLTnHACHEE PEBCUSSION FUSE. Imd II vfry rostrirlcd mciinin;;, brinj; fonlim-d tollic nk'iidinf; iif a dcfciidiiiil Id lui iiction iil ciiiiiiiioii law. Now ill all actions in the lli^li Court it is called the "Statcimiil of Defense." In Serjtiand it is not used in the same Hens(^ but denotes the short lei;al ;;roiind on vvhieli a |)arty . whether pursuer or defender, bases luK case or pleadinij. Hence the pleas in law are only short jiropo^iilions of law. i'li-as are subdivided aecordinj; to their subject-niatler, into pleas dilalory and pereniptory, pleas of abatement, pleas to the jurisdic^tion. I'leas in bar are the same as peremp- tory ])leas; but in criminal cases in Knglaml, special picas in bar are pleas statins; some ground for not proeeedini; with lh<^ indictment, such as a plea of formal ac(iuittal or aulrefois acquit; or of conviction, or autrefois convict; or a jilea of pardon. In Scot- land a "Plea of r'aiiel" means a plea of fj;uilly or not guilty. "Picas of the Crown" was an expression anciently used to denote the divisions of criminal offenses generally, as in the well-known work called Pleanof the Crmnn, by Sir Matthew Hale, and other writers. The phrase was so used because the Sovereign was supi)osed in law to be the person in- jured by every wrong done to the conimunily, and therefore was the i)rosecutor for every such oilense. FLOMBEE. — An ancient war-club, whose liead was loadi-il with lead. PLONGEE. — In artillery and fortification, a slope toward the front. Thus, in speaking of the course of a shell through the air. its plongee is from the point of greatest altitude to tl:e point at which it strikes the earth. So, in fortification, the plongee is the top of tin: parapet sloping gently toward the front. Tills slope is ordinarily 1 in G; but a devia- f right companlcB ploy In front, In ploying on an J dress to lift. interior company, if I left companies ploy in front, I (IreH.s to rifj/it. In ployments <« or on the right or left, the com- panies clear lh(r columns bv ^iO yards before forming lini' PLUMACHER PERCUSSION-FUSE.— This fuse con- sists of a lube, the iutirjor <i{ which has three peculiar-shaped communicating chambers of difTer- ent sizes, u screw cap, a Hcrew-l)ottotn, a winged needle-discharging plunger in the upper chamber, and a chargerl plunger in the lower chamber, the two plungers being kept apart by the thiril smaller or intervi'uing chamber, as will be shown by refer- ence to the drawing. Fig. 1 is a vertical section of the charged fuse in repose, top end up. Fig. 2 is a vertical section of the charged fuse at the point of striking, after having been discharged from the gun, top entl down. Fig. 3 :s a vertical section of the empty fuse-case. In external appearance the fuse- tube, A, is an ordinary cylinder, having a screw- thread, t, cut to a proper depth at one end on the periphery of the projectile. It is made of the size usual for percussion-fuses, so that it may be used in any paltern of elongated shell. The cavity of this cylinder is tapped at both top and bottom at V v', and is provided with a screw-cap, D, anil a screw-bottom, E. and the interior is divided, by abutting shoulders, '> ", into three different-sized chambers, /', g. and fi, in which the sliding plungers ojierate. The screw-cap, D, has a groove, r, that it may be handled by a serew-driver. and an indent, «, on the lower side, to admit the point of a needle, ii e' w u e It a. J, a. V\'i. i tion is permissible of from 1 in 9 to 1 in -t; the sharp- er the slope, however, the more liable is the crest of the parapet to be destroyed by an enemy's fire. Moreover, as flat a plongee as possible is desirable, that sandbags may, when required, be laid upon it to form cover for riflemen. PLOUGH. — A wooden wedge ,or a shoe, shod with leather. It is attached to a gunpo\v<ler incorporating mill, for confining the charge under the patli of the runner. There are two attached to each pair of run- ners. PLOYMENTS.— A general term for all tactical movements by which column is formed from line up- on a designated subdivision. The following points are general: If right is to be in front, heads of companies in- cline to the right. If Ujt is to be in front, heads of companies incline to the'/</<. Always wheel by fours away from the file-closers. In all ployments (except to or on the right or left) the designated company, unless it is to be the rear company of the dose column, moves forward — 19 yards, if from line, and 1-5 yards, if from column. In ploying on a flank, or leading eompanj-, dress on side which company enters the column. should it be deemed necessary to reverse the dis- charge-plunger wlien shipping the projectile. The screw-bottom, E, has keyholes, (/ u. by which it is screwed, etc., and an escape-hole, e' , through its axis, to permit the passage of tire into the magazine of the shell. Thedischarging-plunger, B, is a cone- crowned piece of metal, smaller in diameter than either of the chambers, with a tapped hole, c, in the ape.x. into which a pointed steel needle is screwed, holding in place by a shoulder on the needle a many- pointed .steel spring, k. The steel spring, k, is just sufficiently stiff to hold the plimger in place and to prevent it from being forced into the center or chamber, g, by any power less than the impact pro- duced by the discharge of the projectile from the gun. The plunger is contained, needle-point down, in the chamber, /. but by the impact produced by the discharge of the gun it is thrown forward and secured by the flaring springs in the chamber, g. The sliding plunger, C, incased in the chamber, n. larger and lieavitrthan the plunger, B, is of cylind- rical shape — a body of metal with a cone-shaped crown, having through its a.xis a hole, e. in which is secured by a drop of varnish or other suitable material, the fulminating powder or pill. Through this hole also passes the fire into the magazine of PLUMES. 544 PNEUMATIC BUFFER. the shell Extra security in transportation may be obtained by unscrewing the cap, D, and taking out and reversing the neei lie-plunger, B, securing the point of the needle in the. indent in the lower side of the cap. When tired, the impact produced upon the projectile by discharging the gun from which it was thrown forces the pluuger, B. from its normal position into the center chamber, (/, where it is held, at the bottom, by the narrow entrance to the lower chamber, and from the top bj' the ends of the many- pointed spring coming in contact with projecting shoulder, o o, dividing chamber, /, from g, the point of the needle protruding into the larger chamber, h. Then, by the check on fhe projectile when striking, the plunger, C, is thrown violently forward on to the plunger, B, the point of the utedle entering and discharging the pill or fulminaling-powder, thereby exploding the shell. See Fuse. PLUMES.— Large and handsome feathers knots of buffalo-hair, etc., worn as ornaments on helmets, chapeaux, military hats, etc. In the United States, the General-in-Chief wears three black ostrich feath- ers. All other general officers, officers of the General Staff and Staff Corps, except the Signal Corps, wear two black ostrich feathers. See Helmet. PLUMMET. — S. lead or iron weight suspended by a string, used by artificers to sound the depth of water, or to regulate the perpendicular direction of any buijding. Pendulums, called also plummets, which vibrate the required times of march in a min- ute, are of great utility. The different lengths of these plummets are as follows: For common time, 90 steps in a minute, 17.37 inches ; quick time, 110 steps in a minute, 11.6 inches; double time, 165 steps in a minute, .5.17 inches. The plane of sight is established by plummets ; one suspended in front and another in the rear of the mortar. A convenient method of suspending the plummets is by means of trestles, made light and easy to handle. The one in rear of the mortar should be about six feet high, to permit the gunner to sight without stooping. The one in front being on the par- apet, need not be more than eighteen inches high. The}- should have their upper edges scored with fine saw-cuts, close together, to secure the plummets when adjusted in position. The plummet-eord should be of fine thread or silk, and if affected by wind when suspended, the bob should swing in a bucket of water. A third trestle and plummet is required tem- porarily for placing the first two in position. To es- tablish tlie plummets in position, the Instructor com- mands : 1, Place the plummets. — The gunner, as- sisted by No. 2, places a trestle upon the parapet near the interior crest, and susjiends from it a plummet ill such jiositicm that it will be appro.viinately in the line passing through the center of the platfdrm and the object to be fired at. No. ;i brings up another trestle, which tlie gunner causes iiim to place a few feet in advance of the first, and in line with it and the object; sighting by the plummet first establish- ed, he cau.ses tlie second plummet to be accurately adjusted on the line to the object; then, going to the front pluiiunet ;uid sighting back, he causes. No. 4 to jilacc in jiiisiticju the trestle in rear of the mortiir. and suspeiiil from it the plummet, being careful to have it in exact line with the two on the parapet. The front trestle is then removed by No. 3. The tres- tle in rear of the mortar should be about three yards from the platform. Should the fire from the enemy endanger the plummet on the parapet, a priming- wire may be stuck there in itsplace to murk tlie line. When, owing to the interposition of an intermediate obstacle, the object to be tired at cannot be seenfrom the mortar, a point must be interpolated on the re- quired line in such position that it can be seen from the mortar. This is most readily effected by using the Paddock interpolater. See Bub, Mortar ,&n(!L Pad. (liii'k Interpolater. PLUNDEE. —That which is taken from an enemy by pillage or open force. In the United States the Articles of AVar declare that every officer or soldier, who shall quit his post or colors to plunder and pil- lage, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as may be ordered by a General Court-Martial. PLUNGER. — Aformof strikerused in some breech- loadius fire-arms. See Firing-pin. PLUNGING FIRE.— When a battery is raised con- siderably above the object, so that the shot impinges at a great angle, and is buried without grazing, the fire is termed " Plunging Fire."* PLUNGING RICOCHET.— The description of rim- chet fire, when the angle of fall is comprised between 6'^ and 10". In this fire, the ball is given a small velocitv, and the curve described is short and high. PLUTEUS.— A kind of wicker helmet covered with raw ox-hide, worn by the ancient Greeks when engaged in sapping walls. Others were made of hurdles, covered in the same way, running upon three wheels, and affording cover to 7 or 8 miners. PLUVIOMETER.— An instrument to measure the quantity of rain that falls. It usually consists of a metal funnel from .5 to 7 inches in diameter, the rain being collected in a glass bottle. This bottle should be placed in a small stand near the surface of the ground, to protect the bottle from the action of the sun. The amount of rain fallen in a given time is measured in a graduated glass-jar, one-tenth the area of the funnel, and so divided that every inch in depth of the tube shall indicate j'j, inchfalling in the funnel. Tlie ainoiint of rain which has fallen can be meas- ured by such an instrument to suVoP'*'''' ^^ ''■^ inch, or even less. Another kind of rain-gauge may also be adopted. It consists of a cylinder of copper or other metal, from 5 to 7 inches in diameter, and 30 inches long. A float, just so much smaller as to allow it to rise freely, is placed within the cylinder, and to the cen- ter of the llo;it ;in upright staff is attached, marked in inches and tenths of an inch, wliicli, rising through a hole in the bottom of the funiul, indicates the depth of rain received into the guage. The drawing shows this inslrumenl as employed in the United States SiLcnal Service. See liain-f/iinge. PNEUMATIC BUFFER.— A device for checking re- PNEUMATIC DISPATCH. 545 PNEUMATIC DISPATCH. coil tliroiigh tlio agency of ntmo'tplicric nir, present, only the l.^-ineli frun is lliiis iiroviiled. Be- tween llie front ends of llie eli:is-i"-iiii|s ari' iittiielied two eust-iron cylinders eiieli 110 inelies Ion;;, with III) interior diiinieter of 14.2"! inelies. The ends of the evlinders iire closed with tiirht-littini; heads se At I his speciiliitionH were called to mind in later years, iind fed to the estnl)lishinent of ArMOKMiKitic Kail- WAYH. In IHtil was aijiioiineed a I'm innalli; Diiipnlfh project, based on a ri'eonsideration of the eanses of failiin^ in the earlier sehenies. The conveyance of passenirers and of Imlky j;oods was not here contetn- ciired with screw bolts. A (liston works in each I plated: parcels and niail-baKS were the articles held cylinder. The rods of the pistons jiass out lliroii<;h chi<-l!y in vi(rw. To lest the theory, a quarter of a tile rear cylinder heads and are attaelied. by nuts, mile of iron tube was ixperiinentally laid down near to a heavy tninsoin on the rear end of the tijp-ear- Hallersea, with a very fair average of uradients and riaue. Tlie cylinders have Die same in<-lination as Cnrves purposely g.ven to it. The tube was about the chassis-rail i, and are secured to the latter by DO inches in diameter: and it was found easy to pro- three cylinder transoms. When tiie piece recoils the ' pel a train through the lube consisting of two iron- piston-rod is withdrawn, and the air contained in carriagesof Tewi. eaf:h, at a rate of SOniiles an hour, the cylinder compressed between the piston and the i After many financial discouragements, a I'nenmatic rear fiead of the cylinder. A small hole in the front j D'upalch ('iniiiiany obtained capital in 1802, and be- head admits air tii supply the vacinim in front of the i gan operations in IHdIi. The expr-rimental tube was piston. The air in rear "of tile piston thus forms an I removed to London, and laid down beneath tlie elastic cushion, olTering but slight resis!;ince to the : roadway of Seymour Street, Kiiston Srpiare— a dis- tirst, movement of recoil, but gradually increasing in j tanee of one-third of a mile. Mail-bags being suc- cessfully transmitted in this way, the Company corn- resisting force as the carriage moves back, until linally ilie force of recoil is overcome and the top- carriage is brought to a state of rest. The shock of recoil is to a great extent absorbed without sudden strain to the carriage. The top-carriage must be out tif (/ear whenever the piece is discharged: it then niovi's on the chassis with slidingfriclion. This, to- gether with the inclination of the chassis-rails, assists in cheeking the recoil. When the carriage isingood running order, it generally runs forward a short dis- t;ince liy the reaction of the compressed air after re- coil. To run the piece in hatUry.Ww top-carriage is thrown into gear; it then moves forward, the air is compressed in front of the pistons, and. escaping gradually through lh<' small holes in tliehe:ids(>f the cylinders, allows the carriage to move forward with a gentle motion. The weiglit of the air-cvlinders with attachments is about oOOO pouuils. See lHydraii- lir li'ifftr. PNEUMATIC DISPATCH.— This name is given to a mode of sending parcels, mail-bags, or telegram pa- HBiliiaJllkdESilliilia I'-i.;. 1. pers through a tube by atmospheric pressure, or by a partial vacuum. Earl_v in the present century, jlr. Medhurst conceived the idea of some such contriv- ance, lie proposed to construct air-tight tunnels, with carriages moving through them on rails; and these carriages were to be propelled by compressed menced in 1H(!4 the construction of a tube ona larg- er scale, and this has since been completed. The tube has been laid down from Euston Square to St. >Iartin's-le-(!rand. by way of Tottenham Court Road, Holborn, and Newgate Street — over a distance of 2y miles The tube is of large size, nearly 4J feet in diameter, laid down at as small a depth fieneath the carriage-way of the several streets as the water and gas pipes will permit. It is chiefly of cast-iron: but some portions on a sharp curve are of brick. There is a large engine-house on the south side of Holborn, near Lmcolu's Inn Fields, to sui)ply all the power for working the whole tube in both directions. li:ire- lied air in one-half of the tube draws a train of iron carriages, laden with parcels and mail-bags, from Euston Station to Holborn; and compressed air drives them through the other length of I ube from Holborn to the General Post-Ofliee— there being a suction in the one case and pressure in the other. A reverse action brings trains in the other oi- rection. The necessary amount of rarefac- tion in the one case, and of compression in the other was determined by experiment; but both are produced by means of a revolv- ing fan of peculiar construction and large iliiiuiisions worked by a powerful steam-en- gine at the Holborn Station. If this mode of transmission were to come into general use, tlicre would be great saving of time in the ill livery of letter.s ami parcels, and a material li sseniug of the number of parcels and mail- \ alls and carts in the overcrowded streets of I ities. It is to be regretted that a work so Micessful ina scientific and engineering point I view should still remain undeveloped in a inmercial sense. The Postmaster General, II Railway Companies, and the great Carri- ii>, have made no practical working engage- ments with thePneumatic Dispatch Company; and this costly tube, with the engine-house in Holborn, has now remained silent and unused for several years. This of course has check- ed any extension of the system into other distric'ts. We cannot resist the conviction that a better result will present itself sooner or Inter. The problem of pii.i.ie)iger convey- ance with a pneumatic tube was shown to be practicable by Mr. Rammell, in an exper- iment tried at the Crystal Palace in 18(54: but nothing further has been done in the matter. More success has attended the introduction of a system for transmitting small rolls of paper through tiibes of a few inches diameter, by pneumatic pres- sure. Mr. Siemens introduced it at Berlin: it was next tried with success at Paris; Mr. Latimer Clark constructed similar apparatus in London : and the air from behind, or else bv suction in virtue of a plan is now in regular use in the telegraph depart- vacuum formed in front of them. Medhurst was ment of the new buildings connected with the Gen- laughed at by his contemporaries as a visionary; but eral Post Office in St. Martin's-le-Grand, while :t 13 PNEUMATIC DISPATCH. 546 PNEUMATIC DISPATCH. also used in some of the chief provincial cities and towns. In 1875 the number of tubes in London was 24, with an aggregate length of nearly 18 miles; there were 4 tubes in Liverpool ; 3 in Dublin ; .5 in Manchester: 3 in Birmingham: and 1 in Glasgow. Small tubes, two or three inches in diameter, are ar- ranged for the reception of telegraph forms or pa- pers, made up into aroll, and put into a felt cylinder. The purpose is to economize time and expense in conducting the Government Postal Telegraph Inisi- ness by blowing along the telegraph forms at a rate of SOTiiles an hour, instead of sending them by street conveyance. Two parallel tuljes have been laid down "beneath the pavements of the streets from the General Post Office to various parts of London, and also in some of the large provincial cities and towns; additions being made to tlie length of tube according as the system liecomes practically developed. One tube in eacli pair may be called the down line, the other the iip ; the two are placed in connection at each end, and one steam-engine work:? them both. The felt cylinder very nearly fiUs up the tube, Bift. 8. PNEUMATIC DRILL. 547 PNEUMATIC DRILL. bill, still moves ciisily along it ; this movciiieiil is bniiiiilit about cither by tlio fonimtioii of a par- tiid vacuum in front of the cylinder, or byconiprcss- jni; tile air behind it ; and tlio Hleam power is so a|). plied as to ])rodiice either or but h of these two results, acc<irdini; as convenience may sui;i;est. An inj^en- ious plan isadopleil foraccoinmodaliin; one or more iiilcrmediate ollices, just as local stations are ac- CMinmodalei! between thi^ two termini of a railway. The cylinder or m/vvV;- travels from end to end of the tulic, unless a block or check action is puriiosely put in force at an intermediate station; and the mode of clfectini; this is one of the most beautiful of Mr. Hienien's inventions relatini? to the subjecl. Two pieces of l)ipe, the mv/cf/- and the trniismith r, are mad(^ exactly alike, and are so jiivoted toijetlier that cither may be adjusted into a cavity cut in the tube, and made temporarily to form ])arl of it. The car- rier, we will HU])pose, is intended to stop at the inter- mediate stations, to admit of the removal of some teleiiram pa]>ers and tluMntroduclion of others. A click is heard, the carrier strikes ai^ainst an obstruc- tion in the receiver; the cavity is opened; the ex- chanu;e of pajiers is made; the carrier is re-intro- duced, but into the transmitter instead of the re- ceiver; the cavity is closed airain, and the carrier re- aumes its journey. All this is the work of a few seconds merely. If the intermediate station has nothinu; to send and nothing to receive, the trans- mitter alone is used, and tlie carrier travels on with- out slop])iiig. The up-lulie and the down-tube have each its apparatus of receiver and transmitter. The felt cylinder and its contents being very light, a slight rarefaction of the air in fnnit of it, orcon'leu- sation of the air behind it, is suflicient to produce a speed equal to twenty or thirty miles an hour. Prac- tically, there is a cum nt of air maintained, circulat- ing through the two tubes and their terminal connec- tion^■.; wherever !i carrier is placed in this current it is blown along, and there may be two or more car- riers traveling at the same time. We have recently examined, with considerable in- terest, the pneumatic system of transmitting tele- graphic messages between the operating and re- ceiving rooms in the newly constructed building of the Western Union Telegraph Company, in New York. In such an immense edifice, comprising elev- en stories, it would obviously involve great delay to maintain the necessary communication liy means of messenger boys, and consequently the apparatus which we describe and illustrate herewith has been introduced, with remarkably successful results. In the large engraving, f'ig. 3, sections of several of the stories are represented, showing the numerous tubes througii which the necessary current of air which propels the packages, are maintained. Those of our readers who have had occasion to send a tele- gram at the Central Otllce above named, may re- member that, after they had delivered the writing to the clerk, that functionary rolled the paper in a little parcel and inserted it in a wood and leather case, of the manner and form shown in the upper portion of the illustration. Fig. 2. He then dropped the case into an open tube, leading up through his desk, at A, and perhaps announced that the packet ; had reached the operating room, in the seventh story, almost before tlie curious watcher of his pro- ceedings had had time to draw a second breath. The packet appeared to be sucked into the tube, and so in fact it is, and in about two seconds it is drawn up almost to the top of the great building. After leaving the clerk's hand it passes down through the wide curve in its conduit, at 15, and thence ascends the straight portion of the same, nntilit jumps forth from the end of the tube i none of the compart- ments of the receptacle, C, in the operating room. A section of a good portion of this receptacle is also well represented in Fig. 1, in one compart- ment of which a packet is seen emerging from its tube. The compartments, C, are entirely cut off from the nniin portion of the case, being constnict- ed within the same, so that above them and extend- ing over all is a large emiMy cliamlx-r, K. With tlie latter, however, each compartment commiinicaleB by an orilice, F. wliicli is provided witli a cover openid or closed at pleasure, thus, as will be seen further on, tlirowingaiiy tube into or out of action, or moderating the air current therein as is desired. In the center of tlie receptacle and opening into the upper chamber, E, is a large tube, D. which ex- tends down beside the pipes, IJ, and connects with a blower in the cellar. It is a positive blast rotary blower, invented and constructed by the well known firm of I'. II. & F. M. Koots, of Connersville, Ind. The machine has long l)een in use in iron founderies, machine and blacksmith shops, and other estalilish- nients, and, besides, has met with extensive employ- ment for ventilating purposes in buildings, ships, mines, and other localities. It will be understood that, in the present instance, the blower forces the air out beneath, so that the current is drawn down the tube, l>. through the chamber, E, in the recepta- cle above, thence through the oritices, F, and com- partments, C, and tinally uj) through the pipes, B. Thus used as an exhauster, and at the slow speed of 120 revolutions per minute, it draws down five cubic feet of air per revolution, or 3ii,000 cubic feet per hour, thus propelling the packets, and at the same time (by removing the last mentioned aggregate quantity of air from the atmospheres of the rooms with wiiicli the pijie orifices communicate; serving as an excellent and ellicient ventilating apparatus. After a packet arrives in the upper story, the per- son stationed at the receiitacle lifts a little window in the compartment which it enters, takes out the case, extracts the paper therefrom, and passes the message at once to the projier operator, who im- mediately telegraphs its contents to their destination. The case" is then returned to the first story by drop- ping it into the open tubes, (i, through wfiich it falls by its own gravity, landing in the box, II, whence it is again taken out to be filled and started liack on its journey. The general adojition of this system by all Military Headquarters, .allowing that it will operate througii tubes of half a mile length as effectively as it does at the AVestern Union Office, would expedite the collection and distribution of otticial matter, and greatly promote the public service and convenience. PNEUMATIC DRILL. — A drilling-machine operated by conipresseed air admittted alternately above and below a piston connected with gear-wheel.s which rotate the drill. The air-reservoir and force-pump may be placed at any required distance from the cyl- inder, and connccte"d therewith by a flexible pipe. The introduction of the first Burleigh drill into the Iloosac Tunnel ten years ago marked a new era, not only in that great eiigineering enterprise, but in the history of rock work througliout the world. Up to that diite many bad been the attempts to jiroduce a ma- chine that would supersede the severe manual labor of the sledge and hand drill, but all proved failures. Eventually^Mr. Burleigh took up thematter and solv- ed the problem bv producing the machine which liears his name, and which is a monument to his gen- ius. The main elements of the drill, shown in the drawing, are the cage, the cyliniTer, and the piston. The cage is merely a trough, with ways on either side, in which the cvlinder, by means of a feed-screw and an automatic feed-lever", is moved forward as the drill cuts away the rock. The piston moves back and forth in the cylinder, propelled and operated either by steam or compressed air, like the piston of an ordinary steam-engine. The drill point is attached to the end"of the piston, which is a solid bar of steel. The piston is rotated as it moves back and forth by ingenious and simple mechanism. The forward mo- tion of the cylinder in the trough is regulated by an automatic feed as the rock is cut away, the advance being more or less rapid, as by the variation in the nature of the rock, the cutting i's fast or slow. It will PNEUMATIC GUN-CARKIAGE. 548 PNEUMATIC GUN CAERIAGE. thus be seen that the drill-point and solid steel piston alone receive the shock of the blow : and it also should be stated, that the piston-rod. arranged witli a double annular cam and spiral grooves, in its move- ments performs three important functions. First. The movement of the valve admitting the steam or compressed air to the cylinder. Second. By the op- eration of the annular cam acting upon the feeding device, the cylinder is moved forward (as the rock is penetrated) in the cage or slide. Third. By the spiral grooves and a spline in the ratchet, the piston bar is automatically rotated, a partial revoliuion tak- ing place at eacli upward movement of the piston. the ratchet remaining perfectly stationary while the rotating movement occurs, and moving only as the piston again descends. When the cylinder has been fed forward the entire length of the feed-screw, it may be run back, and a longer drill-point inserted in the end of the piston. By an ingeuioius peculiarity in the form of the cut- ting-edge of the drill-point, perfectly round holes are ensured ; thus giving a greater area to the hole, and a larger percentage of the powiler near its bottom. The regular rotation of the drill insures tlu' deliverv of each blowatthe point of greatest etticiencj' ; eacii wing of the drilI-i)oint striking the rock at a point just far enougli in advance of the cut of the preced- ing blow to chip away the rock lying between. The 3'ielding of the chip saves the edge of the drill-point; and thus the advance of the drill-point in the rock, without sharpening, is te/i timex r/mitjr than is pos- sible in hand-drilling, where the hole is formed by the crushing and |)ulverisiug of the rock. The drili- ing-inaehine is attac'hed to a clamp by means of a circular plate, with a beveled edge cast ujion the botti>m of the cage near its center. This plate tit s a corresponding cavity in one side of the clamp, and is held t here tirmly in any required position bj- the tightening of screws. The clamp is clasped about a bar of iron to which it may be quite tightly held by screws. By the motions — upon one plane, of the plate in its cavity, and upon anotlier. at aright angle to the first, of the clamp upon the bar, and the sUding end- wi.se of the clamp upon the bar — it will be seen at once tliat any position and direction of the drill is attainable. It only remains to securely attach the liar, of any reasonable length, to a convenient car- riage or suitable frame, and the machinery is ready for operation. The.se machines are applicable to all kinds of rock work, whether in mining, quarrving, cutting, tunneling, or in sub-marine drilling. They combine simplicity, strength, lightnessand compact- ness, are easily handled, and require but few re- pairs. With them, holes may be drilled from three- ' fourths of an inch to five inches diameter, and to a depth not exceeding thirty to thirty-five feet, at the rate of from two to ten inches per minute, according to the nature of the rock. They are driven by either steam or compressed air as a motor, and, under a pressure of fift}- pounds to the inch, work at two hundred to three hundred blows per minute, accord- ing to the size of the machine. PNEUMATIC GUN-CARKIAGE.— Facility of man- euver is of the greatest importance, after strength and stability, in a gun-carriage, and the training and running of heavy carriages,and the elevating and de- pressing of the gun, are now generally accomplished by means of toothed-gear. Modern guns should be trained very quickly and smoothly, and facility in that respect is of inestimable advantage in com- bat, hence a simple carriage that will return a B. L. gun, automatically to battery after each discharge is greatly to be desired. Simplicity of construction also is a very important quality in a gun-carriage for sea-service, where the liabilitj' to rust, deterioration and damage from shot is very great, and the facilities for repair limited. Unfortunately, the modern carriages are entirely too elaborate in construction, and the aim in the design should be always to make the working parts as ac- cessible as possible, and as simple as is consistent with the object in view. The endurance of a carriage is greatly enhanced by a real judicious application of fhe recoil check. Though it is desirable, on general principles, to allow the carriage free recoil, it is not usually possible to do so in practice, and, in fact, since the introduc- tion of B. L. cannon, it has been an object to limit t he recoil as much as possible, with a view to return the gun quickly to battery. Any device that will give an increasing check is much the easier on the carriage. A comparison of the foregoing will demonstrate the advantages of the pneumatic carriage in rapid- ity of mancuver.simplicity of construction, certainty of action in any climate, protection of the vital parts, and endurance. The use of water as a recoil check makes a summer gun-carriage ; other Huids are liable to cake or clog the cylinders at an important moment. Any misadjustmenl or accident to the valves of any hydraulic check would cause an instant splitting of the cylinders, thereby disabling the gun — an impos- sible occurrence when using an elastic gas. .Vs a familiar exampU' of the application of pneu- matic force, th'i Westinghouse air-brake may be here cited. The introduction of lliis appliance was baf- fied for si.\ years by the adver.se opinion of eminent ■Engineers as to its 'x>rM-\ ical utility. It iK'ver freezes clogs or splits the pipes, and one man controls witli ea.se a gri'at train of cars. In this coimeelion it may be remarked that the use of band-gearing in modern gim-carriages is comparable to the old style "brakes" on a railway train. • Tlie operating of the gun-car- riages, either in the forts or on ships, by means of com- PNEUMATIC GUN CARRIAGE. 549 PNEUMATIC GUN CARRIAGE. P3CKET LEDGER. 550 POCKET SOLAR COMPASS. pressed air supplied to tlie working parts from the pipe led to the breast of the carriags, and controlled b}' simple levers, for rapid training, for rapidly rais- ing or lowering the gun to aim. for checking the re- coil without shock, and for running in and out when desired, is absolutely practical, certain in its action, and the least liable to accident. A section of the Westinghouse air-pump is shown in the drawing. The parts are numbered as follows: Steam-cj'linder Head (with reversing-cylinder, pis- ton, and" valve bushes), 2; Steam-cylinder (with the main valve and bushes,) 3: Center-piece, 4: Air- cylinder (with lower discharging-valve), 5; Steam- piston and Rod. 7; Air-piston, SfJIain Piston PacK- ing-ring, 9; theReversimr-valve, the Reversins-valve Plate, the Plate Bolt and Stim, 13, 10, 11, 12, Mam Steam-valve, 14 ; Packmg-rings for the Upper and Lower Piston-valves, 15, 16; the Upper and Lower Main Steam-valve Bushes, 17, 18 ; Reversing-cyl- inder and Cap, 19, 33; Reversing-piston and Packing- ring, 20, 21: Reversing-valve Bush and Cap, 23, 24; Piston-rod Nut, 35; Discharge-valve Stop-bolt, 2<'>; Piston-packing Kut and Gland, 37, 38; Right and Left Chamber Caps, 29, 30; Upper Discharge-valve and Seat, 32, 31 ; Receiving-valve, 34; Half-inch Union, 35; Three-quarter-incli Union, 36; One-inch Union, 37; Top and Bottom Steam-cylinder Gaskets, 40, 41; Top Air-cylinder Gasket, 43. The steam from the boiler enters the top c.ylinder between two pis- tons forming the main valve, 14. The upper piston being of greater diameter than the lower, the ten- dency of the pressure is to raise the valve, unless it is held down by the pressure of a third piston. 30, of still greater diameter, working in a cylinder directly above the main valve. The pressure on this third piston is regulated by the small slide-valve, 13, working in the central chamber on the top head. This valve receives its motions from a rod, 13, extending into the hollow piston, which, as shown in the drawing, has a knob at its lower end and a shoulder just below the top head. This valve chamber in the top head, by a suitable steam-port, is constantly in communication with the steam space between the two pistons of the main valve. The steam .acting on the third piston, 80. and holding the main valve down, enters below the main piston; as the main piston approaches the upper head, the reversing-valve rod, 13, and its valve, 13, are raised until the slide-valve exhausts the steam from the space above the third or revers- ing piston, when the main valve is raised by the steam pressure on the greater area of its upper pis- on, which movement of the main valve admits the steam to the upper end of the main cylimler. Wlien the main valve is moved up to admit steam to tlie upper end of the cylinder, it opens an exliaust- port at the lower end, just below the lower steam- port, which latter is closed by the lower piston of the main valve; and when the main piston is on its upward stroke, the upper exhaust-port is similarly opened. The air-valves of the pump are similar to those used in all pumps. The lift of a discharge valve should not exceed one sixteenth of an inch. Sec I'liirlitt <!Hii-r(i.rria{/e. POCKET LEDGER.— A small account-book with which a soldier in the British service is provided, and in wliich is inserted the monthly settlement of his accounts, having reference to his pay, the state of his savings-l):ink account, date of enlistment, etc. Commanding Otlicers are to see that these books are kci)t with tlie utmost regularity, the officer com- manding the company of the soldier being respon- sible that the book is kept correctlv, his signature being a voucher for the same. This book is familiar- ly termed bv llie soldier his " Tomniv Atkins." POCKET SOLAR COMPASS.— This instrument has a needle '.'< inelies long, and a limb of IJ. indies diam- eter, ilivided toli:iIf deirrees and reailing by its one double vernier horizontal angles to single minutes. The arrangement of the plates is similar to that of the large solar corap?,ss, the under plate carrying the sights revolving around the upper or compass-plate to which are attached the solar apparatus, levels, etc.; there is also a clamp with tangent-screw between the two plates, and another to the whole instrument about its spindle. The distance between the sights is nearly 7 inches, the sights themselves are i\ inches high, and have a slot and hair in half their heights ; they are hinged so as to fold down in packing. The compass-circle is arranged with pini(m and movable part so as to set off the variation of the needle to five minutes; the needle has a lifting-lever, as usual, by which it is raised against the glass. The solar ap- paratus IS attached to the flange of the upper plate, and consists of the usual hour, latitude, and declina- tiun area, marked respectively. A, C, and B, in the drawing, with an arm, FF, to the last named, carry- ing the solar lenses and lines as in the larger instru- ments. The latitude and declination arcs are each divided to half degrees, and read by verniers, the latitude arc to five minutes, and the declination arc to single minutes of a degree ; the hour arc is divid- ed on its inner edge into hours and twelfths, or spaces of five minutes each, the inde.x of the declination arc above easily enabling one to read the time to single minutes. The hour arc is made movable on its supporting seg- ment to either side, its outer edge being also divided on the middle portion to spaces of five minutes of time, and read by a vernier upon the segments to single minutes; in this way the equntion nf time for any given day is set off at once, and the time given by the index of the hour arc thus made to agree with mean time or that given by the ordinary clock. The solar lenses and lines are placed as in the larger instruments, the declination arc being also re- versible, as the sun changes from north to south of the equator. When [lacked in the case the declination arc with its arm is detached from the hour arc; and this itself, together with the latitude arc, folds very closely to the compass box. The pocket solar is set up for use cither upon the ball spindle, with stalT mountings, or upon a light tri- pod like the other jiocket compasses, and very often with small leveling-head with clamp and tangent screws. Sometimes a side telescope with enterpoise is sub- stituted for tlie sight-vanes. POIMT. 551 FOIHTIBO. When iiliout to use tlic instniincnt, it is Bct upon its tripod orstiitl, mid citrcfiilly leveled; tlie <lecliiiii- tinn of the sun for tliefjiven diiyiind hour isohliiined from lh<' Kpheineris hiipiilii'd willi [hi* and other Boliir iiislrunients, and set oil' upon its arc, and (he liour ar<r is raised until its vernier marks the lati- tude of the place upon the lalilude arc. The e(pia- tion of liin(^ for the day is also set oil as before de- seribed, the zero of the hour eirele IkmiilT moved to the ri^ht wlu'ii th(^ equal ion is to be added, and to the left when it is to be sublraeted from api)arent time. The index of the deelination arc bein^ then setlolhe proper division on the hour arc. and the declination arm ilirected to the sun, the limb bein^ also set at zero, and the .sun's inia;re l)rou;;ht be- tween the hour lines of the silver plate by turning the whole instrument upon its spindle, the sights will indicate the Inn' iHcriiUiiii precisely as with the larger s(;lar compass. The compass-circle being now turned by the jiinion until the lu'cdle points to zero, the needle also will beset to the true meridian, and the variation of tlu^ needle can be read off upon the outside divisions of the compass-lK),\. The adjustments and the use of this solar an^ sub- stanliidly I be same as those of the solar compass, and its indications so accurate that after repealed trials it will give the true nu-ridian within an error of less than three inimites of a degree, which taken in con- nection with the dellection of the magnetic needle will indicate with certainty the presence and direc- tion of veins of magnetic iron ore. Indeed, we liave the assurance of competent Sur- veyors that while it is much more portable it is also very nearly or (piite as accurate in all its indications as the large solar compass. Its weight, excluding box .'ind tripod, is 4',' lbs. See Satar (^'om/jaxii. POINT. — In Heraldry, a triangular figure issuing from the dexter and sinister base of the shield. It is common in French and (ierman Ili'raldry, and occurs in the shield of Hanover, which was a part of the royal arms of Great Bri- tain from the accession of George I. till that of the iiresenl Sovereign. A shield cliarged with a ]ioint is in her- aldic drawing hardly distinguishable from one parted per cheverou. See I'dinU. POINT-BLANK.— With all small-arms, the second point in wliich the natural line of sight (when hori- zontal) cuts the trajectory. With artillery, it is tlie point where the projectile tirst strikes the horizontal plane on which the gun stands, the axis of the piece being horizontal. Usually, the object aimed at has a certain heiglit; hence, it will not only be struck when at j>'iint-hlank, but also when at points in rear or in front of the point-blank where the vertical distances of the tra- jectory from such points shall be equal to or less tlian the height of the object. This distance between these two points, known as the dangerous space, is greater as the trajectory is Hattened or as the height of the object is greater. In the drawing, A F, is the line of tire; A' F P, is the natural line of sight; and A" F P', is an artificial Point. line of sight. It will be seen thaj the object P P', beyond the point-hlmik, is struck at the bottom, P'. If it were at pi>int-lil-ink. it would be struck at P. Were the object increased in height, above P, it would also be struck when placed between point- bUink and tlie piece. The sum of the distances in front and rear of the point-blank, at which the ob- ject could be struck at its bottom and top. is the dan- gerous space. This permits us to make slight errors in eslimafing distanceB; we can eitlier over or under estinuite tliemso long as the errors do notexceed the limits of till' dun'.'crous s|)ace. See Artijki'd Point- hlonk. POINT BLANK RANGE.— The distance from the muzzle of the piece to that point in the projectile's trajectory where it cuts the prolongation of the natural line of sight, a second time, the natural line of sight being horizontal. The; Hritish define jioiut-hlank ruiKjr as, the distance from the muzzle to the firBt L'raze when the axis of the piece is parallel to the horizontal plane upon which the carriage stands ; but this is really nothing more than the range due to the aiiyU ofelmiti'ii equal to the angle subtended Ijy the height of tlie gun from th<- point struck. See I'oint. blank. POINT BLANK SHOT.— The shot of a gun pointed direcllv low.'ird tin' object to be hit. POINT D'APPUI. -A fixed point of support in rear of the operations of an army, or on its flanks, such as a fortress or some convenient locality to resort to in case of necessity. A I'oint d'Appuiia of great importance in military tactics. Few battles have I been fought without niiiking use of villages,hills.and • even trees as J'^iuti d'Apjuii. In changes of front, I one flank, or part <if the force, shoiihl be held se- curely appuye<l. Artillery massed in batteries have also serveil as I'nlaU (V A/ipni. as instanced at the battles of liiprodino. Kamilies, Ilohenkirch, etc. I POINTED STAKES.— A form of impediment used I on the lierm, at the bottom of the ditch and beyond I the counterscarp. They are placed about one foot in the ground, and stand about one foot above it. POINTING. — To ])oint or aim a fire-arm, is to give it sucli diiection and elevation that the projectile shall strike the object. To do this properly, it is necessary to understand the relations which exist be- tween the lineof sight, the line of fire, tlie trajectory, etc. The line of mglit is the riglit line contain- ing the guiding points of the sights. The sights are two pieces, A audi?, on the upper surface of the gun, the situation of which with regard to the axis of the bore is known. The front sight is situated near the muzzle, or on the riglit rimliase, and is gen- erally lixed; the rear sight is placed near the breech, and is movable in a vertical, and sometimes in a horizontal direction. The natural line of sight is the line of siglit nearest the axis of the piece; the others are called artificial lines of sight. The lineof fri'h the axis of the bore prolonged in tlie direction of the muzzle, or C I). The angle of fire is the angle incliide(l lielweenthe lineof tire and horizon; on ac- count of the balloting of the projectile, the angle of tire is not always equal to the angle of departure, or projection. TJiis is evident. The angle of night is the angle included between the line of sight and line of fire: angles of siglit are divided into natural and artificial angles of sight, corresponding to the natural and artificial lines of sight which encUjse them. The plane of fire is the vertical plane containing the line of lire. The plane if siglit is the vertical plane con- taining the line of sight. The jiointMank is the point at which the line of sight intersects the tra- jectory, or /'. Strictly speaking, the line of sight " intersects tlie trajectory at two points. Cand P; but, in practice, the latter point P is only- considered. The distance, 13 P, is called the point-blank distance. The natural pnnt. blank corresponds to the natural line of sight : all other point-blanks are called artificial pvint- blanks. In speaking of the point-blank of a piece, the natural line of sight is supposed to be horizontal. In the Hritish service, the point-blank distance is the distance at which the projectile strikes the level ground on which the carriage stands, the axis of the piece being horizontal. It is evident that this detinitiou of point-blank distance conveys a bet- ter idea of the power of tlie piece than the former, wliich makes it depend on the form of the piece, as well as on the charge. As the angle of sight .1 V C" POINTING. 552 FOINTIHO. is increased, the point-blank distance is increased ; as it is diniinislied, the intersections of the line of sight and trajectorj' approach each other until they unite, when the line of sight and trajectory are tan- gent to each other; beyond this, the point-blank is I imaginary. As the angle of tire increases, the force of gravity acts more in opposition to the force of projection, and the poiut-lilank distance is tlimin- ished. until at 90'^ it becomes zero. Under an angle of depression, the force of projection acts more j nearly in the direction of gravity, and the point- , blank distance is increased, becoming infinite when the angle of depression is equal to 90^ minus the of the plane of fire. As the lines of sight and fire are parallel in their revolved position, tlie planes of sisrht and tire must also be parallel. The angle COC = BOB\ therefore CV = OC sin. BOH. It is easily seen that with this arrangement of the front sight, the error of pointing can never exceed the ra- dius of the breech. By an inspection of the figure, it will also be seen, that in the revolved position of the line of sight, the elevation is diminished by a small quantity, wliich is equal to the versed sine of the arc CV . If the natural line of sight be not parallel to the a.\is of the piece, the planes of sight and lire inter- X.. . -T <^_ -_^ .—■ — ••" /7 ^^.^ m m ^=— -^ Tvi. \. angle of sight. In ordinary tiring, it is not considered that the trajectory changes itsposition with refer- ence to the line of sight and line of tire, for any angles of elevation and depression, less than 1.5". In aiming at an object, therefore, tlie anglf nf ele- 'catioii. of which is less than 1,5°, aim exactly as though it were in the same horizontal plane with the • piece. For the same piece, the point-blank distance increases with the charge of powder: for the same initial velocity, a large projectile has a greater point- blank distance than a small one ; a solid shot than a lioUow one ; an oblong projectile than a roiuid one ; or, in other words, it varies with the value of c, before referred to. Range is the distance at which a projectile first strikes the ground on which the carriage is situated ; extreme; range is tlie distance to the point at which the projectile is brought to rest. In pointing guns and howitzers under ordinar}- an- gles of elevation, the piece is first directed toward the object, and then elevated to suit the distance. The accuracy of the aim depends — 1st. On the fact that the object is situated in the plane of sight; 2d. That the projectile moves in the plane of fire, and that the planes of sight and fire coincide, or are par- allel and near to each other ; and 3d. On the accura- cy of tlie elevation. The first of these conditions de- pends on the eye of tlie gunner, and the accuracy and delicacy of the sights ; the errors under this head are of but little practical importance. When the trunnions of the piece are horizontal, and the sights are properly placed on the surface of the piece, the planes of sight and fire will coincide ; but when the axis of the trunnions is inclined, and the natural line k f- \-^' / 1 \-^ \ :^ -no > -^1 \z,^ J of sight is oblique to the axis of the bore, the planes are neither parallel nor coincident, and the aim will be incorrect. If the natural line of sight be made parallel to the line of fire, by making the height of the front sight equal to the ilispart of the piece, the ])lanes of sight and tire will be jiarallel, and at a dis- tance from each other equal to the radius of the breech multiplied by the sine of the angle which the axlctree makes with the horizon. To sliow this, let the circle yl (J H I), in Fig. 2, represent the section of the breech taken at right angles to the axis, and C the Jirojection of the natural line of sight >ipon this plane; let Ai K be the inclined position of the axlctree, <ir trunnions, (" marks the revolved position of the natural line of sight, and C D' the trace of llie plane of sight, which is parallel to C D, the trace sect at a short distance from the muzzle ; hence, it follows, that as the object is situated in the plane of sight, the projectile will deviate from the object to the side on which the lower wheel is situated, and at a distance from it, which is proportional to the distance of the object from the piece ; to correct for this source of error, the line of sight should be pointed to the side of the higher wheel, and at a dis- tance from the object, which is proportional to the distance of the object from the piece. Siege and sea-coast cannon are generally fired from fixed plat- forms, which renders the axis of the trunnions hori- zontal ; they are, therefore, not furnished with pen- dulum sights. In case the axis of the trunnions is not horizontal, and the piece has not a pendulum hausse, the highest points of metal at the breech and muzzle may be determined by the gunner's level and marked with chalk; the center line of the tangent scale, or lireech-sight, is placed on the mark at the breech, the slider is placed at the proper elevation, and the aim is taken along the notch of the slider and the mark on the muzzle. This method, how- ever, does not give a pcrfectlj' accurate aim. In the absence of a breech-sight, the piece can be pointed with the natural line of sight so as to strike objects not situated at point-blank distance if the object be within point-blank range, as at /'", Fig. 1, the na- tural line of sight should be depressed below the ob- ject as much as the trajectory is above it ; if it be beyond point-blank, as at /", the natural line of sight should be directed to a point //, which is as much above the object, as the point H' , of the tra- jectory, is below it. Owing to the shape and size of the reinforce of sea-coast cannon, the natural line of sight is formed by affixing a front sight to the muz- zle, or to a projection cast on the piece between the trunnions. Although the latter arrangement does not give quite so long a distance between the sights as is desirable, it permits the use of a shorter breech- sight, and the front sight does not interfere with the roof of the embrasure, when the piece is fired under high elevation. In pointing small-arms and mortars, the piece is first given the elevation, and then the direction nec- essary to attain the object. Mortars are generally fired from behind epualements, which screen the ob- ject from the eye of the gunner. The elevation is first given by a gunner's quadrant; and the direc- tion is given by moving the mortar-bed with a hand- s]iike, so as to bring the line of sight into the plane of sight, which, by construction, passes through the object and the center of the platfnnn. The plane of sight may be determined in several ways; the me- thod prescribed is to plant two stakes, one on the crest of the ejiaulement, and the other a little in ad- vanceofthe first, so that the two shall be in a line with tlie object, and the gunner standing in the mid- dle of tlie rear-edge of the platform ; a <'or(l isattach- ed to the second stake, ;uid carefull}' held so as to touch the first stake; a third slake is driven in a line POINTINO-BOABS. 553 POINT OF IMPACT. with t/ie ford, in rear of the pliilforiii, iinil a plum, met is attucli('(l to this conl so iis to full ii little in rriir of the iiinrtar. It ;s I'viilcnt tliiil the cord jijid ])liiriiiii('t ili'lcniiini' tlir rc(|iiirr(l |ihuii' of sii;lit into whii'h the line of sijrht of I he mortar iiuist \>v l)roiij;ht. TIk' usual anjilr of liri' of mortars is ^l", which corresponds nearly with the maximum rani;e. The advanlaiies of the angle of greatest range are : 1st. Economy of [lowder; 2il. Diminished recoil, and slrain on the jiid'c, lied. and jilatforni; i}d. More uniform rangi's. When the distance is not great and the oliject is to peru'trate the roofs of magazines, buildings, eti'.. Ihc force of f.'ill may he increased liy firing under an angle of tiO". The rangcH obtained under an tiiigle of (iO" are about nne tnitli less than those obtained with an angle of 4.'j''. If the object be to iiroduce etTeet by the bursting of the projectile, the penetration should be iliminished by firing under an angle of ',W\ AVhen the object is not on a level with the piece, the angle of greatest range is consid- ered in practice to be -lo^-j-.l-V, or 40 — i.V. A being the angle of elevation or depression of the object. Thus, to attain a magazine, for instance, situated on a hill, for which A=i.')'^, the angle of greatest range Is h^y^ instead of 45". The angle of lire being fi.xed at 4.')'' for objects on the same level with the ]iicce, the range is varied by varying the charge of jiowder. The jiractical rule is founded on the knowledge of the amoinil of jiowder necesNary to diminish or in- crease the range 1!) yards. For the French ,S and 10 inch siege moriars, tins amount is about (iO graiusfor the former, and 125 grains for the lallcr. .\ jiracti- cal rule for finding the time of llight by which the length of the fuse is regulated, is to take the sciuare root of the rang<' in feet, and ilividc it by four : the quotient is the ajiproximatctiuie in seconds. Stone- mortars are pointed in the same manner as common mortars : the angle of lire for stones is from (!0^ lo 75", in order that they may have great force in fall- ing ; the angle for grenades is about 33", in order that their bursting effect may not be destroyed by their penetration into the earth. Cannon are" point- ed at uiglit by means of certain marks, or measure- ments, on the carriage and platform, which are ac- curately determined during the day. See Cannon and Firhifi. | POINTING-BOARD.— In gunnery, a piece of 1)oard 1 foot long, 2 or 3 inches wide, and 1 inch thick, having a notcli cut in the middle of one side to tit i on the stake, and eraduatetl into c<iual divisions from its middle. When not in use the pointing ; cord may lie wound on it. This board is used for 1 poinliuL' mortars. I POINTING-CORD.— A cord used in pointing mor- ! tars IJy means of pohiting-Htaken, one of the lixed points is established upon the crest of the parapet or at the foot of the interior slope, and another in rear of the piece. Then by a cord called the puintiiig. cord, stretched between these two points, with the plummet suspended from it, a vertical plane is de- termined witli which the line of metal is made to coinciile. POINTING-RINGS.— Two rings, one smaller than the other, attached to the upper surface of the trail of the stock of a field gun-carriage, for the recep- tion of a handspike, which enables the cannoneers to raise the trail and carry it to the right or left. The trail-hanilles serve the same purpose, but are used jirincipallv for raising the stock. POINTING-RODS.— Pickets or rods of iron i inch round, and about 2 feet long, two of which are phu'ed upon the epanlement of a battery in front of each mortar, b_v means of which, with the aid of a plummet, the mortar can he directed with tolerable accuracy upon the oliject to be slruc'.;. The pickets are first lined upon the oliject ; the jilummct. which is in the hands of the laying otiieer, who stands be- hin 1 the mortar, is made to coincide with them, and the mortar is then traversed until the line of the plummet covers the center line on the mortar, which I is denoted by a notch on the muzzle, and another behind the vent ; a chalkid line is geneially drawn on the exterior surface of the mortar between tlieHC notches. In masonry works, they must bi- placed <in a fir [ilank, and about (i inches from each end. The plank should be lilteil witli u grummet or handle al each end. In carlhworkH, two ramrods will answer for poiniing-rods. j POINT OF ATTACK.- In siege operaliong, after ob- 1 taining all the informal i<in that can be liad from re- connaissances, surveys, and other sourceH, the nex' <ibject is to decide ujion the jiortion of tlic defenses which it will lie ne<cssary lo gain possession of to force the garrison to a surrender; this portion, wliicli j usually embraces one or more fronts of the position, with ihe outworks and any advanced works that I may be connected with them, and which must be re- duced before the points of Ihe main work can be as- sailed, is termed Ihe I'liint af AUwIc. It is in the choice of this point — a decision which mainly rests with theCommandingfJIlicer — that the judgment and skill of this Olliccr are shown. In making this se- lection, not only must the relative strength of the I various points of Ihe defenses which are accessible j be carefully weighed, but the nature fif the site as to .soil, natural surface, etc., uponwhich the trenches and other works of the attack must be laid out, and the f.acililies afforded of iui easy communication be- tween Ihe ]iarks, (/(/«;<.v, etc , and the ]ioint selected. In considering Ihe strength of the defenses, those parts arc regarded as unassailable by the ordinary- measures of an attack, whieli border upon precipices, marshes, a water-course that cannot be forded ; or are protected by works on inaccessible points, the lire from which sweeps in flank and reverse the ground over which the trenches must be run. Tho.se parts, again, are considered as offering pcctdiar dif- ficulties which ]iresent a series of works in good de- fensive relations which can only be carried in suc- i cession; or works which are mined; or those which have their ditches arranged fora play of water; which have dry ditches of unusual depth ; or, those parts where the works to be carried are displayed on a right line, embracing nearly Ihe same extent of front that the besiegers can take up with their trenches ; ) or, finally, portions which present a concave front to the attack. The points^which are looked upon as most advantageous to the attack are those in which the general condiiualiou of the works forms a salient point with respect to the rest of the defenses ; as a point so situated can receive but little support from the collateral portions, and can be enveloped by a line of trench of much greater extent than itself, along which positions can be obtained for enfilading and other batteries, the fire of which will be con- vergent u]ion that of the defenses. See Key.puint. POINT OP FALL.— The point at which the projec- tile strikes the ground, w hen permitted to do so. When the gun ami point of fall are on the same level, the iiiiijkiif fire is always less than Xheangle of fait. POINT OF FORMATION.— The point taken, upon which troops are formed in militarv order. POINT OF HONOR.— A nice discrimination in mat- ters affecting one's honor. A delicacy of feeling, which is most generally acquired by education, and strengthened b}- intercour.sewith men of strict integ- rity and good conduct. It is likewise very frequently the offspring of peculiar habits, received notions, and established etii|uettes. POINT OF IMPACT.— That point or spot which a projectile first strikes on meeting an opposing body. The method of finding the poiniof mean impact is as follows: The horizontal distance of each shot upon the target from a fixed vertical base (generally one side of the target) is first found, and a mean horizon- tal distance obtained, by dividiugthe sum of the dis- tance by the number of shot: the same process is followed to obtain a mean vertical distance from a fixeii horizontal base (generally the bottom of the targetj. The intersection of the two lines drawn POnfT OF WAR. 554 POLAB DISTORTION. parallel to the bases respectively arc! at distances equal to the horizontal and vertical mean distances already found, gives what is termed the pnnitH of mean impni-t. The distance of each shot from the point of mean impact is measured; these distances are added together, and the sum, divided by the num- ber of shot on the target, gives the agure. of merit. Half a diagonal is allowed for every shot that does not strike the target. POINT OF WAR. — A loud and impressive beat of the ilrura, the perfect execution of which requires great skill and activitj'. 'X\\t Point of V,'ar is beat when a battalion charges. POINTS. — Movements in Sabre Exercise executed as follows : Tierce Point. — Being at guard, raise the hand in tierce as high as tlie eye : throw back the right shoul- der, carrying the elbow to the rear, the point of the saber to the front, the edge upward. (Two.) Tlirust to the front, extending the arm to its full length, edge up. (Three.) Resume the guard. Qurirte Point. — Being at guard, lower the hand in quarte near the right hip, the point a little higher than the wrist. (Two.) Thrust to the front, extend- ing the arm to its full length. (Thbee.) Resume the guard Left Point. — Being at guard, turn the head and shoulders to the left, draw back the hand in tierce toward the right shoulder, the hand at the height of the neck, the edge of the blade upward, the point to the left and as high as the hand. fTwo.) Thrust to the left, extending the arm to its full length. (Thbee.) Resume the guard. Right Point. — Being at guard, turn the head to tlie right, carry the hand in quarte near the k ft breast, the edge of the blade upward, the point to the right and as high as the hand. (Two.) Thrust to the right, extending the arm to its full length. (Three.) Re- sume the guard. Hear Point. — Being at guard, turn the head and shoulders to the right and rear, bring the hand in quarte near the leii breast, the point to the rear and as high as the hand, the edge upward. (Two.) Thrust to the rear, extending the arm to its full length. (Three.) Resume the guard. Againut Infantry. Eight Point. — Being at guard, this movement is executed the same as quarte point, point ; G, the dexter base point ; H, the middle base point ; and I, the sinister base point. The dexter and sinister sides of the shield are so called, not in rela- tion to the eye of the spectator, but from the right and left sides of the supposed bearer of the sliield. joints Of ili9 POITRAIL.— That portion of JEacutchcoa. the horse armor which covers the breast, fitted either with hinges or like a flounce. Also written Poitrel. POITRINAL. — In ancient armor, the horse's breast- plate, formed of metal plates riveted together as a covering for the breast and shoulders. The term Pectoral has a like signification, and is commonly used. POLANS. — A term applied to knee-pieces in ancient armor. POLAR DISTORTION —In the practice of gunner}-, trajectories are generally constructed by the system (A polar distoriion. By this method the angles of elevation are multiplied by an assumed co-efficient of distortion. The data necessary are the angles of ele- vation and the corresponding ranges. Assume a range scale, a co-efficient of distortion, and a point as the origin of the curve. Through the origin draw a straight line representing the axis of fije, and from this line, with the origin as a center, plot successive- ly (commencing with the least) the angles of eleva- tion multiplied by the co-efficient of distortion. Up- on the lines of sight so established mark points at distances from the origin equal to the corresponding ranges reduced to scale. A curve drawn through the origin and the points located will represent the trajec- tory. Let O, be the origin; OA,the axis of fire; AOB. AOC, AOD, etc., the angles of elevation, multiplied by the co-efficient of distortion, to which correspond respectively tho ranges from 100 to 500 yards ; then will Oi, Oii, O'li, Ol^ O, be points of the curve. The portion of the curve lying above each line of sight will represent the trajectory for that range. The dan- gerous space , or the limits in distance within which the object aimed at is liable to be hit, is dependent, with the same arm, on the extent of that object above and below the point of aim. To determine this, describe turning tho head and shoulders to the right, inclin- ing the point downward. (Two.) Thrust in quarte. (Three.) Resume the guard. Against Infantry, Lift Point. — Being at guard, this movement is executed the same as Left Point, except the point is downward. (Two.) Thrust down in tierce . (Three.) Resume the guard. Against Infantry, Front Point. — Being at guard, ben(l well down to the right, extend the rigiit arm well downward, the hand in rear of the thigh, the b;ick of the saber upward. (Three). Resume the LHiard. See t^oher Exercise. POINTS OF PASSING.— The ground on which one or more bodies of armed men march by a Reviewing General. POINTS OF THE ESCUTCHEON. — In Heraldry, in onliT to facilitate the descriptiiiii of a coat-of-arms, it is the practice to suppose the shield to be divided into nine points, wliich are known by the following names: A. the dexter chief point: B, the middle chief ; C, the sinister chief; D, the colhir or honor point; E, the fess point ; F, the nonibril. or naval two circles one about the origin as a center, the oth- er about the point aimed at: the former with a rad- ius equal to the assumed muzzle height multiplied by the co-efficient of distortion, and the latter with a radius equal to the height of tlie point aimed at above the ground multiplied by this same co-efficient. A straight line tangent to these circles at their low- est point will be the ground line ; and a line tangent to the second circle and parallel to tlie ground line, will be the lineifheigld. The dangerous space will be tlic projection, on the ground line, of the portion of the trajectory ciimiiriscd between these two lines. With the U. S. liille the dangerous space is calculat- ed for the muzzle fifty-six inclu's from the ground, aimed at a jioint thirty-four inches from the ground; for .'300 yards, this extends 40 yards before the ob- ject (a foot soldier) and 30 yards behind it. The dis- tance on the figure is D'S.nv/' being equal to HA. To ascertain the vertical height above tho ground line of a particular jioint of tjie trajectory at any dis- tance from the oriL'in : with this distance as a radius describe an arc cutting the trajectory. The length POLAR PROJECTILES. 555 P0IJXIC8. of tlie pfi'pcndiciilar to Uk- ground lini' from lliis in- UTscction is the rcijiiinil IumkIU. 'I'Iic numliiT 10 iiiiiy !)(■ cinploycil us ii c<mvciiicnt co-clHciciit of (lis- tortiou. J{y this method of ))h)tlin};, the rehitiveeur- viiture of eoiisefiilivit jKirtioiis of the tnijcctriry is represented willi siillleien'.uceiiruey to detenninc"tlie '* diini^eroiis sp;ier." POLAR PROJECTILES. -A de»if;niition applied to priijecliles which pursue tlieir lliglit llirout;li tiie air, idwiiys lieepiii'j; one end or aspeet foremost. POLE. -In iirlillery, tliat portion of a carriage to wiiich tlie wlieel iiorses are attaclied. At tlic ex- trcmily (if llie pole are placed two pole-chains, by which it is held up, and a iiole-yoke with two mov- alile hranches, to prevent, as much as jiossible, the [Idle from oscillating and striking the horses. POLE AXE. -A weapon nnich used by thi; early northern nations, Celtic and Scandinavian, retpiiring great strength in its use. Some were held with one hand; some with two, the former kind coul 1 be wielded equally by liorse and foot, but the latter was for fiioi-soldicrs only. The pole-axe had a lon,^er handle, and a broader, stronger, an 1 sharper blade than the common axe. During tlie Middle ^=^ 33= Ages, and somewhat earlier, it was much used in sorties, and to prevent the escahiding of a besieged fortress. The pole-axe diiTered but little from the l)atlle-axc. The hlark hill and hrtiirn hill where a sort of halbert. having the cutting jiart hooked like a woodman's bill, with a spike projecting from the back, and another from the head. The r/laive was a kind of pole-axe, or bill, useil by the Welsh. POLE HAMMER. — An early weapcm of war. con- sisting of a spiked hammer placed at the end of a very long shaft or pole. See War-hnmmer, and Ln- terner. POLE MARCH.— Originally, in Greci.an antiquity, the Comnianilcr-in-C'hief; hut, afterwards, a civil Magistrate, who had under his care all strangers and sojourners in the city. POLE -PAD.— A pad placed on tlie end of the pole in field-gun carriages, to prevent injury to the horses. POLE-PROP.— A bar for suiiportiug the end of the pole or tongue, especially used with the various car- riages of the artillery service. POLE-STRAP.— -V heavy strap by which the poleof the carriage is attached to the collar of the hor.se. Also called Pole.piece. POLIABOLE.— A ballista, which was capable of throwing both arrows and stones. Also written Piihnt inne. POLICE. — 1. The term Military Police has two significations— 1st, the organized bod}' employed within an army to preserve civil order, as distinct from military discipline; and, 2d, a civil police with | a military organization. The police of an army com- : monly consists of steady, intelligent soldiers, who act under the orders of the I'rovost-Marshal. and arrest j all persons out of bounds, civilians not authorized to t pass the lines, disorderly soldiers, etc.; they also at- tend to sanitary arrangements. As in all military matters, the police of an army possess siunmary powers, and a sentence of the Pros'ost-^Marshal is I carried out immediately after it is pronounced. Of civil police with military orgaui/.aticm may be in- stanced, as specimens, the Gendarmerie of France, I tlu- Sbirri of Italy, and, in an eminent degree, the j Irish Constabulary. 2. The cleaning of a camp or garrison, or the state of a camp in regard to cleanliness. The workmg party engaged in policing is called the Pulice Party, and the .Sergeant in charge of the same, the Police iSi'rf/iiiiif. POLICE GUARD. — An interior guard, having the care of the arms, property and prisoners : also charged with enforcing the regulations of the camp in regard to order and cleanliness. In each regiment, in the Held, a police guard is detailed every day, consist- ing of two Sergeants, three Corporals. two drummcrB, and men enough to furnish the required sentinels and patrols. The; men nri: taken from all the com- panies- from each in i)roportion to its strength. The guard is commanded by a I>ieutenant. under the supervision of a Captain, as Kegimental Olllcer of the Day. It furnishes ten sentinels ut the camp — one over the arms of llu' guard ; one at the Colonel's tent ; three on the color front, one of them over the colors; three, fifty jiuces in renr of the lield-ollicers' tents ; and one on each flank, between it and tlie next regiment. If it is a flank regiment, one more sentinel is posted on the outer flank. See Fitld- Hrrrii'i . POLISHING.— Polishing, in the armory, is effected by first removing any tarnish or oxidation by means of some material which will chemically act upon it; for this purpose sulphuric, hydrochloric, oxalic, anil acetic acids are used, and in various states of dilution. Usually, it is necessary to remove the acid with clean water, and dry rai)idly, to prevent re- oxidation ; and then either friction with various polishing uiateri;ds, or rubbing with ;i smooth. hard surface or burnisher, brings out the luster of the metal. The/""<-polishing lathe. shown in the draw- ing, is used for all small articles and [larts. It has a spindle, one end of which is threaded and tapers to a point for holding a brush, buff, or other polish- ing wheels. The otiier end of the spindle forms aa arbor for holding emery and other grinding wheels, also for small drills. PdV^hing Pimieg vary accord- ing to the materials upon which they are to be era- ployed. For brass, the best kind is a mixture of 2 parts of soft soap with 4 parts of rotten-stone in very fine powder. Another sort is 8 parts of fine rotten- stone powder, 2 parts of oxalic acid powdered, 3 parts olive oil, and enough of turpentine to make them into a paste. For iron, a mixture of emery powder and lard is used ; and for pewter a mixture of flnel}--powdcred bath-brick and soft soap. For wood, a paste called furniture paste is made by add- ing spirit of turpentine to beeswax, sufficient to form it into a soft paste, which is rubbed on thinly with a brush and woolen rag, and afterwards polished with a dry woolen cloth and soft brush. See Kmtry. POLITICS.— That branch of ethics which has for its subject the proper moile of governing a State, so as to secure its prosperity, jieace, and safety, and to attain as perfectly as possible, the ends of civil soci- ety. Among the subjects which political science embraces are the principles on wliich Government is POLKOWNICK. 556 POLTSPASTE. founded, the hands in which the supreme power may be most advantageously placed, the duties and obli- gations of the governing and governed portions of so- ciety, the development and increase of the resources of the State, the protection of the right and liberties of the citizens, the preservation of fheir morals, and the defense of the independence of the State against foreign control or conquest. While the philosophy of governing constitutes the scienre of politics, the art of politic-s consists in the application of that sci- ence to the individual circumstances of particular States. The ancient Greek writers treated politics ■with reference to an ideal perfect State, which each propounded according to his own speculative views, pointing out the variation of every existing govern- ment from his standard. The politics of a coimtry, in common parlance implies the course of its Gov- ernment, more especially in its relations with foreign powers. POLKOWNICK.— A Colonel of a Polish regiment. POLO. — This may be described as hockey on horse- back. It is a game of Asiatic origin, and was intro- duced into England in 1872 by Cavalry Officers who had learned it in India. Two goals, as for football, are set up about 350 yards apart, and the object is to drive a ball about the size of a cricket-ball through the goal b}' striking it with long sticks having bent or crooked ends. The players are mounted on ponies, and much depends on the skill with which these are managed. Four or five a side are the usual numbers, and those scoring the greater number of goals win the game. Polo has become very popular among EugUsh Cavalry Officers, and a few clubs have also been formed. POLEON. — That part of the armor which covers the neck and shoulders. POLTROON. — A coward; a dastard; one who has no courage. The origin of this word is stated by some to coine from the Latin polUx trunc)js,m consequence of the frequent instances of men cutting off their thumbs to disqualify themselves for military service. Others, however.derive it from High Dutch, pointer, a bed, from poltroons taking to their beds whenever any peril presents itself ; or again, from the Italian poltroiie. a colt, because of that animal's readiness to run away. POLYGAR HELMET. — A casque of Central India, with fixed nose-piece, cheek pieces, and very long neck-guard, or mail hood. POLYGON. — 1. A school of practice for artillery in Japan. 2. The name applied to the many-angled forms in which the outer walls of all fortified places are built. Polygons of 5, 6, 7, 8, etc., sides are de- nominated pentagons, hexagons, heptagons, octa- gons, etc., and when the number of sides exceed twelve, the figure is merely mentioned as a polygon of so man}' sides. The quindecagon, or figure of 15 sides, is the only common exception to this rule. Polj'gons have many general properties: such as that the sum of the angles of a polygon, when increased by four right angles, or 360'',is equal to twice as many right angles as there are sides in the poh-gon, and that (supposing the number of sides of the polj'gonfohe n{n — 3) expressed by li) the luimber of its diagonals is ; also, if a polygon of an even number of sides be cir- cumscribed about a circle, the sums of its even and odd sides are equal; and if a polj gon of an even number of sides be inscribed in a circle, the sums of its even and odd angles are equal. A polygon whicli has all its sides and angles equal is called a nyular polygon. All polygons of this class arc capable of l)eiiig inscribed in or circumscribed about, a circle ; but tliough the ])n)blem is merely to divide the cir- cunifercnce of a circle into a number of equal parts, corresponding to flu; number of sides in Ihe jiol.v- gon, geometry was till lately only able to perform it m those cases where Ihe lunnber of sides of the pol.v- gon belongs to one or other of the series 2. 4, 8. 10, etc.; X G, 12, 24, etc.; or 5, 10, 20, 40, etc. Gauss, however, in the beginning of the present century, showed how it could be done in the case of all poly- gons, the number of whose sides was of the form 2" + 1 (provided it be a prime number), or a mul- tiple of this prime number by any power of 2. This discover}- supplies us with iunumerable series repre- sentative of the numbers of the sides of polygons which can be described around or inscrilied in a cir- cle, such as 17, 34, (IS. etc.; 2Tu . 514.1028. etc. POLYGONAL SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— The polygonal S3'stem has been proposed by several engineers of distinction, but its most ardent advo- cate has been the celebrated Montalembert. Con- sisting of either a simple polygonal enceinte without re-euterings, the sides of which are flanked by case- mated caponnieres, placed at the middle point of the fronts; or of fronts either slightly tenailled or of a bastion form, with short casemated flanks to flank the faces of the central caponnieres, this s^'stem affords more interior space, and from the mode adopted of flanking the enceinte, will ailmit of much larger fronts than either the bastioned or the tenailled systems. The salient angles moreover will be more open in this than in the other two .systems. From these peculiarities of this sy.steni the positions suit- able for the erection of batteries to enfilade the faces of the enceinte are less advantageous, from their being thrown in nearer to the adjacent fronts than in either of the other systems; whilst a greater devel- opment of trenches will also be requisite to envelop the fronts of attack. The polygonal trac^ has cer- tain prominent advantages and defects which may be seen by a slight comparison with the bastioned system. As the exterior sides are longer and the re-enterings of the enceinte less deep than in the bastioned systems, it follows : 1. That the interior space enclosed by the enceinte is greater in the polygonal trace. 2. That the faces of the enceinte are less exposed to ricochet from the greater obtuse- ness of the salient angles. 3. That the tire of the faces has thus a better bearing on the distant de- fence. 4, That requiring fewer fronts on a given extent of line to be fortified, there will be fewer flanks and more artillery therefore disposable for the faces and curtains. 5. That, in the usual mode of attack; the besiegers will be forced into a greater development of trenches for the same number of fronts. The defects of the system are: 1. That the enceinte, having no other flanking defen.se than the main caponni^re, will be exposed to an escalade so soon as the fire of this defense is silenced. 2. That the progress of the besiegers during the last and most important period of the siege is but little delayed, owing to the want of the concentrated cross-fires which arc afford- ed in both the bastioned and tenailled systems, in advance of the salients of the enceinte, and upon the ground generallj' in advance of the fronts, due to the slighter re-entering formed by the independ- ent works in front of the enceinte salient. It is fur- ther objected that in the German method. First. The system makes use of numerous works of ma- sonry that can be easily ruined by distant batteries of heavy caliber, especially when pierced with em- brasures and loop-holes like the casemated capon- nieres and defensive barracks of the German method. Seamd. That the di.stribution of troops -dwA mnteriel of war throughout the independent works deprive i the defense of the union ;m(i concerted action that j c:in only exist inider a single command<T. Third. 1 Th:it the cxjjen.se of construction is mucli greater, j in consceiuence of the numerous works of masonry reijuiring nice workm;inship. And, Fo>irth. That it is imprudent to abandon existing sy.stems that have stood the l<'st of experience for those not pos- sessing this advantage. See Ihrmiiii Synttm of For- tijiciiliiiii. .Uoiitiilitiilirrt Si/>itim of Fo-rtificntiun, and Si/sl> III of Fortifriiti'iii. POLYSPASTE.— The crane of Archimedes, an en- POL'xTECHNIC SCHOOL. 557 PONCHAHEA EIFLE. ginc wliicli was iiscil to rii'mc anil sliattcr to picfps wlioli! vessels, and ideiililied with those enormous hooks that were used lo pull olV Ihe heads of Ihe hallerhm-ranis. POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. An Inslilijlion, first es. tahli>he(i ill I'iiris ( ITllI i liy Hie Nalional Convenlioii, under Ihe name of Iv^itr iIih 'J'niriiiij- /'u/)lin< (f>i-\itni\ of I'lihlie worlds). No sliideiils were adinilti'd Imt those wlio intended to enter tli<' |)iil)lie servifM'; and tlioni;h tlic" genc'ral ')hject of the Institution was tiic BUjipiyin.i; of well-educated youtlis to all hranrlies, it was more particularly devoted to tlie tliorou;;li instruction of recruits for the (lorps of Civil and Military Kivi^'ineers. 'I'lie Institution reeeivi-rl (lie name of " Keole I'(ilyteehnii|u<' " in 171(5. 'I'he pu- pils were at first ;il!) in nurnher, and eacli receiv(-d, durini; his stay nf two years in tlie Institution, an aiuiual stipend of l,2lll) francs (i'4.S nearly;; the teachers were in most cases the most eminent sa- vants of France. In 17!)!) some modilications were introduced into tlnr working of the School; the numljcr of impils was at the sime time limited to 21)1), and tliey were put into uniform. Tlie advan- taij;es of an Instiliilion of tills sort, wlien ably eon- ducted, soon made tliemselves evident, and tlie Polyteclinique, in consequence, rose into hi<;h esti- mation, not only in France, but tlirouiilioiit Europe, BO much so, that it became common for foreiij;n nations, when entering into a treaty with France, to stipulate for tlie admission of a certain number of their sulijects into the Institution, after passing the prescribed entrance e.xamiiialion. In 1H()4, tlie Em- peror Napoleon introduced various modifications into its working, and gave it a military organization; it was also removed from the Palais Bourbon (wliere it had existed from its first establisliment) to the Old College de Navarre. Tlic In.stitution became more and more, as the end of tlie Napoleonic Eni])ire drew near, a training-scliool for j-oung artillerists and engineers; !ind such was the enthusiasm of Hie pupils in the Kmperor's c;uisc, that, after the di.sa.s- ters of IS 14, they dem;inded to be enrolled en mnxse in the ranks of the French Army. However, Napo- leon was (to use his own words) not inclined "to kill the hen for the golden eggs;" but he allowed them to form three out of the twelve companies of which the Artillery Corps of the National Guard was composed. These three companies rendered impor- tant service in manning the walls of Paris, and be- haved heroically in tlie battle of JIarcli 30, 1.S14. After the First Restoration, the Polytechuiquc, being considered to be evil-disposed to the Govern- ment, suffered considerable reductions: but was restored to its former imjiortance for the brief pe- riod of the "hundred days." After the Second Restoration (July, 1815), the StafT of Professors was remodeled; Lacroi.v and some others were dis- missed, and replaced by Poisson, Arago, Caucliy, etc. Notwithstanding these changes, the Govern- ment still had its doubts as to the loyalty of the establishment, and took advantage of an outbreak, April 3, 181(>, to break it up. It was reconstituted in Septemberof the same year, under a revised code of regulations, and ill 11S33 the old severity of mili- tary discipline was restored. During the w:ir of 1870-71, the Government of National Defense ordered the jiupils to meet at Bordeaux, and classes were opened there under distinguished pupils of the School brought from all p;irts of France. Iloweverthe attempt had to be abandoned, and the pupils having sought permission to take part in the war, were divided among the ditTereut sections of the army, in which their services were highly appreciated. The Constitution of the School, which has so freiiuenlly BuiTered change, was, in the end of 1,S73 regulated by Decret of Nov. 30, 18()3, and Jlinisterial Pules issued on Mar. .5, 1857, 1. No pupil can be admitted unless he has 'leen successful in the public competitive ex- amination which is held each _year. 2. The condi- tions of admission to the competitive examination are, that the candidate shall be a Frenchman ; that \h: shall be more than 10, and less than 20 years of age, on the 1st of .(aniiary of that year ; and tliat he shall be either a Bachelor of Letli fs or a Bachelor of Sciences of the University of France. If he holclti both ilegrees he is alloweil 50 marks in llii' exuniina- tion for admission. 3. Kegular soldiers are adniillcd up to the agi' of 25 years, provided Ihcy liavi- 1 een on real and elTeclive service- for two years. 4. 'I'lie charge for board is 1.000 francs ('X40/prT auniini, and the cost of outlil Ho be also paid by Ihe pui>il; about f!00 francs. 5. The duration of the course of in- struction is two years; the pupils, after finishing their course, must |ia.ss a final examination ; Hie suc- cessfiil candidates, if found lo be jiliysically (jualified, are arranged in order of merit, and choose In fjrder what branch of the public service they wish to enter. <). The branches of the public service whidi are re- rruited from the Polyteclinique are, tlie Corps of Land and Naval Artillery, Military and Naval Engineers, tlii' Imperial .Marine, the Corps of Hydro- graphic Engineers, that of Engineers of Hoads, Bridges, and Mines, the Corps of Staff Ollicers, the Superintendence of Telegraphs and Gunpowder and Tobacco Manufactories; ami generally every Depart- ment which, requiring special scientific knowledge, niaj' be added by Din-rtU to these. The following branches of study are embraced in the curriculum . Alat hematics, Pnysics, Chemistry and Chemical ^Man- ipulation. History and Literature, (Jernian, Written Exercises, Drawing, Geodesy, Mechanics, Ard.i- tecture, Art Mililaire. Lessons in Fencing, Music, and Dancing are given out as optional, and must be .separately paid for. The number of pujiils varies with the requirements of the public service. In 1794 there were 3i)lj pupils; in 1H20 only fifi. During the First Empire, the numbers increased from 110 in 1808, to 227 in 1813; under Louis Philippe the average number was 130. During the Second Empire, it had risen to 140 iiiid 1-50. After the war with Germany in 1870-71 the number rose to 2C0. The numerous and admirably equipped Technical Schools of Germany, often called l'i'!ytechnii-n^ have received no military restriction, and are available for all interested in the industrial arts ; thej- are in many cases scientific centers comparable to the Universities. POMADA. — An exercise of W I vaulting the wooden horse, by ^^I^^I laying one hand over the pom- ^■■B^NW mel of the saddle. See Gym- \ « y POMEL CROSS.— In Herald- ry, a cross whose extremities Pommettee Cross. terminate in single knots or poniels, like the linurdon or Pilgrim's St;iff. ^Vlso written Pnmmittie Cross. POMERIUM. — In ancient architecture, that space of ground which lay between the walls of a fortified town and the inhabitants' houses. The term is stUl used among modern architects, particularly by the Italians, to describe the breadth of the terreplein of the rampart, its inward talus, and the vacant space which is usually left between this talus and the houses of the town POMME. — In Heraldry, a bearing or device repre- sentintr, or in the form of, an apple. POMMEL.— The knob on the hilt of a sword. Also the protuberant part of a saddle-bow. The term I'ammeled . ox Pommelled, signifies furnished or mounted with one or more pommels, as a sword, dagger, or the like. POMMELION.— The cascabel.or hindmost knob of a cannon. See Cascabcl.. POMPON. — .\ tuft of wool, or other material, some- times worn by soldiers on the top of the hat in front, instead of a feather. PONCHARRA RIFLE.— In 1833, Colonel Poncharra suggested jilacing ;i" sabot "of hardwood under- neath the ball with a greased patch. which, resting on PONCHO. 558 PONTOON. the offsets of the mouth of the chamber, was prevent- ed from entering it. This rifle was objected to as a war weapon on acronnt of the complicated nature of its ammunition, and the difficulty of procuring it in the field ; besides which, the sabots frequently broke in loading, from the ramming necessary to expand the bullet into the grooves. PONCHO. — A "Spanish-American garment, consist- ing of a piece of 'woolen cloth, 5-7 ft. long, 3^ feet broad, having in the middle a slit through which the wearer passes his head, so that the poncho rests upon the shoulders and hangs down before and behind. In the fashions of recent times, the poncho has been in- troduced in Europe. In the United States Army, mounted troops are issued a waterproof poncho,con- sistiug of painted cotton or rubber cloth. PONIARD. — A pointed instrument for stabbing, usually borne in the hand, at the girdle, or in the pocket. See Dagger . PONTONES. — Ancient square-built ferry-boats for passing rivers, as described by both Caesar and Aulus Gellius. PONTOON, — The name given to buoyant vessels used in military operations for supporting a tempo- rary bridge. Pontoon bridges have been construct- ed, with greater or less skill, from the earliest times. Darius passed the Hellespont and Danube by pon- toon bridges, and the former was traversed by Xerxes' immense array on similar temporary bridges, very admirably formed. A pontoon train is a necessity for every army maneuvering in a country where there are rivers, and many campaigns have proved failures for want of this cumbrous but indispensable apparatus. In most armies the pontoons are under the charge of the engineers ; but in the Austrian army there is a distinct and highly-trained corps, called pontonCereyt . Marlborough used clumsy wood- en pontoons. Napoleon and ^Vellington had them lighter of tin and copper. They were flat-bottomed, rectangular boats, open at the top. Anchored at stem and stern, beams were laid over from one to another, anil transoms with planks crossing these beams completed the roadwa}' of the bridge. These open pontoons were exposed to the disadvantage that they were very liable to be filled with water, and thus ceased to support the bridge. They were, moreover, very heavy, one pontoon, with appurten- ances, constituting a wagon-load. As 36 were deemed necessarj' for the train, a pontoon equip- ment was a serious item in the impedimenta of an army. The Open pontoons are now, however, obso- lete, modern science having substituted closed C)'lin- drical vessels of copper (or occasionally of India- rubber), which are far lighter, can in an emergency be rolled along, and can only be submerged if per- forated. Against the last contingency, thej^ are di- vided within into water-tight compartments, so that one perforation may not seriously detract from the total buoyancy of a pontoon. In the British service two pontoons are used ; the larger, with hemispher- ical ends, being 33 ft. 3 in. in length, and 2 ft. 8 in. in diameter ; the smaller, cigar-shaped, with conical ends, 15 ft. in length, 1 ft. 8 in. diameter. Two of the largest used to form a raft weigh 8 cwt. 7 lbs.; the superstructure 18J cwt. At 34 ft. apart from center to center, this raft will carry infantry four deep, marching at ease ; cavalry, two deep, and light field guns ; at 16 ft. interval, heavy guns. A raft of three pontoons, at close distances, will sup- port siege-ordnance. The pontoons can be used in very wide rivers as rafts, in thfiir proper sense, or they can be connected, when the width permits, to form a bridge. In the latter ease, each is towe<l into lin(N anchored above as it drops to its jjlaee, and a second time when its exact spot is reached. It is computed that each pontoon requires li minutes to take its position, and that when the pontoons are l)laced, the roadway can be laid, if properly arranged previously, in IJ minutes for each interval between two pontoons. A river of 6IJ0 feet may thus be bridged in less than 1^^ hours. The process of throwing a bridge over in face of an enemy is fraught with the utmost danger to the engineers em- ployed. Pontoon bridges have to be passed with great care, and every measure should be adoiited, such as breaking step, etc., which can reduce the peculiarly dangerous vibration. The following is the method generally employed for building bridges with the bridge equipage of the United States Army, and known as the construction by successive pmitoons. The place for building the bridge having been se- lected, the pontoons are brought to the banks of the stream, near the spot, and theboatsare launched in- to the water. Each boat is provided with an an- chor. Some of the boats cast their anchors up- stream, while others cast them down-stream. The number of anchors to be cast will depend upon the rapidity and strength of the current. Under ordi- nary circumstances, an anchor cast uij-stream from ever}' alternate boat, and half the number down- stream, will be sufficient. The boats casting up- stream anchors are launched above the bridge ; the others Ijelow. If none exists, an easy approach for the wagons and artillery should be constructed, leading'down the bank to the bridge. A strong sill is then imbedded in a trench, perpendicular to the axis of the bridge, and is held firmly in place by four stout pickets, driven about eight inches from each end. This sill is horizontal, and should be as near- ly as possible on a level with the flooring of the bridge. A pontoon is then brought up opposite to this "sill, and close to it. Five balks are brought forward, and the ends placed upon, and lashed to the outer gunwale of the boat, in the proper places The men holding the balks push the pontoon off, until the ends of the balks on shore rest upon the abutment sill. The pontoon is then secured in posi- tion by shore-lines running out from the 1)0W and stern, and fastened to mooring-pickets. The chess are brought forward and laid upon the balks, to witliin one foot of the boat. A second pontoon is brought alongside of the first ; five balks are again used, and this second boat pu.shed out. The balks are firmly lashed togetlwr and to the gunwales of the first pontoon. The intervals between the pon- toons are known as bays. The chess are laid as soon as the balks are lashed: and when a liay is com- pletely covered, the side rails are laid and lashed to tlie balks beneath. This operation is continued un- til I he entire length of bridge is obtained. It is re- <-iiiiimi'nd(Ml to strengthen the first bay by using two additional balks — one between the first and second, aud in contact with the latter; the other, between PONTVALENT. PONY PLANER. the fourth and liflli. in fiuiliicl, witli tlir foiirlli. Wlicii llic wiitcr is not (ii'i'p cnuiiuli to (lout tlic llrsl pontdiin, 11 Iri'stic, or oilier lixi-il [loint of support, may lie usimI inslciul of tlir ]ioiilonii. 'Plic irn'iil oli- •'H'ciiou lo lliis ])oiilooii is its wcitrlil, wliicli iiial<i-s its Iranspiirlaliou over bad roads dillicwll. For liad roads and rapid niovciiicnls a li;;hter pontoon tlian tliis wooden boat lias to 1)(; used. The one employ- ed under these clrrumstanoes is the canvas pontoon, wliifh c'oiisists of a\voo(l<'n frames covered witii can- vas. The wooden frame comes apart, so as to be casil}' loaded on \va,i;ons for lrans))orlalion. It has two side frames, trapezoidal in shape, the upper piece beini; twenty-one feet long; the lower, ci.^li- tcen feet and four inches lonj;. The depth of this frame is two feel and four inches. The frames arc connected by pieces called transoms, framed into the side frames, and these latter are fastened togeth- er by ropes passing through ringsin the ends of the frames. The inner width of the boat frame, or dis- tance l)Ptween the, side frames, when the jiarts are arranged, is four feet and eight inches. In some cases, the side frames are hinged in the middle, so that when taken apart, they may be folded up. The canvas cover is made of cotton duck. The balks are twent.y two feet long, witlia cross-section of four and and one-half inches, and are provided with claws as before des('ribeil. Tlie chess is the same as that de- scribed, but only eleven feet long, instead of Ihirtei'n. The reserve equipage is divided into trains, each train being composed of four ])ontoon divisions, and one supply division. Each pontoon division contains all the material necessary to construct a bridge of eleven bays, or a bridge two bundreil and twenty-five feet long. The advance guard equipaire is also di- vided into trains each train having four ))ontoon divisions. A division contains eight pontoon wagons two wagons for chess and two for trestles. Tint pontoon wagons of this e(|uii)age arc so loaded that each wasou will have all the material necessarv I sterile regions. They are in general the jjroperly of man, and not truly wild, ultliough, in vt.-ry many cases, they live almost in a wild state, and receive no care or attention except when tbi'y are wanted for use. They are in gcfncral very liardy, and their strenglh is great in proiwrtion to tlieir'sijce. They an^ often vicious, or at least playfully tricky to a nnicli greater degree than is usual with large liorsen. Ponies arc very often covered with rough hair, and Inive large, shaggy manes apd forelocks. The 8/iH- 1(1 lid puny is a very good examjilc of these small races of horse. The Irilaixl p>nyK scarcely difTerent from it, anil is hardy enougli to endure the winter of Ice- land without shelter. The tliiWiirny, WHih, JJiirt- ■mo(/r, Exinnirr, and Nt-w Furmt breeds are British races of pony larger than the Shetland. The pro- gress of indosure and cultivation in their native re- gions has so changed the circumstances in which they long subsisted, and in which, perhaps, they ori- ginated, that scarcely any of them are now to be seen of pure and unmixed race. Sardinia and Corsica have small races of ponies which have subsisted un- changed from ancient times. In the Morea there is a race of ponies, driven iu herds to Attica for sale, exceedingly wild and vicious, but capable of being rendered very serviceable. But it is unnecessarj' to mention the many races both of Europe and Asia. They dill'er considerably in size, some, like the Shet- land jiony, sugiresling a comparison with a large dog, some nuicb larger. They also differ much in color: a dun or tan color, with a black stripe along the back, is prevalent in man\ of them. Ponies are seldom employed in agricultural labors; but they are of in- estimable value for campaign purposes in many wild and mounl;iinous regions, from their hardiness and surefootedness, and are often used as saddle-horses, the hirgesl kinds being even employed as horses for lisrht cavalry. >ONY PLANER.— Until quite recently the more important arsenals and armories were equipped with to construct one complete biiv. By this arramrc- meut the number of wagons may be increased or diminished, as the case mav refpiire. See Jiridgen. PONTVALENT.— A kind of light bridge, used in sieges, for surprising a post or outwork which has but a narrow moat. See Flying Bridge. PONY. — The common name of many small, active ■breeds of horses, belonging to different countries, from India and Africa to Iceland; but in the warmer parts of the world chiefly foimd in mountainous or a novel machine in which an emery wheel was used for surfacing tiles, finishing anvils, nuts, gilw, keys, slide valves, straps, crossheads, and, in short, for accomplishing the majority of work usually surfaced on the planer, milling-inachine. and shaper. The mode of operation consisted in adjusting the object to be surfaced in the clnick to proper elevation, when it was carried under the wheel, and at the same time the latter was drawn across it. This motion continued until the table carried the work out of the POOLEE-JONES CABTKIDGE-BELT. 560 POEOSITT. action of the grinder. Then, by means of suitable mechanism, the operator slightly elevated the object and caused it to run back again under tlie wheel. Of this machine, the invention of the Tauite Com- pany is a moditication. The main ditlerence is that the planer bed is made to slide to an 1 fro on its ways by the action of a crank, the work being thus moved to and fro in the line of the emery wheel's revolution, while the wheel also has a cross motion imparted to it by another crank. This motion of the table cor- rects the inaccuracy resulting from gradual decrease in the wheel's diameter, there being a perceptible wear in the wheel, so that it grinds a long, flat piece taper instead of plane, when the work slowl}' passes under it; while, by this crank throw, the whole length of work is brought into contact with the wheel at each throw. A chuck rests on four springs, and rises and falls vertically in planed wa_vs. When the adjustable stops have been adjusted, and the wheel no longer cuts, the work must be plane. The springs force the (chuck) work against the wheel, and yet act as safety appliances against over-friction and pressure. The whole table and bed has a verti- cal adjustment by a screw. Three belts are needed: ly. The driving belt can come from above, below or from the back. When standing in front of the machine the cutter-head pulley is at the left hand. See Einery-grindtr. POOLER-JONES OAETRIDGE-BELT —A belt hav- ing cartridge holders attached to it. suitable for eith- er paper or brass shells. These holders can be easily attached to an}' hunting vest, coat front, or belt. An ordinary vest will hold from 36 to 50, each hoder weighing about J of an ounce. A belt with 30 hold- ers attached (weighing one poimd) is shown inthe drawing. The belts can be perfectly adjusted by wearer to fit either a slim or large man, with waist measuring from 30 inches to 41 inciics. It can be worn over or under a coat, and it is impossible to lose the cartridges. The belt is intended to be worn or put on witli tlie biickle behind. The cartridges are nearly all to the front and can be easily reached. The holder, B, with the side cut away to show the wad supporter, is for carrying brass or paper shells with- out being crimped. The form shown at. A, is for carrying paper shells crimped, or with ends turned down. POOR KNIGHTS OF WINDSOR.— An institution of one to the wheel mandrels, one to the suction fan, and one to the driver. The gears, being interchange- able, allow the proportion of speeds between the wheel shafts and the table to be altered in various ways. The machinery stands 'A'i inches high, and is 2 feet 8 inches each way. It will grind work 9 inches long by 5 inches wide. It is adapted to all small, flat work, especially to dies of hardened steel and chilled iron, to parts of gun and pistol locks, machine work, small levels, machine keys, locks, etc. It is claimed that thousands of small parts can, by this means, be finished to a gauge with greater exactness than can be done in any other way. The remaining portions of the device are similar to those in the de- vice first alluded to above. The name Pony Planer is also given to a most useful wood-planing machine. One of the best ma- chines of this cla.ss, and one adapted for a great variety of work, is shown in the drawing. It has very powerful, geared, double feed-rolls, four inches in diameter. Those in front are weighted, those be- hind are provided with self-adju.sting scrapers. The machine can take a ij inch cut, and is adjustable to different thicknesses of stuff by a single hand wheel, -j>,i of an inch to a turn. Either plane is smooth enough for any work. but three admit of faster feed, and tlie feed cones are made accordingly. Two pressure bars are close to the cutterliead. the front one hinged and weighted. The machine is suitable for heavy as well as tor light and very short stuff. The shaving giuird and feed-roll covers are hinged, to give access to the knives, which can be whetted when in place. The principal bearing boxes are self- oiling. The heavy boxed shaped base is proof against twisting even when standing on a weak floor, which will often yield from the weight of lum- ber, thereby straining the bearings of the macliincs, and causing them to work hard and wear out quick- Military Knights at "Windsor, England, wliich owes its origin to Edward III., and is a provision for a limited number of old otficers. These officers consist of a Governor and 13 Knights on the upper founda- tion, and 5 on the lower, together 18, and are com- posed of olBcers selected from every grade, from a Colonel to a Subaltern, chiefly veterans, or on half- pay. The.y are allowed three rooms each in'Windsor Palace, and 2 shillings per diem for their sustenance, besides other small allowances. POPPET-HEAD.—That part of a lathe which holds the back-center, and can be fixed on any part of the bed. Boring-machines have a poppet-head. POROSITY.— By this term we express the experi- mental fact that no kind of matter completely nils the space it occupies ; in other words, that all bodies are full of minute cavities or interstices, such as are ilhistrated on a large scale by a sponge. On the atomic theory, it is obvious that this must be the case if the atoms of matter are spherical, or, indeed, if they have any form save one or two special ones, such as cubes or rhomlnc dodecahedrons. It is commonly asserted that all bodies must be porous, becatise they are compressible ; but this is a great mistake, since we have no reason to believe "that matter is not jjcr.w compressil)le, independently of the existence of interstices. The Florentine Acade- micians, in their attempts to compress water, proved the porosity of silver by flattening sphere of tliat metal, filled with water, nd soldered. The water escaped llirough the ])ores of the silver, and stood in fine drops on its surface. The porosity of liquids is easily shown by mixing alcohol and water. Tlie bulk of ttie mixture is considerably less than the sum of the bulks of the components, showing tliat these must in part have entered each other's (•ores. Tliis iiroperty of matter is of great impor- tance in the Arsenal and Laboratory. PORTABLE DRILL. 561 PORTABLE FIRE ARU8. PORTABLE DRILL. A form of drill iiuicli frnploy- C(l inarHciials. l'„ drillHiil any luiuli', in iuiy poHilioii, at any diHtancc, and in any din-el ion from llic power. It is especially adapted to drilliiii: all |)ieees which are ine<invenient to move, or wliieli eaniiol lie readi- ly .'idjusled under ulalionary drilliiiix miiehiiies. TIk- (irawini; shows the drill as employed al Ihe Waler- lowti Ars<'nal. It is used in four sizes: No. 1 is in- tended for lii;ht work only. It will drill \iptn 1 inch diameter. Th(' spindle has inches feed — the post has C) inches vertical adjuslmenl -the arm is moved in and out by a screw, and roliiled liy a worm an<l taM};ent-whe(0. nivini; a convenient and deliealf ail- juslment to the drill. With one settini; it will drill anywhere over a surface of ;i:i inches oulsidi' di- ameter, and 11 inches inside diameter- the spindle cau be set to any anjjjle (up to 30 degrees) with the base — the post can be held in the split bearing on the side for drilling parallel with the base. The weight is I'Za poun<ls. No. 2, is similar to No. 1, with more power and range. It will drill up to 1 h inches di- ameter. The sjiindle hasti inches feed- the post has n inches vertical adjustment. With one settini; it will drill over a surface 43 inches outside diameter, ami i:5 inches inside diameter. The w-eighl is 200 pounds. No. 3, is the most popular and useful size. It will drill up to 2 inches diameter. The spincDe has 8 inches feed, working automatically when desired, with 3 speeds of feed -the jxist has (i inches vertical adjustment. With one .setting it will drill anywiiere over a surface 43 inches outsi(le, and 13 inches inside diameter. The weight is 240 pounds. No. 4, is in- tended for heavy work. It will drill anj' size hole and bore up to 8 inches diameter. The spindle luiH 13 inches automatic feed — the post hasO inches vertical adjustment- with one setting it will drill anywhere over a surface 5G inches outside, and IG inches in.side diameter. Back gearing. The weight is 390 pounds. The operation of llu^ drill is simple and as follows: The counter-hanger is bolted to the ceiling or otlier convenient place, and receives power from the "line shaft" by a tiat belt on the fast and loose pidleys. The frame carrying the "idlers" rotates on a hollow stud, through which the round belt passes to the grooved driving pulley. The rotation of this frame permits the belt to be led to the drilling-nuichine in any direction, radially, from the hanger, while the rise and fall of the weighted "idler" permits it to be led to any point within the scope of this rise and fall — say ten to fifteen feet or more. By inserting sec- tions of belt, by means of the hook "couplings, any distance can be reached. The base is intended to be bolted or clamped to the piece to be drilled. Tlie height of the post can be adjusted to suit the different lengths of drills aiKl chucks used in the sjiin- dle. The radial slotttxl arm is fastened to the post b)' the stud and nut ; the position of tlie drill being adjusted by Ihe screw which travels the arm, and the worm and tangent-wheel that rotates it on the post. When it is required to drill parallel with the , base, the post Is held uy the clamp bearing on the side of the base. There is a shoulder turned on the bottom of the ball on the gear frame (of sizes 1, 2, and 3), and a half collar fitted to it and bolted on the arm; this keeps the spindle square with the base. When this half collar is removed, the spindie can be aet to an angle in any direction. When not being used on the floor, it serves the purpose of a bench drill press. See Drilling-tnachine. PORTABLE FIRE-ARMS.— The portable-fire arms employed as militar.r weapons of war are rities, carbines, and pistols ; these generally rary in con- struction witli the Nation by which thr:y are used. The term "breech-loailing" a|)plieK to those urrng in which the charge is inserted through an opening in the breech, and in the loading of which no ramrod is re(|uirecl. All ndlitary br<<-ch-louderH, now in use, employ the metallic cas'e carlriilgi' ; they may be i\\. vidediiUo i/m/"V l,ni'li.!i''i'l'ri utA ri"riyitcrH. The essential parts of all such arms are the barrel, the chamber, the birech-meclianiim. the lock, the stock, the nightu, and the mauntingK. and in repeaters the magazine. If the chamber be made in the piece which closes the breech, commonly called the breech- block, the arm is said to have a niorabU chamber; if it be formed bv counterboring the barrel, it is said to have &fiid chamber. The latter has great ad- vantages, and is generally used. With the fixed chamber the interior of the barrel is divided into two distinct parts, viz., the bi/re proper, or space PORTABLE FIEE-AEMS. 562 PORTABLE FIRE ARMS. through which the projectile moves under tlic in- flueuce of the powder, and the chamber in wliicli the charge is deposited. Tlie principal parts peculiar to simple breech-loaders are ; 1st. The tiiuvable hreecli- block, by which the chamber is opened and closed. 3d The hreerh -frame, upon wliich the breech-block is mounted and united to the barrel. 3d. Theo/;^;?!- ber, with its recess, to receive the rim of the cart- ridge. 4th. The firing-pin, which transmits the blow of the hammer to the cartridge. 5th. The extraetor , by which the empty case is removed after tiring. The foregoing named parts may be said to be es- sential to all breech-loading arms in which tlie me- tallic cartridge is used; the diflferent ways in which they are combined mark the systems. These com- binations have reference chiefly to the modes of operating and locking the breech-ljlock. The dif- ferent systems may be classified into: 1st, those with a fixed chamber; 2d, those with a mirrable chamber. The latter have now become obsolete. The first class have: 1st, a morable bnrnl; 3d, a movable breech-block. With each the motion ma_v be sliding, in which case it moves in grooves; rotating, when it swings on a hinge ; or sliding and rotating combined. The greater number of systems belong to the class of a •'m(>val)le breech-jjlock rotating about an axis." In arms of this class the axis of motion may be parallel to the axis of the barrel, and above, below, or to one side of it ; or perpendicular to that axis, being vertical or horizontal, and lying in or out of the plane of the axis. The position of the hinge has an important influence on the facility of operating the block, inserting the cartridge, and ex- tracting the empty shell : the most suitable position is deemed to be in front of the center of the block. In this case the motion of opening and closing the block is natural and easy ; the cartridge is pushed into its place by the block, and a very simple re- tractor serves to withdraw the empty shell after fir- ing. The most serious defect found in breecli-load- ing arms w.as the escape of the flame through the joint, which not only incommoded the soldier, but, by fouling tlie machinery, seriously interfered with its operations. At present this is entirely overcome by the elastic metallic case of the cartridge. The advantages of breech-loading over muzzle-loading arms are : 1st. Greater certainty and rapidity of fire". 3d. Greater security from accidents and loading. 3d. The impossibilitj' of getting more than one cart- ridge into the piece at the same time. 4th. Great- er facility of loading under all circumstances, and particularly when the soldier is mounted, lying on the ground, or firing from behind any cover. "The greater security with which the charge is kept in place when the piece, is carried on horse-back with the muzzle down. TluTe are certain functions performed by, and certain important conditions to lje fulfilled in, the construction of the different portions of a small- arm. Tlie barrel is by far the most important part of a fire-arm, its oflice Ix'ing to concentrate the force of a charge of powder on a projectile, and give it proper initial velocity and direction; for these purposes, and for the safety of the firer. it should fje made of tlie best material and with the greatest care. In determining the exterior form, it is not only necessary' to give siicli tliickness to the ditTer- «nt parts iis will best resist the explosion effect of the charge, but such as will ^ireveiit it from beiiiu: "bentwhen used as a jiike.or when subject to the rough "usage of the service. We'ght, to a certain extent is necessary to limit recoil, to give steadiness to the barrel in aiiiiiiig, and to jirevent it from " s]>rin!jing" in firing. The latter defect generally arises from bad workinaiiship, whereby there is a greater thick- ness of metal, and consecpiently less expansion, on one side of tlie bore than on the otlier. In souk; sporting rilles till' barrel weighs from 13 to l.") Ilis., tut in the military service, where it is carried bv tlie soldier, it seldom weighs more than 4i lbs. The I ngth of the barrel is determined by the nature of the service to which it is applied.rather than by the ef- fect wliich it exerts on the force ofthecharge. It was shown by experiment that the velocity of a projec- tile in a smooth-bored musket increased with the length of the bore up to 108 calibers at least, but such length of barrel would be too heavy for a fire- arm and too unwield}' as a pike ; in a rifled barrel the increase extended to about 350 calibers. Three points are to be considered in determining the caliber of small arms: 1st. It should be as small as possible to enable the soldier to carrv the greatest number of cartridges. 3d. To diminish the amount' of ammunition required to supply the wants of an arm}', and to prevent the confusion liable to arise from a variety of calibers, there should not be more than two for all arms of the same service, viz., one for the rifle and the carbine, and one for the pistol. 3d. This point relates to the force and accuracy of the projectile, and to the flatness of its trajectory. The introduction of elongated projectiles affordel the means of increasing the accuracy and range of fire-arms, withoiit increasing the weight of the pro- jectile, simply by reducing the caliber, which dimin- ished tlie surface opposed to the air. Too great reduction of caliber, however, gives a very long and weak projectile, and besides the effect of a pro- jectile on an animate object depends not onlj' on its penetration, but also on the shock communicated by it to the nervous system, or upon the surface of con- tact. These considerations have led to a general re- duction of caliber of military rifles. The gromes being for the purpose of communicat- ing a rotar_v motion to the p-'ojectile around an axis coincident with its flight, their construction will de- pend upon the form, dimension and material of the projectile, charge of powder, and angle of fire. The points to be considered in determining the form of grooves for military arms are range, accuracy of fire, endurance, and facility of cleanin'j; the bore. Experiment, in this country, has shown that for breech-loaders these points are best attained by mak- ing the grooves broad and shallow, and with a rapid twist. Tlie cltamber being a receptacle for the charge, its shape is made to conform to that of the cartridge. Its diameter is made a little larger, and that of the bore a little smaller than that of the projectile , this facilitates the insertion of the charge, and causes the projectile to be compressed and held firmly by the lands in its passage through the bore. The bottom of the grooves and the surface of the chamber are generally continuous. The breech-ynecJianism comprises the principal parts that are peculiar to arms loading at the breech. The functions of these parts are the opening, closing, and locking of the breech, firing the charge, and re- moving the empty cartridge shell. These are the objects for the accomplishment of which the differ- ent sj'stemsare variously contrived, and with which alone thej'are concerned. The most important con- ditions to be fulfilled in the arrangement of this me- chanism are: 1st. The number of parts shoidd be as few as possible, and all should be of the simplest construction. 2d. The strength and union of the parts should be such as not only to resist repeated discharges, but the bursting of a cartridge case, which sometimes occurs from defective material or workmanship. 3d. The locking of the breech-block should not only be secure, but all the parts by which it is effected should worlc freely without sticking. 4tli. The parts sliould be so iirranged tli;it the ham- mer cannot strike the tiriug-pin until the breech- block is properly locked, .'ith. The liaiiiuier should not necessarily rest on the liriiig-pin when the iiieccis carried loaded (Ah. The breech sliould be unlocked without the hammer liiini; brought necessarily to full cock. 7tli. The working parts should, as far as possible, lie covered from dust and water, 8lli. The extractor should be so arranged as to reipiire no cuts or openings in that i>«irt of the chamber which sur- POBTABLE FOSOE. )r)3 POHTABLE FOBOE. rounds tliR body of llio riirlriilgc riisp. Tlii' ^Wi; is tlicmuchinn by which llii: chiir^jc in the ('urlridi^f! \n if^nitod. Thortcof the prcHciil diiybi'loni; to llicpcr-i cus.sion class, in wliich tire is produced l)y a blow upon thofulininiitin); powder conliiincd in the cart- ; ridf;c-case. Fiocks are divided into »/>/'■ and cfnl^^rl locks, (h'pendini; upon tlie position occupied in tin- Mtock; eadi of th<'S(^ may lie cltlier friiii.t-iicfiun, wherein tlic inainsprinij is in front of llie luinl)l<T, or hnck-acliiiii, wlien! tins s])rini; is in rear of the tmnbler. The mortise, which forms a bed for the lock of the latter (construction, seriously alTects the streni^tli of the stock at the handle, -and for this reason the front-action lock is j;''"i'™lly i)reffrred for all military arms, except revolvers. Tin' condi- tions to be fullilled in the construction of a military lock, are simplicity, strenu;tli, cerlainly of action, ami freedom from such accidental motion of the parts as might produce explosion of the charge in the bar- rel. The stock is the wooden part of the fire-arm, to which all the parts are asscmble<l; for military arms it is preferable that it sliould be ill one piece. The material should be lii;lit, stroni;, and well seasoned. The bull, the jKirl intended Ifi rest aj^ainst the shoul- der and to sup))ort the recoil of the piece, should be of such leni^th and sliajie as will ('nable it to trans- mit the recoil with the least inconvenience to the soldier. The longer it is, to a certain extent, the more firmly will it be ]iresscd aijainst the shoul- der, and the effect of the recoil will be a piixli rather than a hhnf. The stock is crooked at the handle for convenience in aimina;, and for the purpose of dimin- ishing the direct action of the recoil, ('hanginir the direction of the recoil in this manner causes the piece to rotate around the shoulder; but if the stock be made toocrooked, the butt will be liable to fly up and , strike the soldier's face. The nirjliU are guides by which the piece is given the elevation and direction necessary to hit the object. There are two; calletl front and rfnr nigliU. The //■««? m'glit is fixed to the barrel near the mu/./.le. 'T\w. flnrninK of its point is regulated by the length of the barrel, or distance from the eye, and the size and distance of the ob- ject generally aimed at; it is made coarser in mili- tary than in sporting arms, to prevent injury. The rmr night is attached to the l)arrel a short dis- tance from the breech; it has a movable part, capa- ble of being adjusted for ditfcrent elevations of the barrel. A sight for a military arm should sati.sf)- the following conditions, viz. : 1st, it should be easily adjusted for all distances within effective range; 2d, the form of the notch should permit the eyeto catch the object quickly; 3d, it should not be easily deranged by the accidents of service. Olobe and telescopic sights are used for very accurate sport- ing arms, but they are too delicate in their structure and too slow in their operations for general pur- poses. The mountings may be divided into three classes, viz.: 1st, those which serve to connect the principal parts, generally bands and screws; 2d, those which protect from wear or strengthen the stock at certain points, as the butt-plate, guard-plate, tip: 3d, the minor parts which secure the different parts (includ- ing the mountings proper) in their place, consisting of "springs, screws, rivets, pins, washers and nuts. A butt-plate is to protect the end of the stock from injury by contact with the ground; it is generally curved to fit the shoulder in tiring. A guard-plate is to strengthen the handle of the stock; it may serve as a fulcrum for the trigger. A tip is a shield placed on the end of the stock towards the muzzle. If the piece be intended to be carried upon the soldier's back, it is provided with awireh for that purpose. generally two, one of which may be fastened to a band and the other to the guard-plate, or to a point of the stock in rear of that plate. The trigger is a lever used to set the lock in motion. TViggers are divided, according to their construction and the force reipiired to rlraw them, inlii ri/mmon and net or /inir triggers; the latter are employed only in sport- iiig arms. The force re(|uired to set off the trigger, if very great, may <Iislurb the accuracy of tlie aim; if it be slight, the piece will be liable to accidental (iio- oliarges. The trigger has a guard which protects thir finger.i)iec(' from injury, and from accidental blows that might produce explosions. 'I'he ramrod is a long, slender piece, carried with an arm; with breech-loaders it is only eniploye<l to wipi; out the barrel to remove from it any obstruction, as a defec- tive cartridge-shell. Hee Small-nrmii, and Mpring. field Rifle. PORTABLE FOBGE.-Alight and compact black- siiiitli's forge, with bellows or lilowers, etc., all so arranged as to be readily movi'd from place to place. Kig. 1, shows a most complete jxirtable forge, de- signed for army usage. Its height is 22 inches ; size of firepan, 22x'-i7 inches, weight, 20() pounds ; and diameter of the fan 9 inches. The firepan is made of wrought-iron. and is 10 inches deep, con- taining all till' other p:irts of the forge when packed for transjjortation. The blower and gearing are compactly framed together, and lit into a slot on the Fig. 1. end of the forge when in use. It has the chain gear- ing described under Riveting Forge. The legs made of angle iron, fit into slots at the comers of the fire- pan. The tuyere-box fits into a slot under the hearth, which is made of heavy cast-iron, and is bolted to the bottom of the firepan. The lid of the firepan is made of heavy sheet-iron, and so attached by strong hinges, that when the forge is in use, it is raised perpen- dicularly, forming a back or a fender. The forge can be set up for use, or packed for transportation in one minute. To pack the forge for transportation. as shown in Fig. 2, the blower and gearing, the legs and tuyere-box are withdrawn from their slots, and with the short blast pipe, are placed in the firepan. The falling doors at the sides of the firepan are closed and fastened. The lid is shut down, and fa.«- tened by a hasp. The entire forge thus packed oc- cupies a space only 22 X '^7 inches square and 10 ia- PORTABLE MAGAZINE. 564 POSITION OF THE SOLDIEB. ches deep. This forge will produce a quick welding heat on iron three inches diameter, and on larger iron if required, as there is an abundance of spare blast. PORTABLE MAGAZINE.— A wooden box or metal- liueil case, covered with canvas, aud of such size as to be easily carried in a battery from place to place when there is only one expense magazine for several batteries ; but this would scarcely ever be the case in the future, as expense magazines in the present fortifications are provided in the proportion of 1 to every 4 or 5 guns, or in the case of very heavy guns, 1 to evcrv 2 or 3. PORT "arms.— This old command in musketry drill, is derived from p"Hare. to carry, and applies to a motion in which the tire-arm is brouglit to a slanting position in front of the body, lock to the front, the barrel crossing opposite the front of the left shnulder. See Arms Port. PORTATE.— In Heraldry, borne not erect, but athwart an escutcheon ; as, a portate cross. PORTCULLIS.— A b irrier, termed a porUullh, which can be lowered or raised vertically by machinery, is sometimes added to secure a passage-way from surprise. The ancient portcullis was a framework of heavy beams, placed vertically, leaving a few inches only between each pair of beams. Tfiese ver- tical beams were either solidly confined between hor- izontal beams, or clamping- pieces, in pairs; or else they were so arranged that they rould slide upwards between the clamping-pieces. Each of the vertical beams was shod at the bottom with a strong pointed iron shoe. The hori- zontal pieces were framed se- curely with two heavy vertical beams that formed the sides of the frame, aud were fitted into vertical grooves made in the side walls of the passage-way "in which the frame could slide when raised or lowered. By arranging the vertical beams to slide upwards between the clamping-pieces, it enabled the passage-way to be closed where an ob- struct ion might be designedly placed before the port- cullis to prevent this being done; as the beams which meet the obstruction would be pushed upwards, whilst the others would fall to their ordinary level and close the passage-way on each side of the ob- struction. In the works recently constructed with us the port- cullis, and even the doors preceding them, have been constructed of a strong open lattice-work of wrought-iron bars bolted strongly to the wrought- iron uprights and cross-pieces, forming the frame- work of tlie lattice. Tliis is a great improvement for these purposes, both as to durability and defense. Passage-ways of this description should l)e secured by all tlie means at an engineer's disposal. A large guard-room, with loop-holes bearing on the passage, should be erected on one side, near the gateway; and if the enceinte is a simple one, w>tliout outworks beyond its ditch, a small lunette, or loopholed tam- bour of masonry, or tindier, should be constructed beyond the coun1crscar]i, fdrming a tete-de-pont, for the security of the liridge from surprise. 2. In Heraldry, the portcullis is represented with rings at its uppermost angles, from which chains de- pend on either side. It was a badge of the JSeaufort family, and borne in virtue of their Beaufort descent by the Tudor Sovereigns. Portcullis is the title of a pursuivant in the Kuglisli College of Arms, whose oriicr was iiisiituted by Henry VH. PORTER BAR. In iron working, when a mass is too large to be handled conveuienily with the tongs, a large iron rod, called the porter-bar, is welded to it to serve as a porter or guide-rod. Somc'.inu's a part of tlie porler-bar is made to fo;-ni the core of the forging, and the slalis of iron which form the forg- ing arc welclcd ;iii(l liuilt up on the bar. When the Width. Depth. Weight 9.1 .5.1 38 0.1 10.1 70 -The name formerly given mass of iron is too large to be handled by the forge- man, it is supported by a crane, which .serves to swinii: it from the lire to the hammer. SeellfWmjr. PORT-FIRE.— A sort of slow match for tiring guns. It consists of a paper tube from 10 to 20 inches in length, filled with a composition thus proportioned: Saltpeter GOG parts, sulphur 222 parts, mealed gun- powder 112 parts. The composition is rammed with force into the paper barrel, and then when ignited it burns for a considerable period. As a substitute ma3' be employed soft brown paper dipped in a solu- tion of two ounces of niter to a gallon of water, dried, and rolled up to the size of a common port-fire. An- other port-fire consists of a rod cut square, of lime, birch, or poplar, boiled for six hours in a solution formed by dissolving 1 lb. of nitrate of lead in one quart of water. The rod is subsequently boiled in spirits of turpentine. When thoroughly dried, one yard will burn three hours. Port-fires are packed in boxes containing 100 or 200. The contents of the box should be marked in white letters on each end, aud the place and date of fabrication on the inside of the cover. The follow- ing are the particulars of the packing-boxes for port- fires. Length. For 100 port-fires, 18 For 200 port-fires, 18 See Firfirorks. PORT-FIRE CLIPPEK.- to the cutting implement which was fixed on the off side of the beam trail of a gun carriage, for cutting off the lighted end of the port-fire. Port-fires being no longer in use, except on emergency, and having been superseded by friction tubes, the sockets and cutters have been removed from all artillery car- riages. PORT-FIRE CUTTER — An implement for cutting port-fires to place in shells or for other purposes. It is simply a strong pair of steel scissors, with an in- dentation one inch wide and four inches deep made in one of the blades for the purpose of holding the port-fire. PORTGLAVE. — An ancient name for a sword- bearer. POSITION OF THE SOLDIER.— When dismounted, the proper pondliou of the soldier is as follows: Heels on the same line, aud as near each other as the con- formation of the man permits. The feet turned out equally, and lorming with each other an angle of about sixty degrees. The knees straight, without stiffness. The body erect on the hips, inclining a little forward. The shoulders square, and falling equally. The arms hanging naturally. The elbows near tiie body. The palms of the hand turned slight- ly to the frcmt, the little fingers behind the seams of the trousers. The head erect and square to the front. The chin slightly drawn in, without constraint. The eyes straight to the front, and striking the ground at about the distance of fifteen yards. These points will lie belter imder.stood by a refer- ence to the following remarks : lleils on Vie mine line. If one be in rear of tlie other, the shoulder on that side will be thrown back, and the position con- strained. Ileili mure or lexs rhmil. Slen who are knock-kneed, or who have legs with large calves, cannot, without constraint, make their heels touch while standing. Feet turned out erjiiolli/, and not fiirming too large an angle. If one foot be turned out more than the other, the shoulders will be de- ranged, anil if both feet be too niucli turned out, it wili lie iiiipc\ siblc to incline the up]ii'r ]>art of the body fcirward without making the whole position unsteady. Knees straight, iritlioiit stiffness. If stift'- ened, cinistraint and fatigue will be ■.mavoidablc. liody erect on tlie hips. This gives equilibrium to the position. The Instructor will ob.servc, that many re- cruits have the liad haliit of drojiping a shoulder or advancing a hip, These defects he will labor to cor- rect. The upjier part of body incting Jbrirard. lie- POSITIONS. 565 POSITIONS. criiit.s are commonly disposed to the reverse, to pro- ject the belly and throw back the shoulders, which causes i^rc'at ijicoMveiiieiice in MiarchiriiT. 'I"he habit of inclining; forward Ihc upper |)art of thi' body is so important to contract, that tin- Inslructor must en- force it from the beninnirif;, parlicularly with re- cruits who have naturally the o])posite tendency. tS/ii/ii/.(liri Kf/miri\ If the shoulilers be advanceil be- yond the line of the breast, and tlie bacU arched (the defiM-l callril round-shoulilereil i. the man can- Miit alii;n himself nor us<' his arms with address. I'nless the coat tits easily about the shoidders and arm]iits, it will he ditlicult to correct this defect. The shoulders must not hi' tlirown too far back, as this will mak(' the belly project, and curve tlie small <»f the back. Arinn JniiKjinti nntur'flli/; rthiurM iti'iir I hi' hiiilij: polmn nf tin Juin ils I urn id filii/htlj/'J/i llie fnrnt; null' finyerx heJiind tlir maiiiH of tin- trou«i'n. These positions prevent tlie men from occupyinj; unneces- sary space in the ranks, and keep in the shoulders. lleailtrcet and Mpiare to the front; cJihiKliglitly ilniirn in irilhimt atnstraint. If tluTe be stiffness in these posili(ms, it will be coinnuinicated tollie upper [jart of the body, embarrass its movements, andi;ive jiain and fatii^iie. Kifix xtrnhjhtto thv frmit. Tliis is the surest way of maintainim; tlie shoulders in a lini — an essential oliject to be insisted upon and attained. When mounted (horse unsaddled) the proper posi- tion of the soldier is as follows: Tlie buttocks bear- ini; equally ujion the horse's back, and as far forward as |)ossible. The thijilis turned upon their Hat side without etfort, embracini^ the horse equally, and stretched only by their <iwn weiijht and that of the lejjs. The knees bent without stilVncss. The leirs and feet free, and falliii;; naturally, the feet, jiarallel to the horse. The body erect and unconstiaiiied. The slioulders e()ually thrown back. The arms free, the elbows fallinsr naturally. The head erect, square to the front, and without constraint. One rein in each hanil, the rein comins; into the closed hand on the si(h' of the little tinjxer.and passinu; (Hit over the first tiiij?er,ou which the thumb is |iressed,the hijiht (end) of the reins falliiii: to the front and b<-tween the right rein and the horse's neck; the hands as hisih as the elbows, and six inches apart; the fingers turned to- ward each other. These points will be better understood by a refer- ence to the followini; remarks; Buttnehi hearing e- qiiiiUy upon the hm'xt'n hitrk. If they do not sujiport equally the weight of the bod}', its steadiness will be impaired. As furforinird as pr'niiible. That the thighs may readily clasp the horse. Thighs turned upon their Jtiitside.irithinit ejf'ort.eml/raeitig the horse eijiiaUp. The more tlie thighs adhere to the Iiorse, the greater is the stability of the rider; if they do not clasp the horse equally, the seat will be der;uigetl. Stretched only hy their mm weight, iind that of the ligs. If they do not fall naturally, they can only lie extended by an effort, which will cause constraint. Kiwes bent ■inthout stiffness. To give facility in carrying the legs more orless to the rear, without deranging the posi- tion of the thighs. Legs and feet free, and falling ■naturally: feet parallel to the horse. Stiffness in the legs will impair their action ; if the feet be parallel to the horse, the thighs will be in proper position. liody i-reet and unennstrained. This gives ease, and enables it to conform with suppleness to the motions of the horse. S/io'ilders er/iially throirn bark. If thrown forward, the back will be curved, and the breast con- tracted; if not thrown back equally, the position of the body will lie distorted. Anns free, and elboics fiitliny naturally. That the)- may contribute to the steadiness of tlie seat, and not stiffen tiie shoulders or forearms. Head erert. sr/iiare to the ront, and irith- out ronstraint. If not erect, the body will incline to one side; if there be stiffness, it will be communicat- ed to the upper part of the body, and prevent the head fnnii iiiovins with freedom. POSITIONS.- The skill of the Engineer is chieHy shown in adapting tlic resources of his art to the great variety of topograpliical feuturcH met witli in the positions that an army is necessuriiy obliged lo occupy wh<n acting on the defi'nsive. No less skill is called for on the jiart of the General in the selec- tion of his defensive jioints, as no engineering skill can remedy, in other than a defective manner, a position which is strongly coinmaniled by points which the assailed can occupy within good cannon range, or tin- flanks of which can be readily turned. To fortify similar jxisitions demands a degree of effort in the invers<' ratio of their strength, ami for the most part is but labor in vain. Two principal questions present themselves in a strictly defensive war; the one strati giriil, the other tarXieeil. The first is based upon the general features of the territory to be defended as affecting the ojierations of the assail- ing force, and the system of w;irfare the liest adap- t<'dto the assailed; tlie second on the particular tojK)- grajiliiial features of the positions where resistance is to be made. The first attention, will naturally be given to the system of defense for the frontier, whether one or more strong jioints shall be alone oc- cupied from which the assailed can be ob.servcd; or wlKther a continued line of natural and artificial ob- stacles sh.-ill be ])resentedto obstruct the movements of the invading force. Although opinion is against the latter method, the question is one that cannot be decided in an absolute manner. The numbers and quality of the army on the defensive : polit- ical as well as numerois military considerations ; the character of the frontier in great detail : the facilities for the rajiid concentratiim of the troops: and the security of the line of retreat have an impor- tant bearing u|>oii it and at all times demand the most careful consideration. That a very extended line is n<'cessarily a weak one is generally admitted; still a system of continued lines, ina countrj' difficult to penetrate, may be nsed with advantage, and if weak when assailed by a strcjng force, may serve as an obstruction to a weak one, and be i)articiilarly serviceable agaiuts niids. Such a line may be made to play the s;ime p:irt as the lines thrown u]) in siege operations to prevent the garrison besieged from obtaining succor or supiilies by detachments trying to penetrate them. The tactical considerations are the same in the application of field fortifications a position as for the distribution of troops for its defense. Their principal value depends upon the character of the site itself. If it has the (|ualitiesof a good defensive field of battle, and lends itself to such a disposition of intrenchments as the troops themselves would naturally assume, then the essen- tial tactical considerations can be secured. In all such cases both the plan and the command of the s\-stem employed must be subordinate to the site: to attempt more than this would require the time and means far beyond the command of an army in the field. Positions derive their great importance from the influence of fire-arms in the decision of liattles; for whatever enables one party to deliver its fire with effect against the other, whilst it, at the same time, remains sheltered in any degree from that of its adversary, places the advantage, all other things being equal, greatly on its side: and it is this advan- tage which should be principally kept in view in selecting a position. Woods, commanding heightx, preripires. and villages, constitute the strong points of a position. They .serve as points of support against which the wings of the army rest: or else, by covering parts of the front, they may serve as tiie key points in the defense. A wood, if properly in- trenched, covers the infantry from the attacKS of cavalry; conceals its maneuvers, and enables it to deliver its fire without being exposed to that of the enemy. Heights, by giving a commanding view of the surrounding ground, increase both the range and the effects of fire-arms; whilst they, at the .same time, serve to screen the troops behind them until thev are required to be brought into action. Preci- POSITIVE FEED. 566 POSSE C0MITATU8. pices offer similar advantages to heights, and are moreover unassailable. \ illages serve as secure shelters for detarlimeuts, which, by their fire, cover the maneuvers of the troops in their rear; and, if properly intrenched, will cause the enemy great loss in his effort to force his way into them. Ewers, marshes, fiollmos and ravines, are the most luifavor- able features of a position, because they may pre- vent a free circulation from one point to another, and thus impede the maneuvers; and they are exposed to the full fire of the enemj'. They may, however, Ije of service when they are so placed as to support the wings, or, when the position being too extended for the number of troops, they render parts of the front unassailable. The best positions are those which, being in due proportion to the force by which they are occupied, command all the surrounding ground within cannon range, the ground descending in a gentle slope to the front, presenting woods, villages, etc., to support the wings and cover parts of the front, and admitting of a free circulation from one point to another, with secure communications in their rear in case of retreat. If with these advantag- es, they present marshes, or other obstacles, which will embarrass the enemy's movements, and force him to advance in column, exposed to the fire and free maneuvers of the assailed, they will unite everything desirable in a favorable field of battle. POSITIVE FEED.— The earlier model Galling guns had cartridges fed to them by means of feed cases, or b}' a drum , but recently a new method for supply- ing the cartridges to the gun has been devised, which is positive and certainin its action. In the old methods of supplying ammunition to the gun, it was possible for the cartridges to jam in feeding down from the feed cases into the carrier or receiver, but in this newly-improved feed, the mechanism never loses control of the cartridges from the time they leave the feed magazine, until they enter the chambers, are loaded, fired, and the empty cases extracted. With this new feed, it is impossible for the gun to fail in its operation, even when it is worked by men unacquainted with its use. This new improvement not only greatly increases the rapidit}' and certainty of fire, but enables the gun to be fired at the rate of over 1,200 shots per minute, and at all degrees of elevation or depression, which is something no other machine gun can do. By firing the gun at proper elevations, ascertained by means of a quadrant, the bullets disciiargcd from it can be made to fall upon men beliind breastworks, or entrenchments, at .all distances, from 200 to 3500 3ards from the gun. This " high angle," or " mortar" fire, adds greatly to the effectiveness of the gun, and will, no doubt, prove of inestiniiible value in future warfare. Ex- periments have proved that musket-size balls, fired from a Gatling gun at high angles, strike the ground with sufficient force to penetrate from two to three inches of timber. About 1,200 shots per minute can be fired from the gun, raining down a hailstorm of bullets on the heads of men behind entrenchments, thus making such positions, in a short space of time, untenable. Open breastworks, or uncovered entrenclunents, would furnish little or no protection totriKips aitainst llicrtre of this forniidabh- weapon. POSSE COMITATUS.— A Sheriff or .Marsh;il, for the purpiise of kei'piiig the peace and i>ursuing felons, in;iy ccjmmaud ;ill the people of his county, above 15 years old, to attend hiin, which is called the Posse Comitntus, or Power of the County. It is not lawfid to cnii)loy any part of the Army of the United States, as a Posse Comitatus, or other- wise, for the i)urpose of executing the laws, except in such cases and under such circumstances assuch em- ployment of said force miiy be expresslj- authorized bylhe (..'onslitulion or liy some special Act of Con- gress ; and no money appropriated is used to pay the expenses of any kind incurred in the eniployinent of any troops in violation of this law; and any person willfully violating the same is deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof is punished by fine not exceeding ten thousand dollars or impris- onment not exceeding two years, or by both such fine and imprisonment. The provisions of the Con- stitution and of Acts of Congress understood as in- tended to be excepted from the operation of this law, authorizing the employment of the military forces for the purpose of executing the laws, are as fol- lows : 1. The United States guarantees to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and protects each of them against invasion; and on appli- cation of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened), against domes- tic violence. 2. It is lawful for the President of the United States, or such persons as he may empower for that purpose, to employ such part of the land or naval forces of the United States, or of the militia, as may be necessary to aid in the execution of judi- cial process issued under any of tlie provisions of the ■' Civil Rights" bill, or as shall be necessary to prevent the violation, and enforce the due execution of the same. 3. No military or naval officer, or other person engaged in the civil, military, or naval service of the United States, can order, bring, keep, or have under his authority or control, any troops or armed men at the place where any general or special election is held in any State, unless it may be neces- sary to repel tlie armed enemies of the United States, or to keep the peace at the polls. 4. The military forces of the United States may be employed at any time in such manner and under such regulations as the President may direct — First. In the apprehension of every person who may be in the Indian country in violation of ihe law ; and in conveying him immediately from the Indian country, by the nearest convenient and safe route, to the civil authority of the Territory or judicial district in which such person shall be found, to be proceeiled against in due course of law; Second. In the examination and seizure of stores, packages, and boats, authorized by law; Third. In preventing the introduction of persons and property into the In- dian country contrary to law; which persons and property shall be proceeded against according to law; Fourth. And also in destro3'ing and breaking up any distillery for manufacturing ardent spirits set up or continued within the Indian country. No person apprehended by militarj' force under the preceding laws can be detained longer than five days after ar- rest and before removal. All officers and soldiers who may have any such person in custody shall treat him with all the humanity which the circumstances will permit. The superintendents, agents, and sub- agenis, endeavor to procure the arrest and trial of all Indians accused of committing any crime, offense, or misderaeaner, and of all other persons who may have committed crimes or offenses within any State or Territory, and have fled into the Indian country, either by demanding the same of the chiefs of the proper tribe, or by such other means as the Presi- dent ma)' authorize. The President may direct the military force of the United States to be employ- ed in the appreliension of such Indians, and also in preventing or terminating hostilities between any of the Indian tril)es. 5. The President is authorized to employ so much of the laud and naval forces of the I'nited States as may be necessary effectually to prevent the felling, cutting down, or other destruction of the timber of the United States in Florida, and toiirevent tlie trans- portation or carrying away any such timlicr as may be already felled or cut down : and to take such iilher and further nu'asures as may be deemed ad- visablf for tlie preservation of the limber of the Uni- ted States in Florida. 0. Thequarantincs and other restraints established bv the healt h laws of any State, respecting any vessels POSSE COMITATUS. 5G7 POSSE COMITATUS. arriving in, or lioiinil to, uiiy port unliHirict thereof, arc (Inly olmcrvcil by tl"' olllccrs d! Ilic fiisloinH rcvcnui' of the I'nitrd Sliitcs, liy tlic inaslcrH jiiiil • Tews of tlic scvcnil ri-vriiiic-ciillcrs. iiiiil liy Ilic mil- itary olticrrs coiniimMiliii^j; in iinv fort or sliilion upon llie seu-coasl ; anil all Hncli ohlcTS of the. Uiiitc<l HiJites faithfully aid in the CACiiilion of such fpiur- ajvlincs anil hcallh-lawM, ai-conlinf; to their rcHpcclivc [KiwcrM anil within their rcsjjcctivc precincts, and as they shall lie ilirecled from lime to time, by the Hec- retJiry of the Treasury. 7. WhcMcvcr any ])iTson is ilelivered by any foreifin jiovunment to an ajjjcnl of the I'niled .Slates, for the Ijuri>"*'e of beini; lirout'ht within the l' lilted States aiul tried for any crime for which he is <luly accused, tlu' President has power to take all necessary meas- ures for the transportation and safe-keepiuf; of such accused person, and for his security asiainst lawless violence, until the liiial conclusion of his trial for the crimes or offenses specilied in the warrant of extra- dition, and until his linal ilischari;e from <'Usloilyor imprisonment for or on account of such crimes or offenses, and for a reasonable time th<Teafler. and may employ such portion of the land or naval forces of tlic United States, or of the militia thereof, as may bi^ necessary for tlic safe-keeping and protection of tjie accused. H. Every person who, within the territory orjuris- fUction of the United States. bei;ins. or sets on foot. or provides or prepares the means for, any military expedition or entcriirise.to be carrieil on from thence against the territory or dominions of any foreiirn prince or state, or of any colony, district, or peo])le, with whom the United States are at peace. is deemed gtiilty of a liiuli niisdenieanor, and is fined not e.\- ecedins; three thousatnl dollars, and imprisoned not more than three years. t). In every case in wliich a vessel is fitted out and armed, or attempted to be fitted out and armed, or in whicli the force of any vessel of war, cruiser, or other armed vessel is increased or augmented, or in whidi any military expedition or enterprise is bejrun or set on foot, contrary to the provisions and pro- liibitions of the Neutrality Acts, and in every case of the capture of a vessel within the jurisdiction or protection of the United States asbeforedctined; and in every case in which any process issuing out of any court of the United States is disobeyed or resisted by any person having the custody of any vessel of war, cruiser, or other armed vessel of any foreign prince or state, or of any colony, district, or people, or of any subjects or citizens of any foreign prince or state, orof any colony, district, or people, it is law- ful for the President, or such other person as he shall have empowered for that purpose, to employ such part of the land or naval forces of the United States, or of the militia thereof, for the purpose of taking possession of and detaining any such vessel, with Tier prizes, if any ; and also for tiie jiurpose of preventing the carrying on of any such exjiedition or enterprise from the territories or jurisdiction of tlie United States against the territories or dominions of any foreign prince or state, or of any colony, dis- trict, or people with whom the United States are at peace. 10. It shall be lawful fortlie ['resident, or such per- son as he shall empower for that purpose, to em- ploy such i)art of the land or naval forces of the United States, or of the militia thereof, as shall lie necessary to compel any foreign vessel to depart the United States in all cases in which, by the laws of nations or the treaties of the United States, she ought not to remain withiu the United States. 11. In case of an insurrection in any State.against the governmer.l thereof, it is lawful for the President, on application of the I.igislaturc of sucli State, orof the Executive, when the Legislature cannot be con- vened, to call forth such number of the militia of any other State or States, whichniay be applied for.as he deems sufficient to suppress such insurrection ; or, on like application, toernpl.oy, for the same piirpoHes, such part i/f tin- land or naval forces of the United States as he deems necessary. 12. Whenever, by reason of unlawful obstructions, combinations, or as.semblages of persons, or reljellion against the authority of the Government of the Uni- ted States.it becomes impracticable, in the judgment of the President .to enforce, by the ordinary course of judicial proceedings, the laws of the United States within anv SlatcorTerritory.it is lawful for the Presi- dent lo/all furl h the militia of anv or all the States. and to employ such jjarts of the lanil and naval forces rjf the United Slates as he may deem necessary to en- force the faithful <'xecution of the laws of the Unit- ' ed States, or to suppress such rebellion, in whatever State or Territory thereof the laws of the United States may be forcibly opposed, or the execution thereof forcibly oljslructed. ' i;i. Whenever insurrection, domestic violence, un- lawful combinations, or conspiracies in any State so olistructs or hinders the execution of tlie law th'jre of, and of the United States, as to deprive any por- l tion or class of the people of such State of any of the rights, privileges, or immunities, or protection, named in the Constitution and secured by the laws ! for the protection of such rights, privileges, or im- munities, and the constituted authorities of such State are unatile to protect, or. from an)' cause fail or refuse protection of the people in such rights, such facts, are deemed a denial by such State of the e(|ual protection of the laws to which they are en- titled under the Constitution of the United States ; ; and in all such cases, or whenever any such insur- rection, violence, unlawful combination, or conspir- i acy, opi)oses or obstructs the laws of the United States, or the due execution thereof, fir impedes or I obstructs the due course of justice under the same, I it is lawful for the President, and it is his duty, to ! take such measures, by the employment of the mili- , tia or the land and naval forces of the United States, or of either, or by other means, as he may deem nec- essary, for the suppression of such insurrection, domestic violence, or combinations. 14. It is unlawful to take any vessel or cargo de- tained under section 9 from the custody of the proper officers of tJie customs, unless by process of some ] court of the United States; and in case of any attempt I otherwise to take such vessel or cargo by any force. or j combination.or assemblage of persons. loo great to be i overcome by the officers of the customs. the President, ! or such person as be shall have empowered for that jmrpose. may employ such part of the Army or j Navj' or militia of the United States, or such force I of citizen volunteers as may be necessary, to pre- j vent the removal of such vessel or cargo, and to pro- I tect the officers of the customs in retaining the cus- tody thereof. 1.5. The President is authorized, at his discretion, ! to employ the land and naval forces of the United ! States to protect the rights of the discoverer [of a guano island] or of his widow, heir, executor, ad- ' ministrator, or assigns. j Officers of the Army can not permit the use of tlie troops under their command to aid the civil author- ities as a Pu.ise f'«;rt(tf'?i« or in execution of the lawj except as authorized in the foregoing enactments. If time will admit, the application for the use ot troops for these purposes must be forwarded, with a statement of all the material facts, for the consi- deration and action of the President ; but. in cases of sudden and unexpected invasion, insurrection, or riot, endangering the public property of the United States, or in cases of attempted or threatened rob- berj- or interruption of the United States mails, or other equal emergency, officers of the Army may, if they think a necessity exists, take such action be- fore the receipt of instructions from the seat of Go- vernment as the circumstances and the law under which they are acting may justify ; and will then promptly report their action and the reasons there-. POST. 568 POST FUND. for to the Adjutant-General for the information of the President. See Civil Authority, and Execution of Laws. POST. — 1. A soldier's beat while on sentry, or a position assiijned to or taken up by a soldier or body of men ; it generally consists of an entrenched vil- lage or position, or any building placed in a state of defense. The necessity of strengthening a post is admitted to be of paramount importance, and every endeavor should be made by an officer in command to place himself in such a defensive position as shall prevent his being taken unawares, or. if attacked, enable him to make a good fight. Often neither time, material, intrenching tools, nor men, will per- mit of solid works, such as a redoubt or other elab- orate field-works, being thrown up, but it is possible, when villages or detached houses are occupied by troops, to throw up temporary cover which shall greatly strengthen the position. The following are principles to be borne in mind in forming a post, or in strengthening a position ; 1 — To obtain cover for the men and animals from the enemy's fire. 3 — To enable the troops to fire, in the most advantageous manner, on the ground over which the enemy must advance. 3 — To hinder the approach of the enemy by obstacles, which, even if surmountable, shall be sufficient to break his order and detain him for some time under lire. 4 — To enable the troops to pass free- ly from one part of the works to another, in order to concentrate (m any point attacked. 5 — To impede the flank movements of the enemy as much as pos- sible, and thus prevent his different parties from sup- porting each other effectually. 2. — rust, in a military sense, frequently means to station ; as, to post a sentinel or relief. To be posted signifies to be formed ready for action. Thus, when troops are brought up in column, and ordered to de- ploy, it frequently happens that some part of the line is refused, in order to flank an enemj', or to cover a weak position ; the part that is aligned is said to be posted. The phrase also means, in a familiar sense, to be publicly announced as an in- famous or degraded character. 3. — In the British service, the term Post is given to the bugling which precedes the tattoo. This is the First Post, the Last Post that which follows it. See Advanced Post, Garrison, Military Post, Outpost, and Station. POST BAKER.— The person who bakes bread for a garrison. In the United States service the Post Baker is an enlisted man, who receives additional pay for his labor. POST CEMETERIES." The Commanding Officers of all posts, situated on all pulilic lands of the United States, see tliat a suitable portion of sucli land is set apart and propcrlj- maintained for the burial of de- ceased officers, and soldiers, and their families, and of Government emploj-es. The burial ground is suit- ably and securely inclosed with the best material available— a stone or adobe brick wall, or a neat wooden picket fence — and maintained by the labor of the garrison. At each grave is placed a head- board, plainly marked with a number, and with the name, company, regiment, and date of <lealh of the occupant, the number on the head-ljoard to corres- pond willi the number on the record of burials. The iiead-boards are about four feet long, ten inches wide, and one and three-eighths inch thick; and stand two feet out of the ground; of well-seasoned wood, and painted with three coats of white pamt ; inscription in black Ictlers one inch long. The w;ilks are about four feet wide, neatly rounded up, proiJerly drained, and graveled wlien the material is at hand. Wliere practicable, a good grass sod covers all the rest of the ground, including the graves ; and native trees and shrubs are preserved or planted for ornament and shade. A record of interments is kejit at each post by the Acting Assistant Quartermaster in the form on page Wi ; and when he is relieved, is turned over by him to his successors; and if the post be broken up, is transmitted to the Quartermaster Gen- eral. A list of the names of those buried (including a transcript of the items embraced in columns 1,2, 7, 8, 9. 10, 11, 23. and 2.'5) is forwarded to the Quarter- master General at the end of each year. A public Cemetery is established near Salt Lake City, Utah, underthe provisions of an Act approved May 10, 1874. This Cemetery is under control of a Board of which the Commanding Officer.Camp Dou- glas, Utah, is ex-offi'io a member. See Battle-groundi, Cemeteries, National Cemeteries, and Superintendent of National Cemeteries. . POSTERN. — Posterns are arched, bomb-proof pass- age-ways constructed under the terre-pleins and ram- parts, forming subterranean comnuu)ieat ions Ijet ween the parade and the enceinte ditch, or between the ditches and the interior of the outworks. The width and height of the interior of posterns depend upon the use to which the communication is to be applied. For artillery the width is usually taken at 10 feet, and the height under the crown or key of the arch at least 8 feet. Posterns for infantry may be only from 4 to G feet wide, and from G feet 6 inches to 8 feet high under the crown of the arch. The thickness of the piers of the arches is generally taken at about half the width of the postern. The arches are from 18 inches to two feet thick, and are covered with a thickness of earth sufficient to protect them from any injury from shells bursting over them. A strong wooden door is placed at each outlet of the postern to secure it against surprise. The doorway in pos- terns for tlie service of artillery should be of just sufficient height for the convenient passage of a gun. The most important postern is the one leading from the parade to the main ditch. This generally receives a width of 12 feet and the same height under the crown. For greater security from surprise, its outlet is at least 6 feet above the bottom of the ditch, this difference of level being overcome by means of a temporary wooden ramp which receives an inclination or at least \. Besides two strong doors at the two ends of the postern, there is a par- tition of masonry about midway between the two ends, which is pierced with a doorway of the same size as the doorways of the ends, and closed by a strong door which, as well as the partition wall, is loop-holed for musketr}'. In cases where the postern forms the main en- trance to the work, an arched chamber is placed on one side of it, at the outlet, which serves as a guard- room for a few men, to secure the outlet from sur- prise. The wall between this chamber and the pos- tern is loop-holed, so that a flre can be brought to bear on the doorway of the postern; and as a further precaution against surprise a machicoulis defense is sometimes arranged at the top of the scarp wall just above the doorway of the postern. See Communi- cations, POST FLAG.— In the United States Army, the Post Flag is the National Flag, It is twenty feet fly and ten feet hoist, is furnished to all posts garrisoned by troops, and is hoisted onlj- in pleasant weather. See Flags. POST FtJND.— In the United States Army, a fund constituted by the troops liaking their own bread and thereby saving 33', percent., the difference be- tween bresvl and Hour. The I'ost Trader also pays an assessment of 10 cents, or less, ii month for every officer and soldier in the garrison, which is carried to the credit of the I'ost I'lind. The following (ex- (■lusiv<' of sums tnuisferred to the regimental fund) are the objects to which the Post Fund may be ap- propriated, and Councils will give them precedence in the order named: 1. Kxpenses of bake-house. 3. Garden seeds and utensils (for all troops serving at the post). 3. Post schools. 4. Post library and reading-room. .'i. dynuiasinm. Wlien tlic neces- sary material anil lalior ;irc in thi' I'ost tjuiirternnis- ler's Depart menl, and can be spared from more im- POST OASSENS. ')f;o POST SCUOOLB. Record of Jieceam'd Ojjkem ami NolUicrs buried by ■ at , (^uartermaiiler, U, 8. A., ^ . •a .a E§ Is a 0. ^5 Number and locality of the grave. V ■p. (A c m a i "S u 1 a a I" a n Coujugal condition, if married or single. Residence of widow. .d o 'fi •t-i c & 1? pi - i •3 •c 3 .2 5 1 o 00 if ss 9 a 3 a 2 a 3 4 1 5 pq 6 7 8 C a s !^; 9 CO O 3 CO a d ■<f a a 1 14 d 1 13 5 18 . ■c 3 « 18 . 1 10 u 12 18 15 16 17 18 19 30 21 22 23 24 25 portant work, the neces.'<ary apparatus for the gym- nasium, and for such games and exercises as the Council niaj' consider desirable for the health and amusement of the soldiers at the post may be con- structed by the Quartermaster's Department, fi. Chapel. 7. For fruit and shade trees. 8. For fruit- bearing vines and bushes. 9. For printing press. The Quartermaster (iencral, imder direction of the Secretary of War. procures and forwards to the ))ost librarian such periodicals and newspapers as Ids ap- propriation for incidental expenses can afford to pay for, or school books in lieu of periodicals, when the Post Fund is not sulticient to supply I hem and the post does not ilesire j^eriodicals. The pe- riodicals, newspapers and school books are intended for the use of the enlisteci men, and nuist not be taken from the library or school-room. If used at all by olUeers it must be at a time when other du- ties prevent their use by enlisted men. The neces- sary school books for soldiers and for soldiers' child- ren are purchased from the Post Fund, except in cases provided for in the foregoing paragraph. See Ctiinpany Fund and liigiiiientiil Fund. POST GARDENS.— Coinm.inding Officers.of posts, at or near wliich suitable public lands are available, set aside for Company or Post Gardens such extent of those lands as may be necessary for the produc- tion of vegetables for the command, and cause the same to be duly cultivated by the garrison, and such varieties and (plant ities of vegetal)les to be rai.s- ed as may be necessary for the subsistence or health of the troops. On approved requisitions, the Sub- sistence Department procures for sale to companies or posts, seed potatoes, garden seeds, and agricultur- al implements necessary forestablishing,cultivaling, and perpetuating companv or post gardens. Pav- meul to the Subsistence Department forthe.se articles, , at cost price, is made from the company or post fund. The Commissary General of Subsistence gives : to the oltieers of his Department the necessary in- structions for the purchase and distribution of seeds and agricultural implements. If in changes of sta- tion a company or garrison is succeeded by another, the latter succeeds to the garden of the former, re- imbursing the fund of the former for its actual ex- penditures for seeds, agricultural im])lemcnts, etc. Comman<iers of Divisions and Department give such detailed instructions as may be necessary for carrying these regulations into effect, and for the proper distributicni of products of gardens among those entitled to them. Surplus products may be sold, and the proceeds credited to the post fund, or .ifiriiH>iTfran^4*ii^ divided among the comi)any funds of the garrison, whichever may have borne the expen.se of '.he culti- vation. POST OF HONOR.— The guard in the advance. The right of the two lines is also the post of honor, and is generally given to the eldest corps: the left is the next post, and is given to tlie next eldest, and so on. The laws of military disci))liue forbid an inconven- ii'Ut accordance with this practice, as the circum- stances of the case may reipiire a verv different ar- rans;emeiit, which it wovild be wanton to oppose. POST REVETMENT.— A revetment constructed of posts from 4 lot; inches in diameter, cut into lengths of h.5 feet, and set with proper slo])e, in close con- tact, in a trench two feet in depth, at the foot of the breast-height. The tops of the posts, if not already so, are sawed off level, to receive a horizontal cap- ' ping piece, wbicli Ls spiked on. Anchor ties are dove-tailed Into the cap and secured to an anchor log Im- bedded In the parapet. On top of the cap are laid sever- al C(nirses of sods, raising the interior crest to the pro- per height. WItli a good cpiality of timber this revetment is durable. It is easily constructed, and next to sods, is the best. Sec licnUnent. POST SCHOOLS.— Schools are established at all the posts, garrisons, and the permanent camps at which troops are stationed, in which the enlisted men may be instructed in the common English branches of education and especially In the history of the United States; and the Secretary of War details such otli- cers and enlisted men as miv be necessary to carry out this provision. It is the duty of the Post or (Tarrison Commander to set apart a suitable room or bulkling for school and religious purposes. The teachers and schools are under the control of the Post Commander, or such officer as the Post Com- mander may designate. School teachers are de- tailed from the enlisted men of the Army. The num- ber of teachers detailed cannot exceed one for each company serving at the post. At any post at which there are no soldiers suitable for detail as school- teachers, application is made to the Adjutant General of the Army by the Post Commander for the neces- sary number of teachers. A soldier while serving as school teacher receives extra-duty pay as overseer (Ji.i cents per day) Irom the Quartermaster's Depart- ment, not deducting for Saturdays and Sundays. Soldiers while detailed as school teachers will attend such parades, inspections, and drills as, in the judg- POST TBASEB. 570 POTENT COUNTEE-POTENT. ment of the Post Commander, are necessary to keep them well instructed in their company duties. While it is left optional with soldiers whether to at- tend school or not, yet they are advised to avail themselves of the means afforded to improve them- selves, and Commanding Officers not only give them all possible opportunities, but advise and encourage them to use them. The children of soldiers are re- quired to attend the post school for children, unless specially, excused by the officer in charge of schools. The children of citizens living near a post are al- lowed to attend the post school for children. For the instruction given them they are required, if able, to pay a small rate into the post fund. Officers and citizens furnish the school books necessary for their own children. Tlie Post Council of Administration decide whether it is advisable or practicable to have separate schools for adults and children. An officer is detailed by the Secretary of War to visit and in- spect regularh' the various post schools. It is made his duty to examine into the sj'stem of instruction ; to advise Commanders of Posts of defects which he maj' discover, and to suggest methods of improve- ment; to endeavor to bring about uniformity in the methods of management and instruction, and to make known throughout the Army the best methods and systems in existence at any Military Post. He reports the results of his inspection fully to the War Department from time to time. His inspections do not dispense with or interfere witii those of the In- spector Generals of the Army, but are specially and directlv addressed to the schools alone. POST TRADER.— In the United States, every mili- tary post may have one Trader, who is appointed by the Secretary of War, or the recommendation of the Coimcil of Administration, approved by the Commanding Officer. Post Traders are furnished with a letter of appointment from the Secretarj' of War indicating the posts to which they are ap- pointed. They are subject, in all respects, to the rules and regulations for the government of the Army. They actually carry on the business them- selves, and habitually reside at the station to which the}' are appointed. They can not farm out, sublet, transfer, sell or assign the business to others. They are permitted to erect buildings for the purpose of carrying on their business upon such part of the military reservation or post where they are assigned as the Commanding Officer may direct. Such build- ings are in convenient reach of the garrison. [Oirr. A. G. 0., Aug. 28, 1879.] When "a Trader is re- moved from his post, he has a right to remove and dispose of the materials of the buildings erected by him as his own property. He cannot lease or sell his buildings to another Post Trader without per- mission of the military authorities ; but such per- mission woulil have the same force as a license to a new Post Trader to erect such a building at that spot. Post Traders have the exclusive right of trade hel(i to pay for the benefit of the post fund, at a rate to be determined by the Post Council of Adndnistra- tion, not exceeding ten cents per month, for every officer and enlisted man serving at the post — the monthly average to be determined equitably by the Council. The Council of Administration once in six months, and not oftener, examines the Post Trader's goods and invoices or bills of sale, and. subject to the approval of the Post Commander, establishes the rates and prices (which should be fair and reason- able) at which tlie goods .shall be sold. A copy of the list thus established is kept posted in the Trader's store. Should the Post Trader feel himself aggrieved by the action of the Council of Administration, he may appeal therefrom, through the Post Commander, to the War Department. In determining the rate of profit to be allowed, the Council considers not only the prime cost, freight, and other charges, but also the fact that the Trader has no lien on the soldier's pay, and is without security in this respect. Post Commanders report to the War Department any misconduct, breach of military regulations, or failure on the part of Post Traders to comply with the re- quirements of regulations. When any cause of complaint against a Trader arises, the Post Commander places the same before the Council of Administration, and the Council ex- amines the evidence for and against the Trader, and makes a report of the facts, through the Post Com- mander, to the Adjutant General of the Army, for the action of the Secretary of War, in whom alone is the power vested to remove a Post Trader. When. a new Trader is selected, and his appointment is is- sued, the appointment of the former Trader will be revoked; but, in order that injustice may not be done the former Trader in the total loss of his investment in buildings and goods, the new appointee will be required to purchase a portion or all of the same at a fair valuation — the articles to be so purchased and the appraisement of their value to be determined by the Council of Administration. The former Trader is not debarred from withdrawing his goods if he so elect, nor from entering upon the reservation to at- tend to the settlement of his business until the same has been closed; such privilege, however, does not entitle him to continue to trade at the post. See Canteen and Sutler. POT. — The paper cylinder forming the head of a signal-rocket and containing the decorations. To diminish the resistance of the airthe pot is surmount- ed by a paper cone. POT DE FER. — A heavy helm worn in siege oper- ations. It is related that Louis XIV., like the other soldiers, went into the trenches in full armor, and wearing the pot-de-fer. See Pet Helmet. POTENCE. — Troops are ranged en potence by break- ing a straight line, anil throwing acertain proportion of it either forward or backward, from the right or left, according to the circumstances, for the purpose Potent. £ot«at Cotmtcr-Potent'. Patentee, upon the mililary reserve to which tlu'V are ap- jiiiiulc'd: and no dlhcr person is allowed to trade, pcdille, or sell goods, by sample or ollu'rwisc, within the limits of the reserve. This does not prohibit tlu; sal(', oy producers, of fresh fruit or vegetables Iiy permission of tlie Post (\immander. Post Traders in the Indian country have no right to ni;iintain a traOic in goods with the Indians, unless tliey be jirojierly licensed for sucli trade. For the exclusive^ privilege allowed them, Post Traders are a.ssessed and of securing that line. An army may be posted ere /)<?- If nee h\ lui-ans cif a villMi;e, a river, or a wood. POTENT COUNTER POTENT.- One of the heraldic furs, in wiiicli tlie liehl is tilled with crutch-shaped figures alternately of metal and color, those of oppo- site tinctures being jilac'ed liase against base, and point against point. The metal and color are under- stood to be argent and azure, unless they be sjieeial- ly blazoned otherwise. Potent counter-potent is sometimes blazoned vairy-cuppy. POTENT CBOBS. POWSEB BOX£B. POTENT CROSS.— In ncraldry.arroHHcnitr'li-Mliiipcd I cd tunic and rlKniHHeK. was frr'(|iicnlly worn by the at cacli ixlicMiily. — It in also called a .IcniKalcin KniglitH of this jii-riod bi-iicalli the Kurcoal. which c-roHH, froin ilMdcciirroncc in till' iiisii;nia of the Cliris- waH, as a general tiling, conBiderably lengthened, tian l;ing(l(iMi of .liriisalein.vvhirh arc.argent a eross and very richly emblazoned with the armH of the potent lietween f(iur eros.slets or. This coat is re- wearer. markable as lieing a deparlnre from (he usual jjeral- ' POWDER, — A fommon term for gunpowder. Un- die rule which prohibits the placing of nielal upon der this name is found a variety of nowderH in u»e metal. | at the present day for small-ariRH and guns. America Austria England France Germany Italy Kus.sia Spain COUKTKIES iUNPOWDEB . Smaj 1.I.-A2H Po^ VDEB. Saltpeter. Charcoal. 12 •.'50 Sulphur. Saltpeter. Charcoal. Sulphur. 75 12-50 75-50 13-20 11-30 70 17 16 75-50 13-20 11-30 76 1.5 10 76-.50 14-.'50 9 76 U-.-iO O-.TO 76 13-.50 9 75 U-.TO i)-.50 75 12-.'-.0 12-50 7.5 13-00 11 -.50 75 12-.50 12-.50 7C 12 12 75-.'50 13-20 11-30 71 17-r.o 11-50 80 11-30 8-70 76-50 12-70 10-80 75-50 13-20 11-30 POTENTEE. — A heralilic line of division which takes \\\'- form of the outline of a succession of crutch- shaped figures. POT GUN. — A mortar for firing salutes. The name is derived from its shape being formed like a pot. It is now obsolete. POT-HELMET. — A sort of skull-cap of thick iron, and very heavy. It was used, partie\darly in sieges in the lOth and 17th centuries. The wurd p</t-/ifliiiet is also very commonly used for iron hats much lighter in weight, that were inucU worn by ('romwell's foot- soldiers. POT METAL. — An alloy of lead and copper, ob- tained by throwing hunps of copper into red-hot melted lead. It is of a gray color, Ijrittleand graiui- lar. POUCH. — A stout leather box, black or brown, lined witli tin, covered with a strong flap, and orna- mented with the device of the regiment. It serves to carry the cartridges retpiired by a soldier for im- mediate use. When cartridges are supplied for a •whole day's service, two pouches are worn, one on the front point of the hip, and a larger one on a belt suspended over the left shoulder. The leather cases containing primers, lanyard, etc., in field and heavy artillery, and those containing a guimer's level, vent- punch, gindet, etc., in licav}- artillery, are also called pouclies. POULEYNS. — In ancient armor, a variety of knee- guards, which were very elaborately and variously enriched. POUNDER.— The name by which dilTerent nafiires of ordnance and shot and shell are distinguished. By being so denominated, the w<'ight of the projec- tile which the gun throws is implied. Projectiles fired from heavy howitzers and mortars are distin- guished by the diameter of the pieces, such as those propelled from the 10-inch and 8-iuch howitzer and mortar; and it would be advisable to denominate all projectiles by the diameter of the piece, and also by the weight of the projectile itself. This is done in the case of shot and shell used with the heavy JI.L. R. guns of 7-inch caliber and upwards, but below this caliber they are known only by the weight of the shot. The weight of heavy rifled ordnance is alwaj's expressed in tons, if of 5 tons or upwards; otherwise in cwts. POURPOINT.— A military babi* worn in the tliir- tecntli cent\iry, but which was subserjuently modi- fied, and from the iieculiar work with which it was then ornamented, obtained the name of I'oiirpmnt or Counterpoint, A complete suit, consisting of a slcev- The following table gives the pro])ortions of the composition most generally used in the manufacture of gunpowder in the countries mentioned. SeeOttn- poirder. POWDER BARREL.— Barrels in w-hich gunpowder is stored. There are three sizes, called vliolf, half, and iinnrtir, liolding respecti-.-ely IIIO lbs.. .50 lbs., 2.5 lbs. .of ordinary ]iowder. The whole barrel iscajiable also of containing 125 lbs. of pebble powder. There is also a barrel in the service termed a hnnge barrel, which is the size of a quarter barrel, and intended to be used, not for storage, but for holding loose pow- der for mortars or cartudges in a standing battery. This barrel is distinguished from the ordinarj- pow-- der barrel, in having a leather bag attached to it, which takes the place of one head of the barrel, and is closed by a leather tlnrng. The word tmuge or hwlye is a corruption of the French word huuget, a leather bag. Powder barrels are composed of heads and staves bound round with copper and ash hoops, and are made by hand or by machinery. The wood used in English barrels is usually American oak. whereas the Indian powder barrels are made of teak, if any- thing a stronger and closer-grained wood than the oak alluded to. so that it is not found necessarj' to bind tliem round with ash hoops, as in the English barrels, POWDER BOXES. — Contrivances analogous to fou- gasses, used by the Russians at Sebastopol. Each consisted of a double deal box, of a capacity suffi- cient to contain 3.5 pounds of powder, water-tight. and elTectually secure it from the penetration of damp, into the top of each box was inserted a vertical tin POWDEK CART. 572 FOWSEB UAGAZIKE. tube, connected with a horizontal tin tube at the sur- face of the ground. Witliin the latter was a glas» tube, filled with sulphuric acid, and coated with a composition of chlorate of potassa, sugar, sulphur, and gum-water, which immediately takes fire on coming in contact with the acid. The space be- tween the interior of the tin tube, and the exterior of the glass tube, as well as the vertical tin tube, is filled with gunpowder. A little earth spread lightly over the whole completes the arrangement. A per- son walking over the ground, and treading on the tin tube, crushes it and the glass tube contained :n it, causing the escape of the sulphuric acid, and tlie explosion of tlie sunpowder. See Foiigames. POWDER CART.— A two-wheeled carriage covered with an angular roof of boards. To prevent the powder from getting damp, a tarred canvas is put over the roof; and on each side are lockers to hold shot, in proportion to the quantity of powder. POWDER DEPOTS.— Large depots for the storage of powder, and the materials for its manufacture. In selecting sites for these depots, the following con- siderations should be observed: 1st. That the depot should be in a region of countr}' which docs not ad- mit of being populated, so that destruction of life and property in case of accident would be a mini- mum. 2d. The tract should be sufficient in extent to contain suitable positions for magazines for stor- age of 10,000 tons of powder, material for its manu- facture, etc., and the necessary buildings for a govern- ment powder-mill. 3d. It should be near enough to rail and water transportation to afford facilities of trans- portation to the seaboard, interior, and the lakes, hav- inga shortlineofgovernmcnt railroad connecting the site with rivers and trunk-lines. When the present ar- senals in theUnited States were established, their loca- tions were but sparsel}' settled. The rapid increase of population in theadjacent towns and cities has, how- ever, in the majority of cases, rendered these mag.a- zines dangerous to the communities in which thej- are located and hence the Government either has aban- doned, or eventually will have to essentialh' abandon, the storage of powder at all of our arsenals. The damp sea-air renders our fortifications unfitted for this purpose, and the Government has now large quanti- ties of powder rapidly deteriorating at these places for want of j^roper storage-facilities. See Lightning Coyidwti>rn, Mngazine. and Preservation, Storage, and I'mnnpiirtati'in nfPmrder. POWDER DUST.- All gimpowder, in the process of reeling, gives off a certain amount of dust. It is a' great object to remove the dust from the powder, as it quickly absorbs moisture from the atmosphere, and, consequently, impairs its preserving qualities. This dust is not lost to the factory, but is worked over again, receiving first the process of incorpora- tion for a short time, and then going througli the rest of the mills until it becomes perfect gunpowder. The operation of dusting is effected by cylindrical reels covered with canvas, which revolve at a given rate. See Dusting Heeln. POWDERED.— In Heraldry, Powdered, or Seniee. signify strewn with an indefinite number of small charircs. POWDER-FLASK.— A pouch or metallic case for holding gunpowder, and having a charging nozzle at the end. A horn is often fitted to hold powder and used as a flask. POWDER-HOSE.— A tube of strong linen, about an inch ill diaiiii'ler, filled with powder, and used in tiriui; iiiililMTv Miincs. POWDER MAGAZINE.— The main objects to be obtained in constructing a powder magazine are, to place it in a position convenient to the pieces to be served, and one least exposed to the fire of the enemy; to make it shot-proof; and to secure the contents from moisture. It is usually placed iiO feet in rear of the i)arapet of the battery. The ceiling of tlie magazine siioujd not be more than a few inclics above the natural level, Tlie interior hiiirht neeil not ^e more than .5 feet. The width may be 6 feet, and the length 12 feet in the clear. The sides ot the magazine may be formed of frames and sheeting boards; or, of a row of gabions crowned with two courses of fascines. Tlie magazine is covered at top by splinter-proof of timbers, 6 by 9 inches, laid in juxtaposition and covered with at least 3 feet of earth, both on top and on the sides tow-ards the parapet. A passage leads into the magazine on the side from the parapet, which is reached by one or two inclined trenches. The drawing shows the plan and section of a powder magazine employed at the siege of Fort Wagner A, the Magazine; B, the covered entrance; C, the telegraph oliice ; D, the lookout on top; E, an embankment of sand covering the ra.igazine. The plan is taken just below the ceiling. In the section. A', is the interior of the magazine; B', the entrance; D', the lookout; E', the covering of .sand. The rules given for the construction and location of bomb-proof shelters for men, apply equally to shel- ters of this class. The only ditference in construc- tion is in the size of the shelters, it being much smaller, as a rule, than that required for the use of troops. Large magazines are not constructed in ordinary field works. Tliey take up too much room, and even the best of them are but poor places in which to store ammunition for any length of time. The usual method adopted is to construct as many service magazines as may be necessary, near the guns to be served by them, making them large enough to contain the amount required for a definite service of the gun or guns to which the_y belong. In Permanent Fortification, powder magazines are built with strong, full center bomb-proof lirick arches, supported on heavy stone piers which form the outward walls, and to which interior buttresses are sometimes added. The capping of the arches is covered with from 4 to 10 feet of solidly packed earth. The interior of the magazine, tlie floors, and the doors and windows, are built with a view to security from fire; and to preserve the powder from (himpness, by a good system of drainage around the fouiulations, and of ventilation by means of air-holes madethrougli tlic jtiers, and panelsof ci)|)]H'r pierced Willi small holes placed in the doors. IS'o iron or steel fastening or sheeting is allowed in any jiart of the structure; and in arranging the air-holes through the piers they receive a broken direction, and have a copper mesli-w^ork jilaced across them, to prevent aiij' combustible material or rats, or mice, penetrat- ing to the interior of the magazine. In large works the magazines are isohitcd, as far as jiracticable, from the enceinte, so as not to endanger it should POWDER MILL. 573 POWDER PHE88. an aooidcniitl cxploHion take place. The magazine is inclosed liy a si roiifr, lii!,'li wall for Mcciirily, an<l is provided willi liixliliiiiii; rods. In sriiidl works some oiii' or more of llir eascrnules iiillii' position least exposed to the ussailanl's lire uru buill fur the l)iirposes of H inaiiaziiie. Tlie followiiii; iiK'nioraiida respecting tliovenlila- tion of jaiwder niai,'a/ines is lierewith aiip<'nded : 1. The dampness complained of in l)nildinf;s will fre- (Hienlly.l"' found to arise from eondensaljon of the watery va])or of ilie air whieli enters the IniildinL'. Unililinns with thick walls and vaulted roofs, and especially those covered with earth, ari' parlii-nlarly llalile to dampness from this cause. 2. Air always contains some proportion of watery vapor. When the proportion is snndl, the air is said to be dry, and when lari^c, the air is said to be damp; wlii'n the pro- portion is the sreatest that can be ilill'used lhrou>;li uiral a j;iven temperature, the air is said to be satu- rated at that temperature. H, The proportion of watery vapor whieli saturated airconlains varies with the temperature, beins; i;reater for hisih than for low temperatures. .\ir containing a particular propor- tion of moisture is rendered less capable of deposit- inj; moisture by its lemia-rature beinj; raised, and the reverse when it is lowered. 4. Air may be brought to a state of saturation by reducinic its temperature. If the air contain Init III lie moisture, the reduction of temperature nuist be considerable ; but if it contain niucii, a slijrht reduction will bring it to a state of saturation. .T. If air be cooled below the degree of temperature al which it will be in a state of satura- tion, a portion of the watery vapor contained there- in will be deposited on any cold substance with which it may eonu' in contact. The degree of tem- perature at wdiich air will thus begin to deposit moisture is called its diif.pnint. G. Wlieit warm air enters a comparatively cold building, the tempera- ture of the air is reduced by coming in conta<'t with the interior walls and other cold .surfaces ; and if its temperature be thus reduced below the duo-pnint, condensation will take place. In the latter case it is obvious that the admission of fresh air will not tend to dry a building, but toreniler it damp. 7. If a mag- a/lne 40 feet by ;i4 feet by 12 feet, the tem]ierature of whose internal walls, etc., is 4.5^, were to be tilled with saturated air having a temperature of 50", and the magazine were then closed, nearly a pint of moisture would be deposited during the cooling of the fresh air to the temperature of the wall.^. The pint of moisture would result from the quantity of air sulHcienl merely to till the magazine ; but if the ventilators were opened, the air might be renewed many times in the course of a day, anil ver\' much more than a pint of moisture be deposited. 8. Air entering a building whose temperature is higher than itf! own becomes capable of absorbing moisture from (lamp surfaces. 9. The efficiency of the ventilation of a magazine will depend upon the degree of dr3'ness which the fresh air admitted into it possesses, and tlie rapidity of the current of dry air passing through tlie liuilding. 10. The dryness of air is indicated by tlie nunil)er of degrees by which its temperature exceeds itsdevv-i>oint. U.The ventilators of magazines should, in all cases, be constructed so as to exclude or admit the external air at discretion, aiulthe instriictioitu fur thi'ir line xhtnild be framed irith a vieir to the rxcluninn tf the external air irheii. tlte temperature of its deir- piiint IS above that of the interior of the fmildiitg, and the admission of tlie air when its deir.point is below the temperature of the interior of tlie building. 12. The interior of a bombproof magazine with thick walls and a vaulted roof is commonly colder than the outside air in summer and warmer iu winter. Winter is therefore the more favorable season for ventilation ; but in the climateof England the excep- tions to this rule are numerous, owing to the preva- lence during winter of warm, damp winds from the south and west, and during summer of cold, dry winds from the north and east. 13. Whenever, uotwith- : standing a careful attention to ventilation, maguziues are found to bit dam|), their condition maybe im- proved by the usi'of i|uiek-lime. which has the [irop- crty of absorbing from the air about one third of its own weight of watir. 14. The pr<Ji)ertime for using lime is when the condition of the magazine woula not be improved by ventilation, ami when, conse- (piently, the ventilators are closed. I.,inie would be of very little service while a rapid current of air was ]iassing throuL'h the buililing. l.l. Lime will be used during the seasons of tlie year least favora- ble for ventilation ill all magazines that show signs of dam|)ness. l(i. The lime should be fri'sli from the kiln, broken into lumps not larger than about the size of a pigeon's egg, and exposed to the air of the interior of the magazine in shallow ves.sels. It should be kejit in air-tight casks until spread out for use. POWDER MILL. Works in which the materials for guiipowilcr arc prcpan'd and compounded, and the powdiT LTained and faced. See (1 unpoirder. POWDER MINE. -A cave or hollow in which pow- der is jilaced lo be tired at any particular time. These were first used in l.WH. at Naples, when it was be- sieged by the Spanish (teneral Gonzalvo, of Cordova. POWDER PRESS.— The last operation of breaking down the mill cake, and the one now about to be described, of pressing the meal into a solid cake, is nier<-ly for the purpose of lilting it to be made into a hard grain of c(iual density. In the [ircssing pro- cess, the powder that has passed through tli(- break- ing-down machine is brought from the small maga- zines to the press-house, wliere it is compressed into hard cake. Many advantages are gained by this opera- tion, first, the cake when made into grain of the re- quired size absorbs less moisture from the atmo- sphere than if it had been soft and not pressed, and the lasting qualities of the powder are much in- creased, especially if glazed ; again, by having been compressed the powder is less liable to be reduced to dust in transport, for if proix-rly made it may safely be kept for a number of years, even on board ship at sea, without any appreciable deterioration. Further, by a closer connection of the ingredients a larger volume of gas is proiluced. bulk for bulk, than from a soft light powder; it also produces more grain than could be obtained from '• mill cake " not pressed, ami consequently there is less waste by dust in manufacture, and in addition to this, a hard, clean-grained powder does not foul the gun so much as a soft powder. For the purpose of compressing the meal powder into what is called "press cake," a powerful hyilrau- lic press is employed. The apparatus for holding the meal consists of a very strong gun-metal box incased on the outer and inner sides with oak; it is POWDER-PKOOF. 574 POWER OF ATTORNEY. 2' square and 2' 6" deep, the bottom and one side are permanently fixed to each other, but the other three sides are hinged to the bottom, so as to allow of their being opened; when shut these sides are firmly held together by strong, coarse-threaded metal screws. The box, when about to be tilled, is first laid on its side in front of the press, and the upper- most side is then opened and laid back. Two guide racks, of gun-metal, with wooden ribs on them, form- ing a number of grooves one-tenth of an inch in width and tive-eighths of an inch apart, are hung on the inside of the box to those sides that have not been opened; into these grooves a series of gun-metal plates one-tenth of an inch thick are slid, the racks keeping them upright and equidistant. The spaces between the plates are now filled in with the meal powder, and this being dune, the racks are with- drawn, leaving the plates supported in their position by the powder between them. The third side — which has remained open until now— is then lowered down and screwed fast up to the two sides already in position. The box is provided with two project- ing gun-metal claws that fit into a mandrel attached to the front of the press; upon this mandrel the box is now turned by means of overhead tackle, the mandrel being so adjusted that when the box is raised partly into a vertical position it is pushed over and lowered down exactly on the center of the press table. Attached to the press cross-head are two overhead rails, carrying a large block of hard wood, which is hung and travels upon these rails by means of four wheels; when the box is turned over on its side for the purpose of filling, this block is drawn back to the extremity of the rails, and when the box is filled and replaced on the table and in the proper position for pressing, the block is drawn for- ward again until it arrives exactly over the center of the box, where it is retained in position by means of a catch. The press is now put in motion by means of pumps, which are driven either by steam, water, or hand power, and are placed in a separate building, on the opposite side of a high traverse that divides the one building from the other. In the pump-house the attendants remain in safety while the pressing operation is being performed. The pumps are of the description generally used for such purposes, and are fitted with large and small plungers. At first, when the material to be pressed is soft, the large plungers are used and the box is raised rapidly, but when the press has traversed about three-fourths of its distance the use of the large plungers is discon- tinued, and the smaller ones worked until such time as the powder is subjected to a pressure of 70 tons per square foot of surface. Wlien the piunps are first put in motion, one of the attendants remains in the press-house for a short time to see that the block en- ters the box fairly, and that it is in tlie center; a clearance of about a quarter of an inch is allowed all round between it and the box. If all is in order, the attendant then retires to the pump-house, and when the requisite pressure has been obtained, the press is allowed to stand for a few minutes with the full pressure on it ; this allows the air to escape and the powder to consolidate. Should the pressure go df)wn from this cause, the pumps are again set in molicin until the full pressure is attained; "and, after allowing a few minutes to elapse, the escajx^ valve is opened and the ram with the box descends. The overhead block is now run back out of the way, the box turned over on its side, and all the fixing screws removed from the three sides, the uppernu)St one is lifted up and turned over, and the other two are opened out. The powder, with the giui-metal'plates between it, will now be found to be standing like a solid mass on the side of the box underneath, and which for tlic time forms the bottom. The plates anil powder cakes are now separated hy copper chisels, and the cake — being from three- eighth of an inch to one-half inch in thickness, and loolving like slabs of slate — is broken mto pieces a- bout the size of a man's hand by means of wooden mallets. It is now collected, put into tubs, and re- moved to the next magazine, where it is allowed to remain for two or three days; this renders it so hard that it is not easy to break it. Some difilculty is at times experienced in obtaining precisely the same density in the pressed powdei ,and it is an ascertain- ed reality that any great difference in this particidar causes the powder" to vary considerably in quality and strength ; in fact, until the greatest precision and certainty are obtained, firstly, in purifying the ingredients, so as to ensure their containing the same percentage of gases and carbon; and, secondly, by an equally precise amount of,incorporating and press- ing, absohite uniformity in the quality and strengtli of the powder manufactured cannot be secured. See Gunpowdrr. POWDER -PROOF. —All guiipoirdei- for proving ord- nance should be of the best qualitj', of the kind used in the gun to be proved, and giving not less than the standard iiutial velocity; it should be tested imnjedi- ately before being used unless it shall have been test- ' ed within one year previously, and there be no reason to suspect that it has become deteriorated. ! POWER.— In military affairs, as well as in all others power is knowledge — of human passions, of arms, of distance, of the skill and numbers of an enemy. To be in the power of an enemy, is to have taken up, injudiciously, such a position as to expose to defeat whenever the enemy mav think proper to attack. POWER MILLING-MACHINE.— A machine much used in the manufacture of small-arms. The draw- ing represents the Pratt & Whitney No. 2 Power Milling-Machine (Lincoln Pattern), which is in ex- tensive use in armories and manufactories in Amer- ica and Europe, and is highly approved at the Na- tional Armory. Springfield, Mass. It has automatic screw-feed, and automatic stop-motion adjustable at any point, a foot-stock for steadying the ends of long arbors in heavy cuts, and a vise with perman- ent crank-wrench. Tlie head is furnished with back-gears. The cone has three grades, and carriesa U-inchbelt. The feed cone has four grades. Speed of countershaft, having 11 by 3J inch tight and loose pulleys, I'i.'i revolutions per minute. Weight, with countershaft, 1,200 pounds. POWER OF ATTORNEY.— An instrument author- izing a person to act as the agent or attorney of the POWER PRESS. 575 POWER TRAVELLING CRABE. person pnintini,' it. A general power aiUliorizeH tlie ajjeiit to ael ircnenilly for llie i)riiieipiil. A special power liiiiils the iii,rciiey lo jiarllciilar l|]iiii;«. A jiower of alloriiey iriiiy lie hy parole, or under Heal. The attorney eannoti'Xeeijtc! a sealed instrument that will bind his principal unless his own power is j;iv(;n under seal. Oranis of this nature an^ very strictly construed. Aulliority </i\-r\\ to one person ciiiwiot be dele;;aled by liini lo anothiT, unless e.xpressjv set forth in the oriL,'inal j^ranlr The dealli of the prin- cipal at once cancels a power of attorney. All con- ditions in the [lower must be strictly ob-served to rcn<ler llie alloriiey's action lc!;al. POWER PRESS. — A form of |)ress extensively em- ployed in the niaaufuclure of lire-arnis. That repre- sented in tlie drawint; is provi<led with Stannard's hydraulic adjustment. A foot-lever actuates a stop- motion that instantly stops the jihiniier, always at the hirjhest point of the stroke. The crank-shaft, of steel, is made with a throw of 2\ inches, or less, as it may be ordered for trimminj; or for pimchina; pur- poses. The shaft-bearinu;s are 3 inches diameter and 8 inches lone;. The driviui;-wlieel. 33 inches diam eter and weigliing 380 pounds, receives a 4-inch belt. The plunger is a lioUow cylinder, open at the top, and bored to receive a piston, which is also hollow. The plunger travels in gibbed slides, and has a por- tion of (me of its Hanges toothed, to engage with a pnion operated by a crank-wrench. The hollow pis- ton contains oil, or glycerine (preferably the latter, as being unaffected by changes of temperature). This piston is attached to the crank l)y u connecting-bar. I5y means of a thumb-value in the bottom of the pig ton,operaleil by a rod extending up through the lop and termiiiatr'd by a knob, the liipiiil may be allow- ed to pass from thi^ pi^ton to the plunger, and vire rrrmi, as tlie plunger is lowered or raised by tlir- pin- ion anil toothed flange. 'l"he adjustnn:nt of the punch can thus be made very minute and exact, and the relative positions of the jilunger and piston may lie firmly secured by a biniling-screw on the former, which is split a portion of its length for this purpose. The bed of the press may receive a dii-|)late, 12 by 14 inches. Weight of tiie machine, 2,7o0 i)ound». Speed of driving-wheel, 17.T revolutions jjer minute. The hydraulic adjustment being ipjile costiv, is sel- dom onh'red. In lieu of it, one is made by substitut- ing for the hollow piston, a solid one, having its cir- cumference threaded to match an annularnut placed in the central part of the |)lunger, and projecting therefrom sufliciently to be readily turned to raise or lower the plunger. The press is also furnished withoul pliuejcr adjustment. POWER shears!— A shearing-machine manufac- tured by the I'ratt it Whitney Company, for use in armories. The machine, as represented on page .576, I is novel in style and action, noiseless in its opera- ; tion, and all its parts liable to be clogged by dust or injured by scale are contained inside of the pe- 'Ir^lai. but an; still fully accessible through tlie medium of doors. On a shaft passing through the machine from end to end is a worm engaging with a large worm-wheel. This shaft is driven by a faced balance-wliecl (used as a pidley for belt) from which connection with the shaft is made by means of Pratt's Patent Friction-clutch. The transverse shaft carries the worm-wheel, which has an eccen- tric, forming a part of the wheel, a connecting-rod from which engages with the lower end or pro- longation of a vertically vibrating horizontal cutter- head, furnished with steel jaws on either side the central bearing, which engage as shears with corre- sponding fixed jaws. One pair of these jaws is made witli recesses of the form of segments of circles to receive roimd bars, and the otlier is straight. In front of the jaws are adjustable sliding rests, to re- sist the upward tendency of the piece to be cut, and at the back is an adjustable gauge for deter- mining its length. The machine is started or stop- ped instantaneously, without the slightest shock, and there is no loss of power b_v starting it from a perfect stand-still. Speed of pulley on macliine is 280 to 300 every minute. The steel cutting-blades may be removed from the jaws for sharpening or replacement with very little trouble. The condjina- tion of the screw, worm-wheel, eccentric, and lever results in a machine of immense power. One size machine is made. It will cut round iron to 1^ in- ches diameter; or fiat iron J inch thick to 3 inches wide. Weight, with coimtershaft, 4.600 poimds. Speed of countershaft, having 16 by 6 inch tight and loose ptilleys, about 240 revolutions per minute. See Angle S/ii(in'iir/-iii<ic/iine. Lri-ir Shfnring-mac/iine, and Sheariiiq-)iHrrfihn'. POWER TRAVELING CRANE.— This crane consists of a bridge composed of two wrought-iron girders carried at each end by a two-wheeled truck with double-tlanged truck wheels having chilled treads. At one end of the bridge is a crab containing the operating mechanism, and suspended beneath this is the operating platform. Power is communicated to the crane by an endless rope, moving continually in one direction, aad drivenby a suitable wheel on a stationary shaft at one end of the longitudinal tracks, this shaft being driven by the power transmitted in any convenient manner from a stationarj- engine, either directly or through the line shafting. The mechanism of the crab is such that the operator, standing upon the suspended platform. is enabled by means of three levers, to apply power so as to cause the bridge to travel longitudinally on the POWER TRAVELING CRANE. 576 POWER TRAVELING CRANE. tracks in either direction, or the trolley to travel in either direction, across the bridge, or to raise or lower the load. The bridge and troUe}' may be mov- ed independently or sinuiltaneousl}^, at will. The illustration on page .577 shows Weston's Tra- veling crane, driven by power transmitted from a sta- tionary source, and controlled by an operator standing on a phiiform suspended from the crane at one end of the bridge. The bridge is arranged to travel longi- tudinallj' upon overheaci tracks. "and the trolley to travel transversely across the bridge, so that the effi- ciency of the crane covers the entire rectangle in- cluded between the tracks, which latter may if de- sired, be 400 or 500 feet, or more, in length. Cranes of this construction are built of any desired capacity from 5 to 50 tons, and of an}' span. The motions of the bridge are effected by fixed wire cables, so arranged as to constitute a perfect squaring device, which insures the absolute parallel- ism of the end trucks of the bridge with their tracks under all conditions, so that the bridge always moves smoothly and with the least possible friction. The form should, if possible, be arranged as shown in the engraving, beneath the bridge, as in this position the operator has best command of the floor below. Where the headroom does not allow of this, or where other obstructions interfere, the ijlatform can be arranged at each side'of the bridge. and projecting but .slightly below the crab. But, for the reason above given, this arrangement is not so good as that shown in the engraving. A foot way across the bridge gives ac- cess to the parts attached to the latter, and also to the trolley. The main chain sheaves have a)iti-fric- tion bushings, and the action is such as to distribute the wear equally throughout the entire length of the chain. The power traveling crane constitutes the most perfect and complete "apparatus for handling heavy loads, and is to be preferred to all other tvpes of cranes, wherever the construction of the building, and the other surrounding conditions admit of its use. j It avoids all strains ofher than vertical upon the building in which it is contained, and for its support requires merely a trestle or wall of sufficient stability to resist the direct pressure of the crane and its load, motions of the trolley on the bridge are effected through the two parts of the main hoisting-chain, thus avoiding the need of an independent traversing mechanism and greatly simplifying the machine. The hoisting and lowering gear consists of cut worm-wheels with bronze rims, driven by cut steel worms running in oil, and provided with automatic devices by which the load is always self-sustained. Motion is transmitted to the worm gears by cut spur- gearing, driven by the primary shaft, which in turn is driven continuously in one direction by the driv- ing rope. Automatic stO])S arc provided for arrest- ing the transverse motion of tlie trolley nt either end of the bridge, and also of the bridge at eitlier end of the longitudinal tracks, so that over-travel, either of the bridge or of the trolley, cannot by any acci- dent occur. Provision is always made for two speeds of hoist- ing anil lowering, and when desired hack gearing is added to the crab, tlius alTiirding four sjiecds of hoisting and lowering and two speeds of travel, both of bridge and trolley. Wlicn desired, liand gearing can be also added to enable the crane to lie moved bj' hand in the event of the power being temporari- ly disabled. This adds somewhat to the expense of the crane and is usually not desirable, as the mo- tions by hand are necessarily very slow and the oc casions for its use very rare. Tlie oiierating plat- so that there is practicall}' no limit to the capacity which nuiy be obtained. With jih cranes, on the contrary, lateral strains upon the building are un- avoidably introduced ; and, where the crane is large, either in capacity or dimensions, these strains be- come exceedingly severe. A jib crane encroaches seriously upon the floor it covers, and its capacity for the horizontal transfer of loads is necessarQy very limited. The traveling crane, on the contrary leaves the floor below it entirely clear, and is practi- cally unrestricted in the length of its travel. The designing of the Weston power traveling cranes has been a subject of the most careful studv and thorough experiment, extended over a number of years. ' It is believed that these are the most highly organized and mechanically perfect cranes whicli have ever been Imilt. Cranes of this construction are adai)ted for use in foundries, armories, forges, ma- chine shops, rolling mills, stone yards, and other places where heavy loads are to be liandled, and where it is desired to accomiilisli this in the most ef- licicnt and economical manner. Where actively em- ployed cranes of this type will do the work of from 30 to 50 men using the ordinary devices of tackles, jacks and screws, so that it is demonstrable in many cases that the economy cfTected by a crane witliin one or two years will cnlirelv cover the cost of pro- curing it. See C'ranen, and tliind Traveling Crane, POWLDRON. 577 POWWOW POWLDRON. — Ill llinildry, llial |iarl of armor wliicli ciiviTM the Hliiiiililcrs. POWLETT GUN CARRIAGE. — A pmiiiimlir car- riage coiisislin'i: of nil iiiiprovcil slide lilted with Kuilahle erosH-lraiisoiiis uriii aiii;li-kiiees for llie sup- port of riiiiniiif; and recoil cylinders, which arc placed iiiideriieiith the jj;iiti and liel ween the Kliilc rails in such a manlier as to lie eiilirely protected Ihereliy from the chances of disarraii!;enienl b)' a shot or shell in action. A rack-piece runs alon;; the inside of one of the slide rails with a rolliii;;, eccentric c:Uitch, with a lever attached to its collar, so that when the j;"" '*< fired and the recoil is " brought up", the lever falls ami automatically secures the nun in that position until it is desired to run in battery, or to he lirouL^hl hack to Ilie rear liutTers for loading. The ruiiiiiiiir cylinders are liriiily lixed to the cross-transoms of llie slidi'. and arc lilted witli pistons, the rods of which arc secured to the for- ward transom of the brackets of the slidinu; carriage carryinu; the gun. 'Phis attacliment of the collar of the piston-rod to the carriage has a slot motion, so arranged that when llu' gun is lired there is sulVicient play not to strain the piston-rod in the gland stulT- ing box at the forward end of the cyliuder head. This running cylinder is fitted "with supply and into n cogged racer wheel, so arranged and meshed thai any niotiim to the right or to the left will tra- verse or train the gun lo right or left, us desired. The oscillating cylinders are placed at such an angle thai there is no center of a,\is or motion, and. like- wise, there are no slide valves for reversion of mo- li<in, as lliis is acconi])lished liy two pairs of supply pipes leading lo the ports or base fif the cyliiiilers on binli siiles of the trunnion support; therefore, by moving the lever to the right or left, the training engintwould follow that motion and train the gun lo the right or li-ft, as desired. The elevating and depressing gear of this carriage is operated by an \ipriglit cylinder, with siifJicient drift to give instantaneously the extreme degree of elevation or depression required by the action of compressed air. On either side of the breech of the gun are racked standards, with :. movable slot, hav- ing a compressor screw encompassing a racked die or slot-plug, by which, with one-half turn of the screw lever, the breech of the gun is firmly .secured at any degree of elevation or depression desired. By this method of working heavy guns, two men and agunnerare all the crew that is ret|uired lo work and load the heaviest ordnance, and all the p<iwer is furnished trom below, from an air compressor en- exhaust pipes, with reversing valves or cocks, \vhere- by compressed air funiislied from below at a pres- sure may be supplied to eitlier end of the cyliuder, at will, by moving the lever allached lo the stem of such reversing valves forward or backward, for ruiming out or running in. When the gun is run out and tired, a pressure of any number of pounds of compressed air as may be desired remains at llie rear end of the cylinder for picking up the recoil, and. if it is desired, the clutch-lever may be elevated and secured and the gun made to run immediately in liatli-ry again, aulomatically. after each tire. In training this carriage, which is done without tackle, winch, or clmiu wheel, there is placed at the rear of the carriage slide and between the same a pair of oscillating cylinders laid horizontally with a plane of the slides and attached directly with a worm geared into a worm wliecl having a pinion geared gine and receiver of suitable size. The drawing represents a 3-5-ton B.L.K. gun mounted on the Powlett carriage. Connected with this carriage is an ingenious stand-by recoil check device, winch, should any accident happen to the compressed-air machinery or pipes during action, can be thrown by a lever and clutch instantly into service. This recoil check is mechanical, and has no cogged gearing, and keeps itself in order by running perfectly free during all maneuvering, until thro^vninto gear in an emergency. Sec Bnike. POWWOW. — A priest or conjuror among the North American Indians: also, conjurations performed for the cure of diseases and other purposes, attended with great noise and confusion, and often with danc- ing. When an accepting Chief wishes to organize his war party, he mounts his horse, both in full war paint, raises' a pole to which is attached a bunch of POYNADO. 578 PfiECEDENCE. feathers and a small red blanket, and rides about the village singing the war song. Those wishing to go, mount their pouies and follow the chief. This is continued several days, until there is a sufficiency of volunteers for the work. During the absence of the war party, the people at liome become very anxious, and all the conversa- tion is centered on the absent party and its probable time of return. When it is announced that the war- tiors are returning victorious, there is a great excite- ment throughout the village. The womnu chant songs of victory, while the old men narrate the deeds of their forefathers and themselves to excite the emu- lation of the young. The '■ Medicine Men" gallop through the camp beating their drums and shouting encouragement, while the warriors painted black, with their horses in the full war paint, perform the scalp (lance. If the expedition turns out to be a failure, and some of the party are killed, the relatives of the killed cut off their own hair and the tails and manes of the fa- vorite horses of the deceased, and crj" without ces- sation for days, weeks, and even months. POYNADO. — An earh- name for a poniard. PKAELIARES. — Among the Romans, lighting days on which they thought it lawful to engage in acts of liostility ; for duriug the time of some particular feasts, the)' reckoned it a piece of impiety to raise, march, or exerci.se men for war, or to encounter the eucniy. unless first attacked. PKAIKIE. — The name given, by the early French Explorers of the northern portion of the Mississippi Valley, North America, to the vast fertile plains which extend from western Ohio and southern Michi- gan, across the States of Indiana, Illinois, Jlissouri, Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and Dakota Ter- ritory, including the southern portions of Wisconsin and Minnesota. These great plains or .savannas are sometimes flat. but oftener rollinglike the long swells of the ocean, and rise in gradual elevation from 800 to L.^iOO feet above the level of the sea. They are draiued by numerous rivers, branches of the Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri, or emptying into Lake Michigan, who.se channels seem to have been worn to the depth of 50 to 300 feet, with vertical walls or bluffs of limestone, sandstone, displaying in some places banks of clay, sand, and loam, 200 feet in thickness. Beneath the prairies, northwest of the Ohio, are extensive coal-flelds, with deposits of iron, lead, etc. The soil is finely comminuted, rich, and fxtremely fertile, varying in thickness from 1 or 2 feet to tlie Ijottom-lands on the borders of the rivers, which are of great depth and inexhaustible fertility. These plains are destitute of trees, except in isolated groves. a few rocky ridges, and the borders of streams. They are covered with fine grasses, and brilliant flow- ers of various species of the helianthoid rompoxitm. Water is found from 1.5 to 30 feet below the surface. Tliesc great prairies. covering an area of about -400,000 square miles, formerly fed vast herds of buffalo, deer, wild turkeys, prairie-hens or grouse, prairie- dogs, squirrels, etc. In the autumn, the dried grasses, lired by the Indians, converted them into seas of fiame. The lack of timber is attributed by some to the fineness of thesoil. Kemains of ancient jnounds, fori itical ions, and cities show that they were, at some distant period, inlial)ite(l by a more civilized race than the Indians found by European discoverers. These great rolling plains, or natural pastures, with only the labor of plowing, produce large crops of wheat or niai/.e,aiiil, |)enetrated by navigable rivers, and crossed by <:licai>ly binlt railvva3-s, they form one of the nu)st easily cidlivated and prolitic regions of the world, and are capable of sustaining immense populatioMs. PEAIRIE CARRIAGE.— The necessity for a small carriaL'e fcpr llic luouiitain howitzer, when used on our western prairies, has led to the adoption of a special carriage for that service, with a limlicr at- tached as iua field carriage. This renders the car- riagte less liable to overturn, and preferable in every respect to the two-wheeled one. The limber is fur- nished with two ammunition boxes, placed over the axle-tree, and parallel to it, and just wide enough for one row of shells and their cartridges. See Giui- carria(]en. PRATT RANGE-FINDER.— Any device, by means of whicli the distance between two objects may be measured with such accuracy as will warrant its ap- plication in determining what elevation should be given to a fire-arm discharged at one of the points, in order that its projectile shall strike the other, or within effective proximity, may be called a range-fin- der. For militarypurposes, a range-finder should be as small inexpensive, durable, and simple as is possibly consistent with necessar}' accuracy. It should also not be limited in its apphcation to one base, and the base should not be long in comparison with the range. It is thought that the method of use sug- gested by Lieut. Sedgwick Pratt, Third Artillery, C. b. A., may materially increase the value of fixed- angle telemeters. An outline of this method is here given as applied in general to telemeters with fixed angles. It enables the observer to obtain the dis- tance between two points even when he can occupy neither of them. The observer being at C, to obtain the distance between the points A and B, he lays off the bases C C and C C", as if to determine the distances C A and C B, respectively. AVithout measuring these ba&es|he measure's the distance C'C", and this is multiplied by the number correspond- ing to the instrument, 20, for instance, giving the distance A B. This is because the angle C C C" is equal to the angle A C B.and the sides C C and C C" are proportioned to the sides A C and B C in the tri- angles C C C" and A B C. Care must be taken to lay off the bases in the same direction from C, that is, both to the right or both to the left of the observer at C as he stands facing the points A and B for the two bases re- spectively. Where the instru- ment is adapted to laying off a right angle also, the observ- er can place himself on the line between two points, A and B, and obtain the distance be- tween them in a very simple manner. Being at C, he lays off in the same direction tiie bases C C and C C". one cor- responding to the distance C A and the other to C B, adds the bases, and multiplies their sum by the usual number. Lieutenant Pratt's instrument consists of four mirrors. Two are set at an angle of 45° and two at a lesser angle. The number of nnrrors is the same as in the modified Azemar in- stnunent, which gives three angles. The bases are ,',, and -i^ of the distance to be determined, and with the longer base the instrument is used like Weldon's. The method shown in the tigure is applicable t<i the Weldon range-finder, as well as to those giving a right angle. When the right-angle instriments are used, care must t)e taken to lay olf this angle at the riglit or at the left extremity of the base in both observations. When A C C and 1$ C C" are both right angles the line C C" will be perpendicular to tlie line A B, anil this affords an easy method of lay- ing off a |)erpcndiculur to an inaccessible line, two points of which are visilile to the observer. This method can be used also with variable-angle tilenie- lers. See Nulnn, Rangi-fiiuler, liiiswU I'rixm liange- fiiiilfr. Telemeter, Watkiiis Jiange-finder, and, Weld<m luiiige-finiler. PRECEDENCE. — Priority in rank or precedenc in PRECEPTORY. 579 PRESENT ARMS. military life is reguliitcd by tlie dutf of an officer's government patronapje, including the appointment oominiHsion, or the Htiindini; in the (.'orpt towliinh )u' iiuiy licicin^. The fulldwin^r Im the order of pre- ccdciice (if tin: sfvcriil Kcgiiiii'iitM and Corps of her Majesty's service, viz: - (1) The Keijimenis of Life (iiiards, mid tlie lloyul Hci^imciil of Horse Ginirds. Ci) Tlie Uoyal Horse Arlillery; Ijul on |)iir- ade, with their K"i's, tliis Corps will liike the riylit and march at tlie head of the Hoiisehdld Cavalry. (;i) The Keiriinents of Cavalry of the I,ine, aeeord- inn to llieir nuniher and order of preeedenccs (4) The Koyal Uei^inient of Artillery. (Ti) The Corps of Hoyal Kni^ineers. (0) The Uepiin('nts of Foot Guards. (7) The Rei^iineutH of Infantry of the I>ine according to their number and order of precedence. (H) The Departmental (,'orps. The Royal Marines, when acting; with the Troops of the Line, taki' rank next to the •tilth Rei;imenl. The Kille Brii;iiile rank next to the '.Cid Kei;iiiient. The .Mililia KeLjimenIs have iireeedence after those of the Lini;, accordini; to their respective numbers as fixed bj- lot. When l{ej;iments of Hritish and Irish Militia of the same arm are serving toi;ether, the Mililia of tliat part of the United Kinjjdom in which the Regiments may at of a KoitM prifct for each ArroinliiiMeinfnt, and in time of tumult may call out the military, or provisionally <leclare a state of siege. The chiif check on Ihesf extensive powers is to be found in the dinmeil dr. Itt J'ri'ferture, which acts in some measure as a court of appeal from the decisions of the Prdfet. PREPONDERANCE.-The excess of weight of the part of the pic:(te in rear of the trunnions over that in front. It is expressed by Ihr; lifting force, in pounds, which must be applir-d at the cascabel to balance the piece upon the trunnions. It is u.seful only for pieces mouiiled on traveling carriages, to keep them steady in transportation. For all other pieces of recent model the axis of the trunnions in- tersects the axis of the piece at the center of gravity, thus enabling the piece to lie elevated and depressed with greater ease. The discharge does not sensibly change the ]iosition of the piece before the projectile leaves the bore. PRESBYOPIA.— This condition is an accompaniment of tin- later years of life ; it is a physiological or nat- ural, not an abnormal change, and effecis all eyes. It depends almost solely upon the failure of the ac- the time be ipiartered has jirecedence over other ; commodatiou, due to a gradual hardening of the lens Militia, but Reginienis of Artillery Militia always have l and decrease of the power of the ciliarj' muscle as precedence over the Infantry Militia. On jiarade for age advances. Although this decrease in the power purposes of maneuvering. Corps are to be distributed of adjustment for near objects is not noticed until, and drawn up in the mode which the General or , jierhaps, the 40th or 4oth year, yet, from theatre of other Officer commanding may judge most conven- ! nine or ten, the accommodation is gradually growing lent, and best adapted to the purposes of the ser- weaker, that is, tine print can no longer be seen as vice. Rifle Battalions should be formed upon a flank. PRECEPTORY.— The name given to certain houses close to the eye as formerly. This defect is not of itself a cause for the rejection of a recruit, but those in whom it exists are usiiallj' of the Knights Templar, the Superiors of which I over age. All eyes undergo the changes producing were called Knights Preceptor. All the preceptories ' " ' ..- ■ of a province were subject to a Provincial Superior, called Grand Preceptor ; and there were three of these who held rank above all the rest, the Grand Preceptors of Jerusalem, of Tripolis.and of Antioch. Other houses of the order were called " Command- eries." presbyopia ; we frequently, however, hear of perl sons, ripe in years, who have never felt the necessity of glasses for reading or other tine work, and whose " strong " eyes are their especial pride. Such per- sons have been near-sighted, probably, all their lives their defect neutralizing the normal changes taking place ; a weak concave glass liefore such ej-es wiU PRECISION. — Exactness ; accuracy ; scrupulous ; usually improve distant vision. observance of certain given rules. In military phrase ology, this term is often employed when remarking on the drill or marching of a regiment. The term is also applied to rifled arms under the name of Arms of /')Yi-isin/l. FREDAL WAR. — A war carried on by plunder and rapine. Commonlj' written Predatory Wnr. PREFECT. — A common name apjilicable to various Ronuiu functionaries. The most important was the Prirfectu-H Urbi, or warden of the city, whose office existed at an early period of Roman hislorj-, but was The popular opinion that the use of glasses should be postponed as long is possilile, is erroneous. As soon as unpleasant feelings denote the approach of presbyopia, glasses should be resorted to at once, as the longer the eyes are deprived of the aid which they need, and consequently are subjected to strain, the more rapidly will the changes in the eye become developed. The treatment of presbyopia is found in convex glasses, of such strength that flne print may be seen readily at 7 to 8 inches. Here such a glass is em- revived under Augustus, with new and greatly al- ' ploj-ed not to correct the refraction, as the case of tere<I and extended authority, including Uie whole the convex lenses in hypermetropia, but to aid the powers necessary for the maintenance oif peace and \ power of the eye in accommodating. Presbyopia, in order in the city, and an extensive jurisdiction civil and criminal. "The Prcefictus Prffturin was the Com- mander of the troops that guarded the Emperor's person. PREFECT PRETORIAN.— In Roman antiquity, the C'ommaiuler of the l'nu'ti>rmii (huirds. a perfectly healthj- eye, does not affect the sharpness of distant vision, although in extreme old age, distant vision also is somewhat diminished, owing to other changes which affect the eye. The "lasses should be used at first only while read- ing by lamp or gaslight. When the unpleasant sen- PREFET.— The name of an important magistrate | sations show tliemselves also in the day-time, then in modern France, so called from his exercising i the glasses previou.sl3- worn at night should be used functions somewhat similar to those of the prirfectun \ for reading by daylight, and their place supplied by ^trbi at Rome. In old times, the officers whose duty ] a pair of slightly stronger glasses for night-work. In it was to superintend the details of administration in j old persons, when distant vision is improved by weak the Provinces were csil\ed.\fa>trei<de Riquetes. Under convex glasses, those of the proper strength may be Henry II., their office was rendered permanent ; and ' worn constantlj-. See Recruits. at a later period, their powers were much extended, I PRESENT.— A term used in the British service, and they were known by the designation of Int4-n- \ meaning to bring the musket to a horizontal position, dants. The Intendants were abolished at the Revo- j the butt resting against the right shoulder for the lution ; and a law of 1800 first appointed Prefets for { purpose of di.scliarging its contents at a given object, the departments, with powers greatly similar to PRESENT ARMS.— A command in tactics dire<ting those of the Intendants. The office, as it now exists, that the musket be brought to a certain prescribed includes the superintendence of police establishment, the enforcement of the laws, and the entire control of the administration of the departments. The PrtS- fet is the head of the executive, exercises most of the position, for the purpose of paying a military com- pliment. The movement is ex?cuted as follows: The Instructor commands: 1. Present, 2. Abms. Carry the piece with the right hand, in front of the PRESERVATION OF AMMUNITION. 580 PRESERVATION OF PROJECTILES. center of the body, at the same time gra.sp it witli the left hand at "the lower bund, the forearm hori- zontal and resting against the bod_v, (Two.) Grasp the small of the stock with the right hand, below and against the guard. 1. Can-//, 2. Arms. Re- sume the carry with the rirfit hand. (Two.) Drop the left hand by the side. See Manual of Arms, Fig. ^PRESERVATION OF AMMUNITION AND FIRE- WORKS. — Stiirc'huusL-s and magazines should be kept in tlie neatest possible order, the stores arranged as much as possible, by classes, kinds, and calibers, and labeled. They should be ventilated from time to time, in the middle of the daj', in line weather, particularly those which contain ammunition and tireworks, which are injured by moisture. LeaAkn balU are generally kept in cellars, on account of their weight ; the boxes should be kept as dry as possible, and so piled as to admit the circulation of air about them. C'lrtridgen /(»• KinaU-drms SiTe'k.ept in mag.a- zines, the barrels or boxes being piled 3 or 4 tiers high at most. Fixed ammunitioHfur cannvii, it not inboxes, should be placed in piles formed of two parallel rows of cartridges, with the sabots together, m 4 tiers for 12-pounder ; chock the lower tier with strips of wood fastened with small nails ; put a lay- er of tow 3 inches thick between the shot; let the piles rest on planks, if there be no floor, and cover them with paulins ; have the place swept, and the cartridge-bags brushed off. Leave a passage of 18 inches between the double rows, and keep them 2 feet from the walls. Fixed ammunition should not j be put into powder-magazines if it can be avoided ; it should be kept in a dry place, above the ground- [ floor if practicable. The store-rooms should always be aired in line weather ; the piles siiould be taken down anil made up again every six months at most, the bags examined, repaired, and the damaged cart- ridges broken up. A ticket on each pile shoul43how thenumber and kind of cartridges, the additions to the pile, and the issues. Canisters are piled up like fixed ammunition, in 4 or .5 tiers. Empty cannis- ters in 10 or 12 tiers, the bottoms and covers separ- ately. Cartridge-bag^ are filled and kept like fixed ammunition, or packed in boxes or barrels. When empty, they are stored in bundles of 50, sealed up in paper cases, carefully closed with strips of thin paper pasted over the seams. Paper cartridge-bags are kept in bundles, packed in boxes or on shelves, in a dry place, with pounded camphor and black pep- per or tobacco: the flannel bottom dipped in a solu- tion of the sulphate of copper. Luadtd shdln should never be put into magazines, except from .absolute necessitj'; powder is not well preserved in them. They should be piled on the ground-floor of a secure building, on planks, if the floor be not boarded, in 6 tiers at most; the fuses of the lower tier, in the va- cant spaces between the shells; those of the other tiers, turned downwards, like the fuse-holes of emp- ty shells. The pile should be covered with a paulin. Use the same precautions against moisture and acci- dents as in a jxjwder-magazine. The different kinds of caiiinUr shut are kept together, in bins or boxes. Shw-match is kept in a dry place, such as a garret, in boxes or barrels, or are piled on tlie floor. "Quick- iiiatf/i, if not in boxes, may be hung up in bundles on ropes or jiins and covered with paper. Frirtinn. pritnirK should be ke])l in tin boxes. Port-Jirea, in liumlels of ten, are placed in boxes or in barrels on end in safe and dry sitiuitions. Fanes are packed in boxes, the same kind, as much as possible, in the same box, in very dry and well-ventilated stores. ('flinders of ruak-Jire are kept inbo.vesor barrels like fuses. Fire.lialls are kejjt in cool but dry and airy ])laces, suspended by the handle, the bottom restin"- on a board nr fluor llial llicy may not become de- formed. Each ball should be labeled, stating itscali- ber, weiglit, andyear of fabricalion. Signal-riirkrtsarv. ])acked in boxes, the sticks tied togeth.er. Each box should contain rockets of but one caliber, andshoulil be nfarked with the size and the kind of decoration. If the sticks be attached they are tied in bundles of n according to the kind of decoration. War-rejckets are preserved in dr_y places with the same precau- tions as loaded shells. Tarred links are strung on a rope and hung up. For transportation they are packed in barrels with straw between the tiers. Fetscines aniX ton'/(fs are packed like tarred links. The parts of ornamental fireworks, owing to their liabil- ity to deteriorate in store, are generally made as re- ipiired. They may be packed in the same manner as ]iiirt-fires. See Ammunition. PRESERVATION OF PROJECTILES.— Projectiles for rifle guns shouUl be neither lacquered nor painted, for the reason that either of these substances would adhere to and foul the grooves of the piece. When practicable, they should be kept under cover, in a dry place, and if unboxed, should be oiled once a year with sperm oil. They are piled, according to kind and calilier, on their sides, in tiers of conven- ient height. The fuse holes should be stopped with tow or cotton-waste. Great care should be taken when handling them to avoid injuring the sabot. No shells of any description should be kept habitual- ly charged. This is done, as occasion requires, when tiring. Empty shell, whether in store or in trans- portation, are most carefully protected from damp- ness. They have the fuse-bouching coated with composition, and the fuse-hole is stopped by a plug of very soft wood wliich is well coated with a mix- ture of oil and tallow, and screwed in. The ends of the plugs are not sawed off even with the shell, but left square, and project sufficiently to allow them to be unscrewed by means of a wrench; and when these plugs are removed for the purpose of fitting the shells for service, they are not thrown away, but preserved for future use. When projectiles have been allowed to become very rusty, they may be thoroughly cleaned in tlie fol- lowing manner : Provide stout rectangular wooden tubs, fitted with faucets and troughs, for conducting the waste water, acids, etc., to the gutters. The loose rust having been removed with a file-card, place the projectiles in the tubs, and cover them with a mixture of three parts muriatic acid and four parts water. After pickling for an hour, or an hour and a half, remove the acid directly into another tub, if convenient, as the same mixture may be used many times. Then thoroughly rinse the projectiles in running water ; if any rust remains it will be in a spongy, half-dissolved condition. easily removed with a file-card. After rinsing, the projectiles are wiped with a dry cloth and piled, when they will be ready for lacquering. Whenever projectiles are to receive lacquer, care is taken that the quantity applied tloes not increase the diameter more than is indispensabl}' necessary, and in no case above established high ga\ige. Old lacquer and rust are removed by scraping, as far as can be conveniently done, before a new coat- ing is applied. Neither liammering nor beating is resorted to fortius purpose. After numerous ex- periments upon different lacquers employed for the preservation of projectiles from rust, the French have abandoned all of them. The projectiles are simi)ly piled, imder sheds when practicable, or in the open air, and, when put onboard of shii), cleaned of rust and rublied over with whale-oil; the same means are adopted every three months of the cruise. In emptying slu'U they are handled carefully and placed on a bench with a hole in it to re<five and suiiport the inverted shell. A wooden vessel i)laced below re(-eives the powder. The powder which has been removed from shells is only used for filling shell, as it always contains a small (juantity of grit, which renders it unlit for gi'ueral service. All [low- der taken from shell is sifted, and all dust and jiar- ticles of dirt removed, asfaras possilile, Iiefore put- ting it into barrels. Shoidil the powder have bc- conie caked, so as not to be easily removed by wash- FB£8£aVAII0N OF FOWOEB. 581 PRESIDKNT. ing out the shell, !i Imnilful of small iron shot piit in ' not bf mod. Tlic Rontinfl or puard at a magazine, the slicll fiicilitalcs lliis opiratioii. See /'iliiif/ nf wlien it is open, should liavr no tirc-arriiH, and j-v<;ry one wlio fntcrs tin; nmjra/.inr should take o(T hm Ihill.i mid I'riiji'i'titin. PRESERVATION. STORAGE. AND TRAN8P0RTA TION OF POWDER. In the poH dir.iii,iL';i/iMcs Ihr liarrcls arc f,'ciirrHlly pla<-cd on the sidi-s, llircc lli-r>< liish, or four tiers, if iic-eessaiy. Small skids should lie i)laced on the lloor and lietwcen the seviral tiers of i)arr<'ls, in order to steady tliein, and cliocks should lie plaeed at intervals on the skids to pre- vent the rolling of the liarrels. The powder should be separated iie<-iirdinLC toils kind, the |ilaee and ilate of falirieatioM and the proof-ran<:e. Fixed ainiiiiini- tioii, espeeiidly for cannon, should not tie put in the Biime ina!j;azine with po\vd<T in barrels, if it can be avoided. In a room i;t or 14 feel wide, the barrels may be arranged in a double row in llu' center, two alleys 'ih feet wide, and two single rows to 13 inehes from the walls ; in this way the marks of eaeli barrel may be seen and any barrel can be easily reached. In a room 13 feet wide, an cipial luunber of barrels may be plaee<l in Iwo doulile rows, with a central alley of :{ feet, and two side alleys, next the walls, of about 10 inches each. Thi're should be an un- encundx'red space of 6 or 8 feet at the door or doors of the magazine. , Should it be necessary to pile the barrels more than four tiers high, the upper tiers should be sup- ported by a frame resting on the tioor; orthe barrels may be placed on their heads, with boards between the tiers. Besides being recorded in the magazine book, each parcel of powdersliould be inscribed on a ticket attached to the pile, showing the entries and the issues. For the preservation of the powder, and of the slioi'S, or ])ut socks over I hem; no sword or cane, or anything which might ncrasion sparks, should be carried ill. The window s ^lioiild have inside slnittere of co])per wire-doth. Fire should never be kindled near the magazine for the repair of the roof or liclit- ningrods. Barrels of powder should not be rolled for transi)ortation; they should be carrii'd in hand- barrows, or slings made of ro|ie or leather. In mov- ing powder in the- ma^Mzine. a cloth or carpet should be spread; all inslnimenis used there shoulil be of wood or cojipcr, and the barrels should ni-ver be re- ])aired in I he niairaziiw. When it is necessarv to roll the ])owder for its betti-r jireservation and to prevent its caking, this should lie done, with a small ipiantity at a lime, on boards in the magazine yard, In the spring an ins]ieclion of the barrels should be mide, and the hoops swept with a brush wherever they can be got at, to remove the insects which de- posit their eggs at this season. In wagons, barrels of powder must be packed in straw, secured in such a manner as not to rub against each other, and the load covered with thick canvas. In transportation by railroad, each barrel should be carefully boxed and packed, so as to avoid all friction. TIk" barrels should have a thick paulin under them. The cars should have springs similar to those of passenger cars. When ])owder has been ilamaged by being stored in d:imp places, it loses its strength, and re- quires to be worked over. If the quantity of mois- ture absorbed does not exceed 7 per cent!, it is suf- ficient to dry it to restore it to service. This is done by e.xposing it to the sun, or in a drying room. floors and lining of the magazine, it is of the great- 1 When "powder has absorbed more than 7 per cent., of est importance to preserve unobstructed the circula- water it is sent to the powder-mills to be worked over, tinn of air under tlie tlooring as well as above. The|orsold as condemned [lowder. When it has been magazine should be opened and aired in clear, dry ! damaged b)- salt water, or become mixed with for- •wniMwr, when the Umperatunnf the air uiit^i<le in Awp- , eign matters which cannot be separated by sifting, er than that inxide the magazine. It should not be | the saltpeter is dissolved out from the other mater- opened in damp weather if it can be avoided. The ials and collected by evaporation. Pr'ipoHiunn of ingredientn. By the atomic theory In the United" States : For the military service (the latter proportion is generally used; - For sporting j In England same as United States; For the military service For sporting ,' In France (Wetteren powder has given best results ; many e.\- periments have been made with varviu.g jiroportions) : For the military service For sporting For blasting In Prussia, same as England and United States : For the military service T, In Spain : — For the military service In Austria : For the militarv service Saltpeter. Charcoal. 74,64 76. rjtt 75. 78. 75. 73.775 78. 63. 75. 76.5 74. 11.51 14. IS- IS. 13. 15. 14. 17. 14.205 12. 18. 15. 13.7 16. Sulphur. 11.85 10. 10. 10. 10. 10. 8. 8. 13.020 10. 20. 10. 10.8 10. See Gunpowder and Powder Depots. ventilators must be kept free; no shrubbery or frees j should be allowed to grow so near as to p"rotect the . builuing from the sun. The magazine vard should be paved and well drained. Tbeinoistufe of a maiia- ziue may be absorbed by chloride of lime suspended in an open box under t"he arch, and renewed from time to time; quicKlimc is dangerous, and should PRESIDENT.— The President of the United States is Commander-in-Chief of the army, narj-, and mili- tia called into service. His functions as such are assigned by Congress, but embrace of course what- ever authority may be assigned to any Military Com- mander. r:n the principle that the authority of the greater includes that of the less. For the command. PKESIDENX OF COURT. 582 PBETOB. government, and reculation of the army, however, bugress has created a military liierarchy or range of subordination in the army w'ith rights and duties regulated by Congress, and the Commander-in-Chief cannot make use of any other agents in exercising Ins command; and all orders is"sued bv him must be according to the rules and articles ma'de by Con- gress for the government of the army. In his capa- city of Chief Magistrate of the Unioia, Congress has also invested the President with many ad"ininistra- tive functions relating to military affairs : and for the performance of fhe latter duties the Secretary of the Department of War has been made his Min- ister, upon matters connected with materiel^ ac- counts, returns, the support of troops, and the rais- ins of troops. PHESIDENT OF COURT.— The President of a Court- Martial is the senior member. He preserves order in Court ; administers the oath taken by the Jud'je- Advocate. and the proceedings of the Court are au- thenticated by his signature and that of the Judge- Advocate. See CinirU-Martial. PRESIDIO. — A place of strong defense ; a garrison guard-house. PRESS CAKE.— Gunpowder after it has been sub- jected to hydraulic pressure. The different natures of powder used in the service receive a pressure of so many tons on the square foot, with reference to the density required. Pebble powder receives a pressure which gives it a density in e.\cess of the usual powders. The amount of pressure varies with the season of the year, less pressure being required in summer than in winter. See (jlnnpoirdtr. PRESSURE-GAUGE. — An apparatus invented by General Kodman for measuring the pressure exert- ed by the gases of e.xploded powder. The drawing shows the construction of the instrument. It consist's of the hmmng,VL, c\oseA.hj the plug , h; of thepwtoH, P, with its head, p, to which is attached the ind^nt- ing-tool, I ; and the recorder, R, of copper. The gns- check, C, a thin copper cup, and the ganktt, G, a cop- per rin,"-, exclude the gas from the cavity of the hous- ing. AVhen the gauge is placed in the cartridge-ban-, it is^ securely tied to it at the croove,"!!' h'. In using this instrument, all its parts, except the ex- terior of the outer cylinder, are carefully cleaned be- fore each tire, and the threads of the screw-plug and the indenting-piston carefully oiled; the copper specimen is then placed in the iiottom of the cylinder, the indenting-piston inserted into thescrew-p"lug,and with the outer cylinder horizontal the plug is scrl'wed home, being afterwards tightly set in with a wrench while the cylinder is held m a" vise. The cylinder is then carefully set downupon its closed end, and the ind(iiling-])iston gently pushed down till tlie point of tlie indenting tool rests u|)(m the copper specimen; a sinal! gas check is then inserted, mouth outward! till it rests \\\»m tlie end of the indenting-piston. It gives additional security against the passage of gas to jilace a small wad of "cotton or tow over the giis- clieck, i)ressing it in liniily without ilriving, a"s a very light blow, several limes repeated, miglil give a greater indentation than Unit ihie to tlir pressure to which it was to be subjected, and thus give erron- eous results. The instrument is inserted into the gun with the screw-plug toward the muzzle, and is gen- erally found in the bore of the gun after its discharge, when the screw-plug is withdrawn and the speciujen removed, having an indentation in its surface, due to the pressure tliat has been exerted upon the outer end of the indenting-piston. The indications of pres- sure are found to be, generally, something less, for equal charges, b3'this instrument than by the exter- nal housing ; tills may be, and proljably is, due to the retardiUion of the rate of intlamma'tion of the charge by the presence of the instrument, and to the heat absorbed by it. Another reason for this is prob- ablj' owing to the fact that in the external gauge the gas has a considerable space to travel through be- tween the powder-chamber and the indicating parts, so that before reaching the piston the gases have at- tained a high rix-viva, especially with quick-burning powders. For these reasons this instrument should be as small as may be compatible with its practical use. See Crusher-gauge. External Pressure-gauge, and Internal PrtsKure-gavge. PRESSURE-SCREW.— A screw variously applied In ordnance constructions to exert pressure and hold parts in proper positions. An example of the im- portance of the pressvrescrew may be seen in the Breithaupt fuse, when gauging the fuse for firing. PRESUMPTION.— An inference drawn by the law in certain circumstances or conditions of "facts, and is used generally as a mere starting point in an argu- ment or litigation. Presumptions are often divided into pre.fumptio juris and presumptio jtiri's et de jure. The former serves as a mere starting-point, and ma3' be rebutted by proof to the contrary. Thus, a person who has possession of goods, is presumed to be the owner till the contrary is proved. A man is presumed to be innocent until the contraryis proved. A presumptio juris et dejure is said to be a presump- tion which cannot be rebutted; but there are few in- stances of this. Presumptions abound in all de- partments of the law, and are adopted from the necessity of coming to some conclusion or other in most cases where the evidence is general or incon- clusive. PRETENSE.- In Heraldry, an Escutclieon of Pre- tense or Escutcheon Surtout, is a small shield placed in the center of the tiekl of another shield. The husband of an heiress may be:\r the arms of his wife in an Escutcheon of Pretense; instead of impaling them. Feudal arms are also sometimes placed on an Escutcheon of Pretense, particularly in the in- signia of Elective Sovereigns, who have been in use of bearing their own proper arms in surtout over those of tlie dominions to which they are entitled. The Crown of Charlemagne is placed in surtout in the Arms of Hanover; and from 1801 to the acces- sion of Queen Victoria, the Hanoverian insignia oc- cupied an Escutcheon of Pretense in the center of the Royal Arms of the United Kingdom. PRETOR. — Among the ancient Romans, the title given to the Consuls as leaders of the armies of the State: but it was specially employed to designate a JIagistrate whose powers were scarcely inferior to those of a Consul. The Pretorship. in this specific .sense of the term, was first instituted in 30G b. c, us a compensation to the Patricians for lieing obliged to share with the Plebeians the honors of Consulship. It was virtually a third Consulship; the Pretor was entitled ('"Uega C'unsulihus ; he was elected by the .same ausjiices and at the .same Coniilia. For nearly ;i(t years. Patricians alone were eligible for the office; but, in 337 b.c. the Plebeians made good their right to it also. The Pretor's functions were chiefiy judi- cial. Though he sometimes commaniled armies, and, in the absence of the Consuls, exercised considerable authority witliin the city, yet his principal business was the ailministralion of justice both in matters civil and criminal; and " to the edicts cif successive I'retors," says .Mr. G. Long, " the Hdiiian law owes, in a great degree, its development and improvement." PEETORIAN BANDS. 583 PEIMEE. Orininiilly. there was only one Pretor; but, as the City and" Slate inorciiHcd, ami tlnir relations with other nations l)eeanie more coinpliealed. otlnTS ■Hiicre ailded. In 24() u. c. a second I'retor was j appoinlcd, to settle disputes that niiLdil arise lie- I tween Konnins and Foreigners temporarily n'sidi'nl j Ht KoMii'. for trailinf; ipr other jiiirposes. lienee called I'ra'tiir l'eri(iriiiiiK (Foreign I'relorj, to distin^jiiisli liini from the original I'rwU/r Urbiinitii (I'Wy I'retorj. In 2'27 B.C., two new Pretors were npiHjiafed, to ad- ministrate alTairs in Sicily and Sardinia; and in 11)7 11. <•., two more for the Spanish Provinces, or in all. Sulla incrcaseil the niimlier to H, and .lulins Cicsar to l(i. An^uslus reiliiced the niind)er to I'i: hut at a later period wi- read of is, if not more. The city I'retor-ships were reckoned the highest; and after a person had tilled these olliees, he sometimes received tlie administration of a province with the title of I'mprirt'ir or I'ruC'inKiit. PKETORIAN BANDS.— The name iriven more par- tieularly durinir I he perioil of the Koman Kmpire. to a hody of soldiers, (>ri;anized for the purpose of protectinc; the jierson and maintainiuLC the power of the Emperors. We indeed rea<l of n I'nrturin Cohnrx, or select guard of the most valiant soldiers attached to the person of Scipio Afrieanus. who, according to Festus, received six-fold ])a_v, and the exigencies of the civil wars naturally increaseil their nundier; but it was to Augustus that tlie insliiution of them as a separate force is owing. lie formed '.tor IDcohorts, each consisting of l,O0()men (horse and fool): but kept only three of them in IJome, the rest being dis- persed in cities not far off. Tiberius, however, as- sembled the !l cohorts at the caiiital in a permanent camp, and Vitellius increased their number to Ki. The I'retorians served at tirst for 12, and afterward for ICi years ; they received double pay ; the privates Were held in e([ual rank to the Centurions in the reg- \\\\\x army, and on theirretirement each received 2(1,- 0(10 sesterces. They socm acquired a dangerous power, which the}' exercised in a most unscrupulous manner, deposing and elevating Kmperors at their pleasure. Aspirants for the Imperial Dignity found it advisable, and even necessary, tobribe them large- ly ; while those who acquired that dignitj' without their assistance were accustomed on tlieir accession to purchase their favor by liberal donations. The Pretorians. however, had no political or ambitious views; they were sim[ily an insolent and riqiacious soldiery, fondof substantial gratitications. and care- less how they got them. After the death <if Pertina.x (11)3 A D.), they actually sold "the purple" for a sum of I money to Didius .Tulianus; but in the same j-ear their peculiar organization was entirely broken U)) by Severus, who formed new cohorts altogether out of thebest legions serving on the frontiers, which he increased to four times the number of the old. After several other changes, they were entirely abol- ished by C'onstantine (312 a. d.), who dispersed them among his regular legions. PRETORIUM.— The'IIall or Court where the Pretor lived and administered justice. It also denoted the tent of the Koman General, in which councils of war were held. The place where the Pretorian Guanls were ([uartered or lodged was likewise called pre- toriuni. PREVENTOR ROPE.— A contrivance for checking the forward motion of a carriage. It is attached to the rear block of the carriage, and being twisted round the hnUiirtJ of the platform, is held by one of the cannoneers. PRICE RETORT FURNACE.— The Price furnace is in part a g;is furnace, and it embraces some of the features of the regenerative system, as the tempera- ture of the air, as well as that of the gaseous and fi.xed constituents of coal, is raised by the waste heat before it enters the chimney. It consists of a combu.stion chamber or fire-box. furnished with grate-bars in the ordinary way : a heating chamber or hearth, separated from" thecombustiou chamber by the usual bridge ; and a neck leading Into a flue, which ojiens to the retort cliaMiber. fii the center of the retort chamber is a circular firebrick pillar, on which is placed a cast-iron cylindrical air-vi'ssel iiroticled all round by lirehrick. On this air-vessel IS liuilt thr- rr-tort, the lower part of which is made of brick while the upper jiarl is cast-iron. At the top of the retort and aliovtr the closed end of the chamber is placed a hojiper, in the throat of which are fitted two doors worked by a lever from the ground. This feeding apparatus may he of any oth- er Huitabh^ construction. In the tirebrick portion of the ret')rt are two passages, tin- one leading to (he coiidiuslion chamber, and the other to the outside of the furnace for the insertion of stoking tools to force the fuel forward into the combustion chamber. The entrance to the outer pas.sage is closed by a tii^ht door. Near the bottom of the retort chamber, and in a line with the center of the air-vessel, are pipes inserted in the walls of the chamber and ])ass- ing all around it. On the inner sidi' of these pipes and opening into the retort chamber are a number of holes li'a<ling into the space around the pipes. This space affords room for expansion and for a free circulation of heal. The pipes are connected with the blast from a fan or from any suitabli- blower. The air passes into Xhv. air-vessel and is delivered through an outlet in. the ash-pit, directly vuider the grate. It will be seen from this descri[)tion that the retort furnace embraces some of the best features of the regenerative system, while it entirely dispenses with its complications of producers, regenerators, and reversing valves. See Furnace. PRICKER. 1. An early name for a light horseman. 2. A priming-wire. PRIDE.— A term in Heraldry. A peacock, or oth- er bird, when the tail is sjireadout in a circidarform, and the wings dropped, is said to be " in his jiride." PRIEST CAP —When the faces of a redan cannot be so placed as to sweep well the flank approaches without making the salient angle too acute; or when the flank approaches extend towards the rear; then the plan may, in the first case, be what is termed a priest-cap. or xiraltmr-teiil, in which the two main faces sweep the flank approaches, and. instead of a pn/i-ci/npie,>i broken line forming a reentering angle, placed in the salient, affords a cross-fire on the ground in front. In the second case a flank is added to each face of the redan, and receives such a direc- tion as to sweep that portion of the flank approach whic'i cannot be reac-hed from the faces except by a very oblique fire. The priest-cap is so named from its shape. See Fielil Wi/rkn&iid Simlhir.titil. PRIME. — 1. In fencing, one of the chief guards. 2. To charge with the jiowder, percussion-cap, or other device for communicating fire to the charge, as a fire-arm. PRIMER.— .\. wafer, cap, tube, or other device for connnimicating fire to the charge of powder in a cannon. The cap or tube usually contains a fric- tion or percussion-powder. The friction-prhiier is generally used in the land service. For service on ship-board, a quill filled with rifle-powder, having on the top a capsule of fulminate of mercury, is gener- ally employed. The cajisule is exploded by a blow from the lock-hammer. The tape-primer, used some- times in blasting, is formed of long, flexible strips PEIMEK EXTEACTOB. 584 PBISUATIC FOWSEB. of paper or fabric containing fulminate or other quick-burning substance. Tlie electric primer is used to lire simultaneous discharges, botli in ordnance and blasting. In tiring wet gun"-cotton. the small charge of dry gun-cotton Used in conjunction with the de. timathig exploder is called a primer. In small-arms, the term is specially applied, at the present time, to the percussion-caps" used in reloading metallic car- tridge-cases. See Cniinon-primern. PEIMER EXTRACTOR.— A reloading tool, whose function is to extract the 7>W;«r;- from the cartridge- shell, when it is required to reload the shell. It is variously designed. The drawing shows a very handy and efficient form of extractor, suitable for re- certain States in Germany. The title is now very geneially applied to tlie sons of Kings and Emper- ors, and persons of the Blood-Hoyal. In various parts of Continental Europe, the title Prince is borne liv families of eminent rank, but not possessed of sovereignty: ami in England a Duke is, in strict her- aldic lang\iage, entitled to be styled " High Puissant and Most Noble Prince," and a JIarquis or Earl as "Most Noble and Puissant Prince." Practically, however, in Britain, the term Prince is restricted to members of the Royal Family. The eldest son of the reigning Sovereign is by a special patent created Prince of Wales, and this is the only case in which the title Prince is connected with a territorial dis- loading central fire cartridge-shells of any caliber. To operate it. it is only necessary to insert the shell, close the handles just enough to cause the chisel to penetrate the primer, and elevate the tongue suffi- ciently to throw it out. PEIMIGENIA. — A kind oi pike very much resem- blins tlie pilum. PKIMING-TTJBE.— A tube to contain an inflamma- ble composition, which occupies the vent of a gun whose charge is fired when the composition is ignit- ed. There are several kinds of priming-tubes, fired by port- fire, lock . or frkt'on . The tube is made of quill, paper, or metol. and is charged with mealed powder damped with methylated spirit, or by a de- tonating composition, sucli as chlorate of potash and antimony. The tube is .slightly smaller than the gun vent, inthe relative proportions of -f^, and | of an inch, and a hollow is made down the middle of the composition, so that the fire may involve the whole length instantaneously. The simplest form i.? that in which the tube is merely a holder for the priming, which is touched off by a port-fire. This is the guill, Dutch, or amimon metal tube. Another variety has a cross-head or snipe to contain a detonating composition which is exploded b}- a hammer. This is the crobs-hfnd, or detonating tube. A third variety is operated by friction, a roughened bar occupying the hollow in|the composition, and exploding liy fric- tion the detonating composition in the head of the tube. The rough bar is jerked out by a lanyard. See Frirtion-primer. PRIMING WIRE. — An implement used to prick the cartridge before priming when the quill or metal tubes are used. It is made of wire a little less in diameter than the vent, sloping to a point at one end, and at the other vent into a circle, which serves to hold it by, as well as prevent it from slipping Ihrouirli the loop on the primer pouch, where it is carried wlien not in use. PRIMIPILUS.— The Centurion belonging to the fir.?t cohort (if a leL;ion. Among the Rnmaiis, the I'rinii- pilarii were such as had formerly lioriie tlie otHrc of Primipilus. Among other privileges which lliey enjoyed, they became heirs to what little pro|)erty was left by the soldiers who died in tlie campaign. PRINCE.— An epithet whicli was origiiuilly ap- plieil to the I'rincepH Senatim of the Roman Slate and afterward liecamo a title of dignity. It was adopteil by Augustus and his successors; hence the word was afterward applied to persons enjoying kingly jiowcr, mori' especially tlie Rulers of small States, either Sovereign, as in the case of the ancient Princes of Wales, or Dependent, like the Rulers of tinction. In Germany, the ambiguity of appl}'ing the same title to tlie members of Royal Houses and Princely Families, not Sovereign, is avoided, the former being .styled "Prinz," the latter " Fiirst." The German Fiirst takes rank below the Duke (Her- zog). Most of the Counts who had a seat in the old German Diet were elevated to the dignity of Prince on the acquiescence in the dismemberment of the German Empire. In a more general acceptation, the term Prince is often used for a Sovereign or Ruler of a State. PRINCE ALFRED GUN.— This gun was forged hol- low, on a plan intended principally to overcome the defect of unequal shrinkage and initial strain and rupture. Broad plates, bent to the proper curve, were laid and welded upon a barrel made of rolled staves. Its dimensions are: length (without cas- cabel), 1,1-51 inches; length of bore. 137 inches; di- ameter over the chamber, 31j inches; diameter at muzzle, 141 inches; diameter of bore, 10 inches; weight, 24,094 pounds. -The gun is rifled with three grooves ^ inch deep, but cut the wrong way, so that the projectile would be rotated by the inclined in- stead of the radial surface of the grooves. It will therefore have to be borod out to lOi inches, and will then carry a 156 pound spherical shot. The test proposed by the makers is one round with one shot and 100 pounds of powder. PRINCEPS SENATUS.— An officer of the Roman Senate, who, under the Monarchy, was a ro^-al ap- pointee for life, Cuittos Urhis, and had jirecedence among the Decemviri. Under the Republic, he was the appointee of the Curies, b, c. 487, the Paties Minorum Gentium, previously ineligible, were made eligible, and afterward the senior Ex-Censor held the office Bx-Officio. Later, any Senator was eligi- ble, but the office was simply honorary, and did not carry with it the Presidency of the Senate, Finally the title belonged to the Emperor. PRINCIPES.— In the Roman armies, Principes were the infantry, who formed the second line in the. order of battle. They were armed like the /lan. tiiti, with this difference, that tlie former had half- pikes instead of whole ones. See IlfiHtnti. PRISE-BOLTS.— The projecting bolts at the rear of a mortar-bed or g;irrison gun-carriage, under wliich the handspikes are inserted for training and man- euvering the ])iece. They are formed by the pro- longation of the assembling bolts. Also written J'ri:,-b»l/s. PRISMATIC POWDER.— Tlie adoption of this form of powder by some n;iliiins. ;ind production of ma- chinery for its niauufacluru, iiuccbsilatBd the use of PEI8MATIC TRANSIT 585 PEISMAII^ TRANSIT. pri'HHfs of pi'ciiliiir ciiiislrMclioM to iiimirn sufflrifnt and iinifdriM dciisily ; I lie pnsH to ]»• si) di'visi'd as Id produce uniforni size luid sliupi' of j;niiiis, iind iillow their rem ly witlidnnvid from Ihe molds ; tlK'Kurfaees suoli us to allow close ]iackiiii; ill a i;ivenspace. Tlies.; C'onsideralions led lo tin- ailoptioii of a rejrular geo- melrical ligiire: the lie.\aj;on oIVits i;ood shape for Iiiliiii;, the angles heiim' all siiltlcieiill_v ol>liis<-1o pre- vent hreakini; or spavvlini;al the edi;es. Kach layer and the whole carlridi;e is easily made up. I'er- foralions were found necessary to insure lielle- and more uniform control of condiiislion in the f;rain. The nimiher of perforations first adopt<'il were seven — one central, the olhi'r six at eipial distances from the central one - although one perforation iu the cen- ter has been found sutlicient. The iiii;redii'nts for the manufaclnre of the pow- der base are tile same as used in llie manufacluri' of ordinary powder. The ]iulverized materials for 2'M pounds are placed in wooilen drum lined with sole- leatiier, with li;i() pounils of bron/<' balls, and sub- jected to 1.440 revolutions at the rate of H or 10 per. minute. The powder is then lirnuiiht to the moist- liiiiij: table of wood surrounded by an iiprii;ht ediie. over which is suspended a :;radualed udass measure havini; a pipe of copper and rose at the bottom. On the table a charLTc of .W pounds of powder is spread and nioisteneii with 2', quarts of distilled wa- ter. It is then jiassed from a liopper to an endless canvas belt 20 inches wide, between a lower paper anil upper bronze roller, weii;hiii!j 2,12") pounds, making a revolution in twelve minutes. The bron/e roller can be weighed to exert a pressure of (iO.OOO pounds. The powder is then broken into coarse luni])s by wooden mallets, and granulated to two sizes of grains: the tirst. cannon powder— used for maiiufactiir<' of the jirisms — is passed through a sieve of 0.2() inch diameter of holes. Ordinary grain powder. niiide a.s above, is of a spe- cific gravity of l.r>, and too elastic for the use in the press. By reworking it loses a part of its elasticity, and is then tit for formation of the prisms by the fol- lowing process: The powder-base, as above, is moist- ened with 10 per cent, of water. ))assed through the spindle press with the prescribed pressure and granu lated grain and dust being collected in a receptacle. 1 This mixture of grain and dust is dried in the air or by artirtcial heat "till U per cent, of the moisture re- mains. It is placed iu a mixing-drum —220 pounds of powder and 330 pounds of bronze balls — and sub- jected to 1.440 revolutions, moisteiieil and pressed as before, giving it a specific gravity of 1 .<iT.5 to 1.75. It is granulated and separated, the cannon size again dried by air till (! jier cent, iu dry weailier of moist- ure remains, and placed iu barrels covered with damp cloths for use. Tlie press for this purpose is constructed to giv? a pressure of Go. 000 pounds per sipiare inch. It con- sists of a heavj' casting on a stone foumlation: a main j and BPcondarc shaft, one flxc-d and two movable eroHS-heads. Tlic- main shaft carries a heavy wheel I at I'aih end,ovir whii li belts conduct the powrr from lliircenter shafting lo llie press. ItliasacI itch opera- ted by a lever for starting and stopping the iiiacliine; two pinions on the main operate geared wheels on the secondary shaft, on whicli two eccentrics ami cranks operate respectively, by connecting rods, the lower and u|)per movable cross-heads. Tliesc have each six hc-xagonal stamps perforated witli seven holes which enter corresponding hexagonal molds on the low<T cross-head. Six groups of seven needles are tixed in such position that they e.\tend up Ihrougll the perforations of the lower stamps throughout into tlK- molds and enter the perforations of the upper stamps as the latter descend to press the powder in the molds; these form the jierforations in the prisms. The eccentrics and cranks operating the croHS-heads are timed so that when the ujiper stamps have reach- ed their lowest point of descent. tthe lower ones are moving upward giving the extreme ])ressure, after which the u])per stamps ascend ami the lower ones simultaneously ])usli the perforated prisms up from the molds. The lower stamps constitute the bottom of the molds. The molds are tilled from a ho|)per having a table with forward-and-back motion, con- laining six suitable measures which receive tlie ])0W- der from the hopper ; thecharging table moves for- ward and drops the charge in the molds; its edge carries the prisms brought up from the mold to an inclined shelf, whence^ they are removed. The ca- pacity of the powder measures can be regulated as desired. Two rooms are required for each press ; one for the press, the other for the prisms. Before starting the press, the mold-needles and stamps. and all rubbing surfaces ought to be oiled with a light. pure oil or graphite. All surplus lubri- cant must be wiped oil. The ]«)wder to be pressed ought to have at least .TJ per cent, of moisture. The moist prisms weigh about 020 grains each, and must not vary more than 5 grains. The first two sets of ])risms should be rejected because of excess of oil. The weiLTht of prisms must be veritied. Three men can work ;i ]iri'ss; a carrier for every press is also re- quired. The height and weight of tlie prisms must be veritied from time to time, and the powder in the hopper stirred from time to time. Loose powder must be lirushed away from tlie stamps and top of the molds; lubricate as often as once an hour. If a needle breaks, stop the press and replace it at once. On dry days, the powder loses moisture; this will be indicated by increased height of prisms or vil)ra- tions of the press, in which case moisten with ] per cent, of moisture, which is done in a drum by a fine rose sprinkler. The prisms pressed by the press con- tain about 5 per cent, of moisture. and must be dried to about f per cent, by exposure to air or ;,n shelves in a suitably arranged drying-room; they are then exposed to a tem])erature of 120*^ Fahr. for 48 hours, and are ready for packing. The prisms are jjacked in wooden boxes in layers (12 rows of 11. and 11 rows of 9, deep) weighing a- bout 110 pounds to the box. The prisms are regular hexagons 0".992 high and 1".0 width across the an- gles. The packing-boxes are of inch stuil. and may be tin-lined. Two sheets of felt — the smaller at one end. the other on top — keep the prisms from rubbing against each other in transportation. The boxes have rope handles, and are marked with the weight, kind, place, and date of fabrication of the powder. See Giinpoirdfr. PRISMATIC TRANSIT.— This form of transit, sug- gested bySteinheil. anil designed by Mr. G.N. Sieg- muller.was manufactured for the United States Coast Survey. It is intended to be set up in the prime vertical, tlie tilescope pointing ea.st and west. By the use of a prism;itic objective, any stiir passing the meridian will be reflected and seen in the field when the instrument is set up correctly : by turning it in its bearings it will sweep the meridian. The pivot-rings PRISON. 586 PEISONEKS OF WAB. are of phosphor-bronze,and,to avoid flexure as much as possible, these rings are again connected by a tube, so that the telescope body is really double. By one of the three setting-screws the instrument is moved an azimuth. It is provided with a reversing appara- tus, which also carries the illuminating lamp. The tine level over the telescope is held by a projection from the reversing apparatus, which secures the great advantage that the level need not be taken off on reversing the instrument ; it remains on whether ob- serving in the zenith or horizon. The setting-circle is attached behind the micrometric eye-piece with level alidade, divided on silver, and reading to min- utes. It also carries the latitude level, which is chambered and reads to single seconds. This instru- ment, being very simple and portable, is especiallj' adapted for work in a rough or mountainous country. See Enginefr's Traimt. PRISON. — In a military sense, a building con- structed for the retention of prisoners of war, or for the safe-keeping and punishment of oflenders against military law. Sometimes during war, forts and other strong structures are utilized for these pur- poses. A permanent military prison was established at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, in 1873. The De- partment Commander stationed at Fort Leavenworth , is cr-tijficin Commandant of this prison. The other officers of the prison, detailed by the Secretary of War, from the officers of the Army, are a Governor, an Adjutant, a Disbursing officer, Commissary, Sur- geon, and Chaplain. Division and Department Commanders may designate this prison as the place of confinement for all prisoners sentenced to be eon- fined for one year or upwards, except such as are convicted of offenses which lawfully subject them to punishment in a State penitentiary. Discharge papers, descriptive lists, orders promulgating or modifj'ing sentences, and statements of conduct since under sentence, are forwarded to the Com- mandant of the prison with each prisoner sent there for confinement. Before sending convicts to the military prison, a careful medical examination is made of those wliose physical or mental condition appears to be sueli as might be seriously affected by the confinement, or be in danger of ending in per- manent disability which might cause them to be discharged before the expiration of their sentence. Special report is made of cases found to be of this description, with a view to avoid imnecessary ex- pense of transportation. The following were noted prisons during the Civil War, 1861-C5, for the retention of Federal prisoners of war. Andersonville. Belle Isle. Castle Thvmder. Libby and Salisbury. The prison at -\ndersonville. was notorious for unhealthfulness and its discipline for barbarity ; and in ISU.'i, after the close of the war, Henry Wirz, a Swiss, the chief instrument of ill- treatment, was indicted for "injuring the health and destroying the lives of prisoner:; by subjecting them to torture and great suffering, by confinement in un- health3'and unwholesome quarters, by exposing them to the inclemency of the winter and the dews and burning sun of the summer, by compelling the use of impure water, and by furnishing iusutficient and unwholesome food ; for establishing the dead line and ordering the guards to shoot down any prisoner attempting to cross it ; for keeping and using blood- hounds to hunt down prisoners attempting to escape; and for torturing prisoners and contining them in stocks." He was found guilty and hanged. Under orders of the Ooveniment.the place where the bodies had been rudely l>uried in long trenches was arranged as a cemetery, and adorned with gravel walks an<l trees: 12,4(11 dead soldiers of the I'nion -Vriny were identified, and llu-ir placesof burial marked witli tab- lets ; 451 were "unknown." Prisons were also estab- lished for the retention of Confederate prisoners at Camp Douglas, Utah; Chicago, Illinois; Camp Chase, Ohio; Elinira, New York; "Point Lookout, Mary- land; and Kock Island, Illinois. PRISONERS OF WAR.— A prisoner of war is a public enemy armed or attached to the hostile army for active aid, who lias fallen into the hands of the captor, either figliting or wounded, on the field or in the hospital. % individual surrender or by capit- ulation. All soldiers, of whatever species of arms ; all men wlio belong to the rising en ma.ise of the hos- tile country; all those who are attached to the army for its efficiency and promote directly the object of the war ; all disabled men or officers on the field or elsewhere, if captured; all enemies who have thrown away their arms and ask for quarter, are prisoners of war, and as such exposed to the inconveniences as well as entitled to the privileges of a prisoner of war. Moreover, citizens who accompany an army, for whatever purpose, such as sutlers, editors, or re- porters of journals, or contractors, if captured, may be made prisoners of war, and be detained as such. The monarch and members of the hostile reigning family, male or female, the chief, and chief officers of the hostile government, its diplomatic agents,and all persons who are of particular and singular use and benefit to the hostile army or its government, are, if captured on belligerent ground, and if unprovided with a safe-conduct granted by the captor's govern- ment, prisoners of war. If the people of that por- tion of an invaded country which is not yet occu- pied by the enemy, or of the whole countr}-, at the approach of a hostile army, rise, under a duly au- thorized levy, enmnsHe to resist the invader, they are now treated as public enemies, and if captured, are prisoners of war. No belligerent has the right to declare that he will treat every captured man in arms of a levy en, inasne as a brigand or bandit. If, how- over, the people of a countr}', or any portion of the same, already occupied by an army, rise against it, they are violators of the laws of war, and are not en- titled to their protection. The enemy's chaplains, officers of the medical staff, apothecaries, hospital nurses and servants, if they fall into the hands of the American Armj-, are not prisoners of war, unless the commander has reasons to retain them. In this latter case, or if at their own desire, they are allowed to remain with their captured companions, the}' are treated as prisoners of war, and may be ex- changed if the commander sees fit. Bythe laws or recognized principles of war, the entire people of a vanquished town, state, or nation become the absolute property of the victors ; but civilization has greatly modified this stern rule, and except when a country is devastated for military reasons, it is rare for non-combatant citizens to be subjected to penalties of concpiest, beyond the levy- ing of contributions in money or provisions. The combatants who have laid down their arms become prisoners of war. Their lives and liberty are at the disposal of their conquerors, and even in modern times, their lives are sometimes taken, as, for in- stance, when Napoleon put the Turkish prisoners to death at Jaffa in 1T99 ; otherwise, prisoners of war are kept in confinement until peace ensues, or they are exchanged for prisoners of their conqueror's na- tion, held in captivity by their own countrymen. It is unusual to subject prisoners of war to penal dis- cipline ; but the loss of liberty and liard fare (for, of course, they arc allowed no more th;m a bare sub- sistence) render a captivity sufficiently irk.some. lu ancient times, the treatnient of prisoners of war was far more severe. In the (ireek wars, it was no uncommon thing to put the whole aiiull male popu- lation of a conquered state to the sword, while tlie women and children were enslaved. Although the putting to dciith of prisoners became less freiiuetit, they and their families were conunonly redu('ed to slavery to as recent a period as the i:!th century. About" that time the more humane custom of ex- changing jirisoners came into practice. Notwith- standing frequent exelianges, large numbers of pris- oners acctnnulate during w;ir. In liill about 47, (JOO French were prisoners in England. FBIICH£T BULLET. 587 PHOBAEILITY FACTORS. Money antl other valiiiibles on tlie person of a priHoner, micli lis wiilclies or jewelry, us well lis ex- tni elotliiiii;, are rei,Mrcleil liy llie Aiiierii-iiii Army lis the private properly ol'llie prisorn-r, and the appro- priation of sueli valuables or money is eonsiilered (tishonorable and is prohibited. Nevertheless, if /«/•//'' sums are foiinil upon tiie persons of. prisoners, or in their possession, they shall be lakin from thiTii, and the surplus, after providini; for their own siipporl, apiiropriated for the use of the army, under liw di- reelion of the ecjirimander, unless otherwise ordered by the i;overmiienl. Nor eaii (irisoners elaim, as private properly, large sums f<iiind ami captured in their train, allhoiiirh they had been placed in llie jirivate luggau;e of the prisoners. All otlicers, when capliired, surrender their siiU'-arms to the captor. They may be restored to the prisoner in inarked rases, by the Commander, to sij.;nalizi; admiration of his distini^uished bravery, or approlialion of his liumaiK' treatment of prisoners before his capture. The caiiturcd otlieer to whom they may be restoreil cannot wear them durini; captivity. A prisoner of war, beins a jjublic enemy, is the prisoner of the government, and not of the captor. No ransom can be paid by a prisoner of warto his individual captor, or to any ollicer in command. The j^overnment alone releases captives accordinj^ to rules prescribed by itself. Prisoners of war are subject to cfmtine- nient or imprisonment such as may \>o deemed nec- essary on account of safety, but they are to be sub- jected to no other intentional sulTerint; or indinnit}-. The continement and mode of treatinj; a prisoner may be varied during his captivity according to the demands of safety. Prisoners of war shall be fed upon jilain and wholesome food, whenever practic- nlile, and treated with humanity. They may be re- quired to work for the benefit of the {'aptor's gov- ernment, according to their rank and condition. A prisoner of war who escapes may be shot, or otherwise killed in his flight; but neither death nor any other punishment shall be intlicte<i upon him simply for his attempt to escape, which the law of war does not consi(U-r a crime. Stricter means of security shall be used after an unsuccessful attempt at escape. If. however, a conspiracy is discovered, the purpose of which is a united or general escape, the conspirators'] may l)e rigorously punished, even with death; and capital punishment may also be in- flicted upon prisoners of war discovered to have plotted rebelion against the authorities of the cap- tors, whether in union with fellow-prisoners or other persons. If prisoners of war. h;iving given no pledge nor made any promise on their honor, forci- bly or otherwise escape, and are captured again in battle, after having rejoined their own army, they shall not be punished for their escape, b>it shall be treated as simple prisoners of war, although they will be subjected to stricter continement. See Cartel, and rarolr. PHITCKET BULLET. — The Englisli retained a wedge made of wood, which was placed in the base of the Pritchet bullet used with the Entield riHe, and wliich prevented the gas from penetrating any lis- sures that might exist, while at the same time it was driven before fhe gas into the cavitj', e.xpanding the ball. PRIVATE.— The title applied in the British Army to a common soldier of the Cavalry and Infantry, the corresponding nuik in the Arliller\' being gunner or driver, and in the Engineers the sapper. The pay of a private is one shilling a day in the infantry, and Is. 2d in the cavalry — exclusive of a free ration or corres- ponding allowance. A private in the cavalry is sometimes called a trooper. In the United States Army all soldiers below the grade of non-commis- sioned officers are called privates. PRIVATEER.— A ship owned by a private indi- vidual, wliich. under government permission, ex- pressed Iiy letter of marque, makes war iqion the shipping of a hostile power. To make war upon an enemy witlinut this commiftsion, or upon the Bliip- ping of a nation not specified in it, is piracy. I'riva- lecring was al)olislie(i by mutual agreement among Eiirojiean Nations by the Treaty of Paris in IH.VJ. It is doubtful, liowev(-r, how far that abolition would stand in a general war, for privateering is the natural resource of a nation whose regular navy is too weak to make liead against the maritime power of the enemy, espi-cially when the latter oilers the temptation of a weallhy commerce. An effort was made at an early period by the govern- ment of the I'nited Slates to have provisions in treaties with foreign countries which would abolish privateering in case of war: and the laws of the United Slates are more prohibiting in this respect than those of most other nations. At the time of the mutual agreement among European nations to abolish the eustom miiilioned above, the govern- ment declared ils willingness to unite with them, provided a certain clause of the treaty was amended so that the private property of the subject or citi- zen of a belligerent on the high seas should be ex- empted from seizure by public armed vessels of tlie other belligerent, except it be contraband of war. Hut this was declined, and eonsecpiently no arrange- ment with the United .States was included in the treat V. PRIVY COAT.— A light coat or defense of mail, concealed under the (jrdinary dress. PRIZE. — Property captured from an enemy, or an enemy's jjroperty captured from a neutral in time of war. Prize-money is distributed in the United Stales in accordance with the provisions of the Act of ,Iune 30, 18<i4. This statute directs that where the prize is equal or superior in force to the capturer the Captors shall have the whole; where it is in- ferior in force, the Captors shall have half, and the United States the other half. In the case of Letters of Marque and Privateers, the Captors shall have the whole, unless otherwise stipulated in the com- missions issued to such vessels. Strictly speaking, /idcti/ is the military term, the word prizf being more freiiuently used in the Navy. See lilttekade, Vuntra- hand I'f \V({r. Nftitrality, and I'ru-utetr. PRIZE AGENTS.— Officers belonging to an army in tlie field, who are cho.sen after a campaign to col- lect all property belonging to the enemy which has fallen into the" hands'of "the victors. In England all military booty is apportioned as the Sovereign from time to time may direct. Deserters, and those who do not claim their share within six years, re- ceive none. The officers appoint two Prize Agents, by letters of attorney : the Field Officers naming one, and tlie Subordinate Officers another. The Officer commanding the successful expedition sends to the military autliorities a list of the persons en- titled to booty. The Agents collect the property, convert it into money at the best advantage, and hand over the proceeds to the authorities, receiving a small percentage for their trouble. A scale of dis- tribution is thenniade out. and the money is paid after a certain interval. When an army and a fleet join in a capture, the Admiralty calculaies the armjr share, and sends the amount to the military authori- ties. Prize and booty originally belonged to the Sovereign, and are only distributed to the Captors as an act of crace ; for, if tlie Sovereign pleases, the ]iro]ierlv can be given back again tolhe enemy. PRIZE MONEY.— The value of tlie property cap lured from the enemy after its realization by sale. To carry out the rules having reference to prize property. Prize Agents are appointed, selected by the army, to collect all property wliich has been cap- tured in each of the towns and fortresses through which the conquering army has passed. No oppres- sion is permitted in the matter; all that is demanded is that what, by the rules of war. falls to the posses- sion of the captors he iiiven up. Such property 13 sold, ami tiuMllv dividcil among the army. PROBABILITY FACTORS.— A table of factors, which PROBABLE RECTANGLE. 588 FROFILE-BOABDS. multiplied by the width of a zone containiug 50 per cent, of the hits, will give the widths of zones con- taining any other percentage of hits. Thus, if the width of a SO per cent, zone is 1.00, we would find from such a table that the widths of 20, 40, 60, 80, and 99 per cent, zones are .38, .78, 1.25, 1.90, and 3.82 respectivel}-. From such a table, we would also see that a zone twice as wide as that of ijO |)er cent, will not contain all the hits, but onlj" a little over S2 per cent. PROBABLE RECTANGLE.— The relative accuracy of different guns at different ranges is estimated by the dimensions of a rectangle, called the pmhalle rect-angle. If we determine the lateral and longitudi- nal probable zn/iex, and suppose them to be super- posed, we shall have a rectangle which must con- tain .50 per cent, of -50 per cent, or 25 per cent of the total number of hits. Then by reference to a table of probability fart'irs, we can tind the proportionate widths of any other zones (containing a different percentage of hits) to one of 50 per cent, as unity. To illustrate take the following example : Suppose a raft, 25 yards square, is tired at by the 40- pr.R. M. L. at an elevation of 5°, how many rounds may be e.xpected to hit, when the range is accurately obtained ? Here, the mean error in range is 17.0 yards and the mean lateral deviation is 0.02 3'ards. Conse- quently, the 50 per cent. longitudinal zone=17. 9x1.69 =30.25 yards in width, and the 50 per cent, lateral zone = 9.02xl.69 = 15.23 yards in width. Hence, 25 25 the zones are respectively = .88,and = 1.64 30.25 15.23 of the width of the 50 per cent. zone. From a table of probability jactor», we find, that a zone .83 the width of the .50 per cent, one would receive about 42.5 per cent., and one of 1.64 would have 73 per cent, of the total number of rounds fired. Conse- quently the rectangle formed by the intersection of the zones would receive 42.5 per cent, of 73 per cent., or 31 per cent, of the total tired. PROBABLE ZONES. — It can be shown by the theory of probabilitie-:, that if each of the three mean errors (range-vertical and lateral) is multiplied by the fac- tor 1.69, we will have the breadth of three zones (of infinite length), each of which will contain .50 per cent, of the hits. If the mean errors in two direc- tions are given, we can tind two .50 per cent, zones, and hence a rectangle, in the plane of the zones, which must contain 50 per cent, of 50 per cent., or 25 per cent, of the total number of hits. PROCEEDINGS.— The proceedings of Courts-Mar- tial of the previous day are usually read over each day by the Judge Advocate. Much time is lost by adopting this measure, and there is no rule directing the Court to read them. All ";■(/<>« which have been issued, modifying the detail of a Court, after its original organization, should be included in the pro- ceedings of every case. The entire proceedings ol the Court in each case should be fully set forth. All orders, motions, or rulings of the Court itself — all motions, propositions, objections, arguments, state- ments, etc., of Uie Judge Advocate and the prisoner — the entire testimony of each witness, given in rhis own language — and, indeed, every feature of the proceedings material to a complete history of the case and to a correct understanding of every point of the same by the reviewing authority — should be recorded at length. The record of proceedings, and the final defense fif the accused, should be wrilten upon Icgal-ca]) jiaper of uniform size. The ])roceed- ings in eacli completed case should be immediately signed by the President and Judge AdvcK'ale. Ifr. coimiiendations to C'lemenei/ shoidd not be i)laced in connection with the sentence, but should be ai)i)end- ed to the record. The oriyinal procenliiig.H of a Court are not the rough minutc-s kept by the Judge Advocate or Recorder : but those finally aullicnti- cated by the signatures of the ['resident and .ludirc ' Advocate (or recorder). All documeutar_\- evidence I subnitted to the Court must be attached to the pro- ceedings, lettered in the order of submission, as Ex- hibits ^-A," " B," etc. PROCLAMATION. —A jjublic notice given by the Sovereign to liis subjects. The power of issuing proclamations is part of the prerogative of royalty as the fountain of justice. They sometimes consist of an authoritative announcement of some matter of state, or act of the executive government affecting the duties and obligations of subjects. The demise of the Crown, and accession of a new Sovereign, a declaration of war, and the issue of new coin, are all occasions on which a royal proclamation is issued. A jiroclamiition may .also be issued to declare the iu- tenliiin of the Crown toexercise some prerogative or enforce some law which has for a long time been dormant or suspended. In time of war, the Crown by a proclamation may laj'an embargo on shipping, and order the ports to be shut. But the most usual class of proclamations are admonitory notices for the prevention of offenses, consisting of form.al decla- rations of existing laws and penalties and of the in- tention to enforce them: such as the proclamation against vice and immorality, appointed to be read at the opening of all courts of quarter sessions in Eng- land. Proclamations are only binding when they do not contradict existing laws, or tend to establish new ones, but only enforce the execution of those which are already in being, in such manner as the Sover- eign judges necessary. PROCONSUL. — A Roman Magistrate not holding the Consulship, who was invested with powers near- ly approaching those of a Consul, not however, ex- tending over the city and its vicinity. The Procon- sul was, at first, one who had held the office of Con- sul, whose Imperium was prolonged to enable him to bring an unfinished campaign to a close. The duration of the office was a year. During the latter period of the Republic, when the Consuls were ex- pected to spend a year of their consulate at Rome, they were generally appointed at its close to under- take, as Proconsuls, either the conduct of a war in some Province, or its peaceful administration. Oc- casionalh', the office of Proconsul, with the govern- ment of a Province, was conferred on a person who had never held the Consulship. Under Constantino, parts of certain Dioceses came to be governed by Proconsuls. PRODD. — A light cross-bow, used chiefly in field sports, in the sixteenth century. It usuallj' projected bidlets. PROFESSORS OF THE UNITED STATES MILITARY ACADEMY.— The Professors of the Academy, being Staff Officers of the Army, are assimilated in rank to the grades of which they are entitled by law ttr the pay and allowances. They are respected and obe3'ed according to their rank and office in the Academy. The uniform of Professors is that of officers of the General Staff of the Army of their assimilated rank, with the letters M. A. on the shoulder-knot. Or they ma_y at their option wear a citizen's blue cloth coat, with Inittons of the General Staff of the Army; black dress hat; pantaloons and vest plain, white or dark blue; cravat or stock, black. The uniform of the Chaplain is that i)rescribed for Chap- lains in the Army. See United Stnten Military Aaidemy. PROFILE BOARDS.— Boards employed in the in- spection of cannon formeasuring distances in front and rear of base line. Their lower edges are adapt- ed to the shape of the gun, and the ujiper ones are parallel to the axis of tlu' bore. The distances from the baM' line of the several parts, and of points at which dianu'lers are to be Uieasured are laid otT ac- curately on the upper edge, and then marked in lines |)erpendicular to it on the sides and lower edges of the profile. An iron strap is attached to the upjier edge to prevent warping, and the whole is well coated with shellac-varnisli to keep it from alisorbiiig moisture. The following instruments are used in connection PROFILING. 589 PKOFILING-MACHINE. with IliP prolilc-hnnrds : A r'llf, for vorifyinc the marks, of sucli a. Icii;j;th that iKit iiiDre than ime Uc l- hiu; may be necessary, !in<l to be ^^railiiaU-d deci- mally accordiiij; Id tliu Ktandard. AKinall Hquare of Htcd, to bf iiK.id ill ri'fcrrint; themarlts on Ihi' board to those on tlie rule. A uteel utrahjUt kIj/i', loiii; enoiiuli to cxti'iid across the muz/.le-faec and several inches on the board, used to ascertain the extri'me length from liases to nui/zle. It is also used for the same |>iir|iose at the I'Xtrcme end of the cascabel. A steel Kcrdlclier, to mark the i;nn at jioints, not other- wise indicated, where diameters are to be raeusured. Bee Insptftion <if (Jrdiiiiiire. PROFILING. — An operation in the construction of field Works which consists in erect ini; at ])ro|)er points aloii;; the sub-crests, wooden pniji/m which j;ive the form of the |)arapets at those points, and which guide tlie workrnen in the construction of the works. Proliles are placeil at the extremities of a parapet; at points along the siil)-crest from twenty to thirty yards apart: at the salients and re-entrants; and at any points where a change of direction or di- mensions .arc to bo made. The profiles or poles hav- ing l)een planted at the angles of the work, and the lieight of the interior crest marked on them, a line is traced on the ground with a pick, showing the direc- tion of the interior crests. When the gromid is sensibly level, lines perpendicular to the direction of the inte- rior crest are I raced ujion if , at suitable distances, from twenty tu thirty yards apart, to mark the positions ; manipiilation of the parts, in the absence of the pat slopes in eitlier direction, cords are stretched above the surface, in a horizontal line, between two stout pickets, in the direction of the proliles, and so as to include all of its lines. This cord serves to measure the horizontal distances on, and to lind the points of the prolile. above and below it, by means of an or. ditiary plummet. A stout s(piare jiicket is driven tirmlv into the ground, where the cord crosses above the pick-line, ami a slip of pine, on which the height of the interiorcresl is marked, is nailed to tin- picket. The thickness of the parapet is measured on the cord, an<l a picket driven into the ground to mark the l)oint. The base of the interior slope, and the tread of the bamiuette, are set off in a similar manner; and a slip of deal is nailed to each of the |)ickets. The height of the interior crest, and tin- tread of the banquette, are easily ascertained, from th<- position of the cord and the "interior crest ; these points hav- ing been marked on their respective slips, the out- line of the parapet is shown by connecting them by other slips, which are nailed to the uprights; the ban- i quette slope and exterior siope will be determined by a simila! process. From the proliles thus formed perpen- dicidar to the interior crests, the oblique profiles at the angles can readily be set up, by a process wliich will suggest itself without explanation. Having completed the protilimr, the foot of the banquette, and that of the exterior slope, are mark- ed out with the pick, and also the crests of the scarp and counterscarp. All the arrangements preparatory to commencing the ex- cavation are now complete. See Fintd-fm-tifica- ti<m. \<>rmiil I'mfi/i . /'iinijut. and Tracing. PROFILING MACHINE.— A machine much tised in armories, and bv which ;ui object of a given contour or outline may be duplicated; or one by which any given profile may be given to a piece by adequate of the profiles, and the horizontal distances for the I tern which forms an automatic guide for the tooL thickness of the parapet ; the bases of the slopes. In the former case, the machine is used for duplicat- etc, are set off on these lines. But when the ground ' ing templets, gauges, and patterns (now much used along the direction of the profile is undulating, or ; in making various machines) in great numbers loan PROGRESSIVE POWDER. )90 PROJECTILES. exact size and proportion, to be afterwards assem- bled. Fire-arms, sewing-machines, watches, and many other articles are thus made. The drawini; shows a two-spindle profiling; ma- chine, as manufactured by the Pratt & Whitney Company, wlio make a specialty of gun machinery. It is built withor,without Parkhurst's device for cut- ting formers without reversing the fixtures. With this improvement, to produce the forming pattern, the model piece is secured in the place and position afterward occupied by the work to be machined, aud the piece to be cut for the forming pattern is placed in the position it will permanentlj- retain. The guide-pin is put in the spindle which usually carries the cutter, and follows the outline of the model piece, while the cutter, in tlie spindle, which afterward holds the guide-pin, cuts the forming pat- tern in the exact position it will retain in use. After disconnecting the gearing upon the spindles, revers- ing the relative positions of the guide-pin and cutter, and smoothing the edge of the forming pattern (if this be necessary), tlie machine is ready for work. The gearing for moving the table and cross-slide is ad- justable by means of double gears, set to prevent back-lash by two independent adjusting screws, ami also b}' a double rack adjusted in the same manner. This arrangement is indispensable to secure perfect accuracy in cutting irregular forms, especially in turn- ing corners. The No. 1 two-spindle machine has an area of table of 10^ by 8 inches, distance between top of table and under side of cross-head 3 inches, and distance between center of guide-pin and cutter also 3 inclies. Weight, 1,350 pounds. Speed of countershaft, with ',) by Sj inch tight and loose pul- leys, 12.5 revolutions per minute. The No. 2 two- spindle machine has an area of table of 15 by 12 inches, distance between top of table and under side of cross-head 4^ inches, and between centers of guide- pin and cutter 4^ inches. Weight, 2,600 pounds. Speed of countershaft, with 14 by 3 inch tight and loo.se pulleys, 140 revolutions per minute. The cut- ter will profile or surface work to the extreme limit of the table area. The height between table and cross-head may be increased, if so required. Tlie ma- chine may be constructed with one to three spindles, running in one adjustal)le head sliding on the cross- head. See Edging-mcwhine. PROGRESSIVE POWDER.— The excellent results obtained in Italy with wliat was termed "Progressive Powder," suggested the advisability of making trials of similar powders in some of the United States larg- er calibers, all of which have resulted satisfactorily. Progressive powder is fabricated as follows : After passmg through the first stage of manufacture, and being brought to the condition of mealed powder, it is pressed into cakes which have a density of 1.79; the cake is broken up into irregular grains of from 0.3 in. to 0.6-in. in thickness, as is required, which are not to be glazed. These grains are mixed with 40 per cent, of mealed powder, taken from the same work- ing as tliat from which the grains themselves are made, and the whole mass pressed into a cake hav- ing a less density than the original small grains, say 1.75. The cake is then granulated as may be pre- scribed. Each grain of the resulting powder is thus a conglomerate grain, consisting of one or more small grains of very dense powder imbedded in a mass of less density, the mean density being 1.75. The theory of the comliustioii of this powder is that the powder of less density being more quickly con- sumed, the whole charge breaks up into a much greater number of smaller grains, thereby cxi)osiug a greatly increased surface to the action of the fiame. In using this powder that size of the regular-shaped grains is employed most suitaVile to the caliber of the gun. and is mixed with a certain proiKirtion, to be determined by experiment, of the powder of ir- regular or mammoth grain. See FossaTio Pmi>der,»,ni\ Oinipinrder. PROJECTILE FORCE — The projectile firrce is that produced by the combustion of the powder in the piece, causing sudden development of gas, the expand- ing force of which, acting on the projectile, impels it forward and out of the piece. It is physically impossible to obtain cxactuniformity in the charges. In practice there will always be a difl'erence in the weight and shape in the cartridges, and in pushing them home, greater pressure will be applied at one time than at another.thus causing want of unifonnity in combustion. The temperature of the piece, aris- ing from previous discharges and from the tempera- ture of the air or tsxjs of the sun ; the nature of the projectile and its movement iii the bore ; the condi- tion of the bore with respect to humidity and foul- ness — all have more or less influence on the combus- tion of the powder, and consequently on the velo- city and range. Above all, however-,. is the want of uniformity in the quality of ))Owder. In this respect considerable latitude must be allowed in the size and density of grain or pellet, in the manipulation of the ingredients, and in its condition resulting from age, moisture, and handling. With small charges, especi- ally with fine-grained powder, it is possible to so mix the contents of different barrels for any series of shots as to secure a fair degree of uniforniit)' for that particular occasion ; but with charges requiring large quantities of powder, this, except to a limited degree, is impracticable. PROJECTILES.— In a military sense, the term pro- jectile is applied to a mass usually thrown from a firearm by some explosive to strike, or destroj' a dis- tant object. To accomplish this, a projectile should have certain hardness, tenacity, and weight. If it be soft and weak compared with the body struck, it will spread out laterally or break into pieces, and presenting an increased surface will meet with a greater resistance, and consequently will penetrate less than if it had retained its original fonn. High density gives to the mass the least possible volume, whereby the effect of the resistance offered by the air and by the body to be penetrated is diminished. Different materials liave been used for projectiles. Stone, lead, wrought-iron, 'steel, cast-iron. and chilled iron possess peculiar properties which render each advantageous according to the object to be attained. Prior to the invention of gunpowder, large masses of stone without regard to form were thrown from machines constructed for that purpose. This ma- terial was very generally employed until the year 1400; but its want of strength and density, qualities required in a projectile propelled by powder, neces- sitated its use in large masses and with compara- tively small charges. Such projectiles were destruc- tive against unbacked walls of masonry, but broke if ricocheted on earth. As late as 1807, stone balls of enormous caliber were used by the Turks in de- fending the passage of the Dardanelles. Lead, as a material for projectiles, possesses the es- sential quality of density; but it is too soft to be used against verj- resisting objects, since it is flattened even against water. From its softness and fusibility, large projectiles of this material are liable to be dis- figured, and partially melted, by the violent shock and great heat of large charges of powder. Its use is chieily confined to small-arms and case-shot, which are generally directed against animate objects. These defects of lead may be corrected, in a measure, by alloying it with tin, antimony, etc. From tlie first introducticui of cannon, wrought- iron projectiles have at ilifrereiit times been tried. This melal has great density and tenacity, but has not a high degree of hardness, cannot be easily worked into the necessary shapes, aud when used in large masses becomes very expensive. Steel pos- sesses the qualities riMiuired In a projectile, but is very costly and dllHcult to manipulate. The adoption of cast-lrou for projectiles caused an important advance in artillery. It has great hard- ness, sufficient density and tenacity; is cheap, easy to mold, and can at slight cost be given exact forms. PK0JECTILE8. 591 PROJECTILES. Kcccnt improvempnts in tlic ni'iniifartiirf" of this metal liiivi; so grciitly iiuTciiscd llic Htri'ii>;tli nf pro- lectikH iimdf from it.tlmt tlicy <:aii lir uscil ciri'ciivc- ly uniiinsl heavy armor. Cast iron, rhiilnl hy being coole<l rapidly, has its hanhiess, iTiiHliing .strength, and density increased. I'mjeetiles so prepari'd are now employed with e.xeellent results against the most powerful armor, and are found aliont aseffect- ive as tliose of steel ami very niueli less costly. Com- pound jirojcctiles, uniting the good and correcting the had nualilies of diircrent metals, have sometimes been used. Thus, at the siege of Cadi/,, cast-iron shells tilled with lead, forming i)rojectiles of great strength and density, were thrown from niorturs to a distance of three miles anil three-i|uarters. Projectiles may be either nji/imfdl or elunr/iited. Spherical projectiles are commonly used in smooth- bored cannon, and for this purpose possess certain advantages over those of oblong form : 1st They touch tlie surface of the bore at only one point, and are therefore less liable to wedge in the bore and en- danger the safety of the pieci^ ; ^d. The centers of ligure and inertia coinci(h': :td. The mass is eni- Ijraced in the least possible volume; 4th. As they turn over in their llight.the surfa<'e presented to the resistance of the air is uniform and a nuninunii; 5th. In ricocheting on land or water, their rebounds are more certain and regular, and less deviation oc- curs from the plane of tire. It was known at an early day that the spherical Iiall was not the one to whirh, for an e(pial weiglit, the air ollered tlie least resistance. In order that any ad- vantage may be gained from an oblong projectile, it must move through the air in the directiim of its length ; numerous imsuccessful attemjjts have been made to ensure accuracy in its liight when fired from a smooth-bored piece. One of tlie simplest plans for this purjiose is to place the center of gravity, or in- ertia, in advance of the center of figure, or resistance. As these points slio\dd be in the longer axis of the projectile, the force of inertia and the resistance of the air, acting along the same right line and in o])- posite directions, will tend to preserve the line of flight. This was tried on a hollow, pointed projec- tile in the time of Louis XIV.; the cavity was divided into two compartments; the front one was tilled with leaden balls and powder, and the rear one with powder only. The tlight of these projectiles was uncertain and irregular, some of them bursting in the air. and otliers striking tlie oljject sidewise. An- other plan of this kind, proposed by Thirou.x, is to make the projectile very long, with its rear portion of wood, and its point of lead or iron, somewhat after the manner of an arrow; but it does not appear that that method has ever been submitted to the test of practice. Attempts have also been made to give an elongated projectile a motion of rotation around its longer axis : 1st, by cutting spiral grooves on the base for the action of the gas from the cliarge ; 2d, by form- ing such grooves on the forward part for the action of the air ; 3d, by combining he preceding methods in the same projectile ; 4tli. by causing the air to enter a cavity at the front end. pass through nearly the length of the cylinder, and escape by radial openings at the sides. None of these plans have succeeded in practice, for the reason, perhaps, that the projectile naturallj- turns over end for end, and the charge and the air do not act with sufficient promptness, energy, and certainty to prevent it. An oblong projectile, thrown under a high angle and with a moderate velocity, can have rotation about its shortest axis arrested by attaching to its rear por- tion a light body, by means of a chain or cord ; the resistance which this body experiences from the air will cause the projectile to move point foremost. Projectiles with wide flanges or wings, operated by springs by which they were extended after the shot left the piece, have been tried, but without success. ProjectUes may be further classified according to their construction and mode of operation, as mlid, liiiUoir, and cum nli'it. Solid proJef:tiIes iiroduce their etlVct by impact ; they are used 'mi/uun and in mnall- (iniiH ; those for guns are known as mdid kIidI dt nil-it, and tiiose for small-arms as huUetn. Such projectiles I are recpiireil when great range, accuracy, and pene- tration an; sought ; they must, therefore, pos.seHS great strength anil den.sity, and be llrtd with large charges of powder. Shells are hollow shot which act both by impact and explosion, for which purpose they contain an explosive and a fuse to ignite it at the proiier time. As they have less strength, they are fired with smaller charges of powder than solid projectiles, and are used against aniniiite objects and such inani- mate ones as will not cause them to break on strik- ing. Th(^ thicker the sides of a shell, the greater its ability to resist the sho(;k of discliarge, and the greater the penetriition and accuracy ; on the other hand, a shell should be capable of containing suffi- cient exiilosive or incendiary material to accomplish the proposed end. The number of pieces resulting from an explosion varies with the lirittleness of the metal, and is increased by giving to the interior the form of a regular polyhedron. A dodecahedral form lias been found advantageous. The most rapid and violent explosive practicable should be employed; the size of the fuse-liole should l)e as small as possi- ble, and should diniinisli with the size of the cavity, to prevent the loss of too great an amount of gas. Case-shot act only by impact » they consist of a collection of small projectiles enclosed in a case or envelope. The envelope is intended to be liroken, either in the piece by the sliock of discharge, or at any iioint of its flight, by a charge of powder, in- closed within it ; in either ease, the contained pro- jectiles continue to move on after the rupture, but cover a largj-r surface, and attain agreater number of objects. These projectiles can be used with efTect only against animate objects situated at a short dis- tance from the point of rupture ; they are divided into grape, ciininter, and nhrapnel. Grenades are pro- jectiles that are commonly thrown by the hand, or are rolled down the slopes of a work. They are designed to act only by the force of their own ex- plosion. Hdiid Grennden are thrown against troops in mass ; for this purpose any spherical projectiles filled with powder only and weighing not over six pounds are Suitable ; these can be thrown from 20 to 311 yards ; they are provided with a .short fuse which is ignited by a match, or, in the act of throw- ing, by a special device. Projectiles have been de- signed especially for this service, an example of which is the " Ketchum " hand grenade. This is a small oblong percussion shell, which explodes on striking a slightly resisting object ; a guide attached to the rear end causes it, when thrown, to move point foremost. Rampart Grenades are intended to be rolled down a breach in its defense, or to be thrown over the ran.part. etc. Spherical shells of any size will answer for this purpose ; those unfit for firing may thus be utilized. Shells are fired from guns, from howitzers, i>nd from mortars. They are made of cast-iron, and their caliber is expressed in the same manner as solid shot of an equal diameter. The thiclvness of metal in spherical shells is about one-sixth of the diameter, and their weight, when empt)-, is generally about tir,>-t/iird.i of that of the correspondmg solid shot. In the United States' Ser- vice, there are two kinds of spherical shells; one for guns, and another for mortars. Each consists of the Kidfn, the cavity, the fii.ir.kide. and the earn ; and, in gun-shells, the reinforce. Tlie sides are thicker in gun-shells than in mortar shells of the same size, to withstand the high charges of powder with which they are fired. The fuse-hole is used for inserting the charge, and to hold the fuse for communicat- ing fire to it. All shells of eight inches or more in diameter have ears to receive the "hooks" used in lifting the projectile to the muzzle of the piece in PROreCTILES. 592 PROJECTILES. loading. The reinforce of metal, about the fuse- hole of the gun-shell, gives a greater bearing sur- face to the fuse, and prevents it from being driven in by the force of the discharge ; this reinforce also serves, in a measure, to compensate for the metal taken out of the fuse-hole, and thereby render the shell more nearly concentric. In some services, shells have, in the upper hemisphere. a charging-hole, placed at an angle of 45'' with tlie fuse-hole, through which the charge is povired immediately before the shell is used and after the fuse has been inserted. This is not necessary with the fuses used mosth' in the United States' Service, as the powder and fuse can be readily introduced at the moment of loading. A carcass is a thick shell which has three addi- tional holes, of the same dimensions as the fuse- hole, pierced at equal distances apart in its upper hemisphere, their exterior openings being tangent to the great circle perpendicular to the a.xisof the fuse- hole" The object of a carcass is to set tire to wooden structures, by the Hame of an incendiary composi- tion issuing from the holes. This shell has no fuse. and is not intended to be exploded, although a charge of powder may be placed beneath the com- position to prevent it from being approached by the enemy. A stand of grape-shot is composed of nine small cast-iron balls, disposed in three layers of three balls each. The diameter of the balls for grape-shot va- ries with the size of the piece ; being used at longer distances, they are larger than the shot for the cor- responding canister. (Jrape-shot are employed only in the siege and sea-coast services; as now construct- ed, they cannot be used in rifled pieces. The (?nvelopefor a stand of canister-shot, consists of a tin cylinder, closed at the bottom by a thick plate of cast-iron, and at the top by one of sheet- iron. The plates are kept in place by cutting the ends of the cylinder in strips about 0.5 inch long, which are turned down over the plates. A wire handle is attached to the top plate. To give more solidity to the mass, and to prevent the contained balls from cro%vding upon each other when the piece is fired, the interstices are closely packed with saw- dust. For a gun, 37 small cast-iron balls are used, arranged in four layers, the top of 6 and the re- mainder of 7 each : this makes the diameter of the balls about one-third that of the bore. For howitz- ers, the envelope contains 48 balls, in folir layers of 12 each, the balls being smaller than those in a can- ister for the corresponding g\in. Canister-shot are used in all services. For those in which the charge of powder is attached to the projectile, the canister has a block of wood, called a sabot, to which the envelope is nailed at the bottom; the lower plate rests upon this block ; the wire handle is omitted. The parts composing a stand of grape or canister begin to separate the moment the}' leave the piece. Shrapnel are cast-iron shells, in which, besides the bursting-charge of powder, is placed a number of small bails. Their sides are much thinner than those of ordinary sliells, in order that they may con- tain a greater numlier of bullets; the thickness must be such that, when supported by tlie bullets, the case will not be broken by the force of discharge, but will yield readily to a small bursting-charge. The weight of the case, emiity, is about one-half, and, when tilled, about e(|Ual to that of the solid shot of the same diameter. This projectile is prepared by fill- ing the case with leaden musket-balls well packed in; the interstices are then filled with melted rosin; this prevents the fracture of the envelope by the liullets. when the piece is fired. The (■hmaher for the pow- der is afterwards bored out. The case is stemithened by a reinfarri', and to increase the effect of the burst- ing-charge, the lower portiuu of tlie fuse-hole is clos- ed bva iti«i\t)i wrougiit-iroM, perforateil with a small hole for the i)assage of the flame from the fuse. A shrapnel may l)e made to explode at any jioint of its flight, and, "as the bursting-charge should be only sufficient to open the envelope, without scattering the bullets too much, the execution depends on the velocit}' which the case has at the moment it is brok- en. This projectile is therefore of more general use than grape or canister, and should be fired with as large a charge as possible. It may be used in all services, but is most effective in the field. A defect of this construction is that the bullets, adhering to one another and to the case,arenot always separated by the bursting-charge. The shrapnel adopted in the English Service is known as the " Boxer diaphragm shell." It consists of a thin cast-iron shell, weakened by four grooves down the sides to make it open out more readily; of a wrought-iron diaphragm which di- vides the shell imequally,the upper portion contain- ing the bursting-charge, and the lower being filled with balls of hardenecTlead, packed in coal dust. A socket is screwed into the fuse-hole and passes through the diaphragm; this forms a channel for the intro- duction of the bullets and coal ; the bottom of the socket is then closed by a plug. Into this socket is screwed the fuse, the fire from which is communi- cated to the powder-chamber through the fire-hole. The bursting-charge is inserted at the loading.hole, closed by a metal screw-plug. The advantages to be derived from the use of p- longated projectiles having once been established, it became necessary that some means should be devis- ed to make their flight accurate. It has been found that to do this with certainty, a motion of rotation about its longer axis must lie communicated to the projectile, and this end has been satisfactorily attain- ed only by cutting spiral grooves, or '• rifles" in the surface of the bore of the piece, with which the pro- jectile is connected, and by means of which it starts with a motion about an a.xis parallel to or coincident with that of the bore. The rotation continues dur- ing the flight of the projectile. Without this rotation, an elongated projectile will naturally turn over end for end, and present a constantly varying surface to the resistance of the air. This " rifle-motion," therefore, tends to cause the projectile to move through the air in the direction of the least resistance, thereby in- creasing the range, and thii effect of impact, and, furthermore, giving steadiness to the projectile by distributing the deviating forces uniformly around its line of flight. The more important advantages of elongated projectiles are, that the form may be altered at anj' time, and the center of gravity can be placed at any desired point; the projectile niaj' be elongated so as to oppose, for an equal weight, a diminished surface to any resisting medium; by this, the range is extended, and a flatter trajectory with greater accuracy and penetration obtained. The chief disadvantages are, increased strain on the gun; greater probability of jamming and injury to the bore ; irregularity of ricochet ; increased com- plication and expense of manufacture; and the lia- bility of an}- soft metal on the exterior to be acci- dentally injured. The different systems of projectiles for rifled pieces are classified according to the manner in which they are caused to follow the grooves. The systems are distinguished by some peculiarity of construction, and are generally known by the name of the person by whom designed, or by the place at which first made. The same principles are applicable to differ- ent systems, and the same precision of fire may practically be olitained from several. All systems are comprised under three classes: 1st. I'rojectiles with projecting ribs or studs; or having a peculiar cross-section. 3d. Projectiles having a portion that is expanded by the action of the gases in the bore, lid. Those more or less of whose surfiice is com- pres*;ed by the charge into the form of the bore. Tlie first and .second classes are a|)i)lieable to muzzle- loading jiieces ; the third to breech-loaders only. The principal points to be considered, as regards the piece and the projectile, are the mnrst and nafest means of causing the projectile to follow the grooves PROJECTION. 503 PfiOJECT/ON. of llic piece. To fiillil tliese comiilions, llie pro- jeelile should lie siinple in eonHtriiclion. mill of suf- fieieiil strerij:;!!! to iidiiiil of its use willi tlie ]itr>;esl cliiir}.'e lliiit tuny he desin'd ; it luusi not he liiiliie lo jiiMi in the l)ore in loj.din;,' or lirinj;: imd innsl pro- dnee a inodenile and uniform strain on tlie ;;un. 'I'lie system tlial most nearly complies with these re- (|uiremenls, and gives insured aeeuracy of lire willi imiform and hiirli velocities, slioul<l lie the best. In many systems, one or more of these considerations liave been sacriticed to some extent, to secure a closer com pi iiince with others tlionuht to heof greuler Importance or of easier attaimneul. \.il, (,'/(i.H«. Sfilid Manures, projectiun from the liody of a projectile and so shaped as to til the rillini; of the bore, were th<- means lirst used lo coinnuinicate the rille-infition in cannon. In some cases, there was for each fjroove a rilx-xtcndini; the entire lelij^tli of the cylindrical portion of the projectile, while in others, sets of rounded bullous were employe<l. These projections were of the same material as the boily of the projectile, and beini; of a very unyield- ini; nature, frequently led to tin- burslini; of the piece; buttons of zinc, copper, or bron/e, lirmly sccuretl in mortises in the projectiles, were therefore adopted. The buttons are arranjred in rows of two or more so that each row enters freely into a corre- spon<linij; groove, in loading. When the bore of a gun is a twisted prism, with any plane ligure for its base, the projectile, if shapeil to tit it, will receive the rille-motion when lireil. The Whitworlli cannon is ritled in this manner, the cross-section being a he.xagon with rounded corners, (inns have also been constructed with ribs projecting from the bore, fitting into corres|)oniling grooves in the projectile. To the last system belongs the Vavasseur gun, which has given good results; the system preceding has not, however, proved so satisfactory. The principal advantages of systems of the first class arc that the projectiles are stnmg, and that the required motion is communicated to them with great certainty and regularity. The escape of gas around the projectile, as it causes injury to the bore, is an objection to the class ; various experiments have been nuide to overcome it, the latest being by the attachment of a metal cup to the rear of the pro- jectile, which, by the action of the powder, is ex- panded and pressed against the sides of the bore. The French studded projectile, employed generally on the Continent with muzzle-loading cannon, and the Woolwich system, similar to it and used in Eng- land, arc the best representatives of this class. 3/. C'liinx. In projectiles of tlic^ second class, the body is composed of a hard metal, as cast-iron, and there is attached ti-> it, generally at the base, a cup. band, or other arrangement of softer metal, which is expanded bj' the action of the charge into the groo- ves of the gun, when tired. Expanding projectiles are easy to load, are not liable to overstrain the piece, and those of different systems can generally be fired from the same piece — a point of great im- portance. Such projectiles do not always withstand the heaviest charges of powder, and are not certain to receive the rifle motion. The use of projectiles of this class is confined more particularly to the United States. The most important are the Parrott, HotchkLss, and Butler systems. Si Cldis. In breech-loading cannon, the recepta- cle for the charge is of larger diameter than the bore of the piece. The projectile is of tlie same size as this chamber, and must be reduced to enable it to ]);iss into the bore. Such projectiles are emlmiceil under the third class; the body has a coating of soft metal, which is compressed as the projectile is driv- en through the bore, the grooves compelling it to follow the direction of the rifling. The same result is sometimes accomplisheil by one or more rings of soft metal. The chief advantages of this class are, that the projectile is generally certain iotake up the rifle-motion; that its axis is steady on leaving the bore; anil that the wear of the bore, from gas pass- ing the ]irojectile, or from any irregular movement of the latter, is [)reveiiled. The objections are, that till' necessary compression of the coaling, the sudden closing of winilage. and the fouling of the bore, produce uiidui' strain upon the piece; that the velocity of the jirojeclile is reduced by the force ex- pendeil in compressing it; and that the soft metal forms an extra weight, which is useless in penetrat- ing resisting objects. The Cerrnan and the Frencli systems are the most ])roniiiient typ(;s of this class. All sinall-arms, at tlie pnsent time, use bullets of this class, which being entirelv of soft metal arc- readily compressed without their general form being injured. In consequence of windage and of the action of gravity, the axis of the projectile df)CB not always coincide with that of the bore, in tiring; this gives rise to inaccuracy of fire. With projectiles of each clasg means have been devised to overcome this (lifiiculty, partially if not entirely, by the system of rilling, or by the nature of the chamber. These properly relate lo the construction of the iiicce. See Armor-piercing PrujectiUn. Armatrong Projec- tile, ('hilled I'rojectile.x, Comjiremion ProjertileK, Detia. tioH (if 1' rojeel'len. Effects of J'rojectileti, Elojigntfd Pro- jectiles, Expanding Projectiles, Fnhric/ttioii of Projec. tiles. Vailing Jlodies, Form of Projectile. Insjiertinn of Projectiles, l'< nitration of I'rojrrliles. Pretervation of Projectiles, Iloekrti, Hnjilure if Shells, Shells, SmcUL- ' arm Projectiles, Solid Shot, Spherir/d Projictiles, Stfel Projectiles. Studded I'rojictiUs and Trajectory. PROJECTION.— The representation, on any surface, of till- p:irts of fortification and other objects as they appear to the eye of the observer. It thus includes perspective, and is most simply illustrated by the shadow of an object thrown by a candle on a wall : the shadow being the projection, and the place of the light the ])osition of the eye. The theory of pro- jections is of great importance, both in mathe- matics, engineering, and geojrraphy ; being in the former cases, perfectly general in its aiiplication ; while in the latter only the jirojection of the sphere I is required. Projections of the sphere are of var- ious kinds, depeudimr on the position and distance of the eye from the sphere, and the form of the sur- face on which the projection is thrown; thus we have the ortlingropliic. stereograpliir. globular, conical, and cylirulriciil or Mircator's projections. Another projection freiiuently employed is the g/Mmonic. In gnomonic projection, the eye is supposed to be situ- ated at the center of the sphere, anil the surface on which the projection is thrown is a plane surface which touches the sphere at ;iny one point (called the principal jioint). It is evident that a map constructed on the gnomonic projection, is sensibly correct only for a circular area whose circumference is at a small angular distance from the principal point. From the position of the eye in the gnomonic projec- tion, it follows that all great circles, or portions of great circles, of the sphere are represented by straight lines, for their planes pass through the eye. The distance of two points on the sphere, when measured along the surface, is least if they are measured along a great circle ; and as the distance of the projections of these points on the plane is represented by a straight line, which is the shortest distance between two points on a plane, this projection, if employed in the construction of manners' cliarts, would at on<;e show the shortest course. Majis of the earth's I surface have been projected by the gnomimic meth- od, the surface of projection being the interior sur- j face of a cube circumscribing the sphere, and the I complete series consequently amounting tosix maps: j but it is not fitted for the construction of maps of large portions of the earth's surface. The gnomonic projection derives its name from its connection with the mode of describing a gnomon or dial. The or- thographic and stereographic projections were eni- I ployed by the Greek astronomers for the construe- PROKING SPIT. 594 PEOMOTION. tion of maps of the heavens : the former, or analem- ma, being tlie best known and most used. The ste- reographic, called phi rii.ip/uiv hy the Greeks, is siiid to have been invented b_y llipparchus, and the gno- monic is described l)y Ptolemy. Tlie otliers are of modern invention. In mathematics, tlie theory of projections is general in its application, and has been employed within the last few years to general- ize the ancient geometrj', as a powerful aid to alge- bra. Its basis is the investigation and determina- tion of those properties wdiich, being true of a tigure. are also true of its projections, such properties be- ing necessarih- dependent, not on the " magnitude," but on the "position" of the lines and angles be- longing to the tigure. These properties are general- ly denominated pvijerthe -priyperties. For instance, the three conic sections, the parabola, ellipse, and In'perbola, are merely various projections of a circle on a plane, and all "positional" properties of the circle are at once, by this theory, connected with similar properties of the three conic sections. The theory is also largely employed in demonstrative meclKinics. PKOKIHG-SPIT.— An early name for a large Span- ish rapier. PROLONGATION OF THE LINE.— A tactical ma- neuver effected by parallel movements at the right or left of any given number of men on a front di- vision. PROIONGE. — A strong hemp rope used with field pieces til attach the gun to the limber when tiring in retreat, or advancing, instead of limbering up: for the same purpose in crossing ditches ; for slinging a piece to a limber ; for righting carriages when up- set, and for various other purposes. It is usuall)- 26' 7" long, and is carried wound around the pro- longe-hooks on the trail of the piece. It has a hook at one end and a toggle at the other, with two inter- mediate rings, into which the hook and toggle are fastened to shorten the distance between the limber and carriage. PROLONGED FLANK. -In fortification, the flank extension from the angle of the epaule to the exterior side, whin the ansle of the flank is a right one. PROMOTION.— The efliciency of any body of men depends upon the energy of the individuals com- posing it ; the root of that energy is emulation; and emulation can only be secured by maintaining a proper current of promotion. The elticiencv of a service is thus dependent on the system of promo- tion adopted ; and so important, consequently, does promotion become, that in the present article it is purposed to glance at the rules observed in the prin- cipal armies of the world. In the Army of France it is a very common saying that every Conscript has a Marshal's hiiton in his knapsack. Speaking of the times of the Hcvolution- ary War. this was doubtless true, for battalions cho.se their cluef oflicers from their own ranks— a Conscript of one year was often a Lieut. -Col. the next, and per- liaps a Brig. Gen. the following. In the quieter times or recent years, however, progress is slower; and, al- though promotion is open to all, and a considerable proportion of the officers do rise from the ranks, yet it is very rarely indeed that an otticer who basso risen <'ver ;ittains a hiffher grade than tli;it of Captain, .lunior coiniiiissii)ns are — if the rule nf the service were strictly followed — given, one-third to men from the ranks, one-third to cadets from military schools, and one-third by government patronage. In practice it aiijiears that in the artillery and engineers two- tliirds of the first ])ositions are given to puj)ils from tlic I'lilytcchiiique. and the remainder to men from the ranks; wliilr in the Line two-tliinis of the iilticers rise from the ranks, and one-lhird cnnie fmm the Military School of St. Cyr. liefore ollicers can be promoted certain service in each rank is recjuired, viz., as 2d tjiinitenant, two years: as Lieutenant, two years; ast'aptain, fotir years: as Major, three years; and as liieuteuant Colonel, two years. These peri. ods aiOi however, curtailed in time of war. Pro- motion takes place in the regiment up to the rank of Captain, two-thirds by seniority, and one-third by selection. From Captain to Major (cJiefd'inciK/ri/H uu de bataiUim), promotion is divided equally between seniority and selection ; while to all higher ranks it falls exclusively to selection. The selection is made on reports b}' the Inspectors General of the several arms — their reports being founded on personal ob- servation, and the testimony of senior regimental of- ficers. To maintain rapidity of promotion there is a fixed age at which officers must retire — viz.. Lieu- tenant General, 05; Major General, G3; Colonel. GO; Lieutenant Colonel, .58; Major, 56; Captain. 53; and Lieutenant, 52. These ages do not prevent the offi- cers of a regiment from being the opposite of youth- ful. In Anntria all officers are at first Cadets; but a large proportion of these Cadets are nominated from men in the ranks b}' their comrades Promotion goes by seniority, and in the regiment, with occasional se- lection from other regiments. The organization and officering of the German Army are both peculiar. Every German subject, of whatever rank, is bound to serve from the age of 20 to 25: but in practice this service is reduced ^o a j'ear in the case of profes- sional men. Every officer must serve in the ranks but not necessarily longer than a day. Young gentle- men intended for officers enter the nn^is,. aitpirnnten. They do duty as common soldiers for from six to nine months, and pass two examinations. After- ward they remain nine months at a division school or twelve months at an artillery and engineer school. The}' then become eligible for appointment as offi- cers when vacancies occur which, however, they cannot obtain unless recommended by the officers of their respective regiments. Two-thirds of the first commissions are given to these aspiranten. and one-third to pupils from the cadet schools. In the Italian Army, one-third of the Sub-Lieuten- ants are promoted from the ranks. Of subsequent promotion, two-thirds go by senioritj-. and one-third by selection. It is always urged against the British system of army promotion, that it is too exclusive, and confines the commissions to the upper classes of society; and there is no doubt that promotion from the ranks is much rarer than in almost any other army. But. on the other hand, it is argued, the constituents of the force are very different. Sol- diers in Britain are not Conscripts, who necessarily comprise men of all classes and all degrees of educa- tion, but are taken as a rule, from an extremely low and very uneducated class of society. Again, Brit- ain lias a true middle class, which is wanting in al- most every continental nation. Its army is not, therefore, necessarily aristocratic because it is not officered from the ranks. Lastly, the habits of the different classes of society differ so greatlj', that un- less the soldier be very superior to his comrades, promotion to a commission is a small boon. With regard to the actual system of promotion which obtains; in the ranks, promotion from Pri- vate up to Company Sergeant takes place in the com- pany, and is made by the regimental officers. The promotion of C'ompany Sergeants to be Stafl" Ser- geants is made throughout the regiment. All tlie.se promotions are by selection entirely. Of the com- missioned otfieers. the Quartermasters and Hiding masters are ajipointed almost exclusively from the ranks; but they have no further promotion to look forward to — Sergeants and Sergeants-niiijor are oc easionally gazetted to Eusigncies or Lieutenancies. The junior combatant offiei'rs ;iei|uire their commis, sinus I'itlier liy a competitive e.\iiiuiiiatinii open to the whole nation, or. by previ ms service in the mili- tia as officers, or in the ranks of the army ;is non- <-oniniissioned oflicers. The artillery and engineers are olficeretl entirely l>v Cadets from the Hoyal Mili- tary Academy, whose subsciiuent jiromotion is by seniority only. In the cavalry, guards, and line, vci- PROOF HOUSE. 59f FBOOF OF ODRPOWDEK. caiK-icM lire, since the abolition of llic piircliaso sys- tem in 1H71, lilled Ijy "seniorily lenipcreil hy selec- tion," the si'li'ction becomint; more strict as the bibb- er ranks are reach<(l. The pniniotion of otlicers; up to tlie ranl< of Captain, is mainly re!;iin<-nlai, and is, at the same lime, liy seniorily; hut seniority is. in this case (pu'ililied l)y what has been called ne;;ative selection - that is, in other words, the exclusion of thos(! otlicers who do not prove their fitness for jiro- molionuttbe [leriodical inspections and exaniiniitions. Above the rank of Cajitain, for suhtMintin: or m//- inniUil rank, seniorily is little regarded, and selection is more absolnte; but otlicers may hold at the same time ((/■///// or hn'vel rank, conferred for<lislini;nisbed service, or for mere seniority, in the i;cneral list of tlii^ whole army. This brevet rank does not alTecl the position in a reiximi'iil. and adds but a small sum to the officer's pay; hut it is of j;reat importance, in- asmuch as C'olonels rise by seniorily ulone to be gen- eral officers, and Colonel is almost exclusively a bre- vet rank (the only exceptions being in tin' artillery and enLciiicers, where Colonel is a retjiniental rank). Underthcse rules, it sometinu^s happ<'nsthat anollle- er who lias never held liinber rci;imenlal rank than Capt;iiu, may become successively, for j;ood servi(;e, Brevet-Miijor, Brevet-Lieutenant Colonel, and IJrevet- Colonel, until he succeeds, in bis turn, to the rank of Major General. In the Unhed States Arm;/, promotions in tlic line are made throuub the whole Army, in the several lines of artillery, cavalry, and infantry, respectively. Promotions in the tStaif of tlu' Army are nuide in the several departments and corps, respectively. Officers may bi' transferred from the Line to the StatT of the Army witlnmt prejudice to their rank or promotion in the Line ; but no officer can hold, at the sam<' time, an ajiiiointment in the Line and an appointment in the Stall' which confer equal rank in the Army. When any otticer so transferred lias, in virtue of seniority, obtained or becmne entitled to a grade in his rcninu'iit equ;il to the jjrade of his com- mission in the tStalT. he vacates either his commis- sion in the Ijine or his commission in the Staff. No officer of the Corps of Engineers below the rank of Field-Otlicer can be promoted to a higher grade, un- til be has been examined and approved by a Hoard of three Engineers, senior to him in rank. If an Engineer officer fail on such examination he is sus- pended from promotion for one year, when he is re- examined before a like Hoard, fn case of failure on such re-examination, he is dismissed from the ser- vice. When any Lieutenant of the Corps of Engi- neers [or Ordnance Corps] fias served fourteen years' continuous service as Lieutenant, be is promoted to the rank of Captain, on passing the required examin- ation, but such proinotion does not authorize an ap- pointment to till any vacancy, when such ajipoint- nient would increase the v^hole number of officers in the corps beyond the number tixed by law ; nor can any officer be promoted before officers of the same grade who rank hiin in his corps. When pro- motions in the ( )rdnance Department of the Army are allowed by law, no officer of the corps, below the rank of Field Otiicer, can be promoted to a high- er grade until he h;is been examined and a])proved by a Board of not less than three Ordnance Officers, seniors to him in rank. If an Ordnance officer fail on such an examination he is suspended from pro- motion for one year, when he is re-examiued before a like board. In ca.se of failvircon such re-examina- tion, he is dismissed frinn the service. When any officer in the line of promotion is retired from iictive service, the next otiicer in rank is promoted to his place, according to the established rules of the ser- vice ; and the same rule of promotion is applied, successively, to the vacancies consequent upon such retirement. Sec Appointment, and Staff. | PKOOF-HOUSE.— A house titled up for proving I barrels of tire-arnis. They are e.xtra heavily charged, laid ou a bench, primed, and fired by a train of pow- der into a bank of sand. The average loss in Eng- land is four per cent, on (iOO.tJtJtJ barrclH aunually. A second proving takes place wlicn tlie piece is ready for assemblinL'. PROOF OF GUNPOWDER.— A process pursued in testiii'.' gunpowih r as rigarils its ipialily, strength, and uniformity. The ipiality is ascertained, both small and large grain, by its general appearance, its lirmness, ghizing, uniformity of grain, and density ; its strength and uniformity, as explained further on. The weight of a cubic foot of government powrler varies according to the nature of the powder. The process oi Jlffihiny is also resorted to for testing the cleanliness and intimate mixture of the ingredients. W'ith this view, about :i drachms of prjwder are placed on aglass plate, and tired with a red-hot iron, whi'n. if the powder has been properly made, no res- idue or foulness should be left. In addition to tlie above proof, the hygrometric test is a very neces- sary one to be taken of all natures of powder. The usual mode ado|>t<Ml to ti'sttbe explosive strength or pressure of guniiowder in a gun is thus explained: An H-inch pror)f gun is littc<l with y screw gauges, or "crushers." by wliicli the pressure of the exploding charge is recorded at three points in the bore, name- ly — in the axis by a gauge screwed through the cas- ("abel of the gun ; by a gauge, screwed into the side of the gun at 7:'J inches from the end of the bore ; and by a gauge screwed into the side of the gun at l.Ti inches from the end of th(' bore. The velocity of the shot, or cylinder, is measured by two chrono- scopes. For this purpose four wire screens are ar- ranged in front of the gun at tlie respective distances from the muzzle of itd feet, 100 feet, 210 feet, and 220 feet. Nos. 1 and 3 screws ijelong to No. 1 in- strument, Nos. 2 and 4 screws to No. 2 instrument. The velocity of each projectile is, therefore, regis- tered at two points in front of the gun. namely, at 1.50 feet and 160 feet, by two independent instru- ments. This affords a complete check on the me- thod of recording the velocity. The "crusher" gauge, or instrument for measuring the pressure caused by the explosion of the charge, consists of a screw-plug of steel, provided with a movable base which admits of the insertion of a small copper cy- linder, ^ inch in length, into a chamber. One end of this copper cylinder rests on an anvil, while the other is acted upon by a movable piston. The cop- per cylinder is centered in the chamber by a small circular watch spring. The action of the apparatus is as follows : Upon the explosicm of the charge, the gas, acting on the area of the piston, one end of which isalmost flush with the interior of the bore, crushes the copper cylinder against the anvil. The amount of compression which the cojjper thereby sustains becomes an indication of the pressure. The area of the copper cj'linders used for proof of gunpowder is ,'j square inch, while the area of the piston is J square inch. To form a table of pressure, a series of experiments has been <-arried out in a testing machine, so as to determine the pressure required to produce a definite amount of compression in copper cylinders corresponding to those used in the instru- ment. The tabulated results furnish a means of comparison whereby the amount of compression produced in the " crusher" becomes a direct indica- tion of the pressure at that part of the bore where the i)lug is inserted. The interesting experiments carried out by the committee on explosives have shown that the pressure indicated by each " crusher gauge" is, practically speaking, a true measure of the strain on the gun at that point. The modu.i operandi of contlucting an individual experiment in connection with the proof of gunpow- der is as follows: The electric batteries and wire screens for use with the chronoscope having been duly prepared, the operator having satisfied himself that the instruments are in thorough working order, the command is given to "load." L'pon this the men at the gun insert a cartridge of 3,5 lbs. weight and 19 PROOF OF ORDNANCE. 596 PROPORTIONAL DIVIDEH8. inches length into tlie bore, and ram it home until a stopper on the stave of the rammer comes in contact with the face of the muzzle. The cylinder, tiat at both ends, is then inserted and rammed home in a sim- ilar manner. This proceeding insures uniformity. as, owing to the stops on the rammer staves. each charge occupies tlie same space in the bore. The "crush- er" plugs are then screwed into their respective holes, the copper cylinders having previously been titled into the chamber in the extremity of the plug. All is now ready. The operator adjusts the chronoscopes. and gives the signal to lire. The projectile passes through the wire screens before it buries itself iu the e;irth butt at which it is directed. The operator notes the readings of the instruments. The "crusher" plugs are withdrawn, and the little copper cylinders removed, stamped with the experimental number of the series, and measured in a calipers or micrometer gauge. A reduction iu the length of the copper cj'l- rnder of yV ioch indicates a pressure of 12 tons on the square inch; of one-tenth and a half, of 16 tons; of ■^i;. of 31 tons; ot^fg, of 36 tons, etc. Thus, the op- erator, in each round, records two velocities, which ought to be almost equal, and pressures at three points in the bore. Let us assume that the pres- sures at the three points are respectively 17.6 tons, 17.9 tons, and 16.3 tons, and that the observed ve- locities per second are 1430 and 1436 feet at the res- pective distances of 150 feet and 160 feet from the muzzle. As a flat-headed cylinder of ISOIbs. weight and 8 inches in diameter, traveling at 1400 feet a second, would, owing to the resistance of the air, lose about 15 feet velocity' in passing over 1.50 feet of space, the mean velocity at the muzzle will be 1443 feet. Tliis batch of powder, therefore, would have passed proof within the terms of the specification. Had. howev- er, the pressure recorded at any one point exceeded tweut}- tons, or the observed velocities been less than about 1405 feet, or greater than about 1465 feet, the powder would be rejected. The instrument in- vented by Le Boulenge for proving powder.has now nearly superseded that of Navez-Leurs, both in India and in England. A very valuable paper on " Fired Gunpowder," by Captain A. Noble, F. R S., and Professor Abel, F. R. S., will be found in the " Philosophical Transac- tions of the Royal Society " for the year 1875, in which is given the result of certain experiments for ascertaining the different phenomena of fired gun- powder within the bore of a gun. a subject until very lately veiled in obscuritj' for want of suitable instru- ments and data on which to carrj- out the experi- ments. The different chronographs which have been invented give us the measure of velocity of a projec- tile at the muzzle of a gun and during its flight, but the velocity of a shot within the bore from the first movement, along certain fixed points until it leaves the gun, has been left to Captain Noble to discover with his beautiful chronoscope. which is able to re- cord the milliontli part of a second. This instrument, in conjunction with the " crusher gauge," enables us to ascertain all the phenomena attending the com- bustion of guni)Owder, such as its tension or pres- sure — its rapidity of ignition — the time occupied iu burning dilferent natures of gunpowder, etc. The suliject is so interesting that it canmit fail to attract tlie alleutiou of all scientific men and tliat of tlie practical arliUerist. The length of the memoir pre- vents, in a work of this sort, a longer allusion to the results of the experiments than is now given. See Fj)triiiir,tt, . ■,\\\i\i; III! iiiiird, r. PROOF OF ORDNANCE.— Guns of all descriptions are iirovcd before being issued for service. Mus- kets are test'jd by licing fired witli heavier bul- lets and larger charge of powder than they will in the ordinary way be required to carry. Cannon are Hubjecled to a series of tests. First, they an^ gauged to ascertain that the dimensions are correct, the ut- most va-iatiou iiermitteri lieing .3 in. externally, and .033. iu the (liauielcr of llie bore, but the positi(jn of the jore may frequently deviate .25 in. from the line of the piece's axis. The next trial is by firing twice with very heavy charges— the bore being sub- sequently minutely examined, to detect flaws or crevices in the metal. A cavity exceeding in depth .2 in. if behind the first re-infor"ce ring, or .25 if be- fore that ring, condemns the piece. After the proof by firing, wateris forced at a great pressure into the bore, in order that it may permeate way honeycombs or flaws; the next day the bore is examined by means of a mirror, which casts a strong light into it. Flaws arethen easily detected for wliile'the'rest of the bore is thoroughly dry. water will continue for some time to weep or run from the holes, and will stand over them in drops. This operation completes the proof. When a gun bursts in proof, the remainder of the guns of the same sort tlien in proof are sub- jected to another round. Gunpowder for proving ordnance should be of the best quality of the kind used in the gun to be proved, giving not less than the standard initial velocitj-; it should be proved immediately before being used un- less it shall have been proved within one year pre- viously, and there be no reason to suspect that it has become deteriorated. The cartridgebags are made of woolen or raw silk, the full diameter of the bore or chamber. They are filled by weight. The shot must be smooth, free from seams and other in- equalities that might injure the bore of the piece, and they must be of the true diameter and weight given in the tables. Guns and hueiUers are laid with the muzzle resting on a block oi wood, and the breach on the ground or on a thick plank, giving the bore a small elevation. Mitrtars are mounted on strong wooden frames or iron beds, at an elevation of 45°, supported by the trunnions. Each piece should be tired two rounds with maximum charges and projectiles. The bore, vent, and the exterior surface of every piece which is approved, should be well covered with sperm oil immediately after the inspection. Bronze cannons are fired three times with solid shot and a charge of powder ojie-third the weight of the shot. If the piece has been in service, or if it be new, and its bore be of the true size, the shot should be wrapped in cloth or strong paper, to save the bore as much as possible from injury. See Inspection of Ordnancf. PRi)OF-PLUG. — A plug screwed temporarily into the breech of a gun-barrel to be proved. PROPER.— A term in Heraldry. A charge borne of its natural color, is said to be proper. An object whose color varies at different times and in different examples, as a rose, which maj' be white or red, can- not be borne proper. PROPORTIONAL DIVIDERS.— An instrument de- signed for dividing a line into any number of equal parts: for describing regular polygons in given cir- cles; forreducing or enlarging the area of a drawing, and also for taking the square and cube-root of num- bers, The bodies of the legs of these dividers are made of a flat piece of German silver, or brass, with a rectangular opening cut in each nearly the whole length; tlie ends of the legs are armed with steel points; the longest two are four or five times the length of the shortest ones. The legs are put togeth- er with the rectangular openings exactly opp<isite each other, and retained in their jilace by clamp plates and a thumb-screw, which can be moved up and down the opening and made tight at any desir- ed point; these clamp-plates and thumb-screw consti- tute the joint of the dividers, upon which the legs are opened, and it is easy to perceive that if this joint is exactly halfway between the extremity of the points llie two ends will npcii to the same distance, init if the joint is moved nearer one end the opening of the points will bear the same proportion to each I other as the liniger does to the shorter [lart. The I cheaper form of these dividers have but one set of graduations, by wliich lines only can be subdivided; the proportions are .J. |. \, {, J, !, J, J, ,'„; that is, if PROPOSALS. 597 PE0P08AL8. till' liiif! across one of llio clamp-plates is made to iMinic opposite' cidicr of the divisions on tlir li'K. the Uvo cndsof llic (liviiliTH will open in llial |ircpporlion. Till' licst proportionid dividers Imvi' oni' siilc of one of tli(! legs graduated for dividiiii; liiii's into | J. S, }. 1. 2. J. |. s. J. 71 S. J. I'o. I'l. "'"1 till' other Hide of tlie leg IS graduated for inseriliing regular polygons of (i. 7, H, 1) 10, 11. 12, Hi, 14, l.'i, U;, 17. IH, 1!), and 20 sides in given circles. To use iMe lines of poly- gons, bring tile line across llie elaiup pliile to eoiii- eide with the gradiialicjii which is marked with the lunnlier tiiat tiie polygon is to have sidi-s, then opi-ri the dividers and make tlu^ long steel jioinls take in the radius of the circle, then the distance between the small i)oiuts will be the length of one side of the is made upon an abstract showing fully all its essen- tial particulars. As soon as the pro])osals have been opened and di'cided upon, an "Abstract" of tlieni is made, one c'opy of which, together with one of the duplicates of each propcjsal ollered.is forwarded to the proper liiireaii without delay. Thi: "Abstract of J'roposals" has a eo|)y (jf the notice attached, and has separate columns for "No. of prr)i)Osal." "Name of biihhr." "Date of delivery." "Hrniarks." and two columns folic for (jiuuility and one for jirice; for each article, variety of article, or jiackage that nwiv beof- fered; for example under the item of jwrk, there are two columns (price and(|uantity) for each of the varieties "Mess," " I'rime mess," "Thin mess;" under colTee, two for each of the items "Green, in reipiired iiolygon. Tlii' joint of most of the propor- tional dividers is slipped along the rectangular open- ing by the hand; but it is frequenliy quite ditlicult to bring it exactly to the right place, as a little tor) much |)ressure will move the line a little too far, and an ojiposite pressure may put it too far in the origi- nal direction again. For nicety in adjusting the jninl to the reipiired jioint. some proportional divid- ers are fitted with a bar and micrometer screw, by which the joint can he drawn exactly to the required division. Another plan is to have it rack litted on the inside of the rectangular opeinng and a pinion all.ached to the sliding joint fitting into it; by turning till' milled Ihninb-screw of the pinion the joint is moved up and down in thi' re<tangidaropening with gri'at regularity and exactness, (irealcare must be taken that none of the points of tlie proportional di- viders get broken. PROPOSALS. -Information in regard to supplies or services for which proposals have been invited by advertisements is furnished to all persons desiring it, on a]iplication to such sources as are designated in the advertisement. Incase of supjilies, they are informed of the kind. (luantity. and quality of articles reipured ; place, time, and rate of delivery ; con- ditions of payment, etc. In case of services, they are informed of the nature and extent of the services required; the place where or places between whicli they are to be performed, and the time allowed for the performance ; furnished with or allowed to ex- amine plans and specitic;itions of all buildings, con- structions and other works in contemplation, etc. No bidder is informed, directly or indirectly, of the name of siuy person intending to bid or not to bid, or to whom information in respect to proposals may have been given. All proposals should be inclosed in suitable envelopes, securely sealed, indorsed, and j addressed as required by the advertisement, and be delivered to, or received by, the otlicer to whom ad- dressed before the time appointed for the opening ; and no responsibilty should attach tQ that otlicer for premature opening of any proposal not so indorsed as to show that it is a proposal, and the particular j purpose for which it is made. When an advertise- j meut calls for propo-sals to deliver supplies or render i services at more than one place, a separate proposal should be made for eacli place, but all maj- be sub- mitted in the .same envelope. The otlicer whose duty it is to open proposals decides wdieu the time fix- ed upon for tlie opening has arrived, and no propo.sal for that opening is thereafter received as formal. If a bidder wishes to withdraw his proposal, he may do so before the time tixed for the opening, without prejudice to himself.by communicating his purpose, in writing, to the otlicer who holds it; and when his proposal is reached it is handed to him.or his author- ized agent, unread. Proposals are opened and read aloud at the time and place appointed for tlie open- ing; and ;i record of each proposal then and tlicre barrels;" "Green, in bags:" "Roasted, in bags," etc. The following is the general form of proposal : The undersigned, engaged in the business, in response to your dated the day of , hereby otl'er for sale to the - - Department of the U. S. Army the following stores, viz: ■ at dollars and cents per . and should this proposal be accepted hereby bind to deliver the stores in strict com- pliance with the terms of your on or before the (Signature) . r. s] A. On the above proposal is accepted the following : (Signature) , Office U. S. , In all cases where bonds are required from bid- ders, no ])roposal is ccmsidered unless accompanied by a bond nuide according to the form prescribed. The condition of the bidder's bond is to the effect that the bidder will not withdraw his proposal within sixty days succeeding the date announced in the ad- vertisenu-nt or notice for the opening of propo.sals; and that, if his proposal be accepted and the con- tract for which he has bid be awarded him. he will enter into a contract and bond ;igreeablc to the terms of his proposal within such number of days after the day on which lie is notified of such acceptance and award as may be designated by the officer rep- resenting the United States. The form of the bidder's bond is as follows : Know all men bv' these presents. That we [name <>f,ihlig<n'], of [residence (if obiig'ir. giving tmni. ctjunty. State, etr.'], as principal, and [name of utrety], of [residene-e. of mrety\. and [name of siirety], of [rexi- denceof mretyl. as sureties, are held and b<jiind unto the United States of America in the penal sum of dollars, to the paj'nient of which sum, well and truly to be made, we do bind ourselves, our heirs, executors, and administrators, jointly and severally, lirmly by these presents. Givenunder our hands and seals this day of , 18-. The condition of this obligation is such that. Whereas the above-boundeu [name of obligor], in re- sponse to a public advertisement and notice dated , 18—, and given and pulilished by , United States Army, has made and presented to , United States Army, a formal pro- posal, in writing, whereliy he has proposed and airreed to enter mto a contract with , Uniteil States Army, acting for and representing the said United States," to ['i(re nUite in brief the subject of the contra-l], according to the terms and condi- tions set forth in said advertisement or notice: PROSECUTOR. 598 PROVISIONAL FORTIFICATION. Now, therefore, if the said Iname of obligor] shall make and shall not withdraw bis said proposal within sixty daj's from the date of opening the pro- posals, and shall within da}'S from the date on which he may be notified that his said proposal has been accepted and the said contract awarded to him (provided such award lie made within the sixty days above mentioned, duly and formally entered into such contract agreeably to the terms of his said proposal, and into such bond for its due performance as sliall be required of him, or if his proposal shall not be accepted and such contract not be awarded him, then this oblit;ation shall be void ; otherwise, that is to say, if either he shall -nithdraw his pro- posal within said sixty days, or fail to enter withhi said days into such contract, if awarded him, and into such bond, to remain in full force, effect, and virtue. "Witnesses : , , [L. s.] , , [L. s.] , , [L. s.] (Executed in duplicate.) The following is the form of the Justification of the Sureties : State of , County of , m: I [name of surety], one of the sureties named in the within bond, do swear that I am pecuniarily worth the sum of dollars, over and above all my debts and liabilities. [Signature of surety.] Before me. [Signature of offlcer administer- ing oath, with seal, if any.] PROSECUTOR.— In Courts-ilartial the Judge Ad- vocate is usually the prosecutor; but it an officer prefers a charge, he sometimes appears to sustain the prosecution. No person can appear as prosecu- tor, 'who is not subject to the Articles of War, ex- cept the Judge-Advocate. PROTRACTOR.— A mathematical instrument much used in engineering and fortification drawing. Fig. 1, shows tlie protractor in common use, provided with arms and verniers. Crozet's protractor is shown in Fig. 2. It is named from its inventor, an officer of the t^nited States Engineer Corps, and is considered tlie best among the various protractors yet devised. It maybe useclwith the T-rule or straight edge. The feather edge is always set to the starting point and the line produced without puncturing the paper. The feather edge is the only metallic bearing upon the paper, small ivory projections on the underside of the frame keep the metal from contact with the paper and |in-vciil soilinu; it. PROVISIONAL FORTIFICATION.— Broadly speak- ing, provisional works may be divided into two class- es" according to the conditions under which they may be e.vpeeted to be employed. 1st. Works con- stnicted after the beginning of a campaign on sites not previously strategically considered, or which have become important in consequence of strategic developments not anticipated. In such cases neitiier the topographical nor geological conditions might be fully known, aiid.whicli is alsoof niucli importance, theextent of the resources of the neighborhood in labor and material might be more or less undetermin- ed.- 2d. Works constructed at the declaration of war. or its approach, for a well defined and previous- ly considered object, on sites perfectly well known, and under conditions accurately ascertained before- FIl;. ■-'. hand. As an instance of works of tlie first class, Plevna may be' cited ; as instances of the second, Adrianople and Tschataldscha ; as an instance of the possible demand for the second class, London. The former class would usually have to be carried out by Military Engineers capable of adapting standard de- signs to varj'ing conditions and full of resource, so as to be able to make the best use of the time avail- able and the material and labor forthcoming. On the other hand, works of the latter class could be designed in the fullest sense during the calm of peace. Their requirements in labor and material would be exactly known. The resources of the neighborhood woidd have been accurately gauged, and the how and the whence to supply deficiencies would have been considered. Moreover, if a properly elaborated design existed, the execution might safely be left to civif labor under civil supervision. In the defense of England both classes of fortification would pro- bably come into play. Certain strategic, commercial, or manufacturing centers would appear to need pro- tection under any circumstances, others would call for fortification as soon as the landing place of the invader, or his subsequent plan of operations, had declared itself. A method of fortification, in which forethought and brain power applied in advance may save enor- mous and possibly useless, because misdirected, expenditure, appears to be worth very careful study; and there are circumstances which make provisional fortification jiarticularly applicable to England, The sea secures her time and a fair warning. Her re- sources in labor and the very ordinary materials required arc practically luilimited. I ler great rail- way system facilitates' the rapid concentration at any spot "of labor and material. Moreover, England possesses in her Civil Engineers a very powerful force, which could at a time of need be ajiplied to the defense of the country. There is a very cnnsider- able body of young and able Kngincers who, if provided witli proper designs, arc perfectly well able to ciirry out all the work necessary to fortify a position, anil who have great experience in dealing with, and organizing civil labor on a large scale. In any time of real necessity the per.ioniui of the Corps would have demands made upon it which its strength could scarcely meet, and it is no small ad- vantage to have this very real "reserve force" to fall biiek upon. The same may be said of many of PROVISIONAL FORTIFICATION. 5f)lt PROVISIONAi: FORTIFICATION. the colnnips, and it rcnmiiiK to iircpiirc in jifiKu- liiiic a (•(iiiiplclc^ Hystciii of provi.^ioiml defciisi-, and liy iiioilifyiiin il from liini^ to lime to kci-p il abn-asi of llic ailvaticiiii; power of Hk; attack. A paprr army is riuihtly held up to (■oiit<'mpt as a spccticK of deception, wliicli no ureal nations, jealous of the iiiananenient of its alTairs. sliouhl toleriit<': l)Ul a papiT system of fortilii alion may, it ir. conleiided, form a very real defense. Only this papiT system must l)e thorouj;h, anil the liraiii power apprK'd to it unstinted. A very little relleetioii serves to show that the desi{;n of a provisional work is a task of considerably greater ditlicidty than that of a lield reih)\d)t. The restriction to two or three days, or less, in the case of tlic latter introduces a very sharp limitation to the possiliilities of design. K.\teiid the lime to lliree or four weeks, or even longer, postu- late an ample supply of timl)er, of railway l)ars. and even perhaps of bricks and cement, and il will be evident that these possiliilities have enormously widened, and that very consideral)le variations of trace, profile, and {leneral arran^jement will present themselves for consideration. It is even conlende<l that the design of a good jjrovisional work is more dillicult than that of an analogous permanent struc- ture, and that it affords more scope for clever and resourceful engineering. The drawing shows a plan of a typical provisional work for the defense of a hill top. This desiyu was around the work, and the front lini' is broken so us to form two bastioiii<l fronts and also two places of arms at the shoulilers, deliladed by four traverBCS containing casemates. Brickwork is employed in all the casemates and also in the steps leadini; from the ditch down Into the caponiers and up to the cov- ercfl way. 'I'he total length of the line of lire i.s about (thO yards run. and to man ;l, therefore, at least an e(pial munber of men would be needed. Casemate cover for 20(1 men is provided, and niag- azine accommodation to the e.Ment of about 045 s()uare feet. The most salient features of the works attributed to Mluhm are thus: 1. The curved trace of the cnst of the main work. 2. The polygonal trace of the ditch ; tne latlir usually untlanked. 3. The combination of artillerv and infantry lire from the work itself ; the emplovment of the latter only from the covered way. 4. 'I'he curved defensible traverse to cover the gorge ; the large lateraJ traverses con- taining casemates for men and magazines, p. The employment of brickwork as nnicii as possible for the walls of the casemates and for steppi'd ap- proaches. The work ajipears t(] have several merits. The circular or elliptic trace cannot well be enfiladed: it affords a ma.xinium of interior space with a mini- miun of ])arapet ; there are no undefended angles. The old objection to circidar re(lotd)ls— that they tend to too great a dispersion of lire— haa now less furnished by Bltihm Pasha to Colonel Ott of the Swiss Engineers. The work is in trace a circidar Sfgnient (diameter about 60 yards) and four sides of the polygonal ditch are flanked l)y caponiers with two tiers of fire, formed in the counterscarp at its front ends. These caponiers are well placed for pro- tection from distant artillery tire, hut in the event of the enemy gaining and maintaining possession of the ditch their defenders would he sacriticeil. Ac- commodation is provided for eight overljankguns in the work and one in the gorge traverse. The latter is really a segmental lunette partially inclosing a traverse containing a shell-proof casemate. A cov- ered way affording a good line of infantry fire runs weight, since a omnller number of hreeeh-londers is as effective as a comparatively large nuiid)er of ihe old rifles. Nor has the other olijection — that the circular trace is suited only to direct defense, and that works so designed have no self-flanking power — c|uitc its old force, since the increased range of ar- tillery enables works belonging to a line to afTord eacii other more elTectual mutual flank defense than formerly. Moreover redmdtts would frequently be flanked" by detached batteries in rear of the general line of their positions. On the other hand, it may perhaps be said that the work above described pro- vides insufflcient cover for its garrison, that the broad berni at the angles of the ditch aflords a good rKOVOST. 600 PEUSSIAN GUN -LIFT. resting place for an assaulting party to accumulate prior to the final rush for the parapet, and tliat tliere is on the whole too little storm-freedom. The latter objection may, however, be partiallj- met by a liberal use of obstacles. See Fortification. PROVOST. — Tlie temporary prison in which the military police contiue prisoners until they are dis- posed nt. PROVOST CELLS.— In the British service, those certilied cells under a Provost or acting Provost Ser- geant, in which Court-Martial prisoners may be im- prisoned up to forty-two days. Also, called Regi- mental or (Tiirrisnn cells. PROVOST MARSHAL.— An oflScer appointed in ev- ery army. in tlie tieUl, to secure the prisoners confined on charges of a general nature. .In the British Army he is an officer, with the ranli of t'aptain, appointed to superintend the preservation of order, and to be, as it were, flie head of the police of any particular camp or district. He has cognizance of all caiiip- foUovvers, as well as of members of the army. His power is summary, and he can punish an offender, ta.\ien flagrante delicto, on X\\es-poX, according to the penalties laiil down in the Mutiny Act. PROVOST SEGEANT.— A Sergeant who is charged with the military police of a corps. He is generally given one or two non-commissioned oflieers as as- sistants. In the British service he is also charged with tlie custody of all prisoners in the cells. PROWLERS. — Armed prowlers.by whatever names they may be called, or persons of the enemy's terri- tory, who steal witiiin tlie Hues of the hostile army. for the purpose of robbing, killing, or of dcstroj-ing the mail, or of cutting the telegraph wires, are not entitled to the privileges of the prisoner of war. PEUSSIAN BREECH-LOADER.— This method of clo- sing the breech is similar to that of the Wn/trenr/orf Breech-loader. The leakage of gas is st<ii>ped by a valve and a papier mache cup. The sliding block is set up by a wedffc tightened by a screw. PRUSSIAN FUSE.— This fuse might be designated as a tim"-ci'iici(xxion-chemical fuse. It consists of tliree parts. 1st. The body of the fuse, or fuse-case, which holds the other parts, and is screwed into the eye of the shell, the top being flush with the outer surface. This part has been constructed of both metal (lironze and cast iron) and wood. The interior is divided into two parts, both cylindrical, and with a common axis. The onene.xt tlie outside of the shell is much the larger in diameter. This case was made the same size for all calibers, but that part destined for the reception of the fuse-composition, is longer for fuses v.-hich are to be tired with small charges tiianfor those with which large charges are to be used. 2d. The percussion apparatus consists of a small glass tube, hermetically closed at both ends, partly 'filled with concentrated sulphuric acid, and wra]i"ped with cot- ton thread soaked in a composition of 70 parts (by weight) of chlorate of potassa, 10 parts of flowers of sulphur and 20 parts of white sugar, pulverized. sifted, and moistened with alcohol. This covering is put on of such a thickness that the tube can just be in- serted in a paper case which serves it as an envel- ope, and wliich fits partly into tlie siiialliT o)iciiing in the fuse-case and partly into a thiiuble-sljaped breaker of lead, which is inserted over it in the larsje part of the opening. 3d. The composition column. The explosive ajiparatus being in position, there re- mains between the tiiimble and the sides of the fuse- case a vacant space, wliich is tilled with compressed meal-powder, filled in by means of a hollow drift, the interior diameter of which is a little irrrater than the diameter of the thimble. Wlicn the ((impiisi- tion readies tlie top of the thimhle. iiiicompressed mealed powder is tilled in to thetoj) of the case. On being fired, the thimble or lin'aker being supported by the composition around it, is not disturbed. But as this takes fire like an ordinary fuse, and burns down to the bottom of the breaker, it leaves thi3 unsupported; and if the composition is all con- sumed when the shell strikes, the shock overthrows the breaker, rupturing the glass tube, setting free the sulphuric acid, and exploding the shell. Experi- ments go to show that, in this fuse, the best mater- ial for the fuse-case is beech-wood; and the worst, cast iron. PRUSSIAN GUN-LIFT.— The gun-lift adopted for service in the Prussian Army cons>sts of two tele- scopic hydraulic jacks, each mounted on a solid base, and carrying suspended from the heads of the two upper jacks a wrought-iron cross-beam, with a double hook depending from the middle for attach- ing the load. The lower jacks areSj inches in dia- meter, and the upper ones 6J inches, each having a lift of 3i feet. They are operated by means of a crank on an axle, which rests in two bearings on the lower jack. A fly-wheel with a handle is attached to each end of the axle; they are used to transport the jack from place to place. The cross-beam is built up of two rolled plates placed vertically, strengthened by angle-irons, and joined together by a top plate riveted to them. A cast-iron block is bolted between the plates at the middle of their length, and a link pa.sses around it and carries the double-hook. Length of cross-beam, 10 feet; weight, 1,430 pounds. Capacity of the lift, ()2, 000 pounds, raised 7 feet. Great care must be taken to prepare the founda- tions for the jacks to set on, so that they shall not yield unequally when the weight is brought upon them, and cause the jacks to upset. If the ground be soft, the foundations may be made of timbers bolted together and resting on piles. The jacks are placed on the bases at the proper distance apart (depending upon the length of the cross-beam, which is usually 10 feet). The cross-beam is brought into position by 24 men. the ends at the foot of the jacks. A chain is passed through the stirrup of the upper jack, and is made fast to the end of the cross- beam, which is raised by pumping the jack, and is rested on a trestle prepared for the purpose. The jack is now lowered, the end of the beam is secured in the stirrup, and the trestle removed. The same oi^eration is performed with the other end, thus bringing the cross-beam into a horizontal position, and the heads of both jacks down. The cross-beam is suspended more quicklj- and safely by using two trestles ; raise both ends of the cross-beam at the same time, rest it on the trestles, lower the heads of the jacks, and suspend the cross-beam in the stir- rups, then raise it slightly and remove the trestles. The cross-beam is placed across the gun, a block of wood of projier shape being first interposed to protect the gun from injury. The first jack is placed a feet from the axis of the gun. and the end of the cross-beam is inserted in the stirrup. The second jack is set up in a corresponding position on the other side of the gun; a chain is passed through the stirrup and made fast to the end of the cross- beam, which is raised by pum]>iiig the jaik; a trestle is jihu'ed under the cross-beam when it is brought to a horizontal position, the head of tlie jack is lowered, and the stirrup is placed over the end of PRUSSIA AND NORTH GERMAN 1 eULE OF MILES See also Hap of Oerman Empin 2S SO 75 100 US Hallrottda ' ^ "^ 10 Lon^tutle Kast 12 from Greeinvich FBUSSIAN N££I)L£ CA£BXN£. 601 PnBUC ANIMALS. the cross -bpnin. Tlip slinirs arr> passfd around the | with a rorresponding notfh in tlif iipppr Bnrfanc of pun Hiiil honked In the iloiil))!' hiiok. l$y piiiiipin^; j the bore of llic hrccfh-lioil. the niuiii Kpriu)^ is coin, up tlic- jncks the weight is raisrd. When llic >,'un- pressed, so thul wlien lli<' sear is piiNed out of tlio lifl eaniiol l)e set up over tlie wei^'lu lo be raised it | way by (lie lriir;;fr, llic iiee<ne luav be darted for- luay l)e set up on planks, eillier in front or rear, and ward, and, uui(led by aHUiall holi: fn the face of the then niovecl into tlie recpiired po.sitioii liy means of bolt, find its way llirouL'h llie |)owderin th<; car- rollers. The lifl id taken down in the inverse man- Iriil^'e lo e.xplrxfe the fulminate lyintr in llie base of Iter of setlini; it u|i. Tweiilyfour men transport the crossbeam by two lont; haiidsi)ikes run ihrouLth holes in the beam for thai purjiose, and place it on a truck or carl. The fly-wheels are use(i as truck-wheels for lrans|)ortiB}; the jacks. The keys which fasten them to thea.x'eH are removed, also the handles. The heads of the jacks are secured by ropes, and the bolls of Ihca.vle- bearini;s liirhlened. The jack is broUL'b' down inio a nearly bori/onlal position, and Ihe stirrup is ])lace(l over the pintle-ho<ik of a licld-limber and secured by a rope. See (liin-lift, and hntjip lltni-lift. PRUSSIAN NE£DLE CARBINE.— A brecch-loadinf: suiall-ariii. haviiij;- a tl\<(l chaiubcrclosed by a mova- ble barrel, wliich rotates aliout an axis at itO" to Ihe a.xis of Ihe barrel, and vertical ii\ \\w plane of the axis of the barrel. It is opened by turnim: a lever back anil to the rii;ht: in so doini; thi' barrel is moved forward by an eccentric as far as Ihe corres- pondini; arm of a b<'art-shaped slot in the tansrof the receiver will iiermit the rear iruide-stud to jxo. Hy the same means the butt of Ihe barrel is swuns around to the riirht, so that the mouth of Ihe cham- ber may be readily reached with the load. As the eccentric turns, an eccentric plate, which is on the same shaft with it, turns also; and by means ofacon- nectini; rod, which is linked at its forward end to the eccentric plate anil in rear to the cocking-bolt, slides Ihe latter backward asjainst the pressure of a spiral mainsprinj; surrounding the stem of the needle- bolt, against Ihe face of wliich the vertical arm of the cocking-bolt presses. This motion is so timed, that at till' moment the ])iece is fully opened, the nose of a spring-sear riding over the beveled shoulder of a tillel on the needle-bolt, catches against its square- face and retains the bolt against the pressure of the mainspring, when, in order to load the jiiece, the re- sistance of the hand has been withdrawn. It is closed by reluming the lever to its place beneath the barrel; the barrel is first swung around in the pro- longation of its original position, and is then drawn back so that a gas-plug projecting from the receiv- er shall enter the moutli of tlie chamber. The car- bine is tired in the same manner as the Pru.ssian needle-gun, and in case of a failure to jignite the charge, the piece, without opening it, may be re- cocked in the same manner. The arm using a self- consuming cartridge-case, llie extracting or ejecting apparatus is not needed. The enormous swell left at the muzzle of this piece, it is supposed, is intend- ed to protect it from the indentations likely lo oc- cur in common use in the mounted service. See Nee- d'l'-quns. PRUSSIAN NEEDLE-GUN.— A breech-loading gun (smiill-arm ), having a tixed chamber closed by a mov- able breech-block wiiich slides in the line of the bar- rel by direct action. It is opened by releasing a spring catcli by pressing down upon it, and then drawing it back by the thumb. This slides a pro- jecting thumb-piece of the lock-tube out of its square notch in the receiver, and allows the handle of the l)reech-boU to be raised to a vertical position and Ihe bolt itself to be withdrawn. The piece may then be closed by reversing the movement of the bolt, and may be locked bv turnins down the base of the Ihe paper sabot which surrounds the ball. The cartridge being self-consiiming, no extracting or ejecting devices are reipiired. The butt of the barrel is chambered, and the face of the lireech-bolt is counter-bored at the same angle, so as to make a close lit and to prevent,' as far as possible, the es- cape of gas. The recoil-sliouhh'r on the receiver ih inclined lo the front, so that as tin- ends of the liar- rel and breech-bolt wear olf. the boll may lie brought forward to supply their loss. Tlie arm may be cocked indeiHiidenlly of the bolt, l)y lirsl withdraw- ing, and then shoving forward the lock-tube. The system nuiy lie dismounteil by withdrawing tlie bolt, and at the same time itidling hard on the trig- ger ; this causes a change of fulcrum lo Ihe rear- most of the scolloped surfaces, into which its upper side is formed, and ])erniits the no.se of the sear to be pulled coniijlelely out of the waj'forllie passage ofllwlioli. See An(ll(-r/iinit. PRUSSIAN RULING.— The Prussians early a<lopt- ed anil pciteiliil [hf mmpre/ixi/iff sj/Hrm. and obtained great accuracy and range with charges of one-tenth the weight of the projectile. The rilling consisted of numerous shallow rectangular grooves. The shot was encased by four rounded lead l)andsor liooj*, held in place by grooves in I he shot. With this system the shot is larger than the bore, and is sipieezed or planed to lit the bore by the lands of the rifling. The shot must therefore be entered at the breech, into a chamber larger than the rest of the bore ; and whatever escape of gas there may be around the breech-closing apparatus reduces its range and ve- locity. PRYCK SPUR. — In ancient armor, a spur having a single spike. PSILOI.— Among the Greeks, Psiloi were the light armed men who fought with arrows and darts, "or stones and slings ; but were unlit for close fight. They were in honor and dignity inferior to the heavy- armed soldiers. The Psiloi performed till the duties usually devolved, in the present day, upon light in- fantry, both before and at the opening of an engage- ment. See (Iplitiii. PUBLIC ANIMALS.— The animals in the employ of a Government. In the United Stales, the following specifications govern in purchasing the horses and mules for the military service : Cai'iilry Ilnrsea — To be geldings, of Iiardy colors. sound in all particulars, in good condition, well broken to the saddle, from fifteen to sixteen liands lii^h, not less than five nor more than nine years old, and suitable in every respect for Cavalry ser- vice. Whenever it becomes necessary to purchase the half-breed horses of California or Soutliem Texas, the standard of lieight may be reduced to not less than fourteen and a half hands. Artillo-i/ II"i-Kt's — To be geldings, of hardy colors, sound in all particulars, in good condition, square trotters, well broken to harness, from fifteen to sixteen liauds high, not less than five nor more than nine years old, tind s.iitable in everj' respect for Ar- tillery service. Miilex— To be strong, stout, compact animals, sound in all particulars, in good condition, well broken to harness, not under fourteen hands high. handle against a recoil-shoulder formed for it on the I not less than four nor more than nine years old, and receiver. In the act of closing, Ihe front shoulder of the needle-bolt, around the stem of which the main spring is coiled, catches against the nose of a sear, and pushes the lock-tube out to the rear by means of the main spring included between them. By then pushing forward with the hand, tlie base of suitalile in every respect for the transportation ser- vice of the army. When work-horses are to be purchased, they should be sound in all particulars, fifteen and one- half hands high and upwards, strong l)uilt, well lirokeu to work in harness, not less than four nor the lock-tube until the spring-catch above it engages ', more than nine years old. For pack purposes, ths PUBLIC EXIGENCY. 602 PUBLIC PROPEKTT. Standard of height may be reduced to thirteen and a half hands, if tlie anima! be in other respects suita- ble. The pack mule need not necessarily be broken to harness. For general transportation purposes of the army, horses cannot be advantageously substituted for mules. For draught purposes in the Northern and Eastern States, and at depots in large cities, and for saddle purposes of wagon-masters, messengers, and expressmen, horses may be advantageously used in place of mules. The following weights are suggested as the mini- mum, except for the half-breed horses of Texas and Southern California: Pounds. Artillery wheel-horses 1,300 Artillery swing and lead horses 1.100 Cavalr3' horses 9.50 Horses for messengers, etc 950 Draft-horses of the Quartermaster's Department 1 .200 Wheel-mules 1.200 S wing- nudes 1 ,0.50 Lead-mules 850 At the headquarters of every regiment of Cavalry, with every company of Cavalry and battery of mounted Artillery, and with the" records of every otBcer in immediate charge of public animals, a de- scriptive list of horses and mules is kept, showing the name, age, size, color, and other peculiarities of each animal, how and when acquired, his titness for service, how long he has been in service, the name of his rider or driver, and the particular use to which he is or was applied. PUBLIC EXIGENCY. —The term " PiiMic Exigency." employed in section 3.700, Revised Statutes, refers to an exceptional and urgent necessity, requiring an immediate supply of articles for military use, or the immediate performance of work or service, such as may grow out of the pressure of an existing state of war, rebellion, or insurrection, or of some particular act of warfare on the part of an enemy, or may be occasioned by any unexpected movement of troops; or such as may consist in the destruction or loss of supplies, structures, etc., by fire or the violence of the elements, by acts of rioters or trespassers, by theft or waste, by the negligence of common carriers or others, by the "failure of contractors, etc. Exigen- cies are sometimes assumed to exist where none have legitimately occurred. By carefully observing the laws regulating contracts, and making prompt pro- vision for the future supplies, etc., of the command, recourse to purchases in open market to meet sup- posed emergencies may ordinarily be avoided. In- formation can generally be derived from the proper records as to tlie average quantity of supplies requir- ed in ye.'irs past, which will provide against the hap- pening of such emergencies: and timely advertise- ments should be made accordingly. But that sta- tute fthe acr. r>f MarchS. 1861), while requiring such advertisement as a general rule, invests the officer charged witli the duty of procuring supplies with a discretion to dispense with advertising if the exigen- cies of the public service require immediate delivery or performance. It is too well settled to admit of dispute attliis day. that where there is a discretion of tills kind conferred on an officer, or lioiiril of of- ficers, anda contract is made in wliicli they have ex- erciseil that discretion, the validity of [tlie contract cannot be made to depenil on tiie degree of wisdom or skill which may have a<'Companied its exercise. PUBLIC MONEYS. -All otTicers of the Quartermas- ter's Siibsislciice and I'ay Departments, the Chief Medical Purveyor and Assistant Medical Purveyors, and all Storekeepers before entering upon the duties of their respective offices, give good and sufficient bonds to the United Stales, in such sums as llie Sec- retary of War may dir<'ct, faitlifully to account for all jjuIiKk' moneys"anil property which they may re- ceive. The President may, at any time, increase tlie sums 80 prescribed. It" is the diity of every dis- bursing officer having any public money intrusted to him for disbursement "to deposit the same with the Treasurer, or some one of the Assistant Treasur- ers, of the United States, and to draw for the same only as it may be required for payments to be made by "him in pursuance of law, and to draw for the same only in favor of the persons to whom payment is made : and all transfers from the Treasurer of the United States to a disbursing officer are by draft or warrant on the Treasury, nr'an Assistant Treasurer, of the United States. In places, however, where there is no Treasurer or Assistant Treasurer. the .Sec- retary of the Treasury may, when he deems it essen- tial to the public interest, s"pecially authorize in writ- ing the deposit of such public money in any other pirblic depository, or, in writing, authorize the same to be kept in any other manner, "and under such rules and regulations as he may deem most safe and ef- fectual to facilitate the payments to public creditors. All public money advanced to disbursing officers of the United States must, in accordance with the law, be deposited immediately, to their respective credits, with either the United States Treasurer, some Assistant Treasurer, or Designated Depositary, other than a National Bank Depositary, nearest or most convenient : or, by special direction of the Secretary of the Treasury, with a National Bank De- positary, except— 1. Any disbursing officer of the War Department, specially authorized by the Sec- retary of War, when stationed on the extreme frontier or at places far remote from such depositaries, may keep, at his own risk, such moneys as may be in- trusted to him for disbursement. 2. Any officer re- ceiving money remitted to him upon specific esti- mates, may disburse it accordingly, without waiting to place it in a depository, provided the payments are due, and he prefers this method to that of draw- ing checks. Any check drawn by a disbursing of- ficer upon moneys thus deposited, must be in favor of the partv, by name, to whom the payment is to be made, and payable to "order" or "bearer", with these exceptions — 1. To make p.ayments of individ- ual pensions, checks for which must be made pay- able to "order". 2. To make payments of amouiiA not exceeding twenty dollars. "3. To make pay- ments at a distance from a depositary. 4. To make payments of fixed salaries due at a certain period. In either of which cases, except the first, any dis- bursing officer may draw his check in favor of him- self or bearer for such amount as may be necessary for such payment, l)ut. in the last-named case the check must be drawn not more than two days be- fore the salaries become due. Whenever a United States disbursing officer serv- ing in two distinct capacities, and having moneys advanced to him from two distinct Bureaus, depos- its his funds with the Treasurer of the United States, an Assistant Treasurer, or United States Depos- itar_y, separate accounts should be kept of such moneys, and the balance to the credit of each should be reported separately on the weekly lists of dis- bursing officers' balances. These instructions are in- tended to apply more particularly to Quarter-masters serving as Commissarii's of SubsistencB,and vic^ ver- M. See DhhxrsiiKi Ojficm. PUBLIC PROPERTY.— It is the duty of all officers to guani llic pulilic iiroperty for which they are re- sponsible by all means in their power. Wlienever inforniiition is received that horses, mules, or other property belonging to the United States, are unlaw- fully in the possession of any person not in the mili- tary service, the Quartermaster, or other Sta IT otlicer of the Department to which the Jiroperly belongs, should cause proper proci-edings to be promptly in- stituted and diligently prosecuted before the civil authorities for the recovery of the (iroperly, and. if the same lias been stolen, for tlu^ arrest, trial, and conviction, and due puiiishiiienl of the thieves, and of all those who aid and abet them by receiving the stolen property, or otherwise. PUDDLED STEEL. 003 PUGILISM. Upon satisfactory infcirinal ion lliat UniliMl Stall's property, in unlawful liands, is llki-ly lo \)C taken away, concealed, or otherwise disposed iif, Ijcforc the necessary proccediuu^s can lie iiad in the civil tri- bunals for the recovery thereof, the post or detach- ment coiiinmnder should at once ord<'r the same to be seized, and hold it std)ject lo any lei;al proceed- ings that may he inslituled by other parties. Per- sons cauiiht in the act of stealiiii; public properly, or of makiiiv; way wilh properly receully sloleii fnini the United Slates, an^ summarily arresliMl by Ihi' troops, and turned over to the <-ivil authorities for .trial. Quartermasters are authorized, when found ['expedient, after failure of ordinary means of recov- ery, to olfer for recovery of any lost or stolen animal a fewanl of $2!> : and. in case of .itolcn animals, an additional reward of f2.5for each thi<'f arrcslcd.lrieil, and convicted, and duly sentenced lo punishmenl. Tlu- clothes, arms, ndlilary oullils. and accouter- ments furnished by the United .Stales lo any soldier, cannot be sold, bartered, e.\cliani;ed, pled;j;ed, lotmed, or given away; and no person not a soldier, or duly authorized officer of the United Stales, who has possession of any such clothes, arms, military out- fits, or accouterments, so furnished, and which have been the subjects of any such sale, barler. exchange, pledge, loan, or gift, can have any right, lille. or in- terest therein; but the same luiiy be seized and taken wherever found by any officer of flic UniledStat<'s. civ- il or military, and should I hereupon be delivered to any Quartermaster, or other officer authorized to receive the same. The possession of any such clothes, arms, military outfits, or accouterments by any person not a soldier or officer of the United Stales is presumpt- ive evidence of such a sale, barter, exchange, pledge, loan, or gift. PUDDLED STEEL. ~ A variety of steel, made in the puddling-furn;uc by a modification of the puddling process, as follows : Cast-iron contains from three to about five per cent, of carbon ; ordinary steel con- tains from three-fourths to one ]ier cent, of carbon ; while wrought-iron contains but a trace. In the changing from the cast to wrought-iron in a pud- ling-furnace, the pig-metal passes through the con- dition of steel, that is to say, it is steel before it is wrought-iron. Now, making the puddled steel is simply slopping the common puddling process just at the moment when the decarbonizing mass under treatment is in the state of steel. Several modifica- tions in furnaces and processes have been patented and various fluxes, especially manganese, are differ- ently used by different mamifacturers. See Puddling and Stivl. PUDDLING. — Although the process of puddling is susceptible of considerable modification accordingto the nature of the pig-metal employed and that of the iron which it is desired to produce, it may be gener- ally stated to include the following oiKTiitious ; 1st. Melting down of the charge with or without the pre- vious heating. 2d. Incorporation of oxidizing fluxes with the- charge at a low heat. lid. Elimination of carbon by stirring the contents of the furnace at a liigh temperature. Ith. Consolichition of the reduced iron to masses or balls fit for hammering. The.'ommon puildrmg-fiirnace is of the reverbera- tory form, one iti which thc' flame is made to pass over a bridge and then beat down again, or reverber- ate upon a hc-arth or surface on whir-li the matcrialH to be heated are placed. It is shown in the drawing, and consists of an oblong casing of iron plates (irm- ly bound together by iron tii--bars. and lined with fire-brick. 'I'hc tirephuc, F. is separated from the heart ii. A. by a ./i/v-/«-/V/i'/<'. over which the heated prriducls of combustion with a surplus of oxygen phiy upon the surface of the molten metal, effecting its conversion, and thence pass tlirougli the flue to a lofty chimney, C in which is suspended a metal danijicr-plate.by which the draught can be: regulated. The firepla<-e varies in depth wilh the nature of the fuel employed, being greatest wilh the hard kinds of co;d. .The fire-grate is made of plain wrought-iron bars. A forced draught, produced by blowing air in below the grate is sometimes used. The surface of the grille slioulil be between oni'-half and one-third of tliat of th(^ bed or hearth. The charging or fire hole is about a loot idiove the grate. Th<' bottom of the bed is formed of cast-iron liearth-])lates resting upon cast-irf)n beams. Tlw hearth is covered wilh cinders or sand, and is terminated at either end by a straight wall or bridge, called respectively the_/i>*'-//r/'/i'e anrl \\\e Jitif-hrkh/r. The roof of the furnace is curved to a flat arch, and is generally made to slope at a small angle towards the flue, which slopes towards the stack. The sectional area of the flue varies with the nature of the fuel, being larger for soft coal. The main working-door is maiie of brick set in a cast- iron frame ; it may be rea<lily lifted and lowered by means of a lever. It is only opened during the in- troduction of the charge and the removal of the puddled balls. The sill of lh<- door is about a foot above the level of the bed. There is sometimes a second working-door near the fi;ie for introducing the cast-iron, so that it may soften slowly till it be ready for drawing towards the bridge. A small rectangular or arched n<itcli. called the stopper-hole, is cut out of the lower edge of the door for the in- troduction of the tool used in stirring the metal, and through which the workman can observe the slate of the" furnace. It may be closed »ir-tight. The tap-hole, through which the .slag, or tap-cinder, is withdrawn from the hearth, is placed below the door-sill. It is plugged up with sand. A portion of the cinder also overflows the flue-bridge, and runs down the inclined surface of the flue to the bottom of the stack, h. When charging the furnace, pieces of metal are successively introduced wilh a long shovel, and laid one over another on the sides of the hearth in the fomi of piles rising to the roof, the middle being left open for puddling the metal as it is successively fused. The piles are kept separate, to give free cir- culation of air round the metal. The working-door of the furnace is now closed, fuel is laid on the grate, and the mouth of the fireplace is filled up with coal; at the same lime the damper is en- tirely opened. In pu<idliug refined metal, or in dry puddling, the furnace is charged with met- al alone; but in juuldling gray metal— that is, in wet puddling, or boiling, as it is termed — forge-cindfr is charged along wilh the metal. and the temperature rises much higher. See PUGILISM.— The art of defending one's self or attacking others wilh the weapons which nature has bestowed — viz.. the fists and arms. The origin of boxing, or the use of the fists, is likely as old as man himself. We find nu- merous allusions lo it in the classic authors. Pollux, the twin-lirotlier of Castor, in the heathen mvtliolosy. was reckoned the first who obtained very arreiit distinction by the use of his fists, coniiuerins: all who opposed him. and obtaining, with Hercules, a place among the gods for his spai- PULFORD MAGNETIC PAIMT. fi04 PULLEY. ring talents. The ancients were not, hoTvever. satis- fied with the use of the weapons of nature, but in- creased their power bj- the addition of the cestus, Witli the ancients, pugilism was considered an es- sential part in the education of youth, and formed part of the course of training practiced in their g_ym- nasia: it was valued as a means of strengthening the body and banishing fear: but it was practiced in public rather with a view to the exhiliitiou of the power of endurance than for mere skillful self-de- fense. The earliest account we have of systematic boxing is in 1740, when public exliibitions of Profes- sors of the Art attracted general attention. Up to this period, the science of self-defense had made but little progress, and strength and endurance cousti- ti'ted the onh' recommendations of the prai-titioners at Smithfield, Moorfield, and Southwark fair, which had long had booths and rings for the display of boxing. Broughton, who occupied the position of " Champion of England ". built a theater in Hau- way street, Oxford street, in 1740, for the display of boxing : advertisements were issued announcing a succession of battles between tirst-rate pugilists, who never quitted the stage till one or other was defeated, the reward of each man being dependent iipon, and proportioned to, tlie receipts. Broughton was for 18 years Champion of England, and with him commences the first scientific era of pugilism. He propounded some rules for the regulation of the ring, and these remained in authority till 1838, when they were materially altered. To Broughton also is due the introduction of gloves for "sparring-matches." where lessons could be taken without injur}-. The greatest Professor of the Art was Jackson, who was Champion in 179.5. He was not only the most scien- tific boxer of his day, but he gave his art such a prestige and popularit)' that half the men of rank , and fashion of the period were proud to call them- j selves his pupils. He opened rooms for tlie prac- | tice of boxing in Bond street, and for years these were crowded by men of note. His " principles of pugilism" were, that contempt of danger and confi- dence in one's self were the first and best quiilities of a pugilist; that in hitting, you must judge well your distances, for a blow delivered at all out of range, was like a spent shot, and valueless; that men should Fig. 1. fight on most occasions with their legs, using all possible agility, as well as with their hands- and that all stilTness of style and position was radically wron". Jackson is still regarded by many as the best theorist on the "Noble Art," and since his time. it has received no essential improvement. Sha-w, the Life-guardsman, who immortalized himself at Waterloo, was a pupil of his, and '' orowess which he so brilliantly displayed c ' >. .^casion, was ow- ing as much to his scien*'.-„ training as to his great strength. At this period, pugilism was actively sup- ported by many persons of high rank — the Dukes of York and Clarence, the Earls of Albemarle, Sefton, etc.. Lords Byron, Craven, Pomfret. The art of boxing, a.- an active and healthy exercise, is likely to be maintamed; and the display of science between two accomplished boxers is very interesting, while it is deprived of all the horrors of the prize-ring; the rapidity of tlie blows, the facility w-:th w-hicli they are mostly guarded or avoided by moving the head and arms: die trial of skill and maneuver to g:dn a trilling advantage in position, all give a wonderful interest to the spectator, who can watch the perfec- tion of the art devoid of the brutalities of the ring. The pugilists of the present day are mostly publicans; their friends and the patrons of the " fancy " meet at their houses for convivial evenings, sparring matches, ratting, and the like. It has con.stantly l)eeu urged in defense of pugilism that, were it abol- ished, the use of the knife would increase and Eng- lishnien would lose their present manly system of self-defense. This may be true, if the use of the fist in self-defense depended on the mercenary exhibition of pugilistic encounters, w-hich, however, is mere as- sumption. PULFORD MAGNETIC PAINT.— A paint now uni- versally used instead of anti-cfirrosion paint for lac- quering iron ordnance aud projectiles. It is an o.x- ide of iron. This paint is called ' ' magnetic " from the property of being attracted by a magnet. PULK. A term chiefiy used in Russia to denote a tribe or a particular body of men; as. a pulk of Cos- sacks. PULLEY. — One of the mechanical powers, consist- ing usuallj- of a wheel with a groove cut all round its circumference, and movable on an axis : the wheel, which is commonly called a s/ieave, is often placed inside a hollow oblong mass of wood called a //lock, aud to the sides of this block the ex- tremities of the sheave's axle are fixed for support ; the cord which passes over the circumference of the sheave is called the triekk. Pulle3-3 may be used either singly or in com- bination ; in the former case, they are either fixed or movable. The .fixed jmlley gives no mechanical ad- vantage ; it merely changes the di- rection in which a force would na- turally be applied to one more con- venient. The .single moradle pvlley, with parallel cords, gives a mechani- cal advantage = 2, for a little con- sideration will show that as the w-eight, W, is supported by the two strings, the strain on each string is AW, and the strain on the one being supported by the hook, the power, P, requires merely to support the strain on tin- other string. The fixed jjulley, is only of service in clianging the naturally upward direction of the power into a downw-ard one. If the strings in tlie single movable pulley are not parallel, there is a diminution of mechanical advantage — /. ('., P must he more than half of Wto produce onexiict counter|)oise ; if tlie auirle made liy the strings is 120'\ P must lie e(|ual to W; and if the angle be greater than this, there is a great inecliaiiic:il disadvantage, or P must be greater than W. The following are examples of dif- ferent combinations of ])ulleys. nciicmlly known as the tirst, second, and third systems of pulleys. In the first system, one end of each cord is fastened 22 13 14 Pru.EY. etc. 1. Steam winch. 2. Coinpouud pulleys. 3,12. Movable cranes. 4. Joints crane. 5. Hydi toot IhmI jack. 11. Jack-screw. 12, Movable double compound crane. 13. Compound pulley. 14. FulU XII-270. :k. 6. Winch. 7. Stationary steam-crane. 8. Transportable steam-crane. 9. Sea-crane. 10. Cog- iudlass. 15. Platform crane. 16. Friction windlans. PULLEY. no5 PULLET. tea lixcil support iibovc ; cacli conl iIcsccikIh. piiHScn round a pulley do the lowest of which Ihcweit'lit W is fiisteuech, iilid is fiisleiied to the block of the next Jjldley, with the exception of the lust cord, which jKisses round ii tixcd pulley uhove. and is attachid to the counterpoise, J'. The tension of a strini; beini; the same in all its parts, the tension of every part of the slrinij;, over two pulleys, is that which is produc- ed l)y the weight of 1', conse(|ueMtly, as the last niov- al)le ipulley is supported on both sides by a string havini; a tension I', the tension applied in its sup- port is 21'. 'I'he tension of the sirin;; is therefore 21', anil the second nioval)le pulley is su^iportcd by a force ecpml to 41'. It inaj' similarly be shown tliat tlic force applied by the strinifs in support of tlie last or fourth pulley ( wiiicli is attached to \Vj is HP. Hence we see, that according to this arrangetnent, 1 lb. can support 41bs., if two movable pulleys are \ised ; Hlbs., if there are ;i movable jiulleys ; Ki lbs., if there are 4 moval)le ])ulleys ; and if there are « movable pulleys, llli can support 2" lbs. It must be noticed, however, that in practice, the weight of the fords, mid cifihe i)ullevs,and the friction of thecnrd on the pulleys, nuist be allowed for; and the fact that in this system all of these resist the action of the power P, and that to a large extent, has render- ed it of little use in ])ractice. — The second system Ls much inferior in jiroducing a mechanical ailvantage, but it is found to be mm h more convenient in gener- al practice, and is conveniently modified acccjrding to the i)urpose for which it is intended to l)e used. In this system, one string passes romid all the p\Uleys. and as the tension in every part of it is that produced by the weight of P, the whole force applied to ele- vate the lower l)lock with its attached weight, \V. is Ihe weight I' multiplied l)y tln^ luiniber of strings attached to the lower block; the ])ullevs in the up- per block being only of use in changing the direction of the pulling force. This system is tlie one in com- mon use in mechanical numeiivcrs in dockyards and on board ship, and various modifications of it— such as White's pulley. Smeaton's pulley, etc., have been iutroducBd ; but the simpler forms have been found to answer best. — Tlie third system is merely the tirst Rystein inverted, and it is a litth' more powerful, be- sides having tlie weight of the pulleys to support the in one combination, Ihe greater )« the meclianical advantage allordr'd : liut Ihe enormoiiH friction pro- duced, and tlie want of pirfect flexibility in llic ropes, pri-vint any great inrrease in the nunilier of pulleys. In Fig. 1, we illustrate Ihe pulleys coun- terpoised, and the manner of emplriying them in the mechanical muneuvcTS. 1. Fixed pulley, power and weight equal. 2. One fixed and one movabli- pul- ley, jiower and weight ,1:2. .3. One fixed and two movabli- pulleys, power and weight, I : 2 and 1 : 4. 4. One fixed block of three pulleyH of dilTerent sizes, and one movul)le pulley of same cliaraiter, power and weight, I : (!. r>. ()nefixeil block with four pul- leys of same size, and one movable of .same kind, power and weight, 1:8. 0. Wheel and axle, three radii in iiroportion of 1. 2, and 4. 7. Capstan, cord utiached to first system of pulleys. Pulleys without blocks or carriers are projierly k/wjivi'h or j)iillij/-<r/ifilH^ which are mounterl in va- rious wjiys, according to Ihe purpose for wliicli they are designed. The simplest form is that of a wheel with a nearly Mat face, over which a band passes. This is tlu' common niacliine-piilley used on shafting, which is ordinarily supported by hang- ers from the ceiling of the shop. Couplings and hangers are carefully arranged in all arsenals and armories. Pulleys so mounted are ; Fnxt, being firm- Fig. a. ly attached to their shaft, from which they receive, or to which they communicate, motion : fj"<)xf, run- ning free on the shaft, to receive the belt and allow it still to traverse without being affected bv, or power, instead of acting in opposition to it, as in the former case. By this time, it will h;ive been evident to the reader tli;it the niecb:inical advantaije is not produei'd by tlie [uilleys, but by the strinirsi and that the pulleys are merely useful in keeping the strinirs in a certain iiosition, changing with as little fri<'tio!i as possible the direction of the imll, iind alfordins ;i convenient means of attaching the weiirht. Theor- etically, the larger the number of movable pulleys affecting the motion of. the shafting : Spred. having a number of faces or grooves of different diameter, so as to communicate varying speeds with a given rate of motion of the belt or cord. This is common in lathes and analogous machines, and i.s sometimes called a m/zf-pu'lev. Fi:r. 2 shows iin improvini loose pulley, at present used on most machines, with Ihe advantaire of savins: Ihe wear of pulley, shaft, and belt. The loose i)ulley is one inch less iliameler PULLING JACK. GOG PULSOMETEE. than the tight pulley, andthus relieves the tight ten- sion of belt when running idle. A bevel tlange connects the pulley faces, and the belt ships with perfect ease. In Fig. 3 is shown what is known as the mule pulley, a most useful combination for the general work of the arsenal. Lines of shafting in the same plane, but at an angle, one to the other, to run quickly and noiselessly, should be driven by a belt running over mule pulleys, on a shaft stepped and stayed as shown in Fig. 3. If the mule pulleys are not too small, and if they liave long hubs, they will run with little friction and wear. For the sake of an adjustment wliich is required only in special cases, mule pulleys are commonly placed on ex- pensive arrangements of castings, which, through not permitting the use of pulleys sufficiently large, and through not being properly stayed, cause much trouble and loss of power. These disadvantages are obviated by the arrangement sho'ivn in the drawing. The following table gives the weight, principal di- mensions, etc., of pulley-blocks, complete, as used in the more common mechanical maneuvers. See Blocks. Mechanical Maneuvers, Rii-pe, and Tackles. PVLL-OFF.— In musketry, the test applied to the trigger of all small-arms. The te.st is regulated so as to require a mean weight of about 7 lbs. to be ap- plied to the tinger-piece of the trigger, in order to release the sear-nose from the top-bent; this result is obtained only when the lock and trigger are perfect- ly clean and free from dried-up oil," or other matter causing obstruction to the free working of the vari- ous parts. As a rule, the pull-off of the small-arms in use will be found to be influenced mainly by the condition of cleanliness of the lock and' trigger. Should the lock, after having been thoroughly cleaned and oiled, be found to pull-off either light or heavy, i.e. below 6 lbs. or above 8 lbs., it may easily be regulated by squaring the sear-nose and top-bent in the tumb'er, care being taken to preserve the same ansrlcs. iPULSOMETEE —A steam pump of considerable mil- itary' importance, which requires but little steam for its operation. When the water has been displaced by the steam which follows the water through the opening to the discharge chamber, it will suddenly condense by passing under the water, and the va- Kind of blocks. 1 sheave. Weight of block, complete, pounds 35 Total length of block over all. inches SS..") Total width of block over all, inches Total deptli of block over all, inches Greatest diameter of sheaves, inches Largest rope used with block, inches i 4.75 30 19.5 7.5 8.5 6.375 3.25 3 sheaves. 19.5 7.5 5.25 G.375 3.25 80 2g.5 7.25 4.75 3 sheaves. 100 25.5 8 9 7.25 4.75 134 26 9 10.5 7 6.25 191 33 10 11 9 G.25 201 31.5 12 11.5 10 6.25 4 sheaves. 120 25.5 8 11 7.35 4.75 165 26 9 13 7 6.25 226 32 10 13.75 9 6>35 270 31.5 13 14 10 625 PULLING-JACK.— A variety of. jack much employ- ed for artillery purposes. To nse it, screw one end to some fixed object (that end nearer the pump is preferable); unscrew the valve in the pump by two or three turns with the key, and stretch the" jack apart; attach the free end of it to the object to be moved; shut the valve by screwing Ijack the two or three turns that were unscrewed; attach the long le- ver and pump away at it until the object is moved as desired. When there is not room for the long lever, tlie pump can be worked by the short lever. If the jack does not start at, once, slack the screw in the cylinder close to the pump (which the same key fits) until a drop or two of the fiiud comes out ; as soon as this occurs, turn the .screw immediately back. If the piston or ram will not run out to its entire length or stroke, place the jack in a horizontal position, take out the screw at each end of the cylinder, and till through both holes witli the usual liquid. The pulling-jack can be used to pull or lift at any angle l)etween the horizontal and the iicrpendicidar, but the direction of its force must be in a straight line, and the force punii) always at the lower end when the jack is used in any other way than hori- zontally. When the pulling-jack is in lise, the lever joints must be well oiled and kept free from dirt; when not in use, the piston-rod must be kept in; anci when hung up, th<- end where the pump is nmsi al- ways be downward. No greater force than that of one man (provided \ lie applies a power of al)oul 1.50 pounds) need ever l)e applied to the lever of either the lifting or the pulling-jack, since that force is amply sulliclent to work the jack to its full ca[)acity. See Uiiilraiilic Jack. cuum thereby formed will cause the steam ball to change, shut off the steam, and transmit the pres- sure to the opposite cylinder, and at the same time induce the water to fill the chamber in place of the condensed steam. Thus will they alternate..keep- iiig up very nearly a continuous stream, as long as there is steam supplied and water to be pimiped. The machine, a section of which is shown in the drawing, consists principally of two bottle-shaped chambers. A, A, joined together side hy side, with tapering necks bent towards each other, to which is attached, by means of a flange-joint, B, a contin- uou passage from each cjlinder leading to one com- mon upright passage, into which a small ball, C, is fitted so as to oscitlate with a slight rolling motion between seats formed in the junction. These cham- bers also connect by means of openings with the vertical induction passage, D, which openings are so formed that the valves, E, E, consisting of pure vul- canized rubber, and their seats, F, "&. constructed so as to sustain the valves, maj' be easily inserted. The delivery passage, II, which is common to both chambers, is also constructed so that in the openings that connnunicate with each cylinder are placed valve-seats, G, G, fitted for the reception of the same style of valves as in the induction passage. I, I, are valve-guards to prevent the valves from opening too far, I'o facililiUc the re;uly removal of the valves and valve-seats, it will be observed the flanges that cover the openings are slotted to receive the bolts, the inits of which being loosened they are readily removed and the covers displaced. J, represents the vacuum chamber, cast with and between the necks of chambers A, A, and connects only with the induc- tion passage below the valves E, E. K, K, are llanges PULSOMETER. 607 FUL801I£TEB. (■(ivcrinir (lie openings to llic respective elianiliers, wliicli niiiy lie rcinoveil fur llie repair iir renewal of valves and seats, when necessary. V<'nt plu^s are inserted into these flanges, for llie purpose of draw- ing oir the water lo])revenl freezing. L, L, ar<! rods extending from tiic valve-guiirils to tlic set-screws M, M, li# which the siielion seals, valves and guards are lightly pressed loplace. N, N, are hrass s<icket- lieailiMl holts by whi(-'li the disehargi' seats, valves and guards aredrawii down to place. A small hrass air check-valve is screweil into Ihe neck of each chamher, A. A. ami one irilo the vacuum elunuher J, so that their stems hang downwarc valve in the neck of each chamber, small quantity of air to cnler above prevent the steam from agitating it trance, and thus forms an air piston condensation. The check-valve in the ber, J, serves to cushion the ramniin water consequent upon the tilling of alternately. The pulsometer. when titled with a ber ball valve, seat, and guard, is espi I. The clieck- A, A. adows a the water, to on its first en- for preventing vaiuumcham- g action of the each chamber very hard rub- ■ciaily adajited l>ulsomeli-r, D-inch sut'tion CIO feel;, and ;t-inili din- charge will readily raise water ■'iO feel out of a well. A braii<;h from the discharge pipe leads into a hogs- head or tank, ami supplies water to charge the pump before turning on steam to'slartil. and for furnishing walc-r to the inji'clor for feeding the boiler. The leading of a i)ipe from a reservoir or water pipe to the middle chandiir of the pump for charging will be fouml very convenient in other situations, espec- ially whi-re tiu' |)unip is lial)le to loose its charge from sediment getting under the valves. The chief point to l>e observed in working the iiulsorneter on arlesian wells is to select a size pump that the well will supply with water. If not a flowing well, a ))ump of smaller suction than the [>]]»■ in the well should be applied Oiw raising 300 gallons per uun- ute will fail to work on a well giving but 100 gal- lons. A Ko. 5 (175 gallons per minute) usually re- ([uires a chain of at least five two-inch pipes, con- nected with a three or four inch nuiin to supply it with water. In cases where Ihe water does not raise to within ten feet of the surface, it will be found ad- vantageous to lower the pump a litth' in order to ob- tain tiie water freely. If the pump is found to be large at times, the "remedy may be had by making a connection from the discharge pipe back into the pump and regulated by a globe valve as shown in tlie above drawing. The remaining applications of the pidsometer are numerous: 1. For policing ])urposes an<i as a lire ex- to cofTer-dani work, sinking wells, sewers, excava- tinguisher, it has no ecpial. The absence of all ma- tious. foundations, etc., where all the water pmnped contains more or less sand, gravel. to be mud , and "other sediment that would clog tlic grid valve seat and disc valve usually used in tin- pumps. .\ chinery, its simple arrangement of valves, the easy manner in which they can be replaced without skill- ed labor, their inability to clog from sediment, and the certaintv in which il can be started marks a PULTUH. 608 PUMPING ENGINE. strong contrast to the ordinary donkey pump. 2. As a pumping engine in garriscjns, to be on lianii at short notice for pumping out flooded casemates, cel- lars, excavations, wells, and other inundated places. The pump can be detached from the carriage and lowered to places too low down /or suction from the engine, steam being carried to it from the boiler through tlexible steam-hose. 3. As a mine pinup, there being no exhaust steam to dispose of. It is es- pecially adapted for lifting water from one level to another. For use underground in mines, colleries, etc., where lifts do not exceed 60 to 90 feet, its use has been fully proved. For a greater height one can be used above another. 4. For tilling water tanks in foundries, etc., it is very handy, and may be so located as to till the tanks directly from a contigu- ous pond, stream, or well, by using the steam from the working engines. B\- having a flexible steam connection readj'for instant application, it would do away with the necessity of water tanks, separate boiler, and the expenses of a special engineer. 5. As an irrigating pump for post and company gardens, its simplicity, strength, durability efficiency and econ- omj- are all in its favor. G. For tilling tanks on buildings, for use with elevators, or in case of fire. The pipe leading down from upper tank has hose connections on each floor, from which a hose should be connected and ready to run out to extinguish a fire within a few seconds from time of discovery, and long before an alarm could be made to the depart- ment. Hose connections are also made from dis- charge pipe of pump on the upper floors. cai composition, it agrees with obsidian, of which it may be regarded as a ])eculiar form, rapidly cooled from a melted and boiling state. It is of a white or gray color, more rarely yellow, brown, or black ; but so vesicular, that in mass it is lighter than wa- ter, and swims in it. The vesicles, or cells, are often of a much elongated shape. Pumice often exhibits more or less of a filamentous structure, and it is said to be most filamentous when silica is most abundant in its composition. It is very hard and very brittle. It is much used in arsenals for polishing wood, me- tals, lithographic stones, etc., and in the'preparation of vellum, parchment, and some kinds of leather. PUMMEL.— The hilt of a .sword, the end of a gun, etc. PUMPING-ENGINE.— An engine especially de- signed for pumping, and much used for military pur- poses. A pump may he driven by an ordinary steam-engine which also drives other machinery, but in the pumping-engine the pump and steam-engine are inseparably connected, and are confined to the act of pumping. There are a good many smaD ma- chines of this kind which only pump, but they are not commonly called pumping-engines, that term be- ing applied only to large works. The first steam- engines were pumping-engines ; that of Newcomen, which was driven by atmospheric pressure (steam being used only to create a vacuum), and Watt's, and the Cornish engine, which used steam as the motive power. There has been much improvement in the duty of piuuping-engines since the Newcomen engine. Estimating the work done by the number ^^ PULTUN.— An Indian term for a regiment f)f iiifan- of poimds raised one foot by a bushel of Welsh coal try PULVERMASSEN.— The German name for a kind of h.iMrick with wooden powder-tubes. PUMICE. .V mineral found in volcanic CdUiitries gem rally with obsidian and porphyries. In chemi- ('.14 lbs.), the following notes show the improvenu'nt which has been made: Newcomen engine (1760 ),,'>, ."iOO (KIO; the same improved by Smeaton (1772),9,.'")00,- 000. Watt's engine {1778 to IHl.")), 20.000,000. Cor uish engine (1820), 28,000,000; the same '1820), 30,- PUMPING-ENOINK. 609 PUMPING ENGIME. THE LEAM:TT PrMPING-EXGI>rE UriLT BY I. P. MORRIS & CO., POET RICHMOND IKON WOKKS, PHILADELPHIA. PUNCHING. 610 PUNCHING. 000.000; same C182S), .37,000,000; same (1829), 41,000.- 000; same (1839), 54.000,000; same (18.50), 60,000,000. Consolidated mines, highest duty (182T), 67,000,000. Fo%yey consols, Cornwall, hisrliest duty (1834), 97,- 000,000. United mines, highest duty (1842). 108,- 000,000. Among the largest pumpiug-engines in the world are tlie three wliicll were employed in the drainage of Haarlem Lake inHolland. Each engine worked several pumps, and had an average duty of 75,000.000 lbs., raised one foot by 94 lbs. of Welsh coal. One of these engines is described as follows : two steam cylinders are placed concentrically, the diameters being 144J and 84t inches. They are united at the boUom. jjut there is a space of nearly \h in. between the inner cylinder and the top. The areas of the pistons are as 1 to 2.8.5, and are con- nected to a common cross-head or cap by one prin- cipal and four small piston-rods. This engine works 11 pumps, each of <13 in. (.5j ft.) diameter. The measured delivery of all the 11 pumps at each stroke is 63 tons. The steam is cut off in the small cylin- ders at from one-quarter to two-thirds the stroke, and after expanding through the remainder it is fur- tlier expanded in the large cylinder. Tlie drawing shows in section the horizontal com- pound-cylinder pumping-engines. of the tvpe de- signed by Jlr. H. F. Gaskill, an America'n. The novel feature by which this type of engine is distin- guished is the location of thehigh-pressure C3iinder on the top of the low-pressure cylinder, giving short steam communication. This arrangement requires the pistons in the two cylinders to move in opposite directions. These are connected with each other, and the pressure of steam upon them is transmitted to the plunger of tlie pump in the following manner; The latter is set in line with the low-pressure cylin- der, and so receives the thrust produced by the pressure in that cylinder directly. The low-pressure piston is provided with two rods, which are extend- ed to the length of teufeet tothecro.ss-headby which they are connected to the rod of the pump plunger. Midway in their length, another cross-head is se- cured upon tliem. which runs on a guide. The rod from the high-pressure piston is keyed into a cross-head corresponding to this. The connection between these cross-heads is made by means of a short vertical beam and connecting links, through which also the force exerted in the high-pressure cylinder is transmitted. A shaft carrying a fly- ■wheel revolves in bearings which are set iqjon the delivery chambers of the two pumps. The two en- gines are connected through this shaft by means of cranks set on either end of It, at right angle's with each other, and connecting rods from these cranks to the upper enils of the beams. The cranks determine the length of the stroke, control the movements of the pistons and plungers, maintaining those of the two engines and pumps in a constant relaiion witli each other, and give motion to the valve gear. The steam is admitted to the liigh-pressure cylinders by double-seated poppet-valves. A cut-off mechanism is introduced into the motion of these valves, vvhicli is adjustable to cut the steam off at anv point in the length of the stroke. The point of cut-off jnay be fixed liy hand, or by the action of the gov- ernor wlieu the latter is thrown into gear. 'The .governor is constructed to be operated by 'changes in the pressure of water iv the delivery main, and acts to correct the.se changes by varying' the point of cut-off, and thus the speed of the engiiie, in accord- ance with the variations in the demand for water. The conmiuiiicating valves between the high and low pressure cylinders and the exhaust valves are gridiron slides. Tlie engraving on the iireceding page gives a per- spective view ol a pviraping-engine, having a remark- able capacity and duty, built by the I. I'. Morris C'om])any, I'hil.adelphia. It is a (■()nipouiiil beam en- wine, the steam cylinders of which are inclined out- i^ardly at the top to connect with opposite ends of the working beam. The cylinders are jacketed on the sides and heads, steam of boiler pressure being u.icd in the jacket of the high pressure cylinder, and steam of a reduced pressure in the other jacket. The drainage from these jackets is ordinarily re- turned directly to the boilers. The steam and ex- haust valves are gridiron slides giving large open- ings with small movements. The valves are ac- tuated by cams, whicli are driven b_y gearing from the crank-shaft, and a centrifugal governor adjusts the cams, operating the steam valves of the hiL'lx pressure cylinder so as to vary the point of cut-off and maintain a constant engine speed. The pump is driven by a connecting rod attached to one end of the working beam. The pump consists of a plunger, to which is attached a bucket with valve opening upward. There are seven receiving valves, and four delivery valves, in addition to the valve in the buck- et, the water being discharged from the pump through two delivery pipes, above and below the bucket respectively." Tlie pump valves consist of loaded rubber discs with central guiding stems. The original valves were of metal, double beat, and the introduction oI the present form has greatly in- creased the pump's efficiency. The following are the results of the dtit^ trial of this engine : Pounds of wood used to start fires, 400. Pounds of coal put into furnaces, 3. .500. Pounds of coal withdrawn from furnaces at end of trial, 27. Pounds of coal wholly consumed (400x0.4-)-3,500— 27)=3,633. Pressure on main by gauge (lbs. per sq. inch), 64. Water level in well befow'gauge (ft.). 29.05. Water pressure (lbs. per sq. in.)"; 29.05x0.433-1-64=76.0. Area of pump bucket (sq. in.), .536.0465. Revolu- tions of engine, 12.337. Duty of engine, (ft-lbs., per 100 lbs. of coal), 536.0465 X 8 X 12,337 X 76.6 x 100 = =111,548,935. 3.633 -When any heavy beam of wrought- PUNCHING. iron — one, say, twelve or fourteen inches square — is struck by a heavy shot at high velocity, the beam snaps short off. as though it were cast-iron The same shot, striking a wrought-iron plate backed in the usual manner of armor, penetrates or perforates it in a manner similar to the action of a hand-punch on a sheet of iron laid on a block of wood. The ef- fect is entirely local ; the hole is made without bend- ing or twisting the plate in one case, or the sheet in the other. The same projectile, propelled with a low velocity, will bend the beam and produce the ordinary fracture of wrought-iron, and in case of the plate, the latter will be distorted, strained, and loos- ened from its fastenings. A simple way of explain- ing these phenomena is as follows : In the case of the high velocity the effect is wliolly local, liecause the surrounding material has not time to propagate the vibration of impact throughout the mass. In other words, the cohesion of the material is not sufficient, in the time allowed, to overcome the inertia of the surrounding mass. The distributian of the eff'ect in the other case is due to the low velocity, wlierein a certain length of time is consumed in accomplishing the blow. During this interval, all surrounding par- ticles of iron have time to sustain the point struck; tlu! force of the blow is thus sjiread over a large sur- face, and the cohesion of the jjarticles is undisturbed, since each particle is enabled to contribute the force of its attraction towarils uniting the whole. These two distinct cfl'ects are called, respectively, ?)»»(,7im^ and rackiitij. The work done by a shot is represent- ed by its weight multi|ilied by the square of its ve- locity at th(' moment of impact ; from which it will be seen thai a small projectile moving with great ve- locity is capable of doing the same amount of work as a large projectile with low velocity. The rhararter of the work is, however, as above explained, entire- ly dilTereiil. In case of a given projectile, whatever PUNCHIHG MACHINE. on PUHIC WABS. powpr is pmplnypfl in rackinj; tlio Bide of the vrtisd doi'H iKitliiii!; towards prni'tnilion, iind virrvrmd. The theory in ftivor of punchiiit; is, that tlie vital parts of the vessel and tlie active enemj within- the men, puns, and machinery— arc reached at once. A projectile picrcini; (lie armor of a vessel carries with it portions of the tiroli<'n ]ilate, which, toj;etli- er with bolts, nuts, and frai^mi'iits of wooit from tlie liiiekin^', form a species of biii(jriiiii\ the cITect of which is not less to lie feared on a crowded deck, or in a turret, than the explosion of the most formiilalile shell. I5ut to i)rodiice this result the jirojectile must penetrate entirely through. A projcctih^ movinj; with a punchini; velocity has oidy local eflcct, penetrat- ini; without rackini; the armor. If it ;;oes hut partly throufih.it does no daniafje either to the ship or lo the enemy within. 'I'liercfore, whether from the i;reat- ness of ran!je,the thickness of the armor, or want of power in the gun, entire perforation cannot \iv elTcct- ed, it is only a waste of ammunition to use it in sim- ply indenting armor. Although as|)herical iirojectile may have, >ipon starting, greater velocity thanarille projectile of equal calil)cr, and conse(iuently may have greater punching power stored up in it at this part of its tlight, nevertheless, owing to its greater cro.ss-sectional areu, in proportion to its weight, it will lose its velocity more rapidly, and the rillc projectile will soon overtake it in its lligUt and go far beyond .inch objects as armor-plates, steam-boilers, iron- ships, bridges, an<l (/tlier gn'at works, would have been so great as to have (•Ifeetiially prevented tliem from lieing undertaken. The piincliing-muchine in- vented by .Messrs. Kol)erls anrl N'usmyth, willi re- cent moditi<ations and improvement.s, is in very general iiscf in all our great engineering works and arsenals; its issential [larts are the punch, levir, anil the spring. The punch is simply a piece of tough, hard steel of a eylindrieal form, and of the size of the intended holes; it fits into a socket, which is suspended over a fixed iron plate or bench, which has a hole exactly under the punch, and ex- actly tilling it. In tlie socket which holds the punch is a coiled iron spring, which holds up the punch, and allows it to descend when the power is applied, and returns it w lien llie pressure is relieved. The lever, wlien in action, presseson the top of the punch, and the plate of metal which is to be perforated be- ing placed on tlu^ iron liencli, receives the pressure of Ww. punch with sutHcient force to press out a disk of metal e.Mictly the diameter of the punch, which falls through the hole in the iron bench. The lever is moved by a cam on a very powerful wheel, which presses uiion it until it can pass; then the lever be- ing relieved, the punch is drawn up by the spring in its socket, ready to receive the action of the cam when the revolution of the wheel again brings it to it in range. At the distances that iron-clads usually engage land batteries,smooth-bore projectiles would possess no punching power ; therefore for this kind of work rifles are the only suitable armament for such batteries. They should be powerful enough to do the work effectually. When heavy enough for this, all additional weight is rather a detriment than an advantage, from the fact that light guns are less cumbersome, can be tired more rapidly, are more easilj' replaced, when disaliled, and less costly in ammunition. They likewise stand greater relative charges and yield higher velocities with safety. The 8-inch rifle, carrying a projectile 18.5 pounds in weight, fired with a charge of 35 pounds hexagonal powder, is the minimum caliber that can be successfully used against tlie present style of sea-going iron-clatls. See Rarking. PUNCHIHG MACHINE.— The enormous develop- ment of our iron manufactures has necessitated the use of machine tools in the place of those made for the hand, and none of the very ingenious in- ventions for this purpose have played a much more important part thanthe punehing-marhhie.t, for with- out them the labor of drilling holes in iron plates for bear on the lever. The punch itself is always solid, differing entirely in this respect from the hand-tools. This useful machine will perforate thick plates of iron, such as are used for ship-building, almost as quickly as a workman with an ordinary liand-punch could perforate thin plates of tin ; tlie holes made are quite true, and are ready to receive the rivets. The drawing represents the improved machine, hav- ing sufficient power to punch an inch hole tlirough half inch iron ; it is driven by an eccentric and slid- ing box, civing IJ in. movement to the punch bar ; it "has a clutch on the eccentric shaft for stopping it without shifting the belt. There are both fast and loose pulleys on the driving shaft, so that the countershaft is not needed. The weisht of the machine is 0.850 pounds. PUNCTO.— A term applied to the point in fencing. PUNIC WAES.— The name commonly given to the three creat wars waged for supremacy between Rome and Carthage. The Latin word punicuD, or pcFnietm. was the name given by the Romans to the Carthaginians, in allusion to their Phenician descent. The Romans, who believed, not without reason, that the Carthasinians never sincerely meant to keep any PtJKISHMENTS. 612 puEsurr. treaty of peace, employed the phrase punicn ficks, '• Punio failli." to denote a false and faithless spirit. PUNISHMENTS.— Sentences awarded by Courts- Martial or t'onimauding Officers for crimes commit- ted b}' officers or soldiers. They are detailed in the Articles of War. They consist of death by hanging or shooting, according to the offense, and of flogging. These are Uie punishments for the most aggravated and flagrant form of offenses. The minor punish- ments include imprisonment, loss of gooil-conduct stripes, degradation of rank, loss of appointments, extra drill, stoppage of pay. and confinement to bar- racks. An otHcer can be sentenced by General Court- Martial to death (in time of war), cashiering, or dis- missal from the service, according to the crime lie is guilty of. In the British service, military punish- ments include death by shooting, if for any olTense against discipline — or by hanging, if for a disgrace- ful olTense : for serious crimes in the field against discipline, flogging, not exceeding 50 hashes, with the cat-o'-nine-tails, for minor offenses, degradation of rank, imprisonment, extra <lrill, stoppage of grog, loss of good-conduct pay, stoppage of leave, etc. Death, degradation, and loss of leave are the only punishments of those named above which can be in- flicted on an officer. An officer can only be punish- ed by sentence of a Coiirt-Martial ; he may be cash- iered, dismissed the service, deprived of his regiment or ship ; or, in the navy, reduced in rank by being placed at the bottom of the list of officers of his grade. In certain of the German armies, punish- ment is inflicted on the men in the form of strokes with a cane or with the flat of a saber. The punish- ments established by law or custom for United States soldiers by sentence of Court-Martial, according to the offense, and the jurisdiction of the court, are: deatu; stripes for desertion only; confinement ; hard labor; ball and chain ; forfeiture of pay and allow- ances ; and dishonorable discharge from service, with or without niarking. It is regarded as inhu- man to punish by solitary confinement, or confine- ment on bread and water exceeding 14 days at a time, or for more than 84 days in a year at intervals of 14 days. PUPPET-HEAD.— A sliding device on the upper part of the bed of a lathe or boring-machine. It holds tlie back center, and may be fixed at any re- quired distance from the front center. See Lathe. PURCHASE. — A nuchauical power to increase the power ajiplied. The names are various ; some indi- cate a difference in character; others merely in ap- plication. Among them are : irhi'i), irhip-npun-irhip, liiff-tdcklr, li/ff-upou-luff, runner, dimhle-runner , bar- ton, jeer, viitl, gun-tackle ; as well as icinclt, gin, jnck, ih rri'ik, erah, i-apgtiin, windlans, etc. See Block, Piil- //.(/. and T.f.kl,. PUKCHASE SYSTEM.— A highly unpopular and much-misunderstood arrangement in tlie British army; by wliich a large prciporlion — more than half — of the first appointment of officers and their subse- quent promotion used to be effected. It dates from the first formation of an English standing army, and was fornmlly recognized in the reign of Queen Anne. The system itself was vcr_v simple. A price was fix- ed by regulation for each subsliinlive rank, vi/.: Pric(^ Difference. Lieutenant-colonel i'4.500 £i:iOO Major :«00 1400 Oaptain IHOO 1100 Lieutenant 700 2.'50 Cornet or Ensign 4.')0 Wlien any officer holding one of lliese regimental comnussions desired to retire from the army, he was entitled to sell his conunission for the price slijiuliiled in the above table — £i,hM in the case of a Lieuten- ant-colonel. This sum was made up by the senior Jliijor, w'ho was willing and able to purcliase, buy- ing tlie rank of Lieulenanl-colonel for t'l.IiOO: Ihc senior Captain, willing and able to purchase, buying a Majority for XI, 100; u Lieutenant purchasing" his company for £1.100; a Cornet or Ensign becoming Lieutenant on payment of £350; and lastly, by the sale to some young gentleman of an Easigucy or Cornetcy for £1.50. In practice, fancy prices higher than the above were usually given, according to the popularity of the regiment, and vested interest in tliese over-regulation prices caused most serious complications whenever the Government made any cliange affecting the promotion of Purchase Officers. Tlie value of commissions in the Guards was iUso greater; but as they constitute but ;i few regiments, and are mostly officered from the Xohility.they do not need particular description. No commission coidd be purchased by one officer unless another officer vacated his position by its sale. Death va- cancies, vacancies caused by augmenting any regi- ment, vacancies residting from the promotion of Colonels to be Major G^enerals, were filled without purchase, usually by seniorit\-. No rank above Lieu- tenant-colonel could be purchased. It is alleged with truth that purchase enabled the rich man to step over the head of the poorer but per- haps better qualified Non-purchasing Officer : and that monej' decided where merit should be the only guide. These disadvantages, however, it is replied, were not unmixed. Purchase, it is argued, intro- duced into the army men of a very high class in so- ciety, who gave a tone to the whole of military life. A great proportion of these wealthy men entered with the intention of merely spending a few years in the army. This tended to keep the officers young — a great advantage ; and. further, provided in the cotmtry, among its gentlemen, a body of men well adapted for commands in the militia and volunteers. Moreover, selection exercised arbitrarily, as it must be when the men from wdiom the selection is to be made are scattered all over the world, away from the selecting power, isliableto create dissatisfaction. LTnder purchase, exchange was a common thing ; for the rich officers, for private reasons of locality, etc., were glad to change frequently from regiment to regiment, entering in each case at the butUnn of the list of officers of their rank in their new regi- ment. This, of course, was an advantage to the Non-exchanging Officer, as it pushed him to the top ; and the first death or other non-purchase promotion then fell to him. An officer who had not purchased at all might, nevertheless, sell his commission for its full value if he had served 20 years, or for a sum less than the regulated price after shorter service. Tins was also a spur to proinotion. On the whole, though exposed to the disadvantage and annoyance of being passed over \>y younger officers, the non- purchasing, /. e. the poor officers'benefited pecuniarily by the purchase-system. This is proved by the slow progress officers made in corps where purchase did not exist, as. for instance, in the Royal JIarines. Few would counsel the formation of a new army wiUi such a system as purch;ise; but (m the other hand, it had its advantages in its workings. Purchase did not exist in the artillery, engineers, marines, 19th to 21st regimeuts of cavalry, 101st to lOOtli regiment.s of foot. The purchase-system was abolished by Koyal Warrant in .July. 18T1; and by the regulation of the Forces Act of the same year. P;irli;niu'iU laid down a scheme for the gradual compens;ition of officers wlio had lost the selling rights. Under that scheme It is expected that a sum-total amounting to nearly £8, 000, OIK) will be re(|uired. PURPLED.— A term in Heraldry, used with refer- ence to file lining, bordering, iir garnishing of robes, or (iriiumentaliou of armor. Of- ten written J'lir/li ired. PURPURE.—In'lleraldry, the co- lor jiurple, expressed in engravings by lines in bend sinister. It is oif infrequent occurrence in British ller.'ihlrv. Purpuro. PURSUIT.— A victory, by which the enemv isonlv forced from the battle-field, is for PURSUIVANT. 013 PUTNAM NAIL. tho most part hut a half sucrpflH, if such it might be called, lis the losses uiiilcr (in- un- tiiil. very siimll ooiiiparcd to those arisini; from llic (leiiiondi/alion of a lirokcii anil dispersed army. A protiipt and vinorous />'/;'/i'/rt is tlie only mli'utih of insiiriiii; coiii- pl()l(^ success. Defealed and disorf;ani/.ed, the oidy hope that remains lo the enemy is llial he: nniy have time to rally and concenlrate his scattered troops. Tlie only way to frustrate this hope is to pursue these disorf;ani7.ed nuisses, which are in no condition to resiirt a very inferior force if it assails them in i|;ood order. Under these circumstances we nniy separate our army into corps, forcing the enemy thus upon diver^'cnt lines of retreat, and preventini; all co- operation between them. In doinf; this, we must, however, be very careful not to drive the enemy in such directions as will lead to his concentration on any one point. If the enemy retires in good order, covering his line of retreat from our attempts to turn it. nothing remains to be done l)ut lo pusli him back with our entire force; keeping close upon his heels, and giving him no time to take advantage of deliles or other .strong points to check us, so us to nuike us lose time, and give the opportunity to him to receive re- inforcements. When he attempts to do this we should hold him in check on the main road, whilst we attempt to turn his Hank, ami endeavor to gain his rear. By this promptilude and vigor of action our forces will hardly be relarded, but will be al- ways in position to turn any point upon which he attempts to make a stand, and thus force him to fall back continually as we push forward. When we have come up with the enemy, we have one of two courses open to us : either to tlirow our- .selves across his line of retreat, or else to leave this open to him. whilst we take a position on his flank. Tins last course is usually the more prudent, for, however weakened, it is a very dangerous tiling to reduce an enemy to despair, and thus <all forth heroic efforts, where but a moment liefore lliere was nothing but discouragement and a willingness to get away at any cost, even honor. With great superiority of force, by barring the way to the rear, and pressing on vigorously in front, we may hope " <" !ing" the entire army ; in all other cases, it is more certain to limit ourselves to operating on the Hank, and thus secure a part, with but little loss to ourselves, but with great demoralization of the enemy. Having dispersed and demoralized the enemy's forces, the more ditlicult problem remains of hold- ing Uie conquered territory. This becomes the more ditlicult when the enemy's territory has no fortified phices that we have been able to seize, and thus hold as rallying points for our own troops. All that re- mains then to be done is to occupy strong strategical and populated points, by detachments of sufficient slreaigth to keep the enemy quiet. This brings about numerous inconveniences : first, as these points must be strengthened by field works, and, in the second place, the main army must be greatly weakened by the detachments that this system renders necessary. In the mean lime the enemy's broken forces having retired towards the interior, are there reorganized, recruited, and concentrated, until, at last, an equili- brium between the two contending forces is brought about, and the struggle is recommenced to go, per- liaps, through the same phases. "These inconveniences may, in a great degree, be avoided by having a rexerve force in rear of the mov- able army, charged with the sole duty of holding the territory occupied. This reserve, which should not be further than a few days' march from the front of operations of the movable forces, should be dispersed over as great an extent, parallel to this line, as practicable; thus enlarging the base of oper- ations, collecting supplies on a greater extent, and keeping a larger amount of population quiet. This reserve may be composed of new levies, and, being held in all points subordinate to the active army, it will be ready to co-operate with it in anyway deemed besl. PURSUIVANT.— The third and the lowest order of heraldic olllccrs. The olHce was instituted as a no- vitiate, or slateof probation IhroUL'h wliich tin- olllces of ilerald and King-al-.\riiis were ordinarily to be at- tained, though it has been held that a Herald or King-at-Arms may be made per mKtum, There are four pursuivants fjclongint to the English (,'ollegc of Arms: J{'>uge droix, the oldest, ho named, from the cross of St. (leorge; lilue Mantle, instituted either by Edward III. or llcmry V., and named in allusion to the robes of the Order of the (iurter, or perhaps to the color of tlie arms of France; Jtouije JJriigvn, du- riving his title from King Henry VII. 's dexter sup- porter, a red dragon, assumed in allusion to his de- scent from C'adwaladyr; and Portculih, named from a badge of the same >fonarch. There are six fiursui- vants in the heraliiic establishment of Scotland, known by the nariii'S of Dinyirall. llute, Carrick, Or- iiuiitd, l\i:itj/ri', and I ' nifurn —i\\.U:n which, as well as tlio.se of the Heralds, seem to have originated in the reign of James III. The Scottish pursuivants take precedence according to seniority in olTlce. In ancient times, any great nobleman might insti- tute his own pursuivant with his own hands and by his single authority. The Uukes of Norfolk had a pursuivant, called lUawh Lyon, from the white lion in their arms; the pursuivant of the Dukes of Xorth- umberland was styled Eaperance, from the Percy motto; and Richard Nevil, Earl of Salisbury, had a pursuivant called Kgle Vert. We even find Sir John Lisle in 1443 making Thomas de Laiiney his pursui- vant, by the title of lUiinrh Snuglier. The ancient costume of a pursuivant of the King was a surcoat, embroidered with the Koyal Arms, and worn with one sleeve hanging down in front, and another be- hind. In 1.57(5 Houge Croix was severely censured for wearing his coat as a Herald. In later times, however, a pursuivant's coat is worn exactly as a Herald's, the latter officer being distinguished by the collar of SS. PURVEYOR. — Anoflicerwho is charged with super- intending the civil affairs of army hospitals, as the payment of men, procuring provisions, medical com- forts, bedding, etc. The Purveyor acted independ- ently of the Medical Officer, and was responsible through the Purveyorin-Cliief to the Secretary of State for War. The Department consisted of a Purveyor-in-Chief, Principal Purveyors, Purveyors, Deputy-Purveyors, and Clerks. The Purveyor-in- Chief ranked with a Colonel in tlie army, and" had a salary of £.547 per annum, rising to i-'TyO after long service. In 1808, the Department was merged with others in the Control Department ; and on the abo- lition of the latter in 187.5, its functions passed to the Commissariat and Transport Department. In the United States Service, the Chief lledical Pur- veyor is the chief purchasing and disbursing officer of the Medical Department ; and under the direction of the Surgeon General, he is charged with the sup- ervision and distribution of all medical and hospital supplies. See Medifal Department. PUSH-PICK. — An implement, fiat and pointed, used to place the frames and sheeting, when constructing a mine. PUTNAM NAIL.— .V hot-forged and hammer-poin- ted horse-shoe nail recently introduced, and regard- ed by the military authorities as the best machine- made nail manufactured at the present lime. These nails are forgeil separately from the rods, the iron when nearly at a welding heat being drawn out un- der four hammers, by use of petroleum gas (thus avoiding all sulphur}, by which means a firmer, tougher^ and more compact nail is made than is possible by any other process. In the pointing as well as in the making, an endeavor has been made to follow the old ha'nd process as nearly as pos- sible. All lameness', temporary, or eveii perma- nent, often results from a sliver or thin shell of the POTTT-POWDEE. 614 PYBOHETEB. nail entering the quick when driven into the hoof, causing great inconvenience and sometimes pecun- iary loss, butinthcsenailsgreatstiffness and ductility has been maintained, the tibcr of the iron is kept un- injured, and it is impossible to cause them to sliver. The drawing represents a section of a horse's foot, and shows the frequent effect of driving cold-cut horse-nails that are liable to sliver in driving. 1, is the coronet bone: 2, is the colBn-bone; 3, is the navicular bone: 4, is one blade of a slivering nail, passing through the quick, or sensitive sole, into the coffin bone: fi, is the other blade of the nail passing out of the wall of the hoof for clinchins. The other parts may be represented as follows: — n. The wall. t>. The sole. c. The cleft of the frog, d d. Tlie frog. e e. The fatty frog, or elastic cushion. /. The sensi- tive .sole. g. The sensitive sole, h h h. The ten- dons of the muscles which bend the foot. /. Part of the pastern-bone, k k. The tendons of the muscles which e.xtend the foot. i. The coffin-joint, m. The navicular joint. ?i. The coronary substance, o. The sensible laminse, or covering of the coffln-bone. It requires but little observation and reflection to arrive at the conclusion as to the kind of nails to be used in the horse's foot, whether a mangled piece of iron, rendered dangerous by improper manipulation, or one made from the rod at a welding heat, where all the fibers remain intact, and afterwards hammer- pointed. The foot is an important member of the animal's body, and demands the greatest care and attention, for when it becomes injured or diseased, no matter how perfect the other parts may be, the horse's services are diminished or altogether lost. Hence the value of a horse depends upon the condi- tion of his feet. From the days of Tubal Cain to the present time fire has been the only sure element with which iron could be properly wrought. Every other method has resulted in producing articles of great inferiority where strength and durability are required, and in no place are these two requisites more necessary than in the horse's shoe-nail. The ancients used only charcoal in the working of iron, thus avoiding all sulphurous gases, hence the superiority of their weapons. Tlie old Damascus blades owe "their su- periority in part to the use of asphalt when being forged, thus avoiding the presence of sulphur, which is so ruinous to all kinds of iron and steel. I'rofil- ing by this knowledge, the manufacturers of tliis nail have abiuidoned the use of coal and coke in the forging, and use only pure carbon gas made from petroleum, and are tliereby enabled to obtain a much higher temperature in the working of the iron. Tlie Putnam niiil is drawn down to a point from the rod of iron, as shown in the drawing, and receives about sixty (juick, successive, sharp blows, at a welding heat. It is then sealed by the water process, no acids being used, and ;ifterw:ir(ls liamnier-jiointeil. It is to all intents and jmrposes the same as the old- fasliioned haud-mude and hammer-pointed nail. PUTTY- POWDER.— A material consisting of perox- ide of tin, in great use for polishing small-arms and metal work. It is also used as a coloring mate- rial for white glass, and for the white enamels of porcelain, etc. It is made by melting tin ; as the .surface o.xidizes, the scum, which is the peroxide, is raked off. and when cold, is reduced to a fine pow- der, which is white in color, and the particles are extremely hard. See Polishing. PTKGI. — Movable towers, used by the Greeks in scaling the walls of besieged towns. They were driven forward upon wheels, and were divided into different stories, capable of carrying a great number of soldiers and military engines. PTKITES. — A common name for the ancient vhed- lock, used before the invention of the flint-lock. PYKOBOLI.— Fireballs, used both by the Greeks and Komaiis. Frequently called Malleoli. PYROMETER. ~A term originally applied by Mus- chenbroek, in 1731, to an instrument which he invent- ed for measuring all the changes produced in the dimensions of solid bodies by the application of heat. It is, however, now applied to any instrument the object of which is to measure all gradations of temperature above those that can be indicated by the Mercurial Thermometer. DesaguHers gives a description of Muscheubroek's instrument, as im- proved by liimself, in his Expetimental Philoi,<tphy. Numerous pyrometers have since been invented, amongst which may be noticed those of Ellicott (des- cribed in the Pliilosoplucal Transactions for 1736 and 1751), Graham (in Do. for 1754), Wedgwood (in Do. for 1782, 1784and 1786) and Guyton (in the Annales, de Chimie. tome 46). None of these instruments, however, gave accurate results for very high tem- peratures; and it was not till the j-ear 1821 that Pro- fessor Daniell announced the invention of his pyro- meter, which has supplanted all others, and for which, in an unproved form, he received the Rum- ford Medal from the Royal Society. The method by shrinkage having been adopted for the insertion of the tube of the 8-inch breech-load- ing rifle, it at once became important to provide some reliable means for measuring, from time to time, the expansion of the cast-iron casing while undergoing heating. It was deemed most desirable, also, m connection with these measurements, to determine accurately the corresponding tergpera- turcs, in order to acquire trustworthy data, which might serve for reference in future operations of this nature. The instruments prepared for the above purposes were as follows : 1. For the measurement of the expansion. In this operation, since the instrument would require to be inserted within thebore of the heated casing, it was deemed necessary to emplo)' a measuring tool of such poor conducting material as would undergo itself as little change from the heat as possible. Accordingly, a number of wooden measuring-rods, with steel points screwed into the ends, were con- structed. The lengths of these rods were then ad- justed by a vernier rule, reading to 0".001, so as to form a series, gradually increasing bv 0".005, from 22". 00 to 22". 09, or to a little be.yond the re(iuired expansion. The length of each measuring-rod was stamped upon it, and a stiff wire attached to it at tlie middle, by which to handle it in taking a meas- urement. By means of these rods, using a longer and longer one till one was found that would just enter the casing, the measurements of the inlerior diameter of the healed casing were rapidly, and, it is thought, quite accurately made. The lengths of the measuring-rods, as verified by the vernier rule, im- medi;ilely after being withdrawn, showed no sensi- ble change. This mode of measurement was devised by the South Boston Iron Company. 2. For the measurement of the temperature. For the delcrmination of the teniperalure it was decided tociii|iloy a pyrometer of the form usually known as the hydro-pyrometer; in which the temperature i8 as- PTROPHORE STIRRUP. 615 PTHOTECHNY. ccrtainc'd by f.xpoMing to the action of the heat ivhicli is lo !)(' iiicaHiircrl a dctinitc wcifjhl of some liiclal. as plaliiiiiiii. slcrl. copper, elc, ami then iiueiieliin'.; Ilie same ill a kn.iwii weifjlil of water, and iioliiii; the rise in teniperatiire of the latter. From lliis data, and the specilie heal of the metal employed, the initial temperature of the metal, whieli is till' temperaiure reipiired, ean he readily oMiiiiied. Tims, if a piece of platiimm weiLrhiiiir 1,0(111 '.Tains should, when immersed in 2.0(10 j;rains of water at a Icmpcradire of (iO" Fahrenheit, raise the temperature of the latter to 'JO", then 90"— 00" =30", multiplied liy 2 hecaii.se the weight of the •.vat<'r is twice that of the platinum, uives 00", the temperature to which a wci;;lil of water equal to the |>latiiiuni would have liccn raised. Tu obtain from this the initial temperature of the platinum, in F.ihreiihcit degrees, we multiply by 31 \. the spceitie heat of water as compared willi ]ilatiimm, that of the latter being 1, and to Die result add the tem- Iieratnre of the water. Therefore (00 X 31 1 J -f 90 = l'.t(i5 is the temperature re(piired. The principle may otherwise be stated as follows: A body of known weight W is raised to a final temperature T, and then ])liiiiged into a quantity of water of weight W' and lein])eratur<' t. which is contained in a cop- per vessel called a "calorimeter." .\s T is sujiijosed to exceed t. the water gains in temperature by the immersion of the body, and finally attains a maxi- case con be easily written down, since it in onlj' nec- essary loexpressthat Iheqnanlity of heat given up by the heated liody H equal lotlial gained by the water, the caloriiiielrr. tlermomelir, iiii.xer. etr-. Ijet W denote tlu' weight of the hod}- : T its initial temperature ; a; itH specilie heat : H'' the weight ol the water in the calorimeter; m' the weight of the calorimeter; a;* its specific heat ; w" the weight of th<' mixer, and a-" its speeide heat : w'" the weight of the tljcrinometer-liibe immersed in the water; y its specilie heat, and if'^' the W(-ight of the mercury in the thermometer-tube, and x'*' its specific heat. Then Wx ('T—A)='W' -j- ir'y + w"x" -|-Mi"'a:"'4-»/-lvxiv) {A—t), and (W + w'x' + w"x"-\-w"'i!" -\- wiva-iv) Cyl — t) T= -f A Wi In the above expression the coefficient tti{A—t) is called the vater ((juiraUnt nf the rah,rivuter, and evidently represents a mass of water such that, sup- posing it to receive exclusively all the heat given up in the exjierimert. a therniomiter placed in it would indicate the variation of temiierature actually ob- si'rved. To determine this value for the particular case under consideration, take the following sched- ule : Parts. Material. Copper. Weight, ozs. "o C •so CO a O So. Numerical value. Ball. 5.012 W. .1013. x. t'" x" Wx. .50772 Water 34.192 11.23 1.51 .25 .30 W' w" w'" JO'V 1. .1013 .1002 .199 035 W' w'x' w"x" w"'x"' Ujivxiv 34.192 1.137G .1513 .0498 0105 Calorimeter Mixer Tliermometer-tube Copper Brass Glass W'-l-wiV 4- w"x" + (r"V+"''^'*''^'= .50772 35 .5412 ^ ^ ^ ^ 1 mum temperature .1, which is noted. In the change from t to -i, the water has gained a quantity of heat equal to W (.1 — 0.,Mnd the t)ody immersed has lost a (juantity equal to Wx (T — -4); x being the spe- cific heat of the body, that of water being equal to 1. Equating these two quantities we have "W' (.4 — = Wj(T — -1) Solving in reference to T. we obtain W' {A—t) T = h .1 Wj This metliod of pyrometric measurement was first adopted by Clement-Desormes and Schwarz, for the measurement of the heat of furnaces ; it was after- ward employed by Regnault in the determination of the specific heats of various substances, liquid and solid, and by Dr. Siemens in some delicate experi- ments up<m the varying electrical conductivity of telegraph wire under different degrees of tempera- ture. The above equation assumes that the only exchange of heat is between the water and the heat- etX body, which is not actually the case. The heat of the body is not given up exclusively to the water in the calorimeter, but partly to the calorimeter it- .self, to the thermometer, the mixer, and such other instruments as may be employed in the experiments and come in contact, directly or indirectly, with the heated body. -4 The equation for the most general From which we determine — W'4-«>'a;'-|-M"j "-|-tp"V-|-Kiiva;'v 35.5412 Wx ^ 50772' " =70. for the wafer equivalent of the pyrometer, or the value of each degree in the difference between the temperature of the water before and after the im- mersion of the heated coppc. . The expression fot the temperature thus becomes T=70 (A — t)-\-A. See Tliermnmftfr. PYROPHORE STIRRUP.— .V stirrup in ver>- ancient times provided with a lantern, which gave light and warmed the feet of the rider. PYROTECHNY.— The art of making fireworks, and of unknown antiquity. It was practiced among the Chinese from th:- earliest times. and has attained with them a perfection unknown in other countries So much is this the case, that they treat as insignificant the most brilliant of other displays. In their fire- works they introduce many surprises, such as figures of men and animals darting out. but they are some- what deficient in the mechanical arrangements. Fire- works, as the name is now understood, were hardly known in Europe until the discovery of the com posi- tion of gunpowder, and for a long time only very simple pyrotechnic contrivances were used. At pres- ent they may be divided into two kinds — the simple PYEOXYLE. 61G PYKHHIC DANCE. hand-pieces, such as squibs, crackers, rockets etc.; and the other, the fixed contrivances whicli have often very ingenious mechanical arrantrements for making some of their parts revolve rapidly wlieu be- ing discharged. The materials used are gunpow- der, sulphur, charcoal, saltpeter, filings of steel, iron- copper, etc., and several salts: such as nitrate of atrontian, acetate of copper common salt, etc. The in'^redients of tireworks arc usually filled into pa- pe'r cases, made by rolling pasted paper round a cy- linder of wood, of the proper diameter, until the case is of suflicient thickness, and then cutting the paper tube so formed into the required lengths for squibs, Roman candles, small rockets, and simi- lar articles ; they seldom exceed ten inches ; one end of each is closed by drawing a piece of string tii'htly round, so as to pinch it in. or choke it, as it is te'chuically called, and then dipping it into melted resin, which effectually seals it. the combustible ingredients are filled in"at the open end, and, if neces- sary, are rammed down with a wooden ramrod ; the opening is afterward covered with a piece of touch- paper, to prevent the composition falling out, and to ignite it by. The effects produced by fireworks are either streams of fire issuing straight out of the cases, and much varied witii sparks in the form of stars, etc., and col'ired with brilliant colors, or wheels of beautiful sparks produced by making the cases revolve rapidly. Revolving pieces are made by coil- ing the paper tube, when not too tightly filled, around a Sat wooden center; the force with which the com- bustion of the materials is carried on, is sufficient to make the board revolve with great rapidity. Small wheels of this kind are called ("'atheriae mlieelx. fb'guihx or serpents are made by filling tubes, eight to ten inches in length, with a composition of 1 lb. of niter, 2 oz. of charcoal powder (rather coarse 1,4 oz. of gun- powder, 4 oz. of sulphur, and 6 oz. of steel filings. The last is an important ingredient in many fire- works, producing brilliant," feather-like corusca- tions, which are the more beautiful the larger and cleaner the filings are. Rm-kets are tied to a wooden stick. When they are about to be discharged,, this stick is stuck in the ground, and in that position the io-niting point of the rocket is downward ; when lighted, it rushes into the air with great velo- city and reaches a consideriible height, discharging as "it goes a brilliant stream of sparks. Rockets re- quire a hollow center all down the tube ; without this they will not rise. At the end of their course, they often discharge very brilliant clusters of golden, ruby . emerald, sapphire-like stars, or showers of golden or colored rain, or of fiery serpents. This is produced by a supplementary part, called i\\e gnrni- ture of the rocket, consisting of a shorter and broad- er paper tube, called the p"(, attached to the end of the fusee part of the rocket, and filled with a com- position made into paste with pure alcohol, and cut into stars, or granulated into small, round bodies for drops. The serpents for rockets are small tusees, with the same composition as scjuibs ; they are so packed as to ignite all at once. The white stars are made of niterV 16 parts ; .sulpluir, 8 parts ; gunpow- der, 3 or 4 parts ; nitrate of strontian added, makes them ruby red ; sulphur or acetate of copper, and sulphate "and carbonate of barytes, green; zinc fil- ings give a blue color. YiUinc stm-s and ylloir s/ioir. #rii are made of niter, 10 parts, 10 of sulphu;-, 4 of charcoal, 16 of gimpowder, and 2 of lamp-black. A deeper and richer golden color is produced by a very slight variation in the composition— viz., 2 parts less of sulpluir and charcoal, and 4 additional of gunpowder. .Many other ingenious devices are used by masters in the art of jjyrotechny, but they are loo numerous and too technical to come within the limits of this work. The Itnmnn cii/idle is a favorite firework ; it is a tube which is held on the ground, and discharges upward a continuous stream of blue or wliite stars or balls. Hini/itl lights are cases of about an inch or more in dumu'ter.filled with a composition of 7 parts niter, 2 of sulphur, and 1 of antimony. These are much used as sig- nals at sea ; they diffuse an immense glare of bluish- white light. Chinese or j<i.iemine ft'/v, which is used bj' itselfor in combination with other mixtures, con- sists of 16 parts of gunpowder, 8 of niter, 3 of finely- powdered cliarcoai.3 of sulphur, and 10 of small cast- iron borings ; the last must be finer or coaser in pro- portion to the bore of the case to be filled. The com- pound devices in fixed fireworks, such as are seen at publio entertainments, are very complicated in their structure, and are varied more or less by every artist. One nice point in the arrangement is to insure sim- ultaneous ignition of all the various parts. See Fire- icorks. PYROXYLE— FYKOXYLIN.— The action of nitric acid on such vegetable substancesas saw-dust, linen, paper, ami cotton, is to render them very combusti- ble. In their natural state these substances are al- most entirel}' composed of Uynine, the constituents of which are oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon ; nitric acid furnishes nitrogen, a substance which enters into the composition of nearly all explosive bodies. Pj-roxyleor gun-cotton has the composition indicat- ed by the symbol C„H,(NO,)305, or C.;H,N30, _,, and is formed by the action of concentrated nitric acid on cotton. The reaction consists in the sub- stitution of nitrogen and o.xygen in feeble combina- tion for part of the hydrogen in the cotton or cellu- lose, and is therefore similar to the one by which nitro-glycerine is produced. The equation illustrat- ing tlie reaction may be thus written : CeHioOs -f 3HN0, = CeH,(N0s,)305 + 3 H^O Cotton or Nitric acid. Nitro-cellnlose or Water. Cfllulose. gun-cotton. A number of these substitution products are known, but only one is used as an explosive agent. Some of the others are largely employed for making collodion. Pyroxylc was discovered by Prof. Schonbein, and published to the world in 1840. His method of preparing it consists of mixing three parts of sul- phuric acid, sp. grav. 1.85, with one part of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.4.5 tol..50; and when the mixture cools down to between 50'^ and 60° Falir., clean rough cotton, in an open state, is immersed in it; when soaked, the excess of acid is poured off, and the cotton pressed tightly to remove as much as possi- ble of what remains. The cotton is then covered over and left for half an hour, when it is again pressed, and thoroughlj' washed in running water to remove all free acid. After being partially dried by pressure, it is washed in an alkaline solution made by dissolving one ounce of carbonate of potash in a gallon of water. The free acid being thus expelled, it is placed in a press, the excess of alkaline solution expelled, and the cotton left nearly dry. It is then washed iu a solution of pure nitrate of potash, one ounce to the gallon, and being again pressed, is dried under a temperature of from 150*^ to ITO''. The sul- phuric acid has no direct action on lignine, its use in the preparation of pj'roxyle being to retain the water abstracted from the cotton, and prevent the solution of the compoimd, which would take place, to a greater or less extent, in nitric acid alone. See (fun-cott'in PYRRHIC DANCE.— The most famous of all the war-dances of antitiuity, said to have received its name from one Pyiriclios, or, according to others, from Pyrrhus or Neo|itolemus, the son of Achilles, Orilical scholars, however, content themselves with a general inference deduced from the substanlial har- mony of the various niythi(;il or legendary accounts given of its origin — viz.. thiit it w;is a Doric inven- tion. It w;is d:inced to the llute. and its time was both quick iuid light, as niiiy be seen from the Pvrr- hic foot, composed of two shorts (- -), and the t'ro- keleusmatic, orchallenging-foot. of twoilouble shorts (-■--'-). According to Plato, it aimed to represent the nimble motions of a warrior cither avoiding mis- QUACEENBUBH AIB OUN. 617 QnAKTE. siles and blows, or assniilting the nnemy; and in tlie Julius CccBar introdurfd it at Rnmr?, where it borame Doric Statr's, it was as murh a picfo of military train- a great favorite. The Hirmnika, Htill danced in iiii; as an aniuHcinent. KIscwIiitc, in (Jricci', it was Grccrcc, is saifl lo be a inorlcrn relic of the ancient purely a mimetic dance, in « liidi the parts \vcr<r i I'yrrhic dance; but if Dr. Corrigan's deHcription of it Bomctimcs represented by women. It formed part C Ten. Dayn in Athenn, 18G1J Ih correct, it is not easy of the public eulcrtaiumtut at I^auatheuaic festivals. ■ to sec the resemblance. Q QUACKENBUSH AIE GUK.— The moBt perfect and efTeclive i^iin of its cla^s, at present made. Being a hard-sliooter,an<l easily iuanipulaled.it is well suit- ed for practice at short range: and is very extensively us<'d hy N'cruits wlien learning the principles of aim- ing and firing. Tlie ilrawing shows its workiuL' parts. Pulling Ihe tri^'ger releases the piston iV). which is then thrown foward hvthc spriiiir. c.xpellinL' the air from the chamber (Cj. through the barrel (15;i with great force, carrying tlie dart or bunet before | an instrtiment employed, like the spirit-level quad- rant, to give angles of elevation or (lepression when there are no sights to a gun. or when they cannot be used. It dilTers from the spirit-level quadrant in having no spirit-level, but a plumb-line which is sus- pemled from the rit'lil angle. QUADRANT ANGLE, llu^ angle which the axis of the |iiece, when laid, makeswiththe horizontal plane. It is termed, rpiadriuit elevatii/n or gurulrant dfjrrex- xliin, according as the piece is laid above or below it. To Imid the gun. the barrel (3) is pushed into j the horizontal plane, the cylinder ("C). which re-sets the pistim, compresii- i QUADRATE. — In gunnery, a term meaninc to as- es the spriiijr, and allows the dart or bullet to be certain if .a piece of ordnance is properly placed on inserleil through the opening (A), after which the i its carriaL'e, and the wheels are of ef|inil height, barrel is drawn forward to the stop as shown. It | QUADKILATEHAL.— In military language, an ex- will be observed that the spring guard ffl) can be drawn back instantly to remove the barrel for [lack- ing, etc.; andthat tlu' whole length of the Ijarrel is effective, there being no waste space to occasion a loss of air. The barrel is easily pushed into the chamber, by placing the muzzle upon the floor or against some tirm ooject. .See Air-gnn. QUADI. — An ancient people living in south-east Germania ; of the Suevic race, and inhabiting that part of what is now Bohemia, Lower Austria, and Moravia, which lay between the Sarmatian moun- tains and Ilcrcynian forests and the Isteror Danube. They were Allies of the Marcomanni, their neigh- iDors on the north-west. The Roman Emperor Ti- berius established a king<lom of the Quadi, and made Yannius, one of his generals, King. In 174 b. c. the Quadi, rose against the Empire in confederation with other Germanic races, and it was only after stubborn resistance that they were overcome. QUADRANT. — In gunnery, an instrument, gcner- all)' nuide of brass, for ascertaining or adjusting the elevation of ordnance, particidarly mortars, which have no tangent scale. The quadrant is graduated into degrees and parts of a degree, having a movable index, with a spirit-level and vernier attached to it. When the instrument is used, the limb or bar of the quadrant is inserted into the bor<' of the piece; the index which is attached to tlie graduate<l arc is then tixed to the particidar elevation re(piired. and the piece elevated or depressed until the s])irit-level is horizontal, which is shown by the air bubble run- ning to the center. Another pattern iiuadrant to that hitherto in use has been introduced. It differs from the one generally known in being altogether of a str<mger form ; the bar or limb has been reiluced to 13 inches in length; the base is broader, and is fitted with a stop to prevent its slipping iuti> the chamber. The counterbalance weight is arranged ' so as to ensure the quadrant lying flat on the bottom of the bore of the piece. A 'Guriner'n Quadrant is pression denoting a combination of four fortresses, not necessarily connected together, but mutuallv sup- porting each other; and from the fact that if one be attacked, the garrisons of the others, unless careful- ly observed, will harass the besiegers, rendering' it necessarj'that a very large army should be employed to turn the combined position." As a remarkable" in- stance, and a very powerful one, may be cited the Venetian Quadrila"teral (Austrian till I'SGG), compris- ing the four strong posts of Mantua, Verona, Pesch- ' iera. and Legnago. These form a sort of outwork to the bastion which the southern mountains of the Tyrol constitute, and divide the north plain of the Po into two sections by a most powerful banier. Napoleon III., in 18.59. even after the victories of Magenta and Solferino, hesitated to attack this quad- rilateral. QUADRILLE.— Small parties of horse richly capari- soned, etc.. in tournaments and at public festivals. The quadrilles were distinguished from one another by the shape or color of the coats which the riders wore. QUAKER GUNS. —Old wooden pieces of ordnance which were made to resemble the real artillery, and placed in the embrasures of forts, in order to deceive the enemy. QUARREL. — The missiles used for all cross-bows, witli the exception of the rrnxs-hoir n galet.\rcTe call- ed qninreh or bolts; and often written quarry. One kind of quarrel (!;/rf^<«) was feathered so as to reg- ulate the movement by giving a rotatorj- motion. Another kind {matras) ended with a round knob, which killed without shedding blood. See Articles of \\',ir. 24. QUARTE. — In tactics, a word of command given in the bayonet exercise; as quarte parry, wliich is executed as follows: 3Iove the piece quickly to the left, the small of the stock passing imderthe left elbow, the piece covering the left shoulder; the bar- rel to the left, bayonet in front of, and higher than the QUARTEB. 618 QUARTERMASTER OF CADETS. shoulder, the left forearm on the right of the piece, the elbow touching the right wrist, the tingers on the stock, j QUARTER.— 1. In Heraldry, a subordinary con- I sisting of the upper de.\ter fourth part of the shield, 1 cut off by a vertical and a liorizontal line meeting in the center of the shield. When two or more coats are marshaled together on a shield divided into squares for their reception, such divisions are also called quarters. See Qiuirtering. 2. In war, the sparing of the life of a vanquished enemy, which bj- the laws of war is forfeit to the victor. The expression seems to be derived from the use of the word "quarter" to designate the lodg- ing of the particular warrior ; to give quarter to a pri- soner being to send him to his captor's quarter for liberation, ransom, or slavery. The refusal of quart- er is a terrible aggravation of the horrors of war. and is only at all justifiable towards an enemy who has been guilty of atrocious cruelty himself, or of some flagrant breaclx of faith. It is against tlie usage of modern war to resolve, in hatred and revenge, to give no quarter. No body of troops has the right to declare tliat it will not give, and therefore will not expect, quarter ; but a : third quarter of the shield, and the paternal arms the Castile and Leon, and first wife of Edward I., as re- presented on her tomb in Westminster Abbev— the Castle of Castile occupying the flrstand fourtli quar- ters, and the Lion of Leon the second and third. The arms of England and Ponthieu are similarly quar- tered on the same monument, and on the "crosses erected to queen Eleanor's memory. The received rule regarding the quartering of theensignsof differ- ent states is, that precedence is given To the most ancient, unless it be inferior in importance. Feudal arms are sometimes quartered intlie same way by subjects. 2. Arms of augmentation, or spec- ial concession accorded to a subject by his Sovereign, by way of honor, are sometimes granted to be borne quarterly with the paternal arms. Tliese contain a portion of the royal insignia, and have precedence of the paternal coat. 3. The most unusual reason for quartering is to indicate descent from an heiress who has intermarried into tiie family. Where there is but one heiress, her coat occupies the second and commander is permitted to direct his troops to give no quarter, in great straits, when his own salvation makes it impnmble to cumber himself with prisoners. Troops that give no quarter have no right to kill ene- mies already disabled on the ground," or prisoners captured b)' other troops. Alt troops of the enemy known or discovered to give no quarter in general, or to any portion of the army, receive none. "Troops who fight in the uniform of their enemies, without any plain, striking, and uniform mark of distinction (if their own, can e.xpect no quarter. If American troops capture a train containing uni- forms of the enemy, and the commander considers It advisable to distribute tliem for u.se among his men, some striking mark or sign must be adopted to distinguish the American soldier from the enemy. The use of the enemy's national standard, flag, or other emblem of nationality, for the purpose of de- ceiving the enemy in battle, is an act of perfidy by which they lose all claim to the protection of the laws of war. Quarter having been given to an ene- my by American troops, under a misapprehension of his true character, he may, nevertheless, be or- dered to suffer death if, within three days after the l)attle, it be discovered that he belongs to a corps wliich gives no quarter. QUARTER ARMS.— A term in Heraldry, meaning to place the arms of other families in the compart- ments of a shield, which is divided into four quar- I ters, the family arms being placed in the first quarter first and fourth. Where there are more than one, they are marshaled in the successive quarters in the order of the intermarriages. Where more than four coats have to be marshaled, the nimiber of vertical lines is increased, and the divisions, though more than four, are still called quarters. Where there is an odd number of coats, the last quarter is usual- ly filled up by repeating the first. One of tlie quar- ters may itself, be quartered, when the heiress was entitled to bear a quartered coat ; the shield is then said to be counter-quartered, and its primary- quar- ters are called grand quarters. Quarterings are not allowed to be added to the paternal coat without the sanction of the heraldic authorities. The expres- sion " quarterings" is often loosely used for dfsc-ents in cases where tliere is no right to quarter from rep- resentation. The eightVr sixteen quarterings which are sometimes ranged around the Scottish funeral escutcheon, and which are still important for many purposes in Germany, have no reference to repre- sentation, but simply purity of blood for four or five generations; i.e., that the father and mother, the two grandmothers, and four great-grandmottiers, as also in the case of sixteen quarterings, the eight great-great-grandmothers, have all been entitled to coat-armor. See Quarter. QUARTERLY.— A term in Heraldry, meaning in quarters or (juarterin'js : as, to bear arms quarterly. QUARTERMASTER.— A regimental Staff Officer, "of the relative rank of Lieutenant, wiiose dutv is to when more than three other arms are to be quartered 1 look after the assignment of quarters, the provision with the family arms, it is usual to divide the shield j of clothing, forage, fuel, and all other Quartermas- into a suitable number of compartments; and still j ter's supplies : and when on the march he superin- the arms are said to be quartered. QUARTER BLOCKS. —Small blocks used for v.arious purposes in meclianical maneuvers. They are usually 20 inelies long, 6 Inches wide, and 2 inches thick." QUARTER GUARD.— A guard mounted in camp, mimediately on the arrival of each corps on its grounil. [t is placed in front of the center of the camp, at about eiglity paces from it and is charged ■with special <luties QUARTER HUNG. -A term emi)loyed when speak- ing of a gun whose trunnions have tlui. axis below the line iif bore. QUARTERING. In Heraldry, the bearing of two or more coals on a sliield divided by horizontal and perpendicular lines, a practice not to be found in the earlier heraldry, and little in use till the l.'ith century. Arms may be ([uartered for various reasons. 1. To indicate dominion. A Sovereign quarters the en- signs of his different States. The earliest instance of quartering in Kngland is fouml in the |)alernid arms of Eleanor, daughter of Frederick III., King of tends the marking out of camp. He is appointed by tlie Colonel of the regiment, subject to the ap- [jroval of the Secretary of^ War. He vacates his Staff position wdien promoted to the rank of C'aptain, or at tlie discretion of the Colonel. In the British service, the regimental Quartermaster rises, with few exceptions, from the ranks. His duties are to su- perintend, assign to their respei'tive occupants, and have charge of, quarters, barracks, tents, clothing, etc., used bj' the regiment. He is also regimental storekeeper. The Quartermaster lias no further pro- motion to look forward to; but after ;iO years' ser- vice in all — incluiliug 10 as an <inicer— he may retire with the honorary rank of Captain. He ri'ceives lOs. 2d. a day in the cavalry, and Us. 2d. in the in- fantry, rising by length of service to l.'is. 2d. and lys. 'id.: with slightly dilTerenf rales in the guards, engini'ers. etc. He is mil n'quired In jciiii the Mess QUARTERMASTER AND COMMISSARY OF CADETS. — .\n Ollicer of the Army, detailed liy the Secretary of War. and assigned to duty as t^uartermaster and Commissary of Cadets at the C S. Military Academy. QUARTERMASTER GENERAL. (;i!) QUATliENIONB. litis charged willi all matters relatinp to clothing, (■(|iiipjiicnt, liiid sulisisli'iifc of I lie CiKlctH, inchiding jiiirvi viiit; and supiTvision of I he ('adds' Mchh. A Hoard of Iiispcclors, coiisisliiii; of tlirce oltk-crs appointed liy llie Superintendent, cxaniirics and com- l)ares «ilh approveil jjatterns all uriieles of (,'adets' clotldni;, an<l materials for makiiii; the siimc ; and also examines all otIuT supplies fiirnislied liy the Quartermaster and Commissarv of Cadets, and re- ports to the Superintendent, at such times as he ap- points on the qualit}- andsuitableness of the articles ; ' but the Superintendent may assign an oflicer to in- spect clothini; and shoes furnished for issue. No cIothlDK or other article is issued or sold to the Ca- dets without heins; tirst inspected and approved. After every muster this Hoard carefully audits the accounts for clothing, and all other authorized charges asiaiiist Ciiili'ls. QUARTERMASTER GENERAL.— A Slalf Officer in the United States Army, wlio has the rank of Briga- dier General, and is at the head of the (^uarlerinas- ter's Department. In the British army he is a Stall Oflicer uf lugh rank, whose duty it is to arrange the marches, quarters, anil internal arrangements of the army to which lie l)clougs. Kvery army lias some officer of this Department; from a lirigade with a Deputy Assistant Quartermaster General, receiving £173 7s. (id. a year, besides regimental pay, up to a complete army under a Commander-in-Chief, with a Quartermaster General, who is usually a general officer, and receives .£'(iS)l IDs. 7d. per annum, be- sides his other pay. At headquarters there is a per- manent Quartermaster General, responsilile for all the movements of the army, the organization of ex- peditions, camps of instruction, etc. He receives i'l ,.500, besides his pay as a general officer, and has a Sub-Department at the War Oflice, witli clerks, etc. He is under the officer commanding in chief, and the Adjutant (leiieral. QUARTERMASTER'S DEPARTMENT. Department is charged with the duty of providing the means of transportation, b.v land and water, for all troops, and all material of war, It furnishes the horses of the artillery and cavalry, and horses and mules for the trains. It provides and distributes clothing, tents, camp and garrison equipage, forage, lumber, and all material for cam]is and for shelter of troops and of stores. It builds liarracks, storehouses, hos- pitals; provides wagons andaiiibulaiices;iiid harness, except lor cavalry and artillery horses: builds or charters ships, steamers, and boats, docks, and wharves; constructs and repairs roads, railways, and bridges; clears out olistructions in rivers and har- bors, when necessary for military purposes: provides, by hire or purchase, grounds for military encamp- tiients and buildings; pays generally all expenses of military operations not by law expressly assigned to some other Department; and, linsUly, it provides and maintains military cemeteries, in which the dead of the army are buried. The following are general depots of the Quarter- master's Department in theUnited States, and the offic- ers in charge thereof report directly to the (Quarter- master General: New York. Philadelphia, and Schuyl- kill Arsenals, Washington, D. C, JelTersonville, lud.. and San Francisco, Cal. All other depots are under the orders of the Commanding Generals of the Mili- tary Departments in which tluy are situated. The Commander of the Military Division of the Pacilic, however, for all purposes of his command, has au- thority over the depot of San Francisco as over De- partment depots; but in matters relating exclusively to the collection and manufacture of military suj)- plies, the officer in charge of that depot communi- cates directly with the Quartermaster General of the army. The present organization of the Quartermaster's Department consists of one (Jmirtermaster (ieneral, with the rank of Brigadier General; four Assistant Quartermaster Generals, with the rank of Colonel: eight Deputy QuartermaHter (iencrals, with tlie rank of Lieutenant C(j|onel: fourteen (Quartermasters, with ' the rank of Major; and thirty Assistant Quarter- masters, with tlie rank of Captain. QUARTERMASTER SERGEANT.— A Non-commin- sioiied Olllcer who assists tlie (Quartermaster in his vari<ius duties. He ranks among the regimi-ntal Non-commishioned Statl, and is appoinli'd by llic Colonel of the regiment upon the recommendation of the (Quartermaster. In the British service, he re- ceives daily 4s. .'id. in the cavalry, 4s. in the artille- r3", 2s. lid. in the infantrv of the line. QUARTER OF ASSEMBLY. -A rendezvous or place where llie tn.i.jis lueei to march from in a boily. QUARTERS.- 1. 'riKMiicampmcnt on one of the l)riiHip;il passages round a place besieged, to prevent relief and intercept convoys. 2. In military affairs, ((uarters are generally the positions assigned to persons or bodiesof men. In a more special sense, the quarters in the army are the places of lodging assigned to olhcers or men, when not actually on duty. At all posts and stations where tliere are public quarters in buildings belonging to the United Sl;ites. olhcers may be furnished with quarters in kind in such public buildings by the (Quartermaster's Deiiartment. There is allotted by the (Quartermaster at the station. under the direction of the Commanding OHicer.to each officer such num- ber of rooms as is allowed to his grade by the Kegu- lations of the Army. When assigned to duty with- out troops. or temporarily and involuntarily awaiting orders, under com])etent authority, officers are entitl- ed to the prescribed allowance of quarters. But in no case is an officer furnished with quarters at two dif- ferent stations at the same time. Application .should be made to the Quartermaster on the arrival of the officer at the place where (juarlers are to be provid- ed. See All'tirance of (Jnartem. QUARTER SIGHTS.— In gunnery, divisions marked on the upper quarters of the base-ring, commencing where it would be intersected by a plane parallel to the axis of the piece, and tangent to the upper sur- face of the trunnions. These sights are used for giving elevations up to 3". The mode of elevating the gun is by bringing the division on the base ring expressing the required degree of elevation and the notch on the aide of the muzzle in direct line with the object; the^un will then have the proper degree of elevation. To lay the gun point-blank, the low- est notch on the base ring and that on the side of the muzzle are brought directly in line with the object, and though the gun may have been laid point-blank with reference to the object, it may have several degrees of elevation or depression with regard to the ground or plane of the horizon. " QUARTERS OF REFRESHMENT.— The place where the troops that have been much harassed are put to recover themselves, during some part of the cam- pa ii:n. QUARTER STAFF.— Formerly a favorite weapon with the English for hand-to-hand encounters, being a stout pole of heavy wood, about 6i feet long, shod with iron at both ends. It was grasped in the mid- dle by one hand, and the attack was made by giving it a rapid circular motion, which brought the loaded ends on the adversarj' at unexpected points. QUATERNIONS.— the name given by its inventor. Sir W. R. Hamilton, to one of the most remarkable of the mathematical methods of calculi, which have so enormously extended the range of analysis, while simplifying its application tc the most formidable problems in geometry and gunner)-. It would be inconsistent with our phmto give even a complete though elementary analytical view of this calculus; but it is possible, by means of elementary geometry and algebra alone, to give the reader a notion of its nature and value, i'or this purpose, it will be necessary to consider some very simple, but im- portant ideas with reference to the relatire jumtion, of points in space. Suppose A and B to be any two QUATEKNIONS. 620 QUATEBNIONS. Stations, one, for instance, at the top of a mountain, the other at the bottom of a coal-pit. Upon how many distinct numbers dtjes their relative position de- pend? Tliis can be easily answered thus: B is so many degrees of longitude to the east or west of A, so many degrees of latitude to the north or southof A, and so many feet above or below the level of A. Tliree numbers suffice, according to this mode of viewing the question, to determine the position of B when that of A is given. Looking at it from an- other point of view, suppose A to be the eartli. B a fixed star. To point a telescope at B, we require to know its altitude and azimuth, its latitude and lon- gitude, or its right ascension and declination. Any of these pairs of numbers will give us the direction of the line AB, but to determine absolutely the po- sition of B, we require a third number— viz., the length of AB. Hence, it appears tliat any given line AB, of definite length and direction, is com- pletely determined by three numbers. Also, if the line at be parallel and equal to AB, it evidently de- pends on the sapie three numbers. Hence, if we take the expression (AB) to denote {not. as in geom- etrv, the lengtli of AB merely, but) the length and direction of ^AB; we see that there will be no error introduced, if we use it in the following sense : A + (AB) = B ; i.e., if beginning with A, we take the step repre- sented by (AB). we shall find ourselves at B. From this it follows at once that, if C be anv third point, A + (AB) -f (BC) = C: i.e.. beginning at A, and taking the successive steps (ABj and (BC), we are finally brought to C. But we have also A-|-(AC)=C, by taking the step from A to C at once. Hence, ■with the present signification of (AB), etc.. we see that (AB)+(BC) = (AC), which shows that lines, when their length and direc- tion are huth considered, are to be added or compound- ed according to the same law as velocities or forces. In this sense, a line is called by Sir W. R. Hamilton Avectur. Again, we have evidently A + (AB) + (BC) + (CA) = A, because the three successive steps bring us back to the starting-point. Hence (AB)-f (BC) = -(CA), and therefore (AC) =: — (CA), or the sign (only) of a vector is changed if its direction be reversed. The rules for the addition, and, therefore, for the sub- traction, of vectors are thus extremely simple ; and, without any further preface, we are in a position to solve a great many geometrical problems, some of which are of no common difficulty. A comparative- ly simple one must suffice ; let us prove Euclid i. 33 i'. c . if AB lie parallel and equal to CD, AC is paral- lel anil equal to BD. In vectors, given (AB)=(CD), prove (AC)=(BD). We have at once, by going di- rectly from A to C, and then by the course A, B, D,C, (AC; = (AB) + (BD) + (DC). But (AB) = (CD) = — (DC) by what we have just proved. Hence the first and lliird terms of the ex- pression for (AC) are equal and of opposite signs, and therefore (AC) = (BD), This example has been chosen from its simplicity, and gives an extremely inadequate idea of the grasp whicli vectors take in common geometr}-. So far, we have not advanced much beyond com- mon geometrical methods; but we noir come to the Step in which (|uatiriiions proper are introduced, a vector being merely a degradeil species of quaternion. This new step contains Hamilton's answer to the question, answered over and over again during the last 50 vears in forms of the most uncouth complex- ity, " flow to express the product, or the <jUotient,of tiro vectors, or directed line.i." In other words, keep- ing to one part of the question only, what is the nature of the factor g in the equation (AC) = }(AB). where A, B, C are any three points ? Let us first consider on hmc many independent nwmbers does it depend? It might at first sight appear to depend upon six, for (AB) and (AC), as we have alreaay seen each contain tlree. But let us analyze the pro- cess of passing from the one vector to the other, much as we have already analyzed the vector step of passing from one point to another. To sim- plify the idea of the process, let us suppose it to be effected by a species of rotation. First, then, in order that (AB) may be turned so as to coincide in directiim with (AC) it must be ttirned about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the triangle ABC, and through an angle BAC. Now, the direction of a line always depends on tiro numbers, as we have seen above; hence, we will have two for the direc- tion of the axis, and one for the angle through which AB is turned. But AB and AC are not. in general, of equal length; hence, after their direc- tions have b_v turning been made coincident, AB must be compressed or stretched till its length is the same as that of AC. Thus, a fourth number is required for the complete description of the pro- cess, and, therefore, q depends upon four indepen- dent numerical guantities ; hence its name, quater- nion. A similar investigation, but somewhat less elementary, shows that The product of two vectors also depends on four distinct numbers. This will be proved analytically further on in the article. Now, suppose AB and AC to be egual to each other, and at right angles ; and suppose 9(AB) = (AC) ; i.e., suppose that g turns AB through a right ange in a given plane without altering its length. Apply the operation denoted by g, a second time, and we have ?. .?(AB=?(AC). g Now ?(AC) must represent a vector equal to AC in length, but turned through a right angle in the plane BAC. It must therefore be in the direction of BA produced through A, and equal in length to AB. Hence, by a previous remark, it may be ex- pressed by — (AB), or by (BA). Hence, g. 9(AB) = — (AB), or g.g= — 1. The particular quaternion, therefore, which turns a vector through 90'^ without altering its length, has its square equal to — 1. Though, of course, they are essentially a real geometrical conception, this result shows how closely quaternions are connected with what are called imaginary (luantities in analy- tical gcimietryand algebra. Now it is found, by a careful examination of all the consequences involv- ed, that we are at liberty to represent by a vector of unit length, perpendicular to the plane of two equal lines at right angles to each other, the quaternion which, employed as a mvdtiiilier, changes one of these lines into the other. This result we nuist as- sume ; as its proof, thougli not in any sense difficult, woulil rcquin- tlie free use of analytical symbols to condense it within our assigned limits. Hence tiiree vectors, each of tmit length, and each perpendicular to the other two, have the pro])erty that the product of anv two, taken in the proper order, is the third. For illustration, suppose these to be drawn eastward, northwaril, and upward, and lit them l)e represent- ftOATREFOIL. (iL'l QUICK MATCH. ed (according to Hamilton's notation) by /, j, k. run- pectivcly ; we have tlu^ following ('(nmtlons among tlU'Ill t i.j = /.%j. /.■ = /, k. i=j ; when- it isto Ih'oIjsitvciI llml Ilii-onlcr of the alplia- bet is inainlaiiicil llirouglnnii. Also, as before. «■<■ sec that i' ^j- = k' — — 1. 'C'onsiilcriiig them for a moment as handles to be laid hold of to turn the whole system alioiit one of them, we see that / turns ,/ ijilo the |)osiliou of/-; that is, llie operation/ may bcelTeeled liy a leflhand- ed (|uadianlal rolalion alioul llie eastward line /. What. Ihen, is the resuh, uiion the veelor / of the rotation symbolized by ;'? Layiui: hold (if IheiKirlh- ward line;', use it as an axis of left-handed (inadran- tal rotation, and the efTeet on lh<' system will be not (mly (as above,, ;'/■= 'o make the upward line an eastward one, but to make the eastward line a limrn- wird one ; in symools, j. i=—k. Comparing this with '•./ = k. we see that in quaternions, the commvtatire Imr of 7nulti/iliC(Ui»ii (/"C.1 n"t hold; i, r.. that the proiliiet de- [ pends not only on the faetors, as in arithmetic ami algebra, but upon the nrdfr in which the multipliia- tion is elfected. Tliis is. of course, a litlh/ jierplex- ing to the beginner, but is eii-.ily gut over; and the mere consideration of this fact is often sutticient for the proof of theorems regarded in gene- ral MS (if 11(1 (irdiiiary dillieulty. QUATREFOLL.— A heraldic bear- ing meant to reiiresent a Hower with four leaves. It is not represented Qoatre&il. ^^■n\^ ^ ^^.^\\^ unless lila/oned as Klip- pfd, in which case the stalk joins the lower leaf. QUEEN. — In its primary signification, the King's Consort, who has in all countries been invested with privileges not belonging to other married women. The English tjiieen. unlike other wives, can make a §rant to her husband, and receive one from him. he can sue and be sued alone, and purchase land witlidiit the King's concurrence. Tlie statute of treasons makes it treas(,)n to compass her death, or to violate her chastity, even with her consent, and the Queen consenting, is herself guilty of treason. If accused of treason, the Queen is tried by the Peers of the Realm. A duty, amounting to one one-tenth of the value of lines on grants by tlie Crown, was in former times due to the Queen, under the name of queen-nold. Charles I. purchased it from his Con- sort, Henrietta Maria, in Ida."), for X10,0()i), but it ■was not renewed at the restoration. The Queen's Consort is c.\empt from paying toll, and from n- mercements in any court. She has a household of her own, consisting of six I.adies of the Bedchamber, a Lord Chamberlain. Vice-chamberlain. Mistress of the Robes, blaster of the Horse, and three E(|uerries, as also her Attorney (leneral and Solicitor (Jencral. distinct from those of the King, who are entitled to take a jilace witliin the bar along with the King's counsel, and prosecute suits in law and e(iuity for the Queen. It has been the usual practice to Crown the Queen Consort with solemnities similar to those in the coronal ion of the King. In the case of the Qiiteii /^<((c,f(7<v is the widow of the deceased King. She retains most of the privileges which she enjoyed as (^ueen Consort, nor does she lose her dignity by re-marriage ; but it has been held that no one can marry the Queen Dowager without permission from the King.on pain of forfeiture of lands and goods. On the marriage of a King, or accession of an unmar- ried Prince, Parliament makes provision for the Queen's maintenance, in case of her siirvivance. An income of iUID.dOO a year, with two residences, was settled on the Queen of George III.; and the same provision was made for the late Dowager Queen Adelaide, at the commencement of the reign of William rV. The Queen-Dowager. when mother of the reigning Sovc-rcign, U styled the Qiiccn-Mutlicr. Until tiie time of (Jeorge If, Qneenii Consort bore the arms of the King impaled with their paternal coat, with the King's dexter and their jmternal sin- isler-supporler; since that period, they have uwd both royal siiiiiiorters. It is not usual to place the arms of the Queen Consort within the tarter. 'i'he Qiifen Jl'ynarU is a Sovereign PrlnceKH who has succeeded to the kingly power. In modern tinicn, in those countries where the Salic law does not pre- vail, on failure of nudcH. a female succeeds to the throne. Hy an act of (^ueen .Mary, the tlrst ({iieen- Kegnant in Kngland, it was declared '• thai the regal ]iower of this realnie is in the Queen's mujestie us fully and absolulelv as ever it wu.s in any of lier most noble progenitors kings of this realme:" and it Iiuh sin('e been held that the powers, jirerogalives, and dignities of the (^ueen Ketrnant dilTer in no respect from those of the King. The husband of the t^iieen- Regnant is her subject; but in the matter of conjug- al intidelily, he is not subjected to the same penal restrictions as tli<' (^ueen Con.sort. lie is not endow, ed by the constitution with any political rights or privileges, and his lionors and precedence must lie derived from tliet^iieen. A t^ueen Regnant is the only woman who is in her own right entitled to bear her arms in a shield and not in a lozenge. She is also entitled to the exteriorornaments of lielmet. mantling, crest, and motto, and may surround her shield with the garter, and tlie collars and ribbons of all other Orders of Knighthood of which she is Sovereign. QUEEN ANNE'S POCKET PIECE.— An ancient IH- pounder (■•■iimou ;it Dover. England. This piece is more thilll L'S feel ill IcllL'tll. QUEEN'S ALLOWANCE.— An allowance in Eng- land, in aid of the expenses of the officers' mess. It is applied towards reducing the cost of wine and diminishing the daily expenses of the mess, in equal proportions, viz., one-half for wine and one-half for mess expenses. This grant isalso knownas Hegml'ii Atb'irillifi . QUEEN'S COLOR.— In the British service, the color carried on the right of the two colors of a battalion of infantry. It is, in the line, the great Union or Union-jack, with the Imperial crown in the center, and the number of the regiment in gold Roman characters below the crown. In the guards, the Queen's color is crimson, with various devices on it. QUEEN'S REGULATIONS. — Tho.se collections of orders and regulations in force in the English Army, which serve to guide commanding and other officers in all matters of discipline and personal conduct. Financial matters are left to the War Office regula- tions. The Regulations for the army were first col- lectetl in 1788, since when .several editions have been issued, the last being in 1873. The current Regnla- titms are supplemented, corrected, and canceled by numerous circulars and addenda; so that they never re|iresent the whole body of military rules for many d;iys together. QUEUE.— A tail-like twist of hair formerly worn at the iKick iif the head by soldiers. QUEUES D'HIRONDE.— In fortitication. lines com- posed of projecting tenailles, or works, which, from the facility with which an enemy can enfilade their long branches, are considered extremely defective, and C(inse(|ueiitly are seldom employed. QUICK-MATCH.- Cotton yarn, of "several strands, saturated and covered with an inflammable composi- tion. It is used for communicating fire from point to point in fireworks, etc. The following materials are, required in manufacture : MfdUdpoirder: rott'-u i/urn wound in loose balls of convenient size (say 1 pound, which will measure about l,Ot)0 yards), such as is used for candle-wick. AVhen doubled and slightly twisted in the fingers it should be about .07 inch in diameter. Gummed Irrandj/ or irkij>kj/. in the pro- portion of 1 ounce of gum to i gallon of spirits. The gum is first dissolved in the smallest quantify of hot water or vinegar, and afterward mixed with the QUICKNESS OF BURNING. 622 BACKAHOCK. whisky. Strips of paper ; thread. One thousand yards of quick -match require 1 pound cf cotton yarn, 8 pounds of mealed powder, \\ gallons of spirits, and 2\ ounces of gum arabic. Weight when dried, 9 pounds. The following utensils are used in preparing the quick-match : Wooden or cupper buirbt ; 1 quart measure ; funnel or jrame ; reel. Steep the balls of yarn in the gummed whisky until they are quite thoroughly saturated. Make a good paste of mealed powder, by mixing 1 quart of gummed whisky to 2 pounds of powder, and put a layer of it about i inch deep in the bowl ; on tliis spread a roil of the cotton by unrolling the ball and distributing it equally on the surface of the paste until there are 5 or 6 yarns over one another ; put another layer of the paste.and proceed in this manner until the bowl is full, taking care not to entangle the strands; the last layer of this paste should be a little deeper than the others. After the cotton has been 3 or 4 hours in the bowl, wind it on a reel, or stretch it on nails 40 or .50 feet apart, making it pass through a funnel, or the hand, tilled with the paste, and taking care tliat the several turns of yarn do not touch each other. Before it is dry dredge it with mealed powder ; let it dry slowly, then cut it off from the reel or nails and put it in bundles. During the winter quick match should be made in a warm room. Match thus pre- pared should be hard and stiff, and the composition should hold flrmh' on. One yard burns, in tlie open air, 13 seconds. By using rinrgar, a match is made which burns less rapidly, in the proportion of 4 to -5: and with pure water, in the ratio of 4 to 6. Alcohol makes a quicker match, but it cannot be gummed, and the composition does not stick. A slow kind of match is made by adding sulphur to the mealed powder. With J of sulphur, one yard of match burns 23 seconds; with 5,33 seconds; with \, 53 seconds ; with ^, 163 seconds. Quick-match carefully inclosed in tubes burns much more rapidlv than in the open air, and more so in proportion as the tubes are made smaller. To communicate tire very rapidlv, it is inclosed in paper tubes, callled leaders. See t^ire- tcorkx. QUICKNESS OF BURNING.— The relative quickness of burning of two dillerent powders may be deter- mined by burning a train laid in a circular or other groove which returns into itself, one-half of the groove bein^ filled with each kind of powder, and lire communicated at one of the points of meeting of the two trains; the relative quickness is readily "de- duced from observation of the point at which the flames meet. QUICKSTEP.— ,\ lively, spirited march frequently played by military bauds. QDICK TIME.— In tactics, the length of.the direct step in quick time is 38 inches, measured from heel to heel; the cadence is at the rate of 110 steps per minute, or 2 miles 1G13 yards in an hour. See On di iicf and Step. QUILLED. — In Heraldry, a term used in describ- ing a feather, to indicate that the quill differs i,n tincture from the rest. QUILLON. — The ordinary cross-guard of a sword. See ' 'ross-f/unrd. QUILTED GRAPE.— The old pattern grape-shot, which consisted of a round iron plate or bottom, having an iron pin in its center, around which the small shot were piled, quilted with canvas, and tied, so as to appear in form something like a bunch of grapes. " QUINAN BREECH-SIGHT.— An improvement on the pendulum hausse. It is fixed in a socket on the right side of the breech. The scale has a spirit-level, by means of which it is made vertical. Tlie front sight is a sliort tube with cross-hairs fixed in it. The advantages claimed over the hausse are increased steadiness and accuracy. QUINTE. — An important guard in fencing. Usu- ally the fifth. QUINTIN. — An instrument used in the ancient prac- tice of tilting on horseback with the lance. It con- sisted of an upright post, surmounted by a cross-bar turning on a pivot, which had at one end a fiat board, at the otlier a bag of sand. The object of the tilter was to strike the board at such speed that the rider was past before the bag of sand, as it whirled round, could hit him on the back. Also written Quintain. QUIRITF.S. — A term applied, in ancient Rome, to the citizens as distinguished from the orgnaized sol- diery. QUISCHENS.— Tlie old term for Cuisses. the pieces of armor wliicli protected the thighs. QUITTING GUARD.— The Articles of War provide that an_v otficer or soldier who quits his guard, pla- toon, or division, without leave from his superior officer, except in a case of urgent necessity, shall be punLshed as a Court-Martial may direct. Quitting any post or duty without having received any pre- vious order for that purpose, is severely punished in the arm)'. QUIVER. — A case or sheath for arrows, formerly woni Ijy archers or bowmen. QUOIN. — A large wedge, used in place of an eleva- ting screw under the chase of mortars and the breech of short howitzers, to keep them in the proper posi- tion when elevating. It has a handle on the large end, by which it is moved. R RABINET. — A small piece of ordnance formerly in use. It weighed but 300 lbs., and fired a small ball of IJ in. diameter, with a very limited range. RACERS.— Circular rails of metal located in the ground on which the trucks of traversing platforms run. The racers used witli wooden platforms arc made of wrought-iron, laid with the iipper surface rai.sed. For wrought-iron traversing platforms on which heavy muzzle loading rified guns of less size than the 10-inch stand, flanged racers of wrought-iron are used, but for the guns of a larger size steel is sub- stituted for wrouL'ht-iron. EACHAT DES CLOCHES.— Formerly, in France, wlieii a ftjrtitieil i)lace was taken, the bells became the property of the Master General of Artillery, wliieh were usually redeemed by the inhabitants of the place at a certain price ; it was necessary that the place should be attacked by artillery in order to secure tliis right over the bells. RACK.— A straight bar, with cogs or teeth placed along it, so as to correspond with similar cogs or teeth placed on a wheel, thus: If the bar is not movable, the wheel is attached to a traversing frame, and as it revolves, is moved along by the resistance of its teeth to those on the bar. 'It was in this way that the formation of a railway was first projected, the rail and the driving-wheel of the engine to be both furnished with corresponding teeth. In me- chanics, rack-work has innumerable application.s. RACKAHOCK.— The name given to a blasting pow- der formed by the imion of two ingredients, one a solid and the "other a lluid, both being absolutely in- explosive until combined by the consumer. Many attempts have been made to prepare ingredients that RACKING. 023 EACKINO. would form an cfTet'tivt' explosive immt'dmU'lyiipon mixture, lint, nearly nil the jihiiiM proposed Imve j)rovcil iiii|inieliealile friirii ilillieiilty or ilaiij;er. The l{e?i(lr(iek I'dwder (jo., of New York, have on the market a powder named as above, the invention of .Silas H. Divine. It has heeii most elTeetivi'ly used in !i ureal variety of oi)erations in tumielinK and niininu. and has jiroved to he an explosive of Kfeat power- rivalinu; nitro-ulyeerine in Ihat respect- «n(l safer than most other hifih explosives, even after the Beparati- in^redienls have heen eoinliined ready for use ill hlaslini;. In manufacture, trans|iortalion' and Htoraue, there can of course be no daiij;er, as the materials are kept sei)arate until wantid for imme- diate use. A dry oxyiren-yieldini; salt, in a linely- pnlveri/ed condition, is packed in cylindrical muHlin biii^s. which form the cartridiies. 'Vhese arc (npped into a suitable lluid hydrocarbon- iireferably nitrat- ed, as, for instance, nitro-benzole -and allowed toab- .sorb a certain amount, which c'an be made delinile by timiiii; the immersion, or by wcii^hiin; the car- tridges bcfiire they are ili|)pcd,and arrestini; the ah- sorption when they have ac(juired the requisite in- crease in weiirht. The jxirous envelope or cartridge of muslin is an inixcnious device. The idea of inuk- iuij; explosives by puttini; the oxyi;en salt in porous cartridi^cs and then saturating them, seems simple eniiuixh after it has once been done, the same as Howe's idea of [mttinir the eye of the needle near the /)"('«<, instead of in the blunt end, seemed sim- ple after it was once disclosed, but the ])erfection of the invention in both ceases was only reached after hard study. Like the invention of the sewing-ma- chine needle, it became necessary to reverse the old processes. The old way in explosives was to make the cartridijc Huid-proof— the new way is to make it porous. It allows the free jiercolation of the lluid to the powder, and when the interstices of the envelope are tiKed with an oil or lluid that will not mix with water, it resists i\u: entrance of the latter to the solu- ble .salt inside. When the muslin cartridges were first used, they were fully saturated, and removed from the lluid in a dripping condition, and theexcess of oil s(pieezed out by wringing the cartridges. This method was tedious and laborious. At length it was found that by allowiiii; a little lime, a small ([uantity of fluid would eciually diffuse throuLdi the whole mass of i)owder contained in the cartridges by capil- lary attraction. It is desirabU^ not to oversatnrate the powder, as there may be too much hydrocarbon for complete combustion with the oxygen furnished by the dry salt. An excess of hydrocarlxm will can.se more smoke when the powder is exploded, and will not give so high a result dynamically. In practice, the cartridges are placed in a wire basket and lowered into a pail or vessel containing the fluid, and allowed to remain a certain number of seconds, depending upon the diameter of the cart- ridges. For l+-inch cartridges, about 6 seconds. " ij- " " " 8 " i|. " " " 10 The cartridges saturated as above, if cut open after saturation, will present in the center of the cross sec- tion, an area about the size of the end Of a lead pencil which is not wet, but which will be wet if the car- tridges are allowed to stand a few minutes before using, as the oil will eiflially diffuse by capillary at- traction. When this mode was tirsl adopted the wire basket containing the cartridges was hung on a spring balance and alternately dipped and w ithdrawu until the desired increase in weight was obtained. Mr. A. V. Hand proposed to secure the right pro- portions by immersion for a certain detiuite time for each size of cartridge. This plan was successful in practice, and has been in constant use since its adop- tion. Another mode of securing proper proportions of dry salt and combu.stible liipiid has been introduced by the manufacturers of Hackarock. This is to mix a very volatile liquid like carbon disulpliide, with a fixed oil like nitrobcnzolc, and allow the cartridges to becoriK! completely saturated. Then tliey are al- lowed to remain in the. oprn air until the voliitile in- gredieiit has rvaporated, leaving tlie proper iiiMoiiiit of lixed oil in the powder. 'Ibis iiinde ha» also been successful ill prailice. With reference tr) the use of nitratid hydrocarbons, it may be slated that the greater Ihi' (juantity of oxygen that is conlainiil the less the relative weight of the oil that is to be mixed with the oxygen yielding salt. When the liydrocur- boii is present in such (|uanlity that the carbon can only be burned to carbonic oxide instead of carbonic acid, the mechanical result Is not so great, and more smoke is evolved on exjiloslon. The cartrirlges when properly prei)aredare practically wati-rproof. and re- nndn good for some days in wet drill-holes, as the oil repels the water and prevents its permeating the pow- der through the muslin. The consistence of the pre- jiared powder is like that of damp brown sugar, and it may bi^ closely packed in the drill-hole, especially if till- muslin is slit before the cartridges are dropped ', in and rammed. The s])ecitic gravity of the powder is from 1 .7 to 2 and its density allows the concentration of great power in a small space. It gives the highest resullA in hard compact rock, and is tnucli useilin tunnelw, drifts, and shafts, where the rock is (irmly bound. The gases produced during combustion are not sickening like those from nitroglycerine- and the dynamites. The sensitiveness of Hackarock can be increased or decreased by special means employed bv the manu- facturers, and one variety that has been largely used will not explode with a fulminating cap without con- linement. In the oijen air at common temperatures the powder will be scattered about without exploding when a fuse and cap are inserted in a cartridge and tired. But when contined in a drill-hole the powder receives an impact from the detonating primer that causes the whole mass to explode. RACKING. — It has been shown that the penetration of a projectile depends more upon velocity than weight, and thai the elongated is a better form than the spherical for mere penetration or punc/n'ng. It must, however, be remembered tlnxt very heavy shot, tired with velocities which might not enable them to penetrate or punch holes in iron armor, may still do great damage, especially if many are tired succes- sively, by breaking bolts and shaking the whole fab- ric ; also, that a spherical shot, having a larger di- ameter than the elongated projectile, may often do more damage in cracking or shattering a plate, than the latter in jmnehiitg it, the irork done by the ball being distributed over a larger area. The same ar- gument will apply to the case of two elongated projectiles, having different diameters, striking a target witli the .same force, as measured by irr'. Hence there are two general methods of attempting the deslniction of iron-clad vessels, termed respect- ively nvking and punching. The American shave shown a preference for the racking system, which requires heavy projectiles of large diameters, lireil with low velocities, to destroy and shake off the ar- mor by repeated shocks without penetration, and thus to expose the vessel to the effects of ordinary projectiles. It is believed that the two forces may prepare the way for each other, so as to produce a more formidable result than when they are inde- pendently exercised. The defect of the light-shot system when the range is very long or the armor very thick, and of the heavy-shot .system when the range is even very short and the armor is laminated, or so constructed as to suffer little from racking and shaking, is the waste of power in producing local effect, that is fruitless becau.sc it is incomplete. By combining the two systems, the light fast shot may weaken- tlie armor by the loss of substance and con- tinuity, until the heavy shot can earni- in a large section of it bodily ; and at the same time the gen- eral straining and cracking of plates produced by the heavy shot will make punching all the easier. BACKING DOWN. 624 KAILROADS. The tlieory in favor of the racking system is, tliat heavy projectiles may be lired with low velocites ■without straining the gun ; that blows given in this way waste no power in puncliing mere holes, but that the'entire work will be expended in straining, loosen- ing, and dislocating the armor and breaking its fast- enings, tearing it off and exposing unprotected spots easily vulnerable to shells, at the same time racking and breaking the ribs and sides of the vessel to such extent as to render her unseaworthy. ^For produc- ing these effects the 15-inch gun," throwing solid cast-iron balls, is quite as formidable as the powerful ritle expending costly bolts ; but the accuracy of tire from the rifle is so greatly superior to that from the smooth-bore, as to leave a large margin in its favor. Spherical shot, and slow shot of any form, will do very little execution under water. The concussion from racking blows, although it may not seriously injure the vessel, stuns and temporarilj' paralyzes many of the crew, and spreading terror to all, great- ly interferes with the efficient working of the ship and of her armament. See Armor-plates and Puncli- inrj. RACKING DOWN.— An operation performed with the aid of rnck-laxhing in laying a' gun or a mortar platform, for the purpose of securing the flanks and the ribands of the platform together, so as to pre- vent them from moving. EACK-STICK AND LASHING.— A piece of two-inch rope, about C feet long, fastened to a picket about !'-> inches long, having a hole in its head to receive the rope. Rack-lashings are used for securing the planks of a gun or mortar platform, between the ribands and the slee]iers. EACKUMITICK.— A large javelin skillfully used by the Hottentots. With this weapon, they venture to attack the elephant, the rhinoceros, and even tlie lion. EADIAL DEILL. — An upright machine, designed for drilling a series of holes without changing the position of the work. The value of a radial drill in the armory consists, primarih-, inthe readiness with which the drill can be moved to the work, or shifted over the various parts of the work, requiring to be drilled. In, the use of radial drills having the swinging arm at one fixed and unalterable height above the floor plate. the work must either be blocked up to suit the height of the machine, or extension pieces must be used to lower the drill to the work. In Sellers' machines the swinging arm is raised and lowered by power, and thus quickly adjusted to the proper height, so that the work to be drilled has only to be brought under the drilling machine in any convenient ])osition and height, and the drill is then quickly set to suit the height of the work, thus saving nuich time. Too much s:ress cannot be laid on this feature of these drills, jis the saddle carrying the swinging arm is so litted and of such a length as not to require any bolting to place, this adjustment of height is rendered simple in the ex- treiue. The feed motion is obtained tlirough adjust- able feeil discs. It has a wide range through two series, one for the single gear, the other for the dou- ble gear, and can be put on or off instantaneouslj' by a tap of the hand on a lever close to the hand- wheel. All tlie adjustments of the machine are quickly made, the shifting of the back gear into or out of use being as readily done as on any well- made turning laihe. A convenient clamp is arranged at the biiltoin joint of tlie swinging arm to <'nalile thc' radial arm to be sec\ired in positiim; but if the drills used are correctly formed and run true, the arm needs no clamping to place. EADII OF KUPTURE. In military mining, to ef- fi'ct all (Wplosion of the surrounding ground, a charge nf gunpowder is used, which, according to its .strength, and the nature of the grounil. and the depth at which it is placed, more or less affects the quantity of earlli to be displaced. Such an explo- si(m raises and scatters a portion of the superincum- bent earth, and causes a hollow or crater. Besides this effect, an internal commotion is caused, capable of injuring or destroying shafts or galleries in the immediate neighborhood. The distances from the charge to which this commotion extends are called radii (if rupture. RADIUS.— 1. In fortification, a term applied to a line drawn from the center of the polygon to the ex- tremity of the exterior side. There are the exterior, the interior, and the rigid radii. 2. In geometry, the radius is a straight line drawn from the center to the circumference of a circle. In trigonometry, the radius is taken as unity, and the sines, cosines, etc.. are expressed in terms of it. In astronomy the same term is employed in a slightly different sense; and to prevent confusion it is changed to radius-vec- t<:rr. The radius-vector is a straightTline drawn from the center of force to tlie position of a body which describes its orbit round the center; if the orbit is a circle, the radius-vector is invariable in its length, but constantlj' changes if the orbit be any of the other conic sections. F-om astronomy the term has been transferred to what are callad ]x>lar eqiiati'ins in the higher matliematics. To express a curve by this method a point is taken for the pole; through this point a line, the axis, is drawn, indefinite in length and arbitrary in direction; then as one end of the ra- dius-vector is at the pole, its inclination to the axis, and its length at this inclination, will give a point in the curve. Equations of curves, when thus express- ed in terms of the radius-vector, and its inclination to the axis, are ciiWedpolar co-ordinates, and are gen- erally much simpler in form than when exnressed by rectangular co-ordinates. EAFTS. — Baulks of timber lashed together to form a bridge for crossing a river or stream, when more perfect means are not at hand. From their low de- gree of buoyanc}', however, they are se'dom employ- ed. Fir, pine, hazel, poplar,juniper. larch. and wil- low, being the lightest woods, are the best for mak- ing timl)er rafts. "Rafts of timber should not be used in rivers where the velocity of the current exceeds 6 feet per second, or 4 miles per hour. Good rafts can be made of casks or barrels, and form a better bridge than baulks of timber. See JSr.'dges. BAGULED.— In Heraldry, jagged or notched in an irregtdar manner. A rnguled cross is one made of two truiJks of trees without their branches. of which only the stumps appear. Also written Rnggued. EAGULY.— In Heraldry, a term ap- plied to an ordinary whose bounding lines are furnished with serrated pro- jections. BAID. — A hostile or predatory in- cursion, especially an inroad or iu- . cursion of mounted men; any sudden Bagtily, jijjj^j rapid invasion bj- a cavalry force. EAH/LON. — The French term for a short arrow or quarrel. BAIL -PLATFORM. — This platform for siege-mor- tars consists of three .sleepers and two rails for the cheeks of tlie mortar-bed to slide on, instead of the deck-plank, and is very strong, and easily cim- structed and laid. The pieces being notcheil to fit, are driven together at the battery, the distance bet- ween the center lines of the rails being equal to that between the center lines of the cheeks. The earth is excavated eight and a half inches, the depth of the .sleepers, and the bottom made perfectly level. The directrix being exactly marked by stakes, the plat- ' form is placed in position, its center line coinciding with a cord stretched between the stakes marking the line of fire. The earth is filled in as high as the upper surface of the sleepers, and finiily rammed; and the stakes are driven in the rear angles formed liy the slceiH-rs and rails, and one at the rear end of eaeli rail. RAILROADS.— Railroads have played an impor- tant part in recent wars. Beginning with the Cri- mean war of l.H.'i.'"!, and ending with the late wars in Europe, the military student will be stnuk with the BAILBOADS. r,25 EAILEOADS. cnt. Thr parts moHl liable to he <liBlrovi''l or iiijiirci] arc the briilijtH aiiillNiini-lH. (jiiiinlH hIioiiIiI Ik- mU. tioncil mar tlii'sc poiiilH, and Ijc prolcctid l»y Orld- works or hlrx^k-lioiiHcH. Tlw ^'ciiiral tra< k of tin- road Klioulrl l)c furcfully walclicil by tra< kiiiiii and patrols. Cavalry dctaf'liiticiits slioiilrl ncour llii- ap- proaclifH ill cvcr^y dircflioii, to );iv(; limi'ly notice of importance of this rlass of coriiMiiiiiiialiojis iji llie elticient Hupplyiiiii; of iiii army, anil in tlic eoneenlra- tion of troopH. liy llicir use, nnMjbcrsare concren- trate<l and snpplied in a ^ pace of lime wliieli was not dreamed of in tlK'beijinninic of llie i>resent eenlnrv. It is safe to predict that, in all future wars in civil- ized eountri<s, the railroad will he the line of com. innnicalion for an army. If a system of rHilroa<lH ap[iroacliinn raids, and to arrest ^iispiciuUK pcrHonB already exists, this system will ]><■ used ; if not, tern- , in llje vicinity of the railroad. porary lines of riiilroad will he eonslrncled. It has , 'I'hc destruction of a railroad, or an injury intliclcd now becomes an imi)orliuil p;irt of an ollicer's <-dnea- I upon it so that it cannot he <|uiekly repai'ri-d, may tion to uiulersland the princii)les of const ruction, and form, at times, the special duly of any oflieer. There the working;, of railroads, to know how they can he arc two general casts; one, where flic injuries in- preserved, and how they may be destroyed. The ! flieted are to prevent its use by an enemy ; and the construction of a railroad for niililary purposes dif- j other, where it is desired to (fo as much injury aB fcrs from tliat intended for jieaiM-ful traltlc only in the possible, and render the wi'rk irreparable, compclU decree of its very i;reat excellence. Kcononiy an<i inf; an actual reconstruction of the road. The llrsl rapidity are the most essential ((ualilics looked for j consists in removin<^ parts of the rollin/^j-slock and in the construcliou of a military railroad. The prin- ! Iifdinj; them, or, where rails cannot he obtained, in cipal thini;s in its construction are the i;radini; and removini; the track at various intervals. the laying of the track. (Jradesand curves are nec- essary evils incident to railroads, and a proper selec- tion of them requires an exercise of good judfiment, in many cases. Sometimes, the track may he laid on the naturalsurfaceof the ground, or with so little lill- iiii; and excavation as to amount to the same thing. The placing of the cross-tics, the spiking of the rails, and the general linishiug of tlie road are better done, when men used to this kind of labor can l)e procured. Usually there can be found among the troops, a great many who have a practical knowledge of this class of construction, and these men can he profitably used as foremen and superintendents of I he working parties. The successful working of a railroad re(|uires an etticient superintendent, as much as it requires sulli- cient rolling-stock and good locomotives. A good man for superintendent can generally be obtained from some of the railroad companies, hut he has the defect, as a rule, of knowing nothing of the peculiar- ities of military service, Nevertheless, his exper- ience and knowledge will be of great service to the military olHcerin charge of the road, and the working may thus hemadesuccessfid. From the numbers em- ployed upon the railroads in the United States, there will be no difliculty, in future wars, in the goveni- ment obtaining as many men as may be necessary, who will be thoroughly cognizant of the duties that may be required of them. In the beginning, there will be some friction and irregularities, but these will wear off, and an efficient corps of trained men can soon be formed. It would be better, however, if "lime were taken by the forelock, "and a skeleton organiza- tion formed in advance. Engineer otflcers should paj' particular attention to this part of their profession, and on short notice organize bodies of workmen whose special duties will be those assigned to con- struction, working, and preservation of railroads. And since the other officers of the army, are more or less liable to be assigned to duties connected with the preservation, as well as the construction, of these roads, it is equally incumbent on them to acquire this knowledge and be able to put it to a practical use. Tlie movement of troops by railroad may be divid- ed into five distinct parts, viz: — 1 The march to the point where the troops are to get into the cars. 2. The embarkation. 3. The journey. 4. Leav- ing the train at the end of the journey. ■">. The march from this point to the pl.ice of camping. A careful examination made beforehand of each por- tion of the movement will add greatly to the sol- dier's comfort, and prevent mucli confusion, delay, and annoyance. Elaborate rules are laid down, both in the Prussian and French services, for moving troops by rail, and it is recommended that these be read bv officers who desire to inform themselves on i riie following is a method of removing the track to render the road temporarily useless: Select a part of the track laid on a higli embankment. Tear up the rails of the extremities of the part to be remov- ed. Line the outside of the track with men for the whole length of the portion to be taken up. and have the men to face inwards. At a given signal the men seize the rail next to them; and, at another signal. all lift the rail, raising it and the ties to a vertical posi- tion, when they let the whole fall over the embank- ment. If the road is ballasted, the men must pro- vide themselves with levers to lift the track. The portion thrown over the embankment cannot be re- placed until the rails arc unfastened from the ties, and tills takes time. The second case consists in re- moving the rails and bending and twisting them so as to render them unfit for use in repairing the road; in burning or blowing up the bridges ; destroying the tunnels; disabling the rolling stock, etc. Loco- motives can be temporarily disabled by removing parts of the machinery. They may be permanently disabled by tiring a round shot through the boiler. Another way, is to let out all the water in the boiler and then build a large fire in the tire-box : the fire soon destroys the flues. All other kinds of rolling- stock may be temporarily disabled by removing parts, or permanently injured by burning them. Some labor is required to bend and twist the rails, as it is not an easy matter to remove the rails from the ties. Workmen have special tools for drawing out the spikes and unscrewing the nuts, but these tools are too heavy to be carried upon a raid, where time is so important an element. But when the rails have been taken up, and there is time, it is recom- mended to form the ties into heaps, and set them on lire. Then to place the rails on the burning heap, loading the ends with other ties. As the rails be- come red hot, they will bend under the load, and can- not be used again until they are straightened. This bending may also he done by men catching the ends of the rail and bending it, while heated, against a tree' or telegraph pole. Kails which are simply bent can easily be straightened by re-heating and hammering. Where only slightly bent, they can be straightened without even being" re-heated. To make them use- less, it is necessary to give the rail a twist. A twist- ed rail can only be used again by bein" re-rolled. Wooden bridges may be destroyed by burning. A simple device" called" a torpedo was used in our late war for destroying wooden bridges, where time was of importance." A bolt of j inch iron. 8 inches long, with head and nut, was used. The head was 2 imhes in diameter, and abovit 1 inch thick. A tin cylinder, IJ inches in diameter, open at both ends, e"nolosed the bolt, and was held in place by the head md the nut. A washer between the bead and the this subject. A line of railroad used as a line of communication of an army with its base, is protected ' cylinder made it tight at that end. The cylinder was in a great measure by the army itself. It is, however. ^ filled with powder ."and an arrangement made for a liable to injury from" cavalry raids of the enemy, and i fuse near the nut. A fvise was inserted and the nut from the acts" of a hostile population, if they be pres- Iscrewed on, and the torpedo was ready for use. BAILWAT COaiMUNICATION. 626 BAILWAT COMMUKICATIOir. In using it. a hole was bored into the timber witli ! different sizes and weights, giving much additional an augur. The head of the bolt was inserted and | labor and loss of time in laying. For rolling stock was driven by a hard blow into the hole. The fuse liglited, anil the explosion tore the timber in pieies. As the railroad bridges to be destroyed were ordi- nary truss-bridges, it was only necessary to insert a torpedo in one of the main braces, or if these braces were in pairs, in tlie two pieces forming a pair. The destruction of these braces at one end. or on one side, was sufficient to wreck the bridge. The importance of guarding a railroad, and of hav- ing a good construction corps thoroughlj' organized to repair the damages, was illustrated in the war of 1861-5. This war illustrated the uses of the systems of railroads already in existence for military purpo- ses, and also the great advantages of temporary rail- roads to perforin a given service. — See Railway Com ifi n nicath'ii. RAILWAY COMMUNICATION.— In looking for the four contractors' tank locomotives, which had been much u.sed, were supplied : half of them were con- stantly under repairs. The material for making bridges consisted of rolled-iron floor-joists for bar- rack buildings, which were procured from Aden. One great advantage of a railway at a point of debark- ation was noticed on this occasion— the saving of labor that was effected by being able to run the trucks on rails into the water, so that boats with stores from the transport vessels could be unloaded directly into the trucks. For the war in Ashantee, where the ob- jective was to force the troops over many miles of the wildest African bush coimtry.some steam-sappers (road traction engines), adapted for running on rails, were sent from England, and light rails were shipped for making a raihvay of 4 ft. 8^ in. gauge. This plant could not be well utilized for the following quickest and simple>t metho.l to make a railway for j reasons : It was diffleull to land heavy stores on a ■ ■ ■ ' beach that had a surf constantly rolling on it; the amount of labor required to clear a track for so wide a gauge through the bush would have been excessive; and the period of fair season at the disposal of the Gen- eral for the accomplishment of his enterprise was too limited for making a field railway of the full gauge of 4 ft. 8i in. A light portable surface tramway (such as is hereafter described), with light trucks that could have been pushed by manual labor, might have answered in Ashantee for transporting stores and provisions better than the swarms of carriers that had to be employed for supplying the force that went on to Coomassie. A tramway of this class could have been laid quite as fast as the troops cut their path through the bush. These are the attempts that have been made by England to construct and utilize railways for troops in the field. They have not been very successful, owing to the plant used for them being unsuited for military requirements and being hastily got together. The 4 ft. 8^ in. gauge of the ordinary permanent railways is adapted speci- ally to heavy and rapid traffic; its carrying capacity is greatly in excess of what is likely to be required for a force operating in an enemy's country. The plant is heavy, and it takes a long time to make a line of this gauge, which must be well and truly laid to take the rollmg stock adapted for it. The' rails should be 78 lbs. to the yard; a mile of line of single rails weighs 273 tons, and costs about £1,700. The ordinary plate-laying gang of three superintendents, thirty plate-layers, and forty laborers, can only lay a mile of this track in thirty hours. A field railway is only a similar line to the above, with a very much lighter rail of about 43 lbs. to the yard; it weighs 131 tons and costs on an average of £1Z1 to the mile. The same plate-laying party can make a mile of field railway in twelve hours. In its construction nearly the same curves of large radius are required, and the gradients cannot be made steeper, while the rate of traveling on it is much .slower than on a permanent line of the same gauge. In India a meter- military communications in a strange country, and for themost suitable material and plant to use in its construction, it is well to have a description of the various gauges of which railways are usuallj' made; to study the powers and capacfty of different loco- motives and rolling stock for these lines ; and to consider the time, labor, and cost of making a rail- way. Before commencing a study of these three subjects a statement will be given of what has been done in making railways in war time, excluding any account of their construction for the same purpose in civilized countries, such as the case of the Prus- sians, who made a raihvay round the fortress of Metz, and at the destroyed tunnel of Nanteuil; or the railways made by the Russians from Bender to Galatz, and from Fratesi to Zimnltza. After a season of great siiSeriug to the troops engaged in the siege of Sebastopol, caused partly by the diffi- culty of communicating with their base at Balaclava, a railwav was constructed of the ordinary gauge of 4 ft. 8| in. About 31 miles of track were made of single line: civil engineers with a working staff of natives were employed in its construction. The rolling stock consisted of five locomotives of 12 to 18 tons weight, and about 40 ordinary side-tip bal- last trucks; one of the locomotives was worked as a stationary engine to haul trains up a short incline. This railway never had the capacity for transporting all the supplies required by an army engaged in a siege. It did a fair amount of work at the re-em- barkation of the troops on the conclusicm of peace, but it would have been of no use if hostilities had been continued on a different line of operations. It must not be attributed to any failing of the Army Works Corps that better results were not ob- taint"d from this line, for it was composed of a staff thoroughly practiced in railway construction ; the mistake was in having only one line of rails instead of n double line, which is indispensable to insure unin- terrupted traffic; and in tlie plant being cumbersome and quite unsuited for military requirements. For the Abyssinian campaign materials for a railway were collected in India from the public works and other sources, and a works corps of nalives for laying the line was raised in Bombay. In the mouth of November.Government came to the decision of s«'nd- ing railway plant to Abyssinia ; in the following January, work was comnu-nccd at the landing place in the Ked Sea, at Zoulla; and about the mil of March, 13 miles of the line were opened for traffic, giving a rale of progress in constructing of one mile a week. As the railway took so hmg to make it was not of much n.se to the expedition. The chief causes of delay in making this railway miiy be attributed to the maleri.ils having been shi])ped from India ■without any system, any tran.;port vessel that could afford space being employed. The l)lant was all for the Indian standard gauge of 5 ft. (! in., which was Fig. 1. pauije has been adopted on some of the Government lines : it is li ft.SJ in. wide ; rails of 3(1 lbs. to the yard may be used for it ; the line weighs about 10(1 tona i'.nd costs £51)0 to the n)ile. Hallways of this gauge heavy and difficult to handle under tmfavorablc i^on- i are made for (piick tratlic. and recpiire to be laid ditious of lauding appliances ; the rails were also of ] nearly as well us wider liaes. Tlie rolling-stock BAILWAT COMMUNICATION. g27 EAII.WAY COMMDNICATIOH wliicli is madcin Kn;;Iiin(l niid sent oiil to Iniliii, is of a liciivy nature ; the IdcoiMotivc.'S wcij^li 10 tons, anil lli(^ carriugcrt. vvliicli ur(' iron-fraiiii'ii, weigh about;!! tons. The Uniled States have lately adopt- ed llie II ft. K"".'?*' '" '^ .t,'real many lines, which an- swer their jjurpoHes just as well as Ihi' wiijir perrna- iienl railway. They ean construct the lini's with great rajjidity, ])rof;rcssin,!; as much as four miles in one day, includini; formint; the earthwork. The Americans carry these light railways over the most ditllcult country, and tij) ravines and over moun- tain passes where it seems almost impraclicable to make any sort of road. There are ])ortable railway.s made in Englaml as well as in France, which pos- sess all the requircmcnls of a military line. Tliey are of various !;au;;es, but tlie 2 ft. 15 in. wide has advant- ages over the narrower gauges — such as the power and speed of the locomotive, the capacity of rolling stock, and the great simplicity of parts. The.se seem to point to this gauge being more suitable for mili- tary purposes than the narrowerones. The rails are of steel, of 30 lbs. to the yard, fixed in lengths of 12 ft, to the sleepers; the sleepers are also of steel, made of various sections. The most convenient seems to be the U-shaped Fig. 1 ; these can be placed at any distance apart to suit the nature of soil. One section of rails of this tramway of 1'2 ft. weighs 310 lbs., and forms an easy load for four men to handle in laying the line, which is intended to be a surface line. It can be laid very fast by inexperienced men — about nine miles in a day. It is easily taken up, re- moved, and relaid in another situation." The plant for the track is complete in all its parts, such as curves, points, and crossings ; it is also very compact for shipment, borne very narrow-gauge railways have been made in North Wales; the line to Festiniog is 1 ft. lU in. wide; passenger and mineral Iratlichave been running on it regularly for some time. This railway is 13J miles long and rises 700 ft. the gra- dients are from 1 in 70 to 1 in 180, and the curves of 2 to 30 chains radius; the locomotives, which are of Farlie's pattern, weigh about 8 tons, and can draw trains of 120 tons at an average speed of 12 miles an hour; the rails are 30 lbs. to the yard, and the sleep- ers are of wood. Railways are made of an even narrower gauge, 18 in.; they are much used in H. M. Dockyards and the Royal Arsenal. This gauge has been adopted in the service for a tramway to run along trenches and parallels to supply' the ar- tillery and engineer requirements of sieges. There are two types of this tramway — one with rails on ■wooden sleepers, and the oilier of a portable des- cription. The first is that which has been taken for the service; it is designed for laying down without noise at night, this being a necessary requirement in making a tramway in siege trenches; the sleepers are of wood, 3 ft. G in. long, 7 in. wide, by 3 in. deep: the rails are fixed to these sleepers by T-headed coach-screws. With rails of 24 lbs. to the yard. 14 men can la)' 100 yards of trench tramway in tlw dark m an hour. The other description of portable tramway of the same gauge is made of steel rails, 18 lbs. to the yard, secured in lengths of 10 ft. to steel-plate sleepers. Fig. 2. it is a handy line for laying on the surface of the ground, and is much used for agricidtural and the numerous manufac- turing purposes. Each section of 10 ft. of rails, with all the sleepers attached, weighs about 180 lbs., so that two men can very easily carry it ; a party of 14 men can laj- 400 yards of this nature of tram- way in an hour. The end sleepers are made to lock, NO that llie joint at the rail ends is quite Kecurc; with wooden sleeperH, llHliplatirs should be used to fallen the ends of the rails; this is very neccHsary on all roughly-laid lines. It would be thought that thiM gauge of tramway would be suitable for all military reijuiremints besides sir'ge work ; but it is only np- |)licalile on very Mat sites, and the engines for it have- so little power that they would not lie erpial to llic wants of keeping uninterrupteil communiimtion for an army. Tlu-y answer perfectly in the iJockyardo and the Arsenal, and are admirably adapted for lay- ing in a trench ; the engines would, however, fail in the event of a long line being required, or one over a rough country. Systems of litrht tramways on slructurcH raiiicil from the ground have been suggested for Die use of armies. One of these tramways, designed by Mr. Fell, Fig., 3. has been experimented with at Alder- shot. It consists of rails on the edges of beams sup- Fig. .3. ported on trestles of various heights to overcome the inecjualities of ground, the principle being to <lispetise with cuttings and embankments as far as pos.-.ible, and to use trestles whenever the earthwork exceeds 3 or 4 feet in height. Jlr. Fell has worked his st;hcme out still further, and .suggests the adop- tion of iron lattice-girders on posts of a quite simi- lar construction for raising the track over hollows, or those places wherever the rails cannot be laid on the surface of the ground. There are advan- tages in this method of making a railway ; the raised portions of the work keep the line above the influ- ence of rains, and make tlie least disturbance of nat- ural watercourses. It requires time, however, to put together elevated iron or wooden structures. and a great deal of material is necessarj- ; for instance, one mile of modern structure for this railway, with an average height of trestles of 3 ft. 9 in., takes 250 tons weiglit of material. The re- sults of the trials of Mr. Fell's railway, which was erected at Aldershot, were as follows : An engine weighing 4i tons, took 2.5 tons of load up an incline , of 1 in 50 ; at a speed of 25 miles an hour trestles. 20 feet high, were quite steady. It was found that 500 soldiers could lay two miles of this class of tram- way, after a little practice, in a day of 10 hours. Another style of raised tramway has been de- signed by Mr. Hadden, Fig. 4. The structure can be made of wood or iron ; itconsists of a single upper rail or beam, fixed on posts 7 feet high, let into the ground 3 feet ; there are also lower or grip rails made of wood, which are halved and let into the posts. These have saw-cuts in them to admit of their bending to take curves in the line of 100 ft. radius. The breaking strength of the structure is estimated to be 20 tons. The materials for one mile of this tramway are stated to measure 40 cubic ft. and to weigh 80 tons. The rolling stock consists of pairs of boxes of panniers suspended on the upper rail or beam by means of central wheels or rollers with V-shaped tires ; they also often have horizontal RAILWAT COMMUNICATION. 628 HAILWAT COMHUNICATIOir. wheels acting on a lower or grip rail. These boxes are ingeniously contrived to take stores, horses, and passengers, and may be used as pontoons for taking loads across rivers. By employing long ropes, trains may be drawn by animals towing alongside of the raised tramway. The locomotives to be used on this raised tramway are reported by Mr. Hadden to be capable of drawing a load of 100 tons up an incline of tin 10 ; they are said to gain the necessary power by acting on the grip principle instead of by gravity and traction like ordinary locomotives. The driving machinery is located on a carriage by itself, and the power is very conveniently applied to one pair of the horizontal wheels on one side of the grip rail ; the steam is generated in two boilers, placed in front and behind the engine truck. It is further stated by the inventor that an endless rope or chain attach- ment can be applied to all the wheels on one side of a train, giving continuous grip power for ascending gradients and break power for descending steep in- CUpReOt. Fig. 4. clines. The draw-bars connecting the trucks of a train are devised to work automatically on tlie driv- ing action of the wheels, increasing or diminishing their grip or break power according as the strain on the draw-bar is augmented or decreased by varia- tions in the gradients the train is traveling over. Whether the engine and the draw-bars can be perfect- ed and made to perform these various duties remains to be proved by experiment. With regard to raised railways, it should be observed that they obstruct traffic crossing them — this is objectionable in a mili- tary point of view; they do not lend themselves to the drawing of loads by manual labor or by animal power as favorably as surface lines ; sidings are not easily managed on raised structures ; separate bridges are required for the passage of rivers when the carriages cannot be run on rails on the roadway of pontoon or other field bridges ; they require a great deal of time to construct, and take much mate- rial ; and they are not so easy to take up and relay as surface lines, and are more destructible. In treating of lines of railway for military pur- poses, the use of locomotives upon them must be taken into consideration ; for although the line may at first be worked by horse or by other means of draught, it must eventually be adapted to engines to make it of any use for keeping up the supplies of an army in the field. It will be advisable to look at the different natures of locomotives, and to see which appear to give tlie best results of work under the special conditions of service in a strange coun- try. Taking the ordinary passenger or goods engine of permanent lines, it will be seen to be a very heavy machine to handle, particularly in situations deficient of appliances for landing such engines. Tlicy pos- sess great power and sjieed, but are tooc\imbcrsome to be used on a light line ; they require the railway to be laid with care and to be nearly level, that is with gradients not exceeding 1 in 70 ; and they can- not work round sharp curves, 15 chains being the maximum thut can be safely got round with engines of this class. The weight on each pair of driving wheels is so great, 10 to 15 tons, that the rails re- quire to be heavy to stand the traffic. There are contractor's and tank engines which are very suitable to roughly-laid lines ; they weigh about 16 or 18 tons ; they seem, however, beyond the limit of weight that should be adopted for military lines. The same remarks apply to the class of engines that are used for the meter-gauge lines ; they weigh about IG tons, giving 6 tons on each pair of wheels, and, like the others, are constructed for quick speed ; they are also not easy to handle under difficulties. The small engines made by Manning, Wardle & Co., and which are extensively used in H. M. Dockyards and the Royal Arsenal, are not powerful enough to take a load up a steep gradient ; they are very well adapted for the 18-iu. gauge of rails on level sites ; tliBy will take sharp curves and have good speed ; but the lines of these locomotives must be well laid and almost level ; that is the reason why such good results have been obtained from these engines in the dockyards and the arsenal, where the rails are gen- erally cast in solid iron plates and the sites are per- fectly level. The Royal Engineer Committee de- signed an engine for the 18-in. trench tramway, which has some advantages over the locomotives last described. It possesses the following character- istics: The working weight of the locomotive is 8 tons ; the driving wheels are on a rigid base of only 3 ft., admitting of its traveling on very sharp curves; the engine is furnished with a "rail-clip" con- structed on the Handyside principle, and has also a winding drum on the part, with 400 yds. of very strong steel-wire rope worked by a distinct pair of engines to the ones required for driving the locomo- tive; the last two appliances enable it to get up a very steep gradient; by sending the engine up by itself, and then, by clipping the rails, it can draw the train after, it by means of the rope. In trials made with this locomotive, 25 tons were drawn on the level on a very roughly-laid surface line ; up a slope 1 in 25, 7 tons could be drawn by the engine attached in the ordinary way ; this incline had a curve in it of 25 ft. radius; the engine could just steam up a slope of 1 in 11, and draw 10 tons up the same by means of the " rail-clip" and the winding drum. There is another method of applying winding power to an engine ; it is a suggestion of Sir. Russell Shaw, C. E., and con- sists of a chain securely fixed at the top of an incline, and the locomotive is furnished with a clip-drum that j can catch up the chain. The steam-power generated in the boiler will serve to wind up a loaded train by means of this chain and drum, and, by reversing the action, the chain can be made to break the descent of the train down the same incline. It would be well to convert one of the Royal Engineer Commit- tee locomotives to this system of haulage, eo as to test the appliance. To afford means of crossing wide rivers with a tramway, steel boats of the same description as were advocated by General Sir Lintorn Simmons, G. C. B., could be employed as pontoons for a floating bridge. The locomotives would have to be taken over the water on rafts made of these steel boats, for use with trains on the opposite side of tlie stream, as it is doubtful whether they could be steamed across a river on any sort of floating structure. As floating bridges for a double line of rails would have to re- main some time in position, the steel pontoons advo- cated would be more suitalile than the service pon- toon bridge, and besides, the pontoon train would have their own functions to perform in the front with the troops. An idea of the sort of steel pontocm tramway wagon on bogies is given in Fig. 5. The boats are made to rest on the frame which forms the longitudinal bearers or superstructure of the bridge for the rails of the tramway; when the boats are not required to form a bridge, they would thus be avail- EAILWAY COMMUNICATION. 629 KAILWAY COMMUNICATION. able for freiglit wagons. Whatever kind of rolling slock is ailopteil for military Hervi<-i', it i« ul)Soliil(fly necessary tliat every (■arria>;e sIiijiiI<1 liave its lireak to render ])<Tfcctly Niifc the drawiiii; of wii^joiis iniii- vidiially l)V animal draiii^^ht, and also to have com- plete control over a train desccndinj; inclines. The "Uuberleiu" continnous break is well suited for ■-■---;tf--y</v>^-H-^----"-"----'-^ > i : I 'iMi [^)f the mugazincH on thenc platform wsgonii ; and now that the main artillery maga/ines have to be eHlab- lished at a niiich jjreater distunee from a fortreBO than formerly was llie case, a very great having of lalior is made by moving tlie lieuvy shot and shell on tram-trucks instead of the old trench cart, Kig. 8. Wagons also for siege A'ork have heen designed .'■A.. J C J [ \\w))[^))' 'i.c^jj i(W)j' ^y^^jK^j) this purpose. It can be apiilii'd !>ythe enjjine driver of the train or by the ijuani. and can also be put on by a jicrson on the siiU- of tlic wagons. It shoulil lie observed Ihiil, Ihuui^h the l)(ii;ic-;ruck syst<'m is re- commended for mililary rollin;; stock as bcin;; the safest to travel on roUij;hly-laiil lines, and as giving the power to make sharp curves on a railway, tliere is another plan of " tlexible wheel base," invented by Mr. James Cleminson, which has all the advan- tages of bogies. By this method the detects of a rigid wheel base are overcome, the carriages travel Waxforv locuded. "^ that make andjulances for wounded men, and can laki" them from the trenches to the riar wilh ease and comfort, Fig, '.I : the platforms that an- used for general work arc lajiahle of l)eing converted into andjulances so as to utilize the empty return trucks. These trench tramway wagons weigh only H ton, and are c'lual to a load of three tons. In nniking a comparison between transport by wheeled wagons and by means of a railway, the (fuanlity of forage and fuel for the two systems must be taken into account. The conditions under which frjrage smoothly and safely round sharp curves, and the rolling s"tock can be made much lighter in weight than ordinary railway carriages. They have been constructed to take ten passengers, or tliree tons to every ton weight of the carriage, giving about two tons on each pair of wheels on the rails. Thi' rolling Stock that lias been approved for tlie trench tram- way is on the same principle as is advocated for mili- tary railways; it consists of platform wagons 18 feet long Fig. 3i 6, and 7. which are well suited for trans- porting'the requirements of troops at sieges, such as fascines, rails, and timber for gun platfonns and splinter proofs. These platform wagons run on bogie trucks, they are easily drawn by men and by a horse pulling at the side of "the wagon, and are made low so as not to be seen by the enemy over the earth- work of the parallels. Trucks for siege purposes have been made for the transport of artillery to the bat- teries; they are particularly suitable for this work, saving the very heavy labor to the artillery of arm- ing their batteries by transporting the guns over £oaA3 Tons. Supply in ff _^ ^nununition/ia Ja2^. Fig. 8, the open country during the night. The weights of the siege guns of the present day would make this operationonc of grf at difticvdty if a tramway in the parallels were not available. The ammunition, too, can be readil}' supplied to may be procured vary greatly with the different localities : but in most cases transport columns nuist move with a certain number of days' forage for the draught or pack animals employed, and in the same way a locomotive must take its fuel along with it. Taking, as an example, the transport of 100 tons of stores for 200 miles, the following table shows appro.ximately the (luantity of fuel, forage, and time that would be required. The calculations of this table are based upon the employment of gen- eral service wagons, taking 1\ tons, 4 horses to draw, and 2 drivers to each wagon, with proportion - JS Fig. 9. of non-commissioned officers: for the pack animals the load is taken at 200 lbs. for the good horses, with one attendant to 6 horses, and non-commissioned officers in proportion. The trucks for the railway are loaded to li tons, and the road wagons of the •• steam-sappers" to 4 tons. The column of cross weight s estimated on the load of 100 tons with the weight of the wagons, the horses, the locomotives, the trucks, and the forage or fuel, accordins to the numbers and quantities in each case. To the railway means of tr.insport has been added the wciirht of tlie plant that is necessary for making the railwav: if 2 ft. 6 in. gauge is em- ployed, the weight of 100 miles of single line will be 6,100 tons. EAILWAY STAFF VOLUNTEER COKPS. 630 EAIN GAUGE. Means of Transport. Horse drauffht 180 Pack animals 1,200 Steam traction on • I railways > Steam-sappers 80 230 25 Wagons or trucks. 40 G. S. wagons... (3 locomotives. '(18 trucks ( 5 steam-sappers. ■J 25 road wagons. Time. ^ ■c X ^ t^ '>>£? c 5 C3 03 c Q s te ^ Miles Total 8 2 10 10 3 13 < . ( ' s \n H o = Tons. Forage, 30 Forage, 120. Steam coal, 5. Steam coal, 20, O Remarks. Tons 253 2.5-mile march. 820 30-mile march. • At 15 miles an "( hour. (At 4 miles an \ hour. 6,290 225 See Tron-i'lad Triii'us. EAILWAY STAFF VOLUNTEER CORPS.— A Corps whose object is to secure unity of action among the Railway Companies in time of war. It consists of three classes — namely. Eminent Civil Engineers, the General ^Managers of Railway Companies, ami the leading Contractors. Their duty"is to consider points relating to the transport of troops, the formation of lines oif railway, etc., and to meet any exigency in time of war, all which information would prove of great value. In Germany the railways.as far as they are employed for military purposes, are under tlie control of the Great G"eneral StatT at Berlin, a special section of that department being entirely devoted to collect and arrange systematically all in- formation on railways.at home and abroad, especial- ly with regard to their capacity for carrying troops. This branch of the Staff works out the instructions given for the transport of troops and munitions of war, examines all projects of railways, and, lastly, prepares plans for the transport of German troops under different circumstances, so that tn the event of war they can be concentrated with the greatest possible speed on any given point. The Railway Battalion, which was organized after the war of 1870- 71, and which is now in full working order, is under the superintendence of this section. This Battalion is composed in time of peace of four companies, re- cruited from among the employes and officers of ex- isting railways. The men are taught by very prac- tical lessons how to construct and work a line, being employed, while learning the tirst dutj% on the State Railways,and afterwards on a special line, called the " Military Railway," running from Berlin to the ar- tillery practice ground at Zossen. On war breaking out, "the Battalion is mobilized, and consists then of eight i-oiutnuting and four irnrking companies. The duties of the former are to make impromptu lines, and for that purpose each company is provided with a train of its own, containing all the necessary imple- ments. The four working companies, taking up the line as it is made, will begin to put it in running or- der, manning it with drivers, guards, stokers, points- men, and telegraph clerks from their own num- ber, and, after the service is regularly establi>*hed, handing it over to the ordinary Civilian Staff, while tliey pass forward to make a frcsli section on ahead. This Batlalion includes tlirce classes: Line, Reserve, and Lnndirehr; the two latter being at present supplemented by a list of ordinary railway servants, engaged for enrollment in time of need. In Russia, a system has been organized closely resembling that ado|)le<l by (iermauy. Every year picked men and ollicers are sent on all tlii' Railway Lines, the former to study the theory of all that con- cerns the working and managing of railways, the latter to fulfill the duties of Station .Masters. Ii"i 1871. after two year.?' practice, these men (4;!3 and 8 offi- cers), together with a divisitm of infantry, and a battalion of engineera, constructed in seven days a line of 5 miles in lengtli, with two stations and ten bridges, one of them of 54 yards span. Tlie cost of the line was valued at £31,200. and was so well con- structed that it has remained in use ever since. By an Imperial Ukase promulgated in 1870, all the Rus- sian Railwa}' Companies have to provide a certain number of carriages for the wounded, fitted up with litters, and well ventilated, and a number of carriges, wagons, and trucks, speciallj' devised for military purposes. France has also introduced a Railway- Battalion under her new militarj' organization. The men of this Battalion will be in time of war asso- ciated with the Civil Railway Staff, and are classed in three categories: The first (two-thirds of annual Contingent) is incorporated in the Active Battalion, and instructed as sappers and miners, or as soldiers of the engineer train. The second (one-sixth of the Contingent) serves one year only in the Active Bat- talion; after which it is distributed among certain of the principal Railwaj' Companies, in order to learn the working and managing of the lines, their con- struction, and restoration. The third (one-sixth of the Contingent) serves only one year in the Active Bat- talion, and is then transferred to the depots. This carries on operations witli torpedoes, and is prac- ticed generally in the destruction of rail waj's, bridges, etc. A very similar organization of the Military Railway Department has been established in Italy. RAIN-GAUGE. — The use of rain-gauges is to as- certain the amount of rain which falls at any given place. The}' are of various constructions. The simplest is that which consists of a metallic cjdinder, from the bottom of which a glass tube, divided into inches and parts of an inch. projects downwards. It is provided with a funnel, inserted within at the top, to prevent evaporation, and the rain-water is emptied out by means of a stop-cock at the bottom, or still simpler, by a hole pierced in the funnel at the top. As this form of gauge is objectionable on account of the frequent breakage of the glass-tube by frost, a float is used instead, which is raised by the water, and a scale is attached to it, to show tlie quantity of rain received. As this gauge does not admit of very nice readings, another sort is frequently employed, viz.. a receiving-vessel and a glass mciisure of much smaller diameter, which thus admits f)f as nice grad- uaticui as may lie desired. As, praclieally, there is often great dillicully or trouble experienced in re- placing the glass measure when it chances to get broken, the late G. V. .lagga Rao, a wealthy zemin- dar of Vizagapatam, proposed a gauge in tlie form of a funnel hiivinga dianu'ter of 4'(i!l7 inches, or an area of 17-l!8 squ:ire inelies. .\s a fluid ounce contains 1-733 cubic inclies.it follows that for every lluid ounce collected by this gauge, the tenth of an inch of rain has fallen. This measure can. of course, be graduated to any degree of nicety, and may be re- produced at jileasure. Self-registering rain-gauges have been invenled by Osier, Crosley, and Beckly, EAIN OF FIKE. 631 BAJP00T8. but they are too cxpcnsivi! to come into very com- mnn use. TIk' (iniwiii!; reprt'scnts the ContiDcntul Siumil Service niiii-(;iiiii;c. A iiKiHl importiuit point with regiinl to tlio rain- gmiiic is ils hei;;hl above the f^roiind. I'rofcsHor Phillips found the fall of rain at York, for 12 nionllis in lH;i:i 1h:)4, to be H'.in inches at a height of 213 feet from the ground; Wt-H't inches at 44 feet; and 25'71 inches on the fj;rou!id. This n'niarkable fact — vi/.., that dilTcrcnt i|uarililies are collected at dif- ferent heijilits, the amount beini; always creater at the lower level, has l)C<n confirmed wherever the experiment has been made. No perfectly satis- factory account h;is yet been given of this siniruhir plienomenon. Tlie condensing of tlie vapor of tlnj atmosphere on the surface of r;iindrops as they fall — the rebound of the finer p;irlicl(s into which ninny of the drops break themselves !us they strike with violence on the ground and the eddies and currents which prevail most and strongest around isolated objects raised above the surface of the ground, to a large extent account for the pheuomenon. Of these three, the greatest weight is to be given to the last two; and this is confirmed l.iy the fact, that ;i gauge placed on the roof of a building that iKippens to be flat, of considerable area, and 'with few or no chim- ney-stalks to disturb the air-currents, collects an aniount equal to th;it collected at tlie same time by a gauge on the grouud. The proper size and shape ofthe rain-gauge, and its height above the ground, so as to measure witli the greatest exactness possible the real quantity of rain that falls, about all of which much diversity of opinion exists, luive been ably in- vestigated by a series of extensive experiments eon- ducted by Jtajor AVard. Mr. iSymons, Rev. Charles Griffith, and others, and tlie results have been pub- lished auniially in Symons' British Hniiifall. BAIN OF FIRE.— -\ decoration for roekets, made ■with paper-cases -f^ iucli in diameter, and 2 inches long, two thicknesses of paper being suflicient. The end of the ease Ih eloM'd. and it in ehar(;ed ar.ii primed like that for a serpent, except the jxjwder for a cracKcr. I lie eompoKJlion it It) rmrlHor riieahd pow- der and about of chari-oai. Another eompohiiion which shows in sparks, is made of 1(1 partH euniphor, 8 of nitre. H of mealed powder, and S of low RAISING AHMIE8.- Armies are ruinfil in two wuyH: Either liy vobiniary engagi'menls. or by lot or con- script ion. The (jreek and I<o:iian levieo were the result of a rigid fvstem of conscri[)tir>n. The VIk!- gotlis practiced a general conscri|)lion ; poverty, old age and sickness wcTe the only reasons udmilled for exemption. Subseqiientlv.the feudal military' tenures had superseded that earlier system of public defense, which calli'd upon every man, and espieially upon every landholder, to protert his country. The rela- tions of a vassal cami- in place of those of a subjeet and a citizen. This was the revolution fif tlie 'Jth century. In the 12lh an<l ll'th another innovation rather more gradually iirevailed. and marks the third period in the mili'iary history of Europe. Mer- cenary troops were subsliliile<l for the Feudal Militia. These military adventurers played a more remark- able part in Italy than in France, though not a little troublesome to the latter country. A necessary ef- fect of the formation of JIer(;enaries was the central- ization of authority. Money became the sinews of war. The invention of fire-arms caused it to be ac- knowledged that skill was no less essential for war- like operations than strength and valor. Towards tlie end of the Middle Ages, the power of Princes was calculated by the number and quality of paid troops tliey could support. France first set the ex- ample of keeping troops in time of peace. Charles VII.. foreseeing the danger of invasion, authorized the a.sseniblage of Armed Mercenaries called Cum. pagmen d^<)rd"nnancf. Louis XI., dismissed these troops.but enrolled new troops composed of French, Swiss, and Scotch. Under Charles VIII., German« were admitted in the French army, and the highest and iiiost illustrious Noliles of France regarded it as an honor to serve in the <!enn (rArmeji. !Moral qualifications not being exacted for admission to the ranks, the restraints of a barbarous di-scipline be- came necessary, and this discipline divided widely the soldier from the people. The French Hevoliition overturned this .system. Now Mercenary Troops have completely disappeared from Continental Eur- ope. England only now raises armies by the system of lierrii/U'r.i. The last wars of Europe have been wars of the people and have been fought liy nationalities. After peace armies remain national. for their elements are taken from the people. and are returned to the peo- ple by legal liberations. The institution of conscrip- tion is evidently the most important of modern limes. Among otlier advantages, it has bridged the other- wise impassable gulf bet weea the citizen and soldier, who, children of the same family, are now united in defense of their country. Pernianent armies have ceased to be the personal guard of Kings, but their sympathies are always with the people, and their jiist title is that of skillful warriors maintained as a nucleus for the instruction of their countrymen in the liiL'hest school of art. RAJA— KAJ AH.— Originally a title which belonged to those princes of Hindu races who. either as inde- pendent Sovereigns or as Feudatories, governed a. Territory; it then^ however, became a title given by the native governments, and. in later times, by the British government to Hindus of rank, and it is now not uncommonly assumed by the Zeinimlars or Land- holders: the tit'le Jlahrtriijah. or 'Great Kajah." be- ing, in these davs. generally resers-ed to Ibe more or less independent native Princes. According to the ancient social system of India, the Kajah belongeil to the Kshatlriva or Military Casle: now, however. the title is given to, and assumed by, members also of an inferior Cast<'. RAJPOOTS RAJPUTS.— The name of various tribes in India wliieh are of .Vryau origin, and either de- BAKE. 632 BAMPABT GBERASE. scended from the old royal races of the Hindus, or from their Kshattriya or Warrior Caste. At all per- iods they seem to have played a conspicuous part in the history of India ; and all over Hindustan there are many families who, rightly or vcrongly, claim the title of Kajputs. At present they occupy chiefly the country known as Rajasthan or Rajputana. includ- ing, among other States, those of Mewar, Jlarwar, Jeypur, Bikanir, Jessulmir, Kotah, and Bundi. Be- fore the invasion of Mahmiid the Ghiznevidc, four great kingdoms were under the dominion of Rajput families — viz., Delhi, Kanoj, Mewar, and Anhulvar- ra ; and all the Kings mentioned in the Rdjntaranji ■ ni of Kalhana were of Rajput origin. RAKE. — A term meaning to enfilade, or to fire in the direction of an enemy's ranks. To rake a ship is to bring gims to bear so as to fire them along her deck from end to end; this is the most disastrous thing that can happen to a vessel in action, and it is the object of all good seamanship to avoid it. When a ship is raked at short range, grape can be used with great and fatal effect. HAM. — In fortification the act of compressing, by means of rammers, the loose earth used in building parapets and in filling gabions. Althougli a parapet of loose earth is less injured by shot than a rammed one, ramming is essential for the stability of the ram- parts and parapets, as they might be scriouslj- injured by a continuance of bad weaUier. To ram is also a term used in thrusting home the charge into a piece of ordnance. Hence "to ram home" a charge. EAMMEfi.— 1. The rod by which the charge of a small arm is forced home. 2. A staff having a cylindrical or conoidal head attached, used in can- non for the same purpose. The rammer-head is made of beech, maple, or other hardwood not easily split, and is bored for about two-thirds of its length to receive a tenon on the staff. For rifled guns, or for hollow projectiles, its face is countersunk. Ram- mers for large guns are technically termed rammers and stares. For field artillery, a sponge is attached to the other end of the staff, and the combinea im- plement is called a sponge and rammer. BAHMER-HEAD. — An instrument employed in the inspection of cannon for ascertaining the interior position of the vent A head of well-seasoned wood, which fits the chamber, is attached to a wooden disc of the diameter of the main bore. The surface of the head corresponds with a longitudinal central section ,, of the chamber; at the point where the projection of the vent would meet it a piece of hard wood is in- serted. A central line drawn through its length, crossed at aright angle by another line at any known point from the smaller end, will afford convenient points to measure from. A stout wooden staff is attached to the axis of the head ; at a distance equal to the length of the bore, the end is jogged into the center of a half-disc of wood, which is fitted to the bore. The whole is so constructed that the straight edge of the half-disc (or the chord) is in the same plane as a hori/.ontal section of the head. A few holes are bored tlirougli the discattached to the half- head, to allow tlie instrument to pass freely into the giui and out of it. A wire of uutcmpered steel, of thesize of the vent, withasharp, well-crntcred point, and a small spirit-level, are reijuired to use with this tnstruincnt. The gun being leveled, and the instrument being pushed to the bottom of the bore, the upper edge of the half-di.sc near the outer end of tlie staff is then brought to a level. The surface of the half-head then corresponds with the horizontal central section of the chamber. The point of the wire being pushed gently to meet it, will show very accurately the inter- ior positiciii of tlic vent. See /ns/ieflion "fOrd/iaiice. EAMMEES. —Large l)locks of wood, very commonly used ill military works, for the ramming of loose earth. Th(^ word rammer is also applied to the man employed in tliat duty. RAMP. — in fortification, a gradual slope by which approach is had from the level of the town or inter- ior area to the terreplein orgeneral level of the forti- fications behind the parapet. The width of ramps at top for the service of the artillery and other vehi- cles may be from 10 to 10 feet, and their inclination from J to i'e, or less, depending on the difference of level to be overcome. They are usually placed in positions where they will occupy the least room of the parade. As a general rule, their side slopes are of eartli ; Imt where it is desirable to economize room on the parade the side slopes are replaced on one or both sides by a wall which sustains the earth of the ramp. When ramps serve for infantry alone their width may be reduced to 6 feet, and in some cases to 4 feet. See Vvmimmicatii.ms. RAMPANT.— In Heraldry, an epithet applied to a [ lion or other beast of prey when placed erect on the ; two hind-legs, with only one of the fore-legs eleva- '' ted, the head being seen in profile. When the face is turned toward the spectator, the attitude is Bampanti called rampant gardant, and when the head is turn- ed backwards, rampant ngardiint. A lion counter- rampant is one rampant towards the sinister, instead of towards the dexter, the usual attitude. Two lions rampant coutrarj'-waysin saltier, are sometimes also said to be counter-rampant. RAMPANT PLANE.— In the earlier methods of de- filement, a line was taken, the position of which was determined by a series of trials, having for their ob- ject to obtain satisfactory results both as to the econ- omy of the requisite embankments and the disposition of command of the various parts at, or in the rear of,the gorge of the work to be defiled; this position, coin- ciding with the natural surface, or being above or beneath it as the case required. Through this line a plane was passed tangent to the dangerous ground. This plane, termed a. Rampant Plane, was taken as the artificial site of the work, in reference to which the relative command of all the parts was arranged upon a horizontal site. Or, in other words, there- sult was nearly the same as if the works had been arranged on a horizontal site, and then the whole combination turned around some fixed line of this site, until it was brought into the position of the re- quired rampant plane. The defects of this method are evident at a glance. It preserves the relations of defense of the various works the same as in a hori- zontal site ; but, to a great extent, it leaves out of consideration the bearing of the command on the exterior ground, and, in many cases, may lead to ex- cessive excavations and embankments which the method now followed enable the engineer, for the most part, to avoid. RAMPART. — A structure forming the substratum of every permanent fortification. It constitutes the enceinte, and is constructed immediately within the main ditcli by throwing up tlie soil excavated from it. On the front of tlie raiiijiart the parapet is raised, and widtli sliould he left behind it to allow of guns, wagons, and triKjps passing freely on the top of the rampart. Thi' lieiglit of the rampart is dependent on the relief (height) of the buildings to be defended, and on the positions in the neigiiborhood which an enemj' might assume. Also wrMenr ampler, and ram- pire. See Permanent Ju/rt/Jiration. RAMPART GRENADE.- Rampart grenades are in- tended to be rolled down tlie rampart of a work, to protect a breaeli against the attack of any storiiiing EAMPART GUN. iV. HARK. column. Shells of any size will answer for Ihis pur- poBc, and piirlicularly those which ari' iiiiHi-rviccahle for oriliiiary purposes. (jrcniuiiH arc lllh-il wilh a burslini; charge, anil arc ariiicd with a .sliurl fii>i<-', wliich is linhtcil l)y a match in the liaiiils of ihcf;rcn- adicr iMimcdiatcl^' before il \h lliriiwn. They act by the force of their explotdori alone. Bee (Jreiiade, Hand firtiiiirli', and /'nijtrtilei, RAMPART GUN. A lari;e nun fitted for rampart use. and not nsed for licld purpoHcs. RAMROD. A loiif;, slender piece of steel, employ- ed in mn/./ledoadiiii; arms, to push the cliarf;e toils ])roper place, and to wipe out llie barrel. It is car- ried in a groove cut into tlie under side of the stock, and it is ke])! in its place by the ])ressure of the «iri'U against the tiji of lh<' stock. The /iinil of the rod is countersunk to lit the point of the projectile ; and the point has ascrew to receiveihe wijirr and liUl-nrmr — implements that are used to clean and remove' ob- structions fi(un the bore. The temper of the ram- r<id may be tested by s])rin;;inii >l i" four direi-l ions, witli the point resting on the Moor. When the mus- kel-rod is bent si.\ inches out of line, it sliould spring back perfectly straight without setting. Its sound- ness may be tested by striking it with u piece of metal, or by bending it over the edge of a block of wood; in the first case the sounil emitted should be clear, and in the second case the Hawsor cracks will bcopened. The screw on the point of the rod should be properly cut ; it shoidilbear [jroperly in its groove, neither too light, nor too loose. The point should rest on the stop. RAMROD CROSS BOW.— A very heavy and compar- atively useless weapon of the time of Louis XIV. RAMSHORNS. — In fortification, are semicircular works of low profile in the ditch, widch they sweep, being themselves commanded by the main works. They were invented by M. Helidor, a great French engineer, and, when used, take the place of tenailles, RANCHEROS. — A name given in Mexico to a mi.xed breed of 8|)anisli and Indian blood, who inhabit the country, and may almost be said to live in the saddle from their youth, are splendid riders and hunters, and form the brav('st part of the Mexican army -its irregidar cavalry. The importance of their services was seen in the wars wilh the I'nited States. The Rancheros are lank in frame, with brown, weather- stained faces and muscular limbs, hardy, temperate, and always ready for the boldest enterprises. RANCON. — The name of an old weapon, consisting of a long stake with a sharp iron point at one end, and two blades or wings bent backwards, and ex- tremely keen. HANDING.— In fortification, a kind of basket-work, formed in making gabions. One rod only is used, and an odd number of pickets, in forming the bas- ket the rod being passed alternately inside and out- side the pickets. RANDOM. -Want of direction in firing a gun or musket : hence the expression, V> fire at naidom. A random xhot is a common expression when a fire-arm has been discharged without aiming in any particular direction. RANGE. — In gunnery, the distance between a point on the ground vertically below the muzzle of the piece and the point on the same level at which the projectile touches in its descent. The point- blank range is when the piece is fired in a horizontal position ; the range then increases with the eleva- tion ; and if the air did not oppose resistance, the greatest range would be attained with the piece ele- vated at an angle of 4.")^ ; but in practice this angle is found to be on an average a little over SC. As the resistance of the atmosphere increases as the square of the velocity of the shot, being also in the direct ratio of its front section, while the momentum is as the velocity multiplied by the weight ; it follows that a heavy shot should have a greater range than a light one ; and that of two shots of the same weight, an elongated cylinder of small diameter will have a longer range tliiin a fiphcrlcnl ball of ^eater diameter. On the other hand, .roni the rapid mcreawr in u du- plicat(^ ratio of the resistaucc, uh coinparcfd with the initial velocity, the rang".' only incrr'UHeK to aci-r- tain point, in consei|uence of a more rapid lliglit of the projectile. The loMgest range yet attained lia« been by Sir Joseph Whitwortli, wilh a U-incli rillMl gun, with which he sent a bolt a distance of l],:M:i yards, or (J miles and fW3 yards. See (Junntry, and TrajecUtri/ . RANGE BOARD.- This nature of board in intended for guns in fortresses, from tlii' "-inch citbher up- wards; it is placi'd in a conveiuent |)OHition in the fortress where il can be seen and consulted. It haH the distances painted on il of i>roniinent objecls with- in the raii'.'i' of tlie guns moimted on the works. RANGE CURVE. - The ranges corresponding to the angles of elevation given in tables are delerinined by means of a Jiany Ciirti-. which is conHlriicted from the results of practice. Having traced thi; curve through several points delennined by experi- ment, it is eiisy to find a series of ranges for inter- mediate ;inL'l(s ajiii minutes. RANGE-FINDER. An instrument for determining ranges. There are several different principles which may be used. The distance may be measured- 1st, by the visual angle subtended by objects of known height; 2d, by the velocity of sound; 3d, the in- strument may furnish a base line in itself, and solve a triangle in which the base and two adjacent anirleg are given. The term is also applied to instrumenlii used to solve a triangle, the base of which is obtained by outside means. The various range-firutem are described under appropriate headings in this work. See WdtkiiiH lliinf/t-Jiiukr. RANGE PLATES. — I'lates of brass attached to the brackets of the Knglish lli-pr. and Jl-pr. wrought-iron field carriages. They are marked with three cobnnns of figures, showing the range in yards from 100 to 4,000 for 16-prs. andfrom 100 to 3,.500 for yi)rs., with the corresponding elevations and tenths of fuse. RANGER.- One of a body of mounted troops, who were formerly armed with short muskets, and who ranged over the country, often fighting on foot. RANGE-TABLES.— .\. properly constructed gauge- table for a particular i)iece contains the range an<I tlie time of Hight for each elevation, charge of powder, and kind of projectile. Its object is to serve as a guide in pointing, without waste of time and ammunition, and also when the effect of the projectile cannot be seen. It aids in securing good practice. The Ord- nance Instructions contain approximate range tables for the service cannon. It is with great diHiculty that tables are constructed from results of the most careful experiments, owing to the different ranges and deflec- tions obtained in firing projectiles, even from the same gun with similar charges and elevations. It must be remembered that any practice table will only serve as a general guide, and that small alterations in elevation or detlection are required, according to the force and direction of the wind, the position of the piece with respect to the object, the quality of the powder, and several other circumstances. RANK. — 1. A line of soldiers drawn up side by side in one row ; opposed to fiU. 2. The relative position, in the army, which officers and men hold with respect to each other, or to military things in general. In the English Army, rank is .somewhat confusing from its varieties, and from the fact that the same officer niaj* hold at once three different ranks. The first and only rank up to the grade of Captain is regimental or mibntantatite rank. Above this, officers may advance in two ways : First up to rank of Lieutenant Colonel by substa'ntative or regi- ' mental rank ; second, up to Colonel by obtaining ' rank in the army, generally called hrerH rank, and above that by army rank through the several grades of general officers. In his regiment, the officer holds only his regimental rank, whatever his brevet rank maybe; but among officers of the army gener- BANS. 634 BANK. ally he takes precedence according to his brevet rank. In describing an officer wliolias brevet rank, his regimental rank is placed first — as. Captain and brevet Lieutenant Colonel Brown, which means that an officer named Brown, who holds rank in a regi- ment as Captain, has for his services been promoted in the army to be Lieutenant Colonel. Officers of the foot-guards have higher rank in the army. Ano- ther class of rank is relative rank, which attaches to certain officers. Thus Captain Brown aforesaid, in addition to regimental rank as Captain, and army rank as Lieutenant Colonel, may possibly hold a staff appointment which confers on him the relative rank of Colonel. Local rank is a common expedient for advancing comparatively junior officers to im- portant duties, a higher rank than that properly held in the army being assigned to an individual within certain geographical limits, as in the East Indies, the Crimea, etc. Temporary rnnk is simi- larly limited by time, and is conferred usually for the period during which some appointment is held, as the officer acting as director of ordnance ranks as Major General while so employed. Honwnry rank carries neither duty nor emolument; it is commonh' given to the amount of one step to an offi- cer who has served the time necessary for retirement; thus, a Captain, after thirty years' service, may retire (on the pay of Captain) with the honorary rank of Major. Officers who have quitted the army are also allowed to retain as honorary the last rank they held. In the L'nited States, officersof the Regular Army, of the Marine Corps, and of Volunteers, wheu com- missioned or mustered into the service, being upon equal footing, take precedence in'each grade by date of commission or appointment. Officers serving by commission from any State of the Union take rank next after officers of like grade by commission from the United States, except commissions issued by the President to officers of Volunteer regiments, which are considered the same as if issued by Governors of States. Militia officers, when employed in conjunc- tion with the Regular or Volunteer forces of the United States, take rank next after all officers of like grade in those forces. In fixing relative rank between officers of the same grade and date of appointment and commission, the time which each maj- have ac- tually served as a commissioned officer of the United States, whether continuously or at different periods, is taken into account. And in computing such time no distinction is to be made between service as a commissioned officer in the Regular Army and ser- vice since the 19th day of April, 1861, in the Volun- teer forces, whether under appointment or commis- sion from the President or from the governor of a State. Wliere periods of service are equal, prece- dence is determined between ofl[icers of the same re- giment, corps, or department, by the order of ap- pointment. Between officers of different regiments : 1st. Rank in actual service when appointed ; 2d. For- mer rank in the Regular Army, in the JIarine Corps, or in the Volunteer service ; 3d. By lot among such as have not been in th." military service of the United States. The rank of officers and non-conmiissioned officers in the service is as follows : — 1 . General. 2. Lieutenant General. 3. Major General. 4. Hrigadier General. .'>. Colonel. 6. Lieutenant Colonel. 7. Major. 8. Captain. 9. First Lieutenant. 10. Second Lieutenant. 11. Cadet. 12. Sergeant Major and Veterinary Surgetm. 13. Quartermaster and Saddler Sergeant (regimental). 14. Onlnaure and Coinnus- sary Sergeant and Hospital Stcw;ird of tlie tirst class. l."!. First Sergeant. 16. Sergeant iinii Cnmpaiiy (Quar- termaster Sergeant. 17. Corporal. In each grade these rank by date of commission, appointment, or warrant. Chai>lains have the rank of Cajjtains of Infantry without command. On parade, orother oc- casions of ceremony, troops of dilTerent arms are ar- ranged from right to left in the following order: first, Infantry; second, mounted Artillery; third, Cavalry. Artillery not mounted and Engineers serving as In- fantry are p isted as Infantry. Engineers serving as such are posted on the right of the Infantry. Marines and dismounted Cavalry are on the left of the In- fantry. In the same arm, Regulars, Volunteers, and Militia are posted in line from right to left in the order named. On all other occasions troops of all classes are posted at the discretion of the General or senior Commander. Questions as to the positive or relative rank of offi- cers may often be of the greatest importance at law, in consequence of the rule, that every person who justifies his own acts on the ground of obedience to superior authority must establish, by clear evidence, the sufficiency of the authority on which he so re- lies. There may also be many occasions on which the propriety of an officer's assumption of command, or his exercise of particular functions, or his right to share with a particular class of officers in prize-mon- ey, bounties, grants, and other allowances, may de- pend on the correctness of the view taken by him- self or others of his right to a specific rank or com- mand ; and an error in this respect may expose him to personal loss and damage in suits before the civil tribunals. The regulation of military rank is vested absolutely in Congress, which confers or varies it at pleasure. The will of Congress in this respect is signified by the creation of different grades of rank; by making rules of appointment and promotion ; by other rules of government and regulation ; or is by fair deduction to be inferred from the nature of the functions assigned to each officer; for every man who is intrusted with an employment, is presumed to be invested with all the powers necessary for the effective discharge of the duties annexed to his office. Rank and Grade are sjnonymous, and in their mili- tary acceptation indicate rights, powers, and duties determined b}' laws creating the different degrees of rank, and specifying fixed forms for passing from grade to grade ; and when rank in one body shall give command in another body ; and also when rank in the army at large shall not be exercised. Rank is a right of which an oflieer cannot be deprived, ex- cept through forms prescribed b_v law. AVhen an officer ii' on duty, his rank itself indicates his relative position to other officers of the bod}' in which it is created. It is not, however, a perpetual right to ex- ercise command, because the President may, at any time relieve an officer from duty ; or an officer may be so relieved by arrest duly made according to law; or by inability to perform duty from sickness, or by being placed by competent authority on some other duty. But whenever an officer is on duty his rank indicates his command. Struggle as commentators may, who desire to subject rank to executive caprice, rather than have its powers and duties defined by law, as the Constitution requires in giving to Con- gress the power to make rules for the government and reguUitUin of tlie army, tlie rights of rank cannot, without usurpation, be varied at the will of the Pres- ident. The law has created rank. Rank means a range of subordination in the particular body in which it is created. It is, therefore, effective in that body, without any further legislatiim, and its etl'ect, when the officer is present for duty, is <'Xtended be- yond that particular portion of the army in whi<-h the orticcr holds rank, or its exerci.se is restri<'ted within a Corps only by legislation. Executive au- thority <'annot make rank vary at will, but what- ever authority the executive has over nuik must be determined by law. A reference to the Articles of "War will show that the President is given the authority to limit the discretion of Comnuuiding Officers, in special cases, in respect to what is need- ful iov the service, and also to relieve the senior officer from any command, so that the conunand may fall upon the next officer in the Line of the Army, Marine Corps, or Militia, "by commission there on duty or in (luarters," or assign some senior to duty with troops, in order that such officer may become BANK AND FILE. 635 BABALDAB. entitled to commnnd. Any power of twm'gnment cliiiiiK'il for llic f'rcMidiiit bcyinid lliis is not iirid oiii^lil ricil Id I)(' siiiicl ioiii'd liy law. 'I'lic li'^^iNlation on l.'ic siilijcci of ninU is lliiis <'<>iii|ili'i('. OlllciTS, wiicn scTvin;; <jnly willi llifir own ri'fxinirni, serve iiccoriliim to llic-ir rcniiMcnlai nmli ; hut wlicn witli other corps. Ilic senior liy coniniission in the line, whether hy l)revet or otherwise, is eiilitled to eoni- nunid. See < ''luiiminfK RANK AND FILE. -Tlio body of stildlers constitu- tirii; tlie ureal mass of the Army, ineliidinK 'j'orpor- llls, Homliardiers, and I'rivales. 'I'lie Hiink utiil Jili means lilerally the lines of men from side to side, and from front to hack a raidv lieim; a row of mi-n standini; side hy side, and a lile of soldiers a line of men slanilini; one; lieliind anolher. The strength of a force is reckoned hy its Hunk ah'l Jile: the JS'on- Cf)tninissioned anil ("oinmissioncd Olllcers fornnnj; the supernumerary ranks cliari;ed with tlie direction of the mass. RANKER.- A Non-comnussioned Ollicer who rises to lie a Cnmniissioned Ollicer. RANKS. — The order of common soldiers. Non- commissioned Oilicers are frequently reduced to the rankn. The term is variously ajiplied — Tn fill tlif rrt/iA.iisto supply the authorized or competent num- ber of men. Td tnke niiik '^' is lo enjoy precedence over, or to have the riL;ht of takin;; a liiirh<'r place. RANSEUR. A kind of piirtitnii, well known in Germany durins^ tlie \'A\\ century. It came orii^i- nally from Corsica, and has been callcilboth ci/mrjue ami niiiniiil by some authors. RANSOM. — The price paid hy a prisoner of war, or paid on his Iiehalf, in consideration of Ids being granted libertyto return again toldsown country. In early times, when arnues received little or no res^u- lar pay, the soldier lonked for his reward in the booty he inii;ht ca[)ture, and this l)Oot)' included the bodies as well as Ihe chattels of the vancpiished. The con(|ueror had the option of slaying his pri.soner; but for his ])rotit, ho would make inm his slave, or sell him into slavery. The transition wouhl be na- tural to accepting compensation from the prisoner himself, and setting him at lilierly. In feudal war- fare, the ransoms formed a large portion of a soldier's gains; those for persons of low degree belonging to the indivulual eajjlors: but those for Princes or Great Nobles, to the King. Kansom.s were some- times of large amount, more than the immediate family of the captive could pay. His retainers were then required by feudal usage to contribute; as in the case of redeeming King Hichard I. for ilOO.OOO, when twenty shillings wasassessed on every Knight's Fee, and the Clergy subscribed liliemlly. IJavid Bruce, of Scotland, was ransomedfor 11)0,000 marks, and King John, of France. for i.'.'jOOiOOO, payable in in- stalments. In modern warfare, wdiere Ihe lighting is performed by professimial soldiers, pecuniary ran- soms are scarcely ever resorted to, freedrm lieing granted to prisoners in exchange for others of corre- Bixinding rank captured on the opposite side. RAPIDITY OF FIRE.— The rapidity witli wliich cannon can be loaded and discharged depends on the size of the piece, the construction of the carriage, and the care required in aiming. Field-cannon can be discharged with careful aim, about tw'ice per minute ; in case of eniergenc)', wdien closely i>ressed i by the enemy, canister-shot m;u' be discharged fiuir times per minute. The 1'2-pdr. boat-howitzer of the Navy, with experienced gunners, can lie discharged i at the rate of sixteen times per minute. Siege-guns | are generally dischargcil twelve times per hour ; if necessary, they can be discharged as rapidly as twen- | ty times per hour. Iron cannon can be tired more rap- | idly than bronze, as the latter meUil is softened by hciit, and the piece is li:ible lo bend. Siege-mortars ! can be Hrcd twelve times per hour, and more rap- idly than this if the obji'ct he large, as a city. Siege-howitzers can lie tired eight times in an hour. . Ttie tire of a sea-coast cannon depends much on | the ease with which Iih carriage can be maneuvered. [The lieaviest, or l/i-iti. gun, nioiiiited on llie new. iron earriat'e, can belmiderl and (Ired in 1' 10"; the timereipnred in aiming depinds on theiinirlr- Ihrongh which tlir' chassis is to be IraverHed. and jdece ele. vated, or depressed ; it can be traver«ed through un angle of 1)0" in 2' 20". .Muzzledouding hnml|.Hrm» can be discharged two or three linicH in a minute, and breech-loading arms about ten limcH ; the revol- ver can be discharged much more rapidly for nix shots. • This quality of a military fire-arm uliould l»c carefully guanleil, as il is finind llial Holdiern arc prom; to discharge Ihi-ir pieceH in (he excitement of battle without taking proper aim, and conitequently to waste their ammnnition. The calculations of the power of gunn, by Colonel Maitland in his very valuable paper on " Tlie Heavy Guns of 1881," lately read at the L'niied .Service In- stitution, are utterly misleading, as they leave out of account all consideration of rapidity and safely of tiring; in fact, they give onlv the edleieiicy of Ihe gun for a single round, thus pfacing a gun thai could be fired only one round p( r hour on an e(|ualilv with another gun firing a hundred similar rounds per hour. The Krupp gun is calculated to fire one round every ten minutes from his large guns on the practice ground at Meppen. and Captain Filzirerahl, I{. N., slated in his lecture at Ihe 1 idled Service Inslilution that the Knglish 100-ton breecli-loa<ling gun could be fired only once in fifteen or twenty minutes. He institutes the following comparison to show the ilif- ference between a gun firing six shots an hour and an ideal gun ("Gun of 1880") supposed to fire 20 shots in the same time ; Data. Elswick Gun of 1884. Gun of 1886. Diameter of bore 16.35 16.25 Weight of gun... 110 Ions 120 tons. " of charge.. 900 lb. !)(K) lb. " ofpr'jectile 1,800 lb. l.HOO lb. Muzzle velocity of projectile ... 2,020 ft. per sec. 2,020 ft. per sec. Muzzle energy of projectile 50.924 ft. tons. 50,924 ft. tons. Muzzle energy of projectile per ton of gun 513 ft. tons. 424.3 ft. Ions. No. of" rounds fired per hour. 6 20 Total power of gun 305,544 ft. tons. 1.018,480ft. tons. Power per ton weight of gun. 2,777 ft. tons. 8.487.5 ft. tons. The above shows that the more rapid firing cun. al- though not 10 per cent, heavier than the filswick gun, is over 200 per cent, more powerful for destnic- tive purposes. Sec Ordnancf. RAPIER.— This word is said to have had distinct meanings at different times, and in ancient fencing to have been a long culling broadsword; but fur Ihe last century at least the rapier has been a light, high- ly-tempered, edgeless, thrusting weapon, finely pointed, and about 3 feet in length. Il was for a long lime the favorite weapon in dueling, and was worn by every gentleman. At present it is worn only on occasions of court ceremonial, and answers no other purpose than to incommode Ihe wearer. In war a nipier could never have been of any ser\-irc. RAPPAREE.— A wild Irish plunderer' so called from his being generally armed with a r'tptiry. or half-pike. The term was in common use in the 17tli century. See Xotoi and Qwrif.s. August IT. 1861. RAPPEL. —The beat of the drum to call soldiers to arms RASALDAR. In the E;ist Indies, the name applied to the Comiii:inder of liasallah, which is 10,000 arm- ed horsemen. BASANTE. 636 EATION BETTJHNS EASANTE.— A French term, applied to a style of fortification in which the command of the works over each other, and over the countrj', is kept very low, in order that the shot may more effectually sweep or graze the ground before them. Also writ- ten Raiant. EASP. — Tlie rasp, like the file, 's an abrading tool, but differs in that its surface is studded by pro- truding, isolated teeth, instead of chisel-cut teeth. The teeth of rasps are formed by a pointed tool call- ed a punch. The point of this punch is geherally of a triangular pyramidal form, whose triedral angles vary in size according to the effect required to be produced. The spaces between the teeth are, com- paratively, wider than those for files. The appar- ently irregular intermingling of the teeth is such as will produce the smoothest surface for the number of teeth on the rasp. The classification of rasps is very similar to that of files. Rasps have different degrees of coarseness. tine or star candles ; four pounds of soap ; four pounds of salt ; four ounces of pepper ; and to troops in the field, when neces.sary, four pounds of yeast-powder to the one hundred rations of flour. Fresh mutton may be issued in lieu of, and at the same rate as, fresh beef, when the cost of the former docs not exceed that of the latter. Fourteen oimces of dried fish, or eigliteen ounces of pickled or fresh fish, may be issued in lieu of the meat components of a ration. Molasses or syrup may be issued in lieu of sugar, at the rate of two gallons to fifteen pounds of sugar. When it is impracticable for troops in the field or those traveling upon cars or transports, to draw or cook beans or rice, equivalents in money value of bread or meat may be issued; the value (in detail) of the stores not drawn, and those is.sued in lieu thereof, must be entered upon the abstract of issues. The following issues may be made to troops : Per 100 rations, in lieu of the usual meat portion of the ration, 75 pounds canned fresh beef ; or about 75 and the cuts are usually classed as — coarse, bastard, second-cut, and smooth. The coarse-cut is that used by horsc-shoers; the bastard by machinists, carriage- makers, and wheelwrights; while the second cut is applied to shoe-rasps, and the smooth to cabinet- makers, etc. The rows of teeth range obliquely from left to right, or from right to left, and sometimes in circular arcs. The planes of the cutting faces of the teetli are generally placed at right angles to the axis of the file; but occasionally they are made with a slight obliquity, alternately to the right and left, for the purpose of allowing the teeth to clear themselves more freely from particles of stock. See File. EATCHET.— A small piece of metal, so placed with one end on a pivot that the other can fall into the teetli of a wheel. Being perfectly free to move up and down, its own weight makes it drop into tooth after tooth as the wheel revolves. — But, from the peculiar shape of the teeth, which have the form of an inclined plane on one side, and a perpendicular face on the other, the wheel can only revolve in one direction. RATCHET-POST.— A cast-iron post at the head of large Hodman guns to serve as a fulcrum for the bar used in elevating the gun. EATCHET-SABOT. — A copper-cupped plate, at- tached to the base of a projectile, and firmly held in its place by radial grooves. EATCHET-WHEEL.— A wheel with pointed aud angular teeth, against which a ratchet abuts, used either for converting a reciprocating into a rotatory motion on the shaft to which it is fixed, or for ad- mitting of its motion in one direction only. Sec Me- ch'ini'ful Maneuvers. BATE BOOK. — A priced vocabulary of government stores, by which officers and soldiers are debited for the loss of, or injury done to, government property under their charge, if committed through careless- ness, etc. EATION. -The established daily allowance of food for one person. For the United States Army it is now composed as follows : Twelve ounces of pork or bacon, or one i>oun(i andfour ounces of fresh beef, or twenty-two ounces of salt beef; eiglitccii ounces of soft bread or of flour, or about sixteen ounces of liiird-bread, or one pound and four ounces of corn UK'al. To every one hundred rations, fifteen |)(iunds of beans or of peas, or ten pounds of rice or lioniiny ; ten i)ounds of green coffee or about eight jioiiuds of rnasti'd for roastc<i ami ground) coffee, or about two pounds of lea; liftccM jiounds of sugar ; four cpiarts of vinegar ; one pound and eight ounces of ailaman- pounds canned com beef. Per 100 rations, in lieu of the dry- vegetable portion of the ration, 33 I- pound cans baked beans ; or 30 2-pound cans baked beans ; or 1.5 3-pound cans baked beans ; or .5 1-gal- lon cans baked beans ; or 25 pounds cheese. Six- pound cans of beef, and gallon or three-pound cans of beans should be issued in all cases when con- venient ; one and two pound cans of beans, and two and four pound cans of beef, to be issued only when it is inconvenient to issue the larger cans, or but small amounts are to be issued. The army ration, in England, at home, is f lb. of meat, and 1 lb. of bread ("best seconds") if in bar- racks, or J lb. of meat with li lbs. of bread if in camp. If a grocery ration is also issued, Hd. for each such ration is deducted from the pay of the recipient. When men are not supplied with rations, an allowance of 6d. per diem is granted. Abroad, the Ration is 1 lb. of bread, or J lb. of biscuit, and 1 lb. of fresh or salt meat, except at certain stations, where, for climatic reasons, a different Ration is specially provided. The bread ration may be in- creased during operations in the field, though not above 1^ lbs. of bread or 1 lb. of biscuit. During active operations, the officer commanding maj' di- rect the issue, in addition to the above, of wine, spirits, or any other article of subsistence equiva- lent thereto. The stoppage for this foreign ra- tion is Id. The families of soldiers accompanying them abroad are allowed the following rations: the wife (married under regulation), half a ration: each legitimate child under 7, a quarter ration : from 7 to 14, a third part of a ration. When officers re- ceive a colonial allowance in lieu of rations in kind, each is subjected to a daily stoppage of 2Jd. A Ra- tion of forage at home C(msists of 10 lbs. of oats, 12 lbs. of hay. and 8 lbs. of straw for each horse. Ca- valry soldiers receive this without stoppage; but their officers suffer a deduction of 8kl. per ration. Staff officers and mounted officers of infantry provide their own forage, and are granted a pecuniary allow- ance of Is. lOd. per day to enable them to do so. See Fixiil. RATION RETUENS. — The is.sues of subsistence are made to troops on ration returns, signed by their immediate Commander and approved by the com- manding officer of the post or station. These returns call for only such liuiit<'d ipiantity of stores as can be received iiiid properly cared for by the troops draw- ing, and will, ordinarily, be made fur a few days at a time. They are consolidaleil f(ir the post or regi- ment when practicable, and embrace only the niim- AATIOS. 637 HATI08. bir (if enlisted men, authorized Ia\indrcRBefl, and liog- square, but legs than the circle; the regular polygon I)il!il iimlroiiH ficliiiUly prcHciit. At IIkm-iuI of iho 1 of 10 hIiIch greater than thi- orla^^on, but lens tlian <-iil(li(i(r Mionlli, the CunirniMsnry ciili rH (in Hcpiiritle \ the circle: and so (in, conntimlly doiitilinjf llic niim- iilislracls.for eiicli cliiss (if lri"i|iH. every reliirn i]|i(iii her of sides. IJijt it cun he shown that the dilTcrcnce wliicli lie lias issued pnivisidris in llml nionlli: wjiicli of area lielween llie [lolv^'on and llie circle niav he abslracls tlieCoinniandin^^Olticcrconipares willi llic made as small a pcrceniagc of the area of the circle original ration returns, and if correct, so certifies. I as we please, by making the sides of the polygon liatioTi-Ueturn of Virmpany ■ Regiment of , ntationtd at fur ^'V, "O""- mencing tlie d/iy of , 188 — and ending the day of , 188—. 1 KuMiliir i.f mill. 1 1 Number of days. 1 Number of women. Number of ration'-. 1 1 Total. Total. Number of rations of- i{i,-marki. Pork. 1 Peas. ; Bacon. 1 Rice. Salt Beef. 1 1 Hominy. Fresh beef. 1 I Cheese. Mutton. 1 Coffee. Fresh beef, canned. 1 Tea. Corned beef, canned. Sugar. Fish, dried. Vinegar. Fish, pickled. Adamantine candles. 1 Flour. Soap. 1 Hard bread. Salt. Corn-meal. Pepper. 1 Beans. Yeast-powder. 1 1 Baked beans, canned. The A. A. C. S. will issue on the above return. JRegt. of- Comd'g Post. -Regt. of- EATI08.— There can be little doubt that Newton discovered b}' means of fiu.xions, of which he was in possession at a very early age, the greater part of that extraordinary series of theorems regarding mo- tion, etc, which he first published in the I'rincipi'a. He had, however, a great partialitj- for the .synthetic form of demonstration emplojed with such success by the Greek geometers; and the consequence was that, in the Principia, he avoided entirely the use of analysis by fluxions, and invented for synthetical ap- plications the closely allied method of Prime and Ultimate Ratios. The fundamental idea involved in fluxions, prime and ultimate ratios, and the differen- tial calculus, is the same, that of a Limit. To give an idea of the nature, as well as to show the real origin of the name of the method, we may take a very simple case. Let a particle be projected in any direction; it will move uniformly in that direction forever, unless deflected from it by some external force. Suppose that gravity alone acts upon it, then it will describe a parabolic path, to which the origi- nal direction is the tangent at the origin: and the line which joins the disturbed and undisturbed posi- tions of the particle at any instant is vertical. Now, the original and secondary distances of the particle from the origin are not, in general, e(iual, but they are more and more nearly equal as both are smaller: and, by taking each small enough, we may m;ike the percentage of difference between them as small as we choose. In other words, their prime ratio, just atJthe origin, is unity. Again, the inscribed square is less than a circle; the octagon is greater than the jComd'g Company. numerous enough. Hence, the ultimate ratio of the areas of the circle, and inscribed polygon with an in- definitely great number of equal sides, is unity. The basis of the method, which is implicitly involved in the foregoing illustrations, is Newton's first Umma, which is thus stated: " Quantities, and the ratios of quantities, which lend constantly to equnlily, and may be made to approximate to each other by less than any assignable difference, become ultimately equal." In other words, if we can make ihe perctn. tage of difference of two quantities as small ns we choose, we must produce tdlimate equality. From this, in his second and third lemmas. Newton proves the fundamental principle of the integral calculus as applied to the determination of the areas of cur\-es, by showing that if a set of parallelograms be inscrib- ed in any curvilinear space, the percentage of differ- ence between the sum of their areas and that rif the curve may be made as small as we please by dimin- ishing indefinitely the breadth of each parallelogram and increasing their number proportionally. Next, he shows how to compare two curvilinear spaces, by supposing them filled with such parallelograms, each of the first bearing to one of the second a con- stant ratio. Next, that "^the homolocous sides of sim- ilar r!/rri7''n<-ar figures are proportional. The sixth lemma is mereh' a definition of continuous curva- ture in a curve." as distinguished from abrupt change of direction. The seventh, eighth, and ninth lemmas \ are of very great importance. The general ;irin- cipleinvolvedlin their proof is this— to examine what always occurs in indefinitely small arcs. by drawing :: EAVELIN. 638 REACTION. magnified representation of them such as always to be on a finite scale, however small the arcs them- selves may he. Thus, to show that the chord of a small arc "is ultimately equal to the arc— of which we have in trigonometr}", as a particular case, the ulti- Fig. 1. mate equality of an arc and its sine — he proceeds somewhat as follows: Let AB, (Fig. 1) be an arc of continued curvature, AC the tangent at A. Produce the chord AB till it has a. finite length. A*. Describe on A4, as chord, an arc similar to AB. This, by a previous lemma, will touch AC at A. Now, as B moves up to A, let the same construction be perpet- ually made, then b will approximate more and more closely to AC (because the arc AB is one of con- tinuous curvature), and the magnified arc will con. stantly lie between AC and A*. Hence, ultimately, when A* and AC coincide in direction, the arc Kb (which is always between them) will coincide with Ah. Similarly", AD being any line making a finite angle with AC, draw DBE" cutting off a finite length from AD ; this process enables us to prove that the triangles AED, and the rectilinear .and curvilinear triangles ABD, are all ultimately equal. Finally (and this is the step of the greatest import- ance in the dynamical applications), if the lines AD, DE. D'E' (Fia;. 2) be drawn under the above restric- tions, the ulffmate ratio of the curvilinear or rectili- Fig. 2. near triangles AEB, AE'B' is that of the squares of corresponding sides. Prom this, in the ninth and last lemma, it is easily shown that the spaces de- scribed under the action of a finite force have their prime ratios as the squares of the times : ■whence we pass at once to the ever-memorable in- vestigations of the Prindpia regarding the orbits described imder the action of various forces. The metho of prime and ultimate ratios is little used now (except in Cambridge, whicli does honor to itself in making part of tlie Prlncipin a subject of study), as the diflerential and integral calculus help us to the required results with far greater ease. But to the tru(? student of gunnery, the synthetic metho<l of Newton is of very great value, as it show.s him clearly at I'very step the nature of the process he is carrying out, wliich is too apt to be lost sight of entirely in the semi-mechanical procedures common to all forms of symbolical reasoning. EAVELIN.- In fortification, a triangular work of less elevation tliau the main defenses, situated with its salient angle to the front before the curtain, which with tlie shoulders of the adjoining bastions it serves to protect. It is open at the rear, so as to be commanded by the curtain, if taken, and is separat- ed from that work bv tlie main ditch while in its own front the ditch of the ravelin intervenes be- tween itself and the covered-way. The guns of the ravelin sweep the glacis, and perform a very im- portant function in commanding the space imme- diately before the salient angles of the two next bastions, ground which the guns of the bastions themselves cannot cover. The bastions, on the other band, flank the ravelin. In the fortifications of Alessandria, designed by Bousmard, in 1803, the ravelins are placed in front of the glacis. The origi- nal name of the ravelin was ritelUno, which indi- cates a derivation from vegliare, to watch, the rave- lin having probably been at first a watch-tower, an- swering to the still" earlier barbacan. RAVINE.— In field-fortification, any deep hollow, usuall}' formed bj' a great flood, or a long-continued running water ; frequently turned to advantage in the field. See Dimde. RAW HIDES.— Hides not tanned. They are used to cover the revetments of embrasures in fieldworks. The hides are doubled, the hair inwards, two to each cheek of the embrasure, and fixed by pickets driven through them. RAW PIG. — The iron, as it comes from the smelt- ing-furnace, is termed, -'Raw Pig,'" and is a first fu- sion. The second-fusion iron (as understood by founders) is produced by a combination of raw pig and second-fusion, melted in an ordinary air-furnace, and then run out. These pigs are usually of a differ- ent shape than the raw pig, but to prevent confu- sion, and at the same time to distinguish different second-fusion irons one from another, each should be distinctly marked and piled separately. The ob- ject of using a second-fusion iron in a casting is to obtain greater density than can be produced from the rawpig alone; it moreover increases the tensile strength. In the casting of the XV-inch gun, the furnaces are charged as follows: Bloomfield raw pig 21,143 lbs. Bloomfield second-fusion (red-dot) 13,214 " Bloomfield second-fusion (red-cross) 3,643 " 37,00n " Total in both furnaces 74,000 " The second-fusion, marked "red-dot," consists of the followinc; combinations, viz.; Bloomfield raw pig 50,000 lbs. Bloomfield second-fusion 19,575 " Run into pigs and marked "red-dot" 69,575 " The proportions of the other grade, marked " red- cross," are as follows, vis.; Bloomfield raw pig 29,410 lbs. Bloomfield second-fusion 32,590 " Run into pigs and marked '• red-cross "...62,000"' The second-fusion iron used in these combinations is produced by melting two parts of raw pig with one of second fusion. See Casting and Iron. RAW TROOPS. — Inexperienced soldiers or men who have been little accustomed to the use of arms. RAZED.- A term applied to works or fortifications when they are totally demolished. RAZZIA. — A plundering and destructive incursion. REACTION.— A term used in reference to the pol- itical history of a Nation, to designate that tendency, often showi"ng itself, to recoil from the effects of Re- form or Reviilution, and to seek a restoration of the previous state of things, or one still more antiquated and despotic. The causes that lead to reaction are various. Sometunes it springs, partly at least, from mere disappointment at thesmallness of the rinible results of those changes advocated with so much eloquence, and waited for with so much enthusiasm and hope. The inconsiderate imagination of tho people <'xppcts a millenium to follow every import- ant change ; and when, after the event men find tluty arc still in the old world of imperfections, hard- ships, and sorrows, they are prone to believe that BEADINE8S. 639 BEAR GUABD. they have been tlchided, and nre only too willing to lend im vnr U> the insi<U<jiiH iiiiHrcprcHi'uiationH of Ihosr wlicj arc (i|i|iosc(l to iirojircss. liul. more frr. quenll) i)oliii<ul rcuitioii sprin^^'s from citlii-r iiiitiia- tiire or injudicious, or cxlravu;;:!!)!, rcvoliilioii The tinie.4 arc not yet ripe (iia in the first Italian re- volts), or the leaders are unfit (as in the German and lluntcarian slruirj^les of 1848-40), or excesses are committed (as in the f;rcat Fniieli oullireak of 1789), and so a revolution is nipped in the bud. or overthrown in Ihe Imtlle-licld ; or iullaiued with san.i^uinary thirst for revcui^e. it );oes mud in a " Keii:n of 'I'error," and exhausting itself in unprolit- able frenzies, falls at last an easy prey to any hold and unscrupulous adventurer wliom the crowd may elect out of desperation and disi^ust of anarchy, and whose rule is as absolute as any that preceded it. A reaction may thus, in certain cases, be useful, in so far as it teaches refornuTs and revolutionists the point beyond which nature forbids them to iro ; but its agents arc .Mlmost invariably basit in cliaracter, odious in their principles, and seltish in their pro- jects. Religious reactions exhil)it the same char- acteristics as political ones, and i)roceed from the same causes. BEADINESS. — A state of alertness or preparation ; thus, to hiUil a rorpn in rdidiruwii, is to have it jjrc- pared in consequence of some previous order to march at a moment's notice. READY. — A word of command in the Manual of Arms, executed as follows: The Instructor com- mands — 1. Squad. 2. Heady. Same as lirst motion of load, except that the muzzle is at the height of the chin, the right thumb on the head of the" ham- mer, the lingers supported against the guard and small of the stock. (Two.) Cock the piece, and then grasp it at the small of the stock. The piet^', after loading, nuiy be brought to a remly by the commands: 1. Squad. 2. Heady. At which the piece is cocked. See Mnnunlof Armn, Fig. 15. BEAMER. — A tool much u.sed in the arsenal to en- large a hole and bring it to a shape the counterpart of the tool, whether cylindrical or tapering. Instead of mere longitudinal fluting, the grooves in the tool may be maile spiral, a riglit and a left hand, cross- ing obliquely so as to leave the surface in diamond- shaped portions. The tlutings are then planed out and backed off, the result being a toothed reamer of effective character. The drawing shows an ad- calibered ordnance were not abHohitcly decided on. It was therefore but a lemporarj' expedient; unil for that particular jiurpose, reaming out has been abandoned. Kut in tin- convi-n<iiin of hMiootli-boru ordnanci- for the purptwi' of being ritled, the gun» have still to be reamed out preparatory lu beinj; re> lini'd BEAB. In the general uccepttttion of the word, anything situated or jjlaced behind another. Thin term is variously used in military nuitterH. Itmr i>f II hoilji i>f IriinjiH uHunn the hinilerniost part of that body such as the r.virof anarmy battiilion. squadron, or company ; niir rnuk. the rank wliieh covers the front r.'iiik. BEAB ASSEMBLING BAH.--A component imrt of the caisson. It supports the spare-wheel axle, and has a slot for the i)ickaxe on the left of the ndddle- rail. BEAB BBACE.— The lower arm-plute of an arm- gmird. BEAB CHOCK CABBIAGE.— A carriage similar in construction to tlie garrison standing carriage, ex- cept that it has only the two front trucks; and, in- stead of a rear axle tree, it has a block of wood which rests upon th(^ platform. BEAB FRONT.— The rear rank of a body of troops wIku faced about and standing in that position. BEAB GUARD. — ,1 rtar.gnnrd is a bi^dj' of troops formed to protect the rear of an army when on the retreat; it corresponds to tlie advanced guard in a forward movement. A small rear-guard also follows an army on the advance, its duty oeing to pick up stragglers and prevent small bodies of the enemy's cavalry from making raids on the rear of the army to capture llu' baggage, etc. As regards its order of march, a rear-guard is described as an advanced- guard reversed. The principles of formation are identical in both, and the .same rules generally guide both; with this ilifTerence, that the rear-guard retires before the enemy, while the advanced guard pushes against him. Consetpiently, although the distribution is the same as with the advanced-guard, the strength of the fractions of the rear-guard decreases instead increases from front to rear. The reserve is nearest the main body. The support is farther to the rear, in support of the rear party, which moves in several groups or in consolidated formations according to the country it passes over. In a fairly open counlrj', where the pursuit is not immediate, the extreme rear justable reamer, designed by the Betts Machine Company, Wilmington, Delaware. The shank of the reamer is made of steel, the blades are si.x in num- ber and unevenly spaced; the bladi'S are inserted in dove-tailed slots the bottoms of which are inclined planes; the shanks are ground to standard size (a thing impossible in a solid reamer, unless it reams much above standard size when new), and the blades made slightly above standard. It is plain that when the blades wear down, it is then only necessary to drive them further into the shank, and by that means again enlarge the diameter to standard size. This may be repeated until the blades are driven to the upper end of the slots, when new ones may be inserted. The solid reamer was a great advance when introiiuced, but the requirements of fine machine fitting call for a tool which makes solid reamers a thiug of the past. The practice of ream, ing out puus, oT horing litem up, i\T:it took place in' the British service in 1830 ; it was done with the view of increasing the weight of metal projected [ from such guns as were then on hand in the British , service, at the time when the aiivantages of large- ' will be formed of reconnoiterers, moving in a line thrown back at each end towards the flankers, until it a.ssumes the semi-circular form in a manner more marked than it would in the advance. If the pur- suit is active and attack imminent Ihe rear-guird must maneuver; and here we may remark that the nature of the country affects not only the composi- tion of the rear-guard, but the kind of action it must take with the troops at its command. A change of base or position may have caused an armj- temporarily to make a retrograde movement, or the force may be retreating. In either case the mission of the rear-guard is to retard Ihe pursuit of the enemy, and to interpose between him and the main body on Ihe march. In carrjing out this duly the rear-guard must often maintain a struggle at a disadvantage, and even, if necessarj-, sacrifice itself in order to ensible Ihe main force to get away in safety. No more honorable post can be assigned to an ofticer than that of commanding or serving with a rear-guard in such a case. The verj- best officers and the freshest troops shouhl be selected for this service, especially if covering the retreat of a beaten KEAB-GUAED. 640 KEAK aUAED. army. In the latter case the position of a rear-guard IB one of much difficulty, the enemy nearly always pursuing with activity, and also endeavoring by flank attacks to cut off the retreat. As regards the strength of the rear-guard in a retreat, it would ordi- narily take the same proportion as would be allotted to the advanced-guard in a forward march. This proportion would commonly be about one-sixth of the whole marching strength. In exceptional cases it might even amount to one-fimrth of the whole. It is nof without reluctance on the part of a Commander that so large a rear-guard is detailed, as his tirst an.xiety and care must natural!}' be to withdraw and place in safety the greatest number possible of his men. But if he neglects to cover his retreat by a sufficiently strong force the result will probably be that the rear-guard, unable to withstand the assaults of the enemy," will constantly be driven back upon the main column, aud throw it into disorder. The demoralizing effect upon troops of tlie mere know- ledge that they are in retreat is in itself very great. Should the rear-guard not be strong enough to en- able the column to retire with due regularity, the feeling of depression will increase, the retreat will turn to a rout, and disaster will result. A skillful rear-guard Commander will endeavor by every means to obtain even small advantages over the enemy, in order to encourage his men and to obtain WvAx morale , thus enabling them to endure with bet- ter spirit a harassing pursuit. With this view it ap- pears desirable that" the extreme rear and flanking detachments of the rear-guard should be sufficiently Btrong, to take all possible advantage of any impru- dence on the part of the enemy's advanced troops. In the event of a retreat after an engagement some- thing may also be done toward this end, by selecting for the rear-guard such troops as have not only suf- fered least during the day, but have themselves per- haps obtained some local advantage, which, insuffi- cient to affect the general result, may yet be enough to prevent the men feeling down-hearted, and with little further stomach for action. The distance that a rear-guard should be from the main body depends upon the nature of the country, its numbers, and the manner in which the pursuit is conducted. If the pursuit is slack it can safely be a march in rear. Under all circumstances, however, constant commu- nication should be maintained between it and the main body. It is difficult to prescribe any definite distance for the rear-guard to take up from the main body. The latter, as is natural in retreat, proceeds as fast as is convenient in the desired direction. The rear-guard has to interpose between the main body and the enemy, to check the advance of the pursuer, and to observe and reconnoiter him. in order to discover at the earliest moment any intention, on his part, of a flank or turning movement. Hence it happens that the distance of the rear-guard from the main column, in two or more cases, may vary con- siderably, in accordance with a great variety cf circumstances; but under onlinary conditions the distances usually laid down for the advanced- guard in a forward movement would be approxi- mately suitable for the rear-guard in retreat. A rear- guard does not require to reconnoiter in advance of its march, for the enemy cannot be there, and since the main column goes first over the ground, and in- vestigates it thoroughly, reports and sketches of roads, bridges, and positions suitable for making a stand against the enemy, can be sent back to the rear-guard whenever it is likely to need them. In most cases the enemy, if following, is easily recon- noitercd in the rear, as in the eagerness of pursuit he has little heed for concealment. On the flanks alone tliere is ditflcult and delicate work, of this par- ticular nature, to be done. The most serious danger for a rear-guard is undoid)tedly that of being turned or cut off. and not only is its own safety iniperilled in such event, but its protective character as a guanl to the rear of its own main column ceases to have effect. To be attacked upon its flanks is almost as dangerous as to be cut off, and against both of these condngencies the best precautionary measure is ac- curate and extensive reconnoissance to the flanks. The parties sent out upon this most important duty should in all possible cases be composed largely if not entirely of cavalry. As regards the com- position of the rear-guard, in an open country cavalry is certainly necessary, not only for reconnoitering on the flanks, but also to meet the enem_v's cavalry. But infantry is mdispensable in more or less strength under all circumstances, in order to make a stand at suitable positions for defense, to form rallying points and protection for the cavalry if driven in, and to check the eager pursuit of the enemy's caval- ry. If the force is of any magnitude, its rear-guard should be composed of the three arms, in proportions suited to the ground that is to be passed over. Cav- alry, to meet and ward off the enemy's cavalry. which in open ground can hover round the rear and flanks, artillery, to take up favorable positions in retreat to bear on the heads of pursuing columns; and infantry, to bear the brunt of the enem}''s attack and retard his advance at the chosen points of resistance. If guns are used with skill in a retreat they can often save deployment of their own infantry, by obliging the enemy, as he presses on in pursuit, to halt and deploy; the guns retreating rapidly as the enemy forms up. Artillery is thus of special value when added to a rear-guard. As regards the action of the rear-guard generally, since the great object which it has to effect is to keep back the enemy without comprondsing the safety or delaying the retreat of the main body, it is evident that its duties can be best performed by very frequently occupying such natural positions as the country may possibly afford, thus absolutely forcing the enemy not only to deploy ,but even to Bt^ tack, and then getting safely away without serious fighting. The great art of rear-guards is that of be- ing constantly able, without risk, and with but little trouble, to force an enemy to deploy for attack, and then to get safely away yourself without serious fighting; in other words, the rear-guard should, by frequent occupation of strong positions, be continu- ally threatening to fight, as it is by so doing, and not by actual conflict, that it best fulfills its purpose. In a long retreat, when this course has been followed for a number of successive daj's, the general com- manding the pursuit is apt to become reckless, and, neglecting to take all necessary precautions, may push on to attack with an insufficient force at hand, or in an irregular manner; it wiU then be for the rear-guard to pounce suddenly upon him, with all his available force, and having struck him a severe blow, at once resume the retreat. The officer commanding must not allow himself to be carried away by any partial success of this nature so as to forget his prim- ary duty, for he should bear in mind that he cannot stop, except to retard the pursuit, and that every suc- ceeding quarter of an hour brings his enemy re-en- forcements. The length of time that a rear-guard can remain with safety in a position depends on its intrinsic strength, and the obstacles in the way of an enemy's turning it. In the details of conflict the Knowledge which it has of the grovmd is much to the advantage of the rear-guard, as it can decide what points to make a stand at, what to pass over as untenable. In this respect its position seems better than that of the advanced-guard in the forward march, but the ap- parent superiority is fleeting, for the conditions under which the rear-guard and ailvanced-guard fight are widely different. The advanced-guard can push on with the confidence fairly engendered by knowing its sujiports to be approaching from the rear in any re(|uired force ; the rear-guard, on the other hand, caniiiit but feel that the longer the conflict is jiro- tracled the farther it gets from its main body. The rear-guard, therefore, has to consider a danger which REAR OPEN ORDER. f!41 REBELLION. (loeH not exist for tlic lulvuiK'i-d.fiimrd, Unit of \ifiun cut off from its coUinin sliimlil il rciimin loo loiiK it' position anil be succcssfiillv oiillliiiiltcd. If tlic rcur- iruiird. however, eiiii liold ils ;;roiind Ion}; enoii|;li to Ciiiise llic cneniy first lo reionnoiler.and llien lo form up fcjr iiltacli, ils |>iir|iosc anil otijeet as a delayinj; foree will liave liecn ilTeelcil for llie niornenl, and tile eonirnander, on liis Hanks lieini; llireateniMl, nniv well relire, aj;ain lo oceii|iy a farther seleeled jjosi- tion, and again to relard ilie progress of liis pur- suers. In a very close connlry every elieek thus given to the enemy oliliires him lo incur a consider- able and serious delay ; but the Commander of the rear-irmird nnist not forLjet that he may be pursu- ed by a eoluTMii manhiiiir on a road lo his Hank, in addiliou lo llial inumdialely behind him. This is perhaps the greatest of all dangers against wliieli ho has lo guard. If llie pursuit of a rear-guard. which has been act- ivelv carried on by the enemy up to a certain [loint. suddenly ajipears to i-easc, the Coinmander slioulil send out strong cavalry patrols lo ascertain the cause. The enemy, it will lie found. has either stop, ped in his pursuit on the main roiMe.or he has taken a dilVereut direction and is still advancing. In the lat- ter case active recoimaissauce by cavalry patrols should immediately be undertaken by the rear-guard, the main cohunn being also advised of the route tak- en by the enemy, that il may send out flanking de- tachments lo feel for him. An army retiring by more than one road, whose directions .are generally parallel, would usually have a rear-guard upon each road under a separate comn\ander, the rearmost groups being continued across Ihe whole rear, and Hankers only upon the outer flanks of Ihe outer coliunns. The whole of these rear-guards would be in- cluded in (me high command. The army wotdd thus retire in as many columns as might be neces- sary, coimection lieinit kept up between thi' difTcrent main columns, and also between those of Ihe rear- guards at every cross road, and whenever the conn- try may allow of ccnnmunication. No war material that could be useful to the enem\' should be allowed in a retreat to fall into his hands. The rear-guard must destroy it if it cannot be removed. If hardly pressed, everything that coidd assist the enemy, such as standing corn and provisions, nuist be burnt, liorses and wagons pressed and sent on to the main body. As an extreme measure, villages on the line of route must even be fired, if necessary to retard the pursuit. REAR OPEN ORDER. — \n»pen omfr,executecl as fol- lows: Being at a halt, the Captain comnumds : 1. Jinir (ipi)i(>rdir.2.yiA.RCH.'ii. Fkont. AI Ihe lirst connnand. 'the right and left guides step briskly three yards to the rear, to mark the new alignment of the rear rank ; Ihe First and Second Lieutenants place them- selves on the right and left of the front rank ; the Third Lieutenant covers the second, in Ihe rear rank ; the Captain goes to the right Hank, and sees that the guides are on a line par.illel to the front rank. At the command iiihit/i. the Lieutenants jjlace themselves opposite their places in line, three yards in front of the company ; the front-raidi men dress to the right ; the rear-rank men cast their eyes to the right, stej) backward, halt a little in rear of Ihe alignment, and then dress lo the right on the line es- tablislied by the guides. The file-closers step to the rear and place themselves three vards from the rear rank. The Captain superintends the alignment of Ihe ollicers.and the fnnit rank, ami the right guide that of the rear rank ; the Captain verities Ihe alignment of Ihe rear rank, and of Ihe tile-closers : llie officers and tile-closers cast their eyes to the front, as soon as their alignment is verified. At the command front, the guides resume their places in the front rank, and the men cast their eyes to the front ; the Captain places himself three yards in front of the right file. REAR SIGHT.- The rfrir myld Ih coniiM.Hed of it base, widrli is firmly Hccured to Ihe barrel iil a nhon distance from the breech, and a movable part iiipii- ble of lieing adjiislecl for dilTereril elevationH of the barrel. Tiii' n\\r\i\ originally alllxeil lolhe nlle.iniiK> ket had a single leaf, lo which was iillaclied a "lide, conlainiiig the sight notch, which could be udjusleil for all distances between UK) and 000 yards. By an order fif Ihe War I)e|iarlment, this was replncec'l by a sight which had three movalile leaves, turning on a common axis, ?.nd bearing notches adjusted lo 1011, 300, and HOO yards, respectively. Aiming a fire- arm consists in bringing Ihe top of tlie front siglit, and Ihe bottom of the notch of the rear sight, into the line, joining the eye and the object. A siglil for a military arm should satisfy the following condi- tions, viz.: Isl. It should be easily adjusted for all distances within elTcctive range; 2d. The form of the notch should permit the eye to catch the object quickly ; 3d. It should not be easily deranged by the accidents of the service. The globr and lelfnopK sights are used for very accurate sporting-arms, but they are too delicate in their structure, and too slow- in their operation, for general purpo.ses. In Ihe ah. since of a proper rear sight. Ihe soldier of Ihe line may be taught to point his pi<ce by aiming over the center of the knuckle of his left thumlj : the position of the thumb along Ihe barrel determines Ihe eleva- tion of the piece. This method is practiced by cer- tain French troops of the line, for distances less than 400 y:irds. REBELLION.— The term rebellion is applied lo an insurrection of large extent, and is usually a war lietween the legitimate government of a countrj' and portions or provinces of the same who .seek to throw off their allegiance to il, and set up a govem- ment of their own^ When humanity induces the adoption of the*rules of regular war "towanl rebels, whether the adoption is partial or entire, it <Ioes in no wav whatever imply either a partial or complete acknowledgment of tiieir government, if thev have set up one," or of them, as either an independent or sovereisrn power. Neutrals have no right to make Ihe adoption of the rules of war by the a.ssailed sovernment towards rebels the ground of their own acknowledgment of the revolted jx'oplc as an in- dependent power. Treatimr captured rebels as prisoners of war. ex- chamrinsr them, concluding of cartels, capitulations, or oilier Warlike asreemenls with them ; addressing officers of a rebel array by the rank they may have in the same: accepting flags of truce: or. on the other hand, prodaiminac Martial La-v in theirterrilo- ry. or levving war taxes or forced loans, or doing any other" act sanctioned or demanded by the law anil usages of public war between sovereign beliger- ents. nefthcr proves nor establishes an acknowledg- ment of the rebellious people, or of tlie government EEBOUNDINU LOCK. G42 BECIFROCAL DEFENSE. which the}' may have erected, as a public or sover- eign power. Nor does the adoption of the rules of war towards rebels imply an ensageiAent with them extending beyond the limits of these rules. It is victory in the tield that ends the strife and settles the future relations between the contending parties. Treating, in the tield, the rebellious enemy according to the law and usages of war has never prevented the legitimate government from trying the leaders of the rebellion or chief rebels for high treason, and from treating them accordingl}-, unless they are in- cluded in a general amnesty. All enemies in regular war are divided into two gen- eral classes; that is to say, into combatants and non-combatants, or unarmed citizens of the hostile government. The military commander of the legiti- mate government, in any war of rebldlion, dis- tinguislies between the loyal citizen in the revolted portion of the country au<l the disloyal citizen. The disloyal citizens may further be classified into those citizens known to sympathize with the rebellion, without positively aiding it, and those who, without taking up arms, give positive aid and comfort to the rebellious enemy, without being bodily forced there- to. Common justice and plain expediency require that the military commander protect the manifestly loj'al citizens, in revolted territories, against the hardships of the w ar as much as the common mis- fortune of all war admits. The commander v.-ill throw the burden of the war. as much as lies within his power, on the disloyal citizens of the revolted portion or province, subjecting them to a stricter police than tne non-combatant enemies have to suffer in regular war ; and if lie deems it appropriate, or if his government demands of him that every citizen shall, by an oath of allegiance, or by some other manifest act, declara his fidelitj- to the legitimate government, he may cither expel. transfer.impriscm, or fine the revolted citizens who refuse to pledge them- thc hammer in the usual manner until the spring comes in contact with the stud in the plate and stops. The hammer by its own momentum now explodes the cap, and at this point is shown in Fig. 1, with the nose of the sear resting on the incline of the turn- Fig. 2. blcr ready to force it back to half-cock as soon as tlie pressure is relieved from the trigger. EEBUFFO. — A bastard cannon, or a three-fourth Carthoum (Karthanne), a 36-pounder of 15 calibers long: according to Ufauo. a 4.5-pouuder. RECALL. ~A call on the trumpet, bugle, or drum, bv wliicli soldiers are recalled from duty, labor, etc. RECEIPT. — A voucher or acknowledgment, which Received at of , 188 , from in good order and condition, the uuder-mentioned packag for transportation and delivery to at .this., •day lof. Articles au<i (|uautities. Cost. No. of packages. Dolls. Cts. Gross weiglit. (Signed i]i duplicate. J selves anew as citizens oliedient to the law and loyal to th(^ government. Whether it is expedient to do so, and whether reliance can be placed \ipon such oaths, the conunaMder or hi.< government have the r.ghl to de.;-ide. Armed or unarmed resistance by citizens of the United States against the lawful movements of their troops is levying war against tlie United States, and is therefore treason. See Civil Wiir, Inmrrection, smd I'os.v ('•nnifjiti/K. REBOUNDING LOCK. A gun-lock in which the hauuncr rebunnds tn half-cock, after discharge, as a means of safety. The drawings show the action of the Parker n/)i)iiiiilinf/-/'>r/,-. The operation of the hick is very simple and renders all fire-arms using it safe from lial)ility of a premature or accidental dis- charge. Fig. 1 shows the hammer down on Ihi' plunirer, and Fig. 2 shows the lock at h.nlf-eock. When the gun is di^cliar^ed, the main spring' carries Quartermasie?: should always be given when official pai>ers are re- ci'ived. When flags of truce are the liearers of a parcel or a letter, the officer commanding an outpost should give a receipt for it, an<t require the liartj- to depart forthwith. The above is the form of a receipt used liy (Quartermasters. RECHAUD. — A cliafiug-dish, or |ian, used for vari- ous pur|i(ises,]>articularly durins;a siege, lleeliauds are tilleil willi liurniug materials, and hung in dilTiT <-nl parts of the walls, so as to throw light into the ditclies, and to iirevent surprises. RECHUTE.— A term used in fortification to signify a greater elevation of the rampart in those parts where it is lik<'lv to be commanded. RECIPROCAL DEFENSE.— A gooil Hanking defense, to lie found in prrmanent fort itieat ions. !n con- striietiug works of this nature, the following are the obj<'cts ainieil at: -1 . To afford eovi'r or |iroleiiion to the guns, masonry, and bodies of the defenders from BECOIL. G43 BECOIL DTHAHOHETER. the (•tTc(-ls of (in i'lK.'my'H Hre of every ileHeripliDii. 2. To arrange llie eoveriiig works in sui'li a manner that Die defenders may use their wc-apons with faeil- hy, and tliat tlie enemy may l)e kept iinihrlirc; from his lirsl appearance within range of the heavii'st guns to tlu' moment evc^n of his arrival at tlie crest of the defender's worlcs, a eomlilion wliieh necessarily leads to the introduclicin of reciprocal or llaidting defense, as it would, in many cases, he impossilile that itcoulil he fullillcd hy means of direct lirc^ alone, each work of defense, hecoming a cover to tlieassaih auts against the tire of its defenders when they have advanced to its hase, it lieing also evident that Hank- ing lire is much more ellicient than direct lire. The term 'reciprocal" liere used expresses more fully th(^ oharai'ler and obj<'ct of such defense than the term "Hanking," .as it generalises the idea intended to he conveyed, by including reverse lire and I'very ar- rangement hy which the ground not acted upon hy direct lire of one part of a work is hrought withiii the action of the lire of anotlier part. RECOIL. -When the charge of gunpowder con- tained in a gun is tire<l, the sudden expansion of the powder into many times its former hulk acts with e((ual force in every direction, 'i'ht! resistance olfered hy the ball, which moves more or less easily in the bore, being far less than that of the bulky anil heavier gun and carriage, tlie ball is forced to a great distance ; hut the gun, with its carriage, must never- theless feel the reaction, and is driven backward a certain space, ordinarily a few feet. This retrograde motion is called the recoil, and dangerous accidents souK'times take place from it. After the recoil, the gininers have to work the i)iece back to its former position for the next <lischarge. In tlie Armstrong naval gun, and some other modern cannon, the trun- nions of the gun are mounted on an inclined plane. Up which the recoil drives them, to run down again by their own weight. The gun and shot remaining the .same, the recoil is proportionates to the charge. The recoil of small-arms is known as their "kick," and is felt on the shoulder of the marksman. The increase in the size of camion and in the charges em- ployed, has necessitated the introduction of some additional means for controlling the recoil. The fol- lowing are used, viz : 1st. Pneumatic Buffers. 2d. Hydraulic Buffers. :td. Friction Checks. I'm-umatir linffefH. — These are attached principal- ly to carriages for 15-inch guns. They consist of two closed iron cylinders, placed bi'twi'cn the rails at the front part of the chassis, secured thereto by iron straps : and of two piston-rods with heads, working air-tight through the iron heads that close tlie rear ends of the cylinders. The rear ends of the piston-rods are attaclied to a heavy iron plate pro- jecting below the rear part of the gun carriage. A small hole in each end of the cjiiuders relieves the pressure of the air in front of each piston-head and prevents the formation of a vacuum in rear of it. When the recoil takes place, the piston-rods are drawn to the rear, compressing the air in the cylin- ders and checking, gradually, the motion of the sys- tem. Should vacuums be formed in front of the heads, the expansion of the air in rear would force the piece forward beyond the position for loading. llydrdiilic Buffers. — The hydraulic buffer is at- tached to carriages for 1.5-inch guns and for heavy rifics. Each consists of a cast-iron cylinder with head, and a piston-rod and heads the latter hav- ing perforations in it instead of being solid as in the previous system. A uon-frccziiig liquid is placed in the cylinder. Tin; motion given to the piston-rod by the recoil is arrested by the liipiid which is forced to pass through the holes in the head. The amount of liquid, and the num- ber and size of the lioles, which are determined by experiment, regulate the amount of recoil. One cylinder may thus be sulticient for any sized gun, though with the largest cannon two arc generally employed. The cylinder may be attached to the front or to the rear end of tlii' chuHHiM. In the flntt case, the piMton-rod. connecled with the rear of the top-carriage, is drawn out of Die cvlinder : in tlii! second (tase, the rod necnri'd to the front of the car- riage in forced into the cyliniler. Kacli haH ll» iidvun. tugi-H, the llrsl is, however, llie most rigiil. Fricliiiii (Uierkf. -These are found upon many «f this carriages for heavy rilles. The Kimplest is llie " I'arrott" system. Two iron clamps uetuuted by serewH arc placed on tlie railn in rear of the lop- carriage; their pressure on the rails is regulated Ijy the screws. I'art of the force of re(-oil U ex|K-mled in moving the clamps on the rails; they may, before tiring, be so i)laced as to allow free recoil over a certain distance, the motion being afterwards check- ed. The "Sinclair" chirk is now preferred. It consists of a bo.x-elamp bearing against ihi- front axl(! of the tfip-carriagc; and of a broad wroughl- iron rail slightly wedge-shaped, exieniling nearly the length of the chassis along its center line. At- tached to the front of the chassis are two transom- plates between which the rail works, free to move to the front, but pri'venlr'd by them from moving to the rear. The rail is seiureil to the rear of the chassis by a steel, or rubber spring. Tin- clamp liuH two friction plates between which the rail passes, and on which they are tightened by means of a screw and handle. The friction of the clump upon the rail checks the recoil, and when it ceases the reac- tion of the strain upon the rail, due to its elasticity would cause the rail to bend were it not free to move forward in the direction of its length, being retained oiilv by the spriii_'. KECba DYNAMOMETER.— Three conditions, llico- retlcally essential to obtaining a true record of re- coils, c!Ui only be approximated to in practice: I. The recoiling mass should consist of mithing Inil the gun. II. The entire remil should be expended on the tljiunmometfr. III. The registration should be effected witlmut .ii iidhU mulinn of the gun. Tiie first condition would require that the gun should be sus- pended by an imponderable penilulum rod. This ig approximated to by reducing the suspending appa- ratus to the minimum consistent with strength and convenience. . The second condition would require that the gun should be stripped of all guides and re- straints involving friction. This is effected by hav- ing guides near enough to the gun to prevent incon- venient derangements, but ncjwhere in actual con- tact. The third condition would require that the dy- namometer should be set, in advance, at an initial tension exactly equal to the expected recoil. Thus condition can only be satisfied so far as to .set the dy- namometer at an initial tension not greater than the minimum recoil which the instrument can reasona- bly be expected to be called upon to measure. In the particular instrument, which forms the subject of this report, the spring stands at an initial ten.sion of fifty pounds avoirdupois, which is. consequently, the minimum limit of its capacity for measurmg re- coils. The accompanying drawing will give a general idea of the instrument, and enable it to be assem- bled. Being assembled the following sequence of adjustments has been found most convenient: 1. Open and depress the front guide; 2. Balance the piece, loaded, in the sling, at the elevation desired. having first attached the "bridle," described beyond: 3. Bring the butt-plate heel nearly into contact with the recoil-block, by shifting the pendulum column, and clamp it: 4. C'limiilete the contact accurately by means of the horizontal screw at the head of the pen- dulum column: 5 Kai.se or lower the gun by mean.* of the vertical screw, at the head of the pendulum column, until the point of contact is in the center of the circular face of the recoil-block. .\n iLssistant should now steady the butt in this position while the front adjustments' are made: 6. Slide the front guide to a convenient point under the barrel and clamp it 7. Raise the front guide until, when closed, the bar- KECOMMENDATIONS. 644 RECONNOISSANCE- rel hangs midway iu it without touching; then, before clamping: 8. Rotate the front guide in a horizontal plane until tlie gun has the least perceptable lateral "inshake." at which position its vertical " insliake" also will he limited. Clamp the front guide iu tliis position; 9. Bring the faces of the butt-guiiies nearly into contact with the butt. See that the butt-plate contact has not been deranged. Mark the position of the sling on the gun to facilitate readjustment. See that the index has been pushed back to 50: 10. Adjust the bridle. The "bridle is not an essential element of the in- strument, but only a convenient accessory. There- turn of the dj-namometer spring inflicts a sharp lilow on the gun, whicli would throw it forward and ne- cessitate tedious readjustments after each shot. The bridle restrains this forward throw without mater- ially interfering with the prime object of the instru- ment. Two forms of l.iridleaccompany the instru- ment, one of which embraces the gun at tlie small of : the stock by a leather collar, which is buckled back to a hook on the dynamometer by a leather strap; the I number of contingencies. To supply these deficien- cies of maps, an examination of the ground must be made liy the eye ; and verbal information be gained on all the points connected with the operation over this ground. This examination and collection of facts is termed a reconnoiHsanfe. From the services demanded of a reconnoiteriug officer, it is, in the lirst place, evident that lie should possess acquirements of no ordinary character; but, iu addition to these, he should be gifted by nature with certain traits, without which his acquisitions would be of little account in the discharge of the re- sponsible duty in question. With clear and specific information before him, one-half of a General's difficulties, in planning his measures, are dissipated. In a letter from General Washington to Major Tallmadge, he remarks, in relation to reports made to him, on a certain occasion ; "■ But these things, not being delivered with a cer.ainty, rather perplex than form the judgment." It is in truth this feeling of certainty that" constitutes all the difference; having it, the General makes his dispositions witli other embraces the gvm in front of the front sight by a metallic collar, similarly buckled back to the column ofthefrontguide. The first form is the lighterandless objectionable, and can be used with all guns and car- liiues, except such as open b\' a lever, like the Sharp's arms. In a series of trials with the service ritle and ammunition the instrument gave a very uniform record of 98 pounds recoil. Tlie pull of the trigger, in experiments for recoil, is canceled by the simple expedient of placing the thumb behind the guard- bow and phirhing t/igether the bow and the trigger while st;inding on tlu' right of the gun. KECOMMENDATIONS.- All niemiiers of any Court who concur iu rcconiiiieudiiliiuis to mercy sign. The recommendation is introduced after the finding and sentence are closed and aiitlienticatf d. The reconi- meiid;ition should distinctly set forth tlie reasons which pniinpt it. RECONNOISSANCE.— There are mi more imiiortant duties, wliicli ;in (illicer may be called ujidii to jier- form, lliuu th(>^^e of collecting iind arranging the inform;iti(m upon which either the general or daily operations of a campaign must be based. For the proper performance of the former, acquirementsof a very high order, in the deiiartments of geography ' and statistics, are indispensable requisites; to whicii i must be adtled a minute accpiaiiitance with topo- graphy, and ii good mnp (I'lrii militahv for that of the latter. However detaileil and perfect may lie a map, it can never convey all the informalinn that will enable an officer to plan, even an ordinary march, with safety : still less, operations that neces- ,sarily depend, for' I heir success, upon a far greater confidence ; without it, he acts hesitatingly; and thus communicates to others that want "of con- fidence felt in his own mind. An officer, then, selected for the duly in question should be known to be cool-headed and truthful: one who sees things as they are, and tells clearly and precisely what he has seen. In making his report, whether verbally or in writing, the officer should study conciseness and precision of language. He must carefully separate what he knows, from his own observation, from that which he has learned from others ; and add all the circumstances of place anil time with accuracy. The first thing to be done by an officer selected for any reconnoissauce, is to ascertain prerixtiy the duty required of him ; and what further should be done in case of certain contingencies that may, from the nature of the duty, be naturally looked for. In the performance of thi' duty assigned him, and in making his report, the officer should keep always iu mind Ihe specific chanicterof his missiim, as his guide in both points. As the deed of a re- eoiinoi.ssanec supposes a great deficiency in iufor- nialion upon the Uiitural features of the country, the officer, detailed to make one, should iirovide himself with majis, a good leleseope, such simple aids for judging of distances, and ascertaining the relative jiosilions of objects, as he can him- self readily make ; writing materials; one or more good guides: and gain all Ihe knowleilge he can, from the inhabitants at hand, bearing iiiion his mis- sion. Thelideiit of judging of distances, and of the coimeclion between the viirions features of a eoun- BECORDER. Ci'y RECORDS. try within Uii; Held of vision. \h partly ii imliiriil uini parlly an aci|uircil one. Sonic iniliviiliial» <an ncvrr l)c l)r(iii>;lit to liavr any ronliilcnci- in llii'ir own jiiiljr- nii'nl on tlii'sc points; otliiTH liavr analiiral aplilnili' for llicni, wliicli ri(|iiin'S l>iit lilllr praclici' for their perfect ileveloiinuiil. Tlic^ powern of the eye vary so Lrreally anion;^ civilized ])erson.H. thai no general rules can lie laid rhuvn as a s.'uiile for tiic nialliT in (picslion. .Xnion;; iiiicivili/ed liordcs.nseil to ii roam- ini; life, there arc found slarnlanls which are well luiderstood by all, — the Arab, for inslanee, callin;; the distance a mile, at which a man is no longer dis- liniiuisliablc from a woman — firowini; out of their habits. The lirst thinir liien to be done by an olHi-er, in acciiiirini; the cuiip (/'wit militdir' js lo learn, both from books and on the li( Id, what s]iace is taUi'U up by a liatlalion and its intervals, by a sipiadrrin. and by a battery when in order of liattic ; how much ; when in column of march; and the average time re- quired for certain movements, under given circum- stances of the sround. This aciiuirement he may make by adopting some standard of his own; his or- dinary pace, and that of a Iwirse, servinir for com- puting time and distance reciprocally. The ne.Mstep is to accjuirc^ tlu' habit of estimating, liy the appear- ances of these dilVerent objects, from various points of view, how far olf they are. This must be done practically. A very simple aid to it is the following: — Upon the stem of a lead-pencil, cut siiuare. and lield out at a uniform arm's length from the eye, by means of a thread allaclied to it and fastened lo the toi) button-hole, let the olticer mark olT, on one of the edges, Ihi- length seen on it by holding the pen- cil upright between the eye, and a man ])laced suc- cessively at different distances from it, as 100, bW — 1,000 yards. Tliis will give one rough standard for practice. Trustworthy guides are invahiablc, but most rare, in an enemy's country. The best, from the informa- tion I hey ac(piirc by their habits of life, are to be foiMid ;iniong those (-lasses whose avocations i<eep them much abroad, going from place to place within a certain siihere constantly; such as conunon carriers, hunters, snuigglers, etc. Among the tirst things to be attended to by an officer, in taking jiost at any point, is to liud out persons of this class, and to ascertain their whereabouts when wanted. Kind treatnu'nt. d'ni- eritrs, and promises, should not be spared to enlist either their good will or their interests ; and, if policy reijuires it, they may openly be treated with apparent harshness, to screen tiu-m from odium among their neighbors. If none of this class can be found, then resort must be had to a higher ; local authorities l)eiug in preference selected, and if necessary forced to act. ' Here very careful treatment is re(piisite ; when the necessity of the case is admitted iiy then;, much may be gleaned by kindness, courtesy, and a certain de- ference, from such persons, that cannot be looked for from their iuferi(jrs. Before starting on his mission, the officer should questiira his guide thoroughly ; and if he has several, question each apart; like jirccautions should be taken with respect to other inhabitants. Care must be had to find out the usual beats of one taken as a guide, so as not to take him out of his own neighborhood. Should there be but one guide, he must necessarily be placed with the most advanced portion of the de- tachment accompanying the otliccr. It nuiy be well to reiuark that guides are useful even in a country of easy communications ; as, in case of a rencontre, they may point out by-ways convenient for retreat if ne- cessary. To designate all the objects to be embraced in a reconnoissance, would lead further than the limitsof this article will allow ; some general heads, which will serve as guides in all cases, will therefore be alone noticed. A general view of the ground to be examined must tirst be taken in, so as to obtain some notion of the forms of the parts, their connection, and relations to each other, before going into a de- tailed exatiiination. To one pohhcsHcd of xoiiie topo. graphical knowledge. tlilHHtudy of what In before him will iKJt denuiml much time. A level country', for example, he knows ik usually well eullivuttrl, umJ then-fore has plenty of hedges, dilclieH, etc., which lend themselves well to alTuirsof light troopH- mav be not a little inconvenir-nt to mam-uvers of urlil- lery and frecpienlly bring up cavalry very unex- pectedly in full career. In a mountainoiin one, dangirrous passes, narrow roadH, torrerilN with rough beds, ugly sudden turns, etc.. will neeeMm- rily be met with. Kar-li and all of these demand a parlicidar exandimtion, ami in his re|H<rl their ad- vantages anil disadvantages should bo clearly point- ed out by tin: ofilcr-r. If the reconnoissance is for an onward move- ment ; the distani-es from halt lo halt, as well UJI all others, should be estimated in /I'/iirn <if umrch, the nature of the roads, and the obstacles along them be carefully detailed ; the means that nniy be gath- ered along the line to facilitate the ni<ivemenl,aK ve- hicles, men. an<l materials for removing obMlB<-les, etc. The points where cross-roads are found, must be specified; the direction of these roads; their useu, etc. All local objects along the line, as villages, farm-houses, etc., should be carefully designated, both as to their position on the line, or on either side of it : and also as to their form, and color, etc., as "square white house on the right:" "round gray stone lower on hill to left." The nami-s of locali- ties, in the way in which the mhabilanis pronr>unce them, shoidd be carefully written, ami eallerl over several times, so as lo be sure lo get them as nearly as practicable right in sound; then the names. a» written by an intelligent inhabitant, should be added. All haltiijg points nuist be well looked lo; their military capabilities, in case of attack ; as well as their resources for accommodating the troops, be thoroughly gone into. If the halt is to lake posi- tion for some time, to await or watch the enemy, then more care must be taken, the whole site be well studied as to its fulfilling the proposed end ; the points of support on the Hanks be designated, as well as others in front and rear, that may require to be occupied ; tlu- suitable localities lo be chosen for parks, hospital, etc. ; the comnmnications lo bo opened or repaired, pointed out ; and all the facili- ties e>lhcr for an advance or a retrograde movement, be laid down. See Armed liemniwugancf. J'atrot*. and T(tp<i(irapkiml liecunnniinnnrt. RECORDER.— One who keeps a record: specitically, the officer who registers the proceedings of a lioard or Minor ('ourt. RECORD OF FIRING.— A book is furnished to each post for the •■rti„rd i if artillery" and ••reO'rd uf fir- ing:' In the front of this book are jirinled instruc- tions fidlv explaining how it is lo be kept. Lnder appropriate headings, in the i)art set aside for record of artillerv, each cun is described by its nimiber and marks; when received and where from: whether 1 mounted or dismounted; if mounted, in what part of the work, statins its platform mnuber. The re- sult of each inspec-iion. made as hereinafter describ- ed, will be entered for each piece in this part of the book. In the portion of the book devoted to record of tiring, each piece has a separate page, which, when tilled, is carried on to another. Kach shot tired is duly recorded as lo date of lire, kind ami weight of ' projectile, kind and quantity of i)owder. elevalion, ; time of liisrht. range, etc. When a piece is trans- ferred froni one post to another a complete record is sent with it. and the previous number of fires is entered in the book at the last post, so that the firing may not 20 bevond the limit prescribed as the eadur- j ance of the piece; this lias been fixed at one thous- and service rounds for cast-iron cannon. ' RECORDS.— Otticial accounts or registers. .\ll Mil- itary Records, such as files of public letters, leller- I books, order-books, and other recorU-bo. k - iiiu<ter- BECOTES. 646 HECRUITING. rolls, etc., are the property of the Government, and are preserved for future reference iu the settlement of claims against tlie Government and for other offi- cial purposes. AVhenever posts. Districts, Geogra- phical Departments. Divisions, and other commands, are discontinued, all such Records as are not re- quired for use at the Department Headquarters in which the commands were included are immediatelj' sent by express to the Adjutant General of the Army. Kvery person who wilfully destroys, or attempts "to destroy, or with intent to steal or destroy, takes and carries away any Record, paper, or proceeding of a court of justice tiled or deposited with an_v clerk or officer of such court, or an}' paper, or document, or Record tiled or deposited in any public office; or with any judicial or public officer, without reference to the value of the Record, paper, document, or pro- ceeding so taken, pays a flue of not more than two thousand dollars, or suffers imprisonment at hard lab- or, not more than three years, or both. Every offi- cer having the custody of any Record, document, paper, or proceeding specified above who fraudulent- ly takes away, or withdraws or destroj'S any stich Record, document, paper, or proceeding filed in his office, or deposited with him, orin his custody, pays a fine of not more than two thousand dollars, or suf- fers imprisonment at hard labor not more than three years, or both: and moreover, forfeits his office, and is forever afterward disqualified from holding any office under the Government. The established print- ed forms and blanks of all nmsterrolls and returns required from the Commanders of Divisions, Brigades Regiments, Corps, Companies, and Posts are fur- nished from the Adjutant General's Office on re- quistions m.ade directly upon him. The receipt of these forms and blanks is immediately acknowledged. Officers keep these blanks under their own personal care, to guard against their being misapplied. The use of violet or other colored inks (e.xcept as carmine or red ink is used in annotation, indorsement, and ruling! is prohibited in the Records and correspond- ence of the army. Hides for keeping the principal Record-books at the different headquarters ; forms for making rolls. returns, etc., lists of papers required from each command in the army, and of blank forms and books issued by the several Departments, are furnished the proper officers on application to the Adjutiuit General of the army. All officers and clerks on duty in the Bureaus of the War Depart- ment are prohil)ited from exhibiting any table, state- ment, (ir paper ijelongiug to the ofticial" Records, or giving any iuformationr copy, or extract from the same, or giving any information respecting the busi- ness of the Department to any person whatever not on duty in one of the offices of the Department, with- out, in each case, the authorit}', iu writing, of the Chief of the Bureau concerned. A rigid compliance witli this order is enforced, to prevent improper use of information irregularly obtained. RECOVER. — In tactics, a word of command in tir- ing, whereby the piece is brought from the position of (liin to Dial of rendy. RECRUITING.— Formerly, in lOngland, the task of raising recruits for the army was inlrusled to the Colonels of Rogimeiits, who em|)loye(l civilian agents and otiiers to persuade young luen to join their stan- dards; these agents often resorting to very illegal methods to entrap recruits. Subse(iuenlly, the duty was assigned to several Recruiting Corps, each known by the name of its Comnumdiiig Officer, but under tliis system, so many irregularities, and such differ- ence of practice arose, that in 1*12, for purposes of uniformity, economy, and proper control, il was de- cided to place the wliok- recruiting under the imme- diate direction of the Adjutant (ieneral. For this purpose, the country was divided into recruitiui; districts. At the heiui of each district was placed an Inspecting Field-officer, with the duty of super- intending all recruiting parties in his district, and of approving the recruits brought. At the District Headquarters there was a Paymaster, responsible for all the financial concerns, and a Medical Officer, who examined the recruits iu point of health and physical fitness. Recruiting parties used to consist of old Sergeants, who souglit by everj^ means to in- duce young men to enter the army; they frequented fairs, wakes, and country gatherings, endeavoring by beat of drum, smart uniforms, well-fed personal ap- pearance, and persuasion— not always too truthful — to convince the rustics of the advantages of the Queen's Service: advantages which really existed, though not always to the extent depicted. The adop- tion in 1872-73 of the system of Regimental Locali- zation changed all this. The United Kingdom is divided into 60 sub-districts, at the head of each of which is a Colonel, who commands the Brigade De- pot, and the auxiliary and reserve forces of his sub- district. He also controls the recruiting within his command, primarily, for the regiments composing the brigade: and secondly, for the rest of the Army. To preserve uniformity of action, the Colonels re- port on recruiting matters to the Inspector General of Recruiting, an official on the Staff at the War Office. On a would-be recruit presenting him.self, the recruiter must ask him if he already belongs to the militia; if not, and he appear physically eligible, he is given a shilling, after which, sliould he ab- scond, he becomes a deserter. The Sergeant must then give the recruit 24 hours for consideration; afterward, but within 96 hours from his first enlist- ment, he must take him before a magistrate, when, if the recruit declare that he voluntarily enlists, the justice reads to him the Articles of War relative to desertion, and puts the questions detailed in the at- testation. This done, the oath of allegiance is ad- ministered, and the man becomes definitely a soldier, receiving his free kit and boimty. The recruit may avow his dissent before the magistrate, when he must be forthwith discharged on returning the shilling, and paying twenty shillings as "smart" for the trouble he has given. False declarations as to age, previous service, health, etc., involve the recruit in various penalties. About 18,000 recruits are raised annually in time of peace for the British Army; but a larger number will be necessary, as enlistment for short service with the colors becomes more the rule. In the United States, the recruiting service is conducted by the Adjutant General, under the direc- tion of the Secretary of War and the Commander of the Army. Details for recruiting service are or- dinarily for the period of two years. The Adjutant General details the field officers for Superintendents, and announces in Orders the number and grade of the company officers to be selected by the Com- mander of each regiment for the charge of recruit- ing parties. These officers are chosen irrespective of the roster, and with regard to their fitness for the duty. They are ordered by their Regimental Com- manders to report in person to the Superintendents designated for their respective arms of service. Offi- cers on the general recruiting service are not order- ed on auy other duty, except from the Adjutant General's Office. A recruiting party coi-.si.sts gen- erally of one Lieulenant. one Ntm-coinmissioned officer, and not UKirc than four ]irivates. The par- ties arc sent from the priucip;d depots, and none but stiilii' le men selected. The Adjul;ui1 (ienend of the Army <';iuscs freiiuent insjuclions to be m;ide of the recruiting depots and rendezvous, for the purpose of enforcing the regulations and orders governing en- listments, and especially to ijrevent the reception of men of bad character, ami 1 he illegal enlistnu'iit of nuMors into the service. Officers in t'luirge of ren- dezvous will in no <'ase ;ibsent themselves from their slalious wUhoul ;iutbority from the Superintendent. Success in obtaining recruits depends mtu-h on the activity and pirxnwd atUiili'ni of recruiting officers. They must not intrust to enlisted men the duties for which they alone are responsible, but must use every care to (irevent the imposition of minors and bad RECROITINO DEPOT. 047 KECHUIT8. men upon tlie .s(Tvi<!c. Kccniilin); ofTlccrs will imi allow liny iimn to 1)C diT-civcil or iiivciftlcil into lln- Hcrvic<' by fiilsc rc|)rcsciilali<iiiH, Iml, will in person oxpliiin llic niiliirc of llic service, llic leiifjlh (,f the term, the piiy, clolliinn, riilion.-t, anil oilier ullow- ances to wliicli a hoIiUct is enlillerl by law, to every man liefore lie signs the enlislnient. See ItirniiUui/ Ihl'i't, Ili'triiilK, and Si/jJiruiti'/iikul of Kecriiitiiiy Sirriri. RECRUITING DEPOT. A (lejiot for the folk-ction aiul insiniiiion of ricriiils. These depots are es- tablished by orders from the Adjiilaiil General's Office. To each (h pnt there is asMi;;ned a Huilable number of ollleers to commimd and instruct the re- cruits The recruits are r/irnKid in tiiiif'irnn uccord- ini; to their respective arms, and arc rci;iiliirly mus- tered iiiid insjiecled. 'I'hey are well drilled" in the Infantry Tactics, Ihrou^di the school of tlu' soldier to that of the baltalioii, and in the c.\ercisc> of lield and L'arrison pieces. Duly is done accordini; to the strict rules of service. Kecniitsare not put to any I labor or work which would interfere with their in- I structioii, nor are they employed olhervvise than as soldiers, in the r(\i;ular duties of i;arrison and camp. To };ivc encouragement to the recruits, anil hi-lil out inducements to tjood coiiducl. tne ('omiiiandini; Olticer of the liepot may promote such of them as j exhibit the requisite qiialitications to lie Lance ('iir-\ puratx ni\(\ Jjdirc Si /y{'(ints, i\o\ e.xceedinj; the proper proiiortion to the number of recruits at the l)epot. These appointments are announced in orders in the usual way, and are continued in force until they join their regiments, unless sooner revoked. No allow- ance of ])ay or emoluments is assigned to these ap- poinlmenls; they are only to be consideri'd as re- commendation to the Captains of companies and Colonels of regiments for the places in which the re- cruits may have acted ; but such Non-commissioned ollicers are to lie treated with all the respect and to have all the autliorily which belong to the stations of Sergeant and Coriioral. The (Jeneral Siipcrinleiidcnt causes such of the re- cruits as arc found to pos.sess a natural talent for music to lie inslnicled (besides the drill of the sol- dier) on the fife, bugle, and drum, and other mili- tary inslriiiiients ; and boys of si.xtccii years of age, ami upward, may, under his direction, be enlisted for this purpose. Care is taken to enlist those only who have a natural talent for music, and. if practic- able, they arc taken on trial for some time before being enlisted. The posts used as Kecriiiling l)e])ots are not tube made places of conlineinent for military prisoners. Whenever deserters from the Army are apprehended by. or come in custody of recruiting parties, thej- are sent to the depots, and thence, at the earliest opportunity, forwarded for trial to their regiments, where the wilnrsses in Ilieir cases should be. When trial by tiencral Cniirl-Marlial of pris- oners belonging to or under charge of the recruiting service becomes neees.sary, the charges are forward- ed, thrcnigh the Superintendent, to the Adjutant General of the Army, with a list of the officers avail- l able for duty on the Court, lierrniting parties and recruits arc mustered, inspected, and paid in the same manuer as are other soldiers. 'I'lic number of recruits at depots to be assigned to each arm and regiment is directed from the Adjutant Geiierai's Ottice. As soon as a recruit joins any recruiting depot, regiment, or station, he is e.xamineil by the I Medical Officer, and vaccinated when it is reqinred. ; The Boards of Inspection at recruiting depots re- ject any man found to have borne an unsatisfactory character on any previous enlistment, or who lias shown such character since enlistment. In all cases of rijictiim, the reasons therefor are stated at large in a special ripi'H, made by the Board, which alsoshows when, where, and by whom the recruit was enlisted. ! This report, together with the Surgeon's certificate ' of disability for service, is forwarded by the Super- intendent or Commandant, of the post direct to the , Adjiilanl OcncTiil. In all hucIi com/b llii> Command- ing Olllcer caiiKCH the articIcK of clollilng wliicli rnay liave been issued to the ri'iriiil, with the price of each article, to be indorsed on the cerlillculrH of <lii*- abiliiy. If the recomriiendiitioii of the Itoiird for llii: discharge of the recruit be approved, the aiilliority therefor is Indorsed on (he cerlilliale, which Ih M-nt back to be tilled up and signed by the Coniniunilini; Olllcer. who returns the same to the Adjiilaiil (Jene- ral's olllee. The Jioanl slates in the report whetlicr the disability, or other (iiiise of rejiciicn, I'xiHieil be- fore Ins enlistment; and whether, with pnijur rare and eimniiiatiiin, it might not have been discovered. In all other cases the Superintendent or Coriimand- ing Officer causes an exiraci from tin- proee)'din);g of the Board of Inspection to be fiirnislieil the oNlc- er making the enlistinenl. I'lioii receipt of llii.n ex- tract the officer promplly renders a special report in explanation lollie Adjutant General. All officer intrusted with the command of recniitg ordered to regiments, on arriving at the place of des- tination, forwards the following [lapers: 1. To the AiljuUmt General and Siijii rintiniOnt, each, a dis- criptive roll and an account of clothing of such men as may have deserted, died, or been left on the route from any cause whatever, with dale and [ilaie: also, a special report of the date of his arrival at the post, the strength and c:ondition of the party when liimecl over to the Commanding Oflicer, and all circiini- stances worthy of remark which may have occurred on the march. To the Cmninaniling Offlrrr of the regiment or post, the muster and descriptive roll furnished him at the time of setting out, properly signed and completed by recording the names of the recruits 7)/<=w/i^. and by noting in the column for re- marks.opposite the appropriate spaces, the time and place of death, desertion, ajiprehension, or other casualty that may have occurred on the route. See Recruiting, llej^ruitx, and Superintendent of lieeruit- ing Service. RECRUITS. —Men raised for service in the army, to till vacuncies in regiments or to augment the strength of the Army. In the United Slates, any male person above the age of sixteen and under the age of thirly-tivc years, effective, able-bodied, sober, free from disease, of good character and habits, and with a competent knowledge of the P^nglish lan- guage, maj- be enlisted, due attention being given to the restrictions concerning minors. This regula- tion, so far as respects age, does not extend to .m,I- diers who may re-enlist, or who haveservc-d honestly and faithfully a previous enlistment in the army. Men having the appearance of being hard drinkers are rejected, though they may not at the time be in- toxicated. No man having a wife or minor child can be enlisted or re-enlisted without special autliorily from the .\djutant General's office. If minors present them- selves, they are to be treated with great candor: the names and residences of their parents or guardians, if they have any. are ascertained. and these are inform- ed of the minor's wish to enlist, that they may make objections or give their consent. No person under the age of twenty-one years can be enlisted or re-en- listed without the written consent of his parents or guardians, provided that such minor has parents or guardians entitled to his custody and control. Re- cruiting Officers are very ]iartieular in ascertaining the true age of the recruit. If any dmiH c-xist as to the age of the applicant, his oath is not taken as the sole evidence of legal age : and if he cannot, in addi- tion, furnish undoubted proof of the fact, he will not be accepted. The law forbids the enlistment of boys under sixteen years of age : of all insane or in- toxicated persons : of deserters from the militari' or naval service of the United States: and of all per- sons who have been convicted of felony. Minors under eighteen years are not enlisted except for mu- sicians, or to learn music, and then only undc-r au- thority from the Superintendent. In every case of a recruit rejected, or discharged as a minor, when it RECURSANT. 648 REDAN. appears that the enlistment was carelessly made in violation of Regulations, recommendation is made that the expenses incurred by the Government in consequence thereof shall be stopped against the pay of tlie Recruiting Officer. After the nature of the service and terms of enlistment have been fairly explained to the recruit, the officer, before the enlistments are tilled up, will read to him, and offer for his signatvire the annexed declaration, to be appended to each copy of his enlistment ; I, , desiring to enlist in the Army of the United States for the period of five years, do declare that I am years and months of age ; that I have neither wife nor child ; that I have never beau discharged from the United States service on account of disabilit}', or by sentence of a Court- Martial, or by order before the expiration of a term of enlistment : and I know of no impediment to my , serving honestly and faithfuUv as a soldier for five years." " . ^V'itness ; ' If the recruit be a minor, his parents or guardian must sign a consent to his enlisting, which is added 1 to the preceding declaration, in the following form : [ I, , do certify that I am the {father. ! only surviving parent, or guardian, as the case maybe) of : that the said is years of age : and I do hereby freely give my con- { sent to his enlisting as a soldier in the Army of the ' United States for the period of five years. Witness : The forms of declaration, and of consent in case of a minor, having been signed and witnessed, the recruit is then duh' examined by the Recruiting Offi- cer and Surgeon, if one be present, and, if accepted, the 4Tth and 103d Articles of war are read to him ; after which he is allowed time to consider the subject until his mind appears to be fully made up before the oath is administered to him. As soon as practicable, and ;it least within six days after his enlistment, the following oath is adminis- tered to the recruit : State of , I,- Tiiwn of- -born in- ■,in the State of- and by occupation a ,do hereby acknowledge to have voluntarily enlisted [orre-enlis"ted] this day of , 18—, as a soldier in tlie Army of the Uni- ted States of America for the period of" years, unless sooner discharged by proper authority, and do also agree to accept from" the United States such bounty, pay, rations, and clotliiug as are or may be established by law; and I do solemnly swear that I am years and months of age, and know of no impediment to my serving honestlv and faith- fully as a soldier for — ' years, under this enlist- ment contract with the United States. And I, , do solemnly swear (or atlirm) lliat I will bear true faith and afiegianci' to the United States of America; that I will serve them honestly and faith- fully against all their enemies whomsoever; and that I will obey the orders of the President of the United States, and the orders of the officers appointed over me, according to the Rules and Articles of War. . [.SE.4L.] Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of . 18-. Recruiting Officrr. This oath niny be administered by any Commis- sioned Otiu-cr of the armv. The Medical Ollicer iwlienoneis provided ) next examines the recruit. Wlien there is no Medicid Officer, the Recruiting Officer personally makes this examination. The recruit is examined'striiiped, to see that he has free useof all his limbs; that his chest is ample ; that liis hearing, vision, and speech are perfect ; that he has no tumors or ulcerated or exten- sively cicatrized legs ; no rupture or chronic cutane- ous affection: that he has not received iuij- contusion, or wound of the head, that may impair his faculties; that he is not a drunkard ; is not subject to convid- sions; and has no infectious disorder, nor any other that ma}' unfit him for military service. In accepting recruits at rendezvous, the following instructions govern in examining the eye : 1. No recruit shall be enlisted who cannot see well, at six hundred j-ards' distance, a black centre three feet in diameter on a white ground. The test will be made by means of cards, prepared under the direction of the Surgeon General of the army : the black spots on the cards will be circular, four-tenths of an inch in diameter, and the recruit must be able to count them with facility at twenty feet distance. 2. Anomalies in t/f refrnetiimuftheiye. — The princi- pal anomalies in the refraction of the eye are myo- pia, hj-permetropia, and astigmatism. These ano- malies, if unaccompanied by disease of the eye, are not to be regarded as a cause for the rejection of a recruit, unless they impair the vision to such a degree as to prevent him from counting the test-spots de- scrilied in the last paragraph at the distance named. Myopia (uear-sightedness) is a refractive defect of the eye in which parallel rays falling upon the cor- nea are brought to a focus before they reach the retina. Hypermetropia (over-sightedness)is a refrac- tive defect of the eye in which parallel rays falling upon the cornea are not yet brought to a focus when they reach the retina. Astigmati-im is a refractive defect in which when parallel rays fall upon the cor- nea they are not brought to a focus in the same plane for all the meridians of the eye. The charac- ter and approximately the degree of these defects can be ascertained by the spectacles and test-types which will be issued for this purpose by the Surgeon Gen- eral of the army, on requisition from the Medical Officers. 3. Presbyopia is not a refractive anomaly, but a condition due to a diminution in the accommodation of the eye, resulting from advancing age Vision for distant objects remains normal, while that for near objects is impaired. Tliis defect is not of it- self a cause for the rejection of a recruit, but those in whom it exists are usually over age. The exist- ence of the defect can be ascertained by the test- types referred to in the preceding paragraph. 4. Color-hlinthifss. — At the principal recruiting de- pots all the accepted recruits are e.vannned for col- or-blindness by the Medical Officers on duty. Any defect observed is noted on the descriptive list of the soldier, but does not of itself constitute a cause of rejection, except in the case of enlistments for the Signal Corps. The examination for this defect is made by the method of Holmgren. Test-wools for the purpose, accompanied by jirinted directions for their use, are issued to the principal recruiting de- l)Ots bv tlie Surgeon General. See liecriiiting. lie. rriiitin;/ D- pot.anA l^i/pt rintendiiit of Jiecruiting Srr- ■t^irr, RECURSANT.— In Heraldry, moving or coursing backwiiid : said— of an eagle displayed with th<' back towards the spectator's face. REDAN.— The simplest work in Field Fortification. It consists of two parapets whose faces join in form- ing a salient angle toward the eileniy. like a letter \, in which the apex is to the front. Regarded by itself, the redan is a work of very little".strength, since there is no Hanking fire to protect its faces, and nothing to prevent an enemy from forcing an en- trance at tlie gorge : but re(hiiis are useful in many positions, and tlii' rapidity with wliich liny may be constrncleil, render them favorites with engineers and ueiieials. .\ row of redans along an exposed iroiit cif an army adds much to its strength. the troops behind protecting the gorge, and tlie redans fianking REDAN LINE. (; I ;| REDOUBT OF RE ENTERIRO PLACE OF ARMS. fiicli olhcr. It fonns an pxcellcnl dcfcnHc for u liriil!,'c-lica(l, tlu- tii>r'A<- liciiiK CDvcrfd Ijy llie rivi-r. [{(•cliiiis Ii;riircil larL'c'ly in Wi-llinirlon's wr/rk.s for (ie- finclin;? Lisbon in IMK). 'n,,. rcilan of Si'lm»to|)ol in lM.-,r, was tlii'priiM ipal point of 1 lie En^'lisli attack, ;inil Ilic scene of fuo hlooily repulses by the KiisHlaiis in Jnne and JsejilenilH-r. Tlie faces of the icdan should receive direction such as to swe<'i) (he ajiproaches to the Hanks of the liosiii.in. From the ansnlar point hut a sin;,'le line of direct lire can he brought to bear on the sector in advance of it, and when the salient is BO" or loss, only a very oblique fire from the fjici-s can he brnuiriit ujjon this sector, which becomes thus a sector with- out lire for the assailed. To remedv this, a portion of the salient is tilled in soa.s toforn'i a short defens- ive line ])erpendicular to the capital. This line is termed a puii-miipiv. axnl irives a direct lire in the direction of the capital prolonged outwards. See Fiflil-W'irl-K. REDAN LINE. — The .simplest arrangement for a contimied line. consists in a series of redans connect- ed by straight curtains. The faces of the redansare si.xty yards inlenirlh; their salient angles 00": and the distance between ihcir cajiit.als ISO vards. Tl; fenilcrH imdir the fiovernt.r, Genirul Klliotl. the at- larking s<|uadron being conipletely itilenced, and a lap'.'c niiiiihir of ships set on lire. REDOUBT.- A Kuiall fori of vurving Mliape, con- Hlructid for a temporary nurjiow, unrl iibii«||v wjOi- oul Hanking defenses, 'I he lerni Ik vague in ilH ac. ceplalion,beinL'applie.le()inilly todilucliidj)<«litund loa strong jiosition within another forlresH. HedoiibU are maile square, pentagonal, and even circular. Each redouhl has parapet, ditch, scarps, hnn>|iietlc etc., as in regular fortillcations : but it Ih comnionlv rather roughly cmslrucleii, husle and unprof.HHioniil labor precluding mathematical accuracy. The en- trance may be by a cutting through the'paraix-t, the culling being covered within by a tniverse ; or pre. ferably, by an e.\cavaled gallirv leading into the clilch,andllienr(byaramptliruuglilliicounlers<-arp. For the sake of thinking tliedilch. and prcventini; an a8.saulling.i)arly from lorniinL' in it. caponni.-r<-- of timber, loopholi-d, are somelimes formed; or. if the soil be stilf or chalky, a gallery may be cul be- hind the counterscarp and loopholed' toward the ditch. In some modern redoidils the line of each side is broken to afford Hanking rlefense. HeiiouhlM I have the weak feature of not ilefending their own I ditches, anil of liring approacheil at their salient an- I gles with comparative impunity. They an- ihere- j fore not adapted to a protracted defense, but as tem- porary field works, or in a war of posts, thi-y are often of incalculable importance. Troops wliofie stability in the open licld is doubtful are es|)<-ciallv strengthened by redoubts in their line. Redoubt's are particularly useful in forlifyinir the tops of hilU. or commanding passes, or wheVc the object is to oc- cupy a hostile territor)-, or to feel the way grailually through a wooded counlrj-. The si/e to begiven to a redoubt, or generally to"any inclosed work, Will de- ....■.....^v ./v I ., ^ . II tiiv II ia)ii(.ii> inv \arilS. 1 Ills com- ," " " ' 7 ■"•' "" -' •"'-■"'■-v.. .. ...1 n. ■* Hi u<;- binatiou will place the salients at liiO yardsfrom the '"■'"' "'^"" "'^' '"""'"■'" <'f ""^i- available for its de fense, taking it as an established rule that it is heller to have a force concentrated than too much dislrib- iited, and therefore injudicious to make works of a greater extent than can be well manned and viiror- oiisly defended. The number of men will depend I upon the particular circumstances of the ca.se ; a.s, j for instance, its situation with regard to distance from the enemy ; whether it is likely to be attacked I by a powerful force or only by raiding parlies: collateral recnterings. An inspection of this system whether it is of such vital importance as to reijuire it shows tlial the dilches are not Hanked: liiat the sa- lf> be held at all hazards, and its distance from sup- lients are not well protecti-d, owing to the cross-fire j porlingforce. leaving a considerable sector without tire in front of I In permanent fortification. the Icnn redoubt, or re. them; that the curtains, which, from llicir position. rf«rt. is applied to the outworks placed within other are the strongest points, are the best defended, and outworks : their object being to strengthen the de- in turn they afford no jirotection to the faces. All I fense of the principal work." A work of this class is these defects become more sensible as the redansare ^ usually placed within the demi-lune, and is termed placed further tiparl. See /.mc.'i. RED COAT.— An English soldier, or a soldier who "wears a red coat. RED FLAG. — A flag used by Revolutionists as an emblem of defiance. It is u.sed in the I'nited Stales service as a danger-signal at target practice, and on a m;in-of-war as a signal that the ship is receiving or diselKirging lier powder. See Flngn. RED HAND. — In ller;ildry. a sinister hand erect, open, and ccuipeil or, the wrist gules, being the arms of the province of Ulster, was granted to the baronets of England and of Irelanil badge on the institution of that orderin Kill, and is home by the baronets of Great Britain ami of the United Kingdom, It is assumed into the armorial coat, and may be borni' upon a canton, or on an escutcheon, which UKiy lie ]ilaccd either in the mid- dle cliief or in the fess |i: inl. so as least to interfere with ilir rliarircs composinir the family arms. RED-HOT SHOT.— Cannon-balls heated to redness, and fired from cannon at shipping, magazines, w(|oden buildings, etc.. to combine destruction by the ilemi-buir re(li»ihl. Small works of this kind arc al.so placed in the salient and re-entering places-of- arms of the covered-way, and arelermed the r<</"HA( of the salient, orre^enUring plafi-iif-nnii». These re- doubts are in some cases simjile earthen works ; in others they are revetted ; and in others ca.seniated both for the service of artillery and small-anns. See Inehmid U <';'<-.«.and (hitir.irkn.' REDOUBT OF THE RE ENTERING PLACE OF ASMS. Tlie ohjeci of this redoubt is to strengthen the _ covered-way and sweep with its fire the enemy's their distimruishins; establishments on llie glacis of the demi-lune. The redoubt being directly in front of the baslion-face, its relief should be reduced that the fire of this face ma\- not he too much masked. To effect this, we commence by establishing the bottom of its ditch, so that the iioint of it nearest the bastion may jnsl be seen by the musketry fire of the face: we then adopt nearly a minimum relief of scarp wall; finally, we arrange the interior crest of one face, so as to allow no exterior slope at one extremity and make the other at the salient "3 feet hisher. This fire w ith battering by c(mcussion. In the great slope of 2 feet, and the direction given to the scale bomliardiiunt of tJibniltar, on Sept. 13 and 14,1782, of declivity of the interior crest, determine a plane red-hot shot was used with great effect liy the de- ; of defilemiiit for the redoubt, the prolongation ol EEDRESSING WRONGS. 650 REFINING OF METALS. which will pass at about 3 feet above the salients of the two demi-liines, which arc symmetrically situ- ated with respect to the bastion capital. This is done in accordance with a principle generalh- adnpted, that when one work is less advanced than another, and commanded by it, the plane of its interior crest prolonged should pass 3 feet above the points which the enemy can occupy on the ad- vanced work — which, from the nature of the attack, must first fall into his possession — so that he may not have a plunging tire into the retired work, from his establishments, which are generally about 3 feet above the parapet of the work occupied. On account of the ditch between the tenaille and the enceinte flank, a breacli might be opened in the curtain, by means of a battery, established on the glacis of the re-entering place-of-arms, if there was no mask beeween the ditch referred to and this glacis. By placing the angle of the redoubt on the line drawn through the e-\treraity of the curtain and the extreme of the dem-lune, it is readily seen tliat these two works so combined cover the opening left by tlie ditch. The means here resorted to is of frequent use in fortificatiou ; and the problem may be thus stated : a line being given, which is partially covered by an existing mass, from tires in a given direction, to interpose another mass, which combined with the first, shall entirely mask the ffiven line. See Nonet System of F(irtii>ention. REDRESSING WRONGS.— If any officer shall think himself wronged by his Colonel, or the Command- ing Officer of the Regiment, and shall, upon due application being made to him, be refused redress, he may complain to the General, commanding in the State or Territory where such Regiment shall be stationed, in order to obtain justice: who is required to examine into the said complaint, and take jjroper measures for redressing the wrong complained of, and transmit, as soon as possible, to tlie Depart- ment of War. a triie state of such complaint, with the proceedings had thereon. If any inferior officer or soldier shall think himself wronged Ijy his Cap- tain or other officer, he is to complain f liereof to the Commanding Officer of the Regiment, who is required to summon a Regimental Court - Jlar- tiai for the doing of justiee to the complai- nant : from which Regimental Court-Martial, ei- ther party ma_v, if he thinks himself still aggrieved, appeal to a general Court-Martial. But if, "upon a 8econ<l hearing, the appeal shall appear vexatious and groundless, the person so appealing, shall be punislied at the discretion of the said Court-^Iartial. RED SHORT IRON.— Iron which is difflcult to weld and is brittle when heated is said to be red-short or hot-nhm-t. This defect is due to the presence of sulphur. RED TAPE.— The tape used in Pulilic Offices for tying up (Incmnents, etc.; hence, oflicial formalit}-. REDUCE. — This term is u.sed in various military senses. To ridncf « plwe, is to f)blige the com- mander to surrender it to the besiegers, by capitula- tion. To rediiee tJienejiKire. is to restore or liring liack a battalion or battalions, which have lieeii formed in a hollow or oblong square, to their natural situation in line or column. To reduce to the rnn/ix, is to de- grade, for misconduct, to the station of a private sol- dier, liediiced, in its ordinary sense, is to be taken off the establislunent, and to cease to receive pay as soldiers. When a regiment is reduce<l. tlie officers are generally jiiu upon half-]ia_y. i^onietinu's the corps are reduceil, and the ollicers remain npon fidl pay. This happens at the close of a war, when the standing army of the eotuitry is confined to a certain nnml)er of battalions. Hence is derived the expres- siciM in, and out of the lireiik. REDUIT. — In forlificati<in,a central or retired work williin any other work, intended to afford the garri- son a last retreat, whenc<' tliey may capilidati'. It is commonly of masonry, liioi)lioled. and often cinular. Many engineers doubt the use of reduits altogellicr. as blocking up the working space, being themselves I inconvenient for the men, and incapable of protract- ed defense, while the}' frequently mask the fire of ' other works more to the rear. REDUCTION OF METALS.— A metal is said to be re- duced to its metallic state when it is separated from the condition of a chemical <'ompound in which it exists as an ore. This is generally effected either by the direct action of heat, or by heating the com- pound along with a reducing iigent. Thus, when ox- I ide of mercury is simply heated, the oxygen is given j off as gas, and mercury or quicksilver appears as I metal. Again, when sulphuret of lead is heated with iron, sulpluiret of iron is formed, and the lead \ is reduced to its metallic state. In this case the iron is the reducing agent. The principal reducing agent j employed in metallurgy is carbon, or rather the gas ciirl)onic oxide, which is formed under certain con- ditions when carbon is burned. See /TO«,and Meteil- Inrgfi. RE ENLISTMENT.— A renewed enlistment. In the United States Army, any Non-commissioned Officer, musician or private, who re-enlists within one month after the date of discharge from first enlistment, re- ceives $3 per month in addition to the monthly pay he was receiving prior to discharge; and also ifl per month additional after each subsequent re-enlist- ment so long as he shall remain continuously in the armv. RE-ENTERING ANGLE. —In fortification, an angle in till' line of works of whicli the apex points away from the front. As an example, the flanks of a bas- tion make re-entering angles with the adjoining cur- tains. Advantage is commonly taken of the "com- paratively sheltered position of these angles to form PlnreK d' Annex for the assemblv of troops. See An- ejh. RE-ENTERING ORDER OF BATTLE.— An order of battle, the front of the army forming a re-entering or inclosing angle, and the reverse of the salient forma- tion. This order presents many advantages, as it can inclose the enemy, and shake morally and ph3's- ically the troops which form the angle of the salient, bv their rear being threatened and their retreat cut off. RE-ENTERING PLACE OF ARMS.-Enlargements in the covered-way. at the re-entering angles of the counterscarp; this space is formed by" setting off demi-gorges of 30 3'ards (more or less), "and making the spaces form angles of 100'^ wifli the adjoining branches of the covered way. REEVE. — A word used in S]ieaking of ropes, signi- fies the passing of a rope thrc>ut;h any hole, deaii- eye. block, or pulley, in conjunction with which it is to lie usi'd. See Cordafir. REFINING OF METALS.— The last operation con- nected with the smelting of copper, tin, lead, and some other metals, is usually called the refining pro- cess. With copper, for example, the impure or blister copper, containing from ll.'ii to i)8 per cent, of the metal, alloyed usually with small quantities of iron, fin, antimony, etc., is melted in a refining furnace, and exjiosed to the oxidizing influence of the air. By this means, the foreign metals present become oxidized, and rise to the surface as slag, which is skimmed off ; the oxide of copper, formed during the process, being afterwards reduced by throwing coal on the surface of the melted metal, anil stirring with u pole of green wood. Tlie dis- engagement of gases from the wnod during the "poling" causes the metal to splash about, and so ex- jHjse every portion of it to the redueingaetinn of the coal ; thus the oxide of copjier is deprived of its oxy- gen, and the copper rendered nearly jmre. Tin "is also relineil by throwing billets of green wood into it wliilr ill a melted slate, which has tlie elTeet of brin;;-- ing impurities to the surface .'is froth, in a somewhiit similar way to the o.\idi/,iiig of foreign metals in eop]ier. Lead is purified fmm antimony and tin by an analiigous mode of oxidation, and silver is sepa- REFLECTING SIGHTS. (If)! 9E0AUA. riilc(l from it \ty ii spcc'ml iirticcHH. The ri'liiiiii'/ rif iron in a name applied to tlii' prori-HS for jiarlially Hiparatiiii; llic carhoii fioiii casl-iron, and iH dc- HcrilK'd under Iuon. Of the less itnp<irlanl iiietalH used ill the arts, /.ine, aiitiinony. and iiiereury do not usually uiideri;o any special relinini; process; aluniiniu..!, it is said, will not aftiTwards ptirifv when onee reduced lothe nu-lallie stale ; and iiickef, of whicli Oeruian silver is lar;;ely composed, is re- lined hy a jjrocess or uroeesses kept strictly secret l>y mauiifaclurers. \V c; may state Iktc that no metal is ever (|uite pure in its commercial state, even thoUf;li it has ;;oni' Ihrouirh the usual operation of relininir, hut all are 1o a certain extent alloyed with cerlain others. For the i;reat niajorily of purposes, it is not necessary that metals should he chemically ])ure, and wlien il is, they can only he made so hy relined chemical i)rcK-esses. II will l)e readily nnder- slood, liowever, tiiat it is always necessary to carry the relinini; of fjo'.d and silver further than the less valualile metals. To render i;old sullicienlly pure for maiuifaclure into coin, an inirenious process has, within I he lasl few years, hccn pvcpposed, hy which fused jrold is ini.\ed willi about 10 |)er cent, of liluck o.xide of copper, and then stirred so as to oxidize any foreign metals which happen to he present. Th<' oxide of cop])er does not fuse, hut is disseniinatec'. through the nulled nu'tal, and oxidizes any tin, an- timony, or arsenic, anil causes them to rise to the surface, so that they may he sUimmed off. I'erfeet- ly pure golil is pnpared hy dissolviiiir the melal in aqua-rei;ia— a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids—and precipitating silver (with which it is al- most always alloyed) as well as any other foreign metals hy (•henii<als which have no action on tlieso- hition of gold. The metallic gold is afterwards pri-cipilaled as a linely-divided powder, hy a salt of iron, and is then fused and cast into bars. Silver is rendered pure by dissolving; il in nilrie acid, tiller- ing the solution, and then precipitating llu' metal with common sail as a chloride of silver. This is afterwards mixed with sulphuric acid, and then, by iulroduciug bars of zinct, a chloride of zinc is formed, whilst I he silver is readily reduced to the metallic state. REFLECTING SIGHTS.-( Inns are laid with refltcting nn/lilx wlnii ibe size of the port in a casemate is not large enough lo use llie ordinary sights, or when it is desirable to protect the menemplovi'd in aligning the sights from the enemy's tire. Several uu-thods of using them are employed. In the first ])lan, the sights are very similar to those usually employed, but Ihey are both placed on the thinner part of The gun in front of the trnmiions. And as there is not room for a man's head to be placed behind the tangent scale, on acco.mt of the coils of the gun. a small mirror on a moveable socket is placed just behind the tangent scale notch, and the man who lays the gnu stands at some convenient position at tlie side of the muzzle, and aligns the sights in the mirror exactly as he would do in laying direct, lie is well protected from the enemy's "tire. In the second jilan. which is adopted in MoncriefTs protected barbette system, in aildilion to a set of di- 1 rect sights, a mirror at the breech, set at an angle. ] with a cross cvit on it is useii in conjunction with a notch, which slides in a graduated vertical groove at the trunnions. The trunnion nolch is tirst adjusted to the rei[uired elevation, and a man below then looks np at tlie mirror, and the gun is nuued until by re- flection the distant and the trunnion-sight notch co- incide with the Intersection of the lines cut on the i glass. j Another plan is to have one mirror set at an angle attached to a trunnion, so that the distant object is ! reflected on to another mirror, which slides under, cover in a graduated slot in the side of the elevator. The irun is laid by slidimr the lower mirror to a cer- tain graduation (reipiired by the range) on the slot, and then moving the gun till the distant object is seen rellectcd in the lower mirror covering the inlerM'ctinn of cross-lines, which are cut on liotli the inirrofH. Uedecting sights have liie diHudviintage of a limit- ed field of view, which may cuiine delay in tindiiiK th<! ol)jeet in the mirror, even wlieii the gun ix ujt- |»roximalely brought mio Ihecorrerl lini- before using these sijjhis ; and reflection, ep-peciallv when double. causes iiidi^linclness, piirticularly at long ranges. SEFORMADO. Anolllcer, fornierlv so calli-d. wIid for some disgrace wasdiprived of his coininund, but retained his rank, and perhaps Ids pay. REFORMED. In a military S4'nse, after some ma- neuver or evolution, lo bring h line to its natural ordir. by aliirning it on some given jioinl. Also, to restore order amouL' broken troops. REFORMED OFFICER. In tlii- ISrilish Army, one whose troo|)s or company being broken up, is con- tinued on full or half-pay. lie preserves Hie riglit of seniority, and continues in I he way of preferment by brevr^t. REFUSE. A military term, signifying to throw back, or lo keep back oul of the regular aligmnent which is formed when troops are upon the point of engaging the enemy. Thus it is saiil in the obliipie order of battle, that if the right flank attacks, the left unist be iifUKf.d REGALIA.- The ensigns of royalty, including more parlicularly the a|)paralus of a coronation. The re- galia of England were, prior to the Heformation. in the kee])ini.c "f the Monks of Weslminsler Alibey, aiul Ihey arc still presenii'd lo the Sovereign at the coronation by the Dean and I'rebendaries of that Church. Dtiriug the Civil War the Crown and most of the regalia fell victims to Puritan zeal ; and on the restoration of the Hoyal Family, new ensigns had to be made for the coronation of" Charles II., whicli, with occasional alterations and repairs, have contin- ued in use down lo the iireseni <la>. The regalia, strictly so called, consist of the crown, the siepter with The cross, the verge or rod with the dove, the so-called staff of Edward the Confessor (made in reality for Charles II.,) the blunt sword of mercy called Curtana, the two sharp swords of justice, spiritual and temporal, the ampulla or receptacle for the coronal ion oil, the anoint ing spoon (probably the only existing relii' of the old regalia;, the annillie or bracelets, the sjiurs of chivalry, and various roy- al vestments. All these, with tlie exception of the vestments, are now exhibited in the jewel-room in the Tower of London, in which are also a smaller crown, scepter, and orb for the coronation of a Queen Consort, two other Oiieen Consorts scep- ters—one of ivory, made for >Iarie d'Este : and the state crown of silver and diamonds, whicli was used at the coronation of Queen Victoria, containing a large ruby and sapphire, the former said to have been worn by Edward the Black Prince. The Prince of Wales' crown of gold, which is without stones, is moder;i. The proper reiralia of Scotland consist ot the crown, the scepter, anil the sword of state. The crown probably belongs to the time of Kobert Bruce, and is adorned with crosses and flenrs de lis alternately. It was orisinally an o])en crown, but twoconcentric arches were added in the reign of James V.. sur- mounted at the point of intersection by a mound of gold and a large cross patee. The scepter is of the Hmc of James v.; the sword was a pres«-nt from Pope^ulius II. to James IV. in ir.07. During the Civil War the regalia were removed by the Earl Marischal for safe'custody from the crown-room of Edinburgh Castle, their lisual place of deposit, to his Castle of Dunnottar; and while Dunnottar was besieged by the parliamentary army, the regalia were "preserved bv being conveyed by stratagem lo the JIanse of KinnefT, by the wife of Ogilvy of Bar- ras, the Lieutenant Governor, and the wife of the Minister of KinnefT. From the restonilion lo the union the regalia continued to be kepi in the crowii- rooin as formerly ; at the beginning of each session BEGAN CARTRIDGE BELT. 652 REGIMENT. they were delivered to the Earl Marisclial or his Deput}', in whose custody tliey remained while Par- liament was sitting, and were afterward restored to the charge of the Treasurer. William, uintli Earl Marischal, who opposed tlie Treaty of Union in all its stages, declined to witness its consummation, but appeared by his Deputy, who took a written protest tliat the regalia should not be removed from the Cas- tle of Edinburgh witliout warning given to him or his successor in office. From tliat time till 1818, the regalia remained locked in a chest in the crown- room, awaj' from pidjlic gaze. On Feb. 4, 1818, an order being obtained by warrant under the sign-man- ual of George IV., then the Prince Regent, the chest was Ijroken open, and the crown, sword, and scepter were found as they liad been deposited at tlie union, along with a silver rod of office, supposed to be that of the Lord High Treasurer. Tliey are now in the cliarge of tin- Officers of State for Scotland, as com- missioners for the custody of regalia, and are exhi- bite<:l in the crown-room, along with a ruby ring set witli diamonds, worn bj' Charles I. at his coronation at Holyrood in 1633 ; the golden collar of the garter, sent Ijy Elizabeth to James VI. : the St. George and dragon, or badge of the order of the garter : and the badge of the order of tlie thistle, with figures of St. Andrew and Anne of Denmark, set in diamonds. These latter insignia were bequeathed by Cardinal York, the last of the Stuarts, to George IV., and sent to Etlinburgh Castle in 1830 by the special order of William IV REGAN CARTRIDGE-BELT.— This belt is intended to carrj- from thirtv-tivr to forty cartridges, arranged so as to have five in each division. The thimbles are sewed to the belt. Between each division of five cartridges is a space of about half an inch, designed to allow the covers to project a little beyond the ex- treme cartridges in each division. In one of these spaces is a little oblong pocket, like a spectacle-case, for screw-driver. In the second space, on either side of the front of the belt, is a buckle, which is riveted to the belt, and designed to fasten the cross-belts. On each side of the center division of thimbles on the back part of the belt are two other buckles, to. fasten the cross-belts on behind. To each division of five cartridges is arranged a little cover for the cartridges, to prevent them from being lost b)- drop- ping out, fastened by a small brass knob, adjusted to the center thimble of each division of cartridges. A strap and buckle, to support the bayonet scabbard, is sewed on inside of the belt on the left side. Cross- belts are attached to the waist-belt, to remove the weight from the waist, and these are so arranged as to carry a blanket and a change of underclothing. REGARDANT.— A term use'd in Heraldry with re- a Colonel's command, and tlie largest permanent as- sociation of soldiers. Hegiments"'niay be combined into brigades, brigades into divisions" and divisions into armies; but these combinations are but tcinpo- rar}', while in the regiment the same officers serve continually, and in command of the same body of men. The strength of a regiment may vary greatly even in the same arm}-, as each may comprise any number of battalions. French and Austrian regi- ments have ordinarily 4 to 6 battalions. Among British infantry, the "smallest regiments are those numbered from the 26th upward re.xcept the (iOth), which have 000 men each, composing one battalion. The GOth and rifle brigade comprise each 4 battalions. The whole artillery force is comprised in one regi- ment. The strength of a regiment is changed from time to time ; usually by the addition or withdrawal of private soldiers. The present plan would be, in case of war, to raise the skeleton regiment to war strength by calling in men from the arnij' reserve. The regimental system could only exist where standing armies are maintained. Accordingly, the Macedonian syntagmata and the Roman "cohorts were evidently regiments in a strict sense. During the Middle Aires, feudal organization precluded the system, and its first reappearance was in France. Francis I. formed legions of 6,000 men each, which were divided into independent companies, the latter being, in fact, battalions, and each legion a regiment. The word regiment began to be applied to bodies of Britisli troops in Elizabeth's reign; regiments are spoken of at the time of the Arniada, 1588, and as composing the force in Ireland in l.'iSW. From that time forward, the army and militia of Britain have been organized into regiments. Charles I. and the parliament each raised regiments, all of which were disbanded at the restoration, with the exception of the Lord General's Regiment of Foot, and his Life- Guard of Horse. Tliese two were re-engaged (1661), and form the present Coldstream Guards and Royal IIorse-Guards. In the same year, a Scotch corps of 17O0 men, which had taken service in France in the time of James I., returned to England, and was in- cluded in the British Army as the 1st foot. Other regiments of infantry were gradually rai.sed as re- quired. In 1693 was raised the first troop of horse Grenadier Guards, and the 2d troop in 1702. These were disbanded in 1782, and reformed as the 1st and 2d Life-Guards, which still exist. Besides Cavalry and Infantry, the British Army comprises the Regi- ment of Artillery, and the Corps of Royal Engineers, and military train. The total Regiments of the British Army for the year 1876-77 (and substantially the same at present) were: Life Guards Horse-Guards (Blues)..., Cavalry of the Line — Dragoon Guards.... Dragoons Hussars Lancers Horse Artillery Foot Artillery Royal Engineers Fool (.Tuards Infantry of the Line Army Hospital Corps .... Army Service Corps West India Regiments i (black troojis) / Colonial Corps Regiments. 2 1 3 13 5 28 Officers and Men. 868 434 15,973 Total . 1 1 3 110 1 1 2 1 151 ( 5,633 in 6 brigades. "(29,291 in 26 brigades. 5,710 5,!).50 in 7 battalions. 119,-183in Ml battalions 1.574 3,014 1,832 in 2 b:ilt;ilions. 049 in 1 battalion. 190,411 ference to an animal whose head is turned back- Each regiment is nominally commaiKh'd by a Gol- ward. Si'i- i'nKKdiil and Jldinpanl. oncl, who is an old Gencnil Officer, ;uid whose office REGIMENT.- In all modern armies, a regiment is is merely a sinecure. The real command, however REGIMENTAL COUKT MARTIAL. 653 REOIMEHTAL RECRtnTINO BEHVIOT. rests vvilli the Liculciiniit (,'olom'l. ineucli biittiiliriii, who is assisted liy ii Miijor imd 1ms for ii HliifV an Acljiitant,on(' (^iiartcniiastiT.onr I'liyiiiasliT, and i>iii- Siiriicdii. Tlic r('i;iiii.-iil or liallallioii is divided in- to comiiaiiics in tlie Infant ry, En^'ineers, and Army Servi<'c Corps ; and into (rcMjps ir] llic Cavalry. Tliu Artillery is ilivided into ;i(J hrijiades. eiicli of which is as lari;e as an ordinary reifinienl. The brijrade is snhdividi'd into lialleries, wliieli are the workini; units. 'Pile worUini;' olllccr> are Captain and two I.ienleiiants to each infantry company or cavalry troop: .Major, Captain, three LicutcnunlH per battery of artillery. The following is the present orirnnization of regi- ments and companies in the I'niled Slates Army: i preceding two nionthii after dediiclliig the C'X|K-niu.i< ; of the bakiTy. 'I'hiH amount c(msli''i''- "■• ''•'■ »- Oil Fund. If private coiilrilnitioii p. port of the biind are maile, the Hum re not taken iij> in the account eurreul u( tliu Ki-gimen- lal Fund. The Ailjulant i.s Treasurer of the Fund for lii»regl. mi'ut. which he dislinrseH on warrants drawn by llii! Colonel or Commanding Odieer. under fpecillc re. solves of the Keginiental Council of Administration. He renders, through the Coloml. periodical relumH of the Htate of the Fund and of the pmperly iiur- cliased therefrom, in the same manniras prescribed for the Post Treasurer, and his accounts arealwayii open to the inspection of the Colomd and Hegimen- 2 1 ! >< bi a s u — . si 1- 3 c a a 5 g i a a 1 50 a « 2 i SS a 'Si 0/ 3 % o '5 2 ■§. B 1 ^ o ►J ^ ■< K n n U (^ CCl O <fi C H < 1 1 8 1 1 18 la 1?, 1 1 1 Ta- 841 BjTroop of Cavalry ... 1 1 1 66 60 '\ PH'e roeiiiiifnts of Artillery — each 1 1 a 1 1 19. 94 18 1 1 525 ."581 4 Ijit'^'lil. hatttTv of Vrtillcrv . . 1 9 9 80 HT) 6 1 in 2 10 1 in ! 40 44 1 1 1 1 1 1 1' 1 f) Tweuty-five Regiments of Infantry — each. 505 541 7 1 1 1 1 50 53 — 1 — — 1 1 1 8 200 216 () 1 1 1 50 .")3 to Two Companies— each 1 1 1 49 52 On the organization of a regiment, the batteries of artillery, companies of infiuilry.and troops of ciivalry are permanently designated by letters in alphabeti- cal order. Officers in the first instance arc assigned to these subdivisions, and afterward succeed thereto as jiromoted to fill vacancies. Battalion and parade formations are regulated Ijy the Tactics. The field officers are assigned by their Department Com- manders wherever their services are most required, provi<led the assignment is with troops of their own regiments. Kegiments are furnished with field mu- sic on the requisitions of the coninnuiders, made, from time to lime, direct on the Adjutant General: and, when requested by regimental commanders, the Adjutant General endeavors to have suitable men selected from tl-.e recruits, or enlisted, for the regimental binds. Kaeli regiment is supplied with a Regimental Or- der HooU, a Regimental Letter Hook, a book of the Letters Received, ami a Descriptive Rook, to coMl;un a list of the officers of the regiment, with their rank, and dates of appointment, and promotions, transfers, leaves of alisence. .and ])l:ices and dates of birth. REGIMENTAL COURT MARTIAL.— A legal tribu- nal, i-iinqiose.l nf iliree Mendiers and a Judge-Advo- cate, convened for tlie punishment of offenders in the army. See Otmrts-MuHud, Judge- Advocate, and REGIMENTAL FUND.— Councils of Administration at posts occupied by companies of the same regi- ment at regular meetings, .set aside and cau.se to be paid over to the regimental treasurer fifty per cent. /)f the amoimt accruing to the post fund during the tal Council. The nmsical instruments and everything pertain- ing to the band are kept by the Adjutant. The Colonel or Commanding Officer, who approves the appropriations of the Council, is held accountable for all expenditures of the fund not made in accord- ance with the Regulations. The following are the objects to which the Regi- mental Fund is appropriated exclusively : 1. The maintenance of a band. 2. When not needed for the liand, it may be trans- ferred to the companies of the regiment as company fund. See (^"iLjnini/ h'lihd. and l^'mt Fund. REGIMENTAL HOSPITAL.— In Great Britain, each regiment has a Hospital for the reception of the sick belonging to it. This Hospital is under tiie im- mediate care of the Regimental Surgeon, who is subordinate to the general .Medical Board. See Ho»- pitnlK. REGIMENTAL ORDERS.— Such orders as are issued l)y the ullieer con\nianding a regiment for the infor- niatioirof the ollicers and regiment generally. Resimental orders follow up all orders issued by the officer commanding the lirig;ide, gjirrison. sta- tion, etc.. haviuLT nference to the reirinieut. REGIMENTAL RECRUITING SERVICE. —The Com- mander of a regiment is the Superintendent of the Recruiting Service for his regiment. When men are enlisted by Regimental Recruiting Otficers. the princii)les governing the general service in regard to qualificalions of recruits are observed. As a rule, recruiting funds are not furnished for the regimental service. "When special authority is given to open a REGIMENTALS. ()54 REGULAR APPROACHES. temporary rendezvous, or detach a party to recruit companies whicli liave become reduced, requisition for funds may be made by the Regimental Com- mander upon tlie Adjutant Genera!. To prevent deserters at larsre and men who liavc been discharged with bad character from imposing tliemselves again upon the service, no enlistments are made by company officers, or at posts, without special authority in each case, except when the man has been honorably discharged from the same com- pany or post withui one month previous to his ap- plication, so that his character is known. In all other cases, appli(.ation is made to the Adjutant General for authority to enlist the man— naming him — and, if a discharged soldier, giving liis last com- pany and regiment, and such evidence of good char- acter as can be obtamed. Enlistments, when made under such conditions, may bear the date of the ap- plication. REGIMENTALS.— The uniform clothing of officers and men in the military service, as prescribed for each ri'iriment and department. REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS.— In the British Army,the Schools for Adults,and Boys above eight 3'ears of age, under the Scliool-master, and the Injfant and Indus- trial Schools under the School-mistress,for girls and little boys. In the first, plain subjects are taught to soldiers who voluntarily attend, or to soldiers' chil- dren. The education is wholly .secular, the only theological teaching being exposition of a portion of Scripture during the first lialf-hour of morning school : but even at this, attendance is at the option of tlie parents. The Infant School is conducted on similar principles. The Industrial School is to fit girls for the occupations of life, and to render them capable of entering domestic service ; a grant of monej^ is made by Government for the provision of materials. There is a school of each sort ,in every l)attalion of infantry or regiment of cavalry, the total cost of which amounts, for 1873-74, to 4:36,253. Adult soldiers are admitted gratuitously ; for chil- dren, there is a nominal charge of Id. each a month. The orphans of soldiers and the children of soldiers serving abroad are received at any neighboring school without payment ; those of pensioners, con- tractors, etc.. at 3d. a montli: and the children ot officers at ."Js. a month. It is forbidden tliat any dif- ference should be made in the schools in the treat- ment of these different classes of pupils. REGULAR APPROACHES.— The term Rfgnlar Ap- pviiiii-lim is applied to the means employed by a be- sieging force to reduce a fortified position which is too strong to be carried by the usual mode of an open assaidt. These means consist in approaching the position under the cover of the ordinary trench Fig. 1. Proftlt: of Approach l)y tin- .simple Trcuch. Ijordered by a parapet, which is gradually pushed forward in the most favorable directions to shelter the troops ]ilaced in it from bulh ciitiladingaiid plinis- ing fires. In the coustniclion of the trenches var- ious articles arc recjuired to give speedy and safe cover, besides the usual trenching tools. These are termed Treru-h MateriaU, and consist of — 1. Tracing Tape f/r (Jord; 2. Traeiii;/ J'/rArtx; 3. Ordinary J'irk- ets; 4. Faxrinrn; H. fiap P'lignU; 4. Gahiuns; Vi. 8ap- rolkrs;(i. Sand-'iagu; 7. /ili/ulagf FnimeK; 8. (lallery Framen and Shieting. The tracing tape is a strong white tape or cord usually 150 feel long, and divided off into spaces of (i f<'Ct. a piece of \n\)v (J inches long being sewed to each point of division. At each end of the tracing tape a short piece of cord is at- tached to tie the tape to two tracing pickets. The tracing tape, for convenience, is rolled up into a ball. The tracing pickets are 18 inches long and one inch in diameter. For ordinary use thej' are tied up in bundles with their bark on; but for set- ting out night work the bark should be stripped off to make them more readily seen. Those used for securing fascines are from 2' to 4' long, and from \\" to \\" thick ; those for setting out or tracing the works are 18" long and 1" diameter. The fas- cines are usually made 18' long, and 9" in diameter, and are afterwards cut into suitable lengths for the purposes to which they are to be applied. Sap-fagots are made, like fascines, of straight brush-wood at least 1" in diameter. They are 2' 9" long, and 5" in diameter. The center stake should be from li" to 2" in diameter, and project 9" inches beyond one end of the sap-fagot : this projecting portion is sharpened, to enable the sap-fagot to be planted firmly in the ground in an upright position. The exterior diameter of the gabions is 2', and the height of wattling 2' 9". They are made with seven, or nine stakes, which project G" above the wattling at top. and are pointed. The ordinary trench galiion and the gabion for revetting batteries receive the same dimensions ; the latter is more strongly made and of the heaviest brush wood. At the siege of Sebastopol the want of brush wood for the wattling of gabions led to the introduction of the common hoop-iron for this purpose, which had served to se- cure the bales of hay. The number of pickets em- ployed for each gabion was usually thirteen. It was found that these gabions could be constructed more readily than the ordinarj' kind : that they were not much heavier, were more durable, and in all other respects as serviceable. The sap-roller is a large galiion 7 feet (5 inches in length, and 4 feet 4 inches exterior diameter. It requires for its construction fifteen stakes, each from 1| inches to 2 inches in diameter. After it is completed, it is stuffed com- pactly with fascines 7 feet 6 inches long. The sap- roller is sometimes made of two concentric gabions, the diameter pf the smaller 2 feet 6 inclies. The . space between the two is well stuffed with fascines The sand-bag, for the revetment of batteries, when empty and laid flat, is 2 feet 8 inches long, and 1 foot 4 inches wide; those used in the construction of the trenches are 2 feet long and 12 inches wide. The trendies are divided into two principal classes; apprnai-hm or boywu; and paralleh. The approaches serve simply as covered communications which lead to and connect the parallels, and are usually directed towards the points of the defenses upon which tlie attack of the besiegers is made. The approaches are run in a zigzag, or in a straight line, towards one or several of these points. The trenches of the ap- proaches are 8 feet wide at bottom; 3 feet 6 inches deep in front, and 4 feet at the rear. The reverse receives a slope of 4.5''. The front is usually made with a slo])e of 2 feet base. The earth from the trench is thrown ti> the front to form a parapet. The general height of this parapet is nearly 5 feet; its width at the liase about 18 feet. The parallels are designed as stations for troops to guard the besiegers' works and the workmen emplojed in their execu- tion from the sorties of the garrison. The general direction of the parallels is parallel to, or concentric with, a line connecting the most salient points of that portion of the defenses attacked. The trenches of tlie ])arallels receive a width at bottom of 10 feet; their depth in front is 3 feet, and in rear. 3 feet 6 inches. Two steps. eaclilS iiu'hes high and 18 wide, lead from near the bottom of the trench, on the front side, up to the natural ground. The reverse of the trench receives a slope of 45^; or else, is also cut into two steps. The steps in front arcalone revetted with fascines. When the parapet is formed iif earth alone as is represented in Fig. 1, the trench is termed a Simple REGULARS. 055 REODLUB. Trench. In this case the earlli of ihr |i;ii;i|iri in allowed t(i luUc its iiiituriil slopi- Ujwiirds liic- Irciicli. The sli']), nr hcriii cif IH JMclic'S l)i-twccii llir |]iini|ii'l anil llii- trench in the parallel, nerves asa l)uni|iielle. I'orlions i)f the i)aralhls, from 20 to DO yarils in lenntli, are arrani;<vl with ste|)s, revetted with fas- cines, leadinfT from the trench over tlw parapet, to enable the troops in the parallil to move from it lo repel a sortie of I he liesie!.'ed. Kij; 'i. The direction (if the simple Ircriih Is laid out liy the Iraciiifj-tape and pi(?kels. The trench is I'xecMleil hy soldiers of tile line; each man lieinn fiirni-ihed willia niik and shovel, with which he places himself speedily iin<ier Fig. 2. I'rollli' (it H I'limliel uf ii Slmpli! Trcnrh witli Stopn fur Sortk'M. cover, by dis;s"iS '^ \\n\v and tlirowinji the earth in front of hiniV continnini; his labor mitil he has ex- cavated (I feet in leni;th of the trench, and as much of ii to the rear us nniy be assifrned to the relief, or workini; party, to which he belongs. .ifler the trench lias received its ireneral width and (hp'h. tlie| slopes and ste])S are finished olT under llie direction of the eni:inecr troops. See t^iegf REGULARS. - 'I'hose troops whose condilionsof en- rollmenl are not limited to time or place, in conlra- dislinetioii to militia or volunteer corps: troops per- manently in service. France first set llie example of keepins; troops in peace. Charles VII , forsceing the dantjer of invasion. authorizeil the assemblage of armed inercenaries. or Coinpagnies D'ordonnance. Louis XI. dismissed th<'se troops but enrolled new- ones, composed of French. Swiss and Scotch. Under C!harles VIII..<iermans were admilled in the French army, and the highest and most illustrious nobles of France regarded it as an honor to serve in the Gens IVarmes. Moral cpialitications not being exacted for admission to the army the restraints of a barbarous discipline became necessary, anil this discipline divi- ded widely the soldier from the people. The French Kcvolulion overturned this system : now no mercen- ary troops are to be found in continental Europe. England only now raisesarmies by the system of Ri- crditem. The last wars of Euroi)e have been wars of the people and have been fouglit by nationalities. After ]>eare, armies remain national. for theirelements are taken from the pc^ople bv legal liberations. REGULATION PRICE. This phrase as applied to an Ollieei's Commission, was the regulated |iricc jiaid by Orticers for each step of rank (according to a fix- ed scale), other than death vacancies, vacancies caused by augmenting a regiment, or vacancies re- sulting from the promotions of Colonels to be Major Generals. Whi-n an Otlicer of any rank, from a Lieutenant Colonel downwards, was desirous of re- tiring from tlie service, he was enlilled to sell his <'oinmission for the price stipulati'd l)y the regula- tions. Sometimes, he received more than the regula- tion sum. Purchase being no longer per:nitte(l in the army, the sale of commissions mentioned has only reference to Otlicers wlio entered the army be- fore November 1,1.S71. REGULATIONS.— Under the Constitution of the United States, rules for the go^-ernmcnt and regulation of the army must be made by Ccmgress. Hegulation implies regularity. It signities fixed forms ; a cer- tain order : metliod : precise determination of func- tions, rights and duties. Rules Of Hegulation also embrace, besides rules for the administrative service, systems of tactics, and the regulation of service in campaign, garrison, and quarters. In the case of the StalT DepartmenlH, lecislalive authority liaH >M-i>n delegated j"intl// to the President and Secretary of War. Hut in relation Iri the powerH, ri|{hlH, and duties of oHli-ersand Holrliern in cunipiilgn, ;;arri»i>n, anil (piarters, (Jonj^cHH liaH not delegated itHaiithitri- ly to the I'ri'Hidenl, nor have hucIi inatters Ix-en preriHely determined liy military Iiiwh. Even righU of rank, cominariil. and pay, concerning wliicli Con- gress has liL'i-laled. are siilijects of dispute, ami variable expositions of laws regulating those eKwnlialu of good government have been given by dilTerent executives, with an increaHing tendency to invalidate rank created by Congress. There can bi- no remedy for these encroachments, unless Congresit HboulU pass a law to enable cases to be broiigtit before tlm Federal Civil Courts, in order that the trneexpoHition of military statutes and authorities in dispute may he determined. With such a remedy, laws, however defective they may be, would at leant be kiir>wn. and rights, jiowers. and duties eHtabiished by law would he well determined. But it may be said in relation to such nilcs of regulation, how can a body like Congress determine upon systems of tactics, etc.? Their constitutional duly might easily be performed as follows: I. Hy clearly dcclariu'.'. in a manner not to be niisiinder- stooil. that the <ieneral-in-Chief is charged with the discipline and military control of the army under the rules made by Congress and the orders of the President. 2. The Secretary of War is charged- with the administrative service of the army under the niles made by Congress and the orders of the President. 3. By directing the General-in-Chief, with the advice of properly constituted .Militarj- Boards, to report to the President rules for the government and regulation of the army in campaign, garrison, or quarters, including systems of tactici* for the different arms of the service. 4. By di- recting the Secretary of War, with the advice of ])roperly constituted Boards, to report to the Presl- dent rules for raising and sui)|)orting armies : in- eluding regulations ifor the ailininislrative service. .'). By directing the President to submit ihe rules made in accordance with provisions 3 and 4. to another board organized by the President, with di- rections to harmonize the details of Ihe several reports: which last report shall be siilimitted lo Congress for confirmation or orders in the ease. fi. Uy directing tliat each year, j)revious totlie meeting of Congress, the following Boards be asjiembled under tiie orders of the (ienenil-in-chief, viz. : a "Board of General Staff Officers : a Board of Artillerj- Offlcers : a Board of Cavalry (Officers : and a Boartl of Infantry Officers. The Secretarj- of war to a.s- semble all the following Boards, viz. : a Board of Engineer Otliccrs : a Board of Ordnance Officers ; a Board of Medical Officers: and a Board of (biar- termasters. Commis.saries and Paymasters. Eacli of the Boards so assembled tri report to the General- in-Chief or Secretary of War. such siiggektions of improvements in their respective services as it mavbe desirable to adopt. 7. The repeal of all laws Jele- gating legi.slative authority to the President and f^ecretarv of War. REGULATORS. 1. The popular name of a parly in Isorth Carolina, which arose in ITtVS and harl for its object the forcible redress of iiublic grievances. 2. Contrivances designed to render '.iic power and resistance proportionate to each other. Hegulalors generally act upon that point of the machine which commands Ihe supply of the jiower by means of some mechanical contrivances, which chit-k the quantity of the moving principle conveyed to the machine whenever the motion becomes accelerBle<l, and increase the supply whenever it becomes re- tarded. For example. "this is accomplished in a steam-engine by acting on a valve c.nlled the throttle valve, placed in the main pipe. REGULUS. — .V term in metallurgy, which i.s now used in a generic sense for metals in different stages REIGN OF TERROR. 656 REINS. of purity, but which still retain, to a greater or less extent, the impurities they contained in the state of ore. When, for example, tlie ore known as the sul- phuret of copper is smelted, the product of the different furnaces through wliich it passes is called regulus until it is nearly pure copper. The name, which signities "Little King," was Hrst given by the alchemists to the metal antimon}', on account of its pow.r to render sold brittle. REIGN OF TERROR.— The name given to that period in the liistory of France when the Revolu- tionar}- Government, under the guidance of Maxi- milien Robespierre, supported itself b}' the pure operation of terror, exterminating with the guillo- tine all the enemies, or supposed enemies, of the Democratic Dictatorship. In the year 1793 the Convention vested the Government in a "Committee of Public Safety", a body belonging to the Party of the ^Mountain, and of which Robespierre, Couthon, and St. Just became the Triumvirate. This Com- mittee. to which every other authority in the country was subjected, deliberated in secret, and the conven- tion sanctioned all its decrees. Louis XVL had al- ready been brought to the scaffold; and on Oct. 16 his Queen, ilarie Antoiuette, after being subjected to every possible indignity, was beheaded; the Prin- cess Elizabeth sharing the same fate on May 10. 1794. The execution of the Girondists followed, and that of the Duke of Orleans. The guillotine became the only instrument of Government : a look or a gesture might excite suspicion, and suspicion was death. The Calendar was remodeled, and all reli- gious rites suppressed. When the power of the Committee had attained its climax, a decree was passed abrogating every delay or usage calculated to protect an accused person: but from that moment a reaction began. A section of the Mountain Party were satiated with blood, and, had become impatient of the control of Robespierre. On July 28, 1794, he was denounced in the Convention for his barbarities, and his death brought to a close this sanguinary era in Fix-nch history. REIN. — A term applied to a crack or vein in a musket barrel. REINFORCE.— The cylinder of a cannon is usually divided into two portions, called the Jirxt and second re'nfi'rn'. The first reinforce extends from the biise- ring to the seat of the ball, and is the thickest part of the piece, for the reason that the pressure of the pow- der is found, both by experiment and calculation, to be greatest before the projectile is moved far from its place. Tlie shape of this reinforce was formerly made slightly conical, under the impression that the pres- sure was greater at the vent tiian at the seat of the projectile; but it is now made cylindrical throughout. For bronze cannon, the thickness of this part is ap- proximately siven bv the empirical formula E^=D I I o . in w'hich I> represents the diameter of a solid cast-iron shot suited to the bore : f^ the proof charge; and P the real weight of tlic projectile. For cast-iron cannon. A' should be multiplied by tlie co- efficient 1.17. In general terms, the thickness of a bronze gun, at the seat of the charge, is a little less, and of a cast-iron gun a little greater, than the dia- meter of the bore. Tliese dimensions exceed those determin<'d by calcul^ition, but are necessary to en- able the piece to resist the shocks of the piMJeclilc, etc. The second reinforce connects the lirst reinforce with the chase. It is miide considenbly thicker than necessary to resist the pressure of tlie powiler. in or- , der to serve as a proper point of support for the trun- nions, and to compensate for certain defects of metal liable to occur in the vicinity of llie trunnions of all cast cannon, arising from Ihecryslalline arrangement, 1 ancl uni-(|ual conling of the diU'erent jiarts. See ('dii- lion . REINFORCE-BAND.— In ordnance a band at the junc- tion of the lirst and second reinforce. REINFORCEMENTS.— Additional forces; especially those troops intended to augment the strength of an army. History proves that battles have been de- cided by reinforcements, and that victory is com- monly the prize of the General who is the last to bring his reinforcements into action. It was to the proper employment of reserves that Napoleon owed so much of his success; and the barren victory of Borodino and his complete defeat at Waterloo are by many attributed, in the one case to his holding back tlie guard altogether, and in the other to his delay in using it. Jomini and other writers lay down that reinforcements being the last argument on the battle- field should always lie composed of troops of a su- perior kind, but the experience of recent wars shows that, on account of the new tactics which have been adopted since the introduction of arms of precision, all troops, so far as they have not come into action, are reserves to the leader. Reinforcements should be placed near enough to support the troops in action, but the}^ must be kept out of sight, and their position concealed from the enemj'. Their distance from the second line depends entireh' upon the nature of the ground, as well as upon the extent of the ground covered by the line from right to left ; and their strength should consist of abmit one-fourth or one- fifth of the whole force in cavalry and infantrj-, and of about one-third of tlie guns. The reserve batter- ies ma}' eitlier be kept with the main reserve, or con- centrated on any point where their united fire may help to shake the enemy previous to the final attack. In the attack of the fortress, no assault should be attempted without a sufficient reserve, which should be well placed for following the supports of the escalading parties : its strength should never be less than three-fourths of the garrison of the work as- saulted. REINFORCE-RING.— In ordnance, a flat molding at the breech end of tlie reinforce. REINS.— The straps of a bridle, fastened to the curb or snaffle on each side, by which the rider or driver restrains and governs the horse. They serve to prepare the horse for the movements, to guide and halt him; their action should be gradual and in harmony witli tliat of the legs. In using them the arms shoulil be moved with ease, and from the wrist to the shoulder. The rein-hold will vary with the design of the rider and the propensities of the horse. The drawing shows the usual manner of holding and shifting the reins. In holding them separately, one passes into each hand, between the third and tlic fourth fingers, and out over the fore- finger, where it is lield down by the thumb. Usually the reins are held in the left liand. as when first taken up. Here the left rein passes under the little finger, and the right under the tliird, lintli passing tlirough the hand, and tlie supi'rtluims lein hanging over the :irst joint of the fore-linger, the thumb .securing if. Sometimes, the right rein enters the hand over the fore-finger from above and crosses llie left rein in the palm, where the fingers close u))on them. The loop, formed of the residue, hangs down between the hand and body. The reins should be shifted (pdckly and expertly without lireaking the time or altering the pace. To shift the reins from the left hand: Turn the thumbs well towards each other and carry the right hand over the left ; place the fore-finger of the right REIS EFFENDI. (;')7 RELOADING CARTRIDGES Imnd ilownwaril. ill I lie place (if llir> lillle tin)j;er rif [ I lie lefl liiiiiil, between llie reins; iiihI piisH the rciiiH tlirou^li the ri;.'iit liiiiiil, pliieiiii; the lliiiiiili upon the left rein, near llie secdiid joiiil uf llie fdre-lln^rcr. To reliini Iheiii to liie lefl hunil : ( 'arry the lefl liaiiil over the riulil mill place the lillle fliii/er of llie lefl liaiiil ilownwaril lielween Ihe reins; then curry lliein snioollily iipwaril lliroiiirli the liiind, und lei | the cmiIh liaiiLT over Ihe fore-tiii>;er. | KEIS EFFENDI. A I il le loniierlyL'iven to un Ollleer of Si ale in Ihe ()l Ionian Km pi re. lie was the Chan- cellorof Ihe Ijnpire, anil .Minister of Koreifin AfTuirs. His iliily in Ihe lirst-nieiilioneil capacity was lo con- fer wilh Ihe (Iranil Vizier ri'.'aiilinf; Ihe orilers anil instructions lo be seiil to the ililTirent Provinces, anil reiiariliiii; Ihe proper decision on any siihject afl'ectini!; Ihe ICnipire, whether internal or external; anil in the latter capacity he had llie sole and exclu- sive charjie of Ihe relalions of the I'orle with Foreign I Courts. I REITRF.S.- .V body of armed horsemen. who came out of Oermany and inlerid the Krench service diir- ins the ninii of Henry HI. They were ineorporuted wilh Ihe eiir.ibineers. REJOINDER.- In military law, the defendiint's answer to the plaintilt's replicalion. The weight of iiuthority Is against pcrinitting a rejoinder on the part of the prisoner, unless evidence has been ad- duced in the reply of the prosecutor. Hut such evi- dence should not be permitted in reply, and there should be no rejoinder. RELAIS. — .V term used in fortification to signify a space, conlaining some feet in breadth, which is be- tween the fool of the rampart and Ihe scarp of the fosse. It serves as a convenient receptacle for the - earth that occasionallv erunibles off. i RELATIVE RANK.— The precedence which certain Non-eombalanI ( lllicers and ol hers are entitled to take among llirir coinbatant brelhren; for instance a CommissaryGeneral in thc^ English Army has the rank of Major General. Uilative rank carries with it all precedence and advantages attaching to the military rank with which it corresponds, e.Ncept command, and regulates rates of lodging, money, number of ser- vants, rations of fuel and light (orailowance in their stead), detention and [irizc money. Relative rank does not entille the holilej lo salines from slii]is or fortresses, nor to the turning out of guard. It has lately been determined that the Assistant Jlilitary Secretary at the Horse Guards is to have the relative rank of Colonel. The following is the relative rank of Ihe English Navy and Army: i JVari/ Army Admiral of the Fleet Field Marshal. Admirals (ieiierals. Vice Admirals Lieutenant Generals Rear Admirals Major Generals. Captains of the ~| f, ^'''''' , ,, ,' Brigadier Generals. Commodores, 1st and j '^ 3d class Captains over three years' service Colonels. Captains under three years' service Lieutenant Colonels. C-iinimanders ^ Lieutenant Colonels. Lieutenants of 8 years' standing Majors. Lieutenants under 8 years' standing Captains. 8iib-Lieutenanls Lieulenants. Midshipmen Siib-I,ieiitenants. In the United States Army and Navy the relative . rank of officers is as follows: .1 rmy JViivy Second Lieutenant Ensign . First Lieutenant blaster. Captain Lieutenant. Major Licut't Commander. Lii'iitenunt Colonel (.'onmiander. Colonel Ciipluin Brigadier (jenerai Coiiimodore. .Major (ienernl Keiir Admiral Lieiilenant General Vice AdiiilruL General Adminil. The ollleers In Ihe Marine CorpH rnr.k with thoHC beariiiL' Ihe -iiiiif liilr- in Ihi- arniy. i^'f Idink. RELEASE OF PRISONERS. The Arli<le» of War jirovide that any ollleer wlio preHunicH, without pnj- per authority, to release any prisoner coinmilled lo his charge, or sufTers any prisoner ho comniifteil to escape, shall he punished us u CoijrtMarliul may direct. RELEVANCY.— In law, Ihe condilion of a plea which is well founded in point of law. provicled il be Irui- in fact. An objection lo the relevuney cor- responds in many respeels to a demurrer in Kng- lish. RELIEF. In fortification, the ^.'enerul Iieiglit to which Ihe works are raised: if the works be gen- erally high and cominanding, they are suid to have i\ hitlil riliif; \i the reverse, a /'/"■ rflirf. The term retiif\s also given to a party of soldiers deluchecl from a guard, who relieve sentries off their jiost on till- i\pir:ition of their term on duly. RELIEVER. — An iron ring fixed to a handle, by means of a socket, so as to he at right angles to if. It serves to disengage Ihe searcher of a gun. when one of its points is relained in a hole, and cannot Ix; exlniilid olherw ise. RELIEVING THE ENEMY.— Whosoever relievea the enemy wilh money, victuals, or ammiinilioii. or knowingly harbors or protects an enemy, suffers death, or such other punishment as a Court-Marlial may direct. RELOADING CARTRIDGES. — In 18C0, when Ihe maniifiii Inn of liii- Mrvice-cartridge was commenced at Fr;inkford Arsenal. Philadelpliia. Pa., little or nothing was known as to how a good reliable mili- tary cartridge could be made. To explain Ihe diffi- culties which had to be overcome at every step, the machines to be invented to do the work uniformly, accurately, and economically, would fill a large vol- ume. It can be said. however, that throu<:h the com- bined efforts of the officersin command of Frankford Arsenal, Philadelphia, and the National Armory, Springfield. JIass., a cartridge was produced which would retlect credit upon any nation. Up lo the present time this cartridge, perfected and slightly modified, has been the service-cartridge for breech- loading small-arms and machine guu.s. Wilh the in- vention and adoption of breech-loading small-arms and metiillic cartridge shells, heavier and more uni- form charges of powder were introduced, giving greater range and accuracy. This was followed by a desire and necessity for soldiers becoming trained marksmen. To meet economically the demand for an increased expenditure of ammunition thus produced, reloading shells were used. Until this de- mand came such shells had not been made lo any extent at Frankford .Vrsenal. although a plan for making them h:id been worked up at that posl.w hich has since been quite generally adopted by all manu- facturers, of reloading shells in this countrj-, and also abroad by several nations, viz.. making a pocket in the headof the shell formed in the continuous melal from which it is drawn, and into which a primer co«ild be inserted from the exterior. Reloading shells have generally been made of bniss. and are iif>w so made to a great extent. This melal pos.sesses sufficient elasticity, but is wanting in durability, as experience has proved. The service non-reloading shell is made of copper with a small percentage of spelter, and has shown durability equal in years to those longest made. The reloading cartridges now ftimished to Ihe army are the foUowins : — Frankford .\rsenal, solid head; Lowell, solid heiid : Winchester, solid head : Berdan, folded head. The Frankford Arsenal. Lowell, and BELOADING CARTRIDGES. 658 RELOADING CARTRIDGES. Winchester cartridges have a central vent in the primer pocket, which admits of the exploded primer being driven out of the pocket from the empty shell b)' apunch. The Berdan, having no central vent, requires a special tool, applied on the outside, to remove the exploded primer. The materials required for reloading comprise lubricated bullets, musket powder, and cartridge primers adapted to the shells to be reloaded. The following comprises a set of Frankfort Arsenal hand tools for reloading cartridges : Name. Cost price. 1 brush wiper -fO 10 1 charger ",'» 1 die, crimping .1 On 1 die, reloading T5 1 die, resizing 1 1!) 1 drift : 05 1 extractor, primer 1 00 1 funnel 10 1 mallet IH 1 oil cup 25 1 priming tool 1 00 1 punch, primer 3") 1 punch, reloading die 2-5 1 punch, resizing die 35 1 safety socket 2.5 1 scraper, sliell 10 1 setter, primer r 1 2.5 1 wiping rod 10 1 box containing set 35 Total cost of set $ 9 00 The first operation of reloading is the removal of the exploded primer. For central-vent cartridges this is done by inserting the extractor in the shell and resting the head of tlie latter in the recess for it on the safety-socket, then driving out the primer with cleaning, examine the shell to ascertain if it sliows signs of rupture. These may generally be seen at the head, tlie moutli, or as transverse or longitudi- nal marks on the body. The shell is next forced in- to the die for resizing, using the mallet if necessarv. the mallet. The Bridgeport tool for exterior extrac- tion, sliown in Fig. 1. and specially adipted to the '•Berdan" slu-lls, ma}' be used for all carlridges : but the primer |)unrli for central-vent shells is tlie in<ire simple .'uiil positive in its acti(m. If the wire of the extractor should break, extra ones are sui)i)lied with oach set of tools, and arc put in by unscrewing the plug in the head of the extractor, driving out the broken jiin with the IX'W one in Ihe direction of the head, Ihe hole being tapered, dropping in the new pin at the head, and rc])la<-iiig Ihe screw plug. The shi'lls, uiiether old or recently lirrd, should always, if possible. bc' cleaned of the powder ri'sidue, etc., by immersion and agitation in hot water. Cold ■water will clean them, but hot water is a l)etter sol- vent, and the shells ilry more (piickly when taken out of it. When circumstances render it impossible or incoiivenieni to u>c water, the brush wiper miiy he used for brushing out lh<' residuum lefl in Ihe sliell l).v the combustion of powder and fuluiinate. After striking fairly and squarely on the head of the shell. so as to avoid bending or distorting its flange. The outside of the shell or inside of the die should be oiled to facilitate the entrance of the shell and jire- vent abrasion. It is driven out by means of the punch inserted in the die and shell. This last op- eration is likely to cause a bur on the mouth of the shell, which would deface the bullet if not removed. For this purpose the serajxT is su|iplie(!. Insert it about 0".5 iiilo the shell, held in lefl hand, scraper in right ; give the shell and scra)ier a half-turn in op- posite directions, bearing with tli<' scraper luily linrd e;t'/i/jf/( to take olT Ihe bur. The handle of scraper and axis of shell should be k<'pt nearly parallel lo each other to avoid thinning the moulhof the shell. Although the shell may be fired several limes wilh- out resizing, this operation is considered luri'-iiiiri/ after tiiiii nnind. otherwise the shell will be unduly exp.aiided by successive rounds, and evrnlually fail to enter the gun-chamber: after which the extra BEMASKS. <i.39 SEHBLAI. force required to resize it miglit prove injiirimis to the nx^tiil. Tlie shell Ih next Inserted in the l<ui(lin{; die, Ihe primer entered into the poel<el,und the Hiifely Hoekel I)Iiieed over it, lari^e c'nci down; the i)rirner may then fx' driven honii! with llie priiner-pimcli and inullel. <;onsideral)le Iosh of primers liy prenialure explosion in this operation has oeeiirred, ami a tool is supplied for seltins; primers l)y pressure', whieli is \ised as fol- lows: The sIkII is placed in Die tool for insertin<; primers — the primer having; lieen prrvioiislv jnst en- tered iTi the pocket- and the primir presseil honii' by means of the lever and screw. The end of Ihe screw is so formed us to insure the j)rimer lii'iiii; be. low the surface of the head at least 0".(ll).'), Itshoulrl be sliu;litly lubricated to avoid wearof the projection on the end and abrasion of the primer. The Hridge- port tool, shown in Kiir. '2, nuiy also bi- ns<'d to set I the i)rimers of all shellsliut the "I.,owi'll." whiehlias, I intenlioiiully, a jirimer to til Ihe pocket tii;htly. anil reciuires ('(nisidiTalile force for ils proper uisertion. The screw tool will set the "Frankford Arsenal," i '■Herdan," "Lowell," and " Winchester" primers equally well. The shell is now ready for reloadinj;. j It is inserted in the loaded die, the latter into the .safety-socket, and thi' i)owder-fuiuiel into Ihe nioiilh of the die. A level measunful of jtowdcr is then poured into the shell Ihrounh Ihe fuiuiel, after which tlie l)ullel, or shot, is inserti-d an<l driven home with th<' iMuich and mallet until Iheshoulderof the punch , toiK'hes the end of the die. as shown in Fig. 3. This insures proper and uniform leni;th of cartridjrc. j The reloadins die may be used as a nauj^e for de- 1 terminiuix whether cartridires arc of tlie proper di- mensions for cnterini; the chanibers of j;uns. As a rule, any carlrid^e that will enter Ihe reloaciini; die will enter the chamber of the irun freely. It is, in fact, a combined reloading die and gauge for cart- ' Hlioeks in driving home the bullet, an'l It alno Kuidiit the punch in settini; the priiners. Fi);- 4 nbowH tin- liri(l)j;eporl erimpiiij; appiiraliiH. The wiping-rod serves to eliiin out the liore of the diex, etc., by means of cotton waste or a raj; drawn Ihroueh the slot in ils end. Particular can- should bi- liiKen to free the exti-rior of Ihe shell from t'rit or dirt before resi/.iii)^, to protect the die and shell from HeruUlii-N ; also, that neither walirnor oil ^els into the cum- or - primer, as either w ill injure or ileHlroy the powder or fulminate. No iri-ini, of oil shoulii be left In the chamber of Ihe (;un or on the eartrid^re, as it would tend to rupture thcMase in llrinu' and al«o lemiionirily disable I Ik' ;^un. A slij^ht amount of bibrieanl on the curtridp- or chandier tliroui;lioiit their lenctli seems to prolong the life of reloailed sIii-IIn. The tendency of thir shells to tear apart appears to be due I to their uneijual <'Xpansion in the chamber: the front I end beini; Ihiu is more quicklv expanded, and in the absence of the lubricant is hi-[il by prissureand fric- tif>n against the walls of Ihe chamiier. while llii- thick I rear end of the shell is forced backward by Ihe preiu sure of the gases. Asa rule, suflleient lubricant from j the bullet finds ils way into the chamber to answer all purpo.ses. These tools are made as simple anil strong as possible. Some of llii-m. purlieularly the dies and punches, require to be use! with irreat care, so as not to injure their surfaces or alter llwir dimen- sions, where such would affect Ihe cartridge. Tlie^v are cheap, durable, and cjuile rapid in operation if the work be divided among several operators or be done bj' one person performing each operation sep- arately on a number of shells. Special tools em- ployed in the operations of loading, other than those required for the service cartridges, are noticed under specilic headinjTS. See t'urtrklije, (nrtridijt.hxuUinj Impli iKtiits. and Center-fire .VeUilUf-cwe fartruige. EEMAEKS.— Army lietums. Regimental Retunw, Fi!:. 4. ridges. To use it as a gauge insert the punch in the small end and the cartridge in the opposite end. If the cartridge enters fully without moving the punch. It is of proper lenglli and diameter. When shells are reloailed for immediate use they may be tired after the foregoing operation. But if loaded for storage for any lenglli of time, the crimp- ing die should be used to secure the bullet in position. To i)erform this operation, in.sert Ihe loaded cart- ridge into the die, then set the head in the recess of the safety-socket, the latter resting on a bench or table, and drive the cartridge in with the blows of tlie mallet on top of the die The safety-socket has a central hole concentric with Ihe counter-bore. In extracting the primers it supports Ihe head of the case and forms a receptacle for exploded primers. It also supports tlie head of Ihe shell on opposite ends in the operations of loading and crimping, and tlie central hole protects the primer from severe Guard Reports, etc., have a column allotted for ob- servations relative to extraordinar)- occurrences, headed "Remarks." The voucher to Abstract B. page G60. used by Quartermasters, may be noticed as au example. BEMBLAI. — The quantity of earth in the ma.ss of rampart, parapet and banquette. In well construct- ed works, the equality between the dt/'iti and retn- A/rt(" is indispensable for everj- part. nay. for everj* face. For works not defiladed, and having therefore their crests horizontal, the following method of cal- culation may be employed, whenever expedition i.s required. Supposing the parapet and the ditch to have the same length and equal profiles, their vol- umes will be equai and the problem becomes thus simplified : knowing the area of the profile of the covering mass, to calculate the dimensions of the ditch so as to make the surface of ils section equal to that of the remblai. Let S represent the an-a of EEMINGTON LEE MAGAZINE-GUN. G60 REMINGTON REVOLVEB. Quartermaster - U. S. Army, at- for the period herein e.xpressed. liavina; signed du- plicates hereof. Amount of pay. Amount of stop- Amount received. pages. o s 2 £ Zi •2 a bl) •—• t CQ , f CC "% C2 A a S -r. A a o a o \ « ■■-> O (-> on my Form for tlie moutli of- 188 -Quartermaster- the section ot the remblai. Wlien earth is excavated, it increases in bulk, and whatever care be taken in ramming it in, the volume it occupies in the remblai will be greater than the space it tilled in the deblai this increase of bulk, called /"isonnement, is J in strong soil, ^^ in ordinary soil, and ^'^ in sand. Re- present it by 1-f-F and let the area of the profile of the ditch ^ S'; then, we have S' S. F S = S' -| , whence S'= F 1+F. When the work is defiladed by an increase of com- mand at the salients, it becomes- necessary to ob- tain the mean profile: this is done by calculating the areas of the profiles at the salient and at the extrem- ity of the face, and taking their mean KEMINGTON-LEE MAGAZINE-GUN.— This arm is the same in jirinciple as the one previousl}' described in this work, untler the head of l^ee Magiiziiie-gini. Since E. Kemiugton &, Sons have secured the exclu- that the trigger is pulled. By referring to the Fron- tispiece we can see that when the bolt is closed the position of the handle is directly above tlie trigger. The bolt has also a removable front end or ■' head." This allows the firing-pin and main-spring to be put into it from the front end. so that the rear end where tJie handle is now attached is very much stronger than the old bolt, as no cutting has to be made for the key-sleeve, F, shown and described on page 193 of this volume, that piece being now discarded. A dillerent method is also emplo3-ed in fastening the firing pin, C.to the thumb-piece or cocking-piece, E, by a locking-nut, T. The magazine is made of one piece of metal, in the sides of which are depressions having certain curva- tures and angles, which form projections on the inside for the guidance of the follower upon which the car- tridges "rest, so that they shall each be presented in their turn to the center of the borj of the barrel. The lugs on the rear end of the top of the magazine are extended forward a sufflcieut distance to prevent the cartridge from rising above the bore, and also prevents their es<'ape from the magazine wh( n it is detached from the piece. The quadruple-leafed spring, N, shown on page 192, is substituted for a coileil one, which is much simpler and more effec- ' live. B}- the use of this improved magazine, that part of the receiver which projects above and in the rear of the chamber known as the "overhang," is re- moved.^making a larger opening for the introduction of a cartridge, when the arm is used as a single breech-loader. See Lie ildgazinc-guii. REMINGTON REVOLVER.— This revolver is a mod- ification of the Colt revolver. As the hammer Is cocked a hand, which is pivoted to its lower por- tion, rises and engages the ratchet on the base of the cylinder and causes it to revolve. A stop-bolt engages tiie stop notches in the surface of the cylinder to Ijrevent the momentum of the cylinder from carry- ing it past the firing point. It disengages from them under the action of a hammer cam, which, rising during the cocking of the hammer, presses up the rear end of the boTt and liberates its front end from the notch. When the revolution is about complete, the beveled lower surface of the hanuner cam comes opposite the point of contact on the bolt. At this moment the tail of the bolt (being slit so as to have a lateral spring, and the head being pressed upward by a flat spring, slides down over the inclined surface of the cam, and the head engages the stop- notch in the cylinder. The spring is slit and bent so as to act upon both the liolt and the trigger. The drawing shows the general a))pearance of the Kem- sive right to manufacture and sell the Loo Magazine- giui they have inlniduceil several valuable improve- menls, among which liiay be inentiouid the change of the handle of the bolt from the middle position to the rear end. This greatly facilitates the rapidity ■with which the arm can be fired, as I lie hand can keep its hold on the bolt-handle at tlie same time ington revolver, as at present made. The very nu- merous advantages or improvements claimed for the Kemiugton revolver, as compared with the Colt arm are the use of a light base pin, which can be with- drawn by loosening its catch, and thus allowing the removal of the cylinder; the inlroiliiclion of the ejector frame, fas'tening to the barrel by a small REMIHGTON RIFLE. (i(i KEMIBSIOir screw anil lo lln' frame by a dowel-pin, IvHRcniiig the liiiliilily of luciilciitiiUy Iciiriti^j; the ejeotiiij; hvh- tem fnjrii lh(r barnl; the cdiliii}; (if thcejcetor Hpriii); urounil I lie Imsc-piri iiistriiil nf nrduiicl the cjiT-lor; the fuel thiit the hull (if Uic l{criiiiii;i(in is forjjed solid with thi^ pi.Hldl friiine. Jt i» also eliiiiiied tliiil tlie pistol has n neater appearance than the Colt. iivf I 'lilt li)'ridi-er. REMINGTON RIFLE. The mechanical conslriic tion (if Ihc lirccch-HyHlcm of the Ucniiiiiflnii arm is l)lainly shown in the accompanyin;; drawini;. cxhih- itini; the system with hreccli-hjork and hammer open and in jxisilion for loadiie,'. The simplicily of Ihc syslcm, Ihc lnrj,'cncss of ilsparls.and Ihcirpccn- liarly natural operation, it is tlioiij;lil. avoid the ne- cessity of more elaborate and distinct ilhistnilion. The receiver, comjjoscd of frame and unard-strap (AA), is a substantial lionsinij; of wroufjht-iron, case- hardened, tiic sides of which are .'iH inch in thick- ness. Tills frame, coiitainin;; thi^ lock and action, is closed at thebollom by the uuard-strap, which is (irmly secured in its jilaccby two screws. The butt- slock is morliscil for the reception of the end of the guard-strap (lower \), and tang of frame (upper A), tenoned into the receiver, and fastened by a thus, by a very InKcnioiiii construction, nuwJc t<> Hiihserve the (Uiublu purprxie uf guard-Htrap anci loek-plute. The extractor work» in a rece»H cut in the left in- teriorof the chumlier, and \» o|Mrrated by nieanM of a projection on its lower face, which enguges willi the shoulder of the breech-block, ho that the act of Hwingiiif; back the block viry readily withdruuK the empty cartridge-ease by an entirely ponilive motion, indepc-ndenl of spring or indirect agent, a mode of extraction distingiiislii'd for its Nimpllcity, xmootlu nesM, and ecrlainly of operation. The llring.pin works through the bri'ech-bloek. It is forced against the primer by the sudden shock of the hammer, which is imparled IhrouKh the direct action of the strong anil very slightly-curved main- spring, so that a mislire is impossible with carl- ridges properly mad<' and fitted to Ihi' clianiber. The operation of this arm is I'snecially Himple. To load the piece, I he hammer is llrst brought to full cock, and the breech-piece swung back by ])ressing the thumb-piece with the thumb of the right hand. The backward motion of the breech- block withdraws the discharged shell from the chamber, and if this muliou is executed quickly. tang-acrew passing through the stock vertically from tang to guard-strap. The front part of the receiver is the chamber, 1^ inches in length, into which the barrel is screwed. The fore-slock is secured to the barrel by a recoil-stud upon the under side of the latter. The constituent parts of the action are the breech-block (B) and pin (b); hammer (C) and pin (b): main-spring (a) and screw : trigger (C), trigger- spring (e) and screw ; locking-h^ver (D), locking- lever spring (d), and screw ; tiring pin and screw. The extractor engages in a slot in the shoulder of the breech-block. The end of the ramrod screws into a ramrod-stud. The breech-block and ham- mer are solid pieces of line steel, (ii)- lot) of an inch thick, pivoteii upon pins of the same material 4ii-100 in diameter. These pins pass entirely through the sides i>f the frame, and are held in place by the but- ton screwed on to its left exterior side. The main-' spring, trigger-sjiring, locking-lever, and the locking- lever spring are all of the very tinesi ([uality of relin- ed steel, the springs having the simplest possible curves, and the action of the main-spring upon the hammer being direct. The function of the locking- lever is two-fold, one of its otlices being to lock the trigger, so that it cannot escape from its notch in the tumliler, when the breech-block is opened, and a second to secure the breech-block when closed by the force, directly transmitted, of the lever-spring (d). It should be remarked that the whole of the lock work of this system, with the exception of the hammer, is attached to the guard-strap, which is with the muzzle of the .arm slightly elevated, the case will fall out without uecessitating the use of the fingers. The fresh cartridge is then inserted, and the breech closed in one continuous motion. The arm is then ready to tire. fSee llephurii-Iiem- iw/t'i/i Hille and K" iit-I!i iiiiiiqt"ti .\t'iiimin(-gun. REHINOTON THREE BARRELLED BIFL£.--Agun, recently designed by Mr. G. 1{. Uemington and tested with very satisfactory results. It has a fixed cham- ber closed by a movable breech-block. which rotates about a horizontal axis at 90'' to the axis of the bar- rel, lying below the axis of the barrel and in front. The locks complete are contained in I In- breech-block, which being lowered out of the way by the lang on its lower end, permits the insertion of the cartriilges into the chambers throusih a perforated extractor plate. This plate l)eing moved by the arm on the pivot of the breech-block, withdraws the empty shells when the block is fully opened. A weak spring-catch in the slock holds up the tang of the breech-block when the piece is closed, and aflonU the only means of locking it. REMISSION. — Abatement : forgiveness. Remission of punishment. as regards a soldier tried by a Comt- Marlial, is in the power of the confinning authority, and he can at any time remit any portion of the sen- tence at discretion. The periodical visitors of mili- tary prisons have the power of recommending re- missiim of punishment. AVhen a prisoner contincd in a military prison is recommended for a remission of punishment by his commanding ot]icer,tlie recom- REMONSTRATE. 662 REPOSITORY. mendation should be submitted for the approval of the periodical visitors. Though a soldier's punishment may have been wholly remitted, there is to be no remission of any penalty consequent on his conviction, such as forfeit- ure of service, good-conduct pay, etc. REMONSTRATE.— To urge strong reasons against the instructions given by superior authority. If an officer or soldier considers himself aggrieved on any point, he is permitted to represent his case, but it must be done in a respectful manner through his commanding officer to higher authority ; at the same time, where the duty of the service may require it, that duty must be first carried out with cheerfulness and alacrity. REMOUNT.— To furnish the cavalry with horses in the room of those which have been killed, disabled, or cast. REMOUNTS. — The name given to horses that are passed into the government service by purchase for artillery or cavalry purposes, or which are reared in astud,asiu India. The general age of remounts varies from 3 to 5 years old. RENDEZVOUS.— A place appointed for a meeting ; especially for the assembling of troops. The term commonly denotes a place for enlistment. RENEGADE.— A term applied to one who deserts from a military or naval post. HENNEN.— A kind of tilt. A description of tour- nament practiced at the close of the r2tli century. REPAIR OF ARMS.— The keeping in constant good order tlie dilfcrent fire-arms belonging to a troop or company, such as rifles, etc. In the British Army a half-yearly allowance is made to Captains of troops and companies for this purpose. In the United States service the cost of repairs of damage done to arms, equipments, etc., through negligence of an officer or soldier, is deducted from the pa}' of said officer or soldier. REPEATER. — Any fire-arm that may be discharged many times in quick succession ; especially a form of fire-arm so constructed that the charges may be successively introduced, by an action of the lock, from a chamber containing them, into the breech, and fired, or are discharged from a revolving cham- ber at the breech. See Magazine-gun, and Remher. REPLEADER.— In English law, a right to plead again, or deliver a fresh pleading in consequence of the issue which had been joined not meeting or exhausting the real point in dispute. This right is much abridged, in consequence of the liberalitj' now used in amending the record. REPLEVIN. — In English law, a form of action by which goods which have been seized under an illegal distress are taken back (security being given to the amount for which tlie goods were distrained), and the action of replevin commenced, to try the legality of the seizure. REPLICATION. — In common law, the ijleading of the plaintiff in answer to the defendant's ])lea. The ])laintiirs first pleading is the declaration, which is answered byllie defendant's plea, and wliichinturn is answered by the plaintitl's replication. REPLY. — it is the duty of a Court to prevent new matter from being introdmcd into flic ])rosecution or defense, but a prisoner may urge in his defense mitigating circumstances, or examine witnesses as to character or services, and ))r(idu(:e testimonials of such facts, without its being considered new matter. If any point of law be raised, or any matter requir- ing e.\i)lanation, the .ludgc Advocate may exi)lain. No other reply is to be admitted. REPORT. — i. A loud noise, such as that made by the discharge of a cannon or nuisket. The distance at wliicli cannon can he heard dejiends on the wind and the state of the atm(js])here, also whether con- veyed over water, which considerably increases the distance to which sound can reach. During the Sutlej campaign in 184.5-4''., the report of the guns at the battle of Soliraon was very distinctly heard at Loodianah, a distance of 80 miles. But the report of cannon, it is stated, has been heard at far greater distauces. 2. A statement of facts when any officer or sol- dier is accused of a breach of military discipline. A report is usually made b\' stating on paper, in official form, by the officer making the report, the nature of the case, for the information of the Com- manding Officer. In a regiment this is done through the .\djutant. REPORTS.— Specific statements of any particular occurrences. Officers or men making written re- ports are required to sign them, specifying the regi- ment to which they belong, and their rank. All field officers not serving at the headquarters of their regiments make monthly reports to their regiment- al Comnumders. These reports embrace everything essential to a correct record of their services. The number, date, and source of authority of every or- der affecting their duties is stated, with the date of its receipt, their execution of its requirements, and the time they were so employed. The date of de- parture of a field officer from his post or station, whether on leave or on duty, as well as the date of his return to his post, is in all cases specified. Officers on detached duty report, monthly, to the Commanders of their Posts, of their Regiments, or Corps, and to the ^Adjutant General, their stations, the nature of their duties, and the authority placing them thereon — likewise each change of eiddre^a. All officers doing duty iu the Quartermaster's Depart- ment are required to make out and forward to the Quartermaster General, on the first day of each month, a personal report, giving their post-office ad- dress, and a statement of the duty on which they have been employed, since their last report. On the first day of each month the officers of the Subsistence Department report by letter to the Commissary Gen- eral their stations and duties during the preceding month. This letter is required from Commissaries of Subsistence only, and not from officers acting as such. Ever}' Medical Officer reports to the Surgeon General and to the Medical Director the date when he arrives at a station, or when he leaves it, and the orders under which he acts. At the end of each month he sends a personal report to the Surgeon General, giving his post-office address for the next month, and a statement of the duty upon which he has been emplo}ed, or if on leave of absence, since his last report. Company, Post, and also Regimental Commanders make a report annually, on the first day of July, through the usual military chaimel, of any officers imder their command who, by special aptitude or study, are notably well fitted for any branch of ser- vice, science, or art, either civil or military. Such reports give full particulars of qualifications and pre- paration. This information is useful to the General of the Army in making details and selections for duty. The date of appointment, of detail, and of removal of all Staff officers, or of officers selected for duty in Staff Iic])artmenfs, which may entitle them to receive additional pay, is innnediately reported by the officer making such appoiiUnunt, <letail, or remov.-il. to the Adjutant ticneral, and to the I'ay- master of the Deiiartment, or cimunand to which such officers belong. Whenever a change takes place in the position or location of troojis, the fact is imnu'diately reported by the Conunanding Officer to (icniral. Division, or Departuu'iit Ilcadiiuarlers, specifying the dale of di'parture of the whole or any part of tlie troo])s, or of the arrival of any detach- meut, as well as all cither circumstances connected with such changes in the c<immand. These special reports are always accompanied by an exact reluni of the troops according to tlu' established jirinted forms. A similar report i:-* noted on the next ifTonlhly return of the Post or Station. REPOSITORY. A museum, or place of deposit of musters nr the samples of the different arm.s, tools. BEFRIEVE. 003 REQUISITION. stores, elf., used in the servirp. The rcpusilory iil Wocilwicli forms a Mclioril nf iiiHtPtictiini for tmlli oflic'crs mill iiicii on lirsl joiniiij; llic iirlillcry, iilid in interi'slinj; and instniclivc In all ranks in tlio regi- ment. REPRIEVE.— The s\is|>cnsi(m of punislimriil for a criini', lUHJ is used rliirllv in connection with capital crimes. The jiower of siispi^ndint' all siiilences at anytime is vcsleil in llie Crown al discrclion. There lire also several grounds on wliich Ihe .lud;;e or a (lourt reprieves the sentence. The I'rrsidirit of the I'nited Slates lias power to grant reprieves and pardons for ofTenses against the United States, except in cases of impeailiincnt. REPRIMAND.- rebuke, which is inclnded intlie army under the liea<l of punishments. Courts- Martial only inllict it on oltii-ers. in which case it maj' be either a simple rciirimanil or a severe repri- mand, and may, at the discretion of the Conlirming Otficcr. be ailministered privately or publicly. REPRISAL.— The retaking, from an enemy, goods which he has seized, or the capture from him of other goods, as an equivalent for the damage he has wrought. A reprise is a ship caiitiired from an enemy or pirate. If recaptured within 24 hours of the hostile seizure, she must lie wholly n'slored to her owners ; if later, she becomes the lawful prize of her reeaptors. Ueprisals form \hv worst features of warfare, and are seldom resorted to in conflicts be- tween civilized nations, or, at least, should not be. REPROACHFUL, OR PROVOKING SPEECHES— The Articles of War declare that no ollicer or soldier shall use any rejiroachful or provoking s]ieeclies or gestures to another. An}' otticer who so olTends shall be put in arrest. Any soldier whoso oflends shall be confined, and required to ask pardcm of the party offended, in the presence of his Commauding Officer. REPUBLIC. — A political community in which the sovereign power is lodged, not in a hereditary chief, imt either in certain privileged members of the community, or in tlie whole community. Ac- cording to the constitution of a governing body, a Republi<- may therefore vary from the most exclu- sive Oligarchy to a pure Democracy. The several Republics of Greece, and that of Home were, at the outset at least, aristocratic communities. The Me- diiBval Republics of Venice, (ienoa, and the other Italian towns, were also more or less aristocratic. The sovereign power was held to be vested in the franchised citizens, and every function — legislative, executive, or judicial — not exercised directly ijy that body could only be exercised by parties deriving their authority from it. But the extent of the fran- chise, and the mode of exercising it. varied much in these civic communities ; and the most prosperous and lonR-livert wan Venice which .%..i ... i. ilic most aristocratic: of them all. In the I'lth vinUfty the seven I'rovinces of lh<- .NelherlandH, on their re- volt from Spain, adopted ii Repiililican form of (Jov- cmnienl, as did Switzerland on becoming indejH-nil- ent of Ihe <ii-rman Km|)ire. (Jreal lirltain wu" nomi- nally a l{epul)lic for eleven years ffrom \<'A'.i to KiHO). France was a Republic from I Tim to IWVi, an<l Uitm 1m4n to \x't'.\: ami tin- Republic wuHiiL'ttln proclaimed Sept. 4. 1H70. SiKli government hm Spain hail between Keli. 187i(, mid iJec. IJI. lK74,wnK of a true Republican form. Switzt-rland is also a Republic ; since IK4H more dernocratii- than for- merly. The other Republics of Kiiropi- are the di- minutive Slates of San Marino and Andorra : and, in certain respicts. Ihi' frei' lilies of Hamburg. Ure. men, and Lllbeck. The most important of nioilem ■{(•publics is that of Ihe I'niled States of America — dating from its separation from tJreut liritain — where pure Democracj- liiw been tried on a scale un- known elsewhere. Except during the ohort-lived Kmpire from 1H(',;{ 07. Mexico bus lieen a Republic since 1824. Nine Republics at present exist in South America — Peru, Chili, Paraguay, Bolivia, Colomliia or new (iranada. Venezuela. Kcuador, I'raguay.und the Argintine Confederation. In the Republics of the ancient world, the franchised dasscg exercLwd their [lower directly witlioul any system of dele- gation or representation. The same was at first the case in the Swiss Cantons where, however, repre- sentative government has been gradually inlroduccd. Jlodern Republics have been founded on the repre- sentative, not the direct, system, which can hardly exist except in a community that is very small and concentrated as to space. Switzerland and the United States of America are Federal Republics, consisting of a number of separate States bound to- gether by a treaty, so as to present to the external world the appearance of one State with a central Government, which has the power of enacting laws and issiiini; orders which are directly binding on the individual citizens. REQUA BATTERY.— A kind of mitrailleur, having twenty-live barrels arranged horizontally. It was used at the siege of Charleston in 18(53. Its weight complete is 1,382 pounds. REQUEST COURT.— A local Court assembled period- icallv ill Inilia for the recovery of small debts not ex- ceediiig 400 rupees. In each militar)' cantonment, a Court of Request is assembled monthly, and all persons are amenable to it except soldiers in Ihe ranks. Not less than three officers, all militarj- men should form the Court. REQUISITION. 1. This term, in international law. besiiles meaning the demand made by the Authorities of one Nation or State upon those of another for the Requisition for Stationery' for— - • the day of stationed at 188 — , and ending on the . for the — — day of • . commencing on 188 :. 3 C- • cu u 00 b. S d O* P. s. O Si ! U % O a I. s it a o U a s S > o XI o CO go o 00 •s C3 3 0) « o o 3 •S *5 ?i e 0) S c?* c o* t« o a H X C3 & in t« OS > S H^ IM m O o a £ c -r - -r = TS — CO 5 I s ^ < a •i I J I certify that the above requisitinn i> the time specified. correct, and that I have not drawn stationery for any part of KEEEWAED. 664 EESI6IT. rendering up (or extradition) of an alleged criminal, iiused also in the rules of war as nearly synony- mous with the word " Contribution." The distinc- tion made is that a Requisition is a demand upon the people of an invaded country to furnish such things as provisions, forage, transportation, or even labor ; while a Contribution is a payment in money to provide for the needs of the military or civil government established. The former term, how- ever, is generally used to cover all demands iipon the people of tlie conquered country. It is now well settled that the rights of private citizens should be respected and their property secured from pil- lage. It is the rule of most civilized nations that supplies or labor demanded should be paid for after the war, and receipts given at the time. This is the principle laid down in the Instrtirtionsfor Vie Ar- mies iif the iTiiited states in the Field. It was former- ly the usual practice to inflict severe requisitions in the way of fines on an offending district or town as a penalty. It is now generally agreed that such measures are rarely justifiable, and are of little prac- tical benefit to those who employ them. 3. Forms prescribed for the demand of certain allowances. Ou page 6(33 will be seen the form of Requisition for Stationery. EEEEWAED. — The part of an army that marches in the rear, usually the guard; the rear-guard. EESEEVE.— Tlie reserve of a Nationals that force upon which the national defense is thrown, wlicn its rt'gular armies have failed in securing its safety. This reserve may be the levee en mmm of the whole adult male population, or it may consist of a smaller section of the people dulv trained to arms. The latter is, of course, the preferable system, when the arms of scientific modem warfare are to be brought into action. In different countries the reserves are organized on very different principles. In Great Britain they comprise the Armj' Reserve, the En- rolled Pensioners — both of which consist of soldiers who have served in the army — the Jlilitia, Yeomanry, Volunteers, and trained Constabulary. Tlie numbers of the reserve forces provided for in the Army Esti- mates of 1876-77 were as follows: Militia 139,619 Yeomanry Cavalry l.'>,078 Volunteers 168,750 Army Reserve force (including Enrolled Pensioners) first-class 10,000 second-class 21,000 354.447 Of the volunteers, 31.823 were Artillery Volun- teers, 36G Light Horse, 6,3!).'5 Engineers. 139 Mounted Rifles, l,4oH Permanent Staff, and 128.669 Rifle Vol- unteers. The scheme of array reorganization, which has been carried out during the past few years, has had a very important bearing on the reserve forces. In 1870 it was attempted, by modifying somewhat the <'onditions of enlistment into the regular army, to make the provisions for securing and maintaining a numerically strong Army Reserve more efficient tlian they had hitherto been. Enlislment continued as liefore to be for twelve yeais; but service in regi- ments going abroad was to be for si.v years, while the remaining six years' servit'C was to lie in the Re- serve, the men being liable to be called out like the Naval Reserve, and receiving a jiay of 4d. a day. In 1H76 men commenced to pass from the Colors into the Reserve, which is expected ultimately to reach about 80,(100 men. I'y an Order in Council of March 31, 1H71 , the iKiwer of (he I;(ird Lieutenant ceases, and the management of the ItesiTve Foreis in coun- ties is vested in the Miiiislers of the Crown. One of the objects cliietly kejit in view in the com- prehensive scheme of 1H72 for the reorganization of the army was the bringing of the Auxiliary Forces into closer and more niiilually helpful relations with the regular army. The main feature of that scheme is the localization of the combined military forces in certain territorial districts, so that there shall belong to eacli such district two Line Battalions, two Militia Battalions, and Volunteers, formed into an Adminis- trative Brigrade, the whole to rest on the Brigade Depot as center. Arrangements were made to secure that a larger number of officers of the line regiments should pass into the Militia and the Yeomanry, and that the efficiency of the Reserve should increase. Tlie aim of the measure was "To unite the spon- taneity and all the other advantages of the Auxiliary Forces with the highest amount of training that the Regular Army could furnish to any other body of men." EESEEVE AMMUNITION.— This term is applied to the supply of war aminunilion carried in rear of an army for replenishing men and guns with fresh am- munition in case the first supply failp. The reserve ammunitinn of a regiment is carried in carts, one for the cavalrv' and three for the infantry. These carts can carry 9,600 rounds each of Martini- Henry or 8,960 rounds of Snider. In the artillery, there are three reserves of ammunition. The first (108 rounds per 9-pr. and 72 per IC-pr. gun) is that contained in the second line of wagons of each bat- tery ; the second(44 per 9-pr. and 108 per 16-pr. gun) is conveyed in the artillery general service wagons, and should be always up with the army, but kept from under fire Tlie third reserve is carried by the transport, and contains 200 rounds per 9-pr. gun and 200 per 16-pr. gun, and remains at one or two days march in rear of the army. The above number of rounds, with those with the battery, makes up 500 rounds ])er 9-pr. gun, and 4h0 rounds per 16-pr. gun. EESEEVE MILITIA.- A portion of the Militia. A certain number not exceeding the fourth part of the quota of the privates of the Militia for England, Scotland, and Ireland, respectively, maj- volunteer to join this force. They may volunteer to be train- ed for 56 dajs in each jear with the regular armj', and in case of national dantrer or great emergency are liable to general service in the regular army. EESIGN.— To resign an appointment or commis- sion, an officer must send in his resignation through the prescribed channels. Non-commissioned officers can resign their appointments, when they find them- selves unequal to the performance of the duties of their rank, with the consent ol their Commanding Officer. Enlisted men are not permitted to resign, and can only quit the service after having been pro- perly discharged. In the United States service, no oflScer is consid- ered out of service on the tender of his resignation, until it shall have been duly accepted by the propel authority. Any officer who, having tendered his resignation, prior to due notice of the acceptance of the same by the proper authority, and without leave, quits his post or proper duties with the intent to remain permanently absent therefrom is registered as a deserter, and punished as such. The resigna- tions of officers appointed by the President can be accepted by him alone. Before approving tenders of resignation of <lisburs- ing officers. Commanding Generals cause all public moneys or properly in their hands to be turned over to the officer (Icsigiiateil to receivi' llie same. This action is indorsed on the resignation, and promptly reported to the War Department. Resignations tendered under charges, when forwarded by any commander, are always accompanied by a copy of the cliarges; or, in the absence of written charges, by a re))orl of the case, for the iiiforiiKilion of the Secretary of War. iSefore final ]iayiiii'iils are made to an officer whose resignation has Ii.mm accepted, be is rei|uired lo exhibit a certificate of noii-iiidelited- ness to the lulled States from the jiroper account- ing offlc(^rs of the Treasury. In lime of war, or with an army in the field, resig- nations lake effect witliin thirty days from the date of the order of acceptance. Leaves of absence are KESISTANCE OF THE AIR, GO.-) BE8I8TANCE OF THE AIB not tjrantcd by (•miiiiiiiinling ofllrcrH to offlotTH on ti'ndcriii'j; their nsiuimlioii, imlcHH llw rcKif;imli'iri lie iiiiciiii(lili'iii;il liiiil iiiiiiicdialc. Any oftlccr of llic nrniy who iicccpls or hiihU any appoiiiliiiciit in l!ic (liplonialic or I'onsular siTvicc of Ihr (Jovcrnmcnl is <nnsiclcri(l as Inivini: resii;uril his phii'c in Ihc' army. 'I'his npplii'S to iilllccrs on the Aclivr List, iiml to all H'tircil ollii'i'rs, (xccplini; those cxi'niplcil l)V law. KESISTANCE OF THE AIR.- A l)oily niovii'i'; in the air cxpiriciicis a resistance which diniinishes the velocity with which it is aninniled. Thai the re. lardins; ellecl of the air, on projectilcH niovin); with IiiLcli velocities, is very i;reat, is seen by conipariii!; the aclnal rani^es of projectiles with those conipuled under the sn])pcisilion that they move in vacuo. Thus it has been shown thai ciTlain cannon-balls do not raniie one-eighth as fur in the air as they wo\dd if they did not, meet with this resistance to their mo- tion, and small-arm jirojecliles, which have but lit- tle mass, are still mor<' alVecled by it. Iiiciiiiipri'Huihli' fluid.- - The resistance experienced by a plane surface nioviiiLr parallel to itself through jin incompressihle lluid. is e(|ual to the pressure of u colunui of the lluid, the base (if which is the mov- ing surface, and its height that due to the velocity with which the surface is moved through the lluid, or, from the law of falling bodies. h= — ; in which li is the height, n the velocity, and 17 the force of gravity. The resistance on a given area is therefore propor- tiimal to the scjuare of the velocity, and the density of the lluid medium. Let rf, 8, and v represent the density or weight of a unit of vohime of lluid, the area pressed upon, and the velociiy of the moving surface, respectively, and y the resistance in terms of the unit of weight, and we have, Q=k,hS- ; in which / is a coefficient to be determined by exper- iment. (hmpremiMe fluid. — If the medium be furnu'd of compressible gases, as the atmosphere, the density in front of the moving body will be greater than that behind it ; and it will be readily seen that the body will uie<'l with a resistance which increases more rapidl.v thanthe square of the velocity, in such aman- ner that the coefficient, A-,or the density of the medium, d, should lie increased by a ((uantity which is a f\inction of the velocity itself, or, what is the same thing, by adding another term to the resistance which shall lie" proportional to the culie of the velocity. In examining the table of resistances, obtaiiucl by Hut- ton liy tiring a one-pound ball into a liallistic pen- dulum, at ditTerent distances, with velocities vary- ing from 300 to 1 ,000 feet, Piobert foinid.that if e- in the foregoing expression be replaced by the binomial 1 1 in which — = , the ex- )• 1427 ft. term iregomgcxpri pression would ments. Calling. 1= section of a projectile, the general expression forthe resistance in air becomes. Q^.lTTir- '■('^)-- In this expression, A is the resistance, in pounds, on a sciuare foot of the cross-section of a projectile moving with a velocity of one foot ; ;■ is a linear (luantity depending on the velocity of the projectile. Forall service spherical projectiles, .l^.000.")14 ; and for all service velocities ; =1,407 feet. The value of -1 for the ritle-musket bullet has been determined at the Washington Arsenal, and found equal to 0.000358. TliiH hIiowb tliut the reiiiHtancn of the air U altout one- third lesM on the ngrrrul than 011 the npliericul frjmi of projectile. Tlii» value lius lieen found lo annwer well for caliuhi'ing the rungcH of ritle.ciinnon pro. jeililes. The crielllcieiit A, lieing u funclion of the density of the air, its value clepi iiiIh on Ihi- leiii(«-ni. tiiri', pressure, ami hygromilric inndilioii; in Ihc above value the weight of a 1 ubic foot of uir. .0".< II)., at a temperature of (}<»^ Kahr., and fora biiromel- rical pressure of a!*.."; inchcH. If the nurface rif the projectile be rriiigh or irregular, the valilf of (hin coellicient will be slightly loo hiiwill. The motion of a body falling through the air, will l)e accelerated by its weiirht, and ri-larded by the buoyant elfort of the air, and the resistance wliicli the air offers to motion. As liie re^ihl«nce of the air increases nuire rapidly than the vehnily. it fol- lows that tlii're is a point where the rilariling and accelerating forces will be eipnil, anil that beyond this, the body will move with a iniiforin veloc- ity Cfpial to that which it had acquired dow n to this point. The buovant elTort of the air is ecjual to the d weight of the volume displaced, or 7' — ; in which /' is the weight and D the denBily of the projectile, and d the density of the air. When the projectile meets with a resisiance equal to its weight, we shall have, P^i--0=.,,w.-..^^i4-;). in which the weight of the displaced air is transferred to the first member of the equation. A.s the den.sity of the air is very slight compared to that of lead or d iron, the materials of which projectiles are made, — I) may be neglected. Making this change, and substi- 4 tuting for P, — nP^D {g liaving been divided out of 3 the second member, should be omitted in the first), the expression for the final telncily reduces to • r \ 4 IID (r "V 4 IIL The resistance on the entire projectile for a velocity of 1 foot, is Anli* ; dividing this by—, or the mass, wc get the resistance on a unit of mass. Calling this 1 — , we have, 1 Ann* P -= , or 2ge= —— . 2e P ArrJi' Substituting for P its value in the equation of verti- cal descent, we have. nearly satisfy the results of experi- - k'd and 7t/l- the area of the cross 2</c^r (-0 from which we see that r depenils only on f ; but •2 nil 3 gA hence, the final velocitv of a projectile falling in the air is directly proportioned to the product of its dia- meter and density, and inversely proportional to the density of the air. winch is a factor of .1. The ex. pression fortlie value of ('i shows, that the retarding effect of the air is less on the larger and denst-r pro- jectiles. To adapt it to an oblons: projectile of the pointed form, the value of J> should be inrrea.sed, (inasmuch as its weisht is increased in proportion to its cross section), while that of A should be dimin- RES JUDICATA. 666 EEST ON ABMS. islied. It follows, thcreforp, that for the same caliber an obloug projectile will be less retarded by tlie air than one of spherical form, and consequently with an equal and perhaps less initial velocity its range will be greater. The value of (c) for service projectiles will be found ready calculated in the Tables of Fire. For the purpose of determining the velocity which a projectile loses by the resistance of the air, in moving through a certain distance, r, the force of gravity may be disregarded : in which case the trajectory de- scribed will be a ritrht line. Let V be the initial velocity, and « the remaining velocity at the end of the distance x. The expression for the resistance of the air is- as we have seen, Q^AttR^ (-0 But we know that the retarding force of the air is equal to the mass of the projectile against which it acts, multiplied by the first differential coetticientof the velocity, regarded as a function of the time, P with its sign changed, and that — is the mass of the .? projectile. We have, therefore. — = — = AvR'-l 1 + - |)'^ P dt P \ t / 4 i RD Recollecting that P=—^R^D, and that 2<;= , 3 3 gA the equation reduces to, rft) v dt i(-0 Integrating this equation between the limits and X, which correspond to V and i', we have. t = 1c( I- 2r,, 1+- r 1 + - V To obtain a relation bctweenthe space and veloci- dx dx ty; we have i'= — , or dt= — ; substituting this in dt r the equation for tlieintensit}' of the retarding force, and reducing, we have, dv (to= — 2c (-0 Integrating between the same limits as in the pre- ceding case, we have, r \ +- X x = 2c log. or 1 ■ r 1+- V Solving this equation with reference tot', we have, r ■0= (2). X .2c , ■+--= I 1 + — I 2c ,,, (-0 le iibi>ve cqu t=2ci I — \t. V/ Substituting in the iibi)Ve equations we have, t=2c| ■ CA). Tlie logarithms in the above equations belong to the Napierian system, and are obtained by multiply- ing the corresponding common logarithm bv 2.3026: e=2.713. Equation (1) gives the space passed over by a cer- tain projectile when the velocities at the commence- ment and end of the flight, are known. p^quaticm (2) gives the remaining velocity when the initial velocity and the space passed over are known. . Equation (3) gives the time of flight when the ve- locities at the begiiuiing and end and the space pass- ed over are known. The distance at which the velocity V is reduced to r, and the duration of the trajectorj-, being pro- portional to c, are directly proportional to the pro- duct of the diameter and density of the projectile, and inversely proportional to the density of the air. This fact shows the great advantage, in point of range, to be derived from using large projectiles over small ones, of solid projectiles over hollow onoe, of leaden projectiles over iron ones, and of ob- long projectiles over roimd ones. See JJidimi'x For- mutas, EqiiatiiiiiH nf Motivn of Projectiles and Trajec- tory. KES JUDICATA. — In law, a term meaning that the subject matter of an action has been already decided by a court of competent jurisdiction, and if so, a plea" setting up the res judicata is a sufficient defense. In order to be binding, however, the suit in the former case mast have been between the same parties. RESPECTANT.— In Heraldry, a term employed to describe two animals borne face to face. Beasts of prey ramjiant wlien so borne, are, however, said to be riiiiijKint cDiihateuit. Also written Refipecting. RESSAIRDAR.— In the East Indies, a native officer in ii native cavalry regiment who commands the left troo]) of a squadron. RESSALAH. — Tlie Indian term for a squadron of native cavalry. RESSALDAR.— In the East Indies, a native officer in a native cavalry regiment. He commands the right troop of a s<iuadron, and on parade leads the squadron. Ressakiar Major is the native command- ant of a native cavalry regiment. REST.— 1. In tactics, a word of comm.and, where- by the men are brought to a position of rest; as parade rest in place rest, etc. 2. A support for the muzzle of a gun in aiming and firing. The Arbal- est or cross-bow, and the earlier hand fire-arms were always thus supported, and the long guns of the Moors "and Arabs are still universally provided witli a device of this kind. In civilized countries the rest is employed by the sharp-shooters and in practice-firing. It may consist of a stake or picket, whose pointed end is driven in the groinid, the gim resting in a crotch at tlie upper extremity; or, as in some of the European armies, of a device having a screw-point, by which it may be attached to a tree or other support. 3. In a lathe, a piece of iron for holding the turning tool, fixed at the end of a slide by a set-screw; the slide can be moved at right angles to the bar of the lathe, and the whole can be fixed at any part of the bed between the centers. 4. In Ih'ndilry, the name usually given to a cliarge, varying coiisideriibly in the different representations. It appears at too early a date to be wliat it is often said to be — a spear rest. It is sometimes called an organ-rest, iuul in old rolls, a clarion — and is most likely a represeiitation of some musical instrument like "tlie pande;in pipe. It was a rebus badge of the Clares. RESTON ARMS.— A position in the Manual of Arms, executed as follows : Heingat a carry, the Instruct- or commands : 1. /fci? (/», 2. Arms. Uaise the])iece- vertically with the right hand, advancing it slightly, grasp it with the left hand at the lower band, the forearm horizontal; reverse it with both hands, the muzzle dropping to the front, the butt passing be- EETAINED PAY. Ctn EKTALIATIOH. tween Uic breast and tlie riplit forearm ; place the iiiuz/.lc upmi llic left toe, the l)iirrcl to llic riirlif, llir left liaiiil slippill;? up the stocU, (lie hiifk lo llii- li'fl. (Two.) (^arrry tlic ri^rlil fo'it ihrcc inclics lollnTiMir : at tlio saiiK' time plarc llic Imriils upon tin' Imlt, llic rijilit hand iippcniiosl, llic left kiicc sli^'lilly IhmI. ('fiiicEK.) Incline the h'^ad lowani I hi' liainN. 1. Ctirri/, 2. AiiMs. (Irasp Ihc small of llic Klock with the riirhl hanil, hack lo Ihc rijilit ; carry Ihc piece with the ri^hl han<l opposite Ihc ri};lit shoiij. dcr, barrel lo the front iinil vertical, fonMirin horizon- tal ; LCrasp the piece at tlii' lowc-r hand with Ihc left hanii, liack t'l the left, the thnnil> poinlini.' down, ward ; l)rinti; the ri'i;lit foot liy IIk' side of the left. (Two). Reverse the piece with both hands, the bull passing between the breast and rif^ht forearm ; re- sume the carry with the ris;ht hand. (Thkkk.; Drop the left luiiid by the side. See Mftnunl of Armn, Fig. Vi. RETAINED PAY. In the rnilod Stales servirc, this pay is retainc(l from the soldier until the cxpi- nilion of his term of service, and is forfeiled unless he shall have serve<l honestly and faithfully to the dateof dischariie. orforanyof the followini; causes: 1. Desertion during; the |)eriod of enlistment. 2. When dischargcil (by way of punishment for an of- fense) before expiration of term of service by sen- tence of Court-Mart iai, or by order from the War Dc|)artment specifying that such forfeiture shall be made. H. ('<inviction and imprisonment by the civil authorities. 4. When discliar^cd as a minor, or for other cause involving fraud on his |iart in Ihc enlist- ment, fi. Kepeated trials by Court-.Martial and pun- ishments for n\isconducl, of which timely report shall be made to the War Department and approved as basis of forfeiture. In which case the .sol<iier shall be dischari^cd without character, and shall not be r<'-enlistcd. RETAINEKS. -It is declared in the Articles of War, that all retainers to the camp, and all persons serv- ini; with the armies of the United States in the Held, tlnnm^h not enlisted soldiers, are to be subject lo orders, accordimx to the rules and discipline of war. RETAINING WALLS. These, as their name im- plies, are walls built lo retain earth, sand, or other incoherent substances in positions and. forms which without their aid they could not maintain. These substan<-es. if left to themselves, will not stand with vertical sides, but will fall down till they assume a certain slope. The angle which this slope makes with the horizontal is called the "angle of repose." This angle varies according to the nature of the ma- terial ; for example, that of moist soil is about 45*^. '.IN •1 J^ i...d.. y \ ^^•. . m, / jfcs,-^' / / / 7. ac, revetment ; 1>. Iiottnm of d'tch, level nf jzrnund witliin the work; de. top of ninipart ; fi,'h, pnropet; it\. b^tiniuctle; kle. inju*!; of earth supported t)T revelineiit ; in. center of <n';>vity of aia-is; a, point of grealetit pressure on revetment. while fine sand assumes an angle of about 30". The drawing shows a retaining wall of masonry built in permanent fortification. Prior to Vaiiban's lime the scarp revetment or retaining wall was commonly raised to the top of the parapet ; but as in this case the artillery of a Ixsiegcr jjlayed on the top of the wall, and mined it soon after the siege commenced, that engineer adopted the principU — fhenceforth fol- lowed — of raising it uo higher tliiin the crest of the fclaclH, or about 7 feet above the natural irround, leaving the parapet above of itlo[MMl earlli only. When the main ditch in 'iA feet deep, the xcarti ri;. vetment will he about W feet high. AildillonttI slrenglh is imparled to the revelnient wall by inan- sivi' liullrcHSCH at every l."< feel, calleil runuUrJ'irU, and these, again, are HoinciimcH conneclcd und strengthened by masonry arciicH oiitHide the revet- menl. The revetment fornm n terrible burrjer lo an assaulting party. In estimating the rei|iiiHlte tliickncHN of tlie wall, it must be taken into account that the wall niuy give way in various manners ; it may lie f)verliimed, or it may slide as a whole along its base Dli, or the upp<-r parts may give way, while llii- base reniuinit. Kroin these data, nnilhemalical formulie have Ix-en worki'd out, which deterininc the thickncKS re(|iiiKitc for different situations ami nuitcrialH, such us that given by M. I'oncelet for ordinary materiuls, and within ordinarv limits: x = .2H.';(-|l +/'). Where H, the height of the wall, anri A, the aildi- lii>nal height of the bank above the lop of the wall, being given, x, Ihc thic'kness of the wall, can be found. These formula-, howevi-r, are not of much practical value, on account of the varying nature of the data on which Ihi-y aie fiamded. and of the ex- cess of strength reipiisile in all such construeti<ini!, to allow for causes of failure which cannot Ik- fore- seen or provided for in the calculations. Practical experience is found to be the only safe guiile in all such considerations. In the construction of a re- taining wall, a great desideratum is, that tlie earth behind it be well drained ; for if water be allowed to accumulate behind the wall, the earth gets into a semi-Hnid state, in which it gives a very much iu- creased pressure on the wall. For this [Mirpose. holes are left through the wall called "weeping holes;" these holes are about 9 inches high and 2 inches wide, and are generally placed about 1 for every 3f5 sq. ft. of wall. Also stones without mortar are frecpK-ntly built up behind the wall, so forming an r)pen stra- tum, into which the water drains, and is thence car- ried olf tlirnu:.di the weeping-holes. RETALIATION. War is not carried on by arms alone. It is hiwful to starve the hostile belligerent, armed or unarmed, so that it leads to the speedier subjection of the enemy. When the commander of a besieged place expels the non-combatants, in order lo lessen the numl)er of those who consume his stock of provisions.it is lawful, though an extreme measure, to drive them back, so as to hasten on the surrender. Commanders, whenever admissible, inform the enemy of their intention to bombard a place, so that the non-combatants, and especially the women and ehiklrcn, may be removed before the bumbardment commences. But it is no infraction of the common law of war to omit thus to inform the enemy. Sur- prise may l>e a necessity. Public war is a stale of armed hostility between sovereign nations or govern- ments. It is a law and recpiisile of civilized exis- tence that men live in political, continuous societies, forming organized units, called stales or nations, whose cousfituenis bear, enjoy, and suffer, advance and retrograde together, in peace and in war. The citizen or native of a hostile country is Ihus an enemy, as one of the constituents of the hostile slate or nation, and as such is subjected to the hardships of the war. Neverlheless as civilizjition has advanc- ed during the last centuries, so has likewise steadily advanced. especiaKy in war on land, the distinction between the private individual belonging to a hostile country and the hostile countrj- it.«eif, with its men in arms. The principle has been more and more acknowledged that the unarmed citizen is to be spared in person, property, and honor as much as the e.xisences of war will admit. Private citizens are no longer murdered, enslaved, or carried off to dis- tant parts, and the inoffensive individual is as little disturbed in his private relations as the commander BETARDATION. 668 EETIHEMENT. of the hostile troops can afford to grant in the over- ruling demands of a vigorous war^ The almost universal rule in remote times was, and continues to be with barbarous armies, that the private individual of the hostile country is destined to suffer every privation of liberty and protecti(m, and every disruption of family ties. Protection was, and still is with uncivilized people, the exception. In modern regular wars of the Europeans, and their descendants in other portions of the globe, protec- tion of the inoffensive citizen of the hostile country is the rule ; privation and disturbance of private re- lations are the exceptions. Commanding Generals may cause the magistrates and civil officers of the hostile country to lake the oath of temporary allegiance or an oath of fidelity to their own victorious government or rulers, and they may expel every one who declines to do so. But whether they do so or not, the people and their civil officers owe strict obedience to them as long as they hold sway over the district or country, at the peril of their lives. The law of war can no more wholly' dis- pense with reralialion than can the law of nations, of which it is branch. Yet, civilized nations acknowl- edge retaliation as the sternest feature of war. A reckless enemy often leaves to his opponent no other means of securing himself against the repetitiijn of barbarous outrage. Retaliation will, therefore, never be resorted to as a measure of mere revenge, but only as a means of protective retribution, and. moreover, cautiously and unavoidably; that is to say. retaliation shall only he resorted to after careful inquiry into the real occurrence, and the character of the misdeeds that may demand retribution. Unjust or inconsiderate retaliation removes the belligerents further and further from the mitigating rules of a regular war, and by rapid steps leads them nearer to the interne- cine war of savages. Modern times are distinguished from earlier ages by the existence, atone and the same time, of very many nations and great governments related to one another in close intercourse. Peace is their normal condition; war is the exception. The ultimate ob- ject of all modern war is a renewed state of peace. The more vigorously wars are pursued, the better it is for humanity. Sharp wars are brief. Ever since the formation and coexistence of mod- ern nations, and ever since wars have become great national wars, war has come to be acknowledged not to tje its own end, but the means to obtain great ends of state, or to consist in defense against wrong; and no conventional restriction of the modes adopt- ed to injure the enemy is any longer admitted ; but the law of war imposes many lunitations and re- strictions on principles of justice, faith, and honor. RETARDATION.— The velocity a ball loses in con- sequence of a resisting medium is termed rrtardntinn. This varies with the degree of resistance, and the weight of the ball. In case of ordinary spherical projectiles retardation will vary as (rf=the diameter of tnc ball, and ii=its velocity). If two shot of different diameters, but of equal density, be fired under similar circumstances, it apjiears from this that the shot of the larger diameter will range to a greater distance than the other; consequently for equal ranges, the elevation of the piece from wliich the larger shot is fired may be reduced, and the chances of its striking the object fireil at, will be greater, the trajectory being less curved. The effect of a pressure or resistance (A') acting on a projectile or other body is to cause acceleration or retarclaticin (f) in velocity, and the aiuount of it is known from tlie elementary law in dynanncs ex- pressed by the proportion. It: W::— /: g, where c is the weight of the ])rojectile in pounds ; or retarda- tion (/) = g. Here we notice that retiirdation varies inversely as the weight of the projectile. Re- tardation is negative acceleration. It is subject [ to the same laws, but is the opposite to it in sign. Hence, the minus sign in the proportion above. RETIARIDS.— A kind of gladiator who fought in I the amphitheater during the time of the Romans. He was dressed in a short coat, having afusi'inn, or tri- dent, in his left hand, and a net, from which he de- rived his name, in liis right. With this he endeav- ored to entangle his adversary, that he might tben with his trident easily dispatch him. On his head he wore only a hat tied under his chin with a broad ribbon. RETINUE.— The body of retainers who follow a prince or other distinguished person; a train of at- tendants. RETIRADE. — In fortification, a retrenchment, which is generally made with two faces, forming a re-entrant angle, and is thrown up in the body of a work, for the purpose of receiving troops, who may dispute the ground inch by inch. RETIRE. — A bugle-sound intimating to skirmish- ers that they are to fall back. In the United States service, tliis call is termed "to the rear." RETIRED FLANKS.— In fortification, those made behind the line which joins the extremity of the face and the curtain towards the capital of tlie bastion. RETIRED LIST.— The list of oflicers retired from an Army. To maintain a reasonably low age among the officers actively employed, it is essential that an army should have some fixed scale for the retire- ment of the old and enfeebled officers. In the Brit- ish Army, this matter is well regulated, and in most instances the retiring officer is allowed a step of honorary rank ; which higher rank, however, does not carry present nor prospective advantage. In the United States service, the whole number of officers of the Army on the Retired List can not at any time exceed four hundred, and any less number to be allowed thereon may be fixed by the President at his descrotion. Retired officers of the Army may be assigned to duty at the Soldiers' Home, upon a selection by the commissioners of that institution, approved by the Secretary of War ; and a retired officer is not assignable to any olher duty. Any re- tired officer may, on his own application, be de- tailed to serve as professor in any college ; but while so serving, such officer is allowed no additional com- pensation. Upon the application of any college, university, or institution of learning incorporated under the laws of any State within the United States, having capacity at the same time to educate not less than one hundred and fifty male students, the Presi- dent may detail an officer of the Army on the Re- tired List to act as president. superintendent, or pro- fessor thereof ; and such officer may receive from the institution to which he may be detailed the dif- ference between his retired and full pay, but will not receive any additional pay or allowance from the United States. When any officer has served forty-five years as a commissioned officer, or is sixty-four jears old, he ma}' be retired from active service at the discretion of the President. And all such are retired upon the actual rank held by them at the date of retire- ment; but are withdrawn from command and from the line of promotion, as are all officers on the Re- tired List. They are entitled to wear the uniform of the rank on which they may bi^ retired. They con- tinue to be borneou the Army Register, and are sub- ject to tliLi Rules anil Articles of War, and to Iri.'d by General Court- IMurlia! for any breach thereof. The pay of officers <m the Retired List is J of the pay of the rank upon which they are retired. ^\'hen wholly retired from the service, they are entitled to receive, upon retirement, one year's pay and allow- ances of the highest rank held by them, whetlur by staff or regimental commission, at the tune of their retirement. RETIREMENT. In the British Army, a Royal War- BETXRINO BOARD. ecu RETURN OAI.LEHY. rant, inlroducini; luicl rct'ululin^' cnrnpulKory rc- tirciMciil friirii llic army whs isHucil in 1877. Voluiiliiry rclirciiic-iit on Imlf pay is allowed to (ililci'i-s after not less lliuii ll! years' service. OllleiTs beluw tlie raiil< of Major, who have served in their present rank for seven years without promotion, are to be plaicd on lialf-|iay after a total service of 30 years; Majors after 27 years, and iii;^her odlcers after varyinu; periods. As to aife, a Colonel, who has not retired on other f;ronnds, must, unless Sl)eeial exeepliim lie made, retire at theatre of lllj years, IJeiitentuil t'oloiiel at f.O years. .Major al W years, and ollicers of lower rank at .')■') years— (he pension varying accordini; to eircumsliinces. In 1878 then' were 37lt olUeers on retired fidl-pay, costing .<.i;i3,000, and 1,.')7.S on half-pay, eoslinir .i'280,(IO(); hut tiiese numhers include "nearly ail Stall' Ollicers, and many on temporary lialf-pay on account of sickness, ])rivati' all'airs. etc. In the riiited States service, Department Com- manders, from time to time, report to the Adjutant General of the army the names of ollicers belonging to their Departments who are incapacitated for active service or comnuuid, with n view to their being brought before a Retiring Hoard. Tlic re- ports in each separate ease contain a spccillc slatl- ment of facts, and the names of witnesses to prove' them. Habitual intemiierance. gambling, low com- pany, or other vices tliat tend to corrupt an officer and lower the professional stanchird, are causes suf- ficient to bring an olticer before a Hoard, to be wholly retired. WIumi ample testimony establishes the fact thai an otlicer has, through vicious inihd- gcnces, slighted or neglected his onlinary duties to such a degree as to make it evidently unsafe to in- trust him with a eomm.and or resjMinsiliility that rightfully belongs to his grade, and wheii it is phown that sucii habits have continued for such length of time as to make a permanent reformation improliable, this fact, ratlier than the present con- dition of tlic officer when lie ajipears before the I Board, weighs in the venliet as to ins incai)acity for active duty. Officers on the Retired List" are amenable to the Rules and Articles of War, and subject to trial by Court-Martial for a violation thereof. It is made the duty of all officers of the army who may become cognizant of thigraut viola- tions of military law by any retired officer to report ' the same to the Adjutant General of the army for the action of the General. See Dinchnrge, Pension, Hetirrd Lint, Ritiriiiff Haiird, and fivpi rnnnuation. RETIRING BOARD.— The Secretary of War. nniler the direction of the President, from time to time, assembles an Army Retiring Board, consisting of ,not more than nine nor less than live officers, two- fifths of whom are selected from 'he Medical Corps. The Hoard, excepting t lie officers selected from the Medical Corps, is composed, as far as may be, of seniors in rank to the officer whose disability is in- quired of. The members of the Board are sworn in \ every case to discharge their duties honestly and ' impartially. A Retiring Board may incpiire into and determine j the facts touching tlie nature and occasion of the disability of any officer who appears to be incapable of perfornuug the duties of his office, and lias such powers of a ('ourt-Martial and of a Court of Inquiry as may be necessary for that purpose. | When the Hoard tinds an officer incapacitated for active service, it tinds ami reports the cause which, in its judgment, has produced his incapacity, and ■whether such cause is ati incident of service, Tlie proceedings and decision of the Hoard arc transmitted to the Secretary of War, and are laid by him before the President for his approval or disap- proval and orders in the ease. When a Retiring Hoard tinds lliat an officer is inca- pacitated for active service, and tliat his incapacity is the result of an incident of service, and such decision is approved by the President, said officer is retired ^ from active service and placed on the lint of retired oMlc'ers. Whin the Hoard lliids that un oflleer i» lnru|MicU talcd for active servici-, and llml hix incupiiriiv U not the result of any incident of service, ancl il«' de- cision is approved' by the I'risident, the olllcer in retired from active service, or wholly retired from the service, as the I'nsiilent nniv determine. The names of ofllcers wholly reiinil from the ittrvice ire omitted from the Army RegJHter. RETRACTOR. A d.-vice by which the inelallli; cartndgc--cases employed in lireecli-loading giinn are withdrawn after tiring. A lug or prong r.hl« l>ehind the llange of the cartridge and withdraws llie spent shell when the breech is opened. Usually the \Km\- tive movement of the notched extractor-plate lonttenfl the sliell from the bore, and after pii.s.Mmg a certain point a spring conies into pluy. and gives a smiden impulse to the shell, which liirows it <le»r of the tire-arm. The drawinir represents the Bridgeport tool, worked by hand, which is (piite effective, and avoids 111,- prissibilily of failure to act. KETREAT.— A refrogradi' movement of a f<irce, with the intention of avoiding an encounter with a liostile body in the front. The greatest exertion of talent is requisite in a (ieneral to conduct an able retreat, more de|)eniling on arrangement and cfH>l. ness than even in the preliminaries of a battle. When the enemy iiursue, if the retreat is not to degenerate intr) a rout, the retreating army must be covered by a powerful rear-guanl, wliich from lime to time must hold the pursuers at bay, whilelhe artillery-train and baggage pass defiles, cross streams, and overcome other .special obstacles. A strong retreat is made when the rear is formed by a line of .solid battalions, of which alternate masses retreat, while those inter- vening face about and oppose the enemy; the latter afterward retreating between and tothe rear of those wliich retreated in the first instan<e. The retreat is tlius continued by alternate lialting and falling back on the part of each corps. HETRENCHMENT.— In fortification, a defensive work, ciiniprising at least ditch and parapet within some other work of a fortress, and intended as a place of retreat for the defenders, whence they may jirolong the defense, or capitulate after tlie faces of the work itself have fallen into the enemy's hands. The retrenchment bears a considerable resemblance to the rediiit except that it is almost always of earth. Retrenchments are made in ravelins, and the re-en- tfring pUii-fs irunnr.i at the time of constnicting those works. A retrenchment is thrown across the gorge of a redan or bastion, or from shoulder to shoulder, when it is apprehended that the salient angle will fall into the possession of tlie besiegers: these re- trencliments are usually made when wanted. Such a retrenchujent across the interior of the Kedan at Sebastopol caused the sanguinary repulse of the British on Sept. S. IHrif). RETURN GALLERY.— In fortification, a gallery wlHch leads from another gallery. The line. C I), in the drawing, is the axis of a galleni- of departure, and A H tliTit of the return. The line A B is the in- terior line of the gallery frames: c d the interior line of the same; e f ihat of the sheeting. The corres- ponding lines for the remaining half of the gallery of depanure, and tliose of the return, will be readily recognized. The frames M and m' bound the en- trances or Landings to the returns. Tlie frames m. m'. of the landing, in the gallery of departure, are put so far apart that, were the return gallery all of one piece, it could be shoved in or out between them. The same idea also regulates the re- BETUENS. 670 RETEB8E. lativc positions of the landing frames of the gallery of departure, and the return gallery in all other cases. In oblique returns, where the angle between the axes of the two galleries is 45" or greater, the return is run directly from the main gallery. The tirst frame of the return being an oblique one. having its stan- chions and sills cut with a suitable obliquity, so that, when the frame is placed along side of the main gallery, the outside of its stanchions will lie parallel to the axis of the return. The position of the land- !M p Mi iH^Mztzzdal ..._.. • "^ :::::::z;mz:_ '{H~<^ ^^ ii i " Mi ing frames m. m', is so determined that one of the e.xterior lines of the sheeting of the return will in- tersect the exterior edge of the stanchion of m at o, and the other the interior edgn of m' at o'. When the angle between the axes is less than 4.5'-^. it would give too wide a landing in the gallery of departure to run the return directly from it. A sliort rectangular return must first be made to serve as a landing to the oblique return. To determine the position of the rectangular return, so that it shall be the shortest practicable, set off the lines of the gallery of depar- ture and of the oblique return in the usual manner, draw a line parallel to the axis CD, and at the thick- ness of the gallery frame of the rectangular return from the exterior line of the sheeting : the point where this line cuts the exterior line of the sheeting of the oblique return, will be the position of the in- terior edge of the stanchion of the gallery frame of the rectangular return: having next drawn the lines of this return, the position of tlie other frame, will be at the point, where the outside line of the stan- chions of the rectangular cuts the outside line of the sheeting of the oblique return. See Oallei-y. KETUENS. — The official accounts, reports, or state- ments, rendered to Superior Officers. Commanders of Departments, Regiments, Corps, and Posts make to the Adjutant General's Office in Washington monthly Hiturnn of their respective commands on the forms furnished, and according to the directions printed on them. In like manner Captains jnake monthly Eetartis of their companies to Regimental Headquarters. Regimental lieturns are made in the name of the Colonel, and those of the company in the name of the Captain, wliether those officers be present or absent. Monthly returns of Military Departments are sent direct to the Adjutant General of the Army and to Division Headquarters. Every Commander of a separate body of troops — either Division, Brigade, Regiment,or Detachment— wheth- er engaged in campaign, field-service, or occupy- ing a temporary camp, or simi)ly in trani-it from one post to another, makes the liionthly Returns re- quired by the Regulations. Any detachment so far separated from tlie main bodyto which it bclonixs as to render it impracticable for the Commander 7)f the main body to make the muster and insjx'ction en- joined by lU'gulations, is a separate conunand within the meaning and for the purpose of the law. These Returns exiiibit separately the several Regimenlsatid Detachments, and Hlaff Corps, and the strengtli of each garrison within the command. After any action or alTair a Return of the killed, •wounded, and missing is made, in which the name, \ rank, and regiment of each officer and soldier is specified, with such remarks and explanations as may be requisite for the Records of the Department of War to establish the just claims of any individual who may have been wounded, or of the heirs and ; representatives of any killed in action. The nature \ of the wuniid, the time and place oi its occurrence, the Company, Regiment, or Corps, and the name of the Captain, Colonel, or other Commanding Officer, should always be carefully stated. A copy of this return is promptly forwarded direct to the Adjutant General of the army. After every battle, skirmish, or otlier engagement, CommandinV Officers of Regi- ments, or detached portions thereof, forward direct to the Adjutant General of the army duplicates of the Returns, to be transmitted through intermediate Commanders, of killed, wounded, and missing A Return of all property captured is made by the Com- manding Officer of the troops by whom "such cap- ture was made to the Adjutant General, at Wash- ington, that the property maybe disposed of accord- ing to the orders of the War Department. EEVEILLE.— The beat of the drum about break of day, to give notice that it is time fo rthe soldiers to rise, and for the sentinels to forbear challenging. The reveille-gun is fired just before the first note of re- veille is sounded. EEVEIL-MATIN.— An ancient French 96-pounder, double cannon. KEVERBERATOET FUENACE.— A furnace so con- structed that matter may be heated in it without coming in direct contact with the fuel. It consists essentially of three parts, viz., a fire-place at one end; in the middle, a flat bed or sole, on which the material to be heated is placed: and at the other end a chimney to carry off the smoke or fume. Between the fire-place and the bed, a low partition-wall, call- ed a fire-bridge, is placed, and the whole built over with a tlat arch, dipping toward the chimney. The flame plays over the fire-bridge, and is reflected, or re- verberated, on the material beneath; hence the name. KEVEBONI SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— The en- ceinte of this system consists of a bastion front case- mated on a peculiar principle. The guns are placed on a " bascule," and are only exposed when actually firing. Their recoil lowers them and closes the em- brasure. In rear is an earthen retrenchment, while earthen counterguards in front are defended by the casemated flank of a ravelin. The reduit of this work is also casemated. EEVEESE. — 1. A change for the worse, or partial defeat. 2. A movement by which an artillery car- riage is placed on the same ground, but facing in the opposite direction. To execute the reverse, the lead- driver, after gaining seven yards in that direction, moves his horses toward the left, so that the extreme part of the curve described by the off horse will bo fourteen yards from the line of departure (or line oc- cupied by the heads of the leaders at the begimiing of the movement), and that, after passing three yards to the left of the original left flank of the team and carriage, they will return to the ground occupied by the carriage at the beginning of the movement. The swing-driver follows the lead-driver. The wheel- driver directs his horses so that tl'.e right limber- wheel describes a loop, which, extending seven j'ards to the right and eleven to the front of the line of departure, passes a little to the left of the original left flank and then returns, bringing the hind-wheels in such a position that the rear of the carriage occu- pies the line of (h'parture. Tlic jiairs in front move according to tlu'ir distiincc*; from the pole, and must keep out of the way of the wlu'elers, wlio control the carriage. On the completion of the rever.se, the drivers move off their horses in the new direction. In reversing at a tmt, or galloj), the loop is opened a little, an(i the gait moderated so as not to incur the risk of upsetting the carriage. This rule in gen- eral. If llie carriage have but t wo jiairs of horses, the lead-driver moves as above prescribed for the REVERSE ARMS. r,7\ BZVERSIBLE SIGHT. HwiiiK-drivcr; if Imt a sirif^Ii^ pair, tin; drivcfr iiiovcH as |)rcKcrilicd for line wliccl-drivcr. Hc-c ('nuiUtr- iiKirrh . REVERSE ARMS. Tliat poKilirin in llic Manual of AniiH, cxcciMid lis followH : The IiislruclDr cimi- inands — 1. Hererxi-. 3. Ahms. RaiHc llii' pic<i- vtTli(!ally witli \\w rifflit liaiiil, wliilr a<lvan(inK il Hliplillv; jrrasp it willi Ilic left Imnd al the lower liiiiid.lhc fonarni liori/oiital: al llic Hiiinctinii' Krasp the i;uii at llic siiiull <jf the stock with the rif^lit hand. (Two.) Reverse the piece, the inii/zlc dropping' lo tlic froiil, the hntt passiiii; between Ihe hreast and riiflit foreiirni ; the risjhl iiainl ijnispiiii; the small of the stock at Ihe lii-ifrhl of Ihe siioiildcr, llic barrel In the froni and vertical ; Ihi' linijers of Ihe left hand extended, and joiiieil in front of the barrel, the lilllc finj;er al the lower band. (Thukk. ) I'ress the muz- zle lo th<' rear willi Ihe left hand, Ihe piece inclined at an ani;le of forly-live deirrccs ; steady il in this jki- sition by pressure of Ihe riL'hl elbow a^rainsl Ihe body; carry Ihe left hand behind the back and grasp the piece between the l)ands. 1. (^(irry. 3, Aums. Let go the piece with the left hand, and rei;rasp it in front at Ihe lower band, l)ack of Ihe band to the lefl, Ihe thumb poiiilinjj down- ward. Ihe rii^ht forearm hori/oiilal, Ihe barrel verli- cal. (Two.) Hevi.Tse Ihe piece with bolli hands, the bult passing between Ihe breast and ris^ht fore- arm ; (piickly resume the larry willi Ihe riglil hand. (Thhee.) Drop the left hand by the side. Wlien necessary to nnir<h ions; distances with arms reversed, the piece may be chanired ton corres- ponding position under the left arm by the com- mands : 1. Lefl UeverM. 3. Aums. The piece is placed under the left arm with the right hand, the lefl band carried to Ihe snnill of the stock, and the right hand behind Ihe back. ' The piece is similarly restored by the comman<ls : 1. UetiTse. 3. Aums. See Mnnunl nf Armx. Fig. 13. REVERSED. In Heraldry, Ihe term applied lo a oh.'irsje lurned upside down. REVERSE DEFILEMENT. Wluiiawork is placed in a hollow roniied by two eiiiinenees, and is exposed to bolh a direct and reverse lire from them, il cannot be cU'tiled by direct means, without giving it a relief generally loo great for tield works. To avoid this, the method of reverse defilement must be resorted to. Suppose the work defiled, and a section be made by vertical planes passing Ihrough the highest points. () and ()'. If in this |)lane a vertical A B, be drawn, <'orresponding to Ihe capital of the work, and eight feet be set off on this vertical from the point, A, and two verticals be drawn Ihrough the points, of it will pasH III leuHt eighteen iiichen above llic Iwo parupelH, and, since the bani|uetleH are four feet three inches below the interior creslM, the »,liol niuHt pass dvi' feel nine inchei' above the bunqueltiti, which will be ipiite snlllcieiil lo clear the hi-iidh of the in<-n wlii-n on Hie biiiii(uelles. Thih ilbintration explains tin; spirit of the inelhoil of reviTMC rledle- nienl. The IrnverBc Ih ItniHlied on top like the roof of a house, with a slight pitch ; its thickncHK ul the lop should seldom excied li'U fi-el, and will bi- regij. laled by the means the enemy can bring lo the attack ; its sides are maile wilb'lhi- iialnrHl nlope of Ihi- earlh : but, when the height of ihr (ruverse Ih <i)n»iilerable, the base of the nirle hIoim-k would oc<-upy a large portion of the interior space ; to remedy Ibis, in some measure, the (Minion of the sides which are below the planes of direct deflle- nic'nl. may be made sleeper than the natural hIo|)«' ; the earlh being retained by a facing of ■■ods. elc. When Ihe .salient of the work is to be arrangeil for defense, the Iraverse cannot then be extended to the salient angle; il Ih however usual lo change its direction within some yards of the salient, and unite il with the face most exposed. Truvermii are also usiil to covi-r faces exposed lo an enttlade lire ; for this purpose thi'y are placed p<T|)endicular to the face to be covered. If several are required, they may be placed twenty or thirty yards apart; each traverse should be about Iwenly-four feet long, luid thick enough lo be cannon proof. As the traverses require a large quantity of earth, and much time and labor for Iheir construction, their lenglli should not be greater than is indispen.sably requisite lo form a good screen. This may be determined by drawing lines from the dangerous points lo the furllijst point of the line lo be screened ; the one which intersects the line of the traverse furthest from the salient will give the best length of the required Iraverse. The lines drawn from o and o' to e and a, cut the line of traver.se al .v and c, thus requiring the traverse lo be run back tort to cover eacli face and tlank. The dillicully of detilement, owing lo the great relief Ihat may be re(|uired for the parapets, Ihe labor of erecting the traverses and Hie room which they occupy within the work, which is fre- ipienlly wanted for the defense, restricts its applica- tion mostly lo enclosed works, which are to remain occupied during sonx' time, and whose position, from some point to be defended, caimol be shifted. The case of dclilemcnl here examined is that of works open at the .gorge : the same principles, and similar methods, would be applied lo enclosed works. After the plan of the work has been regulated, the () and O'. and five feet be set ofT on each of them : [ and then the points (" and t', be joined with D.ilis obvious that the interior crest of the para[)el, A. being placed ou the line, C F), will screen all the ground in the rear of it, as far as the capital, from the direct lire from (). The parapet. B. being regulated ill a similar manner, will screen all the ground behind it as far as the same line But the tire from <)' would take the jiarapet A in reverse, anil that from () the parapet B ; lo prevent this, a trimTxr must be erected on the line of the capital, and a sultieienl height lie given to it to screen bolh A and B from a reverse tire. To cITect this, let <'ighteen inches be set off above the interior crests of AandB; Ihe point, K, being joined with C", and [ the point E' with V ; il is here also obvious, that if j the top of the traver.se be placed on the line C K', it will efTeetually screen both the parapets from all reverse tire ; because every shot that strikes the top arrangement of the traverses next demands the ot- tenlion : the only rule that can be laid down is, to place them in the most favorable position lo inter- cept the reverse and enfilading tire of the enemy : and if there should be a clioiie with respect to si'V- cral positions, to select the one which will give Ihe lowest traverse. If il is not even probable Ihat a commanding eminence will be occupied by the en- emy, nevertheless should the defense be not impair- ed, it will be belter to place the work beyond the cannon ranire of Ihe eminence. See DtjUrment. and I'laiif of Jhjihmtiit. REVERSE FIRE. — In gunnery, when the shot strikes the interior slope of Ihe parapet al an angle greater than .'!()'■'. it is called nrerw fire. REVERSE FLANK. The extremity of the division furthest from the |iivot llank. See Oiitirard FInnk. REVERSIBLE SIGHT. -A front sight recently in- troduced by the Winchester Arms I'oniiwny. The REVETMENT. 672 EEVIEW. drawing shows the manner of its construction ami use. B\- revolving the sight on its base. 90"^ hori- zontal!}', it changes in appearance from an open sight to a globe sight. It thus permits tlie raarks- As Open. As rloSLll. man to use either form of sight at will. It may be readily detached from the barrel and replaced by a siglit of any other form. "revetment.— The interior slopes of the parapets of permanent and field-works, as well as in some cases the sides of the ditches of the latter, require revetments to enable them to stand at that shipe which is necessary, and to endure the action of the weather. The materials made use of in the con- struction of field-revetments are: fascines, gabions, hurdles, sod, sand-bags, and timber. In siege opera- tions, and in fact in all operations in active warfare, vast quantities of these materials are required, and are daily consumed, in the construction of breast- works, parapets, batteries, magazines, and a variety of miscellaneous purposes. Large quantities, then, must be prepared or manufactured by the ordinary troops of the line, superintended by their own offi- cers, who should be acquainted with all the details necessarj- for their production. In permanent fortifications, the revetments are retaining walls of masonry built for the purpose of holding back the earth of which the works are com- posed." The most ordinary position of such revet- ments is for the escarp and counterscarp of the ditch. The more important of these two is the es- carp, which has to holdback the great mass of earth represented by the rampart, parapet, banquette, etc. It is usually of solid brickwork or stone. .5 feet thick at the top, and sloping outward as it descends (on the ditch-side only) to'the extent of 1 in 6. Prior to Vauban's time, tlie escarp revetment was commonly raised to the top of the parapet : but as in this case the artillery of a besieger played on the top of the wall, and ruined it soon after the siege commenced, that engineer adopted the principle — thenceforth followed — of raising it no higher than the'crest of the glacis, or about 7 feet above the natural ground, leaving the parapet above of sloped earth only. Wlien the main ditch is 24 feet deep, the scarp revetment will be about *) feet high. Additional strength is imparted to the revetment wall bj' massive buttresses at every 15 feet called counterfarU, and these, again, are sometimes connected and strengthened by masonry arches outside the revetment. The revetment forms a terrible barrier to an assaulting party. See Fas- cine Revetment, Gahinn Reretment. Hurdle. RevetyneiU. Pisa Revetment, Plank Revetmrnt, Saml-hng Revet- ment, iSearp Revetment, Sod Revetment, and Timber Rere^nu lit. REVIEW. — In military parlance, a review is the ins|)ection by some staff-officer of any body (if troops in parade order. Reviews always comprise a inarch past the inspecting-otficer in column, and a general salute in line; to these is frequently added a mock- battle, for the amusement of spectators, and the practicing of the Iroops themselves in warlike ma- neuvers. The following is the manner of reviewing a battalion of the United Sates Army; Dismounted TroopH. — The reviewing officer takes his post in front of the center of the battalion, the point being in<licaled by a marker or camp-color previously established by the Adjutant; the Adjulaiil also posts markers o,t the ]ioinls wliere the column will have to change direction in order that llie right flank, in passing, shall be at six or eight yards from the reviewing officer. The battalion being in line, ba3'onets fixed, the Colonel in front of and facing the center commands: 1. Prepare for revierr, 2. Rear ojien order. 3 MiECH. At the third command, the ranks are opened ; and the Colonel superintends the alignment of the company officers and the front rank; the Leutenant Colonel the rear rank.andthe Adjutant the line of file-closers. The Colonel, seeing the ranks ali'.ined, returns to the right of the line of company officers, faces to the left, commands ; Feont, and, passing in front of the company officers to the center, places liimself, facing to the front, six yards in front of the line of Field Officers, opposite the center of the battalion. The reviewing officer now approaches a few yards toward the Colonel and halts, when the Colonel faces about and commands: 1. Present, 2, Aems. At the second command, the officers and men present arms; the color also salutes, should the rank of the reviewing officer entitle him to it, in which case the band, trumpeters, or field-music sound a march, flourishes, or ruffles, according to his rank ; arms having been presented, the Colonel faces about and salutes. The reviewing officer acknowledges the salute by touching or raising his hat, after which the Colonel faces about and brings the battalion to carry arms. The Colonel then joins the reviewing officer, who proceeds to tlie right of the band, and, passing in front of the company officers to the left of the line, returns to the right, passing in rear of the file-closers. While the reviewing officer is going around the battallion.the baud plays, ceasing when he leaves the right of the band to return to his station ;'tlie Colonel returns to his post in front of the center, and com- mands : 1. Close order, 2. Maech. At the command march, the company officers return to their places in line ; the field, staff, and nou-commissioned staff, re- main in their places. The reviewing officer having taken his position, the Colonel commands : 1. Com- panies right wheel, 2. March. At the second commanil, the battalion lireaks into column of companies ; the staff(e.xceptingthe Adjutant) place themselves in the order of rankfrom right to left, on a line equal to the front of the column, si.x yards in front of the leading Captain; the Lieutenant-colonel on a line with the leading company, the Major on a line with the rear comiiany, the Adjutant on a line with the second company from the front, the Sergeant-major on a line with the second company from the rear, each si.x yards from the left fiank of the column ; the non- commissioned staff, excepting the Sergeant-major, place themselves, in the order of rank from right to left, on a line equal to the front of the column, six yards in rear of the file-closers of the rear company ; the band wheels to the right and takes post twelve yards in front of the staff. The Colonel then com- mands ; 1. Pa-<s in review, 2. Forward, 3. Guide right, 4. March. At the fourth command, the column steps off, the officers remaining in the po- sitions above prescribed, the band playing : the column changes direction, without command from the Colonel, at the points iiidic:ited, the Colonel tak- ing his place six yards in front of tlie staff immediate- ly after the second change ; the hand having passed the reviewing officer, wheels to the left out of the column, and takes post in front of, and facing, the reviewing officer, where it remains fill the rear of the column lias passed, when it countermarches and re- turns to its place before the review, ceasing to play as llic liiiltalionaiiproaclics its original position. The Colonel and stall, except the Adjutant, salute to- gether when the Colonel is at six yards from the re- viewing otHcer,and return to the carry together when the Colonel has marched six yards behind him. The other officers, and thenon-coniinissioned staff, salute and return lo the carry at the points prescribed for the Colonel. In saluting, all officers turn the head, an<l look toward the reviewing ollicer. Non-com- missioned officers incomman<l of sulxlivisions salute as prescribeil for a Sergeant. Start and non-com- missioned stall officers without swords do not salute. BEVIE"W. G73 REVIEW If cntillcd to a siiliilr Iroiii Ujc ooUir, llic (^olor hii- lutcs when at six yards frorii IIk' rrvicwinj; olllctr, and is raised when six yards licyond liiiii ; as llif colors Haliitc. the Ininipilcrs or flcld-nuisic sound u iiiarili, lloiirislic-i, or nillli's, accordiiiji to Ids rank. I 111' b.'iiiii iniiliiMiini; loplny. 'I'll'' rcvicwin); odiccr aikiiowli-(li.'cs only llir salulc of llii' Colonrl and ilic color. 'I'lic Colonel liavinj; saliilcd, places liiniBclf on Hie ri;;lil of Hie revievviny;ollicer, where lie remains till tile rear of llie battalion has passed, 'vlien he re- joins the battalion. The head of Iheeolninn having execiilid a second change of direction to the left, after haviiin passed the reviewiiiix ollicer. the ('olonel coinnia?ids : (liiidi lift ; and wIkmi it arrives on lh<' (iriudnal i:r(}iind wheels it into line to the left, opens the ranks as in the iirevions casi\ presents arms, and salutes; the salute lieiiiir acknowledfied by the re- viewing; ollicer, terminates the review. Should it be desirable to march past the reviewini; ollicer airain, and in double lime, instead of ehaniiini; the jiuide and fiiriiiini; line as above, the Colonel commands: 1. Iliiiihli tiiiir.'i. Maiu;h; and, at Ihesecoml change of <lireclion. ]ilac<'s himself , at the heail of lliecohinin. The band, previously notified, remains in its position opposite the reviewini; ollicer, and ])lays in double time. In passinir in nniew in double time, there is no salulini; ; theC'olonel liaviiiL; passedtlie revimving ollicer, places himself on liis right, aii<l the review is conciuded as already explained. After the review, the Colonel causes tile battalion to perform such ma- neuvers as the reviewiiii; ollicer may direct. When desirable that a batlalion should be reviewed before an Inspector junior in rank to the Commanding OfH- cer.thc Commanding OHicer will receive the review, and will be accompanied by the Inspector. Mounted y/v'cyw.— The reviewing oHicer takes his post in front of the center of the battalion, the point Iieing clearly indicated by a guidon, jirevioiisly es- tablished by the Adjutant : the Adjutant also posts lirincipal guides at the ]ioinls where the column will have to change direction in order that the right tlank in passing, shall be at six or eight yards from the reviewing olticer. The battalion being in line, the Major in front of and facing the center, com- mands: 1. I' riiHiri' fur Uetkir, 2. Ihar Open Order, H. ALtucH. At the third enniiimud, the battal on '' takes open order as prescribed. The reviewing ofH- '■ cer now approaches a few yards toward the major, and halts when the Major faces about and commands: 1. Driiir, 2. Saber, 3. I'resfnt. i. Saber. At the fourth command, the officers and men present saber; the stanthiril also salutes, should the rank of the re- viewing ollicer entitle him to it, in which case the blind or trumpeters sound a march, or the tlourishes, a<(ording to his rank : sabi-rs having been pre- sented, the Major faces about and ^alutes. The re- viewing officer acknowledges the salute by touching or raising his liat, after which the Major faces about and commands ; 1. ('ttrry.i. Saber. The Major then joins the reviewing ollicer, who proceeds to \ the right of the liauil, and, passing in front of the olMcers to the left of the line, returns to the right, passing in rear of the lile-closers. While the reviewing ollicer is going around the lialtalion, the band plays, ceasing when he leaves : the right of the band to return to his station ; the ! Major returns to his post in front of the center, and commands: 1. Clone ordfr. 2. JIakch. At the com- , niand »('"•(•/(, the company otlicers return to their; jiliices in line ; the field, stalT, anil non-commissioned stafT. remain in their places. The reviewing ollicer luiving taken his position, the Major breaks the bat- talion into column of companies or platoons, right in fr,)nt.. At the command marrh for breaking into column, the staff (excepting the Adjutant l place themselves in the order of rank from right to left, on a line eciual to the front of the column, six yards in front of the chief of the leading sub-division. The Field Otlicers, Adjutant .and the Sergeant-major, take post as prescribed in column; the non-coiu- nussioned stair, exci'pling (he Sergeant-iniijor, place tlieniselveH, in the ordi-r of rank, from ri({lil to Ii ft, on u line ei|iial to the- front of the coliinin, Hi>. in rear of the llle-climerH of the reiir miiImII'. the band lakrs [niBt llfteen yurdH In front oi tin 'stair. The Major then coiiiiinindH ; 1 /'(IM in rr. ririr, 2. l''</ririird. I), (hiiilr riijld, 4 Maiicii. At llie third command, the Meld otlicers, Adjiitanl, und S<t geant-inajor, remain o|i the li-fl think of Hie column. At the fourth command, the column Hle|n« nfT, lliu bund playing; the column cjinnges diri'r'lion, at the points indicated. without commanil from the Mujor; the nnijor lakes his place six yards in front *\ the stail immediately aftir the second chanire of direc- tion ; the band, having passerl the reviewing ollicer, whi'cls to the left out of the column, and lakes pool in front of and facing the revii'wing olllter, where it remains till the ri'ar of the column has pusseil, when it returns to its |)lace before Hie review, ci-asing to j>luy as the battalion approaches its original position, riie Major and stalT, except the Adjutant, salute to. getlier. when Hie major is al six yards from the re. viewing fdlicer, and return to the carry together when the Major has marched six yar<ls beyond liim. The other otlicers, and the non-commissioned slalT, salute and return to the carry at the points pre- scribed for the major. In saluting, all olHcers turn the head, and look straight toward Hie reviewing officer. Xon-commissioned otlicers in command of subdivisions, suliile as prescribed in the School of the Soldier Dismounted. If entitled to a salute from the standard, the standard salutes when at six yards from the reviewing oflicer. and is raiserl when six yards beyond him; as the standard salutes.lhelrnni- peters sound a march, or the nourishes, according to his rank, the band continuing to play. The reviewing officer acknowledges only the salute of the Major and of the standard. Tiie .Major, having sidiilcd. places himself on the right of the reviewing ollicir, where be remains till the rear of the battalion has passed, when he rejoins the battalion. The head of the column having executed second change of di- rection to the left, after having jiassed the reviewing officer.the Major commands : Guide lift ; ami when the battalion arrives on the original grouml. the Major wheels it into line to the left. opens the ranks, presents saber, and salutes as before; the salute hav- ing been acknowledged by the reviewing officer. the review is ended. Instead "of changing the guide and wheelins into line. the Major may command: 1. C'lm. panks (or plat<H>nn), 2. Right f'rtmrd. 3. >'"/r« right, 4. March ; and form the line, by wheeling bv fours to the left. ' ArtiHfry.—T\\v battalion being in line, its com- mander executes a left about and commands: 1 . I're. pare for reriftr. At this commantl, each captain adds: 2. Action, 3. Frost, 4. Jiight. H. Ube-ss, (i. Front, 7. Draw. 8. Saber, which are executed a-; prescribed for the review of a battery. The Capt.iin- havins taken their posts, the battalion Commander faces to the front. The reviewing officer now ap- proaches the battalion Commander, and halts al thirtv yards from him to receive the sjibite. The battalion Commander then faces toward the line and conmiands: 1. Preficnt. 2 Saber. Sabers being i)re- sented. the battalion Commander executes a left about and salutes. The reviewing ollicer havins: acknowledged the salute, the battalion Commander faces toward the line and commands: 1. Currg.-i. Saber. He then joins the reviewing otlicer.who pro- ceeds to the right of the trumpeters, and, pa.s.-'ing in front of the officers to the left of the line, returns to the risht. passing in rear of the Chiefs of rni«nn. The trumpets are sounded while the revi. cer is goius round the battalion, until lie ri"ht to return to his station; the ball..... ., . ,.,- mandcr returns to his post in front of the center and commands: 1. Limter. 2. Fbovt. 3.l'M'-on.- i. liiqht ichetl.a. March, H. Jinlt^ili'-n. ,. Halt. Kx- ecutedintacUbatterv: eachCaptain.at the command KEVIEW. (i74 REVIEW. halt, causes bis cannoneers to mount, and then places liimself with tlie croup of his liorse four yard sin front of the lieadof tlie horso of the cliief of liis lead- ing platoon : the Adjutant and Sergeant-major place themselves fourteen yards from the left dank of the column, the former abreast of the leaders of the lead- ing carriage of the column, the latter abreast of t!)e leadersof the rear carriage of the column: the trum- peters take post, with tlie croups of the rear-rank horses fourteen yards in front of the head of the horse of the Cajitain of the leading battery. The battalion Commander then commands:!. Pfisginreciew, 2. Fm'- irard, 3 Guide rigid, 4. March. At the third com- mand, the Adjutant and Sergeant-majorreniain on the left flank of the column. At the command marcii. the column passes in review according to the principles prescribed for the review of a battery, except that each Captain remains at the head of his battery after saluting the reviewing officer; the battalion Com- mander, immediately after the second c!i;mge of di- rection, places himself with the crou]) of his hor.se four yards in front of the head of tlie horse of the Captain of the leading batter^', and, having passed the reviewing officer, places himself on his right, where he remains imtil tlie rear batter}- has passed, "vvhen he rejoins the battalion. The trumpeters be- gin to sound when at fortv ^'ards from tlie reviewing officer, and wheel out of the column as ])reviously ex- plained. The head of the column having executed a second change of direction to the left, after passing the reviewing officer, the battalion Commander com- mands: Guide ?(/<; and, when the battalion arrives on the original ground, he wheels it into line to the left, prepares it for review as before, presents saber, and salutes ; the acknowledgment of the salute by the reviewing officer terminates the review. The following general rules are observed for re- views of brigades and larger bodies of troops: All mounted officers remain mounted. A camp-color is planted to indicate the post of the reviewing officer while the troops are passing in review. Another camp-color is planted fiftj- yards from the first, to indicate the point where each battalion is brought to a carry before passing the reviewing officer. The statf of the reviewing officer is in single rank, six yards in his rear; the flag and orderlies place them- selves three yards in rear of the staff. When other officers and personages accompanj- the reviewing of- ficer, they place themselves on the left of the staff of the reviewing officer: their own staffs and orderlies place themselves in their rear. The trumpeters, or field-music, of each brigade, if there be no regiment- al bands, are consolidated on the right, in rear of the brigade band. Brigades are arranged in line from right to left according to the rank of brigade com- manders, the senior on tlie right; if in tlu-ee lines, the senior Commander is in front. Divisions are arranged in the same manner. When more than one brigade is to be reviewed, the staff-officers, after the reviewing officer passes along the front of eiicli brigade, may remain near its left, while the reviewing otlicer goes to receive the salute from the next brig;ide; on his return the}' rejoin liim and aceompany him as be- fore. The st:iiT-officers in passing around the troops, ride in one or more ranks, aceording to the numlier. Tlie troops pass in review in (|uick time. Before tlie head of the colunm appronclies the post of the reviewing officer, he goes wherever lie can best ol)- serve the movements of tlie troops. The (.'olouels re- peat commands as prescribed in brigade revolutions. Whenever the General of brigade faces toward th(^ line to give commands, the Colonels face about at tlie same time; they also resume their front at the .«anie time with th(^ general. While the troo])s are on the m;ircli. the Colonels cause the arms to bu curried at a rir/hl xhnulilrr, .lu/ipart, or cnrri/. The arms (■! each battaliou are brought to a m/r// when the le:idjiig company arrives at fifty yards from the reviewing of- ficer. Uenerals of divisions and corps, ami their staff-oflicers, draw their swords when tliey t;iUe their 1 places in column before passing in review; the swords are returned immediately after placing theni- I selves on the right of the reviewing officer. In re- views of divisions and corps, each Ijattalicm, after its 1 rear has passed the reviewing officer tliirty yards, ! takes the double time for one hundred yards in or- der not to interfere with the march of the column in rear. The troops having passed the reviewing offic- ! er, return to their camps by the most practicable j route, being careful not to delay the march of the troops in their rear. When reviewing a brigade in line, each Colonel takes his post, facing the front, thirty j-ards in front of the center of his battalion: the General takes post. I facing to the front, thirty yards in advance of the j line of Colonels, opposite the center, his staff taken post in single rauk six yards in his rear, the orderlies three yards in rear of the staff. The line being form- ed, the General faces about and commands : 1. Pre- pare for review, 2. Maech. At the first command, the Colonels add : Hear open order. At the command march, each battaliou executes the movement as prescribed for the review of a battalion; the Colonel after commanding front returns to his post, thirt}- yards in front of the center of his battalion. The Colonels having resumed their posts, the General faces to the front. The ranks being open, the re- viewing officer, accompanied by his staff, approaches the General. and halts at thirty yards in front of him to receive the .'^alute. The General then faces to the 1 left about and commands : 1. Preaent, 2. Arms. The I arms being presented, the General and Colonels face to the left about and salute. The reviewing officer having acknowdedged the salute, the General faces about, and commands : 1. ('nrry, 2. Arms, and re- sumes his front. The General and staff then return their swords, and join the reviewing officer, the Ge- neral placing himself on his right, the staff place themselves on the right of the stail of the reviewing officer. The reviewing officer then goes to the right of the line, passes in rear of the line of Colonels to the left, and returns in rear of the file-closers to the right, whence he proceeds to his post, in front of the center of the brigade. While the reviewing officer is passiug in front and in rear of each bat- talion, it stands at carry arms, the remainder of the time the Colonel causes it to stand at parade rent. The battalions are brought to the carry at the signal attention fi-om the General given after the review- ing officer leaves the right of the line. While the reviewing officer is passing around the line, the brigade band plaj's. If there be regimental bands, instead of a brigade band, each plays while the re- viewing officer is passing in front and in rear of its battalion. When the reviewiug officer leaves the right of tlie line after passing around the troops, the General returns to his post and draws his sword; the staff draw their swoi'ds at the same time. The Gene- ral then faces about and commands ; 1. (Jloxe order, 2.JlARCH.The reviewiug officer having taken his post, the General commands: 1. Cowpanien (oT dirixionx) right wheel, 2. March. At the second command each battalion forms in column of companies or di- visions, in the order prescribed for review of a bat- talion, and each Colonel brings his battalion to r/g/it .ihoiilder itrmi ; \\\v pioneers pn niiitly iilace them- selves twelve yards in front of the Colonel of the lead- ing batt;ili(m. the brig;ide hand twelve yards in front of the pioneers; the (ieiienil is thirty yards in front of tlie band, his staff in single rank, six yards in his rear, his ordei-li<'s three yards in rear of the staff. The General tlien commands : 1. J'anx in re- rieic. 2. Ftrrward, 3. Guide right, 4. Mahch. The column passes in review aceoriliug to the yriucijiles ]irescribed for the review of it liatliilion. The Gene- liil having sainted, places himself on the right of the reviewing oIVkmt, his sl;ilf ;it llie same time [ilace thi'ms<'lves in single nod; on the right of the sliilT of the reviewingotlieer.the (irderlies place themselves in rear of the siiilT. Tlielcuid wheels <iut of the column. HEVIEW. (575 HEVIEW. placcH itsrlf (ipposiU' the reviewiiirr otllccr, iind ion- coliiiiwi of coinpiiniiH or ilivlnionn Ui the riijli lien it follows (;oiiiiiiun(l : I. I'hhk in ricirip, 'i. Fiiru-ard, A. A\\., anil tinucH to pliiy lill llio ri'iir liiiH pn.MHi'd, wlii'ii it follows coiiiiiiund : I. J'nxii in rnine, 'i. h'liriraril, A. (JuOJe the rear l)iilliiliori ; llii! IniiiipcliTS, or llclil-imiHir, j n'^/ii. Tlir (iiMUTiil of ilivJHioii orilcm llii' /wni'nrrf Hoiiiid till! iimrili, lIoiiriHlirs, or nilllcH, iih tlii? rolor i Hoiiiidi'd, wliii.'li bciiiif ri-|MMilcil. tlii-iliviHJon munlii-H of ciicli Imttidion wiliitcH. If tlicri' hi- rririiiu'iiliil | in ri:vii'W, ronforiiiiiin lolln' prinrlplfM pn m-rllMil for band.s, each wliri'ls out of the coliiinii afli-r pjtHHinK i tlu! rovii'W of a liriv;uilr. Wtiin tin.- column inforrninl llirrrvicwiii^ ollicrr, and irasi'H to play aH Hooii as lln' KtalT of I hi- (iiin ral of divihioii, i-xiipl llir Adjiit- thr rear i-oiiipaiiy of ilM hallalion liaH passid. Tlir i ant (irnrral anil AidiK-di -ramp, plan- liii-m-ilviH in band lliiii iiiarilns on the Hank of tlir liallalioii and j Hinuli- rank tliirlv varilKJii front of llii' li.nrrul of tin; places itsilf in its riarafliTllir tianil of Ihr hatlalinn li'iidii').^ bri;;adc. tiir divinion lla;; and ordrrlii-K in next in rear has wlii'ilcd out of the column. 'I'hc their rear. While the trooiw are a(ipriiiiiliiiii; there- rear of the column liaviuf; passed Ihc reviewiii); ofll- j vie\vini;onicer, the General of divinion, uml (ifUiTn\» ccr, the battalions, unless otherwise directed, return ; of bri){aileH, accompanied by their Adjutants (ieneml to their quarters, and the (leneraland stall salute , and Aides-de-ianip, (;o where they can be«t observe the reviewini; oflicers. The salute beintf ackuowl- edi;ed, liTuiinales the review. When revicwinj; a bri^'ade in line of masses, the General and stall' face to (he front. The reviewing oflicer havini; halted at thirty yards from the Gen- eral, the latter faces about and comnuinds; 1. Pren- ent, 2. AuMs. Thesalute beinjiacUnowled^'ed, arms are carried; the reviewinij ollicer then passes around the brii^ade as before, the lialtalions reniiiinini; at a cdrri/; if there be regimental bands, but one plays while the reviewinj; ollicer is passim; around tlie troops. The reviewins; ollicer having taken his post.thc General conunands: 1. lialUiUimn, 2. Clintxje dirertiiin hy tin', hfljiank.'i. March, 4. GuuUnJt. Posts. The General then commands: 1. Pn*s in revi'tin, 2. Fitrirnrd. 'A. (iuiile right. 4. March. At the third command, the Colonel of the lirst comniand.s : 1. Take irlieeling dintniiri . 2. (tuidf rigid. At the com- mand tiiarcli. the leading battalion takes wheeling liislaucc; the other battalions, by command of their the march, each placing him^i-lf in front of his slulT, when the head of his column arrives at llfty yurdu from the reviewing oOicer. The (ieneral of division having .sainted, i)laces himself on the right of there- viewing ollicer; his Hag, BlafT, and orderlies, at the same time promptly |)lace theniMelveH on Ihe'right of the slalT and the orderlies of the reviewing ofH- cer. Kacli l)rigade Commander linving saluted, place* himself on the right of the (ieneral of division; hlH statT, Hag, and orderliis, at the same time arrange themselves on the right of the staff and orderlies of thedivision. The bandof each brigade ceases to plu)- as soon as the colors of tlic rear battalion Imve xaluted the reviewing ollicer. When reviewing a division of infantry in three lines, each brigade is in line, the distance between brigades being one hundred yards. The division ii" prei>ared for review at the signal fittfiili'm ; the brigades are successively presented to the reviewing Colonels, take wheeling distance in time to follow ] officer, as previously explained, except that the re- the battalion preceding in the order prescribed for viewing officer passes around each brigade, in front review. If the General commands : I. In column of, and rear, before proceeding to receive the salute of cmipnniex. pfurn in rmiiw, each Colonel, as soon as his | the brigade next in rear. Having passed around the battalion has taken wheeling distance, commands: ! rear brigade, the General of division causes the 1. liiglit. by (■miipiiitiiii.2. JIarch, 3. Guide rigid. | i7<«<>7i<wi to be sounded. At this signal, which is re- Wli'en reviewing a division in line, the brigades peated, each brigade commander closes ranks and are formed in line as prescribed for the review of a ' wheels into column of companies or divisions to the brigade, with an interval of sixty yards between ' right. The General of the leading brigade gives the brigades . Ou the arrival of the "reviewing officer, t commands for passing in review ; the Generals of the the Major General commanding the division causes [ center and rear brigades bring them to "rdfr arm* his trumpeter to sound the (/«i'«</"h; at this i^vina.\.\&i\CLparmlerextoTinplnnif.it. At the signal /or- reijealed in each brigade, the brigade Commanders , micrf, repeated in the leading brigade, the brigade prepare the brigades for review.' after which the moves forward ; the Generals of the other brigades Commanders of the center and left brigades bring give the commands for marching in review, causing them to iirdrr iiniis and piir/ide ir.it. The reviewing officer and Genenil of division then go to a point thirty yards in front of the General of the right bri- gade and halt, when the General of brigacle com- mands : 1. I'rt'nent, 2. Arms. The salute beincr ac- ihem to change direction to the left, or half left, in time to follow'^at sixty yards in rear of the brigade preceding. The review is completed as previously cxplainetl. When reviewing a division in line of masses, each knowledged by the reviewing oflicer, the General ' brigade is formed as prescribed for review in line of commands, 1 . 'Carry. 2. Arms. The reviewing oHi- ' masses. The arms are presented, and the reviewing cer accompanied bvihe (ieneral of division.' then officer passes around the brigades, as prescribed for goes to the right of "the right brigade, passes along the review of the division in line. Each brigade, its front to "its lefl, and proceeds in front of while the reviewing officer is passing in its front and , the General of the center brigade to receive the sa- rear, stands at c<trry armn. the remainderof the time lute. The General of the centre brigade causes the the General causes it to stand at imnulf rt>t. The re- ^ aUnitinn \o \w sounded when the reviewing officer viewing officer havingpassed arounil the troops, t he approaches its right, and /);w((,<,< (/;-m.« as biMTore ex- ' signal otUnlion is given, at which the (Jenerals of plained. Having receiveil the salute, the reviewing \ brigade cause their battalions to change direction by officer goes to the riirht of the center briirade, passes I the left flank: the General of the leading brigade along its front to I he lefl. and then proceeds to a ! gives the commands for passing in review in cohinin point thirty yards in front of the General of the left i of companies or divisions ; the Generals of the other brigade, which brigade is presented as explained for I brigades bring them Xo vrder^arnu auA pa nide^nit or the second. The (ieneral having passed along the ' ' ' ' '' " ' "'"' front of the left brigade, returns to the right of the di- vision, passing in rear of the line. The band of each , .... brigade plays" as the reviewiii"- ollicer passes along [explained in the review of a brigade in liii the front of the brigade, and also while he is passing The Generals of the center and rear br,. in its rear. If there be regimental bauds instead of the commands for marching in review in time l^, l..|. a brigade baud, each plays while the reviewing offi- ! low the brigade preceding at the distance of sixty cer is passing in front and rear of its battalion. When the reviewing otficer passes the right of the division from the rear, the General of the division causes the ntUntion to besounded. At this signal the brigade Commanders close the ranks, wheel into /■« plaefrrxt. At the signal forirard. reiK-ated in the leading brigade, the b"rigaile moves forward, the battalions executing the movement sue '--i^' iv -.s yards. Inpassing around the division, the r. ing officer mav pass between the diflerent ba' from front to rear, and from rear to front. A corps of infantry-, in line of ma.sscs, or in three lines of masses with "a distance of one hundred yards REVISION . (J7(i REVOLUTION. between divisions, is reviewed as follows: On the arrival of the reviewing officer, the General com- manding the corps causes the attention to be sounded, which is repeated by the trumpeters of the General;-, of division ; each division is presented by brigade, as explained for the review of a divisonin line of mass- es : the General of division, accompanied by his staff, joins the reviewing officer and corps commander, in front of his right brigade, and accompanies them to receive the sahitesfrom the brigades, and while piiss- iug in front and in rear of his division ; he then re- mains near the right of his division. The reviewing officer having passed around the troops, tlie General commanding the corps causes the attentiim to be sounded, which being repeated by the trumpeters of division and brigade conmianders, each brigade is formed in column of masses to the right. The General commanding the corps then causes "lhe/(';'!r(H'n! tnbe sounded, which bein^ repeated by the trumpeters of the first division, the first division execules the move- ment, as previously explained; the other divisions stand //( place rest, the Generals causing the forward to be sounded in time to follow the divison preceding at a distance of one hundred yards. The troops may march in review in column of masses. If there be regimental bands only, tlie one at the head of each brigade wheels out of the column, when opposite the reviewing officer. While on the march and passing in review, but one band in each brigade plays at a time. On approaching the reviewing officer, the Gen- eral commamiing the corps places himself about fifty yards in front of the General of the first division ; his staff place themselves in single rank six yards in his rear, the flag and orderlies three yards in rear of the staff. The General having saluted, places himself on the right of the reviewing officer : the staff, fol- lowed by the flag and orderlies, place themselves on the right of the staff and orderlies of the reviewing officer. The Generals of division, while their divisions are passing in review, place themselves on the right of the corps commander ; each brigade commander, in like manner, places himself on the right of the di- vision commander ; their staffs, followed by their flags and orderlies, place themselves on the right of the staff and orderlies of corps or division command- ers. When more than one corps is to be reviewed. the reviewing officer does not go to the front of each \ brigade commander to receive'lhe salute. The Gene- rals of brigade facing tlie line present arms and salute as the reviewing officer arrives opposite his riffht ; he then causes arms to be carried and resumes his front. The march in review is conducted as explain- ed for a corps. When troops of different arms are reviewed in line they are arranged from riglit to left in the following order: one. infantry ; two'.' mounted artillery; third, cavalry. In the saniearm, regulars, vohmlcers, and militia are posted in line from right to left ill the order named. REVISION. — A n-examiuation for any correction. Where an officer, who orders a Court-.Vlartial, does not approve their proceedintrs. he may, liy the cus- tom of war. return them to tlie Court f,>r /{evi-iwii, and no additional evidence can he taken on such lievision. When a record is returned to the Conn for 7iV- vuion, the subsequent proceedings thereon should be recorded as follows ; 188 , (or memorandum) containing the instruc- tions to the Court, and the reasons of the reviewing authority for requiring a reconsideration of the find- ings (or sentence, or correction of the record), w^as then read to the Court by the Judge Advocate, and is attached to the record and marked " ." The Court then maturely deliberated upon and considered the said communication, and the reasons set forth for revi.sion; and, on motion, (a.) now re- voke the foregoing findings, and having maturely considered the evidence adcluced. find, elc, etc.; f/r (A.) now revoke the foregoing sentence, and do sen- tence, etc., etc.. or. (r.) respectfully adheres to the foregoing findings and sentence, — ^^ ; or, (d.) cor- rects the record by, etc., etc. Colonel, U. S. Artillery, President. BABRACKS, ' . 188 . The Court reconvened with closed doors, pursuant to the following order, at ten o'clock a. m.: {Here insert eopy of order. ) Pkesent : * * 1, Absent . * « * ♦ The comnninieation from the Commanding Gen- eral, Department of the , of date , l.«i Lieutenant U. B. Artillery, Judge Advocate. It is always proper for the Court, sliould it so de- sire, to give the reasons for adhering to its original findings and sentence. No witnesses, not previously called, can legally be examined before a reconvened Court. When, however, a Court has erred in its rulings in the rejection of a witness for supposed incompe- tency, or in rejecting offered documentary evidence, or in not permitting a proper and legal question to be put to a witness, or in refusing to summon a cer- tain material witness asked for by the prisoner, and the reviewing authority has reconvened the Court for a reconsideration of its action, the Court may, should it concur in the views submitted, proceed to remedy such error by revoking its findings and sni- tenee. and correct the record by permitting the in- troduction of the excluded testimony. Before the Court thus proceeds to correct the record, the pris- oner and his counsel must resume their seats and the record so state. In consetiuence of receiving such excluded testimony, the other party maj' liave to call witnesses in rebuttal, which is authorized. See C<>iri-t.i-.Vartial. REVOLUTION.— Any extensive change in the Con- stitution of a country suddenly brought about. The two most important events in modern history known under this name are the English Revolution of the 17th century, and the French Revolution of the 18th. The former began in the early part of the reign of Charles I., with the struggle between that King and his Parliament. In 1G43 the struggle became a civil war, in which the Parliament ob- tained the ascendency, and brought Charles to the block in 1649. A llepublic followed, under the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, which was suc- ceeded in 1600 by the restoration of llonarchy in the person of Charles II.: but the arbitrary rule of James II. brought the King and the people again into antagonism; and, .James having fled the country, William III. w;is called to the throne under such conditions ;ind s;ife-guards as secured the Balance of iheConstilulion. The French Revo- lution was a violent reaction agaiust that Absolu- tism which had come in the course of time to sup- plant the old feudal institutions of tlie country. It began with an outbreak of insurrectionary move- ments at Paris in July, ITS'.t, including the destruc- tion of the Bastille". On .)ami;iry 21, 17113, King Louis XVI. was lieheaded. The Christian religion was deposed, the sacredness of the reptdilic and worship of reason solemnized, and a disastrous reign of blood and terror followed; which was brought to an end in 17i)4, when ]{obespierre him- self suffered on the guillotine the fate to which he had condemned countU'ss multitudes of his country- men. Among other important revolutions in the modern world are the American Hevohition of \T7r>, bv which the United States threw off their depend- ence on Great Britain ; the French Revolution of HEVOLDTION. (;; HEVOLUTIOH. IHIiO, wliirli drove Clmrlcs X. into exile, and mined Louis I'liilippe.Duke of OrleiiiiH to the Iliroiie liy llie will of till' people; us iilso llie Kevoliilioii of IHln, when Fnuice rose ni;aiiist I>oiiis I'liilippe, tiiiil adopted for a time n repiihlii uii form of ffoverii- ment, tiie revoliilioiiary eoiiliis;ioii spreudiii^ leiii- jmnirily over most of Coiilininliil Kiirope. By llie llaliiiM Uevolulion of lUfi!) 00. tli(^ various iiiinor Hovereii;iis of Italy were ilriven into e\ile, and the whole of the |)eiiinsiihi Ijciamc-, Nvilli llie JMCorpora- tion of llie lioiiian 'I'errilories in IS70. sulijecl lo Vioior Kmmaiuiel. The followlni,' oliservalioiis, in lH(ii),prior to the third Freiieli |{i-piililic,are pertiiieiil. The French Uevolulion is an event so extraordi- nary that it must needs be the starting-point in any series of (•onsiderations on the alTairs of our own time. Nothini: of importance happens in France that is not a direct coiiseciucnce of this capital fact, which has llioroiishly changed the whole condilion of life in that couiilry. Like all that is ureal, heroic, bold, like everylhiii'; which exceeds ihe common measure of human slreiii;lli. Ihe Fri-nch Uevolulion will continue to he for centuries the siihject about which the world will talk, upon which thev will divid<', which will be the occasion of their fricud- shi|is anil their halrcds, which will fiirnisli the --ub- iect of dramas ami novels. In one sense, the French Uevolulion is theijlory of France, the French epopee, par excellence; but. almost always, nations who have in their history an extraordinary event, expiate it by lonn sutTeriii};, and often by the hiss of their national existence. It was thus with .Imhea. with Greece, and witli It;dy. For hiivimr cnated thinirs which are unii|ue. by which the world lives and thrives, these countries have parsed throUi;h cenlu- ries of hunnliation and natiouid death. National life is somelhini; limited, mediocre, confined. To do what is extraordinary, of universal interest, these narrow trammels must be rent asunder ; but in reuding them the nation itself is rent ; for the nation is but an assembl;ii;i^ of prejuilices and statical. ary ideas which mankind as a wlioh' would re- fuse to accept. The nations which created religion. art, science, empire, the church, the papacy (all things universal ami not national), were more than nations; but at the same time less than nations in the sense that they were the victims of their work. We think that the Uevolulion will have for France analogous con.<eiiuences, but less durable, because the work of France was less great and universal than the work of .Jmhea, Greece, and Italy. The exact parallel of the present situation of that country seems to be that of Germany in the seventeenth ceri- tiirj'. In the sixteenth century, Germany aecom- pU.slied for mankind a work of the first order — the Reformation. She expiated it in Ihe seventeenth by !"i extreme ]iolilic!d abasement. It is probable that the ninetecnlh century will in like maimer lie considereil in the history of France as the expiation of the Uevolulion. Neither nations nor individuals can with impunity deviate from Ihe middle course, of feasibility and practical good sense. If the Uevolulion has L,iven to France a poetic and romantic position of the first order, it is certain, on the other hand. that, in view nuTcly of the re- quirements of ordinary statesmiinship. it has led her into a strange p;itli. The end which France sought to reach by the Uevolulion was that which all modem nations pursue: a frame of society just, honest, humane, guaranteeing the rights and the liberty of all wiili the least possible sacrilicc of the rights and the lilierty of each. Fnmce is to-day, after shedding riviTs of blood, still very far from this end; whiK- Kngland. which h;is not proceeded liy the way of revolutions, has almost reached it. France, in other words. otTers the strange spectacle of a country tardily striving to come up with the nations she once scorned as laggards, and learning in the school of the peoples to whom she had claimed to ^ive lessons,— painfully striving to accomplish by I imitation the work In which tihu fancied Kho dU. playeil a high di-gree of originality. The cauw- of this hisloric Bingularily is very xiiiipli-. In i.;,ile of the extraordinary arilor w hicli aiiiiiiateil Jier, France, at the end of tin- eighli-i iilli century, wan very ignorant of the conditions upon whieh it In itonnihlu for a nation and mankind itnelf to i-xinl. lli-r prodigious uiiderlaking implied ninny errorit : itlic utterly miHiinderslood the laws of modern IiImtIv. Whether we regret it or rejoice at at, modern liberty is by no meanH the liberty of anti'piity, nor that of the republics of the .Middle Acei.. It in 'much more real, but much le.ss brilliant. Thucyilirlen and Machiavelli would not in tin- leant iindemtand it; an<l yet a subject of (^ur-en Victoria in u Ihoiinunil times more free than was ever any citizen of Sparta, of .Mheiis. of Venice, or of Florence. No more of those feverish republican agitations full of granileur and danger ; no more of those cities tilled with a re. lined, active, and aristocratic population; but in their stead, great inert masses, where intelligence l» conhned to the few. but which give a powerful help to civilization, in putting at the service of Ihe State, by means of taxation and the conscription, a mar- villous treasure of abnegation,, docility, and gooil- I will. Of this form of social life, which is assuredly that which least consumes a nation and best pre. serves its strength, England has given us the model. England has arrived at Ihe most liberal form of government which the world has yet known, solely by the development of the institutions she pjissessed in the Midille Ages, and not by revolutions. Liberty in Engliind is not dirived from Croniwell, nor from the republicans of l()4!l. It is the result of hi-r en- tire history; it springs from her ecpial resjU'Ct for the rights of the King, the rights of the nobility, the rights of the comm<ms, and of corporations of every kind. France followed the opposite course. The King had long since made a clean swe.-p of the rights of nobh-s and commons, — the nation made a clean swec]) of the riglits of the King. She- pro- ceeded pliilosiipbically in a matter where she should have proceeded historically; she thought liberty was to be established by the sovereignty of the people and in the name of a central authority, whereas liberty is only to be won by successive petty, local con(|uests, by slow refonns. England, who does not pride herself upon any philosophy ; England, who has never broken with her tniditions, except in a single moment of temporary aberration, followed by a prompt repentance; England, who. instead of the absolute dogma of the sovereignty of the people, admits cmly the more moderate principle that there can be no government without the people nor against the jjcople — England is to-day a thousand times freer than France, who once so proudly raised the philosophic banner of the rights of man. The truth is. Iliat |)opular sovereignty is not the foimilation of constitutional government. \ State so established, after the Frencli fashion, is too stronsr; while far from guaranteeing all libiTlies, it absorbs all of them ; and its form is either the pop- ular convention, or else despotism. The natural result of the Revolution could not. after all. have liccn anvthing very different from the t'onsulaty and the Empire : the natural result of ?ucli a conception of society could not have been anything else than a system of administration, a net-work of prefects, a narrow civil code, a machine for squeezing the na- tion, a swaddlinsband in which it was impossible for it to live and irrow. Nothing is more unjust than the hatred with which the French nidical school re- sard the work of Napoleon. The work of Napoleon, if we except some errors which were jHTsoaal to that extraordinarv man. is. in line, nolhins more than the revolutionary- programme realized in its possible parts. IIa:i .Napoleon never existed, the final constitution of the Republic would not have differed essentially from the constitution of the year VIII. .V very false idea, in many respects, of hu. REVOLUTION. 678 EEVOIHTION. man society is in fact at the bottom of all French re- volutionary attempts. The original error was at first hidden under the magnificent outburst of enthus- iasm for liberty and tlie right which filled the first years of the Kevolution: but this fine enthusiasm "once spent, tliere remained a social theory which was dominant under the Directory, the Consulate, and the Empire, and marked its impress deep upon all the creative efforts of the time. According to this tlieory, which we may well qualify as material- ism in politics, society has nothing of a sacred or religious character. It has only one end, which is, thai:' the individuals composing it may enjoy tlie greatest possible sum of well-being, without concern- mg themselves about the ideal destiny of mankind. Why talk about elevating and ennobling the human conscience ? The onh' question is how to satisfy tlie greatest mmiber. to assiire to all a sort of happiness, vulgar and relative only it must assuredly be, for a generous mind would disdain such happiness, and would revolt against the social system wliieh aimed to secure it. In view of an enlightened philosophy, society is a great providential fact : it is established. not by man, but by nature itself, in order that intel- lectual and moral life may be developed on the sur- face of our planet. There is no such thing in polit- ical philosophy as man isolated from all companion- ship. Human society, the mother of every ideal, is the direct product of the supreme will, which has decreed that the good, the true, the beautiful, shall have their contemplators in the universe. This transcendent function of humanity is not performed by means of the simple coe.\istenee of individuals. Society is a hierarchy. Every individual composing it is noble and sacred, every being (even the animal) has its rights; but all are not equal; all are members of a vast body, parts of an immense organism, which is accomplishing a divine work. The negation of this divine work i^ the error into which Frencli democra- cy easily falls. Considering the only object of soci- ety to be the satisfaction of the individual, they are led to disregard the rights of ideas, the siqiremacy of mind. Nof comprehending, moreover, the inequal- ity of races, because ethnographical differences have in fact disappeared within her limits from time hn- raemorial, France has learned to conceive of social perfection as a kind of universal mediocrity. If man did not assume the right of making the animal kingdom subordinate to his needs, human life woukl become impossible. It would be scarce- ly more possible were we to hold to the abstract con- ception which inaKes us regard all men as bringing with them into the world equal rights to wealth and social rank. Such a state of things, though just in appearance, would be the end of all virtue ; there would be, inevitably, war and hatred between the two sexes, since nature has created here, in tlie very heart cf the human species, an undeniable difference in the part to be played by each. TIk' well-to-do citizen tliinks it right that, after destroying royalty and hereditary nobility, we should slopat liereditary | w'ealtli. The working man thinks it right that, hav- j ing abolislied liereditary wealth, we should stop at the inequality of the sexes, ami even, if he be a per- j son of some sense, at the inequality of strength and capacity. The most ardent Utopian, having sup- pressed, in imagination, all ineijualily aminig men, still admits imin's right to make use of ;uiimals ac- corilinL' to his needs. Anil yet, it is no more just that one man should be born rich, than it is tliat an- other should be born wit li a social distinction; nei- ther the one nor the other has earned his jiosition by his own lalior. Nobility, it is Jilwavs argued, has its origin in merit ; and as it is perfectly clear that merit is not hereditary.it is easy to show lliiit heredi- tary nobility is an absurdity. The fallacy of this reasoning consists in the itverlasting i-rror of making the state the arbiter of a sort of distriliutive justice. The object of rank, regarded as an institution of pul)- lie utility, was not to reward, but to stimulate merit. to render certain kinds of merit possible, and even easy. Had it no other effect than to show that jus- tice is not to be looked for in the official constitution of society, it would not be altogether useless. The device "To the most worthy," rarely applies in pol- itics. The middle class is somewhat self deceived, there- fore, in thinking to establish society on a just basis, by means of its system of competitive examinations, special schools, and regular promotion. A man of the people can easily demonstrate that a child born of poor parents is excluded from these competiti^s, and he will maintain that perfect justice will not be done until all are placed from their birth in identic- ally the same conditions. In other words, if the no- tion of distributive justice for each individual be rig- orously carried out, no organized society is possible. A nation which shoulil follow out such a programme would condemn itself to incurable weakness. Sup- pressing the right of inheritance and thereby destroy- ing the family, or leaving it optional, it would soon be got the better of, either by those portions of its own people who still adhered to the old order of things, or by foreign nations who still retained these ancient principles. The race which triumphs is al- waj's that in which the family and property are most strongly' organized. Humanity is a mysterious lad- der, a series of resulting forces proceeding one from the other. The manv laborious generations of very hard working common people and peasants render possible the existence of a well-to-do and frugal mid- dle class, which in its turn renders possible tlie man exempt from material labor, and devoted wholly to matters of universal interest. Each in his station is the guardian of traditional usages which are of im- portance to the progress of civilization. There is but one moralit}', there is but one knowledge, there is only one education. There is a single intellectual and moral whole, one glorious work of the htiman mind to which all. except the egoist, contribute, however small a part, and in which, in different de- grees, all share. AVe ignore human nature unless, we admit that whole classes of men must live bj" the glorv and the enjoyments of others. The democrat regards as a dupe the peasant of the old regime, who works for his noble masters, loves them, and rejoices in the high estate maintained by others at the ex- pense of his own toil. Doubtless all this is absurd, where life is narrow and confined, where everything is done within closed doors, as in our time. In the present state of society, the advantages that one man has over another have become things personal and exclusive: to enjoy the pleasure or the rank of an- other seems mere foolishness; but it has not alwaj's been so. When Gubbio or Assisi saw the wedding cavalcade of its yoimg Lord file past, no one was jealous. Then all shared the life of all: the poor man enjoyed the wealth of the rich man. the monk the pleasures of the worldling, the worldling the prayers of the monk; for :ill. there was art, poetry, religion. Can the cold considerations of the econo- mist supply the place of all this? Will any such considerations suffice to liridle the arrogance of a democracy confident in its strength, and which, not having been stopped by the fact of royalty, is very likely not to be stoiiped by the fact of properly? Will there be voices eloi|uenl enough to make youths of eigliteen accept the reasoning of the aged, to persuade whole classes — young, ardent, believing in pleasure, and upon whom enjoyment has not yet palled— that it is not possible for all to enjoy, for all to be well-bred, delicate, virtuous even, in a re- fined sense, but that there must of necessity be learned, well-bred, refined, virtuous people of leis- ure, in whom and by whom the rest have tlieir enjoy- ment and their taste of 1 lie II Ic.'d? K vents will show. The superiority of the church, and tlie strength which 1 still assures lier a future, lies in the fact that she alone understands this, and makes others under- stand it. The cliurcli well knows that the best men KEVOLUTION. r,7U HEVOLDTIOH. are often the vietims of llie 8iip<,Tioriiy*t)f i lif fso-callt'd hii^licr cliiHscs : lull hIic Unows iUho tliiit iialiiri! Iiiik iiili'iidrd thai, hiiiiiiin lilr slidiilil liiivr iiiiiny hIi|);<'S, Slic kiinwsanil slic ciinfcsMcs llial il is Ilic if;riirrain'i- of inaiiy thai makes piissihh' Ihr ('(hicaliuii of (iiic ; Ihat it IS tlu; tiiil of iiiaiiy lliat iicrinils llii' iiohli' life of a siiiall iiiiiiiIkt: but sh<- doi'S not call liu'sc pri- vilcgrd, nor Ihosc wronjicil, for llio work iiiaiikiiid has to do is, in her eyes, one and indivisililc. Ahro- (ialc Ihis ijrcat law, assiuii lo carh iiidiviijuai llic saiiic rank, willi ('(iiial ri^iils. wilh no Ijoiiiid of siib- ordiiiiilioii li> a coiiiMmii lask ; you havi> ciioisiii, iiu'iliocrily, isolation, liardiicss of heart, an impossi- bility of true livini;, somelhini; like the life of our (lay, the saddest life ever lived, even for the man of the people. Lookinj; only at the riirhls of individ- uals, it is unjust that one man should be sacriliced to anolher man; but it is not unjust that all should be brou;;lil iiilo niibjec'lion lo Hie one t;ri'at purpose which mankind is workini; out. It is for relii;ion to explain lliese mysteries, and to olVer in Ihe ideal world superabundant coiisolalions for all the sacri- fices made here below. Tlii.s is what the Uevolulion, afler it had lost llie {jraud and sacred eiilliiisiasm of its earlier days, did not sullicicnlly understand. Tlie Kevolution became finally irreliLCious and atheistic. The society men dreamed of in those sad days following; llie fever lit when they were strivini; to collect their scattered senses, was a sort of regiment composed of material- ists, and in which disci|)line held the jilacc of virtue. The wholly nepilive basis which the hard and un- imajjinative men of Ihat day assii;ned to Fnnch so- ciety I'un only produce a surly and ill-mannered peo- ple: their code, the <ilVsprini; of <listrusl, l.iys down as a lirst princijilc that the value of evcrytliini!; may be estimated in money, that is to say in plca.sure. The. whole moral theory of these so-calli'd founders of our laws may be summed up in jealousy. Xow jealou.^y is the foundation of ecjuality, but not of liberty; puttinij man constantly on his guard against the eneroaehinents of his neighbors, it renders cour- tesy between the several eliisses impossible. There can be no society without ;ilVection, without tradi- tions, without respect, without mutual amenity. With its false notion of virtue which it confounds with the stern vindication of what each one regards as his right, the democratic school fails to see that a nation's great virtue consists in submitting to tradi- tional inecpialities. For this school the most virtu- ous nice is not the race which practices sclf-sacritice. devotion to duly, idealism in all ils forms, but the most turbulent, that which makes the most revo- lutions. The most intilligent democrats are much surprised when they are Told that there really are virtuous races still in the world— the I^itliuanians, for example, the Ditmarschers, tlu' Pomeranians — races that are still feud;il. full of vigorous reserved strength, uiiderstamling duly like Ivant, and for whom Ihe word revolution has no meaning. The first result of this ill-natured and superlicial philoso- phy, too soon substituted for that of the .Montes- quicus and the Turgots, was the suppression of roy- alty. To minds imbued wilh a materialistic philos- ophy, royalty necessarily seemed an anomaly. Very fewpersons," in 1792, understood that the continu- ance of good things requires to be guarded by insti- tutions which are. if you please, a privilege for some but which are organs of national life, without which certain needs must necessarily sulfer. These little fortresses, in which were deposited for siife-keepiug treasures belonging to society, seemed feudal castles. All the time-honored subordinations of rank, all his- toric covenants, all symbols were repudiated. Royal- ty was the lirsl of these covcn;uils, a covenant dating liaek a thousand yi-.irs, ;i symbol which the puerile phiU)sophy of history, then in vogue. could notcom- preluuul. No nation has ever created a legend more complete than that of this grand C'apetiau monarchy, a sort of religion, born ;it 8t. Deuis, consecrated at KheiniR by the anwmbly of bUiiop*. having Um rlghu. Its lIliirKy, lis holy iiiiipiilla. lln orillninnie. 'I'o every nationidiiy there Ih ii corrfH|ioniliti|; dyiiusty, in which are incurnated the |;eiiiiiii and the interests of Hie nation ; a iialioirH coiiHcioiisiich'- in never fixed anil linn unlit il has coiilriicleil un iiidiH. soluble alliance wilh a family which bindH ilhilf by the I'oiitruct to have no inlerenl dinllnct from ihat o'f , the nation. Never was Ih'.s idenl ideal ion mi per/eel as between France and Ihe hoiisi- of f'apet. Il wb» more than a inoimrcliy, it was a prii-sifiood: 1'riei.t and King, like DavirL the KiuL' •<{ France wears Ihe cope and liohls the sword, liod i-iiligbiens him in his jiidgmeiils. The King of KnL'land troubles him- , self lillle about uislice— he defends his right auainsl . his Barons ; and the Kmperorof (iermany cares hiill less — he is foreverinore hiinling among Iiih TvroleiM- I niounlaiiis. the round world, meanwhile, rolfing on as it may ; but the King of France '. he is just ; sur- rounded by his valiant men ami his solemn clerks, wielding his hand of juslier-. he is like .Solomon. His coronation, imitated from that of Ihe kings of Is. rael, was something so strange and unique. France had instituted an eiglilh sacnim.'nl, adminislered only at Hlieims,— Ihe sacrament of royalty. The consecrated King performs miracles; he' is invested with an "order"; he is an ecclesiaslical |x-rsonage of till' lirsl rank. To the Pope, who siiminons him lo answer in the name of Goil, he replies, pointing to his sacred unction, " I. too, am of God." lie allows himself unparalleled liberlies with Ihe suc- cessor of St. Peter : once he causes him lo be buf- feted and declared a heretic ; at anolher lime he threatens to have him burned alive; backed by hiK experienced doctors of the (sorbonnc, he reprimanihi him, he deposes him. His most perfect type, not- withstanding, is a canoni/.ed saint. Saint lloiiis, .so pure, so humble, so simple and so strong. He has liis mystic adorers; the good Jean Dare makes no distinction between him and St.. Michael orSl.C'alh- erine; this jxior girl literally lived upon the religion of Kheiins. Incomparable legend I sacred fable! Ami yet the vulgar knife designed for striking off the lieads of criminals was lifted against it I The mur- der of the 21st of January, is, from the idealist's point of view, the most hideous act of materialism, the most shameful avowal of ingratiliide and base- ness, of ignoble meanness and forgetfulness of llie past, that was ever made. Do we mean lo say that the old dynasty, whose very memory the newly-organized societv .sought lo obliterate wilh that peculiar rancor wliicii is only felt by the parvenu toward the great noble to whom he owes everything — do we mean to say that ;liis ancient dynasty was not guilty of .serious errors? Certainly it was, and if we were now wrilinir a ge- neral philosophy of French history, we should show that the King. Ihe nobles, the clergy, the parliamenl.s, the cities, the universities of ancient France, had all of them failed in their duly, and Ihat the revolution, isls of 17'J3 merely set their seal lo a series of faults, whose consequences still weigh heavily. Greatness must always lie expiated. France had conceived of I her monarihy as somelhiug unlimited. A King after the English fashion, a sort of sladtholder. paid and armed to defend the nation and maintain certain rights, was for her an absunlity. Fmm the l:)ih century, the King of Kngland, constantly at strife with his subjects, and hampered by charters, is lo French poets an object of derision : he is not pow- erful enough. The French Jlonarchy was loo sa- cred a thing: theanointed of the Lord is not lo be controlled. Bossuel was logical in making the the- ory of the King <if Fnince scpiare with Uie Holy Scriptures. Had the King of England pos,scssed ihi.s tincture of mysticism, the barons and commons would not have succeeded in checkmating him. The I French Monarchy, lo produce that lirilliant meteor, the reign of Louis XIV., absorlied all the powers of the nation. When once the Slate had been constituu KEVOLUTION. 680 KEVOLUTION, cd into this powerful unit)', un ler the hand of one ' man, it was incvital)le Unit France should look upon herself as being what the great King had made her, — an all-powerf>d central authority, wilh liberties de- stroyed; and, regarding the King as a superfetation, should treat him like the mold which becomes use- less when once the statue is cast. Thus Richelieu and Louis XIV, were the great revolutionists, the true founders of the Republic. The exact pendant to the colossal royalty of Louis XIV. is the Republic of 1793, with its frightful concentration of power, an unheard-of monster, the like of which had never been seen. Examples of republics are not rare in history; but these republics are cities, or small con- federated states. A centralized republic of thirty millions of souls is absolutelj' without precedent. Given up for four or five years to the vacillations of drunken men, like a Great Eastern in danger of ship- wreck, the enormous machine sank into its natural place, into the hands of a powerful despot, who, at first, with prodigious skill, succeeded in organizing the new movement, but -who ended like all despots. Become insane with priile, he brought upon the country, which had put itself at his mercy, the most cruel humiliation that a nation can endure, and brought about the return of that dynasty which France had expelled with the most degrading in- sults. The analogy of such a course of events with wdiat took place in England in the seventeenth cent urj' is easily perceived. Every one was struck by it in 1830, when a national movement substituted for the legitimate branch of the Bourbons, a collat- eral branch more disposed to recognize the new needs. Louis Philippe must have seemed a William III., and it was natural to hope that the final result of so many convulsions would be the peaceable es- tablishment of coustitutional government in France. With this consoling thought, a sort of peace, a little quiet and oblivion of the past, stole over the poor, troubled Frencli mind ; there was a general amnes- ty, even for follies and crimes. It was a great mis- take ; a surprise, the most inconceival)le known in history, was successful : a band of mad-caps whom a constable's staff should have sufliced to restrain, overturned a dynasty upon which the sensible part of the nation had based all their political faith and all tiieir hopes. An hour's want of reflection on the one hand, and an hour of weakness on the other, sufficed to sweep away a theory conceived by the best minds, with, apparently, the most tempting chances of success. Why this singular disaster? Why did not what happened in England also hap- pen in France? Why was not Louis Philippe a William III., the glorious founder of a new era in the history of the country ? Will it be said that it was the fault of Louis Pliilippe ? That would be unjust. Louis Philippe made mistakes ; but then all governments must be permitted to make tliem. Whoever should undertake the conduct of human afTairs on condition of being infallible and impecca- ble, would not reign a day. At all events, if Louis Philippe deserved to be dethroned, William III. de- served it much more. , What Louis l'hilii>])e was chiefly reproached with — uni)o]iularily, inaliility to make himself loved, a taste for ])ersonal jjower, iu- dilferenceto external i)omp, rela|)ses toward the le- gitimist i]arty to the detriment of the jiarty which had ma(ie him King; attempts tii reestablish the royal prerogative -might h:ivc l)i'eii still more strongly urged against William III. Why, then, were the results so different? Doulitless it was owing to the difference of time and country. Events, historically important, nuike lake place anioug a serious and heavy people, Arm believers in lieredit- ary right, and who have an invincible repuguiince to driving their sovereign to <'Xtremitics, which wovdd l>e impossil)le at an ejioeh of intellectual levity and reasoning folly. Besides, the repidtlican movement of 1649 was inlinitely less deep than that of 1792. The English movement of 1049 did not go so far as to establish an niiperia! authority. Crom- well was no Napoleon. Finally, the f^nglish repub- lican party hail no second generation. Crushed under the restoration of the I'^tuarts, decimated l)y persecution or taking refuge in America, it ceased to have any considerable influence upon public afl'airs in England. In the eighteenth century, England seems to have made a business of expiat- ing, by a sort of exaggerated loyalty and orthodoxy, her momentary lapses in the middle of the sixteenth. More than a hiuidred and fifty years had to pass away before the death of Charles I. ceased to weigh upcm politics, and men could venture to think freely, without feeling obliged to affect an un- bounded attachment to legitimacy. Things would have taken nearly the same course in France if the royalist reaction of 1796 and 1797 had carried the day. The Restoration would then have been ac- complished much more frankly, and the Republic would have been in the history of France only what it is in that of England, an incident witb.iut consequences. Napoleon, by his genius, aided by the marvelous resources of France, saved the Revolution, gave it a form, an organization, an im- precedented military prestige. The weak and tmin- telligent restoration of 1814 could by no means up- root an idea which had been deeply seated in the na- tional mind, and which had enlisted the sympatlues of a whole, energetic generation. France, under the Restoration, and under Louis Philippe, continued to live on the memories of the Empire and the Republic. Whilst in England, from the date of the restoration of Charles II., and after 1688, the republic was the object of unceasing execration, and a man was ill- thought of in society who spoke of Charles I. with- out calling him the martyr King, or of Cromwell with- out adiling the epithet usurper— in France it became the rule to write lustories of the Revolution in a strain of apology and admiration. It was unfortunate that the father of the new King had taken a considerable part in the Revolution ; people accustomed them- selves to consider the new dynasty as a compromise with the Revolution, not as the heir by substitution of a lawful inheritance. A new republican party, rallying aroiuid a few old patriarchs, survivors of 1793, came into existence. This party, which had played an important part in July, 1830, but since then had failed to give prevalence to its ab.solute theoretical ideas, made incessant attacks upon the new government. The change in England, in 1088, was not in the least revolutionary, in the sense in which we understand the word : the change was not brought about In- the people; it violated no right, unless it were that of tlie tletI:ioncd king. With the French, on the contrary, 1830 unchained the forces of anarchy, and deeply Irumiliatcd the legitimist party. That i)arty, comprising, in many respects, the most solid and the most mora! portions of the community, made cruel war upon tlie new dynasty, either by keeping altogether aloof from it, thus preventing its being settled upon the sole basis upon whi<'h a dynas- ty is founded — the solidly conservative element ; or else by its connivance with the republican rarty. Thus the government of the house of Orleans failed to obtain a firm foundation ; a breath overturned it. Everytliing iiai! been pardoned to Williiun III., nothing was pardoned to Louis Philippe. The mon- archical jirinciple was strong enough in England to undergo i\ transfe.rmaiion : it «;is not so in Fnnice. (Jertainly if tlie republic an ]i:irly had hiid in England, under William 111., the import;uice which it had in France under Louis Philippe — if that \mr[y had had the support of tlie Stuart faction — the constitutional establishment of England woidd have been short- lived. Here p^ngland protiteil by the immense ad- vantage she Inis in her ;iptitinle for colonizaticm. .America Wiis the waste-weir of the repidilieaii party: without that, this party would iiave remained as a. virus in the mother country, and would have pre- EEVOLUTION. 081 EEVOLOTIOR vented tlic cstablisliincnt of ctonslitiiliDiml novurn- mcnl, Ni)lliintj Hint it stroiii; ami siiiciTe is lost in tlie world. TIk'hc rc|)iilili(iin c-xilcM were the fill liiTs of the men who, in the laller part of the eif^hli-enlh century, earrieil on the War of Independence. The rcvolnlionarv elenwnt in Knijland, inslcad of heiin^a dixHolvi'nl, thus Ijecarnc erralive; Knirlish radieal- isni, instead of tearin'.' tlie mother eonntry in pie<'es, produced America. If France had been a eolonl/,- in;;, insteail of a military nation ; if thi' hold ajid en- lerprisin;; element, which in other I'onnlries fur- nishes colonists, were with thi- Kri'iich capable of anythini; besides cons])iracies and tiirhtini; for uli- stract |)rinciples we should have had no .\apoleon: the republican party, expelled by tbi> n-action, would have eniiijralrd about the year ITIIM, and would h.ave founded, far away, a new France, which, in ac- cordance with the law of colonies, would now iloid)!- less be an independent republic. A cross error of historical philosophv contributed to warp the national judi;ment upon this irruve ipicM- tion of the forms of tjovernment ; it was this very exainjile of .\merica The reimblican school were forever citini; this example as ^ood and easy to fol- low. Nolhini; could be more superticiiil. That colonies accustomed to ^'overn themselves in an in- dependent fashion should break the ties which bind them to the mother country, and these lies l)roken, slionld dispense with royalty and provide for their common safety l)y a federative pact, there is nothint; in this but what is natural. For a colony to sever itself from the throne in this way, as a cuttini; is severed from a tree, carryiiii; its own jri'rm of life with it, is in accordance with the immutable princi- ples of colonization principles which are amonj; the conditions of human prosrress, of that of the .\r- yan race in particular. Virginia and Carolina were republics before the war of independence. That war chansjed in no respect the internal constitution of the States; instead it only cut the coril, now grown irksome, which bound them to Europe, and substituted for it a federal union. Here was no revolutionary work. There was at the bottom of this great movement an eniinenlly conservative con- ception of right, an aristocratic and law-abiding spirit of provincial liberty. In like manner, when- ever the slight tie which binds Canada and Australia to England shall be l)roken, those countries, accus- tomeil to govern Ihemselves, will continue their in- dependent existence almost without peiceiving the change. If France had undertaken in earnest the colonization of Algeria, .Vlgeria woulil have had a chance of becoming a republic sooner than France. Colonies, formed of ])ersons who tind themselves cramped in their native land, and who seek a greater liberty than they have at honu', are always nearer a rep\d)lic than tlie mother country, tied by her old habits and her ancient prejudices. Thus, there has continued to exist in i-'rance a party which does not permit the development of constitutional royalty, the radical republican jiarly. The sitmition of France was very dilTerent from that of England: side by side with the Kight. the Left, and the Center, there was an irreconcilable jiarty, utterly refusing to accept the existing government: not saying to the govenuneni, "Do such a thing iind we are with you;" but giving it to understand: "Whatever you do, we shall be against you." The republic is in a sense the tinal goal of every human soci( ly: but we can conceive of two very different methods of reaching it. Toestab- !ish the republic with ahighhanil.by destroying every obstacle, is the dream of ardent ndnds. There is an- other way. less violent an<l more sure; to preserve the old rov;d families ;is precious mimumenls .and souve- nirs of the past, is not merely the foolish fancy of an antiquary; dynasties thus preserved become in cer- tain critical mimieiits extremely convenient wheels in the machinery of constitution;d government. Will the countries which, like England, have foilow- cJ this course, ever attain to the perfect republic, with no hereditary dynasty, ami with universal Huf- frage? As well ask if (he hyperbola ever toucheii it« asym|)loteM. What matters it, nince it comet) BO ni'ar that the distance is inapprerialile to the eye? This is what the French republican party d<M-H not understand. For tin- form of a ri'pubiic ji sacritlccti thesubstanci . Kallier than follow a high road al- ready laiii out. witii, to III' sure, some windinxs. it prefers to plunge over precipices and through hogs. Uarely do we see so little political tact and so lillli! discernment joined to so much honesty. The year 1H48 laiil bare the ulcer, and eHtablished to the salin- faclion of every disciplined mind the fiiniiamental principle of the philoso|ihy of French hislory. The n-voliilion of 1H4M was not an elTeci without a cause 'such an assertion would Ix- absurd;: it wasan effect entirely out of jiroporlion to its apparent cause. The siiock was nothing, the ruin was irnmen.m'. ThiTe happened in 1H4M what would have happenod in England, if William III. had been swept away by one of those (its of strong dissatisfaction which hm government excited. In that case the lii.story of Eng- land would have been turned upside down. In Eng- land, the people'sattachmeni to legiliiiiacy, and their dread of tiie republic, were sntticiently stroUL' to en- able the new ilynasty to get over momentary difH- culties. In France, on the other hanil, the moral de gem-racy of the nation, its want of faith in royally, together with the very great energy of the repuhlicun party, sutVued to overturn a throne which had but a ruinous foundation. Then it was that the disa«- trous situation in which Frame has remained ever siruc the Revoliitinn became apparent. If t!ie Kevo- lution and the Uepublic had taken root less deeply in France, the house of Orleans, and with it parlia- mentiiry government, would have been securely consolidated : had the republican idea been domi- nant, it would, after divers alternations of action and reaction, Inive carried the country, and the Kc- iniblic woulil have been founded. Seilher the one nor the other (if these two .-suppositions were realized. The republican spirit was strong enough to prevent the iiermanent estiiblishmeut of eonstitutioniii roy- ally: it was not strong enough to establish the Ue- public. Hence, a false and singular position, and one calculated to jirepare the way for a melancholy downfall. What happened in 1H4S niiijht happen many times again ; let us endeavor to discover the secret law, the hidden reason of this. When we see a man die of a cold, we conclude. not that a cold is a mortal malady, but that the man was consumptive. The disease which occasioned the death of the government of .luly was in like manner so slight, that we must admit the patient's constitution to have been of the frailest. The sJiglit agitation atiout the banquets was one of thosewliich a government ought to be able to support, if it liave any cajiacity of life in it. Why, with every appear- ance of health, was the government of July so feeble? It was because it had not that which gives to a government good lungs, a .sound heart, and a healthy stomach ; we mean the serious adherence of lbe"influential portions of the community. The thoroughly humane feeling which restraineil Louis I'hilippe from giving battle, while its indulgence im- plies a distrust of his own right, does not snllice to explain his fall. The republican party which effected 'he revolution was an impercejitible minority. In a country where the government was less central- ized, and where opinions were less divided, the ma- jority would Inive resisted ; but the provinces had as vet lio idea of opposing a movement emanating from I'aris: besides, if the faction which took jiart in the : movement of the 24th of February. Ih+S. was insig- nificant, the nui.iber of those who might have de- fended the vanquished dynasty was not great. The legitimist party were the victors, and without build- ing barricades", had, on that day, their revenge. The Orleans dynasty, in spiteof ilsthorough U|)rightness. I and its rare honesty, had not knovv'n ho .v to speak to BEVOLUTION. 682 EEVOLUTION. the lieart of the nation, nor to make itself loved. In presence of this revolutiou thus brought about bj' a turbulent uiinority, what was France to do? A country which has no unanimously accepted liynasty is always a little awkward and embarrassed in its movements. France yielded : she accepted the Re- public insincerely, not believing in it, and fully de- cided to be false to it. The opportiuiity was not wanting. Tlie vote of the 10th of December was a plain repudiation of the Republic. The party which made the revolution of February was subjected to the law of retaliation. If we nuiy be allowed to use a vulgar expression, they had played France a very scurvy trick ; France played them a scurvy trick in return. She was much like some honest citizen whom the most mischievious boys should lay hold of on any day of great riot, and should clap the red cap of liberty upon his head ; anil the wortliy man would let them do as they pleased for the sake of peace, but would probably cherish some resentment. The surprise of the ballot responded to the surprise of the uprising. Assuredly, the conduct of France would have been more dignified and more loyal, if, on the announcement of the revolutiou. she had openly resisted, politely arrested the functionaries of tlie provisional government at the very outset, and ccnvoked in all the departments some sort of gene- ral council which would have re-estalilished the mon- archy. But several reasons, too readily ajiparent to be m much need of explanation, rendered this course impossible at that time. Besides, a nation which has been granted universal suffrage always becomes soniL'what given to dissembling. It has in its hands an all-powerful weapon, which renders civU wars needless. When we are snre that the enemy will be obliged to pass through a defile of which we are the masters, and where he will be forced to receive our Ijre without returning it, we do not go out of our way to attack him. France waited, and, in Decem- ber, 1848, inflicted a disastrous repulse on the re- publican part}'. If February had proved that France was not much attached to the constitutional mon- archy of the house of Orleans, the vote of the 10th of December proved that she cared no more for the Republic. The political weakness of this great country was shown in the strongest light. What shall we say of what happened afterward? We do not like cull ps d'etat any more than we do revolutions; we do not like revolutions, for the very reason that they always lead to miips d'etnt. We cannot, however plausible it may appear, admit the fundamental pre- tension of the party of 1848. That party in the name of we know not what divine right, arrogates to itself a power which it accords to no other, claim- ing to have made itself so absolutely the master of France that the illegalities committed in order to break the fetters with which it had bound the coun- try, ought to be considered as crimes, whilst its own revolution of February is only a glorious deed. This is inadmissible. Qu/'s, tulerit GnirrJuis di xtditfcnr (jiveretite-i ? lie who uses the sword shall perish by 'he sword. If the muskets aimed at M. Sauzet and »he Duchess of Orleans, ou the 24th of February,1848. were umocent, the l)ayonets which invaded the chamber on the 2d of December, 1851, were not .guilty. In our view, each of these acts of violence was a dagger-stroke ainu'dat the country - a wound reaching to the most vital parts of her constitution. one step further into a laliyrinth that has no issue. The Emperor Napoleon III., and the little group of men who shared his confidence, brought to the government of France a programme whicli, though not founded upon history, was not wanting in originality: namely, to revive the traditions of the Kmpire, turn to account its gloriims legend, still so Avell iireservcd among the people, give voic<' to the jiopular sentiment on this subject by means of universal sutlrage, obtain by this suffrage a di'Iega- lion of powers binding on the future and establishing hereditary right, and, in accordance with a cherished idea of the French nation, call for a dynastic election ; at home, the personal government ot the Emperor, with a show of parliameutary government skillfully reduced to a nullity ; abroad, a brilliant and active policy, restormg gradually to France by war and diplomacy, the place in the front among the nations of Europe, which she held sixty years ago, and which she lost in 1814. France, for seventeen years, has allowed this experiment to be tried, with a patience which might be called exemplary, if it were ever good for a natiim to carry forbearance too far whea her destinies are at stake. IIow has the experiment succeeded? What have been its results? Can. it lie said, in the first place, that the new Napoleonic house has been founded ; that is to say, has it rallied around it those sentiments of affection and persomd devotion which alone give strength to a dynasty? We nuist not deceive ourselves in this matter. Self- ishness, scepticism, indifference toward its rulers, the persuasion that no gratitude is due to them, have totally withered the heart of the nation. The ques- tion has become one of self-interest. The wealth of the community having greatly increased, if the question were jjroposed in these terras : revoiution — nij rivohitiijn, the second jjroposition would obtain an immense majority ; but often a country which has no desire for a revolution does all that is needed to produce one. At all events those sentiment.s of tender affection and fidelity with which the nation once regarded her kings, are no longer to be thought of. The persons having for the Napoleonic dyna.sty the same sentiments that a royalist of the Restoration had for the royal family, might easily be counted. There are almost no Napoleonic legitimists ; this is a fact with which the government cannot be too deeply impressed. That part of the programme of the Emperor Napoleon III. which relates to the military glory and the preponderant position of France, was not without grandeur ; and those who, looking to the general interests of civilization, are grateful to the Emperor for the war of the Crimea and that of Italy, cannot judge with severity the whole foreign polic\' of the second empire: but it is clear that France as a nation, is '.ly no means in harmony with such views. If it were possible to submit it to the universal suffrage, the plebiscite, III) wiir, would obtain a much greater majority even than no reciAutinn. The France of to-day is, beyond all doubt, no more heroic than she is sentimental, The preponderance of one European nation over the rest has, moreover, become impossible in the pres- ent state of society. The threatening intentions im- prudently expressed on the French side of the Rhine (audit is not the government which has been in this respect the most culpable, or the most wanting in tact) have kindled a feeling among the Germanic nations, which will subside the moment they shall be reassured with regard to the ambition they may have attributed to the French. From tliat moment, tlie iutiueuce iif I'russia iu tlie Grrmaiiic body will cease— an influence which has no other plea for its existence than the fear of France. From that mo- ment, also, will probably cease the ilesire for politi- cal unity, — a desire so little in conformity with the Germanic spirit, and which has never been among the Germans anything but an impatiently tolerated defensive measure against a strongly organized neiglibor. Tlii^ cliange of this single point in the ori- ginal plan of the Emperor Napoleon 111. would suffice to modify everylbiug coimccted with the in- ternal government of the "country. The Emperor Napoleon III., never even imagined that he could carry on the government without an elective cham- ber; he sincerely hoped that he might for a long time, if not lurmaiienliy. control the elections. It wasa .scbcmc wbicli Cduld only be realized by the aid of coiistaul w;us and coiisl:iut victories. I'er- sonal government e!iii only be maintained on condition of beiim; always and everywhere glor- ious and successful. How could it be expected. REVOLUTION. f;«8 HEVOLUTIOH. unlcsB tho roimtn' were kept conHtiinllv diiz/.k-d l)y a miirUcil prosperity. Hint il would n;o on forc'ViT ciiHlinir into llic liallnl-linv llir voli: wliifli llio iKlmiiiitilniliiiii pill iiilci ilHliiuiily II was iiiov- ilable llml, <imi' iliiy or uiioUicr, Kraiicc would wish to use Hut powerful weapon that had beiMi left in her liands, an<l that she should lake a responsilih' part in her alTairs. In polilies, we caniiot loiii; play with appearances. Il was to lie expected llial the seiii- hlaiice of parliaiiieiilary jcoveriiiueiit which the Erii- jieror Napoleon 111. had alwavs kept up, would lie. come a serious reality. The eleelioiis of lH(!i) trans- ferred this sujiposition into the domain of eslah- lislied facts. The elections of .May and .lune. IHlii), showed that the law of French society cannot he that of Roman Casarisni. Koman Ca'sarisin was eipially in the beirinniiii; a despotism, surrounded by republican lietions ; tint despotism destroyed the fictions ; with France on the contrary, the representa- tive fictions destroyed the despotism. This did not occur under the first empire, because the mode of elect ini; the leirislative body was then completely illusorj'. Nothing; proves more clearly than the events of those mouths of ls(;i) how surely the ideal of government orii^inatcd by Knf;land imposes itself, of necessity, upon every state. It is often said that France is not fitted for such a;;overnment. France has certainly shown that she lliinksotlierwi.se; at all events, if that were true, we should say there is no hope for France. .V liberal form of Lrovernment is an absolute mcessity for every modern nation. Those wliielieannot accommodate themselves toil, will ])er- isb. In the lirsl place, the liberal regime will ;_'ive to the nations which have adopti'd it an immense superiority overlhose which cannot adapt themselves to it. A nation which is not (|ualitied for liberty of the press, nor for the liberty of holdiuir meetings, nor for political liberty, will certainly be surpassed and van(|uisbed by the nations which are fit to be trusted with these liberties. These last will always lie belter uniformed, better taught, more thought- ful, better governed. There is still another reason why, if France be condemned to the fatal alternative of anarchy, or despotism, her destruction is inevitable. There is no issue from anarchy e.\ee]i1 through a great mili- tary state, which, besides ruining and exiiausting till' nation, c.-in only maintain its ascendancy on con- dition of being constantlv victorious abroad. The rule of military restraint at home leads inevitably to foreign war. A vanquished and humiliated army cannot exercise that restraint energelically. Now, in the presente state of Europe, a nation which is systematically obliged to engage in foreign wars, is a nali<in lost. Such a nation will be constantly provoking against itself coalitions and invasions. This is why the unstable condition of the internal government of France was for her an external danger, and made her a warlike nation, notwithstanding that the general sentiment of her people is very pa- cific. The eiiuilibrium of Eurojie recjuires that all the nations of the continent should have nearly the same political constitution. An ef'rt'us inter mhrim cannot be allowed to disturb this harmony. Thus, from whatever point we set out. we arrive at this conclusion, that France must enter without delay uuon the path of representative government. A preliminary question naturally suggests itself here : Will the Emperor resign himself to thischange? Will he so far modify a programme which is for him. not a mere ambitious calculation, but a faith, an enthu- siasm, the religious belief which explains his whole life? .\fter having cherished, to the verge of fauati- cLsm, an ideal which alone he holds to be noble and grand, but which France has rejected, will he not feel an invincible di.sgiist for that government of peace, of economy, of small ministerial battles, which has always appeared to him the iiersonificatiim of decadence, and which is associated in his mind with the memory of a dynasty held by him in small es- teem ? Will lie venture oiitHide of tliul «ircle of Hccond-ratr- coiinsellorK anil miniHtrm in which he seems to take delight? (,'an ii wivereign, invested by the popular vole with the plenitude of po[iulur rights, be a parliamentary iiiomircii i' Ih not the plibindtf n rejection of consliliilioiial monurchy ? IloH such a governmiMit ever resulted from a '■"«/» iCilntf Can it coexist with universal siiirrage ? The respect due to the person of the sovereign prohibils the ex- amination of these questions. ConHiderHtiors of race and blood, which were formerly decisive in hitt- tory, have lost much of their force. HiibslitiitiooH which would have been impossible under Hie ancient may have liecome possible. Family characterislicB, which were formerly iiillexible, so llial a Uoiirhon, for example, was only suited to play a ]iarticular part, are now su.sceplilile of much modification. The historic mle and the race are no longer insi-par- able things. Tli.it an heir of .Napoleon I. should aceomplisii a work antagonistic lo .Napoleon I. is not a thing absolutely inadmissible. Public opinion lias become so thoroughly the sovr-reign master that names and men are only what it makes them, The a priiiri objections raised by certain persons ai^ain.st the possibility of a constitutional future with the Bonaparte family are consequently not decisive. The Capet family, which became well and truly the re- presentative of French nationality, and of the third estate (tiers Hat), was in the beginning ullra-(jer- manic, ullra-feudal. As architecture forms u style out of faults and the mistakes of inexperience, so a nation may. if it pleases, turn to advantage its own misdeeds. We enjoy the benefits of royalty, though royalty was established iiy a series of crimes: we profit by the results of the Hevolution, though the Uevolution was a tissue of atrocities. It is a sad law of human life that we become wise only when we are worn out. We have been too ditlicull to please, we have rejected excellence: we rest satis- fied with mediocrity through fi-ar of something worse. The coquette who has refused the most bril- liant offers of marriage often ends by accepting the most commonplace. Those who have dreamed of a republic without republicans, please themselves in like manner with imagining a reign of the Bona- ! parte family without ftonajiartists- a condition of things in wiiich thiit family, freed from the <-ompro- mising companionship of those who enthusiastically prepared the way for its second accession, would find its best supporters, its safest counsellors, among tho.se who have not helped to make it what it is, but have accepted it, as a thing desired by F'rance, and as capable of opening some issue out of the strange |ierplexit)' into whicii fate has led. It is very true that there is no example of a constitutional dynasty resulting from a o>iip (Vit'it. The Viscontis. the Sforzas, tyrants born of republican discords, are not the stuff of which legitimate monarchies are made. Such monarchies are founded only by the peculiar sternness and hauteur of the Germanic race in bar- barous and ignorant ages, when oblivion is possible, ' and when mankind lives in that mysterious darkness which is the foundation of respect.' FaUt nam in. renient. . . . The strange defiance which France has shown to all the laws of historj- compels us to great reserve in such inductions. Let us go higher; and, neglecting whatever the accident of to-morrow- may disconcert, let us inquire what reasons exist in I the nation why one should have a constitutional monarchy, what grounds there are for hoping for its success, what fears may be entertained in regard to its permanent establishment. We have seen that the peculiar feature of France, a feature which widely separates her from England . and the other European stales (Italy and Spain. up to . a certain point excepted), is, that the' republican party constitutes a considerable element of herjxipulation. This partv. which was strong enough to overturn Louis Pliilijipe, and lo impose its theory on the ; country for a few months, was, after the Sd of I)e- BEVOLUTION. 684 HEVOLUTION. cember, the object of a sort of proscription. Has it consequently disappeared ? No, indeed I The pro- gress it has made in these hist thirty years lias been very perceptible. Not only has it kept possession of the majority in Paris and the large cities, but it has gained whole districts of country besides ; the entire circuit of the environs of Paris now belongs to it. The democratic spirit, such as we know it in Paris, with its rigidity, its dogmatic tone, the deceptive simplic- ity of its ideas, its petty suspicions, its ingratitude, has conquered certain rural cantons in a surprising manner. In many a village the relations of farmers and farm servants are exactly those of workmen and employers in a manufacturing town ; peasants will talk their surly, radical, jealous politics to you with jis much assurance as the workmen of Belleville, or of the Faubourg Saint Antoine. The idea of equal rights for all, a way of considering the government as a mere public service which is paid for, and to which neither respect nor gratitude is due, a sort of American impertinence, the pretension to be as wise as the best statesmen, and to reduce politics to the mere consultation of the wishes of the majority — such is the spirit which gains ground more and more, even in the country^ WilT, how- ever, the repulilican party ever succeed in becorning the majorit)', and in securing the triumph of Ameri- can institiitions in France? It is essential to that party to be always in the minority. If they were finally to effect a social revolution, they might create new classes, but these classes would become monarchical the moment thej' became wealthy. The most pressing interests of France, the character of her mind, her good qualities and her defects, make royalty a necessity to her. Tlie very moment a radical party shall have overturned a monarchy, the journalists, the literary men, the artists, the men of intellect, the men of the world, the women, will conspire together to establish another: for the mim- arch)' corresponds to the deeply -felt needs of the nation. Our amiability alone suffices to make us bad republicans. Tlie charming exaggerations of tlie old French politeness, the courtesy which '•places us at the feef'of those with whom we have in- tercourse, is the very opposite of that stiff, rough, dry manner which the ever-present consciousness of his rights gives to the democrat. France excels only in the exquisite ; she loves only what is ele- gant ; she can only l)e aristocratic. They are a race of gentlemen ; tlieir ideal has been created by gen- tlemen, not, like that of America, by honest citi- zens and serious men of business. People habituated to such things as tliese are only satisfied with a high-bred society, a court and princes of the blood. To hope that great and fine French works will con- tinue to be produced in a democratic community (dans un monde hmirgenU) wlierc no inequality is ad- mitted but that of wealth, is a delusion. The gener- ous and imaginative people who expen<l the most fervor upon the republican Utopia are the very persons who would be the least able to accommodate themselves to such a state of society. They who pursue so eagerly the American ideal forget that the American race lias not a very brilliant past : that it has never had a nobility ; tliat it is occiitiied exclusivelv in business and the pursuit of wcaltli. Our ideal can only be realized under a government shedding .splendor upon all that approaches it, and creating distinctions outside of weallli. A society where a man's merit and his superiority over another can onlj' be shown in industrial iiursuits and in com- merce, is anti|)atlietic ; not that industrial pursuits and commerce do not seem to us lioiioralilc, but liecauHe we sec plainly tliat tlie best Ihimrs (for ex- ample, the functions of pri<'st, magistrale. scholnr, artist, and man of letters) are the inverse of the commercial and industrial spirit ; for the first duty of tho.se who undertake these functions is not to seek to enrich themselves, and never to consider the commercial value of what they do. The republican party may therefore prevent the establishment of any liberal government whatsoever, for it will always have it in its power, by inciting seditions, to force any government to arm itself with repressive laws, to restrict the liberties of the people, and to strengthen the military element. Whether it be capable of establishing itself, is doubtful. The hatred between it and the peaceable portion of the community will continue to grow more and more envenomed, for more and more it will .seem to the whole country to be a perpetual marplot. It will succeed, we fear, only in provoking a kind of peri- odical crisis, followed by violent expulsions, which the conservative party will maintain to be ijurifica- tions, but will in truth be debilitations, and whicli will, in any case, wear upon the constitution of France in a deplorable manner. In these convulsive vomitings, excellent elements, essential to the life of a nation, will be thrown out, together with the im- pure elements. As it happened after 1848, liberal ideas will suffer from their inevitable association with a party which, being full of generous illusions, has great attractions for youthful imaginations, and which, besides, holds a great part of its programme in common with the litjeral school. It is to I)e feared that long-standing habits of miu<l, a certain rigidity, a great deal of routine, and the custom of judging everything by the Parisian standard (a custom easy to be understood in a party which was at the outset essentially Parisian), will lead that party to believe that revolutions like those of 183U and 1848 may be repeated. Nothing could be more fatal. The time for Parisian revolutions is over. We found this opinion less upon the material changes which have taken place in Paris, than upon two causes whicli, it seems to us, will have an enormous influence upon tlie destinies of the future. One is the establishment of universal suffrage. A people in possession of this suffrage will allow no revolutions to be made by its capital. If a revolu- tion should take place in Paris (a thing which is for- tunately impossible), we are persuaded tliat the de- partments would not accept '\t\ that barricades would rise across the railways to stay the spread of the conflagration, and to prevent provisions from reach- ing the capital ; and that the disturbance at Paris, soon reduced to starvation, would be but short liv- ed. The emancipation of the provinces lias made great progress since 1848. Another fact, moreover, ought to be taken into great consideration. The whole philosoph)' of history is governed by the ques- tion of armament. Nothing has so much contribut- ed to the triumph of the modern spirit as the inven- tion of gun powder. Artillery has destroyed chival- ry and feudalism, given strength to monarclis and to States, definitivelj- checkmated barbarism, rendered impossible those strange cyclones of the Tartar hordes, which, gathering in the heart of Asia, came shaking Europe to its foundations, and terrifj-ing the Christian world. The nice application of science to the art of war in our day will lead to revolutions al- most as grave. War will become more and more a scientific and mechanical problem : the richest, the most scientific, the iiKist ingenious nation will have the advantage. If we examine the effects of this change upon the inl.'rnal affairs of Slates, it is clear that ihe application, on a large scale, of science to arniaments will be to tlie sole profit of governments. The etfect of artillery was to destroy, one after the other, all feudal castles ; one discharge of some im- proved engine will stop a revolution. At epodis wlien arms are imperfect, a citizen is almost the equal of a soldier; but as soon as the aggressive ])ro- ccss becomes a liarncil matter, riMiuiring exact in- ; struments and dciiiaiiding a spe<ial education, the j solilier has an immense superiority over the unarm- ed multitude. There is every reason, therefore, to beriev<' tliat revolutions Ijegun liy citizens, will hence- forth be crushed in the bud. Tlie Jesuits, with their usual .sagacity, understand this, as is seen by their KEVOLUTION. 68, REVOLUTION. cctdiif; iKisHcsHion of the iivcnwcH li> llic Sriiool of Hi. Cyriind lo llic I'dlylcchnic Si'liool. Tlicy fore- Hectlic future of iIkihc who know liow lo "liandle dcx'Icroiis wciipons mill (lis<'i|ilirii'(l forciH. iiiul llii'v perceive, very cleiirly, lliiit the Hdvniilii^e in this re- spect is with the ohl aristocracy, less ahsorhed than the citizen class by industrial pursuits, or by lucra- tive civil positions, and therefore inori^ capable of abnetcation. France, then, seems destini'd for a lonj; time still to escape the republic, even if the ri'pub- lican party should have the numerical majority. There is in the nation a constantly increasini; mass of people destitute of any relinious ideal, ancj ri'jecl- ini; every social principle superior lo the will of Ihi- inilividual. The remaining mass, not vet convened to these egotistical views, is daily diminished, by means of the primary school, and by the u.sc of uni- versal sulTrag<' ; but against this rising tide of ag- gressive ideas, which, lieing young anil inexper- ienced, make no account of dilliciilties higher in- terestsand needs array themselves, and demand thai society b(^ organized and directed by a principle of reason and knowledge distinct from the will of the individual. The democrat ever imagines that the mind of the nation is clearly made up; he does not allow that there can jiossibly li<' anything in the least obscun', hesituliiig, or contradictory in pub- lic opinion; tucount lli<' votes and lo do the will of the majority, seem to him very simple things ; but these are delusions. For a long time to come, public opinion will have to be guessed at, foreseen, supposed, and, up lo a certain point, guided. Hence, llicre are inimarchical interests which, the moment a republi<; is established, become formidable, even in the opinion of those who have set up, or allowed others to set up, the republic. 'J'lie movemeni which is going on in the popular classes, tending to give to each in- J dividual a more and more precise consciou.sness of Ills rights, is a fact so evident that it would be sheer madness to wish lo oppose it. The true policy is to provide for it, and to accommodate ourselves to it. ; The men of science have never sought means to arrest the tide : they have done better ; they have so well determined the laws of this phenomenon, that the navigator knows, from minute lo minute, the stale of the sea, and protits greatly by it. To prevent the rising tide from carrying away the necessary embank- ments, and causing, as it retires, fatal reactions, is the essential thing. Xow.jvidging from ajijiearances, this is just what w ill happen, so long as tlie French democ- racy shall be led by that acrimonious, (|uarrelsome, conceited Jacobism which agitates the country, some- limes, even, gives it ;ni impulse, but will never guide it to a settled constitution. That party may make a , revolution, but it will not reignmore thantwo months afterward. Even if it should succeed in obtaining a majority of votes, which is not very probable, it would still establish not liing,for the element sat its dis- posal, though e.\cellent for purposes of agitation, are unstable, easily disunited, and totally incapable of furuishing the solid materials of a construction. Its strength, though great, is partly a strength of cir- cumstance. It has happened to us a dozen limes, during an electoral campaign, to hear the following dialogue: '-We are not satisfied with the govern- mentT it costs too niucli; it governs for Ihe benefit of those who do not think as we ilo : we shall vote for tile most radical opposition candidate." ■'Then you are revolutionists J " "Not at all ; we only want to make an impression on the government; to force it lo cliange its course ; to hold it vigorously in check." "But if Ihe chamber is composed of revo- lutionists, the government is ujjset." "No; there will only be twenty or thirty of them ; and then the ijovernmeut is so strong '. It has the chassepols I " ^his naive reasoning sliows how much Ihe railical party deceives itself when it imagines that the coun- try desires it for its own sake. A great part of the country uses it as a rod with which to chastise the established authorities, not as a stall upon which to urged it on, lliem- I lean. "They elecl us, llierefore they like u»," would 1 be, on the part of the honorable meinberH of the go- ; called a<lvanr'ed oppiMilion, the most dungeroUM of conclusioiiH. They are ilected in orrler lo give Uio govermiienl a h'sson, and with Hie conviction that Ihe governnii'nt i?. strong enough lo bear the leHMon. I ISiil when this shall no longer be the caHc, when it shall be perceived tliikl the existence of Uic govurn- 1 menl has been endangered, there will be u coiintiT iiiovement ; so that the radical parly Is Hiibjecl lo this strange law, that its hour of victory is llie be- ginning of its defeat. Its Iriumtih is its end : often j those who have voted for ii. ami I selves applaud its proscription. The mainlcnance of order has, in fact, become in European commiinllies so imperiruis a condition, that long civil wars are irnpoMsible. The example is often (|iioled of those famous Greek and Italian republics which created an iMlmirable civllizaiion in till' midst of a political stale, very analogous to Ihe Ueign of Terror; but no conclusions can thence be drawn applicable lo a society like ours, whose ma- chinery is much more complicated. Spain, the Spanish republics of America, even Italy, can en- dure a greater degiee of anarchy than Franv, be- cause these are countries where life is easier, wliere there are fewer sources of wealth, where material interests and credit have lieen less developed. The Keign of Terror at Ihe end of the last century was Ihe suspension of life. In our day it would be still worse. As a being of simple structure can exist under many very dilTerent conditions, whilst animals finely organized, like man, have such restricted limits that slight changes in their habits produce death, so our complicated civilizations cannot sup- (lort crises. They have, if we may say s(j, a delicate lemperament ; a degree, more or less, kills them. A week of anarchy would cause incalculable losses; at the end of a monlh, perhaps, the railway trains would cease running. We have created mechanisms of infinite precisions, lool.s and engines whose mo- tive jiowcr is confidence, and which all presuppose a protound public tranquilily, a government firmly established and at the same time thoroughly con- trolled. We know that in the United States matters are managed otherwise; there, a degree of disorder is endured, which would in France excite cries of alarm. This comes from the fact that the constitu- tional foundations of the United Stales are never really in danger. These lillle-governed American States resemble those European countries where the dy- n;isly is not brought in question. They respect the law and the constiUition, which lo them represent Ihe European doctrine of legitimacy. To compare countries like ours, having socialistic tendencies, and where so many people look lo a revolution as to a means of improving their condition, with such Slates as these, completely exempt from socialism, an<l where men, wholly occupied with their private affairs, ask very little protection from the govern- ment, is the greatest mistake in philosophical his- tory that can be committed. The need of order fell by old European societies, coinciding with the improvements in arms. wUI, on the whole, give lo Ihe governments as much strength as they are daily losing through the progress of revolutionary icieas. Like religion, the cause ot order w ill have its fanatics. Modern societies have this peculiarity, that they are extremely placable so 1 long as their existence is not in danger, but become pitiless so soon as they begin lo have doublsof their I own stability. A community that has been fright- I eued is like a man that has been frightened : it has lost somelhing of its moral courage. The means employed liy the Catholic Church in the 13lhaud in Ihe Uith centuries, to defend its threatened exist- I ence, will be resorted to by modern society under more expeditious and less cruel, but not less ter- rible, forms. If Ihe old dynasties be powerless here, 1 or if, as is probable, they refuse to accept power un- KEVOLUTION. G8<^ REVOLTJTIOM. der conditions unworthy of them, recourse will be had to the Italian ^(wv'crs and podei>tas of the Middle Ages, to whom will be entrusted the entire business of reconstructing society in accordance with a bloody programme drawn up beforehand. Chance dicta- tors, analogous to the Generals of Spanish America, will alone undertake such tasks. As, however, the European races have a fund of fidelity which they never part with, and as, moreover, there will remain for a long time to come survivors of the ancient dy- nasties, there will probably be a return to legitimacy after each of these cruel dictatorships. More than once again in the future, the traditional rulers will ■be entreated to resume their task, and to restore, at ■whatever cost, to the nations which of old made covenants with their ancestors, a little peace, good faith, and honor. Perhaps tliev will require much solicitation, and will make conditions about which there will be no dispute. In view of certain occur- rences like those which have recently taken place in Greece, in Mexico, and in Spain, the democratic party sometimes says, with a smile, "There are no more kings to be found " A return of barbarians, that is to saj', a new triumph of the least intelligent and ^east civilized portions of mankind over the more intelligent and more civilized, seems at the first glance impossible. Let us have a clear under- standing upon this point. There still exists in the world a reservoir of barbaric forces, almost wholly under the control of Russia. So long as the civilized nations retain their powerful organization, the part which this barbarism has to play is reduced almost to nothing; but if (which Heaven forbid .') the leprosy of egoism and anarchy should cause the destruction of the Western States, barbarism would assuredly resume its proper function, which is to restore the manhood of corrupt civilizations; to bring about a Tivifying return to instinct, when reflection has put an end to subordination; to show that the spirit which leads men to devote them.selves freely to death, through fidelity to a chief (a thing which the democrat holds to be base and foolish), is that which makes a people strong, and gives them the earth for a possession. We must not, therefore, shut our eyes to the truth that the democratic theories, carried out to their furthest limit, would result in utter weak- ness. A nation which .should follow this plan, re- pudiating all idea of glory, of social eclat, of individ- ual superiority — having for its sole object the con- tentment of the materialistic desires of the masses — that is to say, aiming only to procure the satisfaction of the greatest number, would lay itself completely open to conquest, and endanger its verj' existence. How shall we prevent these sad results, which we have sought to point out as possibilities, and not as things distinctly feared ? By the reactionary plan ? By restraining, extinguishing, crushing, governing more and more ? No, a thousand times no ! That policy has been the origin of the whole evil; it would be the means of utter ruin. The liberal programme is at the same time the truly conservative plan. Be- yond all doubt a constitutional monarchy, limited and controlled ; decentralization; less government; an exceedingly strong organization of the commuue, the canton, and the department ; a strong impulse given to individual activity in art, intellect, science, trade, manufactures and colonization ; a policy de- cidedly pacific; an abandonment of all projects of territorial aggrandizement in Europe ; the devel- opment of a good system of primary instruction, and of a superior instruction, capable of giving to the morals of the educated class the basis of a sound philosophy; the formation of an upper legislative chamber, clioscn by many Viirious modes of clectitm, and providing, together wilh tlie simjile numerical representation of all the citizens, for the representa- tion of divers interests, functions, specialties and aptitudes ; in social questions, government neutrali- ty ; entire liberty of association; gradual separation of church and state, an all-important condition in the opinion of the religious world ; — such is the dream of those who seek by the aid of calm reflection, un- blinded by an intemperate patriotism, a practicable pathway. In some respects, this is a policy of peni- tence, implying the confession that, for the moment, it concerns us less to continue the Revolution than to correct it. It often seems that France is passing through a period of fasting, a sort of political regi- men, during which the attitude which best becomes Frenchmen is that of the sensible man who is ex- piating the errors of his youth; or rather that of the mistaken traveller, finally obliged to take the long way round the hill he had at first attempted to scale. Revolutions, like civil wars, are strengthening, if we come out of them : they kill if they last. In general, the mistake of the French liberal party is in not understanding that every political construc- tion should have a conservative basis. In England parliamentary government was not possible until after the exclusion of the radical party, an exclusion which was effected with a sort of frenzy of legiti- macy. Nothing is assured in politics until the heavy and solid parts of tlie nation, which are its ballast, have been enlisted in the cause of progress. The liberal party of 1830 were too ready to believe they could carry their purpose by main force, in direct opposition to the legitimists. The estrangement or the hostility of the latter party is still the great mis- fortune of France. Withdrawn from common life, the legitimate aristocracy refuses to society what it justly owes — patronage, examples and lessons of noble living, of grave and dignified maimers. The vulgarity, the total want of education, the great ignorance of the art of living, the ennui, the absence of resi>ect, and the puerile parsimony of provincial life, which prevail in France, are all owing to the fact that those who ought to furnisli the coun- try with the type of the gentleman, fulfilling public duties with universally recognized authority, fly from society, and more and more give themselves up to a solitary and retired life. The legitimist party is in one sense the indispensable substructure of every political foundation amongst the French ; even the United States have, after their manner, this essential basis of all society, in their religious souvenirs, heroic in their way, and in that class of moral, high-toned, grave, and weighty citizens who are the stonds with which the edifice of tlie State is built. The rest is but sand; nothing durable is made of it, whatever talent, whatever warmth of heart, _even, is brought to the work. This provincial party which is day by day becoming conscious of its strength, what does it think? what does it wish? Never were views more clearly defined. This party is liberal, not revolutionarj-; constitutional, not re- publican; it wishes the control of authority, not its destruction; the end of personal government, not the overthrow of the dynasty. We do not doubt that if, in time past, the governnipnt had taken a positive stand, had given up the system of official candidates, the artificial subdivision of districts (circonscriptions), and allowed the electi(ms to be made spontaneously by tlie nation, the result would have been to return a clianiber decidedly imbued with these principles, and which, being considered by the nation as representing its wishes, would have had sufflcicnt strength to get safely over the most difficult crises. The day will inevitably come when it will be as hard to understand why the Emperor Napoleon III. did not seize this means of obtaining from the country a second sigiiiiture to his marriage contract with the slate, and of divid- ing with tiie nation the responsibility of ii doubtful future, as it is to compreliciid why Ijouis Philippe did not see in the co-operation of men of capacity a tncans of enlarging the bases of his dynasty. The provinces, in fact, take the elections much more sc^riously than Paris. Having no political life ex- cept once in every six years, they give to the elec- tions an importance which Paris, with her habitual REVOLUTION. 687 EEVOLUTION, levity, (Iocs not aorord to tlirm. I'ari.n, only intent on inakini; liiT nidical protest, hcch in tlir' rIcrtionH, not a clioicir of uravc dclcnatcH, Imt an o|i|Mirtiniily for ironical nianifcstations. 'I'lir proviiircH do not understand siicli tincssin;;; tlicir ilcpiilii-H are really lladr representatives, anil lliey tirndy adiir-nr to them. A cliandier freely eleeteil willioiit inli-r- fcrence from tlii^ adininislralion, woidd it liav(^ been dangerous for the dynasty? Would the radieal o|)po- sition have been represented in it liy an increased nuniher of deputies? \V(' think just the contrary. In a i;reat lunuher of cases tlu' election of lioslile, or even abusive caudidales, has bi'cn a sort of protest against the olliciul or ol)si'(piious candidate. The system of olllcial candidates completely disturbs the working of elections and impairs their Iruslworlhi- ness. not only by the direct pressun; (^\erte(l by tin- adminislralion in favor of its own candidates, but especially l)y the falser position in which it places the independent voter. The aim of the latter is, in jjeneral. no longer to surely choose the candidate who best represents his various opinions, or whom h(^ Ihinks the most callable of servinif the country, but lo set well aside, at whatever cost, the official candidate. C'onseipiently, no more shades of opin- ion, no more personal preferences. Since extreme opinions tind an assured favor with the mass, with whom bold assertions and noisy declanuition have ijreater force than more moderate views; and as the dcmocralii' party has also the control of a genuine fanaticism, and an organization which no other party has— the liberals fall in with the current, and adojit, in spite of their repujnance, the radical candidate. It is a very wide-spread error in France, to think that we must ask more to obtain less; and that the radieal opposition is the instru- ment of progress, the iin])elling force of the govern- ment. This is lru(^ of the modende oi)posilion, but not of the radieal party, which is an obstacle to progress, an impediment to concessions, owing to the terror it inspires and the repressive measures it oc- casions. Now, more than ever, the aim of politics should be, not to solve questions, but to leave them to time. The life of nations, like that of individuals, is a compromise between conlradictions. Of how many things we nuisl siiy. thiit we cannot live witli them or without them, and yet we still live! Prince Napoleon wittily saiil. a few years since, to those who would postpone the enjoyment of liberty till there are no longer in France either rival dynasties or a revohitionary party : "You will wait a long time." History will not blame the policy of those who, in such a state of things, shall resign tliem- selves to live l)y expeilients. Su|)pose that a mem- ber of the <lder or of the younger branch of the Bourbon fanuly should one day reign in France, it will not be because a majority of the French nation have become legitimists or Orleanists. but because a turn in fortune's wheel has made some nu'mber of the house ;)f Bourbon the useful man of the moment. Fr;inee has allowed her dynastic attachments so completely to die out, that even legilim.ac_v could only be restored V)y accident, and with a transitory title. The positivism to-day has so done away with all metaphysics, that one of the narrowest of ideas is gaining credence; namely, that the more recent a popular vote is, the greater its force ; so that, after the lapse of some tifleen years, this strange kind of reasoning is lield : "The geniTalion which voted such a ph'biscite has in jiart died ; the vote has lost its validity , and needs to be renewed." This is con- trary to the idea of the Jliddle Ages, according to which, the older an agreement the more binding it was. It is in one sense the negation of the national principle : for the national principle, like religion, supposes compacts independent of the will of the in- dividual, compacts transmitted and received from father to son as a heritage. By refusing to the na- tion the power to bind the future, all contracts are reduced lo life, or rather, we should say, to time conlracis; thi- more ardent republicann would, wo think, like them even to lie aiuiual, at leUHt until they get what they call direct government, when the national will woidil br- no more than the caprice of an hour. With suirh polilical notions, what lie- comes of the inti-grity of the nation? How deny the rijiht lo the sueeession when all is inaiic lo de- pend upon the material fact of the momentary will of the cili/.eiis ? Tliir truth is, tliat a nation is some- thing different from the collection of units of which it is composed ; that it cannot lie in any measure dependent upon a mere vole ; that it is, in its way. an idia, iin ab--lract thing, superior to the will of individuals. Nor can the art of governing be re- duced to a simple consultation of universal suffrage, that is to say, lo the ascertaining ami exe(;uling what the greater number considers lo be for its in- terest. This nniterialistic conception ronlains at bottom an a|ipeal to strife. In proclaiming its<df the vHimii ratio, universal suffrage starts from the idea that a majority in nundiers is an imlication of str(;nglh. and that if the minority does not give way to the views of the majority, they will run every risk of being beaten. But this reasoning is not exact, for the minority' may be more energetic and belter versed in the numagement of arms than the major- ity. "W'e are twenty. y<iu are one," says universal siifTrage ; "yield, or we will force you lo it I" "Voii are twenty, but I am in the right; and, though but one, I can force you to yield," will reply the armed man. Fataviam invenitnt ! Happy he who, like Boethius, can, amid the ruins of a world, write his ConnolaUon, of I'hiloxnjihy. The future of France is a mystery which balfles all sagacilj. Other count- 1 ries. indeefl, are occupied with grave problems : Eng- I land, with a calm which we cannot sufficiently ad- mire, is solving bold questions which with us are thought to be ihe exclusive province of ulopianism: but the discussion is everywhere circumscribed — everywhere there are closed lists, laws of combat, heralds and judges. In France, the constitution it- self, the form and even to a certain extent the verj- existence of society, arc continually at stake. Can any country liear up under such a state of things? We are reassured by the reflection that a great nation is, like the human body, a machine most adndrably constructed, carefully weighted and balanced ; al.so that it creates for itself the organs it needs; and that, if it has lost them, it supplies itself with new ones. It may be, that in our revolulionar\- ardor we have carried amputation too far: that, thinking only to drive away diseased superfluities, we have touched some organ es.sential to life, so that the patient's obstinacy in not recovering nniy arise from some lesion we have made in his vital parts. This is a reason for being more cautious in future, and for allowing the patient, robust after all. though dan- gerously ill, to heal his internal wounds, and return to the normal conditions of life. But let us make haste to admit that faults as brilliant as those of France have their redeeming side. France has not lost the scepter of intellect, of taste, of refined art, of atticism; for a long time to c(mu' she will still engage the attention of Mu- civilized worlil, and will be lo the public of Europe the subject of bets and wagers. The affairs of France are of such a nature that for- eigners become interested in them and quarrel at7out them, as much and often more than Ihey do with regard to the affairs of their own countries. The most troublesome thing about her polilical con- dition is the element of the unforeseen; but the un- foreseen has two aspects: by the side of the bad chances are the good ones, and we should be by no means surprised if, after a series of sad misfortunes, France were to enjoy years of singular splendor. 11, weary at last of astonishing the world, she would make up her mind to a sort of political appease- ment, what an ample and glorious compensation she might tind in the paths of private enterpris*-. How she might rival England in the peaceful conquest of KEVOLUTIONAKT TRIBUNAL. 688 EEVOLVER. the globe, and in the subjection of all inferior races to the sway of her civilization! France is very capa- ble of everything except mediocrity. Wharever slie suffers, she suffers it. after all. for having attempt- ed too great impossibilities. Whatever miofortuue the future may reserve for her, and were her fate one day to excite the pity of the world, the world will not forget that she tried bold experiments by which all prntit ; that she loved justice to the verge of folly; and that her crime, if of crime she be guilty, was to have believed, with a generous imprudence, in an ideal incompatible with human infirmities. REVOLUTIONARY TRIBUNAL.— The name special- ly given to the infamous Court of Judgment— the mo^t extreme republican will scarcely affirm that it was a Court of Justice— instituted by the French Con- vention in March, 1793, on a motion made by Danlon, who considered that such a Court had become neces- sary, inasmuch as the recent disasters that had be- fallen the national armies on the frontiers had led to dangerous conspiracies against the Revolutionary Government. Its members were chosen from tlie various Departments, and their appointment was ratified by the Convention. Their function was to sit in judgment on all persons accused of crimes against the State, and from their sentence, delivered with appalling promptitude, there was no appeal. Dur- ing the ■' Reign of Terror," when Fouquier-Tinville was "Public Accuser," it acquired a horrible noto- riety, abolishing soon almost all forms of justice, neither hearing witnesses on behalf of the accused, nor allowing him an opportunity of defense, but blindly executii^ the orders of the " Committee of Pulilic Safety," which was merely a tool iu tlie hands of Robespierre. In the Provinces, similar Tribunals, under the name of " Revolutionary Committees," were establislied.the Commissaries General of which, as, for instance. Carrier, shot or drowned Smpectn in crowds. REVOLVER.— A weapon which, by means of a re- volving breech or revolving barrels, can be made to fire more than once without reloading. The in- tion of a revolving chamber or breech, pierced with several cylindrical apertures to receive the charges. Being made to revolve, eachmotion brought a cham- ber into line with the one barrel, common to all, where- upon the weapon was ready for use. Numerous patents for this principle have been taken out, in- cluding one by tlie celebrated Marquis of Worcester in 1661. Various improvements were made, especially in the mode of causing revolution, an American, by the name oT Elisha H. tollier.patenting such a weap- on iu the United States and England about 1818. In 183.5 Colonel Samuel Colt brought to a conclusion experiments of some years' standing, and patented his world-renowned Colt's revolver, which was a great advance on all previous attempts, and is sub- stantially still in use. Colt's revolver consists of one ritlcd barrel of considerable strengtli, and a massive chamber perfoiated with six or seven barrels, which are brought into a line with the barrel by action of the trigger. Eaclr chamber has its nipple for a cap, which is brought under the hammer by the motion which brings the chaml)er or breech-jjiece round. In the most recent form of this revolver, the capped nipple disappears, the cap being contained within tlie cartridge. The hammer is discharged by the trigger, anil acts nearly horizontally in a forward di- rection. Under the pistol is a fixed lever-ramrod, which is used in loading the chambers. Besides all this, by withdrawing a bolt, which can be done in a moment, the entire breech-piece can be taken out, and replaced by another ready charged, so that by carrying a spare breech-piece, a person ma}- fire twelve shots iu less time than another could fire" three if he had to load between the sliots. Colt's revolvers are now extensively used in the naval and military services of America and Europe. The principal rivals of Colt's revolver have been the Deiine and Adams, and Smith and Wesson revolvers, although man}- more of various sorts have been pat- ented in the interval. The Deane differed iu that it could be fired by merely pulling the trigger without also raising the hammer with the finger, as in Colt's; vention is very far from new, specimens, with even the present system of rotation, being still in existence, whicli were manufactured at the beginning of the ITtli century. Probably the first revolver to suggest itself was one in which several barrels were mounted on an axis, and made to revolve by the action of the trigger, so that their powder-pans came successively under the action of the lock. This principle was never entirely abandoned, and in the reign of George IV. was produced a pistol called the "Marietle," whieli liad from four to twenty-four small barrels bored in a solid mass of metal, made to revolve as the trigger was drawn back. At close quarters, such a jiistol would doulitless have been useful ; but its great weight and cumbrous mecliauism rendered aim extremely unsteady. Contemporaneously from the first with the revolving barrels, went forth the forma- I but this was found to be so dangerous iu practice tli.at ' the inventors scmii sulistituti'il an arrangement under which it could lio fired either by the trigger or Iiy I ralkiiur the hammer; and lastly, tliey introduced the great improvement of a spur behind the trigger, which must be pressed by the middle finger, while the forefinger discharges the piece througli the trig- ger. The drawing represents the American Arms Co.'s extracting revolver, using Smilli and Wesson's cartridges, caliber 38. This revolver is very simple, performing ils ollice i,' a satisfactory manner, with little liability of getting out of order, and is easily taken apart by the most unskillful. Its operation is as follows; After firing the cartriilges. open the arm as ill Smith 6c Wesson's, and, by turning it over, a quick niovemi tit will throw out the empty shells; or, turning it half-way over and pulling the extractor REVOLVING GEAR. CW RICE TROWEL BAYONET. rinn (jiiickly Imck with the lin);crs, llic bIicIIm fall iiilo the Imiiil or on the (iroiind. The revolver prin- ciple has also been HiireeHsfdlly applieil to llie niiiri- ufiieliire of a kind of revcjlvin^c nuns for small pro- jt'Oliles, wliieli are really aiinrefjales of Hniall-arnis. TIk^ Gallinijc i^un, a revr)lver of this class, in wliieli the several hiirrels turned round a eoninion axis, was iiseil dnrint; the Ameriean civil war. Hut the? best known f;un of this description is the French initrfiil- liimr t)r initraillfiir, of which so much was heard diirins the Fraiicn-Gernnin war. That most coni- inoidy used hail a iiroiij) of ll'i barrels, snrroiinded by a bronze shealhintr, and movable breeih-pieee; it was tired by means of a crooked handle or winch at the riijht-hand side. The rani;e of sncli j;ii!is in a level plain is not great; but anionf? forliticatidiis, or In a narrow valley, they may be u.^ed with very deadly etreet. See f'olt litvi/lrer, Ilntclikim Jlevidviug Can unit, Hmihu/tiiii J{(viih(r, Hrh(ififld-8mitJi & Wen. mm llerolvi r.nnd Smith rf- WismJii liivolrer. REVOLVING GEAR. The mechanism or pearinp, in machine ijuns, by which the shaft is revolved. It consists of a tuotbed whc'cl, fastened to the shaft, and worked by an endless screw, on a small a.\le, which pa.sscs transversely thronfj;h the case at rii^ht angles to the shaft, and is fnrnished outside the case with a hand-crank: and thus the Inek-eylinder, carrier, and barrels are revolved. Sec Odtting dun, anil 'I'rnr, rshici-qi ar. REVOLVING GUN. A breech-loading machine de- vised for fog-signaling, to avoid the labor of spong- ing and ramming home, as in the common guns formerly used for that pnrpo.se. The fore part con- sists of a barrel open at both ends ; the breech front abuts in a close-fitting joint against the mouth of a chamber, formed in a horizontal wheel containing five chambers. A passage communicates through the top of the breech-carrier with the rear of the chamber next to the barrel. This [lassage is so ar- ranged by means of a catch-spring that the com- munication is interrupted, except when a chamber is exactly fitted to the barrel, and then only can the gun be fired. This gun is not adai)ted to warfare, being constructed merely to fire blank cartridge. The wi'ii;ht of the gun is li.'i cwt. REVOLVING TARGET.— A very cheap and simple construction designed by General George W. Win- gate, am! used to some extent by the Tnited Stales Army. To construct this target a pit is first dug about 15 feet long, 8 feet deep, and (i feet wide for targets of the third class, and of proportionate dimen- sions for targets of the second and first classes. .V stout upright post is placed in the ground and firmly braced, its upper end being level with the top of the pit. An iron pin, at the suitable height, projects I the Victoria Cfohh. Of the latter is the (joorl Ser- vice I'ension. This reward is an annuity generally of ClOO, and is granted to (ieneral or Field Odiceni j who have passed a dislinguiKlied ndlilary career either in the field or in good service to Ihr- Stale. U can be enjoyed by the recipient, in aildition lo hbj regular pension, inilil he sncci-edH to the Colonel's allowance. In the Indian Army, an ofllcer receiving an enhanced pension, in addition to his regular pen- sion, would not be allowed to retain the ri-wanl for distinguished service if the aggregate sums reciiveil by him exceeded tl.OOl) a year. UleriloriouH Non- commissioned Olllcers receive the fiood-conducl \\v. wards in the shape of annuities of xlO, X.\Tt, orX20 each. RHANA SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— The singu- lar features of this system point out the absurdity of abstract calculationsapplied to the <irl nffi'rtificaiiim. The bow and arrow, the sword, shield, and lance are cunibined in this outline. RIBADOQUIN.— An ancient 1 or Ij pounder gun. Also a pnwiTfiil iToss-liow for Ihrownig darts. RIBANDS. Scantlings of wood about lO feet long and 4 inches square, and used in rack-lashing gun platforms to keep the platform secure; they are also used for mortar platforms. Two ribands accompany each platform. RIBAUD — A soldier of the Foot-Guards of Philip Augustus of France ; afterwards this term was ap- plied onl}- to the most infamous characters, /{i/au- (laiUe was a term of reproach formerly applied to cowardly soldiers. Philip of Valois thus called his Genoese mercenaries, who he thought had betrayed him. RIBAUDEQUIN— 1. Acliariol bristling with spears, used iu tlic fourteenth centurj' for the defense of camps, having small cannon fixed on the framework of tiie car. liihuudequinH were usually placed ou two-wheeled carriages and used as a clieck against a cavalry charge. 2. The name given to organ gun*, which consisted of a number of tubes placed in a row like those of an organ, evidently the forerunners of the modem m'tniilUvrn. 'i. A warlike machine in the form of a bow, containing 10 or 1.5 feet in its curve. It was fixed upon the wall of a fortified town, for the purpose of casting out a prodigious javelin, which sometimis killed several men at once. RIBBON. — In Heraldry a diminutive of the ordi- nary called the bend, of which it is one-eighth in width. RIBBON COCKADES.— In the Hritish ser\ice. the cockailis wliirli are given to recruits, and are com- monlv calleil the >'"/.»;■.«. RICE TROWEL BAYONET. This bayonet, the in- vention of t'olonel Edmund Kice, United States Ar- from this upright post, and serves as the axis upon which the target revolves. Two targets are con- nected by a cross-piece, through the center of which the pin or pivot passes. When the upper or exposed target is hit, the marker raises a disc denoting the value of the shot, and places it for a moment over the point struck ; he then pushes the other target laterally and up to the perpendicular, patches the bullet-bole just made, and stands ready to repeat as soon as the target then up is hit. REWARD. — .'V recompense given for good service. Kewards are either honorary ox peruniary. Of the former, titles, orders, and crosses are conferred on otbcers and men as marks of distinction for gallantry and good condvict and services rendered to the coim- try. The most recent reward for military merit is my, consists of the ordinary musket-bayonet, the blade of which is shortened and welded to a thin curved triangular plate of steel. It is intended tobe tised as a trowel for intrenching purposes, being then detached from the musket ; the loop connecting the shank and base of the blade serves as a stiffening brace, and also to guard the fingers from abrasion in the act of digging. -V similar blade can be affixed to the ordinary sword-bayonet handle, which, though heavier than that first described, affords a more con- venient grasp to the hand. The soldier should never be separated from an in- trenching tool of some description. Many are the instances recorded where it was impossible to for- ward the intrinrhing tmh to the front until after the exigency for their use had passed and the men were KICOCHET. G90 HIDING SCHOOL. compelled to use tin plates, tin cans, fragments of canteens, knives, sticks, etc., in order to get tempo- rary shelter from the enemy's most galling fire. The writer is a firm advocate of the trowel brii/onet, having given it numerous practical tests on tlie West- ern Prairies in engagements with hostile Indians, and when it was necessary to make cover while open to the tire of sharp-shooters. General Miles indorses its usefulness as follows : " I am fully satisfied that its utility and value are as well established as that of any article carried by the soldier ; that it would increase the efBcienc,v of any army ; and that it should be universally adopted by the entire army. If the opinion of officers command- ing troops in the field is considered of value, I believe that opinion is decidedly in favor of its adoption." The art of utilizing cover is of importance, and the soldier who carries in compact form the means of erecting cover at will, possesses advantages over an enemy not so provided ; and if the instrument used for this purpose is also available as an offensive wea- pon, his advantage becomes still more apparent. In future operationsof armies, hasty field entrench- ments must play a most important part. The best authorities, from Napoleon I. down to the most sci- entific soldier of this day, all agree in the opinion that each soldier should carr}- his own intrenching tool. By giving each soldier a trowel-bayonet, he is supplied with a light, strong, and serviceable intrench- ing tool ; no addition is made to the weight he is obliged to carry ; and he is provided with a weapon as formidable as the triangular or sword bayonet. The trowel hnyonet requires the digger to work on his knees. This is but a slight drawi)ack when the work is of short duration, and it is even an advantage times, produces most disastrous and demoralizing effects on masses of cavalry and infantry, whom it hews down in long lines. Spherical projectiles are more certain of ricochet than those of elongated form ; with the latter the first graze usually causes them to tumble, after which their motion is both feeble and erratic. The pieces principally emploj-ed for ricochet firing are the 8-inch howitzer and the 8 and 10 inch siege mortars. The first two may be used when the angle of fall is less than ten degrees. KIDEAU. — A rising ground or eminence, command- ing a plain, sometimes almost parallel to the works of a place. It is a great disadvantage to have rideaus near a fortification, which terminate on the counter- scarp, especially when the enemy fire from afar ; they not only command the place, but facilitate the enemy's approaches. • RIDER. — In artillery carriages, a piece of wood, which has more height than breadth; the length being equal to that of the body of the a.xle-tree, up- on which the side-pieces rest in a four-wheel car- riage. such as the ammunition wagon, block-carriage, and sling-wagon. RIDGE. — In fortification, the highest part of the glacis proceeding from tlie salient angle of the cov- ered-wav. RIDING ESTABLISHMENT.— The School at Wool- wich, established for the instruction of the men of the artillery in riding. It was formed on the organ- ization of the horse artillery under the Duke of Rich- mond, when Master General. It continued, as a mix- ed department, with the Koyal Artillery until the year 1809, when it was made into a separate and distinct establishment. It consists of 7 officers, 218 men, and 144 horses. AT WORK. ■when it is being carried out under the enemy's fire, as a man offers in this position a smaller mark for bullets and shrapnel. Although but little used to earth-works, infantry soldiers wull soon attain a great rapidity of execution, for it will be to their interest to get quickly under cover. See Clitz Intreiiching-tool and Farrow Knife- trowel and Tent-peg. RICOCHET. — In gunnery, the boimding of a shot along the ground, whicli takes place when a gun is flred'low. Ricochet firing is found extremely use- ful both in its actual and moral effect in clearing the face of a ravelin, bastion, or other rather long line of fortification. If well directed the ricochet shot bounding along will dismount guns, scatter the gun- fr^n "allldft <f JHujpt V ,J5hihiUftf .V^ SMrtMnlt. -y'^ Head c ...*^'1 Talthljit ners, and greatly intimidate the garrison. Vauban first introduced ricochet firing at the siege of Plulips- burg in 1G88. The defense against tiiis sort of at- tack consists in earthen traverses along the threat- ened line, or in a bonnet at the point of parajict nearest the enemy. In the field, ricochet, where the shot or shell is made to bound forward at least ten RIDING-MASTER.— In the British service, an offi- cer in the cavalry, military train, and artillery, whose duty it is to instruct the officers and men in the man- agement of their horses. He is most commonly se- lected from the ranks ; his pay is 9s. a day. rising by length of service to IDs. fid. and 13s.; besides which he receives £7 per troop per annum for riding-house expenses ; and he is believed to make some profit out of this allowance. The Riding-master has the re- lative rank of Lieutenant, and, after an aggregate service of 30 j'ears, including at least 1.5 years as Riding-master, he has the right to retire on 10s. a dav, with the honorary rank of Captain. See Rough Rider. RIDING-SCHOOL.— To perfect the troopers in man- aging tlieir horses and in tising their arms, they are exercised in running at tlie lomln an(l riiig.t. This is done in the riding- school. For this exercise, four posts — two, ."i feet inches high, and two, 2 feet in- ches high — ca'led head-posts, are used; also, two posts called rinrj-posts, so made that the upper part, which sujiports a horizontal arm. maybe raised and lowered; from the arm which extends over thecenter of the track is sus])en(liMl ;in iron ring4in. in diameter, so arranged that it. can be easily carried away with the saber. These posts are placed along the sides of the track, on the inside, in tlu' fol- lowing order : twenty j'ards from one end a tall head- post, two yards from the track; forty yards farther, a ring-post ; twenty yards farther and twenty yards from the other end, <ine yard from tlietrack, a short head-post. The posts arc arranged ou the other ~^^ yj JIIDINO THE WOODEN H0B8E. GOl BI7LE ABSOCIATIOHB. side of the track in a similar manner, Uic tall poHt bcitig opposite llio first short post, and IIk^ short post opposite tli(! Ilrst tall post. Oneach of the four iieail-posts, anil on lint fironnd on each si<lc, half- way hctwi'cii the tall lirad-post and tlit; rinj;.post, onr yard from Ihi: track, is placed a canvass or leather /»'(((/ stiilTed wilh hay. Each troojjer, when he conies near the first tall head-post, brings down his pistol, fires at the head with blank cartridge, and continuing on the track, returns pistol draws .saber, taking the position of guard, and, when on the opposite side of the school, takes the head on the tail post \>y a ri(//di)T fmnt cut ; the head on the ground ar/ohtst infiiiUry, right cut ; i\w, ring at Hern: point, and the head on the short post, aynin«t i/ifiintr//. right point. The heads may be also taken by executing rigid point, and in guartt point, at the head on the tall post ; againxt infantry rigid point at the head on the ground ; and against infmdry front point at the head on the short post. After the troopers become skillfid in the use of their sabers to (h(; right, the exercises maybe re- peated to the left; then with stirrups crossed, and finally with the hor.ses bare back. Hurdles and bars may also be jiluccd on the track. See Jlome- mannhip. BIDING THE WOODEN H0B8E.- A punishment formerly resorted to, not only in the IJritish Army, but in the armies of other nations. The horse is described as made of plank, roughly nailed together, forming a sharp ridge to rei)re3ent the back of the horse ; it was then supported by posts to .serve as the legs of the animal, about '! or 7 feet lon^, the whole being placed on a movable truck. AV hen a soldier or soldiers had to undergo punishment, they were placed on this horse, with their hands tied be- hind their back, and freipiently muskets were tied to their legs, to prevent the horse, as was humorous- ly observed, from kicking off. BIFLE ASSOCIATIONS, (jeneral inslrncfions for the formation of rifle associations in different locali- ties, together with a form of by-laws, will be found annexed to the Aimual lieport of the National Rifle Association for tiie years 1874 and 187.'). Those Asso- ciations should confine their attenticm, in the main, to practice with military rifles, not only on account of the advantages to l)e obtained from training the Na- tional Guard and the public to the use of military weapons, but because the number of those using long-range rifles will of necessity be limited. It will be found advantageous for such association to em- ploy markers liy the month, and for the members using them to be charged a certain sum an hour. When not occupied in marking these men can be used in improving the range. Boys shotdd never be allowed to serve as markers. Care should be exercis- ed in the selection of score-keepers in matches. Un- less reliable men are employetl. the danger of incor- rect scoring, through fraud or carelessness, will be very great, and accidents are apt to occur. Volunteer scorers may be reli?d on for a short match, but not for a meeting lasting several daj's. In all competi- tions, the prizes should be more numerous than valu- able, and a number provided from which previous winners of prizes should be excluded. In this way young shots may be encouraged, and the danger of having all the prizes carried oft by a few men avoid- ed. In matches each man, upon entering, should re- ceive a register ticket, 'iy^i inches. The tickets for the different matches, as well as fordilTerent distanc- es in the same match, are designated by different colors. Each one should be numbered and contain blanks for the name of the marksman, the target, and hour at which he is to shoot, and his score, having a coupon attached containing sinular blanks. The as- signments of the targets should be made by lot. after alf the entries are received, and be at once posted upon the bulletin board (which should be placed in a central position), directing numbers so and so to shoot at such and such targets. Teams should be kept together. (.'ompetitorHshotdd then proceed to the turgclH to which they find they arc assigned, and hand tiieir tickets to the «core-keepern, who Hhould ])lace them in a tin frame holiling ten. Tlie men should be called up in twos (^except in long-range competitions, when they fire in succession;, who lire alternately till Ihey have fired their. sighting and scor- ing shots. Ah each man's shot is Hignulled, the scorer should call his name and the value of the shot, as " IJrown — four," at the same lime entering it upon his ticket. When the score is completed, lie should add it up, and announce the aggregate — "Smith — ten," etc.— and tear off the coupon f whicli Isadupli- cate of th(; tiekel, and give it to the man), retaining the tieki't, which he should hanil to tlie.Superintenfl- ent, who should take it into headipiarters. Any al- teration on the ticket should always be re()uired to be initialed. Any man delayinfj the match should In: pas.sed, and any one acting discreditably di.sijuali- tied from comjieting in other matches. The latter regulation should be rigidly enforced in all eases. Communications with the competitors, during a match, should be by notices posted upon the bulletin board. This they should be required to watch, and their neglect to do .so never be accepted as an excuse. In order to secure an equality, target rifles, unless handicapped, should not be permitted in military matches. Interesting matches are fre- quently maile by permitting them to be u.sed at longer distances, as at 800 yards as against military rifles at .500 yards. Special military rifles, with small bores and heavy charges, should be discrimi- nated against in a similar manner. The best way to sort out the tickets is to have a board provided witli nails, each of which is numbered from the highest possible score downwards. By having each ticket punched with a hole the size of the nail, it can be placed upon the one bearing a number correspond- ing to the score entered on it. and all confusion in arranging them avoided. The entries for each match should be kept in a separate book. If not, delay and inconvenience will be inevitable, as they have of necessity constantly to be referred to. The general arrangements for a match should be placed in the hands of the Executive Committee or Otlicer, who should attend to all details. They should care- fully watch both markers and scorers. The knowl- edge that this is being done will do much to prevent carelessness in the marking. Protests and com- plaints not having a substantial foundation should be discouraged. All protests should be heard and j decided upon the spot, whenever practicable. If delayed, it is difficult to ascertain the facts in regard to them. While every endeavor should be made to insure fairness in making a decision, when once made it should be firmly adhered to. The greatest benefit in developing good shots and building up an interest in rifle practfce will be found to result from badges offered for competition monthly, not to be- come the property of the winner until won a certain number of times." The longer the struggle for these, badges continues the more "their possession is valued I The securing of a proper range is the main obstacle I with which anew rifle association has to contend. I The land should be purchased, if practicable; it not, I it may be leased. Its location is most important. If not easy of access, it will not be successful. Be- yond the erection of the necessary butts and targets, no buildings, with the exception of a small store- house, are necessary. If, however, a building should be provided for the residence of the range-keeper and the storing of the rifles, etc., of the members, it will form a great convenience. The question of laying out the range and the targets should be .f idly understood. If iron targets are used, twelve ' will be suflicient for an ordinary range. This will allow three third-class targets and two second-class, to be used together, and permit of their being con- verted into two first-class targets, for long-range matches. These can be put up in different manner KtFLE CANISTER. 692 RIFLE CANNON. upon diilerenl days, so as to permit the members to practice at any distance by coming at a certain time. Whether the targets should be placed in pairs or upon a line depends upon the ground, and also how it is to be used. If the range is to be used for mili- tary class-firing, the targets should be so placed as to allow of their being used simultaneously at the same distances, without one firing party being in front of anotlier. For other practice the firiug'par- ties may be placed in front of one another, provided an interval of at least l.'iO feet is preserved. A moving target adds interest to the range. At Wimbledon it consists of a running deer; at To- ronto of a running man. In both cases the target is of iron, and runs upon a railway about 60 feet long, and rising at each end about 5 feet. The markers are placed behind a shot-proof butt at each end, and start the figure at a signal from the firing- point. The descent gives it a speed of about .5 miles an hour, and it must be hit while moving. To shoot at a mark of this description with success re- quires the best qualities of a rifleman, and much ex- perience. See National Riltj; Annociathn. RrFLE-CANISTER.— These are very similar in general appear- ance to those used in smooth- bore cannon. As shown in the drawing, the case is of sheet-iron or tin, with fringed ends which are turned over and soldered or riveted to iron or zinc discs. The balls are of iron or zinc packed in rozin or coal-dust, sometimes in discs of wood. The}- are fitted with solder studs or rings of lead on the outside to take the rifling, or with an expanding cup. See Canister-shot, Case- sluit. and Projertiles. RIFLE-CANNON.— The general adoption of rifled small-arms necessitated the introduction of rifled cannon. It is plain that the principle has application to all sizes of projectiles, and would therefore be used for the heaviest ordnance as well as for the smallest. Contemporaneous attempts so to adapt it have not been wanting, but they are in many cases isolated in point of time and connection. Tlie first persevering and rational efforts to apply the rifle principle to cannon were initiated some twenty jears since; and the names of Wahrendorff, Cavalli. Lan- caster, and others, are identified with the first efforts to overcome the difficulties — of no ordinary char- acter — that beset the question. Tlie yielding nature of lead renders the application of the rifle principle of easy accomplishment in the case of small-arms; but such is not the case with rifle-cannon, where the projectiles are made of iron. The application of this principle to cannon also r^'quired.an increase of strength in the piece. The greater the weight and the length of a projectile, the greater is the opposi- tion from inertia and friction which it offers in the bore to the expansion of the ignited charge, andthis opposition is considerably augmented if the projec- tile is constrained to travel tlirough tlie bore in a spiral course. Hence it is not diflicult to conqire- liend why a rilled gun must be of a slroiurer.tcuigliiT, and more elastic material than is necessary for a smooth-bore gun in which the s]ilierical jirojcctile yields promptly to the first impulse of the powder-g:is to which it presents half its surface, and bounds freely forward through the bore, almost unimpeded byfrictiim; while the strain on tliegun is immensely relieved bythe comparatively great windage. Again, as the explosive power of a c:irtridge. and the in- ertia and friction of a ]irojectile, iiirrease as the cubes of their respective weights, while the surface of the chamber and the base of the projectile against which the powder-gas acts increases only as the squares, it follows that the larger the charge and the heavier the projectile, the harder and .stronger must be llie inner barrel. The progress of the art of war depends essentially upon that of the sciences and "manufactures, for the manner of fighting depends upon the character of the arms which we possess. These will be more effective, as their mode of construction is more per- fect, and as the means employed in their manufac- ture produce greater strength and precision. This is particularly the case with reference to cannon, in evidence of which we have only to call to mind the great revolution in warfare wliich has taken place since tlieir introduction, and which is continually taking place as the means of perfecting cannon in- crease. It is only in recent years that our knowl- edge of the metallurgy of iron, and also our ability to manufacture and handle, with any degree of .skill, large masses of that metal, have rendered possible the fabrication of the enormous pieces of the present day. But now the great improvements which have been introduced in the manufacture of iron, in the fabrication of cannon, and in the facilities for the transportation and handling of heavy guns, render possible the success of cannon of mammoth propor- tions. In designing rifle-cannon, the pratticability of manufacture and the durabilitj- of structure must be ascertained. The weight, caliber, length, sys- tem of rifling, weight and shape of projectile, etc., etc., must be all scientifically calculated so as to in- sure excellence in range, accuracy, and penetration; and then each and all of these constructional details are liable to alteration, should the thorough trial of a specimen gun render any amendment advisable. The first comprehensive experiment with rifled can- non appears, from all accounts, to have been made in Russia, about 1836, on the invention of a Belgian, but did not prove successful. In 1845, Cavalli, a Sardinian officer, experimented with a breech-load- ing cannon which was rifled witli two grooves, for a plain iron projectile, adapted to fit them. In the next year, Wahrendorff. of Sweden, fitted heavy projectiles to take the rifling by affixing lead to their elongated sides by means of grooves cut in them. And not long after this, Timmerhaus, of Belgium, invented an expanding mbot, which, being fitted to the base of the projectile, was forced into the rifle- grooves, and thus gave rotation. In these early ex- periments we find the germs of the leading systems of the present day. The solid projectile, fitted to en- ter the grooves of the gun; the compression of a soft covering on the projectile bj' the lands of the gun ; and the expansion of the rear of the projectile by the pressure of the powder to fill the grooves of the gun. The object of rifiing a gun is io increase its accu- racy of fire, and. by enabling elongated to be substi- tuted for spherical projectiles, to obtain from it longer ranges. Kifling diminishes the deviations of ordinary projectiles, due to the following causes : 1st. Want of uniformity in figure and weight around the longitudinal axis of the projectile. passing through the center of gravity. 2d. Positioii of the center of gravitj', before or behind the center of figure. 3d. Resistance of the air. I. By rotating the projectile around its longi- tudinal a.\is, the direction of these deviations is so rapidly shifted from side to side, that the projectile lias ni) time to go far out of its course either way. II. The velocity of this rotation is such as to make the axis stable on leaving the bore, and to counteract i\\v. pressure of the air tending to turn the projectile over, or render it unsteady in flight. III. A given weight of ])rojectile can be put into such a form as to opiMise the least practicalile cross-sectional area to the air, and thus to receive the least practicable retardation of velocity. Certain |ieculiar advantages follow from the rotation of the projeclili-, causing it to ]iresent the same part to the front throughout its flight. It becomes jiossible to make a much simpler percussion-fuse, because it is only necessary to prov- ide for action in one direction in place of every pos- sible direction. Shells reipiired to act towards the front in any peculiar way have their bursting-charge KIFLED HOWITZSftS. 693 BIFLED H0WITZZE8 and rnotiil i)la(:(r(l willi a virw In this object. 80, ai^iiin, llu; cciiUt of i^riivity irmv hi: brought to (iny (Icsiicd part or tin; slirll, ami this is an iinporlanl feature in th(^ coiistrui'tioii of projectih'S. Kitbn); gives tlie power of altering I he form of projectiles at will. TluOieail inay III' made of any desire<l Hha|)e for penetration or llij;ht. The projeitile may i)e elon;jate(l ho as to j;ive a diininislieil surface for any resistinj^ medium to act ui)on; thus in lli^dit, vi'locily is kept up and the ratine extended, or on impact (greater penelralinri is oljtaini'd. \V'ei;;ht for weii^-ht, the sainir eirecl may j;enerally lie produced with an elonjiated projectile liy usini; a smaller charge! of powder than with a spherical one. It follows from the }lis;ht of an eloimaleil projectile meelintj with li'ss resistance from the air, and Ueepiii;; up its velocity better, that at all but very slinrt ranges the trajecto- ry is Hatter; hence the probability of hittini; an or- dinary object is ijrcater. The power to vary the lenL;lh of the eloni;ati'd ])rojeetile enables nil those for the same mm to be made of the same weight, and hence to reipnre the same elevations with the same charge of ]io\vdcr. Or it is |i<issilile to make a projectile specially heavy if rcquireil. This obvious- ly cannot be the case with spherical projectiles, which nmst be of the same size. The chief disadvantages are, bad ricochet, increased complication, and ex- pense of manufacture, liability to injury arising from the necessity of soft studs, expaniling rings, or a soft lead coal; increased strain on the gun, besides great- er probability of jamming and injury to the bore, uncertainty of time-fuses. EIFLEDHOWITZEES.— In consideraiion of the sat- isfactory results obtained with the 3.07-incli Moffatt breech-loading lield-picce, and also of the evident advantages to be secured by the substitution of a breech-loading rilled howitzer for the 8-inch muz- zle-loading smooth-bore howitzer, of at least equal power to the latter gun- -for Hank defense and siege purposes — a result believed to be attainable with tliis system by a 6-inch caliber, it was decided to con- struct such a howitzer on the MolTiitt plan for experi- ments and tests, the slight changes in construction resulting either from some observed imperfection in the working of the mechanism in the tield-piece or from the employment of adilTerent nature of ammu- nition in the howitzer. A brief description here will therefore suflice. The howitzer consists of a steel body, to which is adapted the MofTatt breech-mech- anism, a conical breech-plug closing the bottom of the bore through the agency of a strap or yoke, which locks into lugs on the sides of the brcechfor the sup- port necessary to resist the shock of discharge, and which is attached to the trunnions aH an uxIh of mo- tion. 'I'he chamber is opi-ned by tilting up the breech of the howitzer with a lever, whereby the block falls back upon th(^ strap and uncovers thebori'. Inpliu:e of a li'ather strap to insure the opening of the bnech, a held is attached to the hinge of the lireech-block, which, comingin contact with the strap as the breech is raised, throws down the block, and by the same movement turns with the hinge so as to ilear the strap. 'I'he locking-boll is bored through a.xially for the reception of a liring-pin. with which to explode the charge when primed metallic cartridges are em- jiloyed. An ordinary vent is also jirovided by meanfl of which the charge can be ignited by a friction- |iriiner. Th(' gnn-boily was made from a steel block furnished by Thomas Kirlh A Sons, of Khetlleld, England. It was cast in an ingot, forged to dimen- sions, and bored by them to within one-ipiarter inch of its tinished diameter. The steel contained about 0.04 of 1 per cent, of larbon. The breech-strap and block were made in iioston, and were of low gteel, containing 0.44 of 1 per cent, of carbon. The following are the principal dimensions of tho gun : Diameter of bore across lands inches. Diameter of bore through chamber... 0. 2 inches. Diameter of breech-block cavity at seat of gas-check 6. 8 inches. Diameter of breech-block cavity at outer edge 8. ■'> inches. Exterior diameter of piece at muzzle 12 inches. Maximum diameter 10 inches. Diameter of trunnions .'>.8T.5 inches. Diameter of riinbases 8. inches. Distance betwcen-rimbascs 10 inches. Diameter of loop (over ) vertical 5. 875 inches. trunnions) in breech- - straps ) horizontal. 6. 075 inches. Length of gun body 78 inches. Total length of gun 88 inches. Length of bore 09. 625 inches. Length of ritled portion of bore 64. 62.') inches. Length of bevel joining lands to chamber 1 inch. Pitch of rilling, uniform, one turn in 30 feet. Number of grooves and lands, each 17 Width of lands 0. 50 inch. Width of grooves 0. 6088 inch. Depth of grooves 0. 075 inch. Length of trunnions 5. H75 inch. The principal Ktiropean Artilleries have produced rifled howitzers and mortars throwing shells of 80 kilos, with sufficient accuracy to render them fomii- Elements. Nature of the metal of the piece . France. Howitzer of 22 c. m. Method of loading Caliber of the bore millimeters Length of ritled portion (iu calibers) Number of grooves Twist (in calibers,) about Inclination of the grooves to the genera- trices of the liore Weight of the piece kilos Weight of the loaded shell Weight of the interior charge of shell — Maximum firins-charge Ratio of the weight of the maximum charge to the weight of the projectile Ratio of the weight of the projectile to the weight of the piece Maximiim initial velocity meters jyiaximum range do Cast iron, banded. Muzzle 223.3 9.8 3 England. Howitzer ot 8 inch. Prussia. Austria. Mortar of 21 c. m. Mortar of 8 po. 0° to 6" 3,700 79.8 4.0 6.0 ItolS 1 to 16 257 5,220 Wrought iron Bronze with steel tube Muzzle Breech 203.2 4.4 4 16 1« 6' 31 2,350 81.4 5.9 4.53 . Cast iron. Breech. 1 to 18 1 to I 209.3 5.5 30 25 3,025 80.0 5.0 3.5 4,4801 1 to33 1 to 38 215i 4.000, 209.3 4.1 30 60 '3° 1' 16" 4,6.55 87.0 4.0 5.6 1 to 13 1 to .53 4.500 EUXED MUSKET. 694 EIFLE-PIT. dable to covered arches or blinds, such as exists at present. On page 693 are some elements for a comparison of these different pieces. It will be seen from this table that the French how- itzer and the Austrian mortar of 8 po. permit of the attainment of the greatest ranges, but also that their weights are very considerable ; the Austrian mortar, particularly, appears to have an exaggerated weight relativcl}' to the effects attainable with it ; it is possi- ble b}' the system of banding to reduce this weight, "say, at least 800 kilos., and to give the piece a great- er length of bore, which would permit the use of larger charges and of a more progressive powder, b_v means of which ranges of 5,000 meters should be ob- tained. In order to compare the accuracy of fire, we have calculated the ration of R and q of the mean devia- tions, longitudinal aud lateral, to the ranges. The is rifled. In 1855, Austria adopted for her infantry of the line, the riJUd musket, with a barrel 37 inches long, and having four wide grooves equal to the \ laud, making one turn in 83 inclies. See Bifle. RIFLEMEN.— Troops armed with rifles, and em- , ployed more or less as sharpshooters. The name has I nearly lost all meaning, for the whole infantry are now rillemen ; but as late as 1854, the riflemen were quite the exception, the army generally having the smooth-bore " Brown Bess." There were at that time only two English line regiments of Rifles, with two colonial regiments of infantrj-, and one Hotten- tot regiment of mounted infantry. The establish- ment of Rifle regiments was suggested to the British by the Americans and French, from the sharp-shoot- ers of which nations the British armies suffered severely. During the French war, the 60th and 95th Regiments were armed as riflemen, taught light in- fantry drill, and clothed in dark green, to be as in- Piece. 30". 40". 45°. 60°. R ? R ? R Q R Q French howitzer of 22 c. m. English howitzer of S'inches.* sV to jV A to tU Tie to ,ii TTff to Jj ,', to . 1, sis to jnis 5T5 to yj'55 1 tn 1 575 ^O 55,if 55B '0 T?S5 »i^ to '^ i\ to jV jV to jJjT m to ^U ik to ttVs TBiT to sir T.b to i^ s's to ^ ttVs to T^ YSC to „V7 lis to j^ A- to TbTF ^to rixto 21 c. m. 8po. AustriJin niorttir of 6ipo. 'A 20", R=3V to 5^t; g=^ to -^J^. above table indicates the limits between which these ratios vary for the different angles of fire, in^propor- tion as the range iucreases. It will be seen, from a study of the figures in this ta- ble, that the French howitzerlias above all a notable inferiority in point of accuracy of range. The Prus- sian mortar has a sensible superiority over the Aus- trian mortar in point of accuracy of range; but tlie accuracy in direction of the Austrian mortar is very much greater than the Prussian. Tliis latter fact would tend to jjrovc that the Prussians, notwitli- standing tlie modifications successfully introduced in the plan of their siiell, have not yet succeeded in giving to it a stal)ility upon its trajectory compara- ble to that of tlie Austrian shell. In respect to this, however, it should be observed that the inclination of the rifling in the Prussian mortar is 7°, while m the Austrian mortar the inclination is only 3'': it is generally admitted in France that the inclination of the rifling for large pieces sliould but little exceed 4". In respect to the effects of fire, tlie difference of weights of ijrojectiles thrown by the pieces examined is too small to give rise to llie supposition that there would be any appreciable difference iu tlie effects of penetration for tlie same angles of fire and the same ranges; in point of the effects of explosion, tlie Eng- lish shell, owing to its greater bursting charge, ought to be the most powerful. Prom wliat precedes it is to be concluded that the French howitzer, which was remarkable enough at the time of its adoption, has not to-day a sulhciently accurate fire to warrant its introduction in;,o siege- trains; for tlif; armament of places, anil the jirovis- ional armament of coast-batteries, it may [lossibly do good service, because, in these two eases, the ef- fects of isolated shots may be very formidable, not- withstanding that, in order to obtain serious effects against the very solidly construeled shelters of a place, it is necessary to groujithe shots ujion a small surface. See IlmmUer, AfuffaU (hin, and Ordnance. RIFLED MUSKET.— A musket of which tlie bore visible as possible. The 95th became the Rifle bri- gade. Experiment has since shown that gra3' is less conspicuous than green as a uniform — hence it was at first adopted by many volunteer corps. RIFLE-PIT— A hasty intrenchmtnt, large enough •mkm!^ BHELTEn-riT H)K SKIUMISIIERH. RIFLE PRACTICE. 605 HITLE PRACTICE. to conceal a Bliarp-sliootir or HkirmiMlicr, iind by a srnnll cover in front cniililcr him to iixc his nnns. A very sliijlit cartlicn |iiini|ii't in milllciciit to prolccl men, in n ;;rciit Miiiisurc, from the cII'icIh of Khnip- ncl mill rifle Imllilx, be«i(leg Hcreeninn them from view, wliieli, in itself, is of greiit iulviintiii;e. From 1 recent experimenis it hiiH been iiscertailieil tlmt the jM'iietnition of rille l):ills into newly exciiviiteil eiirth is iilioiit ten inches lit 'JOO yiinls, and only twenty inches at 11 ninne of 10 yiirils. The (liiifrnim shows the ilimensions of the pit and |)ariipet that have prove<l in practice to be very (lesirahle. After u little practice, eiicli skirmisher will soon ascertain tlie exact f<irm of jiit that suits him. The de|)lh nei'd not be nniffirm, but should be about ten inches where the mini's body will be. and about live or six inches in the other parts. In most instances the men will only have to improve natural cover. If lime admits, the piirapet may be made thicker and the trench deeper, and widened so as to pive an abundance of room. The natural cover shonlil always lie taken advantage of when jjossiblc. See Ilanty Intrencli- mi ntn and Slultrr-tn ih-Iuh. RIFLE PRACTICE. While initial velocities and ]iressures are determined separately or conjointly by their special iL|ipiiratus, nearly all other (pialities of till' ammunition are iisi'crtained, directly or incident- ally, from ritle practice at various ranges, with suit- able rests and other appliances. The target ground and fixtures at the Frankford .\rsenal possessing some peculiar features, a very brief description of their ar- rangement and u.se is appended. The structures pertaining to Ihcgrotmd consist of onv firing huuxe, two Ud'yvt housenw\\\\ their screens, in the " Record DooU of ExperimentH." A telegraph key and sounder jilaced at the hide of the recorder place him in direct <-oininunieation with the firing parly. Tlw taructs an- of the usual construction, the angle of di'presHi<in of their centerH being only Hcven feet for the live hundred yards, and twenty-one feet for iUf tliri'c Imndred yard one, as vicwe<f from the firing house. These arrangements luivebeen in oper- ation for somi' years, and tli<; work of recoriling a<;- eom|)lished by their means isdone acciiralely, safely, and with a rapidilv limited only by outside consider, ations. The desiderata of a fixeil ri'st arc Blrength, solidity, capacity of ailaptation to various models of snuill-arms, a facility in securing the arm (irmly in jxisition, without any undui; strain upon any of itH parts, an easy but steady recoil, and rapurily for nice pointing and adjustment. 'I'lie principal fixed rest at this Arsenal is a good attempt to embody these qualifications in the following manner: The support consists of a heavy freestone blo<k resting tipon a brick pier, and carrying (he cast-iron bed j plate of tlie rest as a cap covering its top and a por- tionof its sides. In this Ijed-plate is sunk the pintle which carries the trunnions u[ion which the r/i/umit as irell (IK the tirp-i-niriitf/e move in a vertical plane. The chassis controls the recoiling top-carriage by ac- curately planed and scraped guides, whose surfaces have bearings upon its sides for a length of thirty- two inches : and, owing to the center of vertical mo- tion being beneath, the recoil is always parallel to the axis of the piece at every elevation. The top-car- riage contains the arrangements for directly support- ing the piece, and these are so constructed as to dis- pense with direct screw pressure upon any portion and two cast-iron targets at distances of three hun- dred and five hundred yards from the firing house, and of dimensions 12' x 12' and l.Tx 13' respectively. The firing house is provided with an improved fixid n.-'t on brick pier, together with arrangement;; for firing from the shoulder and rest, recoil apparatus, etc. It is also supplied with armorers' bench and tools, desk, scales, clinometer, levels, telescope, etc., together with the usual instruments for determining the state of Ibe atmosphere. The target bouses wifji their screens are situated one in front of each target, at a distance from it of fifty feel and to the left of the plane of fire. They face their respective targets, and each lias arrangements for a camera lens, which, by means of a mirror, throws an image of the target, reduced to one-twelfth, on the surface of the table, at which sits the target recorder. Lithograplied target diagrams to scale, one of which, duly dated and niHiiViered, is placed upon t"ie talile at the com- mencement of each series of twenty shots, enable the recorder to mark the position of each shot as it strikes, thus avoiding the delay ami some degree of risk incident to the usual method of recording. These diagrams, moreover, duly signed and num- bered, are filed as vouchers to their respective pages ; of it. The points of support, in addition to the butt- stop, are as usual two, one near the bult and the other at about thirty inches in front; at neither l)oint. liowever, is any side screw clamp allowed to act directly upon the arm. At the rear the stock rests in a V while an inverted \ descends upon its upper surface and secures it laterally as well as ver- ! tically by the pressure of a spring whose tension can be increased at pleasure. Meanwhile the thrust- block in rear of the butt plate — a solid brass seg- ment moving vertically in a corresponding segment- al bed— adjusts itself to the points of contact with the butt plate The front support is also a V into which the barrel is pressed by the polished surface of a flat leaf spring above, which latter can. like the spring at the rear support, have its tension increased ui> to the limits of the strength of the rest. The advantages of this arrangement are perfectly symmetrical character of the svipport afforded to the piece : the coincidence of the plane of sight with the plane of fire secured, without adjustment, as a mere consequence of the style of support ; the absence of all distortion or buckling of the piece by local strains, or restraint of its longitudinal reaction, and the fact that the arm can be readily secured or released from EIFLE PRACTICE. 696 BIFLE FKACXICE. the rest, since, when tlie tension of tlic restraining springs is once adjusted, the piece can be removed or returned and securelj- clamped, almost with a mere click, and will be found sighted upon precisely tlie point last aimed at. All bearing surfaces, journals, elevating and traversing screws, etc., about the ma- chine are massive, far bej-ond the requirements of mere strength, and sufficiently highly finished to give great smoothness and steadiness to all adjustments; as is evidenced by the fact that alterations to the tenth of a minute can be made and read with ease and cer- tainty in an_v direction by two independent means, the vernier and the micrometer screws. In adjusting tlie lines for the siglits of small arms, both means are always used, and a discrepancy of more than O'.l be- tween them would demand a repetition of the trial. With the fixed rest and targets as described, all ques- tions regarding accuracy and uniformity of flight of projectiles, can be determined by the usual method of co-ordinates and centers of impact. The subject of investigation may be the performance of a known arm with a new ammunition, or a known ammuni- tion with a modified arm. A new arm with its own special ammunition may, too, be under trial a? a whole system, but, in any case, the average trajec- tory, and the degree of closeness and unifonnity with which the practice adheres to that average trajectory, can be determined. Rifle practice constitutes a branch of military in- struction peculiarly fitted for the National Guard, and in which they will always e.\cel. The '•po.iitinn " and " aimirifi drill" which constitute the foundation <)f the system, can be acquired in their armories, and even at "their homes, while the higli state of intelli- gence existing aniong tlii'm I'nables them lo soon ap- ply upon the range th<' instruction they have re- ceived. Kille practice is to a great extent a matter of judgment, particularly at the longer ranges, and the more intelligent men are, the better they will «hoot. Tims both In England and Canada the vol- imteers have been found to shoot better than the regulars. In addition to the vast Increase In mllilary efficiency resulting from liecomiug good shots, it has been found that rifle practice has proved to be one of the most agreeable portions of military Instruc- tion. The lionorat)le reputation of beinc a "crack shot," and the knowledge that the desired skill is solely dependent upon individual exertions, has done much to interest the National Guard in the subject, and has induced many to join its ranks. While every inducement should be made to attract and develop good individual shots, so as to con.sti- tule a good regimental "team," and for this purpose individual emulation should be encouraged in every way, yet regimental commanders must bear in mind that the true object to be attained is to secure the gene- ml efficiency of the rank and file as riflemen. More credit should attach to an organization making high average shooting than to one having a champion team, and all influences possible should be exercised in that direction. Nor will this course interfere with the selection of a good team. Nothing has been more clearly demonstrated at Creedmoor than that shoot- ing is a matter of educaticra.and it will be found that a Thorough course of instruction will not only make the regiment eflicient as a whole, but invariably de- velop a number of "crack " shots from among those who supposed themselves to be without the qualifi- cations requisite for a "Marksman," and the more "Marksmen" the better tlie chances for a strong •'team." Candle practice is specially to be recommended for tlie National Guard. It gives almost the same re- sults as armory target practice, and, as it may be performed simultaneously by an entire company, the saving of time is a great desideratum. Calculat- ing on a basis of one shot a minute, T> shots by 30 men at a single target require two hours and a half, while at candles they could all be fired in ten minutes. In this practice, a gas pipe with small jets is preferable to candles. Some regiments place a miniature tin target in front of the lights aimed at, having the bull's-eye cut out, the flame appearing just behind its center, so that a "bull's-eye" extinguishes it. When candles are used, it is an advantage to insert them in a tube with a spiral spring, so as to always keep the flame in one position, as in a carriage lamp. Some regiments have a bench like a carpenter's horse to place "the candles on, so as to admit of their being moved to ditTerent parts of the room to suit the liglit. In this practice the primer used on the regu- lar cartridge does not contain sufficient fulminate to extinguish the flame at a distance of three feet with certainty. In order to meet this defect, special prim- ers can and should be always obtained containing an extra quantity of fulminate Better effects are also found to result from enlarging the aperture into the cartridg;e. The shells made by the Union Metallic Car- tridge Company are unsuited to this practice. The cone-shaped anvil used in them blows out, when used without powder, at the second discharge, spoiling the shell, and thus making the practice expensive. Neither the Remington shell nor that made by the United States Cartridge Company is liable to" this objection, and in both, the opening for the fulminate can be enlarged. As a piece of the cap is frequent- ly forced through the barrel by the explosion of the primer, care must be taken in this practice never to aim in any direction where injury could be caused by it. The main drill of the National tiuard (in the cities at least) must take place at their armories, and practice at the range be but occasional, "not to learn, but to test what has been learned:" Officers should, therefore, devote all the available time to the sighting, position, arid inming drill, which form the foundation for the whole system. As these are apt to prove monotonous, candle jiractlce should be frequently indulged In. this jxirtion of the drill being always interesting lo the men. It is, there- fore, recommended that the men .should be jirac- tlced in firing .'it candles at the conclusion of each aiming drill. With mm of the Intelligence of those composing the National (iuard, the iniiirovement that will lie found to result from a llllle careful jiractice of this des<-rli)tlon will be found surpris- ing; and a comiiany that at the lieglnning could not extinguish more than two or three candles at a vol- ley, in two or three months will put out nine out of SIFLE RANGE (m BIFLE RANGE ten; and it. i« frc(|ii(nll_v ohmTvid llmt IIkihc who liiivc luul till- Irust iircvioiiH i)riiclici' us Hporliiini-n will prove the best shots. This (<iimllej priiclic^e will iilso prove viilimhle as a Hiihslitiite for ball prarlice in jiiiliiini; the elllcicney of the men in those cases where the latter eainiot lie had : anil none shoulil lie ]ira(:ti<-eil in target tiring who liave not avera;;eil extinguishing five out of ten cundleHat a previous drill. There is no portion of rifle praetiee more imi>ort- ant than understanding how to estinnile <lislanee, but lhei|iiestion of how such a knowjedgi' shall lie aeijnirc-cl and imparled, forms a verv dillienlt pro- l)lem for an iiiruir of llie National Guard. In the country, faeililiis tor the jiurpose can lie easily ol)- tained:lMil in llii' cities, otliors, in addition to re- quiring their men, when upon the range and not tiring, to jjractice in this cvercise nnist urge tllem to accustom themselves to judge distances the best way they can. inijiressing upon them that, no matter how accurate marksmen they may l)e at a li.xed tar- get, they are worthless if lliey cannot calculi.te the distance of an enemy. In estimating distances, the following suggestions nniy be vahialile : At M) yards the oliserver can name any one of his comrades read- ily, as tlie age, comi)lexion. height, and figure can be determined at llial distance. At UIO yards he slioukl notice those parts which are clearly visible, and liis attentioii drawn to the indistinctness of other portions. Tlie lineaments of the face are no longer visible, thel)Uttons down tln' front of the coat appears one continuous line. The movements of the men individually, and the form and colorof the uni- form, are. however, perfectly visible. At 225 yards, the colors of the uniform, cartridge-bo.xes, etc., are still visible ; l)ut the face now rcsemljles a light-col- ored liall under the cap. At about 2"il) yards he can distinguish only the dilTercnt parts of the body an<l the riiie. At aliout 4")ll yards, the direction of the line of nuirch and the movement of tin' rilles can be detected, and in cavalry tlie helmet, cuirass, bright colors of the uniform, etc. At (idll yards the head looks like a small roimd ball, and the shoulders sloped otf. At 700 or 800 yards the body has a dwindled appearance, but the legs of men in motion or extended arms are still distinguishalile. At t'OO and 1000 yards the separate tiles and direction of march are still apparent. At 1200 yards infantry can be distinguished from cavalry. At 2000 yards a man, or even a horse, looks like a meres|)eck ordol. Individual jiractiee should be I'ncouraged by all officers and particularly in the case of the Kational Guard, to wliom every inducement should be made to visit any available range for private practice. To prevent accidents ami ensure the enforcement of the prescrilied ruh's. every man slKuild be re(|uired to enter his name on arriving at the range ; those men ■who are the tirst to arrive shoulil have the right tc- determine the distance at which they wish to tire. As the men arrive, they will form themselves into squads, each S(|uad electing a Captain, who wil keep the score and enforce the rules of the range. All arriving subsequently are to obey his orders. If no markersor look-out men are employed, each Captain must make a detail from his s(|uad lor such purposes. and see that those detailed are properly rj'lieved. The firing is to be conducted according to the prin- ciples above laid down, and every shot fired in rear of the firing point, whether accidentally or other- wise, unless firi'd into the pit provided for the piir- po.se. shall be entered as a miss. The men last at the ground must see that the danger Hag is hauli-d down, and the aiipurlenances belonging to the range replaced where they belong, or retunn-d to the keep- er. Practice upon the range is only intended to find out and apply what has been learned at drill, and ac- quire a practical knowledge of elevations and the al- lowances required for wind and weather. In all ca.scs, therefore, extreme delibiration should be used. No advantage is gained by firing more than ten shots at a distance; and the liubit Ixtf^inncn* liave of i^xpeii'ling all the ammunition they can pro- cure us fast as possible, is a jKisilive uelriinent. Kacli shot should be tired with u dellnite purfKiiu;, anri ilsresidts noted and renn-inbered. The Captain of each K(|Uad, or rif a team, should give special at- tc-ntion to this subjici, as not only will tin' expense of the [iractice he greatly reducerl, but the quality of the shooting greatly improveil. Tliere is notliing which prevents wild and hap-lia/.ard shooting ancl develops those (pialitieH of coolness, forethought, and judgment, which make a reliable shot, than lu be kept on a short allowance fif ammunition. Kee Miirfi'xifi '/ /' nil I p. RIFLE RANGE.— The first point to consider in re- gard to a range is its safety, and too much pains can- not be taken in the selection of the ground in order to protc'ct till- public from dangi-r, as wellas to prev- ent unnecessary expense in the errecting of butts, etc. While it is impossible to lay down precise rules for every feature of a country, the following suggestions will be found siiflicient under ordinary circumstances : No ground is to be selected wliicli doi's not alford a range of at least '.W) yards, and it is most important that the grounil behind the targets should be thoroughly commanded from certain points sufficiently clear of the line of fire to insure safety to the look-out men who are to be placed there in order that the fire may be easily stopped when necessary : hence a range down hill is gener- ally to be preferred, as being more easily command- ed to one uphill. The targets upon a range should, where the ground permits, be estalilished by pairs, with an interval not less than ten yards between each target, and with a margin of at least 40 yards at the sides; the minimum breadth of ground for a pair of targets should be 00 yards, and all the targets should be on the same line. When, however, the number to be exercised in rifle practice is large, and the breadth of ground limited, a number of targets may lie established, with an interval of ten yards be- tween each, to be used as if for a jiair, a margin be- ing left at the sides of the outer targets of at least. 40 yards. In these cases the number of each target should be conspicuously placed upon the butt in rear of it so as to be plainly seen from the firing-point, and the firing should be stopped at all the targets when- ever Ihedanger signal is shown at any target within 40 yards. The breadth of ground in rear of the tar- get at each side of the outer ranges, should gradual- ly increase from 40 to 80 yards, in those ca.ses when the ranges are parallel; but when they converge towards the targets, the breadth may or may not be required, according to the degree to which the ranges are made to converge. The distances at the targets must never be less than ten yards between ranges in pairs, and eighty yards beiween pairs of ranges, whether thev are" laid out parallel to each other or converge towards the targets. If no butts are erected. and the ground is level, the space behind the targets should be about 1. 300 yards. A less distance may. however, answer, if butts are erected, or if a steep hill rises in rear of the targets. Before steps are taken to procure grounds for ranges, it is essential to secure the right to fire over the land behind the tar- gets to the extent required, should it not be desira- lile to purchase it. Generally this distance cannot be obtained, and a butt must be erected in rear of the tar-rets, to arrest stray shots. The height of this must ditTer according to the nature of the back- cround. If the ranee be on a plain. the regulation size of the butts is fronrSo to 40 feet high, provided the distance behind the target is less than 1.500 yards. Under ordinarj- circumtances, however, the height of the but', need not be more than 20 feet, and when firing toward water a butt of 12 feel in height will be sufficient. t)n some ground there are found natural butts for the tarirets to rest against. To be of use in stopping strav bullets and thereby insure the .safety of the public, the hill should incline 45 decrees. EIFLE RANGE. 698 EIFLE RANGE. at least ; if a smaller angle than this, it would, in- stead of acting as a stop, incur the chance of a rico- chet, and therefore be unsafe. A few furrows from a plough will frequentlj' lessen the chances of rico- chets. The length of the hutt for a pair of targets should not be less tlian 45 feet, measured along the top. They are far inferior to natural obstacles^ and are expensive to erect and keep in repair. The number of each target should be placed on the butt directly over it in large figures, so as to be conspicu- ous from the firing-points. Where there are a num- ber of targets these numbers should be painted red and black alternately. At long ranges Roman lig- ures, made by laying rails on the butt, are more easily discerned than numerals. In crowded locali- ties, where the range is short, and the danger of in- jury to the public great, a series of shields or screens may be thrown across the practice ground at different distances containing apertures of such a height and width as to permit the passage of all properly di- rected bullets, and to arrest random shots. These are sometimes high arches of cast-iron, and some- times upright barriers of stout plank. Two or three sheds with plank roofs, made to slope toirards the target, form a cheap and convenient screen, pro- vided the ground between them is furrowed so as to prevent the ricocheting of the bullets which strike the sheds and glance downwards. In tlie longer ranges, these shields are objectionable, not only because the high trajectory of the bullet makes it difficult to place them properly, but because they confine the firing to a single distance, and render the appearance of the target as visible through the apertures so different from what it presents m the " open" as to deprive those using them of many of the advantages that should be derived from target practice, and particularly from acquiring a practical knbwledge of distance. If care be taken that none be allowed to practice with ball who have not been through a course of "position and aiming drill," the danger of random firing will be reduced to a mini- mum, and the prescribed butt be found amplv sutfi- cient for all practical purposes. Every range is to be carefully and accurately measured, and the dis- tances defined by a line of small pegs, at intervals of 50 yards, commencing at 100 yards from the target, and continuing to 900 yards, or to the extent of "the ground, if under that distance. These pegs also serve as guides to prevent firing on a wrong target — a fruitful source of accidents. To avoid tlie sun, the targets must be placed at the northern end of the range; or if that is not practicable, at the eastern. In using the ranges the firing parties commence their practice close to the targets and gradually re- tire. Consequently, as there is not likely to be as much practice at the extremelj' long ranges as at the sliorter ones, a piece of ground, of a triangular shape may be selected for an extensive range, the targets being placed at the broadest part, and the firing-points being reduced as the distance is in- creased. Several l^ag-staffs should be placed in such positions upon the range as to make the danger sig- nal so conspicuous when hoisted upon them as to give notice to all passers-by that firing is going on. Smaller flag-staffs should also be provided at each lookout station. In addition to tfiese fiag-staffs, a suitalile danger flag should also l)e provided for each firing-point, to be elevated in answer to the danger signal, as hereafter explained. Several flags should be ercctc^l above the top of tlie bank in rear of the targets during the practice, togetlier witii one amid way upon the range, tosliow the direct ion of tlie wind. A wooden socket should be set in the ground in front of eacli target, in which the marker sliould place tlie staff of his danger flag when o1)li<r((l lo leave liis mantelet for any cause. This should lie set at an angle so as to display the flag clearly. The following is a list of the articles re()iiired for firactice upon the range by a single regiment : ron targets, C feet by 3 feet, complete 8 Flags (when used), Red, 6 feet square (or flag- staff) 1 Flags (when used), Red, 3 feet Viy 4 feet (danger) 4 " Red and white.2A feet square 4 " Dark blue, 2i feet square.... 4 White, 2i feet square 4 Poles — lance, 10 feet long...." 23 Discs (when used), Red flag, danger and for flag staff (as above 7. 3 Discs (when used). Black and white disc, 18- inch diameter, 3d class, 9-inch 4 Discs (when used). Red disc, 2d class, 28-inch in diameter; 3d class, 8-inch 4 Discs (when used). White disc, 2d class, 18-ineh in diameter; 3d class, 9 inch 4 Discs (when used). Black disc, 2d class, 18 inch in diameter, 3d class, 9 inch 4 Poles," Ij-inch. ff r 3d class; for outer, 12 feet 6- inch; center, 10 feet 6-inch; bull's-eye, 8 feet 8-inch 33 Poles, 1-inch, for 3d class ; for outer, 8 feet 6- inch; center, 7 feet 6-inch; bull's eye, 6 feet... 32 900 3'ards Gunter's chain or cord, labeled every 5 yards, and numbered from 1 to 900, divided into 18 equal parts 1 Pins of stout wire, 13 inches long 18 Stadometer complete, with 20 yards of chain, cross-staff and tripod for stand 1 Tripod rests 2 Sand-bags, bushel 2 Large brushes for coloring targets, 1 lb 4 Small brushes for coloring target (sash tools)... 4 Whiting, fine, without lumps (annually).... 1 cwt. Lampblack 15 lbs. Glue, to make size 42 lbs. In practice at a range by military organizations it is indispensable that the regulations for practice should be carefully prepared and strictly enforced. Safety, accuracy in marking, and, above all, the avoidance of delays (a point to which particular at- tention must be paid) can alone be secured by hav- ing all officers thoroughly familiar with the pre- scribed regulations The regimental Inspector of Rifle Practice or (in default of such an officer) an officer specially detailed for the purpose, should be cliarged with the entire management of the targets, markers, and scorers, and should be held responsible for all delays or errors on the ground. He will also assist the squad commanders in instructing and cor- recting the practice of their men. Before the firing commences, the markers and look-out men should be posted, and a large red flag hoisted upon the flag- staff in the range. These men, when not attached to the range, should be detailed beforehand, and marched to their positions as soon as their party reaches the ground. If a guard is required, it should be posted in the same manner. Proper re- liefs should also be provided from men who have completed their practice in time to allow those on duty to shoot. Printed orders should be furnished to both officers, markers, and look-out men, at the time they are detailed, in the following form, and care be taken that such orders are understOf)d. Orders for the Senior Officer at earli firing-point — Not to allow any practice to take place until the large red flag is hoisted on the main signal staff, and the sentries or look-out men iire posted, to prevent all persons whatever from attempting to cross the range and give notice of danger. To inspect the markers and register-keepers before they take their places, and see that they are provideil with all re- quisites, and properly instructed. To see that the markers and sentries are properly instructed in time, and that they are afforded an (ii)portiniity of firing. To see lint the men do not load exeejit at the firing point, and then thai Ihey keeji at a " rendi/" until they luive fired. In all imporlant eonqx-tilioiis. lo see that each man's trigger is tested at least once during the practice. To see that the squads firing are iiro])erly ecjualized. Not to allow a man to fire BlfLE BANOE. 090 RIFLE SHK&FHEL. iiiitil llic hIioI (if the previous man fHhould it Hirike llie l,ari;ct) Iiuh been sif;niili-il. To order llie " ('mm' firing" to bo MOiiiided, mid the " iljiiif/i-r" llii)^ to be lioisted 111 the )iriii;;-|)<)int, imiiie(iiiitely the red flag is mined from llie iimrUir'H butt, or any perHon or aiiiui'd apiieariiif; Iji front of the llrinf^ l)arly, and "« no ricci/iiiit to allow any liriiif; to pro. eeed so loni; as llie danijer llaj; is up at llie marker's butl. When this ilai; is lowered, to order tlii' " ('omiiie/iir Jiriii;/" U> he sounded, and the " tlan- ; gifr" flai; at the lirinji-point to be dropped. On the 'ranges situated in pairs, to see that the |)arlies fire by classes at the same (iistaiiees. and not one eln.ss in front of another. When the " CxiKe Jiving" sounils to see that tlie ii'.ini; at all the targets wlui'h are within oni' hu:id:ed feet of the target at which the " dangfr" liai; is displayed is discontinue<l imtil sucli ''(lunger" Hag n lowered, and the '■ Cnininrnre firing" is again sounded. To l)e most parlieular in cautioning his men that tliey will l)e almost certain to injure tlie niarkiT if Ihey should lire on a wrong target and the trap be open, ami whenever a man tires on a target dilferent from that to which he is assigned, to debar hiui from further iiractice and report liitn to the commanding <illieer. T.) see that all persons who desire to watch the practice stand to the rear and clear of the iiarty, and on no account to allow any noise or talking among the nun, whose attention should be tixed on the practice. To be most particular that the men keep their jilaces in j the ranks while the ]iractice is proceeding, to allow no irregularity, and to be ah'rt to prevent accidents. To see that the jiroper discs are used by the markers. 1 To use his best endeavors to prevent tlelays, and forward the progress of the firing. Orders f<rr till Markerii. — To see, on taking their places, that they are properly supplied witli flags or discs, brushes, paint, etc., aiul when ready to wave their red Hag and withdraw it. To see that the fol- lowing Hags or discs are raised to signal the position of the shots wddch strike the target, and the "rirucliet and danger" or "Cense fire." 1. Ulack disc or white flag — outer. 2. White disc with black cross, or similar flag — inner. 3. Red diseor<lark blue Hag — center. 4. White disc, or red and white Hag — bull's- eye. 5. Red Hag waved horizontally twice to and fro in front of the target — ricochet. 6. Ked Hag — danger, and cease firing. To see that the signal flags are invariably waved when the wind blows directly up or down the range; and (where flags only are used) whenever a shot strikes the target to the right of the center, that the flag denoting its value is inclined to the right, and rire rersa ; also, when a shot strikes the target high, that the flag is ■ high as possible, and upright ; and when low, that it is raised oidy high enough to be easily visible above the butt; and when using the disc that it is placed immedi:itely in front of tlie hit on the target. To see that the ••dnnger" flag is hoisted whenever it is necessary to cease firing, to re-color the target, or for any other purpose ; and to allow no one an anyu'cimnt ir/uitetvr. lo leave tlu- marker's butt until the " Cense fire" lias been sounded, or the "danger" flag has been raised at the tiring-points in anmrer to the " danger" signal ; also to see that the red flag is kept up (and waved so as to attract attention) so long as the markers are out of the butl, or any per- son is in the line of range. To see that the "dan- ger" flag is lowered directly the range is clear. To allow no person to enter the marker's butt, except those on duty, without an order from the senior officer on the range, nor to allow ;uiy one to enter or leave the butt except by the regular path. To check all talking or any disturbance in the marker's butt. To .see that the "dnngrr" flag is hoisted and shaken about immediately; any of the look-out men either hoists his flag or gives notice that per- sons or boats are within the line of fire, and that it is kept up until the range is clear, and the look-out man lowers his flag. When the firing is at loni; range, to see that all personH in the marker's butt stand as elose as poHsiiile to the slope most dihtunt from the target, lo avoid tlieehunce of being struck by the bullets when falling. At the (IrHl hignal to "Ceniie firing" to put out the "ihingiT" flag, but not leave the butt. At the seconil signal, lo place their Hags, etc., in the proper place, fall in. ami return to their command. 'I'o report all ihimui:e done, or re- pairs necessary for firing discs, flairs, etc. Ordtrs fur l/iiik-aiil Sentry.- To lf>ok out cvltv- fully, and the instant any person or aniniul apfx-ur* at going low ard.s . . . .or along the shore (when firing seaward;, coming from , to hoist the red Hag and call out lo the non-commissioned olHcers in the marker's l)Utt. in a loud voice, ••Danoeb," and lo keep his flag Hying until the said person has passed lo the .... (according to the direction in which lie is proceed- ing). The same precaution to be obs<Tve(l in respect to boats passing close in-shore in the line of range. To give notice to all persons who may be about lo pass the range that they are in danger while the fir- ing is going on, and to signal them back. In llio performance of his duty (more parliciilarly during the execution of the platoon and skirmishing prac- tices), to keep as low as possible to avoid the risk of being hit by a ricochet shot. To return to his com- mand at the second signal of "(.'ease firing." as pre- scribed for the markers. The marker in 'he Imlts, if not a marker belonging to the range, should invar- iably lie a non-commissioned officer of a different cnnpnny from tliat engaged in firing, and is responsi- ble tliat the correct signals are given to the several shots which strike the target. The firing parliea should not consist of more than twenty men each, and onlv one scpiad shouhl be allowed to practice at a time for each target available. Sucli detailed ar- rangements should he made as will insure the vari- ous squads being at the firing-points by the time those firing have finished their practice, and in this way prevent delay. When exercising by classes, if there be a choice of time for practice, the senior clasa is always to have the advantage. The men's names are to be entered in a blank return before going to the praetice-uround. in the order in which they stand in the ranks." Oue blank will answer for the sipiad assigned to each target to record the performances at two distances. IJuring the practice, an officer or non-commissioned officer is to keep the register, and will, as each shot is signaled, call out its value and the name of the firer. Any objection to the marking must be made before the second shot is fired. All entries during ccmipetitions or practice for final clas- sification should be miide in iiik on the practice- ground ; should any alteration become necessary, a fine line is to be drawn through the figure or letter, and the correction made adjoining it, the initials of the company officer keepimr the register being im- mediately attached to it (tiiim. 3 ; A. L.). to verify the circumstances. Inattention to this regulation, or an erasure (which is prohibited), should invali- date the register. This rule should be adhered to in all cases to prevent comphiiiits. See Jiifie Practice. EIFLE SHRAPNEL.— The shrapnel for the 3-inch B. L., rifle, shown ia the drawius, are filled in the same manner as" the spherical shrapnel. The fuse-hole has a composition boucliing bv which it is distinguish- ed from the shell of the same gun which has no bouching. In the Boxer shrapnel for the rifled ordnance of the English sen-ice, the essential features of a shrapnel-shell are embodied. This shell has a cylindrical iron body, with a cham- ber at the bottom, and four longi- tudinal grooves inside lo fsicilitate bre;ikin2 up ; it is cast without any hrapi.,1. iiead. X tin ca« for the bursting- EnXING. 700 EIGHT SHOULDER ARM? charge fits into the chamber <>n the shoulder of which rests a wrousht-iron disk. The shell is lined with piiper, and filled with balls eml)ediie<l in rosin. A wrought-iron tube passes down the middle of the shell and through a hole in the center of the iron disk, to lead the flame from the fuse to the bursting charge. A hard disk is placed over the top of the bullets. The wooden head is ogival in form, and made of elm covered with thiu wrought-iron, which is riveted to the shell. Tliis head contains a socket and bouching fertile fuse. See Cane-shut, Projectiles, and Shrapnel. RIFLING. — This operation is performed by means of the rifling machine. The machine is horizontal, and the gun to be rifled is fixed in front of it and in line with the rifling bar, to which a stout head car- rying the cutter is fi.xed. Only a single groove is cut at a time, and that as the cutter is coming down, the bore bringing the chips of metal before it. All the grooves in the gun are first cut out roiighly in suc- cession, and then finely. The distance between the grooves is regulated liy a disk fixed to the breech of the gun, having its periphery equally divided by as many notches as there are to be grooves. The gun is fixed each time by a pawl, and when a new groove has to be cut is turned round to the next notch. The gun remains stationary while the head carrying the cutter works up and down the bore, so it is neces- sary to make the bar to which the head is attjiched turn round more or less at the same time that it ad- vances and returns, otherwise we should merely have a straight groove cut along the bore, instead of the spiral we require to give rolaticm to the projec- tile. The gun-metal in which the cutter is fixed fits the bore accurately by means of burnishers. It is fastened to a stout hollow iron bar termed the ri- fling bar. This bar is fixed to a saddle capable of sliding backward and forward on an endless screw. The movement of the .slide to which the outer end of the rod is attached (and consequently of tlie cut- ting tool) is regulated bj' another copying arrange- ment on the other side of the machine. This ar- rangement consists of two horizontal bars, one high- er than the other, along which travels a weighted lever attached to a pinion which works the slide. When the rifling head is passing down the bore, this weighted lever travels along the upper bar: but when the machine is reversed, the lever is prevented by a small movable piece from returning on the same bar, so that the weight falls over on tjie lower one, and in doing so draws back the slide and spindle and forces the tool out. By varying the form of the up- per surface of this lower bar the depth of the vari- 1 ous parts of the groove can be regulated and altered as required. I The drawing shows a light machine used in armor- ies for rifling gun-barrels with a uniform twist, from one turn in 30 inches to one in 36 inches. The cut- ter-rod carries from one to three cutters, as the ri- fling is four, five, or six to the circumference. An adjustable feed-stop gauges the depth of the rifling, and the racks, which are of steel, are double, to take up all back-lash, so that the cutters cannot ride on the lauds. An oil-pump feeds automatically at each end of the stroke. The carriage is gibbed on the outside of the long slide, allowing free'access to its working parts. Weight, 1,600 pounds. This machine rities by the filing process, which is more correct than the planing process, and will turn out about one gun-barrel an hour. See Orooves,a.uA Sys- tem I if Ri'tiilin. I RIGHT SHOULDER ARMS.— A position in the Manual ! of Arms, executed as follows : Being at a carry, the Instructor commands: \. Right shemlder, 2. Arms. Raise the piece vertically with the right hand : grasp I it with the left at the lower band, an"d raise this hand Although the rifling bar is fixed to the saddle and moves with it, it can revolve independently of it ; and toward the end farthest from the gun is' fixed a pinion which gears into a rack sliding in the saddle at right angles to the l)ar itself. The outer end of this rack is fitted with two small rollers or friction wheels which run along a copying bar fixed to one side of the rifling machine. This copying bar is in- clined at accrl;iin ;uiglc lo the side of the machine, and the greater tliis ;inglc, the more the rack is pull- ed out by the friction rollers, and the greater the twist given to tlie rilling bar and so to the grooves in the gun. The angle can be altered if reiiuired : and we can also takeaway the straight copying liiir and use a curved one, as is done when a gun is to lie rilled witli increasing twist. By thus changing the cojiying bars, or their jiositiou, we can use -a single machine for any descriplion of rillinu'. The ewlliug tool itself is of steel and works in and out (jf the head, being drawn in or forced out by means of a ■cam attached to one end of an iron rod jjassing through the hollow rilling bar. till it is at the height of the chin ; at the same time endjracethe butt with the right hand, the toe between the first two fingers, the other fingers under the plate. (Two.) Raise the piece and place it on the right shoulder, the lock-plate up, the muzzle elevated and inclined to the left; so that, viewed from the front, the line of the stock from the toe to the guard, shall appear parallel to the row of luittons ; slip the left h;ind down to the lock-plate. (Three.) Drop the left hand by the side. 1. Curri/. 2. Arms. Carry the butt slightly to the left, and lower the piece with the right hand; grasp it with the left at the lower band, the hand at the height of the chin, the barrel to the rear, and vertical. (Two). Resume the carry with the right hand. (Three). Drop the left hand by the side. Being at a support, to eomi' to a right shoul- der, the Instructor commands : 1. /I'iffht shoiililir, 3. Arms, (iriisp the piece with the right hand at the sm:dl of tlie slock, iiud carry it in frcmt of tlie center of the body, grasjiing it with the left h:ind at the lower l);ind, tlie h;nidat the height of the chin. (Two). Carry and phiee the piece on the right shoulder, the RIGID DYNAMICS. 701 KIOT. liick-pliili' up, till' rif;lil, Imiicl cintjnicint; tli<^ buU ; hlip llic left Imnd to I lie liick-pliilc. (TiiiiKF.). Driip the Irfl, liMiiil liv llir niilc. Sci- Mil ii.iiiil iif A nii.i, l''ir/. !l. RIUID DYNAMICS. Tlial pcirlimi of'lhrnrcliciii dy- liiunirs whicli, bused iiii llic tlicdry i>f H"' free iirid loiiHtraijii'd iiiolidii of jiiiiiUx, iipplirH llic priiicipU'H llii'iici' (IimIucimI to nnyntiin of po'mis rigidly coiinrcl- I'd, so ii.s lo licar lliroiijjlioul llic whole coiilinimncc of their inotiou the Hiuiic iiiviiriiiblc position with rc- hition lo ciK'li otiiir; in oilier words, as no tiody in niitnrc can l)c considered as a^ point, Init is truly a sysli'iii of poinis, ri^'id dynamics has for its aim to apply Hie iihslract llu'ory of dynamics lo the cases actually occurrini; in nature. For a Ion;; time prob- lems of this sort were not resolved Ijy any !;enerul and ade(|uat(? method, but each class was worked <nil accordinj; to a method especially applicalile to its particular circumstances. The i;reat [general prin- ciple discovered by the French jfc'omctcr, commonly known as IPAlnnhcrVK J'n'nri/ile, which applies t'()ually to all such problems, and removes the neces- sity for s|ieci."i!ly invcstiiratiii!; each pari iculiir case, was an ineslimable boon to mechanical scien(X'. It is thus slaliul in his 7'riiile dii /)i/iiamifjiu: In what- ever manner a nninber of bodies cliant;e their mo- tions, if we suppose that the motion which each body would have in the following moment, if it were per- fectly free, is decomposed into two others, one of which is the motion which it rcnUi/ lakes in conse- quence of their mutual actions, then the other com- ponent will be such, that if each body were impress- ed by a force which would produce it alone, the whole system would be in ciiuilibrinm. In this way every dynamical jiroblem can be compelled to furnish an e(|ualion of ei(uilibrium, an<l so lie chanfred into n itroblcm of .itafii-f, and thus the solution of a diffi- cult and complex problem is effected by means of the resolution of a much easier one. D'Alembert ap- plied his principle to various problems <m the mo- tions and actions of fluids, the i)reeefision of the eqiu- no.xes, etc.; and 8ubse(iuently, in a modified form, the same general property was made the basis of a complete system of dynan;ics. by La Granite, in his Mefitnique Aii'ih/liqiie. RIGODON.- Formerly a beat of drum while men who were shelled (a French punishment, the sc^verest next lo death) were paraded up and down the ranks previous to their being sent to their destination. RIMBASE. — 1. A short cylinderat the junction of a trit/iniiiii with tlie gun. Tlie ends of the rimbases, or the !<h(mlders of the trunnions, are planes perpendi- cular to the axis of the trunnions. Rimbases are for the purpose of strengthening the trunnions at their junction with the jiieee, and by forming ! .shoulders, to prevent the |)ieee from moving side- ways in tlie trunnion-beds. 2. The shoulder on the stock of a musket against which the breech of the barrel rests. RIMER. — An old n.ime for a jialisade in fortifica- tion RIM-FIRE CARTRIDGE.— A metallic cartridge in which the fulminate is placed in the rim surround- ing the head. This rim being struck at any point, explodes the powder. Formerly much used in pistols and magazine-guns. These cartridges are not rfloaiUr.i. RIMPLER SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— In this ^ system it is projioscd to replace the curtain l)y a bastion that may Hank the collateral works and be defended by them, to cover the garrison under case- mates, and prepare an interior as well as exterior defense. This system contains excellent ideas. ' The besieger must carry two ravelins before reach- ing the counterscarp: then he must attack the fausse-braye, the bastion, its retrenchment, and fur- thermore drive the defenders from the casemates. The ditches and outworks are powerfully flanked, and the retrenchments of flu: bastions are excellent. This fortification is not practicable on account of , the great space it occupies, of the large garrison it ; re(piires. and the ininiense outlay it wiiiild ueceitgi. tale. RINGED ARMOR. Armor of the Middle A(?c», c(jmposed of Hal rings sewed side by side onipjillM liui'ii or lealher. See Anmrr. RING GAGE.- A circular steel gage iisi'd in inspect- ing kIupI and shells. Tlii'V are made of two sizes for each caliber, the larger being a triflir more and the smaller a trifle less in diameter than the true caliber of the proji'<-tile. All shot received must pusit through tlie larger gage, but are rejected if they pass tliroui.'li the smaller. RING WADS. Wads consisting of a ring of rope- yarn, with two pieces of strong twine lied across it at riirht angles to eacb other. See (Jrnmmrt WiuU. RIOT. —The legal name of an olTense which con- sists in the assembling of three or more persons for an illegal purpose, or for the carrying out of a legal purpose in an illegal manner. Kiols often com- mence in some supposed private wnmg. Some de- gree of violence is incidental to a riot, and a degree of intimidation to the neighborhood. A riot cannot take place unless at least three persons act in con- cert. When a riot becomes formidable, it is usual for tlic authorities to take active measures to dis- perse it. Thus, in England, any Justice of the Peace may command the persons as.sembled to dis- perse peaceably by a form of worils calied Heading the Riot Act, which is as follows: " tjiir Sovereign Lady the Queen chargeth and commandetli all persons being assembled immediately to disperse themselves, and peaceably to depart to their habi- tations, or to their lawful business, upon the pains contained in an Act of King George for pre- venting tumults and riotous assemblies — God save the CJueen." If the rioters, after this formal proda- mation, remain more than one hour afterward, they are guilty of felony, and may be seized and carried before a Justice. Sometimes it is ditlicult to distinguish between an illegal assembly and one which is legal, though noisy and tumultuous, and the opinion of the Justice of the Peace is not conclu- sive as to its illegality. Sometimes the Riot Act is read more than once during the disturbance, in which case the second or tliird reading does not supersede the first. The great and overwhelming interest exhibited by the people of the United States in the lale terrible railroad and labor riots in various parts of the coun- try will cause us to extend the limits of this article. At a period of profound (piiet and repose, the entire country was startled by the simultaneous seizure by lawless men of the four great trunk lines between the Atlantic Seabord and the Western States. In a single day the whole internal trade of the Union was suspended. Millions of dollars of capital were pa- ralyzed, thousands of enterprises were confronted with ruin, and the whole of this great country was threatened with a crisis such as it had never expe- rienced before. Instantly the whole military power of tlie general government and the great States im- mediately involved in the trouble was called upon to give protection to the endangered commerce of the land. The peaceful country resounded with the tramp of armed men hastening to assert the majesty of the law, on the one side: and with the rush of in- furiated mobs, on the other side, gathering to resist the execution of the statutes of the land, and to over- turn the very foundations of society. Almost with- out warning the American people were brought face to face with a conflict which for a while threatened their very existence as a nation. The excitement grew steadily, and for a time mob law was supreme. From all points came reports of hiwlcss violence, of pillage, arson and murder. The worst elements of the Old World, that had been driven out of Europe, suddenly appeared, and proclaiming their terrible doctrines of destruction and nipine, endeavored to revive in this prosperous and peaceful hind the hor- rors of the Parisian Commune. The danger was BIOT. 702 EIOT. terrible and real, and for a moment the American people stood appalled, not knowing how far the re- volt might extend, or what character it might as- sume. Never since the daj-s of the Civil War liad the nation been so profoundly moved, or so painfully apprehensive. On all sides the determination was made plain that the outbreak must be put down; the laws must resume their sway ; and the future of this great country must not be perilled by mob violence. No man could tell how soon his honie would be the mark of the rioter's torch, or his dear ones be at the mercy of an infuriated mob, and this thought brought hundreds of thousands to the support" of the representatives of law and order. At the call of the civil authorities armed men came from all quar- ters, and it was soon apparent even to the most des- perate rioters that the people were determined to preserve their institutions and property from vio- lence at an_v cost. This formidable uprising of the people had the happiest effect, and the revolt suc- cumbed before it. The disturbers of the peace slunk away, or were arrested, and the supremacy of the law re-established. The very originators" of the strikes, horrified at the capture and distortion of their movement by the mob of lawless ruffians, in many instances, gave their assistance to the autho- rities in restoring order. The New York riots will be here noticed at length, as also the action of the general government. We are endebted to the Bis- tiyry of the Great EinU, by Edward Winslow Martin, for the substance of this 'account. Late on the evening of the 19th of July, 1877, a meeting of firemen and brakemen employed on the Erie Railroad was held at HornellsvDle, New York, at the close of which a message was sent to the Su- perintendent of the Erie Railroad, giving him notice that the men of the Western, Susquehanna, and Buf- falo divisions had resolved to quit work at one o'clock the next morning. The Superintendent proceeded at once to Hornellsville, where he found that the strikers had stopped work, and had taken measures to pre- vent all passenger and freight trains from leaving or passing through that place, east or west. Simultan- eously, the firemen, brakemen, and switchmen at Salamanca, on the Western division, quit work, and when the Superintendent of that division, who had started out from Dunkirk for Hornellsville by a special train, arrived at Salamanca, his engine was cut loose from the train and put into the engine-house, and the strikers informed him that no engine or train would be permitted to pass Salamanca. At Andover station, on the Western division, one of the striking firemen took engine No. 22, and went out on the road with- out orders or permission from the Company, and on the time of trains, intending, he said, to eo to Hor- nellsville, Up to four o'clock in the afternoon of the 20th the strikers had given the Company no reasons for their strike. At that hour their Committee handed Superintendent Wright a document containing the following demands, on behalf of the firemen, brake- men, switchmen and truckmen : That all of the men discharged for taking part in anv meeting or going as a Committee to New York shall'be reinstated. The brakemen to receive .f 2 a day, the switchmen if 2, the head switchmen #2.2.'), truckmen in yard *1 .."jO, truck- men on section -tl .40, and pay no rentals on Com- pany's grounds except as by agreement. The firemen to have same pay, or rates of pay, as they received prior to July 1st, 1877, and monthly passes to be con- tinued as l)efore, and passes to be issued to brake- men and switchmen. These demands were at once communicated to the Receiver at New York. By their action in seizing the Erie Itailroad an<l stoppin'sr its business by force, the strikers not only violated the laws of the State of New York, but wctc guilty of resistance to the orders of the Supreme Court of the State, tlie Erie Railroad at tliis time being man- aged by a Receiver appointed by the Court. The •otticials of the Erie Uailroad promptly made arrange- ments to have through passengers and baggage trans- ported by the New York Central Railroad, and at the .same time reported the seizure of their road to the Governor of New York, and asked tlie protection of the State. The Governor thereupon issued the following proclamation ; Whereas, the Receiver appointed b_v the Supreme Court of this State to take all care of the management of the Erie Railway and its properties has made known to me that a conspiracy has been formed to prevent his discharging his duty as such Receiver under the orders of yie said Court ; that the business of said road anil the running of trains have been in- terrupted by violence which the civil authorities are unable to suppress; and, whereas, the honor and good faith of tiae State require that it should protect the said Court and its officers in the'execution of its order: Now, therefore. I, Lucius Robinson, Gov- ernor of the State of New York, by virtue of the authority imposed upon me by the constitution and the laws, command all persons engaged in such ira- lawful acts to desist therefrom ; and I call upon all good citizens and upon all the authorities, civil and military, to aid in suppressing the same and in pre- venting breaches of the peace. The law recognizes and protects the right of all men to refuse to work except upon terms satisfactory to themselves, but it does not permit them to prevent other men from working who desire to do so. LTnless the State is to be given up to anarchy, and its Courts and laws are to l3e defied with impunity, its whole power must be exerted to suppress violence, maintain order and pro- tect its citizens in their right to work, and the busi- ness of the country from lawless interruption w-ithin our borders. It is no longer a question of wages, but of the supremacy of the law, which protects alike the lives, the liberty, the property and the rights of all classes of citizens. To the maintenance of that supremacy the whole power of the State will be in- voked if necessary. Orders were despatched from Albany to the 23d (of Brooklyn) and the 74th (of Buffalo) Regiments of the National Guard of the State of New York to pro- ceed at once to Hornellsville to sustain the authorities. Later on the 54th Regiment, from Rochester, was or- dered to the same place. The companies of the 54th were the first to reach Hornellsville. They arrived at that place on the evening of the 21st, about four or five hundred strong. The crowd of railroad men sur- rounding the trains upon their arrival immediately began shaking hands with acquaintances and gave the soldiers a warm welcome, carrying pails of water along the train. By nine o'clock the Company's grounds surrounding the depot and railroad shops were in full possession of the military authorities. Two pieces of artillery were put in position at the rear of the Company's shops, and guards were sta- tioned around the northern half of the yard, on which the shops and depot are located. As the Company did not attempt to start out a train, there was no de- monstration made by the men engaged in the strike, and good order and quiet prevailed throughout the town. The Committee representing the men at the beginning of the strike served a notice on all the liquor dealers forbidding them to sell liquor to rail- road men. The President of the village also issued a proclamation to the same effect. This, together with the faA that a large number of railroad men signed the Murphy temperance pledge in the preced- ing spring, is believed to account for the quiet exist- ing under such exciting circumstances. No marked demonstration was nuide by the men until twenty minutes past nine on the morning of the 22d. The strikers had informed the railro:ul ollicials that they would not interfere with the mails, but that no pass- enger or freight trains should pass over the road. Oil the morning of the 22d, the railroad officials, near- ly all of whom had gathered at Hornellsville, deter- mined to attempt to run a passenger train westward from Hornellsville. An engine with a postal car at- tached was coupled to two passenger coaches. The RIOT. 70:5 BIOT. lalt(:r wore iicciiiiiiMl liv llic Sii|icriiitcnili-iil of tin; Wcslorn ilivisioii, a sipmil of Mol(licrn and I wo or llire« paHsengcrs. HoldicrH wen; slaUoncd on the platform of each car, two wore also poHlfd on lliir i ii).'iii((r'H cal). Tlic train then Hiarlcil from the yard ;;iiardcd for Homc distanci' l>y soldiiis stationed on both sides of the tracli. At ( 'ass street crossint;, a sliort dislanie beyond, a nuin alleni|)ted to board one of the cars, but he was driven back liy the soldiers. Kroin this post, for u distance of aliout llfty rods, to West street ('rossini;, tlie trade was covered willi soft soap. The driviiiij; wlieels liejian to slip, and the engineer threw sand on the track, but this was insnflicii'iil to give a headway of over live miles an hour. When the train r<'achcd West street crossing, about two hundred of the men were assembled. Here railroad torpedoes were thrown under the driving wheels of thci'iigine, but still the train moved on. Men seenK^d to be r<'acliing the groinid from all fjuarlers and by hundreds ran alongside the train. Suddenly i( parted between the baggage car and passeugi-r c'oach, and as the men .saw th<' victory was thc'irs, with a shout, they took possession of two of the coaches as they came to a standstill and rendered the brakes useless. The soldiers and passengers were ordered out of tlie cars and obeyed, while the men, with cheers, shoved the cars back into the yard, andthi' soldiers marched back to the depot. The engine and postal car went on toward Dunkirk. Half an'hour later thecompyny .started out train No. 7 on the liulValo division, also guarded by soldiers. As the engine and tender switched olT on tlie HulTalo track, the engine was boarded by the men. Some pushed the soldiers' guus aside and climbed up to the tender; others jumped on the pilot and went over the top of the engine to the cab, when tliey ordered the fireman, who was an extra man, to get off. After a short parley he was taken from the engine, and the Engineer ran the train back into the yard, the men cheering as before. The crowd of seven or eight himilred men smldeuly melted away, and during the remainder of the day there was no disturbance, as the Railroad Company made no further efforts to run their trains. The strikers were very determined, and were prepared for a desperate resistance to the civil and nnlitary forces. Tiiey had a camp in the woods near Hor- ncUsville, and were well supplied with small-arms and amnuniition, besides having two pieces of can- non. They were well organized, and their movements were well directerl. The tirst detachment of the 33d regiment, nearly 400 strong, reached Horiu'llsville on the '23(1. This brought the military force at that place to a strength of airout 1,200 men. The rioters numbered about 2,000 men. About noon on the 2:5(1. a Committee of strikers waited on the railway ollicials to state their grievances. The Chairman of the Committee nnide a general statement of the causes which forced the men to strike, and said they had received orders not to commit depredation. They proposed to stop the trains, but not to do violence. He then submitted llie following, as the terms which he thought the nu'U woulii accept and go lo work. The wages de- manded are just about the same as the Company now pay under the ten per cent, reduction. The brakemeu are willing to go to work at the ten per cent, reduction, provided the train men are paid for any overtime that they may make in being ordered out and being abandoned ; also any overtime which Ihcv may make while being delayed upon the road, to ije paid for at the same rate per day : overrate per day to be f 1.80. The trackmen in" the llomells- ville yard to receive ?!l..50 per day, and be paid for overtime at the same rate ; the trackmen on sections outside of the yard to receive ^1.40 per day. and to pay no rentals for their houses, except as they may agree with the Company. The switciuiieu to accept the ten per cent. red\iction, on consideration that ten hours shall constitute a day's work, and all over- time to be paid for at the same rate per hour — -Sl.SO and §2.0.5 per day. The (Innien to accept the ten pi'r cent, reduction on consiileration that their iev. eral pay shall be *I.(IO, )i}\.<.fi. iy2.08 unil i'2,14, and that all liremcn shidl be pronioti'd aci.onling to aire. Coal-passers lo be paid the same as bifore. The Superintrjidciit said he was glad to we them make an elldrt for |jea<e, but assured them that liic I{e- ceiver would not go to work upon other terms than he had annoimced ; that the Company could nrjt ac- cede to the demands jiresented. "I'iie Coinmitlec then asked if tlieConuuitteeinen, who had been dis- charged, would be restoriMl to their former places if the men wirit lo w(jrk. The Ahsistunt Keceiver re- plied that Ihiy would not. The Committee then re- tired, being escorted through the lini-s. Later in the day the following notice was re(-eived and promptly I)ublished : The Receiver fully appreciates the fidelity of IiU otUcers, agents, and men who have remamed true lo their duty in the jiresent emerg(ncy. anrl such fidelity will not fail t(j be properly rec-ognized. No compromise will be made with, and no concession will be made to, those misguiiled men who are. have been, or may be false to their trust, and violaters of the law. And all persons are wanied that no one has the right to represent or speak for the Receiver, except his regular oflicers. Any other person prc- tendinirto do so is an impostor. The Receiver is indu.ed to believe that the large majority of the em- ployes now neglecting their duly are acting under thecoercion and terror of lawless and ilesperate men, mo.st of whom are strangers, and have never been in his service. All well-disposed employes will be protected. From Ilornellsville the disturbance spreatl rapi<lly along the line of the Krie Railway. Port .lervis, Cornintr, Painted Post. Ruffalo, and other points were affected, and the Erie brakemen and firemen at all these places joined the strike and slopped the running of the trains. At IJulfalo the strikers were exceedingly violent. Karly in the afternoon of the 23d, an ass"ault was made by nearly two thousand rioters on about two hundred soldiers who were guarding the Lake Shore round house. The mili- tary were obliged to leave the building, which was now barricade! by the mob, who had placed cars in position as defence against an attack. The Colonel of the 6.5th Regiment, with about thirty men and three officers, proceeded to the round house to retake it from the mob. They were nut with yells of der- ision from the crowd, and. under a shower of stones, were obliged to retreat at the double-ipiick. and force their way through the yelling crowd at the point of the bayonet, some of ilie soldiers being bad- ly cut on the hands with knives, and also clubbed. Four of the soldiers lost their muskets, which, how- ever, were afterward recovered. The Colonel was badly clubbed, twice knocked down, forced across the canal, and obliged to take refuge in the Lake Shore paint shop. "The Krie strikers did not confine their lawlessness to their own road, but invaded the shops of the Lake Shore and New York Central roads, and forced the men to stop work, and pre- vented the movements of all freight and stock trains in the depot yard. The Lake Shore men joined in the strike, as" we shall see. but the men of the New York Central road showed no disposition to do so. A meet inn of citizens was didy summoned by the Mayor of'KiifTalo, but it was slimly attended, and was captured bv the strikers, whereupon it was ad- journed by the "Mayor. In the meantime the second detachment of the" 23d Regiment left Brooklyn on the afternoon of the 23d of July, and reached Elmi- ra shortly after seven o'clock on the morning of the 24tli. At this point the Commander was warned that the strikers along the road would endeavor to stop the prosress of the train, and accordingly sta- tioned siuards on the engine and tender, and on the platforms of the cars. These men were ordered not to fire without cause, but to see that the train was KIOT. 704 EIOT. not interfered with. Tlie train left Elmira at 9 o'clock, and reached Coming at 10.. 23 a. m, Several rioters attempted to board the train, but were quiciily forced off by the guards. About one hundred of them gathered around the train, gesticulating and liooting, but making no further demonstraUou of violence. As the train moved past the depot, the rioters rushed ahead, and turned the switch. The engine was moving so slowly, however, that the train was at once stopped. The mob now hastened up the track and blockaded it by overturning a bag- gage car upon it. Several locomotives were also in- jured. The fireman of the troop train now deserted his engine and joined the mob. The track was torn up for a short distance by the rioters, and the ad- vance of the troop train was effectually stopped. At several points liigUer up the road the track was torn up, and cars were overturned. A construction party was at once organized, and, under the protec- tion of the troops, the track was relaidandthe over- turned cars righted. The train moved on slowly, at the rate of about one mile per hour, in order to protect the working parties, and reached Pain'- ed Post about four o'clock in the afternoon. The strikers were at this time about two miles ahead of the train, and were damaging the road as fast as was possible. Every etiort was made to repair the track and enable the troops to come up with the rioters. So successful were these efforts, that at half-past four the troops were within half a mile of the rioters. A strong detachment was immediateh' thrown out, which, moving rapidly ahead of the train, soon came up with the rioters as they were engaged in tearing up the rails. At the sight of the troops the strikers fled to the woods. The damage to the track was at once repaired, and the train passed on to Addison. From this jjlace no farther trouble was experienced until a point half a mile below IlornellsviUe was reached. Here the engine, tender and baggage car were thrown from the track b}- a loosened rail. In consequence of the presence of so strong a military force at Hornellsville, there was no disturbance at that place on the 24th. The leader of the strikers, was arrested anil held by the civil authorities. No effort was made to rescue him. All through the 34th there was great excitement at Buffalo, but there was no outbreak. About 600 militia and two batteries of artillery, besides 300 policemen, were held in readiness to move upon the mob at any moment. On the night of the 24th an attempt was made to fire the bridge of the Erie Railroad over the Neversink river, at Port Jervis. Precautionary measures were taken by the Company at the commencement of the disturbances, an increased number of watchmen being stationed at tliis l)ridge. This fact undoubt- edly saved it from destruction, as the next morning a five gallon can of kerosene oil was discovered un- der the bridge, placed in such a position that its ig- nition would have carried the flames to the wood- work of the bridge. It is supposed that the incen- diaries became alanned before the completion of their arrangements, and thinking that they were dis- coven'd, fled, leaving the oil Ix^liind them. The guards at that point were iiun-ased to prevent fur- ther troul)le. The Governor issued the following pmclamation : ■' I deem it my duty to invite the special attention of all the citizens of litis State, and especially of such pers<ras as are now attempting to interfere by unlaw- ful means with the running of railway trains, to the following act passed by tiie Legislature at its last session: ('hai)ter 2*'il. An act to I'lmish Trespassing <m Railroads, passed May lutli, 1W77; The people of the Stale of N'ew York represented in Senate and As- semljly do enact as follows : Section 1. — Any person who shall wilfully place any obstruction upon any railroad, or loosen, tear up or remove any part of a railroad, or displace, tamper or in any way interfere with any switches, frogs, rail, track, or other part of any railroad, so as to endanger the safety of any train, or who shall wilfully throw any stone or other missile at any train or any railroad, shall, upon con- vi('tiou thereof, be punished by imprisonment in a State prison, not exceeding ten years, or be liable to a tine not exceeding #1.000, or by both such fine and imprisonment. Sec. 2. — This act shall lake effect immediateh'. I warn all persons engaged in the viol- ation of the above law to desist therefrom, and I call upon all sheriffs, magistrates, district attorneys and other civil oflicers, and upon all good offlcers to aid in the enforcement of the said law, and of the pun- ishment of all who are guilty of its violation, and I hereby offer a reward of fSOO, to be paid upon the arrest and conviction of each and evcrj' person who shall be guilty of a violation of the said act. The failure or omission of any sheriff, district attorney, or other civil officer to take the most active steps in his power to enforce the provisions of this act will be considered sufficient cause for his removal." This proclamation had a happy effect in all parts of the State, and especially upon the line of the Erie Rail- road. The offer of a reward wan certain to sow dis- cord in the ranks of the rioters, and convert some of them into informers. Feeling themselves strong enough to enforce the law, the civil authorities at Hornellsville now deter- mined to open the Erie Railroad to traffic, and to arrest the more prominent of the rioters. It was de- cided to enforce the law, even should a conflict with the rioters be necessary ; and the 20th of July was fixed as the day on which the effort was to be made. In the meantime several p-ominent gentlemen of the place exerted themselves to bring about a settlement and avert the necessity of using force. Warrants were issued for the arrest of over one hundred of the rioters, and the 23d Regiment was assigned the duty of supporting the civil officers in making these ar- rests. Orders were issued for the regiment to be ready to move at six o'clock a. m. on the 26th. The Galling guns were prepared for immediate use, and the regiment fully cotmted upon a sharp conflict with tile mob. Tiie railroad officials had « number of detectives among the rioters, and every movement of the strikers was known, as well as the location of their various camps. Few of the rioters were seen in Hornellsville, or in the immediate vicinity of their camps, but at a given signal they could have assem- bled at least 900"men. On a hillside overlooking the military and railroad head-quarters their outposts could be distinctly seen b.v day, and at night scores of moving lanterns gave evidence of their vigilance and activity. In different portions of the woods, and not remote from the line of the road, they had over half a dozen camps, which had been provisioned by plundering the freiglit cars in the depot yard at the l)egiuning of the strike. The strikers' camps would have been surrounded early on the morning of the 26th, but during the night of the 2.">th a settle- ment was effected between the railroad officials and the rioters. An effort was made by the strikers on the Erie Rail- road to bring on a strike on the Lake Shore Railroad, which extends from Buffalo to Toledo, and forms a part of the New York Central's liiu> to Chicago. The disturbance began at Buffalo, where the Lake Shore men struck on the 22d, and prevented the passage of freight trains. At Erie, Pennsylvania, and oilier points along the road, the train men joined the strike, and stopped the trains, but no further violence was attempted. No trains were allowed to run on the line between liiiffalo ami Eric, it having lieen deter- mined not to imd(rtuk<> tii run any trains until the strikers ceased their hUerference with the road. The Atlantic exjiress from Chicago n^ached Erie at eleven o'clock on tlie morning of the 24tli of .July. It con- sisted of four fast nuiil cars, with heavy mails, two baggage cars, and four well-filled passenger cars. In accordance with orders from the President the train was run upon a sidetrack and declared abandoned. The jjassengers were much incensed, and tried to BIOT. lor, RIOT. iirgL' Ihc Hlrikcrs (o run the Iniirj lliniiij;!! In liiiiriilo. The Htrikcrs piirtiitlly (Miimciilcd, (ircil up an rii;^iiic and HlliU'licd il to llii' Iniln. Tlir Siipcrinli'iidctil of Uk; IJtill'iilo division tclcj^'riiplicd to prrvcril llic- strik- cTH from tiikinf; oul tlic Iniin. A niciMin); of the strikers was li<Od at tlie depot at three o'clock in the aflertuion. 'Pile mayor, sherilf, and a posse of police' were (111 liand to preserve order. The mayor advised j the men to let tlie train alone and not to interfere with the ('om|)any's orders. The chief of the strik- ers also advised the same course. The enjrine was then taken oir, run into the rounil house, and the i train was left on the sidinir. It contaiueil ahoul one | hundred tlirouijli passengers for New York, and ; (he cars for the time were converted into a hotel. Ahoul half-past six o'clock theChicairo and St. I.ouis e.\press came in from ('hicai;o, anil, like its prede- cessorwas run upon a side track and alian<loneil. The trains were held at Erie until the niorningof the'2(ith, when, it beimr certain that the strike was at an end, they were ordered to proceed to UulTalo. From this t4me the trains wen^ run reijuhirly over the Lake Shore road. It was believed that the slriki' would certainly extend to New York city. That citvistlie eastern leriiumis of the New York Central iV lludson Uiver Railroad, and there the C'on\pany have vast in- terests at stake and sjive employment to several thou- sand men. The city of Mew Y'ork is peculiarly cir- cumstanced. It contains a larjic class of |)rofessionai criminals, and a larijer nndtitudeof idle and reck- less men. In addition to these, there are many men of foreijin birth, who, while pursuiiiir some means of sujiport. are thoroughly imbucil with comnninistie ideas, and are ready at any tinu' to make war upon the existing state of society. Tlx'sc classes make uj) a fornndable section of the population of New York. It was feared that should the strike extend to New York, these classes would make it a pretext for riot and violen(-e. Ni-w York beinu; the wealthiest city of the Union, and one of the ureal tinancial centers of the world, always oilers iuduccuu-iils to a mob of desperate characters to enfj:a^<' in an outbreak in the hope of plunder. The liard times from which the whole country w-as sufferini; bad ])ressed very heavi- ly ujioii the workimrmen of New York. Many were out of work, an<l all were more' or less discontented. In case of an outbreak it was certain that the rioters would be larsiely reinforced from this class. The leaders of th<' eor.unuuistic societies of New York, which associations are made up almost en- tirely of foreijrners who have in many eases been members of similar organizations in Europe, regard- ed the exciting period as a lilting time to test the strength of the popular sympathy with them. They determined to hold a public meeting ostensibly for the purpose of expressing sympathy with the work- ini;nu'U engaged in the strikes, but really to test their strength in New York, and see if they could connuand suflicient outside aid to enable them to bring on an outbreak. The permission of the au- thorities being necessary to enable them to hold such a meeting, they applied to the Police Conunis- sion for leave to hold their meeting in Tompkins S(imvrc. Their reipiest was promptly granted, and a call was issued for a mass-meeting of the Trades I'nions at Tompkins Scpiare on the night of Wed- nesday, '2r)lb of .July, to express .sympathy with the men engaged in the strikes in other parts of thecimu- Iry. The true character of the proposed meeting was well understood throughout the I'liioii, and con- siderable surprise was niMiifested at the course of the New York authorities in allowing thenweting to be held. The Police C'ouunissioners were convinced, liowever, that to prevent tlu' meeting would be to increase whatever excitement and discontent nught exist among the laboring classes, and that the best way to deprivethe Communists of tlair intiuence was to permit them to hohl their mi'eling and show tbeir designs. They felt contideiu that the great mass of tbe workmen of New Y'ork were not • ill Hympathy with any eoiiimunlHlic hcheineH, and that they would In- arienaled from llieiii to u still greater extent by thi-ir public procluiinition. They, therefore, di'ciileil to allow the mer-ling at 'l°oiii|ikinH Square. .At the same timeil was rcMolved t« liuveu Hirong, well-armed force of police ul liund to piil down any attempt at an outbreak, and to be reaily to support such action with thi' intire |)olice tnric and the military. The commissioners fi-ll fully conlidenl of their ability to deal with the moli, and iiieunl to show them that the city aiilhorilies were not afraid of them. The meeting was lield at the appointed time, and was watelieil with tin- keenest anxiety by the whole country. .Ml felt that it would decide whether there would be a general communistic revolt, willi \ln ac- companiments of blooilsheil, pillage, anil arson, or whether the authorities were strong enough to en- force the laws. If thir mob got the upper hand in New York, it was generally said, the terrible resullH would spread to the whoh; country; if the authori- ties could prevent an outbreak, the insurrection would receive its death blow. The following resolutions were read to the meet- ing: Kemilvfd, That the workingmen's parly of the city and county of New Y'ork tender their heartfelt sym- pathies to the railroad men now (m strike in differ- ent localities in the country. /ifKolvril, That we consider all legalized chartered corporations, such as railroad. banking, minim;, man- ufacturing, gas. etc.. under the iire.seut system of op- eration, as the most despotic and heartless enemies of the working classes. lieHolnd, That their acts of tyranny and ojipress- ion have been the cause of demoralizing thousands of honest workingmen, thereby driving them to acts of madness; desperation and crime that they would not otherwise have been guilty of had tliey been just- ly dealt by. Hesdlreil, That as these chartered companies have been the primal cause of their employes' miseries and of their eonsequenees, we hold them morally respon- sible for all acts of violence that ])roceeil from and are the Icgitinnite residts of their tyranny and op- pression. liemlved. That we view with alarm the growing in- fluence and power of these corporations over the leg- islation of the State and nation, and believe if that intiuence continues, the executive, judicial, and leg- islative branches of the government will become to- tally demoralized, the rights of the masses destroyed, and, instead of the voice of the people, the power of the almighty dollar will become absolute and su- preme. lie-vilred. That we do earnestly request and advise all the working classes throughout the country to unite as speedily as possible for the purpose of form- ing a political party, based on the natural rights of labor. Let us nuike common cause against a com- mon enemy. RemAi-ed'. That nothing short of a political revolu- tion through the ballot box on the jiarl of the work- ing classes will remedy the evils imder which they suffer. Rexolvfd. That it is the purpose of the working- men's party to confiscate through legislation, the imjustly gotten wealth of these legalized and char- tered corporation thieves that are backed by the Shy- locks and moneyed syndicates of Europe and of this country. Riwlred. That we love law and order, peace and tranquility, justice and righteousness above all elst, and deprecate anythmg and everything that will pervert them, and" that we are ever ready togiveour lives in defense of the inherent rights of man. The following address was made to the President of the United States : \Ve, the workingmen of the city of New-York, in mass-meeting assembled, act- ing from a sense of duty, and prompted by true HIOT. 70« BIOI. feelings of humanity and a sincere desire for ])eace and liarmony in society, do earnestly and respectfully call your attention to the serious condition of affairs now existing, and which have existed for some time past between the operatives and the officials of the mining and railroad corporations in several States of the Union. The crimson tide of the life-blood of citizens, soldiers, and hardy workmen have already mingled in sanguinary strife. The heavens have been lit up with the lurid glare of incendiary fires that have reduced to ashes millions of property. Men have fallen beneath deadly blows dealt by un- seen and unknown hands, \uitil it seems as if evil days had fallen upon us as a nation. Three millions of the bone and sinew of tlie country converted into wandering vagabonds, and a large portion of those employed on the verge of starvation. Do tliese evils that have assumed such magnitude and proportions as to necessitate the issuance of a proclamation on your part to preserve the peace, come within the scope or jurisdiction of national legislation ? What- ever may be the cause of these evils, the only remedy applied so far as been the hangman's rope an<l the soldier's bullet. Think you, Mr. President. these are etTectual and permanent remedies that will insure henceforth peace and good order in society? We think not. Whatever cause produces these antago- nistic relations between employer and employe must be sought out and removed. We address you, Mr. President, because you are one having great power and authority conferred upon you by tlie Constitu- t.on. You are Commander-in Chief of the armed forces of these United States, and during the recess of Congress thej' are at your absolute ilisposition. Need we suggest to you the wisdom of extreme cau- tion in the exercise of your national military power, lest the breach of the peace be widened, class feeling intensified, and public safety more endangered? We think, Jlr. President, that the situation of affairs is of such an important and alarming character that they justify' on your part the immediate calling of an extra session of Congress. These terrible occur- rences and disturbances between the employers and employes of mining and railroad companies that have "startled and shocked the coiumuuily of late involve, as you well know, what is termed the rela- tions between labor and capital. Many are of the opinion that any interference or action on the part of the government to adjust these relations are con- trary and inimical to the genius and spirit of modern civilization and republican institutions; that the func- tion of the government is simply to prevent any violent collisions in society resulting from the an- tagonistic relations of these two elements performing such important functions in the affairs of human society, and that throughout the history of the world so tar have been eternally at sword's points with each other. Those who take this view of tlie matter seem to overlook the great fact that legislation has always deidt with at least one of these factors — namely, capital; and has almost entirely ignored the other— namely, labor: which is, in our ojiinion. the primal cause "of the present difficulties. Had legisla- tion afforded the same opportunities and guaniuteed tlie same riglils anil privileges to labor thai it has to <;ai)ital these evil (la_ys would not have befallen us. When railroad kings can build palaces to live in, costing millions, and others die bequeathing hun- dreds of millions to their cliililren, and boast while living that they never Iroiililed themselves about the election of representatives, but bought them uji after they were elected, and u.sed them as a means to en- rich tliemselv<-s at tlii' exiiense of their employes and the general public, it seems about time to ccnisider whelheror not legislation cannot confer some justice anil rights upon labor as well as privileges to capital. We have always considered that law should be the .Hvnonym of justice. lias not Congress the power u"nder"th(^( Constitution to govern and control. for llie bi'iiefitof the whole people, the liiL'-liways and water courses of the nations and regulate its internal com- merce and trade ? Is there any constitutional law that prohibits the State or general government from controlling or supervising the mineral resources of the nation? Shoulil not, also, the telegraph system be connected with our postal department? and last, but not least, a governmental monetary system esta- blished that would supersede the present individual corporate banking institutions that are nothing more nor less than parasites on the body politic. All of these chartered institutions exist by a system of di- vidends or profits that proceed directly from the laboring classes. In their efforts to make those dividends the blood and marrow are extracted from labor, until finally, maddened and desperate b}- the exacting tyranny of capital, rendered ignorant and brutish by jjoverty, it resorts to brute force and violence to redress its wrongs. It cannot be expected th.at men acting^ under the impetus of starv.atioii should act wisel)' or well, or adhere to moral prin- ciple. The very individuals who are most loud in their denunciation of tr:e acts of the stiikers, placed in their situation, might do, possibly, if they had the courage, far worse. We, as a class, view with alarm the growth and power of these gigantic cor))ora- tions. Wielding thousands of millions of dollars' capital as a power they are fast demoralizing and corrupting the executive, judicial and legislative branches of the governments of both State and na- tion; and the rights of labor and the liberties of the common people, if we continue on in this course, will soon be swept away (and here let us state that a member of your Cabinet, has recommended as a measure of political reform in this State the restric- tion of suffrage on the basis of a moneyed qualifica- tion, thereby offering a direct insult to every work- Ingman in this State); and when they are gone the revt)lution commences and the emancipation of the white wages slaves of the North will cost the Keijii- blic more blood and treasure than ever the emancipa- tion of the black chattel slaves of t)ie South did, and God knows that cost enough. We look to you, Mr. President, to be vigilant in respect of onr interests and welfare, for the prosperity and perpetuity of this nation rests upon the principle of justice to labor. Class legislation is the ruin and eventual downtall of any nation. After reading these resolutions and the address the following speech was made in support of the same : We are here to-night to oropose a remedy for strikes and hard times. Our remedy is that government shall become the superintendent of education, pro- perty and trade, and the employer of the people on the basis of equal rights, opportunities and equitable compensation. Our motto is. "No Rich, No Poor." The age in wh;ch we live is pregnant with great jio- litical and social problems which are forcing them- selves upon us for solution, and as we are more fav- orably circumstanced tlum other nations the duty rests with us of experimenting in the science of so- ciology until the hallowed object of perfecting hu- man government is accomplished. Though thus far our efforts have not been crowned with the degree of success that was anticipated and formidable ob.s- tacles still remain to be overcome, let us not relax but rather redouble our efforts to stay the swelling tide of corruption and strife and to inaugurate. an era of virtue and peace. The gigantic projiortions of peculation and fraud develo])ing in political cir- cles and the incre.a.se of crime and inequality through- out the land are morlifyiiig to us as a peo]ile. and, as the scheming speeiilalors and legal i/.edinoiiopolists are growing richer and the useful classes poor, a crisis will soon be reached most fearful to contem- plate, unless measures .are sjieeilily devised to arrest the evil. We live u|)ou a laml llouiii^^ willi Ihe milk and honey of human subsistence, yet gaunt poverly swee|)s over society, s|)reailing distress, crime and ]iri'tnalure death. iMamiiiolh storehouses are lilleil BIOT. 707 HIOT. to roplrlion vvitli llie produoti of irnliislry, while tlioiisiiiiils of produciTM ftiiiiiHli for wiiiil. of hrciul. DtiiMC forcHlsand rank uriiHB cover iiiillioim of fertile acres, wliile lioiiselesH. hoiiielcHS. anxious laborers loiter in tlie market, bei^nini^ for the privilege to l<iil. 'riie ili'velopnii'iil of labor-saving' inachiiiery niarvel- lonsiy increases the power to ]iro(liiec wealth, which shoiihl lii^litcn the bnrileii of th(r workmen and ad- vance the prosperity of society ; whiTcas it is swerv- ed from ainii' ami healthy course and enters into harmful comi)etition with Uiohc whose livini; de- pends ujjon a demand for their labor. Thoi:^'-h the earth teems with aimual harvests and the hanils of labor produce aji aliuiahuu'c of ev<Ty convenience and liiXury of life, yet, under the baneful inlluenee of a defective system ol L;overnment. wliich fails to protect its citizens in the enjoyment of their equal and natural riiflit to the soil, and mider an Ishnniel- itisli system of commerce and industry, which re- gards land, a.s well as products, as an arti(-le of traf- fic anil monopoly, society is divided into landlords and tenants, capitalists and laborers, ri<'h and poor, and conditions of anxiety and antai^onism are <'n- gendered which poison every sphere of social life. After a careful investigation of the causes of ])olitic. al and social evils we are constrained to believi' that tiny are the lejiitimato effects of an anti-democralie feature in our iiovernment and of an antagonistic system of industry and commerce. Therefore, to ex- pe<'t a prosperous condition of affairs by a mere (•hanire of otlicers, th(^ exposure of fraud or the de- nunciation of crime, while the present system re- mains unchanged, is to expect results contrary to the nature of things, for the opportimilies open to our iiublic ollii'ers to acquire w ealth by an abuse of the power reposed in them and the fabulous for- timis often realized through legalized methods of fraud prove too great a temptation for frail human nature lo resist. Therefore, when a reform has to be inidertaken (to be successful) it must be sup- ported by the whole people that feel oppressed : and as they are largely in the majority, they have the power to speedily and jieacefully change the form of government under which we live. The necessity of a thorough change is manifest, and innuerous are the i)lans proposed and the efforts made to mitigate the evils complained of : but mitigation is not enough. We believe the tinu' has passed for fragmentary pro- positions of reform to awaken any considerable de- gree of enthusiasm in the people or to be of any per- manent value to society if accomplished. Though the efforts to extend the right of suffrage, the form- ation of trade societies, protective imions, strikes for more ecpiitable terms of time and wages, etc., are praiseworthy manifestations of the right spirit. and have been and still are valuable as a means of education ; yet to arrest the further growth of fraud and remove the giant evils there is need of a more compreliensive sclienu' than any hitherto proposed, one that shall con.serve the best interests of every \iseful class and calling, and unite their scattered forces in one consolidated army of progress. To re- alize the necessary reform and ]ilace the future de- velopments of society upon a harmonizing upward grade, the governnu'Ut and industry of the country should be reconstructed upon the principles of nat- ural right, political equality and mutual i>rotection, and there are two methods by which this may be ac- (■omplished. The most speedy one is by political ac- ti(m, and the other is by the orsranization of labor ^ on the basis of nmtual interest. AVe live under gov- ernnu'nts that nuiy be peacefidly so amended by po- litical action as to secure the sovereignty of the people, and the subordination of tlu'ir legislative and executive oflicers, making them just in principle, wise in policy, and honest in administration. But the present constitutions excUnle a majority of citi- zens from a voice at the polls. and set aside the car- dinal principle of jioptdar sovereignty by clothing the legislators with authority to enact laws, grant I privileges, and appropriate public property w ithoiil I Hubmilting their acts lo the people for ratilicalion I Clechnically the referendum;. Kiirlher, lujting un- I der their authority, the olIlcirH lo wliorn their ad- miiuslralion has been committed have issui-d de- preciated curn'ney, havir chartereil banks and li;gal. izcd interest on money, and thereby imjtoHed upon society the most oporessive syslem of ariHtocracy fexcept that of the land; that 'ever afllicted the ci- ! vilized world, Therefore the govermneniK are un- j just in principle, unwise, partial anil oppressive in legislation, and complex, extravagant, and subject to fraud in execution. 'I'herefore, we present the following propositions of refrjrm for the considrra- lion of Ihe people of this country, believing llieni lo be true, and Iheir adojition uoccssary for our pros- perity as a nation : I'ii-Ht. All members of the human family are en- titled by nature to use sutllcient of the common r|e- nu'iilsdand, water, air and light; to maintain their existence and properly develop their being. Ki'rvnd. Land being an inalienable natural right (to which all men are alike entitled;, anil not pro- perly, should be supervised by government for Ihe use of its ciliziMis upon the basis of equality. Third. The imconsumed properly and other ad- vantages resulting from Ihe experience of the jjast should tje a common inheritauce lo the living gen- eration. Finirtli. The currency of a nation should be i.s- sued by govenuuent only, be a legal lender and bear no interesi, thereby protecting the people from the snares and frauds of gambling nionev-changers. Fifth. As all just governments derive their po- wers from the consent of the governed, the right of suffrage should be secured to every citizen of mat- ure age. without regard to sex or condition. Sixth. To sweep away Ihe present nndtiludinous and vexatious laws, and to introduce a more simple code, more easy to imderstand and ob.serve -. also lo protect society against usurpation a:id peculation by l)td)lic officials, and help to educate the people in political science, the government should be demo- cratic. Though legislation may be done by repre- sentatives, the peo])le should reserve the sovereign right to ratify or reject the ads of their public ser- vants, and to iirotect Ihe personal rights of Ihe indi- vidual against any luiiluc legislation in respect to freedom of speech, religious belief, habits of dress and diet, and the like. Hi-rtnth. So long as the existence of an army or navy may be deemed necessary, Ihey should be re- modiUeil to correspond w ilh the principles of equal pay and rations; and opportunities should be af- forded to rise from Ihe ranks lo Ihe command, and from the forecastle to the quarter deck. Kighth. To avoid Ihe evU consc(|uences of oSicial patronage and party bias, all oflicers should receive their commissions direct from Ihe people, while clerks, mechanics and other operatives should be taken from the list of competent applicants, as their names stand recorded, or be drawn, as the names of jurors are draw n, from Ihe wheel. Xiiit/i. To secure the greatest advantages of econ- omy and convenience resullin!' from the improve- ments of the aiie, and to guard against the cupidity of contractors, the fraudulent principle of interest on money, the impositions of the banking system, and Ihe extortions practiced by railroads, gas com- panies and other organized monopolies, the system of contracting public work should be abolished, and all public improvements, such as post roads, rail- roads, gas works, waterworks, mining operations, canals, post offices, telegraphs, expresses, etc.. should be public property and be conducted by gov- ernment, at reasonable rates, for the interest of so- ciety- Tenth. To advance material science, develop the resources of Ihe country, and proiect the useful classes agaiusi ihe avarice of capilalists or the de- RIOT. ro« KIOT. rangements of trade, the various branches of useful industry sliould be instituted by the government upon equitable priucipk-s, as to time and compeusatinn, and tliereby furnish employment to those who might otherwise be idle aud suffer the pangs of poverty, or be tempted to crime. Ekventh. To provide for the proper education of the people, schools, colleges and institutions of science should be supported by the government, and be free to all ; and to enable the people to convene frequently to consider subjects of public interest, and review the acts and propositions of tlieir public servants, the primary or public school houses should be open at least two evenings in each week for the use of the people. Twelfth. The greatest degree of benefit to be real- ized from combined effort will flow from the most comprehensive union of interests, upon the principle of equality; to attain which, government must ulti- mately absorb and direct everj' department uf use, extending to the citizens equal opportunities, equal compensation for services performed, and equal pro- tection in seasons of sickness, disal)ility and old age. Accordingly, let us hasten the realization of a just and wise system of government, established upon the principles above stated. Fairly computed, there were probably less than ten thousand persons on tiie ground. Nearest the stand were the internationalists and societymen; ne.xt to them a row three or four deep of mere listen- ers; and on the rim an ever-moving congregation of idlers, who only served the purpose of deluding one j into the belief that it was a great throng. The crowd [ was generally tame and apparently aimless. It lacked enthusiasm. The speakers tlietnselves seemed to feel i the want of sympathy that is ordiuarilj' expressed in hearty cheers, and were content with the nuld hur- rahs of the few malcontents who surrounded the platforms. The railway men did not put in an aji- pearance, or if so, in such small numbers that their ; presence was not notable, while of societies the rep- resentation was small and without organization, j In fact, judging from the comments of the more in- | telligent, the occasion was regarded as one which , had been created for the benefit of a few dema- gogues and ward politicians, rather than for the illus- tration of any broad principle. From the Ijegiuning to tlie end of the meeting there was not the slightest i exliiliition of a dangerous purpose on the part of tlie gatliering, aud incendiary reni;irks. wliether in Eng- lish or German, fell upon tlie ear still-liorn. Tlie orators had apparently lost heart. The stands were thronged witli noisy boys, and there was an utter want of the vim and snap tliat cliaracterizes an or- dinary political meeting. Perhaps all this result was ; due to the fact known to ever\' person on tlie ground, j that while not a policeman showed his uniform in ■ the crowd, or invited the sliglitest antagonism, five hundred sturdy men, armed to the teeth, were with- in e;irslK)t, re;idy to sweep down on tlie instant at any point where a disturbance might occur, and nearly a tlious;ind more were inreserve, waiting with ready hands to preserve peace and maintain the fair name of the metropolis. Certain it is, that the so- called " dangerous class" of New York, if they were present, never in (heir history witnessed sucli a mas- terly preparatiou'to |)unisli, ;ind, if necessary, crush them, as was tlieu sliowu. The action of tlie police force was simply supcrl). The men seemed to rise out of the ground, and wlien the meeting dissolved, and the four calcium burners thjit had been used to light tlie square were e.xtinguislied, the long blue line that reacluid across the square, and steadily pressed before it tliose wlio loitereil. told the slorj- in five minutes that communism in New York w;is a liasco and a fraud. The ulmnst good n;ilure pre- vailed, tlie sidewalks of the squares rang willi the cries of hucksters, women and children lined the Btc^ps of the adjacent houses, or innocently eiiiowed their way among the multitude, and faces generally wore anything but the expression of excitement or anxiety which might be expected to attach to the oc- casion. Uf the eight or ten lliousand thus assembled, probabl}- not more than three tliousand were active- ly identified with the trades unions and international societies, and manj- of the former openly expressed their condemnation of the attempt of a few men to create further trouble and distress at this time. The Inilk of the crowd was composed of people who curi- ously desired to see what .was going on, and took good care to be sufficiently near the highways to make an early exit in case of a demonstration by po- lice or military. The intervention of the military power of the Fed- eral government in behalf of the endangered railroad property of the country was a phase of the great out- break which was certainly not contemplated by tlie strikers in commencing their movement. When the Governor of West Virginia called upon the President for assistance, there was a feeling of general surprise throughout the country; aud when it was learned that the force sent in answer to his call numbered but a few hundred men, it was feared by many that it was not in the power of [the general government to deal with such a movement as vigorously as it de- manded, inasmuch as the army was too small and was scattered over so wide an extent of country. In addition to this, the«use of the Federal army in the affairs of the States under the previous administra- tion had so shocked the best sentiment of the coun- try that many persons feared the employment of the army in the present instance would lead to results equally deplorable. The course of the President and his advisers proved in the main entirely satisfactorj' to the country, and demonstrated tliiit the constitu- tional use of the army is in no way dangerous to the independence or reserved rights of any of the States; and the firmness and moderation which marked the action of the government called forth praise from all |)arties. The task before the President was a very delicate one; he was to fulfill his constitutional duty of protecting the States against internal disorders which they eoulil not suppress, and he was at the same time to treat the disturbance as a matter strict- ly witliin the jurisdiction of the State, or in other words he was not to take the enforcement of the laws out of the hands of the State authorities, but was merely to sustain them in their efforts to sup- press the disorder; and to do this he must place the Federal troops under the orders of the Governor of the State into which tliej' were sent, and must still retain the general direction of them. In other words, the Federal troops were to be so many police- men loaned to the States to enable them to execute their laws. Happily for the whole country, the President was fully imbued with this view of his duty in the matter, and his course was in accordance with it. The presence of the United States troojis had every where the happiest effect. Though the detachments sent to the various points of danger were small, they were everywhere respected, and feared by the rioters. Their discipline and steadiness made it certain that tliey would obey orders literally and promptly, and the eharaeter and experience of the officers were a guarantee (li;it while they would de;il with the dis- turbance witla forlicaranee and inodenilidii. they woulil also put diiwn resistance to them promptly and wilii vigor if c;illed upon to act. Wlierever the regulars appeared, the rioters slunk awiiy; not a hand w;is raised against them; and their service was eon- fined entirely to guard duty. The forces at the dis- ])osal of file government was, as hasliecn said, small and was si^allered over the wiiole country. It be- came necessary to eonci'iilnile iis strong a force as possible in llie Stales of \Vcsl N'irginiii, ,M;iryl;iiiil au<l I'ennsylviinia, and at the e;ii'liest moment. For this purpose detachments were brought f;'om the Atlan- tic coast ports, and the troops that had been station- ed in the Southern Stales by President Grant for BIOT. 709 HIOT. poliliciil piirpoHcH wire movi'd iiDrlliwiird Id tlir- HcciH- of (lHni;<T. The ])(ilicy of (lie uoviTiiiiicnt wiis to iicl witli ciiiitioii. lull also willi viitnr iiml prompt ncHH. Tliis line of (•(iiiilucl wan Hiriclly ailliiTcd Irj. The troops licliavi-d willi adiniralilc lirimii'ss. payiii); MO atti'iilloM to llic jeers ami iiisulls of llie rioters, and avoidiiii; in every way ifivini,' provoeulioii to the inol). DiiriiiL; tlie wliole distiirbanee, the Hijjiial Corps of the army nndered important service, in forwaniini; to tlie war(k[)arlment news of the events at their respective |)osls. 'Vhv despatches of the siirnal olVicers w<Te rei;iilarly laid hefore the Cahiiiet, and were always found free from e.\ay;t;eralion an<i tliorou^rlily reliable. The i;overnineiil eaine to du- penil npon them as its mostaccnrate souro<M)f infor- nnilion. The North. Aiiirrinin RivlfW for Septeiiilier to ()c- tol)er, 1877, contained two articles relatini; to the strike, which are of so much interest lo those inter- ested ill the question that we i^ive the substance of them hero: The tirst is from the pen of ('ohmel Thomas A. Scolt, the I'resiilenI of llie I'ennsylvania liailroad. ("olonel fScoll, after recitinir the history of the IroublcM, and statini; the necessities of tlie rail i road companies, mak<'s the foUowini; deductions: ' This insurrection, which e.xtemled llirouj;h fourleen Slates, and in many cases successfully delie<l the lo- cal aiilliorities, presents a state of facts almost as se- rious as that which prevailed at lh(^ oullircak of the Civil War. I'nless ourownex()crienee is lo dilTcr en- tirely from ilher counlries - and it is iiol easy to see why it should, wi'.h Ihi- increasinir i)opulation of our larjje Cities and business centers, and the inevilabic assemblafj;e at su<li points of the vicious and evil-ilis- jjosed — the late Iroidiles may be l)ut a prelude to oilier manifestations (.f mob violence, with this add- ed peril, thill now. forlhclirsi lime in AiiK'rican his- tory, has an oriraiii/.ed mob learned ils power to ler- 1 rorize the law abidiiii; citizens of ureal communities. With our recent experience before us. it is believed I hat no lliousrhlful man can ariiiK' in favor of delay by the proper authorities in dealiiii; with I.iwlessand riotous asseinblai;es. Delay sini]ily leads lo destruc- tion of properly, and may lead in the eml to the de- 1 siruclion of life. The force used to repress such as- semblasies sliould be iis prompt in ils manifestation ns Ihe evil with which it deals. The interests con- cerned are too jirave to adniil of delay. The rais- ing of the black thii; and the sloppaiie of all ves- sels on the Great Lakes and on the Mississippi and Ohio rivers would not proiluce one tithe of the dam- age to the whole country that lias resulted from the recent stoppage of the great trunk lines. The burn- ing of the vessels and their <'argoes on these waters would raise a slorin of wrath which no mob would dare to face, ami would be visiled by the United States government, under existing laws with most exemplary fiunishment. But what distinction can be establisbed betw-een such a crime and the hide- ous deslrucliou at I'illsburgli of over one thousand eight hundred cars laden with the products of the various States, together with the engines ready to move them to their deslinatinn, and Ihe station buildings and machine shops that were absolutely ossenlial lo their jiroper care and movement, and which, with oilier like doings, resulted in the stop- page of all commerce and business relations lie- twecn the States not only on one highway, but on many important lines, through the <(>ncerted action of the mob and its leaiiers? In the city of Pills- burgh much human life and many ))rivate dwellings and other properly were sacriliceil as the result of mob violence; indeed, it is almost a m;irvel that a large portion of that city was not destroyed by tire. Only the prevailing direction of the wind averted greater and more general disaster. 1 The authority of Ihe United Stales, now potent to I protect commerce moving upon the w.-ilers. should be eiiu;illy potent when the same comnuTce is ex- posed to greater peri! upon land. This brings us i then, to Ihe practical ipicHtion: In what Hhajie can Ibis protection be put ho as to be exienrh-d most i-(I|- cieiilly and willi the least ileliiy y The priwnt re^ru- lalioim all favor, uninlenlionully, the rioters iiiifl the mob. Ill Ihe lirsl jiliice the .Mayor of a city liiiiHt ex- haust his power, Ihe Sheritr of the c( iinty must cti. say his stnnglh : then, while precious time \h ex- pending—for a mob constanlly allracts dungeroijH elemenlH unil grows with impiinily and succcmk- the (Jovernor of tlie Klute must lie calleil upon by the HherilT of u county. If the Stale happens lo have an (•lT<'Clive military organi/alion, wliich ut the present lime is Ihe case in perhaps not more than live out of thirty-seven Stales of the Union, the (jov- ernor can call out Ihe military forces and siippresH the riot. If Ihe Slate has no such organization, or If till- military forces of the Slate provi; iiiailiipialc to the emergency, Hie Governor is paraly/.er!, unil miisl call upon the United Stales for assistance. If the authorities of any Stale should, for any cause, fail lo refuse lo call upon the United Stales govem- iiicnl. what possible remedy or protection is left to life and projierly within the limits of that common- wealth ? It can readily be seen what frightful possibilities of mischief are alTorded by Ihe necessarily long inter- val which must elapse in the present state of laws before the Federal aulhority can intervene in cases where its intervention is most imperative. In fact, as our recent experience has shown, the f)nly roads which could procure prompt iiroteclion and immun- ity from inlerference were those whose niisforliines had made them bankrupt, and placed them in the direct custody of receivers appointed by the Unit- ed Slates Courts. To the aid of these roads the United Slates .Marshal could call the United States troops, and no rioter dared to resist the power represented by the small but admiralily disciplin- ed delachiiienis ([uarlered near the scenes of re- cent troubles. It will hardly be contended that the railway companies must become bankrupt in order to make secure the unintcrrupleil movement of traf- fic over their lines, or to entitle them to the efficient jiroteclion of the United Slates government. If a bondholder or other creditor is entitled to the protec- •ion of the Federal courts to prevent the threatened iinp:iirment of the value of a projirrty through legal jiroceedings, he cerlainly should not be left without remedy against lawless violence which has actually destroyed the security for his investment, and has. as at I'ittsburgh. converted millions of dollars into scrap iron and ashes. The laws which give the Fed- eral courts the summary process of injunction to re- strain so comparatively trilling a wrong as an in- fringement of a palent-right, certainly must have been inlended or ought to give the United Statesau- thorily to prevent a wrong doing, which not only de- stroys a particular road, but also paralyzes the entire commerce of the country and wastes the national wealth. It is demonstrable that during the recent disturbances the government of the I nited Slates was itself a direct loser, and through the goveni- mcnt tlie tax-payers of the whole couutrj* to a verj' large amount, by the diminution of Ihe national re- venues arising from the iuterrupliim of business and Ihe interference with many of the operations on which iIk' internal taxes of the country are levied, as well as by the diminution cf the customs revenues as all the imports durimi this period, instead of being forwarded lo their destinations, were necessarily placed in store, of course without payment of any duly to the government for the lime bein:i. Sup- pose that this slate of things had continued for six- ty days, would not the United Stales government liave "been deprived of nearly all the revenues on which it relies to meet ils current obligations? Certainly it cannot have been contemplated in Ihe formation i)f our government that the United States ;iiitliorities should submit to see the transportation of Ihe mails, covering the enormous tinancial and EIOT. 710 BIOI. business transactions of the whole country, and the movement of supplies required for its own various departments, made dependent upon tlie grace and favor of rioters, whose misconduct in almost any other form would have secured their inunediate ar- rest and condign punishment. During the recent riots the movement of United States troops was im- peded at several points, and large quantities of am- munition and other Federal stores on their way to the Pacitic coast were forcibly detained for days. Tlie 0])erations of the national government in some _ parts of the country were as completely blocked as 'in the early days of the Civil War. There certainly .should be a protection against sucli dangers, and a remedy for such wrongs. If the government of the United States is to exercise its power of protection or of remedy, it perhaps can do so only througli an adequate exhibition of the military force thaf may be given it for such purposes by Congress. The im- portant question is to ascertain in what way the gov- ernment can so exhibit its military force as to secure the utmost possible efficiency in the enforcement of law and order, without jarring or disturbing the general framework of our institutions and our laws. It seems to be indispensable, in the light of recent events, that whatever force is to be used In- the gov- ernment in such emergencies should be so distributed and controlled that it may be concentrated upon any point or points that maj' be threatened within a few hours of any outbreak. Several companies of regu- lar troops that were quartered at Baltimore, Phila- delphia, Pittsburgh, Reading, Scranton, Louisville, Chicago, and other places, during the recent riots, had to be transported for such distances that, if they liad been compelled to march instead of moving by rail, they would have been powerless to avert mis- chief. It was only by the fear or favor of the rioters that the United States were able to concentrate their forces where they did. In some cases formal resolu- tions were passed by the strikers that no troops should be allowed to pass over the lines. In Jersey City a mob endeavored to prevent the departure of a United States battery and the troops connected therewith. On the Erie Railway, between Cornell and Hornellsville, a few lawless men, b_y tearing up tracks, destroying bridges, and tampering with switches, were able seriously to retard the military forces of tlie State, which were there under the orders of the Governor to re-establish law and order. What is needed, [iierefore. would clearly seem to be that proper forces should be so disposed at prominent points— large cities and other great business centers, in many of which the government has arsenals, cus- tom-houses, mints, navy yards, and other property of its own to protect — that their movements can be combined rapidly and the}' be directedagainst points | of danger. so as to be able to act eftectively and witli decision before violence can become triumphant. With the experience of other cmmtries to warn | anil guide us, and especially with the exiierience of i Knglanil, where the rights of the peo]ile have for ages been guarded and asserted as jealously as they always have been an<l should be among ourselves, we shall have only ourselves to blame if, through apatliy.denia- gogisin, or weakness we leave ourselves uii])repared to meet an issue whicli, from all the evidences of tlie times, is only too likely again lobe forced upon us. With the apjiroach of winter, and the loss of out-door employment which severe weal her, even in the most prosperous times, entails, the country will have to deal not only with the deserving among the unemployed, who can be reached and hel])ed through local organizations, but with vast mmdjcrs of idle, dangerous and, in many cases, desperate men, who liave been allowed unforlimately to calcli a glimpse of their possilile power for mischief. Such uien, un- less confronted !>}' a tliorr)Ugh organi/.alinn in the chics States and other coiiununities, backed by tli<\ power of the Federal goveriunent and an lunnistak- able |)Mblie opinion, will ii<-ed but little urging to renew the scenes which have already brought such disgrace upon the American name. It surely may be hoped that at the approaching session of Congress the earnest, unprejiuliceil an<l patriotic men of both houses will discuss this grave subject independently of party lines, and with the imited resolve to secure equity to all interests, and to take all necessary meas- ures to secure protection to life and property and impartial enforcement of the laws, including the guarantee to every man of the right to work for such compensation as he may agree upon with other men, free from interference or intimidation. The able- lawyers of the Senate and House will perhaps frame a law which will give to the owners of every higli- way carrying inter-State commerce, whether by land or water, in which citizens of different States are in- terested,or carrying the United States mails or other government property, the right to appear by petition properly verified before the tribunal of the United States, in order to show that the movement of such traffic has been interfered with by unlawful combina- tions, by threats or by violence, and which, upon such showing, will give these tribunals the right, when necessary to call upon the United States, in the form now authorized bj' law to enforce their pro- cess by arresting the rioters and the suppression of ! all such unlawful combinations. [ The magnitude of the evil to be met and dealt with can hardh' be overstated. The remedy to be I provided should be equally prompt and effective. 1 It must be discussed and adopted in the interest I of the wliole country, and not of any particular I class ; for the interests of all classes of our citi- zens are the same in the maintenance of domestic peace and civil order. But to no one class in the community is an absolute assurance of peace so im- portant as to the men who have no capital but their labor. When the accumulations of labor are put in peril by lawlessness, capital may always protect itself by suspending the enterprises which give la"bor its value and insure its reward. Anarchy not only deprives the laboring man of his present subsistence, but puts in jeopardy all his hopes of improvement for his own future and the future of his family. The second article referred to is entitled "Fair Wages," and is signed "A Striker." and contends that the rights and value of labor, which were ac- knowledged here forty years ago because the coimtry wanted hands, now turns the laboring men's earn- ings against them, and the country's prosperity be- comes their disaster. The writer concludes as follows: Let us put this matter in a iilain way, as we imder- stanil it, and use round num.bers, instead of fractions, as we have to deal with hundreds of millions, divid- ing the subject into sections. " Firxt. In the United States the amount of capi- tal invested in railwav propertv last year was l|4,- 470,000,(1(10, made iqi o'f *2.2.")O,000,0O0 capital stock, and .t3, 220,000, 000 bonded debt. The gross earn- ings were !f!,")00,000,0(JO. or about eight and a half per cent on the capital. The running expenses (of which the bulk was for labor) were *;ilO,()00,000, leaving .f IH.'S.OOO.OOO as interest to the caiiitalist, or barely four per cent, on his investment. Labor is admiiled into this enterprise a.^ a preferential credi- tor, to lie ])aid out of the gross earnings before the most preferred mortgagee or bondhnldiT receives a dollar. For, as capital could nut build the roads nor c(|uip Ihem without labor, so the enterprise, when complete, cannot be rim without labor. Cap- ital, Iherefore, takes a back seat when it comes to the push, and acknowledges not only that labor has the largest interest in the concern, but takes the first frnils. I take the railroad as a sample out of all en- terprises, and if we could gel at ligures. there is no doubt it is a fair s.'uiiple of the crowd. If, then, lalxir is the more important and essential factor in the result, when it comes to the (|ueslion which of the two ■hall suffer in moments of general distress — the capitalist in his pocket or the laborer in his RIOT 711 ElOT. Ii<;lly — wclliiiik lln- Hiiswcr has liciii alrciidy si'llliil by the rij^htH assuiiiiMl liy one and a(knowh'd};cil by Ihr (ilhcr. HicoiiiL It iH Miaiiifi slly iiiijiint thai the working- man Bhoiild l)c Miihjccicd 1(1 under wajjeK in l)a(l limes, if lie lias not tlie e(|iiival('nt of over wajjes in i;(i(id times. If railroad e<jm|iaiiii'S in eniieiTt with IIk^ laliorinij ehiss liad cslalilisheil a tarilV nf lahur, and paid a lioniis (Ui \va;;es at every dislrihiilioM of diviiiiiids, that bonus lieinj; in proportion to the profits of tlie road, so lliat caeli man becomes a sliareliolder in his very small way, then he would hav(! submitted to bear his share of distri'ss when all wcro called on to share trouble, but toslmre it eijual- ly and alike. Third. When folks say that labor and capital must find, by the laws of demand .iiid supply. Iheir nal iral relations to each other in all commercial enlerpris<'S, and neither one has any riithls it can enforce on the oth(^r, they take for granted that the labor ■nnirket' is like the produce market — liable to natural lluclmi- tions. If that were so, w(^ should not complain. But it is not. The labor market has l'oI to be like (he slock and share market a few larire capilalisis control it and makc> what prices they please. This sort of fiame may ruin the gamblers in stocks and in- jure those who invest, but the troul)le is conlincd mostly to those who can afford it. Hut not so when the same practice operates in the labor market. The capitalist nuist not fjamblc willi the bread of the workiuf^man. or if he does, let him reijanl where that speculation led France one hundred years airo, when I hi' tinancicrs made a corner in Hour, and the pconle broke the rini; with the a.\e of the i;uilloline. Jicnirt/i. When the railway <'ompanies obtained privilej^es and riuhls over jirivate property, anil bo camc, by force of law. the great landowners of the State, holdinjr its movable property as well, and con. trollini; every avenue and department of business. public and private, they liecanK'|)owcrful monopolies. The .Slate endowed them with powers to frame '.dws of their own. and deprived citizens of their property, means, facilities of transport, to vest it all in their corporations. Thus endowed, they cannot pretend they are no more than ordinary commercial enter- prises. They are resjionsible to the State for the result of Ihelr operations if they disturb fatally the order of our concerns. They are not inilcpeiident. The Stale has claims upon them it has not on pri- vate concerns. They may not accept liabilities and then decline responsibility. It behooves the State to decide what the people are entitled to in return for all they have conceded to tlu'se companies, and to enforce such cl.-iims. ' FijVi. The En;4lisli Parliament leunslated on the (piestion of the luunber of h<uirs a w<irkini;man should labor. It limits them to so many. It Ici^islales for his health and sujiply of lii;ht and water. In all these matters the caiiitalist has an interest. (He docs as much for his horse.) Hut when it comes to the question of a proper amount of food and clotli- inir, of warmth and shelter, the sovernment declines to interfere. It leaves the (|uestion of fair wattes to lie adjusled between employer and employed.'' Commenting u|)(m these articles. 7'/ir I'liibiililphin Villus pertinently said: "The chief importance of these two articles lies in the fact that they are writ- ten by men who represent what are supposed to be the two most opposite views of the labor <|ueslion. One is the leading railroad nnm of the country, the head of the great corporation which had to stand the brunt of the recent outbreak of violence. The other, though unknown to fame, is evidently a fair representative of the restless, discontented spirit that actuated that outbreak, and though he cautiou.s presents, nl the editor's requcHl, Pome practical thoughts Kiiggi'ftled by his own obHervulion and ex- perii-nce during the rei'ent troubles, uiirl lliese very nulurallv rilale to the preservulion of order and the prevention of riolouH oiitbreakM, rather (ban lo tin; causes of remedies of any e.icistiiig trouble. The ' striker,' on the oihr-r hand, has nothing to say or to suggest except that nun areenlillid to • fair wiiges,' and if the capitalist attempt to 'gamble with tho breail of the workingnian,' he must ' regard where that speculation led Krance one hundred yearH ago.' Unfortunately the capitalist, as the railroad man for example, has had loo niiicli reason lately lo 'regard' this piece of history , which he has seen repealing itBtlf under his own eyes, and it is a lillle disappoinlinir to find that our representative strikiT has no very defi- nite suggestions to olfir as lo how ' fair wages' are to li" .secureil at a time when capital is making no profit at all." Mr. Scott's reflectionH upon the gtrikcH arPHuchaH would be natural lo any man who had been com- pelled to sil still and see the properly under his charge destroyi'd in the absence of any adequate ])Owcr to protect it ; who had wilnesseil the failure of the local and even of the Stale aiilliorities, and the faliil delays of a system that was never designed for such an emergency, and who felt Ihe interests in- trusted to him secure only when the strong arm of the Federal government was at last stretched out Ir) l)roteet them. Naturally and justifiably. Mr. Scott would strengthen those defences of law and order whi<li his own experience has found most trust- worthy. He woidii rely upon the Federal power to protect the commerce between the Stales, and would provide for the prompt and speedy exercise of this power in every great emergency. AVe doubt if the country will follow him in this, or be willinji; to re- lieve the local authorities from the responsibility for the protection of property and the preservation of order within their jurisdiction. There is one thing, however, in Mr. Scolt's paper which all classes will readily recognize, sind tliat is the entire contidence which he displays in the honor and intelligence of American workingmen and his practical belief in the community of interest between employers and employed. -\ railroad presiilent re- presents both the owners and operators of the road, and it concerns the one class quite as much as the other that the business of Ihe road shall be .safely carried on. It is probable that he would not even dissent from the 'striker's' propos-tion. that when it comes to a question of which shall siifTer in mo- ments of general distress the demands of labor come first, since this has been practically acknowledged by everybody, and countless capitalists have done withoul their earnings within the last year that la- borers might have bread. So. too, with the only I)ractical suggestion which the -V</r<A Americaii'n 'striker' lias to make, that workingmen.if they arc to be subject to under wages in bad '.inies. should have the equivalent of over wages in good times, since that is also generally acknowledged and in a limited sense has been generally acted cm. If any system of di- viding a proportion of Ihe jirotits among employes would secure contentnu'ut and universal happiness, there is little doubt that em plovers would gladly adf>])t It and would find it profitalile : only such a system is much more easily suggested than fully elaborated and carried into elTecl. The first thing that we need is to learn to discuss these subjects temperate- ly, and in a spirit of mutual trust, and it is a good ign that tlie mosi conservative and eminently re- spectable periodical in the countrj- has undertaken to direct the discussion into a profilable channel. It may be only an acci<ient that the representative em- ly deprecates a resort to violence be leaves no doubt ployer approaches the subject in a more catholic as to where his sympathies were. And yet neither spirit than the representative striker, but itshowsat of these representative men really discusses the ques- least that the leading men of the country are willing tlons involved with any thoroughness. Mr. Scott, to meet the issues of the day and anxious to solve indeed, makes no pretence of doing so. He merely . them for the good of all alike." RIOT. 712 BIOT. While the troubles we have detailed were in pro- gress in the Slate of New York, many other States and localities tliroughout the United States were already or rapidly becoming involved in disturbances in many eases more violent and deplorable. About the middle of July, 1877, the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company made a reduction of ten per cent, in the pa^- of its employes. The pay of all the em- ployed, of whatever grade, was equally diminished, no invidious distinctions being made. All accepted the change quietly except the firemen and the men who run the freight trains. The lirst-class firemen on this road had been receiving #1.75 per daj'; the reduction brought their wages to $1.58. The firemen of the second class were reduced from ijil..50 to f 1.35 per day. These men refused to accept the reduction, and stopped work. As soon as, tliis became known, numerous applications were made to the company, by men out of work, for employment in the places of the men wlio had •' struck." The company, hav- ing the large unemployed class along its line to clioose from, had no difliculty in filling the places of the strikers, generally with experienced firemen who were eagerly seeking employment. Here the matter raiglit have rested had tlie sober good sense; of the strikers come to their aid. They had refused to work for the wages offered by the Baltimore & Ohio Com- pany, and had abandoned their post. In so doing they had exercised an undisputed right. Having left" the service of the company, they should have recognised the fact that they had no longer any in- terest in its action, and should have sought employ- ment elsewliere. Unfortunately for themselves and for the whole country they chose a different line of conduct, and one winch changed the sympathy whicli the country had felt for them in their privations to the sternest condenmation of tlieir lawlessness. The leaders of the strikers now resolved to compel the railroad company to recall the order for the reduc- tion of wages. T'iiey believed that they could accom- plish this by taking forcilile possession of the road at certain points, and preventing the passage of all freight trains until the company should be driven, by the lo.ss of its liusiness. into an acceptance of their demand for a return to the old wages. They did not seem to be aware that by seizing the prop- erty of their late employers, and stopping the busi- ness of the road, they were assuming the character of criminals and committing offenses against the laws of the land of so grave a naturethattlie author- ities would be compelled to crush them by force. On the morning of the 16th of July, about forty firemen and brakemen of freight trains on the Bal- timore & Oliio Kailroad.in Baltimore, refused to ac- <,ept the reduction in their wages, which was to go mto effect that day, and stopped work. The strikers assembled at Camden Junction, about three miles from Baltimore, and stopped a freight train, per- suading the fireman to leave liis engine, and refu.s- ing to alhiw another to take his place. At the re- qiie.st of the railroad otlicials, the city authorities sent a police force to the spot and dispersed the strikers. The trains were then run during the day without further delay. This, however, was but the beginning of the trouble. The news spread rapidly along the road, ami the disalTeclion soon ri'achcd .Mariinsburg. in West Virginiii, ('Mmlierland. in .Ma- ryland, and Kcyser, (irafton. and Wliecling, in West Virginia, the most iniixirtant i)iiints on the line of the road, the lai t named place being its western terminus. At Martinsburg tlie ]5altimore it Oliio Company liave large shops, and there is always a large concentration of the rolling stock and em- ployes of the road there. As soon as the news was received from Baltimore the firemen ami the brake men stop])i'd worli and tookjiart in the strike. They numbered about one hundred men. They assenilil- ed about thi' depot, .seized tlie roail and the engines, and compi'lled the men who were willing to work to leave their places. No frclirht trains were allow. ed by the strikers to mo"e either way, and all ar- ' riving at Martinsburg were compelled to halt; the engines were uncoui)led and run on to the side tracks, and the firemen and train hands joined the strikers. The railroad officials, finding themselves powerless, applied to the Mayor and city authorities for protection. Tlie strikers were ordered Ijy the Maj-oi' to disperse and cease their unlawful interfer- ence with tlie property of the railroad company, but refused to obey the command, which the ottieials were unable to enforce. The Governor of West Virginia called for assist-' ance, and the President directed the Secretary of War to send a sufficient force at once to Martins- burg. At the same time he issued the following pro- clamation to the rioters: W^eredK. It is provided in tlie Constitution of the United States that the United States shall protect every State in this Union on ap- plication of the Legislature, or of the Executive when the Legislature cannot be convened, against domes- tic violence; and W/iemiJi. The Governor of the State of West Virginia has represented that domes- tic violence exists in said State at Martinsburg, and at various other points along the line of the Balti- more & Ohio Railroad, in .said State, which the au- thorities of said State are unable to suppress; and, W/ierefi-1. By laws in jiursnance of the above it is pro- vided (in tlie laws of the United States) that in all cases of insurrection in any State, or of obstruction to the laws thereof, it shall be lawful for the Presi- dent of the United States, on application of the Leg- islature of such State, or of the Executive when the Legislature cannot be convened, to call forth the miHtia of any other State or States or to employ such ]iart of the laud and naval force as may be necessary for the purpose of suppressing such insurrection or causing the laws to be duly executed; and, W/ierr- (1,1. The Legislature of said State is not now in session and cannot be convened in time to meet the present emergency; and the Executive of said State, under section 4 of Article IV. of the Constitution of the United States and the laws passed in pursuance thereof, has made application to me in the premises for sncli iiart of the military force of the United States as may be necessary and adequate to protect said State and the citizens thereof against domestic violence, and to enforce the due execution of the laws; and, W/itreax. It is required that whenever it may be necessary in the judgment of the President to use the military force for the jiurpose aforesaid, he shiill forthwith, by proclamation, command such in- surgents to disperse and retire peaceably to their re- spective homes within a limited time: Now. there- fore, I, Rutherford B. Ilayes, President of the L'nit- ed States, do hereb}' make proclamation and com- mand all persons engaged in said unlawful and in- surrectionary proceedings to disperse and retire peaceably to tlieir respective abodes on or before twelve o'clock noon on the 19th day of July instant, and hereafter abandon said- combinations and sub- mit themselves to the laws and constituted authori- ties of said State, and I invoke the aid and co-opera- tion of all good citizens thereof to uphold the laws and jireservethe public peace. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of the United States to be allixed. Disall'ection coniiniu'd to spread along the road. The p;issenger and nuiil lr;uiis had not been interfer- <'d with thus f:ir. but the strikers iit Cumberland, Keyser, (Jrafton, and other points, were firm in their iletermination that no freight trains should be run. At Keyser, on tlie night of the l'.lth,;i meeting of work- men was held, at which the following resolutions were adopted ; liinolcid, Tli;it we, the men of the Third Division, will aliiile by the decision of our hrolliiT divisions in regard to wages in the future, ;ind that \vi' will slay by them in the present trouble until such decision is arriveil at. as we have been oppressed by our superior oflicers beyond endur- ance. Hi'xiiUeii. That we, the men of I hi' Tliinl I)i- BIOT. 71» HIOT viHioii, Imvi' Ki)l)fr!v iind riilnily c'lnHidcrcd the step | (lie (tdvcnmr of I'cnnHvlviiniii omiBcd ihr fullowine we Imvc taken, iiiiit ilicliirc thill 111 llic [iriscnl Htuti' tclc;;rHiii Id hi- fiirwiirdrd from IlurrixhiirK to the of waives which the (M)iii|iaiiy have iiiipo.icd upon us, i I'rcsiihiil of the- I'liilcd .SIuIch ; we caiiiiot live and provide our wivis and children OoincHlic vioh-iicee.xislH witliin theBtatv of Pcmi- wilh Die iiece.ssaries of life, and Ihal wc- only ask for ! sylvania in the Cily of J'itlhhiir^rh and uloni; the liui- waives Dial will inal)le lis lo provide such ni'f;eHsa- 1 of llii' I'ennsylvania Kaiiroad. iinri oilier ruilrourlH in ries. AV.wfew/, That wc uphold the other diviHJonH H«id .Stale, which the aiilhoriliis are unable to Hiip. in llie step they have taken in regard to the prcHcnt pri'SH.aml Ihe /.ejiislalure of i'eniihylvania cannot In- fouhle. convened in lime lo nieel the emerjjency, I have. At ('iiiiiljcrlaiid iiiallers were especially had. There, therefore, to retpiest that in conformity to the Cau- as at Ihe oilier poiiilsoii the line, Ihe orijrinal strikers sliliition the government of thi' I'niled Slates shall had lieeii joined liy lari^i^ nuniliirs of idle anddisrep- furnish me with mililary forie suMlcient tOHiipprenR utalile persons, who were iittracled liy the hope of disorder, and to protect 'lersoiis and nrooertv airuinHt .1.... 'PI 1. tl ,:, 1 i'...l.i .1... .1 . .1 ;-. ..:.!...... ' "^ * plunder. The iiioli, thus coiistiliited, held the de|iot and yards and set the cily authorities at dcliiiiice. As the trains siiit out from .Marliiishiirjr reached {'uni- berland, tlii^y were stopped hj' the rioters, and the engineers and liremen were fon^'d lo aliandon their domestic violence. Tlie President at once complied with tliiK demand, anil issued the following proclamation : WlurmH, It is provideil in the Constilulion of the United States thai the United Slates shall protect posts. Thus the blockade, which had been broken every Stale in this Union on application of the I.ejrii)- at Martinsbiire; by Ihe Federal troops, was establish- i lature, or of the K.\ecntive when the Lepislalure can- ed with e,|uiil rin'or at ('uiiiberliimi. .\t \\'lieelinf.', the western terniiniis of the main line of the Haiti- more it Ohio l{ailriiail,llie excilcinenl was very ijreat. The men employed there stopped work, and joined in the striki', but iitteiiipted no violence. The com- pany attempted lo till the places of the strikers with a jiarly of men from Sleubenville. Ohio, but the new comers were warned olV by the strikers, who threat- ened them with assassination if they went lo work. The state of affairs aliiiiir the line of the lialtimoreA Ohio liailroad had now become .^o IhreatcninL' that the force of regulars was largely augmented. The not be convened against domestic violence ; and, Wliirt'dx, The (iovernorof Ihe.Stale of I'ennsylvaniu has represented that domestic violence e.xislsin said Stale which Iheaulliorilies of said State are unable to suppress: and. WIiii-kik, the laws of the United Slates reiiuire that in all r-ases of insurrection in any Slate, or of obslruclion lotlie laws thereof, whenever in the judgmentof the I'residenl it becomes necessary to use the military forces to suppress such insnrreelion or olistructit.n lo Ihe laws he shall forlliwith by procla- mation cniiiiiiaiid such insurgents to disperse and re- tire peaceablv lo their respective abodes within a lim- troublcs continued to increase, and brought on the ited time : l^ow, thirefore. I. Hulherford B. Ilaye.s, Baltimore riots. | President of the United Stales, do hereby admonish One of the Halt-more papers, cfimnienting u|)oii the i all good citizens of Ihe United Slates and all persons character of tlie mob in that city, said; "The num- within the terrilory and jurisdiction of the United ber of railroad cruployes engagi-d in the rioting here Slates against aid ing.countenancins:, abetting, ortak- has from the lirst not exceeded ITiO; liul at the outset ing part in such unlawful jiroceedings, and 1 do here- of the affair they were joined by thousands of labor- j by warn all persons engaged in or connected with the ers and mechanics out of employiiieiil, and by llic ' said domestic violence and obstriK-tion of the laws entire criminal masses of the city, eager foran occa- to disperse and retire peaceably to their respective sion to plunder. A large number of men besides these,in various occupations, who have suffered a re- duction of wages of late, are in a sullen temper with their emjiloyers and with cji))italists generally. They imagini' that they have been wronged, and weleonie what they lliink is an atlenipt of the railroad men to right a similar wrong. Some have actively aided tlic rioters, and nearly all have fermented the movement by reckless and iiitlaminatory talk. The commiinistic ciiaracter of the riots is shown by every incident. The mob which assailed the 6th Regiment. Friday night, was not composed of railroad men, but was a niiscellancous assemlilage of laborers. The crowd Unit stoned the United States troops to-day probably I'.ad not a single striker in its mi.lsl. So of the gangs gathered up by tiie police in the nunienms combats around t'anulen station last night. Some were thieves aliodes on or before twelve o'clock noon on the 24th day of July instant. In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my lianil and caused the .seal of the Unit- ed Slates lo be affixed. At the same lime I'residenl Hayes ordered General Hancock tojiroceed lo Philadelphia with such troops as could be spared from Baltimore, and orders were despatched to the Kaslern posts to reinforce General Hancock at Philadelphia with everj- available man. < )n the same day orders were issued" by the Governor of Pennsylvania placing the entire militia force of the State under arms. In the meantime the strike spread rapidly alonir the line of the Pennsylvania Railroad, from Pillsburgh eastward. At eleven o'clock on Saturday, .luly 21sl, Ihe train men of Ihe Pennsylva- nia Uailroad at Altoona struck, and taking posses- sion of the road and shops at that point, refused to and rowdies, and others were workingmen, usually '' allow the passage of freight trains. They were join- well-behaved, but now crazed by Ihe excitement of ed by a large number of tramps and loafers from the the outbreak. It is a notable fact that most of Ihe men who yelled " bread" in the. crowd that surged against the lines of tlie |iolice and the soldiers last night had evidently money enough to buy whiskey, for they were half-drunk. Some of the strikers af- firm that they and their friends were taking no part in the lawless acts, and that the movement has pass- ed altogether out of their hands. The prejudice against the Baltimore & Ohio railroad among the working classes, and to some extent among people in Ihe Iiisrher walks of life. furnished at the beginning a strong fund of symiialliy to sustaiii the strike. It was currently believed that the policy of the compa- ny has been to starve its men in order lo keep up its ten per cent, dividends. There is no doubt that this prejudice was Ihe real tiasis of the oulbreak. Des- |)erate men took advantage of it to defy Ihe law, re- iyini; upon popular support." The troubles were not lo be confined to the States of iMarylaud and West Virginia. About this time city, and towards nightfall numbered .several thou- sand men. No disturbance was attempted on Satur- day. On Sunday the 22d, the news from Pillsburgh was received and created great excitement. The rioters declared that no more troops should pass Al- toona on their way to Pittsburgh: and when it wa,s announced, early on Sunday morning, that a lietach- ment of 2.')0 men under Generals Beaver and Lyie. were ncaring the city, the strikers prepared to slop them The train bearing the troops entered Altoona slow- ly and cautiously. .\.s it reached Ihe depot the en- gine was taken off. in order that a heavier ensine might be connected with the train for the purpose of taking it over the mountain west of Altoona. "The mountain engine was backed out of the roundhouse, but as it appeared, the rioters, who had surrounded the depot to the number of at least 3,000 men. and who were terrilily excited, took possession of the engine and riiurr-d ii lo tlic round bouse. General EIOT. 714 RIOT. Beaver tlien ordered his men to march down and bring; the engine out agiain. tmt iijion rearliinm the round liouse tliey were surr.iuiuli-d liy tlic mob, and finally surrendered tlieir arms. Israel ically,t lien, Gen- eral Beaver was left without any command, e.\cept the men under General Lvle and Colonel fSnowden, about 100 all told, and ali Pliiladelphiaus. Tiicse troops remained at the depot in a broilinii' sun for an hour and a half, and were then ordered down the track to break into tlie round house in order to get the motive power to take the train over the mount- ains. The mob had increased by this time to fully 5,000 excited and violent men. Tliis round house is situated on the side of a cut, and between two liridges which x^ross the road. The troops passed under the western bridge, eastward from the round house, the hillside on the right being dense with rioters, the houses on the left being occupied liy strikers, and a mob tilling the two bridges. The men were armed, some with the muskets surrendered Uy the Clearfield militia. About twenty of the strikers were guarding tlie gate of the round house, antl when the troops had been marched up prepared to force the gate, the mob showered upon them every vile epithet, threat, and insult that could be invented, and gave them every reason to apprehentl that anj' attempt to open the gate by them would be the signal for an instan- taneous and terrible assault. The rioters crowdeil up against the troops, stand- ing shoulder to shoulder with them, shaking their tists in the faces of the men, and throwing stones, some of which wounded a number of the W eccacoe Legion. The rioters — those who were armed — stood with vin<lictive looks, their right hands resting upon their hips or thrust in their breasts, as if ])repareil to shoot at the slightest provocation, ifaving received information that the piston-rod of the locomotive liad been removed, and the tires drawn from the furnace, it was concluded not to essay the eft'ort of taking out an engine; that was useless, and to incur a foolish sacrifice of life. The troops would have been at a great disadvantage, and had a conflict taken place, would have been severely handled. They withdrew from the vicinity of the round house when the condition of the locomotive was ascer- tained. A body of strikers then offered the troops a spe- cial train to the east, if they would promisi' to leave. This was declined, however. Colonel Snowden find- ing, upon inquiry, that it was impossible to go west on account of obstructions to the road and inability to secure an engine, determined upon a feint, b}' going east, as if to Philadelphia, and upon reaching Huntingdon to go south and endeavor to make Pitts- burgh from that direction, or await the arrival of reinforcements. Upon nearing Huntingdon. Colonel Snowden received a dispatch stating that llie rioters had assembled there in force, and that tlie train on the road to Bedford had been overturncnl and the road completely blockaded. Colonel Snowden llien telegraphed to the superin- tendent of the Harrisburg division whether the troop could get to that city, and flie reply came that trans- portation could not be furnished to that point on account of the condition of Ihe mob assembled in the depot, and determined not to allow the troop to return. This mob. he was assured, numbered M.lHll) strong, and was vowing revenge against the troops, because, as was reported, they believed I hem all pe('uniarily interested in the Pennsylvania Railroad. In order to avoid any deslriiction to railroad pro])- erty, which the superintendent thought would sure- ly ensiii' if the troops came to Ihe city, lie refused (o give thein transportation. The (•omniand then tra- veled east, and (Iroppedoff at Bailey's Stalion. about twenty-tliree miles west of tlie State capital, and waited there for the 7.-'iO accommodation train (,Mon day morning) to proceed to Kockville. On the train they were joined by a number of (ienera! I.yle's men. who had returned from .Vltooiia. the General remain- ing at that place, where lie was ordered to await further orders. It woiil'' have been perfect folly for the troops to remain at that place a moment later than they did, owing to the inilamed ccmdition of the strikers. It was upon a calm review of the situation that Colonel Snowden took the responsi- bility of coming eastward, after all his efforts to get to Pittsburgh had failed. At Bailey's Station the men had no breakfast, and were in poor condition when they got to Kockville. Here the Philadelphia troops sejiarated from the other soldiers on the train, and marching down tiie track, apparently making for the Harrisburg depot, but after tramjiing for a mile or so. they took the road to Englestown. It was necessary to keep the purpose of this movement a secret, even from the ' other soldiers who had determined to go direct to town. Some of the rioters soon learned that these troops had left the track, and it was surmised they had taken Ihe Northern Central road, and were go- ing by the city in that direction, and endeavored to intercept them. The other troops took the track, and were cap. tured. as we shall see farther on. In the meantime, however. Colonel Snowden, with all his men, and all their accoutrements and clothing, even to their heavy overcoats, took the Englestown road, and made a long circuit of about twelve miles to Pro- gress, a village about two miles northeast of Harris- burg, and thence in a direct line marched to the State arsenal, thus completely deceiving the rioters, who had formed their plans with great care to cap- ture the troops. who executed their movement with- I out the loss of a single article belonging to the com- mand, and reached the arsenal about lave o'clock on Monday afternoon. From this time until the ar- rival of the Governor and the State forces, on their way to Pittsburgh, the situation at Altoona remained imehanged. The rioters held possession of the road, allowing no freight trains to pass, but making no effort to interfere with the passenger trains. The strikers at Harrisburg began their operations on the morning of Sunday. July 2yd. About ten o'clock several railroaders, encouraged by a large number of persons. went to the locomotives of several freight trains, and demanded that the engineers and firemen should leave their engines. The demand was readily complied with, and as the railroad men descended from their engines they were greeted with loud cheers from their friends. There had been indications on Saturday night of a strike along the middle div- ision, but tlie railroad authorities were unwilling to believe that trouble w-ould take place. The inter- ference with a freight train and the hooting and stoning out of soldiers who passed through for Pitts- burgh from Philadelphia were attributed to irre- sponsible outsiders by them, but all their hopes were dispelled on Sunday morning at ten o'clock, when, at the command of several apparent strangers, the engineers and firemen of several freight trains de- scended from their locomotives after having housed them. All the freight trains were deserted. The round houses in the ujjper portion of the city con- tained about forty locomotives, and over twelve hun- dred ears were standing on the sidings in the .same vicinily. The strike was general on Ihe middh' divi- sion, between twelve and fifteen liuiidred being af- fected by it. Of these four or five hundred were employed in Harrisburg, most of them in the Penn- sylvania round houses. A crowd collected at the Pennsylvania depot early on Sunday morning, and by two o'clock in the afternoon it had swollen to several thousands. Many of I hem congregated out of idle curiosity, but a consideralile number were iit- tracted by a determiiiatioii to iiilerfere with tliejiass- age through the city uf several hundred I'liihidelpliia soldiers destined for I'iltsburgli. It wasalso hcljeved that among tlu' military would be several companies of negroes, and ag.'iinst them numerous dire threats were made. The aiiinniiiil ion for the exjiected BIOT. RIOT. while Iroops liiiil ticon jjol in niidiiicst iit the Sliilc iirsi'iiitl. lull it wiiM (Icciiicd pniiicril, conHidcriu); llic cxriiciiiciil at AllDoiia imil in llic cily. lo coiiiilcr- iiumil llic iirilir. ami llir aiiiiiiiiriilidii wan rcliirnrd lo tlic urwcnai. Had any of llic iiiilllary arrived, il is liiiilily proliahlc tliey would liave encoiintered consideratiiedilticully in passinnlliroiiifli tin- <-ily. llic ringleaders in the strilic havinj^exprcHsed dclertninu- (ion lo throw all possihlc obstacles in their way. .V riicctin;; of llirce or four thousand peopli-. many of llicMi railroaders, was addressed on a eoniiiion. a ' few liundrcd yards iihovi' the depot, liy a man named Torhelt, who juslilicd Ihe strikers in llicir course and predicted llieir triumpliaiil sucicss. |[c coun- selled them not to destroy railroad or otherproperly. lie intimated Ihat if atlal'kcd liy troops lliey hada perfect ri^'lil, in self-defence, lo strike back, as their brethren bail done in Ihe affray at Pillsbiirjrh. Tor- bett spoke from Ihe lop of a box-cur, and when he referrcil to the niililary he was loudly cheered. .\f- ter the incelini; the crowd surged toward the depot. About eijiht o'clock the day express east, detained nearly live hours by the car tire at I'iltsburgh, ar- rived. The crowd sialhered about the train, and .several persons detaciied the eni;ine several limes, when the railroiul officials ordered the cni;iiie to be taken to the round house. 'I'lic passeni;ers were compelled to lie.overat Harrisburir. Dnthe Irain were about a doz- en soldiers, who had ujrown tired of the service w liich they had rendered at Altoona. (Juite a number of them were sick ; and one of them, named IJallen5rer,a perfumer, of I^liiladelpliia. who hail been siinstruck, was taken to Ihe llarrisbiirg hospital for treat- ment. The principal arsenal of the .State of Pennsylvania, eontainiii!; a larire supply of arms anil ammunition of all kinds, is located al Ilarrisbursr. The ammuni- tion for the troops <alleil into service ijy the (Jov- enior was beini; prei)ared there. In view of the threatening condition of affairs, it was deemed best to station a sruard of city troops at the arsenal. This was done on Sunday, ami the force was increased durins the next day or two as rapidly as possible. liy direction of the Slate authorilies seven cannon. occupying a position in the Capitol grounds, were spiked, on Siniday afternoon, as a precautionary measure During the day the Mayor of Harrisburg issued a proclaraatinn. calling upon Ihe people to desist from gathering in crowds on the streets, and to remain (luiet until an amicable settlement of the troubles could be liad . ami requested Ihe saloon-keepers to olose their houses during the excileinenl. The pro- clamation was unheeded, and Ihe Mayor attempted to address the mob later in the day, at Ihe depot, he was rudely hustled aside. During Sunday and Jlon- day the rioters had everything their own way at Har- risburg. The police force of that city numbered twenty men, and was too small lo offer the .slightest resistance to the mob. Xo violence was done by the strikers lo properly, because no resistance was offered to the will of the mob. The railroad offi- cials promptly withdrew their trains where opposi- tion to their running was displayed by the mob, and no effort was made to risk the company's property. The workmen in several of the large industrial es- tablishments in Ihe city stoi)peil work and joined th<^ strikers, who were also reinforced largely by Ihe roughs and disreputable classes of the town. During the nighl in iitempt was made to throw a train from the track as it was coming into Harris- burg by the Reading Hailroad, with several com- , panics of State troops, but the effort very fortunately failed. ■ I On the 'i'2(]. the train men at Columbia. 103 miles west of Philadelphia, and an important point on Ihe eastern division of the IVnnsylvania road, joined the strike. All engines were housetl.and no freight trains were permitted to move cither way. During the day several atleiiiplH were made to gel engincK out of the round lioiiHc, of which Ihe slrikerH held pOHHcMKion. but Ihe rioters boarded Ihe enginei-. ordered the I'n- gineers and llremen off, and ran the locomotives back iiilo the liousi'. The excilenient wa" very great and increased daily. Ihe strikers, as ii^ual, being joined by all the disreputable and danirerouH charaiiers of the place. On Ihe afternoon of llie 24lh the rioters com- pelled a force of track men to suspend work, taking their picks and shovels from Iliem, and inurcliing tliem inio Ihe town like- prisoners. They rleclared that if I hey were; inlerfe.-ed wilh, or if Iroops were sent lo Columbia, Ihey would lire Ihe railroad buildings anil trains. The authorilies were powerless to deal with the trouble, and no effort was made lo diH|>erse llie riolers,w ho remained in possession of the coinpany'H property iinlil I he appearance of the (lovirnor bucked by a strong military force, induced Iheni to cease their violence and reliirn lo their diily. Philadelpliiu, as has been said, is one of Ihe most Importjinl poinls on the Pennsylvania Kuilroud. It is also Ihe second cily of the I'nion, with respect to poi>nlution, and the chief maniifacluriiu; cily of the new world. .Sev- eral lines of railroad center lliere, and thousands of workingmen lind employment in the various induH- trial estublishmenls. Like all large r-ilies Philudel- phiu contains a large class of vui;ruiils anil criniinuls, who would he exceedingly Iroublesome to manage in case of a riot of any degree of iniporlance. Il was certain that Ihe strike on the Pennsylvania Kuilroud would extend to Philadelphia, and liy no means sure that the employes of the other roads entering llie cily would not follow the example of the I'ennsyl- vania men. It was therefore of the highest import- ance that measures should be taken at once lo pre- vent the strike from assuming Ihe character of a riot. .\s has been related, the President of Ihe Pennsyl- vania Hailroad. promptly called upon the city authori- ties for prolcclion for Ihe company's property in the city of Philadelphia, and the .Mayor responded to Ihis request by detailing a force of LIO policemen, for duly in the vicinity of the depot and yards of the Pennsylvania Company at West Philadelphia. The cily military comjianies were sent to Pittsburgh on Friday, llie 201b, and from Ihat time the duly of pro- tecting all the vast interests aKslake in Philadelphia devolved upon the flavor and police force. Philadelphia was profoundly excileil by the lews from Pittsburg on the "iid. Until a late hour of the night, the streets were thronged with persons eager to learn the news from the scene of trouble. For the tirst time since the close of the civil war, the after- noon papers issued Sunday editions, wliiili were quickly bought up, and read with the most painful interest. It was understood that Ihe train men at the West Philadelphia yards would join in the stri- ke, and there was a very general fear on the part of Ihe citizens that the strikers would be thrown aside. as they had been at Pittsburgh, by the mob. and that Philadelphia might be the scene of a terrible out- break. Such, indeed, would have been the case but for the ailmirable conduct of the Mayor and his sub- ordinates, and the gallantry of the police force. Upon the receii)t of the news of the fighting and conliagration at Pittsburgh, the Mayor, who had established his head-quarfers at the West Philaael- phia depot, issued the following proclamation to the peojile of Philadelphia : 11 /i(/¥'M, Violence, tumult, and riot exist iu vari- ous portions of this Commonwealth, to the great injury of domestic industry and trade, and to the discredit of the fair name anil fame of American institutions and her form of government, the perfec- ticm of which we last year celebnited in this the city of the Republic's birtli; and, M'/irrr'in. It is i..f the highest importance Ihat the great name which Phil- adelphia has made for herself amoai; Ihe nations of the earth during the Centennial year shall Ik- pre- served, and that she shall be spared the horrible scenes enacted in our sister cities : Now, therefore. HIOT. 716 EIOT. I, William S. Stokley, in the uanif of the Cdraniou- wealth of Pennsylvania, and bj- virtue of the autho- rity vested in me by law, do appeal to all citizens. of ever_y occupation and calling, to render it unneces- sary that, in the performance of my duty, I should be called upon to suppress outbreak and violence, which I assuredl}' will do if the occasion requires it, and hand over the offenders to condijrn punislmu-nt. And I make this appeal in the firm belief that the citizens of Philadelphia appreciate, as I do, the im- portance of maintaining peace and good-will among all classes of society, and I hereby pledge myself to give a patient hearing, and to do impartial justice, as I best know how. to all persons who desire it. Let all the people resume and continue their lawful oc- cupations, and avoid assembling and organizing together for discussion or otherwise at the present time. This is the surest and best means of preserv- ing the honor and fair name of the City of Brotherly Love. The Pennsylvania Railroad was not the only suffer- er from the strike in Pennsylvania. The roads ex- tending through the coal regions soon became in- volved in it. The first outbreak in thissection of the State occurred on the night of tlie 22d of July. The militia had begun to assemble in obedience to the orders of the Governor, and some companies had started for Harrisburg, at wliich place they were or- dered to report. To prevent them from reaching their destination a party of rioters, on the night of the 32d, set fire to the Lebanon Valley Railroad bridge over the Schuylkill at Reading. The bridge was entirely consumed and the direct communica- tion between Reading and Harrisburg broken. Tlie loss to tlie Reading Railroad Company b_y the des- truction of this bridge was $1.50. 000. " Oii the 33d there was great excitement at Reading, and during the day the city was in a state of riot and disorder. The railroad men formed but a part of the disorderly throngs ; the greater ijart of these crowds consisted of loafers, disreputable characters, and tramps. The General Manager of the Reading Railroad ap- pealed to the Sheriff to call out his posse to protect the railroad and the company's property. This the Sheriff declined to do. Little or nothing was done by the city authorities to check tlu- disorder, and during the day the rioters had their own way. About nightfall a detachment of tlie 4th Regiment from Al- lentown arrived at Reading. The tracks l)eiug torn up, the soldiers were obliged to leave the cars and march to tiie depot. The main line of the Philadel- phia & Reading road passes through Reading on Seventh Street. Penn Street is the main highway, running in an opposite direction from, and crossing Seventii Street at right angles. From Penn Street iiortlnvard, for two s(|uares, two lines of track are laid leading to *,he new depot. These are laid through a deep cm with a heavy stone wall twenty feet high on each side. From the moment of leaving the cars, the troops had been threatened by a furious mob. The officer in command, in view of the threatening demonstrations of the mob, decided that it would be better to march to the de])(it Ihnmgh the (lee]i cut, the steep sides of which would afford heller ])roler- tion to his fiaiiks than could be hail in the open Mtreet. He therefore directed his inarch towards the cut, but the soldiers had scarcely entered it before they were greeted with a terrible volley of stones from the sides of the cut. where the greatest crowds had assembled. Pistol shots were also fired at the troops. Upon reaching Penn Street the regiment was allaeked liy another mob and lost patienei'. One of llw^ men, without orders, discharged his piece, and inimediale- ly the regiment (ired a volley into the mob. Hj- this diseliarge ten persons were killed and forty wound- ed. Many of these were innocent bystanders, as is generally the case. The mob scalhTed and fled in terror, and the troops marchr'd iiilo the depot, in which they took up Iheir i|iiarlers. Guards vveri' stationed about the building, and citizens were not permitted to enter it. Tlie firing upon the mob by the 4tli Regiment produced the greatest excitement in Reading, and the death and injury of so large a number of innocent persons intensified this feeling. The troops were .severely denounced by the citizens, many of whom joined the mob, and were loud in ! their threats of vengeance, committing in their un- reasoning anger the mistake for which the people of Pittsburgh paid so terribly. Still, as it was neces- sary to take prompt measures to check the mob, the city authorities, who were joined bj' a detachment of armed citizens and a number of the Reading Rail- road Coal and Iron Police, commenced on the 24th to assert the authorily of the law, and to put down the outbreak. During the afternoon the police offi- cials were informed where the strikers had stored a portion of their ammunition, and the Chief of Police with a small detail of officers, proceeded to an unfre- quented basement in a quiet part of the city, forced an entrance, and succeeded in capturing two large boxes of old-fashioned muskets that the strikers had procured from the relics of an old military company. The young man who had informed the police of the whereabouts of the muskets narrowly escaped death at the hands of an infuriated mob. The strikers ad- mitted that they had plenty of arms, and the offi- cials were ready to believe the boast. It was decid- ed by the authorities, in consideration of the threats of the mob against the troops who had taken part in the firing of the previous night, to send them a- way from Reading, as the best means of avoiding further trouble. It was hoped that tlieir places could be filled by several companies of tlie IGth liegj- meut from Conshohocken and Norristown, which reached Reading about ten o'clock on Tuesdaj- morn- ing. These troops left the cars about five miles be- low Reading, and marched into the city, taking up their quarters at the depot where they joined the 4th Regiment, Tlie.se new soldiers, having heard of the killing of the ten citizens, conferred with the representative^ of the strikers, and it was not long before many of the Conshohocken military freely expressed themselves as being ready and willing to throw down their arms or give them to the rioters. One soldier remarked, "We are workingmen and we don't fight against workingmeu. We want bread at home, but we don't want to rob our fellow-wo'rkingmen for it. Xo, sir; we came up here to protect property, but not to murder the poor men of Reading." Shortly after this many of these soldiers, arm-in-arm with the rail- roaders, were going about the back streets in a jolly state of into.xication. As -they staggered along they made many threats of violence, and the citizens be- came intensely ;ilarnied at lliesituatiou. Peoplecom- iug in fnm the country reported several of the roads lined with the soldiers, without their guns, walking home, in the absence of suitable railroad transporta- tion. In other words, they were deserting. All these I iiings helped to fan the fianie of prejudice and excite- ment again.st the military that first arrived and then fir- ed into the crowd. By half-jiast three o'clock in the afternoon the rioters had won over so many of the Cousl-.ohockcii lroo])s, and these weri'so (i]irn in tlieir expressions of hostility to the 4th Regiment and of sympathy with the mob, that tl»ere was danger of a conllict iietween the two divisions of troops. To avert this danger, the authoritiesiletermined to send both divisions out of the city at once. Accordingly, at four o'clock, they vacated their (|uarlers at the dejiot, and marched out of Reading by different routes to their homes. Reading was now entirely depi-ndeiil upon the efforts of the local authorilies. About nightfall a force of about 300 regular troops, with four pieces of artillery, who liad been disem- barked on the outskirts of the city, marched into Reading, Four companies jinx-eeded to the <lepot, where they were (piartered. anil a battery of artillery oci'upied a comiiiaiiilinLr eminence on the southern BIOI. I EIOT. H«:ti(in of the fily and went into cimip. The mob looked on in silciicit, not daruif^ lo iilti.Tii word of insult. On llic 'J'ltli, tliir iiulliorilicH feeling slroHi; enough, (lelennim-il to begin tlie work of reimiriiig Ib(^ rniIroHil lru('i<siind arresting liie leadi'rn of llie riol. The piiliee olheials were astir at early dawn, and a )ihil(iiiii of thirty men, eaeh of theiiianneil with n Si)eiieer rille, acconipanied them. This detachment ifornied a guard for at hasi a llioUHaiid men who were early ut worl< in repairing the IrackH torn up by the mob. Tliis was .sueeessfnlly aeconiplished, 5nd by ten o'chx-lv all llirougli trains from lidewaler to the eoal li<'lds were running without molestation. Before twelve o'clock informal ion was sworn to, imi)licaling about one hiuidred and tifty men as be- ing concerned in acts of incendiarism, intimidation, and riot. Arrests were steadily being made, and as fast as the ollkials brought their prisoiuTs in, they were either taken to jail at once or admilled lu bail. Hut one of the acrc'used was able to furnish security. It was generally (conceded thai sonu'one well-inf(Uni- ed as lo the plans and jiersonalily (jf the rioters had given the information upon which these arrests were ! made. 'I'he prisoners were pale, nervous and trem- 1 bling when brought to th<^ station. They were ar- rested in various saloous and on street corners, and in other haunts of disrc(>ntable people. They were plac(td in a closely covered van and hnrrried oil to jail in (h'faidl of bail, followed by a large crowd. These arrests were made very (piietly, for the pur- pose of maintaining [Hace and order, and preventing excitement. | For some days Heading was uneasy and excited, i and arrests continued to be made by the police; but no further outbreak occurred, and the city gradmd- ly settled down into its accustomed quiet. On tlu^ 7th of August, the Coroner's jurv, which had been siinunoned a day or two after the conflict willi the ' mob to consi<ler the caus(' of the death of the kil- j led on that occasion, rendered the following verdict, in which subslaulial justice is done to the troops: First. The said persons came to their death by a firing of the military upon the rioters. Seciind. Thai, the soldiers composing a portion of the 4th Regiment, Pa. N. G., numbering about two hundred nu^n, while inarching through the rail- road (-ut along Seventh Street, were continually as- sailed with stones and brickbats from the tiuu' they entered the cut at Walnut Street bridge imlil they approached IVnu Street, a distance of two S(iuares, the assault becoming severer the further lliey moved, and being accompanied with pistol shots after lliey had rcjiched Washington Street bridge ; that during said march many of the soldiers were badly wound- ed by the missiles, some of them being knocked down two orthree times, ^iotwhhstanilingan order from the comnuuidiug officer not to lire, a single shot from one of the military was a signal for others to tire, which soon became general. It would be ex- pecting loo much of human nature, especially on the part of initrained soldiers, to expect them not to tire under the fearful peril in which they were plac- ed, and when once lh<- liring conunenced. the vol- leys of stoni' and pistol shots continuing, and being especially diri'Cteii against their ranks, the in(piest c-muot censure them for the manner m which they acted. Third. Plial the military were here as the repre- sentatives of public order, under directions of Major- Geucral Bolton, who was doubtless act ingiuider the State civil authorily. said orders having been duly <-omnumicalcd lo (Jencral Uceder, couunanding the 4th Kegimcnt. who was instructed lo report to the SherifT, Mayor or railroad ollicials. Having been met before reaching Iteadiug by several olficers of the railroad company, who informed him that tin- railroad depot was in possession of the mob. he left the cars, with c(unniund. at a short distance above the depot, and marched down the railroad to the dc. pot. Upon reaching the depot and linding it in pos Hession of the Coal and Iron police, but rneeling neilliiT the SherilT nor the .Mayor fllie latter ollleial being out of tin- cily;, he was reipieHteil by an odl- cial of tint railroarl f:oinpany lo move in the direction of I'enn Street to ri'lease a passenger train then in lh<: hands of Ihe m<ib, and while coni|ilying wilh tlilH rei|uest the liring of tin- military look place. It iIiiih appears that under the evirlince, so far as it has Iji-en laid before the ln(|uesl, that (Jeneral Iteeder, with his eomnnind, was atrting within his inslructionti, and if anj' blame is lo \h: attached lo the action of the military, it nniHl be borne by the miperior ofUccr in command. Fi'iirUi. Thai wliile Ihe tleaths were irnniediute- ly owing to the (iring of I hi' soliliers. who were at the proper place, under proper authorily. where llie disorder was raging, yet tlie responsibility for the terrible tragedy of Monday night is directly attribut- able to those who composed the lawless body as- sendileil near the corner of Seventh and IVnn StreelH, who were instigating Ihe riotous proceedings. While many were presc-nt not an inciting lo riot, but out of idli- curiosilv, they, nevertheless, by their j)resence gave aid and <onlidence to the mob spirit whf> ini- tiated the disturbance. The latter are the persons primarily responsible for all Ihe subsequent trouble and bloodshed, and, if delected and arrested, should be held to the Beverest accountability. FIflli. The absence of the Mayor from the city nniy be a sufficient excuse for the inactivity of the city authorities at Ihe time. Sixth. While on the one hand the ICBlimony clear- ly shows that the Chief of Police was faithful in the (iischarge of his olficial duty, it is a matter of regret lo the incpicst that the testimony does not crpially commend the Sheriff in the discharge ofhisdutv; on the contrar}', though telegraphed for early on Mon- day morning, 33d July, and having reached the city by special train, provided by the railroad company, ai five o'clock .\. m., he nevertheless made no at- tempt to provide for the preservation of the public peace, although earnestly appealed lo and urged to organize a posse by a nund)er of citizens during the day. Itis well known that during the wholeof Mon- day the city was imder the power and in the con- trol of Ihe mob. whose progress was hourly gather- ing strength, and that therefore at noon Messrs. Woollen and Jliller offered to furnish a sufficient ninnber of men, with arms and ammunition, lo con- stitute a posse comitatus, and suppress the riot if the Sheriff would give the authority for so doing. This offer was declined by the SherifT, who signilicanlly remarked that the mob also had arms. All that the SherilT of ISerks county did in this fearful emergency, after wasting the whole day in his office doing no- thing at all, was lo issue his proclamation, after five o'chick in the evening, calling upon citizens to re- main at home. In conclusion thereof, or in accord- dance with evidence presented, the inquest believes that the Sheriff, having neglected and refused lo perform what was his obvious duty, is in a measure responsible for the events which followed. From Heading the strike spread rapidly into the mining regions of Pennsylvania. Attempts were I7iade by the miners at Pottsville and Shamokin.in the Schuylkill district, lo bring on riots on the 24th and 25th. "but were failures. At Shamokin the rioters were fired upon by t he burgess and his posse.and dispersed. The citizens gave an unswerving support to the au- thorities, and the danger was averted. -\t Mauch Chunk an etTorl w;is nuide to indvice the firemen and brakemen on the I.ehigh it Susquehanna Railroad to join in the strike, but the majority of the men refused to leave their work. The Lehigh Valley Railroad men joined the strike on the 2.ith, and there was con- siderable excitement at Bethlehem. The trains were stopped, and Ihe engineers and firemen forced to abaiulon their loconTotivcs. On the same day the brakemen and firemi'U on ihe eastern division of this road, extendinsr from Eastonlo Mauch Chunk. struck. HIOT. 718 EIOT. and blockaded the road. The Leliigh Valley men at Kaston joined the strike during tlu' night, and those at Wilkesbarre took simihir action about the same time. This placed the entire line of the Lehigh Val- ley Railroad in the hands of .strikers. Airfreight trains were stopped, and the strikers announced that while they would allow the company to carry the mails over its line, no passenger trains would be per- mitted to run. The railroad officials then gave or- ders to .stop all trains, and to make no attempt to carry the mails. Bethlehem and Wilkesbarre were the centers of the trouble. The principal excitement vas at the latter place. On the night of the 25th all the passenger trains were stopped at Wilkesbarre, but on the morning of the 2(ith some of them were permitted to depart, in order that the men emploj-ed on them might reach their homes. The strikers con- tinued to hold the road imtil the last of July. Tiie company then determined to run their trains" in spite of tlie strikers, and on tlie 31st succeeded in getting a train through from Bethlehem to Mauch Chunk. They announced to their employes that their aban- donment of their posts ^ds virtually a withdrawal from the service of the company, and that their places would be supplied with new men. This was done in a great measure. Application was made to the (to%-- ernor for assistance, and a force of State militia and r(!gulars was ordered to protect the road. The strikers declared their intention to stop the trains, and on the 1st of August, the day appointed for the resumption of traffic, a large crowd assembled at the depot at Wilkesbarre, resolved that no trains should pass that point. Scranton, the most important point in the coal re- gion, was profoundly agitated from the tirst of the troubles. On the afternoon of the 24th the strike , was begun by the employes of the Lackawanna Iron i and Coal Company. As soon as the gong sounded I at noon, the men, to the mmiber of about 1,500, - stopped work and struck, and all operations ceased in the rolling-mills, foundries and steel works. The \ strike was tirst declared in the old rolling-mill, at a given signal, and the men retired from the building, leaving the red-hot bars in the rolls, and the tires glowing in the furnaces. They then proceeded in procession to the company's steelworks, where work was immediately suspended, and the employes join- ing the strikers, the entire party marched to the foim- dries and shops, where similar scenes were enacted. The men said that it was impossible for them to live on the wages the.y had been.receiving, and on the l.'ith of the mouth their jjay was cut down ten per cent. more. A meeting was held in the afternoon, and it was resolved to demand a restoration of the last ten per cent, reduction. On the night of the 23d, the men employed at the Meadow Brook Mines in the suburli of Scranton, struck for higher pay, about 300 of them turning out. At six o'clock on "the evening of the 24th the firemen in the employ of the Dela- ware, [^ackawanna <fc Western and the Delaware & IIuds(m Companies struck work. As soon as the bell in the round hou.se denoted the hour of six, the men conveyed their engines into the yard, drew the tires from them, and left them in good order. A coal Iniin wliicli left Scranton at five o'clock was re- turned, and placed side by side with aliout twenty otluT trains laden with bhick diamonds in tlie yard. The firemen retired from tin ir work peaceably, and in the course of conver.sations field with several of them, they declared that tliey would protect life and proi)erty with their lives if need be. Sii])erinlendeiit .Maiiville answered the men in the employ of tlie Del- aware it Hudson Company in the afternoon to the efTect that the company would make no concession, and the firemen on that line struck simultaneously with those on Die Delaware, Lackawanna A, West- em road. The men took all the passenger trains to their destinations, and as soon us they arrived at the depot the fires were drawn and the engines jylaced in the yards, It was announced by the railroad olti- cials that no freight, coal or passenger train would run until the difficulty was settled. The strike was solely on the part of the firemen, and the engineers, conductors and brakemen were not concerned in it. Tlie eflfect of the strike on the road was to prevent all shipments of coal, and to make the mines through- out the Lackawanna valley idle. In view of the excitement prevailing in the city, tlie Mayor of Scranton, on the 24th, issued the follow- ing proclamation: In view of the excitement throughout the country occasioned by the labor troubles and the lamentable loss of life and propertj' in our own and other States, it becomes the duty of all good citizens to use their best efforts to preserve peace and uphold the law. Recognising, as ever}' one must the unfortunate con- dition of the business, and financial interests of all classes of the community, and especially the hardship and suffering of the laboring men. we must 3et unite in maintaining to the fullest extent the majesty of the I law and tlie protection of life and propert}-. I there- fore earnestly tirge all good citizens, and especially the workingmeu themselves, to abstain from all ex- , cited discussion of thepromiuent question of the day. Tlie laboring men of our city are vitally interested ] in the preservation of peace and good order and the ' prevention of any possible destruction of property. I trust the leading men among the workingmen fully ' realize that the interests of the whole cit}- are their interests, and that any riot or destruction of life or property can work only injury to all classes and to the good name of our city. Every taxpayer will realize that any destruction of property will have to be paid for by the cit}', and would by so much increase the burden of taxation. In one day Pittsburgh has put upon herself a load tliat her taxpayers will struggle under for years. In conclusion, I again earnestlj" urge upon men of all classes in our city the necessity of sober, careful thought and the criminal folly of any precipitate action. The excitement continued to increase, and, on the 2.'5th thousands of miners flocked into Scranton, swelling the crowds about the depot, and adding to the danger. The strikers declared that they would allow the mails to pass immolested.but would suffer no passenger cars to go through. The excitement in- creased to fever heat when tlie moriiiug mail train from Binghampton, for New York, arrived at 9.50. The strikers were indignant to find that an express car and three passenger coaches were attached, to- gether with the mail car. Exciting demonstrations were made at the various stations along the line, and at Great Beud.forty miles north of Scranton. a crowd of five hundred sought to detach the passenger cars, but were deterred by the engineers. On arriving at the suburbs ot Scranton, the train was boarded Ijj- a number of the strikers, who, as soon as it reached within a few yards of the depot, cut otT the passen- ger and express cars, and permitted the mail to pass At the depot an excited crowd boarded the train, and the postmaster was about to put on the mails when informed by the railroad officials that the train would go no further unless the passenger cars were allow- ed to run. This decision caused much indignation among the strikers, and several uttered loud threats of seizing the engine and running the mail to New York. but wiser counsels prevailed, and a meeting was forthwith held on the platform, when it was resolv- ed to t<'legrapb the Governor and I'ostmaster-Gen- eral, ajiprising them of the state of affairs, and dis- claiming all responsibility on the part of the men for the detention of the mails, wliich were carried back to the post-office. The reply was awaited with anx- iety, and the telegraph office and deixit were crowd eil till noon, when a Hag was Hung from a window of the lieu(iquart<'rs of the strikers. It was a call for a meeting, and there was a rush for the liallatonce, none but firemen and brakemen being admitted. A despatch from llu' Governor wag read amid cheers, stating that he had instructed tfie Superintendent to RIOT 710 RIOT allow IIk' mails to run llir(iiii;li. The men fliiii prc- purcd a slalitinciil fnr pwblicalion in the local papers, Rctlili;^ forlli their j^rievuiices and the eausefor Iheir l)r('S(iit action. 'I'hcy also ailopled a petition, askin;; the saloon-keepers to close their places of husinesH. On the same day the l)rakeincn joined thelln'inen in the sirike. Thi' exeilcnient was increased (lMrini;lhc day hy 'he aclion <il' Ihi- miners, who represi'nle<l no loss than forty Ihonsanil men in tli(' S<ranlon dis- trict, asking an increase of twenty-live per ciMit. on their wages. A committee of six waited on the (Jen- cral Coal Sii])erintenilent, and presented a Hcries of resolutions, selliiii; forth the fact thai the men had endured repealed reductions until llieir waL'Cs had reacheil a starvaliou shnid.'ird. and that Ihry ilid nol ]iro|)ose to endur<' il .'Uiy longer. 'I'liey furllier staled that if the men on the railroail relurniMl to work. I hey would hold out until such lime as Iheir wages were advanced. The Superinlendi-iil infornu-d Ihem that he would forward Iheir pelilion lo the company, and would have an answer for Ihem on Friday. The men then called a mass-nu'cting in the woods, in the suh- tirhs, for the aflernoon of the :2<ith. The sirike of !hi' miners inlroduccd a new and dangerous element into the trouhles. The miners, not satisfied with quitting work, refused to allow the pumps of the mines to be worked. The men who allempled lo run the pumps, the work of which was neeessiiry to keep the mines from flooding. were driven away l)y the strikers, and Ihi' engines were "shut down." The water was thus allowed to gain steadily ui>on the mines. Hooding Ihem. and injuring them lo I he extent of many thousand dol- lars. This wilfid destruction of the |)roperly of Iheir employers by the miners was simply suicidal. A des- patch from Scranlon. on the 2!llh of .July, thus sum- ine(! up the slali- of affairs : "The entire F-;ickawan- lia region is iille. Week before last this region sent ncarlv loO.ODO tons of coal to market, [..-isl week il dill not senil a liihe of thai (|uanlily, and ne.\l w<<k it will nol send any. The nuners of the Delaware & Iludsun Canal Company (|uit work yesterdaj- inorning, and those of the I'ennsylvania Coal Com- piiiiy are in enforced idleiu'ss on account of the dr>s- truelion of a head-house and bridge on Iheir gravity railroad. The head-house, which was situated in the woods east of this city, was burned down .■it three o'clock this morningby a mob which surprised the wali-hman. and lied him with ro]>es to a neigh- boring tree. They saturaled the wood-work of the head-house, and then set il olT with a match. Il made a fierce blaze, which wns plainly visible here. Destruction of the head-house cau.ses a eouii>lete stoppage from Ilawley to Pittstou. It wa:i not the work of the company's employes, but of outside persons, who look that mode of forcing the strike upon them. The Heimsylvaniii Coal Company have recently been working on full time at Iheir mines, and the best of feeling exists between themselves and their workmen. The laltcrare indignant al the dastardly act, and the prospects are that the burned property will nol be replaced until the dispute be- tween labor and capital is Mindly sellled. The walchnuin who was driven from the head- house stales I hat the place was .set on fire by no few- er than a hundred men, who danced about the blaze like demons, and shouted in fiendish exultation while the work of destruction was going on. Superintend- ent Smith states that the act will make the compa- ny's nnnes idle for an indefinite period. They were working on full time, and shipiiing liO.OOD tons a week. The men in the company's employ had made no demand for an increase of wages, and the burning of the head-house is the work of outsiders, who want- ed to force them into a strike. Xol a mine in the valley is at work, and the most of them are tilling fa.sl with water. An idea of the importance of flood- ing a mine can be oblaini'd from the fact that in ISfi.'i the Diamond Colliery was idle three days for the re- pair of its macirmery, and it took eight months, and cost ■'j'HO.OOO, to ])iunp out Ihi' water thai accumulat- ed iti thai timi'. The .Mayor and company's olllciulx will make antfTort l«-tnorrowto set the mine pumiw to work. The sit nation here is ubHolutely painful, and there is no knowing what moment un outbreak will occur. The .'\Iayf)r was very active in his cfTorls lo brin^ about an ailjuslment of tlir' troubles, and succeeded al length in inducing the miners in llie neighborliood of Scranlon lo allow tin^ pumps to be run by t)i(r bosses, clerks, and civil I'ngineers in the employ of the coal (companies. This coni-ession gav<r great of- fense to the strikers in the lower pari of the (county, and delegations were sent to Hie Scranlon ininerH lo |)Ul a stop lo Ihe practise. Klforls were made to Ket- tle the sirike on the Delaware. Lackawanna iV W'enl- ern ISailroad. and with success. On the :iOtli of .July Ihe mi-n gave up the struggle, and returned lo work at the old wages. ThisKurrendi-r was brought about by the action of the .Mayor, who sent for llie execu- tive comuultee, whom he informed that travel would have to l)e resumed over the road Ihe next morning, even if the presence of tlu' troo])s were necessary to such a result. Aciordingly Ihe men called a meet- ing at one o'clock, when a decision was had in favor of returning lo work by a vot<' of H'i to 0. Tlie com- mittee then proceeded to inform the Superintindent of the decision arriviil al. the only terms askeil Ixing that no one taking an active pari in the sirike should be proseculed. This heconsenled to. and in half an hour later a passenger train started from this cily for Northumberland. Il was greeted l)y c;-owdsat every station along Ihe line, but no demonslralions were made. A despatch was forwarded lo liinghampton to start No. 4 train from there to New York, and il passed through Scranlon uninlerru|ited al six o'clock. Passenger and freight trallic was now fairly estab- lished all along the line, and Ihe bubble of the Dela- ware. [>ackawanna iV Western Hailroad strike had burst. The railroad men were bitterly denounced for their surrender by Ihe miners, whe numbered be- tween 20.000 and HO.OOO men in the Lackawanna valley. The miners avowed their intetlion to con- tinue the strike until Iheir terms were accepted by fhe coal companies. They became more and more turbidenl every day, and it at last became evident lo theJIayor of Siranton that Ihe presence of troops al that city was necessary. The Governor wag in- formed of the stale of affairs, and decided lo go lo the assistance of Scranlon with a force of Slate mili- tia and regulars. S<ranton ccjnfinued to be troubled with the excite- ment arising from the miners' riot. In spite of the powerful proledion alfordcil by the troops, the w ork- men returned lo Iheir duties in the various indust- rial estalilishmenis slowly, lieing rendered afraid lo go to work by the threats of the miners who still re- mained idle. ' A letter from Scranlon. written Aug- ust 7th. said : The miners of this region manifest a most determined attitude, and from present pros- pects, it is safe to say. will prolong the strike in tlie Lackawanna and Wyoming valleys for six months, if no selllemeni is made. An important meeting of delegates from every mine in Luzeriu- (Vainly willbe held here to-morrow to ajipoint a general Executive Committee, and adopt a programme for Ihe purpos*- of securing perfect unity of action, -so that the men at all tlie mines will resume work simultaneou.sly whenever the time for resumption has come. A mammoth store was opened here to-day liy the Jlin- cr's E.xecutive Committee to relieve the immediate necessitiesof their number who are in distress, and it was speedily filled with provisions. Busine.«s men placed a dozen teamsat their disposal, free of charge, for the purpose of receiving and distributing sup- plies, and the scene about the store was animated in the extreme. Farmers in the surroimding countrj' have made them donations of potato patches, and many of the miners have gone oft in irangs to do work in the country and receive pay in provisions. RIOT. 720 HIOT. The disaffection in the coal regions continued to increase, and assumed its most formidable propor- tions after tlie railroad troubles liad beeu satisfacto- rily adjusted. By the middle of August nearly all the mines in tlie Lehigh, Schuylkill, Lackawanua, and other mining districts were idle, and more than sixty thousand men were out of work. The miners presented a general grievance, declaring that their wages were too low to enable them to live, and de- manded an increase of from ten to twenty per cent. Though there were man)' isolated acts of violence committed in the coal regions, there was no general outbreak. The New York Division of the Pennsylvania Rail- road, the Central Railroad of New Jersey, the Erie Railroad, the Lehigh Valley Railroad, and the Jlorris and Essex Division of the Delaware, Lackawanua and Western Railroad, terminate at Jersey City and Hoboken. opposite New York. As the strike had affected all these roails to a greater or less de- gree, it was feared that it would break out in Jer.scy City. Tha tplace contains a large popvdatiou of railroad men. and a much larger number of persons in the lowest walks of life who are always ripe for an outbreak. Lying just across the river from New York, a mob in Jersey City would be rapidly rein- forced by tlie dangerous element of the metropolis. Tlie authorities were resolved to lie ready for tlie danger if it should come, and to meet it promptly and tirmly. The strike on the western lines and the out- break in Pittsburgh produced great uneasiness and e.xcitemeut on tlie New Jersey roads, and the Go- vernor was iuformed by many of the railroad officials that it might be necessary for them to ask the pro- tection of the State for their property. The officers of the Pennsylvania road were especially apiirehen- sive, as the trouble on their main line had beeu so great. Trouble fi'om employes was not dreaded so muclias from the turbulent populace. An intlux of ruffians from New York was feared, and the char- acter of such reinforcements to the mob justified the gravest apprehensions. During the night of the 23d, and the small lionrs of JMimday morning, the Governor was in receipt of des])atches from various pomts along the company's line, indicating approach- ing trouble at Trenton or Newark. These were afterwards learned to be premature, but they induced the Governor to issue orders to the various military commands of the State to assemble at their armories ready for service. By daylight the 4th Regiment liad gathered, fully equipped, at their armory, ad- joining the Cit3' llall. Newark Avenue. Jersey City, and iu halls close bv. The 7th. :i00 men, was at Trenton ; the 9th, 3o0 men, at Iloboken. The 1st and 5th of Newark, 800 men, were at Newark. Forty rounds of ammunition were supplied to each man. General Jlott, in charge of the brigade, had his headquarters at Trenton, and was iu constant cominunicafion with Jersey City. When morning had fully come, it was fell ilial alllmugh Ihe militia had iicissibly beeu called out rather hastily, yel il was not to be regretted. Jersey City's element of " roughs" seemed to have increased during the night. The men, who had come from unknown quarters, lounged near saloons aud talked constantly about tli(^ sirike. No threat was made, but cili/.ens gener- ally grew uneasy as the day advanced. Tlie lirst shadow of actual trouble was at nine o'clock, when one of Ihe employes called u|)ou the Siiperintendeiit, aud said he was authorized lo in- form him thai the liremeu would strike about noon. The Superiulendeut expressed a wish that a com- mittee of the men should wait ujiou him, anil acom- miltee of six did so. He argued wilh them that enough li.ad already occurred to setlle whalever ques- tions had causi'd thi' sirike. anil Ilia! any furlhcr action of employe's was not needed iu that direi'liou. If they left their (engines, Ihe mob in New Yin'k and Jersey City would avail Ihemselves of Ihe op])or- tunity lo enact here the terrible scenes of Pillsburgh and Baltimore; for all of wliich they would be primarily responsible. His talk had great influence. The men resolved not to strike, but lo coulinue work unless assailed by the populace. A meeting that had been called for eleven o'clock was not held, and the Superintendent, congratulating himself upon having such sensible men. felt assured that if he could prevent any demonstration from outsiders, lie had attaiued his end. Towards noon and later the arrival of regular troops on their way to Philadel- phia became known. A battery of"light artillery with four tield-pieces arrived from Fort Hamilton and passed down the freight-yard to be loaded upon the flats. This display made the loungers on the corners and in the vicinity of the yards imagine that precautionary measures on a gigantic scale were taking place. They began to feel their unimport- ance aud grew more excited. There were perhaps 700 or 800 of these unpleasant persons at different railway crossings and at open places. The liquor, that the times are never hard enough to prevent them from obtaining, began to take effect, and they cursed the troops right bravely. Aud then they retired to the saloons for reinforcements. It had "been the in- tention of the Chief of Police to close the rum-shops, but the order did not ajipear to be put into effect. About four p. M. everybody was very nervous, not excepting the authorities at police head-quarters. There they fell to work drafting a proclamation. While that literary business was in progress, the light artillery was" made ready to start They oc- cupied four flats with their guns, five cattle-cars with the necessary number of horses, and two or three passenger coaches with the men. To these cars were added another coach, and a baggage car con- tained forty-seven of the regular troops that liad ar- rived between one and two from New London, Con- necticut. They landed at the Adams Express dock, which is retired and not withiii the ken of persons in the freiglit-yard. The engine that was to take the train stood iu the .yard, and some rough men gatli- ered around threatening to shoot the engineer and conductors if they moved the train of troops. These officials naturally were frightened, and when it be- came generally known that threats had been made, all sorts of fears were expressed. A posse of seventy- live police were immediately brought out, and they pushed from the track a crowd, possibly of 1,500 men and boys. The men who had threatened the engineer disappeared. The train of troops was fin- ally ready, and the Superiutenilent said it should go. The engineer still hesitated. No other engineer would consent to take his place. The others said they were not calleil upon lo do any man's work ex- cept their own. At length the engineer consente<l to take charge of his engine if the Superintendent would accompany him. The Superintendent did not hesitate a moment. The Millstone way passen- ger train was also just ready to start. Two tracks were cleared, and wilh this passenger train between it and the mob, the military train left the station. The engineer was iu his place. The two trains mov- ed slowly down the track, side by side, faster and faster. Finally, while everyone was expectiug trou- ble, the military train shot quickly ahead, and the danger was over. The Superintendent came back to his post and arranged for llie further transpcirlatioii of troops. At six o'clock tweuly-seveu sailors from the United States steamer Colorado embarked for the Navy Yard at Philadelphia. They .started on an hour and a half's notice. Their de])arlure excited no demonstration. More troops arrived at lialf-past six from Newjiorl. They comprised leu officers and 147 men of Batteries Iv, B, E, and F. Tliey tilled four coaches, and started at half past eight with a l)r(>lecliou train on their exposed side. The train accomiiaiiied them only a short distance. At nine o'clock three batteries from Boston, uumberingabout as many nieii as the Newiiort detaehmeul, arrived anil ilciiarled willioul the least disturbance. At six BIOT. aioT. o'clock in tlip afternoon llic Governor inHiicd the fol. lowing proclanmlion : To tlio jicoplr of the Sliilf: of New .Iii'icy : III I In' pifMcul stale of llie iiiililic iiiinil I warn all citizens to keep at lliiir lioiiiesanil plares of liiisiiiess, avoiiliii^ all t;atlii'rinL's in llie sireel, ho as to jj^'iw no eiieourimeiiieiil liy their presence to evil-ilisposerl persons. Let every ^ood citizen now. by word, act and sentiment, aiil tli(^ iiiilliorilies in securinj; perfect peace. SlieriIVs iinil olllcirs of cities arc particularly riMiuested to exert all their powers in a calm, judicious, hut elTccliial way to protect life and jiroperly from all lawli'ssness,"aiid therehy Have the counties and cities from any lialiility under the staliile for destruclion of properly liv mojis. 'I'he v.'holc power of the Stale will he used for tin- main- tenance of the laws. I caution ('very person dispos- ed to distub the ponce to desist at on<e, and thereby prevent any necessity for the use of the State force, (xivcn under my hanil,at tlii^ City of Trenton, on this 2:td day of .Inly, a. d. IH77. Meanwhile all schedule trains had started on time, with many throuich piis.sengers. The incomiiiLT trains were somewhat late, liavini; been ditained at I'hiladel- pliia. All evening trains were Hhifted and shunted in the company's yards, the police keeping np their line from the station to Hailroail Avenue. About nine o'clock some freight cars and way pa.sseiiger trains were stoned while passing through thehi'avy cut. two miles from the station. A s(piad of police went out to the gap, and remained on guard until relieved by militia. Detachments of State troops were brought from Trent on during the afternoon, and posted at the bridge over the Haritan, at New nruiiswick, and the bridge over the Hackensack, between Newark and Jersey City. These important bridges werestronglv guarded throughout the period of the disturbance. During Ihenigiit the shops of the I'ennsylvania Kail- road in the Hackensack meadows were guarded by fifty inen. Tlie ne.vt day this guard was relieved by the ."ith Veteran Regiment of Newark. At Newark. New Brunswick ami Trenton there was considerable excitement, but no effort was nuide to bring on a strike. The passenger trains were run as usual, and the freight trains, wliicli wen' discontinued in con- sequence of the troubles at l'hiladil|ihia, and other points on the main liiu' of the road, were resumed as sonii as the route beyond I'hiladelphia was clear. I5y tli<^ night of the ■24tli, the danger on the Pennsyl- vania road was over; there had been no strike of the employi5s, and the mob had found the civil anil mili- tary forces so strong that they wisely decided not to attempt an oiithn'ak. On the evening of the '2Mli. the liremeii and lirakemen of the .Morris ifc Essex di- vision of the Delaware, Lackawanna it Western Railroad joined the strike, which, as we have re- lated elsewhere, had already begun on the main line of this road in Pennsylvania. The men were ipiiet and orderly, and attempted no violence. There was not n\uch life in the strike, and on the ITtli the men a' the eastern end of the line agreed to resume work at their former wages, trusting to the company to in- crease their pay as the times improved. This offer was accejited. and the strike tinally came to an end. The trainmen of this road at Philiipsburg, opposite Kaslon, I'ennsylvania. did not unit(: in 1his settle- ment until some days later. The next road to join in the strike was the New Jersey Central. The train- men on this road struck on the '..'."ith.and stopped the running of the freight trains. The principal (iisturb- ance was at Philii])sbiirg. opposite Easton. The New Jersey Central men there innted with the em- ployes of the Jforris & E.s.scx road, and with them put a slop to the business of both roads. On both roads the strikers refused to allow the running of passenger trains. They staled that the mails might be carrieil <iver the lines in the postal cars, but no | other cars should be run. The authorities of both roads thereupon refused to send out any trains until their roads were freed from the interference of the rioters. Tlunish all the strikers refrained from anv further violence than tlic Hto|)ping of the trainM, and announced their intention of protecting tin- prop, erty of their roads, it was nneertain how long thin slate of allairs would coniiniie, ami was of the lii'.'li- est importance thai the railroad blockade should bi; ended at the earliest practicabli- moment. Accord- iiigly a strong force of troops, under IJrigadii-r (>en- eral Sewell, was sent to Pliillipsbiirg. This force consisted of the 1st. .'itii. (ilh, and "tli Ni-w Jersey Regiments and the Iloboken Biilti-rv. The troops reaihed Phillipsburir on the 'iHlli of.fuly, unrlat once look possession of the railroad propirly there. A feeble effort was made to privent tlii' railroad olll- cials from resuming the running of the trains, but was promptly put down. The prr-si'iice of the troops, and tli<! tietermined attitude of the aiilliorities con- vinced the strikers that their efforts at resistance to the laws W(Mild be in vain. On the night of the 2>lth till' .Morris &, Essex men ceased their interference with their road, and early the next week returned to work. The strikirs on the eastern emi of the .New Jersi-y Central Railroad returned to diily about the 2Hih "of July. They had little sympathy with the outbreak at Phillipsbnrg. Heing thus i.solaled. and overawed by the military, the strikers at Phillip.H- burg returned to duty about the 1st of August. 'I he troops were kept on duty for some days longer as u matter of precaution, but no further trouble was ex- perienced in New Jersey. Th(' excitement spread rapidly westward, and fol- lowing the line of the Haltimore ifc (Jliio Railroad, soon reached the State of Ohio. At Newark, about thirty miles from C'ohnnbus, the Baltimore <S: Ohio Railroad crosses the Pittsburgh. Cincinnati ic St. Louis, or, as it is more connnonly called, the Pan Handle Railroad. Newark is a city of considerable im|iortanee, and one of the )irincipal railroad centers of the State. On the IHth of July the brakemen and liremen of the Hallimore & Ohio Railroail at Newark struck work, and refused to allow the freight trains of the road to pass the point. All arriving trains were stopped, the engines uncoupled from the cars, the tires put out, and the engineers and firemen forc- ed to abandon their posts. The strikers were quiet and orderly at first. the only violence being the throw, ing of a man from a camel-back engine for attempt- ing to start the fires. The Sheriff of Licking county repaired to the depot, and, after reading the Riot Act, ordered the strikers to disperse. They refused to comply with his demand, and he reported the dis- turbance to the Governor of Ohio, and asked for a militarj- force to enable him to preserve order. The (Jovernor directed a regiment to repair to Newark to assist the ShcrilT, and issued a proclamation com- mandins the strikers to desist from personal intim- idation and interference with property. The troops reached Newark during the night of the 21st, and by the next morning were on duty at the railway depot and yards. The militia soon made it evident lliat they were in sympathy with the railroad strikers, so that it was by' no means certain that they could be depended ujion in ease of emergency. The men of the Pan Handle road now joined inllie strike, that road having become involved at Pittsburgh and at its western end; and during the 22d a large number of them reached Newark from Dennison. The min- ersfrom the coal and iron regions near Newark were in active sympathy with the strikers, and assured them of assistance whenever called upon. For the time the strikers attempted no violence at Newark, but contented themselves with blockading the railroads. A Committee was sent by the N<'w;irk strikers to Cohnnbus. to induce the railroad men at that point to join in tlie strike. Meetings of the brakemen and firemen of the Baltimore & Ohio and Pan Handle roads were held on the night of the 22d at Colum- bus, and resolutions were adopted demanding a re- storation of the old rates of pay. The strikers at once left their work to await the answers of their respective companies. Their demands were refused, RIOT. 722 RIOT. and on the morning of the 23d a meeting was held at tlie Union depot for the purpose of enforcing the strike A large gang of men gathered ahoiit tlie de- pot and yiirds early in tlie day, but it was observed that but few railroad men were among the crowd. The main body was made up of idlers. curiosit\' seek- ers, and a set of roughs and non-railroaders, who seemed to have suddenly come to tlie front. From the depot tlie mob hastened into tlie city, resolved to force the eniplo3es in the private establisliments of Columbus to quit work. The rioters numbered be- tween two liuudred and three hundred men. The first place visited was a rolling-mill on the banks of the (jlentangy. The employes were ordered to cease work. As there was a general disposition among the mill men to join tlie strikers, they easil_y obtained a promise that the mill would shut down as soon as the heat on hand w-as tinished.whicli was done. The mob then went to the Sniitli Pipe Works, farther north, and commanded an immediate suspension. Some were in favor even of letting the metal in heat- ing out of the cupola. There was a charge of five tons nearly read}' to pour out, and had the tlireat been carried out, the hot metal would liave tired tlie building and destroj-ed tlie fine property. Tiie Super- intendent sensible' told the mob he would shut down as soon as the heat was off. Tlie crowd then left. Before night ever}' establisliment containing an en- gine, on the west side of the river, had been closed up. The officials of most of the roads voluntarily clos- ed tlie railway shops for the time, llius depriving the mob of the opportunity of compelling tlicni to close. The tlirougli lines declined to receive freight, and freight houses were generally closed up. Brakemen and switchmen declared that they had nothing to do witli tlie raids on private establishments, aud did not approve them : but few railroad men were seen in the mob. Tlie Mayor of Columbus, on the afternoon of the 23d, issued a proclamation calling on the riot- ers to disperse and cease tlieir.interference with pri- vate property. Several hundred special policemen were sworn in. The railroad authorities decided to make no efforts to run their trains until the strike had been put down by the civil authorities, and thus to give no provocation to tlie nioli. The ])roiiiptness with which the citizens enrolled themselves in the special police force and the determination exhibited hy the State and cit}- authorities to put down mob violence at an}' cost, greatly demoralized the rioters. On the morning of the 24th nearly all the manufac- turing estalilishments that were forcibly closed on the previous day were reopened, llie operatives re- turning to work on lieing assured of iirotection. Columbus was excited, but <|uiet Ihroughout the day. On the 25th, the Governor issued (he following pro- <:laniation : Owing to troulile existing between rail- road companies and their employes great excitement exists throughout the Stale. Of tills unfortunate state of affairs lawless and disrepulable ]iersiins are taking advanlag<' and endangering life and prop<'rty. The cis'il aulhorities. State, county and muuiiipal, as well as military, must and will everywhere exert their |)ower to enforce the law in every respect. The good name of our people ilemands that this shall be done, and in no other way can the order whicli is absolutely necessary to pulilic and private safely be maintained to avert all danger, and in order lo suc- cessfully nieel all resistance to llie thorough execu- tion of law I hereby call on law-abiding men of all our cities, towns and villages to tender their services to their respective civil auilioritics, and, under their direction and control, organize themselves into a volunteer police force sufficiently strong to overawe the lawless elements. I coiili(iently exiiect all good men will res])oiid promptlv and checrfnllv to this «all. Every effort was made to place the military force of the state in u condition for service, and the deter- ininalion of the people of Columbus lo allow iionion- mob violence was too plain to be mistaken by the rioters. No further disturbance occurred, and for days matters remained unchanged. The failure of the strikes at otlier points disheartened the strikers, and they made no resistance to the running of the trains on their roads. By the 2nd of August both the Baltimore & Ohio and Pan Handle roads had re- sumed their freight tratlic. When it was certain that the strike was dead, the troops were withdrawn from Newark, and the Columbus companies were dismiss- ed. Other parts of the State were affected by the outbreak. Zanesville, on the line of the Baltimore tfc Ohio Hailroad, was one of the first to be plunged into the excitement. The train hands took part in tlie strike about the time it was begun at Newark; and on the morning of the 23d a mob of about two thousand men assembled in front of a new hotel in process of erection, and onlered the men at work on the building to slop. The demand was at once com- plied with, and the moIi then visited in succession the various manufacturing establishments of the town, and compelled the workmen to abandon their posts, thiis forcing over fifty establishments into idle- ness. The rioters also compelled the street railway company to discontinue the running of their cars. No greater violence was attempted, but the proceed- ings of the rioters thoroughly alarmed the citizens, and a vigilance committee, composed of about one thousand of the most reliable citizens of Zanesville, was organized and aruicil. They were placed on duty on the afternoon of the 23d, and at once began the arrest of such rioters as could be secured. Under their protection the street cars resumed their trips about three o'clock in the afternoon, and the mob slunk away. From this time Zanesville was quiet. The strike on the railroad was adjusted between the Baltimore AOhio Company and its employes, and the mob did not venture again to raise its head. Cleveland, on Lake Erie, is an important railroad point. The Lake Shore & Jlichigan Soutliern Divi- sion of the New York Central Bailroad passes through it. This road engaged in the strike at an early peri- od, the troubles along its line beginning at Buffalo. The strike (luickly spread to Cleveland. On the morning of tlie 23d of July the men in the Lake Shore i Jlichigau Southern shops, to the number of 2.50 or 30U, quit work, held a meeting, and addressed a communication to the Superintendent, embodying the following demands : F/rit — An increase of twenty pvr cent, on wages received July 1st, and that such advance date from July 1st. iierond — That assurances be given by the compaii}' that no employe shall suffer on account of his par- ticipation in the strike. A Committee waited on the Superintendent, and were informed tliat he could give no answer until the matter was laid before President Vanderbilt, and that he would forward it immediately, liefore leav- ing, the Committee assured him that no property should be destroyed, but that the men were deter- luiiied that no work should be done in the shops un- til the demand was acceded to. Thesemen liad been receiving from nineteen to twenty-one cents per liour, according to skill, and were running on ten hours time. The next move was by the hands in the freight de- pot of the Lake Shore road to the number of 225. Their demand was that the company should jiay them *1.5(» a day for ten hours work and .^2 for the same amount of work on Sunday; that I hey be paid in jiroporlion for overwork ; that they be paid for the time lost by the strike, and tliat they receive their pay by tlie 15th of <ach month. These propo- sitions were also forvv;irde(l to New York by the Su- perintendent. During the afternoon n meeting was held by the shop and fniglit men for tin- ]iurpose of concerting action iiniong themselves aiul with the train men already out at Collinwood. A Committee of tell was si'h'Cted In ( nnfc'r w illi the brakemen and ElOT. 723 UIOT. liicincii anil with oUiors who mif;lil, lin mi a Htrikw. 'Pile imc'tinj; wiiH orderly tlir(>ii).'lii>iil. and wlnii a polilical Hpcaker of frrcciiliack and liilmr reform len- clencies was noticed in the nMini.llie I'reHident arone and said that they wanted nothiiiic from the politi- cians, as th(t men were perfectly able to utteiwl to their own Imsiness. Collinwooil, a short distance from Cleveland, was the point where the I^ake Shore, trains were held. All was (piiet tlwre on the 2i)d, only an o<rcasional jiony ciiiiinebeinjrallowed to move aloiii; the traitk. The strikers preserved order and obliijed others to do so. 'Phey compelled all the sa- loons to close, and ))i-rmitled none of their men to indiilv:e in Hc|uor. 'Plie side tracks were crowdi-d with freiijlit curs and tlie round honsi' was full of en- gines. .\ l.'M'iie lUiMilier of slock cars liad been un- loaded, the sheep bcini; driven into the country. The lioirs were hauled to the yards near by, where a hundred dicil from lai'k of water, (battle were driv- en on to I'ainesville, where the company could care for lliein. The men in the machine sho))s, with the train men of the ('levcliiiid. ('oluiiilius, CiiKiniuiti & Inilianapolis Hailroad, went out on strike on the 2'M, as they were refused tlut increas<' of twenty jicr cent, which they demanded on Saturday. At noon the shop men held a mceliu;; nt their sho])s to receive any communication from the company in response to their demand and the establishment of a regular pay-da}'. None coining, they decided to strike, and when leaving were mei. by tlieir President, who ad- dressed them, lie expressed reirrct at haviiiL' liecn .so long delayed at his otli<-e, and then ex|iliiincd that, as President of the company, he owed a mutual ob- ligation to stockholders and employes, and that em- barrassment must necessarily arise in adjusting mat- ters so as to fultil his duties to both, lie blamed the ditliculty on too much cutting of rates, and said that no one had done more toward a jjoolingof rates than he. A consultation was then lu'ld at which a com- promise was made, the men receiving an advance of ten percent, on and after .Vugusl Ist, and working ten hours instead of eight hours; they, on their part, agreed to go back to work the n<'Xt morning. The advance was to be general, benetitting the train men also. An effort was made by the Kake Shore men to induce the employes of the Atlantic & Great West- ern road to join in the strike, but the latter had the independence to refuse, stating that their relations with their company were satisfactory. A letter from Collinwood, on the 24th, thus describes the state of affairs there: "Everything presents the apiiearance of a Sunday in a New Kng- land village at Collinwood, the little station where the Lake Shore round house and shops are located. There are no crowds, no threats — simply the men sitting around in small groups, arrayed in their ho- liday attire, talking over the situation. The men have bi'cii anxious of late to have the remaining cat- tle cars unloaded, but the yard-master of the Erie division has seemed to be very slow in doing this. They say that it is cruel to let the animals suffer. .\bo"ut five hundred and lifty cattle have already been driven to Painesville, and others will probably follow. A very large number of the animals have died. One car ccintaiuiug 1.000 fowls gives forth an almost in- tolerable stench. The dead hogs are being carted away to the soap factories, and many of them buried to avoiil the plague that must soon follow if the dead animal matter is not removed. Great trouble arises from iusufflcient means of watering the cattle, and scores of them are constantly dying of thirst. There is. of course, much feeling against some of the otlicials of the road, the men saying that if the ollicers liad treated them properly they would not have complained of the reduction. At the first meet- ing, held at ten a. m.. the prospects of their propo- sitions being acceded to were fully discussed. The sum of what was expressed was that President Van (ierbill cannot exercise his power here as he could in a monarchy. This is a republic, and the poor man hIiuU have IiIh rights and IiIh family muHt be «up> portiil. Kurtbermore, there will be no trouble ut Collinwood, no fights rir arson if llie militia is ke|it buck ; but tli(^ moment the militia is used in the huj)- port of monopoly then the luliorer will no longer keep quilt. 'I'here is much feeling among the men over the i|Ui'Stioii of passes Oni' man said ; "Siip- i)ose 1 am (ordered to run my train down to ('lev<v land; I get for this sixte<'n cents ; but I iniiHt return liere to report to my superior, and for that I must pay my fare of tweiily-tive cents." jle fell that tliis was an nnbeanible outrage, Another grave com- plaint lies in the fact that the men are only paid while in actual service. For instance, if a man run8 from Collinwood to Toledo, which would lake a little nK)re than a day, he w>iulil be paid for that; but hi' is liable to lie off there for lUrro days without pay, although re((uired lo be ready to report for duty at any nioment. In this way tlic small pay earned is entirely absorbed." Matters continiiefl in this state until tlie last of July, when the strikes on the other roads having been settled, and it having become plain to the men that they could not curry their point, they ceased tlieir interference with the movements of the road, and siirnitied to the General Superirtendent their willingness to return lo work at the reduced wages. The Superintendent agreed lo correct some locul abuses in regard lo e.xtru pay and the granting of passes, and repeated to the Luke Shore men the promise to increase wages when the business of the road should justify sueii a slej). By the 3il of August, business was entirely resumed by the Lake Shore road. There was considerable excitement also at Cincin- nati. On the 23d of July the trainmen on the Ohio ifc Jlississippi Hailroad joined in the strike, and pre- vented the passage of trains. The employes of the Cincinnati. Hamilton & Dayton Hailroad having been informed that their wages" would be reduced ten per cent, on the 33d, protested against the proposed re- iluction, and announced their intention to strike if it should be enforced. The authorities of this road thereupon reconsidered their decision, and the wages remained unchanged. This determination was an- nounced to the men on the night of the 22tl, and con- sequently they took no part in the strike. Cincin- nati was greatly aroused. Mas.s-meetings were held ill the market places on the afternoon of the ■22d, and were generally attended by men who had no in- terests in the railroads entering Cincinnati. They were addressed liy speakers of the communist stamp and the excitement was fanned lo a high pit<-h. Cincinnati contains a large population of idle and vicious persons, who are always ready to join in an outbreak. A large part of the militia force of the city had been sent to Newark to hold the rioters there in check, and the preservation of order de- pended mainly upon the police and the better class of citizens. The morning of the 23d of July found Cincinnati in a feverish and dangerous state The rioters, who comprised the worst elements of the place, had taken courage from the fact that Ihey had not neen interfered with, and had increased so rajndlvthat they now compriseila large and formid- able force. By the afternoon they had beconie threatening, and" had completely wrested the strike from the liands of the railroad men. Early in the afternoon a crowd of perhaps fifteen hundred, com- posed mostly of boys from thirteen to twenty-one years of age! and backed up by sullen, vicious-look- ing men. with their bands behind their backs, sur- rounded the Cincinnati. Hamilton & Dayton Depot. As the half-past two train was about to leave, a boy of not more than eighteen sprang upon the engine, which had not vet been coupled to the train, and pulled the throttle. The engineer, who was near by, jumped on the engine in time losave it from de- struction. The crowd then demanded that he should come down, but he stooil by his post until an order came from the President to" run the engine into the BIOT. 724 BIOT. round house and abandon all trains for the day. The mob headed by two or three villainous-looking men, then started for the macliiue and repair shops of the company to force the employes to quit work. At the rail shop they were met b_v an officer of the road, who asked them if they were railroad men or strikers. They answered, •'Xo," but they wanted those shops closed up. The workmen at last jielded. against their will, and left the shop. The crowd then went through the yard, taking each shop in succession, and compelling the men to quit work. This was tlie nature of the strike on the Cincinnati, Hamilton it Dayton road. The company's emploj'es declared that if they had been permitted tliey would them- selves have driven back the mob and started the trains. A letter from Cincinnati said : "Loud con- demnation is heard on all hands of the inactivity of tlie police, who have, so far stood by and watched tlie progress of the rioters without lifting a hand. The entire militia force of the city is two lumdred miles away, and it is beginning to be felt that the only protection of life and property is to be found in vigilance committees and individual efforts by citi- zens. The demand for muskets and revolvers has been so great as to completely e.xhaust the stoi-k of tlie gun stores. It is noticed that these arms are bought by the respectable part of the comnuicity. Bankers are beginning to fear raids upon their vaults, and anxiety is felt by the officials of the United States sub-treasur_v, where several millions in currency are locked up in old safes. Threats have been made by the communists that they will burn tlie great niauu- f.ncturiug establishments, and no one would be sur- prised if they were carried into execution. There are men in this cit_y wlio were engaged in the pillage and arson at Pittsburgh, and the_v do not liesitate to say that they came here on the same mission. This afternoon the Mayor delivered a speech to the thieves and rapscallions at the Cincinnati, Ham- ilton & Dayton depot, entreating them not to burn and destroy. "What good would it do you," he ask- ed, "to set fire to buildings?" "It would show that we are men," answered a voice in the crowd. The early evening trains on the Indianapolis, Cin- cinnati & Lafayette road were stopped liy uncoupling the cars as fast as the engineers attempted to pull them out. Thousands of men doing business in the city and living in the distant suburbs have no means of getting home to their families to-night. If the present condi- tion of affairs continues, the old stage-coach will be lirouglit into requisition for transporting inails and ])as>eugers. Business is almost entirely suspended, it being impossible to move goods in any direction." At niglitfall on the 23d Cincinnati was almost at the mercy of the mob. During the night a party of thieves and tramps, having no connection with the railroad strike, set tire to the bridge of the Ohio & Mississippi Railroad over Mill Creek. The alarm was quickly given, and the fire was \>mI out. The rioters who had been engaged in tlie effort to burn the bridge then witlidrew to a point on the river sufficiently re- mote to secure them from the iiilerference of the po- lice, and passed the night lliere. At early daw'n on tlie 2-ltli they seized all tlie milk and market wagons coming into tlie city bj' that road, and gutted theni. The danger wliich threatened Cincinnati on tlie morn- iug of tlie 2-lth was very great, and aroused the au- thorities to the necessity of taking more vigorous ac- tion than they had _yet tliought necessar}'. The olh- ccrs of the various railroads running from Cincinnati, with the exception of the Ohio & Mississippi road, which was still engaged in the strike, determined to run their trains in spite of the mob, and accordingly armed tlieir employes with revolvers and coii]>ling piu^. A nuiiibirof these armed eini)loy('s were |)l:iced on ea(rli train, and whenever a gang of roughs under- took to interfen^ with the running of thi' trains, they were mi!t by the determined employes, who informed them that they could not succeed in their objects witlioul lighting. Tlie rioters did not choose to light, and the trains were unmolested. The men of the Ohio & Mississippi road refused to join the rioters in plundering, and by this refusal grt-atly disheartened the mob. A meeting of the Police Commissioners was held in the morning, and a call was made upon the citizens to volunteer as special policemen. Large numbers of citizens responded to the call, and on every side a stern determination was manifested to make short work of the mob should the necessity for a conflict arise. The rioters were overawe<l by" this determination on the part of the citizens, and gradu- ally slunk away. By the night of the 24tli tlie dan- ger in Cincinnati was practically over. The city con- tinued in a feverish state for several days longt-r, but no further trouble was experienced. A number of arrests of rioters were made by the police, and the mob was shown that the sternest measures would be used against it. The strike on the Pittsburgh, Port Wayne & Chi- cago road, which, began at Allegheny City, Pennsyl- vania, rapidly extended westward. At eight o'clock, on the night of the 21st of July, the trainmen of this company at Fort Wayne joined in the strike. The freight train, which should have left Fort Wayne for Chicago at eight o'clock, was made up, but the" brake- men and firemen refused to go on dut}-. The engin- eer and conductor declined to take the train out without any crew, and the officials were unable to obtain substitutes for the strikers. Every employe' of the company peremptorily refused to take their places. In a very ghort time a crowd of several hun- dred men had gathered at the railway station and proceeded at once to spike the switches. Squads were detailed to guard the main and side tracks ex- tending through the city, to prevent the passage of trains. News of the strike spread rapidly, and soon the crowd swelled to several thousand." The em- ployes of the Wabash and other railways appeared in force, and encouraged the strikers to persist, off- ering to render any assistance required. The ex- citement was quickly at fever heat, and the officials announced to the strikers their determination to run trains out at all hazards, and the men declared that no train should be moved from the city by any pow- er less formidable than the United States troops, un- til the order ma'iiing the ten per cent, reduction in wages was rescinded. Some of the general officers of the road attempted to turn the switches, but were driven away without accomplisliing anything. They got on an engine and made repeated efforts to take the train out of the yards, but were forced to desist. One engine wiper, who volunteered to serve as fire- man, was taken off the engine by the strikers and subjected to rough usage. Master Mechanic, Super- intendents and JNIasters oi Transportation were also compelled to dismount from the locomotive. The police made several ineffectual efforts to scatter the mob, and at two o'clock, on the morning of thc22d, the Mayor read a proclamation ordering the crowd to disperse and refrain from disorderly conduct and obstruction of traffic. He was hissed down. The proclamation was printed and circulated among the strikers, who paid no attention to it. On the morning of the 23d of July the aspect of affairs at Fort Wayne was very threatening. About eight o'clock a large force of strikers visited the ex- tensive shops of Pittsburgh. Fort Wiiyncaiid Chicago Railway, where 1,000 men are enqiloyed, and insist- ed that they should be closed uji. The men said they would not sto]) work until tlie_v received orders froin the offieitds, but they were threatened witli force and succumbed. The shops were at once closed up, and the fires put out. Committees then went east and west on liaud curs, and iiulueed the section and trackmen for a considerable distance to stop work. These men came to the city in the afternoon, and a<liled a very ugly element to the crowd already assembU'il. A rumor prevailed Hint all the railroad shops and manufactories in the city would be com- pelled to shut down, but they ran all day as usual HIOT. iZ.i KIOT. williimt intprfpronco. In the fiflcrnnon the slrikfTH lu^lil II luru^c iricrtiii;;, iiiiil iiiiiilc cxorliil.-iiil. ilcinaiiilH of llic ruilnmil cflliiuls. HialiiiLC llml Ihi'V wmilil iinl rcsuiiu! workunlil the force wiisrc|il.i(i-(l as it rxisl- cd prior to .Iiiiir I si, botli as to iiiiinlirr and rate of wilf^f'S, 1111(1 insisliii'^ upon Ilic almniloniiiciil of all <;lassi(icati()iis in tlicrank and pay of cni^'inccrs. They also a<lopt('d an address to tlie strikers, wlii<-li was printed and eiriMJaleii, and liad u jrood ('(reel. Tlie address was as follows: Stbikerh — News from ['iltshiirijli ami otlier rail- road points of terrible saeriliees of life and properly is aoniethini; thai should be justly eoiisiilered hy you all. The latest despatches show thai a very small percentai^e of strikers aretakiiiL' an active part in I In; itrealiiml lirrible rleslniclioii of Hie company's prop- erly, lint thai il is mostly done by oiitsi<lers,wlio, by such acts, believe themselves practically cxpressini; the wishes of the strikers. Vour friends and co-la- borers hereby <lesire to express the earnest hopiMind will give their assistance, that you will, should any such thiiii; occur here, endeavor, by every means in your power, to jirolect the pro|ierly of the comjiany in this city. Y<mi are perfectly able to briiiL' iibout a compromise w ilhoiit violence, or sulTer others to de- stroy the property of the company. 'I'o destroy jirop- erty will positively not remedy the malter. but, on the contrary, cause a slow restoration of better times. Do your work justly, honorably, quietly and thoui;ht- fully, and allow no disinterested persons to meddle wdth the properties you helped to create, and which stand as everlastimi monuments to your skill, perse- verance and eneriry. Do as you would b<' done by, and <lo not acl in too irrcat haste. If the comjiany has lieen unjust in its demands upon you, settle it as peaceably as you can without allowini; the destruc- tion of railroad institutions, that — to a very great ex- tent — constitute the future prosperity, life, comfort and pride of our city. The City Council met in special session durim; the afternoon, and issued a call to the strikers to dis- perse. An extra police force of 20lt men was ordered to be sworn in at once, which was done, and tln' Mayor was directed to close all the drinkimr saloons of the city. The strikers remaineil tirin. They took possession of the depots, yards and shops of the com- pany, and )irevented the passaire of all freii;ht trains. At the same time they made arransiemenls to guard the company's properly from injury or destruction. Up to this time llie Piilsburirh, Fort Wayne & Chi- cago Railroad was the only road entering Fort Wayne which was atfected by the strike. On the 24lli, however, the train men on the Wabash and the ■ Grand Hapids it Indiana Railroads demanded an in- crease of ten per cent, in their wages, and notified the olficers of Iheir respective roads that they would strike if their deni'inds were not complied with, j During the night of the '24th, Fori Wayne was ably guarded by large bodies of armed men, who were kept on duty to iirolect the railway shops, rolling stock and private manufactories. The strikers furn- ished guards wherever desired, and rendered all the protection to properly which was necessary. At a late hour two gangs of drunken tramps, numbering from tifty to a hundred each, gathered at the stock j yards and railway bridge across the St. JIary's river and made vicious demonstrations and ugly | threats. The strikers, upon being apprised of this, I sent squads of men on hand cars to disperse the mob, which they ilid most efTei-tually, driving all ! of the tramps some distance beyond the eily limils. The men were kept going on the hand cars all night to prevent the g;ilhering of any more such assem- blages. During the evening a large mob of si'clion a'.iii track men from the Western division of the road, many of them under the intluence of liquor, seized a number of band cars and enlered (^ibimliia City, where the I'ittsburgh & Fort Wayne Company was buiding a new depot, and compelled the men employed therein to slop work. Tlu^se liaiuls drank frpoly and noon becanie very rioloiid. They 8l«rtcd for till' city on hand cars, iiiakin)^ Ihreutu of vio- lence and inceniliarism. A force of Htrikern, lenrn- ing of the thn^ateneil invasion, took un engine and coach anil went out and met the mob. 1'lie Htri- kers were well armed, and they <'onipelled the drunken rabble to turn back and iilmiidoii their in- tended invasion of Fort Wayne. The slrikes in tliiH as ill oilier instances were uniformly on the side of good order, and saved the city from the Hcrioiis dan- gers which menacerl it. Passenger trains were Htill running on the I'ittsburgh. Fort Wayne J: Chicago Kailway and wi-re not molested. On the night of the 21tli the strikers nolilied all of their niiiiibcr who desirerl to come from Crestline to Fort Wayne to get on till; passenger trains, and if the condticiors insisted upon collecting fare they were instructed to lake jiossession of the train and run il to hiiit themselves. Their fare was remitted, however, by the conductors, and all dilliculty was lliu.s avoided. The officers of the I'ittsburgh, Fort Wayne <k Clii- (■ago Railroad made no attemiit to move the traioH f>f their road. They appealed to the Governors of the States through which their line ran for protec- tion, and ordererl Ihe discontinuance of all trainH. The strikers thereupon look po.s.se.ssion of the road, anil those a* Allegheny City and Fort Wayne, acting in concert, ran the passenger trains with considera- ble regularity. On Ihe night of the a-Otli a secret meeting of the strikers was held at Fort Wayne, which, among other things, delerinineil to take formal possession of the road, and run it to suit themselves. The strikers selected liiree of their own number to till Ihe i)o<itions held liy the Su|ii-rinten- dent. Master .Mechanic and .Master of Transporta- tion. These otlicials soon learned that il was the intention of the strikers to take possession of llieir olflces and eontrol the telegraph wires, and deter- mined to hold their olfices against any attempt to oust them. They obtained from the city authorities a strong guanl of police for Iheir ollices, and made their iire]iaralions for resistance. The strikers, upon hearing of these ]ireparalions, wisely decided not to attempt the seizure of the offices, which would sure- ly bring them in contlicl with the civil authorities. They had practical (lossession of the road, and the seizure of the ottiees mentioned would have given them no real advantage. On the morning of the 26th a Committee <if the Pittsburgh A: Fort Wayne strikers left for Pittsburgh to confer with the railroad officers^ having rcceved an invitation to do so. They were joined at Crestline, Alliance and other stations by Committees from those points bound on a similar errand. On the same day a Commillee of twenly- Iwo train men of the Wabash Railroad, which had been sent to Toledo to confer with the officers of that road, returned to Fort Wayne. A meeting of the Wabash employes was at once called, and the committee slated the results of their conference. They reported a very satisfactory inler\Mew with the President of the road, who had agreed to redress their real grievances and to advance their pay when- ever the business of the Company would admit. The meeting was very stormy, one element desiring to go to extremes. Heller counsels (inally prevailed, and at noon the meeting adjourned, having decided to abandon the strike it the employes at other por- tions of the line would do Ihe same. X Committee was appointed to go to Lafayette and Logansport to urge the cessation of the strike, but this was not necessarj-, as the men at those places telegraphed that they liad decided to resume work as soon as the Company desired them to do so. The collapse of the strike on the Wabash Railroad caused a perceptible discouragement of the Pittsburgh & Fort Wayne strikers, and they were from this time somewhat less detiant than before, though they de- clared themselves contidcut of bringing the company to their terms. The sentiment of the people, who were put to great inconvenience by the embargo OQ SIOT. 726 BIOT. freight traffic anci on travel, was turning sprcdily against tbu strikers. On the night of tlie 2Uth the citizens of Fort Wayne held a meeting, ami pledged their support to the authorities in their efforts to put down the strike and place the railroad company in possession of their property. The Committee ap- pointed by the Fort Wayne strikers proceeded to Pittsburgh, and had an interview with the officials of the road. The result was a refusal by the Company to grant the demands of the strikers, and a resolve on the part of the strikers to continue their move- ment. Un the afternoon of the2'.)lh an effort was made • by the officers of the road to start a train from Fort Wayne. ^Vn engine was run from the rotmtl house in- to the yard, but the strikers gathered en masse, and took the engine back, having forced the engineer and firemen from their posts. The city authorities now demauiled that the strikers should cease their interference with the railroad, but met with a stub- born refusal. Not being strong enough to enforce the law, a call was made upon the Governor of Indi- ana for troops. As has been related, the strike on the Fort Wayne road at Allegheny Cit}', Pennsylva- nia, ended on the arrival of the Governor at Pitts- burgh with troops. Seeing that they were powerless to resist tlie force brought by tlie Governor, the Al- legheny strikers surrendered to the Company and ceased their interference with the railroad. This surrender greatly disheartened the strikers at Fort Wayne and at other points on the road. Towards the last of Jul}' many of the men began to withdraw from the strike, which tliey now saw was hopeless, and these desertions still further disheartened their comrades. On the 3d of August the Sheriff notified the men that troops were on tlieir w-ay to Fort Wayne, and that the blockade of the railroad would be raised the next day regardless of consequences. He advLsed them not to provoke a conflict in which their defeat was certain. A meeting of the strikers was then held, and the men decided that they wcndd return to work, provided that the Superintendent would promise that no man should be removed for taking part in tlie strike, and that he would use his personal inlluence with the Board of Directors to have all the grievances of the strikers redressed. He readily gave these pledges, and the men thereupon abandoned tlie strike and reported for duty. From this time there was no furtlier trouble on the F'ort Wayne road. Other points of Indiana were also mucli e.xcited bytheslrike. The Ohio it Mississippi Railroad runs across the southern part of Indiana. The strike extended rapidly along this road from Cincinnati towards St. Louis. On the 3'2d of July freight trains were stopped at Vincennes on this road, but passenger trains were not interfered with. No violence was resorted to by tlie men on this line, and after holding out for several days, the strikers, dis- heartened liy the failure of the movement in other parts of the country, surrendc red to the ('omiiaiiy, and returned to duty. (Ju the 2odthe train men and shop men on the Vandalia Railroad struck at Terre Haute and other points along the road. The ma- chine-shops at Terre Haute, employing about six hundred men, were closed. The strikers were ((uiet and orderly, and passed resolutions declaring that they would abstain from drinking intoxicating li- quors during the strike. One of the principal cen- ters of excitement was Indianapolis, tlie capital of the State. The strike began there on the arid, and embraced all the lines entering the city. The freight trains were stopped, and on some of the roads only the mail and express ears were allowed to be taken over the line. The Iiiiliaiiiipolis and St. Louis men stopped work on the li'M. and compelled all freight trains along the eiilire route to lie over. On the 2<;tli of July the tiovernorof Indiana issued the following proclamation: .Many disaffected em- ployes of the railroad companies doing business in this State liave renounced their employments be- cause of alleged grievances and have conspired to enforce tlieir demands by detaining trains of their late employers, seizing and conlri)lliuL' their [iroper- ty intimidating their managers, prohibiting by vio- lence their attempts to coniluet their business, and driving awa}' passengers and freight offered for transportation. The peace of the community is se- siously disturbed. By these lawless acts every class of society is made to suffer. The conduct and hap- piness of many families not pani<'s to the grievances are sacrificed. A controversy which belongs to our courts or to the province of peaceful arbitration or negotiation is made the excuse for an obstruction of trade and travel over chartered highways within our State ; the commerce of the entire country is in- terfered with, and the reputation of our communi- ty threatened with dishonor among our neighbors. This disregard of law and the rights and privileges of our citizens and of those of sister States cannot be tolerated. The machinery provided bj'law for the adjustment of private grievances must be used as tlie only resort against debtors, individual or cor- porate. The process of tlie Courts is deemed suffi- cient for the enforcem^ent of civil remedies as well as the penalties of the criminal code, and must be exe- cuted equally in each case. To the end that the ex- isting combination be dissolved and destroyed in its lawless form I invoke the iiid of all law-abiding citi- zens of our State. I ask that they denounce and condemn this infraction of public order and endeav- or to dissuade these offenders against the peace and dignity of our State from further acts of lawlessness. To the judiciary I appeal for the prompt and rigid administration of justice in proceedings of this na- ture. To the Sheriff of the several counties I com- mend a careful study of the duties imposed upon them by the statute which they have sworn to dis- charge. I admonish each to use the full power of his county in his preservation of order and the sup- pression of breaches of the peace, assuring them of my liearty co-operation, with the power of the State at' my command, when satisfied that occasion re- quires its exercise. To those who have arrayed themselves against government and are subverting law and order and Uie best interests of society, by the waste and destruction of property, the derange- ments of trains and the ruin of all classes of labor, I appeal for an immediate abandonment of their un- wise and unlawful confederation. I convey to them the voice of the law. which they cannot afford to disregard. I trust that this admonition may be so promptly heeded that a resort to extreme measures will be unnecessary, and that the authority of the law and the dignity of the State, against which they have so grievously offended, may be restored and duly respected liereafter. The Indiana Central, Lafayette & Illinois, and Bloomington & Western Railri"«ads were being oper- ated at the time of the strike by receivers appointed by the United States Circuit Court. The Judge or- dered the United States Marshal to protect these roads against the interference of the srtikers, and it was announced that the force of United States troops quartered in Indianapolis would be used, if neces- sary, to enforce the orders of the Court. The ne- cessity for emiiloying force never arose, however. The failure of the strikers in other jiarts of the coun- try, and the manifest determination of the citizens to n])h"ld the authorities in their repressive meas- ures, disheartened the strikers. Throughout the whole movement all the strikers refrained from vio- lence, and so avoide<l a conllict wilhthc' civil author- ities. After holding out for a fi'W days they la^gan to show signs of weakness, and gradually surrt'uder- ed to their respective conipaniis. By the 1st of Au- gust, the lr(^ullle was over, and Indiana was at peaci; again. The roads had resumed their business, and no further interruption with them was experienced. {;hicago was ((uickly affected by tlie strike. The city contains a large and well-organized party of so- cialists and communists, who on several occasions RIOT. 727 KIOT. hull niaiiifcHlcil uii iiiinily (liNpiihilidii iiiiil ii dcliT- niiiialioii Id liiiiin' uii ii rinl wliciicvcr iifuviiriililc op. |)i)i'liniily sliipiilil orciir. Kor miumi' vvcrUs iirrviniis to the riiilriiiiil Hirikc llirsr iiirn liiiil liciii picpiiriiii; for II |Hililic iMcrliii;^, iillcr uliicli llirv iiilriiili'il In , niiircli 111 proccHHion lo llic (lily Hull iilid iIimmiiikI of the (U)iiiiii(m Coiiiicil Ilir collcclioii of Ijii- hiick luxes (liK! the cily, iiiid the eiiiplnyinciil of nil the iinoe- cuplcd liiliniers liy I he iiiiiiiiiipiil itiilhorilieH. The eerliiiiily of I he niilroiid sliiUe nnehint; Cliiiuiro L'live the eoiniiiiiiilsls very i;ii-al eiicoiini;,rirMeiil . Meel- iu};s were held ill viirioiis parts of the eily, on the 33d of July, and were loiiseii to fever lieiil liy the news of tli(^ lerril)l<M)iilliii'ak at I'itlshur^li. The eomiiiiiiiists seemed to seent, in the ;;eiieriil iineusi- ness that ])reviuled, their opportunity for pliiinrini; the lieuiilifiil Lake City into aiiarehy ami ruin. The Workin^jiiien's I'arly. a eoiiiMiiinist orL'anizalion, is- sued Ihe folliiwiii;; addres.ses to the vvorkini;iiieii of the United Stales : C!oMHAi)i;s : In the desperate. striiiDlle for e.vist- ence now lieinj; iiiaintained liy the workingnicn of the jrreat railroads throufihoiu the land, we e.xpect that every inemher will render all possilile moral and Kiibst:iiitiiil assistance to our lirelhren, and sup- port all reasonable measures which may he found necessary to them. CoMiiADKs:- Wecall your attention to the following ()ueslions. lielie villi; that Ihe measures su^'irested wili, if adopted, solve the diHieulty now pendini; on all the i^real railroad lines of the land : t'i/Kt. J^roper steps should be taken by the national i;overnmeut to enalile it to take ])ossession of and operate all the railroads anil ti'leirraph lines in the country, as is now done in all the more advaiiceil countries of Euro])c. thus destroying' the present and most power- ful monopoly of inodern limes. Sinuiil. The es- tablishment in every State, and by the national i;ov- ernment, of an eight hour work day— Ihus emiiloy- ing all the idle workmen wherever increasing num- bers, ccmstantly added to by the rigid introduction of labor-saving machinery, is a constunt menace to all those fortunati' enough to have employment, and must invariably reduce wages to a rati' consistent with the staiKlard of living. The most ignorant and iinedncaled workers whose labor can lie utilized. It was hoped l>y the communist leaders that these document;-, would bring them large reinforcements from the genuine working classes. Throuirhout the 22d of .luly great uneasiness and un.xiety prevailed among the citizens of Chicago. .\11 were apprehen- sive of Ihe etTect of the excitement iiiion th<' poorer classes of the cily, many of whom were sympathiz- ers with the communists. The Mayor remarked that he did not fear the Irish or (Jermaiis, but the large class of lialf-savageI5(>lieniiaiis who inhabit the lum- ber district of the city, along the south branch of the river. These men work for lifty cents a day, arc thoroughly imbued with coinmiinislic ideas, and are ripe for anything. Meetings were held during the day by Michigan Soutlierii. Kock Island, Chicago & Northwestern, and Milwaukee it St. Paul Railroad ineii, but their proceedings were kept secret. "No one knows what took place," says a letter from Chi- cago, "but from expressions gleaned among the men to-day, it seems that they passed resolutions of sym- pathy for their striking bretliren Kast. The excite- ment continued during Ihe "Jiid. The streets were thronged with people hurrying from point to point in search of news, and s])readiiig the most alarming rumors. The railroad men appeared to b<' the most (juiet class. The citizens had little fear of them, their dread as on the previousday. beinge.xcited by the commuiiists. The city autbnrities. in the mean- time, w<Te ((uietly but rajiidly preparing to deal with the mob. It was decideil, if a cunlliel did come, to put down the outbreak at once and w itli vigor. Mus- kets were sent to the various statioii-bonsi s for the use of the police, and three jiieces of cannon were lilaced in charge of an artillery company organized for the purpose. The mililiii reginients of Ihe lily were ordered nii<ler ariiiH by the (Jovernor, and were directi'd to iissiKt Ihe iniiiiicipal iiuthorilicH whiiiever called upon. On the night of lhe2:id,ii MiiiHs-ineeling of Mie " Uruiul Army of Starvation," um they styled ihein- ! selves, was held in .Market Street. Ten thoiii-uiid persoiiH were jjreseiit. At eight o'(-loek the crowd began to gftlier, aii<l a lillle later the loretiliglil pro- cessions from the various divisions of Ihe eily arriv- ed, amid the deafening iheers of Ihe crowd. Slaiirl» wiTc at once iin])roviserl and s|)eakirs Kiipplii'd in ' tjuick HiHcession. Six men acldre>.ed the crowil al once in Knglisli and tJermaii. and in the iiio.l iiilJain- niatory language. The speakers tipenly appealed to Ihe multitude to rise and follow tlieexani|ile of llieir lirethrin in Ihe Kast. Said one of the men : " We, laboring men, have eoinmou cause with the railroad strikers at I'iltsbiirgli. and we must rise up in our might, and li^lit for our rights. J5elter a thousand of us be shot down in the streets than len thousand die of starvation." The meeting broke up al half- past eleven, afler resolving to meet at the .same place the next morning at len o'clock, to sign the platform of the Laborers' League. They letl withoiil flisorder, carrying Iheir lianner liearing such inscriptions as "We waul Work, Not Charity:" "Life by Work, or Death by i'ight." It was evident, on llie'nighl of the 23(1, that the dissatisfaction of Ihe railroad men was approaching a crisis. On the morning of llie 24th of .July, it culminated in a general open strike of the railroad hands. Karly in the morning the em- ployes of the Michigan C<-nlraI Railroad sent a Com- mittee to the ollicers of that road and demanded the restoration of Iheir fornuT wages. The General Su- perinleiiilciit refused to accede to Iheir demand, and the Committee withdrew. The employes of the road at once stopped work and joined the strike. The Company made no etfort to send out any trains during the day. and conseipiently there was no di.s- turbanec. At nine o'clock the freight men on the Illinois Central, who work in and around the yards, quietly slopped work. They were the switchmen and helpers who make up the trains, numbering about twenty-tive : the laborers wli«) handle freight in the freight houses, nuinberiug about one hundred, and the men who jiick, assort, and Blore the freight in the cars, numbering about forty. They were in- cited to strikt by a delegation from the Michigan Central, and by the general feeling of dissatisfaction at the reduction of pay w liicli pervaded every class of railroad employes. The strike was orderly, and the men exhibited no ill disposition, save in excep- tional ca.ses. The first action taken by the freight men was the informal appointment. by general consent, of a delegation of four from the switchmen and irain- makers to call upon the Master of Transportation, and ascertain whether the wages could not lie restor- ed. He received them pleasantly, and talked to them fairly and si|uarely. The men acted reasonably and like men. They said that they represenleil only Ihe switchmen. On .July 1st a special reduction, not ex- tending to other employes, had been made in their pay. and they felt that injustice had been done in making tliem specially subject to a decrease in sahiry . They had been called upon to join in Ihe guieral strike, and they now wanted to know whellieT. be- fore doing so, a restoration might not be |iromised. If not. they would have no reason to give Ihe other strikers for not joining them, and so would be forced into Ihe revolt. The delegation elainie<l thai these reductions had been made only on Ihe men they re- presented, and this they considered unfair. It was explained that it was a mistaken idea that uneipial reduction had been made by skipping certain depari- meuts. leaving them umiislurbed. Of course, if the men wished to strike, he could not prevent it, and, though lie deploreii such an action and hoped they would try to prevent it. and preserve the harmony which had al ways existed, yet. if they did stop w ork. BiOI. 728 RIOT. he would shut up the freiglU houses at once. The Committee left ilissatistied, however, and went out and reported to the men, who started immediately to so to the Michigan Southern yards to consult with the men there. The result was the visit of another delegation to the officials, which was more unsatis- factorj- than the first. The crowd, composed of som? 500 Michigan Cen- tral and Illinois Central men, then started in proces- sion to visit the other yards and enforce a strike. The}' proceeded first to the Baltimore & Ohio.wlu're the men fell in readily and without much persuasion. The crowd of howling men and boys then marched to the Rock Island j-ard, between Fifteenth and Six- teenth Streets, where they took the men off their en- gines and told them they must quit. The mob shut the water off the tanks, and when everything was fixed to suit them, thej- started for the Chicago, Bur- lington it Quincy . Here the men did not offer the most feeble resistance, but left tlieir engines and switches at the word of command from the mob. The agent of the Rock Island freight house shut the doors at their approach, but was soon compelled to open them again. The crowd visited the Chicago & Alton freight depot, but were met b}' the men of that road who had (juit the Company, having stopped the traf- fic, both passenger aod freight. The numerous outrages of the mob warned the civ- il authorities to be on the alert, and every effort was made to prepare for an emergencj-. The First and Second N'olunteer Regiments and the Ellsworth Zou- aves were held in readiness at their armories; the Grand Army of the Republic prepared to turn out with full ranks whenever called upon ; and a large number of special policemen were sworn in and arm- ed. The ]\Iayor issued the following proclamation: W/iereax, The railroad troubles and strikes which have taken place in several of the large cities in the country have, in most cases, been attended with in- cendiarism and plunder; and, whereas, some of the employes of a few of the railroads in this city have struck for an advance of wages, and have been join- ed by the operatives in some of our factories; and, whereas, it is feared that the bad and vicious elcnu-nt in this comnumity will seize this as a favorable op- jiortunity to destroy propert}- and commit plunder ; tlierefore, I, by the authority vested in me as JIayor of the city of Chicago, call on all good citizens to aid in enforcing the laws and ordinances, and in sup- pressing riot and oilier disorderly conduct. To this end I request that the citizens organize patrols in their respective ueighborlioods, and keep their wo- men and children oil the jjulilic highways. Proud of the deserved reputation of all classes of our peo- ])le as law-abiding citizens, I trust and believe no act will be suffered or permitted by any of them now which would disgrace us in our own estimation and that of the country at large. The workingmen must remember that all industries are suffering from fi- nancial dejiression throughout the countryrand that acts of violence. inste:id of tending to rectify tln-ir wrongs, will tend to deprive them of all sympathy. The city government has made ample preparation to protect the lives and properly of all citizens, and any lawless acts will be promptly detected and punished. This was followed by a second, closing the li<iuor saloons of the city, as f jllows: W/ifriti«, The public mind is unduly excited owing to rumors of strikes. ;iii(l ilic fact tliiit some excited and bad men are e(iML'rei.Mtjiig and endeavoring to j)rom(jte confusiim and disorder, and deeming it for the best interests of onr citizens of all classes that no <-ansc be given or permitted to infhience passions or l>rejudices ; therefore, by virtue of the jmwer and authority vested in me asjMayor of the city of Chica- go, I hereby order thai all saio<ins in the city be clos- ed, and that nolir(Mor br solil by any licensed saloon keeper or others from and after six" o'clock p.m. of this date until further r.olice, under pemdtv of the law and forfeiture of license. All patroln'ien and policemen are hereliy instructed to see that this or- der is promptly and vigonuisiy enforced. On the same day, the Governor of Illinois issued a proclamation, in which, after reciting that troubles were occurring in certain States, he called upon the people to aid in maintaining the peace; enjoined vigi- lance upon Mayors, Sheriffs and others in authority in suppressing violence, and declared all these ques- tions must be regulated by ballots instead of mobs. The merchants of the city also armed their employes and made preparations to defend their establish- ments against the mob. '■ The strike," said a t'hica- go letter, written on the 2.5th," has brought business at the banks to a complete standstill. The Express Companies are unable to receive currency for ship- ment, hence the city banks are unable to respond to the calls of country institutions for funds. The im- possibility of obtaining currency from New York is also inconvenient, and places some of the banks who had previously telegraphed there for funds to be forwarded by express, in an awkward position. Ex- change is virtually unsalable from the fact that it is deemed iiseless to remit East with the expectation that it will go through. The police and the mobs have met face to face about one dozen times. On Twenty-second Street, which penetrates the lumber districts, two skir- mishes occurred. The police were attacked with stones, clubs, and missiles of all kinds, but they did not lose their temper nor their patience, and blood- shed was avoided. They have been provoked to the very verge of madness several times during the day; many of them have been hurt severely with clubs and stones, l)ut they have obeyed orders and behav- ed admirably. At noon on the 25th, the aspect of affairs seemed so threatening, and the size of the communist mob appeared to be increasing so rapid- ly, that the Mayor issued a proclamation asking all gt'Od citizens to organize themselves into safety guards in their respective wards, called upon all to respect the laws, and asked aid and encouragement for the military companies then under arms. This was followed soon after by an address signed by the Mayor and a number of the leading merchants, bank- ers and journalists of the cit\-, calling for a grand mas.s-meeting at the Tabernacle at half-past three p. M. At this meeting there were fully sixty thou- sand business men present, and a resolution was adopted approving the course of the authorities, and standing by them in their efforts to preserve the peace. A special meeting of the City Council was also held, and a resolution was adopted giving the Mayor plenary powers. The merchants held meet- ings in different jiarts of the city at night, for the purpose of eft'ecting an organization. The strength of the mob was variously estimated at from 25,000 to 40,000 men. I)\iring the night they caused serious trouble. A mob gathered at the Chicago, Burling- ton it Quincy round house soon after dark, and be- gan to put out the fire in the engines. For nearly an hour they stoned tile liuilding and crowded around the yards, when all at once a squad of police that had been summoned rushed up and were met by a volley of stones. The officers drew their revolvers and "fired on the mob, which retreated at the first fire. Three men fell ; one was carried away by the mob. It is said that sixteen were wounded by the firing, which lasted ten minutes. 'I'he olficers at length exliausled their cartridges and ehargeil upon the crowd with their clubs, when they retreated. Soon after llu' scpiad retired the rabble returned and stoppedtheslreet carsou the Ilalstead Street viadtict. stoning the inmates imtil they alighted. One car was torn to pieces, and the others taken to the stables. The rioters next broUe inio a gun shop, comjiletely gulled i I, taking away fifty breeeh-loadiug shotguns, one hundred and lil'ly revolvers, and several kegs of gunpowder. They "then passed off south toward Bridgeport, and gave no further trouble during the (lav. SIOT. 721) RIOT Durinj; llic iifliTiiooii. ii slrcni;; force nf rri;iilar lro(ij)M arrivi'il from (Iliicuuo from llic fur WikI. TIh' prospcft wiiM Mf) lliniilcniiii^ Hint il wuH deciiicd bcHt to linlil llicm III ('liic;ii;o. ('liicUL'o WHS profoiimlly excited on the inorninf; of tlic 2(U\\ of .Inly. 1111(1 il WHS ;;ciicriilly fell llial liii- diiy woiil<l iiol puss willioiit 11 serious coiillici Willi the mol). Tlii^ rioUrrs called llieiiisclves workiri;;;- inen, but llwy were frenerally loafers and liiiinnierH who never did an lionesl day's work. The leaders were comiiiiiiiisls. Hut few honest workin'^nien were found in the crowd, anil the railroad men could scarcely lie seen in il. Atioiil nine o'clock in the nioriiiiii; a nicelini; of self-styled workin^mcn, main- ly made u]) of roughs and loaf<Ts, was c.invencd at Turner Hall, within a block and a half of the police station. Nobody seemed to know what was jjoini; on, but it was understood that eerlain carpenters and oabiiiel makers, represcnlinf;, or claiiniiii; to reprc- senl. their respeclive tradi'H, were irathered thiTc for Conference. The mob bei;an to i;alher, and siirfjed U]) and down on the sidewalk and in the slreel. a howlini;, yelping mob of irresponsible idiots. They talked of what they were goiiii; lo do. and how they hud i;otleii tliiim;s all their own way. every lani;iia;;e except Cliinescbeini; iiseil. The communistic element was largely reprcj'ented, many of the lowest class of [ I'oles and IJohemians beini; on lianil. About ten [ o'clock a body of-.lweiity-live policemen np|»'ared on the scene. .Vs they neared the surj|;in!; crowd, the hootiivj; and yellinj; became terrific, and the mob began to pell the officers with bricks, stones, and other missiles. The police stood the attack cjuietly for a few minutes; but this encourairinj; the mob to greater violence, a charjie was ordered, and the men turned upon their assailants, hiltin}; ri<;lil and left with their clubs, and hitlini; lo hurt. Outside the po. lice station was another detachment of olticers, nuin- bering about a score, who speedily came to the as- sistance of their comrades. There was a very lively tight for a few minutes, but discipline and organiza- tion jiroved too much for the rioters, who were soon put to rout. The police. Imvini; disposed of the out- aiders, forced their way into tlii! Imll. In the second story they foiiml a panic-strii-ken mob of perhaps one hundred and lifly. who, in Ihcir frantic etiorts to escape, ran hilher and thither like rats in a pit. Many jumped from the windows, and so gained the street, but some seized chairs and other pieces of furniture, with which they attempted to defend them- selves. A good many were hurt during these oper- ations, but none fatally, and only one of the special police received any ilamage. lie was led back to the station, where it was found Ihal, aside from a cut on the head, of no great depth, he was all rii;lit. and lie remained on station duty during the clay. The crowd spread it.self over the neighborhood, many of the rioters having received a lesson which will lead them lo respect the police a trille more in the future. While ine rioting about Turner I lull was in progress, a crowd of boys and roughs gathered about the llalstead Street viaduct. The street cars were stopped, ami for some time il appeared as if the roughs were to have everything their own way. A detachment of twenty-five policemen sent to disperse them was received with stones and revolvers. The police returned the fire with goo<l elTect, knocking over several of the rioters with their bullets. But the crowd, tieing constantly swelled by reinforce- ments, niainlainedtheir ground. Stones were thrown at the police from the roofs of hou.ses andfroin alley- ways. Having exhausted their ammunition, the of- ficers at length retired, the mob following, hooting, yelling, anil throwing stones. On meeting with a detaciiment sent to reinforce them, the police turned, and made a vigorous charge on the rioters, and scattered them in all directions. This defeat by no means disheartened the mob, and thev gathered again at the llalstead Street via- duct. \i\ eleven o'clock thev numbered fully ten IlioUHMnd men and boys. The undecided peaceful- nesH of the horde had vanished; llieir niimberHM-ein- ed to inspire Ihem with the valor of savugcH ; and il was evidenl Ihal they wiTc bent oil violi'iice, and would hesitate al nothing. The norlii approach to the llalstead .Street viaduct, and the •Iriiclure ilself, were black with the mass of rioters. 'I"lie aspect of 1 aflairs was ho Ihrealeniiig that a strong body of po- lice was sent lo the viaduct witli ordern to dispefHt- the mob. The inoiner.l I he rioters beheld the ap- proach of the polici', who marched from the Ilarri- son Street station, thi-y broke indiscriiiiinalely and lied lo the other siile of the viaduct, houlini: like fiends. The police broke into a run, and piirsiie<l them, tiring as they ran. A countercharge was made by the rioters in an alletnpt lo pass the polici' on the viaduct, in order that there might he a force of ilen- peradoes on each side of the beleaguered |)eace dc. tenders. The scheme was promptly atid credilably frustrated by a free use of the baton and a display of pistols, from which blank carl ridges were lireil. The mob then i>ilched itself headlong down the de- scent across Sixteenth Slreel, and a similar crowd went east, in the direction of the Chicago, liurling- ton it (Juincy freight houses. There was a brief moment of inactivity; during which the police form- ed in line and ]>repared for a charge. 1 his was the signal for a shower of stones, pistol shots and other missiles. For a little time the wildest disorder pre- vailed, and il was evident that the police were just a little alarmed, as well they might have been, at the overwhelming force arrayed against them. For half an hour the discharge of weapons was kept up at short intervals, in reply to stones that were being continually ])elted down from all sides. With every moment otiielay, during which the rioters were un- harmed, the belief grew in their minds that the po- lice were not firing bullets, and they began surging near a central focus. Several times did a few of the more daring attempt to break in upon the police, and each time they were successfully repulsed. The police had now but a few roundsof ammiiniiion left, and it was evident they could not stand their ground much longer unless reinforcements <anie. Seeing that the rioters were airain closing in on his men. as if they knew they could not fire many more times, the Sergeant gave the order to his men to fire off rapidly all the charges they had left, and at the same time to withdraw across the viaduct towards the sta- tion. The order was obeyed, and the police having exhausted their ammunition, formed in line, and started back across the viaduct. The tremendous crowd of maddened roughs at once started in hot pursuit, throwing volley after volley of stones, which fortunately failed to do any damage. The police at- tempted to auaril their retreat at first, but soon found it absolutely imiiossible, and they turned and fled. The chase for life and death was one of the wildest excitement. The vast throng hung closely upon the heels of the jiolice, and did not cease to jiursue till the latter arrived at Fifieenth Street. The position of the police was now critical in the extreme. The rioters were pressing them hard, and unless as- sistance should come il was jilain they would never reach the station. At this moment, however, a cheer was heard, and a body of veteran cavalry dashed in- to the street and rode rapidly at the rioters. This force was followed by sevend large wagons, bearing reinforcements of police. These came up on a run. and the men dismounted and joined their comrades, who had made so gallant a stand against the mob. When the rioters saw the cavalrj- and reinforcements of police, they turned to retreat. Then began the most destructive scene of the morning. As they ran the police began firing. One of the mob was shot throu!rh the brain and instantly killed; another was killed by a projectile hurled by one of his own par- ly. The police used their clubs effectively, sparing lio one. The police made no attempt to cross the viaduct a second time, hut stopped a little northward. EIOT. 7;w KIOT. Tlie cavalrj- pushed on over the bridsi- and drove back the rioters. During the remainder of the day the cavalry were kept on duty in the vicinity of Ilal- stead Street, breaking up crowds wherever tliey would collect, and capturing rioters, over o:ie hun- dred of whom were sent to the station houses. About eleven o'clock orders were received by the Second Illinois Regiment to proceed at once to the scene of disturbance. The men were instantly gotten under arms, and the regiment set out on the double quick for Halstead Street, accompanied by two pieces of artillerv. During the day additional companies of regular troops arrived. The regulars were posted at vari- ous Tjoints in the city which were believed to be in ihinger. The Second Illinois Regiment was kept on duty at the Halstead Street viaduct, and the First Regiment was stationed close by. Parties of cavalry and police patrolled the city during the day, making many arrests. The rioters did not dare to gather in force again, but small crowds constantly asseinbl- ed on the streets as fast as broken up, and while no effort was made to oppose the troops with force, the rioters vented their rage by cursing them roundly. Several minor encounters took place between the police and the mob during the afternoon, but no gen- eral outbreak was attemjited. The rioters were still noisy and loud in their threats, but they were too thoroughly cowed by the determined attitude of the military and police to attempt a renewal of their ef- forts of the morning. The night of the 26th passed away without furth- er disturtjance, the city being held "bv the regulars, the volunteers and the police. The rioters were fev- erish and restless, but avoided a conflict. They liad lost their courage, and were afraid to meet the force opposed to them. On the morning of the 27th a crowd was reported to be gathering in the quarter known as "Bridgeport." Three cavalry companies and two companies of the Second Regiment were ordered to the spot. The Board of Trade cavalry and Colonel Agramonte's veterans, some three lum- drcil strong, repaired to the scene, supported by the infantry. The mob was dispersed without difflcul- ty. Tiie Halstead Street viaduct, the scene of the disturbance on the previous day, was held by the Sec- ond Regiment. The cavalry patrolled the western part of the city throughoui the day. The mob was sullen and cross, but it was beaten, and the danger was at an end. The ])olice and the cavalry had or- ders not to allow people to gather in crowds in the streets, and this order was rigidly enforced. The Mayor issued the followimr proclamation : The city authorities having dispersed all lawless- ness in the city, and law and order being restored, I now urge and request all business men and employ- ers generall}' to resume work, and give as much em- ployment to their workmen as possible. I consider this the first duty of our business conanuuity. I am now amply able to protect them and their workmen, fjet every one resume operations, and report any in- terference at police head-ciuarters. Citizens' organ- izations must continue in force, and on no account relax their vigilance, as the cause of trouble is not local and not 3et removed. All such organizations should form themselves into |)crmanent bodies, continue on duty and re])ort regularly as heretofore. From this time the cxcitcinenl in Chicago gradti- ally sul)sidcd. The conunuuisl lea<lers and their des- perate followers saw that they were no tnatch for the force at the conunand of the authorities, and were terrilied by the wholesale arrests of their conu'ades. They sliuik out of siglit, and in aday ortwo Chicago was enjoying its normal repose. Th<' railroad men, disliearleneil by the f.-iilure of thi' strikes on oilier I)arls of their roads, surrendered to their n^ipective companies, and relurned to (hity at the old wa^es. fuller parts of Illinois shared in the general cx- i^ilement, but no serious conttict occurred, nor was any great damage done outside of Chicago. At I'e- oria a mob seized several of the railroads entering the city, and attempted to stop the running fif the trains. The local authorities took prompt measures to put down the outbreak, and the volunteer compa- nies of the town were onic red out to assist the police. On the 2(ith of Julj- the police made a gallant charge on the mob, and arrested three of the principal lead- ers. The prisoners were taken to the jail, and the mob followed with the intention of rescuing them. The military at once rejjaired to the jail, and forced back tlie mob at the point of the bayonet. The mob, deprived of its leaders, was powerless, and though threats were freely inilulged in, no further violence was attempted. On the 27th of July the Governor of Illinois issued the following proclamation : Wlifrecm, Certain persons active in the violation of In.w have assumed to interfere with and prevent the movement of railroad trains in this State, and have sought to intinndate honest workingmen entraged in the avocations by which they earn their daily bread, and to compel them to cease from their labor ; and Whereas, This condition of affairs continues, and is intolerable, entailing as it does disastrous conse- quences, the nature and extent of which it is impos- sible to foresee; Thu-e/'H-c. I, Shelby M. Cullom, Gov- ernor of Illinois, acting under and by the authority of the laws of this State, do command all such riot- ous and disorderly persons to desist and return to their homes, and do call upon all Sheriffs, Mayors, and otlier officers charged with the execution of the laws to break up all conspiracies against the rights of property and of persons, and to that end to em- ploy every lawful means in their power, and do en- join upon all good citizens to assist in bringing about the restoration of order, the resumption of Imsiness, the moving of trains, and the revival of manufactures. I further give notice that the entire military force at my disposal as Commander-in-Chief of the nnlitia will be employed for the support of the civil author- ities in this endeavor, and that orders will be given to the troops to use whatever amount of force may be necessary to compel obedience to the laws. In testimony whereof I have hereunto set my hand and caused the great seal of the State to be affixed. There were slight disturbances at Decatur, Effing- ham, Galesburg, Joliet, and Carboudale. but no out- break. Braidwood, an important place in the mining regions, was profoundly excited by a strike of the miners, but no trouble was experienced. At East St. Louis, on the Illinois shore of the Mississippi River, opi)osite the city of St. Louis, there was quite a for- midable strike, and the State authorities were com- pelled to break it up by a c(mcentration of the State troops. The city of St. Louis is the terminus of a number of important railway lines. The Mississippi is here spanned by a magnificent iron bridge which gives St. Louis direct connection with the States lying east of the great river. The eastern end of the bridge is at East St. Louis, in tlie State of Illinois. Here the shops and round houses of the various railroads us- ing the bridge are located. East St. Louis is thus a very important railroad point, and being so closely connected with its greater neighbor over the river, the strikes on the two sides of the river were really one movement, and must be Irealed as such. On the 22d of July, signs of excitement and disaffection began to show thi'inselves at East St. Louis, A se- cret meeting of the railroad men was held in the after- noon, at which it was resolved to make a formal de- mand upon the various lines centering at St. Louis for an increase of wages, and to inaugurate a gener- al strike, should the demand be refused. After the .adjournment of the secret meeting, an out-doormeet- ing was organized, in which about two hundred members of the French, (iernian, Bohemian, and English sections of the workingmen's party of the United States from St. Louis participated. Their coming was greeted with cheers and much enthusi- asm. Several speeches were made by the leaders of EIOT. HIOT. this H<( lidii, in wliicli Ihcy offerfid Bympathy for the strikers, 1111(1 plcdj^cil tliciiisclvis lo Hlaii(rt)y llicm ill tlicir Mtnmiilr. Il was sliilcil from I In- hIiukI Unit there' would be aiiollier iiieetiii'^ lit nif^lit, eiiiiiposi-d siriclly of riiilroiid iiieii, lit which a declaration of their purpose, mid what aelioii they proposed lo take, would he made. 'I'lic' section <pf the workiiiff- iiieu's party heforif referred lo held a ineeliiiujat Tiir- iii-r's llall ill the afternoon, and after several speech- es on the labor qyeslion in jceneral, and IIk^ present situation in particular, they unaniniuuHly udoptedllic ' foMowiiiu: resolutions : IK//</VY/«, The workiiiL'iiien of the dllTiTciit rail- roiids in this country are risini; iii iiuiKKf lo demand their just rii;hls ; and, U7/av((,v, The rniled Stales (ioveriiiiielit has allied itself on llie side of capital and against labor; therefore, ItiKiitnil. That we, the workiii;;nicn's ])arly of the United Slates, hearlily sympatliize witii the employes of all the railroads of the country who are altemptiiit; lo secure just and eqiiilalilc reward for llieir labor. /ifWcfrf, That we will stand by them in this most riirhteoiis strujigle of labor against robbery and <ippressioii, through i^ood and evil report, to the end of the slrujiglc. The demand agreed upon by the meeting of ruil- roail men was made upon the various C'omiainies (in the night of the 3'2d. but was refused. At midnight a general strike was begun on all the roads at East St. Louis. On Ihe morning of the 'i'.hX it was an- nounced by the strikers that iiassenger and mail ears might be run on the eastern roads, but lliat no freight Irains would be permilled to pass. The men were (piiet and orderly, but determined. The ('om- panies generally accepted the situation, and made no effort to run their freight trains. The men of Ihe Toledo tfc Wabash road had nol had their wages reduced, and declared that, though lliey had no irrievance against llieir Company, they struck out of fellowship for the employi's of the other roads. An elTorl was made during I lie morning to start afreight train on the Chicago it Alton road, but the sirikers slopped it and took il back into the yard. Every- thing was very (piiet in the I'nion depot, and in the yards of the Union Itailway tt Transit Comi)any of St. Uoiiis during the moriiing. One slock train was allowed lo cross the bridge, but none \ver(^ permit- ted to puss after twelve o'clock. The employi'S of the Transit Company, who do duly in KasI SI . l.nuis, tifteen in number, struck with the tiremen and brake- men of the railroad, TheempIo_ves of the Company on the St. Louis side of the river, whose duties are ]ierformed at and in the vicinity of Ihe Union depot in moving trains in the yard, through Ihe tunnel, and across the bridge, did not formally strike, Iiut they were idle for Ihe reason that there was nothing for them to do, as the strikers across the river would not permit the freight trains lo pa.ss. Tlie Transit Company rescinded their order for a reduction of ten per cent, on wages, and notified their employt^s lo that effect, but the latter look no notice of it. Dur- ing all. the trains on the Missouri. PacilicA St. Louis, Kansas City iV Northern roads went out and came in as usual, there lieing no strike on tlio.se roads vet, r,or had the employe's manifested any disposi- tion to take action in the matter. The St. Louis, Iron Mountain it Southern Railroad lUies not con- ucet with the Union depot, 1ml has i's own depot in the southern part of the city. Kverylhing was ([uiet on that road, and liusiness was progressing in the regular way. The strikers in Kast St. Louis gave a special permit to the Xational Stock yard people to use their own locomolives to haul feed to the yards for the stock there. They also permitted Ihe Union Railway <.t Transit Company to select ten men to switch passenger trains coining to the Relay depot at East St. Lmiis, and (iestine(i for the city. On the inorning of the 24lh, Ihe East St. Louis strikers, en- couraged by having been unmolesled by the civil au- thorities, changed their plan of operation and re- fused lo allow the ruuning of passenger trains. Upon 1 the arrival of theeftHlern bound I ruin on the Vandalia road at Ihi' Relay house al Ivasi St. I,oiii», an i-(Tort was made lo impede its progresn. After the short halt there, which is ciiHloniury with all trains, and when the train was just getting in niollon, a striker drew the coupling pin behind liie mail carand called mil roiiirlily to the eondiiclor, "(jo on with your ! Unileii Slates mail ; we've got nolhing lo complain [ of against the Government." This raxh act and de- claration was greeted with loud shouts by the (Ive j hundred strikers. The eondiiclor sleppi'd out on tlie I platform of a car and appealed lo the niob lo replace the coupling pin and perniil liiiii lo proceed. lie said, •• I have one hiiiidred and Iweiily-llve passen- gi>rs on board, and Ihey have paid their passage to eastern points on the faith of your promise lliat you would not interfere with passenger Iravel. You are in honor bound lo let them pass," (Cries of "Thai's .so." " Let them go," etc.] " Il's a mean, <onleiiipl- ible trick," said the plucky conductor, " and if you persist in il, il proves that you are nol honorable men." The appeal of the conductor created a dis- sension in the ranks of the strikers, many of llieiii contending that Ihe train should be allowed lo pro- ceed, and others declaring il should not. Nearly an hour was spent in wrangling among the men. and if- nally the Comniitlee in charge decided to let the train go, and it is unnecessary lo say il wi'nt very rapidly. In the meanlime there was great e.\citeiiient among the passengers inside, and two or throe of the ladies fainted, one of them, an invalid, being slill uncon- scious when the train took its departure. When the mail train on the Cairo narrow gauge road arrived at the Relay house Ihe passenger car was deluclied from the mail coach, and the eomhictor proceeded without his passengers. In the meantime the lead- ers telegraphed across the river to their representa- tives in the city nol to allow any more passenger trains to pull out from Ihe Union depot. Al eleven o'clock, twenty-five strikers, boarded an engine and tender, steamed througli the tunnel, and dashed into the Union depot. This was the first appearance of the strikers in the limits of St. Louis proper, and their arrival caused a great sensation in that hitherto quiet neighborhood. They quickly alighted from the engine that had borne them over, and, with a shout, proceeded across the depot siieds, where thev seized two engines belonging to the -Missouri road, and, mounting the engines, steamed rapidly up the track a mile and a half to the machine shops of that company. The workmen in the employ of the Mis- souri Pacific Railroad at the machine shops, num- bering two luindred and fifty, had been advi.sed by the strikers that they would la- visited during the day, and when the strikers arrived, Ihey received them cordially, though they continued tiieir work; and in answer to the question whether they were willing to strike, replied that the Pacific Com- pany "had partially acceded lo their demands, and they thought they should continue at work. " Bm yoii must help us out," replied the leader of the strikers, "and in order lo do this you must quit work." -V hmg conference between the strikers and workmen ensued, and. al the end of half an hour, the former, despairing of success in inducing the lat- ter to strike, withdrew. A number of policemen stationed at the machine shops attempted to prevent Ihe entrance of the strikers into the shops, but their efforts were fruitless. From here the strikers re- turned to the Union depot, and at I wo o'clock, when the Belleville passenger accommodation train on the Cairo road was about lo start out, one of. the lead- ing strikers, stepped aboard the engine and whis- pered to the enirincer, who. with tlie firemen imnn - diately left their posts, and the strikers announced that tiie train would not be permitted to leave the de- pot. Officers of Ihe road expostulated, but for over two hours the strikers were firm in their refusal to grant the request. At the end of that lime the tniin was allowed to go. A large force of police were on RIOT. 732 EIOT. hand, but did not undertake to interfere with tlie striliers. Tlirce or four tliousand pjople, composed of discontenled and unemployed laboring men, gathered under the depot sheds, and much incendiary talk was engaged in. As a result of these riotous demonstrations the po- lice cleared the saloons in the neighborhood, and or- dered them to be kept closed. About four o'clock another engine, with the flat cars loaded with 400 strikers from the eastern shore, arrived at the depot, and were received witli loud cheers by the crowd. The strikers disembarked, formed in line. and. with the music of the fife and drum, marched in the di- rection of the Pacific machine shops. At every street crossing the procession was joined by numbers of sympathizers, and by the time the siiops were reached there were 2,000 men in march. Arrived at the sliO]is. they found that the shopmen, being ad- vised of the approach of the strikers, had already quit work, and were on the platform ready to receive the strikers. A representative machinist received the visitors and made a speech to them, saying the shopmen had concluded not to strike, but to quit work in deference to the demands of the strikers. They had no cause of complaint against their em- ploj'ers, but would not return to work imtil the strikers had secured a redress of their wrongs. From this place the strikers marched to the North Missouri Railroad track on the levee, where they took possession of an engine and ten flat cars, and boarding them proceeded to the round house of that company in the northern part of the city, where they were met by the employes of the company. A con- ference was held, and as a result theemploytls agreed that no more freight trains sliould be allowed to go out on the road from St. Louis. The strikers re- turned to the Union depot at six o'clock. The arrival of the troops had no perceptible effect in cooling the ardor of the strikers, the leaders de- claring that they would avoid collision with the troops, but were determined to cany their point at every risk. By nightfall nearly all the strikers had deserted the eastern side of the river, and were con- gregated at the Union depot, where they passed the night. During the day there was great popular ex- citement throughout the city, and the strike was the absorb. ng theme of conversation. A serious feeling of apprehension was abroad among the people, and a general belief prevailed that the crisis was bound to result in blood and devastation. Tlie city author- ities had been very jjassive since the beginning of the strike, and their attitude excited much indignant comment at the time. It was based upon the fact that there were not 1,000 stand of arms in St. Louis at the disposal of the authorities, and it was deemed i best not to undertake to interfere with the mob until it could be done in an effective manner. In the meantime every exertion was made by the munici- pal authorities, in concert with a number of pronun- ent citizens, to obtain arms and ammunition for a force of five tliousand men. On the night of the 24th the Internationalist, or Communist leaders, who have a large following in St. Louis, held meetings in several parts of the city, which were attended by monster audiences. The most incendiary sjieeclics were made and threats of burning llie huildinsis of the newspapers, wliich had criliciscil Ihciu oidy. were indulged in. Processions of e.M-ilcd men marched through the streets yelling and making other noisy demonstraticms. A large proportion of the city p(). lice force had been withdrawn from the regular beats and held in readiness at tlie points of danger. The morning of the a.")th found tlie city greatly e.\- eited. About nine o'clock a crowd of 1.000 men as- Hcmbled in Lucas' market place arounil a stand erect- ed by tlie workingmen's party, while two or three thousand spectators gathered in the vicinity. The crowd was made up mostly of wire-wnrkers who had struck, and strikers from other manufacturing establishments. At ten o'clock thev formed in col- umn and marched past the City Hall to Turner Hall, where the executive committee of the workingmen's party was in session. Half an hour later a body of 500, made up chiefly of negroes, was sent to the levee, and inarched its entire length for the purpose of inducing the roustabouts to join them. The strik- ers said they were to receive explicit orders from hour to hour, and expected to stop aU manufactur- ing establishments before night. * A crowd of 2, .500 people gathered at the Union depot, but nothing of importance occurred there. The only passenger train which passed over the bridge during the morning was the Toledo, Wabash tt Western, the strikers making an exception in favor of that road because of its position toward the em- ployes in the past. On all the other roads onlj' the postal cars were allowed to leave. The Chicago & Alton people refused to be dictated to, and at the reg- ular hour sent out their postal car and baggage car and one passenger coach. The train reached East St. Louis, but the strikers refused to allow any but the engine and postal car to proceed. -This dis- crim.ination was declined, and the whole train was backed over to the depot on the city side. The Missouri Pacific machine shops and freight depots and yards were closed, and none of the men were at work. They told the officers of the road that they were satisfied to work, but that it would only pre- cipitate an attack and general trouble with the strik- ers. The position of the men was approved by the company, and the shops and depots closed by mutu- al consent. The company sent out three or four freight trains between one and five o'clock in the morning, but decided not to start an}' more for the present. A large delegation of strikers from the city visited Chelteuliam, four miles west of the city, during the morning, and ordered the men out of the smelting and fire clay works. They offered their employers to continue at work if protected, and a request was sent to police head-quarters for a detail of police, but it was refused. The police force was on duty at station houses, and the city was almost entirely unpatrolled. The force was kept in reserve, to be useil only when the strikers should resort to vio- lence or a mob should be formed. Another urgent request for a detail was received from officers of the Union Street Railway, an important line, which runs from Fourth and Locust Streets to the Fair Grounds. The employes notified the company that unless the recent cut of ten per cent, was restored, they would strike at twelve o'clock and stop the cars. Fears were entertained for the safety of property. The police were instructed to be in readiness to march to the stables upon the commission of any overt act, but not before. A " Citizen Organization for the Protection of Property " was organized at the Four Courts. Meet- ings were held by citizens in various parts of the e\U , and companies were also formed and officered. These at once reported for duty, and by nightfall the organizaticm numbered ISM armed men. A company of fifty men was organized for gun-boat service, "and placed on the city harbor steamer, with order to patrol the river. The work of organization was carried on rapidly, and by noon the next day 10.(100 cilizeiis had enrolled "themselves. At ten o'clock on tlie nioniiiig of llie 2(itli a procession of 2.000 men, consisting partly of workingmen who luul joined the strikers, but mostly of loafers and idlers, marched from Lucas JIarkei to (he manufac- turing district north of Wasliington Avenue. They first visited lieh-hers' sugar refinery. where some 400 employes were forced to (|uit work on the <lay be- fore, and finding the doors closed, broke them open, rushed in. extinguished the fires in the furnaces and displaced tlie machinery, so the employes {■ould not return to work, as they had announced their iuten- lion of doing. Many of the workingmen protested against injurim; or "destroyiiej: iiroperly aud abau EIOT. 7'c) BIOT. chined llic prorcssion ; but the iiioli continued ilf rimieli, visilinn iil)iiut forty dilTereiit fiielorieH luid ll(jiir and pluMinn mills, ((irMiiilliiii; llie eniployi'H, ii;;grei;iilinii: iieiiily on<- llidusiuid, lo ipiit their work and elose the ilcKirs, iUtliiiui;h llii' eniployc't in iiiiiny cuseH eiirnestly prciti'sli'd iii;aiiist heinj; inlerfcred with. .Several jilaniiig mills wcn-amon^ tiieeslaliliHli- ineuts closeil l)y tlio liiob. No resper't of ikthohh WHS shown, women and j;irls bein^ Irc'ated in the name manner as tlie men. All were forecd to «top work whether they were willinj; or pot. Tlie opera- tions of the moh were fienerally oiiiform. A mob of nei^roes proeeetieil to tjii* levee, and forc- ed llic ollieersof all the sleamboat compunic'S and in- dependent steamers represent'^d there tosiirii pled^ics to increase (he waives of all clu.sses of steamboat and levee laborers. Their (h'un'nds were of the most e.\- tortionati' character, lie; increase insisted upon ranj;- inj; from sixty to one mnulred pe- cent. They were very peremptory, I'lid .vould not allow a boat lo leave the wharf unti' iiiciv demands were complied with. The rioters, •,vcrv very insolent and deliant lhroiij.diout the d.-iy, and announced Ihcir intention lo close every workshop and place of mamdaclure in St. Louis. As was to liave b<'en expected, the ncfirocs were by far the most turbulent and uimiananeable of the riot- ers. But little business was transacted in the city. Many of the stores were closed, and tlie work of arminir and drilliiii; the citizens' force at the Four Courts was carried on raiiidly. The HherilT also or- ganized and armed a posse of '2,0(10 men. The Gov- ernor arrived in the city (hiring the morning and fave his aid to the work of suppressing the disorder, lie armiiis; ami drillim; of lh(r citizens was carried on actively all morning at the Four Covirts building. No outward demonstration wa.s mad<' up to noon save that lieavy guards were on patrol duty in front of the building. Two large brass ticld-pieces loaded with shrapnel, and with horses attached and ready to move at a moment's notice, were kept in wailing iu tlie yard of (he jail in charge of a company of sixty men. About half-past ti'U o'clock a large crowd niarcliing in procession arrived in front of the Four Courts building. The rioters broke ranks at once, ,aiul surging up to the paveiiu'iit pressed liard upon tlie guards, who were doing duty on (he side-walk. The guards were immediately reinforced by details from within, and the companies were formed to re- sist an attack. A detachment of police left (be build- ing at a run, charged the rioters, drove them back a short distance, and arrested two of their leaders. A few stones were tlirown. but the mob made no effort at resistance. As the police withdrew, the mob pressed up close to the side-walks again, and jeered anil taunted the military force in the most insulting manner, daring them to fire and commence a tight. The police pressed the crowd back again, and it with- drew for a square without resistance. A number of noisy and unruly men were arrested by the police and conflued in the jail. No liisturbance occurred during the day. In the afternoon the Governor of Missouri issued a proclaniatiou calling upon the rioters to cease their disorderly conduct and inter- ference with private jiroperly, and to disperse. By the morning of the 27th tlie city authorities felt them- selves strong enough lo put down the mob. and de- termined lo check the disturbance. The rioters, up to this ])erioil, bad been encouraged by the failure of the |)olice to stop their lawlessness, and many of them were convinced that neither the Mayor, the police, nor the citizens' force woulil dare provoke a conflict with tliem. They were now to learn their error. At an early hour on the 2Tth the mob began to gather at Schuler's Hall, and by two o'clock up- wards of two thousand men were congregated in the immediate vicinity, waiting to obey the orders of their so.called executive eommitlee. the body spe- cially delegated to direct the movements of tin crowd. Tlie'last proclamation of the Mayor and that of the State Goverumeul commanding them to disperse and return to thi'ir liomcH or else take the conHefjiifnceB, was freely (circulated among them, but a general spirit of deliance prevailed, and liold Ihreats of arm- eil resistance was made on all hands. Inside the hall the executive eommille(- were in Hessioii with closed doors, and tller(^ too. the Hcntiment expressed wa» that any attempl on the part of |iolice or iiiililiu to drive them away should be resisted to the laHt. Verb- al orders were circulated among tin- mob lo stand linn and that an arine(l force would iK.l dare to mo- 'est them. Thismeeling being reported to the Mayor, il was resolved by the city authorides (o break it up and arrest the hfaders. I'or (his purpose lif(y iiioiint- ed police, twenty-tivif armed with miiskels, and about the same number with the usual club and pistol, were ordered to proceed lo the hall and makethear- resls. That there should be no failure, five hundred of the Cilizens' (Jiiard and two compiinieH of the Na- tional (juanl, with one piece of arliliery, were order- ed to accompany and support the police should the crowd offer any resistance, or attempt to rescue the prisoners. This force left Four Courts at 2.90 f. m. About three o'clock the military force, headed by the mounted police, appeared coming up Fifdi Slreet. TUr. c(jlumn hailed within a s(piare of the crowd, and drew up in line across the street, ready for a charge, while (he |)iece of artillery was prepared for action. The military advanced no further, but the order was i;iven to tin" police to charge the crowd and seize the hall. About ouc-lialf of the police swept down on the mob at a gallop, .scattering the rioters right and left, driving fully three thousand men befont them. They drew tlieir pistols and charged (jn the crowd, riding their horses along the sidewalks, using tlieir rev(j|v. ers as clubs while the least hesitancy to move on oc- curred. In live minutes the slreet was cleared, and not a rioter was lo be seen in (he vicinity of Schil- ler's Hall save those in custody. In the meantime the oilier part of the police force, had advanced to the foot of the stairs leading to the above hall. The whole squad went up, and two minutes later they brought down about seventy men whom they found in the hall, and placed them between lines of police, armed witb muskets, and the whole thing was over. Every one iu the upper [larl of the buiUJing was ar- rested. One man altempled resistance, but a blow over the head from a club subdued him very quickly. Having secured their prisoners, the police and mili- tary marched back to the Four Courts, and were •rreeted along the route with cheers from the citizens. After the departure of the police, a few of the mob returned and indulged in bitter denunciations of their leaders for deserting them, but it was evident that the backbone of the riotous assemblage was completely broken, and that they would not likely have such another large gathering. Another victory was won bv the authorities earlier in the day. When the 27tli (jpeiied, the Union depot was held by a force of strikers. The civil authorities resolved to put an end to this stale of affairs, and at eleven o'clock a battalion of four hundred men was des- patched from the Four Courts lo the Union depot, with orders to lake possession of and occupy that building and drive out the strikers. The arrival of the military was a surprise to the strikers, who held (he depot in large force. About half-past eleven the baltaliou marched in with loaded rifles and fixed bavoneta. Without the loss of a moment the order wiis given to clear the building and yards, and the troop's executed it with a will, driving out the strik- ers with the bayonet. The movements of the troops were greeted with cheers and yells. The depot and yards'beiug .secured, the authoVities announced thai iio more interference with trains would be permitted in St. Louis. Encourased by the promise of protec- tion, some of the roads on tiie west side of the Jlis- sissippi resumed their freight traflic on the 27th, and the rest prepared to do so in the next day or two. The cilv authorities also announced their readiness to furnish armed suards for such shops and manufac- HIOT 734 EIOT. turing establishments as desired to resume work. Three meetings were called by the Executive Com- mittee of the workingmen's party, in various parts of the city, on the night of the 27th, but two of them were total failures, the speakers not appearing, and the small crowds which gathered at the appointed places soon dispersing. The third meeting brought together quite a large crowd, but before the meetmg opened the crowd was dispersed by a force of five hundred policemen. The mob wasnow thoroughly cowed, and the danger was over. The 38th of July passed away quietly in St. Louis, there being no dis- turbance of any kind. A number of the leaders of the outbreak were arrested and imprisoned : their followers made no attempt to rescue them, having no desire to meet the five thousand armed citizens, the regulars, and the police who now stood ready to crush any uprising. On the 38th, nearly all the roads on the St. Louisside of the Mississippi resumed their freight business. Sunday, the 39th, passed away tranquilly, and by Monday the danger was at an end in St. Louis, and the business of the city had resum- ed its accustomed course. The expulsion of the strik- ers from the Union depot on the 37th coufined the strike to East St. Louis. The strikers cougregated there in considerable force, and, being very bitter over their defeat in the city, declared that they would maintain the blockade on the Illinois shore with even greater vigor. They were not to succeed, however. The Ohio & Mississippi, and the St. Louis & Southeastern Railroads were being operated by receivers appointed by the United States Court. The Court ordered the United States Marshal to prevent the strikers from interfering with these roads. The strikers resisted, and the Marshal, being unable to execute the orders of the Court, asked for troops to assist him. Ills appeal was granted, and orders were sent from Washington granting the Marshal all neces- sary military assistance. The City of San Francisco contains a large Chinese population. Between these and certain portions of the white inhabitants there has always been a bit- ter enmity. The working classes are especially hos- tile to the Chinese, as they regard them as rivals in the labor market; but the bitterest enemies of the Mongolians are the "Hoodlums." or the idle loafers, street loungers, and "bummers," of the city. Many riots have occurred between the Chinese and their enemies in San Francisco, and not long since it was seriously proposed bj' the whites to organize a delib- erate movement for the purpose of compelling the Chinese to leave the entire State of California. It was well understood in San Francisco that this feel- ing of hatred to the Chinese only lacked a-favorable opportunity to break out into open hostility. The news of the labor troubles in the Eastern and West- ern States was received wilh profound interest in San Francisco, especialh' by the working classes. On the evening of the 33(1 a workmen's meeting was held, and was attended l)y about 10,000 persons. The.se riots were in no way connected with the rail- road riots east of the Ro<'ky Mountains. They were a brutal and unprovoked outbreak of the worst ele- Micnls of Ihc city, and were caused l)v nothing l)uta love of violence and disorder on the part of those who engaged in them. As they occurred sinudtane- ously with the railroad troubles in the East, they are generally classed with them: and for this reason have been noticed here. The anthracite coal regions of Pennsylvania," gen- erally recognized as the ' northern,' • middle.' and ■ soiuhern ' coal basins, arc comprised within or bounded by a line of mountain, which, foriniui; it- self some distance eastward from .Mau(.li Cliuiik, takes, un<ierthe name of the ' Second Mountain,' a southwesterly course to the Susquehanna Kivcr, leaving the towns of ^lan<h Cluink, Tama(|ua, I'otts- ville, and Trenionl to the north ; thence in a north- easterly course, as the " I'eters Mountain," to a point nearly southwest from Tower City; thence nortli- wcstwardly, as ' Berrie's Mountain,' again crossing the Susquehanna ; thence southwestwardly to Tay- lorsville, as the ' Mahantongo Mountain '; thence not h west wardly again in the direction of the Susque- hanna, as the ' Line Mountain'; thence bearing in a southeasterly direction, as the ' Little Mountain,' leaving Sliamokin, Ashland, Shenandoah, and Ma- hanoy City to the south, to a point in Union Town- ship, Schu3lkill County. Here the mountain runs almost due north for some miles, as the ' Catawissa Mountain,' when its course is again changed to south- easterly, as the ' Nescopeck Mountain'; thence north and northwest, as the ' Wyoming Mountain ;' and thence again in an easterly direction, running north of Wilkesbarre and Scrantou, as the ' Shickshinny Mountain.' Within the area inclosed by this moun- tain lies all the at present discovered anthracite coal of Penn.sylvania. It embraces not only the large ba- sins before named, but also a number of compara- tivel}' small detached coal fields. . . . Within this area are enclosed the coal producing portions of Carbon, Schuylkill, Bauphin, Korthumberland, Col- umbia, and Luzerne C'ounties, and it is to a great ex- tent occupied by a series of majestic mountains, the Sharj), tlie Broad, the Big Maiiano}', the Little Ma- hanoy, the Locust, the Green, the Macaule}', and others." Dauphin and Columbia are agricultural as well as mining counties, but the others are strictly mining counties. By the census of 1870, the popu- lation of the purely mining counties was as follows : Carbon, 38,144; Schuylkill, 116,4.38; Northumber- lainl. 41,444 ; Luzerne, 160,75.'). Since the census of 1870 the population of these counties has largely in- creased. The business of mining coal has drawn large bod- ies of men to these counties, and has gathered them at fixed points, in cities, towns, and large mining set- tlements. The amount of arable land being small, on account of the moimtainous character of the country, but a limited portion of the area is under cultivation. The natural formation of the coimtry is very favora- ble to lawlessness. A walk of a few minutes from an}' of the towns, in almost any direction, leads to glens and haunts where one might hide in safety for months from the police. Not onh' is the singular feature presented of near- ly the whole population of the coal regions living in cities, towns and small settlements, often called " patciies," but the character and habits of the popu- lation in the several settlements differ widely from each other. Scranton. Wilkesbarre, !Mauch Chunk, Pottsville, and Tamaqua are all business centers, wherein are located banks, manufacturing establish- ments, the general offices of railroads and coal com- panies, large stores, and where, to a great extent, the wealth of the region naturally clusters. The ci- ties and towns are not only business centers, but of- fer additional inducements, social, educational, and religious, to the coal operatorand those whose means enable them to retire from business, in the selection of a place of residence. As a consequence, they have lost, in a great degree, the distinctive character of mining settlements, and dilTer, perhaps, from other places of equal size throughout the country only in Ix'iiig more cosmopolitan ; this arising from the wide range embraced by their business operations, and the varied character of the inhabitants. Towns such as Ashland, Slieuandoah, Mahanoy ('ity, Mi- ner.sville, St. Clair, Hazletou, Pittston, Plymouth, and many others of large jjopulation, to a cer- tain degree partake of the character of business and social centers, but the mining classes, being liirgely in the majority, regulate and altogether con- trol them. Besi(l<'s these two classes of towns there are a great number of 'patches' or settlements, whose population is entirely coinjiosed of miners and labor- ers and those whose business is directly or indirectly connected with the mines. While the admixture of the foreign element pervades every part of the region, in larite cities and (owns native born <iti/,ens of the EIOT 735 RIOT. Unitcfl Stales liold control, but ut tlie coHierj' towns the; power of tlic forei!,Micr Ih iiliHolule. lu tlii'He ItiHt »lill fiirlh<>r diviHions are made, some l)<'iii(^ idinoHt exclusively composed of Irisliiiieii, with unlives of Qiie<'iis and oilier eoiiulies, Ireland, larijely ill the inajorily. In such towns nut (inly have the nninners, ensliinis ami inoilrs of th<iiii:hl df the Irish people been Inuisplanled, hnl evc-n llic local prejudices in- cident to cerlaiii localities in thai lieniiliful l)Ut in many respects nnforlnnate land. Coinin;; here fresh from the contest with the laiidloril and land aj;''"' "> Ireland, with no sorroniidini; inthiences to leach them their error, they transfer a prejiidicir whi<'li has urouii with their s;rowlh anil streii::tlieiied willi their strennth,to the coal operator and the boss from whom they derive their siilisislencc.and under whose dirc<'lion they work. Tauuhl from infancy to bi-lieve that as auainsi them capital is never used <'.\cept as an instrument of oppression, under the influence, sometimes, of real wroni;s, but more fre(iuen;ly under a mistaken belief of encroachnicnt upon their rij;htH,a spirit, of resistance is aroused, which wicked anil (lesii;ninn wretches have ho used and controlled as to render the undeti'cted commission of horrid crimes not only easy, but, to a certain extent, syin- pathiz<'d with. That the above is no jusiilicaiion for such a state of alTairs is true; neviTlheless, it I'xplains, or lends toexplain, the ])ossiliility of its ex- istence. Such is the region thai has become notori- ous llirou|Tliout the Union as the country of the Mollie Maguires and the scene of their terrible crimes. The order of the "Mollie Masiiiircs" is of forciffn birth, and was imporled into this country from Ire- laud. It was organized there by the Irish peasantry as a means of opposins^ a combined resistance to the exactiims of the landlords. HroiiLjhl lo this country I by the emii;rants who found work in the coal rei;ioiis of Pemisylvania, it beiame an <ir;ranization which souirht to control the relations of tlieininers towards their employers and to eoiu|iel the latter to submit to any demand the former minht impose upon them. The " Ancient Order of Hibernians" is a lari^e and powerful Irish society extendini; Ihrouiihout the United States. Its objects are iirofessedly benevo- lent. It is re^jularly incorporated under the laws of the various Stales in which it exists. Outside of the coal regions of Pennsylvania, there is no |)osilive proof that the society is at all criminal in its char- acter. The worst cjiarije that has been l)rouglit against it is that it supported and continued its re- lations with IheJIollie .Maijuires after their exposure, and raised a larije sum by assessments upon its mem- bers throusrhoul the I'nion to defray llie expenses of the defen.se of the Mollies chari^ed wilh crime in the coal regions. The order is secret, and wields an im- meiisi^ influence over its members. Its members are Homan Catholics, uolwilhstandimi the fact that it has been nomiiuitiiit condemned by the Holy »^ee. and is under the ban of the Church, The Mollie Masjuires were all members of Ihe Ancient Order of lliliernians. In the coal fields of Pennsylvania, they controlled the Order, and jrave tfieir society's naiiie to it. Hence we shall speak of theorder simply as the Mollie .Mai^uires. The principal work of the order in Irclaiiil was the shooting of the agents of the Irish landlords. It is said lo have received its name from a ferocious Irishwoman who particular- ly distinguished herself in this work. The Mollies appi'ared in Pennsylvania as early as Ihe year isr)4, when it became evident lo Ihe authorities that a criin- iual organization existed in Ihe counties of Schuylkill and Carl)on. The members of this organization were popularly lermeil "Huckshols." They gave consid- erable trouble to Ihe authorities, Imt were not con- sidered especially dangerous during the next five or six years. The great demand for coal which the stimulus of flu- Civil War produei'd. and which set in about the year 186-2. drew an immense population , to the Pennsylvauia coal liclds, and as a verj' large i proportion of the newcomcrfi were IrlflhDicn, the Htrengtli and powr^rof Ihe Mollie MiiKuires incrcmt- ed with the growth rif Ihe population. The exiHt- ence of the order was known, but, as its niemberH, when (pnstioned. stoutly denied their connection with it and preserved the most rigid H<:crecy resijcct- ing its transaclionh. nothing was known witli cer- tainty by the authorities. In the summer of iMO'i the (Irst draft for the pur- pose of tilling up the ranks of the United Slates Ar- my was ordereil. Active iireparatians were made by the .Mollies |in Schuylkill and ('arljon Counties to pri'vent the enrolment. In both counties the enrol- miiil was eirccted, however. This led to nunierouH threats on Ihe part of the .Mollies, and in Carbon Counly lo much violence. .Men connected with the draft, or representing the capitalists operating the mines were assaulled. beaten and murdered, and houses were burned by unknown parlies. The au- thorities seemed powerless lo detect or punish the ])erpefralors of these outrages, and tin: country was jiluniied into a slate of terror. Xofices were served upon leading coal operators lo suspend operationH until after thedisconlinuance of the draft. and bosses and miners were warned that if they went lo work, they would do so at the peril of their lives. Upon one occasion in the summer of IHtilt, a large body of arme<l Mollies entered the town of .Mauch Chunk, overawed the citizens, seized the jail, and released a nunda-r of Ihe prisomrs. From this lime on to INtiT, mori- than tifly nnirders were committed in Schuylkill Counly. Of these, twenty-seven, or more than one-half, were conunitled by unknown persons, and may be safely set rlown to the .Mollie Magnires. The chief stronghold of this order, liowever. waa Carbon Counly. where they had matters very much their own way. During all this while none of the ^lollies had been convicted of Ihe crimes they liad committed. Arrests of suspected parlies had been made, and they had been brought lo trial in some instances : but the Stale had been unable lo convict them. The friends of the jirisoners were always on hand, ready lo swear to anything necessary to se- cure their acipiillal. Whenever a inendier of the or- der was tried for an offense, a convenient alibi was .set u]) and sustained by as many witnesses as were thought necessary. .Vn acquittal was liuis readily secured, and I he law was rendered powerless to pun- ish the guilty parties. Large rewards were offered l)y the civil aulhorities and the coal-mining com- panies, and strenuous efforts were made to l)ring the murderers to justice, but up to 1871. no Mollie had ever lieen convicted of niurilerin Ihe first degree. So stroui: had the Mollies become, especially in Schuj'l- kill and Carbon counties, that lliev did not believe the authorities could punish Ihem, and regarded themselves as at liberty to carry out their pfan-s as they liked. As has been said, the authorities of the counties embraced in Ihe coal regions were convinced that the reign of lawlessness in their midst was due to a pow- erful secret organization of Irishmen, and they had learned that it was known as the Mollie .Maguires, but bevond this they could discover nothing. De- tectives had been set to work to ferret out Ihe mys- terious order.but had been baffled and forced to give up their elTorls in despair. The Mollies, secure in the mvstery wilh which they enshrouded themselves, continued their horrid work, and laughed at the au- thorities. Meanwhile Ihe respectable inhabitants of the coal regions lived in a slate of constant terror. >so man could tell when his life ndght be taken or his property destroyed by the terrible order, which struck its blows in the dark and without assigning any reason for them. So strong had the Mollies be- come, that they even ventured lo take possession of the very machinery of Ihe law by causing thenisi'lves lo be elected lo pulilic offices in Ihe counties of Schuylkill and Carbon. Having gained possession of the otiices tliey proceeded to manipulate the pub- RIOT. 73 G RIOT. lie funds in the interests of their orsjanization. They became a potent influence in State politics, and Jolm Kelxoe. county delegate for the Schuylkill branch of the Ancient Order of Hibernians, openly boasted of his ability to extend the influence of the society into national politics. Mollies were repeatedly elected as county commissioners and school directors. In one instance a member of the society was sent to the leg- islature, and one of their members ran for an assoc- iate justiceship, but was fortunately beaten at the polls. So powerful did the Jlollies become in the coal regions, and so general was the feeling of terror and insecurity which they aroused, that the prosperity of that section began to be seriously affected. It was seen that the immense interests centered there were at the mercy of a mob of lawless ruffians, and that if these men were permitted to extend their power, capital and respectable industry of all kinds would be driven from the coal-fields. It was therefore re- solved by certain parties deeply interested in the welfare of the coal counties that the Mollie Maguires should be exposed and brought to justice. The Ancient Order of Hibernians exists in Great Britain and Ireland, as well as in the United States. It is controlled in this country and abroad by a Di- rectory, known as the " Board of Erin," selected from members in England, Ireland, and Scotland. These regulate and give out the signs and passwords of the order, which are changed every three months. The headquarters of the order in the United States are at New York. The national officers are elected by the State officers, and consist of the National Delegate, Naticmal Secretary, National Treasurer, and President of the Board of the City and County of New York. Each State has its own officers. The headquarters of the order in Pennsylvania are at Pittsburgh. The officers consist of a State Delegate, State Treasurer, and State Secretary. They are elected b}' the County officers, whrf also consist of a County Delegate, County Treasurer, and County- Secretarj*. The county officers are elected by county conventions, which are made up by the officers of the various divisions. The division officers are the Division Master or Body-master, Secretary and Trea- surer, and are elected by the members of their re- spective divisions. No man can be a member of the order but an Irishman or the son of an Irishman, and a Roman Catholic. It is stated that there are over six thousand divisions or lodges in the United States and that the inembership of the order is over one hundred thousand. From this large body of men. with the exception of a portion of a division (No. 3) in Philadelphia, not one word of condemnation of the Mollie Maguires of the coal regions has been heard. On the contrary, every effort has been niaile and money has been liberally subscribed to enable them to escape justice. The signs and passwords of the Order show its foreign character and sympatliies. They are chang- ed every three months. In addition to the signs and passwords given in the account of McKejina's init- iation, the following were furnished by him in his evidence Ijefore the Courts at the trials of the Jlollies: jMay 18th, 1874: Password.— "That the trouble of the country may soon be at an end." Anxire?: — "And likewise the men who will not her defend." Quar- RELLiNQ Toast. — " You should not dispute with a friend." Annu-er. — "Not if I am not provoked." NioHT Password. — " Long nights are unpleasant." Answer. — " I hope they will be at an end." Sign. — The front finger and thumb of the right hand to touch lh(^ iu'ck-ti(^ or top button of the sliirl. An- mrrr. — Kighl hand to rul) across forehead touching hair, .\ugusl lOlli. 1H74 : Password. — " Wha! do you think of the .Mayo election? I think llie fair West hasmad(^ abad selection." Anxirer. — "Whom do you think will <luly betray?" Quakrei.lino Toast. — " Don't get y(uir temper so high." Answer. — " Not with a fricMid." Sion. — Putting the thumb of right hami into the pocket of llie])antaloons. An- swer. — Putting the thumb of left hand on lower lip. Jan.11,187.'),PA.sswoBD: QueUiuu. — "Gladstone's pol- icy must be put down : He is the s)ipport of the Brit- ish crown." Answer. — "But our Catholic lords will not support his plan. For tine to their church they will finnly stand." Quarrelling Toast ; Qiie.itiun. — "Don't give way to anger." Answer. — " I will obey a friend." Night Password : Qti-estian. — "The nights are getting shorter." Answer. — "They will soon be at their shortest." Bodv-Mastee's Toast. — "Letev- ery Irish peasant Espousing Erin's cause. In college green They may be seen Tliere making Irish laws." Sign. — Nail of the right thumb across the bridge of the nose. Answer^—Ti-p of the fore-finger of the left hand to the chin. May 4th, 1875: Password: Question. — "What is your opinion of the Tipperary election? I think England broke her constitution by Mitchell's rejection." Aiiswer. — "But didn't O'C'on- nell resign his oath and seat? Yes, and by a<ritatiou gained the emancipation." Quarrelling Toast : (Question. — "Keep j-our temper cool." Answer. — "I will not raise it to a friend." Body-Masteb's Toast. — "Here's that every Irishman may stand to his cause. And subdue the British government and its coercion laws." Sign. — The fore-linger of the right hand in the left sleeve of the coat. 'Answer. — The thumb of the left hand in the left side vest-pock- et. November 4th, 1875 : Password. — "Here's health to every Irishman That lives in Ireland, To assem- ble round in Dublin Town Inmemorj' of Great Dan." Answer. — "When born he found our country in chains aucl slavery ; He labored hard to set her free, But now he's in the clay." Quarrelling Toast ; Question. — "\o\\ seem to be getting vexed." Ans- wer. — "Not with you, sir." Night Password : Ques- tion. — "These nights are fine." Answer. "Yes; we shall have a fine harvest." Sign. — Tip of the fore- finger of the right hand to the hole of the right ear. Ans^mr. — Tip of the fore-tinger of tlie left hand to the hole of the left ear. January 22d, 1876 : Pass- word : Question. — "Home rule in Ulster is making great progress." Answer. — "Yes, if every Irishman would support the cause." Qjiestion. — "1 wonder if Irelaudcau gain tenant right?" Answer. — "Yes, if supported by the Irisli members." Night Pass- word: Question. — •'Moonlight is pleasant." Answer. — "Yes, so is freedom." Quakrelling Toast : Qu»!- t/on. — "Be calm, sir." Answer. — "I am never too boisterous." Body-Mastek's Toast. — "Here's to ev- ery Irishman that crossed the Atlantic wave, That they may return with heart and hiaid their native land to save." Members of the Order are confined to the divisions to which tliej' belong, and have no right to attend the meetings of other divisions. This is a check up- on the spread of dangerous information. A mem- ber in good standing may change his division, but for such a purpose a card of rt'comnicndation from the Body-Master of his late division is necessary. Shoidd it be proposed to use the card out of the county, the county delegate places upon it his pri- vate mark. The card may be presented to either a Body-Master or a County Delegate; if the former, tlucardis forwarded to the County Delegate for the verification of his private nuirk. In leaving the Stale, a travelling card, which also bears the County Delegate's private mark, is used. The use of the Body-,Master's toast, which is given to those officers alone, is to eiRible them to recognize each other. The (juarrelling toast is used to jirevent broils among the members. If a blow is sinu'k after it is given, the offender is liable to expulsion from the order. Among the Mollie Magidres there is a thoroughly arra?iged system for the couunission of crimes. A mend)er having made complaint of cert;iin parties who hiive offended him, lU' who ;ire considered dan- gerous to the order, the mailer is referred to the Body-Master, or a meeting of the division, or to a mei'iing of the Body-Masters of all the divisions and other leading men of the Order. SIOI. 737 RIOT. Murder is the mom common of all forms of niin- iHlimcnl Willi the Mollies. " Demi men li'll no liileH," is the well l.nown ]iriiiei|i!e of llie OrilcT. It is (|iiile enoUKli for n niiiri to iMiiir I lie ilislike of one single iiilliieiili;il meiiilier of I lie Order to forfeit his own life, 'riie miinler is i,reneially eoniniitlecl in some lonely pliiee, tind wilh nil the iii;i{nivaled feiitiires of iissiis- siniition. Tlioii^li the (oiKlnet of the murderers is in the liiLj'iest (lef;ree cowiirdly, they ure re;;iirde(l ii.s luToes hy the Mollies, and liir^'e rewards Imve been imid by Ihe society for the killing' of iiurlicularly ob- noxious individuals. SliouM a memlic-r comniit a niurdi-r or a loliliery on his individual aecounl. the act is endorsed hy Ihe .Soeiely, and its whole inlln- encu is used lo screen and protect the crinunal. When a inemlxT is arrested for a crime, the others are assessed in a certain sum for the purposi? of raising money to employ counsel lo defend liim. The next sle]) is to liiid witnesses enouj;li to estab- lish an "alilii." I'erjiiry in sucha i^asebeinn count- ed a virtue liy the .Mollies, the witnesses are always forthcomiiiL!;. Kvideiiee of any kind that is wanted. <-an be promiilly fiirnislied hy the Order. Such is the Order of the Mollie Mairuires, and such are its leadini; features. Thouirh its mendiers claim to be Koman Catholics, the Order has been anathemati/.ed by the Koman Catholic Church. The Cliunli. how- ever, has so far failed to intluence its members. The Order flourishes in spite of the clersiy. and while professing the utmost ditvolion to tlie C'hurcli, eu- conrages crime and wickedness. The followinii formations for Street Jiiot /)K<.y, pre- pared for the National Guard of New York, l)y Gen- <Tal Win. II. Hrownell, have secured most flattering recognition from all (|uarlers. It must be acknowl- edged that to provide a jilan which would be eflec- tive under <iH circumstances for the (|uelling of riots is simply impossible, as every occasion may present ditferent features, so that the means to employ must be left to the occasi.in; for instance, were rioters in possession of buildings and had the advantage of shelter from roofs, windows, doorways, etc., or had barri<'ade3 of all conceivable kinds, each occasion ■would present new conibinalions, and only the cool judgement of the ofticer conimanding coulil provide methods to successfully cope with the enemy. While all of these diflicidties are recognized respecting all fitrtifiid iiKilix, we are not ])revented from providing plans to disperse riotous iiio/a in the streets, and it is for this ])urpose these formations are presented. A large proportion of all riotous mobs consists of jaTiiile who are present simply through curiosity, with no desire to commit a t)rea(rli of the peace, yet before they are aware i>f it are identitied as rioters, and giv- ing countenance lo the outbreak with their pres- cnco. and it is presumi'd are willing enough ») start for home, if they can lie freed from the mob, parti- cularly after a demonstration from Ihe troops. It ■will be observed that provisions are made, in the movements here providi'd, to secure this niostdesir- alile oliject, as opportunities an; olTered at every intersecting street. Moderation that will cause riot- ous mobs to secure the slightest conlidence. or an impression that there is hesitation on the part of the troops, cannot be afforded, hence movements should show decision, be promptly executed, and rid of all forms that will cause tlelays. rather depending upon force of habit secured through close application in the drill room. The movemenls are siiiijily combi- nations from Upton's nilcji, and may be readily exe- cuted. The assembly for riot duty should be with service tmiform. overcoats, ii not worn, slung in horse collar ; form over left shoulder, the tie under and to Ihe rear ' of the right arm pit, canteens wilh wati'r, and haver- sacks with rations, if possible— knapsacks lo be taken if ordered lo a distant point. A sm;.!! detach- [ ment of reliable men, in charge of an experienced j oflicer, should be left in Ihe armory for its prolec- ] tion. He'cruits and others, not having lliu rcqui- . ; site inslnictionH for street work, Khoiild be left wilh this detachment where, under the tuition of l|j<: ex- perienci'd men, they may be laiight to aHhisl malo j rially in the defense of the building, should it be attacked. Field music iaiis should bi- taken wilh the regiment for employ ment, if necihsary, as un amliu- lance corjis. Tin: regiment should 1m' e(juali/ed into un even niiinber of companies, bayonets MximI. Be- fore leuvimr Ihe armory details of murkhinen will be made, sulllcient in number lo provide each company wilh at least four lo act as tharjtslioot/rs ; Ihey will march, if their company is in ccilumn of fcmrs, just oiilsidi- of line of file closers, and if in line, in rear of tile- closers. It is not unusual to have large: c:rowdB in front C)f an armory on the ordinary oceusions of " marching out," and it is reasonable to suppcjsc that under Ihe circumstanceH cjf '• Uiol Call" still greater numbers will congregate. While these crowds may be entirely friendly, the experienc-e ot many, and the duly of the- Commandant, demand that every iirecaiition be taken lo provide: for any emergency, and it is this that prompts the first for- mation upon leaving the armory. I'rovisioiiforiiniiiiries tucittdoi, streets hating ii lint of hHiklin;/s on both sidts. Armories located on cor- ners usually have the' main entrance on a wide street, and are provided wilh an exit on the side street, which is more nairow; under these circiimstaneeg, it would be preferable- to use- the exit on the street that will oblige the crowd to present the smallest front during the formation. If Ihe march is to be toward the left of the exit, form the first and fifth (or fourth, if cjnly eight com- panies) divisions. As the doorway may not be wide enough fur two columns of fours to pass, both divi- sions should be faced to the right ; the first division, with the Captain, file closers and sharpshooters, on the right of the column ; the liflh division, wilh tlii- Captain, tile closers and sharpshooters, on the left of thecolumn. At the command, 1, Fonraril; 2. Marcli : given by the Colonel, both divisions march l>y Un- flank, in parallel columns, the fifth division on the right, across the street to the fence, or building-line, when the Chief of the first division commands: 1. First dieisiou: 2, Bi/ the If J'l flunk ; 3, Makc:h. The Chief of the fifth division commands: 1, Fifth divi- sion ; 2, liy the right flnnk ; :i, Makch. The first division conlinues the march, driving the crowd en- tirely from the street and sidewalks, and halls in.side the building-line of the first cross-street. The fifth division is marched company distance to the rear and halted ; or, if near a crossing street, inside the buildiug-liue. The other divisions move out success- ively in columns of fours, right in front, and form line by " fours left," in Irac-e of the first division, each at company distance. All divisicms having be- come part of the column. Ihe fifth division wiM be faced about, oflicers. file closers and sharpshooters in front, and moved up to company distance. If Hie march is to be to Ihe right of Ihe exit, the first and fifth divisions march out by the left Hank, wilh the first division on the right, and. after reach- ing building-line, the first division executes " I'l/ the right flunk, nmrrli," aru\ proceeds as previously ex- plained : the fifth division, " hy the Uftflnnk, iimrrh," and hailed afler marching company distance, or to the building-line. The oilier divisions march onl suc- cessively in column of fours, left in front, and form line by "• fours right." in the trace of lirst division, Ihe fifth division facing about, and all closing up to company distance. If Ihe exit is near a comer to the left, and Ihe march is to be to the left, the first and fifth divisions are marched out: the first division is halted just in- side the building-line, and the fifth division is marched a suflicient distance to the rear lo admit die interior divisions in Ihe column, which march out as follows: column of fours, right in front; the fourth goes out first and fonns line by "fours right," and when near the lifth "fours right about ' ; llie RIOT. 738 RIOT. second and third march out successively and form in rear of the first, when the fifth division faces about and all close to company distance. If the exit is near a corner to the right, and the march is to be to the right, the first and fifth divi- sions are formed and marched out ; tlie first division forms line " hy the riglit flank, march." and marches company distance, or tothebuildiug-line, and hailed ; the fifth division forms line " In/ the left flank, mairh." and marches to the rear a sufiicient distance to admit the interior divisions, which march out in columns of fours, left in front, in the following order : the fourth, forming line by '• foum left." and when near the fifth division executing '•fnunt left about; the second and third then follow, forming line by "ftn/rs right" in rear of first division, when tlie fifth divisicm faces about and all close to company distance. Marching to the place of disturbance in flanked column iirder. Being (m the street in column of divisions, right in front, the Colonel commands: 1, Flanked column order; 3, March. At tlie first com- mand Chief of first division commands : 1, Firxt di- vision ; 2, Standfast. Chief of fifth division: 1, Forward; 2, Guide right. Captains of third, fifth, and seventh companies command such company : 1, Rightforirnrd, fours right. Captains of fourtli, sixth, and eighth companies command such compam* : 1, Left forward, fours left. The command •• Alarch" is repeated by all Captains of interior divisions and chief of fifth division. The companies of the interior divisions form the columns as ordered, file closers darting through the intervals between fours, and sharpsliooters passing around tlie rear (in double 2 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 [] 1- 1 [] [] .s S 1 1 [] — [] s [] c^J s o S :- "s oooo oooo [] s — - |.![1 []l-l — 'I oooo oooo [J — s s [] G — 1 • 1 [J ni-i [] o [] — .[] 'I y [] — Ill-Ill 1 1 i.i 1 1 ! 10 '.I lime), to the siilc of the guide. The several eoni- panies close up until Ihey are united in column of fours, the head of eaeli flank cohunn marcl'.ing in trace of tlic flank fours of the hading division. The rear division is niiir<-he(l up until the think fours unite with the rear of the columns. The h f t guides of the right <-ompanies of the first and fifth divisions <Mver tlie right guides of the left conip:inii-s, wlio shall be the guides of the divisions, and the dress- ing, if necessary, shall be on the center. All officers, musicians, colors, signalmen, etc., will be placed in the interior of the column. The Colonel wherever lie deems his presence necessar}'. Lieutenant-colonel between third and fourth companies, to supervise right wing. AFajor between seventh and eighth (or fifth and sixtli, if eight companies), to supervise left wing. Staff, non-commissioned staff, and colors, in the center of the oblong. One drummer or trum- IH'tcr (the latterpreferrcd) between third and fourth, and one between fifth and sixtli companies. Chief of first division in rear of line of sharpsliooters. Chief of rear division in front of line of sharpshooters. If the place of disturbance is at a distance and haste is demanded, it would probably be unnecessary to drive people from the sidewalks, until the trouble- some district is reached ; therefore, to facilitate the march, the column may be narrowed as follows. It can be, at any time, widened, as shown further on. Th.; formation liaving been perfected and the " /''or- icard. March " commanded, the Colonel directs the chief of the first division to order a sufficient number of tours from right and left to rear (equal number from each flank) to enable the front to march with flanks inside of the curb-line. The head of the flank columns will unite in column with the rear fours of the first division, and conform to their movements. The Commandant of the rear division will order a sufficient numlier of fours from right and left to the front (executing it according to principles of " right and left forward, fours right and left ") to unite with the rears of the flank columns. Whenever the column is halted, the rear division will be faced to the rear by eomniand of its chief {sucji di vision abotit face), and will be faced to the front at the command foricard to the column. Should tlie column be attacked it can be halted, and the Colonel may command : 1, Flank companies; 2, Fiwrs right and left; 3, Makch. 4, Flank c//mpanies; .5. Halt. The last command being given as line is formed. Fours thrown to the rear and front, forming line with the flank columns. The rear division will face to the rear, as previously explained. First Sergeants of flank companies will be in tlie line and covered b}' the Second Sergeant of next company. If at any time it maybe necessary to entirely drive the crowd from the streets and sidewalks, the Col- onel will command: 1, \stdivisiiin; 2. Rear fours front into line. 3, March. At the command nairch, flank colli mil companies will conform to the iriercased front heads of the columns marching in rear of the flank fours on the sidewalk and rear (livision completing its front, with the fours previously tlirown to the front. If onlv one four has been thrown to the front from each flank, the division line will unite with them, as tile flank fours must march in trace of the rear of the flank columns. If more than one four was thrown to the front from each flank, at the command to widen the rear division marches forwaril, and, as the line is even with its leading flank fours (Ihey having obliqued with the flank columns) the Chief commands Flank fours; 2. Left and rigid front into line; 3, March, when they execute the command on the lead- ing fours and unite with the division line. To form flanked coIuimu nrder from column of companies, riglit in front, the Colonel conimands: 1, Flanked cidiinin oriU r ; 3. Form flrst and fifth {or fourth, if eight companies) divisions: ;!, JIabch. At second lomni.and.Ciiiitains of first and ninth (or sev- enth, if eight companies), command : such company right ohliiine. Captains of second and tvnth(or eighth, if eight companies), eomuniud : xuch conipiiniis left obliijue. Ca]itains of odd numbered interior conqia- nies, third, fifth and si'veiith, command: such company right forward : fours right. Cajitains of even iiuni- lared interior comiianies, fourth, sixth and eighth, eominand : such company left forward, fours left. The third command " march." is repealed by all thectip- tains Wliiii tlu' left of llie tir^t company reaches RIOT. 7;'.o RIOT. the cpntcr of the street, it will be miirclicil forward, anil halted when it lian advanced cdinpany distance. When I lie rJLdit of llie scconil I'oiiipaMy n-ai'hi'H the eenler of the' slrcc-l. it is niarclicd forward, and halt- ed when uniliun willi thi^ lirst company. the' left frniili; of Ihe lirst company Hlepi)inf; lo the rear of llierifjlit guide of the Hcconli, who shall he thi' t;uide of the □ D >5 ►J 2 1 n D 1 n '1 n [] _[] n 1 • j_ Sidt'- walk I I I I I I n n G f] 4 G G t G [] G 10 [] GD oooo oooo 0000 oooo G [I [] — G [] [] - G !»G [ 3 [] G G g G "I I I -III ed iiKMjIumiis of fr,iirs.rij;hl in froiii.even iiuiiilM-reil conipanii-K left in front, and inarch out u« followH : third and fourth, llflh and sixth, scventli and eighth, iiinlh and lentli ; oilrl numhererl companies in col- unui of fours, uniting with the ri^'ht Hank f'lur of Ihe tlrsl division, even mnnhered unilin;; with the left Ihink four. When Ihe ninth and Icnih compa- nies huv(t clcarcil the Imildirn; and united with the Hank columns, they will e.\r-cute ri;;lit and left front into line respeclivi'ly, thus forminj; the rear divisiim iin<l complitin); the "formation. The eolunui can be narrowed as previously explained. In clmmrinj,' di- rection cure must be observed to have Ihe men on the pivot side of the column shorten step luilil they have passed the chani;ini; point, so as not lo advance more rapidly than Ihe marchi.-ic Hank. The com- mand for chani;ini; would be .-imply. 1, "Column right (or left;;" 2, " March," the leading division ex- ecuting a wheel. The assaulting; or fighting formation is tenned St>reH-rMoriltr. This formation is simply a column of divisions. formed f'li'in "ri,lumu nffiivrn." ••rnliimn (iJ'rjnnpanii'K" or Ihr ■' JliinhidciiliiviH nriUr." the com- mand for forming divisions being prefixed with '•Htreit-r!<it "i-dir." To form from " Hanked colunui order," tlu' Colonel commands: 1, Streft-riot m-der ; 2, Flank nimpauien lift and riff/tt. fr'til inUi Hue ; 3, Mabch. At second command, the Chief of 1st division commands: 1, Int divinion ; 2, I-'m-irnrd ; 3. (Iiiulr center. Cldef of rear division commands:!. Stifh dwinion; a, Formird; 3, OuidteruUr. Caplam.s of right Hank companies command: X.Snch fjinpiiny; 2, l,>ft front in>A, Une. Captains of the left flank companies command: 1, Siirh company ; 2, H'glil front into liiw. At command " innrr/i," repealed by all Commandants, 1st division will inarch division distance and hall. division, and the dressing, if necessary, shall be on the center. As soon as Ihe division is formed, its chief will order a sufticieut number of fours from right and left to rear (equal numl)er from each flank), to enal)le tiu- division front to march with Hanks in- side of the curb. The interior companies will form the column, as ordered, file closers darting through the fours, and sharpshooters passing around the rear to the side of the guide (in double iimei; the several companies closing up until they are united in columns of fours, the head of each column marching in trace of the fours thrown to the rear of the 1st division. The rear division will be formed on the same princi- ple as explaini'd for tlie first, excejiting that Ihe file closers and sharpshooters will place themselves in front, and fours from right and left be thrown to the front, executing "right and left forward. fours right and left," and conform to the column ahead, the di- vision uuirrhing forward and completing the "Hank- ed column order." When the exit of an armory faces a large open space, the flanked column order may be formed as follows ; First comp;niy being in column of files (double rank), right in front : second company on the left of the first, in column of tiles (double rank), left in front - both march out in parallel eolunuis. When Ihe he:id of cohunns are clear of the doorway the first comi)any executes column right and Ihe sec- ond company column left: as the rears have execut- ed the cliange. the first comiiany forms line by the left Hank, the second company by the rigiil Hank, thus forming the first division and moving forward. In mcautime the odd numbered companies are form- \ 1 ' 1 , , 1 t 1 i 1 GG s s G G G G G [0 Zl G D G G D DD s s 1 1 1 II r 1 1 1 G G G G L ,' 1 o 03 O Ga|G s ! s G [] [] s8 DG i •e 3 o uu is CO J. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - 1 1 G [] D G :]G 1 f GD s e s G G Be UU s s s 1 1 r 111 1 GDG s S 1 g GG'G D s G G G s G 1 1 SB D D D DD s s s 1 1 1 •• 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■• 1 1 1 Flank companies will execute front into line, from a halt, as explained in Tactics (\w quick lime), cor- responding companies uniting and forming the in- HIOT. 740 EIOT. terior divisions, file closers darting through the in- tervals, and sharpshooters passing, in double time, around either tlank. Rear division is marched for- ward, company distance, and halted. When divi- sions are formed lithcr fmrn '•enlumn of f<tnr«." " n>mpinii'ix," i/r ■'column ordrr." tlie right guide of each left company will remain on tlie right of his com- pany, and will be covered by the left guide of the right company; tlie guide of divisions will be center. Right and left guides of divisions will place them- selves in rear of , tlie extreme flanli files of tlieir re- spective companies, all olHcers and file closers in rear of the division, and chiefs of divisions, excepting the rear division, in rear of the center of their respective divisions. Sliarpshooters, as the column of divisions is formed, will be placed in column (as in column of sliirmishers), witb equal intervals between the flanks of divisions, excepting those belonging to rear divi- sion, who will continue tomarchin front of that di- vision. Colonel wherever he maj' deem his presence necessary. Lieutenant Colonel to be between 1st. and 2nd. division. Major between 4th and 5th for 3d and 4th should there be four divisions). Staff, non- commissioned staff, music, and colors, between 2(1 and 3d, or 3d and 4th divisions. In this formation distances between divisions may be hicrensed or de- rrea^ed, either uniformly or not, as circumstances may demand. Sharpsliooters, in either case, regu lating tlie length of their intervals. In case of ob- struction to tlie advance during action, interior divi- sions may be put under cover if available, althougli tlie front and rear should each have a division at Band for support or relief, as may be necessary. Being formed in street riot order, the column can be moved either to front or rear, by simply facing to the rear or front, as may be desired. Should fronts not be wide enougli to cover sidewalks, they ma}' be in- creased witli rear rank men on each flank. If an avenue of unusual width is entered, the front and rear divisions maybe reinforced by men from the in- terior divisions. To a ford free pa-imge from front to rear for officers or messengers, for quick communi- cation, all divisions, when formed in street riot order excepting 1st and rear, will cause one four to break to the rear from tlie left of right company, the left guide of sucli company (who lias covered tlie guide of the division) placing himself on the left of front rank, and preserving tlie interval necessary for the four. When a divmon efanen to be a renr division, of- ficers, file clo.sers, and sharpshooters pass through the intervals created in the center, and place tlieni- selves in tlieir proper places in the rear. If moving forward, and driving tlie mob. numbers of it will naturally break right and left through the intersecting streets, either for the purpose of attack- ing the flanks, tir to escape the effects of severe mea- sures from thetroops; in either casethe flanks, while passing, should be covered, and for this purpose is jirovided the following iinportiint viott ment: A K tin hitermcthuf xtn it\sa j iproachcc 1 1 he command is given: 1, Xst ri?id 2il dirixonis.'i, Anns: 3. I'ort. At tliis command should the mob be large and aggres- .sive. the second division, the rear four being ordered, "front into line" (all officers in front jiassini; lliroiiffli the interval before closing it), tlie left guide taking his place as previously explained, may be moved up (piickly to within a few yards of the 1st. As the street is reached the comniaiKl is given: 1. l.v^ diri- Ki'on; 2. CotiijiiinirH ritjlit find lift turn: 3. Mauch; just as the building line is reached, each ('a|itaiu giv- ing tlie proper command to liis company. Tliis being the quickest change of direction for afroiit, anil being done promptly and resolutely, resolves itself into a rush on the mob. The "tuins" being com- pleted, coiiip;uiies are halted just inside the line of liuildings. Should llie fronts nol be sulllcient to coiniiujiid th<' street turned into, they will lie widen- ed immediately with rear rank men, to extenil the I line. Sharjishooters of the turned companies will se. ' cure positions (with cover, if possilile) where Ihey' [ may command a clear view of the mob cut off, and ' select the leaders, so that should firing be ordered 1 they can pick off the most active rioters. During \ the execution of the turns the column is still advanc- ing, and forcing the main Iiody of the mob ahead of it. The 2d division now having Iiecome the 1st (and all other divisions having changed their numerical j designation), and must execute tlie same as explained I above, at the next street, again dividing the mob, and so at each street presenting new and fresh fronts, without unnecessary exposure; in fact each change being in itself stdirert attack on tliree siden. The first division must not, under any circumstances, ap- proacli the turning points in face of a crowd, until the second division is close at hand to take its place as the leading division. As the rear of the column passes, the turned flank companies will hefac^d to left and right, execute column left and right, and form- ed to the front as the rear dirision, file closers and sharpshooters placing themselves in front, thus com- pleting again the formation and shutting out the mob. Should the moh in. the rear be violent, as the col- umn has passed, the renr division of the main column will be halted, faced about, ami cover the fonnation of the flank companies, which will form division be- tween the one halted and the main column. '[] D [] D [] [] [][] s ^ "x i'o - 1 1 1 |[:]1 1 1 1 L][] «| s s 1 1 II:]- — - — — OF FLANIvf g street Riot Order." n n n D] [0 n [][] s i s 5 s ^•^« 1 1 1 II 1 Oo^ 1 [][] s s s U[] 1 D" n s [] n s s [] n 1 1 g.So o «^ Oh 1 an □ G □ [] s n s s s no 1 1 1 1 [:] 1 I. 1 II 1 1 1 1 [=] 1 1 1 !■ ■ 1 o S Q Should it be deemed necessary at any tinii' to re- lieve the first, or:iny division, even in the middle of a block, the same syslem can lie enijiloyed as ex- plained for passing an intersecting street. It is ad- milled that some ex|)osure must exist. With the formation in "street riot order" it would be com- paratively slight, as tlie interior divisions, should the resisl'ance be severe, c««W Ac moved, back to full distance or more if desired, so that missiles thrown at the 1st division would not be apt tn re;ich tlie 2d. It is not necessary that wheeling distances be pre- served. iSiiilT ollicers, c(ilor<, anil nuisic will pass tlirough the intervals iirovided in the center of the division, whenever the division thev are in front of HIOT. BIOT. is iiliout lo bcromc the 2il ilivisimi. If, an in frc. pirliitprt, (•iiiiscfli-iiioriili/.iiliiiii. For thin vcrjTciuion. qiK-iilly llii' cfiHi', nil iiit(rsc(tiiii,'slrccl ildcsiiol (Tohh IIic knowjcilni- llial HlmrpKljootfrH w<T<r with the cit\. ii'iiii. would Ijciipl to scciirtr from Iho \i-Mi\vm i>f MioliH 11 iiio.Ht profound rcKpi-ct for tin- troojm ihiry thr- <iiii' Ihul Ihc coliiiiiii Ih on. Iiolli cornpiiIlicH turn (rinlit iind left ) llii' same us cxpluiiicd for a croHHinj; hired, us Ihc inhj;rily of tlicdivision slioulil lie pre- siTVcd. Advanclni; in "sircci riol ordrr," shoulil it l)c ncci'ssary lo ilianu'i- dircclion for iuslun(,(^ turn- inj; a ('ookt inio anolliiT si red — //' <« llieright, the second division will lie inov<Ml upeloHC to thi- (Irtt, Ihc riirlil company of Ihc lirsl division will r-ontinne llu' march forward; as Ihc chan^in^; point is reach- cil the rear rank will exiend lollii' Icfl : Ihc- lefl <'om. pany c.vecnlcs Ihc lefl I urn. Ihc second division fliolh companies) rii;lit turn, as I he linildiriij-linc is reach- cd, and conlinnes Ihc nnircli, IkjHi companies of Ihc (irst division hallin;; al Ihc liuildinu-linc. wlicn liie colunm has passed, they face lo the rinht, march to tlic riirhl and form "hy Ihc left Hank" as rear <livi- sion. If the chaiiiic is to he tn the left, the lefl com- pany of IIm' lirsl division adv.-mccs and ils rear rank exh'Iids to the riirhl. the riirht company execulinij the riirhl liirn, Ihc si-cond <livision cxeeutini; the left turn and contimiinic Ihc march. IJolh Hank com- panies, as the colnmn passes, execute left face, march to the left and form "by the rijclit flank" as the rear division. All divisions in rear of the second execute the "turn" at the chaniriui; ])oint. While ad- vancini; in street rior order, should a lanrc openinL' bercaehed, such as a square, or park, llie llanked colinnn order nuiy be used, or sui-h formations pro- vided by Tactics for field work, as Ihc circumstances uniy demand. While double rank formation is re- commended, these movementu can be executed in simile rank, if necessary owinj; to lack of ilumbers. Should the rei;imenl eipnilizc with companies of siif- licicnl size, the same principles can be used with ])latoons and companies as explained for companies and divisions. If it nuiy be desirable to divide the force, for the purpose of llankini; barricades, ntarch- inj; in parallel streets or detacliinir companies for special duly, three divisions (or com])anies, if lari;e enough) are suliicient for "street riot order." Firingn are left to the judgment of the officer eommandini:. but irrcat caution is advised in clearly indicalim; tlie front that is lo fire. It is sucirestcfl that one trumpeter or drummer in each wini; be used, to indicate cease firinir. If a drummer, a arc resist inj^. Shoulil Arlillerv lie em]iloyed with the re>riinenl, the sections will be placed bet ween the Ist and 2<1 diviKionH, and 4lli and rdh, or :tdanil4lh Cif four divisions), and, if not lo be en(.'ai;e(l, will, as un in- tersectiii); street is approached, hr- halted until the 2d division has passed and reformed, as explained in Tactics for thir passaj^i- of obstacles. When the companies who have executed the "turn" have re. formed as rear divisions, the same rnovenienl will be executed by the division in rear of the rear see. lions. Shoulil il become necessary to usethcjFUDH, owini; to a hca\'y onslauL'hl of the nioli, primiptnt** will be of Ihc utmost imporlanci-, and from which, ever front tin- L'uns arc to be servetl, sufficient fourH will lie moved lo rear to enable the puns to lie run I out on the line. While it is of course desirabli- to move the fours l>a(k. in order, the ureal objeci is to tret them back ivivifiliaUly . and to accomplish Ibis, captains will direct in such manner as will be ihe most practicable for Iheoccasion, The fronts remain prolectinj; the jruns, and firinir if deemed necessary. By these formations it may be seen that several advanlaires arc secured, for instance: 1. A precau. liouary formation in leaving the armory. 2. A col- unm consislimj of an oldonjr, marehinfr insicle the curb, ready for any emergency, and which can be widened so as to entirely clear the street. ;i The turns while in street riot order, affording protection to the flanks while passing. 4. The rc])cated changes of fronts caused by Ihe leading division of the col- umn being used to cover the flanks at intersecting slri'cts, Ihc 2d divisjun as it passes becoming the first, and so on to Ihe end, one company or ilivision is not reipiircd to bear the whole brunt of the resist- ance as Ihe changes occur as often as it becomes necessary, to protect the flanks. .'5. Frequent sepa- ration of Ihe mol). Hcspccling this feature, it nuiy be claimed that Ihe turbulent element cut off wouhl soon unite again willi the main Ijody ; very po.ssible. but il must be borne in mind that the most acliveof the rioters would lie inlhi- front, and to separate any from their fellows (even if but temporary;, would be short shari) roll should be given. .-I* the din in a | of vast assistance in quelling the riot, besides afTord- Ktrertjinlit would prevent to a great extent, commands being heard clearly, the Commandant may employ his stall officers to eommiiniaite mmindiitU directly to officers, when the noise is great. The fjeuteunnt Colonel nnii yfnjor will ea^•h he provideil with a non- commissioned staff officer.to cnal>le them to prompt- ly report anything of importance; in this connection it will be remcmiiercd that intervals to pass through are provided in the colunm for this purpose. The usual manner of directing dressings must be omitted in Ihe face of an angry mob, and the habit secured in company drills of perfecting alignments l)e de- pended upon, the dressing in column being always toward the center. Sharpshooters should be generally supervised by the Inspector of Rifle Practice, who should be es- pecially detailed for that purpose. When the col- umn is in •'street riot" orrfer, sharpshooters will be constantly on the alert, and if the district is danger- ous, watch the windows and roofs of houses on the side opposite their flanks, and should a hall occur, will immediately seize any prominence that will af- ford them view of the moh, those of the Isl and 2d di- . visions watching the front, and those of the rear division watching the rear, but must not lire until individually ordered, unless they have special or gen- eral instruction to the contrary. Of courseduring a general engiigement witli rioters, they could be in- structed to pick off any who are no'iceil as assail- ants, l^idcrscf mobn are usually shrewd enough to know the importance of disposing of commanding otJicers of troops, and thereby, in soini- instances, ing a means of escape for many innocent people. 6. The piece being at arms port, is clutched firmly with l)oth hands, can be used as a powerful pushing lever, at the same time be ready for charge bayoneti orfiring, or to use the butt as explained in the bayo- net exercise. 7. A continuous advance on the main body of the mob. H. The simplicity of the " ttreet Tint order" as it can be formed from -flanhtd column order," eobimn of fovrs, rolnmn of enmptmie*, or a/U uniu of dirixi-mf, etc., etc. '^. Artillery can be em- ployed without changing the formaticm. In a street of ordinary width a regiment with five divisions can hold four city tilocks at one time. and. if companies are large enough to operate with platoon foniiation, nine blocks can be held. In providing these formations it is not supposed that an advance will be an unbroken march: it is therefore very important for all officers to watch the movements of the column tmd guard against confu- sion that might follow a sudden che<-k. Command- ing (Itlicers should exercise extreme caution in en- tering dangerous districts, and not expose their men nee<licssly to the dangers of fortified defiles, a.s streets with buildings on both sides might be such in efTect, These formal ions are simply tactical: methods for tlie erection ordestruction of barricades, defend- ing or assaulting of foriifieil buildings, attack or defense in general of fortified places, and matters incidental tiierelo, should be subjects for private instruction and discussion, as publicity might tend to neutralize the effect of any measure that might be employed. RISBAN. 742 ErVETING-MACHINES. EISBAN. — In fortification, any flat piece of ground upon wbicli a fort is constructcil for the defense and security of a port or harbor. It likewise means the fort itself. RISBEEME.— A work composed of fascines, such as is sometimes constructed at the bottom of a town- wall. A sort of glacis of fascine-work used in jet- ties, the sides of which, towards the sea, are so formed as to withstand its violence. EISING. — In Heraldry, a term applied to a bird when represented opeuinir his wings as if about to take fliL'lit. • RISING FEOM THE EANKS.— To pass through the successive stages in the ranks until a Non-com- missioned Officer attains the rank of a Commissioned Officer. Each Non-commissioned Officer rising from the ranks in the i^nglisli Arun- receives, on getting his commission, a grant of £i.50 in the cavalry, and of £100 in the infantry, to enable him to purchase his outfit. RIVET. — A metal pin for connecting two plates of metal or other material together. The rivet is put through holes in both plates, and the projecting ends are then beaten down so as to represent the head of a nail on each side, and thus hold the plates in close contact. Rivets are of most essential importance in armor making, and in building iron ships. They are often put through the holes and beaten down while red-hot, in order that the coniractlon of the rivet as it cools, may produce more intimate contact of the plates. The principle of the riveting-machine is simply the bringing a powerfid lever to bear upon the head of the rivet, so that the smith can hammer upon the other and softened end without displacing it. See Riritiiifi-iniiehines. EIVETINGFOEGE.— A variety of forge much used in arsenals and foimding shops. The drawing shows a portable riveting-forge, having a pot rotatable by gearing, and having three doors, so as to employ three operatives; it contains a grate-like basket, which allows the blast from the tuyere to pass through. At the bottom of the basket is a grate and a comb-raker, operated from the outside. Beneath the grate is the tuyere box. A fan is provided for creating a blast. Various devices have been resorted to for trans- mitting power to the fan used on portable forges. All the standard Keystone forges have wlial is here shown and known as the " Square-Linked Malleabh- Iron Chain," which is very satisfactory in operation. It is more durable than cog gear and more reliable than fricti(m pulleys. It is positive in its action, and from its construction it cannot slip, and may, there- fore, be run slack, with much less friction upon the journals and bearings. As it neither stretches nor contracts by heat or dampness, it is always the same in all kinds of exposure. To use the chain, place it upon the wheel, with the open hook of the link out. To hook or imhook a link, make an angle, as repre- sented in the drawing, and slide the link out by a side motion : the two depressions on the side of the link are for this jnirpose. EIVETING-MACHINES.— As manufacturers in the United States of Mr. Ralph H. Tweddell's various Hydraulic Machines for riveting, so extensively used in England, Messrs. "William Sellers & Co.. have largely increased the applications of his inven- tion in riveting armor-plates, etc., as well as im- proved the machines. The improvements in their steam riveting machines have been in the direction of greater strengtli and increased durability, and the application of the best features of the hydraul- ic system to the steam system. That is to say, they now make the steam "riveters do their work by pressure, and not by impact or blow. Where the boiler pressure can be varied to suit the size of the rivets being driven, and can be maintained at a uniform pressure during the entire w^ork, the steam riveter will be in all respects as effective as the hydraulic in stationary machines. The attractive feature of tlie hydraulic system is, that the pressure to be applied in each case is gauged at the accimuilator by an adjustment of the "weights, which determine the pressure per square inch on the ram of the machine. If the water be admitted to the machine from the accumulator slowly, the pressure on the ram will be that in the accuinulator as determined by the weights, and if the valve is opened quickly, so as to admit a very free flow of water and a consequent rapid fall of the accumulator, there may be an increase of the pressure over that due to the weight from the im- petus of the falling load on the accumulator, but not amounting to aiiy injurious increase. The very nuich higher pressure per square inch at which hydraulic machines are run, as compared to either steam or imeumatic machines, makes the cylinder smaller, and consequently the machines are less cumbersome with equal power, a matter of very great importance with portable riveting machines, and of some moment in many kinds of stationary riveting machines. The hydraulic riveting machine can be"^ used wherevr power by belt is obtainable, and the pumps and accumulator may by placed at any point most convenient for the application of the power, their distance from the riveting machine in- volving no serious loss in efticieucy. Very extended experience with the hydraulic ri- veting machine system in its various forms has led to make"alterations in the steam-system of riveting lo bring it to the same standard of excelh-nce. So long as it was believed thai lilows were needed lo do good riveting^ by power, the imiirovemenls in the machines were in Ihe ilireclioii of making themstron- ger and better able to willistand the severe shocks which sooner or later break down all such structures. Hydraulic riveting de- monst rated not only I hat tlic work could be as wi'll done witlio"ul a blow, but that it <'ould be li(tl< r (l"iir iriUniitt a l.lnir. and that the riveted material was stronger when so secure<t than when subjected to the more severe treatment under impact. Many exiierimcnts with steam riveting macliiiies led to the adoption of a system of very small steam-pipe connections from tile boiler to the riveter, coupled with an increase. BIVETINO PLATES. i: HIVEH8. in the diaiMcl<r nf \\iv riveting rylindur and tlic, UHC i>f H very liii^jc vnlvc on llic iiiacliiix' (o permit a free lldw (jf sleiiiii ill exliiuisliiij: mid etlVel in;; the draw- baek witli llie cliurirc used in driving; llie rivel. 'I'liis iniproviiienl lias liioiinlit liieHleaiii rivelin;; plant up ! to the liesi (•(indilidiis (if liydniiilie riveting, ho far as .Htatioiiary iiiiuliiiies are eiiiKeriied. willi tlie one Hini^le exeeplion that (lie reijiilarily of the Hteani pressure Is slill left to llie discri'lioii of llie persons empl<;ved in doiiiu: llie work. When a separate boil- er is eiiipl'ved lo run the rivelir no (jreal Iroiilile is found in a close reirulalion of the sti^ani, and Hie sleam rivelin;; system is very satisfaetory. The drawiiii; shows what is known as the Klaslie JSlow l{iveliiii;-maehine, and much used in arsenals The machine in imed In Ave hi/x-h, for heading will rivets of . ;, and 1 ineh diameter respecilvelv. for a ijreat variety of the lighter work. The most remaniable feature of the maeliine is the peculiar elastic blow, the force of which can be varied at the will of the operator, from a slight to a heavy blow, by more or less pressure applied to the treadle, and without moving the work in any manner. A self-acting device attached to the maeliine stops instantly the lilow of the hammer, allowing the opera- tor to withdraw his work. An adjusiable anvil allows vises or other suitable contrivances to be at- tached, for holding work of dilTerent shapes and thicknesses, and an e.xtra treadle (shown in engrav- ing) is furnished with each machine, to allow these vises to be operated by the foot if desired. The work, while in the machine, is stationary, thus insuring the hammer always striking on the rivet and heading it equally. Hotli !:ands of the operator being free, he is able to liandh- the work with ease and rapidity. The haniiner being rotated while the blows are given, the work can be riveted flush, or with a smooth, rounded hea I, as desired. RIVETING FLATEB. In gun-carriages. Hie sniull, S(|Uari', thin pieces of iron, through which the endH of tbe bolls pass, and are riveted upon them. BIVEBS. Ifivers traversing the theater of war occupied by hostile artnies have a marked iniliience on the operations of each. Whenever they an- lobe crossed in the priseneeof an enemy, either in ad- vancing or retiring, the use of artillery and of Ihld- works bcfionies of great importance; this, for the reason that the operation of crossing necessarily con- sumes considerable time, during whicli tlie urtny iB divided— astraddle, as it were, the stream- and re- quires the aid of that arm whicli, from a (i.ved po.sition, possesses the power of covering at long nmge the movements of other troops. The place of crossing, whether bridge, ferry, or ford, is simply a defilethrougb whicli the army has to pass, anil which must l)e completely covered from the tire of theene- my, who must not be permitted to establish batteries within range of the crossing. This is tiest effected by covering every point accessible to him with the (ire of artillery. A river in front of an army operating on the de- fensive, stands lo it, somewhat, as a wet ditch dftes to a fortilication, and should be so guarded as to make the cro.ssing of it a difticult. if not a hazardous, operation to an advancing enemy. Points at which the communications of a country converge are those most advantageous for an enemy to .select for cross- ing. These should be secured by strong inclosed works, armed with artillery of such power as to cau.se liim to make a long detour and to adopt a less advantageous point. If the stream is navigatde, such wo^ks form a i)lace of refuge for the craft that ply on it, and which, falling into the hands of the enemy, would furnish him with means of crossing and assist him in carrying on his operations. The size of the work will, lo a great degree, depend upon the force that can be detached from the main body for garrisoning it ; but, generally, a well-constructed work containing a thousand men, adequately sup- plied with artillery, will i)rove a formidalile olistacle to the crossing army. Points thus established should not be so numerous as to cripple the etliciency of the defending army by dispersion. They should be rather in the nature of bases for temporarj- points of observation along the river, secure against cap- ture by ww/i (/c »('(/«, and threatening lo the flanks and rear of the crossing army. A bridge is protected Iiy a tfte-df-punt, the nature I and extent of which will depend upon the character of the attack to be expected, .\gainsl mere raiding parties, a mere redan or lunette will aui]dy suffice Two or three pieces of artillerj- may be put in it. but it is preferable to locate batteries, on the opposite side of the river, to Hank the redan and cross their tire in front of it. Against a large force well sup- plied with artillery, a Unr of works must be thrown up and well armed with artillery, for the purposeof keeping him beyond artillery range from the bridge. Batteries of heavy pieces are placed, to flank the line. The operation of crossing a river by an anny in I presence of a vigilant enemy, is one of great delicacy, as it necessarilv consumes considerable time, during which it is more or less divided and 'subject lo every disadvanlase. Judicious use of artillerj- is of the RIZAMEDAK. 744 ROADS. first importance. The first thing to be done is to ' o-ain a footing on the opposite side. This is usually accomplislied by stratagem or by surprise. Before a large opposing force can arrive, batteries must be established on the side from which the crossing is made to cover with their tire a large area of ground opposite. Every available piece must be put in, and the enemy kept back until bridges can be laid and a strong line of infautrj' passed over and intrenched. Siege guns, owing to their great range and power, are the best adapted for this service. The batteries should be extended tip and down the stream for three or more miles on each side of the crossing- place; this, for the main purpose of enrtlading thi' flanks of the enemy and preventing him from bring- ing his artillery to bear upon the crossing. The place for crossing should be selected, as far as prac- ticable, with a view to advantageotis positions for batteries. The convex side of a curve with hills dominating the opposite side gives every advantage. This secures a cross-tire upon the opposite peninsula, under cover of which the infantry line and light field batteries can be thrown forward to a distance of two or three thousand j-ards and established in an in- trenched line as represented in the drawing. If the enemj- has gun-boats on the river, especially if they are iroii-clads, provision against them must be made by laying across the channel lines of sub- marine mines, with heavy batteries established for their protection. These batteries must be strongly intrenched. The operation of crossing a river by an armv pressed in rear by another, is the reverse of that Just described. When practicable, the concave side of a bend is selected, across which a line of tem- porary intrenchments is constructed r batteries are established on the opposite side, and the army with- drawn under protection of their fire. The batteries should cover themselves with gun-pits, and give special attention to sucli artillery as the enemy may bring forward for the purpose of reaching the place iif crossing. See Bridges. RIZAMEDAK. — In the East Indies, an ofiicer com- manding a small body of horse. ROADS.— When it is proposed to construct a line of road, extending between two places, the officer upon w-hora such duty devolves, first makes himself well acquainted with the surface of the country lying between the two places; he is then to select what he thinks, all circumstances being taken into consideration, the best general route for the proposed road. But previously to laying it out with accuracy, it is necessary to make an instrumental survey of the countr}', along the route thus selected ; taking the levels from point to point throughout the whole dis- tance, and makir.g borings in all places where exca- vations are required, to determine the strata through which such cuttings are to be carried, and the requisite inclinations of the slopes or slanting sides as well of the cuttings as of the embankments to be formed by the material thus obtained. It is al.so re(iuisite, in the selection of the route for the i)roposeil road, to have regard to the supply of materials, not only for first constructing it. but for niaint;iining it in repair. The results of sucli an investigation shoulil l)e reduced to pli'n and section ; the plan of the road lieing on a scale not less than (iti yards to an inch, and the sec- lion not less than SO feet to an inch. The loss of J/rdctivi- power and conseciuent danger produced by .steep acclivities, render it neci'ssary that a jiroper :ind c;irefully determiiu-d limitation should be im- posed on the iicclivilies or in<'liiiati()ns on every line of roail. As, however, in most, instiuuies, this re- •duction of hills in a country where much ine(|uarMy of surface exists, is attended with great labor and cxp,;nse, greater rates of inclination must be allowed to hills or roads where the traffic is not sulHcient to repiy the expense of excavations. A dead level, even where it can be obtained, is not the best course for a road: a certain inclination of the surface facili- lates the drainage, and keeps the road in a dry state. There is one certain iudinatiou or acclivity, which causes, at a uniform speed, the traces to slacken, and the carriages press on the horses, unless a drag or brake is used; the limiting inclination within which this effect does not take place is called the angle nf repiiKe. On all acclivities less steep than the angle of repose, a certain amovmt of tractive force is nec- essary in the descent, as well as in the ascent; and the mean of the two drawing forces, ascending and descending, is equal to the force along a level road. The exact course of the road, and the degree of its acclivities being determined, the next thing to be considered is the formation of its surface. The (pialities which ought to be imparted to it, are two- fold: first, it should be smooth: secondly, it should be hard; and the goodness of the road will be exactly in proportion as these qualities can be imparted to it, and permanently maintained upon it. The means resorted to accomplish these objects are: 1. Grarel Jliiailx. A coating of four inches of gravel shoidd be spread over the road bed, and vehicles allowed to pass over it, till it becomes tolerably firm — men be- ing required to rake in the ruts as fast as they ap- pear: a second coating of S or 4 inches of gravel should be then added and treated like the first, and finally a third coating. 2. Brnkeii .Stone liondn. or JIcAdam roads. French engineers value uniformity in size of the broken stone less than McAdam. They use all sizes from U inches to dust. McAdam coii- siders from T to 10 inches of depth of stone on the road sufficient for any purpose. He earnestly ad- vocates the principle, that the whole science of road- making consists, in most cases, in making a solid dry path on the natural soil, and then keeping it dry by a durable water-proof coating. 3. Broken stone roads with a paved bottom or foundation, or Tilfurd Roiidi ; a road thus constructed will, in most cases, cost less than one entirely of broken stone. 4. Hoeidx of Wood. The abundance, and consequent cheapness of wood renders its eiuployment in road-making of great value. It has been used in the form of logs, of charcoal, of planks, and also of blocks. When a road passes over soft, swampy ground it is often made pas- sable by felling straight young trees, and laying them side bj- side across the road at right angles, or very nearly so, to its length. This is the primitive and very well known corduroy road. A very good road has been lately made through a swampy forest, by felling and burning the timber, and covering the sur- face with charcoal thus prepared. Timber from 6 to 18 inches through is cut 24 feet long, and piled up lengthwise in the center of the road about five feet high, and then <'Overe(l with straw and earth in the manner of coal pits. The eartii required leaves two good ditches, and flu- tiud>er, though not split, is easily charred; and when charred the earth is re moved to the side of the ditches, and the coal raked down to a width of l.*) feet, leaving it two feet thick at the center and one at the sides. 5. I'lank Iioiid.t. Two parallel rows of small sticks of timber (called sleepers) are imbedded in the road three or four feet apart. Planks, 8 feet long and 3 or 4 inches thick, are laid on these sleepers across them. Aside track of earth to turn out ujion is carefully graded. Deep ditches are dug on each side to insure perfect drain- ajje; and thus we have tlu plank road. (!. A'w^/.s (// hartli. These roads are deficient in the important reipiisites of smoothness and hardness, but they are the only ri)ads usually made in the fiekl to carry on militiiry operations. Their slia|ie, when well made. is properly formeil wit b a slope of but 1 in 20 e;icli w;iy i'riim llie center. Its drainage should be niiule thor- ough by deep and capacious ditches, sloping not less than 1 in 12,5. Trees should be removed from the borders of the road, so as not to intercept the sun and wind. The labor expended upon it. will, however, de|)end upon circumstances. Every hole or rut in the road should, however, be at once filled up with good materials, for the wheels fall into them like hammers, deepening them at each stroke, and HOBERTS GUN. BOCK DHIIX, lliiis in<rcasiiiK llic (li-HlrnclivK elTi'fl of IIk- rominj; wlii<l. The (TDSS-scclion of a road cnibniccs: 1. T/if iriilth iij'tlif riHiil frnrii HI], to :i(» ficl, arcuriliiii; to ils iiii|i<irlan<c, anil llic aiiiKunl <if Irnvcl iipuii it. 2. Tlw Hhiiiif of till' rntiil-hid '\'\w bent Hliapc of tlir; tniMMVcrsc profile for a road on level f;ri>iiii(l Ih two iiii'liiied ]ilanes nieetinj; in the center of rou<l, and liavin;; their allele sliirhtly rounded. On n Hteephill, the transverse prcjtile slionld he a siniile slope inclin- inj; inwards to the fuee of the' hill. li. h'niitpiiDin.iti-. 4. Ditrlii" 'Pile ditches shcjidd, if possiljic. lead into the natural water-courses of the country. T). I'ln Hidi'diiiii'mift'if nitlin!i:< itml IHIiiir/K These viiry with the nature of llic soil. ROBERTS GUN. .\ luce.h.loadin;; rillc havini; a ti.M'd ehanilier closed by a iiiovahic l>rcech-block, which rotates about a horizontal a.visat 'M)" to thea.vis of the barrel, lyiiii; above Ihea.xis i>f the barrel ami in rear, bcini; nii>veil from above. The pieci' is opened by raisiiina hooked eatch-lcvc-r, at theen<l of the tan;; ot the breecb-block, out of its notch in llx' tani; of the receiver. This depresses Iheforwanl end of the block so as In e.^iMisethe chamber. The reaction of the breech-lilock spriiu; lying uudcrueatli the block throws up the front of the block sutliciently to keep the cartridge from fallinix out of the chamber before the breech is fullv closed. The closing is done by rctiirniMK the lever to ilH place, or aiilomutically liy ' r-ockin;r Ihi- piece. The back of the lianinier in tin; latter case presses a^'ainsl tin- enil of the slot in the tan^ of the liri'ecb-block in w hich it plays, and ho raJHCH the front r,f the block into place. ' The piece is locked by the poHJIion of llie breech-block, whicli is also kept in place tiy the enj^a^inn "f "k- liook of I the catch-lever with u correspondini; notch in the taiiL' of the rcceivir. K.vlraction and ejection uc<i accompanied by a bi'til liver pivoted to the side of the receiver bilow the chamber, and sinick by the breeih-bloik face in its descent. B0BERT80N RIFLE. A breei-h-joadiiiK Hmall-ami havini; a ti.veil chamber closed by a movable tireeeli- block, which rotates alamt a hori/.ontal axis at 00" to the a.xis of the barrel, lyin^ below the axis of tUe barrel and in front- bein;; moved from below by a lever. By depressini; the lever the block is pulled down by a link connecting the two. By reversing the lever the bimk is raised into place against the end of the barrel, and is locked by the middle joint of the linked condiination rising above the line join- ing tlie other two, and causing the strain upon the block from the discharge to tend loward.s brin^injr the lever more closely into place. Kxtraclion and ejection are aecomplishcd by a small slrai!;ht lever, swinging on a center below that of the block, and struck by the block, during the opening, near its cen- ter of motion. ROBILLARD SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. -Thi.s system has bieu ralli d the ■• system of demolition." The enceinte resembles that of Vauban. The out- works consist of ravelins, counterguards. and Heches. The Icrrepleins of all these works are intersected by ditches, which arc covered either by masonry or by wooden frames and earth, so that when the be- sieger has hreacbed a work, the defenders obtain at once a retrenchment by removing that masonry or wood by the mine. ROBINET.- An aniient military machine for throw- ing dart^ and stones. SOCK DEILL.- The two most important improve- ments iu modern rock-drilling a])paratus consists in the use of compressed air as a motor, and the em- ployment of diamond ))oints. The former is now universally us< d in operations on a large scale, and is extensively emiikiyeil in coal-mining, serving to ventilate the shaft besides performing tlie functions of a motor. The driKiug-nutchines to which it is applied are various, very great im|irovemenls having bdii madewitliin the past few years, previous to wiiich time the old systems of turniiii; the drill, and boring or pounding by hand, held undisputed swav. The drawing illiislratis the Band Hock Drill, which behmgs to the class known as " .striking drills." in w liich the drill steel is an extension of "the piston- rod. The cylinder slides inashell or guide, whicli is iu turn nu)unted upon a tripod with a uni- versal joint. The lyliiuler is fed toward the rock as fast as the steel penetrates il. The tripod legs arc adjustable, and can be placed lu any position desirable. The weights are removable. The positive valve movement insures certain operation when steam or air is admitted, withiuit depend- ing upon close tils or clean parts. It al- lows of a variation in design between the up and the down stroke, thus economizing steam and increasing the working capacity of the machine. By a patented feature, the valve is moved in the same direction with the piston. The rotating bar is made full size where it enters the ratchet, and, unlike the other forms, :t does not brejik. The piston-rod and chuck, or drill-holder, is made rather small and solid outside of the cylinder, whereby a much greater lift- ing power 's attained than is ever possible in any otiu'r machines of the same diameter of cylindeir. The split crank-nut. feed-nut. and adjustabie-slides BOCK DRILL. 746 ROCK DRILI,, RAND'S LITTLE GIANT ROCK DRILL, Mcuiilcd iPii 'I'limic I "T DrilliiiL; I niumiv ROCKET GAUGES. ROCKETS. provide for liiUiiif; up wear iis fuHt iih it occiirn. Tlic iln lii'ud jh hiiriiioiiiiU'd l<v ii '"Uil ,luit ; if i-xplonioii llirolllc or slop cock, employed in llic Uiiiid drill Ik | and iiici-iidiiiry i-irccl. \<y aolitlUir uphrrintl oiJu^jihil. pliiccd ill llic siciiiii clicsl, where il cariiiol hv loHt or to wliicli is iilluclieil u fiiMc, wliicii is wl on (Ire when injured in liundliii!;, us i.< the ciise where a common il i.t reuelied liy the llamr- of the hnrnin^; eompohi- enlve .illiiched lo the liiwe is nued. The linhlniiif; lion. The hawe Ih perforuli'd Ijy one or more reitU coiipliiii;- provides for inslanlaneoiis conneelioii of for the escape of the (,'iis ^.'eneraled within, and the hose williriiil, llie use of wrencii or spanner ; il j .sometimes w ilh a screw-liole to which u. )?uidi:-slick does uot leak, and lias no gnsketu Ihul can drop out. I in luHlened. The diHposilion of the difltrt-ul purt» Tli(t full !>«;;(• enuravino; opposite shows this drill mounted so !liat several holes can be drilled each side of the column wilhout takini; down the drill or movin-j; the column. The arm is made so that by loosening one nut it can be swung around to any position, or il can be raised or lowered on the col- umn. The Kand air-compressors, used with this drill are of Ihc liorizoiilal liuplex lypi', with air and steaiii cylinders in line. This arrangement makes a machine that is very uceessilile. that is correctly de- signed, and readily available as an engine as well as a compressor, anil that lias its framing so dispo.sed as to take the strains in direct lines. The engine is tilled with the Meyer valve gear, the cul-olT being adjusted by a hand wheel, while the machine is in molion.the point of cul-olf being shown by a |)ointi'r moving over a graduated scale. The machine is run with a wiile-oiHii throttle, and is controlled entirely by the cut-olf. At the same time an ordinary ball- governor protects the machine from running away in case of breakage of the air pipes, or sudden loss of pressure from any cause — a not infreipient occur- rence. .Vltaclied to the ball-governor is a pressure governor, whose object istoslacken speed whenever the air pressure reacnes the ma.xinium desired usually li.'i lbs. persq. in. The main frames are of the Corliss pattern, ami very heavy. The air and steam cylinders are tied together by » heavy cast- iron sole-plate and tie-rod, whieh take t!ie .strain in direct lines. The bi-arings are of brass, very large, and titled for taking vij) wear. The cranks artvof wrought iron, the crank pins and cross head pins of steel. The lly wheel is very heavy, in order to give smooth molion when il is desired to run one side at a time. The method of absorbing the heat of compression is believed to be the most perfect in use. Injection of water into the cylinder is not feasible in cold cli- mates, owing to the freezing of the water in the air pipes. -Vt the same time the ordinary cast-iron jack- ets for circulaling water around Ihc cylindiT merely snrve to keep Ihc melallic parts of tbemacliinc from becoming overliealed. and have but an insigniticant effec-t in cooling the air. In Ibis compressor the air- cylinder is made of hard brass, owing to the better conductivity of this material, and as thin as it can be made with safely: the cyliiuler beads are hollow and have water circulating Ihrougli lliein.. '11111 linally the piston and pislon-rod are hollow, and liy means of a telescopic arrangemiiil of tubing al tlii' back end of the air-cylinder, are kept supplied with cold water. The piston packing consists of four composit i(m rings arranged in pairs at each end of the piston. Before escaping, the water of the jiiston cirenlalion is made to pass between these rings, completely around the piston in contact with the inside cylinder walls. ROCKET GAUGES. Brass rings, which are employ- ed 10 a-crrlaiii wlielher the cas<- is exteriorly of the proper dimensions. ' ROCKETS. — Projectiles .set in motion by forces re- siding within themselves, and performing the two- fold functions of pieces and projectiles. A rocket is essentially composed of a strong case of paper or wrought iron, enclosing a composition of nitrr. c/mr- i-'>iilt\m\xiilj>liiir — I he same asgiin])owder. except that tim ingredients are proporliomd for a slower rati' of combustion. If penetration and range be re(|uircd. will he readily understood by reference lo the draw- ing which represents u section throiigli llie loniruxig of a Congreve rockcl. The rocket is set in motion by the reaction of a rapid stream of gas escaping through its vents. If it hesurrounded by a resisting medium, the atnios- phere, for instance.,lhe i>arliclesof gas, as they issue from the vein, will impinge against and set in inotion certain particles of air, and the force e.xpendr'd on Ihe inertia of these ))articles will react and greallv increase the propelling force of the rocket. Il fol- lows, therefore, that, though a rocket will niove with very great ease /■« Tiiciio, its propelling force will be increased by Ihe presence of a resisting me- dium. WhetheT till' ellect will lie I o accelerate the rocket depends upon Ihe relation bitween the resis. tance w liicii Ihe midinin olTers to ihc motion of the gas. and that which il oilers to Ihe motion of the rocket. .\s the rate of combuslion of the composi- tion is independent of the pressure of the gas in Ihe bore, it follows, Ihat if Ihe size of the vent be con- tracted, the flow of the gas throuirh ilwill be accele- rated. The slreiiL'lh of the case, and the friction of Ihe gas, which increases as the vent diminishes, alone limit the reduclion of Ihe size of the vent. For vents of the same size, but of diJTerenl shapes, : that one which allows the gas lo escape most free- ly, will be most favorable to the flight of Ihe rocket. A conical form of vent, with the larger orilice ne.\t to the bore, will allow the gas to escape more rapidly than one of cylindrical form. As the composition of a rocket bums in parallel layers of uniform thickness, the amount of gas gen- erated in any given time, or the velocity ot its e.xit from the case, ilepends on the extent of the intlamcd surface. Experience shows that to obtain the re- (piired surface of intlammatiou. it is necessary to form a very long cavity in the nniss of the composi- tion. This cavity is generally called the /ji>re. In small rockets, the bore is as a general thing formed by driving the composition around a spindle whicii is afterward withdrawn ; but in the larger ones. Ihe composition is driven into the case in a solid mass by a jiowerfnl hydrostatic press, and then bored out with a bit. In all rockets the bore should be con- centric with the case: its shape should be made conical to facilitate the drawing out of the spimlle, and to diminish the strain on tlie case near its head, by reducing the amount of surface where the pres- sure on the unit of surface is greatest. Suppose the rocket in the stale of rest, and the composition ignited: the tlame immediately spreads over the surface of the bore, forming the gas, which issues from the vent. The escape is slow in Ihe first moments, as the density of Ihe gas is so slight; but as the surface of the intiammalion is large com- pared lo the size of the vent, the gas accumulates rapidly, and its density isconlinually increased until the velocity of Ihe escaiie is (piite sufficient lo over- come all of the several resistances which Ihe rocket always offers to molion. These resistances are, in- ertia, friction, the component of weight in Ihe direc- tion of motion, and, alter motion lakes place, the resistance of Ihe air. The constant pressure on the bead of the bore accelerates Ihe motion of the rocket iiniil llii resistance of Ihe air equals the propelling EOCKETS. 748 EOCKETS. force; after tins, it viiW remain constant until the burning surface is sensibly diininished. When the gas ceases to flow, the rocket loses its distinctive character, and becomes, so far as its movement is concerned, an ordiuar)- projectile. The increase in the surface of combustion wherebj' more gas is de- veloped in the same time, and the diminution in the weiglit of all the remaining composition, cause the point of maximum velocity to be reached with in- creased rapidity. If the weight of the rocket be increased, tlie instant of maximum velocity' will be prolonged, but the amount will remam the same. A change in the form of the rocket wliich increases the resistance of the air. will have the effect to diminish the maximum velocity. The maximum velocity of French rockets, and the distances at which they are attained, are given in the following table : — Caliber. Distance. Maxm. Velocity. 2i inches. 121 yds. 378 vds. 8i •• ' 139 ■' 364 " •• According to the calculations of Piobert, for small rockets it takes about J second for the gas to attain its maximum velocity of 837 yards. It is readily seen that the propelling force of a rocket changes its direction with the axis along which it acts; it follows, therefore, that without some means of giving stability to this axis, the path described will be very irregular, and so much so, at times, as to fold upon itself: and instances have been known where these projectiles have returned to the point whence they started. An example of this ir- regular motion may be seen in "serpents," a species of small rockets witho\it guide-sticks. Tlie two means now used to give steadiness to tlie flight of a rocket are, roUition, as in the case of a rifle-ball, and the rcfistance of the n/'r. as in an arrow . The first is exemplified in Hale's rocket, where ro- tation is produced around the long axis by the escape of the gas through live small vents situated obliquely to it. In his first arrangement, the inventor placed the small vents in the base, completely surroimding the large central vent, so that the resultant of the tangential forces acted around the posterior extrem- ity "of the axis of rotation. In 185.5, this arrange- ment was changed by reducing the number of the small vents to three, and placing tliem at the base of the head of the rocket. The rocket thus modified is the one uow used by the United States Government for war purposes. A Congreve rocket is guided by a long wooden stick attached to its base. If any cause act to turn it from its proper direction, it will be opposed by re- sistances equal to its tnoment of inertia aud the lateral action of the air against the stick. The effect of these resistances will be increased by placing the center of gravity near the liead of the rocket, and by increas- ing the surface of the .stick. In itignnl rockets, where the case is made of paper, the stick is attached to the side by wrapping around twine ; and there is but one large vent, whicli is in the center of the case. In •ww-rockets the stick is attached to the <'enter of the base, and tlie large central vent is replaced by seve- ral smaller ones located near its circumference. The former arrangement is not so favoraI)le to accur- acy as tlie latter, inasmuch as rotiilioii will be pro- diu-eil if the force of propulsion and the resistance of the ;iir do not act in thes:imc line. Ucukels are gfn- vTiiWwtirrd frinn tiilicx (tr f/"ft{ !■>■ : but sliould nccasion re(|uire it, 1 bey may be lired directly from the ground, care being taken to raise the forward end by prop- ping it uj) with a stick or stone. As the motion is slow in the first moments fif its flight, it is more liable to be deviated from lis pri)])er dircclioii at Ibis time than any other: for this re:isiiii the ccinrlueling tube Shf>uld fie as long as practicable, say from live to ten feel. Take lli:it ])(irlion of llie trajectory where the velocity is unifiirni. The weight of the rocket ap- plied at its center of gravity, and acting in a verlical direction, and the pro|ieHing force acting in the di reclioii (if. its lengtli, are two forces the oblicpie rr. sultant of which moves the rocket parallel to itself ; but the resistance of the air is oblique to this direc- tion: and acting at the center of figure, a point situ- ated between the center of gravity and extremity of the guide-stick, produces a rotation which raises the stick, and thereby changes the direction in which the gas acts. As these forces are constantly acting, it follows that each element of the trajectory has less inclination to the horizon than the element of an (irdin;iry trajectory in which the velocity is regarded its equal. When the velocity is not anifvrm, the ! position of the center of gravity has a certain not- iceable influence over the form of the trajectory. To understand this, it is necessary to consider that the component of the resistance of the air which acts on the head of the rocket is greater than that which acts on the side of the stick. It is also necessary to consider that the pressure of the inflamed gas acts in a direction opposite to the resistance of ihe air, that is to say, from the rear to the front, and that the center of gravity is near the rear extremity of the case. At the beginning of the trajectory, when the mo- tion of the rocket is accelerated, its inertia is op- posed to motion, and being applied at the center of gravity, which is in rear of the vent, the point of application of the moving force, it acts to prevent the rocket from turning over in its flight. But when the composition is consumed, the center of gravity is thrown further to the rear, aud the velocifj' of the rocket is retarded, the inertia acts in the opposite direction, and the effect will then be, if the center of gravity or inertia is suiHciently far to the rear, to cause it to turn over in the direction of its length. If the rocket be directed toward the earth, this turn- ing over will be counteracted by the acceleration of velocity due to the weight, and the form of the tra- jectory will be preserved. When the wind acts obliquely to the plane of fire, its component perpendicular to this plane, acting at the center of figure, will cause the rocket to rotate around its center of gravity. As the center of figure is situated in rear of the center of gravity, the point will be thrown toward the wind, and the propelling force acting always in the dire'ction of the axis, the rocket will be urged toward the direction of the wind. To make an allowance for the wind, in firing rockets, they should be pointed toward the opposite side from which the wind comes, or with the wind instead of against it. If the wind act in the plane of fire from front to rear, it will have the effect to depress the point, and with it the elements of the trajector}- in the ascending branch, and elevate them in the descending lirancli ; as the latter is shorter than the former, the effect of a front wind will be to diminish the range. The converse will be true for a rear wind. Rockets were used in India and China for war purposes before the discovery of gunpowder ; some writers fix the date of their invention about the close of the ninth century. Their inferio"' force and accu- racy limited the sphere of their operations to incendi- arypurposes, until the year 1804. when Sir "William C'ongreve turned his atlenlion to their improvement. This officer sulistiluled sheet-iron cases for those formed of pajier, which iiKibled him to use ;i more- powi'rful conipiisition : lie iilso made the guide-sliick' shorler and lighter, :uid removed a source of iuac-' curacy of flight by attaching the stick to the center of the" base instead of fixing it to the side of the case as liefore. He also stales that he was enabled by his improvements to increase the ramje of (i-pdr. rockets fnini (illO lo 2,000 yards. Under his direc- li(>n llwy were ]irepared, and used successfully at llie sieiic of lioulogue and Ihe battle of Leipsie. At Ihe lalier jihicethey were served by a special corps. The advantages clainu'd for rockets over cannon are, unlimited si/e of projectile : iiorlaliilily; freedom from recoil: rajiidily of discharge; and Ihe terror i which lliiir iiiiisc- ami liery trail produce on mouiil ROCKET THOUGH. 74iJ HODLICH LITTER. cil 1r<)<i|)s. 'Pile MMiiicniiis conililiiiiis In lie fiiinilcrl in llicir CDnHtnu'liiiii in orilcr In olitaiii iic<Minu!y of Hii;lil, and the iim-crliiinl y of iinsirviiif; the ((itiipn- Miliiili uniMJuriMl for n Iciitclli of liriir, iirc ililticiillii-s iiol yfl I'litircl}' oviTcunic, and whiclj have iniK'li restricU'd llicir iiscfulncKH for f;cmrnl iiiililary pur- poses. Sec //ii/r W'lir llnrlt-rt, l.ifr-Hiiniini UnrhrU, and M(l,-il„ll(tl(rH II, ll, ll<„-l.;l. ROCKET TROUGH. A small niikcl witli a Ijciiii- .Hplicriiid licad of wood, whicli is frii|ni'rilly rinploy- cd fur liriiin mines. To use il, a wooden troiii;li, willi a smooth inliTior, must he plaeed from llie cliariic to the point where the roeki't is lo star! ; tin lubes have been reioinmended, but are found not to answer. The rocket is then plaeed in llu; end of the trough, the ([uiek-niatch with which il is pro- vided is lighted, and the rocket starts with very great velocity, penetrates the charge, and fires it. When the rocket has to pass elbows, or when il is desired to lire s<'veral mines al the same moment, a rocket is placed at each turn of the trough, with its ((uick-match secured around a nail ; the first rocket arriving at the i)oinl where the other is placed, tires il. In order the better to in.sure the first rocket tiring these<'ond, a quantity of powder (j ounce) should be scattered about the match of the latter, protected by a wedged-shape<l slip of deal, nailed to the bottom of tile trough ; the rocket meeting this passes over the powder, which its rapid motion would otherwise disperse. A rocket may be made to easily turn in a circular trough, when the radius of thai part is not less than twice the length of the rocket. In order to prevent tlie smoke of tlii^ charge penetrating the gallery through the trough, one or two small iron traps may be placed in the trougli, wliich, being raised by the rocket, fall again by their own weight, and cut olT all comiuunication between the gallery and the charge. A rocket six inches long will travel 100 yards at Ipast, and its velocity is so great, that two rockets tired at the same moment, to run very dilTereul dis- tances, leave no perceptible interval in the times of their arrival. This properly of rockets renders it easy to proportion the trains of mines to lie tired sim- ullaueously, whicli, with the powder-liose, requires great nicety. The ordinary rocket for this service contains J of an ounce of a compositir'U formed f of fine powder, I of saltpeter, and ! of charcoal dust. These ingre- dients should be very carefully mi.xcd. to make the rocket burn uniformly. Its usual diameter is near- ly J of an inch, and entire weight aliout 1^ ounce. Rockets may be made much smaller when required. See Il(i.r-triifi and Mi'itk. ROCKET WAGON. A conveyance ditlering from the (jrdinary I'uld ammunition wagon in the boxes being made deep enough lo receive about 2.5 Hale's rockets, resting vertically in each box, and in having no center boxes. ROCK FIRE.— A composition which burns slowly, is difficult to extinguish, and is used to set tire lo buildings, ships, etc. That wliich is put into shells is cast in cylindrical cases of paper having a prim- ing in their axes. The composition consists of nm'ii. 3 purls; mlph'ir. 4; niter. 10; regulux of antimony. I ; viiill'>n-tttttiiir, 1 ; turiHiitiuf, 1. To prepare rock- lire, pulverize the Hiilphur. niter, and anllinony sep. aralely ; mix tliirm well with Ihe hands, anil iiuhh Ihem through sii-ve No. 2 ; melt the tallow lirsi, then Ihe, rosin, slirring the mixture with Hputulas ; add the lurpenline, and next the oilier materiulH in small ipiantilies ut a time, stirring the wholi; con- stantly with largr- spatulas. I,el one portion of the composition bi- mellid before more ih added, and work with great precaution to pri'vent it from taking lire. When Ihe comfiohitioii li'-eomeH of a brown color, and while vapors are rjisi'iigaged, liii'. (Ire is p<:rmilled lo go down ; and when the composition i» sufllcienlly fluid the cases are (llled with the ladle not more than Ihree-fourths full. The cases are made of rocki^t-paper in Hie iiiaii- ner de.scriberl for [lort-fire cases. The priming lubes are made of cartridge-paper, pasted after tlie lirsl turn, and rolled hard. The cas«'S are arranged in a frame, Ihe lower end of each inserted in a sorrket, in the center of which is a spindle to support the priming tube. TIk' upper ends of the cases are lield in place by short cylindrical spouts attached to the lower side <if a reservoir wdiicli rests on the lop of Ihe frame. The coinposiiicm is poured into tli< reservoir, and Ihe frame is gently shaken lo settle the composition in Ihe casi's uiilil they are tilled. When the composition has become .solid, the cylin- ders are taken out of the frame and trimmed; Hie priming tubes anr charged with composition No. 1 for mortar-fuses, driven the same as niortar-fii.sfs: the ends of the cylinders are last dipped in mealed powder. When rock-fire cannot be had lo put into shells, the papier cases may be tilled with ]>ort-lire composition, driven as usual; or pieces of port-tire may be inserted in the shells. See (JompudliunH and Fivfitarka. ROC|C MOKTARS.^ Excavations resembling the in- terior of murlars, formed out of solid rocks, of which there are several in the Island of Malta, executed upon a large scale for the defense of the harbors, etc. The following interesting experiments have been made on two of these mortars situated in St. .Julian's and St. George's Bays. Isl. At St. Julian's, 140 pounds of powder was inclosed in a .sort of cask prei)arcd lo tit the chamber of the mortar, and being lodged there, a large cane tube filled w illi <)uickmalch was applied lo a groove cut along the upper surface of the bore to receive it, and a bottom of wood cov- ered the chamber. The stones were then piled, by four men, within the mortar a? they were brought to it in baskets containing about 120 pounds each ; a dozen stones, weighing from 120 to MO pounds each, were first put in, then fifty baskets of other stones. from (JO to 30 pounds, then fifty more, of 20 to H pounds each, amounting in the whole to upward of 10 tons. This operation being completed, a piece of portfire was fixed lo Ihe end of the tube at the mouth, which communicated through a hole in the cask to the powder. In this manner it was fired as is usual in proving ordnance, and ranged about 700 yards. 2d. The same mortar was loaded with ISO pounds of powder and about ten tons of stones ; the}- spread ccmsiderably more than the first time, but did not range quite so far. The explosion this time cracked the mortar in a direction nearly vertical, leaving a fissure in the rock about one-twelfth of an inch wide, ten feet in the rear and four feet in front. 3d. The other mortar of similar dimensions was tired with a charge rather larger than the first of these, but the effect was not quite so considerable : from whence: it is concluded that the first proportion should not be exceeded, especially if after repeated. The stones used in these experiments were chiefly fragments of ihe rock, which, having been exposed lo the air, were become something harder, and did not sutler so much as might be expected from such \-iolcnt ex- plosions, wbicii in some degree resembled the tre- mendous discliar;ri- of a volcano. HODLICH LITTER.— A large litter for two or more HODMAN CUTTEE. 750 BODMAN GtH. vvoimded meu, suspended between two oxen. The drawing shows the manner of its construetiou and use. It is too large and unwieldy to be of prnc- tbeory was established, and his new mode of casting was ado])ted by the War Department. As a result of General Rodman's theory, he claimed that he tical or any general application : and. moreover, the movements of all oxen are very slow, and this un- fits tliem for purposes of militarv transport. See Litta-. SODMAN CUTTER.— An instrument used for mak- ing indentations in castings. The indenting part of the tool is in the form of a pyramid, having a rhom- bus for its base, the diagonals of which are respect- ively one inch and two-tentlis of an inch : the height of the pyramid one-tenth of an inch. In late ex- periments the form of the pyramid has been changed and improved somewhat by causing it to make a longer line, and mark minute differences more ac- curately. The volume of an indentation made with this tool is taken as the measure of the work re- quired to produce it, and is inversely proportional to the hardness of the specimen, that is (denoting k by // the hardness of any specimen), /?=-....(!) k denoting any convenient constant, and t' the vol- ume of the indentation corresponding to H. It has been found b}' experiment that a pressure of 10,000 on the base of the pjTamid makes an in- dentation, in the softest metals used in guns, about nine-tenths of an inch long. The maximum inden- tation, one inch in length, of the instrument is there- fore assumed as the unit of hardness; and denoting by V the volume corresponding to an indentation one inch in length, we obtain from equation (1). K 1 = — , or A'= V; V and, in general, V V or, putting I = tlie numl)er of tenths of an inch in the length of anv given indentation, V 1000 // = - = : V I' since pyramids are to each other as the cubes of any similar dimensions. A pressure of less than 10.000 will probably be found better suited to the purpose, with the im- proved tools. A better standard of comparison may be found in some metal of an uniform density and hardness, easily obtainable in all places. The silver coin of the country will best fulfill these conditions. The volume of the cavity made in this, by the adopt- ed unit of pressure, may be assumed as the unit of hardness; and this, divided by the volume of the cavity in any sample tested, will denote the hardness of that sample as compared with that of silver coin. See f'/rritUir ('utter. RODUAN GUN.- Tlie principal difficulty formerly experienced in manufacturing very large cast-iron cannon was the injurious strains produced by cool- ing the casting from the exterior. As far back as Ww year 1H44, (ieneral Hodman, of the Ordnance Department, sought to discover the means to over- come this difficulty. After much observation and study, he developed his theory of the strains pro- duced by cooling a casting like that of a cannon, and as a remedy for them he proposed that canntm should be cast on a hollow core, and cooled by a stream of water, or air. i)assing through it, Afler an elaborate series of experiments the truth of liis could cast cuuuou of any practicable size, and asked that a 15-inch cast-iron gun might be made. This was done in 18r>0, and the gun was successfully test- ed shortly afterwards. General Rodman then pro- jected a 20-inch gun, which was made at the Fort Pitt Foundry in i863, under his directions. Formerly it was customary to use but one kind or size of grain of powder for all cannon, whatever their siz^e. General Rodman proposed for his large cannon that there should be a proportional increase in the size of the grain, expecting thereby to get as high a velocity for the projectile without a corres- jionding increase in the strain on the breech or weak part of the piece : this led to the introduction of our present mammoth powder. He also thought that the powder which would produce the least strain on the gun, giving certain initial velocity to the pro- jectile, would be that which should develop its gas as the space behind the projectile increased ; or in other words, that the powder should burn on an in- creasing instead of a decreasing surface. With this object in view he proposed to compress the sub- stance of the powder into short hexagonal prisms, which could be easily fitted together without loss of space. These prisms were perforated with longitu- dinal holes, from which the comljustion of the pow- der spread. While this idea has to a certain extent been confirmed by experiment, this powder has not been officially adopted in this country ; it is under- stood that it "has been to a certain extent in Russia for service in heavy rifle-guns. The several operations in the manufacture of this gun are molding, easting, eooUng. andfinf-shing. These are noticed in detail under the separate headings. When these several operations have been complied with, a ring, about three inches thick, is taken off the gun-head parallel to the face of the muzzle, and as near thereto as is practicable. This ring is not reamed out or turned upon the exterior, but is a sec- tion of the rough casting. When two rings are taken from the same liead, the one nearer to the muzzle is marked number 1, the other number '2. In the 15- inch gun the distance of ring No. 1 from the face of the muzzle measured to the center of the ring is 3.7 inches; and of ring No. 3, 7.5 inches. In a iO-inch gun the distance of No. 1 is three inches ; of No. 2, (if inches. Each ring is cut through by planing a groove 0.5 inch wide from the exterior to the core until the initial strain breaks the unplaned part, and the ring springs open. The width of the groove at the exterior is now measured, and its increase over 0,5 inch divided by the original circumference of the ring will l)e the extension per inch oftlic nu'lal on till' exterior, Tliis extension per in''h is then conipareil with tlie extension per inch obtained l)y actual experiment witlia specimen of the same iron, BODMAN OUK. 751 RODMAN (fON. uiid llie corrcspoiiilinjj HtrcHB roriiiiied lo |irii(lii(:e it will lie the initial Iriisioii. For ixiiinpic, the rinu; from a l.'i-iiieli (run lii'ad is, Wiy. 'i^* illellcs ill ilillllieler ; the willtll of llie LTOOVe before the liiirsliiiLr of tlKMing in 0..") ineli, unilufter- warils II. Cm iiicli, slin\vi:;i^ a total e.vtC'Union on tlie exterior of O.lij iiieli, llieu 0.15 O.l.'i — = = .IK1127 T 38 1 li).;W for the extension per incli of inelal on the exterior. Upon exaniinalioii of the tests of lliis iiielul we tiiiil Hie stress eorrespoiidini: lo this exleiision per inch lo be yo.OOl} pounds per scpmre inch, wlii(-]i will lie Hie initial tension of llie rinu, siipposin^r the iron lo pos- sess the same teiiaeity and elaslieily. and that llie l)reakinu;of llie rinsjenlirely relievi'd it of si rain. which it cannot prolialily do. To illustrate the elVe<-l of this initial strain upon Hie strength of the ^iiii, let us suppose that the initial slniiii of extension upon the exterior of a nun one ( iililier thick and of which the teiiaeily of iron is :il).(H)(l pounds |ier si|uareincli —is l.'i.DKit ])oiinds per s(|uare inch, the ir.ctal at the surface of the bore will he subjected lo a compres- sive strain of l."),IK)l) ]>oun(ls per s<iuare inch. Now if we suppose the tansenlial strain due to the acti<m of a central force, such as liri'd gunpowder, , to decrease directly as llie distance from the axis of the bore iiicn^ases, and that an inlerior force just sullicient to relieve the iiielal at the surface of the bore from compression has been applied, then will the exterior of the liun be hrouijhl to a strain of ex- j tension of an, (Mill pounds per square iiu'h. Now in- 1 crease the interior pressure of gas iiiilil the metal at the surface of the bore is under a tensile strain of :fO,OOI) pounds per square incli, and the tensile strain of the nielal on the exterior of Hie gun will be in- creased to ;iil.llO0 pounds per square inch also, and the whole thickness of Hie walls of the gun would be brought to the breaking strain al the same instant, which is the object of initial strain, liiit in practice we know that t\\v strain ilue to a <cnlral force di- minishes in a liigiier ratio than directly as the dis- tance from Hie axis, and this would riM|uire an increase of initial strain in order to bring the' outer portions of metal to the breaking point at the same lime, while on the oilier liaiiil Hie fact that a given increa.se of I load or strain will produce a much greater extension t when applied to a specimen near to its lireaking strain than when applied to the same specimen when [ strained within, or even considerably above Hie limits of its permanent elasticity, causes Hie maximum re- sistance of a L'un, having too little initial strain, to apiiroacli more nearly than it woiilil otherwise do lo what its maximum resistance would be with a proper initial strain. The law of diminution of tangential strain from the hoTo outward in a gun is not and cannot he ac- curately known, nor, therefore, can the exactly pro- per initial strain be determined. But. as the fore- going reasoning shows, after the initial strain shall of the bore, it may vurj' conHidcrably above tliul point willioiil alTecting to nnv conKiflerahle degree Hie niaximiim rehislance of ifie gun ; and we there- fore know that we are safe in fixing Hie inilial Hiruin at, or a little above, that which the law of iliiiiinii- lion of strain as the distance from the axis increaHeit, would give. The initial lension-rliigs for Uodiiiaii guns, on being planed through, shoiihl open on the exterior 0.2-'> inch for aO-inch guns; 0.17 inch for 12-incli ri(le» ; 0.15 inch for 10-incli rifles. 'I"he properties of Iron employed and Hie rale of cooling should be bo regii- laledasto |iroduce these fipenin;;H. If the rings do not open siiltiriciilly, add more walerand fire longer, which will insure a higliertension. If Hie rings open loo much diminisli the (piantity of water and the lenglli of time Hie fire is kept up in Hie pit. The gun should not in aiij' case be '• steamed"; but, if necessary, Hicr water may li-avc the r-aslinir al 200" or 205". The more rapid Hie cooling Hie higher the iron, and Hie more rapidly the inlerior is cooled over Hk; exterior the grealir the tension. If a higher den- sity <if the metal is reipiired a less fire will be reipiired in the pit. Cold iron should not he jiiit into a noul of melted iron. If the iron is not high, it should lie kept in fusion and evenly stirred till a .satisfactory result is oblained. In planing Hiroiigh the rings for inilial tension they should be so rlamjied in the jilaning-mailiiiie that one-half should be free to spring open when Hie thickness is so far reduced by planing that the inilial strain will iircak Hie metal thus left. In other words, the planing should be continued till the ring parts. The thickness of the metal broken should he ac(;urately measured, as also the amount of opening in its exterior. For 10-inch guns the tlii<;kncss of the broken part of the ring should be about one-tenth of the whole Hiickness of the ring. Should it he less, more water and a longer continued tire in lh<- pit will correct Hie defect. The amount of initial tension on the exterior, which General Hod- man thought should obtain in a properly constructed gun, was about one-half the uliiniate tenacity of the metal. Bloomtield gun-iron, when emjiloyed in 211-incli guns, should b<' so far decarbonized as to have a density of 7.24 to 7.20. with a tenacity of H2. 000 pounds. When employed in 12-ineh rifles it should have a density of from 7.21! to 7. 28. with a ten- acity of ;i2,000 pounils. When employed for 12-ineh shot to be chilled at the point it should have a den- sity of from 7.32 to 7.3.'5. Hichniond gun-iron, when for 10-inch rilies, should have a density of from 7.2H lo 7.:io. with a tenacity of 32.000 pounds. In the manufacture of 4. .5-inch siege rifles the afi- pli<alion of the water-cooling process is impracticable, owing to the great length and small size of the bore. These guns are, therefore, cooled from the exterior. The best quality of gun-iron should be employed in these guns, with a density not to exceed 7.25, say from 7.22 to 7.25. The guns should be cooled slowly in covered pits. The following are some of the par- ticulars and charsies of Rodman trims : Name of tiiiii. 1 1-3 ■s . am u 1 Weight. Service Charge. IN Smooth Bores. In. 243.5 In. 210. In. 04. 48. 41.6 32. Lbs. 15200 Lbs. 1 Lbs. 100 Lbs. Lbs 10><0 l.~>-inch <Ui 190. 105. 177. li ' 155.94 130. Ill') 11).")..") 49100 50 mammoth. 17 ' 1?-' *«• 13-iiicli do 10-iiicli do 32731 30 cannon. 7 3 1 ( 42.) 1 ^ 280, -^ 127 1 100 S-incli do 123.5 110. (1» tor shot. ( 2.5. i; «405 10 68 48 be eijual to that estimated on the hypothesis that 1 See Caittiiig. Cnxt-inm (fiitiji, C<H)ling. Finithing, this strain is inversely as the distance from Hie axis | Molding, Ordnaitre, and Sfo-roant ArtUlery. BODMAN FKESSUSE PLUG. 752 BOONIAT LINE. RODMAN PRESSURE PLUG.— An invention used ■vvlu'U it is (If.sired to ascertain tlie pressure per square inch exerted by tlie powder on tlie surface of the bore of a piece. To apply this instrument, it is fir.st taken apart by unscrewing the cap and removinsr tlie piston and disc containing the knife. The whole is then thoroughly oiled with sperm oil. This done, place a copper disc in the plug, and after it the di.sc containing the knife, the latter being did down so as not to cut the copper disc. Next pass the piston into the hole in the stem of the cap, and screw the cap into its place. For this operation the plug is held horizontally in a vise. A small copper gas- check is then inserted into the hole on top of the pis- ton; a wooden drift is used to set the gas-check firm- ly in its place, and a small wad of cotton-waste is in- serted over the gas-check; the plug is now put into the empty cartridge-bag, with its grooved end at the bottom and center of the bag, and the bag tied tirnih' to it from the outside, with twine passing around the grooves on the bottom of the plug. The powder is next put in, care being taken to distribute it evenly aroimd the plug. The bag is tied close to the powder so as to make the cartridge firm and compact. When inserting the cartridge into the gun, care is taken that the plug, when at the bottom of the bore, is, as nearly as possible, in the axis of the piece. After the discharge, the plug is removed from the bore by a rake made for the purpose; the cap is unscrewed, the copper disc is removed, and, after being wiped, the cut made upon it by the knife is measured, from end to end, with a pair of dividers. The dividers are then applied to the scale and passed down the two long lines tmtil they intersect a cross line the length of which corresponds to the width of the dividers; the figures at this point indicate the number of pounds pressure to the square inch. Pressure plugs are cjf three sizes: one for the 12-inch rifle and 13-inch and 1.5-inch smooth-bores; one for the 100-pouuder Parrott ritle and 8-inch and 10-inch smooth-bores; and one for smaller calibers. RODMAN TESTING-MACHINE.— A macliine used to determine the capacity of any metal to resist a tensile, tranm^en<f, t.'>rdj>nal, or crushing forcv. It is also used to obtain the indenting force. By a com- bination of levers and cog-wheels, the action of the power employed is greaUy augmented and trans- mitted to the specimen under trial. The machine consists essentially of a system of three levers, A C, of strain than 1,000 pnMuds are noted on the small lever, which is provided witli a sliding weight, and graduated from zero to ten, each number represen'- mg an additional hundred pounds. Or the first de- nomination there are ten weights, representing a strain of 10.000 pounds, and of the second, there are nine weights, representinga strain of 90,000 pounds. The aggregate strains of all the weights, or the ca- pacity of the machine, being 100,000 pounds. The errors incidental to the use of this machine are due to three causes: 1st. Weight of its differ- ent movable parts, 2d. Motion of the centers of gravity of the levers towards or from their fulcrums. i5d. Friction. 7'/»'./;>.''i cause of error is avoided in practice by means of the adjusting weights already described. The system is brought into perfect equilibrium, so that any increase of W will be balanced by a pro- portionate increase of P. The gemiid cause of error is comparatively unim- portant, because the levers A C and A' C" are so ad- justed as never to make a large angle with a hori- zontal line passing through the fulcrum, and in the case of the lever A" C", which makes a larger angle, the shape is such as to bring the center of gravity very near the center of motion. Let D denote the distance through which the center of gravity moves; a denote the distance of the center of gravity from the center of motion ; L denote the angle described by the lever during the breaking of a specimen. In general the levers are so adjusted that the line con- necting the centers of gravity and of motion is hori- zontal whefi the movement of the lever is half com- pleted. . • . T> ^ a versine i L. It is evident that one or both of these factors is very small in each case. T/ie third cause of error is made as small as pos- sible by the use of knife-edges and steel-plates, and is practically inconsiderable. The determination of the absolute breaking and other strains involve the elimination of errors iiue to friction, etc., but for obtaining the comparative strength of specimens, the machine is all tliat can be desired. See Testing-mae/tities. ROGNIAT LINE.— A system of defense has been proposeil by General Rogniat, the spirit of the ar- rangement of which partakes botli of the bastioned ImeWith double flanks, and of the line with inter- vals. Points of 250 yards apart are taken for the 250 y<l A' C", and A" C", The position of the fulcrum in each of these cases is denoted by F F' and F", re- spectively. The power is applted at P, and the posi- tion of the weights is denoted by W. Tlie levers are connected bv rigid rods. The mechanical advantaire of the levers AC is 10 to 1 ; that of A' C is 20 to'l, and that of A" C" is 10 to 1. We have, therefore, bv the formula for compound levers, W 10 20 10 — == — X — X— =2000, A weight of (jiie Pill ' [ pound, thrrefore, applied to the platforms of the sus- i pending rod on the same lever, exerts a force of 200 | pounds on the straps connecting with the main lever, and of 2,000 pounds at the jioint where the strain ads upon the .sam])le. I The weights used are of two denominations, viz, half-pounds ;ind !ivc pounds, represent in;,' respec- l,ively 1,000 and 10,000 pounds. Smaller increments salients of the lunettes; their faces and the flanks are placed in defensive relations; and lietween them a redan, with a pan-coupee, is placed to flank the faces, without intercepting the fire of the flanks ; a straight curtain is carried from the redan, aiid leaves an interviil of ten yards between it and the flanks of the lunettes for sorties. With regard to tlie pro- files, the lunettes receive the minimum |irofile lioth for tlie li;inipet ami ditch. The reihiiis are simple e|)auleiiieiits to cover caiiiioii fired in barbette : and the curtains consist of a trench witli the earth tlirown in front to form a parapet, which is so arranued that the infantry may uiari'li from the treneli In order of liiittle over it. The advantages claimed for this system are, Jirst, the short time re(|iiireil to form the works, by w'liich an iirmy may intrench its lield of li;itlle in (inV night; .vcnitd. the lunettes form the lirst line of the (in|('r of battle, and contain only infantry, and the battericb ROGUE'S MARCH. IWA ROLL OF A DRtm. lire pliiccil ill lli(! rc(luiis,wli<rc llicy iirr mure Hciurc, prolifl the liiiK'llc'S, 1111(1 willidriiw the tlri' i)f tlic ftK-iiiy's artillery from llic Imiclli's ; M/;y/, llic fur- tains lire well (hfcmlcil liy iiifiiiitry, wlm ciiii Hiilly from lliciii 111 11 iiiniiiciil'.H wiiniiiiLr, iiii<l aiili-d hy llic- lifjlil arlillrry and <avalry, wliii di'lK.inlic lliroiiL'li llic iiilcTvaU lii'twciii llic ciirhiiiis anil liiiicllcs, anil aUarU till' I'liciny in llanU. If llic Hanks of his posi- liiin arc mil Hcciircd liy nalunil iilisliiclcs, (icn. UiiK- iiial, proposes to throw up tow.irds the r<'ar a hItoii;; Htpiare redmilit on eaeli llank. and to place a heavy battery in the inierval liclwcciilhe rcdoulil ami the adjacent luneilc. Lines with inlcrvals arc peculiarly adapted to viry well disciplined and active troops. The works thrown in advance consliliite the lirst line of '.lie order of lialllc, iiniiinsl which the lirst shock of the eiicniy is partially thrown away, and he dare not attempt to niiilcet I hem, for an endeavor to pene. Irate I hrouirh the intervals would expose his Hanks to a close and deadly cross-lire. If the enemy is repulsed, the main body of the army, wliicli is drawn up in rear of the works immediately assumes Ihcotrcnsive, and. by a vi!;orous advance movement, cliarj^cs the eiK'iiiy in turn, relying on the works to <Mver lis retreat if driven hack. In every combina- tion of this nature the flanks are the weak points; they should rest, if practicable, on some unassailable point, as a marsh, river, etc.; otherwise very strong works should be thrown up for protection. See ROGUE'S UARCH. Derisive music performed in drivini; away a person under popular iiidi!j;nHtioii, or when a soldier is druinined out of a re;;iment. ROI D'ARMES.- Kini,'-at-Arms. an oltiier formerly of i;reat authority in armies; he directed the Heralds, pn sided at their chapters, and had the jurisdiction of armories. ROLL CALL. In military life it is necessary, for the sake of discipline, audio prevent soldiers from wanderini; about indiscriniinately at all hours, as well as for the purpose of having them available at any moment in case their services are re(piired, that the men of a resiment, company, or detaclimcnt should be present to answer their names during cer- tain H.vi'd periods of the day, or at any time the t'ommandini; OtHcer may think advisable. This act is termed It'dl-ralt. In the I'nited States, there are daily at least three roll-calls, viz., at riveiili', rUrent, and tat.toi'. They are made on the company parades by the 1st Sergeants, mperinUiuhd hy <i CiniimiK-fidiied Offlcer of the company. At all established toll-calls, e.\<'ept dress-parade, after the companies are dis- niis.sed, each olficer supcrintendinsj ihecompany roll- call reports, to the Ailjutanl or other otticcr dcsii;- nated, the result of tiie roll-call; the Adjuliint or officer designated reports the result of the roll-call to the C'ommandinjr Officer. Immediately after rec- eitle roll-call (after stable-duty in the cavalry), the tents or quarters, and the space around tliem. are put in order by the men of the companies, superin- teii led by the elii<'fs of s(|uads, and the guard-house or icuard-lcnl bv the giiiird or ])ris(iners. ROLLER HANDSPIKE.— .Vn imiilement for work- ing the ecceutric rollers of casemate carriages, and is made of round iron tapering to tit the mortise in the eccentric. It may be made .single like a truck handspike, or with two branches to tit in both mor- tises of llic roller at the same time. ROLLERS.— Solid cylinders of wood, used in mount- ing guns upon their carriages, or shifting them from one carriage to anotlirr. and in moving them oj; the grouml. Their dimensions vary with the service for which they are intended. When a gun is moved on rol- lers, they must be horizontal, and handspikes should be applied to guard against >>.ccident. when the gun has a tendency to roll olT. The rollers must be phwed at right angles to the direction in which they are in- temied to move, projecting eipiallv on each side of the axis of the gun. The gun upon rollers maybe moved. eillier by hauling upon it with ropes, or by iiieunnof Icverw. Whi'n a gun is moved on rollers, it pan»eH over twice llie iliHiance passed by tlie rollers them- selves. The term "roller" is also applied to a imuh- sive roller of iron, weighing about 4J Ions, liuviii); faces IM inches broad, which are userf in the incor- poration of L'linpowder. ' ROLLING BOARD. A smoolli piece of plunk, willi ' a strap lacked over I he upper side near the end under which the hand in placed in using it. It is employed I in makim; the cases of port-(ires and the like. I ROLLING FIRE. 1 . A discharge of musketry by sipldiers ill Mm , in quick Huccevsion,aiid in the order I in which they stand. 2. \ lire where the axis of the • piece is parallel, or nearly so. with the ground or water, and the projectile reboiind.s over the snrfatre in a succession of ricocliels. ROLLING-HITCH. In cordaL'c, auseful hitch form- ed as follows : Pass the end of a rope round u piece 'if limber— take it round a second lime riding the stand- ing part then carry it across and up throuf;li the bight. See <'nrilit(/e. ROLLING MILL. One of the most important of modern ins ii|iio:is for the working of metals. It was first iiilroduccd practically by Mr. ('orb in 17H4, and since then has gradually become more and more useful, as its capabilities have been developed. The rolls may be engraved so as to impress a pattern on the bar as it passes through ; this is done by the brass-workers to a great extent : and tiilies of brass, cojiper, tin, etc., are also operalcd on in a similar way, a mandrel or rod of iron being lilted inside the tube, to sustain the pressure of the rollers. In its simplest form a rolling-mill consists of two cast-iron cylinders placed with their axes horizon- tally one above the other, as shown in the drawing, and connected by spur-gearing so as to revolve at the .same velocity. The surface of the rolls may be eilh<r smooth, as is the case in the plate-mills, or grooved into various jiattcrns, as in those used for tiie production of merchant bars. The reduction in the size of the bloom in effected by regulating the vertical distance between the two rolls, by the mac of grooves diminishing regularly in size, or by a combination of both methods. As the direction of rotation of the rolls is constant under ordinary circumstances, it is nccessarf, after the bar has pas.sed tlirciiigh one groove, to return it by lifting it over the top roll, in order to bring it in position to pass through the next smaller one, and so on in succession. This maj' be easily done with blooms of small size, but is attended with considera- ble difficulty when it is required to handle large masses of iron, and in any casegives rise lo a certain loss of time and conseipient waste of iron by scaling, from exposure to the atmosphere in a highly heated condition for a longer time than is absolutely re- quired. Very heavy mills, such as are used for armor-plates, retjuire to be reversed at each passage of the pile, the distance between the rolls being (li- minished each time. See Imn. ROLL OF A DRUM. — The continuous and uniform BOLL 0? ABM3. 754 SOMAN LEGIONS. beat of the drum for a certain time. What is known as tlie umg-riiU is a lieat by which troops were former- ly assembled at any particular spot of rendezvous or parade. fiOLL OF ARMS.— A heraldic record of arms, either verbally l)laz(>nid or illuminated, or both, on a long strip of vellum, rolled up. instead of being folded into leaves. Rolls of arms are the most important and most authentic materials for the history of early Heraldry. In England they go back to the reign of Henrj- III., the oldest being a copy of a roll of that reign, containing a list of "the arins borne by the Sovereign, the Princes of the Blood, and the princi- pal Barons and Knights between 1216 and 1373, ver- bally blazoned without drawings. The original has been lost, but the copy, which, having been made by Glover. Somerset Herald, in 1586, is called "Glov- er's Roll," is in the English College of Arms. This roll exhibits Heraldry as at that early period already consolidated into a system. In the British Miiseum is a copy of another roll of the middle of the ISth century, containing 700 coats tricked, that is, drawn in pen and ink. The Jivll nf Ctifrhirenxk is a heraldic j3oem in Norman-French, reciting the names and Arms of the Knights present at the siege of C'aerlave- rock in 1300. It has been published with notes by SirN. II. Nicolas. Copies exist of rolls of the Knights who wire with Edward I. at the Battle of Falkirk. KOMAN CANDLE.— A long and strong tube charg- i"! with stars, which are thrown out successively by a charge of powder placed under each star. The ends of gvmliarrels, 20 inches long, are used for cases. When jiaper cases are used, make them about .65 to .7incli interior diameter, and 1-inch exterior diameter: roll them like port-lire cases. Three drifts of different lengths are used; they are made of hick- ory or other hard wood, with brass tips on the lower ends. Put in tlie case a ladleful of clay, and drive it with ten blows of the mallet; then a hidleful of composi- tion, which is driven in the same way; next a charg- er of powder and a star, which is gently pressed down, then another ladleful of composition, a second charger of powder, and anotlier star, driving the composition and pressing down tlie star gently ; con- tinue until the ten stars are in. and add^i half ladle- ful of composition. Prime the candle with a strand of quick-match (i inches long, held in place against the side of the case by a little coin])osition driven in on its ends. Cover the end of thec;indle witli a strip of paper pasted on. Roman candles are inserted in lioles boreil in frames, or tied with wire or twine in the direction in which they are to tlirow their stars. The stars used for Roman candles liave a hole through their axes coriiiuunicating the fire to the charge l)e- hiw, wliich thnnv> it out. See FirnriirlL.i. ROMAN LEGIONS.— To a truly illustrious French- man, whose reverses as a minister can never obscure his acliievements in the world of letters, we are in- debted for tlie most profound and most ekxiucnt es- timate that we possess of the im]iortance of the Ger- manic element in European civihziition, ;ind of the extent to which the huuiaii r;icc is indebted tothose brave warriors wlio long were tlie uiicoii(|uered an- tagonists. and linally became t hi' coiKiuerors of impcri- ul Rome. .M;iiiy very eventful years liave passed 3iway since ,M. (Juizot delivered from the chair of modern history at Paris hiscourse of lectures on the history of Civilization in Europe. During those years the s]iiril of earnest iiii|uiry into the germs and pri- mary iIevelo]iiiienls of existing iiistiiulioiis has be- come more and more active and uiiiversiil, and the merited celebrity of .M. Guizol's work li;is propor- tionately increased. Its admirable ;iiialysis of tlie I (■oinplex ])olit:cal and social organizations of which the modern civilized world is made up, must have led thousands to trace with keener interest the great ••rises of times past, by which the cliaraeteristics of llie present were determined. The narrative of one ^.'f lliese great crises, of the i poi-h .\. I), '.l. when Germany took up arms for her independence against Roman invasion, has for England this one attraction — that it forms part of her national history. Had Arminius been supine or unsuccessful, her Germanic ancestors would have been enslaved or exterminated in their original seats along the Eyder and the Elbe. Great Britain would never have borne the name of England, and the mighty English nation, whose race and language are now overrunning the earth, from one end to the other, would have been utterly cut off from existence. Arnold may. indeed, go toofarinsaj'ing that they are wholly unconnected in race with the Romans and Britons, who inhabited that country before the invasion of the Saxons; and that, "nationally speaking, the history ofCtesar's in- vasion has no more to do with them than the natural history of the imimals which then inhabited the forests." There seems ample evidence to prove that the Romanized Celts whom her Teutonic forefathers found there influenced materially the char;icler of that nation. But the main stream of her people was and is Germanic. The English language amply proves this. Arminius is more truly one of Britain's national heroes than Caractacus; and it was his own primeval fatherland that the brave German rescued when he slaughtered the Roman legions eighteen centuries ago, in the marshy glens between the Lippe, and the Ems. Dark and disheartening, even to neroic spirits, must have seemed the prospects of Germany when Arminius planned the general rising of his country- men against Rome. llalf the land was occupied by Roman garrisons ; and. what was worse, many of the Germans seemed patiently acquiescent in their state of bondage. The braver portion, whose pa- triotism could be relied on, was ill armed and un- disciplined, while the enemy's troops consisted of veterans in the highest state of equipment and train- ing, familiarized with victory, and commanded by otticers of proved skill and valor. The resourcesi of Rome seemed boundless ; hertenacitj-of purpo.se was believed to be invincible. There was no hope of foreign svmpatliy or aid ; for "the self-governing powers that had tilled the Old World had bent one after another before the rising iiower of Rome, and had vanished. The earth seemed left void of inde- pendent nations. The German chieftain knew very well the gigantic power of the o])iiressor. Arminius was no nuie sav- age, fighting out of mere animal instinct, or in igno- rance of the might of his adversary. He was familiar with the Roman language and civilization; he had served in the Roman armies ; he had been admitted to the Roman 'itizenship and raised to the rank of the equestrian order. It was part of the subtle po- licy of Rome to confer rank and privileges on the youth of the leading families in llie nations which she wished to en.slave. Among other young German chieftains, Arminius and his brother, who were the heads of the noblest house in the tribe of the Cher- usci. had been s?lected as tit objects for the exercise of this insidious system. Roman refinements and dignities suececdecl in denationalizing the brother, who assumed the Roni:iii name of Flavins, and ad- hered to Roiur throiigliout .'ill hiT wars against his country. .Vrminius leiiKiined uiiboughl by honors or wealth, iincorrupled by refinement or luxury. He aspired to ;inil obtained from Roman enmity a higher title than ever could have been given him by Roman favor. It is in the Ji.'ige of Rome's greatest historian that liis n;inie has come down to us with the ))roud ;idilition of " I,ilier;ilor li;nid ilubie Germiiiiiie ". Ottcii miisl tlie young cliieftaiii, while iiieililaling the exploit which h;is thus iniiiiort;dized him, have anxiously revolved in his miuil the fiite of the many great men who had been crushed in the attempt which he was about to renew— the attempt to stay the chariot-wheels of triumpbiint Koine. Could he hope to succeed where Hannibal and .Mitliradates li;id perislied y Wliiil had lieeii llic doom nl \'iri:i- II ROHAK LEGIONS. (.}.} ROMAN LEGIONS. thus? iind wliul wiirninir ii!j;iiiii»l viiiii viilor wa.s writ- i Icn on the (Ic.toliilc site wlirii- NiiiiiiUiliii diici' Imd | flourished? Nor was a cauiion wanliii!; in hcciich ; Mcarir liomc and more rcccnl limes. 'I'lii' <laids liad fruillrsslv slruirixlrd for ciL'liI years airainHl Ca'sar; an<l the nallaiil X'crcinirclorix, wlio in l!ic last year of llic war liad roii-rd all Ids coijiilryiMcn to insur- rection, who had cut oil' Roman detaehmenls, and brouiihl Ca'sar himself lo Ihe e.Mrenie of peril at Ali'sia he. too, had linally snecundied.and hail heen led eaplive in Ca'sar's triMmi)h. and had then been butchered in cold blood in a Roman dungeon. It was lru<' thai Home was no jouL'er Ihe srt'Ht military republic wlucli for so many au'cs had shat- tered liie l<ini:doms of the world. Her system of siovernmcnl was chaniicil : and afler a century of rcvolulion and civil war. she had placed herself un- der IIk' despotism of a single ruler. Rut the disci- pline of her Iroopswas yet unimpaired, and her war- like spirit seemed unabalcd. Thi' lirst year of the empire hail been siLCnalizcd by conqucsls as valuable as any niiincd by {he republic in a corrcspondini^ j jierioil. It is u jireal fallacy. Ihoui^h apparently sandioncd l>y i^rcat authorilies. to sujipose that the foreign policy pursued by Aui;uslus was pacific-; he certainly reeoinmended such a policy to his succes- j sors (iiieertnm iiiitii an per iiirididiii. Tac, Ann., i., j II). but he him.sclf. until .Vrminius broke his spirit, had followed a very dilTcrent course. Resides his ISpanish Wiirs. his (Jenerals, in a series of t;enerally aiiiire.ssivc cam]iaii;ns, had extended the Roman friinlier from the Alps to the Danube, and had re- ^ duced into sidijei'tion the lari;e and important coun- tries that now form the territories of all Austria south of dial river, and of Kasl Switzerland. Lower j Wirlemlicrsi. Ravaria. the Valtelline, and the Tyrol. While the proL^ress of the Roman arms thus pressed the Oermans from Ihe south, still more formidalilc inroads had been made by the imperial lei.nons on the west. Roman armies, nioviuir from the ])rovince of Uaul, established a chain of fortresses alonj; Ihe right as well as the left bank of the Rhine, and. in a series of victorious cumpaiffns. advanced lheirea!j;les us far as the Elbe, which now seenu'd added to the list of vassal rivers, to the Nile, the Rhine, the Klione. the Danube, the Taijus. the Seine, and many more, that acknowlediied the supremacy of the Tiber. Roman licets also, sailini; from the harbors of Gavil alonii (he (Jerman coasts and up the estua- 1 rius, co-operated with the land-forces of the empire, and seemed to display even more decisively than her armies, her overwheliniiii; superiority over the rude Germanic tribes. Throuiihout the territory thus invaded, the Romans had, with their iisual mililary skilK eslablislied fortitied posts: and a powerful army of occupation was kept on foot ready lo move ins- tantly on any spot where any po|iular outbreak miijhl be attempted. Vast, however, and admirably orirani/.ed as the fabri<^ of Roman power appeared on the frontiers andinthe provinces, there was rottenness ai the core. In Rome's unceasiua; hostilities with foreiirn foes, and still more in her Ions; series of de.solalinv: civil wars the free middle classes of Italy hail almost wholly disappeared. Above the posilion which they had occupied, an oliiiarchy of wealth had reared itself; beneiith that position, a dejrraded mass of pov- j erty and misery was fermentini;. Slaves, the chance sweepiuirs of every eoni|uered country, shoals of Africans. Sardinians. Asiatics, Illyrians, and others, made up the bulk of the populiilion of the Ilidian peninsula. The foidest prolliixacy of niiinners was general in all nuiks. In universal we;iriness of rc-vo- liition and civil war. and in consciousness of being too debased for self-government, the nation had sub- niilled itself to the absolute authority of Augustus Adulation was now the chief function of the senate; and the gifis of genius and accomplishments of art were devoted to the elabonilion of eloi|uenlly false panegyrics upon the prince ami his favorite cour- tiers. With billir indiginition must Ihe (iermnn chieftuin have beheld all this and coiitrasled willi il Ihe roiigii worth ijf his own (countrymen ; their brii- very, their lldelity lo their word, their manly inde- pendence of spirit, their love of their national free inslilulioiis, and their loalhi:!g of every pollulioii and meanness. Abovi; all, li<r must have thought of Ihe domeslic virtues that hallowed a (irriiian home; of the respect lliere shown lo Ihe fi-male cliaructcr, and of the pure alTection by which llial respect waB repaid. His soul must have burned within liiin ut Ihe contemplation of such a race j'icldinj^ l(i tlicse debased Italians. Slill, lo persuade Ihe Germans lo combine, in spile of Iheir frei|Uenl feuds among Ihemselves, in one sudden outbreak against Rome ; lo keep Ihe scheme concealed from the Roimms until the hour for action arrived ; and then, wilhout possessing a single walled town, without military stores, without training lo teach his insurgent countryini'n to defeat veieran ar- mies and storm forliHcalions, seemed so periloiiK an enterprise, that probably Arminius would have re- ceded from il biid not a stronger feeling even than patriotism urged him on. Among Ihe Germans of high rank who had most readily submitled lo Hie invaders, ynd become zealous partisans of Roman authority, was a chieftain named Segesles. Ilin daughter. Thu.snelda, was pre-eminent among the noble maidens of Germany. Arminius had sought her li;uid in marriage; but Segesles, who probably diseernid the younj' chief's disalTeclion to Rome. forbade his suit, and strove to precbide all coinnni- nic;ilion between him and his daughter. Tliusnelda, however, symiialhized far more with the heroic spirit of her lover than with the lime-serving policy of lier father. An elopement b:irtled Ihe precautions of Se- gesles. who. disappointed in his hop,.' of preventing the marriage, accused Arndnius before Ihe Ronuin (iovernor of having carried olT his d;iughler, and of phmning treason against Rome. Thus assailed, and dreading to see his bride torn from him by the ofti- cials of the foreign oppressor, Arminius delayed no longer, but bent all his energies to organize and exe- cute a general iusurreclion of Ihe greiit mass of his countrymen who hitherto had submitted in sullen hatred to the Roman dominion. A change of Governors h;Lil recently taken place w hicli, while it inateri;dly fiivored the ultnuale suc- cess of Ihe insurgents, served, by Ihe immediate ag- gravation of the Koman oppressions which il pro- duced, to make the native po])ulatioii more univers- ally eager to take arms. Tiberius, who was after- ward Emperor, had recently been recalled from Ihe conuuiind in Germany, and sent into I'annonia to put down a dangerous revolt which had broken out a- iTidnsI the Romans in lluit i>rovince. The German patriots were thus delivereil from Ihe stern supervi- sion of one of Ihe most suspicious of mankind, and were also relieved front having lo conlentl again.st Ihe high military talents of a veteran commander, who thoroughly understood their national character, and also the nature of the country, which he him- self had priiicii)idly subdued. In the room of Tiber- ius, Augustus sent into Germany, Q"'"'''''"" Varus, who had lately returned from the proconsidale of Syria. Varus was a lr\ie representative of Ihe higher classes of the Romans, among whom a general taste for literature, a keen susceplibilily lo all inlellecnial gratifications, a minute acquaintance with the prin- ciples and practice of their own ii;itional juris|)ru- dence, a careful training in the schools of the rhel- oriciiuis and a fondness for cither jiartaking in or wa'ching the intellectual strife of forensic oratory, had become generally diffused, wilhout, however, having humanized the old Roman spirit of cruel in- difference for human feelings and human sufTerinsn', and without acting as the least checks on nnprinc i- pled avarice and ambition, or on habitual and gro.'S protiigaey. Accuslomed lo govern tlie depraved and ilehased natives of Svria. a rmmlrv « here enur- ROM 4N LEGIONS. /.3 6 EOMAN LEGIONS. age in man and virtut in woman liad for centuries been unknown, Varus thoaght that he might gratify his licentious and rapacious passions witli equal im- punity among the high-minded sous and pure-spirit- ed daughters of Germany. When the General of an army sets the example of outrages of this description, he is soon faithfullj' imitated by his officers, and sur- passed by his still more brutal soldiery. The Rom- ans now habitually indulged in those violations of the sanctity of the domestic shrine, and those insults upon honor and modesty, by which far less gallant spirits than those of our Teutonic ancestors have often been maddened into insurrection. Arminius found among the other German Chiefs many who sympathized with him in Ijis indignation at their country's abasement, and many whom pri- vate wrongs had stung yet more deeply. There was little difficulty in collecting bold leaders for an at- tack on the oppressors, and little fear of the jiopula- tion not rising readily at those leaders' call. But to declare open war against Rome, and to encounter Varus's army in a pitched battle, would have been merely rushing upon certain destruction. Varus had three legions under him. a force which, after al- lowing for d<'tachments, cannot be estimated at less than fourteen thousand Roman infantry. He had also eight or nine hundred Roman cavalry, and at least an equal number of horse and foot sent from the allied states, or raised among those provincials who had not received the Roman franchise. It was not merely the number, but the quality of this force that made them formidable ; and, however contempt- ible Varus might be as a General. Arminius well knew how admirably the Roman armies were organ- ized and officered, and how ijcrfectly the legionaries understood every maneuver and every duty which the varying emergencies of a stricken field might re- quire. Stratagem was, therefore, indispensable ; and it ^vas necessary to blind Varus to their schemes until a f.ivorable opportunity should arrive for strik- ing a decisive blow. For this purpose, the German confeiierates fre- quented the headquarters of Varus, which seem to have been near the center of the modern country of Westplialia, where the Roman General conducted him- self with all the arrogant security of the governor of a perfectly submissive province. There Varus grati- fied at once his vanity, his rhetorical tastes, and his avarice, by holding courts, to which he summoned the Germans for the settlement of all their disptites, while a bar of Roman advocates attended to argue the cases before the tribunal of Varus, who did not omit the oijportunity of e.vacting court-fees and ac- cepting bribes. Varus trusted implicitly to tlie re- spect which the Germans pretended to pay to his abilities as a .iudge, and to the interest which they affected to take in the forensic eloquence cf their conquerors. .Meanwhile, a succession of heavy rains reuilered the country more difficult for the operations of regular troops, and Arminius, seeing that tlie in- fatuation of Varus was complete, secretly directed tlie tribes noar the Weser and the Ems to take up arms in open revolt against the Romans. This was represented to Varus as an occasion which required his prompt, attendance at the spot ; but he was kept in studied ignorance of its being part of a concerted national rising; and he still looked on Arnnnius as his submissive vassal, whose aid he might rely on in facilil.-iting the man-li of bis troo|)sag.'iiusl the rebels, i an<l iue.\tinguishiugthe local disturbance. lie there- fore set his army in motion, and marched eastward in a line parallel to thecourseof the Lippe. For some distance his r()\itc lay along a level plain; but on ar- riving at the tract between the curve of the niiper part of that stream and the sources of tin- Kius, the country assumes a very dilTerciit character; luid here, in the territory of the modern little principality of Lippe, it was that Arminius had fixed the scene of ills enterprise. A woody and hilly region intervenes between the heads of the two rivers, and forms the watershed of their streams. This region still retains the name (Teutoberger = Teutobergicnsis .saltus) which it bore in the days of Arminius. The nature of the ground has probably also remained unaltered. The eastern part of it, round Detmold, the modern capital of the principality of Lippe, is described by a modern German scholar. Dr. Platte, as being a " ta- bleland intersected by numerous deep and narrow valleys, which in some places form small plains, sur- rounded by steep mountains and rocks, and only ac- cessible by narrow defiles. All the valleys are trav- ersed by rapid streams, shallow in the "dry season, but subject to sudden swellings in autumn and win- ter. The vast forests which cover the summits and slopes of the hil\s consist chiefly of oak ; there is little underwood, and both men and horse would move with ease in the forests if the ground were not broken bygullys.or rendered impracticable by fallen trees." This is the district to which Varus is supposed to have marched: and Dr. Platte adds, that " the names of several localities on and near that spot seem to in- dicate that a great battle has once been fought there. We find the names ■ das Winnefeld ' (the field of vic- tory), 'die KnochenlKihn' (the bone-lane), 'die Knoch- enleke' (the bone-brook), ' der Mordkessel' (the ket- tle of slaughter), and others." Contrary to the usual strict principles of Roman discipline. Varus had suffered his army to be accom- panied and impeded by an inunense train of baggage- wagons and by a rabble of camp followers, as if his troops had been merely changing their quarters in a friendly country. When the long army ipiitted the firm level ground, and began to wind its way among the woods, tlie marshes, and the ravines, the diffi- culties of the march, even without the intervention of an armeil foe, became fearfully apparent. In many places, the soil, sodden with rain, was impracticable for cavalrj', and even for infantry, until trees had been felled, and a rude causeway formed through the morass. The duties of the engineer were faniil- iar to all who served in the Roman armies. But the crowd and confusion of the columns embarrassed the working parties of the soldier}', and in the midst of their toil and disorder the word was suddenly passed thrtmgh their ranks that the rear guard was attacked by tlie barbarians. Varus resolved on press- ing forward; but a heavy discharge of missiles from the woods on either Hank taught him how serious was the peril, and he saw his best men falling round him without the opportunity of retaliation; for his light-armed au.\iliaries,wlio were principally of Ger- manic race, now rapidly deserted, and it was impos- sible to deploy the legionaries on such liroken ground for a charge against the enemy. Choosing one. df the most open and firm spots which tliey could force their way to, the Romans halted for the night ; and, faithful to their national discipline and tactics, form- ed their camp amid the harassing attacks of the rap- idly thronging foes, with elaborate toil and system- atic skill, the traces of which are impressed perma- nently on the soil of so many European countries, at- testing the presence in the olden time of the imperial eagles. On the morrow the Romans renewed- their march, the veteran officers who served under Varus now proliably directing the operations. and hoping io find the Germans drawn up to meet them, in which case they relied on their own superior discipline and tac- tics f<irsueli a victory as sbouhl reassure the suprem- acy of Jtome. But .\riiiinius was far too sage a com- mander to lead on his followi'rs.wilh tlu'lr unwieldy broadswords ami inefficient defensive armor, against the Roman legionaries, fully armed with helmet, cuirass, greaves, and shield, wlio were skilled to com- mence the {■onllict with a murderous volley of javel- ins, hurled upon the f,)e wiien a few yards distant, and then, with their short cut-and-thrusl swords, to hew their way llirougb all opiiosil ion. preserving the utmost stea<liricss and <'oolncss, anil obeying eacli w<ird of comma lid in the Ml idsl of strife and slaughter ROMAN LEGIONS. 757 ROMAN LEGIONS. Willi till; Hiinii- precision mid iiliTlncsH as if upon pa- rade. Ariiiiiiiiis swlTcnd llic Itomaiis lo iiiarcli oiil from llicir ( iimp, to form llrst in line for aclioii. ami llicn ill <'oliiinii for iiiarcliiiiLr.willioiil tlirsliow <ifop. p<isilioii. Kor S(jMic (lislam-c Varus was allowi'il lo move on. only liarassnl liy sUlHiI sl<irmislics,liiil strii;;- Slinj; vvilli ilillicully throiifrh the broken !j;roiin(l. the toil and ilislress of liis men lieiiii,' aunravaled liy heavy torrents of rain, which liiirsi upon the devoted li'Hions, as if the aiii^ry ltimIs of (lermany were pour- iiii; out the vials of their wnilh upon the invaders. After some little lime their van approached a ridire of hiL;h woody i^rouiid, which is one of tlii' oll'shoots of the ureal llercyniaii forcsl.aiid is situated lie- Iween the iiiodern villa?;es of Driliuri; and iiicli'fclil. Arinmius had caused barricades of hewn trees to he formed here, so as to add to tli<' naliiral diltleultles of the passaire. Kalisiue and discouraL'ement now benan to betray iheniselves in the l{omaii ranUs. Their line liecame less steady: liauLraLce-waiions were abandoned from the impossibility of forcing; them aloiij; ; and, as Ibis li:ippened.maiiy soldiers left their riinUs and crowded round the wa^^ons to s<'cure the most valuable portions of their property ; each was busy about his own afl'airs, and jiurposely slow in liearinj; the word of coniinand from his olticers. .\r- niinius now fjave the siiriial for a ijeneral attaeU. The tierce sliouls of the (Jermans pealeil throiiLrli I he ijloom of the forests, and in Ihronu'ini;' mulliludcs they assailed the ranks of the invaders, pouriiii; in clouds of darts on the encumbered leiiionaricH, as they slrusiirled n|) the ijleiis or tloiindered in the mor- asses, and watchini; every opporliinily of charnin^ tliroui^h the intervals of the disjoinled column, and so cuitius; ofT the communication between its sever- al brigades. Ariniiiius. with a chosen band of per- sonal retainers rounil him, cheered on his eounlry- men b}' voice ami example, lie and bis men aimed their weapons particularly at the horses of the Ro- man cavalry. The wounded animals, slipping about in Ihc mire and llieir own blood, threw their riders and pluniicd amoim; the ranks of the lejrions, disord- ering; all around tlieiii. N'ariis now ordered the troops to be eounlermarclied, in the hope of reachini; Ihc nearest Roman narrison on the Lippe. Rut ret real ni>w was as inii>racticable .-is advance: and the fallim; back of the Konians only ain;niented the courage of their assailants, and caused tiercer and more frecpient charges on the Hanks of the disliei'rtened army. The Roman oflicer who commanded the cavalry, Numo- nius Vala, rode olT with his si|iiadrons in the vain hope of escapinj; by thus abandonini; his comrades. Unable to keep toi^ether or force tlieir way across j the woods and swamps. the horsemen were overpow- ' ered in detail, and shiuirbtered to IIk' last man. The ; Uoinan infantry still held together and resisted, but j more throiiiih ilie instinct oif discipline and bravery than from any hope of success or escape. Varus, • after heiii!; severely wounded in a charse of llir (ter- nians aiiainst his part of the rolnmn, coniniitted sui- cide to avoiil fallini; into the hands of those whom he had exasiierated by bis oppressions. One o' the I/ieiitenant-j;enerais of the army fell tisihtiiiu;: the oth- ] er surrendered to the enemy. Rut mercy io a fallen 1 foe hail never been a Konian virtue. and those amon;; her leijions who now laid down their arms in hope of ([uarter. drank deei> of the cup of siilTerin^ which Rome luid held to the li]is of ni:iny a brave but un- fortunate enemy. The infuriated (lernians slauixh- lered their oppressors wilh deliberate ferocity, and those prisoners who were not hewn to pieces on the spot were only preserved to perish by a more cruel death in cold lilood. Tlu' bulk of the Roman army fought steadily ami stubbornly, fre<iuently repellin;.; the masses of the assailants, but gradually losing the compactness of their array, and becoming we:iker and weaker be- neath the incessant shower of darts :md the reiterat- ed assaults of the vigorous and nnencumliered (ler- nians. At last, in a series of ilesperate attacks, the column was pierced Ihrougli and through, two of the eagles caiilured, and the Rorii.an host, which on Ihc yislir morniuL' had marched forih in Hiich pride anil might, now broken up into cimfimed fragmentB, either fell lightini: beneath the overpowering num- bers of theenemv, or perished in the swumpn and woods in unavailing eirorls at Highl. Few, vi-ry few, ever wiw again the left bank of Ihc Khine. (>m- bo- dy of veterans, arraying tlieriiKelvcH in u ring on a little mound, beat olf every charge of tlie OerniauH, .■inil prolonged their honorable resistance to the clone of that dreadful day. The traces of a feeble altempt at forming ;i ililch and mound attesti-d in after ycafH Hie spot where the last of the Ifoman.s passed 'their night of sullering and despair. Rut on the morrow, this -emiiant also. worn out wilh hiingi-r. wounds. unci toil, was charged by tlu; victorious Germans. and citli. erniassacri-dontheHpot, or ofTered up in fearful rites at the altars of tht; deities of the old mythology of the Norlli. A gorge in the mountain ridire, tliroiigli which runs the modern road between I'aderborn and I'yrmonl. leads from Ihespot where the heat of the battle raged lollie Exstersteine, a cluster of bold and grotesque rocks of sandstone, near wliicli i.s a small sheet of water, overshadowed by a grove of aged trees. According to local tradition, Iliis was one of the sacred groves of the ancient Gernian.s, and it was here tb;it the Roman captives were slain in sacrilici; by the victorious warriors of Arrninius. Never was victory more decisive, never was the liberation of an ojipressed people more instantaneous and coniplele. Throughout (iermuny the Roman garrisons were assailed and cut off : imd, witliin a few weeks after Varus had fallen, the German .soil was freed from the foot of an invader. .\t Rome the tidings of the liattle were received with an agony of terror, the reports of which we should deem exaggerated, did they not comi- from l{oman historians themselves. They not only tell emphalically liow great was the awe which the Romans felt of the prowess of the Germans, if their various tribes could be brought to unite for a com- mon i>iirpose, but also they reveal how weakened and debased the population of Italy had become. Dion Cassiiis says (lib. Ivi.. SCI 2:i). ""Then Augus- tus, when be beard the calamity of Varus, rent his garment, and was in great attiiclion for the troops he had lost, and for terror respecting the Germans and thetJaiils. And his chief alarm was, that he expecled them to push on against Italy and Rome; and thire remained no Roman youth fit for military duty that were worth speaking of, and the allied populations that were at all serviceable had been wusleil away. Yet be prepared for the emergencv as well as his means allowed, and when none of the cili/ins of military age were willing to enlist, he made them cast lots, and punished by contisoation of goods and disfranchisement every fifth man among those under thirty-five, and every tenth man of those above that age. At last, when he found that not even thus could he make many come for- ward, he put some of them to death. So he made a conscription of discharged veterans and of eman- ci|>aled slaves, and, collecting as large a force as he could, sent it, under Tiberius, with all speed into Germany." Dion mentions, also, a number of terrific portents that were believed to have occurred at the time, and the narration of w hich is not immaterial, as it shows the slate of the public mind, when such thius^s were so believed in and so interpreted. The suniniit of the Alps were said to have fallen, and three columns of tire lo have bla/ed up ''rom them. In the Campus Martins, the temple of Ihc war-god. from whom the founder of Rome bad sprung, was struck bv a thunder-bolt. The nightly heavens glowed sevend times, as if on tire. JIany comets blazed forth to- gether ; and tiery meteors, shaped like spears, had shot from the northern ipiarter of the skvdown into the Roman camps. It wa.s said, too, that a statue nOMAN LE&IONS. 758 SOMAN LEGIONS. of Victory wliich had stood at a place on the frontier, pointing tlie way toward Germany, Iiad of its own accord turned round, and now pointed to Italy. These and other prodigies were believed by the :nul- titude to accompany the slaughter of Varus's legions, and to manifest the anger of the gods against Rome. Augnstus himself was not free from superstition; but on this occasion no supernatural terrors were needed to increase the alarm and grief that he felt, and which made him, even months after the news of the battle had arrived, often beat his head against the wall, and exclaim, "Quintilius Varus, give me • back ray legions." We learn this from his biographer Suetonius; and, indeed, every ancient writer who alludesto the overlhrnw of Varusattests the import- ance of the blow ,'igainsl the Rom;in power, and the bitterness with which it was felt. The Germans did not pursvie their victory beyond their own territory; but that victory secured at once and forever the in- dependence of the Teutonic race. Ronie sent, in- deed, her legions again into Germany, to parade a temporary superiority, but all hopes of )iernianent conquests were abandoned by Augustus and his suc- cessors. The strong blow which Arminius had struck never was forgotten. Roman fear disguised itself under the specious title of moderation, and the Rhine became the acknowledged boundary of the two na- tions until the tifth century of the present era wlien t'le Germans became the assailants, and c;irved v.ith their conquering swords the provinces of imperial Rome into the kingdoms of modern Europe. It will be interesting in this connection to append a brief account of that civil war in which C'»sar and Pompey contended for the mastery over Rome and the Republic. In his first Commentary Gesar record- ed his campaigns in Gaul, — campaigns in which he reduced tribes which were, if not hostile, at any rate foreign, and by his success in which he carried on and maintained the potency, traditions and pur- port of the Roman Republic. I^ was the ambition of the Roman to be master of the known world. In his ideas no more of the world was really known than had become Roman, and any extension to the limits of this world could only be made by the addi- tion of so-called barbarous trilies to the number of Roman subjects. In reducing (iaul, therefore, and in tighting with the Germans, ;ind going over to Britain, Ciesar was doing that wliicii all good Ro- mans wished to see done, and was rivaling in the West the great deeds which Pompey had accom- plished in the East. In his second Commentary lie is forced to deal with a subject whicli must have been less gratifying to Roman readers. He relates to us the victories which he won with Roman le- gions over other legions equalh' Roman, and by which he succeeded in destroying the liberty of the Keiuiblic. It must be acknowledged on Ctesar's be- half that in truth liberty had fallen in Rome before Ca'sar's time. Power had produced wealth, and wealth had produced corruption. The tribes of Rome were bought and sold at the various elections, and a few great ojigiirclis. cither of tliis faction or of Ihal, divided ;tmong thcnisclvcs llie pliiccs of trust iind honor aM<l jiower, and did so witli hauils ever oi)enfor the gnispiug of public wealth. \n honest man with clean hands and a con.scicnce, with scru- I)les and a love of country, became unfitted for ))ub- iic <'mployment. Cato in these days w:is simply ri- diculous; and even Cicero, though he was a" trim- mer, was much too honest for llie times, Laws were vvrcsted from their purposes, and the very 'I'riliuncs of the people had become the worst of tyraiils. It was necessary, p,-rhaps, tlial I here shoulii be a mas- ter ; — .so at least (^lesiir iliouglit. He had, no doidjt, Heen this necessity duriiig-all these years of fighting in Gaul, and had resolved that he would not jx; less than First in the new order of Ihings. So he crossed Ilie [{ubicou. The reader of this second Commentary will find it less alluring than the first. There is less in it of adven- ture, less of new strange life, and less of that sound, healthy, joyous feeling which sprang from a thor- ough conviction on Caesar's part that in crushing the Gauls he was doing a thoroughly good thing. To us, and our way of thinking, his doings 'in Gaul were stained with terrible cruelty. To him and to his Romans they were foul with no such stain. How other Roman conquerors acted to other conquered ])('ople we may learn from the fact, that Caesar ob- tained a character for great mercy by his forbearance in Gaul. He always writes as though he were free ir-'im any sting of conscience, as he tells us of the punishments which policy called on liim to inflict. But as he writes of these civil wars, there is an ab- sence of tliis feeling of perfect self-satisfaction, and at the same time he is much less cruel. Hecatombs of Gauls, whether men or women, or children, he could see burned or drowned or starved, mutilated or tortured, without a shudder. He could give the command for such operations with less remorse than we feel when we order the destruction of a litter of undesirable puppies. But he could not bring him- self to slay Roman legionaries, even in fair figliting, with anything like self-satisfaciion. In this he was either soft-hearted or had a more thorough feeling of country than generals or soldiers who have fought in civil contests since his time have shown. In the Wars of the Roses and in those of Cromwell we rec- ognize no such feeling. The American Generals were not so restrained. But Cscsar seems to have valued a Roman legionary more than a tribe of Gauls. Nevertheless he crossed the Rubicon. We have all heard of his crossing of the Rubicon, but Ca;sar says nothing about it. The Rubicon was a little river, now almost if not altogether unknown, running into the Adriatic between Ravenna and .\riminum — Rimini, — and driving the provinces of so-called Cis- alpine Gaul from the territory under the immediate rule of the magistracy of Rome. Caesar was, so to say, at home north of the Rubicon, He was in his own province, and had all things vmder his com- mand. But he was forbidden by the laws even to en- ter the territory of Rome proper while in the command of a Roman province : and therefore, in crossing the Rubicon, he disobeyed the laws, and put himself in opposition to the constituted authorities of the city. It does not appear, however, that very much was thought of this, or that the passage of the river was in truth taken as the special sign of Ca>sar's purpose, or as a deed that was irrevocable in its consetiuenc- es. There are various pretty stories of C;esar's hesitation as he stood on the brink of the river, doubting whether he would plunge the world into civil war. AVe are told how a spirit iippeared to him and led him across the river with martial mu- sic, and how Ciesar, declaring that the die was cast, went on and crossed the fatal stream. But all this was fable, invented ou Caesar's behalf by Romans who came after Ciesar. Cicsar's purpose was, no doubt, well understood when he brought one of his legions down into that corner of bis province, but oilers to treat with him on friendly terms were made by Pompi'y and his party after he had established himself on tlie Roman siile of the river. When the civil war began, Ca\sar had still, ac- cording to the assigmuent iiiiidc 1o him, two years and a half left of liis allofed iicriod of government in the llircc provinces; but his victories and his power had been w;itche<l with anxious eyes from Rcmie and the Senate h;id atfcmpled to decree that be should be rec:illed. I'oiiiiiey w;is no longer Cie- Siir's friend, nor did Ciesar expect liis friendship. Ponqiey, who had lately Jilayed his cards but badly, and mi'ist have felt tlui't he tuid jih.yed them badly, had bei'ii freed from bis boiidiige to Ca'sar by the death of Crassiis, the third triumvir, by (he death of .Iiilia, Ca'sar's daughter, ;ind by llie course of lliings in Rome. Il had been an uiiualund alliance ar- ranged by Ca'sar with the sole view of cliiipim;- his BOMAN LEGIONS. 750 ROMAN LEGIONS. riviil'H vviriKH. 'I'lic fipi-iiiars ol I'cjiii|]( y li^i'l liillicr- to been HO l)l'iv;lil, Hiiil lie n\>i> Imd mi-iihiI I" lii' (llviiic. Wliili' slill a hiiy. Ijr Mail I'liiiiiiiaiiili'il anil <:i)ii(jii(nMl. women liml irlninl liiin. iiml >iolilicr.s liiiil worslii|>|)('(l liini. Snilu Intil callcil liiin tlic Orcal: and. as we arc tolil. Iiail raiscil his lial lu liini in token of liorior. He hail lieen alloweil IIk' j^lory of a Iriuinph while yel ayonlh. anil had Hi- iini|iheil u .second liriielieforc he hud n uchiil middle life, lie had triimi|iheil a'.:aiM a third time, and the three Irinmplis had heeji won in the three qnarlers of the n'lolie. In all thin'.:s he had lieen siieeessfnl, and in all tilings happy, lie had driven (he swarm- in;; pirates from every harhor in the .Mediterranean, and had tilled Komi- with corn, lie had retnrneil a eon(|neror with his le'j;ions from the Kasl. and had dared tii dishand them, that he mi^dil livea;;ain as a private cit.i/en. And afterlhat, wiii-n it was llionL;hl necessary that the cityshonid be saved, in her need, from the factions of her own citizens, he had been made soh^ C'onsnI. Il is easier now In nnderstand the character of I'ompey than the ))()si(ion which, by his unvaried successes, he had made for himself in the minds both of the nobles and of the people. Even up to this time, even after Ciesar's wars in (}aul, there was somethinu: of divinity hamrim; about Pompev, in which the liomans of the city trusted. He hail been imperious, but calm in manner and self-possessed allowini; no one to !)e his equal, but not impatient in making; sfooil his claims- i;ranil, handsome, lavish when policy required it, rapacious when much needed, never self-induli;ent, heartless, false, politic, andiilious, very brave, ami a Roman to tlic backbone, lint hehadthis failing;, this weak- ness;- -when the time for the last striiimie came, he (lid not quite know wdial il was that he desired to do; he did not clearly see his future. The thin,u;s to he done were so ^ri'eal, that he had not ceased to doubt ] conccrninL: them when Ihe moment came in which i doubt was fatal, t'a'sar saw it all, and never doubt- ed. Tliat little tale of Cu'sar standing' on the bridije over the Rubicon iHinderiULi; iis to liis future course, - divided between obedience and rebellion,- it is very pretty. But there was no such pondering;, and no such division. Ciesar knew very well wh;it he meant and what he wanted. Cii'sar is full of his wrongs as he be^^ins his sec- ond n;irr;itive. lie tells us how his own friends are silenced in the Senitte and in the city : how his ene- mies, Seipio, Cato, and I.entulus the ( onsul, iirevail; how no one is allowed to say a word for him. "I'om- pey himself," he s;iys, "ur^;ed on by the enemies of Caesar, and because he was unwiUinir that any one should equ;d himself in honor, had turned himself altogether from t'iesar's friendship, and Inul gone back to the fellowship of their common enemies, — enemies whom he himself h:id created for Ciesiir dur- ini; Ihe time of their :illiance. At the same time <-onscious of the scandal of these two le;;ions which he h:ul slopped on their destined ro;td to Asia and Syri;i and taken into his own luinil. he w:is anxious that the ipiestion should hi' referred to arms." Those two legions are very grievous to C'ii'sar. One wa.' the legion which, as we remember, I'ompey had given U]) to friendsliip, — and the Republic. When, in the beginning of these contests between the two riv;ds. the Senate had decided ou we;diening each by ilem;uuling from each ;i legion. I'ompey had asked (';e>ar for the restitution of th:it which he had so kindly lent. (';esar,too proud to refuse payment of Ihe debt, had sent tliat to his former friend, and 1 had also sent another legion, as demanded to the Sen;ite. They were reipiircil nominally for service in the East, and now were in the h:uids of him who had been tVesar's f.iend but h;nl become his enemy. It is no wonder that C;es;ir t;dks of the infamy or ; scandal of the two legions ! lie repeats his com-' plaint as to the two legions again and again. In the month of .January Cesiir was at Ravenna, 1 just north of the Rubicon, and in his own province. , MeKHUjjeH paHM belwecri him and the Scnalf, and lie |)ropoHeH his l<;rMis. Tiie Senate also proposcK jtH terms. lie must lay down his arms, or he will Im- csteenn-d an iriemy by ''"' If'public. All Home in diHiurbed. The account Ih CitHur'n accoiiiil but wi- imagine that Home was diMlMrlii-d. "Kohliers an- reeruiled over all Italy ; arms are ilenuinded, laxcH are levied on llii' mimicipalilies, and money is biken from the sarred shrines; all laws divine and human are disregarded." Thin (lesar complains to his soldiers his wrori'/s. and Ihe crimis of I'om|M-y. lie tells them how they. und< r his guidance, have been victorious, how nniler him they have "paci(ir-d" all (bail and (iermany. and he calls upon them lode, fend him who has enabled them to r|o such great tilings. He has but one legion with him, but timt legion declires Unit it will obey him, - him ami Ihe Tribunes of the people, some of whom, acting on Ca'sar's side. have rome over from Rome to Ravenna. We (;an ap|)reciate Ihe spirit of this allusion to the Tribunes, so that there may seem to be still soim- link between Ca'sar and the civic authorilies. Wlien the soldiers have expressed Iheir goodwill, he goe.s to Arimimwn. and so the Rubicon is passed. There are still more messages. (';esar exprt-».ses himself as greatly irrievcdthal he should be snbj.-cted I to so nnuh suspense, nevertheless he is willing to sufl'er anything for the Repulilic ; -''omnia pali rei- publicjt'Causa." Only let I'ompey go to his jjrovince, let the legions in iind about Home be disbanded, let all the old forms of free government be restored, and panic be abolished, and then, — when that i.s done,— all dillieulties may be settled in u few min- utes' talking. The Consuls ;niil I'ompey send back word thill if (':esar will go b;iek into Uatd and rlis- miss his army, I'ompey shiill go at once to Spain. But Pompev and the Cimsuls with their troops will not stir till C'lesar shall have given security for his departure. Each demands that the other shall first alKindon his position. Of course all these nu-ssages mean nothing. C'lesar. eom|ilaining bitterly of in- justice, sends a portion of his sm;ill :iriny still farther into the Roman territory. Marc Antony goes to Arezzo with five cohorts, and C'lcsar occupies three other cities with a cohort each. The marvel is that he was not attacked and driven back by Pompey. We may probably lonclude that the soldiers. though under the command of I'ompey. were not trustworthy as against Cicsar. As C'lpsar regrets his two legions, so no doubt do the two legions regret their com- mander. At any rate. the consular forces with I'om- pey and the Consuls and a host of Senators retreat southwards to Brundnsium. — Brindisi, — intending lo leave Italy by the port which we shall use before long when we go eastwards. During this retreat, the first blood in the civil war is spilt at Corfinium. a town whiih if it now stood at all. would stand in the Abbruzzi. Ciesjir there is victor in a small engagement, and obtains po.s- session of the town. The Pompeian officers whom he finds there he sends away, and allows them even to carry with them money which he believes lo have been taken from the public treasury. Throughout his route southward the soldiers of Pompey, who had heretofore lieen his soldiers, — retnni lo him, I'ompey and the Consuls still retreat, anil slill Ciisar follows them, though Pompey had boasted, when first warned to bew;ire of C;i>sar, that he had only to stamp upon Italian soil and legions would arisi- from the earth ready to obey him. He knows, how- ever, that away from Rome, in her provinces, in Macedonia and .Vchaia, in Asia and Cilicia, in Sici- ly, Sardinia, and Africa, iu Mauritania and the two Spains, there are Roman legions which as yet know- no Ca'sar. Il may be belter for Pompey thai he should stamp his fool somewhere oul of Italy. At any rate he sends the obedient Consuls and his al- leudant Senators over to Dyrracbium in lUyria with a part of his army, and follows with the remainder as soon as Csi'sjif is at his heels. Civsar makes an KOMAN LEGIONS. 7(;o ROMAN LEGIONS. efEort to intercept him and his fleet, but in that he fails. Thus Pompey deserts Rome and Italy, — and never again sees the imperial city or the fair laud. Csesar explains to us why he does not follow his enemy and endeavor at once to put an end to the struggle. Pompey is jirovideil with shipping and he is not; and he is aware that the force of Home lies in her provinces. Jloreover, Rome maj' Ije starved hj- Pompey, unless he, Ca;sar, can take care that the corn-growing countries, which are the granaries of Rome, are left free for the use of the city. He must make sure of tlie two Gauls, and of Sardinia, and of Sicily, of Africa too, if it may be possible. He must win to his cause the two Spains, of which at least the northern province was at present devot- ed to Pompey. He sends one Lieutenant to Sardinia with a legion, another to Sicily with three legions, -and from Sicily over into Africa. These provinces have been allotted to partisans of Pompey ; but C'a'- sar is successful with them all. To Cato, the virtu- ous man, had been assigned the government of Sici- ly; but Cato flnds no Pompeian army read,\ for his use, and, complaining bitterly that he has been de- ceived and betrayed by the headof his faction, runs away, and leaves his province to Ciesar's officers. Caesar determines that he himself will carry the war into Spain. But he found it necessary first to go to Rome, and Csesar, in his account of what he did there, hardh- tells us the whole truth. We quite go along with him when he explains to us that, having collected what sort of a Senate he could, — for Pom- pey had taken away with him such Senators as he could induce to follow him, — and having proposed to this meagre Senate that ambassadors sliould be sent to Pompey, the Senate accepted his suggestion; but that nobody could be induced to go on such an errand. Pompej- had already declared that all who remained in Rome were his enemies. And it may probably be true that Coesar, as he says, lound a certain Tribune of the people at Rome who opposed him in all that he was doing, though we should ima- gine that the opposition was not violent. But his real object in going to Rome was to lay hand on the treasure of the Republic. — the sanetius a'rarium, — which was kept in the temple of Saturn for special emergencies of State. That he sliould have taken this we do not wonder : but we ilo wonder that he should have taken the trouble to say that he did not do so. He professes that he was so hindered by that vexatious Tribune, that he could not accomplish the purposes for which he had come. But he cer- laiidy did take the monev, and we cannot doubt but that he went to Rome especially to iret it. Ca'sar, on his way to Spain, goes to Marseilles which, un- der the name of Massilia, was at this time, as it is now, the most thriving mercantile port on the Med- iterranean. It belonged to the province of Furth- er Gaul, but it was in fact a colony of Greek traders. Its possession was now necessary to C'a-sar. The magistrates of the town, when called upon for their adhesion, gave a most sensible answer. They pro- test that they arc very fond of Ca-sar, ;ind very fond of Pompey. They don't understand all these affairs of Rome, and regret that two such excellent men should (juarrel. In the mean time they prefer to liold tlieir own town. (!sesar speaks of this decision as an injury to himself, and is instigated by such wrongs against him to besiege the city, which he does botli by land and sea, leaving olIicer> there for the purpose, and going on himself to Spain. At this time all Spain was held by tliree ollieers. devoted to t)ie <'ause of Pompey, tliougli, from wliat has gone before, it is clear that. Ca'sar fears notliing from the south. Afranius <'onnnanded in the nortli and east, holding the southern spiir^ of the Pyre- nees. Petrcius, who was stationed in l.usitania, in the southwest, according to llie agreement, luir- ries up to the assistance of Afranius as soon as Oitsar approaches. The Ponipeian and Ca'sarean armies are brought into close quarters in the neigh- borhood of Ilerda(Lerida), on the little river Sicoris, I or Segre, which runs into the Kbro. They are near j the mountains here, and the nature of the fighting is I controlled by the rapidity and size of the rivers, and I the inequality of the ground. Ca-sar describes the I canijiaign with great minuteness, imparting to it a wonderfid interest b}' the clearness of his narrative. Afranius and Petreius hold the town of Ilerda, which i is full of provisions. CiBsar is very nnich pressed I by want, as the corn and grass have not yet grown, and the country supplies ot the former year are al- j most exhausted. So great are his difficulties, tliat tidings reach Rome that Afranius has conquered him. Hearing this, many who were still clinging to the city, doubtful as to the side they would take, go j away to I^ompey. But Csesar at lasts manages to make Ilerda too hot for the Pompeian Generals. He takes his army over one river in coracles, such as he had seen in Britain; he turns the course of another; fords a third, breaking the course of the stream by the bulk ot his horses; and bridges a fourth. Afra- nius and Petreius find that they must leave Ilerda, and escape over the Ebro among the half-barbarous ' tribe further soutli, and make their way, if possible, among the Celtibri, — getting out of Aragon into Ca-s- tile, as the division was made in after-ages. Caesar I gives us as one reason for this intended niarcu on the part ot his enemies, that Pompej' was well known by tliese tribes, but that the name of CaHsar was a name as yet obscure to the barbarians. It was not, however, easy for Afranius to pass over the Ebro without Ca>sar's leave, and Caesar will by no means give him leave. He intercepts the Pompeiaus, and now turns upon them that terrible engine of want from which he had suffered so much. He continues so to drive them about, still north of the Ebro, that they can get at no water; and at last they are com- pelled to surrender. During the latter days of this contest the Afranians, as thej- are called — Roman le- gionaries, as are the soldiers of Ca'sar — fraternize with their brethren in Caesar's camp, and there is something of free intercourse between the two Ro- man armies. The upshot is that the soldiers of Afra- nius resolve to give tliemselves up to Casar, bar- gaining, however, that their own (ienerals shall be secure. Afranius is willing enimgh; lint his brother- general, Petreius, with more of the Roman at heart, will not hear of it. We shall hear hereafter the strange fate of this Petreius. He stops the conspir- acy with energy, and forces from his own men, anil even from Afranius, an oath against surrender. He orders that all Casars's soldiers found in their camp shall be killed, and, as Casar tells us, brings back the affair to the old form of war. But it is all of no avail. The Afranians are so driven by the want of water, that the two Generals are at last compelled to capitulate and lay down their arms. Five words which are used by Ca'sar in the description of this affair give us a strong instance of his conciseness in the use of words, and of the capab lity for couci.se- ness whicli the Latin language ;itfords. " Preme- baiitur Afraiiiaiii pabnlatioiie. aciualiantnr a^gra." "Tlie soldiers of Afranius w<'re much distressed in the matter of forage, and could obtain water only witli great difiicuhy." These twenty words trans- late tliose five which Casar uses, perliiips with fair accnracy; but many more than twenty would pro- bably have been used by any English historian in dciiiiiig with the same facts. Ca'sar treats his conipatriofs with tlie iiliiiost gen- erosity. So many con(|Uered (^luls he would have sold as slaves, slaughtering their leaders, or lu" would have cut off their liands, or have driven them down upon the river and have allowed (hem to perish in tlie waters. But his coiiipiercd foes are Roman sol- diers, anil he simply <lemands lh;it the iirniy of Afra- nius shall be disbanded, :iMd that the leaders of it shall go, whither they please. 1 le makes tlieui a sja'cch in which he explains liow badly they huvr treated him. Nevertheless he will hurt no one. He BOUAN LKOTONS. •(;i BOMAN LE0I0N8. lias 1>oni<' il all, luiil will lii-ar il, palli-ntly. I.rl llii' ^ OriKTals only li'avi- llic I'mvivcc, anil li-l lln- army j whirli llicy liavi' led hr ilisliaiiili'd. lie will iiiil keep a SdliliiT who dues mil wIkIi Id slay willi liiin, ami will even |)ay lliosc wlioiii Afraiiiiis liaH hccii iiii- j alilr III pay (ml "f liis own fumls. 'I'Iiiihc wIid have lioiiscs and lam! ii! Spain may n-main llicrc. 'I'liosc who liavr none Iw will lirsl fcrd. ami afterwards take l>ack, if mil to Ilaly. iil any rale to tlir liordc-rs of Italy. Till' properly w liieli lii.s own .soldiers have taken from them in the ehanees of war shall he re- tnriH'd to them, and he onl of his own pocket will compensate Insown men. He performs his promise, and takes all tho.se who do not <'lioo.sc to reniaii, to th(' haidcs of the Var. which divides the Province from Ilaly, and there sets them down, full, midonhl, ] of uratilnde to their conqueror. Never was there such clemency, or we may say, lielter ]iiiliev| Ca'- sar's whole <'ampaii;n in Spain had oeenpiid him oidy forty days. In I he mean time Decimus lirntiis, to whom we remember that Ca'sar had ijiven the command of the ships which he prepared a':;ainst the Veneti in the west of Haul, and who was hereafter to he one of those who slew him in the Capitol, ob- tains a naval victory over IIk' mncli mori' miniiToiis Heel of the .Massilians. They hail prepared seven- teen bii; ships, "naves lonija' " they are calli'd by Ca'sar, — and of these Hrntus either destroys or lakes nine. In his ne.\t book (tesar proceeds to tell us how thin;;s went on at .Marseilles both by sea and land aftiT tliis atTair. In his chronicle of the (iallic war, Ca'sar in each book completed the narrative of a year's cam])ais;n. In treatiiis;; of the civii war he devotes the ;ir^t and second books to the doiji;;s of one year. There are tliri'c distinct c|)isodes of the year's campaign narrat- ed in the second ; -the taking of .Marseilles, the siib- jiigalion of the southern pidvince of Spain. — if that can be .said to be subjugated which gave it.self very readily, — and the destruction of a Homan army in Africa under the hands of a barb:irian king. But of all Ca'sar's writings it is perhaps the least interesting, as il tells us but lilth' ol what C.'esar did himself,- - and in fact contains chietly C.'csar's records of the do- ings of his Kieutenanis by sea and land. He la'gins by telling us of the enormous exertions made both by the besiegers and by the besi<'ged at .Massilia which town was now Inld by Domitius on tiie part of Pom- pey, — to suiiplement whom at sea a certain Nasidius « as sent wil h a large licet. Young lirutus, as will be renu'inbered, was attacking the harbor on behalf of Ciesar, an<l had alreaily obtained a victory over the Massilians before Nasidius came up ; and Trebonius, also on the i)art of Ca'sar, was besieging the town from the land. This Decimus Brutus was one of those conspirators who afterwards conspired against Ciesar and slew him, — and Trebonius was another of the number. The wise Oreeks of the city,- more wise than fortunate, however, had explained to Ca'sar when he lirsl expressed his wish to have the town on his side, that really to them there was no diU'erence between Pompey and Cjesar,iiotli of whom they loved with all their hearts, — but they had been oompelled to l)ecome partisans of I'ompey, the I'ompeian Gen- eral, Domitius, being the lirst to enter their town: and now they find themselves obliged to tight as l'om|)eians in defence of their wealth and their homes. Thus driven by necessity, they light well and do their very best to favor the side wiucli we must hencefor- ward call that of the Kciiublic as against an autocrat: — for, di.ving this siege of .Marseilles. Ciesar had been appointed liafator, ami a law to that elTect had been passed at Home, where the j)assing of such a law was no doubt easy enough in the absence of I'ompey, of the Consi;ls. and of all tlie Senators who were Pom- pey's friends. The .Mas.silians had now chosen their side.and they do their very best. We are told that the Ca'sarean troops, from the very high groimd on which Trebon- ius had placed his camp. <-oidil look (low n into the town, und Hce " liow all tin; youth who had been left ill thr- city, anil all tin; elders with their children and wives, aiid the sentinels of the cilv, eitliiT strelt-hed their hands to heaven from the wafis, or, entering tin- temples of the ininiorlid gods, unil throwing tlieiii selves before I heir sacn-d innigeH.prayedlhut IhcJir'uv- enly powers would give them victory. Nor was tlirre one among them w ho did not believe that on IhereHuIt of that day depended all that they lia<l," namely, liberty, property and life; for I he .Massilians.doiibtlesH, had hear<l of Avari< iiir., of .\lesia. and of L'.xellodu- luim. •• Whi'ti the battle was begun," siiys Ca'sar, "the .Massilians failed not in valor; but. inindfid of the lessons they had just received from their lownH- men, fought with thi' belief that the pri'sent was tlieir only opportututy of doing aughl for their own pres- ervation ; and I hat to those who should fall in buttle, loss of life wiiuld only comi' a little sooiht than to the others, w ho wouhl have to undergo llie same fate, shoidd the city li<' taken." Cesar, as he wrol<' this, doubtless thought of what he had done in (iaul when policy demanded from him an exireiiiily of crm-Ily • and.so writing, he enhanci'i I the clemency with which, as he is about to tell us. he afterwards treated the Mas- silians. When the time came it did not suit him to depo])ulatea rich town, the trade of whose merchant.s wasbenelicial both to U<imeand to the j'rovinci'. He is about to tell us of his mercy, and therefore explains to us beforehand how little was mercy expecleil from him. We feel that every line he writes is weighed, though the time for such weighing must have' been very short with one wliosi- bands were so fidl as were always the hands of Ca'sar. Nasidius, whom we mtiy call Pompey's Admiral, was of no use at all. The -NlassiKans. tempted by his coming, attack bravely the ship which hears the Hag of young Brutus; l)ut young Brutus is too quick for Ihem, an<l the imhappy Massilians run two of their biggest vessels against each other in their endeavor to pin that of the Ca'sarean Admirid between them. The JIassilian Heel is utterly dispersed. Five are stmk. four are taken: one gets oil' with Na^idius. who runs away, making no elTort to light ; who has been sent there,— so Casiir hints, by Pompey, not togive assistance, but only to preteml to give assistance. One ship gets back into the harbor with the sad tid- ings; and the JIassilians — despairing only for a mo- ment at the lirst blush of the bad news— determine that their walls may still be defended. The town was very well supplied with such things as were need- <'d for liefence. the peoph' bi-ing a provident people, w ell instructed and civilized. with meausat theirconi- maud. We are told of great poles twelve feet long, with sharp iron lieads to them, which the l)esiegers could throw with such force from the engines on their walls as to drive them through four tiers of the wicked crates or stationaiy shields which the Casareans built up for their protect ion. — believing that no force could drive a weapon through them. As we reail of this we cannot but think'nf Armstrong and Whitfield guns. and iron plates, and granite batteries, and earth- works. These terrible darts, thrown from " balislji'." are very sore upon the Ca'sarcans ; Ihiv therefore contrive an inunense tower, so high that it cannot be reached liy any weapon, so built that no wood or ma- terial subject io fire shall be on t'r.e outside.— which they erect story by story, of very great strength. And as they raise this stepby step, each story is secured against fire and against the enemy. The reader, — prol)ably not an engineer himself.- is disposed to think as' he strugglesthrough this minute description of the erection which Ca'sar gives, and emleavors to realize the way in which it is done, that Casar must himself liave served speciidly as an engineer. Hut in truth'iie was not at this siege himself, and had noth- ing to do with the planning of the tower, and must intliis instance at least have got a written description from his ofiicer,— as he probably did before when he built the memorable bridge over the Hhine. .Vnd when the tower is finished, tlicv make a long covered- SOMAN LEGIONS. 762 ROMAN LEGIONS. way or shed, — musculum or muscle Cassar calls it ; and with this they form for themselves a passage from the big tower to a special point in the walls of the town. This muscle is so strong with its sloping roof that nothing thrown upon it will lirealv or burn it. The JIassilians try tubs of flaming pilch, and great fragments of rock ; but these siinply slip to the grovmd.and are pulled away with long poles and forks. And the CiEsareaus. from the height of their great tower, have so terrible an advantage ! The Massil- ians cannot defend their wall, and a breach is made, or almost made. The Massilians can do no more. The very gods are against them. So they put on tlie habit of sup- plicants, and go forth to tlie conquerors. The}' will give their city to Cfesar. Ciesar is expected. Will Trebonius be so very good as to wait until CsBsar comes? If Trebonius should proceed with liis work so that the soldiers should absolutely get into the town, then — Trebonius knows very well wliat would happen tlieu. A little delay cannot hurt. Nothing sliall be done till Caesar comes. As it hap- pens, C'a-sar has alreaily especially ordered that the city shall be spared ; and a kind of truce is made, to endure till Ciesar sliall come and take possession. Trebonius lias a difficulty in keeping his soldiers from the jilunder : but he does restrain them, and besiegers and besieged are at rest, and wait for Ca'sar. But these 5lassilians are a crafty people. Tlie Ca;sarean soldiers, having agreed to wait, take it easily, and simply amuse themselves in these days of waiting. When they are quite off their guard, and a liigh wind favors th^ scheme, the Massilians rush out and succeed in burning the tower, and the muscle, and the rampart, and the sheds, and all the implements. Even though the tower was built with brick, it burns freely — so great is tlie wind. Then Trebonius goes to work, and does it all again. Because there is no more wood left round about the camp, he makes a rampart of a new kind — hitherto unheard of — with bricks. Doubtless the Cesarean soldiers had tirst to make the bricks, and we can imagine what were their feelings in reference to the jlas- silians. But however that may be, they worked so well and so hard that the Massilians soon see that their late success is of no avail. Nothing is left to them. Neither perfidy nor valor can avail them, and now again they give themselves up. They are starved and suffering from pestilence, their fortifica- 'tions are destroyed, they have no hope of aid from without — and now they give tliemselves up — intend- ing no fraud, •■rexe dedere sine frimde O'listituunt." Domitius, who is the Pompeian General, manages to escape in a ship. He starts with three sliips, but the one in which he himself sails alone escapes the hands of "young" Brutus, Surely now will Mar- seilles be treated with worse treatment than that which fell on the Gaulish cities. Bnt such is by no means C'a'sar's will. Caesar takes their pulilic trea- sure and their ships, and reminding them that he spares I hem rather for their name and old char- acter than for any merits of theirs shown towards him, leaves two legions among them, luid goes to Home. At Avaricum, when the (iaiils had fought to defend their own liberties, he had destroyed everybody ; — at Alesia he had decreed the death of every inhabitant when they had simply asked him | leave to pass through his camp:- at U.xellodununi he had cut off Ihe hands and poked out the eyes of Gauls who liail dared to tight for their country. But the (iauls were barbarians wlmm it was neces- sary that Ciesar should pacify. The .Massilians were Greeks, and a civilized people — and might be very useful. Hefore coming on to Marseilles there had been a little more for (^'icsar to do in Spain, where, as has been jireviously narrated, he Imd just compelled Afranius and I'etreius to lay down their iinns :iii{l disband their legions. .loiried with them liad been a third Pompeian General, one Varro — a trulv dis- 1 I tinguished man, though not, perhaps, a very great General — of whom Oiesar tells us that with his Roman policy he veered between Pompeian and t'a'sarean tactics till, unfortunately for himself, he declared for Ponipey and the wrong side, wiien he heard that Afranius Wiis having his own way in the i neighborhood of Lerida. But Varro is in the south of Spain, in Andalusia — or Ba-tica, as it was then called — and in this southern province of Spain it seems that CiEsar's cause was more popular than that of Ponipey. Ca'sar, at any rate, has but little difficulty with Varro. The Pompeian officer is desertecl by his legions, and gives himself up very quickly. Ciesar does not care to tell us what he did with Varro, but we know that he treated his brotlier Roman with the utmost courtesy. Varro was a very learned man, and a friend of Cicero's, and one who wrote books, and was a credit to Rome as a man of letters if not as a General. We are told that he wrote 490 volumes, and that he lived to be eighty-eight — a fate very uncommon with Romans wiio meddled with jiublic iiffairs in these diiys. Ciesar made everything smooth in the south of Spain, restoring the money and treasures which Varro had taken from the towns, and giving thanks to everybody. Then he went on over the Pyrenees to Marseilles, and maile things smooth there. But in the mean time things were not at all smootll in Africa. The iiiime of Africa was at this time giv- en to a small province belonging to the Republic, ly- ing to the east of Nnmidia, in which Carthage had stood when Carthiige was a city, containing that pro- montory which juts out toward Sicily, and having Utica as its Roman capital. It has been already said that when Ciesar determined to gain possession of certain provinces of the Republic before he fol- lowed Pompej' across the Adriiitic, he sent a Lieuten- ant with three legions into Sicily, desiring him to go on to Africa as soon as things should have been ar- ranged in the i.sland after the Csesarean fashion. The Sicilian nnitter is not very troublesome, as Cato, the virtuous man, in whose hands the government of the island had been intrusted on liehalf of the Republic, leaves it on the arrival of the Ciesarean legions, com- plaining bitterly of Pompev's conduct. Then CiV- sar's Lieutenant goesover to Africa with two legions, as commanded, proposing to his army the expulsion of one Attius Varus, who had, according to Cicsar's story, taken irregular possession of the province, keeping it on behalf of Ponipey, liut not allowing the Governor appointed by the Repulilic so much as to put his foot on the .shore. This Lieutenant was a greiit favt)rite of Ciesar, by naiue Curio, who had been elected Tribune of the people just when the Sen- ate was making its attempt to recall Ciesar from his command in Gaul. In that emergency, Curio as Tri- bune bad been of service to Ctesar, and Ctesar loved the young man. He was one of tlio.se who, though noble by birtli. hiid flung themselves among the peo- ple, as Catiline hiid done and Clodius, — unsteady, turbulent, unseruiiulmis. vicious, needy, fond of pleasure, riipiicinus. but well educiilcii, bnive and clever. Ciesar liimself hiid been such a man in his j'outh. and could easily forgive such faults in the character of one who, in addition to such virtues as have been named, possessed that farther and great- er virtue of loving Ca>sar. Cicsiir expected great tilings fi'iim Curio, and trusted him thoroughly. Cur- io, with niiiiiy ships iiinl his two legions, hinds ill Af- ricii, and prepares to win the province for his great friend. lie does obtain some littli' advantage, so thiit he is called ••Iniperator" by his soldiers, — a name not given to a General till he has been victor- ious in the field ; but it seems clear, from Ciesar's telling of the story, tliiit Curio's own officers and own soldiers distrusted liiin, and were doublfiil whi'lher they would follow him, or would taUe pos- session of the ships iiiid return to Sicily ; —or would go over to . Villus \iinis, who h;id been their Com- inaiider ill Italy before Ihev hiid deserleil from I'oni- ROMAN LEGIONS. 7(1 ROMAN LEGIONS pey (() Cii'siir. A foiinnil of wur is held, and lliiTC IS iimcli iloiiM. It is not only or cliiclly of Atliiis Varus lliclr Uoniaii cnrniy, Hull lliry an- afraid: but tlirrc is .lulia iu llicir iici^jrljliorliood, the Itirij; of Numidia, who will ccrtaiidy tii;lil for N'ariis and a- gaiiisl Curio. IIi' is I'oinpc y's dcilarccl friend, and i'(lMally declared as (lesar's foe. lie lias, loo, special grounds of (luiirre! ai;ainst Curio liiniself ; and if lie comes in person with his army,- lirini;ini; such an army as he can lirinj; if he pleases, — it will certainly . go badly with Curio, should Curio be distanl from ' his earn]). Tiu'ii Curio, not content with his cipiineil of war. and iinxious that his soldiers should support him ill his desire to liuhl, makes a speech to the le- gionaries. We must reniember. of <'oiirse, that Ciu- Hiir gives us the words of this spe<'cli, and that CsBsar must himself have put the words together. It is begmi in the third person. He,— that is Curio, — t(01s the null how ii.seful they were to Ca'sar at Cortiiiium, the town at which tiiey went over from Pcmipey to Ca'sar. Hut in the second Hentence he breaks into the lirsl person and puts the very words into Curio's iiioutb. •• Kor you and your services," ho says, "were copied liy all the towns; nor is it without cause that Ca'sar thinks kindly of yon, and th ' I'ompeians unkindly. For I'onipey, having lost no battle, but driven by the result of your deed, lied from Italy. Me. whom Ca-sar holds most dear, and Sifiily and Africa without which hecannol hold Uotiie and Italy, Ca'sarhas intrusted to your honor. There are some who advise you to ilesiTt me, for what can be more desirabh- to such men than that they at the same time should circumvent me, and fasten upon you a foul Clinic ? .... Hut you, — have you not lieard of the things done by Ca'sar in Spain, two armies beaten. two ttenerals conipiered. two )>ro- vinces gained, and all tliis done in forty days from that on which Ca'sar lirst saw his eiH'Uiy / Can those who, uninjured, were unable to stand against him. resist him ninv when they are coiupiered ? And you, who followed Ca'sar when victory on his side was uncertain, now that fortune lias declared herself,will you go over to the ccmquered side when you are about to realize the reward of your zeal y . . . . But, perhaps I hough you love Ca'sar, you distrust me. I will not say much of my own deserts towards yon, —which are iiiileed U'ss as yet than I had wislied or you had expected." Then, iiaving thus declared that he will not speak of himself, he does venture to say a few words on the subject. "But why should I pass ovcrmy own work, and the result that has been as yet achieved, and my own fortune in war? Is it displeasing to you that I brought over the whole ar- my, safe, without losing a ship? That, as I came, at my tirst ouslauglit, 1 should have dispersed the licet of the enemy ? That, in two days, I should have been twice viclorious with my cavalry : that I should have cut out two hundred transports from the ene- my's harbor; Unit I should have so haras.sed the ene- my that neither by hind nor sea could they get food to supply their w;iiits/ Will it please you "to repudiate such fortune ;inil such guidance, and to connect yourself with tlie ilisgrace at Cortiniiini. the tliglil from Italy," iiiimely, Pompey's flight to Dyrrach- ium, — ■■ the siirremierof Spain, an<l the evils of this African war? I indeed havewisheil to be called Ca-- .sar's soldier, and you have called me your Imperator. If it repents you of having done so, I give you back the compliment, (iive me back my own name, lest it seem that in scorn you have called me by tliat title of honor." This is very spirited ; and the merely rhe- torical assertion by C;esar tli;it Curio thus spoke to his soldiers is in itself interesting, as showimr us the way 111 which the legionaries were treated by their Commanders, and in which the greatest General, of that or of any age. thought it natural tlnil a leader should address his troops. It is of value, also, as showiui; the ditliculty of keeping any legion true to either side in ;i civil w:ir, in which, on either siile. the men must tight for a Commander thev had learned to respi'ct, and iigaiiisl aCominander Ihi'y respecK-d, the Commander in each caw being a Roman Im- perator. Curio, too, as we know, was a man who on such jin occasion would use words. Hut that In- used till' words here put into his mouth, orany w.ird« like them, is very improbable. ( ii'sar was an.vloiiH to make the bisl apology he coiihl for the gallant young friend who had perished in his cause, ami has Khown his love by makiiii; tin- man he loverl memor- able to all posterity. Hut before the dark hour eoiiies upon him tlir young man has a gleam of success, which hail he really spoken the words put into his moiilli by Ciesar, would have si-emed to justify them. He attacks the army of his fellow -Konian, \arus, and beats it, driv- ing it bark into I'tica. lie then resolves to besiege the town, and Ciesar implies that he would have been successful through tlieCa'sarean sympathies of the townsmen,- had it not been for the apiiroach of the terrible .Jiiba. Then comes a rumor which reaches Curio, :inil which reaches \ariis loo inside the town, that the Numidian King is hurrying to the scene with all his forces. IIi' has tinisheil another atTair that he had on hand, and can now look to his Homan friends,- and to his Homaii enemies. .Iiiba craftily sends forward his I'ra-feet, or Lieutenant, Sabura, with a small force of cavalry, and Curio is led to imagine that .liiba has not come, and that Sabura has been sent with scanty aid to the relief of Varus. Surely he can give a good account of Sabura and tlnil small body of Numidian horsemen. We see from the very hrst that Curio is doomed. Ciesar, in a few touching words, makes his apolegy. "The young man's youth had much to do with it, and his high spirit ; his former success too, and his own faith in his own gooii fortune." There is no word of reproach. Curio makes another speech to his soldiers. "Hasten to your jirey." he says, "hasten to your glory!" They do hasten. — after such a fashion that when the foremost of them reached Sabura's troops, the hiudermost of them are scattered far back on the road. They are cut to pieces by Julia. Curio is invited by one of his officers to es- cape back to his tent. Hut Cu'sar tells us that Curio in that last moment replied that having lost th« army with which Ca'sar had trusteii him, he would never again look Casar in the face. That he did say some such words as these, and that they were repeated by that ollicer to Ca'sar, is probable enough. " So tigliting he is slain :"— and there is an end of the man whom Ciesar loved. What then li;ippeued was very sad for a Roman army. Many hurry down to the ships at the sea ; but there is so uuicii terror, so iiiucli confusion, and things are so badly done, that but very few get over to Sicily. The remainder endeavor to give diem- selves up to Varus ; after doing which, could they have done it, their position would not have been very bad. A Homan surrendering to a Roman would, at the worst, but tind that he was compelled to change his party. Hut .luba conies up and claims them as his prey", and Varus does not dare to oppose the bar- b;irian king. .luba kills the most of them, but sends a few, whom he thinks may serve his purpose and add to his glory. b:ick to his own kingdom. In doing which Jubii bi'iiaved no worse than Ciesar habitually behaved in Gaul; but Civsar always writes as though not <mly a Homan must regard a Roman as more than a man, but as though also all others must so reirard Honians. .\nd by making such assertions in thiir own lichalf, Honians were so regarded. We are then told that the barbarian Kingof rsumidia rode into I'tica triumphant, wilii Roman senators in his train ; and the names of two sjiecial Roman Senators Ciesar sends down to posterity as having been among that base number. As far as we can spare them, they shall be spared. ("ii'sar besrins the last book of his last Commentary by telling us that this was the year in which he(Ca"- s;"ir was by the law permitted to name a Consul. He BOHAN LEGIOirS. 764 BOMAN LEGIONS. names Publius Servilius to act in conjunction with himself. Tlie ineauing of this is, that, as Csesar had been crtatefl Dictator. Pompcy liaving taken witli him into Illyria the Consuls of the previous year, Ca?sar was now the only magistrate under whose authority a Consul could be elected. No doubt he did choose the man. but the election was supposed to have been made in accordance with the form of the Republic. lie remained at Rome as Dictator for eleven days, during which he made various laws, of which the chief object was to lessen the insecurity caused bj' the disruption of the ordinary course of things; and then he went down to Brindisi on the track nf Ponipey. He had twelve legions with him, I but he was badly off for ships in which to transport 1 them: and hoownsthat the healtli oftliemen is bad, an autumn in the south of Italy having been severe on men accustomed to the healthy climate of Gaid and the north of Spain. Pompey, he tells us, had had a whole year to prepare his army. — a whole year, without warfare, and had collected men and sliips : and money, and all that support which assent gives, ; from Asia and the Cyclades, from Corcyra, Athens, Bitliynia, Cilicia, PhaMiicia, Egypt, and the free states of Achaia. He had with him nine Roman legions, and is expecting two more with his father- in-law Scipio out of Syria. He has three thousand i archers from Crete, from Sparta, and from Pontus; ' he has twelve hundred slingers, and he has seven thousand cavalry from Galatia, Cappadocia, and Thrace. A valorous Prince from Macedonia had brought him two hundred men, all moimted. Five hundred of Galatian and German cavalry, who had been left to overawe Ptolemy in Eg_ypt, are brought to Pompey by the filial care of yoimg Cnicus. lie too had armed eight hundred of their own family retainers, and had brought them armed. Autiochus of Commagena sends liim two luindred moimted archers, — mercenaries, however, not sent without promise of high payment. Dardaui, — men from the land of old Troy, Bessi, from the banks of the lle- brus, Thessaliaus and Macedonians, have all been crowded together under Pompey's standard. We feel that Ca'sar's mouth waters as he recounts them. But we feel also that he is preparing for the triumpli- ant record in which he is aljout to tell us that all these swarms diil he scatter to the winds of heaven with the handful of Roman legionaries which he at last succeeded in landing on the shores of Illyria. Pompey has also collected from all parts ■' frumenti vim maximam" — "a great power of corn indeed." as an Irishman would say, translating the words lite- rally. And he has covered the seas with his ships, so as to hinder Cajsar from coming out of Italy. He has eight Vice-admirals to command his various fleets, — allot whom Ciesar names; and overthem all as Admiral-in-Chief, is Bibulus.who was joint-consul with CiEsar before C;esar went to (Taul, and who was so harassed during his Consulship by the Ca^sar- eans that he shut himself up in his house, and allowed Ciusar to rule as sole Consul. Now he is about to take his revenge ; but the vengeance of such an one as Bibulus <;annot reach Ciesar. (';esar having led his legions to Brindisi, makes tliem a speech which alnmsl beats in impudence anything that he ever s;iid or did. lie tells them that as they have now nearl_y finished all bis work for him, — they have only yet to lay low the Republic with Pompey the Great, and all the forces of tlie Ki'])Mb- lic — to which, however, have to be adde(l King Ptolemy in Egyjit, King Pliarnaces in Asia, luid King Juba ill Numidia; they had better leave be- hind them at lirindisi all their liltle iirojierty, the spoils of former wars, so lli;it tliey may jiack the tighter in the boats in which he means to seiel them across to Illyria,— if only they can es<-ape the nier- oies of ex-Consul Admiral Bibulus. There is no suggestion that at any future lime they will receiver their jiroperty. For their future hopes tln^y are to trust entirely to (.;a;sar'H gi'iierosity. Willi (iiie shout they declare their readiness to obey him. He takes over seven legions, escaping the dangers of those "rocks of evil fame," the Acroceraunia of which Horace tells us. — and escaping Bibulus also, who seems to have shut himself up in his ship as he did before in his house during the Consulship. Caesar seems to have made the passage with the conviction that had he fallen into the hands of Bibulus every- thing would have been lost. And with ordinary precaution and diligence im the part of Bibulus such would have been eventually the result. Yet he makes the attempt — trusting to the Fortune of Ca;sar — and he succeeds. He lands at a jilace which he I calls Palieste on the coast of Epirus, considerably to 1 the south of Dyrrachium, in Ill_\Tia. AtDyrrachium Pompey had landed the 3ear before, and there is now stored that wealth of ])rovision of which Ca?sar has spoken. But Bibulus at last determines to be active, and he does manage to fall upon the empty vessels which Ciesar sends back to fetch the remainder of : his army. " Having come upon thirty of them, he ; falls upon them with all the wrath occasioned by his own want of circumspection and grief, and burns them. And in the same tire he kills the sailors and the masters of the vessels — hoping to deter others." Ca'sar tells us, " bj' the severity of the punishment." \ After that we are not sorry to hear that he potters ■ about on the seas very busy, but still incapable, and that he dies, as it seems, of a broken heart. He does indeed, catch one ship afterwards — not laden with sol- diers, but coming on a private venture, with child- ren, servants, and suchlike, dependants and follow- ers of Ciesar's camp. All these, including the child- ren. Bibulus slaughters, down to the smallest child. We have, however, to remember that the story is told b}' C'fBsar. and that Caesar did not love Bibulus. Marc Antony has been left at Brindisi in command of the legions which C;esar could not bring across at his first trip for want of sufficient ship-room, and is pressed very miich by Caesar to make the passage. There are attempts at treaties made, but as we read the account we feel that Caesar is only obtaining the delay which is necessary to him till he shall have been joined by Antony. We are told how by this time the camps of Ca'sar and Pompey have been brought so near together that they are separated only by the River Apsus — for Caesar had moved north- wards towards Pompey's stronghold. And the sol- diers talked together across the stream: "nor, the while, was any weapon thrown — by compact between those who talked." Then Civsar sends Vatiuius, as his ambassador, down to the river to talk of peace ; and Vatiuius demands with a loud voice "whether it should not be allowed to citizens to send legates to citi- zens, to treat of ]ieace- a thing that has been allowed even to deserters from the wilds of the Pyrenees and to robbers — especially with so excellent an object as to hinder citizens from fighting with citizens." This seems so reasonable, that a da_v is named, and Labi- entis— who has deserted from tVesar and become Pompeian — comes to treat on one side of the river, and Vatiuius on the other. But — so Cicsar tells the story himself— the Caesarean soldiers throw their wj'apons at their old General. They probably cannot endure the voice iir sightof one whom they regard as a reni'gade. Eabienus escapes under the protection of those who are with him — but he is full of wrath against Cjvsar. "After this," sa}'s lie, " let us cease to speak of treaties, for there can be no peace for us till f'a'sar's head has been brought to us." But the col- loquies over the little stream no doubt answered Cie- sar's purpose. Ca'sar is very anxious to get his legions over from Italy . and even scolds Aiitcmy for not liringiiig llieiii. There is a story- whi<'h heddcsiKil tell himself - Ihat he put himself into a small boat. inti'Uding to <-ross over to Briedisi in astorm, to hurry in;itters, and that he encouraged llie awestruck master of the boatby re- minding him that he would carry " Ca'sar anil his fortunes." Thi' stnrv goes on to sav that the sailors BOHAN LEGIONS. I D.) ROMAN LEGIONS. altoiiiptcd tlur trip, liul wen- driven Imck hy llir li-m- pi'Sl. Al liisl llicn' spriiifjH up u hoiiIIi vvIikI, mill An- tony veiil.urcs with iiis lloliUii, iilllii)M';li the war- Hliip-i of I'oinpcy Htill llolil llii' hiu, and (jiiiird tlic II- Ivrian coast. Uiil Cn'sar's (Icncral is hNccis>fid, and llic second liall of I he Ca'sarean army iscarrieil norlli- ward tiy favoririij hree/es towards Ihc shore in the very si;;lit of I'onipey and liis soldiers al Dyrrachinin. Two ships, however, laj; hehind. and fall into the hands of one Olacilius, an olUcer hejonjtini; to I'oin- pcy. 'I'lic two ships, one full of recruits and the other of veterans. auree to surrender, ( )tacilius liavinj; sworn Ilia! he will not hurt tiie men. " lli-rc you may hoc," nays Caesar, "how much safely to men there is in presence of mind." The recruits do as they have un- dertaken, and ;,'ive themselves U|) ; w lieriMipon Ota.- «:ilius, alto;retlK'r (lisre;;ardiiin his oath, like a true Konian, kills every man of them. Hut the veterans, (lisreuardini; I heir word also, and kni>wini; no doubt to a fraction the worth of the word of ()la<ilius, run their shii) ashore in the niirht, and, willi much ti^lit- inLT. i;et safe to Antony. ( 'a'sar implies that the re- cruits I'vcn would have known belter had they not been sea-sick : liul that even bili;e-water and bad weather combined had faili'd to touch the ancient courage of the veteran legionaries. They were still jjnod men — " item conlli<tali et tempestatis ft senti- iiH- viliis." We are then told liow Mclflliis Scipio, coming out of Syria with his legions into Macedonia almost suc- ■ ceeds in robbiiii; the temple of Diana of Kphesus on his way. lie ,i;ets t<]i;elher a body of Senators, wdio arc to give evidence that he counts the money fairly as hi! takes it out of the temiJe. Hut letters come from Pompey just as he is in the act, and he does not dare to delay his journey even to complete so pleasant a transaction. He comes to iiieel I'omjjey and to share his command at th<' i;r<'at battle that must soon be fouiiht. We hear. loo. how (Jiesar sends his l.ieulenanls into Thessaly and -Ktolia and Macedonia, to try what friends he has there, to lake cities, and to get food. He is now in a land which lias seemed specially to belong to Poni])ey; but even here they have heard of Ca'sar, and the Gre<'ks arc simply an.vious to be friends with the strongest Uo- man of Ihc day. They have to jud!:e which will win, and to ailliere to him. For the poor (reeks there is miK'h dilliculty in forming a judgment. Pri'seutly we shall see the way in » hich (';esar gives a lesson on that subject to the citizens of Goinphi. In the mean lime he joins his own forces to those lately brought by Antony out of Italy, and resolves that he will force Pompey to a tight. We may divide the remainder of his last book of the second Commentary into two episodes. — the first beinii tlie story of what occurreil within the lines at P(^lra. and the se<i)nd the account of the crowning battle of Phar.salia. In the first Pompey was the vic- tor, — but the victory, great as il was, has won from the world very little notice. In the second, as all the world knows, Ca'sar was triumphant and hence- forward dominant. And yet Ihe alTairal Petra should have made a Pharsalia unnecessary, and indei'd im- possil)le. Two reasons have conspired to make Pom- pey's complete success at Peira unimportant in the world's esteem. This Commentary was written not by Pompey. but by Ca'sar; and, then, unfortunately for Pompey. Pharsalia was allowed to follow Petra. It is not very easy to unravel Caesar's story of the doinirs of the two" armies at Petra. Nor. were this ever so casv a task, would our limits or Ihe purport of this volunie allow us to al tempt to give that narra- tive in full to our readers. ( ;esar had managed to join the legions which he had himself brought from Italy with those which had crossed afterwards with Antony, and was now anxious for a battle. His men. thouiiii fewer in number than they who 'followed Pompey. were lit for tighting. and knew all the work of soldierlUiT. Pompi-y's men were for the most part beginners; — but Ihey were learning, and every week added to their expr-rii'iiite was a wei-k in l'oni|>i;y'« favor. With hope of forcing a battle, Ciesur inuiiuf;- ed to get his army between Dyrrachiuni, in which were kept all Poinpey's stores and wealth of war.and the army of his opponent, so that Pompey. as regard- 1(1 any :ipproach by land was shut off from iJyrra- <:hium. IJiit the sea was open to him. His fleet was everywhere on the coast, while Ciesar had not a ship that could dare to show its bow upon the waters. There was a sleep rocky promontory some few miles north >)f Dyrriichiiim, from wdienc<! there was easy access to the sea, c:dled I'etra, or Ihe rock. At this point Pompey could touch Ihe sea. but l)itwecii Petra and Dyrraciiiiini Ciesarheld Ihe country. Here, on this rock, taking in for the use of his army a cer- tain somewhat w ide ainoiint of pasturage at the foot of the rock, l'om|)ey placed his army, and made in- trenchmcnlsall round from sea to sea, fortifying him- self as all Homan (ieni-rals knew how to do, with u bank and ililcli and twenty-four turrets and earth- works tlnil would make the place absolutely impreir- nable. Tli<- length of his linis was (ifleen Koinan miles, — moretlain thirteen Knglish miles, - so that within his works he might have as much space an possible to give him grass for his horses. So placed, he had all tiie world al his back to feed him. Not only could he get at that wealth of stores which be had amassed at Dyrrachium. and wliirh were safe from CiCsar, but the coasts of (Greece, and Asia, and Egvpl were open to bis ships. Two things only were wanting to him.—sullicient grass for his horses, and water. The lllyrian country at his back was one so unproductive, being rough and mountainous. that the inlndiitants tliem.selves were in ordinary times fed upon imported corn. And Pompey, foreseemg some- thiiii; of what might happi'U.had taken care to emp- ty tiie slore-houses and to leave the town behind liim destitute and impoverished. Nevertlieless Cu;- s;ir. Inivim: got the body of his enemy, as il were, imprisoned at Petra. was delermineti to keep big prisoner fast. So round and in fnmlof Pompev'slines, he also m;ide other lines from sea to sea. lie began by erectini: turrets and placing small detachments on the little hills outside Poinpey's lines, so as to pre- vent his enemy from getting the grass. Then he join- ed these towers by lines, ami in this way surrouniled the other lines, — thinking that so Pompey would not be able to send out his horsemen for forage; and again, that the horses inside at Petrn might gradual- ly be starved ; and again "that the rei)Utation," — " auctoritatem," — " which in the estimation of for- eisn nations belonged chielly to Pompey in this war. would be lessened when the story should have been told over the world that Pompey "had been besieged bv Ciesar, and did not dare to tight." "We are. iierhaps, too much disposed to think— ' reading our history cursorily— that Ca;sar at this I time "was evervbody, and that Pompey was ' hardly worthy to" be his foe. Such passages in the ' Commentary "as that above translated— they are not many, but a few suffice— show that this idea is er- roneous. Up to this period in their joint courses Pompev had been the ;rreater man : Ciesar bad done very niuch. but Pompey had done more— and now he had on his side almost all that was wealthy and respectable in Rome. He led the Conservative parlv. and was still confident that be bad only to bide his time, and that Ca-sar must fall before bira. ' Ciesar and Cicsareaiis were to bini as the spirits of the devolution were in France to Louis XVI., to Charles X.. and to I.ouis-Philippe. before they had made their powers credible and formidable : as the Keform Hill and Catholic Emancipation were to such men iis George IV. and Lord Eldon. while yet I they could be opposed and postponed. It was im- pos"sible to Pompey that the sweepings of Rome, . even with Ciesar and Ctesar's army to help them, should at least prevail over himself and over the Roman Senate. "He was said at that time." we are a"-aiu uanslaliug Ctesar's words, "to have declared ROMAN LEGIONS. 766 ROKAN LEGIONS. with boasts among liis owd people, that he would not himself deny that as a general he should be coa- sidered worthless if Caesar's legions should now ex- tricate themselves from the position in which they had rashly entangled themselves without very great loss" — ••mdiimiiclHrimfiito" — loss that would amount wellnigh to destruction. And he was all but right in what he said. There was a great deal of fighting for the plots of grass and different bits of vantage- ground — fighting which nuist have taken place al- most between the two lines. But Caesar suffered under this disadvantage, that his works, being much the longest, required the greatest number of men to erect them and prolong them and keep, them in order : whereas Porapey, who in this respect had the least to do. having the inner line, was provided with much the greater number of men to do it. Caesar's men, being veterans, had always the ad- vantage in the actual lighting; but in the mean time Pompey's untried solders were obtaining that experience which was so much needed b}' them. Nevertheless Pompej' suffered very much. They could not get water <m the rock, and when he at- tempted to sink wells, C'lesar so perverted the water-courses that the wells gave no water. C;esar tells us that he even dammed up the streams, mak- ing little lakes to hold it, so tliat it should not trickle down in its undergroimd courses to the comfort of his enemies; hut vve should have thought that anj' reservoirs so made must soon have overflown them- selves, and have been useless for the intended pur- pose. In the mean time Ca;siir's men had no bread but wdiat was made of a certain wild cabbage — ■■chara" — whicli grew there, which they kneaded up with milk, and lived upon it cheerfufly, though it was not very palatable. To show the Pompeians the sort of fare with which real veterans could be content to break their fasts, they threw loaves of this composition across the lines, for they were close together and could talk to each other, and the i Pompeians did not hesitate to twit their enemies with their want of provisions. But the Cesareans had plenty of water— and plent3' of meat : and thej' assure Ca-sar that they would rather eat the bark off the trees than allow the Pompeians to escape them. But there was always this for Cffisar to fear — that Pompey shotdd land a dctachtuent behind his lines and attack him at the hack. To lander this Caesar made another intreuchmeut, with ditch and bank, running at right angles from the shore, and was intending to join this to his main work by a transverse line of fortifications running along that short portion of the coast which lay between his first lines and the second, when tliere came upcm him the disaster which nearly destroyed him. While he was digging his trenches and building his turrets the fighting was so freq\u-nt that, as Caesar tells us, on one day there were six battles. Pompey lost two thousand legionaries, wliile CiEsar lost no more than twenty ; but every Ca'sarean engaged in a certain turret was woundefl ; and four officers lost their eyes. CiEsar estimates that thirty thous- and arrows' were thrown upon the men defending this tower, and tells us of one Sca'va, .'in oHi<'cr, who had two hundred an<l thirty lioles made by these arrows in his own shield. We can onl}- surmise that it must have been a very big sliield, and that there must have been nuich trouble in counting tlu/ holes. Ca'sar, however, was so mucJi pleased that he nave Hcicva a large sum of money- something over i'500, and, allowing liim to skip over six inter- mediate ranks, made him at once first centurion— or I'riiiiipilus of the legion. We remember no other record of such quick promotion- in prose. There is, indeed, the well-known case of a common sailor w.ho did a gallant action aiul was made First-Lieu- teuant on the spot ; but that is told in ver.se, and I lie common sailor was a lady. Two perfidious (lauls to whom Ciesar had l)icn very kind, but whom he had been obliged to check on accmmt of certain gross pecidations of which they had been guilt)-, though, as he tells us, he had not time to punish them, went over to Pompey, and told Pompey all the secrets of C'a'sar's ditches, and forts, anil mounds — finished and unfinished. Before that, Ca'sar assures us, not a single man of his had gone over to the eneni}', though many of the enemy had come to him. But these perfidious Gauls did a world of mischief. Pompey, hearing how far Ctesar was from having his works along the sea-shore finished, got together a huge fleet of boats, and suc- ceeded at night in throwing a large body of his men ashore between Ca;sar's two lines, thus dividing Caesar's two forces, and coming upon them in their weakest point. Caesar admits that there was a panic in his lines, and that the slaughter of his men was very great. It seems that the very size of his own works produced the ruin wliich befell them, for the different parts of them were divided one from another, so that the men in one position could not succor those in another. The affair ended in the total route of the Csesarean army. Ca'sar actually fled, and had Pompey followed him we must sup- pose that then there must be an eu'.l of Ca-sar. He acknowledges that in the two battles fought on that day he lost 960 legionaries, 32 officers, and 32 standards. And then Cai'sar tefls us a story of Labienus, who had been his most trusted Lieutenant in the Gallic wars, but who had now gone over to Pompey, not choosing to fight against the Kepublic. ' Labienus demanded of Pompey the C'lcsarean captives, and caused ♦hem all to be slaughtered, asking them with scorn whether veterans such as they were accustomed to run away. Ca?sar is very angry with Labienus ; but Labienus might have de- fended himself by saying that the slaughter of pris- oners of war was a custom he had learned in Gaul. As for those words of scorn. Cresar could hardly have heard them with his own ears, and we can un- derstand that he should take delight in saying hard things of Labienus. Pompey was at once proclaimed Imperator. And Pompey used the name, though the victory had, alas! been gained over his own fellow-countrymen. " So great was the effect of all this on the spirits and con- fidence of the Pompeians, that they thought no more of the carrying on of the war, but only of the victory they had gained." And then Caesar throws scorn upon the Pompeians. making his own apology in the same words. "They did not care to remember that the small number of our soldiers was the cause of thei-r trimnph. or that the uneveuuess of the ground and narrowness of the defiles had anything to do with it: or the occupation of our lines, and the panic of our men between their double fortifications, or our army cut into two parts, so that one part coidd not help'the other. Nor did tliey adil to Ihisthe fact that (jur men, pressed as they wert, could not en- gage themselves in a fair conflict, and that they in- deed suffered more from their own numbers, ami from the narrowness of the ravines, than from the enemy. Nor were the ordinary chances of war brought to mind, — how small matters, such as some unfoimiled suspicion, a sudden panic, a remendiered superslilion. may create great misfurlune; nor liow often the fault of a General, or the mistake of an of- ficer may liring injury upon an army. But they spread allroad the report of the vict<jry of that day throughout all the world, sending forth letters and tales as though they had conquered solely by their own valor, niir was 'it possible Ihal there should after this be a reverse of llu'ir circumstances." Such was the alTair of P<'lra, by which the relative position in the worUl-liislory of' Ca'sar and Pompey was very nearly made the reverse of what it is. Ca-sar How acknowledges that he is driven to change the whole ))lan of iiis campaign. lie ad- dresses a siieecli to his nu-n, and exi)lains lo them Ihal Ibis defeat, like Ihal of Gergovia, may lead to ROMAN LEGIONS. 7<i7 ROHAN LLGI0H8. Ilicir fill Nil- succpss. The virtory ill Alfsiii liiid »|iriiii;; fmin the (Icfcul of (!iT(;i)viii. Ih'Chumc the (iiiuls hull been iiKlucnl Id lii;lil; iiiiil fniiii llic rr- vcrscH ciiiliircil williiii the liiicH of I'clrii iniL'lil <'i)inc' III!' siiiiic fdrtunc; fijr suicly now liii'iiriiiy of I'otm- pcy would iiol frar a Imlllc. Sonic few ofllirrs lie pimislii's 1111(1 ili'LTiidrs. His own words ri/spi'Clinj; ills army iiflcr llirir drfnil lire very loiicliiuj;. " Ho i;rral ii ^rirf hail iiMiic from Ihis disaster iipnn tlie whole army, and soslronfia desire of rei)airiiiu ils disgrace, thai no one now desired the plaee of Tri- laiiie or Cenlurion in his lei;ion; iiiid all, tiy way of self-imposed piiiiislimenl. siihjecled Iheinselves lo iii- (•renseii toil; and every mall liiirned willi a desire to light. Some from llie hii,dier ranks were so stirred by ('ivsar's speech, thai lliey llioiiirht that they .should stand their ground where they were and light where they slood," Uiit Ca'sar was loo good a Gen- eral for that. Jlc moves on Inwards the south-easl, and ill rclrcatiinigels the heller of I'ompey, wlio fol- lows him with only half a licarl. .\flcr a short wiiile I'ompcy gives up llie pursuit. His fallier-inlaw, Seipio, has broiighl a great army from the east, and is in 'rhessalv. As we read Ihis we ciinnol fail lo remem- ber how short a time since it was thai Casar himself was I'ompcy's falher-in-law, and that I'ompey was Cifsai's friend because, willi too uxorious a love, he clung to.Iulia, his yoiin<; wife. Ponipey now goes eastward lo unite his arinylo that of Seipio. and Ca'- sar. niaUing his way iiilo Thessaly by a more hoiuIi- ern roiile, joins cerlain forces under his Ijieutenanl Calviniis, who had been watching Seipio, and who barely escaped falling into I'ompcy's hands before he could reach C'lesar. Mill wherever fortune or elianee could iiilcrfere, the Gods were alwaj's kind lo Ca'sar. Then ("a'sar tells us of his IrealinenI of two towns in 'riiessaly, ( oimplii, and Metropolis, rnliickily for the poor (tomiihiaiis. Ca'sar reaches (ioiiiplii iirsl. Now the fame of I'ompey's victory at I'eira had been spread abroad: and the ({oiiiphians. who, to give them their due, — would have been just as willing to favor Ca'sar as l^ompey, and who only wanted to be on the winning side Ihal Ihey miglil hold their little own in safi'ty, believed that things were ixoing badly with C'u'sar. They therefore shut their gates against Ca'sar, and sent olT messengers to l'onii)ey. They can liold iheir town against Ca'sar for a little while, bill I'ompey must come quickly to their aid. Poni- pey comes by no means nuick enough, and the Gom- phiaiis' capacity to hold I heir own is very short-lived. Al aboul three o'clock in the afternoon Ciesar begins to besiege the town, and before sunset he has taken il, and given il lo be sacked by his soldiers. The men of .Metropolis were also going lo shut their gates, but luckily they hear just in time what had happened at Gomphi, and open them instead. Whereupon Civsar showers protection uiion Metro- polis; and all the other towns of Thessaly, hearing what had lieen done, also learn what (^a-sar's favor means. I'ompey, having joined his army to that of Seipio, shares all his honors willi his father-in-law. When we hear Ibis we know thai I'ompey's position was not eoniforlable. and that he was under constraint. He was a man who would share his honor with no one unless driven to do so. .Vnd indeed his coniiiian<l at present was not a pleasant one. It was much for a Hoinaii eomniander lo have with him the Himian Senale, but the Seiialors so placed would be ii]it to be less obedient than trained soldiers. They even aecu.se him of keeping them in Thessaly because he likes to lord it over such followers. Hut they were, neverthe- less, all certain thai Ca'sar was about to be destroyed: and, even in Pom])ey's camp, they iiuarrel over the rewards of victory which they think thai they will enjoy at Home when Iheir oligarchy shall have" been re-esiabiished by Ponipey's arms. IJefore the great day arrives Laliienus again ap- pears on the .scene: and Ca'sar puts into his mouth a ! speech whirli heof eoiirHc inlendh us lo compare with lUieresiill of lliecoMiiiig battle. " Do not think, O I'ompey, thai Ibis is the army whieli coiiipiers (jiiiil and liermany," where l>abieiiiis himself was se- cond ill comiiiand under Ciesar. "I was present al all those balllc'-.and speak ofatliint: which I know. A very small party of Ihal army rriiiains. .Many I have perished.- as a inatler of r-oiirse In ho many I bailies. The autumn pestilence killi'd iiianv in llaly. .Many have gone home. Many have been iefl on the olhershore. Have you not heard from cnir own friends who remained behind sick. Ihal these eohorls .)f Ciesar's were made up al I'rindisi ■'"• made up bill llie other day, I,abieiiiis implies. " This army, in- deed has been renewed from levies in the two fiaiils; I bill all that il had of slrenglh perished in those two buttles al Dyrraehiiim :"- in the eoiilesls, thai is, within the lines of I'elra. Iponthis I, abieniis swears thai he will not sleej) under canvas again until he slee|)s as victor over Ciesar: and Potnpey swears the .same, and everybody swears. Then Ihey all go away full of I he comini; victory. We daresay I here was a great deal of false conlidenee : but as for the words wliieh Ciesar i)uls into lb<' mouth of Labieniis. we know well how niueli cause Ciesar had to dislike Labienus, and we doubt whether they were ever spoken. At lenglh the battle-tield is elio.sen.— near the town of Pharsaliis, on the banks of the river Knipeiis in Thessaly. The bailie has acijiiired world- wide fame as that of Pliarsalia. which we have been taught to regard as the name of the plain on whieli it was fought. Neither of these names occur in the 'Commentary, nor does that of the river: and the actual spot on which the great contest took place seems to be a nialter t)f doubt even now. The ground is Turkish soil.— near lo the inounlains which scivirate modern (ireece from Turkey and is not well adapted for llie researches of hislorical travelers. C:esar h;id been keeping bis men on Ihe march clo.se to Pompey. till I'ompey found that he could no long- er abstain from tighting. Then came Labienus witli his vaunts, and his oath. — and al length the day and the field were chosen. Ca'sar at any rale was ready. \\ Ihis time Ca':;ar was lifty-lwo years old, and I'ompey was live years his elder. Ca'sar tells us ihat I'ompey had 110 cohorts, or eleven legions. Had the legions been full, Pom- pey's army would have contained (;ri.(K)0 legionaries; but Ca'sar slates their numberat 4.").f)00 or something over two-thirds of the full number. He does not forget to tell us once again that among these eleven were the two legions which he had given up in obe- dience to Ihe demand of Ihe Senale. Pompey him- self, with these two very legions. pla<-ed himself on the left away from the river: and there also were all his auxiliaries,— not counted with Ihe legionaries. — sliniiers, archers, and cavidry. Seipio commanded in tile centre with the legions he had brought out of Syria. So Ciesar tells ns. We learn from other sources that Lentuliis connuaniled I'ompey's right '' will'/. Ivins on the river— ami Domitius, whom we ' remember as tryins; lo hold .Marseilles against young Brutus and Trebonius. Ihe left. Ca'sar had 80 eo- horts. or eisht legions, which should have number- ■ ed 4H.0O0 men had his legions been full— but. as he ; tells us. he led but ^'.J.nno legionaries, so that his ranks were deticieni by more than a half. As was his custom, he had his tenth legion lo the right, away from the river. The ninth, terribly thinned by what had befallen il within the lines al Pelra. joined to the eleventh, lay next the river, fomiing part of Civsar's left wing. Antony commanded the left wiug. Domitius Calvinus, whom Ciesar .some- times calls bvone name and sometimes by Ihe other, the centre.— "and Sulla the right. Ca'.sar placed him- self to the right, with his tenth legion, opposite lo Pompey. .\s f:ir as we can learn, there was but little in" the nature of Ihe ground to aid either of Ihem: — and so the tight began. There is not much complication, and perhaps no ROMAN LEGIONS. r(i8 SOMAN LEGIONS. great interest, in the account of the actual battle as it is given by Ca;sar. C.Tsar makes a speech to his army, which was, as we have already learned, and as he tells us now, the accustomed thing to do. No falser speech wa.'j ever made by man, if he sjjoke the words which he himself reports. He tirst of all re- minds them how they themselves are witnesses that he has done his best to insure peace : — and then he calls to their memory certain mock treaties as to peace ; in which, when seekingly delay, he had pre- tended to engage himself and his enemy. lie had never wasted, he told them, the blood of his soldiers, nor did he desire to deprive the Republic of either army — ''alterutro exercitu" — of Pompey's army or of his own. They were both Roman, and far be it from him to destroy aught belonging to the Repub- lic. We must acknowledge that Cfesar was always chary of Roman life and Roman blood. He would spare it when it could be spared ; but he could spill it like water when the spilling of it was necessary to his end. He was very politic : but as for tenderness, — neither be nor any Roman knew what it was. Then there is a story of one C'rastinus, who declares that whether dead or alive he will please Coesar. He throws the Jirst weapon against the enemy and does please C'ii'sar. But he has to please by his death, for he is killed in his effort. Pompey orders that his first rank shall not leave its order to advance, but shall receive the shock of Cresar's attack. Cie- sar points out to us that he is wrong in tills, because tlie very excitement of a first attack gives increased energy and strength to the men. Coesar's legionar- ies are told to attack, and they rush over the space intervening between the lirst ranks to do so. But they are so well trained that they pause and catch their breath before they throw their weapons. Then they throw their piles and draw their sworils, and the ranks of the two armies are close pitted against each other. But Poiupey had thought that he could win the battle, almost without calling on his legion- aries for any exertion, b\- tlie simple strategic move- ment of his numerous cavalry and auxiliaries. He outnumbered t'icsar altogether, but in these arms he could overwhelm him with a cloud of horsemen and of archers. But Csesar also had known of these clouds. He fought now as alwavs witli a triple rank of legionaries, — but behind his third rank, — or rath- er somewhat to their right shoulder, — he liad drawn up a choice body of men picked from his third line, — a fourth line as it were, — wliose business it was to stand against Pompe3''s clouds when the attempt sliould be made by these clouds upon their right Hank. Ca?sar's small body of cavalry did give way before the Pompeian clouds, and the horsemen and tlie archers and the slingers swept round upon C'a'- sar's flank. But they swept round upon destruc- tion. Ciiesar gave the word to that fourtli line of [ticked men. "Illi — they," says Ca'sar, "ran for- ward with the greatest rapidity, and with their stand- ards in advance attacked the cavalry of I^<mipey with such violence that none of them could stand their groimd ; — so that all not only were forced from the ground, liut being at once driven in panic, they souglit tlie shelter of the highest mountains near Ihem. And wlien they were thus removed, all llie archers and the slingers, desohite and unarmed, willi- j out any one to take care of them, were killed in heaps." Sucli is Ciesar s account of Pompey's great attack of cavalry which was? to win the liattle with- out giving trouble to tlie legions. Ci«sar acknowledges that Pompey's legionaries drew their swords bravely and began their sliiire of the fighting well. Tlieii at once lie tells us of the failure on the part of the cavalry and of the slaughter of the poor auxiliary slingers, and in the very next sentence give us to understand that tlie battles was won. Though Pompey's legions were so much more numerous than those of Ca'sar, we were told that <Jiesar's tliird line attacked tlie Pom])eiiin legionaries when Ihev were •defessi"— worn out. The few co- horts of picked men who in such marvelous manner had dispersed Pompey's clouds, following on their success, turned the flank of Pompey's legions and carried the day. That it was all as Cajsar says there can be little doubt. That he won the battle there can, we presume, be no doubt. Pompey at once flew to his camp and endeavored to defend it. But such defense was impossible, and Pompey was driven to seek succor in flight. He found a horse and a few companions, and did not stop till he was on the sea-shore. Then he got on board a provision-vessel, and was heard to complain that he had been betrayed b_y those very men from whose hands he had ex- pected victory. We are told with much picturesque effect how Caesar's men, hungry, accustomed to en- durance, patient in all their want, found Pompey's camp prepared for victory, and decked in luxurious preparation for the senatorial victors. Couches were strewn, and plate was put out, and tables prepared, and the tents of these happy ones were adorned with fresh ivj-. Tlie senatorial happy ones have but a bad time of it, either perishing in their flight, or escaping into the desert solitudes of the mountains. Ca'sar follows up his conquest, antl on the day after the battle compels the great body of the fugitives to surrender at discretion. He surrounds them on the top of a hill and shuts them out from water, and they do surrender at discretion. With stretched-out hands, prone ujion the earth, tliese late conquerors, the cream of the Roman power, who had so lately sworn to conquer ere they slept, weeping, beg for mercy. Coesar, having said a few words to them of his clemenc}', gave them their lives. He recom- mends them to the care of his own men, and desires that they may neither be slaughtered nor robb--d. Caesar says he lost only 200 soldiers in that battle — and among them 80 officers, all brave men. That gallant C'rastinus was among the 30. Of Pompey's army 15,000 had been killed, and 34,000 had sur- rendered ! 180 standards and it eagles were taken and brought to Caesar. Tlie numbers seem to us to be almost incredible, whether we look at those given to us in regard to the conqueror or the con- quered. Caesar's account, however, of that day's work has hitherto been taken as authoratative.aud it is too late now to question it. After this fashion was the battle of Pharsalia won, and ihe so-called Roman Republic brought to an end. But Caesar by no means tiiouglit that this work was done ; — nor indeed was it nearly dime. R was now clearly his first duty to pursue Pompey, — whom, should he escape, the outside provinces .and distant allies of the Republic would soon supply with an- other army. " Ca'sar thought that Pompey was to be pursvied to the neglecting of all other things." In Ihe mean time Pompey, who seems to have been panic-struck by his misfortune, fled with a few friends down the ^gean Sea, picked his young wife up at an island as he went. and made his way to Egypt. The story of his murder bytho.se who had the young King of Egypt in their keeping is well-known and need not detain us. Ca'sar tells it very shortlj'. Pompey sends to young Plolemy for succor and as- sistance, trusting to past frieiKisliip between himself Mild the young King's father. Plolemv is intlie hands <if eunuchs, adventurers, and eut-lhroat soldiers, and has no voice of his own in the matter. But these rutflans think it well to have Pompey outof tlieway, and therefore they murdi'r him. Achillas, a royal satrap, and Seiilimius, a Roman soldier, go out to Pompey's vessel, as messengers from the King, and induce them to coiiie down inlolheir boat. Then, in the very sight of his wife, he is slaughtered, and his head is carried away as iiroof of tlie deed. ISucli was the end of Pompey, for whom no fortune had .seemed to )»• too great, till ('a'siir came uiion the scene. We are told by the Roman jioel, Euean. who took the battle of Pharsalia as h';' dillieult theme, that Ca-sar could bear no superior, and I'oiiipey no e()ual. The poet probably wished to make the latter the more BOaiANS. 700 KOHAN WA£S. miifrnaiiiniouK Iiy the ('(imiiariHdii. To lis, as w<! fx- lUiiinclhi- clmniflcr of the Uv(i(ici](TiilH, ( 'ii'Hiir kwiiih nt least tin i<'al(iiiH of power at* his son-in-law, und ciTlainlv was I lie more sncccssfiil of tlic (wo in cx- cluclinf; all otiicrs from a slian; in the powi-r wliicli lie covctcil. Honipcy in tiii' triumvirate admitteil his junior to more, as he must have fell it, than e(|nal power: Coe.sar in the triuinvirale simply madc^ a Stepping-stone of the great man who was his elder. Pompi'y (itThessaly was forced to divide at least the nnnieof his i)ower with Seipio, his last fath<-r-ir.-law : but Ciesar never gave a shred of his mantle to be Worn by another soldier. In speaUing,howi'vi-r, of the eharaeler of Fompey, and in eomparing it with thai of his greater rival. "it may probalily be said of him that in all his contests, both military and political, lie was governed by a love of olil Home, and of (lie Republic as the great- est national institution which tiic world has ever known, and by a feeling wliicli we call patriotism, and of which (':esar was, - perhaps, we may .say, too great to be capable. Fompey desired to lead, Init to lead the beloved Kepulilie. Ciesar, earing nothing for the things of old, with no reverence for the past, utterly destitute of that tenderness for our former footsteps which makes so many of us cling with pa.ssionate fondness to convicled errors, dcsiri'd to create out of the ilust of the Hepublir-, — which fate and his genius allowed him to recast as he would,-- eomcthing which should be better and truer than the Hepublio. The last seven chapters of the third book of this Commentary form a commencement of the record of the Alexandrine war, — which, beyond those seven chapters. Ca'sar himself did not write. That he should have written any Commentary amidst the necessary toils of war, and the perhaps more pressing emerg- encies of his jjolitical condition, is one of the mar- vels of human power. He tells us now, that having delayed but a few days iuAsia, lie fc;llo\ved I'ompey ♦irst to Cyprus and then to Kgyjil, taking with him •IS his entire army three thousand two liundredmen. " The rest, worn out with wounds, and battles, and toil, and the greatness of tli(^ journey, could not fol- low him." But he directed thai legions should be made up for him from the remnants of I'ompcy's broken army, and, with a godlike trust in the obe- dience of absent vassals, he went on to Kgypt. He tells us that he was kept in Alexandria by Etesian winds. But we know also that Cleopatra came to hiin at Alexandria, requiring his services in her con- test for the crown of Kgy|it; and knowing at what price she bought them, we doubt the persistent mal- ignity of the Etesian w inds. Had Cleopatra been a swarthy Nubian, as some have portrayed her. Ciesar, we think, would have left Alexandria though the Etesian winds had blown in his very teeth. All winds filled Cicsar's sails. Ctesar gets possession of Cleo- patra's brother Ptolemy, who, in accordance with their father's will, was to have reigned in conjunc- tion with Ins sister, and the -Vlexandrians rise against him in great force. He elays Photiuus, the servant of King Ptolemy, has his own ambassador slain, and burns the royal fleet of Egypt,— burning with it, unfortunately, the greater part of the royal library. '■ These things were the beginning of the Alexand- rine war." 'fhese are the last words of Ciesar's last Commentary. See Ho/iian WurK. EOMANS.— Before the establishment of the mess [ al the Horse Gtiards, which was formerly paid out of the King's privy purse, and subsequently charged in the extraorilinaries of the army, the Captain of the Guard at St. James's kept a table for the sub- alterns attached to that duty. In order to enable the Captains to support these expenses, a certain number of men were allowed to work in the metro- polis, on condition that they left tiicir pay in the hands of tiieir Ollicers: these men were called lio- BOUAN WALL.— Traces are found in Great Bri- tain of four great walls built by the Komun Con- (pierors. Two were liuilt by Agricola, the first in A. I). 7!), and the second in A. u. Hi, extending from the Erilh r,f Kirth to Ihi- Frith of Clyde. As thifi proved i.isiilllcient to keept Imck the northern barbar- ians, Ha<lrian in a. i>. I'iO llnislieil the most famous of all the walls, from the Solway to Newcastle on Tyne. Tills was (IH Entrlish miles in length. In a. r>. 200 SeveriiH built another wall a few yards above that of Hailrian. which was guarded by 10,000 men. ROMAN WARS. In the infancy of Home, she had many wars but few conquests in her matiirily she had few wars and many conquests. When the pow- er of Carthage faileil, Itrnne no longer had a rival : her wars, or rather invasions, after that event, were generally of her own seeking ; and they were many. Pome was nosooner able tosay, "Cartilage must be destroyed." ihaii.in her heart, sliealso .said, tlif nnjiire of Alcxiiitihr nhiill he miiu . First .Macedonia fell lier grasp, and Perseus was hurled from the throne of Philip anil .\lexaiider, at which time siie graciously gave the Greeks their liberty, /. c. gave them law. Attains, King of Fergamus, dying about this time, left his kingdom to tlie Pomans, by will : or, in other words, seeing the world sink beneath tlieir power, he preferred giving them a bloodless victory, and cloaked an ignoble dereliction rif right under the specious name of a voluntary donation. Anlioehus, the great King of Assyria, was destined next to fall before them. He was at this period the most power- ful and o|)ulent prince of all Alexamler's siiccefsors; and had he accepted the adviceand aid of Hannibal, there would have been at least a chance for his es- caping the all-grasping power of Pome. But he, fearing lest, if anything should lie done. Hannibal would have all the credit, was careful to go directly contrary to the advice of that (ieneral. The Po- nians defeated him almost without loss of blood — stripping him of great part of his dominions — tri- umphed over him — extorted from him an immense tribute, and left him only enough to grace the Iri- uniph of another campaign. Two other great civics shared the fate of Carthage, and nearly at the same time: Corinth, one of the m blest cities of Greece, was tittcrly destroyed by Mummius, the Consul, for ofTcring some indignity to the Homan embassadors — and Numantia, the capital of Spain. Thiscity after sustaining a siege of fourteen years, was reduced by Sclpio. The inhabitants, being unable to hold out any longer, fired the city over their own heads, and all pirislied in the flames ; and Spain became a Homan province. The corruption of the senate, and the sedition and fall of the Gracchi, together with various distur- bances next arise to view in tracing the history of Pome. Then follow the reduction of Nuniidia, and the civil wars in the republic, excited by the ambi- tion of Marius and Sylla. w liicli terminated in the perpetual dictatorship of the latter. But it will not comport with our present design to enter into a de- tail of these particular events. Pome was perhaps never more powerful or happy than in the days of Scipio Africanus, or about the times of the Punic wars. She then experienced great misfortunes and calamities; but those untoward events, instead of weakening or exhausting her. called forth, nay, even created new energies. From the invasion of Hanni- bal, she rose invincible: and while that consummate warrior held his ground in Italy, she sent armies into Spain. Africa. Greece and Macedon. A great part of those immense region^ which Alexander subdued, soon shared the fate of the empire of Carthage : and in tho.se days, with the Pomans, to proclaim war was to insure a triumph — and to invade was to con- quer. W lien we look for a period in the Poman historj-, in which there is the greatest union of power, wis- dom, virtue and happiness, it will doubtless be found not far from the times of which we are now speak- KOMAN WARS. 770 ROMAN WARS. ing. The Hoinans, in earlier times of tlie repiililic, ■were more virtuous and patriotic tlian now — but tlien tliej' were weal\: iu tlie Augustan age they were certainly more enligiitened, scientific and polished — but then (hey were less brave ; or it not less brave, their virtue was forever gone, and with it, tlie found- ation of tlieir prosperity and happiness. Tlie con- quest of Africa, Asia, and Greece at once poured in- to the coffers of Rome immense, incalculable riches. On this almost boundless tide of prosperitv a set of men were soon seen floating, of a very different char- acter from C'iucinnatus. Fabricius and Regulus. To the most desperate bravery they united unbounded ambition ; and to the strongest expression of regard to their country they united a total want of princi- ple. The wealth of tlic world like a mighty river, jioured into Rome ; and many individuals acquired fortunes which transcended royal magnificence. The elevation of Rome to such an astonisliing height of power and splendor, drew to her men of parts, of taste, of ambition and enterprise — and in short, men of every description, and almost every nation. The descendants of the ancient Romans soon became few in comparison with the immense multitude, who by some means or other, acquired citizeusliip, or obtained a residence in Italy ; and Rome herself experienced as great a change as the nations she conquered : for while she drew the arts, elegance and science from Greece, she drew wealth, luxury, eflfeminacy, and corruption from Asia and Africa, and she drew a swarm of hungry fortune hunters from everj- corner of the eartli, who pene- trated her inmost recesses — outnumbered and over- whelmed her ancient people — in short, conquered their conquerors, corrupted their morals, and put a final period to their liberties. The civil wars of Rome which soon follow the peri- od of whicli we have been speaking, unfold to the reader a spectacle equalh' dreadful and disgusting. Many persons who had witnessed the destruction of Carthage were still alive, and saw all Italy deluged in blood by Marius and Sylla. From the destruc- tion of Carthage to the perpetual dictatorship of Sj'lla, was a little rising of seventy years. During the latter part of this jieriod, Lucius Sylla, envying the power and glory of Caius JMarius, involved the republic in a most bloody, disgraceful, and destruc- tive war. After various turns which their affairs took in the progress of this eventful struggle — after they had destroyed half a million of men, including the best part of the Roman people — had humbled Rome and Ital}- — had shed the noblest blood, and pros- trated the dignity of the republic, Sylla, an execra- ble monster of cruelty, tyranny and ambition, was able to triumph over virtue, liberty and justice. He seated himself quietly in the exercise of despotic power, and became jierpetual dictator. Rome never saw another moment of freedom. The Romans, in the times of Scipio, may be com- jjared with the Greeks iu the time of Themistocles, and the' triunipli of (ireece over Persia, with that of Rome over t'artliage. In both cases, the conquerors were corrupted by wealth, and inebriated by luxury. We miglit go further and say, that the Peloponnc- siaii war, which succeeded the elevation of Greece, and laid the foundation of her ruin, resembled the civil wars of Rome, begun b.y Marius and Sylla — carried on byCu'sarand Pomjiey, and terminated by Augustus. But the lirmiiess of the Roman charac- ter— the uaturi' iif their civil policy, aiidlbc immense extent of their conquests, enabled them still to be powerful, in spite of all their corruptions : and bad the}' been otherwise, there seemed to be no nation near them who could have derived advantage from tlieir weakness. They seem to have been raised iq) and endowed with universal dominion, that they miicbt evidence to the world liow far a ualioii can he liap- py, and how long she can exist wilhout virtue or freedom. The ambition of the demagogues as well as of the despots and tyrants of Rome, in one essential arti- cle, led tbem to promote the true and just policy of the empire : that was to attach the provinces as strongly as possible to the interest of Rome — to dis- solve them down to one common mass -to preserve their extensive territories entire — to cement them together b}' various alliances, and to preserve the empire undivided. The strength of empires consists in their union. The Greeks wanting this, soon fail- ed ; and, in our own times, Poland, which ought, from her numerous advantages, to have been one of the most ])Owerful kingdoms in the world, has ex- hibited a deplorable spectacle of weakness and mise- ry, by means of her internal divisions. Our own country had well nigh been swallowed in the same gulf. The Roman community, launched at once on such a sea of luxury, wealth, and glory, was variously affected. While all were struggling for eminence and power, it fortunately happened that the reins of government fell into strong and energetic hands. Of this description, generally .speaking, were most of the first competitors, and of the triumvirates. The softening power of luxury — the sudden inundation of Grecian elegance and refinement, and tlie eleva- tion of conscious greatness and empire, combined with her native gravity in forming the genius of Rome. About this period, it began to bud ; soon af- ter this was its fairest bloom and richest maturity. If the genius of Rome was of a heavier mould than that of Greece, it possessed a more commanding gravity; if it had less fire, it was more tranquil, ma- jestic, and solemn; and more hearts will vibrate with pleasure to the plaintive and elegant notes of the Roman, than to the electric fulininations of the Gre- cian muse. In the year 680 from the building of the city, the republic was freed from tlie tyranny of Sylla, by the death of that odious tyrant. But two men, of far more extensive views and refined ambition than ei- ther Jlarius or S3dla, were alread_y prepared to run the same race. Cneus Pompey, bad, by various arts, as well as by great abilities, become the most popu- lar man in Rome, and was considered as the great- est commander in the Repulilic. Crassus possessed that authority and infiuence which great eloquence and immense wealth, combining with all the wiles of ambition, could procure him. He was the richest man in Rome. While Pompey. who warmly es- poused the Marian faction, strove to gain the favor of the people by abrogating man}' of the tyrannical laws of Sylla, Crassus employed his amazing wealth in donations, distributions of corn among the poor, in public feasts and entertainments .; and it is said that he supported, at his own private expense, the greatest part of the citizens for several months — ex- nenditures sufficient to have exhausted the treasures of the greatest princes. In the progress of their con- test for power, their animosities broke forth on every occasi(m. in opposition more or less direct, and by means more or less violent. At this period, while the destinies of Rome seemed to biing in doubtful suspense, three characters ap- peared of very differei't complexions, but equally ex- traordinary, "equally to be remembered, but with very dilTcrent sensations, in posterity ; — Catiline, Cic- ero, and Ca'sar. One of these men procured for himself immortal fame by his atrocious villainy, one by his unrivalled eloi|uence, and one by liis ambition, bniyery, and good fortune. .luliusCa'sar in;iy lie re- garded .-is the greatest of the Roman coiiim;inders. In him the military genius of Rome disjilayed its ut- most strength ami iierfectiou; but, as yet. lie was not known in that grouj) of great clianu'lers and per. soilages, who, now iiillamcd with ambition, were jirejiaring to carve ;mi(1 divide the world among tbem. Lucius Catiline is alh^wed by all writers to have pos- sessed every (|ualily of a great man but integrity and virlue ; instead of which he liehl {'very priiK'iple. and practised every vice which could form a most ROHAN WARS. 771 ROHAN WARS. iiifiimouH, iitriK'ioiis iinil lUiuiiiloiicil villiiin. I'ohwhh- (•(1 of II body mid mind ((iiiiilly slroii;^ mid viijoroiiH, ho was l)ol(l, ciitcriirisiim, and iiidiiMlrioiis. IIcIk-h- itatcd al no <Tiiclly lo i^ralify liin revenue — lie uh- Hlaincd from no crinic wliicli could suliscrvc Ids pleasures- he valued no labor or peril lo i;ralify Ids ainhilion. Caliline pereeiviiii; hiniselT nol, anionj; tlie most favored rivals who w<'re eoiirlliij; llii' nds- tress of the world, determined on ^etlini; her into his |)ossessiori by violence. His end was the saniir as tin irs, hut his means were more unwarranlable. He plann(Hl and orijanized one of lh(^ deepest, most extensive- and darini; conspiracies recorded in bis- tory. The leadim; objec-tsof his conspiracy were, to put out of I he way by one fxencral massacre, all who would he liliely to oppose his measures to ])illai;e the city of |{ome — to seize all public treasures, ar- senals and stores to establish a despotic ;;oveni- nient to revohilionize the whole republic, and to ac- complish all these measures by an armed force. This sam;uinary ]ilot was detected and crushed by Oicero, the j;reat and justly celebrated orator of Uome. The accomplices of Caliline were seized and put to death ; and Catiline himself, who had as- sembled an army of I welve thousand men, was en- counlered, defealed and slain. But if Home esea|)ed this threaleiuni; sulf, it was that she miL;hl fall into a snare, apparently less dreadful, but eipnilly strong and conclusive as to her fate. Iler days of virtue and j;!ory weri^ past; benceforlh she was to be ruled wit ha rod of iron. The dissensions of Pompey and Crassus were (pneled by the mediation of Ca'sar, who stepped in between them, outwitted them both, and became the head of the lirst triumvirate. Ilavini; amicably ai^reed to govern in copartnership, Pom- pey chose Spain, Crassus chose the rich and bi.xur- io\is provinces of Asia, and lo C.esar was allotted the powerful and warlike nation of (Jaid, as yet uncon- (piered. What was 1 he result ? Pomjiev basked for a moment in the sjilendors of Rome, and his fame was trumpeted by th(M'lo(iuence of Cicero. Crassus was 8lain by the Parthians. endeavoring; to enlaricc his territories, anil C;esar conquered the Uauls \n'i t/iuiix- ajut> battle:!. Pompey could not bear an eipnd, nor CiBsar a superior. They were mutually jealous- they differed — they prepared for war. The Semite ami nobility of Rome, and pride and strenulh of It- aly sided with Pompey : Ca'sar relies wholly on those veteran legions with whom he had subdued the fierce and martial tribes of (Jaul and (Tcrmany. >('o civil war ever equalled this. It was a melancholy sight to see Uome i;iven up to tyranny and blood — to see that august and venerable republic for ever a- bandoned to her evil genius. These were not the feeble bickerings of |)etty controversy ; JIarius and Sylla, the leaders of the former civil broils, bore lit- tle comparison with C.-esarat the head of his legions, or with the great Pompey, who could almost raise armies out of the earth by the stomp nf Ih'k ftiot. This eventful struggle was at length closed by the battle of Pharsalia, rendered truly famous by the grand object for which they fought — the greatness of the force employed on either siile, and the tran- scendent reputation of both commanders. The Rom- an ICmpire was the prize ; and liolh the armies and the Generals were the best the world could alford. Pompey was utterly defeated, and many of his army, won over by the magnanimous clemency and gener- osity of Ca'sar, were content to change sides. The conduct of Pompey in this battle, which was to de- cide his fate, has ever been considered as strange and unaccountable. So far from displaying that courage, intn'pidity, and fortitude, and those powers of com- mand which he was supposed to jiossess, that, from the very tirst onset, he appeared like a man frighten- ed out of his senses: he scarcely attempted to rally his men — was among the foremost that lle<l, and nev- er made another effort to retrieve his cause. From facts so glaring, we are almost induced to believe that much of Poinpey's greatness, as a soldiei and com- Mumder, (u>nHiHted in llie elegant drawirif^R of Cicero, and other purliul writers. The true lest of bravery, skill, and fortitude, ih to Hec them disjilayed wlien they are most necessary — to Hee tliein shine in dan- ger, surmount dilllciilly.and triumph over adversity. Vet no one can doubt that I'ompiy was a man of great and spli-ndid talents : but who could eipial Ciesar? — A man superemimnt in the wliole range f)f spiritual enrlowmciils. Nature seemed to scant Idni in nothing. Among |)liiloHOpliers, mathematicians, |)oets, and orators, he could shine. |[e could plan and e.\e(-ut( — be ooidd negotiate or light — he coiild Rain and improve an advantage. For seven years in his (iailie wars, his lif(- was a continual Heries of fa- tigues and dear-bought victories : anil no General, but one as great as Ciesar, f:oulil have encounlered him without apprehension and dismay. 'I'he battle of Pharsalia was foiiLdit 52 years before Christ, and 7b2 from the building of the city. I'om- |)ey lli'd an uiduiiijn' ixile into ICgypt, and was there miserably murdered by the command of Ploleniy. Thus the reins of government fell into the hands of Cicsar, and he was left undisputed master of the world. The clemency of Ctesar on this occasion was as illustrious as his victories had been. He entered into no measures against many persons, who, under professions of neutrality, had evidently sided with Pompey. He did nothing which bore any resem- blance to the horrid proscriptions of Marius and Syl- la. He endeavored, in most instances, to forget and forgive. liut the reign and triumph of Julius Citsar was short. He soon fell a saeriliee to that spirit of freedom and indel)endenre which had raised bis I'ountry to her exalted rank: for though the demons of discord, and)ition, and party rage, had now for a long i)eriod, aimed all their shafts at good and vir- tuous men— though torrents of the richest blood had Howed incessantly for many years, yet some men were still left whose constancy and virtue ever stemmed the strong current of the times. Cato and Cicero were still alive, whose stem virtues and com- manding eloiiueneecontimied to remind the Homans of their better days. From the battle of Pharsalia to the death of Csesar was eight years. During this period he went on and prospered. By a rapid series of journeys and expeditions he saw, awed and sub- jugated all places and all opposition. His arm per- vaded, his vigilance detected, his spirit animated, his generosity won. and his power crushed in all di- rections. His great and active genius seemed uni- versally to bear down all before him; but in reality not all ; a plot at length was laid, as it were in his own bosom, which hurled him in a moment from the high summit whither he had climbed. Brutus and Cassius, at the head of about si.xty Senators, entered into a conspiracy to take liim oft by assassination. Their object was to arrest the pro- gress of despotic power, to restore the authority of the senate, and the ancient forms of the republic; an object lauihdile in itself, but, alas, how far from being practicable! Their plot was deeply laid, but seems to have been carried into effect not without a wonderful concurrence of accident, or rather of providence. Whilst Ca'sar was on his way to the senate house, where he was to perish, a slave, it is said, who had discovered the conspiracy, pressed forward in the crowd to apprise him of his danger, but could not gel to him for the press. Another person put into bis hands a paper, which would have saved him, containing an account of the con- spiracy; this he handed to his secretary without breakinir the seal. After he was sealed in the sen- ate house, the conspirators approached and ile- spalcbed him with their daggers without resistance, and retired lo the capitoi.'where they put them- selves in a state of defence. Thus fell ihe first and doubtless the greatest of the Ctesjirs. in Ihe ■'iClh year of his ase. anil in the 8th of his sole administration. No Roman ever achieved more arduous enterprises than he. He rose to supreme power, in opposition ROMAN WARS. I i . ROMAN WARS. to men of great abilities and of much greater re- sources than himself. Whatever standing he ac- ([uired, lie maintained, and his enemies could only destroy him by treachery, under the mask of friend- ship. Rome did not owe to Caesar the loss of her liberties ; they were lost before he was born. He was allured to seize the dazzling prize, which to all observers, had evidently become the sport of fortune, and was liable to be grasped by him who was bold- est and most lucky. Had Pompey prevailed over Cfesar, it is highly doubtful whether Rome would have experienced a happier destiny. The fall of C'sesar seemed only to accelerate the establishment of imperial government. Octavius,tlie grand nephew of Ciesar, and heir, by will, to hia ifortunes and name, was soon at the head of a new triumvirate, viz. Jiimself, Mark Antony, and Lepi- dus. This new triumvirate, proclaiming themselves the avengers of Ciesar, now hastened to make war upon the" conspirators, whose army was headed by Brutus and Cassius. Had the Roman people de- sired their ancient liberty, which they certainly would had they understood the import of the word, or had the}' entertained any just notions of freedom, the}' now enjoyed an opportunity of regaining it : but so far from that, the triumvirate were able to excite the popular indignation against the conspira- tors, and in fact, gained the people over, to their cause. The standard of liberty was deserted, and the wretched infatuated people were now employed in rivetting those chains which were never more to be broken. The conspirators were crushed with little trouble ; and in shedding the blood of the last patriots of Rome, the sublime Cicero fell a victim to the merciless rage of .\ntony, and the base and cruel policy of Octavius. It sooii appeared that the tri- umvirs had comliined with no other view than as a present expedient, which was to be laid aside when occasion should offer. Accordingly Lepidus was very quickly rejected, and as he was neither a soldier nor a statesman, he had no means of redress. Antony and Octavius presently differed, and once more mar- shalled the forces of that mighty people under their hostile standards. Their quarrel was decided at the battle of Actiuni. A sliort time after which, Antony expired in Egypt, aii<l left Octavius without a com- petitor. In the 30th year before Christ, and T24th from the building of Rome, commenced the imperial reign of Octavius, imder the titles, of Emperor and Augus- tus. Rome now became an empire in the more strict and proper sense of the word; and notwithstanding the degeneracy of the Roman people, it continued for several centuries to be the most powerful empire in the ancient world. The connnotions and wars — the luxury and wealth — the corruptions and loss of public virtue among the Romans, did not extinguish but rather called forth and perfected their genius for literature. The sciences were assiduously cul- tivated, and men of learning received tlie warmest patronage and the auiplc!st encouragement from those great and opulent men whose wealth was immense, and whose tratHc was in states and kingdoms : in- deed, many of those great men wctc themselves the favorites of tlie muses. They studied the liberal sci- ences and <'legant arts with a diligence scarcely known in modern times. Scipio Africanus. accord- ing to the tesliiiuiny of Cicero, was as eminent for mental improvement, as he was in the art of war. Cato was a man of great learning and wisdom : and those great men who composed the two triumvir- ates, especially the first, were highly accomplished in the liberal sciences. Wlien we consider that Cicero was a profession- al man - that fur a course of years, many of the most iiTiporl.'int causes in the vast republic were ably man- aged liy him- that he was a statesman and a great leader in llie politics of his time — that lie was, at times, a civil magistrate, a soldier, and a governor, and patron of provinces, we may truly be astonish- ed at the extent and success of his studies. His vo- luminous writings which have come down to us, and which form the most perfect standard of classic ex- cellence, leave us in doubt which to set foremost, whether the .strength of his understanding, or the powers of his imagination — or which we shall ad- mire most, his genius or industry. It is no partial admiraticm by which those writings are preserved : the united voice of all enlightened nations have de- clared their merit, and judged them worthy of im- mortality. The same may be said of the writings of Virgil, and Horace, and many others. But the ap- probation of men of taste and learning, in all nations has set the literary productions of the Augustan age above all panegyric. They will be read and ad- mired so long as works of genius and taste are held in estimation. The Roman empire now appeared in its utmost splendor. Though less virtuous and happy, and probably less powerful than in former periods, yet the concentrated wealth of the world, the external pomp of so vast a monarchy, threw round her a dazzling glory which the most distant nations beheld with admiration and dread. Embas- sadors from remote kingdoms daily arrived to do homage, to court alliance, or solicit protection. Augustus held the reins of government : there was no competitor — no rival. The people long fatigued with war, were very glad to enjoy peace, though un- der the reign of a despot. There was no Brutus nor Cassius to conspire or to .assassinate. Cato was no more; and Cicero, one of the last hmiinaries of Rome, had been murdered, and his head and hands cut off and fixed upon the tribunal, where the thunders of his eloquence had so often struck terror to the hearts of tyrants. The spirit which animated the Romans in the days of Fabricius was gone for ever; liberty had taken her flight from the earth, or had retired to the sequestered bower of the .savage, while gorge- ous pride lifted her head to heaven, and trampled on innocence, equity, and law. Augustus was an art- ful, insidious tyrant : whilst one of the triumvirate, he had been careful to destroy all the virtuous men who had escaped the bloody proscriptions, the civil wars, and the violent commotions which were before his time. When his power was confirmed, he en- deavored to fascinate the people — to lull them into security — to inebriate them with luxury — to dazzle them with his pomp and glory, and by all possible means to extinguish in them the true Roman spirit, and so to quality and sweeten .slavery itself, as to cimse them to drink it down with a pleasing relish: he succeeded; for never was a people so changed in temper, habit, mode of thinking, and national char- acter. But detraction itself cannot deny that Au- gustus was a General, a Statesman, and a very great inan. Though void of the magnanimous spirit of Cincinnatus, "Brutus, and Regvdus, yel he affected to revere the character of the ancient Rom;ins, and seemed desirous tliat a semblance of freedom should still miirk the character of his countrymen. Wlien he saw himself in the undisturbed possession of em- pire, the severities of his administration relaxed, and he held the reins of government with lenity, dignity and wisdom. Fewmonarchs have enjoyed a longer or more prosperous reign. Ills genius was less war- like than lliiit of .lulius Ca>sar; yet in the course of his reign, he h;iil v;irious opportunities of showing himself cajiiUile of comm;ouling armies and of di- recting very exlunsive milit;iry operations. But his greatness was of the 1r:uiquil and pacific kind, and he showed little ambilion to enlarge his dominions. Tlie reign of Auguslus was active, energelic, and loni;. It was his lioast thai he found Rome built of brick, but that he U'ft it liuill of marlile. The R(un:in empire, during ;i period of 21(1 years from the iireession of Auguslus In lli;il of Conuuo- dus, conliLiiied Die middle and souUiern parts of Eurojie, the norlhirn |);irls of Africa, and the west- ern jiarts of Asi;i. In llie directions and advice of Augustus to his succe.s.sor, it w;is warmly reuom- BOUAM WAKS. 773 fiOHAN WABB. ni('ii(l<'(l lliiii llic c'liipiri' sliuiild ikiI Iji' riilnr>;r-(l ; nr- ciinliiiijly, Ilic weak iinii ilViMiirjiilc IOjii|nT<)r!« liad III! iiiclinatiiiii iior :il>ilily lo ilo il, iinil llic valiant and warlilii- nciicnilly fmiiiil liMsiMC'-s i'niiii;;li in dc- fcndiriLC wlial llu'v alrcuily Imd ; while llic wise and prndinl ucrc Hciisilily inl|)rl■^sl■d willi the prnprii'lv (if llii'advicp of Anj;nstus. 'Plir' I'Mipirc' was, indi'i'd, of vaMl cxlcnt : and if wr casl our cyrs upon a nnip, we sliall dircclly sec that it lonipridicniliMl, us an rlcnant hisliirian rcniarkH, " llii' fairr.sl part of tlic carlli. and llir most civili/.cd purlion of mankind." Dnrini; this iicriod, howi'vcr, very <'iinsid(Tal)h' ad- dilions were made to Ihc rmpirc. ajid wi' hclii'vc, moiT or IrsH in Ihc Hirer (piarlrr-i of llic;;lolic. In Europe, the (iallic and (Jerman provinces were en- lari;ed, the island of (ireal Urilain was suhdued, and Hcvi'ral lari^iM'onnlrics on this side and licyond the Danulic, as Illyriiim, Dacia, I'annonia. Ac. The Km- pcror 'Trajan, in order to proseiule lli<; war with the l)a<-iain, creeled a sln]iendoiis liriilirc across the Daniilic ; the ruins of which remain lo this day, and alTord a sublime spc<'imen of ancicnl archilcotiire. The cruelly, depravitv. folly, and eiiorinoiis vices of tlu^ Kniperors generally form a striking feature in this period. They seem lo have been iitlerly losi to all sense of justice, honor or duty. Had they fol- lowed the examples ipf .lulius or Auijiislns ('ii-sar, the Romans would scarcely have had reason to rcijret Ihc eslablLshmcnl of a form of {rovernmeni which rescued them from deplorable wars and wastini; rcv- oliilions, urj^ed on by the raije of various powerful parties succeeding one another. Indeed, it is siir- prisins; that the illiislrious examples of those great men should be deserted immcdial<'ly, an<i so soon forsioltcn ; and it can be accounted for in no other way than by supposini; that the reins of jjovcrnment fell into the weakest and vilest of hands. When we consider the advantages the lirst Einjierors of Home possessed, it can scarcely be doublcil that many of them were the lowest, the most detestalile and aban- doned villains that ever swayed a scejjtre. The Kinsis of the Ottoman Turks, thoiijrli barbarous and bloody tyrants, were almost without ii slain in comparison ■with tliosc •■ harpyfootcd furies." The Henrys and Edwards of Emrland : the Loinscs of France; the Gothic, and Chinese monarclis were sa^es, philoso- phers, philanthropists, andsaiiils, in comparison with them; nor can we read tlie history of Rome without wondcrin;; how it was possible for that once power- ful and majinaiiimous jicojile to be so sunk and de- praved as io endure the tyranny of such monsters, instead of hurlim; tliem with iiidi;;nanl scorn from the throne which they so deeply disjjraced. If the fate of Poland, in our own times, stands as a beacon cxhibilins; a dreadful testimony to the na- tions of the earlli of the cfTects of bad i;overnment ; we may certainly derive a still stronijer testimony from this period of the Roman history. The wars of Marius anil Sylla, of Ca-sar and Pompey, and of Au- gustus and Aniony. had deiiKinstraled the power of individuals to enslave the Stale. Those wa.'s had al- most exterminated the ancient Romans — I hey had extinguished almost all the srt'iit imd eminent fami- lies, and fpiite all the great men who dared to speak and act like Romans. At the same time an immense multitude of foreijiners from all parts of the world poured into Rome; and the army, which always governcil Rome, was composed of a mercenary ra- pacious crew, as void of pulilic spirit as of all sense ef justice and honor. An empire governed by a Prince as prolligale and abandoned as weak and ig- norant, and who was merely the tool of a mutinous, ill-disciplined, ami vicious soldiery, must certainly experience the worst of governments ; and must feel their worst effects: accordingly, the lustre of Rome faded — her power decayed — her virl ue jind happiness were for ever lost, and she was abandoned to every evil and calamity. From various internal causes, the strength of the Koiuau empire declined greatly during the two lirst centuries of the ('liristian Era; she \va» not only ab- Koliitely but comparatively weaker. .Many of the Asiatic provinces Merined only to observe a nominal subjection; ami the l'arlbia:iH. cHpecially in tliut rpiartiT, gained slrcni^th, ronc and Iriiiniphed, and sift Rome at deliance. 'I"lie nalioiiH of (iaiil and fiiTmu- ny grew strong, and often showed signs of revolt, and even miliealions llial they were one day to truiii- ple upon the asliis of their coni|UiTorH. The Romans soon gave inelunclioly proofs of Ihi; j decay of learning, as well as of civility and polile. ' ness. We liavi' spoken of llie rjiplnrable fate of (-'i- cero. Augustus, under Ihc infamous prc>tenc;e of ap- peasing liie resentment of .Mark Aniony, had murd- ered and mangled the great man. The crafty lyrunt well knew how necessary it was for liitn to silence thalelo(pn-nce which must have shaken his throne, and to exierminale that \irliie which rnust have thrown continual embarrassments in the way of liin ambitious schemes. Macenas, the great friend of Virgil and Horace, still lived; but be only lived as a llatteriT, to form new modes tif ailulatirju, and to act the i,Tin'.;ing parasite. In the course of the reign of the twelve Ciesars, the Roman horizon, which had been once illuminated with cjne immense constella- tion of poets, orators, philosophers, statesmen, he- roes, and sages, was left in dreary darkness. And if we descend to the reign of Conimodus, we shall see few lights on Ihal once splendid horizon, l(Ut such as most resembled the horrid ;:lare of tarlarean tires. Vcl the names of .Seneca, Lucian, I'liny, Josephiis, Quinlilian, Tacitus, Juvenal, I'lutarch, .Justin, and (Jalen, were s(;attered down this tract of lime ; long after which Longinus tiourished; and Marcus Aure- lius, the Kniperor, was a great philosopher, and an ornament of the rejiublic of letters. The nature and fnrin of the Roman legion, a mili- tary eslablishmeiit and grand inslriiinent of the Ro- man i>ower, by which Rome coni|ueri'd and govern- ed the world had been improved through every pe- riod of the republic, and greatly so by .lulius Ca-sar, as well as by some of his successors. The main strength of the legion consisted in a body of infant- ry, divided into ten cohorts and fifty-five companies, which comp;inies were more or less full. Kacli co- hort was commanded by a Prefect or Tribune, and each company by a Centurion. The first cohort, which always claimed the post of honor and carried the eagle, contained 1,10.5 soldiers, the most approv- ed for bravery and fidelity. The remaining cohorts consisted each of .W.") ; and the infantry of a legion, in its most improved stale, amounted to 6,100 men. Theirarins, which were uniform, consisted of a helmet with a lofty crest, a breastplate or coal of mail, greaves on their legs, and on their left arm a con- cave Ijuckler, of an oval form, four feet in length and two and a half in breadth. The buckler was formed of light wood, covered with bull's hide and strengthened with plates of brass. Thvpiliim. a long and heavy spear, was the most efTeclive of the Ro- man we;ipons. Wilh this they tisually conquered, ll was ;ibout six feet long, and terminated in a trian- gular point of steel eighteen inches in length. This drciidful javelin, when " launched from the vigor of a Roman arm," often pierced helmets, breast plates, and bucklers; nor was there anv cavaln.- that chose to venture within its reach. AVhi'n the pilum was thrown, which was commonly within the dis- tance of ten or even six yards, the soldier drew his sworil and closeil wilh the enemy. The sword was a two-edged, short, well-tempered blade, fitted to strike or push, the latter of which the Romans were instructed to prefer. The legion, in l>attle array, stood eight deep, pre- i serving the distance of three feet between both the ; ranks and files: so that each one had a sntlicient space lo move and wield his arms in; and this loose I order gave great celerity to their movements. It is remarked, perhaps justly, by Mr. Gibbon, that the I strength of the phalanx was unable to contend with BOUAN WARS. 774 SOMAN WABS. the activity Of the legion. But could the phalanx of Alexander have contended with the Itgion of Ju- lius Caesar, each under the eye and animated by the spirit of those great commanders, a difEereut con- clusion perhaps'might be drawn. A body of cavalry, consisting of ten troops or squadrons, was an essen- tial appendage of each legion. The lirst troop of horse was the companion of the tirst cohort and con- sisted of 132 men. The other nine consisted each of 66 men, and were attached to the remaining nine cohorts. The cavalry of a complete legion amount- ed to T26 men. Their defensive arms were, a hel- met, a very oblong shield, light boots, and a coat of mail. Their effective weapons were a javelin and a long broadsword. Thus the regular infantry and cavalry of a legion amounted to 6.826 men : besides which, severallight armed troops, called auxiliaries, where attached "to it, which, together with all the various attendants for baggage, &c, swelled each le- gion to upwards of 12,000 men. To every legion were assigned ten engines of the larger size, and fif- ty-live of the smaller, for throwing large stones and heavy darts. The force of these engines was such as to produce astonishing effects on walls and tow- ers, and they are thought by some writers of note to have been Tittle inferior in utility to cannon. The camp of two complete legions usual!}' occupied an exact square of nearly 700 yards on each side. This spot was levelled by the pioneers, and the tents were then pitched in the" form of regular, broad streets — the prajtorium or General's qiuirters in the center. The whole square was then surrounded by a rampart 12 feet high, compactly formed of wood and earth, and also inclosed by a ditch 12 feet broad and deep. When this camp was to be left, it is incredible how soon the legions would be in motion. Their tents being struck and packed, each legionary loaded him- self with his arms, kitchen furniture and provisions, sometimes for many days ; and, wit^ this weight, which says Mr. Gibbon, w-ould oppress the delicacy of a n:odern soldier, they would march, by a regular steo, 20 miles in six hours. The military discipline of the Romans was exceed- ingly strict. They were accustomed to various athletic exercises ; and their armor in running and leaping, was scarcely considered as an incumbrance. Such were some of Ihe military arrangements of the Romans ; and, in order to form some idea of their armed force, it may be observed, that tlie peace es- tablishment of Adrian and his successors consisted of thirty of these formidable legions, which were usually stationed on the banks of large rivers, and along the frontiers of their extensive dominions. The author just cited says, that under the Emperors, the legions were more or less permanently stationed, as follows, viz. three legions in Britain — sixteen on the Rhine and Danube, where it was early discovered that most force was necessary — eight on the Euph- rates — and in Egypt, Africa, and Spain, a single le- gion was sufficient for each. Besides all these, a powerful armed force was always stationed in Italy, to watch over the safety of the capital, and of the Emi)eror. These were called city cohorts and pr;e- torian guards; and we shall see hereafter, that these troops were principally instrumental in the ruin of the empire. From theiall of the Roman empire, a period of darkness ensued, ecjually dreadful for its length and for the number and greatness of its calamities \!,>i>n mankind. To trace the history of those times, is like making a progress through chaos, amidst upper, nellicr, and surroiuidiiig (iiirkness. We willlirsl no- tice th<' fortunes (jf Conslanlinople, conunonly call- ed the Eastern, and in late periods of history, the Greek empire. The successorsof Constantine.whoni, in this article, it will be impossible for us even to name, were more fortimate in tlie east than in the west. The nuinl)erless swarni'J of barbarians, wliii li, in these tinu's, poured down from tlie north of lOii- rope, generally directed their course more westward- ly and inundated France, Spain, Italy, and even Af- rica. The empire of Constantinople was various in its extent ; sometimes its territories were very ex- tensive, and at others were limited almost to the city walls. But this city was destined to enjoy a great and almost peculiar felicity. It stood unrifled and imimpaired through all the storms and revolutions of the dark ages. It was never taken bj' the barbarians of the north, nor of the east. It was even fortunate enough to escape the rage of civil war, and to sur- vive for many ages to triumph over the vices of its degenerate inhabitants : till, at length, it was taken by Mahomet II., Emperor of the Turks, in the year 14.53, — 977 years after the conquest of Rome by the Goths. During tliis long period, the reader will find few things in the histor}- of Constantinople worthy of very particular notice. That empire neither abounded in heroes, philosophers, poets, orators, nor historians. Yet the preservation of that one city to so late a period, was certainly an importan link in the chain of events whicli restored the arts and sci ences. The writers of the Middle Ages, and especial, ly tlie Crusaders, speak in the highest terms of the greatness and splendor of Constantinople. Her final subjugation to the Turks appears to have been a just judgment of Providence upon her, since, though bearing the Christian name, she almost uniformly carried a hostile front to all Christian powers — made more wars upon them, and exercised more animosity towards them, than she did towards Pagans and 3Ia- hometans. If we except Constantinople, the whole of Europe, from the fall of Rome to the establish- ment of Charlemagne, resembled a troubled ocean. The most splendid cities, the most populous coun- tries, and the most delightful regions of the earth, were harassed and overwhelmed with ruin and des- olation. We naturally tirst turn our eyes toward Italy, whose wretcheil inhabitants were the severest sufferers of all. The historians of those times say that their sufferings exceeded all conception — that neither pens nor pencils can describe the barliarity, the rage, and the violence of their savage conquer- ors. All their effects were converted into plunder ; their men of every age and character were put to the sword or dragged into slavery; their women subject- ed to the most brutal violence, and their cities and villages wrapped in flames. We can give the reader no juster idea of the mis- eries of Rome, than by noticing to him, that during this period, that devoted city was besieged and tak- en by storm five times in the space of twenty years. Tho.se northern invaders, after having conquered and in a measure destroyed the niiwarlike inhabit- ants of the Roman provinces, fell with a fury upon one another, and several gloomy centuries were wiisted away in the horrors of the most bloody and desolating war. The Mediterranean Sea did not se- cure the northern shores of Africa from those terri- ble invasions. An immense horde of Vandals found their way thither and settled in those fruitful coun- tries. But their settlement. so far from taking a regu- lar, consistent and pacific form, remained a perpetu- al scourge, and accomiilishcd the utter ruin of those once opulent regions. .'\Iaiikliul in those unha]ipy times, seemed iitterl_v lost to all mental improvement as well as to all sense of humanity. For several ages the whole iiuman race scarcely iiroduced one orna- ment, or could boast of one illustrious character to illiMiiini' the universal gloom, or to cast a partial beam •if liglit tlirougli the intellectual chaos: so far from it, that those days were sjiciit in destroying the no. blest works of art and genius. A diligeiii search was maile for the most vahiable productions of aiiti(|ui- t}', not to preserve and treasure iiji, but to deinoHsh, to burn, and to destroy. Nor did barbarians alone pursue Ihe work of deslri.etiou; the superstitions of the apostate Christian Church, in too many instan- ces, lent their aid to that infernal work. In this cur- sory survey, it would be impossible to notice Ihe ; sliglit shades of diflerenecin the situation of the nu- ROMAN WAE8. n.) aOUAN WARS. iniioiis proviiiccH of I lie IJofimn cnipirc. And hk these liiiK^M produced no liisloriiitiK. il would lie iir- rof;iuK;(^ to iitteinpl to tell llie render what, wiiB VC"- iiii? oii.geueriiijy spciiUintj.iii the eaHlern purls of the world. We could siiy lillle more lliaii lliat llie em- pire of Cliiua stood lirm iu its streii;;!!!. luiviii^ ul- reiidy llourislied for niuuy ii};es. Iiidiii mid I'ersiii liiive l>eeii subject to chamres, divisions and revolu- tions from timi^ iuunc^morial— especially the former; and the (tre<lv writers are, [x-rhaps, the only hislori- ans who ever wrot(t correctly llic Persian history. I' was but partially known before, and has been far less so, since the AuL^ustan aL'<'. The north of ICil- rope was only known by the inenMlible swarms of barbarians which issueil from it, anil overwhelmecl the civilized world. (.)f the history of Arabia we shall soon have occasion to speak ; and conccridn^ the immense interior of Asia, commoidy called 'I'ar- tary, the best of modern i;eoij;raphers are yet uhuosl wholly ifrnoraiil.HS also of the nuddle rcfiions of Af- rica, The Island of (Ireat Mritain has been known in history since the time of its coi!i|Uesl by ,lulius Cw- sar. The IJritous made a formidabli' resistance to Ills arms, and were never but partially conquered. When the Roman empire fell, that island shared in the {general calamities. The ]}ritish called over to their aid the Saxons, a nation from (iermany, to as- sist them asjainst the fury of the I'icts and Scots, by wlioni they were invaded. The Sa.xons, led l)y llen- i;ist and llorsa,two |iowcrfnl chieftains readily obey- ed the call, and, ai-i-ordini; to the fashion of the ajje. came over in such luunbers, as not onl^- to re- pel the IMcts anil Seots.but to conquer and enslave the Hritons themselves. Thev therefore settled in the southern part of the island, and at lens^lh erected themselves into seven petty but indeiiendent king- doms, commonly c:dled the Saxon heptarchy. These were at len;;th united into one n;overnment by Ej;- bert, who, about the year HdO, reii^ned over them all and founded the Eni^lish monarchy. This brings the English history to the close of the period whii'h was to be the subject of the present article. Arabia forms the southwest corner of .Vsia, It is a tract of coun- try considerably more than a thousand nules square, and is peninsulated by the Persian (iulf on the cast, and the Red Sea on tlie west of it. This jjreat coun- try is supposed to have been peopled orii^inally by the family of Islmiacl the son of Abraham. Of Ish- niael it was foretold, that he should be an archcr,and that his hand should be aijainst every man, and ev- ery man's hand aijainst him. This prediction seems to have been ftilly accomplished in his po.sterity. The Arabs have ever been excellent horsemen and archers, formidable with the bow and tlie lance, and tlwy have been wild men, and have dwelt in the des- ert, A siiii^ular circumstance in their history is, that they have never been compiered or subjujiated by any n.ation, althouiih it has been attempted succes- sively by the Chaldeans, the Persians, the Romans, and in late ages, l)y the Turks. In the beirinning of the seventh century, a tire Ijroke out in Arabia, which for a while, threatened to involve in its tl,-imcs all Europe and Asia. It is n'uiarkcd by an able histori- an, as a wonderful synclu'onism, that the very same year in which the Uonian pontilV was proclaimed uni- versal bishop, Mahomet, the grand impostor, forged the Alcoran in a cave of Jlecca. The usurpations of the Komisli church were complete — the beast was at its full growth, and was then ready to begin his reign. It wovdd thence seem ])robable, th,'it the beast and the false prophet began and will end their career nearly together. It is a matter of doid)t, whether the great exploits and astonishing elevation of some men. are to be set down to the account of their extraordinary natural endowments, or to a favorable coincidence of events in the world aroiuid them. Mahomet, from an ob- scure parentage, birth and education. rose to a height, and with a rapidity, almi>st without a parallel. From the occupation of a tradesman he retired to a cave In Mecca, where he pretended he had frequent in- terviews with an angel, by whose assistaMce and di- rection he wrote the Kofun on the plate bones of cunielH, He at li'iigth insiied from the cuvi-, and began to publish his mission lollie [leople of .Mecca. .\ storm was soon raisid a^'aiiist him there, and he lied from Mecca to .Mediiiu, in Arabia. This IliKht the Alahomelans call the /nr/nru. and regard il aH their grand enoc'', US w<r do the birth of ( hri.Hl. The followers of >Ia..oiiira soon lieiame niiinerouH— In; subdued or rather revolutionized his native eoiinlry, and, in a short time, all the neighboring coiinlrieK. His religion spread with his arms, and wuK embruc- id wherever he conquered. The Saracens, as .Mahomet's followers were called, after his death still pursued their conqueHts ; and, in a very short time, all the west of Asia, the north of Africa, and the .south of Europe were overrun by this dreadful inundation ; which, if possible, wa» more sanguinary and exterminating than that of the (Joths and \andals. A linal slop however, was put to the progress of the Saracens in Europe bv (harlcH -Martel, who defeated them with gre.it slaiii/hler mar the Pyrenees, killing, it is said ;I70,(K)0 of them in one day. This batllit was fought in the year 7:i4. Mahomet declared himself to hi; the" prophet of God, sent into the world to enlighten and reform mankind ; and that he was clothed with greater light and powers than either .Moses or Christ. Ilis doc- trines and morality were drawn from such source* as would best suit the prejudices, and obl:iin cur- rency among the iialinnH « horn he conquered. They were extracted from the .lewisli and Christian Scrip- tures—from oriental traditions— from the legendary trash of the rabbles, and indeed, from the inventive genius of Mahomet himself, whose knowledge of mankind enabled him to foresee how the}' miidit easiest hi' led and governed. He taught the unity of (iod, and the universality of his providence, or rath- er, in the strictestesensc."the doctrines of the fatalist. His selu'me of morality allowed the full indul- gence of the i)assions, being exactly suited to the most depraved mind ; and he so managed the affairs of a future state, that they could have no influence in favor of virtue or in opposition to vice. It was not without reason, that he relied on the natural disposition of men for the ultimate success of his doctrines, but his main arguments, for their propagation, were lire and sword. The kingdoms of Europe in general, as to their extent and boundaries, .seem to liave been parcelled out by accident, or more jiropcrly by nature. Spain is marked out by oceans and mountains— France by oceans, mountains, and rivers— Germanv and Italy in like manner. .\s early as the period" under con- sideration, sonic remote vestages may be discovered of the present Euroi)ean establishments. Early in the sixth century, Clovis laid the foundation of"the French monarchy ; at which time the rage of emi- gration by nations had generally subsided, either becuuscthe wilds of Europe hail poured forth all their daring si)irits,or because a general repletion of the southern provinces had rendered a kind of retlux necessary. Xo part of Europe had oftener been traversed and ransacked than France: but as they found less plunder there, they generally pushed for- ward to othereonntrics. The Franks at" lensth made a settlement there, after having driven out and des- troyed several Gothic nations, who had previously dispossessed the Romans and ancient Gauls. Froiii the Franks the country is supposed to have obtained the name of France. The Franks, after maintain- ing long and bloody wars with subsequent invaders for several ages, at length found themselves united by a more regular form of government under Clovis, who is reckoned the founder of the first dj-nastr of French monarchs. During the period now before -is. the f.ace of Eu- rope was changed. as we have already stated, bv the Gothic ;.ud Saracen eruptions. The lirst care of BOMAN WARS. 77C BOUAN WARS. these barbarous invaders was to destroy and for- ever to obliterate the inhabitants, the institutions, tlie manners and customs of the countries wliicli they subdued. A far more difficult task than this was to maintain their acquisitions agaiust subsequent invaders : for the north of Europe, like an immense storehouse of nations, poured forth in- numerable hordes, in rapid succession. These were equally hostile to each other, and knew nothing but to make war — to kill and ravage wherever they came. Wiietlier it was owing, liowever, to the softening influence of mild climates, combined with the scat- tered rays of science, humanitj-. and order which had escaped the overwhelming tlood of darkness: or whether to the imperceptible influence of various unknown causes upon individuals — the people in the south and west of Europe, instead of sinking into a savage state, l)egan, in the sixth ccntur}', to assume a regular form of government, which, though bad in itself, yet, imder the influence of a natural course of causes idt imately led on to the present state of Europe. The nurthern barbarians entertained a high sense of freedom, and each of them considered himself as entitleii to a lil)eral .share of whatever his trilie should conquer. Each great chieftain, therefore, granted out and divided the conquered lands to the high of- ficers ue.\t himself, and they subdivided the same among their followers or vassals ; tmder this ex- press condition, that each man should do militarj' service a certain part of his time to his immeiiiate lord, and that each lord or great vassal of the court should also di militarj- service to the Grand Chieftain or King. This division of property which prevailed in every part of Europe, was grounded wliolly on military policy ; it became, in fact, the only organ- ized system of defense for several centuries, and has obtained the name of \\\e feudal xy^tem . This system of property, government, and war, although it must be regarded as a happy change from a direful plunge of the human species into anarchy, and all the deg- radations of a savage state. _vet was radically defective and certainly conduced to protract the ages of dark- ness. Still, however, it left room for the slow oper- ation of causes which would naturally correct, im- prove, and elevate the human mind ; and which would at length originate other causes, far more ef- ficient and rapid iu rending the veil of darkness. and once more ushering the nations into the light of science and civility. Tlmse who would see this sub- ject handled with great elegance and perspicuity, may find it in the first volume of Dr. Robertson's History of Charles V. AVe shall here only observe that the exorbitant power of the middle order was the grand defect of the feudal systetn. The great lords held the power of life and death over their own subjects: and also the right of making war in their own defense. Of course, if with such an extent of prerogative, the}' confederated, they always out- weighed the King — if they were at war with each other, which was often the case, the King had no control over them, because it wasimpossihle for him to raise or command an army witlioiit their assist- ance. On the one hand, tlierefore. the liands of tlie mcmarch were lied : and. the other, the lowest order were little better than abjei'l shives to their immedi- ate governors. The feuilal governments were at no great remove from the very worst of oligarchies. The want of Dower in the prince, and the force of the nation so divided, rendering them weak against invasion. This weakness was increased by the jeal- ousies and turbulence of the great lords, who fre- quently occ:isioned civil wars. and at length reduced them to a slate of anarchy, frfun which Ihev coiilii only be recovered and reunited by union, and ii strong sense of ctoinnion diinger. In the midst of the fluctuating wiives of war, revo- lution, and iinarchy, the ]iowerfiil genius of Charle- magne erected anew empire in Euroiie; which, for a moment bid fair to cut sliorl the reign of darkness, and re-establish those iiistilulioiis which im])rove and adorn society. His dominion comprehended tho fairest parts of Europe; France, Germany and Italy. This event took place in the beginning of the ninth century. But as nothing can be more uninteresting than the sterile histories of the wars and revolutions of the dark ages, so, even wliat is known of the battles, the sieges, the victories, the conquests, the elevation, and the grandeur of Charlemagne, will be little more improving to tlie reader of history, than to tell him that Charlemagne was a soldier of fortune — that he fought bravely, and was generally victorious; in a word, that he established a huge em- pire, consisting of a heterogeneous mass of crude materials — incongruous, disjointed members, and which he governed for several years not by anj- reg- ular plan of civil polic}-, which the nations were then as incajiable of receiving as of organizing, but hy a strong military arm, which he wielded with dexterity and success ; and that, when he expired, Ills empire fell into pieces. In justice, however, to this great monarch, it must be noticed that he was far from resembling the fierce, cruel, and barbarous chieftains of the Goths or Saracens. Instead of de- serving the title of Attila, the senurge of God, and the ternrrofmen, he is justly celebrated for cultivat- ing the arts of peace — for encouraging men of learn- ing and wisdom, and for promoting various import- ant civil institutions. Perhaps, Init for him, Europe had still remained under the cloud of Gothic ignor- ance. He merits an honorable rank among those great and powerful minds, which evinced the possi- bility of checking the strong current of the times; and, could he have lived and reigned for a century, he might have raised Europe from her degraded state. But time, and a long series of events, could onl}' mature those seeds of order and virtue, which under his administration began to vegetate, but which, in a manner, disappeared with him. and left the world in still palpable darkness. During the 283 years following the reign of Coni- modus, and up to ihe extinction of the Western Em- pire uuder Augtistulus, there is little else to contem- plate but the most deadly disorders, the most agon- izing struggles, and the deepest and most ostensible deca}'. IJut an empire containing a hundred and twenty millions of jieople — founded in power, wealth and policy — strengthened by every auxiliary of hu- man greatness — triumphing over all enemies, and elevated almost beyond the reach of invasion, could only perish Ijy tlie gradual progress of internal dis- order. The misfortunes of Rome sprung from her own bosom, and it can scarcely be said that she had enemies, till she had formed and trained them to the arts of war. In the ISOth year of the Christian era, Commodus ascended the throne. No reign was more inauspicious than his, nor is the memory of any prince more deeply covered with infamy. He formed a per- fect contrast to his illustrious father, INIarcus Aure- lius. It would be impossible in this compend to draw a character more black, detestable and deprav- ed than that of Commodus. A detail of his vices would occupy more space than we can allow to the whole subiect of tliis article. We can .'iay but lit- tle more than that, during his reign, the administra- tion of government was totally abaudcmed, and the numerous projis of a falling empire, which had ex- isted a century before this, were now no more. At the seat of government there was nothing but lux- ury, riot and murder. In the iirovinces, extreme disorder, ra|iacity, misery and revolt ]irevailed. On the frontiers, tlic burning of cities and the blood of thous.'Uids marked the footste])Sof inv.Msion. In Il;ily, disalfeclioiKcoiispirac}-, jealousy, terror, detestation, revenge, fury and despair, surrounded Ihe Ihroiu — tilled the capital inspired every heart, and painted destruction on every face. In the army there was licentiousness, outrage, mutiny and desertion. The soldiers, in multitudes, forsook their standards, and in numberless and fierce banditti, infested llie high- ways. The redress of wrongs and the recovery of ROMAN WA£S. 777 EOU&M WAB8. riKli'f t'xpirod willi civil juslifc ; iukI while llic crii- pirc felt those slvdim Imt viiiii slriin^les, which were occaMionecl liy I hi' rciu'linn of Iwr niihinil I'drcc, her uii ion, power, and Miililiiry ri'piiliilioM viiiiishcil.iiiiil h'ft hiT iiM iriimeiis<' clmoM of (liscordaiil principles. An illiislrioiH pareiilaj^e i^tiVf hit;h expeelalioiis of Com- liiodiis, lull his (Miiidiict soon lianished all liope.l. lie <'xlMhile(l cruellies al which even Nero would have shuddered, and lie was even more elTeininale Ihan Sardanapalus. It seems a pity, for the honor of hu- manity, that the name of so infamous a monster should have been ))reserved. His feeble am! lii'cnti- ous rciiin produced calaiinties to his country, after his vices had destroyed him, and he was no more. Jle was no sooner laUen oil' by a conspiracy, conducted bv his favorite mistress, than the ehniee of the army aiid senate clothed with the imperial pin'plc, llelve- tius I'erlinax. lie was aliove 111) years of aire -had served under tlu^ illustrious Anionines — and was al- vfays noted eipially for bravery and wisdom, lie bad risen from a private soldier, IhroUijh all the irrades of military honor to thai of ;)nelorian prefect. With modesty and reluctance hv assumed the <lia- <lom, which he was ileslincd to wear and to s;ra('e only lorn; enough to ilenionslrate his merit, and to enroll his name amongst the most excfllent ot the Uoman Emperors. If the degenerate Uomans discovered their mis- lalie. in elevating to the throne a man wdiose adminis- tration v.'as utterly repugnant to their wishes, he much sooner discovered his, in thiid<ing it possible to renovate the empire, now going rapidly into an irrecoverable decline. The ijoman armies, which under the Scipios had subdued Africa and Asia — which underCifsar had exlendc<l the cmi)ire beyond the Danube, and which under 'rrajan had con(|uered beyond the Kujihratcs. were now the scorn and ridi- <'ule of the barbarians. 'I'hrough a tntid want of discipline, all suliordinatiou was lost — all niilitary spirit: nothing remained but discord, sedition and outrage, rerlinax commeiuc<i an adnunistration vig- orous, systematic and comprehensive. The em|)ire, through her wide regions felt his power, and saw and revered the equity that marked all his move- ments. It was soon perceived that I'ertinax would aim to suppress those irr.-gularities and restore tie discipline of thearmy to its ancient severity — that he would revive the institutions of civil justice, and re- trieve the fallen (iignity of th<' Roman name. Hut ala.< ! his noble intentions and excellent schemes could not be elTectuated by mortal prowess : the na- tion was too far gone — too deeply sunk in vice and luxury. The palace, the court, and the capital were tilled and surrounded with a swarm of execrable villains, whom the vices of Commodus had rendered necessary — w hom his weakness had cpdioldencd, and the corruption of the times had furnished in abund- .*\uce. His first care was to displace these — to exalt men to power who were worthy to rule, ami to re- strain and punish the insolence of the prietoriau guards. He had just entered on this salutary but arduous work, when he was informed, one day, that a muti- ny was raising in thearmy. He liad only time to walk to the gate of his palace, when he perceived a large body of soldiers rapidly advancing with angry clamors and menacing imprecations. .\s they drew near, he stood his ground and with a firm dignity de- mandeil their business. Without making any rejily. a Scythian soldier struck him dead al a lilow. His head was severed frcun his body and carried on a pole to the camp: wliere immediately after the em- pire was otTered at public sale to the highest bidder. It was bid olT by a sordid wretch, who ass\imed the purple, liut who, in a few days. sutTcred all the se- verities of the fate of I'ertinax. witliout any of the pity and regret which will follow the nuMuory of that great man io the latest posterity. It is a matter of regret that so little is known of Pertinax. th;it so few circuinstauces have escaped oblivion, which would more dearly elueidate his private character: and especially, that .so short a lime was allowed him for ilisplaying thc' energy of conunand. the wisdom ot legislation, and tlie greatness of man. HislorianH, however, unite in allowing him to rank with the most worthy men who ever governed Home. Ilm energy was" guiiled by justice his authority was tempered with swei-lness, and all his Huperemiiient (pndities combined to form a character Iridv great and amiable. Were it safe, however at this (lislance of time, one might conjecture that hi' was too severe and hastv In his first e-isaysof reformation. Had he, by some politic and impenetrable movement contriv- ed to separate and remove to a distance his lici'Mli- ous soldiery, till he could have levied and diHcii)lin- ed an army to his miia. perhaps he might have en- joyed a loiiger and more fortunate reign. iJut what power can renovate a nation totally elli iniiuite and corrupt 1 I'ertinax, by his abililiis and address, aH- cended from the lowest to the highest rank anions men. His reverses were so mimerous, great and suilden. that historians have given him the peculiar appellation of the Ifiiiiix //nil 'if f'rlnne. i'Voni the death of l'(rlinax till that of Au;;ustulu8, the last of the Koman Kmperors of the West, wa» '282 years, during which time no less tlian lifly-six Emperors swayed the see))tre in succession. Their nanu's it is not nc-cess;iry to ricord : anil for an account of their vices (for little more is ri'corded of themj. the reader must be referred to the history of the decline of the Koman empire: on which part of history. Gibbon is the ablest and most elegant writer in our language. The artful and insi'Mous en- deavors of that writer to subvert Christianity, and to substitute, no one knows what, in its place, are obvious to every reader : yet his merit as a writer cannot be ipiestioned : anil although his opposition to Christianity lietrayed him into many gross absurd- ities suited to" the complexion of his prejudices, yet his history of the decline and fall of the Koman em- pire is one of the noblest of historical productions. So much has been already said conceriung the de- cline of the Roman empire that the reader may be surprised wIk'U he luiderstandstluit it stood upwards of two centuries after this period. lint that empire could onlv die a lingering death. West of it lay the Atlantic Ocean, south lay Africa, which, since the fall of Carthage, was without power, east lay A.sia, dissolved iu luxury, always ready to be conquered, as soon as attacked, and enslaved as soon as invad- ed : and so far from subduing Rome that they were even too effeminate to maintain a form of govem- u'.ent over themselves. The barbarous nations which lay nor*h of the .>m. pire were indeed numerous and warlike: but they could not subdue the Romans, till they had learned of them the art of war. And the power of Rome, under the Emperors, lay chieliy in the uothern prov- inces, where it was most needed. As we have al- ready said, sixteen or twenty legions generally lay I bordering on the IChine and Danube. The barba- I rians, in these times, were generally poorly clothed and fed. and had few arms! as well as little knowl- edge of the ;irt of war. Their invasions were like those of a hungry lion, whom fierce appetite impels to rush on the point of the spear, in order to seize its ' prey; and their chief ditiiculty was want of union. Their tribes were composed of warlike, fierce, im- p.-tuous spirits; but they were unsettled, barbarous, roviuir. independent, aiid jealous of the power of their chiefs, as well as tenacious of the honor of their tribes. Yet the nations composing the north- ern hive could not but experience a gradual improve- ment. Their proximity to a great and enlightened people, with whom they were at perpetual war— their strength of body— their intellectual vigor, and their ambition to acquire tho.se arts which had so long rendered the Romans invincible, must, in time, hiivv produced their natural and unavoidable effects. In the barbarian armies and coimlries there must SOMAN WAB8. 778 BOHAN WABS. have been a multitude of Honians: niuubers having fled from justice, or induced to rove, from disgust at their own capricious and tyrannical government, would naturally seek an asylum in the wilds of Eu- rope, and among a more free and equitable people. Numbers being detained there would, at length yield to necessity, and voluntarily remain in a land, whither they had been dragged as captives, assimil- ating by ilegrees to its cu.stoms and habits. The Gauls and Germans, from the period now be- fore us, composed the strength of the Koman armies: and great numbers of these nations, whom we shall indiscriminately call the Goths, and Vandals, and Huns, were now admitted into the Roman service, either as legionaries or auxiliaries. Some of them were promoted to the highest stations, both civil and military, and even wore the imperial diadem and purple. Many of these, either never had, or else lost all attachment to Rome; and rejoining their countrj'- men, carried and diffused among them the arts of war, and advantages of disciplined valor. From the reign of Commodus to the extinction of the Western Empire, history presents one uniform scene of dis- order, vice and misery. We have almost constantly before our eyes, a great empire going rapidly to de- struction under the influence of bad government. A very few of the Emperors, however, during this dreary period, were both able statesmen and com- manders. Had it been their fortune to have reigned in happier times, and over a more virtuous people, their administrations would have done more import- ant service to mankind. But their best measures and greatest exertions, seemed only to have the ef- fect of medicines given to the sick after his disease has become incurable; they might a little procras- tinate, but could not prevent the moment of dissolu- tion. About the year of Christ 267, the Emperor Valerian was taken prisoner by the Persians, when no less than thirt}' persons in various parts of the empire assumed the imperial purple, with the titles of CiBsar and Augustus; and each of thein endeavor- ed to support his claims and titles b}' the sword. There can be no stronger proof than tliis of the ex- treme wretchedness of those times. All was tuuuilt, war, distrust, cruelty and the most bloody revolu- tions. But there are two circumstances in the pe- riod of history now before us. which merit the par- ticular attention of the reader, viz. the establislmient of the Christian Religion throughout the empire. Ijy means of the conversion of the Emperor Constantine. surnamed the Great; and his removal of the seat of government from Rome to the ancient city of By- zantium, which he rebuilt and called Constantinople, or the Citu i>f ('nnxtuntine. We have already notice<l the rapid spread of the Christian Religion". In the days of Constantine it had penetrateil almost every part of the empire. No sooner, therefore, did that prince declare in favor of it, than it became tlie re- ligion of the court, the capital, and soon of the em- pire itself. This was tridy an amazing change, and forms one of the most memorable icras in eeclesias- tical liistorv; a meek and humble religion uid<nown to the world, or if known, (les])ised ;ind ])crsecuted, set on foot by a few oljscurc persons in .ludea, and propagated only by tlie force of rational conviction, spread and prevailed against all opposition over- turned the altars and silenced the oracles of the heathen; and at last, through hosts of prejudices for- tified by anti(iuify, and sanctioned by universal cf.s- tom. madi^ its way to the throne of the C'a;sars. It was like a "stone cut out of a mountain without hands, ix-coniing a great mountain and tilling the whole earth." There are various accounts given, and various opinions formed, concerningthe conver- sion of t'onstanline. Whether his minil was swayed by the power of truth, or by temporal, ])olitie;d and interested motives, is not easy to determine. It is related anil believed by some that his conversion ' was miraculous. They say that he saw in tlu' heav- : ens the sign of the cross, with this inscription in ni- ' diant letters. By this conquer, and that upon this he immediately embraced Christianity. His life I and conduct were by no means eminent for christian virtue, nor was he wholly free from crimes of the deepest die. From this period the Christian Church was loaded with lionor, wealth and power ; nor did her virtues ever sustain a severer trial. The chief dignitaries of the empire could scarcely do less than imitate their master, and Christianity soon became a necessary qualification for public office. The church now no longer apper.red in her ancient simplicit)' and purity; lords and princes were among her converts, and she was dressed in robes of state. Her ceremonies were increased — her forms of worship were loaded with pomp and splendor — her doctrines were intermingled with the senseless jargon of a philosopliy eijually absurd and vain; and the way seemed prepared, not only for the decay of Christiim doctrine and moral- ity, but of every science which distinguishes civiliz- ed from savage nations. After various wars and competitions, Constantine, in the year of Christ. 320, became sole master of the Roman empire. He cer- tainly did whatever could be done, by an accom- plished General and statesman, towards restoring the empire to its ancient glory. But, alas ! he did not reign over the ancient Romans. His people had been often defeated, humbled, enslaved, and tram- pled in the dust. The true Roman spirit was long since utterlv extinguished ; and, as we had occasion to observe. Italj' itself was filled with a mighty heterogeneous mass of population, of no fixed char- acter. His strong genius for a moment sustained, but could not ultimately save, the falling fabric. The ambition of Constantine gave a more fatal blow to the Roman empire than even the vices of Commodus. To secure to himself aglory equal with that of Rom- ulus, he formed the resolution of changing the seat of empire. Tlie place upon Avhirh he pitched as a new capital, and which shoidd immortalize his name was indeed well chosen. The ancient city of Byzan- tium enjoyed the finest port in the world, on the straits of Bosphorus, which communicate with those inland seas, whose shores are formed by the most opulent and delightfid countries in Europe and Asia. Thither Constantine caused the wealth of the empire to be conveyed, and directly a new and splendid city arose which was able to rival ancient Rome. Tliat proud capital, so long the mistress of empire suddenl}' became but a s:itellite, and was forsaken by honor, wealth, and glory ; since the Emperor, and ail who were devoted to his interest, used every pos- sible means to exalt the new seat of empire. This wound was deadly and incurable. It proved fatal not only to one city, but to the western empire. Rome was utterly abandoned by Constantine. nor was it much alleviated under his successors, among whom a permanent division of the empire taking place, Rome and Italy fell under the government of a series of weak, miserable, short-lived tyrants who rose by conspiracy and fell by murder in rapid suc- cession; till, in the 4T(!th -year of the Christian Era, Augustulus, the last of the Roman Emperors, was con(|uered and dethroned by Odoacer. King of the lleruli, who. at tlie head of an immense army of barbarians, overran all Italy, iiiid put a period to the western empire. Thus ended Rome, after having stood 122!) years ; and when we consider the lengtli of her duration, her character, and the nature and extent of her resources, we shall not hesitate to pro- nounce her the most ])ow(Tful and iiii|iorlant city wliieli ever existed, and as standing ;it the lie;id of the first rank of citi<'S. But if this remark is true of Rome in tlii! times of \vhi(;h we are now siieaking, it will serve to awaken our admiration, when we con- sider that R(une survived even this shock ; and, as tliongh destined to bear rule, from being the head of a powerful em]iire, she so on became the head of an ecclesiastical institution not less powerfnl; she spread her wings over all Europe. HOMPU. 770 HOPE. liotnpu. ROMPU.- Ill H(riililr.v,iiliriiiii|)- |ilii (I In a clicvriin wlii'ii llic iipprr [):irl is Uikcii olV, am! remuiuH above il in till' lii'lil. HONCONE.— The name givrTi by siiMic :iiilliiirs to till' rmiHinr, u kind cif |p:nli/,:iii. RONDACHE. In luicicnt warfare, a rirciilar sliiclil <iiiTic(l by foot- Boldiurs lo pmlccl, I hi' upper piii'l of Ibc person, bav- in}; a slit in I be upper pari for seeinf; tbroii;;b. and another at the side for Ibe point of the sword lo puss tbroiii^b. RONDEL. In forliliealion, a round tower, some. times <'re(lci| at tiie foot of a basljon. RONDELLE. A small round shield wliieli was formerly used iiy ligbl-armed infantry. Il was about 1| feet in leni^tli. A Itniuhllitr was an Areber or Pikeman who carried the ronthUe. RONFLEURS. Frederick the Great applied this name to s<iiue 12. pounders of 22 calibers, weii.diin}; ;i2,0{) pounds, wbieli, before the batlli' of I.eulhen, lu^ had drawn from the neiyhliorini; f<irlress of (jlo- l^an. The eli.'iriie for the LTun was .T ))ounds. ' ROOKER AMBULANCE SADDLE. An ordinary ca- valry saiUile, having an attachment consistim; of two upright bars cut and hinged in the middle, a cross-bar at the toji of the u|)riirbls to support the bead, a canvas back, and two strong lealher straps with buckles, so arrange<l as to support the apparatus to 1)6 more or less inclined, to suit the rider. Wlien the upright bars are placed iu the canvas, they need not again be taken out, but may be folded at the b.inges, and, with the straps inside, may be rolled into a coinpael bundle and allai^jied bv Ibe coal- straps to the canlle. Thi^ weight rif llie aUachnient I is about 1 J pounds. When inteniled to be iiKcd il may bo thiiB ad- justi-d : I'nstrap il from Ibe canlle and place the , sick or wounib'd man iti the saddle: insert the iron keys in ibe lower ends of the uprigbis in the (rye- bolls, espedally atlaclied to the saddle for Ibis pur- pose, on each side, near the base »{ the canlle; put on the cross-bar and key il ; hook the straps to tlie eyelets in the upper parts of the uprights, having llrst buckled the lower ends of the straps into the staphs in front of the pommel ; then by the middle buckles elevate or depri'ss tin- bead, lis maybe re- qinred. An iindirella m.iy be readily atlacbed, though not an essential part of the apparatus. The form or arrangement of this contrivance is sliown in the drawing. All hough it possesses mi-rit and would at timi'S be of servicr', it has never been ex- tiiisively nse<l tiicaiise of increasing Ibe weight and mimlKT of articles a soldier has to carry. ROPE. Hopes are generally made of vegetable libres, and dilTer onlv from twine in their inucli greater thickness. I'lie libre most commonly used ishenip; but large quantities of plantain fibre. called manila hemp, made from the leaf-stalks of ikiimi ti'Ttilin, are also employed, especially for llie large ropes used for various purposes f>n board ships. HojH'S consist of many thicknesses of yarn, whiili is spun by band in various places called rope. walks. The spinner has a large bundle of the libre loosely gathered around bis waist, from which be pulls out a few fibres, and attaches them to a hook iu the turning-wheel or whirl, which is stationary, and im worked by an assistant. Experience teaches him what number of fibres to draw out. and how to twist them so as to bold tirndy on to the hook. He then walks slowly backward down the rope-ground, gradually drawing out or regulating the pulling out of the fibres so as to make an equal yani. which receives the neces.sary twist from the whirl. When he has got to the end of the walk, another spinner takes the yarn from th<' hook of the whirl, and tixes it to a reel, which is then set in motion, and be attaches a second portion of hemp Irom his own supply to the hook, and iiroceeds down the walk as the previous one had done. In the meantime, the first spinner gradually walks up tlie ground, care- fully guiding his length of yarn as it is wound on the reel. When he readies the reel it stops, and he waits until the see<ind spinner's length is completed. He then in his turn takes it off the hook, and twists it on to ills own : and the reel being again started, receives the additional length from the .second man, and so on until the full length reipiired is made up. The next oper.it ion is called irfirpiiig, and consists in stretching out the number of yams required for a rope. These are all slightly twisted again separ- ately, and stretched to an e(pial length. Then, if they are intended for tarred ropes, each yam is drawn separately, either lemrthwise or in a hank. through a kettle of hot tar. ^rhe superHuous tar is removed by drawing it through a hole lined with oakum. In the next process, called Uiying, two or more yarns are attached to hooks on a whirl, so that whenit is turned they will be twisted together the contrary way of the original twist they received in the first spinning. When this is done It is called a strand. Then as many of these strands as arc re- quired for the rope arestretched at full length, and are attached at each end to whirls. One of the whirls has but one hook, to which all the strands are attached ; the other has as many hooks as there are strands. one always being central, and a strand is attached to it. The whirls are then put iu motion, but in opposite directions, and this causes the outer strands to be laid with great regularity and firmness around the central oni'. Such is the ordinary pro- cess of rope-making ; but machines have bei'n in- vented which produce ropes with such mathematical BOSASD SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. 780 KOSETTES. precision tliat the strength of the rope may be cal- culated with gre.it exactness. Captain Huddart has the merit of effecting these improvements; and verj- few applications of mechanism are more beau- tiful in their details than those which he has worked out. They, however, do not alter the principle of the manufacture. Within the lai-t few years a great improvement has been patented by Mr. Edward Sang of Edinburgh, and is now in profitable use in the large establishment of the Efliuburgh and Leith Ropery Company. It consists of a machine wliich spins the yarn from material supplied as before by hand, but it does away with the long walk, and can be used in a small room. Large ropes are either what is called cable-laid or Jinirser-laid. The former consists of three large strands, each made up of three smaller strands. A cable-laid rope of eight inches circumference ismade up in this way of nine strands, each containing 37 original yarns, or altogether 333 yams. A hawser- laid rope consists of o'nly three strands, each con- taining a sufficient number of yarns to make up the required thickness. The numerous lives and the vast property depending on the efficiency of the ropes employed in shipjung have caused " a great amount of ingenuity and care to be brought to "bear on the manufacture. One very great improvement of modern times has been the 'introduction of wire ropes, which are now e.xteusivelv used in rigging ships, and for other purposes. They are generally made of iron wire, sometimes but riot always gal- vanized. The twisting is effected in the same waj' as that in which the strands of a hempen rope are laid together. The following tiible shows the weight which man- ila rope in daily >ise will sustain, simijly and when j rove in tackles. Hemp rope is about one-third stronger. Due allowance has been made for loss of .strength by wear and tear. Look for the weight to be raised, or the next larger, in the column headed with the number of sheaves in the purchase of tackle. The circumference of the rope required will be found on the same line in the left-hand column. will bear without breaking, multiply tite sqiiare of the circumfereiiex by the tabular iiU7nbm-, 2 I O O S o O M a o White. Tarred. 3- strand 4- strand 3- 1 4- strand strand Hemp -^ Manila - ( Inches. 2.5 to 6 6 to 8 2.5 to 6 G to 12 1140 1090 810 7G0 1330 1200 mo 835 850 825 1000 940 i Single. Number of Sheaves in Purchase. o is 5 1.... 3 4 5 6 7 540 1,080 1,3.50 1,485 1,620 1,755 1-... 844 1,688 2,110 2,321 2,,532 2,743 if" 1,215 2,430 3,038 3,342 3,645 3.949 \i... l,(i,54 3,308 4,135 4.559 4,962 5,376 2.... 2,160 4,320 5,400 5,940 6,4«0 7,020 ar... 21... 2,734 5,468 5,835 6,519 8,202 8,8861 3,375 6,750 8,438 9,282 10,125 10,969l n... 4,084 8,168 10,210 11,231 12 252 13, 273! 3.... 4,860 9,720 12,1.50 13.365 14,580 15,795! 3f.. ;3|... 5,704 11,408 14,360 15,68fi 17 112 18,538 G,4I5 12,830 16,018 17,657 19,245 20,854' 33... 7,.594 15,188 18,985 20,884 22,782 24,681; 4.... 8,040 17,280 21,601) 23,760 25,920 28,080' 4-... 4... 9,753 19,516 21,393 26,H31 29,2,59 31,697 10,935 21,870 27,338 30,072 32,795 35.529 4:... 12,184 24,368 30,460 33,. 506 36,5.52 39,598 5.... 13,. 100 •27,000 33,750 37,125 40,500 43,875 5i... 5 ... 14,881 29,768 37,210 40,931 44,652 48,373 16,335 32, 070 41,838 45,922 49,005 53,089 5 ... 17,954 35,908 44,885 49,373 53,862 58,3.50 6 ... 18,2r.2 36,.504' 45,630 .50,193 .55,756 60,319 61... fs\... 19,H05 39,(nO| 49,51 3L54, 465'. 59,415 64.367 21,421 42,8121 ,53,.5,53 ns.'.lllH (14,263 69,018 GJ... 23,11)0 46,200; 57,750 i\:\S<2r,' 09, 300 75,075 7.... 24,843 49,7861 62,208 CH,! l«i 74,.529 80,740 8.... 32,448 64,890 81,1211 89,232107,341 105,1.5(1 To ascertain the strain in pounds which a ro For ropes in daily use, the unit should be dimin- ished one-third to meet the reduction in strength by wear and exposure. A safe general rule for all ropes is this : One-fourth the square of the circumference gives the breaking weight in tons of 2000 lbs. When using tackles, multiply the weight thus found by one-half the number of sheaves in the blocks. Strapg are applied by passing them around the object, put- ting one bight through the other, and hooking to this; or, afler putting it through, winding all'the strap around the rope or spar, and hooking to both bights. Ropes should be placed in the U])per stories of buildings, coiled up and labeled : large ropes on skids, allowing free circulation of air ; small ropes hung up to the joists, on pins or hooks. Ropes should not be coiled until perfectl)' dry ; they should be uncoiled every year, and stretched out for s('veral days in the dry reason. Ropes long in store lose their strength. See Bh>i-I,-s. Cordar/ . ami Tnciclix. EOSAKD SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— In this .sj's- tem, the bastions and ravelins are retrenched, and the flanks are formed of good casemates, which se- cure the defense of the main ditch. The tenaillons and counter-guards, however,do not sufficiently cover the bastion and ravelin. The first covered-way has retrenched places of arms, and the second is defend- ed by lunettes, which communicate with the place by means of g:illeries. The great defect of the sys- tem is the possibility of reaching the enceinte from the covered-way of the ravelm. ROSE. — The heraldic rose is drawn in a conven- tional form, as in the drawing,and never with a stalk, except when expressly directed by the words of blazon. Being sometimes argent and somctimts gules, it cannot be designated proper : but when blazoned " barbed and seeded proper," it is meant that the barbs are to be green, and the seeds gold or yellow. The rose gules was the badge of the Plantaaenets of the House of Lancaster, and the rose argent of that of York. The York rose was sometimes surrounded with rays as of the sun, termed ruse en soleil. As a mark of cadency, the rose has been used as the difference of the seventh son, ROSE ENGINE.— A peculiar kind of turning lathe having special chucks for the production of those jiatterns of curved lines called by tlie French m.iittfs, from I he slight resemblance which the}' bear to a fidl-blown rose, and hence the term rnse-eiigini'. The rose-engine lallie differs from the common lathe in this, that the center of tlie circle in which the work revolves is not a lixed point, but is made to oscil- late with a slight motion whilelhe work is revolving U])on it, the tool being all llu' time stationary, and hence the figure will l)e "out of round," as the turn- ers call it, or will deviate from the circular figure as nuicli and as often as the motion is given to the cen- ter. ROSETTES.- Two small bunches of ribbons, that wcri' altaclied to the loops by which the gorget of an (illicer was .suspended ou his chest. Eose. BOSIN. 781 ROSTHORN OUN METAi. E08IN. — An cxiidiitioii from trccH bclonfjirif; to the r()nif<Tii' or lirlrilii-, iinil l\w rcKiiliic left in the still, lifter tin- oil or spirit of turpcnlini' 1ms been ilislillcd. It is very conihiislililc, iiikI is used in li'^lil-liiill and curcass i'otii|)<isilioM. ROSS SCHINDER. A name Riven to foot-soldierH wild svcre in the li;ihil of usinjj tlie <//»«7v«/!or glaite- (/inKniii to liiiMisiririLC llie knights' horses. ROSTER ROLLSTER, A tixeil order preHcrvcd in inililiiry clepiirtinents iis the rotation in which indi- viduals, eornjianies, or lar;;er bodies are Vailed on to serve. In Kiii;land, rei;inieiits proceed on fi>rei;;n service accord inj; In the rosier. In the I'ni led States, the followinii roles in reiiard ti> the rosier apply to Hervice both in K^iri'ison and in the lield : All deliiils of servicer should he by roster, but, oHieers or en- listed men, when detailisl, must serve whether ros- ter be kept, or not ; havini; performed the service, thi'y niay appeal to superior authority if they deem themselves a;;irrieve<l. The iluti<s pc'rfornieil bv de- tail are of three classes: T\w JirHt i'^'.i.s comprises tain commaniliiid a hallalion lemiiorarily Ih exeiiipl from detail, and duly falling to him pasHfH. Lit-ut- enunl Colonels and .Slajors are on one roster. Tlir;y may \w detailed for ilulies of the llrst and hCfiond cIiiHseH, when the iiiiporlance of the ;;uardH and dc- tacliinenls rei|iiires it. Their rosier is kept at ilivi- Hion and bri);;adc lieail(|iiarlerB. In llif: company, Ht-rgeants, corporals, ami privates form distinct roH- tors. OIHcerH, Don-commissioned olllcers, and sold- iers take duties of the llrst dasH in the (jrrier stateil, viz, thi^ llrst, for the detail, takes the f;rand ^uardH : the next, the interior Kiiurds ; thit last, the police Unard : and the .same rule in regard to the details and duties of the second class. In the details for the third class, the senior ollicer takes the larKCht par- ty. The party tirst for detail lakes the service out of camp. When the ofticer whose tour it is, is not able to take it, or is not present at the hour of marching, the next after him takes il. When a iruard has passed the ch:nn of ■ .niiiicl- i.r :iii iutrrinr ^'uard has rcacli- Koturv iSri(i<;e franc. 1st. arrand uiiani'* and outposts: 2d. interior guards, as of magazine, hospital, etc.; 8d, orderlies ; 4tli, police guards. The an aiul cla^s comprises— 1st. de- tachments to protect laborers on military works, as field-works, communications, etc.; 2d, working part- ies on such works; ;<d, detachments to protect fat- igues. The third Hush comprises General C'ourts- Ulartial, and all fatigues, without arms, in or out of the camp. In the C'av;ilrv, stable-guards form a separate roster, and count before fatigue. The rosters are distinct for each class. Ollicers are named on them in the order of rank. The de- tails are taken in succession in the order of the ros- ter, beginning at the head. Lieutenants form one i roster, and 1st and Od Lieutenants are entered on it alternately. The senior Isl Lieutenant is the first on the roster: the senior 2d LienteiKint is the second, '■ etc. The Captains form one roster, and are exempt from fatigues, except to superiuleud issues. A Cap- ed its post, the otlicer whose tour it was cannot then take it. Me lakes the tour of the officer who has taken his. When an officer is prevented by sickness from taking his tour, he becomes first for detail on being restored to duty, the general rule being that the officer longest off duty is the first for detail. These rules apply equally to non-commissioned officers and soldiers. Duties of the first and second classes are credited on the roster when the guards or detach- ments have passed the chain of sentinels, or an inter- ior guard has reached its post : fatigue duties when the parties h;ivt< passed the chain or begun the duties in camp. Every officer, non-coraraissioncd officer, or soldier, on duty of the tirst class, or who is of the next detail for such duty, takes, when relieved, the duty of the second or third class that has fallen to him during that time, unless he has marched forde- tachunni of more th;in twenlv-foiir hours. ROSTHORN GUN METAL.— An alloy composed of SOTABY BRIDGE CBANE. 782 EOTAET PLANING MACHINE. 55.04 parts copper ; 42.3(5 zinc; 1.77 iron; and 0.83 tin; or, according to anotlicr analysis, .57. ()3 copper; 40.-2'3 tin : 1M ir^m ; :m,\ 0.15 tin" ROTARY BRIDGE CRANE.— A novel form of rotary crane po.-^sessing mam* advantages for certain kinds of work in foundries. It consists of a mast and jib, as in an ordinary jib crane, but is provided with a circular overhead track carrying the outer end of the jib, or the rotary bridge, so that the latter may easily have a much greater length th.an the jib of aii ordinary jib crane, and so that all diagonal braces are dispensed with and the entire space under the bridge left unobstructed. Cranes of this construc- tion are built of capacities from 3 to 12 tons for op- eration by hand, and of any desired capacity for operation b}' power. The engraving^ on page 781 shows the manner of its arrangement. The frame consists of wrought-iron Cranes of Ibis t3'pe can be adapted to heavy and light work of all kinds, especially- in foundries, erect- ing shops, etc. When arranged for operation by power their capacity can be indefinitely extended. They are particularly applicable to existing build- ings the shape of which does not adapt them to Ihe application of traveling-cranes, and in which the construction does not adequately provide for the strains which would residt from the use of the jib cranes. (See Jln'dyc ('rnnr, Cranes, sinAJib Crane. ROTARY PLANING-MACHINE.— This time and labor-saving machine, so constantly employed in the armory. is a comparatively recent invention. Its con- struction, and method of attachment and operation, are easily understood after an examination of the drawing herewith, representing the machine as made by Messrs. Manning, Maxwell & Moore, New York. The machine is especially adapted to facing channel beams, the mast and the bridge each being composed of two such channel irons. The operating mechanism, for the operation b}' hand, is contained wholly within the two housings at the foot of the mast, and its construction and action are identical with those of the jib crane, to which a reference is made for further particulars. The same mechanism is also utilized for hoisting and lowering at several speeds, and for causing travel of the trolley in either direction upon the bridge. Rotation is effected by simply pushing or pulling the suspended load, ex"- cept in cranes of largj size, which are provided with a power mechanism for this purpose. The construc- tion of the upper bearing of the crane, by which the head of the mast is carried, is such as to avoid any severe lateral strains upon the roof, the weight being carried, at one end of the bridge, by the mast, and at the other by the circular track which issujiported from the ground by suitable posts. This type of crane affords all the conveniences of the ordinary jib crane, while avoiding the limitation in the vertical movement of the load imposed by the diagonal braces of the latter. It also avoids the se- vere lateral strains upon the building which result from the use of jib cranes, and thus dispenses with the heavy walls or bracing necessary, where jib cranes are employed, to aft'ord the proper support of the upper end of the mast of such cranes. The jiosts supporting the circular track can easily be so placed as to cause little if any obstruction upon the floor, or, if the roof 1)(! stiff' enough, tlie track maybe hung dire(;tly frotn it without resorting to special jxists. The bridge, being supported at both ends, can con- veniently have much greater span than the Jil) of a jib crane, the outer end of which is necessarily over- hung. With rotiiry bridge cranes of ordinary ca- pacity a span of 50 feet is entirely feasible, and in this way the crane can lie made to cover a circidar floor 100 feet in diameter. off valve seats, etc. It has two horizontal discs, the upper secured by radial arras, adjusted to suit the position of the studs in the valve seat ; the lower, cairying the cutter and its slide, revolves freely against the upper, and is held in its place by a king bolt passing through its center. This lower plate is also secured b)- a circulargib upon its circumference, which admits of taking up the wear. It is an annu- lar gear, having teeth cut on its inner periphery, from which it receives its rotary motion by means of its connection with the bevel gear anci crank. The crank may be replaced by a puile_y if power be convenient. The double bevel shaft acts like a back gear and admits of a change of speed. Either bevel is thrown into gear at pleasure by the movement of a pin in a slot operated by the hand wheel. If the outer bevel is in action, it gears directly into the lower plate ; if the inner bevel, it is slow geared to the outer, and that to the plate. The revolving lower plate is fitted with a V slide and the tool post, anti is fed by a screw and star wheel, arranged to give a large variation in the feed, from roughing to finishing, etc. The cutter is conveniently fed down by the operation of a nut on the cutter spindle acting against the tool post. The radial arms which secure this machine to the studs are so finished with slots as to give a wide range of adjustment. The nuts and their bearings, in the washers which jam the radial arms, nrv curved to admit of their being firndy secured witliout springing the miichine, even though the studs should be a little out of line. In case the stud holes in a small valve seiit should come inside the plates, four other radial arms are furnished with the machine, fitted with a T slot, and witli a hole at the other end corresponding to the hole for Ihe old stud, thnsairording facilities for extreme cases. The points <'laimcd for this tool are the great, .sa- ving in time and l;dior over old methods; also ii sav- ing in files, and the fact that the job may be done BOTATION. m.'j BOTATIOK. arrnratrly, u« llii' pliiirs may Ik; nfX IriK; with the; liiivvoni parts of llic viilvr siMit, anil, coiiMriinciilly, the nrw face will lie likewise true. Il is readily seen thai llie work (Nine is exactly in line w'tli llie travel of the valve stein, thereby preventing' the yoke from Blipi)in); uj) ami down tin; valvo, as w<-ll as all extra friction on the valve stem. No more nniterial need be n'nioved than is absolutely nc^cessary to true up, thus saviiif; the seat. The work is doni; by a contin- uous cut, and the loss of time from the return motion of the onlinary planer avoidiil. 'I'liere is also no hreakinj; out of the edires. The savin;; <lainu'd hy tluMnakers over the old methods is from 75 to 80 JKT cent., and lOl) per cent, in tiles, as none need he used. After the seat is planed, the' machine can he lifted olT and placed on a table which is supplied with stationary adjusting colunms ard chuck for holdini; the valve, when the Kali'f is ]ilaneil. In many instances, when the work is done in round houses, the table is essential to a more perfect an<l satisfa<'- tory job. Il is estimated that an ordinary locomo- tive valve seat can be thoroughly trued u|) in two liours. These machines are strong and well titled lip, are easily handled, and will be found an excellent tool in every respect. They are principally made in three sizes, IH, 22, and '21) inches. The following drauini; rejiresents a machine spe- cially designed for faciiii; plain surfaces, in iron work,wlier<' large luunbersof pieces of the same kind are used; ou this class of work it is without doubt 1 riafre weri' runnin); from Kast to WcBt alon^f a par- i allel of lalituilc, so as lo co;nplel(- the circuit in 34 , liours, he would he at rest relative to the eurth'H axis. If, therefore, we wish to talk of tilmiluU mo- tion, it must be measured rilnlirr to rixKi> poinlH or directioiiH ; and in the violation of this ohvioiis con- dition lies tlic error most comiiionly met with. TliUB, to show that the earth rotates about its axis, we mu^ observe its motion relatively to the line joining it with the moon; and we observe that the moon comes to the meridian at intervals of ^roughly; 2.'! hours. Does the earth rotate in 'i'> hours? We know that it does not, and the error consistH in treating as an ahmlnle rotation, a rotation measured relative to a line — that joining the earth and moon- which U itself turning. If we lake the iiiterval.s of the Kiin'8 crossing the meridian, we lind 21 hours — a miicll <;loser approximation: liut still not exact, liecaiiHC our line of referinei — that joining the earth and sun - is slowly turning. Would we have an absolute measure, we must choose a fixfd line, or one ho near- ly fixed that its motion will he absolutely insensible. J^uch is the line joining any llxeil star with the earth, and the time of the earth's iiluiiiliitf rotation about itH axis is 2;!li •'•IJni 4.00' -the interval between culmi- nations of the same fixed star. The dilTerence be- tween absolute and relative rotation in any planet gives rise to the dilference between {UcKi'lrrfil and the miliir day: and the jilanet's j'ear contains just "«e more of the former than of the latter. Kow, superior to any reciprm-iiling planer tli;ii e;ni he made; in many cases the finished work can be re- moved and replaced l)y new work while the ma- chine is still fining at the opposite end. There are 2S cutters, in the 2")-iucb. machine shown, secured in a heavy plate wheel. b;inded with wrought iron and driven by worm and worm-wheel: tiiis ]il;ile wheel liiis a heavy steel spindle, and is carried in a traveling head on the bed jihite, the work remain- ing stationary. It has an automatic variable feed, and the head is moved back by an independent coimtershaft. This machine will face a surface 'iH inches high and 11 feet long. The IS-inch machine j lias 22 cutters, and will face a surface l.S inches high and 8 feet long. The ;i2-inch machine has 36 1 cutters, and will fiiee a surface 32 inches high and \ 14 feet long. The weights of the machines are I'i.llK), SOiin! and 1!122.") pounds respectively. I ROTATION. -There is. perhaps, no elementary idea i which lias been the subject of so much popular mis- 1 conception as that of rot;ition. This is probably due to the vagueness of the definitions commonly given. All motion that we c;in observe is rilntiir; for in- stance, any lixed oljjcct on the earth's surface has a certain motion rHutnv to the earth's axis, in conse- quence of the diurnal rotation ; the earth itself has a certain motion nintire to the sun, in consequence of its annual revolution : the sun has a certain mo- tion ?■</'(<'>(' to the so-called fixed stars; and it is ]iossible that the whole stelhir sy.stem may have a motion ir'ntiiv to something in space beyond its boundaries. Now, the motion of an object on the earth's surface dilTers according to the way it is measured: a passenger sitting in ii railway carriage is at rest if his motion irkitirc to the carriage be con- sidered ; he has the same motion as the carriage if It be measured rWaii'Bf to the rails: and if the car- sujipnse for a mnniiiit lli;it tin' iiirlh were to revolve only ^]j, iiart as fast as il now does, there would be '/lie xidfreal day in the year, and there would be no solar day at all— in other words, there would be no rotation of the earth with reference to the line joining it with the sun : that is. the earth would turn always the same side to the sun : yet il would be (ihmliitdi/ rotating about its axis once in a year. This is the case which we observe in the moon's motion relative to the earth, and we see at once that the moon must rotate ahmUtUly — that is, with reference to fixed directions in space — in the exact time in which she completes one revolution about the earth. Tlio.se who say the moon does not rotate ou her axis make preciselv the .same mistake as those who fancied that the earth is immovable, and that moon, sun, and stars revolve about it every day. There is a physical cause for this peculiarity in "the moon's motion, which leads to very important consequences with reference to the future of the solar system. Several elemiiilary theorems regarding rotation may now be enuneiatcd ; but the proofs, though very simple, will be given merely in outline. Any dis- l>lacement f/'/intovr given to a plane figure in its own ])lane — as to a sheet of paper lying on a table— is equivalent to a single rotatiim about a definite axis. Let A, B lie any two points of the figure, and let them lie displaced to A'. H' respectively. .Join AA', BB'. and bisect them in <i and A by perpendiculars meeting in O. Then, it is easy to show that (1.) OA'=(").V. (>H' = OB, and therefore O is the *i;n« point of the plane figure in its first and second posi- tions. (2.) AO.\.' = BOH': and this is therefore the angle through which the whole has turned about the p'>int ()." If .V.V and BIV are parallel, this con- struction fails ; but in this case, if -VB and A'B' do HOTATION OF PKOJECTILES. (84 BOTATION OF FROJECTILEB. not intersect, the motion is simply one of translation: if tliey do intersect, the point of intersection is the axis. Any number of successive rotations about dif- ferent points constitute, of course, a displacement, and are therefore reducible to one rotation. Two equal and opposite rotations about different points give rise to a mere translation. The first two of these propositions are true of figures ou a spliere as well as on a plane surface ; for the figure above lias only to be drawn with great circles instead of straight lines, and the proof applies letter for letter. Only, here, the first case of e.xception cannot occur, be- catise two great circles mu.it intersect. Hence it follows that if the center of a sphere be fi.xed, any ilisplacement whatever is equivalent to a rotation about some axis ; that is, after any motion whatever of a rigid body, one point of which is fixed, there is always one line of particles which remains undis- turbed. Hence rotations about anj- number of axes passing through the same fixed point may be com- pounded into one : and, generally, any motion what- ever of a rigid body may be decomposed into two. one of which is a motion of translation of some chosen point, aud the other rotation about some axis through that point. Tims, in the case of the moon, ■we have a motion of translation of its center in its orbit, and one of rotation about its axis : or we may combine them into a single rotation in the period of a lunar month about a fixed axis passing through the earth's center. Again, any'displacement. of aplanc figure in its plane, or of a spherical figure on a sphere, may be produced by the rolling of a curve fixed in the figure upon another fixed on the plane or sphere. Hence, the most general motion of a body with re- ference to one point, consists in the rolling of a cone fixed in the body upon another fi.xed in s^^aee, their vertices being at the chosen point. To this, when the cones in question are right circular cones, belong the precession and nutntion of the earth and of a top, the evolutions of an ill-thrown quoit, etc. Sec i^o- tatiiin <-/' I'fi'jiiiilm. ROTATION OF PROJECTILES.— The principal cause of the deviation of a projectile is its rotation com- bined with the resistance of the air. It is proposed, in the first jjlace, to show how rotation may be pro- duced, and in the second, to show how" rotation combined with the resistance of the air, produces deviation. If the projectile be spherical and homogeneous, rotation is produced by the bounding or balloting of tlie ball in the liore, arising from th^ windage. In this case the axis of rotation is horizonlal, and passes through the center of the ball; Ihe direction of rotation depends on the side of the projectile which strikes tlie surface of the bore last ; if it'strike on lli<! upjK-r siilc, the front surface of the projectile will move upward ; if on the lower side, this siirface will move downward. The velocity of rotation from this cause depends on the windage, or depth of the indentations in the bore, the charge being the same. It has been found to be, for ordinary wind- age, about 30 feet for a 24 pdr. shell fired" with 2{ lbs. of powder. If from the structure of the ball, or from some de- fect of manufacture, Ihe center of gravity do not coincide with the (■(•nler(jf figure, rotation gcncrallv takes place around the center of gravil}-. This arises from the fact that the resultant of the charge acts at the center of figure, while inertia, or resistance to motion, acts at the center of gravity, and is perpen- dicular to a plane containing the resultant of the charge and tlie centers of figure and gravity. For the same charge, the velocity of rotation is pro- portional to the lever arm, or perpendicular, let fall from the center of gravity to the resultant of the charge. Knowing the position of the center of gravity of the ball in the bore, it is easy to foretell the direction and velocity of rotation. In general terms, the front surface of the projectile moves toward the side of the bore on which the center of grav- ity is situated, and tlie velocity of rotation is great- est when the line joining the centers of gravity and figure is perpendicular to the axis of the bore. The effect of rotation in producing deviation of projectiles may be studied under two heads: 1st. When the projectile is spherical and concentric. 2d. When it is spherical and eccentric. The simplest case is that of a homogeneous spheri- cal projectile, rotating around a vertical axis passing througli the center of gravity. Let ^1 B (! I>, in Fig. 1, represent the great circle cut out of the sphere perpendicular to the axis of Fig. 1. rotation, and suppose rotation to take place in the direction A C B. aud the motion of translation in the direction ^1 B; it is evident that each point of the circle moves in the direction A B, whh a velocity which is equal to the velocity of translation, plus or minus the component of its velocity of rotation in the direction of the axis A B, which is equal to the projection of the arc over which the point moves in a unit of time ou the line -1 B. The points C and D have the greatest velocity in the direction of this line, .! B, and the points ,1 and B the least. All the points in the semi-circle .1 C B rotate in a for- ward direction, and the components of their veloci- ties of rotation must be added to that of translation; while the points in the serai-circle B D A move back- ward in rotation, and the components of their veloci- ties must be subtracted from it. A body moving in the air draws with it a film of the particles which surround it, and these particles set in motion the ad- jacent iiarticles, and so on from one layer to another; the number of particles set in motion and their reac- tion <m the surface of the projectile, depend on the velocity of the moving surface; now it has been shownlhat the surface -4 C B moves with a greater velocity than the opposite side, the reaction, or pres- sure upon it, must be greater than upon the latter, and the projectile will be urged in the direction D. In Fig. 2, let ^l (' I! 1> represent the great circle cut out of an eccentric projectile perpendicular to Fig. a. the axis of rotation, and containing the center of figure O, and the center of gravity (")'. Suppose the ilOTTBERO SYSTEM OF FOBTIFICATION. 785 HOUND BULLET. uiotioiiH of rotntion and' tntiisliilioii III [nkv place ui* ill tlio prt'ccdiiif; ciisc', il follows llial llwsaiiif cause will opcraUr in lliis, as in the pnccdjnf; case, lo de- vialc llic j)rojcclilr in the direction ''-/V.-Jiiit there is another and more powerful cause operalinir to di'- viate the ))rojeelilc' In the same ilireelion, and Ihal is, the nrcal<'r pressure' on IIk; side .1 <' /I arisin;^ from the greater surfaces olTercrl to the air in <'onse- (pience of the eccentrieily . These phenomena nniy lie easily illustrated hy the very simple and ingenious apparatus devised by I'rof. ,\la[;iius, of Merlin. I,et (\ in Kii;. ;i, represent a li;;ld brass eylinil<T, deli- cal(^ly suspended in a riiii;, and made to revolve very rapiiUy around its vertical a\N, by mi-ans of u '0 .-n striii!!;, after the maimer of a to]); let tliis riiii; be Buspended at the extremity of a wooden lever Ji', which, in turn, is suspended by a delicate wire from the ceiliiii;, so that il may rotate freely in a horizon- tal direction; let /' be a counterpoise, and A' the (iireclion of a slroni; current of air blowing; upipn the cylinder from a fan-blower. It is invariably found, that tlie a.\Ls of the cylinder will move in tlie opposite direction from the side which is movinj; toward the current of air from the blower (see direc- tion of the arrows); but if there be no rotation of (he c.vlinder the axis will remain st;ition;iry. The follo\viu£r conclusions ;ir<' olivious: — If a pro- jectile be spherical and concentric, rotation takes place from contact with the surface of the bore aroimd a liorizcmtal axis, and the elTcct will bo to shorten or lengthen the range, as the motion of the front surface is downward or upward. If the projectile be eccentric, the moti<in of the front surface is generally toward tlie side on which the center of gravity is situated, and the deviation takes place in this direction. The extent of the deviation for tlie same charge, depends on the position of the center of gravity; the horizontal deviation being the greatest when the centers of gravity and tigure are in a liorizontal plane, and the line which joins them is at right angles to the axis of the piece : tlie vertical devia- tion will be the greatest when these centers are in a vertical plane, and wdicii the line which joins them is at right angles to the axis of the piece. If the axis of rotation coincide with the tangent to the trajec- tory throughout the lliglit. all points of the surface have the same velocity in the direction of the motion of translation, ami there will be no-deviation. This explains why it is that a ritle-projectile will move through the air more accurately than a projectile from a smooth-bored gun. See Diriiitiim, Initial Vehcity of lintali'in, li'iliitinn, and Vthflty of lio- iation . EOTTBEKG SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATIOK.— This en- ceinte consists of a bell of isolated forts and cava- liers, the rampart of which is caseniated. A case- mated wall, situated in the ditch at the salient of the bastion adjoining the cavalier, serves to Hank that work. The exterior fronts of the forts are covered by a couvre-face formed of a double covered-way; the inner one serving as reduit is secured against entilade l>y a caseniated bonnet. The ditch, which is partially wet, receives its defense from the c;iva- lier and the flanks of the bastions. The r:ivelin and its reduit are caseniated ; but the casemates of the gorge of the reduit are opened to the rear to be ex- posed to the view of the place, whilst the ditch be- fore the faces is defended by a reverse gallery con- Htnicled at the salient of the ravelin. On tlie cupi- lalH of the forts are easemated flechcH with a cover- ed-way capable of mainlainlng a protriu:ted rli'fenHC. The loss of one fort does nril entail the fall of the others. ROTTEN STONE A mineral consiiting cln<(ly of alundna, with about 10 percent of carlionaceouB matter, and a little silica. It Ih Niipponed to be formed by decoin|)osition of sliale. It is found in iJerbyshirc, Kngland, in Wales, and near Albany, ih the .State of New York. It is brown ; either grayish, reddish, or bhurkish. It Is soft, and easily scraped to powder, and is well-known lo soldiers, being much used for cli-aning anil polishing brass and other metals. EOUOE CROIX.' One of the pursuivants attaching to the heraldic establishment of Kngland, generally allowed lo be the most ancient, Ihoiigh the period of institution is uncertain. The title is derived from the Red Cross of St. (Jeorge, the Patron Saint of ICmxhinil. ROUGE DRAGON.- The title of a pursnivancy founded by Henry VII. on the day before his coro- nation. The name is taken from the supposed En- sign of Cadwaladyr, the last King of tin- ISritons, an- cestor of that Monarch. The red ilragon was also sometimes used bv Henry VII. as a supporter. ROUGHING. ~A" mode of treating horse-shoes dur- iii'r --liiipiiy weather, when ice is lying on the ground. The ohi mode of carrying out this operation is con- sidered an inconvenient and exceedingly injurious plan. A new method of roughing is recomiiiended be Mr.George Fleming, a Veterinary Surgeon of the Hoyal Engineers, which consists in the fnsertion of a small, pointed, scpiare plug of steel, measuring from 1 to 3 inches fnearly always the former) at the heel, and. if desirable, at the toe also of each shoe, in a simple square hole punched at these points. The result is stated to be most satisfactory, horses being enabled, in the most frosty state of tlie roads, to do their work as in ordinary weather. The army horses at Chatham were so roughed during the win- ter of IKTri, and nothing could have been moresati.s- factor)'. The term roiig/iing is also ajiplied to the action of a rasp on a fuse, to make it bite in the fuse-hole. ROUGH RIDER. -In the artillery or cavalry, an In- strurlnrof equitation, and assistant to the Hiding- master. One is allowed to each troop or battery. ROULEAUX.— Round bundles of fascines, wiiicli are tied together. They serve to cover men when the works are pushed close to a besieged town, or to mask the head of a work. ROULETTE. — An instrument used in engraving. mechanical drawing, and plotting, for makingdotted lines. It has a wheel and points, which, for use on paper, is dipped into India-ink, so that the points impress a series of black dots or marks as the instru- ment passes over the paper. Different patterns of dots are used for national, state, county, and town- ship lines, canals, roads, railways, etc. Sec Dotting. pill. ROUND. - In artillery, a roimd of ammunition " comprehends the charge of powder, the projectile, and the priming or friction tube. To fire one or mora rounds is to discharge each gun in succession from a battery or a portion of it. until the turn comes round for the first gun to lire again. Light artilleiy can come into action and tire one rountl in "28 sec- onds, timing from the order " .Vction front," to the discharge of the piece; and in 1.5 seconds if the first cartridge and shot be carried in a box on the giin axle-tree. ROUND-BAR. — In ordnance, a nielallic cylinder, which has licen reduced from a larger cylinder by rollim; friction. ROUND BULLET.— The object of small-arms is to attain animate objects ; their projectiles are, there- fore, made of lead, and are generally known as buL lets. They are both round and oblong ; but in con. KOUNDEL. 780 EODTE STEP. sequence of the great improvements that were made of late, in adapting the principle of the rifle to small- arms, the oblong ball is now very gcucrallj- used in all military services, the round bullet being chiefly retained for use in case-shot. Round bullets are denominated by the number contained iu a pound ; this method is often used to express the caliber of small-arms : as, for instance, •the caliber of the old musket was 17 to the pound, and the rifle was 33. In 1856, these two calibers were replaced by one 24 to the pound, that of the new rifle-musket. The number is sometimes prefixed to the word gauge in which case the rifle-mnsket would be calleda 'Ugauge gun. This mode, however, is principally used to designate sporting-arms. The oblong bullet is denominated by its diameter and weight : for instance, the new rifle-musket ball lias a diameter of C'SS in., and it weighs540 grains. See Bullet. Oblong Bullet, and Projectiles. BOUNSEL. — 1. A disk of iron having a central aperture, through which an assembling-bolt passes. It serves to separate the stock and cheeks. 2. A shield used by the Norman soldiers. 3. A semi- circular bastion in early fortification as introduced by Albert Dlirer. This bastion was about 300 feet in diameter and contained roomy casemates for the troops. Also written Bouiidelie. HOHNDHEADS.— A name given by the adherents of Charles I., during the Engli.sh civil war, to the Puritans, or friends of the Parliament, who distin- guished themselves bj' having their I 1 hair closel_y cut, while the CaValiers I (^ C~^ I wore theirs in Ion? ringlets. y<^ ^^j EOUNDLE— ROUNDLET.— In Herald- \ /'^ / ry, a general name given to charges of a circular form, which, iu English Heraldry, have more s|)ecial names indicative of their tinctures theroun- Eoundlet die or being, for example, called a bezant : and the roimdle gules, a torteaux. ROUND POWDER.— In case of emergency, and wlun powder cannot be procured from the mills, it ma3' be made, in a simple and expeditious manner, as follows : Fix a powder-barrel on a shaft passing through its two heads, the barrel having ledges on the inside ; to prevent leakage, cover it with a close canvas glued on, and put the hoops over the canvas. Put into the barrel 10 lbs. of sulphur in lumps, and 10 lbs. of charcoal, with 60 lbs. of zinc balls or of small shot (down to No. 4, 0.014 in. in diameter nearly) ; turn it, by hand or otherwise, 30 revolu- tions in a minute. To 10 lbs. of tliis mixture thus pulverized, add 30 lbs. of nitre, and work it two hours with the balls; water the 40 lbs. of composi- tion with 2 quarts of water, mixing it equally with the hands, and granulate with the graining-sieve. The grains thus made, not being pres.sed, are too soft. To make them hard, put them into a barrel having 5 or 6 ledges projecting about 0.4 in. inside ; give it at first 8 revolutions in a mimile, increasing gradual- ly to 30. The compression will be proportionate to the charge in tlie liarrel, which sliould not, however, be more than half fidl ; continue tliisoiieraliin until llie density is such that a cubic foot of the powder .shall weigh S,5r) oz., the mean density of round pow- der ; strike on the staves of the barrel from time to time, to prevent the adhesion of the powder. Sift the grains and dry the powder as usual. That which is too fine or loo coarse is returned lo tlie pulveriziii"-- barrcl. This powder is round, and the grain is sufil- oiently hard on the surface, but the interior is soft, which makes it unlit for keeping, and may cause it to burn slowly. This defect may be reinedied by making the grains at tir.sl very small, and liy rolling tliem on a sheet or in a barrel, watering tliem froiii lime lo time, and adding pulverized cumposilion in small projiortions; in this way, the grains will be formed liy successive layers; they are then scparat- <-d according to size, glazed and "dried, ll appears from experiments tliat the aimple incorporation of the | materials makes a powder which gives nearly as high ranges with cannon as grained powder. The incor- porated dust from the rolling-barrel may be used in case of necessity. See Gunpmodtr. ROUND ROBIN. — A name given to a protest or re- monstrance signed by a number of. persons in a cir- cular form, so that no one shall be obliged to head the list. The Round Robin originated" in Prance, and the name is derived from the words rond, round, and ruhan, a ribbon. ROUNDS. — An OSicer, or Non-commissioned Of- ficer who. attended by one or more men, visits the sentinels on post, in order to ascertain whether they are vigilanl. The design of rounds is not only to visit the guards, and keep the sentinels alert," but likewise to discover what passes in the outworks, and beyond them. See Grand BoundH and Visiting Bounds. ROUND-WIRE.— In ordnance, a metallic cylinder which has been reduced from a larger cylinder by rubbing friction. ROUT. — To put to ro^tt is to defeat and throw into confusion. It is not a retreat in good order, but also implies dispeision. ROUTE. — An open road ; the course of march of troops. Instruction for the march of detachments, specif3'ing daily marches, the means of supply, are given from the headquarters of an army in the deld, and are called marching routes. ROUTE MARCHES.— Three marches are used in peace to conduct a body of troops from one station to another. They are used in war for the purpose Of assembling the fractions of an armj- on its base of operations, of conducting troops through a district or country where there is no enemj-, etc. The liealth, comfort and convenience of the troops are the prin- cipal things to be considered in arranging the details of their execution. When the body of troops to be moved is large it should be subdivided into smaller bodies, and These detachments are sent by different roads. Caution must be taken to prevent the cross- ing of the columns on the march, as one would then have to wait to allow the other to pass, and the delay caused to the waiting column would be irk- some in the extreme. Since, in executing marches of this kind, there is no danger to be expected from an enemy, the precautions taken in the other kinds of marches to guard against attack may be omitted. Route marches are designated as ordinary, forced and mil, according to the manner in which they are made. The ordinary route march does not ex- ceed 30 miles per day. Forced marches are extre- mely exhausting upon the troops and should not exceed 30 miles per day. They should only be re- sorted to in time of peace under pressing circum- stances. They are much used in war, when a rapid concentration of troops is to be made, or when a strategical combination is to be effected. Railroads have become in recent years the great factor in ra- pid and cheap means of moving troops, and are of especial service when the time given to the troops to reach their destination is short, and the distance is great. The marches made by the several corps of the French army in 1805, by which this army was assembled upon" the Rhine is an example in point. Napoleon issued his orders for the corps to move on three diftereni routes, each of the seven corps being divided into three divisions, following each olheron three successive days. The ;irrangements were per- fect : all crossings of columns were avoided; the marches for each day were of proper length : the great natural routes were followed, and the <letach- mcnts arrived in succession and without interference at their destination. See Marches. ROUTE STEP.— A style of march, whereby the men ciirry their ;iriiis at will, keeping the muzzles eleva- te<l ; they are not re(|uircd to preserve silence, or to keep the step, but each man covers the tile in his front. The column of fours is the habitual coliunn of route. The route step is at the rate of from two aOUTINE. 78; EOWEL. miloa anrl a half to tlirue inilos \>v.r lioiir. The col- UMiii ijf fourH liciii;^ ill iniircli, to iimrcli in llic^ I'liule *<'y',tlic ('aplaiii coiiiiiiaiKis: 1. Jiaiitr ule/i, 2. Mauoh. Al I lie rominaiul mri?x/i, tli(^ men carry tlicir arms at will, kccpiiij!; till! inuzzlcH elevated ; they are iiot re- quired to preserve silenee, or to keep the step, liut each liiiaii covers the file in his front. The ranks preserve the dislaiiee of thirty-two inches from each oilier. To resume the cadeiieeil sic]), llie ("ai)lain coiiimiiiids : 1 . < 'i/iii /la/ii/, 2. AvTv.firios At I lie se- cond eiimmaiid, the arms an^ liroiinht to the rif;ht shoiililer, and the cadenced step is resumed. The company mareliiiif; in line may also march in the route step, the rear rank falliiif; hack to thirty-two inches. The company in route stej) changes direc- tion by the same commands as when in the caden- ced step. ROUTINE.— Capacity or the faculty of arrang- ini; ; a certain method rather acquired liy habit and practice than by study and rule. It sii^nilies also a (leneral custom or usaije, established by habit, and followed mechanicallv. macliinc for arsenal use. The Kpindle in of Hteel fitted to a steel tube with which it revolves, and in which it slides longitudinally. The wear is thus confined to the tuhe wliere it "is easily taken up by means jirovided for the purpose, and the trouble experienced with machines where the npindle slides in the same lieariu'zs in which it revolves is wholly avoided. 'I'lie spindle head is carried on a luver con- necled by a universal joint to a swinging arm. A.s this arm is strongly webbed and is provided with a long bearing on the outside of the sleeve forming the ujipi-r bearing for the vertical shaft al the corner of the machine, additional supports are dispensed with, and the tables is left clear for the reception of large work. Through the agency of arm and lever the cutter can be easily brought to any part of the work. lioth the sjiindh; head and the stud carrying the intermediate piillej' are movalde, to enable them to be shifted to take up the slack of the belt. The spindle has a vertical adjustment of 1| inches, and the clamps are made double faced and reversible. Either a spring rest for keeping the cutter from the BOOTING MACHINE.- A shaping-machine which works by means of a router-cutter, adjustable itself and revolving above a bed with universal horizontal adjustment, so as to permit the cutler to follow along a traced line, and thus cut to a shape, or groove to a depth, the work upon the table. It is adapted for work in metal or stone ; in the latter case, black diamonds are used. Paneling in relief or intaglio, raised or sunken carving, circular slotting, slotting, key-seating, beveling, and bordering may be done upon it. Tlic drawing shows a very convenient routing- work until the lever is depressed, or a .solid rest, aa shown iu the drawing, niaj' be used, but the solid rest is safer and more convenient. The table will take on a plate 24x32 inches which can be comple- tcly routed without being shifted more than once. Six cutters, from -j's to 4 inch in diameter, and a tool box fitting the side of the body accompany each machine. An attachment for cutting straight lines is also used. The speed is 7,000 to 87000 revolutions per minute. KOWEL. — The pointed part of a riding spur, made in a circular form, with rays or points like a star. KOTAL. 788 ROYAL GUNPOWDER FACTORY. ROYAL. — 1 A small mortar wbicb carries a shell Tvhose diameter is 5.5 inches. It is mounted on a bed like other mortars. 2. In England, one of the soldiers of the first regiment of foot, called the Royal, and supposed to be the oldest regular corps in Europe. ROYAL ARTILLERY INSTITUTION.— An establish- ment organized at Wuolwicli in the year 1888. The building was erected at government expense, and is supported partly b}' subscriptions from the officers of the regiment and parth' by government. It con- tains a museum, lecture-room, laljoratory, theatre, and printing press. Reports, verbatim, of all lectures which have been delivered are issued periodically to all its members. It is a repository for the sale of militarv books, stationery, etc. ROYAL CORPS OF ENGINEERS.— A component portion of the Army of the British Empire. A si- milar Corps exists in all regular armies. It is the scientific and constructive branch, intrusted with the making and defending of all military wi>rk,i, and the attack and conquest of similar works belonging to an enemy. It is true that civilians are often em- ployed to construct the buildings themselves, at a stated price : but the Military Engineers make the plans, and are responsible to the country for their ef- ficiency. For a number of years past, contractors have been at work on fortifications at Portsmouth and in other parts of the kingdom, but on plans and under orders for which the Engineer Department of the Government is responsible. The Royal Engineers of the United Kingdom form one Regiment or Corps. The officers, in time of peace, are scattered all over the world. There is no half-pay, except on per ma Tie /it retirement; and no unemployed list. They have much wear and tear of earlier age than other officers. Their regular pay corresponds to the active pay of other officers of the same rank : but thej' exclusively receive in ad- dition extra pay, atnounting to one-half their ordin- ary pay wlien on dut_y at home, and equaling their ordinary pay when emplo}'ed abroad or in the Lon- don district. There is an establishment of Engineers in each military command, to conduct and superin- tend all the military buildings and works. The en- tire force is imder a particular Department of the War Office, that of the Inspector General of fortifi- cations. Until the year 17(i3, the duties of Jlilitary Engineers were discharged by officers taken from the regular army. In tliat year, however, the Corps of Engineers was formed, greatly to the advantage of the military service. In 1783, it was made a Hayal Corps, and a distinctive uniform adopted. Several companies of artificers were, in 1812, converted into sappers and miners, and placed under the Engin- eers. The non-commissioned officers and privates of this valuable Corps arc all workmen who have learn- ed some mechanical trade ; hence their skill in all constructive operations. The Ordnance Survej' has been intrusted to tlie Corps. For many purposes the mi'uare Uiit,\\H-y attend to special and peculiar work; and at such times their emohniirni is always increas- ed. They often buy their discliarge, in order to go into civil employments, wlien the prospects are very good. The men enlist for 12 years, with power to re-engage (if wanted) for nine more ; but tliey can purchase their discliarge at any lime. They have to pay more for their discharge th:in other Corps in tlie army, having r(^ceived more instruction at the na- tional expense. Officers iiilcnded for tli<' Kngineers enter the Koyal Militarj- Academy ascaiU'ts liy open competition, and psiss out from time to time for com- missions. When in the Corjis, promotion is by se- niority, the purchase system having never been in- troduced. Tlie head-(|uarlers are at Chatham, where there an; Engineer I'arracks. The Corps is groujxd into battalions an<l companies. Tlien; are 432 olli- cers of Royal Engineers serving in India, their sub- ordinates "being natives. See Corpn of Engineira. ROYAL ENGINEER INSTITUTION.— A similar In- stitution to tliat established by the royal artillery at Woolwich, but of older date (1813), and formed at Chatham. It contains a library of 12,000 volumes, and publishes yearly a volume of professional papers, with the view of conveying, to all members of the In- stitute, the knowledge and e.xperience acquired by each officer of the corps. It publishes besides a small monthly paper, printed at the expense of the Institution. ROYAL GUN FACTORIES.— Government establish- ments at Woolwicli for the construction of great guns for the use of the British Army and Navy. For a very long period there had been at Woolwich a small factory for the manufacture of brass cannon, but guns of cast-iron were obtained from private foundries by contract. At last it was determined that Government should become in part its own gun- founder, and extensive work-shops were erected in 1855—6. The adoption of the Armstrong wrought- iron gun into general use in the service, in 1859, ar- rested the further making of cast-iron guns, and oc- casioned again a great expenditure in the erection of shops and "costly machinerj', which have since been adapted to otlier systems of wrought-iron ordnance adopted into the service imder the name of " Wool- wich." The factories may now fairly be regarded as among the most remarkable sights in the Kingdom. In each department, whatever the process, it is re- jjeated over and over again, till long parallellines of similar mills are seen, each busily fashioning a separate gun. Iron at red-heat is first wound round a solid core (representing the bore of the future gun), as tape might be round a pencil; and then by the action of successive blows from a steam-hammer (there is one of 100-tons), the strips are welded into a compact cylinder t>f wrought-iron of extreme density. This cj'linder, after undergoing several heatings, and also poundings with the steam-hammer, is encompassed with wrought-iron rings of immense strength, which are shrunk on, and then transmitted to the boring mill. Here the proper caliber is imparted to it; in another department, the bore is rifled; in anoth- er, the outside of the gun is carefuUj^ turned; and in yet another, the whole is polished and browned. A gun is several weeks in its passage through these many processes. By the ingenuity of Sir William Armstrong, the Superintendent, and Dr. John An- derson, his able assistant, every part of the difficult manufacture has been reduced to a question of ma- chinery. Many thousand guns have to this time been turned out complete of which upwards of 7.000 are now available for military and naval use. The cost of the guns as now made is, on an average, as follows; 12-pounder, £82; 20-pounder, £124; 40- pounder, £206; 70-pounder. £375; 35-ton gun, £2,156. The Royal Gun Factory at Woolwich was estimated to cost for 1878—9 the sum of £203,948, of which £5, 242 were for management; £78,650 for the wages of artificers and laborers; £12.671 for buildings and m;ichinery: and £104,190 for stores to be consimied in llieiniiiuifactureof guns. Muchof tlie machinery now used in the manufacture of guns was originally developed at the engineering and founding estab- lislimeiit of SirWilliam Armstrong & Co., at Elswick, wliii'li was for some time used as an auxiliary and supiilement to the gun factory in Woolwich Arsenal, the guns being turned out at a contract price, paya- ble after tliey had passed a rigid inspection. The coniiectiDn between the Government and the Elswick linn r(:iM(l in 1S(;3. See (Imi-tnakimi. ROYAL GUNPOWDER FACTORY.— Tlie establish- ment at Waltliam Abbey, in which much of the gun- powder required for the British Army and Navy is made. It is built on all the newest and most ap- l)roved princiiiles to insiu'e safety, economy, and efficiency; but even here accidents occasionally Iiap- jicn in this dangerous manufacture, and roofs and sides, purposely left loose so as to oiler but little resistance, are scattered to the winds. Between the ROYAL LABORATOKY. rno HOYAL MARINE AETILLEHT. different mills mud-banks ani raised, and fjroves of trcf'S lliirkly pliintr'il, to lessen the eoneiission, and, us far !IM possihlr, jitiiit Ilie eatiistrophe wlieii one lioiise is iinforttiiiiitely exploded. A series of raised canals, at the same lime, is ready to flood the whole pla(^e, or to alTord a i)rerarioiis shelter to the men eni|)loved, if time be available to maki' use of it. The efiar};(^ forlhis factory for lH7H-7i) was Xl(t4.4:!l), of wliieli L2l),lt'.y2 were for iiiaiiaLreiniiit and waives, Xl!»,()!l(i for buililiiij;s, and t'-ll,7IJ4 for raw material. 'I'hcre are about 2(H) worUiiien. When the (gunpow- der is made, it is sent down the Lea, to the maga- zines at Woolwich and I'urlleet. ROYAL LABORATORY. An exlensive militarvman- ufacturini; diparlMKnl in Woolwich Arsenal. Al- thiniilh it has existed for many years, it was only in In.'"),') that the present very larire establishment was orfi;aniz<'d. Here are foundries for the caslini; of shot, shell, i;rape. I'tc: apparatus for the manufacture of iiercnssioii-ca])s, which are formed- hundreds at a tinu' — out of the copper sheet; presses where rifle- bullets are squeezed into shape ; fuses in all stajres of manufacture and a thousand other instances of com- bined inL'enuity and power. Conspicuous amont; the mecbanism nuiy be mentioned the makins <if paper for carlridi^es, and subsciiuently themakinff and tillin;; of the cartridires themselvi'S. (lovern- ment liberally grants permission (throuiih the War Otiice) to inspect the fa<'tory. The cost of the Lab- oratory varies considerably, aecordini; to the accu- nmlation of stores. In addition to the Royal Labor- atory, there are also Laboratories — though on a com- paratively small scale— at Portsmouth and Devon- ]iort. See l,n>«>r<it'>rti, ROYAL LABORATORY FUSE.- This fuse consists of the followiui; parts : A, the l)rass stock or body; B, the brass screw-plug closing rear end of fuse; (', the lead pbniger: I), the brass thimble; E, the brass safe- ty-wire: and P, the fulmin;ite. The body has a solid liead, having on the outside a sijuare recess for fuse wrench. and on the inside a shar]) jiin projecting from the center. The screw-plug, H, Inis a hole tlirougli i its center which is covered by a thin disk of brass secured on by solder ; two small recesses in the bot- tom of the plug facilitate its insertion with a wrench. The lead plunger, C, lias also a central hole through it, in the front end of which is placed the fulminate cap; the plunger h;is also two slight projections from its sid<'S >i|ion which rests the l)ra.ss thimble. 1^. Uunning through holes in the heads of fuse body and thind)le,and to one siiie of center and resting on top of the plunger, is the twisted safety-wire, E. In order to prevent the easy withdrawal of the safety- wire a suuUl hole is bored into one sid(^ of fuse body and down to tlu^ bole through which the wire is in- serted, and into this is poured melted lead. A strong cord facilitates the extraction of the wire before tir- ing. Inserted in a loaded shell with the s;ifety-wire removed. and meeting with a resisting object inflight, the plunger is thrown forward sheering off tlie shoul- ders; the fubninate striking the pin is ignited, the brass disk closing hole through screw plug is l)lown out, and the l)ursting-ch;irge of shell i;:nited. See Vuxf. ROYAL MARIUE ARTILLERY AND LIGHT INFAN TRY.- 1. Alimitednumljerof candidates will be nom- inated to compete for admission into the Koyjd Na- val College. Greenwich, as probationary Lieutenants in tlie Uoyal Marines. LI. Theexamiuation will be conducted liv the Civil Service CommisHionerH, and will be held once a year commencing on the second Wr-dnesday in AngiiRt. III. No candidate will b<' i-ligible who is under lOA or above 18 years of age <jn the tut of f>ctober fol- lowing the exandnalion. IV. Public notice will be given in May of each year of the mindn'r of vacancies, and of the nundjcr of caiulidates to be nomimited to compete for them. V. A candidati' who (|ualiticB, but is not siiccrrsH- ful in the idiiipetilion, will be allowed to compete again at the next examiiiftlion if iKjt over age; but a candidate -vhofidls to qualifv will not be admitted to compete again ; and nocan(fidale wid be allowed to comi)ete more than twice. VI. Every candidate will be required to be at least .T f<'et T) inches in lieiLdit and to pass the m<'dical ex- amiiialiou aceoriling to tlie prescribed regulation, un- der the direeti(]U of the .Medical Director (Jeneral of the N;ivy. !!<■ nnist be in good heidth, and free from any physical defect of body, impediment of speech, defect of sight or hearing, and also from any predis- position to constitutional or liereditary disease, or wciikness of any kind, and must l)e in all respects well developed, and active in proportion to his age. Any ciindidate rejected at the medical examination will, subject to the;qiproval of the Board, be finally excluded from the Uoyal .Marines. VII. Each candi<late, before the examination, will berecpiired to produce the following certificates, viz. : (1) A registrar's certificate of birtli, or declaration thereof made before a magistrate. (2) A certificate of good conduct for the twoyciirs previous from the masters of the schools at which be may have been educ;ited ; or, if educated at home, frimi his tutors, or the clergy m;in of the parish in which he has re- sided for that period. (3) A certificate of good health and physical devek)pment from the Medical Director General. (4) A certificate of height. VIII. A candidate will be retpiired to pass a pre- liminary examination in the following subjects, the maximum nundier of marks obtainable for each be- ing as stated : — 1. Writing English from dictation Marks. correctly in a good legible hand No marks allowed. 3. Arithmetic 300 3. Alget)ra (including quadratic equations and tlie three i)rogres- sions) .500 4. Geometry (up to the standard of the sixth book of Euclid's Ele- ments) 600 5. Plane trigonometry (including definitions, fundamental form- uliP, and the solution of plane triangles) GOO IX. The further examination will be proceeded witli immediatclj' on the conclusion of the prelimi- nary examination. Candidates who fail in tlie pre- limiuary examination will be informed of their failure as soon as possilMc, and the}' will then be released from further attendance. X. The subjects of the further examination and the m;iximum of marks obtainable for each subject will be as follows: 1. Applied mathematics (viz., Maximum elementary statics, dy- Marks, namics. and hydrostat- ics) .'. 1000 2. Physics (viz. sound, light, heat, magnetism, and electricitv.'. 1000 3. Chemistrv." 600 4. Latin....: 1500 5. Greek 1000 6. English lan;ruage and com- position..'. 1000 7. History, ancient and mod- ern.With geography 1000 8. French .". 1000 BOYAL MARINES 790 HOYAL MIXITAEY ACADEMY. 9. German, Spanish, or Ital- ian KHXI (Freehand 400 I Geometrical.... 400 10. Drawing oaoo XI. A candidate may be examined in as many of the above subjects as he cliooses. A certain number, corresponding to a merely elementary knowledire. will be deducted from the marks gained by a candidate in each subject, except drawing and applied mathe- matics. XII. To qualify, a candidate must pass to the sat- isfaction of the Civil Service Commissioners in the subjects specified in Par. VIII., and in two at least of the subjects of the further examination. He must also obtain such an aggregate of marks as shall indi- cate, in the judgment of the Commissioners, a com- petent amount of general proficiency. XIII. The successful candidates will be appointed Lieutenants on probation. Tliey will proceed to the Royal Naval College at Greenwich at tlie commence- ment of the season following the examination, viz. on the 1st of October. XIV. At the end of the first session they will be ex- amined, and commissions in the Light Infantry will be granted to all who shall pass a satisfactory exami- nation. The dates of the commissions so granted will depend upon the number of marks obtained. Those who do not pass satisfactorily will be finally excluded from the Royal Marines. XV. From those who pass highest at this exami- nation, officers will be selected to qualify themselves to fill vacancies in the Royal Marine Artillery. XVI. Tlie ofticers thus selected will remain at the College a second session, at the end of which they will be examined, and, if they pass satisfactorily, will re- ceive commissions in the Artillery. XVII. Officers who fail to obtain commissions in the Artillery may retain their rank as Lieutenants in the Light Infantry. XVill. Artillery and infaiitry officers will be posted on the list of their respective corps in the order in which they pass their final examination at G;-eeuwich. XIX. Oflicers of the Royal Marines on probation will receive 5s. 3d. a day. Those who are permitted to remain a second session to qualif}- for the artillery will be allowed Is. 6d. a day mess allowance during that session. XX. ORicers, on passing out, will join their re- spective divisions, and be instructed in their drill and military duties for service ashore and afloat. XXI. Each successful candidate at the examina- tion for entrv must deposit the sum of £80 with the AccountantGeneral of the Navy before he can be ap- pointed Lieutenant on probation for the Rojal Ma- rines, to provide for his equipment at the Royal Naval College and on joining his division. XXII. The uniform for officers on probation will be a blue patrol jacket, blue working jacket, mess jacket, un(iress trowsers, sword, and forage cap. flOYAL MARINES.— A body of men raised for ser- vice as soldiers, either on shore or on board ship, and jjlaced under the control of the Board of Ad- miralty. The whole regiment is never afloat, only portions of it, the rest being statif)aed at some of the naval seajiort towns. The Itoyal Marines were first raised in 1()U4, and have been considerably strength- ened sinc(! the commencement of this century. Tliey rank, when acting with the troojis of the line, be- tween tlie4;tth and rjOth regiments. The Itoyal Ma- rines arc a non-purchaser corps, and the ollieers, as in the artillery and engineers, rise by seniority. The corps now possesses a marine forcu' of arlillcry, con- sisting of 13 companies, which is a most cll'ective and valual)le body of men. The head-(|uarters of the Royal .Marine Artillery are at East ney. near Ports- moiilh. Many of the chief garrisons in the .south of England have divisifms of the Marines quartered in them, such as Woolwich, Chatham. Portsniciutli, Plymouth. The strength of the corps amounts to 14,000 men and 287 officers. See Marines. ROYAL MILITARY ACADEMY. — 1. The Royal ^Military Academy at Woolwich is maintained for the purpose of affording a preparatory education to candidates for the Royal Artillery and Royal Engin- eers ; this education will be chiefly technical, and will in no obligatory subject be carried bej'ond the point useful to both corps alike. Regukitions fvr Admission, eto. 2. Admission to the Royal Military Academy a3 cadets will be granted to the successful candidates at an open competitive examination. The examina- tions will be conducted by the Civil Service Com- missioners, and held twice a year,December and July. 3. Notice will be given from time to time of the day and place of the examinations, and ot the vacan- cies to be competed for at eacli examination. 4. The limits of age will be from sixteen to eight- een, the candidates being required to be within those limits on the 1st day of the January next following for the winter examination, and on the 1st of July for the summer examination. 5. Candidates for admission to the December or July examination must send to the Military Secretary, not less than one month before the 1st December or 1st July respectively, an application to be examined, accompanied by the follo\ving papers : — (n) An ex- tract from the register of his birth, or in default, a declaration made by one of his parents or guardians before a magistrate, giving his exact age. (b) A certificate of good moral character, signed by a clergyman of the parish in which he has recently re- sided, or by the tutor or head of the school or college at which he has received his education for at least the two preceding years,or some other satisfactory proof of good moral character. 6. When a candidate who has once been examined applies to be examined again, he will only be required to forward a certificate as to moral character for the interval between the two examinations. 7. The number of trials allowed will not exceed three. 8. All candidates will be inspected by a Medical Board ; and no candidate will be allowed to proceed to examination by the Civil Service Commissioners unless certified by the Board to b« free from bodily defects or ailments, and in all respects, as to height and physical qualities, fit for her Majesty's service. Cases of exceptional shortness of stature will be re- ferred to the War Office for special consideration. 9. A candidate will be required to satisfy the Civil Service Commissioners in the following subjects : — (1) Mathematics, viz. (a) arithmetic, and the use of common logarithms ; (h) algebra, including equa- tions, progressions, pennutationsand combinations, and the binomial theorem ; {e) geometry, up to the standard of the sixth book of Euclid ; (rf) plane trig- onometry, including the solution of triangles. (2) French, German or some other modern language, the examination being limited to translation from the language and granunatical questions. (3) Writ- ing English correctly and in a good legible hand, from dictation, and English conqiosition. (4) The elements of geometrical drawing, including the con- struction of plane scales and the use of sinqile mathe- matical instruments. (5) Geography. A thorough knowledge of each of the four branches of mathe- matics will be required. The Commissioners may, however, if they think fit, dispense with this prelim- inary examination, except as regards mathematics, English composition, and geometrical drawing, in the case of any candidate wlio has satisfied them on a previous occasion, 10. No marks, will be allotted for the above pre- liminary examination excepting for mathematics (2000), "for English composition (.500), and for geo- metrical drawing (300). 11. The "ftirtiier examination" will be proceeded with immediately on the conclusion of the "prelim- BOTAL MILITAHT ACADEMT. 7ft 1 SOTAL MILITARY ACADEKT. iimry cxiuiiiiiiilion." Ciiriilidiilcs wlin fail in the jirr- liiniiiary I'xainiMiilinii will be iiiforiiiril of iIk ir fiiil- iire as soDiias possible. and tin y will llicii be njlC'ttHCil from further atleiKiaiiee. 13. The sul)jects of tlie fiirlher exaniinalioii and the niaxiiniiin niiinber of iiiarUs oblainable for eaeh subject will be as follows : Shirks. (1) Mathematics, viz. further i|iiestioMs and problems on thesubjcels of I he iiualifyin); examination, and the elements of the fol- lowini; sul)jeels : theory of ei|uations; an- alytical geometry; conic sections; solid geometry ; diirerentinl and integral calcu- lus; statics; and dynamics 4000 (3) Knitlish : KuicHsh literature, lindted to specilied authors; and Eni;lish history, limited to certain li.xed periods ; the au- thors and periods bemg iiotilieil before- hand 2000 ,Qs ,„ . . ( Latin 2000 (3) Classics, VIZ. .^ ^,^^.,.^ 2000 (4) French, the examination to be partly col- lofjuial 2000 (J>) tiernian.the 'examination to be partly col- loquial 2000 (6) Anyone of the following langnaffcs at the option of the candidate, viz. Italian, Rus- sian, Si>Hnish,or llindostanee : the exam- ination to l)e partly colloquial 2000 (7) Experimental sciences. viz. (u) chemistry and heat ; or {!/) electricity and magnet- ism 2000 (8) (ieneral and physical geography and geol- ogy ■ 2000 (9) Drawing, free-hand 1000 Of these nine subjects, candidates will not be al- lowed to take up more than four, exclusive of draw- ing. In all the sidijects, a very great importance ■wfll be attached to the accuracy in numerical re- sults. 13. A certain number will be deducted from the marks gained by a candidate in each subject, except mathematics ; and the remainders will be added to the marks gained by the candidate in the prelimi- nary examination in mathematics, English compo- sition, and geometrical drawing. The resulting total will determine the candidates place in the competi- tive list; the successful candidates being those who stand first on the list up to the ntmiber of vacancies competed for. Optional Examination in Mathematicn. — Detailed Syllabux. 14. Further questions and problems on the sub- jects of the qualifying examination. The theory of equations: (irst ]>rinciples. Analytical gcometr}': problems on straight line and circle. Conic sections; elementary properties, w ith easy problems, both on the analytical and gecmietrical methods. Solid geom- etry : first pricniples, with easy exercises. Differen- tial calculus. Differentiation of functions of one in- dependent variable. Taylor's and Maclaurin's theo- rems: applications. Maxima and minimaof functions of one independent variable. Method of iurtnitesi- nials : first principles, with easy applications. Tan- gents and normals to curves. Points of inflexion. Curvature of curves. Involutes and cvolutes. Inte- gral calculus. Elementary integrations. Integration considered as summation. Rectification and quadra- ture of plane curves. Statics; equilibrium of forces and couples iuone plane. Friction: center of gravity; mechani<'al powers. Problems on elenu-ntary statics: the graphical or geometrical method of treating such problems sliould be studied as well as the analytical. No applications of the differential calculus to statics will be re(iuired. Dynamics : elenunlary principles : projectiles; motion of a heavy particle on a snumth curve; centrifugal force ; simple pendulum. Prob- lems and exercises. No applications of the dliTercntiai calculus will be recjuired. TerriiH af I'liijment. l.'i. The terms of payment for carletfl at the Royal Military Academy are regulated by the followini^ articles of hrr -Majesty's warrant of the 27lli Decem- ber. IH70, for the pay atid promotion of the Army: I'di/iiiiidjirr (■(Kiel. — The paym<:nt to be contributed on behalf of a cailet shall be as follows, and shall be pai<l half-yearly in advance : — Annually. £ Queen's cadets (if any) Nil. ioT the son of an olHcer of the Army or Navy who has died in the service, and whose fam- ily is left in pecuniary distress (subject to the approval of the Secretary of Slate; 20 For the son of an ollicer below the rank of Col- onel or Regimental Field (Jllicer in theArmy, and Captain orCommander in theNavy,or an Instructor at the Royal Jlililary College or Staff College 40 For the son of a Colonel or Regimental Field-ofli- cer in the Army, or of a Ca|>tain or Command- er in the Navy, or of a Professor at the Royal Military Academy, or Royal Military College, or Staff College 60 For the son of a General-officer who is not Col- onel of a Regiment, or of a Vice or Rear-ad- miral 70 For the son of an Admiral or of a General-officer who is Colonel of ;i Regiment or in receipt of Indian Colonel's allowances 80 For the son of a private gentleman 12.'5 Sralc of payment, Iwtr nmrputcd. — In determining the rate of payment — «. A General-officer on the half-pay of his last regi- nuutal commission shall pay in accordance with such regimental :ank. b. Officers who have sold their commissions shall be regarded as private gc iitlemen. c. Officers on retired full or half-pay after 2-5 j'ears' service, or officers of less than 2.5 years' ser- vice, if placed on half-piiy by reduction of es- tablishment, or on account of ill health, shall pay in accordance with their last substantive regimental rank. The cases of officers volun- tarily retiring to half-pay before completing 2-5 years' service shall be specially considered. d. Officers of the departments of the Army and Navy according to their relative rank, of the perma- neut staff of the militia, adjutants of the vol- imteer force, as well as Indian military and naval officers, shall be treated on the same terms as military or n:ival officers. e. The sons of deceased oftic crs shall be contributed for in accordance with the foregoing regula- tions in regard to the rank or classification of their fathers. Sickne«« and rustication. — If a cadet be absent a whole term in c(msequence of sickness or rustication, a payment of £10 shall be req\nred for the privilege of his name being kept on the rolls of the establish- ment, and for a vacancy beinir guaranteed at the com- mencement of the next term. Orphans. — In the case of a cadet who is an orphan, whose annual contribution is only £20. the amount to be paid when absence extends over a whole term shall be determined by the Secretary of State. Sick/w/i«. — If a cadet be absent from sickness dur- ing a portion of the term, his pay shall continue to be issued and credit<d to his account, but no refund of tlic contribution shall be permitted. Jhmticatlon. — If a cadet be rusticated or removed during a term, his daily pay shall cease from the date on which he is sent away, and the contributioa made for the half-year shall be forfeited. ^'".V "fcaJet.^The pay of a cadet shall be 3s. a day. It is issued to cover the expenses of regimental doth- KOTAL MILITARY ACADEMY. 792 ROYAL MILITARY ACADEMY. ing, messing, washing, and otlier contingencies; All other necessary expenses of this nature, as well as weekly pocket money, postage of letters, bootmakers' and tailor.s' bills for repairs, etc., which cannot be covered by his pa}-, shall be chargeable to his parent or guardian in addition to the regulated contribution. Extra payiitents for radets. — Each cadet on first joining shall be required to pay, in addition to the regulated contribution, a sum of A'25 t6 cover the expenses of uniform, books, etc., aud to bring with him the articles of clothing of which he will receive notice, aud wliicli must aifterward be kept up at his own expense. He shall also be required to pay the regidated contribution in advance, for each half-year of the time during wliich he remains imder instruc- tion, and a deposit of £5 on account, for contingent expen.scs, which latter sum he shall be required to make up on returning to tlie Royal Militarj- Academy after eacli vacation, to cover any expense that may be incurred on his account during the ensuing halt- year. Government and Organization. 16. The Field 3Iarshal Commandiug-in-Chief will be the President of the Royal Jlilitary Academy. 17. An independent inspection by a Board of Visi- tors, appointed by the Secretary of State for War, and reporting to him, will be made once a year. Such Visi- tors will not be a permanent body, but will not all be changed at the same time. Tlie report of this Board will be presented to Parliament. 18. The Academy will be under the control of a Gov- ernor, a military man, selected with special refer- ence to his qualifications for superintending both in- struction and discipline, and ajipointed bj' and re- sponsible to tlie Secretary of State for War, through the Field Marshal Cominaudiug-in-Chief. 19. The Governor, by virtue of Ins office, will have local rank superior to that of any of the officers em- ployed under him. 20. The tenure of the appointment is regulated by the following article of the royal warrant of tlie 27th December, 1870: — The appointment of Governor of the Royal Military Academj' .... shall be for seven years, with power of re-appointment; but shall in all cases terminate after fourteen years, or at the age of sixty. 21. The Governor, with tlic approval of tlie Sec- retary of State for War, will liave the power of ap- pointing and removing the Professors and Instruc- tors. 22. The organization will be on a military basis. 23. The Governor will be solely responsible for discipline and for the general superintendence of the studies, 24. He will be assisted in the arrangements of the studies by the Academy Board, composed of the Professorsor Senior Instructors of the different bran- ches. The head of each liranch will have the gener- al power of supervision and inspection over the stu- dies of Ids department, witli the duty of reporting on lliem to the Governor. 25. The Governor will from time to time assemble and confer witli all tlie Professors and Instructors of eacli separate braiu'li on matters relating to it. 2(j. The Governor will be assisted by a Staff-offi- cer, not imder the rank of ('{iptaiii. who will be sec- retary ami treasurer, and liave charge of tlie records correspondence and accounts of the establishment, and make all local payments connected therewith, and receive the contriliutions for the cadets. This appointment will be for seven years, with power of re-api)oiiitnieiit. 27. Tlie cadets will form one company under a Captain, assisted by four Lieutenants, charged with the discipline out of stiiili<-s and the drill, one of whom will be Adjutant and (Quartermaster. 28. Tlie Professors and Instructors may be either military men or civilians. 211. The Professors and Instniclors will have cer- tain limited powers of piinisliiiienl, withinaiul with- out the halls of study.at the discretion of the Gover- nor, to whom they will report all punishments which tliey may inHict. 80. The Chaplain will be specially appointed by the Secretary of State, and will give instruction in classics. 31. The tenure of offlce of the Professors and In- structors is regulated by the following article of the royal warrant of 27th December 1870: — The Pro- fessors and Instructors at the Royal Military Acad- emy shall be appointed for six years, with power of re-appointment. Tlieir term of office shall not con- tinue after the age of fifty-five, unless an extension be specially recommended by the Governor and ap- proved by the Secretary of State. 32. No Professor or Instructor will be permitted to give private instruction to a cadet, either during the vacation or at any other time, or be allowed to prepare candidates for admission to the Academy. 33. The Governor will liave the absolute power of rustication and removal, and also of sentencing a cadet for misconduct to lo.=!e places in the list of successful candidates for commissions ; when expul- sion is necessary, the case will be referred to the Sec- retary of State through the Field Marshal Command- ing-in-Chief. 34. Tlie name of an}' cadet expelled for misconduct will be recorded in the office of the Field Marshal Commanding-in-C'liief, and will be made known to the First Lord of the Admiralty, and to the Secretary of State for India, in order to prevent his being ad- mitted into her Majesty's naval, military, or Indian service. 35. A sword will be given at each final examina- tion as a special reward for excellence in conduct. 36. The Governor will cause registers to be kept of all serious punishments awarded, and of the offences which have caused them. 37. He will inspect accounts of every description connected with the Academy, and certify those which require it. Ciiiirse of Instruction. 38. The length of the course of instruction will be two years and a half. 39. If any cadet fail to come up to the required standard at two examinations, or be found unable to qualify in his studies for a commission within three years, to be counted from the commencement of the term in which he first joins, or to acquire a sufficient proficiency in military exercises, lie will be removed. No extension of tlie above period of three 3'ears will be granted on account of absence from any cause excepting illness. Cases of protracted absence on ac- count of illness will be specially referred for decision to the Secretary of State for War through the Field ]Marslial Commanding-in-Chief. 40. Tlie following sulijects will form the course of obligatory studies: — (1) Mathematics, including a thorough knowledge of phme trigonometry; practi- cal mechanics, with the application of uKithematics to machinery. (2) Fortification, field and ]iermanent; such a cour.sc as is suitable to cadets (lualifying for the Artillery, and tiie requisite amount of geometrical drawing. (3) Artillery; such a course as is suitable to cadets qu;ilifyiiig for the Engineers. (4) Military dniwiug, willi iield sketching aud reconnaissance. (Ti) ^Military history and geography. (0) P'rcneh or (term;iii, at the student's choice. (7) Elementaiy chemistry and iiliysics. (8) Drills and exercises. 41. Ill addition to the obligator}' course, every cadet will be allowed, at his option, to take up cer- tain volunt:iry subjects, viz.:— (1) Higher niatliema- lics. (2) Higher portions of fortification. (3; Any of the following liiiiguagi's : — German or French, Itali;iii, KiiHsian, Spanish, or lliiidostanee. (4) Free- hand, figure, and landscape dr;iwing. (5) Higher chemistry. (0) Latin and (7) Greek ; instructiims in these subjects to he given by the Chaplain. 42. Marks will be assigned to the obligatory sub- EOTAL MTIITART ASYLUM o:'. ROYAL MILITAEY COLLEGE AT 8ANDHTJE8T. ieots of instruotioii in Uu: followiiiK proportions: — MiilhemuticH nnd mcclmiiics, 7 ; forlificiitioii, 7; art- illery, 5; iiiililiiry driuviiin and rcconnaissaMci', (! ; military history, etc., li ; oni^ inoilcrn lan;;uan(^ French or (irrinan, 3; elementary chitnislry anil physics, 2 ; drills and exercises — mainial, platoon, and company drill, ^ : <;ymnustics, A ; riding and Bword exercises, ^ ; artillery, 3; lolal liA. 43. Tlie volunlary sulijects shall lie valued as fol- lows :- lli'.;lier ni:ilh<iiiiilics, T) : higher fori ilicatioii, H; Latin. 3; (!reeU, 3; any of the following lan- gnages - French or (iernian, Italian, Rnssian, Span- ish, or llindoslanee, 3: fri'chanil, ligurc, ami land- scape drawing, 3; higher chemistry, 2. 44. No ohligalory subject shall gain a cadet any marks unless he obtain a minimum of one-lmlf the marks in it. 45. Xn cadet will be ensured a commission unless he qualify by olilaining at least oue-lialf marks in the obligalory course in mathematics anil mechanics, fortiticalion, and artillery, and one-half of the total aggregate of the marks allotted to all tlu^ obligalory subjects. 4(i. No voluntary subje<-t shall gain a cadet any marks unless he obtain a unnimimi of at least one- third of the marks assigned to that ])ortion of it in which he is examined. The marks gained in tlie volunlary subjects will be added to those obtained in the obligalory subjects to make a second total, ac- cording to wliich cadets shall be finally jilaced. 47. The periodical cxandnations will be entirely co7iducted by examiners independent of the Academy the wliole of the marks except those reserved for note-books and drawing being allotted according to their results. Staff of till' FMnbllshnunt, 48. The following will be the Staff of the establish- ment : — (lovernor. Secretary and Treasurer, Captain commanding company, ;! r^ieutenanls. Adjutant and (Quartermaster, ;\Iedical ( )lticer,Chai)laiii,4 Professors and Instructors of mathematics and mechanics, 4 Pro- fessors and Instructors of forlitication and geometri- cal drawing, 3 Professors and Instructors of artillery, 4 Professors and Instructors of military drawing, etc., and I'rofessor and Instructor of militarj- history and geography, 2 Professors and Instructors of French and (Jerman,! Professor and Instructor of tigure and landscape drawing,and 1 Professorand Instructor of chemistry. 49. The pay and allowances of the ofliccrs are regulated by Ihe following articles of her Majesty's warrant of the 37th December 1870: — The pay of the otlicers of the Royal Military Academy shall be as follows: — Governor, A'l. WO yearly, inclusive of all allowances except quarters, and in addition to his unattached pay as a General-officer or his pay as Colonel Com- mandant of royal artillery or royal engineers, in the event of his holding such rank; Secretary anilTreasur- cr, not of lower rank than Captain, £400 ye;irly,inch: sivc of all allowances except quarters, and in addi- tion to regimental pay: Captain of eomi)any, 12s. daily, and regimental pay (also forage allowance for one horse, quarters, fuel, and light, and 2 soldier servants) : Lieutenants, each 4s. daily, and regimenlal pay (also quarters, fuel, ami light, and 1 soldier servant): .\djutant and (.Quartermaster, 5s. ihuly.and regimenlal pay as Lieutenant (;dso quarters, fuel, and light, forage allowance for 1 horse, and 3 soldier servants); Surgeon, according to his rank in the Army ^lediial Deimrtment: Cli;ipliun and Classical Instruc- tor, i'400 ye;irly, and quarters, fuel, and light : Pro- fessor of nuUhematics, if a civili;in, t'550 to £700 yearly, by a lricimi:d increase of £50; Professor of j inathematics, if ;in officer, £5.50 yearly, without in- 1 crease; Instructors of matheuKitics, if"civilians.£350 to £500 each yearly, by a triennial increase of £50; Instructors of mathematics, if ollicers, £450 yearly, I without increase; Professor of fortilicatioii, £.550 [ yearly; Instructors of fortification and geometrical ^ drawing, each X4.50 ; Professor of artillery, jCiSO; Ilislnictors of artillery, £450; Professor of military drawing, £.550 ; Inslriiclorsof military drawing, each, X'4.50; Professor of military history, £500 ; Professor of French, £350; Professor of German, £;J50; Pro- fessor of lanilscapi^ drawing, £^50 ; and Professor ot chemistry, £400. ) The above scale of pay (and allowanccH) Hliall in- clude all rennmeralion of every kind except any ad- ditional piiy. beyond hisordiiiarv regimenlal pay, to which an iilticer may be entilliil by brevet rank or as a reward for distinguished service in the tield, and no |)erson heriiifler to be appointed to any of the above appointments shall be entitled to pension or su])erannuation allowance for services in such ap- point mint. 50. The appointments of Military Professors and Instructors are open to officers of all ranks. 51. No perse in whatever belonging to the Ko>al .Military Academy is to receive a present from any cadet, or from the relations or friends of any cadet. 53. Commissions as Lieutenants in the royal artil- lery or roval engineers will be confcrrefl iijjon can- didates who qualify in accordance with Pars. 39 to 45. .53. The commissions of such Lieutenants as are recommended by the Governor of the Academj', and afterwards pass through their practical course at Woolwich and Chatham in a satisfactory manner, will be ;inlcd:ilid (i months. ROYAL MILITARY ASYLUM.— An Educational Go- vernment Institution at Chelsea, near, but wholly distinct from, tlie Royal Hospital for jiensioned sol- diers. Its object is Ihe suitable education for trade, etc., of .500 male children — generally orphans — of IJritish soldiers. For these there area model school and an infant school, and the boys have a complete militarj- organization, with scarlet uniform, band, etc. As a res\ilt of their training, a large proportion of the pupils ultimately volunteer into the -Army. The School was originally established in 1803 by the late Duke of York, whence it is still commonly known as the "Duke of York's School." Originally a simi- lar school for soldiers' daughters was included but was not found to answer, and has been discontinued. Attached to the School is a trainii.g establishment for military schoolmasters, known as the Normal School. The total cost of the whole Institution is about £1 1,-500 per annum. ROYAL MILITARY COLLEGE AT SANDHURST. - 1. The Koviil ^Military College is m:iintained for the purpose of affording a special military education to Sub-lieutenants of cavalry and infantry recently appointed, and to successful candidates in the com- petitive examinations for commissions. 3. The number of Sub-lieutenants admitted to the ( 'oUege will vary according to the requirements of the service. 3. The dates of admission will be the 10th of Feb- ruary and lOtli of September in each year. 4. The College terms will bi — (") from the 10th of Februarj' to the 30th of July, with suspension of stmly during a fortnight at Easter : (Ii) from the 10th of September to the 15tli of December. The inter- mediate periods will constitute the vacations. 5. The Commander-in-Chief will be the President of the Koyul Military College. f'l. The College will be under the command of a Governor, who will be solely responsible for discipline and for the general superintendence of the studies. 7. He will be assisted in the arrangement of the studies by a Board, composed of the Professors or Senior Instructors of the different branches. The head of each branch will have the general power of super- vision and inspection over the studies in his depart- ment, with the duty of reporting on them to the Gov- ernor. 8. The Governor will be assisted by a Staff-officer, who will be responsible in his temporary absence for the charge of the establishment. This officer will BOYAL MILITAEY COLLEGE. 794 EOYAL MILITAEY COLLEGE. have the custody of the records and the correspond- ence of the College, and will give the Governor such assistance as he may require. 9. The Quartermaster will perform the duties of Acting Commissary. 10. The Sub-lieutenants, being commissioned offi- cers, are imder the Mutiny Act and Articles of War. and must conform to her Majesty's regulations in all respects. While resident at the "College, they will be subject to such rules and regulations as are, or raa\' be from time to time, established for the maintenance of good order and discipline. 11. The Governor will have the power of removing for a period not beyond the corresponding period in the next term anj' Sub-lieutenant guihy of insuljor- dinate or ungentlemanlike conduct, or of repeated acts of irregularity, and will report the circumstances to his Royal Highness, the Field Marshal Command- ing-in-Chief. 12. Sub-lieutenants reported for habitual inatten- tion to their studies, or failing to pass satisfactorily through the probationary examination at the end of their iirst term, will be speciall}- brought imder the notice of his Royal Highness, with a view to their oases being considered fis to the necessity of removal from the College. 13. In cases requiring more serious notice, a stu- dent if commissioned, will be liable, on the report of the Governor to his Royal Highness, to be removed from the service, or, if not commissioned, to be re- moved from the list of candidates awaiting their com- missions. 14. Sub-lieutenants who misconduct themselves during their residence at the College will be liable to the forfeiture of the antedate to which they would otherwise be entitled in accordance with Par. 38. The}' will also, if temporarily removed from the College for misconduct, be liable, under the provisions of the royal warrant of the 1.5th of February, 1875, to the forfeiture of pay for such period as the Secretary of State may direct. 15. The Sub-lieutenants will be distributed in di- visions of not less than 25, each division being under the immediate charge of one of the Professors or In- structors selected by the Governor. IG. The officers of divisions will be the channel of communication on all subjects between the Sub-lieu- tenants and the Governor. They will mess with their divisions, anil will exercise a general superintendence over them, for which they will be responsible to the Governor. 17. During the hours of study the Sub-lieutenants will be under the charge of the Professors and Instruc- tors, to whose orders they will be required to pay im- plicit obedience. IM. Sub-lieutenants will salute the Governor and As- sistant to the Governor on all occasions, whether in or out of uniform, and the Professors and Instructors when on duty, on parade, or when imder instruction. 19. The Sub-lieutenants will be required to appear at all times in imiform, excejit when on leave of ab- sence, or otherwise exempted by the Governor. 20. Tlie study undress may be worn at all times when Sulj-licutcnaiits arc under instruction, with the exception of riding or ]iarade, when they will wear their undress uniform. The forage cap will be worn with the study imdress. 21. The cour.se of instruction for each Sub-lieuten- ant wUl last during two terms. The following will be the subjects of study: — (n) Queen's Regulations and Orilers for the Army, regimental interior econo- my, accoiuits, and corresiKindence ; (//) military law; (r) the elements of tactics ; (d) field fortification, and the elements of permanent fortification: (e) military topography and reconnaissance; (/) infantr}' and field artilU'ry drill, riding, and gynmastics. 22. A{ theendbf the course the Sub-lieutenants will be re(|uired to jjass an examination in the field ami on paper, and those who pass the examination will be gazetted to regiments in which there may be vacan- cies for Sub-lieutenants, with a view to their complet- ing the period of service required before they can be promoted to the rank of Lieutenant. 23. Ou the pass list of the examination prescribed in the foregoing paragraph. Sub-lieutenants will be placed in one of the three classes, according to their proficienc}', as shown at the examination. 24. The examination will be qualifj-ing, not com- petitive, and the candidates will be arranged alpha- betically in each class. 25. The standard of qualifications for the respective classes will be decided upon from time to time by the Secretary of State for War, and announced to the Sub-lieutenants at the commencement of their course. 26. Marks will be allotted to the subjects in tlie following proportions: — Queen's Regulations, etc., U: military law, 2; elements of tactk-s, 3; fortifica- tion, 3; military topography and reconnaissance, 3. 27. In tactics, fortification, and military topog- raphy and reconnaissance, one-fourth of the marks will be reserved for notes and drawings done during the course. 28. In accordance with the power vested in the Sec- retary of State by Art. 3 of the royal warrant of the 30th October, 1871, he has decided that the Lieuten- ants' commissions of oflicers who pass in the 1st class will be antedated two years ; and those of officers who pass in the 2d class, 12 months. No antedate will be granted to officers who pass in the third class. 29. Every antedate will date back from two years subsequent to the date of the original commission as Sub-lieutenant. No commission as Lieutenant will be granted until the oflicer has served two years as Sub- lieutenant. 30. Under the provisions of that portion of Art. 3 of the royal warrant of the 30th of October, 1871, which is amended by the royal warrant of the 30th of January, 1875, Sub-lieutenants may be removed from the service if they fail to pass the examination at the Royal Military College within two years from the date of their commissions as Sub-lieutenants. They will be allowed to be re-examined once, at the ililitary College, provided two years from the date of their commissions as Sub-lieutenants shall not have expired. 31. In order to ensure due diligence during the whole period of residence, there will be a probation- ary examination at the end of the first term in the work of the term. No Sub-lieutenant will lie per- mitted to reside for more than one year at the College, except in cases of protracted illness, or long absence from any unavoidable cause, or liis being prevented from imavoidable cause from undergoing the final examination. 32. The mess-rooms, ante-rooms, and quarters of the Sub-lieutenants are furnished in all essentials by the goverument : plate, linen, and china, and every article of mess equipment, are supplied by the go- vernment, and no contributions on those accounts- will be required from Sub-lieutenants. 33. The messes will be conducted in every re- spect like a regimental mess, with strict regard to economy. 34. All unmarried officers of the College will be rcciuired to nu'ss with the Sub-lieutenants. Tho.se officers who are married will mess with the Sub- lieutenants if re(iuired to do so by the Governor. 35. Sub-lieutenants will provide themselves, be- fore the)' join the ('ollege, with the prescrilied imi- form, ;uid with thebooksand instnmu'nts required for their instruction. 3(!. Svib-lieutenants will pay for their messing and washing. The amount iliu' from each officer for his messing and washing will be paid by him monthly to the Paymaster of the College. 37. AH Sub-lieutenants will be required to contri- bute a certain sum monthly to meet the expenses of a s))((ial laundry wliich has been found to be re- (piisite. 38. No person whatever belonging to the Royal BOYAL REGIMENT OF ARTILLERY. 705 ROYAL SHALL ARMS. Military College will receive a present from any Sub- HiMilciiaiil.iir from Uic rolitlioiiM or fricndH of uny Sub li<'utfri:iiil . ROYAL REGIMENT OF ARTILLERY. A Imlliilion usually loMipriscs K (•(]iii|iaiiii-s. .\1 a time when the niimlicr was IK, (101). the re;,nmenl, comiiriHed 11!) fompunies iinil troops, averai;inij; somewhat over IfiO men eaeli. At other times, the eompanies have va- ried from l;i(t to 21111 uien each. The eompanies and haltalions of fool-arlihery are desif:uat<'d by ordinid luunbers, such as 'lilh eom|)any, 12th Ipallalinn ; ' the troops of liorse-arlillcry are desJLCMaleil Ijy letters, such as ' I) troop.' There are nominally, ri olliecrs for each eoiniiany and troop ; hut .some of these are usually alisenl on staff or briirade duties. In battles and sieves, a brignde of this artillery usually consists of either two or thn'c companies, attached to a di- vision of the regular army. Kach company with its quota of ij;uns and stores of all kinds, constilules a,fieU-baUirii; and each troojj with its(iuota, consti- tutes u UorKC-hiitlery. It has been pro|)osed to aban- don the terms dimpaiinunAlriiiip altoij;elhtr, as bein;j; properly apjilicable only to infantry and cavalry, and to use only the term hulU'rij: but this change has not yet taken jjlace. Anionf? the oHicers of the Royal Artillery, there are no Majors, Ensifrns, or Cornets; e(|uivalenl services are rendered by officers other- wise desii^naled. The men are chiefly classified as gunners and ilrivers. The Army Estimates for 185!) lit) will afford pretty correct information concerning the present state of the Royal Artillery. Royal Foot Artillery. Conimi.ssioned Officers, 918 Non-connnieeioned Officers, 1,785 Kank and File 23,351 lioyal /lorKC Artillery. Commissifined Officers, 78 Non-commissioned Officers, 148 Rank and File 3,120 Total, 27,400 Of this number, 8707 are placed at the disposal of the East Indies, to be jiaid for out of Indian reve- nues. There were also voted 5:i()8 horses for the foot-artillerv, and IHSO for the horse. BOYAL SCOTS.— The regimental title given to the 1st Regiment of Foot. It is supposed to be the old- est regular corps in Europe; the men originally came from Scotland, and entered the French army, but afterwards returned to England in l(i33, during tiie reign of Ch;irles 1., and then received the title of Royal Kei;iment of Foot. ROYAL SMALL ARMS.— The following arms, etc., are manufactured at the Uoyal Snudl-arms Factory : 1. JIartini-lIeur}' rifles and carbines. 2. Triangular bayonets. 3. 8word-bayonets of various patterns. 4. The Enfield breech-loading revolver. 5. Lances. 6. Leather scabbards for triangular and sword bay- onets. The details of the .Marlini-IIenry system and the principal features of the Enfield revolver have been set forth in tin- articles Martini-Henry Rifie and Enfield Breech-loading Revolver. Inasmuch as these arms differ in many points of fabrication from the usual jirocesses and operations employed in manufacturing small-arms, we herewith give a de- tailed description of the fabri<:ation of the Martini- Itenry rilie : The barrel is made of soft or mild steel prepared by the " Siemens-Martin" process, this metal hav- ing been found to be of a very imiform nature. The barrel bars or molds are obtained by contract in lengths of 15 inches, the diameter for rifle bars be- ing li inch. The barrel bar is heated to a white heat and passed through the barrel rolling-mill, ■which consists of ten pairs of rolls arranged alter- nately horizontally and vertically, when it is drawn out in one heat to the full length recpiired (about 36 inches), taper in form, and solid. It is next passed to the Ryder forgins; nuichine, where the '• Knox form" is forged on the breech end and the barrel cut to length, then passed through a Htraijjhtening muchine, I'xamined for straightiiess, and viewed a« finished forged. The ends of the barrel are clamp- milled for size and length, anrl then ilrilled up about li inch at each end, the diamelerof the holes drilli-d being 0.430 inch. This operation is called " enter- ing the bore," and is very carefully tested to uce that The Fit,'. 1, the starting of the bore is true and correct, barrels are now ready for drilling. The barrels while being drilled are placed verti- cally in a machine. Fig. 1. where they revolve with a speed of 300 revolutions per minute, the holes al- ready made at each end acting as guides for the set of three drills used in this operation. The method of using these drills insures a long hole of small di- ameter being drilled perfectly true, and until this method was tried and adopted this was found to be a most difticidt task: The ilrills consist of, first, " the core-drill," for roughly cutting away the met- al. This is run in half an inch, when the barrel is taken out and emptied of swarf or cuttings by plac- ing it (H'er a jet-pipe, wlien a strong stream of wash- ing liquor thoroughly clears out the bore. Another half inch is drilled in the same manner, and the bore again washed out. The second drill or half-round bit is now used. This drill is 0.130 inch iu diameter. and having only a cut of 0.05 inch to make in clearing the hole. is run down the one inch the core-drill has clear- ed without any risk of deviating from the truth. The barrel is then again washed on! and No. 3 drill made use of. This has a slock fitting the hole already bored, and ending in a small -{',,, inch drill, which, be- ing supported by the stock, (Irills away the center perfectly true with the a.xis of rotation, ready for the ■' core " or " roughing drill " to start again. If this system is rigidly carried out inch by inch it is possible to drill a hole three or four feet deep with an error of less than 0.005 inch. A set of drills con- sists of these three just described, and three sets of ditTerent lengths are used. When one-half of the barrel has been drilled, it is turned end for end. and the operation repeated until the lioles meet in the center. This system of drilling originated at the Royal Small-arms Factory, and is not in extensive use elsewhere. After drilling, the hole is broached out with long square bits, on one side of which a strip of oak is placed. Long strips of writing paper are evenly placed between the strip and bit, one upon another, and the bit is run tlirous:h the barrel until the hole BOTAL SKAI.L-ARMS. 796 EOYAL SMALt-AEMS. is broached out to tlie required diameter. Tliis op- eration is more of a buruisliing character than a cut- ting one, producing a fine, clear, polished surface, down which a shade is readily thrown by holding the barrel at the proper angle to the light. As shad- ows thrown off straight surfaces are projected in straight lines on any true surface on which they are thrown, the eye cau be taught by practice to detect any inaccuracy in the bore of a barrel by the appear- ance of the edges of the shadow thrown ilown it. In order to insure absolute certainty that no barrel should be passed on for the exterior to be turned which had not the bore perfectly true, the following mechanical test has been devised, viz : A steel rod is stretched taut between two horizontally fixed head-stocks, having a collar in the center and at one end, which tit the bore Ioosel}',so that the barrel can freely revolve on the rod. If the bore is straight, the end of the barrel where there is no collar on the rod will run perfectly true; but if not straight, it will re- volve eccentrically, and its motion is easily detected by any unskilled person. Every barrel is passetl through this test before the e.xterior is commenced upon. The bore is also tested for size by the col- lars on the rod. The next operation is to support and hold the bore true while the outside is turned perfectly concentric with it. After a number of experiments to find out a means of fixing a true turned hush or collar on a rough exterior, the present metliod of running sul- phur in a liquid state between the barrel and bush was adopted. By this means the exterior of a barrel can be turned perfectly true with the bore without injury to the inside. The barrel is placed vertically, when two plugs, whose centers coincide with tlie axis of the barrel are placed in the breech and nuizzle ; the bush is then held over it anil melted sulphur is poured in between barrel and bush. This gives a "bearing for the outside perfectly true with the bore. The barrel is next rough-tunieil, tinished-turned, draw-polished, gauged, chambered for proof, and screw-thread cut in breech end, to take the " hutts " •used to close the breech during first proof. This system of turning a barrel enables its exterior to be brought to a definite size, and is greatly superior to the old method of grinding barrels on a large stone and afterwards striking tliem up. The barrels now undergo the first-proof test which is necessary in order to detect inferior quality of metal and flaws which do not appear on either the exterior or inter- ior surfaces. The first-proof charge is 7^ drams of sawn to length and brazed on. The barrel is now linislied-bored and set, and is then ready for rifling. The rifling is done with a cutter having a head of suitable form for the rifling required. This is fitted into a groove cut in a box about eight inches in length and fitting the bore. It is drawn through the barrel by a rod fastened to one end of the cutter box, the other end of the rod being coupled into the spin- dle of the head-stock or traversing saddle. On the spindle is a pinion geared into a sliding rack carried by the same saddle. The end of the rack is fitted to slide backward and forward along a fixed bar, which can be set at any angle necessary to rotate the spin- dle and cutter box to the amount of spiral required. From four to five cuts are needed for each groove, and tlie cutter is fed up by a screw tapped into the end of the cutter box, to which a r(3d is attached, which works through the center boss of a hand wheel. A spiral groove is cut along this rod, in which a feather fixed in the boss of the hand wheel slides, enabling tlie feed-screw to be screwed in or out by the hand wheel as required. An index is connected with the hand wheel, enabling the operator to read off the depth of cut. The barrel is fixed in a rotat- ing chuck, which is divided so that any number of grooves required can be cut inside the bore. The rifling is of uniform twist of 1 in 23 inches, or one and a half turns in the length of bore (3.S inches). The form of rifling is that known as the "Henry rifl- ing;" the grooves are seven in numbr, and are 0.007 inch in depth. The barrel is suspended inside a hollow rotating spindle by a plug inside the muzzle end, ruuning on a plug fixed in headstock at tlie breecli end. A guide- screw is securely fixed on the rotating spindle, and carries a nut fixed to traversing tool-holder, which holds a peculiar form of chasing tool. The teeth for cutting the screw-thread on the breech end are on the under side, so that, being set over the top of the rotating barrel, it can be lifted in and out of the thread which is beiug cut, in the shortest possible lime and distance, without chopping the thread. The screw being entirely finished, the barrel is then driven from it, while the breech end of it is cham- bered up for the cartridge. The entire operation of boring and reaming is performed in the lathe re- presented in Fig. 2. The barrel is now breeched up to body, the action assembled for proof, and the rifle undergoes the second-proof test. The second' proof charge consists of 5 drams of powder, a bullet weighing 715 grains, and a cork made half an inch Fig. 2. powder, a lead plug of 7\n grains, and over the lat- ter a cork wad lialf an incli in thickness. Twenty barrels are proviul at the same time in a cast-iron proof batter}-. The seat for the fnmt sight is next cross-milled end dove-tailed, and the steel for the front sight is in thickness. The biirnls are proved in a proof battery something similar to that used for the first proof. The back sight-bed is soldered on to the barrel, and also secured in its place by two screws. Both the back sight and front sight are ()ilJu.st<.-J "m-\ rag- UOTAL SMALL ABHS. 71)7 BOTAL SHALL ABHS. ulalnd from the axis of the bore, and when vicwinj; tlic liiirrcls for Hi;;litin;; the jircutest care Ih tukeii to see that Ijoth Hijilils arc exactly in iKwilioii. The body and harnl arc lirowncd separately, the follow- ing beini; I lie l)r(>\vniiii; mixture at present in use: Spirits of wine 5 ounces. Spirits of nitre 8 " Tincture of steel 8 " Nitric acid 4 " Sulplnirict acid ;( " Blue vitriol 4 " Water 1 (jallon. The proei'ss is as follows: The barrels and bodies are tirst scalded in a solution of soda for twenty mi- nutes and are then waslied in a clean water. The browninj; mixture is applied, and they are placed in a damp heat for about one and a half hours, when they are scalded atcain, and wdien coo! the rust is scratched off. This process is repeated four times, and then the barrels are cleaned off and oiled. The whole operation of browning leqnires about eight hours. The body which is to contain the l)reech action is made from a specially lough chiss of mild steel. Hars of this metal, 4 or 5 feet in length and 2 inches by U inch in section, are obtained by contract. The body is blocked direct off the end of the bar by five blows under a IH-cwt. steam-hammer. The lirst blow gives a rough tigure, and measuresolT lhei|uantity of metal required. The second blow fullers in the sides of the body, to displace the metal when working the hole through it. The third blow, b3- means of a cliisel in Fig. 3. the upper die. splits tlie metal in the center, driving out the sides of the body to till the die, and leaving the impression of the hole to be made througli the body full size at the top. The fourt!; blow drives a full-sized drift, i)laced in the hole jnst maih' by the chisel, clean through, shearing down the sides, and driving tlirough the small pieei' left at the bottom of the hole. The hole made tlirough the body is now 3 inches by J ineli by 3',' inches, and the metal wasted is only 3i 07.. in weight. The fifth blow cuts ;he body off the bar. A mandrel is now driven in the hole, and a blow is struck upon the ends to S(|uare them tip, when the body is ready for stamping. The boiiy is reheated and a cold steel mandrel driven into it, when it is at once placed under a powerful steam-hammer. On tlie anvil of thi.s hammer is the lower die of a pair, the im- pression cut in the pair of dies being that of the fin- ished size of forged body. One heavy and suilden blow is given, with force suflicient to make the metal flow into every corner of the impression. If this is not done at the first blow, it cannot with safety be attempted by a second blow without reheating, as the surplus metal (lows over between the faces of the dies in the form of a thin lin, cliilled and black, and this A-oidd swallow up itself the force of u second blow and perhajis split one of the dies. Tlie body is next annealed, scali- pickled off, fin-trimmed, and passed as " finished forged." The hole in the liody is first drifled out by means of long slightly tapered drifts, wliicli are drawn through if, and the liole produced in tins man- ner is used as a starting point for all tlie sub.se- quent operations, .\fter drifting, four bodies are Iilaced on a revolving cross-shaped fixing, the arms of which exactly fit the holes in the bodies, while a transverse slide carrying two tooMiolders, one on each side, turns up both sides of the four bodies at one operation. This operation leaves the sides of the body equal in thickness and true willi tiie center hole. Twelve bodies are next fixed on a revolving head, and tlie barrel ends are all cut square and true, the sto(-k ends being treated in the same man- ner. The hole for the barrel is then drilled, tappeil, and the burr thrown up by the tapping is smoothed down. The face is eased, so that when a gauge is screwed in it stands exactly true. The body is now placed in a drilling jeg, and the adjusted face is screwed tight up against a rib in the jeg, while the six axis holes of various sizes are drilled, three in each side. The drills run througli hardened steel bushes fixed in the sides of the drilling jeg. These axis holes, after being tested for ae<'uracy, become, in c(mjunction with the large hole in the body, the base points for the remaining operations. A number of drilling-maciiines now operate to cut away the metal so as to form the socket to receive the stock butt. The hole is drilled and tapped to receive the screw end of the stock-bolt, which se- cures the butt in the socket. Pins in the axis holes in the left side of the body, hold it while the knuckle seat for breech-block is roughly cut out and the seat milled out square and true. A number of minor 'milling, drilling, and tapping operations bring the body into the siiape and figure recpiired, and it is then S(-rewed on, or " breeched up." to the barrel. The barrel is now placed vertically with the end of the chamber resting on the collar "of a plug, which enters and exactly fits the chamber, and the face of the barrel is drawn very tightly down on this col- lar by means of plugs pushed through axis holes in the body. Small mills are now run on a spindle tlirough the block axis-hole and finish cutting out the knuckle seat of the block to a positive length from the face of the barrel. This length between the knuckle seat of the block and the face of the barrel is rigidly maintained, so as to insure that any block will interchange or fit in any body. In order to in- sure that this may be the case, "each breeched-up barrel and body is accurately gauged with hardened steel gauge-blocks. Care is alsolaken to see that the striker hole, in the faceof the gauge-block, coin- cides with the axis of the bore of barrel to insure the cap of thecartridge beingstnick in the center. The barrel and body are now passed on for assembling the action for second proof. A particular form of emery wheel, called a "rim wheel," is employed for finishing up some of the com- ponents. Its use has enabled unskilled labor to take the place of a high class of skilled workmen, and the work is better finished. For instance, the slot of the back-siglit leaf is first drifted to its true size. By this it is held in a fixing attached to a vertical axis, and both edges with cap attached can be passed a- cross the face of the rim wheel, maintaining it per- fectly true, and grinding the edges of the leaf and cap parallel to each other. The sides are done in the .same manner. Having given a description of the processes of manufacture for the barrel, and body, it will be unnecessary to describe the manufacture of the other components. The method pursued in the manufacture of all is precisely that followed in the case of the body. All the parts are first of aU forged ROTAL SMALL ARMS. 798 ROYAL "WARRANT. in dies, tlie fin is trimmed off, they are piclded to re- move scale, and then undergo numerous milling, drilling, and other machine operations until they are brought to the correct figure, when thej' are viewed, gauged, and either case-hardened, browned, blued, hardened, and tempered, etc., as the case may be. The barrels of carbines and pistols are treated in the same manner as the rifle barrel. In order to insure an absolute interchangeabilitj' of the various parts the most exact system of gauging is a necessity, and the strict view which is enforced prevents the possi- bility of any defective parts being assembled in an arm. The blade of the triangular bayonet is made of tool or sharp steel, the socket of mild steel, the lock- ing ring of wrought iron, and the locking-ring screw of steel. The blade and socket are welded together ; the blade is tapered imder a Ryder hammer, and then rolled out in segmental rolls to the required length and a triangular figure. The socket is stamped to size and then goes through several machine opera- tions, such as drilling, milling, slotting, etc. The blade is hardened and tempered, groimd and pol- ished, the socket being browned. The locking-ring is well blued, and its screw is case-hardened. The breech-block, lever, butt-plate, and iron screws are case-hardened. This is done by carefully packing them in iron boxes, in which they are surrounded with bone cuttings or animal charcoal. An iron plate is laid on the top of the box, and it is placed in a furnace and raised to a red heat. Tiie length of time that the various articles are left iu the furnace depends on the amount of case-hardening required ; and when removed from the furnace they are chilled in a lank of cold water. They are then cleaned, oiled, and examined by gauges to ascertain whelher the case-hardening has altered tlieir form. The follow- ing components are hardened by heing raised to a certain temperature and tlien cooled in oil. They arc afterwards tempered by "blazing," that is by heating them again until the oil or suet with which they have been covered bursts into a flame : Strik- er, main-spring, indicator, extractor, sight-spring, catch-block spring, trigger-spring, block-axis pin, ex- tractor-axis, sight-slide, and steel screws, etc. The following components are l)lued ; Up]>er and lower bands, upper and lower hand-pins, guard and tjand swivels, fore-end hook-screws, sight-leaf, lever catch- block and pin, guard, nose-cap, the rod-holder, etc. They arc polished, cleaned with lime to remove all grease, and are then covered with powdered char- coal and raised to a temperature of about 550° Fah- renheit. A milling-machine and a screw-head slotter com- bined, arranged for taking the short milling cuts, is shown in Fig. 3. The box-shaped head is placed on a planed iron table, which is surrounded by a groove to catch oil and chips. The cross slide is adjusted by a screw that projects in front, and squared by a wrench. The sliding-table is operated for a hand lever and the motion is gauged by an adjustable stop behind. A vertical movement is commimicat- Fig.5. ed to the knee slide by means of a rack and gear, operated by a hand lever in front, as shown in the drawing. For slotting screws, a sliding vise is fur- nished, so arranged that the front or movable jaw tightens on the screw to be slotted by means of two springs under the jaw. The jaw is linked so that it is operated wholly by the hand lever which feeds the vise. With the machine with the lever vertical motion, screws can also be fed up under the saw which greatly increases its capacity. Counter- shaft has adjustable self-oiling hangers. Fig. 4, re- presents the usual form of slotting-machine, supplied with slotting-bar counter-balances, so as to run with- out jarring. It is driven by a variable crank, with quick, return motion ; has bearing for slotting-bar adjustable vertically, to suit the diilerent heights of work ; has compound tables, with circular plate and centering stud ; and the feed is self-acting, so as to be perfectly balanced. Fig. 5, represents the screw polishing machine, with bearings so inclosed as to entirely prevent the admission of the emery used for polishing the work. This is the peculiar property of this machine, and being specially adapted for polishing small parts of arms, etc., such as screws, studs, nuts, collars, etc., which are usually finished with oil and emery, its durability is thus secured. The counter-sliaft of this machine has a speed of 450 turns per minute. The machines here described together with those illustrated and discussed in the article— Fabrication of fiee-abms — will assist the reader in gaining a knowledge of light gun machin- ery. See^Eiifieid Breech-loading Jicvolver, Fabrica- tion of Fire-arms, Martini-IIenry Hifle, and Small, arms. ROYAL WARRANT.— An act of the Sovereign, au- thorising, for military purposes, the Secretary of State for War to issueUules and Regulations for the guidance of the several Departments of the Army. Royal warrants, where the Army is concerned, relate to all matters touching the soldier, his pay, clothing, BUBBERS. 799 EUBEN AND FORNEROD FUSES. travelling, food, etc., and are is>iued from lime to tirni', 1)y llie War OfHoe, in Armj^ Circulars, for the observance of all ciineerned. RUBBERS. — SlriiMix heavy fili'S, p'nerally made of an inrcricir kind of Hteel; lliey measure from 1^ to IH iiuOies Ion;;, from :,' inch to 2 inches 0]i every side, and are made very convex or fish-bellied. Ilubbers are only for coars<> manufa<'turintr jiurposes, when tlw object is rather to briijliten llie surface of the work than to give it any speeilie form. See File. BUBBLE. — A common kind of masonry, in wliieli tlic slo]ii-s are irregular in si/e and shape. Walls faced wilb ashlar are generally packed with rubble at Ibe back. Uublile is of various kinds, according to the amounl of dressing given to the stones. Com- mon rubble is liuilt with stones left almost as they come from the quarry. Hammer-dressed lubble, is .so called when the stones are squared with the mason's hammer; coursed rubble, when the stones are squared and eipial in heiibt. etc. RUBEN AND FORNEROD COMBINATION FUSES. — These two Swiss fuses are alike in principle, and differ only in that the larger one has two tiers of burning composition and is capable of burning 20 seconds, twice the length of time — as a time-fu.se — that the smaller one can burn. The fuses consist of three principal parts, the body, A, the inertia igniter, B, and the pereussion-fuse attaelunent, C. A and B constitute the lime-fuse. The former is made of an alloy of ecjual parts of lead and tin, while, I?, andC, are of brass. The body. A, is provided on its e.xterior with a screw-thread by means of which it is con- nected with Hie shell; the central cylindrical part is also provided with a screw-thread, into which tits the assembling screw of igniter, B, which binds all the different parts of the time-fuse together. Tlie bod}- A of the larger fuse (Fig. 1,) is com- posed of three parts, </, //, c; the upper part (i, or the t'egulator, is a ring of truncated form ; it has a prim- ing chamber, andaenanncl cm its under side, inclos- ing compressed mealed jiowder. The chamber opens e.xtcrnally npon a thin part of the wall and internally upon the core. Tlie channel is covered by a disk of foil. The rim of the regulator is divided into 50 eqmd parts, each one representing one-tifth of a second. The part, h, has also a cham!)er;ind similar channel of compressed mealed powder; the<'hainber opening on top for communiciition witii the cb;innel of a, and on the outside for escape of gas, the outside opeinng being covered with wa.x. Between, a. and, b, and glued to the top of, b. is a washer of thick cloth, wilb a small hole through it just over opening to chandjer of, h. The lower part, c, has on its under siile a circular channel of ritle-powder covered by a perforated <lisk of copjier— a piece of gauze separates the powder and copper ring; a vertical channel tilled with rilie pow- der allows a communication between powder in, /', and the ritie powder in, c ; separating, b, and, c. and glued to the top of latter, is a washer of cloth exact- ly similar to one separating, (/, and, b. The outside rim of this piece is also graduated into -50 equal parts, each one reading one-fifth of a sec(md. The igniter. B, consists of the parts, d, e, f. and g; the stock, rf, has a cylindrical cavity, at the center of the bottom of which projects a shar|) pin-point; fotir radial holes at bottom of cavity allows the gas from igniter to escape and spri'ad into a circiilar groove around the outside of the slock ; a brass washer separates the hexagonal rim of the head of the slock from the regulator or part, «, of lh<; body. At the bottom of the stock there is a cyliniirical projecting cup filled with the same composition as that in the igniter, and also covered with a solution of rubber. The cylindrical plunger, <■, has in the center of its ba.se a recess which contains the fulmi- nate priming, whieli is Ijelieved to be made of five parts chloralc of potassa, one of sulphide of antimo- ny, and one of powdered glass, all coated with a solution of rubber; the crown-shaped spring, /", is stamped out of a thin pieceof steel; it has four spring leaves; the bottom of the spring is shaped to fit tlie base of the [ilunger and to expose the fulminate in plunger: the screw-cap, y, clo.ses the lop of the stock, d; a hole tlirough its center allows the cylindrical projection on top of plunger to pass through and centers the plunger in spring and cj'lindrical cavity of stock. The percussion atlaclimenl, (!, consists of five parts, A, k, vi, n, o; the hollow cylindrical stock /( has a solid bottom, pierced with a small central hole for passage of gas from the fulminating composition into the shell ; this hole is closed by u piece of fine netting, or gauze, to prevent the powder in the shell from penetrating fuse-slock or bodj- ; a shoulder turned on its exterior fixes its iiositinn in the fuse- hole of shell; the cylindrical plunger, k, has through its axis a longitudinal channel, at the head of which is secured a sharp steel projecting point ; forward movement of the pbmger, except upon impact in flight, is prevented by a steel crown-shaped spring, m, similar to the one l;eretofore described. A hollow cylinder, n, centers the plunger and is long enough to permit the pin point to reach and pierce the ful- minate on impact; the slock is closed by a brass ring, w, resting on a shoulder turned in lop of stock. The action of the combination is as follows : Upon the infiammalion of the charge, the plunger is thrown back, the spring being compressed, and the plun- ger, with its fulminate, strikes the metallic point ; the gas due to the consequent ignition passes througli the openings in the wall of the lube, spreads into the circular groove around the outside of the tube, ignites the priming of the burning column, and thus causes the inflammation of the section of this column in contact with it ; intlammalion spreads along the burning prism, and. reaching its origin, is communi- cated to the second tier (if fuse is set for more than 10 seconds), and so on to the chamber and recess of rifled powder which communicates with the powder in shell. The combustion of the priming of com- pressed powder produces sutficient heat to melt the thickness of metal which closes the priming-cham- ber, and thus affords a broad outlet to the gas from the burning column. From experiments made in KUB IRON. 800 ETTMSET GUN. Switzerland, it is believed these fuses offer entire security against premature ignition, the shells being given the most violent shocks which could be re- ceived in transportation, loading, or unloading. The ignition is very certain, even wUh reduced charges. Should the fuse strike any resisting object before the burning composition has reached the point tc wliich the time-fuse was set, the plunger or percus- sion attachment, C, is thrown forward, the spring being compressed, and the pin point pierces the ful- minate at base of igniter, B, and the gas resulting has direct access to bursting charge of the shell. The smaller fuse shown in Fig. 2, has the same general features as the larger ; it differs from it in that it has but one layer of composition, which burns 10 seconds. The body. A, is in two parts only : the regulator a with its circular groove of compressed mealed powder has on its outside rim 50 equal div- isions representing fifths of seconds. The lower part of the, b, covers the jjercussion attachment, C, and has running vertically through one side a hole filled with rifle-powder ; this is the channel of com- munication between burning composition of time- fuse and bursting charge of shell. The conical out- side surface of the igniter, B, is roughened to facili- tate turning of the assembling screw which binds the different parts of the fuse ; bj' loosening and tight- ening this screw the regulator is set to the required time. The different parts of this fuse function as those of the larger fuse. See Ftixe. KUB-IEON. — A plate on a carriage or wagon-bed, against which the fore-wheel rubs when turning short, is called a wheet-guard plate in a field artillery-car- riage; one is placed on each side of the stock. EUFFLE. — A low vibrating sound, which is beat upon the drum, but not so loud as a roll. It is gen- erallj- performed in paying militarj- compliments to general ofiicers, and at militarv funerals. EULE BEITANNIA.— One of the national anthems of Great Britain, which has been described by South- ey as " The political hymn of this country as long as she maintains her political power." Its original ap- pearance was in a mask entitled Alfred, the words by James Thompson, the poet, and David Mallet, anil the music by Dr. Arne, which was performed for the first time on Aug. 1, 1740, before Frederick, Prince of Wales, at his residence at Cliefden. The words of the ode are believed to be the composition of Mallet. Alfred -wm altered by Mallet in 1751, when three stanzas of Mule Britannia were omitted, and three others, by Lord Boliugbroke, substituted for them ; but it is the ode in its original form that has taken root. EULE NISI.— In the English and Irish courts of law, is a technical term denoting the first step in an interlocutory application to the Court, sucli as an ap- plication for a new trial. The usual course is for the party who takes the initiative to move, ex jmrte, for a Rule Nisi, i. e.,an order of the court that something shall be done, unkss the opposite party, within a cer- tain time, usually three or six days, show cause, i.e., some good reason why the thing proposed should not be done. AVlien tlie party ol)tains a rule nisi, he sends a copy of it to the other parly, who must then, at the time appointed, show cause, and if the cause is deemed sufficient, the rule is discharged, i. e., the application is refused ; if the cause is insufficient, tlie rule is made absolute, i. e., the opposite party is boimd to do the thing asked, otherwise he will be lialile lo some disadvantage or to imprisonment according lo the nature of tlie subject matter. EULES OF FIRE. -Those for ordnance which fire borizontall}', result from the knowledge of the mean ti-ajectort/. which, like the mean trajectory of the mus- ket, comprises all the causes of error which can mod- if}' the fire ; Iiut the trajectory of artillery ])rojectiles being more constant in its form, the results are more accurate, a consequence of the fact that as the cali- ber of the arm incrr'ases, each ])arti<ular trajectory npproaclies more nearly the aaiin trajeetnri/. When canister is fired, the balls, having broken the case, escape in the form of a cone, and striking against each other, and against the sides of the piece, di- verge more or less according to the distance ; but the greater part of the balls are "found to be near the cen- ter, and the rulenoffire are still based upon the know- ledsreof the mean trajectory. EUMP PAELIAMENT.— In order to bring about the condemnation of Charles I., Oliver Cromwell, on Dec. 6, 11)48, sent two regiments, .under the com- mand of Colonel Pride, to coerce the House of Com- mons. Forty-one members of the " Long Parlia- ment" who were favorable to accommodation were imprisoned in a lower room of the house, IGO were ordered to go home, and only 60 of the most violent of the Independents were admitted. The clearance was calletl J'rifle'.i Purge, and the ))rivileged mem- bers ever afterward passed by the name of the Rump, forming, as it were, the fag-end of the "Long Parliament". This assembly, in conjunction with the army, brought about the arraignment, trial, and condemnatian of Charles I. Five years later the "Rump Parliament," forgetting that it was but the creature of the armj', attempred to make a stand against certain demands on the part of the soldiers. The result was that Cromw-ell filled the House with armed men; the speaker was pulled out of tlie chair, the mace taken from the table, the room cleared, the door locked, and the Parliament declared to be dissolved. Supreme in the three Kingdoms, Crom- well convoked an assembly which assumed the title of Parliament, and actjuired from the name of one of its most prominent members, a leather-seller, called Praisegod Barebones, the name of the Bare- hoties Parliament. The Barebones Parliament, after subsisting five months, was dissolved, and Cromwell, raised to the dignity of Protector, convoked two Parliaments, and dissolved them for refusing to sanction his measures. On Oliver Cromwell's death, and Richard's succession to the Protectorate, the military ^Malcontents, coalescing with the Indepen- dents in Richard's Parliament, declared the expul- sion of the Rump illegal, and restored that Assembly to its functions. With the revival of the Rump, its quarrel with the army revived ; and the troops, again surrounding Westminster Hall, expelled it on Oct. 30, 1659, a provisional government of officers assuming the direction of affairs. But the general dissatisfac- tion having led to a coalition between the Presbyte- rians and Royalists, the army, unable to carry on the government, was reduced to the necessity of once more restoring the Rump, which had been twice ign'ominiously expelled. The advance of Monk, however, with the urmy of Scotland led to a general crj- throughout the countrj* for a Free Parliament. A number of the members who had been excluded h}' Pride's Purge reappearing in the House, placed the Independents in the minority ; and on Mar. 16, 1660, the despised and derided Rump at last solemn- ly decreed its own dissolution. Tlie most prominent members of the Rump Parliament were Vane and Ilazleriff. EUMSEY GUN. — A breech-loading rifle having a fixed chamber closed by a movable breech-block, which slides in the line of the b:irrel by indirect ac- tion, being moved by levers from below. Tlie arm resembles in its general features the Winchester. Its peculiarity consists in having two magazine- tubes, one on each side of the barrel and beneath it. From these the cartridges are fed alternately into the corresponding carriers,whicli are moved up and down by levers operiiled liy a slidiiig-rod. This rod is drawn to and from the ojicrator by two thumb- pieces, one of which, for the right hand, is within Die trigger-guard, and the other lies along the barrel in a ])osition readily accessilile by the fingers of the left hand when supporting the piece in the natural po- sition of tiring. The niech;iiiisiii for communicating '.his reciprocal motion to the carrier levers, consists mainlv of an oscillating lever hing between the other RUN. 801 K088ELL INTEEHUPTEE. two, iiriil ils cciiiriccUonH in tlio formof sprinj^s, Htopg, and pins, wliicli an: (li'siKncil for directing tlic stroke on cacli (if ilM sides allcrnnli-ly. RUN. -Tlic greatist drtirce of swifliiess in niareli- in|^. It is e.\<'(;iiti'(l tin llic same principles as the il(/iil>l<-(/iiii'k, Ijnt Willi ^^reater Hpc'cd. In I'inf^land. tlie Hanniiig Drill forms part ot llie Irainini; of ii soldier. It comes under tlie lieud of ;;ynuiastic training;, »nd is ordered to lie carried out ni all in- fantry reiriments. Tlie object of it is to make the men supple, active, and capalile of bearini; fati;;ne. On allcrnate days the men run with arms and accou- termenls. RUNNING FIGHT.— A ballli' in which one party flees and (lie niher pursues, but tlie parly lleeing keeps up t lie <-inilest. RUNNING FIRE.— A constant lire of musketry or cannon. RUNNING FUSE. 'I'lie runninfj-fuses most used are those known in lOiiiilauil as liirkfnnVH fit«i\ and in this eoimlry as Sufi li/-fiini' and 'hiij'n fnxe. The common fuse ordinarily used in blastinj; with pow- der is of this kind, ll consists essenliallj' of a col- umn of line i^imiiowder enclo.sed in llax, hemp, or cotton, and made up willi dilTerent coverinirs accord- ing to till,' use lo which it is applied. When intend- ed fot immciliale use on li^lil work in dry ground, it is unprotecled by additioniilcoverinc;s. When in- tended lor use in wet unround or under water, it is covered with varnished tape or gulla-perclm. These fuses cause ii;nilion by conveying flame to the charge to be exploded. They are somewhat un- certain in their rate of burning, but average about one yard in a minute. The ordinary varieties must be kept in a cool, dry ])lace, and preserved from con- tact with grease or oil. The gulla-perelia-covered varieties are liable lo become injnn d by keeping. from the deterioration of the gutta-percha. Before using, care must be taken that cracking of the gut- ta-percha has not occurred. They .should be able to resist water for tweiilv-fonr hours. See i'Vvf. RUNNING THE GAUNTLET.— A punishment for- merly enforced in the ICnglish Navy, and which was intlicted also on soldiers. The mode of procedure was as follows. When a soldier was senlenced to run till' fffi'iiUlit, the regiment was paraded in two ranks, facing one another, eaiMi soldier having a switch in his hand, and as the criminal ran between the ranks naked from the waist upwards, he was lashed l)y the soldiers. While he ran the drum beat at each end of the ranks. Sometimes he ran three, five, or seven times, according to the nature of the offence. Ilappilj' such a barbarous pimishment no longer dissraces that Army or Navy. RUPTURE OF SHELLS.— When tliV charge of pow- der contained in a shell is intianied, the gases devel- oped expand into the cavity, the expau,sive force increasing and producing rupture when sufficient to overcome the tenacity of the metal. Kuplure will take place in the direction of least resistance, or fol- lowing the least thickness of metal. If the shell be spherical and homogeneous, and the cavity also be spherical and concentric with the exterior, the .sur- face of rupture must be composed of lines normal to both the interior and exterior surfaces of the shell. Let Ii be the radius of the exterior, and ;• the ra- dius of the interior surface ; 7', the tenacity of the metal I'omposing the shell, and p. the pressure of the gases on a unit of surface required to overcome the tenacity of the metal. Let (' be the radius of the circle in which the sur- face of rupture intersects the interior surface of the shell, or the interior circle nf rupture. The elTective pressure exerted on the area of this circle to produce rupture is equal to the sum of the components of all the normal pressures, acting on the spherical seg- ment of which it is the base, taken iHTpendicularTy to the plane of this circle; therefore .t/iT- is the pres- sure of the gases which tends to break the sphere. Under this supposition, ruplure .should follow the surface of the frustum of a cone of which this circle is the smaller base. The surface of this frustum is e<)ual to the dillerence of the surfaces of two cones wliosi: common apex is at the center of the sphere. The base of the smallrr is 'iiit', and its slant height ;•; ils surface is therefore equal to nC'r. The surface of the larger cone, whose generatrix is the radius of the exterior sphere, being to the smaller as Jl' is to r'-, will be nCr ; and IheirdifTerence, or the area r» of the surface of rnplnre, will ihen erpial "■<v-')- If the pressure of the gases acted normally to the surface of ruplure, or in the direction of the tenacity, this surface multiplied by 7' would give the total re- sistance, to which the pressure of tin; gases should be e<iual: 1ml it acts obliquely, and lo produce ru[)- tureshoidd be increased by aquanlily wlii. h depends upon the angle which the jiressure makes with the normal. Denoting this quantity by d, we shall have the relation. pnC' = TnCi p^T- GO d + — In this expression, the value of rf is unknown, and cannot be practically determined, but it evidently di- minishes as the direction of the pressure approaches the normal to the surface of rupture, and when they coincide, d becomes 0. At the same time 6'increa.ses, and the value of p diminishes, until r'becomes equal to r. its maximum value. Therefore, the section of easiest rupture of a hollow sphere [lasscs through a great circle, and the pressure which is in KpiHHirio with the tenacity of the metal, will be given by mak- ing i"=r, and (?=0, in the foregoing formula, which will then become, p=T o>io-y When the pressure is less than this value of p, the shell w ill resist rupture; when greater than this value, rupture will take place. The required pressure being known, the correspond- Ing density will result from Noble's formula, p=14.63 ; \—ad this density multiplied by the weight of water that will till the cavity gives the weight of the bursting charge. See Priijeciila* and S/ielh. RUSE.— A trick or stratagem. The success of a ruse depends mainly on the Commander's knowledge of human nature in general, and of his opponent's character in particular. Its object is to deceive the enemy as to your designs. If you desire a general action, spread reports of the weakness of your army and appear to avoid one. If the contrary, put on a bold face, aiel appear desirous to engage. The em- plovment of ruse or stratagem is particularly appli- cable to operations having for their object the forc- ing of any long line whicii it is impossible for anen- cnTy to giiard at all points, such as mountain ranges, rivers, entrenched lines, etc. RUSSELL INTERRUPTER.— -\n electrical interrupt- er devised bv I.ieul . .V. II. Knssell. Ordnance Corps. L'. S. Army, for the Schullz chronoscope. The change consists" in replacing the detached mercury inter- rupter now in use by alight metallic spring, which is pressed against the tumii'g-fork on the inner side of BUSSELL MAGAZINE. 802 EUSSELL MAGAZINE GUN. one prong, making the fork its own interrupter when the electrical current is passed through it. Tlie drawins; shows the new device. B, is a brass plate which is fastened to tlie table by the screw, d, work- ing through the slot, g, into the base of the clamp. This screw shoidd have a milled head, as at,d'. Riv- eted or screwed to the plate B is an elastic strip, e, fitted with a screw, or simply with projections as at, /' to hold the spring, s. A screw, t, works through the plate, B, agaiust the strip, e, thereby raising or low- ering the end of the latter. By this means tlie spring, ,«, for which a piece of watch-spring may be used, can be pressed against the platinum point, p, fixed on the inner side of the counterpoise, »(, of the tuning- fork. The fork and the spring are connected with the opposite poles of a galvanic batterv, and the cur- rent is made and broken at, ;), by the vibration of the fork. For adjustment the plate, B, is slipped under the table and fostened by the screw, d, so that the spring, n, is just out of contact witli the point,/). The wires being adjusted, the circuit is completed at, p, by a turn of the screw, t, and the electro-mag- nets becoming magnetized draw the prongs apart. BUSSELL MAGAZINE.— This magazine, devised for the Hotchkiss gun, is intended to provide for one continuous supply of the cartridges by the insertion of tin boxes containing five cartridges each in the channel of the butt-stock. Each box contains a spring, which assists gravity in producing a rapid descent of the cartridges, The feeding apparatus is a combination of a ratchet and spiral spring. To the inside of the magazine-tube springs are secured by solder. The oppo ite side of the tube is slotted for the reception of the sliding-bar or ratchet, to which springs are attached in a similar manner. Piv- oted to the bar is an arm at the front of which is a projection, over which hooks a corresponding pro- jection on the breech-bolt. When the breech-bolt is withdrawn the arm and ratchet are compelled to move with it until the projection rides under a bev- eled shoulder at the end of the groove in which it .slides, when the arm is released and the magazine- spring returns it and the ratchet to their first posi- tion. It will thus be seen that the ratchet is moved automatically, being drawn back by the bolt and re- turned by the magazine-spring. AVhen the ratchet is withdrawn each spring connected with it passes beliind the head of the cartridge next in rear of it ; when returned the cartridges are carried forward, the 2d replacing the 1st, which will have entered the chamber, the 3d the 2d, and so on. The magazine carries !) cartridsres. EUSSELL MAGAZINE-GUN.— This gim devised by Lieut. \. II. Russell, Ordnance Corps, U. S. A., contains many features of novelty. The breech- closing bolt operates by a handle preferably at the side of the arm as in other bolt guns, but instead of a partial rotation of the bolt in locking and imlock- iug, the force applied to the handle is at all times in a direction nearly parallel with the bore of the barrel. The locking is effected bj- a cross-shaft in This l)reaks contact at. p; the prong flies back and ccmtinues to vibrate, the contact being made and l)rc)keu at every vibration .V battery of four 15un- sen's cells works the intcrru])ter. The advantages of this device over the ohl interrupterare as follows: 1. The adjustments are exceedingly simple, and they retpiire but little time, while witli the delaelicd mer- cury interrupter they are very delicate and dillicult. 2. The manipulation is very simple and rapid, a mere turn of the screw producing vibration, '.i. The \ise of tlie mercury cup is entirely avoided. 4. Extra electro-magnets for the interrupter .are dispensed with, and ihe strength of the battery can be greatly re(hiced. 5. The arrangement is cheap and simple, and not easily deranged This interrujiter has been in constant use for several years, and it has been practically and successfully tested with tlie machine. the bolt a little longer than the diameter of the bolt, having cam-shaped ends which extend into seats ill the receiver. In opining the lireech these cam projections are turned by Ihe tirst movement of the handle, which is a (livulal movement, until the bolt is unlocked, when a lurtlicr backward move- ment of the handle gives a powcrfid cam action to start the cart ridge, and at tlw same time slightly starts the firing-|)iu backward. The tinal closing move- ment has the same powerful action to seat the cart- ridge in its chamber. The magazine feeds the cart- ridge sidewise, eilhcr up through the bcittcim of tlie receiver, as in the I.ec gun, or at the side of the re- ceiver, and in the latter case a swinging pusher forces the upper one of the column of carlrlilges sidewise into the receiver in front of the bolt. Lieut. Hussell has invented n very simple metallic feed case. IIUBSELL PRISM RANGE FINDER. 803 RUSSIAN ARHT. constructed of a single piece of bent sheet metnl, wliich will contain just enuiifili ciirlriclircH to Mil the nmga/iue of this |j;un, from wliich the iiiii};ii/,ine ciin be recharged us ra|)iilly as a siiifjlc carlrid;:;!' couhi be placed in the receiver. These feed eases are little if any more cosily than paper Ixixes, and are to l)e thrown .lU'ay when einiily. ('apt. liiverinore, C 8. A., has joiiilly with l.icwi. lliissell, made improve- ments in maj;a/.ine arms, and has also invented a series of l)reech movements for small-arms. Sec MiKldZilK-qilll . RUSSELL PRISM RANGE FINDER.— This instru- ment is sIkiwm in [lerspeetive in Fii;. 1- A is the prism, I! Ilic franu'; «, //, r, rf, and c arc the apertures for ohscrvatidiis ; I, I, I, Uu: clamps which retain the prism in place ; and m is Ihc rini; to which the slrini; may l)e attached. Near each apertun^ is shown an arrow-mark to indicate approximately the direction in which the observer should look into the prism. The aperture at ii has two of these marks, the rit;ht- hand otu' for use in connection with the aperture h and the left-hand one with the ajjcrture c. The aperture e is used iu connection with rf, 6 with a, and Kiu. 1. c also with a. A square, nuirked on the surface between the apertures (/ and i\ indicates that they correspiuid to a ri^ht angle, and the acute-an};cle mark between the apertures c and a indicates their use to<;e- ther for laying oil anacute angle. The apertures a and i are used together for laying olT an obtuse angle. No ! andle is provided but the instrument is to l)e grasp- ed by tlie sides between Ihe thunil) and forefinger, usually of the hand oi)positc the object seen liy re- tlecticm. The tip of the tiuger shoidd usually cover the aperture opposite to the one into which the ol)- server is looking, in order to cut ofT colored rays wliich might interfere with clear vision. For ins- tance, while looking through n and obtaining the reflection through />. the observer should cover e; and while obtaiuing the retiection tlirough <■ he should cover d ; while looking into d he should cov- er ((, &c. The proper inuvge to be selected is easily found, as it remains steady, while other images which nuiy be seen move very quickly when tlie prism is turned horizontally. The iirinciples of re- flection are the same as for the Weldon prism. Three triangular prisms might be substituted for the one six-sided prism, and witli this arrangement the method of observation might be learned rather more readily, as there would be no need of covering up the apertures, wliilc the held of view would be somewhat enlarged. Fig. 3, shows such an arrange- ment : A, 15, and C are triangular prisms made on the Weldon principle — A for a right angle, B and C for acute and obtuse supplementary angles respecti- vely. The frame D supports the three prisms. It is doubtfid, however, if any real or very great ad- vantage would here obtain over the six-sided single- prism form. Sec JVolan JRanffe-Jind^;r, Pratt- Rn'ngi'- jindcr, Telemeter, Watkin liange-finder , and Weldon Rwige-finder. RUSSENSTEIH SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— This Hystiin closely follows I'ugan. Only the bastiong are very siniple. Strong revetments are given to the escarps. RUSSET LEATHER. When new, njsset leather equipments would be striking, but probably would not ai-eord well with Ihe plaiimess of our urm^ uni- forms. They would be rallier conspicuous in the held and easily discolored, presenting an appearance the reverse of military spruceness. When repairs are made the new parts would form a striking con- trast to the older ones — since there is no blacking in this case to render them uniform in color. When new, russet leather would furnish hamlsome horse ei|uipmiiils, but the stains inciilent iijion the sweat- ing of the animal, rain, and the spattering of mud could not be easily elfaced. Any endeavors to clean such harness would jjrobably result in leaving areas of a murky reddish-brown color. The (|ucstion of whether the Army should be sup- ))li<Ml with oak or hendock-tanncd leather has been agitated from time to time during and since the war. The government still clings to oak. and nearly all its specitications call for oak-tanned leather, cotwilh- standing the fact that the greater part of the leather used during the war was bad hemlock, rendered more worthless by attempts to make it imitate oak leather. \ large portion of the leather sold to the government since the war has doubtless been hem- lock. Of late years Ihe methods of tanning with hemlock bark have improved with astonishing rap- idity, and now it is the chief material used. Dur- ing the past few years hemlock leather has risen greatly iu the estimation of consumers. Tlierecan be no doubt that as now made it is a valuable product. There are few Army olflcers who know anything about leather, and it is not possible for Army Inspect- ors, no maU('r how great their egotism may be, to detect imitations that defy the skill of expert tanners themselves. Lieutenant b. ,\. Lyle, U. S. Army, in a report made in 1877, urged that a mixed commis- sion of Army otticers, civil or mechanical engineers, and practical tanners be appointed by tlie govern- ment to make a scientilic investigation into the rel- ative merits of the several tannages and to determine definitely, if possible, for what purposes the differ- ent tannages could be advantageously used. These points should be settled in time of peace, when there is no pressing need for large supplies. See }Iarne»n and Ltnther. RUSSIAN ARMY. -One of the chief Continental Ar- mies of Eurojic, Early iu 1H70, a new Bill was sub- niitteJ to the Emperor and Ihe Imperial Council for the reorganization of the Russian Ami)', and by an Ukase dated November 16 of the same year, it be- came Ihe mililarj' law of the country. This Hill laj'3 down, as a first principle, that the defense of the Russian territory is a sacred duly incumbent on every Russian subject without distinction of class or position. Military service is therefore obligatory, and substitutes are not admitted into Ihe ranks of the army. All young men who have attained the age of 20 are liable to be drawn as Conscripts. A drawing by lot lakes place to decide who shall re- main ai home, after undergoing six week's training. These men, for 6 consecutive years, form part of the reserve. The duration of military service is fixed at 15 years, divided as follows: Four years under the Colors; two on Fourloiigli : nine in the Reserve, with the exception of Ihe Horse Artillery. Cavalry, and Frontier (iuards. The defence of Ihe country is pro- vided for by regular Iroops or Land Forces and Na- tional Legions." The Land Fiyrces are composed of — 1. The active army, completed by the annual Con- tingents: 2. The Reserves, composed of time-e.\- pired soldiers, called into the ranks in lime of war ; Z. The (Cossacks : 4. Specially organized troops. The National Legions are composed of all the men not included in the regular army, but capable of EUSSIAN AKMY. 804 KUSSIAN AHMT. bearing arms, from the age of 20 inclusive up to that of 40. They are divided into two classes: — 1. Men destined to fill up the vacancies in the ranks of the army, or to complete the Reserve in case of paucity of numbers : 2. Men forming the Depots of the Le- gions. There are besides two classes of volunteers admitted into the army : young men who have com- pleted their education in public shools, and those who have formed or still form part of the Legions. The former are bound to serve in the active army for 3 or 6 months or 2 years, according to their educa- tion and proficiency. Tliose who have, on drawing for the conscription, been exempted from joining the Colors are incorporated in the National Legions, and are compelled to go through an annual course of training. Other classes of individuals may also be exempted from service in the active army, such, for instance,as fathers of families: but they arc liable to be called out in case of an insutflcient supply of Conscripts. Russia has a male population of 3G millions, and the number of young men who annually attain the age for being drawn in the conscription is set down at 600,000. Estimating the mortalitj' of the men under 4 per cent., and those not on active duty at 2 per cent, the defensive forces of Russia have been computed as follows: — Legionaries. Active Army. Reserve. Age. 1st 2nd Series. Series. 21 200.000 200,000 32 193,000 196,000 23 184.000 192,000 24 177,000 188,000 25 170.000 184,000 26 163.000 180,000 27 157,000 17().000 28 l.M.OOO 172,000 29 ir)i,ooo 169,000 30 148,000 166.000 31 145,000 163.000 32 142.000 160,000 33 139,000 157,000 34 136,000 154,000 35 133,000 151,000 36 ... 275,000 37 209,000 38 263,000 Making, without counting the time-e.vpired soldiers, 5,806,000 men. The active army, it will be seen, is set down at 1 ,086,000 men. In lime of peace, how- ever, this number is not kept under arms, for al- though in special branches the duration of the ser- vice is fixed at 7 years, the Infantry is generally dis- chiirged during the last 2 years of service ; so that the army may really be set down at 700.000 men un- der the colors, and 300,000 more on furlough. As an adjunct to this army of 1.000,000 of men, the first class of legionaries comprises 1.1 10,000 men, all of whom may be called upon to fill up tlie ranks. The reserve is composed of 1,305.000 men, and by the time this part of the law comes in force, they will be all good, solid troops, having; |)assed Ihroiisli the ranks of the army. Th<' si<cind class of Ici^ion- iiries, as shown in the above table, is comj)osed of 2,275,000 men, all of whom will he. trained to the iu« of arms when drawn by the conscription, and tJiey will count amongst them nearly half a million of lime e.vpired troops. The Russian peace footing is estiinjiled to li;ivi- been incrciLsed by about .'"lO.OOO men ill 1875. The troops reinforced are cliielly Die Cavalry and lIors(^ Artillery, who have been put on a permanent w;ir ff)Oling. and, being mostly station- ed along railway lines in the western provinces, are leady for immediate action in the field. The Russian Territorj' is divided into 14 military districts; the country occupied by the Cossacks of the Don forms a separate district, with a special or- ganization. The jiermaneut army is divided into 47 divisions of infantry, 7 brigades of rifles, 10 divi- sions of cavalry, .50 brigades of field artillery, 26 bat- teries of horse artillery, 5 brigades of engineers ; the numerical strength of the whole active army may be put down in peace time at 33.043 oflicers and 735,539 men, and in time of war at 43,3.55 officers and 1,358,672 men. The infantry is compased of 12 regiments of the guard, 16 regiments of grenadiers, 4 Caucasian regiments, 4 battalions of rifles of the guard. 20 of rifles of the line, 4 Caucasian and 4 Turkestan rifles, and 148 regiments of infantry, giv- ing a total of 196 regiments of the line. These are massed into 3 divisions of infantry of the guard, 4 of grenadiers, 40 of infantry, and 7 brigades of rifles. The division in the Russian army is the highest unit, there being no Corpx d'nrmee except in the guards. Each divisi-m of infantry is composed of 2 brigades, each brigade of 2 regiments of 3 battalions each, with the exception of the 2 brigades of the 4 Caucas- ian divisions, wliich have 3 regiments. Each bat- talion is composed of 4 companies. The cavalry is divided into active cavalry and reserve squadrons. The active cavalry comprises 10 regiments of the guard, 77 of the line (including 21 of Cossacks), and 4 of Caucasian troops. The guards are composed of 4 regiments of cuirassiers, 2 of lancers, 2 of hus- sars, 1 of grenadiers, and 1 of Cossacks. The Rus- sian cavafry is divided into 20 divisions, viz. 4 of the guards (3 mixed and 1 division of Cossacks^, 14 of the line, and 2 of Caucasian cavalry. Each divi- sion comprises 4 regiments divided into 2 bri- gades : 1 of lancers, 1 of dragoons, 1 of hussars, and 1 of Cossacks ; each regiment having the same number. Thus the 1st division contains the 1st hus- sars, the 1st lancers, etc. Each brigade of cavalry of the guard has 2 regiments ; the 2nd division has 3 brigades. Each regiment has 4 squadrons, with a strength of 224 combatants. The reserve squadrons, -whose duty in time of peace is to train horses and provide their regiments with them, will in time of war fill the vacancies pro- duced by the campaign. The field artillery is composed as follows : Bnttwice of 9-prs 141 witli 1128 guns and .3.3&4 wagons. UiUtrries of 4 (irs 94 " 752 '■ " \^M Batteries of luiti-ailleiirs .. 47 " 376 " '* 762 *' Giving n tot.il of . . 282 " 225B " " 561)0 Each brigade of foot artillery is composed of 6 batteries (3 batteries of 9-prs., 3 of 4-prs. and 1 of mitrailleurs). The horse artillery of the regular ar- my is composed of 21 batteries and 5 batteries of the guard, 2 depot and 1 instruction batteries; each bat- ter_y is formed of 6 guns. The organization of these batteries into brigades has been changed with the exception of those of the guard,which are still form- ed iiilo 1 brigade. Throughout the rest of the army, 2 batteries are attached to each division of cavalry, anil come under the immediate command of the Di- visional Coiiimander. These will, however, he soon increased to 6 batteries of the guard {1 (Jossack), and 28 batteries of ordinarj' horse artillery (7 Cossack), of 8 guns each. There will be besides 14 Cos.sack batteries in reserve. The 5 bri>;ades of engineers comprise 1 battalion of sappers of the guard, 1 of grenadiers, and 9 of sapjiers and miners, total, 11 battalions; 6 half-battalions of pontoon train. There were at the time of the reorganizalion of the army 3 classes of troops which did not belong to the active army : (1) the Lacal or Sctleiitdry '/'rccp.i (35 battal- ions of garrison infantry, and 18 battalions of infant- ry of the line); (2) the Interior Service Troops (71 batlalionsj; and (3) the Reserve Troops (73 Hat- lalions of the line, 10 of rifles. 5('> s(|iia(lvon9 of cavalry, 6 brigades of artillery, and 1 liattiilioiis o( sappers). In ilie military districts of Russia in Asia, the inesent organization has been maintained for the HUSSIAN ARMY. 805 BUSSIAN ABHT. Jooal trnop«; l)iil in (IkmiIImt diHlriclHllicy liiivobfcn rci)rfjimi/cil, iiiiil fi)rrn now '.ill rci,'irMinlM of 1 coni- piinics ciicli of j^iirrisun inf;inliT. iin<l I'.l'.l liiilliilioiiH of ilrpol, troops. Wlirn I lie urniy is niohili^ril. Ilii' HlTcnj^lli of tiic (icpol l);iUalions is raised to IIIOK men viw.U by means of tlie ni<ii of tlie 1st class of tlie mi- litia. On war brealtini; out, llie '2n(l class of the mi- litia will l)e formed into 11)4 infantry hattidions of 4 companies each anil with a nominal str.'iii;th of 10(10 men. The duty of these battalions will he (o keep up the comnnniicati'"is and i;uard the rear of the army in the lield and to irarrison the towns. The CoHsiu'k I ri'i'ps [iri- divided into regiments and .'iftni'tif (sections of 100 men); the strenijth of each reninii'nt varies accordini; to the luiinber of .i"(»m» called out. The whole male population is <)blij;e(l to serve. By an order issued in 1H72, the Cossacks have been formed into a body of men perfectly ortcanized in time of peace, easily asjendiled and added to the <'avalry divisions in time of war. I'nder the new ar- lautrenicnls they will supply (V2 rcfjimenls and )1'2 batteries in time of war. In peace time they have 21 reijimcnts and H horse batteries under arms. The strensith of the Oossat^ks lies between ."lO.OOO and ^>~),- 000 men, with a reserve of HO, 000 more. The supreme command of the Uiissian army is vested in the Kmperor, with a War Ministry under liini. This iMiuistry is divided into /iiimn/j-. includ- ini; a war council of iiermanent committiis, who deal with all the technical ipiestions ajipertaining to the (lilTcrenl branches of the .service. The mode in Russia of ollicerinij the army docs not difTer much from that of other ('ontinental Armies. The young men who decide on a military career proceed at the ajre of 10 to one of the military schools, whence, at t lie age of 10 or 20, having jiasscd an examination, they obtain an ensigncy, and then follow the various jjrailcs without furilier examination. A second cap- tainc)' is reached in about 8 years' service, and then merit can gain the epaulettes of a (Jeneral in a very short time. Candidates for the StalT have to pass through the Nicholas Staff Academy. The Russian infantry is armed with 15erdan breech-loading ritle. The cavalry of the Russian army consists of two divisions of cavalry of the Guard, seven of the Line, Authorized WarE.stablislunent of a Russian Cavalry Regiment. Officer Commanding Lieut enant Colonels Regimental Adjutant " Paymaster " Quartermaster " Instructor at Arms Officer commanding Non-Combatanls Trumpet Major Senior Surgeon Junior Surgeon Veterinary Surgeon Chaplain Stpiadron Commander ('aptain StalT Captain Lieutenants Cornets Regi- ment. Senior Sergeants Major 4 Cadets . Junior Sergeants JIajor Non-commissioned Officers. Trumpeters Privates Officers' Servants 8 16 56 16 676 841 Squad- ron. 4 14 4 68 7 207 and one of the OaiiraRiis; the first diviHJon of the (iiiard contains sevin regiments, that of the Cau- casus four, all other six regimiiits. Kach is eoin- posefl of four sipiadrons; thus there anr ."iO regimentH, or 2;i4 sipiailrons, of regular cavalry in tli<; army. With the r\\ception of those of the (iuard and of the ('aucasus, each division consists of two regimenln of dragoons, tw<i of lancrTs, and two of hussars. All dragoons, and the rear rank in hussar anil lancer regiments, are armeil with lierdan's breecli-loadinc carbine. Cuirassiers, hussars and lanirers, and all non-commissioned ollicers, with Smith and Wesson's breech-loading revolver. Dragoons are armed with a long rille of the Krinker converted pattern— even- tually they will be served out with l)erdan's--tliey carry ;J3 roimds each. All mounted troops wear a sabre, varying in sliaiie and weight for the ditlerent branches. Tliere are two est.ablishincnts for cavalry, namely, the War, and llu' Peace; in the f(jiiui;r there are l^H men [ler S(pia<lron, in the latter 112 men. The generally recognised constitution of a brigade of artillery is four battalions of eight guns each. To each division of infantry there is attachecl a brigade, consisting of two O.iiounders and two 4-pounder.s. The (Irenadicr Artilli ry Brigade of tin- Caucasus has three mountain batteries in addition, and l!)th, 20tli, ' and 21st Causasian Divisions have an extra 4-poun- der attached to them. The Horse Artillery 15rigade of the Guard consists of five 4-i)Oun(ler batteries. The other seven Horse Brigades have but two bat- teries of the same caliber: there are thus- 48 Batteries, Titled il-pounders, 10,'} '• " ... ... 4-pounders, 4 " ■■ ... ... .'i-i)ounders, 18 Horse Batteries, rilled ... 4-pounders, and it is intend<'d to raise .OO mitrailleuse batteries. The guns are mostly bronze, Krujip's breech-loaders, the weight of the 4-pounders being (jj cwt., of the 9- pounders, 12j. The smaller gun (carries 130, the larger 120 rounds of amnninilion. Tlie fuses are mostly percussion; the lime-fuse is, however, being rapidly introduced into the service. The larger gun is frequenth' used as a siege piece, its projectile weighing 30 lbs. All non-commissioned oflicers and gunners are armed with short dragoon sword and breech-loading revolver, for which they carry 12 rounds in a small pouch. The Corps of Engineers in the Russian army con- sists of "Sappers and Miners" and "Poutouiers ;" the former include engineer field |iarks, siege parks, telegraph parks, whilst the latter merely the bridging corps. There are 11 battalions of sappers, and six half-battalions of poutouiers ; each of these latter carries sufficient pontoon boats to make a bridge 700 feet in length. As in the infantry, so in the sappers, each battalion is composed of four comiianies ; the peace and war establishment being entirely distinct. The Infantry of the Russian army consists of three divisions of Guards, four of Grenadiers, 41 of the Line, and seven brigades of RiHcs ; each division is composed of four regiments, those of the Guards numbered according to their division, those of the Grenadiers from 1 to 1(5, whilst those of the Line run from 1 to 11)4 : the regiments of regular Ritlcs are sfj'led numerically from 1 to 20: the brigades of Turkestan and the Caucasus have territori;d desig- nations. Each regiment is coniposeil of three bat- talions except in the case of those from 73 to 84 in- clusive, which have four battalions. These are again subdivided into tive companies, four of the Line, one of Rifles — these latter companies, on serv- ice, are amalgamated and form an extra battalion styled the Combined liitle Battalion. Battalions have four separate establishments, viz.: — 1. The War Establishment. 2. The Increased Peace Estab- lishment. 3. The Peace Establishment. 4. The Cadre Establishment. The total strength of the Russian Infantry is 188 regiments, consisting of 580 battalions, with 32 rifle battalions in addition, mak- ing a total of G12 battalions of the regular army; but BUSSIAN AEMT. 806 EUSSIAN AKMT, t^CO CO »f>- t^ p;- ^ ^ t-d "^ Is' ijia T P CO (-* h-* h-* H-^ M to (OK) WW w w to to to to to to to to X OD 00 00 00 C5 I— ' C5 05 CS 00 CD 00 00 00 !-■ 1-1 h- i-> to >-^ Ifk O >£• O O cn o o o rf^ rf^ »**■ rf*- l^ too &3 to W 0^ O^ C9 A C3 to OS 02 to CO O O O 4^ >-* CO H- 1^^ CO rf^ Lieutenant Colonel. Captain. Lieutenant. Sub-Lieutenant. Sergeant Major. Cadet. Senior Non.-com. Officer. Junior Non.-com. Officer. Bombardier. Laboratory Men. Gunners. Trumpeters. Drivers. Officers' Servants. Riding. Artillery. H- N- to ^ CO .^ to H- C5 to O (f- it'O*. GOOD 00 00 00 >: :2 GO* i^ o a (o: bststs ii^: oii;^!^ Train. Total. O c a Ammunition. Provision. Park. Sanitary. Others. Ammunition Boxes. 9^ a o H W there are also 48 frontier battalions of irregular troops. Eventually the whole of tlie infantry will be armed with the Berdan rifle, which as yet, however, has only been served out to the division of the Guard, and Grenadier division, and Rifle battalions. The Krin- ka and Earle rifles now are the principal weapons in use. Every soldier carries, in two pouches, OO rounds. Forty rounds in addition are carried by the regimental train, and 60 more by the army re- serve train. Non-commissioned officers of line bat- Authorized Establishment of a Battalion of Sappers and Miners. Colonel Commanding Lieutenant Colonel Battalion Adjutant " Paymaster " Quartermaster. Instructor in Arms Administrative Officers... Battalion Drummer Bugler Senior Surgeon Junior " Captains Suljalterns Cadets Sergeants Major Senior Non-com. Officers Junior " " Sappers and Miners Drummers Buglers Officers' Servants Battalion. 1 1 1 1 1 '1 2 1 1 1 1 4 16 4 4 16 56 832 12 12 20 988 Company. 1 4 1 1 4 14 208 3 3 5 244 talions, and all ranks in the Guard and Grenadier divisions, carry a short, two-edged sword in addi- tion to the bayonet, which is invariably fixed when troops are on the move. In addition to the above the men receive a " mess allowance," varying in amount, but averaging about l]d. per diem, and the following rations free— Flour, 21bs.; barley, :Jlb.; salt, \ oz. Authorized War Establishment of a Half Battalion of Pontoniers. Colonel Commanding Battalion Adjutant " Paym'ster &Q'rm'.ster " Drummer Bugler Senior Surgeon V<'tcrniary Surgeon Ca))tains liidii tenants Sub-Lieutenants Ensigns Sergeants Major Senior Non-com. Officers Junior " " Pontoniers Drivers Drummers Buglers Officer's Servants Half Battalion. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 o 2 10 2H 240 130 (> 6 8 435 Company. 1 1 1 1 1 5 14 120 m 3 3 4 214 BUSSIAN AEMT. HO', KUSSIAN ABUT. 3S S » 4 -• D Sin 5 5- i;S3 3 9 en d Ci -» o ■ »U CS 1^ -f ^c Vl •-' C» A X ■ fO *» W '.D hi O X X -I ■ : o? 4* o -> /' OCTi-^QDOd: ODCTtf^Ca^OD »u ci c.*T Ci o -] ^ (O ~i w !:c i*: 00 ►- ** CC' rf^ -.1 CO O 00 00 -1 o»Ocni-^ODO&aoc;ir<k.c^^< ii <W » 3 ^ c O 5 00 00 CO "-* . rf*. . 00 C5 en »t. tK to -^ tC 00 • I— . to ►-» X CI - «-» : t-k •-* M CO ** -500oo?DH-i. ^ 00 oi c;t 1^ K i^ro^tooo: —'toi-'OOiT- c: c;i o —* X -J C5 CDC&tC^tOODl-'tOc^aDOc o h^ CO U CO » •- — — f^ CO en C71 en o > z a o ^ td ft •-« a ii o =r B o 5 .s a. re o |- £.1 X a ocs'j'^a ocra = p£ K ■^ o B = t3 '4^'t, "^§1 c 3 2 3 •• 3 Q. to K> ^ ^ =» t9 O aoooiC'' w: give a 182H 2'.). To tin- iiiililury Hliidcnl, it will \>i: a proof Unit it (Iocs not (III ill iIichc <l:iyM uf tin- bri'ccli-JMiidcr anil till' »i)ailr to rrlii-arHc llir tailiiH of our fiilhiTg; anil lliiil. uftir all as Napoleon |>illiily (•xi)rcss(;<l it, "(Joil f;ivorMllii- liiavicHt hallalions." In l)i-(-cnil)ir, IH27. Russia linn l)iin(;at war with I'rr-ia, tin- find l)i-lwi-(ii till- SiilTan and till' Czar that liail bcniHlum- birrini; for inanv vrars brolii- out. Hastily conclud- ini; a praii- witlilln- Sliali on llii-(l;li Krbruup', Pa»- kiewil«-li, Governor (ii-ncral and Cimiinanili-r-in-Cliii-f of till) Cancasns, <,-iiinincn<-ril prrparalions for the siil)jii;;ation of Arnifnia. Irri-spi-clivc of tint natural wisli to rxti-nd lirr coiKiiKstH roinplclrly round tlie Black Sra, a campaiL'n in Analolia nicissarily must forma portion of llii- plan of any war wa(r<;d b(> tween tlii' Porte and Knssia. Tlir vast ri;sonrcf8 Turkey possesses in her Asialii' provinies enable the Sultan to reeruit his forces lo an almost unlimited extent from the hardy mountaineers of Armenja, eonseipienlly the aim andolijeet of the Hnssian War Jlinister is, by decisively allackini; the Ottoman .m this side, to hinder men from beinir despatched lo I'^urope to swell the armies there. The forces at the disposal of Faskiewitch for his o|ieralions amounted at this time tn.'jl battalions of infantry, 11 si|uadron» of cavalry, IT rei;iinents of Cossacks, 12^ balterieB of artillery, numberinj!; l.')4 guns. The policy of Persia, in spite of the recent peace, was still unde- fined, anil it was thouiiht more than jirobable she would lake advantaire of the fad of Prussia's compli- cations, and once more declare war. She had only just ceded to the Czar two rich provinces, and paid a very heavy war contribution, so Paskicwitcli deemed it advisable to be quite prepared for her en- terins; into an alliance offensive and defensive with j tue Turk. To guard against any coalition of troops, the Russian General organised a corps under Pank- ratielT, consisting of six battalions, two regiments of Cossacks, and sixteen guns, which he posted at Khoi, in Persian territory, be it minded. Another evil has to be guarded against in all wars between Russia and Turkey, and that is insurrection in the Caucasian provinces. They were, it was known, ripe for revolt, and it was rumored Mahoinedan emissaries had been travelling through the Abkha- sian and Mingreliaii country, endeavoring to incite the people 'o rise. To guard against this, Faskie- witch occupied the Caucasian country with fifteen battalions, three squadrons of cavaliy, forty-two guns, and four regiments of Cossacks. Thus there were left for the expeditionary army— 30 battalions, 8 squadrons of cavalry, 11 regiments of Cossacks, 9(5 guns. The ports of Poll and Uatouni were, as for many years they had been, the object of Russia's desire ; consequently, Paskicwitcli detailed one col- umn to act on the shores of the Black Sea whilst, with the remainder of his army, he determined to operate in two columns : the main or central one ad- vancing bv the Allaghoz chain was to reduce the frontier towns of Ak'halzik, Akhalkalaki, Hertwitz, Kars, and Ardahan : whilst the left corps, jiushing across the Ararat range, was to subjugate the pro- vince of Bavazid. ami guard the (lank against the attacks of the Kurds, who, it was known, attracted by " loot," would swoop down from Van and Moosh. In fact, tlic corps operating on Poti and on Bayazid were acting as win ;s of the main army advancing into Armenia. The right, or Batoum army, was placed uniler the command of Major (ieneral Hesse, and consisted of —8 battalions of infantry, 14 field guns, 1 resiiment of Cossacks. The leftT or Bayazid column, was under the order of Tchavachavadzi, the reigning prince of the Abk- basians, and numbered- 3 battalions of infantry, 8 field pieces, 1 regiment of Cossacks. Whilst at Kat- schevan keeping open free communication between the left wing and main army were posted 2 batta- lions. Paskicwitcli himself commanded the main column, which v.as to be massed in the neighbor- KOSSIAN ARMY. 808 BUSSIAN ARMY. Pay of Non-commissioned Officers and Men. Sergeant Major Senior Non-commissioned Officer Junior Non-commissioned Officer Bombardier and Lance Corporal.. Private, Drummer, and Busrler... GCABD. Annual Pay. £ s. d. 5 15 11 3 15 7 2 14 8 1 9 13 Oi Daily Pay, £ .«. d. 3f IJ 15 OJ Of Line. Annual Pay. £ ». d. .8 17 3 14 9 13 3 9 2 8 8 Daily Pay. £ s. d. 2J Oi 0^ 0^ OJ Autlsorized Establishment of Infantry Regiment, Battalion, and Company of the Russian Army. Regiment. Battalion. Company. Regimental Stuff. Major General Field Officer for Interior Economy Executive Field Officer Regimental Adjutants Paymaster Quartermaster Instructor in Arms Officer in command of Non-combatants Regimental Dru mmer '■ Bugler Senior Surgeon Junior Surgeons Chaplains BattaU'in. Stnff. Colonels Battalion Adjutants ' ' Drummers " Buglers Captains Lieutenants Sub-Lieutenants Ensigns Cadets Sergeants Major < Senior Non-commissioned Officers Junior ' " Corporals Privates Druniniers Buglers Officers' Servants N.B. — Each Company is provided with the following tools : — 12 hatchets, 6 shovels, 3 picks, 3 axes, 1 scythe. 1 ... 1 ... 4 ... 2 4 • 1 4 1 ... 4 1 ... 4 1 . . 20 5 1 20 5 1 20 5 1 30 5 1 20 5 1 20 5 1 80 20 4 240 60 13 400 100 30 2,960 740 148 fiO 15 3 60 15 3 80 30 4 4.034 1,004 200 hood of Goomri, and amounted to 18 battalions of infantry, 9 squadrons of cavalry, 7 regiments of Cos- sacks, 56 field guns. The Russian conniiander felt that his forces were too weak for liiiu to hope to re- duce Erzeroimi in one campaign, for prior to an ad- vance across tlu^ Soglianly range, it would be neces- sary to seize all the fortiiicd jilaccs, many of them very strongly garrisoned, in the ])rovinees of Kars, of Akhalzik, and of Bayazid. lie therefore deter- mined to devot(! his whole time to subjugate these districts, leaving the conquest of Armenia to the fol- lowing year. Tlierc were many reasons in favor of Ooomri being chosen as the base of operations in Armenia. In tlu^ first ])laee, the ground between it and Kars was ojjcn, and feasilile for the movements of large bodies of troops ; in the second place, it en- abled a blow to be struck at one of the main Turk- ish fortresses, without exposing the Russian frontier to the danger of an attack ; and tliirdly, it threaten- ed the liaiiU of any army advancing by the Soglianly range to the relief of Ardahan or Akhalzik. There were other minor reasons, too, which led to the sel- ection of (ioomri: it was in a central position, and easily furnished with supplies; the siege train, quar- tered at Erivan, could more easily be moved by this road tlinii any other; and lastly, the subjugation of Kars gave thi' Russians possession of the largo val- ley watered by the Kars ami Arpa rivers, with an abimdance of grain and forage. Then, as now, the Ottoman organisation was ill lulajited for olTensive warfare, and it never seemed to have struck Paskie- witeh that the Turks could plan a counter-stroke. BUSSIAN ARHT. SO!) RUSSIAN ARHT. Prior to commencing operationB, the Riinman Com- croBflcd the Ari)ii'IVIini,(;arryinK witli him in Iuh vhbI maiKicr-iii-CMiicf Ihrcw furwanl ii (IctiichriicMl iiiiilcr I (:')imriiHsaria1 Iniiri forty davH' provJHlonH. He halted ..t .1 , 'I'M, 1. ..;.... *;.. 'i' i,:..i. « :, i *i.-. Majdi' Oi'iicral l*(i|i(ilT In Siiiiiin, In ;.'iiaril lljc ilclilcs of j{(.ril|iiiii. 'I'liis fririi' niiiiilicn-d :i luillalidiis, COM (.'()MMai:Us, A ;;uiiH, luiil fdruiid a cniiMccliii'j; link with Hesse's Iroops oil llic l!ali>iiiii line. 'I'lins on the I21I1 of .hiiie, all preparations lieiiii; eoniplele, Pask- iewili'li massed his Iroops at Oooiiiri, wliieli now consisled of bill 15 lialtalions of infantry, 8 s(pmd- rons of cavalry, (i regiineiitM of (Jossaeks, 5'.i i;uns. that day at 'rikliiiiss, in 'I urkish territory, and the next iiiorniii'.' moved to Maskni, eneoiinleriii)j; slifjht opposilioii from a small parly of 'I'urkisli horse. A brief reeoniiaissanee of the forlrc-ss nf Kars induced the KuMsian General to d<:termine on atlackin;^ Kara on the southern face, the northern and eastern being too preeipilous to admit of assault, or, of the con- struction of regular siege works. Moreover, the oc- DlHTMliUTION OK liUBHIAN AkMY, 12th luNE, 1825. Designation of Coliiiiin. Inf. Cav. Guns. Major Oonernl llesse. l?lack Sea Coliimii Major ( iiiici'.al I'opol'f. Kordjom l^'lankiiiLT Column Oeucral I'askii'wilcli. Ceiilrul or .Main ( olumii. Chief of the .Stall (Jenera! Von Sackeii. (Juarlerniaster Oeiieral ('(rlonel Valkliovski. 1st IJrigade InfaiiliT. .Major (Jeiieral MouravielT 2d " " " " HerLtiiiaiin 3d " •• '■ " KorolkolV Cavalry Brigade;, Colonel Uarev.sky Artillery " (ieneral Gillensc'hmidel Major (Jriicral I'riiiee 'rehavacliavad/i. Left or .Armenian Column .... General Merlini. l,eft Central or Naisehcvan General Pankratiefl. Corps of Observation on I'ersian Frontier 4,541 1,180 2,511 2..562 3,488 2,151 1,730 3,091 402 008 3,340 330 47 715 14 4 70 8 2 16 Total 20,854 5,514 114 , Great pains were taken to arrange a good com- missariat estatilishnienl. the organization of which the ('oiumander-in-Cliief himself took in hand; and in May he had already suceeeile<l in collecting at Goomri — tiovernment wagons. 530 ; liired arabas, 540; pack animals, '.J, 1250 ; whilst in the vast store- houses at (Joomri and in its immediate vicinity, he had stored for transport 1'..'.0(I0 sacks of bi.scuits, 1 ,0011 sacks of li;Lrlev, four thousand sacks of wheat, 4,000 casks of salt "meat. 1,1110 gallons of brandy. More than 3,0U0 men were hired to assist in the commissariat train ; an exlreniely liberal scale of wages, coupled with tirm supervision, ensured good work. Field hospitals were established, one at Goomri for 300 ; one at Tsalki for 200 sick. An ambulance train for the movable columns was or- ganized, miinbering sixty-six siieciiilly-constructed foiiri/i'tis; there were two companies of trained hos- pital orderlies to aid the surgeons in their work, whilst a large corps of litter-bearers were also organ- ized. Let us now turn to the Turkish Army, of which, we regret to say, we can find no such detailed Recount as of the Kussian, The most strenuous ex- ertions were made, not only to strengthen the garri- sons of all the fortresses, but also to organize an army for olTcusive operations. For this purpose — during the early spring — the chief of the ICaraka- paks reeonnoitereci the whole course of the Arpa River, as well as the passi's through the Hordjom range, all of which were held liy strong detachments of irregular troops. Akhalkiilaki was held by 1,000 Liizi volunteers; Ardahan was occupied by ujiwards of 2,000 regulxr soldiers: Akhalzik was reinforced by a large detachment of cavalrx : and Kars, consid- ered the key of Armenia, besides being furnished with a garrison of l.">,000 infantry to man the walls, was further strengthened by a brigade of :i,000 cav- alry, with fourteen tield suns. Van was sjarriscmed by'l5,000 men; Hayazid by 1,001); whifst a corps of 40,000 was being organized by llalib Paslni with which to take the ofTcnsive. The religious feeling of the multitude being workeil u]) by the Jloolalis. recruits came forwiird in great numbers, and it seem- ed evident that the Porte would be able to crush the Russian forces by slu'cr dint of numbers. On the 14lh of .lune. I'.iskii'witch, advancing from (ioomri. cupation of ground on the south-cast face cuts off communication more completely with Krzeroum. Conse(|ueutlv, on the ITtli, Paskiewitcli moved via Azatkui to .Aiagardjik, where he halted for the night, and the following day advanced to Kitcik-kui ; but during this inarch his Hank was exposed to attack, and the Turkish commander was not slow to take advantage of the opportunity pie.scnted him: he made a vigorous sortie, which for some time promised success; but the conduct of his irreguhir Kurds and Karakapaks threw the main force into confusion, and he was eventually compelled to ret ire with heavy loss, the casualties amongst the Russians amounting to twelve killed and thirty-nine wounded. On the 20th of June the siege park reached Paskiewitch, and enabled him to commence his offensive oi)era- tions against the city. At the same time he was aware that Kiossa Jlahomecl Pasha was advancing in all li;iste to relieve the fortress, so he threw up smne tield works on the b;iiiks of the Kars river to guard his left tiank. On the 22nd of June, covering the work by a feigned attack on the citadel, Paskie- witch opened his first parallel, and on the 23rd as- Siiulted the place on the south and south-western faces with numerous columns. At H a. m. he was in possession of the enceinte, when the Paslui surren- dered the citadel with 151 guns, and ll.OllOmen be- came prisoners of war. Kiossa Mahomed Pasha, hearing of the fall of Kars. abandoned his intention of crossing the Soghanly. and moved north towards Hooukiar-Dooz. Paskiewitch now determined to capture Akhalkalaki. Fortius i)urposehe left Kars, with a stronir garrismi. under General Bergmann, and on the ITtli of July, moving to Zaim, and thence, by the eastern shore of L;ike Tehildar, lo Ghegli liagli. On the 22nd. he sent Colonel Abukoff 'i) the commander of the fortress of .\khalkalaki with a flag of truce, to demand the svirrcndcr of the place. This was tired on. and that officer killed. On the 24th, Paskiewitch assaulted the town and captured it, with fourteen guns and 300 men. The Russian soldiers, infuri;iteil at the conduct of the Turks for having fij-ed on their flag of truce, slew upwards of OtM) men. Without losing a moment of time, the Russian General detached The chief of his staff.Gen- eral Sacken. lo Ilertweiz. which surrendered with- BUSSIAN ARMY. 810 RUSSIAN ASMT. out firing a sliot. Tliirteen guns and 3(10 men fell with tlie place. General Hesse, in the meantime, with the right column, had captured Poti, with forty- three guns, thirteen standards, and 2,000 men. By the capture of Aklialkalaki and Kars the routes by the Bordjom mountains and Arpa-Tchai were now opened to the Kussiaus; and on tlie 30th of July the much needed reinforcements reached Paskievvitch from Tsalki aud (xonmri. On the 1st of August, the Russian Commander learned that the(_)smanli forces had reached Ardahan and were moving forward intending to attack him. The Russians, nothing loath to accept battle, advanced towards Akhai- zik, reaching Koltchi-kui on the 3d iust. On the .oth, he attacked the troops and drove them back, but Ki- ossa Mahomed Pasha was able to effect his junction with the garrison of Akhalzik, wliere now were en- camped 30,000 men. On the nintli, after a hard bat- tle, in which the Russians were victorious, the Turks abandoned their guns and fled towards Ardahan. On the 10th, Paskiewitch commenced the siege of Akhal- zik. and by the 12th had completed the investment of the place. On the 15th, breach-batteries were opened, and on the IGth of August, after a desperate fight, the place was captured. The garrison fought with the most determined valor, and it is computed that upwards of 5,000 men were slain in the defence. Out of 400 artillerymen wlio manned the guns on its walls, but 50 were left to tell the tale. Thirteen hun- dred Lazis out of a body of 1,800 recently raised were slain. Sixty-seven guns, and tifty-two standards, were captured ; the Russian loss being onl}- 12)S killed and 405 wotmded. In consequence of the heroism displayed by the defence, Paskiewitch permitted the garrison of the citailel to march out with all the hon- ors of war. On the 18th the Russian Marshal deter- mined to reduce Aitzkui, and despatched Colonel Vidbelski, witli five companies and si-x guns, to efl'ect this. The place surrendered, with twenty-four pieces of artillery, without attempting a defence. In the meantime orders had been sent toBergmann, in Kars, to move on Ardahan, and the Commander-in- Cliief, on the 18th iust., directed Mouravicff to march for the same place. This officer, however, learned on his road there tliat tlie fortress had capitulated to Bergmann on the IGth inst. The left column in the meantime had been equally successful. Having sub- jugated the whole province of Bayazid, with tlie ex- ception of the citadel, which was left masked. Prince Tcliavachavadzi had marched as far as Toprak Kale. He had been reinforced by two battalions and four guns from Khoi, and Bergmann had also sent a force down from Kars to keep open commuuication with him. On the 20th September, the Prince, finding that Ills flank was threatened by the Pasha of ]\Ioosh, at tlie head of a large body of Kurds, determined to recapture Bayazid, and hold it. For this purpose he returned, and attacked a body of 3,000 Kurds, who were covering the place, when the garrison fled, and witli tlie loss of but ten men Bayazid, with liis twelve guns, and three standards, fell into the hands of the Russians. Early in September, the Prince, having made all ar- rangements for Ihe government of the province, ad- vanc<'<l into Alasligird ])laiii, seized llie fort of Top- rak Kale which was occupied by Kurds during his absence, and liusied himself with collecting supplies on the fertile district. On the lOtli inst., tlie Paslia of Moosli having ad- vanced to (Jrakon; the Prince delermined to attack him, and on Ihc folltjvving day dcfealeil him, witli a lossof liOOiuen.hisowii casuallies aiuouiiliiiglo sixty- seven. On tlic 2Hlli,linding that the I'asha of Van was rousing all the Kurds in tliedistrict, and fearing thai his coiiiiuunicalions might be cut off, he retired on Bayazid. Winter now setting in, Paskiewilch felt llial liis forces were far too weak toatleinpt the sub- jugation of lOrzeroum in one campaign. Me there- fore left strong garri.sons in tlie princijial towns, and returned with the main portion of his armv to Rus- sian territory. General Berbutoff was left in com- mand at Akhalzik with 2,300 infantry. 32(5 cavalry, and four guns. Bergmann was left"at Kars with 2,400 infantry, and 280 cavalry, and twelve guns ; whilst Pankratielf occupied Bayazid aud the neigh- boring towns with 8,000 men, 376 cavalry, and eighteen guns. Thus, with a force of 20,0()0"infant- ry, 5,000 cavalry, and ninety-six guns, Paskiewitch had completely conquered the provinces of Kars, Akhalzik, Bayazid, anil Poti in the short space of five months, had captured three fortresses antl sev. eral fortified towns, 313 guns, and 8,(J00 prisoners graced the Russian General's triumph, whilst his own casualties only amounted to 3,200 killed and wound- ed. As may be imagined, the greatest consterna- tion reigned at Constantinople. (Jn learning of the reverses in Armenia, the Generals in command were immediately disgraced, and two new officers who were in favor at court were sent to supersede them. Every effort was made to raise the army in Anato- lia. Envoys were sent to Persia to endeavor to draw her into the war, and emissaries were de- spatched to Abkhasia, Gliuriel, and Mingrelia, to stir up revolt there. The plan of the new Turkish Generals, Salegh and Hakkl Pashas was as follows. An army of 80,000 men and 6(5 guns was to be massed at Erzeroum, and advanced ria the Soghauly range on Kars; whilst a second army of 50,000 men and 50 guns was to be massed on Van to act on the Russian flank. In February, Paskiewitch heard that the Turks were advancing on Akhalzik, and he at once de- tached Mouraviefl to Surani with six battalions and eighteen guns to cover that fortress, whilst General Hesse was directed to suppress the insurrection in Ghuriel as promptly as possible. On the 28th of February, Osman Bey entered the city of Akhalzik. The garrison retired into the cita- del, and there succeeded in keeping him at bay. The Turks, with tlieir usual ferocity, commenced" a .system of carnage, and, as at Bayazid in these latter days, so at Akhalzik in 1829, every Christian mhabi- tant was slain. Mouravicff in the meantime pushed forward with vigor to relieve the place, and on the 28tli attacked the Turks, defeated them with a loss of 3,000 men, and relieved the garrison. Hesse, after some sharp skirmishes in wliich his casualties amounted to 187 men, succeeded in sup- pressing the rebellion in Ghuriel. The snow having cleared away, and the roads being tolerably practi- cable for troops, in April Paskiewitch determined to renew his operations for the subjugation of Erze- roum. Paukratieff. at Bayazid, was directed to proceed with four battalions and twelve guns to Katchewenk on the Arpa-Tchai, wliilst Paskiewitch, on the 19th of May having settled the difficulty with Persia, rejoined head-quarters at Aklialkalaki, and none too soon, for he here learned that the Turks had 15,000 men near Ardahan, marching to the relief of tliat fortress, whilst 50.000 men were at Hassan Kale, on the western slopes of the Soghanly Dagli. On I he 25th May, Pankratieff was directed to march on Karadjuran, near Kars, to cover that fortress Paskie- witch at the same time ])uslied forward to Beglili Ahmed. Salegh Paslia had now reached the Sogh- anly. Finding that tlie majority of the Russians were at Kars, he determined to move towards Akhalzik, jMoiiravieff was sent to counteract this moveiuenl to Tsurskab ; and on the 2d of .June this General attacked the Turkish forces, defeated Ihem, and look one ^un ami 1,201' iirisouers. The Osmanli being llius checked in tlieir advance on the northern road, I'askicwitch felt free to concentrate all liis troops and advance on Erzeroum. This movement was carried out in three columns, the right under the coiiimand of MouravielT, Ihe left under Ihc com- mand of PaiikralielT, and Ihc Ihird under the Com- mander-in-Chief; the I wo roads leading from Kars and Krzenium iliverge at Kol:uili and meet iigain at BUSSIAN BERDAN RIFLE. 811 BDSSIAN GOVERNMERT. Kuipri Kiii, tlin fir.it or soulliornniosl rf)ii(l passinp tliroiij^li Hani ICniiiysli, MclliiloDZ, ami KlioraHHiiii, ■vvliilsl tlie scconil or iKirllicriimusI ruad paHHcH by Deli MuKHa, Kara Ori^lian, ami Zi'wiii. Silcj^Ii Pufllia, al tlic licad of tin- iiiaiii Inxiy of tlic Tiirl^isli army, l)arrc(l tlic iiorlliirninost roail on llii- Zcwin Dooz ; wliilst Hal<l<i I'aMlia. willi 1,. '!(»() infantry, 7,001) cavalry, and sixteen iiuiis. took up the en- treucliiMl position on IIk! Mellidoo/ phileuii. Just where llic mail ascends from llie Sara Kamysli de. file, a kn<jll in Die eenlre of (lie plateau commamls all the roads, and this was slroniily inlrenelied hy the Turks. On the lllh of Juni', I'askievvileh, who determined (o advance by {he northern road, sent forward strf>n!; parlies of cavalry to patrol the Sara Kamysh delile, and thus draw olf allenlion from his main attack. linrlsolV. with ;J.(lO infantry, was now sent into the delile, whilst the Commander-in-Chief, with 14,0(10 men ami liflv t;nns, moved towards the Tchakir Itaha. On the l":iih of .June, liurlsoll made a threatened attack on llakki I'asha's camp. Fear- ing assault, this (Jencral drew in all the oul])osts, and tliU8 the Russian Conunander-in-Clilef was enabled to cross the Sof^hanly Kanije without lirini; a shot. On th(^ ITtli iiist.. however, Osnian I'aslia, with 1,200 men, was detached to Bardez to recoimoilre. and on the ITth he was attacked by MonravietT and driven back, not on his own army, but on .Saleiili Pasha's forces atZewin. Further concealment now was useless, and I'askiewitch delermined to attack the Turkish Commander-in-Chief, who was posted on the Zewin plateau with 40,000 men. PankratietT was sent to the left bank of the Chansu to jjrevent Ilakki I'asha fallini; back and joinini? his chief, and liurtsolf was warned 1o attack the .Mellidooz position directly the Turks showed a disposition to abandon it. On the l!)th, I'askiewitch, passinj^ Kauli, descended towards Zowin ; Salei;h Pasha ad- vanced to meet him, but was driven back into his entreiiclicd positiim, which was immediately at- tacked by the Russians, who drove the Turks ofT in complete disorder, captured .''lOO prisoners and twelve guns. The following day, Paskiewitch, leaviii}; a lorc<' at Zewin. and crossing the Chansu, ascended the Kara Orphan to attack llakki Pasha at Melli- dooz. After a sharp fiiiht. the Turks were defeated, the commander and tifteen guns being taken. Being aware that promptitude conslituti's half the battle in lighting wiih Oriental nations, Pa>kicwit<-h set oil in pursuit of the Turks, and on the 2;id iust. reached Kuipri Kui, whicli he found to have been abandoned. He at once placed himself at the head of a Hying column of cavalry, eighteen horse- artillery guns, and dasiied on Hassan Kale. So close was the pursuit, that Selegh Pasha had onlj' jtist time to escape from the place,' leaving twenty- nine guns in the hands of the Russians. On the 24th the whole of the Russian army concentrated at Hassan Kale, and a pdrleiiuiUnirt was sent in to the Governor of Krzeroum, demanding its surrender. This was refused ; so on the 25th Paskiewitch ad- vanced to the Nabitchai stream, and on the 27th seized the Devi Boyun heights unmolested. On the 2Sth the city surrendered, a slight skirmish taking place between the e.xcited soldiery in the citadel and the Russian troops as they entered the town, l.')0 guns, four Pashas, ami about eight thousand pris- oners falling into the hands of the Russian General. Thus, in five short weeks from the commencement of the campaign, Paskiewitch had been enabled to effect his object. He subsecpiently moved towards Trehizond, and occupied Baiboort. Insurrections among the Laziz, however, broke out, and this, coupled with the badness of the roads, prevented him advancing further than Gumish Khane. In August the Treaty of Adrianople having been duly signed, the Russians evacuatecl all the conquered provinces with the exception of Akhalzik. AkIaUkalaki. and Kars. The frontier line was laid down afresh, and oas re- mained tmaltfred nince those da^'s. In the war of IH.W, Kars ca|)itulated to .MouravietT, Paskiewiteh'B LieutiMiant ; but b}- the Treaty of I'aris, in IN.W, it was again ceded to the Turks. It is not our pro. vinci- to speculate on the fuluri; of Armenia, but we doubt if an instaiu-e has occurred in the history of any nation, of a |irovince, twice conipiered at tlie point of the sword, having been twice ceded by a stroke- of Ihr- pen. BUSSIAN BEBDAN BIFLE. A breech-loading small-arm having a li.xed chamber closed by a mov- able breech-block, which rotates about a horizontal axis at '.10'^ to the axis of the barril, lying above the axis<jf the barrel, and in front. The piece is opened by drawing back the locking-bolt to ils full extent, tiierehy coiking the piece, and then throwing Ihe breech-block upward and forward by the handle on its side. Itisclosi'd by shutting the hreecli-block, and is locked by the friction of the rear face of the breech-block against the recoil-should('r on the lock- ing-bolt guide, against whiih the longitudinal motion of the hinge-stra]) slide, to which Ihe block is at- tached, allows it bodily to slide under Ihe intluence of the discharge. It is also held in pla( e by llur en- trance of Ihe locking-boll into lh(^ counler-hore of Ihe liring-pin hole when the piece is tired. In draw- ing back the hjcking-holt to open the piec-e it com- presses the spiral mainspring which surrounds it, and riding over the point of I lie .spring-sear is caught by it and retaineil against the tension of the main- sjiriug when the sui)porl of the hand is withdrawn. When releiused through the trigger in Ihe usual way it is impelled against the tiring-pin, and so <lischarg- es the piece, Extraction is accomplished by an ex- tractor swinging on the joint-.screw and struck above ilseeuterof motion by the forward end of the breech- block near the completion of its movement in open- ing. Ejcf-tion is caused by accelerating the move- ment of the extractor by the ejector-spring, one end of wi.ichliasa solid bearing on the hinge-strap slide, and Ihe other resting on the extractor above the cen- ter |uf motion; as the shell pas.ses (jnt it is detiected by the beveled surface of the ejector-stud, and is thrown clear of the jiiece. BUSSIAN BRIDGE. -The Rtissians use in their bridge equipages a very light kinil of ponton formed of a frame-work covered with canvas. The frame is composed of two side-frames, constructed of 4" scantling. These two frames are connected below by movalile transoms, with tenons at each end which tit into mortises in the bollom sills, and above by two transoms, one at each end, whicli are laid on the top string-pieces, about 2 feet froju tiie ends, and lashed to them. The canvas cover is stretched over the bottom, sides, and ends, brought over the ends, and lashed to the top transoms. It is secured along the sides of the top string-pieces by small nails, pa.s.s- ing through eyelet holes along the edges of the cloth. It is 10|' wide, 30' long in the middle, 23' long along theedges,and is painted black on both sides. A plank is laid along the bottom for the pontoneers to stand on. and the cables are attached to the top transoms. There are special supports for the hand-ropes. The Hirayti trestle and abutments are used with these pontons. BUSSIAN FUSE. — This fuse consists of a fuse-plug made of a mixture of lead and tin, conical in shape, the head of which projects beyond the external sur- face of the shell, and of a paper fuse, filled with fine powder rammed hard, which is introduced into the fuse-plug just before firing. There are two sets of these fuses, and three lengths in each, which bum in the first set, 25", 4", and 5", and in the second 'i\' , 4y',and 5i". These were the fuses used by the Russians in the Crimea, since which a new system has been adopt- ed, in which the fuse-plug is made of papier miiche, and till' fiisi'-lulie of lead. I BUSSIAN GOVEENMENT.— With the abolition of j serfdom, Old Russia disappeared for ever, and New StJSSIAH GOVERNMENT. 811^ EUSSIAN GOVERNMENT. Russia arose from its grave. Tlie old distinction of classes into nobles and bondsmen was merged into that beautiful weapon of constitutional despotism, known on the Continent as universal compulsory ser- vice in the army. Henceforth, instead of fishting for their King, Emperor, or Czar, the people of such happy lands now tight for their country only. It is true, the common pnpuiace is so blinded by its pre- judices, that it is apt not to understand the differ- ence as long as the country is under the immediate and irresponsible control of its whilom Sovereign; and Russia forms no exception to this rule. Conse- quently, thougli the form has somewhat changed, the material remains the same; and where it has al- tered it has been sagaciously made use of to fit into the new order of things, and to form an integral por- tion of the new sj'stem. Tluis the result of abolisli- ing serfage was the creation of a fresli national feel- ing; the ex-bondsmen felt tliat lie liad a stalic iu his newly-acquired soil; whilst, on the other hand, the noble felt that a new danger was threatening him by the growth of this national consciousness and the growing conviction in tlie ex-serf that he really was a unit in the empire, and that man}' units piled up on the top of the other, amounted to a very consid- erable sum, and no mean force if united iu action. To counterbalance these ideas it was necessary to shape certain grooves for the new national feeling to run in. Thus three principal channels were fashioned. 1. Compulsory jnilitary service. 2. The institution of communal self-government. 3. The reunion of the Schismatics and other dissidents under the pater- nal care of the Orthodox Greek Church, as repre- sented by the Holy Synod, as represented by the Czar, wlio in turn represents the Diety himself, in Russia. These grooves having been duly fashion- ed, the next thing to be done was to furnish a reser- voir for them to run into — a vast reservoir that would contain the national food for long years to come, and prevent its overflowing the channels cut for it, and causing serious damage at home. This great goal was set up in the shape of Panslavism ; the object of Panslavism being the reunion of all the various Slav races in Austria, in Prussia, and in Turkey, under the sceptre of liim who rules at St. Petersburg. The attention of the freshlj'-made freeman was tlius to be diverted from home matters to foreign affairs, and his black bread spread with the butter of glcy abroad rather than with the fat of the land at home,for which it appears that the noble has a remarkable fancy. Of the working of this new system, of the bad that exists, and the good that is latent in the communal system ; of the atrocities of the Ilolj- Synod ; of the burden the armj's imposes upon the nation, we shall speak in the proper place. The above rapid sketch is simply designed to give in a few words the char- acter of the change that has come over Russia, and made her again an enemy and a slauding menace to the peace of Europe, and the cause of liberty, com- merce, and progress. And if, as Goethe says, " The gods against ignorance battle in vain," it may well be imagined what a very formidable task Europe has ! before her, when she shall be called upon to wage } war against the bottomless ignorance of eighty mil- 1 lion souls, all well armed with breech-loaders and Krupp guns. Under such circumstances, it may well l)e asked why Europe shoulil siilmiit to a coii- liiiiial threat in order to enable a jMiiscovite nobility to preserve their station against those jiriiiciples of individual liberty and local self-government they are 80 proud of pointing to as the lever that is to raise Slavonic Russia on t iie ruins of an elTele western civ- ilization, and to regenerate the slugLrish lilood of worn-out ICiirope? In short, wiiy slioidd lOuropeaU low the Russian U'aders and rulers to impede the; development of liberty at home, by imposing a ty- \ Tannic rule on rac(\s abroad, under tlie catch-penny title of national glory ? Is the country too small anil too poor to support its teeming ixipiilalion ? Is it a kind of magnitied Montenegro, that must perforce extend its boundaries to feed its .starving population? If so, there would, perhaps, be some excuse for its periodical attacks on somebody or other — on the Khan of Khiva yesterday, the Sultan of Turkey to- day, and probably the Shah of Persia to-morrow. But we find exactly the contrary to be the case; for whilst Europeans count their inliabitants to the square mile in some cases by thousands, and inamost cases by the hundred, we find in Russia a population of about ten to the square mile. Let any one try to stretch his imagination to the wonderful extent of fancying himself in the possession of 309,760 square yards of soil — or the use of it — and he will have an accurate idea of the position of the Russian in his native laud. Is there any biped, be lie white, yel- low, or black, belonging to the working ciasses — to the classes to whom labor is a necessity— who would not be satisfied with such a possession, or at any rate be content to increase it by legitimate means, and thus in possession of material independence, would not also be in possession of his moral indepen- dence, and defy the intrigues of those who will not work themselves, but buyup streams of living blood and liushels of money in exchange for a few tinsel tatters of impalpable, evanescent glory? The reply is self-evident ; so self-evident that the Russian government has never propounded the ques- tion, and works upon a system by which tliey hope it will never Ije proposed. What this system is we now propose showing, for it is the most important element foreign nations have to consider in their re- lations with Russia. It is the government that does everj'thing, without consulting the people. There is no appeal to the nation. What the Czar and his Nobles decree has to be performed, and is performed in the same unreasoning, slavish spirit of obedience, which the liberation of the serfs has in no way chang- ed. In dealing with Russia, we have to deal with a craft)', unprincipled. Asiatic government, and a mass of ignorance in all things that concern the Russian's relations with foreign nations and ideas. Not that then' are not communities upon communities who cultivate the soil iu peace, and successfully ; whose villages are all that could be desired from an agri- cultural and social point of vie'.v. Of these there are many ; and there is an amount of good nature and common sense in the Russian peasant that only needs time and opportunity for develojjment to make him one of the most peaceable and industrious of men. But just for this very reason, heenuse lie has the capa- city for attaining material and moral independence, the vast army of drones do all they can to stifle these good qualities ia a mass of bigotry, ignorance, and superstition. Be it well understood — what we find to protest against is not the mere existence of the people of Russia, but of the Russian government, which is a great deal worse than the Turkish rule, and for the simple reason that the Russian gov- ernmeut h:is not the same excuse which the Turkish has, of being a weak government that has fallen in- to the hands of the Jews and <;reeks. The Russians discovered that the Crimean war had opened the eyes of the people to the fact, that Russia was not altogether the blessed ji.'iradise her rulers tried to make them believe, and that an entire re-constitution of the government system was necessarj' to satisfy the glowing discontent. How to do this and yet al- ter nothing ; how to give liberty and yet at the same time to curtail it, was no easy task. But it was ac- complished. The Czar, whose official title is Auto- crat— Self-ruler — of all the Russias, is the fountain- head of all legislation. Ail laws proceed from him; he alone makes them ; he alone can unmake them. This is done as follows: — All decrees of the Czar published by the Senate are Laws; :ill decrees pub- lished by other departments of the State arc only to be regarded as decrees ; and theoretically, diso- bedieuee to these decrees, or ukases, can only be liunished when such punishment can be legally jus- litied, and it is proved th:it the ukase in (juestion was BUSSLAN GOVERNMENT. s 1 :', BUBSIAN OOVERRICEHT. known to the culprit. As a mutter of fuel, there in, priuli<'iillv', no distinction hclvvccn llic two. Ad- niinislriilivc uliasc, ur iiii|iciiiil Kciiiilnriiil liiw. Ihcy hotli itinount to Ihcauniu tiling;, uuu ci-nlcr in tin- ir- rcsponsihle C/.tiT. Tlie executive power is also in tlie lumdH of tlic Czar, and all departments act in his name. The Minister of I'olic'e, for instance, is respfnisihht to no one liul the C'/.ar. A man disappears; and in(|iiirics sJKiw that he has lici'n arirslcd hy the p(iH<'c ; there tile mall.r eniis, and it di'peiiils entirely npnn tlie Eoliei' (ir the C/.ar uhether or not he <-ver reappears, ife under sn(-h cir(-nmslances would he unsupport- able, were it not that the coininuni'S retain a speeii'S of self-government that invests them with n show of liberty. Of the natiin^ of such liherly sulllec^ it to say that the system is Imsed on the principle, not of a division of ])ropiTly, as the SucialistH try to make out. hut upon the ilivisiiin of the use of the soil, which is a very (liiyer<'nt matter alto{;ether. It is, in short, a system that fully employs the s|)ar.^ linu-and a.11 the spare hrains of the peasantry to carry out, and prevents tiieni from agitatini; for that represen- tation of the people in the councils of the nation, wiich is the first step to liberty. To keep the pea- santry in this cir<'umscrihed oasis of local liherly in the commune, or !i)ir, and prevent their imion with each otiier in the cause of universal and j;eneral li- berty, is, of course, the chief object and !iim of the nobility. Compulsory service is one of these means. The church altords another. To brim; all the vari- ous sects of Russia under the control of the ])arish priest and Holy Synod, who can command tlie a.s- sistauce of the civil authorities and of the military authorities, is the ureat object, for the iirompt allain- ment of wliich such measures have been taken as those that furnished the material for the lilue Book publislied recently by the British Government. An imperial ukase was published in 1M71, subjectinij all the hetenxlox, or disscutinff, churches to the autho- rity of the Holy Synod. This is eipiivalent to an act of parliament, in Enj;land, placing all the Noncon- formists, Catholics and Jews under the administra- tion and authority of the Church of England. Thus the Uniates wen^ ordered to conform in all respects to the habits of the Orthodox clergy — to alter their churches in conformity with the system adopted by the Orthodox church. Priests who complied with these instructions were to be compensated for any pecainiary losses ; disobedient |)riests to be transfer- red to some other place, or banished. An incpiisi- torial eanimission sat in permanence at Siedlce, be- fore which the clergy were summoned from time to time, and examined as to their conduct. These measures were energetically enforced, but met with great resisUmce, especially on the ptirt of the inhabit- ants of Chelm, I.ublin, Popil, and Siedlce. On hear- ing of this. Count Tolstoi gave strict orders that the necessary measures were to be enforced with the ut- most rigor, and no benches, organs, rosaries, mass- bells, etc., to be allowed in the churches under any pretense whatever. Most of the clergy yielded : the peasantry, however, refused to obey the tyrannical order, and many conflicts, resulting in loss of life, occurrwl in many places. At Jlyncievicz, the peas- ants defended their church by force, but were de- fealtul by the Cossacks, and every one of the congre- gation summoned to sign forthwith a declaration of Lis conversion to the Orthodox church. On their re- fusing, every man received tifty strokes of the knout, every woman twenty-five, and every child, irrespec- tive of age or sex, ten blows. One woman, who was especially energetic in her refusal, received more than one hundred blows, and is dcfcrihed as liavini; lier tl»'sh completely mashed. These brutalities were taking place just at the same time of the wedding of the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh, and created so painful a feeling at St. Petersbnrgh that they were suspended for a time. In fact, so great \ras the in- dignation aroused amongst the foreigu commimity, that it was openly wondered at that an ICnglish prince could ally him.self with a power guilty of such atro- cities : and it is said, on apparently gofid authority, t hat till- coolness hi'tween t he I )uke of Edinhi'.rgh and the Russian royal family is due to a very energetic expression of opinion by the Duke on the subject. This was in .January, 1x74. In February the atroci- ties recoinmi-nceil ; villages were occupied bytro')ps of Cossaiks who jilundered llii: wretched peasants, and ■'hunted them down" when they took refuge and bivoua(rked in the forests. Pines to a large amount were imposed upon the congregation, their crops lrani|)led down, and, in one case, six hundred married men banishid to Cherson (on the 14th of Peliruary, lH7(i), andem|)loyed in hard labor — stone- breaking all day long, whilst their wives and fami- lies remained at home, with .a number of Cossacks iiuarlereil upon them. I'nder such circumstances, it is not surprising to read, in ('ount Tolstoi's report (lS77),that no less than a:i7,l)(J0 Russian subjects .saw the error of their ways in 1870, and were converted to the Orthodox faith. Having thus undergone a preliminary preparation for their subsequi^nt complete subji:ction to the au- tocrat government, which is supposed to represent paternal solicitude .•iiid authority, the Russian is then |)ut into the drilling machine provided hy the mili- tary system, and which ever afterwards holds him in its ij'on grasp. When the man who stole a loaf excused the act by saying he must live, the Magis- trate appropriately repliecl that he did not see the necessity at all. On tlu' same principle, the existence of the Russian is only regarded as a necessity in so far as he forms an element in the army which keeps the goverununt and its friends on its legs. Con- secpiently it is necessary that the army shcmld be subjected to the strictest discipline, and be as per- fect as possible. A sketch of the machine is there- fore necessary to understand the working of the sys- tem. See Jiuxmin Ariiiy. There is, uiuiuestionably, a falling-ofT in the rigid bearing, in the smart performance of movements that used formerly to be a characteristic feature of Russian infantry. There is. perhaps, a little too much of the french laisser^ilier; and as regards the drill for act ion in loose order,it is performed without either the precision or dash of the Prussian or Austrian armies. Itespecting the cavalry, all that can be said is, that the addition of the Cossacks has deprived it, to some extent, of its gallant and soldierly bearing. The reg- ulars have learnt from the Cossacks their bad hab- its. The teams of the artillery are excellent, and the movements rapid. There is, however, a great dearth of men able to lay a gun. The distinction between divisional and corps artillery appears to be unknown.— The most important element in an army is its ofticers; and here great changes have been ef- fected of late years. Formerly, a great many ofli- cers got a commission through mere favor ; but this abuse has been reformed by the able War Minister, General Milutine. No man can now obtain a com- mission without undergoing a strict examination. To promote the means of military education. Gen- eral Milutine 'Created -'Junker," or, as we should say, Cadet Schools. These schools, since their crea- tion, have turned out upwards of 10,000 candidates for commissions, and 2,000 cadets duly qualified for commissions now pass through tliein every year; they remain at the disposition ot the State, and get appointments as vacancies occur. In spite of many praiseworthy efforts to raise it, the intellectual level of the oflicefs is not high ; but they know the rou- tine of their business "thoroughly well, and are re- garded generall}- with respect and affection by their men. As to the question, ■'Has Russia a Generall'" it would be difficult to answer it. The march to Khiva, and the more recent campaign in Central Asia, has not revealeil the existence of any man of genius in the Russian ranks. In time of peace the Russian infantrj' has no ready- EUSSIAN GOVERNMENT. SI 4 RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT. formed reserve, with the exception of the skeletr>n of a battalion of the Reserve Kejiiiiient of the Guard, which has to be created iu time of war. There is something quite peculiar about this regiment which requires little detail to be made intelligible. When the decree is issued for the mobilisation of the armv, it becomes necessary to create 16i battalions of re- serves — that is to say, one battalion for each infantrj- regime'^t, witli the exception of the Guards and the Grenadiers. This latter is the sole four-battalion re- serve regiment to be created in case of war : it con- sists of twelve line companies and four companies of Rifles, the reserve battalions having no Ritle compa- nies. Up to the present time, there exists no ma- chinery in the Russian service for the formation of infantry reserves in peace-time : all that is provided is, that, in tlie event of the formation of a reserve Tieing deemed aiivisable, a Field-ofticer, and four officers of lower rank, together with a Quartermas- ter and two clerks belonging to the active or lo- cal troops, should be transferred to these reserve battalions. An intention, however, is entertained of drawing up the cadres thoroughly on paper in time of peace ; but as there are realTy no cadres at the command of the government , the question yet remains unsettled. The strengtli of the reserve battalions of the line and the Guards is estimated at 960 men. To pr(.)vide the requisite reserves in the event of mobil- isation would require 168 battalions, and an effective of 168,000 men. When the mobilisation is decreed, 193 depot battalions are created for the supply of men to the line, and nine depot battalions for the Rifles. But a mobilization in Russia is a matter of no very small difficulty, on account of the extent and scanty population of the territoiy, as well as the scarcity of eommimicatiou, and the precautions which require to be taken against the populatiim in Poland and other provinces. The country, indeed, is divided into a certain number of recruiting dis- tricts : but as the corps belonging to these districts are generally quartered elsewere, when the order for mobilisation goes forth, there is a chmsez-croinfz of men and horses all over the empire. As regards the artillery, its mobilisation requires a supplement of 40,000 horses. Under the most favorable circum- stances, the mobilisation of the Russian army cannot be effected under from five to six weeks. Such, in few words, is the character of official Russia. But there is another Russia — the Russia of the masses, — unofficial Russia, which slowly, but surely, is mo- difying and influencing the government and its prin- ciples; so that, even in the army, there is a marked difference between the old generation and the younger, that is much in favor of the latter. Down to the time of the Crimean war, Russia was an earthly rparadise for all diplomatists of the old school. Enjoying great social consideration, and living in an almost constant round of splendid festi- vities, they had only very light and very simple du- ties to jierform. Thej' never required to under- take such complicated operations as calculating the strength of political parties or the force of public opinion. All the springs of government were lo be found within a radius of a mile from the Winter Pal- ace; and beyond this small enchanted circle there was nothing for a diplomatist to observe. The Czar and his Ministers worked the great machine as they pleased, free from control and extraneous advice, and the nation confined itself to uii(|uestioning obe- dience. If any voice did happen to rise from the crowd, it was very soon silenced. Once, in a mo- ment of heroic self-forgetfulness, a rash newspajier editor ventured timidly to hint that some new seats in tlie imperial garden were not (|uile iu perfect taste; l)Ut the all-seeing eye of the press-censor was upon him, and he was severely puiiislicil for ventur- ing to criticise seats that had i)een fcjrtunate enougli to obtain the imperial ajiproval ! These halcyon days for old-fashioned diplomatists and statesmen of liie Metlernich type are now beginning to be numbered amongst the things of the past. The Czar, though still as autocratic as ever in the legal sense of the term, no longer drives the macliine by his own un- aided energy. There are still, it is true, no regular- ly constituted political parties, no National Assem- bly; but the great silent inert mass, composed of eighty millions of human beings, has begun to show, here and there symptoms of human intelligence and human will, and the government is no longer at lib- erty to act entirely as it pleases. Russia has now, in fact, many of the blessings which belong to advanc- ed pulitical development, and which complicate enor- mously the art of government. There is a press which, though liable to be gagged occasionally, criticises things much more important than rustic seats in im- perial gardens ; and a public which, though enthusi- astically loyal to the head of the State, insists some- times on having opinions of its own. There was a Slavonic Committee which supplied the Servians with a Commander-in-Chief, and sent several thousand vol- unteers to fight the Turks ; and there are even secret societies which aim at overthrowing the government and inaugurating a Socialistic millennium. In a word, this is the unofficial Russia, which exercises a certain influence on the government, and which must therefore be taken into consideration by diplomatists and statesmen in their endeavors to forecast the poli- cy of the country. Between St. Petersburg and Moscow their exists an antagonism of long standing. Ever since its foundation, St. Petersburg hai striven to be a Euro- pean city and to adopt all the products of West- European civilization. Moscow, on the contrary, strives to be distinctively Russian, and affects to look down on her younger rival as a half-caste jtnrrenu. Abandoned by the imperial family anil the heads of administration, she glories in her ancient monuments and her ancient spirit, and boasts that she still holds the first place in the veneration and love of the Rus- sian people. All Moscovites are more or less imbued with this Platonic hostility to the capital on the Neva, and love to reproach its inhabitants — the Ministers and other official dignitaries not excepted — with gross ignorance of Russia and the true Russian char- acter, but when they come to discuss the present and future of their country, they are by no means unanimous. We easily distinguish amongst them two groups or Cdteries. holding peculiar view^s, which distinguish them from each other. The one is composed of the Slavophils, the other ma)' be called the iloscovites proper. These groups are often con- founded, and the confusion is excusable, for many worthy Moscovites themselves do not clearly distin- guish between the two and consider that they belong to both: but in reality there is a decided distinction, for the leaders are by no means at one, and do not generally entertain very friendly relations. The chief difference may be briefly stated. The Slavo- phils are the representatives of the old Rtissian or- thodox spirit. They idealize and admire ancient Rus- sia condemn the sweeijing reforms of Peter the Great, and the foreign principles of administration in vogue since his time, profess an inordinate admiration for the uneducated, uncorrupted peasantry, aspire to the creation of a specifically Russian culture on the basis of the Slavonic character and Eastern ortho- doxy, are deeply imbued with Slavonic patriotism, and hope to see someday a great Slavonic federation or P.-mslavunic empire. VVith regard to questions of honu> policy, tiny are adherents of the Jlir, or Rural Conuuune, w'ith its periodical reallotment of the sand, advocate the fostering of native industries by means of ))rotective t;irilTs. desire the elimiuation of the German element and (ierman infiuence from the adminislratiiin, and would liketo sec the church emancipated from tin- supiTvision and control of the State. The party of the Moscovites proper isatonce more modern iu its conceptions and more modest in its aims. Tliough (h^sirinir equally to see the Ger- man influence eliminated from the administration, RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT. «li RUSSIAN OOVEENMEHT. it hiiM no fc^elinf; of liostility to I'ctcr tlu' Great iiiul Wf.Mtcrii ciilliirc, iukI no scntinicnliil love of nncii'nl liuMsia. Il lliinks tliMl Uiis;'iiL <jii'_'ljt li> <iil<>|it all miinncrof civili/atioii ami ctili^^lilrninciil from Wi-M- crn Kuropc, and hIiows no syniputhv willi inslilii- tions Hiniply Ijccausc llicy arc specially Hiissian. On the contrary, it lioliU that the social ami polilical <lc. velo])nicnt of tlic coiinlry must be fiimlami'iilally the same as I hat of the West- European nalions. ami hails with (Iclifjhl all reforms concciveil in llic Wesl-Kiiro- pean spirit. Whilst the Slavophils believe Ihai Ihi' mission of Russia is lo develop eerlain very abslruse prin<'ii)U'S whieli are supposed lo be hidden in Ihe Slavonic natur<- and in (ireek orlhodoxy, this parly — less dreamy and wiser in its generation tlilnKthat Kiissia shoulddevelop her instilnlions by the li^ht of modern experience, and extend her political ilillu- ence 1)V the same means as other nalions. In ordinary limes the iiitlueiiee of the MoscoviU; Hl)irit, as representi'd by Ihese two parties, is very Hmall. The I'elersliurnians look upon il with kindly con<lescensions as an amiable provincialism, and Koine Hussians are rather prbud of it, as thiy arc of the old picturesque bnildinjis of Ihe Ivr<-inlin ; but it has little practical siijnificanee. The Slavophils, with their mystical i)rinci|)les, which have an inter- <'st for those who study the philosophy of history rather than for ])raelical admiinstral<irs stand apart from the busy crowd in a region of pbihisophieal ab- straction. If they indulge in ain' practical activity, it takes the form of educatiuj^ younij Bulgarians or sending ecdcsiaslical vestments and sacred vessels to the Slavs of Turkey and Austria. All this, how- evcr,i3 changed when certain political coinplicalions arise. As soon as Ihe Eastern (jnestion is raised, and Russia finds herself iuanlaijonism with Western Europe, Moscow always comes prominently to Ihe front, as the representative of Holy Itnssia and of the j;enuine national spirit. Words which at ordinary seasons would only provoke a smile are now listened to with attention and respect. For the moment the two sections of Jlosrovitc society condiine. The Slavophils declare that the time has come for eman- cipating Ihe Slavonic brethren, and protecting them against the insidious inlluenccsof Western Europe; whilst the more moderate parly urge Uie government to uphold the honor of the countrj', and maintain legitimate Uussian intluence in the Slavonic world. In view of the national danger, the goverinnent well thinks it necessary to know the real sentiments of the people, and considers that .Moscow is Ihe truest representative of these sentiments. The C'/ar visits the ancient capital, and the inhabitants show him unbounded devotion— humbly urging him, in more or less disguised language, to impregnate himself with the genuine national spirit, to close his ears to theseductive voice of foreign counsellors, and to act as a Czar who can rely implicitly on the boundless devo- tion and self-sacrilice of his loyal subjects. Though Ills Majesty may be a man of cool head and miim- piilsive character, he cannot remain wholly imper- vious to the patriotic excitement. It wasduring one of those visits that Alexander II. pronounced the famous speech, in which he pledged himself to act independently, if thepov.-ers would nol act with him, i^>T the protection of Ihe Christians in Turkey. Thus we see, though autocracy is still unshaken in Russia, that section of unoHieial Russia which is represented by SIoscow exercises a certain inflnence on the imperial government, and consequently its views and aims arc worthy of attention. Now the bulwark of luiofficial Russia -of Ihe masses — is nn- doubtedly the Zemstvo. It is impossible lo trans- late this word Zemstvo by any other jihrase than local governmcnl. Hul Ihe very exisleitce of such an institution, hedged in as it is, and as we have al- ready seen, by Ihe goverimient and its autocratic principles, is in itself a most remarkable feature: and it is from this institution that the future, not only of Russia, but of all tiie Slavonic races, is expected lo blossom forth in a perfection ho fur distant that it must he regarded as Utopian- at any rate, as far as Europe- is concernr-d, as il presupposes the possesBion of an abundance of grounil that does not exist in Kuropc In sulllcient quant ily to allow of each indi- vidual holding his own acres, wlietlier personally or coniinunally. 'I'he Zemstvo was instituted in 1804. There is a provincial Zemstvo and a district Zemstvo. Each dis- Iricl Zeuislvo consists of a Zemstvo As.sendjly and a Zemstvo Kxecutive. The Assembly consists of the landowners of Ihe dislrici and members chosen by Ihe municipal and country communities. Keither the (iovenifir nor Yice-Governor rif the district can he a member of Ihe Zemstvo. Nor can any member of the government nor lawyers be circled. The term of otHce is three years. The Execnlive is cho.sen by the ,\ssembly, and consists of a I'residenl and two Assistants, who are ])aid by Ihe Assembly. The Ex- ecnlive thus has lo carry out the orders of Ihe A.s- sembly, and depends upon il entirely. The provin- cial Zemstvo is coustiluled in a precisely similar manncr.divided into an Assend)ly and an Executive. Both Zemstvos meet once a year. By this means the govt nnneni has transferred a great burden from its own shoulders lo those of Ihe people, which has accordingly no small sum to pay for the privilege. The people are placed in a condi- tionlhereby— and it i.-. part of their duty— to provide for their material and moral progress ; but at the same time, in making these concessions, the govern- ment has not ceded (me jot of its own rights. The Zemstvo may build hospitals, appoint surgeons and doctors, construct roads, and open schools, all at its own expense. But further than this it cannot go. On the policy of the central government, it has but the smallest", if indeed any. intluence.' Still, as we said before, the development of Ihe Zemstvo is the only hope the Russian has of progressing ; and, though slowly, it is doing its work. Thus there was a debate recently in one of the Ural Zemstvos, when a ])roposal was brought forward by a Colonel Stein- feldl, to award an increase to the school funds of I.'),()00 roubles. The proposal was supported by one peasant only, and that peasant an ex-serf. He said — "It has been fully proved that, with the education of the laborer, his wealth also increases. Even for this reas(m alone, it would be the dut)' of Ihe Zemst- vo to promote the cause of education by all the means in its power. Those who say that the exist- ing town schools suffice, and that we have no need of primary village schools, forget that the case is the same for us as with the bujfel lure in the ante-cham- ber. It is open to all : quite true ! But, il does not suit our pockets. We do not want champagne and Strasburg pies." But, in spile of the sturdy ])easant'8 good common sense, the proposition was almost unanimously rejected. Nor are such matters con- lined to theremote districts of Ihe Ural. The Zemst- vo of Odessa, for instance, can only boast of thirteen schools, with .'JOO ptipils upon which it expends a sum of 0,000 to 7,000 roubles; whilst the sale of play- ing-cards, which is a monopoly of the Zemstvo, brought in a net prolii, of IW.OUO "roubles. But then gambling is a vice lo which the Russians, especially the higher classes, are noloriou.sly addicted, more so than in any other country. Slill it is satisfactory to lind even one peasant endeavoring to promote the cause of education. Some of the seed has fallen on good groiuid. On the other hand, nothing exem- plifies the spirit in which the government instituted and regards the Zemstvo so much as the fact, that when several Zemstvos endeavored to introduce compulsory education, the home ministry placed its veto on Ihe proposal, saying — "All compulsion pre- vents, but does not forward, the development of the good !"' Of tlie country which i.i thus governed, we find tliat European Russia comprises 2,261,657 sq. miles, with a poiiulaticm of 78,281,447; Asiatic Russia, BUSSIAN GUN. 81(i EUSSIAN LIFE SAVING HOCKST. 6,170,883 sq. miles, with a population of 7,229,495 : forming a total of 8,432,549 sq. miles, with a popula- tion of 85,510,942. Gifted with an almost boundless territory, with enormous tracts of laud yet unreclaim- ed from the primitive wilderness, with mines which yield prolific stores of wealth, what a power of e.\- pansion such a population must necessarily po.ssess ! What will that population be within a century? What, even in the year 1900 ? Evidently an enor- mous, perhaps irresistible, power for good or for evil. A solid foundation for European despotism, or a glorious aid to that rationally free and constitu- tional government which appears to he so safe and wise in action. Russia may abandon a policy which exhausts the energies of the people, in adding to its already overgrown dominions countries it cannot benefit by ; but its present Czar does not seem to have forgotten the ambitious lessons of Peter and Catherine, whilst directing his attention to promot- ing the prosperity of the vast empire he possesses. Russia, with all her craft and crime, has yet been the pioneer of civilization in the sterile and savage north: it is now time that she should rest in her daz- zling and feverish progress, and, turning back her eyes on the lands and peoples she has subdued, de- vote herself to cultivating the one, and elevating the other. Her nobles and officers are among the most polished gentlemen of Europe: but her people are yet scarcely more than semi- Asiatic hordes, deep- ly plunged in barbarism and superstition, and almost as much an anomaly in Europe as the Turks. In political, as well as in social progress, it may be cer- tainly pronounced that " The bells of time are ring- ing changes fast." The present age is one of transition for Russia. She cannot continue into the future that which she was in the past. Nature cries aloud, in tones of com- manding eloquence, to empires as well as to men — "Advance, or perish !" The statesmen of Russia are too wise to remain insensible to an injunction which is as unalterable as destiny, as " unshunnable as death." Shoulil their successors be blind to the great problem which will stand before them for so- lution, the works of an empire's progress and re- demption will be done in other ways. Czardom is not necessarily eternal; and revolution may accom- plish what the slow and silent progress of genial re- forms could not effect. In spite of political statistics and ominous inferences, we have great hope for the future of Russia. The young giant is wilful and sullen, but we think he is growing wiser, though it mav not appear so at the present momeut. RUSSIAN GUN.— The Russian artillery may be said til lie in a transition state, experiments being contin- ually carried on if not to change its materiel, lo modi- fy the present ordnance so as to allow that branch of the arm}' at least to bear comparison with that adopted or on the jioint of being adopted by other armies. The guns of tlie Russian artillery are 4-pr. and 9-pr. B. L. R. guns for the most part of bronze. The4-pr.,of 3.3 inch caliber tires a projectile weigh- ing 121bs. The 9-pr. gun which forms Ihree-liflhs of its actual armament, fires a shell weighing 24 lbs. with a charge of 2.09 lbs., and possesses an initial velocity of lOGO feet only. Expcrinunts have been made of late with steel ginis of the Krupp system, as well as with the 9-pr, modified. Tlie improve- ment made in that gun b.v means of easting the meUd in metallic molds and then chilling it, have enabled it to obtain an initial velocity of i;!09 feet. It dilTers slightly from the old 9-pr., the dimensioDs of tlu' chambers being made to allow the use of a charge of 7.23 lbs. of powder. The projectile is provided with 2 belts of copper in lieu of a leaden coat. In order to obtain a Hatter trajectory in long ranges, a trunctated shol-lioltom similar to one proposed by Whitworth has been tried. The weight of tlie gun and that of the projectile are the same as in the old 9-pr. See llunniitu Wllinq. BUSSIAN LITE SAVING EOCKIT,— The Kussian Life-saving Rocket is made of sheet iron, about one- tenth (0".l.) of an inch in thickness. The body is a cylindrical tube, closed at the front end by a metallic head,licld in position by four short screws. The rear end is closed by a diaphragm, which is perforated by six vents or fuse holes, equidistant circumferen- tially, whose centers are on the circumference of a circle concentric with the diaphragm. An axial hole in the diaphragm has a female screw thread cut on Its interior surface to engage the male thread on the rocket stick. The body is fastened to the perforated disk by crimping and by short iron pins. The cylin- der is filled with rocket composition. The body of the stick is made of light wood, cylindrical near the b:ise and tapering to the front, forming the frustum of a cone. The front end of the stick, which screws into the rocket, is made of WTought iron, hollow at its base for the insertionof the wooden body. The latter is held in place bj' screws. The rear end of the body is rounded, and on one side carries a strong iron hook, about five (5") inches in length, with its point turned towards the front, and curved slightly outwards from'the axis of the stick. A curved steel spring is placed between the point of the hook and the shank strap to prevent the egress of the ring of the rocket chain after firing. This hook is bolted to the wooden body of the rocket stick. When pre- pared for packing, the rocket sticks are screwed in- to the rockets and the fuse holes or vents are cov- ered by disks of water-proof tarred cloth. The dia- meter of the disk is enough larger than that of the rocket to admit of its being folded over the end of the rocket and secured by several turns of twine, tied tightly around it. The whole rocket, except the wooden body, is then treated with a coat of black paint. The cap or disk must be cut away before fir- ing, in order to expose the fuse holes. The principal dimensions and weights are as fol- lows : Centi- Inches, meters. (Length .... 25.25 64.12 Rocket body -j Exterior diameter . 3.2 8.13 (interior diameter . 3.0 7.63 Total length of rocket .... 27.3 69.08 Total lenglh of rocket stick . . . 29.3 74.10 Total length of rocket and stick . 55.5 140.97 Length filled with composition . 23.1 58.67 Maximum diameter of stick , . 2.8 7.11 Diameter of vents or fuse holes . 0.6 1.52 Number of vents, six Poiuids. Kilos. Average weight of rocket and stick 25,5 11.56 The rocket stand is a rectangular tube of sheet- iron mounted upon a wooden tripod. The cross- section of the tube is square with one of its diagonals situated in a vertical jilane when the stand is in posi- tion for use. This hollow parallelopipedonal tube is formed from a single piece of sheet-iron. The longitudinal faces forming the lower edge do not join to complete the regular figure, except for two (2"j inches at the lower end, but are bent outwards from each other, forming two parallel flanges. These flanges are 1".7 wide, and have a sjiace half an inch wide between them throughout their length, which serves as a channel for the grappling hook on the under side of the rocket-stick to slide in when the rocket is tired. It is also necessary for the .same purpose in placing the rocket in position l)efore fir- ing. The rear end of the scpiarc lube is bound and I strengthened by a band of strap iron 2" wide and one-tenth (1)",1) of an inch thick. The fror.t end of the tube is reinforced in a similar manner, but with this dilTerenee: Theliand al its lower edge has a cyl- indrical lube r'.~ in diameter, ])rojeeling to the front 3". 3, for the jiuriiose of holding the ring of the rock- et chain. This short tube euiliraces tlie front ends of the flanges of the body, and has a longitudinal slot, corresponding in width to the space between tlio flanges along its upper surface lo permit the passage HU8SIAN PRINCIPALITIES. 817 RUSSIAN PRINCIPALITIES. of the rocket hook. A rcctangiilnr notch I'M dicp is cut hi the hiwcr Hhh^ to uccdimiiiKhilc thr upiii-r link iif thij niclict chiiiii whrii Ihi' riri;; isphici'il nvrr lh<' priijrctiiii; luhc Nciir Ihi' iiiiihlli' of the lorif^i- tiidhiiil hiiltom lhiii!;(M)ii the rif^hl-hiinil Hi(hM;f the hudy liiliir is iitlachi'il ii rccliuinuhir lin ss plati', 10" l<)ii;jC and 1".(> \vi(h', wilh a hii; and cyc-hoh' projcct- in>;fnini its utulcr cdijc near tin- iiii(hll<-. 'l'!:roiiKli this cyi'-hoic pa-isi'H Ihc linri/Dnlal axis. In a cor- rcspdndiiiu; pn.silidii (jii tljc left side is a scinic'irciilar liniss philc atlaclicd In the (jihcr llaii^rc. The arc of tliis pluti' is j;ia(hiul('d Into lU'firccs, in order to indi- cate tlie elevation of the axis of the main tiihc. A \ng anil eye-hole at Ihc <cnler of this arc adniils of the ins<rlioii of the horizontal axis. A slotted brass snpport with holes |iiereed through the upper ends of tlu! vertical arms sustains thir hori/,on<al axis thai carrii'S thc^ rocket tube and its ijradnaled arc. A clamp screw jiasses throuijli this support from Ihc rii;hl side an<i clamps tlu! arc in any fiiven position. All motion in altilndc within the limits of the scale is govcrneil by Ihis screw. The lower end of the support terminates in a cylindrical tenon 3". 3 in lcni;th and 1 ".3 in diameter, which Ills in a corrcs- pondinL' hole in Ihe lrip<id head. Two ellipli<al openiii;j;s ojiposite lo eacli oilier, are made in the u|)- I)er sides of the tube for Ihe inserlion of the port-tire to ijfnitc Ihc rocket coni|)osition. The following are the principal dimensions, weights, etc., of the stand: Inches. Centimeters. Total length of rocket-tnbc 53.3 13.5.38 Cross-section, s-iuare. ' Kx'*'"'"-- • ^-jl 10.93 ' ' (Interior. . . 4.1 10.41 Weight of rocket stand :il».0 IT.O'J Weight of rocket chain 4.lJ3.'i 3.17 Weight of port lire handle 0.5(i3r) 0.35 Total weight without iiacking box .44.187.5= 30.13 Weight of coil of rocket line" f,3.0 38.13 A port-lire holder or tiring staff accompanies the extended, and the Btand placed at th<! firing point. Th(! index being clanincd at zero on the graiMiutfil arc, lh<: tripod is levi-led by th<- eye- by making the axis of Utr rocket tube horizontal. This can only be done approximately; then loosen the lower clamp screw and swing the stand around until it points in the desired diri'dion. Clamp tlie vertical spindle and by turning Ihc u|ipi-r clamp screw to the left the required clevalhm may br' given; after which the screw must be liglileiied. in order to retain the tub(! in plac'c. Take a rocket from its box, tear of! the cap over the vents, insert th(! rocket, hafc first into the rectangular tub(! with the hook on the stick gliillng down between the Hangr-s on Ihe lower side of the lube. When the hook strikes the band at the lower end of the rocket tube, the rorkel is in posi- tion for tiring. Place tin; fakes or the faking box in front of the stand, put the ring af l\u- chain over the cylindrical tulmlar projection on Ihc front end of Ihe stand, lelliiig the chain atlached to the line hang be- low. Stand clear of the line, and, wilh a port-fire inserted In the holder, advance and Ignite the rocket by thrusling Ihc portfire gently through one of the elliiitical openings in Ihc rocket tube. Care must be taken not lo dislnrb the aim. An Instant after the compositiou in Ihc base of Ihe nickct is ignited, the latter leaps forward guided by the rocket tube, and as it leaves Ihe lube the hook engages the ring of the chain atlached to Ihe line and carries out the chain and line. The chain should be fastened to the line before wanted for use. ,See Liff-Kfiving liocketx. RUSSIAN PRINCIPALITIES.- The period that ex- tends from icu hundred and lifty-fonr, the year of Iarosl:if's dialli. lo twelve hundred and twenty-four the year (^f the lirsi appearance of the Tatars, yr, to take the French chronology, from the reign of Henry the First to the death of Philip .Vngustus, is one of the most confused and troubled in Kussian history. As the barbarian custom of division continued to prevail over the Byzantine ideal of political unity, rocket st.ind. It is a simple wooden handle with a hcnl head of brass. The brass head is hollow and is slilled on the sides so as to form a rude clamp. The port-tire is inserted in tlu' splil end of the head an<l then ignited in the usual iminner. The rocket-chain is a hand-ma<le iron cluun, six feet in length, ter- minated at one end by a ring two inches in diameter. The ring is placed over the tubular projection on the front end of the rocket stand in tiring. The other end of the chain is fastened to the end of the rocket line. The rocket line is a loosely-twisted hemp-line about Ihc size of the No. 8 or No. .service lines. The following is the method of using:— The rock- et stand is taken from the box, the legs of the tripod the n:itional territory was ca«?elessly partitioned. The princely anarchy of Eastern Europe ha.« lis par- allel in the feudal anarchy of the West. M. Pogodin reckons during this period sixty-four principalities which had an existrnce more or less prolonged, two hundred and ninety-three princes who disputed the throne of Kief and other domains, and eighty-three civil wars, in some of which the whole country was engaged. There were, besides, foreign wars to augment this enormous mass of historical facts. Against the Polovtsui alone the chroniclers mentioa eighteen campaigns, while these barliarians made no less than forty-six invasions of Russia. It is impossible to follow the national chroniclers in the RUSSIAN PKINCIPALITIES. 818 RUSSIAN PKINCIPALITIES. minute details of their aniials ; we will only treat of the principalities which lasted some time, and of the facts which were most important. The ancient names of the Slav tribes have everywliere disap- peared, or remain only in the names of some of the to wns.for example tliat of the Polotchane in Polotsk, and that of the Severiani? in Novgorod-Severski. The elements of which Russia was now composed were no longer tribes, but principalities. We hear no more of the Krivitchi or tlie Drevliane, but of the principalities of Smolensk and Volhyuia. These ' little states were perpetually dismembered at each new partition between the sons of a prince, and then ■were reconstituted to be divided anew into appan- ages. Notwithstanding all these vicissitudes, some of them maintained a steady existence, correspond- ing to certain topographical or ethnographical con- ditions- Without speaking of the distant principal- ity of Tmutorakan, situated at the foot of the Cau- casus in the center of Turkish and Circassian tribes, and reckoning eight successive princes, tlie follow- ing are the great divisions of Russia from the eleventh to the thirteenth ccntur)- : — The principalit}- of Smolensk occupied the impor- tant lerritorj' which is, as it were, the central point in the moimtain .system of Russia. It compreliends the ancient forest of Okof, where three of the largest Russian rivers, the Volga, the Dnieper, and the Dwina, take tlieir rise. Hence the political import- ance of Smolensk, attested b}' all the wars to gain possession of it ; hence also, its commercial prosper. ity. It is noticeable that all its towns were built on one or other of these three great rivers ; therefore the entire commerce of ancient Russia passed tlirough its hands. Besides Smolensk we must men- tion Mojaisk. Viasma, and Toropets. which "was the capital of a secondary principality, the property of two celebrated princes, Mstislaf the Brave anil Mstis- laf the Bold. The principality of Kief was Jiti». Russia in the strict sense of the word. Its situation on the Dnieper, tlie neighborhood of the Greek Em- pire, the fertility of the Black Land, long secured to this state the supremacy over the Russian prin- cipalities. On the south it bordered directly on the nomads of the steppe, against whom her princes were forced to raise a barrier of frontier towns. The}' often took these barbarians into their pay, g;ranted them lands, and constituted them into mili- tary colonies. The principality of Pereiaslavl was a dependence of Kief; Vuishegorod, Bielgorod, Tri- poli. Torshok, were at times erected into principal- ities for princes of the same famih. On the tribu- taries of tlie riglit bank of the Dnieper, notably the Soja.tlie Desna, and the Sei'm, extended the twoprin- <'ipalities of Tchernigof,with Starodub anil Lubetch; and also of Novgorod-Severski, witli Putivl, Kursk, and Briansk. Tlie principality of Tchernigof. which reached towards tlie I'pper Oka, had therefore one foot in the basin of the Volga ; its princes, the Olgo- vitclii, were tlie most formidable rivals of Kief. The jirinces of Severski were always engaged in war with tlie Polovtsiii, their neighbors on the south. It was a princeof .Severski wlio-se exploits against these barbarians formed the subject of a sort of epic poem, called till; Song of Igor, or the Account of Igor's Expedition. Another principality, whose very existence con- sisted in (•■idless war against thi; nomads, was the doiilili' princi]iality of |{iii/au and .Murorii. Ilir priii cipal towns of whicli were |{ia/aii, Miiroiii. J'ereias- lavl-Ria/.anski, situated on tlie (_)ka, Kolomna at the junction of the Jloskova with the Oka, and I'roiisk on the Prona. The Ijiper Don formed its western boundary. This principality was ))laced in the very lieart of till- .'\Iuromi;ins and .Meslililiciaki, Finnish tribes. The reputation of itsinlialiitaiits. who were reckoned extremely warlike in their iharaelir, and rough and brutal in their maimers, was no doubt partly the result of the mixture of the Kussiaii race with the ancient iuliabitants of tlie country, and of their perpetual and bloody struggle with the nomad tribes. The double principalities of Suzdal, with their towns of Suzdal, Roslof. lurief-Polski on the Kolosha, Vladimir on the Kliazma, laroslavl, and Pereiaslavl-Zalieski, were situated on the Volga and the Oka amimgst the thickest of northern forests, and in the middle of the Finnish tribes of Muromians, 3Ieria, Vesui, and Tcheremisa. Although placed at the farthest extremity of the Russian world, Suzdal exercised, an important influence over it. We shall find its princes now establishing a certain political authority over Novgorod and the Russia of t he La kes, the result of a double economic dependence ; now intervening victoriously in the quarrels of the Russia of the Dnieper. The Suzdalians were rough and warlike, like the Riazanese. Already we can distin- guish among these two people the characteristics of a new nationality. That which divides them from the Kievansand the men of Novgorod-Severski, occupied like themselves in the great war with the barbarians, is the fact that the Russians of the Dnieper some- times mingled their blood with that of their enemies and becamed fused with the nomad, essentially mo- bile Turkish races, whilst the Russians of the Oka and the Volga united with the Finnish tribes, who were agricultural and essentially sedentary. This distinction lietween the two foreign elements that entered the Slav blood has doubtless contributed to the difference in the characters of the two branches of the Russian race. From the eleventh to the thirteenth century, in passing from the basin of the Dnieper to the basin of the Volga, we can already watch the formation of Great and Little Russia. The principalities of Kief, Tchernigof, Novgorod- Severski, Riazan, Murom, and Suzdal, situated on the side of the steppe with its devastating hordes, formed the frontier states of Russia. The same part to play on the northwest, opposite the Lithuanians, Letts, and Tchudi, fell to the principality of Polotsk which occupied the basin of the Dwina ; and to the republican principalities of Novgorod and Pskof on the Lakes Ilmen and Peipus. To the principality of Polotsk, that of Jliusk was attached which lay in the basin of the Dnieper. The possession of Jlinsk was often disputed by the Grand Princes of Kief. To Novgorod belonged the towns of Torjok, Volok- Lamski, Izborsk, and Veliki-Luki, which were at times capitals of particular states. Southeast Russia comprehended : Volhynia, in the fan-shaped distri- bution of rivers formed by the Pripet and its tribu- taries, with \nadimir-iu-Volhynia, Lutsk, Turof. Brest and even Lublin, which is certainl}- Polish ; Gallicia proper, or Red Russia, in the basins of the San, the Dniester, and the Pripet, whose ancient inliabitants, the White Kroats, seem to have sprung from the stock of the Danubian Slavs. Her.chief towns were Galitch. founded by Vladimirko about eleven hun- dred and forty-four, Pereniuisl, Terebovl, and Zveui- gorod. Tlie neighborhood of Hungary and Poland gave a special character to these principalities, as well as a more advanced civilizution. The epic songs speak of Gallicia, the native land of the hero Diuk Stepanovitch, as a fabulously rich country. The Account of Igor's Expedition gives us a high idea of the power of these princes. " laroslaf Osmomuisl of (iallicia I " cried the poet to one of them, " thou art seated very high on thy throne of wrought gold; with thy regiments of iron Ihou suslaiiiest the Car- jialhiaiis : thou closest the gates of tlir Danube ; tlioii iiarrest the way to the King of Hungary; thou open- est at thy will the gates of Kief, and with thine ar- rows thou strikestfnnn afar! " The disposition of these lifteen or sixteen princi- palities confirms all that we liave said about the es- sential unity of the conliguralion of the Russian soil. Not one of the river basins forms an isolated and closed region. Tliere is no line of heights to estab- lish liarriers bet ween tliem or polilic;il froiitii'i's. The greater niiiiiber of the Russian piineipalities belong io the Ijasin of the Dnieper, but extend everywhere KU88IAN PHINCIPALITIE8. 819 RUSSIAN FBINCIFALITIE8. beyond itn limits. Tim prinripalily nf Kiff, with iVrciasliivl, in uciirly the (jrily one i(iiM))lrlcly t-oii- liiicd within il ; Imt Volliyiiiii puis llic Ijiisiii of \lw Duicpcr ill (■<)nimiiiii(iilii>ii willi llinHcof I lie Bu;iiiiiil tlic VIhIuIu, I'olotnk Willi the liiisiiix of llic Dnieper und llie Dwina, Novnorod-Severski willi the liusin of the Don, TehiTnij;of and Snioleiisk with llie hiisin of the Volj^ii. WahTconrses everywhere eslal)li>hed coininunicatioiiM hetwein Ihe priiieipalilies. Already Itussia, Ihownh liroki'ii U|i into appiuia;;es, had the germH of a jjreat united empire. The Hliu;ht eohesion of nearly uU the Hiales, and their frei|uenl disinein- bermenls. jirevented them from ever lieeominj; the homes of real nationalities. The prineipalilies of Smolensk, Tehernii;of, and Uiazan liave never jhis- sessed as delinite an historic existence as the duchy of Hreta^'iie or the county of Toulouse in France, or the duchies of fSii.vony, iSuahia, aii<l IJavaria in Ger- many. The interests of the prinees, their desire to create appana^jes for each of their children, caused a fresh division of the Kussiiin territory at the death of every sovereign. There was, however, a certain cohesion in the midst of all these vicissitudes. 'I'herc was a nnily of race and lansuajre, the more sensible, not- witllslandinjj; all dialectic dilTerences, bcQause the Russian i)eople was surrounded everywhere, except at the southwest, by entirely strange races, Lithuan- ians, Tchudi, Finns, Turks, Magyars. There was a unity of religion : Hk; Hussians (iilTered from near!}' all tiieir neiiihlHirs, for in contrast with the Western Slavs, l'olis,Teh<-ki, and Moravians, they rejiresent- ed a particular form of C'hristianit}', not ownini; any tie to l{ome, and rejecting I.atiu as the language of the Church. There was tlie nnily of liistorical devel- opment, as up to that time the Kusso-Slavs had all followe<l the same road, had accepted Greek civili- zation, submitted to the Variagi, pursued certain great enterprises in common. — such as the expedi- tions against Hy/aiitiuin aii<l the war with the no- mads. Finally there was jiolitical unity, since after all, in Gallicia as in Novgorod, on the t)iiieper as in the forests of Suzdal, it was the same family that tilled the thrones. All these princes descended from Kurik, Saint Vladimir, and laroslaf the (ireat. The fact that the wars that laid waste the country were civil wars, was a new proof of this unity. The dif- ferent parts of Russia could not consider themselves strangers one to the other, when they saw thcFrinces of Tchernigof and Suzdal taking up arms to prove which of them was the eldest, and which consequ- ently had mo?t right to the title of Grand I'rinceand the throne of Kief. There were descendants of Uurik wdio governed, successively, the remotest States of Russia, and who, after having reigned at Tmntora- kan on the Straits of lenikale, at Novgorod the Great, at Toropets, in the country of Smolensk, end- ed by establishing their right to reign at Kief. In spite of the division into appanages. Kief continued to be the center of Russia, Il was there that Oleg and Igor had reigned, that Vladimir luul baptized his peojile, and laroslaf had established the metrop- olis of the faith, of arts, and of national civilization. It is not surprising that it should have been more tiercely disputed tliau all the other Russian cities. Russia had in:'.iiy princes ; but she had only one Grand Prince, — the one that reigned at Kief. lie had a recognized supremacy over the others which he owed not onlj' to the importance of his capital, but to his position as eldest of the royal family. Kief, the mother of all cities, was always to belong !o the eldest of the descendants of litirik ; this was the con- sequence of the patriarchal svstem of the Slavs, as was the custom of division. \Vhen the Grand Prince of Kief died, his son was not his rightful heir ; but Uis uncle or brother,or whichever of the Princes was the eldest. Then the whole of Russia, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, held itself in readiness to .support the claims of this or that candidate. It was the same with the other principalities, where the posse.ssors fif dilTerent appanageH aspired to reign in the metropolis of the reirion. The civil wars, then, theniHelves strenglhenid the sentiment of the l{im. siaii unity. What were they, after all, but family (pi.'irri'ls ? 'I'hi' persistent conflict liet ween the Byzantine law, by w hich the son inherited the jiossi-ssions of the father, and the olil national laws of the Slavs which caused them to ]>ass to the eldirst of all th<- family, was an inexhaustible source of civil wars. Kven had the law Ix'cn perfectly clear, the jirinccs were not al- ways dis|)osed to recognize it. Thus, although the eldest of laroslaPs s'lns had in his favor the formal will of his father, giving him the throne of Kief, and though laroslaf on his di-ath-beil had desired his other sons to resj)ect their elder brother as they hail done their parent, and look on him as their father, Isias- hif at once found his l)rother Sviatoslaf ready to take up arms and overturn his throne. He was obliged in ten hundre<laiid seventv-three to seek refuge at the Court of Henry the l'"ourtli of Germany, who sent an embassy to Kief, commanding Sviatoslaf to restore the throne to Isiaslaf. Sviatoslaf rec<-iverl the (Jerman envoys with such courtesy, made them such a display of his treasures and riches, that, ilaz- zled by the gold, they adopted a pacific policy. Hen- rj' tilt" Fourth himself, disarmed by the liberalities of the Russian Prince, spoke no more of chastising the usurper. Isiaslaf did not return to Kief till af- ter the deaili of his rival in ten hundred and seventy. six. When his own death took ])lace. in ten hundred and seventy-eight, his son Sviatopolk did not suc- ceed him immediately. It was necessarj- that all the heirs of laroslaf should be exhausted. Vsevolod, a brother of Isiaslaf, whose daughter married the Emperor Henry the Fourth or Henrj- the Fifth — it is not quite certain which — reigned for fifteen years, from ten hundred and seventy-eight until ten hun- dred and ninety-three. In accordance with the same principle, it was not the son of Vsevolod, Vladimir Monomakh, who succeeded his father : but after the j crown had been worn b_v a new generation of princes, ! it returned to the blood of Isiaslaf. Vladimir Mono- j makh made no opposition to the claims of Sviato- polk Isiaslavitch. "His father was older than mine," ' he said, "and reigned first in Kief," so he quitted I the principality which he had governed with his fa- ! thcr, and valiantly defended against the barbarians. 1 But every one was not so respectful to the Dational I law as Vladimir Monomakh. ] Two terrible civil wars desolated Russia in the reign of the Grand Prince Sviatopolk, between ten hundred and ninety-three and eleven hundred and thirteen: one about the principality of Tchernigof, the other about Volhynia and Red Russia. Sviatos- laf had enjoyed Tchernigof as his share, to which Tmutorakan in the Taurid, Shironi and Riazan in the Finn country, were annexed. Isiaslaf and Vse- volod, Grand Princes of Kief, had despoiled the sons of Sviatoslaf, their brotlier, depriving them of the rich territory of Tchernigof. and only leaving them Tmutorakan and the Finnish country. Even Vladi- mir Jlonomakh, whom we have seen so disinterested, had accepted a share of the spoil. The injured princes were not people to bear this meekly, especi- ally the elder, Oleg Sviatoslavitch, one of the most energetic men of the eleventh century. He called the terrible Polovtsui to his aid, and subjected Rus- sia to frightful ravages. Vladimir Monomakh was moved by these misfortunes : he wrote a touching letter to Oleg, expressing liis sorrow for having ac- cepted Tchernigof. .^t his instigation a Congress of Princes met at Lutbetcli.on the Dnieper, in ten hun- dred and ninety -seven. Seated on the same carpet, they resolved to put an end to the civil wars that handed the country as a prey to the barbarians. Oleg recovered Tchernigof. and promised to unite with the Grand Prince of Kief and Vladimir Monomakh against the Polovtsui. The treaty was ratified by the oath of each prince, who kissed the cross and BBSSIAN PHINCIPALITIES. 820 RUSSIAN PKINCIPALITIES. swore, "that henceforth the Russian hmd shall be considered as the country of all ; and wlioso shall dare to arm himself against liis brother becomes our common enemy." In VoUiynia the prince, David, was at war with his nephews, Yasilko and Volodar. The Congress of Lubetch had divided the disputed territories be- tween tliem, but scarcely was the treaty ratified than David went to the Grand Prince Sviatopnlk and persuaded Inm that Yasilko had a desiirn on his life. With tlie lislit faith liahitual to the men of that date, the Grand Prince joined David in framing a ])lot to attract Yasilko to Kief on tlie occasion of a religious festival. Wlien he arrived he was loaded with chains, and the Grand Prince convoked the boyars and citizens of Kief, to denounce the projects of Ya- silko. "Prince," replied tlie boyars, nuich embar- rassed, "thy tranquility is dear to us. Yasilko merits death, if it is true that he is tliine enemy: but if lie is calumniated by David, God will avenge on David the blood of the innocent." Thereon the Grand I'rince delivered Yasilko to his enemy David who put out his eyes. The other descendants of Taroslaf the First were indignant at this crime. Yladimir Monomakh united with Oleg of Tcherni- gof, his ancient enemy, and marched against Sviato- polk. The people and clergy of Kief succeeded in preventing a civil war between the Grand Prince and the confederates of Lubetch. Sviatopolk was forced to disavow David, and swear to join the avengers of Yasilko. David defended himself with vigor, and summoned to his help, tirst the Poles, and then the Hungarians. At last a new congress was assembled at Yititchevo in the year eleven hun- dred, on the left bank of the Dnieper, a town of which a deserted ruin is all that now remains. As a punishment for his crime, David was deprived of his principality of Yladimir in Yolhynia, and had to content himself with four small towns. After the new settlement of this afEair,Mouomakh led the other princes against the Polovtsui, and inflicted on them a bloody defeat; seventeen of their khans remained on the field of battle. One khan who was made prisoner offered a ransom to Monomakh; hut the prince showed how deeply he felt the injuries of the Christians, — he refused the gold, and cut the brig, and chief in pieces. When Sviatopolk died, the Kievans unanimous- ly declared they would have no Grand I*rince but Vladimir Monomakh. Vladimir declined the hon- or, alleging the claims of Oleg and his brothers to the throne of Kief. During these negotiations a sedition broke out in the city, and the Jews, whom Sviatopolk liad made the instruments of his fiscal exactions, were pillaged. Monomakh was forced to yield to the prayers of the citizens. During his reign, from eleven hundred and thirteen until eleven hundred and twenty-five, he obtained great successes against the Polovtsui, iind Petchcnegi. the Torki, the Tcherkesui, and otlier nomads. lie gave an asylum lo the remains of the Kliazarui, who built on the Oster, not far from Tchernigof, the town of Bel- ovega. The ruins of this city that remain to-day prove that this Finnish people, eminently capable of culture, and already civilized by the Greeks, were furtlier advanced in the arts of cciustruetionand for- tirK-aion than even the Russians themselves. Ac- cording to one tradition, Momimakh also made war on tlie ICmperor Alexis C'omnciius, a Kiissian army invaded Tlirace, and the Hisliop of Eiihesus is saiii to have brought gifts to Kief, among others a cup of carnelian tiiat iiad belonged to Augustus, besides a crown and a throne, still preserved in the Museum at Moscow, under the name of the crown .and tlirone of Monomakli. It is now known that they never be- longed to Yladimir, but it was the policy of liis de- scendants, tli(^ Tsars of Moscow, lo proj)iigale this legend. It was of consecpience to them to i)rov(^ that these tokens of their jiower were traceable to their Kievan ancestor, and that the Russian Mono- makh, grandson of the Greek Monomachus, had been solemnly crowned by the Bishop of Ephesus as Sovereign of Russia. The Grand Prince made his authority felt in other parts of Russia. A Prince of Minsk, who had the temerity to kindle a civil war, was promptly dethroned, and died in captivity at Kief. The Novgorodians saw many of their boy- ars kept as hostages, or else exiled. The Prince of Yladimir in Yolhynia was deposed, and his states- given to a son of the Grand Prince. Monomakh has left us a curious paper of instruc- tions that he compiled for his sons, and in which he gives them much good advice, enforced by e.\ami)le3 drawn from his own life. "It is neither fasting, nor solitude, nor the monastic life, that will procure you the life eternal, — it is well-doing. Do not forget the- poor, but nourish them. Do not bury your riches, in the bosom of the earth, for that is contrary to the precepts of Christianity. Be a father to the orphans, j.udge the cause of widows v-ourself Put to- death no one, be he innocent or guilty, for nothing- is more sacred than the soul of a Christian Love your wives, but beware lest they get the power over you. When you have learnt anything useful, try to preserve it in your memory, and strive- ceaselessly to get knowledge. Without ever leaving his palace, my father spoke five languages, a thing that foreigners admire in us I have made al- together twenty -three campaigns without counting those of minor importance. I have concluded nine- teen treaties of peace with the Polovtsui, taken at least a hundred of their princes prisoners, and after- wards restored them to liberty : besides more than two hundred whom I threw into the rivers. No one has travelled more rapidly that I. If Heft Tcherni- gof very early in the morning, I arrived at Kief be- fore vespers. Sometimes in the middle of the thick- est forest I caught wild horses myself, and bound them together with my own hands. How many times I have been thrown from the saddle by bulTa- loes, struck by the horns of the deer, trampled un- der foot by the elands ! A furious boar once tore my sword from my belt ; my saddle was rent by a bear, which threw my horse down under me ! How many falls I had from my horse in my youth, when, heed- less of danger, I broke my head, I wounded my arms and legs ! But the Lord watched over me !"' Yladimir completed the establishment of the Slav race in Suzdal, and founded a city on the Kliazma that bore his name, and that was destined to play a great part. Such, in the beginning of the twelfth century, when Louis the Si.\th was fighting with his. barons" of the Isle de France, was the ideal of a Grand Prince of Russia. Of the sons of Yladimir Monomakh, luri Dolgoru- ki became the father of the princes of Suzdal and Moscow, and Mstislaf the father of the princes of Galitch and Kief. The.se two branches were ofteu ■ at enniitv, and it was their rivalry that struck the- final blow at the prosperity of Kief. AVhen Isiaslaf, son of Jlstislaf, was called to tlie throne in eleven hundred and forty-six by the inhabitants of the cap- ital, his uncle, luriDolgornki, put forward his rights^ as the eldest of the family. Kief, which had been already many times taken and retaken in the strife between the'deseendants of Oleg of Tchernigof and the descendants of Vladimir Mcmomakh, was fated to be disputed anew between the uncle and the ne- jiliew. It was almost a war between the Old and A'ew Russia, the Russia of the Dnieper and that of the Volga. The princes of Suzilal, who dwelt afar in the forests in the northw<'st, establishing their rule over the remnants of the Finnish races, were to be- come greater >ind greater strangers to Kievan Rus- sia, if they still 'coveted the""molher of Rus- sian cities," "because the title of Grand Prince was attached to it. they at least began to obey and to ven- erate it less than the other princes, luri Dolgoruki found an ally against Isiaslaf in one of the Olgovitchi, Sviatos"laf,"who thirsted to SUSSIAN REPUBLICS. S-_>| RUSSIAN REPUBLICS. avptii;!' Ills lifdiliir Ii^or, (Iptliroiu'il iiml kept prmon- cr ill Kief li.v llir (iriiiid I'riiici'. The KirviiiiH licsi- | l'ilc<l 111 sii|i|iiirl tlir sovirrii;ii IIh'V IiihI clinsi-ii; llicy Imtcil llir lll'.;nvil(lli. lllll III lilrir lllliicllllirlll III llir 1)1 1 (if .Moiiiiinnlili llicv rcsprclril Ills sun mill his friinil-sDii i'i|iiiilly. "NVc iirc rnidy" lliry ^-niil 'i> siiisliif, "wr mil iiiir cliililn-ii, lo iimUc war mi llii' 80I1M (if Oli'ir. Hill I mi is your iiiicic, iinil ciiii we (liirc to raise our liaiiils a'.'iiiiist llio Him (if Moiki. liiaUli ?" Aflcr llic war had laslfil some tiiiii-, a de- cisive liallle wasfdinrhl. Al the liattle (pf I'creias- lavl Isiashif was cuiiiiiletely dcfcaled, and Imik re- fiii;c. Willi twii aKcndanls. in Kief. The iiilialiilmils, wild had lnsl many cilizins in this war. declared Ihey were iiiiiilile Id sliiiid a s'.cLre. The (Iraiid I'rincc then alianddiied his capilal Id Iiiri ndli^nniki. anil retired In Vladimir in Vdlliynia, wlienc hedemaiid- <m1 help fnim his lirnlhcr in-law, the Kini; (if Hiin- fiary. midllie l<iiii;s(if I'lilaiid and Hiihemia. With these rciiifdrceineiits lie surprised Kief, and nearly- liiiide his uncle |>risdiier. Inderslmidinir that the lialidiial law wasaiiainsl him, he (ip]idsed eldeslwith eldesi, and declared himself llie partisan (if uiidther son of Mdiidiiiakh.llie dlil Viatcheslaf, Prince (if Tu- rof. He was ])riiclaimed (irand I'rince of Kief.iiddpt- cil his nephew Isiaslaf as his heir, and diirini; his reii^n, fnim eleven hiiiiilred and tifty to eleven hun- dred and tifly-fciur, i^iivc sidendid fetes to the Hiis- sians mid lliiiiijariiiiis. Iiiri returned to the chars^e, ami was lieatcn under the walls of Kief. Kaeli (if these princes had taken tiai-barians into his jiay: Iii- ri, the Poldvtsiii; Isiaslaf, the ISIiick Caps, that is, the Torki the I'i'lchenei;i, and the Berendians. The olistinate Prince of Suzdal did not allow him- self to be discourai;e(l by this check. The old Via- tcheslaf. wild (inly desired ]ieacp and (piiet. in vain addressed him letters, setliiv;; furlli liis ritrhts as the eldest. "I had already a beard when ymi eiitcred the wdrld." he said. luri proved himself intract- able, and went inlii (iailicia to elTect a jiinclidii with his ally. Vladimirkd, Prince of Galitch. This Vladimir- ko had violated the oath he had taken and cdiitirm- ed by kissini; the cross. When they rcpniachcd him, be said, willi a sneer, "It was such a lillle cross!" To prevent this dani;erous co-operation. Isiaslaf. with- out waitim; the expected arrival of the Iliiiijjariaiis, bcfian the pursuit of luri, and came up with liim on the borders of the Hut, a small tributary of the Dnie- per. A bloody battle was fousht. where he liimself was woundeil and thrown from his lior.se, but the Sii/.daliaiis and their allies the Polovtsui were com- pletely defeated ill eleven hundred and titty-one. Isiaslaf survived this victorv only three years. Af- ter his death and that of Viatcheslaf, Kief passed from hand tolcuid. luri (inally reached the supreme object of his desires. He made his entry into the cap- ital in eleven hundred and tifly-tive, and had the consoliilidn of dyiii;; Grand Prince of Kief, at the inonienl that a leaL'ue was beinir formed for his ex- pulsion, in eleven hundred and tifty-seveii. "I thank thee, irreat (iod," cried one of the confederates on Icarniiii; the news, "for haviiiff spared us, by the sudden death of our enemy, the obligation of slied- tlins; liisblood !" The confederates entered the town." one of them assumed the title of Grand Prince, the others divided his territories. Ilenceforlh there ex- isted no jrrand principality. pro|)erly speaking and witli the growing power of .'>iizdal. Kief ceased to be the cajiilal of Hussia. A final disaster was still re- served fdr it. In eleven hundred and sixty-nine Andrei Hogo- liubski, son of luri Dolgoruki, and Prince of Suz- dal, being disatTected to Mstislaf, Prince of Kief, formed against him a coalition of eleven princes. He <>oiilide(l lo his son Jlstislaf and his voievod Boris an iiiimcnse army of Uostovians, Vladimirians, and Suzdaliaiis to march against Kief. This time the Hussia of the forests triumphed over the Russia of the steppes, and after a three days' siege Kief was 4akeu by assault. "This mother of Russian cities," HayH KurnmHin, "had hcen many tiincB bt-Biegcd and o|)preHsed. She bud often opened lier Golden (iutc to her eneinicH, but none had ever yet entered by forie. To their clernal shame, the victors forgot thai Ihi'V loo were Hiissians I During three duyg not only the bouses, but the iiionasterieH, cliiirche», and even the teiiiplcM of Saint Sophia and the Titi'C, werif givi'U over lo pillage. The precious jiiiiigeB, the prieslly ornaments, the books, and the hells, all were taken away." From lliis lime llic lot of the capital of Saint Vla- dimir, pillaged and dishonored by his dcseendanls, ceases lo have a general iiilercsl for I{ussia. l.ike oilier parts of Slavoiii.'!. il has ils princes, but the beads of I he reigning families of Smolensk, Tclier- nigof. and Galitch assume I he once iiniijiie title of (iraiid Prince. The center of Russia is changed. It is now ill the Imsin of the Volga, at Suzdal. Many causes conspired lo render the disaster of eleven liiindred and sixty-nine irnniediable. The chroniit civil wars of this part of Russia, and the miilliludes mid growing power of the nomad hordes, rendered the banks of the Dnieper uninhabitable. In twelve hundred and three Kief was again sacked by the Po- lovtsui, whom tlii^ Olgovitchi of Tchernigof had taken into thi-ir pay. On this soil, incessantly the prey of war and in asion, it was impossible to found a lasting order iJi lliings; il was iinpossilile that a regular system of government should be established. - that <-ivilizatidn slioiild develop and maintain it- self. Less richly enddwed by nature, and less civil- ized, the Russia of the forests was at least more Iraniiuil. It was there that a grand principality was formed, called to fiillil high destinies, but which, un- liap|)ily, was lo be sejiaraleil for three hundred years, by the soiilhern steppes and the nomads who dwelt there, from the lilaek Sea: that is, from Byzaniine and Western civilization. See Rnnximi liepuldicn. RUSSIAN REPUBLICS.- Novgorod has been, from the most remole aiilii|uity, the political center of the Russia of the northwest. The origin of the Slavs of the Ilinen, who laid the foundations of it, is still uncertain. Some learned Russians, such as j\I. Kostomai'of, suppose them to belong to the Slavs of llie south, others to the Slavs of the Baltic: others, again, like .M. Bielaef and M. Ilovaiski, make them a branch of the Kriviich or Smolensk Slavs. We find the Novgorodians, at the opening of Russian history, at the head of the confederal ion of tribes which first expelled and then recalled the Variagi to reign over Russia. Novgorod, from very ancient times, was divided into two jxirts, separated liy the course of the Volkliof, which rises in Lake Ilnicn and falls into the Ladoga. On the right bank was the side of SI. Sophia, where laroslaf the Great built his (•(debrated cathedral; where the Novgorod kreiiil was situated, enclosing both the palaces of the Arch- bisliop and the Prince; and where the famous Rus- sian monument was consecrated in eighteen hundred and sixty-two. On tlic left bank is the side of com- merce, with its Court of laroslaf : the bridge which joins the two halves of the city is celebrated in the an- nals of Novgorod. The side of Saint Sophia includes the Nerevsky or Nerevian quarter, as well as those of Zagorodni, or the suburbs, and of the pollers. The side of commerce comprised the quarters of the carpenters and Slavs. Ancient documents also speak of a Prussian or Lithuanian quarter. Some of these names seem to indicate that many races have concurred, as in ancient Rome, to form the city of Novgorod. Gilbert of Lannov.who visited the repub- lic about fourteen hundred and Ihirleen, has left us this description of il : " Novgorod is a prodigious- ly large town, situated in a beautiful plain, in the midst of vast forests. The soil is low, subject to in- undations, marshy in places. The town is surround- ed by imperfect ramparts, formed of gabions; the towers are of stone." Portions of these ramparta still exist, and allow us to form an idea of the im- mense extent of the ancient city. The kreml forma BUSSIAN EEPTTBLICS. 822 RUSSIAN REPUBLICS. its acropolis. The cathedral has preserved its fres- coes of the twelfth ceuturj-; the pillars painted with images of saints on a golden ground : the imposing figure of Christ on the cupola; the banner of tlie Virgin, which was to revive the courage of the be- sieged, on tlie ramparts ; the tomb of "St. Vladimir laroslavilch, of tlie Archbishop Xikita. by whose praj'ers a tire was extinguished, of Mstislaf tlie Brave, the devoted defender of Novgorod, and of many other saints and illustrious people. Without counting the tributary cities of Kovgorod, such as Pskof, Ladoga, Izborsk, Veliki-Luki, Staraia-Rusa, or Old Russia, Torjok, Biejitchi, its primitive terri- torj' was divided into five counties, which included the land to the soutli of the lakes Ladoga and Onega. Its conquests formed five bailiwicks or cantons, oc- cupying the whole of Northern Russia, and extend- ing as far as Siberia. These bailiwicks were tli3 Zavolotchi^, or the land lying beyond the canton, be- tween the Onega and the Mezen : Russian Lapland : Perniia. on the Upper Kama ; Petciiora, on the river of the same name : and lugria, on the other side of the Ural Mountains To these we must add Ingria, Karelia.and part of Livonia and Esthonia. Novgorod, which had sumuiDned the Variag Princes, was too powerful, with one hundred thou- sand inhabitants and three hundred thousand sub- jects, to allow itself to be tyrannized over. An an- cient tradition speaks vaguely of a revolt against Rurik the Old under the hero Vadim. Sviatoslaf, the conqueror of the Bulgaria of the Danube, under- took to govern it b}' mere agents, but Novgorod in- sisted on having one of his sous for its prince. "If you do not come to reign over us," said the citizens, "we shall know how to tind ourselves other princes." laroslaf the Great, as a reward for their devotion, accorded them immense privileges, of which no rec- ord can be found, but which are constantly invoked by the Novgorodians, as were the true or false char- ters of Charles the Great by the German cities. These republicans could not exist without a prince, but they rarely kept one long. The assembly of the citizeu.s. the vetche, convoked by the bell in the Court of la- roslaf, was the real sovereign. The republic called itself "My Lord Novgorodlhe Great." "Who can equal God and the great Novgorod ?" was a nopular saying. From the distance of the city from the Russia of the Dnieper, and its position towards the Baltic and AVestern Europe, it took little part in the civil wars of which Kief was the object and the cen- ter. The Novgorodians profited by this in a certain sense; for, in the midst of the strifes of princes and ol frequent changes in the gr;ind principality, no sov- ereign was strong enough to give them a nia.ster. They could choose between princes of the rival fa- milies. It could impose conditions on him whom they chose to reign over them. It discontented with his management, they expelled the prince and his band of autrustions. According to the accustomed formula, "they made a reverence, and showed him the way" to leave Novgorod. Sometimes, to hin- der his evil designs, tliey kept him prisoner in the Archbishop's palace, and it Wiis left to his successor to set him iit lilierly. Often a revolution was ;ie- compauied by a general pillage of the ]iarlis;uis of the fallen prince, an<l they were even drowned in the Volkhof. A Grand Prince of Kief, Svialojiolk wished to force his son on them. "Send him here." said the Novgorodians, "if he has a spare head." The princes themselves contribnied to the frequent changes of reign. They felt themselves only half- rulers in Novgorod, so they accepted any oilier appanage with joy. Tims, in eleven hundred and thirty-two, Vsevolod Gabriel abandoned Novgorod tc reign at Pereiaslavl. When hishojiesof Kief were crushed, and he wished to return to Novgonxl, the citizens rejected him. "You forgot your oath to die with ns, you have sought anotjier principality; go were you' will." Presently they thought betler"of it, and took him back. Poiir years afterwartls he was again obliged to fly. In a great vetche'. to which the citizens of Pskof and Ladoga were summoned, the^- solemnly condemned the exile, after reading the heads of very characteristic accusations : "He took no care of the poorer people; lie desired to es- tablish himself at Pereiaslavl; at the battle of Mount Idanof. against the men of Suzdal, he and his druji- na were the first to leave the battle-field ; he was fickle in the quarrels of the priucs, sometimes unit- ing with the Prince of Tchernigof, sometimes with the opposite party." The power of a Prince of Novgorod rested not on ly on his drujina, which always followed his for- tunes, and on his family relations with this or that, powerful principality, but also on a party formed for him in the heart of the republic. It was when the opposing party grew too strong that he was de- throned, and popular vengeance exercised on his adherents. Novgorod being above all a great com- mercial city, its divisions were frequently caused by diverging economic interests. Among the citizens, some were occupied in trade witli the Volga and the East, others with the Dnieper and Greece. The former naturally sought the alliance of the Princes of Suzdal, masters of the great Oriental artery : the latter that of the Princes of Kief or Tchernigof, masters of the road to the south. Each of the two parties tried to establish a prince of the family whose protection they sought. If he fell, yet suc- ceeded in escaping from the town, he would try to regain his throne by the arms of his family, or to install himself and his drujina either at Pskof, like Vsevolod-Gabriel, who became prince of that town, or at Torjok, like laroslaf of Suzdal, and thence he would blockade and starve the great city. The Prince of Suzdal was soon the most formidable neigli- bor of Novgorod. We have seen that Andrei Bogo- liuli.ski sent an army against it, then that his nephew laroslaf besieged his ancient subjects till Mstislaf the Bold freed them by the battle of Lipetsk in twelve hundred and sixteen. He was the son of Mstislaf the Brave, who had defended them againsi; Vsevolod Big-Nest, and against Suzdal and the Tchu- di. The remains of "the Brave" rest at Saint So- phia, in a lironze sarcophagus. His son, "the Bold," was of far too restless a nature to die also at Nov- gorod. He reduced the principality to order, and Flien assembled the citizens in the court of laros- laf and said to them, "I salute Saint Sophia, the tomb of my father, and you, Novgorodians. I am going to recon([uer Galitch from the strangers, but I shall never forget you. I hope I may lie by the tomb of my father, in Saint Sophia." The Novgoro- dians in vain entreated him to sta_v. This was in twelve hundred and eighteen. We have seen him use his last armies in the troubles of the southeast, and die Prince of Galitch. After his departure the republic summoned his nephew, Sviatoslaf to the throne ; but he could not come to terms with the magistrates and a populace equally turbulent. The posadnik, Tverdislaf. caused one of tlie boyars of Novgorod to be arrested. This was the signal for a general rising; some took the part of the boyar, others tliat of the posadnik. During eight days the bell of the krenil sounded. Fi- nally both factions buckled on their cuirasses and drew their swords. Tverdislaf raised his eyes to Saint Sophia, and cried, "I sliiill fall first in the bat- tle, or God will justify me by giving the victory to my brothers." Ten men only perished in this skir- mish, and then |ieaee W!is re.establish<'d. The prince, who jiceused Tverdislaf of being llie cause of the trouble, demanded IhiLt he sliduld be deposed. The vetche inquired what crime he had committed. "None," replied the prince, "but it is my will." "I am satisfied," exclamed the posadnik, "as they do not accuse me of any fault; as to you, my brotliers, you can dispose alike of posadniki and princes." The assembly then gave their deeisiim. "Prince, as you do not accuse tlie posadnik of any fault, remem- B088IAN REPUBLICS. 823 HnSSIAN REPUBLICS. bcT that Jim Iiiivc sworn Id dcpimc no inu^fiHlratc willioiil trial. Ill' will remain our posailnik, we will not deliver him to V""-" *•" this Svialoslaf (|uitte(l Novirorod, in twelve hundred and nineteen. lie was rei)lae<-d liy VKevolod, one of his hrotliers, who was e.vpelleil two yearn latir. 'llw Sn/ilalian parly having made some pro'_'ress, they recalled Ihe same laroslaf who was oealen al l.ipilsk, liiit Ihi' I'rineesof Su/.dal were loo ahsolnle iji Iheir ideas to bo able to aijree with the Novjrorodians. laroslaf was ajjain pnt to flifiht, and replaced by Vsevolod of Smolensk, who was expelleil in his turn. The Granil I'rinee of Sn/.dal now interposed, li'vied a conlribniion on Novf;orod, and a ])rinee of Teherni- fjof was imposeil on them, who liastened in twelve hundred and twenty-live to relnrn to the south of HiiHsia. In seven years the Nov;rorodians hail livi^ times changed Iheir rulers. laroslaf himself eame back for a third and even a fourth time. A famine HO much reduced the Novfjorodians that forty-two thousand corpses were buried in two cenieleries alone. These jiroud citizens implored stran{;ers to take them as slaves for the price of a morsel of bread. The same year a tire destroyed the whole of oneipiarter of Novirorod. The ciilamities subdued their turbulence. laroslaf succeeded in j;overniiij; them despotically till he was called to fill Ihe throne of the Grand Prince in twelve himdred and thirty- si.i. lie left them, as their jirince, his son, Alt.x- ander Xevski. From the fact that no dynasty of princes could es- tablish itself at Novgorod, that no princely band could take a ))lace among the native aristocracy, it follows that the republic kept its ancient liberties and customs intact under the short reigns of its rulers. In all Russian cities, it is true, the country existed side by side with the I'rinee and boyars, the assembly of c-ilizens side by side with the I'rince's men, and the native militia side by side with the foreign drujiua : but at Novgorod the country, tlie vctche, and the inunici|)al militia had retaineil more vigor than elsewhere. The town was more power- ful than the Prince, who reigned by virtue of a con- stitution, traces of which may be observed, no doubt, in other regions of Russia, but which is found in its original form at Novgorod alone. Each new nuin- arch was compelled to take an oath, by winch he bound himself to observe the biws and jirivileges of laroslaf the (ireat. This constitution, like llu' iKH-td eoiirentd of Poland, signified distrust, and was in- tended to limit the power of the Prince and his men. The revenues to which he had a right, and which formed his civil list, were carefully limited, as also w:ere his judicial and political functions. He levied tribute on certain cantons, and was entitled to the commutation for crimes as well as to certain lines. In some bailiwicks he had his lieutenant, and Nov- gorod had its own. He could not execute justice without help of the posaduik, nor reverse any judg- ment: nor, above all. take the suit beyond Novgo- rod. This was what the Novgorodians feared most, and with reason. The day when the people of Nov- gorod bethought themselves of appealing to the tri- bunal of the Grand Prince of Moscow was fatal "o the indepeuileuce of the republic. In the coiillirts between the men of the prince and those of Ihe city, a mixed court delivered judgment. The Prince, no more than his men, could acquire villages in the territory of Novgorod, nor create colonies. lie was forbidden to hunt in the woods of Staraia Kusa ex- cept in the autumn, and had to rea]) his harvests at a specified season. Though they thus mistrusted their Prince, Ihe Novgorodians hail need of him to moderate the ancient i^lav anarchy. As in the days of Hurik. "family armed itself against family, and there was no justice." In Novgorod the verdu^ had more extensive powers, and acted more regularly than in the other Russian cities. It was the vetche which nonunated and expelled princes, imprisoned llicm in the arcbiepiscopal palace, and formallv ac- cused them ; elected and deposed the ArchbishopH, decided peace and war, }(irlged the Stale criminulH. According to Ihe old Slav custom, preserved in Po- land lill the fall of Ihe republic, the decisions were always niuih-, not by a majority, but by unanimity of voices. It was a kinil of lil,irtnii rilo. The niii- Jorilv had the ri'soune of drowning the minority ia the Volkhof. Tlie Prince as well as Ihe posadnik, the boyars as well as the people, had the right of convoking the vetihe. It met sometimes in the ('ourt of laroslaf, sometimes in Saint Sophia's. As Poland had its confederations, its " diets under the shiild." Novgorod occasionally saw on tin- banks of Ihe Volkhof two rival and hostile assernbliis, which often came to bl.ows on the bridge. Hefore being submitted to the general assembly, the tjuestions were sometimes delibirati'd in a snialler council, composed of notable citizens, of acting or past ma- gistrates. The chief Novgorodian magistrates were, first, the posadnik, called by contemporary German vvTiters the burgomaster, who was changeil nearly us oftea as the Piince. Thi' (xisadnik was chosen from some of th<' inlluenlial families, one of which alone gave a dozen (josadniki to Novgorod. The first magis- trate was charged to defend civic privileges, and shared with the Prince the judicial power and the right of distributing the ta.xes. lie governed the city, commanded its army, directed its diplomacj', sealed the acts with its seal. The second officer was the tiiiMiUki, who was a military chief.a Colonel who had the Captains of the town ndlitia under his orders, lie had a special tribunal, and seems to have been specially intrusted with the defence of the rights of the people, thus recalling the R(jman Tribunes. And besides the Captains there was a uliirmUi, a sort of district ]Mayor, for each ((uarter of the town. The chirf document of Ihe Novgorodian law is the Lttter nf ,hi!<tice, of which the delinite publica- tion may be placed at fourteen hundred and seventy- one. It" contains the same principles as the Code of laroslaf the Great. As in all the early Germanic and Scandinavian laws, we find the right of private revenge, the fixed price of blood, the "boot," or fine for injury inflicted, the oath adnutted as evi- dence, the judgment of God, the judicial duel, which was still resorted to by Novgorod even after its decadence, in the sixteenth century. We also find records of corporal iiiniishments. The thiet was to be branded ; on the second relapse into crime, he was to be hung. Territorial property acquires a greater importance, and, a sure evidence of JIusco- vite influence, a second court of appeal is admitted, — Ihe appeal to the tribunal of the Grand Prince. From a social point of view, the constitution of Novgorod presents other analogies with the consti- tution of Poland. Great inequality then existed be- tween the different classes of society. An aristoc- racy of boyars had ulliinately formed itself, whose internal quarrels agitated the town. Below the boyars came the dii'ti hnyarskie, a kind of inferior nobility ; then the <lifTerent classes of citizens, the merchantmen, the black peirple, and the pea.sants. The merchants formed an association of their own, a sort of guild, romid the Church of .Saint John. Jlilitary societies also existed, bands of independent adventurers or followers of some boyar who, im- pelled by hunger or a restless spirit, sought adven- tures afar on the great rivers of Northern Russia, pillaging alike friends and enemies, or establishing military colonies in the midst of Tchud or Finnish tribes. The soil of Novgorod was sandy, marshy, and un- productive : hence the famines and pestilences that so often depopulated the country. Novgorod was forced to extend itself in order to live ; it became therefore a connuercial and colonizing city. In the tenth century Konstanlin relates how the Slavs left Nemoirard. or Noviroroil, descended the Dnieper by Miliuisca, or Smolensk, Teliutza, orLubetch, Teller- KTJSSIAN REPUBLICS. 824 E0SSIAN EEPUBLICS. nigof, Vuishcgorod, Kief, anrl Yititchevo ; crossed the Cataracts of tlie Dnic]XT. passed the naval sta- tions of Saiut Gregory and Saint Etherius, at the mouth of tlie river, aud spread themselves over all the shores of the Greek Empire. The Oriental coins and jewels found in the barrows of the Ilmcn show that the Novgorodians had an early and extensive commerce with the East. We see them exchange iron and weapons for the precious metals found by the lugrians in the mines of the Urals. They tra.leil with the Baltic Slavs ; and whea tlie latter lost their indepen<leuce. and a Hourishiug center, Wisbj', was formed in tlie Isle of Gotlilaud, Novgorod turned to this side also. In the twelfth century there was a Gothic market and a Variag Church at Novgorod, and a Novgorodian Church in Gothland. When the Germans began to dispute the commerce of the Bal- tic with the Scandinavians, Novgorod became the seat of a German market, which finally alisorbed the Gothic one. When the Hause League became the mistress of the North, we find the Germans es- tablished not only at Novgorod, but at Pskof aud Ladoga, at all the outlets of the network of Novgo- rodian lakes. There they obtained considerable privileges, even the right to acquire pasture-land. They were masters, aud at home in tlieir fortified markets, In their stockade of thick planks, where no Russian had the right to penetrate without their leave. This German trading companj- was governed hy the most narrow and exclusive ideas. No Rus- sian was allowed to belong to the company, nor to carry the wares of a Gernian,an Englishman, a Wal- loon, or a Fleming. The company authorized a wholesale commerce only, and, to maintain its goods at a high price, it forbade imports beyond a certain amount. ■' In a word," says a German writer, Kie- senkampf, in " Der Deutsche Hof," "during three centuries the Ilanse League held a monopoly of all the external commerce of Northern Russia. If we inquire what profit or loss it brought this country, we must recognize that, thanks to it, Novgorod and Pskof were deprived of a free commerce witli the West. Ru.ssia, in order to satisfy the first wants of civilization, fell into a state of complete indepen- dence. It was aliandoned to the good pleasure aud pitiless egotism of the German merchants." The ecclesiastical constitution of Novgorod jire- sents a special character. In the rest of Russia the clergy was Russian orthodox. At Novgorod it was Noygorodian before e\'erything. It was only in the twelfth century lliat the Slavs of Ilnien.who had been the last to be converted, could have an Arch- bishop that was neither Greek nor Kievan, but of their own race. From that time the Archbishop was elected by the citizens, by the vetche. Without ■waiting to be invested by the metropolitan bishop at Kief, he was at once installed in his episcopal palace. He was one of the great personages, the first dignitary of tlie republic. In public acts his name was placed before the others. " With the blessing of Archbishop Moses," says one letter- patent, " posadnik Daniel and tuisatski Abraham salute you." He had a superiority over the Prince on the ground of being a native of the country, whilst the descendant of Rurik was a foreigner. In return, the revenues of the Archbishop, the treasures of Saint S<i|)liia, were at the service of the republic. In the fourteenth century we find an Archbishop building at his own expense a kreml of stone. In the fifteenth century the riches of the cathedral were employed to ransom the Russian jirisoners captured by the Litliiianians. The ('luirch of Novgorod was essentially a national cliurcli; the ecclesiastics louk ])arl in the temporal alTairs, the laity in tlie spiritual. In the fiiiirteenth century the vetche put to death the heretical Ktn'f/i/lniki, proscribed ancient superstitions, and burnt the sorcerers. As the citizens of Novgo- rod nominated their Archbishop, Ihey could also de- pose him. The orthodox religion extended with the Novgorod colonization among the Fiimish tribes. In opposition to the Finns, the interests of the Church and the republic were identical. It was religion that contributed to the splendor of the city, and that specially profited by its wealth. Novgorod was full of churches and monasteries, founded by the pietj' of private individuals. Novgorod, which had shaken off the political supremacy of Kief, wished also to free itself from its religious domination. and no longer to be obliged to seek on the Dnieper the investiture of its Archbishop, but to make him an independent metropolitan. It failed. When Moscow became of importance, she threatened not only the political, but the religious supremacy of Novgorod. Religion was, in the hands of the Muscovitc"Princes, an in- strument of government. The Novgorodian prelate always made common cause with his fellow-citizens, and endured with them tlieir master's bursts of ansjer. The literature of Novgorod was as national as the Church herself. The pious chronicles of the Nov- gorodian convents shared all the quarrels and all the passions of their fellow-citizens. "Eventheir style." says jM. Bestujef, "reflects vividly the active, busi- ness-like character of the Novgorodians. It is short, and sparing of words ; but their narratives embrace more completely than those of other Russian coun- tries all the jihases of actual life. They are the his- torians, not merely of the princes, and boj'ars, but of the whole city. The lives of the saints 'are the lives of Novgorodian saints; the miracles they relate are to the glory of the city. They tell for e.\ami)le, that Christ appeared to the artist charged with the paintings under the dome of Saint Sopliia. aud said to him: • Do not represent me with my hand ex- tended for blessing, but with my hand closed, be- cause in it I hold Novgorod, and when it is opened it will be the end of the city.' " Tlie tale of the panic excited among the soldiers of Andrei Bogo- liubski by the image of the Virgin wounded by a Suzdaliau ai»row was spread abroad. Novgorod has its own C3'cle of epic songs. Its heroes are not those of the Kievan poems. There is Yasili Buslae- vitcli ; the bold boyar.who with his faithful drujina stood up to his knees in blood on the bridge of Volk- hof, holdim; in check all the muzhiki of Novgorod, whom he had defied to combat. Vasili Buslaevitch is the true type of these proud adventurers, who knew neither friend nor enemy, — a true Novgorodian oligarch, a hero of civil war. Still more popular wasSadko, the rich merchant.a kind of Novgorodian Sindbad or Ulysses, a worth}' representative of a pe<iple of merchants and adventurers, who sought his fortune on the waves. A tempest rose, and men drew lots to decide who should be sacrificed to the wrath of the gods. Sadko threw a little wooden ring into the water, the others Hung in iron rings : O prodigy ! the others swam, his sank. He obeyed his destiny, and threw himself into the waves, but he was received in thi' palace of the king nf the sea, who tested him in various ways and wished lii'ii to marry his daughter. Then suddenly Saiiko found himself on the sliore witli great treasures, but what were these compared to the treasures of the city ? "They see that I am a rich merchant of Novgorod, but Novgorod is still richer than I." Of all the towns subject to Novgorod. Pskof was the most important. On the pcunt formed by the junction of the Pskuva and the Velikaia rises its kreml, with its crumbling ramparts, its ruined gates and towers. These once famous Wiills are to-day a mass of ruins, and the street-boys amuse themselves by tiirowing stones in the Pskova to frighten the laundresses. Pskof is only a poor little place with ten thousand souls. Scarcely anything remains of its past s])leudor save the Cathedral of I lie Trinity at one end of the kreml. There r<'sl in metal coifins the bones of the best-loved iiriuees, Vsevolod-Ga- briel and Dovinont, a converted Lithuanian who came in the thirteenth century to defend the rei-ublic against his own compatriots. The old town still has maiiv churches and uionas'ei'ies: the distant view SUB8I&N BEFUBLIC8. 82r RUSSIAN REPUBUCS.- of it is t)ciiulifiil.nnil on fcMi'rliiy.s tlicdcml city s<'<'Iiih to uwiikc at till' cliiincs <if iln iiinuiuiniblc bi'lls, ■which rini; iih merrily lis in I he ihiys (if ils nlorinuH piist. N<'sliir iiiiiUi'S IVkiil' III ' iiiilivc liiiiil of Saint ()l^a. lis wliolc hislorv is siiniiiii'il up in lliosc two fads: first, till' slniiji^lc ai.r;iiiisl Ihr 'I'chiiili, anil, later, a;jainsl the (ierniansol Livonia; seroiiil, ils elTorls to Ihcdiih' free from Novf;oroil. The iiiili'- IH'iKleiiec of the city was ultimately sec^ireil by its wealth anil eoiiiinerce. 'I'lie lirst I'rinee who ruled it as a se|iara1e State, Vsevoloil-tJaliriel. win expell- 0(1 by his siilijeets, and therefore was welcomed with the jirealer eai.'erness by the I'skoviaiis. When the Rnzdalian party ruled at Nov!;oroil, it was ^r,.nerally the conlraiy party that Iriiimphed in I'skof. Alioiit twelve himdred and loiirlecii the little republic coii- trncted an olTensive and ilefcnsive alliance with the G(?rinans ; I'skof undertook to help lliem ai;ainsl the Lithuanians, and they were to support I'skof aj;ainst Kov^orod. Tlii-i was iilayini; rather a dangerous game. In twelve Inindred ami forty, one Tverdillo delivered the city up toihe 1/ivonians. and it was not set free till twelve Inindred and forly-two. From this moment I'skof reased lo mix in the civil wars of Novijorod. It bad cnous;li lo do with its own af- fairs and its striisiirle against the (lermans. Swedes and lathuanians. It also elaiine(l the title "My Lord I'skof Ihe (treat:" but il was only in thirtel'ii hun- dred and fiirty-eii;lit that the Novirorodians, nccdiiii; its help iiiiainst Nlaiinus, Kins^ of Sweden, formally recoi;ni/ed its independence, by the treaty of Hol- slof, and concluded a bond of fraternal friendshi]). Novgorod became Ihe elder brother, and I'skof the. younger. The or',;!\nization of I'skof is almost that of its ancient metropolis. We ajjain find the Prince, Ihe Vetelh', the division into (|uarters, up lo the number of six, e;icli one having; its Mayor. In llie twelfth century !i new Novjjorodian colony was founded between Ihe Kama and the Viatka, wdiich remained a republic \intil the lifteentli century. "This distant eoiintry," says INI. liestujef-Hiimun, "is still (piile Novj;orodian. When the traveller has jjas.sed the Viatka, he meets with a peculiar mode of const ructini; Ihe huls. There are no lonjrer whole lines of hovels joined one to the other, as on this side of the river, but there is a hii;h house, where the court, rooms, and olliecs are surrounded liy a rampart of ])alcs.and united under Ihe same roof; in a word, it is a Novgorodian house. You hear the Novgorodian dialect: you see the Novgorodian cap. It isthe Novgorod colonization still livinj;." In eleven hundred and seventy-foursome a Iventiircrs from (he lireat l{epublie came from the Kama *o the Viatkji, ■and advanced from cast to west, and founded a col- ony on this river, which is to-day the villiige of Ni- kulitsuin. Another band defealed Ihe Tcheremisa. and on their territory raised Ko.-.hkarof, at present called Kotelnilch. Then the two bands reunited. and penetrated into the Votiak country. On (he riirht liank of (he Viatka, on Ihe summit of a hi,!;li mountain, they perceived a cily surrounded l)v a rampart and a ditch, which contained one of (lie sanctuaries of the people. As pious as Ihe com- panions of Cortez and I'izarro, tlie Hussian adven- turers prepared themselves for the assault by a fast of several days, then invoked Saints I5oris and Gleb, and captured the town. Ne.\t, at (he mouth of (he Kliluinovitsa, in (he Vialkii, not very far ofT, they Imill (he ci(y of Khluinof, which became, under (he name of Via(k;i, the ("ipil;d of all the colonies. It had no walls, but the houses, built close together, formed an unbroken rampart against the enemy, a wall and defence. At the news of this siicces.s, other colonists Hocked from Novgorod and (he forests of the north, and founded other centers of population. These bold pioneers had more lli;inonce to reunite, .-iomeiimes against the aboriginal Finns or the Tatar invaders, sometimes against the jiretensions of Nov- gorod, or Ihe Orand Prince of Moscow. We tind among tliem, as in the metropolis, boyars, mercliauts , and citizens. They had voievodiii or atamans for their military chiefs. 'I'lieir spirit of religious ind(^- pendcnee eipialled their political inde|ieiideiice. Jo- nas. .Metropolitan of .Mosi ow, writes angrily about the indoeiliiy of I heir clergy, and avenges himself by blaming lliiir morals. "Voiir spiritual sons," \n: writes to Ihe priests of Viatka, "live contrary lo tin; law. They hav(! live, Hix,«or even Beveii wives. And you dare lo blesi* these marriages." In this conneclion. we will liriiMy review llie li;it- tles of Ihe Kalka, of Kiazan, of Kolomna, and of the Sit, and the inlliience of the Tatars on Hussian do velopmi 111. I'p lo this lime Ihe history of Hiissia has presented some analogy with that of the West. Slavonia, like (!aul, had received Homan civiliza- tion and Christianily from the South. The North- men bad brought it an organization which n callH that of the Cermans; and it had enjoyed a certain sendilancc of unity under laroslaf, like I he West un- der (Miarles Ihe (Ireat, while it was afterwards dis- membercd and divided like prance in feudal times, lint in llie tliirlcenlh century Kiissia suffercil an un- precedented misfortune ; it was invaded and subju- gated by Asiatic hordes. This fatal event contribut- ed fpiite as much as the disadvantage of the soil and the climale lo retarc' ils development by many centu- ries. "Nadire," as M. Soloviof .says, "has beenastcp- modier (o Hiissia"; fa(e was anodier step-modicr. "In (hose (imes," say the Hussian chroniclers, "(here came upon us for our sins, unknown nation.s. No one could tell Iheir origin, whence they came, whiit religion (hey professed. God alone knew why they were, God and jierhajis wise men learned in books." When we think of (he horror of Ihe whole of Europe at Ihe arrival of Ihe Mongols, and (he an- guish of a Frederick, of a Saint Louis, an Innocent the Fourth, we may imagine the terror of the Uus- sians. They bore tiie lirst shock of (hose mys(erioii.s foemen. who were, so the people whispered. Gog and Magog, who, according to Joinville, "were to come at the end of the world, when jVnlicbrist is to destroy everything." The Ta-ta, or Tatars, seem to have been a tribe of the great Mongol race, living at Ihe fool of the Altai, wi.o in spite of Iheir long- continued discords freqiiindy found means to lay was(e China by (heir invasions. The por(rai( drawn of (hem recalls in many ways (hose already traced by Chinese, Ladn, and Greek audiors, of tlie Huns, the Avars, and other nomad peoples of former inva- sions. "The Ta-(zis, or (he Das," says a Chinese wri(er of (he (liir(een(h century, "occupy themselves exclusively with their flocks ; they g(j wandering ceaselessly from pasture to pasture, from river to river. They are ignorant of the nature of a town or a wall. They are unac(juainted with writing and books : their treaties are concluded orally. From infancy they are accustomed to ride, to iiim their arrows at rats and liirds, and thus acqinre the c(mr- age essential lo their life of wars and rapine. They have neither religious ceremonies nor judicial insti- tutions. From the Prince to (he lowest among the people all feed upon (he Hesh of the animal.s the skins of which they use for clothing. The strongest among them have (he larges( and fadest morsels at feasts; Ihe old men are put olT with the frasrments that are left. They respect nothing but .strength and bravery : age and weakness they despise. 'W'lienthe father dies, the son marries bis youngest wives." A Mussulman writer adds, that ihey "adore the sun, and practise polygamy and the community of wives. This pastoral people did no( (ake an in(ercst in any phenomenon of na(ure except the growth of grass. The names (hey gave (o their months were susrgest- ed by (he dilTerent aspects of (he prairie. Born iiorse- men, they had no infantry in war. They were ig- norant of the art of sieges. "But," says "a Chinese author, "when th(\v wish to take a town, they fall on the suburban villages. Each leader seizes ten men. and every prisoner is forced to carry a ceilain ciuantity of wood, stones, and other materials. The BTTSSIAN REPUBLICS. 826 RUSSIAN BEPUBLICS. use these for filling up fosses, or digging trendies. In the capture of a town the loss of ten thousanti men was thought nothing. No place could resist them. After a siege all the population was massacr- ed, without distinction of old or young, rich or poor, lieautiful or ugly, those who resisted or those who j'ielded; no distinguished person escaped death, if a defence was attempted. " It was these rough tribes that Temutchin, or Genghis Khan, who ruled from eleven hundred and fifty-four until twelve hun- dred and twenty-seven, succeeded in imiting into one nation after forty years of obscure struggles. Then in a general congress of their princes he "pro- claimed himself Emperor, and declared that, as there was only one sun in heaven, there ought to be only one Emperor on the earth. At the headOf their forces he conquered Mantchuria, the kiugdoni of Tanirut, Northern China, Turkestan, and Great Bokhara, which never recovered from this disaster, and the plains of Western Asia as far as the Crimea. When he died, he left to be divided between his four sons the largest empire that ever existed. It was during his conquest of Bokhara that his Lieutenant Tchep and Subudai-bagadur subdued in their passage a multitude of Turkish peoples, passed the Caspian by its southern shore, invaded Georgia and the Caucas- us, and in the southern steppes'of Russia came in contact with the Polovtsui. The hereditary enemies of the Russians proper, the Polovtsui, asked the Christian Princes for help against these Mongols and Turks, who were their brothers by a common origin. "They have taken our country," said they to the descendants of Saint Vladimir: "to-morrow they will take yours." Jlstis- laf the Bold, then Prince of Galitch,"persuaded all the dynasties of Southern Russia to take up arms against the Tatars ; his nephew Daniel, Prince of VoUiyn^a, AFstislaf I{omauovitch, Grand Prince of Kief. Oleg of Kursk, Mstislaf of Tchernigof, Vladi- mir of Smolensk, Vsevolod, for a short time Prince of Novgorod, responded to his appeal. To cement Ids alliance with the Russians, Basti, khan of the Polovtsui, embraced orthodoxy. The Russian ar- my had already arrived on the Lower Dnieper, when the Tatar ambassadors made their appearance. "We have come by God's command against our slaves and grooms, the accursed Polovtsui. Be at peace with US; we have no ([uarrel with you." The Russians with the promptitude and thouglitles.suess 1i;at eliar- aoterized the men of that timc'jiut the amliassadors to death. Tliey then went farther into the steppe, and encountered the Asiatic hordes on the Kalka, a small river ruuning into the Sea of Azof. Tlie Ru.s- sian cliivalry on this memorable day showed the sam • ilisorder and the same ill-advised eagerness as tlie French cliivalry at the opeidni; of the Enfflish wars. Mstislaf the 'Bold, Daniel of Galitch, and Oleg of Kursk were the first to rush into the midst of the infidels, wilhoul waiting for the Princes of Kief, and even without givir.g Iheni warning, in order to gain for themselves the jionors of victory. In the middle of the combat the Polovtsui were s'eized with a pan- ic and fell l)uck on the Russian ranks, thus throw- ing them iiitci dis^'riler. The rout became general, and the leaders spurred on their steeds in luspes of reaching the Dnieper. Six princes and seventy of the chief boyars, or voievodui, remained on the field of battle. It was tlie Crecy "and Poitiers of the Russian chivalry. Hardly a tenth of the army escaped; the Kievaiis alone left ten tliousand dciul". The (Irand Prince of Kief, liowever, Mslishif Uomanovilch, still occupied a fortified camp on flic biuiks of the Ivalka. Aban- doned by file rest of the iirmy, he tried to definil liimself. The Tatars offered fo'make terms; he iiii;;ht retire on paymeiil of a ransom for himself and Tiis drujina. He capitulated, and tlie conditions were broken. His u'liard was massacred, and he and his two sons-in-law were slilled under |ilaiiks. The Ta- tars held their festivals over the iuanimate bodies in i twelve liundred and twenty-four. After this thun- derbolt, which struck terror into the whole of Rus- sia. the Tatars paused and returned to the East. No- thing more was heard of them. Thirteen years pass- ed, during which the princes reverted to their per- petual discords. Those in the northeast had given no help to the Russians of the Dnieper; perhaps the Grand Prince, luri flic Second of Suzdal, may have rejoiced over the humiliation of the Kievans and Gallicians. The Mongols were forgotten; the chronicles, however, are filled with fatal presages in the midst of scarcit}', famine and pestilence, of incendiaries in the towns and calamities of all sorts, they remark on the comet of twelve hundred and twenty-four, the earthquake and eclipse of tlie sun of twelve hundred and thirty. The Tatars were busy finishing the conquest of China, but presently one of the sous of Genghis, Ugu- dei or Oktai, sent his nephew Batui to the West. "As the reflux of the Polovtsui liad announced the inva- siou of tweh-e hundred and twentv-four, that of the Saxin nomads, a tribe akin to the Ivhirghiz.who took refuge on the lands of the Bulgariaus of the Volga, warned men of a new irruption of the Tatars, and indicated its direction. It was no longer Soutli Rus- sia, but Suzdalian Russia that was threatened. In twelve hundred and thirty-seven Batui conquered the Great City, capital of the half-civilized Bulgarui, who were, like the Polovtsui, ancient enemies of Russia,and who were to be included in its ruin. Bol- gary was given up to the flames, and its inhabitants were put to the sword. The Tat;irs next plunged into the deep forests of the Volga, and sent a sorcer- er and two officers as envoys to "the Princes of Ria- zan. The three princes of Riazan, those of Pronsk, Ivolomna, Moscow, and !Murom advanced to meet them. " If j-ou want peace," said the Tatars, "give us the tenth of your goods." " When we are dead," replied the Russian Princes, "3-011 can have the whole." Though abandoned by the princes of Tcher- nigof and the Grand Prince luri the Second, of whom they had implored help, the dynasty of Ria- zan accepted the unequal struggle. They were com- pletely crushed; nearly all their princes remained on the field of battle. Legend has embellished their fate. It is told how Feoihu- preferred to die rather than see his young wife, Euphrasia, the spoil of Batui, and how, on learning his fate, she threw herself and her son from the window of her cbainlier. Oleg the Handsome, found .still alive im the battle-field, repell- ed the caresses, the attention, and religion of the khan, and was cut in pieces. Riazan was immedi- ately taken by assault, sacked, and burned. All the towns of the principality suffered the same fate. It was now the turn of tlie Grand Prince, for the Rus- sia of the northeast had not even the honor of falling in a grcid. battle like the Russia of the southwest, uniled for once against the common enemy. Tlie Suzdalian army, commanded by a son of luri the Sec- ond, was beaten on the day of Kolomna, on the Oka. The Tatars burned Moscow, then besieged Vladi- mir on the Kliazma, which luri the Second had abandoned to seek for hel]) in the North. His two sons were charged wilh the defence of the capital. Princes iind boyars. feeling there was no alternative but death or servitude, ])re])arcd to die. The prin cesses and all the nobles i)raye{l Bishop Metroplianes to give them tli(Uonsure; and when tlu' Tiitars rush- ed into the town by all its gates, the ViUi(|uislied re- tired info the cathedral, where they perished, men and women, in a general confiagniliim. Suzd;d,Ros- tof, laroslavl, fourleen towns, a multitude of vill;iges ill the (iniiid Principality, were all given over to the flames in iwelve i:undnMl and f bii-ty-eight. The Tiilars then went to seek the Graii<l I'rince, who was encamped on the Sit, almost on tjie frontier of the possessions of Novgorod. luri the Second could neither avenge bis peojile nor liis family. After the battle the Bisho]) of Uostof found his headless corjise. His nephew Vasilko, who was taken prisoner, was SUSBIAH REPUBLICS. 827 BUS8IAN BEPUBLIC8. Blabbed for refusing to nerve lialiii. 'I'hi' immense Talararmy, after jiaviii;; saekeil Tver, loiik 'I'orjoli; tliere " liie Kwssiaii lieails fell lienealii the sw<inl of the 'Palarn as grass Ix'iiealb llie seyllie." Tlie lerri- torv of Novgoniil was iiivaileil; the great re|>\iblic treinl)leil,l)ilt tile ileep forests and llie swollen rivers delayed IJaliii. The invailiiig Hood reachc'd the Cross of lgii;Miiis, ahoiil Hfly miles from Novgorod. Ilieii reltinied lo the Soiilhi'ast. On the way the small town of l\o/<'lsU. near Is'ahiga. checked the Tatars for so long and inllicled on them so nuich loss, that it was called by llieni the wicked town. lis popula- tion was exterminated, and the prince, Vasili, still a child, was " drowned in blood." The two following years were spent by the Tatars in ravaging Southern Kurojje. Tliey burnt I'ereias- hif, and Tchernigof, defended with rlesperation by its princes. Next .Malign, grandson of (iengiiis Khan, inarched against the famous town of Kief, whose name resoundi'd through llic east and in the books of iIm' Aral) writers, l>'rom the left bank of the Dnieper the barbarian admired the great city on the heights of tin' right bank, lowering over the wide river with its white walls and lowers adorned hy |{y- zantine artists, and innumeralilechurches wilhcu|io- las of gold and silvvr. .Mangii olVered Ihc Kicvans terms of surrender; the fate of Hiazan. of Tcherni- j gof, of Vladimir, the capitals of powerful states, an- nounced to tliem the lot that awaited them in case of refusal, yet the Kicvans dan'd to massacre the en- voys of the klian. Mikhail, their (irand I'rincc. lied: his rival, Daniel of (ialilch, did not care to remain. On hearing the report of Mangu, lialui came to as. sault liief with the bulk of Ids army. Tiie grinding ol the wooden chariots, the bcllowings of the bulVa- loes, the cries of the camels, the neighing of the horses, the bowlings of the Tatars, rendered it im- possible, says the amialist, to hear your own voice m the town". The Tatars assailed the I'olisli (iate. and knocked down the walls with a battering-ram. "The Kicvans. supported by the l)rave Dmitri, a Gallician boyar, defended the fallen ramparts till the end ot the day, then retreated lo the Church of the Tithe, which they surrounded l)y a palisade. The last defenders of Kief found themselves gronped a- round llie tondiof larosl.'if. Next day they perislied. The khan gave the boyar his life, but Mhc Mother ol Russian cities' was sacked. This tliird iiillage, which took jilace in twelve hundred and forty, was the most terrilile, Even the tombs were not respect- ed. All that remains of the Church of the Tithe is 1) tew fragments of mosaic in the^Iuseum at Kief. Saint Sophia and the Jlonastery of the Catacombs Wert delivered up to be plundered." Volbynia and Gallieia still reniaiiu'd, bnt their princes could not defend them, and Unssia found itself, with the ex- ception of Novgorod anil the northwest country, un- der the Tatar yoke. The princes had lied or were dead; lunidreds of thousands of Knssians were drag- ged into captivity. Men saw the wives of boyars, •' who had never known work, who a short time ago had been clothed in rich garments, adorned with jew- els and collars of gold, surrounded with slaves, now reduced lobe the slaves of barbarians and their wives, turning the wheel of the mill, and ])reparing their coarse food." If we look for the causes which rendered the de- feat of the brave Russian nation so complete, we may, with Karamsin, indicate the following: Though the Tatars were not more advanced, from a military point of view, than the Unssians, who had made war in (Ireece and in tlie West against the most warlike and civilized people of Kurope. yet tiiey had iin enormous su|)eriorily of numbers. Matiii probably had with him live hundred llnaisand war- riors. This immense army moved like one man: it could successively aimihihite the small arniies of the princes, or the ndlitiaof the towns, which presented themselves one at a time to its blows. The Tatars had found Russia divided against itself. Jiven though Russia hail wished lo form a confederation, the sudden irruption of an army entirely composed of horsi'iiiiMi did not leave it time. In the tribes ruled by lialui every man vsax u soldier: in RiisHia the nobles and citizen'- alonr' liorearinM; tlie peasant)), who formed Ihc bulk of the population, allowed Ihemselvesto be stalibed or bound without resist- ance. It was not by a weak nation llial Russia WUB <oiii|uered. The 'I'alar-.Mongols, under (lenghiH Khan, bad lilled the Kiist with the glory of their name, and subdued nearly all Asia. I'liey arriverl, proud of llnir exploits, aninialed by the recollection of a hundri'd victories, and reinforced by the num- erous peoples they had vani|iiislicd, and hurried with them to the West. \\ hen the Princes of Calitch. of Volbynia. and fif Kief arrived as fugitives in Po- land and lliingiiry. Kurope wiis terror-stricken. The I'ope, whose support had been claimed by the Prince of (ialilch, summoned Christendom to arms. Louis the Ninth pr<'])ared for a crusade. Frederick the Second, as l';mperor, wrote to the sovereigns of the West: " This is the moment to open the eyes of body and sold, now that the brave |iriiices on whom we reckoned are dead or in shivery." The Tatars in- vaded llnngary. gave battle to the Poles in Liegnitz in Silesia, bad their progress a long while arrested by the courageous defense of Olmulz in Moravia, by the Tchek voievod, laroslaf, and stopped finally, learning that a larg(^ army, commanded by the King of Bohemi;i and the Diikcsof Austriaand Karintbia, was approaching. The news of the death of Oktai, second Knqieror of all the Tatars, in C'himi, recalled lialui from the West, and during tin- long march from Germany his army necessarily diminished in number. The Tatars were no longer in the vast jilains of Asia and Eastern Europe, but in a. broken liilly country, bristling with fortresses, defended b)' a population more dense and a chivaln,- more num- erous tlam those of Russia, To sum up. all the fury of the .Mongol teni]iest spent itself on the Slavonic race. It was the Russians who fought at the Kalka, at Kolomna, at the Sit; the Poles and Silesians at liiegnitz; the Bohemians and Moravians at Olmutz. The Germans suffered nothnig from the invasion of the Mongols but the fear of it. It exhausted itself principally on tbo.se plains of Russia which seem a continuation of the steppes of Asia. Only in Rus- sian history did the invasion produce great results. About Ihe same lime Balui built on f)iie ol the arms of the Lower Volga a city c:illed Sarai, orihe Castle, which became thi' capital of a powerful Tatar Em- pire, tlicGolden Horde, extending from the I'ral and Caspian to the mouth of the Danube. The Golden Horde was formed not only of Tatar-Mongols, or Nogais, who evi-n now survive in the Northern Cri- mea, bnt ])ar',iciilarly of the remains of ancient no- mads, such as Ihe Petchenegi and Pok'Vtsui. whrj.se descendants si'cm lo be the present Kalmucks and Bashkirs; of Turkish tribes tending to be sedentary, like the Tatars of Astrakhan in the present day; and of the Finnish ]io|)iilations already established in the country, and which mixed with the invaders. Oktai, Kuiuk, and .Mangu, the first three successors of Genghis Khan, elected by all the Mongol Princes, took the title of Great Khans, and the (iolden Horde recognized their :iulliorily; but under his fourth suc- cessor. Khubulai. who usurped the throne and es- tablished himself in China, this bond of vassalage was broken. The Gohlen Horde became an inde- pendent state in twelve hundred and sixty. Tnited and poweri'ul under the terrible Batui. who died in twelve hundred and fifty-tive. it fell to pieces under l\is successors; but in the fourteenth centur_v the Khan I'zbek reunited it anew, and gave the Horde a i second period of prosperity. The Tatars, who 1 were jiagans when they entered Russia, embraced the failli of Islam about twelve hundred and seven- ty-two. anil became its most formidable apostles. laroslaf. after his defeat at Lipetsk, entered Suz- dal on the tragic death of his brother, the Grand BUSSI&N REPUBLICS. 828 RUSSIAN R£FUBLICS. Prince luri the Second, in twelve hundred and thir- tj'-eiglit, and found his inheritance in the most de- plorable condition. The towns and villages were burnt, the country and roads covered with unburied corpses ; the survivors were hiding in the woods. He recalled the fugitives and began to rebuild. Ba- tui, who had completed the devastation of South Russia, summoned laroslaf to do him homage at Sarai, on the Volga. laroslaf was received tliere withdistinclion. Batui confirmed his title of Grand Prince, but invited him to go in person to the Great Khan, supreme chief of the Mongol nation, wlio lived on the banks of the river Sakhalian, or Amur. To do this was to cross the whole of Russia and Asia. laroslaf bent Ills knees to the new master of the world, Oktai, succeeded in refuting the accusa- tions brought against him bj' a Russian boyar, and obtained a new confirmation of his title. On his re- turn, in twelve hundred and fortv-fi.x, he died in tlie <lesert of exhaustion, and his faithful servants brought his body back to Vladimir. His son Andrei succeed- ed him at Suzdal, and ruled until twelve hundred and fifty-two. His other son, Alexander, reigned at Novgorod the (Jreat. Alexander was as brave as he was intelligent. He was the hero of the North, and yet he forced himself to accept the necessary humili- ations of his terrible situation. In his youth we see him fighting witli all the enemies of Novgorod, Li- vonian kniglits and Tchudi, Swedes and Finns. The Novgorodians found themselves at issue with the Scandinavians on the subject of their possessions on the Neva and the Gulf of Finland. As they had lielped till' natives to resist the Latin faith. King John obtained the promise of Gregory the Ninth that a crusade, with plenary indulgences, should be preach- ed against the Great Republic and its proteges, the pagans of the Baltic. His son-in-law. Birger, with an army of Scandinavians, Finns, and Western Crus- aders, look the command of the forces, and sent word to the Prince of Novgorod, "Defend yourself, if you can: and know that I am already- in your prov- inces." The Russians on their side, feeling that thej" were fighting for orthodoxy, opposed the Latin crusade with a Greek one. Alexander humbled him- self in Saint Sopliia, received the benediction of the Archbishop Spiridion, and addressed an energetic harangue to Ins warriors. He had no time to await reinforcemenis from Suzdal. He attacked the Swed- ish camp, which was situated on the Ijora, one of the southern iifHuents of the Neva, which had given its name to Ingria. Alexander won a brilliant vic- tory, which gained him his surname of Nevski. and the honor of becoming one of the patrons of Saint Petersburg under Peter the Great, the second con- queror of the Swedes. By the orders of his great successor, his bones repose in the Monastery of Alex- ander Nevski. Tlie battle of the Neva was preserved in a dramatic legend. An Ingriau chief told Alex- ander liow, on the eve of the combat, he had seen a mysterious bari.|ue, manned b}' two warriors with shining Ijrows, glide tlirough the night. They were Boris and (!lei). who came to the rescue of their young kinsman. Other accounts liave preserved to us the individual exploits of tlie Russian heroes — <Tabriel,Skuilaf of Novgorod, .lames of l'olotsk,Sabas, who threw down the ieiil of Birger. and Alexander Nevski himself, who with a stroke of tlie lance "im- lirinted his seal on his face." Notwithstanding the triumph of such a service, Alexander and tlie Nov- gorodians could not agree; a short time after he re- tired to Pereiaslavl-Zalicski. The proud repulilieaus soon had reason to regret tlie exih' of lliis seeoml Camilliis. The Order of the Swordbearers, the in- defatigable enemy of orthodoxy, took J'skof, Iheir alley: th(^ Germans imposed tribiile on the VojaiK', vassals of Novgorod, constructed the fortress of Ko- porie on the territory of the Neva, look the Ilussian town of Tessof In Ksthonia, and iilllaged the mer- <-liants of Novgorod wilhin seventeen luiles of their ramparts. During this time IIk' Tchudi imd the Lithuanians captured the peasant?, and the cattle of tiie citizens. At last Alexander allowed himself to be touched bj' the prayers of the Archbishop and th<; people,assembled an army, expelled the Germans from Koporie, and next from Pskof, hung as traitors the captive Vojane and Tchudi, and put to death six knights wlio fell into his hands. This war between the two races and two religions was cruel and piti- less. The law of nations was hardly recognized, More than once Germans and Russians slew the am- bassadors of the other side. Alexander Nevski fin- ally gave battle to the Livonian knights on the ice of Lake Peipus, killed four hundred of them, took fifty prisoners, and exterminated a multitude of Tchudi. Such was the Battle of the Ice, which took place in twelve hundred and forty-two. He returned in tri- umph to Novgorod, dragging with him his jjrisoners loaded with irons. Tiie Grand Master expected to see Alexander at the gates of Riga, and implored help of Denmark. The Prince of Novgorod, satisfied with having delivered Pskof, concluded peace, re- covered certain districts, and consented to the ex- change of prisoners. At this time Innocent the Fourth, deceived by false information, aildressed a bull to Alexander, as a devoted son of the Church, assuring him that his father laroslaf, while dying among the Horde, had desired to submit himself to the throne of Saint Peter. Two Cardinals brought him tills letter from the Pope in twelve hundred and fifty-one. It is this liero of the Neva and Lake Peipus, this vanquisher of the Scandinavians and the Livonian knights, that we are presently to see grovelling at the feet of a barbarian. Alexander Nevski perceived that in presence of this immense and brutal force of the Mongols, all resistance was madness, all pride ruin. To brave them was to complete the overthrow oi Russia. His conduct maj' not have been chival- rous, but it was wise and humane. Alexander dis- dained to play the hero at the expense of his people, like his brother Andrei of Suzdal, who was immedi- ately obliged to fly, abandoning his country to the vengeance of the Tatars. The Prince of Novgorod was the only prince in Russia who had kept his in- dependence, but he knew Batui's hands could ex- tend as far as the Ilmen. "God has subjected many peoples to me," wrote the barbarian to him : "will you alone refuse to recognize my power ? If you wish to keep your land come to me : you will see the splendor and glor}- of my swa}'." Then Alex- ander went to Sarai with his brother Andrei, who was disputing the Grand Principality of Vladimir with his uncle, Sviatoslaf. Batui declared that fame had not exaggerated the merit of Alexander, that he far excelled the common run of Russian Princes. He enjoined the two brothers to show themselves, like Iheir father laroslaf, at the Great Horde ; they returned from it in twelve hundred and fifty seven. Kuiuk had confirmed the one in the po.ssession of Vladimir, and tlie other in that of Novgorod, a<Iding to it all South Russia and Kief. The year twelve hundred and sixty jtut Alexander's patience and also his politic obedience to the Tatars to the proof. Ulavtclii, to whom llie Khnii Birkai had confided llie all'airs of ;ill Russia, deniimdid that N<ivgorod should submit lo llie census and pay tribute, ll was the hero of the Neva who was charged with the huniilialing and dangerous mission of persuading Novgorod, When the posadnik expressed in the vetciu? the opinion that it was necessary to submit to the slrongesl, the jieople nosed a terrible cry and j munlered him. Vasili hiiiisi'If. Alexinider's son, de- 1 elared against a f:ither "who brought servitude to t free men," ;uid rdiied lo the Pskovians. It needed a soul of iron temper to resist the universal disa|)- probation ami counsel the Novgorodians to tliecom- ; mission of the cowardly though necessary act . Alex- ander arrested his son, and |iuiiislied with death or I mutilation the boyars wlio had led him into the rc- 1 volt. The velehe decided lo refuse the tribute, and RUSSIAN REPUBLICS. 829 RUSSIAN REPUBLICS. Bent buck tlie Mongol ambassador» with prpHcnts. However, nil tlieriiiiiDr of I lie iipprdiicli of I he 'I'aliirx, llicv repi'Mlcilaiiil Ali-.\:inilir coulil ;iririniiiicc to llii^ eiieiiiy llial NoVfj;ijroil Mjljiiiilliil lo tlic- cciisiis. IJiil when they saw tlie ollieer of th(^ Uhan at work, the ftopiihilion rev.illed at;aiii, and the I'rince was ol)- i;^e(l to keep };uar(l on tlie ollicer.s iiii;ht and (hiy. In v.'dn the hoyars advised the eiti/.eiis lo j;ive in : usseiiihlcd around Saint Sophia, the pi-npie <li-elared Ihey would die for lilurly and honor. Alexan<ler tlieii IhrealcTiril lo (|iiil llie eily wiih his men, and abandon il lo the full veni;( anee nf tin' khan. This menace eonipiered the pride cif th<- Nov;;orodians. The Mongols anil their agents were allowed to jjo, register in hiimi, from honse to honse in the humili- ated and silent city to make the list of the in habit finis. "The hoyars," says Karanisin, "might si ill he vain of their rank and their rielies.lmt the simple <'ili/,ens had lost with their national honor their most precious possession." In Suzdal also Alexander found liimself in the presence of insolent victors and exasperatixl siilijects. in twelve hundred and sixty-two the inhabitants of Vladimir, of Suzdal, and of Kostof all arose against the collectors of the Tatar inipnsl. The people of laroslavl slew one renegade named Zozim a former monk, who had become a .Moslem fanatic. Terribh^ reprisals wi're sure to follow. Alexander set out with presents for tlie Horde at the risk of leaving his head there. He had likewise to excuse himself for having refused tlie Mongols a body of the auxiliary Russians, wishing at least to spare the blood and the religious scruples of his subjects. It is a remarkable factUiat, over the most piofonnd humiliations of the Kussian nationality, Ihi^ contenipHrary history always throws a ray of glory. At the moment that Alexiuider w-ent to prostrate himself at Sarai, tiie Su/.dalian army, united to that of Novgorod, and eonuniuided by his son Dmitri, defeated the Livon- ian knights, and look Dorpat by assault. The Khan Bp.rluii gave Alexander a kind greeting, accepted his explanations, dispensed with the promise<l contin- gent, but kept him for a year near his Coiirl. Alex- luuler's health broke down; on his return he died before reaching Vladimir. When the news arrived at his Capital, the Metropolitan Kirill, who was tin- jsbing tile liturgy, turned towards the faithful, and said : "Learn, my dear children, that the Sun of Russia 18 set." "We are lost," cried the people, brmUiing forth into sobs. Alexander by this policy of resignation, which his chivalrous heroism does not iHTinit us to despise, had secured some repose for exhausted Russia. By his victories over his enemies of the West he had given it some glory, and hindered it from despairing under the most crushing tyranny, material and moral, which a Eu- ropean people had ever siilTered. The Mongol khans, after having devastated and abased Russia, did not introduce any direct political change. They left to each coun'ry its laws, its courts of justice, its natural chiefs. The house of Andrei Bogoliuliski continued to reign in Suzdal, that of Daniel Homanovilch in Galitch and Volhynia, the Olgovitchi in Tcliernigof, and the descendants of Rogvolod the Variag at Polotsk. Novgorod might continue to expel and recall its priiKcs, and the dy- nasties of the South to dispute the throne of Kief. The Russian states found themselves under the Mongol yoke, in much the same situation as that of the (.'hrislians of the Greco-Slav peninsula three cen- turies later, under the Ottomans. The Russians remained in possession of all their lands, which their nomad concpierors. encamped <ni the steppes of the East and South, disdained. They were like their Danubian kinsmen, a sort of rayahs. over whom the authority of the khans was exerted with more or le.ss rigor, but whom their conquerors never tried in any. way to Tatarize. Let us see in w hat consisted ed the oliligations of the vanquished, and their rela- tions with their conquerorsjduriug the Mongol yoke. The Riisnian Princes were forced to visit the Horde either as evidence of their HiibiiiiKsion, or to give the khan opporlunity of judging tlii'ir ilispiites. We have seiii how they iiail to go, not only to (he khaii of the (loldin Horde, but often also to the Grand Khan at the extremity of .Asia, rui the borders of the Sakli.iliaii or Amur. They met there Ibi- chiefH of the Mongol, Tatar, Thibetan, and Hokharian liordcB, iiikI sometimes llie ambassador of tlieCaliph of Bag- dad, of Ihc I 'ope, or of the King of F.'-aiici-. rin; Grand Khans tried tr) play oil' against each oilier lliese uin- bassadois, who were aslounded to meet at lii» Court. Malign Khan ilesired Saint Louis to recognize him as the master of the world, "for," said he. "whcB the universe has saluted me as sovereign, a happy traiKpiillity will reign on the earth." In the case of refusal, "neither deep seas nor inaccessible moun- tains" wouhl place the King of Prance beyond the power of his wrath. To Ihi^ princes of Asia an<l Itus- sia he displayed the presents of the King of France, alVecling lo consider Ihem as tributes and signs of submission. "We will send for him to confound you," he said to theiii. and Joinville assures us that this threat, and "the fear of the King of France," decided many lo throw themselves (Jii his mercy. This journey to the Grand Horde was terrible. The road went tliroiigh deserts; or countries once rich, but changed by the Tatars into vast wastes. Few who went returned. I'lanus Carpinus, envoy of In- nocent the Fourth, saw in the steppes of the Kirghiz the dry bones of the hoyars of tlie unhappy laros- laf, who had dieil of thiVsl in the sand. Planus C'ar- jiinus thus describes the H:ilui's Court on the Volga: "It is crowded and brilliant. His army consists of six hundred lliousand men, one hundred and fifty thousand of wliom are Tatars, and four hundn d and lifty thousand strangers. Christians as well as infi- dels. On Gc od Friday we were conducted to his tent, between two tires, becau.ie the Tatars pretend that a fire purifies everything, and robs even poison of its danger. We had lo make many prostrations, and enter'the tent without loiiching the threshold, lialiii was in his throne with one of his wives; his brothers, his children, and the Tatar lords were seat- ed on benches ; the rest of the assembly were on the ground, the men on the right, the women on the left.... The klian and the lords of the Court emptied from time to lime cups of gold and silver, while the musicians made the air ring with their melodies. l!;itiii has a bright complexion; he isalTable with his men. but inspires general terror." The Court of the (irand Khan was still more magnificent. Planus Car- pinus found there a Russian named Kum, who was the f;ivorite and special goldsmilh of Gaiuk or Kuuik, anil Rul)ruqius discovered a Parisian goldsmilh, nam- ed Guillaume. Much money was needed for success either at the Court of the Grand Khan or of Batui. Presents had to be distributed to the Tatar Princes, to the favorites above all, to the wives and the mother of the khan. .Vl this terrible tribunal the Russian Princes had to struggle with intrigues and corrup- tion; the heads of the" pleaders were often the slakes of these dreadful trials. The most dangerous ene- mies they encountered at the Tatar Court were not the barbarians, but the Russians, their rivals. The history of the Russian Princes at the Horde of Sa- rai in "twelve hundred and forty-six, and Mikhail of Tver in thirteen hundred and nineteen, the one as- sassinated by the renegade Doman, Ihe other by the renegade Romaneis, at the instigation and under the eyes'of the Grand Prince of Moscow. " The conquered people were obliged to pay a capi- tation lax, which weisrlii-d as heavily on Ihe poor as on the rich. The tribute was paid "either in money or in furs; those who were unable lo furnish it be- came slaves. The khans Inid for some lime farmed out this revenue lo some Khiva merchants, who col- I lected it with the utmost rigor, and whom they pro- tected by appointing superior agents called batka/ii, I with strong guardsto support them. The excesses BUSSIAN REPUBLICS. 830 KUSSIAN KEPCBLICS. of these tax-gatherers excited many revolts: in twelve hundred and sixtj'-two, that of Suzdal; in twelve hundred and eighty -four, that of Kiirsk; in thirteen hundred and eighteen, that of Kolomna; in thirteen hundred and twentj'-seveu, that of Tver, where the inhabitants slew tlie haskak Shevkal, and brought upon themselves frightful reprisals. Later, the Princes of Moscow themselves farmed not only tlie tax from their own subjects, but also from neighboring coun- tries. Tliev became the farmers-general of the in- vaders. Tills was the origin of both their riches and their power. Besides the tribute, the Russians had to furnish to their master the blood-tax, a military contingent. Already at the time of the Huns and Avars, we have seen Slavs and Goths accompanying tlie Asiatic hordes, forming their vanguards, and being as it were the hounds of Baian. In the thirteentli cen- tury the Kussiau Princes furnislied to the Tatars select troops, especially a solid infantry, and march- ed in their armies each at the head of his drujiua. It was thus that in twelve hundred and seventy-six Boris of Rostof, Gleb of Bielozersk, Feodor of laro- slavl, and Andrei of Gorodets followed Mangu Khan in a war against the tribes of tlie Caucasus, and sacked Dediakof in Daghestau, the capital of the lasui. The Mongols scrupulously reserved to them their part of the booty. The same Russian Princes took part in an expedition against an adventurer named Lachan by the Greek historians, formerly a keeper of pigs, who had raised Bulgaria. The "de- scendants of Monomakh behaved still more dishon- orably in the trouble^ in the interior of Russia. They excited the Mongols against tlieir countrymen and aided the invaders. Prince Andrei, son" of ifUex- ander Nevski, in twelve hundred and eighty-one, in ■concert with the Tatars, pillaged the provinces of Vladimir, Suzdal, Murom. Moscow, and Pereiaslavl, which be was disputing witli Dmitri, his elder broth- ■er. He helped the barbarians to profane churches and convents. In thirteen hundred and twenty-sev- en it was the Prmces of Moscow and Suzdal who directed the military execution against Tver. In twelve hundred and eighty-four two of the Olgovitclii reigned in the land of Kursk; one of them, Oleg, put the other to death in the name of tlie khan. Servi- tude had so much abased all characters, that even the annalists share the general degradation. They blame, not Oleg the murderer, but Sviatoslaf the vic- tim. Was it not his unbridled conduct that caused the anger of the klian ? No prince could ascend the throne without having received the investiture and the iarluik, or letters";patent, from the khan. Tlie proud Novgorodians themselves rejected Mikhail, their Prince, saying, "It is true that we have chosen Mikhail, but on the condition that he sliould show us the iarluik." No Russian State dared to make war without being authorized by the klian. In twelve hundred and sixty-nine the Novgorodians asked leave to march against Revel. In thirteen hundred and three, in an assembly of princes, and in the presence of the Metropolitan Maximus, a de- cree of the Khan Tokhta was read, enjoining tlie princes to put an end to their dissensions, and to content themselves with their apjianages, it being the will of the Grand Klian that the Grand Princi- pality should enjoy peace. "When the Jlonsrol am- bassadors brought a letter from their sovereign, the Russian Princes were oliliged to meet them on foot, prostrate themselves, spread precious cariiets under their feet, present them with a cuii tilled with gold pieces, and listen, kneeling, while the iarluik was be- ing read. Even when tlic Tatars had conquered the Russians, they respected their bravery. Matrimonial alliances were contracted between their princes. Aboul twelve hundred and seventy-two (Jleli, Prince of IJii'lozersk, took a wife out of the khan's family, which already professed Clirislianity, and Feodor of Riazau became the son-in-law of the khan of tlie Nogais, who as- signed to the young couple a palace -in Sarai. In thirteen hundred and eighteen the Grand Prince luri married a sister of Uzbek Khan, Koutchaka, wlio was baptized by the name of Agatha. Towards the end of the fourteenth century the Tatars were no longer the rude shepherds of the steppes. Mingled with sedentary and more cultivated races, they re- built fresh cities on the ruins of those they had de- stroyed : Kruim in the Crimea, Kazan, Astrakhan, and Sarai. They had acquired a taste for luxury and magnificence, honored the national poets who sang their exploits, piqued themselves on their chiv- alry and even on their gallantry. Notwithstanding the difference of religion, a reconciliation was taking place between the aristocracy of the two countries, between the Russian and the Tatar Princes. The Russian historians are not entirely agreed as to the nature and degree of influence exerted by the Mon- gol yoke on the Russian development. Karamsin and M. Kostomarof believe it to have been consider- able. "Perhaps," says the former, "our national character still presents some blots which are derived from the Mongol barbarism." M. Soloviof, on the contrary, affirms that the Tatars hardly intlueuced it more than the Petchcuegi or Polovtsui. 31. Bestu- jef-Riumin estimates the influence to have been spe- cially exerted on the financial administration and military organization. On one side the Tatars es- tablished the capitation-tax, which has remained in the financial system of Russia ; on the other, the con- quered race had a natural tendency toadopt the mil- itary system of the victors. The Russian or Mon- gol Princes formed a caste of soldiers henceforth quite distinct from Western chivalry, to which the Russian heroes of the twelfth century belonged. The warriors of Daniel of Galitch, it is said, astound- ed the Poles and Hungarians by the Oriental char- acter of their equipment. Short stirrups, very high saddles, a long caftan, or floating dress, a sort of turban surmounted by an aigret, sabers and poniards in their belts, a bow and arrows, — such was the mili- tary costume of a Russian Prince of the fifteenth cen- tury. On the other side, many of the peculiarities in which the Mongol influence is thought traceable may be attributed as well or better to purely Slav tradi- tions, or imitations of Byzantine manners. If the Muscovite Princes inclined to autocracj', it was not that they formed themselves on the model of the Grand Khans, but that they naturally adopted im- perial ideas of absolutism imported from Constanti- nople. It is always the Roman Emperor of Tsar, grad, and not the leader of Asiatic shepherds, who is their typical monarch. If from this time the Rus- sian penal law makes more frequent use of the pain of death and corporal punishment, it is not only the result of imitation of the Tatars, but of the ever, growing influence of Byzantine laws, and the pro- gressive triumph of their principles over those of the ancient Code of laroslaf. Now these laws so very easily admitted torture, flogging, mutilation, and the stake, that there is no need to explain anything by Mongol usages. The habit of prostration, that of beating the forehead, of affecting a servile submis-- sion, is certainly Oriental, but it is also Byzantine. The seclusion of women was common in ancient Russia, the customs of which were moulded by Greek missionaries, and tlie Russian terem was de- rived from the Hellenic plan of women's quarters, rather than from the Oriental harem; all the more because the Tatar women, before the conversion of the Jlongols to I>hiinism, do not ajijiear to have been secluded. If the Russians of the seventeenlh century seem strange to us in their long robes and Oriental fashions, we must remember that the French and Italians of the (ifleenlh century, dressed by Venetian merchants, dis|)layed the same taste. But in France fashions made advances, while in Russia, isolated from the rest of Kurope, they remained stationary. From a social point of view, two Russian expres- sions seem to date from the Tatar invasion : tchernuL BUSSIAN RIFLING. 831 BUBT. or the black prnplo, to dopmnilto Ihr lowor orders a.ni\ k nut idiii II. , sifiiiifyiiif^ tiic pciisiint, Uial is, tin typiciil ('liriHtiun, who wus always a si ranker to Hit- Moiifjnl ciistoiiis adopted for a smirl time oy the ar- istoeracy. As to the ainouiil of Moiifjol or Tatar blood mixed with the blood of the Hiissians, it must have belli very small : the aristoeraey of the two K'nuiUries may have eoiilraeted iiiarriai^es, a eerlaiii lUiiuber of Tatar I'riiiees may have bectome Russian Princes by their conversion to orthodoxy, but the two races, as ii whole, remained straii<;ers. Even to- day, while the native Finns conliiiu<Mo be Kussilied, the Tatar cantons, even thoiij;h converted to Chris- tianily, an^ still Tatar. If the Monjfol yoke iiilhi- cnceil ICiissian development, it is very indirectly. By separatini; Russia from the West, by inakiii'^ it a political dependency of Asia, it perpetuated in the country that Byzantine half-civili/alion wlmse infe- riority to European civilization became daily more obvious. If the Russians of the seventeenth centu- ry differ so much from Western nations, it is above all because the}' have remained at the jKiint whence ull set out. Ai;ain. the Tatar ciiii(|uest also favored imlirectly the estalilisliinent of absolute jiower. The IMuscovite I'riiices, respdiisiblc to the kahii for the public tranipiility and the collection of the Uix, be- ing-all the while watched andsupported by the baska- ki, could the more easily annihilate the independ- ence of the towns, the resistance of the suliordinate princes, the turbulence of the boyars, and tin- priv- ileges of the free peasants. The (iraiid Prince of Moscow had no consideration for his subjects be- cause no man had any consideration for him, and because his life was always at stake. The .Mongol tyranny bore with a terrible weight upon all tlie Hussian hierarchy, and subjected more closely the nobles to the princes and the peasants to the nobles. "The Princes of Moscow," says Karamsin, "took the humble title of servants of the khans, and it was by this means that they became powerful moiiarchs." No doubt under any circiiinstances the Russian prin- cipalities would have ended by losing themselves in tlie same dominion, but Russian unity would have been made like French unity, without the entire de- struction of local autonomies, the privileges of the towns, and the rights of the subjects, it was the crushing weight of the Mongol domination that sti- fled all the germs of political liberty. \Ve may say, with .Mr. Wallace, tliat " the first Tsars of Muscovy were the jiolitical descendants, not of Russian Princes, but of Tatar khans." The third indirect result of the conquest was the giowtli of the power and riches of the Church. In spite of the saintly legends about the martyrdom of certain princes, the Tatars were a tolerant nation. Rubnniuis saw in the presence of the (Jrand Khan .Mangii. Nestorians, Mussulmans, and Shamans celebrating their own particular form of worship. Kuiuk had a Christian chapel near his palace ; Ivhubilai regularly took part in the feast of Easter. In twelve hundred and .sixty-one the Khan of Sariii authorized the erection of a church and an orthodox bishopric in his Capital. The Mongols ha<l no sectarian haired against liisliops andjiriests. AVith a sure political instinct, tlu^ Tatars, very like the Sultans of Stanibul. understood that all these men could excite or ca'.m the people. After the lirst fiirv of the conciuest was passed, they applied themselves to gaining them over. They excepted priests and monks from the capitation-tax ; they received them well at the Horde, and gave pardons at their inter- cession. They settled disputes of orthodox prelates, and established peace in ilieCliurch as well as in the State. In thirteen hundred and thirteen the Khan Uzbek, at the prayer of Peter. .Metropolitan of Mos- cow, confirmed the privileges of the Church, and for- bade that it should be deprived of its possessions, " for," says the edict, "these possessions are sacred, because they belong to men whose prayers preserve our lives and slrengtluii our armies." The riirht of justice was formally graiiteil to the Clinrcli. Sacri- lege was iiunished by death. The conventH also In- creased in numbers and riches. Tliey tilled enor- mously: were tlii'y not the safest asylumH? Tlicip peasants and servants multiplied : was not the pro- tection of the Church the surest ? Gifts of land were showered on them, as in France in the year ten liun- dred. It was thus that the great ecclesiastical patri- mony of Russia was founded, a wealthy reserve of revenues and capital, on which more than once in national crises the Russian sovereigns were glad to draw. The Cliiircli, which, even in its weakness, had Hteadil}' tended to unity and autocracy, was to place; at the service of the crown a power which had become enormous. The Metropolitans of Moscow were almost always the faithful allies of the Grand Princes. Sei' Itimninn Army, JtnuHiau Ot/ternmeni, and ItiinHi'dii I'riiiriiiitlitii'H. RUSSIAN RIFLING.- The Russians have adopted the French ritiing for heavy ordnance. They have, however, had rilled several of their smaller fortress- guns with six grooves, and their field-pieces have been ritlcd in a similar manner ; but, instead of plac- ing the stmls in pairs, and having twelve of them, they use only six placed alternately. Their rifling has an equal twist, and the grooves are slightly nar- rowed at the bottom. In the lield-pieces they are sloped otr. on one side to allow the projectile, the bearings of which are also sloped off, to wedge it- self tightly ; but these slight modifications pos.sess no advantage over the fittings adopted for the French .service. Jlore recently the Russians have adopted both the ceniering and the compressing systems of rifling with their steel ordnance. BUST. — Oxide of iron, which forms on the surface of iron from exposure to atmospheric influence or contact with acid. The following fonnsagood pre- servative against rust, and is a good composition for guns when packed in boxes for transit, viz., one part while lead, seven jiarts tallow. Among metal-workers and particularly among the skilled artisans engaged in the production of small- arms the perfection of a cheap, simple and. at the same time, reliable, process of coating the smaller parts — as for instance, in the guns, the functional pieces of the systems — for the prevention of rust, has been the subject of study and experiment for very many years. When it is considered that so in- considerable a WarKstablishment asthatof the Unit- ed States demands the manufacture of some 30,000 Springfield rifles ;>< r annum to keep up the reason- able complement in reserve, and that private manu- factures year by year average an aggregate of ten times that number of military and sporting arms, the value of the sugMstcd improvement is most sen- siblj- appreciated. The essays which have been made in tills country and Europe, in the direction of pro- tecting steel and iron against the corroding effects of air and moisture, have involved experiments with paints, varnishes, glazes, enamels, galvanizing, elec- tro-depositing, and finalh', the magnetic-oxide coat- ing process, which up to the present time seems to cliiim the best results. This last named process was the discover)-, some ten years back, of Prof. Barff, and is generally termed the " Barff-ina;." The Barfl theory suljjects the parts to be treated to the action of super-heated steam, in a retort or chamber, until such a temperature is reached as will assure the ox- ydization demanded. The discovery is now con- trolled by the Bower-Barff Co., an English organiza- tion which has an agency in the United States. Be- sides the Bower-Barff there iiave been two or three processes, in the direction of anti-rust coating by oxide, practically developed in this countrj-, bul, we understand, without satisfactory results. Though there is no quest ion of the value of theBarff-ing pro- cess as applied to large bodies of iron and steel, its diflieulties and uncertainties in treating small pieces, like the action and the limb-work of gun systems, have thus far, we believe, deterred the manufacturers BU8TS£. 832 BY8WICE. from its adoption. Tlie interchangeable theory of small-arms production demands a mathematically correct and uniform preservation of the contour, proportion and volume of each part, and such possi- ble incidents as the erection of scale on the metal, the distortion of lines, or the expansion or shrinkage of volume, through too great heat or inexpert hand- ling, are of course not to be entertained. For .some months past it has been not altogether a secret in ordnance circles that the very vexatious problem of coating gun parts with oxide, in such manner as to assure not onlj' au excellent color but entire protec- tion against corrosive influences, has been solved through the verj' intelliiient and patient experiment- ing of Colonel A. R. liiilhiiLiton, Commandant of the National Armory at Spriugtield. The information in our possession at present as to Colonel Buttington's process, from the Army and Navy Jiiurnal. is derived from a correspondent who has been for many years a manufacturer of machine plant and special tools for gun-making and an ex- pert in the selection and treatment of metals. We learn that the experiments, which have proceeded by slow degrees from the plane of investigation to that of practical application, have been of long con- tinuance, and that the testing has been of a charac- ter exceptionally severe and thorough. In pursuing his experiments Colonel Buffiugtou has always kept in view the practical rather ^liau the theoretical, and the result of his work is the formulated .system of an industrial expert rather than the more ambi- tious but less available scheme of a consulting en- gineer. " Every one skilled in the art of ash or baked bluing processes and the time and care re- quired for the acid process of barrel browning," says the correspondent, "will be pleased to learn that by immersing and keeping the parts in such a con- dition for si.\ minutes, in a bath of saltpeter, 10 parts, and of black oxide of manganese. 1 part, heat- ed to about 600 degrees Far., a beautiful blue black color will be secured which will wear equal to, if not better thau, the best acid process." The opera- tion requires no skilled labor, a cast-iron pot deep enough to cover the parts to be treated, arranged in such manner that a uniform heat can be maintained, being the only apparatus needed. At the National Armory, they are using this process for all the gun- parts formerly blued — such as butt-plates, trigger- guards, bands, tips, etc. They are also treating the bayonets, aud are about to try the process with the barrels. Especially notable is the fact that this pro- cess will not prejudicially affect the spring temper, and will draw case-hardened parts, requiring tough- ness, to the proper spring teniper. The economical advantage is thus differentiated between the old process and the new — the old barrel browning by acid requires at least four and better six days time, while the new process consumes six minutes — the former demaudiug an expert and the latter a laborer. The Barffing process, as is well known, takes from ten to fourteen hours, with the constant liability of doing a positive or permanent damage to pieces thus treated. It will be seen from the foregoing that, though Colonel Buttington's process is applicable both for browning and anti-corrosive purposes, it has not yet been applied to the parts of the action, other than the springs. The very economical results of the new process are thus far most pronounced, the saving of time and labor being considerable. We now look for a trial of the anti-rust virtues or the process upon the holt-action and lindj-work of the several repeat- ing rifles. Should Colonel BiifBngton have merely succeeded in substituting a new formula for the old uncertain bluing and browning processes, he will have scored a success; if he has at last hit upon a real anti-rust treatment he has gained a victorj'. EBSTEE.— In Heraldry, one of the sub- ordinaries, consisting of a lozenge with 0\ a circular opening pferced in its center. \ Ancient armor w as i-ometimes composed / of ruslres sewed on cloth. rUSTEED AEMOK.— Armor of the Mid- dle Ages, composed of flat oval rings sew- ed on quilted leather or linen and over- lapping each other half way. EYSWICK.— The Peace of Ryswick was a treaty concluded in 1097 at Ryswick, a Dutch village be- tween Delft aud the Hague, which was signed by France, England, and Spain on Sept. 20, anil by Ger- many on Oct. 30. It put an end to the sanguinary contest in which England had been engaged with France. It has been often said that the only equiv- alent then received by England for all the treasure she had transmitted to the Continent, and for all the blood which had been shed there, was an acknowl- edgment of William's title by the King of France; but it must not be forgot how much the Allies were benefited by the check given to the gigantic power and overweeuiug ambition of France. Unstie. END OF VOL. II. REFERENCES TO ADDITIONS OK SUBJECTS COMPILED SINCE THE PUBMCATION OP THIS VOLUME, AND WHICH AltE FOUND IN ALI'HAIJETICAL ARRANGEMENT IN THE SUPPLEMENTS, Article. Numheu of Supplement. Yeah. Paob. Reuabkb. . . 1 1 --- — • ^ 1 ' ■ 1 REFERENCES TO ADDITIONS OR SUBJECTS COMPILED SINCE THE PUBLICATION OP THIS VOLUME, AND WHICH ARE FOUND IN ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT IN THE SUPPLEMENTS. ABTICIiE. NUMBEat OF Supplement. Year. Page. Remabks. i ( 1 1 ^ • KKFKHKNCKS TO ADDITIONS OH SUIUKCTS COMI'H.KD SINCK TIIK I'l IfMCATlON OK THIS VOLUMK, AND WHICH AUK KOUND IN A M'll A UKTICAI, AKRANOEMENT IN THE SUPPLEMENTS, Akticlk. NlIMHKK OF HlII'I'I.EMKNT. Ye An. Pagk. Ukmaukh. 1 1 i i , ' REFERENCES TO ADDITIONS OR SUBJECTS COMPILED SINCE THE PUBLICATION OF THIS VOLUME, AND WHICH ARE FOUND IN ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT IN THE SUPPLEMENTS. Article. Number op Supplement. Tear. Page. Remarks. ]{i:Ki:i!KNt;i;s to addiiions oh suiue(;ts compiled sinck the pubmcation of rillS VOLUME, AND WHICH AKK FOUND IN AU'lIAIilCTICAI, ARRANGEMKNT IN THE SUPPLEMENTS. AUTICI-Ii. Ntl.MDEIl OF SUI'I'LKMENT. Ybar. Pa<ik. 1 1 Hkmakkh. 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 ! REFERENCES TO ADDITIONS OR SUBJECTS COMPILED SINCE THE PUBLICATION OP THIS VOLUME, AND WHICH ARE FOUND IN ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT IN THE SUPPLEMENTS. Abticle. Number of Supplement. Year. Page. Remarks. refehp:nces to additions or subjects compiled since the publication op this volume, and which are pound in alphabetical arrangement in the supplements. Article. NUMIIEU OF SUITI.KMENT. Ykau. PAOE. Remahkb. 1 - • • i 1 .RKFERBNCES TO ADDITIONS OR SUBJECTS COMPILED SINCE THE PUBLICATION OF THIS VOLUME, AND WHICH ARE FOUND IN ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT IN THE SUPPLEMENTS. Abticle. Ntimbek of Supplement. Year. Page. Bemabks. ■ 1 1 nEPERENCES TO ADDITIONS OR SUBJECTS COMPILED SINCE THE PUBLICATION OF THIS VOLUME. AND WHICH ARE FOUND IN ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT IN THE SUPPLEMENTS. AllTICLB. NUMIiEIl OF Supplement. Yeah. Paoe. Rkmarkh. , -- 1 • i 1 1 REFERENCES TO ADDITIONS OR SUBJECTS COMPILED SINCE THE PUBLICATION OP THIS VOLUME, AND WHICH ARE FOUND IN ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT IN THE SUPPLEMENTS. Abtiolb. NUMBEB OF Supplement. Year. Page. Remarks. 1 . \ RKFERENCES TO ADDITIONS Oil SUBJECTS COMPILED' SINCE THE PUBLICATION OF THIS VOLUME, AND WHICH XUK FOUND IN ALPHABETICAL ARUANGEMKNT IN THE SUPPLEMENTS. Autiom;. NlIMUEU Ol' SUI'I'I.EMENT. Ykaic Paok. Ukmahkh. 1 — - 1 ! 1 1 i 1 i 1 REFERENCES TO ADDITIONS OR SUBJECTS COMPILED SINCE THE PUBLICATION OP THIS VOLUME, AND WHICH ARE FOUND IN ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT IN THE SUPPLEMENTS. Abticus. Number op Supplement. Yeab. Page. Rkmakks. 1 -- - i - - - V i 1 REFERENCES TO ADDITIONS OR SUBJECTS' COMPILED SINCE THE PUBLICATION OP THIS VOLUME, AND WHICH ARE FOUND IN ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT IN THE SUPPLEMENTS. AiiTiri.t':, NlIMHUIl OK Sui'l'l.KMKNT. YuAit. I'Aor,. Kemahkh. -' ■ ' • 1 . - - 1 ! -» REFERENCES TO ADDITIONS OR SUBJECTS COMPILED SINCE THE PUBLICATION OF THIS VOLUME, AND WHICH ARE FOUND IN ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT IN THE SUPPLEMENTS. Abticle. Number of scpplement. Yeab. Page. Rkmarkb. — - 1 REFERENCteS TO ADDITIONS OR 8UBJECTR COMPILED SINCE THE PUBLICATION OF THIS VOLUME, AND WHICH ARE FOUND IN ALPHABETICAI- ARRANGEMENT IN THE SUPPLEMENTS. Article. NUMIIKU OK SUl'PLEMENT. Ykak. Paok. Remaukk. i 1 1 • 1 1 - — - ' • 1 i REFERENCES TO ADDITIONS OR SUBJECTS COMPILED SINCE THE PUBLICATION OF THIS VOLUME, AND WHICH ARE FOUND IN ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT IN THE SUPPLEMENTS. Article. Number op Supplement. Tear. Page. 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